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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"368ac9d2706362b559d788c08234884d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4e30e63a-4424-41ed-b4e0-9d6a49cdaee6/retrieve","id":"1429379780"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"126a9bef-abf7-46e7-b46f-b2fb1c7594d2","pagecount":"6","content":"Index-based flood insurance (IBFI), relying on advanced modeling with the use of satellite data, speeded payouts to more than 11,000 flood-affected farm households, benefitting indirectly another 100,000 farmers, who learned from participating neighbors through a crowdsourcing approach.The success of the pilot has gained the attention of state and central government officials. Representatives of the Union Ministry (Government of India) and State Government have agreed to discuss the IBFI approach further for integration as an associated product into the flagship Prime Minister's Crop Insurance scheme. IBFI integrated with the post-flood recovery to agriculture, which provides good access to seeds just after the flood season, enabling farmers to take advantage of excess soil moisture for crop production. For 2018 and 2019 in India a total of 110 HH received a total of 100 kilograms of the seed of 11 crops, including vegetables (cauliflower, tomato, chili, okra) and winter maize variety Shaktiman-3 under the post-flood management strategy. An awareness campaign and workshop were organized for more than 200 households in 11 villages of Muzaffarpur District and 2 villages in East Champaran. Similar efforts were conducted in Orissa (Kendrapara and Puri Districts) with over 50 farm households in 6 villages.In Bangladesh, the first satellite-based flood insurance product developed and successfully tested over 750 HH which received an insurance payout of approx. BDT 2,672,400 for the 2019 flood disasters. In 2020, the Govt. of Bangladesh will scale up IBFI product in five districts covering Hoar region and IWMI is being identified as the technical partner. Scaling of flood insurance products in Hoar region (Bangladesh) for five districts with the support of the Ministry of Finance and GDIC.Bundling flood insurance with post-flood recovery of agriculture heightens the appeal of the intervention for smallholder farmers, making it possible to expand the project. A bundled product including crop-specific post-flood management options can offer benefits even for low to moderate flood events (in terms of depth and duration), while also substantially reducing the actuarially fair premium associated with the flood insurance. In partnership with seed companies, the project has introduced seed of flood-tolerant crop varieties in flood-damaged areas for rapid recovery of agricultural production before the next cropping season. Bundling IBFI with post-flood agricultural recovery offers what governments and donors seem unwilling to provide: a long-term and implicit subsidy on index-based insurance premiums. • # of people, of which 50% are women, assisted to exit poverty Description of activity / study: The core aim of Index Based Flood Insurance is to develop remote sensing products that can accurately depict yield loss due to adverse weather and other disasters on smallholder farms. The overarching goal is to help smallholder farmers better manage their production risks and thereby help contribute to a more secure future for farmers in India.• National • Multi-national Country(ies):• India • BangladeshComments: Bangladesh will certainly adopt the IBFI product given the approval from the Ministry of Finance and Green Delta Insurance company keen to work with IWMI as the technical partner.Contributing CRPs/Platforms: CGIAR Centre through CIMMYT and Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) provided flood and drought-tolerant seeds to test the resilience measures along with climate information and index insurance.The core aim of the Index-Based Flood Insurance (IBFI) project is to develop remote-sensing products that accurately depict yield losses on small farms caused by adverse weather and other disasters. The overarching goal is to help smallholder farmers better manage their production risks, thereby contributing to a more secure future for farmers in India. Within the pilot area, floods have affected 36,620 hectares of paddy. IBFI's novel approach, based on advanced modeling techniques using satellite data, ensured quick insurance payouts. Between 2017 and 2019 more than 1,400 households on the IBFI participated in the pilot evaluation with an approx.. The other product \"BICSA\" whereby the farmers received a package of bundling seeds with climate information and seeds tolerant to floods and drought tested over 700 households in the wider context of climate-smart farming practices aimed at helping the farmer to recover as quickly as possible. A total of 170 farmers received compensation to the value of INR 481,250 (around USD $7,077). Therefore, on this occasion, the insurer made a loss. Seeds of moisture-tolerant crop varieties were provided by Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA). The idea was to ensure good access to seeds just after the flood season, enabling farmers to take advantage of excess soil moisture for new crop production.The project now receives co-financing from state government agencies for product implementation as well as support for scaling up support with the ICAR, Govt. of India and agriproducers i.e. Agrievoluation Pvt. Ltd, Bihar. New flood risk solutions are being discussed with various donors, including the World Bank/IFC, insurance industry in Sri Lanka and several disaster management agencies in South Asia. In Sri Lanka, efforts to promote index-based insurance products are being pursued through the World Bank/IFC, in coordination with the SANSA Insurance company for rolling out products in 2020.","tokenCount":"821"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5eb4e30ed00e290496eb692296790c1d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/81765fdd-c94f-4bd8-906a-9a27e79e94dd/retrieve","id":"1125386648"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"39c9f3bb-d8e1-41b5-96f0-909ca4c11b01","pagecount":"2","content":"Food insecurity in Mozambique's rural areas is still a signifi cant challenge. At least 25% of people suff er from food insecurity throughout the year, and 43% of children under fi ve years of age are stunted (chronically malnourished). Sixty-nine percent of children under the age of fi ve suff er from vitamin A defi ciency (VAD). Orange-fl eshed sweetpotato (OFSP) is a vitamin A powerhouse that can improve nutrition, empower women and increase household incomes. Its short maturing period (3-4 months) and ability to grow under marginal conditions and fl exible planting and harvesting times are production advantages that also help improve food security.The Viable Sweetpotato Technologies in Africa (VISTA) for Mozambique project is a three-year eff ort (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017) that aims to contribute to improved nutrition, food security and incomes among smallholder farming families through increased production and better utilization of nutritious OFSP varieties, especially by those most at risk of VAD -children under fi ve years of age and pregnant and lactating women. This initiative, which began in October 2014, relies on agriculture, nutrition and marketing approaches to reach 22,500 direct and 135,000 indirect benefi ciaries with technologies related to OFSP. To increase vitamin A intake, most of the produced OFSP will be consumed at home. However, 15% of the households will be supported to produce large surpluses for sale. With peak prices of sweetpotato being around 28 cents/kg, we estimate that the project will generate at least US$284,000 per year in cash revenue for smallholder farmers by the end of intervention period.We work in four districts in Nampula Province (Monapo, Meconta, Rapale and Murrupula) and two in Zambezia Province (Alto Molócuè and Gurúè), all under Feed the Future (FtF) zones of infl uence.We are scaling-up proven drought-tolerant OFSP varieties linked to key nutrition messages. In addition, we are promoting improved technologies for managing the quality of OFSP planting material at the multiplier level, improving the ability of each household to maintain their own planting material, and improving post-harvest handling and fresh root storage at the household level. The project was built on recent and on-going sweetpotato research and development interventions aligned to USAID supported Feed the Future We established multiplication sites with 52 individual DVMs. In coordination with government extension services, we supplied 132,280kg of cuttings to 15,220 households, with those having children under the age of fi ve being particularly targeted. We supplied 47 community-based organizations (CBOs) and fi ve private enterprises with vines for root production and multiplication for sale (Table 1).Since July, 237.4 hectares of OFSP have been planted (Table 2). To create awareness on the importance of the OFSP-based \"Power\" Bread (Pão de Força in Portuguese) and OFSP consumption among Mária Bakery customers and sweetpotato growers, we prepared and aired two radio spots and composed one song highlighting the importance of consuming Power Bread. Three OFSP promotion days were organized in Monapo, Murrupula and Alto Molócuè districts. From July 2015, our nutrition messages reached 7,784 households with children under fi ve years of age. Forty-two households and six health workers were trained on Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) in the fi rst 1,000 days of life, food diversifi cation and preparation demonstration.Contacts: Filipe Zano (CIP), F.Zano@cgiar.org • Maria Andrade (CIP), M.Andrade@cgiar.org  What's next?In the next season, we will train DVMs on Triple S (Storage-Sand-Sprouting) and ensure that DVM sites are established no later than October 15, 2016, establish net tunnels and conserve vines in the screen house. We will distribute vines to smallholder farmers, interested larger growers and NGOs. We will continue selecting and training nutrition promoters and community leaders to convey nutrition messages. Stores for OFSP fresh root sale will be constructed and/or improved. With additional funding from USAID, the program will be expanded signifi cantly during the 2016/2017 season.","tokenCount":"629"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d6e9df37f780eeb19dd67abf99bedced","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/04ea7295-4889-450d-a7aa-9bc316dd457e/retrieve","id":"1820818657"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"295d6999-7590-43d5-be26-825d5a346323","pagecount":"38","content":"The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock Agri-food systems (CRP Livestock for short) provided research-based solutions to support smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists to transition into sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. An important component of the CRP Livestock research agenda was to demonstrate how livestock research can translate into impact through livestock value chain transformation in four selected priority countries, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. These projects built on work started by the CRP on Livestock and Fish, which ran from 2012 to 2016. In both research programs, an important component of the research agenda was to deliver impact through livestock research. Starting in 2019, a more concerted investment was made to package the research outputs and pilot an integrated livestock development intervention in each country that could take the research outputs to scale. A key notion was to 'accelerate' research to outcomes and impact by transforming the entire value chain, working with development partners from the start. This was done by building on 'best-bet interventions' already identified, involving all thematic teams of the program (covering the topics of animal health, genetics and breeding, feeds and forages, marketing and business skills, and the environment), and establishing in-country project leadership and coordination. The ambition was to integrate a range of research outputs into an intervention package (or a basket of intervention options) and pilot these as an integrated livestock development intervention in each site, with the ultimate goals of taking research outputs to scale.KIT Royal Tropical Institute partnered with the CRP Livestock to support the four priority country projects in monitoring and learning on livestock research for development (LR4D). The support provided by KIT consisted of two main components:1. Facilitate mainstreaming a Theory of Change (ToC) approach in the priority country program, involving the further development of the country projects' ToCs, and supporting its use for reflection and review, establishing an evidence base to assess the cause and effect logic, and documenting lessons learned. 2. Monitor and document the lessons learned on the process of the integrated intervention packages helped in taking research outputs to scale work using the CRP priority country approach, and monitor and document the lessons learned.This report describes the main results from the first component for the project in Ethiopia . This also served as an input into a synthesis across the four country projects (Kruijssen et al., 2021). The remainder of this document is structured as follows, Section 2 describes the methodology used for the analysis and its theoretical underpinnings. Section 3 provides a short description of the country project in Ethiopia and its ToC. Section 4 presents the results of the ToC reflection process, and the KAP survey, and the contribution analysis. Finally, we draw some conclusions in section 5.The methodology applied for lessons learning and assessing the project's ToC against evidence on its outcomes is based on realist evaluation, and contribution analysis. Realist evaluation is a sub-stream of theory-based evaluation approaches. Theory-based evaluation has been popularised in recent years as a response to the inability of impact evaluation methods (e.g. Randomised Controlled Trials) to determine the mechanisms by which interventions and research for development can achieve impact, and generate institutional lessons on research and innovation processes (Hall et al., 2003). While (semi-) experimental evaluation methods can determine whether an intervention works, it does not explain why and how the intervention works. However, this knowledge is crucial to scale innovation beyond test locations (Maru et al. 2016). Impact assessments thus need to be complemented with analytical frameworks that allow for institutional learning (Hall et al. 2003).Theory-based evaluation approaches aim to develop a 'program theory', that clarifies \"how program activities are understood to cause (or contribute to) outcomes and impacts\" (Westhorp, 2014;pp 4). Impact pathways describe the results chains (linkages from outputs to outcomes and impact), but a ToC adds the causal assumptions behind these links, i.e. what has to happen for the causal linkages to be realised (Mayne and Johnson, 2015). Theory-based evaluation approaches map the causal chain from inputs to outcomes and impact, and test the underlying assumptions to answer the 'why'-question of impact.A realist evaluation seeks to improve understanding of how and why interventions work or do not work in particular contexts, and why different outcomes are achieved in different contexts. This approach is specifically based on the assumption that there is no one-size-fits-all solution; context strongly influences program outcomes. This implies that understanding context is an important part of understanding how and why programs work or not, so that informed decisions can be made about which programs or policies to use and how to adapt them to local contexts. A realist evaluation thus looks at what works for whom, to what extent, under what circumstances and over what duration (Westhorp, 2014). It is therefore particularly appropriate for evaluating pilot programs that are being scaled out.Realist evaluation tries to explain causation through observable and non-observable processes; in essence, the program activities (observable) influence the reasoning, norms, capacity and collective beliefs of the participants or stakeholders (non-observable) which determine decisions and choices of the same actors that result in program outcomes (observable). This underlying causal process may function differently in one context compared to another (Westhorp, 2014;Pawson and Tilley, 1997).A realist evaluation thus tests how these processes cause desired outcomes in a given context (White and Phillips, 2012).The starting point of a realist evaluation is the ToC of the program or project, which needs to be able to answer the following questions: 1. For whom will this program theory work and not work, and why? 2. In what contexts will this program theory work and not work, and why? 3. What are the main mechanisms by which we expect this program theory to work? 4. If this program theory works, what outcomes will we see?For the purpose of the research in the CRP Livestock priority country projects, we have operationalised realist evaluation through a participatory process developed by Douthwaite et al. (2008). This process helps to make outcomes more explicit in a ToC, by reflecting on groups of 'next users', i.e. those actors that are using the research outputs. In particular this looks at the changes in practice of the different actors that are envisioned, and what changes in the set of knowledge, attitudes and skills are required to achieve that change of practice, as well as the assumptions that need to hold for this to happen.To assess whether the ToCs of the CRP Livestock priority country projects have held good and planned outcomes have been achieved, a contribution analysis approach has been applied. Contribution analysis compares an intervention's ToC against emergent evidence, and is mostly used in complex systems where changes in outcomes are the result of a several factors in addition to the interventions (Koleros and Mayne, 2019). A contribution story is constructed by building up evidence that demonstrates the contribution of an intervention while also establishing the relative importance of other influences on observed outcomes (White and Phillips, 2012).In contribution analysis, two concepts are important to build evidence of attribution:-Necessity: that the intervention actually caused the changed; i.e. nothing would have changed in the absence of the intervention. The intervention was thus necessary. -Sufficiency; that the intervention was the only/ sole cause of the change; i.e. nothing else was needed to bring about the change. The intervention was sufficient.If evidence can be found to confirm that the intervention was both necessary and sufficient, the achieved change can be attributed to the intervention. The evidence base can be built by quantitative methods, but also by eliminating plausible alternative explanations for the change at outcome level (e.g. other donor interventions, new policies, market forces). Note that causation is often directly experienced or observed by project staff, participants and stakeholders. Collecting views from different key informants is thus essential qualitative data to be used in contribution analysis (Makaurau 2010).Different levels of contribution are distinguished, based on Ton and Glover (2019):-No contribution: there is no evidence that the causal process (change pathway) took place.-Weak contribution: there is some evidence that the intervention contributed to the causal process (change pathway). -Fair contribution: there is evidence that the intervention was a causal factor contributing to the acceleration or scaling of the causal process (change pathway). -Strong contribution: there is evidence that the intervention was a necessary (nonredundant) causal factor of starting the causal process (change pathway).Table 1 categorises the different levels of contribution based on observed changes. To implement the realist evaluation and contribution analysis methodology, KIT developed a process consisting of four main steps: 1) Validation of the projects' ToCs, 2) Reflections on the validated ToCs with project staff and partners; 3) Assessment of knowledge, attitudes and practices outcomes among next users; 4) Validation workshop to reflect on the results and jointly develop the contribution analysis. Figure 1 provides a timeline for how this process was implemented. The steps are further described below. The country teams identified the change pathways and underlying assumptions during the inception phase of the project. In the first step this has been collated in a ToC, which was validated by the country teams. For Ethiopia this took place in November 2020. The output of this step was a revised ToC diagram for each country, depicting the change pathways and underlying assumptions at the start of the country projects, including the anticipated changes (in knowledge, attitude, skills or practices) among next users at outcome level, and a mapping of assumptions against the scaling ingredients (based on Dror and Wu (2020)).Step 2: Reflection on Theory of ChangeThis consisted of:• Reflection on key strategies, activities, outputs and outcomes. Is the project on track to achieve them? • Review of whether changes need to happen in the project to ensure they will be achieved.• Assessment if the assumptions hold.• Reflection on the extent to which the ToC holds.Virtual reflection workshops were held for each country to reflect on the ToC, using the revised versions developed in step 1. The focus was on validating the change pathways and the underlying assumptions, and assessing the progress towards achieving outcomes. At the start of the program it was anticipated that these would be in-country workshops, however due to the Covid-19 pandemic these were moved to online, using MURAL. In all the priority countries, the first reflection session took place in the first/second quarter of 2021, and the second and final reflection was held in each country during the country stakeholder meetings in the third/fourth quarter of 2021. The latter also focused on an assessment of the extent the ToCs held true, of the contributions of the priority country program in view of achieving impact at scale. The sessions in Ethiopia and Uganda were carried out as hybrid meetings combining online and in-person discussions.Guided by a set of questions (see Box 1) each group discussed for that particular user-group the (early) intended and unintended outcomes that were emerging and any differences observed compared to the ToC, as well as any potential changes required in the project strategy to achieve planned outcomes. In addition, assumptions were reviewed to assess if they held and if they influenced the achievement of outputs and outcomes, and identify any new assumptions and/or preconditions needed to achieve outcomes.Step 3: KAP outcomes harvesting This consisted of collection and analysis of outcome level data from the project's 'next users' on their perceptions of changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and the likelihood that these will be continued beyond the project. Outcome harvesting was implemented through the roll-out of an adapted KAP-survey (i.e. Knowledge, Attitudes Practices) to assess perceived changes among next users, at the expected outcome level in the ToC, including perceptions on the contribution of the program to those changes. The anticipated outcomes in the ToC were assessed with regard to (i) whether they occurred, (ii) to what extent, and (iii) why they can be attributed to the country program.In Ethiopia, a set of questionnaires was developed for this study and used for data collection in November 2021. Data collection was conducted by team of local consultants in three out of the four project sites, namely Bonga, Doyogena and Menz. of the project. The sample for this survey included four next user groups, covering:1. 90 small ruminant producers, 30 from each site, randomly selected from the project participant list, evenly distributed between men and women where possible, 2. 88 representatives of youth sheep-fattening groups, randomly selected 1 male and 1 female representative per youth group @17 groups in Bonga, 12 groups in Doyogena and 15 groups in Menz 3. 25 veterinary/extension workers and development agents involved in the project activities at district and regional level 4. 7 district and regional level policy makers involved in the project activitiesThe questionnaire was based on the project's ToC and the knowledge attitudes and practices that were expected to change among the next user groups as a result of the project (for more information see Section 3.2). On an average, the questionnaires took about 20-25 minutes to complete. The questionnaire was developed in English and translated to Amharic and/or further translated into other local languages, where needed, by the local consultants at the time of data collection. The questions on knowledge aimed to assess what respondents identified as the most important learnings related to crop-livestock systems and whether they perceived these learnings as applicable to their situation. These questions were either open ended, or were Likert-type questions with five levels of (dis)agreement. Questions on attitudes were about the agreement with statements about key areas of relevance to the ToC and the assumptions part of the ToC. These also used the agreement-scale, and had open-ended follow up questions to understand respondents motivations behind their answers. Finally, the questions on practices, aimed at assessing which practices respondents have implemented, which were open-ended questions and Likert-scale questions of the yes/no type of asking for a frequency. A summary of questions can be found in Annex 1.Step 4: Validation and contribution analysisThis consisted of a presentation of and reflection on the analysis of all data collected throughout the process and a joint contribution analysis. A joint validation workshop for all countries together was organised on the 15 th of December 2022. The Vietnam team was unable to join this meeting and they therefore had a separate meeting on the 22 nd of December 2022. During this workshop, the results were presented of the KAP survey and combined with the results of the ToC reflection workshops to jointly develop the contribution analysis.3 The priority country project in EthiopiaThe SmaRT project focused on small ruminant value chains in view of streamlining quality supply of small ruminant products to a growing market in Ethiopia. It was developed in response to findings of a value chain assessment (2012/2013) that indicated producers had low productivity caused by inadequate and poor quality feed supply, high disease incidence resulting in high morbidity and mortality, absence of organized smallholders breeding programs, inadequate outreach of research and extension support systems and limited technical and business capacity of producers. The assessment also showed that smallholder producers lacked access to reliable input markets and access to remunerative markets. In Phase I of the CRP Livestock (and Fish), ICARDA and ILRI with their partners developed, piloted and validated best bet technologies and institutional innovations for productivity enhancement. The tested interventions included improved feeding, genetics, herd health and marketing as well as facilitating community action, and was accompanied by capacity building of farmers and other value chain actors. It was envisaged that full integration of the piloted best-bet interventions at the production node would result in higher gains and positive outcomes for farmers and other actors.Thus, the country project was developed towards the following vision shared by all stakeholders -\"By 2023, people in Ethiopia benefit from equitable, sustainable and efficient sheep and goat value chains: their animals are more productive, livestock markets work for producers, consumers and business, there are more, more affordable and healthier small ruminant products, and the livelihoods and capacities of people involved in the whole chain are improved.\"The project aimed at reaching smallholder producer households in four selected small ruminant value chain sites 1 -three sheep value chain sites namely Bonga, Doyogena and Menz, and one goat value chain site, Abergelle (Figure 2). The initial ToC was developed in an elaborate exercise involving local consultants, and the impact pathways were subsequently refined through discussions with stakeholders in course of CRP-I (L&F) and later in discussions on site-specific integrated intervention packages during the inception phase of the priority country program i.e. CRP-II. The ToC was further refined and validated during the first stage of the process described in the methodology section (The output of this process is the ToC presented in Figure 3).  The ToC shows four interdependent impact pathways to arrive at this goal. The overall objective of the project was to consolidate, implement, evaluate and promote integration of interventions (in a package called 'SmaRT Pack') at producer level while ensuring equitable access to input supplies and services and developing partnerships. SmaRT Pack is an integrated innovation package comprising best-bet technologies and institutional interventions for improved feeding (sheep fattening), breeding (community-based breeding program, fertility improvement, certification of improved rams and bucks), herd health (vaccination and treatment for common small ruminant diseases -such as reproductive and respiratory diseases -community-based parasite control, health certification of breeding rams), marketing as well as promoting gender equity and facilitating community action through community conversations and communities of practice.Furthermore the project intended to achieve the following specific objectives -• Increasing sheep and goat productivity through improved genetics, feed and health (while lowering environmental footprint), and generating more income at household level accessible to both men and women; • Increasing contribution of small ruminant (SR) meat to household food security • Assessing the environmental impact of proposed interventions • Developing strategies to ensure access to supplies and services required to sustain the integrated intervention packages after 2021 • Enhancing capacity and skills of target beneficiaries and implementing partners • Assessing scalability of integrated intervention packages and developing clear pathways for scaling.Four main groups of 'next users' were identified and targeted with interventions -i) small ruminant producers, ii) Development Agents (extension workers), iii) Input and service providers, and iv) MoA policy makers. The project team was uncertain if the expected changes in input and service providers (next user 3) that mainly needed social-institutional interventions, would take place in the given timeframe, and these activities were therefore dropped. In the course of implementation the project decided to focus on local market demand for fattened sheep, and set up and capacitated 'youth groups' to increase both productivity and supply -thereby including youth group representatives as a new next user group. Table 2 provides an overview of the next users and the changes in knowledge, attitudes and practices that were expected to be observed among them in course of the project.Given the restricted timeframe of the remainder of the CRP Livestock (2.5 years), the expectation from the start was that the project would not be able to reach beyond the early outcome level of the ToC by end of 2021. Planned project activities were built on proven best bet interventions tested in selected value chain sites. In a multi-stakeholder workshop in April 2017, national and international partners developed value chain site specific integrated packages from a basket of tested best-bet interventions. In 2019 SmaRT Pack was developed based on these packages with a focus on integration of activities.Through the community based breeding programs (CBBPs) producers organized themselves in cooperatives which also provided the entry point for community-based health management, community conversations and collective action for marketing. An important institutional innovation related to CBBPs was the establishment of a certification system for breeding rams and bucks which also included health certification. The herd health component included control of the major SR diseases identified in the sites (respiratory and reproductive diseases and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)). Improved small ruminant reproductive performance was targeted through control of the related diseases, supplementary feeding and fertility management. Businessoriented sheep fattening was promoted through specialized individual farmers (champions) and youth groups. Coordination and integration of interventions was fostered through the development of site specific intervention calendars. Awareness of the communities about specific topics related to animal health, feeding and collective action along with a discussion on related gender roles and norms was facilitated through community conversations. To foster linkages between the producers and service and input providers, the project first experimented with multi-stakeholder platforms but then decided that communities of practice (CoP) as established for sheep fattening was a more appropriate approach and was more likely to self-sustain.This section presents the results of the reflections on the Theory of Change, those of the KAP survey, and the contribution analysis conducted during the validation workshop (i.e. the results of Step 4 in the process explained in Section 2.3 that describes the methodology).The purpose of the reflections on the Theory of Change was to revisit the change pathways and validate underlying assumptions, and check progress on the output and outcome indicators agreed upon. In course of the project, two reflection sessions were held with the Ethiopia country priority project, SmaRT pack -on June 16, 2021 and November 1, 2021. Both sessions focused on assessing to what extent the ToC held in order to eventually draw lessons learned on scaling. However due to COVID related delays in implementation, the latter was not carried out. Participants for the sessions were drawn from the implementation team of the country project including local partners and other stakeholders. This section presents these reflections by impact pathway of the ToC (i.e. producers, service providers, gender and policy). For each pathway we first present a table with reflections on the early and intermediate outcomes, and secondly one with reflections on the underlying assumptions.Early signs of planned outcomes Reflection 1 (June 2021) Reflection 2 (November 2021)Small ruminant producers (female and male, equitably) adopt SmaRT pack to increase their productivity while lowering their environmental footprint and consequently increasing their income, Some changes in knowledge (e.g. ability to understand the higher value of a breeding animal compared to an animal for fattening) and practices of SR producers observed, as a result of their interactions with the project team including cooperatives and NGOs in community conversations and trainings;Commercialisation of small ruminant production through sustained value addition and ensuring availability of inputs and services (like feeds, vaccines, extension support, access to finance).Community of Practice (CoP) is useful as a space for different actors to voice their needs and concerns, and participation of the cooperatives with their knowledge about markets and pricing policies proved useful to augment commercialization.Commercialization has encouraged participation of men in SR rearing activities such as feeding, barn cleaning, milking of goats etc. and farmers were willing to cultivate forages on their own lands.Producers need access to finance to procure resources to sustain value addition.Collective action fostered in the cooperatives to create sustainable market linkages leading to equal benefits for men and women producers Realisation that -some areas need more support to improve market linkages; Price regulation is weak and could be threat; Demand affected by COVID and Tigray conflict; Slaughter houses operating at 40% due to low supply Source: Summary of discussion of reflection workshopsThe reflection sessions generated pointers for project implementation related to the producer pathway of the ToC (Table 3). Actions needed in order to achieve the outcomes planned such as:-more training on the integrated packages, -need to include input suppliers into the CoP, -assessing the role of DAs in helping producers access inputs, -invite financial institutions to participate in the CoP, and establish linkages with MFIs, -need to find alternative markets offering better prices than local markets as local markets are difficult to influence -policy engagement to influence price regulation -how to sustain women's participation in cooperatives -how to sustain men's participation in small ruminant rearing activities Reflection on the set of assumptions for the producer pathway revealed that some assumptions held while some of the assumptions could pose threats to achieving outcomes (Table 4). The reflection sessions generated pointers for project implementation for the service providers pathway of the ToC (Table 5). Actions needed in order to achieve the outcomes planned such as:-Need to look for alternative to private sector input suppliers -can rural youth be mobilised as service providers or input suppliers e.g., to supply fodder? Will need start-up capital -Can the role of university students as service providers be sustained? -Assess reasons for lack of demand for MFI finance (high interest) -what are the alternatives? -Are Livestock development agents fully engaged? How to sustain their engagement with youth groups? -How to ensure that promotion of SmaRT pack will continue independent of project? Reflection on the set of assumptions revealed that some assumptions held while some of the assumptions could pose threats to achieving outcomes (Table 6). Yes, especially at production and marketing levels; coopsmarketing there is better understanding but still needs to be further followed up-no evidence generated yet.Research and government partners have been brought together in communities of practice which will sustain outcomes Changes take time at system level; require frequent engagement and coaching and mentoring, and patience.Source: Summary of discussion of reflection workshopsThe reflection sessions generated pointers for project implementation for the gender pathway of the ToC (Table 7). Actions needed in order to achieve the outcomes planned such as:-Need to develop strategies to improve service delivery to communities from gender perspective -All changes observed need to be documented so happen -esp. evidence of spillover effects on other HHs; Lessons and outcome stories need to documented and shared. -Need to assess if increase in productivity has resulted in higher HH consumption of SR meatand what impact on nutrition of children and women can be expected? -More needed to assure that commitments of leaders and others really lead to changes -Some conflicts emerged in HHs as norms were being challenged; Need to assess the potential negative outcomes/unintended negative impacts of community conversations -Changes take time to appear especially among local service providers; they are committed to integrate the approach in their systems but in practices there is not much difference observed.The existing cultural norms can be positively influenced in the target communities to encourage equitable access Yes-especially thro' gender capacity work they developed internal and external gender objectives but it depends on individuals/ champions-where gender champions are missing changes do not happen/ or as quickly; Gender champions are still key -they can be found or created in institutions through coaching, documenting successes and encouraging e.g. recognition awards. Women's affairs office are adopting gender labelling which is ranking of gender outcomes of other sectors.Extension system and community leaders are willing to change Yes, however putting things in practice could be a challenge. -depends on the level of input from the project. for example -at district level the project brought partners together in a community of practice as a local coordination and partnership mechanism with additional financial resources order to sustain it. This aims to ensure that they become more accountable that is it becomes part of their monitoring system.The existing cultural norms can be positively influenced amongst service providers to encourage equitable access Yes, cultural norms are changing. Need gender strategies in partner organisations to sustain the changes.There is equitable access to (and presence of) extension services, input suppliers and service providersYes-DAs are now consulting both men and wife at HH level when they visit; Service providers are starting to take into account specific constraints and challenges that men and women have; has been addressed throughout 2021, field visits for monitoring and coaching.Source: Summary of discussion of reflection workshopsReflection on the set of assumptions revealed that some assumptions held while some of the assumptions could pose threats to achieving outcomes (Table 8).This section summarizes the results of the KAP survey, carried out in November 2021. These results are presented by next user group (i.e. small ruminant producers, development agents, youth groups, and policy makers). .The survey started with an open ended question with regard to the most important learnings small ruminant producers had gained in the past 18 months. The most frequently mentioned learning was on sheep breeding (mentioned by 90%), followed by knowledge and importance of healthcare, feeding, shelter/management of sheep, and marketing arrangements (see Table 9).The majority of SR producers attributed their learning to the research centers (70 producers) in the respective project sites namely Areka Research Center, Bonga Research Center, and Debre Birhan Research Center. Few producers mentioned training provided in the village (7), the project and/or ILRI/ ICARDA (9) and the sheep cooperative (3). Several follow up questions were asked with statements with regard to knowledge, attitudes and practices (Table 10). These questions were Likert scale questions, with different answer options depending on the questions. Average scores were calculated (not applicable answers were excluded), and these are colour-coded depending on the degree of agreement/ adoption, where the lowest scores correspond with red, middle with yellow and highest with green.The results show that producers feel they have improved their knowledge and have learned things they can apply. The subsequent set of questions regards producers' attitudes towards the technologies and practices distributed by the project. Sheep meat processing is not a component of the project hence all respondents answered 'not applicable'.Most average scores are in the highest category, with the exception of attitudes towards trust in DAs to support the producers in implementation of the integrated technology packages. In the reasons for distrust in DAs mentioned in the open-ended follow up question, there are differences across the three project sites. For instance, most of the producers interviewed in Doyogena mentioned that they do not get any service (neither crop nor sheep production related) from the DAs partly because most DAs do not know the integrated technology package and/or do not support it. While in Bonga, only 3 out of the 30 producers interviewed said that the DAs have provided some advice and followup on sheep rearing, health and marketing. The producers in Menz did not have trust issues with the DAs mainly because they are \"working for the government\" and they have been occasionally receiving support and advice on crop production; some even mentioned receiving support in \"keeping their sheep healthier\" but added that it was to the minimum (\"only in principle, not on the ground). Many producers mentioned that they have not received any support on sheep production from the DAs. Some producers stated high turnover among the DAs as a reason for not trusting them. More than trust, the producers stated lack of frequent interaction, and no follow up regarding sheep production issues. Almost all SR producers indicated that there were no 'other extension agents' supporting them specifically for sheep production, those that still answered the question therefore had a neutral opinion on other extension agents. Some mentioned using veterinary services for healthcare at cost/ on demand and follow-up, and the cooperative office for cooperative membership related information. Generally, all producers trust government agents as they have experienced their support in other areas. This indicates that while knowledge can be imparted relatively easily through training, changing attitudes -especially building trust in public extension services may need longer time.At the moment there are no women and/or youth input and service providers in the project areas, hence most producers scored it as 'not applicable'. Those that did answer this question had low trust in women and youth as extension agents. Most producers indicate using/applying the inputs and services recommended by the project, hence the score is relatively high; other details regarding the practices are answered in the open-ended questions. All producers are members of small ruminant or sheep producers cooperatives hence the score is 1. Note: Colours indicate the degree to which a particular change in knowledge attitude or practice has taken place. The scores and color-coding are as follows. Agreement (1-5): 1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree; red 1-2.33 yellow 2.34-3.67, green 3.68-5; Yes/No (0-1): 0-No, 1-Yes; red 0-0.33, yellow 0.33-0.67, green: 0.67-1. Frequency: 0-No, never, 1-Yes, occasionally, 2-Yes, most of the time, 3-Yes, always; red 0-1, yellow 1-2, green 2-3.The Likert scale questions were complemented with open-ended questions.• getting more training and knowledge and skills, • rearing improved local sheep, • getting free vaccination and timely medical treatment and follow-up, • making informed decisions and improving sheep rearing, • getting opportunities for peer learning (from other producers),• getting a fair price based on weight (not visual estimate) for the sheep from the cooperatives, • getting deferred payment through the dividends -with almost 5 times price difference, and • increasing income (to 3 times a year) and improving livelihoods. Some also mentioned engagement with the project helped them to access loans from the cooperative to scale up their businesses. Others saw it as an opportunity for new visitors and buyers to visit their remote villages.The reasons stated for interest in using the technology packages promoted by the project and for interest in more training were mainly to gain more knowledge on animal health, improved feed production -improve sheep rearing and management practices, scale up production, and increase income/ improve livelihood. Some also said that they wanted more training in order to build their confidence to be able to share knowledge with others. There is also an interest in periodic refresher training to get more knowledge on latest trends supporting their practices. The technology packages promoted by the project helped the producers -i) to get healthcare for their sheep, and make their sheep healthy, ii) to increase production, iii) opportunities to interact with experts and learn from other producers; and iv) get all needed components (integrated package-breeding, feeding, management) to boost production. Producers realise that applying all available inputs and services has better results in the business as better combination of input and access to different services helps in getting quality offspring that attract market opportunities; all activities are dependent on one-another therefore one activity alone cannot bring benefits -\"earlier there was no health service so our profitability was low, we have no serious health problems now\".Reasons for commercializing: Sheep production has a profitable, short gestation period and can give benefit 3 to 4 times a year. Therefore as the main source of income, it is possible to have more sheep within a short period of time, and more frequent income. Producers acknowledged the value of improving the overall supply of good quality sheep. They realise that developing the cooperatives leads to their own development, and that being market driven helps obtain more income and improves livelihood. They saw sheep production as a more reliable livelihood activity as compared to crop production as the latter needs land which is limited. According to the producers, commercial scale not only helps reduce the cost of production and increase the profit margin, but also provides a base for diversifying to large animals, and prevents wastage of inputs and services. Market orientation leads to better awareness on the current sheep prices and helps obtain the right market value in terms of better prices. In commercializing, the producers saw opportunities for their children to continue and grow the business. Some felt that commercializing can work if they did not have problem of capital and time -else they cannot modernize and scale-up for better income. According to few, commercialising needs proper planning and resources. Several follow up questions were asked with statements with regard to knowledge and attitudes (Table 12). Likert scale questions were complemented with open-ended questions. Source: KAP survey, 2021. Note: Colours indicate the degree to which a particular change in knowledge attitude or practice has taken place. The scores and color-coding are as follows. Agreement (1-5): 1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree; red 1-2.33, yellow 2.34-3.67, green 3.68-5;.Overall, there is high agreement with the statements, with the exception of the statement related to the degree to which young women are interested in sheep fattening.The motivation for the high scores on willingness to continue engaging with the project is related to experiencing positive results and benefits in terms of better prices, increased income, improved livelihoods; opportunities to improve their knowledge and skills about fattening, to become members of the cooperatives associations, to get increased number of and/or healthier animals; getting support from government, other producers (social capital) and increased exposure to markets. The reasons for equally high scores for interest in receiving more training were to gain more knowledge (technical and business skills) and become more effective, and make their businesses more profitable. Box 2 provides a number of additional trainings that youth respondents would like to receive.On the statement marketing fattened sheep is more profitable compared to selling sheep without fattening, reasons for the higher score included fattened sheep having more weight therefore fetching good/ higher prices, more value/ profit margin (2-3 times more than skinny sheep), they are more easily sold and have high demand, they have better quality -better (color of) meat and more attractive to the eyes, and are more profitable as the income can be used to buy more sheep. For instance, \"not fattened sheep will have an average market value of not more than 1,500 birr while fattened sheep have 4,000 birr. Even by reducing the amount spent on fattening, the (fattened) sheep will still be very profitable\".The agreement on the statement that all smallholder producers are interested in technical services for fattening their sheep is slightly lower, although still in the highest range. Some indicate that this is because of lack of feed and income to provide supplementary feeding and shelter, they do not know the benefits of fattening, have limited information and resources (finance to buy feed, land for forage cultivation), lack of know-how and inputs, and think it has high labour requirement.Whether women producers do not find it difficult to apply integrated technologies for sheep fattening, and their interest in fattening sheep, had a mixed response. While the agreement among women was only slightly higher than among men (average agreement of 3.32 for women versus 3.13 for men), reasons stated by female respondents differed from the male respondents. For instance, female respondents recognised that sheep fattening is profitable, and that it can be done alongside other domestic activities, whereas male respondents who have experienced benefits see that sheep fattening complements other livelihood opportunities. On the other hand, female respondents who felt that it is difficult to use the SmaRT pack attributed it to their a) lack of know-how (social norms disallowing them from attending training), b) workloads and resource challenges -lack of (access to) capital and land particularly to construct sheds, and might face feed shortages, c) different priorities and opportunities -prefer to work in urban areas, and d) negative influence from families. TheirThe respondents requested more training on the following topics: -animal healthcare, disease prevention and management, -animal feed -forage types and cultivation, preparation and supplementary feeding practices, dealing with feed shortages refresher training on fattening management (at less cost) -marketing and market linkages how to strengthen the cooperatives (for collective marketing) -coordinating with kebele and woreda authorities savings and credit male counterparts stated that young women are interested in fattening sheep because of the ease of rearing within the homestead (and women do not need to work outside like men), that they are more knowledgeable and have the required experience and skill, and are capable of taking care of the sheep. They also stated that women can get support from men and/or get advice from producers/ youth trained in the project, and if they are interested in business, it can help them increase their incomes. Further the responses vary per project site -for example in Bonga, women producers are organised and have formed a cooperative and are therefore more motivated and interested in taking up sheep fattening as an income generation activity. On the other hand, women producers in Menz and Doyogena are relatively new, and are still in the process of acquiring skills and knowledge to improve sheep production.Youth reported that they had made the following changes in the way they fattened their sheep and/or sold their fattened sheep: being more market oriented, selecting better varieties suitable for fattening within a shorter period, shortening the fattening period, planting forages and improving feeding practices, paying attention to hygiene of the shed including proper disposal of feces, providing timely healthcare, assessing market prices before selling, and knowing the best time to sell in order to get a good price.There is also high agreement with the statement on the need for coordination among input suppliers and service provider. The youth believe that coordination of the various actors (in the value chain) will increase impact by adequate and timely service provision e.g. healthcare, provision of variety of forages and feed, good extension services. With economies of scale they will be able to reduce cost of production and increase their profit margins, will save (individual) time and effort particularly while managing disease outbreaks (all get vaccination together and on time), and have better access to markets and price for sale of sheep.With regard to what more needs to happen for the youth to get more sheep for fattening, they suggested strengthening healthcare services, provision of additional land for planting forages, and training on marketing and market linkages, need to train DAs in sheep production.The most important changes seen by youth are that they now have better breeds (white and attractive, faster weight gain), the number of sheep has increased, they have improved quality of sheep meat and therefore increased demand (most preferred), and better prices, they have advantages of being in the cooperative, and that there are more women in sheep production than before.While many of the DAs admitted that they were not directly concerned with the project interventions, they still had observed changes in small producers' rearing practices and their effects as a result of the project interventions. Inbreeding has reduced significantly-and the quality of sheep in terms of volume has improved. They observed significant changes on quality, protection and care for sheep, and health service consultation. The DAs were aware that other non-project farmers were aware of the results and had started changing their practices on their own. Therefore the project will not require too much time to scale-up to other areas.  Source: KAP survey, 2021. Note: Colours indicate the degree to which a particular change in knowledge attitude or practice has taken place. The scores and color-coding are as follows. Agreement (1-5): 1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree; red 1-2.33, yellow 2.34-3.67, green 3.68-5;.All DAs attributed their learning to their own observations and to the interactions they had with project teams, training provided by Areka Research Center, ILRI and ICARDA Debre Birhan Research Center (Menz) and the woreda agriculture office in the respective project sites.A significant number of DAs expressed willingness to continue engagement with the project. This is important because though trained by the project, most DAs, owing to other work obligations, were not able to contribute to the project interventions. The reasons that they would like to engage ranged from their interest in developing their knowledge and skills on sheep rearing, responding to farmers' needs for support in sheep production, earning allowances, and facilitating integration of sheep production in other agriculture and livelihood advisory services. Reasons for wanting to receive more training on small ruminant production were also similar in that the DAs are keen to update their knowledge and practical skills to improve extension services in order to better serve farmers. The topics covered in training are not part of their university curriculum particularly on improved feed production and preparing quality feed, animal health -treatment and disease control, and fattening management.With regard to marketing of SmaRT Pack all DAs were of the opinion that it was not difficult to do as most farmers had experienced and/or observed good results and benefits in a short period of time, and were convinced that it led to increased income and improved livelihood. The SmaRT Pack technology was proven, and tested in practical terms in field conditions hence did not require much work to convince farmers. Few DAs were apprehensive about the level of integration (of innovations) in the SmaRT Pack with reference to access to markets to absorb the increased production, and generate the envisaged improved income.The majority of the DAs felt that most smallholder producers are/would be interested in integrated technology packages for small ruminant production as the packages were relatively simple to adopt, required less (grazing) resources and had a short gestation period. The results and benefits observed were the main motivating factors particularly the increase in sheep prices for improved breeds. However they were also aware that some farmers would not be willing to make the required effort needed to realise all the benefits, leading to disinterest. With the right support in terms of training and materials, many farmers would benefit.However, when asked the same question specifically for women, the DAs had a slightly lower level of agreement (although still in the highest range). Most of them felt that it was a traditional income generation activity for women and it could be done in the homestead alongside other domestic activities. Women producers are generally more interested than men but lack the resources and training to buy improved sheep breeds and the inputs required for fattening. With support from experts, women producers would be able to participate better in project activities. The DAs were interested in promoting integrated technology packages for small ruminant production (SmaRT Pack) to women and/or youth as they see potential of sheep rearing for youth employment. As short gestation activities, sheep fattening and production are attractive to youth; also many youth have formal education and hence can be trained. Promotion of integrated technology packages requires coordination among input suppliers as farmers would benefit more if they got the full package (rather than piece meal).With regard to what more needs to happen to get more/ new SR producers to use/apply integrated technology packages for small ruminant production the DAs had several suggestions relevant for scaling SmaRT Pack:• Increase supply of forages and selected breed rams;• Promote animal health service and coverage with regular followup and strengthening of healthcare services • Train DAs in sheep production • Strengthen associations and transition to commercialized farms • Increase awareness of and improve access to markets for non-project producers • Harmonise service provision primarily at kebele and also at woreda level • Provision of additional land for planting forages (by government),• Provide training on marketing and market linkages,• Diversify the interventions to other livestock species;The most important changes seen in small ruminant producers behavior/ attitudes with respect to their production and/or processing practices included• increased interest and adoption among producers -happening in relatively short period;• increased knowledge on selection of best performing breed type for both breeding and fattening; • producers more willing to invest in preventive healthcare and getting medical services at own expense, plant own forages and improve feeding practices; • producers more actively participating in extension events than before, and proactively seeking advice; • producers better aware of when to sell sheep to maximize profits; and • sheep products (from project area) have high demand in Addis markets.The policy makers (which was only a sample of 3) mentioned learnings related to their realization that for better productivity, breed improvement needs to be accompanied by attention to other components such as feeding, health and market linkages, and that an integrated approach is needed to have meaningful impact and to sustain results. They attributed this learning to the project, and to interactions with researchers from ICARDA and SARI regional centers.The high scores (>4.5) on the Likert-scale questions indicate that they see applicability of the learning, improvement in own technical knowledge, and a willingness to invest resources to promote integrated technology packages to improve productivity and livelihood of small ruminant producers. They are willing to continue engagement with the production because it provides opportunity to interact with highly qualified and experienced people who share knowledge, and provide technical backstopping. For them, collaboration is key for enhanced development. They realise that the technology package is suitable for low input agriculture.The representatives of the regional governments expressed interest in scaling-out the project with a caveat that although they trusted the people who generate evidence, they did not need more evidence. According to them, \"the government \"owns\" the approach, additional knowledge and evidences are always good to see things differently and convince people easily\". The policy makers seem to understand the importance of engaging in policy dialogue to promote the integrated technology packages for small ruminant production through 'SmaRT Pack Regions' as regional governments have resources that can be utilized with their own discretion. Therefore if convinced, the resources can be used to benefit communities and for the improvement of the country's economy at large. All the policy makers strongly agreed that existing socio-cultural norms need to be changed to ensure equitable access (especially for women) to extension services, input suppliers and service providers -needed to women's' ownership and decision making position. They are aware that many women do not get the chance or are unable to implement the activity due to economic constraints.The most important changes made in the last 8 months, as reported by the policy makers are:• Breed registration and utilization -focus on local breeds rather than importing;• Improve marketing and streamline taxes • Make private/government intervene in feed and feeding • Scaled up SMART pack to additional areas in the country • Scale up the practice to large ruminants and chicken.With regard to changes needed in business environment, they felt that it is necessary to strengthen business to business (B2B) relationships and that the cooperatives, vaccinators, drug suppliers and care takers should be supported to participate in such businesses. supported. Market linkage both local and international should also be strengthened in the next phase.In this section we bring the results of the two previous sections together and present the contribution analysis (Table 14). As described in Section 2.1 on realist evaluations, we aimed to explain causation through observable and non-observable processes. Based on the ToC reflections and the KAP survey carried out in Ethiopia and the validation workshop with the project team, only the results with regard to changes in three of the initial four next user groups are presented, namely a) Small ruminant producers, b) Development Agents, and c) Policy makers. As there were no significant interventions with 'input suppliers and service providers' and as 'youth groups' were added later, both were not considered in the contribution analysis.The project had envisaged that the government DAs (ToC Strategy) would acquire and use the knowledge, skills and tools to promote and support implementation of SmaRT Pack. However, although they were trained by the project, they were not seen as contact points by farmers on information and advice on sheep production and management (KAP survey). In most locations the DAs could not be involved in promoting SmaRT pack as they were busy with other government duties. Nonetheless the project was able to develop new and private service providers and/or extension agents in the form of research enumerators and champion farmers to take up identified opportunities for market-oriented services and inputs. For instance, although youth groups were trained in sheep fattening, ensured availability of inputs and health services, and also access to markets, the KAP study indicated that their production was not fully commercialized as they needed access to finance to sustain the value addition via changed practices introduced in other activities. This called for including partners with expertise on designing financial products and services suitable for small ruminant producers in the project team. This reinforces the need for integrated teams and integrated planning to ensure achievement of outcomes.Most outcomes (early as well as intermediate) are expressed as composite statements consisting of several parts. For example, in the context of producers the project envisaged increased productivity while lowering their environmental footprint and simultaneously increasing their income. Contribution analysis as an approach and methodology has limitations to measure the (extent of) change in all these aspects (climate and income in the example above) and requires a combination of tools and data sources to ascertain the change.Annex 1. Survey questions KAP Survey SmaRT pack project ","tokenCount":"8706"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"096dbb86bc0e4e162f887d30d0a1cc0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8823c901-f66a-46e3-a98d-8f7b139bb107/retrieve","id":"-276343652"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"99cd60ab-13bb-469f-bd79-58ce9c4cf681","pagecount":"27","content":"The association between the cost of the subsidy program and the size of the subsequent harvest 5 WHERE ARE WE TODAY? .Malawi has been at the center of the debate on agricultural input subsidies in Africa ever since it significantly expanded its fertilizer subsidy program about two decades ago. When it did so, Malawi was a trailblazer, receiving international attention for seemingly leveraging the subsidy program to move the country from a situation characterized by food deficits and widespread hunger to crop production surpluses. In this paper we trace the history of Malawi's subsidy program over the past 70 years, describing how the country arrived at that watershed moment earlier this century and how the subsidy program has developed since. We show how donor support for the program has wavered and how external pressure to remove the subsidy has repeatedly been unsuccessful. We also demonstrate how over the years the program's total fiscal burden has fluctuated significantly. However, we find that since the expansion of the subsidy program in 2004, the fiscal costs of the program have shown little correlation with the maize harvest that same agricultural season. We show that the subsidy program has succeeded in raising awareness about the value of the fertilizer for increased crop productivity. However, despite its continued prominence in the country's agricultural policy, most Malawian smallholder do not manage to grow sufficient maize to feed their households throughout the year, and every year millions depend on food assistance during the worst months of the lean season.Higher crop productivity, particularly of maize, has been a central agricultural development objective for Malawi since the colonial period. Increasing the use by Malawian farming households of inorganic fertilizer coupled with improved crop varieties has been among the principal techniques promoted to increase crop yields. Efforts to raise awareness of the value of these commercial inputs to increase crop productivity and production have been successful. Inorganic fertilizer is now widely viewed by farming households as a critical component of their farming, necessary to ensure that they can produce sufficient maize to meet their consumption needs, in particular. However, more problematic has been ensuring that farming households can use inorganic fertilizer on their maize crop profitably, given the relatively high, internationally-determined price they must pay for the input and the relatively low prices they receive in local markets for their fertilized maize output. Moreover, almost all crops, including fertilized maize, are grown under rainfed conditions, which can be quite variable from season to season or from place to place within the same season. The possibility of drought or flood increases the risk of financial loss when using fertilizer on rainfed maize. Because of this problematic financial analysis of fertilized maize production, the government of Malawi has regularly subsidized fertilizer and improved maize seed for a large share of its smallholder farmers. The annual fiscal costs of these programs have been up to 3.0 percent of Malawi's GDP, depending on the number of farmers benefitting, the price of inorganic fertilizer and improved seed internationally, and the level of subsidy on the price of inputs provided to beneficiary farmers. For example, in the 2022/23 rainfed farming season, the Affordable Inputs Programme targeted 2.5 million farming households nationally-about two-thirds of all farming households-at a (provisional) cost of about 1.6 percent of Malawi's GDP. 1   In this paper, we examine the experience over the past 70 years of Malawi's national input subsidy program. Our focus is on the provision of inorganic fertilizer for use primarily in maize production, so we do not consider in detail the parallel supply of subsidized improved seed, whether of maize or other crops. We show how the objectives of the program have wavered between increasing awareness among farmers of the benefits of inorganic fertilizer application, on the one hand, and increasing national maize production and ensuring food security for smallholder farming households, on the other. In tracing this history, we detail the influence of the donor community in shaping reforms. Donors have sometimes supported the subsidy program, including financially, while at other times argued for its removal. Numerous donor-supported efforts to end the subsidy program and replace it with other approaches to achieve its objectives have been unsuccessful.Despite over two decades of significant subsidies on the price of fertilizer used to grow maize, millions of Malawians continue to rely on food aid for several months every year, being unable to produce or otherwise access sufficient maize to meet the needs of their household members. Survey data show how only a minority of farming households produce more maize than they consume. In graphing the relation between yearly food production and the size of the subsidy program, we note that the years of highest spending on fertilizer subsidies did not consistently result in the largest national harvest levels. This suggests that a leaner subsidy program will not necessarily result in reduced production, while it would free up scarce government resources for other programs and investments.Historically, smallholder agricultural systems in most areas of Malawi relied on shifting cultivation or crop-fallow systems to sustain soil nutrient levels for crop production. However, with the sharp increase in Malawi's population over the past century, there is simply not enough land in Malawi to continue using these traditional soil fertility management methods. Households now generally plant crops on the land to which they have use rights every year. With repeated maize cropping without regularly resting the land in fallow or planting the land in rotation with nitrogen-fixing leguminous crops, most of the plant nutrients in the soil, particularly nitrogen, have been exhausted. This has resulted in low productivity of around 1.0 mt/ha for unimproved local maize varieties grown without fertilizer.However, inorganic fertilizers, particularly those with high nitrogen content, if used efficiently with locally-suited improved maize seed and good crop management, can result in maize yields that are several times higher. Already in the 1920s, some colonial settlers used inorganic fertilizers in the production of tea or tobacco on their estates. Research on fertilizer use on maize in Malawi began after World War II as a component of a significant expansion and acceleration in the agricultural development efforts of the colonial government directed toward smallholders (McCracken, 2012). Agricultural researchers by 1958 had delineated the major nutrient response patterns in the application of inorganic fertilizer to maize across Malawi, identifying where profitable use of inorganic fertilizers on maize could be obtained (Brown, 1966). Relatively strong responses in maize yield to the application of nitrogen were found in the upland plateau areas where most farming in the country is done, with lower responses seen along the lakeshore and considerably more limited responses in the Lower Shire Valley. The responses to the application of phosphate fertilizer were less clear, as they were not always seen or, if seen, were not necessarily at a level sufficient to suggest that the use of phosphate fertilizer on maize would be profitable for the farmer. This earliest delineation of the spatial distribution of maize yield response to inorganic fertilizer in Malawi remains broadly applicable.Further work on the suitability of different types of inorganic fertilizers for use on maize led to the promotion of urea (46:0:0-N:P2O5:K2O) as the principal source of nitrogen, given urea's relatively cheaper cost per unit of nitrogen relative to other nitrogenous fertilizers, and diammonium phosphate (DAP-18:46:0) as the source of phosphate for maize. A blanket fertilizer recommendation for maize in Malawi of 96 kgN and 40 kgP2O5 per hectare was promoted by the Ministry of Agriculture in the 1980s and 1990s. The fertilizer is applied to the maize in two doses-DAP at planting or soon thereafter-the basal dose-and urea about four weeks after maize seedling emergence. However, researchers subsequently found that sulfur also needed to be applied to obtain the highest maize yields. Area-specific fertilizer recommendations that emerged from extensive field trials in the mid-1990s led to the replacement of DAP with 23:21:0+4S as the basal fertilizer for maize. Subsequent work led to the recommendation that the basal fertilizer also include some potassium and zinc. Starting with the 2018/19 cropping season, 23:10:5+6S+1.0Zn and urea have been the fertilizer types used in the input subsidy program.The research done in the mid-1990s on maize yield response patterns to the application of inorganic fertilizer across Malawi found that smallholder farming households in the main maize-producing areas of the country should be able to obtain around 8.0 kg of additional maize grain for every kg of fertilizer applied if the crop is planted on reasonably good land; hybrid seed and the inorganic fertilizer is obtained before the planting rains come; and the household can manage the weeds, pests, and diseases that threaten their crop and can apply sufficient labor to the crop when required in its growth cycle (Benson T. , 2021, p. 49). However, evaluations of Malawi's input subsidy program have consistently shown that beneficiary farmers obtain much lower maize yield responses to the subsidized fertilizer they apply. For example, Lunduka, Ricker-Gilbert, and Fisher (2013) computed a response rate of only 2.7 kg of maize grain per kilogram of fertilizer applied over three years of the program from 2005/06 to 2008/09. This stark difference between the potentially achievable maize production per unit of fertilizer applied and what beneficiaries of the input subsidy program achieve is largely a result of the operational challenges facing the input subsidy program and the declining health of the soils farmers use. Complex processes to procure fertilizer from overseas sources often result in late delivery of the inputs to farming households. In consequence, they are unable to use the subsidized fertilizer in an agronomically optimal manner (Jayne, Mason, Burke, & Ariga, 2018).Nonetheless, the production benefits that farming households in Malawi receive from using inorganic fertilizer on maize are clear to them-75 percent of farming households producing improved maize varieties in 2019/20 applied inorganic fertilizer to the crop; 65 percent of those producing local (unimproved) maize also did so. Many of these households would not have been able to apply fertilizer to their maize without the input subsidy program. The maintenance of the program in Malawi over many years and at a relatively large scale-both in terms of the share of farming households benefitting and the value of the subsidy they receive-is in response to this demand from smallholder farmers. In addition, such a large-scale input subsidy program serves Malawi's leaders well in meeting the expectations of the citizens of Malawi as to how those leaders are expected to safeguard the livelihoods and food security of their constituents (Sahley, Groelsma, Marchione, & Nelson, 2005).Input subsidies were a relatively common element in the agricultural development programs of developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s and typically required significant government financing every year. While such programs were to be eliminated under the structural adjustment reforms low-income countries negotiated with international donors in the 1980s and 1990s, by the late 1990s many had elected to reestablish them, often with the support of donors. Over the past 25 years, input subsidy programs have become a common policy choice, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, to bolster agricultural development and to address food insecurity by increasing the productivity of staple food crops (Jayne and Rashid 2013). The designs of several input subsidy programs implemented in recent years in countries in Africa, including Malawi, are presented in Annex Table 1.In the literature on agricultural development strategies, farm input subsidies are advocated as a short to medium-term approach to increase adoption by farmers of commercial high-productivity inputs and other technologies. 2 Such subsidies reduce the financial risks farmers face as they learn how to profitably use the commercial inputs in their farming. In the 1960s and 1970s in the agricultural development programs of developing countries, the principal justification for providing farmers with subsidies on newly introduced high-productivity technologies was to accelerate their adoption. Farmers in low-income countries generally apply lower amounts of farm inputs than is economically optimal-that level of application of the input at which the value of additional crop output is equal to the cost of an additional unit of input. This suboptimal use was attributed to farmers not having sufficient experience with and, hence, the information they required to accurately estimate the gains they could make from using the new inputs. This results in a market failure, in that farmers are not producing as much output as they profitably might produce with increased input use, resulting in reduced crop supply, higher food crop prices, and a cost to society. For agricultural development objectives, governments will provide subsidies on commercial farm inputs to temporarily reduce the costs and financial risks farmers face in using the inputs. By enabling farmers to employ the inputs at a lower cost for several seasons, farmers are expected to learn how to consistently employ them profitably and better understand the risks they must manage in doing so, even when the inputs are purchased at full cost (Ellis, 1992, p. 137ff). Where agricultural development considerations dominate the decision to provide farmers with farm input subsidies, the intent is that such subsidy programs will only be implemented for a few years to build farmers' experience with their use. Enabling farmers to better understand which components of a package of highproductivity crop inputs would work best for their particular agro-ecological and economic context was certainly an important driver in justifying input subsidy programs in Malawi until 2000, including with the Starter Pack and the Targeted Inputs Programme (TIP) between 1998/99 and 2001/02 (Mann, 1998;Levy, 2005).However, in food-insecure countries, including Malawi, input subsidy programs have also been particularly attractive as a means to address chronic food insecurity and to reduce the risks of acute food insecurity crises. In such contexts, providing price subsidies on inputs to correct for market failures that result in socially sub-optimal levels of use generally will be a secondary motivation to the potentially important increases in food crop production associated with significantly greater use of high-productivity inputs. In farming systems with a large share of households engaged in subsistence-oriented farming, input subsidies directly increase access to food for the farming households that receive the inputs. In this, subsidized inputs also can play a role in government social protection programs by providing chronically food insecure farming households with increased access to food by raising their yields of food crops for their own consumption. In addition, the higher staple food crop production resulting from increased use of high-productivity inputs due to the subsidies should also increase the volume of food crops supplied to markets by beneficiaries of the subsidy. This increased supply serves to stabilize or reduce food prices, improving access to food for households reliant on those markets, both non-farming and farming. Through these linkages, the benefits of input subsidies on the production of staple foods, in particular, accrue to both farmers and consumers (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013). While enabling farmers to better understand how best to use high-productivity crop inputs was the explicit motivation for the earliest input subsidy programs in Malawi, since about 2000, it has been the contribution that wide distribution of subsidized farm inputs makes to food security at both household and national levels that has justified their continuation. Food security, rather than agricultural development, drives the design and implementation of such input subsidy programs.Particularly in countries prone to food insecurity, like Malawi, but also Zambia, input subsidy programs are the largest public investments in agriculture. Moreover, such programs can constitute among the largest development expenditures made by the government, often amounting annually to several percent of the country's GDP-for example, expenditures on input subsidies constituted 49.8 percent of all public expenditures in support of food and agriculture in Malawi between 2006and 2013(FAO 2015). The design of such programs in food insecure countries tends also to be at a large scale with high subsidies on the market cost of the inputs provided and wide coverage across the country's farming population. In contrast, in less food insecure low-income developing countries, farm input subsidy programs are designed primarily to achieve agricultural development objectives and tend to be relatively smaller in scale and cost. The subsidies provided to farmers in such countries tend to be a smaller share of the full market costs of the inputs and there is less attention to targeting the subsidies to specific groups of farmers, such as only the food insecure. This is evident in comparing the input subsidy programs of Malawi and Zambia, which are relatively food-insecure countries, to those of the other countries listed in Annex Table 1, most of which are relatively more food-secure.As discussed, subsidies on the price of farm inputs have frequently been an element in efforts to increase the adoption of high-productivity cropping technologies. Such subsidies enable farmers to become more experienced in the profitable use of the inputs when they are not familiar with the technologies. While in the colonial and early post-colonial periods in Malawi, this information constraint on the profitable and effective use of inorganic fertilizer to produce crops certainly was operative, farmers now are reasonably familiar with how they might use fertilizer effectively. Rather, the major constraint preventing the increased use of fertilizer in Malawi is that farming households cannot afford it.The price of inorganic fertilizer relative to the price of maize in Malawi is at the center of the challenge of profitably using fertilizer. All inorganic fertilizer used in Malawi is imported. While Malawi has rock phosphate deposits in Phalombe district that could be exploited to produce phosphate fertilizer, urea, the fertilizer most important to the production of maize, given maize's high-nitrogen requirements, is produced globally in large-scale, capital-intensive production facilities in locations with access to relatively low-cost energy and to much larger markets than Malawi alone can provide. The cost of production overseas plus the cost of shipment of the fertilizer into the country results in high fertilizer prices in Malawi. In August 2021, a 50 kg bag of urea cost about MK 38,000 (Nyondo, Nyirenda, Burke, & Myuanga, 2021)-this was before an almost doubling in price after the outbreak of Russia's war in Ukraine in early 2022. In the same month, traders were selling maize to retail consumers at MK 7,000 per 50 kg bag (IFPRI-Malawi, 2021), while producers selling maize to traders almost certainly received even lower prices. This urea (MK 38,000) to maize (MK 7,000) price ratio of about 5.4 provides a benchmark for what level of agronomic response farmers in Malawi using commercial fertilizer on their maize would have needed to obtain in 2021 to break even on the cost of any commercial fertilizer they used. As noted, farmers in Malawi using best production practices on reasonably good cropland should be able to obtain around 8.0 kg of additional maize grain for every kg of fertilizer applied. However, evaluations of the maize yield response to fertilizer in input subsidy programs show that most do not. Many farmers will not achieve production of 5.4 kg of maize for every kg of fertilizer applied, so will incur a financial loss on their fertilized maize production if they purchase the fertilizer at the full commercial price with no subsidies applied.Fertilizer importers in Malawi have little control over the prices they must pay for the input. While the government could intervene forcefully in agricultural markets to ensure farmers receive significantly higher prices for their maize to better cover the cost of commercial fertilizer used in producing that maize, higher maize prices will exacerbate food insecurity for many poor Malawian households. Moreover, the fiscal costs the government will incur in managing the increased stocks of maize farmers would produce in response to higher administratively determined prices-not prices determined by supply and demand levels for maize in the market-would be prohibitively high (Baulch & Botha, 2020). In choosing between higher maize prices for farmers and affordable maize prices for poor consumers, the more acceptable policy option has consistently been to adopt the latter. Given the challenges to agricultural production levels and food security posed by generally weak agronomic performance in the use of inorganic fertilizer on maize coupled with high fertilizer-to-maize price ratios, the Malawian government has primarily acted to reduce the price ratio by subsidizing the cost of fertilizer, usually quite sharply. This has been seen repeatedly in the history of input subsidy programs in Malawi over the past 75 years.In 1952 the colonial government started supplying subsidized fertilizer to smallholder farmers. The Director of the colonial Department of Agriculture reported \"There is no doubt that fertilizers will be absolutely essential to more intensive farming. … It is therefore the policy to encourage the use of appropriate fertilizers and to assist in so doing by a small subsidy payment (Kettlewell, 1955).\" The provision of subsidies on crop inputs continued in independent Malawi under the leadership of Kamuzu Banda. Between 1964 and 1970, the government of newly independent Malawi instituted a price subsidy that allowed smallholders to buy fertilizer at below the import parity price for the input through the Farmers Marketing Board. In 1971, the Farmers Marketing Board was reconstituted to become the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC). Among its principal responsibilities was maintaining an efficient system for supplying inputs to smallholder farmers. While ADMARC was not explicitly mandated to subsidize fertilizer, it did so without budget support for a time using revenues obtained from implicitly taxing cash crops produced by smallholders (Phiri C. D., 1993). However, ADMARC faced financial difficulties in the early 1980s, so it found it increasingly challenging to supply inputs to smallholders. In 1983, the government established the Smallholder Farmers Fertilizer Revolving Fund of Malawi (SFFRFM) to take over these responsibilities. This included managing a fertilizer buffer stock under commodity aid arrangements with donors.In the 1970s and 1980s, there existed two parallel fertilizer pricing systems-one for smallholders that was managed by ADMARC and then SFFRFM and one for the agricultural estates that were supplied by commercial agricultural input firms, including Optichem, Agricultural Trading Company, and Norsk Hydro. Smallholders received relatively small subsidies of up to 25 percent of the commercial cost that were applied to fertilizer at the point of sale (Blackie, et al., 1998). However, much of this subsidized fertilizer was diverted to estates rather than to smallholder farming households, the intended beneficiaries (Devereux, 1997). Smallholder credit schemes using group lending approaches with farmers-the government-operated Smallholder Agricultural Credit Administration (SACA) from 1988 to 1994 and the parastatal Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC) for several years from 1994-were the principal avenues for farming households to obtain financing to purchase the inorganic fertilizer, given that they still bore a significant share of the cost of the input even after the subsidy was applied (Dorward & Kydd, 2004). (See Annex Table 2 for a summary of input subsidy programs in Malawi from the Banda era to the present.)Up until the 1980s, government and donors were aligned in their thinking that Malawi's fertilizer subsidies encouraged rapid adoption of the input and would contribute to sustained farm output growth. However, with the rising fiscal costs of maintaining them, Malawi's international donors became less supportive of the subsidies on fertilizer for smallholders. Starting in 1982/83 and running through 1992/93, the donors supported three successive Fertiliser Subsidy Removal Programs (FSRP) to enable the government to eliminate the subsidies over the medium term (Phiri H. H., 2013). However, surging international prices for fertilizer and domestic political concerns resulted in none of the FSRPs being successfully implemented.One response to drought-induced food insecurity crises in 1992 and again in 1994 was providing free seed and fertilizer under the Supplementary Inputs Program (Devereux, 1997). While in the program's first year, only local maize seed was distributed to beneficiaries, in the 1994/95 and 1995/96 seasons, subsidized fertilizer was also supplied. This was among the first, if not the first, agricultural input distribution program in Malawi specifically directed to achieve food security objectives. Although not universal, the program was relatively large, benefiting between one-quarter and one-third of all farming households. International donors provided significant financial support to the government to cover the program's costs. Devereux notes that the suitability of input subsidies as a response to food crises was raised in discussions between the government and its development partners, since it was clear that such programs have \"little sustainable impact on food security in those households which are unable to purchase inputs unless they are at least heavily subsidized\". Whether or not such programs should be designed to promote \"national food security objectives by targeting high-yielding areas and farmers and make no attempt at achieving household food security goals in marginal areas (1997, p. 4)\" motivates similar discussions 30 years later.The government of Malawi agreed to a package of structural adjustment reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s to maintain support from international donors. These reforms included currency devaluation, reduced government spending, and liberalizing and reducing government involvement in agricultural production, marketing, and finance. By 1996/97, with the end of the Supplementary Inputs Program and a cessation in the offer of subsidized fertilizer through ADMARC and SFFRFM, input subsidies were eliminated as part of these agreements. So, the objectives of the earlier failed FSRP efforts were achieved for one or two years. However, over this period the real costs of inorganic fertilizer rose sharply with the foreign exchange reforms. The adverse impact of the reduced access of farmers to fertilizer because of higher prices became sharply evident with the maize harvest of the 1996/97 cropping season. Due in part to low fertilizer use, many farming households harvested far less than their annual maize requirements. Maize prices began rising sharply a few months after harvest, resulting in the government releasing maize from its strategic grain reserve (Blackie, et al., 1998).To respond to this intensifying chronic food crisis, in 1998/99, the government of Malawi implemented the Starter Pack program (Harrigan, 2008). Despite the structural adjustment reform commitments to end subsidies on inputs, the program involved distributing free of charge to almost all 2.8 million smallholder farming households in the country sufficient hybrid maize seed and inorganic fertilizer to plant 0.1 ha of fertilized maize-2 kg of seed and 15 kg of fertilizer. Grain legume seed was also included in the package to promote the use of nitrogen-fixing legume rotations and intercrops for sustainable soil fertility management alongside inorganic fertilizer and to improve household dietary diversity. Malawi's development partners, particularly the United Kingdom, provided significant support to the universal Starter Pack program for two years. The incremental annual maize production attributed to the program was estimated at 350,000 mt, a significant contribution to the then national maize demand of 2 million mt annually (Levy, 2005). The cost of the Starter Pack program each year was USD 26 million, about 1.5 percent of Malawi's GDP at the time.While a food crisis prompted the Starter Pack program, in its design, the classic argument for input subsidies as a way for farmers to gain the information they require to profitably employ the inputs in their farming was used-the small packs of inputs would allow farmers to determine which production technologies were their \"best bets\" for profitable, high-productivity production in their particular agro-ecological and economic context (Mann, 1998). However, a rigorous review of the program found this rationale flawed since profitable production of fertilized maize by smallholders in Malawi was almost impossible to achieve, given the sharp rise in the price of fertilizer (Levy, Barahona, & Chinsinga, 2004;Levy, 2005). The program was not an effective agricultural development mechanism. However, from a food security perspective, the universal Starter Pack was found to be an effective and relatively efficient way to reduce chronic food insecurity and the adverse effects that acute food crises have on the livelihoods, assets, and welfare of households across Malawi. While a relatively costly program, the Starter Pack evaluation team asserted that the costs of not implementing it would have been much higher if both the direct cost of alternative food security interventions and the indirect costs due to macroeconomic instability caused by an ongoing food crisis were considered (Levy, Barahona, & Chinsinga, 2004).The Starter Pack was replaced with the Targeted Inputs Program (TIP) for the 2000/01 and 2001/02 cropping seasons. Providing a similar small packet of inputs as the Starter Pack, the principal difference was that the TIP was not distributed to all farming households, but was targeted to half of all farming households in the first year and to one-third in the second. Malawi's donors continued to support the input program, but their support was conditional on it being targeted. The donors felt this was necessary to reduce the fiscal burden of the program and so that it would primarily provide support to the most vulnerable households-a social protection objective. Evaluations of TIP generally found that it was considerably more problematic to implement and had less impact on food security than the Starter Pack. The targeting required of the TIP was shown to be ineffective with very little difference between the poverty profile of TIP beneficiary households and that of smallholder farming households as a whole. This was attributed both to no clear targeting criteria being part of the program design and to the use of a community targeting process in a socio-cultural context that promoted a strong spirit of egalitarianism and the view that all in the rural communities were poor and in need of such assistance (Chinsinga, 2005). The reduced scale of TIP compared to the Starter Pack, together with poor cropping weather conditions in both seasons, resulted in significantly lower incremental production due to the subsidized inputs-an estimated 75,000 mt from 1.5 million beneficiary households in 2000/01 and 40,000 mt from 1.0 million households in 2001/02. The design changes made in replacing the Starter Pack with TIP, coupled with the poor rainfall conditions, undermined the national food security potential of TIP (Levy, Barahona, & Chinsinga, 2004).Despite the provision of subsidized inputs through TIP, a food crisis occurred following the 2001/02 cropping season. In part in response to this, the Extended TIP was implemented in the following two years with considerable donor support. As targeting was viewed to be an important reason for the poor performance of TIP in reaching the most food-insecure households in beneficiary communities, the Extended TIP provided free inputs to most smallholder farming households. The input package in the first year of the Extended TIP was similar to that provided for the Starter Pack, but in the second year, the inputs provided to each beneficiary increased by 150 percent-sufficient inputs for planting 0.25 ha of fertilized maize. The second year of the Extended TIP in 2003/04 was implemented just before the elections of May 2004 in which Bingu wa Mutharika replaced the term-barred Bakili Muluzi as president. That upcoming election likely was a factor in expanding the scale of the Extended TIP that year.In the 2004/05 cropping season following the election of President B. Mutharika, despite political promises of a universal input subsidy program being rolled out, the efforts to do so were ineffective, resulting in a poor national harvest, high maize prices, and many households facing acute food insecurity (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013). In response, for the 2005/06 season, the new president provided considerable political support to the implementation of a significantly larger input program, the Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP). The objectives of FISP differed somewhat from earlier input subsidy programs in that maize self-sufficiency was key. There was less emphasis in its design on directly meeting the food needs of vulnerable farming households. Rather, the emphasis was on beneficiaries as farmers and producers, rather than as consumers (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013, p. 89). In its first year, this involved providing improved open-pollinated variety (OPV) maize seed (no hybrid) and 100 kg of fertilizer suitable for maize or tobacco to 1.3 million households selected by community leaders. Beneficiaries paid 36 percent of the market cost of the inputs. At a cost of about 1.0 percent of Malawi's GDP at the time, the program generated incremental maize production estimated at 350,000 mt.The 2004/05 input subsidy program was generally viewed as a success. The framework established through this larger-scale program in that year was further refined in the following years through at least 2011/12 to improve program performance, security, and accountability (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013). This included some changes to the targeting criteria so that vulnerable households within communities would be more likely to benefit. However, throughout FISP implementation, there remained significant ambiguity in those criteria and in the community targeting processes used (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013).In its early years, FISP was generally viewed as a successful input subsidy program that contributed to agricultural growth and development and to food security in Malawi. The annual incremental maize production attributed to the program ranged between 350,000 and 900,000 mt between 2005/06 and 2011/12. It also provided political benefits-President B. Mutharika used the good performance of the program as an important element of his successful reelection bid in 2009. On the continental stage within the context of the African Union, he also advocated for the program to be a model for other African countries to replicate to achieve similar development advances. However, fiscally, it was an expensive program that certainly imposed opportunity costs on many other necessary human and economic development efforts in Malawi. During President B. Mutharika's second term, there was increased debate on the value of FISP for achieving the country's broader development vision. More voices expressing general dissatisfaction with the design and value of FISP were raised following his death in office in April 2012 and through the term of his successor, Joyce Banda. However, FISP continued to be implemented following the design established earlier, providing about 1.5 million farming households annually with improved seed and 100 kg of fertilizer.Two months after the election of Peter Mutharika as president of Malawi in 2014, the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources convened a two-day stakeholder consultation entitled 'Eight years of FISP -Impact and what next?' (LUANAR, 2014). The symposium was held at a time when the government of Malawi was facing severe budget restrictions due to a suspension of international donor support following the revelation in 2013 of the illicit diversion of government funds-the so-called Cashgate scandal. In consequence, fiscal prudence required that the FISP program be implemented more efficiently. Discussion at the symposium, officially opened by the new Minister of Agriculture, generally agreed that FISP was an essential component of the country's overall economic development. However, participants also recognized that the program was not as efficient and effective as it might be. A recurrent point of discussion was defining the specific objective of FISP-was it primarily to provide for the welfare of the rural poor or, rather, to lay the foundation for a transformation of agriculture in Malawi? It was agreed that a single program design cannot effectively achieve both objectives. A set of recommended program design changes emerged from the symposium. At the same time, it was recognized that several complementary public investments would be needed if FISP was to contribute to achieving agricultural transformation or a broad restructuring of the economy of Malawi. These include investments in rural transport infrastructure, agricultural markets, agricultural extension services, and agricultural research. Investing in FISP alone was viewed as not sufficient to achieve these broad development objectives.FISP was downscaled under President P. Mutharika, primarily to achieve significant reductions in cost as the government grappled with the consequences of sharply reduced donor support overall. The value of the subsidy beneficiaries received on the farm inputs was reduced from above 90 percent to under 80 percent in 2015/16 and then to 66 percent in the following years. The number of beneficiaries was also reduced from 1.5 million to 900,000. However, political considerations ended any further reforms to FISP. The three main political parties contesting the presidential election of 2019 all promised to implement a universal input subsidy program for smallholder farmers. After the 2019 results were annulled, the two main coalitions that contested the rerun of the election in 2020 both maintained the universal input subsidy on their policy platforms.With the election of President Chakwera in June 2020, planning began to launch the Affordable Inputs Programme (AIP) in the 2020/21 cropping season. AIP combined the near-universal nature of the Starter Pack program of the late 1990s with the provision of a much larger input package similar to that received by the targeted beneficiaries of FISP: 3.8 million beneficiaries were each offered 100 kg of subsidized fertilizer plus improved seed. The cost of AIP was over 1.5 percent of Malawi's GDP in its inaugural season, representing, as was the case in the early years of FISP, one of the largest public investment programs of the government. The program was declared a success as Malawi produced a bumper harvest on the back of favorable rains, but its fiscal sustainability was questioned. In the following two years, the expenditure on the program was reduced to just under 1 percent of GDP. In 2022/23, the worldwide rise of fertilizer prices following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in early 2022 resulted in an even greater reduction in the number of AIP beneficiaries to 2.5 million and a reduction in the amount of subsidy applied to the price of fertilizer. A further reduction in the size of the program to 1.5 million beneficiaries is planned for the 2023/24 growing season.Figure 1 presents a historical summary of fertilizer subsidies since they were re-introduced in Malawi in the late 1990s following their phase-out just a few years earlier as part of structural adjustment reforms. Three pieces of information are given for each year from 1999 to 2023. First, the bars represent the size of the input subsidy program during the growing season that ended that year, expressed in millions of USD. Second, total maize production in the subsidy program year is depicted by irregular line. That harvest can be compared with total maize requirements in Malawi, depicted by the smooth upwardsloping line-maize requirements in the country grow steadily with population growth. improved starting in 2006 following the introduction of FISP. The two years in which maize harvest did not meet the national requirement saw poor rains (2016) and extensive flooding due to a tropical cyclone (2018). Harvests remained relatively good even in the four years when the program was drastically reduced (2017-2020). Except for a bumper harvest in 2020, which could be attributed to unusually favorable rains in the first year of AIP implementation, harvest levels remained similar after the re-expansion of subsidies under AIP. However, as Malawi's growing population requires more and more maize, these higher levels of production to which the subsidized fertilizer contributes may soon again be insufficient to feed the nation.National-level self-sufficiencyThe sustained improvement in maize output following the introduction of FISP in the 2005/06 growing season suggests that a subsidy program of sufficient size can help boost maize production to levels that meet the national requirement for maize consumption. The fact that maize harvests remained, on average, unchanged when subsidies were temporarily reduced between 2017 and 2020 further suggests that increased levels of maize production can be maintained at a considerably lower cost than that of the current AIP. However, production will have to rise further to keep up with Malawi's growing population, and there is little to suggest that subsidies alone can achieve this.The picture is more worrying at the household level. Despite the input subsidy program, most smallholder farmers do not produce enough maize to achieve self-sufficiency. This is obvious from two facts.First, even in years with favorable rains, millions of people need food support during the 2 or 3 months that constitute the lean season before the harvest of the following crop. Figure 2 shows the yearly surplus or shortfall of maize production as a fraction of the total maize requirement in that year, along with the share of the population that needed food assistance during the following lean season. Over the past two decades, Malawi produced, on average, 23 percent more maize than it needed. However, in an average year, 13 percent of its population was food insecure during the lean season. Second, most Malawian smallholder farmers do not produce enough maize to be self-sufficient. Figure 3 uses household-level data from the fifth (2019/20) round of the Integrated Household Survey to categorize households in Malawi into those not producing maize, producing maize but insufficient to feed their household for the whole year, and producing more than what is required for their own consumption needs. While 75 percent of all households in Malawi grow maize, only 17 percent grow more than they need to be self-sufficient. There is an important wealth gradient to these numbers. The poorer the household, the more likely it is to grow maize and the less likely it is to grow enough for its own food needs. Among those in the poorest quintile of households, 85 percent grow maize, but only 5 percent achieve maize self-sufficiency. Among households in the wealthiest quintile, only 52 percent grow maize, but the majority of those produce sufficient amounts to achieve self-sufficiency. 3   It is clear, therefore, that while fertilizer subsidies have helped Malawi become self-sufficient in maize as a nation, those subsidy programs have failed to enable most households to produce enough maize for their own needs. In other words, most Malawians must supplement their own maize production with maize bought from the relatively few large surplus producers or from importers.3 The importance of food purchases in a variety of rural contexts in Sub-Saharan Africa was recently highlighted by Dzanku et al. (2024). These authors present survey evidence from 7 African countries, including Malawi, to show how food purchased on the market dominates rural food consumption, across a variety of agroecological zones, income levels and food products.-40% Despite a large fertilizer subsidy program, there are three main reasons why household-level self-sufficiency remains elusive.  The first is Malawi's growing population, which increased by 28 percent during the 2010s. Most family farms have nowhere to expand, so the growing population leads to land fragmentation.The average farm size declined by 14 percent during the same period and will likely keep shrinking. A typical Malawian family must thus scrape a living from an ever smaller piece of land, making self-sufficiency in maize production increasingly difficult, even with boosted productivity (Benson & De Weerdt, 2023). The second challenge revolves around soil health. Omuto and Vargas (2018) have documented the occurrence of soil acidification in Malawi, showing a decline in average soil pH levels from 6.29 in 2010 to 5.61 in 2017. Concurrently, topsoil loss has increased by 10% during the same timeframe, exacerbating the overall deterioration of soil fertility. This trend diminishes the responsiveness of maize yields to fertilizer applications among smallholder farmers. Farmers with low fertilizer yield response rates are unlikely to grow enough maize to feed their families whether they receive subsidized fertilizer or not, but especially so if their farms are small. One could argue that in the absence of fertilizer subsidies, many farming households would be even less self-sufficient in maize production than they currently are and that the subsidies, therefore, serve an important social protection function. This is likely true. However, it is more helpful to ask whether the same households would not be better off if the funds currently spent to subsidize their fertilizer were used to help them meet their maize consumption requirements in a different manner.The simplest benchmark is how well off a farming household would be if, instead of a fertilizer subsidy, the household received the equivalent value of the subsidy in cash. Suppose the subsidy reduces the fertilizer-to-crop price ratio for a household, as discussed in Section 3, below the fertilizer yield response rate for the farming household. In that case, the household will be better off with the subsidy. However, if even with the subsidy, the fertilizer-to-crop price ratio remains above the yield response rate the household can realize, the household will produce less maize with the subsidized fertilizer than it would be able to buy with the cash equivalent to the value of the subsidy. In such cases, a cash transfer would bring more benefit to the farming household and would likely be cheaper than the subsidy, even if maize had to be imported. Unfortunately, many households that benefit from the subsidy fall into this category, making the farm input subsidy programs in Malawi a poor social protection tool (De Weerdt & Duchoslav, 2022).Large-scale input subsidies seem to have helped boost total maize output in Malawi beyond its national requirement. During the eight years before the introduction of FISP, the country produced, on average, 1.9 million MT of maize annually. During the FISP and AIP years, the annual maize production averaged 3.4 million MT-an increase of 81 percent.However, the scale of FISP in the initial years of its existence may have been unnecessarily largemaize production levels remained high at 3.3 million MT annually on average during the first four years of FISP (Figure 1) even as the number of FISP beneficiaries was cut by more than half. More recently, the scale of AIP could similarly be considered too large. This suggests that similar levels of maize output could be maintained with a much smaller and, thus, cheaper subsidy program. For a pared-down subsidy program to achieve the maximum possible national maize production, the subsidy should be targeted at farmers who can use fertilizer most efficiently, ideally through a pricing mechanism (Duchoslav & De Weerdt, 2023). Ensuring that farmers who can use fertilizer efficiently can access enough of it is important for the country's food security. The ability of unproductive farmers to access cheap fertilizer is less critical for national food security.Many farmers can raise their productivity by adopting better agricultural technologies, including soil health management, irrigation, improved seed varieties, more precise fertilizer application, etc. The government can help them with this through providing effective agricultural extension services and by ensuring that inputs are available to farmers at the right time. However, even with higher yields, many farming families will still not be able to produce enough maize to feed themselves, let alone to make a profit. These farmers will be better off growing other crops or moving out of agriculture altogether (Benson & De Weerdt, 2023). Many will need help with the transition, including through adequate social protection programs. What such programs should look like is beyond the scope of this paper. However, they should not take the form of an input subsidy program like AIP, which gives many of its beneficiaries less benefit than they would derive from an equivalent cash transfer and which effectively requires them to remain subsistence farmers, even if they are not good at growing maize.A pivot towards a leaner subsidy program would mean giving up on the goal of household-level food self-sufficiency. However, that goal has never been achieved since Malawi reintroduced large-scale fertilizer subsidies, and it is becoming ever less attainable as the country's population grows and farm sizes shrink. Focusing on national instead of household-level food self-sufficiency would better align expectations with reality. Thankfully, the fact that not all households can grow enough maize to feed themselves does not mean that they must go hungry-quite the opposite. Every country that has achieved prosperity for all has done so by moving away from subsistence agriculture, and there is no reason to believe that Malawi should follow a different path. Sources: (Chirwa & Dorward, 2013;National Cereals & Produce Board, Kenya, 2022;Nyondo, et al., 2021;Olomola, 2016;Pauw, 2022;Spielman, et al., 2022;World Bank, 2021)  Sources: (Devereux, 1997;Conroy, Blackie, Whiteside, Malewezi, & Sachs, 2006;Levy, 2005;Chirwa & Dorward, 2013;Nkhoma, 2018;Nyondo, et al., 2021;Longley, Coulter, & Thompson, 1999) ","tokenCount":"7913"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce2cd0fa6d0a5136c73cf72d071813ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06f54c93-8cec-4307-87ac-aaabe072f9de/retrieve","id":"-523564886"},"keywords":["retail development","animal-source foods","consumers' preferences","developing countries","Tanzania"],"sieverID":"37f0e51d-3ac1-483c-949c-97284b8a4ee5","pagecount":"14","content":"Growth in population and income, as well as urbanisation, are contributing to the growing consumption of high-value foods in developing countries. However, public and private investments targeting high-value agricultural markets are constrained by limited information on the quality dimensions of the market, the nature of traditional retail formats, and consumer segmentation. This paper presents a simple and appropriate methodology to provide such information, and applies it in Tanzania to animal-sourced foods. It features a rapid survey, which is then aligned with nationally representative survey data. The results show that Tanzanian consumers demand, and are anticipated to continue demanding, relatively good-quality animal products but in rather low-valued product forms. Consumer segments are differentiated by level of wealth and by choice of retail format and retail product form, rather than by quality per se.Growth in demand for high-value foods in developing countries has largely been attributed to a combination of population and income growth, and urbanisation (Delgado et al. 1999;Caballero & Popkin 2002). Animal-sourced foods (meat, milk and eggs) have been identified as products for which growth in demand is projected to be particularly rapid (Kearney 2010;FAO 2011). A notable, yet often overlooked, feature of developing country-aggregate food-demand projections is the contribution of future population growth, which easily dominates income and other factors affecting per capita consumption, particularly in Africa (Pica-Ciamarra & Otte 2011).The advance of modern food and grocery retailing and associated developments in the value chain in developing countries have been described widely (Goldman, 1981;Reardon et al. 2004;Mergenthaler et al. 2009). Past studies of constraints to supermarket penetration in developing countries have emphasised commercial concerns such as supply chain development (Reardon & Timmer 2012), product category diffusion (Goldman et al. 2002), and social and ethnic effects manifest as inertia (Amine & Lazzaoui 2011). Today, a variety of retail outlet formats and channels exist in most 198 developing countries, and their paths of development and co-existence have been the subject of recent research (Reardon & Minten 2011;Gomez & Ricketts 2013). Despite substantial gains made by supermarkets, \"traditional\" markets still dominate retail markets for meat, dairy and certain other fresh and high-value products in many developing countries (Tschirley et al. 2009;Gorton et al. 2011). Hammond et al. (2007) conclude that the four billion people living on less than $10 a day represent a food market of about US$ 2.9 trillion per year. This market exists primarily in developing countries and is largely served by food retail formats that are traditional and informal in nature (FAO 2007;Mtimet et al. 2013;Grace et al. 2015).Opportunities for livestock producers and stakeholders that serve this growing demand thus have been identified as a source of potential economic growth that would favour the poor (Upton 2004;Pica-Ciamarra et al. 2014a). However, past research has focused largely on the quantity dimension of the market, while the investment necessary to mobilise business opportunities -including public policies -should also utilise information of volumes, quality, food safety attributes and consumers' preferred retail outlets. The needs of investors in segmenting and serving developing country retail markets, for example, have been detailed in just a few studies (e.g. Prasad & Ankisetti 2011), as has information flow in alignment with actors within the chain (Kapur 2008;Bamiro & Shittu 2009;Chung et al. 2011;Reardon & Timmer 2012). This article proposes a method for the identification and measurement of quality variables that are appropriate for developing country settings, for relevant and rapid processing of the data, and for the generation of results suitable for food value chain participants. This method is applied to the case of Tanzania, where food retailing uses a variety of channels but is dominated by traditional markets. The article advocates and demonstrates the generation of simple yet specialised datasets and simple analyses that can inform investment and other commercial decisions. It also acknowledges and encourages the use of existing sources of data, particularly those that are publicly and freely available. As examples, current and projected volumes of animal products consumed are offered by the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook (OECD and FAO 2013), and Living Standards Measurement Surveys relate household consumption to income and demographic data (Pica-Ciamara et al. 2014b). The method adapts rapid consumer survey approaches in order to identify relevant quality and safety attributes, consumer segments, retail product forms, and retail outlets. The results are then triangulated with aggregate nationally representative survey data to motivate conclusions from nationally representative analysis.Section 2 of this paper summarises the market for livestock products in Tanzania, specifically the current and projected quantities of livestock products consumed. Section 3 describes the consumer survey design, and section 4 is a summary of the results. Section 5 analyses nationally representative, publicly available datasets on the consumption of animal-source foods by category of consumer, and relates this analysis to this study's more specialised consumer survey data. This complementary treatment of data sources enables greater inference from the survey data. Section 6 lists and discusses conclusions.Tanzania's 2012 population of some 48 million grew by 3% per year from 2006 to 2012. Although a low-income country, Tanzania has recently displayed rapid economic growth: an average of 7% per year from 2002 to 2012, which means a per capita growth of 3.9%. A growing demand for animalsourced foods is therefore widely expected (FAO 2011;World Bank 2014). Projections by the FAO's Global Perspectives Studies Unit feature consumption increases for beef, mutton and goat meat, pork, poultry and milk to increase by 87%, 71%, 88%, 148% and 108% respectively from the mid-2000s to 2030 (Table 1). The low levels of consumption and income also suggest that, on average, consumer preferences are for relatively cheap livestock products and that, with the possible exception of Dar es Salaam, it will take quite some time for a supermarket revolution to become fully established in Tanzania. At present there is no information available on Tanzanian consumers' preferred product quality and retail form, nor on preferred retail outlets. The generation of this information is the focus of this article. In particular, our study targeted beef, poultry and milk, as these products are the most consumed animal foods, exhibit the highest volumes of current and projected production, and at the same time display among the highest expected growth in demand.The first analytical task was the identification and measurement of the quality dimensions of the market in order to complement the available volume-oriented data for beef, chicken and milk presented in Table 1 above. The forms taken by products in the market, their quality (including safety) attributes, the retail outlets selling them, and consumers' preferences for them were all assessed in a form disaggregated by a consumer typology. Interviews with expert informants were used to characterise observation points (retail outlets) and product forms for each of beef, chicken, eggs, mutton and goat meat, pork and fluid milk. Six retail outlet types were identified, namely: (1) specialist butcheries;(2) roadside outlets;(3) open air \"wet\" markets; (4) small shops; (5) supermarkets; and (6) specialist milk kiosks.Five main retail forms for each livestock product were selected by the expert informants. Food quality and safety attributes were drawn primarily from work by Jabbar et al. (2010), supported by the available literature (Grunert 2005;Mergenthaler et al. 2009;Cicia & Colantuoni 2010), and confirmed in discussion with the expert informants. A vital empirical consideration was that selected quality attributes be visible to the enumerator, as this enables direct assessment without reference to the opinions of survey respondents. The quality attributes varied by commodity group (details available from the authors), e.g. for beef: (1) freshness, which is correlated with meat colour and hence observed in that context; (2) visible fat cover; (3) intramuscular fat (\"marbling\"); (4) premises' cleanliness and freedom from flies; and (5) packaging.Income level, and more particularly the empirical capacity to differentiate between income levels, required the use of a proxy measure that involved a non-invasive question free of respondent bias.From a narrow range of possibilities, ownership of means of transport was selected. This not only reflects wealth but also contributes directly to purchasing behaviour by influencing the distance consumers can travel. This measure can be contentious (Morris et al. 2000;Lindelow 2006), as the absence of a means of transport can mean, for example, that a poor consumer purchases products that are more expensive than those purchased by wealthier ones due to being forced to shop locally (Ballantine et al. 2008;Hatch et al. 2011). Nevertheless, this variable was chosen because it supports the objective of the study, namely to develop and test a low-cost, easily replicable methodology, 1 it supports identical information that is collected in nationally representative surveys, thus enhancing the method's consistency with other data sources, and it is easily described and understood by all parties to a survey question.Following training, the enumerators' actions extended to questioning consumers and directly observing product forms and qualities, as described above. This took place in retail outlets as identified in a stratified random sampling by rural/urban location, and by retail format.The quality variable was recorded as a simple (unweighted) sum of zero-one values assigned to the identified quality attributes (Table 3). The resulting scores are on an interval of 0 to 5. This has the advantages of simplicity, and of eliminating consumer or retailer assessment. The unweighted sum may well under-or overestimate the significance of some aspects of quality, but was maintained throughout because expert informants (see below) were unable to agree on appropriate weights. A questionnaire was administered to consumers observed buying a given livestock product. The sampling design enabled observations of the quality of the product, of a given retail form, at a given retail outlet. A question was posed (on means of transport owned) and used to establish three levels of income classification: the worse off (58 respondents; 40% of sample size) did not own any means of transport; the middle class (47 respondents; 33%) owned a motorcycle; and the better off (39 respondents; 27%) who owned a car. Consumers were posed questions about why they purchased from a particular outlet, about trends in their consumption of the nominated retail products, and their willingness to spend more on specified livestock products. Crucially, the consumer interview was implemented in around five minutes in each case. Baker et al.201A stratified random sampling method was used to select urban and rural locations and the indicative types of retail outlet in those locations, including butcheries, roadside outlets, wet markets, small retail shops, supermarkets and milk kiosks/vendors. For each of the six types of retail outlet, three establishments in urban areas and three in rural areas were randomly selected, i.e. a total of 36 outlets.In each retail outlet, four consumers were selected randomly -viz. the first four that purchased livestock products during the enumerator's presence in the shop -for a total of 144 consumers. Enumerators spent a maximum of one hour in each outlet, as market days or mornings/evenings were selected as days for the survey. Data collection took place in October 2011 in two urban, and one rural, district near to Dar es Salaam. The quality and safety scores indicated that products sold by urban retailers exhibited quality that was equal or superior to that sold in rural outlets, with the exception of roadside outlets (Figure 1). When quality scores were evaluated by retail outlet, supermarkets achieved the highest quality score in both urban and rural areas, although the small supermarkets found in small rural towns were significantly different from urban supermarkets. Butcheries ranked second for quality. With the exception of supermarkets there was little variation across rural retailers in terms of quality scores: all exhibited \"medium\" ratings. The variation was more pronounced among urban retailers, where supermarkets scored 5 (good quality) and roadside outlets scored 2.5 on average (lower medium quality). Across all wealth categories, consumers were found to purchase animal-source foods in all retail outlets. Less well-off consumers, however, were more likely to purchase livestock products at roadside outlets and in small retail shops than were middle-class and better-off consumers. These latter two (wealthier) groups prefer supermarkets, butcheries and milk kiosks. A surprising result is that open-air markets were a preferred retail outlet for all consumers, regardless of wealth category. A possible explanation centres on price, which was found to be significantly lower in roadside outlets and small retail shops (the median price across all products recorded was TSh 2 2 250 and 2 400 per purchase lot respectively) than in butcheries and supermarkets (TSh 5 000 and 4 000 per purchase lot respectively). Another motivation centres on convenience and familiarity with the vendor. Preferences for retail product form, disaggregated by income tercile, are presented for beef, poultry and milk in Figures 3 to 5 respectively. The results for pork and goat meat (not reported here due to space considerations) provided no statistically significant differences across income terciles. 2 In October 2011, the US$-TZSH exchange rate was 1 600. A relationship was apparent between income level and preferred product form for the three commodities presented, but this should be tempered with an understanding of retail practices in developing countries. In particular, the small quantities purchased mean that, even at a high price, these represent small expenditures that may not fully reflect income-related effects. Moreover, small samples also encourage some caution in our inference.For beef, the consumers in the poorest tercile purchased either offal or mixed pieces (the lowest priced beef products), which are reported not to be consumed in large quantities by better-off consumers (Figure 3). Conversely, steak and sausages are apparently consumed by all types of consumers, but the sample numbers are small for these product forms.The less well-off are the only ones who reported purchasing the (low-priced) mixed pieces of chicken.Live birds are reported to be purchased by all consumers. The considerable variation in reported prices for live birds should be noted here, particularly as the data do not differentiate between local and imported breeds, for which demand conditions may be quite different.In the case of milk, raw fresh milk was purchased mainly by the poorest consumers. As in the above cases, prices may not be the primary influence on income-related milk product purchase choices: the price per litre of raw fresh milk was found to differ little from that of pasteurised milk (both around TSh 1 000 per litre). Poor consumers may be compelled to purchase the products available from retail establishments to which their means of transport enable access. There may also be an abiding consumer preference for raw fresh milk, which outweighs safety-related concerns. The results also show that boiled milk is purchased primarily by middle-class and better-off consumers.Consumers' frequency of quality scores of food items, as an aggregate result across all products purchased, is presented in Figure 6. It should be noted that these results report behaviour as observed and recorded by enumerators -they are not \"reported behaviour\". Consistent with the observed quality/safety levels, which we found to be relatively high across all products and retail outlets, the most frequently occurring quality score was high for consumers at all levels of wealth. The similarity of the curves is reinforced by the statistical results, which reveal no significant differences between income categories for qualities purchased. A plausible explanation for this result is that the poorest consumers purchase livestock products less frequently than do others, and so any purchase of such a food item is contemplated with caution, with due consideration of alternatives. In support of this explanation, the great majority of consumers reported perceived quality and safety as being the most important determinant of choice of retail outlet, with the related \"known, trustworthy premises\" also prominent in the analysis. Quality choice results for individual commodities or product forms are not presented here, but these were largely similar to the aggregate results shown.This article's rapid appraisals of consumer preferences for retail outlets and product forms are consistent with the prevailing wisdom, and aspects of patterns of demand seen in publicly available aggregate data. Further alignment with data drawn from Tanzania's 2008/09 National Panel Survey (National Bureau of Statistics 2010) allows us to arrive at a national-level estimate of the demand for major livestock products by preferred retail forms and retail outlets.The nationally representative National Panel Survey (NPS) statistics on commodity-level household purchases and consumption of livestock products also feature ownership of means of transport. Figure 7 presents the proportion of households reporting the purchase of beef, chicken and milk, again by wealth category -defined by the means of transport owned -using the same categories as used above. Over 70%, 50% and 30% of the better-off consumers reported regularly (at least once per week) purchasing beef, milk and chicken respectively, while middle-class and less well-off households reported purchasing animal-source foods less frequently. 3 For beef, milk and chicken, better-off households purchased animal-source foods more frequently than those from other income classes, but also consumed these products in larger volumes. For aggregate consumption of animal-source foods in Tanzania, the better-off consumers account for fewer than 5% of all consumers, while the middle-class and less well-off consumers represent some 39% and 56% respectively (National Bureau of Statistics 2010). Hence the \"market\" -as understood by investors and other commercial interests -is comprised largely of purchases by the less well-off (see Table 5), who represent 52.7% of the market for beef, 53.7% of the market for chicken, and 50.1% of the market for milk by both volume and value. Progressively smaller proportions appear for the middle-class and better-off consumers. An extension of these results onward to a nationally indicative, quality-oriented projection of Tanzania's market for animal-source food was constructed by combining elements of both the NPS data and the rapid consumer survey. Figure 8 represents the beef, chicken and milk markets disaggregated by preferred retail form, while each retail outlet's market share is projected in Figure 9.Beef market by consumers' preferred retail form Poultry market by consumers' preferred retail form Milk market by consumers' preferred retail form Projections for beef show that mixed pieces and offal represent almost 90% of the market. For poultry, the result is somewhat less pronounced, but live birds and mixed pieces dominate consumers' preferred product form, at 43% and 33% of the market respectively. For milk, the raw fresh product occupies some half of the market, with a surprisingly large amount of pasteurised milk and rather little (10%) boiled milk. Projections of the preferred meat retail outlets feature butcheries, roadside outlets and supermarkets, each accounting for 26% to 27% of the market in volume terms. Milk vendors and small retail shops dominate the milk market.Investment and commercial action by food value chain actors in developing countries has been little studied beyond the context of supermarkets. In particular, traditional markets and co-existing retail formats are present in most African countries, and these serve the great majority of the population. In this article, a methodology was developed and tested to mobilise decision makers at the retail level and elsewhere regarding practical marketing steps, such as consumer segmentation and the delivery of desired qualities. The method is centred on a rapid survey procedure, from which results were then mapped onto nationally representative datasets to establish projections for the national market. The application of the method in Tanzania is reported.Tanzanian consumers in identifiable, discreet wealth segments are found to purchase animal-source foods in different markets, and to prefer different retail products. On average, and using the simple quality measurement system developed, the quality of the livestock products sold and purchased is found to be good in both urban and rural areas. Moreover, the quality purchased by consumers in all wealth categories was found to be good. Unsurprisingly, given that the majority of consumers purchasing animal-source foods are less well-off, retail product forms preferred by these consumers were found to dominate the market. This means that offal and mixed pieces for beef, live birds and mixed pieces for chicken and raw milk for dairy are identified as the preferred product forms.Three important conclusions emerge. The first is that cheap and timely procedures can be employed to generate substantial and relevant information about food value chain participants. The second is that, across consumers of all income levels, there is sufficient market in Tanzania for product quality and safety to enable market-led interventions such as product differentiation. The conditions supporting this development are a subject for future research, particularly in the realm of traditional markets. The third is that, despite Tanzania's relatively poor consumer profile and dominance of traditional markets, there are commercial opportunities for smallholder livestock producers. The focus of this study was on demonstrating a method, and resource constraints necessitated a sample that was small and geographically limited. This resulted in limited inference on several items of undoubted interest to commercial parties, such as differentiation of rural and urban areas, and the robust estimation of preferred quality attributes for consumers in the different wealth categories. Several potential improvements in the method have been identified, such as more discriminating treatment of poultry breeds, a more sophisticated measure of income, and larger samples. Further work is called for to identify and overcome barriers to smallholder livestock holders' and agribusinesses' access to opportunities across co-exiting retail formats in developing countries, and improved generation and communication of commercially relevant information.","tokenCount":"3513"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bc64da3aaabee332f199d7b996433f17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7b2f33d9-e3ff-4965-acb9-a2cec91fc01a/content","id":"-826757363"},"keywords":["Economic impact","livelihood impacts","maize","hill regions","Mexico","Nepal","spatial analysis","Google EarthTM Economic indicators","economic factors","Highlands","Data analysis","Statistical methods","Maize","Mexico","Nepal AGRIS Category Codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies"],"sieverID":"ed59385c-0412-4102-aeac-63217ef1527b","pagecount":"33","content":"The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT® (www.cimmyt.org), is an international, not-for-profi t research and training organization. With partners in over 100 countries, the center applies science to increase food security, improve the productivity and profi tability of maize and wheat farming systems, and sustain natural resources in the developing world. The center's outputs and services include improved maize and wheat varieties and cropping systems, the conservation of maize and wheat genetic resources, and capacity building. CIMMYT belongs to and is funded by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org) and also receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks, and other public and private agencies.© International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 2008. All rights reserved. The designations employed in the presentation of materials in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or its contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. CIMMYT encourages fair use of this material. Proper citation is requested.Livelihood typologies and selected livelihood indicators, Oaxaca. ............................................. Table 2. Livelihoods, maize production, and maize diversity in the late 1990s and 2006. ...................... Table 3. Average maize yields, Oaxaca, 2001Oaxaca, -2006   A livelihoods approach to impact assessment captures a wider range of factors that aff ect farmers' welfare than those captured by conventional impact assessment. CIMMYT recently completed two innovative studies that took a livelihoods approach to assessing in more comprehensive ways the impacts of maize research projects in Mexico and Nepal. In Mexico, CIMMYT collaborated with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas, y Pecuarias (INIFAP), and in Nepal with the National Agricultural Research Council (NARC).This paper compares and contrasts the two studies. We distill the key impacts of research, the International Public Goods, and the lessons learned, so as to bett er target and enhance maize research to improve the livelihoods of farmers in the future. In the Oaxaca study in Mexico two new tools for socio-economic research were tested and piloted: Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) to collect real-time fi eld data from farmers, and Google Earth TM to organize and analyze spatial data. The two studies integrate livelihoods and economic analyses to assess impact. Also based on the experiences in these studies, CIMMYT published Guidelines for assessing impacts of agricultural research on livelihoods in 2007. The Oaxaca study was described in Livelihood approaches in multi-dimensional impact assessment, a chapter in Strategic guidance for impact assessment of agricultural research by the CGIAR Standing Panel on Impact Assessment, 2008.To fully assess the impact of new technologies on farmers we need to shift the focus of research from 'crops' or 'commodities' to the impact pathway which links improved crop germplasm and management to household well-being. Household well-being includes factors such as food security, more income, and the stocks and fl ows of household assets.A livelihoods approach to impact assessment (IA) augments the conventional practice of assessing impact because it captures a wider range of factors that aff ect the livelihoods of farmers than conventional IA, which oft en only examines improvements in crop productivity and returns. Taking this innovative approach, CIMMYT recently completed two studies on the impacts of maize research in the hill regions of Mexico and Nepal. The two case studies provide lessons for assessing impact through a livelihoods lens to complement economic assessments. The research projects and the present impact study generated a number of International Public Goods: methods for spatial analysis, methods for participatory research with farmers applied to IA, and capacity-building of farmers in maize selection and for IA research based on a livelihoods approach.The fi rst study, described in depth in this paper, assesses the impacts of research by CIMMYT and a Mexican partner, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), during the late 1990s in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. The objectives of this research were to raise productivity, preserve the diversity of traditional criollo maize landraces, provide training, demonstrate maize production practices, and promote post-harvest technologies.In 2006, a study was launched to assess the impacts of this research, to examine the changes in farmers' livelihoods that resulted from the project, and to learn how such research projects can have more impact in the future. The study sought to capture the impacts of the project, in terms of the use of criollo maize, the use farmers made of training, and the use of post-harvest technology (silos). This was done by collecting and analyzing data on indicators of farmers' livelihoods and economic status. The results were examined for participant and non-participant farmers, and for diff erent household wealth categories characterized through the IA study itself.Reducing poverty by developing and selecting local and improved maize germplasm was just one of the goals of the research project. Other important objectives were to expand the knowledge on maize diversity, and generate and test participatory research methods. Although the benefi ts of these are hard to quantify, the IA should take account of these eff ects in the overall assessment.The second study, to assess the impacts of the Hill Maize Research Project (HMRP) in Nepal, used a similar mix of qualitative and quantitative tools to those used in the Oaxaca study. In Nepal, CIMMYT and partners developed and tested improved varieties through participatory research. The Nepal study captures the outcomes and impacts of the participatory research projects in terms of maize productivity, food security, community-based seed production, empowerment, social inclusion, and the institutionalization of participatory research.The Mexico study in the area of origin of maize indicates that there is a moderate use of improved maize and some impact on poverty, but that the area of maize has shrunk and that maize is less important as a commercial crop. In contrast, improved maize varieties in Nepal play an increasingly important role in improving livelihoods. In Nepal maize is also a way of improving the livelihoods of marginalized farmers in the hill areas, and low-caste women. To fully assess the impact of new technologies on farmers we need to shift the focus from 'crops' or 'commodities' to the impact pathway which links improved crop germplasm and management to household well-being. Household well-being includes factors such as food security, more income, and the stocks and fl ows of household assets. A livelihoods approach takes into account several of the factors that aff ect household wellbeing, and provides a way of examining diverse infl uences, thus ensuring that the key infl uences are captured.CIMMYT recently completed two innovative impact assessment (IA) studies, in Mexico and Nepal, which used a livelihoods approach in order to capture impacts comprehensively. The livelihoods approach was used in conjunction with conventional economic and other tools. This paper compares the approaches, fi ndings, and lessons learned in these two studies.  The Oaxaca study draws lessons on how to eff ectively implement an IA within the framework of a livelihoods approach. This was particularly relevant when the study was being done as, at that time, IA at CIMMYT was being reshaped to meet new demands. The Oaxaca Project generated options for small-scale farmers to benefi t from genetic diversity in local traditional landraces.Components of the project included a) a baseline and diagnostic assessment of maize diversity and household features (Smale et al. 1999;2003) Maize is grown in the hills and terai (plains) regions of Nepal, in a wide range of agro-ecological and climatic conditions, and farming systems (Figure 2). Maize, the staple food of hill farmers, is grown on terraces in the low, mid-and high hills under rainfed conditions during the summer. Irrigated maize is also grown in the alluvial plains of the terai valleys and low-lying river basins in spring and winter. Maize productivity is low. The average yield is 1.8 tons/ha. This may be  The Oaxaca IA study used, and at the same time tested and piloted, new tools for socio-economic research. One tool was the use of Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) for collecting real-time data for IA (Carrion and La Rovere 2007). Another was an innovative approach for collecting geo-referenced plot data directly on farm using web-based Google Earth TM technology. A third was the analysis of satellite-derived data for climatic patt erns (see full description in Annex 1).Framework of the study CIMMYT uses the 'livelihoods approach' as a 'check list' of important issues to be considered in doing an IA, to choose and design impact indicators, and to understand how they link to one another.The livelihood dimensions considered are: food security, lack of assets, risk, and vulnerability. The livelihoods approach also draws att ention to infl uences and processes, and emphasizes the multiple interactions between the various factors which, in practice, aff ect livelihoods. IA is increasingly att empting to capture diff erent types of impacts (direct, indirect) and more of the successes, and to build more meaningful impact stories. In addition, IA should help us learn from past research outcomes. This means that IA must go beyond aggregating economic benefi ts, and must integrate additional analytical tools. Conventional economic approaches mostly assess adoption; yet adoption is only part of the impact picture and actually only 'assumes' real impact. La Rovere and Dixon ( 2007) and Walker et al. (2008) discuss implementing these types of IA, and livelihoods approaches within multi-dimensional IAs.The IA studies described here adopted a livelihoods approach, supplemented in the Nepal study with surplus analysis, and stakeholder and gender assessment, and in the Mexico study with econometrics. In both cases the IA considers food security and income enhancement. The Mexico study looked back explicitly ex post to work done a decade before. As the HMRP project was still in progress, the independent external IA study combined ex-post assessment and monitoring.In Oaxaca the impacts study was completed between late 2006 and early 2007 in the same three communities of Badstue et al. (2006): Huitzo, San Lorenzo, and Santa Ana. The preliminary appraisal confi rmed that these communities were representative of the communities that were part of the Oaxaca Project in the late 1990s. We measured the impact of the Oaxaca Project by comparing the data for the indicators chosen for the 1998 baseline study with data for similar indicators chosen for the 2006 assessment (this being the 'before/aft er' the project counterfactual).We recorded qualitative data on the impact of the Oaxaca Project and changes in livelihoods by analyzing the perceptions of farmers through FGDs. The present study revisited the same participants of the Oaxaca Project to fi nd out what had happened to them in the meantime. However, by 2006, only 68 of the original participants were still around, and only 52 of these had been part of the baseline study (Smale et al. 1999). Fift ytwo new households were randomly selected as a control to make up the 'with/without' counterfactual, based on comparing 'participants' and 'non-participants' in the project.We analyzed the gross margins for the 12 farmers who had cultivated both criollo and CIMMYT selections of maize since 1998. The gross margin analysis took account of all production and postharvest costs, and the values of all outputs, per hectare. As maize is oft en intercropped with beans and pumpkin, the value of beans and pumpkin was considered separately. The opportunity cost of labor was not included as farmers reported only on-farm labor.We used a Propensity Score Matching (PSM) procedure to assess whether the value of maize production-as an indicator of factors that contribute to food security and poverty-was infl uenced by the project interventions: adoption of CIMMYT maize selections, adoption of silos for post-harvest storage of maize, and participation in capacity-building activities. The PSM approach controls for the self-selection that normally arises when technology adoption is not randomly assigned. A key issue in evaluating the impact of adoption on income is specifying the average treatment eff ect. Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983) defi ne the impact of adoption on income (Δ i ) in a counterfactual framework asA and Y i N are the incomes of a household, i, when it adopts the technology and when it does not adopt it. In estimating the impact from (1), a problem is the fact that, for each household, either Y i A or Y i N would normally be observed, but not both. What is normally observed can be expressed as:Where Y is the potential outcome and D is a 0 or 1 dummy, binary, variable for the use of the new technology; D i = 1 if the technology is adopted and Di = 0 otherwise.When the data available provide no information on the counterfactual, a missing data problem arises. In this case, the direct eff ect of technology adoption from the variation in outcomes across households must be estimated, using statistical PSM (Abadie et al. 2004;Caliendo and Kopeinig 2005). PSM estimates the eff ect of adoption for the full sample from the weighted average of the eff ect of adoption for adopters (treated) and nonadopters (controls), where the weightings are the relative frequencies. Matching the treated and the control subjects becomes diffi cult when there is a multi-dimensional vector of characteristics. The PSM solves this type of problem by summarizing the pre-treatment characteristics of each subject into a single index variable, and then using the propensity score (PS) to match similar individuals. This constitutes the probability of assignment to treatment conditional on pre-treatment variables (see Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983;Becerril-García 2007). There are a number of methods for matching similar adopters and non-adopters, such as nearest neighbor matching (NN), used here to calculate the average treatment eff ect by matching each treated individual with a control with the closest PS. Then, the diff erence between the household incomes for each matched pair is computed. A relevant application in agriculture is in Mendola (2007).In In 2006, Mathema and Gurung (2006) carried out an external assessment of the impact of the HMRP.The assessment compared livelihood indicators in project areas (with) and non-project areas (without), and changes in indicators before and aft er the project. The assessment looked at two areas: a project area and a similar non-project area.To compare livelihoods before and aft er the project, data were collected from benefi ciary households in diff erent socio-economic groups from 10 locations. Data were collected from secondary sources, participatory rural appraisal, and directly from partners and stakeholders. Baseline data were collected ex post using the recall method. The study assessed impacts on socially disaggregated groups: the dalits, the Brahmin, Chhetri, and Newar (BCN) 2 , and the janajatis. The study included gross margin and economic surplus analyses. Direct impacts of the project were lower costs, new technology, and bett er seed production. Indirect impacts were, for example, empowerment, social inclusion, and more social equity for poor, geographically remote and excluded groups 3 . In Nepal it is the poor women who constitute an important impact pathways in achieving impact in rural areas.We estimated the benefi ts of adopting maize technology for producers and consumers, and the profi ts of individual farmers from three-year time-series data in 10 diff erent places, using the Economic Surplus analysis (ES) and Gross Margin analysis (GM). Focus group discussions (FGDs) in all locations elicited data on annual growth rates of maize productivity, and the trends in total maize production and consumption. Detailed information on input costs and benefi ts of growing maize was collected from key informants. As new maize technologies either raise crop productivity or lower marginal production costs, technological changes also contribute to higher total maize production. Adopting new maize technologies can thus benefi t both producers and consumers (more maize in the market and lower prices in the villages). We estimated economic surplus using the Dynamic Research Evaluation for Management (DREAM) soft ware (Wood et al. 2001). Gross Margin analysis estimated the profi tability of the introduced maize technologies and compared profi tability of introduced maize technologies with that of prevailing practices.Livelihoods An 'ageing' process of farming was found in the area, also due to migration. Average farm size has been increasing, mainly by expanding onto poor quality land. The area planted with maize has declined. Although the studies conducted in the late 1990s found that \"by some indicators of wealth households were not poor,\" in 2006 about 28% of households were found to be poor and marginalized. These were households with poorly educated older farmers, who were also still growing maize as their main food. Remitt ances are an important source of household income: from Mexico for poor families, from the USA for richer ones. At the end of the 1990s remitt ances averaged 20% of total income, ranging from 10% of total household income in the most advanced, marketconnected community to 25% or more in the other two communities.For the households that were sampled in 2006, we compared the changes in average yield from 1999 to 2006 where data were available. Households that had bought CIMMYT selections experienced moderate decreases in average yield (11%). Those who did not buy CIMMYT selections experienced larger losses (19%). Average 1999 yields were in line with those of 2006, hence in general terms fi ndings did not confi rm the farmers' perceptions of declining yields.Farmers' preference for certain varieties of maize is oft en linked to food preferences. They prefer the white (blanco), yellow (amarillo), or blue (negro or azul) maize varieties. As compared to the late 1990s, in 2006 most farmers still preferred blanco maize because it has a good market, is preferred for eating, and is drought tolerant. With regard to biodiversity, they did not report large losses of maize populations. Only one variety (VC-152) from the Oaxaca Project was considered to be good for eating and for feeding to animals and was still present. Improved maize is grown only in Huitzo, the most advanced and market-connected community. In the more remote communities that are least connected to markets, most farmers are poor and adopted CIMMYT selections more oft en. Table 2 compares the situation in the late 1990s with the situation in 2006.In 2006, 27.5% of farmers out of the whole sample were still using maize derived from the Oaxaca Project (CIMMYT selections are local varieties that were selected by farmers during the project 4 ). Of those who participated in the project, 44% still use CIMMYT selections. In addition, 5.8% of those who did not participate also grew maize from the project, suggesting some spontaneous farmer-tofarmer diff usion of maize selections. Maize that farmers had bought from the project, however, had oft en got lost, mainly due to drought. But many farmers are still using varieties derived from the crosses made in the fi eld or from mixes of criollo varieties. The main advantages of CIMMYT selections from the farmer's point of view are that they are bett er for consumptiom, and that yields are higher. Disadvantages are that the growth cycle is longer and they are more diffi cult to market.CIMMYT selections have outperformed local criollo maize every year since 2001 on the farms of the subset of the 12 households which participated in the project and were still planting both criollo and CIMMYT maize in 2006 (Figure 3). CIMMYT selections outperformed criollo maize (Table 3) by 10% for minimum yield, by 14% for maximum yield, and by 16% for mean yield.  Criollo CIMMYT MXN1,857 (USD172) per hectare, while for criollo maize ('without') the gross margin is MXN627 (USD58). Normally, the household consumes the maize that is not sold. Thus, although in real terms maize is not very profi table, farmers keep growing it for consumption and to use the crop residues as forage for livestock.Farmers growing CIMMYT selections of maize appear to have more land than those who do not grow CIMMYT selections, but their yields are lower. The farmers who participated in the Oaxaca Project were oft en those whose incomes were lower, those who were older, and those with larger families. The average yield was lowest (427 kg/ ha) for the 'very poor' group, who own the land of poorest quality. The farmers with higher incomes use improved seed more frequently and get higher yields. They grow very litt le criollo maize.Nearly one-fi ft h (17.5%) of farmers have at least one silo. More than half the farmers who bought silos did so through a process facilitated by CIMMYT. Farmers invested in silos because they are easy to use, aff ordable, are a good replacement for traditional practices, and because they meet the need to reduce losses and store food securely. Silos are a pro-poor food security option that has diff used from farmer-to-farmer. The farmers who adopted the silos were those who were younger and more educated, and those who were bett er informed about support programs.Participants in the Oaxaca Project gained skills and knowledge from CIMMYT training (e.g. on open pollination, types of criollo maize, seed storage methods, use of agrochemicals). However, farmers reported that much of their learning had dissipated and relatively litt le of what had been learned had been applied. Techniques learned during the project had been applied only to a moderate extent, as the practices were labor intensive when compared to traditional practices.Table 4 shows the results of the Probit models. The variables that negatively infl uence the probability that CIMMYT selections will be adopted are those related to social capital (n of family members, age, and education of head of household). Only two variables were statistically signifi cant: the (female) gender of the household head and the n of input used. Both these variables were associated with an increased probability that CIMMYT selections would be adopted. It is the women who look for specifi c characteristics in the CIMMYT selections of maize and who choose to adopt them for these characteristics. Farmers wanting to raise maize production tend to adopt and use varieties that give bett er yields and are more adapted to their environment. They also use more inputs.Signifi cant variables that negatively infl uence adoption of silos are the age of the household head and the number of inputs used. Age has a negative eff ect because older farmers are more reluctant to use new or diff erent technologies than younger farmers. The number of inputs used has a negative eff ect because farmers who use more inputs get 'higher' yields and, so, have more to sell, and less need of silos to preserve maize for consumption. The n of equipment use has a positive infl uence on adoption of silos since farmers who get low yields tend to rely on bett er agronomic practices rather than on higher input use. Farmers who have the resources to buy inputs and use equipment are those more likely to try to make their production more effi cient and to participate in capacitybuilding activities. The variables that infl uence farmers' participation in capacity-building activities positively and signifi cantly are the n of inputs and equipment.We estimated the impact of CIMMYT interventions based on the average treatment eff ect using the PSM method for each of the interventions, with respect to three outcome variables: the monthly per capita value of maize production, ratio of the value of maize production to total income, and poverty. Households were classifi ed according to the clusters classifi cation derived from this study and from the national Secretaría de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) lines for Mexico (Table 5, World Bank, 2004). Because the interventions of the Oaxaca Project help to either increase or maintain current maize yields, the impact of the project is refl ected in the estimated value of maize production. Likewise, we estimated the proportion of the value of maize production over total income. Poverty, as defi ned in the clusters and the SEDESOL poverty lines, was represented by binary variables (poor = 1, non-poor = 0).The income averages in both cases (clusters classifi cation derived from this study and from SEDESOL) are similar (Table 5). Farmers in the fi rst three clusters of our classifi cation are considered as poor (very poor, poor, middle poor), and farmers in the 'bett er off ' cluster as non-poor. Likewise, the SEDESOL lines classifi ed poor farmers in three poverty levels (food poverty, capacities poverty, asset poverty) and classifi ed the farmers with higher incomes as non-poor.Based on the NN (nearest neighbor) matching method we assessed the causal eff ect of participating in CIMMYT interventions. The impact of adopting CIMMYT selections on the value of maize production (Table 6) was signifi cant, generating a production value advantage of ~MXN107 (the average diff erence in the value of maize production that adopters of CIMMYT selections get, as opposed to nonadopters). CIMMYT selections had a signifi cant and positive causal eff ect on the contribution of maize production value to total income, generating a 24.3% advantage for adopters compared with non-adopters. We applied the same procedure to estimate the probability that the adoption of CIMMYT selections contributes to reducing poverty. With respect to the SEDESOL poverty lines, the result was negative as expected (-6%), suggesting that adoption is associated with less poverty (though not statistically signifi cant).With respect to the clusters from this study, the result was also negative (-18%), but signifi cant. This means that adoption is associated with less poverty for adopters when compared with the non-adopters. Although none of the outcomes for the silos intervention were statistically significant, in most cases the results were as expected. In terms of the value of maize production (Table 6), there was no difference between farmers who adopted silos and those who did not adopt. The effect of adopting silos was negative on the contribution of the value of maize production to total income. This suggests that because silos are intended to reduce post-harvest losses, adopting them has no effect on increasing the value of production. So, the CIMMYT silos technology did not have any effect on poverty in terms of differences among treatment and control groups based on SEDESOL poverty lines. But, in terms of the clusters classification derived from this study, the CIMMYT silos technology did reduce poverty, although the coefficient is not significant.The causal effects of capacity-building interventions were as expected, although not significant. Farmers who participated in capacity-building activities had higher maize production value than those who did not. The contribution of maize production value to total income showed similar results. For both SEDESOL and clusters poverty classifi cations the coeffi cients were negative, meaning that participation in capacity-building activities contributed to reducing poverty.Hill Maize Research Project (HMRP), Nepal Mathema and Gurung (2006) found that the HMRP has had several impacts.During the project, scientists trained farmers in improved maize cultivation practices and encouraged participatory varietal selection (PVS) fi eld trials, as well as community-based seed production (CBSP). The PVS fi eld trials involved 45% women, 40% dalit, and 15% janajati. For the purposes of the HMRP, participants were classifi ed into three economic strata in terms of food suffi ciency: rich, with a food surplus for the whole year; middle, with food for 6-9 months and; poor, with food for less than 6 months. Of those involved in PVS, 66% were in the poor group, 22% in the middle group, and only 14% in the rich group. Seed production groups involved dalits (20%), janajatis (22%), and women (58%). Females from all economic strata and resource-poor farmers participated in marketing maize seed, thanks to the communitybased seed production (CBSP) groups. The income from maize production is mainly spent on minor household expenses and educating children. This means that targeting food-defi cit households has a positive eff ect on improving the livelihoods and social equity of very poor farmers. Before the project, maize was grown mainly for household consumption but, recently, farmers have begun to sell it, helping to diversify their incomes. Mathema and Gurung (2006) reported that PVS and CBSP increased maize production by more than 50% compared to local varieties.The area and yield of improved maize varieties increased compared to local varieties at project sites. In 2006, 62% of the project area was sown with improved varieties. The average yield of improved varieties in 2005 was 2.96 tons/ha compared to 1.39 tons/ha from local varieties. Farmers preferred the improved varieties because the yield was higher, they liked the taste, the improved varieties were non-lodging, and they were more palatable as forage for animals. A major impact of HMRP germplasm testing was the release by the National Variety Release Committ ee in 2005 of the Deuti (ZM-621) and Shitala (Population-44) varieties recommended for the midhills of Nepal. Both varieties are white and have a potential yield of 4-5 tons/ha.Household food self-suffi ciency at nine fi eld sites was assessed in 2002 (prior to Phase II) and 2006 (in Phase II). Figure 4 shows that the number of households that were food self-suffi cient for 6-11 months and for more than a year had increased by 2006 when compared to 2002. The percentage of households which were food self-suffi cient for one year or more increased from 11% to 24%. The project worked with about 8,000 farmers, of whom 49% where women and 51% were men. Of those farmers, 86% were in the food-defi cit group. The majority (51%) were Brahmin, Chhetri, and Newar (BCN), 32% dalits, and 17% janajatis. Most were from poor households: 57% in the poor category, 29% in the middle one, and 14% in the rich one (Mathema and Gurung 2006).The percentage of households self-suffi cient in food for 6-11 months increased from 29.5% in 2002 to 42.6% in 2006. However, the percentage of  Farmers adopting maize technology used quality seed provided by HMRP. Local maize seed has low productivity. The use of manure and chemical fertilizer was relatively low. Productivity when farmers practiced improved maize agronomy was higher compared to when they used local practices.The costs of production per hectare were estimated for improved maize (with) and local maize (without). The gross margins per hectare and per location are shown in Table 7.The average gross margin for improved maize is higher than for local maize by NPR9,431 (about USD121). Incremental benefi ts accrue when inputs such as good quality seeds are used, higher doses of manure are applied, and outputs are sold at higher prices. Adopting maize technology generally involved more labor. Quality maize seed fetches 50% more than traditional maize seed at the market. Thus, farmers benefi t fi nancially by replacing local maize with improved maize.In the HMRP most farmers have now adopted improved maize, mainly grown for household consumption and as animal feed. Economic Surplus analysis showed that improved maize has benefi ted not only the maize producers (by increasing productivity) but also consumers (by making cheaper maize seed available in the villages). In general, the technological change in maize cultivation benefi ted producers by 64.35% and consumers by 35.65% (Table 8). Similar methods were used in both assessments in Oaxaca and for the HMRP in Nepal. In both cases a mix of qualitative and quantitative tools, participatory assessments, and economic methods (econometric analysis in Oaxaca, Economic Surplus analysis in Nepal, and Gross Margin analysis in both) were used.Both assessments integrate the rigorous use of both the before/aft er and with/without counterfactuals. The approaches used are summarized in Table 9.Similar indicators for impacts and changes in livelihoods were used. This set of metrics comprehensively covers and measures outcomes and impacts on livelihoods (Table 10). Using the indicators, we quantifi ed changes in livelihood capitals, in income, in poverty (including food security), in equity, and economic changes such as technology gross margins and economic surplus. The metrics also captured a range of direct and indirect impacts, as well as outcomes. Specifi c diff erences in metrics between the studies are due to the diff erent purposes. The impacts of the Oaxaca Project were mainly positive, particularly in terms of the impact of adopting silos and CIMMYT maize selections. In other respects the impacts were moderate, such as from capacity-building where the eff ects had partially dissipated by the time the assessment was done. The study proved that the adoption and use of CIMMYT maize selections increased the value of maize production and the contribution maize production made to total income. This contributed to reducing poverty (as assessed according to the household livelihood typologies in this study).The overall fi ndings also suggest that it would have been a good investment for CIMMYT to have maintained a presence on the ground in Oaxaca to strengthen and sustain the technical interventions (silos and capacity-building). This would have made an even more signifi cant impact on poverty reduction.Achieving livelihood impacts through maize was just one of the goals of the project. Other goals were to boost knowledge of maize diversity and to generate and test participatory research approaches. The benefi ts of these goals, however, are more diffi cult to quantify in monetary terms.Benefi ts take the form of a general contribution to the stock of scientifi c knowledge and were beyond the explicit scope of the Oaxaca impact study. However, the spillover of knowledge on maize diversity and participatory methods developed by the project must also be recognized as part of the overall benefi ts.In Nepal the study showed that the improved maize technology is spreading, that demand is growing for improved maize technology, and that maize is playing an increasingly important role in improving livelihoods. But, by 2006, improved maize technology had not yet reached a large number of farmers. Progress had been made in increasing food security and food suffi ciency. What is needed now is a strategy to scale up research and development interventions to reach more poor farmers. Mathema and Gurung (2006) estimate that enough maize seed can be produced by the HMRP to expand the reach of the maize varieties developed.The HMRP guidelines call for 70% of participants to be from the food defi cit group, and for more than 50% to be women. These guidelines help to bett er target future interventions. HMRP incorporated gender, poverty, and social equity issues to improve livelihoods and food security of the poor and excluded groups and, hence, reached out to the most marginalized and vulnerable social and economic groups, the dalits, janajatis, and the women.The major policy contribution of HMRP is the work to institutionalize participatory approaches for varietal selection and improved seed production in the hills of Nepal. Many government and non-government organizations, and the national agricultural research system, have adopted these concepts and have a bett er knowledge of maize varieties, agronomic practices for growing maize, and for producing seed. NARC staff reported that they are more confi dent in their ability to conduct participatory research because they have become more capable of implementing PVS trials and demonstrating improved agronomic practices. Farmers who participated in the training enhanced their technical skills in maize production, in selecting improved seed, and in post-harvest techniques.The contrasts between Oaxaca-located in Mexico where maize originated-and Nepal are interesting. In Oaxaca, the study shows only moderate use of improved maize, that the average age of active farmers is increasing (also due to strong migration), that there are declines in the area planted with maize, and that less maize is being grown as a commercial crop. In Nepal, however, the use of improved maize varieties is growing and plays increasingly important roles in improving livelihoods. For instance, the food self-suffi ciency of participant in HMRP areas improved from 11% in 2002 to 24% in 2006. This can be partially explained by higher maize yields (and surplus production) in Nepal compared to Oaxaca, although the gross margins are higher in Oaxaca in absolute terms. Also, while in Nepal maize was initially grown mainly for household consumption, now surplus maize is being sold. Compared to local varieties, the yield and area of improved varieties are increasing. Farmers in Nepal tend to prefer improved varieties, since they grow maize both to sell it at the market and for household food security, whereas in Mexico maize retains its distinct 'cultural' role as a traditional food.In terms of att ributing impacts, the impact pathways of the HMRP in Nepal are clearer and the benefi ts that can be att ributed to CIMMYT and NARC are more explicit. In Mexico, the impacts of the silos intervention can clearly be att ributed to CIMMYT. For maize improvement activities, partners' contributions must be recognized. The Nepal assessment showed that intermediaries played key roles in increasing research, extension, NGO, and farmer group capacity. The studies showed that, at farm level, increases in maize yield were greater in Nepal than in Mexico. This was because community-based multiplication of maize seed helped spread the benefi ts into neighboring districts in Nepal, whereas the same thing did not happen in Mexico.This study provides lessons on assessing impact through a livelihood lens, to capture the impacts of International Public Goods produced by CGIAR centers and partners more broadly. This paper assesses the impact of projects in Oaxaca, One general lesson learned for assessing impacts of research projects is that livelihood impacts and changes can be measured more accurately 5-10 years aft er the project has been completed rather than immediately aft er project completion. The earlier monitoring studies in Oaxaca (Smale et al. 1999;2003) were done only a few years aft er the Oaxaca Project ended. At that time, farmers still had most of the maize varieties selected during the project and the capacity-building was still fresh in their minds. So, the fi ndings of these earlier studies oft en diff er from the fi ndings of the 2006 impact study, conducted eight years aft er the project ended. By 2006, farmers had lost most of the CIMMYT maize selections (oft en because of drought) and the eff ects of capacity-building had dissipated to some extent. This suggests that, by assessing impacts too early, there is a risk that impacts will be overestimated. However, there is also the risk of underestimating impacts because the eff ects of actions that materialize aft er more time has passed will not be captured. For example, the impact of silos, facilitated by the Oaxaca Project, was found to be much larger in 2006 than in the late 1990s because the silo technology spread well from farmer-to-farmer aft er the 1990s. Another implication is that if research projects are to have broader and sustained development impacts the project duration should be adequate to ensure this. For example, while drought in the early 2000s explains to some extent the loss of some of the maize varieties promoted by the Oaxaca Project, had the project maintained a fi eld presence, through partners or the private sector, interested farmers could have still obtained project promoted maize varieties and sustained the impact from adopting maize selections.Geographic information system (GIS) tools, for spatial analysis and the extraction of secondary data relating to the biophysical environment of the study area, were used to collect georeferenced fi eld data during the Oaxaca study. There were several objectives associated with this component of the project. They included the application of new techniques for fi eld data collection, a characterization of the broader environment in which the study was undertaken, and an exploratory analysis of temporal changes in climate. GIS tools were used to determine the characteristics of maize plots in terms of their physical properties (area, slope, soils, and rainfall) and derived factors, such as market access. The analysis permitt ed the classifi cation of individual maize plots into broad categories as proxies for land quality for comparison with other socioeconomic and welfare indicators. In addition, spatial distribution patt erns of an adopted technology -small-scale grain storage silos-were investigated using geo-spatial statistical approaches. The exploratory analysis was undertaken to determine the temporal variation in climatic factors within the study area using a range of available data sources.All climatic variables were obtained from interpolated, long-term, normal monthly climate surfaces developed by Corbett and O'Brien (1997) using ANUSPLIN (Hutchinson, 1997). Daily meteorological station data, used as inputs for surface generation, spanned the period from 1960 to 1991. The proxy for the maize-growing season in rainfed conditions was a fi ve-month optimum climate model, which represented the fi ve consecutive months with the highest precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (P/PE) ratios (that is, with greatest water availability). All climatic variables extracted at the plot level relate to this fi ve-month optimum season.Market access (travel time) surfaces were generated using the accessibility analyst extension for Arc View 3 (ESRI) developed by Farrow and Nelson (2001). This method creates friction surfaces based on assigned velocities to diff erent road classes and land use types, applies a weighting factor based on slope, and uses a cost-distance algorithm to calculate least-cost travel time to specifi c locations (markets). In this study actual market locations identifi ed by farmers were used for travel time calculations. The travel speed assigned to diff erent road classes and the weighting factors for slope categories were representative of Mexican conditions (Dempewolf et al. 2001 unpublished). A 4 km/h walking speed was assumed for all areas outside the road network. Road network data used in this study were from INEGI (1995) at a scale of 1:50,000.Using selected biophysical variables from the data described above, individual maize parcels were classifi ed into three land types, 'poor,' 'regular,' and 'good.' The criteria and ranges used for 'poor' and 'good' classifi cations are shown in Table 12. Parcels having most of the factors of a particular class were assigned to that class; all others were designated as 'regular.'Geo-spatial statistics were used to determine any signifi cant distribution patt erns in the locations where farmers owned small-scale grain storage silos. All farmer residential locations (with or without silos) associated with the project were included in the analysis, and tests for spatial auto-correlation were undertaken using Moran's I statistic. Hot-spot analysis was carried out using the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic for local spatial autocorrelation. All tests were implemented with the spatial statistics component of ArcGIS TM (ESRI).In order to explore any indications of trends in the short-term, local climate data were compiled from diff erent sources. Daily precipitation data were obtained from three meteorological stations located in the central valleys of Oaxaca (Oaxaca de Juarez, Aeropuerto, and Santa Ana Tlapacoyan).Stations were chosen based on the reliability of their data (no missing data in August being a key criterion) that extended over a reasonable period (at least 20 years) and were located close to the study communities.  (NASA, 2006). Data for the study were extracted from the TRMM data archives for the period 1998 to 2006, using daily TRMM (3B42 V6 derived) data products. Daily TRMM precipitation data, averaged over the geographic area of the project sites, were used in the study. Given the critical importance of the August precipitation on maize yields in Oaxaca (Dilley, 1997), the total August precipitation by year was calculated for all datasets of precipitation regardless of their source. We also explored indicators of the likely planting date and the year-to-year variations. To develop a potential indicator, standard criteria were applied to TRMM data in the following way. A hypothetical planting date was assumed once daily precipitation estimates were greater than or equal to 3 mm on six out of seven consecutive days. It was also assumed that planting would not occur before 15 May in any year and that the actual planting would occur on the sixth rainfall day. The fi nal aspect concerned the year-to-year variation in moisture patt erns associated with critical maize development stages, such as fl owering. A rough approximation of the fl owering period was determined by adding 60 days to the assumed 'planting' date and then adding/subtracting 10 days on either side of this 'fl owering' date. Within this 20-day period, the total precipitation, the number of consecutive days with no signifi cant rainfall (daily precipitation less than or equal to 3 mm), and the absolute number of 'rain days' were calculated. No soil parameters-for example water holding capacity-were included in the study.A total of 149 individual maize plots were identifi ed, mapped, and classifi ed in the three communities included in the project. It was found that using high resolution Google Earth TM images facilitated the process of identifying and mapping plots. The communities diff er in terms of their accessibility to market: San Pablo Huitzo is the most accessible and San Lorenzo the least accessible (Figure 5). A summary of the individual maize plot classifi cations (using the criteria given in Table 12) by community is given in Table 13 and Table 14.Using the quality assessment of a farmer's principal maize plot as the criteria, 79% of the farmers who had 'good' principal maize plots were located in San Pablo Huitzo (land quality rank 1), 53% of the farmers who had 'regular' principal maize plots were in San Lorenzo (land quality rank 2), and 50% of farmers who had 'poor' principal maize plots were in Santa Ana (land quality rank 3). These data indicate the diff erences between the quality of the land and the natural resource base in the three communities. Given these data, we searched for any associations between land indicators and economic status. Indications of economic status for the study communities were obtained from two diff erent sources. An independent study into the geo-spatial dimensions of rural poverty in Mexico (Bellon et al. 2005b)   Pre (mm) Santa Ana Tlapacoyan Aeropuerto Oaxaca de Juarez 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 9 1 9 8 3 1 9 9 0 1 9 8 4 1 9 9 1 1 9 8 5 1 9 9 2 1 9 8 6 1 9 9 3 1 9 8 7 1 9 9 4 1 9 8 8 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 recorded in Oaxaca. Very localized showers or thunderstorms, typical of the region, may account for these diff erences. Even the two stations in the city of Oaxaca recorded within-year diff erences in August precipitation. It is assumed these were real diff erences rather than data errors. To deal with this variation, average August precipitation values were used wherever possible. The Dilley (1997) criterion, that an August precipitation of less than or equal to 60 mm is the main negative factor on the rainfed maize yield in Oaxaca, was taken as a proxy for a 'poor' maize year. Table 16 has assumed a number of 'poor' maize years by decade based on available meteorological data 6 .TRMM data for the period 1998 to 2006 allowed comparisons to be made with meteorological station data. The direct comparison of total August precipitation data from meteorological stations and TRMM revealed some diff erences. Not surprisingly, TRMM data were not entirely in line with the meteorological station data. Some datasets showed signifi cant diff erences for the same year, for example 1998 and 2005. Given the diff erent methods of estimating precipitation, and the diverse geographic areas, the diff erences between the datasets were expected.More valuable was the standardized nature of the TRMM dataset-e.g. standard geographic units, consistent methodology, no missing data daysand the opportunities for trend analysis within the dataset. Using the criteria described in the Materials and Methods section, the likely plantingdates were calculated based on precipitation patt erns. Using the likely planting date as a reference point, a critical 20-day moisture stress period, corresponding approximately to maize fl owering and based on the known maturity of the germplasm in Oaxaca, was determined and the number of consecutive dry and rain days calculated. The data are summarized in Table 17.The calculated planting dates varied considerably over the nine-year period, being spread over a four-to fi ve-week period. The earliest calculated planting date was 23 May and the latest was 25 June; the median planting date was 10 June. These dates were in line with expert opinion on the actual spread of planting dates in the area. There appeared to be no consistent trend of increasing earliness or lateness based on the calculated likely planting dates. Figure 8 shows data on the longest dry spells and the number of rain days for the critical 20-day 'fl owering' period. Linear trend lines fi tt ed to the data indicate that dry spells tend to be longer and, conversely, that the number of rain days is decreasing. Trends for August and 'fl owering' precipitation are shown in Figure 9. The TRMM   data appear to show a trend for precipitation to decrease over time in both cases. A similar trend was observed for the precipitation in the growing season (i.e. total rainfall from calculated planting date to end of October) estimated from TRMM data (data not shown). However, it must be noted that a similar, consistent trend of decreasing August precipitation was not apparent when averaged meteorological station data were used instead of TRMM data.The confl icting nature of the climatic indicators in this study indicates that more rigorous research would be needed to determine whether or not farmers' perceptions of a worsening climate have any scientifi c basis. On the one hand, some indicators seem to support the notion of a worsening climate as perceived by farmers in the focal group discussions (FGDs). But, on the other hand, other indicators, for example the decreasing frequency of 'poor' maize years per decade, contradict perceptions expressed in the FGDs. Several factors might account for this. For example group perceptions are notoriously biased toward recent, short-term events. In addition, group participants tend to frame their responses to questions to correspond with the perceived 'interest of the interviewer,' or with views expressed by the popular media. These factors potentially bias the results. On the other hand, despite this potential bias and subjectivity, farmers' perceptions are very valuable and oft en have a sound basis.","tokenCount":"8321"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"20d2e2f5ee9f0df7646eac7ef490b906","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd421f07-1887-4fc1-8ba4-c7bf24cfd7f5/retrieve","id":"620205003"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e7a523cd-1051-4195-9d0c-537613fca9a1","pagecount":"16","content":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agropastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system Maziwa Zaidi acknowledges financial support from the Government of Ireland through the ILRI-led 'more milk in Tanzania' project1 Background Maziwa Zaidi implementing partners led by the International Research Institute (ILRI) and the Agricultural Non State Actors Forum (ANSAF), held a policy forum from 23-24 April 2017 at the White Sands Hotel in Dar es Salaam. The forum examined inclusive investment opportunities in Tanzania's dairy value chains and ways to exploit evidence accumulated in the past five years.The key objectives were to: Showcase institutional and technological innovations that can be taken to scale, now;  Catalyse inclusive public and private co-investment in priority high social and economic return innovations;  Formulate policy initiatives and interventions necessary to sustain large-scale dairy sector innovations; and  Motivate deeper engagement in the Maziwa Zaidi program to strengthen its future contributions to evidence-based dairy development.The forum attracted diverse participation across public, private and civil society representatives from the dairy sector (See appendix 3).Speaking on behalf of the Irish Embassy in Tanzania, Niall Morris, Deputy Head of Development Cooperation at Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Ireland -Embassy of Ireland, Tanzania said that the embassy was pleased to have been able to fund the MoreMilkiT project, some of whose findings were presented at the Annual Conference of Agricultural Economics Society in Dublin earlier this year. He emphasized the importance of research being taken up and the value of an event such as this that focused on taking the evidence into practice.The In this exercise where the research partners showcased their results and the potential for them to be taken up at wider scale, participants took on the perspectives of different stakeholders as milk traders and processors, public policy makers, public/private investors, private sector input providers, development workers and producer organisations. They were asked to question and critique the poster presenters using these specific roles to identify, and refine, suitable investment opportunities. The table below captures some of their insights. TAMPA and TAMPRODA should speak with one voice  Need for public investment in improving regulations  Public private partnerships are required to establish quality standards for milk that will create a level playing field  Processors should engage more with female farmers  Encourage investment in Ololilis (dry-season feeding mechanisms)  The focus on investments in Napier grass, feed quality and safety were good, but there needs to be more emphasis on water/seasonality  Hubs are useful but risky. Investment in hubs raises questions on their management and how to keep them going. Bundling of services appears to require more investments. Betters if the trader is also the input service provider. How to increase capacity utilization of chilling plants?  Liked solar/chilling tank because there is a gap that it can fill  High costs and taxes seems to be a major concern At the end of the day, the workshop conveners shared some observations and take home messages:1. Vibrant participation in the forum is evidence of the strong Maziwa Zaidi partnerships created over the last 5 years and also potential for new ones 2. There was a lot of interest from the authors to work on the posters, but more so, there has been a lot of interest from the audience in general to study the information on the posters. This further highlights the good partnership we have had in this R4D program and the increasing appreciation for the need for evidence in this kind of work. 3. Feedback from the groups is consistent with the evidence generated and our own hypotheses about what needs to be done to drive the industry forward. 4. Regarding low capacity utilization in milk processing -supporting the growth of productivity in the informal value chain could help increase processing capacity utilization. 5. Need for a database and more communication Key points from the poster sessions were:1. Posters on Feeds and Forages: Posters were liked with seed systems supplying improved germplasm being identified as the main constraint that should be addressed through public private partnerships (PPPs). Need to overcome cultural barriers to encourage further adoption. 2. Posters on Market Linkages: Hubs is a good idea but need to invest in overcoming risks 3. Genetics, farm efficiency and sustainability: Solar cooling stood out as a good idea but there is need to look at other alternatives like biogas 4. Posters on Multi-stakeholder Processes (MSPs): These was liked for offering opportunities for stakeholders to speak with one voice 5. Posters on Policy: Investing in PPPs can address the identified constraints. Government should invest in growth of private businesses by for example, reducing multiple regulatory barriers 6. Posters on Inclusive Dairy Development: There is need to encourage better connections for female farmers given cultural barriers.Key points across the scenario discussions were:Across the three scenarios discussed by the groups, catalyzing businesses in feeds supply was identified as an important investment area by public investors. For example, through fodder conservation centers, land use planning/addressing land tenure problems, intensifying feed production, training in dairying as a business, pasture management, and investing in water supply (e.g., through dams). This confirms the validity of scarcity of feeds and strong effects of seasonality that was identified through value chain assessments as the most important constraint at the start of Maziwa Zaidi in 2012.This exercise asked groups to start from an assigned scenario, to identify their investment target, and to prioritize the best-fit interventions ","tokenCount":"1066"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"adebb383fae5ad50f25228c0f5cfb3fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87acfdea-fefd-429b-a9e1-1cbf132287bb/retrieve","id":"615948839"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a2676c01-850b-47c6-9f1b-23886a0c9d7e","pagecount":"4","content":"Hassan Mruttu, Conrad Ndomba, Getachew Gebru and James Stapleton Tanzania is endowed with an abundance of natural resources-land, water, forage and a large livestock resource base. Despite the large livestock population-the third largest in Africa-the contribution of the sector to gross domestic product is fairly poor at 7.4%. While indigenous livestock in Tanzania-comprising 98% of the total-are well adapted to the local environment, e.g. resistant to disease, productivity is low. The annual growth rate of the sector is low, with rates declining from 3.5 to 2.4% between 2010 and 2015, far below the 9% projected in the 2010 National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty; this is largely due to low growth, high mortality, low reproductive rates and poor product quality.High population growth and rising living standards are putting pressure on Tanzania's livestock owners to increase the productivity of their animals. Quick-win geneticbased technologies-including artificial insemination with oestrous synchronization and community-based schemes to improve indigenous breeds-can significantly contribute to the transformation of the value chains for cattle, dairy, small ruminants, pork and poultry. Modest improvements in these production coefficients and value addition through processing, could significantly increase output and income from the livestock sector.Analyses by experts who developed Tanzania's livestock master plan (LMP) argue that genetic improvements could help increase Tanzania's production of dairy milk, poultry meat and eggs, pork and red meat by 77%, 666% and 40%, 69% and 50%, respectively by 2022. National livestock genetic improvement programs could, thus, significantly help reduce poverty by helping millions of family farmers upgrade their traditional subsistence livestock production systems to market-oriented, profit-making, enterprises that directly improve livelihoods and reduce food insecurity. Transformation of the livestock sector would also benefit Tanzania's growing urban consumers by offering them more, and more affordable, meat, milk and eggs.Crossbreeding initiatives could increase the number of crossbred cattle and improved pork by 337% and 45% in family systems and by 163% and 180% in specialized systems respectively, with milk production by crossbreds increasing tenfold and parturition rates by 50% compared to local breeds. The number of improved and crossbred birds would increase by almost 75%, and crossbred chickens raised in specialized production systems would increase their egg and meat production three-and thirteen-fold respectively, with significant decreases in mortality rates.However, global industrial livestock operations are growing twice as fast as traditional mixed farming systems and six times as fast as traditional grazing systems. In response to growing demand, there has been a strong move to depend on few specialized livestock species and breeds. Such an approach ignores the scope for improving the productivity of locally-adapted breeds which are often more resistant to disease and climate change. In Tanzania, some vulnerable indigenous breeds risk extinction. In this context, there is compelling need to determine the extent of differentiation among livestock breeds at phenotypic and molecular levels.The focus needs to be on the phenotypic characterization, parameter estimates, and documentation of the local policies and interventions. This would lay the ground for the establishment of conservation priorities for indigenous livestock breeds in the country.The critical issues facing genetic improvement of the national herd include the need to maintain/develop appropriate genotypes and streamline breeding efforts. The absence of coordinated breeding and selection programs hinders capacity to meet demand by communities for improved breeds. Resilience to diseases, community preferences and high twining rates in small ruminants, should be the characteristics considered in animal genetic resources (AnGR) programs focusing on breeding and conservation.The coordination of AnGR in Tanzania should prioritize the establishment of reliable and sustainable germplasm delivery systems and encourage the private sector, including farmers, to actively engage in genetic improvement system. The important species and their respective breeds-as per the Tanzania livestock master plan-are cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. The main focus of sheep and goat breeding is to improve growth rate thus mature weight, prolificacy, survival rate for meat animals and milk yield for dairy goats. Indigenous goats form the foundation stock to improve survival rates and some local strains are known for special traits like twinning. Exotic breeds that can be used for crossbreeding There is a need to ensure that the choice of breeds meet the requirements of the livestock production typologies and the preferences of communities. In order to make best use of the country's AnGRs, the authorities will need to:• formulate and implement the animal breeding act, and associated regulations, to facilitate the establishment of institutions to coordinate the AnGR activities;• undertake the characterization of the environment and animal genetic resources in the country to determine the phenotypic and genotypic diversity, and uniqueness in such breed-types, helping match breed types to appropriate production environments;• develop and implement a sustainable system of animal genetic resource management to enhance breeding, selection and conservation programs. This will include the development of methods for open nucleus breeding schemes and renovation of public livestock farms and artificial insemination centres;• establish data recording system for on-station and on-farm breed evaluation programs for both locally adapted and exotic breeds and their crosses;• facilitate the delivery of capacity development support to stakeholders in terms of training and the strengthening of the animal breeding infrastructure, such as artificial insemination and multiple ovulation and embryo transfer laboratories; and• facilitate the organization of breeding societies and breeders associations in all production system typologies to help them choose the appropriate type of breeding programs-crossbreeding or withinbreed breeding, selection criteria, etc.-best suited to meet their needs.The main constraints facing poultry breeding are the lack of information on breeding programs used by commercial breeders, and a successfully tested on-farm local poultry breed. The proposed strategies to support the development of a poultry breeding program include the:• establishment of a breeding committee to make decisions on the breeds and strains of chicken to be used for commercial poultry production;• development of locally adapted poultry breeds/ strains either through breeding or testing, as well as the approval of breeds developed elsewhere; and• undertaking of the characterization and selection within the indigenous chicken breeds and the establishment of desirable traits to be improved and conserved.The control of potential inbreeding within the current herd, the introduction of improved breeds, and the upgrading and introduction of modern technologies should be main areas of focus for pig breeding programs. Decisions on which pig breeds to be selected should be taken in accordance with the needs of pig associations and market demand. As such, the importation and multiplication of desired breeds should be undertaken by private sector organizations and coordinated by the government through the ministry responsible for livestock. Producers should obtain breeding stock from farms with a track record for good herd performance.  ILRI thanks all donors that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system","tokenCount":"1114"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82ddbd3ccd23d6f2428751a118768b36","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/828efb3f-41fb-4dd6-8839-362775a7da2e/retrieve","id":"-2056818022"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5d321762-6b2e-4eb2-8ea2-54fa81cff2d4","pagecount":"18","content":"The Excellence in Agronomy Initiative (EiA) seeks to be a catalyst in achievement of agronomic gain by millions of women, men and young smallholder farmers in the global south, through the delivery of data-driven agronomy solutions at scale while also achieving a positive impact on the CGIAR's impact targets of Nutrition, health and food security; Poverty Reduction, Livelihood and Jobs; Gender equality, youth and social inclusion; Climate adaptation and mitigation; and Environmental Health and Biodiversity. The programme will focus on key performance indicators of Yield, Yield Quality and Profitability; Yield Stability and Reduced Risk; Resource Use efficiency (nutrients, water, and labor), and Soil Health.EiA follows the innovation logic wherein we move from an idea, to developing a concept, testing or experimenting with the concept, running pilots, which if successful lead to scaling activities. The initiative will therefore tap into existing innovations and expertise within the CGAIR and other innovation systems, match them with proven demand from demand partners from the private, public and NGO sector to develop Use Cases.The process below provides guidance on how EiA will enrol new Use Cases, beyond the cohort of Use Cases developed within the Incubation Phase of EiA.The Use Case Enrolment Process is driven by the EiA team, in collaboration with regional teams from participating CG centres. As outlined below, the process starts with initial engagement with potential demand partners to establish the existence of a collaboration opportunity to deliver agronomy at scale using EiA developed tools.The engagement with partners is based on primarily understanding the specific demand partners' area of service provision, and the value add that tools curated by the EiA programme can add. The engagement process must identify specific minimum viable products (MVPs) that the EiA programme can co create with scaling partners, that can solve a significant need within the demand partners processes while ensuring that there is real and meaningful agronomic gain by the target beneficiaries (small holder farmers) The identification of opportunities for the EiA Initiative Use Cases is driven by Regional Teams at a local level, and the EiA Chief Growth Officer at a global level. Additional considerations will relate to the potential of the MVP to scale, thereby maximizing impact. Potential demand categories are presented in Table 1. Help smallholder farmers improve their yields, boost incomes, and mitigate downside risks (e.g., climate, pests) by supporting the delivery of high quality and low-cost information, advice, and decision support tools to smallholder farmers and to those who directly interface with them (e.g., private/public extension agents) informed by geospatial agronomy insights and tailored to the context of the specific farmer, farm, and field Agriintelligence for policy and plan ning Support the development and dissemination of geospatial agricultural intelligence tools that can empower faster, cheaper, and more factually grounded agrisector surveillance and macro policy and resource allocation decisions of national and regional stakeholders including gov't policymakers, NSOs, researchers, development practitioners, donors, and investors with the ultimate goal of supporting successful agricultural sector transformation Agriintelligence for agribusiness Support the development and dissemination of geospatial agronomic and agroeconomic decision support tools for agribusiness players active in smallholder value chains to empower faster and better decisions on market-entry and market expansion, market sizing, farmer segmentation/targeting, commercial project planning/target-setting, and investment analysis (e.g., ROI estimates) to drive ag transformation Agri R&D and product development Facilitate the development and dissemination of field data capture, agronomic diagnostics, and decision support tools to reduce the costs of product innovation, shorten R&D-through-market entry timing cycles, and aid decisionmaking for the design and development of locally relevant, high quality, and economically viable agri inputs (e.g., seeds, fertilizer/ pesticide, mechanization equipment) in order to maximize SHF yields and incomes Financial risk mitigation Help integrate low-cost and high quality geospatial agronomic intelligence into the work of SHF-focused financial institutions (e.g., traditional banks, MFIs, SACCOs, insurance companies) and specialized financial risk intermediaries (e.g., credit risk and insurance risk analytics fintechs) in order to help such organizations further mitigate financial product risks, thereby increasing access to essential financial products for SHFsIn the event that there is indicative alignment between the EiA programme and the potential demand partner, a formal process will commence with Due Diligence, leading up to a formal engagement to develop a Use Case.The Due Diligence process (see the guidance document) is essential in determining, in a structured manner, if the potential demand partner brings in an appropriate set of capabilities that match the objectives of the EiA programme. The Due Diligence process will systematically review the Demand Partner's demand for EiA Agronomy Tools, their Dissemination Capacity and the potential long-term sustainability of the solution.The Due Diligence process is driven by the Chief Growth Officer, with support from the Regional Team Leads, and the potential Demand Partners themselves. A decision to proceed with the potential demand partner is arrived at by consensus within the Core Team of the EiA Initiative. In the event that the Core Team approves the Due Diligence, the next phase would be to develop the Use Case using the Use Case Template.A demand partner that is approved by the Core Team is then supported to describe the proposed Use Case using a structured template. The Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) Initiative aims at developing and delivering agronomy at scale solutions based on demand from scaling partners. Such demand is then formulated and operationalized around Use Cases. This term is derived from software/systems engineering and in the context of EiA, a Use Case has the following components and characteristics:• An active scaling partner (public or private) with and active scaling network, reaching many tens of thousands of smallholder farming households.A defined zone of influence, defined in geographical, agricultural value chains, and farming systems terms The Use Case template is completed by the Chief Growth Officer, the relevant Regional Team Lead and the Demand Partner. It will provide the next level of information on how the Use Case can proceed. The completed Use Case Memorandum / Template will be evaluated by the Core Team for a decision to proceed to a Term Sheet that outlines the terms of engagement for the Use Case. At Use Case memorandum stage, feedback can be provided for additional refinement of Use Case or alternatively to terminate the development process if there are fatal flaws in the Use Case logic. However, if the Use Case is approved, a Term Sheet is prepared to provide guidance on actual collaboration activities.The Term Sheet is the document that spells out the key elements of the partnership and the responsibilities of each party. This is based on the generic workflow that has been developed for Use Cases (Figure 2). The Term Sheet document is populated by the Chief Growth Officer and once finalised the parties can sign a formal collaboration agreement based on the terms outlined within the Term Sheet.The final stage of the Use Case on boarding / enrolment process is the resultant Collaboration Agreement that will have the Term Sheet, Theory of Change, Budget, Workplans and Results Chain which will make up the monitoring framework of the Use Case.Due diligence tool for scaling partnersTo ensure effectiveness and sustainability of the gains of the EiA initiative, there is a need for an assessment of the potential scaling partner's (organization) capacity before a cocreation process can start. This write-up contains the data collection guidelines of the due diligence tool to access the capacity of organizations. The Core Team of the EiA will conduct the assessment and take a decision to proceed or not to proceed, based on the assessment of the information.The tool centers around three main evaluation topics seen below which each comprise three criteria with indicators having four indicator levels that describe certain levels that apply to the scaling partner on a semantic scale with scores from 1 to 4.1. Demand for EiA agronomy solutions 2. Dissemination Network/capacity for EiA agronomy solutions 3. Sustainability for EiA agronomy solutionsThe first level is the lowest score, or a level that would be least desirable, while this progressively improves in the subsequently levels with level four describing the most desirable features or situation for a scaling partners to have-or be in. Currently, each criterium has an equal importance weight i.e. the overall score is calculated in a linear way with 9 (9 times 1) being the lowest and 36 (9 times 4) being the highest score.It will be up to a subsequent scrutiny of the assessors (panel members) to note if for a particular scaling partner, a certain low score is still at an acceptable or unacceptable level i.e. if a higher score in one category -criterium can compensate for a low score in another criterium. In such cases a linearly compensatory decision rule would apply or:• A non-compensatory decision-making strategy eliminates alternatives that do not meet a particular criterion. • A compensatory decision-making strategy weighs the positive and negative attributes of the considered alternatives and allows for positive attributes to compensate for the negative ones.As each indicator describes a certain level of performance -situation (not just a score from 1-4 like low-medium-high-very high), it may happen that a scaling partner is not exactly within a certain level and-or there can be an information gap to exactly pin-point its applicable level, the assessor should in such cases objectively select the level that 'best fits' the level for the scaling partner, whilst can note down certain considerations.Ideally, the assessors are provided with a comprehensive information package for the scaling partner under evaluation which could be the result of a prior web-literature review. See the columns below on 'How to collect indicator information' (e.g. Desk-website research) and 'Evidence' (e.g. Market research reports). Whilst, the assessor is encouraged to access also other sources of information, use possible own experience with the scaling partner and-or inquire about the organization from third parties (Key Informants).Information on for instance websites may also require scrutinization on credibility, realities on ground etc. It is not the idea that the tool is shared with the scaling partner to obtain the information, although inquiries -interviews with persons within the scaling partner organization can be queried where possible -desirable. Sources of information and evidence used as well as possible information gaps should be added to the excel columns.IV. Due diligence criteria for scaling partners in the context of EiA   The organization Is somewhat aware of the weakest links or critical success factors in their business but is constrained in using this information to improve their business • It does not engage in needs assessment on complimentary bundled services.• It integrates some elements of other services in their portfolio but more on a trial and error basis • It has no R&D and MEL system to update its portfolio against emerging new products -services and improve service delivery 3 • The organization Is aware of the weakest links or critical success factors in their business and uses this information to improve their business • It engages in client's in needs assessment on complimentary bundled services • It integrates comprehensive packages of other services accordingly, whilst this has not taken off at scale yet • It has a current or emerging R&D and MEL system to continuously update its portfolio against emerging new products -services and improve service delivery 4 • The organization Is effectively dealing at scale with the weakest links or critical success factors in their business • It engages in client's in needs assessment on complimentary bundled services • It integrates comprehensive packages of other services accordingly and at scale• It maintains an R&D and MEL system to continuously update its portfolio against emerging new products -services and improve service delivery 3. Sustainability for EiA agronomy solutionsReturn on Investment/ revenue generated via donor funding versus commercial revenue streams (financial health of the entity) 1 • The organization has not developed the full cost cycle• The organization has no policy for the affordability and the needs of SHFs when setting rates • The organization (near) fully depends on revenue generated via donor funding (>80%)• It has no understanding on the opportunities for diversifying revenue and raising capital • It is in the process of developing a policy to consider affordability and the needs of SHFs when setting rates • The organization substantially depends on revenue generated via donor funding (50-70%) versus commercial revenue streams • Developing modalities for diversifying revenue and raising capital 3 • It understands the full life cycle cost of the organization but has not developed plans• Considers affordability and the needs of SHFs when setting rates, but low billing and collection rate • The organization somewhat depends on revenue generated via donor funding (20-40%) versus commercial revenue streams • Modalities in place for diversifying revenue and raising capital operational but in an early stage 4 • Understands and plans for full life-cycle cost of the organization• It considers affordability and the needs of SHFs when setting predictable and adequate rates and plans to invest in future needs • The organization is slightly-to not dependent on revenue generated via donor funding (<20%) versus commercial revenue streams • Well established and effective modalities in place for diversifying revenue and raising capitalCustomer / End-user satisfaction 1 • The customer / end-user is not provided with reliable, responsive and affordable services by the organization • Services are seen by the end-users as ad-hoc and unreliable, and regulatory standards are not taken into consideration • Average customer satisfaction score (CSS) <2 (1 is very unsatisfied & 5 is very satisfied)  Step in the generic Use Case Workflow Roles and responsibilities for the demand partner Roles and responsibilities for EiA 1. Agree on core partnership, assembled around the demand partner, including CGIAR, NARS, Extension service providers, D4AG, etc 2. Develop the MVP around the demand, including aspects of user group, target area, farming system, information, format, gender dimensions 3a. Decide on the required data (e.g., plot, remote sensing), to prototype the MVP and check their availability/ access; gather and/or collect new data 3b. Decide on the required tools (e.g., analytics, modelling) to prototype the MVP and check their availability/ access; gather and/or collect new tools 4a. Develop a prototype (V0) of the MVP, while engaging with the user groups to ensure alignment 4b. Obtain commitment from the client/partner to validate the prototype (V0) of the MVP 5a. EiA validates the prototype MVP with the user groups on","tokenCount":"2384"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f9b9e3a2c6bfabdf728c12085b9a35a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a1b2fcf-8259-4ea3-8ca6-7e759ccdc10d/retrieve","id":"-8170607"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"efbfa1f0-58c2-4606-b08d-1cf4f3024636","pagecount":"1","content":"Taenia solium, is a zoonotic helminth causing three diseases; taeniasis (in humans), neurocysticercosis (NCC, in humans) and porcine cysticercosis (PCC, in pigs). Understanding the coinfection status can support the integration of control of the parasites using Oxfendazole which kills both T.solium cysts and some of the GIT parasites in pigs. o There was high likelihood of pigs being infected with both PCC and GI parasite.o The high rate of co-infection presents an opportunity for integrated control using oxfendazole. To determine the Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis (PCC) and gastrointestinal (GI) parasites co-infection status in pigs.o The apparent animal level and household level seroprevalence was 4.8% (95% CI 2.7 -7.1) and 9.7% (95% CI 5.5 -14.4) respectively, differed across the two districts (p = 0.017) but not with sex, age and breed of the animal (p > 0.05).o Prevalence of GIT parasites: strongyles 79.0% (95% CI 74.3-83.6), coccidia 73.3% (95% CI 68.3-78.6), Trichuris spp. 7.4% (95% CI 4.9-10.6), Strongyloides spp. 2.1% (95% CI 0.7-3.5) and Ascaris spp.,4.9% (95% CI 2.8-7.4).o The proportion of co-infection was 57.4%.o At multivariable level, knowledge that pigs get infected by eating dirty feed was a predictor for PCC seropositivity (P = 0.005).","tokenCount":"195"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"188babf67e56fcc1bfd8e15719fd2a04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ebc7d10-58a9-46bc-bd2a-ff67877afe1e/retrieve","id":"-655034769"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"37a14cd3-5ee6-446f-b56c-4c62ab5c42df","pagecount":"4","content":"Despite ongoing structural changes, small-scale processors, grocers, market vendors and food service operators dominate the food systems of most lowand lower middle-income countries.• Unsafe food is widespread in informal food distribution channels, having national public health implications.• Very few countries have coherent strategies for tackling food safety risks in the informal sector.• Most of the policy attention and resources now devoted to domestic food safety in the developing world focuses on strengthening centralized systems for 'food control'.• Doing more of the same things is not going to deliver safer food in the informal sector.This brief is based on the report 'New directions for tackling food safety risks in the informal sector of developing countries' that was commissioned by ILRI and the CGIAR Initiative on One Health. It presents a summary of findings from the synthesis of food safety research done in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) and outlines the way forward for the more effective and sustainable improvement of food safety management in LMICs with a focus on interventions.Despite ongoing structural changes, the food systems of most low-and lower middle-income countries still feature a preponderance of very small-scale processors, grocers, market vendors and food service operators. These players and their informal distribution channels are especially important in the domestic markets for fish, meat, fruits and vegetables; all high-nutrient foods which are also leading vectors of foodborne disease. For a variety of reasons, related to demography, economic geography, poverty, and income and opportunity inequality, food market fragmentation and informality will remain a prominent fixture of developing-country food systems for the foreseeable future.Unsafe food is a widespread issue in informal food distribution channels, having national public health implications. The evidence for this comes from studies in many locations. The high incidence of microbiological, chemical, or other forms of food contamination within these channels stems from a combination of factors, both internal and external to the pertinent food businesses. These include inadequate food safety awareness, poor hygienic and/or food storage and preparation practices, and deficient infrastructure and environmental conditions. In many instances, both the incentives and the capacities to provide safer food are weak. This is a societal and economic problem and not a trivial or transitional issue. We estimate that the traditional/informal food sector accounts for a large majority of the public health burden of foodborne disease in low and lower middleincome countries.Very few countries have coherent strategies for tackling food safety risks in the informal sector. Often, the operative approach involves periodic attempts to disrupt small-scale food operators, in the hope of hastening their business demise and ushering something more consistent with the official vision of a 'modern' food system and 'orderly' cities. This exclusion model does not make food safer, and it harms the ability of many consumers to access and afford nutritional and convenient foods. It also erodes the livelihood of poor informal business operators. Many low-and lower middle-income countries (and development assistance projects therein) have targeted informal players with food safety awareness-raising and low-cost technology uptake interventions. These have tended to bring short-term benefits but have generally not been scalable nor brought sustainable results when not paired with other interventions impacting infrastructure and/or the prevailing incentives facing food operators.Most of the policy attention and resources now devoted to domestic food safety in the developing world focuses on strengthening centralized systems for 'food control'. This has involved passage of a modern food law, and investments in testing laboratories, food company inspection units, and national agency capacities for food hazard and foodborne disease surveillance. Resource limitations have led incipient food safety agencies to focus on oversight and other interactions with medium and larger food enterprises and the 'modern' dimensions of food retail and food service. Many national food safety agencies have little or no contact with informal food operators and businesses. This is unlikely to change anytime soon. And, there do not appear to be appreciable spillovers to the domestic informal sector from investments in enhanced food safety management in export-oriented value chains.Doing more of the same things is not going to deliver safer food in the informal sector. A very different approach needs to be operationalized and tested. This would involve adjustments in institutional mandates, the locus and thematic clustering of interventions, and the approach towards regulatory delivery vis-à-vis this sector. In this modified approach, emphasis would be placed on:• Local action, centrally guided. The bulk of interventions, both regulatory and facilitative, need to come at the municipal level and the drive for safer food in the informal sector should be embedded in strategies for healthy, sustainable, and resilient cities. National agencies would still have important roles, mobilizing resources and providing guidelines and technical backstopping. At the local level, multistakeholder (i.e. consumer, community, business association, and government) platforms should be further nurtured and utilized. In many instances, effective action by municipal governments will require a mindset change which recognizes the important role played by the informal sector not only in terms of livelihoods but also in urban food and nutritional security.• Multisectoral action. Stand-alone food safety interventions may not be the best option. Rather, improving the safety of food in the informal sector can be better achieved and better resourced when bundled with interventions to improve nutrition, increase access to potable water/improved sanitation, improve environmental management, upgrade urban infrastructure, and/or others. This also implies the need firmly to mainstream food safety into urban planning and into approaches to deliver improved municipal services.• Rebalancing the use of sticks and carrots. Strict enforcement of regulatory provisions is unlikely to be effective vis-à-vis most informal sector food operators. Rather, gradual, and continuous enhancements in practices and/or facilities should be sought. Where feasible, greater effort should go into engaging and enabling the informal market operators to strengthen both their incentives and capacities to carry out their businesses in ways which result in safer food. It would be beneficial for cities (or local branches of ministries) to employ as many food hygiene/food business advisors as they do (regulatory) inspectors.• Differentiating local strategies and priorities. This is not a field where 'one size fits all'. The risk profile for different types of informal food operators varies as does the likely scope for interventions targeting them. And the settings for actions vary a lot, not only between low-, lower middle-and upper middleincome countries, but also within individual countries.Operationalizing this decentralized and multisectoral approach will need to be tailored, pragmatically, to prevailing circumstances in terms of specific coalitions for action and how interventions are sequenced or integrated with one another. This is common practice in the evolving field of urban food policy and governance, yet there are fewer applications of this for food safety.Elements of this approach are already being applied in some situations and their implementation should be closely monitored, and emerging lessons shared. For example, a variant of this approach is currently being implemented through the Eat Right India program and complementary initiatives where efforts are pursuing a combination of healthy eating, safer food, and environmental sustainability goals through state-and municipal-level interventions, guided by a central government agency. The societal roles of informal food distribution channels are formally recognized in this program and a variety of approaches are being used to engage informal food business operators, individually, in clustered locations and through representative associations.","tokenCount":"1208"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87a2c7350cb7c5cd9c43863cde546b38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/05482a07-1a22-416b-9510-77e07f80f38e/retrieve","id":"-581187914"},"keywords":["climate services","multi-model ensemble","North American multi-model ensemble project","seasonal forecasting"],"sieverID":"aee1054f-c30a-4799-a5e9-d479b8d816ca","pagecount":"14","content":"Bangladesh summer monsoon rainfall (BSMR), typically from June through September (JJAS), represents the main source of water for multiple sectors. However, its high spatial and interannual variability makes the seasonal prediction of BSMR crucial for building resilience to natural disasters and for food security in a climate-risk-prone country. This study describes the development and implementation of an objective system for the seasonal forecasting of BSMR, recently adopted by the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). The approach is based on the use of a calibrated multi-model ensemble (CMME) of seven state-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs) from the North American Multi-Model Ensemble project. The lead-1 (initial conditions of May for forecasting JJAS total rainfall) hindcasts (spanning 1982-2010) and forecasts (spanning 2011-2018) of seasonal total rainfall for the JJAS season from these seven GCMs were used. A canonical correlation analysis (CCA) regression is used to calibrate the raw GCMs outputs against observations, which are then combined with equal weight to generate final CMME predictions. Results show, compared to individual calibrated GCMs and uncalibrated MME, that the CCAbased calibration generates significant improvements over individual raw GCM in terms of the magnitude of systematic errors, Spearman's correlation coefficients, and generalised discrimination scores over most of Bangladesh areas, especially in the northern part of the country. Since October 2019, the BMD has been issuing real-time seasonal rainfall forecasts using this new forecast system.Located in sub-tropical South Asia, Bangladesh is one of the world's most densely populated countries. Bangladesh is characterised by a tropical monsoon-type climate, with a warm and rainy summer, and a pronounced dry season in winter, features that make it highly vulnerable to the effects of interannual climate variability (Rahman & Lateh, 2015) and change (Huq, 2001). The country experiences an unimodal rainfall distribution, with most of the rainfall typically concentrated from June through September (JJAS). During this period, Bangladesh receives about 70% of the total annual rainfall, with coefficient of variability that has been quantified around 12% (Ahasan et al., 2010). The pattern of the Bangladesh's summer monsoon rainfall (BSMR) is highly variable spatially, exhibiting a general west-east climatological gradient in annual rainfall ranging from 1500 to 4400 mm (Montes, Acharya, Hassan, & Krupnik, 2021;Nashwan et al., 2019). This pattern of variability strongly shapes human livelihoods, especially in agriculture, which is a mainstay of the country's economy. For instance, crop management decisions and production losses often occur in Bangladesh as a consequence of early or later arrival of rains, along with excess or deficient monsoon rainfall amounts (Nahar et al., 2018). Consequently, reliable BSMR forecasting at actionable time scales could potentially play a significant role in the planning and management of agriculture and other activities such as flood management, urban planning, water-resource management and optimal operation of irrigation systems (Hansen et al., 2006;Montes, Acharya, Stiller-Reeve, Kelley, & Hassan, 2021).Seasonal climate-prediction efforts in Bangladesh have been based mostly on statistical and empirical forecasting methods using Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models for rainfall and temperature prediction (Bari et al., 2015;Mahmud et al., 2017;Mohsin et al., 2012;Rahman & Lateh, 2015) or regression models of the teleconnections between rainfall and various predictors such as sea-surface temperature (SST; Hossain et al., 2019;Mannan et al., 2015;Rahman et al., 2013a). ARIMA models have been used to predict rainfall with lead times of up to 12 months (Mahmud et al., 2017), but the lack of statistical significance of year-to-year autocorrelation can lead to limited forecasting skills (Dahale & Singh, 1993). A more widely-used approach has been the use of empirical relationships between observed BSMR and predictors such as sea-surface temperature, surface air temperature and pressure gradients (Hossain et al., 2019;Rahman et al., 2013b). For instance, the prediction of the monthly and seasonal frequency of rainy days and heavy rainfall events have been attempted using SST as a predictor (Mannan et al., 2015), and skill is higher than for the monsoon seasonal total amount, consistent with results from other parts of the world (Robertson et al., 2009). Nevertheless, the relatively weak teleconnection between sources of seasonal predictability such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and seasonal climate in Bangladesh strongly limits the skill of these rainfall forecasts compared to other parts of the globe (Ahmed et al., 2017;Cash et al., 2017;Hossain et al., 2019). Due to the complexity of the diverse climate interactions in the vicinity of Bangladesh, non-linear and data-driven forecasting methods, such as artificial neural networks, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) and genetic algorithms, may have some advantages over linear methods (Banik et al., 2009) if sufficiently long time-series are available.State-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs) that represent atmospheric processes provide an alternative non-linear physically-based approach to statistical modelling (Kang et al., 2004;Kang and Shukla, 2005). This approach may produce more accurate and reliable climate predictions compared to statistical models based on empirical relationships (mostly linear) from observational data (Barnston & Tippett, 2017). However, predictions from GCMs often require correction due to their inherent systematic biases (Acharya et al., 2013;Tippett et al., 2007;Wilks, 2002). Calibration methods can be used to modify the amplitudes of large-scale patterns, and also to refine the details of anomaly patterns for local downscaling (Acharya et al., 2021;Barnston & Tippett, 2017;Doblas-Reyes et al., 2005;Tippett et al., 2008;Wilks, 2017). In this sense, multiple efforts have been carried out in order to quantify the improvements in skill from GCMs after calibration over different regions worldwide. However, in Bangladesh, these efforts have focused on single-location approaches but not at the country level (e.g., Montes et al., 2022).Officially, the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) is responsible for providing operational seasonal and monthly monsoon climate predictions to climate information users. BMD has used a subjective consensus approach based on meteorologists' experience to generate products using all available Global Producing Center's forecasts and other available information. This subjectivelybased forecasting approach, however, has been found to be a poor fit for many decision makers interested in more reliable and objective forecasts. There is an increasing demand for high-resolution seasonal forecasts over Bangladesh at sufficient lead times to allow response planning from users in agriculture, hydrology, disaster management, energy, health, and other sectors. This demand has prompted the research for the development of an objective seasonal forecast system following the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) recently published seasonal-forecast guidance (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2020). The guidance advocates the use of an objective seasonal forecast procedure, defined as a traceable, reproducible, and welldocumented set of steps that allows the quantification of forecast quality. The WMO has started to promote the adoption of such objective-based forecasting methods at Regional Climate Outlook Forums (WMO, 2017(WMO, , 2020) ) and by National Meteorological and Hydrological Services. In response, an objective forecasting system was developed for seasonal forecasting for Bangladesh, similar to others recently developed around the world (Acharya, Dinku, et al., 2020;Acharya et al., 2021;IRI, 2020). This advanced forecast system enables calibration, combination, and verification of objective climate forecasts from the state-of-theart GCMs of the North American Multi-Model Ensemble (NMME) project, and positions BMD to generate and deliver targeted climate information products that could be made relevant to the needs of decision-makers. Although multi-model-based methods have been explored for the Indian subcontinent (Acharya, Kar, et al., 2011;Kar et al., 2012;Rajeevan et al., 2012), this is the first time, to our knowledge, that they have been used for Bangladesh at the country level, aligned with BMD needs. As of October 2019, this new forecast system is used in real-time by the BMD (http://live.bmd.gov.bd/p/ThreeMonth283/). Therefore, from an operational perspective, the potential benefits of this new forecasting system need to be assessed in terms of hindcast skill assessment.In this article, we describe the development and performance of an objective forecasting system which is based on calibrated multi-model ensemble (CMME) system in the seasonal prediction of BSMR and compare its performance with uncalibrated GCMs. The paper is organised as follows: in Section 2, we briefly describe the data used in this study, including NMME GCMs and the observational reference; in Section 3, we explain the procedures of the proposed canonical correlation analysis (CCA)-based calibration methods and illustrate how the methods are employed in practice to make CMME-based forecasts. In Section 4, we examine the performance of calibrated individual model outputs compared to that of uncalibrated outputs, along with validation of the CMME system compared; in Section 5, we provide a brief discussion and draw conclusions.Developed by the Columbia University's International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) and BMD, the latest Enhancing National Climate Services for Bangladesh Meteorological Department (ENACTS-BMD) dataset (Acharya, Faniriantsoa, et al., 2020) version is used in this study. The ENACTS-BMD dataset is a highresolution (0.05 × 0.05 ) daily gridded rainfall and temperature dataset constructed by blending data from BMD weather stations, satellite products (for rainfall) and reanalysis data (for temperature). Since February 2020, BMD archives and maintains this dataset. Its record begins in January 1981 and is ongoing (updated every month in real-time) at daily, decadal and monthly temporal resolutions. For constructing gridded rainfall, BMD data from almost entire country's weather stations (54) are merged with rainfall estimates from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation (CHIRP; Funk et al., 2015). Compared with other available gridded precipitation products, ENACTS-BMD performs better in terms of monsoon total rainfall (Montes, Acharya, & Hassan, 2021). In this study, seasonal total rainfall for the period June through September (JJAS) are accumulated from daily data for the years 1982 to 2018. Figure 1 presents the climatology, interannual standard deviation and first empirical orthogonal function which (explains 44% of total variance) of total JJAS rainfall from ENACTS-BMD product during the study period.Hindcasts and forecasts from seven GCMs belonging to the NMME project phase 2 (Kirtman et al., 2014) were used in this study (details of each model can be found in the corresponding reference in Table 1). The NMME project coordinates intra-seasonal to interannual climate predictions from climate-modelling centres in the United States and Environment Canada. The NMME products provide opportunities to characterise and quantify the uncertainty associated with model structure and initial conditions using a large number of contributing models, each consisting of several ensemble members. The lead-1 (initial conditions of May for forecasting JJAS total rainfall) hindcasts (spanning 1982-2010) and forecasts (spanning 2011-2018) of seasonal total rainfall for the JJAS season from these seven GCMs were used. As the statistical post-processing process, especially CCA, required longer training sample, we have combined hindcast (29 years) and forecast runs (8 years; altogether 37 years) from these models, under the assumption that the hindcasts and forecasts are consistent with each other. These models have different number of ensemble members that were averaged to generate an ensemble mean and having a common 1 resolution spatial grid. These NMME monthly hindcast and forecast datasets were obtained from the Columbia University's International Research Institute's data library (http://iridl.ldeo.columbia. edu/SOURCES/.Models/.NMME/).As described in Section 1, we used a calibrated multimodel ensemble (CMME) approach. This approach involves calibrating individual GCMs using canonical correlation analysis (CCA) based regression and assessing their skill against raw GCM outputs. The calibrated GCMs are averaged (equal weighting) to make a final CMME time series. The CMME-based forecast is subsequently compared against observations to assess its performance in relation to the uncalibrated forecasts. The processing chain is summarised in the flow chart presented in Figure 2.CCA is widely used for calibration of forecasts from GCMs, for which the spatio-temporal patterns of GCM rainfall are projected onto the observed patterns (Barnston & Tippett, 2017;Tippett et al., 2007Tippett et al., , 2008)). CCA is basically a multivariate linear regression method allowing the identification of a sequence of pairs of patterns in two multivariate data sets, to then construct a set of transformed variables by projecting the original data onto these patterns. Correlations between the pairs of canonical variates, which are the transformed variables generated from truncated empirical orthogonal functions (EOF) or principal components (PC) of anomalies of predictor and predictand data, are called canonical correlations. Linear regression between predictand-predictor canonical variates is used for the forecast. Finally, the predicted values are recovered by EOF synthesis and reconstructed from the predictand means and standard deviations. More details of CCA method can be found in Wilks (2020).The CCA-based calibration has been carried out separately for ensemble mean of each GCM prior to producing multi-model ensembles. The full procedure consists of the following sequential steps:• At the outset, observed rainfall was transformed to Gaussian by fitting a Gamma distribution. From estimates of the shape and scale parameters, the mean and variance of the corresponding Gaussian distribution are given in closed form. • As pre-orthogonalisation, CCA requires truncation of the EOF or PC expansions of the GCM (the predictor) and on the corresponding observations (the predictand). To avoid overfitting due to small sample size to train CCA, we have pre-selected five PCs for GCM and observation. The total variance explained by 5 PC is 92% for observation and for GCMs it is on average 85% (as there are different GCMs).• In CCA, the predictor domain is usually designed to be larger than the predictand domain, so that relevant features outside of the predictand domain can be used for better model calibration (Barnston & Tippett, 2017). Therefore, the spatial domains for the GCM predictor fields were taken to be 15 N-35 N, 80 E-100 E, and all the ENACTS-BMD grid points within Bangladesh (Figure 3) were considered as our predictand (Figure 3). • The CCA model was trained using a leave-5-out crossvalidation in the 37 years of dataset  in which 5 consecutive years are retained from both the pre-EOF and the CCA training sample from GCM and observation, and the middle year of the 5 is predicted.The years withheld progress from the earliest 5 to the latest 5 in which the first and the last years are also predicted so that each year has a cross-validated prediction. • Finally, the cross-validated series for the predictand variable is generated for 37 years and then validated against the observed rainfall data using skill scores mentioned in the next section.Previous works have shown that the use of multi-model ensemble (MME) approaches improves the forecast skills from individual GCM (Acharya, Kar, et al., 2011;Acharya et al., 2014;Kar et al., 2012;Krishnamurti et al., 2009). In general, an MME can be generated by combining equally weighted ensemble members or weighted according to their prior performance (Acharya, Kar, et al., 2011;Kar et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2019;Weigel et al., 2008;Weigel et al., 2010). Studies shown that performance-based weighting does not bring significant differences compared to the equal weighting to make MME based on calibrated GCMs (Wang et al., 2019;Weigel et al., 2008). In this work, equally weighted calibrated GCMs were used to generate the MME following Acharya et al. (2021).To examine the skill of uncalibrated, calibrated GCM and MME forecasts, two commonly used forecast verification metrics, that is, the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), which corresponds to the average squared difference between the forecast and observation pairs, and the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, which is the Pearson's product-moment correlation on the ranked values for each variable. In Spearman's rank correlation, a monotonic relationship between two variables is an important underlying assumption and is less restrictive than that of a linear relationship, which must be met by Pearson's correlation. We also employed the 'generalised discrimination score', also known as 'two alternative forced-choice score' (2AFC score; Mason & Weigel, 2009). The 2AFC score measures the proportion or probability of a correct decision of all available pairs of observations of a differing category whose forecasts are discriminated in the correct direction. The score ranges between 0% and 100% while any value higher than 50% implies that the forecast is able to discriminate beyond random guessing. These verification measures are used in this study as they are recommended by WMO standardised verification system for long-range forecasts for skill assessment (WMO, 2018).Before assessing the skill of the CMME-based prediction, the performance of each individual GCM was analysed.A Taylor diagram (Taylor, 2001) summarising the country-averaged performance of total JJAS rainfall predicted by each GCM is displayed in Figure 4a. Each of the models does not perform well in terms of correlation with the observations, which varies between −0.3 and close to zero. Observed standard deviations are largely underestimated by the GCMs, which range from around 50 mm to 100 mm, with root mean square differences between 230 and 300 mm. In general, these models performed poorly in reproducing the observed variability in JJAS rainfall over Bangladesh. This performance is in agreement with a recent study by Kelley et al. (2020), where the skill of NMME models were examined in the context of sub-seasonal metrics prediction, and which described low-to-modest skill in predicting seasonal rainfall in Bangladesh. These differences may be related to the model's coarser spatial resolution (1 × 1 grid) compared to higher resolution observed data (0.05 × 0.05 grid). Although largescale anomalies can be predicted at such coarse resolution, details on rainfall heterogeneity over Bangladesh could not be resolved, which suggests that the downscaling of GCM outputs can be highly important. A possible hypothesis for this poor performance by GCMs that has been described as driving bias in GCMs forecasting is the oversensitivity of GCMs to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-rainfall teleconnections (Acharya, Kar, et al., 2011;Pillai et al., 2018;Singh et al., 2019). To investigate this possibility, Pearson's correlation coefficients between areaaveraged seasonal total rainfall over Bangladesh and global sea surface temperature (SST) have been computed for observed and predicted rain and SSTs in each model (Figure 5). In observation, the ENSO-rainfall teleconnection is found to be positive although it is not statistically significant. Rahman et al. (2013b) found the similar positive ENSO-rainfall teleconnection using observations from 1985 to 2008. In contrast, the ENSO-rainfall teleconnections in most of the GCMs indicate a strongly negative relationship, indicating that GCMs are unable to reproduce the observed teleconnections satisfactorily, even of an opposite sign. Although the CCSM4 model showed the similar signal (positively correlated) of teleconnection pattern as observed teleconnection pattern, the magnitude of correlation is highly positive and statistically significant. Previous studies evaluating NMME models for Indian monsoon also found that the ENSO-rainfall teleconnections in the GCMs are stronger than in the observation which is a potential reason for GCM's poor performances to simulate monsoon rainfall (Pillai et al., 2018;Singh et al., 2019). Additionally, studies also shown that the seasonal prediction of northeastern Indian region including Bangladesh is very challenging due its positive ENSO (out-of-phase) teleconnection whereas the major part of Indian subcontinent has a negative relationship with ENSO (Choudhury et al., 2019;Saha et al., 2019). However, most of the GCM's cannot distinguish the out-of-phase relationship and having negative teleconnection with ENSO for the monsoon over entire Indian subcontinent. Other hypotheses of poor predictability by GCM can be drawn from the potential predictability (PP) analysis. Although there is a myriad of possible ways to estimate PP, we consider signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to evaluate the predictive power of the models where the individual ensemble members from each of the models are taken into consideration (Figure 6). The SNR is used in several studies for the quantification of the predictive power of GCMs (Attada et al., 2022;Kang et al., 2004;Nair et al., 2013;Singh et al., 2012) for the Indian summer monsoon season. The SNR is defined as the ratio of external and internal variability where the external component is obtained as the variance of the ensemble mean and the internal component can be evaluated as the variance of noise (deviation of members from the ensemble mean). This implies that the larger the SNR, the better the predictive power. It can be noticed from Figure 6 that the except for the NASA-GEOSS2S, most of the GCMs (CanSIPSv2, GFDL-CM2p5-FLOR-A06, GFDL-CM2p5-FLOR-B01, COLA-RSMAS-CCSM4, and NCEP-CFSv2) has SNR within 0-0.2 range which represents a very weak predictability (external variance is 0%-4%). These lower SNR values explain the predictability limit for each GCM. This inability underscores the importance of calibration methods to partially or wholly remove systematic biases before computing a multi-model ensemble-based forecast. As described in Section 3.1, CCA-based calibration is useful in this regard as it projects the GCM rainfall onto the observed spatio-temporal patterns.The Taylor diagram of calibrated GCMs of Figure 4b shows that after calibration the root mean square differences range from 200 to 230 mm, representing an improvement over the uncalibrated GCMs. Moreover, it is also noticed the correlation also improved after calibration. For instance, the highly negative correlations between observations and models such as NASA-GEOSS2S and GFDL-CM2p1-aer04 become positively correlated after calibration. To examine the performance of the CCA-based calibration method at grid point scale, RMSE, Spearman's correlation coefficients and 2AFC scores are computed before and after calibration for each NMME model. For uncalibrated models, we interpolated GCMs to the ENACTS-BMD's resolution for a fair comparison as CCA produced the same resolution products as ENACTS-BMD. As similar results are found for all NMME models, we selected GFDL-CM2p5-aer04, NASA-GEOSS2S and NCEP-CFSv2 models for illustrative purposes. The north-eastern and south-eastern portions of Bangladesh exhibit the highest RMSE, which correspond to the rainiest areas of the country (Figure 7). Notably, the calibration reduces the RMSE, with values below 200 mm over most of the country, except for rainier regions where RMSE is around 300 mm for most models. Calibrated models show higher skill in terms of correlation for most of the country area (Figure 8). The correlation coefficients of GFDL-CM2p5-aer04 and NASA-GEOSS2S before calibration are mostly negative, but in general, improved after calibration, except in south-eastern Bangladesh. Over southern and eastern parts of the country, NCEP-CFSv2 correlations turn from negative to positive. Also, positive correlations in the north are similar before and after calibration. For all models, the 2AFC score also improved: areas where 2AFC was less than 50% for uncalibrated model outputs became higher than 50% after calibration (Figure 9). Moreover, the spatial pattern of improvement is similar for 2AFC scores and Spearman's correlation coefficients.In general, the CCA-based calibration improves the forecast skill of uncalibrated models. Moreover, when RMSE is used as the verification metric, CCA calibration appears to improve the forecasting skill strongly, but correlation or 2AFC score does not consistently improve in every case, especially where the models show poor skill in the uncalibrated version, such as the case of NASA-GEOSS2S, which can be explained by the limited sample data to train the CCA.To assess the performance of CMME, its skill is compared with uncalibrated MME, namely, UMME (averaging uncalibrated individual model) and presented in Figure 10. The skill of the UMME can be used as a benchmark. In general, CMME outperformed UMME in all skill scores. The RMSE is much lower in CMME, especially in north and south-eastern Bangladesh. Considering Spearman's correlation coefficient, UMME shows positive values only over a small area in the northern and drier areas of Bangladesh, whereas CMME shows widespread positive values except over a small area in the more mountainous southeastern part of the country where the correlations are close to zero or slightly negative. In addition, CMME Spearman's correlation coefficients are higher compared to most calibrated individual models. In terms of the 2AFC score, Figure 9c shows that values higher than 50% are dominant in CMME, except for the same region over the southeast. These results suggest an overall improvement of skill in BSMR prediction when CMME is used; however, high within-country differences are also observed, which can be associated with the complex local-scale precipitation mechanisms and the high spatial variability in climatological rainfall in Bangladesh.This study aimed to develop an improved seasonal forecast system based on calibrated multi-model ensemble for the prediction of BSMR. For this purpose, we developed a hybrid dynamical-statistical technique using state-of-the-art GCMs from the NMME project. The individual GCM's seasonal predictions have been calibrated using a CCA approach to correct large systematic biases. These calibrated individual model predictions were then combined with equal weighting to obtain the final CMME forecast. Although similar multi-model prediction approaches have been used extensively, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that it has been used to produce seasonal forecasts of the BSMR. Since October 2019, each month this CMME-based forecast is prepared in real-time by the BMD for the next season. Therefore, from an operational perspective, the potential benefits of such a forecasting system need to be illustrated and documented in terms of the gain in quality of forecasts in realtime. Although this study only focuses on the skill of this forecast system for the summer monsoon season as the primary period of precipitation in Bangladesh, additional research should also document the predictability of preand post-monsoon precipitation, as well the applicability of our predictions for practical climate services in Bangladesh.In conclusion, we found that although GCMs provide a solid non-linear approach to alternative statistical modelling to predict the BSMR, the calibration of models is necessary to generate operational forecasts given the strong model biases over Bangladesh. The biased performance of GCMs may be partly related to the model's coarse spatial resolution, their over-sensitivity to SSTrainfall teleconnections and lower signal-to-noise ratio which explains the predictability limit. Our results strongly indicate that CCA-based calibration can generate significant improvements that reduce the magnitude of systematic errors (RMSE) compared to individual uncalibrated models. Calibration also appears to improve Spearman's correlation coefficients and 2AFC scores over most of Bangladesh, exempting a few locations in the north-and south-east of the country. In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that the skill of CMME is much better than the UMME and in comparison, to individual calibrated models, especially in the northern part of the country. However, due to limited sample data to train the CCA (32 years; using leave-5-out cross-validation in 37 years of hindcast data), further room for skill improvement which would be the subject of future research and will require a large sample to achieve increased robustness.Foundation (BMGF) under the thrid phase of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (https://csisa.org), and the One CGIAR Regional Integrative initiative Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA; https:// www.cgiar.org/initiative/transforming-agrifood-systems-insouth-asia-tafssa/). The results of this research do not necessarily reflect the views of BMGF, CCAFS, USAID or the United States Government. We acknowledge the help of CPC, IRI and NCAR personnel in creating, updating, and maintaining the NMME archive. We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions that helped to improve the original version of the manuscript. ORCID Nachiketa Acharya https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3010-2158 Md. Bazlur Rashid https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1789-6379","tokenCount":"4376"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3fb687c31374ac006c612f0889c543d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc1cc25b-3de8-4fed-9a7a-33c15e387ae6/retrieve","id":"-960800743"},"keywords":["Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)","breeding","phylogeny","flow cytometry","sweet potato"],"sieverID":"453657db-8b7c-4d0b-864b-1f8687348295","pagecount":"7","content":"Interspecific hybridization can be used to broaden the genetic base, generate novel species, postulate genetic relationships, and to introgress elite alien genes. However, interspecific hybridizations using wild parents outside the Ipomoea section Batatas are very difficult and have not been much studied. We used an improved hybridization technology to generate three novel interspecific hybrids by crossing Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. × I. hederacea Jacq., I. batatas (L.) Lam. × I. muricata (L.) Jacq., and I. batatas (L.) Lam. × I. lonchophylla J.M. Black. The ploidy level of the interspecific hybrids was determined by flow cytometry. The cross, I. batatas × I. hederacea, yielded the first artificial pentaploid Ipomoea hybrid ever. The other two hybrids, I. batatas × I. hederacea and I. batatas × I. muricata were tetraploid. The first two hybrids showed normal storage roots, a significant improvement in the storage roots of currently existing interspecific Ipomoea hybrids. AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) molecular markers were used to explore the genetic relationship of these three novel interspecific hybrids with three other natural diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid species of the Ipomoea section Batatas. Cluster analysis of AFLP bands showed that these three new interspecific hybrids were closely related to cultivated sweet potato (I. batatas/L./Lam.), which indicated that these novel hybrids can be used as an interspecific bridge to transfer alien genes from wild to cultivated species.Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas /L./ Lam.) is one of the most important food and vegetable crops in the world, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeastern Asia, and the Pacific Islands. It represents the only domesticated species of the genus Ipomoea, which contains 600-700 different species (Austin & Huaman 1996). In this genus, 13 wild species composed of Ipomoea section Batatas (Austin 1978;Mcdonald & Austin 1990;Austin & Huaman 1996). Up to date, most of the wild species parents used for interspecific hybridization with sweet potato have belonged to this section.Actually, interspecific hybridization between sweet potato and its related wild species has been greatly limited, mainly due to cross-incompatibility and an interspecific reproductive barrier (Martin 1970;Shiotani et al. 1990;Kobayashi et al. 1994). Hybridization between I. batatas and I. trichocarpa Ell. or I. gracilis R. Br. resulted in the initiation of embryo development when I. trichocarpa was the female parent; however, the seeds produced through this cross were not viable (Wedderburn 1967). Orjeda et al. (1991) made over 28 000 pollinations between five I. batatas (6x) and forty-one I. trifida (Kunth) G. Don (2x) accessions to obtain 4x interspecific hybrids; their results indicated that most of the 4x progenies did not produce any storage roots or had very poor yields. Freyre et al. (1991) used the I. trifida synthetic hexaploids and triploids with 2n pollen to estimate their fertility and crossability with sweet potato. And the lower percentage of seed germination in the above-mentioned hybrids indicated the existence of an interspecific barrier. Kobayashi et al. (1994) used ovule culture to obtain two interspecific hybridization combinations from I. triloba L. × I. trifida and (I. triloba × I. lacunosa L.) × I. batatas (4x). Somatic cell hybridization was also exploited to produce hybrids whose wild parents were among the following species: I. triloba (Yang et al. 2009), I. lacunosa (Liu et al. 1998;Zhang et al. 2002), and I. cairica (L.) Sweet (Guo et al. 2006). We recently reported the reproduction and characterization of two novel interspecific hybrids from I. batatas × I. grandifolia and I. batatas × I. purpurea using controlled pollination (Cao et al. 2009a).In general, most of the interspecific hybridizations reported above employed a limited number of wild parents and most of those belonged to Ipomoea section Batatas. Furthermore, most of the interspecific hybrids obtained seldom produced storage roots or resulted in poor quality or yield. However, there is a large number of wild species in the genus Ipomoea having elite biotic and abiotic stress resistance and good quality traits, which remain to be explored and utilized.In the present study, three new interspecific hybrids were synthesized whose wild parents were beyond the Ipomoea section Batatas. Ploidy levels of these hybrids, genetic variations and molecular phylogenetic relationships were investigated. Furthermore, AFLP was used to explore the correlation between the number of amplified DNA bands and the ploidy level.Plant material. Xushu 18 (I. batatas /L./ Lam., 2n = 6x = 90), a famous and widely grown sweet potato cultivar in China, was chosen as the female parent (Table 1). Plants of Xushu 18 were pollinated with pollen from three wild species, I. hederacea Jacq. (2n = 2x = 30, PI618970), I. muricata (L.) Jacq (2n = 2x = 30, PI279698) and I. lonchophylla J. M. Black (2n = 2x = 30, Grif11879), which are not members of Ipomoea section Batatas and genetically distant from Xushu18. Among the three wild species, I. hederacea and I. muricata are drought tolerant (Q.H. Cao, personal communication), and I. lonchophylla is resistant to the stem nematode disease (Cao et al. 2009b). A diploid I. trifida, an old natural tetraploid interspecific hybrid I. tabascana J.A. McDonald & D.F. Austin (Srisuwan et al. 2006), and a hexaploid cultivar Xushu18 were selected as controls for both phylogeny and ploidy studies. All the above wild species were introduced from the sweet potato program of Louisiana State University, USA.Interspecific cross. As previously described (Cao et al. 2009a), we adjusted the plant hormone concentrations from 100 mg/l GA3 + 50 mg/l 6-BA to 120 mg/l GA3 + 60 mg/l 6-BA and applied the solution to the stalks of the pollinated flowers. The treatment was conducted for ten consecutive days to obtain better fruits and seed set.Flow cytometry analysis and chromosome counting. Relative fluorescence intensity of PI (Propidium Iodide)-stained nuclei was analysed using a flow cytometer (FACSCalibur, BD Company, San Diego, USA) according to the method of Doležel et al. (1989). For ploidy analysis, the scale was calibrated using the young leaf samples of I. trifida as the diploid reference (standard). The flow cytometer was adjusted so that the peak representing the G1 nuclei of I. trifida was set at channel 50. Other samples were characterized by the relative positions of their G1 peaks. Data were analysed using the ModFit LD software, referred to the ModFit LT user guide.Chromosome counting was done on the three newly obtained hybrids according to the procedure described by Cao et al. (2009a).Genomic DNA isolation and AFLP analysis. Genomic DNA was extracted from frozen and dried leaves of plants grown in the field. The leaf tissue was ground to a fine powder and DNA was extracted using the improved CTAB method (Huang & Sun 2000). The AFLP analysis was performed as described by Vos et al. (1995). DNA double-digestion was carried out using the enzyme combination of EcoRI/ MseI. After ligation with oligonucleotide adapters, a pre-selective amplification was carried out with EcoRI+A and MseI+C primers, and PCR products were then diluted 15-fold with water and used as template for selective amplifications using both EcoRI+3 and MseI+3 primers. In total 21 primerpair combinations were chosen to produce a high number of unambiguous polymorphisms in sets of the 10 sweet potato genotypes tested. PCR products were separated using electrophoresis on a 6% polyacrylamide gel in TBE (Tris-Boric acid-EDTA) buffer for about 1.5 h. Data analysis. For each of the primer-pair combinations, the number of polymorphic and monomorphic fragments was counted across all six species with different ploidy levels. Only clearly readable bands with strong intensity were scored manually and included in the binary data matrix (i.e. 1 and 0 denoting the presence and absence of a band, respectively).The percentage of genetic similarity index between samples was calculated and derived according to the method of Nei and Li (1979). Phylogenetic analysis was performed using the NTSYS pc. 2.11a software and the phylogenetic tree was produced from the AFLP data matrices using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA). To evaluate the strength of the resulting clades, the data were analysed by the bootstrap method of Felsenstein (1986). One hundred bootstrap samples were generated by random resampling of the data set (Felsenstein 1985) and were separately subjected to Wagner parsimony analysis.Xushu18 (maternal parent) was pollinated with pollen from 108, 105, and 98 flowers of three wild species, I. hederacea, I. muricata and I. lonchophylla, respectively. To overcome the ovary development barrier, the combination of different plant growth hormones (as described in the methodology) was applied to the stalk of flowers. These crosses generated 3, 2, and 2  2). Due to the poor germination rates and weak growth of the seedlings, only one seedling from each cross combination was able to grow into an adult plant. The hybrid plants H 67-1 (I. batatas × I. hederacea) and H 10 (I. batatas × I. muricata) showed larger storage roots (Figure 1) than our previous interspecific hybrids (Cao et al. 2009a). The larger storage roots in this cross showed a greater similarity to their maternal parent Xushu18 and it is possible to benefit from the future preservation and propagation of these accessions. The hybrid plant H 14-1 (I. batatas × I. lonchophylla) set smaller storage roots (Figure 1), and its vine was twining and spreading.The FC analysis of PI-stained nuclei showed a dominant peak corresponding to the G1 nuclei of the materials being measured (Figure 2). The dominant peak reflected the ploidy level of each sample. The G1 peak of the reference diploid I. trifida was approximately at channel 50. The G1 peaks of the newly obtained interspecific hybrids H 67-1 (I. batatas × I. hederacea), H 10 (I. batatas ×I. muricata), and H 14-1 (I. batatas × I. lonchophylla) were at channels 125, 100, and 100, respectively, suggesting that H 67-1 was pentaploid while H 10 , H 14-1 were tetraploid. Most histograms revealed a low coefficient of variation (less than 5%) indicating the high reliability of these results. The root tip cells of the three newly obtained interspecific hybrids were squashed for chromosome counting. We found that the hybrid H 67-1 carried ∼75 chromosomes and both H 10 and H 14-1 contained ∼60 chromosomes (Table 2). These results were consistent with the results from our flow cytometer (FC) analysis.In order to determine the phylogenetic relationship of these three hybrids with sweet potato and investigate the DNA band variations among different ploidy materials, a diploid I. trifida, tetraploid I. tabascana, and a sweet potato cultivar in Ipo-  moea section Batatas were selected as controls for the diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid, respectively. Through genetic similarity calculation by NTSYSpc 2.11a, differences at the DNA level among different species were determined by comparing the genetic similarity indexes for a total of 21 pairwise comparisons (Table 3). The genetic similarity indexes among all pairs of six Ipomoea species varied from 0.54 (between I. trifida and Xushu18) to 0.90 (between H 10 and H 67-1 ), thus providing the evidence that all the six Ipomoea species were closely related.The similarity matrix obtained after multivariate analysis using Nei and Li's (1979) coefficient index is shown in Table 3. These similarity indexes were used to generate a dendrogram (Figure 3) by UPGMA analysis in order to determine the grouping of different ploidy materials. From Figure 3, I. trifida was   thought to be the most distant from the other five Ipomoea species. The natural interspecific hybrid I. tabascana was the second most distant in the phylogenetic tree. The newly obtained hybrids H 67-1 and H 10 were clustered into one group at an index of 0.90, which indicated that the hybrids H 67-1 and H 10 were the closest genetically. These two hybrids, together with I. batatas (Xushu18), were clustered into one group at an index of 0.82. The artificial tetraploid H 14-1 was clustered into a group with the above three accessions at an index of 0.78. Six different Ipomoea species were genotyped with 21 AFLP primer-pair combinations, which had been tested to be highly polymorphic at the International Potato Centre (CIP). Most of the AFLP bands ranged from 50 to 400 bp (Figure 4). A total of 1862 bands were scored. Among them, 558 bands (30.0%) were monomorphic in six test materials, whereas 1304 bands (70.0%) were polymorphic. For each primer pair, an average of 88 total bands and 62 polymorphic bands were detected. For each accession, the number of total bands increased following the increase in ploidy levels. For example, the total amplified DNA bands of diploid I. trifida were 1034, those of tetraploid I. tabascana, H 10 , H 14-1 and pentaploid H 67-1 were 1192, 1330, 1315, and 1370, respectively. The hexaploid I. batatas had 1452 bands. The amplification results (Figure 4) showed three main phenomena: (1) some bands were absent in the diploid I. trifida while they were present in the other polyploidy materials; (2) some special bands were only present in the diploid and absent in polyploidy materials; (3) some bands were amplified only in the interspecific hybrids and their maternal parent Xushu18.Among the three novel synthetic interspecific hybrids, only H 67-1 , which was from a cross between hexaploid I. batatas and diploid I. hederacea, was identified as a pentaploid. It was not the expected tetraploid, indicating that 2n gametes might have occurred in a male wild paternal species, which needs to be confirmed in the future. The other two interspecific hybrids were likely to be produced from normal meiosis of their respective parents.According to the results of AFLP scores and the cluster analysis, all of the three newly synthetic interspecific hybrids have a closer relationship with sweet potato than with I. trifida and I. tabascana. These results suggest that the wild parents of the three novel hybrids have a close relationship with the cultivated species to some extent. Further AFLP experiments are required to determine the genetic distance between these wild species and sweet potato. The genome of the novel synthesized interspecific hybrid was found to contain three sets of chromosomes from I. batatas (Xushu18) and one or two sets from the wild parental species. Theoretically, DNA from Xushu18 accounts for three quarters (like in H 10 , H 14-1 ) or three fifths (like in H 67-1 ) of the total genomes of these hybrids. This would partially explain why the features of the three new hybrids were closer to those of the sweet potato cultivar Xushu18. These materials are useful in studying the effect of gene dosage and ploidy level variations.The correlation between ploidy levels and amplified DNA band numbers has been studied in various species (Chen et al. 2004;Liu et al. 2004;Ma et al. 2010); however, it has been rarely studied in Ipomoea. Our results revealed some interesting facts. The number of amplified AFLP bands increased following the increase in ploidy level. The amplified AFLP bands in the novel synthesized tetraploid interspecific hybrids were similar in number, while the old hybrid I. tabascana had fewer bands, indicating that some DNA bands might have been lost during speciation. The sweet potato cultivar Xushu18 was found to have the highest number of amplified DNA bands. However, considering its hexaploid level, the average bands per chromosome set of sweet potato would be the lowest as compared to those of the diploid wild species and the tetraploid hybrids. These results can be partly explained by the fact that polyploidization is usually followed by a genome-wide loss of some of the redundant genomic material (Adams & Wendel 2005). Differential gene loss (i.e. loss of some duplicates but not others) following polyploidization is responsible for much of the deviation in co-linearity among closely related plants, such as cereals (Paterson et al. 2003).","tokenCount":"2578"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"948b18cb7ea61690d664f0caa59c5c4c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2283fe75-f376-4682-8bdf-36e4a754af01/retrieve","id":"-996066186"},"keywords":["Climate change","semi-arid areas","gridded climate data"],"sieverID":"11da07c3-f13b-47b6-af70-72cc07045fc0","pagecount":"8","content":"Climate change is one of the major challenges in 21 st century faced by Agriculture in India, more so in the Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT) of the country. In recent years, natural and anthropogenic factors have impacted climate variability and contributed to a large extent to climate change. Based on one degree gridded data of India Meteorological Department (IMD) for 34 years , climatic water balances are computed for 351 pixels in India and used for classifying in to six climate types following Thornthwaite's moisture regime classification and areas falling under different climatic zones in India are delineated. Considerable changes in the country's climate area observed between the two periods; 1971-90 and 1991-2004. Increased semi-arid area by 8.45 M ha in five states viz., Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Punjab, and decreased semi-arid area by 5 M ha in eleven states, contributed to overall increase in SAT area of 3.45 M ha in the country.Overall, there has been a net reduction of 10.71 M ha in the dry sub-humid area in the country. Results indicated that dryness and wetness are increasing in different parts of the country in the place of moderate climates existing earlier in t hese regions. ICRISAT's Hypothesis of Hope through Integrated Genetic and Natural Resources Management (IGNRM) using climate ready crops and Integrated Watershed Management could be a potential adaptatio n strategy by bridging the yield gaps for developing climate resilient agriculture in the country.It is now recognized that global warming, part of the climate change phenomenon, is due to sharp increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxides (N 2 O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels. Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) brought out a report (INCCA, 2010) recording the GHG emission estimates in India, becoming the first \"non-Annex I\" (i.e., developing) country to publish such updated numbers. In 2007, India ranked 5th in aggregate GHG emissions in the world, behind USA, China, EU and Russia. Interestingly, the emissions of USA and China were almost 4 times that of India in 2007. It is also noteworthy that due to the efforts and policies that were proactively put in place, the emissions intensity of India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined by more than 30% during the period 1994-2007. India announced its plan to further reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25% between 2005 and 2020, even as the country pursues the path of inclusive growth (INCCA, 2010).Climate change is an important driver affecting livelihoods, particularly in developing countries like India, with large agrarian-based livelihoods exist. In India, climate change could exacerbate existing stress on ecological, natural resources and socioeconomic systems due to growing population, urbanization, industrialization and economic development.Measurement of atmospheric turbidity (attenuation of incoming solar radiation) has shown a steady increase as a result of anthropogenic activities (DST, 2008). Indian annual mean (average of maximum and minimum), maximum and minimum temperatures showed significant warming trends of 0.51, 0.72 and 0.27°C 100 yr -1 , respectively, during the period 1901-2007 (Kothawale et al., 2010). However, accelerated warming was observed in the period 1971-2007, mainly due to intense warming in the recent decade 1998-2007. Mean annual temperature of India in 2010 was +0.93°C above the 1961-1990 average and the India Meteorological Department (IMD) declared that 2010 was the warmest year on record since 1901 (IMD, 2010). Mean temperature in the pre-monsoon season (March-May) was 1.8°C above normal during the year 2010.At the country level, no long-term trend in southwest monsoon rainfall was observed; although an increasing trend in intense rainfall events are reported. Goswami et al., (2006) analysed gridded rainfall data for the period 1951-2000 and found significant rising trends in the frequency and the magnitude of extreme rainfall events, and a significant decreasing trend in the frequency of moderate events over central India during the monsoon seasons. The seasonal mean rainfall does not show a significant trend, because the contribution from increasing heavy events is offset by decreasing moderate events. They concluded that a substantial increase in hazards related to heavy rainfall is expected over central India in the future. Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events in the past 15 years were also reported by Samra et al. (2003 and2006). Chattopadhyay and Hulme (1997) reported that potential evapotranspiration has decreased over the whole country in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons and the decreasing trend is up to a maximum of about 0.3 mm day -1 decade -1 over west-central India.Trends in annual reference crop evapotranspiration (ET 0 ) at Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh indicated a reduction of about 200 mm from 1850 mm to 1650 mm during the 35-year period 1975-2009(Rao and Wani, 2011). At Patancheru, contribution of energy balance term to the total ET 0 has shown an increasing trend while aerodynamic term has a decreasing trend. Wind speed has shown a strong negative trend leading to the dramatic fall of the aerodynamic term and consequently the ET 0 . Rate of reduction in evapotranspiration demand was about 10% for kharif (Jun-Oct) and about 14% for rabi (Nov-Feb).It is evident from the various studies that climate change in India is real and it is one of the major challenges faced by Indian Agriculture, more so in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) of the country. India ranks first among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture in terms of both extent and value of production. The rainfed agro-ecologies cover about 60 per cent of the net sown area of 141 million ha and are widely distributed in the country (DOAC, 2011).Rainfed agriculture is practiced under a wide variety of soil types, agro-climatic and rainfall conditions. Rainfed agriculture supports nearly 40% of India's estimated population of 1.21 billion in 2011 (Sharma, 2011). Even after achieving the full irrigation potential, nearly 50% of the net cultivated area may remain dependent on rainfall. Reduction in yields due to climate change is likely to be more prominent in rainfed agriculture and under limited water availability.Thus, there is a need to review the areas falling under the different climate zones in India to understand the changing rainfall and temperature patterns over the last few decades. Accordingly, a study was carried out by ICRISAT to assess the changes in areas under different climates in India.Based on the daily rainfall data of 1803 stations, and following the interpolation method proposed by Shepard (1968), a high resolution (1° x 1° Lat/Long) gridded daily rainfall data set was developed by the IMD (Rajeevan etal., 2005). A daily gridded temperature data set for the Indian region with a similar resolution was also developed by IMD using temperature data of 395 quality controlled stations (Srivastava etal., 2009). These data sets were procured from the IMD, and daily gridded climate data (maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall) of 351 pixels in India (Fig. 1) for 34 years  was retrieved.The IMD daily gridded data originally was in binary format with 1120 pixels for each day in the geographical window of 6.5 to 37.5 °N latitude and from 66.5 to 100.5° E longitude for each calendar year. Binary data converted in to text format for each year; data for 351 pixels falling inside the Indian country boundary were picked out and correct latitude and longitude values assigned. These 34 yearly files were converted in to 351 pixel-wise files. It was observed that there were missing values in all the parameters; majority of them are in the NE India. Some are in the border regions of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan and Gujarat. These gaps were either filled with neighbouring pixel values or normal values. After quality checking databases were developed for use in water balance computations and climate change analysis.Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) or Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ET 0 ) was estimated following the method of Hargreaves andSamani (1982 and1985). The simplified equation is ET 0 = 0.0135 (KT) (Ra) (TD) 1/2 (TC+17.8)Where TD = Maximum daily temperature minus minimum daily temperature (ºC) for weekly or monthly periods and TC is the average daily temperature (ºC); Ra = Extra-PAPER 2 Climate classification results of 351 pixels were converted to points and re-interpolated using ArcGIS 10.0 since a 1° x 1° pixel is coarse and patchy to show the climate zones clearly. The Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method is used to interpolate the point data with an exponent of distance as 2 and the search radius fixed to 30 minutes and the number of points around the estimated value limited to 6. This was achieved after exploring different combinations of input variables which can be changed within the set limits. The resolution of the output grid is fixed at approximately 5 km. This method was used because IDW is an exact interpolator and estimated values do not cross the range of values in the total dataset. The area under each climate is the number of pixels multiplied by the area of each pixel which is fixed at 5 km. Minor aberrations in the area estimated and the area by conventional method was adjusted to remove ambiguity and state-wise areas under each climate were quantified for both periods.Considerable changes in climates are observed between the two periods, 1971-90 and 1991-2004. Salient features (Fig. 2) are increase in the arid areas in Rajasthan (1.53 M ha) and Gujarat (0.98 M ha), and increase in semi-arid areas in Madhya Pradesh (3.82 M ha), Bihar (2.66 M ha) and Uttar Pradesh (1.57 M ha).Total increase in arid area is about 2.63 M ha in three states viz. Rajasthan (1.53 M ha), Gujarat (0.98 M ha) and Andhra Pradesh (0.12 M ha) while total reduction is about 1.03 M ha due to changes in Punjab (0.44 M ha), Karnataka (0.28 M ha), Haryana (0.16 M ha) and Maharashtra (0.15 M ha). For the country as a whole, net change in arid area is 1.60 M ha. Increase in the arid areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat is due to shifting of semi-arid areas in to arid. terrestrial radiation (mm/day); and KT = empirical coefficient. Relative humidity is indirectly present as the difference in maximum and minimum temperature. The temperature difference (TD) is linearly related to relative humidity (Hargreaves and Samani, 1982). Hargreaves (1994) recommended using KT = 0.162 for 'interior' regions and KT = 0.19 for 'coastal' regions. KT value is considered as 0.17 in the present analysis.Soil water-holding capacities for the 351 pixels were estimated based on the soil map of National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP, 1985). Pixelwise weekly water balances and climate indices for 34 years were computed based on the revised water budgeting approach of Thronthwaite and Mather (1955). Climates for each year were classified based on the annual moisture index (Table 1) as per classification of Thornthwaite and Mather (1955). While assessing climate change, it is an accepted method to find deviations from a base period. As per the WMO guidelines, 30-year continuous data is required to compute climatic normals. Standard periods for climatic normals are 1931-60 and 1961-90. In the present case, gridded data availability was 1971-2004, hence 1971-1990 is considered as the base period or period 1 and 1991-2004 is considered as period 2. Average climates classified into six types for both the periods 1 and 2. ha), Andhra Pradesh (0.24 M ha), Orissa (0.16 M ha), Himachal Pradesh (0.15 M ha), Maharashtra (0.04 M ha), Haryana (0.03 M ha), Kerala (0.02 M ha) and Uttarakhand (0.02 M ha). For the country as a whole, net change in semi-arid area is 3.45 M ha. These changes are mainly due to increased dryness at the expense of dry sub-humid   3 and Table 2.Total increase in dry sub humid area is about 2.51 M ha due to changes in Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka while total reduction is about 13.22 M ha due to changes in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala. Net change in dry sub humid area is 10.71 M ha, some of which shifted towards drier side and some towards wetter side. There is no change in dry subhumid areas in Rajasthan. In the country as a whole, about 4.78 M ha of area has increased in moist sub-humid climate type while about 0.47 M ha area has decreased in per-humid climate.Climate change impacts in India vary both quantitatively and qualitatively by crop, level of agronomic management, region and season (Mall et al., 2006).ICRISAT's research findings showed that Integrated Genetic and Natural Resources Management (IGNRM) through participatory watershed management is the key for improving rural livelihoods in the SAT (Wani et al., 2002(Wani et al., , 2003(Wani et al., and 2011)). Comprehensive Assessment (CA) of rainfed agriculture undertaken by the ICRISAT-led consortium showed vast potential of rainfed agriculture, as large yield gaps exist and current farmers' crop yields are lower by two to five folds of achievable yields (Rockström et al., 2007and 2010, Wani et al., 2003, 2009and 2011). Even under a climate change regime, crop yield gaps can still be significantly narrowed down with improved management practices and using Germplasm adapted for warmer temperatures (Wani et al., 2003, 2009and Cooper et al., 2009). Some of the climate resilient crops are short-duration chickpea cultivars ICC 96029 (Super early), ICCV 2 (Extra-early) and KAK 2 (Early maturing); wilt resistant pigeonpea hybrid (ICPH 2671) with a potential to give 80% higher yields than traditional varieties developed through cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) system; and short-duration groundnut cultivar ICGV 91114 that escapes terminal drought. Fig. 3 : Changes in areas in selected states between 1971-1990 and 1991-2004 PAPER 2Integrated Watershed Management comprises improvement of land and water management, integrated nutrient management including application of micronutrients, improved varieties and integrated pest and disease management; and substantial productivity gains and economic returns by farmers (Wani et al., 2003). The goal of watershed management is to improve livelihood security by mitigating the negative effects of climatic variability while protecting or enhancing the sustainability of the environment and the agricultural resource base. Greater resilience of crop income in Kothapally (Andhra Pradesh) during the drought year 2002 was indeed due to watershed interventions. While the share of crops in household income declined from 44% to 12% in the non-watershed project villages, crop income remained largely unchanged from 36% to 37% in the watershed village (Wani et al., 2009). Agroclimatic analysis coupled with crop-simulation models, and better seasonal and medium duration weather forecasts, help build resilience to climate variability/change in watersheds (Rao et al., 2008).Sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the soil has the potential to achieve the multiple objectives of improving the soil quality and fertility of the semi-arid tropical soils and addressing climate variability/change. Evidence from a long-term experiment at ICRISAT-Patancheru since 1976 demonstrated a virtuous cycle of persistent yield increase under the improved system compared to the traditional system (Wani etal., 2009 andWani andRockström, 2011). More importantly, under the improved system, the 0-120 cm soil profile contained 46.8 t C ha -1 compared to 39.5 t C ha -1 in the traditional management system. Hence, great scope exists for such improved systems for not only maintaining environmental quality but also addressing climate variability / change as a mitigating measure. There is also an urgent need to develop a climate change network for Indian agriculture by adopting a hybrid model of using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) where it is feasible along with traditional communication channels like community radios, TV, mobile telephones and trained human resources at community and village level (Wani et al., 2012). This will go a long way in building the resilience of the community to cope with the impacts of climate change, particularly in rainfed areas.Analysis of the gridded climate data of IMD indicated increase in the arid areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh, and increase in semi-arid areas in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Punjab. Overall, there has been a net reduction in the dry sub-humid area (10.7 M ha) in the country, of which about 5.1 M ha (47%) shifted towards the drier side and about 5.6 M ha (53%) became wetter. Dryness and wetness are increasing in different parts of the country in the place of moderate climates existing earlier in these regions. Increasing dryness in the arid and semi-arid areas along with increasing rainfall variability is a serious challenge for Indian agriculture. Impacts of climate variability and change could be minimized / coped through bridging the vast (two to three folds) gaps between the yields currently obtained by farmers and achievable potential yields. Evidence exists on feasibility of harnessing the untapped potential of rainfed agriculture through farmer-centric IWM approach by operationalizing the IGNRM. ICRISAT and partners have proposed the \"Hypothesis of Hope\" by developing climate resilient agriculture using climate ready crop cultivars and IWM approach as a powerful approach to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate change. There is an urgent need to enhance the awareness about the climate change and new strategies using innovative science-based information and communication tools along with enabling policies and institutional options.","tokenCount":"2845"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"297b53b64951f85ae1e30879e458a4b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/aface98b-e31a-4eed-9e37-583e8076522d/content","id":"598589027"},"keywords":["predator-prey interaction","biological pest control","insectivorous birds","bat predation on FAW","maize cultivation"],"sieverID":"33eb02ad-dfc8-4276-b333-57c4a77f5cd9","pagecount":"10","content":"The fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda) is a major crop pest in southern Africa. It threatens the livelihoods and food security of smallholder farmers in the region by negatively impacting maize yield. Although scientific evidence suggests that natural enemy-mediated predation can potentially reduce FAW infestation, the effectiveness of natural enemies such as birds, bats, parasitoids, and generalist predators on FAW is poorly understood. This study reviews existing literature to assess how birds, bats, parasitoids, and generalist predators' control FAW infestation, as well as the role of forest or tree cover in natural enemy mediated pest control of FAW in maize in southern Africa. We then present a case study to examine the role of forest proximity in reducing FAW infestation in maize in Zimbabwe. We conclude that birds, bats, parasitoids, and generalist predators are likely drivers of the reduced success of FAW near forests in southern Africa. While predators influence FAW survival and development, their role is largely undermined by parasitoids, which are more efficient in affecting FAW populations. Birds, bats, parasitoids, and generalist predators play an important role in controlling FAW on farms in heterogenous landscapes with diverse vegetation and near-forest proximity. The findings of our case study from Zimbabwe suggest that the distance to forest had a much higher impact on FAW incidence than maize variety, planting date, or the rate of nitrogen applied. Lack of enough case studies from maize in southern Africa makes it challenging to assess the mechanism and the effectiveness of bird predation on FAW. For this reason, further research is necessary to examine how predation by birds, bats and arthropods and parasitism impacts maize yield. We discuss research barriers, recommend appropriate methods for experimental studies, and suggest possible management options to control FAW in southern Africa.The fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda), an agricultural pest native to North and South America, has recently become widespread across Africa and Asia (Assefa and Ayalew, 2019;Sharanabasappa et al., 2019;Sisay et al., 2019). Africa is particularly vulnerable to FAW infestation due to the prevalence of diverse host plants and suitable agro-ecological conditions (Day et al., 2017). Although FAW attacks up to 350 plant species in its native range (Montezano et al., 2018), it favors graminaceous crops, especially maize (Baudron et al., 2019). Maize is the most widely grown staple food crop in Africa, covering 37 million hectares (Hruska, 2019), and it provides food and livelihood for about 208 million smallholder farmers in the region (Sisay et al., 2019;Tambo et al., 2019). FAW infestation reduces maize yield up to 53% (Day et al., 2017;Kumela et al., 2019;De Groote et al., 2020) and can cause up to $US13 billion per annum crop losses across Africa (Day et al., 2017). Thus, FAW infestation on maize poses a serious threat to the food security and livelihood of smallholder farmers in Africa (Day et al., 2017).FAW control measures range from handpicking of larvae (Tambo et al., 2019) or applying chemical pesticides (Kumela et al., 2019) to diverse agro-ecological practices such as minimum tillage, intercropping, and diversifying the farm environment (Baudron et al., 2019;Harrison et al., 2019). A wide range of natural enemies, such as birds, bats, parasitoids, and pathogens can also control FAW larva (Capinera, 2000;Molina-Ochoa et al., 2003;Assefa and Ayalew, 2019;Sisay et al., 2019). Moreover, generalist predators such as ground beetles (Carabidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), ants (Formicidae), earwigs (Labiduridae), social wasps (Hymenoptera), and spiders (Araneae) are known to attack FAW eggs and larvae (Harrison et al., 2019;Rukundo et al., 2020). Natural enemy-mediated predation can be effective in controlling FAW infestation in maize, reducing FAW pupae up to 73% (Capinera, 2000). Previous studies suggest that insectivorous birds are effective in reducing FAW infestation in fields close to hedgerows (Wyckhuys and O'Neil, 2006). Laboratory trials also show that red-winged black birds (Agelaius phoeniceus) are important control agents, as they preferentially feed on relatively larger and non-parasitized FAW larvae (Jones et al., 2005). Similarly, bats can be particularly effective in controlling adult moths (Maine and Boyles, 2015) as evidenced in Texas where 100 million Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) feed on up to 4 billion noctuid moths every night (Lee and McCracken, 2005). However, the understanding of the effectiveness of natural enemy mediated predation on FAW and the role of forest or tree cover in reducing FAW infestation through natural predation is still limited.The objective of this study is to first review bat, bird, parasitoid and other generalist predator mediated control of FAW in maize and assess how natural enemy mediated FAW control is influenced by proximity to forest in southern Africa. We then present a case study from Zimbabwe assessing whether proximity to forest reduces FAW infestations in maize fields.For this paper, we followed the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) delineation of southern Africa, which comprises the countries of Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Eswatini Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.The literature reviewed for this study was found using a combination of Google Scholar and the UBC Library Search Collection functions. We searched for combinations of natural enemy mediated pest control by birds, bats, parasitoids, and generalist predators on FAW in its natural range; natural enemy mediated pest control on cash crops in southern Africa, and natural enemy mediated pest control on FAW in southern Africa. Papers were selected based on whether the information pertained to bat, bird, parasitoid, or generalist natural enemy mediated pest control either directly on FAW or on other crop pests in southern Africa, on maize crops in the native range of FAW, or cash crops in areas with similar climates to southern Africa. Considering that FAW was only recently introduced to Africa, there were few papers available that examined natural enemy mediated pest control of FAW in Africa. For this reason, we relied on studies that examine natural enemy mediated control on fields near forests elsewhere in the world to examine the likelihood of different mechanisms of pest control occurring in FAW infestations in southern Africa. In addition, we selected papers based on whether the methodology used could be useful for further examining FAW natural enemy mediated pest control in southern Arica, even if the study location in some of the reviewed papers is not in southern Africa. Key words used in the literature search were: natural enemy mediated pest control, FAW in southern Africa, bird predation on crop pests, bat predation on crop pests, parasitoids and FAW; in addition, location-based search terms were used, such as FAW in native range, or FAW in southern Africa.The case study was conducted in Chipinge District in Zimbabwe, where the presence of FAW is observed since early 2017. The district is in south-eastern Zimbabwe at an average altitude of 1,134 m above sea level. The district is characterized by a population density of approximately 33 inhabitants per km 2 , a mean annual rainfall of 1,097 mm (90 years average), a mean annual temperature of 28 • C (10 years average). The analysis was conducted at the peak of the rainy season, and thus water sources (mainly in the form of stagnant water) were available throughout the landscape. The district has sandy soils with black and red clays as the major soil types. Maize, cotton, and sorghum are the major crops and cattle, goats, pigs, and chicken as the major livestock species (Baudron et al., 2019).We surveyed a total of 278 maize fields in Ward 16, Ward 18, and Ward 20 in Chipinge district between the 18th and the 22nd of February 2019 (Figure 1). The manager of each field was interviewed regarding the management of the plot (variety, planting date, fertilization, etc.) and the plot was then scouted for FAW damage. Following this survey, five groups of ten plants were selected following a \"W sampling\" and the number of plants in each sampling point displaying leaf damage due to FAW was recorded as well as the severity of this damage using a scale ranging from 1 to 9. A GPS point of the center of the plot was also recorded. All data (included GPS point) was recorded with Galaxy Tab A and Galaxy J5 using the application \"CommCare\". 1 Sentinel-2 Level-2A images for 24th January 2019 (8.44% cloud cover in the area) and 28th February (0% cloud cover) were acquired and an object-based land cover classification was performed (Champagne, 2019). Forest patches of at least 0.5 ha were identified and the distance between the center of each field and the closest forest patch of at least 0.5 ha was calculated. The distance of the sampled maize fields to the identified forest patches ranged from 0 to 4193.12 m. The spatial analysis focused only on forest patches vs. other land covers that included both crops and fallows. Grasses were available throughout the landscape. No negative control group was used in this study.The variability of the proportion of plants with leaf damage due to FAW in each sampling point (N = 1,668) was analyzed using generalized linear models with a logit distribution. Variables included in the model were \"Ward\" (Ward 16, Ward 18, or Ward 20), elevation (m.a.s.l.), planting date (in number of days after November 1st), previous crop (maize or other), soil (lighter soils vs. heavier soils), tillage intensity (conventional vs. minimum), variety (open pollinated, Panar variety, variety PHB30G19, Seedco variety 400 serie, Seedco variety 500 serie, variety ZAP61, or other variety), quantity of N applied (kg ha −1 ), manure applied or not, intercropping or not, presence of hedgerow or not, weeding frequency (infrequent-0 or 1-and frequent-2 or more), pesticide applied or not, and distance to the closest patch of forest of at least 0.5 ha.We reviewed a total of 28 studies on natural enemy mediated pest control in various geographical locations and cropping systems to 1 https://www.dimagi.com/commcare/ draw conclusions about natural enemy mediated control of FAW in proximity of forest. Among these, 10 examined bird-mediated natural enemy pest control as it pertains to forest proximity to a field and the potential for birds to drive the reduced success of FAW in southern Africa. Similarly, nine other studies examined bat-mediated natural enemy pest control and impact of forest proximity in varying geographical locations and cropping systems, including two studies conducted in southern Africa. Moreover, we reviewed nine studies that assessed parasitoidmediated pest control and role of forest proximity in varying geographical locations and cropping systems that included three studies from southern Africa.Insectivorous birds can consume both FAW larvae and adult moths and thus act as possible biological drivers for the reduced success of FAW. For instance, predation by birds contributed significantly to FAW control on farms in Central America (FAO, 2018). Studies from its native range suggest that birds are more likely to eat the FAW caterpillars than the adult moths, but birds may have difficulty accessing the larvae deeper in the maize plant where larval development takes place (Harrison et al., 2019). However, it is unclear if the FAW larvae consumption by birds from the surface level is sufficient to significantly reduce the success of FAW.Forests can suppress crop pests by providing habitat for birds that consume crop pests, likely because of an increased abundance of birds in the farm field near forest through the spillover effect (Puckett et al., 2009). Many pest-consuming bird species in tropical areas are forest birds, and the rates of bird predation on crop pests also increases in forested landscapes (Boesing et al., 2017). For instance, increased distance from the forest edge resulted in decreased predation of crop pests by birds in sun-grown and shade-grown coffee plantations in Kenya (Milligan et al., 2016). However, this conclusion relies on the proxy of bird abundance for pest control by birds. Although many studies used bird abundance as a proxy for reduced crop pests, there is not enough evidence in the literature to conclude that using bird abundance as proxy for pest consumption can be generalized across landscapes (Puckett et al., 2009;Boesing et al., 2017).Pest control by birds depends on the spatial characteristics of the farm such as presence of native plants on the farm, whereas bird abundance is strongly linked to the landscape characteristics such as landscape heterogeneity and proximity to forest habitat (Boesing et al., 2017). High diversity in land-use such as forest, agriculture, or agroforestry, as well as crop mixes supports greater abundance of birds in West Africa (Boesing et al., 2017;Deikumah et al., 2017). For example, in a study by Deikumah et al. (2017) on avian-mediated pest control in Ghana, the mean observed species richness in cocoa farms with large trees integrated is about 50% greater than in a monoculture. Moreover, maintaining landscape connectivity is important in supporting a high abundance of insectivorous birds as is evidenced in tropical montane of Ethiopia (Gove et al., 2013). These findings suggest that farms that are closer to forests will likely have greater abundance of insectivorous birds than farms that are far from forests or contain no forest patches. Nevertheless, the relationship between bird abundance and pest predation on farms also depends on biological factors such as foraging ability in open areas. Birds need to balance the energy costs of traveling to nearby farms for food and therefore may forage only within 20 m of near-forest farmland (Puckett et al., 2009). In addition, pesticide use in farm fields may reduce the number of birds venturing into fields because of potentially lower foraging success (Puckett et al., 2009).In terms of FAW in southern Africa, there is no empirical evidence pertaining to FAW predation by birds except some anecdotes suggesting that birds are natural predators of FAW. Previous research has focused primarily on cash crops (e.g., coffee, cocoa), that are often grown in agroforestry systems in southern Africa (Williams-Guillén et al., 2008;Maas et al., 2016;Boesing et al., 2017). The few studies that assessed birdmediated pest control in maize farms in southern Africa suggest that farms in heterogenous landscapes support relatively high bird species richness and diversity, which is a mechanism that could significantly reduce the infestations of FAW in southern Africa (FAO, 2018). The biological mechanisms behind the link between increased landscape heterogeneity and bird-mediated pest control are well supported in general, but the understanding of which bird species provide pest control service and to what degree is limited in Africa (Boesing et al., 2017). There is no evidence of predation by birds on larvae because much of the larval development takes place deep within the maize plant, making the larva inaccessible to birds; for this reason, among others, significant reduction in FAW by birds in southern Africa is unlikely (Harrison et al., 2019).In conclusion, even though birds are known predators of FAW elsewhere, it is uncertain if they are responsible for the control of FAW in southern Africa. There is not enough evidence in the literature to support the hypothesis that predation by birds is the biological mechanism causing the decline in FAW on near-forest farms (Harrison et al., 2019;Lindell et al., 2018). Based on the limitations of the literature, extensive further research on birdmediated FAW control is needed.Insectivory in bats is widespread and they are effective predators, consuming up to 70% of their body weight in insects per night (Russo et al., 2018). By consuming adult insects, bats can control the mating and spawning success of crop pests. This is evidenced by increased bat activity on the farms during the growing season, which sees increased abundance of crop pests (Weier et al., 2018). Exclusion studies show a direct relationship between the absence of bats and increase in crop pests, as evidenced by Maine and Boyles (2015), who found that excluding bats from their study site led to 59% more corn earworm larvae/ear (Kalka et al., 2008;Maas et al., 2013). For example, exclosure of birds and bats resulted in increased arthropod herbivory in Indonesian cacao agroforestry systems (Maas et al., 2013;Gras et al., 2016). In contrast, the absence of bats resulted in increased crop damage by 56% as compared to controls and increased larval density of the corn ear moth in maize fields in Illinois (Maine and Boyles, 2015). Bats reduced herbivory by arthropods more than birds in tropical forests in Panama, but it is difficult to say if this can scale out to farms and crop plants (Kalka et al., 2008).Bats can additionally influence their prey by creating a \"landscape of fear, \" a predator-prey interaction where the prey alters its behavior or habitat use to avoid bat predation (Russo et al., 2018). Bats initiate a trophic cascade in the maize pests by lowering the larval density of the moth and shifting the reproductive behavior of the moths to more self-preservationist actions (Maine and Boyles, 2015). For example, some moths have tympanic organs that allow them to hear the calls that bats make for echolocation of prey. This alters the moth's behavior to maximize the likelihood of survival such as changing habitat or foraging or spawning behavior (Russo et al., 2018;Cinel and Taylor, 2019). Using paired control plots and nocturnal bat exclosures on maize fields in Illinois, Maine and Boyles (2015) found that even when bats were unable to access corn ear moths to consume them, the echolocation sounds used by the bats to hunt may have had an impact on the reproductive behaviors of the moths.Bats are known natural predators of FAW in its native range, and consumption of FAW moths by bats is a possible mechanism of FAW control in southern Africa (FAO, 2018;Harrison et al., 2019). An experiment examining the impact of bats on FAW moths showed that FAW moths are equipped with tympanic organs, which in the presence of bats can influence the moths to alter their flight or halt pheromone release (Cinel and Taylor, 2019). This study also found significant changes in the brain tissue of the FAW moths that were exposed to bat sounds, potentially affecting their mating behaviors. This suggests a closely evolved predator-prey relationship between bats and FAW and thus can be an effective mechanism for FAW control in southern Africa. However, it is difficult to determine the scale of the impact of bat predation on moth abundance and behavior due to a paucity of case studies across sites and crop types.Proximity to forest can influence the rate of bat predation on FAW depending on their feeding guilds (Williams-Guillén and Perfecto, 2011;Weier et al., 2018). For example, clusteredge feeders, i.e., the bats that feed at the edge, decrease in abundance further into agricultural fields, while open-air feeders increase further into a field when pests are abundant (Weier et al., 2018). Bats are more abundant in heterogenous landscapes with at least some trees in their foraging habitat (Russo et al., 2018). They prefer to feed in areas with forest fragments or with low intensity agriculture in proximity to roosting sites, as is evidenced in a shade-grown coffee site in Mexico (Williams-Guillén and Perfecto, 2011). Feeding activity was reduced in cluster-edge bats, while it remained similar in open-air feeders in more intensely managed agricultural landscapes (Williams-Guillén and Perfecto, 2011).Although there is clear evidence about the general relationship between the presence of bats and the reduction in crop pests, little information is available on biological control of crop pests by bats in Africa (Kalka et al., 2008;Maas et al., 2013;Maine and Boyles, 2015). African bat species are poorly studied compared to the bat species of Europe, Asia, and North America, so there is little information available about their habitat preferences and foraging behavior. The studies on batmediated pest control so far have primarily focussed on cash crops instead of subsistence farms in Africa. For example, bat predation on pests in macadamia plantations in South Africa increased as the abundance of prey increased (Weier et al., 2018). Species richness and bat activity levels were similar between macadamia plantation and riparian area habitat types in macadamia plantations in South Africa (Taylor et al., 2013). As this study was conducted in a forested landscape, the findings suggest that a heterogenous landscape with a variety of habitat types supports high species richness and feeding activity in bats (Taylor et al., 2013). However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the potential impact of bats on crop yields in Africa due to lack of adequate evidence on bat predation on FAW in maize cultivation (Kunz et al., 2011;Weier et al., 2018).Given the research on the impact of bats on maize, bats are a likely driver of the reduced success of FAW near forests in southern Africa. However, considerable additional research is necessary to draw any definitive conclusions.Apart from the vertebrate predators, a diverse array of generalist predators of FAW have been reported in the Americas, Africa, and Asia (Wan et al., 2021). Among these, ground beetles (Carabidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), ants (Formicidae), earwigs (Labiduridae), social wasps (Hymenoptera), and spiders (Araneae) are known to attack FAW eggs and larvae (Harrison et al., 2019;Rukundo et al., 2020). For example, the earwigs Doru lineare and D. luteipes, that occur throughout the maize crop cycle, lay eggs inside the maize whorl and prey on FAW eggs and larvae (Sueldo et al., 2010;Prasanna et al., 2018). Nymphs and adults of D. luteipes feed on 8-12 and 10-21 FAW larvae daily, respectively (Prasanna et al., 2018). Similarly, predacious bugs such as Picromerus lewisi, Arma chinensis, Eocanthecona furcellata, and Andrallus spinidens prey on FAW larvae (Keerthi et al., 2020;Wan et al., 2021). Moreover, carabid beetles, rove beetles, spiders, and ants predate on FAW in maize fields as evidenced in North America, West Africa, and Asia (Harrison et al., 2019;Sharanabasappa et al., 2019;Dassou et al., 2021).Generalist predators can play a significant role in controlling FAW population by directly consuming FAW eggs and larvae in maize fields (Prasanna et al., 2018;Harrison et al., 2019). For instance, social wasps extracted FAW larvae from maize whorl and reduced 77% of FAW present in maize in Brazil (Prezoto and Machado, 1999). FAW damage in maize fields increased significantly when these generalist predators were selectively removed from the field (Clark, 1993). Conversely, decreased FAW damage in minimum-tillage maize fields in Florida and Mexico was attributed to higher density of general predators (Clark, 1993;Rivers et al., 2016).Proximity of maize fields to forest increases the local abundance and diversity of natural enemies, such as predatory solitary wasps (Harrison et al., 2019). For example, increasing distance of maize fields from the forest in Brazil resulted in a decline in predatory solitary wasp abundance and increase in FAW abundance (Sousa et al., 2011). Similarly, spiders and ground beetles were more abundant in maize fields within coffee agroforest landscapes (Wyckhuys and O'Neil, 2006;Harrison et al., 2019). However, the role of forest proximity on other generalist predators and their control of FAW is still poorly understood.In southern Africa, generalist predators, such as spiders, beetles, earwigs, social wasps, and ants are crucial in controlling lepidopteran pests of cereal crops and these predators attack FAW larvae as well (Harrison et al., 2019). For example, several species of earwigs such as Diaperasticus erythrocephalus have been found in the whorl and ears of maize in Africa (Prasanna et al., 2018). Similarly, many ant species predate on FAW in maize fields as evidenced in Ghana (Koffi et al., 2020), Cameroon (Dassou et al., 2021), and Nicaragua (Perfecto, 1991). Nevertheless, there is limited evidence available regarding the effectiveness of other generalist predators in controlling FAW population and the role of forest proximity in influencing generalist predators.Parasitoids are natural enemies of FAW that can reduce feeding capacity and weight gain of FAW larvae in maize fields (Meagher et al., 2016). There are over 150 parasitoids that attack FAW in its native range (Kenis et al., 2019). Some parasitoid species such as Telenomus remus have also been introduced in countries to control FAW outbreak (Kenis et al., 2019). Parasitoid control of FAW is more effective in maize fields with good soil conditions, such as high organic matter and active soil biology, no-till fields, and fields with integrated crop residues such as mulch (Harrison et al., 2019). In contrast, pesticide use and frequent disturbances of soil reduce parasitoid abundance (Letourneau et al., 2012;Quispe et al., 2017). For example, parasitism levels ranged from 1% in commercial maize treated with pesticides to 91.7% in experimental maize fields without any pesticide treatment (Meagher et al., 2016). FIGURE 2 | Dotwhisker plot representing estimates (dots) and 95% confidence intervals (whiskers) for a generalized linear models with a logit distribution. Whiskers crossing the y-axis (gray dotted line) indicate non-significance for the corresponding factor. \"Ward 20,\" \"maize as previous crop,\" \"conventional tillage,\" \"Seedco variety 500 serie,\" \"no manure applied,\" \"no intercropping,\" \"no hedgerow,\" \"infrequent weeding (none or one)\" and \"no pesticide applied\" were used as control in the model.Parasitoid abundance on farms near forests depends on a variety of landscape characteristics, including proximity to forest. Landscapes with vegetation cover sustain a greater abundance of parasitoids by providing diversity of potential hosts, stable areas to pupate, and a continuous supply of resources (Letourneau et al., 2012). Refuges or habitats with woody plant species also sustain higher level of parasitoid species richness than habitats with non-woody species; for example, a study by Quispe et al. (2017) surveying parasitoid richness in maize crops observed five species of parasitoids in the control maize field as compared to a total of 89 species across six experimental refuges, with a diversity of woody and herbaceous plants, adjacent to the maize field. Forests can also act as population source for the agricultural land that requires recolonization by parasitoids after disturbance, as evidenced in maize fields near a tropical rainforest (Kankonda et al., 2017). For instance, parasitoid abundance increased closer to the forest or at the edge of the field and decreased toward the middle of the field in Florida (Hay-Roe et al., 2016). Parasitoids particularly in the order Hymenoptera needs access to other resources such as pollen or nectar and move further into the center of a field when supplied with continuous vegetative cover and abundant flowering plants (Quispe et al., 2017). Thus, proximity to permanent vegetation and proximity to forest are important factors determining parasitoid abundance and consequently FAW control by parasitoids on farms.Unlike birds and bats, several studies directly examined parasitoid-mediated FAW control mechanism in Africa (Kenis et al., 2019;Sisay et al., 2019;Agboyi et al., 2020). Studies suggest that a variety of FAW parasitoids may exist in Africa despite the relatively recent colonization of FAW in the region (Kenis et al., 2019). This is evidenced by observation of T. remus in Kenya in 1988, much earlier than the FAW outbreak in Africa. Recent surveys also observed T. remus in Benin, Niger, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, and South Africa (Kenis et al., 2019) and six other species of parasitoids in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania (Sisay et al., 2019). Similarly, ten species of FAW egg, egg-larval, and larval parasitoids were found in two countries in East Africa (Agboyi et al., 2020). Most of the maize fields that contained FAW also had parasitoids of FAW, suggesting a direct relationship (Sisay et al., 2019). Many of these species of parasitoids of FAW belong to the order hymenoptera, which needs habitats with vegetation cover, suggesting that parasitoids are responsible for the reduced success of FAW on near-forest farms.Considering that there are over hundred parasitoids of FAW in its native range, it is likely that many potential parasitoid species in Africa that could be crucial for FAW control have not yet been identified (Kenis et al., 2019). Moreover, parasitoid impact on crop yields in Africa is still poorly understood (Kenis et al., 2019;Sisay et al., 2019;Agboyi et al., 2020). This calls for an extensive survey of the presence of parasitoids of FAW and research on the impact of parasitoid-mediated FAW control on crop yields in southern Africa. Nevertheless, there is enough evidence to conclude that parasitoids play an important role in controlling FAW on farms near forests.Case Study in Zimbabwe: Does Proximity to Forest Reduce Fall Armyworm Infestation?Incidence of FAW plant damage (% plants displaying leaf damage due to FAW) was found to increase significantly with increasing distance from a forest patch of at least 0.5 ha (Figure 2). The only factors having a significant effect at 5% were \"Ward\" (with higher infestation in the wetter Wards 16 and 18 than in the drier Ward 20) and \"Pesticide application\" (with incidence higher in plots where pesticides were applied, pesticide application being no doubt the result of higher infestation and not the other way around) (Figure 2). Thus, in this case, distance to forest had a much higher impact on FAW incidence than maize variety, planting date, or nitrogen applied.The results of this literature review suggests that research on natural enemy mediated control of FAW so far has primarily focused on cash crops and in Europe and North America. One of the drivers for such a bias in research focus could be disproportionate funding availability for economically valuable cash crops in high demand such as coffee, cocoa, and macadamia nuts in Europe and North America. Additionally, more funding may be directed toward studies on farming practices that are associated with an incentive for biodiversity conservation such as agroforestry sites with higher plant diversity. However, it is difficult to tease apart the conservation and economic drivers in the case of high value crops such as coffee that are also agroforestry products. It is also important to note that the results of this study were limited to an extent by the specific databases used for the literature review. The databases we chose, i.e., Google Scholar may provide results based on past search history unique to the researcher and UBC Library is not accessible by all researchers, thus affecting the replicability of this work.The results of the case study conducted in Zimbabwe support the claim that proximity to a forest patch will reduce the incidence of FAW on maize (Figure 2). This result is consistent with the findings of most of the literature used in this review, which demonstrates that landscape heterogeneity is correlated positively with natural enemy mediated pest control (Harrison et al., 2019). Another recent study by Jordon et al. (2021) conducted in Ghana found that FAW damage increases with increasing distance from a patch of natural habitat, which supports the findings of our case study. Much of the literature included in this review has been primarily focused on maize crops outside southern Africa or on cash crops. Although the case study did not examine mechanisms of the reduced FAW damage, in light of the available literature the relationship could be related to either the decreased reproductive success of FAW, due to bat and parasitoid predation, or the increased predation of caterpillar due generalist predators (Kalka et al., 2008;Quispe et al., 2017). The case study provides a base for additional research, which could attempt to identify the mechanism of the decreased FAW damage as it relates to near-field proximity to a forest patch.Although the existing literature is inconclusive on the effectiveness of natural enemy mediated control of FAW in southern Africa, several studies suggest experimental methods for assessing predation of FAW by birds, bats, generalist predators and parasitoids, in addition to those demonstrated in the case study. In terms of specific recommendations for future research, predation of FAW by birds and bats can be evaluated using diurnal and nocturnal exclosures, respectively. A diurnal exclosure with increasing proximity to the forest can be useful for examining the foraging success of birds on FAW. A design of sites that are exclosed or open placed in pairs at increasing distance from the forest diurnally or nocturnally can be useful for determining FAW control by birds and bats, respectively. The same researchers can conduct the studies on birds and bats simultaneously on different farms to optimize the use of time, resources, and potentially farmer participation. The experiment would then contain plots with no cover, diurnal cover, nocturnal cover, and constant cover, as suggested in previous studies (Kalka et al., 2008;Karp et al., 2013;Maas et al., 2013). Data on the crop damage can be collected in both sites to determine the efficacy of natural enemy mediated FAW control.Many of the parasitioids of FAW in Africa are larval parasitoids, but there are some eggs and larval-pupal parasitoids as well. Setting up traps at sites with varying distances from the forest can be useful in determining the percentage of parasitoidism. The percentages of parasitoidism from samples of various life-history stages such as eggs, larvae and/or pupae can be used to measure the rate of parasitoidism within the field. As the larvae are well protected from predators within the corn plant, parasitoids may be the most efficient biological control mechanism for FAW (Hay-Roe et al., 2016). Unfortunately, there are limited examples of methods examining how parasitism rates impacts crop damage. The level of parasitism has been assessed from the number of parasitoids on sampled plants from infested maize fields (Sisay et al., 2019;Agboyi et al., 2020). Similarly, parasitoid abundance is determined by placing traps consisted of PVC cylinders at different points within maize fields and later analyzing in the laboratory (Hay-Roe et al., 2016).Additional challenges for conducting FAW research exist in considering the priorities and beliefs around natural enemy mediated pest control in southern Africa. The fear surrounding bats could potentially be a significant barrier for discussing batmediated pest control for farmers. Bats are often considered to carry disease and farmers may be unwilling to take actions or participate in experiments that would increase the abundance of bats on their farm (Harrison et al., 2019). Furthermore, not all bats and birds are insectivorous; many birds and bats are also considered crop pests. Thus, farmers may not want to participate in activities that could increase the abundance of cropconsuming vertebrates by improving habitat on their farms, even if it comes with the benefit of reducing FAW. For this reason, it is recommended that research on the needs and beliefs of farmers must be conducted before research on ways to improve natural enemy mediated pest control on farms.In terms of management, there are potential negative implications to identifying a controller vs. identifying suppressors. In this case, the controller is the group that reduces FAW success the most, whereas the suppressors will reduce FAW success only to a certain degree. If a controller is identified, it is possible that research funding and policy would focus mainly on improving the species richness and abundance of that group without fully appreciating the redundancies and suppression that the other groups provide. For example, management activities that support bats such as placing bat boxes in a field would do little to support birds or parasitoids that will not or cannot venture far into a maize field. One possible outcome to focusing on only one group is that the suppression effects of the other groups might be negatively affected. Providing habitat for only one group will also decrease the resilience of natural enemy mediated pest control on the farm. Therefore, another recommendation for further research is to evaluate the interactions between the pest-controlling groups carefully before making management suggestions for FAW control.Finally, this review and the findings of the case study suggests that increasing landscape diversity has the potential to improve the abundance of natural enemies to FAW. However, convincing farmers to add trees and perennials at the field scale would be easier with the economic justification that damage from pests will be reduced. Trees provide a myriad of other benefits to increase productivity of farms (Isbell et al., 2017) and it is recommended that this evidence can be used to make the case to farmers to improve tree cover on farms. Trees and perennials on a farm can contribute to subsistence or even cash crop production and still provide benefits to wildlife (Jose, 2012). Options for using trees for more productive farms include planting fruit trees, using trees as fodder banks for livestock, or planting trees that grow a cash crop or medicine (Sinclair, 1999). However, trees might also negatively affect crop production and thus require careful consideration to balance trade-offs (Sida et al., 2018). Conducting research to determine which species are the most effective natural enemies to FAW is critical to combat food insecurity in southern Africa. Research on FAW natural enemy control in concert with improving landscape heterogeneity in a way that is acceptable for farmers is the best path forward for organizations seeking to improve livelihoods in southern Africa.Controlling FAW infestation in maize cultivation in Africa is key to ensuring food security and livelihoods for smallholder farmers. Our review of existing research on natural enemy mediated pest control in the context of the FAW invasion of southern Africa suggests that the most specific and conclusive evidence on natural enemy mediated control of FAW exists for parasitoids followed by bats, whereas the effectiveness of bird predation and generalist predators on FAW control in southern Africa is not well understood. Due to the research gap surrounding natural enemy mediated pest control on subsistence farms, no clear conclusions about its effect on FAW in southern Africa can be drawn. We suggest possible experimental methods for future studies on the relationship between forest proximity and natural enemy mediated pest control. Nevertheless, evidence from previous studies and our case study support the claim that landscape heterogeneity improves natural enemy pest control on farms. Considering that FAW is a highly polyphagous foreign pest, further research is necessary to demonstrate that landscape heterogeneity improves both the habitat for potential natural enemies and the predation level by those enemies on FAW in southern Africa. Therefore, we recommend that future management strategies should focus on improving tree and perennial cover at the field scale to provide habitat for potential natural enemies while simultaneously conducting research on biological mechanisms of natural enemy mediated FAW control and its impact on crop yield.","tokenCount":"6273"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"109c2feb97bd75e9e1ea0f51c3cdcdbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/26bd2543-eea3-40ce-8d7e-2a8c330bd1d9/retrieve","id":"184744759"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d3cbd318-5e66-486b-9da5-d491b6547dd7","pagecount":"2","content":"India became the first nation in the world to adopt a comprehensive agroforestry plan when the President of India launched the National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) at the World Agroforestry Congress in February 2014, an event organized by ICRAF and partners. The policy recognises the potential of agroforestry to reduce poverty, enhance productivity, while also making agricultural landscapes more resilient to the risks of climate change. The comprehensive policy intends to address the increasing demand for timber, food, fuel, fodder, fertiliser and fibre, while at the same time creating employment opportunities and generating income. The policy envisages the development of a National Agroforestry Mission/Board with an initial investment of approximately USD 33 million, to coordinate agroforestry related activities in the country. ICRAF contributed to the policy development process. In June 2011, ICRAF with key national partners, especially the National Advisory Council (NAC) launched an Agroforestry Policy Initiative (API). Another workshop in 2012 and a series of them in 2013 brought out a framework and significant recommendations, which contributed to the preparation of the draft agroforestry policy. These efforts specifically sought to mainstream climate change and its related aspects, and the policy document highlights the climate change policy implementation, including through support to the National Agroforestry Mission/Board.","tokenCount":"205"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"40f852a64b015c75d86135658eeed984","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/766ba693-6200-4727-acef-18c1e6299fcb/retrieve","id":"-527653789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ebd08145-2180-4714-a2a3-c6e439ed4e61","pagecount":"4","content":"In 2019, an estimated 690 million people were malnourished 1 . Improving access to accurate information on health and nutrition status is critical to monitoring for humanitarian disaster, assessing the impacts of interventions and monitoring national progress against benchmarks such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hiring and managing teams As participants in the Improving Dietary and Health Data for Decision-making in Agriculture and Nutrition Actions in Africa project, caregivers use smartphones to record and submit information on consumption, food security and nutritional status on themselves and their children, while also receiving feedback on their progress against internationallyrecognized benchmarks. The application, known as 'Mbiotisho', which means 'our health' in Samburu, relies on icons and audio to help the caregiver record data without requiring literacy, numeracy, or any previous experience with smartphones. Data are stored on the phones until the caregiver has access to cellular connectivity, at which time the data are submitted to the server and evaluated.To pilot Mbiotisho, we partnered with the existing community health infrastructure in Samburu County, Kenya. The region's Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW) helped us identify four Community Health Units (CHUs) that vary in remoteness, accessibility, connectivity coverage, literacy levels and exposure to smartphone use (Figure 1). Five Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) from each CHU were selected to participate on the basis of having been actively collecting and submitting data consistently for the last six months, familiarity with smartphones 2 , and availability for the pilot duration. Here, we note that CHVs already perform monthly check-ups with clients, pregnant women and new caregivers and their infants, as part of their work. As participants in this project, these CHVs also collected verification data from the caregivers while performing their monthly rounds.The CHVs were trained for three days on a data collection tool developed by the project for use by the CHVs, and on related technical modules (curriculum developed by Kenya's Ministry of Health) relevant to the indicators collected by the initiative. The CHVs were also trained on caregivers' application features and how to address basic ICT technical challenges. Partway through the training, two additional CHVs were recruited and added to the project in order to mitigate the impact of prospective CHV attrition.The CHVs then developed a roster of eligible participants from their list of clients, that is, caregivers aged 15-49 years with a child aged 5-7 months at the time of enrolment. The project selected nine caregivers from that roster. The selected caregivers were then invited to participate in the project in their respective CHUs and provided with in-person training followed by participation in unsupervised data collection practice at home. They were trained on basic smartphone use and maintenance, on the indicators being tracked and how to measure them (e.g., food groups, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC)), plus the data collection tool and application features.While participation was voluntary, and the caregivers could record and submit information as little as they liked, the application limited their maximum submissions to once every 24 hours for the child and caregiver check-ups, and once every week for the child MUAC measurement. The CHVs were to complete a child and caregiver check-up each month as they did their standard rounds.During the 12-month pilot, the caregivers submitted over 60,000 records on their health and nutrition and that of one of their children. That is an average of six records per caregiver per week for the duration of the project. Highlighting an additional advantage of the caregivercollected data model, submissions continued during the six months that our field teams were restricted from fieldwork due to the adverse conditions created by the COVID-19 pandemic and related policies 3 . Standard enumerator approaches would have resulted in a large data gap in this period, but the caregivers continued recording and submitted information during the entire period when they did not have any in-person support from our team.Six weeks after the pilot started, we launched a new feature on the caregivers' application, which provided them with reports comparing the consumption and MUAC readings of their index child to that of international benchmarks. Caregivers were briefly trained on the new reporting feature and provided feedback on the changes in the application that they would like to see. Caregivers responded enthusiastically to the new reporting feature and requested a similar addition, one that would track their own progress. The caregiver report was built into the app and launched remotely because field visits were restricted due to the COVID-19 pandemic.At the end of the pilot, a final feedback session was conducted. This was in the form of a structured set of questions administered by CHVs to the caregivers, aimed at eliciting caregivers' views and experiences, plus their recommendations for possible improvements.In total, 18 CHVs and 128 caregivers participated in the endline survey. It was noted that a number of issues, including migration, mobility and COVID-19 restrictions, reduced participation in the endline survey, which was collected in-person during the closing meetings and required that participants travel to a central location.3. See Lepariyo (2020) for more information on details on how the project thrived during the pandemic.Piloting tools for caregiver-collected health and nutrition information 3 Which sections of the app did the participants like and dislike most? We asked the participants to identify the sections of the application that they liked and disliked the most. Both CHVs and caregivers liked the sections on consumption of food groups and measuring and photographing MUAC the most (Figure 2). On dislikes, 2% of caregivers reported that they did not like the MUAC section and 1% of the caregivers most disliked the food groups and health-seeking behaviour. Eighty-eight per cent (88%) of the caregivers reported that they had mostly controlled what the payments were used for, while 56% of the CHVs reported the same (Figure 3, left panel). A large proportion of the participants, 91% of the caregivers and 72% of the CHVs, reported using the incentive to purchase food (Figure 3, right panel).Here we note two large differences between the CHVs and caregivers that could influence the responses to this question. First, all the caregivers were women, but some of the CHVs were men. Second, the CHVs received a steady stipend each month of about USD 30 for their work with the project, and that stipend was more than double the average monthly payments received by the caregivers.  Improving the Mbiotisho application before rolling it out to new regions is key to its future success. Therefore, caregivers were asked to suggest improvements. The most popular response (21%) was to add a measurement of the caregiver's MUAC and accompanying photos. Other suggestions included adding questions on how the food was prepared (11%), adding height and weight measurement questions (7%), and adding a confirmation indicator that the data had been successfully delivered to the server (6%). Seventeen percent (17%) of the caregivers thought the application was good enough and did not require additional features.Based on feedback collected from the caregivers and CHVs, as well as analysis of data variation and accuracy, the application is being updated. Our main lessons from the pilot were that caregivers are willing and able to record and submit information on themselves and their children. In addition, they are interested in the process and value the feedback provided in the app.Mbiotisho was launched in three new locations with different 'difficult-to-reach' populations. This required customizing the application to meet the specific needs of each collaborator. For example, in one case we are working with the World Food Program (WFP) and the National AIDS and STIs Control Program (NASCOP) to monitor undernutrition and overnutrition among people living with HIV. For that implementation, we have added questions related to access to treatment and adherence to treatment regimens, as well as maintaining the core modules on health and nutrition.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is a non-profit institution helping people in low-and middle-income countries to improve their lives, livelihoods and lands through the animals that remain the backbone of small-scale agriculture and enterprise across the developing world. ILRI belongs to CGIAR, a global research-for-development partnership working for a food-secure future. ILRI's funders, through the CGIAR Trust Fund, and its many partners make ILRI's work possible and its mission a reality. Australian animal scientist and Nobel Laureate Peter Doherty serves as ILRI's patron. You are free to use and share this material under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence .better lives through livestock ilri.orgNathaniel Jensen, Vincent Alulu and Watson Lepariyo work for ILRI. Simbarashe Sibanda works for FANRPAN.Nathaniel Jensen ILRI, Kenya N.Jensen@cgiar.orgPage 1: ILRI/Anyota Lesupeer Page 4: UNICEF Ethiopia ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust.","tokenCount":"1440"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e775a24b1f3cd530e462e0dc7e63441","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b288deb7-7f8c-45bb-b00b-1ef48cdb902d/retrieve","id":"22438142"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8b188fb5-6f78-4ee4-96e6-8952169dd907","pagecount":"40","content":"This paper reviews cassava in Asia with emphasis on Thailand, culminating in a definition of the research areas that will contribute effectively to development goals in the region. The first section outlines regional trends in production, trade and utilization, drawing comparisons to global trends. A basic tenet of the paper is that the competitive marketplace -at local, regional and international levels -is rapidly changing cassava's roles in development. Hence, in the second section the discussion is placed in the context of the external social, economic and political environments that impact the cassava sector. The third section then indicates specific constraints and opportunities in the cassava system. Finally, we outline the role of key research areas for the cassava systems of Asia.Annual rate Cassava of growth production 1990-98 ('000 t) (%)Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has its origin in Latin America, where it has been grown as a staple food by the native Indian population for at least 4000 years. After the discovery of the Americas, the crop was introduced by European traders into Africa as a potentially useful food crop; later it was also taken to Asia to be grown as a food security crop and for the extraction of starch. Thus, in the 19 th Century cassava became an important food and industrial crop in southern India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. After the second World War it also became an important industrial crop in Thailand, while in southern China and Vietnam it was initially used as a food crop but has become more recently an important crop for animal (mainly pig) feeding and for processing into various industrial products such as native starch, modified starch, MSG, sweeteners and alcohol.Figure 1 shows the cassava production areas in the world, while Figures 2 and 3 show in more detail the distribution of cassava in Asia and in Thailand respectively. Figure 1 and Table 1 indicate that in 1998 about 56% of cassava was produced in Africa, 27% in Asia, and only 17% in Latin America. During the past decade cassava production in Asia grew at an average annual rate of 1.35%, while in Asia and Latin America it decreased at a rate of 0.82 and 0.64%, respectively.Figure 2 and Table 2 show that within Asia most cassava is produced in Thailand, followed by Indonesia, India, China, Vietnam and the Philippines. Yields are by far the highest in India, with an average yield of 24.0 t/ha, compared with 16.3 t/ha in Thailand and 14.4 t/ha for Asia as a whole. To a large degree, Thailand has defined the variations in total annual output for Asia over the past 30 years. Other countries have made relatively modest contributions to the fluctuations in aggregate production (Figures 4 and 5). In Thailand, cassava area and production increased markedly during the 1970s and early 80s, reaching a peak in 1989, after which both declined (Figure 6). The reduction in area is not being offset fully by yield increases, as the crop has been pushed towards more marginal land in the Northeast. It appears that this trend may have reversed over the past few years with widespread adoption of new varieties and improved production practices.in Asia in 1998. Asia, 1961Asia, -2000 Source: FAOSTAT, 2001FAOSTAT, . 0 1961FAOSTAT, 1988FAOSTAT, 1991FAOSTAT, 1994FAOSTAT, 1997FAOSTAT, 2000 Million tonnes 0 1 2 3 4 5 Million hectares 1964Million hectares 1967Million hectares 1970Million hectares 1973Million hectares 1976Million hectares 1979Million hectares 1982Million hectares 1985 Production AreaFigure 5. Cassava production trends in Asia's principal producing countries. Source: FAOSTAT, 2001FAOSTAT, . 0 5 1961FAOSTAT, 1964FAOSTAT, 1967FAOSTAT, 1970FAOSTAT, 1973FAOSTAT, 1976FAOSTAT, 1979FAOSTAT, 1982FAOSTAT, 1985FAOSTAT, 1988FAOSTAT, 1991FAOSTAT, 1994FAOSTAT, 1997FAOSTAT, 2000 Million Most crops occupy the micro-environments where they are best adapted within a region. Cassava, though, rarely does. In rainfall-limited areas such as eastern Java, northeast Thailand, or non-irrigated southern India, few crops can match the stability of production of cassava. Cassava normally occupies the hillsides and drought-prone areas, and acid soil regions where other crops can be successfully grown only with high input levels.Production practices vary widely across the region (Table 3). The vast majority of farms in Asia are small, usually in the range of 0.5-5 ha. In the more land-rich areas, cassava competes principally with tree crops: coconuts in the Philippines; coconuts and rubber in Kerala, India; oil palm and rubber in Malaysia and the outer islands of Indonesia; cashew in southern Vietnam and rubber in eastern Thailand.Cassava is mainly monocropped, but intercropping is common on parts of Java where there are not severe soil and water constraints. Main intercrops here are upland rice, maize and various grain legumes. In Tamil Nadu of India, intercropping with vegetables has become relatively common. In China and Vietnam, maize, peanuts, black beans and various minor species, such as watermelon or pumpkin, may be intercropped, usually at a low density. Cassava is commonly used as an intercrop during the establishment of young tree crops like rubber and cashew, especially in China and South Vietnam.In contrast to both Latin America and Africa, genetic diversity is extremely limited in commercial plantings in Asia, with the exception of Indonesia. In most countries only a few varieties account for most of the production. The narrow genetic base has apparently not led to any major production disasters. It did, however, limit the possibilities to extend the range of adaptation, or to make adequate improvement in some characters. By good fortune, few of the pests and diseases of the New World found their way to Asia, so a broad genetic base was less critical for supplying resistance genes, as compared with Africa or Latin America.Production practices may be fully manual, or with mechanized/animal-powered land preparation. The broadly rising incomes and labor costs in Asia are motivating increased mechanization, especially in Thailand and Malaysia, and in the plantation systems of other countries. Most other operations are manual. The largest production cost for cassava in Asia is consistently labor, especially for land preparation, weed control, and harvest. But many of the labor inputs for cassava are technically difficult to substitute with mechanization on small holdings with irregular terrain.Production costs vary significantly across the region (Table 4). Production costs per ha for advanced farmers in Thailand are higher than in Indonesia and the Philippines, but lower than in Vietnam, China and India. When calculated per tonne of fresh roots produced, production costs in Thailand are slightly higher than in Indonesia and the Philippines, but much lower than in India and China. Table 5 shows, however, that for the average Thai farmer the cost of production per ha is lower, but the cost of production per tonne is considerally higher due to the lower yields obtained. It is clear that cassava products from Thailand can remain competitive on the world market only if farmers increase their yields through the use of improved varieties and better production practices.   Adapted from TTDI, 2000.In general, however, Asian countries are comparatively efficient producers, by use of some inputs, good management, and low pest and disease pressures. Table 6 illustrates production costs for Thailand, Brazil and Colombia, and the competitive advantage that Thailand has had in world markets in part because of lower costs, both in production and processing.  Henry and Gottret, 1996. Diversity is the defining characteristic of cassava products and markets in Asia, both within and across countries. About 40% of cassava in the region is destined for human consumption (in Indonesia, the level is about two-thirds) (FAOSTAT, 1997). Most of the remainder is processed for industrial purposes, principally pellets for animal feed, and starch. Fresh roots are not traded on any significant scale. The initial processing defines to some degree the market sector to which roots can be destined. This is unlike the grains such as maize which are traded as whole, unprocessed grain, to be converted into any number of products in the importing country.Outside of Kerala, India and some poorer districts of China and Vietnam, nearly all cassava for food is first processed; direct consumption of baked or boiled fresh roots is minor. This form of consumption is largely a rural practice, and often by households having cassava in their own backyard garden. Fresh consumption has limited growth potential, and in fact will probably decline with increasing urbanization and changes in dietary preferences.Cassava flours come in many forms. The most common is gaplek in Indonesia. Roots are peeled, chipped or sliced, and dried. The dried chunks are ground or milled to a meal, which is then used in a wide array of food preparations. It is consumed especially in times of rice scarcity, and partially substitutes for rice in rural daily diets. Cassava flour may also partially substitute for wheat flour in bakery and other products. This is still minor in Asia, but is reported unofficially from several countries (Henry and Gottret, 1996).The commercial cassava pellet industry has its origin in Thailand, which has a long history of an agricultural economy driven by exports. With a surplus land base, rice exports became the foundation of Thai trade up to World War II. Development of the upland sector in the North and Northeast brought diversification to agriculture, adding maize, cassava, pineapple and sugarcane.Exports of dried cassava products climbed steadily up to 1990, but declined afterwards as Europe began to withdraw its favorable import conditions. Thailand has aggressively sought alternative markets, with some success, but not nearly at levels absorbed by Europe in the 1980s (Figure 7, Table 7). While the potential for development of internal markets remains promising, the generally low commodity prices of the past several years have made this difficult.  Starch for industry is classified as native or modified. The technology for modifying starches with physical, chemical and biological processes is highly advanced and evolving rapidly. These modified starches are absorbing an increasing market share. At the same time, there is pressure in some industries, especially foods, to move away from modification based on chemicals.Starch-derived products include sweeteners (high fructose syrup, glucose syrup), dextrins, monosodium glutamate, pharmaceuticals and various chemicals. Starch is used in large quantities in the manufacture of paper, plywood, textiles, and as a filler/stabilizer in processed foods. New products from starch are continually entering the marketplace. Biodegradable plastics appear to be especially promising. Throughout the region, the industry is moving toward larger, more technologically advanced plants, and small, less efficient factories are closing.Thailand is leading the Asian starch boom, surpassing Indonesia in recent years (Figure 8). Both export sales and domestic use have increased significantly. Although the starch export industry of Thailand has been active since the 1940s, it was rejuvenated in the 1980s when Europe began to set limits on imports of cassava chips and pellets. This was also a time of rapid economic growth in Thailand, and the starch industry attracted the attention of entrepreneurs. At present, about 45% of cassava root production in Thailand is used for production of starch, 55% of which is utilized locally for production of various products, while 45% is exported (Figure 9). The focus for exports has been on modified starches, to get around some of the import barriers imposed against native starch. Nonetheless, the increase in starch exports has not nearly kept pace with the decline in pellet exports. Private and public sectors are cooperating to identify and exploit internal growth markets for starch as a complementary strategy to export-orientation. Asia ( in 1992).Source: Ostertag, 1996 Internal markets absorb most of Indonesia's starch. Nearly two-thirds goes into cassava crackers (krupuk). Because of the specific starch characteristic required for this product, maize starch is not a competitor. This gives some insulation from the fluctuations of world starch prices. Both China and Vietnam have significantly expanded and modernized their starch industries. Monosodium glutamate and glucose (starch derivatives) are rapidly growing markets in both countries. In Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam, cassava is virtually the only raw material for starch production. Any growth in starch demand should benefit the cassava sector. In China, India and the Philippines, there are other starch sources (especially sweetpotato and maize in China), but these are often used in industries such as noodle-making where cassava starch does not compete. Hence, even in these countries the market potential for cassava starch is strong.In some countries cassava is used for the production of ethanol. In the late 1970s several alcohol distilling factories were set up in Brazil using fresh cassava roots as raw material. The alcohol was used as automotive fuel, either mixed with gasoline (up to 20% alcohol) for which no motor modification is required, or as pure anhydrous ethanol, in which case the carburator and some other parts need to be modified (de Souza Lima, 1980). Both result in less atmospheric pollution than the use of gasoline. By the late 1980s, however, nearly all cassava-based distilleries were converted over to using sugarcane as the raw material, since the sugarcane bagasse could be used as fuel, thus saving on energy costs.In China, several factories in Guangxi, are now using the solid waste (pulp) of the cassava starch industry for the production of ethanol (Gu Bi and Ye Guozhen, 2000), and in the Philippines the San Miguel Corporation is setting up a cassava-based alcohol factory in Negros Oriental for use in the liquor industry (Bacusmo, 2001).Thailand's continuing efforts to reduce its dependency on the European animal feed market will dominate directions of the Asian cassava sector for the next decade. This will take several forms: introducing production technology to keep prices competitive with alternative energy sources; aggressively seeking new markets outside Europe; development of internal feed markets; and further diversification into starch and flour, with strong support for research on new processes and products. Other countries of the region, once with aspirations to penetrate export markets for pellets, are now recognizing that opportunities will depend very much on increasing production and processing efficiencies (Table 8).Prospects for starch vary widely depending on the specific market. There are two extremes: purely commodity starches with generic application, and highly specialized starches reliant on functionality. The latter are often derived from modified starches. However, in the middle, there are starches that are comparatively specialized, though sharing functionality with other starches. In this group, functionality is the initial criteria of suitability, followed by price and supply. For generic starch, the different sources (maize, cassava, sweetpotato, white potato) compete with one another on the basis of price. The markets for specialized starch are rather uncertain. On the one hand there is increasing demand, but on the other, there is a continually evolving technology for modifying starches to meet specific product properties. While technology for modification is moving rapidly, at the same time there is a strong trend away from modified starches in some products and in some key markets like the US and EU. For example, baby foods use virtually no modified starches, and the amounts used in soups is much reduced compared to just five years ago. Ostertag (1996) suggests that most developing countries will use their resources most effectively to first concentrate on developing internal starch markets, to reduce the risks inherent in the export sector.Whether or not the use of alcohol as automotive fuel is economically viable depends mainly on the world price of oil. During the past two decades oil prices have been relatively low and alcohol substitution would be more expensive; however, this can change in the future as oil supplies become exhausted or when for political reasons production does not keep pace with demand.In a recent study of the major tropical root crops, Scott et al. (2000a) project cassava production and utilization in the year 2020, based on a model that takes into account virtually all the world's food production and consumption (International Model for Policy Analysis of Commodities and Trade (IMPACT)). Moderate demand growth for cassava products in Asia through 2020 will sustain viable cassava-based development. The growth sectors vary within the region. In China, growth in feed demand will be among the strongest anywhere, at 2.1% per year, accompanied by a continuing trend for lower direct use as food. Southeast Asia should see healthy growth in all sectors: 1.4% in food, 0.13% for feed, and a total of 1.25% (including industrial use) (Table 9). The import demand in the non-cassava producing countries of East Asia will rise at 1.0% per year, providing some additional market possibilities.  Rosegrant and Gerpacio, 1997;and Scott et al., 2000b.Agricultural research has a key role in development. But for maximum impact it must be attuned to the broader social and economic environments of the target area. Progress towards improvement of production, processing and market development systems that will broadly benefit society is intimately related to broader trends and influences.The policy arena, possibly more than any other influence, sets the stage for cassava's role in a given country. Agricultural policy, as well as broader economic and trade policies, impact the cassava sector in several ways. Liberalized trade became the economic mantra of the 1990s. The watershed Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations, under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was a fundamental influence on the direction of the global economy. While more recent attempts at broad trade agreements under the World Trade Organization, successor to GATT, have been less successful, there is little likelihood of reversing the broad trend toward freer trade. Trade liberalization will bring complex and sometimes unpredictable adjustments to agriculture. The implementation of regional trade agreements is well-advanced in Asia. The Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation forum (APEC) has 18 members, which in total comprise half the world economy. Most of the major cassava-producing countries of the region (except India) are members. APEC aims to achieve free and open trade and investment by 2010 for its industrialized members and by 2020 for the others.Previously-protected sectors of the economy are in flux as they are subjected to the open market. Countries that expect to export their products are under strong pressure to open their markets to imports as well. Agriculture has been one of the sectors most broadly affected by this trend, since it is of nearly universal relevance to countries' economies, and touches fundamentally on the lives of nearly all people. On the whole, liberalized trade agreements should drive broad-based growth through specialization, efficiency gains, and increased trade in agricultural products. In a free trade environment, commodity prices typically fluctuate more (based on supply and demand) than in a regulated environment. Producers are more likely to switch in and out of crops to take best advantage of these fluctuations. The dilemma that cassava-producers often face, however, is the fact that they have little flexibility in choice of crops. First, on the more marginal soils, cassava may be the only choice without resorting to costly inputs. Secondly, the nature of cassava's propagation does not allow quickly gearing up for production if a supply of planting material has not been assured by the previous year's crop. Stabilizing demand in an environment of freer trade will depend on the ability of the industry to respond quickly to shifts in product demand.A second trend important to trade is the tendency to add value at the site of origin, and to trade in processed products. By 2020, there will be far less trade of the traditional raw agricultural products (e.g., grains); most will be products with value added either by processing or through genetically engineered specialty traits incorporated for specific enduses. Often, trade policies affecting processed products are different from those imposed on raw products.Population increase remains a major driving force that will shape development progress, at least for a few more decades to come. Poorer countries absorb most of the impact. While on a global level it seems that food production can keep pace with population increase, poverty and hunger persist in many countries, especially in the tropical belt. The consequences of these dual scourges of poverty and hunger then reverberate throughout all areas of human and environmental well-being.The United Nations projects that global population will continue to rise to about the year 2040, when it will have doubled from today's level, to 8-11 billion. Growth rate should decline from about 1.4% to 1.0% by 2020. This mean rate hides the highly disproportionate differences between developed and developing countries -a 3.4% population increase in the former, compared to 35.8% in the latter, in the period from 1998 to 2020. By far the greatest burden of this continued population growth will be felt in urban areas. Latin America is already at a level of almost three-quarters of its population living in cities. Like much of the rest of the world, Asia has been moving toward greater urbanization for at least several decades (Figure 10). Both Africa and Asia appear set to continue a nearly linear trend toward greater urbanization, with about equal numbers of rural and urban residents in both regions by 2020 (FAOSTAT). This is largely the dynamic that drives commercial agriculture --urban dwellers need to purchase nearly all their food.Source: FAOSTAT, 2001. Population dynamics affect cassava production and marketing in various ways. In the simplest of cases, population increase imposes a proportional increase on food demand. With most of the productive land already cultivated, this places pressure on marginal environments where cassava has strong adaptive advantages. On the other side, urbanization typically reduces demand for cassava and its products for direct food use. Huang and Bouis (1996) note several reasons for shifts in food demand that follow urbanization:-A wider choice of foods is available in urban markets -People are exposed to new dietary patterns from different regional traditions -Urban lifestyles place a premium on foods that require less time to prepare -Transaction costs are lower -Urban occupations generally require fewer calories than more physically demanding rural ones Except in Indonesia and southern India, cassava has never been broadly popular as a dietary staple in Asia. In several countries there remains a considerable stigma against cassava as a food --a reflection of past difficult economic times. Rising incomes will further erode cassava's direct role in Asian diets. The overwhelming preference for rice as the starchy staple, and the increasing demand for meat (Figure 11), will keep per capita consumption levels low throughout Asia. The growth in meat consumption, however, is the basis for projecting strong potential to use cassava for on-farm feeding, or in balanced rations, especially for pigs and chickens. While not all countries have benefited equally, Asian economies on the whole have seen healthy growth in the past two decades. Industrial development, the service sector, and labor demand, have all had an impact that affects all sectors of society. Rising household incomes open the way for purchase of consumer goods, education and health care. Improved tax bases contribute to public infrastructure in the form of roads, schools and public services. In this scenario, cassava tends to move toward industrial uses, such as animal feed and starch-based products.Cassava's competitive position in national and international markets is closely linked to internal and world supplies and market prices of alternative commodities or products. Because of cassava's versatility, it may compete with a range of products in different markets. In the market for balanced feed rations, cassava in dried chip or pellet form competes mainly with sorghum or maize, and sometimes barley. On a global level, maize is the principal source of starch.In the cassava-producing countries of Asia, rice, maize and cassava production all increased three to five-fold in the past twenty-five years (Figure 12). Even this dramatic success, however, was not adequate for supplying growing and somewhat more affluent populations. Grain imports, dominated by wheat, maize, rice and soybeans, rose from just over ten million tons in 1960 to 47 million tonnes in 1995, with some decline again in the latter part of the decade during the Asian economic slowdown (Figure 13). However, on a global basis, grain supplies have increased steadily and prices have been declining in inflation-corrected terms. Decline during the last five years has been particularly steep. Prices in 1999 were virtually identical to those in 1985 (uncorrected for inflation) (Figure 14). Projections by IFPRI and FAO indicate that if governments pursue appropriate economic policy and invest in agricultural research, cereal prices will continue their downward trend (Pinstrup-Anderson and Garrett, 1996). The cassava market will, for the most part, parallel these declining commodity prices. Rosegrant and Gerpacio (1997) project a price decline for cassava on world markets of 3.4% by the year 2020. While this is a lesser decline than projected for other roots and tubers, it represents a substantial challenge to growers. Source: FAOSTAT.Prices of both cassava starch and hard pellets exported from Thailand have seen an almost continuous decline since their peaks in mid 1995 (Figure 15). At the end of 2000, the world price of both products was less than 50% of what it was five years earlier. This and the closing of tariff advantages in the EU has led to a steady decline in the price of fresh roots in Thailand (Figure 16). Except for a sudden rise in root prices in early 1998 (due to a shortage of roots at a time when world starch prices temporarily increased dramatically), the fresh roots price declined steadily from a peak of about 2000 baht/tonne in early 1996 to about 850 baht/tonne in Feb 2001. During the past year the price has remained low until late 2001 when it increased to about 1,200 baht/tonne (TTTA newsletter of Dec 15, 2001). At these very low prices, farmers' gross income barely covers the cost of production (Table 5), and they will soon look for alternative crops or other sources of income. Only with the use of better production practices can farmers survive the current low prices for cassava roots (see \"advanced farmers\" in Table 5).Scientific advances underpin development. Four elemental shifts underway will define the agricultural landscape in the next few decades in developing countries: (1) the privatization of knowledge and technology; (2) the biotechnology and information revolutions; (3) the increasing policy focus on low-cost food supplies for urban centers as compared to income-generation and food security concerns for producers; and (4) increasing sector specialization in world markets; the trend toward specialized value-added traits for most commodities.These shifts have fundamental implications for the gap between science in developing and developed countries. Without sweeping agreements on equitable interchange of information, genetic resources and technology between North and South, there will be a continual further eroding of competitiveness in developing countries. The recognition that, in the long term, this gap is detrimental to everyone, should drive new interest in mechanisms to improve investment in research in developing countries. During the next decade the large multi-national agricultural research firms will begin to see the developing countries as a major growth market for biotechnology-derived, IPR-protected technology. However, a turn-around in narrowing the science and technology gap that exists between developed and developing country capacity in science is not yet on the horizon.Subsistence farming requires virtually no infrastructure --no need for purchased inputs, and no need for highways for reaching markets. Commercial agriculture, on the other hand, depends heavily on infrastructure. Rapid economic expansion and urbanization have outstripped the capacity of existing infrastructure, and created serious impediments to further investments and growth. Insufficient electricity generation capacity, outdated and inadequate telecommunications facilities, poor roads and inefficient ports are the most crucial infrastructure problems.Purchased inputs for agriculture are for the most part available, but may not be used on cassava because of other constraints. There is little likelihood of major investment in infrastructure aimed solely at supporting cassava development, but the general development of the region will bring collateral benefits to growers, processors and consumers. The Thai cassava industry maintains a competitive edge over its neighbors because of earlier investments in processing facilities, roads and harbor infrastructure.  There are several fundamental issues surrounding development strategies that exploit marginal lands, both from the economic and environmental vantage points. Although less-favored areas make up only about 24% of the total land area in developing countries, they contain more than 36% of all the rural poor. The largest share of these people, 263 million, live in Asia. In the past, governments and donors adopted a strategy of investment in high-potential areas, since by definition, these generate more agricultural output and higher economic growth at lower cost. Even with these strategies, however, population growth and pressure on the environment have continued to worsen in less favored areas. A consensus is now evolving that critical investment in these areas is socially necessary, economically viable, and imperative for reversing serious land degradation.Cassava can be a key component within this strategy. The comparative advantage that the crop has here is quite strong, but there are trends that could change this. First, other crops may begin to offer broader alternatives to cassava farmers. Breeders of several species, especially maize and sorghum, have paid more attention to stress tolerance in the past twenty years. There are certainly practical limits to which breeders can take a given species in adapting it to new environments, but there is also apparently considerable margin for improvement for most crops in stressed environments. This progress could displace cassava from some areas, and perhaps continue to push the crop toward the very poorest soils. The need for effective and economical soil fertility maintenance and erosion control will increase with this trend.Secondly, farmers' increased purchasing power, and technology for soil stabilization, will allow improvement in some areas, from marginal to moderately productive conditions. This would also tend to displace cassava with higher value, more demanding crops. In either scenario, cassava will probably be pushed further toward the very poorest soils, exacerbating the risk of environmental degradation. Clearly, if there are crops that provide better income to growers than cassava, and/or are less of a threat to the environment, these should be encouraged.Most national cassava programs have given research priority to resolving production constraints, especially through varietal improvement, and crop and soil management. This approach evolved from the era of explosive growth in cassava markets, and the need to meet market demand with increased production. As the challenges of marketing cassava products become more acute, and environmental concerns more apparent, programs are shifting the balance of research investment to include both demand and supply factors.In an exercise to quantify constraints on global production, processing and marketing, CIAT surveyed a broad range of scientists and others knowledgeable about the cassava system, for their experience and perspectives (Henry and Gottret, 1996). A followup study (Van Norel, 1997) obtained further information from national programs, intending especially to upgrade information on post-harvest constraints. Table 10 summarizes key information for Asia, with comparison to global estimates. In spite of the rather hypothetical nature of some of these estimates, the relative values across categories of constraints, and across continents, give a tangible basis for prioritizing research. The following sections review the constraints that could be targeted to achieve the greatest economic impact.  Henry and Gottret, 1996. a. Yield potential Intrinsic yield potential of varieties may be the single most important factor limiting yields in Asia (Table 10). The definition of yield potential for cassava needs to be considered within the context of the crop's predominant role in Asia as an upland crop, in poor soils and with irregular rainfall. The CIAT survey specified a moderate level of management inputs, within the reach of most farmers of the region.For the medium-term future (10-15 years), this would rarely include irrigation, with the exception of existing irrigated areas. The definition specifies nutrient use at low to moderate levels, but with most other agronomic practices at optimum levels --land preparation, planting systems (time of planting, stake position, spacing), and weed control. Within these parameters, the analysis suggested a possible 26% yield gain across 89% of the Asian cassava-growing area, or a 24% potential increase over all Asia.Until 15-20 years ago, the germplasm base in Asia was very narrow, with most countries relying on only a handful of varieties. This was undoubtedly one of the principal constraints to improving yield potential. Thailand was the extreme case, where all but a small percentage of area was planted to Rayong 1. Indonesia has reasonably broad diversity, but still narrow in comparison to Latin America. With the establishment of the CIAT Regional Office in Bangkok in 1983, one of the main thrusts has been to increase genetic diversity in the region. Typically, breeders introduce ten to thirty thousand seeds, each genetically distinct, every year from nurseries in Colombia. Even though only a small fraction of this diversity ever reaches farmers' fields, there is little doubt that far more genetic diversity was introduced into Asia in the past twenty-five years than in the previous two hundred.The Thai breeding program has been particularly successful in broadening the genetic base by the introduction of sexual seed from Latin American. Through selection and an intensive crossing program, a large number of new varieties have been developed and released, replacing now almost entirely the traditional variety Rayong 1 (Table 11).  Sarakarn, 2001. b. Soil management Significant constraints from low soil fertility and erosion affect much of Asia's cassava. Nitrogen is frequently the limiting nutrient, in contrast to Latin America, where potassium and phosphorus tend to be more limiting (Howeler, 1995;2002). Fertilizer recommendations have been established on the basis of extensive soil analyses and fertilizer trials. Fertility constraints are as much a function of education and credit availability as the lack of scientific information. In India, China, Vietnam and Thailand, many farmers use small amounts of fertilizer, usually not at economically optimum levels. In Indonesia, associated crops tend to be fertilized, with some residual benefit to cassava. Elsewhere, fertilizer use is very limited except for special situations, such as large commercial plantations. It is estimated that economically optimum use of practices to improve soil fertility could add 22% to current yields across the region, or over ten million tonnes.Limiting soil erosion is a challenge in virtually any system involving annual crops on sloping fields. Cassava has two features that increase this challenge somewhat: it is easy to plant on steep slopes, with minimal land preparation; and it has a relatively slow rate of canopy formation. On the positive side, the long growing season means that the soil is covered by vegetation and is undisturbed over a long period of time once the canopy is established (Howeler et al., 2000). The survey estimated potential yield increases of 0-10% by adoption of erosion control practices. More importantly, erosion control is indispensable for sustaining longer term productivity. c. Crop management On a regional basis, Asia has higher average yields than either Latin America or Africa. Farmers tend to manage their crops intensively, because of high population density and the need to optimize productivity of land. Hence, only modest yield increases can be expected from improving crop management (excluding soil management) in the Asian situation. According to the CIAT survey, quality planting material (stakes) and better weed control could contribute 7-8% each to yield, while optimum land preparation and spacing would provide modest yield improvements of only 3-4% each.Weed control consumes the second highest level of labor input among crop management operations in Asia, from a low of 8 mandays/ha in Thailand to a high of over 200 in Tamil Nadu, India (see Table 4). In general weed control is good; survey results indicate inadequate control in about 37% of area planted, for an overall potential yield increase of about 7%. Most weed control is manual, but herbicide use is increasing in all countries, and is most wide-spread in Thailand. As demand for herbicides grows, agroindustries will find it profitable to develop herbicides targeted more specifically to the cassava plant and cropping systems. Currently herbicides are adapted from other crop systems to cassava, and often have not been adequately researched to optimize their use.A herbicide-resistant cassava could prove highly beneficial to growers. Herbicide resistance, especially to glyphosate, is already incorporated into several crops and is widely used in the United States and Argentina, especially in soybeans and maize. The last few years have seen some increase in consumer concern about food safety and environmental impact for these genetically engineered crops. So it is somewhat uncertain how quickly the technology will spread to other crops, even where there is high potential grower demand.Drought imposes severe constraints on cassava growth and yield in parts of Asia, particularly northeast Thailand, eastern Java, and southern India (especially Tamil Nadu). Survey results indicate a potential yield increase of 9%, through a combination of practical management, and breeding for varietal adaptation. Management can include improving the soil's water-retaining capacity through incorporating organic matter, surface mulching to reduce evaporation, or ridging to capture maximum rainfall. No increase is projected through expansion of area under irrigation.Perhaps the single most striking contrast between cassava production in Asia and elsewhere is the severity of pest and disease constraints. With a few important exceptions, these constraints are very limited in Asia. The Indian cassava mosaic disease, with etiology and symptoms similar to the African strain, occurs exclusively in India. Control is mainly through resistant varieties. The survey estimated a potential medium-term yield increase of 6% within the affected area. This low figure reflects the fact that moderately resistant varieties are already widely used by farmers. Root rots and bacterial blight are endemic in the more humid environments, especially in the Philippines, and the sub-tropics. Root rots can be controlled mainly through management (rotation, land preparation) and bacterial blight through resistance breeding.Among the arthropod pests, only the red spider mite is of broad importance. Its control through host plant resistance or biological control could contribute about 2% to overall yields in Asia. The pest and disease situation will require constant monitoring, since introduction of new pests or pathogens, or changes in cultural practices could set the stage for new yield-reducing outbreaks.The sum of individual components defines a potential yield increase of 96% by moderate alleviation of constraints. Given the existence of technology components to address nearly all these constraints to some degree, it should be possible to test the reality of these figures. The Asia Cassava Research Network has carried out well-managed trials in Asia for almost two decades. While breeding trials are aimed mainly at identifying potential new varieties, the trials also include good soil preparation, optimum plant spacing and weed control, and moderate fertilizer use. Yields of the hybrids, under good management in representative cassava areas, have been two to five times greater than the national average. Most of this increase appears to be from management, since hybrids yielded about 30% more than local varieties, similar to the potential increase projected by the constraints analysis.In the context of the survey, post-harvest constraints do not quite fit into the same analytical scheme as production factors, for projecting yield gains from constraint alleviation. In order to be consistent with units for yield gain, the post-harvest elements are divided into three parts: quality improvements are based on expected price premiums; gains in processing on reduced costs per unit; and gains in marketing on reduction in marketing margins (mainly reducing consumer prices). These estimates have some highly subjective components, and are biased toward the very conservative side.Improved root quality will have the highest overall positive impact on post-harvest constraints (Table 10). Two traits are especially relevant: starch and post-harvest deterioration. Starch content is key to nearly every use of cassava in Asia, and especially the industrial sectors of starch extraction and pellets for animal feed. Raising starch content by breeding is clearly feasible, and has been a major objective of genetic improvement in most programs. Much of the recent success of new varieties in Thailand derives from a higher starch content as compared to the traditional variety, Rayong 1 (CIAT, 1996).Cassava roots normally begin to deteriorate within a few days after harvest. The processing industry has had to develop elaborate systems for coordinating supply of raw material with processing capacity. This has often worked best when roots are converted at the farm or village level to a more stable product, such as dried chips. When fresh roots are delivered to a central factory, many small producers must coordinate their harvests. Even under the best circumstances factories processing fresh roots cannot operate at full capacity throughout the year. Extending the shelf-life of fresh cassava roots could add valuable flexibility to cassava management systems.Currently-known management techniques include refrigeration, paraffin-coating of roots, and treatment with microbial inhibitors, followed by storage in plastic bags. None of these are practical for managing large volumes of roots destined for processing. A genetic approach seems most appropriate, given the ease and low cost of implementation. Longer term, there is reason to believe biotechnology approaches could offer innovative solutions (Wenham, 1995).Cassava thrives in Asia, and particularly in Thailand, because of the ability of growers, entrepreneurs, R&D institutions, and policy-makers to adapt to evolving physical, biological, economic and social environments. Optimizing the role of cassava as a catalyst for development in the coming years will build on these attributes and resources. Strategies revolve around the constraints and opportunities described in preceding sections.There are three broad priority areas for intervention by R&D institutions: (1) stimulating higher demand through market development;(2) adding post-harvest value through process and product development; and (3) improved production systems through technology for increasing production efficiency and profitability. In addition, institutional support, including education of policy-makers, is an umbrella activity covering all these areas. Interventions in production, processing and marketing cannot be undertaken independently --there is continual interaction and feedback among these system components.Sometimes market demand drives product development, and sometimes new products create market opportunities. For either to succeed, products and markets need to develop in coordination.Cassava markets are of two broad types: markets where cassava competes directly with other carbohydrate sources; and markets that make use of the specific traits of cassava. The non-specific markets include animal feed and most of the uses for starch. It is by far the largest current type of market for cassava in Asia. These markets will be driven by macro-economic forces such as growing demand for meat in developing countries, and the ever-widening range of uses for starch. The cassava sector, mainly processors, will need to drive product development for replacement of existing ingredients, including convincing the user that the alternative product is as good, if not better, than that already used.There is a clear need to promote research on markets that exploit cassava's unique starch characteristics. In markets where starch-consuming industries are beginning to use functional ingredients, tremendous market opportunity presents itself. Success depends on the ability of the starch industry to assist the processors in technical issues relevant to application development. This is a strategy with considerable risk, as noted by Ostertag (1996). The technology for starch conversion is well-advanced and evolving rapidly. New technologies will allow native starch from almost any source to be converted to specific market needs, and thus the differential between raw materials tends to disappear. There is, nonetheless, considerable concern about the engineering of microorganisms (for converting starch) that could have unknown consequences in the environment, or the health and environmental effects of chemical modification. With that caveat, there certainly is still some opportunity for developing markets that favor cassava starch, or expanding existing ones. Success will come mainly from partnerships between public R&D institutions and the private sector.A subsistence crop has a very short pathway from production to utilization --it is usually destined either for direct consumption by the producer, or fed to animals to obtain meat, eggs or milk. The global trend in commodity markets is to continually add value to products as consumers increase their economic position. Low-value raw products at the farm level pass a series of transformations, each of which produces income or other value to a particular consumer. In developed countries, even basic food products may be valued at hundreds of times the price received by the farmer for the raw product.Without a tradition of consuming fresh cassava, Asia has been a leader in processing innovations to meet demands of new and changing markets. All of these began at the household and cottage-industry level. At the level of household processing, Indonesia is the leading example of diversity and innovation. Also at the household level, Thailand has fine-tuned chipping and drying to a highly efficient and cost-effective system that gets a high quality product to the market in a timely manner. In Vietnam and China, farmers feed cassava to pigs to obtain a value-added and more marketable product.Animal feed and starch are the principal growth markets for the medium-range future. Both have a very broad range of levels of sophistication --from rudimentary onfarm exploitation to high-tech industries. Across this range, there are interventions that have high potential to benefit the rural poor. The principal need for processing innovations lies in the early stages of product conversion. These are the stages closest to the producer, and more likely to bring benefit to the rural poor. They are the stages where a product is converted to something that is more likely to be used by an already-developed industry. For example, the animal feed industry can very readily use hard cassava pellets in balanced rations. No new technology is required. However, converting fresh roots to hard pellets came from a series of innovations specific to cassava's characteristics. Likewise, the efficient extraction of high quality starch from cassava requires technology specific for cassava, but the use of that starch in any number of industries is often the same as for any other starch. A major focus of cassava R&D institutions should be on innovations that bring additional value to growers.The animal feed export sector, which so much defined the dynamics of the Asian cassava industry for more than twenty years, is still a major force for economic development. It is, however, a market that will require every innovation and efficiency just to retain current market share, because of the increasing competitiveness of coarse grains on world markets. No country of Asia is basing its plans for the cassava sector on dramatically expanded possibilities for export of cassava pellets.Demand for animal feed will continue rapid expansion in developing countries. It is a growth sector for which several cassava-growing countries should be able to create viable internal industries. These industries may be successful across a range of scales of operation --from rudimentary on-farm feeding of pigs to large, intensive poultry operations. There is, however, as in most industries, a continual move toward larger operations that exploit economies of scale. Domestic use of cassava roots for production of animal feed in Thailand is presently minimal, mainly because of the absence of a relatively cheap source of protein to mix with the roots to produce an adequately balanced ration. Recent research at Khon Kaen University, Thailand, has shown that chopped and dried cassava shoots (leaves, petioles and non-lignified stems) contain up to 25% crude protein; its use as a supplement in dairy and beef cattle has given excellent results (Wanapat, 2001). Similarly, ensiled cassava leaves mixed with dry cassava root powder has given very good results in chicken, pig and dairy cattle feeding trials in Vietnam (Le Duc Ngoan, 2001), and with pigs in southern China (Liu Jian Ping and Zhuang Zhong Tang, 2001). The animal feed market will thrive with or without a cassava component. For cassava to reach its full potential participation, however, will require aggressive R&D input, mainly to find ways of economically growing, harvesting and drying cassava leaves, so these can be mixed with dry cassava chips to form pellets of balanced feed for specific animal species.The animal feed market for cassava is a very mature market. The potential for additional market share lies in cost reductions, and added value by way of conversions that target specific markets. For example, the pelleting industries could develop capacity to mix complete rations, or even begin contracting the growing of chickens or pigs.Because of the technical level of the starch and starch derivatives industries, there are possibilities for adding value at the farm level for this sector, by improving the level and consistency of root quality. The starch industry will contribute to rural development mainly through a higher demand for raw roots, and premiums for starch content and quality. Research should continue to focus on pre-and post-harvest crop management that meets the increasingly demanding standards of industry.Markets for flour substitution seem to be more difficult to penetrate on a large scale. Quality and supply are very critical. There has been a tendency for demand to fluctuate too widely to interest major commitment from processors. This market needs continued research because of its high potential if price-competitiveness, high quality, and constant supply can be assured.In broad terms, producers have three possible alternatives to increase their net income from growing cassava: (1) increase yields, to reduce per-unit production costs; (2) reduce costs, while maintaining production levels; or, (3) increase the value of the product offered for sale while keeping costs and production levels the same.Of course these are not mutually exclusive pathways, and each category has a number of possible variations. Successful crop technology in this century has been overwhelmingly based on the first of these --on use of inputs to increase yields. The green revolution set the tone for crop improvement strategies, with emphasis on total system output. Consumers have been the greatest beneficiaries, with more abundant food at lower prices. It is a strategy that is eminently sensible in a world of food shortages, where increased supply has high social priority. The developing world is now a mosaic of food shortages and food surpluses, and a monolithic strategy for increasing agricultural production is clearly not a universal goal. In Asia's comparatively mature market economy, cassava producers can benefit economically from expanded areas of production, lowered production costs, higher productivity per unit of production cost, higher market value, or value-added features. They can benefit nutritionally both from the greater purchasing power of higher income, and from nutritional enhancements to cassava itself. Indirectly, they can benefit nutritionally from an increase in production that permits feeding cassava to animals. Less tangibly, technology provides avenues for lifestyle improvements such as less arduous physical labor inputs, or more time to pursue education or leisure.Farming practices are inextricably linked to environmental resources. Characteristics of the environment set limits on the types of agriculture that are economically feasible; and in turn agriculture can enhance or degrade the environment where it is practiced. Tradition, education, regulation, and economics all influence a farmer's attitude and relationship with the land. Generally, education and regulation can be applied successfully to environmental stewardship only if the economics are favorable. On the other hand, farm profitability is not in itself necessarily an incentive for adopting practices that improve the environment.This interlacing of attitude and economics is a complex target for R&D institutions. Often the technology for preserving the environment is not complex, but there are inadequate economic incentives.The greatest returns to research investment in crop technology development should be for interventions that lower the very high labor inputs into cassava, increase yield, and increase starch content.(1) Agronomic practices. Crop management is already more intensive in Asia than elsewhere. Rearrangements of existing practices or resources (i.e., if no new external inputs are applied) probably offer limited potential for improved productivity or profitability. For example, changes in stake planting position or plant density normally offer little advantage, unless in conjunction with another major system modification. There are good possibilities for increasing profitability with management in the areas of fertilizer application and efficient weed control. There are, nonetheless, substantial environmental concerns with both these inputs, and these must be addressed as part of any technology development. The fact is, however, that cassava will have great difficulty competing in the marketplace with crops where high efficiencies of production are achieved with intensive inputs, unless some of those same inputs are applied to cassava.The economic response of cassava to fertilizer application is well-established (Howeler, 2001a). The constraints to increased use are socio-economic rather than technical. Farmers usually do not have cash reserves that can be tied up for a full year, between planting and harvest. Commercial or government-supported credit are not common. Nonetheless, most farmers now have experience with purchase and use of fertilizer on rice, and translating this to use with cassava should not be an insurmountable obstacle when the economic return is favorable.(2) Mechanization. Cassava is still a very labor-intensive crop for most growers. Labor productivity has not been a major goal for cassava research, often based on the assumption that public institutions should be wary of technology that displaces labor in situations where underemployment is already high.In any case, mechanization is typically difficult for cassava --economically because of small landholdings, and physically because of cultivation on slopes and uneven terrain, or intercropping. While no-til systems have had limited success in cassava, there may be more potential for zone tillage systems, where a type of deep-penetrating tool is pulled through the soil only along the row to be planted. This leaves nearly all the residue on the surface for erosion control, while creating a tilled, aerated zone for rainwater penetration and root development.Cassava has moved through three mega-phases of genetic improvement, characterized by a focus on: (1) yield potential; (2) production efficiency under conditions of environmental stress; and (3) incorporating value-added traits with (1) and ( 2). This latter phase is in the initial stages, and will probably define cassava genetic improvement in Asia for the next several years.Many Thai farmers have had considerable exposure to new varieties through various promotion channels. Elsewhere, the practice of introducing and evaluating varieties through extensive on-farm trials is less common. The initial tests by farmers that prove the value of a new variety can translate into a continued, long-term interest in variety evaluation, and thereby greatly simplify the job of the extension service. If the momentum for adopting new varieties grows strong enough, there could eventually be motivation to bring the private sector into the picture to develop and sell varieties. This will be difficult, however, given the ability of farmers to save their own seed from one planting to the next.The bottom line is that public support for cassava breeding will need to remain strong. The ongoing success of new varieties is significant. This will generate widespread interest in accelerating the pace of variety development, and in expanding the options in terms of varietal characteristics offered. Response to these demands will only be possible with continued, and increased, investments in research.Breeding offers possibilities of adding value to the products that growers move to the marketplace. A prime example is development of the high starch varieties developed jointly between national programs and CIAT. Although higher starch varieties were available early in Thailand's breeding program, the real impetus for their adoption and further development did not come until industry began paying premiums for this trait. The time is now ripe to move into more advanced value-added traits -because the diversification and specialization of industry create a demand, and also because the technology for targeted genetic modification of cassava is on the horizon. Genetic transformation and regeneration will open the door for applying technologies that are already routine in other crops (insect resistance, herbicide resistance), but more importantly for mapping a future for cassava that meets its specific production and market needs and opportunities. Partnerships involving all sectors will be the key to identifying appropriate research goals, as well as funding and executing the research. Some of the areas with highest potential to provide broad benefits through value-added traits are genetic modification of starch characteristics, tailored to specific markets; and increased postharvest root storability by genetic means.Viability of the cassava sector in Asia has been very much the result of both private and public interests. Process, product and internal market development has been primarily in the hands of the private sector. Export development, on the other hand, has had very strong governmental support. While there are some notable examples of private sector participation in support to cassava research, the movement in this direction has been very slow. There is no doubt that in Asia cassava will continue as a basic energy source for food, feed and industry. If public support to research were to decline substantially, there may even be private funding to take on some of the research needs. Certainly, though, the private sector will have a very different development agenda, which would likely include lower priority for directing benefits to the rural poor. Social goals such as food security, poverty alleviation, equity and environmental protection, do not normally attract large sums of private sector investment. On the other hand, private enterprise seems to have a far better track record than does government, of successfully establishing efficient and profitable business practices. It is apparent that the potential synergy between public and private sectors is worth developing further.R&D institutions can have an important role in policy analysis, as an educational resource for policy-makers who need to have access to comprehensive and unbiased information. With few exceptions, cassava producers have little political clout to influence policy that affects their ability to earn a livelihood. Development organizations can take the role of empowering the cassava sector to effectively present its interests before policymakers. Farmers' organizations can be highly effective policy lobbyists, but these are still not common. Industry and commodity organizations are often well-positioned to speak for the interests of growers, processors and marketers. They usually recognize the need for a healthy total system, for any one sector to benefit. Prominent examples of such groups are the various Thai trade associations. Their principal activities are in the realm of industry promotion and trade, but they also promote supply-side benefits such as training of cassava farmers and the distribution of new varieties by the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI).Cassava networks have not been active in policy debate, but this is a role for which they have some unique qualifications. The Asia Cassava Research Network, as the only one with a strictly regional focus, is in the best position to take on policy issues. While an international network would have limited direct voice in national policy debates, it is wellpositioned to provide individual members with information and technical backup.Market competition is becoming the defining trend that drives success in agriculture. Competition, brought about in large part by the global trend of more open markets, is almost universally welcomed by consumers, who benefit from more choices and lower prices. But it is a double-edged sword for growers. Market alternatives may be greatly expanded, but successfully entering any of them may require substantial adaptation in production, processing and distribution systems. In particular, cost efficiencies become critical, along with quality and timeliness of production. This can be a major challenge for cassava, when it confronts a commodity like maize, with a long history of global commerce and a massive research support system. On the other side of the equation, more demanding markets also open opportunities for specialized products outside the mainstream commodities trade. Cassava has particular possibilities in snack food and specialized starch markets, where it does not compete directly with other energy sources.Perhaps the most profound lesson of the past is the critical importance of integrated development of production, processing and marketing components of the system. There are now several models where this type of broad integration has shown both some of the potential pitfalls and the benefits of an integrated approach.The urgency of finding solutions to today's problems in food and agriculture is clear, and the tools to accomplish this are at hand. The greatest scientific advances in recent years have often been the outcome of partnerships --between public and private concerns, among countries sharing common problems, and among thousands of motivated people sharing complementary skills and information. Communications technology now allows breaking many of the seemingly intractable barriers to developing effective partnershipsacross geographic distance, across professions and institutions, and across belief systems. Unless connections are made between the best of science and a general benefit to all of society, we are investing poorly in our future.","tokenCount":"9984"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"487a79cb63d9df5c0d1b70e99abe44e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a770e97-3339-457e-8b43-f767e80c8c78/retrieve","id":"-611825415"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2e9938ae-41ea-4775-9f8a-eed2e4623e7a","pagecount":"2","content":"P251 -Reducing agro-food induced GHG emissions through effective FLW reducing strategies Description of the innovation: The ACE calculator describes all activities in post-harvest operations that induce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Emissions associated to lost produce (including agricultural production emissions) are allocated to the food products that stay in the distribution chain. Scenario comparison shows effects of interventions on total losses and GHG emissions. Different from existing tools like CoolFarm tool this method is unique in level of detail of postharvest chain description, essential to analyze postharvest intervention effects. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable>","tokenCount":"119"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a972c014769823fb18e3150d18394826","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1add2301-18ea-4576-8384-4579fe4b45ae/retrieve","id":"-633323950"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"34aeeed7-ea73-48e2-a021-ebf659b16abb","pagecount":"60","content":"Integration • Well integrated to ILRI Livestock & Fish value chain project (small holder pig value chain development project, SPVCD) • Value chain assessment only started in November 2012 after sites were selected under SPVCD • In the first year: rapid integrated assessment of food safety and nutrition in 3 districts in Uganda, 4 complementary studies, 4 postgraduate projects, 1 internRapid integrated assessment of food safety (and nutrition)• 24 participatory rural appraisals with pig producers• 10 participatory rural appraisals with pig producers as consumers• 27 focus group discussions with mothers of young children• 2 female and 2 male facilitators trained in the food safety assessment tool -Swine fever (Musujja) -Worms -Sarcoptic mange• In villages:-Lice• In villages (Masaka only):-Biting flies• In villages (Kamuli only):-Diamond skin disease  • Yes, driven by festivals:• Christmas • Easter• Uganda Martyr's Day (June 3)• Independence Day (October 9)• seasonal weather changes:• Dry season = season of swine disease outbreaks• Seasonal cash availability: Are pig feeds competing with human food?• Not in the assessment sites, even though feeds were identified as a major constraint for producing more pigs • Farmers try and sell stock after fattening them in \"times of plenty\" (during/shortly after the rains)• kitchen scraps (peels from cassava or potatoes, matooke or posho leftovers) • Tubers (Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava) • Fruits (avocado, sweet bananas, jackfruit, mango, papaya)Reasons for eating (more) pork?• Money: \"The rich eat more because they can eat whatever they want whenever they want\"• \"Eating pork clears the skin\" (Mukono)• \"Eating pork (and bone marrow) makes strong bones\" (Masaka)• \"Eating pork cures measles in children caused by eating goats meat\" (Kamuli)Reasons for not eating pork?• Religion:• Muslims; SDA; Born again (Masaka): \"pigs are for demons\"• Traditional religions:• Abaswezi (Kamuli) don't eat eggplant, fish and pork • Abaana Banabawanuka (Kamuli) don't eat pork • Bamasiya (Kamuli) don't eat anything that produces blood (vegetarians?)• Beliefs:• Pregnant women must not eat pork or \"the child might have a mouth like a pig\" (Masaka) ","tokenCount":"329"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9e4f1f5798e642acebf1fbcc94d1c69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9873042e-7ddf-4dd1-88a9-351d2ea6a9c0/retrieve","id":"1712758421"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d6c7e6c4-d607-4611-b5a2-7231dd13dbf0","pagecount":"42","content":"Standard methods are needed to collect data to evaluate the performance of agricultural systems. Standardization allows comparisons across systems, and potentially the extrapolation of recommendations to similar development domains. The Integrated Modelling Platform for Mixed Animal Crop Systems (IMPACT, Herrero et al., 2007) is a data collection protocol and computer software tool designed to gather minimum datasets in smallholder crop-livestock systems. The protocol collects information ranging from household composition to crop and livestock production to household food consumption and household assets. Although IMPACTS's datasets are detailed to conduct a wide range of crop-livestock systems analysis, the data collection on the field proved to be time and resources demanding. The protocol works in monthly time steps i.e., most of the data is collected per month, thus it takes considerable time to complete an interview. The printed forms comprise over 30 different templates that resemble the screens in the software, and although this could speed up data entry, its use on the field for data collection often tends to be inoperative.In 2011 CCAFS commissioned to ILRI the task of assessing the possibilities for simplifying IMPACT to carry out a characterization across the 15 CCAFS benchmark sites (Table 1). The objective of this project called 'IMPACTlite' was to modify IMPACT to be able to collect household-level data detailed enough to capture within-site variability on key performance and livelihood indicators that could be used for a range of analysis including the modelling of impact of adaptation and mitigation strategies on livelihoods, food security and the environment. A team composed of agronomists, economists, computer, environmental, and social scientists modified and tested the new tool in a number of sites. The changes implemented to the tool are reported in Quiros et al. (2011). In this report we describe the steps undertaken in the implementation of the surveys using IMPACTlite in the IGPs, the progress achieved, and next steps planned for 2013.The surveys were implemented across the 15 CCFAS sites (Table 1) starting from February until December 2012. The details of the procedures for the implementation can be found in the IMPACTlite Training Manual (Rufino et al. 2012). In brief, the steps were: 1) Gathering secondary data for each research grid, 2) Definition of agricultural production systems, 3) Villages selection, 4) Generating village information: creating a list of households, 5) Selecting households from a village list, 6) Replacing selected households, and 7) Implementing the survey. The IMPACTlite team at ILRI gathered secondary information for each of the research grids, with assistance from the CCAFS Science officers. Most of this information was gathered during the implementation of the Household Baseline surveys.We enclose to this report the training manual of IMPACTlite and a sample questionnaire used in Vaishali, India. The first step in preparing the household survey in the four research grids was to establish a list of all villages within these grids and to collect some basic village-level information. Unfortunately, secondary data was not available in sufficient detail or quality. Also, the previous base-line survey did not provide village lists with geographic identification. Therefore, a member of the survey team set out initially to compile a list of all villages, record gps co-ordinates and fill short (1-page) questionnaire form on village characteristics: Village identification, population size, land and irrigation resources, ranking of livestock and cropping activities by importance to village. For this a motor-bike was hired and the grid area thoroughly combed. During this exploratory phase initial results were passed back to the office and village locations were compared to Google Earth images. Visible settlements missing in the initial lists were discussed and added were appropriate.An important issue at this stage was the definition of \"village\". In India, the oldest and bottom-level administrative unit is the \"revenue village\". As the name implies this has been established for tax reasons and is therefore more linked to land than to population. Therefore, some revenue villages don't contain any settlements while others contain several which don't form any social unit. In addition, settlement patterns differ greatly throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plains. While in areas with relatively late colonization, as in Haryana and Punjab, villages are comparatively large and well defined, other areas which had had high population densities for centuries, as in Bihar, settlement patterns are much more dispersed. Thus, we developed an own approach to defining a settlement as a village: Wherever a settlement has an own distinctive name it is regarded as a village. However, if a settlement is only regarded as part of a larger village without an own name it is regarded as a hamlet (tola). Often such hamlets are home to a certain community and are known only by the community name. In Nepal, local administrative units have been consistently organized into village development councils (VDC). Each VDC consists of 9 wards, representing small hamlets.For sample selection purposes within this study, a VDC is a useful unit. It is small enough to enable its inhabitants to know of one another and function as a social unit. In Bangladesh settlement patterns resembled the Bihar situation and we applied the same procedure by defining \"villages\" according to naming practices. It took about two weeks to establish a complete village list with the accompanying basic data at each research site. Google Earth images of all four research grids with village locations are included in the annex (section 8).The identification of production systems within research grids is based on the village census data (see 2.1). Respondents (one group per village) were asked to rank crops (including aquaculture) by their importance for the three main cropping seasons as well as livestock (no seasonal differentiation). Here, only count values (number of villages reporting specific rank or rank aggregate) are reported. These results were used to decide on whether to define one or several clearly demarcated production systems within the respective grids. In case of two or more production systems, villages are classified according to production systems and households are sampled separately within each production system class. This ensures a statistically useful sample of households for each production system.The first indication of dominant crop production system (including aquaculture) is whether a specific crop (or crop combination) is mentioned as rank1 in more than one season. Here, paddywheat is defined as assigning rank1 to paddy in kharif (rainy season) or summer and to wheat in rabi (winter). All other specific land-uses are defined as dominant when showing rank1 in more than one season. Villages where none of the four specific cropping systems dominate are classified as mixed-cropping. Vaishali, Rupandehi and Karnal are clearly dominated by paddy-wheat. Thus, only one production systems is recognized in these research grids. In Bagerhat, paddy dominates most villages. However, about a sixth of all villages see aquaculture as most important land use activity. Six out of these seven villages are located in the northern part of the grid. However, paddy dominated and mixed villages are also located there. In addition, paddy is of considerable importance also in the aquaculture dominated villages: 4 out these 7 villages include paddy 3 times within the nine ranking questions on crop production (rank 1-3 over three seasons), 4 villages mention paddy twice and 1 village once. On the other hand, aquaculture also frequently appears as important land use in the paddy dominated villages. Therefore, also within the Bagerhat research grid only one production system (paddy-aquaculture) is recognized.In Vaishali, Rupandehi and Karnal livestock is dominated by dairy production. In Vaishali and Rupandehi all three ranks are common to most villages in the grid; Vaishali: 1 st dairy, 2 nd small ruminants, 3 rd poultry; Rupandehi: 1 st dairy, 2 nd small ruminants, 3 rd draft animals. However, in Karnal the most common combination (1 st dairy, 2 nd small ruminants, 3 rd draft animals) accounts for only about 30% of villages in the grid. In Bagerhat it appears that both dairy and poultry production are similarly important with small ruminants coming third. In all four research grids only one production system was found to be important. In Vaishali, Rupandehi and Karnal this is paddy-wheat with dairy animals while in Bagerhat this is paddyaquaculture with dairy and poultry.After having determined that only one production system was to be considered within each research grid, the agreed sample of 20 villages was randomly selected from each grid.For this, a random number was assigned to each village. Villages located on the grid border were excluded. Similarly, the 10% smallest villages (by number of households) and the 10% largest villages were excluded in order to avoid having the sample influenced by extreme cases. A very small village of less than 20 households for example would often consist of only a certain type of households while very large villages of perhaps more than 1000 households would already have characteristics of a small town. In Karnal all identified villages were included as only 19 villages were finally considered.After having selected the 20 sample villages in each research grid a household census was conducted in these villages. For this a suitable village person was identified (e.g. school leaver, student). This person then listed all households within the own village and collected basic characterizing data for each household: Household identification (household head name, father's name, village name, hamlet name), household head (age, gender), household size, land (ownership and cultivation) and livestock. In general the completion of the household census took 5 to 7 days for each village. The village enumerator was paid by listed household after checking for data quality.Subsequent to the completion of the household census lists, the data were entered by members of the survey team and additional data entry staff. The total number of households in the 20 villages selected in each grid varied considerably by site: In Vaishali the household census includes 7953 households, in Rupandehi 2251 households, in Karnal 7270 households and in Bagerhat the household census lists 6250 households. Because the decision to move the research site in the Upper Gangetic Plains from Sangrur (Punjab) to Karnal (Haryana) was taken late, a household census was also performed in Sangrur. Here 6807 households are listed. The differences in village size between the village census and the household census data are not negligible. Partly, this may be due to differences in including or excluding hamlets. However, they also underline the inherent level of accuracy of village level data collection.Following the implementation of the household census, the household sample for the household survey was selected. For this, households not cultivating any land and not keeping any livestock (large or small ruminants) were excluded as they don't have any direct involvement in agriculture. Then, each household was assigned a random number and ranked by this number. The first 200 households were selected for the survey. The second were identified as replacement households in cases households were not available during the survey period. Villages were not considered during the household selection process as it is not assumed that \"village\" will be an important factor during the analysis process, which would justify balancing the number of households per village. Also, travel distances within the research grid are very limited, so that it is not necessary to ensure a minimum number of selected households per villages in order to simplify survey logistics.The initial training of the survey team for India was conducted in Patna (Bihar) during the first week of July 2012. The team consists of two supervisors, four enumerators and two data entry operators. The two supervisors shared collecting preparatory data (identifying villages, village census, household census) and leading the survey teams during the household survey. The same survey team conducted the household survey in Vaishali (08/07/2012 to 05/08/2012), Rupandehi (09/09/2012 to 08/10/2012) and Karnal (13/10/2012 to 10/11/2012), as Hindi is sufficiently spoken in all these sites. Data entry was started in parallel to the actual survey at the survey site in order to discover data issues as soon as possible and to speed up the overall data collection phase.For Bagerhat, where only Bengali is spoken, a new survey team was established with the help of a local NGO (SMKK). Their training was conducted by Dhiraj Singh at Bagerhat. Madhuresh, one of the survey supervisors, was also able to join the team for the final training and for the survey to ensure consistency and data quality. The two data entry operators also travelled to Bagerhat to improve data quality by entering data during the survey process. Currently, the survey is on-going. It was completed the first week of January 2013, cleaned dataset available by end of January.Nyando and Makueni (Kenya)The process of identification of production systems in Nyando and Wote involved: i) analysis of satellite high-resolution images, ii) transect drives through the grid, iii) group interviews, iv) individual interviews to key-experts, v) household interviews. Three production systems were identified based on land cover, production orientation and land use intensity. Verification was conducted on the ground through key stakeholders which involved officers from the Ministry of agriculture, Chiefs, opinion leaders, local farmers and own observation.The three dominant production systems identified after verification on the ground were for Nyando: a) Crop-livestock with free-grazing local breeds (maize and sorghum based), b) Sugarcanemaize with cross-bred cattle, c) Dairy-perennials-maize based (tea, Napier grass). The three systems were delineated spatially. A list of villages was developed for each system, villages falling in the buffer or transition zones were filtered out. To cover variability within the larger production system eight villages were randomly selected. The other two systems were randomly assigned six villages each. Within each village ten households were randomly selected from the household lists for the survey. In Wote, the team identified two main production systems: i) crop-livestock mixed with local sheep, ii) crop-livestock mixed with dairy.The village definition used is that described in the training manual. The village list was built with the help of the village elders who are in charge of various villages of which they know the boundaries. The household list was developed by using the list provided by the village elder as a starting point but verification was done by going through the village from one household to the other by numbering them, we found out additional household within some villages.Based on the three systems identified the areas where they fall were marked. Most of the systems were falling within sub-location of which the boundaries are well known by the chief who are governing the areas, we used the same boundaries. It come out that the first system covered a larger area than the rest. A list of villages was developed in each system and villages falling in the buffer zones were eliminated from the list as they were impossible to distinguish actual system on them. Due to the wide coverage of system one it was randomly assigned 8 villages in order to cover the heterogeneity within the system. The other two systems were randomly assigned six villages each. Within each village ten household was randomly picked for the survey. The same process was used in Makueni site.In Definition of production systems in Lushoto was supported by the use of a satellite image of the grid. All villages in the grid were identified. After this exercise, the team conducted an inventory of farming activities at each village engaging the village authorities and extension staff. The farming activities inventory was based on the history and current farming systems. Activities considered were food crops, cash crops, livestock keeping, agroforestry and horticultural crops. Finally, and on the basis of the activities and their frequencies the grid was classified into three production systems namely: i) Production system 3 includes the uplands experiencing three rain seasons namely; short, intermediate (muluwati in kisambaa), and the long rains. This production system is dominated by maize and beans, fruits trees, some vegetables and some perennials (coffee, tea and woodlots). Majority of the householders keep crosses of exotic and local zebu cattle and some goats. ii) Production system 2 is characterized by maize and beans with cassava and some horticultural crops. This householders practice zero grazing with crosses of exotic and local cattle breeds. iii) Production system 1 is different from 2 and 3 in that householders only keep indigenous species of livestock.The village list was built using the original list from the CCAFS Baseline survey block during the first CCAFS HHS baseline survey which basically was met the program protocol to identify, the villages, the households and lastly the 20 randomly households. In this case, the villages were listed from the same grid but grouped according to the existing production systems within the block. The household list was built through the village household list prepared by the village authorities for the old (7) villages and verified by the CCAFS before conducting the HHBS. In new villages the same procedure was used. What was new here is that we requested the old village's authority to update their household list and from there we followed the same procedure of randomizing them and came up with households to be respondents.Process followed to identify production systems: The team went through each village and consulted the village government and extension agents and we were satisfied with the information and of course, the team especially the enumerators and the site coordinator had enough experience on the farming systems in the district as well as in the CCAFS grid. Determining the boundaries on the ground was more difficult but we based on the government boundaries or village boundaries to establish those three dominant production systems in the block of 10 km x 10 km.Training of enumerators and testing of the questionnaires was conducted by Joash Mango from ICRAF. The survey was finalized by the end of July 2012, and the data was delivered by September 2012.The Borana household survey was conducted in 20 village clusters in Yabello and Arero woreda for 20 consecutive days; starting from September 18 -October 7, 2012. It involved five enumerators and one field supervisor. The four pastoralist associations (PAS) out of five (PAS) inside the 30 x 30 blocks were selected and only one village namely Fuldawa from Arero, which is located at the extreme corner of the block and inaccessible was deliberately excluded. Each cluster was chosen based on shared community enclosure which is owned, managed and utilized exclusively by the household in the cluster. The sampling frame was constructed using a total of 1150 households' list obtained from 20 clusters of the 4 Pastoral Associations (PAs). The sampling frame included 397 households from Denbela Saden, 387 from Dikale, 269 from Alona, and 97 from Gada PAs. The settlements pattern and the clusters in Arero were more scattered over a vast area than the settlements in Yabello, which are much more consolidated in specific areas. The households in the sample clusters were listed using key informants, elders, local development agent and PA leaders.Ten households per village were selected randomly. A random access table was used to select households from the list. Only few replacements were made in 25% of the selected 20 clusters. This was done based on satisfactory reasons and confirmations for absence of the selected respondents from the locality. Key informants from among the herders, elders, PA leaders and government pastoral development and landuse and administration experts were used to define the production system prevailing in the study block. A consensus was reached by most of the key informants that there is only one production system that is a pastoral production system; hence the block was categorized under pastoral system. This is in line with the results of the household baseline survey of CCAFS carried to characterize the block. Two hundred households 10 from each cluster were interviewed under a single production system. All the croplands were small size, opportunistic, and fragmented subsistence type virtually with no use of inputs at all.The purpose of the survey was well introduced to cluster leaders before listing households, sampling and data collection. Once confidentiality issue ensured respondents became fully cooperative and expressed their willingness to participate in the survey. Time was taken to describe the objectives of the research and respondents' willingness, feelings and reactions were assessed before questionnaires were filled out. This helped out the trustworthiness of information obtained. No one has shown unwillingness to participate. There were few replacements made because of satisfactory reason for the absence of the sample households from the area during the survey. Randomly selected replacements are made as per the procedures.Five enumerators and 1 field supervisor were involved to cover one cluster in a day. The training of enumerators and testing of the questionnaires was conducted by Mariana Rufino and Solomon Desta in August 2012. Trained enumerators were used to fill out the questionnaires throughout the survey. Each enumerator filled 40 questionnaires in twenty days. The questionnaire typically lasted in average between 2.30 -3.00 hours with each respondent. Enumerators are supervised during the data collection using available time frame. The mobile phone helped further to communicate and troubleshoot problems encountered by the enumerators at times when the supervisor is engaged in GPS recording and other activities. Each day the questionnaires filled were checked for completeness, clarity and consistency and discussed with enumerators each morning before meeting respondents for data collection. A minimum of 45 -60 minutes per day is spent each morning with enumerators before survey began.Major challenges encountered: i) inaccessibility of some of the clusters due to poor access roads, ii) the extended unusual short rain blocked road access to some of the cluster villages, iii) villages especially in Arero were scattered over a wider area and that made travel distances between households cumbersome for taking GPS coordinates. The survey was successfully finished in October 2012, and the data was delivered in November 2012.To determine production systems in the two grids in Uganda pre-determined GPS coordinates were used to demarcate the 10 by 10 kilometer area by overlaying the coordinates on shape file of Uganda parishes in ArcView GIS 3.3 software. After identification of the parishes that lie within two grids, we approached district officers at the respective agricultural production departments to brief them on the research we were to carry out and for possible important contacts. There was information at the district level about the farming system (crops and livestock produced) but too general. More precise information regarding farming systems at the village level was obtained from parish leaders and village local council leaders. In addition, transect walks across the grids were carried out to complement on information obtained from local and village leaders.The Hoima grid comprises four parishes: Buraru, Bulindi, Kibugubya in Hoima district and Kahembe in Masindi district. The householders from the three parishes of Hoima district are mainly cultivating maize, beans, cassava, bananas and a few keep local indigenous livestock. Ten villages were randomly selected from which one hundred farmers were randomly chosen, ten from each village. In Kahembe Parish (Masindi) maize, beans, banana, cassava, sugarcane and few local livestock are the major farming activities. This parish is in close proximity to the Kinyara sugar factory so sugarcane production is taking root in the area. In this parish there were 7 villages from which 100 farmers were randomly sampled from the village list. These two situations in the Hoima block were first treated as two different production systems with sugarcane production being the differentiating factor. One hundred farmers were interviewed in each of the systems however upon randomly selection of farmers in the system which has sugarcane only around 20% of the farmers interviewed had sugarcane. Therefore, the Hoima grid was treated as a single production system since sugarcane farmers in the parish were not enough to qualify as a different production system.In the Rakai grid, six parishes fall within the grid: Kiyovu, Kasensero, Bitabago, Buyamba, Butiti and Byakabanda. Across all the villages, there were two major crop components, the perennial crops (banana and coffee) and annuals (mainly maize, beans, cassava, groundnuts and sweet potatoes).Farmers in this grid also keep local livestock like cattle, goats, poultry although in small numbers. Therefore, one production system was identified in this grid: Coffee-banana with annuals and few local livestock. A total of twenty eight villages were randomly selected from which 200 farmers were randomly selected from the village lists.The training of enumerators and testing of questionnaires took place in March 2012, and conducted by Mariana Rufino, Carlos Quiros, Silvia Silvestri (ILRI) and Joash Mango (ICRAF). This was the second training of enumerators of the whole project. The purpose of having such a large team was to agree on the contents of the training so that we could split responsibilities for other sites. Josh mango came back to Uganda to support the start of the survey in June 2012. Surveys were completed by September 2012, and the data delivered in December 2012. The local team at Uganda encountered difficulties with data entry, so finally data was entered at the Kisumu office of ICRAF under the supervision of Joash Mango.Kaffrine (Senegal)The list of villages for the Kaffrine grid was established. There were some difficulties as some names on the list from CCAFS did not correspond exactly to the names of villages they had. Two villages from the list of CCAFS were not encountered in the actual list of villages: Moula Ndiaga and Sare Lamou. The identification of the production systems in Kaffrine was based on a consultation with the key services active in the region (Agriculture, Water and Forests, Ecology, ISRA, ANCAR) and a series of documents: i) a soil map of Senegal, showing the areas with crop and livestock production, ii) an hydrologic map of the region of Kaffrine (\"Direction de la Gestion et de la planification des Ressources en Eau\" -DGPRE), iii) a map showing the forest resources (\"Centre de Suivi Ecologique\" -CSE), iv) a map of Kaffrine, v) the local development plans of Malem Hodar and of the rural community of Kahi, vi) a document from ISRA on the characterization and the typology of farms in the region of Kaffrine.At first, only one system had been identified by the local agricultural services: a cropping system with a biennial rotation groundnut/cereal. But some more discussion allowed identifying 3 production systems for the block (Fig. 5 Annex): a) Agriculture and forestry (31 villages), where a development of some agroforestry activities can be noticed with the proximity of classified forests, in addition to the cereal and groundnut cultivation (Zone 1); b) Mixed crop-livestock system (30 villages), in a more pastoral area (Zone 2); c) Crops and vegetable production (62 villages), where a NGO (World Vision) drilled wells (Zone 3).The list of villages for each production system was established. Villages in transitions zones between two systems were excluded from the lists (6, 4, and 11 villages for the production systems a, b and c, respectively). Villages were randomly selected for each production system for a total of 20 villages, with 7, 6, and 7 villages for the production system a, b and c, respectively. One village (Keur Sandao) of the production system b (mixed crop-livestock systems) has been replaced as it had less than 4 households: most of the villagers migrated because of floodings. This village was replaced by the village of Kahi, after a random selection.The villages selected are: a) Agriculture and forestry ( 7): Goria Mbande, Mbella Ouolof (Mbella Saloum), Ngalick, Khende, Diagle, Ndodji, Nianghene Ouolof; b) Mixed crop-livestock system (6):Bagana, Kanka, Kebe Keur Lahine, Korky Bambara, Moukhoume, Kahi; c) Crops and vegetable production ( 7): Loumene, Gainth Gouye, Gainth Peulhi, Ngatou Malick, Medina Ndiayene, Mbene Diouma, Ngidiba A phase of sensitizing was carried on between the 18 and the 27th of June 2012, to meet the chiefs of the villages and the population and explain how would the survey would be organized. During this first visit, the actual lists of households were established for each village with the chiefs. Then, 10 households were randomly selected per village, for a total of 200 households.The training of enumerators and testing of the questionnaires took place in May 2012 and conducted by Sabine Douxchamps (IWMI-ILRI), Mariana Rufino and Yacine Ndour. The survey was finished by September 2012 and the data delivered in November 2012.The list of villages from the CCAFS baseline survey was confirmed. The site of Tougou, in the Northern Region of Burkina Faso, comprises four rural communities (Namissiguima, Ouahigouya, Barga, and Titao) and 51 villages. Together with the technical services (chefs ZAT -Zone d'Appui Technique) of the communities of Namissiguima, Ouahigouya and Barga, and the Province Director of the Lorum, three production systems were identified: i) mixed crop-livestock system (25 villages). There can be a dominance of either crop or livestock. This system occupies most of the area; ii) mixed crop-livestock system + vegetables (20 villages). Vegetable cropping during the dry season if some water is available; iii) mixed crop-livestock system + agroforestry (3 villages).There is no clear separation between the systems. The whole area is under mixed crop-livestock system, and then the two other systems are scattered here and there, depending if there is a source of water during the rainy season (Dam of Tougou, wells, or dugouts) or a forest. Vegetable growing and agroforestry would then represent an additional source of diversification of the basic croplivestock system. All key informants agreed on this. There was never only one production system in a village, but always a mixture. The dominant production system in a village (i.e. more than about 60% of the household practice it) defined to which production system the village would be assigned.An important non-agricultural activity in the region is gold washing: the 3 villages concerned by this activity were discarded before the random selection. Seven villages were randomly selected by production system, except for the mixed system with agroforestry where only 3 villages were available, and were all selected.i) mixed crop-livestock system: Rapougouma, Longa, Sillia, Salla Foulbe, Todiam, Hargo, Poukouma ramssa, Ramdolla peul ii) mixed crop-livestock system + vegetables: Dinguiri, Karma, Lemnogo mossi, Sabouna, Rikou, You iii) mixed crop-livestock system + agroforestry: Tougou, Solgom, BagayalgoThe lists of households per villages were established with the technical services and the Villagers Development Council (\"Conseil Villageois de Developpement\") of each village. Then, 10 households were randomly selected from the list for each village of the mixed crop-livestock system and the mixed crop-livestock system + vegetables production systems, and 20 households were selected per village for the mixed crop-livestock system + agroforestry system, so in total 200 households.The training of enumerators was conducted in June 2012 by Sabine Douxchamps. The survey ended September 2012 and the data was delivered in November 2012.Samples villages were selected in the rural communes of Cinzana and Katiéna. Criteria used for villages' selection were: i) villages within the block of 30x30 km 2 , ii) permission from the village authorities/elders to conduct the survey, iii) representative villages (size and inhabitants) among the villages of the block, iv) ease of access (road).The selection of villages was done with extension services and IER team led by Lamissa Diakité. Following the introduction on the CCAFS programme, the activities/projects conducted over the past two years at the Segou site, and presentation of the objectives of the survey, 20 villages were selected from the total list of 46. There is about 12 805 households and 56 744 inhabitants in the block. The block is homogenous (from a physical and socioeconomic perspectives), and therefore very little difference between villages and households. To reach 200 households among the 20 villages, samples of 10 households were selected in each of the village. In each village, households were selected from the census list available at the village level. The census list was updated beforehand. A random sampling approach was used whereby all the households listed were put together in a hat and 10 households were selected randomly.The identification of the production system was done through grey literature and consultation of key informants such as extension services, rural development projects operating in the area, villages' elders and local decentralized public officers (agriculture, environment, livestock and fisheries). From this process, only one production system (agro-pastoral, with agriculture as the main component and extensive livestock production as the second component) was identified and agreed upon by all the stakeholders. The training was conducted by Abdoulaye Moussa from the CCAFS West Africa office in June 2012. The survey was finished by October 2012 and the data delivered in December 2012.The Niger household survey was conducted in 46 villages in 2012, for 15 consecutive days; starting from 11th of August 2012 to 25th of August 2012. In order to identify the production systems the site coordinator has carried out an expert consultation on site. The expert that has been consulted has been working in the research area for about 20 years, and has been collaborating with different research institutes.The following two production systems have been identified:1. Subsistence crops and livestock farming with local species. Specifically this production systems presents: Subsistence crops such as: millet, sorghum, cowpea, sesame, maize, peanut, okra and Livestock farming with local species: oxen, goat, sheep, chicken, guinea fowl.Subsistence crops, market gardening and livestock farming with local species. Specifically this production system presents: Subsistence crops such as: millet, sorghum, cowpea, sesame, maize, peanut, okra, Market gardening: cabbage, potatoes, salad, onion, tomato, gourd, courgette, carrot, sweet potatoes, cassava, Cultivation of Moringa, Livestock farming with local species: oxen, goat, sheep, chicken, guinea fowl.The market gardening is practices during the dry season. The Moringa is cultivated the entire year and both leaves and grains are commercialized. Most of the market gardening products and Moringa are sold.The identification of the list of villages has been based on the map 'CCAFS_hbs_Fakara_Niger /Icrisat GIS lab : Novembre 2010'. In this map are localized the 46 CCFAS villages/sites in Niger. In each of the two clusters of villages established on the basis of the two production systems, a random selection has been done to select 10 villages, 5 for each of the production system. The selected villages are reported in bold in table 5. In the table 5 is represented the distribution of the villages according with the production system.Table 5 -Distribution of the villages according with the production system. In bold are indicated the villages selected for the survey.Villages with a specific production system For each village the list of the households has been compiled. The choice of the households to interview has been done during an assembly in each one of the selected villages. All the social categories have been taken into account when sampling the villages. Two hundred households, 100 from each production system were interviewed.Five enumerators and 1 field supervisor were involved. Trained enumerators were used to fill out the questionnaires throughout the survey. Each enumerator filled 40 questionnaires in 15 days. The questionnaire typically lasted in average 1 hour and 30 minutes with each respondent. The survey activity did not present any particular problem of implementation. This may have been due to the Total net income, cash income, non-cash income and off-farm income for the household were calculated using revenues from livestock, crops, value of consumed food products and as shown in equations ( 1), ( 2), ( 3) and (4).(1)where: is total annual income for household i Lsale is annual income from livestock sales Crsale is annual income from crop sales VP is the annual monetary value of consumed farm produce Lcost are the annual direct costs of livestock production CrCost are the annual direct costs of crop production If the household consumed a food type, then it had a score of 1, otherwise zero.The asset index analysis is adapted from analyses recommended for all Bill and Melinda Gates funded projects. It is calculated for all movable assets. Each of the assets is assigned a weight (w) and then adjusted for age (Agricultural Development Outcome indicators, 2010).where, W= weight of the ith item of asset g N=number of asset g owned by household A=age adjustment to weight G= number of assets owned by household 6 Data management and databasesThe data management process relied on a software system called CSPro for entering and editing the survey data. Data entry was performed at each site by one member of the team. On completion of data entry each site submitted a DAT file to ILRI headquarters in Nairobi for processing, transforming and storing the data into a standard MySQL database. The DAT passed through a series of automated processes generating error log files describing diverse problems with the data. Each tier of processing was followed by constant interaction between ILRI staff and the site team to resolve the problems. The result is 15 consistent and standard 1 databases storing detail information of 3000 households. The following diagram shows the data management process.The data for each site is stored in a MySQL database in 22 tables with 27 supporting lookup tables. The following images show a graphical representation of the database separated in three main sections: a) Crops, containing the generic information of the household plus data on crop, plots, management activities and crop production; b) Livestock, containing information about livestock numbers, management activities and production and; c) Other, containing information about other sources of income and expenses plus household consumption patterns.  ","tokenCount":"6175"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"120692206096ef183dd243f941e0cb34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95f5fb17-cd14-4e32-a813-1ba31657521b/retrieve","id":"-1867681145"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d95b48de-73b1-42a0-a5ad-42c0428b165c","pagecount":"80","content":"The long term goal of the IPMS project is to contribute to improved agricultural productivity and production through market-oriented agricultural development, as a means for achieving improved and sustainable livelihoods for the rural population.The medium term purpose is to strengthen the effectiveness of the government's efforts to transform agricultural productivity, production, and rural development in Ethiopia to a more market-oriented agricultural development.To achieve this purpose four key components are targeted: Knowledge management  Innovation capacity development of partners  Participatory marketable commodity development  Development and promotion of recommendations for scaling out Gender, HIV/AIDS and environmental considerations are mainstreamed in each of these components.Capturing of knowledge using study tours by project partners has been practiced and institutionalized by all PLWs. The report provides examples on knowledge captured and applied by the participants. A more detailed assessment is planned for the coming year.To share knowledge several approaches were used including field days for scaling out.While the concept of field days is known in Ethiopia, variation in the application of this method are considered in each PLW in terms of who organizes the field day (OoARD rather than the research sector as practiced in the past), what is shown (various interventions along the value chain vs just technology), who participates (local administrators, value chain partners, including farmers, private sector, research) and how is it organized (discussions, reflections combined with field visits). Experiences and impact are being documented. Adoption of these \"new\" forms of field days is becoming part of the scaling out strategy in the PLWs. The use of Woreda Knowledge Centers and Farmer Training Centers as sources of knowledge for agricultural staff is gradually gaining ground and is improving with improved Internet access. Some of the FTCs now have Internet access through fixedwireless telephone connections. The distribution of offline copies of the EAP portal has also contributed to this development. Similarly, FTCs are increasingly being used by farmers to share knowledge. An interesting example is one of the FTCs in Goma where the recently established honey association uses it for its meetings and has also been assigned a small office inside the FTC. The content managers group for populating the agricultural portal with information on market-oriented agricultural development was active during this reporting period but needs formal endorsement by the MoARD to become more effective.IT equipment for the zonal knowledge centers, which are an integral part of the scaling out/up strategy, was purchased and installed in eight of the 10 Zones.Technology exhibitions for scaling out technologies from different sources, including innovative farmers was first tested in Tigray by the BoARD and IPMS in 2007 and it was observed that during this reporting period exhibitions/farmer festivals are now adopted at National and Regional levels with government funding. In some regions, such as Tigray, agricultural technology exhibitions are organized at the district level, and even at PA levels. Cattle fairs have recently been introduced in Mieso, as another means to demonstrate performance, share knowledge and link markets related to a specific commodity.Innovation capacity development of partners During this reporting period, the project continued with its scaling out strategy in 3 of the Zones in Amhara Region in which the PLWs are located (also see promotion).The project also conducted capacity building trainings on the mainstreaming of gender and HIV/AIDS for extension workers in all 10 PLWS. Training targeted DAs, health extension workers, HAPCO staff and staff from the Women's Affair Desk.Training on rapid market assessment and linking farmers with markets was provided to marketing staff from the whole of Amhara Region. This was followed by training of Woreda level staff throughout the Region. This training was financed by the BoARD/IFAD.Various technical trainings to improve the skills of staff of the OoARD and farmers were organized in the PLWs as part of the scaling out strategy. Most of these training are conducted by project partners including staff from the BoARD, WoARD , RARIs and Small and Micro Trading Industries Office. Topics covered include training on poultry development, irrigated agriculture/drip irrigation, pump maintenance and fattening.Training was also provided to input producers including forage seed production, fruit nursery operators, marketing agents including rice dish preparation for restaurants and bars. Support was provided for rural cooperatives formation through technical assistance, credit and training. A special training on retailing/processing of agricultural products was provided in Bure and Fogera for shop owners, youth and HIV/AIDS infected women (Fogera). The use of audiovisuals and practical training are now a common feature in most training programmes.Training manuals for many of the technical subjects can be found on the EAP. The project has also produced draft training materials on the following topics:  Introduction to market-oriented participatory extension  Manual on marketing extension  Manual on result-based monitoring and evaluation  Gender and HIV/AIDS mainstreaming in a market-oriented agricultural development context: A training manual for frontline workers.  Applying Innovation Systems Concept in AR4D  Basic Concepts and Methods of Rapid Market Appraisal and Linking Farmers With Markets These materials have been tested in the various trainings and will be published in the coming project year as part of the project's scaling out strategy.Training modules on water management has been completed and is in the final stages of print preparation will be reproduced and distributed, as part of the scaling out strategy.To improve the skills of University staff supervising the IPMS sponsored MSc students, training was provided at Haramaya Univesity on \"Applying Innovation System Concept in Agricultural Research for Development\". A workshop was organized with Hawassa Universities with staff from the MoARD, BoARD, Agricultural Universities, EIAR and RARIs on \"Improving partnerships for enhancing the relevance of graduate research in advancing agricultural sciences and development in Ethiopia\".A National Advisory and Learning Committee workshop was organized in Bahr Dar to share experiences between the project's PLWS.All PLWs have started administrating (part of) the project's operational funds for commodity development, including knowledge management and capacity development activities in support of commodity development. All PLWs have also developed draft plans and budgets for 2009/10. Based on lessons learned during the NALC it has been emphasized that interventions should ideally be introduced by the partner institutions, even though IPMS staff initially is a major partner in the process. In all communications, it is therefore better to stress the 'IPMS approach' rather than the 'IPMS project'. Moreover, the main trust of the project is to get the IPMS approach adopted by partners.Detailed observations on (un)successful interventions were made in the output outcome assessment section in the previous progress report. Attention has therefore this time been directed to the application of the participatory market-oriented agricultural development approach, and the following observations are made:PLWs are capacitated to use a participatory market-oriented value chain approach for the development of a commodity. Since the project is learning, different approaches are used based on some overall guidance but also based on initiatives taken in the different PLWs.The extent to which emphasis is given to the different value chain components (production, input supply/services, and marketing) varies by PLW and commodity. In principle such differences are the result of the assessment of problems/opportunities in each of the components by the stakeholders. It is observed that the value chain approach is used for most commodities in all PLWs, so we can be happy with that achievement. However, the extent to which individual components in the commodity value chain are addressed varies considerably between PLW and commodities. In some cases, this seems justified because of the assessment made, resulting in addressing key constraints only. For example in Fogera, focusing on marketing and onion seed production led to a very successful increase in onion area coverage. However, as observed recently by irrigation specialists, productivity/production increases can also be obtained by paying more attention to proper water management interventions. Involvement of a variety of stakeholders, each of whom can bring \"fresh\" knowledge on different components of the value chain should be encouraged to ensure proper attention to each of the value chain components. All PLWs should review their program to apply best practices and to ensure compliance with a knowledge based value chain approach.To create demand for production/natural resource management interventions, different knowledge management/capacity development approaches were used. For most commodities, demand was created in some PAs with intensive technical assistance by Woreda Subject Matter Specialists (SMS), Development Agents and IPMS staff. These sites served as \"demonstration'. This was then followed in subsequent seasons by scaling out to other PAs using a combination of knowledge management and capacity development approaches, including farmer-to-farmer knowledge/skills transfer. It is observed that this demand creation approach worked well in several PLWs and outstanding examples of this are found in Metema with the introduction of a new banana variety and in Atsbi with the introduction of the grazing land improvement technology. Also, fattening of large ruminants in Bure and fattening of small ruminants in Goma follow this pattern. However it is also noted that scaling out from selected PAs to the \"recommendation domain\" PAs is not as successful and/or not documented. Part of the reason is lack of repayment of innovative credit, hampering issuing of new loans. While this is correct, it should be noted that credit is only one of the contributing factors to the introduction of production technologies. Several technologies can still be introduced without the use of credit, as demonstrated with the initial cattle fattening in Metema. It is also observed that the MoARD's efforts to support the scaling out of successful production interventions in the PLWs may not always follow the demand driven approach. All PLWs should review their program to apply best practices and to ensure compliance with a demand driven production intervention approach.Regardless of the approach used for the introduction of production technologies, an essential element of the overall market-oriented agricultural development approach is that interventions to address bottlenecks/opportunities for the supply of inputs and services and marketing of outputs are addressed. This is considered to be an important factor for the adoption of production technologies. Different approaches have been adopted to deal with these interventions at PA and district level. When an input/marketing intervention is PA specific (e.g. fruit nursery, paravet service), a clear linkage with the producers in the same PAs, involved in the adoption of production interventions, is encouraged. When an input/marketing intervention is at higher/district level, e.g. input shop, linkages with producers are assumed to be created by the project partners and/or develop naturally. It is observed that many PLWs follow this linking principle especially in the PAs which have received intensive production intervention support. However, there are also examples which show a geographical disconnect between PA specific production interventions and PA specific input supply/service interventions. Linkages between input/marketing interventions and non demonstration PAs are not clear and should be better documented. All PLWs should review their program to apply best practices and ensure compliance with these value chain linkages principles Finally, an integral part of the approach is to aim for a gender and HIV/AIDS sensitive approach. Much of the capacity development and knowledge management approaches have been geared to this and positive experiences are presently documented by the team. While progress is made, a proper review of all commodities to bring greater impact is required.Development and promotion of recommendations for scaling out. In the past six months the project published 4 more Working Papers, including a working paper on HIV/AIDS, highlighting farming system specific risks in the PLWs and possible responses. All working papers and completed students thesis were uploaded on the project website. . The project also produced one more newsletter and 3 videos on project interventions on bee colony splitting in Bure, onion marketing in Alamata and fruit development in Metema.The project has increased its attention to the promotion of its findings on interventions and approaches to a wider audience. Some of the promotional activities are pre-planned; others are based on demand and or a combination of the two. Part of the planned strategies is geographical targeting to scale out within the Zones in which the PLWs are located. While a start was made with Zones in Tigray in the previous reporting period, introductory workshops and participatory planning for selected Woredas in 3 Zones in Amhara Region took place in the past six months. This will be followed with more skills development in the next season. Similar scaling out initiatives to promote the MoARD/IPMS participatory market oriented approach and interventions will take place in the coming year. The Steering Committee did however; caution that this promotion strategy should only be considered when scaling out in the PLW itself has reached a satisfactory level. It is also noted that the MoARD on its own has initiated a nation wide inventory of best practices (including IPMS PLWs) and has also planned a scaling out/up strategy for the country as a whole. Discussions are required to stimulate integration and avoid duplication of efforts.Another interesting development which has taken place in the past six months is the involvement of IPMS staff in various policy related initiatives by the Government and donors. As mentioned in the report, project staff is involved in the development of a Livestock Master Plan. With the help of the CIDA office in Addis, linkages are also made with the donor group/GoE (REDFS) which are in the process of reviewing the existing Food Security Program and developing a new Agricultural Growth Program.It is also good to note that the project has attracted the attention of the national TV media who produced/feature documentaries on the PLWs in Oromiya during this period. IPMS PLW staff have also received awards for the efforts made in their respective Woredas.Still, while this increased demand is encouraging for the project staff and partners, it is noted that more attention needs to be placed on proper documentation including synthesis and analysis of on-going activities. Several of these studies are on-going including cases studies on priority commodities.Project monitoring and evaluation Monitoring of project outputs and outcomes for the third project year (and part of the 4 th year) was completed in all PLWs. Summary findings for knowledge management and capacity development have been included in the respective assessment sections. The detailed quantitative report will be submitted separately.The CIDA external monitor also visited the project, this time Amhara Region, including field visits to Bure and Metama. His findings have also been included in this report.The expected outcome from the project's knowledge management component is the creation of a functional agricultural knowledge management system operationalized at Woreda and Federal levels, highlighting innovations and appropriate technologies. The realization of such a system will involve assessment of knowledge gaps, identifying and securing resources to narrow the identified knowledge gaps, and facilitating methods, approaches, and processes to share knowledge acquired during implementation or lessons-learned from IPMS and/or other experiences. In addition, it is also important to have the necessary tools, infrastructure, and human resource capacity to bring about such a system in a more efficient manner.In this section, a summary of the on-going knowledge management activities and outputs are presented together with an assessment of the achievements of the intended outputs and outcomes.The project staff in collaboration with the respective Woreda Office of Agriculture & Rural Development and increasingly with actors at zonal, regional, and federal levels work on identifying the knowledge input needed to develop priority commodities. Interventions are taken based on the results of such assessments. Such knowledge gap assessments are done on a continual basis. Knowledge gaps at varying degrees exist at every stage of the commodity value chain such as identifying the appropriate and right amount of inputs, information on \"best bet\" technologies, and access to and accurate interpretation of market information.Numerous methods, processes and tools are available to assist knowledge generation, capturing and synthesis. The project focuses on a few tools and methods that seem to be relevant and practical to the \"on-the-ground realities\" of the daily lives of extension staff, DAs, and farmers in the Woredas in which IPMS operates and the absorption capacity of the system in general. Every so often, a new tool, method, or process (indigenous and/or introduced) comes along that seems to work particularly well and we try to adopt such tools and/or methods. In this reporting period we have added to the collections of materials (electronic and print) available in WKCs. Video is emerging as one of the more effective tools for knowledge capturing as well as knowledge sharing. The TV sets and DVD players provided by the project for all WKCs and selected FTC are proving to be good tools that have found enthusiastic reception by Woreda staff as well as farmers and DAs in the targeted FTCs. Knowledge centers are also being established at zonal and regional levels. The extent of use of specific tools, processes, and methods vary from PLW to PLW. Therefore, we have prefaced each entry with the PLW where it is been used. Papers produced for conferences/proceedings/scientific publications  An overview of papers prepared for workshops/conferences and scientific publication is shown in Annex 1. An overview of the presentations is summarized in section 4.6. The rate of addition of new material to the Ethiopian Agricultural Portal has been less than desirable. Even though a content managers group with a membership of the extension directorate (four seats), the health & regulatory directorate (three seats), agricultural inputs and marketing directorate (one seat), and natural resource directorate (one seat) of the MoARD has been established, the rate of appropriate document identification, selection, and upload to the portal has not been that great. IPMS as a project will increase its efforts to change this trend and will also focus on all issues that will increase the institutionalization of the agricultural portal at federal and regional levels.As part of this effort, additional members from our regional partners will be added to the EAP content managers group. On a positive note, offline copies of the portal are now widely available in all PLWs, Regional BoARDs, the four RARIs and most of the zonal offices overseeing the IPMS PLWs.Addition of books, leaflets, CDs, and DVDs for WKCs and FTCs  The number of relevant books, leaflets, CDs, and DVDs in PLW and FTC knowledge centers has been steadily increasing. Some of these are provided from the project headquarters while a bigger volume is from sources identified as useful by the PLW staff. Examples of headquarters provided material include HIV/AIDS mainstreaming and analysis toolkits prepared in English and local languages. On the PLW front, Bure PLW now has 61 CDs and 384 books, 184 magazines, 14 manuals, 41 brochures, 104 newsletters, 40 bulletins, 2 thesis and 2 journals in the WKC. The PLW managed to get a large number of manuals, books and brochures from offices of Woreda experts and made these available to all users by reserving it in the WKC. Similarly, FTCs in the PLW have appropriate manuals, leaflets, posters and VCDs. Bure PLW's IPMS staff also prepared leaflets on potato production, honeybee colony splitting technique, conservation agriculture, poultry production & livestock fattening to disseminate lessons to wider audience within and outside the PLW. These leaflets were distributed during farmers' festivals at district, zonal and regional levels. The leaflets were also distributed during the NALC meeting held in Bahir Dar. Alaba produced leaflets that explain availability and desired aspects of \"new\" haricot bean varieties (Dimitu and Nasir) to households that volunteer to multiply the seeds for these varieties. They also produced a leaflet on pepper seed treatmentan important commodity for the PLW. The number of CD titles available in knowledge center as of March 2009 is 110 and the number of books was 633. Mieso PLW prepared leaflets on urea treatment of crop residues. Fogera PLW translated the IPMS-prepared participatory market-oriented training materials (utilized during previous IPMS organized trainings) into the local language (Amharic) to enhance its accessibility by concerned partners. Fogera PLW is also revising a previously published beekeeping training manual to add more/better designs and pictures of beehives and beekeeping equipment. The training manual will be ready for publishing later this year. They have also prepared three training modules on beekeeping skills needed during the various beekeeping seasonal activities in a calendar year. Metema PLW has acquired CDs and/or manuals on grafting and budding, a video on rice production, a set of CDs that contain the full complement of community development library titles, vertisoil management, virtual library CD, information network on post harvest operations, a set of CDs on \"appropriate technology\" (low-tech) collections, natural resource management, as well as various IPMS training resource materials and books purchased by HQ for various knowledge centers. Metema PLW is also trying to link the WKC with international agricultural literature publishers and distributorsfocusing on those publishers who offer free publications to developing country-based organization. Goma PLW has prepared thirty-three awareness creation materials, source documents, guides, manuals, etc in the area of livestock, apiculture, fruits, and marketing and these were duplicated or photocopied and placed in the woreda knowledge center and in four IPMS-supported FTCs.Local study tours and experience sharing visits (outside the PLW) continue to be the more frequent and immediate means of getting farmers and extension workers to witness achievements and good practices from those that face similar challenges and opportunities as they are. The project attempts to find the closest and most efficient way to share practical knowledge with selected farmers, extension workers, and targeted administrative staff. A summary of participants can be seen in Annex 2.  During this reporting period, Bure PLW took fruit growers, DAs, and experts in an experience sharing tour to show the economic importance and propagation techniques of highland fruits (apple) in Awi zone (immediately north of Bure PLW). Dairy farmers, DAs and experts were shown backyard forage development, dairy product marketing system, and the economic importance of dairy in East Gojjam Zone. The PLW also took selected participants to areas around Addis Ababa to show them fodder baling activity, its profitability, seed production, processing and marketing business, and pepper and honey trading.Participants also visited a multipurpose cooperative union in Ada'a (also near Addis Ababa)  Goma PLW took WALC members to Ada'a and Mieso PLWs to share experiences with their counterparts in these PLWs.  Dale also facilitated a one-day consultative meeting and a study tour for 47 bean seed producers and their corresponding DAs, their service cooperative representatives and beans research officer from Awassa Agricultural Research Centre to Leku market in the adjoining Shebedino Woreda. The meeting and visit was held to determine the quality and grade of bean seeds to be collected and to agree on the prices for different grades and quality. A researcher from ARC assisted by describing and presenting his knowledge regarding quality seed production and the experience within the country while based on the experience gained quality and grade of beans and their corresponding price were determined.Dale PLW also had a study tour for beans producers, cooperative leaders and Woreda staff to visit the Melkassa Agricultural Research Centre (the national centre of excellence in this area), beans seed producers in and around Huruta town in Arsi, and the Adma Lume Farmers Cooperative Union. The visit had been an eye opener to everybody due to the scale and dimension of operation (the huge number of contractual farmer seed producers and volume of seed and grain transacted through the union) compared to what has just started in Dale. Upon returning to the Woreda, the group assembled to synthesize the lessons of the visit and decided on the way forward. The study tour has been instrumental in planning the scaling out of the operation in Dale for 2009/10. Researchers on beans from ARC also took part in organizing and leading the tour.Knowledge sharing greatly increased during this period, both within and outside the PLWs. In this section, particular attention is given to the knowledge sharing within the PLW as a system to scale out knowledge within communities and the Woreda as a whole. A summary of these activities can also be found in Annex 2.Targeted-seminars at various levels promote/encourage a culture of knowledge sharing. Access to timely and relevant market information enables farmers to seek better prices for their products and encourages them to produce in response to market demands. The project has been working with Woreda-level and other partners to establish sustainable systems of market information delivery. Below are examples of efforts carried out this reporting period: Bure PLW has been working in handing over the weekly agricultural commodity market price collection and dissemination responsibility to the Bure OoARD marketing team. The project has been the main actor in this task and now this task has been partially transferred to the OoARD in the Woreda. In addition, the project established linkages with the BoARD's marketing department in order to receive weekly market price information of different commodities collected from major towns of Amhara Region using the Internet.  In Alaba, the project has been partnering with an Italian NGO (LVIA) to establish a market information delivery system. In this reporting period, the NGO provided eight bicycles for market data collectors. Market data collection from three local market sites has continued and it is regularly disseminated in two market sites. Market information is disseminated using loudspeakers mounted right in the local markets where farmers come to sell their produce and purchase what they need.The woreda also uses the same setup for disseminating HIV/AIDs related information and to provide seasonal agricultural information such as mitigation of crop disease or recommended technologies  Ada'a PLW shares weekly local market information on livestock and crop prices through billboards provided by the IPMS project and erected in three FTCs  Alamata PLW uses similar billboards setup in two PAs to share market information on vegetables  Atsbi OoARD has been continuously collecting market information from four market places within the PLW and from the nearby towns such as Mekelle and Adigrat in collaboration with TAMPA. The market information is printed and posted bi-weekly in public areas including FTCs and schools in 16 PAs within the Woreda  Mieso posts weekly market price information at selected FTCs. The PLW also shares pertinent marketing information during public forms at FTCs such as the need to track market trends, the value of group marketing, market intelligence, and the practice of staggering when products saturate the market. The Woreda public and media office is actively engaged in a weekly market information provision in an Oromiffa radio program  Fogera OoARD has started weekly market information collection in four local markets in the Woreda. The compiled report is sent to the BOARD marketing department. While the potential of collecting such information is obvious, the Woreda experts frequently described the collection process and format as tedious and time consuming (which often puts sustainability in question). For example, for each commodity, samples are taken from producers, wholesalers and retailers.In each sample prices are collected from up to 5 venders' and the information is compiled and reported to the Amhara BoARD. The format is more complicated for livestock because grading for each type of livestock is essential. Although the project is not able to dictate the BoARD in such matters, efforts will be made to shed light on simpler approaches that may provide similar results. A market information billboard has recently been erected in the middle of the Woreda town where most people gather. Lists of price for commodities have been posted there every week making it easier and efficient for all interested to see the prevailing market prices in their community. FTC level market information delivery in selected (locally relevant) commodities has started in this reporting period for some FTCs in the Fogera PLW  Metema PLW marketing extension service has improved markedly in recent monthscoincidentally after training was provided by IPMS on marketing extension and after the implementation of the new BPR initiative. The Woreda staff collect market information in various market places and disseminates the information to farmers and to the zonal office of agriculture. IPMS has facilitated the provision of four billboards for posting market information in four local markets.  ECEX (supported by IPMS) provided market information bulletins on commodities traded in the exchange. This information was disseminated to each PLW  The MoARD's marketing department has not yet initiated a national Market Information System, which can be used to link to the PLWs.Radio/TV promotion for scaling out/up within and outside the PLWs Mass media remains one of the key and cost effective means to promote good ideas that have shown results to a broader audience including policy makers and policy influencers.Although more focused and better planned media campaigns are still desired, the project has taken advantages of media opportunities. Following are examples from this reporting period. Bure PLW has popularized its lessons on conservation tillage, bee colony splitting and fruit grafting and year round livestock fattening using the Amhara Region mass-media agency TV and radio programs. For example, a discussion on the construction and management of defused light onion storage is well underway in two onion bulb producing PAs  After some initial challenges, the Metema WKC is now fully operational and all the IT and communication equipment are installed and in use although there is still no internet access at the WKC. However, as indicated in a previous section, numerous CDs, DVDs, and leaflets on numerous topics are available and are being used by the patrons. Moreover, staff has started to read and borrow books from the librarian (KC coordinator). This is a good start and a beginning of new habit and attitude. Computers in the WKC are still used for many clerical jobs but that is acceptable too since the next step is often exposure to and desire of getting more information  Alaba WKC continued to act as venue for assembling, capturing, and sharing knowledge. The OoARD continued to organize a series of meetings, trainings, seminars and discussion in the center. Internet connection was available in one of the computers in the WKC. Due to increased demand for Internet access, networking the existing computers in the center is being considered. The OoARD has moved the knowledge center from a small room to a much bigger hall to accommodate the demand by staff. This is the third progressively larger room the Woreda has assigned happily to accommodate increased use of the center. The OoARD has also connected the TV set provided by IPMS to a satellite dish and staff are now getting news, entertainment, and documentary programs and they were never able to get before this.Workshops for scaling out within and outside PLWs  Atsbi PLW held a one-day workshop followed by a field visit to promote and enhance improved and intensive cropping systems under irrigation (2-3 times harvesting/year) and improved use of irrigation water. Activities in the workshop included presentation on best irrigation experiences within and outside the PLW plus discussion with participants on the application of best irrigation practices to their situation. Based on the discussed experiences, integration of natural resources management and irrigation are becoming emerging success stories in watershed areas which can improve the development of market-oriented commodities in the area. Exhibitions for scaling out within and outside the PLWs The project facilitated the first agricultural innovations and technology exhibition about three years ago. Since then, agricultural exhibitions (at local, regional, and national levels) have flourished around the country. They are used both for disseminating knowledge to a broader audience and to showcase community and individual achievements in the agriculture sector. IPMS participates in exhibitions when opportunities for sharing our experiences and when appropriate target audience (farmers, private sector, policy makers) with whom the project would like to interact are present. Following are some examples. In Ada'a PLW, OoARD staff participated in a livestock exhibition fair organized by Mieso PLW and in Oromia zonal level farmers' field day exhibitions. IPMS also featured experiences and outcome examples from its three Oromia PLWs in an annual Oromia regional agricultural exhibition which was immediately followed by a national agricultural exhibition. The IPMS stand was visited and complemented by H.E. Ato Tefera Derebew, Minister of MoARD and by several thousand farmers and individuals during this four-day event  In March 2009, the Tigray Region BoARD held a regional agricultural technology exhibition in Mekele. Thirteen Woredas showcased good practices samples. One of the Woredas selected to share experiences was Atsbi PLW. The PLW presented what it considers are good and innovative practices using nine posters and actual market-oriented products. Featured topics were forage development, small ruminant fattening, apiculture, watershed development, and storytelling of successful innovative farmers. The Woreda displayed actual fattened sheep, different vegetables, fruits, and honey products. Atsbi honey was promoted and sold to the visitors (in small glass jars of 250gm) at a price of ETB 70/kga remarkable indication of its brand recognition and demand for it  Mieso PLW held a livestock fair for the second year in a row and received good media coverage and has been successful in linking farmers and traders. Mieso also celebrated a knowledge management day during this reporting period and participated in a regional farmers' festival held in December 2008, in Bahr Dar, Amhara region and sent two input suppliers to the Oromia exhibition held in February in Nazareth town  Amhara Regional Farmers Festival was organized in Bahir Dar and the project attended the eventprimarily by featuring the three IPMS PLWs in the Amhara Region. Five hundred (500) lead farmers, development agents, Woreda experts, invited high-level government officials, and private companies involved in the agriculture sector attended the exhibitions as guests and/or exhibitors. Fogera PLW, in collaboration with onion seed producers, women group involved in rice processing, safflower collectors and marketers, and dairy cooperative representatives; displayed posters and samples in seven different technologies and practices  Fogera PLW also partly sponsored small Woreda-level exhibitions and bazaars conducted in an adjacent Woreda in December 2008. The project contribution was used to purchase T-shirts printed with ILRI-IPMS logo and to prepare posters for billboards promoting major IPMS-supported commodities in the area. Attendees came from all Woredas in South Gondar Zone as well as officials from the regional government. The exhibition was opened by the Regional President  Metema held a local photograph exhibition that demonstrated the overall development activities in the PLW. It was organized by the Woreda office of information.  Alaba PLW participated in a regional exhibition held in Awassa (SNNPRS Region) January 2009.Newsletters are good tools to keep everyone updated on what is going on. The project prepares frequent newsletters at the headquarters level and several PLWs prepare their own versions targeting the OoARD staff and other interested audiences about noteworthy happening in their PLW. In this reporting period Bure, Alaba, Mieso, and Fogera prepared PLW level newsletters or contributed to OoARD-published newsletter in the respective Woreda.The Ethiopian Agriculture Portal (EAP) and the MoARD email system are the corner stones of the project's KM activities at the federal level. The fact that MoARD has taken ownership of both systems is a good beginning. There were a couple of meetings of the EAP content managers group during this reporting period and progress has been made in reaching a consensus about document upload/publishing. At this point all members of the content managers group are from various units of MoARD. This membership will be expanded to include content mangers from the Regional BoARDs and/or RARIs in order to have a representation from a cross section of major actors in GoE agriculture sector entities.The project has been supporting the MoARD's connectivity to broadband Internet partly to encourage the use of the EAP by a broad audience (since the EAP is hosted at MoARD) and also to encourage MoARD to increase its use of electronic communications for official business for the sake of increasing the overall efficiency of the ministry's service delivery.The project has essentially completed its planned ICT network and infrastructure capacity building efforts at federal, regional, zonal, woreda, and FTC levels. Because of this capacity building efforts, we now have 28 knowledge centers each with five computers, a printer, and some shelves, desks, and chairsand a good starting inventory of appropriate content, distributed strategically along the agriculture service delivery structure of the GoE. The distribution spans 10 PLWs, four Regional BoARD, four RARIs, and 10 Zones. In addition we have in place a computer, printer, DVD player, a couple of shelves and chairs, and a generator (wherever necessary) in 40 FTCs. The early results of this investment are beginning to show both in terms of easier access to The project completed its third year output/outcome monitoring for the 10 PLWs. A detailed report will be submitted separately. Some summary output and outcome assessments for knowledge management are provided below:Third year outputs  DAs/SMS increasingly started to use the different knowledge management approaches promoted by IPMS (video recording of successful innovation in Ada'a, Metema, Astbi using their own resources, organizing KM events such as exhibition and field days, exchange tours etc)  Farmers and DAs /SMS have increasingly started to seek knowledge from different sources. They started to use linkages and institutional platforms facilitated by IPMS or/and develop new links to share knowledge.  Officials supported institutionalization of knowledge management approaches (e.g assigning budget for renovation/construction of WKCs and assigning responsible person to manage WKCs, encourage staff to initiate and engage in knowledge management activities)  The availability of knowledge in oral/lecture, printed/recorded or demonstration form has improved. Quantitative analysis M & E data showed that farmers' access to information about selected priority commodities in year 3 is better in intervention PAs than the same PAs during the base year; and also better than non-intervention PAs in year 3.  Farmers and DAs also reported about a change in the form in which information is delivered. Even though oral/lecture remained the main form in which information is delivered to farmers in both intervention and non-intervention PAs, more information in demonstration form; and to a little extent in printed form are reported in intervention PAs than in non-intervention PAs. The increased role of audio-visuals for knowledge sharing reported in Metema, Alaba and Meiso where technological and market related information provided by radio; and in few PAs which received audio-visual equipments of IPMS.The expected outcome of knowledge management is the institutionalization of functional knowledge management system established at PLW level. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the M & E data showed that the desired changes to institutionalize functional knowledge management system have been realized in part in all PLW at various degrees.The following are few points that show KM outcomes as expressed in usage and institutionalization of the knowledge management outputs:  Experts and to some extent DAs in nearby PAs reported that they use WKCs to get relevant information about production and marketing of priority commodities.WKCs are also actively used as a center for staff development where OoARD staff read reference books, magazine/newspapers, learn computer, and browse internet. It is also used as a venue for conducting other knowledge sharing activities such as workshops and seminars.  Improved use of computers at WKCs is reported. In addition to writing regular office reports, computers at the WKCs are also being used to communicate and access electronic information either from internet or CDs. PLWs such as Bure, Goma and Astbi also use to store basic agriculture related data of the Woreda in these computers.  Despite improved utilization of WKC facilities, shortage of relevant printed and electronic materials (especially in national or local languages), frequent failure of computers in the WKC and lack of local capacity to maintain the ICT equipment and weak linkage with (domestic and foreign) knowledge generating institutions are some of the problems observed.  The use of FTCs as a hub for knowledge sharing is at early stage and achievements are scattered across various PAs. Although availability of printed materials is on the rise, it remains far short of the needs. Quantitative analysis of M & E data showed that the usefulness of information received by farmers is significantly better in intervention PAs than non intervention PAs.  OoARD staff participation in knowledge sharing is increasing, but their involvement in knowledge gap assessment and capturing is low.  These knowledge sharing events significantly influenced participating farmers, DAs and experts to test innovative production, input supply and marketing initiatives in their own setting. For example farmers in Fogera convinced to test land enclosure after their visit to Astbi, Alaba and Goma farmers reported improved apiary site management after exchange visit to the south, and dairy farmers in Almata incorporate improved dairy farm management after visiting farmers in Ada'a. Similarly an individual in Alamata started poultry processing plant after training and visit to Ada'a.The CIDA monitor concludes on his last 2 visits to Tigray and Amhara Region concludes to IPMS is near to achieving its outcomes for knowledge management. However, while he observed progress in IT based knowledge management, he is skeptical about the application of this across all sites in the near future.We can safely say that IPMS knowledge management interventions have been successful in at least making sure the identification, generation, capturing, and sharing of knowledge is considered as an important input in agricultural extension work in particular and agricultural development in general. This can be seen from practical actions being taken from IPMS PLW OoARD and lately in zonal, and in some cases regional level BoARD activities (for example in Tigray). There is still work to be done in getting our partners from Woreda all the way to MoARD to actively commit to knowledge capturing (be it as content for the EAP or capturing indigenous knowledge of farmers) and leveraging that for better impact. In the remaining time of the project, our focus in the knowledge management front will be making sure the investments made so far are leveraged for maximum impact and the approaches, tools, and methods that have shown promise are institutionalized at appropriate levels of the GoE.The expected outcome of the project's capacity development component is strengthened innovation capacity of farmers, pastoralists, community-based and private sector organizations, and agriculture and natural resource management public organizations to support the development of small-holder, market-oriented agricultural production systems.In this section, a summary of the on-going capacity development activities is presented together with an assessment of the achievements of the intended outputs and outcomes.Annex 2 provides details on participation in the capacity development events. Representatives were all woreda administrators of selected woreda in each zone, heads and deputy heads of woreda offices of agriculture and rural development; heads and deputy heads of zonal administration; heads and deputy heads of zonal bureau of agriculture and rural development, and some ATVET instructors. The first day of the workshop was for presentations by IPMS headquarter staff on knowledge management, commodity development, marketing extension, and the IPMS approach. RDOs presented their respective PLW experiences and achievement on market oriented agricultural development. The next day was spent on field visits to see the commodity development and knowledge management activities in each PLW. The third day was practical session for the participants to evaluate the current extension system vis-a-vis market oriented agricultural development, and start planning for market oriented development in their respective districts.  A course was conducted on 'Rapid market assessment and principles of marketing extension' in Amhara Region (also see 2.1.9). OoARD staff from the 3 PLWs in Amhara Region took part (Fogera, Bure and Metama) in this training and started applying some of the principles for the collection and distribution of market information and linking producers with traders/processing. This TOT training was followed by zonal level training organized by the zones (IPMS staff acted as resource persons for some of these trainings)  Training materials on 'Participatory extension' was translated to the local language (Amharic) in Fogera through employing an external consultant and is ready for use. experience in using the tools. This was followed by data analysis and interpretation of field findings and brainstorming on opportunities to mainstreaming gender and HIV/AIDS into on-going activities. At the end, the participants prepared action plans at FTC and woreda levels, which will be monitored and evaluated by IPMS to assess how effectively they were able to utilize their acquired skills and knowledge to address gender and HIV/AIDS issues and work differently after the training.  From the outset of the training design it was recognized that the style of the learning environment and the methods of the training are as important as the technical material to be delivered. In each session, attention was paid to the use of appropriate participatory methods and emphasis was given on making the training interactive and attention-sustaining by using problem solving pictures and warm up activities. The methods chosen were those that development agents could replicate easily in their working environment.  The draft manual has been revised and edited following it's testing during the PLW level trainings. The layout and Amharic translation will be made in the next quarter. No specific training was planned for this period. Some of the MSc students conducted their research in NRM related aspects and thus increased their capacity to deal with environmental issues. Also natural resource management training was conducted in a number of PLWs as an input to commodity development. The planned M&E trainings for Oromiya and SNNPRS did not take place due to unavailability of staff.  The project completed its third year output/outcome monitoring for the 10 PLWs. A detailed report will be submitted separately. Some summary output and outcome assessments are provided below:Third year output assessment:  Significant improvement in knowledge and skill in production, input supply and marketing of crop or livestock enterprise is reported by farmers, who directly participated in IPMS facilitated intervention, by farmers who benefited indirectly from farmer-to-farmer knowledge sharing or by farmers who participated in successive trainings given by DAs/SMSs.  From the private sector, improvement in knowledge and skill is observed among individual input suppliers and cooperatives/unions, which reflect the change in knowledge by entering in to market oriented production, input supply and marketing activities. For example, paravets, private bull station owners, fruit seedling producers, pump mechanics and other agricultural input suppliers got the needed knowledge and skill which helped them to enter in to business. A change in knowledge is also reported among marketing groups, cooperatives and unions who got training and advisory service which helped them to better engage either in production, input supply or marketing of a particular commodity.  Likewise SMS & DAs from the public sector reported that the various knowledge management and capacity building efforts helped them to improve their technical knowledge and skills in production, input supply and marketing of priority commodities.  In addition to the technical knowledge, they also reported knowledge and skill improvement in participatory extension approaches and methods, credit proposal preparation, marketing extension, mainstreaming environment, gender/HIV and many others.  Different commodity platforms were formed across different PLWs since the beginning of the project. Most of the initial commodity platforms are weak or ceased to exist as permanent institutional arrangements to promote institutional collaboration and coordinating. Besides applying the technical knowledge public sector staff also reported using some of the innovative extension approaches such as participatory extension methods, market information collection and dissemination in Meiso, Fogera, Bure and Astbi, mainstreaming gender and HIV issues etc.  Even though most of the initial platforms are weak or cease to function, working with ad-hoc committees to solve specific problem across the value chain has become the usual practice in most PLWs. These ad-hoc committees do not have permanent structures and draw members from different disciplines and stakeholders; and established to solve mostly marketing or input supply problems for a particular season. Examples are onion marketing committees at Woreda and PA level in Alamata, onion marketing committee in Fogera, etc  The WALCs in all PLWs are working well in the project activities, awareness about the project objective and approach is high. Involvement of WALC in the project planning, budgeting is well functioning. The learning function of WALC has also shown significant progress from the previous year. On the contrary activities of RALC in all the four regions were minimized to that of approving annual plan and budget. RALC members found it difficult to conduct the regular meeting and review project progress collectively due to their engagement in the extended BPR process. However, chairpersons of RALC reported they were following project progress individually with RDOs in informal settings.  Partner linkages among actors are serving participants to solve production and marketing problems. While some of these linkages have ceased to function continuously beyond their initiation, other linkages continued to flourish without further facilitation of IPMS. For example, following linkages created between farmers and researchers for demonstration of a particular intervention observed in many cases to lead to other arrangements in similar or different enterprise. The other external factor which exacerbates the problem is lack of proper handing over procedures and taking printed materials with personal belongings when transferred. Similarly, even though the horizontal and vertical transfer of SMS who benefited from short term and long term capacity building efforts hamper the realization of their contribution in their PLW, they are facilitating the scaling out and up of project approaches.  Institutionalization of major project concepts and approaches such participatory value chain approach for commodity develops is low. Application of these approaches beyond IPMS/OoARD facilitated and funded intervention is at early stage. However, as mentioned earlier, application of some components of these approaches is reported in different occasions. Apart from resource limitation both in terms of manpower and finance, the nation wide and regional extension policies and practices doesn't allow lower level practitioners in PLWs to adopt these innovative approaches individually.  Previously reported weakness with regard to capacity building efforts in terms of transferring knowledge in to action is improved in year 3. SMSs reported proper targeting of participants and action plan to link capacity building with commodity development contributed to this improvement.  Capacity development efforts given to cooperatives/unions is shallow and mainly limited to technical matters, giving advisory service and promoting linkage with relevant actors. However, OoARD and CBO officials pointed out the need of capacitating CBOs officials in issues of leadership, organizational and business management as well as record keeping and market analysis. Similar problem but to a lesser extent is also observed in capacity building efforts of private input suppliers.  DAs/SMS reported the audio-visual equipments and other demonstration materials made their extension service to be practical, interactive and interesting. Moreover, fodder species planted in FTCs for demonstration purpose are also serving as a free source of planting materials for farmers and other FTCs.  Some of the students who completed formal training are supporting the activity, some others have been appointed in different posts. Those appointed at higher levels are contributing for scaling up.  According to WALC members, the initial experience of working with platform promoted the culture of working together by coordinating the inputs of multistakeholders improved in most of the PLWs.. So now it is common to see ad hoc committees which are established to meet one time objective and other are informal. Increasingly these type of institutional working arrangements among collaborating organizations are influencing officials who are starting to modify their approaches to include other partners External Monitor Also the CIDA's external monitor suggests that the project is well on the way to achieve its outputs and outcomes for capacity development in the 2 Regions he visited recently and has recommended to put more energy in building the capacity of other actors to scale out the projects Summary While the project is pleased with these findings, it is not convinced that newly gained capacity is applied consistently in all PLWs/PAs (also see assessment commodity development) for the development of market oriented commodities. More detailed studies are planned for the coming year to check on the effectiveness of the training and also on the extent of the value chain based commodity development.The expected project outcome for the project's participatory commodity development component is the adoption of appropriate technologies, innovative input supplyoutput marketing, and financial services in order to improve agricultural productivity and market success in the PLWs.In this section, a summary of the on-going participatory commodity development activities and outputs are presented together with an assessment of the achievements of the intended outputs and outcomes. All PLWs, under the guidance of the WALC, completed the commodity plans for 2009/10 including the supporting knowledge management and capacity development activities aimed at scaling out the approaches and interventions in the PLWs  Credit from the innovation fund was provided/revolving through the PLW selected lending institutions on the basis of projects prepared by the project partners. During this period, an agreement was signed with a new lending institution (Omo Micro Finance Credit and Savings Company) to provide loans for Alaba, since the Mencheno Union proved to be incapable of administering the loans issued so far. Discussions were also held with OCCSCO to service loans for Mieso from their Asebe Teferi office. Proposals for fattening are being prepared.Annex 4 provides an overview the projects approved and the amounts disbursed/revolving by PLW/credit institution  A consultant reviewed the performance of part of the individual loans. Annex 5provides an overview and some of the results are discussed below in the following text. Detailed reports have been requested from each of the lending institutions.In Ada'a  In Godino, out of the 11 matings (from the bull station), 9 cows become pregnant of which 4 delivered (2 male and 2 female calves). The bull service in Godino has been terminated due to the sudden death of the bull. Bull service in Denkaka has continued, so far out of 10 matings, four calves have been born (1 male and 3 female calves, of which one died). Thirteen crossbred cows were distributed by Ada'a OoARD to Godino farmers following training on dairy management and milk hygiene  The AI technicians in Godino and Denkaka did not perform insemination during the reporting period due to a problem in the supply of semen and liquid nitrogen  Farmers were provided with forage genetic materials for backyard fodder production. Another demonstration on better use of straw after processing with urea-molasses was given  Urban-Rural linkage in terms of commercial forage production in Godino has started and the process of selecting and identifying volunteer farmers has been completed. The co-operative promotion office will organize these farmers into groups or a co-operative have better benefits from the forage plots. They rent their forage plots for 10-20 times more than the unimproved forage plots.In Alaba  The Urban PA dairy farmers group comprised of 9 HHs (one female) became with a part of the \"Small Scale and Trade Industry Department\" and was able to continue operating with credit from Omo Micro Finance. It was supported with fodder interventions and technical advise  The rural dairy groups (30 male farmers) still need to be re-organized as a milk collection and marketing group  Forage seed bank are being established by farmer groups around FTCs  The private forage shop continued to supply forage seeds to farmers in the Woreda. Production of forage continued in a private nursery established adjacent to Bilate River in Gedeba PA (with innovative credit). The nursery has continued to provide forages seeds, cuttings and other fruits seedlings to farmers  The six community animal health service providers (PARAVETS/CHAWs) continued to provide service to the community  Market information collection and dissemination continued in three of the main market sites (Kulito, Besheno and Guba) using Billboards.In Fogera  The four Fogera bulls owned by farmers in Woreta Zuria Kebele serviced 39 cows. So far, 21 calves were born and the remaining 18 cows are still pregnant. These bulls were introduced in collaboration with ARARI. Local people don't generally appreciate the breed (as compared to the exotic breed) and so far no payments for services have been made  One privately owned Holstein Friesian bull breed from Woreta Zuria Kebele serviced 39 cows during the breeding time. These cows belong to 30 cow owners and most of them are from Woreta town. Due to better milking yield the bull was highly preferable as compared to the Fogera breed by the cow owners and the service charge was 30 birr per service  After Amicala weed clearance in 2008, livestock exclusion area was delineated and closed from grazing as of June 8, 2008 in two PAs. The first clipping was made in August 5, 2008 and samples were taken from 4 sites at random, the average fresh weight was calculated and converted into ha. The result was 258 tons for one PA 9 Kuhar Michael) in a total of 6 ha of land  The second harvest was made on December 27, 2008 in the same site and the sample was taken in the same way with the first sample and the total fresh weight harvested in 6 ha of land was 525.60 tons and distributed to 183 people who are members of this forage development intervention  In Shina PA, the total harvest from the first clipping was 314.30 tons in 7 ha of land and this was distributed to 126 members. Stock exclusion area was abandoned due to conflicts among members  Two dairy cooperatives are assisted i.e. Dehansit in Woreta and Yabebal in Alem Ber. General assemblies were held by Dehansit and it was decided to start construction in the new sites planned for milk collection and processing. Awareness raising seminars were conducted to Yabibal dairy cooperative members and non-members in Alember Kebele for three days. In this seminar the principles of cooperatives, roles and responsibilities of cooperative members, requirements for membership etc has been presented and discussed.In Bure  Farmers, DAs and experts acquired lessons on backyard forage development, dairy cow handling and marketing systems of dairy products. About 10 forage species including fodder beet have been distributed to dairy farmers in two urban and two rural PAs  IPMS project provided technical advice to an individual to supply and market industrial by-products as feed for dairy farm owners. In addition, the dairy cooperative members have been linked to an oilseed milling factory for the supply of seed cakes  The project collects and distributes market price information on dairy products to users every week in collaboration with the OoARD and BoARD's marketing departments  The project in collaboration with ACSI provided Birr 12,500 credit for the Bure Damot dairy cooperative to purchase refrigerators for preserving dairy products and to buy a mule and cart for milk collection from distant areas. As a result, the volume of milk supplied to the shop and sold to users has increased. So far, the cooperative has paid back 58.3% of its credit.In In Dale  Consecutive meetings have been held with the Abosta Dairy Cooperative and milk collection groups for expansion of the milk catchments area. Milk price for producers and five collection points had been agreed upon. In addition a loan of Birr 16,130 has been secured from IPMS to invest in cooling and local transport equipment.In Mieso  Community consultation on improving the quality of milk has been started in some pastoralist PAs  Two batches /20 animals/ of Boran cattle (male and female) that were purchased by some of innovative farmers around Asebot, Kora and Mieso towns have arrived in Mieso  Sites for improved(spineless) cactus have been identified in some of the pastoralist areas  One milk selling center in the Bordode area is under construction Gorbo women milk group took part in the livestock fair and has done promotional activities by demonstrating milk processing and marketing  Several women milk producers and 'milk selling afoshas' have managed to see milk processing on display during the livestock fair that took place on 1 st Jan 2009In  In all the scaling out areas, Community Based Insurance and supplementary feeding technologies have been introduced successfully, with the following improvements coupled with some new approaches: a) Sheep purchase arrangement: In the first phase, purchase was left up to individuals and this created a number of problems such as buying low standard sheep, totally or partially using the money for other purposes etc. To minimize such problems an agreement was reached with target members so that purchasing would be effected with the presence of grass root level saving and credit leadership and DAs working in the PA b) Alternative feed source: Target farmers in urban agriculture suggested the use of leftover in the grain mills abundantly available in Agaro town because of low cost, while farmers in the rural continued using cotton seed meal c) Premium for community based insurance: Premium per sheep collected during the last exercise was per cycle but some farmers preferred to pay premium for 3 cycles. Target farmers in urban agriculture accepted the idea and contributed 20 Birr per each sheep as premium for 3 cycles. However, the target farmers in the rural areas preferred to contribute premium after each cycle through their grass root level SCG. In Alaba  Sheep groups produced improved and local forages in Hulegeba Kukie, Galato and Asore PAs. Credit funds were transferred through a new lending institution (OMO Micro Finance) for a fattening proposal, but funds have not been issued due to repayment problems of previous credit funds. The Galato groups have also established forage seed bank  FTCs are also being used as forage seed banks  Market information was provided (see knowledge management).In Fogera To improve the breed, three Washera breed rams and one Washera ewe were purchased by two farmers from Guramba Kebeles and more Washera rams have been requested by three other Kebeles. In Mieso  To improve feeding of goats, the supplementation of tree legume leaves feeding was demonstrated, the creation of some modalities to foster the use of developed fodders to animals in relation to FTC level training was facilitated, various mineral soil bases (useable for goats) locally were identified  Three women groups (with 305 members) have been identified to expand goat fattening enterprise with credit funds  Goat community development has been started in some of the pastoralist PAs at Obeynsa, Buri and Godachele.  One 'MUM' input supplier has started operatingin Bordode town  Market information provision (see knowledge management)  Formation of women market groups with their own resourcesIn Ada'a  IPMS, Erer union and five PA leaders (where IPMS credit for fattening was delivered) in the past, had a meeting on repayment of the credit funds to revolve the credit for a second round fattening scheme. About two of the five PAs have repaid all the credit; and have been allowed to continue with the second round of the fattening scheme  The IPMS intervention was in capacity building of DAs and farmers in terms of selection of animal stall feeding ration formulation, farmers' group formation for input supply, option for value adding of straw and fodder intervention  To scale out of the fattening intervention in all PAs of Ada'a, a training was given to all DAs and supervisors at Woreda level.In Bure  Farmers did not practice year round cattle fattening at Bure, and one of their reasons is shortage of feed during the dry season. IPMS project together with OoARD promoted the possibility of year round cattle fattening through using urea treated crop residues, other locally available feed resources and backyard forage production. During this reporting period, 113 farmers from seven PAs participated in year round cattle fattening. In addition, this practice has now been scaled-out into two new PAs. Moreover, investors have adopted the technology and knowledge and have started year round cattle fattening around Bure town. One of the trained DAs quit his government job and started his own cattle fattening activity  Farmers started cattle fattening by feeding oilseed and cotton seed cakes purchased from Gonder. This practice is new to the PLW  The project released 463,050 Birr in credit for year round cattle fattening activities in 2007. ACSI distributed 418,950.00 Birr to 95 cattle fattening farmers living in seven PAs. Farmers paid back their credit on time and reported the importance of the credit. Considering the importance of the credit and request from the beneficiaries, IPMS project approved to revolve this credit fund for one more year  The project distributed seeds of 10 forage species to cattle fattening farmers in 10PAs to demonstrate the importance of backyard forage development. This has created demand for forage seed supply in some PAs. Consequently, IPMS project in collaboration with Andassa Research Center planned to supply seed of Rhodes grass  Farmers established a cattle fattening cooperative at Woreda level for collective input supply. This cooperative purchased cotton seed cake from Gonder and supplied it to its members. In addition, cattle fattening farmers have been linked with a locally available oil crop milling factory to get industrial by-products  To solve animal health problems, IPMS project has planned to train private animal drug shop owners on major animal diseases  The project provided two balers for cattle fattening farmers in Wangedam and Arbisi PAs, and in collaboration with OoARD demonstrated the operation of balers  Cattle fattening farmers used to sell animals individually in the local market.However, IPMS organized farmers as a cooperative in order to sell their animals collectively both in the local and foreign market  They have also been linked to Birrshelko military camp and Asheref meat processing factory in Bahir Dar  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)In Metema  The woreda OoARD staff are assisting cattle fatteners on timely feed collection, feed conservation and on feeding practices. In the reporting period cattle fattening expanded to 10 PAs as shown in the following  Additional fodder interventions were planned/initiated including: rehabilitation of enclosures, selection of rangeland sites for rehabilitation, demonstration of elephant grass cut utilization and maintaining the following season's sources of planting materials  Paravets, operational in the pastoral system have used the first round stock of veterinary drugs and started replenishing their drugs with their own cash  Two (2) more MUM/MUB input and other commercial feed resources suppliers were established at Kora and Bordode areas. Two more suppliers have already been identified at Husemendhera and Buri PAs. One of the MUB producers at Asebot town managed to sell 500 pieces of MUB (400gm each) to an NGO called 'IRC' in December 2008  The OoPRD purchased some of the fodder seeds such as cowpea from the one produced in Mieso PLW. Identified smallholder sweet potato vines and leaves suppliers around and outside the PLW. Enhanced farmer to farmer fodder feed seed supply system. Facilitated supply fodder seeds of cowpea, lablab and sweet potato cuts and elephant grass cuts/ locally to some farmers for replication. Three tree legume seedling suppliers identified  Two cooperative level commercial livestock feed supplying village shops are about to emerge soon through credit funds to be made available by IPMS  A livestock fair has been organized for the second year in a row  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)  Consultative (market forums such as meetings) at FTC level  Three market groups are about to start operating with credit fundsproposal reviewed and to be submittedIn Fogera  A total of 300,000 birr was released in January 2007 for fattening commodity development. From these funds, 117,000 birr was dispersed to 6 fattening group members in the same year and the repayment rate was 100% Attempts to formulate a follow up proposal have so far not been successful (partly because of the problems experienced by the fishery loan repayment). Some of the farmers have however continued fattening with other sources.In Goma  Goma is known to produce honey dominantly from three major flowers. The fourth honey type from a flower which is locally named Beto is produced in small amounts in the PAs located in the western periphery of Goma and it is snow white in color. This white colored honey is abundantly produced in Gera Woreda bordering Goma. However, the major market for this white honey is Goma or Agaro town  Usually honey from the coffee flower is mixed with honey from Vernonia flower because both coffee and Vernonia plants flower at the same time (February-March). In this particular year, coffee plants flowered twice and during its second flowering time Vernonia flowers had already disappeared and according to farmers pure coffee honey was harvested in mid March. Samples have been collected from each category for lab analysis by Holeta Apiculture research Center  Though Goma is endowed with abundant flora, there are times when bees face severe feed stress which usually results in frequent absconding or very weak bee colonies. To address this challenge bee forage seed of the Loloita species from Alaba and was distributed to some bee farmers and beds for seedling raising were also established. The seedlings are performing well and now are at flowering stage. Three bee farmers were provided with 300 Loloita seedlings and these are also well established  As indicated in last year report, IPMS is working with 24 model farmers in 2 PAs with the objective of improving the overall production system with special emphasis on introducing the transitional hive and marketing potential. These 24 new farmers have received an official certificate from the appropriate office in Jima zone and are officially known as the \"Wogin Gudina Hone Producers Association PLC.\" Moreover the association prepared their three year plan which includes production and marketing as well as a list of basic assets required for effective production of honey such as wax stamp and various types of processors.The association also collected capital amounting to ETB 2,900.00 by selling shares to members and have a long term plan to expand members as well as capital by selling more shares. Bulbulo PA provided a small office to the honey producers association in the FTC located near the association members  A new honey producer group with 20 members in Limu Sapa PA about 30km from Goma town has been established. The group was very interested in moving from a traditional bee keeping system to a system based on transitional hives, and IPMS and the Livestock Agency Office also provided strong support to promote this concept and training was provided to this group with trainers from Jima University. The training was also geared to Transitional or Kenya Top bar management. This group was provided with a loan for the Kenya Top bar hive and each member collected a minimum of five Bars each totaling 120 Kenya Top Bar hives with a loan of about ETB 30,000 which was released through OCSSCo. This group is expected to provide a good lesson both to the community and the project in management of the Kenya top bar, its advantages over the transitional hive in terms of easy handling and productivity.In Ada'a  Demand for honey production in Ada'a is increasing. The government has provided modern beehives to youth in Godino, but other accessories are lacking. The project and Ada'a OoARD have trained landless youth on modern apiary. It was also proposed to organize the youth in a group to avail credit for the purchase of the modern beehive accessories  Honey production per hives with one of the model women farmers, W/zo Elfnesh, was encouraging. She obtained 210 kg of honey from 10 transitional beehives. She sold the honey at Birr 40 per kg. Many farmers visited her and shared her experience. Another apiary woman farmer, W/zo Atenafua, got 7 kg of honey from local beehives, 30 kg from two transitional beehives and 10 kg from one modern transitional beehive. The major challenge for bee keepers is the spray of herbicides and insecticides on crop fields. The chemical spray crushes the bee colony size at a time crops set flowers, which would have been fertile ground for bees to boost honey yield. As result honey production in October has dropped.The \"October honey\" has shifted to \"May Honey\" that yields following the small rainy season in March and April  Currently there are about 19 farmers with transitional beehives and about 100 farmers with modern beehives. To expand the scaling out of apiaries in 20 PAs; 80 DAs and 49 farmers were trained on modern apiary. A transitional beehive constructor in Addis was linked to Apiary co-operatives and farmers  The credit request for transitional beehives improved, but the absence of guarantees from primary co-operatives hindered the lending process. IPMS, Erer Union and Ada OoARD are trying other options of credit facilitation for farmers such as group collateral  The best market for honey is the road side business of selling honey combs. At present there are about 19,272 honey bee colonies (6,012 colonies in modern and 13,260 in traditional hives, yielding an income of about Birr 18-21 million from honey and colony sale benefiting about 10,878 households (19% FHHs).  Credit material for colony multiplication was undertaken during the reporting period at a cost of Birr 32,475.00 (15 farmers, 7 women). Delay in supply of material obviously will result in delay of credit payment and may need credit payment extension by one year. The project has purchased demonstration material for improvement of traditional bee-hives. A bee-forage multiplication site has been envisaged for the coming period in 2 sites  Quality honey handling: Changed from grain sack to plastic containers, grading honey on harvesting date and type of beehive  Bee forage seed (Lonorus) was sold to the adjacent Woreda (Badawatcho).  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)In Fogera  Beekeeping input supply shop opened in Woreta town. The project assisted the linkage of this shop with regional beekeeping equipment suppliers. Different beekeeping accessories are also available at reasonable prices.In Alaba IPMS project embarked on 2 innovative methods of chicken supply in the PLW. The first is water charcoal hatchery method and the second is hatchery using the \"Tegene\" incubator  Several training and demonstrations were organized (see knowledge management and capacity development)  The project provided demonstration materials in terms of 2 generators at a cost of 3,800 Birr, a brooder at a cost of Birr 1,100, and a poultry house at a cost of Birr 1,900. The project covered the demonstration costs of training on poultry feed and vaccination of chicken that are produced using local hatchery technology  Two of the animal feed shop owners (Ato Endale Rago and Gizaw Assefa) continued to supply poultry feed. However the quantities sold were minimal and so far not economically sustainable  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)  Poultry credit fund (136,000.00 Birr) was not used due to farmers' deciding they no longer wanted to take day old chicken as indicated in the proposal. The approved proposal is still pending and may need the WALC's decision.In Bure  IPMS project in collaboration with Andassa Research Center and a graduate student, trained farmers on poultry feed formulation and preparation of feeding and drinking equipment from locally available materials. Trained farmers started preparation of poultry rearing equipment and formulation of feed from locally available resources. In addition, IPMS project distributed seeds of Sesbania and alfalfa to poultry rearing farmers in order to establish poultry feed in their backyards  Poultry is an important commodity for the landless youth and female headed households. Due to inadequate improved poultry breed supply, most farmers' rear local poultry breed. Consequently, the profitability of poultry rearing activity is very low  To solve this problem, IPMS project established a private day-old chicken multiplication center. The project released 118,650.00 birr in credit to increase the capacity of this farm. From this credit fund, ACSI provided 90,000 birr to this farm in 2008. Currently this farm has paid back 16.7% of its credit. As a result of this intervention, two additional improved poultry breed suppliers have been established at Bure town. These enterprises started marketing of fertile eggs to farmers. However, so far they have failed to supply day-old chicken due to frequent power supply interruption  IPMS project collects the price of poultry products and disseminates the information to users every week in collaboration with marketing teams of the OoARD and BoARDIn Fogera  A private enterprise that grows improved day old chicks started operating. Eight hundred day old we hite leghorn breed chicks arrived from the Andassa poultry farm. This growing center will be used to supply improved breeds of pullets and cockerels to the local community.In Dale  The project partners held discussions with the pullet producers (see previous report) with the aim of developing a new proposal aimed at increased ownership of the input supply system, including incubator and small fridge to keep vaccines. The egg layers which received training in the previous period are being monitored..In Fogera  From seven fishery groups a total of 27,370.75 birr has been repaid out of a total loan of 410,200.00 Birr. This repayment is behind schedule since no appropriate linkages between credit repayment and fish marketing have been established and in the group the group had expectations of getting the loan for free  Following the last two months fasting period, fish supply and demand has been increasing. The seven groups established in collaboration with ACSI, WoARD etc have been quite active  In collaboration with the Woreta town municipality, Woreta town agriculture provided land for fish processing and marketing. One of them has already started operation with four deep freezers and has been collecting fish from 7 fishery groups over the last four months.In Fogera,  During the last production season, a total of 196 households in 14 Kebeles participated in upland rice seed production. The program is implemented by the WoARD and Adet Research Center and IPMS. The average productivity per hectare ranged from 28 quintals in Guramaba to 33 quintals in Aboakokit. As per field observations, these differences were due to management. Farmers who weeded their fields 3 times obtained more than those who weeded less. It is estimated that around 1,568 quintals of upland rice (NERICA-4) seed have been harvested from an estimated acreage of 53 hectares  Following the promotion of upland rice seed production in the PLW during the scaling out workshop, World Vision project working in Gondar Zuria requested for 300 quintals of upland rice seed from Fogera  Assuming that the upland rice for seed/grain production will replace some of the existing cereal crops grown (finger millet, sorghum, teff) the potential impact can be assessed in terms of additional gross and net production value. For the 53 ha grown in the past season the increase in gross production value is estimated at 53 ha x 30 qt/ha x Birr 600/ha = Birr 954,000 (gross production value rice) minus 53ha x 10qt/ha x Birr 550/qt = Birr 291,500 (gross production finger millet) = Birr 635,500. Assuming that more seeds will be available for this year's season, the increase in gross production value will increase further  Parboiling of rice was tested in Fogera with SG2000 and Adet Agricultural Research Centre, Food Science Department It had a significant impact on the quality of the rice (grains were not crushed). A market test was done and the price was considerably higher than the ordinary rice polished without parboiling (Birr 9 vs Bir 6.3/kg).In Metema,  Efforts have been underway to become self sufficient on rice seed since 2006, in collaboration with the Gondar Agricultural Research Centre and the OoARD. Three (3) upland varieties (NERICA 3, NERICA 4 and SUPERICA) were used on 37 farmers' fields. These varieties were planted in 4 PAs (Kumer, Genda wuha, Agame wuha and Kokit) on 6.75 ha of land in 2006. Currently, upland rice for seed and grain is grown in 15 PAs on a total of 217.25 ha and 365 participating farmers (352 male and 13 female). The estimated yield was about 30qt/ha. Since all the rice was grown on \"new\" land the estimated gross production value is 217ha x 30qt/ha x Bir600/qt is Birr 4 million.In Ada'a  Teff varieties and agronomic management demonstrations were carried out in 6 FTCs (Deko, Ude, Yatu, Denkaka, Hidi and Katela) in Ada'a. Denkaka site was visited by many farmers, while others were visited during field days and trainings which were organized locally in the respective FTCs. The impact of this form of demonstration is still to be assessed  Kuncho (DZ-37) variety multiplication was carried out in 4 PAs (Garbicha, GendeGorba, Yatu and Hidi) on 6 ha for basic and 2 ha for certified seed. Eleven farmers signed contractual agreements to multiply this variety with Erer Farmers Union (training was provided by staff from EIAR DZ). The recent report shows that farmers declined to sell back the seed to Erer Farmers Union, because farmers learnt that Kuncho is better yielding (up to 26, qt/ha as compared to other varieties yielding not more than 12 qt/ha) and farmer to farmer exchange offers better price when compared to the agreement made between the farmers and the Union. This shows that farmers are responsive to technology and market if they are provided with appropriate technology, knowledge and market information.In Alaba,  Teff seed multiplication production continued for the third year during the main rainy season in 2 PAs (Guba Sheraro and Hulegeba Kukie). In order to help them gain experience, a field visit was organized for 38 people (5 women) to Debre Zeit. These included farmers and OoARD staff. Teff seed multiplication field day was also organized for 277 partners (23 women). Improved teff seed for the multiplying farmers was supplied through OoARD with support from the Union. The farmers involved were 121 (5 women) on 85 ha  The total amount of seed produced was 709 qt. All seed was sold to the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise at Birr 1,015.80/qt (15% higher than the market price). The total sale value was Birr 720,202. Thirty eight qt was rejected because of inferior quality. The average income of a household from seed multiplication was estimated at Birr 5,950 in the season  Assuming that all seeds will be used for grain production in Alaba in the coming planting season (insufficient information available on distribution), this amount of seeds would be able to cover 2,700 hectares (roughly half of the teff acreage reported in 2004)  Private crop protection service provider established by the project partners continued providing service for field crops and for granaries, including teff  The input shop established by Mencheno Farmers' cooperative Union resumed service after discontinuing for 4 months due to management problems. Report on utilisation of credit is still due  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)  A private farmer started working on threshing small cereals since two years ago with credit money from IPMS. Over the reporting period, the machine threshed 140 qt of teff and finger millet grains and served 60 households scattered in 6 PAs. The machine worked for 95 hrs over 2 months period with an hourly charge of Birr 40/hr\". Report on credit utilization/repayment is till due. WALC is expected to make suggestions to the project partners about how to introduce more machines to the PLW in 2009/10. WheatIn Ada'a  Wheat varieties and agronomic management demonstrations were carried out in the same FTCs as for teff. The number of visitors in each FTC is similar to that of teff because this was conducted at the same time as for teff. The role of IPMS is supply of different wheat varieties along with input and manuals to DAs at FTCs. Wheat seed multipliers were provided with technical training.In Bure  Bread wheat is a new crop and is an expanding marketable crop. It is planted on fine seedbed in the middle of the rainy season. This aggravates soil erosion and then loss of soil fertility. To tackle this problem, the OoARD/IPMS organized field days to demonstrate wheat production by means of conservation tillage using roundup to experts, DAs, higher officials and farmers in two PAs. After these efforts, many farmers started to ask DAs for the supply of the herbicide. To solve the roundup problem, the project partners facilitated the supply of roundup through cooperatives and private agro-chemical suppliers. 626 liters was used during this reporting periodthis covers roughly 150 hectares (at a rate of 4 l/ha).Because of the increased demand, there are 4,340 l (roughly 1,000 ha) available for the coming season (3,040 by cooperatives office and 1,300 l by 2 private input suppliers). Although the price of this herbicide increased to 155 birr per liter, farmers have already started purchasing the herbicide for the coming cropping season  The possible economic benefits from the introduction of this technology have still to be assessed. Field observation shows that productivity of wheat on conservation tillage was better (28-40 qt/ha) than the wheat produced with the conventional tillage (28-36 qt/ha) system. Conservation tillage also allowed poor farmers to plant their fields on time and female farmers to fully benefit from their croplands because of higher land rent and/or better yield if they manage to crop their fields. There are now also requests by many farmers to use this technology on other crops  Although the area under wheat production is steadily expanding every year in Bure, farmers only know and grow one variety, Kubsa (HAR 1685). This variety is not recommended because of possible disease outbreaks. In addition, Kubsa also has a sprouting problem whenever there is extended rain. To solve these problems, the project partners demonstrated how to grow new bread wheat varieties including, Galema (HAR 604) and Gassay and Kubsa, last year, where 40 farmers, 3 DAs and 3 experts were involved. Galema was better than the other 2 varieties  From a study tour to Ada'a PLW by the project stakeholders a year ago, it was observed that there is a possibility of certified seed production, processing and marketing by a multipurpose cooperative union. Following this, the project partners demonstrated certified seed production of the best varieties on farmers' fields at Zalema PA during the last cropping season. One farmer produced, 9 and 7 qt of certified seed from Galema and Gassay varieties, respectively. Also, Damot multi-purpose cooperative union began to buy the certified seed produced, process and market it back to farmers in Bure. The bottleneck in this activity is shortage of breeder seed from research centers. At the moment, bread wheat seed is supplied only by the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise, which usually is inadequate and late  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)  The project provided technical advice to Damot Multipurpose Cooperative Union to establish a wheat flour factory in the area. The Union then prepared a project document and received land to construct the factory at Bure.The main intervention is the development of an alternative seedling input supply system for improved marketable fruit varieties. The interest of potential private nursery operators is raised after which training in grafting and producing of rootstock takes place. Since no improved varieties are available (from which scions can be collected) the nursery operators are also issued with grafted seedlings, which will become a future source of scions (also referred to as mother trees). In the mean time, scions are provided from research stations, in particular Melkassa Agricultural Research Center (MARC).Besides these input supply interventions, several PLWs also generated interest/demand for the introduction of improved (grafted) varieties for future fruit production. Seedlings are then usually supplied through government programs.In Goma  Six (6) innovative farmers and DAs were trained on improved fruit management including, grafting. During the training exercise these trainees grafted 1,000 seedlings with survival rates of up to 85%. Presently 4,371 grafted avocado seedlings (5 varieties) are ready for transplanting. One of these farmers already sold 750 grafted seedlings at Birr 25 each and obtained Birr 18,750. Many are now interested to follow in this farmer's footsteps. The PLW is devising a strategy to enable OoARD to effectively monitor the quality of the technology multiplication so that adulteration will be avoided  Farmers were also issued with avocado mother trees (300 in total for 6 farmers)for the first time in the district which has an average altitude of 1,700 masl. Survival rate of HASS variety was the best followed by Fuerte and Ettinger. Survival rate of the mother trees from various fruit varieties bought from Upper Awash state farm and planted on each innovative farmer's plots is also high. These are expected to be the sources of scion for future multiplication (2010)  During the training, farmers also filled 3,000 poly bags in preparation for root stock establishment. After the training, farmers themselves increased the number of rootstocks to 6,000, most of which are now grafted with scions from MARC  A visit was organized in Beshasha PA to one of the innovative farmer's fruit farm/nursery that was established last year. Participants were all model farmers in 8 PAs bordering Beshasha PA, DAs and supervisors working in the area, technical staff of OoARD, WALC chairman and OoARD head. Major lessons learnt were easy multiplication of improved fruit varieties particularly avocado through grafting  Based on demand, a 3 day training program was launched for all plant science DAs working in the Woreda including all experts and supervisors in the PLW. In addition to these, the Zonal Office of Agriculture and Rural Development requested training for additional 11 experts from 11 neighboring Woredas.Trainers came from Melkassa Agricultural Research Centre (Tropical fruits improvement/management) and Kale Heywet Church on highland fruit (apple) improvement/management. Relevant reference materials were also distributed to each trainee and a copy was also placed in FTCs and Woreda Knowledge Centre.In Dale  Six (6) experienced and 1 follower fruit nursery operators raised a total of 4,348 grafted seedlings of which 3,134 are avocados and 1,224 were apple mangoes. Four varieties of avocado, namely Bacon, Fuerte, Ettinger and Hass and one variety apple mango were grafted. In addition to this, 1,200 seedlings from both avocado and mango will soon be grafted raising the total number of grafted seedlings to 5,500 which will be ready for the planting season from July-October 2009. Among these seedlings, 1,245 avocado and 298 mango seedlings are currently ready for planting during this season  The improved grafted seedlings (about 2,600) planted 3 years ago have now started bearing fruits. A survey will be carried out to assess the possible production level and for possible linkage with markets. It is expected that these improved planted varieties will also start yielding scion for farmer operated nurseries this year. Based on this, it is expected that Dale could become self sufficient in improved fruit seedling production in the coming year  Farmers have already expressed their appreciation of the new varieties, not only because of their better fruits, but also because of a much shorter period to fruit bearing as compared to un-grafted local varieties and a much more manageable tree height.In Metema  According to the OoARD report, irrigated fruit and vegetable production is expanding throughout the 18 PAs and a total of 182.6 ha have been developed. Of this, 47% is under production while the rest is under land preparation. There is a strong interest by the Woreda and zone authorities to develop irrigation agriculture. Hence, potential irrigable areas were identified and the OoARD has planned to develop 1,860 ha under irrigation. To scale out the horticultural crop production interventions in general and fruits development in particular, various events, like field days and capacity building activities were facilitated by OoARD and IPMS  As a result of the efforts of IPMS and OoARD to develop the fruits and vegetables enterprise, the BoARD and OoARD facilitated delivery of 65 water pumps by Ambasel Trading house for distribution to farmers through the government's credit system (ACSI). These are expected to support the vegetables and fruits production in the future  Farmer to farmers sucker supply system is well established in Metema. Staff of the OoARD, including DAs, are engaged in facilitating input linkages among growers and new entry farmers within and out side of the Woreda. In addition, efforts are under way to establish private nurseries in order also to support a sustainable improved fruit seedling supply system (like the other PLWs).  Banana ripening was one of the challenges for banana growers. To tackle this problem, ripening training was organized for farmers and traders in 2007. Following this, one lead farmer started a ripening business in Genda wuha town (Metema). During this reporting period, 5 trucks (with a capacity of 50 qt each) of banana were successfully ripened using kerosene burners. To support this, the project partners also facilitated banana market promotions in Metema.In Alamata  Based on farmers demand (created some years ago through study tours), 1,470 banana, 506 mango and 258 orange fruit seedlings were distributed (from government nurseries) to farmers in 3 PAs (Kulgize Lemelem, Laelay Dayu & Timuga) in October 2008.In Ada'a  Fruit development is being carried out in collaboration with MARC and Ada'a OoARD. Forty farmers from Godino and Denkaka PAs, who received technical training on fruit production, are managing their fruits well. MARC, IPMS and Ada'a OoARD regularly followed up and provided technical back stopping  Harvesting of fruits has started in Godino. A farmer from this PA reported sale of 50 kg lemon (sweet lime) at the rate of Birr 8 per kg. This time, about 20 farmers reported their avocado, mango, banana, orange, papaya and lemon have started to bear fruits which they will begin selling in the coming month. Each farmer planted 5 each for most fruits, except for banana and papaya which were 10 each. Banana suckers and papaya seedlings are being used for expanding their own plots and sale to other farmers. As in Dale, farmers have commented positively on the characteristics of the grafted improved varieties  Farmers with grafting and nursery management skills continued selling improved fruit seedlings to fellow farmers. A private fruit nursery operator from Denkaka sold about 400 grafted seedlings at Birr 15 per seedling. The seedlings were sold to other IPMS PLWs, private investors and to Ada'a farmers.In Bure  Twenty six (26) farmers, DAs and experts were trained on fruit grafting during the last reporting period. As in other PLWs, the major challenge on this intervention is inadequate scion supply. To solve this problem the project partners obtained 917 avocado scion twigs from 2 varieties from MARC and provided them to fruit grafting farmers. Currently, there are 10 farmers/landless youth who are involved in the raising and selling of improved fruit seedlings in Bure. Fruit seedling multiplication and marketing has now become a lucrative business. In this reporting period, 6 farmers in 3 PAs raised over 2,000 avocado seedlings for rootstock. Two farmers have more than three hundred grafted avocados and have been popularizing them during farmers' festivals.  During this reporting period many farmers were advised on pruning of avocado and mango and de-suckering of banana. In addition, they were also advised on deflowering young avocado and mango trees  Bure RDO was requested by the Bure ATVET college to train 89 students and an instructor both theoretically but also with practical sessions regarding propagation methods of different fruit crops and improved orchard management techniques (pruning, grafting, irrigation, fertilization, sucker management, etc). The OoARD for the first time also planted grafted avocados in its compound as demonstration material  There is no excess fruit produced at present and hence farmers did not have market problems. However, the project partners are popularizing the availability of improved fruit seedlings for sale in different forums.In Mieso  Farmers during the last 7-8 months bought and planted over 1,600 grafted seedlings of mangos and avocados in 12 PAs. Monitoring of these seedlings by partners found that more 50% of the seedlings are growing successfully  Currently, a farmer has established a private nursery and has raised 240 mango and 50 orange seedlings that are ready for grafting. This farmer also has 500 papaya seedlings and over 100 banana suckers ready for sale at Birr 2/seedling and 5-10/sucker, respectively  Last season, 4 farmers living in 4 PAs, produced and sold over 1,600 grafted mangoes and avocadoes seedlings. These farmers generated Birr 14,000, 12,000, 7,500 and 1,050, for seeds which were sold at Birr 12 each  Several farmers who planted papaya (as many as 70) are now managing to generate incomes of up to Birr 1,800 from fruit sales.In Bure  It is estimated that about 8% of the total area in Bure is highland with access to irrigation water. However, farmers grow less value crops in these irrigated farmlands. The project partners introduced 75 grafted apple seedlings as demonstration from 3 varieties purchased from a nearby SIM nursery last year.The project also organized a study tour for farmers, DAs and experts to acquire lessons on propagation techniques, tree management and economic benefits of apple growing. This study tour motivated all participants who requested that the project supply planting material at their own expense for the coming rainy season. The OoARD also prepared to introduce and demonstrate apple in the highlands by purchasing apple planting material using IFAD funds.In Dale  In the past season, 47 farmers were involved in improved haricot bean seed multiplication (Dimtu, Nasir, Ibado and DRK). Twenty three (23) of the farmers sold 44 quintals (to the cooperativesee below) but the remaining farmers preferred to keep the seeds and sell them at a higher prices later on this season. Ibado (mottled red variety) is the one that is mostly desired and farmers are unwilling to sell it at the current price, which is the market grain cost plus 15%. Also some 7 farmers in Soyama and 2 in Debub Kege PAs have lost their crop due to un-seasonal rain  During the past six months, Weynenata cooperative obtained Birr 76,000 from the IPMS innovative credit fund and bought 44 quintals of haricot bean from four varieties. The seeds were treated and stored for the next planting season to increase the acreage of improved and more market oriented haricot bean.In Alaba  During the main rainy season in 2008, 8 qt of haricot bean seed from 2 varieties (Nasir and Dimtu) were multiplied by 60 farmers in 3 PAs (Hulegeba Kukie, Uletegna Choroko and Galto). Monitoring of haricot bean seed production was carried out by a multi-disciplinary team including scientists from Awassa Agricultural Research Centre  All 60 farmers returned 12.5 kg/each to establish a community seed bank. The project also purchased 3 qt of multiplied seed to strengthen the community seed bank and granaries made from local materials were also purchased for establishment of seed banks  In support of the haricot bean development, the Menchono Union shop provided inputs, and crop spraying services were used and market information was provided on bill boards (see knowledge management)In Ada'a  Varieties and agronomic management demonstrations were made in four FTCs (Ude, Yatu, Denkaka and Ketela. Denkaka Seed borne diseases are reported to cause yield losses in chickpea  Data analysis showed that application of Apron and inoculums increased yield and seed size by 10% as compared to the control (no application). This yield increase was encouraging, and hence, DAs and farmers were advised to use these technologies for the coming year during the refreshment training session.In Bure  Faba bean is an important marketable commodity for farmers in the cereals/potato/livestock farming system in 5 PAs. Research centers have released a number of improved varieties, but there are no varieties supplied to farmers in Bure. To solve this problem, the project partners demonstrated 3 faba bean varieties, namely, Adet Hana, CS-20DK and Degaga 2 years ago. Farmers selected Degaga variety based on its yield and bean size  Following this, the project partners then demonstrated certified seed production using this variety in Wundegi PA, last year. One farmer multiplied the seed from this best variety on a quarter of hectare land. The problem is again shortage of breeder seed from research centers but also faba bean is a highly cross pollinated crop making it difficult to produce genetically pure seed on small scale farmers' fields  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)In Fogera  Five hundred thirty (530) new water pumps were received, through a government program, of which so far 155 have been distributed. Capacity development for overall pump handling and maintenance was provided  In collaboration with Axum Greenline Private Limited Company, high yielding varieties of tomato and onion hybrid seed were introduced to 8 farmers' fields in 3 PAs  Onion seed production continued on 6.75 ha of land distributed in Aboakokit ( 7farmers, 4 ha), Shina (2 farmers, 1.25 ha) and Bebekis (4 farmers, 1.5 ha). From our previous production estimates, around 50 quintals of onion seed is expected to be harvested and can cover 2/3 rd of the Woreda's total onion seed requirement. However, demand for onion seed is also increasing from outside the PLW. In this reporting period, 4 quintals of onion seed (from the previous harvest) were sold to Raya Azebo (Woreda neighboring Alamata PLW) and another 6 quintals of seed were sold to Alamata. The price also increased from birr 140 to 160 per kilo. In the onion seed platform, we learned that more onion seed producers will be involved in the next season.In Metema  Vegetable production is expanding. The 65 new water pumps distributed on credit basis to support both the vegetable and fruit production will contribute to this. However, there seem to be some problems with pumps and many farmers have complained about them. Hence, capacity building on the management and maintenance of these pumps isvery important and timely. The potential irrigable area in the Woreda is estimated to be 1,860 ha. If this is well developed a number of vegetable crops could be developed  Currently, vegetable seed is supplied by private shops and input out put marketing co-ops like the one in Tumet, established with the support of the project partners.In some cases, farmers located near the border purchase vegetable seed from Sudanese suppliers. So far, shortage of vegetable seed has not been reported except that the suppliers are located far from where vegetables are grown.In Alamata  During the 2008 season, rain-fed and spate irrigated onion covered about 1,250 ha, compared to 57 ha covered by vegetables in 2005. All low lying 8 PAs produced onion during this period (93% of the area is planted with onion). Following the rainy season, from October 2008 to mid March 2009, 50 ha of land was under onion and 15 ha under tomatoes (3 PAs) using traditional irrigation systems, while onion grown on modern irrigation schemes covered 23 ha (Timuga PA). Also in Tumuga, 116 ha of land were under hot pepper production during the dry season, using traditional and modern irrigation  Disease prevalence on pepper was common, especially on the waterlogged PAs, like Timuga. The issue was discussed with experts in the Woreda who agreed to look for other source of planting materials. Accordingly, IPMS introduced 25 kg of pepper seed from Alaba PLW to substitute for the planting material in Alamata  Shewit Alamata Union participated in onion marketing (from the rainy season) through the linkage created with onion wholesalers in Mekelle with the help of IPMS. The Union also opened a retail shop in Mekelle to facilitate onion marketing  IPMS Alamata further created new linkages with traders and the Defense Force in Addis to sell higher volume of onion from the PLW. In addition, the project partners facilitated an awareness creation forum on onion marketing. This will help find a higher premium and also produce higher volume of onion  Also an expert was invited from the Tigray Agricultural Marketing Promotion Agency (TAMPA) for 1 day to train farmers and experts  Despite these increased marketing efforts, the price of onion bulbs fell during the season to Birr 1.50-2.00/kg because of continued rainfall (2 weeks) at harvest time, which caused many farmers to harvest and sell their onion quickly (for fear of rotting)thus flooding the market. However, those farmers who kept their produce until after these 2 weeks earned a better price of Birr 3.00-4.00/kg.In Ada'a  Farmers who were organized into groups and who already took credit money from Erer Union/IPMS (for pump operation and irrigated vegetable production) started vegetables production using the Mojo river in Hidi, Kality, Katila and Denakaka PAs  Out of the 13 water pumps purchased, only 1 had a problem but is being fixed. In fact many more farmers are now engaged in irrigation around the river. There are currently 42 irrigation groups (including the 13 groups who were credited by IPMS) organized by both OoARD and Cooperatives who own 73 water pumps on credit from the primary cooperatives. This number does not include privately owned water pumps which are also quite numerous. All these water pumps are expected to irrigate about 360 ha. This figure again does not include areas being irrigated using private water pumps  Women vegetable growers saving and credit group planted onion on a quarter of ha land in each member's plot. There are 10 women in the group with a capital of Birr 4,500. The crop stand and management is in good condition and follow up is carried out by the project partners. Ada'a OoARD and women affairs desk is determined to scale out this group within Godino PA and beyond.In Atsbi  All the PAs and farmers (women, men and youth) with irrigation facilities were targeted for developing vegetables. The development of household level water harvesting and other irrigation methods appears to trigger the expansion of irrigated marketable crops. According to estimates of the OoARD, about 11,393 households (33% of them women headed) grew vegetables on about 1,417 ha of land in 2008. Income from this activity was estimated to be about Birr 30-38 million. Because of the high market value, irrigated vegetable and spices are expanding and becoming major sources of income. In support of this, the project and its partners trained 185 (172 male and 13 female) farmers on irrigation development focused on drip irrigation for 3 days in the different PAs.  Excess water application is still a key limiting factor for the full realization of the benefits of the intervention. Irrigated crop growers (vegetables) can easily earn Birr 3,000-4,000/household per harvest. Incomes can be maximized by increasing crops harvests per year and the project partners are working towards that  Among the 10 farmers who were involved in garlic seed production research (MSc), 9 of them are engaged in garlic seed production at the moment. Some farmers in other PAs are also growing garlic for seed production. Data regarding number of farmers and area will be made available in the coming reporting period  Farmers with some skills and experience were also targeted for repairing and maintaining water lifting devices training. This was following the ToT of 30 OoARD staff in the Woreda  Women were targeted for vegetable marketing training. Service providers and beneficiaries managed to respond to emerging challenges with various options of optimizing income using market oriented commodities (learning by doing). Some of the innovative practices in relation to irrigated vegetables have successfully been scaled up and out among PAs using field visits, tours and platforms.In Bure  Farmers grow low yielding and late blight susceptible local potato variety. To solve this problem the project partners demonstrated performance of three improved potato varieties (Guassa, Zengena and Jaleni) on three farmer fields at Wundegi PA. A field day was organized to demonstrate performance of these varieties to farmers, DAs and experts. This created a huge demand for seed tuber  To address some of the demands, the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development purchased 40 qt seed tuber and distributed it to farmers using IFAD funds. Although research centers have released a number of varieties, there are very few seed tuber multiplying agencies  To solve this problem, the project partners established a seed multiplying farmers' group and organized an experience sharing tour to gain lessons on seed tuber storage techniques and the construction of Diffuse Light Storage (DLS) from locally available materials. These farmers constructed DLS and started selling sprouted seed tubers to other farmers at a price of birr 500/qt  The project partners also collect market price for potato and disseminates it to users every week. This is done in collaboration with the marketing teams of OoARD and BoARD  In order to increase the shelf life of vegetables, a zero-energy cool chamber was constructed in collaboration with OoARD and its use was demonstrated. Financial resources came from OoARD. The project partners also organized potato processing training to add value to potato, this time in collaboration with the Woreda office of Trade and Industry  Tomato production is increasing in the irrigated fields, but the varieties grown are mostly perishable. As a result, farmers are forced to sell in the local market at low market prices. To solve this problem the project partners in collaboration with Axum Greenline Trading Company and Adet Agricultural Research Center introduced and demonstrated three improved tomato varieties namely, Shanti, Melkasalsa and Melkashola. A field day was also organized to assess the merits of these varieties with farmers. Farmers reported the superiority of these varieties and requested for these seeds.. The new varieties were high yielders, less perishable and less affected by boll worm compared to Marglobe. In addition, farmers visited the zero-energy cool chamber and appreciated the importance of the technology to reduce post-harvest loss.In Mieso  One farmer produced 250 kg of onion from Adama red variety from 0.25 ha with technical assistance from MARC scientists. This is expected to be used as a seed source in Adele PA (Kora zone). This same farmer and another one (2 farmers) are ready to produce onion seed on half ha each during in the coming season. About 25 farmers have also produced local onion from 10 ha of land using bulbs as planting material  Over 50 farmers in 3 PAs are producing tomato variety, Sumbersana, on 6.75 ha and some of them used irrigation. This time, 4 farmers are ready to produce tomato seed on 2-4 ha for the next cropping season.In Alaba  Pepper is a major commodity produced by many farmers. Ten farmers and 4 DAs (1 woman, 13 men) were trained for 3 days on pepper seed multiplication. The training was held with an objective of establishing a community seed bank among the 10 farmers drawn from the 3 PAs. Pepper seed treatment was also demonstrated for the 10 farmers on March 27, 2009 in order to enable them to teach other farmers  A video film on pepper seed treatment was shown on March 21, 2009 in Kulito town for 217 people (77 women) and the film was shown again in Wanja PA and 101 people (20 women) attended. . MARC also demonstrated pepper seed treatment for 3 farmers in the PLW and is working to recommend most effective chemical protection and best pepper seeds  Private crop protection service continued to provide service for field crops and granaries, while the Mencheno Farmers' cooperative Union input shop also continued to operate  Market information was provided (see knowledge management)In Bure  The project partners demonstrated the performance of the improved hot pepper variety, Marekofana, in Wangedam, Zalema and Zeyewshewen PAs. Farmers observed that in terms of productivity, quality and being able to obtain a higher market price, Markofana is much better when compared to the local variety. However, it is difficult to maintain genetically pure seed from small scale farmers' because of cross pollination. Moreover, root rot has become a major disease affecting pepper  The project partners demonstrated farmer based hot pepper seed production in three PAs (Wangedam, Zalema and Zeyewshewen), considering cluster plots in order to minimize segregation. The project partners also demonstrated hot pepper seedling raising and marketing activity to female headed households and landless youth as an income generating activity in three PAs (Wangedam, Zalema and Zeyewshewen). Farmers involved in this activity obtained up to Birr 1,200 each in one season  The project partners also continued to collect the market price of pepper and disseminate it to users every week in collaboration with the OoARD and BoARD marketing teams.In Goma  Efforts have been underway to improve the quality of coffee since the engagement of IPMS in the Woreda in 2007. This included:  Engaging new farmers in quality improvement and providing them with training and facilitating access to inputs either on credit or on cash depending on their needs  Strengthening the capacity of farmers who have already been involved in coffee in terms of quality assurance through community quality control groups and monitoring by technical staff  Creating linkages between farmers and exporters.  In support of improving the quality of coffee, efforts have been made to promote the use of coffee drying materials by bringing new farmers from target and non target PAs. From the 11 target PAs, there were 65 additional farmers registered to buy these drying materials with cash, while 218 farmers from both target and non target PAs preferred to do buy the materials on credit. However, due to a price increase of over 50% on these materials , all farmers decided not to buy them  In order to improve market access, the Woreda cooperative unit was involved in assisting with the legalization of the coffee marketing groups. This is intended to help the groups be able to export their produce directly. So far out of 11 target PAs two have finalized registration payment and share purchase and are currently ready to get their legal certificate. However many target farmers in the lower altitude PAs were reluctant due to poor coffee production this year  In addition to quality improvement, the project partners are also involved in vegetative hybrid coffee multiplication. Two innovative farmers started multiplying the hybrid coffee, Aba Buna. This required establishing a greenhouse made from polyethylene. On one of the innovative farms 75 seedlings were completely hardened out of 100 seedlings that were initially propagated (75% success rate), and this was unthinkable to farmer levels in the beginning. Following the success of this farmer, another farmer also started to raise 500 cuttings on his own and is now at the hardening stage. This exercise verified that farmers could handle intensive care requiring activities and other sophisticated operations which were bottle necks for various technology multiplications in the agricultural sector. After many discussions with the OoARD staff, plans are now in place to launch a scaling out operation in 4 directions in the PLW establishing one seedling multiplier for each direction. A three day training was also given in support of this activity by experts from Jima Agricultural Research Centre on coffee technology multiplication for DAs and experts in Goma and 11 neighboring Woredas.In Dale  The project partners are working to reintroduce and promote a CDB resistant Sidama cultivar, known as Angafa, in order to support specialty coffee to develop a future niche market. Awada Coffee Research Sub-centre has completed data collection in order to see the performance of this variety compared to the coffee berry disease (CBD) resistant varieties introduced from Western Ethiopia. The preliminary research showed that Angafa is performing significantly better than the CBD resistant varieties in production in the area in all parameters measured, except on stem nodes. The parameters measured include, stem girth, height, primary branches and others but does not include data on yield performance, as the plants not at bearing stage yet  Private coffee nursery operators were also given seeds of this variety for further multiplication and ultimately replacing the Western Ethiopian coffee varieties. Currently, there are 20 farmers that are growing 156, 000 seedlings of the Angafa variety. These farmers are also raising 100 Angafa variety mother trees as a future source of certified seed supply  In addition, there are 10 other farmers who received seed and are raising some 29,000 seedlings of Angafa bringing the total seedling production to 187,000.Planting has started and the biggest planting season will start in June-July 2009.Major partners are Awada Research Sub-Centre and the OoARD.PLWs are capacitated to use a participatory market-oriented value chain approach for the development of a commodity. Since the project is learning, different approaches are used based on some overall guidance but also based on initiatives taken in the different PLWs.The extent to which emphasis is given to the different value chain components (production, input supply/services, and marketing) varies by PLW and commodity. In principle such differences are the result of the assessment of problems/opportunities in each of the components by the stakeholders. It is observed that the value chain approach is used for most commodities in all PLWs, so we can be happy with that achievement. However, the extent to which individual components in the commodity value chain are addressed varies considerably between PLW and commodities. In some cases, this seems justified because of the assessment made, resulting in addressing key constraints only. For example in Fogera, focusing on marketing and onion seed production led to a very successful increase in onion area coverage. However, as observed recently by irrigation specialists, productivity/production increases can also be obtained by paying more Regardless of the approach used for the introduction of production technologies, an essential element of the overall market-oriented agricultural development approach is that interventions to address bottlenecks/opportunities for the supply of inputs and services and marketing of outputs are addressed. This is considered to be an important factor for the adoption of production technologies. Finally, an integral part of the approach is to aim for a gender and HIV/AIDS sensitive approach. Much of the capacity development and knowledge management approaches have been geared to this and positive experiences are presently documented by the team. While progress is made, a proper review of all commodities to bring greater impact is required.The use of innovative credit for different commodities is still evolving but it is observed that repayment is insufficient in several cases and that lack of repayment hampers new loan disbursements because of the group collateral principles applied.The expected outcomes of this project component are strategies, policy and technology options, and institutional innovations developed (from both research and lessonslearned), documented and promoted in order to enhance market-oriented agricultural development.In this section, a summary of the on-going research and promotion activities and outputs are presented together with an assessment of the achievements of the intended outputs and outcomes. An overview of the research conducted by graduate students is presented in Annex 6, while the research conducted with EARS is summarized in Annex 7.The following studies on knowledge management were completed, on-going or initiated: o \"Accessibility and utility of market information for market oriented commodities in Alamata and Ada'a\" and o \"The role of farmer to farmer knowledge sharing in innovation process:The case of Cavendish banana production technology in Metama.o The various student theses on different aspects of knowledge management will be summarized in the coming year.o A study/questionnaires was designed to study the effectiveness, use of various project knowledge management tools including WKC, FTCs, study tours, field days. Part of the data will be obtained from records kept in the centers.The following studies on capacity development were completed or initiated during this reporting period:Student thesis research  One student completed his research on \"Determinant factors and intensity of adoption of old coffee stumping technology on coffee farmers in Dale\"  One student started his research on \"Effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools in promoting coffee management practices; The case of Jimma and Sidama Zone\"  The synthesis of completed extension research (initiated with the help of an attachment student in the previous reporting period) is on-going  A number of students have started developing their proposals during this period focusing on modular trainings in FTCs and, commodity and service delivery innovationsPartner research  The livestock extension research initiated by SARI has been abandoned due to change priority setting IPMS research  A study/questionnaire was designed to study the effectiveness of the project's training activities. Samples for participant's interviews will be drawn from the capacity building data base maintained by the project.Market oriented commodity research is subdivided into i) commodity value chain componentsproduction/natural resource management, input supply and marketing, ii) innovation processes and iii) commodity synthesis research.The following studies on production, natural resource management and input supply are on-going, completed or initiated during this reporting period:Completed research  One student completed his MSc thesis research on \"Production and marketing system of local chicken ecotypes in Bure\"On-going research  Thirteen (13) students have on-going studies on production, input supply aspects o Characterization of goat production and marketing systems and on-farm evaluation of the growth performance of grazing goats supplemented with isonitrogenous protein sources in Metema Woreda o Characterization of small ruminant production system and on-farm evaluation of urea treated tef straw and concentrate feeding in sheep body weight change in Bure Woreda. o Characterization of sheep and goat production and marketing systems and on-farm evaluation of their growth performance in Goma Woreda, Jimma Zone, Oromia Regional State.  GIS based irrigation potential assessment of river catchments for irrigation development in Dale  Response of highland sheep in terms of body weight and intake to different feeding systems in Atsbi Womberta Woreda  Analysis of agricultural input supply system: the case of Dale Woreda.  Effectiveness of upland rice farmer to farmer seed production exchange system; the case of Fogera  Economics analysis of forage development for market oriented livestock analysis in Atsbi.  Assessment coffee quality problems in Jimma Zone  Current production system of Frankincense from Boswelia Papryfiera in Metema Synthesis  In the coming year, the different MSc thesis studies will be synthesized to draw commodity specific lessons, results for policy makers.Partner research  On-going research with regional research is on-going and can be seen on the IPMS website and Annex 7  Data collection in Dale on on-farm coffee nurseries/seed orchards and field assessment of a local coffee variety (Angafa) was completed by EIAR/Jimma ARC/Awada in collaboration with project staff. A technical report is being prepared.  A progress report on the on-going research activities with ARARI was received.While some projects show good progress, others have little or no information. A review meeting is scheduled with ARARI to decide on the future of these projects.  The livestock production research to be undertaken by SARI was rescheduled because of pre occupation with the BPR process. The research on soya bean was abandoned by SARI.  A (second) report on the livestock research activities with OARI is awaited.  In the coming year, the different MSc thesis studies will be synthesized to draw commodity specific lessons, results for policy makers  A synthesis of market development initiatives and experiences is planned for the coming year.Partner research  The vegetable marketing chain study for Atsbi by TARI was completed, a report is still awaited  The dried fish marketing study for Fogera by ARARI was completed, a report is still awaited. Small holder commercialization study: A survey of 1000 households across the 10 PLWS has started to study on the characteristics and operations of livestock, livestock input and output markets in the 10 PLWs. This survey will also provide cost/benefit data for the production interventions resulting from the use of the IPMS approach. These data will in turn be used for the commodity case studies.Dairy and forage innovation  Data collection at the community level for the dairy and forage innovation study was completed in eight PLWs covering 25 villages, where dairy is a priority commodity. The data have been synthesized and are being analyzed and a working paper will be developed based on this.Other commodity innovations  The commodity case study synthesis research (see 4.3.3) also includes data collection on the actors, actors linkages/processes involved in the development of these commodities.Credit innovations  The consultant submitted his report on the project's various credit innovations in the different PLWs. Since most interventions have been introduced recently and are still on-going, a follow up study is planned for next year in which the initial results will be included. See knowledge management and capacity development research This research is aimed at bringing together/synthesizing the different components, of the commodity value chain. Research and Development Officers in the PLWs over the years have been encouraged to start collecting data for such case studies, which are partly reported in the progress reports. Some have also started producing (draft) papers of which one (on banana innovations in Metama) was presented in a workshop in Mombassa during this period. (see promotion/communication). During this period we also received draft papers on \"sheep fattening in Goma'.  The project has now also started a multi site commodity synthesis case study research project for 6 commodities i.e. meat (fattening small and large ruminants, dairy, apiculture, vegetables, fruits and coffee)see Table ... A check list has been prepared for each of these commodities to capture changes from the perspective of the producers, service providers and input suppliers, including innovation processes and a gender perspective. Cost/benefit data on the farm level interventions will be collected through the HH survey (see 6.3.1.2) and special cost/benefit studies on input supply and service delivery mechanisms will be conducted by project staff/consultants. The cost/benefit data will be used as an In the past six month the project has increased its attention to the promotion of its findings on interventions and approaches to a wider audience. Some of the promotional activities are planned; others are based on demand and or a combination of the two. Part of the planned strategies is the geographical targeting to scale out within the Zones in which the PLWs are located. While a start was made with Zones in Tigray in the previous reporting period, introductory workshops and participatory planning for selected Woredas in 3 Zones in Amhara Region took place in the past six month. This will be followed with more skills development in the next season. Similar scaling out initiatives to promote the MoARD/IPMS participatory market oriented approach and interventions will take place during the next phase. The Steering Committee did however; caution that this promotion strategy should only be considered when scaling out in the PLW itself has reached a satisfactory level. It is also noted that the MoARD on its own has also initiated a nation wide inventory of best practices (including IPMS sites) and has also planned a scaling out/up strategy for the country as a whole. Discussions are required to stimulate integration and avoid duplication of efforts.It is also worthwhile to note that the technology exhibition with farmer's participation, which was initiated in Tigray by the BoARD/IPMS in March 2007, has now been institutionalized at the national and regional levels. In all these events, which took place during this reporting period, IPMS is now just one of the participants.Another interesting development which has taken place in the past six months is the involvement of IPMS staff in various policy related initiatives by the Government and donors. As mentioned in the report, project staff is involved in the development of a Livestock Master Plan. With the help of the CIDA office in Addis, linkages are also made with the donor group/GoE (REDEFES) which are in the process of reviewing the existing Food Security Program and developing a new Agricultural Growth Program.It is also good to note that the project attracts the (unplanned) attention of the national TV media who produced/feature documentaries on the PLWs in Oromiya during this period. Also, PLW staff has received awards for the efforts made in their respective Woredas.Still while this increased demand is encouraging for the project staff and partners, it is noted that more attention needs to be placed on proper documentation including synthesis and analysis of on-going activities.5 Project management Plans to recruit a replacement for the Goma RDA are already in place  Interviews have been held for the recruitment of an RDA for the Metema PLW however 2 more candidates will be interviewed in early October before finalizing the hire. Technical skill exams have also been completed for the driver recruitment at headquarter and interviews have been scheduled for mid-November.The project recruited several consultants during this period, namely:","tokenCount":"21399"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eec64d74a97352efb06309d705ec17f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1e6547f-a8de-4f4d-ac6d-1393dfedee35/retrieve","id":"738983899"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c7f4fc5c-d801-4b31-b74d-3c46e6cd38bc","pagecount":"2","content":"Aphids can be controlled using Dimethoate 40% EC. Apply as cover spray. Use 34 g Dimethoate powder in a litre of water for up to 3 week old seedlings and 68 g Dimethoate powder per litre of water for old plants. For the liquid formulation of Dimethoate, use 0.5 ml in a litre of water up to 3 weeks old and 1.0 ml per litre of water for the older plants.The crop should be harvested as soon as the pods are ready. Delayed harvest may result in losses due to rotting, termite and mouse attack and increased bruchid infestation. Pods should be moved in the morning hours to avoid shattering. Dry the beans and thresh by using hands or sticks. Store well dried beans, in clean containers and treat with Actellic (1 sachet to 90 kg of seed) or adequate ash (0.25 -0.5: 1 beans by volume) to prevent weevil damage. The inclusion of crushed tobacco leaves with the ash increases the degree of control. Regular sunning (once a week for 6 hours or more) will further reduce weevil damage.Bean seed of improved varieties can be obtained from reliable sources, check with agricultural extension agents in EPAs, and NGOs nearest to your area. Once farmers have planted the improved bean varieties, seeds can be recycled for a few years without degeneration. Farmers are therefore, encouraged to keep part of their produce as seed for the next season. Seed should only come from a disease free crop and should not be damaged by insect pests.Dried beans are the best source of proteins among the food from plants. When they are eaten with cereals, they provide a cheap source of protein which comes from meat or fish. They also provide energy, fibre, minerals and vitamins.Beans are important for nutrition so grow your own beans and cook and eat more of this nourishing food.Dried beans should be clean, sound and free from weevils, dirt, mould and mustiness.Soak dried beans overnight or for 4 to 6 hours to shorten cooking time.After soaking bring to the boil, reduce heat, cover and simmer until soft.After boiling, beans may be seasoned and eaten or they can also be combined with other ingredients. NOTE: Do not use baking soda to tenderize beans because soda destroys B vitamins (Contact your FA or FHA for some recipes)Beans are important for food as well as cash in Malawi.Most farmers use their own bean varieties which are low yielding. Chitedze Research in collaboration with CIAT/ SABRN developed additional two new improved bean varieties (Kholophethe and Kabalabala) which are high yielding and are recommended for production (released) in Malawi in addition to the six earlier released varieties (Maluwa, Napilira, Sapatsika, Kambidzi, Nagaga, and Mkhalira).These varieties are recommended for production in all bean growing areas (can be produced with rain-fed in highland areas, medium altitude areas and/or low altitude areas with residual moisture or irrigation).Kholophethe is large seeded (45g /100 seeds), with cream background and red speckles (sugar bean). Kabalabala is small seeded (25g/ 100 seeds) with white background (navy beans).Under good management beans grown in pure stand can yield up to 2500 kg per ha. To improve bean yields the following cultural practices are recommended:Farmers should be encouraged to use good seed of improved and recommended varieties for the production areas.Kholophethe (SUG131) & Kabalabala (UBR(92)25) Production PackageFields should be prepared early, by November in the South and December in the centre and north of Malawi for the rainy season crop. The Dimba crop is planted when climate is favourable, ranging from May to July along the lakeshore.To achieve high yields the correct plant population should be observed as follows:a. Pure stand Plant dwarf beans in rows spaced at 30 cm apart on the ridge. Plant 1 seed per hole, 10 cm apart, in the ridge.Ridges should be 75-90 cm apart. This requires 70 to 80 kg of seed per hectare for large seeded varieties (eg Kholophethe), and 50 to 60 kg of seed for small seeded varieties (eg Kabalabala).When maize is planted at 90 cm apart (3 seeds per station), place four planting stations in between the two maize planting stations. Plant 1 bean seed in each of the four planting stations. You will require 40-50 kg per hectareUnder dimba cultivation, plant dwarf varieties in rows 45 cm apart, two seeds per planting station spaced at 20 cm. This requires 40-50 kg of seed per hectare.Beans are self pollinated so there is little risk of varietal contamination through foreign pollen from nearby bean crops. However, there is need to separate different varieties by a few metres to avoid physical mixing.Most farmers do not apply fertilizer to their bean crop if it is grown in pure stand. However, farmers who intercrop beans with maize, often apply fertilizer to their maize, and the beans benefit from this. The recommended fertilizer application for the pure stand of beans is 20 kg/ha of N and P2O5 which requires 100 kg of 23:21:0 + 4S fertilizer.Manure can be applied if fertilizer is not used.a.Weeds: The crop should be kept weed free during the first six to eight weeks after planting. Weeding should stop after flowering to avoid flower shading.Diseases: Use disease tolerant varieties. The new varieties have tolerance to the major diseases.Insect pests: The major pre-harvest bean pests are the bean stem maggot (BSM), bean beetles and aphids.BSM causes wilting and is often termed a 'blight' by farmers. The attack may be avoided by planting early. Mortality due to BSM may be reduced by growing improved varieties; by applying a mulch (to remain in place for the lifetime of the crop); by applying manure at planting; and by earthing up around the base of the plants at first weeding (2 to 3 weeks after emergence). When available, Amigo (applied at the rate of 1 litre Amigo to 50 kg of seed) can be used as seed treatments.Bean beetle can be controlled with Carbryl 85 WP applied as full cover spray at the rate of 85 g in 14 litres of water. Spraying should be done only when the infestation is likely to cause damage. In areas where this pest is severe early planting should be avoided.","tokenCount":"1028"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0278088768.json b/data/part_5/0278088768.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..bcba7f3f463247595ecee146ce88770291c4ca0e
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ee41167a63c7067e77b66cd670dd4b23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/283c1c2c-c4a3-433b-9235-f7ccc389b177/retrieve","id":"1424653189"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"723be52b-e6ff-4c53-ab86-afc14a139ef5","pagecount":"2","content":"Supporting young people to enter food value chains can help reduce high levels of youth unemployment across sub-Saharan Africa. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and WorldFish conducted a study to understand the drivers of, and hindrances to, youth entry into aquaculture value chains in Nigeria to support development of youth-inclusive policy for rural areas.\"Value chain for development\" (VCD) is a favored approach to increase economic opportunities for youth in sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is limited understanding of what constitutes successful youth-inclusive VCD. Using an integrated framework, the IWMI and WorldFish investigated the livelihood assets available to youth from diverse groups in Nigeria and their ability to use assets to invest in aquaculture value chains. This revealed two main strategies: \"investment\" and \"risk management. \" Youth adopting either strategy consider aquaculture to be sustainable, profitable, fast growing and supported by high demand for fish. The Nigerian government and its development partners support youth engagement in the sector, but limited resources and a lack of youth input at the design phase hamper the efficacy of these interventions.Youth using this strategy leverage livelihood assets (e.g. social, human and natural capital) and financial assets for technical and capital-intensive roles, such as production. Young men and women use social networks and communications technologies to gain expertise, expand networks and access markets. Youth in wealthier households often invest directly in land and inputs, drawing on their social networks, savings, financial institutions and aquaculture projects.However, the high cost of inputs, lack of youth-oriented financial services and often poor quality of inputs increase risk and constrain investments. Young people tend not to participate in farmer associations that could offer support because they do not understand the benefits or older members have too little confidence in youth to engage them. Meanwhile, the assumption that aquaculture production is stressful and tedious for women, as well as other structural barriers, like tenure systems that deny women rights to land, further hinder the engagement of young women.Youth following this strategy leverage their livelihood assets (e.g. physical and social capital) and marketing skills (human capital) to engage in input supply, processing and distribution roles. Youth from poor households mainly invest in these functions, using finances from social networks and savings. Youth may also invest in communications technologies to improve market access and overcome misinformation with value chain actors (e.g. suppliers, buyers) as well as capitalize on training opportunities from aquaculture projects to mitigate losses caused by poor roads and storage facilities. The common perception that women are naturally suited for processing and marketing encourages young women to engage in these activities.• Widen understanding of diversity among youth and include youth in the design of interventions.• Develop youth-oriented financial services and capacity development initiatives to improve opportunities for youth from poor households.• Introduce incentives that encourage the private sector to support youth access to quality inputs and technologies at reasonable prices.• Encourage private and public sector investment in logistics services, such as better roads and storage facilities, to reduce losses.","tokenCount":"497"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0279923461.json b/data/part_5/0279923461.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c65e4be024b8b1282ae89789abfcbbca67541abc
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6af7d8547d1c837081087428cf241759","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/847a9299-6e9c-46a9-8658-468f8312b63a/retrieve","id":"-634793038"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"578c6e10-89ed-47d2-9627-8c0c0b366122","pagecount":"29","content":"Who cares? Why be accessible?• Our data information or knowledge assets should have benefits that can travel across boundaries• They need to be:-Described and stored for posterity -Easily found and accessed -Easily shared and re-used -Available, accessible and applicable without restrictions AAA• Availability -able to identify a 'publication' (metadata at least)• Accessibility -able to 'get hold of' the 'whole thing'• Applicability -able to adapt and re-use or re-purpose the 'publication'AAA Pathways• Promising technical and institutional routes to more or better accessibility• Repository of outputs of people and projects (hosted at ILRI)• Publishing and alerting platform• Repository for projects, institution, CRP?• Gateway to Google and beyondChoices we made Future ?• Index/make available limited access items (to the CGIAR with Active Directory?)-Full text articles / Internal documents ","tokenCount":"125"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0283231976.json b/data/part_5/0283231976.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..734946f7551cca6bc9bc8248bb9814c27c1f4594
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e27f29df369d5abfa816586d5dc85f26","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27e2b473-f5ed-4e86-85d5-64ca9ece8393/retrieve","id":"272633773"},"keywords":["metabolome","crop metabolism","nutrient deficiency","metabolites"],"sieverID":"e185b12a-272d-490d-80d9-6877ff9cb775","pagecount":"21","content":"Crop growth and yield often face sophisticated environmental stresses, especially the low availability of mineral nutrients in soils, such as deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and others. Thus, it is of great importance to understand the mechanisms of crop response to mineral nutrient deficiencies, as a basis to contribute to genetic improvement and breeding of crop varieties with high nutrient efficiency for sustainable agriculture. With the advent of large-scale omics approaches, the metabolome based on mass spectrometry has been employed as a powerful and useful technique to dissect the biochemical, molecular, and genetic bases of metabolisms in many crops. Numerous metabolites have been demonstrated to play essential roles in plant growth and cellular stress response to nutrient limitations. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to summarize the recent advances in the dissection of crop metabolism responses to deficiencies of mineral nutrients, as well as the underlying adaptive mechanisms. This review is intended to provide insights into and perspectives on developing crop varieties with high nutrient efficiency through metabolite-based crop improvement.Along with the growing population, the demands for crop production have increased gradually, as reflected by the 85% increase predicted from 2013 to 2050 [1,2]. In different growth and development periods, crops often suffer many sophisticated environmental stresses. Among them, deficiencies of mineral nutrients, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and others, are considered as the major constraints for crop growth and production [3,4]. For example, a 30-40% decrease in crop yield may occur under low P availability, while crop yields can drop by 10-40% under varying levels of N deficiency [4][5][6]. To maintain crop growth and yield under poor soil nutrient conditions in traditional agriculture, large amounts of chemical fertilizers are supplied to soils, but most of them are inevitably wasted due to low nutrient efficiency of crops and poor mobilization of nutrients in soils [7,8]. For example, N use efficiency of most plants is only 30-50%, resulting in 50-70% of the N fertilizer lost by denitrification, leaching, and volatilization [9]. Excess fertilizer amounts supplied to the soils lead to a waste of resources and increasing environmental issues, such as soil hardening, surface and groundwater contamination, and greenhouse gas emissions [10,11]. Therefore, developing crop varieties with high nutrient efficiency through genetic improvement is a critical approach to reconcile increased crop production with environmental sustainability.To understand the adaptive mechanisms of crops to nutrient deficiency, a large number of nutrient-responsive genes or proteins have been identified and characterized through high-throughput omics techniques, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and 2 of 21 proteomics [12,13]. Due to the changes in gene transcripts, protein levels, and enzyme activities not always being correlated, metabolites, the products of plant metabolism, are regarded as the readouts of plant growth or developmental status [14]. Thus, metabolomics, which is defined as qualitative and quantitative analysis of cellular metabolites based on mass spectrometry (MS) coupled to gas or liquid chromatography (GC or LC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, has become an important complementary tool for functional genomics and system biology studies in plants [15].More than 200,000 metabolites are estimated to be present in plants, which may have diverse functions in plant growth or cellular stress responses [14,16]. With the development of the accurate and large-scale detection of metabolites, metabolomics, including untargeted and targeted approaches, is now widely employed to identify differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) in response of crops to nutrient deficiencies. In this review, therefore, we mainly focus on recent advances in metabolomic dissection of crops in response to deficiencies of various mineral nutrients, including N, P, K, and other nutrients. This review also highlights the roles of key metabolites and the regulation of critical metabolic pathways during nutrient deficiency, with the intention to provide some insights into and perspectives on metabolite-based crop improvement.As N is one of the most important macronutrients for crop growth and development, its deficiency severely decreases crop biomass, inhibits chlorophyll content, and disrupts photosynthesis and photorespiration, ultimately limiting crop yield [17][18][19]. A series of physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying crop adaptation to N deficiency have been demonstrated, such as coordinating carbon (C) and N metabolisms, regulating root architecture, modulating phytohormone signaling, enhancing N uptake and translocation, and accumulating stress tolerance-related compounds [8,[20][21][22][23][24]. Since total N content and crop growth are affected by N limitation, metabolome analysis has been performed to identify N deficiency responsive metabolites and metabolic pathways, dissecting the adaptive mechanisms through regulation of metabolic profiles in many crops, such as rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), soybean (Glycine max), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and rapeseed (Brassica napus) [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. A summary of metabolome analyses of crops responses to N deficiency is presented in Table 1. Many of the identified DAMs can be integrated into specific metabolic pathways regulated by low-N stress (Figure 1).N deficiency has been shown to significantly decrease photosynthetic rate [29,33]. Several photosynthesis-related genes and proteins have been found to be downregulated by N deficiency [12,25], which is closely related to the accumulation of carbohydrates under N deprivation [34]. A variety of sugars, including fructose, galactose, glucose, sucrose, and maltose, are markedly increased in N-deficient leaves of barley according to metabolome analysis [35]. A similar result has been reported in apple leaves, where several carbohydrates related to C metabolism, such as glucose-6-P, fructose-6-P, and glycerate-3-P, are increased by N deficiency [33]. The accumulation of carbohydrates is believed to act as a key signal to fine-tune the decrease in photosynthesis in plant leaves during N limitation. Consistent with the reduction in photosynthesis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is also inhibited in leaves during low-N stress [25,33,36]. For example, intermediate metabolites involved in the TCA cycle, such as 2-oxoglutarate, citrate, isocitrate, succinate, fumarate, and malate, are decreased in tomato leaves under N-deficient conditions [37].  It has been demonstrated that N deficiency is bound to affect N metabolism. For example, the concentrations of free amino acids were decreased by 12.5% in leaves of rice exposed to low-N treatment [29]. In maize, a set of amino acids, such as glutamate, asparagine, alanine, serine, and glycine, were all decreased in leaves under N deficiency [25]. Similarly, under N-deficient conditions, most amino acids, including aspartic acid, lysine, glycine, threonine, asparagine, and glutamine, were decreased in barley leaves [35]. Interestingly, the decreased amino acid metabolites may be attributed to the downregulated glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamine aminotransferase (GOGAT) genes, which are involved in the conversion of ammonium to amino acids [33]. Furthermore, integrated analyses of transcriptomics and metabolomics in rice showed that the NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (OsGLT1) gene is downregulated by N deficiency, which is consistent with the decreases in glutamate concentration [29]. Similar results have also been obtained in leaves of soybean and tomato where amino acids were decreased by N deficiency [26,30]. The reduction in amino-acid levels under low-N stress is considered as an energysaving strategy. On the basis of the above results, it is reasonable to propose that a crop can adjust the balance between C and N metabolism to avoid metabolic inefficiencies and maintain crop growth under N deprivation.Similar to other abiotic stresses, N deficiency also causes the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in lipid peroxidation and triggering oxidative stress in crops if not well scavenged. For example, the content of H2O2 is significantly increased in apple leaves subjected to low-N treatment, generating oxidative stress [33]. In addition to induce the activities of antioxidant enzymes to eliminate ROS damage, the other adaptive change that alleviates oxidative stress during N deficiency in plants is the accumulation of stress tolerance-related metabolites. Among these metabolites, galactinol, raffinose, sugar alcohols, ascorbic acid, and polyamines have been considered as ROS scavengers [38,39]. It was reported that ascorbic acid, putrescine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine were It has been demonstrated that N deficiency is bound to affect N metabolism. For example, the concentrations of free amino acids were decreased by 12.5% in leaves of rice exposed to low-N treatment [29]. In maize, a set of amino acids, such as glutamate, asparagine, alanine, serine, and glycine, were all decreased in leaves under N deficiency [25]. Similarly, under N-deficient conditions, most amino acids, including aspartic acid, lysine, glycine, threonine, asparagine, and glutamine, were decreased in barley leaves [35]. Interestingly, the decreased amino acid metabolites may be attributed to the downregulated glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamine aminotransferase (GOGAT) genes, which are involved in the conversion of ammonium to amino acids [33]. Furthermore, integrated analyses of transcriptomics and metabolomics in rice showed that the NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (OsGLT1) gene is downregulated by N deficiency, which is consistent with the decreases in glutamate concentration [29]. Similar results have also been obtained in leaves of soybean and tomato where amino acids were decreased by N deficiency [26,30]. The reduction in amino-acid levels under low-N stress is considered as an energy-saving strategy. On the basis of the above results, it is reasonable to propose that a crop can adjust the balance between C and N metabolism to avoid metabolic inefficiencies and maintain crop growth under N deprivation.Similar to other abiotic stresses, N deficiency also causes the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in lipid peroxidation and triggering oxidative stress in crops if not well scavenged. For example, the content of H 2 O 2 is significantly increased in apple leaves subjected to low-N treatment, generating oxidative stress [33]. In addition to induce the activities of antioxidant enzymes to eliminate ROS damage, the other adaptive change that alleviates oxidative stress during N deficiency in plants is the accumulation of stress tolerance-related metabolites. Among these metabolites, galactinol, raffinose, sugar alcohols, ascorbic acid, and polyamines have been considered as ROS scavengers [38,39]. It was reported that ascorbic acid, putrescine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine were greatly accumulated in barley shoots [35], which are beneficial for the tolerance of barley to low-N stress. Secondary metabolites are proposed to be important resistance substances produced by plants during long-term adaptation to environmental stress. Metabolome studies showed that flavonoid-related metabolites, such as cinnamic acid, dihydroquercetin, pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, were increased by N deficiency in apple [33], which is likely to protect cells from oxidative stress damage. Furthermore, under N limitation, β-alanine levels were found to be increased in leaves of rapeseed [32]. Increases in the levels of osmoprotectants, such as β-alanine, proline, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), are generally associated with enhanced low-N stress tolerance in plants [40], but the exact roles of these metabolites in different crops remain to be investigated.Another strategy for increasing low-N stress tolerance can be achieved by promoting root elongation under N deficiency. Thus, metabolic profile changes in roots can reveal the mechanisms underlying adaptation of a crop to N deficiency. For example, plant hormones are found to play an important role in regulating root growth under low-N stress [32]. The concentrations of gibberellic acid (GA) in rapeseed roots were significantly increased under N deficiency, which may contribute to promoting root growth [32]. In addition to phytohormones, increasing C partitions to roots is also necessary to increase root growth [41,42]. In contrast to leaves, the levels of metabolites involved in the TCA cycle were increased in apple and soybean roots under N deficiency [30,33], which may promote root growth through enhancing energy accumulation under N-deficient conditions. On the contrary, the contents of alanine, aspartic acid, isoleucine, serine, and threonine were found to be decreased in low-N-tolerant soybean roots, indicating that low-N-tolerant soybean may adapt to N deficiency by reducing energy consumption [30]. Malate, related to the TCA cycle, was found to be increased in roots under N deficiency [33]. Since dehydrogenation of malate is accompanied by the generation of NADH, which is an important antioxidant, the increased malate concentration in roots is considered as an adaptive mechanism of plant tolerance to N deficiency by an enhanced antioxidant status [33]. An additional study in soybean showed that the accumulation of malate in roots could also stimulate nitrate uptake under N deficiency [43]. Furthermore, secondary metabolites, such as salicylic acid (SA) and catechol, were increased in soybean roots under N deprivation [30]. SA was found to be involved in increasing N use efficiency of isolated cucumber (Cucumis sativus) cotyledons [44]. Moreover, the shikimate metabolic pathway-related compounds phenylalanine, shikimic acid, SA, naringin, and neohesperidin also increased in soybean roots during N deficiency [30], which may contribute to the synthesis of aromatic amino acids, plant hormones, and a variety of important active secondary metabolites, increasing tolerance to stress conditions [45,46]. Furthermore, the levels of raffinose and galactitol in roots were higher than those in shoots of barley [35]; the authors concluded that roots were more affected by low-N stress than shoots. A comparison of amino-acid metabolites in common soybean with the low-N-tolerant soybean genotype Tongyu06311 showed that proline was accumulated in roots of the low-N-tolerant soybean genotype Tongyu06311, which is probably beneficial for soybean adapted to low-N stress [30]. Thus, metabolism adjustments are essential for crops in response to N deficiency.P is a key component of nucleic acids, proteins, and membrane lipids, and it is essential for many biological processes in plants [13,47,48]. Low P availability in soils is a major constraint for crop production. In past decades, there have been large advances in dissecting the mechanisms of plant adaptation to P deficiency including physiological and biochemical responses. Plants have developed a variety of adaptive strategies, such as changing root architecture and morphology, increasing the secretion of organic acids, and developing a bypass pathway for recycling internal P [12,49,50]. Metabolome analysis has also been widely conducted to investigate the metabolite-based low-P tolerance mechanisms in crops, such as soybean, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), tomato, and oats (Avena sativa) [26,[51][52][53][54][55]. To date, numerous metabolites have been identified to be involved in the responses of crops to P deficiency. A summary of metabolome analysis and identified DAMs is presented in Table 2. The DAMs can be integrated into specific pathways associated with lipids, flavonoids, amino acids, and nucleotide metabolisms, shedding light on the changes in crop responses to low-P stress (Figure 2). These findings provide major insights into understanding the mechanisms of low-P stress tolerance through metabolic modulation.also been widely conducted to investigate the metabolite-based low-P tolerance mechanisms in crops, such as soybean, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), tomato, and oats (Avena sativa) [26,[51][52][53][54][55]. To date, numerous metabolites have been identified to be involved in the responses of crops to P deficiency. A summary of metabolome analysis and identified DAMs is presented in Table 2. The DAMs can be integrated into specific pathways associated with lipids, flavonoids, amino acids, and nucleotide metabolisms, shedding light on the changes in crop responses to low-P stress (Figure 2). These findings provide major insights into understanding the mechanisms of low-P stress tolerance through metabolic modulation. Modifying root growth and increasing the root-to-shoot ratio are key adaptive mechanisms to enhance phosphate (Pi) acquisition efficiency for plants under low-P stress. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses have been conducted to identify key genes or proteins involved in the regulation of root architecture and morphology in response to P deficiency [54]. Metabolites involved in root development regulation have also been identified through a metabolomic approach [26,51,53,54]. Both C and N metabolisms have been reported to be modulated in response of crops to P deficiency. Most amino-acid metabolites, including asparagine, lysine, histidine, ornithine, isoleucine, leucine, and arginine, were found to be accumulated in P-deprived roots of several crops, such as common bean, tomato, and soybean [26,51,54]. Furthermore, it was found that the increase in amino-acid concentration may be due to the upregulation of protein degradation-related genes and the downregulation of protein synthesis-related genes under P deficiency [56,57]. During low-P stress, plants can increase C distribution to the root system, thereby increasing the root-to-shoot ratio and regulating the root system morphology. Significant increases in maltose, sucrose, raffinose, and 6-kestose were observed in barley roots under 17 days of Modifying root growth and increasing the root-to-shoot ratio are key adaptive mechanisms to enhance phosphate (Pi) acquisition efficiency for plants under low-P stress. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses have been conducted to identify key genes or proteins involved in the regulation of root architecture and morphology in response to P deficiency [54]. Metabolites involved in root development regulation have also been identified through a metabolomic approach [26,51,53,54]. Both C and N metabolisms have been reported to be modulated in response of crops to P deficiency. Most amino-acid metabolites, including asparagine, lysine, histidine, ornithine, isoleucine, leucine, and arginine, were found to be accumulated in P-deprived roots of several crops, such as common bean, tomato, and soybean [26,51,54]. Furthermore, it was found that the increase in amino-acid concentration may be due to the upregulation of protein degradation-related genes and the downregulation of protein synthesis-related genes under P deficiency [56,57]. During low-P stress, plants can increase C distribution to the root system, thereby increasing the root-to-shoot ratio and regulating the root system morphology. Significant increases in maltose, sucrose, raffinose, and 6-kestose were observed in barley roots under 17 days of low-P treatment [58]; the authors considered this an adaptive mechanism of plants by promoting root growth through regulating C allocation. In addition, sugar has been documented to be an important sensor for the Pi starvation response; the expression of phosphate starvation-induced (PSI) genes was found to be regulated by sugar limitation [59]. Thus, increases in sugar levels in roots may induce the expression of PSI genes, regulating plant growth under low-P stress. However, further characterization of sugar and PSI genes is needed to confirm their exact roles in low-P stress tolerance via regulating C allocation in plants.In addition to root growth regulation for acquiring Pi, crop roots can exudate organic acids into the rhizosphere to promote solubilization of fixed Pi [32,60]. It has been found that organic acids have an important role in the response of plants to Pi starvation. For example, metabolome analysis of the exudates from rice roots revealed that organic acids, such as 2,6diaminopimelate, 3-dehydroshikimate, fumarate, hypoxanthine, and D-galacturonate, were increased by P deficiency [28], which may contribute to the mobilization of insoluble soil P, as suggested by the authors. Furthermore, significant increases in the exudation of malic, oxalic, and succinic acids were observed in the P-efficient wheat genotype RAC875 [61]. On the other hand, metabolome analysis has shown that internal organic acids in roots are also affected by P deficiency. The levels of organic acids, such as tartaric acid and 2,4dihydroxybutanoic acid, in roots of common bean were found to be decreased during low-P stress [52]. Similar results were also obtained in barley roots exposed to low-P treatment, where the levels of several organic acids, including α-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, and malate, were reduced [58]. Therefore, organic acids secreted to the rhizosphere may lead to the reduction in organic acids in roots under P deficiency. An increase in organic acid exudation from roots is one of the important physiological mechanisms for crops increasing Pi utilization from soils.On the other hand, promoting the remobilization of internal P resources, such as phosphorylated metabolites, nucleic acids, and phospholipids, which are well known as the largest P pool in plants [62], is necessary for crop adaptation to P deficiency. Under Plimited conditions, the levels of phosphorylated metabolites were reported to be decreased in soybean roots, including sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, O-phosphocholine, deoxyribose 5-phosphate, O-phosphorylethanolamine, and DL-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [54]. Similar results were also found in oats where glucose-6-phosphate and myo-inositol phosphate were dramatically decreased in P-deficient roots [53]. Moreover, nucleotides, such as adenosine 3 -monophosphate, inosine 5 -monophosphate, guanosine 5 -monophosphate, uridine 5 -diphospho-D-glucose, guanosine monophosphate, adenosine 5 -monophosphate, deoxyribose 5-phosphate, cytidine 5 -monophosphate, uridine 5 -monophosphate, and guanosine 3 ,5 -cyclic monophosphate, were decreased by Pi starvation in soybean roots [54]. Decreases in nucleic acid concentration were also observed in white lupin under Pi starvation [63]. The regulation of the synthesis and/or degradation of nucleotides is likely to help a crop cope with P deficiency. Recently, a key gene, DNA polymerase delta 1 (DPD1), involved in organelle DNA degradation for improving P use efficiency, was characterized in Arabidopsis [64]. Several DPD1 homologs in soybean were also found to be upregulated in roots under P deficiency [54]. These results support the hypothesis that changes in nucleotide metabolism are beneficial for increasing internal P remobilization, thereby improving P utilization efficiency. Furthermore, lipid-related metabolites such as glycerophospholipids were found to be decreased in responses of crops to P deficiency [54,65]. For example, in soybean roots, sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, O-phosphocholine, and several glycerophospholipids, all of which are involved in remodeling membrane lipids, were decreased under P-deficient conditions [54]. Replacing phospholipids with sulfolipids or galactolipids in bio-membranes can also help plant tolerance to low-P stress; this deserves further investigation. DAMs, differentially accumulated metabolites; nd, not described in the studies. a Two genotypes used in the studies.In contrast to roots, increased accumulation of sucrose, maltose, raffinose, and 6kestose was observed mainly in shoots of barley growing under moderately P-deficient conditions [58], indicating that barley roots are less sensitive to Pi starvation. Furthermore, amino acids in legume nodules are also significantly affected by P deficiency. For example, five out of 10 amino-acid metabolites were decreased, whereas three out of 10 amino-acid metabolites were increased in nodules of common bean [52]. N metabolism-related metabolites, including spermidine, putrescine, urea, glycine, serine, glutamine, and threonine, were reduced in nodules of common bean under P deficiency, which may lead to a decrease in symbiotic nitrogen fixation [52]. However, the mechanism of metabolite changes in nodules under low-P stress requires to be studied further.Among the macronutrients, K plays essential roles in plant growth and development as a major cation or as a cofactor of various enzymes. Unlike N and P, K is not a part of organic compounds, but plays important roles in many physiological and biochemical processes, such as enzyme activation, ion homeostasis, osmoregulation, and protein synthesis [66,67]. Generally, the availability of K in soils is limited, which has become a limiting factor for sustainable production of cultivated crops [68]. Recently, metabolomic approaches have been applied to dissect the mechanism of crop tolerance to K deficiency (Table 3); examples include tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), barley (Hordeum vulgare), rapeseed (Brassica napus), and peanut (Arachis hypogaea) [26,35,[69][70][71][72]. Many of the identified DAMs can be integrated into specific metabolic pathways regulated by K deficiency stress (Figure 3).It is generally believed that carbohydrate metabolism not only is an important energy source for plants, but also plays a vital role in protein and lipid metabolisms [73]. Increases in the content of sugars, such as glucose, sucrose, and fructose, are suggested to be associated with plants in response to various stresses, including K deficiency [74]. Sugar levels have been reported to be increased in both leaves and roots of barley under K deficiency [35,70]. Accumulation of sucrose was also found in tomato roots under low-K stress [26]. Furthermore, low-K-tolerant barley genotypes seemed to accumulate more sugars in both leaves and roots than low-K-sensitive barley genotypes [70], indicating that increasing sugar accumulation is critical for barley adaptation to low-K stress. In addition, sucrose is an important signaling molecule that is transferred from leaves to roots, regulating root growth in response to nutrient stress [25,52]. Since K is involved in the loading of sucrose to the phloem, availability of K seriously affects the transport of sucrose from leaves to roots [75,76]. Therefore, under K-deficient conditions, sucrose in roots is not only an important substance for low-K tolerance, but also a key indicator to screen crops for tolerance to K limitation. It has been documented that N metabolism is affected by K deficiency; according to metabolome analysis, amino acids in leaves and roots of barley were increased during K limitation [70]. Metabolomic analysis also showed that tryptophan, guanidineacetic acid, asparagine, alanine, ornithine, and histidine were all increased in K-deficient wheat roots, while citric acid, glutamic acid, and GABA were decreased [77]. Interestingly, most of the increased amino acids were positively charged, whereas the negatively charged amino acids were reduced in both leaves and roots of barley [70]. Since K deficiency could lead to electric charge imbalance, it is important to maintain charge balance in plant cells to cope with low-K stress. The phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway is one of the most important secondary metabolic pathways in plants [78]. Within this pathway, L-phenylalanine can be catalyzed into trans-Cinnamic acid, which is a key substrate for the synthesis of flavonoids, lignin, and alkaloids [79]. Metabolome analysis revealed that, under K-deficient conditions, L-phenylalanine levels in a low-K-tolerant barley genotype were higher than those in a low-K-sensitive barley genotype [70], suggesting that regulation of the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway can contribute to barley coping with low-K stress. K deficiency also causes an excess accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress in plants [80]. Thus, increasing the concentration of antioxidant metabolites is a vital stress tolerance strategy for plants dealing with K deprivation. The accumulation of compatible solutes, such as proline, soluble sugars, amino acids, and polyols, plays an important role in osmotic adjustment [81]. Among them, proline is regarded as an important antioxidant for stress tolerance [82]. There is evidence that K deficiency increases the concentration of proline in both leaves and roots of barley; for example, leaves of the low-K-tolerant cultivar XZ153 contained higher proline levels than those of the sensitive cultivar XZ141 [70]. Similarly, increases in proline concentration were observed in K-deprived leaves and roots of peanut [72]. In addition, ascorbic acid is an important antioxidant protecting cell membrane permeability [83]. The concentration of ascorbic acid in barley roots was found to be increased during low-K stress, especially in the low-K-tolerant cultivar XZ153. Furthermore, ascorbic acid concentrations were increased in leaves of the low-K-tolerant barley cultivar XZ153, but decreased in the low-Ksensitive barley cultivar XZ141 [70]. In addition, glutathione is also a key antioxidant involved in scavenging ROS via the GSH-ascorbate cycle [84]. Metabolome analysis showed that the content of glutathione was increased in roots of the low-K-tolerant wheat cultivar KN9204 but not in low-K-sensitive cultivar BN207 [77]. Thus, it is reasonable to propose that antioxidant metabolites, such as proline, ascorbic acid, and glutathione, are important metabolites for crop adaptation to K deficiency, although further investigation is required. K deficiency also causes an excess accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress in plants [80]. Thus, increasing the concentration of antioxidant metabolites is a vital stress tolerance strategy for plants dealing with K deprivation. The accumulation of compatible solutes, such as proline, soluble sugars, amino acids, and polyols, plays an important role in osmotic adjustment [81]. Among them, proline is regarded as an important antioxidant for stress tolerance [82]. There is evidence that K deficiency increases the concentration of proline in both leaves and roots of barley; for example, leaves of the low-K-tolerant cultivar XZ153 contained higher proline levels than those of the sensitive cultivar XZ141 [70]. Similarly, increases in proline concentration were observed in K-deprived leaves and roots of peanut [72]. In addition, ascorbic acid is an important antioxidant protecting cell membrane permeability [83]. The concentration of ascorbic acid in barley roots was found to be increased during low-K stress, especially in the low-K-tolerant cultivar XZ153. Furthermore, ascorbic acid concentrations were increased in leaves of the low-K-tolerant barley cultivar XZ153, but decreased in the low-K-sensitive barley cultivar XZ141 [70]. In addition, glutathione is also a key antioxidant involved in scavenging ROS via the GSH-ascorbate cycle [84]. Metabolome analysis showed that the content of glutathione was increased in roots of the low-K-tolerant wheat cultivar KN9204 but not in low-K-sensitive cultivar BN207 [77]. Thus, it is reasonable to propose that antioxidant metabolites, such as proline, ascorbic acid, and glutathione, are important metabolites for crop adaptation to K deficiency, although further investigation is required.Phytohormones are small endogenous signaling molecules that participate in regulating plant growth and development in various life stages and stress conditions. Metabolites related to phytohormones, such as abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA), and SA, are regulated by K deficiency. ABA is well known as a stress signal in response to drought, salinity, and nutrient limitation [85]. It can maintain the water relation by regulating stomatal conductance and plant metabolism [86]. JA is involved in abiotic stress through activation of antioxidant systems, synthesis of amino acids and sugars, and regulation of stomatal opening and closing [87]. SA is involved in protecting membrane integrity and modulating abundance of protein associated with secondary metabolites [72]. It was shown that, in both leaves and roots of peanut, K deficiency increased the levels of ABA [72]. Similarly, JA concentration in leaves of peanut also increased during low-K stress [72]. Unlike ABA and JA, SA concentration increased in leaves of peanut but decreased in roots under K-limited conditions [72]. Therefore, considering the importance of phytohormones in plant growth, it is reasonable to suggest that ABA, JA, SA, and other phytohormones are important molecules for low-K stress tolerance.Despite the advances in identifying various metabolites and metabolic pathways responding to N, P, and K deficiency, little attention has been given to metabolic changes in response of crops to deficiencies of other essential nutrients, such as magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), sulfur (S), and boron (B) (Table 3).Mg is an important component of chlorophyll and a cofactor for enzymes participating in many physiological processes [88]. It has been reported that Mg deficiency leads to large differentiated metabolic processes in source and sink tissues. For example, Mg deficiency led to leaf-specific accumulation of amino-acid metabolites in soybean, such as phenylalanine, asparagine, leucine, isoleucine, glycine, glutamine, and serine; in contrast, root-specific depletion of pyruvic acid, citrate, 2-keto-glutaric acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and malate were observed under Mg deficiency [89]. Mg deficiency also impaired C allocation in soybean, as reflected by significant increases in carbohydrates, such as starch, sucrose, glucose, and fructose in leaves, and moderate decreases in sucrose and starch in roots [89]. These results suggest that reprogramming of distinct C and N metabolisms may occur in the response of soybean leaves and roots to Mg limitation.Fe is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust, and it is easily fixed into insoluble Fe 3+ precipitates, leading to low availability for plants [90]. Fe limitation affects several metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration, as well as leads to an increase in ROS [91]. In rice, glycolysis and respiration-related metabolites, such as 3-P-glycerate, 3-P-glycerate derivatives, branched-chain amino acids, and pyruvate derivatives, were found to be increased in roots during low-Fe stress [91]. Furthermore, an increase in phytosiderophore 2 -deoxymugineic acid was observed in rice roots under Fe deficiency [91]. These results suggest that changes in C and energy metabolisms and increasing 2 -deoxymugineic acid secretion are important adaptive mechanisms of rice dealing with Fe deficiency. In addition, in leaves of the betel palm (Areca catechu), significant increases in naringenin, butin, and hesperetin but decreases in xanthohumol, purine, and Np-coumaroylspermidine were observed under Fe deficiency [92], suggesting that regulating biosynthesis of flavonoids and flavonols is an important adaptive strategy for the betel palm in response to Fe deficiency. DAMs, differentially accumulated metabolites; nd, not described in the studies. a Two genotypes used in the studies; b three different degrees of K deficiency. nd, not described in the studies.In tea (Camellia sinensis) plants, Zn deficiency reduced the contents of two secondary metabolites, four carbohydrate metabolites, and four nitrogenous metabolites in leaves [93], indicating that tea plants respond to Zn-deficient stress through regulating carbohydrate, nitrogenous, and secondary metabolisms. Recently, several secondary metabolites, such as sesquiterpene lactones, caffeoyl derivatives, caffeic acid hexose, 5-caffeoylquinic acid, quercetin, and luteolin glucoside derivatives, were found to be regulated by S deficiency in leaves of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) [94]. Furthermore, in alfalfa (Medicago sativa), B deficiency increased the accumulation of sugars and phenolic compounds in flowers and seeds, respectively, which may cause abscission or abortion of reproductive organs [95].Although the results above provide some useful information on the changes in metabolic profiles of crops in response to deficiencies of Mg, Zn, Fe, S, and B, more studies in these areas are needed to increase our understanding of the metabolic mechanisms of crop adaptation.Nutrient deficiency directly limits crop growth and production. With the rapid development of analytical detection technology and bioinformatics, metabolomics has become one of the important technologies in systems biology research to dissect metabolic profile responses of crops to nutrient stress. This review summarized the advances of crop metabolism responses to deficiencies of mineral nutrients and discussed these responses and the underlying adaptive mechanisms. N deficiency seems to impair the whole plant growth, as reflected by decreased N assimilation and TCA cycle, as well as a reduction in most amino acids, which is considered as an energy-saving strategy for tolerance to low-N stress. On the other hand, N deficiency often causes oxidative stress in plants; thus, several stress tolerance-related metabolites, such as galactinol, raffinose, sugar alcohol, and ascorbic acid, are accumulated under N-deficient conditions, contributing to ROS scavenging [38,39]. Regarding low P availability, N and C metabolisms are also affected by Pi deprivation, along with the TCA cycle and membrane phospholipid metabolism. This can be considered as fine-tuning to improve P efficiency in plants. For example, increases in sucrose and amino acids in roots seem to support the enlargement of roots. In addition, the reduction in organic acid metabolites may be attributed to the production of root exudates to mobilize soil P. Furthermore, the reduction in phospholipid metabolites, which are important sources of organic P, may contribute to P reutilization. Unlike N and P, K is not a component of most metabolites, and metabolism changes caused by K deficiency may be helpful for tolerance to osmotic oxidative stresses. N metabolism is also regulated by K deficiency, while the changes in amino acids (e.g., glutathione) may also relate to oxidative stress. Furthermore, several secondary metabolic pathways obviously change under K-deficient conditions, including the phenylpropanoid pathway, where accumulated phenylalanine can be converted into some secondary metabolites and salicylic acid, which are critical for stress tolerance. While accumulation of sugar metabolites is observed under N, P, and K deficiency, the increases in soluble sugars may contribute to maintain osmotic homeostasis during nutrient deficiencies. Therefore, both common and specific metabolites or metabolic pathways can play a part in crop responses to nutrient deficiency. Although more studies are needed, some key clues indicate that regulation of C, N, and energy metabolisms is important for the responses of crops to nutrient deficiencies, especially regarding macroelements. Elucidating the biosynthesis and regulation of crop metabolites during nutrient deficiency can largely increase our understanding of how plants acquire and utilize mineral nutrients under the fluctuating levels of nutrients in soils.Although significant advances in the diverse detection platforms, such as GC-MS, LC-MS, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS), have been used in metabolomic analysis, individual platforms are unable to cover all metabolites in plants [96], since the number of identified metabolites varies greatly across different techniques. Thus, making full use of the advantages of different detection platforms, multiplatform detection should be used for comprehensive metabolomic analysis. Although metabolomics data reveal various metabolic pathways regulated by nutrient stress, it remains hard to know whether a metabolic pathway is up-or downregulated, because most changed metabolites may be associated with two or more pathways.The changes in metabolism pathways are usually caused by a number of related functional transcripts rather than individual transcripts. Thus, it is important to integrate transcriptomics and metabolomics to identify the response of key genes or pathways to nutrient deficiency. On the other hand, changes of transcripts may not always correlate to enzyme activities; thus, proteomics can be used to identify key proteins or enzymes. It is also important for a better correlation of the changes between metabolites with genes and proteins, as well as crop growth and development. In consequence, future work is required to integrate analyses of transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to dissect the mechanisms underlying crop response to nutrient deficiency.Furthermore, as an important bridge between genome and phenome, metabolite-based genome-wide association study (mGWAS) has recently been used in interactive functional genomics and metabolomics to understand the genetic bases of plant metabolism [14,97]. The mGWAS approach is performed to identify key genes involved in specific metabolic pathways in crops. For example, in wheat, several candidate genes were identified as being involved in the flavonoid decoration pathway through mGWAS [98]. Using the mGWAS approach, a genetic network of chlorogenic acid biosynthesis in Populus tomentosa was constructed on the basis of six causal genes [99]. Similar results were also reported in barley for UV-B protection through the regulation of the phenylpropanoid pathway [100]. However, available information about mGWAS used for dissecting mechanisms underlying crop responses to nutrient deficiency is scarce. It is important to identify the critical genes participating in specific metabolic pathways through integration of mGWAS and other omics approaches, which could be used to develop high-nutrient-efficiency crop varieties through genetic improvement in future.","tokenCount":"6111"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6149886ea44bd33cdd5ee2dafcfc6026","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31a6b1fb-83c9-401f-99da-dbdb6413069e/retrieve","id":"-842397328"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7f9591e2-3662-428a-8e68-a368fe569d93","pagecount":"18","content":". Farmers are Willing to Adopt and Pay for Sustainable Agriculture Mechanization Services. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA), AICCRA Technical Report.The majority of smallholder farmers in Africa depend on manual labour using ancient agricultural tools such as hoes and machetes (Hlophe-Ginindza and Mpandeli, 2021). These forms of manual labor account for about 65% of the total labor needed for land preparation, with draught animal power accounting for 25 percent and engine-powered machines just 10 percent (FAO, 2019). This has necessitated the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices, including mechanization, to achieve the sustainable development goals. The adoption of agricultural mechanization technologies in SSA is still low, its mass promotion did not factor in the near and far future impacts on especially, land and soil structure (Sims and Kienzle, 2017). Conventional mechanization practices have their associated shortcomings in promoting land degradation and contributing to climate change (Daum and Birner, 2020). Thus, the advent of sustainable agricultural mechanization encompasses the complementary effects of tilling the land to lessen the impacts of land degradation whilst enhancing its moisture-holding capacity and enhancing seed germination and crop establishment.Sustainable agricultural mechanization (SAM) involves the adoption and utilization of appropriate machinery, equipment, and technologies to improve farm productivity, efficiency, and profitability while minimizing negative impacts on the environment (Peng et al., 2022). The uptake of sustainable agricultural mechanization technologies can address the challenges of labour, and land degradation and increase productivity. It remains an important aspect of modernizing and enhancing agricultural practices and production while ensuring longterm environmental and social sustainability. It encompasses technological, economic, social, environmental and cultural aspects when contributing to the sustainable development of the food and agricultural sector (Fallah-Shayan et al., 2022).It is in that light that a pilot project is being implemented in Ghana by the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Ghana Cluster, in collaboration with the African Conservation Tillage Network, the Centre for No-Till Agriculture and the Regional. The pilot program is supported by the Food Systems Resilience Program (FRSP) and the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project through the Korea Green Growth Trust Fund (KGGTF).The study was conducted in Offuman, an AICCRA intervention community in the Bono East region of Ghana.Offuman is predominantly a farming community located in the Techiman North District. A cross-sectional study design was employed to collect data from farmers in the study area. The study also utilized a mixed method approach by combining both qualitative and quantitates methods to capture the perspectives of farmers. A multistage sampling technique was utilized. First, Offuman was purposively selected due to its active participation in the AICCRA Ghana Cluster project and its contribution to agricultural production. A random sampling technique was applied to select forty (40) farmers to be included in the study from a list of farmers provided by the Agricultural Extension Office of the Department of Agriculture in the community. A well-structured questionnaire was developed to collect information on demography, production and mechanization practices, knowledge and perception of sustainable agricultural mechanization and conservation agriculture, access to mechanization services, ability to afford mechanization services, technology usage and ability to access mechanization services online or via mobile phone applications, communication and capacity building needs. The questionnaire was input for online data collection using the Kobocollect app (https://www.kobotoolbox.org/). Qualitative data was gathered through focus group discussions (FGDs) to gain a deeper understanding of the context-specific challenges and opportunities related to their crop production, more especially, access to and use of agricultural mechanization technologies and information in relation to mechanization service providers. To ensure the active participation of both women and men, the FGDs were segregated by gender, with separate discussions conducted for males and females to provide a conducive environment for them to express their opinions and experiences. The gathered data was structured and input into SPSS and STATA software programs for analysis. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, and means were computed to summarize the data in tables and charts.Figure 1 illustrates the sex distribution among respondents. The chart reflects a relatively balanced representation of both sexes within the study population, 45.9% were males while 54.1% were females. Females were however relatively more than males. The main agriculture information sources among respondents are presented in Figure 2. The highest reported main agriculture information source among the respondents was the extension officer, with 41% relying on them for agricultural guidance, training, and advisory services. Extension officers play a vital role in providing farmers with relevant information, expertise, and support to improve their agricultural practices. The second highest reported main information source was peers/other farmers and radio broadcasts, with almost 13% of respondents relying on them for agricultural information. Understanding the distribution and significance of these agriculture information sources can help stakeholders and policymakers develop targeted strategies to strengthen and expand the availability of accurate and timely information to farmers. By focusing on the most influential sources, such as extension officers and peer networks, and leveraging mass media platforms  The highest reported source of agricultural educational videos was Facebook/Instagram via mobile phones, which accounted for approximately 32% of the respondents. The popularity of these social media platforms highlights the increasing use of social networking sites for sharing and accessing educational content, including agricultural videos. The second highest reported source was WhatsApp and YouTube installed on mobile phones, both with approximately 21% of the respondents relying on this messaging platform for agricultural educational videos. WhatsApp allows users to share videos among their contacts or within groups, making it a convenient source of information sharing. The widespread use of WhatsApp as a communication tool among farmers makes it an effective medium for disseminating agricultural knowledge. Digitalization could increase access to information, enhance productivity, and profitability, and strengthen resilience for smallholders and communities, as well as climate change responses (Abdulai et al., 2023). Table 1 provides information on the willingness of respondents to use a phone app to request for tractor services and the amount they are willing to pay for the tractor service. Regarding the willingness to use a tractor service app, a majority of respondents, 62%, expressed their willingness to use such an app. This indicates a positive attitude towards adopting technology for accessing tractor services. This positive attitude, however, is high among males with almost all of them (94%) showing a willingness to use a tractor service application. The low levels of app illiteracy and unfamiliarity among females are reflected in a majority of them (65%) expressing unwillingness to use such an application. The findings in Table 4 suggest that a majority of respondents are open to using a phone app to request tractor services and also pay for the services of convenience, indicating the potential for technology-driven solutions in the agricultural sector. Awareness and education on smartphone applications for tractor services should be promoted among women farmers considering their low awareness level and willingness to adopt the technology relative to men. Regarding capacity building in conservation agriculture (CA) and sustainable agriculture mechanization (SAM), 32% and 17% of the respondents reported receiving training in this area respectively (Figure 4). However, the majority (68% and 83% respectively) indicated that they have not received such training. In terms of practicing conservation agriculture, 57% and 11% of the respondents stated that they engage in some form of CA and SAM respectively, while 43% and 89% reported not practicing it. When asked about their knowledge of any sustainable agricultural mechanization benefits, 27% of the respondents reported having such knowledge, while 73% indicated that they did not know the benefits. These findings suggest that there is a need for increased capacity building and knowledge dissemination in conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization. Efforts should be made to provide training opportunities and raise awareness among farmers about the benefits and practices associated with these approaches. According to Van Loon (2020) capacity building of potential mechanization hire service providers, strengthening cooperation, as well as collaboration, through partnerships and mutual support among smallholder farmers is important. Table 2 presents the ranking of preferred training areas based on the respondents' mean ranks. Garrett's ranking method was used to analyze the rankings. The value of Kendall's W is 0.683, indicating that there is 68.3% agreement among the respondents of the rankings and the p-value of 0.000 indicates the ranking is statistically significant. The lower the mean rank, the higher the preference for the training area. According to the rankings, conservation agriculture received the highest preference, with a mean rank of 1.59. This was followed by sustainable methods of land preparation (1.97), good agronomic practices (3.52), and climatesmart agriculture (5.57). According to Mohamad (2023), it is clear that there is a reasonable and logical relationship between the transfer of sustainability training and farmers' behavior, which needs the integration of behavioral issues with the training transfer system. In this way, farmers will gain sustainability knowledge, attitude, and skills through teamwork with extension agents and researchers and apply them to their farms. In terms of capacity-building preference in SAM, different preferences for sustainable agricultural mechanization interventions were observed (Figure 5). The highest preference was for land preparation with a crimper, which was chosen by almost 29% of the respondents. The ripper was the next preferred intervention, selected by approximately 20% of the respondents. Other preferences included no-till planting/seeding (15%), slashing for weed management (12.60%), land preparation with a slasher (12%), and ripping and seeding (9%). Understanding the intervention preferences of farmers is crucial for designing appropriate mechanization programs and providing targeted support to promote sustainable agricultural practices. Daum and Birner (2017) observed that young farmers demand mechanization services because manual work is associated with drudgery and low productivity, and makes agriculture unattractive. Figure 6 illustrates the respondents' willingness to adopt or try sustainable agricultural mechanization practices. The data shows that the majority of respondents (97.20%) expressed a positive attitude and indicated their willingness to engage in sustainable agricultural mechanization. None of the respondents however expressed non-willingness to try or adopt SAM practices but 2.80%) were not sure. (…many of our colleague farmers will come on board once they realize we are successful in the use of SAM tools… -Adult male farmer, Focus group discussion). The high percentage of respondents expressing a willingness to try or adopt SAM is positive for improving agricultural outcomes. According to Sims and Emmanuel (2016), the increased availability of mechanization technologies not only enhances yields for smallholders but enables a more rational and efficient approach to farming in the long term and thus increases the prospect of sustained profitability over time.  Furthermore, the respondents were willing to pay for the various SAM interventions (Figure 7). In terms of specific interventions, the respondents showed a willingness to pay within a certain range for each activity.(…the adoption of these machines you talk about will depend on the availability and how much it will cost… -Adult male farmer, Focus group discussion). For land preparation with a crimper, the respondents were willing to pay between 100 GH₵ and 220 GH₵, with a mean of 153 GH₵. Land preparation with a slasher had a minimum willingness-to-pay of 100 GH₵ and a maximum of 200 GH₵, with a mean of 142 GH₵. The willingness to pay demonstrates the potential benefits associated with sustainable mechanization, including increased productivity and efficiency in agricultural practices. Further, understanding farmers' preferences and their willingness to adopt and pay for SAM interventions can inform the design of appropriate support programs and financial mechanisms to facilitate the adoption of sustainable mechanization practices. Figure 8 illustrates the respondents' intentions on how to finance the payment for SAM tool services. The data reveals that the majority of respondents, accounting for 53%, intend to rely on village savings and loans as their primary source of financing. This indicates a strong reliance on local financial systems within their communities. Personal savings represent another significant financing method, with the second majority (22%) of respondents intending to utilize their savings to cover the costs of SAM tool services. Family and friends also play a role in financing, with 15.80% of respondents planning to seek financial assistance from their close social circles. In contrast, only a small proportion of respondents, 7% and 2% respectively, expressed their intention to acquire loans from cooperatives or microfinance institutions/banks. This suggests that formal financial institutions may have limited involvement in financing agricultural activities.  The majority of farmers expressed willingness to adopt sustainable agricultural mechanization (SAM) interventions. The adoption of conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization practices is relatively low, and there is a need for increased knowledge and capacity building in these areas. Regarding knowledge and capacity building, a significant proportion of farmers have received capacity building in conservation agriculture, but the adoption rate is relatively low. Similarly, there is a lack of awareness and training in sustainable agricultural mechanization. Farmers show a strong willingness to try SAM activities and prefer specific tools for land preparation, seeding, and weed management. The study also reveals mixed levels of knowledge and capacity building in conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization, indicating a need for targeted training programs. Financing for SAM tool services predominantly relies on village savings and loans, while other sources such as personal savings and support from family and friends play a role.Based on the findings from the study, the following are recommended:Capacity Building: Develop and implement comprehensive training programs focused on conservation agriculture, sustainable agricultural mechanization, climate-smart agriculture, climate information service, and good agronomic practices. These programs should target farmers and other relevant stakeholders such as agricultural extension officers, mechanization service providers, and mechanization equipment operators.The training modules should entail the practices and benefits of conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization through various channels, including farmer-to-farmer knowledge sharing, extension services, and community-based workshops and demonstration of SAM technologies.Promote awareness of online sustainable mechanization service apps and platforms: Increase awareness and access to sustainable mechanization services through online platforms and apps could be made in the form of short videos, jingles, television, and community information centers. Facilitate access to finance: Farmers and other relevant stakeholders should be encouraged in the form of Innovation Platforms (IPs) and Farmer-Based Organizations (FBOs). The capacity of the group should be built in the areas of bookkeeping, marketing, and other aspects to facilitate the group's access to farm inputs and financial services. Existing village savings and loan systems should be strengthened.Policy support: Advocate for supportive policies and incentives that encourage the adoption of conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization. This may include tax incentives, subsidies, and policy frameworks that prioritize and promotes sustainable farming practices.By implementing these recommendations, there is the potential to increase adoption of conservation agriculture and sustainable agricultural mechanization, leading to improved farm productivity, resource use efficiency, and the overall sustainability of agricultural systems.","tokenCount":"2447"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f292826fc9ee4f7307d344deea8eb608","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42c34412-5509-492b-867a-513ddf6fb5a1/retrieve","id":"-1639761686"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0b4838b-2088-4536-a1c9-31755ebb075e","pagecount":"17","content":"Biofortified cassava (Manihot esculenta) plays a crucial role in enhancing the nutritional value of this essential staple, particularly in regions with limited dietary diversity and prevalent nutritional deficiencies. The cassava program at the International Center of Tropical Agriculture has dedicated over a decade to increase β-carotene content in biofortified cassava, simultaneously focusing on improving yield, dry matter, and plant architecture. This paper presents realized genetic gains in biofortified cassava by analyzing the data from replicated multilocation breeding yield trials at the target population of environments spanning a 10-year period (2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022). Following data curation, we observed significant positive genetic gains per year for β-carotene content (7.03%), fresh yield (4.15%), dry matter content (0.55%), and height at the first branch (1.29%). A negative correlation between β-carotene content and dry matter content was observed within 78% of trials. Moreover, our study uncovered a significant negative correlation between β-carotene content and fresh root yield (r = −0.22, p < 0.01) and an unfavorable positive correlation between βcarotene content and the number of branches (r = 0.23, p < 0.01). Such negative correlations between β-carotene content and farm-preferred traits presented substantial challenges for the development of biofortified cassava varieties. This researchThis is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.Hidden hunger affects more than 3 billion people globally, mostly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Lowe, 2021). This problem is more pronounced in low-income countries, where people cannot afford a diverse diet rich in essential vitamins and minerals. Vitamin A deficiency, which leads to impaired vision, night blindness, increased risk of infection/death, and poor pregnancy outcomes, is particularly alarming in these regions (Akhtar et al., 2013). Biofortification, the improvement of the nutritional quality of food crops, offers a practical and affordable solution to hidden hunger, especially for the millions of small-scale producers who consume what they grow (Pfeiffer & McClafferty, 2007;Welch & Graham, 2004). Cassava, originating from the South American tropics, has become a staple of global agriculture. Since being introduced to West Africa in the 16th century, cassava has spread to tropical regions, particularly sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, where it is now a staple food and source of income for more than 800 million people (International Cassava Genetic Map Consortium, 2015;Chavarriaga-Aguirre et al., 2016). However, cassava is considered a poor source of micronutrients and protein, especially the white roots that are most commonly consumed fresh and/or used for starch production. It provides less than 30% of the minimum daily requirement for protein and essential micronutrients, including iron, zinc, and provitamin A. Heavy reliance on cassava contributes to the widespread prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly among children. For example, in Nigeria, the world's leading producer of cassava, 29.5% of children under five suffer from vitamin A deficiency (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004). The lack of vitamin A leads to blindness, dry skin, and frequent infections, which is why biofortification has been emphasized to improve the nutritive value of cassava, especially to increase its carotenoid content (Njoku et al., 2011). Among the different classes of carotenoids (e.g., lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene, etc.), β-carotene is considered the most nutritionally important form of provitamin A in plants because it is most easily metabolized by the human body into retinol (Sayre et al., 2011;Schaub et al., 2017). The acceptability of yellow cassava in Africa has been documented (Esuma et al., 2019;Oparinde et al., 2016), indicating that biofortified cassava with high β-carotene content can substantially contribute to addressing vitamin A deficiency, with significant benefits for low-income populations.Biotechnological genetic transformation approaches have the potential to accelerate product development and address genetic constraints that may hinder conventional cassava breeding approaches (Chavarriaga-Aguirre et al., 2016;Sayre et al., 2011). One of the key advantages of genetic engineering in cassava improvement is its ability to overcome the challenges of high heterozygosity and trait segregation, which are common constraints in conventional breeding. Biotechnological methods have been instrumental in understanding the genes responsible for increasing β-carotene content and developing new genetic materials with increased β-carotene content (Beyene et al., 2018;Njoku et al., 2011;Sayre et al., 2011;Welsch et al., 2010). However, the increase of β-carotene content in a biotechnological experiment showed a substantial negative effect on dry matter content, specifically, reductions Crop Science of 50%−60% of dry matter content (Beyene et al., 2018). Moreover, due to policy constraints and concerns of farmers and consumers, biofortified cassava germplasm developed from genetic engineering experiments has not been used in new variety development and release.The identification of germplasm with yellow root pigmentation and other desirable traits has been facilitated by the largest cassava genebank, named Future Seeds, at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT; Ferguson et al., 2019). Systematic screening of the genebank germplasm and selection of biofortified cassava varieties for plant breeding have revealed a wide range of genotypes suitable for biofortification (Chavez et al., 2000;Iglesias et al., 1997). Conventional breeding has played a pivotal role in the development of new cassava varieties with increased βcarotene content (Ceballos et al., 2013;Iglesias et al., 1997). These efforts have resulted in improved tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, increased productivity and yield, and improvements in qualitative traits such as starch quality and carotenoid content (Ceballos et al., 2013). The improved germplasm with increased β-carotene content has been shared and widely used for variety development and release by breeding programs in Africa, significantly contributing to the combat against the hidden hunger caused by vitamin A deficiency (Njoku et al., 2011).The β-carotene content in cassava is mainly controlled by genetic factors, with the broad-sense heritability ranging from 0.73 to 0.82 (Ceballos et al., 2013;de Carvalho et al., 2022;Njoku et al., 2011). Genomewide association analysis has uncovered the genetic architecture of β-carotene content in cassava, pinpointing the major locus on Chr 1 that explained 70% of phenotypic variation in an African breeding population (Rabbi et al., 2017). This significant locus on Chr 1 has been consistently reported and confirmed through multiple studies (Esuma et al., 2016;Ikeogu et al., 2019;Rabbi et al., 2022). The phytoene synthase 2 (PSY2) gene emerges as the candidate gene, and its function has been confirmed in a transgenic study (Welsch et al., 2010). A kompetitive allele-specific PCR marker has been developed based on the variation of the PSY2 gene for marker-assisted selection (https://excellenceinbreeding.org/). Although other quantitative trait loci (QTL) have also been reported, their effects in diverse backgrounds remain unconfirmed or invalidated.Since β-carotene content is closely related to root flesh color intensity (Chavez et al., 2000;Iglesias et al., 1997;Moorthy et al., 1990), visual observation was used at the early stage of biofortified cassava breeding. However, visual evaluation is subjective and often imprecise, especially in the case of nonuniform distribution of carotenoids in cassava roots (Ceballos et al., 2012;Ortiz et al., 2011). To increase the accuracy and efficiency of selection for high β-carotene content, cassava breeding programs have developed and implemented near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) prediction protocols using mixed mash samples (Abincha et al., 2020;Alamu et al.,• The biofortified cassava population was simultaneously improved over a decade for quality and agronomic traits. • Significant rates of genetic gains were achieved in β-carotene content, yield, dry matter, and plant architecture. • Negative correlations were observed between βcarotene content and dry matter, as well as fresh root yield. • The observed trade-offs present substantial challenges in developing biofortified cassava cultivars.). With over 3000 samples, CIAT developed NIRS prediction for both β-carotene content and total carotenoids, achieving accuracy with an R 2 > 0.92 (Sánchez et al., 2014).The implementation of high-throughput tools represents a significant advance in the modernization of breeding programs and has made a profound contribution to genetic gains of biofortified cassava at CIAT (Ceballos et al., 2007). Genetic gain as a key performance indicator has been used to assess the efficiency of breeding programs (Rutkoski, 2019). Genetic gain is derived from the response to selection in breeding practice. Following the response to selection (Falconer & Mackay, 1996), genetic gain is determined by four key components: useful genetic diversity, selection accuracy and intensity, and duration of a breeding cycle. Based on the estimation of the four components in breeding populations, the expected genetic gain can be calculated, serving as a leading indicator to evaluate the effectiveness of breeding strategies (Gaynor et al., 2021;Falconer & Mackay, 1996;Walsh & Lynch, 2018). Using historical breeding data and era trial data, genetic gains can be calculated using means and/or breeding values, such as best linear unbiased estimation (BLUE) and best linear unbiased predictors (BLUPs), to measure response to selection across breeding cycles (Mackay et al., 2011;Piepho et al., 2014;Piepho & Möhring, 2007;Rutkoski, 2019). For biofortified cassava, assessing genetic gain is critical to track progress in improving traits such as dry matter content, fresh root yield, plant architecture, and βcarotene content, which are the essential traits in the target product profile (Montagnac et al., 2009).Target product profile defines desired traits and standards that new varieties must meet to address nutritional challenges and improve agronomic performance effectively. In the case of biofortified cassava varieties for the target population of environments (TPE) of subhumid and semiarid lowland tropics, essential traits and their specific thresholds have been established by breeding programs and market intelligence teams and documented in the CGIAR Breeding Portal (https://cimmyt-eibp-prd.azurewebsites.net/login).The essential traits include fresh root yield, dry matter content, β-carotene content, number of branches, height at the first branch, and cooking quality. The target product profile ensures that the developed varieties contribute to improving nutritional deficiencies and adhere to agronomic viability and effectiveness. In the present study, we report the realized genetic gains in these essential traits, except for cooking quality, due to the lack of evaluation protocols previously (Tran et al., 2021). Assessing the realized genetic gains in biofortified cassava marks historical achievements and serves as a guiding compass for future development. In the present study, we focus on three key objectives: (1) calculating and reporting the realized genetic gains for essential traits of biofortified cassava, (2) evaluating the relationship between β-carotene content and essential agronomic traits, and (3) engaging in a comprehensive discussion on the direction of biofortified cassava breeding to enhance the effectiveness of delivering new varieties that align with farmer preferences.We used a biofortified (nutritionally enhanced) cassava breeding population that was improved over time (10+ years) for increased β-carotene (provitamin A) content. The founders (original progenitors) are part of CIAT genebank Future Seeds, which hosts the world's largest collection (>6000) of cassava accessions. The donor accessions (e.g., BRA1A, BRA1107, BRA1321, COL2489, COL2547, CR81, CR87, and PER297) were selected based on their cream or yellow fresh color. These β-carotene donor accessions were crossed with each other to increase the carotenoid content (Figure 1). Additionally, they were crossed with progenitors from advanced breeding pipelines to improve the agronomic traits, including fresh root yield, dry matter content, and plant architecture (Table S1).The biofortified population consists of 914 cassava clones in 449 full-or half-sib families. These cassava clones were field tested in 90 breeding trials over a period of 10 years from 2013 to 2022.Considering the high broad-sense heritability of β-carotene content, its evaluations were done at the single-row trial stage in unreplicated field trials at the CIAT campus, Palmira (medium-altitude tropics). In later stages, the biofortified population was planted in the northern coast of Colombia (Caribbean lowlands) in a randomized complete block design, which encompasses subhumid and semiarid low-F I G U R E 1 Pedigree of a biofortified cassava clone, GM9740-1, showcasing its progenitors. GM9740-1 is derived from a selection of six β-carotene donor accessions sourced from the CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture) genebank, namely, BRA1107, COL2547, BRA1321, PER297, BRA1A, and MAL66. The genebank accessions are named after their origin country code, for example, BRA for Brazil, COL for Colombia, PER for Peru, and MAL for Malaysia. The nomenclature of breeding clones follows a systematic convention, where the family includes identifiers such as GM for a full-sib family, SM for a half-sib family, and AM for a selfing family, accompanied by a unique clone number. land tropical regions (Figure 2). These tropical lowland conditions belong to the TPE and represent the conditions where more than 50% of the world's cassava is cultivated (Hershey, 2020).More than 50% of the trials were established in farmers' fields (under real cassava production environments) and spanning 10 years (2013-2022) at three field evaluation stages as part of the CIAT cassava breeding pipeline (Ceballos et al., 2016), namely, preliminary yield trial (PYT), advanced yield trial (AYT), and uniform yield trial (UYT). Plot size, replications, and locations were progressively increased in each yield trial stage. We used an average planting distance of 1 m × 1 m (average planting density of 10,000 plants ha −1 ). At least four checks (released varieties) were shared between any two given years (Figure 3a) and helped connect the field trials and account for environmental effects.We followed CIAT standard operating procedure on agronomic management of cassava field breeding trials (Hershey, 2020) and used (as much as possible) the management practices adopted by small-scale cassava growers. The trials were grown under rainfed conditions, weeds were controlled manually using a tool (hoe), and fertilizers were not applied. Pest incidence was monitored weekly for thrips (Corynothrips stenopterus), mites (Mononychellus tanajoa, Mononychellus caribbeanae, and Tetranychus urcinus), hornworm (Erinnyis ello), and whitefly (Trialeurodes variabilis and Aleurotrachelus socialis). Pesticides (chemical control) were sprayed when needed to reduce pest populations.Traits were selected according to the cassava breeding objectives that were defined based on the target product profiles of biofortified cassava (Ceballos et al., 2021). We targeted four traits (one for quality and three agronomic traits) to calculate rates of realized genetic gains in biofortified cassava: (1) β-carotene content, (2) fresh root yield, (3) dry matter content, and (4) plant architecture (Table 1). Traits were measured based on the conceptual description and standard operating procedure of the CGIAR cassava trait ontology (https:// cassavabase.org/tools/onto/) for consistent trait definition and measurement.β-Carotene content (µg g −1 fresh weight) was quantified using the NIRS equipment Foss NIRSystem 6500 (Jaramillo et al., 2018). NIRS sample capsules, each containing approximately 8 g of homogenized mashed fresh cassava root samples, underwent diffuse reflectance scanning between 400 and 2500 nm at 2-nm intervals, generating an average from 32 scans. β-Carotene content was only quantified in early breeding populations (single-row trial) grown at CIAT, Palmira (medium-altitude tropics), taking advantage of the high heritability of this trait (Ceballos et al., 2013;Chavez et al., 2005;Iglesias et al., 1997;Morillo Coronado, 2009;Njoku et al., 2015).Fresh root yield was measured on a plot basis in 904 clones across 65 trials during eight growing seasons (2013-2022) using the following equation:(1) where FRY is the fresh root yield (expressed in t ha −1 ), RWP is the root weight per plot, APP is area per plant (m 2 ), and NPH is the number of plants we plan to harvest (constant per trial).Dry matter content (%) was estimated in 914 clones across 77 trials during nine growing seasons (2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022). The measurements were obtained indirectly from an in-field test (specific gravity method) according to the following equations (Fukuda et al., 2010)where SG is the specific gravity of 4-5 kg of weighted cassava roots, RW air is the weight of roots in air, and RW water is the weight of roots immersed in water,where DM is the dry matter content and SG is the specific gravity.Plant architecture (number of branches and height at the first branch in cm) was measured 1 week before harvest in 338 clones across 38 trials over eight growing seasons (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022).F I G U R E 3 Breeding field trial information on (a) the number of shared clones between two given years for dry matter evaluation and (b) the distribution of broad-sense heritability for the target traits per trial. Heritability for β-carotene content was not computed because this trait was measured in unreplicated trials in the single-row trial stage.T A B L E 1 Experimental overview of the multiyear (2013-2022) and multilocation breeding field trials that were used to calculate realized genetic gains in quality and agronomic traits of biofortified cassava.Period of trials aFresh The breeding trial data were stored in CassavaBase (https:// cassavabase.org/), an open-access online database/repository for cassava breeders and researchers (Fernandez-Pozo et al., 2015). The datasets used to calculate realized genetic gains in the target traits were downloaded from CassavaBase using the R package QBMS (Al-Shamaa, 2023) using a custom script (https://cassava2050.github.io/cassava_base_data/ cassava_base_data.html) to retrieve the historical data  from CIAT Cassava Breeding Program. We filtered the datasets by trial name, location, and trial stage (PYT, AYT, and UYT) and selected the biofortified breeding populations that were field-tested over the years for β-carotene content, yield, dry matter, and plant architecture at the TPE (northern coast of Colombia). Exploratory data analysis and quality control were conducted using the R package tidyverse (Wickham et al., 2019) to check for trial layout information and to name clones and locations using standard nomenclature. Data points that had a residual greater or less than three standard deviations from the mean were declared outliers and removed from the analysis. The cleaned datasets were used to run single and multipleenvironmental trial analysis and eventually to calculate rates of realized genetic gains in the target traits. Data analysis information, R scripts, and outputs can be found at https:// github.com/Cassava2050/2022_genetic_gain_biofortified.We computed broad sense heritability (H 2 ) within individual trials for all traits except for β-carotene content, which was measured in unreplicated trials in the single-row trial stage. The within-trial H 2 was calculated using the following equation:where V BLUP is the mean variance difference of two breeding clones based on BLUPs and \uD835\uDF0E 2 \uD835\uDC54 is the variance of breeding clones. We fitted a linear mixed-effects model (Equation 5) to estimate the variance components using the R package lme4 (function lmer) (Bates et al., 2015).where y is the response variable, X is the design matrix for the fixed effects, β is the vector of fixed effects, Z is the design matrix for the random effects, u is the vector of random effects (breeding clone) and ϵ is the vector of residual errors. Trials with heritability lower than 0.1 were excluded from the multienvironmental trial analysis and the realized genetic gain calculations.We computed the best linear unbiased estimations (BLUEs) for each clone across traits (except for β-carotene content due to the unreplicated design of these field trials) using the R package ASReml-R (function asreml) (Butler et al., 2023) for fitting linear mixed-effects models (Equation 6). We tested five different linear mixed-effects models and selected the one with the lowest Akaike information criterion score. In the chosen model, breeding clone and testing year were specified as fixed effects, while trial, trial:clone diagonal covariance structure, and replication (nested within trial) were specified as random effects terms.where y is the response vector, β is the vector for fixed effects (year and breeding clones), X is the incidence matrix that connects observations with the vector of fixed effects, u d is the vector of random effects for trial by replication, u g is the vector of random effects for breeding clone by trial, Z d and Z g are the matrices that connect observations with the vectors of random effects u d and u g , and ϵ is the residual error.We focused on the multilocation replicated yield trials (PYT, AYT, and UYT) at the target population of environments to ensure consistent and high-quality phenotypic data for genetic gain calculations. BLUE values for fresh root yield, dry matter, number of branches, and height at the first branch were used in a simple linear regression-based approach to cal-culate rates of realized genetic gains (Mackay et al., 2011).For β-carotene content, we used clone mean values from unreplicated single-row trials.Traits were regressed against crossing year (the time when the breeding cohorts were developed) to obtain the rates of genetic gain per year, which were given by the slope of the linear regression line and indicated the annual change in the trait value. The intercept denoted the hypothetical value of the trait at the onset of the breeding program (year zero in the regression equation). Equation ( 7) also predicted the trait values for the first and last year of the study period.where y is the BLUE value of breeding clones, X is the design matrix for the fixed effect crossing year, β is a vector of coefficients, including the intercept and the effect of crossing year, and ϵ is a vector of residual errors.The relative (percentage) rate of realized genetic gain was computed for each trait from the ratio of the regression slope to the trait value at the first crossing year (year 1). This ratio (Equation 8) showed the relative change/increase in trait values per year and was an indicator of the selection efficiency in our cassava breeding program.In this study, we present the rates of realized genetic gains for both quality (β-carotene content) and agronomic (fresh root yield, dry matter content, and plant architecture) traits in a biofortified cassava population that was genetically improved through five cycles of phenotypic recurrent selection over a period of 10 years (Figure 1). The breeding population was evaluated at multiple trial stages in the TPE, that is, subhumid and semiarid lowland tropics, represented by Caribbean lowlands on the northern coast of Colombia (Figure 2). Across all trials, we observed moderate to high broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) with a mean of 0.72 for fresh root yield and 0.83 for dry matter (Table 1; Figure 3b). The relatively high heritability indicated that the field trials were well-managed, capturing the genetic variance while reducing the environmental variation and noise and providing a solid foundation for accessing genetic gains achieved.We observed significant improvements in the nutritional quality and agronomic performance of the cassava biofortified populations over a period of 10+ years from 2007 to 2017. β-Carotene content values ranged from 1.30-10.90 in the 2007 base population to 6.20-18.12 µg g −1 fresh weight in the latest 2017 cohort, representing an overall enhancement of 86.23% (Table 2). The relative rates of realized genetic gains for βcarotene content were found to be 7.03% per year compared to the initial breeding population and 5.20% per year relative to the population mean (Table 2; Figure 4a). These results are consistent with the substantial increase in β-carotene content that we observed over time.In addition to the nutritional trait, we also improved the biofortified population in agronomic performance, especially fresh root yield, dry matter content, and plant architecture. We achieved high rates of realized genetic gains in fresh root The current breeding population was derived from the crosses made in 2017.yield: 4.15% per year compared to the initial breeding population (2017 vs. 2007) and 3.44% relative to the population mean (Table 2; Figure 4b). Conversely, yearly rates of realized genetic gains in dry matter (0.55%), number of branches (0.83%), and height at the first branch (1.29%) were relatively low (Table 2; Figure 4c-e). Likewise, height at the first branch (above 110 cm) remained stable during the initial breeding cycles in the biofortified populations, only to undergo a substantial increase (156-180 cm) in late breeding populations (2015-2017; Table 2; Figure 4d). All in all, these observations provide an encouraging indication of the potential for simultaneous genetic improvement in both nutritional value (β-carotene content) and agronomic performance (yield and dry matter content). The consistent positive genetic gains across these traits showcase the success of the biofortified cassava breeding team (Figure 4).Pearson's correlation showed a nonsignificant negative association between β-carotene content and dry matter content when considering all trials and years (Figure 5a,b). However, we observed a significant negative correlation in a big portion of the individual field trials (46 out of 59) (Figure 5d). It is essential to note that only trials with more than 15 clones were included in the analysis, ensuring a robust dataset for correlation assessment (Figure 5d-f). Furthermore, we also observed a significant negative correlation between β-carotene content and fresh root yield (Pearson's r = −0.22, p < 0.01; Figure 5c).These negative correlations indicated the trade-offs between nutritional quality and yield in biofortified cassava. However, the breeding program achieved substantial positive genetic gains in β-carotene content, yield, and dry matter content. These seemingly counterintuitive results can be explained by the exotic background of the β-carotene donors, which had high β-carotene content but low yield potential. Through successive selection cycles, this trade-off was successfully reversed, leading to a remarkable improvement of these traits simultaneously.Investigating plant architecture traits, we did not find a significant correlation between β-carotene content and height at the first branch, but we did observe a significant positive correlation between β-carotene content and number of branches (r = 0.23, p < 0.01; Figure 5a). For the two plant architecture traits, we found a significant negative correlation between them (r = −0.68, p < 0.01). Notably, based on the target product profile, the ideotype preferred by farmers is described as a cassava plant with a desirable height at the first branch but a low number of branches. The CIAT cassava breeding program has been focusing on developing and delivering science-based solutions to the major global cassava production challenges, such as cassava brown streak disease (Sheat et al., 2019(Sheat et al., , 2022)), cassava mosaic disease (Akano et al., 2002), and provitamin A deficiency (Ceballos et al., 2021;Chávez et al., 2000Chávez et al., , 2005)). Moreover, the focus climate or TPE is subhumid and semiarid lowland tropics, represented by the Caribbean coastal region of Colombia. The regions under this climate account for more than 50% of the global cassava production (Hershey, 2020).At TPE, we have achieved significant genetic gains in biofortified cassava improvement, not only in the nutritional trait, β-carotene content (7.03% per year), but also in fresh root yield (4.15% per year). Since the CIAT breeding team always rents farmers' fields for yield trialing at TPE, we can consider that the genetic gains were realized on farmers' fields by following farmers' management practices such as sloped lands, rainy season planting, rainfed conditions, no fertilizer application, and a planting density of approximately 10,000 plants ha −1 (Hershey, 2020).Based on the breeder's equation, the rate of genetic gains was determined by four key components, that is, useful genetic diversity, duration of a breeding cycle, and selection accuracy and intensity (Rutkoski, 2019). The realized genetic gains in biofortified cassava were mainly derived from two components: useful genetic diversity and selection accuracy. CIAT has the largest cassava genebank with more than 6000 accessions collected from diverse regions. The first genebank-wise screening of high β-carotene content started before 2000 (Chavez et al., 2000), and the first cross for population improvement of biofortified cassava was initiated in 2003 (Ceballos et al., 2013). Multiple donors of β-carotene from diverse regions contributed to the favorable allele stack, supporting the continuous increase of β-carotene in breeding populations. Moreover, the biofortified cassava breeding was built on top of more than 40 years of cassava improvement at CIAT (Ceballos et al., 2021). The elite breeding progenitors and β-carotene donors were used to form the biofortified cassava breeding populations. The useful genetic diversity from elite breeding progenitors significantly contributed to the realized genetic gains in agronomic traits, for example, fresh root yield and height at the first branch.The increased selection accuracy in biofortified cassava benefited from the close collaborative relationship between the cassava breeding team and the root quality laboratory at CIAT (Belalcazar et al., 2016;Ceballos et al., 2013;Chavez et al., 2000;Chávez et al., 2005;Sánchez et al., 2014). As an integral part of the multi-disciplinary cassava program, the two teams have been collaborating seamlessly in all stages, from planting to harvesting, processing, and result review. We started by screening genebank accessions to identify the trait donors with high β-carotene content (Chavez et al., 2000;Chávez et al., 2005) and then developed protocols for quality traits, including high-throughput NIRS prediction for dry matter content and β-carotene content, as well as medium-throughput water absorption for cassava cooking time and mealiness (Belalcazar et al., 2016;Sánchez et al., 2014;Tran et al., 2021). The root quality lab at CIAT routinely screens cassava breeding populations for quality and nutrition improvement. To enhance farmers' adoption of the developed varieties, the breeding team and root quality lab will further collaborate to understand cassava cooking quality, develop high-throughput tools, and implement protocols for evaluating breeding populations.Measuring quality traits in the TPE has been challenging because of the high cost and the complicated logistics during transportation from the trial locations to the root quality lab. Now, the CIAT root quality lab is developing NIRS prediction models for dry matter content, β-carotene content, and water absorption using a portable NIRS, QualitySpec (Ikeogu et al., 2017). The protocol will enable in-field measurements of quality and nutritional traits, overcoming logistical issues and reducing costs from the complicated root transportation. The in-field measurement of quality traits will facilitate the high selection intensity of breeding populations and, in turn, achieve high genetic gains.It has been reported that β-carotene is distributed unevenly in cassava roots (Ceballos et al., 2012), so food scientists developed protocols to grind the roots and mix and unify the root mash before taking the measurement (Ortiz et al., 2011). Mixing root mash will provide representative samples and give an accurate measurement of β-carotene content, but the uneven distribution of β-carotene was ignored. Recently, a new technology, hyperspectral imaging, has been tested and validated in estimating the distribution of dry matter in roots (Meghar et al., 2023). Once implemented in biofortified cassava breeding, this technology will allow for the selection of varieties with not only high β-carotene content but also evenly distributed storage roots.Here, we also want to highlight the significance of a centralized data management system, CassavaBase (Fernandez-Pozo et al., 2015). All the breeding trials, dating back to 1982, were managed in CassavaBase. The availability of formatted historical data is critical for estimating genetic gains of the biofortified cassava breeding pipeline. Moreover, the uniform format allows for developing a standardized data analysis pipeline, ensuring quick data analysis turnover and facilitating timely, data-driven decision-making in our breeding practices.The presence of a negative correlation between dry matter content and β-carotene content has been widely reported in transgenic experiments and breeding populations (Beyene et al., 2018;Rabbi et al., 2017). In the present study, we also observed negative correlations in 78% of cassava breeding trials. Although previous reports from CIAT biofortified populations indicated a nonnegative correlation (Ceballos et al., 2013;Sánchez et al., 2014), the observed inconsistency might be mainly derived from differences in population types and breeding stages. Especially at the advanced breeding stage evaluated in this study, characterized by intensive selection for high dry matter and high β-carotene, a significant negative correlation between dry matter content and β-carotene content was frequently observed.A similar negative correlation between dry matter content and β-carotene content has been reported in other root crops, including sweet potato and potato (Gemenet et al., 2020). The negative correlation resulted in reduced dry matter in the orange sweet potato varieties; nevertheless, dry matter content is one of the primary factors determining the adoption of improved orange varieties in Africa. Dry matter content is also a determinant factor for the adoption of new varieties of granulated and paste cassava products like gari and fufu (Teeken et al., 2020). Considering the importance of dry matter content in biofortified root crops, studies have been conducted to uncover its genetic basis in cassava and sweet potato (Gemenet et al., 2020;Rabbi et al., 2017). Genetic mapping efforts have identified QTL associated with high β-carotene and low dry matter content, suggesting that genetic linkage is likely to cause the observed negative correlation. However, considering the reports that the accumulation of carotenoids affects the development of cell walls and starch synthesis (Ernesto Bianchetti et al., 2018;Oleszkiewicz et al., 2021), we should be cautious in dismissing the pleiotropy hypothesis of the major QTL. Further research is required, including breaking the genetic linkage through recombination or manipulating the phytoene synthase (PSY) gene, such as through overexpression or mutation. These studies will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the interaction between the β-carotene pathway and dry matter accumulation, paving the way for developing biofortified cassava varieties that balance both nutritional and agronomic traits.The advancement of biofortified cassava breeding, despite significant achievements, faces several challenges that need careful consideration for sustained progress and success-ful delivery to small-scale producers and consumers. As a clonally propagated crop, cassava has been improved using heterozygous parents (Ceballos et al., 2016). Due to the severe inbreeding depression of heterozygous parents of cassava, backcrossing-based trait introgression has been challenging in cassava improvement (de Freitas et al., 2016;Rojas et al., 2009). Multiple cycles of recurrent selection or pseudo-backcrossing are required to introduce high βcarotene content as well as improve agronomic traits such as dry matter content, fresh root yield, and cooking quality (Ceballos et al., 2013). Over the last decade, we have made significant progress, increasing β-carotene content from 6.90 to 12.85 µg g −1 fresh weight at the level of breeding population means. However, improvement in dry matter content, fresh root yield, and yield stability of biofortified cassava still lag other advanced breeding pipelines. Continued investment in biofortified cassava is required to sustain the achievements of population improvement and new variety development to meet the needs of small-scale producers and consumers. Here, we want to highlight several key areas to focus on for accelerating the delivery of biofortified cassava.First, the genetic basis of the negative correlation between β-carotene and dry matter content must be clarified. If the locus for high β-carotene content and the locus for high dry matter content are linked but in the repulsion phase on Chr 1 (Gemenet et al., 2020;Rabbi et al., 2017Rabbi et al., , 2020)), efforts should be made to break the linkage and share the new coupling haplotype with breeding programs for variety development. Alternatively, if the negative correlation is caused by pleiotropy, breeding teams should search for diverse genetic backgrounds to minimize the pleiotropic effect of the β-carotene loci. With the advancement of whole genome sequencing, it is affordable to assemble any cassava genome (Hu et al., 2021). Cassava geneticists are well-empowered in uncovering the negative relationship and identifying the genes for β-carotene and dry matter content on Chr 1.Another critical aspect is the sprouting ability of biofortified cassava varieties, which is generally observed to be low but not widely reported. For example, during the 2021-2022 growth season, no biofortified cassava breeding trials were harvested due to poor germination/sprouting ability, and the selections were only made based on the sprouting ability (Figure 3a). To deliver biofortified cassava to small-scale producers, the variety must have good sprouting ability, which is the first impression the variety gives farmers (Kawano & Cock, 2005). As a clonally propagated crop, cassava was multiplied and planted by stems. Stem cuttings from the past growth season will be collected and planted for the next. However, due to the quick deterioration of cassava roots (Chávez et al., 2005;Zidenga et al., 2012), farmers paid all attention to selling the roots by transporting the roots to a factory or market as soon as possible. The stems could be left in the field for several days. The high temperature will cause dramatic Crop Science moisture reduction and significantly affect the sprouting ability. Even though the stems were collected correctly, the stem storage, while waiting for field preparation and proper soil moisture, will also impact the sprouting ability. Despite its importance, sprouting ability has been largely overlooked in cassava breeding. Specific evaluation of stem storage and sprouting ability at TPE is required to increase the selection pressure in biofortified cassava breeding. Furthermore, understanding the genetics and physiology of stem sprouting ability will contribute to increasing selection efficiency.Cooking quality is a critical factor determining consumer acceptance of biofortified cassava (Dufour et al., 2020). However, due to the limited protocols for quality trait evaluations, little selection pressure on cooking quality has been applied to biofortified cassava. The current biofortified cassava varieties do not have as good cooking quality as regular cassava varieties, which significantly affects their adoption. To address this, significant efforts in the RTBfoods project (https://rtbfoods.cirad.fr/) have dissected the cooking quality of cassava products, such as boiled cassava, gari, and fufu, leading to the development and implementation of protocols for quality trait evaluation (Dufour et al., 2020). For example, for boiled cassava, the medium-throughput method, water absorption during cooking, has been established and widely implemented in breeding programs (Tran et al., 2020). Combining the new protocols and introducing progenitors with good cooking quality will lead to new varieties that meet consumers' culinary preferences, as well as enhance their nutritional benefits.The reported genetic gains in the present study were achieved through conventional recurrent selection (Ceballos et al., 2016). Particularly, rapid cycling was implemented at the CIAT cassava program, focusing on increasing β-carotene content at the CIAT campus (Ceballos et al., 2013), where the root quality lab service is available and convenient. However, challenges emerged when we moved the population from the CIAT campus, a medium-altitude location, to the lowland tropics, the TPE. We observed poor sprouting ability, which had never been a problem in the medium-altitude location. To overcome this issue, we moved the biofortified cassava breeding population to the TPE, the subhumid and semiarid lowland tropics, and intensively selected for the sprouting ability at early evaluation stages. Moreover, the improvement is focused on all the traits required within the product profile of biofortified cassava, including agronomic, cooking quality, disease and insect resistance, and nutritional traits.While genomic selection has shown promise in cassava breeding (Ceballos et al., 2015;de Andrade et al., 2019;Okeke et al., 2017;Wolfe et al., 2017), its potential has not been fully realized in biofortified cassava due to reduced funding. Genomic selection has been tested and implemented in cassava breeding, which significantly increases genetic gains by dramatically reducing the duration of breeding cycles.Here, we call for further investment in biofortified cassava breeding to improve the traits required by small-scale producers and consumers. By combining a further understanding of the genetics of agronomic and quality traits (Rabbi et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2018), modernizing breeding programs (Virk et al., 2021), and incorporating new breeding technologies such as genomic selection (Gholami et al., 2021;Santantonio et al., 2020), centralized data management using CassavaBase (Morales et al., 2022), and flower-inducing technology (Rodrmguez et al., 2023), we are confident in delivering superior, farmer-preferred biofortified cassava varieties within the next 5-10 years, making a substantial contribution to addressing the hidden hunger in the tropics. We would like to thank Dr. Hernan Ceballos, Dr. Clair Hershey, and Dr. Carlos Iglesias for leading the breeding activities and for valuable insights on various aspects of the manuscript. We also want to thank the reviewers for their constructive suggestions and corrections, and we acknowledge the active roles of the editor during the revision of our manuscript. This research was supported by HarvestPlus and Accelerated Breeding Initiative, CGIAR.The authors declare no conflicts of interest.Data, R scripts, and outputs are publicly accessible at GitHub: https://github.com/Cassava2050/2022_genetic_ gain_biofortified. Once the manuscript is accepted, all","tokenCount":"6498"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"496b2d0a8333d41c1bef57c3e8210097","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d8a8e90a-3cc8-4d67-a002-41be12c5ef93/content","id":"590107386"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8cfe95d1-69de-440c-a38c-0449a8ed7a75","pagecount":"56","content":"La seriedad o magnitud del problema de los alimentos en el mundo no debería ser infravalorado. Los éxitos recientes al incrementar la producción de trigo, arroz y maiz en los países asiáticos ofrece la psoibilidad de comprar 20-30 años de tiempo\" N.E. Borlaug, 1969 -A Green Revolution Yields a Golden Harvest Profecía de Borlaug en 1969 SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA: RETOS. INCREMENTO DE LA POBLACIÓN SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA: RETOS. INCREMENTO DE LA POBLACIÓN ¿Hemos utilizado correctamente ese tiempo?  La gente en países emergentes están cambiando su dieta y haciéndola más rica en carnes.  A día de hoy, en la producción de bio-etanol se utiliza grano que podría alimentar 350 millones de personas.• India: 175 millones de personas se mantienen con grano producido en campos irrigados con agua de pozos del subsuelo.• China: 130 millones de personas se mantienen con grano producido en campos irrigados con agua de pozos del subsuelo.• ¿Qué harán India y China cuando el agua de los acuíferos se termine? La demanda del trigo para países en desarrollo se espera que aumente el 60% para 2050.  Los cambios de temperatura debidos al cambio climático se estima que reducirán la producción de trigo en los países en desarrollo entre el 20-30%. En las muestras estudiadas los niveles de ácido fítico tuvieron más influencia en la biodisponibilidad del hierro que el total de hierro.Mejor calidad de procesamiento y producto final Socioeconomía (orientada a género)But wheat is at the centre of concerns about diet and health • Amplio rango de síntomas: cansancio, dolor de cabeza, dolor muscular, depresión, ansiedad, anemia, etc.• Definición y el criterio para el diagnóstico no han sido establecidos• Incidencia reportada hasta el 6%, pero son cifras basadas en autodiagnóstico• Podría incluir enfermos celiacos no diagnosticados o enfermos del síndrome del intestino irritable.• ","tokenCount":"296"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cf2bf39efaf5d5684385c38e90cc00d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a70fc55-0d62-46ae-977b-06f735621b5e/retrieve","id":"842517943"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c478ab60-a5d5-4180-9a3e-39fa081e188d","pagecount":"77","content":"Medicago (Annual) * (E,F) 1991 Mung bean * (E) 1980 Oat * (E) 1985 Oca * (S) 2001 Oil palm (E) 1989 Panicum miliaceum and P. sumatrense (E) 1985 Papaya (E) 1988 Peach * (E) 1985 Pear * (E) 1983 ii Melon The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 16 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP). The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,The most common name used for Cucumis melo L. is melon. Other names include sweet melon, round melon, muskmelon, casaba, cantaloupe and winter melon (Nayar and Singh, 1998;Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). Melon was first described by Linné 1753 in Species planetarum. It is a member of the family Cucurbitaceae represented by some 118 genera and 825 species (Jeffrey, 1990). The family includes pumpkins, squashes, gourds, watermelon, loofah and several weeds. Melon is divided into two subspecies, C. melo ssp. agrestis and C. melo ssp. melo, differentiated by the pubescence on the female hypanthium. Ssp. melo has spreading hairs, and ssp. agrestis appressed hairs (Kirkbride, 1993).Cucumis melo includes a wide range of cultivars. Although crosses outside the species are sterile, intraspecific crosses are generally fertile, resulting in a confusing range of variation (Purseglove, 1968).Early taxonomic work including melon was made by Naudin (1859) and Coignaux (1881). However, these attempts, along with many more recent ones (Chacravarty, 1946(Chacravarty, , 1959(Chacravarty, , 1961(Chacravarty, , 1966(Chacravarty, , 1968;;Berhaut, 1954Berhaut, , 1967Berhaut, , 1975;;Meeuse, 1962;Jeffrey, 1967;Chacravarty and Jeffrey, 1980 etc.) failed in separating the cultivated species from wild species in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for Plants (Brickell et al., 1980;Greuter et al., 1988) and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (Trehane et al., 1995). This has resulted in taxonomic confusion, hence, 522 synonyms of C. melo have been recognized by Kirkbride (1993). The taxonomy of the cultivars is complex and has only recently been reviewed and clarified by Pitrat et al. (2000). Kirkbride classified wild Cucumis in his monograph, 1993.The origin of melon has also been disputed, since there are arguments for melon originating from either south Asia or Africa. South Asia does indeed have a high diversity of melon varieties, but all other Cucumis species with a chromosome number of n=12, except C. hystrix, originate from Africa and have been referred to as \"the African group\" (Kroon et al., 1979). Of the 32 Cucumis species 31 have a chromosome number of n=12 (Kirkbride, 1993;Chen et al., 1999). C. sativus, cucumber, a relative to C. hystrix is the only exception with n=7, and originates from Asia. New reviews of the origin of melon strongly indicate south and eastern Africa as the origin of melon (Mallick and Masui 1985;Kerje and Grum, 2000).Melon has probably been cultivated in China since 2000 years BC (Keng, 1974) and many cultivars and high fruit diversity have evolved, as well as a worldwide spreading of the cultivated forms in the tropics and sub-tropics. It is mainly used as a fruit but immature fruits are used as a vegetable, seeds are edible and the roots can be used in medicine (Robinson and Decker Walters, 1997;Nayar and Sing, 1998). Wild inedible forms are mainly from Africa (Jeffry, 1980). China and USA have the highest production of melon.Melon is easily spread into the wild as feral from cultivation. Natural habitats are near cultivated areas, townships and riverbeds. Melon is also found in very dry areas. The geographical distribution of wild melon is: Africa: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe; Asia: Myanmar, China, India, Iran, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Yemen, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Philippines and Australia; Pacific: Fiji Islands, Guam, New Britain, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Tonga. (Kirkbride, 1993) Their fruits vary in size and shape but most varieties have round fruits, about 8-10 cm in diameter. The morphology of melon is remarkably stable for some characters of particular organs, but for others characteristics of the same organ the morphology of the same organ can be highly variable (Kirkbride, 1993). Purseglove (1968) described Cucumis melo as follows: \"A variable, trailing, softly hairy annual. Vines are monoecious or andro-monoecious. Root system large and superficial. Stems ridged or striate. Leaves orbicular or ovate to reniform, angled or shallowly 5-7 lobed, 8-5 cm in diameter, dentate, base cordate; petiole 4-10 cm long; tendrils simple. Flowers staminate and clustered, pistillate and solitary, or hermaphrodite, 1.2-3.0 cm in diameter, yellow, on short stout pedicles; calyx 5-lobed, 6-8 mm long; corolla deeply 5-partite, petals round, 2 cm long; stamens 3, free, connectives of anthers prolonged; pistil with 3-5 placentas and stigmas. Fruit very variable in size, shape and rind, globular or oblong, smooth or yellow-brown, or green, flesh yellow, pink or green, many seeded. Seeds whitish or buff, flat, smooth, 5-15 mm long. About 30 seeds per g.\"The descriptors of melon can be used for cultivated varieties as well as wild accessions. They are, however not suitable for other Cucumis species like cucumber, or other cultivated cucurbits (i.e. watermelon, pumpkin, squash or kalebass) although many characters are very similar. In some cases they can provide guidelines.x MelonIPGRI uses the following definitions in genetic resources documentation:Passport descriptors: These provide the basic information used for the general management of the accession (including registration at the genebank and other identification information) and describe parameters that should be observed when the accession is originally collected.Management descriptors: These provide the basis for the management of accessions in the genebank and assist with their multiplication and regeneration.Environment and site descriptors: These describe the environmental and site-specific parameters that are important when characterization and evaluation trials are held. They can be important for the interpretation of the results of those trials. Site descriptors for germplasm collecting are also included here.These enable an easy and quick discrimination between phenotypes. They are generally highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are equally expressed in all environments. In addition, these may include a limited number of additional traits thought desirable by a consensus of users of the particular crop.The expression of many of the descriptors in this category will depend on the environment and, consequently, special experimental designs and techniques are needed to assess them. Their assessment may also require complex biochemical or molecular characterization methods. These types of descriptors include characters such as yield, agronomic performance, stress susceptibilities and biochemical and cytological traits. They are generally the most interesting traits in crop improvement.Highly discriminating descriptors are indicated as highlighted text.Characterization will normally be the responsibility of genebank curators, while evaluation will typically be carried out elsewhere (possibly by a multidisciplinary team of scientists). The evaluation data should be fed back to the genebank, which will maintain a data file.The following internationally accepted norms for the scoring, coding and recording of descriptor states should be followed:(a) the Système International d'Unités (SI) is used;(b) the units to be applied are given in square brackets following the descriptor name; is the expression of a character. The authors of this list have sometimes described only a selection of the states, e.g. 3, 5 and 7 for such descriptors. Where this has occurred, the full range of codes is available for use by extension of the codes given or by interpolation between them, e.g. in Section 10 (Biotic stress susceptibility), 1 = very low susceptibility and 9 = very high susceptibility;(f) when a descriptor is scored using a 1-9 scale, such as in (e), '0' would be scored when (i) the character is not expressed; (ii) a descriptor is inapplicable. In the following example, '0' will be recorded if an accession does not have a central leaf lobe: This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions within a genebank collection, and is assigned when a sample is entered into the genebank collection. Once assigned this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number should never be re-used. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank at Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank at Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system) [MCPD] Provide the authority for the species names 1.8 Subtaxa (1.5.3) [MCPD] Subtaxa can be used to store any additional taxonomic identifier. The following abbreviations are allowed: \"subsp.\" (for subspecies); \"convar.\" (for convariety); \"var.\" (for variety); \"f.\" (for form)Subtaxa authority[MCPD] Provide the subtaxa authority at the most detailed taxonomic level[MCPD] Either a registered or other formal designation given to the accession. First letter uppercase. Multiple names separated with semicolon without spaceInclude here any previous identification other than the current name. Collecting number or newly assigned station names are frequently used as identifiers[MCPD] Name of the crop in colloquial language, preferably in English (i.e. 'malting barley', 'cauliflower', or 'white cabbage')(1.6) [MCPD] Information about pedigree or other description of ancestral information (i.e. parent variety in case of mutant or selection)(1.9) Approximate number or weight of seeds, tissue culture, etc. of an accession in the genebank 1.12 Type of material received 1 Seed 2 Plant (including seedlings) 3 Pollen 4 In vitro culture 99 Other (specify in descriptor 1.13 Remarks)Passport 5The Remarks field is used to add notes or to elaborate on descriptors with value \"99\" (=Other)(2.2) Name and address of the institute(s) and individual(s) collecting/sponsoring the collection of the sample(s)[MCPD] Code of the institute (s) collecting the sample. If holding institute has collected the material, the collecting institute code should be the same as the holding institute code. (See instructions under Institute Code, 1.1)Collecting number (2.1) [MCPD] Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This item is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collectionsCollecting date of sample [YYYYMMDD] (2.3) [MCPD] Collecting date of the sample where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated by hyphens. Leading zeros are requiredCountry of origin (2.4) [MCPD] Code of the country in which the sample was originally collected. Use the three-letter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representation of names of countries. The ISO 3166-1: Code List can be obtained from IPGRI [ipgri-mcpd@cgiar.org]Province / State (2.5) Name of the primary administrative subdivision of the country in which the sample was collected[MCPD] Code of the institute that has bred the material. If the holding institute has bred the material, the breeding institute code should be the same as the holding instituteLocation of collecting site (2.6) [MCPD] Location information below the country level that describes where the accession was collected. This might include the distance in kilometers and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. 7 km south of Curitiba in the state of Parana) 6 MelonLatitude of collecting site 1  (2.7) [MCPD] Degree (2 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 103020S). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 10----S; 011530N; 4531--S) 2.10 Longitude of collecting site 1  (2.8) [MCPD] Degree (3 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 0762510W). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 076 ----W)(2.9) 1 To convert longitude and latitude in degrees (º), minutes ('), seconds (''), and a hemisphere (North or South and East or West) to decimal degrees, the following formula should be used: dº m' s'' = h * (d + m / 60 + s / 3600) where h=1 for the Northern and Eastern hemispheres and h=-1 for the Southern and Western hemispheres, i.e. 30º30'0'' S = -30.5 and 30º15'55'' N = 30.265.Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.1.11 in section 6(2.11) [MCPD] The coding scheme proposed can be used at 3 different levels of detail: either by using the general codes such as 100, 200, 300, 400 or by using the more specific codes such as 110, 120 etc.100 (1.7) [MCPD] Date on which the accession entered the collection where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated with hyphens. Leading zeros are required(Passport 1.9)[MCPD] Code of the institute where a safety duplicate of the accession is maintained. Any additional information, including the information relating to method of isolation, selfing, sibbing etc. may be specified hereCountry of characterization and/or evaluation (3.1) (See instructions in descriptor 2.5 Country of origin)Site (research institute) (3.2)Name and address of farm or instituteEvaluator's name and address (3.3)(3.4)(3.5) Specify number of days from planting after which establishment is measured 5.12 Environmental characteristics of site Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.1.11 in section 6Specify types used, doses, frequency of each and method of applicationSpecify pesticides used, doses, frequency of each and method of applicationAny other site-specific information 6. Collecting and/or characterization/evaluation site environment descriptors Estimated slope of the siteThe direction that the slope faces. Describe the direction with symbols N, S, E, W (e.g. a slope that faces a southwestern direction has an aspect of SW)The landform refers to the shape of the land surface in the area in which the site is located (adapted from FAO 1990)  As detailed a classification as possible should be given. This may be taken from a soil survey map. State class (e.g. Alfisols, Spodosols, Vertisols etc.) Provide either the monthly or the annual mean (state number of recorded years)Provide either the monthly or the annual meanRemarks Provide here any additional information related to the site (i.e. if data collected refers to collecting or to characterization/evaluation sites)Environment and site 21 CHARACTERIZATIONFor all quantitative descriptors (metric traits), record the average of at least five measurements per individual accession, unless otherwise specified. If the characterization is combined with multiplication, at least 25 plants per accession should be planted (Jim McCreight, pers. comm.). Each accession has to be characterized separately. Most of the observations should be made at maximum vegetative growth state (at 50% flowering), unless otherwise specified. If fewer than ten accessions are being characterized, specify in descriptor 7.9 Notes. To simplify characterization a minimum number of measurements, preferably on different plants, are indicated as 'n', i.e. (n=5). If not indicated the minimum is five.For accessions exhibiting variability for a descriptor, each type should be recorded along with a frequency (% of total). For example: Accession A may have 50% globular fruit, 35% elongate fruit, and 15% scallop fruit. This same accession may also have 70% smooth, and 30% netted fruit. If several colours apply to one accession, record frequency of colours under descriptor 7.9 Notes.To make the colour recording simple, only the main colours are listed. If colour charts are used, specify in descriptor 7.9 NotesVegetative charactersRecorded when the cotyledons are fully opened and the terminal bud is around 5 mm in size. (n=10) 1 Light green 2 Green 3 Green-purple 4 Purple 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.9 Notes)Recorded when the seedling primary leaves are fully opened and the terminal bud is around 5 mm in size. (n=10) 1 Light green 2 Green 3 Green-purple 4 Purple 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.9 Notes)Measured at the time of expansion of cotyledon. 1 Compact (shortened internode length between 0.5 and 2.5 cm, bush habit) 2 Dwarf (internode length 4-6 cm, short in height, rarely exceeds 1 m) 3 Determinate (vining habit in which ends of branches terminate in cluster of flowers or leaves, such plants stop growing during growing season 4 Indeterminate (vining habit, in which branches continue to grow throughout growing season) 5 Multilateral (many branches) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.9 Notes) Characterization 23 7.1.12 Plant size 3 Small (<1 m 3 ) 5 Intermediate (1-3 m 3 ) 7 Large (>3 m 3 )Recorded on the main branch up to and including 1 st tendril 3 Few 5 Medium 7 ManyInternode length (6.1.7) Average internode length of the 10 -15 th node on the main vine 1 Very short (approx. 1 cm) 2 Short (approx. 5 cm) 3 Short -Intermediate (approx. 5 cm as a young plant -then intermediate) 4 Intermediate (approx. 10 cm) 5 Long (approx. 15 cm)Count the total number of nodes to the first fruit position on the main branchRecorded at 50% flowering. (n=10) 1 Yellow 2 Light green 3 Green 4 Dark-green 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.9 Notes)Measured at the middle of the main vein at 50% flowering between 10 th and 11 th nodes. (n=20)   ","tokenCount":"2921"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0338148982.json b/data/part_5/0338148982.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e8f61873e7625c15757f2d3c278617e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fb9643c8-526d-4603-be79-b1c0a2c027a9/retrieve","id":"220115014"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6d1ba8a5-9cfe-4f13-98c1-00abb6096fdb","pagecount":"4","content":"In sub-Saharan Africa, most poultry production is traditional with birds being raised by smallholders in freerange semi-scavenging conditions. The aim of our project is to extensively characterise phenotypes of chickens raised in typical African farming conditions, by measuring production, immunity and survival characteristics. In total, 2,573 chickens were raised in five batches in the poultry facility at ILRI in Ethiopia. These chickens were phenotypically characterised and sampled across an eight-week period. Traits measured included weekly body weight, growth rate, breast muscle weight in carcass, mortality/survival, and immunological titres. The population of chickens had extensive variance at these phenotypes. For body weight, 65% of the total phenotypic variance was attributed to the individual birds providing an excellent source of variation for identifying potential selection markers. This data will subsequently be used along with whole genome sequencing data of these birds to identify selection targets to underpin future breeding programs.In recent years much progress has been made in identifying selection signatures in the genomes of poultry to improve poultry production. This has been primarily focussed on commercial species used in large farming enterprises in developed nations (Wolc et al. 2016), with huge gains made in growth rate and feed efficiency in the past few decades (Zuidhof et al. 2014). In Africa, 80% of poultry production is in the form of smallholder farms, where chickens are typically raised in free-ranging semi-scavenging conditions (Sonaiya 2008), but there is limited knowledge of the phenotypic characteristics and genetics of these chickens. Phenotypic characterisation and identification of genomic selection targets is necessary for the genetic improvement of chickens adapted to extensive semi-scavenging conditions.In this study we aimed to comprehensively characterise the phenotypes of typical African dual-purpose village chickens, raised in simulated semi-scavenging conditions in Ethiopia, focusing on meat production, immunity and survival.Bird trials, phenotyping and sampling. A total of 2,573 T4451 Sasso birds, a dual-purpose chicken, were raised in five batches of approximately 500 birds across the span of a year at the poultry facility of the International Livestock Research Institute in Ethiopia. The birds were raised in outdoor, semi-scavenging conditions (feed mainly from scavenging with some supplementation from day 56 of age, for approximately 8 weeks until they reached an average market weight of approximately 1,500 g (except batch 1 which was raised until 1000 g was achieved). Body weight was recorded weekly. At the beginning of the experiment, blood (from wing vein) and cloacal swabs were collected for genotyping and immune phenotyping, and the sex of the birds was recorded. Across the trial period the health of the birds was monitored, disease episodes (including coccidiosis) were recorded, and the day and cause of death were recorded, when applicable. At the last day of the experiment (day of slaughter), blood, cloacal and buccal samples were collected for additional immune phenotyping. Breast muscle was excised and weighed, and liver, heart, spleen and ileum samples were collected and stored in RNA-later and frozen at -80 °C for future transcriptomic studies.Immune phenotyping. Blood from 2,573 birds from day 56 and 2,097 birds from the day prior to slaughter, was allowed to coagulate overnight at room temperature prior to removal of serum. Serum samples were stored at -20 °C. The cloacal samples from the same birds were retrieved using floxed swabs that were subsequently placed in 500 μl of PBS and stored at -20 °C. Serum anti-NDV titres were analysed using commercial IDEXX NDV ELISA kits (serum dilution 1:100). Cloacal samples were analysed for total IgA levels using direct in house developed sandwich ELISA.Statistical analysis. A mixed model was used to assess the impact of the batch, age and sex on body weight and estimate the proportion of variance attributed to individual birds. A fixed effect model was used to examine the impact of the same effects on the other traits. Model analysis was conducted in ASReml-W 4.2.Data are summarised in Table 1. The data demonstrated that the chickens were phenotypically diverse with extensive variance in body weight, growth rate and breast muscle weight.The key quantitative traits measured all significantly differed by batch and age, likely due to variation in season across the batches (Table 2). In addition, sex differed significantly for weight-related traits, as expected, though had less impact on the NDV antibody and IgA titres. The proportion of phenotypic variance in body weight attributed to the individual bird was 65.3% (±0.8%).Across the five batches, 511 mortalities were recorded for a range of reasons including predation, huddling and disease (primarily coccidiosis infection) (Figure 1), which are common causes of mortality in smallholder African farms. The cause and rate of mortality varied by batch, particularly in terms of predation and diseases.NDV titres showed extensive variance across the samples, indicating a range in immune response to NDV vaccination (Figure 2). This varied both within and between batch, with titres falling across the test period in batches 1-4 but increasing in batch 5. IgA titres likewise showed strong variance across the dataset. Batch 5 also experienced a large outbreak of the parasitic disease coccidiosis, and NDV titres at the beginning of the experiment were found to be significantly associated with coccidiosis mortality (P<0.01).In this study we phenotypically characterised over 2,500 closely monitored chickens raised in simulated semi-scavenging smallholder village conditions in Ethiopia. This includes key production and health traits including body weight, growth rate, carcass breast weight, disease, mortality, and antibody titres. The analysis of these traits, and selection of chickens adapted to smallholder farm conditions in developing and tropical nations has not achieved the same progress as in the developed world.We observed extensive variation in the studied traits; we anticipate a proportion of this will reflect genetic variability which can be used for the identification of selection sites for use in breeding programs. Additionally, the substantial number of mortalities observed in this study due to predation and infection will be key for identifying genetic signatures important for survival. These will be critical for African farms as high mortality has been identified as the greatest constraint to poultry production (Sonaiya 2008).We now aim to genotypically sequence and characterise all of the chickens used in this study. Using the combined phenotypic and genomic data we will identify genes and genomic regions associated with these traits that can be subsequently used as selection targets in breeding programs. In addition, we have identified 48 birds which have the highest and lowest growth and immune trait records, which will be studied using RNA-Seq to further understand the molecular mechanisms underlying these traits. This study will be key for the optimisation of breeding programs and the improvement of poultry in typical smallholder farms in Africa.","tokenCount":"1098"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0344675193.json b/data/part_5/0344675193.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c4f942b853db67b744cd5580b75508b5ed7e3c8f
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a3121c4d66ef91832e1da570d62bda73","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d557a5d5-8d4f-4762-9453-538759985ecc/retrieve","id":"920832591"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2b7c2cb0-7806-4920-a072-d2f3d0a554db","pagecount":"1","content":"o Dairying is an integral part of small--holder farming systems and important source of income for small and marginal farmers o Dairy produc6vity and per capita milk availability is very low in Bihar compared to country's average o High cost of commercial feed, low quality, poor knowledge and weak support hinders the produc6vity of dairy animal's o To improve the dairy animal's produc6vity, ILRI has formulated balanced concentrate feed based on locally available ingredient o Objec6ve of this study is to examine the impact of ILRI feed on dairy animal's produc6vity o The new balanced concentrate feed was introduced through a combina6on of par6cipatory trainings on nutri6on and feeding, demonstra6ons of feed prepara6on and farm--based dairy animal's feedingo The trials has done on 400 crossbred dairy cable kept among 400 farmers o Data has been collected for 3 days under control and 6 days for experimentMaterials and methods","tokenCount":"148"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/0388226738.json b/data/part_5/0388226738.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..17639976036ccd7f7ebfd0825e59c2f0a784030a
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+++ b/data/part_5/0388226738.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d5dc2aa8e3f85ab91b2ba3e3d92199a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.livestockdialogue.org/fileadmin/templates/res_livestock/docs/2019_Sept_Kansas/2_Livelihoods_and_Economic_Growth_-_Online_consultation.pdf","id":"1472300991"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85d34473-a351-454e-9caf-d3ae208d8388","pagecount":"23","content":"ü Recognize and support sustainable livestock's contribution to multiple development ambitions (and avoid unintended consequences) ü Harness diversity and growth for a sustainable livestock sector ü Support sustainable livestock enterprises through financing, business and trade innovations ü Invest and use the latest technologies at a faster pace 'innovation expedited' ü Undertake awareness and engagement actions to ensure livestock roles in livelihoods and economic growth are included in livestock-specific and wider development policies/agendasThis paper explores the opportunities for innovations in the livestock sector to contribute to sustainable livelihoods and economic growth. 'Livelihoods and economic growth' are broad areas covering the sector's multiple roles in poverty alleviation and contributions to national economic growth, notably for women and the younger generation. The paper considers the transformation of the sector as it adapts to meet the rapidly growing demand for milk, meat and eggs (especially in LMICs) and how there can be a sustainable transition for the billion or so people across the world whose livelihoods depend on livestock in one way or another.The livestock sector is highly heterogeneous within and across regions around the world. High degrees of heterogeneity are observed in the types of livestock, the production systems used, as well as in the structure of the various input-output value chains. For their part, production systems vary greatly because they need to be adapted to available resources, the cost of natural resources and resource constraints including markets.In capital-intensive systems (where natural resource costs are high), livestock are raised and kept at high stocking densities and fed high levels of concentrates to maximize production outputs. Poultry and swine are often produced under vertically integrated systems where a single large company controls all aspects all production stages, from breeding to production occasionally with the involvement of external growers for processing and retailing. Cattle and other ruminants are raised in a variety of extensive and labour-intensive systems across the world, often with lower resource costs. In labour-intensive systems there are, literally, hundreds of millions of small-and mediumscale production enterprises with varying degrees of management, inputs and market engagement. Much of the heterogeneity in these systems stems from variations in agro-climatic conditions, access to markets and services as well as socio-cultural norms, ranging from backyard chicken systems using minimal inputs to dairy systems that are well integrated into value chains.Fostering sustainable livelihood and economic growth opportunities for such a diverse sector requires a careful appreciation of the strategic objectives of all its varied actors at the production level, upstream (genetics, feed, health services suppliers, etc.), and downstream (aggregators, transporters, processors, distributors, retailers, etc.). It is also important to understand the public policy and institutional environments that confront the different actors across systems, regions and countries. Consumers, competitors and market conditions defined and framed by cultural and economic conditions all influence the sustainability of livestock sector contributions to the livelihood and economic growth of its stakeholders across the world. Understanding the production, distribution and marketing environment in which the sector operates in the different regions must precede the development of innovative solutions that can secure sustainable livelihoods for the various stakeholders in the different segments of the sector while continuing to contribute to their national or regional economies.Livelihoods; poverty and income growth Historically, increasing incomes have correlated with increasing demand for meat, eggs, dairy and other livestock products. Recent reports suggest that demand is projected to increase by 70% by 2050 (FAO, 2019a).Globally, it is estimated that over a billion people are involved in livestock -from input supply production, processing to sales, and marketing; and at least half of these totally depend on the sector, including some of the world's poorest peoples (Robinson et al., 2011). More specifically, the numbers of people engaged directly in livestock production tend to be smaller in capital-intensive than in labour-intensive or extensive systems. Capital-labour substitution is evident in the livestock sector globally. In many HICs, where labour wages tend to be higher than capital costs given their relative productivity in the livestock sector, production tends to be capital intensive, resulting in a lower proportion of people depending on the sector for their livelihoods. Contrarily, in most LMICs, a larger proportion of people tend to be dependent on the livestock sector for their livelihoods because the relative cost of capital makes labour-intensive systems competitive. For example, the UK, where just 0.5% of the population (19% of whom are women) are employed in the livestock production industry (Warwick University, 2010), contrasts sharply with Kenya where, at farm level, more than 800,000 people are directly employed in dairy production, representing about a third of the total agricultural labour force. Fifty thousand more people are involved in milk trading and processing, stressing the important role dairy production has in creating employment across many segments of society (Staal et al., 2008). It is noteworthy that these figures are now more than 10 years old and are likely to underestimate the weight of the sector in the Kenyan economy; the Kenya Dairy Board currently estimates about 3 million jobs in dairy alone (smallholder farmers plus other employment: http://www.kdb.go.ke/). Across the EU, around 4 million people are employed on livestock farms, with 30 million employed (about 12% of the adult workforce) across the entire livestock sector, largely in processing (The Animal Task Force, 2017a). In the US livestock sector production is estimated to support 0.4% of the US population (US Bureau of Labour Statistics, 2018).Typically, in HICs, the sector employs people and pays them wages, and they make their living from these wages. In many LMICs beyond those who have salaried jobs, livestock plays multiple roles in the socio-economic realities of households: store of wealth; source of income; insurance and safety net; symbol of social status; and numerous others depending on culture and situation. Especially in LMICs and labour-intensive systems, sales of milk, meat and eggs are an essential source of regular cash income (FAO, 2009) and livestock are an asset that allows households to manage risks and prevent total financial disaster when crops fail or other shocks hit (Moll, 2005;Wade, 2013). For several hundred million pastoralists in marginal areas (World Bank, 2014;FAO,2019b), livestock are their only asset and the only means of using the more than two-thirds of the world's agricultural land that is classified as permanent pastures to produce food. These systems have evolved over centuries to cope with spatial and temporal climate variability. Herds are intentionally managed to withstand drought (McPeak 2005;McPeak et al 2012) and animals sold to provide cash for school fees or to buy grains. From the drylands of Africa, to the extensive drylands of Asia, the north of Scandinavia, dry and mountainous areas of Europe and the Americas, animals in extensive systems are essential for livelihoods and for ecosystem stewardship.Regardless of where they are produced, livestock have strong cultural roles: as gifts and dowries in social networks and marriage; as dishes on special occasions, such as festivals and holidays; and in religious rituals and celebrations. In some communities, livestock are important for sporting events and entertainment, from rodeos in north America, to the Naadam in Mongolia.Furthermore, livestock provide numerous benefits, ranging from manure for fertilizer, and fuel for cooking and heating, and energy for ploughing and transportation of humans and goods, many of which support crop farming, thereby improving overall farm productivity. In the EU, manure accounted for 38% of the nitrogen input in 2014 (European Commission, 2018) and is likely to be more in countries where inorganic fertilizers are less available. In Kenya, non-monetary benefits (including store of wealth and prestige) amount to almost 20% of the animals' total value across different livestock systems (Ouma et al., 2003). In some cases, livestock play important roles in wealth creation and management, asset building or access to cash where classical banking is not yet fully functioning.Opportunities: Rising demand for animal-source foods means there will be new and growing income generating opportunities to be grasped especially in labour-intensive systems. Capital-intensive systems may also be part of addressing such demand, notably through trade arrangements. In extensive systems, new income streams such as payment for good stewardship of animals and the natural resources on which they depend (for example Pappagallo, 2018) along with risk mitigation strategies such as insurance (Index Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI); Jensen et al., 2017) can improve resilience if appropriate combinations of public and private partnerships and well-designed products can be achieved. Considerable interest in index-based livestock insurance products has led to a new regional initiative being explored by governments and investors in the Horn of Africa (See: http://livestockinsurance-igad-conference.org/index.php) .Especially in LMICs there are, therefore, real opportunities to utilize livestock as a means to escape poverty (Dorward et al., 2009;Kristjanson et al. 2004), and thus important roles for international and national financing institutions.Across the world, richer consumers are showing a preference for branded livestock products that are produced in more sustainable ways (with a lower environmental footprint) using less anti-microbials and enhanced animal welfare standards (Grandin, 2014). These issues are creating opportunities for small and large producers alike.Risks: With around one billion people across the world depending on livestock for their livelihoods, rapid changes in the sector to respond to rising demand is a potential threat, if deliberate actions and policies that support and enable effective participation by all actors are not considered. This applies especially to millions of small-scale producers and other livestock-related players who could fail to benefit from the emerging opportunities and may even lose their existing livelihoods as other larger-scale players come to dominate the sector. Progress in some parts of the world is likely to be further hampered by lack of investment in the sector, inadequate credit, finance and land tenure modalities. Investment in the sector could also be impacted by increasing anti-livestock sentiments which could also impact negatively on many individuals whose livelihoods relate to livestock.Currently, especially in the U.S. and Europe, there is considerable discourse about the desirability of reducing per capita consumption of livestock products. One manifestation of this is the emergence and rapidly increasing demand for plant proteins processed in ways to closely mimic meat and animal products. The recent very successful initial public offering of Beyond Meat, a company shifting from animal to plant-based protein, is just one example of this trend that is bound to accelerate investments in research supporting this line of products. Addressing sustainable livelihoods demands a consideration of innovations in products and processes that could adversely affect livestock producers and their supply chains; the most vulnerable are likely to be those in low income countries with smaller degrees of maneuverability. It is prudent, therefore, to explore the motivators of change in consumer protein preferences that are defining demand in high income countries and develop solutions to ameliorate the impact of any such shifts in low income countries, alongside the essential focus on sustainability domains.Growth rate estimates reported by the World Bank (World Bank, 2019) show that high-income countries' livestock production grew at 0.8% per annum between 1990 and 2014, compared to 2.9% for low income countries, 3.3% for lower middle-income countries and 3.6% for upper middleincome countries. However, average annual per capita meat consumption in high-income countries is over 60kg higher than low-income countries (OECD, 2019). Predictions indicate that demand for meat, milk and eggs will continue to rise in LMICs in the coming decades driven partly by population (especially in Africa) and partly by incomes rising (Asia, Latin America) (World Economic Forum, 2019). This makes it crucial to explore innovations that could enhance the sustainability of livelihoods of people making their living from livestock production and processing especially in LMICs where the growth in demand is greatest.Globally, the livestock sector contributes an average of 40% of agricultural GDP (Salmon, 2018). In LMICs there is a wide variation, from 15-80% and growing as rising demand for meat, milk and eggs is addressed. Extensive systems are especially important contributors to GDP in some of the poorer countries (Kratli et al., 2013) and across the EU the livestock sector contributes Euro 168 billion annually, 45% of the total agricultural activity (The Animal Task Force, 2017a). For many nations, data on livestock is not disaggregated from a wider 'agriculture' metric, making it difficult to assess the sector's contributions (Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2014a). This lack of data is further compounded when livestock's multiple roles beyond direct production are overlooked (eg Behnke, 2010;Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2014b). In the US, agriculture contributes about 5.7% to the country's GDP. Livestock accounts for about 50% of US agriculture and it is, thus, estimated that the livestock sector's contribution to the nation's GDP is about 2.8%. As economies transition and livestock systems evolve from labour-to capital-intensive, the share of agriculture as a proportion of total GDP tends to fall, but the proportion of livestock in agricultural GDP rises (Salmon, 2018).Opportunities: Taking advantage of the potential for the livestock sector to contribute to GDP requires deliberate, prioritized and targeted actions. Not all livestock enterprises or systems have the potential to grow and make significant national contributions in every situation. So, while investing in and supporting sustainable growth in the capital-intensive cattle industry in the US, the labour-intensive dairy sector in Kenya and India and extensive cashmere in Mongolia makes economic sense; others will be less economically profitable and environmentally sustainable. For example, in labour-intensive systems, cost-benefit ratios look very different once labour costs increase, for example, when family labour is replaced with paid employees -even though some of them are currently profitable (Lapar et al., 2012).Risks: Investing and supporting livestock sector growth to respond to demand without an appropriate policy environment could result in negative externalities, particularly those related to environment and health. Responding to growth also requires a commensurate increase in production efficiency (not just more animals) and that the disease constraints to production and sustainability are mitigated.In much of the world, livestock, especially small-stock, are almost the only assets women can own and benefit from (Kristjanson et al., 2014). In labour-intensive systems, some estimates indicate that two-thirds of the livestock are raised by women (Thornton et al., 2002) who are also often responsible for processing commodities, especially dairy (Njuki and Sanginga, 2013). In extensive systems, women also tend to have specific roles which often relate to their proximity to the homestead, such as looking after young or sick animals and processing and selling milk or manure (Kristjanson et al., 2014). Despite such key roles, targeted gender-specific information, technologies and support to improve all aspects of the livestock enterprise is generally lacking. In capitalintensive systems, female entrepreneurs are becoming increasingly prominent (see for example, Jamali, 2009;Vossenberg, 2013;Chozick, 2019). Across all systems and regions of the world, to varying degrees, women have particular roles in relation to household nutrition, particularly for young children both through choices related to the provision of nutritious animal-source foods and (mainly in extensive and labour-intensive systems) using proceeds from livestock sales to buy nutritious foods. This is a key intersection with the domain on food and nutrition security discussed below.For land-and labour-intensive systems women and youth face challenges in terms of access to resources, especially land and finance. Youth and women are both strongly affected by issues around migration (CGIAR Research Program on Livestock, 2019). Over 60% of Africa's more than 1.2 billion people are below the age of 35 and will need more than 315 million new jobs by 2035 (FAO, 2013). At the same time, there are growing concerns that across the world agriculture, including livestock, is becoming increasingly reliant on an aging population as the younger generation exit a sector often perceived to lack opportunities for an exciting and prosperous future. In many HICs young people are already disconnected from agriculture and there are specific initiatives such as FFA and 4-H which through education and practical training programs aim to reinvigorate engagement of young people in the sector.Opportunities: Animal agriculture has a unique role in women's empowerment. Livestock are assets many women in LMICs are already familiar with and providing opportunities to improve livestock productivity enables women to move up the 'livestock and livelihood ladder' (gradually adopting higher-value and more productive species or breeds) thereby increasing the productivity of the entire system (Galiè et al., 2015) and enhancing household nutrition (Price et al., 2017). There are opportunities for young people as the newest IT and other transformative technologies will play important roles in livestock sector transformation: increasing addressing productivity and efficiency, addressing environmental challenges or applications that provide innovative solutions for food safety and traceability. Business opportunities in input and service provision could be very lucrative for the livestock sector, already valued globally at over USD 1 trillion (FAOSTAT, 2019). In HICs, niche markets may present limited new opportunities for young people include engaging in landscape restoration grazing and urban shepherding, or 'ethical' dairying (Sustainable Food Trust, n.d.).Risks: Women's access to land, finance, information and markets is very uneven, particularly in extensive and labour-intensive systems. There are also instances where, as labour-intensive systems transition to be more capital-intensive systems, and livestock activities become more lucrative or formalized, women's roles and access to income benefits can become marginalized (Galiè et al., 2019). In some extensive and labour-intensive systems, child labour can be an issue that needs to be tackled (Isenberg et al., n.d.).Particularly in LMICs in Africa and Asia, labour-intensive, mixed small and medium scale croplivestock farms of less than 20 ha currently provide around 70% of both livestock and cereal commodities (Herrero et al., 2017). Livestock are integral to such production enterprises, which support the livelihoods of at least half a billion people (Robinson et al., 2011). For some enterprises, for example dairy in Kenya and India, such farms have proved to be competitive with capitalintensive production largely because of access to family labour (especially women) and strong synergies between crop and livestock production. Such labour dynamics are likely to change as economies develop and there are opportunities in other sectors. For other commodities, particularly monogastrics, economies of scale mean that larger production units sometimes evolve rapidly alongside or replacing smaller enterprises. In HICs, small and medium crop-livestock farms provide a smaller percentage of total livestock derived food, accounting for 30% in Europe and 10% or less in the Americas (World Economic Forum, 2019). Small scale, integrated farms are also increasingly promoted in HICs as environmentally friendly, addressing 'niche' markets (see below) and providing environmental services like landscape management and conservation of specialty breeds. The central questions to be addressed are what role and at what scale do such farms have in supplying livestock-derived foods in the future, and doing so in ways that are environmentally sound, economically sustainable, healthy for people and the planet. For those in LMICs, this demands transformation, especially in terms of production efficiencies and food safety issues, as well as efficient connections to input and output markets, while not losing some of their benefits, such as the balanced integration of crop and livestock production enterprises.Opportunities: Given the multiple roles of livestock in livelihoods and food provision, especially in LMICs, the transition from many millions of small and medium scale livestock production systems to future livestock agri-food systems presents multiple opportunities -both meeting demand and addressing development -to be grasped. In many instances, with the right policy and institutional context, many of today's smallholders could transition to out of the sector, using their present livestock enterprises as a stepping stone to make a positive sector exit (Dorward et al., 2009). For those that remain, transformation of production efficiencies, food safety, environmental footprint and market engagement will be among the ingredients for them to become medium and larger scale, more capital-intensive livestock agri-food systems in future. Incorporation of the newest science solutions and IT approaches will be important elements of such transformation.For LMICs, where rapidly rising livestock demand presents opportunities to be part of sector transformation, there are risks that today's smallholder farmers in extensive and labour-intensive systems could be excluded as larger scale enterprises step in to respond to the market. For many, their exit from livestock could end up as a tumble into disaster, and the multiple development benefits of small-scale integrated farming could get lost as fast growth and economic opportunities are grasped. In HICs, anti-livestock sentiments or trade barriers with areas of greatest demand could threaten future livelihoods.Note: Our examples of innovations are drawn from across the World, with some notable exceptions: Latin America, China, middle-east and parts of Asia are not represented, and while many issues will be common, examples from these regions could further enrich the scope of the cases presented.We provide here examples of innovations in extensive systems that respond to opportunities and mitigate risks by providing incentives for land and ecosystem management, new income streams from niche products or payment for ecosystem services and addressing the risk of asset losses.Innovations for land and ecosystem management In many traditional pastoralist areas, over recent years disputes over land use rights have escalated as smallholder crop farmers and large-scale commercial farming investors have increasingly encroached into rangeland areas that have for hundreds of years served as important seasonal grazing land for pastoralists. The rising tensions this causes often flares up into violence: in just one district of Tanzania 34 lives were lost in a two-year period and the insecurity also has serious negative impacts on productivity and food security. To address these problems government and non-governmental partners have come together to implement joint village land use planning, a participatory process that aims to secure shared resources such as grazing and water; crucially this is done across village boundaries. Clusters of villages in the district have been facilitated to develop village land use plans, a joint village land use plan, a joint village land use agreement and a joint livestock keepers' association. This has led to almost 150,000 hectares of land being covered by agreements that cover secure grazing rights and the fair use of other shared resources. It is anticipated that this will help ensure sustainable use of rangelands and reduce conflicts between pastoralists and farmers. The lessons from this Sustainable Rangeland Management Project 1 , have been shared with other African governments and the joint village land use plan approach has now been integrated into the Tanzania government's National Land Use Framework 2013-2033 (Kasyoka 2018(Kasyoka , 2019a).Among the innovations for ecosystem management are the conservancies particularly in the east African rangelands that provide opportunities for diversification by combining livestock raising, conservation and tourism (Bedelian and Ogutu, 2017). Making conservancies work is a delicate balance between the livestock enterprise and new income streams from tourism that may help reduce risk from single livestock enterprises, because conservancy payments provide reliable, yearround income. On the other hand, conservancies sometimes lead to reduced livestock access to extensive grazing resources while the conserved 'grass banks' retain good quality forage for the dry season. Income from conservancy payments may also at times be inequitable, for women or for land owners.Innovations for new income streams from niche products or payment for ecosystem services Over the past few decades, because of changing regulations and less reliance on draught power, traditional pastoral and nomadic camel keepers in Rajasthan, India have found it increasingly difficult to support themselves through camel herding. The state camel herd decreased from around one million in the mid-1990s to fewer than 200,000 today. Responding to the loss of camels and the important ecological and cultural roles they fulfilled, a local welfare organization for livestock keepers' organization, Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan (LPPS) was established. In early 2019 a microdairy enterprise, focused exclusively on camel milk was opened. The milk is processed into a wide range of products, from frozen pasteurized milk to cream cheese, now being promoted to supermarkets and restaurants as healthy and nutritious foods. The camel keepers have quickly adapted to selling their milk to the extent that the potential supply of milk now exceeds the capacity of the micro-dairy, so plans are in place for expansion (Atlas Obscura, 2019).A growing proportion of more affluent consumers across the globe are becoming increasingly concerned about where their food comes from, how it is produced and the impact this has on communities, livestock and the environment: many are willing to pay a premium for food, especially animal-source foods, that are produced in ways that are demonstrably more economically, socially and environmentally sustainable and with higher animal welfare standards. This has created an opportunity for livestock producers to market their produce in a way that emphasizes its provenance, often with third-party certification. Marketing innovations based on geographical area of origin, breed or production system have emerged, such as Criollo goat meat produced under a protected designation of origin seal by 1,500 traditional transhumant goat herding 'crianceros' families in the Argentinean Andes (Raggi et al., 2010;Krishna et al., 2010).A similar innovation is taking off in South Africa, Meat Naturally combines ecological and economic empowerment, market engagement and benefits for environmental actions and the training to support these together with facilitating connections of all actors in the meat sector. Biocultural Community Protocols (BCPs) are a tool that is formally recognized by the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-Sharing under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) http://www.community-protocols.org/. BCPs, which are legally binding on all countries that are signatories to the CBD, put on record the roles of pastoral and other communities in managing biological diversity and its related contributions to the entire ecosystem. This can include for example community animal breeds, traditional knowledge of the animals and a lifestyle that maintains the environment. BCPs therefore represent a new approach to supporting pastoralists' rights and at times challenge counter-productive perceptions and policies. BCPs have been developed by at least ten pastoralist communities across India, Pakistan and Kenya; others are under development in Iran, Latin America, and for the Fulani pastoralists in West Africa (Köhler-Rollefson, 2016;Köhler-Rollefson et al., 2012).Innovation to reduce the risk of asset loss One of the impacts of climate change already affecting the lives of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid areas is the increasing frequency with which drought occurs. Droughts are a major threat to pastoralists' flocks and herds and can lead to large-scale losses as animals die due to lack of grazing and water. Losing animals which are the only asset for many such communities almost guarantees a descent into poverty and may precipitate drought-related emergencies such as witnessed in the Horn of Africa (IFRC, 2011). Index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) offers an innovative solution to this problem. In return for a small annual premium, pastoralists can insure their animals against the risk of drought. IBLI uses satellite imagery to measure the impact of drought on rangeland vegetation: once a threshold is reached, pastoralists are automatically compensated with cash that they can use to buy food or feed, water and medicine to help keep their animals alive. Such insurance payments are triggered earlier than traditional aid-based responses. Initial short-term and causal studies have demonstrated that IBLI adoption increases productive livestock investments and household income, reduces distress animal sales, improves resilience and food security (Chantarat et al., 2017;Cissé and Barrett, 2018;Janzen and Carter, 2013;Jensen et al., 2017;Matsuda et al., 2019. So far around 18,000 pastoralists in Kenya have taken out IBLI policies, which are sold by local insurance companies and partially subsidized by the government but that is only a small fraction of the millions of Kenyans who depend on livestock for their livelihoods. Efforts, such as the use of trusted local radio stations, are therefore underway to increase awareness of the IBLI product and overcome hinderances to uptake (Thompson Reuters Foundation, 2019). With increasing climate change and variability, more exploration of insurance solutions is required, evidenced for example by recent engagement of ministers, public and private sector national and regional agencies to address this challenge in the Horn of Africa (see: http://livestockinsurance-igadconference.org/index.php).Our examples of innovations impacting on sustainable livelihoods and economic growth for labourintensive systems describe new IT applications attractive to youth, a tool that enables better assessment and targeting of solutions to empower women, an approach that enables prioritized investments to support sector transition and contribution to national economies and ways of engaging actors to promote sustainable transformation of livestock value chains.All around the world it is proving to be increasingly difficult to attract young people to follow farming and related activities as attractive career options. Farmers in both LMICs and HICs have an average age of about 60, even though the population of the former is predominantly under 24 years old (FAO, 2014). The sector is widely regarded by young people to be poorly paid and associated with physically hard, dirty and monotonous work. To make the sector more financially attractive and somehow compensate this negative impression, efforts are being made to promote farming as a rewarding, interesting and important career choice. One way of doing this is to tap into young people's passion for technology as an approach to making farming more efficient and profitable. An example of this in the livestock sector is the use of digital platforms to facilitate herd performance recording and farmer education in Kenya under the auspices of the African Dairy Genetic Gains (ADGG) project. This entails establishing National Dairy Performance Recording Centers (DPRCs) for herd and cow data collection, synthesis and genetic evaluation linked to timely farmer-feedback to enable dairy farmers to make the necessary adjustments to increase productivity and profitability. So far, more than 50,000 farmers in Ethiopia and Kenya are benefitting from over 6 million digital education messages via mobile phones and based on performance recording of their individual cows and herds. This is enabling them to make better informed decisions. Ultimately, the goal is to close the milk yield gap between what is currently being achieved by the majority of small-scale dairy farmers, what a small minority of farmers achieve and the yield potential of the animals (Okeyo et al., 2017). This work partners with a broader innovation in Kenya, iCow which provides information on production and connects farmers to key players in their agricultural ecosystem.Innovation that enables better assessment and targeting of solutions to empower women Empowerment of women in the livestock sector is fundamental to achieving gender equality as well as essential for increased productivity and enhanced household health and nutrition. Livestock can also contribute to empowering women. Many different strategies are being implemented to empower women with regard to livestock, but it is difficult to assess their relative impact or select the best options to scale up, without a suitable means to measure women's empowerment. The Womens Empowerment in Livestock (WELI; Galiè et al., 2019) is a newly developed tool to address this issue. WELI facilitates meaningful assessments of the effectiveness of project interventions to enhance empowerment of women as related to livestock. The WELI includes six dimensions of empowerment: decisions about agricultural production; decisions related to nutrition; access to and control over resources; control and use of income; access to and control of opportunities; and workload and control over own time. It also moves beyond the default approach of using the head of household as the gender proxy.Innovation to enable policy makers and private sector to prioritise investments and balance tradeoffs to increase sustainable livestock's contribution to national economies As stated above, the first difficulty faced by the livestock sector both globally and nationally is the recognition that the sector offers good opportunities to simultaneously contribute to economic growth and improve livelihoods. Once this hurdle is passed, national stakeholders face another challenge: how to prioritise investments in the livestock sector. One innovation applied in the last five years is the Livestock Master Plans (LMPs), that offers a roadmap on the type and level of investments needed to reach an agreed level of livestock impact indicators. Working with various stakeholders and actors, from both public and private sector spheres, the process starts by identifying the long-term objectives of the livestock sector, such as income growth, food and nutrition security, gender and social equity as was recently the case of the state of Bihar India (Shapiro et al., 2018). The 15-year plan sets out the investments that would be required to achieve these objectives, as well as a 5-year, more precise, investment plan. Using this approach, LMPs are now available for Ethiopia (Shapiro et al., 2015), Tanzania, Rwanda and the State of Bihar in India and processes are under way for several other countries in Africa and Asia. While it is too early to assess the outcomes of these plans, qualitative evidence from Ethiopia where the process was followed first indicate that it has positively influenced private sector (in the poultry industry) and public investment (World Bank). The LMP processes together with the Livestock Sector Investment Policy Toolkit (LSIPT) which is the primary analysis model together with associated models are being further developed and implemented by a consortium of partners including CIRAD, ILRI, FAO and the World Bank.Innovation to strengthen engagement of all value chain actors In many LMICs and for various products, the coordination among livestock actors has been weak, due to the long distances between producers and end users, along with the geographic dispersion of producers. Due to lack of, or poor, market pull, there are limited incentives for producers to invest more in livestock production, meaning they stay at a low input-low output level, even though livestock products are highly valued and in increasing demand. Due to the low level of productivity, providers of inputs and services (e.g. feed, animal health and breeding services) do not have markets for their products, exacerbating the low level of production and productivity. This inter-dependency among actors also means that solutions must be found through multi-stakeholder engagement and discussions (also called innovation platforms). Such engagement mechanisms have been operational for dairy in Tanzania and Kenya and the pig sector in Uganda. Research has shown that multi stakeholder platforms work best in a 'nested' system, whereby results of discussions at lower levels, e.g. at district level, are fed into national level discussions where policy changes and wider actions can be influenced (Cadilhon et al., 2016;Kilelu et al., 2017). While such platforms for dairy have shown improvements in household income because of better linkages to processors, there are still opportunities to improve the farm level productivity (Rao et al., 2016). In Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda a program led by Heifer International based on dairy hubs (East Africa Dairy Development), provided training and strengthening of business acumen. The initiative trained 179,000 farming families, established 37 milk collection hubs and formed 68 farmer business associations over its first five-year period. Although the model may not have been as successful as initially anticipated, the hubs are well established and farmers are using them to access inputs and sell their milk (Mutindi et al., 2015;Omondi et al., 2017).Innovations in capital-intensive systems include examples that respond to consumer concerns, identify new niche product opportunities and mitigate environmental hazards. We also highlight a recent EU initiative on sustainable livestock.Innovations responding to consumer concerns over welfare and AMR Many livestock enterprises are responding to changing consumer preferences such as welfare sensibilities. However, the rapid adoption of these responses suggests that any premiums associated with them will dissipate rapidly and in their stead penalties for non-compliance will emerge. Reducing the administration of sub-therapeutic antibiotics, hormones and/or steroids leads to lower growth rates which are being addressed through innovation in feed and the administration of natural feed additives. In the USA, for example, companies, such as Purina and ADM, are responding with products that support gut integrity and improve feed intake in swine and beef animals (Burgoon, n.d.;ADM Animal Nutrition, 2018). Similarly, Tyson Foods, Perdue Farms, Foster Farms and some of the major poultry producers have eliminated the use of sub-therapeutic antibiotics from their production at a time when poultry farmers in developing countries are discovering the benefits of these technologies. The major feed companies are exploring custom blends that focus on decreased dependency on medicated feed, improved digestibility and gut health. At the same time there is a shift from treatment of diseases when they occur, for example with antibiotics, to preventing disease through enhanced biosecurity and reliance on new generation vaccines. In high income countries (HICs), emerging opportunities include products produced without the use of sub-therapeutic antibiotics, hormones and steroids: major integrators are voluntarily adopting these policies and using them as a differentiator in the marketplace (Tyson Foods, 2017) and a means of securing premium prices. Early adopters of such innovations are more likely to benefit from these premiums because once these approaches become mainstreamed, the premiums will disappear (Carlson, 2016). In LMICs, many enterprises are already close to meeting such standards, largely because they cannot afford or access the inputs, but production levels, market organization, sanitary regulation (e.g. poultry in Ghana (Amanor-Boadu et al., 2016)) and other trade barriers hamper their participation in potentially lucrative opportunities, including export to high value markets.Innovations in niche products and markets Producers are also exploring niche production and marketing. For example, with increasing consumers preference for meat products with identity preservation and traceability, cattle and swine producers have adopted (by choice in some countries, legislation in others) ear tags and chip technology to provide consumers with the traceability they demand. However, as it is with every profitable niche activity, it goes mainstream. In the US organizations such as Walmart and IBM have partnered to bring the rapidly developing area of blockchain technologies to manage food safety (as an add-on to the Food Safety Modernization Act requirements) for Walmart's upstream suppliers provide these consumers with what they desire (Sander et al., 2018;Yiannas, 2018). Other companies are bound to join, and the increasing participation will bring down cost and make these technologies more mainstream. The early adopters of these technologies perceive them as providing them with first-movers' advantages.Uruguay is considered among the leaders in traceability for its meat sector, and as a result earns higher premiums than other major exporters and reaches over 100 markets. Sales in 2012 reached USD1.4 billion (IICA, 2019).Innovations to mitigate environmental hazards Innovations to transform manure management into an opportunity are becoming a reality. In the US a recent study of a feeder-to-finish almost 9,000 head swine operation with installed anaerobic digesters that generate biogas for generation of electricity through a microturbine showed economic promise (Adair et al., 2016). As the search for renewable energy becomes intense and the cost of installing microturbine power generators fall, concentrated animal feeding operations will not only have an opportunity to solve their manure problem but to simultaneously transform it into value that contributes to a reduction in greenhouse gases.A roadmap for a sustainable EU livestock sector An example of a comprehensive initiative for sustainable livestock in the EU resulted from the EU40, a network of young Members of the European Parliament bringing together livestock industry stakeholders to develop a roadmap for a sustainable EU livestock sector (The Animal Task Force, 2017b). The aim was to help the industry to become more environmentally sound, socially responsible and economically viable. The roadmap focuses on innovation, technology and sciencebased solutions. The overall goal is to enable the conditions towards a strong sustainable EU livestock sector, and to maximize its contribution to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.Sustainable improvements that benefit livelihoods and economic growth can have many co-benefits with other domains, as well as presenting trade-offs that the sector must be cognizant of and address. Here we highlight some of the key intersections in this regard, many of which relate to challenges that may arise if the sector growth is not accompanied by suitable enabling environments to manage emerging hazards and support the growing opportunities.Livelihood and economic dimensions of sustainability are closely intertwined with food and nutritional security, not least because of the relationship between income and decisions on food and nutrition that every household makes. The essential roles of women in livestock raising, commodity processing and trading along with their roles in household food choices mean that innovations to improve engagement and empowerment of women are can be supported to have co-benefits with overall health and nutrition outcomes. Similarly, income from jobs in the livestock sector or from selling livestock products can be used to buy nutritious foods. Alongside, it is essential to mitigate any reduction in the attention women can give to household nutrition because of increased production pressure (Njuki et al., 2015).Approaches that provide nutritional guidance for livestock-derived foods (Kimani, 2019), helping promote balanced diets that include milk, meat and eggs are important -but look very different, worldwide (WHO, 2018;Willett et al., 2019). Perhaps this is one of the areas where the contrasts and trade-offs across a global livestock sector are most often overlooked -from those for whom a reduction in consumption of animal-source foods would benefit their health and the planet, to those for whom an increase in consumption of animal-source foods would provide significant nutritional benefit as well as immense livelihood pay-offs. Importantly, in extensive and labour-intensive systems in LMICs, there are a range of issues to tackle to ensure that these nutrient-rich foods are accessible, available and affordable for all the population. Food-borne diseases, including those transmitted by animal-source foods, are a major worldwide human health issue (Jaffee et al., 2019). When the livestock sector grows in labour-intensive systems there is a potential for new risks to emerge, or existing ones to be exacerbated if appropriate risk management approaches are not in place. Women in farm households, who are often closely associated with processing animal products, may be more exposed to food borne diseases and at the same time have a key role in preventing such.With animal health and welfare In LMICs, responding to growth opportunities, if not well managed with good health, hygiene and husbandry guidelines, could result in increased risks from zoonoses. This may especially be the case for women who are often closely associated with raising and caring for animals, ensuring their welfare in all dimensions -which at the same time places increased labour demands on women. This of course, equally presents opportunities to support a transition that mitigates these challenges, including for example opportunities for women as service provider of animal health.There are new opportunities in the animal health sector for applications of the latest technologies, providing exciting opportunities for young people -use of blockchain for traceability or mobile apps to monitor, gather and advise on diseases for example. Such innovations may also come along with new challenges, including for example the legal frameworks that identify who along the 'chain' bears the liability.Animal welfare is paramount in all production systems as transition occurs to more sustainable enterprises that also meet demand. Excellent welfare is part of a triple or quadruple win because it reinforces investments in productivity and thus incomes. Deliberate actions are required to ensure that all systems transition animal welfare issues are not overlooked and are integral to every livestock production enterprise.Mainly in HICs, issues of animal welfare are raised to make the case for reducing livestock consumption and production. Welfare issues increasingly influence consumer choices and thus potentially aggregate demand for livestock-derived foods and the related livelihood opportunities. This issue is a good example of messages about very real issues that predominate in capital-intensive systems potentially impacting negatively on extensive and labour-intensive systems development and benefits, where the issue is very different. In HICs, there are livestock keepers and farmers who are specifically addressing this issue and developing more animal-friendly models, such as free-range farming enterprises. It is important to note that these developments are generally in response to market opportunities and will continue only to the point where the marginal benefit from their implementation is not lower than the marginal cost.Whether zoonoses or food-borne diseases, mitigating hazards will always need to be considered in relation to potential economic trade-offs which may look quite different at individual household level than they do at national levels and beyond. Information and incentives along with regulations will all need to be harmonized to ensure positive outcomes in all dimensions. Similarly, the topical issue of AMR presents potential synergies and trade-offs with income and livelihood aspects. These include for example, balanced rational use of anti-microbials lowering the cost of production and thus having a positive income result.With climate and natural resource use As described above, for extensive and labour-intensive systems, especially in LMICs, sustainable improvements to livelihoods and economic growth means grasping opportunities to respond to growing market demand for meat, milk and eggs. In doing so, there are potential trade-offs with the natural resource base that need to be managed. One of the key dimensions of participation in growing markets is improved production efficiency -meaning reduced GHG emission per unit of output -a reduction in emission intensity, which is often considered a 'double or triple win'addressing market opportunities, reducing GHG emissions and supporting better livelihoods. Whether this has an impact on total emissions will be influenced by other factors, including incentives for keeping fewer but more efficient and productive animals. Reducing animal numbers is often counter-intuitive from the perspective of millions who currently rely on livestock for multiple livelihood functions. This means that beyond incentives, appropriate social structures that address those functions must be in place. Here the livestock sector intersects with multiple others, from banking, to insurance, to health and education and so on.Capital-intensive systems are among the most efficient in terms of emission intensity, but because of the numbers and volume of production, as well as its concentration and separation from the land base, often record the highest total emissions and other environmental harms. The anti-livestock lobby is often fueled by such statistics; if it succeeds and leads to reduced investment in the livestock sector this will impact livelihoods worldwide. Its noteworthy too that within the livestock sector, we must be careful not to 'point the finger' between LMICs and HICs as to who is causing the most environmental harm. Across all systems there are real opportunities for improved resource use efficiency and better grassland and manure management that make not only for environmental sustainability, but ensure the sector continues to support millions of livelihoods.Across the world, all livestock systems are impacted by climate change, none more so than the extensive systems despite their incredible ability to cope with shocks. Approaches such as livestock insurance (described above) is one of several approaches that can help to mitigate the livelihood devastation that often results from climatic or other shocks. Extensive systems are also important for their roles in supporting ecosystem services such as biodiversity and carbon sequestration, and such aims need to be balanced with their livelihood and gender implications in particular. Schemes that support payments for ecosystem services (and at times related co-benefits) may be explored with regard to supporting both income streams and natural resource management.Access to and management of natural resources, particularly land is very varied and in many LMICs women and young people in particular are disadvantaged. In some cases, women cannot own land, in others they are the prime land managers -often through their livestock enterprises. Supporting women in good natural resource stewardship and decision-making for livestock management could have good environmental and livelihood pay-offs.Our discourse above has highlighted multiple opportunities across several dimensions of livelihoods and economic growth, illustrating the essential roles of livestock in relation to incomes, resilience, economic growth and equity. We have highlighted the diverse and unique roles that the sector can play that are integral to addressing multiple development ambitions. Such unparalleled, but often overlooked potential requires deliberate and targeted policy actions to ensure that livestock's present and future contributions to SDGs are not missed and there are no unintended consequences. Here, we frame policy issues in the context of key messages. With the exception of policies that impact directly on financial, business and trade operations, the majority of policy actions that can impact livelihoods and economic growth are not direct, 'command and control' topics such as legal instruments, sanctions or mandatory standards. Such 'hard laws' however, enacted in relation to other domains (such as food taxes, environmental regulations or public health sanctions) could have significant implications for livelihoods and economic growth, thus stressing need to be integrated into a bigger whole that takes account of all four domains of sustainable livestock (food and nutrition security, livelihoods and economic growth, animal health and welfare and climate and natural resource use) and their interdependencies. A policy environment that supports sustainable livelihoods and economic growth includes supporting the sorts of innovations described above (and many more) and their adaptation at scale to diverse livestock systems, commodities and locations. In many cases this also includes strengthening the capabilities of many actors to access and use innovations. It is one where policies take account of multiple trade-offs and synergies.Opportunities for livestock to contribute to livelihood and economic growth dimensions can be easily overlooked. Aspects such as food production, environmental impacts, health implications and so on may be easier to both measure and monitor. Here we highlight implications related to growth, resilience and equity that to a large extent frame the context for other policy dimensions.Growth: Grow livelihoods and economies New opportunities for stable income streams in the livestock sector as producers and other value chain actors can be supported through actions that engender inclusive, safe, sustainable value chains. They span technologies, business and infrastructure issues, many of which are highlighted below.New income streams such as payments for ecosystem services (PES), niche products and product differentiation all need to be recognized and supported for livestock farmers across the world. Among the best known examples is the silvopastoralism initiative in Colombia: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/07/08/trees-and-cows-offer-path-to-recoveryin-colombia Support and guide new trade opportunities for both commodities and services and be cognizant of trade-offs that may have significant livelihood implications.Resilience: Protect assets Protecting livestock assets includes supporting livestock vaccination campaigns (exemplified by the OIE PPR vaccine bank for Africa targeting six countries in west and central Africa through the Regional Sahel Pastoralism Support Project (PRAPS)) and insuring against risks across the sector. Insurance against risk in the livestock sector varies across production systems and reflects the different risk profiles encountered. Insurance based on risk such as drought or forage index (such as the Kenya Livestock Insurance Programme (Kasyoka, 2019b)), on insuring animals themselves (as in India https://general.futuregenerali.in/rural-insurance/cattle-and-livestock-insurance), government supported programs as in Brazil https://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/rural-insurancein-brazil and the USDA recommendations the cover mainly market and financial risks https://legacy.rma.usda.gov/livestock/. Both public and private sector have essential roles in providing insurance to strengthen the resilience profiles of the many whose livelihoods depend on livestock. Such roles are as varied as the insurance products themselves and may range from public sector support for mobile phone infrastructure that allows sales and payouts to function in remote areas, through to national regulations that ensure a fair market price. Private sector insurers may need to tailor their products for the clientele, such as the Takaful insurance product in east Africa which is Sharia-compliant.Other examples include providing incentives for resilience-building environmental stewardship (such as payments for ecosystem services, and their co-benefits) accompanied by support for wider infrastructure such as financial and mobile services which may be a prerequisite for such incentives to function effectively.Equity: Broaden the benefits Be deliberate about approaches that are cognizant of the need to invest in women and youth to enable their effective participation in and contributions to the livestock sector. These may span policies that ensure land (tenure and titles), financing (credit, insurance) and information access are equitable for men, women, young and old, large and small enterprises.To accomplish these multiple development dimensions, four areas for action are highlighted below.Prioritize, targeted, smart investment: For many systems where change, and thus opportunity are arising rapidly, being able to target both public and private investments in the sector to contribute to substantial economic returns, whilst minimizing any negative trade-offs will be important. Systematic prioritization of investments using tools such as Livestock Master Plans can facilitate such and ensure that the livestock sector fulfils its potential to contribute (or continue to) to national economies.Recognize the diversity of the livestock sector so that there are no 'blanket policies'; and be cognizant of long-and short-term synergies and trade-offs among the various dimensions, as considered above. Support a transition from livestock dependent livelihoods. Whether these are jobs in production, processing, trading (globally or in a traditional market); whether income comes directly from raising or selling animals or being paid to do so; whether animals are a source of cash or of multiple benefits, livelihoods will change. Smart policies need to support change in the livestock sector, without causing a loss of livelihood. All over the World, that includes helping people transition to other enterprises or sectors, it includes providing a range of services, market support and information that help small-scale subsistence farming to become economically viable, often medium and larger scale enterprises. Examples include supporting farmers' collective action, establishing agrovet shops, supporting private sector sales of inputs such as vaccines, providing necessary but straightforward registration for new fodder varieties, and standards to ensure safe feed supplies. Consider trade-offs and synergies. Policy makers will need to consider livelihood dimensions prior to investing in, or instituting legislation that supports or favours particular production systems or trade regulations. For example, in many LMICs, favouring industrial scale livestock production, or importation of livestock products could impact livelihoods of many millions. Instigating certain export requirements or taxes on feed or animal health products will impact small and large enterprises worldwide.In 2017, the World Bank's Enabling the Business of Agriculture https://eba.worldbank.org/ included for first time livestock related parameters, particularly those related to regulations around animal health products. Such studies, especially as they expand to address a wider range of issues can help inform national level finance and buisiness approaches to support a sustainable livestock sector. De-risk new investment. In many LMICs, investing in livestock or related services is perceived as risky from a business perspective. The issue of insurance is mentioned above, other input examples may be new fodder seed enterprises, sales of animal health products or IT based market information solutions. Small and medium scale enterprise start-ups are often fragile ventures especially at the beginning. Innovative financing that helps to de-risk the initial investment may help such enterprises to get off the ground and be part of transforming the livestock sector. Multilateral loans to governments may be successfully deployed in this context (eg https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/moving-towards-sustainability-the-livestocksector-and-the-world-bank).Tailor financing options. National policies that don't disadvantage women on land inheritance or requirements for accessing credit, goods and services may include finance products that do not necessitate collateral in the form of title deeds, or allowing repayments based on production cycles. Address wider infrastructure issues -power, water, roads, mobile networks that impact on the livestock sector and its roles in livelihoods. In addition to public investment, governments could attract private sector investment, through for example providing support that incentivizes mobile operators to reach areas that are scarcely populated.Investment in science and technology and ensuring such research is connected to the needs of actors across the sector needs to continue, and to develop new linkages that bring the most advanced technologies to bear on all systems across the world. At present, there is a huge disparity between where demand is growing fastest and where the most advanced livestock sector technologies are availed and deployed. Support for innovative research and technological solutions that can be applied not only in capital-intensive systems in LMICs but globally -covering new innovations in 'traditional' livestock science -feeds, health, genetics through to new applications of IT, traceability, etc. In some cases, smart application of the latest IT and other disruptive technologies could even lead to some of these labour-intensive systems 'leap-frogging' to become the new, sustainable livestock systems of the future.Policies that support sustainable intensification -moving towards more efficient, less environmentally harmful production with good health outcomes while supporting many livelihoods must be encouraged. In many instances, such policies will support large and small-scale private sector investment through incentives and risk-based solutions, financing and credit mechanisms as mentioned above. Connecting and adapting the latest science and technology solutions globally will underpin such solutions.Undertake awareness and engagement actions to ensure livestock roles in livelihoods and economic growth are included in livestock-specific and wider development policies/agendas For the essential roles of livestock in livelihoods and economic growth not to be jeopardized, dialogue, education and engagement within and outside of the sector needs to be strengthened.Local, national, regional and global policy environments that facilitate the engagement of all actors, including stakeholder platforms as described above and the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock, can serve to enhance global engagement and messaging about the actions the sector is undertaking to support sustainable development.Re-connecting the livestock sector with consumers is important. Encouraging consumers to recognize and support niche products can be also be enhanced by labelling and education. The agenda may also consider the fast-developing world of alternative protein sources and how such initiatives may complement animal-based proteins across the world; this will require a lot of new analyses and engagement.Supporting fora for consumers, producers and input suppliers to engage helps find joint solutions to sector challenges. Such initiatives could include for example, better linking of nutritious food and balanced diets to 'well-produced' animal products and the role of milk, meat and eggs in balanced nutrition, especially using a food systems approach.Livestock in surprising places: at a global level, incorporating evidence about a sustainable livestock sector in discourses that focus on wider development will strengthen the recognition and thus investment in solutions including livestock.","tokenCount":"9538"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e389f90291173b5c8abcd4779b718284","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bc9fdc2d-4884-4d5e-8726-793647a76c46/retrieve","id":"-1829353546"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ba4f490-f258-47f4-92a0-37fa6b70cfb3","pagecount":"17","content":"El Comité Regional de Recursos Hidráulicos del Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (CRRH-SICA), es una organización creada en 1966, especializada en los campos de la meteorología, la climatología y la hidrología. Desde el año 2000 coordina la realización de los Foros del Clima de la Región Centroamericana, en los que participan expertos en meteorología y climatología provenientes de los Servicios Meteorológicos e Hidrológicos Nacionales (SMHNs). El Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) es una organización del Sistema de la Integración, tiene como miembros a los Ministerios de Agricultura de los países miembros del SICA.Centroamericano, Clima y Agricultura, a través del cual se comparte información sobre el comportamiento esperado del Clima para el trimestre agosto a octubre y los impactos esperados, así como las recomendaciones para el sector agrícola.El comportamiento esperado para el trimestre es producto del LXII Foro del Clima de América Central, realizado del 14 al 16 de julio de 2020, en el mismo participaron expertos de México, Belice, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panamá y República Dominicana. Utilizando la Perspectiva del Clima como insumo se desarrolló el XLI Foro de Aplicaciones de los Pronósticos Climáticos a la Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional, coordinado por PROGRESAN-SICA. Durante este Foro se desarrolló la mesa de Agricultura y Café en la cual se discutieron los impactos que las condiciones pronosticadas del clima para los próximos 3 meses podían producir y se generaron recomendaciones para el sector agrícola, particularmente ante el contexto de COVID19.Esperamos que la información recopilada en el Boletín Centroamericano, Clima y Agricultura, sea difundida ampliamente entre los técnicos, promotores agrícolas y productores de la región.Comportamiento de la lluvia durante agosto, septiembre, octubre de 2020• La Figura 1 muestra la anomalía de la lluvia acumulada, utilizando la herramienta CHIRPS*, para el trimestre mayo, junio y julio de 2020.• En el mapa se puede apreciar algunas zonas hacia el Pacífico Norte de Centroamérica con excesos, hacia la parte Este de El Salvador y el Sur Este de Honduras. Esta condición está asociada sobre todo con las lluvias asociadas a la Tormentas Amanda y Cristóbal.• Se observan zonas con acumulados menores a lo normal en la parte Central de Guatemala, hacia el Caribe de Costa Rica y Oeste de Panamá.Figura 1. Anomalía de lluvia acumulada durante mayo a julio de 2020.• Desde el año 2019 la temperatura de la superficie del mar en el Atlántico Tropical Norte ha mostrado una tendencia al ascenso y durante el 2020 han registrado valores excepcionalmente altos, tal y como lo muestra la Figura 2.• Que esta condición en el Atlántico favorece la generación de más ciclones tropicales.• La temporada de ciclones tropicales será más activa que lo normal por el calentamiento en el Atlántico Norte, el Caribe y Golfo de México. Se pronostica que en el Atlántico se formarán 18 ciclones tropicales, de los cuales 9 serían huracanes y de estos 5 serían huracanes intensos y destructivos. En el Pacífico Nororiental se pronostica de 15 a 18 ciclones tropicales, de los cuales entre 8 y 10 se convertirían en huracanes. • Desde el mes de mayo 2020, los indicadores oceánicos del fenómeno ENOS, como Niño 3.4 y Niño 3, han venido mostrando magnitudes y tendencias propias de la transición de la condición Neutra a la de La Niña (Figura 2) impulsando a varios Centros Climáticos Mundiales (NCEP, BoM) y SMHNs de Mesoamérica a activar sus sistemas de alerta temprana a un nivel de \"Vigilancia de La Niña\".• Durante junio las temperaturas disminuyeron rápidamente durante algunas semanas, pero permanecimos sobre condiciones neutras (Figura 3).• De acuerdo a todos los modelos, existe una alta probabilidad (50%) que el fenómeno de La Niña se desarrolle en el período de esta perspectiva. El escenario Neutro y El Niño tienen las probabilidades de 47% y 3%, respectivamente. • La perspectiva climática para el trimestre agosto-septiembre-octubre (ASO) de 2020 fue producida por el grupo de expertos en meteorología y climatología que participó del LXII Foro del Clima de América Central. El foro estimó la probabilidad de que la lluvia acumulada en el período de agosto a octubre de 2020 esté en el rango Bajo de lo Normal (B), en el rango Normal (N) o en el rango Arriba de lo Normal (A), como se observa en la Figura 4.• Para interpretar la perspectiva se debe tener en cuenta que:Zonas indicadas en verde tienen mayor probabilidad que la lluvia acumulada ocurra en el escenario arriba de lo normal.Zonas indicadas en marrón tienen mayor probabilidad que la lluvia ocurra por debajo de lo normal.Zonas indicadas en amarillo tienen mayor probabilidad que la lluvia ocurra en el escenario normal. *La Perspectiva del Clima es una estimación sobre el posible comportamiento de la lluvia y la temperatura realizada con herramientas estadísticas, comparación con años análogos y análisis de los resultados de modelos globales y regionales sobre las temperaturas de la superficie del mar, los patrones de viento, presión atmosférica y la precipitación, que tienen como objetivo complementar las actividades de pronóstico que realizan los servicios meteorológicos en cada uno de los países de la región.**La perspectiva no contempla eventos extremos puntuales y de corta duración. El mapa presenta escenarios de probabilidad de la condición media en el trimestre; no se refiere a las condiciones en cada uno de los meses individualmente.• En las semanas de canícula en países con corredor seco se presentarían algunos déficits de precipitación sin esperar que ésta sea prolongada y que siga siendo interrumpida por lluvias.• A partir de la segunda quincena de agosto, se espera que las lluvias vayan en incremento para alcanzar su segundo máximo en el mes de septiembre y octubre.• De consolidarse el Fenómeno de La Niña podría ocasionar una situación crítica para Centroamérica por los elevados acumulados de lluvias que se tendrían.• En el Cuadro 1 se describen las condiciones predominantes por país 2 en relación con las categorías de los escenarios. El Cuadro 2 muestra el comportamiento esperado de la temperatura, cómo sería el inicio de las lluvias y la canícula por país.• Debido a lo amplio de la escala, en áreas con microclimas el comportamiento de la lluvia puede presentar variaciones respecto a lo descrito en la perspectiva, por tanto, las decisiones que se tomen basados en esta información, deben considerar estas singularidades.2 Para mayores detalles sobre las perspectivas climáticas por país, contactar a los institutos especializados del clima (Servicios Meteorológicos Nacionales) de cada país. ASO 2020ASO ) 1983ASO , 1988ASO , 1989ASO , 1995ASO , 1998ASO , 2008ASO , 2010 Cuadro Superior a lo normal Para el presente año no se prevé una canícula marcada, sólo una leve disminución de las lluvias en un periodo de 3 a 6 días a finales de julio.Respecto a granos básicos, se esperan condiciones favorables para el desarrollo de los cultivos, pero se proponen las siguientes recomendaciones ante las altas precipitaciones esperadas:Manejar la cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía.Evitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices.Ante las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Evitar encharcamientos por los excesos de lluvia y la saturación de los suelos, implementar acequias, cunetas entre otras obras que favorezcan el drenaje en las parcelas.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros mediante el uso de Bacillus thuringiensis, Metharhizium spp., parasitoides específicos y utilizando productos biorracionales.Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo y tratamiento de las semillas.Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenados.El viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Las siguientes recomendaciones se basan en el análisis hecho por las instituciones nacionales de café (Anacafe, IHCAFE, ICAFE, entre otras) y Promecafe, junto con otras organizaciones del sector:Establecer acciones de vigilancia en fincas respecto a brotes de enfermedades relacionadas con hongos en condiciones de alta humedad (Mal de hilacha y Ojo de Gallo). El exceso de lluvias o granizo podrían ocasionar pérdidas en la formación de frutos del café. Evitar que la curva se dispare en el mes de octubre.Planificación adecuada de las épocas oportunas para la fertilización. Si se hace tardío, durante los meses de septiembre y octubre, existe la posibilidad de un lavado de nutrientes en el suelo (lavado de bases) por la alta incidencia de lluvias para estos meses.Continuar atentos al desarrollo y comportamiento de la plaga de langostas, coordinar acciones con los sistemas de sanidad agropecuaria en cada país.Realizar buenas prácticas sanitarias relacionadas con el manejo de tejidos y regulación de sombra.Se recomienda establecer un periodo de vigilancia durante este periodo, lluvias más fuertes en menos tiempo podrían ocasionar baja concentración de azucares y baja calidad del fruto Se debe de prestar atención a la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades como sigatoka o moco (banano). También estar atentos a la erradicación oportuna de hongos en el suelo, tipo fusarium, pythium, nemátodos y otros. Considerar opciones de manejo integrado de plagas.Importante prestar atención en las partes bajas donde acumulaciones de humedad podrían producir pudrición. Para ello se recomienda el mejoramiento o mantenimiento de los sistemas de drenaje en el suelo.Asociado al enfriamiento del Pacífico, en zonas bajas como en Boca costa y suroccidente de Guatemala la época lluviosa tiende a finalizar tardíamente en la primera semana de noviembre, lo cual es relevante para el sector cañero.La saturación en los suelos por las lluvias que se presentan en septiembre y octubre, generan deslaves, inundaciones, deslizamientos de tierra, daños en las redes viales de los países y lahares en la cadena volcánica.El manejo de cobertura es fundamental. El manejo del rastrojo y cultivos de cobertura no sólo es para conservar la humedad y evitar la evaporación, sino también para mantener un suelo sano, con nutrientes y otros elementos.En áreas bajas buscar aguas subterráneas para hacer pozos de infiltración para ayudar a manejar el agua y evitar la erosión hídrica.Aunque hay buenos acumulados de lluvia en ASO, es importante hacer prácticas de captura de agua. Es momento oportuno para establecer reservorios de agua que permitan su almacenamiento y hacer frente a cualquier variación o cualquier distribución errática de lluvia.Se recomienda emplear prácticas tales como labranza vertical, uso de cobertura, curvas de nivel, terrazas de muro vivo, barreras de piedra acomodada, barreras vivas, abonos verdes, adición de materia orgánica, entre otras, para mantener la humedad en el suelo y obtener más producción, especialmente en agricultura de subsistencia.La Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (ASAC), contempla la implementación de mejores prácticas a nivel de plantación, finca y paisaje, como pilares para fomentar la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agropecuarios. Algunas de estas prácticas sostenibles, las cuales están entrelazadas y se detallan a continuación:El sistema suelo es un ente vivo y dinámico, por lo que conservar y mejorar sus condiciones es clave para garantizar su calidad y productividad en el largo plazo. Para ello, se debe considerar una serie de prácticas complementarias, tales como:1. Incorporación de materia orgánica, ya sea por medio de la elaboración de abonos orgánicos líquidos y/o sólidos, por medio del paleteo de excretas en los repastos, o por medio del uso de abonos verdes, cultivos de cobertura, y/o mantillo o residuos de cosecha.Según datos del Banco Mundial 3 (2020), la agricultura consume alrededor del 70% del suministro de agua dulce del planeta. Al ser un recurso escaso e indispensable para la vida, resulta fundamental que se incorporen prácticas sostenibles que garanticen su conservación y manejo sostenible, como, por ejemplo:1. En regiones adonde las condiciones de siembra son secas o áridas (e.g. Corredor Seco): implementar técnicas de cosecha y almacenamiento de agua de lluvia, en conjunto con las prácticas de manejo de suelo que conserven la humedad, tales como las mencionadas anteriormente.3 Fuente: https://www.bancomundial.org/es/topic/water-inagriculture 2. En regiones en las que existan sistemas de riego: optimizar y hacer más eficiente el riego, reemplazando el riego por gravedad, que es el riego en el que más agua se desperdicia, por riego conducido, utilizando mangueras o tuberías, y revisando periódicamente posibles fugas desde la fuente y a lo largo del recorrido.También se puede programar el riego para realizarlo durante las horas más frescas, considerando su disponibilidad temporal y con base en información periódica sobre las condiciones del tiempo y/o utilizando los servicios climáticos.Según datos de FAO 4 (2018), la ganadería cumple un papel clave frente al cambio climático y la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, destacando que:• Los productos ganaderos son responsables de más emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero que la mayoría de las otras fuentes de alimentos. Las emisiones son causadas por la producción de alimento, la fermentación entérica, los desechos de animales y el cambio en el uso de la tierra.• La ganadería es clave para la seguridad alimentaria: La carne, la leche y los huevos proporcionan el 34% de la proteína que se consume en todo el mundo e igualmente micronutrientes esenciales como la vitamina B12, vitamina A, hierro, zinc, calcio y riboflavina. Cientos de millones de personas vulnerables confían en la ganadería en un clima cambiante, debido a la capacidad de los animales para adaptarse a las condiciones marginales y resistir las crisis.Debido a esto, es fundamental considerar la implementación de prácticas sostenibles tales como:1. Implementar técnicas de conservación de forrajes.2. En el caso de la producción de leche bajo sistema de pastoreo: distribuir el pastoreo en diferentes zonas de repastos, considerando una rotación adecuada para optimizar el consumo de forraje y evitar la compactación y degradación del suelo y los pastos.3. Combinar áreas de repasto con árboles, por ejemplo, mediante el uso de diferentes especies forrajeras como cercas vivas, de manera que se ofrezca sombra al ganado durante días con altas temperaturas (reduciendo el estrés calórico), se cuente con diferentes fuentes de proteína, aprovechable por medio del ramoneo de hojas y tallos tiernos, y se fije nitrógeno naturalmente, aumentando fertilidad de los pastos.Como consecuencia de un período de verano seco y caluroso y su cambio a un invierno con exceso de precipitación, es de esperarse el incremento de hongos y bacterias, así como de algunas especies de insectos cuya bioecología está asociada a este tipo de eventos. En este caso el principal riesgo lo constituye el incremento de poblaciones de Langosta Voladora Shistocerca piceifrons, por lo que es fundamental el refuerzo de las actividades de vigilancia.• Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitarias para el monitoreo de plagas utilizando trampas de color amarillas, verdes y azules pegajosos, así también, el uso de feromonas para la detección oportuna de plagas en cultivos de solanáceas, brássicas, cucurbitáceas.• Ampliar la aplicación de medidas de control biológico para plagas de lepidópteros tanto en granos básicos, como en hortalizas mediante el uso de Bacillus thuringiensis, Metharhizium spp., parasitoides específicos y utilizando productos biorracionales.• Realizar prospecciones de langosta voladora en zonas gregaigenas y chapulines en la región., se espera también el incremento de las poblaciones de lepidópteros propios de la época, poblaciones de larvas de insectos de los géneros Spodoptera, Agriotes, Pseudoplusia son de importancia.• En el caso de las pudriciones se debe poner principal atención a las causadas por los géneros de bacteria Ralstonia, Xanthomona y Erwinia y los hongos Fusarium, Phytophtora y Alternaria.• Tener en consideración para el desarrollo de cualquier medida fitosanitaria las condiciones del tiempo y su pronóstico, así como las implicaciones de los mismos en términos del riesgo de plaga. El geoportal de OIRSA se encuentra a disponibilidad para servir de guía y utilidad: https://geoportal.oirsa.orgLos principales riesgos están asociados a la saturación de los suelos producto del incremento de las precipitaciones. Esto afecta fundamentalmente la disponibilidad de forrajes e incrementa la proliferación de parásitos y vectores de enfermedades. Entre las medidas recomendadas por OIRSA que se deben aplicar en esta época del año se recomienda:• Asegurar fuentes de alimento ante la eventual escases causada por las inundaciones.• Asegurar y resguardar fuentes de agua de buena calidad.• Observar y aplicar las medidas de bioseguridad básicas en su finca, granja o establecimiento.• Efectuar baños contra los parásitos externos como moscas y garrapatas• Aplicar la desparasitación para endo y ectoparásitos en bovinos, equinos y porcinos.• Aplicar vitaminas aprovechando la actividad de desparasitación de los animales• Movilizar a los animales a partes altas o secas de los terrenos susceptibles a inundaciones o encharcamientos.• Vigilar la presencia de síntomas o signos de las enfermedades de mayor riesgoLa pandemia de coronavirus está generando impactos en la producción de alimentos, el acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Algunos de estos que ya se están presentando principalmente en la región se enuncian a continuación:• Reducción de los ingresos de las familias vulnerables: algunos hogares han reducido sus ahorros debido al aumento de los precios de los alimentos y los insumos.• Acceso limitado a insumos para la producción de alimentos: Además de las limitaciones para conseguir dichos insumos se presenta un alza en los precios de los mismos, afectando a muchos productores su compra.• Restricciones comerciales: las limitaciones en la movilidad además afectan el desarrollo de actividades alternativas como fuentes de ingreso familiar, propiciando los disturbios y la inestabilidad social.• El Impacto adicional de los fenómenos climáticos como sequias y temporales de lluvia: Acorde a los pronósticos climáticos estimados, es necesario prepararse ante la llegada del fenómeno de la Niña y su condición lluviosa para toda la región, impactando en la mayoría de los rubros productivos.Ante la situación actual del COVID-19, y como una herramienta de apoyo territorial, Las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (MTA) impulsadas por el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, la Agricultura y la Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) y sus socios, han sido cruciales para mitigar los efectos negativos de la pandemia.Las MTA han abordado cuestiones como los efectos de la pandemia en la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria de la región y lo que sucederá con los millones de habitantes de las zonas rurales que dependen de la agricultura, así como las medidas que pueden adoptarse para reducir los efectos 6 . Entre estas medidas se encuentran:• Canales de comunicación adecuados: Las herramientas digitales han demostrado ser una forma eficaz de difundir información agroclimática y recomendaciones para el sector agrícola durante la pandemia.• Incentivar prácticas agrícolas locales: para hacer frente a la falta de acceso a fertilizantes y otros insumos tradicionales, es importante seguir implementando prácticas como el uso de 6 Para más Información consulte https://ccafs.cgiar.org/es/research-highlight/informaci%C3%B3n-agroclim%C3%A1tica-ayuda-luchar-contra-la-covid-19-en-am%C3%A9rica-latina insumos biológicos, prácticas agroecológicas de bajo costo y la utilización de recursos locales para satisfacer las necesidades de nutrición de los cultivos • Garantizar insumos: fomentar los programas sociales para proporcionar semillas y otros insumos agrícolas prioritarios.• Diversificar e incentivar la producción: Enfatizar en la importancia de la producción de cereales para evitar la escasez como maíz, sorgo, frijoles, hortalizas.A través de estos espacios de dialogo, se permite apoyar las decisiones del sector agrícola, gracias a la identificación de los impactos y a las recomendaciones generadas, los agricultores pueden tomar decisiones informadas para mantener la productividad de sus cultivos, combatir el cambio climático, pero especialmente en estos momentos seguir proveyendo de alimentos a la población em medio de la crisis sanitaria efecto del COVID-19.Las Mesas Técnicas Agroalimentarias están desempeñando un papel fundamental en el diagnóstico de los impactos y la generación de recomendaciones. Ante las perspectivas climáticas consideradas para estos próximos meses, entre las recomendaciones generales se indican:• Servicios climáticos: Es importante que con la información de clima unido a la información agrícola se generen servicios climáticos para el sector en el país, por ejemplo a través de las mesas agroclimáticas locales, mesas de monitoreo de cultivos, mesas de seguridad alimentaria y otros espacios.• Monitorear periódicamente: I.Actualizaciones del pronóstico: emitidas mensualmente los servicios meteorológicos, incluyendo: pronóstico de corto plazo (24, 48, 72 horas), pronósticos semanales, pronósticos mensuales y las tablas de contingencia de las estaciones meteorológicas. Mucha de esta información está disponible en las páginas web de los servicios meteorológicos de cada país.Resultados de los informes de precios de granos básicos y otros productos de la canasta familiar, emitidos típicamente por la FAO y los ministerios de agricultura de los países.III. Resultados de informes de inseguridad alimentaria emitidos por las organizaciones nacionales de seguridad alimentaria y algunas agencias de las Naciones Unidas (e.g. PMA).Los mensajes de alerta emitidos por los organismos de gestión de riesgos. ","tokenCount":"3380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"244cdf00a62b40c86ab94c51be8bd0bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de4d7543-8b32-43f2-a30f-150ccf20fd01/retrieve","id":"1111371264"},"keywords":["CIAI Information Bulletln No. 2-E.","....",".","1\"\"\")1 It\"\"TECA ~~ houae r7> -1 C inery--Communicat1on l' ¡ -Motivation -Migration FAMILY -Age","sex t-Recreation -Information ~Education C A S H ¡'Lottery -Cooperation -Land Use"],"sieverID":"a4d08789-c1ee-4b54-ada0-5b707cbaa43b","pagecount":"343","content":"The goala of CIAT 1nclude the lncrease in quantity and quallty of food in tropical Latln America, and an lmprovement ln the general llving conditions of rural people, through the lntroductlon of improved technology and the use of more eificient agrlcultural practicas. Tha integratlon oi crop and animal production technology, and the relevance oi aval labIa technology to the complex problems of the amall farmer, are of lncreasing concern to CIAT and its collaborators. How can tradltlonal farmlng systems be modified tO increase product1on snd 1ncome, and to lmprove the nutritian oi tha ama11 farm family7Prevlous documents which have outl1ned the CIAT interest and plannlng in this area lnclude The Agricultural Systema Program A Course oi Actlon (McClung, 1973) and the Small Farro Systems Program A Program Document (Franklin and Scobie, 1974) During the flrst six month~ of 1974, the 1mplementatlon of the prlnclples aud acttvltles set forth in the program document has been lnltlatedAn 1nterdisclpllnary team has lntegrated efforra to puraue the goals outlined in the document through field visits with farmers and development specialtstis, consultation with nationel agencies, and group interaction in evaluating data snd ideasThe object~ves. methods and working foeua of the team have evolved during th48\"1me, a\\ld it 19 desirable to summarize the results ln relatlon to the baSlc concapts detailed in the January program documento ThlS progresa report lncludes a condensed background and phllosophy for the program, a statemenr of specific objectives, and a summary of activities during the period since January From thls experience, cr1teria have been establlshed for zone aelectlon, general modela of the smal1 farm aituatlon developed, sud sn emphasis placed on training personnel.~I.A fundamental eharacteristic of trop~eal Latua American agriculture la the simultaneaus existence of a limited but highly commercialized farmlng sector an ane hand, and a numerically large sector of amall family farm untts Wh1Ch opera te at a oear Subs1stence level on the other. Past emphasis 1n research has been on the development of technology for farmera ln the commercial sector, physically locsted in the most favorable ecological regiona, with relatively large, capital intens1ve holdings and access to technical aasistance, credit, agra-chemicals, markets and transportatlan. Ihe majar orientation of this sector has been toward production of e~port crops, and not basic fooda.In Latin Amer~ca, the primary production of food crapa ls concentrated wlth the lesa favored amall farmera, who have limited access to production inputs, credit, storage, transportation and other institutional or commercial services.I lf food production ls to increass substantial1y, there must be an emphasis en development and 1ntegrat1on of a crop/animal technology Wh1Ch LS appropriate to the amall farmer, and cons~stent wlth the real constraints which limit his adoption of currently ava1lable technology. An additional ~mportant factor ls the new empha-SlS by governments in the zone on finding solutlons to atleviate rural proverty.Ihis requlres an ~ncrease in real income for the farm family, which can only result from an increaae in production and the opportunitiea for employment in traditional agriculture Ihe definl t1.on of \"small farm\" in CIAT 18 the farm enterprise in which production and productivity are lov, real 1ncome ia low, and the principal aource of labor ia the farm faml1y. This i8 a broad and funct10nal definition, and amall farmera may operate in cooperatives, smal1-scale individual hills1.de farms, large ranches ln the llanos region, or large 1and reform holdlngs such as La Maquina,Condensed from Program Document (January, 1974) and \"Una Metodología de Ingeniería de Sistemas para lrabajo Interdisclplinario en la Agricultura\" (June, 1974).~atemala (20 ha) or the Agrovilas in the Amazonia oí Brazil (100 ha) Small farmers have had little opportunity to improve their situst~on through agricultural activitles. However, they reach decisions based on thelr perception of potential suceesa or failure as a result of adopting new teehnology in much the same wsy as the commercisl farmer With the add.tional needa to provlde food for their families through home produetl0n snd min1mize the rlsk lnherent in any change of crop or cultural practices, through a long experlenee in agriculture they have developed prOductlon systems whieh have glven trem ~~ar optimum results within their ecological, economic and politlcal environment.With this concept in mind, lt 18 essential to comprehend existing systems before attempting to change them. How doea the farmer v~ew his current system, and why does he eonaider this sn optlmum investment of his labor and limited resources to produce .ncome and food for his family1 We must fully understand the farmer's present system and his decislou maklng process, his goa18 and perception of the totsl envlronment ln whlch he opera tes, in order to offer hlm alternatlves which will solve h~s most urgent production problema and lesd to 1ncreased income and improved well-beLng.A 10gLesl procesa for understanding the farmer's situat1on, and for devel- AnaIys1s and synthesis of farming systems leads to specif1cation of alternat1ves which sre feas~ble for 1ncroduct10n 1nto amall farros 1n order to better ach1eve farro fam.1y and nst10nal food product~on gosIs With an under-stand1ng of the complex env1ronment in which the sma11 farmer apera tes, and the constra1nts which influetlce h1S production decLs1ons, we can eelect cultural prsct1ces, crop/snimal species m1Áes snd 1evela of Lnputs to be tested on exper~ment stations or family farms.4 Validat10n of the procesa \"he process w.li be val1dated by demonstrating that farro families 1n a selected area can achieve their object1ves through adopt1on of a technology synthes1~ea by th1S procesa, snd that the same procedure may be app11ed by nat10nal development agencies as a method to 1dent1fy problema snd genera te relevant eolutions to help farmera achíeve the~r g081s.5 Imple~entaticn lm~lementat1on or appli~stion of the procesa lS the role of natlonal agencles, snd CLÁT wl11 eollaborate w1th them ln speclfic zones in the development of new technelogy, the deslgn of alternstlve systems, the testlng of these systems On the farro, and in trainlng developatent personnel in use of the process.Our involvement 1n implementatlon w111 allow a study of the appl~cab111ty of th1S procesa wlthLn the context of a national program snd a speclflc sma!1 farro environment -6 -6 Evaluation lt 19 1mpo~tant to develop methodology for evaluating the 1mpact of new technology on farm lncome and buman_welfare This methodology wlll be useíul to international and natlonal instltutions as a guide to the allocatl0n of limited This procesa outlined in the above ateps will previde guidelines for identifying limiting factora on the farro and selecting resesrch procedures to solve these problems. lt will provide a framework for predicting the probable adoption of resea~ch results and che impact on food avallabllity ~nd lncomes of that adoptlou lt will provide alternative ways for the farmer to reach hlS objectlves. As a dynamic process, thlS sequence of steps wlll be useful in plannlng snd analys18 of multiple cropping/animal systems, tlming of investment snd changes on the farm, and sequencing the introduction of other new technologyThe CIAT Small Fsrm Systems Team operates in collaboration wlth national agricultural development agencles and the CIAT commodity teams te provide lnformatlon and methodology for identifying problema snd p~edlctlng the lmpaet of Solutlons. Tha ultimare clients of CIAT, snd of the Systems Team, are the i!!! famllles snd consumera of Latin Ameriea that beneflt from the implementation of research ~esults by nationa! agencies.The CIAT Small Farro Svstems Probram strategy emphasizes the ~apid adaptatlon and uti1lzation of existing technology Whlch 18 relevant to the problema llmiting produetlon on the farm, and which can be applied te lmpreve the lncorne and nutrltion of !he farm family. To avoid expansiva and time-eonsumlng tTaditlonal expetlmental proeedures with numerous replications on the experimental farm, we ahall emphasize puttlng together appropriate existlng practices, whether froro aval1able experimental results or from empi~ical results of the better formera This wlll include consid--7 _ erat~on of the cl1mat1c, egronomic. physical, socio-cultural and economic factors assoc1eted wlth the production of food crops end anlmals. As outlined in che procedure aboye, we ere testing the most relevant alternatives which ere available to solve identified limlting factora which previal in specific areas o~ the lowland humid troplcs. The apecific progrem objectives sre A Assemble appropriate technology for amal1 farm operat10ns in the lowland humid tropics, so as to develop alterne.ives tor the femily. ln terms of decis10ns ta se11 or consume pIane snd animal produces. snd to eneble the famlly co take advantage of favorable msrkets. reduce rlsks, improve nutri-, tlon and accumulate capital. This wi11 lnclude the fol1owing crlter1a a Optimal utl1ization of available natural reSOurces -tlme. sunl1ght, land, water, s011 fertillty -and family labor and capital b. Improved use of plants snd animal s SS msrketable products, food for fsm11y, feed, manure, power source snd transportatlon. , e Dlstributl0n of products (food, feed, and cash) throughout the year, consiatent with other objectives.Once the technological feasibillty of alternatives has been demonstrsted st the farro level, further slmulations of the farm 91tuation will be requlred under varylog policy assumptiors with respect te the costs and availsbl11ty of inputs, including credit. marketlng costa, snd level snd types of risk. Testing the sppli-cabll1ty of technological possibilitles requires the assembly of various \"p011Cyalternatlves\" WhlCh deal wlth the non-technologlcal factors affecting ama11 fsrmers.These need to be consldered in discussions with farmers, and with personne1 from government snd lnternational agencles as to thelr desirabllity and feasibl1ityThis objectlve may be aummsrized as fellowB B. Explore w1th farmers, national and internat10nal agencies concerned with agricultural policy 1n general, the credit. marketing. extens10n, cooperat1ve forms of organization. and land reform alterna ti ves to identify the best ways in which to implement new technol0B('The unique challenge to the 8mall Farro Systems Program is that of dealin$ with all the complexitÁes of the total small farro systems of production of both plant and animal products. These complexities require the utilization of methods and concepts of many disciplines, even at the level of the individual farm. Our task becomes more complex as we recognize that we cannot simply deal wlth the technological aspects of production at the farro level, but must also consider the policy aspects associated with implementlng these technologies. These larger policy issues will require investigatl0ns and coordination with national agencies at the local as well as the natlonal level, and should involve those international agencies WhlCh are fundlng some of the major national programs affecting small farmers Although specific zones and certain groups of small farmers are confronted wlth a serles of problems and limltstions WhlCh may be unique to their complex rnlcro-env1ronment, chere are lessons to be learned from each speclflc zone, and also a probability that part of the optimum solutlon or combination of technological factors may apply in other zones Ibis attempt to generallze from each experience and gradually develop a more rapid and efficient approach to problem ldent1flcat10n and solution lead~ to the third objective e Develop an efficient and useful procese for the identification and analyeis of existing farm systems, so as to facllitate the rapid application of agricultural technology~in the development of rural areas .. 9 -The development of a \"general modal\" or procadurel methodology should prov~de a tool to understand major constraints. and primary interactions among the principal factors in sma11 farm agriculture. Ihe identificatLon of those el~ments which are commonly presento or usual~y interact in a similar way over s range Qf sms~l farm sit~tions will further our understand~ng of general princi~les whlch operate on the farm, and lead to more raptd recognition of specific problema and relevant solutlons in a new sieuation.,Ibe profesai~nal orientation and problema facing different groups concerned wlth agricutture vary suffictently widely ehat 1~ la not likely that we wlll fin~ any combination of technology and polfcy which fully meees the needs oE any single cltent group. Ibe technologists at national and international , research stations typically aim at maximiBlng production of a particular com-, modit)', and are not usually concerned with ita direct application to ehe amall , , farmer. Moreover, mOSI: of them nave been trained unasr aystems ol agriculture which empnss1ze optimum production per man rather than per unít af land or per , unit of capital. Pol~cy makers, on the other hand, need to consider the optimum lIse of natlon\",l re8ource~. not just within agriculture bUI: a1so between other saetora WhLCh compete for the same funde Yermars would l~ke 1:0 get some kind ~f optl~um return, bUI: they would also like to minImize risks ERch oÍ tnese groups hes a different sel: of problems and prlorltles. snd one of the more chal-lengLng tssks of tne 8mall Farm Systems Program will be to seek both technological and pelle)' alternstlves which satlsfactorily meel: the needa of farmers as well as t~e natLonal and international planning snd finaneing agencies A generalized procesa which can be applled in SFecific Bones or sltuations to recognlze production-l1miting constra1nts and analyze alternative policies 1s a long-term goal The 8yste~8 team anthropologlst,Stil1man Bradfiel~, visited an Agrovila at kl10meter 46 west of A1tamira on the new Trans~mezonica Highway. an ambitious natiana1 program wh1ch includes a 5500 km road from ReciEe to the Peruv1an border, and branch roads to the south snd to the Gu1anas in the north. !hese low jungle zonas w1th r01ling hills beneath a massive forest cover are virtually qnknown in terms of crop snd animal exploitatlon, and solutions to a1l problema haya to be found quickly to keep the colonization mpvlng on schedule, reach production level.WhlCh can begtn to pay for the huge public investment, and warrant continuad con-struct10n of the road into new areas The Agrovllas, or rural communitlss, lnclude a populatlon center la1d out along the maln road, w1th soma 50 houaes, sn office, 0110ic, warehouse, water tank, amel1 Bcho01 (grades 1-4) ~nd chapel Each colono has a 100 ha block in which he la allowed to clear 50 ha for CTOpS or llvestock production. Although the mBln highway 18 completed, sida access roada to many lots are not even atarted, hance many colonos have no road access to their lots.There 1a no asaurance that they viII be able to move ehe first rice crop to market.T~ Lnaure a regular income to the family, a 81zable prOpOrtLOn of the households Ln the Agrovila bave found tt nec~ssary to spend their ent1re time working at other thLnga than clear1ng and planting their lots.Factors Wh1Ch are considered by ea eh family in developing atrategies for exploLtstion include (1) what the environment can stand, (2) the 1mmediate needa of the fam11y, (3) market posaibil1t1es in the current situation, and (4) the long-run possibilit1es snd needa of the fam11yo Present atrstegy ia to clear s pateh esch year to plant ln r1ce, and in the following year th1e ia sown witn ma1ze, beans snd casssva ~ tne maln subsistence crops of the family. Otner erops include bananas, sugar cane, white sweet potatoes, fruits (papaya, ~ango, jack fruit, ceshew, p~neapple) and vegetables (lettuce, okra, tomataea, eggplant, kale, green Peppers, cabbage, cueumbera). Black pepper ia currently a favorite crop for farmers who want a high value-density product to export from this isolated area Cattle operations are a pare of the future plsns, and mast colonos aee chemselves mov1ng toward perennial eropa combined with livestock, w1th enough subs1stence crops to meet the fam11y's needs.Problema lim~t~ng product10n in tne zone are complexo Necessary inputs such as aeed, cred~t and technical aSsLstance have not always been 8vailable when n~eded This 1a s large and important zone, and communities in thlS type of c11-maLle region w~ll be cons~dered for future involvement of ehe Systems Team as e~per1ence 1s gained in other zones and support becomes available.The team snthropologist, Stillmsn Bradfleld, made a prelim1nary visit to Yur1maguas and Tingo Marla in the eaatern reglon of Peru. He observed the present productlon end potentisls of the lowland jungle area, the technology avs11sble to -12lncresse production, the socio-cultural and economíc factora operating in the region, and the Tefent government changes which have a direct influence on agrlcultural devel, opment. The agricultural focus in Yurimaguas has been on plantation and export eTopa, wlth minor activity in esttle and food eropa. Bananas, rlce, yuca, maize snd beans sre cultivated ln a cycle of two years, and then the forese 18 a1lowed to take over for a three to seven year perlod. According to Ministry of Agriculture data, plantain and rlce aTe the most profitable food cropa in the area. There lS virtually no use oi fertilizera, insecticides, herblcides or improved aeed ln the srea. Competltlon fo~ labor from the 011 fle1ds, asevere lack of transportatl0n, low prices for products, lsck of credlt, technlcal aSBlstance and machinery, and weeds serlously reduce production potential ln the zone. In spite of abundan e 1and, water, sunlight and favorable temperatures ln the jungle region, limitat10ns to product10n inplude poor soi1 fertil1ty, plant and animal dlseases, aud a lack of technology approprlate to th!, zone. Development will depend on better informat10n on how to utl1Áze the enterpriae, such ss how snd when tn se1l cattle (low prlces). snd haw ta buy young stock and from whom (credlt, trensportation, prlcea, explnitatian) Low ealving rates, poor native pastures which require extensive grazlng, expensive productian inputs such ss minerals, chemicsl fertilizera, and druga, and parasitic diaeases have limlted expanalon of herda end intensification of the operetions 1n a smaller are a per fapn. This extensive grazing system has lmportant implications in the reglon's development. School education 19 almoat lmpossible, and during the rainy season, it is elmost imposaible to move from the fspn to a hospital, or to arrange for a doctor to vlsit ehe farm. Agricultural extenslon efforts are limited by these same faetors. Transportatlon of food, clothing, and productlon 1nputa are dlfficult snd costly. ThlS zone has potential for production, and will be incresalngly importsnt as pressure On land in other regions stimulates rnigration into the area We must maintain communicatlon with research and development groups wor~ing 1n this reglon of Colombia.The troplcal lowlands on the north coaat of Colombia, with both slluvial flooded lowlands snd well-drained soils on rolllng hills, have been a focus of CIAT 1nterest ln the commodlty and trslnlng programs An 1ntens1ve involvement by Loyd Johnson (agricultural eng1neer) has explored the potent1als of r1ce production in the flooded sOlla of the north coast, aIong w1th practical cultural systems, training achernes and 1ntegrated projects w1th natlonal agencies to move this technology to the farmer. The swine and maize programa have studied production problema on the farm, while economists have evaluated the potentials for swine enterprises ln Cacaotal, a village near Monteria. The team anthropologiat, St11lman Bradfield, vlsited this same v111age and described product10n systems, factors 11m1ting productlvity, and sorne cultural aspects of the community.Trainees in crop and animal production have lived on farms in the zone to learo through pract1cal experience the process of problem identif1cation and Solutlon as followed by the farmer.Human diaeases, absence of animal power for wet land preparation, and lack of a suitable crop have llmited exploitat10n oi the fertile, naturally-flooaed and poorly drained lowlands 1n Latin America, compared to their tradit10nal productlvity ln AsiaWith the control of yellow fever and malaria, availab11ity ol power equlpment, and rice var1eties suitable to these zones, a production potential la poss1b1e through applicatlon of available technology. Ibis technology differa from the successful Asian rice culture in that land preparation in water i8accomplished with 1arge power equ1pment, and the crop la established with handbroadcsst, pre-germlnated aeed rather thsn tranaplanted. Hand labor lS utllized for planting, fert11izing, spraying lor weed and pest control, harvesting snd threshing • A va11dation of the aystem on the CIAT farm ovar a two year perlod produced 719 tona of rice on 1225 ha, an average of 5,860 kg/ha/crop.!/ A demonstratlon of thlS system on the lCA atation in Turipaná, and demonstratlons wlth fsrmera ln collaboratlon with INCORA snd ICA, have shown the potentLs1 productlon wh~ch will result from adoption of the system on the North Coast.Tra1ning oí techn1cians and farmers on the lCA atation, plus an internationally flna~ced and locally supervised credit acheme, wil1 move thlS system onto farms 1n the area around Montería. A dlversification of the cropping system lnto other species and amall anlmals la under study and testing in the zone. Alternative organizational structures, especislly farmer cooperatLves, have been shown ta lmprave production efficiency and accesa to credit and other input s to lncrease productivity snd income per famlly ce ~~ Q\\TT W!!3\\u-16 •Cropping and animal production aystems in the well-dra1ned roll1ng hills are highly dependent on land tenure and available resources. Although the majority of this land 1a 9tl11 dedicated to extensive grazing and beef production, subs1stence farmers in these reglons plant associated crops of ma1ze, cassava, yams, cowpeas, pigeon pea, tobacco, tomato, aad other food or cash crops and chickens sre common 90urcea of protein, with ducks and African aheep two potential epecies for parts oí this zone. The potent1al for commerclal awine production on a small farmer acale has been designed and demonstrated in one vlllsge in thlS zone, Cacaotsl!/, but recent economlC anslyses of the ayatem Pigs suggest thst other alternatlvea may be much more profitable!/ Crop production per hectare 19 high due to lntensive labor inputs in a mixed cropplng systempredominantly maize, caasava and yams. The yam crop has the highest sale prlce and genera tes the most income, although prices tend to vary considersbly.Mose serious technologlcsl factors WhlCh llmlt productlon lnclude lsck of water, land avallabllity, better varleties and lack of herblcldes. Field trials during the current season include herblclde rates and timing in mixed cropa, population and fertillty levels in the cornrnon cropping mixture, and introduct10n of yams, malze, casssva and cowpea varleties These are all deslgned to answer specific productlon problema ident1fled by farmers in the community ln the fleld wlth CIAr and ICA technlcians Small farro familles ln thlS zone consider good health and education tor the1r children to be highest The Systems Team has chosen this zone to work ln the two major ecologlcal areas, flooded lowland fertile soils appropriate to rlce. snd the rolllng foothills wlth a predomlnance of msize, casssva, yams and other cropsThe inltial agronomic triaIs and demonstrations will be followed with soclo-cultural, ecouomic snd nutritlonsl surveys to better understand the complex small farm systems ln thlS reglon More tn-depth snd appropriate interveutlons will be predlcted from the lntttal results and lmplemented in the zone through natlonal agencles already worklng there. Evaluatlon of production, economic and nutrltional lndlcators will provide feedback to check our lUltisl lmpresslons of the farmer's system snd which ínterventlons would affer the greatest lmpact. The North Cosst of Colombia i8 designated as a Program Activlty Zone of the Systema Team (1) use of herbicide, (2) use of insecticide, (3) fertilization wito N and P to test the sppsrent leck of response observed in prev~ou~ trials in the zone, (4) \\ lmproved var1eties. and ( 5) changes ln land preparation wh1ch include deep plow1ng sn~ lncorporation of additional organ1c matter. These experlments sre planted, a~d witl be harveated 1n September and October.A lOGstion-specific model WhlCh quantitatively relates the most crucial factors which interact on the farm in La Maquina ia tllustrsted in the accompa-nyln~ figure (Franklin. Juri and Hoover, 1974) We are currently modifylng lnputs in this mode}. and assessing the potential impact of alternativa tnter.ventlons in this ~o~e. Some of the input data ara estimates, as are the potential increases ln yield as a reBult of the interventlon. Following the oarve~t ln Saptember. actual field data will be substituted in the modal in place of the the nutritionsl status snd potentia1 changes in the diet are be1ng evelueted.At the natione1 level, we ere becoming ecqueinted w1th the policies snd sPrc1fic functioning of credie, price support. marketing end other agenciea whose I dec1sions and activities directly affect the amall farmer. The relationship between requ1rements for credit on the farm. and the real nseda and capabilities , of the farmer to meet these requirementa are under atudy by lCTA agronom1sts and CIAT eellaborators in the zona. Realístie recommendations for credit policy based on field experience with production alternat1vas in tha zona w111 be proposed. Ihe impact of price structure and market ava11ab11ity for the ma~ze crop la ~lao e crit1cal factor for the amall farmer. and one which w11l warrant sttention. ,Ihis zona in Guatemala 1s af dlrect interest ta our Systems Team, and , use of technology, monthly lncpme, resldence on the farm, and total investment.Most agenc~es used one or st most two of these criteria to define wbo 1$ includ.ed 10 th~s group, the \"small farmera\" Factora which were not mentioned, or seem to have llttle ~nfluence on how thlS target group lB defined by the agencies, include lsnd tenaney. types of erops grown, tradltlona snd cuatoma, faml1y aize, snd managerla1 sbility. A1though certa!n fsctors recurred frequently in the stated def~n~tions of the agencies, there wss no concensua on how much lsnd, how much lncome, whst level of commerclalization, or the amount of investment WhlCh adequately described thlS group. The ~mal1 farmer waS dlstlnguished by , a 5mal1 surplus in productlon. which ie sold snd the proceeds cap~tsllzed in , so~e forro, as compared to the aubslatence fsrmer whose family consumes al1 the ereps and anlmals produced on the ferm. A detalled blbllography was prepared, snd this wlll serve 88 a resource base fpr our further work in Colombia ln speclflc zonas.V CRITERlA FOR ZONE SELECTIONThe prehmmsry v1sits and limited deteiled study aud activity in two zonas has led the team to certain couelusions on how to focua raseareh strategy snd spe-elf} erlteria for ChOOS1Ug zonas for future involvement. These deeislons are consistent wlth the CIAT philoaophy that research to solve produet1on limit~ng I fa~tors must roeua on the most lmportant of these factora in tne context of the -22lowland tropics ol Lat1n Amerlca, and that resulta of th1S research W111 have little or no lmpact until they reaeh che farm. Both the crlterla for zone selection and the operational strategy for team oparation are dynamic actlvitias, and theae will evolve with exper1enca snd addltl0nal expart1se on the team.A most preliminary clasSlficatlon of the zones ln the humld lowlands of tropical Latln Amer1ca is based on topography and 801ls, rainfa11 pattern and present potential cropping systems which are used in these zones These categorles are more functional and practical than quantltative, and we have en immediate need to quantify the areaa involved and populations dlrectly dependent on these areas What are their current productlon levela of which prlncipal crops. snd how doea this compare wlth potentlal production? Are there addltional speciflc zones wlth agricultural potential which are important ln tropical lowlands of Latin Amerlcs and sbould be included? The need for geographical and climatologic expertise 18 becomlng apparent.A number of criterla on which to base selection of zones for program involvement have come froro the past 6 months travel snd experience. These are the present crlterfa, and addltional experience ln the field and with data evaluation will lead to refinement Bnd modiflcatl0n of this llSt 1 Geographical and climatologlc characteristics conslstent with one of the above llsted categoríes, within the humid lowlancl tropics in Latin Americs.Latln America with a eubstantlsl population which can benefit from the resulta 3. Infrastructure available, but not fully utilized, especiaIIy road systems, markets, urbsn center as sources of inputs, communications, etc.Logistlc convenience, snd sccessibility to resesrch/development personnel ss vell as farmers from s vide sres, if the location ls to effectively serve as s successfuI demonstration of specific types of intervention.S. Large or potentially large rural populstion, vhich could beneflt lmmedi_ ately from succeasful organizstion of use fuI alternatives which would increase production and lncome.Present interest snd involvement of national sgency personnel, whether this la a resesrch organization, exrension or land reform agency, rural development project or other committmenr by the government to development in the zone.7. Interest and potent~al involvement of CLAT commodity program, lncludlng yuca, besns, maize, rice, beef and swine, since ehese zones are potentia1 field testing sites for improved single crop production systems, as well as the integration of these cropa snd anlmals into toe farmer's total aystem.It is expected that mosr zones to be selected will meer mosr of theae specific criteria Both the \"La Ma<luina\" Brea in Guatemala and the Colombian North Coast near Monteria fulfill these requirements e Smal1 Farm Systema Team Focus -32  Although Ob]ect1ves and procedules to reach oúr gcals wlIl cc~linle te evolve through team experience and l\"\\teraction, lt lS posslbJ~ and even useful to speculate on the near-term outlook for the Small F<lrm Systems Proí'ram dnd the activitles ln which we may flnd ()uX'selve o J.nvolved In a typl.cal year  Lacl\"> ~pondant .n   on the 1mpressions of the insideq oí ehe hou~e as well as hO'1 the fanuly is progresslng 1n clearIng their lot fhe olstribution \"hich resultad ig chat 7 \",ould fall lnto the uppLr categorj. 24 In the m1ddle catesory, and 13 in the lower category fhey were then aslted \"rat tneLr 1rnpreSalOn\"were as to how these peopIe \"ere progresslng, ,'ere thcy maklng satisfdctory progress, were they merely defending them¡,eIves adequately, or were they rea11y cIesrly fal1íng in the process to get estabLshed at the Agrov.la? Thelr impresslons as to the progres~ belng maGe were quite optlmistle, sinee they estkmated that 18 were clearly upwardly rr~bile as .      The co~structlon maLerlals used ateBcdloom.Bedroo'll  O\"nS has to ~A \"111 onc ha 1-to Thc ... 0'-' l.n th~ f:¡eJd ):.5 rr ... 1.1~11v do\"e u,\\ ¡\\~n} lh0U{ü J\" ' J. p-::.rl pel10d 13 m~lJ-dr)51 nHP-0 ly 10 Uiln .. d<:.Y 17   l\\?¡)art fro.., ti t, '1CltlteC f .. vn the ',stC\"\",S 1et\"l~ no1. [ro'\" ot.l¡ .... t' 1h(br'\" ltlVe 1 ptrcc.1-vcd <.note,n cr'tl' <:\"l\"'sn lo ,,¡\"\" ¡ l\"l rClP2 '\"dlf-\\-1Il\"I>oq tf'a plartatl en bet\\.ce'i !_ngo M\"na a ld Pucal101 lolapresa,. a \\<toad chiD-Or'\"1CeSS1'1t; plant near Tlngo \"t-arVl,. a largo!'> cooperatlJC for the J J 1\"1g'1 Marla-C'1l'11pan~11.a regl.on, UhlCh lS locaterl '1t Atl cajt'.cu and the oi1 val~ plantutlo!' át Tanantá H .. ,c:tor:Jcally, tI'! Yurlmaguns rf'g10\"l has p\"lrtlc.Lpated ln the n;:,rmul c)clf> of bOj~s [or oartlcul~r products follo\\e~ by a declln~ Jt ~ntelésL ln thcqc ploducts Tha.t 1$ ti) E3y, there: dre tllde fluctual..lons 11' actlvlt.l-éS l.n the \"\\t'1.:Júon The lumbar Incuser)' 1 ~ Sllll \"ood and c?ttla and 1 .:'G \\1~re h<:'lf'&: devcJopcd lh recent \",:palS, but tne 0:;1 b'){'l!. r\"1S be()(l one of the m'\\j')I' factors ln drawlng ¿tlen::lon &'''''-Y fror~ dgllc41tureTh\" standan:.  Tncr'E! l~ aho a sch\":tl!' to onen 5, 000 Ite~tareD ss $ com::rh.\"\" p'1'1ture foe che entire COiJ1lYlUn1ty AC\"cordlng to bot'h peop1\" on lh\", rrc\",\"rty nnd gover,llrent 0[[1C1,15, thcre 1<; very J lllle interest on the oart 01. th\" settler~ In J010H1g t.,is coopetatl.VC A,)pareotly, only 25 to 30 r'milHl<; have shown a¡;:; .nterC'lt \"hats'Jever Neverthe10SS, th,S 15 the favored I.orm of re-orsanlzatlO'1 fOl hll[\\!' ¡..ropert\"';&, so tbe Eoverrunent 18 pJ2.nnhlg lo go ahead !1nd forn che conperatlvc and try to aClrilct people frí'ffi other regions lo settle there I \\ Heanwhile, tha expenment station, \\Hth the jo:r.nt efforts of La Mohnl), th\" Hinistry of '\\griculture,and the North Carolln~ groul's 1$ contlnulllg to fU'1ctlen and elro1!nd the area in use Riee production flucluated belween three and four thousand tons b~t\\leen 1'.160 ano 1966 then _ncrea~ed lapldly Lo a p(l~k of 1:>,000 tons \"0 19/0, at\"d ll1EHl declInad snarply to 1e&s th~n 6,000 Ln 1972 and 73Al'l'arently, a nUMbcr of faci.ors aceount for thl~ fluetuatio', Some pooplo apparentJy lost lt\"terest ln the productlon ot n.ce dg a result of tho sad (lÁperlCnce \"'1th the Surlnam-Apura V¡U1Cty 'Ihuh \",as trLed one )CI!l: at lre \"l<perlment st.atlon and lookod So gl10a th¡¡t the banK pre\"~\\lred a nJmher of \"eop!e> 1 nto usl: ti lt neÁt )Cal Th\", «~athel \\V''lS unfnvcr\"lble and üs thlS ~s a llbht~gensl.tl.ve varlC!tYt the crop f¡nled Neverrhele~s, the \"\"pllnSl(\\ü nf .lCtlVlty by lile San Rem6n people 8l>puu!!ntly OV<,!'cl'Uln till.S \"b,t1.cle ard to(.y ,-onu nued lo \",pand to 1970   ~l:-\".~.s: Rice 18 the only erop ~n lhe ar~a prc-sently be) ng purch\"oed by r:p::;p, bdt bananas ,jppear~d to be lhe m03t prohtable crop lo r;llsc, SUlce one heac nI' sta1k of banands J.8 ,\",orth dppronmateJv 50 soleq At the prasent tlIDe, J\"lbor 18 frl'quert1y pald .l1th one maul, plus one stáll of bananas uhJch they Cán eüher take he!!'c fer thelr 0\\11 ~onsumptlon or se11  A glauce at lhe ralufal1 in the two ,<.u:eaq indicates that 'U n\"o ¡'<ar~a recelves approxl~ately tWlce 2S much ra~n as Yurimaguas durlng lhe )enr, but thal tile distrlbutl0n of rlnu i5 rnuch more ev(.u throughout the yedr 1 u Yurimagua\" < han iu Tingo Hada TIlere is virtually no use o[ fert~llzers, ~nsectlcldes, herbicides and the hl-\" ln the area 1 'ud preparat, on 1S cdrrled out b> tradltl0I':l1 slash auo burn, Ulllng manual labor for t le most l'arL VCly Ilttl€' ~u the ,:ay of certlfled seúds lS available lli t.he aretl Tne 'Jettlcrs flno .lt eaSl~t te cut and our\\.l thc forest each )ear J nreferably secondary g\" ot.JLh) rather th3.u atlt.mpt to control dl se~ses apd \"eed., $ll1Ce rhare are no materIal!> \"\"'llabla to d\", 11:In acdülon te the cOMpetüiou for labor [rom the 011 flelds, agrlcultulal endeavors 1n th,,\" area suffar froM a lael of tran$pOrLatlon to m~ \\ et lhere iHe no reads to IQUlloS or to lhe coa&l., So thcy must elther shlp by river dOI<l1Qtleam to IqlllLo~ or upslredm to Pucallpa, ,,~ere a road connectlon to the ln¡,hlam's ln the CO'qt e ests TlllS riuse' the costs of both lMports and eKoortQ fro!'1 the a1(.1I 'lhe SOCHll strtl( . . . ture of lhe alea C1.n bE' ?\\?rcelved var . . . ous \\ldY8) hut pernllp' the ó1!'1¡l'est lS to \"n'/1810n th~ gov\"rnnent ,ffl'::lals a'1d prof\"CS10l1nl cl:ltss, a.ncl lhc rnrc sJccessful commerc:ull P00ple of Lp8 tOl-]n a~ dI\" uoper cl8,SS, l~ith the 011 pecl,le 1$ part of thlS grol'l,l Ihen lhcv ale lU tom A tuddlE' grollp vouJd connlst~ of tO\\.ln res~Acnts ,.,ha elther (?l\"n tlU!lr llvit\"lg 10 tOí'¡lt or who vW'1 chacr'i$ out of toro l but md.1ntd.ln the {\"J,.\"tul\\ ) eoe;] dencc 10 to In even t;'\\óuSh on~ 01: more meí\\DCrS o[ the fat'111y ma) i e!bloe-durlt}J thc we('k at t\"le cTlacra Th\", lo,esi: grOUJ ,,('uId COnBl.sts nf labCll:crs U1 tov.\\ ~¡ho are not stlb;.e cm~lo)cd \".\",1 the rlbcrcños ,,'ha Lve ~long tll' ShanJS1 dnd otl1cr .t,e, ns ln the :018St1.1'.1.1;, Jast gr¡¡'l? llves by cultlvatlt1(';. bananas, Jl1CC8) and so forth, ,\"nd b. ht.nt.1ng dnd g¡therlng ln the troplca.1 rorest A\" Yunmagua r gt''1vlS a'1d b¿corew d. mOle .:ll:\"l.aC!:.lve urban centel.~ tL)n .lt r.ras os;..,re, mere nnd mor~ peop.!c prefec ttJ md.l.ntal..n t'helr ia¡J.:ll~es in towo whele they can (\"nJo)-the be ... ,,\".tq {)f edurltvm health f\"c1.htle~, \"ld the l.ke ~ LntITl';G F\",CTO\"tS p, PEASAh'T tCR1CULTUI,: m YURIW-:lUJ'l ----011\"11( to che trllPsporat1on nroblems ln gettinf' to Yurlllk\\g\\aS, as '7ell ,\"$ IT\"Udd'} road:;, 1 .,'\\1:) u t lable t0 q;et 8101..lpd and V1S1t as many {prTS d,S I woulrl ha,c ll~ed One three rour >/aU along llie jLngle trlnl\" up iha ~hanllsl Rner froro lh\" (..~perl1~e!'t atatlon allrywed me ta V1Sl.t e¡rht dlffcrcnl home.tcads, but nctLt>d on1y !l male at hame whom 1 couId luter\"\",,,!The othE'lS wpre ouL hunt inS, Ol:' at t.¡orY ~n town One of three roen ~h.l,11 leSldellt (Clt tne HacH.=:nua was al< o 1ntel VJ c>/ed and the re!'1aunng lX were amall farmers ln tre reGlon ~\"ho pprned parl oí Lhe~r l1vel1hood wOl!O.ng a.s vagc Forkers <ll lne expellncnt statlonThe Sl' i <,chnlCUill9 ~utcrVl(lwCG lncluded Lwo Amen.can?h D candlClate~, Rubétl M' &1a, of lhe Hlllls1 ry, and lhrc\" PeruvHms ';Tho \\<lere Braauate o of thc technlc~l h.gh sehaol 1l1,d C\"1ploy\",j lit Lhe a <pen.mcut stprlCJU 1'10 pa1r\"rl co'nparl SOl! ('Ucst10nn~!lre wa o a,lplLed to t h.s populatlon and the rcsults summarl?ed 1n l1'ble 111 belo\", On the Ol1e hand, pca\"ants ran1-.cd 101-7 pnces for tholr product'1 as the. most 1mportant °lngh factor, whoreas lhe technlCl.anS ranJ... ..At the other e'{treme, peaBanL'1 felt lhat adeqúutc ff'ed fOl thelr ammals \"as vlH'Ially no probl€'l'l at \",11, Slnee Jand is also readlly a\\a11clb1e However, tN! U~chnlelaos raoked this the soco, d nost sen ous ¡>roblcn [or the regloo :cftsa'1t, '.¡ere also lUuch more concerncd abouL the lael of machlnory .!1'1d equl]Ynent thao were the teCh'11'-~anS Appar~otly, th1g 18 one of tho'i P ca.qes hhc.re) rr0ffi tÍ\"'e technlce.l pC'lnt of V1ÚW, 1t has been costed out U\\3t clearl\"g lano b} ho.\\1a 1S  )lLlds a nct t)l~oflt oí ovcr L')$l,OOO pet nectare r 1 1e clearl l ? costs f>stlm:Jti?S aSS1im~ that they ~ere clearlrg secondary rrM 7 th a'd not ~lrhln foresl cId that tlere ~s no fertl11 PeC 1 ~nspct1cl~eg, Jlerb)cÁQe~a lrrlgat1on, draltab~ ar stor~ge C0stS ¡'hth tila \"1.lxeJ aSSOclatlol1. he CL21f'lect that thrce weed1neQ pere neccs.:::ar), Lut j í ('o; n l>1er('!' plantad alo 'te after SL\"\"pl) burnlng rlnd planllng, no weecflng ~vllS nC(!-S~ilry al a'], so the on1) other lllbor cost t,a'tld be 111 pH.kl0g Lhe C01U Toe CdUG\"tlondl V've], of the chlldren and Che econOllllC SllCC.CGG of lile f8m.l) are. so [ar o lt oI the 1 J ne '<1 t]1 the a', el age, lna L I w1l1 not p:rescnt l1'c. dala in deld,l] l'he CO\"fln}P!'c1al17atiol 01: productlO\"1. fol1o ... ~~ tJ..vO dlffcrent routc:s, accord Jr..? to the Cr\",j\"\"\\ RlCe lt> {he onl) croo wl1lch CPSt tnl1 ¡:nll':-chlCC at tpe pre .... cnttll\"C and it (')thet goes te il prlvate or l' cooperdt.ve 1'1111, thao 18 t18nsfcred to tnc Banco ai.:! La 'l\\laclón I:nd 19 sold up rlVc.r Lo pucallpa for the SjpltO t Ol:\" 113 consumed lúc\"!11) On tlle other rand, othel. pt'oductn su(''b 8.9 corn, be-anq, }UCC9, snd b~\\\",nas ge te eLcher a ooaLro.an or a lrtlc¡\"cr \\lh\" plcks thmn 'p nn thc rlver or on the loid 'lnd then seU, them te a \"holes~ler «ho theo paS3\"\" thcm to lhe letaJ 1el wha seU then to t he flnal CO'1Sum\"r As mentloned earher, p ... ople ,..,ho hlre labor ,er] frequently pay them off wlth banan:.q llnd by-pass LhlS whole latter chalnCred~t ls ~vallable througn lhe Banco de fomento Agropecuarlo al 7 pel ccnl for loans up to 150,000 soles, <) per cent frol\" 150 to 300,000, and 12 per cent for 300,000 or mor~, plus'} pet cenl eL\",,\" SSlon on thesc latlLt' loans ThQ on1y cre<ht problem ment:1.Oned by farm,;t'G ln t).¡e area w\"s tnat occ~slonally credit la gl.V2'l \"o late that 1 t can' t bE' effec Llve J y Ull hzed durlng lhe Clopplng season TINCO ~t4.R lA One \"r tne prlmary purposes of Vl sl.ting n¡,go M:¡rHI al th,S tlf1e \",as to aLtend the R¡.utl ón Técnlca de Pregramac~ón SODce n\"511rro110 de la Agrlcultu!':l re!'cnne en ,,1 frópico m:'\"edo Ar'er~~l\\no, a su:: f<dtl0n co~i\"rcnce sponsur<,d by Lh,' JI sn tUlO Interaf1cri<7rn~ de CH!\"C~a$ Ag~í.colas de la OEA and tlle ,hnlstl'Y of Arrlculture of Peru 111\" seeOl1ú purpose He, to V1Slt 11th Jugn off'Clal~ 1n Llma and LCI look aV\"r sorne dOC\"l~ents 0'1 tite ared \"fe\", or th<,,,e ofLc¡¡üs adVl~ed al? ilrst gOlng to 'lu'tgn ared as 1 p]¿:Cf:' to Vl(>'Y-1 c\",le'nlzatlor ~I1Pce th . . . . & J S an atea tnth a lOG6 hlC'lol)' of f3tlurú':; ln lht. enlo i:l7dtlon effort !nat 15 ro sayo 1n bP.te of efforts go1ng back to Ine 1940's undel' Prado's flrst gove:rmnent, 1 t 1 <, stl11 an U.rea of r-et emlEr\" L) on to t:he coasl raLrer than an atea of lnMlglatlon fl'o\"ll the Slerr, The d, ff\"re lee 1 n ra,nfall he t\"ee'\" the lurüld¡,uag reg10n and thC' Tlrgo harta re:glon 1$ noted 1 n Tabl <! 11 ab,)ve 1.1-;\" 11ngo llnrJ.u regl.en lS also hl.~.Jlet\" ana mo\"'C oonunt'iÁnOllS than lro Ylltlmapll'S reglo11'1 addltl.On to thc el, r,dt1c eordlt' OllS, tite nortern parL of lone 9 1$ vcry 'l1UC!' orlentcc to ~ubslstcncc look~ng 'lt L.one 9 1.~ a tr.húle, 80 p.n\" ce~l of lla agt' ~ culLural producllon lS cOllsumed locally, 18 per cer,t lS ~(lngumed 1n oth,r l'~-ts of Pcru \"nd 0pl) ¿ per c~nt J' (H,?orlcd Bclt wben ,,'e dlvicc. th,s lllto 'l'lrthern and southl.rn sub-/one',) then v7e ílnd t\"\"Hlt ti: r: northc.rn ¡>;¡rt of 7;,Yu(;!: 9 consumes 91 l'er cent of I1h.t 1~ produced l!) l!¡at ¿o'\"e, \"heteas 1l tite 8euLh onl)' ¡'alf 1$ cC'nsu'\"1~J trI. tl at l\"\\~g1.0n, pan o: trll..s J.S VqC to lr:.c b~Lir-r trr~s J\":'''''t.Á .... {)n fa.c..llitl.es ava.l-lable ;tl the soutb '''¡lLl) roao C0tlnCCllOl1, to b.Jth t~0 sjt~rra ..lId to the ccnc¡t\", so th'l1 ev~r hul~c'\\ JtC01S '3lch ~t; nlarrt\"'t'lfl A.rp o:;hll))erl to othl r zone<; and v.txtuallf a11 of the cofj(..c, c&co.o, rubbct\"; tcbacco, coca ard t~:i are conSUMen ~n otiler p~rts of l'1e country Ot eypolte(l ir€\" onl) lt'l'lJor e'{f')Olt írom tJl1~ reglon ).~ cof[ee--80 per cent oi tn<:> crop ,$ C'xpOlted Al1 of lh\" cotton cro? 1 s expm tecl, b\"t thl < lB onl} J, 7('0 tons \\fOlle 111 t'l1S re!p0n we Vlslted lhlee dlfferent l) rc.s of <1JllculLural orga\"11ZaLl0t1 19 a g.LO ,~), and 1 has able lo gct out to VJ '3~t 00(1 8\"1&11 JndlV){.!ua1 opcratlO\"1 There 'lre 12 cooneratJ.;r( s In the Tlngo Mf).r~a\",Ca.mpanllla re~:pon of lhe Pl.lalJ'1La f\\:lvcr, n10 aCCOrdlt1L td of'f)c~als) al dvcras.8 nUl11iJer 0(' membAr~ l~ apprOhll'lalely 40, \\hlh a ral'ge oelng 18 Lo 100 'lhL. 01 tg1\",\"1 COlO'1hatlol was 1n Hl1Ch yeoplc ,\"¡C\"\"'C glvet' lj Lo 50 ¡\"cl'lrl?fi ellc1 ~o;:~e 28 farr-l.lvJ.s WE.!e brought out wltn a gre'1t aeal (.[ publicltj fro l l' LlI':-a oarlladas, [\"lven (jo.ne lools anA qo¡.,,, foed • • nd tren aha'1doned111\"-y are '10\\' 1m.gel:;-1n che cattll' busines>, hut appro nm~tcly 25 pa eent oi the COmmUl11ty be 1 0l'g5 lo the COG,' OfhC>ills Clere not optlm13tlc about tne progrE-ss belf.¡\" mad,' b¡ the coop~ l.n the llrca and Lhey Ñ~re tr) J 11& to orga!.l1 /0 COOp6 a.lnilE l...hrep. d~fferent 1111(\"$-'\" 1) cattlt.> 1:'8.1 Sl-ng 2) C¡Cl\"V1ceS, f>u~h as l'tPCtOl\"5} processlng, dud provls1on of ,nputs ano 3) crop productlon re spem\"d to me, 1n looKlng over the sitUS,-lO'1 Lhere, thal the 'H . . cond t)pe-of coop stOOü thc Le.sl cnd,1ce of SucceGS Slnce lL ,\"euld offcr vital \",,,,ces 'u eh ~c chaln &i\\\\,q as '-lcll :lS the oosq,b¡llly 01 lnduQlnahzl'1g produCl\" furthcl in the J\\.ngle regHJ \" thereb¡ \",~n\"rat:Lng emplov,\"c'1t far that ,rca Al lhe pre~ent tLme, th\"y are begLnnlng a b<g Centr1.1 coop at Ac~yaeu, \\,'uch 15 to (lleOorage tl}e cultlva-Llorr of SO'l beans and proc.esq the eral' nght thereTnere ar\" also proJcets to b<'gln á sbus,htcr house ana freczlng plant to hand1e be\"fThe Aca.,aeu ('entral also haq a rlce '~lll to try to gel ncé estabbshcG ln rile at~a . ,1r.e CO.JpS in trfl' t'(gl,on havc t ot sucC'eerc,1 ln gUlnlng acCepCrlrlCe Di t1l~ tarmers, So a r(>latl .. ely sm'l:.ll percettt.:1ge are afflJ lstf'd i'here Viere tre usual r<:.ports about coa? ofhelal<¡ COllCLLlog fuoo\" fro\"ll the nem')ers .1\"10 thcn abscondlng wLth tne funds, d\"d tI>!' usual denlals by government offlcHlls that an)' quch tlnn6s ever happencd A second tipe of operatl0n I'E' 'lls:tted was a teacstdtC' Ln the Lntcnmedlatc. stttge bet'Wec.-lt thp cxptOi\",¡, laClon fIOM Lile pr:I'. . .?te o,.¡ncrs nr d the >'JstaLllsh\"rt.nt of a formal coo¡'-erc.t1 re D'll' J ng 1..111.0 1 l\"'ter\"\"¡:.Ul ?Le stagc ) t 1 S beL'1r; rranaged by ~llnlstry ofÍlc¡al, fram t l 1e 1J.grdn1r, ,lcforl1 who ate tl yln[l ta gct l t sct up Alld funct10 'lub as a ~GorJcrat1.v(í ;h1.8 u?sl ouid 3.0PI ar to mi! thc eat.nest t)-pc of act V:1ty that t11C g,)\\'linn.\"\\ \"1l COJld un lÚltaFo, Slncf\" l.t' I,.JR~ able to fl'''-UrOprHltf.! a \\.¡elJ-ct)vi;?o)ou\"úc.s .. L.\":: h'hlC~l ha~ b<..en estaLllsheu for ovcr 10 'Vf\"n:rs tlrd phl.cr' conLal ns a modct.n, teL.h .... ~vlogl< .. ,ill t!l)-LO-Cel..f' t2<:> uroCC$!:p nf' pl-:.nL \\i.llh qy 1l1ecl tc.chnlclans al1uI.ay on bOil d :;:, t't ~ casE., th<1'(, a1~ 375 bLctureq o~ le'! that h.?s bt?en ,,,ell (.1:\"tabllshed and v'!:!] 1 e lled fr,r u¡ un orea Vf!.Ly apnrOprl.lte f0r the cuJ t~~atl (1n of tl at crop As a C01l11\"\"<'1:l1 COI1CI'rn. l t was f l., her é(chanced I..hnL tl,e San RaT1lt case .t.H YUl.irnag\"Hl~ ar'd the ... 'ovc..lnt1cnl lB BYtrernelv ('oncarned not lo let l t f:aJl loto tlSUSC as Wl& t'1e Ca.b~ ... lth Lhe f1aJot' opcratlons at S~n R'lmón í:} prefore , L1H~y nuve stePi1ed ln LO ke0? thE. opc.ratJ ('''1 go ng untl1 thC'v are Sur\" lhe¡ h-\"\" \" coo\"\"'-at,,e org~n17_tlon \",¡'len lS capaLle Di furlctlo1-ll\"'g ThJ:~ ?lantatlOlt 11o~g \"\"ltn ,..l¡e Le.a plalltdtlonJ: ln LnC' \\...JZCO al..l:~a supoly all the ratl')ual rnal1 .. E't. ..-J1.ll• t~'i dnd a moc.est ?moUnl f')l c'port That: ~s 1 « say, l..he '1'<\\ v rt.g . . . . an;;: oí ~-'e ... ,J pt.:; \" ,..~ a tot'll 1,500 tOl'\" of 1 e\"'. ni wl'lch 1J 200 lB conSutr\"2u ln the nat~onal f\"\"J.r 1 el lhe rnvernment has lece.~v(',,¡ offcrs íl-o!.n C'h;Je and l Á e'{lt.o to b t) 2J,U0Q t0n .... of ted J l.;uL toe coaCC ... n at l!,ü rnonflpt 'lS to na~ntaln natl.nnal producI...J\",¡ \\o\"-,,tho ... t f ..... V~.,'5 te (\\ . . . . p~ld to ~all,fJ the~r posslbl]ltlPs ln tp? 1P~ern~tlo ~l Tar~el r~e offlc~als 1n crarge oí thl.s opcr~tlon ,~ere t:;0'112 hat 'nort \\ fled lo n'lve-to call dttcntlon to thc maJor p10bJem .h,H. el ey >!ere hav~ng 11\"' ¡,eU lng tl1e coop eslabJ j \"hed T',,-y lave becr' unable te. dtlra<..t seltJels tú l.1.v(, on t'Pe p18nL'ltl0n E.Ht.hel loc'tlly or from tht.. ~lerra Af:\" a resulL, tney ur<-1 <?vln~ lo brlng an) laborcrs thc\") e~n ht'd. 'hethJr old people or hUle chllC:rcn as !:~,,~..!'chadob (hao! ed) 8 ¡ labor contlacts ílCrTl t.ht:» S1.erraTh~S 1\" a ... radltlona] S'\" stE.\\! Lh.lt 18 vlc.rt:ld as lngnly s.bt.stve by the governrp\"'>l t, so ~t 1.J-e&pecloJ 1) mortiívlue; for thGm to have: tú resolt te tl1e bBme sy'3tcrn ~n oropr lo keep tl.e t(>a product.l0n t.p As lnCenl;¡ve:& te at-tl.qct laDor .. not onlv 1S lhe QoVetn\"i-C1L off~'l' lng '1 srarf' of the pr('flts, uut t 1 8t they d!\"<-a1so con~Ln~c.L.1ng l\"H.!o;;,¡ ho, .. u:an b , and ha.ve labor ln uage~ rhey are \\lHng Klldzll Jegume for glouud covel JI1 the 'l1s1e~ betwpen the pl,pts, and they are! hlnk] 'lg of the pos,~bll1.ty of lntroduCl'lg cattl<, ln the future ¡fuen the ne.~ poce%Jng plant lS cOll')leted, they\"\"pect to be ah1e to fu11y proces~ tre 011 for ~lllplllc.nt to varlOUS pluces 1n the natloMl rw.rket (lne of th1' m~st seri'an'\" featureq oí ag-'cl1lturc 11' the Tingo H~r1u reglon is Lbe fact tilat llley planl ver} sleep slope'l and Hwarlably use vertical lOWS I'Unnlng sttal.ght up und doun thE. &teepCflt part Tl'ié loc'il cxolanatlon glvcn íor th:ts ]$ thal the lalnfal1 ,q qO rellv\\ and the Qlop<\" so stN'i' that they hav<, lo pl mt tl1J\" \"'ly Jn ordc.r Lo:> vee\\, tile 1a1.n ftOM calryl.ng off ti\" planls lhlh cee~s lo be a clcal lracie-off lnClcatlng a prcferepce fo~ 1099 of top so~l rather than 10$s oE planto Ap¡,~renLly, COl1tour plCl\"Lng \"ould lead lo accLuulatl.(>n ln lhe ro,,, In!h malor \",,,tel br<?.!lKthl0Ufh and dcep !,ullics rather tha'! 1 llgl-¡ler <.wd 1085 \"'0 ng do m beldeen e\"ch ro\", Sllll11arly, lhese slopes ar!! so st<'ép erat .lt w~ould be dlff cult Lo 3ive tJ-'(l plant (no'J&l\\ suppot't on tle clownhlll slde to be abl\" tú reS1-t the '''Ashen!> \"ffect of the nn-off 1 v~s\"\"ted \\'1 th onc ratpBr succes~ful sntal1 [ñr'UeLt tJho hao 75 hectdres 1n lJasture v.lth 120 c1.tLIG Ht.)'\" swpl)lc nuntlnt:' tf1C: pa~t1Jr(\":t 'lhlCh lB var;501il gras\" t ..::tth othBr í<...eo Ht. ult;o has n cJ.trU$ crcral d and a YU\"\"Cli flour llU1ht de lCil .... es no YUC(.d. at the prc.sc?''1L t.ure, Dut ma . . . . . uíacLures Yer) ílne po d(!t:' PhlCh 1s u1:'cd JO ');nnt é'nJ a coar Ll grdnul*;.r vroduct íor f00dHe lO an outaldhdlPg lnU1V1dllal 1U the regla!' \"ud 18 ~t rO'lgly O?¡lO~(K to J01nlng any COop Slnce he see~ nOlhlog to g¡hrt fr0m pdrt1clpatl,'& 1n /), COop \\Htn ruch les& succcs<,ful íarmers The mall1 probJ ems lhat he perceJ.vc>d hom lh~ 11st \"<:.le 1) !JcarciLL9..f ct'E'..d..!..~The prc-b1em hcre l.S n\"t so mu_ti the l.nLcrest ::ctC' ,.¡'blCf' 1$ J0:\" ~J,t 1,-'.:1'1(.1 1...l10 d~l~.l.) o:l'1d loc\":> ,-.,[ tu>,e in t~ylng ln 'lt'Y'.(1n~e lhc loan nnd eh\" fact th:lL loaos flcqu<?ntl)' Lomes to') late 1n tr,e Séd'''\" to USE-2) Poor ~oil at nl1-~essentl\"lf) 80'11\" <}f t 1 ,e .,nl on h1S far'1' hdS prílC'llcally no 'lutrH't1t o a sand 3) Lo\"..., _prJ_ces for ~'lS product~ He sees fnrmer'3 l.n Lhe 'lrea cj,,JgIJt J.t1 a bind 'vhere tl'B DrlCCS of lhn produc\\.'1 tl ay gell 'n\"€ fi)eJ ~y lhc govcim\"'crl, hut lb\" pnc~o of a11 of the t''1083 th<?V huy, lnc1udll1g 11\\1'UL9, are l'ol, so tUllt they are caught In a squeeze betv!pn rJ sing C,l~ts anu the [1){eO l'rlCe~ for lhE!lr products, \"nth l\"e cO!1_equent 1l1ab1l.ly lo pa&s 00 r~s,.nb costs lo lhe CO'1SUrler l) Poor ¿Jet fUl: h, o anlma1 0 he has to sUl'pleMent lt a good dL,,¡l to keep hlS an:1;;;;iIs-looklng good Il; se 11 S a11 of tt'C ml.lh locally, bul (,Olll'laln& tbat suppleMcnt 1$ eXpc.l1Glve and hard Lo get Fe carle lo the rcglO'l from Aban,-\"y as an 1n<11<'I' after hnJ_shinf Ill~ m.htar) <;elVlce ('vel t1<l'e, he ha~ bought thc f .rro thaL he has al1<1 1 a~ recenred authOrJ ~atlOn flo'\\l Ref'1rm. hgrar1a to 1101<1 on to J Leven thOll¡;h he hao s11ghtl} over 100 hectares One Jndlcdtor oí the SUCCCSq thilt he las had in lllla area 15 that h~ has twú &onq at the Un1vcr~lt) oí L:uB-i and l ' abIa to %nd them 5,000 soJes a ¡no\"lth to rnl.lnlllln them iu school Unhke most cattl\" ranchers in the area, he produces nnlk oot beef, and I \\ J -11sells onl)' 1115 old and non-productlvo anl''lal'l for beef in\" up a herd ano .mprOV1l1g hl.s \"astur\"\" as he lnterds He 1 S graduall) bu.lctto stay 1n a dalry tlne One other bnef V1Slt ,lth sot\"e Canadll1I' Cathoha illlSS10narl€S Y1eldec' one 1utcrestl.ng pOlnt of V1.C\\<1 ~n lE\"'ipect tú tÍ\"lel r comonratlve expcrl.C!ncc ln the Comas llnnada of Llma \"lud lU Au(.ayacu lo botn places the) are teach,rs .lll tne s~ho01 syqtem Compurlng thcJr eYpC1.1enCeS In tré two pl\"lct?s, lhey ha\\e found that tha ch1ld,en In the iLIca)'aC\\l 5uíf, r a nuch greater degree of I'lalpu-trItIou tllan tho\"\" ln Comas, and ar<, 1 ud' less devclopea 1'1 ySlr.ally \"lnd m~ntallv thao the urban ch.ldren of the saMa agC' COllFE{rNC;:; Oí', PEllliN:-'CS n Thf Ah\"RIC'l.l-< T\";OPlC'S ,10 attempt Inll be made hele to SU!'1.'i.t ve all oí the lssue~ dl ¡¡atisBed duri.,g tnls confarence, Slnce a cOMplete COp! of ,,11 p'lpers ,u,d recoffi.'!l,mdatHJ!19 lS 00 flle 10 the SystC'l'S ofIle€!NeV€\"l Lhelesq, 1 \\<1ruld :Out r orp di:te Ll'i'1 \\ 1.'; fOC1j,~.:oCC1 on t:he úf.l'cd foe davelo!l'11ent ef 1lch thlngs as J,.no\"led\",G of ho\"\" tC' t'l111~C the cm 1r'1nmc.nt, nc'\\y varlo;->lJ8S ad::qJted to lhe cnVlrCnf\\1ent, and \"111 of the <;erv~Cf., &uch es t t'illl\"pcrtat ... on, m'1.tket1ng~ 'lv<:'11<lhl11ty of ~flpUt9, l:lb::.r scarc1.ty, cred1.t, storage fac111l1es, m~chln(.rv, and the 111::; bame ~ttentlon \\<1<11 de\\ oted to the problem of laok oí pr:tc( s~opert conol~,ed lnth thc d\"penc'encc en l>otld matkct ;:or most of lhc perf'pnlal crop. rPlsed ln n'e tropl~S Cles!?l> 11 tGrrelated wlth th\"se last-'Ucnt:toned [acto.s, lE lh!'! u.'rdcnc)' Lo over-raspond to f1vm.able pl:'lCPc; llrd €:rL;:'IoJ1S}' ~,g,rgc 1\"1(\\ úlantat2.ons, 'V'hlCh th0n bes'!.. í r l .... t for r!1:lny years 'IhlS lnablllt) oí tae 2L()V'ers oí pet'c\"1null c:rops to re<¡p~ d annuall 1 to ch~ngc.. ln denand Has dHe ,ss\"'\" at varlo,18 pOlnts i r the oonfcumce and tnc.. beneLal ,-OilCJ.Jt~On ~laS t'18t J ntcrnat:1onal prl.CC agr p ;?'t!'t{,'1.t<) woult\\ h~ve to h\" reaehed bQfure l rd, vldual govert-mC,l!:S could erfer the m.(A¡!~SarV pncl? support Lo mal.rtaln lnterC~1. :iP varlOU,c croos Th~ nature of the tropical forest en~Áro~~nt ~tself ca~0 111 [or S?~C discusS.lon and Sf\\Fle lhffcrcnces of O'f>1 ¡11.QP ~S to t.he t:;criou.~nas& of V?l ~OUG probl,,\"ls CVldencc \\,,'15 cllcd that trO¡l1Cal so115 do not leac], out thc mlOerals as much as has b<:.( n belleved in the pasL, ~lnce they rea11y do nol hava thcm to be'\";l.n ¡.¡~ch Bla<;co clted ll,e ca~e oi a Bugar plantdtlon ne~h LetlcHl '.hlCh 15 '.>0 yInrs old, rnd the &0115 en th(' plantatlon have lile 0<l¡ ~ mlneral contenL d.< ttlose oí t ne forese peal:\" che plantatl0nAl'p:1rently, on1) 5 per cent of the nutrl<~l'l\" oí che ¡no~\"ss oí the trop~cal forest CO\"'1e from the so11, the r('~t be1.ng fl,n air, waLer, 2.nd org.nle mate\"r cdllght ln che rapld re-cycllng pl.oces~ Tne need to r<lp_dly r<,-cycl~ leal fdl1 \\.;at; glve~ $lona etLent1.on by r{óprcsentat l.Ves of .... evcra.l countllG.S vho cc...l1ed attcntlon te lh\" facC lhát they are ralslng as -n:lny ¿a tntec dlffcrent perennJ.al cr<\" s ln tI'c same fli'lds wlth lhe taller opes SJpplylng ohade for the ~hort(>r ores Tll~ comblnatlO'1 o( perclUllals 'leens to be an eCCll01l1cally-or1('ntcd ,mlt'ltlon oí the natural f01(;5t cyale Pcrcnn1al o seem to be a good ¡.¡~y to get COlO~lsts to ce~mlt themselves te sta}' ln a glven area, SUlee a long perlÓ;;! 1S i1ceCJed to get the full pay off [rom thelr labor lnvestrnentOn the other pand, some representatlves íc.lt. thatprc<\"lsely becausc of tho. t¡rrc dela~ )n relutn on l.nvC\"stmcnt, man\" peonle t.¡ere un fllling te 6cttle Jll tilO Jungle area AnoLhet\" advanta'~(. c\"\"ted for u$1.ng three dlffQre it ;J,,~ennl.11 crops 1r. th\", .Il'lie are'a l ~ that ,l It,lves tl e far!'i(>r thrcc cIJllnccs on the '.orld market J ath~r ti'an cmeHúst oí thE ?f>rcnn.tdl cronS d~ scus'3cd are not baslC ±oJd crops, nor are they baslc cO~Jn~dltH's 1n thé cOLntry \"f prod,,,,tlan Th.refore, lhey nor'l'~lly cODtrlbut~ l1ttlú t~ Meeting the ba~lC nutrltl0n31 neca~ oí the natlon where Chef are pr\\1~uc:pd} hut ara tstner 111.en\"\"ed to provld . . . . ng toe fOlf\"l~n C'Áchangc nrcdp<! fOl d-::velo\"Jfficnt lf' v 1 her c;('~tors Sln,-:! tl1e cO'1fe::.\":!nce tvas focuqsed O!1 pernnnHtl <..t'ops, \\.¡e dld not dlhCt.'::.'q )0 '1\"\")' det\"l~l thc.. eomblnatlon of pPTf\\nn'lslg wlLh pa,tulcS or perenrnals ,¡.th lPnLlll food creos Vllrl0ut:; spea'kcrc¡ '(\"al ed tllC J (\"SUL oJ: devel(\\~)lng prOCe'1S1ng pl\"nLs ln the ar(eq of nl,d~ctln~, not 011\\ lo RLnlc~e aE mI eh v~]ue added a' uosslble 1n thc CQUntTv of product1f'<n, but to }f'\\'J40V' stor.:ige POS~)bll1tle~, rcdu<..c bul1 for Sil1PPH1L n'1d} throu;:;:h both of th~sc, te off€t t-helr f0vernmLnLs uetlpr p\"o,~lbd ltlPS ~f ¡¡,..atant\"E!lng pt .c,,~ fo, mOl e ~loreable prnduct\" ?eru 15 n the pr0C\"\" of ~ P1!lJor ,ocl<11 trarSfal\"l'lltFm oí vlrtuall) all l'1'l.{)orli1rot ln . . . . . tJ lut'l.oodl c: lf\"l\"l)lex:es 1he: goverrmLnt ha~, 1l1ounced lte;; lüeologv and pollelCS 111 order to 1'3ke II cle~r as. to \\}l-¡lch a<'.\\occLt.i of the ohl '\"'y(¡.lem '''e to b\" el ~In'ted ald tr.e Droc{dures for aéco'lmllsmng ltIdeoJ\"¡'lcel declslnns ,:1<; to wh~l nflen<J to De (1111<: are: lna lo at th~ top levels 0f g':,ye r n.'11t:.út; pl~I\"ung stratc.gH?S 'lOS' l'1 h1v' tu do lt and hn J to lntc&rate each nrf'\"'glam lutJ t.h~ overall plan fo,\" ,()( lal tr~..,' íornatlo-¡ al<' l'ade by Uf! pl~nOlng egeoc,cs \"111 .lstrJeg n ld other organll'rlll0n c arE' then rcsponsJblc fol\" f\"ÁPCULlon ,nd rmp'amept ltlnn of the J'arlOUS pl<'H'I1:\" Pcru J s DO ... l In ltS <:>'lxth )'ó?nr '1( rhe pr.,c\\?'~s .\")-!\" tjqP-SfO\"\"\"\\~Ll, t~lth ~\"\"'lf;; M1,)\", rc:fO-\"lS s:l111 Jrt tri} pl'l;'l\"\"llJ s!:ti;C fhB pr¡ccdure C1n thu~ tiú .. dl y be <.hnr.act\"erlze as nha::.L\\ n or IfHnDetuollqff At 1:.rr':Ol}ent~ rile top ttv\"ü 'eveJ'3 menl10n@(1 R.hove rf->¡••un bas1c f11th 1n hOfh t\"he pllrl'oses af'd the !\"ech\"usm for ,tt\"lOl.ng the He<\" struclur('s af SOClil'tv they de~lré Tl-e-efore) wl (>0 -per[oP\"l,snce JS t10t l..tp to Rcceptúole leveis, l t \",ti assumed to be tl fallute of exe\"utlO'1., not oe33pn T11)<' l~ oVldenl . . . ti thc ra¡nd turnAvel of pE'r9~n-¡el In t\"e m~nlstrle~ ,md othvt\" Il<;cnc~es char,ed wllh ll~?lementatJ an of '()ol1cyIf tI ~ rlght CO'1\\blnatio\"1 o!: {}ersonnf'l é..nd proccdures cannot be found to lmnlement lhc nel! pohcu's a~d sclve e,u9llng ¡noble!U9, lhen a tc-(!xanllnallO[¡ oí the n¡>ttlre of t'1 ... pré'blpms mv:l oLhet polle! elletnCltl\\C~ w1l1 be l<Hlulred TlllP would De 11 costl J ane p&lnful proceqs, g 'en the t'1odght and úffort ~x:pended J h develoiHng thfJ pre5t.nt pIaD} <1(' _t lZ not sUl\"pr 81n{; thnt con~lderablc effort ] a dlr<.cted toward maklng lhe basl c deSlgo \\<,(\\1\"1Pr<.sent d1fficulL1es have not requlted 10 a 10Qs of falth ln thú slogan Hthere. 1. s no deve loomen!' Wl thOut t ranSforw1.l1 011 11  l\\lCVclrtné les:::, ther0 1$ gr(\\v'lng eVlde\"lce that 1 t lS qu~te posslble lo have lUl1t,formatlC,n w] tbOllt develop'11snt Successfnl trd.nsfot'%'1tl0n of LXl<;llúg sect')rC3 of agr cullure wll1 contJn..¡c to cllny hlghcr OrlOrlt} lhen 1 develC\\;>m<:;tlc of Oel. arpas ln the Juoi,le far a varIct) of reasonsThe cost oí eqtabllslnog lnfra-structure 1t1 the Jungle, --sueh as roads, schoolq, health facllitJes \"md th\" lüE. JS e'tromely hlgh, glven the 101< poptllaL1on density \"nd the ly,' stag p o[ rlevelopmcnt at the presont tIme, ¡>opulatlon den!l_t; aggravatos the sltuation notad above, but algo lndlcat,,~ lhat the urgencv fúr solv1ilg agricultural 'Problena 14111 be feIt flrst on the coa~l. tb.:.n 111 the SlE'rr\". and lasl Ir. the JllI gle Na\" fonns of productl 'e organlzatlOtl<; MUSe b\" mada to ',ork therC! betore they are tned out ln the Jungle, Slnee tbe ¡>e~ple are aIread)' th\",e aud tue !1'.aJor COl'lmerCl11 productlon far 111tlonal and :lnternatlonal ¡rarycts ,L'\" also thele In the COil3t and ln tlle hlghJa!lds 1) ProbleFlq a~s()cl'lted ,,,rh retallllrg far\", labor, techll1c.ul and nanagc.nal personnpl Ul 8grlCt,ltu't'\"e on the coaSl and Slelra also need hlgh<'l prlorlt) Horeo\"cl, iE thcse problc'1l~ are not solved In thos(> areas ther<:> lq l,ttle llkelipo ,el of be) Pg ahle to :.lLtt 'lct settlü .... s lechnlcl()'1S sud ffi'lOagerlal per~flnnel to tha m~re d, ffJ.cult, J solatf'd enVlronnent oí thc ,ungle fhc continulng role of urban m1gratH'Hl anu ernlBl'1tl0'1 oí prq[t.ssio\"1al pE\"rsonncJ fron agrH . . . ultur(~ ln(l)cal~ lhdt the 1 ~ght COrrtDltl\"1tlO'1 of 111cenllVes h\".ts not y¿:t t>cen f0Upd<t nar 1118 ig.t..epm ... nt been leacred '1S to b'1th tbe proper \"nd necessnry dlstrlbüt . . . . vc ,,\"ares wl\"ch shouJd LO te each sk,ll 10ve1 reqllll:-ed III tJ:.e pro'¡uctlon pr~cc\"s 4) (,')vernme!\\!. polle) ~eekq to 1Vo d the d\"\\,,lo¡Jrrent of l\"lrge s<.alc agrlcultural pro;ccts di thc-jungle ln lhe handq of t 1 1E-' lH\"'lvPte sector, presmnablv te 3VOld the devcL.Jl.vnent oí a ne\\11 lapded ellte t'l,crc., \\1hlCh WCJ1d corrC>'\",poni' to lhf' O'1es 01\" the C::1\"c:ct an\"1 \"\"lerra Wltl<.h h'lve b\\?'cn recently over~ tt-rovlH Lhrot.gh aglarHln relúrrn. \\et, the onl~ accept\"lble for-nG: ale appHl(.rlJy tho&e of smsl 1 \"cale 1nde¡:>vndcnt f\"rmer and l~l!:e, ~late-controlled cc>cpt.r..!-tlVC\"'\", Tharefo::e, lt 1.5 ap:>arent lhat the pr}vatp sLctor 18 not expet.led t\"l contclbute Slg\"lÁíl.Crlotly 111 tII€. d€..veJoOl.e1t of agrJculture anyt..1H:,:re ln tne CQUntlv 5) The tc.~hnologjcal ',)roblems of aplculture ,n the JlIngle remain more 'enOU$ th1n tho~e of eltper the SIerra \"r the CO&'t o) Finall' lhc lo\" p 1011ly oi ~\"lleultur~l d~ve.lonm(nl \"f tilo Jungh re'1CHl comp.!lTed IYJth the <'Q8.c.::c aoa sJeY'''';t f'luc..t be c\"o'1<)Jd?r~d 'Wl-t1 ln thL context ot the t'platlve prJOrltlec¡ of lrrlcult't,l.p 1n gcperdl \\-){-a\"Vl&' the: urD~r--'nd~8tT]~' secto•. D cco~te~t l~ mor~ cas)1) org~n1?cd A~d ,a1e mamiebt to the ,,_lvernmént ln the urb,w '1.rf'as that lt lS ln the 19o1al'~ rur.,l are3a 'lhere are SD!l'~ lndlcator ... of labor tlntQst at tl . . . c ptes( nL tlMt?-1.11 VSt'lOUS CltlC~ '1nd tlns 1.1or\"1all) rc.. . . . t lt ln g<WCf'l1¡ ent pre~'iJre to veA? f00d ur'coq do n 1n the clLies, a furl hpI:\" dlSln(.ent~',,~ te á b rlcu1t\\lral devp] opment For the '1.bove. mentlenel r~a,ons varlOU~ govel~~ent offlclals felt th~t the govern'llcr>t l'l !lot l1ke.ly to devote much J.n \" way of attent10n or le'J mrc(.\" te th ... developtcnt o:: thc Jt \"1g1e area 1t The household number corresponds to the number of the map (Figure 1  The data presented in ine Appendlx are approYlmatc ai hcst, bui they do yU2!ld son1e lnlp,'essloD'-of thc ways oí llfe oí the fanuhes ln the vülage Ovel hall of Lhe íamllles lD Cacaotal do not own aoy 12nd othel Lilao the11 rouse 10t Howevo:r, lnost of thcse a\"c. uther wOlkltlg un land helongln¡r to thelY famllles, ol' ihe) rent SOlne land, Ol have tal'en possesslon of land '\" La'> Cruces T,tlC the land lD Las C, uees ,\" shll ln dlsputC Ooly hvelve head of households wer\" leported lo be c},c]uslvely enlployed as f~,llll workels, and a hJ..e llUmber oí hcads of l,ouseholds \"ere elther 1 ('bred, ;vldo'v\", 01 Accordwg to lruo rn1a'lts , ther(. lS only one really largo cattle rancher 1.here, and li we e:>..clude hlS caitlc. we get a total oí apprmnmately l?5 for a11 othcrs ln the vlllage, 01' an ave1age of about 6 head p .. r householdThe large OWDer was csbmated to have 2,000, 3, 000, 3,500 or 4,000 head Genorally speaklng, the largost herds w1thm the v1lla:;e belonged to the owners oí the largest fauns Most of these fannhes faH outslde the sphele of 1nterest of the Sl1lall Farm Systcn1s team Thcl:'eforc, attcntlon was íocussed lna1nl¡ on the crop producilon actlvltles oí sITIall fannersIt should be kepi In lnlnd, however, that ¡nost small farrrH'rs kopt a cow 01' two, plgS, chlckcns and a íew had ducks and goats 'lhe bca&t of bu:rden ln ill1& systCIT' of agnculhne 15 the burro, smce vlYh,ally ,,11 cultlVahon actlvüles are carned out wlth the (polnted shck) and the machete The act1v1tles seheduled assume iha!. the rams really do begln 1n ApnJ when they 8hou1d, and that eredlt 16 avaüable ln the Tlgh t a'YlOUl1LS and al. the nght t11neIn faet, planhng sOlnehmes has to be postponed to May 01 June due Lo the lack oí raIn, and parts oí the sequence are frequellUy 10s1 for lach. oí eredIt Bananas are not normo.lly planied ihroughout a fleId, but rather In a corner, or 1n t.he house plot -4- ---,-,-: --¡--'-;'_'''--,-,-, \"''1 4/ t' ¡)é<:. JI'J/\"o. f~ \"'\\~l. , ~I .-'Ji\" ,rJ.J /t~r l e c,,-;\";_11 f ) _ 1~i'/l.. ,...t¡~ t~Ñ \\J;.Át. 'fJ.J..w S';P CC, N .... .,. J>{'<:. I '¡ArJ r-f..~ m~lrlr,1tv ~\"r JCttV ¡ .. L ~ .... 1.r- ----C-----------------------;...t,\"il..,,'i. $ r ~9 ,;;.> -1Ir \",,l<!.''''; i .. ~ j ,/7f' ,;vIS.IfO\"'-J PL./\"-\" t:. S &:> f\"\"U\\ ----------------------<-<--¡¡M•.--¡;-;-;::;.\"'sr,A'\" r.f.1I/ /I't,. ¡i:wC <' ¡¡h (Jt:..r ¡VéJ 1).1_\"\",.;--+'\" F¿~ lO ~ . . -... llli--~ ~A,.. ,t1..!;J., 1\",{ ');:1  The) e was wldespl<.>ad agrren1cnt that the average sale prlce oí ordll1ary land fOl\" culhvaÍlon was $3 000 per hectare (as compared w1th 20-40,000 por hedare fOl\" tho Ca\"ca Val1ey)The 1 enta] pnco fo\" land fOl culbvatlOn was only $600 per hectare for 18 nlonths, 01' $400 per hectare per yearOn the othor hand, lane! rent8 for pasture 18 $30 per head per month V{,th two COW$ pcr hE'ctare as a normal ca:rr'¡lng capaclty, thlS comes to $720 per hedaro per year, as opposf'd to $400 Per hectare pE-r year for cultIvahonThe rental a\"ld sales pllces seem absurdly low ln relabon 10 ploduehon Mo:rcover, culhvatlng wlthout fcrhhzer takes mOle out oi thc land than does pasturc, yct 1t 18 cheaper to rent fo:r culhvatlOn than for pastu1 e The sltuahon 15 econoffilcally even 1n01'e lrrahond.l when we recall that land unde1' cuItlvatlOn pelds a glcat deal more ln value oí produchon than does grazmgland Thcy cshmate that caen caw wll1 pIoduce $150 null~ por month for elght month6, plus a calíThe value oí tbe m .. 11, lS on]y $2, 4QO per yearThe only explanahan for the relatlve renta] pnce<, of lanu w¡Hch comes to mUld 16 that own(\"rs rent to cultlv2.tors for less In 01 del' to gf't the land cleared Inasm.'..1ch as tho flgureq comnder only a one hcciare plOL w1th three crops, they should understatc average real farm l11COlTlO }'10reovf'r, labor costs may be c\"aggerated SInCO no ono real1y pay'l $25 por day for Jnred labor 1he maJ...ll11Um 18 $20 plus a rru:..al se1ved 1n the flcld More and better econom1C >.nfOJ:1TIl. han wl11 clearly be a fast order pnorüy fOl the SysteITls Program Altbough the sImple wtervlew gUlde used does not yleld very precl,>e econornlC data\" sllnllar approache'l can be \\lsed to rnf'asure value\" and attltudes as fhey relate to íarm famll) pnonhes -7-J 1'0 get SOrne Idea of ihe pla<?c oÍ pToJuctlon goals In the ovcrall schenle oi tn\" welJ-b, lng oí the íalDl ídl.,..1J} In Cae&'0l.2.1, a palTed comparJson ehart wa,> 1're1'a red dlld adrnllnsicI pd 1.0 ihc same elghl ¡n:ormants who g,n, e economlC data Each lÍcrn was pél.lred \\I,th <caeh of thc rerr'~lnlJjg fou1 tcen dnd the pOT'lOn was forced 1.0 ChOOf0 one Oblccbvc ;.'\\', lno:::\" U\"1¡::OJ tant O -8-/The n'ost chlklrg results OL ,he C01Y.p~lJSO¡lS \"re that both ¡;roups a15re.: on Lh8 ovollldmg 11l1portance 01 lJLalth and edllcdtlon, d-ad the Tclab\"vel) low pllOl'lt)' oí the other \"nOn-CL0!10MIC\" v,n,,J,lCsThe onl) ehceptlOn to Lb, obscrvatlO 1 18 that thL CJA T €'xp€'rts gayo ~rpa,el' lln;)ortance to IüD:1l1y ulanmng ,J'an tIle peaqants A IlUlTlbel of tIte. lnfoTmnnts 'vele utbvr past c~llld bedrlng agi? J 01' \\\\ el e 1 ecclvlllg blrt~ (.()rtrol help írom tLc TJos1.a Medlca In CPInú--hcnce Lbe 10WE'1 l.l1ter\" ,t In faml1)' planmng ihan one nll¡,ht e,-pect \\Vhlle In the fLcJd 1 \\\\as constanfJy rep,Jnded OC the preot..c1opahon w>in 1andGetLJ.ng credlí to buy lanel, or getbng securc htlc to lané: aIre.ady 111 use lS of thc lltnl0&t lmportaJlce to ihe111Tncu' wtel Lst In 1'enbnr land 1 s nmch l<\"ss llltense CIAT \",xpe, is and Cacaoial f'lrnlelS C<,lne down on Opposlte ¡ades oí the fence On the credlt qU0sLlon, wüh the fa\"=\"ls strongly favorlllg more lt1l1gterm c1'echt ov<\"r crecht aL JOWCT lntercst latesThe rCH,on<; fOTlh,s chOIce we:re appalcnt AlnlOst all oí tilO farnle:rs \"Nele recclvlng cred'L lrom the CaJa ai o le per cent per month when th\"y us ed to hdYC to pa)' flve p\"r cent per lnonth to the local Hloney-Jepder So they had ahe'ldy acl,\"eved the goal oi lower lnierse lates On lhe othc1' hetnd, the Cala SYSt0111 of credlt 18 not adaptcd to the lllterclopp\"ng systcr:a oí agllculturc On the 110rth coa' t Thcle 18 ahnost no 1110ne)' at a11 io bu)' l¿nd, and \\,hat there lB goes lnto crop 10\"111S v;'1th a SIX lnonth 11n111 fOl corn \",nel t\\velve HlOnths 101' yucca and )'ams S'llce they all plant cor'l at the sanle hlne, thelr loans faH due at the sallle hll';e, wdh a depreSSll1g effecl on corn PI Ices as they all have to seU at the same iu\")E' fhe )'¿m and yucca loan penods arE' too short ror the crops --partIcularl)' fOl y11cca W111Ch lS not 1101'n>a11)' harve¡,ted fol' elghteen months after p1anitngA systcn, of reV01V1l1g credlt, 01 a per1n~nent lIlle oí cl'cdtt would be more c01npatlble wlth the ía1'lnor's need8 under hlS 8)'stelll of culhvabon FIVC oí the clght men In eacaotal ga\\ e wllllllng the lottery frora 9 to 14 of thelr votes They were ihe regular tlcket bu)'er, w1\"0 spent one 01' two thousand pesos ayear On thI8 \"lnvestlllent\" POOl' peop1e, rural and 11rb<11' al1ke, spend more of thelr lnCOlnes on lottC'nC's, nun>ber lackcts, and ihe hko, than do people In the :mlddle clas<;es The 1 cason for ihlS 18 j) at Jotterles for the pOOl a re 11ke thc stock market for tho botLer off If a rnan has 30 pt.sos ln h1& pocket, 11<' can bu)' SI>. lottery hckets ol' a palT oí sandals for hlS chlldIf he spends Jt on sandals, lt \"s gone, an expen~e w1th no hope of return beyond a shorl penod oí use V'/¡th ihe lottery, he has put hlmself III a luck-nlaA\"1mlzlng poslhon w1th SlX chd-nces to rea1ly hh li blg, buy a car, cattle or whatevcl, and In ono lúlnp, bccollle \"nch\" overn1ght Most oí thc other needs on th\", llst can be effechvel)' dcalt w1th lí one WlnS 1he 10ttel'Y --9-, / GEthng WO:!:t outSlde oí G.!!,rlcultu'tc lS oí partJc1Jlarlv low vah.c for llu~ glOl1p of wformanL9 Slnce thLY W\"'C aH full h\"nc falInels \",-ho had tlO oth<,r The VISlt to Cacaotal lasted only mnc days, anu although 1 was resrucni 1n the ,ülage for the entlle penod and hau a chanee io Vlsrt w1th people Ir' the evenlllgs, the tnnf' penad dId not pf'lnut a penetrabon 1n depth ln any oí thc, arc.a'3 under lnveshgatlon TIJt> purpose was blmply c:\\.pJoratory, and me hope was to aevelop sornE' Ideas as to w111ch areas oí ihe sInall fa:rn11l' farm need íuture w01'h IV e should note, however, that 1 dId enJoya !lumber oí advantag<'s 111 mlf; wOlk WhlCh are nat normally present 1'\"1 thc WOlk oí an anthropologlst The faet th\"t Lhe SW111e team had won.ed theH! for a numbe1' oí yeal s and had done much io help tbE' vülagers noacle =y worl, lmrnensuralJly eaS1el A<;\"oclaÍlon \\Vlth the CIAT eíforl allowed lne to get started ImmedIately w1th fue leaders 01 the VlUare ln gam<.rmg data Present per<;onnel oí t'le SNlne team, Dale F1sher and Luz Elena Betancourí de Argel, were most helpful In provldlllg lnformatron, lnslghts, and lntroduchons to the vll1agf' oíflClals The clght people selected for the varrous schedule s were soleeted \"'ClL11. ceriaIn eniena ln rmnd wh,c,h make fueln a bli unrCtnesentatrve of th€' vlllage as a whole Four oí Lhem w¿re elected off1c;als oí tho vülage, the other fou1' were sunply small opcrators fwo oí the laUer four weTe selectc,d bE'eause oi thelr k'lown opposlhon to th€. PI esent 1eader\"h1pOnIl' one of the miOln1al'ts o.vned InOrE' than the average nurnbel oí cat1:1e fOI íhc area, so PI esumably the dal J. reflecí a bIas agal!lst cattle ralslng as opposoa to CIOp productlon None oí the Jarg .. land ownc.,-s were 111cluded ID the group, and ilns too halscs the resl1lis In favor 0:[ fue SITIal} culbvator, rather than me ranchor -11-/ Th( dCClblOl1 to WOl~ tluough ihe C-\"'lStllg lca<1prshuIJ was l\"l<ldc for the c.onvenhonal leason~, bui In addltlOn lhe leadershJp 01 tlus \"llagc 15 unu5ualJy acÍlve 111 prcsslng C'lectcd oíLCl\"lls 0f lhE' GovcrnrnE.lJl for <;olut1011~ to th('lr probloms.J collected lf'Uel s flor1'1 thor1 to lngh e;O\"E'rmnent off ICla] s \",11 the wal' to ihe Pl ( ~lde'1t of fhe .KCPUbll<' Thcl1 coneern;, were íocussed 0'1 th,ee ma1n lssuce--[',ettJng la'ld LILlos jo Jards ahícady o('cuj)led, gettlng he],) In orgal1JZl'1g a c00i'cTabve 101 p111 ehaqng ~upplle& and 1narltellng thelr products, and ¡,<\"tilng tho gov e CnmG '1t to 1nVf' S1. 1 gate ,'nd break a monopSOlllSbc grol.p, cornpo',Gd 01' S01110 of 1.11(' pLo,11e of Cacao1.al and a y.<l11 exporte1 In Carbgena lhcy charged that the exporier would only buy flom thls orgamzed grol.p alld that he was paylllg $888 per :f\"nega fOl y-.nlS wnlch they were bUyll1g III the v1l1age for $450--500 per fanega rnwsportatlon cosÍ-S \\Vere estll'TI;:,.i\",d al. $70 p0r fanega, and vlllagL leaders c.onsldered the lesuJtJng plOfJt a& eÁeeSS1VC AlthoUfih 1 have no sy'ltematlc data on th\", suhJcct, 1 suspc et thai Lile prestJge Jllerarchy oí oeeupahons ru'1S froro Lhe caUle ranchers dt Lhe top, to people v,lth ca1tle and othcr bUSlDe&S\"'S, clown 10 Lhe full-tll'l.lC cuIl\" atol s, w1lh tne dav JaboJ ers at Lhe bottOln 1 chose io ccnLenÍ-rate1:e1l' efforts 01) the fuJ.l~tHne culhvatol s, r~thG1 than jo sclect a ícw frorn \"aeh oí tile dbove categones, Oh the glounds that tlns group \\Vas more hkely 1.0 be the focn« oí futule aehvliy of 1.he Syslems team The ll1strUP'lents nsed are lo be regarded as on1)' pretesh, of llnproved lnstrun1cnt~ to be em.plo) ed In the futU1 e Not 0'11)' are many of (he categones Inapproprlate, bui the quesbollS the'TIsclves are sublect to change FOl eXcl-n1ple, we rnlght choose to put 101lethel catcgorles of equal value ln Pesos, such as, one co\", x nunlber oI plgS, x nUl11ber oí sacl<s oí fe1tlhzel, etc , and ask tire guestlon \"Ií you \\Vel e In sudden need oí ca~h, \",hlCh oí the fOJJOWll1g pallS oí corrtl'Pod.hes would you p-ref0r 1.0 seU flrsi?\" Slmllacly, we w111 necd to study prefelcnees on land usage, gettrng thelr preferences fOl\" vanous C10p8 and 'lhe trade-off oí erop land íoc pabture No doubí ih1S w.11 proJuce a more dramatlc response to fel'trhzers than the un1rngated plot8 10 Las Cru-::<,~ Maklng ü at least m p,,-rt a fruli and végetable garden ned!' lbe houses would make l.hese proJ( cts mOrt-aceeptable, as the theft problem wouJd be reduceo. Thc econOlnlsl.s oí the SWIne Teanl are eurrenily earryrng Out a sn>all stud)' almed at getilng sonie Informahon on the total capüal avaIlable to farmers, labor avaüabllliy, ano data on land ownershlp \",nd uhhzabon Future Plan,;, oí Lbe Small rarm,,; Systcms Team -We Wlll need to plan our future aetlvItIe& m L'-¡e Caeaotal reglon m the hght oí what has already he en done there, wllat 18 CUI rc.ntly seheduled to be done mIS year, ano the collabo1'atlOn w1th the lCA peop1e ill the area Certalnly, \\Ve \\Vill need much 1nore complete and pl.€!ClSe data on the soclO~econ01111C leahtles of the peo!)!e, as weD as sorne ruore detaüed asseSbment oí theu pClccptlon oí the1r nceds and possIblhiles Howeve1', Land rcfonn, el E'dli to buy land, c 1:úp c TE'dlt, ,he avallabl1.1ty uf a11. of ilie 11, cessal y lnp\"t~-seeds, ferhhz.ers J herblcldes, lt1bechclClC's, and the l1kE\", a'1d tlti~ conrhhons undL::t \\\\hleh they ale a\"all~ble ale oí \"lial lrlpc.,rtanee io any analy~ls oí the probJen1s oí small farmero, and wl11 have tu be de aH v,Ith bv th\" tea= Si;udy on ihese probluns wlll necebsanly ll1volve US In a study of such natlonal Il1shtuüon~ as the Caja Aglana, ll':CORA, elc , not on1, to d16covel what íholr pohcles are at the present tlme, hut thE lJ=ltatlOJlS w1nch thoy iace In telms 01 the re'50UleeS avaüabJe to ihero to early out ihelr eharters Normally, lnstltuhons such as ihese ha'\" horole ehartors and illsuífleleni reSOUTces to carry thera out \\Ve wl11 11=ed io esb;nate the place ihat dovelopment of agneulture on 8n1d11 farros has In ihe nabonal systt\"m of pnonhes In add,hon to thc economlC survcy p,esentlf under way, ''le wüJ. havc to lnvesÍlgate the peaks and hCJughs of the cycle oí labol demand, and the whole qU<2sÍlon of the avallabll1ty and pnces of land lhe Ílgures clted earher lndlcate that thcre lS sometlnrg abn01 n,al In tlns al'ea \"hleh Vle n~ed to understand LCOnOrrllsts w111 also, no doubt, be lnterested In lnveshgabng the lna1kehng systorn G,ven the hlgh labor lUputS of tho prosent systero, and ibe l1kehhood t\"at not much can be done In tho way oí nlechanl¿;ahon, Ü seems hkely that we w111 eTn~rge írom al! oi the vaneleS stud1es \"nd expennlents wüh system~ fol' srnall íarmers \"Juch ale scale-specIÍlc to t11e=In o¡tder fol' these to remaln vIable alternatlv<?s for the long-l Ull, thoy wlll llave to be sufÜclentl) ploclUctlve to enable the sn1all fd.rn1er to snrvwe along slde oí the largol opelatol s, each perfolmlng spec.lahzed íuncnollS In that enVll onment Othel \\VI se, we could e\"'-pect the lal gel iarrne! b w1th more resources to be abl€. 10 conill1ue the nOl mal Pl0c.cbses oí land conbohdabon lnto larger unlts, leavlng the slna,l farT\"lers w1ihout a lnebhood, and TnOlf> mlglatlOn 1.0 ihe alrcady over croNded elLes -16- Truo approach has p10ven ('ost1y and lneffechve 111 deahng wlth the vast numbers oí <,mall farme¡s, pVE-n ihe snortagc oí c:>.tcnsl0n personnel ln all countTles T1\"e ly,achlfwry a1\"<eo.d)' eXlsts Íor applylng í,he assumptwl1s oí the behaVlOral psyLhology fllOde1 of hurnan behavlOr, rather than the psychoúynanllc ¡nodeJ, wJllch 113 based On tlylng io alter lhe llliernal states oí the lllÓ' ldual Wüh the behav\"loral model, change 113 duecied at Lhe structure oí advani.¡? gc faclng a11 slnall fal mers, r'J.tl1er 1.han al. trylng 1.0 conVlnce the ¡nd'Vldual W1.th Lh1l, appJ oach, we s.mpJy assurne that the farmel 1.13 respondlng io a percel'ved stnlcture of 1. ewards and pun, sluner,ts ln such a way as 1.0 maXlrnll;e h1.9 net \",<.]fare 1 call th1.s thE. Godlat\"-er Apploach to Developnlent, Slllce lt 1S based on the pllnc\"lple thaL behavloral change results when the comlnnlCd lnstJiuÍlonal structule \"maJ,.,es an offer they can't refuse\" \\Iv lih th113 approach, we 1001<: al. the behavlor of Lhe lnd1V'1dua1 fariller from the pOlnt oí V1C,,, oí nlaA1.mizlng h1.s OWll weliare, and the cfLecis oí 111S deC1SJOnS w1th respect to nahonal goals oí lnCreaSlng food produchonIf hlS behaVlOr does noL cOlltrlbuLc to both goals, ihen we conclud\", that there 1'3 '3ornetlnng wrong wJth 1.he pre&ent structure of advant<..ge Farmers ln Gacaoto.l arE' heaVIJy dependent on the Caja Agrana for credlt ai one pel ceni per nlOnth Thclr only alternailvcs é're e'ther no credlt at aH or pa)'1ng úve per cent per rrlOnth to tJle pnvale rnoney lender Thus, the Caja 18 ln a key poslhon VIS a VIS ilie stlucture of advantage fac.lng the &mall iarmel When the IeA-CIAT l.cchmcal personnel bchevc ihat tl-,cy have a good technol v glcal paclzagc to tE.st 1Il a g¡ven repon, thai they are TlllS approach off( r& sÍl ong pOSJhvE' lJ1c-O::;Í1VGS to .. dopi new tec-hnolo¡iD , and, at t11e \"a1ne tun,,-, sclccts ,h\" iu 61: rroup oí adopic.l s .. n lh\", most econoÁn1cal ma!41er L:>_ienl>lO'1 \",gents do no1: have ro sp~nd thell tnue try¡ng to COllVlnCé' peo})le Lo h y ne V tc'chlí0 1 0gy, bui s;:>end 1.he11 tune help,ng the adoptcrs to apply the new t¿chnology It seCl\"ns to mió that ¡he fUlal .)b¡echvc oí ihc SysteÁns tea111 sho,-üd be ihe Hnplern<-ntatlo'\"l 0f our úndlngs by ihc natlOnal ¿ge,lCJLS to r\"18<-nahona) food produetlOl1 \"ühln ,j'e 1nshtuhona1 f. _MarKaB\"rnándeb -Proplet,u la de una casa -Vlve 'J01a -su hIJO V1\\ e en Venezl-ela y le manda cheque Tosefa RIvas -Ya no VIve en <\"sta casa -Juba Eba e Ihlda Día? (Sra diS Colón) VIven en la casa en la actuahdad -Ivhguel Díaz da penSlón (<,erVlclO socla1 de Díaz) -MIguel Colón no es propwtano -únlcan-,enic es Jornalero f_armerl_l\\hran]o -Ya no VIve en ésta Celea -Len D{azv1Ve en la achlahdad -denÍlsía, sastl e, canima -culhvd 1 hectárea (pro-Pledad de la mam:1) -2 reses .l'-afa-\",l Alv.!l:rez -Vend,óla c-a~o. d Jilnuano Alvarez de profes16n chofer (carro pro!)lo) -henc 4 hectáreas de su propl edad en Pasto arnend¿ el pasto a otras personas P roplCtano de dos hectáreas de pasto -1 1/2 en Las Cruces -10 vaca\" -C0111er<:.la CO'1 ñame Caslldo¡:; .. lgado -opJetano de 20 hect,Íleas de pasto -50 vacas -P1.01:>lctano de ~.n cano y le paga al chofer Tul\",,-Torres -Pro plf'1.ana de 4 heciáleas -cultIva J -VIve solaedad 40 años -5 vacas -los hIJOS trabajan Cr:,:.'3to Salgddo -No ilc'1c propIedad -trabaja 11/2 en Las Cruce~ :> 1/2 fuera de aquí -4 vaeas -paifa pasto Lstebán Sal\"ado -PropIetariO de 10 hectáreas en pasto -30 ,acas negocIant0 en ganado y ñame -9-  Rice may be planted, harvested and irnmediately replanted where favorable conditioos oC water, temperature, soBs, equipment and skills existo However, muc.:h oC the American lowland tropics is wet, poorly drained and has little value for normal dryland agriculture. A modified Asian wetland culture, with rice p]anted aod• harvestcd weekly throughout lhe year, will canvert these lands into Cood fa ctories. The steady utili:tation oC labor, land, and equipment can provide an attractive income while production cost and capital investment remajn low. I f erop diversificatian is desired, one or two ric e erop' ¡evd lhe land so that row erops may be grown on heds and irrigated easily during the dry season.This hulletin is ¡ntended for farmers and students in terestcd in our cxpericnce and suggcstions on continuous rice production, cspccially on: 1) sclcction oC the farm, 2) selection and operation oC cquipmcnt, 3) Carm layout and developmcnt, 4) cultural practiccs. The ideas and mcthods presen ted here are only suggestions as techniques may improve with additional experience. Your f¡eld observations and results are solicited to m09,ify the bulletin in the Cuture.A farm for continuous rice production should meet the following cenditions:Water depth should be maintained between O and 10 cms. Water is temporarily drained only after seeding or for herbicide application; otherwise the soil is flooded. Unlike other crops draining and drying the soil is not necessary. The w ater may be obtained either by gravity or by reliable and inexpensive pumping techniques_ Land with adequale water control for continuous rice production is available in the new irrigation and drainage dísteicts. Two litees per second is required for soíl preparation and one liter per second per hectare is required to maintain water on the Jiclds. Soil.Heavy clay sOll5 with an average slope of less than three meten per kilometer are best. Heavy clays are easy to prepare wet as they give better support to tractor tires, cause less wear to the rototiller blades. and produce a mud whi ch le vels more easily and hardens more slowly. Loams and sandy soils cause excessi ve bogging of the tractor, reqt4re more water and fertiliza, and seltle so rapidly t hat they are harder to level and prepare.Land free of stumps, rools and logs should b e selectcd when possible. Low areas planted in corn, upland rice, bananas, and pastures are available and are casy to devdop. Forested areas may be c1c:ared by traditional methods, burned and planted ' to rice , corn, and pasture for two to three Vean while the stumps and logs decompose.The fa r m size for continuous rice production ranges from 2 hectares to more than 100 hectares. The smaUest economic unit would be one man with two hectares. Farm! larger than two to four heclares require hired labor for crop ~¿are ana -harvesting. The maximum si ze of the farm depends upon managerial capab ilities and operating capital for labor and equipment services. An experienced rice farmer can manage 40 to 400 heclares on a fuU time basis. Cooperative or corporate farms could be devel.oped on a continuous rice production basis fo r areas from 100 to more t han 10,000 hec tares. Maj or problems would b e skills, capital, incorne distribution and socialpolitical objectives. This buIJetin will not attempt to cover these variablei. POW8r ta ke off.\\ power ta ke off capabJe of con tinuou s use with a rototillcr wít h th e raud horsepowe r of the Iral.:1or, without excessive repairs is ideal. The standard rated speeds of 540 RPM is acceptab le bu t the addjlional abili ty lo driye in graund speed al nine revolutions per meter and al 1000 RPM is preferable. Be careful to check th e length of the tel escopic PTO drive sha ft to the individual tractor and rototiller models so that the shaft functíons safe ly as the implement is raised and lowered over the en tire range. Too shorl a shaft wil! slip apart a nd too long a shaft will break the PTO.Scaled dise brakes in an oil bath are most rehable. Any tractor used in mud and wa ler m us l ha ve a well sealed brake system.Power steering is recommended for ea se of operation and more efficient use of time.A II commercial trade names are given only for informat'lon and do not impl y endorsement by CIAT o f sny of them .Front weights, chain and pull points to slabilize the tractor and far pulling when stuck in the mud.A heavy duLy star ter and baltery with well protected wires and conlact points are necessary as lhe tra c tor, when operating in mud, often stal1s because of over loau from the PTO.Working in mud requires high lug ri ce afid cane tires either 2~.J\" x 26\" or 23.1\" x 30\". These tires are nol normal-I }' used on medium sl' ¿c traclo rs as the tires have a greater load capac ity than is ess cntial. Sinee they are not standard equipment .the fa rmer mu st purchase 20\" x 26 11 rims or 20\" x 30'•~ rims and ha ve the tires mounted. The tires are inflated to five psi and the tractor opera tes without additional weights and without water in the tires for increas ed mobility in the mudo 'me ovc rsize tire is .u6ed only for Ilotation work in wet rice fields. The manufacturer's design criteria would be exceeded if the tires wrre used with water and ballast on dry soils. These tires gi ve acceplablc: mobility in mOre than 90 p ereent of the fields. '[he remaining field s dem and tractor s 'with [our wheel drive and 23.1\" x 26\" tires or dual tire s o f 2 3.1\" x 26\".Weighls are added to hold down a nd stabilize the froot end. These weights should be added to a sturdy frame on the Cront of th e tractor. This frame should contain hales or hooks [or a ttaching a heavy-duty 20 to 30 meter c hain ror disengaging the tractor whcn bogged. T he samc frame when not in use, can a1 so serve to sLore the chain_ (See Photo 1) .Wh en the same tires are used, four wheel drive tractors with a normal dcarance and turning radius perform better under all soil eondition s than two-wheel drive tractors. For best performance, use 23.1\" x 30 \" al' 2 3. J\" x 26\" rice and cane tires on the four wheel drive.!.-Rototiller designed tor both wet and dry fields.Rototillcrs developed foc use in muddy rice fields are preferred over modcls dcsigncd for general dryland agriculture. Wc have used the Maletti Model 200R Totatiller satisfactorily and have fabricatcd and used our own prototypes. Sturdy co nstruction, well sealcd bearings and transmission, and light weighl are the important fcalures. Rototillers can he locally built using imported transmissions, hearings, shafts, seals, high stre ngth steel and high slrenglh welding rods. We continue lO modify the available ratetillen lo mOllot levee and bed makers. (Sec PhOlO 2).A levc:e and bed maker designed and fabricated al CIAT can. form lcvees in both dry and wct soils or beds in dry soils.(See Photo 3) . Drawings are available upon requesL.A three point mounted blade is used for rough leveling. It requires considerable draft and it is difficult to control the depth of cut. We are experimenting with a rototiller blade attachmen! to move the earth cut and loosened by the rototiller. This is still in the first prototypc stage. (See Photo 4).  The rice combine with rice tires or h alf tracks js suited lo large areas and satísfactory weather conditions. The average f arm• er cannot afford a combine but must depend upon' custorn sen'ices or up on hand harvesl. CIAT has developed a portable thresh1ier which permits lwo men lo cut, lhresh, clean, and bag 500 kilogTams of p;:¡ddy daily. Al current wage rates or Icss than US$ 3 per day, hand harves l is economically feasible. The portable lhresher may be made locaJly for less than USS 40 from pla n, developed by elATo (See Photo 1).Bac k pack sprayers and 6 meters boom built in CIAT shops.Portable rice thresher designed and fabricat ed bV CIAT personnel.The fre shly harvested paddy is usually sold on a wet basjs la avoid drying and storage problems. •In low wage areas, if a ll1:.lrket is n01 immcdialcly available, sun drying o n a concre1e patio and storage in sac..:ks is feasible. forccd air drying in bins is prac1ü:ab1c if the relative humidity js lcss than 75 percen duríng two lO lhree hours per day. The fans are run continuously for grain over 18 percent moisture while grain under 18 percent moisture is dried by running the fans when th e a ir has less than ~ 75 percenl. re lativ e humidity. Normally only skilled personnel should use heated air drying. Manual.Obtain operator maintenance and spare parts and servlcc manual s for a1l equipment. Te prevent 1055 oc misplacement, control by a record ar.d filing systern. These manual s should be rcad and used by all operaton, maintenance, and supervisory personnel.Far eách piece of equipment opeo a record book to register hOllrs of work, work accomplished, materials used, maintenance and repairs pcrformed, and expenses.Use a high quality water resistant lithium base grease fOT aJl equipment. Te avoid ex cessive wear use high quality oil5 and {uds. Check manufacturer's manuals foc recommendations and L consult a lubrication engineer through your oil company supplier ; about slandardizing oils and greasc. Buy these in drum Ipts lo save money and to assW'c their constant availability.Buy genuine manufacturer's spare parts when possible. Other suppliers may furnish quality bearings, belts, hoses, and filters. Always keep a large assortment oC high strength nuts, bolts, and pins available. Survey fields for holes, obstables, and 50ft SpOlS befare enlering with equipment. Walk in mosl rice fields with knee high rubber boots and two pairs of h('avy socks. When the mud is too sticky or deep for the boots, check the area barefoot or back the tractor slowly into the area for increased chances to go out in a forward direction. If yOUI wheels spin stop immediately to avoid digging mto the axle. Use the differential lock and with a minimum of wheel spin make tentativt: efforts. Ir available use a seconq tractor and a long chaio or cable to pu1l from firmer soils. Two tractors are more effieient than one to reduce ti\"me loss from bogging. When only one tractor works, the operator should avoid bad spots as weJl as pro vide lug~ on the wheel rims lo attach a pipe in the form of an \"1\" longer Four•inch pipe attachment in form of \"1\" designed and built in. CIAT to ¡ncrease traction when bogged. When used alwavs opera te tractor in reverse to prevent accidents.than the tire diameter. (See Photo 8). Attach a pipe \" 1\" form to each tire and back out the tractor in re verse to avoid o'Vtrturning. Kecp depth control of the rototiller by u sing the 3point lift and listening to thc engine lO prevent overloading and stalling. Beware of areas with stiff, deep mud as these dog the tire lugs, rototiller blades, and give maximum rolling resistance . . Work whenever possible in water-covered areas because the water lubrica tes the tire to prevent mud from sticking.Careful ¡nitial layout and development of the farm for conlinuous rice productioo saves considerable equipment, management and time and reduces future operational costs.The land title should pro vide a roap of the farm boundaries. This can serve as a basis for future survey work. Clean farm boundaries and markers to clearly expose tltem in ao aerial photograph. An aerial photograph with a negative contact scale of 1: 1 0,000 with 60 pereent overlap should be made. Establish a set of permaoent concrete and metal bench marks with d• evation and coordina tes tied into the national geographic survey. A scale mosaic for permanent reference should be made from the aerial photographs. A photograph should then be made or' the scaled mosaic and a scale transparency prepared for working prints. A topography crew can take elevations on the ground and enter them directly on the working print. The cost oC aerial photographs, mosaic, transpareocy. and working prints ranges from USSl to USS5 pc:r hectare depending upon the area. The photographs are less expeosive, more detailed, and more useful than a normal plane table map.The existing and future network of roads, irrigation canals, drains, fences, etc. should be drawn on the working Plinto Si nce the to pography in rice arcas usuaUy has a gradient of less than three meters per kilo meter make th e maln roads and drains in the direction of ~axi mu m sro pe. Raise the base of the roads with the earth from the drains. Use straight and para llel Toads , drains, and canaIs to form unifo rm fic lds where the to~ pography permits. This procedure will simplify future wark.The 1evees are staked on a 25-meter by 25 -meter grid which results in easily handled cuts and fills when the land slope is less than three meters per kilo meter. One set of well built Ievees runs clown slope ncar and parallel to the drains. Additional small interior eross levees are also made parallel to the roads and drains at 25-meter intervaIs. Well constructed lc:vees are then made every 25 meters either perpendicular lo the road s and drains or approximately on t he same leve!. (See Photo 9) . Next , water is introduced to the (ie ld. Adjacent plots w ith similar elevations are joined by remo ving the smaUer eross leve e to make 25 x 50, 25 x 75 ar 25 x lOO-meter plots. Plots ¡onger than 100 to 150 meten are nol reco rnmcnded bc: causc: water control is difficult. This method requires n o topograp hic de tail and can be carried out jn high wc:cds and over uneve n soils such as in pastures with pronounced humps. Other mctho ds oC locating levc:es sue h as contouring or on grading fields are not rec• amm ended unless dcsigned by a skilled topographer ar engineer.Per manent field levees for continous rice production should be about 25 cm high, 80 cm al the base, and 40 cm at the lOp (See Photo 10), which gives about 0.15 cubic meter p er linear meter of lev ee. A man can construct 30 lo 50 liner meters per day whaeas a tractor with a rototiller and levc:e shaper. (Sec Photo 11), can construct 350 to 500 meten of finish ed levee per hour which ¡ndudes making two or three passes in difficuh Ulyout of levees in a field in the process o f wet land preparatlon and development.6Levee formed by levee maker d esi gned and labricated in el A T . The levee dimensions are 80 cm base by 25 cm height by 40 cm top width.arcas. Bot'h men and machine are required; the machine com~ pieLes the major sections and the men close the co rners and raise the levees in low, we t, or weedy scetions.The first wet Ic:vcling and land preparation is the principie undertaking in (and development for co ntinuous rice production whereas future land prcparation is casier and less expc:nsive. Careful and thoro ugh leveling and Jand preparation pays for its co st in thc first crop through ¡ncreased y ield an d redueed fer ti li zer, water, and herbicide expenses. Once the Ievees are construcLed and the weak sections repaired the fields is flooded leaving only the h igh spots p ar tiall y exposed. The operator loosens the high spots with a tracto r and rototiller. This loose earth and mud are moved to de eper wa ter to fill the low spOB. A blade attached lo t he rototiller tail fla p permits cutting and earth movcmcnt in a sin gle operation. (S ee Photo 12). A 3-point mounted blade may be used (Sec Photo 13) but traetion and depth control are difficult. After removing the high spots and filling th e low spo ts , th e entire field is rototil1ed to a 15 to cm depth. 1\\ 3-point mounted spike too th harrow is then .used for thc final leveling and to bury the weed s and grass. (See Photo The levee maker mounted on the rear of \" rototiller in Bction.When completcd the Cicld is leve! and a layer oC water onc to five ems deep eovers a wced-free mud surfaee. Pregerminated eeds are broadeast at this time.From 80 to 120 kilagrams of improved variety certiied seed are used per hectare. Pregerminale the seed by soaking 4 hours in water; then ¡eave it 24 hours outside lhe water in he shade. Never soak a fulJ bag of dry seed as lhe bag will burst when the grain swells bUl remo ve about 20 pereent of the rain from a full bag befare soaking. When ready for sowing theLeveling high spots with a blade maunted on the rear of a rototiUer.A blade mounted on the three point hitch eutting high spots.pregerminated secd root is about ane mm long. (Sce Photo 15). One man can. broadeast ane hectare in less than one day. Planting may also be aecomplished by airplane but it is nOl presently practicab le because of low labor casts and because of the small three lo six hectare arcas that can be prepared al one time by wct land preparation.Broadeast lhe seed within 24 hours after the final puddling (See Photo 16). Remove the water within 24 hours after sowing to expose the secd to the air for rapid growth. Seed in arcas left flooded for several days germinate, grow slowly , and usually die. Srhatl hand made (urrows permit draining most of the field. Occasionally poorly lev eled spots wherc the seedlings die sho uld be transplantcd with excess seedlings from other areas. In Surinam where the ficlds are larger, a special'Y-whccl is used to m¡tke drainage rut s in the field.Leveling and finishing of field wilh the spike 100th harrow. p,;;;;;;;:¡;;-;;;;;;¡; , 7.¡ ce seed.Wct tand preparalion efficiently <.:ontrol5 weeds fo r several days and pregerminated seed gives the rice sccdling an advantage of severa! days growth. Ir weeds deve lap befare the pcrmanenl naod is cstablished and the rice is less than 10 days cId. seed lings should be flooded to a 10 lo 15 cm depth for two days.Post emergence control for grasses in the two Lo t hrec ¡eaf stagc invol ves drai ning the ri el d and apply ing 10 ¡iters of Stam ¡;-34 (Propanil ) and reflo od ing t he area after LwO day:;. !\\!terna• tively six liters per h ec.: t are of Saturn (Henlio <. :arb) c..:an be applied five lo six days after seeding. Broad ¡caf weeds are co ntrolled w hen necessary with 1.5 liters per hedart: or 2,4-1) 8 , ..  I\\pply ht:rbicidcs in ~20 Iiters of water per hectare with a knapsat:k spraycr al a rale of one hedare per roan-day. US~ aerial appli«.:uion for fields largcr than .five hectarcs or for the minimum area per night. Whclher lo use hand or air application dcpends upon rcJativc cosl aod availability of labor and aerial scrviccs. If spols oC excessive growth exist then 15 to 20 manday.~ of hand wc'cding per hectarc may be tconomkal. If large arcas bec.:ome unc.:onlrollablc it may be more economical to reprepare aod replant the arca and cxercisc more timel)! and better water and \\Vecd control.Oblain new detaHed rec.:ommendations from your local rice !\\pedalisl. t\\t Clt\\T, FUTadan adequately controh stem oorers and lcaf miners when 20 kilograms per hectare oC three pernnl granulcs are broadcast into the water. One man can broadcaSl2 lO 2.5 hectares per day. He shouid carefully follow the manufaclurer's precautions. Whether to use aerial services, a knapsac.;k sprayer, or hand oroadras t of granules depends upon lhe c. ; hemic.;als used and I.:omparativc t:osts_ Fertilizer Xcw areas with nitrogen-ri<.:h soils may not require fertilizer for lh e firs1 planting. \\orhen preparing lhe fields broadcast 100 kilograms of urea and incorporate into the mud with the harrow. Forty ' to fiftv. days after planting• iC lhe plant nceds additionai nilrogen, apply the urc~ lo the fields •without draín ing to avoid weed problems, water problems, and denitrification. One man can hand broadcast 1.5 to 2 heelarcs per day. Photo 17 shows a well -fertilized, weed-free ri ce field. A veiw of a clean fert ile rice field.Harvesting I-Iarvesting is accomplished by hand or by co mbine. Two men ca n hand harvest 420 to 600 kil ograms of fre sh paddy per day with sickle and thre sh with a CIAT designed portable threshcr. (See Photo 18). For the first two hours both men cut, thereafteT one man c ut s while th e other thTeshe s and bags . Present combine custom Tates aTe one c.:en t U. S. dollar per kilo of grain. Manual harvest co mpeles at wage Tates of lwo lo lhree doBars peT man-day.Ca lifornia,'s combine: rates average 3400 and 5500 kilograms pcr hour for mcdiu m and large combines. Their performance in most tropical \"'8TeaS would probably be less because of weather, soil , and operator problems.After the farm is developed the scquence is as follows:Hand harvest of rice with CIAT portable thresher.After the first crop is haTvested, clean and repair the levees by repa ssing w ith the rototiller and levee builder. Re mo ve the centcr blades drom the rototiller so the sides of the levees are choppe:d and reformed ye t the center is left compac to This operalion kills weeds and rat s nesting in the levees. Also use hand labor as n cede d to c10 se corners and bad sp ots.AH subsequent la nd preparations require less earth movement and tra ctor time is cut in half. Remove or spread excess straw\"in piles from the previous harvest to facilita te incorporation. The sequence is rototill , leveJ, and incorpoTate the straw and wec:ds ¡nto the mud wit h the spike tooth harrow. Planting and other cultural practices are the same as d escribed previously. Scobl AeenCla del IrA -Sahagun l. La zona ~ncluye los llIUn~Cl.p10S de Sahagull y Chl.nú, esuín supervj-samIo créd1lo para meJorar las fLuces ennader\",,>, con un taonño máx¡r¡O de 150 has , el af!.o pasado ¡'ab1:a. 51 préstamos para ganado de cr'::a, y t. en ganado de leche -se ~ncluyeron prCstClllloS para meJorar pr'deraó conslru~r cercas, cOMprar aUlmales, y otras necesldades urgentes Ha) lamolén control de nalc7as en polreros y pozos artC&1anOS co~ bombas de mano y ~OlO bombas 2El créd~to agrícola fué de $1 600 000, en maíz, yuca y otros cultl.VOS Vis1ta del poblado de Cacuotal 1Se ¡uzo una entrev~sta con el Sr ~larc\" Vásquez, un líder de) pJeblo muy conocido, COil respecto a su explotac~on de cerdos, el 5L10 para gunrdar maíz y la zona de Lns Cruces Se VLSLlalon los c~lt1vos de yuca, neme y plátano en esta zona, ppra conocer en forma sJperf1c1al, por 10 menos, el s~stema de cull~vos en la zona 2Se observó tamblén una ~asa cerca al certro del pueblo, para conocer una e~plotacL6n porcina 1 s~ hlZO una reun16n con los Drs Luq~bio Acosta y La Torre en la ca<a de un agrLcultor para o~scutl.r los ~royectos cooperatLvos y las entidades que están ya iunc10nando en la zona Parece que hay mucho éXltO en este S1StC~ de operacl6n en la zona, un grupo de agncultores que sembró 'trroz tenía una cosecha buena el año pasado, que pag6 apro¿lw~damente $50-60 000 a cada partlcLpante.-s - es una zona con C,1 fe:,1l11GS <londe el 1I':COl¡A dl.nd~o una ünca comprade en lotes dE' approx 2 ha pe), famlha, el lCA construyó U¡;S carreLera de accese de unos 2-3 1.m hacla el ocqte <le la pr:cucl.?al (lor~ca-<'an ,.,tero), este labor ocupaba unas 100 horas de trabajo de bulldozer, ) ~e nota que la ausene' a de mucho traflco va \" resultar en la pe.rd~da ae ventaj\", ya que el roonte Clece tBll rapl.do que puede tapal la carretera rá¡ndail'\"nte el\" este cllma Eslan senbrando p1atano, maUI, )uca, !'Ia'n\" , algo de caupí y mungo, arroz y tomate lAS male/as son un problema prHlclpsl, segu~do de la falé8 de control de agua y segurIdad en la tenenc~a de la tÁC'rra Cnsayos oel lCA en la Z0Ua incluyen control de malezas y f~rt~lizaclon de maiz, la fernllzaclon de cultIVOS asocIados (maíz-yuca-name) y huertas fa-mIlIares 4Los ]:'nl'clpalcs F1cto~eq Llr.utantes, según lo\" tecnl.coq trabaJanoo en la zona, sao los s'guIentes a \"\"ir .. tremenda d\", InSUmOQ en la epoca nJtlca y los cgn.culLorc.s no pueden consegul.rlob b Tenenc1a de terreno es un problema cont1nuo, aunque muchos art1cultores ocupan y cultIvan terreno mas o fienos legalmente ds ellos, no nay manera fác~l de consegull el titulo o algún cOIIlprobante que les de alguna Segundad e Falta de ~nfral\" tructura y qeIV~C10S el transp()rte es un ptobleMa prlnc,pal en los barrlos 18jano& de la carretera prlncl.pal, la cual se p3Vl.menta de ror~ca a Covefids (por ejemplo) Sl~ poner n1nguna atenc..'lOl' a lOd Cñml.tlOS secunuar10s de acceso\" la falt<.; de ojJortuul.dades castiga al Joven desde ,,1 princ1plo, pero estao construyendo escuelas en 4 veredas por la aCC1.on comunal, ya pHueron maestra~ al gOOJerno d Un problema de seMIlla mala, vend1da reC1~ntemente por la Cd18 pgrarl3, les convenció que la sem111a mejorada no supera 4 su erlo1lo, su epl1-caClon para conseguir el cred~lo le comprometia a sLmbrar hll,rIdo de ma1z, pero nO 10 hacen COMO resultaoo de esa expcr~encLa negativa e 81 preC10 de la yuca bajó en este ano hasta la ffi1tad de lo que era el atto pasado y muchos agricultores no cosecharon, los preclos de otros cultlvoS son mas seguros, especlslmente los que tienen un preclo de sustentacIon del goblerno Los ren01Tlnentos de '1la~z opaco en el ai'1o pasado fueron buenos, pero no tenía buen prec~o por lntermedlo del IDrJ'A nI en el mercado , f Proble'1as del ho!,\", > f,mll1a, en los '-lsles <,stan trabajando la~ mejoredolas. ~ncluyen nur~f~cac1.on del agua, vacunac~on. prl.meros au}..~lloS, lPstala~lón Je letrInas, contlol de pdraSIlos en nlfto~, 50' de los nl~OS muete!' en su pnmer año Otra, acuvlda,'es de la melOradol;) son artesanfas, '11c]orarnumto del hogar, cOt'stru(,,(,l.O\"l de muebles y huertas faml.llares 5 tI Sl~tema 1Rrícola e~ta dlstInguido por su aSOClaClOn de cultIVOS, especlal-~ent~ con los pequeños agricultore&, y <'SS1 PO nay ln.estlgaclon en este C~~p0 hasta dhora c1crlas prarl~cas de la eXD0r.enc1p en ~onocult1~o& pe eden apl1ca ~p a la asoeleClon y otras t.cn8n QUe desa.rollarse bajo este $lstprna en esta 70na 61 as ~~:::.aclo\"es en 111 zonl VH nen po. lntermedlo oel TeA, en las radlOS de Honteda (La Voz de Monter!a), tOllca (R.:!,ho el Progreso) y 'larranqullla (rsdlo 'lutatenza) Todavía hace falta en SJ.ncelejo y lAagar>gue los días de C8':\\pO °e \",stan rea11.7I1ndo en forma ,\"11< forrn21, 51n tanta ílesta (com1da, trago, etc)  Hay poca lnformaclon en cultlVOS como ~ame, en terminos de fettlllzación, dlstancla de si<\"nbra (hay ensayos en el campo probando unas alternatlvas)~coles, 5 d« Junlo (C1rme'1 de Bol\"<l:-)Odll-1EN DE BOIIVAR l. Se vlsitó la ZOna de San Jaclnto, donde hay un lngreso alto debido a la concentraclO~ de actlvldades de artesanías y una éxplotarion tre~enda ror parte de los intermE'dlsroos Towando como ejemplo un mueble (dnl-Slon de ambH,nte) vale $70 en la hoca, ~100 en la carretera (a11Iacenes), $130 • 150 en Bogota o Cali y hagta US$40 en Miami Se necesita una organizaclon de las mibmas senara S de la casa en donde se hace el trabajO, para asegurar un mercado a pre<..lo justo' T~os cultivos incluyen tabaco, maiz, caupl, guanóul, yuca, los problemas ,-Dn el tabaco son serlos, espe-c1almente en la fluctuación de pre<'los. pero t1ene C1ertas ventajas que   ---':, ,r, --¡¡--\"\"  ----------------- Estos ensayos deberían de per~ltlr la ldentlflcaClon preclsa de las lnteraCClones entre éstos factores y tamblén deberían de permltlr la e~tlmaC16n de una ~uperflcle de respuesta sobre el espaclo de estos factores ría dentro de uan análls1S de optlIDlzaClon que perrolta hacer 01 calculo de lngreso neto en func16n de los lnsumos y las práctlcas culturales La necesldad para hacer este tlpO de ensayo agr0nornlco y eqte tlpO de anallsls de optlmlzaclon se encuentra que por efectos de lnteracclon la f6rmula optlma no se leduce 1luealmente de un punto maxlrno de rendlmlento Dada la superflcle de respuesta en funcl0n de los efectos de estos multlples factores y sus lnteraCC10nes se puedc estudlar como la f6rmula f'optLma't camb1a en p1esenCl8 de camb10s de costos de 1nsumosLa formula agronom~ca porque ha s~do desarrollada en presen-c~a de las rcstr~cClones de lnvers~on, mano de obra, e lnSUillOS que operan a nlvel de la flnca, deberían de ser de adopc~on asegurada Claro que ésto depende de que las restr~cc~ones que se ut~llzaron son en la realldad las restrlcCl0nes que operan a nlvel de la f~nca y completamente expresan los factores de r~esgo, de costo y de d~s pon~b~lldad de ~nsumos B Impl~caclones al n~vel sectorIal Establecer que_las restr~cClones utll~zadas para elaborar la formula agronómlca, Sean las verdaderas que operan a nlvel de la flnca, requlere un estudlo detallado de las practlcas agronomlcas y los coeflclentes tecnlcos con respecto a estas, pero tamblen, re-qUlere una comprenslon completa de la operaClon de los mercados de lnsumos, de los slstemas de crédltO, mercados de mano de obra y de los mercados pala los productores Ademas, no solo depende la operaclon de la flnca de la dlsponlbllldad de estos recursos ~lno a la vez genera producclon y cSla fórmula ópt~~a tÁene ~lfpllcaclo~es sob~?la operaclón de estas In~tltuclo~es y meleados Entonces el traba-JO lutegrado de promoclon de la producclón uo puede roallzac,e solo a nlvel de la flnca, 8lno que es lmpresclndlble hacer el anallS1S de la operaclon de las lnstltuclones y mercados externos a la flnca, tanto para ver como estos lnfluyen en las restrlcClones que operan a nlvel de la flnca y para ~er como la operac16n de la floca afecta la operac10n de estas lnst1tuc10nes y mercados Cuando se hao estab1ecldo las formulas opt1mas para cada subreglon y para cada cult1vo de lnterés, las fórmulas formaran una base para la programaC10n de las otras Inst1tucl0nes y subsecuentemente para la aS1gnac16n de fertlllzantes y créd1to C Impl1cac10nes para la producc1on de los granos bas1cos na Como una tercera etapa, el conOC1mlento del comportam1ento de la flnca sUJeto a la nueva tecnología deber ser út1l como una base para estlmar el 1mpacto de los programas de producc1on del lCTA sobre producclon de los granos baslcos Se h:u:o una r!'lln1.6n con el Dr. SorLa para dl.scutl.r en térntLnOs generalcs, los obJetivos del Departamento y del Programa de Sl.stemas Desplléa de un aM11s1s de la situac1.6n Lat1noamer1cana, se roncluy6 qU? había mucha falta dc conOCl.m~ento de los suelo& agrícolas y los sistemas que utl.ll.zan 109 agl~cultores, y c6mo se puede ~provechar meJor el potencl.al del tr6p1Co para produc1l all.flcptos. En 1972, en una reun16n en ~mracay, se pld16 la preparac16n de un proyecto para estudl.ar estas nece-s1dades Se prcsent6 el documento en Abrll, 1973, con un plan de trabaJO para estudiar los cambl.os que resulten en los ~i~temas actuales del B¿rl.cultor El documento incluye una. V1Stll general, que tHme cultlVOS anuales de SubslstenCl.s, así c~o productos comerclales y de exportacl.ón Además, presenta las poslbllldades para los programas naclonales de enfocar su propla 1nvestlgac1.6nLl plan dentro de CATIL 1 ncluye un equl.po integrado dentro del pr0i'rarna del Departamentll de AgronortÚa y tamb1.6n la vl.nculaci6n de estudiantes para hacpr la tesl.S corno parte lntegra del proyecto j ~ 3 ~ Con base a unos estud~os generales de Centro Amér~ca, se decLd~ó enrocar hac1s los SL~tCruaS cor~nes en el tróD~co húmedo, para ver cuále~ camb10s se pueden probar y med1r los efectos Se escogieron cuatro cultL~ vos Lmportantes fríJol, maíz, }uca, arroz, adeoás, ~c 1nchlyó el call'ote, que es muy Lmportsnte en la Zona del Car1beEston son los cult~vo~ del pequefio agr~cultorl Aproximadamente 75% de la poblac1ón e5tá representada por pequefios agr~cultores y ellos t1enen aprox1~dalliente 20% del terreno Su uso de tecnología es muy baJOEl grupo dec1d~ó trabaJcr como equ1po 1ntegrado para resolver este problema del pequeBo agr1cultor y trabajar con cult~~os ~~lt1plesCon antecedentes de R Bradfield, Ta1wan, etc, se planeó un ,'ns~yo grande, incluyendo monocult1vos y COmD1naC10nes de varjoq cult1vo, nasta 3 juntos, y con trataM1entos de 4 y 5, según su fa~t1bLlLdad agron6~caSe utilLZÓ fechas de s1e~bra relat1vas a cada cult1vo, para ver e1 efecto de e&to Trmbl.én variaban los m.veles de tecnología según la actual del agncultor y lo meJor dLspon1bleLa dens1dad de S1emara dependía de dos íactoresel mím.mo del agrl.CU ltor y una pOblacLón medLa Se 1nLel1t6 segu\"lr con estas s1embras durante todo el aBo, uti11zando fechas de <Lembra maq re-comendable~ para cada uno [1 ensayo total, está en base a la labranza mínl.rna, después de la pn.mera preparsa6n de terreno con maqJl.narl.a, y desde luego, todo el trabaJO se reall.za exacta~nte cowo lo hac~ el agrl• cultor con sus herramientas normales [1 análl.s1s económ1co V1ene después de algún t1empo, cando al economista para qUE' reahce este tl.pO de trabaJO es el úm (,0 que falta para completar el equ1po In \"plte of \"\"onaoos confoundlng oí many factors, there '111 be much usoful data and benchmark type conclUSlons to be drawn from the study However, they are at rlsk of not being abl~ to interpret many of the results because of the confound1ng 2The dynaIDLc nature of the team and the dec1s10ns on treatments may help thiS group and the1r efforl to evolve 1nto a thrust wnLch 15 more dLrectly related to the 9roa11 íarm ~1tuatLon and real farm problcms, although the eurrent on entatl.on and d:Lrect10n oí the program pUls th:>.s quitL íar ln t~e luture AddltLonal stafí and fund1ng fro~ AID roay help to push them ln this d:Lreccl.on, because oí the C''''P\"aS1S of ArD on taL1ne research resulL<; to the farro, and 1'1llinng researeh more appropr1ate to sma1l farmerla prob1emsCIAT could playa role l.U this process, ir Ln,¡ted, sence we do have nn orientatlon and staff in syotems Wh1Ch anal}ses real problems and then brlngs lesearch cfforts to benn on resoJving theae problema and then gt'ttl ng the solutions onto the farm \\;le should act1vely scek th,S involve~ ment in CATIE, as tactfull) as poss1ble, to help them assure success in gett1ng a broader oru'otat 10n into the program and puttl-ng the ArD ft.nds into uBeful applkcatkons of theLr lesults A~y success or faLlure, especlally the latter, Ln ane of the Lnternat~onal or reBlon,l centers (lncludlng CATIE) will reflect on al1 these pr06rams, lncludlng our own rh~s \"'111 enhar>ce or G1m1nish our chancee for fund1ng and other support ~n CIAT for the system programo and generally affect OUI center'q 1mage and maybe our event~l $uccess or fa11ure as a teamIn other \",ords, ~f our approach 15 as \"r1ght\" ab \",e belicve it is, this concept slto1l1d be \"sold\" to other centers, and to SO'lle degree 1ncorporated l.nto thetr respect1ve programsWe pecd 1nterchange \"'1th CATIL lor thase teasons.Apr11 3 San Jose-Guatetl'~-.la \\<le arr1ved ffi1d-morm.l\"g in Guatemala, Hert. mel bv Dr Eugen10 !~rt1nez of rCTA and left 1~ed~ately for the Pac~fic coast zone oí La ~mquLna During the aíternoon, we vls1ted w1lh íarwer3 and w1th the \"promotores\" who \",ork 1n the zone Th1s gave me a.1 or1ent'\"t10n toward the cropq (ma~z, aJonJolí, uu.nor 1nLerests in n.ce, beans, yuca, tomatoes, fruLts and platano, wate.cmelon, etc) and 801ls, as \",ell ab cultural and clLmat1c problems :1.n the zone 1';,0 sl.ud<.nts currentl) on lCTA schol<irships (Raul Hatheu and Danl.lo Gonzalez) were ident1hed \"5 the most logLcal ducet 1:1.nk for our direcl. 1nvolvem~nt 1n La Maqu1.na April 4 La Magu1n:t, bte drivc to GuatE'mala the day ~las spent \"1th farrner~, \"promotores\", \"nd students 1n the zone lhe \"Bradfl.eld 11 pa1red compurLsons test vas g1ven to 5 people -on the baS1S of thlS tri~1, the test w111 be modl.fLCd and s1mphhed to 10110,4 through ,nth a11 11 promotorc~, una a 1arger numb<.r of farmers l.n the zone, (students Ol:' maybe Dr Spl.Jl,ers) Many of the problems 111 this zone becaroe clear as we talked w1th peoplc., and a general plan evolved for the students and our &Jstems tea¡;¡ Apnl 5 Guatemala-P-.nana (CAP) - (Dr Fr'1u1<.hn  Preguntas (antes de escuchar la presentaciór)Se debe aplicar fert11izante en la zona? (La ~~qu1na)2 Están ap11cando 16-20-0 y Urea -se ]ust1f1ca ap11car el completo, o nada mas la urca como fuente mas barata de N?3 Qué cant1dad debe~os ap11car, c~o recomendación pre11minar?4. S1 no pode~s contestar cualqu1cra de esas preguntas, có~ podríamos rea11zar algo siTI11ar, trdbsJando en companía en este año, para darles una neJor recomendac1ón el año entrante? 5Hay otros factores que tal vez :tnfluyan en las respuestas de los ensayoq con agr1cu1tores }~lezas, plagas, fecha de siembra, var.edad' Infonnaclón s~ concluyó que en el momento no se puede recomendar n:tnguna apl:tcació~ de fert,11¿ante, pues todavía no se tl.cnc la segm:1dad de la respuesta, ya sea en ~l cultl.vO de maíz en la costa o en el orLcnte, como tampoco en el fríjol en el oriente Se debe aprovechar mas bLen este íert:tll.zante. tenLcndo en cuenta lo escaso y 10 caro que es, en las zonas y en los cult:tvos que sí t:tcnen respue~ta el a1t1plano, con cultl.vOS tal<.s CCllO el lr1g0, la papa y el na!,' Se concluyó adeMás, que estas técn1cas de suelo deben oed1car eqfuerzo para ap11car los resultadoq ya logrados, para mejorar la producc:tó~, mi~ntras que se escogen las recomendac10ne& mas preC:t~as y las corre1ac10ncs con Gatos de anál~s1s de suelos Se reahz6 una reuni6n breve con el Dr Alberto Pradüla del INCAP, para dlscut~r su. planes y esperanzas en ~l proBrama del lnst1tuto dentro de varlaS zonas, en colaboracL6n con el rCrA , CONCLUSIONS -GUATJ::11hLA Plnclpalmente malz, en monocultlvo de prlmera, seguldo por aJonJoll que se slembra al doblar ó un poqUltO antes de doblar el malz El maíz se slembra en Mayo, se dobla a fluea de JUll0 cuando se slembra el ajonjolíEl malz se deja secar en la mazorca con el tallo dobl~ do y se recoge en Octubre, el ajonjolí se recoge en NOVlembrc Tanblén en alguno& casos &c culLlva el alroz en los baJOS que se pncharcau,se ul~11za una var~edad crlolla de ma!z, y en arroz se utl11za una varH,dad alta, tal vez \"Blue Bonnet\"Co~o ya se ha dlCho p~ra maíz se utllLza una varledad crlolla, nlnguno de los agrlcultoras ULJ]lza fertl1lzantes, excepto los partlclpantes en los programas de promoclon de crédlto que por eXlgenCla& del crédlto tlenen que fertll1zar aproxlmadamente una cuarta parte de su parcela Las recomendacl0nes de [erLl1lzac15n estin bas~das en parte en anills1s de suelos para las cuales toman muestras los promotores Gener~lmente, no se ULllJZ~ la recowendaclon Slno que se di una reducclon según la aprec~Bclon del promotor de lo que se COnS1Gere \"eccn5mlco\" Para control de malL¿Bs se hacen las labores a mano, para control de lnsectos, prlnclpalwente el Cogollero en el maíz, se • utl11za un producto pulverlzado denomInado \"Bolaton\"Aparentemente el factor llmlLante es el rlesgo de volcamlento del maíz antes de su madurez a consecuenCla d~ Vlentos fuertes que ocurren en JUlIO y Agosto II agrlculLor procura sembrar tan temprano como sea poslble para que su maí? haya llegado a una madurez fls101óglca antes de que ocurran los VIentos Aunque se conSIdero que el problema de volcamlento se podría tal vez Solucl0n,r en parte, con el uso de una vorledad corta, eXIste el problema de Gue la semIlla, tanto de híbrldos como de varIedades sale co~tOSJ Lomo un ejemplo, un híbrldo pro-dUCldo comerclalmente se vende o Q32 el qUlnt,l que se consldera exce-Slvamente costoso, partlcul.rrnente cuando el agrIcultor estl acostumbrado a ahorrar su propla seml11a ) no consldera seml11a como un costo El reTA tIene un progr,ma de ploduccl0n de este mlsmo hlbrldo ) ellos estln pagando Q20 el qUlntal rnr esta seml11a Fertll:1.zantes Con respecto a la d1sponlblJ1dad de fertl11zante se d1ce que como los agrlcultorcs de la ¿ona no lltl11zan el fertl117<1nte, 81 cualqulera de estos qUlslera utl11zarlo eaLsrra dlsponlble S1n embargo, en el caso de que todos los agrlcullores qU]SlCran utl11zar fertl11zante a un 1 dado nÁvel probablemente no habria suf~cÁe~te para cubrlr esta demanda PreClO del qU1ntal de l6\"2(}{) se estlma a Q13, qUlere <leclr que para lograr una sltuaclon de 50 k~los de N por hectarea se tendria que apllcar aproxlmadamente 5 qUlntales de esa formula por manzana o aproxlmadamenLe un costo de Q70 la hect a La urea está aproxlmadamente a Q18 el qUlntal, 81 solo se utl11zara Nltrogcno er la forma de urea la cantldad equlvalente de Nltrogeno costaría aprOAlmadamente Q45 por hectárea Con respecto a llrnltaclones se dlce que aunque puede haber las cant10ades necesarlas a veces no se obtlBde el lnsumo al t1empo debldo, pero se cree que otros lnsurnos como lnsectlcldas, herblcldas 51 estarian d1sponlbles dentro del tlempo de ut:Ll:!.zaclon El preClO de suslentac16n para maíz ha sldo flJado por INDLeA a Q6 el qUlntal mucho más elevado que el preclo del afio pasado En t~rmlnos, dlSpOTIlbl11dad y uso de maquluar13, ~sta es una zona donde la únlca forma que S6 puede produclr es haclendo Clertas labores con el uso de tractores, arados y rastras, slendo que las parcelas van de unas 8 Has a 20 Has Blen se sabe que ésta ss una extenslon en la cual no se puede produclr) excepto que haya algún nlvel de mecanlzaclon Los agrlcultores contratan la preparac16n de la tlerra que generalmente conslste de una prlmera arada y dos rastras antes de la slembra [ste equlpo es propledad de Clertas personas que Vlven en 1~ zona Por eJemplo, en el ~rea cerca donde estuvlIDOS ~lbl tando, un crucero prlnclpal de los camlnos, un señor t18ue varlOS tractores con su respectlvo equlpo y tamblén opera una pequeña tle~da de vive res y slmllares El tractor y su equlpo para los serV1Cl0S ya cltados se contratan a razon de Q13-l8 por manzana sJ.endo entonces un costo aproxlmado de US$15-25 por hectarea para la preparacl0n de la tlerra Hay algunos agrlcultores que tamblén contratan el serV1Cl0 de cultlvo para control de malezas Pero encuentran que el equlpo que se tlene para aportar solo ellIDlna las malezas del centro de los calle-Jones y que se hace necesarlO de todas formas entrar con mano de obra al cult~vo Tal vez uno de los factores llmltantes más ser~os est¿ lnvolucrado aquí en este uso de maqulnarla, es aqui donde el crédlto Juega un papel relat1vaIDente 1rnportante para esta zona Slendo que todos los agrlcultores dependen de esta preparac~ón para poder sembrar y cultlvar el maíz y en esta época, a flnes de Abrll, prlnclplos de Mayo, cuando se esta preparando la tlerra se vuelve algo crítlco el tener el serV1Cl0 de esta maqulnarla Generalmente se paga al contado utlllzando el crédlto como fuente de efectlvo para cancelar estas cuentas En otros casos Clertos de los agrlcultores han ahorrado el dl-nero necesar~o para pagar por este trabaJo y aún en otros casos se t~ene la s~tuac~ón que los maqu~n1stas maqu~lan a \"f1ado\" cobrando tasas de 1nterés relat~vamente altas por este trabaJo Slendo, que por eJemplo, el serV~ClO se vendería a Q13 por manzana al contado, el m1smo serv~c~o costaría Q15 o más Quetzales al f~adoEl créd~to d~sponlble es de BANDESA por medlo de los promotores de BANDESA que ahora han pasado a ser promotores del ICTA Como se ha c~tado en otros lnformes estos promotores tlenen no qólo la res-ponsabllJdad de promover el uso de créd1to para así estlmular el uso de lnsumos Slno que tamblén t1enen la responsabll~dad de dar la aslstencla técn~ca para la buena utl1lzaclón de estos lnsumos Es aquí donde está ocurrlendo lo que se debe con~lderar un problema se-rlO } es que aunque los ddtos muestrdn que no ha) respuesta, excepto en casos raros, al fertll~zante, como cond~c16n de crldlto los promotores requleren que se fertlllce por 10 menos una cuarLa parte de la parcela Los agrlculloles obVlamente desean utlllzar el crld~Lo para pagar el uso de la maqulnarJa y entonces aceptan el crldlto baJO esas condlclones Nosotros deberíoillos de ver que esta promoc16n de crédlto y uso forzoso de fert~llzanles, cuando los fertil1zantes nO producen ningún incremento de rendimiento, eh Ln efecto cobrarles un lnterls adlclonal sobre el uso del crédlt0, y adlcl0nalmente esto manlflesta una lneflclencla de la operac~6n del s~stema Blenda que hay escasez de fertlllzantes y estos fertlllzantes se deberían de utll17ar melar en aq'-1e1108 v1.t:lOS donde 81 se pueda obtener una reSpuesta a ellos Como ya se ha dlCho en otras ocaSlones es aquí donde el ICTA tlene un desafío bastante serJO de integrar y manejar blen a los promotores y en darles a los promoLores í6rmulas de pro-duec~6n que sean acopladas a las necesldades de los agll~ultores Es patente que en esta sltuac~6n el \"paquete tecno16glco\" que están ~mpulsando los promotores de crédlto no es aprop~ado para el agrlcultor y que probablemente Sl hay factores tecno15glcos que están llmltando la producclón que se pudleran manlpular para mejorar la producc~ón Producc~6n La producc16n de maíz en pr.omecl~o es de 40 qUlntales p01 manzana con un rango de producc~5D ruíulma de 35 6, producc16n mlxJma 46 O qu~ntales por manzana La producc16n promcdLa entonces es de aproxl-'madamente 2 toneladas y med~a por hectárea ~sto esta basado en una muestra de mas de 500 agr~cultores de la zona Factor B10loglco Llmltante Como ya se ha dlCho los ensayos de ícrtllldad han seHalado que no hay respuesta al fertl11zante, los agrlcultores tamb~én han señalado que no hay respuesta al fertl11zante, y que hay r.elatlvamente poca 3 , I utl11zaClan de otros lnsumos Probablemente el problema blologlCO mis serlO que encuentren los agrlcultores de esta zona, es el problema de malezas Ml especulaclan es la slgulente Slendo las extenslones de terreno ya bastante grandes que se hace díflC1l contratar mano de obra ~ue V1ene del altlplano para hacer estas labores (de las cuales se neces1tarln dos o tres durante el c1clo vegetatlvo del maíz) y como hay un número grande de agr1cultores, ellos estln compltlendo por un grupo relatlvamente pequeño de trabajadores Así sucede que el control de malezas no sea a tlempo aproplado en un gran nomero de estas parcelas y que por consecuenC1a las malezas sean el factor que mas llmltan la producclonPor el otro lado tam-bl&n hay problemas con el control de lnsectos partlcularmente el Cogollero, se nota que los agrlcultores estln tratando de ensayar d1ferentes productos pero tlenen relatlvamente poca lnfolmaclon sobre la t&cnlca de apl1caclón ~n 1nsectlcIdas líqUIdos ha habldo casos de envenenamlento de los trabajadoresMe ln[orma el Dr Schoonhoven que posIblemente el Cogollero no sea de consecuenCIa econ6rnlcaOtro problema que eXIste paro que aparentaRenle no es p~oblema tan serlO, en que algunos agrIcultores han sabIdo manel~rlo. e9 el problema de encharcamlento en áreas bajas Como la tlarra es ondulada tlene CIertos baJOS y en el período lntenslVO de lluvlBS estos ba-JOS tIenden a lnundarse Algunos agrlcultorcs han empezado a sembrar arroz, prIncIpalmente, Blue BonneL en estas áreas (reCIentemente una mls16n de Talwan ha dlstrlbuldo un ar.o¿ enano que se Olce es un derIvado de CICA-4) Otros agrIcultores aGa más, han aprendIdo a utlllzar estos baJOS pala cultlvar hortalIzas y productos para \"pan-coger\" en el período de sequía En upa parcel\" de este tlpO V1mos que no 8610 ten~a~ peplno, sandía, melones, maiz, fríJol Q1no algunas otras espeCles y que la secuenC1B de rotac16n para estos baJOS lba a ser arroz durante la temporad~ prlnclp~l de lluv~~s y hortallzas durante la ¡poca de sequía utl1l¿ando l. humedad resldual que queda en esta zona Uso del Maíz Como ya se habla cltado los preClOS se han flJadD rplatlvamcnte altos este año,pero aún así,el año pasado que los plCClOD de sustenta-Clan estaban a Q4 50 po~ qUlntal,algunos agrlculcorLs cltan el caso de que porque ellos están alejados a los cenl~os d acoplc le tlenen que vender a los camloneros,que por conslgulentc l. lnfluenclB de INDECA no se hace sentIr ahí por lo que t~vlerop qkP vender d preclos muy baJOS El malz es el pr1nclpal producto, tanto para los _1 i~e90s en efectlvo como para las entradas de la allmentaclón Se dl[r que e~da agrlcultor guarda como 15 qUlntales de maíz amarlllo y bl~nco pard el uso en la casa, uso que es prlnclpalmente por med,o de tortl!las que se preparan a dlarlo En efecto en algunos Sltl0S h~y mollnos donde se maqu~la la mol~enda cel nn~x-tamal\" para hacer la nasa para las tor-t~llas ~l maíz se almacena senclllamente en unos s1108 metál~cos que t~enen decosto como Q20-23 y pueden almacenar hasta 40 qUlntaJes de grano Aparcnt0mente son bastante eflclentes y los ve uno en caSl todas las chozas de este parcelamlento Anlmales En especles anlmales se ve Que hay relatlvamente poco, algunas galllnas y unos cuantos cerdos A los agr~cultores les gustaría tener unas vacas para leche Ocas1onalmente se ven vacas en las parcelas mis prósperas A los anlmalcs se les al1menLa con maíz y se les deja pastorear l1bremente en las ireas cercanasTamb~6n se v16 un caso en que se cultlva yuca, la cual en gran parte contrlbuye a la allmentac15~ de los cerdos Ingresos Los parecIeras aparentemente dedlcan la mayoría de su tlempo al tra-baJO de su flnca y en esta zona no t1enen lngresos no-agrícolas, claro esti, que hay algunos parceleras rlCOS que son los duefios de la maqulnar1B y que el 1ngreso agrícola de estas personas t~ene como su fuente el trabaJO de maqulla de las maqulnas Haclendo unos calculas muy crudos estlmo el margen neto esta en unos Q30-90 por manzana, Sln con~lderar los 1ngresos por aJonJol] y atrlbuyéndole cero costo de oportunldad a la tlerra El lngresa anual famlllBl podría varJar enLonces de $300 a mas Je $2 000 Quetzales Esta parcela es típ~ca (ver mapas), como muchas de las parcelas que allí se encuentran La casa esta c~ una parte alta cerca de la carretera y los campos de trabajo se cxtLenden por detrás de la casa rumbo al monte En la evoluc~on de estas se ha Ldo desmontando de la casa hac~a atrás y el desmonte ha producldo t~erras ad~cLonales para trabajar y lefia para la coc~na La mayoría de estas fLncas )a está llegando a su lím~te de 20 ha y se está convLrtLendo en problema ser~o lo de obteuer lefia Algunos de los agrlcultores están dejando partes en monte para tener una fuente de lefia Nos encontramos con Don Cresenc~o, su h1JO y bU cufiado en la parte extrema posterlor de la [~nca en donde ~l estaDa n~clendo el desmonre Don CresencLo es una persona bastante amable y había tenldo contacto con los dos Jovenes estudlantes que nos llevaron allá, habló bas-Lante ableltamente sobre sus planes y sus problemas Don Cresenclo, su hIJO y su cufiado estaban sacando troncos de un área reClentemente desmontada y pleparando esa ~ona como de dos o tres manzanas,para que entrara el tractor a hacer la prImera prepa-racl0n Don Cresenclo nos d~Jo que este año lba a ensayar con arroz en uno de los baJOS que se le había estado encharcando en otras épocas Aparentemente no estaba muy convencIdo de la aplJ.caclón de fer-t~l~zantes pero eSlaba d~spuesto p apllearla en una area que ~1 cooslderaba menos buena de ~u parcela e Jgua1mente él hab!a calIfIcado para el uso del crédJto y parecia contento con el hecho de que Iba a tener crédlto dIsponIble Don Creaenelo arr~enda un. franja del centro de su flnca como de seIS man¿anas, no nos dlJO la cantldad de plata por la cual la arrIenda pero tenemos entendldo que es aprOXImadamente Q25 por manzana Don Cresenclo fué el que nos cont6 sobre el problema que se tlene aoí en esa zona can los ventarrones que tuoban la ml1pa y que por eso es Lmporlante sembrar tan pronto como sea pOSIble antes de que lleguen las lluvlas para así tal vez lograr la madurez flslológlca del naíz antes de que ocurran los Vlentos que Vlenen a flnes de JUllO y prlnclplos de Agosto Esta famllla aparentemente obtlene una parte slgnl[lcdL~va de su proteína de anlmales, especlalmente, aves que cazan en IOh montes ahí cerca a la parcela Cuando pasarnos ahí v~mos que vlv{dn dos faml11as la de Don Cresenclo y su cufiado, y se veían algunas gal1lnas y algunos cerdos pero no eran ObV10S n~ hortallzas nl frutdles 01 gran número de espeCles anlmales Andrcs López-D8 442De ahí pasamos a la parcela de Con AndrCs L6pez que es la 442 del mIsmo D8 Don Andrcs es una pe1 Q ona conslderablemente mayor que don Cresenc~o, yo dlría que don Cresenclo debe tener una edad aprox~ mada de 40-42 afias, su fam~lla es relat~vamente J15ven, t~ene un hL]o 6 que le puede colaborar en las tareas pero aparentemente tlene otros hlJOS cuyo sexo no se nos ocurr16 preguntar En camblO, don Andr€s L6pez es una pprsona ya adulta, estlmo que su edad ha de pasar Jos 55 años y tal vez mas, él es relat1vamente pequeño, flaco, no se ve que está en buen estado de salud, pero aparentemente alerto de lo que va mentalmente) se dedlca más blen a manejar la parcela En la parcela V1ven otras famlllas, por lo menos dos m's a la de él, cuyo parentesco a don Andr¡s no pudlmos detectar Don Andrés no s610 prepara la tlerra con maqulnarla arrendada Slno que tambl¡n cult~va la filsma con maqulnar1a arlendada y dlce lnvertlrle hasta Q35 por manzana en el uso de maqu111arlUEl ten:::a una zona más extepsa de. pasto, se veían unas vaqul11as bastaptes sanab,unos cerdos bJ.en puestos que nos d~Jo don Andrés él vendía cuando tenía alguna necesldad, los allmenta con maíz y con ~uca Don Andrés tenía una manzana de yuca en el puro centro de qU parcela, estaba ahí ublcada por causa de robo, ponle~dola en el centro de la E1lpa no entra la gente a robar la yuca, )a qUL ta es cuy ~peteclble porque no se cultlva en gran extens16n ahí Don Andr¡s fué el que nOb aclar6 mis la cues-t16n de rlesgo ~l tlene temor de hacer lnverQl0nes sobre lnsumOS,no porque él no crea que esas lnv~rSlones sean coateables y que le puedan retrlbUlr, Slno que ¡1 está bastante preocupado de que tenga que sacar ~rédlto para hacar esas 1llverSlones y que se le venga un ventarron que le ponga a él a pagar el cr~d1to obtenldo No nos pudo dar una ldea de que tanto se Plerde nl que tan frecuentemente se plerde pero era muy ObV10 que él estaba preocupado por la cuest16n de los Vlentos fuertes y que la cuest16n de los VlentO& fuertes 11mltaba la lnvers16n en lnsumos Partlendo de esa 1nformac16n fué que decldlmos averlguar en m~s detalle con otros agr1cultore& las consecuenc~as de estos Vlentos fuertes CreenClas En todas estas charlas eon los agrlcultores se notaba una gran creen-Cla en Dl0S, no sé Sl por costumbre o por creenCla real, pero cual-qUler cosa que preguntaramos sobre espectatlvas cltaban todo el tlempo la frase \"prlmero D10q y luego daban la espectatlva que querían Pedro Angel Bolaños-B6 426Al día slgu1ente Vls1tamos la parcela de don Pedro A~gel B en la B6 426La sltuaclón de don Pedro es algo slm~lar a estos otros excepto que como se puede ver en el mapa de la parcela,don Pedro t~ene una zona más extensa sUJeta a encharcamlento en el centro de la parcela y ahí es donde el cultlva hortallzas y otros productos de la ¡poca de sequ!a en lo que él llama en humedad y plensa cultlvar tres manzanas de arroz en esa zona Por los proplos calculas de don Pedro él espera sacarle el doble de ut~lldad a las tres manzanas de arroz que a las dlez manzanas que llene de ma:Lz Don Pedro trabaja esa fluca con su hlJO m~yor que está casado Don Pedro tlene un total de elnco hlJOS, dos de los cuales están Jóvenes y en la escuela y otros que trabajan las 18 marzanas en la zona de Orlen te produclendo maíz, [ríJol,y tomate Don Pedro y su hlJO han llegado reClentemente a esta parce1a y tlenen aproxlmadamente cuatro años y medlo en la Ellos señalaron que les gustaría tener mas tlerra aquí en esta zona y estan bastanLe contento~ de haber \\enldo A don Pedro se le sumlnlstró un formularla y él consldera como su factor llIDltante prlnclpal la falta de dS1stencla técnlca y esto era ObV10 en cómo expll.caba él su patrón tecnológ1coAludía a que el control de lnsectos, el control del Cogollero era slst¡mlco y que tenía acclón a largo plazo el hecho de que el polvo se dlluía con el agua de lluvla y cntraba a la ralZ del maíz Conslderaba plagas como su pr6xlmo factor llmltante, malezas) [alta de tlerra como factor llmltante, la falta de maqulnarla ) equlpo tamblén se conslderaba como factor 11mltante Deslderlo Cermeño Mis tarde se V1Slt6 la flnca de don DesJderlO Cermeño, se hlZO un recorrldo mas extenslVO de la [lnca ) se adjunta aquí el mapa de esa parcela Don Deslderlo tlene en esta zona aproxlmadamente 14 años, tlene cuatro hlJOS y su señora está enclnta El ha ldo poco a poco desmontando y nota que la producclón ha ldo bajando con los años} que las plagas y las malezas han SUbldo Fué él qUlen nos expllcó que él como todos los agrlcultores de esta zona fertlllzan el cultlvo de segunda que prlnclpalme~te es el cUltlvO de ajonjolí (cuando leamos los datos de DIGE~A sobre pI uso de fertlllzantes vamos a ver alto uso de fertl11zantes y qUL esto se podría ver en conIllct~ el caso es que los fertlllzanLes que se estan utlllzando durante el clclo agrícola no se están uLll~zando rard el cultlVO pr~nclpal del maíz 81UO para el cultlVo de segunda que es el ajonJolí y en algunos casos es el otro Cult1VO de maíz Lsto ~eñala que el slstema de lnformaclon de DIGES~ tlene que detallarse un poco más para tener algo de reSOlUC1Ón sobre la secucuela de cultlvoS y la apllcaclon de lD sumos a esa Bacuanela y no slmplemcpte el uso y no uso de esos cultlvoa, Exploramos en detalle la sll~aclón de los Vlentos fuertes que ocurren en la zona,en JUllO y don Deslderlo nos expllco que él ha tenldo pérdldas serlas a causa de V~Lntos en cuatro de esos dlez años y Que la p¡rdlda probablemente le dlSmlnU)e SU producclón normal en un 20r( o mis de ZOr) porque nos l.dblaba de tener una producc~6n normal de selB qUlntales por cuerda y de que el Vlento le redueia es.Entonces aqu1 aparece que puede haber una medlda de este rlesgo y podamos empezar por aqu! pala tener una ~dea de lo que el rleago lnvolucra Otro problem, que se detecto en esta flnca, que fué sugerldo por los m1S~Ob estudlantes dp serV1ClO supervlsado es el hecho de que hay C1Cltas ZOlldb que se encharcan donde aún es planlcle alta Como los bUClOS son ba9tante arclllosos la hlpotesls de ellos es que como aquf se utlllza maqu1narla pesada con arados de escasa profundldad, q~e con el transcurso de los años ha habldo una compactac16n de suelo a un nlvel más abaJO del arado y que esto ha conducldo a la reLenc16n de agua en eharcos Se dlce 8) que ~sto puede ser entonces un factor que va en comblnaclón a la falta de respuesta a fertlllzaclon y que tal vez una practlca a recomendarse sea el uso de arados mas profundos A don Deslderlo tambl~n se le apllco el formularla y en este caso se obtlene un patrón bastante curlOSOS en lo que el factor llmltante prlnclpal que él c,ta es el factor de \"mala suerte U Después del factor d,::.. mala suerte están los preclos baJos para sus cultlVOS En relac16n a mala suerte nos expllcó don Deslderlo que cuando ~l ha arrendado terreno donde a ~l le ha ldo mal a esa gente que ~l alqulla le va blen, pero cuando al año slgulente éL coge ese illlsmo terreno y lo cultlva,a el le va mal, por consecuenCla el ha concluido que ~l tlene mala suelte Muy en contraste a la sltuaclon de don Pedro Angel B que aseguraba que a él le lbd blen, que los suelos eran buenos etc , como cosa curl0sa tamblén don Deslderlo dlce que suelo pobre no es factor llmltante como tampoco lo es la falta de tlerra nl la de aSlstenCla t~cnlca hn relaclón a los preClOS baJos, nos contó la anCcdota de que el año pasado cuando INDECA estaba comprando en el \"Centro Uno\" (la cabecera del parcelamu,nLo), a Q4 50 el qUlntal el fué obllgado a vender a Q2 el qUlntal al nlvel de su flnca por falta de tra-sporte, nos lndlca ~l que falta de tr~~s porte es un problema serlO Don Deslderlo a]udló mucho a problemas de salud y de energía de parte de él que le llmlLaban en su trabajo como tamblén problemas de falto de mano de obra, escasez de agua para los CUltlvoS, el problema mas serlO t~cnlco es la falta de maqulnarla y aquí Vlmos que en esta flnca ~l no había quemado toda,ía el monte y que no le querían trabajar los maqulladores porque decían que Sln quemar el monte y el rastrojo del año pasado le lba a ser muy díflCll la entrada a la maqulnarla para hacer las labores Sln embargo, don Deslderlo no quería quemar el monte Slno quería relncorporar esa materla seca al suelo esperando que eso le SlrVJera para fertllldad Don Deslderlo plensa abondr un are a de tres manzanas, esta drea es la que él consldera la mas pobre Reunlon con Coordlnadores del Programa El Lunes por la mañana a sugerencla del Dr Eugenlo Martínez me reuní con coordlnadores de programa de los dlferentes CUltlVOS del lCTA El lngenlero Fuentes de maíz, el Dr Kuehn de Hortallzas, el Dr Plant de Sorgo y el Dr, Hardwood de Desarrollo de Estaclones En una dlscuslon bastante larga con estos señores se les expllco los antecedentes del programa y las razones por las cuales habíamos sldo lnvltados a trabajar con el lCTA en Guatpmala Estos señores lnS1Stleron mucho que probdblernente se lleve mayor beneflclo y para mejor coordluaC10n 81 nos concentramos en la zona de La M5qulua y no tratar de cubrlr más zonas a este tlempo, que tendríamos meJor éXlto el proAlmo año trabajando ya con los agronomos de prOducclón que estan actualmente en adlestramlento en el CIAT Después de la expllcaclon en detalle mostraron mucho lnter~s en lo que se esta haclendo, tambl~n d1S-cutlillOS algunos otros proyectos de ellos, lncluyendo un proyecto del Dr Plant, donde nos mostro Clerto anállsls estadístlco y económlco que suglere otra vez que los factores prlnclpales 11m tan tes son cuestlones de malezas y practlcas culturales Bob Cate Se tlenen Clertos materlales escrltos que nos presentaron los cuaie_ estl~ d,sponlbJes en ml oflclna hu~o extensa dlscuslon sobre la metodología que se utJl~7o y el porque de los modelos que utlllzan ellos L8te tlpO de modelo esta caSl eq completa Oposlclon a los modelos tradlClonales cuadrltlcos que utlllzan los economlstas para estlmar curvas de respuesta en fertlllzac10uCreo que aquí h~y irca donde el DrScoble nos puede cOJvborar ~ucho en llegar~ una decls16n sobre nuestra oplDlon ,on respecto a estos metodos Al prlnclplo se decldlo COD el lngenlero Palencla que en la zona de La Mlqulna el factor l1mltinte no es fertl11zaClon \\ que deben explorar algnnos otros lnsumos, COnvenlmos en colaborar para establecer conjuntamente estos ensayos para explorar otros factores llmltantes Consldero que ~sto es un serV1ClO vallas as para el reTA ya que el leTA se ha quejado en otras ocaSlones de que el programa de Suelos no se ha lncorporado a las act1vldades de prooucclon del reTA y que de esta manera nosotros estamos 81rVlendo cowo catallZEdor Se acordo de que hu)an algunos ensayos con herblc1das, lnsectlcldas y \\arledades para ver Sl en efecto estos otros lnsumos son los 110ltantes en la zona de La MSqulna Planeaclon Sectorlal Al día slgulente se lnvlrtlo bastante tlempo con el Dr Sterl1ng N1Chols y el Ingenlero Adan Rodríguez de la oflclna de Planeac~on Sector~al estud~andD los datos que ha producldo el slstema de lnfor-macl0n de DIGESA y Clerta evaluaclon que se esta haclendo de los programas El Dr N1Chols me proporclono Clerta lnformaclón analítlca que estoy anal17ando en más detalle a~tes de presentar un lnforme Slrve declr que el Dr N1Chols tlene en sus manos una mlna de oro de lnformaclon que aparentemente es bastante conflable ) di algunas lncerpretac~ones algo sorprendentes Las conseCUenClas de esa lpfor-mac16n son de tomarse en cuenta porque sefialan como puede un slstema de lnformaclon ayudar a canallzar bJen estos programas de promoclon agrícola de Guatemala Nuestro programa tlene que lnslstlr en que su colaboracl0n en Guatemala se haga en llave con los trabaJOS que se reaIlzan en esta oflclna ya que ahí esta la base de lnformacl0n para tomar muchas decls~ones y hacer muchos anillsls # #1 Reun~on con Soc~o 0$08 Esa tarde se tuvo una reuBlon con la 11cenclada Amalla CorlJo y el llcenclado Carlos Ralgl, 50C10logos del reTA, a los cuales se les hkZO una presentae~ón exhaustkya de nuestro programa y de la eola-borae~on pos~ble entre ICTA-CIAT Por la noche sostuve una reun10n bastante larga con el Dr Howard Freeman, ConseJero de C~enckas So-Ckales para M'~~eo y el Car~be de la Fundac~6n Ford, ~nvest~gando las pos~b~l~dades de apoyo de la Fundac~on Fard al lCTA para nacer evaluac~ones de estos programas de kntervenelon Este mater1al se cubre mas ampllamente en la carta que aquí se adJunta , FACTORes SOCIAL~S E II~S';'ITJCIOdALES -centroD de acop~O -prec~o de óuatenta-CtOn de lT'aLZ -$1,..,cte'\"1a de cr'ca1.  Debldo a la extenslón de las parcelas, la únlca forma de produ-Clr es baclendo ClertaQ labores cnn el uso de tractür0~, arados y rastras Así los agrlcultores contratan la preparaclón de la tlerra que conslste generalmente de una arada y dos rastras rl serVlClO del tractor y su equlpo se contratan a razón de Q13-J8 por manzana que corresponde a US$15-25 por hectarea aproxlmadamente Para el control de malezas algunos agrlcultores reallzan part~ de esta labor con maqulnarla agrícola, pero es necesarlO el U&O de mano de obra Los factores mas llmltantes son -El rJesgo de volcam~ento del maíz antes de su madurez a conse-cuenClB del Vlento fuerte que sopla en Jullo y Agosto, dJSmlDUyendo aproxlmadamente en un 20% la producclon de maíz La dlsponlbllldad de credlto, utlllzado fundamentalmente en el alquller de la maqulnarla lndlspensable en la preparaclón de la tlerra a flnes de Abrl1 y prlnclplos de Nayo La eScasez de mano de obra que lmplde controlar las malezas a tlempo El CredltO dlsponlble Vlene de BAND~SA Junto con la aSlstencla tecnlcd, qUlen establece como condlclon de credlto el fertlllzar con el, por lo menos una cuarta parte de la parcela El resto de agrlcultores que no utlllzan el credlto, no conSlderan necesarlO el uso de fertlllzantes   l 2l 3 • ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- • - --------------------------------------------------------------------------  Los prJ!cJ.palcs rastos en su orden de J.1 yortanc~a son zacatón, JDr~?~lá, 11:; l{;ola J' ~l(t:U '11 ente la estrella ef:r:LcClnd que oc esto. ..Ln-trodUclendo. Apro)\"l eda:nente el 75, de la tJ.en a es aprovecnaod para la c) pl ot¿cJ.6n 2[,21c01d, y el 25),> a la ganadera. El Ing P~nll.o Castl.llo (lCTA) presentó una 1ntroducClón por parte del Ing Fumngalll. y dlscut~ó la l.nportancla de los cultivos multiples en el desarrollo dgrícola de Guatemala Dr Jorge Sorla -CATIE (Turrlalba) se conoce claramente el problema del aumento de la poolaclón en nuestra zona, comparado co~ el poco aumento na produce_ón agrícola El Slslema clás] co de cuJ tlvar detcrr:lnad2 área hasta cuando ~e acabe su fertlll.dad y posterlormenle dcjar el ,uelo Sln cultlvo para que se r~genere durante varlOS a~os y culllvar otra vez después de cierto cl.clo de años, no está blen cO'1oc~do n~ cstudlado No ex~ste tod~vía una tecnología adecuada, nI una lnvest,gaclón blen d.rlglda hacla esta sltua-ci6n agrícola Los cultlvoc asocladoq bon parte íute~ra del slstema de LU)tivo en estas ZOtas y so~ tradl.ClOneS del agrl.cultor HeMos cOr'centrado nuestro esfLerzo de lnveqllgaclón y de desarrollo hac~~ la apl~caclón de slste~s te~nlf~cados de monocultlvo, y hasta t~ctología transplantada de otras sltua-Clones no muy parecldas, de países desarrollados Hay que pensar en cówo caf'lblar esa mentalldad El trabajo 0'1 equlpo ha desarroll~do slstemas bastaüte bueros pala varlos cultl.vOS de c>-portaclón. pero este co',cepto no ¡,e ha <-encentrado en los cUlllVOS de subslstencl' en latlnoamérlca ~c ha reorganlza~o el Departa~eDro de A31;0nornía dentro del CATIE para enfocar hacla estos probl<?r1as tc.c',olegH.os del pcquefio agrlcultory para trabajar en equlpo en los aspe~tos de c~lllVOS múltlples Se dlscutlÓ este concepto en forma detdllada en el docuwento del programa, dl~ponlble en el CATIE El equll~brio del bosque CllIDaX en el tróplco ha lleg¿do al punto oc interceptar toda la luz dlsponlble y es lo illaS eflClente en lérreQnos de pro~ duccl.ón de biomasa total, cspeclalnenle cooparado con nucstlas lntervenClones con cultlvos anuales que tl0nden a camblar por completo este slstema blOlóglco y su balance El uso de cUltlvOS m~ltlples aúrante todo el a~o tlenc potenclal para mejorar el uso de la cner~fa disponlble, y el enfoque del eQUlpO lntebrado qe dlrlJe pacla este fln Se presentaron los objetlVOq del prograw~ de CATIE El pr6xlillo paso (segunaa etapa). después del prlmer MIo de enqayos específ:lco~ en Turrlalba, es establecel una sen.C de ensayos de \"outreach\" en los dem:ls países ccntroamerlcanos para cornple~enlar la ~nfornaclón ya d1spon10le del centro ~~s allá, se piensa lncluir cultlVos perennes. y hasta lotaclones entre éstos y los cultivos anuales Dr Rufo Bazan -CAfIe (Turrlalba)Una metodología a ssgulr Qué investipnr? Por qJé lnvestlgar? y Cómo investlgar? Hay que concentr~r los esfuerzos en el sector de baJoq recursos. de agrlcultura tradlC:lOnal. para recupprar la utl.ll.zac16n del terreno y mejorar su sltuaclón econornlca Un probler\" principal en esas zonas es el de la fertll~dad -la rotac16n de áreas (bobque/cultivojbosquejcullivo) t~ene que ver con la baja productlvl.d1d. deb~do a la pérdlda de fertilldad a A numher of l.nstl.tut10ns 1.11 Lat1n Amer1ca llave. 1ndeed \"red1SCOJer<?d the <nall íarmer\" and a~e trul} comrll.tted to an l.ntens;-;.;-e-ffort alUled al solvlug hlS !'lost serl.OUS aud lrnme.dlate problel'1s 'Ihis treme recurred over and over agaln J.n the presentatJon -there 1< Lhought about the \",ITall farroel and an .?ppatent comm1.lt'rent to do &oüethJ.ng b Ther!! 1.5 l.nCrellSl.ng :lnterect and lUuch n.orgam.zat1on of departments and l.l1sll.tutes l.nto mult,-dl.scl.pl1.nary teams, prl.l1larl.ly ded:lcated to the technologl.cal \"qpe.cts of small falml.ng The most COlll1non deV1.atlon ;fronl \"pur<, technology\" ls an cconom1st, but J.t 15 lare to f1l'(! personnel 01 l.nterested :ln soc1.al v~J.ence.sAlthough there 1S apparently a strong lesolve to \"solvEl' the problems of Lbe small farmer, 1t 15 apparel1t that mast groups do not know \\vrat h:ls problcllls are -except J.n !'lOS!. general terms, Le productl.on and praduct1Vl.ty are. 10\\1, income 1s low 01' non-ex1stent, and he and ¡,iD fat'\\1.1y are malnourJ.shed lhese are not spec1f:lC enough problema to tackle by re~earch -much less hope ta solve them by shotgun apl'roaches to technology fnere 16 some 10w degree -4of probahi11ty that ene er more of the schemes now under study may provide an econof:ll.cally fees~ble alt~rnat1ve to a few farmers ln some speclflc Sltuatlon -although tec~nology 15 the only phase under study, and many other factora Wh1Ch 1mOl.nge on the farm faffiJ.ly could easll> neg'lte <lny progresa reached in technology fhis 1S not good enough, and our ll.rnlted re'iourceS should be better focused to btlUg a real change ~u the small farmer's economl.C and nutr1t10nal Sl.tuatl0n 3 A pract1.cal and general metnodology to 1dentJ.fy what che real problellJS are 1U a glveu zone, aud hew te br10g research and development funds to bear to solve thero rapldly 15 sorcly nceded by the plaonlng groups of researeh agene:tes and nat:tonal governrnents Th:ts approach 15 pree:tsely what ue are work1ng to devclop l.n the systcms tcam, and the scheUle be1ng put :tnto praetl.ee 1n La }bquina (coast oi Guatemala) JS fOllowl.ng what we eon~l.der the esseptl.al and ordcrly 5te¡:>s to reeogm.ze real problema, secl, or researeh solutions on \"he farro or on the experu\",ent atatlon 1U the samIO! zone, and put these results l.nto actl.O' on che farro to cause an l.mpact 10 farm lnCo~e and/or nutrl.~onal level of the faml.ly 4 le 1S essent:tal for the CIAT team lo continua to .... ork with these other intelnat10nal and natl.onal groups, and once we havc data and eonfl.denc~ lO our approach írom che f1rst year' s c\"pen.ence loll La Maqullta and the north coast of Colombl.1l, begl.n to sell th:ts approaeh te the other centers lt :1.5 uot meaut te repl<lce the technology -orJ.ented prog¡'aros :>.n other centers, but ralher to ~ncrease the~r awareness oí the total ran&e of factors involved, and h~lp to broaden the~r focus on real problema and potenllal solut1ons Just as we bUl1d conf~dence and se11 our cred~bl11ty as a teara anl es ~nd1v1du1lls ln eOI'Lacts l11th natJ.onal programs, tJe nus\\: sell these coneepls to the commum.ty of J.nternat~onal ('enter~ Tuesday, Apnl 23 -Guatemala -Onente (NonJas, AsuncJ.ón l'hta)A tn,p to the orl.ente \\<I:l.th Dr MartJ.ncz gave an opportum.ty to va11, the. bean bree.dJ.ng a\"1d observatl.on plots \\l1th lng Pl.O lbsaya, and see che progress they have ffidde Comnerelal l:tnes lOOK good ~n tr~als lnclud1ng the fou\"' varJ.et~es under lnerease ln the zone, and se\"eral hnea :l.n che eol1ect1ons undcr test 100k even better Soybeans (cspecl.alJy lCA-LJ.11 and Ir.proved PelJ.can) and several safflow('r b.nes from Davl.s loo', good, }lartl.nez wants to buy one ton of seed of el.eher lCA-L1h. OX\" lPl¡>roved Pehcan from Colo\"lbJ.a nnnedlatcly, lf thJ.s i9 avallablc (eall L H Camaeho, Proacol, Cresem~llas, SCffilvalle) Latar V1SJ.tS to iarmers near the Salvador border lndJ.cated a great succass 1n the ~eed prOdUc.tlon acherne I'lounted Inth sorne 87 5ma11 farmC1S on ahout 100 ll'anz\"nas tlll.s souso'>. with rcrl.¡:atJ.on The nany d1fflculc::J.es of bUYJ.ng thlS secd for cash, and selling agal.n 1n the zone for the coro1ng plantJ.ngs are testlng the íl e>'J.bt lit Y of these gover!1l:lent agene'-er, who are not used to operatlng ra¡ndLY and effJ.eJ.ently 1n sueh a bus1ness, and the patlence of the se1ent1sts who want so badl, to meve the progra¡;¡ but are frustrated de eaeh step by the bureaucracy A later meetll'g Hl.th Drs Behar, ~Jyren \"nd Breltenbacl< covered ¡\"CAP' q research progr3m in general An evcm.ng seSS:lOn wlth Drs Wellhausen, l1yren and Breitenbad eXDloled AlD's proteln proJect Tueqday, ~Drll 30 Guatemala-Panamá A meetlng M'S held ln the lCTA offices to dlcCUSS an AID proJect p-<..po&al for lmprov1ng pr0t(>ín quallty Ul Gua temala Present W0re ATD D1S Cl,drle,> Bre1lellbuci, and Del l!)ren AID Adnsor Dr r:d Hellhausen leTA Drs Bob lIaugh, J:.ugemo l1artinez, Al Plant, lng Alejandro ~'uent(;s CIAT e A Francls Over a pcr10d of tv.o days, through personal d~Scuss10ns, small meet1ngs, and lhe eventual group l'leetlng on TL.esday, a proJcct spcc1í~cally focused on push,ng 2Qa~-2 mal?e evolved lnto a proJcct focused ~Ole speclf.cdlly ~u three zones of Guatemala (La Maqulua, Orlente and Altlplan1cl.e -Qut'l7altcpun¡;o) and more gene:ral1y on protel.n ~mprovemmt in the ¿:let to ulprove hU'1an nt.tr~tl.on Tlns at once was a pOSl t~ve apph.catlon of a part oí the CrAl Systems leam methodology, an l.ntegratlon of the proposed ArD proJect ~n~o the on~golng prlnritH!S of rCTA, and a v.ell-orl.ented effolt to lmprovc human nutrÁl~on through U product~on l.ptel•vent~on speclfically t¡nlored íor eaeh zone A brl.ef descrlptl.Ol1 of thlS mectlng on Tuesday loS pres~nted An AlD project to push opaque•2 mai.ze U\\ Cuatemala has been ln olamnng stages for so-ne monthe -prevlous d1SCUSSl.ons Wl th Myren in CLAT, 1'cllloausen ln Panamá and Waugh/Martl.uez/Fuentes ~n GuaCe1.1Üa led ta my dlScussJ.ons w~th Cnl!1YT last w<-eh, and the acqul.sl.tl.on of 40 kg of Yello¡, tI ¡\" Composl te, and 2 kg seed ~ncrease samples of 3 othcr H E opaque compos~tes (K, white, and , ,• ~TRIC'O~-. ~=edl.ate seed l.ncrease snd adaptatlon -testl.ng of the Yellm; P E. C.omo 1n severa1 lowland zonas durl.ng thl. c regular plant1ng season (sp~ later 1nventory 11St of 2R~que~ mater1s1s currently ava11able 1n Guatemala) These AID spE'e1allsts and \\~elltlause1\" had previous1¡ v1s1ted Guatcll',o.la and seL dowr pre11ffi1narv Ob]ect1ves, zones oí concentrat1on, and a tentative Qudget W1th1n th1s tramework, we began t~e def1n1t10n oi a more spec1f1c r\"oJect rour major points were read11y accepled by everyone 1.n the group, although d1SCUSSl.ons \"ere long and 1neff, c1cnl the proeram 15 to concentrate on sma11 fanler prob1ems, theu; 15 need for pn 1nteglatLJ te<:'1l a¡..proacl', specLf1c geograph1.c aleas nCE'ded to be def~ned for opcrat~onal snd plann~ng purposes. and th1.s proJC!ct 6hould be an l.nteEra1 part oí on-golng lCTA pro-duct10n-orlented pl02ram (AID qUlte reallstlcally neE'd. to 2de~llfy wl.ch sorne spcclf1.c proJect or aspect \"f a PloJect for poh.t1.esl reasons) Less lmmed,ate1y accepted, but eventually agreed upon enthUqlastl.c•1l1y by the group werc tne 1nportance of asseSSl.ng real farwer proble~s 1n prOduCtl0n. economlcs and nutr1t10n at the farm level as a f1rst ,tep 1n Lne plocess, and the evpanSlon of the proJect lnto new ar~as of protel.n soulces. accord1ng to the speclf1.c needs and erop potentia1s of eaen arca Rpsources aval1able to lCTA, 1ncJudlng those from CrAl, AID, Guatellnlan Covermnent and others, were rev~eweQ as p<lrt of the background (,ur.ent actlv1tlCS ~n the three zones \\;ere d1scussed, 1\"1cludLng our mm l.ntenentlon l.n the zone of La !<.aqu1UdAval.lable secd and tecnnology fOl each zone w\"re descrlhed by Drs l.artlnez, Plant and ),uentes Opaque-2 Mai7e avl'tllable nO,1 or about to be rar\\Tested 1S -15 -Several add,t1onal documents are 1ucluded n scheme for IDa1ze 1roprovement deslgned by Dr V111ena and I~g Fuentes, sorne hand-wr1tten notes fraro Bab Waugh on La h'lOU1na, a map of the area, and a pub11cat1on on tnese land reforro areas (these last acqulred froro lNTA J~st before leav1ng) Although deta1.ls of the proJect are yet to be wr1tcen, the nutr1tl.onal, production and econom1.C basell.ne stud1.és w111 be flade soon -poss1ble crap interv~nt1ons ln the three zones l.rclude Con el fín de aclarar el interés de nun~tro equipo PU el Programa de SlstemdS de ProduccIón para el Pequei'!o AgrIcultor} poc\\er loí'rar una vInculación con el lCTA en la ZOnd de La biaqlnna, me permito resuenr los anteLedentes, planes y trabajo en marcha en ('sta zona COI' esa breve ~ntrodllcclon podemos Informal a los mas ultereoados sobre nuestros ObjE'tlVOb y a la vez el alcance dLl apoyo dlsponlble pOi parte del CIAT Los dntecedentes del Interés de nuestro eqUIpo Se encuentran en el documento bás~co del programa y mas e.peclÍlcamente en el ~nforme de vUlje elaborado por los Dres Scob1<~ y l:ranklln Utll~zando e\"to como ba~e ) despucs de unas V~SltdS de los Drs Frankll.n y Franc~s en los últu'o\" meses, el eq\\..l.po de $1stemas en el CIAT llego al acuerdo de que Guatet'1ala, ). mas esp(>ciflGamentl..\"\" la zona de 1 B: Náqulna, dehe tener pr~or) dad entre nuestros V,r¡09 proyec!:os dUlante el afio 1914Las razones loch'yen el l.ntoes del IC:A e!' ,b.cha zona y los técnHos cIe extenslon ya trabaja\"ldo en crédl to supervl~ado, la vlnculaclón de hA\"lDES,< en los dspectos dE' eredlto en la zond, el potencl.al para aumentar la proclucclon oe lo~ CultlVOS básicos alla, una sltuaclón lelatlvanente facll de estuDlat en térm~nos de tenenC~1 dp la tlerra y un numero 11~ltado de cultlvos el potenclal para mO'1tar und lt1tervenclon lntegrada por varias entldades nacIonales Q lnternacionales) el lntelóS éspeclfico del CIAT en los programas del TeTA El proyecto ,,~pec:flco \"ñ La }iaqm na, se ln1cló con una serIe e e visitas pOI uarte de los tecnlCOS del reTA y del CIAT, entre otros glupOS Se decldló hacer enfasls en una lnLervenc10n Integrada con base en los pro~ blamas actuales de producclón en d1cha ?ona y dos estuuJaütes (\"aul '!otheu y Danllo (onz, lE'z) de agronomía Seran aSl !.\"nados para l'lanf'iar los eú%\\yos a~ronomlCOS ¡¡ nIvel de campo, coro parte de su practica antes de reclblr el grado de 1\"Lo' estudJanteq estlln en la etapa de evaluar faclores l1ml.t\"antct), por 1nten echo ce una serl.e ce observacl.oncs y e 1 'ltre\\1 &tng con agl\"lcultores Ade\"lIlS, están evaluando los conceptos de 10'1 agentes de ex-tenSIón CO\"l respecto a los problemas mas l,mltanteq Tos nrlweroq enqa)os probablellcnle lncltnr.Jn los fsetoLes de fcrtlllzanles, t..ontrol de Malezas y control de plagas Ln pI cultnro, comparend~ en forma mn5 bl.en senCIlla las pract~~as actuales con unaS alternatIvas flÍct1\\'lente dlspOnlble& al agricultor  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------,-.--------- tudlante l!Uatenalteco de po~t-¡::;rado. a~tualmente trabajando COn el ¡,r Scobl<! en el CiAT y este Joven (IlIg Gllberto Santa Hnda) ha enfocado bU tes.q hacJ..B la zona de La Naqulna y elaborara un estudia ccononllCO dé los factores de produce;.o\" '1 los 11m).tdnte~ a la adopción por efecto do rle~go Con respecto a los aspectos de nutrlcl0n, se neCeQlta una seri~ de encuestas a nlvel de familla en la zonp, para determinar 'iU nl.vel actudl de \".alud } nulnelon y para comparar ¿eapues el 1mpacto de una lntervepCJ.on en cuanto a la prOdltCC1Ón cie sus cultl.vOS actuales o en una dlversl.ri<.aclon de al1.mentos Falta todavl.D defln~~ esta fasp del proyecto, pero SE> espara que qe pueda adelantar los contactos )a hecho, con el lNeAP y con el apo)o de la A 1 D Los planes del segú'1do afio dependeran co,'pl\"tll'1lente de los resulla.do~ del prlmcr afio y )eguramente lncluirán unos camb~os en el énfaGlq de la 1ntcrvenClon ~e espera un glan eqfuerzo por parte del lnrenlero Je 3~stemas del CIAT t en lo telacl.onudo con esttl p]é'heac'on y segurarrente una v1nculac1on estrecha pOl parle de los dl.lcctlvOB V LiicnJ.cos del leTA en la fase de evaluaclón Las lmplicaejones para los scctoreq de ered.to, preclos de suslentaclón y la lnvesl~ll;~clón seran evaluada\" en detalle y cualqm.er recoMmaae:l.6n d1.scunoa en detalle con todos 10& lnteresado~  -----------------A   5) 17 no( 1) 5 OOJ él ( 1) 3i, ,>,¡( 1) 2'i 01?(2) 12 53()I ) ..,6~ 2) 15 175( 1) 6 /25 (l) 5 6hJ(1) :, 6(>35 000(1) ti 719(1) l ú03 9 7,,0 ,---------_ . . --~------..... -.-..-_--------- El Centro Internacl0na1 de Agrlcultura Troplcal (CIAr), tlene como su flnalldad colaborar con los programas naclonales de lnvestlgaclon y desarrollo de los países del troplCo Latlnoamerlcano para dumentar la cantldad y la calldad de la allmentaclon para las p<b1acl0nes rurales y urbanas, y contrlbuír a mejorar las condlclones de vlda de la poblaC10n rural, a través de la lntroducClon oe nuevas tecnologías agrícolas El reconOClffilento de que los factores que lnclden en la producclon agrícola son dlversos y tlenen dlferente lffipacto en dlstlntas sltuaclones ecologlcas y economlcas llevo al CIAT a organlzarse, no por dlSclpllnas clentíflcas, Slno por equlpos de Slstemas de Producclon en cultlvoS y especles anlmales Con este enfoque se trabaja en forma lnterdlSclpllnarla e lntegrada para lograr el desarrollo de slstemas de producclón que encajen dentro de las restrlc-Clones ecologlcas y economlcas de nuestra zona La sLtuaclon del pequeño agrlcultor y aquellos denomlnados agrlcultores tradlcl0nales, ha llevado al CIAT y sus colaboradores a plantearse los slgulentes lnterrogantes Cómo se pueden ~ntrodUClr aJustes Y rnodltlcacl0nes al slstema tradlclonal de produccl0n 1  EXlste un esquema general que pueda ser apJlca-d0 7  Estas lnquletudes son la base del Programa de Slstemas para Pequeños Agrlcultores, que es Una consecuenCla 16g1ca de la necesldad de lntegrar los esfuerzos de los programas de slstemas de producc16n dentro de un concepto global de la empresa agrícola El Programa de Slstemas para Pequeños Agrlcultores, tlvldad de lnvestlgac16n del CIAT cuya tarea es estu nacer y comprender la gran dlversldad de slstemas de producc16n que eXlsten en los tróplcos de Amerlca Latlna El programa está enfocado baslcamente hacla las empresas agrícolas tradlCl0nales (lncluyendo la flnca famll1ar) conslderandolas como 81Stemas lntegrados Con el estableclIDlento de este programa, el CIAr ha reconocldo que ante la dlverSldad y la compleJldad de la agrlcultura en pequeña escala en Amerlca Latlna, es necesa-rlO conocer a fondo el papel de los slstemas de producclon en el contexto de una empresa agrícola que utl11za varlOS renglones de producclon dentro de un amb1ente ecológlLo, economlco y soclo-cultural, que le da estímulos y le establece restrlc-La revoluc~on verde, se ha enfocado al cultl.vO como su objeto de luvest1gaclon y los programas del eIAT, a 10h slstemas de producclOn, el Programa de Slstemas para Pequeños Agrlcultores se enfoca hacla el hombre dentro de la empresa agrícola (Scoble y Franklln, 1974) La prlnclpal meta del programa es desarro llar un proceso que ~lll2-~a_la ldentlflCaC1.0n, y el anall.s1S de los slstemas de producclon eXlstentes, para faCl11tar en Ps ta forma una raplda apllcaclon de la tecnología agrícoli1._~ ¿ conduzca al desarrollo de las áreas rurales, en especlal las zonas bajas tropl.cales_ (McClung, 1973) El punto focal de este proceso son las famlllas y personas que habltan en el campo, que lntegran empresas que tlenen que ver con la produccl0n, el consumo, el mercadeo de los productos agropecuarl0s y en los cuales factores bl.ologlCOS y físl.COS lnteractúan con los slstemas soc1ales, polítlCOS y econom1cosEn el reconOCl~len to explic1to de la 1mportanc1a de estas l.nteraCClones está la clave de nuestro esquema metodológlco POR QUE PEQUERoS AGRICULTORES' El desarrollo agrícola del troplco de Amerlca Latl.na ha sldo esenclalmente duaIlsta, en un lado tenemos un sector moderno, comerc~all.zado y por otro, tenemos un sector extenso, compuesto por pequeñas unldades de explotaclon, las cuales funclonan a nlvel de caSl Subslstencla Se nos dlce que deberíamos de concentrar nuestros trabajOS de desarrollo de tecnología para los agrlcultores del sector comerclal que estan d~spuestos a ut1l1zar la tecnología agrícola que se desarrolle, pero la realldad es que gran parte de la or~entaclon del sector comerclal ha sldo hac~a cosechas de exportac10n y de productos no-all -mentlc~oS El caso general, es que en la Amer1ca Latlna la mayor parte de los allmentos son produc1dos por los pequeños a-grlcu1tores, que han s1do menos favorec~dos, no solo de la extenslon de tlerra, Slno con un acceso llmltado al transporte, al almacenamlento, a los factores de producc10n, al credlto y a los otros serV1C10S lnstltuclonales Sl queremos aumentar la producc1on de allmentos vamos a tener que ofrecerles meJores tecnologías lntegradas al que produce los allmentos, el pequeño agrlcultor Tamblen, conslderamos razón lmportante para trabajar con los pequeños agrlcultores el recho que en los países de nuestra zona los goblernos hacen nuevo énfasls para tratar de allvlar los problemas de la pobreza rural Indudablemente, se requleren medlos para 1ncrementar el lngreso real entre los cuales tendrán papeles lmpresclndlbles el lncrementar la producc10n, la productlvldad y las oportunldades de empleo en la agrlcultura tradlCl0nalEn el CIAT entendemos como pequeño agr1cultor aquella empresa agrícola, usualmente la farnl1la, en que sólo una pequeña porclon de la producclon entra en el mercado, y la prlnclpal fuente de mano de obra es aquella que habIta contl.nuamente en la flnca productora Con esta def1nlclon amplla, pequeños agr~ cultares pueden ser empresas comunltar~as o pueden ser el IDlnlfundlo de ladera de las montañas, como tamblen, pueden ser aún las grandes extenslones de tlerra de los Llanos Or1entales de Colombla y las no-pequeñas extenslones de tlerra (100 Has) de las Agrov~las de la Amazon~a de Brasll L1m:ttaclon en tl.erra no es por 81 m18ma la def1nlc~on del pequeño agr1cultol Estos agr1cultores han tenldo poca o nInguna oportunIdad de benefIc~arse de sus act1vldades en la agrlcultura Estos ag'lcultores reaCCIonan en la mlsma forma ante las perspectIv_as de eXlto o fracaso que los agrIcultores comerCIales, pero dada su precarIa SItuaCIón y la escasez de oportunIdades de InverSIón, eJ:.1os a través de su larga experIencIa en actIVIdades agrícolas han desarrollado sus propIOS SIstemas de producclón . .'!ue generalmente les han dado resultados caSI óptImos dentro de sU ambIente economIco, polítICO, y ecológICO (Shultz 1964, TonIna 1973) Este concepto nos lleva a deCIr der los actuales SIstemas antes hecho, tenemos que hacernos la que perCIben los agrIcultores, produCClon sea la forma óptIma prodUCIr Ingresos y alImentos? que pr~mero tenemos que entende tratar de mod~flcarlos En preguntaCual es la sItuacIon para que su actual SIstema de de ~nvertlr sus recursos para La fIgura No 1 presenta grafIcamente los dIversos factores que establecen el contexto de restr~cc~ones y recompensas dentro de la cual opera la empresa del pequeño agrIcultor Tenemos que entender bIen los SIstemas actuales para luego ofrecerle a los agrIcultores alternat~vas de las cuales ellos puedan escoger los factores de producc1ón que ellos conslderen les dan mejores perspectlVa¡; de Ingreso y blenestarEl desarrollo de un proceso metodologlco basado en la Ingenlería de Slstemas conSIste de las slgulentes fases de lnvestlgac:tón y acc10n Las fases de anal~slS y de síntesls produc~ran la lnformaclón que se requlere para d~señar las alternatlvas de tecno10gíd que se con c lderen factlbles en las empresas del pequeño agrlcultor Conslderamos que la tecnología agrícola tlene dos componentes que no se pueden separar uno conslste de los factores de pro-duccl0n (Flgura No 2) y el otro conslste de las tecnlcas por las cuales se apllcan estos factores de producclón Tradlcl0nalmente, se ha hablado de tecnología reflrléndose sólo al prlmer componente y la lnvestlgaclón ha ldo dlr1g1da a produclr los factores de producclon modernos, Sln tener en cuenta la necesldad de lnvestlgar las tecnlcas por las cuales se pueden apllcar estos facto~es de producclón El pequeño agrlcultor no ha adoptado la tencología moderna, porque no se le ha ofrec1do una tecnología completa El desarrollo de los factores de producc1ón no ha reconocldo que éstos, en muchos casos, t~enen oue ser apl~cados por agr~culto res de escasa educaclon, que sufren de enfermedades y de des-nutr~c16n 4Valldaclon del proceso Este proceso de lnvestlgaclon y aeclan sera valldo Sl se comprueba oue los agrlcultores en las areas selecalonadas para es-tUdlO cumplen sus proplos obJetlvos a través de la selecclón de alternat1vas de tecnología desarrolladas por medlo de un proceso y Sl las lnstltuclones naclonales adoptan el proceso como una herramlenta de ayuda en el logro de sus metas 5 E¡eCUC10nLa 8Jecuclon del proceso es de responsabllldad y prerrogatlva de las lnstltuclones na Clona les El CIAT por medlo de sus programas de Slstemas para Pequeños Agrlcultores, de CUltlvoS y espeCles anlmale9 y de adlestramlento colaborara con ellas en el desarrollo de nueva tecnología y en el adlestramlento para la apllcaclan del proceso El programa actualmente colabora con los goblernos de Guatemala y Colombla en el desarrollo de este proceso En Guatemala dentro de los programas de las Instltuclones del Sector PúbllCO Agrícola, a través del programa colaborat~vo establecldo entre el CIAT y el Inst~tuto de Clen-Clas y Tecnologías Agrícola, (rCTA) y en Colombla con el Ins-tltUto Colomb~ano Agropecuarlo (ICA), a través de sus programas de Desarrollo Rural dología para evaluar el lmpacto de la nueva tecnología en el blenestar humano Es esta area estamos colaborando estrechamente con los programas de Desarrollo Rural del Instltuto Colomblano Agropecuarlo, leA, para medlT en una forma lntegrada el lmpalto y efecto de aCC10n~~ de desarrollo con respecco a producclñn de allmentos, blenestar rural, en el contexto de los valoree contemporaneos de la socledad Esperamos que el desarrollo de una metodología de evaluacl0n sea Gtl1 en la fl-]aCl0n de recursos para las lnstltuclones nacl0nales y para que el desarrollo dé prlorldades de la lnvestlgacl0n en el desarrollo de tecnología agrícola El reconOClmlento de esta fase de evaluaclon se debe a que el desarrollo agrícola no es una cosa acabada, Slno que es un proceso dlnamlco y constante según el agrlcultor vaya utlllzando tecnologías mejoradas él neces~tara que se le ofrezcan nuevas alternatlvas para buscar su prop~o desarrollo y blenestar El proceso puede llegar a ser un medlo para el manejo y adml-n~stracLon de la lnvestlgacLon y el desarrollo agrícolaDEFINIeION DEL PROBLEMA En el desarrollo de tecnología para promover el desarrollo agrícola nos encontramos ante una prob1ematlca bastante severa, al no saber hoy día todavía desde que punto de vlsta JUzgar la bondad de tecnología Nos encontramos ante las realldades del agr~cultor y lo que es bueno para el agrlcultor puede que no sea bueno para la socledad, y 10 que en la lnvestl-gacl0n agrícola Juzgamos como buena tecnología muchas VeceS se debe a crlterlOS de bondad que hemos lmportado a la zona troplcal de la zona templada EXlste la necesldad de establecer una forma de deflnlr el problema de desarrollo de tecnología agrícola, en tal forma que los obJetlvoS y crlterlOS de los agrlcultores y de la socledad sean reconocldos conjuntamente La falta de ese confrontamlento ha llevado a una sltuaclon, donde la lnvestlgaclon agrícola frecuentemente, no se enfoca en los factores tecnlcos 11mltantes mas lmportantes, y por la cual no se lntegra el deqarrollo de tecnología al nlvel del agrlcultor y la comunldad Las meras de desarrollo m~~has Veces refleJan las amblclones de los c~entíflcoS y otros, y no las amblClones y necesldades de la gente dlrectamente lnvolucrada, los agr:Lcultores Mucha de la tecnología se ha desarrollado Sln el estudlo aproplado de sus medlOS de apllcacl0n, así es que eXlste la lnvestlgaclon pero no la acclon complementarla para hacer llegar los nuevos factores de produccl0n al agr~cultor Una de las con-secuenC13s mas serlas es que ésto nos ha dado una s~tuac~ón depromoclon, e ucaC10n~ extensl0n, e lnvestlgac10n que no ha 81do efectlva y , por consecuenCla, ha desarrollado reslstencla de parte de los mlsmoS agr1cultores haCla las agenclas e 1nstltuclones que le tratan de hacer llegar estos serV1Cl0SPara que esto no suceda neces1tamos saber más sobre el proceso de dec1s10n del agr1cultorUna llsta breve de cr1ter10S contra los cuales podemos buscar la bondad de una nueva tecnología y/o un nuevo slstema de a-~r1cultura, consta de los slgu1entes puntos (Byrnes, 1972) La lnvestlgaclon agrícola,frecuentemente, ofrece Solucl0nes a supuestos problemas tecnológlcos Sln tener una clara deflnlclón del problema a resolver Con este esquema que proponemos no se pre-especlflca la tecnología que se va a utlllzar Slno que se permlte que la tecnología surja a medlda que lo requlera la especlflcaclón del problema Podríamos deClr que en mucha de la lnvestlgaclón agrícola se han confundldo los medlos con los flnes, desarrollando medlos Sln deflnlr los flnes El lngenlero de slstemas se lnteresa en problemas que estan especlflcados en forma lndependlente de la tecnología que se puedlese pensar como medlo para lmplantar Soluclones Por ejemplo, dlseñar un slstema de CUltlVOS múlt~ples lntenS1VOS no es un problema de Ingenlería de Slstemas, es un problema agronomlco, pero hacer una anallS1S que llegue a decldlr que el lngreso y el blenestar de faml11as campeslnas de una reglon se beneflClarían 81 hublese algún slstema productlvo que hlclera un uso más lnten-SlVO de la tlerra y mas extenslVO de la mano de obra y que pro-  .-Edad . . . 0. . -Ret..rC1f..lQn fttet:r,a 4nuDal etc -Dlvi.íon de tr4\".. , \" \" \" -1 , , \" ¡ p t t ,,,  forma completa, log1ca, cons1stente, y comun1cable, la 1nfor-mac16n sobre la d1nSu1ca de las act1v1dades de las empresas de los pequeños agr1cultoresLo graf1ca presento un d1agrama de las relac10nes estructurales que nuootro eq~1po 1n~er-d1sc1p11nar1o ha espec1f1cado hasta la fecha El d1agrooa no se puede cons1derar un modelo por-qUG no d1ce nada de lao relac10nes que eX1sten entre los factores, s1mplemente 8U §1ere que C1ertas clases de factores (factoreo 1nstituc10nalea y soc1ales) afectan C1erta otra clase de factores (factores de ut1l1zae16n de mano de obra, producc10n, mercodoo,etc) Ind1cando que hay C1ertas relac10nes estructurales entre los componentes pr1nc1pales de la empresa agr1cola, que S1rve para enumerar en una forma gruesa los t1pOS de var1a-bIes que son de 1ntoreo Al obtener una descr1pc1on cons1stente, log1Ca y matemát1co de estas relac10nes estructurales se tendri un modelo matem't1co de la eapresa agrícola que sea 1mplementable como modelo de s1mulac10n en computadoras (Halter, 1973) La mult1tud da factores que operan a n~vel de la f~nca aunque fueren sUJetos a manlpulac1an, haria la exper1mentac1an d1recta lapos1ble Sólo se pueden desarrollar exper1mentos en el campo para estud1ar algunas de estas relac10nes y sus coef1c1entes teCn1COS en una forma a1s1adaEl compleJo total nunca se podra estud1ar exper1mentalmenteCon la herram1enta moderna,la computadora dlgltal, nos es poslble representar lo esenc1s1 del compleJo total y var1ar COndlclones y valores de las var1a-bIes para así evaluar poslbles 1mpactos de camblos en tecnología y camb10s de factores externos FACTORES SOCIALES Con el uSo de un modelo general se expresara en forma explíclta cómo se afecta el comportamlento de los agrlcultores en fun-c1an de su pos1c10n dentro de la estructura de rlqueza, poder y prest1g10 de una soc1edad Sera lmpresc1nd1ble entender estas relac10nes para poder espec1f1car las tencologlas y los cambl0S de pollt1cas con respecto a los factores lnstltuc10nales que sean fact1blesEs lmportante hacer enfaS1S en el hecho de que, como un centro 1nternac10nal ded1cado al desarrollo de tecnología agrícola, el CIAT y sus 1nvestlgadores t1enen que aceptar como dado las condlc10nes de estas relac10nes mayores a n1vel naclonal Sln embargo, es lmportante entender cuales son estas relac10nes para dellmltar las aCC10nes lnstltuclonales en polít1cas de créd1to. 1nsumos, preC10S, educac10n y aún en la mlsma tecnología La especlflcaclon detallada de los factores soc1ales y la forma en como ellos 1nc~den sobre los 81stemas agrícolas nos perm1tlran ver como a nlvel local puedan a90-C1aC10nes, cooperat1vas u otras organ1zac1ones ayudar a darle a los agr1cultores los med10s con los cuales compet1r por los factores de producc1ón y reduc1r el r1esgo de mercados y pre-C10S EMPLEO AGRICOLA DENTRO DEL MODELO Un tema de gran lmportancla que tlene que ser estudlado es el tema de la mano de obra Cuales son las actuales oportunldades de empleo de los agrlcultores? Qué lmpacto pueden tener los nuevos 81stemas sobre el mercado de mano de obra?Qué estrateglas de lnverslón se pueden segulr para lncrementar la demanda y la productlvldad de la mano de obra en el sector rural' Cómo dlseñar slstemas que suaVlcen los altos y baJOS de las curvas dlnamlCaS de utlllzaclón de mano de obra' Qué valores so-cl0-culturales afectan las declSlones lndlvlduales con respecto al empleo' Factores como la estructura de edad y sexo de los illlembros de la famllla, nlvel de educaclón, nlvel de salud y nutrlclón tendran lnfluenclas lmportantíslmas sobre las estrateglas de producclón que escoJa el agrlcultor Estos factores y estas rela-Clones qUlzas son las mas complejas de todas y qUlzas donde últlmamente radlca la poslble Soluclón de los problemas del agrlcultor Nuestro gran desafío metodológlco es poder rela -Clonar este tlpo de factor,aluslvo y díflCll de hacer explíclto.con los factores mas facl1mente manlpulables como son los factores económlcos y fíS1CO-bl0lóglcoS MODELOS GENERALES Durante el desarrollo de nuestro programa esperamos ldentlflcar clases de modelos para dlferentes zonas ecológlcas En ellos eXlstlran relaclones estructurales estables que nos permltlran enfocar la lnvestlgaclón baslca hacla Clertos factores llmltantes de gran lmportancla y amplla trascendencla Nuestro esfuerzo de desarrollo de modelos generales de slstemas se rlge por las metodologías enuncladas por Wymore ( 1967 Las unldades en las cuales se expresan las relaCl0nes de las varlables que 1nClden en el modelo no tlenen que ser n1 fíSlcas n1 cuant1tatlvas Esto le da una general1dad y amplltud al desarrollo de modelos y es 10 que permlte utlllzar este t1po de modelos para relacl0nar factores humanos y soclales con factores fíS1COS, b1010glcos, y economlcos EXlsten otras estrateglas a modelos matematlcos Un tlpo de modelo de s1stemas son los slstemas de ecuaCl0nes dlferenclales en donde se utlllzan analogías de componentes fíS1COS de energía para representar las relaCl0nes del modelo, éstos son partlcularmente útlles en la lngenlería para el dlseño de servome-can1smos (como cohetes que van a la luna)Otra clase de modelos, son los modelos que sa expresan dlrectamente como una slmulaclon de computadoras, (Dent y Andersen,Dlllon) ,este tlpo de modelo ha s1do bastante útll en Clertas apllcac~ones pero tlene la restrlccl0n de que son solo útlles cuando se pueden man1pular por un computador y generalmente no proveen mucha lnformaclon fuera de su uso dentro de un computador, porque sus relac~ones estructurales no son descrltas en una forma suf1clentemente explíc1taEl pr~mer t1pO de anallsls de slstemas requ1ere que todas las un1dades de todas las var1ables se conVlertan a una ID1sma unldad, en este caso energía, y a veces se plerd( mucha 1nformaclon porque las converSl0nes de Clertas actlvldades y labores humanas como puede ser el mercadeo son d1fíc1les de expresar en térm1nos de energía Probablemente hay dlferentes equ1-l1br10s en el uso de energía para dlferentes act~vldades humanas DISEÑO DE SISTEMAS Conceptualmente en el d1seño de s1stemaQ se puede ver 1ntegrando las fases en tal forma que por un lado se tendran catalogados los modelos generales que sat1sfagan las neces1dades de los agrlcultores y, por el otro lado, las tecnologías en las , cuales se puedan 1mplementar mejoras a los slstemas agrícolas Los cr1terl0S estableCidos en la deflnlclón del problema serán utilizados para ordenar cada una de estas dos catalogaCiones con respecto a sus respectivas medidas de bondad (Wymore 1972) Luego se utilizarán los crlterlOS para resolver confllctos entre comportamlento ~el sistema y eflclencla en el uso de los recursos para seleccl0nar los 81stemas que en teoría sean Optlmos con respecto a la acclón conjunta de todos los crlterl0S Finalmente, se establecerán procedlmlentos y ensayos para probar los nuevos slstemas APLICACION DEL PROCESO EL CASO \"LA MAQUINA\"Un ejemplo de la apllcaclón de este esquema son nuestras ex-per1enclas en el parcelamlento de La Maqulna, en Guatemala \"La Maqulna\", es el nombre dado a una zona de desarrollo agra-rlO, ublcada en el l1toral del PacíflCO en los Departamentos de Retalhuleu y Suchltepequez de Guatemala Esta es una zona de 35 000 hectáreas con una poblaCión de 17 000 habltantes, de tlerras que han sldo dlstríbuldas por el Instltuto de Trans-formaCión Agrarla de Guatemala, hace unos 15 años El tamaño de parcela dlstrlbuído a los beneflclarlos es de 8-20 hectáreas El cultlvo prlnclpal es el maíz en prlmera slembra, seguldo en algunos casos por el ajonjolí y en algunos otros, por una segunda sLembra de maíz (INTA, 1973) Debido a que la mayoría de los agrlcultores en el parcelamLento de La Má-qUlna trabajan por lo menos 10 has , ellos necesltan hacer uso de tractores alqullados, para Clertas labores, pr1nclpalmente la preparac1ón de la tlerra que conslste de un arado y dos rastras El gohlerno de Guatemala por conducto del Banco NaCional de Desarrollo Agrícola y la Dlreccl0n General de Servlcl0s Agrícolas, y las otras lnstltuclones del Sector PúbllCO Agrícola, como son el Instltuto de ClenClas y Tecnología Agrícola y el Instltuto de Comerclallzac1ón Agrícola hacen llegar una serle de serV1ClOS a los agrlcultores del parcelamlento Estos serV1Cl0S lncluyen un programa de crédlto, de aSlstenCla técnlca, y de mercadeo Los factores más llmltantes en esta zona son el rlesgo de volcam1ento del maiz antes de su madurez a consecuenC1a de Vlentos fuertes que ocurren en JUll0 y Agosto, causando pérdldas, que por lo menos son 20r de la producclon del maíz, y la escasez de mano de obra que lmplde la reallzaclón de las labores de control de malezas a tlempo adecuado Aún en la presencia de serV1ClOS lnstltucl0nales, los lngresos de estos agrlcultores son bastante llmltados Hemos estl.ado que el lngreso per caplta de esta zona no es mucho mayor al lngreso per caplta del agrlcultor del altlplano que en general oscl1a en nlveles extremadamente baJOS, de US$60-80, por año , La tecnología actual, ut~l~zada en esta zona se podría clas~ f1car como trad1c1onal, en el sent1do de que la mayoría de los agr1cultores ut1l1zan sem111as cr1011as y hacen poco uso de modernos factores de producc1onAún así logran ellos producc10n de aprox1madamente dos toneladas de maíz, por hectárea Solo la m1tad de la t1erra d1spon1ble es aprovechada para cult1vos anuales y permanentes Los cult1vos permanentes son pr1nc1palmente los del platano, y pastos El pr1nc1pal cult1vo anual es el maíz, a la cual se ded1can aprox1madamente 17 000 has , en la pr1mera s1embra y el ajonjolí a la cual se ded1can aprOX1madamente 1 200 has en la segunda s1embra En nuestras encuestas 1n1c1ales con los agr1cultores de esta zona, hemos encontrado que en el cult1vo de maíz los pr1nC1pales factores que 11m1tan la producc1on son las plagas, la falta de sem1l1s mejorada a baJo prec10, los preC10S baJos para el maíz, la falta de aS1stenc1a técn1ca, la falta de maqu1nar1a y equ1po a t1empo prop1c10, las malezas, la falta de mano de obra a t1empo y los V1entos que ocaS10nan el volcam1ento ESPECIFICACION PARCIAL DEL MODELO DE SISTEMAS DE LA PARCELA PROTOTIPO EN LA ZONA DE LA MAQUINA La gráf1ca (F1gura No 4), 1lustra las pr1nc1pales act1v1dades del s1stema agrícola en esa zona En el modelo (F1gura No 5) estamos estud~ando el comportam2ento de la parcela como un 818tema en funcl0n de sus entradas exógenas que son el créd~to, los prec20s para los cult2vos, la d1spon1b11~dad de maqu1nar1a para hacer las labores, el c11ma compuesto del patrón de llu-V1as y v1entos, y la oferta de mano de obra no fam1l1arHemos escog1do estos factores como las var1ables exogenas o de entrada, porque en este caso nos 2nteresa evaluar el comporta-m1ento de la parcela en presenc2a del r1esgo c11matológ2co y la 1nteracC1on del comportam2ento del agr1cultor ante este rlesgo con los factores de crédlto, mercados ,serV1C10S y mano de obra Los agr2cultores de la zona están ut1l1zando un slstema que ut111za caS1 nlngún factor de producc1on moderna, por avers1ón al rleQgoLas demoras en el slstema de crédlto y la falta de conf1anza en los preC10S de sustentaclon llevan a una sltuaclón en la que estos factores lnstltuc10nales no ayudan a amortlguar el r1esgoEx~ste el 1nterés de ellos de sembrar lo mas temprano pos2ble, a med1ados del mes de abr1l o a más tardar el 1° de mayo, S1n embargo, porque la demanda por la maqulnarla, que se ofrece en alquller en este t1empo es grande, a muchos les llega tarde este serV1Cl0En algunos casos se demora la preparac10n de t1erra con la maqulnar1a, porque el credlto para preparar la t1erra no se conslgue a t1empoTamb1én, creemos que un factor l1mltante 1mportante, es la dlsponlbllldad de mano de obra en los períodos crítlCos del cu1t1vo para hacer el control de malezas Los pr~nc~pales problemas se deben a l~m~tac~ones en el uso de ~nsumos y factores de producc15n modernas ocaS1onadas por demoras en la d1spon~b111dad de serV~C10SEstas demoras en el período de s1embra, y durante las labore& crít~cas causan un retraso en la eJecuc~on de otras tareas y tamb1en ocaS1onan que la Milpa no este madura antes de que em-p1ecen los v~entos fuertes de Jul~o y agostoEste modelo nos sera út11 para comprobar en efecto 51 éste es el problema, y por aná11s~s de sens~b111dad detectar cuales de los factores de r1esgo son los mas l1m1tantes DESCRIPCION DE MODELO REDUCIDO PARA LA MAQUINA El anexo presenta en detalle algunas de las relac10nes estructurales del modelo Aquí nos l1m1taremos a de11near las fun-C10nes de cada SUb-s1stema del modelo El SUb-s1stema Zl que hemos denom1nado DINERO t1ene como func15n mantener el n1vel de efect1vo y hacer la f1Jac1ón del d1nero a las d1ferentes act1v1dades de la fam1l1a, 1ncluyendo las compras del consumo fam~l~ar, el costo de los factores de producc~on de cult1vos y pecuar~os, el costo de mano de obra, maqu1nar1a, y los pagos a cred~toLas entradas a este SUb-s1stema prov1enen del cré-d1to y las ventas de los productos agropecuar10s Dentro de la espec1f1cac10n matemat1ca de este SUb-s1stema hemos presentado la Jerarquía de prl0rLdades de aS1gnaclon de recursos, por ejemplo, el sub-s~stema flJa efect~vo prlmero para la compra de productos de consumo famlllar, luego para la adquls1clon de factores de produccl0n de cult1vos y luego para la adqu1s1c10n de factores de producc1on pecuar1aEn el evento en que el nlvel de efectlvo no cubra las necesldades del consumo faml11ar el SUb-s1stema pasa 1nformac1on al sub-s1stema de Producc1on Pecuar1a para que en este se genere una venta de productos pecuar10S Slendo que en estas parcelas la act~vldad pecuar1a es relatlvamente pequeña, estamos representando a la act~v~dad pe-cuar~a slmplemente como una productora de allmentos para la fam111a y una \"alcanc1a\" para cuando haya neces1dades de efec-t1VO y no se tengan productos agrícolas que vender El SUb-slstema de producclon de CUltlVOS es el pr1uc1pal subslstema de este modelo, t1ene sus entradas pr1nc1pales de fuera de la parcela, en term1nos de maqu~narla y cl~ma y esta acoplado al SUb-s1stema de DINERO y al SUb-s1stema de SUELOS, (al Sub-s1stema de DINERO por vía de la f~Jac1ón de efectlvo para compra de factores de producc~ón y al Sub-s1stemas SUELOS por vía de la fert1l1dad)Es dentro de este Sub-s1stema que se representaran las dlferentes alternatlvas tecnolog1cas de prOduCC10nSe lnterconecta este Sub-slstema con el consumo fam11lar, el uso de desperd~c10 de los productos agrícolas para \\ la al~mentac~on de 108 8n~mnles, 18 producc~on en exceso para VGQtas y la nodif~cQc1Sn de la fert11~dad del suelo en func~on da la apl~caC1ón de fert1l11antes y de los cult1vos !l 9ub-s1stema de SUELOS S1rve simplemente para representar las modif1cac10nes en fert1l1dad que puedan ocurr1r en func10n de la secuenC1a de cult1vos y la ap11cac10n de fert1l1zantes, dado el rég1men de lluv188El SUb-s1st~a de CONSUMO FAMILIAR en este caso S1rve solo para absorber los productos agrícolas y pecuar10S y C1erta can-t1dad del efect1vo produc1do por las ventas y el cred1to, a traves de los cuales podemos tener una aprox1mac10n del grado de nutr1c10n de la fam111sEl SUb-s1stema de MERCADEO, t1ene como sus pr1nc1pales entradas los productos para la venta. tanto agrícolas como pecuar10s. y los prec10s de venta de los d1ferentes productos , su func10n pr1nc1pal es mantener el 1nventar10 de estos productos y conver-t1r estos productos a efect1vo En este modelo se están representando las dec1s10nes del agr1cultor, pr1nc1palmente, en dos de los componentes, el componente o Suh-sLstema DINERO donde se hace la d1str1buc10n de recursoS a los factores de producc10n y consumo, y, el SUh-S1Stema PRODUCCION DE CULTIVOS donde se hace la ap11cac1ón de la tecnología en funcl0n de los factores econom1cos y c11matoló-g1COSEn el SUb-slstema PRODUCCION CULTIVOS, el proceso de producclon de cult1voS es una respuesta en t1empo a la secuenC1a de apll-cac10n de factores de producc10n, a los factores de serV1C10S y a los factores c11matolog1cos Los coef1c1entes tecnlcOs que se escán utll1zando en este sub-s1stema se han obten1do como las mejores estlmaCl0nes de respuesta al uso de d1ferentes factores de producclon en presencla de d1ferentes eventos c11matolog1cosEstos coef1Clentes tec-n1COS se han est1mado por los agrónomos, expertos en suelos, flS1Ólogos y otros c1entíflcoS del CIAT y del leTA A la mlSma vez, se están llevando a cabo exper1mentos en la zona de La Maqu1na para comprobar algunos de estos coef1c1entes tecnlcos No pretendemos de n1nguna manera sugerlr que este modelo reducldo represente la rea11dad total de la agr1cultura en esta zona, SLno que queremos utll1zar este modelo como un caso 11ustratlvo de algunas de las relac10nes prlnclpales del amb1to fíS1CO-bl01og1co y econom1co para 11ustrar la ut111dad para este t1pO de modelo El proposlto de este eJerC1ClO es pr1mero ldent1flcar aquellos componentes del modelo general que a pr1mera v1sta son los mas s1gn1flcat1voS en la zona de La Máqu1na \\ Es ObVl0 que hemos excluído lmportantes SUb-slstemas y factores, no solo, del ámb~to fíSlco-blo1óg~co, Slno tamblen del ambltO soclo-economlco S~n embargo, creemos que aún a este nlvel de generalldad este modelo del slstema agrícola en la zona de La Maqulna, es útl1 para la evaluacl0n de tecnología agrícola y la evaluaclon de Clertos serV1Cl0S lnstltucl0nales EVALUACION DE \"PAQUETES TECNOLOGICOS\"Y ESPECIFICACION DE LA INVESTIGACION La estructura operaclonal de este modelo que ldentlflca algunas de las varlables y funClones que descrlben el comportamlento del s1stema,s~rve para catalogar la 1nformac1on que ya tenemos sobre los s1stemas de producc1on agrícola en la zona y para hacernos preguntas ad1clonales sobre su producc1on agrícola y el grado de b~enestar alcanzado Este modelo, ya nos ha serV1do para dlseñar una encuesta soc10-economlca conducente a la estlmacl0n de funclones de producclon, encuesta que estamos actualmente eJecutando en esa zOna La utl11dad prlnclpal, Sln embargo, que le vemos a este modelo es la evaluaclón de alternatlvas de tecnologías agrícolas para lmplementar en esta zona La flgura No 6, 1lustra tales alternatlvas de factores de producc10n que pueden lncldlr en una meJoría de la produccl0n y el 1ngreso In1clalmente, pensamos utlllzar este modelo prellm1nar para evaluar el pos1ble 1mpacto del uso aproplado de los factores de producc1ón lndlcados en cada uno de los paquetes tecnológlcos allí llustrados Estos paquetes corresponden a los factores fíS1CO-bl01og1coS que nos han dlCho los agrlcultores son los 11mltantes En este sentldo, el modelo tambLen respondera a los slgulentes tlpOS de preguntas especiflcas 1El uso de herbLcldas desplazaría la mano de obra de la famll1a?2 Suav1zaría la neces1dad de mano de obra contrauada durante el proceso da producc~ón?3 El uso de herblcldas puede 1ncrementar la respuesta a la fertl11zackon? 4 S1 el sLstema se vuelve dependlente de un número de factores modernos de producc1on, cu~les son las poslbles con-seCUenClas de que ellos se vuelvan escasos.Este tlpo de anallS1S, por supuesto, se puede hacer qUlzás en una forma mas sencllla con el uso de func10nes de producclon 51n embargo, nosotros creemos que los l1m1tantes no son sólo el uso o no uso de Clertos factores de producc10n, S1no la se-cuenC1a dlnamlca (en tlempo) del uso de estos factores en pre-senCLa de la secuenC1a dlnam1ca de los factores lnstltucl0nales y ecológlcos que operan a nlvel de la f1nca Creemos, SLn embargo. la realldad de la zona es que estos factores de producclon no son utLllzados aún cuando se t1ene suf1cLente credLto para utllLzarloa Esto se debe a que el cred1to no ocurre a t1empo. que la dLsponLb111dad de maqulnarla y mano de obra no ocurre a tLempo prop1c1o y que los rlesgos agronóm1cos debldos al c11ma. causan que el agr1cultor tome una posLclon de rlesgo mínlmo El modelo Blenda dLn~mlco nos permLtLrá cuantlfLcar estas causas y sugerLr aCCLones correctlvas Esto tamblen se podría anallzar con algunos otros medLos matemátlcos de la economía,pero los datos requerldos para hacer tal anallsLs no eXLSten. y su obtenclon demoraría un tlempo bastante largo. creemos que podemos representar estos factores lnstltuclonales y tecnológlcos por medLo de un modelo de slstemas que nos permlta hacer un anallsls prellmLnar para demostrar las l1mLtac10nes que nuestra lntulclon y exper1enCla nos dlcen eXlsten. y por lo menos utlllzar los resultados de este modelo para sugerlr las necesldades de lnformaclon en futuras lnvestLgacLones Esto se logra con un anal~s~s de senslbll1dad. con el cual se puede estudlar la respuesta del slstema a varlacLon en los parametros o coefLclentes para ver Sl esta respuesta. en efecto. varía en func~ón de esa varlacl0n en los coeflClentes tecnlCOs y bolo hacer experlmentos para medLr con preclslon los coefL-C1entes tecnLcos en aquellos casos que éstos resulten ser lmportantes en el comportamLento del slstema Por eJemplo. 81 el comportamLento del modelo se muestra sensLble a una varLa-cLon en el uso de lnsectLcLdas estos sugerlría que hay neceSldad de hacer lnvestlgacLon en el uso de Lnsect1cldas para verlflcar el Coeflclente tecnlco de lnsect1cldas 81 por otro lado, el modelo no eS senslble a varLaCLones en ese coeflclenCe tecnlCo, entonces no es necesarlO hacer lnvestlgac10n sobre ln-sectLcldas y se acepta algún dato global obtenldo de lnvestlga-Clones en otras zonas Es así. como, se utLllza el modelo para generar 1nvestlgaclones y ensayos en el campo de los agrlcultores, y se utll1zan esos ensayos para callbrar el modelo, para que éste represente en una forma adecuada la realldad del campo EXTENSlON DE LA METODOLOGlA EL CASO DEL VALLE DEL SlNU El lnstltuto Colomblano Agropecuarlo (lCA) ha lnvltado la cooperaclon del ClAT en la lnvestlgaclon. programaclón, y evalua-Clan para sus programas de Desarrollo Rural Estos programas tLenen entre sus flnes Lncrementar la producclon, produc-tLvLdad y blenestar de los pequeños agrLcultores de ColombLa (lCA. 1974) Actualmente, se esta colaborando en una forma lntegrada en un programa de Desarrollo Rural. en el Valle del Slnú, en la Costa \\ 22 Norte de Colombla, que es una zona troplcal, característ1ca de la sltuacl0n agrícola en Latlnoamerlca donde coexlsten los pequeños agrlcultores con los agr1cultores comerClales y los grandes ganaderos En esta zona se esta apllcando todo el proceso ya menc10nado, que se va desarrollando mano en mano con el lCA Por necesldades operatlvas de ambas 1nstltuclones, ya se han hecho y se segu1ran haclendo lntroduccl0nes de tecnología escogldas a lntulclon,como aCC10nes con alta probabll1dad de promover la producclon y el desarrollo Sln embargo, paralelamente, se ha empezado con la fase analít1ca para hacer un dlagnostlco, y para apllcar las metodologías de analls1s y síntesls del programa de Slstemas para Pequeños Agr1cultoresSe espera que este eJerC1ClO Slrva para comparar las metodologías desarrolladas por este proceso, con metodologías que han sldo apllcadas en otras aonas dentro de otros programas de Desarrollo Rural Entre las preguntas que nos hacemos conjuntamente, es,como caracterlzar al slstema agrícola en termlnos de característlcas de recursos, de demanda, de produccl0n y los crlterlOS de toma de decls1ón de los agrlcultores?Cómo se puede utlllzar esta caracterlzaclón para estudlar el poslble lmpacto de cambl0s en factores de dlstrlbucl0n, capltal, rlesgo, organlzaclón socIal etc , cuales son las característ1cas del slstema agrícola que son estables a través de dlversas zonas ecológlcas y tlempo? Cuales son las característlcas del slstema agrícola que camblan?Como se puede utIlIzar la metodología del programa de SIstemas para Pequeños Agrlcultores para_establecer un dlagnos-tICO valldo sobre la utIl1zacI0n de lnsumos, mano de obra, sobre los nIveles de costo, productlvldad?Como se puede utIlIzar esta metodología para medlr el lrnpacto de cambIOS tecnologlcos sobre la dlstrlbuCI0n del 1ngreso y varlables soclales, economlcas y ecologlcas?Como se pueden dIseñar slstemas de In-formaCIón y extenslon que hagan llegar la tecnología apropIada pero que reconozcan las l1mltac10nes de medl0s que tIenen las 1nst1tuc~ones nac10nales?Con el ICA creemos que la únlca forma de lograr esta lnformaclón y tecnología es trabaJando dlrectamente con los agrlcultores en el campo Nuestro programa no es un programa de aCCIón en sí, pero 81 de lnvestlgaclon de los problemas del campo, que solo se pueden lnvestlgar en él Al ver la complejIdad de todo esto, creemos que la únIca forma en que un grupo tan pequeño como es el grupo de nuestro Programa de SIstemas para Pequeños AgrIcultores del CIAT, pueda enfrentarse a la cOmplejIdad de esta problematlca es tenIendo herramIentas que le permltan dar orden y hacer manejable esta compleJldad La metodología de SIstemas fué d1señada para enfrentarse a pro-\\ blemas complejosEl trabajo ~nterd~sc1pl~nar1o para establecer el modelo general nos permLt~rá ana11zar las exper1enc1as que se logren trabajando en el campo y hacer aná11S1S compara-t1VO de d1ferentes zonas ecologlcas en d1ferentes países para ver así que parte de la problematlca del pequeño agrlcultor es fundamental y genera11zada COMUNICACION Tal vez la característ1ca únlca del programa es que por medlO de una metodología general se estan 1ntegrando los pensamlentos y labores de tan d1versas d1sc1p11nas como soc10logía, antropología, economía y ClenClas b10log1cas para actuar como un equlpo lntegrado hacla la soluclon de problemas complejos Aún cuando el modelo no logre ser lmplementado en una slIDulac10n el modelo estructural servlrá como 1nstrumento para encauzar la comunlcac10n y d1alogo lnterdlsc~pllnar1o y para mantener en todo tlempo el enfoque hac1a el problema de nuestro cllente, el agrlcultor Es 1mportante recalcar la funclon de estas d1sc1pllnas dentro del marco lntegrado del programa, que han permlt1do ldentlflcar, que la percepc10n que los agrlcultores tlenen de sus problemas tanto técnlcos, economlCOS y soclales, son en algunos casos muy dlferentes a la percepclon que tlenen los técnlcos que están produclendo la tecnología agrícola Actualmente hemos admlnlstrado formularlos comparatlvos a agrlcultores y técnlcos de lnvestlgacl0n y extenslon agrícola en Colombla, Guatemala. Bras~l y PerG Una cosa palpable es que los que estamos dlseñando la tecnología agrícola tenemos una apreclac10n de los problemas del agr~cultor que es muy dlferente a la apreclaclon que estos mlsmos t1enen de sus problemas No cabe duda de que los agrlcultores generalmente ven su problema en térmlno de los factores lnst1tuclonales y SOC1J-eCOnOmlcos y los expertos ven los problemas del agrlcultor en térm1nos de los l1m1tantes tecn1cOs del amblto fíS1CO-blOlog1COTenemos que sobreponernos a esta d1sonancla y aprender a comunlcarnos con el agrlcultor EL PAPEL DEL CENTRO INTER~ACIONAL EN EL DES~RROLLO AGRICOLA La red de centros lnternaClonales de lnvestlgac~6n agrícola ha tenldo como su proposlto desarrollar nuevos factores de producclon a través de la apllcaclon de lnvestlgaclon El modus operand1 ha sldo el hacer llegar a los programas nacIonales, materIales (generalmente germoplasma) y metodos para que estos últ1mos hlCleran la adaptacIon de estas tecnologías báslcas a la sltuaclon de cada país Se podría preguntar que 51 el hacer lnvestlgaclon dlrecta con los agrlcultores en el proceso de desarrollo,es un papel aproplado para un centro ~nternacIonal Para responder a esto tenemos que recordarnos dos preguntas claves la prlmera sobre la eXlstencla de un esquema general que se pueda utl11zar para hacer llegar en una forma mas raplda y eflcaz la tecnología para la transformaclon de la agrlcu1tura tradlclona1 y la segunda re1aclonada con la eXlstencla de problemas fundamentales de amp110 espectro que puedan ser obJeto de lnvestlgacl0n por un centro lnternaclona1El programa esta lnvestlgando la eXlstencla o no eXlstencla de tal esquema general baJo la hlpotesls de que tal esquema eX1Ste Se lnvestlgan métodos de analls1s de los problemas de los agrlcu1tores y métodos de entrega de serV1Cl08Por el otro lado, eX1ste tamblén la hlpotesls de que a Clerto nlve1 de generalldad eXlsten clases de slstemas agrícolas para las zonas troplcales en Latlnoamerlca que son estructuralmente lsomorflcas dentro de sí mlsmas Esto qUlere declr que eXlsten problemas claves generallzables todavía no ldentlflcados y documen-, , tados Es nuestra responsabl11dad contrlbulr a la ldentlflca-cl0n de estos problemas de gran trascendencla para que se hagan lnvestlgacl0~es baS1CaS para tratar de resolverlos La lnvestlgaclon es a través de los programas de acclon de los dlferentes países y por consecuenCla esta supedltada a los me-dl0S y las fl10sofías de accl0n que estos países desarrollen En la m1sma forma que el 1nvest1gador blo1og1co acepta como danas Clertas condlcl0nes cllmatologlcas en una dada zona, el programa acepta, como dadas las condlclones del amblto so-c10-cultural y polítlcO cuando se nos 1nvlta a colaborar en el proceso de desarrollo agrícola  ","tokenCount":"33302"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b98517e9935f4adcf45a268a05eb02a8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_9247i.pdf","id":"1516752966"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"980bf039-f167-4a38-9bc1-d0269f82de2a","pagecount":"132","content":"Bandaragoda and Rehman (1995). Warabandi in Pakistan's Canal Irrigation Systems -Widening Gap between Theory and Practice. IlMl Country Paper-Pakistan No.7\"The Farmer-Managed Irrigated Agriculture under the Lefl Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) Stage-I Project Area\" is a pilot project on testing the social and economic viability of distributary level water users organizations. For the purpose of comparing \"before project\" and \"afler project\" situations in a subsequent impact evaluation, it was necessary to have some organized baseline information of the Pilot Project area.The socio-economic baseline survey for the three selected sites of distributary commands of the Pilot Project was conducted during February-April 1996. Data entry and data analysis work of the survey consumed several months, as for the cleaning of data, the field teams and the supervisors had to go back to some of the respondents.A summary of findings of this survey was reported in the August 1996 Monthly Progress Report and the January 1997 Phase4 Report of the Pilot Project . This information was used in planning and implementing the social organization action research for establishing water users organizations in the three pilot areas.The publishing of this report in a comprehensive form at this stage is to add to the Pilot Project's documentation process, so that a more complete picture of the baseline situation is available for future evaluation purposes. A network of surface drains discharging to the sea via a spinal drain and tidal link;Deep tubewells to intercept seepage water and control the groundwater table by pumping groundwater into the surface drainage network; Special wells to scavenge fresh water lenses for use in irrigation;Buried interceptor drains beside canals to recover fresh water seepage for use in irrigation;Buried tile drains to control groundwater tables where drainage tubewells are not feasible;Additional power capacity at seven existing grid stations;A network of power supplies to tubewells and drainage pumping stations;Remodelling canals to increase capacity and stability; Construction of Chotiari Reservoir to provide system storage allowing secure supplies to the Lower Nara Canal system;On-farm Water Management to improve watercourses and water use practices;The provision of plant, equipment and workshop for maintenance of the drainage system;The establishment of sustainable operation and maintenance arrangements; and Studies of the impact of the project on groundwater levels, agricultural performance, social development and distribution of benefits.In July 1995, the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) started an action research program in collaboration with the Department of Agricultural Engineering and Water Management of the Government of Sindh to launch three pilot projects on water users organizations in the LBOD project area.The broad purpose of these pilot projects is two-fold: (1) to test the viability of farmers' managing parts of the irrigation system so that more efficient and equitable allocation of water can be achieved: and (2) to make recommendations on future extensions from the results of the pilot projects.More specifically, these pilot projects aim to help organize farmers into Water Users Organizations (WUOs) in three selected distributarylminor canal command areas, one in each of the three LBOD districts: Mirpurkhas, Nawabshah, and Sanghar. Another specific objective is to promote the maximum involvement of the water users and the WUOs in the operation and maintenance of distributary/minor canals, with adequate institutional support from the relevant governmental agencies. Also, the legislative requirements and institutional processes would be identified for effectively organizing and strengthening Water Users Organizations (WUOs) on a wider scale.The broad concept underlying these pilot projects is that the WUOs would eventually be accountable for the water received at the head of distributarylminor canals, responsible for distribution of water among the member Water Users Associations (WUAs) at the watercourse level according to their own agreed upon allocation rules, and also responsible for managing groundwater levels in their respective command areas. The WUOs would reach an agreement with their members, as well as with the agencies, for appropriate water charges and operation and maintenance (08M) costs of irrigation and drainage facilities in their distributarylminor command areas. They will undertake the collection of waterldrainage charges, improve water management practices, and undertake other activities related to water, including the maintenance practices for irrigation and drainage facilities.Selection Criteria for Pilot DistributariesDuring the month of November 1995, three distributaries in the project area were selected. A map of the project area is presented in Figure 1.2. The following criteria had been adopted in short-listing the distributarieslminors:-  For data collection purposes. the Khadwari Minor is treated as a separate siteReduced distance is the distance in measures of 1000 feet of any point on the center line of a canal from the head of the canal (RD 24 = 24,000 ft from the head of the canal).Small distributaries in the Province of Sindh are often designated as a minor, bul strictly speaking, they are more appropriately defined as a distributary. whereas a minor offtakes from a distributary Besides the irrigation canal systems, the project also places emphasis on the surface drainage component of the pilot areas. Therefore, information on the available drainage facilities was also gathered for pilot distributary command areas.The project has conceptualized the idea to mobilize the water users of the project area to take care of the drainage facilities available in the command area. Therefore, it was necessary to gather the information on the drainage facilities available in the area.   This section covers the design methodology used for the baseline survey, including the selection of watercourses, respondents for the survey, preparation of questionnaire and its pre-testing, training of field staff, problems faced in the field, data entry and analysis.Baseline or benchmark surveys are carried out to serve two broad purposes. First, these surveys can provide some first hand general field information on physical, social and institutional conditions in the pilot area that can be used in designing the (action research) programs. Secondly, these surveys can also provide some benchmark information for developing and monitoring some testable performance and evaluation indicators that can be used for monitoring during the project gestation periods, or for post-project evaluations.The current socio-economic baseline survey was, therefore, designed as a starting point for the action research program on farmer-managed irrigated agriculture under the LBOD Stage 1 Project in Pakistan. The results of the survey can help during the action research program because of a better understanding of the project area, its problems and constraints, and possible solutions thereof.For collection of the information, two methods are used in general; namely, census and sample surveys. Given the advantages and disadvantages associated with each of these methods, sample surveys have been found fairly efficient and cost-effective for such purposes. It was thus decided that the baseline information for the current project would be collected through a sample survey.Designing sample surveys is quite a technical and sophisticated job and a lot of background information is required to work out the scientific sample design. The professionals generally use measures of dispersion, such as variance, to arrive at scientifically appropriate and well-specified sample sizes.Since there was no known variance of any attribute related to the pilot sites, no statistical technique could be employed to determine statistically appropriate sample sizes. The concept of a purposive sample is not unknown under such circumstances. Therefore, the decision was taken to design a purposive sample that should consider all necessary aspects of the pilot area.Each of the three pilot distributaries irrigates farmers' fields in its command area through a number of tertiary irrigation channels, that are popularly called watercourses. There are a number of farms being irrigated by each of these watercourses. A sampling was required for first selecting the sample watercourses from each of the pilot distributaries and then selecting a number of water users from within each of the selected watercourses.Khadwari Minor (Sanghar)The secondary level irrigation systems (distributaries and minors) are usually divided into head, middle and tail reaches because of the variations in hydraulic behavior of these reaches. Thus, consideration had to be given to these physical aspects as well. It was decided to have an equal number of watercourses from each of these strata in the sample from each of these distributaries. Thus, three watercourses were randomly selected from each of the head, middle and tail reaches of the three pilot distributaries using a lottery method. At Heran Distributary, Khadwari Minor also offtakes from the distributary and comprises seven watercourses. To give equal weight to different reaches of the minor, one watercourse from each of the abovementioned strata was randomly selected with a total sub-sample comprising 3 watercourses on this minor. In total, the sample comprised 30 watercourses out of a total of 80 for the three pilot distributaries.The selected sample watercourses for each distributary is presented in Afler random selection of the watercourses at each distributary/ minor during the first stage, the water users were enlisted on all of the selected watercourses on a predesigned form meant to record the schedule of effective water turns of the water users.This schedule is usually referred to as a warabandi proforma. A majority of watercourses have an official warabandi established by the Provincial Irrigation Department (PID) at the request of the farmers, which prescribes the time allocation among each of the landholdings for the water supply entering the watercourse command area. This official warabandi is the only record of a \"water right\" held by each landowner. It also has importance for settling disputes by arbitration 4 . The official warabandis were not sufficient for the purpose of the current survey as these contain the names and water entitlement right of the land owners only and there is no information on actual water users. Thus, these warabandis needed to be prepared afresh considering the situation on the ground at that time.For preparation of these lists, the team members walked along each of the selected sample watercourses. The team members went to each watercourse to meet with the person who was available in the field irrigating his land and to collect the information about himself and his neighboring water users. This information provided the exact total number of the water users at each watercourse, including owner operators, tenants and lessees, or a combination of these categories. Considering the enormous number of total water users, it was decided to cover half of them.During this second stage, every alternate water user was included in the sample with a random start at each watercourse. There had been 1,060 water users in total, out of which 530 water users were selected for data collection. The number of respondents in the sample from various study sites are shown in Figure 2.1. Tables 2.2a and 2.2b present the total number of water users on each of the selected watercourses with tenancy breakup, and the number of selected water users for each of these watercourses on the three pilot distributarieslminor. Sadiqia (South) Irrigation and Drainage Project area in south eastern Punjab. This questionnaire was adopted with some modifications suggested in a peer review within the organization. The pretesting of this questionnaire was undertaken on all of the three pilot distributarieslminors with the different water users. The suggestions and the feedback by the field staff provided useful inputs for its amendment, which were incorporated in the questionnaire and the contents were finalized for launching the baseline survey in the field.The training of the field staff regarding the purpose of the survey, and the concepts used, is an important area to address as conceptual controversies are the main source of bias in the data. Three full days of training workshops were organized at the three field stations for the field staff who had to act as enumerators for the survey before launching the actual survey. The training was focused on the concepts employed in the sample survey, sample design, basic principles of research methodology, organization of field work, collecting information using the questionnaire through interviews, checking the contents of the filled-in questionnaires, accuracy of the data, organization and supervision of the data collection work, etc. The output of the training was that the enumerators and their supervisors were coordinated.Several problems were faced during the actual conduct of the survey. Non-availability of the respondents at the time of visit by the field staff was one of the major problems.The solution was sought in paying two to three visits at the site for interviewing the respondents. Yet, four of the respondents could not be traced and interviewed till the end of the survey and were discarded for inclusion in the survey.Another problem was the engagement of water users in cultivation of the cotton crop during the day-time. This problem was resolved by paying visits in the evening to the water users who were unavailable during the day-time.Another problem encountered was due to the cultural set-up of the pilot area. A number of absentee landlords and other landowners, who were not the water users, objected to having their tenants interviewed. Some of the tenants could not respond to questions on crop yields as the production was taken away by the landlord and was weighed by him. Such tenants were informed by the landlords about their own shares only.Being an interview on a recall basis, the responses to some questions were difficult to remember for the water users. They only responded in hunches and crude estimates to such questions.The duration of the interview was recorded as being almost two hours initially, which was boring for the water users. Sometimes, the water users had the tendency to respond indirectly with a story as a pretext. Later, however, the enumerators gained experience and the duration was reduced.Training of Field Staff on Survey Problems Faced in the Field During Data CollectionData Entry and Analysis Data gathered by the field teams, through personal interviews on the questionnaire, were fed to the computer using the spreadsheet package, LOTUS 123, which were processed and analyzed using SPSSPC soflware. During data entry, some problems were faced regarding the units of measurements, which were not uniform for all of the field teams. These were later converted to the same units while editing. Some of the water users did not respond to some of the questions. These were regarded as no response. There had been some entries that were found surprisingly high or low. These were checked through follow-ups with the enumerators, who had been asked to record important points in their notebooks. Some of the questionnaires had to be recheckedlreconfirmed by paying another visit to the actual respondent.Coverage of the SurveyThe target group for the current survey were the water users engaged in the actual use of irrigation water at various farms of the watercourse. This included the owner operators, lessees and tenants.Although there are only three pilot sites, Bareji Distributary in Mirpurkhas. Dhoro Naro Minor in Nawabshah, and Heran Distributary in Sanghar. the analysis has been done in terms of four sites by considering the Khadwari Minor as a separate unit, which offlakes from the Heran Distributary, for the purpose of this survey. In total, 526 water users were interviewed personally, 170 at Bareji Distributary, 168 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 161 at Heran Distributary and 27 at Khadwari Minor. The number of respondents with respect to location of the farm on the watercourse is presented in Table 2.4 for the respective distributaries/ minors. In this section, the results are presented regarding the general characteristics of the sampled water users, such as age, experience in farming, marital status, father's occupation, educational attainments, religion, family size, on-farm family employment, tenancy status, farm size, etc. Such characteristics help in knowing the community for planning an intended intervention. These characteristics also determine the extent to which the community will accept the intervention and can be helpful in devising a strategy for entering into the community.Age is one of the important characteristics of the community. It reflects on the productivity of the population as it has a bearing on the overall health situation within the community. In developing countries, aged members are more prone to diseases and thus are less productive. It has a bearing on the employment pattern, spatial mobility and quality of work done. Age plays a significant role in any kind of business, particularly in agriculture, because the use of child labor on the farms is quite high.The respondents are divided into three age groups (i.e. upto 30, 31 to 60. and above 60 years of age). The idea behind these classes is that the middle group (31-60 years) is the most productive age group in farming. The distribution of respondents with respect to these age groups is presented in Experience is positively associated with earnings. Conceptually, it is measured in years as a continuous variable as reported by Haque (1988). In Pakistan, the agricultural community uses their family members in the field directly or indirectly from quite a young age. Regardless of the type of work done, as an offspring of an agricultural family, there is a general tendency among people involved in agriculture to claim that they are in the field since birth, or at least from early childhood. The difference between age and experience can thus be reported as low as 5 years.The mean number of years of experience in irrigated agriculture of the sample water users varies between 20, 27, 30 and 26 years for Bareji Distributary, Dhoro Naro Minor, Heran Distributary and Khadwari Minor, respectively. The values of standard errors are quite reasonable for pilot sites other than Bareji Distributary. While there are differences among water users belonging to different distributaries1 minors, a majority of the respondents had experience upto 40 years.Comparing the means of age and experience in irrigated agriculture of the respondents, it appears that they have started their agriculture job at an early age of around 10 to 15 years of age. Table 3.3 shows that an overwhelming majority of the respondents are married at all of the pilot sites. Unmarried singles and widower respondents form less than 5 per cent in case of Heran Distributary and 11 per cent in case of Khadwari Minor. The results are not surprising, because still in rural areas, the marriages take place at early ages so that they have children at an early age, who are considered an addition to the family human capital. Besides, the males usually are encouraged to be married even at a much later stage, so there is only a meager chance that a water user, who ought to be a male, is unmarried or widower. -In Table 3.4. an attempt is made to present information on the father's occupation of the water users. It is clear that almost 90 per cent of the respondents have adopted farming merely because of being a farmer's son. This may be ascribed to several reasons. The lack of availability of acquirable non-farm skills in rural communities precludes the possibility of moving outside agriculture. Besides, once someone becomes educated. his first preference would be not to become a successful farmer, but a well groomed white collar urban dweller. Thus, those in farming are usually not there by choice, but are forced to stay in their ancestral occupation.Another way of looking at the situation is that the relation between land and man is socially seen as that of mother and son. This strong bond is also an important reason for helping farmers' sons to become future farmers. The educational breakdown of the respondents is presented in Table 3.5. It can be seen that the majority of water users at all of the pilot sites were illiterate, except for Khadwari Minor. The literacy was found at a minimum among the respondents of Bareji Distributary and at maximum among the respondents belonging to Heran Distributary and Khadwari Minor. One important reason could be the high proportion of settlers at Heran Distributary and Khadwari Minor.As can be seen at the bottom row of Table 3.5, the mean number of school-going children is very low. The standard deviation is very high, indicating a high variation within each pilot site.The rural population in the regressive culture of Sindh involves their children in the field at an early age as family labor. Educating of children is considered a double loss. On the one hand, the family loses part of the income accruing to child labour and, on the other hand, there are additional expenditures to be incurred on fees, books, etc. In general, the responses to the question on reasons for not sending children to school were:non-availability of schools in the area; since poor people do not get jobs in the government sector for merely being poor, it is therefore, of no use to send children to schools;the children will adopt farming as a career and that does not need an education the family cannot afford to pay for hired labour so they can not afford to part with as declared by the respondents; and their children's cost-free services. In Mirpurkhas and Nawabshah sites, only a very small proportion of the family size were the school-going children, the mean number per family being 0.8 at Bareji Distributary, 1.7 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 2.5 at Heran Distributary and 2.6 at Khadwari Minor, which forms 11 O h , 13%, 26% and 20%, respectively, of all children of school age. It can be noticed that the proportion of female children going to school is much lower than that of male children at Bareji and Dhoro Naro; the relatively higher proportion at Sanghar district can be attributed to the community structure, which is more or less composed of settlers.In Table 3.6. the average family size for the respondents is presented for the different pilot sites. The joint family system is quite popular in the rural areas of Sindh Province.In only a few cases are nuclear families found. Grandparents, parents and children (even if married) share the same household. In some cases, it was found that they had one kitchen with more than 20 family members.The mean number of family members per household was found to be 7.5 at Bareji Distributary, 12.8 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 9.5 at Heran Distributary and 12.9 at Khadwari Minor.Bareji Distributary N=170 Dhoro Naro Minor N=168 The value of the standard deviation indicates that, except for the Khadwari Minor, the estimates for mean family size are reliable.The sex composition for the family size is almost equal for Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors, but it is slightly unequal for the two distributaries.In Nawabshah and Sanghar sites, almost all of the water users are Muslims, but at Bareji Distributary in Mirpurkhas. 56 percent are Non-Muslims (these are mostly the Hindu tenants). Table 3.7 The mean number of family members involved in fulf-time farming were 2.3 at Bareji Distributary, 4.1 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 2.0 at Heran Distributary and 2.7 at Khadwari Minor, whereas the mean number of family members involved in part-time farming was 1.5 at Bareji Distributary, 1.6 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 1.8 at Heran Distributary and 0.8 at Khadwari Minor. The values of the standard deviations suggest that the data is highly variable and the estimates obtained are not reliable in this regard. Also, in most of the cases, the full-time employment consists more of males, while for the part-time employment, the converse is true.As regards the tenancy status, three contrasting tenancy relationships can be discerned among the actual tillers of land; owner operators, tenants and lessees. The owner operator is defined as a person who (or whose family) owns as well as operates the farm himself. An owner operator is usually also the sole decision-maker regarding all agricultural activities to be conducted at his/ her farm and consequently bears the loss or enjoys the profit. A tenant is a person who cultivates the land belonging to someone else on a crop-share basis; usually the decisions are jointly taken by both the tenant and the (absentee) landlord, and both of them share the profit or loss jointly. Some decisions are, nevertheless, under the sole jurisdiction of one of the parties. A lessee is a person who operates a rented farm on cash. He is independent in taking decisions regarding planning the crops to be cultivated and is fully entitled to the farm earnings from the crop enterprise.Besides the abovementioned categories, there are a number of other tenurial categories that comprise a combination of the above categories. It is generally believed that a person holds one of the abovementioned categories when referred to a specific farm, but when talking to a water user, he may hold more than one piece of land on the same watercourse, thus being a single water user but holding more than one tenurial status. Such categories include owner-operator-cum-tenant, owner-operator-cum-lessee, owneroperator-cum-lessor, tenant-cum-lessee, landowner-cum-tenant, landowner and owneroperator-cum-tenant-cum-lessor. All of these categories are grouped under \"others\".  Table 3.9 shows that at Bareji Distributary, Dhoro Naro Minor and Heran Distributary, the majority of the sample water users are tenants, whereas at Khadwari Minor, the majority are owner operators. Other categories form a small proportion of the total and range between roughly 4 per cent at Khadwari Minor to 15 percent at Heran Distributary. Figure 3.1 shows the significance of this differentiation.Size of land holding is one of the important determinants of social status and economic well-being and also has a bearing on the power relations and social interactions among water users. Size of holding here is defined as the area operated by a water user at the particular watercourse and includes the area owned plus area leasedlrented in minus area leasedlrented out. The picture is reflected in The mean total area operated by the respondents was 7.4 acres at Bareji Distributary, 12.8 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 17.9 at Heran Distributary, and 20.1 at Khadwari Minor.Mean area owned by respondents stood as 4.7 acres at Bareji Distributary. 8.8 at Dhoro Naro Minor, 9.1 at Heran Distributary, and 15.2 at Khadwari Minor.Except in the case of respondents at Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor, more than half of the operated area is comprised of sharedneased in area. The area sharedneased out is comparatively low at all the sites. Overall 170 ( 100) 168 ( 100) 161 ( 100) 27 ( 100)The farm size here reflects the area operated by a respondent and/ or his family. It can be seen from Table 3.11 that a majority of the respondents operate farms between 5 to 16 acres. The subsistence holding in Sindh is considered to be 16 acres. This means that in the pilot distributaries, most of the farmers are small farmers. At Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor, a sizeable proportion (22 and 33 per cent, respectively) of the respondents were operating farms above 25 acres to 100 acres. It can thus be asserted that at Bareji and Dhoro Naro, most of the farmers are small farmers, whereas at Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor, more large land owners are present. This is further supported by the fact that a majority of the respondents at Bareji and Dhoro Naro are tenants, who usually operate subsistence farms.Farm Size Classification of the RespondentsIrrigation water, being the most scarce resource afler land, is very important for agriculture. Efficiency of the farmers regarding the use of canal supplies for irrigation purposes can be evaluated by studying their irrigation and water management practices.In this section, an attempt is made to identify the main sources of irrigation, methods employed to irrigate fields, sufficiency of the supplies to meet the crop requirements, arrangements for water distribution, and satisfaction of the end users regarding the system and its performance.The physical environment of the area limits the choices for irrigation water to canal supplies and a few of privately owned tubewells to extract ground water. There were no public tubewells at the time of conducting this survey. Sometimes, farmers opt for a conjunctive use of tubewell and canal water to meet irrigation requirements of the crops.Use of different sources for irrigation in the pilot sites is presented in Table 4.1.Table 4.1. Sources of Irrigation Water.The source exploited for irrigation water supply in all of the pilot sites was almost limited to canal water only. The conjunctive use of canal and groundwater was reported by the water users of Dhoro Naro Minor in Nawabshah, but that too, to a very limited extent. Only 7 percent of the total respondents in that area reported using canal and tubewells together.The low exploitation of the groundwater is understandable as a major proportion of the LBOD project area is characterized by high water table and the quality of ground water is bad or marginal, in general, in terms of salinity. Augmenting the rather static canal supplies by using groundwater conjunctively is only feasible to the extent that it does not cause crop loss. Besides, spatial location of the tubewells also limits the choice to purchasing and conveying groundwater at the farm at the hour of need.The adequacy of irrigation supplies to meet crop water requirements is one of the areas that is to be addressed for managing irrigation for sustainable agriculture. Although a more technical way of studying the situation would be to launch on-farm field trails, but the results thus obtained would be difficult to generalize for the entire pilot site as the soil characteristics. conveyance losses, and other factors in the agricultural environment may differ.Similar results can also be obtained by analyzing the general feelings of the farmers regarding this matter as they know their area and crops better. Their perceptions were obtained regarding the extent of sufficiency of present irrigation supplies for fulfillment of crop water requirements and the results are presented in Table 4.2.At Khadwari Minor in Sanghar District, a majority of the respondents thought that the present water supplies from all sources were not sufficient to meet crop water requirements. Respondents from Dhoro Naro Minor in Nawabshah and Heran Distributary in Sanghar were more or less satisfied with their water supplies. Conversely, 45 per cent of the respondents from Bareji Distributary were, in general, of the view that the current supplies were sufficient to meet crop water requirements to a large extent. Since canal water is the main source of irrigation, it was also studied whether canal water was sufficient or not. The pattern of the canal supplies differs during the two major cropping seasons (i.e. kharif and rabi). Being an interview on a recall basis, the most recent two cropping seasons were the reference period for the question on sufficiency of canal water.1The majority of the water users at all pilot site command areas were of the opinion that canal water was not sufficient for crops during the last kharif season. It was sufficient during the last rabi season for the water users, except those at Khadwari Minor. Water distribution among the watercourses results into water disputes among the water users of the watercourse. Responses regarding satisfaction of the respondents from present water distribution at the watercourses are presented in Table 4.4.The evidence is that thewater users at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor were satisfied with the distribution among the watercourses, but the water users of Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor had mixed feelings.  Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages in terms of application efficiency, impact on crop yield, etc.The choice of the farmer is determined by the soil type, labour intensity of the method, labour availability, availability of equiprneht. resource endowment, etc. The results regarding irrigation methods employed are presented in Table 4.5.It is evident from Table 4.5 that most of the water users of the Dhoro Naro Minor, Heran Distributary and Khadwari Minor used the basin method for irrigation, whereas those at Warabandi is the local name for the irrigation water turn schedule for the shareholders of a particular watercourse. There are two arrangements for water distribution; formal or pakka warabandi (officially fixed), which is fixed by the Irrigation Department, and informal or kachcha warabandi. which is managed by farmers with mutual agreement.At most of the watercourses, an official warabandi has been notified and 'is being followed, but the gaps between the official warabandis and their actual implementation are increasing (Bandaragoda and Rehman, 1995). The informal or kachcha warabandi is disappearing from the scene.Table 4.6 shows that pucca warabandi was found to be predominant at Nawabshah and Sanghar sites, whereas at the Bareji Distributary command in the Mirpurkhas area, most of the respondents believed that there was no warabandi in practice. The reason is that at this distributary, many of the farms are operated by the tenants and servants. Since the water right is established for a farm belonging to the zamindar in the warabandi and he is entitled to use his turn at his farm, but he arranges the distribution among various tenants and servants operating parts of his farm with his own consent. Sometimes, this duty is performed by his manager, called karndaar, who is authorized to do so by the zamindar. Thus, the arrangement becomes adhoc and no tenant or servant knows exactly when he will be allowed to irrigate during the zamindar's irrigation turn. Each shareholder of a watercourse has an irrigation turn on the specific watercourse.The length of the turn, in general, is proportionate to the size of the culturable command area of the plot of land to be irrigated. Some allowance and adjustments are made in the water turn for compensation of the conveyance loss to tail areas. The time needed to fill and empty the watercourse for different locations are also adjusted in the warabandi.Time required to irrigate an acre depends on the type of soil, location of the farm on the watercourse, route and physical condition of the watercourse, actual discharge drawn by the outlet, etc. In The dissatisfaction regarding distribution of irrigation water results generally from the faulty operations of the system. Even if the system is operated efficiently, poor maintenance will cause mal-distribution. Similarly, faulty operations cause maintenance problems. Thus, operations and maintenance are interdependent to some extent.The respondents were enquired about their satisfaction regarding maintenance of their channels. The results are presented in To some extentNo commentRegarding the maintenance of the irrigation system, the respondents had mixed feelings. The majority of the respondents from Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors were not satisfied with the present maintenance condition of the system. About 44 percent of the water users of the Bareji Distributary were satisfied to a large extent and the majority of the Heran Distributary were satisfied to some extent with the maintenance of the irrigation system. The respondents were questioned on their perceptions regarding the role of proper irrigation management on crop yields (Table 4.9). Almost all of the respondent were affirmative to the statement\" due to proper management of irrigation at your field, the yields of crops would increase\". Only 2 and 3 per cent disagreed, respectively, at Dhoro Naro and Bareji.Most of the respondents also claimed that they were aware of the proper requirement of irrigation water for different crops. The proportion of people who were unaware was the same as for the respondents who did not agree to the impact of proper water management on crop yield. They were either really ignorant, or were not serious, in their responses. An important aspect studied during the survey is the perceptions of the water users regarding the performance of the irrigation system. Irrigation system performance can be evaluated by examining it in terms of equitable distribution, reliability of water supplies and adequacy of water etc.This section intends to briefly present the results on the perceptions of the water users on the abovementioned topics. Section 5.1 deals with equity in water distribution. Section 5.2 discusses reliability of water supplies, while Section 5.3 presents perceptions on adequacy of irrigation water supplies.Equity in Water Distribution At the tertiary level of an irrigation system, a number of water users irrigate their farms from the same watercourse. With the introduction of a pucca warabandi irrigation timings for each farm were fixed, and a semblance of water rights was established. This helped in diminishing the number of water related disputes arising out of mal-distribution of water within the commend areas of watercourses.The respondents were asked about their perceptions on distribution of water at the watercourse. It is evident from Table 5.1 that an overwhelming majority of the respondents regarded water distribution at the watercourse level as equitable. At the Khadwari Minor, however, more than one-third of the respondents regarded water distribution to be inequitable.  Bareji. one-fifth of the respondents believed that there was no equity, while more than two-fifths believed that irrigation water was equitably distributed among different watercourses. Almost one-third of the respondents were those who perhaps were unsure, or did not want to respond. In general, the respondents saw an increasing equity in water distribution as their evaluation shifted from the branch canal through the distributarylminor to the watercourse. Many did not know much about the situation within the branch canal (between the distributaries), but generally acknowledged the inequity within the distributary (between the watercourses). Like equity, reliability of irrigation supplies is also assessed from the perceptions/ experiences of the water users. If a water user receives irrigation water when he is expecting it, the supply can be regarded as reliable and the converse is also true.There can be two important indicators for determining whether the canal supplies are reliable or not. Firstly, due to an unexpected absence of water from the canal and, therefore, the water users miss their irrigation turn as a consequence. Secondly, it is quite possible that the canall distributary is discharging water, but it is not reaching the farmers fields because somebody might have stolen water upstream in the watercourse.The data presented in Table 5.3 show that a majority of the sampled water users missed some of their water turns, both during the last kharif, as well as rabi, seasons.  Clearly, during the kharif season, more water users missed their irrigati0n.turn.s. The proportion of such water users varied between 71 per cent at Heran Distributary to 90 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor. Similarly, during rabi. the proportion of those water users who missed their turn ranged between 58 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor to 91 per cent at Bareji Distributary.Those who did not respond are water users who are tenants and had not leasedl shared in land until recently at that watercourse; thus, they were not aware of the situation during the reference period.The conclusion can be made that for a majority of the respondents, water availability was unreliable during the reference period. The information regarding the incidents reported by the water users about their stolen water turns is presented in Table 5.4. It can be witnessed from Table 5.4 that the incidents of water stealing are only far and few between. Only 5 to 52 per cent of the water users reported water stealing during their turn in Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors, respectively, during the 1995 kharif season.The proportion of the respondents who reported water stealing for the 1994-1995 rabi season ranged between 3 to 33 percent at the same locations (i.e. Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors). Moreover, it can be seen that the proportion of water users reporting water stealing is higher in the case of kharif compared to the rabi season because the water shortage problem is more acute during the kharif season. The adequacy of the canal water for irrigation purposes can be assessed by water transactions among water users. In this section, an attempt is made to analyze water turns purchased, sold and exchanged by the water users of the pilot sites.Table 5.5 presents the situation regarding the purchase of irrigation water turns. It can be seen that while nobody purchased an irrigation turn at Bareji Distributary and Khadwari Minor, some water users reported purchases of irrigation turns at Dhoro Naro Minor and Heran Distributary. The proportion of such water users is as low as 8 per cent at Heran Distributary and around 4 per cent at the Dhoro naro Minor.The canal water is a scarce input as the tubewell water in this area cannot be regarded a close substitute. This points to the fact that, though a lot of water users would be interested to buy irrigation turns from someone else as a potential buyer, but not many water users would be ready to sell their water turns and ruin their own crops. As indicated above, not many water users would be ready to sell their irrigation turn. The situation is reflected in Table 5.6, which reflects that almost no one sold an irrigation turn duYing the last two cropping seasons. This looks somewhat surprising as the question arises that how did those water users manage to buy a water turn who reported so. This can, in part, be attributed to the fact that the sale of an irrigation turn is legally prohibited, so those who actually sold water might have not responded truthfully to the enumerator because of the'fear of information leakage and consequent punishment. Unlike canal water transactions, the mutual exchange of irrigation turns is quite common among the water users. The situation is reflected in Table 5.7. Many water users mutually exchanged their irrigation turns. The extent of involvement in exchanging irrigation turns varies among the pilot sites and among the seasons as well. NoDuring the 1995 Kharif season, more than half of the respondents at Bareji exchanged turns, while slightly less than half of the respondents at Heran were involved in exchanging irrigation turns. This tendency was comparatively low at both the minors to the extent of 17 and 22 per cent at Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors, respectively.During the 1994-1995 Rabi season, this tendency of exchanging water furns declined among the water users of Bareji, Dhoro Naro and Heran. but the water users of Khadwari stagnated at the same proportion as that of kharif. The extent of decline was highest at the Dhoro Naro Minor, where almost half of the water users who exchanged water turns during kharif abstained from doing so during the rabi season.Applicable I I I IWhen discussing institutional development, there is a need to study the activities that are already being undertaken by the community. While discussing the socio-economic characteristics of a community and potential for institutional development within the community, it is important to look at what collective actions the community is undertaking already. The level of collective action among the community members reflects on the potential for an organized effort for collective solutions of common problems, such as those confronted in irrigation management.This section intends to discuss the results regarding involvement of the community in collective action, their knowledge about the already formed Water Users Associations (WUAs) and, finally, their experiences and perceptions regarding an organized effort for solution of common oroblems.This topic is sub-divided into three sections. Section 6.1 reflects the knowledge of the respondents about the existence and membership of the already formed WUAs. In Section 6.2, results regarding the involvement of the respondents in various collective activities are presented. Section 6.3 entails some discussions on the potential for a collective and organized effor't for irrigation management.The Water Users Associations were formed by the On-Farm Water Management Directorate for watercourse improvements. The results regarding the knowledge of the respondents on existence and membership are presented in Table 6.1.A majority of the water users at Heran Distributary knew that a WUA was formed at their watercourse. In all other sites, the water users believed that there was no WUA at their watercourse. This sounds surprising, but there are reasons. When looking into the actual situation regarding the social and physical context of WUA formation, most of the watercourses were lined because of large landowners, who usually are absentee landlords. Their tenants are never aware that a WUA is to be formed before lining is undertaken. On the other hand, small owner operators are less interested as the lining usually takes place in that part of the area that runs through the land belonging to big landlords, so that at the time of WUA formation, such landlords do no consult other farmers, so they remain unaware.Knowledge About the Water Users Associations Naturally, all of those who responded that there was no WUA on their watercourse, were not the members of the WUA and the question was not applicable to them. The highest proportion of WUA member respondents was at Heran Distributary (21%). Others might have not been involved due to tenancy, or farm size considerations, as discussed above.Only a small proportion of the respondents were aware of a WUA on other watercourses of the village or outside the village.This surprising response can be a'scribed to the fact that the WUAs were initiated some 15 years ago in the ,country for the purpose of effecting physical improvement or lining of the watercourses, and soon afler the physical work was achieved, these WUAs became defunct. Since they did not perform any visible and continuous role aflerwards, the level of interest among the farmers declined regarding them.There are several physical, economic and social activities that collectively involve the water users. The participation of the community in such activities determines the potential of the community to undertake a responsibility jointly and in an organized manner. Table 6.2' and Figure 6.1 entail the details of the participation by t b respondents in such activities.,Per cent of Resoondents The level of collective action among the water users is quite high at all of the three pilot sites. particularly as reflected in their contribution towards the maintenance of watercourses. Almost all of the respondents participated in maintenance of the watercourse. The majority of the respondents at Bareji and Heran distributaries, as well as Khadwari Minor, and about half of the respondents at Dhoro Naro Minor were, involved in the maintenance the distributaries/ minor also. The involvement of the respondents in collective solution of the disputes related to land and water ranged between one-fifth at Khadwari Minor to over half at Dhoro Naro Minor. Since water and land disputes are of different kinds and nature, some can be solved within the community and many others cannot, so the involvement was low compared to maintenance of the watercourse and distributary.Maintenance and construction of the village mosque is another collective activity that was performed by the water users of all the three pilot sites. The degree of participation ranged between 31 per cent at Bareji Distributary to 97 per cent at Heran Distributary. Participation in collective maintenance of the village school was also noticeable. This was, nevertheless, lowest at Dhoro Naro where only around 6 per cent of the respondents participated. At Heran Distributary, 4 respondents out of every 5 were involved in collective maintenance of the village school.The activities that were not, but could be, undertaken by the respondents collectively were collective purchase of agricultural inputs and disposal of the marketing surplus of the produce realized at their farms. The underlying reasons could be differences in resource endowments of the different categories of the respondents with respect to size of their holdings. For instance, big farmers can buy inputs on credit in advance, because they are big customers, but a small tenant cannot because of low credit-worthiness.Similarly, small farmers tend to market the crop produce as early as possible due to weak financial position. while the big land owners can wait for peak demand periods. Due to these differences, there is a clash of interest in these activities and the tendency to undertake these activities is non-existentThe potential for an organized collective effort for solving joint problems can be assessed with respect to the previous acquaintance of the respondents with some organized effort in development, their involvement in such activities, willingness to work for a common good, and willingness to contribute time and money for such an effort. Table 6.3 entails the details of responses by the water users at the various pilot sites.Potential for Organized Efforts for Solving Common Problems An overwhelming majority of the respondents were aware of some organization catering to development works in their area. This awareness was lowest at the Dhoro Naro Minor but, still around 70% of the respondents were aware. For rest of the three distributaries/ minors, the awareness was as high as around 97 per cent.Many of the respondents, themselves, were involved in some kind of organization as initiating members of the organization. The proportion of such respondents ranged between roughly 27 per cent at Bareji to 67 per cent at Khadwari. An overwhelming majority of the respondents showed their willingness towards working for development with people. The proportion of such respondents was higher than 92 per cent at all of the pilot sites.A vast majority showed their willingness and readiness to contribute labour and affordable money for such an organization. The level of willingness varied between 85 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor to 100 per cent at Khadwari Minor.From the above discussion, it appears that the respondents are very much willing to work in an organized manner for the common good. There is a great potential and scope within the water users community at all of the pilot sites.The potential for organized effort in irrigation management can be determined by three factors: (a) willingness of the water users to form a water users association at the watercourse; (b) willingness to federate these associations; and (c) willingness to contribute towards O&M of the distributary. The results obtained on these areas are presented in Table 6.4.At Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor, an overwhelming majority of the respondents wanted to form a water users association. At Heran Distributary and Khadwari Minor, the response was 38 and 48 per cent respectively. Low response at this distributary can be attributed to the fact that some of them are already members (see Table 6.1) and to the rest of them it is not applicable. On the contrary, there are fewer numbers of already established WUAs at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor. The potential to federate these WUAs into a Water Users Federation (WUF) is high as expressed by the perceptions of the respondents. In no case did the proportion of the respondents with a positive answer drop below 85 per cent. At Khadwari Minor, all of the respondents affirmed that the WUAs could be federated.The water users expressed their willingness to contribute money for meeting the financial outlays on distributary operations and maintenance. The extent of readiness varied between 85 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor to 93 per cent at Khadwari Minor.In summary, it can be concluded that though many of the respondents did not have a formal exposure to an organized effort for solving common problems, but they have knowledge and are willing to form, federate and sustain a water users organization as they showed a willingness to even contribute funds for meeting the financial liabilities of the organization. While there seems to be no difference for participating in collective action between the head and the tail respondents, but the middle reach respondents participated more in collective action. The share of respondents of this class who participated in three or more activities is 72 % compared to 61% and 64 % for the head and tail reach respondents, respectively, which is quite high. Nevertheless, this cannot help in concluding that head farmers are less cooperative.A more important way to look at these responses could be to analyze participation in maintenance of watercourses by location. Theocratically, there are more watercourserelated problems at the middle and tail reaches and, therefore, the probability of participation in watercourse maintenance is more for the middle and tail reach farmers. Table 6.7 presents the picture gained from the baseline data.lining is generally undertaken at the head reaches of the watercourses that might have been conceived as maintenance by the respondents.The farther that the farm is situated along the watercourse, the higher are the conveyance losses: consequently, the time needed to irrigate an acre becomes greater with distance from the outlet. This proposition can be tested by cross-tabulating the time needed to irrigate an acre with location of the farm along the watercourse. In Table 6.8, the time needed to irrigate an acre has been classified into three groups, i.e. one hour or less, between one and two hours, and more than two hours. The situation is presented in Table 6.8. Obviously, from Table 6.8. that the majority of the respondents (91 %) from the head reach reported that the time required to irrigate an acre as being less than 2 hours, while almost half of them reported it to be less than an hour. Contrary to this, most of the respondents from the middle and tail reaches reported this time to be more than an hour.Although the value of the correlation coefficient is low, but this coefficient and the Chisquare test are highly significant, indicating that the difference in time required for irrigation of an acre significantly increases with location of the farm along the watercourse.98 ( 47 Because of high water tables and brackish groundwater, the soil degradation is quite rapidly increasing in the area. Without proper management practices regarding land, waterlogging and salinity, it is quite probable that in a few years, the fertile lands will refuse to produce anything. At the same time, LBOD has been designed and constructed to alleviate these problems. During the survey, the knowledge and management practices of the respondents regarding these areas were also recorded. This section focusses on their perceptions and practices.Section 7.1 discuss the perceptions and knowledge of the respondents regarding relations between land levelling and water utilization and precision land levelling. In Section 7.2, an attempt is made to study their perceptions on quality of groundwater. Section 7.3 is reserved for their knowledge about past and present water table depths and information on land affected by waterlogging and salinity. The last section discusses the management practices used by them to alleviate waterlogging and salinity.If someone does not believe that land levelling is important for optimal use of water, it is unlikely that he will opt for levelling for optimal water use. The responses of the water users regarding this and precision land levelling are presented in Table 7.1.An overwhelming majority of the respondents believe that land levelling is a crucial factor to optimize the utilization of water. The proportion of the respondents who acknowledged the statement ranged between 96 per cent at Bareji to 100 per cent at Khadwari Minor.On the other hand, almost 9 out of 10 respondents were unaware of precision land levelling, Over 10 per cent of the respondents from Dhoro Naro Minor were familiar with precision land levelling, which was the highest proportion among all of the sites. Precision land levelling is becoming more familiar because of the On-Farm Water Management Directorate, which is employing this technology at demonstration centers in their respective areas. Since there is a low tendency among the general farmers to visit demonstration centers of agriculture-related agencies, they are less familiar with this technology. This also suggests that extension measures are needed to promote and popularize the concept and advantages of precision land levelling. Farmers are the best judges to assess the quality of ground water as they are using it since the pre-irrigation period for cultivation of crops. They were enquired about their feelings about the quality of ground water and their responses are presented in At Bareji Distributary, as well as Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor, the majority (84%. 59% and 67%, respectively) of the respondents perceived that the quality of groundwater was unfit for irrigation purposes. In the case of Dhoro Naro Minor, 42 percent of the respondents felt that it was fit while another 11 percent thought that it was of marginal quality that should be used only during extreme water shortages.In general, the quality of groundwater was regarded not suitable for irrigation purposes. This should be noted that within each distributary/ minor command area, there is a variation in responses. This may be attributed to the spatial nature of the ground water quality. Even within the same watercourse command area, the quality of groundwater may vary due to the nature of the underlying soil layers.A majority of respondents claimed that they had knowledge about the depth to water table in their respective areas. The proportion of the respondents who responded positively ranged between almost 90 per cent in Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors to 98 per cent at Heran Distributary.The average farm area affected by waterlogging and salinity varied between almost 2.5 acres (19 and 12 % of the mean area operated respectively) at Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors to over 4 acres (52 and 24 per cent of the mean area operated, respectively) at Bareji and Heran distributaries. The high value of standard deviations is higher than the means, indicating that there are high variations among various responses regarding area affected within each of the distributaries/ minor. To most of the respondents, the ground water table has dropped during the last two years. The extent of reported drop varied between around 1 foot at Bareji Distributary to about 4 feet at Dhoro Naro Minor. The reported figures, nevertheless, varied among different respondents of the same distributary to a great extent as the respective standard deviations are quite high. The responses from Khadwari Minor, however, about reported water depth can be regarded quite consistent as the standard deviations are less than half of the mean.Waterlogging and salinity are not caused only by local conditions: rather this twin menace arises from collective human actions over large areas. Although it may not be eliminated altogether locally, but it can be minimized by adopting local solutions in conjunction with large-scale efforts. In Table 7.4, the salinity and waterlogging management practices adopted by the water users are presented.At the Bareji Distributary in Mirpurkhas, a majority of the respondents (66%) used grass to control waterlogging and salinity. Cultivation of rice for leaching salts is another common practice adopted by one-quarter of the respondents. Use of gypsum and plantation of salt resistant trees are, however, not yet so popular.At the Dhoro Naro Minor in Nawabshah. none of the salinity control measures is frequently practiced as is indicated from Table 7.4. Only 16 per cent of the respondents cultivated grass to control salinity.Among the respondents from Heran Distributary the cultivation of grass, rice and planting trees are somewhat popular as 42 per cent, 32 per cent, and 27 per cent of the water users were using these measures, respectively.At Khadwari Minor of the Heran distributary, almost every fifth respondent planted trees and/ or cultivated rice for lowering the water table and minimizing salinity, while every ninth respondent was reported using gypsum for reclaiming the land. The importance of drainage to irrigated lands cannot be over-emphasized. The prime idea behind the LBOD Project is that afler completion of the drainage system, its O&M should be turned over to farmers because the government cannot subsidize irrigated agriculture any more. This section, therefore, discusses the perceptions of the respondents on various aspects of drainage.Section 8.1 is focussed on perceptions regarding availability of drainage facilities and its importance and usefulness for crops. Section 8.2 entails farmers' perceptions on their views about O&M responsibilities and willingness to contribute towards O&M.Table 8.1 presents perceptions of the respondents about the existence and importance of drains in the area. Almost all of the respondents were familiar with the drainage system in the project area. Nevertheless, every fourth respondent at Dhoro Naro Minor and every tenth respondent at Bareji was unaware of the drainage system.At Bareji 96 per cent, at Dhoro Naro 94 per cent, at Heran Distributary 96 per cent and all the respondents at its Khadwari Minor believed that drainage will help in increasing crop yields. Whereas 1, 6 and 4 per cent of the respondents were unsure about this at Bareji distributary, Dhoro Naro Minor and Heran Distributary, respectively.Almost all of the respondents at all the sites regarded drainage equally important for the land in order to save it from the twin menace of waterlogging and salinity. They also opined that drainage is important for saving the land from waterlogging and salinity and that drainage should be maintained and operated properly and regularly. A great majority shared the view that if properly operated and well maintained, it will be continuously beneficial for the lands in the area.  The perceptions on responsibility for operations and maintenance of the drainage system, only with the willingness of the respondents towards paying for the outlays, are presented in Table 8.2.A majority of the sampled water users were of the view that operations and maintenance of the drainage system is the responsibility of the government. Nevertheless, one-third of the respondents at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor, as well as one-fourth of those at Khadwari, believed that it was either the responsibility of the farmersthemselves or a joint responsibility of thd government and the users.Roughly three out of four respondents were willing to provide services / money for operations and maintenance of the drainage system. The highest level of willingness wasshown by the respondents from Khadwari Minor (89%), followed by those of Heran Distributary (83%), those of Bareji Distributary (79%), and lowest from those of Dhoro Naro Minor (73%). Furthermore, they were also willing to maintain the drainage system through their organizations. The level of willingness oscillated between 09 per cent at Heran Distributary to 67 per cent at its Khadwari Minor.In this section, ownership of farm resources, specifically machinery and livestock, area planted and major crops reaped and income composition of the respondents is discussed.Section 9.1 entails the details of farm machinery and 9.2 contains the details of livestock held by the respondents. In Section 9.3, the major crops planted and reaped are discussed. Section 9.4 is reserved for income composition of the respondents.The main elements of machinery that were studied are mechanical equipment, such as tractors, threshers, seed drills, rotavators and reapers. The information is presented in Table 9.1.At the Bareji Distributary, only 5 respondents owned a tractor and/ or thresher. This forms 3 per cent of the total water users surveyed.At the Dhoro Naro Minor, 18 respondents were in possession of machinery, 4.2 per cent of the respondents had a tractor. 3 per cent had a thresher, around 2 per cent owned a seed drill, and 1 per cent had a rotavator. Only one person owned a reaper.At Heran Distributary, 20 persons had machinery, but nobody had a seed drill. At Khadwari Minor of this distributary. 5 persons owned tractors and no other machinery was owned by any of the respondents.Among the three pilot sites, respondents from Heran Distributary and its Khadwari Minor had the maximum concentration of tractors and threshers (16 and 7, respectively). Water users of Dhoro Naro Minor at Nawabshah enjoyed a monopoly in possessing seed drills (3 only) and had more rotavators. The livestock in the area comprises of bulls, cows. buffaloes, camel. sheep, goats, donkeys, horses and poultry (Table 9.2).A maximum number of bulls was found with the respondents of Dhoro Naro Minor (309) followed by those of Heran Distributary (268) and Bareji Distributary (187). The minimum number of bulls was found with the water users of Khadwari Minor.Over one 100 cows were found with the respondents of Bareji, Dhoro Naro and Heran distributaries, with the maximum at Bareji Distributary.Almost an equal number of respondents cultivated cotton at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor, but in terms of area sown, the area at Dhoro Naro minor was more than double than that of the Bareji Distributary (Table 9.3). More planted area was destroyed at Dhoro Naro, too. The seed rate used was also high at all sites except for Bareji.where the average use of seed was near the recommended level. More expenditures were incurred per acre of crop at Bareji and resultantly, they harvested more cotton per acre that was almost double than that of Dhoro Naro Minor. It appears that the farm productivity for cotton is more or less directly related to expenditures incurred per acre of the crop at the pilot sites. A maximum number of water users had sown wheat at Heran Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor compared to other sites, and the area planted was also more. More area was destroyed at Bareji Distributary. The quantity of seed used per acre was highest at Bareji Distributary. Expenditures incurred per acre was highest at Khadwari Minor, but the yield was the lowest. In this case, the yield seems inversely responding to the total expenditures incurred per acre, but there are undoubtedly reasons that were not discovered during this socio-economic baseline survey.Area  More respondents at Heran Distributary had cultivated sugarcane and planted more acreage compared to the other pilot sites. At Bareji. more area was destroyed but this distributary also lead the figure for seed rate used and total expenditures incurred per acre of crop. The yield was also higher at Bareji Distributary compared to other pilot sites. In this section, the yields of major crops are compared with respect to location of the farm along the watercourse reaches for the different pilot sites.The per acre yield of cotton was found generally higher at the tail farms compared to head and middle areas: the differences were, nevertheless, very small. Among various pilot sites, the average yield at,all of the three locations was higher at the head, middle and tail of Bareji Distributary compared with those of other pilot sites. The cotton yields with respect to farm location are presented in Table 9.6. In case of the sugarcane crop, the average yield was more or less comparatively higher at the head farms compared to tail farms, except for Heran Distributary (Table 9.7). This may partly be attributed to relatively more availability of water at the head reaches of watercourses as the losses are comparatively less. In terms of productivity, the respondents at Bareji and Heran distributaries were more productive compared with both of the minors and the respondents on the Khadwari Minor were the mosl inefficient ones. This section entails the income of the respondents from different sources and for different sites. Since the water users generally have a tendency to under-report overall income, they were enquired about income for five different enterprises. These include income from crops, livestock, labour, remittances and other sources. It is important to point out that several respondents did not disclose their income and were treated as missing cases and were excluded from the analysis. In (he tables below, average income from different sources is presented for each of the pilot sites separately. -Average income from crops, livestock. labour, remittances and other sources stood around 43 thousand, 11 thousand, 24 thousand, 51 thousand, and 20 thousand rupees, respectively (Table 9.9). The average total income stood at 50 thousand rupees per annum. The value of standard deviations is very high for all categories of income, indicating that there had been wide variations in income levels reported by different respondents. Total income varied between rupees 4 to 600 thousand rupees per annum between the poorest and the richest respondents. Average income from crops, livestock, labour, remittance and other sources stood around 40 thousand, 9 thousand, 15 thousand, 33 thousand, and 35 thousand rupees. respectively (Table 9.10). The average total income stood at 51 thousand per annum. The value of standard deviations is very high for all categories of income, except for income from remittances, indicating that there had been wide variations in income levels of different respondents for categories other than remittances. Total income varied between rupees 3.9 to 760 thousand rupees per annum between the poorest and the richest respondents. The average income, as reported by the respondents at Heran Distributary, varied between 32 thousand, 13 thousand, 21 thousand, 29 thousand and 37 thousand from crops, livestock, labour, remittances and other sources, respectively (Table 9.1 1 ). The average total income stood at 48 thousand per annum and ranged between 2.5 to 350 thousand rupees per annum. The value of the standard deviations suggest that none of the income categories was consistent. This is also suggested by the wide ranges between the lowest and highest income groups in each category.The aggregate average income of the respondents at Khadwari Minor ranged between rupees 5 to 95 thousand and comprised of an average of 16 thousand, 11 thousand, 5 thousand, 36 thousand and 26 thousand rupees of income from crops, livestock, labour, remittances and other sources, respectively (Table 9.12). Except for the income from labour, no other category was consistent as the standard deviations are very high.Tail Average Table 9.12. Income of Respondents of Khadwari Minor (Sanghar) from Different Sources (in Rupees).There are considerable income differences among head, middle .and tail farmers. The average income realized per acre from crop enterprise was almost double for the case of the head farmers of Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor and it was even four times in the case of Khadwari Minor. At Heran Distributary, however, the average per acre income was slightly higher at the tail farms than either the head and middle locations. Average per acre income from crops was highest at Bareji (Rs 7700) and was almost 2 to 3 times of that at other sites. It was lowest at the Khadwari Minor (Table 9.13). The average incomes of the respondents from different sources are compared in Table 9.13. It is evident that the water users of Bareji Distributary had the highest average income from crops, labour and remittances compared with the other sites. The respondents from Heran Distributary had higher livestock income and income from other sources. The respondents from Khadwari Minor had the lowest income levels comparatively in all of the categories.The total income (Table 9.14) reported by the water users of Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor is higher as compared with others, followed by the respondents from Heran Distributary. The average total income at Khadwari Minor is the lowest and is almost half of the average income realized at the other sites. The perceptions of the respondents were also obtained on the factors that are relatively more important for increasing per acre yield for various crops. The respondents were asked to rank three most important factors in order of priority. In the following sections, the results are presented for each pilot site.At Bareji Distributary, the respondents ranked increased canal water supply as the most important factor (Table 9.15). Approximately 39 per cent of the respondents ranked it first or second priority for increasing crop yields. Another 5 per cent of the respondents regarded it as the third most important factor for increasing crop productivity. Timely availability of chemical fertilizers was ranked by almost half of the respondents as priority number 1,2 followed by priority for 38 percent of the respondents. According to 12 per cent of the respondents, it was ,the third most important factor contributing towards increased crop yields.Better extension was also regarded as one of the most important factors by almost onethird of the respondents. A majority of the respondents from Dhoro Naro Minor regarded more canal supplies as the single most important factor for raising crop yields. Another 7 per cent regarded it second or third priority. Another 21 per cent of the water users thought that ensured canal water supplies were the most important factor (Table 9.16).To almost 44 per cent of the respondents, availability of good quality seed was regarded as the second most important factor to raise agricultural productivity. Apart from these factors, timely availability of chemical fertilizers, availability of quality pesticides and machinery on credit were also regarded important. At Heran Distributary, timely availability of chemical fertilizers was the most important factor for raising agricultural productivity followed by availability of good quality seed, the more and ensured canal water supplies (Table 9.17). The factors such as improved water management practices, better extension services, credit availability and availability of good quality pesticides were regarded relatively less important. This may be ascribed to the fact that the water users are comprised of owner cultivators, who relatively have more cultivated area. They might have been able to meet their requirements. At Khadwari Minor, the most important factor to raise yields was regarded to be more canal water supply (Table 9.18). Nobody ranked this priority 2 or 3, indicating a high demand for additional supplies. Timely availability of chemical fertilizers and availability of good quality seeds, along with availability of agricultural machinery at credit, were regarded the other most important factors. The respondents believed that better extension services will not do any good. Similarly, no scope for improved water management practices was perceived. They accorded no priority to reliability of the canal supplies. This indicates that perhaps they were not adequately aware of the question as adequacy and reliability are the problems that have been identified by the respondents as the major problems. Each of the three pilot sites was of intermediate size, having 20 to 30 watercourses and a command area of about 5,500 hectares, with a manageable number of people.The socio-economic baseline survey was designed as a starting point for the action research program at the three pilot sites. The results of the survey can help in designing the action research program with a better understanding of the project area, its problems and possible constraints, and. can also provide some verifiable indicators that can be monitored and tested during the implementation and after completion of the pilot projects.A purposive sample was chosen that would consider all necessary aspects of the pilot area. Afler discussions among the staff, it was decided that a two-stage stratified systematic random sample would be designed to identify the target group that would be interviewed on a recall basis on a well designed and pre-tested structured interview schedule. The Social Organization Field Teams at the three pilot sites were to act as enumerators.In total, 9 watercourses from each distributary/ minor were selected in such a way that there was an equal representation of the head, middle and tail reaches. Besides, one watercourse from each of the three reaches of Khadwari Minor was selected because it is almost an additional irrigation sub-system served by the Heran Distributary. Thus, the total sample size comprised of 30 watercourses with 50% coverage of the water users on each watercourse, yielding a total sample size of 530 water users.Several problems were faced during the actual conduct of the survey. Non-availability of the respondents at the time of visit of the field staff was one of the major problems.The solution was sought by paying two to three visits at the site for interviewing the respondent. Yet, Four of the respondents could not be traced and interviewed till the end of the survey, which were discarded from inclusion in the survey. Similarly, engagement of water users in cultivation of the cotton crop during that time was another problem. This problem was resolved by paying visits in the evening to the water users who were unavailable during the day time.Another problem encountered was due to the cultural set-up of the pilot area. A number of absentee landlords and other landowners, who were not the water users, objected to having their tenants interviewed. Some of the tenants could not respond to questions on crop yields as the production was taken away by the landlord and was weighed by him. Such tenants were informed by their landlord about their own shares only. Being an interview on a recall basis, the responses to some questions were difficult to remember for the water users. They only responded in hunches and crude estimates to such questions. The duration of the interview was recorded as being almost two hours initially, which was boring for the water users. Sometimes, the water users had the tendency to respond indirectly with a story as a pre-text. Later, however, the enumerators gained experience and the interview duration was reduced.The questionnaire was pretested and the teams were trained. The survey was launched during March 1996 to June 1996. The reference period were Rabi 1994-95 and Kharif 1995.The average age of respondents stood around 40 years in all of the pilot sites. The composition of various age groups revealed that a maximum of the water users were between 31 to 60 years of age.The experience in irrigated agriculture for the water users ranged between 20 to 30 years on average. This indicates that the average age at the time of entry into the occupation stands at 15 to 20 years.Most of the respondents on all the pilot sites were married. In the socio-cultural context of rural Sindh, a male cannot stay unmarried for long afler adolescence.The tendency to become a farmer seems highly dependant upon the father's occupation. Most of the farmers were farmer's sons. Only about one out of every 10 respondents was an offspring of a non-farmer.A majority of the respondents at the three pilot sites were illiterate, Khadwari being an exception. The average number of school going children is also very low, indicating future illiteracy levels will not decline significantly.The average family size ranged between 8 to 13 in the pilot area. A majority of the respondents at Bareji Distributary were non-muslims, while at other pilot sites, the majority of them were muslims.The mean number of full-time family workers engaged in farming ranged between 2 to 4, while there were 1 to 2 additional part-time workers from the family members engaged in farming.A majority of the respondents were tenants at Bareji. Dhoro Naro and Heran sites, whereas a majority of the respondents at Khadwari Minor were owner Operators.Average operated area of the respondents varied between 7 to 20 acres at different sites, out of which they owned 5 to 15 acres and the rest of the area had been leased/ rented in. Both the average area operated and owned were higher at Khadwari Minor, comparatively because of a higher tendency of self cultivation by the owner operators.Canal water is the only irrigation source at the pilot sites. The conjunctive use of canal and tubewell is very low due to unfit groundwater. Most of the respondents from Sanghar and Nawabshah were of the view that the water availability was not sufficient, while almost half of the respondents at Bareji Distributary were found satisfied with present sources of irrigation for the crop water requirements.According to a majority of the respondents at all sites, the canal water was sufficient for rabi crops but was insufficient for kharif crops. Most of the respondents from Khadwari Minor, nonetheless, reported that it was insufficient during both of these seasons.To a majority of respondents at Bareji and Dhoro Naro, they were satisfied with the water distribution at the watercourse, whereas a majority of the respondents at Heran and its Khadwari Minor had mixed feelings about this. Those who were not fully satisfied with water distribution opined that both the government and a farmer's organization can improve this situation by a joint effort.The basin method of irrigating the fields was popular among the majority at Heran Distributary, Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors, while a combination of basin and furrow methods was popular at Bareji Distributary. Wild flooding was not being practiced, probably because of levelling problems in the field and consequent expected losses of water.Although a majority of the water users had officially fixed water turns, at Bareji the respondents expressed that it was not being followed, most probably because of a high concentration of tenants and servants in farming and because the decision to distribute water is not under their jurisdiction. The water distribution in such cases is undertaken by the zamindar. himself, or his kamdar.The average time allocated per acre for canal water varied between 15 to 21 minutes, while the water users reported that the actual time needed to irrigate an acre was 4 to 8 times higher. This means that each acre receives water on average after at least four weeks.Regarding the maintenance of the irrigation system, the respondents had mixed feelings.The majority of the respondents from Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors were not satisfied with the present maintenance condition of the system. Slightly less than half of the water users of the Bareji Distributary farmers were satisfied to a large extent and the majority of the Heran Distributary were satisfied to some extent with the maintenance of the irrigation system.Their perceptions regarding the role of proper irrigation management on crop yields were that due to proper management of irrigation at the field, the yields of crops would increase.Most of the respondents also claimed that they were aware of the proper requirement of irrigation water for different crops. The proportion of people who were unaware was almost negligible.An overwhelming majority of the respondents regarded water distribution on the watercourse level as equitable. At the Khadwari Minor, however, one-third of the respondents regarded water distribution as inequitable.The respondents had mixed feelings regarding equity among different watercourses served by the distributary. At Bareji, one-fiflh of the respondents believed that there was no equity, while more than two-fifths believed that irrigation water was equitably distributed among different watercourses. Almost one-third of the respondents were those who perhaps were unsure, or did not want to respond.Over three-fourths of the respondents at Dhoro Naro and more than half at Khadwari minors did not regard water distribution within the distributary as equitable and conversely 77 per cent of the respondents at the Heran Distributary viewed water distribution among different watercourses of the distributary to be equitable, Almost half of the respondents at Heran Distributary were of the view that the water was equitably distributed among various distributaries/ minors, and conversely, a majority of the respondents from its Khadwari minor opined that it was not. Almost three-fourths of the respondents from Dhoro Naro Minor also shared views similar to the majority of respondents from Khadwari Minor. At Bareji Distributary, a majority of the respondents did not know about water distribution among distributaries.In general, the respondents saw an increasing equity in water distribution as their evaluation shifted from the branch canal through the distributaryhninor to the watercourse. Many did not know much about the situation within the branch canal (between the distributaries), but generally acknowledged the inequity within the distributary (between the watercourses).During kharif, more water users missed their turns. The proportion of such water users varied between 71 per cent at Heran Distributary to 90 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor. Similarly, during rabi, the proportion of those water users who missed their turn ranged between 58 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor to 91 per cent at Bareji. Thus, the conclusion can be made that form majority of the farmers, water availability is unreliable. The incidents of water stealing are only far and few between.A majority of the farmers at Bareji Distributary exchanged their water turns, whereas in the other sites, the farmers did not engage in any exchange. A large majority of the respondents neither purchased nor sold water turns during either of the seasons.Similarly, the practice of stealing water from the watercourse during somebody else's water turn was rare.A majority of the water users at Heran Distributary knew that a WUA was formed at their watercourse. In all other sites, the water users believed that there was no WUA at their watercourse. This sounds surprising, but is justified as the number of WUAs at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor are very less. All of those who responded that there was no WUA on their watercourse were not the members of the WUA. The highest proportion of WUA member respondents was at Heran Distributary (21 %). Others might have not been involved due to tenancy and size of cultivated area considerations. Only a small proportion of the respondents were aware of a WUA on other watercourses of the village or outside the village.The level of collective action among the water users is quite high at all of the three pilot sites, particularly as reflected in their contribution towards the maintenance of watercourses; almost all of them participated in maintenance of the watercourse. The majority of the respondents at Bareji and Heran distributaries as well as Khadwari Minor, and about half of the respondents at Dhoro Naro Minor, were involved in the maintenance of the distributary1 minor as well. The involvement of the respondents in Collective Action and Institutional Development collective solutions of the disputes related to land and water ranged between one-fifth at Khadwari Minor to over half at Dhoro Naro Minor. Since water and land disputes are of different kinds and nature,'some can be solved within the community and many others cannot, so the involvement was low compared to maintenance of the watercourse and distributary.Maintenance and construction of the village mosque is another collective activity that was performed by the water users at all of the three pilot sites. The degree of participation ranged between 31 per cent at Bareji Distributary to 97 per cent at Heran Distributary. Participation in collective maintenance of the village school was also noticeable. This was, nevertheless. lowest at Dhoro Naro, where only around 6 per cent of the respondents participated. At Heran Distributary, four respondents out of every five were involved in collective maintenance of the village school. The activities that were not. but could be undertaken by the respondents collectively were collective purchase of agricultural inputs and disposal of the marketing surplus of the produce realized at their farms.An overwhelming majority of the respondents were aware of some organization catering to development works in their area. This awareness was lowest at the Dhoro Naro Minor. For the rest of the three distributaries/ minors, the awareness was as high as around 97 per cent.Many of the respondents, themselves, were involved in that organization as initiating members of the organization. The proportion of such respondents ranged between roughly 27 per cent at Bareji to 67 per cent at Khadwari.An overwhelming majority of the respondents showed their willingness towards working for development with people. The proportion of such respondents was higher than 92 per cent of the total at all the pilot sites.A vast majority showed their willingness and readiness to contribute labour and affordable money for such an organization. The level of willingness varied between 85 per cent at Dhoro Naro Minor to 100 per cent at Khadwari Minor.A majority of the respondents wanted to form a water users association. Low response at Heran Distributary can be attributed to the fact that some of them are already members, and for the rest of them, it is not applicable. On the contrary, there are very fewer numbers of already established WUAs at Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor, who are more interested to form a WUA.Though many of the respondents did not have a formal exposure to an organized effort for solution of common problems, but they have knowledge and are willing to form, federate and sustain water users organization as they showed a willingness to even contribute funds for financial liabilities of the organization.An overwhelming majority of the respondents believed that land levelling is a crucial factor for optimizing the utilization of water. Nine out of ten respondents were unaware of precision land levelling. Over 10 per cent of the respondents from Dhoro Naro Minor were familiar with precision land levelling, which was the highest proportion among all of the pilot sites.In general, the quality of groundwater was regarded not suitable for irrigation purposes.A majority of respondents claimed that they had knowledge about the depth to water table in their respective areas. The proportion of the respondents who responded positively ranged between almost 90 per cent in Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors to 98 per cent at Heran Distributary.The average farm area affected by waterlogging and salinity varied between almost 2.5 acres (19 and 12 % of the mean area operated, respectively) at Dhoro Naro and Khadwari minors to over 4 acres (52 and 24 per cent of the mean area operated, respectively) at Bareji and Heran distributaries. There are high variations among various responses regarding area affected within each distributary/ minor.To most of the respondents, the ground water table has dropped during the last two years. The extent of reported water table drop varied between around one foot at Bareji Distributary to about four feet at Dhoro Naro Minor. The reported figures, nevertheless. varied among different respondents of the same distributary to a great extent as the respective standard deviations are quite high. The responses from Khadwari Minor, however, about reported water depth can be regarded quite consistent as the standard deviations are less than half of the mean.At the Bareji Distributary in Mirpurkhas, a majority of the respondents (66%) used grass to control waterlogging and salinity. Cultivation of rice for leaching salts is another common practice adopted by one-quarter of the respondents. Use of gypsum and plantation of salt resistant trees are, however, not yet so popular. At the Dhoro Naro Minor in Nawabshah. none of the salinity control measures is frequently practiced; only 16 per cent of the respondents cultivated grass to control salinity. Among the respondents from Heran Distributary, the cultivation of grass, rice and planting trees are somewhat popular as 42 per cent, 32 per cent, and 27 per cent of the water users were using these measures, respectively. At Khadwari Minor of the Heran Distributary, almost every fifth respondent planted trees and/ or cultivated rice for lowering the water table and minimizing salinity, while every ninth respondent was reported using gypsum for reclaiming the land.Almost an equal number of respondents cultivated cotton at Bareji and Dhoro Naro. but in terms of area sown, the area at Dhoro Naro was more than double than that of Bareji. More planted area was destroyed at Dhoro Naro, too. The seed rate used was also high at all sites except for Bareji, where the average use of seed was near the recommended level, More expenditures were incurred per acre of crop at Bareji and, resultantly. they harvested more cotton per acre that was almost double than that of Dhoro Naro Minor. It appears that the farm productivity for cotton is more or less directly related to expenditure incurred per acre of crop.A maximum number of water users had sown wheat at Heran Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor compared to other sites and the area planted was also more. More area was destroyed at Bareji Distributary. The quantity of seed used per acre was highest at Bareji Distributary. Expenditures incurred per acre was highest at Khadwari Minor, but the yield was lowest. In this case, the yield seems inversely responding to the total expenditure incurred per acre.More number of respondents at Heran Distributary had cultivated sugarcane and planted more acreage compared to other sites. At Bareji, more area was destroyed, which also led the Figure for seed rate used and total expenditures incurred per acre of crop. The yield was also higher at Bareji Distributary compared to other pilot sites.The average incomes of the respondents from different sources show that the water users of Bareji Distributary had the highest average income from crops, labour and remittances compared with the other pilot sites. The respondents from Heran Distributary had higher livestock income and income from other sources. The respondents from Khadwari Minor had the lowest income levels comparatively in all of the categories.The total income reported by the water users of Bareji Distributary and Dhoro Naro Minor is higher compared to others followed by the respondents from Heran Distributary. The average total income at Khadwari Minor is the lowest and is almost half of the average income realized at other sites. 5.7. Public tubewell 3.Private tubewell 4.Canal + private tubewell 5.To what extent the overall water you get to fulfills you irrigation requirement?Not at all 2.To some extent 3.To large extent 4.Any other (Sp)12.If answer is i or ii, then ask how do you overcome this crop water deficiency? To what extent are you satisfied with the present distribution of water at watercourse level?1. Not all 2.To some extent 3.To large extentIf not at all, who can improve water distribution?1. Government agency 2.Farmers organization 3. Not at all 2.To some extent 3.To 3.5.7 . 8 .10.1 1 . Fit for irrigation 2.Marginally fit for irrigation 3.Unfit for irrigation 4.    ","tokenCount":"15315"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15af72a117b1372c1cdddedc85768441","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6f7dc7d2-744c-471d-97d0-23e41163bf9f/content","id":"-490731330"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"54397c50-0ead-44b5-a162-78fb792fac1c","pagecount":"52","content":"Wheat in the rainfed areas of Pakistan is grown on one fifth of the wheat acreage but its contribution to national production is only ten percent. Wheat production in these areas plays a significant role in the overall supply and demand situation of Pakistan. Self-sufficiency in wheat production on sustainable basis can only be achieved by evolving appropriate modem technologies for these neglected areas.This study deals with the wheat varietal adoption, the most important component of improved technological package for wheat production. The rainfed Pothwar, especially drier part is well behind in adoption of new wheat cultivars as compared to irrigated areas. Official statistics show that farmers of rainfed areas only began adopting new varieties beginning a decade after irrigated farmers and that a large area is still planted to old desi varieties. Farmers of this tract operate complex farming systems to meet their subsistence and hence have different needs for in choice of any neW technology including new varieties.I am pleased that present study highlighted some important factors affecting adoption of semi-dwarf wheat varieties. It is hoped that results presented in this manuscript will help in developing appropriate varieties for these areas. I appreciate the efforts made by social scientists of NARC and CIMMYT to compile this study. Table 1.Table 2.Wheat varieties released for rainfed areas of Pakistan Sample distribution by rainfall zone and wheat area, 1989-90   5: Table 6.Table 7.Table 8.Table 9.Table 11.Table 12.Table 13.Table 14.Table 15.  Table 17.Table 18.Sources of seed for current crop for old varieties by rainfall zone, 1989-90 Initial sources of seed for new varieties by rainfall zone, 1989-90 ..Table 19. Sources of funds for new seed, 1989-90 Table 20.Table 21.Table 22.Table 23.Table 24.Table 25.Table 26.Table 27.Table 28.Table 29.Table 30.    . Figure 4.       . Figure 4.      oThe analysis of experimental data for the dry zone indicated that yields of different varieties were influenced strongly by moisture availability in five years of observations. The results showed that old tall varieties, compared to semi-dwarf varieties, were equally good or even better in yield in moisture stress .years. o Estimates of yield advantage indicated that the improved variety gave 13 percent increase in grain yield and no significant effect on straw yield. On average, local varieties fetch a 15 to 20 percent price premium for grain quality compared to semi-dwarf varieties. Similarly, straw is sold for almost one rupee/kg in drought years.oThe majority of the farmers in the study area were owner operator. They mostly rented tractors for land preparation and very few dependened only on bullock power. In the low rainfall zone more than one half of the farmers had sandy soils which compound the problem of moisture stress. As in other parts of the Punjab, few farmers had contact with extension department and most had low levels of education.oOverall, in the study area, 42 percent of the wheat area was under new semi-dwarf varieties especially Pak-81. In the low rainfall areas only one-fifth of the farmers had adopted this category of varieties. Old semi-dwarf varieties were planted on more than 10 percent of the area. More than one-fifth of the high rainfall farmers had planted these types of varieties (mostly Lyallpur-73). The proportion of wheat area to very old tall varieties was very high in the low rainfall zone.oEstimates of the yield advantage of grain and bhusa under farmers conditions indicated that the improved variety gave an estimated 13 percent increase in grain yield (significant at the 20% level). The other factors contributing to grain yields were lepara land type, sole cropping (compared to intercropping with mustard), phosphorous use, farm yard manure application and owner tenancy. The farmers of low rainfall zone stated that they planted old tall varieties due to their drought tolerance characteristics. Also these varieties were preferred for home consumption. The most important reason for planting both old tall and new semi-dwarf varieties was to have one variety for grain and one variety for bhusa. Many farmers also planted both types of varieties for yield comparisons.oAll the respondents of the sample area who planted new semi-dwarf varieties strongly agreed that these yielded more. Farmers of both the rainfall zones also believed that old tall varieties yielded more and better straw for their livestock and made good chapatis.oAs in other parts of the country, other farmers were major source of information for agricultural technologies. The majority of the farmers used their own seed for semidwarf and old tall varieties. However, seed depot and other farmers were major sources of seed for initial adoption of improved varieties.o Multivariate analysis of factors affecting adoption of semi-dwarf varieties indicated that agro-climatic environments (soil and rainfall distribution) were the most influential factors in adoption of these varieties. Socio-economic variables (education, farm size) and information sources (demonstration plot contact and seed depot visit) were the other factors which significantly influence adoption of these varieties, especially recent adoption behaviour in the dry zone.o Considering these factors special breeding efforts for evolving appropriate cultivars for marginal areas and more research on soil and moisture conservation techniques is needed to speed adoption of new varieties in the marginal rainfed areas of the Punjab.Wheat is the most important food crop of the resource poor farmers of the rainfed Punjab. Wheat production in these areas also plays a significant role in the overall supply and demand situation of Pakistan. Self-sufficiency in wheat production is a major component of the country's agricultural policy.The adoption of new technologies, especially modem varieties, are crucial in increasing wheat productivity. Many farm-level studies have been conducted in different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan to estimate adoption of different technological components for wheat (Heisey, 1990;Azeem et al., 1989;Ahmad et al., 1990;Ahmad et al., 1989). This information is widely used by wheat scientists and policy makers. However, little information is available for the rainfed zone of the Punjab.The rainfed zone, commonly known as the Pothwar Plateau covers one fifth of the Punjabs' cropped area.• This tract caD be divided into three sub-zones based on rainfall --the high rainfall zone (over 750 mm of annual rainfall), 'medium rainfall zone (500 to 750 mm) and low rainfall zone (less than 500 mm). Farmers in each rainfall zone manage their cropping pattern differently. During an informal survey of the area it was found that farmers of the low rainfall zone still plant old tall wheat cultivars. Previous studies (Hobbs et al., 1986) indicated that the best irrigated semi-dwarf varieties such as Pak-81 , are also the best yielding under the better rainfed conditions and in fact have been widely adopted in the high and medium rainfall zones. However, the adoption of HYVs is more uneven under low rainfall areas. Hobbs et al. (1991) pointed that Desi (local) varieties have a longer coleoptile to allow deeper seeding into residual moisture under low rainfall conditions. Wheat research in Pakistan was started in the early 20th Century. Since then (before and after partition of India) wheat breeders have worked hard to develop suitable wheat varieties for different wheat growing areas of Pakistan. Through their efforts, the release of high yielding varieties has led to rapid increases in productivity in irrigated areas beginning in 1967 (CIMMYT, 1989)..To date about 70 wheat varieties have been released in Pakistan by different wheat research establishments. Out of these only seven varieties were specifically released for rainfed areas and another 14 were recommended for both rainfed and irrigated areas (Table 1). All the rest of the cultivars were released exclusively for irrigated areas of Pakistan. In this report wheat varieties are divided into three main groups: new semi-dwarfs released since 1981 (mostly Pak-81); old semi-dwarfs (Lyallpur-73, Mexi-Pak, Barani-70 etc.) and old tall (C-591, awnless (Koni), other older tall varieties and mixtures of varieties). The varieties released only for rainfed areas were never widely adopted by farmers. However, two varieties (Lyallpur-73 and Pak-81) released for both irrigated and rainfed condition have been widely accepted in the Barani tract. * Recommended for both rainfed and irrigated areas.Official statistics show that farmers of rainfed areas adopted HYVs beginning a decade after irrigated farmers (Figure 1). The purpose of this report is to understand the patterns of varietal diffusion in rainfed areas and especially the slow diffusion of new varieties to the drier areas. This pattern of diffusion has also been observed in other marginal areas (e. g. West Asia and North Africa (Belaid and Morris, 1991) and in India (Byerlee, 1991», but to date few studies have attempted to analyse the needs of farmers in marginal areas for specific varietal  ----,------.-------,-,.---.-----.-------.----.-------.-----.------.---,------,,--- characteristics. These characteristics might include drought stress, straw quality and quantity, or grain type. Alternatively, appropriate varieties may be available but inadequate extension, seed supply and markets may slow their adoption. Such information is needed in order to establish research priorities for wheat varieties and appropriate policies to increase productivity in the marginal areas.The report has following specific objectives: 1.To examine the diffusion pattern of wheat varieties in rainfed areas of the Pothwar Plateau.To study farmers' rationale for planting of traditional and improved cultivars with special focus on marginal environments.To provide feedback to wheat breeders to develop appropriate varieties for these areas.The research for this study covers all three rainfall zones of the Pothwar Plateau. Considering the area under cultivation the target sampling by zone was 50, 25 and 25 percent from low, medium and high rainfall regions, respectively. In the low rainfall zone, three tehsils (Chakwal, Talagang and Pindi-Gheb) were selected and five villages from each tehsil were randomly chosen. In the medium rainfall zone, two tehsils (Fateh lang and Gujar Khan) were selected and four villages from each tehsil were randomly chosen. Similarly, from the high rainfall zone, two tehsils (Rawalpindi and lhelum) were chosen and from each tehsil four villages were randomly selected. In each zone, ten respondents were interviewed in each village to give an overall sample size of 310 for examining the wheat varietal diffusion patterns. However, after considering the position of some samp~e villages in relation to rainfall isohytes, the sample distribution was adjusted as in Table 2. Patterns of varietal use and key variables were collected for all 310 farmers. In order to obtain farmers' in-depth perceptions about varietal choices, half of the respondents were interviewed in more depth. Tables 2 and 3 also present the average wheat area by farm size and rainfall. The data support the established fact that small farmers put a higher share of their total area under wheat compared to larger farmers. Similarly, farmers of the low rainfall zone devote proportionately less area to wheat compared to farmers in the medium and high rainfall zones. In general the differences between the high and medium rainfall zones were found to be very small and unimportarlt. For this reason and given the smaller sample size in these zones, in most of this report we have combined these two zones into one zone--called the 'wet zone' (> 500 mm) as opposed to the dry or low rainfall zone « 500 mm).In addition to the farm survey, we also reviewed experimental data to estimate the grain yield advantages of new varieties under dryland conditions. The results of wheat yield varietal trials, conducted at the Adaptive Research Station, located near Chakwal in the low rainfall zone are presented in Table 4. Yields of different varieties were influenced strongly by moisture availability in five years of observation. The year 1987-88 was a drought year and almost all the varieties yielded at the same level. In this year, the farmers' most common variety (C-591, a tall variety) was equal in yield with Lyallpur-73 (an old semi-dwarf) and yielded even more than Pak-81 (a new semi-dwarf). Figure 2 shows average, minimum and maximum grain yield of these varieties.On the basis of five years' average yield data, Lyallpur-73 and Pak-81 gave 10 and 27 percent respectively, more yield than C-591. However, the good performance of old tall varieties in drier seasons indicate their suitability for these areas. In addition these on-station yields with good management practices and good soils are not representative of farmers' conditions. Indeed average trial yields were over 3 t/ha, more than three times the farmers' yields. More representative estimates of the yield advantage under farmers conditions may be obtained from field survey data. A survey was conducted in farmers' fields in the Fateh Jang area (rainfall about 500 mm) to estimate wheat grain and bhusa yields by crop cutting. At that time Lyallpur-73 (old semi-dwarf variety) was the main improved variety. In the production function (fable 5) the improved variety gave an estimated 13 percent increase in grain yield (significant at the 20% level). The other factors contributing to grain yields were lepara land type, sole cropping (compared to intercropping with mustard), phosphorous use, farm yard manure application and owner tenancy.The same model was also used to analyse wheat straw yields in the sample fields. The improved variety has no significant effect on straw yield although the coefficient has the expected negative sign.The results of experimental data and farmers' field data suggests that old semi-dwarf variety (Lyallpur-73) gave 10 to 13 percent more grain yields than old tall varieties although it  may have reduced straw yields. Similarly, the new semi-dwarf (pak-81) gave about 27 percent higher yields compared to old tall cutivars. However, on average, local tall varieties fetch a 15 to 20 percent price premium for grain quality compared to semi-dwarf varieties. Similarly, straw is sold for almost one rupee/kg in drought years. This suggests that the increase in grain yields of semi-dwarf varieties may be offset by price discount and reduced straw yields. These data suggest that an important reason for slow adoption of new varieties in dry areas is their lack of economic advantage.The characteristics of the sample wheat growers in the farm survey are listed in Table 6. The majority (71 %) of the sample in all rainfall zones were owner-operator farmers. Nearly all farmers rented in tractors for ploughing of their fields and very few depended only on bullock power. In the dry zone, more than one half of the farmers had sandy soils which compound the problem of moisture stress. As in other parts of the Punjab, few farmers had contact with the extension department and most had low levels of education. However, fanners of the wet zone had relatively more contact with demonstration plots compared to other parts of the rainfed tract. About half of the sample wheat growers were involved in off-farm work to supplement their farm income.Farmers of the rainfed Pothwar have adopted different wheat varieties according to their local agro-ecologica1 conditions. Pak-81, the widely adopted wheat variety for other parts of the country is again comparatively the most popular variety for the barani Punjab. This variety was planted on nearly two-fifths of the total wheat area (Table 7). A negligible proportion of the wheat area was devoted to other newly released wheat cultivars, (but not recommended for rainfed areas) such as Faisalabad-83 and Pirsabak-85. Farmers of the low rainfall areas are devoting much less of their area to improved varieties than those of high rainfall areas.Lyallpur-73, an old semi-dwarf variety was planted on nearly one-tenth of the wheat area. Until recently Lyallpur-73 was a very popular variety in this part of the Punjab (Supple et al., 1985), but due to shattering problems farmers have started to replace it with Pak-81. Interestingly this variety was very popular on small holdings in the high rainfall zone because it is perceived as good for home consumption. A sizeable proportion of the barani wheat area is still under very old tall wheat varieties like C-59l, local and awnless (Koni). These varieties were planted on 47 percent of the total wheat area (Table 7 and Figure 3).  The data regarding percent of farmers planting wheat varieties are presented in Table 8 and Figure 4. Overall, more than 35 percent of the farmers were planting new semi-dwarf varieties and nearly two-fifth were planting old tall varieties. In the low rainfall zone nearly 64 percent of the farmers had planted old tall varieties only. Nearly eighty percent of the sample farmers planted only one variety (Figure 5). The year of adoption of old semi-dwarf and new semi-dwarf varieties for those farmers sowing these varieties, is presented in Figures 6 and 7. In the dry zone, farmers are in the early stages of adoption of new semi-dwarf varieties as compared to farmers of wet zone. In the dry zone old semi-dwarf varieties were adopted by farmers within the last 12 years.   Farmers were asked to explain their main criterion for choice of a particular variety. In all the rainfall zones more than three-fourths of the farmers stated that they had planted new semi-dwarf varieties for higher yields. Nearly one-tenth stated that new varieties were resistant to shattering problems. The remaining farmers in this category perceived that new varieties lodge less, are good for late planting and have less contamination of weeds etc (Table 9). Farmers who still plant old tall varieties were also asked their main reasons for planting these varieties. The majority (61 %) of the farmers of the dry zone planted old varieties for their better resistance to drought. This reason was quoted by only 8 percent of the farmers in the wet zone. Farmers also preferred old varieties for good \"Chapati\" quality particularly in the wet areas where more than half of the respondents gave this reason. The other major reasons for planting old varieties were non-availability of seed of new cultivars, higher yields of straw and use for clipping for green fodder (Table 10)... Farmers in the different agro-ecological zones have different perceptions about varietal characteristics. Farmers who planted new semi-dwarf varieties were asked to compare certain important varietal characteristics like grain yields, straw yields, grain quality for chapatis, drought resistance, shattering, shrivelling and lodging between old tall, and new and old semidwarf cultivars.All the respondents of the sample who planted new semi-dwarf varieties strongly agreed that new varieties yielded more grain. Farmers of both zones also believed that old tall varieties yielded more and better quality straw for their livestock. Almost all farmers of the dry rainfall zone considered that atta (wheat flour) from old tall varieties made better quality chapatis compared to that from new semi-dwarf varieties. Also all of the dry zone farmers thought old tall varieties were more drought resistant than new semi-dwarf varieties. However, some farmers of the wet rainfall zone perceived that new semi-dwarf varieties were more drought resistant than old varieties. The experimental data presented earlier has supported farmers' views about drought resistant characteristics of old tall varieties. Generally, farmers reported that new semi-dwarf varieties shattered more than old tall varieties (Table 11). The comparison of different varietal characteristics for new semi-dwarf and old semi-dwarfs is presented in Table 12.    This group of farmers also considered that new semi-dwarfs give high grain yields compared to old semi-dwarf varieties. The majority of dry zone farmers believed that new semi-dwarfs yielded more bhusa and that old semi-dwarfs made better chapatis. Farmers of this zone considered new semi-dwarfs best for drought condition in comparison to old semi-dwarf varieties. In terms of shattering, shrivelling and lodging both varietal categories were almost the same.Fifteen percent of the overall sample farmers had planted both new semi-dwarf and old tall varieties. The most common reason given for planting both varieties was the need to have one variety for grain and one variety for straw. Many farmers also planted both new and old varieties to compare yield performance. Twenty percent of the respondents from the low rainfall zone planted old tall and new semi-dwarf varieties to adjust to field-specific soil moisture conditions. They prefer to grow new varieties in wetter conditions or in soils with better moisture-holding capacity. Interestingly, more than 10 percent of the farmers planted two varieties to stagger harvesting dates (Table 13). In this way they were able to solve the problem of labour shortages. .00During the survey farmers were asked to rank the most important agronomic factors for increasing wheat yields. The most important factor was. given a score of three and the least important was given a score of one. The mean scores of these factors for all farmers are presented in Table 14. Farmers gave high priority to application of more fertilizers. The second and third most important factors in the ranking were better land preparation and adequate moisture, respectively. Better land preparation was considered relatively more important in the wet zone and adequate mositure was more important in the dry zone. It is clear from the data that improved varieties were not given high priority in ranking in either zones. Farmers' Seed Sources and Seed ManagementNearly one-sixth of the farmers said extension services were their major information source for new varieties. However, most of the farmers learnt about new varieties from other farmers (Table 15).Table IS Farmers were also asked about seed sources for their new semi-dwarf varieties. The majority (61 %) of farmers used their own retained seed for the current year's crop. Other farmers were the major external seed sources for new varieties. Only a few farmers obtained their seed from seed depots (Table 16 and Figure 8). These results are comparable to studies from irrigated Punjab (Tetlay et al., 1987). 2.8 3.1 3.9 0.9 1.9 0.9 0.6.28 a As determined by Chi-squared test.In the case of old varieties more than three-fourths of the farmers used their own homeproduced seed. As for the case of new varieties, other farmers were the second major seed sources for seed of old varieties (Table 17). .04Analysis of initial seed sources for first adoption of improved varieties shows that seed depots and other farmers are important for diffusion of seed. Overall, more than one-fifth of farmers had obtained seed initially from seed depots (Table 18 and figure 9). The majority of farmers used their own funds to buy new seed. The other major practice was to exchange seed with other farmers. Very few farmers used credit for procurement of seed of new varieties (Table 19 ).   The quality of seed of newly adopted wheat varieties can only be maintained by adopting appropriate seed management techniques. In the rainfed Pothwar only a very few farmers were providing special management for wheat seed (fable 20). In this section multivariate analytical procedures have been used to show quantitative effects of individual variables in the process of adoption. Often bivariate analysis using crosstabulation and one-way analysis of variance may not show the true effects of individual variables (Feder, Just and Zilberman, 1985). Here we have used probit, logit and tobit models to measure qualitative responses i.e (adoption, non-adoption and partial adoption). These models are based on choice-theoretic principles. Binomial probit models estimate a qualitatative response model with a binomial dependent variable, 1 (adoption) and 0 (non adoption) which can be used to estimate of changes in probability for of adoption for a given change in an independent variable (Maddala, 1983). In the multinomiallogit model it is assumed that the distribution is logistic, instead of normal (Maddala, 1983). In this case farmers move from not planting new varieties to planting some of their area to new varieties. The tobit models may be useful to estimate not only whether an individual has adopted or not, but also the extent of adoption (Feder, Just and Zilberman, 1985). For example in this report we have used farmers' actual wheat area under new semi-dwarf and old semi-dwarf varieties as dependent variables. Because probit and tobit estimates of adoption were very similar, only tobit estimates are presented here. In the following section we have also attempted to explain the relative proportion of farm area planted to new semi-dwarf and all semi-dwarf varieties in the replacement of tall wheat cultivars.A summary of variables used in different equations are presented in Table 21. For the tobit models, variables on area under all semi-dwarf, new semi-dwarf and year of adoption of new semi-dwarf varieties are chosen. In the multinomiallogit approach, dependent variable VARTYPE, takes on the value 0 if farmers planted only old tall varieties; 1 if they planted semidwarf varieties; and 2 if they planted both semi-dwarf and old tall varieties. This model explains why some farmers sow two or more varieties or alternatively specialize in one varietal type.In rainfed areas, adoption of semi-dwarf varieties is hypothesised to be influenced by three sets of independent variables; agro-climatic, socia-economic and information sources. In the first group soil type, rainfall zone and use of deep tillage (to conserve moisture) are used to explain adoption pattern. In the second group, variables relating to farmers' socio-economic condition (e.g. farm size, education, tenancy and off-farm work) are included. For information source variables (extension contact, visit to seed depot, contact with demonstration plot and distance of the village from the main road) are considered.  In this section, results of Maximum Likelihood Estimation of tobit and logit models are presented for the whole sample in the rainfed Punjab. The results of the tobit model for area under semi-dwarf varieties showed that agro-climatic variables (rainfall and soil type) were the most important factors in adoption of this group of varieties. The negative signs of these variables indicate that farmers in the dry zone or with sandy soils are less likely to adopt semidwarf varieties. Similarly, the coefficients for information variables (demonstration plot contact and seed depot contact) were significant with positive signs (Table 22) indicating that farmers'  awareness of new varieties may be influenced by sources of information. The socio-economic variable significantly affecting farmers decision to adopt semi-dwarf varieties was farmers' fulltime participation in farming.The results for tobit estimates of adoption of new semi-dwarf varieties are presented in Table 23. Again soil and rainfall coefficients are highly significant with expected negative signs. The only difference in this model, was that farmers using deep tillage were more likely to adopt new semi-dwarf cultivars. This implies that adoption of moisture conservation techniques will speed the adoption of new varieties which can respond better to improved growing conditions.  The results of the tobit model for year of adoption of new semi-dwarfs indicates that farmers of the dry zone with sandy soils adopted the new semi-dwarf varieties later compared to wet zone farmers. In this model distance of village from the main road is also significant with the expected negative sign. Similarly, farmers who visited seed depots had adopted earlier compared to other farmers (Table 24). Data in Table 25 show the results of a multinomial logit model for farmers who plant semi-dwarf only, both tall and semi-dwarfs and tall varieties only. Farmers who planted only tall cultivars were normalized to zero and the effect of the other two groups were estimated. The results indicate that larger farmers tend to diversify in choice of varieties. Also farmers with sandy soils seek greater diversification. These results are comparable with other adoption studies in Pakistan (Husain 1991). Analysis For the Dry ZoneThe following section presents the results of the same adoption models for the dry zone only, the most neglected area of the rainfed Pothwar. This area is still in the early stages of technological adoption and hence the results are more representative of farmers' recent adoption behaviour. Tobit estimates for area under semi-dwarf varieties are presented in the Table 26. In this model, education was not significant but its sign was in the expected direction. Farm size was highly significant with a positive sign. Larger farmers have generally more access to information sources and with better socio-economic condition are in a better position to risk adopting new technologies. The same model was used to estimate farmers' likelihood of devoting their farm area to new semi-dwarf wheat varieties. Besides agro-climatic variables, adoption of new varieties was influenced by farm size and education as expected. The variable for seed depot visit was also highly significant. This may be due to the fact that relatively more farmers obtain their new wheat seed from seed depots (Table 27). Year of adoption of new semi-dwarf varieties was significantly related to farmers' education level, farm size, soil type and visit to seed depot. The variable for distance to main road was not significant but also showed some impact on year of adoption (Table 28). The results for the wet zone clearly contrast to those for the dry zone. The farmers of this zone are in a better position to adopt technological innovations due to a favoured agroclimatic environment. In this zone, socio-economic variables were more important compared to agro-climatic variables (Tables 29 and 30). The estimates for area under semi-dwarf varieties showed that variables for tenancy and off farm work are important. In this zone owner operator and full time farmers are more likely to adopt semi-dwarf varieties. Analysis of adoption of new semi-dwarf varieties in the wet zone, indicated that deep tillage was also important for adoption of this varietal group. The rainfed Pothwar of the Punjab, especially the low rainfall areas, are well behind in the process of adoption of improved wheat varieties despite the release in recent years of varieties specifically developed for these areas. Many factors may explain this lag in adoption including lack of appropriate varieties for dry areas, farmers' lack of information on new varieties or lack of access to seed. In some cases, socio-economic circumstances of farmers may also influence farmers' variety selection.This study has been undertaken to understand better farmers' decisions on wheat varietal selection in the rainfed areas. Overall we conclude that the major factor explaining lack of adoption is the agro-climatic situation--especially drought stress which is greatest in the dry zone and in areas with sandy soils. These variables consistently explain the extent and timing of adoption of semi-dwarf varieties. The limited data available suggest that yield advantage of old semi-dwarf varieties over farmers' local tall variety was quite small and may not compensate farmers for price discounts on semi-dwarf grain and a perceived loss in straw yields. Farmers also generally rated their local varieties better than old semi-dwarfs with respect to drought tolerance and chapati-making quality.The newer generation of semi-dwarfs released since 1981 seem to perform better under dryland conditions and in fact adoption of these varieties has proceeded steadily in the 1980s. Although farmers seem quite well informed about improved varieties, adoption of the new varieties is related to variables reflecting information source. This suggests that adoption could be speeded by more extension and greater access to seed. There is clearly a need for more efforts in on-farm testing of new varieties to solicit feedback from farmers on desirable characteristics in new wheat releases. These factors highlight the need for special research on evolving appropriate varieties for the dry areas. Similarly giving special attention to agro-climatic factors and village level seed distribution and its demonstration may contribute significantly in enhancement of grain production of the country.","tokenCount":"5130"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bf30e3327164caf6e77ae0a2062d5b33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/65b675df-2f69-49d4-8e02-4a0bfc9a366b/content","id":"439918294"},"keywords":["Africa","Education","Research institutions","Educational institutions","Training centres","Higher education","Extension activities","Agricultural development","Socioeconomic environment","Educational policies","Research policies","Agricultural development","Development policies AGRIS category codes: C10 Education E10 Agricultural Economics and Policies Dewey decimal classification: 631.72"],"sieverID":"9ce8d15c-1998-417d-b534-c1a1a967f26f","pagecount":"65","content":"CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises over 55 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT's research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies.CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture-peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org).development. It was assumed that industry could be developed in isolation from agriculture and that rapid industrialization would enable new nations to leapfrog over the agrarian stage and catch up with industrial nations by the year 2000. Industrialization, however, has failed to materialize and the continent is mired in an agrarian stage of development with two-thirds of its people deriving their livelihood from agriculture and the rural economy.Africa's empty harvest of food crops and the loss of markets for some of its traditional export crops represent a tragedy in a land of agricultural potential and a continent of hard-working people with a thirst for education, healthy babies, and a better life. Many countries in Africa have enormous physical potential to produce food and traditional agricultural exports for themselves, neighboring countries, and international markets. But Africa's vast agricultural potential is not being tapped. Tapping this potential is a major challenge for the African scientific community and the CGIAR system. 1 Unfortunately, the recent report by the expert panel on the future of the CGIAR does not shed much light on Africa's agrarian crisis (CGIAR 1998). The report, prepared under the leadership of Maurice Strong, devotes one of its 29 recommendations to the African crisis. However, the Africa recommendation consists of eight banal \"assignments\" to CGIAR centers without either identifying which center activities should be shelved in order to finance an expanded program in Africa or, alternatively, citing a source of additional financial resources for the proposed assignments. 2  Africa is also facing human capital degradation and institutional decay arising from the AIDS pandemic, the decline in the quality of its universities, and the on-going brain drain (African Development Bank 1998). Currently, most of the 48 nations in sub-Saharan Africa do not possess the political commitment and the minimum threshold of scientific capacity to benefit from, and contribute to, the information and biotechnology revolutions that are now being thrust upon Africa (Maredia and Erbisch 1998).Although there is much palaver in donor circles about capacity building in Africa, many key players such as the CGIAR, NGOs, and US and European universities have neither the mandate or the resources to make an effective and sustainable contribution to resolving Africa's human capital degradation. This problem needs to be addressed first and foremost by Africans during the next 25 to 50 years. The degradation of human capital in agriculture has important implications for Africa's future development prospects, as well as for donors, international organizations, and universities in industrial countries.Yet increased donor aid is not the answer to Africa's empty harvest or to its human capital degradation. Over the past decade, Africa has received US$ 64 billion of donor assistance to carry out policy reforms, but the results have been disappointing (Collier 1997). A World Bank study, Assessing Aid: What Works, What Doesn't, and Why (1998), recently concluded that the success of policy reforms is crucially dependent upon \"a good institutional environment.\" Before proceeding, it is important to define institutions and organizations. Economic historian Douglass North, who has long argued that a distinction must be made between institutions and organizations (North 1990), defines institutions as the rules (the legal system, financial regulations, and property rights) that nurture, protect, and govern the operation of a market economy. By contrast, organizations refer to universities, extension services, and cooperatives that carry out specific missions in society.In his 1993 Nobel lecture in Stockholm, North argued that the field of development economics was stalled because neoclassical economists assumed away the importance of institutions and time (North 1998).He contends that the major challenge facing poor nations in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe is to develop the consistent and transparent institutions that are essential for the effective performance of organizations. The practical implication of North's argument is that organizations such as universities and extension systems can expand and flourish with the inflow of donor support, but they are likely to be unsustainable in countries that do not have political leaders and farm organizations working together to create and sustain \"a good institutional environment.\"The nagging problem, however, is that the present knowledge base on how to create a \"good institutional environment\" in African nations is woefully inadequate. Likewise, the knowledge base on how to craft effective demand-driven organizations to help poor African farmers, traders, and the owners of micro-enterprises is seriously lacking. In the balance of this paper, I shall focus on how to strengthen the core organizations for a modern agriculture: national agricultural research systems, national extension services, and universities.Since two-thirds of the people in Africa derive their livelihood from agriculture, it follows that effective agricultural institutions are a sine qua non for getting agriculture moving in Africa. But it is difficult to secure financial support for designing and testing new institutional models because of the \"naive institutional optimism\" that pervades many donor agencies. This false optimism assumes that African nations can import institutional models from other continents (e.g., Grameen Bank, Green Revolution package programs, the T&V extension model, and agricultural university models from India and the USA), thereby short-circuiting the timeconsuming process of building indigenous institutions through a trial and error and learning-by-doing process.Without question, the magnitude of the institution-building task in Africa is more daunting than it was in India in the 1960s, when three major international organizations helped that country build a system of agricultural institutions. 3 By contrast, in Zambia in 1996, there were 180 different agricultural projects being financed by a dozen major donors. The challenge now is to merge, reshape, and craft a coherent system of public and private agricultural support institutions in Zambia and other African nations. Building effective institutions is an onerous task because of the plethora of donors and the thousands of NGOs that are awkwardly trying to make the transition from their proven role in food relief to becoming effective agents of agricultural development (White and Eicher 1999).This lecture covers four topics: Afro-pessimism and what can be learned from a similar wave of pessimism that blanketed Asia in the 1960s; what has been learned about the causes of Africa's empty harvest; capacity building in agriculture with an emphasis on the agricultural knowledge triangle that comprises three interlinked institutions (teaching, research, and extension); and, in closing, institutional challenges for debate and further study. Special attention will be devoted to the sharp decline in the quality of African university education, human capital degradation, and the \"meltdown\" in the capacity of African universities to offer high-quality graduate education. Unfortunately, this meltdown is occurring at the same time that donors have \"pulled the plug\" on scholarships that enable African agriculturalists to study overseas.Afro-pessimism is flourishing in Africa today. It reflects the sense of hopelessness that Africans feel about on-going civil wars, corruption, urban violence, AIDS, and the limited success of foreign aid in improving the welfare of the average person. Today's Afropessimism stands in sharp contrast to the optimism of the 1960s when Africa was a modest net exporter of food. At independence in 1960, the absence of a food crisis and the fervent belief in industrialization help explain why many of Africa's new leaders shunned agriculture and announced bold plans to catch up with industrial nations by the year 2000. This optimism was shared by many economists. In 1967, the World Bank's chief economist identified seven African countries with \"the potential to reach or surpass\" a 7% annual economic growth rate (Kamarck 1967). But reality intervened and every one of the seven countries registered negative per capita growth rates over the 1970-1988  Malaysia's R&D-driven oil palm industry is a strong competitor with the USA and Brazil in the world edible oil markets (Jenkins and Lai 1992). In addition, Asian farmers today are routinely producing rice for African palates. Senegal, for example, is importing around 1,000 t of rice every day of the year, mainly from Vietnam, Thailand, and Pakistan. China's agricultural sector grew at an annual rate of 5.9% during 1980-1990(World Bank 1999), more than triple the 1.6% average agricultural growth rate in the USA and Japan over the past hundred years (Hayami and Ruttan 1985). Although China is still a poor country, with an average per capita income of around US$ 2.50 a day, it has increased family food security and banished famine. The average male life expectancy in China is now 71 years, just six years short of that in the USA (World Bank 1999). Finally, Bangladesh, long considered a \"basket case,\" has recently emerged as an agricultural success story (Ahmed, Haggblade, and Elahi, forthcoming). The  (1996). A reviewer concluded that \"global books such as Kaplan's are exercises in selling fear more than understanding\" (Gourevitch 1996).To summarize, political and economic forecasts for developing countries have proven to be far off the mark. Unfortunately, many instant experts on Africa, such as Kaplan, are reinforcing Africa's sense of failure rather than shedding light on what Africans can do to take charge of the development agenda and begin the ascent to a better tomorrow.The vast, complex, and diverse continent of Africa defies easy generalizations. But after 40 years of independence, five basic facts emerge from Africa's development experience:4 Soil scientists discovered that the soils in central Brazil become depleted after 2-3 years of continuous cultivation. But with the application of lime, phosphate fertilizer, and erosion controls, the soils are highly productive (Sanchez et al. 1982).♦ Africa has an average annual per capita GNP of US$ 500 (World Bank 1999). ♦ Africa's life expectancy is low, and it is falling in some countries because of AIDS. Life expectancy is one decade less than that of South Asia and almost two decades less than that of China. ♦ Africa's empty harvest has been dominated by two interrelated food policy problems: short-term food emergencies and a long-term food production gap. ♦ The volume of many of Africa's traditional export crops has fallen since the early 1970s, resulting in a decline in export earnings, income, and employment for rural people. 5 ♦ Africa's development crisis is far more than economic in nature. The lack of political leadership, the dearth of farm organizations, and the general absence of a \"good institutional environment\" explain why the crisis will not yield readily to economic prescriptions. Africa's empty harvest in both food and traditional export crops should be examined together and in historical perspective.Agricultural exports in the continent were buoyant in the 1950s and 1960s, but the volume of traditional agricultural exports declined sharply in the 1970s. Beginning in 1973, Africa became a net food importer. As we dig deeper, we find that virtually every African and Western agricultural economist was slow to recognize that Africa's growing food imports in the 1970s represented the beginning of a chronic food gap. This oversight was clouded by Africa's land abundance and a conviction that the 1968-1974 drought in the Sahelian region of West Africa was a transitory event, rather than the beginning of a decline in Africa's long-term capacity to feed itself.5 By 1988, Africa's total export earnings were less than those of Singapore, a country of 2.5 million people (Summers 1988). If Africa had maintained its global share of nonpetroleum exports, it would have generated an additional US$ 10 billion in revenue each year during the 1970s, an amount approaching its total annual foreign aid receipts during that period.Africa's empty harvest was unambiguously identified as a chronic problem in seminal reports by the FAO (1978) and the USDA (1981).Both reports urged African governments to pursue a disciplined strategy to increase food production over the long run. Nevertheless, most African leaders failed to act on those two reports. 6   The Honorable Tom Mboya, Kenya's charismatic Minister of Economic Planning, was a lonesome advocate for boosting food production in the 1960s. In 1967, Mboya addressed the opening meeting of the Economic Commission for Africa and argued:A food programme for Africa must be intimately related to the needs of the rest of the world. Our aim is not self-sufficiency; it is to become a major net supplier to the rest of the world. No matter how successful our efforts are to industrialize, it remains a fact that Africa will be for many generations, primarily a producer of agricultural and other primary products. We must learn to do it well and on a rapidly growing scale. This will require a massive frontal attack, not only on the research needs to which I have already referred, but also on the practical problems of production, storage, and marketing\" (Mboya 1967).Africa's food crises should be viewed in historical perspective. and the results fell as short as the \"war\" on rural poverty in the United States in the 1960s. 9To summarize, the African response to its empty harvest in food and export crops has been sporadic. But development is a cumulative process that is built on a foundation of learning from false starts, poisoned gifts, pilot projects, and occasional successes (Hirschman 1967). Viewing development as a cumulative learning experience entails sifting through the evidence in the hope that a new generation of survivors has learned something from Africa's experience. Indeed, valuable insights have been gained about the command system versus the market, agrarian capitalism and socialism, the false dichotomy between food crops and cash crops, the folly of developing industry in isolation from agriculture, and the power of special interest groups in pressuring politicians in industrial nations to broaden the development agenda (Stiglitz 1998).By looking back 40 years, we have gleaned some insights that may be helpful in understanding the causes of Africa's empty harvest and how to get African agriculture moving again. Essential to understanding the situation are the intertwined phenomena of time optimism 10 and catching-up.Africa's 40 years of independence have been overlaid with an understandable time optimism and a penchant to catching-up with industrial nations in a few decades. The distinguished political scientist Crawford Young recalls:9 The IRD direct attack on rural poverty failed in the Appalachian region of the USA (during Lyndon Johnson's presidency), just as a similar program (community development) failed in some 60 countries in Latin America and Asia in the 1950s and 1960s. See Holdcroft (1984) for a discussion of the rise and fall of the community development thrust in the 1950s and Binswanger (1998) for a discussion of the \"painful lessons\" derived from the IRD experience. 10 The term \"time optimism\" conveys the practice of understating the time that it will take to achieve a given task such as building sustainable institutions in Africa.It's difficult to recapture the sense of exhilaration that attended African liberation at its high water mark in 1960, when no fewer than sixteen states achieved independence. The crumbling of colonialism seemed but prologue to other triumphs (Young 1982).I recall the spirit of optimism in the early 1960s about Nigeria's prospects for becoming an industrial powerhouse by the year 2000. This was a tall order, but it permeated planning circles and foreign aid thinking and it helps explain why many of Africa's new leaders bet on industry as the vehicle to leapfrog over the agrarian stage of development.The time dimension has been a major issue in Africa's development debates, especially over the issue of the short-and the long-run priorities for agriculture. Time was also a major issue in Asian policy debates in the early 1960s when influential Asian economists, Benjamin Higgins, and others argued that because agriculture was a declining industry in the long run (in terms of the percentage of the labor force employed and GDP), it was prudent to give short-run priority to industrialization. But William H. Nicholls (1964) argued that short-run policy attention should be given to agriculture to avert a subsequent food bottleneck and a chain reaction of higher food prices, higher wages, and reduced industrial profits.One of the most important tasks for agricultural economists is to convince ministries of finance to invest some of the taxes collected from farmers back into rural infrastructure and basic agricultural institutions in the short run in order to enhance the productivity of agriculture in the medium to long term. Few agricultural economists in Africa have won this argument, partially because of the ready availability of food aid subscriptions. Also, in dual agrarian societies such as South Africa, large-scale farms have helped ensure a reliable food surplus, thus taking the pressure off the ruling party and the Ministry of Finance to address the needs of the country's 10 million communal farms and the rural poor (Eicher   and Rukuni 1996). 11   The belief that a poor nation can catch up through an \"industrial spurt\" has undermined the case for a disciplined, longterm approach to building rural infrastructure and the scientific capacity for a modern agriculture. Five examples illustrate the time optimism and penchant for instant development:♦ The distinguished Ghanaian economist Robert Gardiner (who later became the head of the UN Economic Commission for Africa) captured the catch-up mood of many African intellectuals and politicians during the 1960s when he noted that: \"Given the variety of raw materials and their quality and the potential resources of energy and power with which the continent is endowed, there is no reason why the present level of development in Western Europe should not be attained by Africa by the beginning of the next century\" (Gardiner 1968). ♦ At a political rally in Senegal in 1969, President Senghor launched what he called the \"Mystique of the Year 2000\" and articulated a \"vision of a modern and prosperous Senegal in the year 2000, a Senegal that by then would have tripled its per capita income and entered the ranks of the world's industrialized nations\" (Gellar 1982). ♦ Philip Ndegwa, the late governor of the Central Bank of Kenya, summed up the urgency of getting on with development by noting that Africa is \"desperately short of time\" (Ndegwa 1987). ♦ The influential 1981 World Bank report Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa (the Berg report), which made the intellectual case for structural adjustment and policy 11 See Carter and May (1999) for an analysis of rural poverty in South Africa and the policies that are needed to lift the constraints that limit the effective use of the assets (land and labor) of the poor.reforms, concluded with this note of optimism: \"policy action and foreign assistance that are mutually reinforcing will surely work together to build a continent that shows real gains in both development and income in the near future\" (World Bank 1981). ♦ Former World Bank Vice President for Africa Edward V. K.Jaycox reported that if we \"focus on capacity building per se, not take it for granted that the capacity is there, we can make a tremendous difference in a very short time in Africa\" (Jaycox␣ ␣ 1993).These examples of time optimism illustrate why it is important to inject the time dimension into the analysis of capacity building.Because of time optimism it is easy to downplay the time and resources that will be required for building scientific and managerial capacity and moving low-income nations in Africa into the ranks of middleincome countries. Surely it is a challenge for the coming 25 to 50 years. ♦ Should industrialization be promoted in isolation from village agriculture and rural industries or as a complementary activity that promotes agriculture-industry and rural-urban growth linkages? ♦ Should priority be given to investing public revenues from taxes on farmers back into agriculture (e.g., roads, schools, research) or into the industrial sector? ♦ Should agricultural production be carried out by small-scale private farms or by state-led production schemes such as government plantations, farm settlements, state farms, and ujamaa (communal) farming schemes?Most new nations answered these questions by pursuing industrialization and state-led agricultural production schemes. A large share of the public revenue from marketing board taxes on farmers was invested in industrial projects (e.g., cement and textile plants) and large-scale agricultural schemes, many of which were inherited from the colonial powers. The Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC) is a good example and it illustrates the concept of path-dependence in action. 12 The CDC was created in 1946 as a statutory corporation to take over and administer the plantations confiscated from the Germans in 1939. At independence in 1960, the new Cameroonian government nationalized the CDC and operated its plantations as a parastatal (government corporation). But the CDC has been a money-losing white elephant. Today it has a labor force of 13,000 and 100,000 ha of land; which includes 11 rubber plantations, seven oil palm plantations, three tea plantations, and two banana plantations. Because the CDC complex has been a drain on the treasury, the government put the entire complex on the international auction block in early 1999.Path-dependence also comes into play in devising schemes to tax farmers. At independence, many of Africa's new governments continued using the colonial-style marketing boards to tax export crops produced by smallholders. Much of the public revenue from the government marketing boards was invested in state-led agricultural schemes that politicians sprinkled across the landscape. conferred tax benefits to large-scale commercial farmers in countries such as Zimbabwe, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, and Malawi. 13   Africa's empty harvest is partially attributed to the gamble at independence to give priority to building modern industrial plants in isolation from the concurrent modernization of village agriculture and village industries (Hayami 1998). Basically, the decision of Africa's new nations to invest public revenues from agricultural taxes into state-run steel mills and plantations (instead of public goods such as rural roads and agricultural colleges to help smallscale farms) represented a pursuit of Karl Marx's belief in mechanized farming and the replication of Stalin's priority for industry. 14 But the decision of Africa's new leaders to invest in industry in isolation from village agriculture and rural industries was also consonant with the views of many Western development economists in the 1950s, who assumed that agriculture was a passive sector, a black box that could be squeezed to finance industry. The author of a leading development economics textbook of the 1950s, for example, asserted that \"agriculture stands convicted\" for its inability to stimulate economic growth in other sectors of a nation's economy (Hirschman 1958). Today, development textbooks emphasize the importance of promoting agricultural and industrial linkages, increasing rural non-farm incomes, and building rural and urban linkages in an era of globalization. 1513 See Deininger and Binswanger (1995) for a detailed examination of rent-seeking and the tax benefits given to large-scale farms in Kenya, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. 14 The industrial fundamentalism that blanketed Asia in the 1950s and Africa in the 1960s was partially based on the hope of replicating Stalin's heavy industry model, which converted the Soviet Union into the world's second industrial power in two decades . India borrowed the concept of central planning and industrialization from the Soviets in the 1950s. India, however, abandoned the Soviet heavy industry model in the mid-1960s and gave priority to addressing its food crisis. Likewise, after a decade of experimentation, China discarded the Soviet heavy industry model in 1970 and shifted to a balanced industry/ agricultural development strategy followed by the abandonment of communal farming in 1978 and the introduction of the household responsibility system (Lin 1998). 15 See Reardon et al. (1998) and Hayami (1998).Regrettably, the decision of many new nations to give priority to industry over agriculture during the past 40 years of independence has yielded a number of false starts in an agrarian-dominated continent. The experiences of Ghana, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Senegal illustrate the folly of giving priority to industry and state-led agricultural production and processing projects. Let us start with Ghana, the most economically advanced country in Africa (excluding South Africa) at independence in 1957.Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of the interim government during Ghana's drive for independence in the early 1950s, invited W. ArthurLewis to develop a strategy to guide the government in its drive to become a modern industrial nation by the year 2000. Lewis, who later went on to win the Nobel prize in economics, surprisedCoast 16 that Ghana should give priority to increasing food production, not industrialization (Lewis 1953). Lewis argued that an industry-first strategy would be undermined by food shortages and rising food prices, which would raise wage rates and eventually slow the rate of growth of industrial production.Nkrumah ignored Lewis' recommendation and Ghana gave priority to industrialization and harnessing the hydropower of the Volta River to provide cheap electric power for an aluminum bauxite industry. Turning to farming, Nkrumah abolished the national agricultural extension service that served small-scale farms because of his conviction that private small-scale farms were \"an obstacle to the spread of socialist ideas\" (Killick 1978). Nkrumah promoted state farms because of his belief in the Marxist view of the presumed economies of scale of large-scale plantations and mechanized farming (Nweke 1978). 16 The Gold Cost was renamed Ghana at independence. When Senegal won its independence from France in 1960, President Leopold Senghor announced grandiose plans for Senegal to become an industrial society through \"state initiative and planning, economic specialization, and industrialization\" (Vaillant 1990). In the 1960s, the government followed the advice of French to 1965 (Rweyemamu 1980). However, the rate of growth slowed considerably in the 1970s and by 1980, because of high investment costs, mismanagement, and a lack of basic infrastructure, industrial production costs were 30-300% higher in Africa than in Asia (Rweyemamu 1980).The central insight that flows from these case studies is that after 40 years of independence, most African leaders are not assigning high priority to the first generation problem of getting agriculture moving (Mellor 1998a). Moreover, most policy reform packages are ineffective in addressing the critical issue of \"political and institutional failure.\" Although many African governments accepted aid-for-policy-reform packages from donors during the past 10 to 15 years, it has been relatively easy to renege on the agreedupon reforms. For example, \"during a fifteen-year period, Kenya sold the same agricultural reform to the World Bank four times, each time reversing it after receipt of the aid\" (Collier 1997). The political and geopolitical strategic location of Kenya helps explain why many donors tolerate this type of duplicity. But there are hopeful signs on the horizon. Mali may be considered a case study of a country where agriculture is moving.The military regime was overthrown in 1991 and President Konare took over and promoted democratization, a free press, and the growth of farmer organizations. There are also seeds of hope in the Sahelian region of West Africa. One observer reports that 25 years after the devastating drought, \"most of the countries in the region can claim to have decisively put the threat of famine behind them, making great strides in food production, transport, and marketing\" (van de Walle 1998).But the Sahelian region remains extremely dependent on foreign aid.Additional seeds of hope include the introduction of improved cassava varieties in West Africa (Nweke, forthcoming) and the widespread diffusion of hybrid maize in eastern and southern Africa (Byerlee and Eicher 1997) and more recently in Ethiopia. There are also seeds of hope on the agricultural export front. After the 199421 President Konare has a PhD in archeology. 22 It is still too early to determine whether Mali will join Botswana as an African success story. Much depends on whether the opposition party will emerge as a stronger force and whether President Konare honors the constitution and steps down after two terms in office.Francophone country in West Africa except Senegal. Cotton production has also increased in Mozambique. Success stories in nontraditional export commodities include paprika from Zimbabwe, an array of spices from Madagascar, and cut flowers from Kenya.But success stories are not the product of a mere decade of toil.Effort must be sustained over a period of decades and this requires extraordinary political leadership. For example, in some countries the Turning to the future, it is important that agriculture is called upon to do more than feed Africa's growing population. For if we call on agriculture solely for increased food production, we would be selling agriculture short. Long-term investments must be made in the agricultural sector to feed a growing population, generate jobs for a growing rural labor force, generate foreign exchange through the sale of traditional and non-traditional exports, serve as a market for industrial products, and contribute to rural and urban poverty alleviation by driving down the real (inflation-adjusted) cost of food over time (Johnston and Mellor 1961). These multiple challenges for the agricultural sector explain why agriculture is entitled to a large claim on public resources in order to build roads, research stations, We now turn to the difficult task of figuring out how to develop effective and sustainable agricultural institutions.Africa  Johnston and Mellor (1961); Schultz (1964); Eicher and Baker (1982); Lele (1991); Martin (1992); Idachaba (1995); Eicher and Staatz (1998); Rukuni (1994); Mrema (1997); Hayami (1997); Delgado (1998); Rusike (1998); and Reardon et al. (1998). 24 By contrast, at India's independence in 1947, almost all research scientists were Indian.faculties of agriculture, and converting faculties of agriculture into agricultural universities.The achievements of the first generation of human capital development are impressive:♦ The number of extension workers in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 21,000 in 1959 to 57,000 in 1980 (Judd, Boyce, and Evenson 1986). ♦ The number of universities increased from around 20 in 1960 to 160 in 1996 (Beintema, Pardey, and Roseboom 1998). ♦ The number of full-time equivalent agricultural scientists increased from around 2,000 in 1960 to 9,000 in 1991 (Pardey, Roseboom, and Beintema 1997). In many countries, the number of scientists increased five-to tenfold. In Nigeria, the number of agricultural scientists increased from 100 in 1960 to 1,000 in 1985. 25The overexpansion of many public organizations serving agriculture from 1960 to 1985 was followed by a period of retrenchment and restructuring from 1985 to the present. Structural adjustment loans typically included agreed-upon conditions (conditionality) to reduce the size of the civil service and research and extension services, privatize parastatals, and promote private enterprise. 26 The three core institutions in the agricultural knowledge triangle-research, extension, and higher education-have been downsized and restructured, and new private institutions (seed and 25 To be sure, there is substantial variation among the 48 countries in terms of the timing, speed, and scope of the increase in the size of public agricultural services such as research and extension. Anglophone countries made the most rapid progress in replacing colonial scientists and civil servants. The Francophone countries lagged because many new governments invited the French to continue to manage their national research institutes for 10-15 years after independence. Lusophone countries were latecomers because Mozambique and Angola did not win their independence until 1975.fertilizer companies, universities, etc.) are now in stiff competition with their public counterparts. Following are highlights for the key players in this downsizing phase.Most public agricultural extension services in Africa are now in crisis because of their ineffective performance and their inability to underwrite the quantum growth of most national extension services.The T&V extension model has also come under attack because it has been found to be fiscally unsustainable. The crisis in extension has helped fuel the search for a diversity of approaches, including increased participation of the private sector and NGOs. 27   Unfortunately, there is little rigorous research on the costeffectiveness of alternative extension models.The rapid expansion in the number of agricultural researchers in the 1960s and 1970s was challenged in the 1980s because many public research systems were found to be unproductive and heavily dependent on foreign aid (Pardey, Roseboom, and Beintema 1997).Because of these problems, many national agricultural research systems (NARS) are now being downsized. The Kenya AgriculturalResearch Institute (KARI) is overstaffed and is now being downsized (staff rationalization) with the assistance of a US$ 10 million grant from the European Union. Agricultural research is now moving in the same direction as extension, and a search is underway for a wide range of public and private models that are demand-driven and fiscally sustainable (Rukuni, Blackie, and Eicher 1998).Since the mid-1980s, universities have suffered a sharp cut in real budgets, a decline in the quality of the educational experience,27 For a discussion of alternative extension models for the twenty-first century, see Antholt (1998). For a discussion of the evolution of the T&V system see Venkatesan and Kampen (1998). See Bauer, Hoffman, and Keller (1998)   (Timmer 1991).Timmer's observation reinforces the point that the complexity of African diets demands more location-specific research on cropping systems than is required in the rice bowl of Asia.28 For a discussion of the decline in the quality of the university experience, see Coleman and Court (1993); Ajayi et al. (1996); and Willett (1998). For a discussion of building scientific capacity in agriculture, see McKelvey (1965); Odhiambo (1989); Beintema, Pardey, and Roseboom (1998); Eicher (1990); Jones and Blackie (1991); Lele (1991); Lynam and Blackie (1994);and World Bank (1992). 29 French, English, Spanish, German, Belgian, Portugese, and Italian.The second insight is that most African nations are at an earlier stage of scientific and institutional development than India was on the eve of the Green Revolution in the mid-1960s. This proposition challenges the prevailing time optimism and reinforces the need to pay careful attention to the time and resources required to accomplish the task of strengthening the human capital base and the institutional foundation. 30   Third, imported institutions from other cultures and other continents will undoubtedly have a high failure rate in Africa if they are replicated before the satisfactory completion of a pilot phase. The T&V extension model is an example of replicating an imported model in several dozen African countries before it was thoroughly tested. But testing and modifying imported models requires public and foundation resources to finance pilot projects and independent evaluation teams that have the freedom to collect benchmark data and evaluate the performance of alternative organizational models. 31   The slow and patient development of the Grameen model of microcredit is a good example of how action research and pilot projects were used to develop a new type of credit organization (the Grameen Bank) before it was replicated on a national scale. AfterProfessor Mohamed Yunus completed his graduate study in economics in the United States, he joined a university in northern Bangladesh and set up an action research project to find out if the poor were bankable, i.e., would they repay small loans. He secured financial support from the Ford Foundation and later from IFAD to implement action research from 1976 to 1979 in villages surrounding 30 See Lele and Goldsmith (1989) for an insightful analysis of India's strategy of building scientific capacity in agriculture. 31 If we turn back the clock to the colonial period, we note that before the large Gezira irrigation scheme was launched in the Sudan, researchers carried out pilot agronomic projects for 13 years before the water was turned on (Milligan and Hapgood 1967) Fourth, there are numerous design flaws in donor-financed, supply-driven models of institution building (Ruttan 1982;Eicher 1982;and Tendler 1997). Notable among these flaws is the priority given to front-loading research, extension, and education projects with new buildings, vehicles, and overseas training in order to achieve visible progress in four to five years, the time frame that most donors need to justify the preparation of a second five-year phase. The repetition of this cycle often leads to a large staff, a magnificent set of buildings, limited scientific capacity, and a bloated and fiscally unsustainable institution. Also, the supply side approach that is supported by foreign aid allows local administrators (deans of To be sure, much has been accomplished during the downsizing and restructuring of extension, research, and higher education over the past 15 years, but there is a paucity of research on the performance of these restructured institutions. For example, there are numerous studies showing that NGOs can increase grassroots participation in extension programs, but there is no study in Africa to date on the cost and benefits of achieving these higher rates of participation (White and Eicher 1999).We now turn to some bread-and-butter issues 34   Tanzania alone (Jaycox 1997). 35 Because of the well-known flaws in the project approach to institution building, let us turn to the agricultural knowledge triangle as a way of integrating research, extension, and education activities and ensuring the sequential continuity of investments in these core institutions.Over the past 10 to 15 years, there has been an on-going debate about the need to move beyond the project-by-project approach to a systems approach to coordinate and sequence interlinked investments in agricultural research, extension, and education. 36   Various scholars have articulated this approach under the following rubrics: agricultural knowledge system, agricultural knowledge information system (AKIS), and what I call the agricultural knowledge triangle. 37 Basically, these approaches argue that public and private managers of separately governed institutions should come together and \"coordinate\" decisions on the size and sequencing of complementary investments, because the payoff has been found to be higher if they are planned and executed as a joint activity rather than pursued as freestanding extension, research, or education projects (Evenson, Waggoner, and Ruttan 1979;Bonnen 1998;Boughton et al. 1995).Despite the high returns to projects that integrate research, extension, and education, African governments and donors, for many reasons, have usually prepared separate projects for each of 35 See Morss (1984) for an early statement on the negative impact of the proliferation of donors and projects on the major institutions in Africa. 36 See Roling (1988) for a discussion of this evolution. For an update on Wageningen University's adoption of a knowledge system approach see Roseboom and Rutten (1998). 37 Examples include a USAID plan to strengthen agricultural research and faculties of agriculture (USAID 1985); ISNAR's report on strengthening linkages between research and farmers' organizations (Eponou 1996)  38 Lastly, the bureaucracies of donor and international organizations present their own constraints.An extension specialist describes the bureaucratic difficulties in preparing and implementing joint research, extension, and agricultural higher education projects in the World Bank:The Bank's involvement with the development of higher agricultural education at the university level in Africa has been minimal. . . . Within the Bank, the Agriculture Divisions have no responsibility for universities, which are the responsibility of the Education Divisions. . . .research do not provide support to higher agricultural education (Venkatesan 1991).What has been the result of sprinkling separate extension, research, and higher education projects across the African landscape?Has this approach resulted in an underinvestment in one of the three 38 See Johnson and Okigbo (1989) for a critique of the introduction of the land grant model in Nigeria and Idachaba (1998)  The bread-and-butter issues in strengthening agricultural knowledge triangles in East and Central Africa are extremely complex because of the colonial legacy, the large number of agricultural institutions in the region, the institutional preferences of a multiplicity of donors, and the fragmentation of agriculture and natural resources within universities into separate faculties of agriculture, forestry, and environmental sciences (Mrema 1997;Norman 1998). Table 2 shows that there are currently 35 faculties of agriculture, forestry, and veterinary medicine in the ten countries in East and Central Africa. With 35 faculties, there is an obvious duplication of effort in the region, which leads us to ask, \"Why can't the faculties of agriculture and forestry be merged in some of these universities?\" Because of the large number of faculties of agriculture and forestry in the region, most donors do not have an adequate information base for deciding which faculty or faculties to support in the region.    (Wessell 1998). To date, eight PhD courses 39 The total intake of MSc students was as follows : 1989, 20; 1991, 12; 1993, 5; and 1997, 3. 40 For an exchange of views on T&V extension in Kenya, see Bindlish and Evenson (1997); Picciotto and Anderson (1997); Anderson (1998);and Murethi and Anderson (1998).   I have stressed the basic point that research, extension, and agricultural higher education are complementary activities and that the collective return on investments in these activities will be higher if they are interlinked rather than pursued separately. But designing a triangle that achieves sequential continuity in these three investments requires a rare skill that is not covered in the basic textbooks on project appraisal. Crafting is a process-an intensely political process. The University of Nairobi's 25-year attempt to develop a sustainable, regional master's degree program in agricultural economics is a classic example of an organizational experiment that was financed by the North but never supported by the national or regional governments, in this instance, Kenya's political leadership and its Ministry of Finance.Unfortunately, there is a dearth of vision in Africa, in donor communities, and in academia on how to craft demand-driven agricultural knowledge triangles and how to achieve sequential continuity of the core investments. In light of this vacuum, I recommend that a one-year moratorium be imposed on all proposed donor-financed research, extension, and higher education projects in Africa. Those 12 months should be used to buy time to allow African  45 Also see Berg (1993) and Jaycox (1993Jaycox ( , 1997)).institutions such as the state agricultural university system (Busch 1988) What are the most productive roles for public, private, and NGO institutions in supporting African farmers, traders, and agribusiness firms? There are many ideological positions on this issue, but there is little hard evidence on the performance of various types of public, private, and NGO organizations over time. However, we can glean some insights from Zimbabwe's experience in laying the foundation for increasing maize production:♦ The government-not Oxfam-developed Zimbabwe's impressive all-weather road network. ♦ The government-not private seed companies-conducted research for 28 years  that led to the development of the SR-52 hybrid that increased maize yields by 40%.♦ Commercial farmers-not external pressure-developed a politically powerful farm organization that made the case in the Parliament for public investments in research and farmer support organizations (Eicher 1995).Zimbabwe's experience highlights the strategic importance of an active government role in the early stage of development, because private traders are unlikely to deliver research, extension, and credit services to smallholders, especially those in remote areas (Blackie 1990). The state was the organizer and risk-taker in developing Zimbabwe's all-weather road network, agricultural research system, and its extension service. Zimbabwe's private sector has slowly taken on a greater role in maize breeding, seed distribution, and the marketing of new high-value export crops. Avoiding dogmatism is critical when considering what should be done by the state or the private sector and when examining the sequencing and changing roles of the public and private sectors and NGOs over time (Bonnen␣ 1998;Echeverria 1998).Over the past 40 years, the pendulum for building Africa's human capital and scientific capacity has shifted from building new institutions (i.e., the supply side approach) to a more delimited or marginalist approach. Most of the current capacity-building programs can be classified as marginalist. Donors have made this shift because of on-going civil wars, the failure of large-scale institution-building projects, and a growing awareness of the length of time involved in institution building. Currently, short-term capacity-building initiatives are in vogue in donor circles. These include support for commodity research networks (Robinson 1998) and strengthening a single discipline, such as economics under the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) (Fine 1997).On the issue of time, two scholars studying the experience of the Rockefeller Foundation's University Development Program (UDP), which assisted 15 universities in 12 countries for 20 years (1963 to 1983), concluded that \"a high concentration of resources over a short period of time can result in a 'too much, too soon' syndrome\" (Coleman and Court 1993). If the Rockefeller Foundation discovered that 20 years was too short of a time to build strong and effective universities, what does one infer from this experience for the architects of the marginalist approaches that are now in vogue?The lesson that I draw is that time and sustainability should be kept in mind as donors finance an increasing number of commodity networks and draw up 10-year plans to develop \"sustainable\" PhD programs in Africa.African and Western scholars should challenge the misleading time optimism that is now conventional wisdom in development circles. Without question there is a need to mount a major effort to strengthen the agriculture knowledge triangle over the next 25 to␣ 50␣ years.Undergraduate education is the bread-and-butter of African university education, and the political pressure to increase undergraduate enrollment is relentless. Nevertheless, the urgency to set up African-based graduate programs is dramatized by two sobering facts. First, as few as 20 Africans a year currently receive doctorates in economics from all sources, both within the continent (including South Africa) and outside of it (Fine 1997). Second, Ghana has been independent for 42 years and \"no Ghanian university has ever produced a PhD in Economics\" (Jebuni 1998). When the AERC was launched in 1988, it carried out a study of graduate education in economics in Africa and found that \"graduate training in any meaningful sense appeared to have collapsed in most universities.\"The study attributed this to the following systemic causes: \"lack of funds, civil disorder, loss of good staff, deteriorating faculties and equipment, and a massive expansion of undergraduate enrollment\" (Fine 1997) What is the role of the CGIAR in capacity building in Africa?What has transpired since my critique of the CGIAR in the early 1990s (Eicher 1992(Eicher , 1994)? In 1992, I argued that the CGIAR management had taken a wrong turn in the road when they increased the number of CGIAR centers from 13 to 18 46 and that the CGIAR was overburdened with secondary tasks at the expense of 46 Today, the CGIAR comprises16 centers.that which was essential. Looking back, it is clear that the addition of five new centers was driven by valid substantive concerns to expand research on natural resources and the environment, and the desire of some bilateral donors to find a permanent home (in the CGIAR) for some of the non-affiliated centers that they had been supporting. The 47 Commercial farms have annual sales of over US$ 100,000 per year; part-time farms have sales of US$ 10,000-99,000 per year, and hobby farms have sales of less than US$ 10,000 per year.","tokenCount":"7806"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5258a4348cb5125dcfdb09618577b375","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65a29ab6-d935-4852-af4c-9cb310a2239e/retrieve","id":"-900514779"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5c0c9497-4171-4507-9ed1-23f7ef1f8d29","pagecount":"11","content":" High capacity: third largest ILRI regional office and priority country for CGIAR collaboration  Well placed to examine \"future issues\" such as consumer demand and livestock externalities  To be credible as a global program, CRP Livestock needs presence in Asia [The Livestock CRP can] focus on difficult regions with high poverty and ethnic minorities, showing how research can deliver impact in challenging area, but can also conduct active research in medium scale intensified livestock areas to address priority issues on market, feeds and forage, animal diseases, food safety, AMR and the environment. While poverty rates have reduced rapidly over the past decade at national level, there remain sizable pockets of poverty at regional level, particularly in North-West, Central Highlands and Mekong Delta regions. In these areas, livestock, particularly indigenous pigs and cattle, play an important livelihoods function and could raise household income if market access, productivity, and animal disease constraints are overcome. This suggests a need for a targeted, regional approach for livestockoriented research in Vietnam.[Decision was taken to enlarge the pig value chain focus to a full system perspective. Indeed,] beef cattle is an emerging sector in Vietnam and almost exclusively found in mountainous areas where ethnic minority people live and land is available for forage development.[With a longer-term perspective,] Vietnam represents an important platform for engaging the Greater Mekong Subregion, including the much less developed countries of Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar, which is becoming increasingly integrated by regional trade in livestock products. The targeted investment of Livestock CRP, complemented by A4NH, with currently running and pipelined bilateral projects, and many staff based in Vietnam will create a critical mass for ILRI and CIAT to develop and implement research in Vietnam and Southeast Asia.for livelihoods (Figure 1) and pressing environmental, market and production problems, as well as the proximity to Hanoi for logistic and field operations supervision.Figure 1. Livestock as income source in total and per animal species. Source: ILRI Son La province has been selected based on a number of criteria: -previous work: data available, partners. Availability of previous data allows a fast start and omitting a long initial analysis phase.-current work: partners active in the area, potential for synergies. Availability of ongoing project to link to for partner networks, MoU and providing \"services\"/support to for a fast and efficient start and achieving results in a short time -Government priority -mountainous area -ethnic minorities -importance of livestock -poverty -accessibility and proximity to Hanoi: it allows more efficient interactions with local partners and field coordination -interest of donors -potential for scaling outside -smallholder diverse farming systems: System variety allows for the implementation of a diverse array of products and research.Son La province seems to meet all of these criteria:  Distance is 3 hours' drive from Hanoi to Moc Chau, infrastructure is good  Data are available from Humidtropics, A4NH and other projects. Humidtropics work had a system focus and provides a lot of analysis but no concrete products to adopt or build on. It is useful for site selection and needs assessment, with a plethora of available data. A4NH's focus is on food safety, animal health and antimicrobial resistance, as well as market linkages  Currently at least one ACIAR project and A4NH are working in the provinces  The province has more connected, commercial, and more remote, ethnic minority dominated and traditional farming systems, including cattle, pig, poultry and buffaloes  Kinh people (ethnic majority) comprise only about 15% of the population  The North West in general is a government priority for rural development More information on the province is also available in T.Tiemann's stocktaking study 1 .In its selection process, A4NH has identified four districts of Son La province with highest priority for in-depth food system research: Moc Chau, Yen Chau, Mai Son and Phu Yen (Figure 2). Among these four districts, Moc Chau has been chosen as rural district for their rural-urban gradient. The criteria for this are available in the A4NH site selection document 2 . As one of the ideas when deciding to work in the North West was also to take advantage of the work of others to spare long baseline and site selection activities in view of the short project duration, Moc Chau has also been selected tentatively for the Livestock CRP, considering the high importance of livestock for livelihoods in the district. The choice of Moc Chau district allows to gain a food system perspective at low cost, and the Livestock CRP can benefit from A4NH experience and network of local partners in the district. Still, it was cautioned to go with Moc Chau as the district might be relatively well developed and not representative for the Northwest of Vietnam. Particularly, linking to the prevailing commercial dairy schemes in Moc Chau, as they are very well developed and the ability to meaningfully contribute is questionable. Therefore, it was decided to have two sites, a more advanced location in Moc Chau and a more remote location elsewhere in the province. This would allow to capture two different 'environments' so more variability, recommendations coming out will cover more domains and/or target different domains (species, value-chain stage etc.).The domain mapping from HT also allowed districts comparison. Table 1 shows the percentage of households of Son La province falling into one of eight overlay combinations, characterized by three domains: environmental degradation, market constraints, and poverty. The combinations in blue (LHH, HLL and HHL) were the one most represented in Dien Bien and Son La provinces. Mai Son, Moc Chau, and Song Ma districts have at least 2 out of 3 combinations represented. More information on this analysis is available in T.Tiemann report. As Song Ma is less accessible, Mai Son was preferred to complement Moc Chau. The final selection of the second district was decided according to a number of criteria (Table 2). Based on the three sets of information above, Moc Chau and Mai Son were selected for the Livestock CRP activities at this stage.Following a visit in Moc Chau and Mai Son districts in May 2019, the Livestock CRP delegation observed that livestock might not be as important in the two districts, and that we might need to revisit the choice of the two districts, eventually to limit to one if the heterogeneity in farm types that are of interest for the CRP interventions are all present in one district. It was therefore decided to repeat the district selection process, with selection criteria identified as follow:-Level of livestock importance to livelihoods (for incentive creation) [high=more favourable site] -Level of partnership opportunities -existing and new, both implementing and research partners [high=more favourable site] -Political good-will / buy-in from the government [high=more favourable site] -Community willingness to participate [high=more favourable site] -Level of poverty [high=more favourable site] -% population that are ethnic minorities [high=more favourable site] -Heterogeneity of systems / farm-types [high=more favourable site] …. Discussion on whether we predefine and include as a criteria, or whether we identify districts and then from that identify the farm-types -Year-round accessibility is a must have criteria Data for each criteria was gathered from secondary data and key informants, scored and weighted. Three criteria were considered as essential: livestock importance to livelihoods, community willingness to participate/easiness to get permits, heterogeneity of farming systems (as per Figure 3). These criteria were assigned a weight of 1. Political good-will was assigned a weight of 0.5, and poverty rate and year-round accessibility a 0.25. The latter two, as well as ethnic minority presence and level of partnership opportunities were considered as better addressed at the level of commune selection. Details of the scoring can be found in annexes. The resulting scores for each district and focusing on pig, buffalo and cattle (method 1) or all animal species (method 2) are presented in Table 3. Details are given in Annexes. Accordingly, the district chosen was Mai Son. This single district, as opposed to two or three districts, was selected based on the information that all farming systems could be found here. The criteria for the commune selection for the project intervention were:-poverty rate (keeping in mind that the target beneficiaries are farmers that have the basic assets to take up on basic innovative technologies) -presence of ethnic minorities and different wealth groups -level of partnership opportunities -presence of all three farming systems from Figure 3 (in single commune or across 2 -3 communes).We had learnt by this stage of site selection that the typology of the crop-livestock farming system (Figure 3) predominantly focused on cattle feeding systems and that villages could not solely be classified into a single type (i.e. variability between households). Therefore, for commune selection we utilized only the aspect of altitude.Table 4 was filled based on available data and key informants who provided options for commune combinations which would satisfy the criteria (see Selection option? Column -Alt 1, 2 or 3). Note that accessibility is not included as all commune centers can be accessed and most communes have challenges accessing the more remote villages, we could also not obtain data on landless percentages, percentage of cultivated land irrigated or grazing area. The partnership opportunities criteria was assessed qualitatively through discussions with the key informants. The communes of Chieng Luong and Chieng Chuong were chosen for meeting best the set of criteria agreed upon. ","tokenCount":"1548"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d82f5b9507557da9fe65e4a72fc4a951","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e516f004-04a5-4927-8e15-0eb576c3cf63/retrieve","id":"918102788"},"keywords":["Low emissions development","action research","priority setting","climate change","agricultural development","USAID"],"sieverID":"9f56d488-2480-4383-8782-eb0329ed6ef3","pagecount":"31","content":"Low emissions development strategies (LEDS) are national economic and social development plans that promote sustainable development while reducing GHG emissions. While LEDS programs have helped to mainstream economy-wide planning for low emissions, planning for low emissions agriculture has remained nascent. Low-emissions development (LED) in agriculture acknowledges that the primary purpose of agriculture is to produce food and other goods for human needs, and that climate change mitigation is a secondary goal that should not compromise production. This paper describes a research process and protocol to identify high potential LED options in agriculture at the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The case study illustrates the steps for the identification and prioritization of LED options including: idea generation, concept development, and evidence building. Each stage is designed to gather and analyze data that specifically enable managers and stakeholders to make informed evaluations. The method gathers not only emission and mitigation information but also food security and income generation data, lending process legitimacy to the research. The incorporation of institutional factors and local contextual systems in the LED concept development stage improves the output credibility and salience.In the final process phase, stakeholders are given an active role in determining the criteria for prioritization and building evidence. The LED option identification and prioritization process illustrates how careful evidence-building can increase the credibility and salience of outputs and legitimacy of the overall results.Agriculture, forestry, and other land use sectors contribute 24% of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which is equal to 10-12 gigatons of carbon dioxide equivalents per year (Smith et al. 2014); developing countries currently account for about three-quarters of direct emissions (Smith et al. 2007). Lowering agricultural emissions and increasing carbon sequestration can play a pivotal role in reducing agriculture's overall contribution to GHG emissions (Ogle et al. 2014).  (Richards, Gregersen, and Kuntze 2015). These pledges signify a powerful demand to define effective and practical options for low emissions development (LED) in the agriculture sector.We define LED in agriculture to mean sustainable development in food systems that reduces GHG emissions, while maintaining production of food and other goods at sufficient levels to satisfy human needs. LED in this context acknowledges that the primary purpose of agriculture is to produce food and other goods for human needs.This paper describes a process that promotes evidence-based decision making by identifying and prioritizing LED options to achieve national mitigation goals. We developed this method during a CCAFS action research project with USAID to inform LED options in the Agency's future agriculture and food security investments. The case study illustrates how a series of steps can be used to identify and prioritize LED options by gathering data, facilitating stakeholder collaboration, and quantifying the GHG emissions benefits of different development options (USAID 2015b) This paper outlines the methods used to identify LED opportunities within USAID's Feed the Future (FTF) food security activities. The first section presents a process to identify and prioritize LED options. The second section examines an application of the process in an action research project at USAID. The third section discusses lessons learned about the process. The final section explores the implications of the process for overall LED planning.The process of generating, developing, and prioritizing LED options involves multiple, sequential stages, similar to those used in stage-gate systems or phased reviews to develop consumer products. Each stage is designed to gather and analyze data that specifically enable managers and stakeholders to evaluate options (Cooper 2008, Hart et al. 2003). The development stages include idea generation, concept development, business case preparation (evidence building), product development, market testing, and market launch (Hart et al. 2003, Sumberg andReece 2004). Although agricultural research planners have explored using stage-gate planning (Sumberg and Reece 2004), the approach is seldom used to plan agricultural research. The following sections outline three of these sequential stages (figure 1).1. LED idea generation. Gather agriculture data that reflect countries' current development needs and trajectories and exhibit potential emissions impacts.Refine LED options by incorporating institutional constraints and national social and contextual factors. The goal of the idea generation stage is to understand the breadth of mitigation opportunities available within a country's agricultural systems and to generate a set of technical choices for each country. Specifically, the crop and livestock systems with the greatest development impact and mitigation potential are identified and prioritized at this initial stage.We first identified a country's dominant crop and livestock systems by gathering data from the FAO Statistical Database (FAO-Stat) on area and production: livestock production (tons), crop production (tons), and cropping extent (harvested areas). Livestock production is a large source of GHG emissions-particularly methane from enteric fermentation and manure decomposition and carbon dioxide from land use change. GHG emissions from crop production result from the use of nitrogen fertilizer and respond to crop residues management, and other agricultural practices, particularly ones that increase below-ground carbon inputs to soil via plant roots.Once the dominant agricultural systems in a country are compiled, they are prioritized based on their potential to minimize net GHG emissions (both opportunities for emissions reduction and carbon sequestration), improve productivity, and meet agricultural development objectives. To this end, the agricultural systems were rated as High, Medium, or Low in each of the following areas:• Mitigation potential of an agricultural system. The relative emissions reduction opportunity of an agricultural system is evaluated based on the direct contribution of the system to the country's agriculture GHG emissions profile. The FAO-Stat database follows the methodology of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 1997(IPCC , 2006) ) for assessing and reporting GHG emissions. This methodology organizes emissions according to the main sources of emissions emitted directly from agricultural production systems (e.g., enteric fermentation, manure left on pasture, manure management, fertilizer application, rice production, and burning savanna). Emissions that result from production of agricultural inputs or the transport or processing of agricultural products are not accounted for in this methodology.• Productivity enhancement potential of an agricultural system. The relative productivity opportunity of the agricultural system was estimated with the current productivity gap.This criterion compares the productivity of a country's agricultural system with that of the world's most agriculturally productive country.• Systems importance in agricultural development (measured through staple food production or cash crop data). If a country's agricultural system is a dominant staple or cash crop, it is deemed important for agricultural development. For staple crops, ranking depends on the metric Food Supply Crops Primary Equivalent and Livestock and Fish Primary Equivalent. For cash crops, export value determines the ranking.In the final step of LED idea generation, we coupled data about the dominant agricultural systems in each country with mitigation practice data gathered from a literature review. The output of LED idea generation is a long list of potential LED ideas organized around the top food systems in the study countries. To gather robust evidence for LED options, the impacts of different agricultural management practices and the barriers/incentives to their adoption must be investigated. Evidence of impacts include mitigation, non-mitigation environmental, and productivity areas. To assess mitigation impacts, it is important to consider their technical feasibility and confidence level.For non-mitigation environmental impacts, consider impacts of water quality and conservation, soil fertility and structure, air quality, biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and energy conservation. Productivity impacts examine farmer productivity, evidence of labor changes, and farm profitability. LED option barriers and proven incentives should be considered across multiple scales. At the farm scale, consider financial and labor barriers to adoption and proven incentives to overcome them. At the value chain scale, take into account barriers to production systems and those of supply chain actors. Critical elements of the national-and regional-enabling environment are the business-environment context, availability of capital investment, government policy, and infrastructure challenges.After evidence has been gathered, a wide range of stakeholders should prioritize the LED options. Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) can be used as a decision support technique to balance multiple objectives and facilitate stakeholder interaction on prioritization (Scrieciu et al. 2014). MCDA has been widely applied in evaluating trade-offs of environmental management (Scrieciu et al. 2014, Tambo andWünscher 2015). This prioritization process results in a ranked list of LED options as a basis to allocate resources for scientific evaluation and feasibility research.  (USAID 2015a).An action research lens guides the overall study design. Action research is an iterative process that integrates research, reflection, and action; it balances problem-solving actions with datadriven research. The goal is to understand underlying causes in order to improve the way issues are addressed and to solve problems (Méndez, Bacon, and Cohen 2013). The highly collaborative process of stakeholder engagement extended over 12 months, and the research followed a mixed-method (qualitative and quantitative) design. Two data collection and analysis efforts (figure 2) provided inputs to the LED identification and prioritization process.USAID and qualitative data were collected concurrently, and the two data sets were compared in order to determine whether there is data convergence, differences, or some combination (Creswell 2009). In our process, the mixing of the data is defined by the identification and prioritization of LED options. As stated in the process section, the goal of the LED idea generation stage is to understand the breadth of mitigation opportunities available within a country's top crop and livestock systems. For the USAID case study, the team wanted to better understand the GHG mitigation opportunities outside of FTF current programming. To do this, data were collected on the top agricultural activities in the FTF countries and prioritized. Potential mitigation practices were then aligned with these agricultural activities.As outlined earlier in the paper, FAO-Stat is used to identify the most important agricultural systems in the 19 FTF countries. First, the top three agriculture activities were selected in terms of cropping area (hectare), cropping production (tons), and livestock production for milk and meat (tons) for 2012 (to keep uniformity with the last GHG emissions data updated by FAO-Stat.) Agricultural systems currently within FTF were also added and analyzed using the same process.Next, agricultural food systems were prioritized based on the mitigation potential (both opportunities for emissions reduction and carbon sequestration), productivity improvement potential, and importance of the system in meeting agricultural development objectives. The following set of criteria was used to prioritize these options:1. Emissions reduction potential. This criterion evaluates the agricultural system's importance to the country's GHG emissions profile. The ranking is broken down as follows: contributions up to 15% = Low, between 15% and 30% = Medium, and > 30% = High.2. Enhancing removal of carbon. This criterion covers the agriculture system's potential to sequester carbon above-or/and below-ground. For this exercise, all annual cropping systems are ranked as Medium and perennial crops (including grasses in pasturelands) are ranked as High.3. Productivity enhancement potential. This criterion estimates the potential to decrease the intensity of GHG emissions of a particular agriculture system. For this exercise, the current agricultural system's productivity is compared with the world's highest productivity. The ranking is broken down as follows: productivity up to 33% = High, from 33% to 66% = Medium, and > 66% = Low.4. Systems importance in agricultural development. This criterion assesses the agriculture system's importance in a country's development as measured by staple food or cash crop data. If selected agricultural activities were related to (i) one of the country's first 5 largest staple food or cash crop/livestock, they are ranked as High; (ii) 5-10 of the country's largest staple food or cash crop/livestock, they are ranked as Medium; and (iii) others, they are ranked as Low.Figure 3 shows this LED idea generation scheme applied to Bangladeshi agriculture; a discussion of the scheme follows the figure. 1. Emissions reduction. As figure 3 shows, rice production in Bangladesh is responsible for 31% of the emissions from the agricultural sector in 2012, with meat from goat and cattle responsible for 16% and 18% of total emissions, respectively. All other crops and livestock systems are less than 15%. Therefore, these agriculture systems have High, Medium, and Low potential for emissions reduction, respectively.2. Enhancing removal. Under adequate management practices, annual cropping systems (rice, jute, potatoes, wheat, maize, and sugarcane) have Medium potential for enhancing removal, compared with pasture-based livestock system with perennial grasslands systems (goat, cattle, buffalo), which have High potential.3. Productivity enhancement potential of the agriculture system. The livestock systems and the crop systems of jute, maize, wheat, and sugarcane are rated as having High productivity potential. All other agricultural systems have Medium productivity potential.4. Systems importance in agricultural development. Almost half of the agriculture systems are rated as having High relevance as staple foods. Only jute and potato are rated as having High significance as an export product However, it is important to highlight that emissions from application of synthetic fertilizer to agricultural soils in Bangladesh (9% of total emissions) could not be attributed to any single crop or pasture system, nor could the share of GHG emissions related to some livestock systems (i.e., goat and buffalo raised for milk or beef production). Moreover, there is no information related to agricultural soil management (i.e., tillage system and inputs) and conditions (i.e., size of degraded land) needed to assess soil carbon emissions and removal (IPCC 2006). The absence of this information prevents a more refined evaluation of the country's GHG emission sources. These are limitations of the data collection systems and methodology used by FAO-Stat. In spite of these data issues, the results identify agriculture systems related to most of the country's GHG emissions and, consequently, support prioritization for LED implementation. Suggested enhancements to this LED idea generation process are outlined in the discussion section of this paper.On the basis of a literature review, potential agricultural management practices able to mitigate GHG emissions and/or enhance carbon sequestration were coupled with each selected agriculture system (see box 2 for references). Table 1 shows the look-up table generated at the end of the LED idea generation process for Bangladesh. Crop Systems FAO 2002, Scopel et al. 2013, van Asten et al. 2011, Kassam et al. 2009, Omont et al. 2006, Thierfelder et al. 2013, Richards & Mendez 2014 Rice SystemsNext, the team used available data to estimate the size of the LED opportunities. Cropping area and livestock heads for key agricultural systems were analyzed to approximate the size of the LED opportunities. For example, the main GHG emissions source from agriculture in Bangladesh is the cultivation of paddy rice. In addition, this country accounts for 60% of the rice paddy area of FTF projects, suggesting that the impact of LED opportunities addressing this crop can be very effective at reducing emissions within the country. Regional evaluations were also carried out to scale up LED options for a given geographical area. For instance, the same LED practices in rice can also be potentially applied in Cambodia and Nepal (Asia).A short list of LED options can be drawn up from this stage of the LED option identification and prioritization process. The LED options consist of an agriculture system (crop or livestock), geography (national or regional), and a bundle of technical mitigation practices.  The LED evidence building stage enhances option refinement through knowledge and experience sharing, and facilitates ranking of options with stakeholders. In this action research project, a wide range of stakeholders from USAID and CCAFS engaged in discussions on evidence-based decision making. In addition to the original criteria outlined by CCAFS, the USAID stakeholders encouraged us to investigate a wider range of non-mitigation impacts.Specifically for productivity impacts, USAID encouraged evidence to be gathered on both aggregated farm profitability and disaggregated elements such as agriculture systems yields, resource use efficiency, and labor impacts. In addition, the Agency stressed that barriers and incentives should be considered within the value chain scale and regional-enabling environment.The discussion section presents the advantages of the current LED process and the areas for improvement.• LED idea generation takes into account food security and income generation from the beginning. This early focus on not only mitigation but also food security and income generation lends legitimacy to the overall prioritization process.• LED concepts developed within context of local socio/cultural and institutional systems.In the LED concept development stage, institutional factors and local systems are evaluated in order to bundle technical practices into country-and crop-specific LED concepts. This research approach recognizes the complex interactions surrounding agricultural practice change. When institutional conditions are incorporated into LED options, salience of the data improves.• Characterization of LED options provides evidence base for prioritization decisions. In action research, it is essential to provide evidence that is credible and legitimate in time for major decisions. In the final process phase, stakeholders play an active role in determining the criteria for prioritization and time is allowed to build evidence.• LED idea generation stage should formally integrate information from national agricultural growth objectives. Many of the countries studied have national objectives for agricultural growth. These plans are developed at a national level based on governments' resource policies and strategies. Our project did not account for these stated national objectives.• LED quantification methods need improvement. Quantification of opportunities is essential for weighing options for investment. Additional time and resources should be devoted to scale up of mitigation options.• Emissions estimation methods (FAO-Stat and EX-ACT) lack convergence. FAO uses a method for making a country's GHG inventory (top-down approach); EX-ACT evaluates the additionality of projects for mitigating GHG emissions (bottom-up approach). Greater convergence would be possible if somehow the two methods could be linked and estimate how much GHG emissions could be avoided by best practices or vice-versa (e.g., FAO adds information at farm-scale level). In addition, FAO-Stat should move forward and include emissions and removals by soils (even with high level of uncertainty), as most of the LED practices rely on soil carbon for reducing emissions.• Data collection (FAO-Stat) lack important information. FAO-Stat does not provide transparency to the practice level of some agricultural systems. Overall, there is a need for a new data source that provides information on inputs of major agricultural activities in a given country as well as land degradation and soil management types. It would help to narrow down the impacts of single-cropping and livestock systems and consequently, increase the confidence in building LED options.The INDCs indicate that countries are highly interested in mitigating climate change impacts from agricultural practices. Creating technical and policy options for development donors to invest in LED options could therefore have significant impact.We have outlined a process to identify and prioritize LED options in agriculture to achieve food security and economic development goals, with mitigation co-benefits. This process aims to support decisions about low emissions management practices and accelerate the scaleup of project investments. The method was developed in the course of a CCAFS action research project with USAID to inform LED options in their agriculture and food security portfolio.The identification and prioritization of LED options involved three sequential stages: idea generation, concept development, and evidence building. Each stage is designed to gather and analyze data that enable managers and stakeholders in particular to make informed evaluations. The first stage gathers data on not only mitigation potential but also food security and income generation, lending legitimacy to the idea generation process. The incorporation of institutional factors and local contextual systems in the LED concept development stage improves the concept's credibility and salience. In the final process phase, stakeholders are actively involved in determining the criteria for prioritization and building evidence.By bringing together institution-specific evidence covering both mitigation and nonmitigation benefits of LED, this process illustrates how a careful evidence-building process can increase the quality and relevance of outputs and legitimacy of the overall results.","tokenCount":"3242"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"03552f2f6a250fca75a5497bb7c902af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/faa47184-753b-4b34-ada3-17c4ab8fe2fe/retrieve","id":"-132906532"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc656f46-4f7c-425e-86da-1094678ba2f2","pagecount":"23","content":"Digital transformation has created countless opportunities and approaches for training and data collection [1], supporting developing countries' agendas to analyze population and housing dynamics [2]. The challenging nature of data collection in these regions , such as the lack of accurate, updated district maps and poor telecommunication networks, has opened possibilities for computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) [3]. Even though the paper-and-pencil interviewing (PAPI) remains the most commonly used household surveys in developing countries [4]. Previous censuses have been marred by long data entry and processing time, poor handwriting or field officer errors and the potential loss of surveys through paper destruction [5,6]. CAPI can significantly improve quality of data, reduce processing time and address most of PAPI's limitations [7].Previous national housing surveys (NHS) and population and housing censuses (PHC) implemented in 1960,1970,1984,2000 and 2010 in Ghana relied on PAPI and face-to-face instruction to train trainers and field officers. However, the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), a body that oversees the efficient production and management of quality data for Ghana, introduced motivational information tools like gamification elements to complement face-to-face training and digital census as essential features of the 2021 PHC. However, there were challenges with access to ICT resources, not to mention the uneven access to ICT in different populations, districts and households [8].The general presumption is that for Ghana to get good economic, educational, health and international comparison data, ICT and advances in artificial intelligence should be prioritized [9]. In this regard, the use of digital censuses is to ensure efficient data collection, management and processing. The introduction of the geographical positioning system (GPS) is to capture the coordinates (location) of all structures to ensure complete coverage. Notwithstanding the novelty of ICT in PHC, this study examines the experiences of trainers and field officers whose training, performance and ease of use of digital census are critical to the success of collecting data on the socio-economic, demographic and living conditions of persons living in Ghana [10].This study aims to propose a framework for empowering digital census implementation. This framework will focus on successful training programs for data collection and the ongoing use of digital censuses for population and housing data collection. The chapter begins with a brief overview of Ghana's population censuses. It then identifies challenges faced in online training and digital census adoption during the 2021 PHC based on experiences of rural trainers and field officers. The study also explores potential concerns identified in the literature regarding digital census adoption and training delivery methods, including gamification. The underlying research question guiding this investigation is: How effective are online training, face-to-face instruction and digital census adoption in the context of Ghana's 2021 population and housing census. Limited research currently exists on integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into PHC. This study aims to contribute to this gap by sharing the benefits achieved, challenges encountered, and potential solutions to inform improved planning and implementation of future censuses.The Government of Ghana invested GHS521 million (approx. $43.4 m) to ensure the success of the 2021 population and housing census as recommended by the United Nations (UN). Since 1981, Ghana has been conducting population censuses at approximately ten-year intervals. Currently, five censuses after independence have been conducted, with 2010 being the latest. The 2010 population and housing census recorded a total population of 24.7 million. Following the census sequence, Ghana was supposed to conduct its PHC in 2020, but due to the novel COVID-19 pandemic, the exercise was rescheduled for the first half of 2021, with June 27, 2021 as the census night.The rationale for the periodic censuses in Ghana is to update the sociodemographic and economic data and further ascertain the population's structural changes over the last decade. The census gives a sense of the total number of persons and housing types in every village or town in Ghana. Such information is essential for government and local planning of educational, health and other social service needs. Therefore, the GSS adopted three phases for the census process-the pre-enumeration (planning stage), enumeration (data collection stage) and postenumeration phase (data processing, post-enumeration survey and dissemination stage). To streamline the collection of quality data from the enumerator end, a data scenario was developed (see Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Adapted data collection and reporting scenario [10] This secure data flow model (Fig. 1) ensures quality census data collection: after supervisors transmit data, it's monitored, cleaned, and stored in designated servers for current use, backup, and historical analysis by central processing teams.To commence the national exercise, the GSS set up a three-tier trainer of trainer groups, namely master trainers, national trainers and regional trainers at all levels of the sixteen regions of Ghana. In this regard, the master trainers train the national trainers, who train the regional trainers and finally, the regional trainers train the field officers (supervisors and enumerators). For the objective of this study, the regional trainers and the enumerators are the focus since they fall within the category of rural areas facilitators.Digital technologies are now deployed for training purposes in developing countries. However, research suggest that participants in online training programs in these regions are more likely to withdraw or not complete their training compared to their counterparts in developed countries [11]. This can be attributed to a lack of motivational features within the online systems that could encourage continued engagement [12,13]. Studies have shown greater improvement in training outcomes with face-to-face training sessions compared to online-only approaches, even though both methods can lead to sustained learning over time. Despite these mixed findings, blended learning, which combines online and traditional training methods, is considered to be the most effective approach [14]. Recognising this, and faced with the challenges of COVID-19 pandemic, the PHC adopted online training platforms with CAPI capabilities as a promising alternative.Based Gamification is a new concept, and developing countries are still coming to terms with its application and benefits [13]. Gamified online training is beneficial for engaging and motivating learners, but its effectiveness for meeting desired outcomes is contextualized and details mixed results [16].Gamification uses game elements and features like badges, points, rewards, scores, and instant feedback to promote training. This practice motivates learners to accomplish a task and engage in the activity. Aside from the motivational powers of gamification, it provides feedback on learner assessment for formative purposes and helps assess successful training outcomes [17]. Through learner assessment, gamification reveals the merits and shortcomings of the game design element deployed to the users.Gamification was incorporated into Ghana's PHC Field Officers Training to enhance field officers' training performance and engagement. However, only a few online training programs have incorporated gamification elements to assess and encourage training in Ghana, especially as a formative assessment for research and data collection [13]. Hence, a knowledge gap exists in the literature as regards the effect of using gamification for assessment. The present study examines the firsttime involvement of gamification elements (i.e., badges and points) in population and housing census training of field officers in Ghana. Figure 2 shows forty-one This study adopted a mixed-methods approach [18]. Initially, the study was to qualitatively survey the views of regional trainers and field officers towards the acceptance of online training tools for PHC. However, after interviewing and categorizing the participants' responses, we identified constructs similar to the works of [19]. The identified constructs were examined quantitatively to determine the use of online training tools such as CAPI tablets for PHC.A qualitative narrative inquiry approach was used to investigate the national and regional trainers' and enumerators' experience with the gamified online training and the practical CAPI session for the population and housing census, especially those in rural areas in Ghana. It should be noted that the national and regional trainers only had online training before face-to-face training with the CAPI-the reason being that GSS would consult them for future survey training. Hence their depth of statistical training was important. The enumerators, on the other hand, experienced only face-to-face training for the PHC. The central phenomenon in a qualitative study is the idea, concept or process being studied. Accordingly, the researcher learns more from the participants by exploring their experiences and critical incidents. Consequently, the data was collected through interviews.Quantitatively, to have a homogeneous group of participants for this study, we contacted the 40 respondents who partook in the earlier interview. All 40 participants contacted, responded and returned their questionnaires (24 online and 16 paper-based). The study employed purposive sampling to recruit participants based on 2021 PHC experience. Consequently, the 40 participants are justified since they effectively capture the variations and perspectives of the census within Ghana.Table 1 indicates the participants' profiles. The survey instruments were adapted from the [20] scale, while items on organizational influence were adopted from the [21] studies. Some of the constructs of UTAUT identified under the technological, individual, environmental and administrative context of this study form part of grounding proposed solutions to existing literature on technology adoption models and, hence, testing of the constructs.The researcher used interviews to understand the behavioral changes of the participants in the PHC. A semi-structured guide that comprised the guiding research questions was used to interview participants. Open-ended questions were used, which afforded the respondents space to provide their broad perspectives on the subject. The scope of the interviews was recurring themes from literature in general and those relevant to Ghana.Ten (10) regional trainers and field officers (supervisors and enumerators) were taken from two rural areas of the Eastern region of Ghana. All trainers and field officers assigned to the Eastern rural areas of Ghana formed the target population. Twenty (20) of the trainers and field officers were thus randomly selected to join the study. The trainers were basically from universities-some indicated teaching assistance and trained teachers, while the supervisors and field officers were professionally engaged in teaching, national service personnel, and trained nurses. The majority of the enumerators were unemployed graduates from universities, polytechnics and training and vocational colleges, while others were self-employed.The approval to commence research on the subject matter was approved by the district census officers, and their views on the research items were incorporated.Trainers and field officers were randomly contacted during the census period from May 20 to June 25, 2021. The study's objective was sent to the randomly selected respondents to seek their consent to be part of the study. An appointment was scheduled for each participant to give their consent to the study. The interview was conducted via voice call. Based on the identified constructs synonymous with the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) [19], the study proposes the following model (see Fig. 3) as the antecedent of online training and digital census use. Thus, assessing the identified constructs further aims to extend the UTAUT model by integrating organizational influence to examine the determinants that affect field officers' intention to use CAPI tablets and online training for PHC. The constructs identified include perceived ease of use and usefulness, facilitating conditions, social influence, and organizational influence as well as field officers' behavioral intention to use tablets in data collection.Performance expectancy: several studies confirm that users are likely to adopt technology if they perceive it as useful and promoting favorable outcomes [22]. Further, in the context of innovation or new technology adoption, extant literature confirms the positive relationship between performance expectancy and behavioral intentions [23]. In this regard, we hypothesize that:Effort expectancy: users prefer technologies with maximum benefits and are easy to use with less effort [19]. According to [24], effort expectancy is a strong predictor of behavioral intention to use innovation or new technologies in various individual or organizational contexts. Thus, we hypothesize that:Social influence is how an individual is influenced based on peer-group decisions to use a particular innovation. Extant literature supports social influence's impact on users' behavioral intention to use new technologies [24]. In this regard, we hypothesize that:Facilitating conditions: The trainees asserted that internet access and other training resources were essential to the success of PHC in Ghana. Thus, this study proposes the effect of necessary resources as a condition for conducting a successful PHC. Extant literature supports the relationship between facilitating conditions and users' behavioral intent to use new technologies [25]. We, therefore, hypothesize that:Organizational influence: Extant literature emphasizes how organizations influence results and users of new technologies [26]. Field officers similarly reported that the GSS expected them to be proficient in computerized data collection. This study introduces the concept of organizational influence as a novel construct within the UTAUT model, specifically addressing the context of technology adoption in Ghana. Investigating organizational influence in census emphasizes the importance of ensuring data integrity and accuracy and also improves the census process in building trust in government agencies. According to [26], competency increases the performance of users or employees in the data collection. In this regard, we hypothesize that:Figure 3 shows the proposed model for field officers' intentions to use online training and tablets during PHC.This section discusses the online training experience of regional trainers with game elements and their experience with computer-assisted personal interviewing in the 2021 population and housing census in Ghana. Almost all the indicators for effective CAPI use and the barriers identified in the literature review were found in the Ghanaian context of PHC. Table 2 shows a summary of the interviews conducted, which indicate the salient constructs for mapping future PHC. The study findings suggest that online training with gamification elements was ineffective for training compared to the in-person and interaction sections in Ghana's PHC. The trainers revealed a lack of cultural elements of the badges though getting the badges was a sign of accomplishment, reward and dedication to learning the PHC manuals online.Further, the field officers' experience with the CAPI improved the previous censuses conducted in Ghana. The CAPI practical was effective and easy to collect data, though there were challenges generating the GPS with the CAPI. The data was analyzed and transcribed using NVivo 11.0 and grouped into categories and sub-categories. To ensure transcription accuracy, the interviews were played severally and analyzed and transcribed verbatim. Also, to ensure confidentiality, the researcher used pseudonyms for each respondent. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the participants.Game Elements Though the trainees felt a sense of accomplishment with the introduction of badges in the PHC training, the game elements were not tailored to meet their level of motivation. The game elements failed because a one-size-fits approach was used without considering the user characteristics. The future application should consider the user players and the kinds of game elements they feel accustomed to.Well, the game elements or badges that were displayed on the 2021 PHC Field Officers Virtual Training Platform did not motivate me that much. I liked it as an accomplishment badge, but the pictures on the badges did not communicate to me. I felt badges should be cultural to depict hardworking individuals in Ghana. [\"Eunice\" -Regional Trainer] Whenever I received the badge, I felt satisfied. However, I felt annoyed at the initial stage when I saw the number of completions of my colleagues. There were 40-45 tasks to be completed, and within three days, some trainees had completed more than 30 readings and assignments. I felt pressured initially, but it propelled me to catch up. [\"Silas\" -Regional Trainer] Sincerely, I did not feel any connection with the rankings and the badges awarded to me. I sometimes download it for downloading sake. However, seeing the badges was a sign of relief that I am drawing close to completing the field officer's manual. [\"Patty\" -regional Trainer]Cost Data for the virtual learning was a significant challenge for the participants. The cost of the data bundle per day for training was too much for the trainees.OK, what I can say about the data is that it is very expensive. Online training is more expensive than one can imagine. Though GSS decided to prefinance the data used per day, the amount was too small. They initially agreed to pay GHS50 but ended up paying GHS40 (approximately $7/day). Interesting, we spend 7 hours online per day, can you imagine? [\"Moses\" -Regional Trainer] Social Relatedness (Household Name) Most trainers felt a sense of relatedness and household-relatedness in online training, which affected their training and gave them a sense of belonging.The online training was one of the most memorable social learning I have experienced in my life. We hardly knew ourselves during the first three days though we were all from the same district (from the Eastern region of Ghana). Nevertheless, as time progressed, some household names became popular. They almost answered every question and raised their hands in all Zoom meetings (we used the household name because population and household census-PHC-brought us together). The fun of hearing some names made us know the image or personality behind every voice. One can imagine the joy and social relatedness when we met at the face-to-face training. In all, it positively affected my training behaviour and made me want to learn always as a team. [\"Joshua\" -Regional Trainer]Traditional and Online Training Most of the trainers preferred the two-week traditional mode (face-to-face) of training over the two-week online training sessions because of its effectiveness and high-level of participation.There is no way I can compare the power of traditional learning to online learning. Online training was difficult and distracting. I wish you lived with me -so much intrusion and family check-ups. When we camped at Koforidua for the face-to-face training, I spent more than two weeks on the online platform, with no practical experience. However, it did compliment the face-to-face teaching, such that most of the terms were not new to me. [\"Felix\" -Regional Trainer]Online training is too much work. I barely focused throughout the period. There was \"dumsor\" (light-out) while I was due to present at a point in time. The factors that prevent online learning are too much for us to adopt. At one point, I connected and left the phone while receiving a visitor. They had to call my phone to answer the question posed by the facilitator. [Foster -Regional Trainer] During the Zoom meetings, I had many internet disruptions. I barely completed a day successfully without the internet, not messing up the meeting. I am in a typical rural area, so I blame the organizers for considering all trainers as staying in the Greater Accra capital.[\"Irene\" -Regional Trainer]Most of the enumerators and supervisors indicated that the CAPI is very easy and fast for collecting data compared to the PAPI. Though some of them participated in yearlong surveys, this was their first time conducting a population and housing survey with CAPI.User Friendly An ample number of field officers quickly learned how to use the CAPI and navigate the tablet without difficulty because the features were like their smartphones. Other officers stated the convenience of using the CAPI instead of the PAPI.The digital census has made this year's PHC easy and faster as compared to the PAPI in previous censuses because it was straightforward to handle and use. This 2021 census is my third as an enumerator. My Android phone has similar features, so I did not expect challenges handling it. However, taking GPS is challenging because you might excuse yourself during the interview to take coordinates or information. Just imagine leaving the room during the interview to collect the information outside….It sometimes creates an awkward moment and a sign of mistrust. [\"Patience\" -Enumerator] For convenience's sake, handling the digital census is way better and easier than the PAPI. I can recall my experience in the last census -2010, where I listed almost 400 structures. So, that should tell you the number of questionnaires I was handling throughout the month. I do not think we will ever go back to PAPI for a national assignment again, maybe for small surveys like sanitation and agriculture. [\"Mercy\" -Enumerator] Social Interaction Most of the enumerators felt bonding and interaction among the facilitators and trainers when using the CAPI for practice. The interaction between enumerator-enumerator and supervisor-enumerator positively affected the effectiveness of the digital census use You know, during the face-to-face training, our facilitators grouped us into eleven groupseach group was ten trainers to begin the digital census practice. Out of the ten, one was made the supervisor who assigned us the enumeration area, and I felt that was the beginning of our social bond with digital census. Sometimes, you will hear a colleague making a joke about digital census exposing him because he could not fully cover my assigned area. Moreover, since we were all recruited from this district, bonding and establishing good working relationships with the digital census was easier. In all, it was a friendly exercise, and the same thing is what we are facing now at the Listing stage of the 2021 PHC.[\"Pauluto\" -Supervisor] Reduced Data Collection Time Majority of the field officers indicated that the PAPI would have consumed more time to complete the volume of questions. However, CAPI is robust enough to include built-in skip patterns and filters. For example, it skips fertility questions when a male responds.My first time using it, but I find it very useful and user-friendly with good skip patterns and auto-fill features. Digital census makes the work of an enumerator easier and helps us input much data within the shortest time. New data can also be aggregated and checked daily for consistency. The response time to input information on the digital census is swift, but the questions are many in this year's PHC. [\"Nana\" -Enumerator]The researcher employed the partial least squares using the SmartPLS to test the research hypothesis [27]. PLS is the most preferred statistical technique for smallto-medium-sized samples and a powerful tool for estimating the path coefficient and model parameters under non-normality conditions [28].The first stage assessed the reliability and internal consistency, as well as the convergent and discriminant validity. As shown in Table 3, the factor loadings of each item are significant, indicating that the values are all above the minimum threshold of 0.70 [29,30]. Also, Table 3 indicates that the average variance extracted values are all above the minimum acceptable value of 0.5 [29]. We assessed the reliability of the indicators using Cronbach alpha and composite reliability, and all the coefficient values were above the minimum threshold value of 0.70. The collinearity assessment was estimated using the variance of inflation factor (VIF). A VIF value of 5 or less shows no collinearity issue [27]. Table 3 shows that among the constructs, only organizational influence is slightly above the threshold of 5. The significance of the path coefficients is determined by the p-values, which represent the prediction of specific endogenous constructs by specific endogenous constructs. The R 2 value was 0.623, indicating a 62% prediction of the endogenous variables. This implies that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions and organizational influence jointly explained 62% of the variance for behavioral intention for a digital census. Since R 2 values of 50% are considered high in behavioral and technology adoption studies [19], 62% indicates a good model's predictive power for a digital census in a developing country. The effect size was also determined using f 2 . The f 2 values less than 0.02 proved there is no effect, while 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 indicate small, medium and large effect sizes, respectively.The structural model generally predicted an acceptable fit since the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) of 0.078 was below the required threshold of 0.08 [27]. The significant values shown in Table 4 indicate that four hypotheses were supported out of the five independent variables. The four supported factors are PE, SI, FC and OI, with p-values below the 0.05 threshold. Consequently, EE was rejected with a p-value greater than the 0.05 threshold. In other words, performance expectance, social influence, facilitating conditions and organizational influence significantly predicted behavioral intention to use online training and CAPI tablet for PHC. On the contrary, effort expectancy did not predict behavioral intention in PHC. The empirical data of the PLS approach also confirms that social influence (\uD835\uDEFD =0.781; P = 0.01) and organizational influence (\uD835\uDEFD =0.549; P = 0.00) are predominant factors that drive field officers' digital census intention.The empirical result regarding the determinant of field officers' intention to use online training for the census is that performance expectancy leads to technology adoption. This means that Ghanaians who tend to partake in PHC focus on the perceived usefulness and favorable outcomes of the digital census. In other words, when government statisticians and agencies responsible for PHC consider users perceived usefulness of the digital census, Ghanaian field officers are more likely to consider the CAPI and thus promote the collection of quality data. The results also indicate that effort expectancy does not have a significant direct effect on online training behavioral intention for PHC.As expected, our findings from Table 4 strongly indicate that social influence is positively related to behavioral intention to use. Thus, this study is consistent with previous literature on technology adoption [25]. Consequently, the results can infer that a high degree of intention to use digital census and online training is formed when Ghanaians develop social relatedness and influence during the training. The greater the social influence during the training, the more digital tools and online training use intention among the field officers.Findings of the PLS-SEM analyses also indicate that internet access and other training resources are essential facilitating resources that drive field officers' intention to use digital technologies in the census. In this regard, agencies responsible for PHC should provide all available resources on and off the field for the enumerators to avoid initial technology rejection. Finally, organization influence on digital census increases the likelihood of field officers' behavior intention to use digital technologies in PHC. This means that managers of PHC would have to develop strong organizational influence and attitude toward digital technologies in collecting data and also in training the field officers.Technology Asset Exposure Myth One of the major challenges mentioned by the enumerators is how the interviewers want to withhold information, especially when capturing data with the digital census. According to 45% of field officers, some households withheld information because they believed that they would be taxed or found out in the future if they provided accurate information to the officers. In Ghana, most people are conservative with their items to invade taxes and other responsibilities, which affect national surveys. For example, to evade higher electricity bills or fear of being exposed to the actual bills to pay, some interviewers would not list all the electrical gadgets in their household.My experience has been good so far. As you may know, using the digital tool makes work easier but scares some interviewers, especially when taking the GPS location. In taking the GPS, we must move to an open space to get the required threshold of 5. However, when that happens, the respondents feel you are capturing them for tax collection (examples of these locations are stores, bars, clubs, churches etc.). I think some information is withheld in typical rural areas where we cannot control what they think or know. [\"Sandra\" -Supervisor]Field officers complained about the limited time for the training, especially the field practice. While some accepted the two-week training as effective, others said the time was too short to learn all the nineteen chapters of the PHC and include field practice and economic survey questions.I hope you see the Field Officer's Manual. The facilitators were good at covering the full manual, but other groups might find it difficult to download all these materials for effective learning and practice. The disadvantage is that when the enumerator is not taught enough to understand the software, it becomes a disaster as quality data and complete coverage might be a challenge. Secondly, the training time frame was very short as I said, which most people could not understand enough. What you feed the system is what you will get. We know most trades in Ghana, like foodstuff sellers and dressmakers, regarding economic activities, but it was not easy to find them. It would have been prudent to have checkboxes ticked, and then move on, but that was not the case. Going through that long procedure to look for their professions is not a joke, my brother. But in the end, we provided respondents with the right professions. [\"Kwame\" -Enumerator] Internet and GPS Access Accessing the internet for syncing with headquarters and getting a suitable GPS threshold of five was one of the significant challenges mentioned.I presume you know the challenges with poor internet unless you are new in our district. The two main telecommunications that work best here are MTN and Vodafone. However, in my area, MTN has the best internet access. Unfortunately, I subscribe to Vodaphone, so I struggle very much during data synchronization with HQ unless I move to Kade (the district's capital). But with the GPS reading, some of my enumerators have complained to me, but I have no solution but to report to the district census officer. These are our main challenges in getting quality data. [\"Madison\" -Supervisor] Digital Census Challenge The respondents provided general challenges to the technology adoption and tablets used for collecting the data, which included screen misfunctioning, poor GPS coordinate reading, slow app and frequent app errors.My main barrier is that at times the screen turns out not working and as such slows work at times. It comes when it pleases, but I am told to come for a new one. [\"Vera\" -Enumerator]The best thing about the digital training is the about is the filters. Though it brings out errors, it sometimes does not detect some errors that it is understood to detect. Making it slow and confusing and also generating the GPS was a bit of a headache. [\"Millicent\" -Enumerator] The technology makes the work much easier and user-friendly, but many times runs very slow even after restarting it. Taking GPS coordinates is another hell of a time, sometimes over ten times before being able to read accurately. [\"Sammy\" -Enumerator] The application runs slow at your peak time. Also, I realized that GPS reading is a bit of a challenge when it is getting late. Overall, the use of the system is a good experience, but there's a difficulty when correcting unintentional mistakes. [\"Michael\" -Enumerator] The technology has made the work simple and smart... but my problem is when you mistakenly select ''yes household population'' and move forward, it will not allow you to come back and choose option No. I mean, the No will not appear again. For that, do you have the right to delete such a structure and redo it? You answer for me. [\"Rich\" -Supervisor] One thing I realized during the listing stage is that when two Enumerators in one EA are notified of an error in the system by the data management team, it is difficult to identify the error. Funny enough, our supervisor could not see the error either. So, how then do you know the error to correct? [Judith -Enumerator]Political Interference and Poor Recruitment Sixty percent of the participants indicated that the selection of field supervisors and enumerators did not follow laiddown procedures. Though assessment tests were conducted on three occasions, none of the tests were used for selection, as revealed by enumerators. Regional trainers revealed that they submitted a qualified field officer list to the district census officer. However, most of the qualified candidates were removed from the shortlist for the exercise. Thus, due to the limited competence of some field officers, poor total coverage and poor-quality data were recorded. There is a need to promote transparency in publicly reporting on census methodologies, standardized recruitment process and potential limitations.Four out of five census officers indicated that the inadequate financial package could affect the entire exercise, which ultimately may affect the quality of data collection. There were a series of petitions concerning the remuneration package addressed to the secretariat. Field officers, i.e., supervisors and enumerators, were paid approximately GHS 2520 and GHS 2950 (approx. $ 215 and 252) for the exercise. Establishing a union can give enumerators a collective voice in negotiating better wages and working conditions.Software Upgrade One in five field officers reported that the digital census did not have the latest CSEntry version, which slowed the exercise. This issue distorted training sections since all participants needed to be on the same page. There is a need to implement software version control practices for future data collection exercises.Based on the respondents' views, four categories were identified, namely: technological, individual, environmental and administrative context. Table 5 shows a summary of identified barriers and strategies for effective online training.During our interaction with regional trainers, supervisors, and enumerators, we identified several issues discussed in Table 5, technological, individual and environmental, that need to be solved to achieve effective digital census integration in training and collecting data. Based on our research output, we make seven recommendations to any country or institution interested in integrating digital censuses and digital technologies into training and data collection for massive national surveys (target of 30 million population and more). By conducting a mix of qualitative and quantitative results, we identified important themes that have the potential to enhance digital census research and practice. The first theme identified is the digital census capabilities (technology, i.e., online training) with the intended goals for the census activities. Providing enough details of the digital census functionalities to dispel the one-size-fits-all approach of online training systems. This study has shown that identifying the characteristics and capabilities of the field officers (FO) is essential to a successful census. Thus, futureFig. 4 Proposed model for enhancing digital census census programs need to investigate the various capabilities of the field officers and the learning system to reinforce the intended purpose of conducting PHC. It is also important to consider the country-level environment and the quality of field officers recruited. The second theme is to utilize the digital census capabilities and tools to initiate field officers-centric training approaches. This provides the field officers with the autonomy to develop training in different forms, such as interpersonal skills, self-paced training and self-awareness. The third is to coordinate the field officers' resources and needs and the objective of implementing a digital census. Thus, there should be an appropriate interplay between the source materials and how they can successfully achieve the goal of PHC. As shown in Fig. 4, this is a proposed model for enhancing digital census training in a developing country context.The study investigated the behavioral enablers and barriers of the digital census in Ghana by validating a research model and conducting an in-depth analysis. A qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to examine the issue of digital census.Qualitatively, the study found general challenges in household surveys to include political factors and poor remuneration, financial and remuneration constraints, issues with software upgrades and GPS access. All in all, the barriers and strategies can be classified into individual, technological, environmental and administrative contextual factors. Quantitatively, the study found performance expectance, social influence, facilitating conditions and organizational influence as significant enablers of field officers' intention to use digital census for PHC or NHS in a developing country.The digital census's introduction into the PHC has shown promising signs of collecting quality data. Most of the supervisors and enumerators revealed the effectiveness of the CAPI compared to the PAPI. However, future digital census use for PHC should address the challenges outlined in this study to achieve complete coverage.Theoretically, this study extends the adoption model by integrating organizational influence, which is an important determinant in examining the case of online training and data collection tools for national assignments. Thus, the relationship between organizational influence and behavioral intention has not been considerably studied. Consequently, the results of this study enhance existing knowledge in technology adoption by confirming the significance of integrating the user's attitudes and beliefs in online training and closing the digital divide in developing countries. Additionally, the findings from this study contribute to the advancement of prior research on online training by empirically testing the role of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions in Ghanaian field officers' online training intentions. The research explains 62% of the variance in users' intentions. This confirms the study's robustness of the UTAUT model [19] in a developing country context.Practically, in developing countries, our study identifies performance expectancy, social influence and organizational influence as the most significant predictors of field officers' intention to use online training and CAPI tablets to collect quality data and ensure complete coverage. Thus, our study presents some important strategies for other emerging countries that want to conduct population and housing censuses through digital technologies that are still in their infancy in developing countries. Specifically, we have shown that organizational influence can boost technology acceptance for national activities in the case of rural and urban dwellers in Ghana. This study also indicates that social influence and organizational influence are predominant factors driving individual digital census use.The generalization of the study is difficult due to the small sample size. The study focused on regional trainers' views of the in-person and online training and supervisors' and enumerators' perspectives on the use of CAPI in Ghana's 2021 population and housing census without including the voices of regional census officers, district census officers and district data officers managing the entire exercise. Further, the study participants were from two rural areas in the eastern region of Ghana, while Ghana has 16 regions with many field officers taking part in the census.Based on the analysis and review of relevant sources in this study, a recommendation is proposed for future household surveys in developing countries. We realized that recommendations for future PHC/NHS should cover best practices for more effective use of the CAPI system in NHS at different stages. Hence, the following key recommendations:(a) Embrace online self-enumeration: As developing countries continue to improve internet penetration, a secure and user-friendly online platform for citizens can enhance the quality of data collection throughout the year. Furthermore, logistical complexity and cost will be reduced, and this online activity boosts overall participation and empowers individuals with increased convenience. More IT literacy programs are needed to address the digital literacy gaps and ensure technology access in rural areas. As shown in Fig. 5, the recommendation framework for census entails three phases: the pre-enumeration phase-development of project documents and census instruments, procurement of goods and services, publicity, and recruitment; the enumeration phase-listing of structures, enumerating the entire population, publicity and return of census materials; and post-enumeration phase-data processing, postenumeration survey, census reports and dissemination. At the heart of this exercise is the resource allocation at the regional and district levels.With the huge amount of money and resources allocated to training national and regional trainers, the statistical bodies should retain these trainers for future NHS. Employing their services will reduce costs and ensure the continuity of training modules. However, the GSS must issue a training certificate and accomplishment to the trainers-to certify them for future programs. The same ideology can be applied to the supervisors and enumerators at the regional and district levels.Future national surveys and PHC virtual platforms should incorporate gamification elements that have cultural meaning and motivate users. This can be achieved when designers systematically examine the user characteristics, considering the context of the learners. Adopting one-size-fits-all game elements, which have been the case for most gamified systems, is a recipe for failure. Ghanaians are intrinsically attached to some game design elements, and designers and instructors must","tokenCount":"6551"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d3517f62041a4a7edaae39e6061bde92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dcbcfd53-49cf-4e78-b5e0-0640328f58cd/retrieve","id":"242324964"},"keywords":["global warming","climate change","nitrous oxide emissions","genetic mitigation","soil nitrifier activity, nitrification control","biological nitrification inhibition, greenhouse gas emissions","agro-pastoral systems","pastures","field crops, BNI traits, BNI technology BNI-PS-opinion-CL-submit-2017.docx [Cover Letter] PlantScience-BNI-Opinion-2017-submitted.docx [Manuscript File] PS-BNI-opinion-Fig-1.pptx [Figure] PlantScience-BNI-Highlights-2017-submitted.docx [Highlights]"],"sieverID":"b216b7c0-331a-42cf-a354-5e0340f2686f","pagecount":"21","content":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)  believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications.Prof. Thomas W Okita Review Editor -Plant Science Institute of Biological Chemistry Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6340; Email: okita@wsu.edu Sub: Submitting the Commissioned critical 'Opinion' article for publication in 'Plant Science' journal Dear Prof. Okita: Please refer our earlier correspondence (your email dated 29th November 2016) suggesting commissioning of an \"Opinion\" article on BNI (a copy of the email is attached with this cover letter).Enclosed, please find the files of the manuscript titled 'Genetic mitigation strategies to tackle agricultural GHG emissions: The case for biological nitrification inhibition technology', authored by GV Subbarao, J. Arango, K. Masahiro, A.M. Hooper, T. Yoshihashi, Y. Ando, K. Nakahara, S. Deshpande, I. Ortiz-Monasterio, M. Ishitani, M. Peters, N. Chirinda, L. Wollenberg, J.C. Lata, B. Gerard, S. Tobita, I.M. Rao, H.J. Braun, V. Kommerell, J. Tohme and M. Iwanaga. I would like to suggest the following subject specialists as potential reviewers for this article.   ABSTRACT Accelerated soil-nitrifier activity and rapid nitrification are the cause of declining nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) and enhanced nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions from farming. Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is the ability of certain plant roots to suppress soil-nitrifier activity, through production and release of nitrification inhibitors.The power of phytochemicals with BNI-function needs to be harnessed to control soilnitrifier activity and improve nitrogen-cycling in agricultural systems. Transformative biological technologies designed for genetic mitigation are needed, so that BNI-enabled crop-livestock and cropping systems can rein in soil-nitrifier activity, to help reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and globally make farming nitrogen efficient and less harmful to environment. This will reinforce the adaptation or mitigation impact of other climate-smart agriculture technologies.Agriculture has become the largest source of man-made greenhouse gases (GHGs) on the planet [1]. It generates 14,000 Tg CO 2 .eq.yr -1 , about 24% of total GHG emissions [1]. To put this in perspective, CO 2 emissions from automobiles contribute to 14% of global GHG emissions [1][2]. A major portion of agricultural GHG emissions is associated with the production and use of nitrogen (N-fertilizers, based on life-cycle analysis), which is energy and carbon intensive [2]. It is ironic that nearly 70% of Nfertilizers applied to agricultural soils is lost and returned to atmosphere as oxides of N and N 2 (through microbial nitrification and denitrification processes), before the crops can absorb and assimilate it into plant protein with no net benefits to humans [3]. Nearly 80% of global emissions of nitrous oxide (N 2 O), a GHG 300 times more potent than CO 2 , comes from the production and utilization of N-fertilizers in agriculture [4].Providing farmers with new nitrogen-use efficiency options requires a major research and development effort, in combination with effective extension approaches.With global food demand projected to double by 2050, agricultural emissions will grow further, unless agriculture becomes climate-smart [1]. Annual N-fertilizer use is expected to reach 300 Tg by 2050; global N 2 O emissions will double compared with present levels and reach 7.5 Tg N 2 O-N in such a 'business as usual' scenario [4,5,6]. The Paris Agreement (PA) signed in 2015, set the goal to reduce GHG emissions by 80% from 2005 levels by 2050 to limit global temperature rise to <2°C [7][8]. Reducing GHG emissions from agriculture is thus critical to meeting PA emission targets [7].Development of fertilizer-responsive crops (e.g. semi-dwarf wheat, -rice, and maize) has transformed global cereal production, but inadvertently unleashed a cascading effect of N-pollution in the environment [8,9]. Farmers in many intensive production systems are being forced to apply more N-fertilizer to sustain higher yields. Selection and breeding under high N-input environments and crop intensification have resulted in the development of nitrate (NO 3 -)-responsive cultivars and high-nitrifying soil environments, leading to a decline in NUE (<30% at present) in crop production [3,[10][11]. Nitrate leaching and N 2 O emissions are an indication of weakening soil health (due to declining soil-carbon levels and shifts in soil microbial ecology conducive for accelerated nitrifier-activity) [10][11]. We need a course correction now to increase food production, whilst improving soil health and minimizing GHG emissions.Genetically enhanced mitigation technologies that are easily deployable and scalable, to reduce nitrification and N 2 O emissions, would make agricultural systems more Nefficient and reduce emissions. Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is the ability of certain plant roots to suppress soil-nitrifier activity, through production and release of biological nitrification inhibitors (BNIs) [3]. BNI is a natural plant behavior, found in certain climax ecosystems where plants and microbes compete fiercely for limited mineralized soil-N [12][13].We should learn from nature and introduce these biological mechanisms to manage N-cycling in agricultural systems. Plant roots produce BNIs to suppress nitrifier activity (which converts immobile soil-ammonium (NH 4 + ) to mobile soil-nitrate (NO 3 -)) and retain soil-N in NH 4 + form to facilitate plant absorption and transfer into immobile microbial/organic-N (Fig. 1) [3,10]. Soil-NO 3 -, once formed, is highly prone to leaching, and is also a substrate for soil denitrifying microbes that convert it into N 2 O, NO (nitric oxide) and ultimately N 2 gas [3] (Fig. 1) -a net loss for plant production. N 2 O is primarily produced during both nitrification and denitrification processes [3] and BNI function suppresses N 2 O emissions by reducing nitrification and limiting NO 3availability to denitrifiers (Fig. 1) [3,10]. The challenge is to redesign agricultural systems with crops and pastures that produce sufficient BNIs from root systems to suppress wasteful nitrification processes, increase N-flow to the plant and retention in soils, thus significantly improving nitrogen-use efficiency [3,14]. The power of BNI-enabled phytochemical secretions/additions from crop/pasture root systems should be unleashed to limit GHG emissions while sustaining future growth in food production.BNI technology exploits the understanding of BNI chemistry, and its impact on the soil microbiome, to develop genetic components that include BNI-enabled genetic stocks and genetic tools. These would facilitate introduction of BNI traits into major food and forage crops in the near future [3,10,[14][15][16][17][18]. Production and release of BNIs from plant roots require the presence of NH 4 + in the rhizosphere and soil-microsites where NH 4 + is present, which are also the hot-spots for nitrifier populations [3,10,14,19]. As the BNIs release from roots is localized (i.e. BNI release is confined to parts of the root system exposed to NH 4 + ) [14], the delivery of BNIs is thus essentially targeted to where there is a high probability of nitrifier-activity. In addition, sustained release of BNIs from root systems is functionally linked with the uptake and assimilation of NH 4 + , which acts as a switch mechanism for BNI function. This results in a more effective delivery of BNIs to soil-nitrifier sites in the field [20][21]. In addition, the diverse chemical structures of BNI molecules and their multi-mode of inhibitory action on Nitrosomonas, could provide a lasting-control over nitrifier activity in agricultural soils compared to synthetic nitrification inhibitors [3,22]. The inhibitory effect from synthetic nitrification inhibitors does not last more than a few weeks at the most (often less than a week) and their delivery in the field is fraught with many challenges. They are expensive to apply and are often ineffective in the field, which may explain the lack of their wide-spread adoption by farmers [23]. BNI technology is suitable for integrated crop-livestock and cropping systems.Brachiaria grasses are the most widely planted forage crops in the tropics with as many as 100 million hectares planted as pastures in Brazil alone [24]. Among forage crops tested, Brachiaria humidicola has the highest BNI-capacity and produces brachialactone (a powerful nitrification inhibitor) in its deep-root systems [14]. Each year, from root turnover alone, well-managed Brachiaria pastures could add 14 kg brachialactone ha -1 and enrich the soil-C by up to 5 t ha -1 [25]. In addition, nearly 2.6 to 7.5 million units of BNI-activity ha -1 d -1 (depending on the genetic stock) is released from roots, equivalent to annual additions of 6.2-18kg of nitrapyrin ha -1 (a synthetic nitrification inhibitor) [10,14]. Field studies with Brachiaria grasses showed that while they suppressed nitrification and N 2 O emissions [14], the reduced nitrifier activity has improved 15 N-retention in soils, 15 N-recovery and NUE of maize in an integrated maize-Brachiaria (crop-livestock) system for several years [26][27].Sorghum, a climate-smart cereal, releases sorgoleone from its roots, which mediates BNI-activity [15,28]. Genetic improvement for enhanced levels of sorgoleone release is one route to develop BNI-enabled cereal production [3,10]. Wheat, the most important food crop (grown on 240 million ha globally), uses about 20% of all fertilizer applied globally [16][17]. However, modern wheat cultivars do not have strong BNI-activity in their root systems [16][17]. Development of BNI-enabled wheat varieties using wild relatives or progenitors as sources of effective BNI-traits can be achieved using chromosome engineering [16][17].Wheat yield potential can be doubled from present levels to reach 20 t ha -1 , but requires substantial improvements in NUE to make this economically attractive. The potential for improving BNI-capacity in wheat, sorghum and Brachiaria pastures has been illustrated [3,[16][17][18].Mitigation strategies/technologies to reduce agricultural GHG emissions must be costeffective and politically feasible to implement if they are to be adopted widely to reduce costs and deliver benefits to society. For example, mitigation technologies such as alternate wetting and drying in paddy fields can be challenging to implement for social and political reasons [29]. Similarly, the patchy distribution of urine-N (a major N source) in grazed grasslands makes it difficult to control N-losses using synthetic nitrification inhibitors [6]. With 220 million cattle in Brazil alone [30], N-inputs from urine are estimated at 12.8 Tg N y -1 (based on the assumption that the average cow excretes 160 g N in its urine per day) and nearly 90% of this N is lost due to rapid nitrification and denitrification [3,6]. BNI-enabled pastures can effectively suppress these nitrification associated N-losses [6,14]. When bovine urine was applied to high-BNI B. humidicola (CIAT 679) pastures in the field, N 2 O emissions were 60% less compared to low-BNI Brachiaria (Brachiaria hybrid 'Mulato') pastures [31]. In Brazil, the potential impact on N-losses and N 2 O emissions from bovine urine N-inputs that may result from replacing low-BNI and/or degraded Brachiaria pastures with high-BNI Brachiaria pastures could be high. BNI-technology, could become an important piece in the puzzle to render agriculture more nutrient and resource-efficient, while protecting the environment. Breeding BNI-enabled food crops and forages and integrating these BNI-enabled components into crop-livestock systems could be the key genetic mitigation option to reduce N 2 O emissions. This genetic mitigation technology can be deployed without additional cost to the farmers, and is easy to adopt and scalable, as it does not require specialized or additional farm equipment or changes in water management.The PA came into force in November 2016; COP22 (Conference of Parties; organized in Marrakech, Morocco) initiated deliberations to assess technological options (i.e. those available or that can be developed in the near future) and develop the required policy framework to advance implementation of the PA agenda. Breeding crop varieties with BNI-traits and development of BNI-enabled production systems may take up to 30 years (that includes delivery, time for adoption and for deployment) and requires a major change in the direction of agricultural research. It could be funded from part of the earmarked funds (i.e. about 150 billion US$ per annum) to implement the PA agenda. A policy decision at this stage is thus necessary to identify suitable potential technologies that can transform the agricultural sector by improving NUE and facilitate tightening of N-cycling in agricultural systems to reduce GHG emissions; BNItechnology could be considered as one of the key biological options.Current agricultural practices need transformative changes. Other sectors, e.g. industry, energy production and transport are making major progress in increasing efficiency (thereby reducing GHG emissions), due to technological advances. New biological technologies must be developed for the agriculture sector to improve soil-N residence time and reduce N-losses to improve N-efficiency, which requires a tight control over soil-nitrifier activity. In addition, a closer coupling of crop and animal husbandry is needed to facilitate the recycling of organic-N through agricultural soils and reduce annual increases in N-fertilizer use. Nearly 175 Tg of fixed-N (biologically fixed-N from legumes + industrially fixed-N as N-fertilizer) enters into agricultural systems annually, but <1% of this Nr (reactive-N) is retained in human bodies. The remainder is returned to the atmosphere through nitrification and denitrification processes (as NO x and N 2 gas, strongly impacting human health, ecosystem functions, and contributing to climate change), which in turn drives year-on-year increases in N-fertilizer application to sustain food production [3,10]. The economic value of this wasted Nr alone from agricultural systems is estimated at US$ 81 billion per year [9]. For example, the European Union, which consumes only 11 Tg Nr (N-fertilizer) annually, faces major challenges from N pollution on human health and ecosystems in economic-terms that reaches US$ 102-320 billion y -1 [32]. When considering agricultural production in low and middle-income countries with high population growth rates, global damage to ecosystems and human health from Nr pollution could therefore be enormous. We should not treat agriculture as merely a commodity-producing industry with profit as the sole motto, but manage agriculture as part of a larger ecosystem that provides lifesupport and services to human society. We need to ask ourselves why is 99% of the Nr that enters into farming systems each year allowed to return to the atmosphere [33], without being productively rerouted through agricultural soils and cycled back into sustainable agri-food systems.A fundamental shift is needed in the way Nr is managed in agricultural systems to curtail the increasingly insatiable 'soil-hunger' for N fertilizers. This requires the introduction of novel BNI-traits into main-stream breeding, coupled with changes in crop management and integrated crop-livestock systems to limit soil-nitrifier activity.Suppressing soil-nitrifier activity can have a cascading effect on soil-N retention, soil organic matter buildup and shifts in microbial ecology that, over time, can help improve soil health [3,10]. The second Green Revolution must integrate plant traits that improve soil health, in addition to traits that enhance yield potential and stability. While the scientific goals of using BNI for a better NUE are inextricably linked to the amelioration of the worst predictions of GHG production and potential changes in climate, few farmers will change their practices for the altruistic goals of reducing their C-footprint and N 2 O generation. However, the bottom line of protecting biologically fixed or synthetic-N supplies through BNI-technologies means that less N-fertilizer is required for the same yield, and the gross excesses of some practices can be reined in by  ","tokenCount":"2484"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"baf64fffa0e9922a9918c8a03eb6b1f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eba6dc1f-48e4-4d19-9721-e88a60aacd10/retrieve","id":"-1294619397"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"60c30d0f-7c54-41bc-b05f-1a52e016b41b","pagecount":"1","content":"We thank farmers and local partners in Africa RISING sites for their contributions to this research. We also acknowledge the support of all donors which globally support the work of the CGIAR centers and their partners through their contributions to the CGIAR systemHundreds of households can benefit from feed packages based on locally available feed resources for improved ruminant production and can also take advantage of opportunities of emerging feed markets to increase their income generation and food security.• To estimate forage and crop residues availability across seasons as feed resources to improve livestock productivity. • To determine types of feed sold and their price across seasons.• Estimation of available forage was conducted across seasons {Early dry (Nov-Jan), late dry (Feb-Apr), early wet (May-Jul), and main wet (Aug-Oct)} in communal pasture. Crop residues yield was estimated at crop maturity. Quadrat pasture yields estimation method was used (Nitis, 1997) for data collection in 9 AR communities in northern Ghana. In each community, 8 quatrats samples were randomly taken in each season in all locations. • Emerging feed markets were surveyed in Tamale, Bolgatanga and Wa markets to determine feed types and prices of feed sold. Three samples of each feed sold were bought per market in each season.• The crop residues yields are presented in Figure 1. Sorghum straw yield was 8.5 tons DM/ ha and highest (P<0.05) of all the crop residues whereas cowpea residue was lowest (1.8 tons DM/ ha). • Estimated quantity of available forage in grazing lands differed significantly (P<0.05) across seasons (Figure 2). Early dry season had the highest value of 3.08 tons DM/ha and early wet season recorded the lowest (0.56 tons DM/ha). • The feedstuff sold in the emerging feed markets are in Plate 1. Groundnut and maize bran were the commonest feed in all the markets surveyed. • The mean price (GHS 1.00 /Kg DM) of cowpea haulm was highest (P<0.05) and rice bran had the lowest price (GHS 0.12/Kg/ DM) . Generally feed prices were higher (P<0.05) in early and late dry seasons.Evaluation of feed resources helps to guide the development of effective strategies to improve nutrition, feed use efficiency and livestock productivity based on locally available feed resources.Plate 1: Assorted feedstuffs on sale at the feed markets Partners","tokenCount":"377"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71a1a2a1b37a688a4149e14004098e62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff3a5d49-53f8-4c00-809d-a0678d7311e1/retrieve","id":"632170717"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d5f79533-0b60-472a-b07b-9cb4660c5125","pagecount":"18","content":"consorcio mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre, dedicado a reducir la pobreza, contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y mejorar los recursos naturales.La producción de alimentos es uno de los principales impulsores de la pérdida de biodiversidad, incluida la agrobiodiversidad, una pérdida sin precedentes a nivel global. 1,2,3 La agrobiodiversidad es la diversidad de especies o variedades de cultivos, tanto en chacras como en dietas. Las pérdidas de agrobiodiversidad se producen debido a la creciente homogenización de las variedades de cultivos, las razas de ganado y los sistemas de producción, impulsada por la globalización de los mercados, las dietas y las cadenas alimentarias asociadas.La erosión de la agrobiodiversidad ocurre en paralelo con una pérdida de diversidad dietética para muchas poblaciones. Los sistemas alimentarios mundiales dependen cada día más de un número cada vez menor de especies, variedades y razas, 4,5 lo que lleva a una diversidad dietética reducida y contribuye a la desnutrición que sufren billones de personas. En contraste, la conservación efectiva y el uso sostenible de la agrobiodiversidad pueden proporcionar una serie de ventajas para los productores y consumidores, entre ellas: permitir a los consumidores elegir alimentos diversos y saludables; el estímulo de las economías rurales y urbanas; y el mantenimiento de las prácticas culturales y los conocimientos tradicionales. La conservación y el uso sostenible de la agrobiodiversidad también pueden desempeñar un papel importante en el mantenimiento de las técnicas agrícolas tradicionales y los sistemas de conocimiento indígenas. 6,7 Los programas públicos de compra de alimentos escolares son una poderosa herramienta de reducción de la pobreza al tiempo que promueven la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición. 8 Se estima que tales programas atienden a 368 millones de niños, todos los días en todo el mundo, y operan en casi todos los países de ingresos medios a altos, así como en 70 de los 108 países de bajos ingresos. 9,10 La demanda institucional de tales programas de compra puede impulsar la generación de ingresos al proporcionar un mercado estable y predecible para los productores, al mismo tiempo que fortalece la seguridad alimentaria tanto para los consumidores como para los productores de los alimentos adquiridos. 11,12 Además de ofrecer múltiples beneficios nutricionales, que se magnifican para los más desnutridos 13,14,15 , los programas de comidas escolares, con un enfoque en la agrobiodiversidad, pueden impulsar las transiciones en la agricultura familiar, de sistemas mínimamente agrobiodiversos e intensivos en insumos, a sistemas agrícolas más agrobiodiversos. 16 La compra de alimentos es la actividad que genera mayor impacto ambiental dentro del sector de los servicios alimentarios debido a su influencia sobre la producción y distribución de alimentos. 17 Los factores de impacto clave incluyen el nivel de abastecimiento local, el grado de uso de productos orgánicos, los tipos de composición del menú (por ejemplo, evitando los menús de carne asociados con altas emisiones de CO 2 ) y los niveles y el manejo de los residuos de alimentos. Por lo tanto, las organizaciones públicas y privadas que participan en la contratación pueden considerarse que ocupan una posición sólida para apoyar el desarrollo sostenible y mejorar la economía local a través del abastecimiento sostenible, al tiempo que crean efectos indirectos en los hogares privados.Sin embargo, a pesar del creciente reconocimiento de los vínculos entre los sistemas alimentarios, la salud y la sostenibilidad 18,19,20,21 , el potencial de utilizar dichos programas de compras para promover la sostenibilidad de la agrobiodiversidad en línea con los instrumentos de política intergubernamentales (por ejemplo, los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible, el Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica y el Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos) sigue estando en gran medida inexplorado. Además, la mayoría de los programas de compra pública de comidas escolares en todo el mundo aún no han considerado la agrobiodiversidad y la diversidad dietética en las evaluaciones de sus impactos socioeconómicos y ambientales. Esto plantea un gran desafío para evaluar el potencial de integración de la agrobiodiversidad en los programas de compra pública de comidas escolares.Con el fin de facilitar las transiciones hacia la sostenibilidad de los programas de compra pública de alimentos, la Alianza de Bioversity International y el CIAT está desarrollando una herramienta de apoyo a la toma de decisiones para evaluar y monitorear los impactos socioeconómicos y ambientales de los diferentes escenarios de compra pública de alimentos. Tal herramienta \"Aliméntame Sosteniblemente\" (AMS) puede ayudar a construir una base de evidencia más confiable para los responsables políticos, los gerentes de compra de alimentos y otros actores claves interesados para abordar los desafíos y oportunidades a fin de mejorar los resultados de sostenibilidad y seguridad alimentaria de los programas de compra pública, inclusive de comidas escolares.Aquí informamos sobre los primeros pasos hacia el desarrollo de dicha herramienta Aliméntame Sosteniblemente (AMS) que tiene potencial de aplicabilidad global. La herramienta AMS se ha aplicado inicialmente en Perú, ya que Perú proporciona un buen estudio de caso, siendo un país megadiverso y un centro de origen para cultivos de importancia mundial que apoyan los medios de sustento de la vida de los pobres. También es un país en transición nutricional, donde se necesita una mayor diversidad dietética para garantizar una nutrición óptima durante la infancia. 22 Perú cultiva 184 especies de cultivos nativos que a su vez tienen cientos de variedades. Estos incluyen cultivos básicos clave como la quinua, la cañihua, el amaranto, el maíz, chocho o tarwi, las papas y otros tubérculos. Sin embargo, muchas variedades de estos cultivos se consideran \"severamente amenazadas\". 23 Por ejemplo, casi ninguna variedad tradicional de kiwicha (amaranto) de color se cultiva ahora en la región de Cusco, ya que han sido reemplazadas por dos variedades blancas mejoradas. 24 Sin embargo, las variedades tradicionales desplazadas pueden tener importantes atributos nutricionales, como un alto contenido de hierro, y podrían desempeñar un papel en la lucha contra las altas tasas de desnutrición crónica infantil (7,3-25,6% en niños menores de 5 años) y anemia (33-76% en niños 0-36 meses) 25,26 . La generación de una demanda sarah-watts/ plantagbiosciences.org sostenible de variedades de cultivos amenazadas y altamente nutritivas a través de su incorporación a los programas públicos de compra de alimentos permitiría al Perú cumplir con una serie de compromisos legislativos nacionales (véase el Cuadro 1) para apoyar a las comunidades agrícolas y mejorar la salud pública y la nutrición, al mismo tiempo que se conserva la agrobiodiversidad. Más recientemente, esto ha involucrado la Ley # 31071 que se relaciona con \"Compras Estatales de Alimentos de Origen de la Agricultura Familiar\", que tiene como objetivo mejorar la economía de la agricultura a pequeña escala, mediante la promoción del consumo de alimentos que ella produce, al mismo tiempo que contribuye a la seguridad alimentaria y proporciona alimentos saludables para el Perú y el mundo. La Ley exige que las entidades del sector público adquieran al menos el 30% de sus necesidades anuales totales esperadas, de alimentos provenientes de la producción agrícola familiar.Qali Warma (\"Niño/a Saludable\") es el programa de comidas escolares que se estableció en 2012 bajo el Ministerio de Desarrollo e Inclusión Social (MIDIS) y que actualmente tiene un presupuesto anual de PEN 1,46 mil millones por año (aproximante USD 440 millones). Qali Warma trabaja en las 25 regiones de Perú, proporcionando desayunos a niños de 3 a 12 años a nivel de educación inicial y primaria -así como almuerzos, inclusive a todas las escuelas de la región amazónica. En 2017, atendió a 3,7 millones de estudiantes en todo el Perú. Qali Warma distribuye principalmente alimentos no perecederos, incluidos artículos altamente procesados (ver Cuadro 2). 27,28,29,30 CUADRO 1 Ejemplos de legislación peruana de relevancia para la integración de agrobiodiversos y alimentos en la adquisición de comidas escolares 31,32  Las escuelas reciben uno de dos tipos de comidas: las hechas con alimentos no perecederos que requieren preparación en la escuela, llamados \"productos\", y los alimentos listos para comer llamados \"raciones\". Los productos se entregan mensualmente, mientras que las raciones se entregan diariamente. Solo las escuelas en las ciudades reciben raciones, y solo los pueblos y las comunidades rurales reciben productos. En términos generales, los desayunos Qali Warma consisten en leche con un grano (por ejemplo, avena, quinua, amaranto), una galleta o pan, o arroz o fideos con proteína animal. Los almuerzos consisten en un grano (arroz o fideos) con legumbres, tubérculos o granos andinos con una proteína animal.Qali Warma tiene como objetivo garantizar servicios de alimentación culturalmente apropiados a los beneficiarios durante todo el año escolar, mejorar la asistencia a clase, fomentar la matriculación escolar y promover mejores hábitos alimentarios.En el contexto peruano, se han realizado evaluaciones del impacto de programas de desayuno escolar en términos de dieta, asistencia y conocimiento. En Huaraz, la participación en el programa aumentó la ingesta de energía en un 15,2%, la proteína en un 16,1% y el hierro en un 60%; mientras que en las escuelas rurales de Ayacucho, Apurímac y Huancavelica, se identificó un efecto positivo en la asistencia a la escuela y la reducción de las tasas de deserción escolar, aunque se redujeron las horas de estudio dado el tiempo que los niños pasaron preparando y consumiendo su desayuno. 33,34,35 También hay cierta evidencia que sugiere que el programa Qali Warma está contribuyendo al cierre de las brechas educativas al aumentar la memoria a corto plazo de las niñas. 36 También, los impactos del programa son mayores entre los niños que no consumen desayuno en casa. Además, Qali Warma genera importantes ahorros (10%-17%) del gasto mensual de consumo en los hogares de los niños participantes. Sin embargo, Francke y Acosta [1] (2020) 37 notan que el consumo de Qali Warma solo contribuye con el 16,7% del requerimiento de hierro, mientras que el 93% de usuarios obtiene un aporte de hierro menor al esperado y no se encuentran efectos significativos sobre la anemia ni sobre la desnutrición crónica infantil. Una posible explicación sería la sustitución de alimentos entre la escuela y el hogar, con el agravante de que el desayuno en casa tendría más hierro y proteínas que el de QW. Francke y Acosta sugieren que los menús de QW deberían ser revisados si se considera que su objetivo es afrontar problemas nutricionales como la desnutrición crónica infantil y la anemia.Si bien tales estudios se han centrado en los impactos educativos y de salud, existe una literatura limitada relacionada con los impactos ambientales de dichos programas o de los patrones dietéticos / sistemas alimentarios en Perú; aunque Vásquez-Rowe et al.(2017) 38 proporcionan estimaciones de CO 2 equivalente (CO 2 eq) para una gama de productos alimenticios peruanos (ver abajo para más detalles).Tales impactos pueden ser significativos, sobre todo porque a pesar de tener un mandato para comprar localmente y apoyar a la agricultura familiar, las decisiones de compra pública de Qali Warma a la fecha resultan en que una gran proporción de sus compras es de grandes empresas en lugar de productores locales.Por ejemplo, se alega que un importante distribuidor de leche en Perú construyó una planta en Lima en su totalidad para abastecer las compras de leche de Qali Warma; mientras que según el USDA, 39 Perú ha [1] Designado Ministro de Economía y Finanzas en 2021.sarah-watts/ plantagbiosciences.org importado aproximadamente 17% de su producción de leche. Las preocupaciones sobre la calidad/inocuidad de los alimentos y las capacidades limitadas de la comunidad agrícola para cumplir con los requisitos administrativos de Qali Warma juegan un papel en esto.Con la entrada en vigor de la Ley #31071 de compras públicas y la declaración del candidato (ahora Presidente) Pedro Castillo que \"el presupuesto de Qali Warma debe estar destinado a garantizar que lo que comen los niños es lo que produce la comunidad\" 40 , parece cada vez más probable que habrá cambios donde se incluyan más productos de la agrobiodiversidad local. De hecho, ya hay programas piloto de comidas escolares en marcha que buscan aumentar la proporción de alimentos adquiridos localmente (ver el Cuadro 3 para un ejemplo en Junín). Estos programas piloto también brindan la oportunidad de realizar un análisis comparativo en relación con el escenario de \"negocio como siempre\", con el objetivo de mejorar la sostenibilidad y la diversidad dietética de los programas de alimentación escolar y otros programas de compra pública del Perú.Este tipo de mejoras podrían contribuir a una serie de beneficios de reducción de la pobreza y la malnutrición, así como a los impactos ambientales, en particular contribuyendo a los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible 2, 4, 10 y 12. Sin embargo, para obtener tales beneficios, existe una necesidad urgente de mecanismos de apoyo a la toma de decisiones que puedan proporcionar una base de evidencia que se puede utilizar para dirigir los impactos y los resultados.La herramienta AMS busca construir sobre una serie de herramientas existentes de evaluación de sostenibilidad del sistema alimentario y las comidas escolares. 43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50 Estas herramientas han tratado de identificar buenas prácticas, áreas de mejora y medidas específicas para aumentar la sostenibilidad alimentaria. Si bien no existe una definición acordada de lo que constituye un alimento sostenible, los tipos de indicadores de sostenibilidad utilizados por tales herramientas de evaluación comúnmente cubren las dimensiones nutricionales, ambientales, económicas y sociales (incluida la gobernanza y la cuadro 3Uso de la Certificación del Sistema de Garantía Participativa (SGP) en Junín, Perú 41,42 Un programa piloto en Junín ha agregado productos frescos de chacras locales a la distribución convencional de alimentos no perecederos. En 2019, 109 escuelas con un total de 7.950 estudiantes recibieron este servicio. El programa cuesta PEN 252.000 (aproximadamente USD 74.400). Los productos son adquiridos por los comités de alimentación escolar o por los municipios, complementando la entrega convencional de alimentos no perecederos. La política actual de Qali Warma-Junín es alentar a los municipios a comprar productos, porque los municipios pueden responsabilizar a los agricultores y mantener registros de los alimentos comprados y de quiénes los compran.Los 220 agricultores participantes están organizados en cooperativas que cuentan con la certificación SGP (Sistemas de Garantía Participativa). Las credenciales necesarias para la certificación varían según el país o la región, pero en el caso de Perú, la certificación SGP se basa en la Ley #29196. El gobierno peruano reconoció la validez de la certificación en una modificación de la Ley en 2019. mano de obra) de los sistemas alimentarios, por lo que incorporan aspectos de producción, distribución, aprovisionamiento, consumo y residuos.Los indicadores ambientales claves normalmente refieren, inter alia, a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero/uso de energía, la contaminación del aire, el uso de la tierra, el uso del agua, la salud del suelo, el ciclo de nutrientes, el uso de agroquímicos, el origen de los alimentos/abastecimiento local, la pérdida/desperdicio de alimentos y el bienestar animal. Los indicadores más estrechamente asociados con la agrobiodiversidad incluyen las relacionadas con la conservación de los servicios ecosistémicos, la diversidad (tanto de plantas y animales domesticados como silvestres) y las semillas.A pesar de la existencia de tales indicadores, muchas de estas medidas de agricultura sostenible no se están recogiendo, o no se están recogiendo con precisión o regularidad. 51 Este es también el caso en Perú. Si bien varios de estos indicadores ya son de uso común o se pueden obtener de bases de datos existentes (CENASA, Qali Warma), los datos de algunos de los indicadores aún no se recopilan o disponen de forma rutinaria. Debido a estas lagunas de datos, la herramienta de apoyo a la toma de decisiones AMS se está desarrollando en fases, incluyendo cada vez más indicadores en línea con los esfuerzos de recopilación de datos y su disponibilidad, lo que también permitirá que el método general se refine con el tiempo. Tales enfoques por fases se han aplicado comúnmente en el desarrollo de otros tipos de índices de sostenibilidad.Durante la Fase I (Desarrollo de Conceptos, a la que contribuye este documento), se describe la necesidad de una herramienta AMS, se describe la herramienta y se aplica a un solo indicador para el cual los datos están fácilmente disponibles. Estos hallazgos iniciales se utilizan para promover un proceso de diálogo con los actores claves interesados (como representantes gubernamentales, gerentes de compra de alimentos, asociaciones de agricultores y escuelas, empresas del sector privado y ONG) con el fin de guiar el desarrollo de la herramienta AMS.Como parte de este proceso, se espera que se puedan articular escenarios alternativos de compra pública de alimentos, acordándose una lista de indicadores clave para evaluar su sostenibilidad (varios de los cuales pueden adaptarse de los ≈120 indicadores enumerados en la Evaluación de Sostenibilidad de los Sistemas de Alimentación y Agricultura de FAO, 52 entre otras fuentes), se discutieron los desafíos de accesibilidad de los datos y se identificaron posibles ubicaciones de estudios de casos para las aplicaciones piloto de la herramienta AMS de apoyo a la toma de decisiones.Con el fin de seleccionar ubicaciones de estudio de caso para poder contrastar y comparar una gama de prácticas y menús de compra pública de alimentos, se puede considerar y evaluar la siguiente gama de escenarios utilizando un modelo matemático (programación lineal/ optimización):y Negocio como siempre: solo productos no perecederos, alta cantidad de alimentos procesados.y Aumento de la compra local, incluyendo productos frescos (por ejemplo, el caso Junín).y Agrobiodiversidad amigable -incorporación de especies olvidadas (NUS) y variedades de cultivos tradicionales amenazadas.Con respecto a la disponibilidad de datos, si bien las medidas de calidad de los alimentos (como el contenido de calorías, proteínas y hierro) y los costos ya están calculados por Qali Warma o por el Centro Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición (CENAN), será necesario generar otros datos de indicadores. Por ejemplo, los cálculos existentes de la Evaluación del Ciclo de Vida (ACV) pueden necesitar ser adaptados al contexto peruano para estimar las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y el uso de agua de riego, mientras que los estudios al nivel de chacra serán necesarios para evaluar muchas de las medidas relacionadas con la diversidad. Por lo tanto, la Fase II (implementación inicial) implicará la recopilación de datos adicionales existentes, mientras que la Fase III (implementación en profundidad) se prevé que incluya la generación de los datos primarios necesarios para poder llevar a cabo plenamente una evaluación de sostenibilidad.En este documento de políticas en síntesis, realizamos un análisis inicial centrado en evaluar la huella de emisiones de CO 2 eq de las comidas Qali Warma.sarah-watts/ plantagbiosciences.orgPara realizar un análisis inicial, se han utilizado diferentes fuentes de información. Estas incluyen:1. La lista de recetas aprobadas por Qali Warma en 2014 que incluye datos sobre los diferentes tipos de desayunos (raciones y productos) y almuerzos, así como los ingredientes que se utilizan, sus cantidades y medios de preparación (ver Figura 1 para un ejemplo).Figura 1: Ejemplo de menús de comida Qali Warma 2. Tablas de Composición de Alimentos Peruanos (ver Figura 2) que proporcionan información sobre cada uno de los ingredientes del recetario de Qali Warma en términos de su (i) energía (kcal/Kj), (ii) agua (g), (iii) proteína (g); (iv) grasa total (g); (v) hidratos de carbono (g): (vi) calcio (mg), (vii) fósforo (mg), (viii) zinc (mg) y (ix) contenido de hierro (mg). Cuando un ingrediente no era idéntico al mencionado en el libro de recetas, se utilizaba un valor sustituto adecuado.  3. Datos disponibles sobre el número de beneficiarios de los diferentes programas sociales a nivel distrital extraídos de la base de datos InfoMIDIS [2] mantenida por el Ministerio de Desarrollo e Inclusión Social (MIDIS).4. Las estimaciones de la huella de emisiones de CO 2 eq de los patrones dietéticos en el Perú, calculadas por Vásquez-Rowe et al., 53 quienes utilizan una medida del Potencial de Calientamiento Global (PCG) basada en un enfoque de Evaluación del Ciclo de Vida usando datos de artículos e informes científicos sobre la producción de alimentos, así como el uso de datos primarios vinculados a la composición de las dietas del Instituto Nacional de Estadística del Perú (INEI). La Tabla 1 muestra el valor de CO 2 eq en kg resultante de la producción de una gama de productos alimenticios que se encuentran en las comidas Qali Warma. [2] http://sdv.midis.gob.pe/infomidis/#/ 5. Para calcular la cantidad de CO 2 eq/kg asociada al transporte se usó la \"Guía para el Uso Eficiente de la Energía y el Diagnóstico Energético\" del Ministerio de Energía y Minas del Ministerio de Energía y Minas. 54 6. Con el fin de evaluar la huella media de CO 2 eq de cada tipo de producto alimenticio utilizado por Qali Warma, la información del libro de recetas de Qali Warma Costa Norte se transformó en una base de datos como se muestra en la Tabla 1. Utilizando el código de producto que aparece en las Tablas de Composición de Alimentos Peruanos, es posible determinar los kg de CO 2 eq para cada tipo de desayuno y almuerzo. Esto fue combinado con los datos de InfoMIDIS, MIDIS (2018) 55 y ENAHO [3] respecto el número de beneficiarios diferenciados por nivel escolar (23%-30 % preescolar y 70%-73 % primaria) en los cuatro departamentos que forman el foco de este análisis, así como el porcentaje relativo de productos (75%) y raciones (25%) consumidos.En cuanto a la cantidad de CO 2 eq emitida por el transporte de cada alimento, el número total de toneladas de alimentos utilizados por el programa se combinó con los datos del MINEM sobre las emisiones del transporte bajo tres escenarios de compra pública alternativos: (i) 100% localmente (dentro de un radio de 50 km), (ii) 50% localmente y 50% no local (radio promedio 525 km) y (iii) 100% de Lima (radio 1.000 km). [3] Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) que en el Fase II también se puede utilizar para obtener información sobre indicadores relacionados con el riego, uso del agua y agroquímicos y la diversidad a nivel de cultivos.Las figuras 3 y 4 presentan un análisis de la huella promedio de CO 2 eq de los almuerzos y desayunos del \"producto\" Qali Warma. Como los niños en edad preescolar tienden a consumir menos, su huella es menor (1.160 kg de CO 2 eq en 2014) que la de los estudiantes de primaria (1.470 kg de CO 2 eq). Además, se pueden observar claras diferencias entre los menús. Para los estudiantes de primaria, los kg de CO 2 eq variaron entre 0,24 y 1,57 (promedio = 0,91) dependiendo del menú del almuerzo, mientras que para los desayunos esto varió entre 0,14 y 0,31 (promedio = 0,22). La menor huella del almuerzo se asoció con el menú del almuerzo del miércoles (pescado, arroz y frijoles), mientras que la más alta (con emisiones >6,5 mayores) se asoció con el menú del viernes (carne de res, arroz y frijoles). Esto coincide con los hallazgos en otros lugares donde la carne de vacuno [4] ha sido identificada como uno de los productos que se asocia con altas emisiones. 56,57 El análisis de los desayunos servidos (Figura 4) revela que los desayunos que contienen pescado tienen las huellas más bajas, mientras que los que incluyen leche tienen mayores emisiones (>2,2 mayores). Se puede hacer un análisis similar para los desayunos de \"ración\" de la escuela primaria (que van desde 0,27-0,39, promedio = 0,32), revelando que los desayunos de ración tienen una huella de CO 2 eq más alta que los desayunos de producto (los almuerzos están hechos con productos únicamente) [Figura 5]. Arroz con leche con galleta de soda Harina de trigo con leche con galleta de soda con manjar blanco Hojuela de avena con lomito de pescado con arroz Mazamorra de avena con leche con cachanga de trigo con manjar blanco Harina de maíz con fideos en salsa de pescado Promedio CO 2 eq kg Inicial Promedio CO 2 eq kg Primaria 1 Arroz con leche con galleta de soda Harina de trigo con leche con pan con croqueta de pescado 2Harina de maíz con fideos en salsa de pescado Hojuela de avena con leche con pan con manjar blanco 3 Harina de trigo con leche con galleta de soda con manjar blanco Maíz con leche con pan con huevo sancochado 4 Hojuela de avena con lomito de pescado con arroz Sémola con leche con pan con manjar blanco 5 Mazamorra de avena con leche con cachanga de trigo con manjar blanco Mazamorra de arroz con leche con pan con lomito de pollo CO 2 eq kgs Productos (Primaria) CO 2 eq kgs Raciones (Primaria) Diferencia CO 2 eq kg Fuente: Autores.Con respecto a las emisiones de CO 2 eq asociadas al transporte (y bajo la suposición de que los productos alimenticios se transportan en camiones de 30T asociados a un consumo de gasóleo de 12,62 l/100km y por tanto a emisiones de 0,331 kg por camión/ km 58 ), cada 100 toneladas de productos alimenticios transportados dan como resultado 55,11 kg de CO 2 eq si se compran localmente. Esto aumenta a 578,62 kg si se compra 50% localmente y 50% no localmente, y a 1,102 kg si se compra desde Lima. Cuando se compara con los datos de la Tabla 1, se puede ver que la huella de CO 2 eq relacionada con el transporte es relativamente modesta, la que varía, dependiendo del escenario de distancia de compra (local vs. ciudad capital) del 0,11% al 2,3% de la huella de CO 2 eq asociada con la producción per se. Los valores más altos se asocian con el transporte desde lugares más distantes y aquellos productos con huellas de producción de CO 2 eq relativamente más bajas asociadas con ellos (como el azúcar y los frijoles).Basándose en el recetario Qali Warma Costa Norte y los datos sobre las emisiones de CO 2 eq asociadas con la producción de los productos alimenticios, se puede ver que los diferentes tipos de comidas tienen huellas de CO 2 eq muy diferentes, con algunas huellas como las de ciertos almuerzos de escuelas primarias que son más de 6,5 veces mayores (1,57 ÷ 0,24 kg CO 2 eq). También hay diferencias entre las comidas de productos y las comidas de raciones, con las raciones de desayuno de la escuela primaria siendo asociada con una huella de 1,45 veces más (0,32 ÷ 0,22) que los de los productos.Por lo tanto, es evidente que existe la posibilidad de reducir las huellas de CO 2 eq mediante la selección de diferentes comidas y, en menor medida, mediante el uso de productos en lugar de raciones. Con el fin de identificar comidas que contienen perfiles calóricos y nutricionales equivalentes, además de tener costos similares, se podría utilizar la programación lineal para identificar aquellas con la huella de CO 2 eq más baja.Un análisis de la huella de CO 2 eq del transporte de los productos alimenticios revela que aunque las compras no locales pueden tener un impacto 20 veces mayor, en general el impacto es relativamente pequeño (0,11%-2,3%) en comparación con la huella de producción.1. Identificar el potencial para servir comidas con menor huella de CO 2 eq, cuando sea posible, la eliminación de las comidas que actualmente tienen las huellas más grandes, basando más comidas en productos en lugar de raciones y mediante el uso de programación lineal para identificar una gama de nuevos menús que podrían sustituirlos.2. Mejorar la precisión de los datos de huella de CO 2 eq, refinando los datos de Vásquez-Rowe et al. ( 2017) tal que se pueda distinguir mejor entre las diferencias potenciales en las huellas de la producción agrícola de escala grande vs. familiar para productos alimenticios idénticos.3. Obtener datos relacionados con los lugares de compra actuales, de modo que se pueda obtener una medida más precisa de la huella de transporte de CO 2 eq, incluso para aquellos basados en productos importados, como trigo, arroz y leche.4. Obtener estimaciones de la huella de CO 2 eq asociada al embalaje, tanto para poder generar estimaciones más precisas de las huellas no relacionadas con la producción más allá del transporte, pero también para poder distinguir mejor entre las huellas de los productos y las raciones.5. Incorporar otros indicadores ambientales, económicos y sociales (incluyendo gobernanza y trabajo). Por ejemplo, con respecto a este último, los indicadores SAFA relacionados con bienestar social (FAO, 2013, p.261) contienen una serie de indicadores potencialmente relevantes que podrían utilizarse. [5] Los indicadores ambientales adicionales podrían relacionarse con el agua (riego) y el uso de agroquímicos, que es probable que sea significativamente mayor en la producción a escala grande que en la agricultura familar. Tales impactos podrían medirse en términos de sus volúmenes de uso (datos de ENAHO disponibles, aunque no necesariamente distinguen por la escala de la producción) pero también en términos de kg de CO 2 eq basados en el uso de energía para la producción de agroquímicos o el bombeo de agua de riego.También deben tenerse en cuenta los indicadores relacionados con la agrobiodiversidad. Los indicadores SAFA de integridad ambiental que podrían adaptarse para este fin se refieren a la medición de la proporción de la producción que incluye variedades distintas de las más comunes para cada especie comprada (p. 116); y/o la proporción de la producción correspondiente a las variedades adaptadas localmente y a las variedades raras y tradicionales (p. 118).En este contexto de evaluación de los impactos sobre la agrobiodiversidad de los programas de compra de alimentos, se puede señalar que para las variedades amenazadas de cultivos como la quinua que están asociadas con una meta de conservación de un área de 5 ha/variedad 59 y rendimientos de ≈800kg/ha para las variedades tradicionales, que generar demanda para tal nivel de producción requeriría 80 g a ser utilizado en 50.000 comidas (5 x 800 ÷ 0,08). Suponiendo que hay 200 días al año en los que se pueden servir tales comidas, para 100 variedades de este tipo esto equivale a 200.000 comidas (50.000 x 100 ÷ 200) o solo el 0,68% de las comidas que Qali Warma sirvió a los 3,7 millones de niños beneficiarios en 2017 (25.000 ÷ 3,7m), suponiendo que cada uno recibió por lo menos una comida por día. Por lo tanto, la capacidad de Qali Warma para apoyar el mantenimiento de variedades nutritivas de cultivos nativos amenazados es alto y se debe seguir trabajando con respecto a la identificación y el abastecimiento local de dichas variedades amenazadas, así como el monitoreo del impacto de dicha compra en apoyo a los objetivos de conservación.6. Ampliar el análisis a otras regiones del Perú más allá de la Costa Norte.La producción y compra de alimentos están asociadas con impactos ambientales significativos.En consecuencia, las organizaciones públicas y privadas (como el programa de alimentación escolar Qali Warma, las universidades, los hospitales, las prisiones, las fuerzas armadas y las empresas mineras) que participan en la compra de alimentos ocupan una posición importante para apoyar el desarrollo sostenible.Sin embargo, el potencial de utilizar tales programas de compras para promover la sostenibilidad de la agrobiodiversidad en línea con la legislación nacional y los compromisos internacionales sigue siendo en gran medida inexplorado.El desarrollo de una herramienta \"Aliméntame Sosteniblemente\" capaz de evaluar los impactos en una variedad de escenarios (entre otros: Negocio como siempre, Aumento de la compra local, Amigable con la Agrobiodiversidad) puede apoyar la identificación de buenas prácticas, áreas de mejora y medidas específicas para aumentar la sostenibilidad alimentaria. La herramienta, con potencial aplicabilidad global, será de beneficio para los responsables de la elaboración de políticas, los gerentes de compra de alimentos, las asociaciones de agricultores y escuelas, las ONG y las empresas del sector privado.El desarrollo de una herramienta de apoyo a la toma de decisiones y su puesta a prueba en el contexto del programa de alimentación escolar Qali Warma de Perú permitirá explorar cómo el aumento de la compra local y la incorporación de variedades de cultivos amenazados en sus comidas puede conducir a cambios en el contenido nutricional, la aceptabilidad, los impactos socioambientales y el costo.La aplicación de la herramienta FSM se puede utilizar para informar la identificación y ampliación de buenas prácticas y experiencias piloto a otras partes del Perú. El desarrollo de herramientas también es particularmente oportuno en el contexto del recientemente lanzado Plan Nacional de Agricultura Familiar (asociado con la Ley # 30355), que incluye incentivos financieros para aquellos que compran a los pequeños agricultores.Los problemas de disponibilidad de datos deben abordarse a través de un enfoque de tres fases (desarrollo de conceptos, implementación inicial e implementación a profundidad), lo que permite que los resultados iniciales basado en cifras aproximadas se generen con bastante rapidez, pero con aplicaciones cada vez más sofisticadas a lo largo del tiempo. El desarrollo continuo de herramientas se llevará a cabo en la Fase I en el contexto de un proceso de diálogo con las principales partes interesadas.La adición de alimentos agrobiodiversos de origen local de los pequeños agricultores requerirá el compromiso de los municipios y los gobiernos regionales, así como el desarrollo de la capacidad de los agricultores y sus asociaciones para que puedan cumplir con los estándares de calidad necesarios y producir a una escala suficiente. Las normas aplicables podrían ser las de los organismos reguladores del Perú (SENASA y DIGESA, en este caso), y la certificación SGP (Sistemas de Garantía Participativa).Este estudio se llevó a cabo como parte del programa de Economía de la Conservación y Uso Sostenible de los Recursos Genéticos de la Alianza de Bioversity International y el CIAT. El estudio es parte del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR sobre Políticas, Instituciones y Mercados (PIM), y es financiado con fondos del PIM, que es dirigido por el Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias (IFPRI). PIM a su vez es apoyado por múltiples donantes (http://www.pim.cgiar.org/donors/). Este documento no ha pasado por el procedimiento estándar de revisión por pares del IFPRI. Las opiniones expresadas aquí pertenecen a los autores, y no reflejan necesariamente las posturas de la Alianza, PIM, IFPRI o CGIAR.","tokenCount":"5600"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"92ae7e2121bd49d03d5863c8caf8f726","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48e8a3f8-a7e6-4ad8-b9cf-b05ae195ef0c/retrieve","id":"727948430"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cdd9cbb9-84df-42ba-a37a-30cf0d5eea8e","pagecount":"32","content":"CGIAR's Fragility, Conflict, and Migration (FCM) Initiative seeks to identify entry points for where food, land, and water system (FLWS) resilience and sustainability principles can produce co-benefits for sustainable development and peace across the various components of the Humanitarian-Development-Peace (HDP) nexus. Activities organised under Work Package 2 of FCM specifically support the development of an improved understanding of the intersection of climate change, conflict, and fragility, and trans-spatial mobility dynamics for the delivery of effective and contextspecific programming across the spectrum of mobility (those at risk of displacement, displaced populations, and host communities). Moreover, research work conducted under this work package additionally seeks to assess the role that FLWS innovations and solutions can play in transitioning from short-term humanitarian support interventions and emergency aid into longer-term support programs for the generation of sustainable and climate resilient livelihoods as well as peaceful communal relationships.Displacement crises in the MENA region are often protracted. People who are displaced due to protracted conflicts, often combined with political, socio-economic, and climate change issues, may remain in a situation of displacement for prolonged periods of time. This situation leads to a blurring of definitions around what constitutes an emergency situation, and at what stage emergency response modalities should be transitioning into alternative support mechanisms, such as those related to development assistance. At panel discussions organized by CGIAR, including a session on climate, mobility and peace held at COP28, mobility experts and representatives of humanitarian agencies emphasized increasing challenges around distinguishing between short-term humanitarian responses versus longer-term development interventions in the context of protracted displacement. Given that several crisis situations in MENA countries such as Syria, Libya, Yemen, Sudan, or the Occupied Palestinian Territories have been continuing for years (and in some cases decades) rather than months, humanitarian organizations are finding it hard to define at what point an emergency situation ends and development aid starts.Research carried out as part of the FCM initiative has helped shed light on the complex landscape of humanitarian aid, social protection programs, and development initiatives community members (both host and refugee populations) benefit from. The assessment here is particularly concerned with the questions of where and how existing humanitarian aid programs can and should be gradually supplemented by, or transitioned towards, longer-term livelihood support programs -and where FLWS resilience and sustainability principles could potentially aid in this transition.This brief provides a short taxonomy of the different types of humanitarian and livelihoods support programs that Jordanian nationals and refugees hosted by the Jordanian state currently have access to, and identifies some preliminary future needs. It therefore focuses particularly on, firstly, how existing short-term support programs can transition into longer-term livelihood and development programs, and secondly, what local communities (and the various groups within) identified as priority needs in terms of livelihood support, particularly in the context of building livelihoods that are more resilient to climate change impacts. This brief is based on a literature review as well as on primary data collected by CGIAR's MENA Regional Climate Security Hub team as part of the FCM initiative between October and December 2023. Besides meetings and interviews conducted with key experts and practitioners in Amman, the team collected data in the two case study communities of Azraq Oasis (Zarqa Governorate) and North Shuna (located in the Jordan Valley in Irbid Governorate). Data was derived from 30 in-depth, semi-structured key informant interviews carried out with a mix of stakeholders in the two communities, including refugees and host community members, as well as a focus group discussion and a participatory workshop in each community.Following the 2016 Humanitarian Summit, humanitarian interventions have been increasingly informed by the Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus (HDP Nexus). This new approach emphasises stronger cooperation, collaboration, and coordination between humanitarian, development, and peacebuilding efforts to ensure collective outcomes on the basis of coherent, complementary, and risk-informed analysis, planning, and action. In the context of this understanding, a greater degree of integration of humanitarian, development, and peace-related planning and implementation is intended. However, in a context characterised by protracted crisis, the transfer from the provision of humanitarian aid, designed to support immediate basic needs, towards longer-term development and livelihood support -whilst simultaneously attempting to conceptualise and mainstream a peace component -can be challenging, for a multitude of different reasons.Firstly, the humanitarian, development, and peace sectors have developed distinct system structures and protocols over time that are difficult to reverse and re-orient towards a coherent whole (Swithern and Schreiber, 2023). Humanitarian response, for instance, tends to be highly coordinated, with cooperation amongst organisations operating within the humanitarian cluster usually taking part in formalised coordination mechanisms that invest in and incentivise operational alignment. The development pillar, by contrast, operates primarily at the strategic level and is aligned to bilateral political dialogues (with little incentives to alter this way of working), whilst the peace pillar is comprised of such diverse sets of actors and mandates that it sometimes confounds effective integration into overarching collective outcomes. These divergences mean that humanitarian, development, and peace actors often have different objectives, attitudes towards risk, and differential metrics for success (Swithern and Schreiber, 2023). Secondly, operationalising a Nexus-based approach entails significant transaction costs that organisations need to consciously account for, including for example the need to assign dedicated staff to maintain attention and momentum as well as other associated operational costs (Land et al., 2022). Investments in both soft skills and protocols are required to engage a complex web of stakeholders. Such efforts are often hindered by a lack of clarity and contestation with regards to where the centre of gravity for coordination sits, as well as a reluctance on the part of donor governments and agencies to invest in such activities (Swithern and Schreiber, 2023;Dalrymple, Thomas, and Hanssen, 2021).Thirdly, humanitarian, development, and peace budgets channel through very different mechanisms and cycles. Rather than bridge across the three pillars, financing sources and instruments often have the opposite effect and prioritise humanitarian funding, engender competition, and, disincentivise operational coordination. UN Official Development Assistance (ODA) for instance grew 32% between 2012 and 2017, compared to a 156% increase of humanitarian ODA over the same period (UNMPTF, 2019). Humanitarian funding as such continues to form the bulk of financial inflow into the majority of country contexts. Furthermore, humanitarian and development partners tend to request funding separately, whilst donors similarly provide funding in a rather fragmented manner. UN-led humanitarian appeals may be consolidated at country level under the coordination of the UN emergency relief coordination, yet the fundraising itself is not coordinated, with individual organisations fundraising and receiving funds directly from donors (Swithern and Schreiber, 2023). Development funds -including many peace-related tracts -are meanwhile mainly channelled bilaterally and are as such contingent upon political dialogue between states.Despite these challenges, efforts are underway to improve the capacity of actors to coherently respond to protracted crises. This includes, on the one hand, a set of coordinating structures and platforms, and, on the other hand, the deployment of joint analytical exercises and objective setting (including in Jordan). With regard to the former -and reflecting the nature of the crisis Jordan has faced for the last decade or so -the Nexus discussion within Jordan is spearheaded by several UN agencies, including OCHA, UNHCR, and the Resident Coordinator's Office (RCO). Under the leadership of these entities, the aid community in Jordan has established several structures to lay the foundations for HDP Nexus implementation in the country, most notably including the Humanitarian Development Partners Group (HDPG), established in 2018; the Humanitarian Partners Forum (HPF), a sector-specific forum for humanitarian entities; and the Nexus Task Team (NTT), established in 2019 to explore the humanitarian-development nexus in Jordan. The NTT is furthermore directly supported by several donor secondees (UK/DFID, followed thereafter by a Swiss secondment) working specifically to further the Nexus in Jordan and facilitate the NTT (Ludin et al., 2022). Whilst this early-stage donor involvement is a sensible step -thereby allowing financing and strategic priorities to evolve in lockstep with one another -it is unclear whether this has translated into significant in-country donor coordination around the Nexus, such as through the establishment of a multi-donor fund.With regards to coordinating processes such as joint analytical and planning exercises, HDP Nexus entities in Jordan have engaged in a number of collective exercises. Joint or complimentary analyses are critical to operationalising the HDP Nexus, acting as the foundation for a shared understanding of risks, needs, and necessary responses, although conducting such exercises can be hampered by a disjointed analytical landscape in which sector-specific analyses lead to duplication, and a lack of inter-operability between data collection and storage systems can disincentivise information sharing (Swithern and Schreiber, 2023). Within Jordan, multiple agencies took part in a Joint Common Vulnerability Assessment (JCVA), underpinned by an inter-agency Vulnerability Assessment Framework (VAF) (enacted both biannually as well as quarterly), as well as conducting a Common Country Analysis (CCA) in 2020, thereby forging a common understanding across the UN system and IFIs. The VAF acts as a multi-sectoral framework supporting the humanitarian and development community to establish shared and consistent data about refugee vulnerability in Jordan to enable the monitoring of changes over time. The framework targets programmes in a more efficient and equitable manner, based on the application of common vulnerability criteria, and strengthens coordination and decision-making to inform the delivery of assistance and promote the self-reliance of refugees (Ludin et al., 2022).These joint analytical exercises have to some extent translated into coherent planning efforts, coalescing around several instruments including the Humanitarian Response Plan (HRP), the UN Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF), the Jordan Response Plan (JRP), and the Joint Funding Agreement (JFA). Whilst efforts are therefore underway at the strategic level to promote alignment across collective outcomes, at the operational level, a prioritisation of humanitarian activities over longer term development and conflict prevention, mediation, and peacebuilding is apparent. Development with the aim of achieving self-reliance and resilience is less effectively targeted, particularly within the scope of humanitarian assistance, meaning that active coordination in the shape of tactical alignment and fused programming is not as of yet occurring successfully on a large scale (Ludin et al., 2022). The case of Jordan therefore shows that, in a practical context, implementation and operationalisation of the HDP nexus can be challenging, which raises several questions. Up to what point is emergency support for refugees useful and appropriate, and what parameters are set by political frameworks? Where would more meaningful and formal integration into local communities and economies make sense, and how could such efforts be facilitated? Where is operational alignment between humanitarian, development, and peace interventions currently lacking, and how can it be improved?Jordan is a country that has been heavily impacted by regional mobility and displacement caused by protracted crises throughout the region, some of which have been argued to have been at least partially shaped by climate change impacts. A country that is home to a total population of 11.3 million inhabitants, Jordan currently hosts almost 3 million officially registered refugees, including over 2 million Palestinian refugees, 760,000 Syrian refugees (UNHCR, 2023), and an additional estimated 1.3 million unregistered Syrian refugees (Breulmann et al., 2021). The majority of these refugees have been residing in the country for over a decade, or several in the case of the multiple generations of Palestinian refugees. The majority of Syrian refugees by contrast arrived in Jordan as a result of the civil war in Syria, which commenced in 2011, and many have as such been supported by humanitarian support and emergency aid in various forms for over a decade. Palestinian refugees residing in camps furthermore still continue to receive public services through the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA).Yet throughout their residence in Jordan, many refugees have sought to establish a livelihood for themselves in addition to the humanitarian cash transfers they are entitled to. First, second, and third generations of Palestinian refugees have for instance established a life for themselves in Jordan after most have been granted Jordanian citizenship, enabling them to find employment and making them eligible for a variety of social insurance schemes and mechanisms. Syrian refugees -usually excluded from said social insurance schemes and in many cases legally prohibited from seeking formal employment opportunities -have also found alternative sources of income or ways to circumvent the legal restrictions they face. Some of the most common strategies for doing so include identifying work in poorly regulated or informal sectors -such as construction or agricultureor registering businesses and assets in the name of Jordanian friends or family members whilst retaining the income themselves. There is a fairly widespread perception amongst Jordanians that although Syrian refugees are welcome in their country, they receive unfair financial support by both receiving humanitarian aid and entering the work force (Stave and Hillesund, 2015).Notably, the majority of refugees hosted in Jordan reside in and amongst host communities, rather than camps or other designated separate areas, which can indeed put considerable pressure on public service infrastructure, natural resource management, housing, and labour markets of these communities (Achilli, 2015;Kumaraswamy and Singh, 2017;Simpson and Abo Zayed, 2019;Yamamoto, 2019). The long-term hosting and integration of refugees presents challenges for communities already struggling with water scarcity, food insecurity, unemployment, and the impacts of climate change (Faristha, 2014;Hussein et al., 2020). Although refugees are politically and discursively portrayed as temporary guests in the country, the hosting situation for local communities has been ongoing for a decade and more, thus representing a long-term situation that has had profound impacts on local livelihoods, economies, and resilience strategies.It is in this context that targeted humanitarian and transitional livelihood support programs can make a significant difference to local livelihood strategies, inter-communal relations, and climate adaptation and resilience capacities. Yet the complex patchwork of different, multi-generational refugee groups and the various support programs these different groups are eligible for in Jordan serves to complicate the distinction between short-and long-term support, the boundaries of agency and government responsibility, as well as the implementation of a coordinated HDP Nexus approach (see section 5 for more information). Understanding this landscape from the perspective of both host and refugee community members -and identifying to extent to which existing programmes met their needs and ambitions in the context of a changing climate -underpins the rationale of this research. Boxes 1 and 2 provide short introductory overviews of the two case study communities where the research was conducted.Azraq is an oasis town located in the Jordan's rangeland area (Badia, which receives less than 200 mm of rainfall per year), in Zarqa Governorate. Zarqa is among the governorates that hosts the largest number of refugees. Not only does the Governorate host Azraq camp, one of the largest refugee camps in Jordan, but Azraq's population has also increased significantly over the past decade due to the influx of Syrian and Iraqi refugees. The area is also home to multiple ethnic groups including Druze and Chechens, the latter of which -fleeing Russian persecution -were drawn to the town in the early 20th century for its farming and fishing opportunities. Aside from this, a substantial Bedouin population also calls the area home. Azraq camp, located around 15 km outside the oasis, houses around 20,000 refugees in approximately 5,000 shelters, mainly from Syria.Farmers around Azraq conduct a mix of rainfed and irrigated agriculture, while livestock plays an important part in the livelihoods of the Bedouin communities living around Azraq. While irrigated agriculture is less immediately susceptible to climate change impacts than rainfed agriculture, the Amman Zarqa groundwater basin suffers from considerable overextraction, which has led to a severe decline in groundwater levels (Al Wreikat and Kharabsheh, 2020). The distribution and usage of limited water resources forms a point of contention between farmers (supported by a strong political lobby), domestic users (represented by the water authorities that rely on the aquifer for domestic water supply), as well as a wetland ecosystem (Oberhauser, Hägele, and Dombrowsky, 2023). Salt extraction from the Azraq mudflat was mentioned by many of our respondents as Azraq's most significant local economic activity that used to provide employment for a large portion of the local community. When the salt refinery was closed, many local residents lost their employment. Young people who have been experimenting with ways to revive the salt business in Azraq say they lack both skills and investment to succeed.Refugees and migrants in Azraq mainly engage in day labour in the agricultural sector and work in the service sector, finding employment in local businesses such as restaurants and shops. According to our informants, there is a significant number of refugees who are either not registered or who have left Azraq camp, perhaps in part due to challenging living conditions in the camp, which for instance had no reliable access to an electrical grid until 2017-2018 when it became the world's first solar powered refugee camp (UNHCR, 2017).The Jordan Valley is the part of Jordan where most intensive agriculture is located. Access to the Jordan River as a water source provides a larger scope for irrigated agriculture in the area, and the Jordan Valley's relatively warmer temperatures and fertile soils led to the valley becoming an agricultural production and export area as early as 3,000 BC. Larger commercial farms as well as small-to medium-sized farmlands are located in the Jordan Valley, some of which use protected agriculture infrastructure such as greenhouses for more intensive food production. The Jordan Valley is famous for its horticulture, with citrus, olives, and dates representing major tree crops, but also for vegetable production (Mourad et al., 2009). The Jordanian Government has been promoting the planting of tropical crops such as papaya and avocado given their high value and demand in the market. Local farmers sell their crops almost exclusively on the Jordanian market, most commonly in large cities such as Amman and Irbid.Farmers receive their irrigation water mainly from nearby storage dams, where excess irrigation and surface water is stored throughout the winter months to enable irrigation during the summer. Farmers receive water through water user's associations that receive infrastructural support in the form of development projects funded by various foreign governments (Tawfik, M.H et al., 2023). Most farmers complained about a lack of irrigation water in interviews, as well as about a shift in seasons and rainfalls. Farmers do not have to irrigate their crops for several months throughout the winter, given that rainfall suffices for irrigation during these months. Other climate change impacts are heat and cold, and farmers complain about a rise in the occurrence of agricultural pests. Adapting farms to climate change impacts is costly, and farmers complain about a lack of support in shouldering these costs.The Jordan Valley also provides opportunities for formal, informal, and daily agricultural labor, and therefore forms something of a magnet for migrants seeking to work in Jordan and generate remittances for their families in their country of origin (many of whom are Egyptian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi) (Razzaz S., 2017). Those agri-businesses that make use of greenhouses and packhouses for agricultural produce particularly seek female labor. Given the Jordan Valley's proximity to Israel, refugees are currently prohibited from working and settling so close to the border, meaning that North Shuna hosts no refugees, other than a handful of Syrians who got married to Jordanians and have permanently settled in the community.Jordan provides a breadth of humanitarian, social protection, and development programs that are accessible to different population groups. Even among the refugee population, it is worth noting that different types of refugees enjoy different types of legal status in Jordan and have access to various support mechanisms. Jordan hosts the second-highest number of refugees per capita (UNHCR, 2023). UNHCR as registered 730,000 refugees in Jordan, the majority of whom are Syrians, and the remainder from Iraq, Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia. According to UNHCR (2023), 81% of refugees reside in host communities rather than in camps, while UNHCR supports 200,000 refugees residing in both camps and host communities with regular cash assistance to cover their basic needs. Refugees under this category are not granted Jordanian citizenship and have limited rights when it comes to establishing a livelihood in Jordan (see below).Different conditions apply to refugees from Palestine. In 2023, UNWRA cites a total number of just over 2.3 million registered Palestinian refugees in Jordan (UNWRA, 2023). Around 300,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Jordan from the West Bank and Gaza after the 1967 conflict saw the Arab armies defeated and both Gaza and the West Bank returning under the control of the Israeli military (Amnesty International, 2023). Around 18% of these refugees live in ten official camps and 3 unofficial camps, whilst the remainder resides embedded within Jordanian communities. The Palestinian camps themselves have over the course of several decades adopted the appearance of open villages and towns with permanent housing, however, all public services -including education and health care -are still facilitated by UNWRA, even several decades after the camps were established. According to Amnesty international (2023), only three quarters of the Palestinian refugees hold full Jordanian citizenship with the national identification number that permits them to work and to access health and educational services. However, most of the Palestinian refugees who originate from Gaza do not hold Jordanian citizenship.In this context, it is important to note that Jordanian nationals and refugees have access to different types of social support. While Jordanian nationals are eligible for different types of social protection, refugees usually receive support in the form of shelter and/or cash transfers and food vouchers, legal support, support with education and vocational training, as well as some entrepreneurship programs offered by international aid agencies and NGOs.Most refugee groups -other than some Palestinian refugees -are not granted Jordanian nationality and are thus not eligible for state-based social protection schemes. Several UN-based humanitarian agencies such as UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF provide direct emergency support to refugees residing in camps or host communities in Jordan, including cash transfers and food vouchers. In addition to cash transfers, the World Food Programme (WFP) has been providing food assistance to Syrian refugees in Jordan since mid-2012. It has evolved from providing hot meals to paper vouchers and e-vouchers, and finally, starting in 2017, to unconditional cash transfers. Staring in 2017, UNHCR similarly began a phased transition from restricted (e-vouchers) to unrestricted cash assistance, allowing beneficiaries to redeem the entirety or parts of their entitlement both at cash withdrawal points and WFPcontracted shops (Assaad et al., 2022). Several organizations such as UNHCR, the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) and Save the Children also contribute to a large-scale winterization program in Jordan. These involve the distribution of blankets, heating equipment and clothes, along with cash transfers. In 2020-21 about 90,000 families were supported under the winterization program (Assaad et al., 2022).Whilst UCT and food assistance programs have been reported to increase the quality of life among refugees in Jordan by reducing anxiety and povertyrelated stress, as well as an increasing dignity and a sense of self-worth among women, practitioners question the usefulness of UCTs in the context of protracted displacement. As many of these assistance programs for refugees are designed to cover immediate needs for survival, they are argued to have limited utility in supporting the establishment of longer-term livelihoods, facilitating the build-up of financial capital, and improving resilience and self-reliance. Moreover, the amounts of cash assistance that can be made available to refugees is largely dependent on international donor payments as well as on legal regimes in Jordan. Commentators have noted that funding amounts for refugee assistance in Jordan have been decreasing, particularly in the context of emerging crises in Ukraine and the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Moreover, representatives of the aid community in Jordan have noted that the maximum monthly cash transfers is being restricted by the Government of Jordan, partly to encourage a return of refugees to their home countries.Beyond immediate cash transfer and food support programs, humanitarian and international NGOs have been attempting to address the capacity gaps and needs of refugees in accessing work opportunities in Jordan. Several organizations have started to invest in medium-term capacity development and entrepreneurship programs that support refugees in building more sustainable livelihoods in Jordan. WFP is, for instance, currently in the process of implementing a skills survey among the refugee community in Jordan for refugees in its latest Country Strategic Plan (CSP). Other actors, such as the German Development Cooperation (GIZ), have been implementing a short-term co-working programme modality designed for both refugees and Jordanian nationals called Cash for Work.Funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), the Cash for Work Programme has been implemented since 2017. Through the creation of short-term (usually 3 month) paid employment opportunities and training programs aimed at unskilled and semi-skilled workers, Cash for Work's goal is to support the livelihoods of refugees and host communities in Jordan. Opportunities for employment tend to include the rehabilitation of irrigation systems, soil conservation, and road construction and maintenance. The overall strategic objective of the programme is to produce social, economic, and ecological co-benefits for those engaging in the programme as well as broader society, with the programme supporting the maintenance of public infrastructure and increase ecosystem resilience whilst simultaneously providing paid labour for mixed groups of refugees and Jordanian nationals. Furthermore, by enshrining a participation quota of 50% Jordanian and 50% refugee participation -as well as a quota of 25% for female participations -the programme additionally forms a socio-economic vehicle through which contact between Jordanians and refugees is promoted and improved social cohesion can be sought. Up to December 2023, the Cash for Work program had employed over 15,000 workers (54% refugees and 46% Jordanians, with a 21% female participation rate). Work opportunities for the Cash for Work Programme are in part identified by the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA)regarding work around dam and water infrastructure -as well as by the Ministry of Agriculture, in the context of tree planting and nurseries.The Cash for Work Programme partners with local NGOs in order to successfully implement its activities, with these local partners usually being responsible for transportation, training, and employment and insurance processes for the workers, who are usually recruited from communities around the place of employment. Since its inception, Cash for Work workers in Jordan have worked on 4 out 10 dams managed by the JVA, have constructed 160 check dams, have contributed to cleaning dams and sedimentation measurement, have planted a total of 280,000 trees. Some activities have also focused on disaster risk reduction and management activities, with Cash for Work teams operating out of Zaatari Camp having for instance created canals with a total length of 24 kilometres to manage excess precipitation and reduce the risk of flooding. Cash for Work has additionally organized a total of 8,000 skills trainings and some 250 women have been trained as trainers.Cash for Work has previously been hailed for its potential to boost local economic development and promote entrepreneurial and other technical skills amongst participants, thereby potentially even producing secondary benefits for non-participating households in communities (Loewe and Zintl, 2023). Research has also shown that the programs can help forge social cohesion among refugee and host community participants, who receive identical training and salaries as part of their participation in the Cash for Work Programme (Zintl and Loewe, 2022). Moreover, as previously indicated, a portion of the Cash for Work Programme directly contributes to the sustainability of Jordan's water infrastructure through the maintenance of key infrastructure and ecosystems. Given the country's extreme water scarcity, Jordan is highly dependent on the functionality of its dams for both household, agricultural, and industrial water supplies, whilst reforestation activities can moreover serve to counteract soil erosion and provide a measure of protection against flash floods. A high-ranking respondent from the Jordan Valley Authority for instance expressed satisfaction with the Cash for Work Programme's achievements in Jordan, particularly in relation to the maintenance of the country's water infrastructure. Through the strategic identification of priority sectors and partners within Jordan, the Cash for Work Programme has therefore arguably been able to produce co-benefits across a range of themes and dimensions, including through contributing to Jordan's overall climate resilience.On the other hand, however, the programme is not without its detractors. One of the main criticisms levelled at the Cash for Work Programme centres around its inherently short-term nature, with one NGO representative previously contracted to conduct Cash for Work Programmes noting that those participating barely have sufficient time to complete their training before the programme cycle is complete. Other respondents similarly noted that rather than acting as a stepping stone towards more permanent, longer-term employment in the private sector, the Cash for Work Programme only provides a short-term alleviation of needs. Many have noted that sustainable longer-term employment would be much more beneficial to all stakeholders involved. The Cash for Work Programme is as such an excellent case study in how programmatic modalities are required to evolve in order to respond to changing livelihood requirements in the context of the protracted displacement of refugees of various nationalities in Jordan. Whilst a 3-month temporary employment may be beneficial in the context of short-term displacement, refugees who have been in the country for a decade or more require access to, and support in, identifying longerterm employment.Other examples of medium-to long-term support available to refugee communities include programmes offered by international NGOs, such as the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) and the Danish Refugee Council (DRC). The DRC is for example responsible for implementing the Refugee Investment Facility, a financing entity that disburses grants to small-and medium-sized, refugee-run enterprises and provides entrepreneurs and their families with immediate protection to mitigate risks that would jeopardize the business. Such programs are based on surveys and needs as well as market assessments, and encourage refugee entrepreneurs to develop their own business plans. However, generally speaking, providing medium-to long-term livelihood support and engaging in long-term resilience building activities for refugee communities residing in Jordan remains a legally opaque effort.According to UNHCR (2023), refugees residing in camps can obtain a work permit free of charge to work across the country in occupations open to non-Jordanians, including work outside of the boundaries of the camp itself. Flexible work permits for refugees are issued specifically for those engaged in the service industry, craft (and related trades), skilled agriculture, forestry and fishery-related activities, elementary occupations, and machine operators. This list includes work in quarries, bakeries, electricity and gas supplies, water, sewage and waste treatment, construction, vehicle repair, restaurant and hotel jobs, as well as in arts, entertainment, and recreation (UNHCR, 2023). Several of our respondents indicated that the Jordanian Government had, however, recently raised the cost for obtaining a work permit by almost 40 JOD (from around 20 JOD), thus making it harder for refugees residing outside camps to obtain a work permit. Most refugees are furthermore not permitted to start a business or purchase land, thereby forming significant obstacles to the build-up of capital. Nevertheless, many refugees have found labour in the informal sector, or have developed workarounds to engaging entrepreneurial activities, for example by partnering with Jordanian business or landowners.The Jordanian Government provides social protection for socially vulnerable groups, yet refugees are generally not entitled to social protection other than social benefits earned through formal employment. Jordan's policy towards the management and integration of its refugee population is thus different from that of some other countries hosting refugees, with South Sudan for example having agreed to include up to 50% of refugees into their state social protection schemes.Jordan's National Social Protection Strategy (NSPS) (2019-2025) was developed by the Jordanian Government and led by Ministers from the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD) and the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MOPIC) with support from UNICEF. Built around the axes of decent work and social security, social assistance, and social services, this strategy provides a social protection floor and thus indirectly contributes to the construction and maintenance of a social contract between state and citizens (Kamar et al., 2022;MoSD and UNICEF, 2019). Jordan's largest social assistance program and the largest cash transfer program in the MENA region is facilitated under the National Aid Fund (NAF). Which provides cash assistance to nearly 220,000 households of Jordanian nationality that fall below the poverty line or house members with disabilities (ILO, n.d. cited in Meddings et al., 2023). The monthly coverage of this program is further expanded through a Takaful program -an Islamic compliant alternative to conventional insurance acting as a co-operative system of reimbursement or repayment in case of loss -which was implemented in 2019 with support from international partners, including the World Bank (World Bank, 2023;Meddings et al., 2023). Jordanian nationals also benefit from social security schemes including free, state-based medical coverage and maternity leave, public sector pension and military retirement plans, as well as unemployment benefits.The Ministry of Social Development is furthermore currently in the process of designing a shock-responsive social protection strategy with assistance from WFP. While this new strategy builds on international examples of shock-responsive social protection, it currently does not address slow-onset climate risks, such as droughts. A further limitation of national social protection schemes is that individuals engaged in informal labour (who currently represent 46.1% of Jordan's workforce) do not have access to social benefits (Jordan Strategy Forum, 2023).In the two case study communities identified previously, there were several additional avenues for providing social support to both Jordanians and refugees. The Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs in North Shuna provides disaster support and shelter, charity payments to poor families, widows, and orphans, as well as a list of educational, mentoring, and psychological support programs. In Azraq, the Druze community established a private, community-based relief fund during the COVID-19 pandemic that provided financial support to families of all faiths and origins. According to some respondents, this and similar mechanisms remain in place to this day, suggesting that a number of perhaps more informal or at least private coping mechanisms and community-based protection schemes do exist to compliment where there is perhaps a shortfall in state-run social protection mechanisms. In addition to this, women are exhibiting particular leadership in establishing local associations and social support organizations, as well as microfinance programs and running revolving funds.International development agencies and agencies tied to donor governments have also been providing livelihood support to Jordanian communities through a variety of development initiatives and programs. Development programs implemented by entities such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), GIZ, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW) development bank, as well as by international non-governmental organizations such as CARE International and Save the Children, aim to produce programmes that generate and stimulate livelihood opportunities in particular for communities hosting refugees. Such programmes include those related to agriculture, such as the establishment of irrigation systems and related agricultural infrastructure to enable sustainable and climate-smart farming, as well as the establishment of community education and youth entrepreneurship centres. These programs are designed to ensure the supply of local communities with resources and public services, to create an impetus for local socio-economic development and thus generate employment opportunities, and to provide educational and vocational training opportunities that target skills and capacity gaps. Some programmes are designed to enhance social cohesion between host communities and refugees, foster gender equality and women's empowerment, provide awareness about domestic violence and early marriage, and provide children and youth spaces to learn, practice art, and be creative.The above list of various humanitarian and emergency aid programmes, social protection and insurance schemes, and livelihood support programmes refugees and Jordanians have access to in a context characterised by protracted displacement demonstrates that the border between short-and long-term support is somewhat blurred. Programs designed to provide immediate emergency support have been ongoing for years, while there have been only half-hearted approaches to provide longer-term livelihood support for refugees who are still perceived and legally identified as temporary guests, but who have been de facto shaping livelihoods in the midst of Jordanian communities for over a decade. As refugee crises become protracted, humanitarian agencies grapple with the question of when and how emergency relief or inherently more short-term programmatic modalities should gradually be supplemented by or transitioned towards longer-term resilience building activities. Whilst many organizations lack the appropriate frameworks to respond to a fundamentally changing displacement context, other challenges exist. These include:Short-term funding and project cycles that do not allow for sustainable approaches and incentivize short-term thinking and objective setting. A lack of systemic and sustained engagement with the Jordanian private sector, which would be able to help fund entrepreneurship and Cash for Work Programmes as well as make such programs more sustainable by helping extend beyond existing funding cycles and by providing channels for entry into the workforce and labour market. Challenges in establishing long-term partnerships with government institutions able to facilitate long-term social protection and livelihood support programs. Jordan's current legal frameworks around the management and integration of refugee populations, which as things currently exists, prohibits and limits the various avenues refugees may have towards longer-term integration and resilience.Particularly the last point is likely to continue to represent a major challenge when seeking to bridge and supplement short-and long-term programs. Whilst Jordan has been exceptionally welcoming of large numbers of refugees within its borders, existing legal frameworks are geared towards incentivizing a return to the country of origin rather than naturalizing refugees into Jordanian society. Given this context, the question remains how humanitarian programs can be transformed into or increasingly supplemented by longer-term development and resilience building schemes when the host country's legal situation does not foster long-term socioeconomic inclusion. Despite this, hundreds of thousands of refugees have remained in Jordan for decades and have created de facto livelihoods for themselves, especially those refugees living in host communities.Practitioners and beneficiaries alike have been criticising the short-term nature of many support programmes. Aid delivery modalities such as humanitarian cash transfers are designed to cover basic needs in a humanitarian emergency, and as such cannot help refugees build longerterm livelihoods through which they are able to generate self-reliance. The Cash for Work Programme, despite delivering a variety of positive outcomes related to social cohesion, capacity building and upskilling, and climate resilience, is at its core designed to support short-term employment only. International NGOs claim that closer partnerships with the private sector could help make programs such as Cash for Work less reliant on current funding cycles, and more likely to continue past the duration of direct donor engagement. A clearer vision on the future of refugees in Jordan could potentially help design programs that would enable refugees to contribute more proactively to all sectors of Jordan's economy, even if their duration of stay in the country was limited in time.In the context of building sustainable, resilient livelihoods in a cohesive and peace-responsive manner in communities hosting refugees it is critical to explore the extent to which existing humanitarian and livelihood support programs address an intersectionality of risk, particularly the interplay between social vulnerability, structural inequality, and vulnerability to climate change impacts.In this context, conceptualization of intersectionality is often limited in terms of the variables included in an intersectionality assessment, which also limits awareness as to the intended and unintended effects of social assistance in the context of intersectionality (Oosterhoff and Yunus, 2022). This therefore provides programme designers with a constrained picture with regards to how they can embed the achievement of co-benefits and positive externalities into programme design, whilst minimising potentially negative ones. Meddings et al. (2023), for example, explore the extent to which implementing agencies possess the conceptual and operational awareness to exploit the potential that social protection and humanitarian support programmes have for actively fostering climate change adaptation and resilience in Jordan. They find that although there is to some extent a conceptual understanding of how social protection and humanitarian action could be linked to climate action, there remain a number of operational shortcomings that prohibit the realisation of these co-benefits, including the absence of integrated vulnerability assessments and mapping, a lack of participatory programme co-design protocols with local communities, a lack of general protection coverage, and the need for different ministries and humanitarian agencies to work together more effectively in generating synergies between programs.Continuing to build the evidence base around the interaction of various interconnected layers of risk and vulnerability that stretch across social, political, economic, as well as environmental dimensions remains critical for the development of social protection and humanitarian programmes that can address risks in an integrated -as opposed to disjointed -manner. One example of such efforts comes in the recent work of the Arab Water Council (AWC) and WFP ( 2023), who in a bid to generate methodologies that allow for an integrated measurement of social vulnerability and climate change impacts that take into account pre-existing social vulnerabilities and structural inequality, developed an integrated indicator index and produced GIS maps with a focus on social indicators that overlay over 32 indicators at the national level. Providing implementing agencies with the most comprehensive possible assessment and mapping of an increasingly compound risk landscape is therefore critical for the transition away from emergency response and towards addressing longer-term needs and vulnerabilities.The field research conducted in Azraq and North Shuna has provided a better understanding of the socio-cultural and economic realities faced by refugees and host communities on the ground.Refugees residing in Azraq camp are permitted to leave the camp if they have found employment within the community, often for entire agricultural seasons in the context of agricultural labour. In Azraq itself, however, refugees are involved in a broad spectrum of jobs beyond agricultural labour, including work in restaurants and shops, construction, as well as entrepreneurial activities pursued either informally or in cooperation with local residents. Several Syrian refugees the research team spoke to in Azraq emphasized that they did not wish to return to Syria, even if they had not been able to establish a sustainable livelihood in Jordan. One research participant described the situation in Azraq as follows:The Syrian refugees have had a big impact on the local community, they place pressure on the Jordanian population in the context of prices, housing, and competition on the labour market… what bothers Jordanians is that refugees make money from UNHCR and also compete on the labour market… the government should create separate working areas for refugees when they live inside communities (and not in camps)… there are some joint businesses between Jordanians and Syrians, for example agricultural businesses such as olive production… Syrians are also buying land around Azraq, these are Syrian investors and the investment law allows them to legally purchase land … after the Syrians came to Jordan, some registered businesses in the names of Jordanians, others married Jordanians and were thus allowed to own land and businesses… there are overall less work opportunities than before, and also more security issues… we never used to lock the door of the houses, now there is more crime from both inside and outside the community… there are also more drugs than before, a lot of people suffer from depression\".Most Jordanians interviewed in Azraq expressed some resentment about refugees obtaining automatic and unconditional cash transfers whilst still competing with Jordanians in the labour market. Moreover, the fact that Syrian laborers were often in a position to accept lower wages -perceived to be partly due to the fact that they were receiving cash transfers -has further contributed to labour market deflation in a way that has proved detrimental to Jordanian workers. In both communities, respondents complained about unemployment and an oversaturated labour market (especially among youth and women) a dynamic which is driving many young people away from both communities in search of employment or educational opportunities elsewhere.In North Shuna, the research team perceived less direct competition on the labour market between Jordanians and refugees. Given that the agricultural sector in the Northern Jordan Valley does not employ refugees, the majority of agricultural labour is performed by migrants. Most Jordanians who were interviewed as part of the research perceived agricultural labour as insufficiently lucrative, strenuous, and less attractive than public sector jobs given the often informal nature of the employment and lack of social benefits. Although not entirely correct, a notion that was raised in multiple contexts was that \"Jordanians do not work on farms here\", and within this context, many host community members seemed glad that foreign migrants (predominantly Egyptians) were engaging in what are perceived to be the most labour-intensive and lower paid agricultural jobs.Interviewees in both Azraq and North Shuna complained about development programmes being too short-term, did not seek to be sustainable following the end of the project life cycle, only benefiting a small number of people, and being derailed by the heads of NGOs that were seeking personal benefits. Given the context of protracted displacement and migrant labour in Azraq and North Shuna respectively, respondents in both communities were instead in favour of developing more effective programmatic approaches to medium-to long-term resilience and socio-economic development.Available government or non-governmental support programmes were identified as being geared more towards short-term support rather than providing sustainable and scalable livelihood opportunities, despite there being in both locations examples of small-scale, artisanal agro-industry producing secondary or tertiary products. Cash transfers were mostly noted as ineffective and usually insufficient in scale, whilst technical and financial support for entrepreneurial activities, marketing, and value chain development was recorded as being largely lacking. Numerous interviewees in Azraq and North Shuna independently of each other used the phrase \"teach us how to fish and give us a fishing rod instead of the fish!\" Taking the analogy one step further, one participant stated:Existing entrepreneurship programs were described as being too limited in terms of their financial support and were in some cases being abused by beneficiaries. Several respondents referred to programs that offered as little as 500 JOD of financial support for opening a company, an amount of money that \"does not even last half a month\". Several respondents also recounted stories of beneficiaries who were provided entrepreneurship grants to open a service sector business, but eventually closed it down and purchased a car with the support money. Whilst implementing agencies are aware of such stories of abuse, they make the case that such grants are critical for the generation of self-reliance of recipients and claim that it is necessary to find a good balance between monitoring the program uptake and providing recipients the freedom to experiment with business development, even if they fail.Most research participants moreover complained that the design of development programs and initiatives was not sufficiently inclusive or participatory. Where participatory processes were embedded within programme design, they were deemed more of a formality or a tick box exercise by community members, rather than truly informing locally responsive development approaches and initiatives. There to some extent still remains, therefore, a lack of political will as well as the practical frameworks for a successful implementation of participatory co-design and program implementation structures. An International NGO in an interview added that a challenge was to redirect large amounts of available annual funding towards restructuring program development practices in order to make them more participatory. As one respondent put it, development organizations tend to interview the same handful of community members or use the data in a manner that suits their original agenda and strategic priorities, thus ignoring or not capturing the ideas of the rest of the community. One participant stated:It is as if you are giving a fisherman his equipment and he is standing in the wrong location, hoping to catch a fish that is not available there. The problem is not about the budgets of the development projects, it is about finding the right idea and carrying out a proper needs assessment and then project management.\"Even after consulting the local community, external development organizations often return to the original agenda they wanted to implement while disregarding the local priorities raised.\"Another respondent argued for integrating local organizations into development solutions and approaches and providing such organizations with more of an active role in facilitating local socio-economic development programmes. Numerous individuals identified for instance that local government institutions -for many people the only tangible face of government and the key local stakeholder that is directly accountable to them -were frequently by-passed in programme design. Steps were furthermore rarely taken to ensure a specific project could become sustainable beyond its life cycle by embedding it within the operations of said local government institutions. As one participant noted:Critically, refugees too tended to feel excluded from the design of local development solutions:Several respondents in interviews, focus groups, and workshops in the two communities expressed ideas relating to rural value chain creation and development, and the founding or rehabilitating of existing supporting structures and platforms that could facilitate said development and contribute to a diversification of the local economy. In Azraq, several respondents noted the benefits of reviving the traditional salt mining industry, and using the natural quality of the salt as a unique selling point to gain a foothold into national, regional, and international markets. Other needs identified in Azraq similarly related to improving market accessibility and the marketability of local products, including the establishment of a regional market in or near the town for the sale and purchase of local products, as well as investing into a sewing factory to provide more opportunities for women. Some international donors have to this tune already invested in establishing youth capacity development programs, including a handicraft centre, for the transferral of marketable skills.\"If you want to truly support a community, support its local organizations and institutions and not individuals through cash transfers and humanitarian aid. Otherwise, it is not sustainable.\"To be honest, refugees are not considered when implementing important projects in the village/region. Us refugees are considered as outsiders to the society.In North Shuna, respondents identified solutions not unlike those proposed in Azraq, many of them similarly relating to rural value chain development, the establishment of a more sophisticated local agro-industry capable of producing secondary and tertiary agricultural products, and improving market accessibility. Investing in the construction of a juice factory to generate value added to locally produced citrus fruit was, for instance, mentioned by several respondents. Establishing a more effective cooperative structure for farmers and producers was also identified as a necessary step in improving market access and livelihood generation, particularly in enabling producers to collectively negotiate the price of increasingly expensive agricultural inputs such as fertiliser as well as collectively engage in price control measures for their own produce. Specific products, such as olives and dates, are currently sold mainly on markets in Amman and Irbid, yet fair compensation is rarely provided for farmers due to comparatively high intermediate costs related to transport and storage.The overview of support services ranging from immediate humanitarian support, through social protection, development initiatives, and communityled social services provided here shows that the implementation of the HDP nexus in a country context hinges upon a variety of factors. These include the specific context of refugee histories and groups and the complexity of their livelihood situations and needs, existing legal frameworks, as well as the degree of coordination between different entities and agencies, among others.The research undertaken at both case study sites in Azraq Oasis and North Shuna has contributed to the generation of a more community-focused and grounded understanding and perception of available support programmes. With regards to the former, the Azraq Oasis has emerged as a melting pot for various generations of different groups of displaced people, including Druse, Chechens, Iraqis, and most recently Syrians. It therefore represents an interesting context within which to assess the degree to which refugees have been successful in constructing livelihoods within and alongside Jordanian communities, both in the short and in the long term. Our research in Azraq has demonstrated where and how existing programmes may fall short of providing sufficient or responsive assistance in generating inclusive socio-economic development in ways that are sustainable and resilient to the evolving effects of climate change on natural resource usage and access. North Shuna, by contrast, does not host significant numbers of refugees, but is instead home to a large number of working migrants attracted to Jordan's agricultural breadbasket to engage in seasonal labour and generate remittances. Our research in North Shuna further established the needs of host community members in establishing livelihood opportunities that are more sustainable, and -similarly to Azraq -identified the shortcomings of existing support modalities.In fact, it is worth noting that despite their differences, the challenges as well as the solutions identified by respondents and community members from both case study sites are strikingly similar. Whilst the arrival of a large number of refugees in such a short period of time has in the case of Azraq certainly affected the town's socio-economic and cultural fabric, the longerterm obstacles to development identified by those in Azraq are not entirely dissimilar from those identified by residents of North Shuna (which did not experience a significant influx of refugees). The decline of local ecosystems, a lack of access to markets beyond local or regional scales, a lack of local agro-industry, and unemployment were issues identified by both communities, factors which critically were found to be far more significant than any potential tensions or conflict between refugee and host communities. Both communities also similarly pointed to the need to invest in rural value chain development, (entrepreneurial) capacity building and skills transfer, and to establish or reinvigorate cooperative structures.Our research therefore makes a strong case to perhaps not overestimate the traditional dichotomy between refugee and host communities, and instead recognize that rural or peri-urban areas with predominantly agricultural economies and that experience protracted displacement require -in order to have sufficient absorptive capacity to cope with such an influxa much more comprehensive, multi-scalar approach to rural development.Developing value chains, creating cooperative entities and platforms for producers, and investing in market access can -if done in a consciously inclusive and peace responsive manner -simultaneously aid both refugee and host communities, as well as build cohesion between the two. In short, therefore:The example of Jordan shows that, in the context of protracted displacement, the implementation of the HDP Nexus on the ground faces a number of obstacles, including in terms of determining practical boundaries between ongoing emergency aid, transitional programmes, and longer-term development support. Transforming humanitarian support programs designed to respond to emergency situations into programs that support refugees in a context of protracted displacement requires a clear legal framework that allows for both a diversification of livelihood opportunities, integration into the national economy, and improved access to state-based social protection for refugees. Transitioning from humanitarian aid towards longer-term livelihood and development support requires closer collaboration between humanitarian agencies, development agencies, government entities, and the private sector on a range of activities, including by further developing joint analyses and vulnerability assessments, common strategic planning and results monitoring frameworks, fundraising, and advocacy efforts. Research in two case study communities in Jordan has shown that, despite the limited opportunities for refugees to become integrated in the labour market, many refugees have built livelihoods for themselves in their host communities in either formal or informal ways. The research has also shown that both Jordanians and refugees would welcome longer-term employment generation, rural development, and entrepreneurship programs rather than cash transfers, as well as more development projects to create local jobs. Respondents also expressed their wish that such programs be more anchored in local needs, factor in local ideas, and be co-developed with community members in a participatory approach. Despite the notable differences between the two case studies, both sets of respondents interestingly made similar assessments with regards to the challenges and obstacles each community faced. Both communities also put forward broadly similar solutions or ideas, many of which could be categorised under the notion of comprehensive rural development efforts, including value chain creation and development, the establishment or rehabilitation of cooperative structures for producers, (entrepreneurial) capacity building and technical skills transfers, and improved market accessibility.","tokenCount":"9295"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb99b8e7b841c40e8b0d172dc025a4ae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/878a9597-4979-4b83-80ff-6601198b85a1/retrieve","id":"-1883621869"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"52107841-5c91-4501-b334-78f146257dd9","pagecount":"13","content":"Evaluating nitrogen(N) responsiveness in crops has many commercial/environmental advantages.Current lack of knowledge on its physio-genetic basis is a major bottleneck.We demonstrated that N dependent yield increase is driven by grain number (GN) in S.italica.GN has strong genetic basis -22 unique SNPs; six exhibiting haplotypes in natural population.Based on this, we define N responsive and non-responsive accessions with distinct panicle types. Few genes lying between SNPs with haplotypes show distinct transcript levels in two genotypes.The co-development of new agronomic practises including the application of nitrogen (N) fertiliser together with the selection of improved crop varieties lead to significant yield enhancement for a few selected crop species during the Green Revolution. However, not all crops benefited to the same level and some of the less improved species tends to be highly relevant to food security in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. One of them is Setaria italica, a C 4 cereal crop which is one of the world's ancient and second most cultivated millet globally [1,2]. It is self-pollinated lowland species with demonstrated high biotic and abiotic stress resilience [3]. Being nutritionally rich [4,5], it performs as a major crop in the arid and semi-arid areas of Asia, China as well as sub-Saharan Africa and it is distinctively enriched with slowly digestible and resistant starch making it a healthy low-glycemic index cereal [4]. Taken together, its exceptional adaptability and nutritional attributes have made S. italica a promising climate-resilient crop [5] and investigation into the strategies millets employ to regulate productivity in this context is particularly relevant for achieving sustainable future food security. The crop however remains under-investigated in terms of the traits underpinning improvements in breeding.Agricultural sustainability relies on optimal and resourceful application of fertilizers with nitrogen (N) as a major contributor. At the biochemical and physiological levels, complex interactions between assimilation of N in the form of nitrate (NO 3 -) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) contribute to crop productivity, mainly by coupling N driven leaf growth with photosynthesis (accumulation of higher amounts of light reaction components and CO 2 assimilates) [6]. Insufficient N accessibility is a major constraint to crop productivity worldwide [7]. Despite being expensive, its use in cropping systems in some parts of the developing world is considerably subsidised, often leading to its over application [8,9]. This is associated with undesirable environmental costs including eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems [10], threatening aquatic life and polluting the environment [11]. Furthermore, higher greenhouse gas emission from N fertiliser plants and as N 2 O release from fertiliser use are other contributory factors in this regard [12].Optimization of N provisioning strongly influences yield related agronomic traits [13], N assimilation rates and photosynthetic capacity [14] as well as biomass and many other physiological attributes in cereals [15]. However, in order to optimize N application in crop production, it is essential to appreciate how cereal plants respond to higher N accessibility and the underlying regulation of the process. Any insight in this regard should offer new prospects to select for or help breed new lines that will be more capable of converting applied N to harvestable product with mini-mal economic and environmental costs [9]. Understanding N responsiveness, defined as the plants ability to induce morphophysiological adaptation according to external N availability, is key to developing efficient genotypes. Selection of lines with improved ability to utilize available N holds potential genetic, agronomic, environmental and commercial advantages over conventional methods of measuring nitrogen use in crops e.g. nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) [9]. In wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) evidence exits that show selection over time has resulted in varieties having better N response compared to landraces characterized by enhanced N responsiveness at early N uptake conditions thereby pushing enhanced performance in field conditions at moderate N levels [16]. Genetic dissection of the trait can therefore highlight hitherto unidentified genomic regions of interest [17][18][19] with the potential to bridge the gap in our understanding of its regulation at the physiological and genetic levels. This in effect will allow us to understand new questions in crop N biology, for example, how external and internal N availability are perceived by plants and what are the downstream phenotypic responses. Additionally, it offers potential to understand how N is transduced and how plants monitor their N homeostasis at the interface of plant development and primary metabolism.The present study aimed to reveal the genetic basis for N response in a diverse population of 142 S. italica accessions, which are part of core collection of accessions previously studied for agronomic traits under uncontrolled nutrition conditions [20]. We used contrasting N treatments to dissect N responsiveness at the whole plant and genetic marker levels. We found that in S. italica yield is mainly driven by grain number per plant instead of grain size. Using genome wide association study (GWAS), we defined major singlenucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to yield traits (e.g., grain number per plant) and derived indices to measure different aspects of N responsiveness. Furthermore, we defined six (6) grain number responsive (GNR) and non-responsive (GNNR) genotypes which exhibit different panicle architectures, contrasting grain number response to low N (DN100-N25) and display consistent allelic variation of six SNPs (CS3.46666559, CS3.46708881, CS4.37893830, CS4.37893921, CS8.30225088, CS8.30225110) strongly associated with grain number responsive trait. Transcript abundance profiling of 17 genes proximally linked to these SNPs in the developing panicles of the two genotypes showed that three (3) among them, Seita.3G363700 (encoding a diacyl glycerol kinase), Seita.8G160400 (containing a DnaJ chaperon and two DUF domains) and Seita.8G160500 (encoding T-complex protein 1; TCP-1/cpn60 chaperone family) are differentially regulated while being consistent within each group. This demonstrates that allelic variation of these grains per plant (GPP) linked SNPs and expression of some of their proximal genes are linked in a genotype specific manner.A collection of 142 diverse S. italica accessions (Table S1) were chosen from a S. italica core collection (Lata et al., 2011;Lata et al., 2013) and the All India Coordinated Small Millets Improvement Project (AICSMIP, 2014). Accessions represent lines originating from China, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, Kenya, Russia and USA exhibiting relative consistency of germination and viability of seeds.In order to ensure maximum proximity to seasonal field conditions, plants were grown in pots (19.5 cm height  20 cm diameter) outdoors under a 70% transparent cover. Three biological replicate pots per accession were settled in a randomized block design. Pots were filled with 3 kg of nitrogen free soilrite mix: vermiculite (2:1 w/w) and saturated with 1.6 L of demineralized water. Mancozeb 75% WP broad spectrum fungicide (2 g/L) was first used to pre-treat the seeds, then dried and sown. 300 ml of demineralized water was used to irrigate the pots 7 days after sowing (DAS). Germinated plants were examined at 14 DAS and seedlings were thinned to keep one plant per pot.At 14 DAS, pots were fertigated with 0.5 L of Hoagland nutrient solution (Table S10) formulated in demineralized water with three different N levels: N100 (2 mM Ca (NO 3 ) 2 )-control/optimal N strength, N25 (25% of the full nutrition, i.e., 0.5 mM) and N10 (10% of full nutrition, i.e. 0.2 mM). All plants were fertigated once every week for 17 times (between 16 h00-17 h30) in a manner that allows complete absorption of the nutrient solution by the growth medium without any leaching from the pot throughout the experiment. The three N levels were determined following a test of 5 N levels (N100, N50, N25, N10 and N0) in 9 accessions (Table S11). This showed that N10 was more appropriate than N0 as the lowest viable N level treatment and that N25 allowed greater distinction among accessions as a low N level (yield per plant performance at N50 and N25 were comparable). At maturity, panicles were collected, threshed, seed grains collected, sun dried and stored for the study.Sixteen (16) agronomically significant and yield related traits and 5 derived index traits were assessed at three N levels (2 mM-N100, 0.5 mM-N25 and 0.2 mM-N10) using a full cycle potted experiment of the 142 S. italica accessions (Supplementary Table S1; Supplementary Table S2) chosen from a previously reported core collection [20]. A total of sixteen agronomic traits were measured, and data was collected for three replications per accession. A one-way ANOVA analysis was performed to evaluate the relative contribution of the genotype, N dose and their interaction towards the trait performance (Table S13). Five index traits, namely: stability index (SI), tolerance index (TOL), mean productivity index (MPI), geometric mean productivity (GMP) and stress susceptibility index (SSI) were used to further evaluate the differences in trait performances due to any two N conditions (Table S4).Broad sense heritabilites (h 2 = r 2 g / r 2 p ) of major traits and their indices were calculated (Table S13), where r 2 g and r 2 p are variances due to genotype and phenotype, respectively.Approximately, 5 mg of the powdered grains were used for CHN analysis (CHNS (O) Analyzer, Italy, FLASH EA 1112 series, Thermo finnigan) using the method elaborated by Dumas [21]. N and C contents from each genotype was obtained as percentages of the sample weight studied with three biological replications per sample.Leaves from 4 weeks old plants were used to isolate DNA using the Cetrimonium bromide (Rogers and Bendich, 1985). Post RNAase treatment (Fermentas, USA), the isolated DNA was checked for integrity and then quantified through 1.2% agarose gel electrophoresis and NanoDrop 1000 (Thermo Scientific, USA), respectively. Double digest restriction associated DNA (ddRAD) and Illumina HiSeq4000 platforms were used to genotype and sequence the samples, respectively (Peterson et al., 2012) (Agri-Genome Labs Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, India). Raw FastQ reads were demultiplexed with only one mismatch to obtain reads for each sample and RAD tags were used to filter the data. 5 0 and 3 0 ends of the reads were trimmed along with the removal of Illumina adapters (Cutadapt v 2.3), while Bowtie2 (version 2-2.2.9) was used to align trimmed sequences to the reference genome catalogued in the phytozome 12 database version 2.2 at default parameters (https://genome.jgi.doe.gov/portal/pages/dynamicOrganism Download.jsf?organism=Sitalica).Furthermore, bcftools were used for filtering reads based on their depth and quality while sequence alignment map (SAM) tools (version 1.6) were used for variant calling analysis.Assessing population structure and linkage disequilibrium STRUCTURE version 2.2 software [22] was used to perform model based population structure analysis wherein Burn-in and MCMC were set as 50,000 and 100,000 respectively. We employed admixture model with five iterations for each run and assumed 2-10 sub-populations, with the real number of determined subpopulations by employing the delta K method [23] through an online tool STRUCTURE HARVESTOR [24]. A genotype was assigned to a specific sub-population when it had ! 80% probability of affiliation while those with < 80% of the value were considered '' admixtures''. Previous information on chromosome-and genomewide LD [25] were also used in the analysis. The genetic relatedness of the individuals in the panel was ascertained by clustering the filtered SNPs using the phylogenetic tree construction tool implemented in TASSEL v5 (neighbour joining clustering method) and visualizing the same using the Archaeopteryx tool [26] implemented therein under all default settings.For genome wide association study (GWAS), a minor allele frequency (MAF) of > 5% and missing data of < 30% were fixed as the basic cut-off values from a total of 29,045 SNPs by implementing the filter feature within Tassel 5 software [27]. We employed fixed and random model circulating probability unification (FarmCPU) package [28][29][30] for genome wide association which has been regularly used for many crop/cereal studies in the recent years [31][32][33][34]. The tool effectively eliminates issues arising due to kinship, population structure, multiple testing therefore making it one of the best models for association mapping currently available [28][29][30]. Kinship matrix is inbuild in FarmCPU and three PCA were employed (K + PCA model) for GWAS analysis. SNPs with a p < 0.001 were deemed significant SNP-trait associations (STAs) followed by p-value adjustment via Bonferroni correction (threshold set at 0.01). Quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots were used to show how the expected and observed p-values are distributed and fit into the population structure model. A set of 16 major traits were analysed at three N levels with 10 derived index traits from each major trait (5 indices/ main trait of N10-N100 and N25-N100), totalling 208 traits (Table S2). Broad sense heritability for all traits were found to be > 0.8 (Table S13).Identification of functional genes proximal to trait specific STAs S.italica genome 2.2 (available from Phytozome v12, https:// phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal.html#!info?alias = Org_Sitalica) was used to identify genes proximal to SNPs related to significant STAs (for all traits) within the intervals of 0-1 kb, 1-5 kb, 5-10 kb, 10-20 kb, 20-50 kb and 50-100 kb distances from the SNP position in either direction. A distance of 20 Kb along the chromosome was considered a standard window to look for genes positioned proximal to trait associated SNPs for downstream analysis.SNPs found to be significantly associated with GPP traits in the study located within the LD decay distance of 177 kb as previously reported in the crop [35] were considered as prime landmarks for identification and assessment of genes linked to grain number responsiveness in the S. italica genome. Based on the above, we identified three pairs of SNPs (CS3.46666559:CS3.46708881,CS4.3 7893830:CS4.37893921, S8.30225088:CS8.30225110) and profiled the expression of genes located 25 Kb upstream and downstream to them within Setaria italica genome (available from Phytozome v12, genome version 2.2, https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal. html#!info?alias=Org_Sitalica) for qRT-PCR based assay (Table S7). A similar approach for identification of putative genes related to nutritional traits in S. italica is reported [35]. For this purpose, nine GNR and GNNR accessions were grown at low N (N25) and optimal N (N100) conditions as previously described and panicles were harvested at the early stage of panicle development when the spikelet organization of the inflorescence is decided (grain number), just before the onset of anthesis. Collected samples were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at À80 °C. Total RNA was isolated using Spectrum Plant Total RNA kit (SIGMA), visualized in 2% agarose native gel, quantified using NanoDrop TM 1000 Spectrophotometer followed by reverse transcription using Verso cDNA Synthesis Kit (Thermo Fischer) as per the recommended guidelines. qRT-PCR assay was performed by using the Power SYBR Green chemistry (Thermo Fischer, USA) and employing the QuantStudio Real-Time PCR (qPCR) for assessing the relative transcript abundance of the target genes between samples and N conditions with three biological and two technical replications. S. italica actin gene (ACT2) was used as suitable endogenous control previously established [36] for the crop. Exon spanning primers for the target genes (Table S9) were designed using the NCBI Primer-BLAST online tool (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/primer-blast/)Amino acid sequences of proteins were obtained from the gene view tool using the gene ID compatible with S. italica annotation available in Phytozome v 12. The selected sequences were searched within the Pfam database (http://pfam.xfam.org/) and results from only the significant Pfam searches (sequence alignment and hidden markov model-based analysis) under default setting were included in further analysis.Nitrogen dependent trait performances were measured and visualized using the 'dplyr' R package [37] while variances were evaluated using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) function ''aov ()\" analysed using R (R studio version 1.2.5001) [38]. Linear model regression analysis was accomplished using the ggplot2 R package [39] and ggpubr package (v 0.3.0) [40] with dependencies while data analysis and plotting for multi-trait Pearson's correlation was performed using the ''ggcorr\" function within the ''GGAlly\" package (v2.0) [41]. Plots showing contrasting trait dependent and N specific responses in GNR/GNNR were plotted using the ''ggline()\" function under ''ggpubr\" R package. Normal distribution of traits were ascertained by the Shapiro-Wilk test using ''shapiro. test()\" present natively in R. Scatterplot ellipses were plotted using the ''ggplot2\" R package using the stat_ellipse() function.While hundred grain weight (HGW) did not significantly vary between N levels, most of other traits showed a substantial N response (Fig. 1B). Grains per plant (GPP) and yield showed a positive response to increased N accessibility for the majority of accessions (Fig. 1). There was a larger range of yield performance at high N (N100: 0.2 to 2.727 g), in comparison to low N dose settings (N10: 0.035-0.597 g; N25: 0.162 to 0.985 g), implying that the resultant yield plasticity to N increased availability exists in the population (Fig. 1 A), despite having comparable variance at all N levels (N10: 0.41; N25: 0.34; N100: 0.31). All other traits (shoot dry weight, panicle number, grain protein content, maturity time included) showed a noteworthy genotype by N level interaction (Fig. 1B).Analysis of N dependent yield performance showed that the trait was positively and strongly associated with GPP across all three N levels (R 2 = 0.9, p < 0.01; Fig. 1C, Table S3) unlike HGW (R 2 = 0.01, p < 0.01, Fig. 1D; Figure S1). This indicates that the observed variations in yield are strongly affected by GPP and much less so by the weight of individual grains, regardless of N levels. Notably the GPP range is much higher at high N (40-1700 grains per plant compared to 5-584 grains per plant at N10 and N25). Furthermore, we observe that the increment in GPP is reliant mostly on grain number increase per panicle (Figure S2A) and less on the panicle number (Figure S2B). In S. italica multiple panicles originate from the same stem (secondary panicles) which mean that more panicles do not translate into more tillers.Harvest index (HI), grain per panicle (GPPn; Figure S2C, D) and to a smaller degree shoot dry weight (SDW; Figure S2E) were also positively connected with yield, suggesting that partitioning of N to the panicle may contribute to increased yield. Interestingly we observed a negative (R 2 = 0.11; p < 0.01) association between yield per panicle and panicle number signifying a trade-off between overall yield capacity of a panicle and panicle number (Figure S2F). However, the absence of any correlation between overall plant yield and panicle number in this context suggests some degree of compensation for the negative correlation stated above.We employed five (5) derived indices of the traits to specifically appreciate the genetics of N response in S. italica. We define these indices focusing on yield as the major trait (Fig. 2A). Yield at N100 is weakly correlated to yield at N25 (R 2 = 0.152) and N10 (R 2 = 0.056), supporting the idea that it is important to measure responsiveness under different N conditions (Fig. 2B). The tolerance index (TOL) simply indicates in real terms (i.e., g per plant) the yield gain under high N conditions compared to low N conditions and appears to be the best representative index for N responsiveness. Therefore, a higher TOL value indicates greater yield increase after addition of N (from N25 or N10 to N100) whilst low TOL indicates a small value. The mean productivity index (MPI) and the geometric mean productivity (GMP) provide a measure of the mean yield over the range of N levels tested. While MPI is highly correlated to yield at N100 (R 2 = 0.94) and less so to yield at N10 (R 2 = 0.22), GMP is correlated with both indicating that it is less affected by extreme values and perhaps a better representation of an overall yield under contrasting conditions. The stability index (SI) is a ratio that offers a direct comparison between yield under high and low N. In this case, a very low SI (<1) indicates higher yield under high N conditions compared to low N conditions. SI tends to be negatively correlated with other indices (Fig. 2B). The stress susceptibility index (SSI) represents a similar index to SI that is normalised to the overall yield mean of the population under both high and low N. We also calculated N use efficiency (NUE) as the ratio of grain produced per unit of N provided. NUE under each N level is highly correlated to yield for each N level (Fig. 2B). As the NUE calculation simply corresponds to division of yield by a constant for a specific N treatment, this measure was not used in the further analyses.A total of 142 S. italica accessions were genotyped with a set of 29,045 high quality SNPs. Heterozygosity of both SNP markers and individuals were within acceptable limits (<25%) (Figure S3A; B). SNP markers showed uneven distribution in nine chromosomes with an overall average of 125.73 SNPs/Mb in S. italica. Chromosome 8 and 9 had the highest (235.6 SNPs per Mb) and lowest (87.45 SNPs per Mb) densities, respectively. Overall, chromosome 1 was found to have their maximum evenly distributed densities (Figure S3C). Among chromosomes, the mean polymorphism information content (PIC) ranged from 0.125 to 0.20, the least and maximum values lying in Chr 9 and 8, respectively (Table S3). Population structure analysis showed that about half of accessions were admixed (75 out of 142), and residual 67 accessions being  S5), data as p value for each factor (genotype and N level) and their interaction. GPC: grain protein content. (C) Yield correlates positively with the number of grains per plants, irrespective of N level. (D) Yield does not correlate with the hundred grain weight. For C and D, each cross represents an individual plant. Fig. 2. Index traits of a major trait measure different aspects of its N responsiveness. (A) Tabulation to show the details of all trait indices measured for each of the 16 major traits analysed for 142 S. italica accessions (B) Correlation plot to show coefficient of correlation (r) between and within Yield traits at three N levels and its index derivates on one hand and NUE major trait on the other. For ease of understanding and visualization, only N10(Y LN ) was considered for plotting index traits of Yield. Since NUE shows strong correlation with Yield main traits at all three N levels, index derivatives for the trait were not plotted. Values are a mean of three replications. Mean data of phenotypic performance of all traits and their indices are available in Supplementary Table S6. randomly spread over 9 sub-populations clustering under nine discrete phylogenetic clades (Fig. 3D).We identified 68 SNP (marker) trait associations (STAs) for the traits measured and their indices from 16 major traits (Table S5; Fig. 4). These STAs comprised of 59 unique SNPs significantly associated with ten major traits (P value set at 5 e -07 , Bonferroni correction = 0.01) [42] and related indices: D50F (days to 50% flowering), GPP, grain C/N ratio, grain C, leaf chlorophyll content, panicle number, HGW, days to panicle emergence, days to maturity and shoot length (Table S5; Figure S4). These SNPs were spread throughout the genome, with chromosomes 8 and 9 containing the most (24) and least number (2) of significant SNPs, respectively (Fig. 4). We found that all 68 STAs are highly trait specific (i.e., having no overlap with other major traits) although some SNPs could be associated with more than one trait index within a given major trait (Table S5). Intriguingly, we found more unique STAs associated with index traits (55) than with major traits (13) suggesting that more genetic loci are linked to traits that measure differences in N response due to N availability (N responsiveness) compared to those that don't (Table S5, Fig. 4).Additionally, we examined the incidence of genes adjoining the SNP loci based on the genes annotated in the S. italica genome. Within 50 Kb of such SNPs, we identified a total of 272 genes based on their closeness to nearest genes (protein coding) in six distance ranges of 0-1 Kb, 1-5 kb, 5-10 Kb, 10-20 Kb and 20-50 Kb (Sup-plementary Figure S5; Table S6). Additionally in this respect, chromosome 8 was found to have the highest gene density, followed by chromosome 5.Even though we did not find any significant SNP association with yield trait (or its indices), significant STAs could be identified for yield related traits such as GPP, panicle number and HGW (Table S5). Overall, GPP traits showed the greatest number of detected significant associations (a total of 26 associations from 59 SNPs out of which 17 STAs associated with GPP index traits) suggesting that N responsiveness of the trait is significantly regulated at the genetic level (Figure S4). Furthermore, among the 22 unique GPP linked SNPs, we identified three (3) SNP pairs (CS3.46666559:CS3.46708881, CS4.37893830:CS4.37893921, S8.30225088:CS8.30225110) which are linked to GPP index trait, lie within the linkage disequilibrium(LD) decay distance estimated previously [35] and show haplotypes for their corresponding linked traits, suggesting that allelic variation in these SNPs has significant implications for variability for linked N responsive traits MPI_GPP_N25, MPI_GPP_N10 and GMP_GPP_N25 (Fig. 5).Subsequent analysis to identify their proximal genes (upstream and downstream 25 Kb) revealed the presence of 17 unique genes (Table S7) out of which four genes (Seita.3G363300, Seita.3G364000, Seita.4G260600, Seita.4G260700) are unannotated as per Phytozome v2.2. The remaining genes broadly fall in the category of acid phos- phatases (Seita.3G363500, Seita.3G363600), kinases and kinase activators (Seita.3G363700; Seita.3G363800), nucleic acid binding and chromatin remodelling (Seita.3G363900, Seita.8G160300, Seita.8G160400), cytoskeletal organization (Seita.3G364100), hormone biosynthesis and secondary metabolism (Seita.4G260400), protein folding (Seita.8G160500), ligand-binding and ion channel activity (Seita.4G260500), glucosidase activity (Seita.8G160600).Based on our observation that N dependent yield performance is largely driven by grain number in S. italica, we explored whether specific accessions exist in the population which exhibit contrasting grain number responsiveness (GPP_TOL N100-N25) and at the same time are consistent with the allelic variation of SNPs linked to grain number responsive traits (GMP, YI, MPI, SI and TOL). Grains per plant (GPP) at N25 was used to calculate grain number responsiveness since it is appropriately placed to induce N deficiency whilst still allowing ample N for successful grain filling (than at N10) and therefore yield in majority of accessions. Our analysis showed that accessions SI 100, 168, 178, 187, 78,182 and SI 128, 146, 170, 177, 3, 56 show very high and low values for the trait, respectively and exhibit consistent difference in panicle architecture, especially with regard to awn distribution and their lengths (Fig. 6A, B). Furthermore, we observed that these two groups of accessions largely maintain the same allelic variation for six GPP linked SNPs (Table S8) that lie within LD decay distance of 177 kb (CS3.46666559, CS3.46708881, CS4.37893830, CS4.37893921, CS8.30225088, CS8.30225110), previously established for the crop [35]. Such grain number responsive (GNR) and grain number non-responsive (GNNR) accessions were analysed to further examine the basis for N responsiveness in S. italica.Apart from the differences in their capacities to utilize additional N to produce grains, GNR and GNNR also exhibit characteristically different shoot dry weights, yields, harvest indices, panicle dry weight and longer flowering times at least under high N (N100) (Fig. 6C-G) determined chiefly by the ability of GNR accessions to yield more grains. To further dissect their differences in N dependent yield plasticities, we measured four derived indices related to yield, grain number (GPP), hundred grain weight (HGW) and harvest index (HI) based on their respective trait performances at low and high N levels (N10-N100; N25-N100) (Figure S6). Two low N levels (N10 and N25) were considered for the analysis to enable a better understanding into how such trait plasticities play out at very low (N10) and low (N25) N levels against a common control (N100). We observed that except for HGW, indices for all the remaining traits (Yield, GPP and HI) differ significantly between GNR and GNNR genotypes while maintaining the same pattern of behaviour when considering very low to high N (N10-N100) and low to high N (N25-N100) comparisons (Figure S6). Similar to the overall population, yield patterns in the two types shows strong positive correlation with grain number while none were observed for HGW (Figure S7A). Comparative analysis of all these phenotypic trait classes suggest that most vary significantly as a function of genotype and N level (Figure S7B). These observations suggest that the two groups of genotypes have discrete patterns of phenotypic responses to N provisioning that are consistent within each group and provides evidence that N responsiveness between these two is significantly different across multiple derived interpretations of yield traits. Focussing on these subsets of accessions for further analysing the mechanism of the N dependent yield responses may therefore provide new insights that may still be applicable to the population under study.To examine if expression patterns of genes linked to GPP traits are differentially expressed in genotypes with high and low plasticities (GNR and GNNR), qPCR assays of genes proximal to GPP associated SNPs (in LD) were performed (Table S9), using the approach previously implemented in the crop [35]. Three accessions with similar panicle emergence times were chosen from each of the GNR (SI 100, SI 178 and SI 168) and GNNR (SI 128, SI 56 and SI 56) groups to access transcript abundances of 17 genes at high N (N100) against low (N25) N condition to measure their N responsiveness. We observed that three genes (as per Phytozome v12) namely Seita.3G363700-Diacyl glycerol kinase; Seita.8G160400-a DnaJ domain containing protein; Seita.8G160500-T-complex protein 1 (CCT8) out of 17 genes showed largely consistent and distinct expression patterns within and between the two groups, respectively (Fig. 7A). Sequence analysis of their encoded proteins (significant PFAM match, [43]) indicates that Seita.3G363700 has all the domains necessary for diacylgerol kinase activity (with accessory, binding and catalytic domains) while both Sei-ta.8G160400 and Seita.8G160500 are chaperone family proteins containing Hsp40 (DnaJ domain) and Hsp60 (TCP-1/cpn60) proteins, respectively (Figure S8). Seita.8G160400 also contains two DUF (domain of unknown functions), and exploring any connection between them and the DnaJ domain with regard to protein activity will be greatly insightful vis-à-vis N responsiveness. While greater availability of N causes a relative increase in their transcript accumulation in GNR, the opposite is true for GNNR thereby indicating commonality in their regulation leading to potential N responsive processes in a genotype specific manner. Furthermore, we also observed an overall difference of type of correlation between grain number tolerance (TOL_GPP) and expression of all the 17 genes in GNNR/GNR. While we find an overall positive correlation in the case of TOL_GPP/GNR, the same is not true for TOL_GPP/GNNR (Figure S7B), suggesting that these genes largely associate with N responsiveness in a genotype specific mannerEnhancement in yield performance has been limited in S. italica, especially in comparison to staple cereal crops like wheat, rice or maize. However, the crop can potentially play a larger role in many agro-ecosystems worldwide, including sub-Saharan Africa and India. An important feature that has pushed rise in yield output the major crops is the simultaneous use of synthetic N fertilisers and selection of newer varieties. Intensive agriculture has largely driven selection of varieties that performed better at optimal N conditions [9] and currently information on how crop plants respond to increasing N availability, though crucial is limited. Fill-Fig. 6. Grain number responsive (GNR) and non-responsive (GNNR) S. italica accessions have opposing grain number tolerances to contrasting N availability. (A) For all the accessions analyzed (on the x-axis), data are plotted from the mean grains per plant (GPP) on left y-axis at N25 (orange lines) and at N100 (blue lines). The grain number tolerance at N25 (GPP at N100-N25) is represented by black line and scaled on the right y-axis. Dotted lines indicate GNNR and GNR limits. Each of the six red and green filled circles indicate specific GNNR and GNR accessions, respectively which largely share the same allelic form of significantly GPP linked SNPs namely CS3.46666559, CS3.46708881,CS4.37893830,CS4.37893921,CS8.30225088, CS8.30225110. Panel B show panicle architectures of these accessions at N100. Panels C, D, E, F and G show data for shoot dry weight (SDW), yield, harvest index (HI), panicle dry weight and days to 50% flowering (D50F) for each of these genotypes at three N levels, respectively. Data shown as the mean +/-SE of three replicates from six GNR or GNNR accessions. Differences due to N level, genotypes and their interaction were analysed using two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey Test with differences indicated by asterix (*). GNNR accessions: SI 128, 146, 170, 177, 3, 56; GNR accessions: SI 100, 168, 178, 182, 187, 78 (Table S6). Error bars show standard error. ing this gap can potentially help selection of varieties that profit from N input in order to yield more and limit N loss to the environment. In this paper, we dissected the response of S. italica plants to increased N availability and identified potential genetic markers for high N responsiveness, thus demonstrating a newer approach for variety selection in crops.Grain number per plant largely regulates nitrogen directed yield increase in S. Italica Typically, yield is determined by the number of grains produced and their weight per plant. The influence of grain number trait in effecting yield trait in cereal crops is well recognized [44][45][46]. In C 4 crop like maize, yield is primarily and positively dependent upon the kernel number and number of ears per plant [47,48] although the overall N dependent yield gain is determined by both kernel number and kernel size in the crop [49]. In millets like Sorghum, N dependent yield is largely driven by panicle number, grain number per plant and grain weight [50][51][52] while it is the panicle number per unit area which largely determines the yield performance (up to 65%) in pearl millet under nitrogen and water stress conditions [53,54]. This indicates that understanding the plasticity of N-dependent response of total number of grains produced (which is dependent on the grain number per panicle and the panicle number), has additional value for C 4 crop species beyond S. italica.Our study in S. italica shows that N-dependent increase in grain number per plant has a strong impact on the yield increase in S. italica, and that this is mainly effected by an increase in grains per panicle rather instead of rise in the number of panicles per plant. N has a strong effect on branching response in many species [55][56][57] which would relate to higher panicle number in S. italica. A further effect of N supplementation, particularly at earlier developmental stage, is the increased number of flower per panicle [58] which is facilitated by cytokinin amounts in the developing panicle in rice [59]. In our study, we observed that the N-driven yield rise in the GNR type is fixed at (early) panicle developmental stage. Therefore, comparison of earlier developmental stage signalling of GNNR and GNR types at the initial stages of panicle growth may provide major insights on how N determines grain number variation in S. italica.It is noteworthy that we did not observe any agronomic tradeoff to increased yield in terms of grain weight (Fig S6 ), which is greatly valued by breeders. This will allow identification of the economic N optima threshold for the crop thereby reducing N application rates without affecting crop productivity (grain yield) and positively impacting sustainable agriculture. This will however require the identification and utilization of genotypes that are more capable of translating acquired N into gainful and consistent yield performances with much lesser increment of N fertilizer input as exhibited by GNR genotypes.N responsiveness is a heritable multigenic trait in S. italicaIn the present study, we investigated the effect of higher N availability on yield response in S. italica which showed that N responsiveness is a valuable trait with strong genetic basis [9]. We observed that there is no strong correlation between the yield measured at N10 and the yield at N100, or between yield measured at N25 and N100 (Fig. 2). This indicates that for S. italica, the N responsiveness or increase in yield under high N conditions cannot be inferred from yield measurements conducted under low N conditions. Therefore, measurements under low and high N conditions are crucial. Likewise, GPP measured at N10 and N100, or N25 and N100 do not share any correlation. Therefore, measuring yield under only low N does not offer information on the yield potential at high N level and vice-versa, yield measurement under high N does not provide information on the yield performance achievable under low N conditions. We have evaluated a series of indices here to estimate the yield gain achieved in the presence of N, with the TOL index being a good representative of N responsiveness per se.N responsiveness is a trait which is heritable and can be mapped genetically, and therefore amenable to breeding programme. The complexity of the trait however is a major challenge as many of the STAs found associated with the trait did not overlap with STAs for major traits, signifying that the genetic basis for high N responsiveness differs from those determining major traits performance including GPP. Furthermore, we did not find any of the STAs close to known genes associated with primary metabolism. In Arabidopsis, plasticity of branching due to increased N in greatly responsive lines also less branches under low N and very high shoot branching under high N doses [56]. This is in contrast to our results in this study, where the extent of N responsiveness remains unpredictable when plants were grown under low N.GWAS analysis highlighted the presence of three pairs of GPP index trait linked SNPs (CS3.46666559:CS3.46708881,CS4.378938 30:CS4.37893921,CS8.30225088:CS8.3022511), within close proximity in the chromosome and the existence of correlation of their haplotypes (Fig. 4) with variation in trait performance in the population suggest that NR in the crop is genetically regulated and the underlying components of which are heritable and potential targets of crop improvement strategies. Further investigation of genetic components (SNPs and their proximal genes) pertaining to those linked to N dependent grain number responsive traits (GPP index traits) will be particularly useful to help identify their roles in regulating the trait and the mechanism of regulation thereof. The presence of a significant portion of trait linked SNPs within 3.5 kb upstream to their proximal genes (6 out of 12 GPP index linked genes) suggests that they are likely to have significant influence on their target genes leading to genotype dependent grain number NR (Table S9). Though many protein candidates are known to play a role in N sensing, there is still ample discussion about the molecular machinery underlying N sensing in crop plants [60]. In this regard, we observe that the genes Seita.3G363700 (diacylglycerol kinase) and Seita.4G260500 (Ionotropic glutamate receptor) positioned downstream to the GPP linked SNPs CS3.46666559 and CS4.37893830, respectively, have been previously implicated in either N sensing, N/C partitioning [61,62] or lipid metabolism [63] influencing yield response.Genes related to grain number responsiveness are transcriptionally regulated in a N and genotype dependent manner Gene expression studies to ascertain the transcriptional regulation of genes proximal to SNP (in LD and showing haplotypes in the population) linked to GPP index traits suggest that few of them are regulated differently in N responsive and non-responsive genotypes. Three genes Seita.3G363700 (encoding a diacyl glycerol kinase-DAG), Seita.8G160400 (an uncharacterized chaperone (Hsp40) protein containing a DnaJ domain) and Seita.8G160500 (encoding T-complex protein 1 belonging toTCP-1/cpn60 chaperonin family) are noteworthy since they showed strong consistent upregulation (from 3 to 13 folds) in GNRs while remaining largely uninduced in their GNNR counterparts in response to N. Diacylglycerol kinases has significant role in lipid metabolism which is altered under high N conditions with low C [64] and perhaps differential activity of the gene in GNNR leads to altered partitioning of C under low N vs high N than in GNR. Higher expression of 'NUMBER OF GRAINS 1 0 (NOG1) gene encoding enoyl co-A hydratase/isomerase (ECH)-a vital enzyme in fatty acid b-oxidation pathway was reported to enhance grains per plant [63]. Notably, lipids work as C source for fungi associated with plants in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis [65], only under a low plant N status. Furthermore, DAGs are crucial for generation of phosphatidic acid in plants, a key signal transducer of lipid metabolism/signalling [66] and have been implicated in N sensing in Arabidopsis [67] with contingent effects on organ growth and development. The observed N dependent differential expression of its encoding gene in the developing panicles of the two genotypes in this study is likely to impact the growth and development of these tissues, potentially influencing the observed variation in grain number performance. Exploring how N regulates their behaviour will potentially provide novel insights on hitherto unexplored role of N on genetic regulation of yield responsiveness in cereals.Plant cytokinin levels are known to be directly associated with N availability [68], thereby potentially modulating assimilation of N and C metabolisms [68,69]. Previous studies in tomato [70] showed that frameshift insertion-deletions (InDels) in two DnaJ encoding genes underlie the expression of a cytokinin oxidase/ dehydrogenase gene responsible for cytokinin transport to leaves under higher N availability thereby suggesting their N responsive behaviour. In a previous study, DnaJ proteins have been shown to play important roles in photosystem II maintenance and hence the extent of carbon assimilation through photosynthesis [71] Furthermore, DnaJ/Hsp40 proteins have been implicated to act as transcriptional activators of many genes by binding with many transcription factors [72]. This indicates that differential transcript abundance of Seita.8G160400 in two genotype groups identified in our study may mediate/regulate N dependent cytokinin metabolism differently leading to their observed differences in N dependent yield response in the crop. Further studies are however needed to substantiate this observation.T-complex protein 1 subunit theta (CCT8) Seita.8G160500 is a molecular chaperone which facilitates protein folding and is implicated in stem cell maintenance by transporting transcription factors and other proteins through plasmodesmata [73,74]. The distinct transcriptional responses of the gene (to elevated N provisioning) in the panicle between the two groups suggest that perhaps they target genes/components regulating stem cell maintenance differently potentially leading to differential abolishment of floral stem cell maintenance in the growing inflorescence and hence their different architectures. Furthermore, an overall higher correlation between the transcript abundance of all the 17 genes (N100 vs N10) and TOL-GPP in GNR indicate that they are largely N responsive. However, comprehensive molecular and physiological studies are required to fully explore how enhanced N availability and its perception relates to its transcript abundance and its consequences to inflorescence organization.Identifying the minimal N amount for optimal yield is key to limit the undesirable ecological impacts of fertilizer dependent cereal cropping. Here we demonstrate that N responsiveness is an important trait to consider in achieving this aim. The present study provides the first exhaustive analysis in S. italica of the responsiveness of multiple agronomic traits to applied N and identifies a set of genetic loci strongly linked to N dependent grain number response. Of the putatively associated genes, some showed strongly differential expression in a N, genotype and temporal specific manner in the developing spikelet. The insights gained and resources generated in this will help identify promising N responsive accessions for use by breeders in devising sustainable crop improvement strategies. This study provides key avenues for comprehensive dissection of N responsiveness in the climate resilient C 4 crop S. italica with a potential for translation in additional cereal crop species relevant to sustainable food security.This research work does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.","tokenCount":"7130"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"240a19719f433b20b9c86630cb40f18c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fcd425d1-621f-4da8-bd69-cba25912afe3/retrieve","id":"336636105"},"keywords":["A, AGUAT, ANSM, ARIZ, ASU, BAA, BAB, BAFC, BM, BR, BRIT, CAS, CHAPA, CICY, COL, CORD, CPUN, CR, CS, CUZ, DAV, DS, DUKE, EBUM, ECON, ENCB, F, FI, G, GH, HAO, HNMN, HUT, IBUG, IEB, INB, K, L, LAGU, LIL, LL, LPB, M, MA, MEXU, MICH, MO, MOL, NA, NCU, NY, O, P, PH, PMA, POM, PRG, QCA, RB, RSA, SI, TEX, UC, UCR, US, USJ, USM, UVAL, WIS albescens, 2 racèmes, en floraison, j go. [MEXU","27-I-2011]. UCR75254. /// Plantas de México: Edo. de Colima. (Macroptilium) [barré]. Phaseolus lunatus L.. Rancho El Jabalí, aprox albescens, en go sèches, graines, 6 racèmes, B1 elliptiques étroites acuminées presque linéaires 5 mm long 1 mm large, qq go avec fines stries violettes. [MEXU","27-I-2011] Phaseolus. Bejuco herbácea, en malezas. /// Base de datos Phaseolinae [cachet à l'encre bleue]. /// Herbario Nacional (MEXU). Phaseolus albescens A. Delgado & R. Ramírez-Delgadillo, det. A. Delgado, 2008. /// DGD: albescens, 3 racèmes, en j go en transition à go vertes. [MEXU","27-I-2011] Phaseolus costaricensis, et c'est l'holotype","en floraison, 2 racèmes, jgo. [US","12-V-1997] costaricensis, isotype, 2 racèmes, en floraison, jgo. [UC","22-X-2003] costaricensis, en floraison, jgo, un seul très grand racème vigoureux","pas d'indication de site. [SI","22-IV-1988]"],"sieverID":"05709aa9-065b-45da-8edb-f59139cce49f","pagecount":"229","content":"was mutually agreed with the Editor of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas that the monograph should not exceed 300 pages. We had a lot of specimens that the two of us had seen and annotated together in Mayagüez, or separately. We agreed with the Editor that at least an identification list should be in the monograph (pages 291-294), so Curators of Herbaria would have identifications for the specimens they kindly allowed us to see. Since 2002 more Herbaria have been visited (see full list at the end of this explanatory note) by myself and more specimens have been annotated. Obviously few journals would accept the publication of these records in full. The publication of these 'note books of phaseology' on the web site of the genebank of CIAT where the largest collection of beans is currently maintained, was one way to put that information available to the public. This file is periodically updated as more visits to Herbaria increase the number of specimens of species belonging to this section.weedy forms, not to the beans grown anywhere on purpose by people). For each country, the alphabetical order of currently acknowledged departments/ provinces/ states is followed. Within each department/ province/ state the specimens are presented by alphabetical order of names of collectors, the first family name coming first when applicable. If there are many specimens by the same collector(s), the lowest collecting numbers will come first. When there are many specimens with the same collecting number, the alphabetical order of the Herbaria keeping these specimens is followed. The specimens used as types (with indications in red and in bold face about the kind of types) immediately follow the introduction of the species name. There are two reasons for this: for the taxonomist the type contributes to the validation of the species (and we know straight which species we are talking about), and if a user looks for the type(s) it will be faster to look for it (them) at a specific location in the files throughout the sections rather than to look for it (them) by geographical area. Logically the holotype comes first. The types of species put in synonymy will logically follow, in alphabetical order of the names of these species, unless they were not validly published, and in this case these specimens will be in the general list (as usually Curators of Herbaria proceed). In a few cases, the type specimens are followed by specimens for which there is no geographical information. In cases where only the country has been indicated, then the specimens will be at the top of the list before the first department/ province/ state listed alphabetically.All notes found on the voucher specimen on the day of visit are taken in the way they have been written (trying to respect the original to the extent possible), and written down along a time sequence starting with the oldest annotation (sometimes deciding which is the oldest annotation is an educated guess, but color of labels and inks and kinds of typewriters or printers help). For easy reference, the information starts with the number of the voucher with the acronym of the Herbarium visited when applicable. Please note that some Herbaria did not number their voucher specimens. In this case there might be only a stamp indicating the Herbarium where the specimen is currently kept. Each piece of information found on a label or written directly on the cardboard is separated from the next one by a slash sign repeated three times (///). Please note that a stamp might be included in the sequence of information, since it can provide useful information about the date of a specimen if not indicated in the main label. The most recent labels in the sequence usually refer to the identification of the specimen by taxonomists and are presented in chronological order, the earliest identification coming first. The sequence of sets of data finishes with the author's determination (introduced by author's initials), with a few notes about the specimen. In the notes, attention is drawn on the size/ richness of the specimens, usually through the number of racemes. In view of possible future collecting (e.g. matching with the date of collection), there is an indication about the phenology, whether the specimen was seen with flowers and/ or young/ green/ dry pods and/ or seeds. The notes end with the acronym of the visited Herbarium and the date (as day/ month/ year) when the specimen was studied (that date can be validated by consulting the records of visitors of each Herbarium); so the reader knows where that specimen can be studied/ asked for study. A specimen might have been seen on two visits, and thus two dates will be indicated in chronological order. The indication [x2] or [x3] means that the specimen exists as two or three sheets; if there is anything noteworthy, then the second or third sheet will be treated as another specimen.Because the coordinates could be critical for studies in phytogeography or in evaluation against abiotic stresses, if the coordinates were given on the (main) label, they are reported directly. If there none and if the location is precise enough, an estimate is provided, usually for the first collecting number; because it is an indirect data provided by the author, it will be written down in square brackets []. Similarly, given its importance in order to see the material one more time in its original habitat, if provided in abbreviated form or numerical form that could lead to confusion, the date might be reconfirmed in square brackets (in the format day/ month/ year), usually for the first collecting number. This confirmation is often possible because the author has explored the same area for the same species. Other notes such as appreciation/ interpretation of anything relevant on the labels will appear also in square brackets, so that the reader understands that this is not an original data. In some cases it was felt necessary to add [col.] to indicate clearly the name of the collector; similarly [det.] was added to indicate clearly the name of the taxonomist identifying the specimen. If both indications are without square brackets, it means that they were written as such on the label(s). Sometimes critical information, for example the name of the species or the collecting number might be missing and the author has seen a void space; this situation is reflected in the notes by [blanc] 'void'.For easy reference only, the name of the state/ department/ province will appear green (the black font of the original name has been turned green), and the name of the (main) collector and his/ her collecting number will appear blue (the black font of the original name has been turned blue). Note that the original black font can be reversed easily, so the user sees the original data as they were on the label(s). Similarly, all back slash signs could be eliminated to restore the original information found on the label(s).One should keep in mind that the author deals with specimens as individual cases and single sets of data, and on every visit as a novel case. This explains why specimens by the same collector(s) with the same collecting number are repeated in the list. The opinion of other taxonomists on the studied specimen is their, and the way Curators mounted plant parts and presented the labels is their too. That stated, the reader will notice some interesting convergences (or discrepancies) in the works of these different professionals.The reader will find the specimens seen by the author in alphabetical order of the species: P. albescens, P. costaricensis, P. debouckii, P. dumosus, P. persistentus and P. vulgaris. P. debouckii was included following the work by Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017 (in Phytotaxa 313 (3): 259-266). About P. dumosus the reader will find wild and weedy forms, the latter being found in wellestablished second growth forests (the records from South America), not from cultivated fields. P. persistentus was included into this section following the data given by A. Delgado-Salinas, R. Bibler & M. Lavin. 2006. Phylogeny of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae): a recent diversification in an ancient landscape. Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 779-791. P. vulgaris was treated as in the monograph without naming botanical varieties, focusing on wild forms, with the mention of a few weedy types (namely when found in the folders of wild forms in some Herbaria); cultivated types were excluded. In many cases, since the collector(s) does (do) not clearly state the biological status of the specimen at the collection site and on the label, the specimen is confirmed as wild ('sauvage') in the author's notes because this confirmation is critical for the future use of the data. updated 2/12/2019. Introducción a los 'Cahiers de Phaséologie'sección Phaseoli DC emend. Freytag.Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) AA 6713 Cali COLOMBIA; d.debouck@cgiar.org NOTA ACLARATORIAMientras con el Dr. George F. Freytag estábamos finalizando la monografía (Freytag, G.F. & D.G. Debouck. 2002. Taxonomy, distribution, and ecology of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) in North America, Mexico and Central America. SIDA , se acordó mutuamente con el Editor del Botanical Research Institute of Texas que el texto final no debería sobrepasar el límite de 300 páginas. Teníamos muchos especímenes que habíamos examinado y anotado conjuntamente en Mayagüez, o de manera independiente. Acordamos con el Editor que por lo menos una lista de los especímenes con las identificaciones estuviera en la monografía (páginas 291-294), para que los Curadores de los Herbarios tuvieran las identificaciones de los especímenes que amablemente nos permitieron estudiar. Desde 2002 más Herbarios fueron visitados (véase una lista completa al final de esta nota aclaratoria) de mi parte y más especímenes fueron anotados. Por razones obvias pocas revistas científicas aceptarían de publicar estos registros de manera completa. La publicación de estos 'Cuadernos de Faseología' en el sitio internet del banco de germoplasma del CIAT donde se conserva actualmente la mayor colección de fríjoles, era una manera lógica de meter esta información al alcance del público. El presente archivo es actualizado periódicamente cuando nuevas visitas a los Herbarios aumentan el número de especímenes de las especies perteneciendo a esta sección.La lista de los especímenes examinados por el autor en los Herbarios viene organizada de acuerdo con las secciones del género Phaseolus tales como se las reconoce en la monografía (op. cit.). La razón detrás de esta organización de los datos es práctica, por los números de especímenes estudiados, especialmente para las secciones que incluyen el fríjol común (es decir los Phaseoli) o el fríjol Lima (es decir los Paniculati). Para dar una información actualizada a los usuarios, la fecha del documento (la cual se encuentra al final del archivo) es la fecha de la cargada de los datos de cualquier espécimen de esta sección estudiado en el último Herbario visitado. Directamente después del título se encuentra la lista de los Herbarios y Museos de Historia Natural que conservan especímenes de esta sección en sus colecciones; estos Herbarios y Museos vienen mencionados en orden alfabético con los acrónimos de 'Index Herbariorum'. Dentro de cada sección, la información se presenta por cada especie reconocida actualmente como válida, y en orden alfabético de las especies para esta sección. Para cada especie la presentación sigue el orden alfabético de los países donde esta especie crece naturalmente (este cuaderno trata únicamente de las especies y formas silvestres, no de los fríjoles sembrados a propósito por la gente en cualquier parte del mundo). Para cada país, se sigue el orden alfabético de los departamentos/ estados/ provincias actualmente reconocidos para este país. Dentro de cada departamento/ estado/ provincia, los especímenes se presentan en el orden alfabético de los apellidos de los colectores, considerando el primer apellido cuando aplica. Si se reporta varios especímenes de un mismo colector, el reporte arranca con los números de colecta menores. Cuando hay varios especímenes con el mismo número de colecta, estos se presentan en el orden alfabético de los Herbarios (por sus acrónimos) que conservan estos especímenes. Los especímenes que fueron usados como tipos (indicados en rojo reforzado y según la categoría de tipos, el holotipo siendo el primero) se presentan directamente después del nombre de la especie. Hay dos razones detrás de esta presentación: primero, para el taxónomo el tipo es parte de la validación de la especie (y por lo tanto se sabe de cuál especie se trata), y segundo, en el caso que un usuario busca un tipo, será más rápido buscarlo en un lugar preciso del archivo (y esto para todas las secciones) en comparación a una búsqueda por área geográfica. Los tipos de las especies que fueron puestas en sinonimia siguen, en orden alfabético de los nombres de las especies, a menos que no hayan sido publicados de manera válida. En este último caso, los especímenes se ubican en la lista general (de la misma manera como lo hacen los Curadores). En algunos casos, los especímenes tipo vienen seguidos por aquellos especímenes por los cuales no hay información geográfica. En los casos donde sólo aparece el nombre del país, entonces estos especímenes vienen al inicio (en espera de más información) antes del primer departamento/ estado/ provincia mencionado en orden alfabético.Todas las notas que se encontraron escritas sobre cada espécimen en el día de la visita fueron registradas de la manera más cercana al original, y vienen reportadas en una secuencia temporal arrancando con la anotación más antigua. Decidir cuál era la anotación más antigua no fue siempre fácil, pero el color de las etiquetas y de las tintas y los tipos de máquinas de escribir y de las impresoras ayudaron. Para una referencia rápida, la información arranca con el número del ejemplar con el acrónimo del Herbario visitado cuando aplica. Hay que mencionar que algunos Herbarios no numeran sus especímenes. En este caso puede haber sólo el sello del Herbario donde el espécimen está conservado. Cada elemento de información que se encuentra escrito en una etiqueta o directamente sobre la cartulina viene separado del siguiente por una barra oblicua repetida tres veces (///). Favor notar que un sello puede ser incluido en la secuencia de informaciones porque puede dar una información útil sobre la edad de un espécimen si ésta no viene indicada en la etiqueta principal. Las etiquetas más recientes en la secuencia se refieren usualmente a la identificación del espécimen por parte de los taxónomos, y vienen en orden cronológico, la identificación más temprana siendo la primera. La secuencia de grupos de datos termina con la identificación de parte del autor (introducida por sus iniciales), con algunas notas sobre el espécimen. En estas notas, se llama la atención sobre el tamaño/ riqueza del espécimen, usualmente mediante el número de racimos. Con miras a futuras colectas y en correspondencia con la fecha de la colecta, se da una indicación de fenología, si el espécimen tiene flores y/o vainas jóvenes y/o vainas verdes y/o vainas secas y/o semillas. Las notas terminan con el acrónimo del Herbario visitado y con la fecha (en formato día/mes/ año) del estudio del espécimen durante la visita (esta fecha puede ser comprobada consultando los libros de registro de visitantes de cada Herbario). En consecuencia el lector sabe dónde un espécimen preciso puede ser estudiado o solicitado en prestamo. Un espécimen puede haber sido estudiado en dos fechas, y en consecuencia dos fechas aparecen, en orden cronológico. La indicación [x2] o [x3] significa que el espécimen existe como dos o tres ejemplares; si existe cualquier detalle que amerita ampliación de notas, entonces el segundo o tercer ejemplar será tratado como cualquier otro espécimen.Porque las coordenadas geográficas pueden ser de importancia crítica para los estudios de fitogeografía o evaluación contra estrés abióticos, en el caso que las coordenadas fueron escritas en la etiqueta (principal), se las reporta directamente. Si no hay coordenadas y en el caso que el lugar de colecta esté suficientemente preciso, se dan unas coordenadas estimadas, usualmente para el primer número de colecta. Porque se trata de datos indirectos dados por el autor, estarán escritos entre corchetes cuadrados []. De igual manera, por su importancia para volver a ver el material en su sitio original, especialmente si ha sido dada de manera abreviada o en forma numérica que puede prestarse a confusiones, la fecha puede ser re-confirmada en corchetes cuadrados (en el formato día/ mes/ año), usualmente para el primer número de colecta. Esta confirmación ha sido posible en varios casos porque el autor ha explorado la misma área para la misma especie. Otras notas tales como apreciaciones o interpretaciones de cualquier palabra escrita sobre la etiqueta y que sea relevante aparecerán también entre corchetes cuadrados, de tal manera que el lector entiende que no son datos originales. En algunos casos se vio la necesidad de añadir la abreviación [col.] para indicar claramente el nombre del colector de la muestra; de igual manera a veces fue necesario añadir la abreviación [det.] para indicar claramente el nombre del taxónomo quien identificó el material. En el caso que ambas abreviaciones estén sin corchetes cuadrados, esta situación significa que fueron escritas como tales en la etiqueta. A veces una información crítica, por ejemplo el nombre de la especie o el número de colecta puede estar faltando y el autor ha visto un espacio dejado en blanco; esta situación viene reflejada en las notas con la indicación [blanc] 'blanco' donde corresponde.Para referencia rápida solamente, el nombre del departamento/ estado/ provincia aparecerá en verde (la letra original negra ha sido cambiada a verde), y el nombre del colector (principal) y su número de colecta aparecerán en azul (la letra original negra ha sido cambiada a azul). Favor notar que la letra original negra puede revertirse fácilmente, para que el usuario vea los datos originales tales como estaban en la(s) etiqueta(s). De igual manera, todas las barras en oblicuo pueden ser eliminadas para volver a la información original de la(s) etiqueta(s).Es importante guardar en mente que el autor trata los especímenes como casos individuales y como conjuntos de datos por separado, y en cada visita como casos nuevos. Esta aproximación explica por qué los especímenes colectados por el mismo colector y con el mismo número de colecta se repiten en la lista. La opinión de otros taxónomos sobre el espécimen estudiado les pertenece, y la manera como los Curadores montan la muestra y presentan los datos igualmente pertenece a ellos. Bajo este entendimiento, el lector observará unas convergencias (o diferencias) interesantes en el trabajo de estos diferentes profesionales.El lector encontrará los especímenes estudiados por el autor en el orden alfabético de las especies: P. albescens, P. costaricensis, P. debouckii, P. dumosus, P. persistentus and P. vulgaris. P. debouckii fue incluido siguiendo el trabajo de Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017 (in Phytotaxa 313 (3): 259-266). Con relación a P. dumosus, el lector encontrará formas silvestres y formas malezas, estas últimas creciendo en bosque secundarios ya establecidos (los registros para América del Sur), pero no en campos cultivados. P. persistentus fue incluido en esta sección de acuerdo con los datos de A. Delgado-Salinas, R. Bibler & M. Lavin. 2006. Phylogeny of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae): a recent diversification in an ancient landscape. Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 779-791. El tratamiento de P. vulgaris fue igual a lo aplicado en la monografía sin nombrar variedades botánicas, enfocándose sobre las formas silvestres y con la mención de algunas formas malezas (se dio esta situación cuando las muestras estaban en la misma carpeta en el Herbario visitado); los materiales cultivados fueron excluidos. En muchos casos donde el colector no aclara el estado biológico del material en el sitio de colecta y en la etiqueta, se confirmó en las notas del autor que el espécimen era silvestre ('sauvage') porque esta confirmación tiene gran importancia para el uso futuro de los datos.actualizado el 2/12/2019. Au moment de finir la monographie avec George F. Freytag (Freytag, G.F. & D.G. Debouck. 2002. Taxonomy, distribution, and ecology of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) in North America, Mexico and Central America. SIDA , un accord avait été conclu avec l'Editeur du Botanical Research Institute of Texas que la monographie ne devrait pas compter plus de 300 pages. Il y avait cependant un grand nombre de spécimens sur lesquels nous avions des observations et des notes prises soit ensemble à Mayagüez, soit séparément. Nous étions d'accord avec l'Editeur qu'au moins une liste des identifications soit présente dans la monographie (pages 291-294), afin que les Curateurs des Herbiers puissent avoir les identifications des spécimens qu'ils avaient eu l'amabilité de soumettre à notre examen. Depuis 2002 j'ai eu l'occasion de visiter d'autres Herbiers (la liste complète se trouve à la fin de cette note explicative) et de prendre des notes sur un plus grand nombre de spécimens. Pour des raisons évidentes peu de revues scientifiques accepteraient de publier ces notes dans leur entièreté. La publication de ces 'cahiers de phaséologie' sur le site internet de la banque de gènes du CIAT où la plus grande collection de haricots est actuellement conservée, était une façon de mettre ces informations à la disposition du public. Ce fichier est mis à jour périodiquement quand de nouvelles visites aux Herbiers permettent d'augmenter le nombre de spécimens des espèces appartenant à cette section.La liste des spécimens étudiés dans les Herbiers par l'auteur est organisée en suivant les sections du genre Phaseolus telles qu'elles sont reconnues dans la monographie (op. cit.). La raison pour cette organisation des données est pratique, étant donné le grand nombre de spécimens étudiés, particulièrement pour les sections qui contiennent le haricot commun (c'est-à-dire les Phaseoli) ou le haricot de Lima (c'est-à-dire les Paniculati). Dans le but de donner une information actualisée aux usagers, la date du document (qui se trouve à la fin du fichier) est celle du transfert des données de n'importe quel spécimen de cette section après la dernière visite d'un Herbier. Directement après le titre se trouve la liste des Herbiers et Muséums d'Histoire Naturelle qui conservent des spécimens de cette section dans leurs collections; ces Herbiers sont signalés en ordre alphabétique par les acronymes signalés dans 'Index Herbariorum'. Dans chaque section, l'information est présentée pour chacune des espèces actuellement valide, et dans l'ordre alphabétique des espèces de cette section. Pour chaque espèce la présentation suit l'ordre alphabétique des pays où l'espèce croît naturellement (ce cahier se réfère seulement aux espèces et formes sauvages de haricot, et non aux haricots plantés à dessein où que ce soit par les humains). Pour chaque pays, l'ordre alphabétique des départements/ états/ provinces actuellement connu(e)s est suivi. Pour chaque département/ état/ province, les spécimens sont présentés dans l'ordre alphabétique des noms des collecteurs, le premier nom de famille étant considéré en premier lieu. Au cas où plusieurs spécimens ont été collectés par le(s) même(s) collecteur(s), les moindres numéros de collecte viennent en premier lieu. Dans le cas où plusieurs spécimens sont présents avec le même numéro de collecte, l'ordre alphabétique des Herbiers conservant ces spécimens sera suivi. Les spécimens qui ont été utilisés comme types (avec indication en rouge renforcé pour la nature des types) viennent directement après la mention du nom de l'espèce. Il y a deux raisons pour cette situation: pour le taxonomiste le type contribue à la validation de l'espèce (et par conséquent on sait directement de quelle espèce il s'agit), et d'autre part dans le cas où un usager cherche un type la recherche sera plus rapide si le type occupe un endroit déterminé dans les fichiers plutôt que de devoir le chercher par origine géographique. Logiquement l'holotype vient en premier lieu. Les types des espèces placées en synonymie viendront ensuite, dans l'ordre alphabétique des noms d'espèces, à moins qu'elles n'aient pas été publiées de façon valide, et dans ce cas les spécimens se trouveront dans la liste générale (comme le font d'habitude les Curateurs des Herbiers). Dans quelques cas, les spécimens type sont suivis par les spécimens pour lesquels il n'y a pas d'information géographique. Dans les cas où le pays est indiqué sans plus d'information, ces spécimens suivent l'indication du pays et sont placés avant ceux avec département/ état/ province connu(e), par ordre alphabétique.Toutes les notes trouvées sur chaque planche d'herbier le jour de la visite ont été enregistrées comme elles ont été écrites, en respectant l'original le plus fidèlement possible, et ont été présentées en séquence chronologique en commençant par la note la plus ancienne. Décider quelle était la note la plus ancienne fut parfois un choix difficile, mais les couleurs des étiquettes et des encres et le type de machines à écrire ou imprimantes ont aidé. Pour une référence facile, l'information rapportée commence par le numéro de la planche d'herbier avec l'acronyme ou le nom de l'Herbier visité suivant le cas. Il faut noter que certains Herbiers ne numérotent pas leurs planches. Dans ce cas il peut y avoir seulement un cachet indiquant l'Herbier où le spécimen est actuellement conservé. Chaque groupe d'informations sur une étiquette ou écrites directement sur la planche est séparé du suivant par une barre oblique répétée trois fois (///). Il convient de noter qu'un cachet peut être inclus dans la séquence d'informations, car il peut apporter une information utile sur l'âge d'un spécimen si ce renseignement ne figure pas sur l'étiquette principale. Les étiquettes les plus récentes dans la séquence se réfèrent généralement à l'identification du spécimen par les taxonomistes et cette identification est présentée dans l'ordre chronologique, la plus ancienne identification venant en premier. La séquence des groupes d'informations se termine par l'identification de la part de l'auteur (introduite par ses initiales), avec quelques notes sur le spécimen. Dans ces notes, l'attention se porte sur la taille/ abondance du spécimen, mesurée d'habitude par le nombre de racèmes. En vue d'une collecte future éventuelle et en correspondance avec la date de collecte, il y a une indication de phénologie, si le spécimen provient d'une plante en floraison, et/ ou avec des jeunes gousses (jgo), et/ ou avec des gousses vertes (go vertes), et/ ou avec des gousses sèches (go sèches) et/ ou avec des graines. Ces notes se terminent avec l'acronyme de l'Herbier visité et la date (en format jour/ mois/ année) de l'étude du spécimen (cette date peut être validée en consultant le registre des visiteurs de chaque Herbier). De cette façon le lecteur sait où un spécimen peut être étudié ou demandé en prêt pour étude. Un spécimen peut avoir été étudié au cours de deux visites, et par conséquent deux dates en ordre chronologique seront indiquées. L'indication [x2] or [x3] signifie que le spécimen a été trouvé monté sur deux ou trois planches; au cas où il y a quoique ce soit d'intéressant, la seconde ou la troisième planche sera considérée comme un autre spécimen.Comme les coordonnées géographiques peuvent être de valeur critique pour des études de phytogéographie ou d'évaluation pour les stress abiotiques, si ces coordonnées ont été écrites sur l'étiquette (principale), elles seront rapportées directement. Au cas où les coordonnées sont absentes et si le lieu de collecte est suffisamment précis, une estimation des coordonnées est fournie, d'habitude pour le premier numéro de collecte; comme il s'agit d'une donnée indirecte fournie par l'auteur, cette estimation des coordonnées sera écrite entre crochets []. Pareillement, étant donné son importance pour retrouver le matériel dans son site original, la date de collecte, surtout si elle se trouve sous forme abréviée ou sous une forme qui peut prêter à confusion, peut être reconfirmée entre crochets (dans le format jour/ mois/ année), d'habitude pour le premier numéro de collecte. Cette confirmation est souvent possible parce que l'auteur a exploré la même zone géographique pour la même espèce. D'autres notes comme des appréciations ou interprétations d'écritures sur les étiquettes figureront aussi entre crochets, de sorte que le lecteur comprend qu'il ne s'agit pas de données originales. Dans quelques cas il s'est avéré nécessaire d'ajouter l'abréviation [col.] pour indiquer clairement le nom du collecteur; pareillement l'abréviation [det.] a été ajoutée pour indiquer clairement le nom du taxonomiste qui a identifié le spécimen. Si ces deux abréviations existent sans crochets, cela signifie qu'elles ont été écrites comme telles sur l'étiquette. Parfois une information critique, comme par exemple le nom de l'espèce ou le numéro de collecte, est manquante, et l'auteur a trouvé un espace blanc à cet endroit; cette situation est reflétée dans les notes par l'indication [blanc].Pour la facilité de référence et détection, le nom du département/ état/ province apparaîtra en vert (la lettre originale en noir a été convertie en vert), et le nom du collecteur et son numéro de collecte apparaîtra en bleu (la lettre originale en noir a été convertie en bleu). La conversion à la lettre originale en noir est facile et permet de retrouver les données originales comme sur l'étiquette. Pareillement, toutes les barres obliques peuvent être éliminées pour retrouver les informations originales trouvées sur l'(les) étiquette(s).Il convient de se souvenir que l'auteur traite chaque spécimen comme un cas particulier et chaque groupe d'informations sur une étiquette comme un groupe indépendant, et à chaque visite comme un nouveau cas. Ceci explique pourquoi les spécimens trouvés par le(s) même(s) collecteur(s) avec le même numéro de collecte sont répétés dans la liste. L'opinion d'autres taxonomistes sur le spécimen étudié est leur opinion, et la façon dont les Curateurs présentent les étiquettes et montent les matériels leur appartient également. Ceci précisé, le lecteur constatera des convergences (ou des différences) intéressantes dans le travail de ces différents professionnels.Le lecteur trouvera ci-après les spécimens étudiés par l'auteur dans l'ordre alphabétique des espèces: P. albescens, P. costaricensis, P. debouckii, P. dumosus, P. persistentus et P. vulgaris. P. debouckii a été inclus suivant le travail de Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017 (in Phytotaxa 313 (3): 259-266). A propos de P. dumosus, le lecteur trouvera des formes sauvages et rudérales, ces dernières souvent établies dans des forêts secondaires (les registres pour l'Amérique du Sud), mais ne provenant pas de champs cultivés. P. persistentus a été inclus dans cette section suivant les résultats de A. Delgado-Salinas, R. Bibler & M. Lavin. 2006. Phylogeny of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae): a recent diversification in an ancient landscape. Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 779-791. P. vulgaris a été traité comme dans la monographie sans faire de distinction entre les variétés botaniques, en se concentrant sur les formes sauvages, avec la mention occasionnelle de quelques formes rudérales (notamment si ces spécimens se trouvaient confondus avec les formes sauvages dans les mêmes casiers des Herbiers); les plantes cultivées ont été exclues. Dans plusieurs cas, quand le collecteur n'a pas clairement défini le statut biologique du spécimen au site de collecte et sur l'étiquette, le spécimen a été confirmé comme 'sauvage' dans les notes de l'auteur du fait de l'importance de cette information pour l'usage ultérieur des données. actualisé 2/12/2019. ","tokenCount":"5099"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"809a05155b7d7c3e5a797d13872ad59a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0cb451ea-d0a2-479b-b629-2a5ce6556ade/content","id":"2125099436"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"98bc176b-163c-4f0e-8e29-9c90c6b24ebd","pagecount":"15","content":"Evidence that genomic selection (GS) is a technology that is revolutionizing plant breeding continues to grow. However, it is very well documented that its success strongly depends on statistical models, which are used by GS to perform predictions of candidate genotypes that were not phenotyped. Because there is no universally better model for prediction and models for each type of response variable are needed (continuous, binary, ordinal, count, etc.), an active area of research aims to develop statistical models for the prediction of univariate and multivariate traits in GS. However, most of the models developed so far are for univariate and continuous (Gaussian) traits. Therefore, to overcome the lack of multivariate statistical models for genome-based prediction by improving the original version of the BMTME, we propose an improved Bayesian multi-trait and multi-environment (BMTME) R package for analyzing breeding data with multiple traits and multiple environments. We also introduce Bayesian multioutput regressor stacking (BMORS) functions that are considerably efficient in terms of computational resources. The package allows parameter estimation and evaluates the prediction performance of multi-trait and multi-environment data in a reliable, efficient and user-friendly way. We illustrate the use of the BMTME with real toy datasets to show all the facilities that the software offers the user. However, for large datasets, the BME() and BMTME() functions of the BMTME R package are very intense in terms of computing time; on the other hand, less intensive computing is required with BMORS functions BMORS() and BMORS_Env() that are also included in the BMTME package.Genomic selection (GS) is a methodology used in plant breeding that was proposed by Meuwissen et al. (2001). It is a type of marker-assisted selection that consists of genotyping and phenotyping a training sample (reference population); with the help of statistical models, predictions of genomic estimated breeding values (GEBV) or phenotypic values of the testing sample (validation population) are obtained for which only genome-wide dense genetic marker data were available. GS does not depend on prior knowledge about a few, large-effect genes or QTL, since all markers are used simultaneously in the training of the statistical models. GS was first used in animal breeding (Hayes and Goddard 2010), but nowadays is being implemented in many crops, for example, maize (Crossa et al., 2014), cassava (de Oliveira et al., 2012), wheat (Rutkoski et al., 2011), sugar beet (Würschum et al., 2013), tomato (Yamamoto et al., 2016), rice (Spindel et al., 2015), apple (Kumar et al., 2012), pea (Burstin et al., 2015), cranberry (Covarrubias-Pazaran et al., 2018) and many others.In recent years, an active area of research has begun to develop and improve existing statistical models for genomic selection (GS) due to the fact that successful GS implementation is strongly related to the accuracy of the predictions performed by statistical models. However, because there are no universally superior machines for prediction, many models have been proposed. For example, most of the proposed models are univariate and few are multivariate. Most of the univariate models are appropriate for continuous and Gaussian phenotypes, but there are several appropriate models for binary, ordinal and count traits. Some examples of implementations of models for non-Gaussian, non-continuous traits are unordered categorical (Heuer et al., 2016), binomial (Technow and Melchinger 2013) and ordinal categorical (Montesinos-López et al., 2015a,b). While multivariate models are used almost routinely nowadays, for the joint analysis of multiple-traits (e.g., Jia and Jannink 2012) as well as multiple-environments (e.g., Burgueño et al., 2012) and even multiple populations (e.g., Olson et al., 2012), there are few multivariate practical software programs for continuous and Gaussian phenotypes and there are scarcely any models and software for other types of response variables. To the best of our knowledge, almost none of the currently reported models consider mixed phenotypes including continuous, binary, ordinal, count, etc. traits. For this reason, it is clear that to increase the power of GS technology, it is of paramount importance to develop more models and improve the existing ones.Multi-trait models in GS have been applied by many scientists. For example, Calus and Veerkamp (2011), Jia and Jannink (2012), Jiang et al. (2015), He et al. (2016), Schulthess et al. (2017), andCovarrubias-Pazaran et al. (2018) reported that multi-trait analysis outperforms unitrait analysis in terms of prediction accuracy and that the larger the correlation between traits, the larger the benefit of multi-trait analysis. The Multi-Trait Model (MTM) of de los Campos and Grüneberg ( 2016) is a mixed multi-trait Gaussian model under the Bayesian framework that uses a Gibbs sampler for inferences. Furthermore, Bayesian multi-output regressor stacking (BMORS) is a Bayesian version of the multi-trait regressor stacking method proposed by Spyromitros-Xioufis et al. (2012;2016). The training of BMORS has two stages: (1) a single univariate model is implemented using the GBLUP model, and (2) the resulting predictions are directly included by BMORS in an additional training stage. Thus, the concept of BMORS is that a second-stage model will correct the predictions of the first-stage model [using the predictions of the first-stage univariate GBLUP model (Spyromitros-Xioufis et al., 2012;2016)]. Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016) were the first to develop a comprehensive theory for a Bayesian multi-trait multi-environment (BMTME) model for genome-based prediction. An improved version of BMTME allows general covariance matrices by using the matrix normal distribution that facilitates easy derivation of all full conditional distributions and permits a more efficient model in terms of time of implementation Montesinos-López et al. (2018a,b,c). In general, the matrix normal distribution model considerably improved in terms of implementation time over the time required by the original BMTME. Also, the Gibbs sampler for implementing the new BMTME model can be found in Montesinos-López et al. (2018a), and the priors of the model are given in detail in Montesinos-López et al. (2018b). Montesinos-López et al.(2018a) provide the appropriate notations used for the matrix-variate normal distribution that is a generalization of the multivariate normal distributions to matrices. This plays a key role in building the BMTME model. The original software used by Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016) to fit the BMTME was the first attempt to implement the multi-trait multi-environment theory when analyzing real data; however, the lack of the necessary optimization algorithms for efficiently applying the software made the original BMTME difficult to apply to real data.It is also important to point out that even though the existing R statistical software for Bayesian analysis like 'stan' (https://mc-stan.org/) and 'JAGS' (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_another_Gibbs_sampler) are very flexible for implementing Bayesian analysis, they are not user-friendly because the user needs a certain level of programming skills to correctly implement them (Stan Development Team 2018;Plummer 2018). These two software programs (stan and JAGS) also require more computational resources for their implementation since they are built not with conjugate priors. It is documented that multivariate analysis improves parameter estimation (Schulthess et al., 2017). For this reason, we agree with Castro et al. (2013) and Huang et al. (2015), who stated that multi-trait analysis is a powerful tool for clarifying the relationship and the effect of each studied variable and for building more efficient prediction models.Due to the background of plant breeders, not only are new models needed, but the existing ones need to be improved. We also need reliable, efficient, user-friendly software in which breeders can implement the existing GS models. One popular R package in the context of genomic selection for continuous and ordinal data are the BGLR package of Pérez and de los Campos (2014) that was built under the Bayesian framework and is very flexible because it allows the use of a genomic relationship matrix (derived from marker or pedigree), and also allows implementing various methods like BayesA, BayesB, Bayes Lasso, Bayes Ridge and GBLUP and can deal with moderate datasets; however, it only allows the implementation of univaritate models. Therefore, to contribute to this requirement, we developed a Bayesian multi-trait and multienvironment (BMTME) R software that allows the implementation of multi-trait and multi-environment data for performing parameter estimates and evaluating the prediction performance of multiple traits that are studied in many environments. This BMTME package is different from existing ones [sommer (Covarrubias-Pazaran 2016), BGGE (Granato et al., 2018), ASREML (Gilmour et al., 1995) and MCMCglmm (Hadfield et al., 2010)] because it takes into account the genetic correlation between traits and between environments. The main difference of BMTME with sommer and ASREML is that our package was built under a Bayesian framework, while sommer and ASREML were based on a classical approach using restricted maximum likelihood. The difference between BGGE and our model is that our model is not only for multienvironment data but rather for multi-environment and multi-trait data simultaneously. On the other hand, the MCMCglmm package only allows a general covariance matrix for traits but not for environments, like the proposed BMTME package; however, it is important to point out that the MCMCglmm package allows modeling not only continuous responses but also binary, ordinal and counts.The main objective of this research was to illustrate the application of the new BMTME with two real toy datasets; with these we show how to use the functions available in the BMTME package for implementing multienvironment (BME function), multi-trait and multi-environment data (BMTME function), as well as the Bayesian multi-output regressor stacking functions BMORS () and BMORS_ENV (). These two functions are very different to what the existing software [sommer (Covarrubias-Pazaran 2016), BGGE (Granato et al., 2018), ASREML (Gilmour et al., 1995) and MCMCglmm (Hadfield et al., 2010)] implements, since the theory behind this function is that of stacking methods. Stacking methods consist of training multiple learning algorithms for the same dataset and then combining the predictions to obtain the final predictions. In this study we used the initial BMTME of Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016) but improved it by using the matrix variate normal distribution (Montesinos-López et al., 2018c) and the appropriate priors given by Montesinos-López et al. (2018a) and Montesinos-López et al. (2018b).Multiple-environment Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Predictor (GBLUP) model: Since genotype • environment interaction is of paramount importance in plant breeding, the following univariate linear mixed model is often used for each trait:where y ij represents the response of the jth line in the ith environment (i ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; I, j ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; JÞ. E i represents the effect of the ith environment, g j represents the random genomic effect of the jth line, with1 is a genomic variance, G g is of order J • J and represents the genomic relationship matrix (GRM) and is calculated (VanRaden 2008) as G g ¼ WW T p , where p denotes the number of markers and W is the matrix of markers of order J • p. The G g matrix is constructed using the observed similarity at the genomic level between lines, rather than the expected similarity based on pedigree. Further, gE ij is the random interaction term between the genomic effect of the jth line and the ith environment with gE ¼ ðgE 11 ; . . . ; gE IJ Þ T $ Nð0; s 2 2 I I 5GÞ, where s 2 2 is an interaction variance, and e ij is a random residual associated with the jth line in the ith environment distributed as Nð0; s 2 Þ where s 2 is the residual variance.The current BMTME model was implemented by Montesinos-López et al. (2018a,b,c). For a complete understanding of its description, first we provide the notations used for the matrix-variate normal distribution that plays a key role in building the BMTME model. Matrix-variate normal distribution is a generalization of the multivariate normal distribution to matrices. The (n•p) random matrix, M, has a matrixvariate normal distribution denoted as M $ NM n•p ðH; V; ΣÞ, if and only if, the (np•1) random vector vecðMÞ is distributed as multivariate normal as N np ðvecðHÞ; Σ5VÞ; therefore, NM n•p denotes the (n (Srivastava and Khatri 1979). vecð:Þ and 5 are the standard vector operator and Kronecker product, respectively. Unlike in a multivariate normal model where the data are concatenated into a single vector of length np, in a matrix-variate normal model, the data ðMÞ are in an n•p matrix where each column is a trait (Montesinos-López et al., 2018a). Therefore, the proposed BMTME model is defined as follows:where Y is of order n • L, with L the number of traits and n ¼ J • I, where J denotes the number of lines and I the number of environments, X is of order n • I, b is of order I • L, since b ¼ fb il g for i ¼ 1; ::; I and l ¼ 1; ::; L; Z 1 is of order n • J, b 1 is of order J • L and contains the genotype • trait interaction term since b 1 ¼ fgt jl g where gt jl is the effect of the genotype • trait interaction term for l ¼ 1; ::; J and for j ¼ 1; ::, where gEt jil is the effect of genotype • environment • trait interaction for j ¼ 1; ::; J, for i ¼ 1; ::; I and for l ¼ 1; ::; L.Vector b 1 is distributed under a matrix-variate normal distribution as NM J•L ð0; G g ; Σ t Þ; where G g is of order J • J and represents the Genomic Relationship Matrix (GRM) and is calculated using the VanRaden ( 2008) method as G g ¼ WW T p , where p denotes the number of markers and W the matrix of markers of order J • p; and Σ t is the unstructured genetic (co)variance matrix of traits of orderwhere R e is the unstructured residual (co)variance matrix of traits of order L • L, and G g is the genomic relationship matrix described above (Montesinos-López et al., 2018a). The BMTME model resulting from equation ( 2 Bayesian multi-output regressor stacking (BMORS): The proposed BMORS is a Bayesian version of the multi-trait regressor stacking method proposed by Spyromitros-Xioufis et al. (2012;2016). The training of BMORS consists of two stages. In the first stage, L single univariate models are implemented using the GBLUP model given in equation ( 1), but instead of using the resulting predictions directly as the final output, the BMORS includes an additional training stage where a second set of L meta-models are implemented for each of the L traits under study. Each meta-model is implemented with the following model:where the covariates Ẑ1ij ; Ẑ2ij ; . . . ; ẐLij represent the scaled predictions of each trait obtained with the GBLUP model in the first-stage analysis, and b 1 ; . . . ; b L are the beta coefficients for each covariate. The scaling of each prediction was performed by subtracting its mean (m lij ) and dividing by its corresponding standard deviation (s lij ), that is, Ẑlij =ðŷ lij 2 m lij Þs 21 lij , for each l ¼ 1; . . . ; L. Therefore, the BMORS model contains as predictor information the scaled predictions of its response variables yielded by the first-stage models. In other words, the BMORS model is based on the idea that a secondstage model is able to correct the predictions of a first-stage model using information about the predictions of other first-stage models (Spyromitros-Xioufis et al., 2012;2016).Mada dataset: This dataset was obtained from the study by Ben Hassen et al. (2018). The dataset is composed of a sample of 188 wheat lines evaluated for six traits. Each of the lines was evaluated in one environment. The lines were genotyped and 32,066 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were obtained with a heterozygosity rate , 5% and a minor allele frequency (MAF) . 5%. A subset of the data were included in the package that includes 30 lines, and we named this dataset Mada. For more details, see the study by Ben Hassen et al. (2018). Raw markers are not included, and we provide the genomic relationship matrix (GRM) calculated according to the method of VanRaden (2008).Maize dataset: This dataset was obtained from the study by Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016). It consists of a sample of 309 maize lines evaluated for three traits: anthesis-silking interval (ASI), plant height (PH), and grain yield (GY). Each trait was evaluated in three optimal environments (Env1, Env2 and Env3). The lines were genotyped, 681,257 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were obtained, and markers with more than 20% missing values were removed. After that, markers were imputed using observed allelic frequencies, and markers with MAF , 0.05 were removed, so that at the end of the quality control and imputation, 158,281 SNPs were still available for further analyses. To load this dataset in the package, we used only 30 lines, and we named this dataset Maize. For more details, see the study by Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016).We implemented cross-validation (CV) to evaluate the prediction performance. Two types of CV were implemented: K-fold cross-validation and random cross-validation.K-fold cross-validation: Under this CV, the dataset was partitioned into K subsamples of equal size; each time K-1 of them were used for training (TRN) and the remaining one for testing (TST). In this CV, one observation cannot appear in more than one fold. In the design, some lines can be evaluated in some, but not all, target environments, which mimics a prediction problem faced by breeders in incomplete field trials. This CV strategy is exactly the same as the strategy denoted as CV2 that was proposed and implemented by Jarquín et al. (2017), where a certain portion of test lines (genotypes) in a certain portion of test environments is predicted, since some test lines that were evaluated in some test environments are assumed to be missing in others.Random cross-validation: This CV strategy randomly splits the dataset into training (TRN) and testing data (TST). For each such split, the model is fitted to the TRN data, and predictive accuracy is assessed using the TST data. Since we used sampling with replacement, one observation may appear in more than one partition. The implemented CV mimics a prediction problem faced by breeders in incomplete field trials, where some lines may be evaluated in some, but not all, target environments. Since N ¼ J • I denotes the total number of records per each available trait, then to select lines in the TST dataset, we fixed the percentage of data to be used for TST [PTesting]. Then PTesting•N (lines) were chosen at random, and subsequently for each of these lines, one environment was randomly picked from I environments. The cells selected through this algorithm were allocated to the TST dataset, while the cells (ijÞ that were not selected were assigned to the TRN dataset. Lines were sampled with replacement if J , PTesting • N, and without replacement otherwise (López-Cruz et al., 2015). The metrics used to measure the prediction accuracy under both CV strategies were Pearson's correlation and the mean arctan absolute percentage error (MAAPE), which has the advantage that no zero estimates are produced when the response variable contains many zeros. They were calculated from each trait-environment combination for each of the testing sets and the average of all random partitions (folds) is reported as a measure of prediction performance.The data used in this study are included in the BMTME package, so once that package is installed, the datasets can be loaded into the R environment.The aim of this section is to illustrate the use of the R BMTME package for analyzing multi-environment and multi-trait and multi-environment data from plant breeding programs. The BMTME package was built following the paper by Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2016) and implemented in the R statistical software (R Core Team 2018).The development version of the BMTME package can be installed directly from the GitHub repository (https://github.com/frahik/ BMTME). In order to install the package, it is necessary to install the appropriate compilers; the installation process and the required tools depend heavily on the operating system. For example, in Windows it is necessary to install Rtools (https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/ Rtools/), and in modern versions of macOS, it is necessary to install XCode from App Store or the development tools for R from CRAN (https://cran.r-project.org/bin/macosx/tools/). In the case of Linux, it is necessary to install the C++ compilers included in your distribution, for example, g++ from GNU (https://www.gnu.org). Once the tools have been installed, use the following command to install the package within your R session: install.packages(9devtools9) devtools::install_github(9frahik/BMTME9) You can also find the package in the CRAN repository, and you can use the following command (see below) to install a version of the package from CRAN. This will avoid the need to install some dependencies manually and install the Rtools software using the following command: install.packages(9BMTME9)The R package BMTME is available at the following link: https:// cran.r-project.org/web/packages/BMTME/index.html.The results are given in three main sections. The first section illustrates the use of the BME function for implementing multi-environment analysis, while the second and the third sections illustrate the use of the BMTME and BMORs functions for implementing multi-trait and multi-environment analyses.This example illustrates how to fit a model when there is only one environment and several dependent variables. First, we load the library: library(BMTME) Then we load the Mada dataset: data(\"WheatMadaToy\")Then we define the model to be adjusted; since the dataset only includes an environment where several dependent variables were evaluated, the BME model is used. To implement it, first we need to order the dataset as follows: phenoMada ,-(phenoMada[order(phenoMada$GID),]) rownames(phenoMada)=1:nrow(phenoMada) head(phenoMada) GID PH FL FE NS SY NP 1 9 29.7776 -8.8882 -4.93900 1.04100 169.06 28.8025 2 11 3.2210 -7.1111 -0.36940 -3.88940 -107.19 58.2516 3 12 6.1670 -9.5337 -12.43680 2.58250 -160.54 17.1278 4 15 6.8117 4.6377 11.78860 -0.03378 235.70 -19.6571 5 20 -14.4480 3.2525 6.40780 -14.23460 131.87 42.2962 6 21 -13.2185 3.8902 0.09722 5.35680 164.06 36.8239 This is a very important step in the analysis, because if the dataset is not ordered correctly, this may cause conflicts and produce incorrect estimations. Also, with the head() function we printed the phenotypic dataset, where the required format of the dataset requires a first column with the identifiers of the lines and then the names of all the traits. It is important to respect this format to be able to successfully implement the multi-environment (trait) datasets.Then, the design matrix for the genetic effects should be generated, as shown below.LG ,cholesky(genoMada) ZG ,model.matrix($0 + as.factor(phenoMada$GID)) Z.G ,-ZG % Ã % LG Then, we can extract the phenotypic responses that were converted to matrix object as shown in the following command: Y ,as.matrix(phenoMada[, -c( 1)]) Finally, the model was adjusted, and 30,000 iterations were used to adjust the model. It is important to point out that bs is the block size for sampling from posterior distributions; we suggest using a value of at least 50 but less than 1000.Next we used the names() function to identify all the available outputs of the fitted model.For demonstration purposes, we will only extract the first 6 predictions for the 6 evaluated traits. We also plotted the observed values against the predicted values for each trait, as follows (see Figure 1): plot(fm, trait = 9FL9) Since the code provided above is only appropriate for parameter estimation, now we provide the code required to evaluate the prediction accuracy using the BME() function. For this reason, first we built the random CV strategy with 10 random partitions, each with TRN = 80% and TST = 20%, using the following code: Here we see that the best prediction in terms of APC was found in trait PH (0.5612), while the worst was in trait SY (0.0242). However, in terms of MAAPE, the best prediction was observed in trait NP (0.7070), while the worst was found in trait FL (0.7751). With the boxplot(pm) function, we created a plot summarizing the predictions in terms of Pearson's correlation, but if users want this plot in MAAPE terms, they need to use the following code: boxplot(pm, select=\"MAAPE\") (Figure 2).It is important to point out that the BME function can be used with only 1 testing set that can be defined by the user, as shown in the following example: Since only one training set and one testing set were used, the standard errors for both metrics appear with NaN, given that it is not possible to calculate the standard error because only one testing set is available.This example illustrates how to fit a model with multiple traits and multiple environments. To do this, use the Maize dataset; first, load the data using the following function: data(\"MaizeToy\") Next, order the dataset, rename the rows of the phenotypic dataset and print the first six observations of the data in order to see the structure required of the data, which consists of a first column that includes the lines, a second column that includes the environments and third, fourth and fifth columns that correspond to the traits under study.phenoMaizeToy,-(phenoMaizeToy[order(phenoMaizeToy$Env, phenoMaizeToy$Line),]) rownames(phenoMaizeToy)=1:nrow(phenoMaizeToy) head(phenoMaizeToy) Line Env Yield ASI PH This step is very important for avoiding an incorrect estimation process. Then the design matrices for the line effects, the environment and the genotype•environment interaction are generated:LG ,cholesky(genoMaizeToy) ZG ,model.matrix($0 + as.factor(phenoMaizeToy$Line)) Z.G ,-ZG % Ã % LG Z.E ,model.matrix($0 + as.factor(phenoMaizeToy$Env)) ZEG ,model.matrix($0 + as.factor(phenoMaizeToy$Line):as. factor(phenoMaizeToy$Env)) G2 ,kronecker(diag(length(unique(phenoMaizeToy$Env))), data.matrix(genoMaizeToy))LG2 ,cholesky(G2) Z.EG ,-ZEG % Ã % LG2 Y ,as.matrix(phenoMaizeToy[, -c(1, 2)]) Finally, the following command is used to fit the model: fm ,-BMTME(Y = Y, X = Z.E, Z1 = Z.G, Z2 = Z.EG, nIter =15000, burnIn =10000, thin = 2,bs = 50) To create a graph with a summary of the predictions in terms of Pearson's correlation and in terms of MAAPE, we used the plot() function (Figure 5). Because the names are composed of the evaluated traits and environments, we added the parameter las = 2 to show the labels in a vertical way and to distinguish the complete names of the trait-environment combinations. In addition, we used the par() function and the mar parameter to modify the margins of the graph. par(mar = c(6,4,2,1)) plot(pm, las = 2)Figure 5 shows that the lowest average Pearson's correlation obtained was observed in the ASI_KAK and ASI_KTI trait-environment combinations, while the highest average Pearson's correlation was obtained in the PH_KAK trait-environment combination. It is possible to create a boxplot with the results of the MAAPE, using the following command (Figure 6): boxplot(pm, select =\"MAAPE\", las = 2)Figure 6 shows that the lowest MAAPE was for PH_KAK (best prediction), while the highest MAAPE was for the ASI_KAK traitenvironment combination (worst prediction).The BMORS_ENV Function This function is useful for predicting whole environments using the remaining environments as training. Next we provide the R code for evaluating the prediction performance of the same maize dataset, but using the KAK environment as training and the KTI and EBU environments as testing. Two important things to point out for using this function are: (a) that we provided not only the matrix of response variables, but also a data.frame that contains, in the first column, the names of the environments followed by information on all response variables, and (b) we did not create a separate file for specifying the training and testing individuals; we only specified in testingEnv which environments are used as testing; the remaining environments are used by default as training, as shown below. For this example, we specified that covModel = 9BayesB9, which means that the Bayesian BayesB model will be implemented for the second stage of the model where it is implemented (equation 3). In covModel, in addition to Bayesian Ridge regression (BRR) and BayesB, we can also implement BayesA, BayesC and Bayesian Lasso (BL); however, the BRR model is implemented by default.To create a graph with Pearson's correlation or the MAAPE index, we used the barplot() function, as shown below (Figure 7): barplot(pm)Figure 7 shows that the lowest Pearson's correlation obtained was in the ASI_EBU trait-environment combination, while the highest Pearson's correlation was obtained in the Yield_KTI trait-environment combination.As mentioned in the introduction, we propose a Bayesian R package for implementing multi-environment and multi-trait and multi-environment analysis for parameter estimation and for evaluating prediction accuracy. We illustrate the four main functions [BME(), BMTME(), BMORS() and BMORS_Env()] of the BMTME package with real toy datasets starting from the type and preprocessing required to make correct use of each of these datasets for parameter estimation and for evaluating prediction performance. It is important to point out that one advantage of the BME and BMTME functions is that, in addition to being used to evaluate the prediction accuracy, they can also be used for parameter estimation, which allows estimating the random effects (lines, lines•environments for each trait) and variance-covariance matrices of genetic (for traits and environments) and residual (for traits) effects. The BMORS() and BMORS_Env() functions are not useful for obtaining parameter estimates of covariances between traits and environments because they implement univariate analysis at both stages. However, they have two important advantages: (a) they allow implementing even more complex predictors than the one specified in equation (1), which modifies the ETA list used to create the predictor, and (b) the computational resources required to implement it are much less than those needed by the BMTME() function for implementing multitrait and multi-environment data. This last point is observed in Figure 8 where the implementation time for the Mada and Maize datasets is reported. The figure shows that in the Mada dataset, the BMORS model was more than 15 times faster than the BMTME model (25.246/ 1.621= 15.572), while in the Maize dataset, the BMORS model was more than 37 times faster than the BMTME model (25.668/ 0.692= 37.093); these results were obtained with 10000 iterations of the Gibbs sampler. The BMTME R package provides very synthetic summaries (tables and plots) of the prediction accuracies, which are ready to be interpreted  and used to write the results in a manuscript. Additionally, we provide three types of cross-validations useful for breeders that are implemented in this R package, which is very simple to use and implement.The main disadvantage of the BME() and BMTME() functions of the BMTME R package is that the computational resources required for their implementation are very demanding; fortunately, the parameter estimates involved are stabilized very quickly even with few iterations.The toy examples used in this article are for illustration purposes and to help users follow, as easily as possible, the necessary steps for running the different processes. Comparing them with other software of similar type is not possible, as no similar software for simultaneously fitting multitrait multi-environment is currently available. For example, the MTM (de los Campos and Grüneberg 2016) is an efficient Bayesian multi-trait software but is not multi-trait and multi-environment. Future research on benchmarking the BME() and BMTME() functions of the BMTME package with other potential software to be developed in terms of computing time for processing large datasets should be performed. However, the BMORS() and BMORS_Env() functions that also belong to the BMTME R package are very efficient in terms of computational resources, which gives the user an alternative option for performing this type of analyses.It is important to point out that the proposed BMTME package is different from existing multi-trait analysis software such as ASREML (Gilmour et al., 1995), sommer (Covarrubias-Pazaran 2016), BGGE (Granato et al., 2018) and MCMCglmm (Hadfield et al., 2010). In addition to taking into account variance-covariance matrices of traits (genetic and residual), it also takes into account the genetic covariance (correlation) between environments, which is estimated from the data. This can help improve parameter estimates and prediction accuracy when the degree of correlation between traits is moderate or high.Multi-trait models are preferred over univariate-trait models because they have the following advantages: (a) they produce higher prediction accuracy because they have more information (direct or indirect) and better data connectedness (Colleau et al., 2009); (b) they improve index selection because optimal weight factors can be obtained for the total merit index (Colleau et al., 2009); and (c) they allow obtaining more precise genetic and residual covariances and incorporating them into expected breeding value (EBV) estimates for across-location, acrosscountry or across-region evaluations (Thompson and Meyer 1986;Schaeffer 2001).Note that the two datasets used for illustrating the main functions of the BMTME R package are datasets with few lines (toy datasets) with the main intention that users interested in using the package can obtain results very quickly and practice using the software. However, the structure of the data are exactly the same as the structure of the data produced in plant breeding programs. The two toy datasets are included in the BMTME package to facilitate its implementation and allow users to practice using the R software.To conclude, this paper presents the R package BMTME which allows the implementation of multi-trait, multi-trait and multienvironment analysis for estimating parameters (genetic correlation between traits and environments, residual correlation between traits, random effects of lines and lines•environments) and evaluating the prediction accuracies of many traits simultaneously. We illustrate the implementation of the main functions (BME, BMTE and BMORS) of the R package with two toy real datasets that are very common in plant breeding programs. We provide details of the characteristics that each of the datasets must have, and show how to build the CV strategies available in the package, how to prepare the data to implement the main functions of the BMTME package, how to extract the parameter estimates and how to obtain the summary and plots of prediction accuracies resulting from the implemented CV strategy. The computing time of the BME() and BMTE() functions of the BMTME R package for large datasets is significantly more demanding (in terms of time) than for the toy examples used in this study.Ben Hassen, M., J. Bartholomé  ","tokenCount":"5596"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e5503c0ff6abda98509d126c372bcce4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Brief/8480-SWB-Brief-Intro.pdf","id":"207569915"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bacbf1b8-97f9-4840-9c6e-99dbd06232a9","pagecount":"4","content":"Produire du bois-énergie de façon durable dans le paysage de Yangambi, notamment par le biais de l'agroforesterie communautaire et de techniques de carbonisation améliorées.Réduire la dégradation des mangroves dans la région du Littoral grâce à des fumoirs à poissons améliorés, à de meilleures pratiques de ramassage du bois et à des alternatives de gestion.Promouvoir la production de charbon de bois à partir de chutes de bois dans la région du Littoral en construisant un réseau de producteurs disposant d'unités de transformation du bois (UTB).Améliorer la gestion du bois-énergie dans les zones de la région Est du pays accueillant des réfugiés, notamment par :• Le développement de systèmes agroforestiers modèles avec des espèces à croissance rapide et des arbres alimentaires dans les zones sous pression ;• La création d'un modèle économique et d'une stratégie de marketing pour l'amélioration de l'utilisation nale, particulièrement en ce qui concerne les techniques de cuisson, les réchauds de cuisine et les réchauds commerciaux.Développer des plans d'action communautaires dans les comtés de Baringo et de Kitui a n de promouvoir une meilleure gestion forestière et une exploitation forestière durable, ainsi qu'une plus grande e cacité de la transformation et de la carbonisation.Soutenir le Comité environnemental du comté de Baringo dans l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre d'une feuille de route pour la production durable de charbon de bois à partir de Prosopis juli ora.Soutenir le comté de Kitui dans le déploiement de plans de mise en oeuvre de la transition pour les fonctions forestières décentralisées, ainsi que dans l'élaboration d'une feuille de route pour la production et l'utilisation durable et locale du bois-énergie.Exploiter les chutes de bois des scieries de Kisangani pour remplacer partiellement l'utilisation de charbon de bois non durable.Soutenir une production plus e cace auprès des associations de producteurs de charbon de bois dans le district de Choma, notamment via des études sur l'e cacité des fours à charbon de bois pour éviter d'épuiser les réserves de matière dans les zones de production et d'approvisionnement en bois-énergie.","tokenCount":"332"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2f76baae4ede8dfbe4eb4e282d2891aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22a97d26-23b4-4e70-b71a-0145b66b33ad/retrieve","id":"123626047"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dd816f7c-5c40-4072-b1a5-576fca10c513","pagecount":"8","content":"• Os pequenos produtores em África cultivam mais de 4 milhões de hectares de feijões anualmente, proporcionando alimentos para mais de 100 milhões de pessoas. • A África Oriental tem o maior índice de consumo de feijões per capita a nível mundial, cerca de 50 a 60 kg por pessoa por ano. • Os feijões são ricos em proteínas (22%); são também uma boa fonte de ferro, zinco, fibra e carbohidratos complexos. • Os feijões constituem uma fonte de rendimento significativa e cada vez mais importante para os agregados familiares rurais. O valor de vendas anuais do continente africano estimou-se em mais de 580 milhões de dólares americanos em 2005.O feijão comum (Phaseolus vulgaris L), originalmente nativo da América do Sul, é actualmente muito cultivado em todo o continente africano, principalmente por mulheres camponesas. Sendo um legume, o feijão melhora a fertilidade do solo bem como a disponibilidade de alimentos e o rendimento das famílias.Estabelecida em 1996, a Aliança Pan-Africana de Pesquisa de Feijão (PABRA) é um consórcio de redes regionais de feijão que congrega organizações de pesquisa agrária nacionais, cientistas do Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) e representantes de organizações doadoras. O objectivo da PABRA é melhorar a segurança alimentar, o rendimento e a saúde de produtores agrícolas carentes de recursos em África através da pesquisa de feijões.Para alcançar este objectivo a PABRA trabalha em parceria com os produtores e comunidades rurais, organizações não-governamentais (ONGs), comerciantes e outros parceiros do sector privado. Os principais beneficiários do trabalho da PABRA são as mulheres rurais, que são as principais responsáveis pela produção e manuseamento pós-colheita de feijões. Outros beneficiários importantes são as populações urbanas pobres, que dependem dos feijões como fonte de proteína.A PABRA facilita a pesquisa colaborativa entre os parceiros, o que envolve, para além da implementação, a planificação, definição de prioridades, monitorização e avaliação. A abordagem colaborativa gera impor-tantes economias de escala resultantes da partilha de conhecimentos, troca de germoplasma e disseminação de tecnologias e métodos pelos diferentes países.A Aliança facilita também a criação de capacidade. Com o apoio da PABRA as redes regionais identificam, desenvolvem e disponibilizam peritos/conhecimentos nacionais em áreas como melhoramento de plantas, pesquisa participativa dos produtores, disseminação de sementes, desenvolvimento de agro-empresas e gestão integrada de pragas e doenças (GIPD). Graças ao grande destaque dado à criação de capacidade, o número de cientistas nacionais que trabalham a nível regional para a PABRA aumentou de 5 em 2003 para 23 em 2005.Os principais parceiros na pesquisa colaborativa e na criação de capacidade na área de melhoramento de plantas são as Universidades de Nairobi e Quénia e a Estação de Pesquisa Agrária de Chitedze, em Lilongue, Malawi.A PABRA é facilitada pelo CIAT, que é também um parceiro na pesquisa estratégica da Aliança. A A PABRA tem duas redes regionais de pesquisa de feijões bem estabelecidas: Os feijões trepadeiros melhorados desenvolvidos e disseminados pelos parceiros da PABRA têm rendimentos três vezes superiores aos dos feijões selvagens tradicionais. A sua resistência ao apodrecimento da raiz torna-os bem adequados a zonas altas e húmidas com grande densidade populacional onde esta doença é mais destrutiva. Além disso, o seu crescimento vertical faz com que ocupem menos espaço nos campos, deixando livre mais espaço para outras culturas.O Ruanda, primeiro país africano onde estas variedades surgiram, lidera os esforços de pesquisa regional. O ISAR está a melhorar novas variedades que combinam a resistência às doenças e pragas a outras características desejáveis.Os feijões trepadeiros continuam a expandirse do Ruanda para outros países. Estes feijões foram amplamente adoptados por camponeses nas terras altas do sudoeste do Uganda, zonas centrais e ocidentais do Quénia e norte da Tanzânia.Aliança é regida por um comité de orientação que se reúne anualmente com os participantes da rede e os representantes das organizações doadoras para rever as actividades realizadas e planificar as acções futuras.Desde 1996 que os parceiros da Aliança enfrentaram com sucesso difíceis problemas de pesquisa, tais como pragas e doenças do feijão e problemas de fraca fertilidade dos solos. Também alcançaram rápidos progressos na disseminação de novas variedades de feijão.Os princípios dos anos 90 foram momentos difíceis para os produtores e consumidores de feijão nas áreas mais intensivamente cultivadas da África Oriental: a doença da podridão da raiz do feijão dizimou a colheita causando grande carência de alimentos e a subida exorbitante de preços.Para resolver este problema os cientistas do CIAT e do Instituto de Ciências Agronómicas do Ruanda (ISAR) realizaram uma intensa pesquisa que resultou na identificação das variedades de feijão selvagem e trepadeiro resistentes a essa doença. Para além de terem sido mais amplamente disseminadas no Ruanda, estas variedades foram também introduzidas na zona ocidental do Quénia e no sudoeste do Uganda. Um estudo de impacto realizado na zona ocidental do Quénia mostrou que, em 2001, até 80% dos agregados familiares tinham adoptado pelo menos uma das variedades resistentes do feijão selvagem, o que resultou na melhoria da segurança alimentar.O uso de variedades resistentes foi combinado com uma abordagem de GIPD que associa os conhecimentos indígenas aos conhecimentos dos pesquisadores. Os resultados mostram que esta combinação é efectiva no combate tanto da doença da podridão da raiz do feijão como de outras doenças e pragas.A PABRA adopta uma abordagem holística de ecossistemas para os dois problemas: solos pobres e pragas e doenças da cultura. Os esforços na área de melhoramento de plantas para combater estes problemas estão integrados no desenvolvimento e teste de outras intervenções.A Aliança identificou e promoveu o uso de variedades de feijão que podem crescer em solos pobres, aliando isto a testes de soluções localmente disponíveis, tais como estrumes verdes e correcção orgânica dos solos. Os produtores de plantas desenvolveram variedades melhoradas que combinam tolerância à pobre fertilidade do solo com resistência a pragas e doenças e outras características desejáveis.Para combater as pragas e doenças os camponeses estão a usar uma diversidade de tecnologias e métodos novos juntamente com variedades melhoradas de feijão. Isto inclui a plantação atempada e o uso de extractos da planta de malmequer, amargoseira e de outras espécies. Estas tecnologias de GIP (Gestão Integrada de Pragas) reduzem o uso de pesticidas químicos. A plantação ou aplicação de legumes nos solos, tal como Tephrosia, restaura a fertilidade do solo ao mesmo tempo que protege contra as pragas.Algumas das variedades melhoradas desenvolvidas pelos parceiros da PABRA requerem menos tempo de cozedura que as variedades tradicionais. As mulheres reportaram que o consumo de lenha pode ser reduzido para quase metade, diminuindo a mão-de-obra ao mesmo tempo que se beneficia o meio ambiente.A PABRA estimulou o desenvolvimento de grupos de pesquisa de produtores dinâmicos. Em Março de 2006 havia mais de 300 desses grupos e mais de 5.000 produtores participantes receberam formação em testes das variedades e produção de sementes. A partilha de conhecimentos entre produtores acelerou muito a disseminação e adopção da tecnologia.Os programas nacionais foram encorajados a realizarem a selecção e melhoramento das variedades em participação com os camponeses. Estas abordagens garantiram que as novas variedades estivessem disponíveis para os produtores muito antes da sua libertação formal.Para se acelerar ainda mais a disseminação, a PABRA apoiou o desenvolvimento da produção deHaile Wako, de 47 anos de idade, é pai de quatro filhos e cultiva feijões desde a sua infância. Haile e a sua família vivem na aldeia de Boffa na região do Vale Central da Etiópia. \"Decidi produzir feijões de variedade melhorada porque sabia que poderiam render 400 birr por mês\", disse Haile. Este valor é equivalente a cerca de 48 dólares americanos, consideravelmente acima da média do rendimento mensal de muitos produtores de poucos recursos na Etiópia, que frequentemente totaliza 30 dólares ou menos.Desde 2001 que Haile é um produtor contratado pela Empresas de Sementes da Etiópia, que produz sementes de base para as comunidades locais, ONGs e cooperativas. Ele também é comerciante de sementes por conta própria. Com os rendimentos provenientes do negócio dos feijões Haile comprou uma bomba de água e um camião e construiu uma casa de tijolos para a sua família. Ele também arrendou mais terra para expandir o seu negócio de produção e venda de feijão.Com o apoio do CIAT os pesquisadores nacionais e extensionistas adoptaram abordagens não convencionais para a disseminação de tecnologias. Tais abordagens envolveram o uso de locais como centros de saúde, lojas de comerciantes de cereais e até mesmo quiosques de bebidas não alcoólicas, a fim de se alcançar novos utilizadores.Esta iniciativa, conhecida como abordagem de parceria concertada, foi muito bem sucedida. Em apenas 18 meses após o seu lançamento em 2003 cerca de 2,5 milhões de agregados familiares na África Oriental, Central e Austral tinham recebido variedades melhoradas de feijão. Por outras palavras, a iniciativa já ultrapassou a meta original de 2 milhões de agregados até 2008. Só na Etiópia e em apenas um ano de campanha foram distribuídas 137 toneladas de sementes melhoradas aos produtores, muitos deles produtores pobres que estavam a testar o germoplasma melhorado pela primeira vez.Um factor essencial para o sucesso tem sido o empacotamento das sementes em quantidades pequenas de custo acessível. Quando se usa pacotes com quantidades tão pequenas como 50 g de sementes, bastam 50 toneladas para se alcançar um milhão de produtores. Mais de 80 parceiros aderiram à iniciativa assinando acordos com institutos de pesquisa nacionais para colaborarem na produção e/ou disseminação de sementes.semente baseada na comunidade como uma agroempresa. Foram desenvolvidos manuais técnicos sobre o assunto em oito línguas diferentes, que foram fornecidos aos produtores e organizações de extensão. De acordo com os estudos de impacto, os produtores que adoptaram as variedades melhoradas reportaram rendimentos mais altos, com redução de perdas devido a pragas, doenças e solos pobres, melhoraram a nutrição e a saúde familiar e tiveram receitas mais altas.Em alguns países a pesquisa e o desenvolvimento do feijão trouxe retornos económicos impressionantes. Por exemplo, na Tanzânia a taxa interna de rentabilidade dos investimentos de pesquisa durante o período de 20 anos, de 1985 a 2005, foi estimado em 60%. Na zona oriental da República Democrática do Congo o rendimento dos produtores proveniente da produção de feijões aumentou aproximadamente cinco vezes.Os rendimentos mais altos não são apenas gerados pelo aumento das vendas de feijão para consumo, mas resultam também da venda da semente, que se tornou agora um negócio lucrativo em alguns países.A adopção da tecnologia de feijão não depende da riqueza inicial dos produtores: os produtores de vários países, particularmente no Ruanda, reportaram que a probabilidade de adopção de tais tecnologias era similar entre produtores muito pobres e os mais ricos da comunidade. Muitos dos que adoptam estas tecnologias são mulheres, que viram os seus rendimentos aumentar substancialmente como resultado das mesmas. Para se reduzir o risco de os homens tentarem apropriar-se dos ganhos do que é tradicionalmente uma cultura de mulheres, a PABRA capacitou grupos de mulheres e os seus provedores de serviços para iniciarem e gerirem uma agro-empresa.Os produtores reportaram benefícios adicionais na forma de exposição a novos provedores de serviços, como crédito e fornecedores de insumos agrícolas, assim como nova informação sobre saúde e nutrição. 7 constantemente novas ameaças. Além da podridão da raiz do feijão, outras doenças críticas que necessitam de ser controladas são a mancha angular das folhas, antracnose, ferrugem da folha, necroses bacterianas comuns e vírus do mosaico do feijão. As pragas prioritárias incluem larvas do caule do feijão, pulgões e agrótis. Em ambos os casos a selecção e a melhoria das plantas para aumentar a resistência ou tolerância será combinada, como agora, com as abordagens de IPDM que maximizem os ganhos dos produtores e a saúde do ecossistema.Os feijões são muito vulneráveis a grandes variações climáticas, especialmente à seca. Pelo menos em algumas partes da região é provável que as secas se tornem numa ameaça, devido ao aumento do aquecimento global do planeta. Nos últimos anos notaram-se esforços cada vez maiores dos parceiros da PABRA para desenvolverem variedades que combinam a resistência à seca com outras características desejáveis. Estes esforços devem continuar e intensificar-se, com as novas variedades resultantes a serem seleccionadas e testadas para imediata disseminação e libertação.Os esforços de disseminação de tecnologias baseadas na semente e outras tecnologias devem ser redobrados. Os padrões de adopção revelados pelos estudos de impacto apontam para duas necessidades. Primeiro, lançar os esforços de disseminação nas áreas que foram até agora negligenciadas, já que esta é a maneira de se alcançar a população pobre e os produtores marginalizados que foram previamente pouco expostos a novas tecnologias. Segundo, expandir o número de variedades disponíveis, criando deste modo grande estabilidade na produção e na segurança alimentar através do aumento da diversidade. A disseminação de tecnologias baseadas no conhecimento (tais como a GIPD), que têm estado sempre mais atrasadas que as tecnologias de sementes, deve receber um destaque especial.A contínua propagação de HIV/SIDA requer o aumento de esforços para melhorar a contribuição dos feijões para a nutrição da população que vive com a doença. Isto significa mais do que desenvolver e disseminar novas variedades ricas em minerais; também será necessário melhorar a ligação com os trabalhadores de programas de saúde e nutriçãoOs feijões são importantes na luta que a África empreende para inverter o seu actual declínio e começar a avançar em direcção à meta dos Objectivos de Desenvolvimento do Milénio (MDG) que visam diminuir para metade a fome e a pobreza até 2015. A segunda década da PABRA trará, por conseguinte, mais desafios que a primeira. O que deve a Aliança fazer?O enfoque da PABRA sobre as tecnologias baseadas na semente foi bem sucedido e a melhoria de variedades, como fonte dessas tecnologias, continuará a ser uma actividade chave. O combate às pragas e doenças deve ser intensificado e disseminado visto que aparecerão O HIV/SIDA está a paralisar a agricultura familiar em vastas áreas de África. Os produtores perdem os membros activos da família e a possibilidade de transmitirem os conhecimentos relativos à actividade agrícola de uma geração para outra, além da perda de segurança alimentar, receitas e bens. Os alimentos podem-se tornar escassos e a dieta menos diversificada, levando à fome e malnutrição crónica.Para aliviar as necessidades nutricionais da população afectada por HIV/SIDA a PABRA desenvolveu feijões ricos em ferro e zinco. A Aliança presta também uma atenção especial às tecnologias que reduzem a mão-de-obra e aumentam ao mesmo tempo a produtividade. Os feijões são uma cultura atractiva para as famílias que vivem com HIV/SIDA porque requerem menos tempo de cultivo que os cereais. A mistura dos dois tipos de feijões, selvagem e trepadeiro, conjugada com o plantio prematuro ou tardio, pode também reduzir o tempo de sacha das ervas daninhas.Os parceiros da PABRA estão a trabalhar juntos para ajudar as famílias ruandesas que vivem com HIV/SIDA a melhorarem a sua nutrição e a usarem melhores métodos e receitas de cozedura do feijão. O projecto disseminou quatro variedades de feijão melhoradas a cerca de 12.000 agricultores cujos agregados ou comunidades estão afectados por HIV/SIDA.  Para garantir que os feijões continuem a ser uma opção lucrativa para os pequenos produtores (mesmo com o aumento da produção) será importante explorar novas opções de processamento e abrir novos mercados regionais.Se os preços dos feijões e outros produtos agrícolas de rendimento puderem ser sustentados, os agricultores estarão mais dispostos a investir na sua produção, especialmente na melhoria da fertilidade dos solos.Dar aos camponeses de baixos recursos a possibilidade de adoptarem novas tecnologias proporcionando-lhes acesso ao crédito, insumos agrícolas e informações irá, provavelmente, continuar a ser um grande desafio durante a próxima década. A PABRA trabalhará com outras organizações para resolver este constrangimento gigantesco, aprendendo com os pequenos mas crescentes números de casos de sucesso já evidentes em toda a região.","tokenCount":"2590"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d837cc3916e0844e0904c2036cfc5bb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74cfab4f-254f-4b87-b532-77545d644d02/retrieve","id":"399595208"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0ae1899e-fd4b-4005-8258-27970e07f924","pagecount":"31","content":"A Scoping Mission Report September 2021 Prepared for: Hugh Simpson, Joona Mikkola and Monica L. Parker Abstract CIP, in partnership with Orgamed Farms Ltd and Stokman Rozen Kenya conducted a scoping exercise to assess private interest in seed production, and the potato sector and partners in general. This scoping report maps partners relevant to potato development and provides an agro-ecological and socio-economic assessment of potential areas for developing potato sector considering differing profiles of value chains: rural, food security focused, urban, commercially driven. The scoping exercise shows great potential to uplift the potato sector to transform the various value chains, and ultimately contribute to development goals to improve livelihoods of Sudanese. Limited access to costly seed is the principal bottle to potato sector development, with the majority of certified seed being imported and sold at 1.37 to 1.87 USD/kg, whereas commercial seed in East African countries ranges from 0.5 to 0.6 USD/kg. As a result, market prices for potato for consumption are high, having been observed as much as 2.20 USD/kg in rural markets, prohibitive for rural households to afford as a food security crop. High production costs affecting supply prevent potato from reaching its potential to provide income and economic development from household to regional levels, and contribute to food security at the national level. At the same time, urbanization, change of dietary habits and removal of wheat import subsidizes continue to drive demand of potato in Sudan. The scoping report will advise pathways to support potato to reach its potential through creating opportunities for diverse partners, including national and regional institutions, private sector, national NGOs, farmer organizations and microfinance institutions.The International Potato Center (CIP) sees exciting potential to support developing the potato and sweetpotato sectors in Sudan. The immense potential and possibilities were unknown prior to the partnerships and missions and now we are aware of the new era which the government and leadership are bringing Sudan. This report is rooted in partnerships. CIP has worked with Stokman Rozen Kenya, who had contacted CIP about extending its operations into Sudan. After an initial meeting, the core team came together with Orgamed Farms to forge a new path for developing the country's potato sector.CIP appreciates the warm welcome from the partners during our missions to Sudan. Of note, we thank the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Agricultural Research Corporation and Government of Central Darfur State for their warm reception and with whom we are commencing plans immediately to strengthen our partnership and plan joint interventions.We are excited by the opportunities for partnerships and establishing CIP in Sudan. While this report assesses the overall state of potato, we are equally pleased to have formed many partnerships that will help bring greater prosperity to the people of Sudan. This scoping report is the first major milestone towards realizing this goal.Hugh Simpson, Joona Mikkola and Monica L. Parker (August 2021).The International Potato Center (CIP), with private partners Orgamed Farms Ltd 1 and Stokman Rozen Kenya 2 initiated a scoping exercise to assess feasibility of developing the potato sector of Sudan. The private sector interest lay in seed potato production and marketing, and CIP to assess establishing a program in Sudan to support public and private sector to engage in the potato sector. Private sector and CIP all financially contributed to the scoping missions (Table 1). The scoping missions were undertaken April to August 2021.Meetings were held during these missions with partners from government and public institutions, private sector and implementing agencies, and field sites were visited. Sudan is in the middle of a political transition and ambitious economic transformation program. This is happening under very challenging circumstances brought about by the fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic and the general slowdown of the global economy. These recent challenges, together with the ongoing battle to tackle legacy issues following years of sanctions and underinvestment in all sectors of the economy, have left the government with a limited range of policy options (Noble Capital Group, 2021).Despite this, there are 5 big reform programs that are underway and will have a direct impact on the long-term investment climate in Sudan.The aim of the constitutional reform is to establish and maintain political and macroeconomic stability, which in turn will promote economic growth and wealth creation.The government has initiated a civil service reform program lead by PwC and sponsored by USAID to enhance good governance.The government is working to improve the regulatory framework making it favorable for investment.1 http://orgamedfarms.com 4. Economic and financial services reform: Sudan recently cleared all arrears for the IMF loans. Banking system is currently going through a critical reform of digitalization and modernization.The Investment Reform agenda will also be geared towards ensuring all the operational challenges investors normally face in a country, and adequately captured in the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Matrix, will be addressed.Following signing of partnerships with the World Bank and the IMF, the Abraham Accord with Israel and removal of the US sanctions, Sudan's economy and banking system are going through a rapid reintegration to the world's economy.The US sanction, secession of South Sudan, poor governance during the previous regime and loss of oil revenues halted the growth of Sudan's economy during the last decade. As trade and investment barriers are being removed, Sudan is projected to experience strong growth on the coming decade. Several studies link the increase in trade to growth of GDP per capita (Hugot, 2016).  Perhaps surprisingly, Sudan is blessed with ample water sources: the country has 43% of the Nile basin, sits on the world's largest fossil aquifer Nubian Sandstone Aquifer with 150,000 km 3 of groundwater and has a fertile rain-fed belt in the South.Omar al Bashir's regime failed to invest in Sudan's agriculture, for decades only 1% of the state budget was channeled to development of the agricultural sector (FAO, 2015). Consequently, Sudan become dependent of food aid and agricultural productivity of many crop types has been in decline since the 1950's (Hassan & Tag, 2018).Recent successes in projects that introduce advances of crop science to Sudan suggest that Sudan may be able to deliver on its promise to become the breadbasket for Africa and the Middle East. In 2020, Sudan recorded its largest wheat harvest as the nation saw a wheat production level of a 1.115-million-ton harvest from 315,500 hectares of farmland (3.5 t/ha) -a significant improvement from 2015, when farmers in Sudan working about 250,000 hectares of land harvested just 472,000 tons of the grain (1.9 t/ha; AfDB, 2020). As the agricultural sector becomes focus of public -both international and local -and private investment, it is poised to grow 7.5% annually from $35b today to $72b in 2030 (Noble Capital Group, 2021).On the coming decades, feeding Sudan's growing population nutritiously and sustainably will require substantial improvements to the country's food system worldwide. The main challenge will be to produce more food with the same or fewer resources.High yielding potato production could be part of the solution. To unleash potato's potential, Sudanese farmers would need affordable, clean seed potato and better understanding of good agricultural practices when it comes to potato production.Sudan's current food security situation is dire. The continued devaluation of the SDG, high inflation, and very high staple food prices have significantly limited household food access in the lean season, resulting in many people requiring emergency food assistance.In 2021, all fuel subsidies were removed as the government works to liberalize the economy. This follows the partial lifting of subsidies in October 2020 on imported wheat, wheat flour, electricity, and LPT cooking gas.(OCHA, 2021) An estimated 7.3 million people in Sudan were in high levels of acute food insecurity in spring 2021 (IPC, 2021).The yield gains in wheat can further be translated to potato, as low yields plague the majority of smallholder farmers. Increasing productivity from an overall average of 11 to 15 t/ha can increase food availability by 160,000 tonnes considering the current estimated 40,000 ha under potato. Increasing the number of farmers and area under potato from diversifying land use and not to increasing idle land, will further contribute to improvement in household incomes to large-scale gains in food availability and food security. High yielding potato could alleviate food security situation in vulnerable areas such Red Sea, Kassala, North Darfur and  South Kordofan, and decrease the price of food throughout the country. These qualities make potato a strong option for addressing food, economic and nutrition security in Sudan. This has been further exacerbated by unsustainable cropping practices. As savannas and forests are ploughed to cropland, fields are typically farmed only a few years until they are abandoned. What is left behind is barren and eroded land, which has no cover which would protect the soils from wind and water erosion. Sudan has been estimated to have 120 million hectares of degraded agricultural and range land (Hassan & Tag, 2018).Sudan's natural landscape provides a multitude of ecosystem services that are critical for the population's well-being, such as fertile soils, water retention, cooler microclimates, forage production, wildlife habitat etc.To reverse Sudan's course towards an environmental disaster, it is critical that investment and agricultural innovation to revolutionize agricultural productivity throughout the country.Sandy soils, cool winters, water available for irrigation, dry climate and growing markets make Sudan a very attractive place for potato production. Sudan's neighbor Egypt produces 2.2 million tons of potato annually (Hegazy, 2019) and exports 485,503 tons of potato per year (FreshPlaza, 2021). Meanwhile, Sudan's annual potato production stands at around 400,000 tons. With a much larger arable land surface and unexpoited regions suitabe for rain-fed and irrigated production, Sudan has potential of growing much larger quantities of potato than Egypt. The market for potato keeps growing with quickly urbanizing population and neighboring land-locked countries which produce small quantities of potato.Throughout Sudan where potato is commonly grown as a winter crop November to February using various types of irrigation -Khartoum, North Khordofan. Alongside the Nile River, farmers pump water from the river for sprinkler or flood irrigation. In the winter season temperatures may drop to 15 Celsius at night averaging 25 Celsius degrees during the day. After March temperatures start to climb, and the areas below 1,000 meters altitude become too hot for potato production.50-hectare pivots are commonly used for irrigation, which creates a barrier of entry for many farmers due to high capital expenditure. Small scale farmers pumps water and use flooding, sprinklers or driplines for irrigation. Smaller scale irrigated systems are increasingly being powered with solar.In the northern deserts, farming is being done by pumping water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer which is the largest fossil water reservoir in the world with 150,000 km 3 of groundwater. This brings potential to expand winter production of potato to North Darfur and North State.  Both agroecological and socio-economic conditions in Zalingei area were deemed suitable for seed potato production by the scoping team. However, limitations in Central Darfur include a remote location and difficult to access supplies such as spare parts, agricultural inputs etc.Combining rainfed farming with irrigation, it is possible to grow two or even three seasons of potato in Zalingei area. This is essential, as at least two seasons per year are required to make seed potato production feasible.The suitability of Red Sea and South Kordofan for two season seed potato production would require a separate scoping trip.  The estimated 20,000-25,000 smallholder farmers in Sudan produce approximately 440,000 tonnes of potato from 30,000-50,000 hectares (ha) annually, with farm sizes averaging 1.8 to 2.2 ha. The area around Khartoum accounts for greater than 70% of the country's potato production where the crop is used for subsistence and small-scale trade, supplying principally Khartoum markets (Bayer, 2021). The area around Jebal Marra in Central Darfur State is the second most important production area. Potato is also cultivated in the Gash Delta area in Kassala State.Smallholder farmers typically yield 8 to 16 t/ha, while larger producers yield up to 25 t/ha (Bayer, 2021). Yield disparities are usually related to seed quality. Reliable access to commercial seed and extension/training in good agriculture practices could easily double yields for smallholder farmers.Farm gate prices average 0.26 USD/kg during the peak harvest in March. Potato can be profitable at current yields and market prices, and even greater when market prices reach 0.4 -0.7 USD/kg:  The reason that potato is not a principal crop and grown by more farmers are the barriers to production.Limited access to costly seed is the principal bottleneck to potato sector development, with the majority of certified seed being imported and sold at 1.37 to 1.87 USD/kg, whereas commercial seed in East African countries ranges from 0.5 to 0.6 USD/kg. As a result, market prices for potato are high, having been observed at 2.2 USD/kg in rural markets, a cost prohibitive for the majority of households to consume potato as a food security crop. Bringing more production to high potential rain-fed zones can circumvent this hurdle.In winter season production areas, setting up irrigation for the winter crop further compounds the high cost of seed. The high cost of setting up a pivot system creates an entry barrier with only a few farmers having the capital needed for potato production outside of rainfed areas.With the majority of production in the irrigated winter season, accessing irrigation resources further compounds challenges to farmers without access to financial services. There are two microfinance institutions in Sudan mandated to provide services ONLY for potato-related financing, enhancing farmer access to inputs to engage in profitable potato production.One of the companies, Al-Anaam Microfinance Company has partnered with the Bank of Sudan, the Islamic Development Bank, the Farmers bank and the United Capital Bank to provide potato farmers with seed potato and other inputs in Khartoum state.Bringing potato the forefront of crops in rain-fed areas through reliable access to reasonably priced seed and financial services can unlock the potential of potato for farmers to produce potato and households to increase consumption of affordable food to contribute to economic and food security from household to national levels.Use of fertilizer appears to be largely confined to urea application in the Khartoum area. Brown rot poses a risk for ware and seed potato production in Central Darfur and especially in Golo. The occurrence of this disease in the area is largely caused by lack of crop rotation and tendency to leave small tubers on the soil after harvesting large ones. Soil pathogen analysis is required before starting seed potato production in the area.Although the climate and infrastructure exist to support a potato seed system, currently, there is minimal investment in seed production in Sudan. Most seed is imported from Europe, annually importing an estimated 10,000 tonnes. Seed mainly comes from Dutch breeders (Agrico, Stat Holland etc.) and are sold through seed trading companies. Was Trading Company is a major seed trade company being the agent for Agrico of the Netherlands. There are another 25 -30 smaller seed trading companies of various sizes selling imported seed tubers.These imported tubers are sold to all levels of potato farmers. The imported tubers must be paid for in advance before release to the farmers, normally June to July, which creates an extra strain for farmers cash flow management.Sudanese seed traders sell certified seed with much higher prices compared to other regions. The farmers interviewed for the study reported that it is common to pay up to 1.87 USD/kg for certified seed potato, comparable to 0.55 to 0.60 USD/kg in East African countries.Some businesses bulk imported European seed nearOmdurman and store until the following season for commercial sale to farmers.In addition to that, there are some attempts to grow seed potato from true potato seed. During a meeting with the ARC Zalingei, the scoping team found that there was an initiative in Zalingei to grow local seed potato production of around 80 tonnes annually. The grown variety would be Zalingei, a variety commonly grown in the area.Brown rot poses a risk for ware and seed potato production in Central Darfur and especially in Golo.Muhammed Salah Elrahim from Was International mentioned was that when engaging with seed production in Darfur, one should be careful with pathogens in areas where there has been historical potato production.Mr. Elrahim claimed that people used to just harvest large tubers and leave smaller tubers to rot on the soil, and findings of diseases such as brown rot are not rare.This is a risk that should be mitigated in the action plan and when selecting the production area. Proper soil testing and pathogen analysis before the final selection of the farm.With most production one a year as a winter season crop, cold storage for long term storage is critical for the value chain. Sudan's potato value chain is characterized by lack of cold storage space which is up to standard.The scoping team visited two potato cold storages in Khartoum, and none of them met the minimum food safety standard. Furthermore, it was not possible to operate forklift and wooden potato storage boxes in these cold stores, as they were not originally built for industrial scale potato storing.A cold storage was visited which is normally used to store potatoes, although now it had other agricultural commodities inside. The cooling system was working, one room was set to 2°C and another to 12°C. However, the cold store had some other serious shortages: low level of hygiene, limited space (around 30 cubic meters), and the doors and the corridors were not fit for forklift. The storing cost in Khartoum area is 20 USD per tonne per month when storing is offered as a service.There are two 80 tonne stores in Zalingei which are cooled with the equipment that UNAMID left behind. The stores were clean and in a good condition, but obviously the storing capacity is rather limited. The stores are managed by the Zalingei town. With rapid urbanization and changing diet trends, potato market in Sudan is booming. French fries with chicken have replaced sorghum, millet and likes as a staple food for urban dwellers as this trend is only likely to continue as the middle class starts growing and urbanization continues. French fries are mainly imported from Egypt, even though there are at least three French fries processing lines in Khartoum.These factories are not operating as they are unable to secure adequate supply of raw material quality standards. With the current price levels of table potato, processing is not attractive market for farmers as they are likely to get much better prices from table potato.Overall, the high prices indicate that the current supply of table potato is way under the demand in Sudan.Furthermore, Sudan's landlocked neighbors Chad, Central African Republic and South Sudan could also be attractive markets. From Zalingei, potatoes are sold to Geneina in West Darfur, from where lot of them end up in Chad's markets.A summary of the principal partners in the immediate and short-term plan is below and summarized in Annex 1 with a figure further summarizing the relationships (Roadmap to partnerships and sector support Sudan).Annex 1 also summarizes all partner meetings held during the scoping visits, in addition to the partners described below. Annex 2 contains the contacts (Sudan contacts).In most meetings, the CIP representative was the only women, or among only a few. In such meetings, the presence of women was regarded and it was remarked to bring more women onto the team and in the potato sector. ARC and NRC described below are two national institutions with remarkable representation of women in leadership roles and officer/technician positions.The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MoAF) welcomed CIP to Sudan to support development of potato and sweetpotato sectors which can contribute significantly to agricultural and economic growth. The scoping team with CIP met the Minister Altahir Harbi where the ministry welcomed the expertise CIP can bring and extended their support to resource mobilization efforts to support CIP establishment in Sudan.MoAF specifically requested support for the African Development Bank (AfDB) potato value chain project.AfDB funds a potato value chain development project which is implemented by the MoAF and the ARC and focuses on developing cold storage and seed production capacity. The AfDB will fund a construction of a 10,000-tonne cold storage capacity and the seed potato production project targets to produce 10 000 tonnes of seed potato worth 4 million USD, to replace the seed potato imports with national production. There are currently three tenders under this project which have closed but not awarded yet:• In recognition of the importance of potato, the ministry organized an immediate follow up technical meeting with lead scientists and officers to elaborate a roadmap of collaboration and support. The scoping team presented themselves at the meeting but couldn't remain due to tight meeting schedule of the week.The scoping team met with the Central Darfur State Governor Dr. Abeed A. Yousif in Khartoum on July 1.Following the Governor hosted the scoping team in Central Darfur July 12, welcoming CIP to Central Darfur. He stated there is need for exactly this kind of intervention that can improve food security and create income streams -large-scale, private sector seed production and the downstream benefits potato can bring to the farming households of Central Darfur. The outcomes of both meetings:• The governor welcomes the CIP to Central Darfur and said that the CIP's program aligns very well with his administration goals to increase agricultural production in the area through improved technology and innovation.• The private partner Orgamed would need 2000 acres of land for seed bulking.• The farm area was discussed, and the governor said that he already had a few locations in his mind, some are more developed than others.• The father of the governor told him that back in the 50s lot of potato was farmed in Central Darfur, which was then sold to Khartoum.• Chad is already importing horticulture products from Darfur, and as potato production increases, the country's market would present an interesting opportunity.• Sweet potato, banana and other agricultural products were also discussed, and the governor was very interested in developing those value chains as well.• The governor recommended a few areas and villages to be visited (which Naji knew).• a cold store would be essential -now seed potato tubers are transported to Khartoum for storage and then brought back to Darfur, which increases the product costs.• The large influx of IDPs has let to massive deforestation in the area, the government is now looking for funding to plant 2 million trees to improve water availability and other ecosystem services The Governor's team further hosted the scoping team when visited Zalingei and showed continuous support for the project.ARC  A roadmap has been outlined to guide the way forward to specify areas of collaboration 3 , beginning with introducing new material, fast tracking release or assigning an emergency or temporary release status for two to four varieties for commercial seed sales while evaluating a larger set of lines for adaptability and seeking support for capacity development needs.New varieties will be tested in the ARC's plots before they are released. However, the ARC was really to look at the possibility that Orgamed/SRK start multiplying cuttings in their own farm/green houses at the same time as ARC run their tests. This would fast-track the process and ensure that Orgamed can start selling commercial seed of CIP varieties after three seasons of buking from minitubers coincides with temporary release of the select varieties. ARC has a new tissue culture laboratory which capacities they look to develop.Overall, the ARC has been very positive about the CIP's program, which aligns well with many of the ARC's goals:• Create a stronger link in between farmers and researchers.• Develop Sudan's capacity to produce certified seed for domestic and export market.• Support the country's food security by impactful research and development.• Develop the sweet potato value chain to provide food for people and feed for animals.• Enhance food security in remote locations by introducing high yielding, nutrient dense crops.CIP and ARC are developing a roadmap to ensure varieties that commercial seed business will start to bulk in November are released in time for commercial sale, with first sale planned for May/June 2023 3 .ARC recommended to connect with World Food Program and suggest that WFP would start supplying potatoes for their beneficiaries. This would fasten the release process, as it could be argued that creating a strong local supply of potatoes especially in remote areas is critical due to the dire food security situation in the country.A meeting with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was organized to discuss registration of the CIP in Sudan. MFA recommended that the CIP registers under ICARDA and gets a diplomatic status.The regional Head of ARC Zalingei, and Head of Ministry of Production and Economy chaired a meeting with Zalingei city council. Jebel Marra Rural Development Project shed light on their programs in Central Darfur.This government organization seem to have a lot of influence in the area.ARC Zalingei told about their seed potato program in the region (ARC Zalingei seed project):• 1962 ARC started in Zalingei, research station.• 1990 started potato production at ARC program.• 100 farmers trained with the potato production program.• Large area of potato production (2000-3000 feddan /1000 -1500 ha).• 50%/50% wet season and irrigation season production.• Challenges: low productivity, high production cost for seed, lack of planting machines and harvesting machines, cool storages.• ARC welcomes cooperation with CIP/Orgamed.• 2 ton per hectare average production.• 19 -22°C in Jebel Marra during summer.• Challenges: the winter seed is always late.The rain season must be supported by supplementary irrigation. Seed potato production program started 7 months ago. The University did not have records of historic potato production, they suggested to check for them from Jebel Marra Rural Development project.The university has both a seed potato production research program and a production program.• Aim to produce 50 tonnes of potato.• Need of seed 3,000 kg.Material is not yet ordered or planted.The CIP could provide some of the planting material.• Planting in October.• 5 feddan Zalingei, 10 feddan Golo, 5 feddan somewhere else? Total area of production 20 feddan.• Capacities: experienced staff (land preparation, plant protection etc. 45 staff faculty of agriculture), land, three tractors, need a harrow, disc plow, ridging.• 500 kg per feddan planting quantity.No soil samples available except Hunting Technical Services did soil samples analysis for Jebel Marra Development Project from the 1990s.• Water samples available from Jebel Marra Development Project.• Weather records available from the University and from the Development Project.Nematodes can be an issue in the area.• Labs available for analyzing soil diseases.• Farmers need training and extension services, good agricultural practices (GAP) are not followed.AOAD might be interested in funding the CIP's program in Sudan. The organization also turn out to be extremely helpful by introducing the CIP to the government organizations and hosted a dinner for CIP, the Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry and Foreign Affairs, ARC and Orgamed on their first mission to Sudan, June 2021.  The first meeting with USAID team at the embassy indicated that USAID might be interested in funding the CIP's activities in Sudan for potato and sweetpotato. A second meeting identified to submit a brief summarizing the value of potato which would be part of the handover of the interim Agriculture Officer to the permanent position. USAID estimate $15 million/yr for agriculture in Sudan and focus on Darfur, particularly East Darfur. USAID is also interested to leverage on other interventions for entire sector support.The action plan for the short term with goal to have funding to start in first half of 2022:• Prepare brief on value of potato.• Discuss CN note in Sept with new officer.• Target for seed system and value chain development.• Combine with rain-fed agriculture (this important for donors).• Leveraging on AOAD support for capacity development and national documentation, WFP resilience communities, potato-specific microfinance institutions.• Central Darfur in general, possibly North Darfur as well.• East Darfur for sweetpotato -very favourable as USAID has investments in the priority state.• Both crops.AfDB is funding the Agricultural Value Chain Development Project (AVCDP) which aims to develop a national capacity to produce and certify seed potato. There is an invaluable opportunity to support the AfDB and the MoAF in this process, as it falls in the very mandate of the CIP. Both AfDB and MoAF are keen to bring CIP the partnership for an assignment to provide technical backstopping to enable to reach project targets. The upcoming midterm review opportunity to adjust the project and budget to accommodate CIP technical backstopping assignment which is being followed up with the MoAF and AfDB Project Officer in Nairobi. AfDB favorable to support the backstopping.Strong interest for dual purpose sweetpotato under various programs (IFAD Sudan Country Strategy ), the sweetpotato team is following up to align to other IFAD collaborations.Met with GIZ Country Director. Build on strong GIZ-CIP relationships in 8 countries in AfricaCurrently evolving Sudan strategy, not a lot of focus on agriculture but potential and now is time to adjust to accommodate potto and economic benefits. Send scoping report and potato brief and met in person on CIP following mission to Sudan.The EU is one of the biggest donors in Darfur, and they have a new call for proposal coming out early August, according to their partner COOPI. COOPI wants the CIP to develop a concept/proposal in cooperation with them. COOPI has built a 1.2 million m 3 water reservoir in North Darfur, which has led to many previously nomadic pastoralists to settle in the area. The total head count of the heard is greater than 400,000, which puts enormous strain on the pasture. The EU is looking to fund the next phase of the dam project and introducing high yielding new crops fits well into phase 2. However, CIP is not eligible for EU grants, unless a service agreement arrangement can be made. COOPI is following up on this.The scoping team met with Anna and FCDO is not currently funding projects such as the one of CIP.Annex 1 indicate further donors and partners for follow up after process the initial opportunities.The scoping team met with the General Manager Tarig Salaheldin Mustafa Nasr, the general manager, told the scoping team that he has 12,000 acres of land where he wants to start cultivating potato. During past 5 years, Mr. Nasr had cultivated alfalfa, but wanted to shift to potato farming, as it requires less water than alfalfa. Their plan was to plant 70 hectares of potato with pivots this year, but to shift to drip irrigation later. They have already ordered seed potatoes from France to plant on October/November, but Mr. Nasr was interested in bulking the CIP seed on his farm later when it becomes actual. The farm is located around 100 km north from Khartoum.Mohamed Salih Abd Elrahim is one of the biggest potato producers in Sudan, he plants around 500-900 acres of potato per season in Omdurman and also bulks some imported seed potato. Elrahim has been farming potato in Sudan for forty years and he had very good insights about potato production in the country.Mr. Elrahim said that being able to produce its own seed potato would be a big win for Sudan and he also welcomed us to visit his potato farm when our Kenyan colleagues return.The scoping team visited the leaders of the smallholder potato group in Omdurman. The group leaders were eager to start producing seed potato and some farmers were already farming with solar-powered drip irrigation systems. Fields cultivated with flush irrigation were also visited.Met with the board of Sudan Development Association in the National Heritage House. SDA began operations upwards of 15 years ago having worked with various donors and partnered with international NGOs. SDA has large networks across Sudan and was ready to facilitate links to farmer groups. SDA to link CIP with female 1000 farmers and they said that it would not be a problem. It was agreed that another meeting will be organized with the farmer groups as the project advances.Issam Adam told the scoping team that the potato farmers did not plant because the cost of seed was too high. A 50 kg bag costs 12,000 SDG, approximately 27 USD. In Nertiti, potato is planted on July. Near Zalingei, there is production during winter with irrigation. Typical yields vary from 4 to 6 tons per feddan, approximately 9.5 to 15 t/ha. Plant protection chemicals are normally used, however Issam could not name the chemistry.Surprisingly, farmers in Nertite don't ridge which will cause significant yield losses 4 , and could have a negative impact of aeration and drainage. However, Nertite soils seemed to be very high in organic matter, so aeration should not be a matter. Farmers do not use industrial fertilizers in Nertite, normally just applying 0.2 tonnes of manure per hectare.The main market of the potatoes is Khartoum, although some amounts are being sold to Geneina, West Darfur, from where continue to Chad. Lack of cold storage capacity negatively affects potato production in the area.Coopi has been working with pastoralists and farmers in Darfur since 2004. They have lately built dams up that hold up to 3 million cubic meters of water which has caused many pastoralists to settle down in North Darfur State. They are looking for new agricultural activities for pastoralists due to new sedentary lifestyle.There is a large EU grant coming up focusing on agricultural value chains and COOPI would be tentatively interested in involving CIP on their proposal. COOPI is a potential implementing partner and CIP will continue to develop a concept note with COOPI for North Darfur state build upon their infrastructure and communities to propose to donors (COOPI_Sudan_CIP related info).Cooperation with the WFP was discussed in two areas: including potato as new staple to the WFP's school The scoping team met with Deputy FAO Representative Adam Vinaman Yao, Ph. D and with Assistant FAO Representative Elwathig Mukhtar. The FAO emphasized that they would be ready to scope synergies after the program receives green light from the ministry of agriculture.Mr. Mukhtar was very aware of issues with potato seed and suggested that the timing is right for such an initiative: the government is welcoming expertise outside of the country and a lot of donor money is going for developing agricultural value chains. It was agreed that Joona will keep Mr. Mukhtar in the loop and update them once the program moves ahead.","tokenCount":"5710"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a01a519372e09bbaca812bfb71a74c10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/272768e9-c3a8-40d7-a1e0-25a20306ef17/retrieve","id":"1791432174"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bc5b9478-7fc8-47fa-a7bc-6e4dd53691e5","pagecount":"35","content":"Diversidad de materiales originales para resistencias a plagas y enfermedades fuente: Debouck 2014• van afuera del acervo 1 ario , estado biológico, origen geográfico!• miren las fechas! PS: paralelo con la situación del maíz donde datos genéticos y arqueológicos por fin convergen:puede la variabilidad del fríjol enfrentar estos desafíos?Progreso en mejoramiento del fríjol en el trópico  albinervus, augusti, jaliscanus, juquilensis, lignosus, lunatus, maculatifolius, marechalii, mollis, nodosus, pachyrrhizoides, polystachyus, rotundatus, salicifolius, scrobiculatifolius, sinuatus, smilacifolius, sonorensis, viridis Organización actual del género Phaseolus Las 6 razas originales identificadas en el fríjol común  • siembra silvestres• afuera rango silv.• flujo genes  razas • cruzamiento entre razas Mesoamérica y Durango, en busca de heterosis fuentes: Nienhuis & Singh 1986, 1988 • fotosíntesis más eficaz en silvestres, especialmente los de México fuentes: Lynch et al. 1989Lynch et al. , 1992 una planta:  posibilidades para industria alimenticia (enlatados) • mayor digestibilidad: faseolina de tipo 'L', en silvestres y variedades nativas de CLB fuentes: Montoya et al. 2008;Toro-Chica et al. 2007 microondas 1 min 30 sec 29/35• nuestro entendimiento de los rfgs del fríjol ha progresado algo• tenemos 5 especies cultivadas, entonces 5 oportunidades de mejora• cada domesticación dejo de lado una diversidad genética grande no negativa• cada especie cultivada aún tiene su pariente silvestre, con rango variable (las de mayor rango han tenido mayor éxito bajo domesticación?!)• el número de especies (hoy 81) aún puede crecer, sobre todo las endémicas• siendo 'buenas' especies la transferencia de genes no será fácil (clade A!)• pero pueden ser modelos de genes a activar o silenciar; vienen tecnologías para esto!","tokenCount":"261"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21536cf6a5b8d01e9245d58644fa7a5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d277b093-3166-4172-a588-15b00f18d1bb/retrieve","id":"1975283623"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69143fd2-0cea-4f35-969b-70490d60756e","pagecount":"4","content":"L'information contenue dans ce guide peut être librement reproduite à condition de mentionner la source. Pour toute reproduction à des fi ns commerciales, l'autorisation préalable du CTA est nécessaire.Les parties non comestibles de la banane peuvent être utilisées pour fabriquer des aliments pour le bétail ainsi que du compost, ou encore des produits artisanaux à partir de la fi bre de banane, tels que chapeaux, sacs et porte-monnaie.La banane joue donc un rôle important dans le domaine de la santé, de la sécurité alimentaire et elle constitue une source de revenus.Ce dépliant vous montre comment vous pouvez fabriquer des cossettes et de la farine à partir de la banane. Épluchez les bananes vertes 1.à maturité et intactes. Coupez les bananes en 2.tranches d'environ 0,5 cm d'épaisseur (environ l'épaisseur d'un crayon). Trempez les tranches dans 3.une solution d'un antibrunissement pendant 15 minutes. Pour préparer la solution, ajoutez 10 mg (une cuillère à café) du produit chimique par litre d'eau.4. Égouttez les tranches en les plaçant sur les plateaux avec les toiles en plastique, puis mettez-les dans le séchoir. 5. Séchez-les au soleil (à l'air libre ou dans un séchoir solaire) ou dans un séchoir à air chaud pendant deux ou trois jours jusqu'à ce qu'elles soient complètement sèches et croustillantes. Le séchage dans les séchoirs à air chaud et les séchoirs solaires est plus coûteux que le séchage en plein soleil mais il réduit la contamination provenant de l'environnement. Si vous séchez les bananes en plein air, protégez-les contre les mouches et les oiseaux à l'aide d'un voile. Soit vous emballez les cossettes ou alors vous en faites de suite de la farine. 6. Moulez les cossettes sèches de banane à l'aide d'un moulin à marteau (moulin villageois posho). 7. Emballez la farine dans des sachets en polyéthylène et fermez-les hermétiquement (on peut utiliser la fl amme d'une bougie ou une machine à sceller électrique). 8. Étiquetez vos sacs (inscrivez notamment la date de fabrication et la date de péremption, six mois plus tard). 9. Placez les sacs de farine dans un carton pour les protéger contre la lumière. 10. Stockez-les dans un endroit frais et sec.Mettez les bananes non épluchées dans une casserole avec de l'eau froide et cuisez-les 1.jusqu'à ce qu'elles soient tendres. Ne pas trop cuire. Plongez les bananes cuites dans de l'eau froide pour les refroidir.Épluchez les bananes.Coupez les bananes en tranches d'environ 0,5 cm d'épaisseur (à peu près l'épaisseur d'un 4. crayon). Séchez-les au soleil (à l'air libre ou dans un séchoir solaire) ou dans un séchoir à air chaud 5.pendant deux ou trois jours jusqu'à ce qu'elles soient complètement sèches et croustillantes.   ","tokenCount":"437"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e79d1d31229919f4c6a5ae507675a7d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c60cea7-cc07-4a43-bca7-1f0f033da48e/retrieve","id":"1226228431"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17a1b465-2342-41a0-8b5a-efbe6e091e16","pagecount":"62","content":"The Covid-19 pandemic remains an unprecedented global challenge for our partners, for the water insecure communities and vulnerable smallholder farmers that stand to benefit from our work, and for our staff.We are enormously proud of the way that the IWMI community has pulled together, as one, in the face of this disruption. It has been truly humbling and inspiring to see how our colleagues have adapted and adjusted and ensured that the organization has been able to continue to focus on its core vision, to achieve a water-secure world.We offer profound and sincere gratitude for our colleagues' resilience, dedication, and professionalism, and commit to ongoing support for them and their families as global health systems continue to fight the virus. Now, as 2020's pandemic has become 2021's, we are faced with a stark reminder of the fragility of global systems and the importance of resilience.The mantra 'build back better' was oft repeated in 2020. For IWMI, it became a core message as we sought to underline the importance of building resilience into water systems. Whether to drought, flood or pandemic, readying global systems for these hugely disruptive and deadly shocks must be a key tenet of the transformations necessary for sustainable development as and when we emerge from the pandemic.By acting on water systems, we can make critical contributions to transforming food systems, reinforcing health systems, accelerating mitigation and adaptation to climate change, and overcoming the degradation and loss of ecosystems. IWMI's 2019-2023 Strategy is becoming only more important and more relevant. It set out priorities for generating and applying evidence and knowledge to build water security that align with the systems transformation demanded by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement -and that must be at the heart of the new 'One CGIAR'.With the One CGIAR reforms, the CGIAR Centers have together set course on a new mission, to deliver science and innovation that advance the transformation of food, land and water systems in a climate crisis. Inspired by this expanded mission and the vision of a CGIAR System that is vastly more relevant and responsive to 21 st century challenges, the IWMI Board of Governors took the decision in October to formalize IWMI's entry into One CGIAR. The Board recognized in its deliberations that, as the world's only international research institute focused exclusively on water management, IWMI has special responsibilities in the international water arena and to SDG 6. IWMI is positioned to make unique and, we believe, vital contributions to One CGIAR and the difficult transition, now underway, to a broader focus on food, land and water systems. None of us can afford to lose sight of the fact that, without water security, there is no food security. Our conviction is therefore that if -ultimately -the goal of a water-secure world is fully embedded in One CGIAR, CGIAR will be more successful and impactful, and IWMI's responsibilities to the global water agenda will be better served.To advance these ambitions, in 2020, IWMI staff played an integral part in strengthening the role of water systems research in the One CGIAR Research and Innovation Strategy. They were also actively engaged in preparatory processes for key global events on the horizon in 2021, and of vital importance to both water security and CGIAR, such as the United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSS) and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's Conference of the Parties (UNFCCC COP26). You can find more details in this report. But these are pivotal events where IWMI can make meaningful contributions to the transformation of food systems and to adapting to a changing climate to protect communities and natural habitats.The year 2020 also saw the launch of IWMI's Gender and Inclusion Strategy which tackles how gender intersects with a range of social disparities to create 'knots of inequality'. Difficult to untie, these knots result in barriers in access to water, land and related resources that hinder sustainable growth, the achievement of development benefits and building resilience to climate change. Guided by this new strategy, IWMI will help tackle symptoms of gender inequality but also move beyond this to understand civil society partnerships that, together, are helping to solve global water problems and provide a solid evidential base to progress towards globally aligned goals.We see huge promise in One CGIAR and in the opportunities it offers to expand delivery of knowledge and innovation to where it's needed most. Fulfilling this promise will mean overcoming the challenges inherent in aligning IWMI's ambitions and CGIAR's heartland of agricultural research under the new and expansive mission of One CGIAR. We are committed to doing so, while also greatly energized by the increasing global recognition of the need for global water security. Our vision for a water-secure world remains resolute and unchanged.and systematically address the structural, systemic root causes of inequalities.IWMI is a member of the United Nations Global Compact and we fully endorse the sustainable and socially responsible policies enshrined in its ten key principles. This is an example of practicing what we preach, and an important message to show IWMI's commitment to meeting our fundamental responsibilities in the areas of human rights, labor, environment and anti-corruption. The indispensable role of water management in building the future we want is captured in Goal 6 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and recognized in a variety of ambitious international policy statements and initiatives.IWMI is a Partner of UN-Water. In 2020, our collaboration with the UN saw the launch of 'Water pollution by plastics and microplastics: A review of technical solutions from source to sea', comprising a full report and catalogue, jointly developed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and IWMI. Additionally, two sta members were appointed as co-chairs of the Technical Advisory Committee of the World Water Quality Alliance of UNEP.As a member of the Technical Working Group of the Science Based Targets Network (SBTN), IWMI provides specialist review on work to dene and use targets to reduce the impact of companies and cities on -and help restore -the Earth's land, oceans, freshwater, and biodiversity. Setting science-based targets will build an enterprise-level focus on water quality and quantity thresholds that will lead to more equitable distribution among all users as well as better inform policy decisions.As an active member of the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action water working group, IWMI delivered a side event on insurance as part of climate risk management at the virtual Race to Zero Dialogue in November. IWMI is also actively involved in delivering on the water and agriculture action tracks of the Global Commission on Adaptation (GCA), and is in planning discussions leading up to COP26. Under the ongoing Two Degree Initiative, we are working to address climate change risks and shocks in the water, food and agricultural systems in many of the world's identied hot spots. There is increasing support for nature-based solutions (NBS) for climate resilience, with growing evidence that protecting and restoring wetlands and watershed ecosystems can reduce water risks and secure water supplies, and an estimate that NBS can provide more than 30% of mitigation solutions by 2030.The pandemic could cause 140 million people to fall into extreme poverty, potentially increasing hunger and malnutrition for millions. The world's most vulnerable, including women, youth, smallholder farmers, and the urban poor, will be the hardest hit.Connectivity gaps in rural areas are particularly pronounced in least developed countries (LDCs), where 17% of the rural population live in areas with no mobile coverage at all, and 19% of the rural population is covered by only a 2G network.One CGIAR's new ambitions are defined by a set of impact areas, with water -and therefore water systems science -at the heart of each. The stories in this section demonstrate how IWMI is delivering on these impact areas now and cementing a solid foundation for our future contributions.IWMI's policy and technical innovations promote a food and water secure future. Our work improves irrigation and allows farmers to grow a more nutritionally diverse set of crops. Better water resources management also encourages more equitable access to sanitation and hygiene, critical for public health systems. Our projects cover topics such as farmer-led irrigation, where smallholders invest in wells and pumps to take control of irrigating their crops, and the use of satellite data to map water resources at the regional level.A new guide on the benefits of integrating fisheries into irrigation systems was published in 2020. Devised by multidisciplinary researchers from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), WorldFish and IWMI, the guide provides technical, management and governance options for planning and managing irrigation systems to prevent the negative impacts and enhance fisheries and irrigation in Africa and Asia.IWMI and partners worked closely with people on the ground to understand what they need from irrigation. This enabled us to develop business models that governments and the private sector take seriously, so that better use of water systems can lead to better nutrition, health and food security.Inland fisheries are a primary source of livelihoods as well as food and nutrition security for many people in low-and middle-income countries. Farm irrigation infrastructure can have a negative impact on aquatic food and their habitats, which is why irrigation systems should be designed taking into account the importance of fish for food and nutrition security. This ensures that migration routes remain unblocked and fish can move freely between preferred habitats. The guide was developed based on evidence that the integration of fisheries in irrigation systems can be a positive nature-based solution that benefits both fishers and farmers.Therefore, the reuse of treated wastewater is one option that could be considered. ReWater MENA, a four-year regional project funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and led by IWMI, was implemented in 2018 to expand the safe use of wastewater in Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon. The project uses inclusive and participatory engagement with stakeholders to support the development and uptake of results.Wastewater is widely used for agriculture in much of the MENA region. In 2020, a baseline assessment showed, for example, that there are 450 wastewater treatment plants across the country, and Egypt has long permitted the direct use of treated wastewater in agriculture. However, this was limited to economically important trees such as olive and some crops, which are grown close to wastewater treatment plants. Most wastewater, however, is mixed with agricultural drainage water and distributed through an irrigation network.Described as a guide for 'water planners, managers and engineers', it highlights the importance of fisheries and emphasizes the opportunities it can provide to increase food production and economic returns, enhance livelihoods and public health outcomes, and maintain key ecosystem services.The guide explores opportunities to expand fisheries without impacting the efficacy of irrigation, and offers practical scenarios and screening criterion for irrigation and fishery enhancement projects.The user-friendly guide could help communities and decision-makers to develop holistic and climate-smart irrigation systems. They could also help to ensure that local stakeholders are engaged, in part through participatory governance systems, to gauge impacts and opportunities at all levels, emphasizing the importance of institutions for translating eco-technical investments in fisheries into inclusive development outcomes. This allows the benefits from fisheries and increased agricultural productivity to be more equitably distributed, all the while integrating the protection of fish and land into new irrigation systems.Managing water scarcity is equally important for nutrition, health and food security in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, where droughts are becoming more frequent and severe, and groundwater is already depleted in many places.At the same time, the demand for water is increasing as a result of growing populations and economic development.Effective water management requires good historical and current data. Advances in satellites, science and computing mean that large amounts of data can be collected through remote sensing techniques and then applied to practical problem-solving on the ground.In 2020, IWMI launched the Water-Secure Africa (WASA) Initiative with the aim of accelerating this data collection process. IWMI partnered with Digital Earth Africa, a cloud-based Open Data Cube which provides free analysis-ready data for the African continent.IWMI's focus is on developing scalable applications that remotely senses data from the cloud and turns this into relevant information that can be used for decision-making by a variety of stakeholders. Currently, IWMI is working on flood and drought vulnerability mapping and prediction applications. These could help everyone, from national policy makers to local farmers, to better understand the potential risks of floods and droughts and react earlier to their potential onset.Both types of applications provide data and insights that will contribute to increasing food and nutrition security.IWMI is also working on water accounting applications that support governments, river basin authorities and others to better understand basin-or catchment-level water dynamics. This could help to plan how best to expand agricultural productivity at the larger scale or manage water-related trade-offs between different users.In Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon, farmers who have relatively poor access to water resources do not like to use this 'indirect' wastewater because of its uncertain quality. The water may be more or less saline and may contain other chemicals such as pesticides or fertilizers from upstream users. According to farmers, the stigma associated with wastewater use makes it harder to sell their produce. The ReWater MENA project is developing safe options for treated wastewater reuse. The goal is to increase the interest of farmers and persuade investors by proposing good business models. Ultimately, not only will a reliable source of high-quality treated wastewater contribute to improved cropping patterns, and thus to food and nutrition security, but it will also allow freshwater to be saved for domestic use before being used for agriculture. In addition to the individual projects implemented in these three countries, the ReWater MENA project has been documenting the state of wastewater reuse in the region, in order to learn lessons from past models, challenges and innovations. Researchers are hoping that the regional focus will accelerate the scaling up of wastewater reuse practices at an international level.In 2020, as part of the ReWater MENA project, regional trainings were conducted in Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon in cooperation with the Arab Countries Water Utilities Association (ACWUA). These trainings are still continuing today with the help of a team of IWMI researchers. Aiming to build capacities of experts and other stakeholders on the safe use of wastewater, the trainings covered a broad range of topics, including gender integration, governance, safety, economic feasibility and technologies, and were attended by more than 50 participants from 17 countries.Water resources across Central Asia are becoming scarcer, yet agriculture still plays a significant role in Uzbekistan's economy. Agriculture consumes around 90% of water in the country. Without a good supply of water, food security and health are impacted. IWMI projects have been looking at how to address water security, and by association nutrition, food security and health, across the region.Scientists from IWMI worked with Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) to build the national policy framework for water management, which is part of the bigger program 'Water Governance in Uzbekistan'.Climate change has increased temperatures and reduced the amount of water that flows through the country's two main rivers. Farmers must carve up the available water to irrigate their land, and many of the water user associations (WUAs) that support the management of water struggle to allocate it appropriately. Farmers complain about fees for water being 'unfair' and poor water delivery can impact profits and livelihoods.IWMI has come up with a solution that could help solve the issue of water scarcity across the region, while reducing the need to over-pump or over-drain available water. The work has led to significant improvements with a more equitable WASA, through the generous support of the Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust, is initially working in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana and Zambia, but will be looking to expand both its geographic footprint and range of applications in future phases of the initiative.Photo: Neil Palmer / IWMI Using the Smartsticks can help to charge fair irrigation service fees, because each farmer's fee is based precisely on how much water is delivered to the plot. Also, this helped to resolve water conflicts and disputes, and encouraged farmers to pay irrigation fees on time. Smartsticks have enabled farmers to regulate their water flow, leading to better irrigation, and more reliable and successful crop production. Over-irrigation and water wastage decreased. These are vital improvements in a country as arid and water-scarce as Uzbekistan. The implementation of Smartsticks and mini-gauging stations in irrigation schemes across the country by IWMI, as part of the 'Water Governance in Uzbekistan' program, was made a priority in the Agriculture Development Strategy of Uzbekistan for 2020-2030 and its road map. distribution of water, as well as water and energy savings across the pilot regions where IWMI and partners deployed the technology.Working with three WUAs, serving around 500 farmers, IWMI tested new electronic tools known as 'Smartsticks'. These are electronic devices which automatically measure how much water is being delivered to different farmers. Placed in water, the Smartstick determines and displays the water depth in real time. It is a stand-alone, fully automatic device with a long battery life, and is perfect for monitoring water levels in small rivers and irrigation canals. Livelihoods improve when water becomes more accessible. At a basic level, more water can mean improved agricultural irrigation, leading to increased income generated from smallholdings. Having access to clean water can also result in less time spent travelling to pumps and wells, and more time spent in education or work. Much of IWMI's work aims at poverty reduction, whether that's helping to reduce floods and thus damage to crops and property or increasing accessibility to sustainable aquifers.In 2020, IWMI published a report titled Business Models for Fecal Sludge Management in India, which outlines how communities across the country can turn the management of fecal matter into a business opportunity.A joint report published by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2019 found that only 11% of Indian households had sewer connections. The 100 million toilets built by the Indian government between 2014 and 2019 rely heavily on on-site sanitation systems (OSS), often pit latrines that need to be emptied regularly. However, in India, the provision of sanitation services is patchy, and overflowing tanks can lead to disease and water contamination.The business models documented by IWMI address specific challenges. For example, one of the proposed solutions is to support the development of private businesses that dispense of fecal sludge. This could lead to private operators becoming formally recognized, thus reducing stigma and harassment. By destigmatizing an essential practice, it becomes a more viable workstream, helping to improve livelihoods and jobs. Another IWMI recommendation is to make desludging a non-negotiable part of household taxes. This means more people are employed to desludge tanks. Wider deployment of desludging also reduces the potential for water contamination.By encouraging private actors to engage in improved fecal sludge management, livelihoods can grow and develop, while also supporting better water management, and improving community sanitation and access to clean water. IWMI is working with governments and renewable energy agencies on three main fronts. First, to evaluate the impact of solar irrigation pumps on farmers and provide policy relevant suggestions for improvements in solar irrigation programs. Second, piloting options for solar pumps connected to the electricity grid and designing incentives to reduce groundwater use in areas of overexploitation. Third, organizing trainings and workshops for solar technicians and mid-to high-level officials in water, energy and food ministries.The SoLAR project also supports an innovation fund. This provides financial support to new practices that can influence policy and be implemented across regions. In 2020, five grants were awarded to projects which promoted climate-resilient livelihoods for smallholder and marginal farmers.Irrigation using the sun's energy to power a water pump is not new, but the technical and scientific development is not always enough to ensure it is adapted and implemented by farmers and organizations. For solar irrigation to work, stakeholders, from politicians to institutions, must all have buy-in, in order to coordinate and negotiate a variety of different objectives to work out the best approach that could be taken.Solar energy can be used to deliver inclusive and environmentally sustainable irrigation, increasing water availability and food production and reducing carbon emissions. In 2020, IWMI launched the first phase of its Solar Irrigation for Agricultural Resilience (SoLAR) project.The aim of the project is to contribute to supporting sustainable, resilient livelihoods in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. The project tries to answer questions such as: how can we make access to solar irrigation more equitable? and how do we ensure that solar irrigation pumps do not lead to the overexploitation of groundwater resources?An IWMI project is underway to help develop our understanding of people's livelihoods, and the decisions made during the process of hydropower redevelopment.As Laos' economy enters a period of growth, resource exploitation is a significant problem. In the journal article titled Aspirations undone: Hydropower and the (re) shaping of livelihood pathways in Northern Laos, IWMI sets out to better understand the impact hydropower has on the farming community. IWMI conducted case studies in two villages (Khamkong and Thongngam) along the Mekong River, both of which were impacted by the planned Pak Beng hydropower dam. It was found that the forums villagers have for discussing their concerns about the dam were often impeded. IWMI research identified that local needs were not being prioritized, and local livelihoods were often ignored in favor of boosting national economic growth.In the journal article, IWMI argues that a top-down approach in hydropower planning, or a prioritization of decisions being made by dam builders and developers, can be damaging. Such an approach can result in failure to compensate villagers who have been impacted by dams.IWMI's research concluded that 'the futures-and the aspirations-of our respondents have been undone by the mechanisms put in place ostensibly to secure their futures'. These projects lay the groundwork for future research and political action in the region. It will enable experts and stakeholders to make informed decisions around recommendations for future dam developments.Photo: IWMIEconomic development means a greater demand for energy by both industry and private users. While hydropower offers a climate-smart energy supply, it could affect downstream ecosystems and communities. IWMI's research into balancing these needs is giving planners the tools to make better decisions for equitable development to sustainably reduce poverty.IWMI is part of the FutureDAMS research consortium, funded by UK Research and Innovation, which seeks solutions that consider the entire water-energy-foodenvironment (WEFE) nexus.Myanmar, where IWMI has strong partnerships, aims to nearly triple its capacity to produce electricity by 2030. Much of that could come from hydropower in the Ayeyarwady River Basin, where many dams are planned or under construction. However, dams alone may not be the most effective solution taking into account the changing costs of other renewable energies such as solar power, and the predicted effects of climate change and the impacts of hydropower on the environment and food production, including rice and fisheries.Photo: Danie Swanepoel / FlickrUltimately, there has to be a decision on how much water flows and where: the FutureDAMS model provides information on the relative costs and benefits of the different options. Taking into account almost a million simulations, the model provides a range of options that represent the potential 'best' outcomes over a 50-year time span. IWMI also examined the benefits of the proposed Pwalugu Multipurpose Dam on the Volta River in northeast Ghana. Pwalugu lies between the Bagre Dam upstream in Burkina Faso and the Akosombo Dam downstream in Ghana. In this case, a simulation model compared managing the dam cooperatively with non-cooperative management.The results, published in the journal Frontiers in Environmental Science, show that if Ghana and Burkina Faso integrated the management of their dams, they could both increase their energy production, and ergo their irrigation/agricultural production. However, there would still be some loss of downstream ecosystem services that would need to be mitigated.Cooperation also maintains flooding downstream of Pwalugu, benefitting farmers who depend on the ecosystem services of seasonal floods. However, despite higher overall annual energy generation in Burkina Faso, this would also make the country more dependent on energy imports from Ghana during low flow periods.The study shows how Ghana and Burkina Faso could negotiate cooperative strategies to offset possible negative impacts of the new Pwalugu Dam. Such negotiations could take place under the auspices of the Volta Basin Authority and provide a good example for basin management elsewhere.More broadly, IWMI's work with FutureDAMS proves how taking account of the whole WEFE nexus can provide greater benefits overall, thereby contributing to sustainable poverty reduction.Because Ayeyarwady is the only FutureDAMS basin that falls almost entirely within one country, it presents a good opportunity to assist government policy. IWMI has not only been closely involved in developing online tools, it has also been training ministry staff and young power system and water professionals. The goal is to enable a holistic assessment of the WEFE system and increase understanding of the social, environmental and engineering implications of different investment choices. The challenge is that there are so many complex and interlinked decisions to be made.With more efficient and effective water management strategies, local energy networks, water system planning and irrigation demands can be better coordinated. This allows water resources and energy and agricultural needs to be met simultaneously. Thus, a systems approach that considers energy, agricultural and other water users contributes to economic development and poverty reduction in the region.Options to increase energy include a new thermal power plant in the north and a new reservoir with hydropower to provide energy in the south. A transmission line could connect the villages in the north and south, sharing energy between them. Water could be diverted for irrigation to increase food supply. All these factors have associated costs and other constraints. Furthermore, the final solution has to deliver a system robust enough to cope with uncertainty about water flows that may well be exacerbated by climate change.Photo: CTA ACP-EUadditional farming responsibilities. As part of the project, IWMI researchers are working on developing evidence-based policy recommendations and programming to explore how to manage these challenges.Through the project, IWMI has conducted learning workshops with district and regional government officials from the Upper West Region. The project is currently collecting baseline data from around 2,000 farming households to better understand their situation. Later workshops with farmers form part of a participatory process, ensuring community buy-in.It is hoped that the workshops and eventual policy programming planned by the REACH-STR project will lead to more reliable water supplies and enable agriculture to thrive in the dry season. One of the goals of the project is to support the region in growing high-value vegetables, which could make dry-season farming lucrative. This could benefit women, in particular, by providing another source of income.IWMI's research on gender and water, over many decades, in Asia, Africa and the Middle East shows that real progress cannot be achieved if water investments, innovations and interventions do not respond to the complexities of inequality and exclusion, including the rapid nature of food, water, climate and social system transformations.In Ghana, IWMI leads the Resilience Against Climate Change -Social Transformation Research and Policy Advocacy (REACH-STR) project, funded by the European Union. The project strives to ensure equality for women and youth in rural communities in the Upper West Region of Ghana, a dry savanna just south of the Sahel.Work carried out by the REACH-STR project in the region is focused on understanding shifting gender roles surrounding the impact of youth migration, and also exploring how women and men react to stressors, such as the Covid-19 pandemic, increased out-migration and climate change. During the pandemic, for example, and as a result of youth migration, women have adapted by taking onDisparities in water access are mediated by inequalities in gender, class and caste and other contextual factors. The project A Gender Perspective to Understand and Enhance the Functionality of Water Supply Systems (GP4WSF), supported by the Water for Women Fund, aims to make water supply systems more functional through better inclusion practices in Nepal. The GP4WSF project is led by IWMI in close collaboration with the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV). The Water for Women Fund is funded by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT).As part of this work, IWMI conducted a study in 2020 to explore how intersectional gender factors affect collective action in the management of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services in two districts in Nepal.A survey of over 600 households across the two districts showed that only 25% of piped water supply systems are fully functional, and the performance and functionality of Water Users Committees (WUCs) was generally poor. Of seven such WUCs responsible for managing local WASH services and infrastructure, only one was properly functioning.When water supply systems do not work, women and marginalized communities are often the first to be impacted. IWMI researchers collaborated with SNV-supported local partners in developing capacity and designing strategies to improve both the functionality of the WUCs and the role of women in these committees. In situations of high rates of out-migration of men and youth, many women struggle with multiple roles, and being a member of a WUC and managing water services at the same time is often not possible because household tasks and agricultural responsibilities take precedence.IWMI research shows that emphasizing women's participation in WUCs can result in additional work, but they might struggle to refuse the opportunity to participate. Fortunately, younger women tend to be more outspoken and are better able to decide if, why and how to participate in WUCs. IWMI's research shows that the links between women's engagement in community-based water institutions and their empowerment are far from simplistic. These are issues that need to be considered if the goal is meaningful participation of women and their improved well-being.Solar-powered irrigation has been implemented in many countries to enable smallholder farmers to increase the productivity of their land. Its potential for improving food security and social inclusion has been harnessed by smart financing solutions developed by IWMI and partner organizations. This has opened up new opportunities for smallholder farmers, including women, youth and marginalized farmers, who would otherwise not have access to these technologies. Women, in particular, are more likely to face difficulties accessing resources such as land, credit and information that would enable them to invest in irrigation.As solar-powered pumps become more accessible, access to water for irrigation improves across Central Asia, South Asia, West Africa, sub-Saharan Africa and East Africa, promoting food and water security, as well as farmer-led and farmer-managed irrigation.However, solar technologies require large upfront investments, which not all smallholder farmers can afford. Financing and credit schemes are not structured to service more marginalized farmers such as women, who are particularly vulnerable to water insecurity. Because of their financial vulnerability, it is more difficult for rural smallholders to get loans from lenders, who prefer to focus on traditionally less 'risky' clients.Searching for solutions, stakeholders from the irrigation sector in Ghana and Ethiopia met virtually to discuss options for improving the availability and effectiveness of The aim of the virtual sessions was to start debates on farmer-led irrigation between researchers and practitioners who then identified new courses of action.The meetings resulted in suppliers looking into how they could fill the gap in financing solutions. One supplier, PEG Africa, was founded in 2015 to deliver affordable energy to the 150 million people in West Africa who do not have access to electricity. They are contributing to the discourse by presenting a pay-as-you-go financing model in West Africa that enables customers to pay regular installments and eventually fully own solar home systems. This will help to ensure that more people benefit from the project, e.g., cash-strapped, marginalized and resource-poor farmers, including women. The Central Dry Zone of Myanmar is home to a quarter of the country's population. About 80% of the people in the region are farmers or farm laborers, and one of the challenges they face is water scarcity. Reliance on rain-fed agriculture makes the region the most food insecure in Myanmar. Water stress, however, reflects not only a lack of rainfall but also irregular and inequitable distribution of water from previous irrigation projects.IWMI has been closely involved in rehabilitating the existing PYPIS. Some of the work involved repairing the irrigation infrastructure, including pumping stations, distribution canals and sluice gates. It was important that the process was participatory to ensure farmers' voices were heard, and to help them use water sustainably to grow high-value crops that could improve their incomes. This is particularly important among women and other marginalized farmers.The design and implementation of a WUA provides an opportunity to improve water management, and to improve representation for marginalized members of the community, specifically youth, as explained in a handbook published by IWMI.The principles explained in the handbook were included in the 'five villages bless' WUA established at the end of 2019. There are places reserved for women on the WUA Board of Directors, and all farmers, landless and landowners are free to join the WUA without discrimination. Democratic Photo: Madeline Dahm / IWMICovid-19 pandemic. However, farmers surveyed by phone and key informant discussions held in June and September 2020 revealed that the WUA coped well and the scheme was operated effectively despite the pandemic. Respondents reported fewer disputes among farmers and more interactions with their irrigation representatives.Effective water management, along with IWMI's capacity development, allowed farmers to expand their dry-season crops. Many farmers diversified into high-value crops such as fruits, spices and oilseeds alongside their staple rice crop. Most farmers were able to get a second harvest, with some getting three or four, and crop diversification was possible due to the availability of additional water for irrigation. This contributed to better nutrition and higher incomes. The total irrigated area doubled compared to the pre-WUA implementation period. Despite below-average rainfall during the 2020 monsoon, farmers reported they could access water when they needed it.Local subcommittees of the WUA announce over loudspeakers when water will be delivered, and this is followed up with a phone call if necessary. The farmers have faith in the WUA representatives they elected. The WUA has also been able to reduce conflict between villages. All five communities must agree on open and transparent decisions about water allocations, leaving less room for arguments.The strength of the 'five villages bless' WUA, founded on community commitment with a bottom-up approach, enabled it to adapt rapidly to disruptions caused by the pandemic. The value of the WUA to farmers was reflected in the observation that every single member of the association paid their fees, and they trusted the WUA to continue to manage water in a way that benefits all groups in the community, including women and youth. WUAs have great potential in Myanmar and elsewhere. election of representatives to the WUA has brought new social groups of people, often previously marginalized, into water management, giving their perspectives a hearing they did not have before. The bottom-up approach to WUA formation has empowered young people. They can now have a voice in the WUA by being elected to positions of responsibility and see a future in more sustainable and productive agriculture enabled by a well-managed irrigation system.The WUA helped give farmers a voice in managing PYPIS, improving inclusivity. IWMI researchers decided on a series of 'workable outcomes' for water management in workshops conducted with community leaders and the government. In 2020, these agreements had their first full year of operation through the WUA. There were fears that progress would stall with the disruptions caused by the Photo: Samurdhi Ranasinghe / IWMIIt is largely through water that most people will 'experience' climate change: unpredictable rainfall, droughts and floods, and the disruption this will bring to our food systems and drinking water supplies. IWMI's research addresses ways to maximize water productivity. This means developing more accurate rainfall predictions to support drought and flood warning systems, promoting 'climate-smart' agricultural technologies, increasing water storage, and circular resource and waste systems, and water resources modelling, monitoring and scenario planning, in order to identify who is using how much water and where it is being used. It also means addressing how watersheds, wetlands and mangroves can provide nature-based solutions to moderate climate extremes and increase resilience to climate change.The goal of index-based flood insurance (IBFI) is to increase the resilience of low-income, flood-prone communities to extreme climate events. IBFI uses satellite imagery and computer models to determine when the depth and duration of a flood exceeds predetermined limits. This makes IBFI more reliable and less expensive than traditional insurance. The model can also estimate probable crop losses and trigger automatic payouts. The good news is that IBFI has been introduced in Bangladesh over the last year, building on the successes of its implementation in Bihar, India.The insurance provides farmers with the best opportunity to cope with the occurrence of extreme climate events, and even if such events do not occur during one year, the bundled benefits should improve productivity.Satellite-based indices can be used to cover farmers for several climate perils at once. In addition to floods and droughts, farmers could insure themselves against heat waves, coastal inundation and cold spells with one insurance product.In India alone, scaling up IBFI could protect more than a million farmers by 2025. While the goal is resilience, this would also create jobs and empower women, who are often more vulnerable to environmental disasters than men. With suitable local adjustments, bundled IBFI with better seed varieties and climate information services can give farmers worldwide a better chance to cope with natural hazards.The IBFI product was awarded the 2020 Group on Earth Observations (GEO) Sustainable Development Goals Award in the Special Category of Innovation linked to SDG Target 13.1 (strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries).Stored water evens out seasonal availability, permitting year-round use, but sometimes exacerbates conflicts between different users, such as pastoralists and farmers, and sometimes causes environmental damage. Research conducted by IWMI and the Global Water Partnership (GWP) sets out a case for thinking differently. The GWP/IWMI paper titled Storing water: A new integrated approach for resilient development makes a strong case for treating water storage as a service rather than a facility. What matters is how much water can be reliably supplied and not the total quantity stored.Twenty years after the World Commission on Dams report, and in the face of a growing freshwater storage gap, GWP and IWMI are calling for new thinking around freshwater storage. The report outlines an integrated water storage agenda for resilient development in a world that is increasingly characterized by water stress, and climate uncertainty and variability.Water is stored in both natural and built systems above and below ground, which interact in planned and unplanned ways. Therefore, strategic approaches to water storage need to focus on the services enabled -urban water supply, food security, healthy environments, energy, etc. -more than the quantity of water retained. In response, the report calls for a new agenda to support resilient development. The 2DI-SA vision for 2030 is to achieve climate resilience for 10.5 million small-scale agricultural producers and water users in Southern Africa. IWMI researchers participated in the 2DI-SA-led discussions on how to help farmers all around the world adapt their agroecological systems, livelihoods and landscapes to the current climate reality. According to IWMI experts, part of the solution resides in putting food systems on a low emission development pathway, and in developing smarter water solutions for the most vulnerable communities.The virtual national consultations in South Africa, led by IWMI, involved experts from several CGIAR partner organizations, and established key challenges that researchers working in the Southern Africa region should be aiming to overcome in the next few years. With high engagement from several researchers in different working groups, and contributions from many knowledgeable experts, the consultation report successfully informed the discussion at the Climate Adaptation Summit in January 2021. The consultations were also key in building a community of practice in the Southern Africa region that will be engaged again in the One CGIAR initiative design process.Morocco is prone to drought and already experiencing more extreme weather conditions brought on by climate change. Where in the past there might have been a drought every 10 years or so, more recently, farmers have endured droughts twice or even three times in a decade. More than half of Moroccans live in rural areas and two-thirds work in agriculture, so the consequences of drought can be severe.The aim of the MENAdrought project, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), is to produce an integrated approach to drought management in Morocco, Jordan and Lebanon, bringing advanced digital monitoring, and vulnerability understanding and action planning. This included early-warning systems that give countries time to prepare and direct help where it is needed the most, rather than waiting for a full-scale emergency. Under IWMI's leadership, MENAdrought brings together global experts on areas including climate, remote sensing, water management, plant physiology and the politics of drought management to work with national stakeholders who understand conditions on the ground.Morocco has now made available one of the core products of the project, which is a satellite map that gives a detailed picture of water availability.The map compiles information on rainfall, land surface temperature, soil moisture and vegetation health to create a color-coded enhanced Composite Drought Index.In September, as the country awaits the winter rains that characterize the Mediterranean climate, most of the map is red. As the rains start to fall, and the growing season begins, the map turns green. However, lower than expected rainfall and higher temperatures will change the index for some places from green to yellow. That can signal the start of an agricultural drought.Photo: Seersa Abaza / IWMI According to IWMI researchers, investigating past droughts will make it possible to trigger drought warnings automatically and allow faster mitigation responses.Looking beyond Souss-Massa, the project is supporting the generation of maps for the whole of Morocco, especially to improve how pastoral herders deal with drought. Traditionally, sheep and goat herds have grazed widely on rangelands across the country, but drought and misuse are degrading the range. The rise in the number and severity of droughts has forced some nomadic herders to look for new grazing lands, leading to tension with settled farmers and growers around oases.The country has laws to control the use of rangelands and the movement of flocks, but they are difficult to enforce. With up-to-date and accurate drought maps, authorities will be in a much better position to forecast where drought will affect grazing lands. This will allow them to direct herders and their flocks to places where the vegetation is healthier. Not only will the herders benefit as their animals have enough to eat, but drought-affected rangelands will be spared the additional damage caused by overgrazing.Morocco's decision to publish the maps is welcome, because it could prompt other countries to copy this approach and make them more resilient in the face of climate change.Morocco, along with Jordan and Lebanon (the other two countries covered by the MENAdrought project), will benefit from an increased ability to prepare for and respond to more frequent and severe droughts caused as a result of climate change.As the lack of water starts to affect the plants, they reflect less shortwave infrared light than healthy plants. The satellite detects this, and the drought map codes places that were yellow as red, suggesting that the start of a drought is underway.The map can often detect an emerging drought before any effects can be seen on the ground, as the data changes from week to week. provides an opportunity to take rapid action, for example, by limiting irrigation in specific areas.The current focus of the project is the Souss-Massa region in the southwest of Morocco where most of the country's rain-fed cereals are grown. The project is checking past droughts in the region to identify the specific conditions that indicate different levels of water scarcity. This will make the maps easier to use and improve responses to drought.Capturing and retaining stormwater underground reduces flooding impacts while enhancing water availability in dry periods. Also, groundwater is better protected from contamination and evaporation and can be abstracted through existing wells for domestic use and irrigated farming by local communities.The study first assessed the physical characteristics of watersheds in the Ganges Basin to identify suitable sites for implementing the UTFI approach. The highest concentration of suitable watersheds was in the Ramganga Basin. After further consideration, including site visits to the 10 most promising villages, researchers selected Jiwai Jadid village in the Rampur district of Uttar Pradesh as the pilot site to implement the UTFI approach.Researchers worked closely with community leaders and villagers to develop the scheme, which centers on the existing village pond. Boreholes were drilled in the base of the pond to penetrate a layer of relatively impermeable clay. When the nearby river floods, water is siphoned into the pond and it passes down the boreholes into the aquifer. In the dry season, stored water is pumped back out for irrigation and domestic use. IWMI's goal is to develop a sustainable approach to water infrastructure that supports economic development and human well-being, and safeguards ecosystem services. We work to combine the best aspects of natural and built water infrastructure to support sustainable, resilient and inclusive development.To best support environmental health and biodiversity, we work closely with regional and subregional organizations, river basin organizations, government agencies and investors to influence policy and practices around water management, and to ensure that women, youth and other marginalized groups are included in the planning and management of infrastructure at national and local scales.IWMI launched the Groundwater Solutions Initiative for Policy and Practice (GRIPP) in 2016 to help countries and communities make better use of their groundwater resources. A GRIPP Case Profile details the use of floodwaters to recharge depleted aquifers in the Ganges River Basin in India. The technique is referred to as Underground Transfer of Floods for Irrigation (UTFI), a type of managed aquifer recharge and the subject of an IWMI Research Report published in 2020.which is often laden with plastic and microplastic, from entering the environment in the first place. IWMI's expertise in identifying suitable business models for sustainable waste management enabled the Institute to assess all the available options and recommend financially sustainable solutions that are socially and legally acceptable. These solutions include fine mesh filters and coagulation technologies to remove microplastics, and booms and deflectors to siphon off plastic before it reaches treatment plants. The solutions that might be applied in any given case will depend on specific circumstances, but the report gives stakeholders, governments and the private sector the ability to make an informed choice to protect water and the environment from plastic pollution.The report suggests that our production and consumption patterns need to change. Effectively managing plastic pollution is a complex and multidimensional task and reducing plastic pollution at the source is the most effective method.The report draws attention to the importance of limiting the export of plastics and microplastics from cities and the landscape through wastewater treatment and runoff. The authors also insist on the crucial role of legislation, economic instruments, education and awareness to protect water bodies from pollution and restore ecosystems.Overall, the income from the cultivation of additional crops exceeded upfront costs and maintenance by a factor of 1.34. In addition, the higher groundwater level reduces the fuel costs for pumping, making irrigated agriculture more sustainable and profitable, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.The potential for scaling up the approach is considerable with simulation models predicting that even if only 20% of the runoff is captured, UTFI would increase groundwater levels sustainably and reduce flooding in the Ramganga Basin.While good water management can help to restore the environment, it is also important to prevent damage in the first place. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) asked IWMI to review technical solutions to address water pollution by plastics and microplastics, with the resulting report published in 2020.Every year, approximately 8 million tons of plastics and microplastics flow into water bodies, where the damage to biodiversity and ecosystem processes is incalculable. IWMI's study presents a tool kit and catalogue of relevant technologies to manage plastic pollution and assesses the pros and cons of each solution. Some of the solutions clean up after the fact. Debris sweepers and sea bins can remove plastic from water, while wetlands in coastal areas can keep plastic from entering adjacent water bodies. It would be better, however, to prevent the release of untreated wastewater,One concern is that smallholders may lose income if land is parceled away as exclosures, while the environment is replenishing. In Ethiopia, IWMI has developed business models that reward communities by encouraging bee-keeping and grass cutting. People can gain income while allowing the land to recover as these practices and activities do not encourage cutting trees or landscape degradation.Ethiopia is the number one honey producer in Africa and sits among the global top ten producers. There is a ready export market for high-value Ethiopian honey. Building beehives can boost the amount of honey an area supplies, while a burgeoning local market for animal fodder also adds opportunities in many places. In this way, degraded lands can be restored, allowing them to deliver ecosystem services into the future.Intensive rain-fed and irrigated crop and livestock systems can contribute to the degradation of land and water resources. While the reversal of land degradation is possible, it is often stymied by a lack of incentive, investment or poor livelihood alternatives.By promoting ways for communities to manage their resources more sustainably, IWMI is helping to support policy makers, planners and communities to mitigate the effects of land degradation.In 2020, IWMI published a report titled Exclosures for Landscape Restoration in Ethiopia: Business Model Scenarios and Suitability. Exclosures are areas that are excluded from woodcutting, grazing and agricultural activities. The report explored how economically feasible and environmentally sustainable activities can be practiced within exclosures to allow for the restoration of ecosystem services over the long term.Photo: Georgina Smith / CIATAn IWMI and Cobra Collective project is, together with a broad range of stakeholders, building a greater understanding of ecosystem health and biodiversity in the urban wetlands of Colombo, Sri Lanka.Colombo's wetlands contain unique biodiversity and provide flood protection and numerous livelihood services. Despite this, the wetland areas are at risk. Even though there has been increased attention in recent years to tackling wetland destruction, government agencies need greater community engagement to be able to better monitor and manage precious wetland habitat and biodiversity.The project, funded by the UK government through The Darwin Initiative, was launched in 2020 with the aim of developing a mechanism for aligning community wetland practices and monitoring with government policies. Initial phases of the project have focused on the collation of data including ecological, hydrological, geospatial, biodiversity, ecosystem services, livelihood and well-being benefits, and risks and hazards.Building on that data, the project will develop and promote community-led best practices in wetland management with the aim of safeguarding biodiversity, improving livelihoods, and enhancing the well-being of urban dwellers in Colombo.system rehabilitation, biodiversity conservation, the declaration of wetlands as sanctuaries, and community awareness programs on, for example, the conservation and wise use of wetlands, specifically for youth.Knowledge and experience in community wetland management and monitoring are limited in Colombo.With input from the various stakeholders, training modules for best practices in wetland management have been developed as an online course in three languages. The course will enable partners, stakeholders and community members to increase their understanding of community wetland management and monitoring.A 'systems health' approach to identifying best practices in wetland management ensures that management approaches reduce vulnerability and build resilience, by supporting strategies that can be implemented without ongoing external assistance. Promoting sustainable and traditional forms of agriculture, aquaculture and harvesting of wetland resources will foster food security and improved nutrition.The hope is that community-led wetland and natural resource management will contribute to urban poverty reduction, food security and sustainable agriculture, and to maintaining the healthy lives and well-being of Colombo's residents -corresponding to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger) and 3 (good health and well-being).Promoting wetland biodiversity, natural resource management and nature-based solutions will also support inclusive and sustainable economic growth and maintain resilient natural infrastructure. By focusing on the range of benefits that wetlands provide to Metro Colombo's residents and the management approaches that maintain and share those benefits, the project promotes recognition of the importance of wetlands as key natural infrastructure, thereby also aligning with SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities).A series of meetings and workshops with project partners and stakeholders took place in 2020. This, together with a questionnaire survey, helped to collect data to provide a more detailed understanding of the status of wetlands in Metro Colombo. Yet, the challenges posed by the pandemic only reinforced the critical importance of the WLE vision and research conducted by the program. Despite the challenges, WLE was able to deliver results through a unique collaboration with CGIAR Research Centers, and national, regional and international partners, as well as through the center-led bilateral programs.There ▪ Key stakeholder consultations on the decision-making process related to hydropower and livelihood changes were conducted in two villages in Oudomxay province, Laos, and three villages in Chiang Rai province and one village in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand.▪ Focus group discussions and interviews were conducted to collect data on institutions for possible consolidation and scaling of farmer collectives in two rural municipalities in Nepal.▪ Inception workshops have been held at the national, regional and community levels in Ghana for the Resilience Against Climate Change: Social Transformation Research and Policy Advocacy (REACH-STR) project on building community resilience to climate change.▪ IWMI launched the Real-time East Africa Live Groundwater Use Database (REAL-GUD) project, which was awarded funding by the 2019 Big Data Inspire Challenge to develop an IoT-based system for using data collected from solar pumps to monitor groundwater abstraction.▪ The pilot area of the award-winning REAL-GUD project was selected for calibration and verification of pumping data from Kisumu, Kenya. An application interface is also being developed to show sensor data from the network of solar pumps sold by private sector partner Futurepump.▪ A trial is underway to apply the IoT technology to aid water abstraction monitoring (Inspire Challenge).▪ We continued to make progress on presenting a dashboard with near real-time data collected from solar-powered irrigation pumps to compare abstraction rates and groundwater drawdown.▪ An online interactive solar suitability tool was launched.▪ Data in IWMI's Water Data Portal was reviewed and organized according to the new data management structure and new backup policies implemented. A prototype metadata template has been produced to help researchers at IWMI understand metadata requirements and to more easily produce the required metadata for their projects.▪ A prototype interface was produced for integrating spatial data layers into IWMI's disparate information systems. Options have been developed for viewing different data types and for selecting all the layers of data used for a particular project.Close liaison with the new CGIAR GENDER Platform -Generating Evidence and New Directions for Equitable Results (GENDER) -enables IWMI and WLE to be integrated into the Platform's future activities.▪ In June 2020, IWMI launched its new Gender and Inclusion Strategy, 'New landscapes of water equality and inclusion'. Covering the period 2020-2023, the strategy seeks to provide IWMI with a clear pathway to tackling and overcoming inequalities that persist at a structural level, including elevating the importance of adopting collective action approaches and building a more robust evidence base. This is framed within an overall gender transformative approach, and with a focus on the following three pillars:▫ Bridging knowledge gaps (that exist or persist) and continuing to build strong evidence for action.▫ Fixing systems (i.e., working on challenges at a more systems-level of understanding).▫ Catalyzing transformation through partnerships, including under the new CGIAR GENDER platform, but also with a wider array of stakeholders.IWMI received an unmodified audit opinion on its 2020 annual financial statements. During 2020, the Institute contributed to a total of five CGIAR Research Programs and two Research Support Platforms and managed 122 bilateral projects. The total revenue of IWMI in 2020 was USD 24.84 million and the Institute achieved a surplus of USD 0.30 million. IWMI complied with donor regulations and compliance requirements of its country offices. In response to the limitations faced due to the Covid-19 pandemic, some process changes were implemented in the areas of payments and audits to ensure maximum productivity with teleworking practices.For the years ended December 31, 2020 and 2019 (in US Dollars '000) Our priority is to deliver research and knowledge services to, and through, partnerships.Over decades of experience in research for development, IWMI has learned that no one achieves impact at scale by acting alone. Research contributions to innovation systems are only possible through partnerships. IWMI prioritizes partnerships that put in place the relationships needed to link research to local change and innovation, and to policy and institutional change at national, regional and global levels.IWMI uses its unique and extensive field-based presence of water scientists, its long-term partnerships with governments, researchers, nongovernmental organizations, the private sector and development practitioners, as well as its membership in CGIAR, to identify key partners and prioritize cooperation with coalitions at local, basin and national levels.","tokenCount":"9568"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8750ae490f0af7c5492c90d4646fa01d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3348c01-25a1-40c1-af37-1c2830d11956/retrieve","id":"-571888024"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d16fc4e-ef8b-4d79-adc9-11cf380ff034","pagecount":"4","content":"The Forest Management and Conservation Act, 2016 provides for participatory forest management (PFM) and acknowledges community participation in forest management through registered Community forest associations (CFAs). Despite the existence of the PFM regime and CFAs (CFAs), the forests degradation has been on increase. The implementation of the forest law has been ineffective and rhetorical rather than an attempt to public participation and decentralization of rights and benefits (Mutune et al., 2016). Thus, it is now a fact that after paying little attention to meaningful community participation in forest management the effects are being felt. There is low inclusivity of the CFAs by Kenya Forest Service (KFS) in forest management that could significantly affect forest conditions and livelihoods.The exclusion of the CFAs in meaningful comanagement of forest resources has occasioned continued destruction of these vital resources. Consequently, forest destruction increases pressure on a population grappling with hunger, water and power shortage. Despite the existence of a legal framework on participatory approaches in forest management, deforestation is high and largely attributed to opaque processes for licensing loggers and allowing outright illegal logging. Given current forest conditions, Kenya requires extra attention and action for its population to reduce water scarcity, food insecurity and improve resilience in the face of unpredictable climate changes. For instance, The Mara Rivers whose source is the Mau forest is drying up with devastating effects. The livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of pastoralists and farmers including the tourism sector will be jeopardized for instance by drying of the Mara River occasioned by destruction of the Mau Forest. Despite the existence of a legal framework on participatory approaches in forest management, deforestation is high and largely attributed to minimal operationalization of the forest law. The exclusion of the CFAs in meaningful co-management of forest resources has occasioned continued destruction of these vital resources. Yet, forest destruction increases pressure on a population grappling with hunger, water and power shortage. Forests are crucial in maintaining water quality and quantity and protecting soil from erosion. Water and soil are chief resources that support agriculture which employs about 80 percent of Kenya's population. Besides, forest provide the bulk of fodder for livestock production, fuelwood for domestic and rural industry uses, including energy for drying major agricultural crops. Forests offer building materials for farm structures and homes for millions of people in both rural and urban areas. The five major water towers regulate 75 percent of the country's renewable water supplies in the country. Recognizing the consequences of forest degradation, the government established a taskforce to address the matter urgently. Its report recommended a ban on logging for next three years. The ban on logging is necessary in the short term but not sufficient in the sustainable management of forests. Other measures particularly meaningful participation of FACs in forest restoration and rehabilitation is part of the most important panacea to ensure food security to the more than 3.4 Million Kenyans presently and acutely food insecure (Kenya Food Security Outlook, June 2018 to January 2019). Meaningful community participation in forest management and restoration becomes inevitable if the government of the day is to meet its big four development agenda that are highly depended on forest conditions. Forest restoration is in line with the Kenya government's prioritization of food security (climate change mitigation and water availability), manufacturing (energy, water and raw materials for manufacturing agricultural commodities like tea, coffee and, livestock) and health (water and sanitation) as key political agendas. It is paramount to promote models that not only restore forests but also meaningfully involve community in forest management. The meaningful involvement includes taking FACs in decision making over forest resources. Community involvement in decision making and their realization of direct tangible benefits from forest resources not only exalts forest restoration but also ownership by the FACs.Deforestation deprived Kenya's economy of 5.8 billion shillings ($68 million) in 2010 and 6.6 billion shillings in 2009, far outstripping the roughly 1.3 billion shillings injected from forestry and logging each year (UNEP, 2012). Kenya has a forest cover of 7.4 percent of its land area, compared to around 12 percent 50 years ago. In 1963, forest covered 10% of land in Kenya and by 2006 that dropped to 6.6%. The Kenya Forestry Working Group has estimated that Kenya will lose US$300 million each year by deforestation. Between 2000 and 2010, deforestation in the key water towers amounted to an estimated 28,427 hectares, leading to reduced water availability of approximately 62 million cubic meters per year (UNEP, 2012). For instance, the Mau Forest, the most important water tower lost up to 107,000 hectares of its 416,000 hectares through illegal allocations between 1990 and 2001. Forest degradation has triggered scarcity of resources and resulted to conflicts between government and FACs. Recent conflicts have been witnessed at the Maasai Mau, Cheregani and Mt. Elgon forests. Forest destruction precariously exposes women and girls as they walk long distances to fetch fuel wood. About 82 percent of households use fuel wood for cooking and 1.2 per cent for lighting (Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey Population-KIHBSP, 2017). However, Kenya is only able to meet about 70 per cent of this demand through sustainable domestic supply. The annual deficit of 12 million cubic meters is met by formal and informal imports plus unsustainable extraction from natural forests (KIHBSP, 2017). The situation can be reversed through forest restoration and meaningful involvement of the FACs in forest management. The FMCA, 2016 provide the basis for a new perspective on forest ecosystems management for improved forest conditions and livelihoods. The FACs become forest co-managers with KFS through membership in registered CFAs. Community participation in forest management is paramount in addressing climate change challenges, rehabilitation and restoration of forest resources for increased forest cover. Participation of CFA members needs incentives and technical support mostly from the KFS and external programs. Currently, the CFA members are mostly involved by KFS in providing labour in forest related activities like shamba system, aftercare of tree seedlings and scouting which are paramount for forest conservation but have minimal tangible benefits to communities. Usually CFAs have lamented exclusion by KFS from decision making over forest resources. Yet the involvement of FACs in decision making and gainful nature-based income generating activities e.g. farm forestry, beekeeping, ecotourism are useful means through which FACs can increase their livelihoods while enhancing the capacity of forest ecosystems to produce goods and services. For instance meaningful involvement of CFA members can restore key water towers like the Mau Forest Complex whose total economic value (TEV) is 110 billion (GoK, 2009). The TEV of Mau Forest can fund the 120km Nairobi-Naivasha SGR line whose total construction cost is estimated at Sh153 billion. When CFA members are given complete autonomy and devolution of power, CFAs can become viable local institutions for sustaining forests. When managed sustainably forests have the potential to absorb about one-tenth of global carbon emissions. Moreover, the widely accepted principles of good governance such as accountability, transparency and rule of law, which have been lacking in centralized forest management regime could be largely present, effective and having a strong influence on CFAs functioning for sustainable management of forest resources. Therefore, there is a need for stronger efforts to ensure better functioning of the CFAs. That is, for the CFAs to become responsive in forest conservation, a further decentralization of decision making and autonomy are believed to be an important step forward here, because part of current problems with lack of interest in the CFA relates to lack of real decision-making power. This may involve efforts to ensure capacity building of CFAs members and tangible benefits to through value addition on forest products.i. Involve CFA members in decision making over forest resources. ii. Invest on capacity building of CFA members on leadership, accountability and transparency. iii. Invest on the alternative nature-based incomegenerating activities to ease financial constraints among the forest-adjacent communities. iv. Provide clear and pragmatic guidelines on how CFAs engages with KFS that could significantly affect forest conditions and livelihoods.","tokenCount":"1329"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cf236e159c35e53127589309a87b7fbc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c522768-335d-4760-8792-9ca4dd144285/retrieve","id":"1864858903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"89f57f18-8b2c-4563-ba5c-58fe4e732de6","pagecount":"2","content":"The CPWF vision is: To help develop more prosperous and resilient agricultural societies by improving access to water, and the ways in which it is managed and used.To increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production. Limpopo Project 1: Targeting and scaling out  Limpopo Project 2: Small water infrastructure  Limpopo Project 3: Farm systems and risk management  Limpopo Project 4: Water governance  Limpopo Project 5: Learning for innovation and adaptive managementThe Limpopo is a relatively dry basin and most water in the more productive areas is already claimed. Rainfall is highly variable and in many parts of the basin there is little run-off with which to produce crops and livestock. The basin is a water-scarce environment in which recurring drought and floods cause devastating impacts on the livelihoods of small-scale, subsistence farmers. However, the more pressing development challenge in these farming systems is the unproductive use of water in the more normal rainfall seasons which are much more prevalent.This project aims to have science based evidence included inor informing-basin decision making toward improved smallholder productivity and reduced risk in rainfed agricultural production systems. This will be achieved through three main types of activities: 1) research coordination; 2) on-going engagement with stakeholders (internal and external); and 3) innovation research.This project helps ensure that the Limpopo BDC contributes relevant research to policy processes, decision makers and end users from farm to international levels. This project will facili-tate and promote contextualised and integrated research done by LBDC teams to achieve impact. This initiative will strengthen networks with the capacity to deliver high quality outputs at the right time to the right audience in the right format. This project contributes to:  CAADP Pillar I: Land and water management  CAADP Pillar IV: Agricultural Research For more information please visit: http://www.fanrpan.org/projects/","tokenCount":"308"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"59234e5841139b29852d2f65da2bee08","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/96488597-59ff-4350-8b8e-5d66d9d1d995/content","id":"1328783198"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5239c081-5faf-47f1-b3dd-668e9b088417","pagecount":"5","content":"In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia maize yields remain variable due to climate shocks. Over the past decade extensive progress has been made on the development and delivery of climate-resilient maize. In 2016 over 70 000 metric tonnes of drought-tolerant maize seed was commercialized in 13 countries in SSA, benefiting an estimated 53 million people. Significant progress is also being made with regard to the development and deployment of elite heat-tolerant maize varieties in South Asia. Increased genetic gain in grain yield under stress-prone environments, coupled with faster replacement of old/obsolete varieties, through intensive engagement with seed companies is essential to protect maize crops grown by smallholders from the changing climates in SSA and Asia.Maize is the major source of food security and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LatAm), and is among the top three crops in Asia. Over 300 million metric tonnes of maize is produced on over 90 million hectares across SSA, LatAm and Asia [1]. Average annual growth rate of the harvested maize area from 1993 to 2013 was 2.7% in Africa, 3.1% in Asia, and 4.6% in LA [1]. Even though the growth in area was accompanied by 2.4-5.6% increases in production, grain yields in these regions are still low with high year-to-year variability. In many regions of SSA and the Indo-Gangetic Plains, climate variability accounts for over 50% of the total variation in maize yields [2]. The predicted changes in temperature and precipitation will further accentuate the intensity and frequency of drought, increasing vulnerability of smallholder farmers to high risks associated with farming under rainfed conditions [3,4]. Smallholder farmers continue to largely rely on open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) or outdated hybrids that were developed over 30 years ago [5 [ 7 _ T D $ D I F F ] ], limiting their ability to achieve food and nutritional security [6]. Climate-resilient maize has been specifically bred for increased tolerance to traits associated with a variable and changing climate, along with yield potential, defensive traits and consumer preferred traits [7 ]. The main objective of this review is to present a brief update on the status and potential of climate-resilient maize in SSA and Asia, and identify key bottlenecks which need to be addressed to facilitate rapid development, scale-up and deployment.The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), in collaboration with national programs and the private sector, is intensively engaged in developing and deploying improved climate resilient maize varieties for tropical/subtropical environments in SSA, Asia and LatAm. New climate resilient maize in eastern and southern Africa (ESA) yield up to 20-25% more than current commercial varieties in on-farm trials under lowinput and drought stress conditions [8]. During the severe El Nin ˜o induced-drought and heat stress in southern Africa in 2015-2016 crop season, climate-resilient maize yielded twofold more than key commercial hybrids in onfarm trials [9]. No yield penalty was observed in climatically good years. Crop modelling shows climate-resilient varieties will provide a yield advantage of 5-25% in many maize growing areas of ESA [4,10].Genetic gains achieved during the last few decades through conventional breeding have been, in part, associated with an expansion of phenotyping networks [11]. In ESA, selection for grain yield was previously conducted largely under optimal conditions, rather than under conditions representative of the target environments, while on-farm evaluations for proof of concept were limited [3]. Since 2009, the abiotic and biotic screening network was expanded to 59 locations across 11 countries. Phenotyping capacity for managed drought screening increased from 6 ha to 35 ha and low nitrogen stress screening from <10 ha to 47 ha [12,13]. The large-scale, regional testing network allowed greater selection intensity for stress tolerance and maximized benefits of limited resources for maize important in ESA over a large area by allowing breeders access to managed stress facilities [12].Under the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project, over 230 climate-resilient maize varieties were released in 13 countries in SSA during 2007-2015. Of these, 63% were hybrids and 27% were improved OPVs. In 2016, over 70 000 tonnes of certified seed of climate-resilient maize varieties was produced in these countries, as compared to 30 768 tonnes in 2010 [4]. With the exception of Mozambique, Kenya and Zimbabwe where the production of climate-resilient maize seed has remained relatively constant between 2010 and 2016, adoption of climateresilient maize has significantly increased over the years in the target countries in SSA. An estimated 85% of this seed (60 102 tonnes) was marketed in 2016, covering almost 2.5 million hectares (Figure 1a), and benefiting over 6 million households (or over 53 million people). This includes over 2 million households in Nigeria alone and 0.7 and 0.8 M households in Ethiopia and Zambia (Figure 1b).The overall estimated economic value of increased maize production due to climate-resilient maize in Ethiopia was, at almost 30 M USD, over 10 M USD higher than previously estimated [14] (Figure 1c). A major factor associated with this success is the replacement of the old, climatevulnerable maize varieties with improved climate-resilient hybrids, especially[ 9 _ T D $ D I F F ] the hybrid BH661 [15 [ 8 _ T D $ D I F F ] ]. The high extension agent to farmer ratio (1:476) is likely to have further expedited the adoption, and associated economic benefits, of improved varieties [15 ]. Recent post-ante studies in Ethiopia show the adoption of improved varieties is associated with increased per capita food consumption, and ultimately food security [16]. Similarly economic benefits were also higher than previously estimated in Zambia, Angola and Uganda. Small increases in yield in regions with a high frequency of drought can translate into a considerable increase in food security. For example, in two regions of Zimbabwe households that grew climate-resilient maize had more than nine months of food at no additional cost [17].Most of the tropical maize growing areas in South Asia are highly vulnerable to drought and/or high temperature stress. Spring maize season, an important option for intensifying and diversifying cropping systems in South Asia, is particularly prone to severe heat stress during flowering/ early grain filling stages [18]. Systematic efforts to develop elite Asia-adapted, heat tolerant maize cultivars were initiated in 2012 under the Heat Tolerant Maize for Asia (HTMA) project, implemented by CIMMYT in partnership with national maize programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, and 15 seed companies operating in Asia. A large heat-stress phenotyping network, comprising 23 sites in the four Asian countries, has been established. During 2015-2017, more than 50 elite heat stress tolerant, CIMMYT-derived maize hybrids have been licensed to public and private sector partners for varietal release, seed scale-up and deployment in the region.Recent estimates of genetic gain in grain yield within the ESA hybrid maize breeding pipeline of CIMMYT under <100 000 100 000-199 000 200 000-299 000 300 000-399 000 >400 000 <100 000 100 000-199 000 200 000-299 000 300 000-399 000 600 000-699 000 800 000-899 000 >2 000 000 experimental (on-station) conditions over a ten-year period were estimated at 109.4, 32.5, 22.7, 20.9 and 141.3 Mg ha À1 yr À1 under optimal conditions, managed drought, random drought, low N and MSV, respectively [12]. While these rates are equivalent to other regions of the world, yields remain lower [12]. With a constant linear increase at current yield gain trends, maize hybrid yields will only reach 3 Mg ha À1 in 17 years under random drought stress in experimental conditions.Increasing genetic gain under climate-related stresses will be essential to increase yields [19]. The 'breeders equation' provides the focus around which new technologies can contribute to increased genetic gain (Figure 2). One of the simplest ways to increase genetic gain is to reduce the breeding cycle time -if selection intensity, accuracy and variability remain constant, halving cycle time will double the genetic gain [20,21Breeding cycle times are 10 years or more, compared to less than five in temperate regions [5 ]. Faster cycle times are also important for adaptation to emerging pests and diseases. Doubled haploid (DH) technology has now been optimized and deployed in SSA, reducing the time taken to develop parental lines [22]. More efficient systems for haploid induction and identification, coupled with chromosome doubling, are however essential to reduce costs of this process [23,24].A critical aspect to the design of breeding programs is the allocation of limited resources between population size and replication [25]. The development of low-cost, high throughput phenotyping tools have the potential to play an important role in reducing field costs, thus allowing resources to be allocated to generation and management of larger populations, enabling an increase in selection intensity within a fixed budget [26]. Recently there have been many advances in the development of highthroughput phenotyping tools for traits extensively used within breeding programs. Plant height sensors have been developed using a range of sensors including LiDAR, ultra-sonic sensors and RGB images [27][28][29]. Similarly image analysis has been used to quantify maize yield components [30] and diseases [31].For new climate-resilient varieties to contribute towards smallholders' adaptation to climate variability, it is important to strengthen the seed systems. Delivering low-cost improved hybrids to smallholder farmers with limited purchasing capacity and market access requires that indigenous seed companies be supported with information on access to new products, besides adequate and reliable supplies of early-generation (breeder and foundation) seed of climate-resilient varieties [20].A recent survey of product life cycles in SSA estimated average age is 14 years in East Africa, 15 years in Southern Africa and 16 years in West Africa [32]. When the time taken to develop varieties and for adoption is factored in, the process of variety development could have been initiated at least 25-30 years ago, based on the assumption of 8-10 years for variety development and 4-5 years for varietal registration and seed scale-up [20]. Each of the last three decades have been successively warmer than any preceding decade since 1850 [20], thus, these varieties were developed in a significantly different environment. However, there are some highly encouraging signs that the average age of varieties is decreasing in ESA [32]. Smale and Olwande [33] reported, based on a study in 2010, that the average weighted age of maize varieties in Kenya was 18 years, while Abate et al. [32], using a survey conducted in 2013, found the average weighted age was only 14 years. Appropriate government policies and adoption of progressive seed laws and regulations, are critical for improving smallholder farmers' access to improved climate-resilient seed, and for overcoming key bottlenecks affecting the seed value chains, particularly in the area of policy, credit availability, seed production, germplasm and marketing.While further evidence is still required to document the risk-reduction benefits of the climate-resilient maize on the numbers of chronically poor farmers [7 [ 1 0 _ T D $ D I F F ] ], there is an increasing body of evidence confirming the benefits of climate-resilient maize to increase yields, reduce yield variability and, ultimately, increase food security. To increase genetic gains through maize breeding in the stress-prone tropics, and for enhancing the pace, precision and efficiency of breeding progress, judicious and effective integration of modern tools/strategies, especially high-density genotyping, high throughput and precision phenotyping, DH technology, molecular marker-assisted and genomic selection-based breeding, and knowledgeled decision-support systems, are vital. Emerging seed enterprises in SSA, Asia and LatAm also need to be strengthened to become more market-oriented and dynamic, to provide smallholders with greater access to affordable climate-resilient improved seed[ 3 _ T D $ D I F F ] .","tokenCount":"1918"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e3be98ca83d2e84b58f853b284645d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7229cf95-05ff-47a6-8066-1069a216a6bd/retrieve","id":"574514964"},"keywords":["c~tÍrJrl BOTI\\NICr","y EL VALOR ~'UT1UTIVO DE PP","P.[lEPJ\\5 .__-\"1'1<\" !l. DECllrlmlS SOLA y EN MEZCUI. CON P. P1If","SEOLOlDES"],"sieverID":"3ff0c583-67d1-494e-9519-220cafb09160","pagecount":"13","content":"BAJO DOS SISTEt'/I~ 'T,l)n~llit~ e . / ' Felix ¡'1ol'onta'\" INTf'ODL!CCJ 0 1 • 1 '---~.ra~ alilllentación de los habitantes del tercer mundo está siendo amenazada ~ \"seriamente, debido a la baja producci ón de productos con alto villor protúico.lImérica latina tropical posee un recurso de 849 millones de hectáreas (51% de sus tierl'ils) de suelos O¡<isolcs y Ultisoles de muy baja fertilidad (2), que deterr.linall su frontera agrícola. Estos suelos constHuyen la mejor perspectiva para el desDI\"rollo de una tecnología gana<1era que sea capaz di! hacer la regi6n autfJsu\"fí ciente en pl'oductos pe::ual-i os.Las legunrinosds forrajel'as san plantas originarias de este medio y poseen alto valer pl'oteíco, pOI' la tanto, constituyen el recuróo ideal ¡Jara la aplicaci6n de una tecnología de bajos in~umos, la cual se adaptaría perfectamente a las cond'¡ciones económicas de éstas áreas.La Secc'ión dc Productividad y Manejo de Praderas del Programa de Pasto, Tro~icales del CIAT, desari\"olla en la Estación Exper'imental de Carimagua una sede de ensayos tendientes a evaluar el valor forrajcl'o y la productividad de gramíneas y leguminosas [lI'OInisorias en suelos ¡¡c'idos e infél\"tiles y a generar tecnología aplicable en el Ifea.Durante el pel\"íodo comprendido entre el 20 de abril y el 7 de jul io se adelantó en Carimagua un Pt'ograma de Capacitación en uti 1 ización de rJl'aderas \" con los siguientes objetivos:1. lJetenninar la producci6n animal, la composición botánica y el valor nutritivo de praderas de ~.decu!1lbens sala y en mezcla can .!:.phaseoJoides bajo dos sistemas de siembra.2. Conocer y participar en la conducción de otras trabajaS de investigación que adelanta la Secc'ión en la estación.En el presente informe se incluyen datos correspondientes a 168 días experimentales y constituyen un avance dentro del experimento, el cual se conducirá durante un período mayor de tiempo.Las ganancias de peso obtenidas por los animales en B.decumbens bajo pastoreo continuo se presentan en el Cuadro 1. los resultados muestran una mayal' ganancia de peso durante el poríodo lluvioso, 10 cual está l'elacionado con la mejor calidad del forraje en esta Ganancia de peso por animal y por hectál'ea bajo pastoreo continuo en .!!..  5 época, reflejándose en ganancias de peso compensatorio, Estos resultados son similat'es a los obtenidos por Tergas y Paladines (3) y superiores a los conseguidos con carga de 2.4 an/ha todo el año en Carima\"!lua 1979 {4}. En este último caso se obtuvo una mayor ganancia por hectáréa, 10 cual se eXl)lica por la n~yor carga, La Figura 1 muestra la gran cantidad de material muerto que se presenta en las praderas de B.decumbens durante la época seca, lo cual es una efecto de la maduración rápida del material de esta especie, siendo su principal problema.En varios trabajos (5), se ha demostrado el aporte de las leguminosas forrajeras tropicales en la producci6n animal, especialmente durante la época de sequía,en este caso este efecto puede observarse al comparar los resultados de los Cuadros 1 y 2. lós resultados obtenidos durante los primeros cuatro años de pastoreo han I11Ostrado una disminución en la producción animal pOI' hectárea a través del tiempo. Para el año 1980 la producción por hectárea fue de 236, 262 Y 314 kgíha/ año para la !lrachiaria sola, con Kudzú en bloques .Y en franjas, respectivamente, los cuales son Mejores que los obtenidos en 1982.La mayor producción animal se obtuvo cuando la .leguminosa se sembró en franjas, como se observa al compal\"ar los resultados del Cuadro 2; és'~o puede estar relacionado con el aporte de nitrógeno y materia orgánica que suministra'•., las franjas, lo que permite mantener mejor cal i dad en 1 a pradera.La asociación de f..phaseoloides mas Kudzú en franjas presenta gran desequilibrio en su cor.¡posición botánica durante la época lluviosa,(Figura 2). lo que parece estar l'el aei onado con un a ltó con~un1o de 1 egumi nasa durante 1 a ép0co seca (fi~lIra 3) y su baja I~esistencia .al pisoteo, todo unido a la rápida recuperación que tiene la gramínea en los primeros meses de lluvia.F.s notable la mayor productividad de los tratamientos con leguminosa en relación a la gramínea sola, principalmente en la época seca, 10 que parece explicarse por la calidad mayor en la dieta seleccionada por los animales en estas pradel'as.El banco de proteína en bloques produce una cantidad considerable de materia seca (Cuadro 3) durante la época seca, 10 que contribuye a w.ejorar la dieta seleccionada. ya que el forraje ofrecido. está COMpuesto bá~icamente por gramínea de bajo va•lor nutritivo debido a su avanzado estado de maduración. Esto explica    -6porque son mejores las ganancias en estos IJradel'as que en las de Brachiaria !)ura.De los l'esuHados obtenidos en el trabajo efectuado se puede concluir lo siguiente:1. La inclusión de las leguminosas forrajeras ha contribuido en forma significativa a aumentar la productividad de las praderas en Carima¡¡ua.2. La persistencia del Kudzú se ha visto afectada por su baja resistencia al pisoteo y la agresividad de B.decumbens.3. Se observa mejor persistencia de la leguminosa cuando se siembra en bloques debido a una menor competencia con la gramínea y menor selección por los animales.4. La ganancia de peso por animal y por hectárea fue mayor en la asociación j!.decumbens más ):.phaseoloides en franjas.5. El rol de l~s legunl'inosas sotlre las ganancias de Des::. ne los anilr,a1es es esenc~almel1te durante la época seca. ","tokenCount":"874"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"faca09bd5463adabec95d669d8ed6881","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/63b41eaf-1da7-43e1-adea-a4e289f907be/retrieve","id":"1730062870"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"af849cce-e1b4-486a-9580-503379b52337","pagecount":"16","content":"(A male farmer from Musaza sector, Kirehe district asking policy makers during a stakeholders meeting organized by the Minister of Agriculture of Rwanda)The great lakes region of Central Africa is beautiful and abundant in hills, people and conflicts. Its high altitude and cooler climate make it ideal for crops. But soils have been exhausted, spare land is rarely available, and competition and struggle for resources has marked much of the region's history of the past 50 years. Many farmers in parts of this region rank among the most food insecure and malnourished on earth. This is because of low farm productivity since the majority depends on agriculture that is done with minimal fertilizer use. A 2006 baseline survey revealed that more than 60 percent of the population in Central Burundi and South Kivu were food insecure and had very few opportunities to diversify income with off-farm activities. Farm sizes are too small (< 2 ha). Although Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) still has some spare land, the existing land tenure arrangements do not encourage farmers to invest in soil and water conservation since most of the land is in the hands of the chiefs, locally known as \"Mwamis.\" These challenges, nested across different scales, point to the need for innovative ways of working through multistakeholder processes.The Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA) was set up to provide science-based evidence that helps bridge the knowledge gap between farmers, public and private extension workers, scientists and policy makers. Thousands of farmers usually find themselves in a dilemma similar to that of the male coffee farmer quoted above-wanting to respond to their practical challenges on the ground but finding themselves constrained due to non-matching policies or institutional settings. On the other hand, policy makers also lack credible evidence on which to base their decisions. In this farmer's situation, planting coffee ensures a seasonal harvest of cash. But he also wants to be food secure from the same piece of land and so planting bananas in his newly planted coffee makes sense since, in addition to food, bananas will provide a steady cash flow throughout the year. Coffee is a big foreign exchange earner for the country and so farmers are discouraged from intercropping the two crops. Due to realization of the land shortage though, farmers are sometimes allowed to plant bananas in the coffee when the coffee is still very young. They are however required to cut the bananas when the coffee has reached its productive stage. Greater in number even are farmers restricted by knowledge and resources, not policies. The combination of these factors made CIALCA realize that registering any meaningful changes required many more stakeholders at the table ranging from farmers to policy makers, and this was how the CIALCA work shaped into \"platforms\" at different levels to serve different but connected needs.CIALCA started out as an inclusive research consortium for development, spearheaded by three international agricultural research centers: The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IITA, Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, CIAT. It started in 2005, but was formally launched in 2006, operating in the three countries (Rwanda, Burundi and DRC). Each country had its own challenges as well as opportunities and this called for different methods of engagement in each of the countries. In Rwanda for example, where strong national policy shapes smallholder farming, the Consortium developed platforms around the government's research and extension systems. In the DRC and Burundi that were still recovering from conflicts, the scaling/extension component was handled through the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) but research components were still handled through the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS).Different types of \"innovation platforms\" emerged across different levels. These brought together different stakeholders operating in these geographical sites. The levels included field sites in a village or local community (usually around an experimental field), and an action site that was equivalent to say a district, national and regional level between countries. The coming together of the stakeholders fostered cross-learning and experience sharing. The learning was usually organized through the field days at the field sites, and through meetings and conferences at the action site and other levels (see Figure 3.1).At that point in time we had not heard much about innovation platforms. These platforms simply emerged out of need, which was key for their crucial role in fostering adaptive collaboration between different groups of stakeholders, and CIALCA's impact and reputation in the region.The platforms emerged and grew as the need arose. For example CIALCA's collaborative work to fight Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) with the Rwandan government research and extension departments and the regional stakeholders in the Rubavu area clearly required multiple stakeholders. The \"simply emerging\" nature of these platforms helped to avoid many expectations and allowed an organic means of platform evolvement. Inclusion within the plat form was based on mutual needs fulfillment rather than position filling. This evolvement was very befitting as the CIALCA team was extensively made up of natural scientists that would have found difficulties in managing the different stakeholder expectations.Following a series of 25 participatory rural appraisals across the region, the consortium decided to focus its agronomic interventions on key entry points in smallholder cropping systems; i.e. bananas, (soy)beans, coffee, cassava and maize. These crops are vital sources of food and revenue, yet their productivity is chronically hampered by inferior planting material, crop diseases, poor agronomic practices and limited capacity to access markets as well as restrictive policy environments.CIALCA proposed to work on these cropping systems to contribute to its overarching goal of improving the livelihoods of those who depended on agriculture through research investments in system productivity and resilience. Research for development activities were varied and dynamic, but greater emphasis was placed on introducing and evaluating better banana and legume germplasm, improving agronomic practices in mixed cropping systems, integrated soil fertility management, integrated pest management, and social innovations for improved crop marketing leading to income. CIALCA made investments in developing intercropping options for staples such as banana and cassava with legumes. Most of these technologies were already being practiced by farmers elsewhere in the East African highlands with varying degrees of success: (i) banana-coffee intercropping concepts were transferred from Uganda to Burundi and (from there) later to Rwanda, (ii) zero-tillage mulch banana x bean intercropping was transferred from Uganda to Burundi and Rwanda, (iii) smart legume intercropping systems in maize and cassava were first tested in West Kenya and subsequently successfully tested and documented in DRC, (iv) soybean processing technologies moved from Uganda/Kenya to Rwanda and DRC. Several key recommendations were made based on this research that is being out scaled, for example the using of sticks to make holes in the banana mulched plantations demonstrated below, ensured minimum soil disturbance providing the much needed source proteins while keeping the banana root system intact (see Figure 3.2). These thematic areas responded to partner needs identified from the baseline survey as well as participatory rural appraisals. New varieties of the bananas, cassava and legumes were introduced and jointly evaluated by the stakeholders. This was usually done in field trials that were strategically positioned at a field site in a village or local community. Learning and experi ence sharing was usually carried out through field days while partners active within an action site usually met in organized meetings. The banana, coffee and legume intercropping technologies promoted by CIALCA in the region is one way to best demonstrate this. In general, planting bananas with coffee at the right ratios improved labor-use efficiency, overall income by >50 percent and reduced farmer's exposure to climate shocks (van Asten et al., 2011). While the agronomic and economic benefits were clear from the research and farmers side, the institutional policy arrangement to make these benefits available to farmers were nonexistent. This then created a need for policy actor engagements.Despite the coffee-banana intercropping benefits, there was an emerging gender challenge (see Table 3.1). Across the region in general, men often cited a stronger labour investment by women in the management of coffee plots when intercropped with cooking bananas as the women care for the food security of the household. This however brings a strong gender-biased division of farm enterprises, resource control, and task execution, which seems to provide a serious disincentive to really improve resource-use efficiency at the farm level.CIALCA stakeholder engagement 47 Due to its regional nature and focus on multiple commodities, CIALCA's activities have now been integrated into the CGIAR research program Humidtropics, which aims to help poor farm families in tropical Africa, Asia and the Americas boost their income from integrated agricultural systems' intensification while preserving their land for future generations.The consortium stakeholders mapped the flow of resources and quantified soil fertility gradients and on-farm nutrient recycling across sites. Our results showed that farmers disproportionally favor home-gardens in terms of nutrient and labor inputs, often relying on perennial crops and vegetables in homestead plots that are more fertile. Our quantification of the nutrient stocks and recycling showed that it was absolutely vital to keep crop residues on farm, since this would reduce nutrient losses for many crops by 50 percent or more.Consequently, given the importance of erosion in the hilly region, the researchers and their local partners conducted a number of integrated tech nology trials to try to improve productivity while reducing erosion. Technologies tested in various combinations were (i) embankments, (ii) hedge-cropping, (iii) no-tillage. Many were surprised to discover that the various erosion control options did not lead to the aspired improved productivity. On the contrary, all the technologies actually reduced yield of the maize and soybean being cropped together. Just as disappointing, the increased labor, competition for water and space, and soil disturbance to make the embankments did not help to improve productivity over the 1-2 years of the trial. Additionally, the fact that in eastern DRC, the \"Mwami\" land tenure system did not favor the majority poor farmers growing crops on the land also gave no incentive for farmers to make any meaningful investments in erosion control. The consortium experienced this first hand when one of the experimental field trials was taken away after the landlord had seen that fertilizers had been applied. While this was a loss for experimental data collection, it was by far one of the most natural ways to understand the day to day difficult decisions that the land renting farmers have as a result of the land tenure system.From 2006 onwards, socio-technical innovations through platforms sought to improve the livelihoods of poor farmers in Burundi, Rwanda and DRC by enhancing their capacity to improve agricultural productivity for better income, nutrition, and environment. CIALCA demonstrated and disseminated solutions to some of these pressing problems:• Introduced exotic banana varieties proved extremely popular with farmers and extension partners in certain areas. They are very well adapted to local growing conditions, often yielding double the bunch-weight of local varieties. • Legume germplasm introduced by CIALCA was rapidly out-scaled through farmer-led seed multiplication in Bas-Congo and the Eastern Province of South Kivu. More than half of the farmers involved in these schemes adopted the improved seed. • An increased production of soybean has prompted the further development of, and trainings on, various highly nutritious soybean products. These trainings particularly target women, resulting in significant nutritional benefits for the young children in their care. • An innovative banana-coffee intercropping promises increased farm incomes, and increases the resilience of coffee systems to a warming climate. This has caught the attention of Rwandan and Burundian authorities, who are actively engaged in validating the technology. • Xanthomonas wilt of banana steadily conquered a large part of the East African highlands. CIALCA contributed to the fine-tuning of an integrated control and rehabilitation package and collaborated with numerous development partners to mitigate disease impact and halt the spread of the disease into new areas.Cassava-legume intercrop systems saw significant improvements through the use of fertilizer in combination with manure or compost. Legume and cassava yields have increased by at least 40 percent and 20 percent, respectively. The Consortium chose three measurable criteria to track progress towards their goal: increasing farm level productivity, improving protein intake and boosting household income. The Consortium anticipated that at the end of the project, 2.1 million people would be aware of CIALCA-related activities of which 400,000 were actively seeking access to knowledge and technologies promoted by CIALCA. They set these milestones at project inception in 2006, and introduced a monitoring process during implementation. Finally, CIALCA evaluated the project at its closure in 2011. In the report (Macharia et al., 2012) the key findings were:• CIALCA's interventions improved farm productivity. In the intervention areas, a rapid impact assessment showed that CIALCA innovations had increased average farm level productivity by more than 27 percent. Some yields have increased up to 179 percent. • CIALCA increased protein intake. Averaged across all of the CIALCA intervention areas we have demonstrated that adoption of CIALCA technologies significantly increases protein intake. The consumption of protein has increased by at least 12 percent. • CIALCA has increased household income. By adopting improved agricultural practices and market-oriented strategies, a rapid impact assessment indicates that aggregate household income has increased by over 19 per cent. In some areas, farmers earn an additional 60 to 90 USD per year from improved banana production and marketing.CIALCA commissioned a study conducted in 2011 to describe the organization of CIALCA: how it came together, how it has adapted to seek out impacts, and where the model's particular style of partnerships has succeeded or fallen short in the eyes of its participants. This study (Cox, 2011) noted that the foremost asset of CIALCA's func tioning was its adaptability, which has brought successes in some drastically different country contexts: in Rwanda for example, where strong national policy shapes smallholder farming, the Consortium came to work very closely with the government's research and extension system. Through this, policy engage ment was done, the partners trained farmers in Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) and the use of newly subsidized fertilizers, and helped the country manage the menace of BXW. In the study mentioned above, when the partners and CIALCA staff in Rwanda were asked about their perceived advantages of working with CIALCA, the top two reasons cited were stakeholder engagement, especially farmers, as well as capacity building. Interestingly, policy engagement is also cited as a strength that CIALCA enjoyed. In Burundi and DRC, where national systems are weakened by recurring civil conflict, CIALCA collaborated with a whole assortment of governmental and non-governmental agencies in identifying and disseminating improvements to banana-and legumebased systems. In both Burundi and DRC, the top ranked advantages associated with CIALCA as perceived by partners and staff included introduction of new varieties and means of multiplying them. Since public service provision was relatively weaker, working through NGOs whose mandate focuses on input provision and training gave better returns in Burundi and DRC. On the contrary, in Rwanda, focusing on and following the processes sometimes took longer than desired but gave better and sustainable returns. CIALCA developed communication materials that were widely adopted and distributed by the government extension arm.The same applies to the rapid propagation of bananas for example, which was adopted and used by the government extension system as a means to produce healthy planting materials while in both Burundi and DRC this was extensively done by the NGOs.From three autonomous regional offices, CIALCA connected with dozens of civil society organizations and NGOs, and community-based organizations (CBOs). These were trained in different technology packages and through Training of Trainers (ToT) across the region. They in many cases were responsible for reaching areas where CIALCA was not working. In north Kivu Eastern DRC, the radio program that one of the CIALCA staff conducted was found to be effective, especially in relaying messages on the control of the BXW (Figure 3.3).Furthermore, since its inception, CIALCA was strongly committed to capacity building in a region that had lost much of its best agricultural researchers during the long period of conflict and strife. CIALCA has trained over 20 PhDs, 35 Masters and over 135 Bachelor of Science students who now CIALCA stakeholder engagement 51 Finding the link between good science, stakeholder engagement and impact-the role of partnerships CIALCA used the different regional experience and scientific evidence coming from trials and surveys to engage the different stakeholders from farmers and extension workers to policy makers in order to influence policy changes. This was not completely familiar ground for CIALCA because we learned that knowing people that know other people helps if you can exercise patience to wait for a policy maker for four hours and have a ten minute discussion. For example, in Rwanda, where the government had virtually adopted a policy of sole cropping to encourage farmers to seriously invest in improving crop production following \"green revolution\" principles, providing the evidence for intercropping proved vital. Farmers did not always agree with this approach since they wanted to earn money but also be food secure on their small pieces of land. CIALCA research and policy actor engagements on the benefits of intercropping systems managed to provoke some reflection at the national policy level. For example, results on the benefits of banana-coffee intercropping (including improved climate adaptation and cup taste) led to the Minister organizing a meeting with all key public actors, NGOs and farmer representatives to discuss the results. These results generated a lot of debate from the different stakeholders ranging from farmers and researchers, as well as extension workers. This was made possible because of the regional platform sharing results between countries. The point was further proved by the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) website: \"the idea of coffee-banana intercropping was first introduced by (assistant agronomist sic) Dr. Van Asten Piet about two years ago. Since then there have been several studies and analyses and lessons learned from Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda itself.\" This further shows that the CIALCA regional platform was recognized in each of the countries.While writing about the one-day engagement between CIALCA and the Rwandan Agriculture stakeholders, the MINAGRI website gave a very memorable and potential game changer quote that truly highlighted the role of engaging in multi-stakeholder processes: \"This workshop is an indication of a change that may occur within the agriculture sector for Rwanda that will ultimately benefit rural farmers and market prices for the country, as research continues\" (Rwandan Ministry of Agriculture, n.d.).To a large extent, the position presented by the ministry website strongly mirrored the sentiments of the majority of the stakeholders in the work shop. One of these stakeholders represented the Belgium Technical Cooperation, BTC. The BTC representative Mr. Somers Raf said:As an extensionist, my question is when to start doing this? The only issue to be confirmed is coffee cup quality. So far, there is no single trial showing that banana-coffee intercropping affects yields of either of the two crops negatively. Yes, researchers may do their work still for many years, and better density recommendations may be developed after more experiments are done. However, we need to start. After cup quality is confirmed, the only question is why farmers may not start doing it immediately? Cup quality results of coffee intercropped with bananas later came out and there was positive correlation between intercropped (shaded) coffee and cup quality, further the fact that the shade from the bananas had a positive effect on coffee quality. This engagement led to a shift in policy discourse from the key decision makers in the sector-governments no longer consider banana intercropping as a \"crime\" and in several regions they are actively encouraging intercropping through government-supported farmer field schools. The national research and extension arm of government, the Rwanda Agricultural Board, RAB, has picked the banana-coffee intercropping system and demonstration fields are being set up. This is a real shift in the institutional environment for smallholders who were previously \"punished\" for intercropping in banana or coffee fields. As noted by MINAGRI, this change has further opened their interest in developing intensified and well-organized intercropping systems that they would like to promote to smallholder farmers.This had a big impact and implications as it came towards the end of CIALCA. The resources that had been invested in the banana-coffee research, the long-term engagement with the ministry and other key stakeholders and the affirming voices that were heard during the discussions, all pointed to how the process and the content need to work together to have meaningful outcomes. At several critical stages, when gray areas emerged causing tension between stakeholders, the engagement process benefitted from scientific evidence for moving forward.Within the CGIAR, the CIALCA consortium was an absolutely unique collaboration when it started in 2005, both in terms of systems approach, as well as in its philosophy of equal partnership and adaptive management.A number of factors can be pointed to when it comes to what led to the success of the CIALCA platforms:• having an evidence-based engagement process: the research that was done by CIALCA stakeholders led by the NARS in the different countries gave very interesting and new insights that benefitted the engagement process with stakeholders across levels including farmers, civil society and policy makers. This evidence from \"good science\" kept the partners engaged even when the process was sometimes challenging due to the fact that CIALCA's work was covering a very big area in addition to tackling policy related matters;• building on existing knowledge-learning from farmers: enormous amounts of knowledge already exist within communities. Many of the technological innovations used by CIALCA were based on successful smallholder experiences elsewhere in the East African Highlands and were not necessarily developed from \"scratch.\" Building on this knowledge gave better and quicker place owned results. For example, the coffee-banana system that was studied widely in the CIALCA region was first and foremost picked from practicing farmers especially in Uganda where they provide cash and food security; • multiple level engagements/platforms: platforms engaged at different levels allowed multiple-level exchange of knowledge and expression of needs.From the villages, to field sites, to action sites and to regional (country to country) exchanges. This multi-level organization facilitated site specific as well as between-sites cross-learning. This allowed, for example, policy makers to hear from the farmers in a very organized and effective way that fostered changes. Regional exchange of information was also easy and acceptable as there was recognition of the region as a single block/platform. Information exchange across countries fostered quick and trusted awareness creation. The research generated in one area/country only required validation in the other countries and this saved a lot of time; • capacity development: training of different partners, both formally and informally, did not only improve opportunities for these platforms to handle issues by themselves but also created an opportunity for CIALCA approaches and opportunities to continue in the future in different ways. Capacity building of stakeholders improved the quality of engagement of the stakeholders. For example, it empowered farmers to pose questions to policy makers as long as they knew that they had back-up information.Several graduates have been promoted to senior positions within the Rwanda and Burundi national research systems, attesting to a significant return on investment of research leadership; • management and operational flexibility: the differences between and within countries were too wide to have a \"one size fits all\" approach. Flexibility in different countries and at different levels allowed a more efficient and cost-effective way to work across countries/levels. Having the flexible donor that walked the journey with CIALCA allowed engagement and imple mentation to always suit the needs and opportunities within each area without necessarily following the blue print. This was a great incentive for CIALCA's systems work. This was particularly useful as we worked with the multi-stakeholders since the process was in many cases determining the direction.While progress was made on a number of fronts, the consortium agreed that there were areas that called for improvement. One of those areas identified was that improvement could be made by taking a more holistic approach to its research for development processes: integrate livestock, gender and business planning. The systems learning and policy engagement could also be strengthened further to deal with issues such as land tenure that require much wider social-political engagements that consider factors and approaches beyond land conservation trials.One question to openly pursue as CIALCA \"platforms\" move into a formal setting within the CGIAR research program Humidtropics, is how far do we necessarily institutionalize platforms across the region but still allow an organic and adaptive style of operation and management that encourages place-based innovations to freely emerge.","tokenCount":"4080"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87f62c3498a4a7856f4aee6921a84200","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28425a17-53df-4ecd-9987-bc89d19839ee/retrieve","id":"558020322"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94c3246c-6833-4f8d-a76f-fac319c5d424","pagecount":"24","content":"Potential of agricultural technologies and innovations to overcome humanitarian challenges cause by climate change in West Africa. AICCRA Report. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA)iii The 14th edition of the biannual National Forum for Scientific and Technological Innovations (FRSIT 2023) organized by the Government of Burkina-Faso focused on ''Humanitarian Challenges in Africa: Contribution of scientific research and innovation for sustainable solutions''. The report documents the achievements and lessons learnt from CORAF's participation in FRSIT 2023. It also presents an analysis of how selected technologies and innovations generated by CORAF members that have the potential to prevent or overcome humanitarian challenges cause by climate change in West-Africa using the improved ALNAP's framework for evaluating humanitarian innovations. Two main activities were organized during the FRSIT: (i) Exhibition of technologies and innovations developed by the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) of CORAF and (ii) a Side-Event on ''Potential of Technologies and Innovations generated by CORAF to meet climate change challenges, and strategies for making them available to users''. Over 145 persons visited CORAF's stand with more than 50% willing to purchase some of the exposed technologies and innovations. On the other hand, more than 150 persons participated into the side-event.Ten technologies or innovations were presented, from which five were selected by the participants: (i) Improved FBT tomato varieties, (ii) Orange colored-fleshed sweet potato, (iii) Feed production processes based on mango residues, (iv) Cotton Particleboard and (v) Improved fish cages. All the technologies and innovations recorded a potential for preventing or overcoming more than 70%, with orange-colored fleshed sweet potato being the prominent technology, followed by improved cage fish and improved FBT tomato variety and finally the two remaining cotton particle-board and feed production processes based on mango residues. More than 93% of the participants showed their willingness to acquire at least one of these technologies for their activities.A humanitarian challenge is a critical situation in which living conditions and basic needs of people are rapidly deteriorating, threatening their survival. Humanitarian crises can be triggered by armed conflict, natural disasters, pandemics, or extreme poverty. They have multifactorial causes and require in-depth analysis and understanding for effective actions. Humanitarian crises have devastating repercussions on the affected populations, directly affecting the lives of millions of people, with impacts on their health, safety, and survival.During the last decade, the West African region registered several crises, with many that remained unsolved and thus, resulted to humanitarian crises. This situation seems not to be under control any soon due to the persistent socio-political context being registered in the region. Moreover, the expansion of terrorism activities (now from Sahel to coastal sub-region) give no hopes on establishing a peaceful condition to allow smallholder farmers and agricultural systems in general to continue feeding people.Humanitarian crises are triggered by protracted conflicts (armed or unarmed, ethno-socio-cultural) caused by unresolved or partially resolved socio-political situations, extreme poverty and famine, recurrent pandemics, and epidemics (Ebola,Lassa,etc.), ongoing crises in already highly vulnerable refugee camps, climate change, etc. As results, challenges caused by these humanitarian crises include security, health, food, nutrition, and education.Climate change as a global phenomenon affecting living beings, including mankind and their ecosystems, is creating an unprecedented crisis. Indeed, extreme weather events, heat stress, declining air quality, changes in water quality and quantity, declining food security and safety, and changes in vector distribution and ecology are major threats to human (Romanello et al., 2021). The connection between climate change and conflicts leading to humanitarian crises is well established in the literature (Martin et al., 2014;Marzi, 2021;Agrawala et al., 2001;Läderach et al., 2021;Masood et al., 2022). The main challenges caused by climate change as a major humanitarian crise can be seen from different perspectives: (i) food and nutrition security, (ii) natural resource management: conflicts between farmers and herders, and (iii) migration.Humanitarian crises are usually managed by supporting vulnerable and affected people. Unfortunately, climate change represents one of the key phenomena that has challenged this traditional humanitarian aid model, in that it is changing the nature and severity of humanitarian emergencies. Hence, it is obvious that climate change cannot be adequately managed using the traditional humanitarian aids, but by tackling the root-cause of the problem.Over the past year, many coups d'état have taken place in Mali, Chad, Sudan, Burkina Faso, and Guinea, with some other failed attempts in the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, and Guinea-Bissau. Moreover, violent extremism has also spread due to (i) the political and economic marginalization of certain communities, (ii) the difficulties of democratic transition and the inability of governments to modernize their defense and security sectors mainly at local and country boundaries levels. Urgent and effective actions are needed to overcome these challenges, first in two main sectors: (i) security: overcoming violent extremisms and establishing peace in the affected places to (ii) ensure resumption and/or continuous sustainable foods production in face of climate change in those regions. The transitional Government of Burkina-Faso considers these two points as top priorities in their agenda. Hence, in search of effectivesolutions, the government has turned to research and development and considered this as a hinge in the processus of recovering their territories and continues feeding their people.Every two years the Government of Burkina Faso through its Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and Innovation and the Ministry of Industrial Development, Trade, Crafts and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, organized the National Forum for Scientific and Technological Innovations (FRSIT). The 14th edition (2023) of FRSIT focused on ''Humanitarian Challenges in Africa: Contribution of scientific research and innovation for sustainable solutions''. CORAF provided technical and financial supports during this forum trough the AICCRA and TarsPro projects. Two main activities were organized by CORAF during this forum: (i) Exhibition of technologies and innovations developed by the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) of CORAF and (ii) a Side-Event on ''Potential of Technologies and Innovations generated by CORAF to meet climate change challenges, and strategies for making them available to users''. This report presents the achievements of CORAF during FRSIT and analyses the potential of technologies and innovations presented by the NARS and Centers of Specialization during the event to overcome humanitarian challenges cause by climate change in West-Africa.The overall methodology (figure 1) used for this report comprises three main sessions: (i) exhibition of technologies and innovations during the FRSIT, (ii) organization of a side-event and (iii) analysis of the potential of these technologies and innovations to overcome humanitarian crises cause by climate change.The report describes the two main activities (exhibition and side-event implemented by CORAF during FRSIT) by explaining how they were conducted. Critical observation and discourses analysis methods were used for collecting information. Details elements of methodology are given in sessions below.)• Exhibition: A stand was prepared and managed every day of FRSIT by exposing projects, technologies and innovations developed by CORAF's network of NARS. Exposed elements were explained to each visitor. At the end of the visit, visitors were registered in a recording book as proof of their visit and to exchange contacts for either technologies purchasing or future collaboration. Resources. Discourses analysis was used to collect major information from the speeches of these panelists as well as from the audience to which opportunity was given to share their views and thoughts on the topic. • Analyses of the potential of agricultural technologies and innovations to overcome humanitarian crises cause by climate change: during the side-event, a survey was conducted to screen and prioritize technologies and innovations. Participants (over 100 individual interviews) were to give their overall impressions about the side-event and identified the five most important technologies and innovations (from the 10 presented), that they think it can be used to overcome climate change challenges, and later their willingness to purchase these technologies for their activities. A total of 104 participants were then interviewed. Our focus here remains to contribute to the overall discussion of the FRSIT 2023 topic ''Humanitarian Challenges in Africa: Contribution of scientific research and innovation for sustainable solutions''. Therefore, the five most selected technologies and innovations by the participants were screened against criteria used to evaluate humanitarian actions.Figure 1: Overall methodological framework Evaluation of humanitarian action (EHA) is a systematic and impartial examination of humanitarian actions intended to draw lessons to improve policy and practices to enhance accountability (ALNAP, 2006). EHA continues attracting donors, funding agencies, decision makers, researchers and technicians' commitment and attention (Darcy, 2003;Lawday et al., 2016;Abdelmagid et al., 2019) However, it has become now more efficient to think ahead and intervene based on forecasts and predictions before crises and disasters arise. Indeed, Anticipatory Action (AA) is an innovative approach to humanitarian action trough which risks and threats are analyzed and addressed before an imminent crise, or disaster arises and causes damage to people. Hence, the importance for analyzing the potential of the selected technologies and innovations for (i) anticipating on any humanitarian crises that may arise due to climate change and (ii) addressing impacts of humanitarian crises cause by climate change. One of the most commonly framework (including criteria) used for evaluating humanitarian actions is the Guidance for Evaluation of Humanitarian Assistance in Complex Emergencies, developed in 1999 by the OECD's Development Assistance Committee (DAC) (Development Assistance Committee 1999). However, in 2006, ALNAP proposed a framework for interpreting the OECD-DAC criteria for better implementation (ALNAP 2006). Ten years later, Buchanan-Smith et al. ( 2016) updated these guidelines. In this study, we applied the improved version of the ALNAP' guidelines proposed by Obrecht (2017) for evaluating humanitarian innovation. Here, it must be clarified that the selected technologies and innovations (by the participants) are considered as ''innovation''. As defined by Obrecht (2017) in her paper discussing on the ALNAP' guidelines, the term ''innovation'' refers to a variety of practices emanating from a process and leading to a product. Therefore, humanitarian innovation can be a prototype of a product, process, position, or paradigm (Obrecht 2017). In this study, we only focused on products (technologies and innovations selected by the participants) as humanitarian innovation, and how they can be used to overcome humanitarian crises cause by climate change.Criteria used for the analysis are therefore adapted from those suggested by (Obrecht 2017) for a product/output (not the process) and presented in table 1.Table 1: Criteria for evaluating the potential of the technologies and practices Criteria Definition Brief explanation and questions to answerTaking precaution to minimize the potential harm caused to end-users and primary beneficiaries.Were or would pilot end-users or immediate contacts be harmed by the innovation?The extent to which the selected technology/innovation responds to a recognized problem or meets end-user needs and priorities.Here, problems, needs or priorities are clearly related to climate change.- -From users = 2, from needs assessment = 1 Only from researcher = 0The rate at which inputs to the technology/innovation are converted into valued outputs and outcomes -How is the input/output (or outcome) ratio of the technology/innovation compared to a current practices or approach?-At which scale the technology/innovation is planned to be used, or is being used? -Higher = 2, equal = 1, lower = 0  To facilitate the analysis, response scale was uniformed throughout all the criteria with ''fully accepted response'' in green color and equals to 2 marks; ''partially accepted'' in yellow color and equals to 1 mark; and finally, ''not accepted'' response in red color and equals to zero.FRSIT has become a forum of great interest among national and international research institutions, innovators, and inventors, as well as technical and financial partners. It provides a suitable framework for reflection and discussion on major socio-economic development issues and opportunities, between research, invention/innovation, private/public sector and potential users of technologies and innovations. Thus, FRSIT creates a situation where successful solutions, ideas, technologies, and innovations are brought to the attention of potential users. FRSIT aims to promote convincing results from research as sustainable solutions to address challenges in our society in Burkina Faso and the West African subregion. Ingredients of FRSIT are usually (i) technical and scientific sessions, (ii) exhibition of technologies and innovations, (iii) conferences and panels discussion, (iv) B to B meetings, (v) Incubation camp -Hackathon, (vi) short training workshops and (vii) awards ceremony. For this edition, four panels of discussion were organized: (i) the inaugural conference, the ministerial panel, the AATF and CORAF sideevents. Highlights of the three first panels are presented in this section, while the CORAF's section is presented in sections below.The purpose of this inaugural session was to explain and initiate first discussions to clarify the central topic of FRSIT 2023 to participants. Two communications were presented, first by Prof. Alkassoum MAIGA and second by Dr Emmanuel NANEMA. These communications were followed by discussions and contributions from all the participants. Some of the solutions and recommendations made during the inaugural conference were:-Investing in crisis preparedness, including training and local capacity building, can reduce the impact of disasters and improve community resilience. -Beyond the immediate response, putting in place sustainable solutions that promote economic recovery, education and access to healthcare is essential to rebuilding affected communities.-The use of technology, such as drones for aids delivery or artificial intelligence for data collection and analysis, can improve the effectiveness and efficiency of humanitarian operations.-Promote the integration of ICT in education (from basics level), build the capacity of teacherresearchers, trainers and technical staff in new approaches and innovations, and constructing of new solutions, and innovative digital educational content, create secure technological platforms for training and research, deliver innovative training and research in the fields of health, agriculture, and the value chain. -Improve collaboration and sharing of information between humanitarian organizations, governments and stakeholders is essential to avoid duplication and ensure an effective response to crises.-Involving local communities in the planning and implementation of humanitarian interventions enhances the relevance and effectiveness of efforts.This panel focused on \"Financing research and innovation in a context of security and humanitarian crisis\"and stands as opportunity to revisit funding mechanisms for research and development in West Africa since the 1st edition of FRSIT in 1995 till now. Indeed, research funding has been always at the heart of discussions, mainly because recommendations may not be satisfactorily implemented, while stakeholders and policy makers all agree on the importance of research for sustainable development because it provides solutions and technologies. However, the question remains: why are results from research are little known in both the private and public sectors? Why are financial resources provided to research are limited? Some indicators justifying these questions in Burkina Faso and beyond are:-Low allocation of financial resources: Burkina Faso is committed to allocate 1% of its national budget to research. In practice, it is less than 1%; -Research environment: Lack of appropriate research infrastructures and equipment; -Low researcher/population ratio: Less than 100 researchers per million inhabitants.Discussions reveled that one of the reasons justifying this situation may be the fact that many countries in the Sahel region are in a context of war against terrorists trying to extend their territories and take over government. Hence, in addition to all the other known causes of lack of fundings for research in West-Africa, funding security has become a priority for many countries. For example, in Burkina-Faso, around 15-20% of the national budget is spent on security. Some of the solutions and recommendations made are:-Improving strategies for mobilizing more funds from private sector, -Training researchers on external (international) financial resources mobilization, -Organization of hackathons and incubations for those with non-matured projects and/or prototypes without license or patent, -Supporting the organization of intellectual property rights days for researchers and inventors, -Formalizing research programs for greater synergy.The African Agricultural Technology Foundation organized a side-event on the theme ''The role of modern biotechnologies in transforming African agriculture in a context of climate change: AATF's contributions and achievements''. Two communications were presented, first by Dr Moussa SWAVADOGO on ''sharing the vision of African Union on Technological Innovations and ongoing initiatives'', and second by Dr Oumar TRAORE on ''application of modern biotechnologies in the agro-sylvo-pastoral sector: current situation and regulations''. These communications were followed by discussions and contributions from all the participants. Some of the solutions and recommendations made to improve the use of biotechnologies in agriculture were:-Advocate for the return of BT cotton in Burkina Faso and beyond, given the many advantages it offers, while ensuring that the entire process is under control; -Investigate the possibility and feasibility for introducing the Kenyan maize varieties recognized for their resistance to drought, given the increasingly drastic climatic hazards; -Create a fund for biotechnology research and food security (with a percentage levy on exported products) to boost research activities; -Take appropriate measures to counter the misleading and often unfounded information circulating on social media, which undermines the efforts of researchers on opportunities provided by biotechnology.During FRSIT 2023 a stand was prepared and managed by CORAF to show case of efforts and solutions proposed by CORAF and partners (figure 2). Ongoing projects being implemented by CORAF, and its partners were exposed using printed short pamphlet describing (i) the Project Development Objective (PDO), (ii) the key achievements so far and expected results, (iii) the ongoing activities as well as the implementing partners. Technology and innovation cards were also used and shared to each visitor. Technology/innovation card is a sort of visiting card giving vital information about the technology/innovation and important links where details others information can be found. About 145 persons visited CORAF's stand with more than 50% of them willing to purchase some of the exposed technologies and innovations for their business. More than 150 persons participated to the side-event, with about 105 who accepted to take part of our survey. This latest group came from six different countries of West-Africa: Burkina Faso, Benin, Chad, Mali, Niger, Togo (figure 3). Majority of the participants (88%) came from Burkina-Faso because the event was held in the country. Among the participants, 44% were women while 55% were men. Majority of the participants were student from technical universities or technical high schools (73%), followed by researchers/inventors (figure 4). The purpose for initiating this discussion around the topic ''Potential of CORAF' technologies and innovations to meet the challenges of climate change and strategies for making them available to users'' was (i) to share mechanisms and efforts from CORAF and partners for disseminating agricultural technologies and innovations, (ii) to find new solutions and ideas for improving the scaling-up mechanisms in the context of humanitarian crises. To arrive at these objectives, four panelists were invited for the discussion:-Dr Francois LOMPO, Director of Research, former Minister of Agriculture of Burkina Faso, -Mr Marc GANSONRE, representative of farmers organizations at the Transitional National Assembly of Burkina Faso, -Mr Inoussa OUEDRAOGO, agricultural entrepreneur, President of the Union national des sociétés coopératives des producteurs semenciers du Burkina Faso, -Dr. Hamidou TAMBOURA, Director of Research, Member of ANSAL/BF, former Minister of Animal Resources.The discussion was moderated by Dr Kyky Komla GANYO and reporting was done by Dr. G. Esaie KPADONOU, both from AICCRA/CORAF.The first question to the panelists was ''what are the major issues and challenges involved in making technologies accessible to users?'' After discussion, conclusion was drawn in line with the main challenge of security and democracies that require us to produce more to feed the growing population. This role, research, and development must continue playing it, and even speed-up the processes for generating technologies and innovations to meet this challenge. After that, innovation platforms, as well as the national agricultural advisory and extension system must take over by providing suitable training and supports to farmers who in turn will produce more to ensure food security in our region. A follow-up question was addressed to the panelists as follow: ''beside security and democracy challenges, what other issues need to be considered?''. Discussions on this question concluded that one of the major factors that must be considered is the massive displacement of people and animals, which puts a strain on labor capital. Additionally, most agri-inputs markets have been de-structured, contributing to the unavailability of these important products, hence unbalancing of prices. Therefore, innovations and technologies development need to also focus on adaptation of changing economy.To deepen the discussion, second question addressed to the panelists was: ''what are the problems associated with technology adoption by farmers?''. Panelists acknowledge efforts made by research to develop technologies and innovations. However, they emphasized on the fact that most of these technologies are not accessible to farmers, and that it is great time to move from discourses to take more actions on making technologies available to farmers. The main cause of this situation is the fact that many of these technologies are not fully adapted to farmer's needs. Types of agricultural systems in sub-Sahara Africa must be considered: (i) familial farming for subsistence and (ii) the emerging agro-businessmen. Consequently, development of technologies and innovations must consider these types of farming systems. Besides, technologies made available based on local specificities (weather, pedology, etc.), sociocultural context and be accessible both technically and economically. Another challenge is the emergence of new diseases and pests for which specific solutions must be found.Question related to the successful dissemination of technologies and innovations was: ''do regulations allow technologies to be disseminated?''. As response, panelists acknowledge the existing of laws and regulation n agricultural sector in general and food systems. However, there is a clear problem of coherence between them and mainly about their adoption. Panelists insisted on the fact that there is often a lack of willingness for the implementation of certain laws, while others lack accompanying measures treating the successful initiation and implementation of policies. The hope remains in the scaling and use of adequate technologies and innovations to avoid or overcome humanitarian crises.After the opening ceremony of the side-event, the 10 technologies and innovations were presented: one from ITRA, four from center of fruits and vegetables and five from center of aquaculture (figure 5).Characteristics and performances of these technologies and innovations are presented in table 1.    These technologies and innovations were screened by participants during the survey. From the survey, the five most selected technologies were: (i) Improved FBT tomato varieties, (ii) Orange colored-fleshed sweet potato, (iii) Feed production processes based on mango residues, (iv) Cotton Particle-board and (v) Improved fish cages (table 3). Note: cells in green color represented the final selected technologies/innovations and cells in blue color represent technologies ranked first.Humanitarian crises can threat and cause damages to four main sectors security-peace, health, foodnutrition, education, and earth system threats. Similarly, climate change can also affect these sectors, with consequences leading to unprecedented humanitarian problems when it is partially or not solved. Prevention seems to be the ultimate efficient response in such situation. The five selected technologies and innovations and presented in table 4 have the potential at different levels to prevent and overcome humanitarian crises related to climate change. The analysis revealed that all the five technologies have the potential for overcoming or prevent humanitarian crisis related to climate change (table 4). They all recorded a potential more than 70%, with orange-colored fleshed sweet potato being the prominent technology, followed by improved cage fish and improved FBT tomato variety and finally the two remaining cotton particle-board and feed production processes based on mango residues (figure 6). These results corroborate with the responses to the question asked to participants weather they are willing to purchase these technologies to improving their ongoing and/or future business. More than 93% of the participants showed their willingness to acquire at least one of these technologies in their activities.  Initial investment in affording the machine green = 2 marks; yellow = 1 marks and red = 0 Humanitarian challenges cause by climate change in agricultural sector can be prevented or overcome using technologies and innovations. The 14th edition of FRSIT demonstrated that research is still the corner stone even in humanitarian or war conditions. CORAF and its partners proposed a range of technologies and innovations from its NARS that were presented in form of exhibition in a stand during the FRSIT. Ten technologies and innovations were presented during a side-event organized by CORAF and its partners. Among these, the five most selected were: (i) Improved FBT tomato varieties, (ii) Orange colored-fleshed sweet potato, (iii) Feed production processes based on mango residues, (iv) Cotton Particle-board and (v) Improved fish cages. These technologies and innovations were analyzed with the lens of ALNAP improved criteria for evaluating humanitarian innovations. This analysis showed that all the five technologies recorded a potential for preventing or overcoming more than 70%, with orange-CONCLUSION colored fleshed sweet potato being the prominent technology, followed by improved cage fish and improved FBT tomato variety. More than 93% of the participants showed their willingness to acquire at least one of these technologies for their activities.","tokenCount":"4087"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"db5fcb7e532a0aed36c6de7effd9b863","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddef607f-2399-43be-a6a6-7ffa20c7fe31/retrieve","id":"29109061"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5571fb27-4aed-439d-945b-75521a34ef8f","pagecount":"5","content":"About 870 million men, women, and children around the world face chronic hunger, and more than 20% of the global population lives in extreme poverty. The need to strengthen the fight against hunger and poverty, especially in the tropics, is more urgent than ever, as climate change, food price volatility, environmental degradation, weak policies and markets, and emerging pests and diseases undermine the livelihoods of the poor.Since its founding in 1967, CIAT has been involved in nearly every aspect of tropical agriculture: the crop varieties that farmers grow, the production systems they manage, the agricultural landscapes they inhabit, the markets in which they participate and the policies that influence their options and decisions. We promote competitive and profitable food production for economic empowerment of the world's poor, while reducing agriculture's environmental footprint and preserving agrobiodiversity.Focusing on the development of cassava, common bean, and tropical forages, together with rice in Latin America, the Center plays a vital role in preserving the world's agricultural biodiversity, while helping to boost nutrition and food security, eradicate hunger, and increase poor rural people's benefits from market participation.Switzerland has been a high-profile partner of CGIAR since its founding in 1971, and a global leader in driving forward the international agenda for food security and nutrition.Switzerland's international cooperation in agricultural research for development is greatly influenced by current global trends and challenges. These include pressure on natural resources, climate change, population growth, and weak policies, markets, and institutions, all of which are making the lives of the rural poor more difficult.Global challenges call for globally coordinated solutions. That's why CGIAR and CIAT work closely with the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Switzerland's international cooperation agency within the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA). CIAT's mission is in harmony with the commitment of SDC's Global Programme Food Security to a world free of hunger and malnutrition in which smallholders contribute healthy food that is accessible to all, while increasing their incomes and safeguarding the environment.Alongside research on these major crops, CIAT works in two other key areas which cut across all tropical crops and production environments. Through soils and land restoration research, the Center intensifies sustainable crop production, while improving the ecosystems which rural communities depend upon. Decision and Policy Analysis (DAPA) research area harnesses the power of information to influence actions concerning climate change adaptation and mitigation, sustainable ecosystem management, and linking farmers to markets.The year of 2017 marks CIAT's 50th anniversary of delivering agricultural research for development. This major milestone has led us to mindfully align our research to realize our vision of a sustainable food future. Looking ahead, CIAT seeks to address both the challenges and the opportunities brought about by globalization, in order to promote equitable growth.One of these opportunities is the creation and access to data. We're developing our Big Data platform to connect smallholders with weather and value chain information to boost production and market access. Meanwhile, our Future Seeds initiative harnesses new technologies to develop a digital genebank, increasing knowledge-sharing with researchers worldwide, while also distributing improved varieties to smallholders.The Center has a proven record of delivering results that lead to high impact as well as a solid reputation for integrity, innovation, and transparency. We take pride in our strong and growing partnerships with governments like Switzerland, other research organizations, NGOs, the private sector, and colleagues in other CGIAR centers around the world to maximize our impact. We thank Switzerland for giving agricultural research high priority in its national development policy. SDC's strategic investments in CIAT over the years have contributed significantly to our mutual goals towards sustainable rural development. We look forward to strengthening our partnership and contributing to our shared aims of transforming the global food system. CIAT scientists and partners deliver new technologies, methods, and knowledge that better prepare farmers to meet current and future needs. The Center harnesses the power of science to drive transformative agricultural growth. At CIAT, we're proud of our ability to generate cost-effective, equitable solutions to poverty and food insecurity, which can be scaled up to deliver lasting impact.Our global team assesses opportunities to achieve food security and economic growth, and responds with unique approaches designed to provide farmers with improved seeds; better practices for enhancing soil fertility and land management; stronger links with agricultural markets; more effective technical assistance; and easier access to technologies, services, and information.Rising to the challenge Switzerland and CIAT are convinced that food insecurity is one of the single greatest threats to public health -and also that it is preventable. By reducing households' vulnerability to food shortages, together we are helping improve the lives of the poor. Nutritionally improved crops-developed using traditional breeding techniques-can provide other benefits as well, such as drought and heat tolerance, high yield potential, and resistance to pests and diseases. These traits are particularly important for countries of the tropics, where climate change is resulting in more erratic weather and also increasing the threat of crop pests and diseases.Climbing beans make a lot of sense in Rwanda, which is fast running out of land. Already one of the most densely populated countries in the world, Rwanda's population of around 11 million people is expected to nearly quadruple by the turn of the century. Given the country's pressing need to sustainably boost food production, the introduction and widespread adoption of improved climbing beans offer great promise as part of a broad package of measures.Beans are crucial to the Rwandan diet as a source of protein. But \"climbers\" also help protect against soil erosion, and some of the improved varieties released by the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB)-through the CIAT-coordinated, SDC-supported Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) -are disease resistant and higher in essential nutrients like iron and zinc.In just a few years, the improved varieties have become the beans of choice for many smallholders, and their high productivity has transformed beans in Rwanda from a subsistence to a cash crop. Rwanda now produces more beans than it can consume and exports the surplus. It even supplies the new varieties to scientists in other Central and East African countries for their own bean improvement programs.One of every three people in the world suffers from a deficiency of micronutrients. Adequate intake of vitamins and minerals is essential for children to grow, learn, and build healthy immune systems. If children lack these micronutrients in their diets, their growth can be stunted and they can even go blind, reducing their prospects for healthy, productive lives.Low-cost interventions that address micronutrient malnutrition are impacting the future of children, families, communities, and nations. HarvestPlus, coordinated by CIAT and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), involves a global effort to improve nutrition and public health by developing and disseminating varieties of staple crops that are rich in vitamins and minerals and are consumed by millions of poor people every day.Using a novel method to address malnutrition, HarvestPlus is boosting health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where a third of the population suffers from anemia resulting from low iron intake linked to high rates of maternal mortality and low zinc associated with stunting in children.Biofortified bean varieties, referred to locally as \"gorilla beans,\" have been bred by researchers in DRC, neighboring Rwanda, and Colombia that contain twice as much iron as regular beans and 70% more zinc, using the same methods of crop selection that farmers have been using for thousands of years.The improved beans cost as little as US$0.60 -0.80 per kg and, if stored carefully, can last for up to a year. Given their affordable price and high protein content, combined with improved levels of iron, zinc, and other essential nutrients, it's easy to see why gorilla beans have improved nutrition in the DRC.Technology is a key driving force of agricultural development. CIAT is uniquely positioned to stay ahead of new threats to global food security through a constant search for technological solutions to agricultural problems. The Center continues to strengthen South-South partnerships, ensuring that these solutions are appropriate and practical under local conditions.CIAT has a strong presence across the tropics with nearly 1,000 staff working in 53 countries across Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia. This dynamic team detects and monitors threats to nutrition and food security in the tropics, particularly among the rural poor, with the aim of delivering large development impact by tapping scientific knowledge and honing innovative ideas into first-class initiatives.Improved crop varieties, while strengthening food and nutrition security, are not enough to reduce rural poverty significantly. Inclusive economic growth is the best way to help those at the bottom of the societal pyramid lift themselves out of poverty and stay out. By building economic foundations, growing businesses, and investing in smallholder farmers, CIAT and Switzerland are helping to improve livelihoods.In Eastern Africa, a market-led approach is transforming agriculture, driving institutional change, and stimulating economic growth. At the center of this revolution are smallholder farmers' improved white pea beans for export.CIAT and its partners in Ethiopia, working through the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA), formed a coalition with all the players in Ethiopia's white pea bean industry, including farmers, research institutes, grain traders, community associations, NGOs, seed producers, and policy makers. Together, they identified the major obstacles preventing growth in the industry -including limited access to improved bean seed -and decided to take joint responsibility for developing the sector.After removing bottlenecks to seed production and distribution, PABRA began promoting good agronomic practices, such as adequate planting density and timely weeding.The partnership then began developing links between farmers and grain buyers, which helped to stabilize previously volatile prices. From there, the alliance  engaged with policy makers, who, recognizing that beans could benefit farmers, traders, and the country, listed them on the Ethiopian Commodity Exchange, guaranteeing farmers the international market price for their beans.Investments in agricultural science can have significant economic ripple effects. By looking at the bigger picture and working with partners to embed the strengthening of supply chains into the national agenda, CIAT and Switzerland are allowing Ethiopian farmers to stop worrying about how they will feed their families.By strategically engaging with private sector partners, CIAT is able to reach more farmers and consumers faster. PABRA is an exemplary model of harnessing the power of the private sector to scale up impact.At the seed production level, PABRA collaborates with 34 private seed companies to trade new and improved bean seed varieties. Dryland Seed Company in Kenya increased seed sales to 250 tons, up from just 30 tons in 2010. PABRA's private sector partners produced and disseminated 9,360 tons of improved seed to nearly 3 million households in 2012 alone.PABRA continues to grow its demand-driven relationships with the private sector for development impact in Africa.When people talk about Africa 'rising' , I don't need to be convinced: I've seen it with my own eyes in bean fields and markets across the continent. But we're reaping the rewards today for work we started nearly two decades ago -work that began with a strong commitment to science.-Dr. Robin Buruchara, PABRA DirectorOur innovative research is carried out with the highest integrity and transparency, according to an agenda that is socially and environmentally responsible. We monitor and evaluate the impacts of all our programs to bolster meaningful knowledge sharing and learning. CIAT's research and related endeavors are demand driven, harnessing creativity and incorporating environmental sustainability, gender equality, and policy and institutional considerations into our activities. CIAT ensures that donor investments lead to tangible results for the world's most vulnerable people.CIAT's work harnesses global expertise and partnerships that empower poor people to provide for their families and that shed light on new solutions to today's global challenges. In keeping with Switzerland's strategy to increase food security, stimulate sustainable economic growth, and secure the future of children and youth, CIAT is working to advance our mutual aims with longstanding partners, including the Swiss government and institutions.","tokenCount":"1977"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9c2cefdbe8e7241422f12656fd2694e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a2c2073b-d319-4f12-a43b-bbe172b44b26/retrieve","id":"1846644356"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"696c6a20-ef79-4f29-b255-6f853380ce07","pagecount":"5","content":"More than 60 livestock experts from seven Southeast Asian countries met to explore new opportunities for bringing the countries and agencies of the region together in productive joint actions to focus on the highest priorities of the livestock sector.Participants explored how the livestock sector can contribute towards the development priorities for each country and the region as a whole, and what the role of research is to address such opportunities.The workshop led to the identification of collaboration and partnership opportunities to unlock the livestock sector's potential contributions to the achievement of the UN's 17 Sustainable Development Goals.Bright spots, hotspots and emerging issues for the livestock sector were highlighted in the opening sessions of the workshop. Participants also reviewed the status of particularly promising livestock pathways to more sustainable and equitable prosperity in the region. Pork makes up 75% of the meat consumed in Vietnam. Most of it comes from small-scale farmers through traditional open markets. Ensuring its safety is a matter of growing public interest. More than 80 key stakeholders attended the launch of a new project called 'SafePORK' which is funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.A new initiative to improve food safety known as Safe Food, Fair Food (SFFF) for Cambodia project, was launched in Phnom Penh on 29 September 2017. The four-year SFFF for Cambodia project will generate evidence on the health and economic burden of food-borne diseases in animal source food value chains important to the poor and women, and it will pilot a market-based approach for improving food safety that builds on successful projects in Africa and India. The project is funded by the United States Agency for International Development under the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems.  On 22 December 2017, animal and human health experts gathered in Hanoi to discuss ways of disseminating the findings and recommendations of a 'Surveillance and earlywarning systems for climate-sensitive diseases in Vietnam and Laos', or Pestforecast project. Key tools include a set of risk maps of CSD and a web-based tool for forecasting disease incidences considering meteorological and environmental factors that influence CSD risks.A study tour from 24-30 July 2017 by nine project officers from Tata Trusts (India) provided a unique opportunity for the Tata Trusts team to interact with researchers in Vietnam and discuss ways of strengthening pig production in the two countries.A group of students from the University of Melbourne, School of Veterinary Sciences participated in a two-week internship with ILRI in Vietnam to learn about the use One Health approaches in livestock and food safety research, policy, and practice.The Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (IAS CAAS)-ILRI Beijing joint lab hosted Mostafa Rafiepour from the Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (from June to September 2017) and Qurat ul Ain Hanif, from the Environmental Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Pakistan (since September 2017 till now). Rafiepour was trained in the 'Genomic characterization of indigenous Iranian buffaloes', and Hanif has been working on a collaborative project 'Identification and characterization of genetic molecular markers in economically important traits in indigenous cattle breeds in Pakistan'. The two students are supported by the National Natural Science Foundation project on buffalo genome which is jointly led by China Agricultural University and ILRI.Following are some recent publications of ILRI East and Southeast Asia. To see the full list, please visit our webpage at www.asia.ilri.org• Rich, K.M., Dizyee, K., Huyen N.T.   • Zhao, Y.X., Yang J., Lv, F.H., Hu, X.J., Xie, X.L., Zhang, M., Li, W. R., Liu, M. J., Wang, Y.T., Li, J. Q., Liu, Y.G., Ren, Y.L., Wang, F., Hehua, E., Kantanen, J., Lenstra, J. A., Han, J.L. and Li, M.H. 2017. Genomic reconstruction of the history of native sheep reveals the peopling patterns of nomads and the expansion of early pastoralism in East Asia. Mol Biol Evol. 34(9): 2380-2395.","tokenCount":"642"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6992de51cbf24a526ae1bf98f6e07f0e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28c2efb0-d844-4b6b-86df-e063d6cee84c/retrieve","id":"1828816887"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9c52e054-601b-494c-b184-e6a5218cc0f2","pagecount":"42","content":"This chapter describes the degree of readiness and use of biofortified root, tuber, and banana (RT&B) crops: sweetpotato, cassava, banana (cooking and dessert types), and potato. Efforts to develop and utilize orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP), yellow cassava (VAC), and vitamin A banana/plantain (VAB) have been focused heavily in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where 48% of the children under 5 years of age are vitamin A-deficient. Iron-biofortified potato is still under development, and a recent study found high levels of bioavailability (28.4%) in a yellowfleshed cultivar (Fig. 17.1). To date, adapted VAB varieties have been piloted in East Africa, and OFSP and VAC have scaled to 8.5 million households. The scaling readiness framework is applied to innovation packages underlying those scaling efforts to shed light on how scaling is progressing and identify remaining bottlenecks. Women dominate RT&B production in SSA, and women and young children are most at risk of micronutrient deficiencies; hence women's access to technologies was prioritized. Lessons learned from these scaling efforts are discussed, withthe goal of accelerating the scaling readiness process for other biofortified RTB crops. Implementing gender-responsive innovation packages has been critical for reaching key nutrition and income goals. Diverse partnerships with public and private sector players and investing in advocacy for an adequate enabling environment were critical for achieving use at scale. Future scaling will depend on more nutritious sustainable food systems being at the forefront, supported by continued improvement in breeding methodologies to adapt to climate change and enhance multiple nutrient targets more quickly and to increase investment in the input and marketing infrastructure that vegetatively propagated crops require.Poor households dispense 60-70% of their total income on food (Bouis et al. 2020). Just rice, wheat, and maize provide at least 40% of global calories (FAO 2016). Roots, tubers, and bananas (RT&B) are associated with more localized supply chains than grains and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) provide more than 50% of calories in several countries (Petsakos et al. 2019).Biofortification is the innovative concept to enhance the micronutrient content of food staples as a cost-effective, sustainable way to deliver key micronutrients, especially to the poor. This can be achieved through conventional breeding, genetic engineering, or fertilization practice (Bouis et al. 2020). A highly diversified diet is the best way to get micronutrients, but cost and access frequently undermine this goal. Biofortification, industrial food fortification, and nutrient supplementation programs are complementary strategies used to target those most at risk of micronutrient deficiencies. Whereas capsule supplementation and premix used for fortification depend on importation and passive reception by target populations, biofortified crops are produced within a country. Scaling of biofortified crops depends on proactive uptake of new varieties by producers and consumers and the generation of additional livelihood opportunities. An estimated 1.5-2 billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies or \"hidden hunger\" (FAO et al. 2018). Iron, zinc, vitamin A, and iodine are the most widespread and severe deficiencies. Young children and women of reproductive age are most vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies because they have greater micronutrient needs due to rapid growth and/or reproductive functions (Bailey et al. 2015). The World Bank estimated that macro-and micronutrient deficiencies underpin a 2-3% loss in annual global economic productivity (World Bank 2006). As sources of key macro-and micronutrients, biofortified staples are clear remedies to these challenges. In 2008, the Copenhagen Consensus Center ranked biofortification fifth among cost-effective solutions for global world problems (Meenakshi 2008).Work on biofortification began in the 1990s, led by researchers in the CGIAR international agricultural centers (Bouis and Saltzman 2017;Low et al. 2017). Highlights during the past two decades include:• From 2000 to 2009, significant progress was made in breeding and efficacy studies, convincingly demonstrating that biofortified crops could impact human health cost-effectively. • In 2010, efforts began to intensify scaling of released biofortified varieties.• By the end of 2019, 340 varieties of 12 biofortified crops had been released in 40 lower-and middle-income countries (LMICs). • HarvestPlus-led delivery efforts for iron beans, orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP), vitamin A orange maize, zinc rice, zinc wheat, and iron pearl millet successfully reached 8.5 million farming households, while 6.8 million farming households received OFSP through partners participating in the Sweetpotato Profit and Health Initiative (SPHI) (Fig. 17.2), co-led by the International Potato Center (CIP) and the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (Bouis et al. 2020). • By 2019, 1.7 million Nigerians were growing vitamin A cassava varieties in 26 states (Foley et al. 2021). • In addition, other nongovernmental and governmental bodies were distributing biofortified crops whose reach was not captured by monitoring organizations.Released varieties to date have all been conventionally bred, building on naturally occurring variations in target micronutrients in these staples. Recognition of multi-sectoral biofortification efforts included the 2016 World Food Prize to Howarth Bouis, the Director of HarvestPlus, and CIP scientists Maria Andrade, Robert Mwanga, and Jan Low for their OFSP work.With respect to RT&B, breeding has focused on sweetpotato, cassava, potato, and banana. Increasing levels of provitamin A carotenoids, which the body converts into vitamin A, has been the priority for sweetpotato, cassava, and banana, while enhancing iron and zinc content has been the focus for potato. Since 2014, a major breeding effort is underway to increase iron content in OFSP varieties. Although a critical staple in West Africa, yam (Dioscorea spp.) lacked sufficient variation in any of these three micronutrients to warrant any conventional breeding investment.The objective of this chapter is to reflect critically on where biofortified RT&B crops are concerning their development and utilization at scale. First, we will examine progress made in meeting breeding targets and review expected impacts based on ex ante studies. Second, we will present and apply the scaling readiness approach (Sartas et al. 2020) to the most advanced of RT&B crops in use: orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP), yellow-fleshed vitamin A cassava (VAC), and vitamin A banana (VAB), and highlight lessons learned through a gender lens because RT&B crops are widely grown by women in SSA, but women often face constraints in benefitting from new technologies. We expect these lessons to facilitate the nascent scaling efforts of VAB and iron-biofortified potato (IP). Finally, we discuss the ways forward in light of global realities driven by climate change, the current state of the food system, and advances in breeding methods.During the concept development of biofortification, target levels were set by a multidisciplinary working group in 2005 with the intention of achieving a measurable impact on health for children and women of childbearing age (Hotz and McClafferty 2007). Target levels combine a context-specific micronutrient baseline level measured in commercial crops, with target increments to be added to achieve a required contribution to the estimated average requirement (EAR) from the biofortified crop. Target increments are adjusted for per capita intake, retention (losses during processing, storage, and cooking), and bioavailability (Bouis et al. 2020). Hence, target increments can be achieved by breeding for higher micronutrient concentration, increasing bioavailability and increasing retention. In addition to exploiting genotypic differences in retention in breeding, food technology has a significant role in increasing provitamin A retention. A negative effect of climate change on minerals and protein may require gradually increasing target increments for minerals in particular.Cumulatively, more than 175 biofortified varieties of four RT&B crops have been released in more than 30 countries with a heavy emphasis on SSA (Bouis et al. 2020). Candidate biofortified varieties across the RT&B crops are being evaluated for release in an additional 20 countries (Table 17.1).To date, OFSP is the biofortified RTB most in use, followed by VAC. VAB is still at the pilot stage and IP under development.In OFSP the intensity of the orange color reflects the amount of beta-carotene present, and 80% of the carotenoids present are beta-carotene (Fig. 17.1). Average beta-carotene values among OFSP clones at CIP-Peru was 144 μg/g dwb, with a maximum value of 1220 μg/g dwb, meaning many clones that exceeded beta-carotene target levels were available to draw from. The breeding challenge has been to combine the beta-carotene trait with other traits relevant for adoption by adult farmers, namely, high dry matter and high starch contents, resistance to viruses, and, where needed, tolerance to drought. The development and deployment of the accelerated breeding scheme, implemented by CIP and 14 national programs, enabled the breeding cycle to be reduced from 8-10 to 4-5 years (Andrade et al. 2017). Between 2009 and 2020, 62 OFSP varieties bred in Africa were released.Starting in 2014, CIP began breeding for a \"doubly biofortified sweetpotato\" with the goal of having high-iron, high-beta-carotene varieties. The positive genetic association between iron, zinc, and beta-carotene supports this effort, but genetic variation in iron and zinc content within the germplasm is much less available, requiring more cycles of breeding to reach target levels. A recent study found that bioavailability of Fe in OFSP was 8.1% in women with low Fe status and just 4.0% in women with adequate Fe status (Jongstra et al. 2020). Additional breeding cycles will be required to reach target levels for Fe biofortification.The nutritional quality of cassava roots is low as roots contain mainly carbohydrates and trace elements of other micronutrients (Ceballos et al. 2017). Screening of germplasm accessions (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) found ranges of 0-19 ppm (fwb) provitamin A in roots of existing cassava varieties but good heritability of carotenoid content in roots, which encouraged breeders to proceed with biofortification (Ilona et al. 2017). Around 62% of the total carotenoids on average were all-trans beta-carotene, the most bioaccessible form of provitamin A (Ceballos et al. 2017). Two CGIAR centers collaborate in the VAC breeding effort: CIAT to generate high provitamin A sources via rapid cycling in pre-breeding and to provide in vitro clones and seed populations to the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) for use in their breeding programs targeting African countries. As with OFSP, the goal is to have high-yielding varieties with high dry matter and  (1) for cassava (fresh weight to cassava meal equivalent), intake levels, 948 g/day for women; 348 g/day for children 4-6 years old; bioavailability, 20%; (2) for OFSP vitamin A, intake levels, 167 g/day for women; 101 g/day for children 4-6 years old; bioavailability, 8%;(3) for Fe, intake levels for young children, 150 g/day b Target reset in 2020 by CIP breeders drawing on Jongstra et al. (2020) high-beta-carotene content. In VAC, carotenoid concentrations are much higher in the leaves than in roots, while the opposite is true for OFSP.Three first-wave VAC with 6-8 ppm provitamin A were released in 2011. Three second-wave varieties with up to 11 ppm were released in 2014. More than 50 VAC varieties are now under evaluation in several countries to identify those that are agronomically competitive for third-wave release (Fig. 17.1). The top five leads have more than 15 ppm, the target increment (Ilona et al. 2017).Potato biofortification efforts at CIP for the last 17 years have focused on iron and zinc. Breeding diploids can accelerate genetic gain. Evaluation of three cycles of recurrent selection from crosses at the diploid level revealed high heritability (0.81 for both iron and zinc), and genetic gains above 29% for iron and 26% for zinc have been demonstrated (Amoros et al. 2020). However, diploids expressed lower yield compared to local varieties in Africa (Rwanda and Ethiopia) and Asia (Nepal, Bhutan, and India). These results prompted a new series of trials in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Rwanda in 2019/2020 with 50 biofortified tetraploid clones with consumer-preferred skin and flesh colors that are also late blight-and virusresistant. Promising results from multilocation trials indicate the feasibility of a release of tetraploid potatoes in East Africa by 2022 (Fig. 17.3). Results from a human iron bioavailability study (Jongstra et al. 2020) reveal remarkably high iron absorption from yellow-fleshed potatoes (28.4%) in women from the Peruvian Andes, highlighting the potential of biofortified potatoes to contribute to increased iron intakes. Lower iron bioavailability in the purple-fleshed potato (13%) is attributed to the high levels of phenolics, important inhibitors of iron absorption (Fig. 17.1). Given typical consumption levels of 500 g daily of potato by women in highland areas of Peru, the yellow-fleshed or purple-fleshed potato studied cover about 33% of the daily absorbed iron requirement for women of reproductive age. The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of zinc has not yet been determined, but zinc levels increase as iron is selected for.Vitamin A banana Conventional breeding of banana (Musa spp.) is difficult and expensive due to the long crop cycle as most commercial varieties are sterile triploids and have high cross incompatibility among fertile groups (Amah et al. 2019). Values of four boiled local cultivars in DR Congo provided vitamin A levels of 22.3-173 retinol activity equivalent (RAE) μg/100 g fwb (Ekesa et al. 2012a). Hence, the 14-year effort (2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019) in four East and Central African countries (Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, DR Congo) has focused on selecting promising, more carotenoid-rich cultivars from 400 pre-screened cultivars from other countries (Fig. 17.1). About half of their carotenoid content is beta-carotene (retinol equivalence of 12:1) and the other half alpha-carotenoids (retinol equivalence of 24:1). As of March 2020, seven cultivars, from Ghana, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Hawaii, and Indonesia have demonstrated potential to perform well within East and Central Africa (Fongar et al. 2020) (Fig. 17.4). Sensory testing with local farmers revealed that 5 of the 15 tested cultivars have acceptable taste (Ekesa et al. 2017). Hence, pilot dissemination efforts have focused on six of the cultivars (Apantu, Bira, Lahi, Pelipita, Muracho, and Pisang Papan) in Burundi and DR Congo. By the end of 2019, nearly 13,000 farmers had been reached, of whom 61% were women (Fongar et al. 2020).Given the challenges in conventional breeding, a breeding effort started in 2007 is using genetic modification techniques to biofortify cooking bananas. Implemented by Queensland University of Technology in Australia and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of Uganda, the Banana21 project has incorporated a gene effective at increasing provitamin A content obtained from high provitamin A carotenoid Fei banana \"Asupina\" (from Papua New Guinea) into M9 hybrid and East African Highland bananas (Amah et al. 2019). Activities include laboratory work and field trials in Uganda and Australia and a nutrition study in the USA. These bananas may be ready for use in 2021. IITA has also recently incorporated high provitamin A carotenoid diploids from Papua New Guinea into their plantain breeding program (Amah et al. 2019).For RT&B, dominant forms of consumption are driven by the perishability of the crop postharvest. Both sweetpotato and cassava can be \"stored\" in ground for considerable periods of time and harvested piecemeal. In contrast, potato tubers need to be harvested when they reach maturity. Banana (including East African highland bananas) plantains and dessert bananas are often harvested and used while green but also used when partially or fully ripened. In eight VAB cultivars, mean total provitamin A carotenoids increased substantially from 560-4680 mg/100 g fwb in unripe fruit to 1680-10,630 mg/100 g fwb in ripe fruit (Ekesa et al. 2015). Once harvested, cassava roots have very limited shelf life and must be processed into a dried, storable form (Fig. 17.5). Fresh sweetpotato roots, without curing, can last 1-3 weeks, and the dominant form of consumption is boiled or steamed roots, with roasted and fried roots consumed to a lesser extent. Non-diseased potato tubers can store for months under dark and cool conditions; their dominant form of consumption in SSA is also boiled or steamed, with fried consumption concentrated in In the human intestine, carotenoids like beta-carotene and alpha-carotene are cleaved to retinol (vitamin A). Beta-carotene has two times higher vitamin A activity (12:1 retinol conversion) than other carotenoids (24:1) (Ishiguro 2019). Releasing nutrients from the food matrix specific to each crop during digestion makes them bioaccessible. Then a person's health status and presence of other substances, like fat, determines the amount of nutrient actually absorbed by the intestines, reflecting the product's bioavailability.Exposure to light, air, and heat can all contribute to the degradation of provitamin A carotenoids with levels varying considerably by genotype. De Moura et al. (2015) reported that for VAC and OFSP, boiling and steaming had much higher retention rates of vitamin A (80-98%) compared to roasting or baking (30-70%) and frying (18-54%). A significant concern for VAC in West Africa is that most cassava is consumed as gari, a fermented granular flour, pressed and roasted into granulescalled fufu -fermented roots that are boiled or steamed and then pounded (Fig. 17.6). While apparent retention in fufu range from 44 to over 100%, gari had the lowest levels of retention (10-30%). Taleon et al. (2018) determined that true total carotenoid in fufu was only 0.8-3.1%. Reaching the biofortification vitamin A target with VAC gari only works because average per capita consumption levels of cassava by women in rural West Africa is high -900 g per capita daily (fwb) (De Moura et al. 2015). By contrast, just 100-125 g of any OFSP root, regardless of how it is prepared, will meet 100% of the vitamin A EAR for young children.Cooking bananas enhances the release of carotenoids from plastids, with amounts concentrated through water loss (Amah et al. 2019). The bioaccessibility of carotenoids from boiled bananas varies by cultivar and ranged from 10% to 32% among three cultivars examined in DR Congo (Ekesa et al. 2012b). Fat does enhance bioaccessibility in OFSP (Tumuhimbise et al. 2009) and banana (Ekesa et al. 2012b).Retention loss during storage is also of interest, as ability to store helps to address seasonal food insecurity. For VAC, drying in the shade demonstrated superior carotenoid retention (59%) than drying in the direct sun (27-56%). For OFSP, retention levels (66-96%) did not vary significantly by drying method. At issue is the substantial loss of carotenoids that can occur during subsequent storage of dried VAC or OFSP under tropical ambient conditions (Bechoff et al. 2011;Chávez et al. 2007).Given this challenge CIP has focused on fresh sweetpotato root storage. Under commercial storage conditions in the USA, the beta-carotene content of the orangefleshed variety Covington increased from 253 μg/g (dwb) to 260 μg/g after 4 months of storage and 291 μg/g by the end of 8 months (Grace et al. 2014). In the African context, Tumuhimbise et al. (2010) cured roots \"naturally\" by spreading them on the ground under the sun for 4 days (26-29 °C; 80-95% RH) prior to storage. Roots stored in pits retained higher beta-carotene content compared to roots stored in sawdust, dark rooms, or ambient conditions. In all methods, OFSP varieties maintained more than 100 μg/g dwb after 4 months of storage.Shelf-stable OFSP purée (steamed and mashed sweetpotato) has been an integral part of the innovation package designed to enhance incomes while improving the vitamin A content of the processed product (Fig. 17.7). CIP developed a vacuumpacked shelf-stable purée that is safe for storage up to 3 months at temperatures ≤ 25 °C using locally available preservatives (Musyoka 2017) and retains sufficient beta-carotene. New markets for OFSP roots would drive expansion of production, concurrently increasing levels of consumption.Ex ante simulation models have been used to estimate the potential cost-effectiveness of biofortification, based on disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) saved, or reduced prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intake. Lividini et al. (2018) reviewed 30 ex ante studies on biofortified crops from 2002 through 2015, describing 4 different categories of analysis. Since 2006, there has been increasing consideration of both supply and demand for biofortified crops, utilizing widely available household expenditure and consumption surveys. Several studies indicate that biofortification has greater impact among women and children in rural than in urban areas and benefits lower income groups more than higher income groups.Biofortification emerges as a highly cost-effective micronutrient intervention, based on the World Bank's (2020) threshold of $270 for cost-effectiveness, when the crop being biofortified is widely consumed and the amount of bioavailable target micronutrient is sufficient to address the deficiency (Bouis et al. 2020). In the case of OFSP and VAB, the levels of carotenoids in orange types are quite high, making the key issues the extent of their adoption by farmers and the frequency and amount of consumption. In the case of VAC, IP and iron-biofortified OFSP, reaching target levels through repeated breeding cycles is requisite, in addition to considering and consumption levels and micronutrient bioavailability.For example, one ex ante study for Nigeria assumed 30% of replacement of existing cassava with VAC (varieties with 8 ppm vitamin A content) and found the cost per DALY saved of $1.01, driven by the large amounts of cassava consumed by adult women. This was much lower than $50 per DALY saved for sugar fortification with vitamin A and $52 per DALY saved with supplementation (Ilona et al. 2017). Thus, these results indicate that VAC is particularly appropriate for reaching rural populations.Readiness Framework\"Innovation readiness\" refers to the demonstrated capacity of an innovation to fulfill its contribution to development outcomes in specific locations, presented in nine stages showing progress from an untested idea (score 0) to a fully mature proven innovation (score 9). \"Innovation use\" indicates the level of use of the innovation or innovation package by the project members, partners, and society. Progressively broader levels of use begin with the intervention team who develop the innovation (score 0) until reaching widespread use by users who are completely unconnected with the team or their partners (score 9). \"Scaling readiness (SR)\" of an innovation is a function of innovation readiness level (from 0 to 9) and innovation use (from 0 to 9). Table 17.2 provides summary definitions for each level of readiness and use (adapted from Sartas et al. 2020). The final SR score is a combination of the lowest score from two distinct components. Hence, the maximum possible SR score is 81 (9x9).Livelihood Outcomes Sartas et al. (2020) stress that scaling of any specific core innovation, such as a biofortified variety (BV), requires a set of complementary systems that typically entail additional innovations to enable uptake. This collection of innovations is described as an innovation package. Package composition is driven by the desired ultimate outcomes and the specific scaling environment. BVs can contribute to multiple nutrition and livelihoods outcomes. These are combined in theory of change and implementation plans of research for development (R4D) programs to maximize overall benefits. For ease of interpretation, we distill this diverse set of scaling efforts into separate innovation packages that address three major development outcomes: (1) improved nutrition, (2) improved food and nutrition security, and (3) improved incomes. Efforts to improve nutritional status have been focused on those most at risk of vitamin A deficiencywomen and young children. In contrast, improved food and nutrition security efforts typically target rural households. Targeting for improved incomes varies, and increased commercialization efforts for fresh products focus on rural households, or, specifically on women to assure they benefit from commercialization as farmers, traders, or processors.Common to all three innovation packages is the core innovation of developing BVs that are acceptable to the target group(s) of each outcome. Strong evidence has demonstrated that any BV used must yield on average at least as much as the dominant local variety to be permanently adopted (Low et al. 2017). To get uptake of these varieties, positive field performance must be demonstrated and linked, typically, to on-farm trials associated with varietal testing or post-release demonstration plots. The innovation packages shown in Tables 17.3, 17.4, and 17.5 are based on actual implementation experience over the past decade. The co-authors of this article, in consultation with the colleagues within their organizations, have reviewed package components and applied the SR scales for country specific settings.  A significant complementary innovation is the pre-basic seed system, which most often falls under the domain of national research programs for RT&B crops. High-quality, disease-free starter stock (tissue culture plantlets and screen house protected cuttings) is essential for breeding programs and maximizing yields (Fig. 17.8).Further multiplications of planting materials to increase quantities available for distribution to farmers are also complementary innovations that vary in design. Productivity and crop quality will be enhanced if complementary training on agronomic, harvesting, vine conservation, and/or other postharvest techniques is provided. Because crops biofortified for vitamin A have a distinct orange or yellow color, another complementary innovation is a demand creation campaign to build awareness about the nutritional value of the BV among end users (Low et al. 2015). Considerable investment has been made in developing and testing approaches about how to advocate both at the community level and policy level to ensure that biofortified crops are integrated into relevant national government and regional policies of agriculture, food security, and nutrition (Covic et al. 2017). The development of a strong enabling environment is critical for scaling, as government support facilitates expansion of the innovation package(s) and supplementary donor investment.In describing innovation package components for the three distinct outcomes described, the most widely scaled BV, OFSP, will be used as an example. Packages for VAC and VAB will be presented in the subsequent section where the scaling readiness and use scores are applied and explained.   The OFSP innovation packages for each outcome are shown in Table 17.3. Innovation Package #1, with eight components, focuses on improving nutrition among children under 5 years of age and pregnant and lactating women (Fig. 17.9). Essential to this package are two complementary nutrition components. The first is a nutrition awareness campaign built on generating awareness locally and nationally about the importance of vitamin A for good health and the high vitamin A content of OFSP, as well as other good sources of vitamin A available in the country. These campaigns have used radio, market-based promotions (signs, billboards), messages on orange-colored promotion materials (cloth, hats, t-shirts, vehicles), videos, social media, brochures, and television spots to inform the public and policy makers. Several prominent policy makers in SSA have become advocates themselves (Fig. 17.10). The second is a community-based nutrition-focused behavioral change model. Research has established that facilitated group sessions of 25-30 households meeting monthly for 6-12 months to share knowledge about better dietary and health practices at the household level and feeding practices for young children resulted in improved vitamin A intakes and vitamin A statuses among young children and their mothers (Girard et al. 2017;Hotz et al. 2012;Low et al. 2007). The use of trained community-based health workers or volunteers has been integral to the success of this approach (Girard et al. 2021) in four SSA countries (Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Tanzania).In Innovation Package #2, where the focus is on improvement of food and nutrition security at the household level, a broad nutrition awareness campaign is used, but the activities at the community level are limited to community-sensitization meetings and one-off cooking demonstrations on how to prepare OFSP for young children and how to incorporate this food household diets (Fig. 17.11). With seven components, this approach succeeds in promoting adoption of OFSP and limited OFSP Innovation Package #3 is the most complex with 11 components and focuses on building a value chain for using OFSP in processed form to promote diversified use among urban consumers and provide a source of nutritious food and incomes for rural farming households. This package has taken 4-5 years to implement, compared to 2-3 years for Package #2, and 3-4 years for Package #1.In Package #3, the nutrition awareness component is part of a marketing and demand creation campaign with an emphasized focus on building demand among urban consumers (Fig. 17.12). Two other core innovations are (1) the need to develop an economically viable product that uses the BV as a major ingredient and is well-liked by target consumers and (2) testing products to ensure they have retained enough beta-carotene to be marketed as a good source of vitamin A (which requires the presence of high-quality laboratory services). Additional training is required for market-oriented farmers to obtain sufficient skills to consistently provide quality roots to the processors in sufficient quantities. Associated with the development of such value chains is the development of more standardized systems for monitoring the quality of the seed provided to growers, which requires engagement with government regulatory authorities. With commercialization of the roots, the willingness of farmers to invest in more expensive and higher-quality planting material increases along with the desire for that quality to be guaranteed. To date, scaling efforts for OFSP Package #3 have been concentrated in Kenya, Malawi, and Rwanda, building on proof-of-concept projects using OFSP purée in Kenya and Rwanda.One critical aspect insufficiently highlighted in the SR framework by Sartas et al. ( 2020) is the need to be aware of gender roles and power dynamics around crop production and sale and to design packages that are aware of potential differential impacts of innovation packages on women and men. Agricultural innovations must consider the different roles that men and women take in the adoption process -be it accessing seed, crop production, marketing, processing, or household consumption. Asare-Marfo et al. ( 2019) systematically consider the various factors to be considered in understanding gender differences along the impact pathway, which influence the success of BVs as an innovation, but do not focus on RT&B crops. They note that men and women may receive their information through different channels or sources, and often men have more access to extension and other services. Moreover, if a BV is bringing a higher price, men may be more inclined than women to sell rather than consume the biofortified food, a result that would have nutritional implications for the household.Gender dynamics, of course, are context-specific, requiring adjustments by and within countries to develop effective innovation packages. For example, in East Africa male control of labor and production is typically higher for potato and banana, as they are considered cash crops, compared to sweetpotato and cassava, for which home consumption dominates (Okonya et al. 2019) (Fig. 17.13). Women participating in a commercialized OFSP value chain in Rwanda required more training sessions then men to meet quality requirements (Sindi and Low 2015). Particular attention is needed as commercialization of BVs increases to ensure women are not excluded from the benefits, nor are the nutritional goals of BV introduction unduly compromised. Monitoring is requisite. To avoid repetition, we have captured this need for almost every component through labeling the innovation package as gender-responsive.Measurement of readiness and use levels reflects the status of biofortification breeding progress, the strategies used to scale, and available resources for different RT&B programs. The measurement of innovation use is more complex than readiness, due to the difficulty in drawing clear lines between the defined categories of actors and 1. The intervention team (typically a research organization initiating the innovation) 2. Effective partners (those collaborating directly with the intervention team) 3. Innovation network stakeholders (who influence the R4D intervention, but are not involved directly in its testing) 4. Other stakeholders in the innovation system (defined as other R4D teams working on similar innovations) 5. Stakeholders or beneficiaries in the livelihood system (who were not linked directly to the R4D innovation development)For example, CIP, an international research organization specialized in potato and sweetpotato research, and HarvestPlus, a program (led by the International Food Policy Research Institute) dedicated to developing and promoting biofortified staples, at times have been on the same intervention team, while in other projects they have served as effective partners or innovation network stakeholders, depending on the innovation package and country. The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT has led the VAB effort. Only OFSP and VAC have received major donor support for scaling their BV efforts.The assessment for each crop is summarized below. For more details, the development and scaling of OFSP have been described in Low et al. (2017) and Low and Thiele (2020). HarvestPlus' experience in scaling VAC in Nigeria and OFSP in Uganda has recently been described in Foley et al. (2021). Ilona et al. (2017) highlights key aspects of the first phase of the VAC scaling process. The pilot experience with VAB in East Africa is explored in Fongar et al. (2020).As shown in Table 17.3 (for OFSP innovation packages), out of a maximum possible score of 81, the Food and Nutrition Security and the Improved Nutrition Packages scored 56, and the Improved Income Package scored 18. For VAC, the approach focused on Improved Nutrition and Food Security Package and scored 36, while the Income Package for processed VAC products earned 30 points (Table 17.4). As the lowest score found in any component drives the overall SR score, VAB SR rated only 2 points (Table 17.5), which reflects its pilot level and resource limitations to date (Fig. 17.14).Given that OFSP was the first BV crop to achieve breeding targets, considerable investment was made in delivery system research using OFSP as a model biofortified crop (Low and Thiele 2020). This work produced an excellent evidence base for the improved nutrition outcomes and food and nutrition security packages. Open access investment and implementation guides (Stathers et al. 2015a, b) are available on the Sweetpotato Knowledge Portal (www.sweetpotatoknowledge.org) and provide detailed instructions on how to design, set up, and implement OFSP-focused nutrition and food security interventions. In addition, 13 modules for a Training of Trainers (ToT) course entitled Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato (Stathers et al. 2012), each with activities addressing gender, are available on the Portal in 5 major languages.As a strategy for scaling OFSP innovation packages by non-research organizations, while assuring that such organizations have access to the latest research knowledge, CIP launched the Sweetpotato for Profit and Health Initiative (SPHI) in 2009 with the goal of reaching 10 million households in 16 SSA countries by 2020 with improved varieties of sweetpotato and promoting their diversified use (Low 2011). During the 10-year period, NGOs were effective partners in proof-of-concept delivery projects initially but then raised independent funding and integrated OFSP varieties into their own programs, which often had many elements of the innovation packages described above, but in some cases could be entirely different -for example, the enhanced homestead garden program led by Helen Keller International (Haselow et al. 2016). Partners in the SPHI submitted annual updates on the number of beneficiary households reached directly (as program participants) or indirectly (spillover spread of varieties). By 2019, Fig. 17.15 clearly shows that the extent of scaling (use) varied enormously by country, reflecting differences in how and when adapted BVs were developed and released, and the levels of government interest and donor country prioritization. Hence, only eight of the 16 targeted SPHI countries had reached \"scaling\" levels. Two of these countries had major breeding programs (Mozambique and Uganda) to accelerate development and promotion of superior BVs.VAC focused its breeding efforts in Nigeria and DR Congo, due to the dominance of cassava as a major staple in the diets in these countries. Scaling efforts have focused on Nigeria, a country that is home to 18% of the entire population of sub-Saharan Africa (Table 17.4). The innovation packages for VAC are more complex than those presented for OFSP, reflecting a concerted effort to develop commercialized cassava \"seed\" production and a diverse set of interventions to promote nutrition awareness and stimulate demand for VAC versions of a diverse array of processed products common in Nigeria. On the seed front, HarvestPlus developed a distribution system using labeled packaging with 50 stems (planting material) that were distributed for free but with recipient households agreeing to \"pay back\" by providing the 50 VAC stems to two households in the following season. Since 2015, emphasis has been placed on developing links between growers and stem multipliers with the goal of shifting to more commercialized seed and marketing systems. By 2018, 8% of VAC stems were being purchased (Foley et al. 2021). On demand creation, extensive use of radio, television, and social and print media and the establishment of an annual nutritious food fairs with a broad range of policy makers and celebrities helped promote VAC products as preferred choices over non-VAC options and facilitated the establishment of roadside VAC selling points to generate interest. As a result, by 2018, 50,000 ha were under VAC cultivation (Foley et al. 2021) (Fig. 17.16).In the assessment tables (Tables 17.3-17.5), we can see the following scores for BV readiness: 9 for OFSP, 6 for VAC, and 4 for VAB. Breeding is a continual process, but a 9 indicates that appropriate varieties are available that meet the target beta-carotene levels, have been adapted to local growing conditions, meet adult consumer preferences, and have documented evidence of bioavailability. Some Scores vary by and within countries, but the value of SR is in its ability to pinpoint where bottlenecks may be occurring. The challenges facing growers' access to BVs of OFSP, VAC, and VAB are no different from access issues for non-BV crops. Because RT&B planting material is easily retained, reused, and shared, private sector seed companies have not been interested to invest in these RT&B systems. CIP, HarvestPlus, and partners invested in developing networks of trained multipliers to provide greater access for growers to quality seed (Fig. 17.17). Initially, these systems were subsidized by project funding, providing free or subsidized material to growers to achieve desired nutrition and/or food security outcomes. The ability for these multiplication systems to evolve into more self-sustaining commercial entities has been highly dependent on the development of markets for BVs in fresh and/or processed form. Building on a long history of cassava agro-processing in Nigeria, VAC-processed product development has been supported among both small-scale and larger processors, with use scores reaching 7. In contrast, since most sweetpotato roots are consumed boiled or steamed, processed product development is a new phenomenon; therefore its use level is 4 in the indicated countries, showing that support is still needed from the original research for development partners. The SPHI annually monitored whether OFSP vine multipliers continued to produce planting material during and post-project. In 2019, 503 of 741 trained multipliers contacted in 11 countries were selling vines (Makokha et al. 2019). Recognizing the important of root markets to drive willingness-to-pay for quality planting materials, Concurrent with processed product development and its commercialization, an adoption of standards and services to validate that standardization was needed. In Kenya, the Food Analysis and Nutrition Evaluation Laboratory (FANEL) was established in 2014 as a reference service for vitamin A and other nutrient assessments, including iron and zinc. This lab facilitates labeling of biofortified products to assure consumers about vitamin A content (Muzhingi et al. 2019). For VAC, standards and guides for nutrient retention have been key, and these efforts are being strengthened through investment in tools that can more rapidly determine whether a product meets quality standards (Foley et al. 2021). Technical support in the use of such protocols and guidelines is required for validation and uptake by regulatory bodies.On the advocacy and policy side, biofortification has been at the forefront for developing demand creation strategies and for understanding how to train and support local and regional influencers as policy advocates. Consequently, there has been widespread integration of biofortified crops as part of nutrition and agricultural policies in 24 SSA countries (Covic et al. 2017). This kind of integration into national and regional policies also facilitates enhanced government and outside donor investment in government-prioritized interventions. Readiness scores for OFSP and VAC in this area are 8 or 9 and the use of different approaches varies from 4 to 9, depending on the outcome model and country context. As VAB promotion is more recent, recognition of its potential by both governments and donors is lagging (Table 17.5), but VAB will be able to draw on the groundwork and lessons learned by from the OFSP and VAC experience.The SR assessment provides a framework for reflecting critically on the scaling process, helping to identify bottlenecks and essential factors to support scaling. As noted by Fongar et al. (2020), \"lessons for scaling regionwide adoption of VABs can be drawn from the introduction and scaling of OFSPs in SSA.\" The same holds true for IP, although in the latter case since iron is not a visible trait, the high-iron bean scaling effort in Rwanda is probably more relevant (Foley et al. 2021).In their review of the 25-year OFSP development and implementation experience, Low and Thiele (2020) examine the requisite technical, organizational, leadership, and enabling environment associated with each phase examined. In this section, we will review major lessons learned concerning VAC and OFSP.BVs must be agronomically competitive with dominant non-BVs and meet the taste and key quality preferences of adult consumers to achieve widespread uptake. Several cycles of breeding were required in Uganda, for instance, to produce OFSP varieties that had the desired texture. Meeting the biofortification target level is desirable for uptake but not requisite. In Nigeria, VAC varieties with <12 μg g-1 of beta-carotene have been accepted and widely cultivated by farmers. Thus, the platform is already in place for incorporating varieties with the desired levels of betacarotene above 15 μg g-1 once released. However, caution is warranted in serving size recommendations and labeling of processed products to avoid unsubstantiated claims that may lead to a violation of trust. The establishment of protocols and laboratory services to measure nutrient retention has been a complementary component of packages focused on commercial product development. To date, research support to private sector enterprises has encouraged testing and labeling, given that the regulatory structure for managing biofortified products is still nascent.Taste and consumer preferences vary by target groups and locations, so investment in acceptability studies among different consumer segments and across multiple locations is warranted. For example, VAB researchers found significant variation in the ranking of the same varieties in different communities within the same country (Ekesa et al. 2017). The importance of quality traits that capture sensory characteristics which vary by end use and postharvest considerations, such as storability, has been underemphasized in RT&B public sector breeding programs to date, but are the focus of growing interest due to their critical importance in driving adoption (Thiele et al. 2021).In comparison to grain crops, RT&B seed systems have tended to be more informal and less commercialized. A large share of smallholder farmers retain their own planting material from year to year, only seeking new material if there is significant yield decline, loss due to drought or theft, or a new variety demanded by the market. Farmer-to-farmer sharing of seed is common. This context required significant investment to set up innovative systems for delivering high-quality planting material of biofortified varieties while also convincing farmers of the yield value in using quality seed (Fig. 17.18). For scaling, it is requisite that seed system barriers be overcome to ensure varieties are available that meet consumer demands and that quality seed is accessible to more farmers at planting time. Since seed and root supply is critical for scaling, larger multipliers and growers had to be recruited to complement smallholder farmers.The experiences of OFSP and VAC demonstrate that is possible to develop sustainable enterprises which bring the vegetatively propagated seed closer to farmers through networks of decentralized multipliers. These small-and medium-sized businesses become critical for meeting RT&B seed demand, even more so during the 2020 pandemic. Work is still underway to improve linkages between decentralized multipliers and early generation seed producers, to ensure timely renewal of quality multiplication stock. The use of digital tools and other innovations to help policy makers regulate and practitioners to monitor the seed system are included in the RTB Seed System Toolbox (https://www.rtb.cgiar.org/seed-systemtoolbox), which is currently being evaluated in several SSA countries. Concerning VAC in Nigeria, development of the market for seed was done concurrently with promotion of VAC-processed products. To support private sector participation, clear business cases should be developed and tested, with the return on investment (ROI) being higher than bank interest rates.SR assessments pinpoint the seed system as a key bottleneck. Few private sector companies in SSA are engaged in early generation seed (EGS) production (tissue culture, pre-basic seed production), and CGIAR emphasis has focused on strengthening public sector national program management capacity in this regard. A detailed study of one private company that has invested in EGS and basic seed production found that such a business requires significant upfront financial support due to high initial investment costs. The payback period required for such an investment is 3-7 years, with an average annual return of 34-70% (Rajendran and McEwan 2019). Having open-field basic seed production linked to EGS did increase economies of scale for this company.Using disease-free planting material can have significant yield benefits, and there has been increasing interest to develop a regulatory framework for certifying the quality of RT&B planting material. In SSA, potato is the only root and tuber crop where several countries have seed certification schemes, reflecting its highly commercialized nature. Even so, less than 5% of potato seed sold outside of South Africa is certified. Such schemes typically require public sector support and investment. Cassava and sweetpotato programs have focused on developing less costly quality declared seed protocols and decentralized inspection systems. The introduction of greater regulation of seed quality correlates highly with increased commercialization of the crop. The use scores for these types of regulatory systems are among the lowest among the innovation package components due to the need for end users to be convinced of the value.To lower risk for private sector participation, investment in demand creation campaigns and provision of technical support for production and utilization of BVs by the research for development partners has been central to jumpstarting private sector engagement. HarvestPlus has used existing platforms in Nigeria, like the Nutritious Food Fair/Alliance, Smart-Mother, and NutriQuiz to reach millions of Nigerians. Doing so increased the use scores of VAC innovation packages.Learning how to address gender has been critical for scaling packages. For nutrition outcomes, recognizing that men have primary decision-making authority on what crops to plant, what foods are purchased, and how different foods are allocated among household members has led to the development of community-based nutrition interventions that integrate men, women, and local leaders to address household dietary quality and young child care practices (Girard et al. 2021) (Fig. 17.19). Regarding income, efforts have been made to ensure that women are not sidelined when developing or improving market interventions. This effect is achieved by setting explicit targets for female participation and addressing specific service and capacity needs of women who may be underserved due to longstanding social and/ or economic barriers to participation. As expected, the impact of biofortified crops has been greatest for women and children in nutrition-focused interventions and on poorer rural households for broader household food security and dietary diversity (Bouis et al. 2020;de Brauw et al. 2018).Given the complexity of the science and the need for sustained investment to achieve impact at scale, organizations such as HarvestPlus and the International Potato Center have been essential for building the evidence base for nutrition-sensitive agricultural interventions and expansion at scale (Bouis and Saltzman 2017;Bouis et al. 2020;Low and Thiele 2020). These organizations have also developed and managed cross-country, cross-project, and cross-partner monitoring systems to capture progress. This work has enabled groups to obtain timely feedback on varietal and package performance and to respond to scientific and policy queries with evidence. As government and NGO partners have become increasingly involved, it is clear that the food and nutrition innovation package -the simplest of the three -is the easiest to adapt and use at scale. In this context, BVs of roots and tubers are often a part of a much broader package of crop and management practice interventions. Expanding partnerships with the World Food Program and international NGOs should continue and be strengthened to make BVs available for food assistance and resilience programming in fragile environments where nutritionally vulnerable populations are the norm.The scalability of the improved nutrition innovation package is most likely in countries where there is strong support for community-based health workers by the government (e.g., Ethiopia, Ghana, and Malawi). Lacking that support, the higher cost of this approach compared to focusing on food and nutrition security at the household level means that a more cost-effective but longer-term solution may be to integrate nutrition education into primary and secondary school curricula and antenatal and postnatal care counseling and existing school feeding programs (Fig. 17.20).Certainly, innovation packages focused on income enhancement are the most attractive to private sector partners. Given that many of the processing partners are small-and medium-scale enterprises, the need for significant technical support should not be underestimated, especially in developing a value proposition for investment. There is an increasing effort to focus on youth opportunities for employment associated with these efforts. While many successful examples of profitable, commercially oriented value chains exist, action research is needed to design and test ways to adapt and scale such programs to widen the scope of impact. For any innovation to take root, flourish, and scale, an enabling environment is needed for sustainability. Bouis and Saltzman (2017) have identified building blocks necessary for biofortified crops to scale:1. Globally, biofortification must be integrated into global standards and regulatory guidelines such as Codex Alimentarius 1 . As multilateral institutions (World Bank, African Development Bank, World Food Programme, World Health Organization) integrate biofortified crops into their policies and programming, governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can more easily include them in national policies, plans, and programs. 2. Within Africa, the endorsement of the African Union and the Regional EconomicCommunities can facilitate and act as an encouragement for individual countries to include biofortification as a nutrition-sensitive approach. HarvestPlus and CIP have jointly and individually advocated for biofortification to be included in regional and national government policies. 3. Translating policy into action involves incorporating biofortified crops into programs and plans that are then implemented through governmental and nongovernmental bodies (Covic et al. 2017). Both organizations have funded efforts to develop and test strategies to identify, recruit, and train advocates at national and regional levels.NGOs are important because they are crucial partners for delivering innovations to more vulnerable households. To create sustainable markets, private sector participation is essential -from seed to food delivery. Private sector seed companies have the power to shorten time to market of biofortified seed varieties, although for RT&B crops this may be more problematic. Nonetheless, private sector involvement in processing is critical and facilitates the inclusion of biofortified crops as ingredients in food product value chains. As noted above, demand for the final product is critical to drive willingness-to-pay for inputs such as quality seed.Initiatives like SPHI that bring donors and multi-sectoral stakeholders from different countries enhance the speed of innovation spread and stakeholder buy-in. Training programs that emphasize agriculture-nutrition-marketing approaches and efforts to produce qualified extension personnel are critical for within-country expansion. While integrating biofortification within national policies of agriculture, food security, and nutrition may constitute \"readiness,\" encouraging governments and NGOs to allocate their own funds for BV dissemination is essential for achieving use at scale. Certainly, our scaling experience has shown that countries with better agricultural extension systems (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi) have greater capacity and more willingness to engage in diffusing new innovations than those countries where public sector extension has been downgraded (Uganda, Nigeria). As the number and type of partners grow, lead organizations play more of a facilitation and knowledge role and provide essential monitoring of progress. For example, we have seen some commercially oriented firms make unsubstantiated health claims.Scientists and advocates need to be proactive in setting the record straight and developing outreach strategies that will prevent such claims in the first place.Sometimes luck plays a part. Low and Thiele (2020) noted that a major OFSPbased study that demonstrated the nutritional impact of the integrated agriculturenutrition approach coincided with a shift in the institutional environment that placed agriculture and nutrition at the forefront of the development agenda. This coincidental happenstance created an inflection point that led to increased investment in research and diffusion of biofortified crops.RT&B crops have always been among the most affordable sources of calories for rural and urban poor. Biofortified RT&Bs can serve as major affordable sources of key micronutrients in an emerging and more resilient food system in SSA. RTB crops often have shorter supply chains and are less expensive than grains; hence, market disruptions are less likely to affect availability and access, an advantage made more evident during the 2020 pandemic.As scaling efforts expand, managing the perishability and seasonality of RT&B crops at larger scales will require greater investment in physical market chain infrastructure, storage, information systems, and enterprise development. These objectives can be achieved by working across multiple nutritious commodities to strengthen informal and formal food market systems. The value added from RT&B BVs will be to secure affordable nutrition for low-income consumers, while also providing economically attractive and nutritious ingredients in food processing and new market opportunities for producers. Stronger smallholder market participation will underpin the ability to develop commercial input supply chains for RT&B crops in SSA.While scaling efforts utilize existing varieties, breeding must be a continuous effort, particularly in the context of climate change where new, improved materials will be essential for assuring a nutritious food supply. A major feature of climate change is the rapidly increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, predicted to rise from 400 ppm to over 550 ppm by 2050. With increasing CO2 levels, sweetpotato, banana, and cassava yields are expected to increase (Jarvis et al. 2012;Varma and Bebber 2019), but that increase will be channeled into carbohydrate accumulation. Potato is sensitive to temperature and drought and thus likely to see decreased yields (Fleisher et al. 2017). Hence, R&TB crops, along with wheat and rice, are expected to show significant declines in nutrient density, including many nutrients critical to human health such as zinc, iron, and protein (Smith et al. 2018). Nelson et al. (2018) predict that the \"greatest food security challenge in 2050 will be providing nutritious diets rather than adequate calories.\" Clearly, given the heavy dependence on staple foods by the poor, increased commitment to breeding for enhanced micronutrient and protein content is warranted.All R&TB varieties released to date were developed through a targeted approach with a focus on specific crop/country combinations and tightly linked to key traits that trigger adoption. Banana is one R&TB crop where major breeding investments are using transgenic approaches to tackle disease resistance and vitamin A enhancement (Amah et al. 2019). In the future, prospects are excellent for genetic engineering to integrate full target increments in micronutrient content for several nutrients in one go, not only in next wave but also in existing commercial varieties. This potential would shortcut mainstreaming time enormously and accelerate the reach and impact of the intervention (Van Der Straeten et al. 2020). However, the regulatory environment and social acceptance of transgenic materials must improve for the value of such innovative approaches to be realized.In some contexts, R&TB crops have an image problem to address, which reflects a lack of understanding of their role in poor people's diets in low-income countries.In their analysis of healthy and sustainable diets, the EAT Lancet Commission recommended low daily intakes of potato and cassava as staples relative to grains, in spite of the fact that these crops have much lower environmental impacts. Sweetpotatoes and Musa spp. were not specifically mentioned. Given the Western orientation of the article, sweetpotato was probably classified as an orange and red vegetable and Musa spp. designated as fruits (Willett et al. 2019). The highly negative image of potato as a junk food in the Western diet is associated with its high glycemic index and its frequent consumption as a fried product. Most potato in SSA, however, is consumed boiled. Moreover, insufficient attention has been paid to enhancing the use of micronutrient-rich leaves of cassava and sweetpotato for human consumption.Clearly, the lessons learned from the OFSP and VAC scaling experiences can inform VAB and IP development and dissemination efforts and avoid the tendency to \"reinvent the wheel.\" RT&B crops are well-positioned to move forward in the context of emergency recovery and gender-responsive food system transformation for more climate-resilient and nutritious foods. The SR Tool has pinpointed the degree to which different components of OFSP and VAC innovation packages were validated through evidence-based assessment. The innovation packages can be easily adapted for different country contexts, and the SR Tool is recommended for use in monitoring RTB scaling efforts over time to pinpoint bottlenecks.Inclusion of biofortification by the Scaling Up Nutrition country programs and the potential recognition of biofortification by the African Union are two examples of policy engagement that are needed to keep biofortification and nutrition at the forefront of food policy and investment planning.Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.","tokenCount":"9489"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"470fa2fa8efc5475815f277154893358","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040602.pdf","id":"648479812"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1ca3c732-5af7-411f-81e3-ce5f8a1ae1ab","pagecount":"14","content":"With growing populations, increasing standards of living and growing concern for environmental issues, claims on water resources are intensifying. Competition between sectors is increasing and water allocation mechanisms currently in place, such as fixed allocations or rationing, may no longer be adequate. At the World Water Forum 2000, a large international conference, the majority of the international water community called for reforms in water allocation mechanisms (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000). Proposed reforms relate especially urgently to agriculture. Worldwide, 70-80% of all developed water resources is used for agricultural production. In arid countries where rainfall is insufficient for rain-fed agriculture, this percentage may be as high as 90% (Gleick, 1998). Water use in agriculture is often heavily subsidized and trade in water is limited. Several studies report problems related to water scarcity and resources overexploitation in the USA, India, Pakistan, China, the Middle East and the Soviet Republics (Postel, 1999;Seckler et al., 2000;Rosegrant et al., 2002). They foresee that these problems will only intensify and spread to more regions in the near future, unless adequate action is undertaken to reform prevailing water management practices.Economic incentives and mechanisms, such as water pricing and introduction of water markets, are often proposed as efficient and effective measures in demand management. According to Perry (2001), the three most common reasons for recommending water charges are:• To recover the cost of providing water delivery service;• To provide an incentive for efficient use of scarce water resources;• As a benefit tax on those receiving water services, to provide potential resources for further investment to the benefit of others in society.Cost recovery and tax purposes can be achieved through area-or crop-based pricing. These charging mechanisms are generally preferred to volumetric pricing because they are easier and cheaper to implement. To provide an incentive for more efficient use, charges must be a direct function of consumption.Underpricing may lead to inefficient use of scarce water resources, and the introduction of volumetric water pricing may reduce water wastage and generate revenue to continue essential services in the future (Briscoe, 1996;Rosegrant, 1997;Huffaker et al., 1998;Kumar and Singh, 2001). 'Getting the prices right', i.e. reflecting the economic and social value of the resource, is a desirable way to allocate water efficiently (Dinar and Subramanian, 1997;Johansson, 2000).But it is debatable if volumetric pricing is an effective measure in water demand management. The development of the required institutional and physical infrastructure, lacking in many places, is a costly process. Externalities in water use, caused by recycling of drainage water, may render pricing less effective in reducing water use than foreseen by planners (Seckler, 1996). Perry (1997Perry ( , 2001) ) shows that, in Egypt and Iran, costs of pricing to farmers and society outweigh projected benefits. Ray (2002) examines the implicit assumptions under which market forces can induce more efficient water use. She concludes that for India these assumptions are violated and that enforceable and transparent allocation rules may be more effective to curtail water demand. Molle (2001) reaches similar conclusions for Thailand. For the Middle East, Ahmad (2000) predicts that in the absence of well-defined water rights, economic measures may lead to higher water use rather than conservation of water.Others argue that, especially in developing countries, there are millions of in direct beneficiaries such as the con sumers who benefit as much as, or even more than, the direct beneficiaries of irrigation (i.e. farmers). It is therefore unjust to expect the farmers to bear the full burden. They argue that the cost of irrigation development should be legitimately shared by both consumers and producers (Sampath, 1983(Sampath, , 1992;;Rhodes and Sampath, 1988).Finally, several researchers claim that irrigation water demand is inelastic below a threshold price, and elastic beyond it (Varela-Ortega et al., 1998;OECD, 1999). To induce a reduction in demand, considerable price increases are required (either in the general level of charging or through more complex multilevel charges). Political considerations may prevent such price increases (Perry, 2001;Ray, 2002).For their analysis of policy impacts, economists rely on observed prices and market transactions to infer the value of a particular good. Commonly, the demand curve -as the basis of quantitative economic analyses -is determined through econometric curve fitting techniques using field data. This 'direct' approach is difficult in the analysis of water demand in agriculture. The price of water is only rarely determined in the market. Consequently, the value of water needs to be derived from modelling, starting from production functions and setting up the farmer's optimization problem. Examples of this analytical approach are found in Dinar and Letey, 1996;Rosegrant et al., 2001. Many analytical studies implicitly assume an ideal situation, free of price distortions and externalities. But the introduction of volumetric water charges as a demand management tool does not happen in a void. Water management practices already in place prior to the introduction of pricing have an important bearing on its effectiveness as a demand management tool. In this chapter two factors are explored: (i) the impact of technology; and (ii) the impact of prevailing rationing regimes.The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: the second section explores the impact of technology choice, application efficiency and scale; the third section examines the consequences of rationing; and the last section provides the conclusions and discussion.Gardner (1983( , cited in Ray, 2002) ) states that if water prices rise to reflect its opportunity cost, a rational farmer will have any or all of the four following responses: the farmer demands less water and leaves land fallow; applies less water to the crop accepting some yield loss; switches to less water-demanding crops; and/or invests in more efficient irrigation techniques. Literature provides evidence that farmers respond in all these ways. Examples are found in Ray and Williams (1999) for India; Bernardo and Whittlesey (1989) for Washington State; Hoyt (1984) for Texas; Berbel and Gomez-Limon (2000) for Spain; and Ogg and Gollegon (1989) and Weinberg et al. (1993) for the western USA.The reduction in water use intended by more efficient irrigation depends to a large extent on the water application technology and its potential to substitute water for other inputs. Varela-Ortega et al. (1998) compare the price elasticity of water demand in three regions in Spain. They conclude that in the 'old' irrigation schemes where water application techniques are relatively inefficient, the response to increasing water charges is much higher than in the modern systems with drip systems. The authors conclude that the technical endowment in an agricultural district has a major effect on its response to water pricing.Broadly speaking, three categories of application technology can be distinguished: surface, sprinkler and drip. The most capitalextensive but water-and labour-intensive technique is surface irrigation. Generally, sprinkler irrigation uses less water but requires more capital. Lastly, drip irrigation typically uses the least amount of water and labour but is the most capital-intensive technique.Where water price is low, a rational farmer will substitute relatively expensive inputs -such as capital and labour -for cheap water. 1 For example, instead of manually weeding paddy fields, labour input is reduced by maintaining a water layer on the field to suppress weed growth, at the expense of additional water to cover evaporation and percolation losses. Conversely, where water charges are high, it may be cost-effective to invest in field canal lining to reduce seepage losses. 2 For each technology, the substitution potential, i.e. the scope of water savings through increased labour and capital input, differs. It is typically highest in surface irrigation. In drip irrigation systems, where water application efficiency is already high compared to surface systems, the scope of water savings is limited and comes at a relatively high incremental cost.Theoretically, water pricing may impact both technology choice and the level of substitution. With increasing water charges, a farmer will operate the existing technique in a more water-efficient manner, until it becomes cost-effective to switch to a more advanced application technique using less water.Empirical evidence, however, shows that technology choice is hardly driven by water price. It is mainly determined by structural factors, agronomic conditions and financial constraints (see Molle and Berkoff,Chapter 2,this volume). For example, on sloping fields the use of sprinklers may be more appropriate than flood irrigation which requires levelling. For reasons of erosion control and better fertilizer application, a farmer may opt for furrows or drip. Favourable subsidy schemes may induce a switch to drip because it gives higher yields per hectare, reduces labour input and is less prone to salinity problems. Lack of spare parts, knowledge and credit may prohibit the use of advanced technologies as sprinkler and drip. Crop choice may limit technology choice: tuber crops are best grown on furrows while cereals cannot be grown under sprinkler or drip. Caswell and Zilberman (1986) and Caswell et al. (1990) in their studies on California demonstrate that while the probability of drip irrigation adoption increases with higher prices, land quality and environmental considerations play a more prominent role. Green and Sunding (1997) find that technology choice primarily depends on land quality and crop choice. Varela-Ortega et al. (1998) arrive at similar conclusions for three irrigation systems in Spain. Hoyt (1984) notes that, in Texas, only dramatic price increases will induce capital investment in better technology.Within each application category, water can be substituted for capital and/or labour. For example, within the category of surface irrigation the most labour-extensive application is to simply flood the field, resulting in high water losses. Water application can be reduced dramatically at the expense of extra labour by field levelling, constructing bunds, using furrows or increasing the intensity of monitoring field conditions. Likewise, a labour-extensive way to operate a sprinkler system is to use a timing device so that the sprinklers are turned on at regular intervals. But this does not account for the rainfall that may occur during these intervals, and irrigation water may be lost. More water-efficient, but more capitalintensive, is to install moisture probes to determine the right time to sprinkle, based on actual water needs. This method does not account for rainfall that may occur in the days following irrigation. Even more efficient in terms of water use, but more capital-intensive, is a computerized system that uses actual water needs and weather forecast information.There are clear limits to substitution. Below a certain point it is no longer possible or desirable to use more water to replace capital and labour. Too much water will damage crops, create erosion problems, cause waterlogging and flush away fertilizer. Consequently, there is a maximum amount of water a farmer will take, even if abundant water is available at zero cost. As a result, at low water prices water demand is not determined by price but by agronomic-and technique-related factors and water use is unresponsive to price. With the introduction of water pricing as a demand management tool, water use becomes elastic only beyond a certain threshold. The size of the threshold depends on initial water management practices and the substitutability of water for other inputs. The model developed in the following paragraphs explores the impact of these factors on water demand at low price ranges.The water requirements of a crop depend on physical factors, such as climate, soils and crop characteristics. In general, the more the soil moisture is available to the crop, the higher the crop yield, up to a certain limit. At low water application rates an additional unit of water results in a substantial yield increase but the marginal product of water quickly declines at higher water levels. Beyond a certain level of water application crop yields suffer due to lack of aeration in the root zone. At that point, the marginal product of water becomes negative. A polynomial functional form, best captures the physical relationship between crop growth and soil moisture. Hargreaves (1977) proposes a cubic form. Following Dinar and Letey (1996) and Rosegrant et al. (2001), a quadratic functional form is adopted here:Where, Y r stands for relative crop yield, Y p is potential yield, Y c is crop yield, bs are regression coefficients and W is the amount of crop evapotranspiration. The crop production function depends on crop characteristics, soil and climate and is unique for each crop and location. This is reflected by the intercept β 0 . In the representation given by the equation (3.1a and 3.1b) inputs other than water (e.g. agrochemicals) are kept constant at an optimum level.The variable W represents the amount of crop water evaporation. To get this amount to the plants it needs to be conveyed from source to fields and applied in the right quantities at the right time. The irrigation efficiency indicates the extent of water losses occurring in conveyance and application. Application efficiency at field level is defined as the amount of water beneficially used by crops (W) divided by the total amount diverted to the field (TotWat).Confronted with rising water charges, a farmer can reduce total water diversion by reducing the water layer on the field (W) through the adoption of deficiency irrigation or switching to a less water-demanding crop. 3 Alternatively, a farmer can improve application efficiency (Eff) by substituting labour and/or capital for water, or, ultimately, leave land fallow. As explained above, for agronomic and technical reasons there is an upper limit to the amount of water a farmer takes, independent of price. Thus, water is applied with a minimum efficiency. An application efficiency of say 10% is undesirable because the large amount of water to meet crop water requirements (W) will cause problems as erosion, fertilizer loss, waterlogging and crop damage.Figure 3.1 depicts the relation between application efficiency and cost of improvement for different technologies. The exact shape of these curves is site-and crop-specific and largely unknown. Three features are important for the discussion here. First, the curves do not intersect the y-axis at zero. In other words, an efficiency of zero does not exist and the minimum is well above zero. Second, additional labour/capital input exhibits a diminishing return. Third, the upper and lower bounds differ by technology. Efficiency in surface irrigation exhibits the widest range, while drip irrigation has the narrowest scope.When these elements are incorporated in a simple farmer optimization model, the water demand curve reveals three zones (Fig. 3.2). At low ranges, price is not a determining factor in decisions related to technology choice and application efficiency and water demand is unresponsive to price. With increasing prices, the farmer may opt to slightly reduce the water layer on the field but because this will directly affect crop yields, demand is inelastic. Beyond a certain threshold, demand becomes elastic. At higher price ranges, demand becomes inelastic again, as water quantities approach the minimum amount needed for plant growth.Several studies conclude that water demand becomes elastic only beyond a certain price threshold (Varela-Ortega et al., 1998;OECD, 1999). Where prevailing prices are low relative to the threshold price, a considerable price increase is necessary to induce the desired reduction in demand. Political considerations may prevent such price increases ( Perry, 2001). To gauge the effectiveness of pricing as a demand management tool, it is thus essential to investigate the importance of the price threshold.In the following paragraphs the sensitivity of technology on the threshold value is examined, using a numerical example using crop data from California. Crop production parameters are adapted from Dinar and Letey, 1996 and summarized in Table 3.1.Little is known about prevailing application efficiencies and associated cost curves. This example, therefore, explores a wide range of values of substitutability, scope of improvement and initial efficiencies. Figure 3.3 presents a family of cost curves for an application technology of which the application efficiency ranges from 25% to 80%. That is, if farmers are free to take the amount of water they desire free of cost, they will choose to operate the system at 25% efficiency. The lowest curve represents a situation where efficiency improvements come at a high cost: $500/ha to increase efficiency from 25% to 50% (for comparison in this example, maximum crop revenue is $2500/ha). The 'high substitutability' curve indicates a low marginal cost of efficiency improvement: $150/ha to increase efficiency from 25% to 80%. Figure 3.4 depicts the resulting water demand curves. Water demand is elastic and thresholds are low and of minor importance, even in case of low substitutability of water.The situation changes dramatically if the initial efficiency is set at 40% instead of 25% (Fig. 3.5). The dotted lines in Fig. 3.5 depict that part of the demand curve which is suppressed because of the high initial efficiency. The threshold level varies from negligible to considerable, depending on the ease of substitution. Figure 3.6 shows the family of demand curves for a technique whose scope of improvement is relatively limited (efficiency ranging from 60% to 80%). In this case, water demand is inelastic, unless the substitution of water comes at a very low cost.This analysis makes clear that the threshold value depends on three interrelated  factors, namely the prevailing application efficiency, the scope of efficiency improvement and the ease of substitution. These factors are, to a large extent, determined by technology choice and existing on-field water management practices, which are mostly unrelated to water price.In this example, when the application efficiency is 25%, water demand is fairly elastic at low prices, even if efficiency improvements come at a relatively high cost. On the other hand, if the existing efficiency is 40% or 60%, reduction of water demand may require a substantial price increase depending on the ease of substitution.  The existence of an inelastic section of the demand curve at low prices, or the lack thereof, has major implications for the cost of water reduction to farmers. Figure 3.7 shows the relation between water reduction and cost of water for the demand curves depicted in Fig. 3.5. Water reduction is expressed as a percentage of the maximum quantity demanded under price zero (i.e. 2.25 m/ha). Water costs, expressed as a percentage of total crop revenue, include water charges plus the costs of efficiency improvement. the ease of substitution is high, considerable impacts on farm income are implicit for using water pricing as a means to limit demand. Empirical evidence supports this finding. Perry (1997) estimates for Egypt that inducing a 15% reduction in water demand through volumetric pricing would decrease farm incomes by 25%. Berbel and Gomez-Limon (2000) estimate that farm income in Spain will decrease by 40% before water demand decreases significantly. Bernardo and Whittlesey (1989) and Hoyt (1984) conclude that in the Washington State and Texas farmers substitute water with labour, by switching to a more water-efficient mode of operation. But to induce these water savings by pricing (as opposed to restricting supply) results in a significant income loss to farmers and painful adjustments as some farmers may have to stop irrigating.In countries where low-income farmers make up a large part of the voting population, pricing may not be a feasible demand management option from a social and political point of view.Volumetric water pricing in agriculture is geared towards influencing water use behav-iour of individual farmers. The aggregated impact of pricing at a scale larger than a farm may be governed by different processes and scaling up the impacts of pricing by aggregating individual responses may lead to erroneous conclusions.Efficiency of water use is a scale-dependent concept. From a river basin perspective, drainage water from 'inefficient' farms is not necessarily lost, but can be reused by downstream users, water quality allowing (Seckler, 1996). Molden et al. (2000) show that, for Egypt, farmlevel efficiency is as low as 40%, but overall basin efficiency is 90%. This implies that 90% of all diverted water is beneficially used for crop growth. Water 'wastage' is negligible and the scope for water savings, induced by pricing or other measures, is very small.Although field efficiency is low, return flows from 'inefficient' users may be reused by downstream farmers, either by recapturing drainage flows or by pumping excess seepage. Pricing induces upstream farmers to use water more efficiently and thus create less return flows. Downstream farmers have to divert more water to compensate for this loss. Consequently, at the aggregate level of river basins, the reduction of water diversions as a result of pricing may be less than foreseen (Perry, 2001). A proper assessment of the impact of water pricing at basin scale requires a knowledge of hydrological interaction between users. many parts of the world, farmers are not free to take the amount of water they prefer. Farmers' access to water is bounded by water rights or by fixed allocations. Also the size of canals, inlets or pipes may limit the amount of water a farmer can take (this could be called technological rationing as opposed to institutional rationing).Where water is scarce and water prices low, the amount allocated is likely below the 'free market' amount (i.e. the amount of water that farmers would be willing to take at the prevailing price). A good example of an allocation mechanism in water-scarce areas is warabandi, which is practised on a large scale (over millions of hectares) in irrigation schemes in India and Pakistan. The system is designed to provide a rationed and equitable service (in proportion to landholdings) to all farmers under conditions of extreme water scarcity. Instead of planning for full irrigation of a small part of the area, the available water is spread over a large number of farms, thus giving farmers a choice between fully irrigating part of their land with water-intensive crops, or irrigating a larger area of less waterintensive crops, or deliberately underirrigating a still larger area. This approach encourages maximum output per unit of water, rather than maximum output per unit of land (Bandaragoda, 1998).Figure 3.8 depicts the relation between water price, demand and actual use. The dotted line represents the demand curve. The solid line shows the actual use.At low prices water use is constrained by rationing. Farmers optimize water use by choosing an appropriate crop, level of risk and efficiency according to its limited availability, independent of price. Consequently, water use is unresponsive to price. At a certain threshold, pricing becomes effective in reducing demand. This is the point where price equals the productive value of an additional unit of water (price equals marginal product).If the price of water is set below the threshold and the maximum allocation is still in place, farmers start 'paying off the absorbed scarcity rent'. In other words, water diversions remain constant but farmer profit suffers substantially. 4 If the rationing system is fully replaced by water pricing allocation, and the price is set below the threshold, farmers will divert more water, until the gap between actual price and productive value is bridged.These observations imply that where irrigation water is currently rationed, the introduction of water as a demand management tool is effective, only if the price is set above a certain threshold, i.e. the productive value of the last unit allocated under the rationing scheme. Depending on the initial water price and the size of the allocation, this threshold may be several times the original price. The lower the price actually paid and the more binding the existing allocation to farmers, the bigger is the gap between price and productive value. For Iran, Perry (2001) estimates that the productive value of water is $0.04, while the farmers at present pay $0.004. To induce water savings by pricing, a tenfold increase is required. Ray (2002) in her study on water pricing in India shows that in order to induce the water-conserving response under existing allocation practices, a sixfold price increase would be needed. She adds that under the prevailing political circumstances in India, this is very unlikely.The price of water is only rarely determined in the market. Consequently, models are needed to derive demand as a function of price. Many analytical studies implicitly assume an ideal situation, free of price distortions and externalities. But the introduction of volumetric water charges as a demand management tool does not happen in a void. Water management practices already in place before the introduction of pricing have an important bearing on its effectiveness as a demand management tool. This chapter explores the impact of technology choice, application efficiency and prevailing rationing practices on water demand elasticity.At low water prices, farmers' decisions concerning technology choice and water use primarily depend on crop choice, land quality, agronomic considerations and structural factors (e.g. availability of capital and labour). Where water is restrictedeither by institutional rationing or limits imposed by technology -farmers optimize water according to its limited availability.At prevailing (low) prices, the amount of water diverted is independent of price and water demand is unresponsive to price. It is only beyond a certain threshold that demand becomes responsive to price.When prevailing prices are low relative to the threshold, considerable increases are necessary to induce the desired reduction in demand. Political considerations may prevent such increases. To gauge the effectiveness and feasibility of pricing as a demand management tool, it is crucial to investigate the importance of the threshold.Where water is rationed, the threshold level mainly depends on the size of the allocation relative to the 'free market' amount (i.e. the amount of water farmers would be willing to take at prevailing prices). In waterscarce areas with low prevailing prices and very restrictive allocations, the required increase may be prohibitive.The analysis presented in this chapter reveals that, where water is freely available, the threshold value depends on three interrelated factors: (i) the field application efficiency prior to the introduction of pricing as a demand management tool; (ii) the scope of efficiency improvement; and (iii) the ease of substitution (i.e. the marginal costs of efficiency improvement). These factors are, to a large extent, determined by technology choice and existing on-field water management practices, which are mostly unrelated to water price. When prevailing application efficiencies are low, say around 25%, demand is fairly elastic at low prices, even if efficiency improvements come at a relatively high cost. On the other hand, if the existing efficiency is 40% or 60%, reduction of water demand may require a substantial price increase, depending on the costs of substitution. This may lead to considerable income losses to farmers.Although this conclusion may seem obvious, the implications are by no means trivial. Reliable information on field application efficiencies is not available, except for local case studies often implemented in an experimental set-up. Estimates are typically based on common perceptions and rules of thumb rather than on measurements. In this context, it is important to distinguish between field application and irrigation ciency. The latter is substantially lower than the former because it includes conveyance and operational losses in the main irrigation system. 5 System losses are beyond the control of individual farmers, and thus unresponsive to water pricing charged to individual farmers. In large irrigation schemes, system losses may be more important than those occurring at the field level. Without reliable estimates on field application efficiencies prior to the introduction of pricing, its effectiveness as a demand management tool remains subject to personal judgements and opinions.This issue is further complicated due to the scale dependency of irrigation efficiency. From a river basin perspective, drainage water from 'inefficient' farms is not necessarily lost, but can be reused by downstream users -water quality allowing. Pricing induces upstream farmers to use water more efficiently and thus create less return flows. Downstream farmers have to divert more water to compensate for this loss. Consequently, at the aggregate level of river basins, the reduction of water diversions as a result of pricing may be less than foreseen. A proper analysis of the impacts of water charges requires consideration beyond the individual farm level.Results of this analysis depend on the model formulation, its underlying assumptions and parameter values. The model uses total seasonal demand curves without accounting for short-term rainfall variability. There may be short periods of zero responsiveness (after rain) or short periods of high elasticities (after unseasonal drought). The analysis here neglects these and provides an 'average' picture over the entire growing period. Further, the analysis is based on crop data for cotton in California. A sensitivity analysis revealed that as long as the crop production function is polynomial (with a clear maximum), the resulting form of the demand curves (with a threshold) does not change. The efficiency cost functions are assumed for want of data. The wide range of values tested most likely cover all plausible parameter values. The conclusions of this analysis are independent of the exact functional form of the efficiency function as long as efficiency has a clear upper and lower bound and the minimum efficiency is greater than zero.The analysis in this chapter focuses on the impact of water management practices existing prior to the introduction of pricing. It does not include several potentially important factors influencing effectiveness of pricing, such as uncertainty in water supply (Perry and Narayamurthy, 1998), risk due to fluctuations in revenue (Bontemps et al., 2001) and difficulties related to implementation (Tsur, 2000;Molle, 2001;Perry, 2001). The inclusions of these factors, which are considered outside the scope of this chapter, will improve the analysis but may not significantly affect its conclusions.","tokenCount":"4836"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac2ec6a9d827d8e5e7a76e3d0e95919a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89758440-ed2c-4de7-99bf-6cebed8ead80/retrieve","id":"-783486551"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c62931a6-3293-4d94-947d-9b167a17fe79","pagecount":"12","content":"Vendors in multivendor markets are menRetail stores selling biscuits and sweetsVendors reporting spoilage of fruitsThis brief examines the prevalence of two types of rural food environments that influence the local diet: multivendor food markets and village retail shops, henceforth referred to as markets and retail shops, respectively. Markets food markets are known for offering a diverse range of fresh foods, such as fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat, at affordable prices. In contrast, village retail shops tend to offer a limited selection of fresh food and prioritize selling packaged goods and everyday household items.This brief provides valuable insights into the different types of multi-vendor markets and village retail shops in the district and information on the infrastructure and facilities available. Vendors and retailers were asked about their primary source for food items and the distance they travel to procure these items. The next section describes food availability and food spoilage in markets. The final section shows the prices of sentinel food items, a set of commonly consumed foods, tracked as part of the project, which can be useful in linking household food consumption with the availability of food in the markets. To enhance understanding of what different rural food environments look like, the brief includes photographs of both markets and retail shops.Details on sampling methods and definitions can be found in the following pages.   Traditional multi-vendor food markets offer a wide range of products to customers. These include fruits, vegetables, and farm products such as livestock, fish, grains, and eggs. Most households prefer to do their weekly grocery shopping at these markets. In contrast, village retail shops operate alone, are open daily, and sell a variety of food items to the local community. Multi-vendor food markets will be referred as markets and village food retail shops will be referred as retail shops in this brief. Definitions of different categories of food outlets under these two major types are provided below.A multi-vendor urban food market, held daily in a fixed location, where traders and farmers set up shops during the day.A multi-vendor market held on a specific day of the week, without a permanent infrastructure, where traders set up shops on the market day.A group of at least 5 vendors in close proximity selling food products along the street, without any formal organizational setupA market where food products are sold in bulk directly by manufacturers, farmers, or artisans at a fair price, usually in a permanent or semipermanent structure.  Village Food Retail Shops (single vendor type)Fixed structures that sell a variety of food and non-food items, including household staples, packaged and dry foods, and a limited selection of fresh produce.Sell only perishable food items, including fresh fruits, vegetables, roots, and tubers.Sell exclusively meat, fish, or dairy products.Sell prepared food items (usually snacks that can be quickly consumed) and tea/coffee.  ✓ The typical village comprises around 14 grocery stores, 6 restaurants and tea stalls, and less than 1 greengrocer and specialized shop.✓ The food landscape is largely informal-99% of multi-vendor markets have no management structure and 77% of operating without license.  ✓ Food items are mostly sourced from wholesalers and marketing (>80 % of market vendors and retailers), except for leafy vegetables, other vegetables and milk, which are partly sourced from farmers or from one's own production. ✓ Other sources for food items include farmers, processing units and one's own production. ✓ The average distances travelled from the source to vendors and retail shops indicate that, generally, vendors travel further than retailers to source their products which could be due to the location of wholesale markets or other supply points.  ","tokenCount":"597"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0af1e7c15329adc76bf5d5b3c82a718c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b280c3f-0148-4fe6-8427-fee2f829cbab/retrieve","id":"1985460933"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7039c843-8189-4d4d-987e-2d092374525b","pagecount":"11","content":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors.Catherine Vaughan is a senior staff associate at the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI).Alison Rose is the Science Officer for the CCAFS Flagship on Climate Services and Safety Nets.Stephen Zebiak leads the CCAFS Flagship on Climate Services and Safety Nets.  To generate grist for discussion, six speakers presented their perspective on pressing research questions in the field of agricultural climate services. showed that there is a growing demand for tailored climate information services among farmers in targeted villages in India, where information was particularly useful for planning.Jim Hansen, senior research scientist at IRI, presented some concepts from the CCAFS proposal that he suggested might be useful to help the group think about synthetic learning.He reminded the group of the two hypotheses that underpin the Flagship. These are: Overall, Hansen reported, the Flagship has made less progress in generating evidence of the first hypothesis than of the second.With these initial discussions over, each member of the group submitted ideas for synthetic papers that they might like to use to explore learning within and across the Flagship. This led to the creation of more than 15 ideas, presented in Table 1, below.In each case, a number of Flagship representatives showed interest in each paper; those topics garnering the most interest were related to: trade-offs, communication channels, and bundles.The group also explored commonalities between topics. For instance, communication channels may be some of the many trade-offs that climate service providers face. Scaling, sustainability and trade-offs might also be integrated, and bundling may also involve integrating climate services and climate-smart agriculture.and lays out a research agenda for agricultural climate services; and (2) a special issue that allows for joint papers to highlight both synthetic insights and more project-based papers.This is expected to develop over the course of the 2020.","tokenCount":"363"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f055029a38be054f719ed1667c52ad5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c1caeaa2-11a7-4673-b0cf-b643d20ccd62/content","id":"-875031038"},"keywords":["wheat breeding","baking quality","Alveograph","flour yield","genomic selection","GWAS View publication stats View publication stats"],"sieverID":"3221b886-ca15-42c1-a26d-86bd83ee2ae5","pagecount":"20","content":"Use of genetic markers and genomic prediction might improve genetic gain for quality traits in wheat breeding programs. Here, flour yield and Alveograph quality traits were inspected in 635 F 6 winter wheat breeding lines from two breeding cycles. Genome-wide association studies revealed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on chromosome 5D significantly associated with flour yield, Alveograph P (dough tenacity), and Alveograph W (dough strength). Additionally, SNPs on chromosome 1D were associated with Alveograph P and W, SNPs on chromosome 1B were associated with Alveograph P, and SNPs on chromosome 4A were associated with Alveograph L (dough extensibility). Predictive abilities based on genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP) models ranged from 0.50 for flour yield to 0.79 for Alveograph W based on a leave-one-out cross-validation strategy. Predictive abilities were negatively affected by smaller training set sizes, lower genetic relationship between lines in training and validation sets, and by genotype-environment (G×E) interactions. Bayesian Power Lasso models and genomic feature models resulted in similar or slightly improved predictions compared to GBLUP models. SNPs with the largest effects can be used for screening large numbers of lines in early generations in breeding programs to select lines that potentially have good quality traits. In later generations, genomic predictions might be used for a more accurate selection of high quality wheat lines.Baking quality of wheat is a complex trait controlled by many genes with minor effects and few genes with larger effects [1,2]. The amount and the composition of gluten proteins have large effects on baking quality of wheat. The major gluten loci are the high molecular weight glutenins (HMWGs) Glu-A1, Glu-B1, and Glu-D1 and the low molecular weight glutenins (LMWGs) Glu-A3, Glu-B3, and Glu-D3 [3,4]. Milling quality and water absorption are affected by the hardness of the grain. Grain hardness is, to a large extent, controlled by the Hardness locus on chromosome 5D, consisting of the genes Pina-D1, Pinb-D1, and Gsp-1 [5,6].Breeding for improved wheat quality is challenging, because phenotyping of most quality traits requires laborious analyses of relatively large amounts of grain using expensive equipment. Baking tests can be used for evaluating the quality of wheat lines by determining bread loaf volume and texture. However, breeding programs typically do not have the resources to perform baking tests with large numbers of lines [7]. Another way of testing baking quality is rheological measurements with, for example, an Alveograph. Here, a piece of dough is inflated with air into a bubble, and dough tenacity (Alveo P), extensibility (Alveo L), and strength (Alveo W) are determined. Alveo W and the ratio of Alveo P/L are correlated with bread loaf volume and can give good indications of the quality of wheat lines [8]. Together with protein content and grain hardness, the Alveograph traits can be used for predicting the potential end-use for particular wheat lines [9]. Previously, quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the Alveograph traits were identified on many chromosomes, e.g., on chromosome 1B and 5D for both Alveo P and W. Additionally, QTL were identified on chromosomes 3A, 3B, and 5B for Alveo W and on chromosomes 2A and 2B for Alveo P [10][11][12][13]. Groos et al. (2004)  [10], Tadesse et al. (2015)  [14], and Zanetti et al. (2001)  [13] identified QTL for Alveo L on chromosomes 2B, 3B, 4A, and 5B. Similarly, QTL for flour yield were identified on most chromosomes. In several studies of spring or winter wheat, QTL for flour yield were identified on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 5A, 5D, or 6A [2,12,[15][16][17][18][19][20].Those in Denmark are allowed to use more nitrogen for the cultivation of wheat for bread production if certain criteria are fulfilled. The cultivar must be on a list that has been approved by The Danish Agricultural Agency. For a cultivar to be approved, it must have a bread volume and a Zeleny sedimentation value of, at minimum, 90% of the average of the cultivars that have already been approved, and it must not have sticky dough. In addition, the grain used for bread production should, as a minimum, have a test weight of 78 kg/hL, a falling number of 275 s, and a protein content of 11.5% [21,22]. Therefore, it is important for breeders to be able to select lines with high quality.The use of DNA markers to predict quality traits can reduce costs and enable higher selection intensities compared to having to do the phenotypic measurements. Thereby, higher numbers of wheat lines might be tested in breeding programs. Marker assisted selection based on few DNA markers can be effective for traits that are controlled by few QTL with large effects [23]. However, many traits are more complex and are controlled by many QTL with small effects. Furthermore, major QTL might be fixed in breeding programs and can therefore not be used for selection. In such cases, genomic predictions based on a large number of genome-wide markers could be a good approach.A training set of lines that have been both genotyped and phenotyped is needed to train a model for prediction of genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) in other genotyped lines (validation or breeding set) [24]. Different types of models can be used for genomic predictions, and their accuracies depend on the genetic architecture of the trait and on the relatedness of lines in the training and validation set [25,26]. In genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP) models, breeding values are predicted based on a genomic relationship matrix (G-matrix) [27]. In Bayesian models, marker effects can be assigned prior distributions that might fit better than a normal distribution for certain traits or populations [28]. Genomic prediction was first implemented in cattle breeding and is now widely used in animal breeding programs [28]. Many studies have been focused on the effectiveness and the optimal use of genomic predictions in different plant species and for different traits [29][30][31][32]. Generally, heritabilities and predictive abilities are lower for complex traits, such as grain yield, than for more simple traits, such as heading date or resistance against certain diseases, which are controlled by both minor and major genes [33][34][35]. For wheat quality traits, predictive abilities are often moderate to high [25,[36][37][38]. However, the use of markers with large effects could likely be done in a better way than in the standard GBLUP or Bayesian models, and the optimal implementation strategy might differ between traits and breeding programs [26,34,39,40]. The size and the composition of the training set is crucial for accurate genomic predictions [29,38,41]. A recent study of quality traits and grain yield using wheat hybrids from each of the German quality classes E, A, B, and C reported that genomic predictions within one quality class worked well when the training set contained individuals from the same class. However, for predictions between quality classes, individuals from each of the classes should be included to obtain predictive abilities as high as for the within-class predictions [42].The aims of the present study were to identify SNPs affecting the baking quality traits flour yield and Alveographs P, L, and W and to evaluate and compare genomic prediction models in order to facilitate implementation of genomic selection for baking quality traits in breeding programs.In total, 635 F 6 winter wheat lines from two breeding cycles in the Danish plant breeding company Nordic Seed A/S (Holeby, Denmark) were used in this study. The 321 lines of the first breeding cycle (set2014) were harvested in 2014, and the 314 lines of the second breeding cycle (set2015) were harvested in 2015. Six out of 96 crossing parents were used for both sets (years), while the remaining 90 crossing parents were used for one of the sets only. Each line was grown in an unreplicated 9.9 m 2 plot at Lolland, Denmark, following standard Danish agricultural practices. Approximately 180 kg of nitrogen were applied per hectare during the growth season, and no irrigation was used.Phenotyping was done at the Wheat Chemistry and Quality Laboratory at International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico. Grain samples were conditioned to 13.5% moisture content and then milled one time using a Brabender Quadrumat Jr. (Brabender GmbH & Co. KG, Duisburg, Germany). Flour yield was measured as the percentage of refined flour obtained from each grain sample after the bran fraction was sieved away through a 75 µm mesh sieve. A Chopin Alveograph (Tripette and Renaud, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, France) was used to obtain the Alveograph traits P, L, and W (Alveo P is dough tenacity, Alveo L is dough extensibility, and Alveo W is dough strength) using a modified version of the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) method 54-30A [8,43]. Flour was mixed with a saltwater solution to form a dough, which was cut into discs. After resting 20 min at 25 • C, the dough discs were inflated with air, thus the dough expanded as a bubble. During inflation of each disc, a curve was recorded of pressure inside the bubble until it burst. Alveo P was the maximum height of the curve, Alveo L was the length of the curve, and Alveo W was the area under the curve. The coefficient of variation was calculated for each trait by dividing the standard deviation of the raw phenotypes with the mean.DNA extraction was performed with a modified cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method [44] using leaves of three bulked, two-week-old seedlings for each line. Genotyping was done by TraitGenetics (Gatersleben, Germany) with the 15K Illumina Infinium iSelect HD Custom Genotyping BeadChip technology. The 13,006 called SNP markers were edited for minor allele frequency (MAF) > 1% and missing values < 10%, and the remaining 10,802 SNPs were used for the analyses. For each line, at least 90% of the SNPs were successfully genotyped.Genome-wide associations were studied using single marker regression. The following model was run for each of the 10,802 SNPs:where y is a vector of observed phenotypes, X and Z 1 are design matrices, b is a vector of fixed effects (mean and year/set), w i is the vector of genotypes of the i th SNP coded as 1, 0, −1, a i is the additive genetic effect of the i th SNP, u is a vector of additive genetic effects of the lines (u ~N(0,G 1 σ g 2 ), where G 1 is a G-matrix (genomic relationship matrix) and σ g 2 is additive genetic variance), and e is a vector of random residual effects (e ~N(0,Iσ e 2 ), where I is an identity matrix and σ e 2 is the residual variance).Model effects and variance components were estimated by restricted maximum likelihood using the software package DMU [45].For each chromosome, a G-matrix was calculated based only on the SNPs mapped to the remaining chromosomes and then used to correct for structure when analyzing the SNPs mapped to the excluded chromosome. This was done so that the SNP effect was not included twice in the model. G-matrices were calculated using the first method proposed by Van Raden [27]:where p i is the MAF of i th marker, Z 2 = M − P, M is a matrix with the marker alleles coded as 1, 0, -1, and P is a matrix where the i th column contains the MAF of SNP i calculated as 2(p i -0.5). Missing genotypes were set to 0 in matrix Z 2 . Genomic inflation factors, λ IF , were calculated for each trait by dividing the observed median value of the chi-squared statistic for the SNPs with the expected median value [46]. The inflation factor λ IF was used to correct the p-values for inflation by dividing the chi-squared statistic with λ IF and then re-calculating the p-values. The significance threshold was set using a Bonferroni correction: 5% divided by number of SNPs (0.05/10,802 = 4.6 × 10 −6 ).DNA sequences surrounding the significantly associated SNPs were blasted against the annotated reference genome of the bread wheat variety Chinese Spring, IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 [47], using the BLAST tool of EnsemblPlants [48].A Bayesian Power Lasso model where all SNPs were fitted simultaneously was also used for genome-wide association analyses in the Bayz software [49]:where y is a vector of observed phenotypes, b is a vector of the mean + year/set effect with design matrix X, Z 3 is a matrix of the alleles of the SNPs coded as 0, 1, 2, u is a vector of additive genetic SNP effects, and e is a vector of residual effects. The prior distribution of SNP effects was specified as an exponential power distribution [50]:where m is the number of markers, and β is shape parameter to control the sparsity, which affects the shrinkage of the SNP effects. Setting β to 1 makes the model equivalent to a standard Bayesian Lasso model. If β is set to less than 1, the difference between large and small marker effects can be increased [50]. Models with β of 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, and 1.0 were run, and the Deviance Information Criterion was used to determine the optimal β for each trait [51]. Residual effects were assigned a normal prior distribution. The residual variance, the mean, the year/set effect, and the rate parameter, λ RP , were assigned flat prior distributions. Model parameters were estimated using Markov Chain Monte Carlo with a length of 100,000 with 30,000 cycles as burn-in. The tool pbayz supplied with Bayz was used to compute posterior means, and the R package CODA was used to check for convergence to the posterior distribution [52]. Genomic predictions based on all 10,802 SNPs were conducted using the Bayesian Power Lasso model (3) and using a GBLUP model:where y is a vector of observed phenotypes, X and Z 4 are design matrices, b is a vector of fixed effect (mean and year/set), u is a vector of additive genetic effects (u ~N(0 G 2 σ 2 g ), where G 2 is a G-matrix computed as above (2) using all SNPs, σ 2 g is additive genetic variance), and e is a vector of random residual effects (e ~N(0,Iσ e 2 )).Model effects and variance components for the GBLUP and Bayesian Power Lasso models were estimated by DMU and Bayz packages, respectively. For the GBLUP models, the narrow-sense genomic heritability corresponding to records of single plots was calculated as:where d(G 2 ) is the average diagonal element of the G-matrix (calculated using all SNPs), σ 2 g is additive genetic variance, and σ 2 e is residual variance. The following cross-validations (CVs) were used to study the effectiveness of possible strategies for implementing genomic selection in breeding programs:Leave-one-out (LOO): The GEBV of each line was predicted from the rest of the lines. The training set used in the LOO strategy was as large as possible (634 lines), and the genetic relationship between lines in the training and validation set was higher compared to the other CV strategies.Leave-family-out (LFO): The GEBVs of lines in each half-sib family were predicted from lines of the remaining families. The average size of the half-sib families was 46 lines. Using this strategy, the effect of the genetic relationship between the lines in training and validation sets was studied.Leave-set-out (LSO): The GEBVs of lines in each set were predicted from lines from the other set. The training set sizes were 314 or 321 lines. The LSO CV strategy was used for studying the predictive ability when GEBVs of lines from one breeding cycle were predicted from lines from another breeding cycle.k-fold: The lines were randomly divided into k folds (2, 5, or 10) of equal size. The GEBVs of lines in each fold were predicted from lines in the other folds. The training set sizes were approximately 318 lines for the 2-fold, 508 lines for the 5-fold, and 572 lines for the 10-fold. Approximately half of the lines in the training sets were from set2014 and half from set2015. The k-fold CV strategy was used for studying the effect of the training set size.Furthermore, the effect of the training set size was studied by selecting from 10% to 90% of the 635 lines as a training set for genomic predictions using LOO CV. The lines were randomly selected, and selection and predictions were repeated 100 times for each 10% interval.Correlations between observed phenotypes corrected for fixed effects and GEBVs were calculated to determine predictive abilities of the models and were compared with the maximum correlation (the square root of the narrow-sense genomic heritability). Biases of the genomic predictions were calculated as the deviation from the expectation of the slope (1.0) of the regression line of the corrected phenotypes on the GEBVs.Genomic feature models with two G-matrices were tested in order to possibly utilize the most significant SNPs better [53,54]. The lines were randomly divided in two folds. The lines of one fold were used for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and the remaining lines were used for LOO genomic predictions. The SNPs used for computing the two G-matrices were selected for each trait based on their p-value in the GWAS. The most significant SNPs were used for one G-matrix, and the remaining SNPs were used for the other. The following thresholds for number of SNPs to include in the group of most significant were tested: 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 3000, 5000, 7000, 10,000, and all 10,802 SNPs. The following model was used for the genomic predictions:where yis a vector of observed phenotypes, X, Z 5 , and Z 6 are design matrices, bis a vector of fixed effect (mean and year/set), sand nare vectors of additive genetic effects (s~N(0,G s σ 2 g s ) and n~N(0,G n σ 2 g n ), where G s and G n are G-matrices computed as above (2) using significant (G s ) or nonsignificant (G n ) SNPs, σ 2 g s and σ 2 g n are additive genetic variances, and eis a vector of random residual effects (e~N(0,Iσ e 2 )).A total of 635 F 6 winter wheat lines from two different breeding cycles (set2014 and set2015) were phenotyped for the quality traits flour yield and Alveos P, L, and W (Table S1). The phenotypic distribution for each trait is shown in Figure 1. Phenotypic variation was higher for the Alveograph traits than for flour yield (Table 1). The wheat lines were genotyped for 10,802 SNPs (Table S2). A G-matrix was computed using all SNPs. A dendrogram based on the G-matrix showed that the lines were genetically related both within and between sets (Figure 2). In total, the two sets consisted of 159 full-sib families with an average of four full-sibs per family.   For all traits, additive genetic variance was observed. Variance components were estimated based on GBLUP models and were used for estimation of narrow-sense genomic heritabilities. Heritabilities ranged from 0.38 for flour yield to 0.72 for Alveo W (Table 2).      For all traits, additive genetic variance was observed. Variance components were estimated based on GBLUP models and were used for estimation of narrow-sense genomic heritabilities. Heritabilities ranged from 0.38 for flour yield to 0.72 for Alveo W (Table 2).  For all traits, additive genetic variance was observed. Variance components were estimated based on GBLUP models and were used for estimation of narrow-sense genomic heritabilities. Heritabilities ranged from 0.38 for flour yield to 0.72 for Alveo W (Table 2). Single marker regression was performed for each of the 10,802 SNPs (Figure 3). Two linked SNPs on chromosome 5DS were significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W. On chromosome 1DL, significantly associated SNPs were identified for Alveos P and W. Additionally, SNPs associated with Alveo W were identified both on the short arm and on the long arm of chromosome 1B. A region on chromosome 4AL was significantly associated with Alveo L. The frequencies of the SNP alleles that were positively associated with each trait ranged from 13% to 64% (Table 3). A large difference was observed in Alveo P and in Alveo W for lines with the positive alleles of all significant SNPs compared to lines with the negative allele of one or more of the SNPs (Tables 4 and 5).Genes 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19Single marker regression was performed for each of the 10,802 SNPs (Figure 3). Two linked SNPs on chromosome 5DS were significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W. On chromosome 1DL, significantly associated SNPs were identified for Alveos P and W. Additionally, SNPs associated with Alveo W were identified both on the short arm and on the long arm of chromosome 1B. A region on chromosome 4AL was significantly associated with Alveo L. The frequencies of the SNP alleles that were positively associated with each trait ranged from 13% to 64% (Table 3). A large difference was observed in Alveo P and in Alveo W for lines with the positive alleles of all significant SNPs compared to lines with the negative allele of one or more of the SNPs (Tables 4 and 5).   Nontranslating coding sequence 1 Only the most significant SNP for each peak in the Manhattan plots is shown. 2 Allele frequencies are for the allele that is positively associated with the trait. GWAS were also performed using Bayesian Power Lasso models to fit all 10,802 SNPs simultaneously [50]. The optimal value for β was 0.4 for flour yield and for Alveo W, 0.6 for Alveo P, and 0.8 for Alveo L, respectively. The SNPs most significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W according to the single marker regressions were also the SNPs with the highest genetic effects according to the Bayesian Power Lasso models (Figure 4). For Alveo L, each SNP had very low genetic effect (less than 0.2). Genomic predictions based on all 10,802 SNPs using a GBLUP model were evaluated using different CV strategies. Predictive abilities of the models were determined as the correlations between observed phenotypes corrected for fixed effects and the GEBVs. The predictive abilities were intermediate to high, ranging from 0.50 for flour yield to 0.79 for Alveo W based on the LOO CV (Figure 5). The LFO and the LSO CVs resulted in lower predictive abilities. The lowest predictive ability was 0.3 for flour yield based on the LSO CV. The predictive abilities of the k-fold CVs increased slightly when using a higher number of folds, and they were very close to the LOO when using 10 folds. The predictions were unbiased for the LOO and the k-fold CV and only slightly biased for the LFO and the LSO (Table 6). Genomic predictions based on all 10,802 SNPs using a GBLUP model were evaluated using different CV strategies. Predictive abilities of the models were determined as the correlations between observed phenotypes corrected for fixed effects and the GEBVs. The predictive abilities were intermediate to high, ranging from 0.50 for flour yield to 0.79 for Alveo W based on the LOO CV (Figure 5). The LFO and the LSO CVs resulted in lower predictive abilities. The lowest predictive ability was 0.3 for flour yield based on the LSO CV. The predictive abilities of the k-fold CVs increased slightly when using a higher number of folds, and they were very close to the LOO when using 10 folds. The predictions were unbiased for the LOO and the k-fold CV and only slightly biased for the LFO and the LSO (Table 6).   For every CV strategy, the predictive abilities of the Bayesian Power Lasso model were a little better compared to the GBLUP for flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W, but not for Alveo L (Figure 6).  For every CV strategy, the predictive abilities of the Bayesian Power Lasso model were a little better compared to the GBLUP for flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W, but not for Alveo L (Figure 6). For every CV strategy, the predictive abilities of the Bayesian Power Lasso model were a little better compared to the GBLUP for flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W, but not for Alveo L (Figure 6).  The effects of training population sizes ranging from 10% to 90% of the 635 lines were studied (Figure 7). Predictive abilities increased from 0.33 at 10% (64 lines) to 0.50 at 90% (572 lines) for flour yield. For all traits, the predictive abilities increased when increasing the size of the training set, but the increases were smaller at larger sizes. Additionally, the variation around the mean of the predictive abilities decreased when increasing the size of the training set.The effects of training population sizes ranging from 10% to 90% of the 635 lines were studied (Figure 7). Predictive abilities increased from 0.33 at 10% (64 lines) to 0.50 at 90% (572 lines) for flour yield. For all traits, the predictive abilities increased when increasing the size of the training set, but the increases were smaller at larger sizes. Additionally, the variation around the mean of the predictive abilities decreased when increasing the size of the training set. Genomic features models with two G-matrices were also tested (Figure 8). One G-matrix was calculated from significant SNPs, and the other G-matrix was calculated from nonsignificant SNPs. The number of SNPs to include as significant ranged from five to all 10,802 SNPs. For flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W, predictive abilities were highest (0.52, 0.73, and 0.79, respectively) when fewer than 1000 SNPs were considered significant (10, 500, and 100 SNPs, respectively). For Alveo L, predictive abilities were highest (0.61) when 3000 SNPs were considered significant. For all traits, predictive abilities were higher when using the optimal number of significant SNPs for one G-matrix and the remaining SNPs for another G-matrix compared to using all SNPs for one G-matrix: 0.52 vs. 0.47 for flour yield, 0.73 vs. 0.70 for Alveo P, 0.61 vs. 0.58 for Alveo L, and 0.79 vs. 0.76 for Alveo W. Genomic features models with two G-matrices were also tested (Figure 8). One G-matrix was calculated from significant SNPs, and the other G-matrix was calculated from nonsignificant SNPs. The number of SNPs to include as significant ranged from five to all 10,802 SNPs. For flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W, predictive abilities were highest (0.52, 0.73, and 0.79, respectively) when fewer than 1000 SNPs were considered significant (10, 500, and 100 SNPs, respectively). For Alveo L, predictive abilities were highest (0.61) when 3000 SNPs were considered significant. For all traits, predictive abilities were higher when using the optimal number of significant SNPs for one G-matrix and the remaining SNPs for another G-matrix compared to using all SNPs for one G-matrix: 0.52 vs. 0.47 for flour yield, 0.73 vs. 0.70 for Alveo P, 0.61 vs. 0.58 for Alveo L, and 0.79 vs. 0.76 for Alveo W. Wheat quality traits typically have intermediate or high heritabilities, although the traits can be considerably affected by environmental effects and genotype-environment (G×E) interactions [36][37][38]. Thus, additive genetic variation across environments also affects the traits. Here, narrow-sense genomic heritabilities ranged from 0.38 for flour yield to 0.72 for Alveo W (Table 2). Therefore, breeding for improved wheat quality traits should be possible.Advanced breeding material was used in the present study. The breeding program has, until now, focused more on increasing yield rather than improving baking quality due to restrictions in application of nitrogen fertilization to the fields in Denmark, which have made it challenging to grow high quality bread wheat lines. Nevertheless, variation was observed for the quality traits, indicating that both high and low quality wheat lines were used as crossing parents for the studied lines, and that genetic variation was maintained throughout the breeding program (Figure 1, Table 2). Six of the 96 crossing parents were used in both breeding sets. The dendrogram of the wheat lines indicated genetic relationships within each of the two sets (Figure 2). However, the lines from each set were not clearly divided in the dendrogram, indicating that the lines were also related between the two breeding sets.QTL for wheat quality traits were identified across the genome [1,2,17]. However, many QTL were only identified in certain environments or populations [55,56]. In the present study, two closely linked SNPs on chromosome 5D were significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W (Figure 3). The puroindoline genes Pina-D1 and Pinb-D1 have a large effect on grain hardness. These genes are located on chromosome 5D and can affect several quality traits [1,12,57]. Several Pinb-D1 alleles with a positive effect on wheat quality were identified [58,59]. However, relatively few of the markers in the present study were located on chromosome 5D [37], thus additional markers or sequencing would be needed to distinguish between each of the alleles.For Alveo P and Alveo W, significant SNPs were also identified on chromosome 1D. The HMWG loci Glu-D1 is located on chromosome 1D and has a large influence on wheat baking quality [4]. Similarly, the glutenin loci Glu-B1 and Glu-B3, which are located on chromosome 1B, can affect Wheat quality traits typically have intermediate or high heritabilities, although the traits can be considerably affected by environmental effects and genotype-environment (G×E) interactions [36][37][38]. Thus, additive genetic variation across environments also affects the traits. Here, narrow-sense genomic heritabilities ranged from 0.38 for flour yield to 0.72 for Alveo W (Table 2). Therefore, breeding for improved wheat quality traits should be possible.Advanced breeding material was used in the present study. The breeding program has, until now, focused more on increasing yield rather than improving baking quality due to restrictions in application of nitrogen fertilization to the fields in Denmark, which have made it challenging to grow high quality bread wheat lines. Nevertheless, variation was observed for the quality traits, indicating that both high and low quality wheat lines were used as crossing parents for the studied lines, and that genetic variation was maintained throughout the breeding program (Figure 1, Table 2). Six of the 96 crossing parents were used in both breeding sets. The dendrogram of the wheat lines indicated genetic relationships within each of the two sets (Figure 2). However, the lines from each set were not clearly divided in the dendrogram, indicating that the lines were also related between the two breeding sets.QTL for wheat quality traits were identified across the genome [1,2,17]. However, many QTL were only identified in certain environments or populations [55,56]. In the present study, two closely linked SNPs on chromosome 5D were significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W (Figure 3). The puroindoline genes Pina-D1 and Pinb-D1 have a large effect on grain hardness. These genes are located on chromosome 5D and can affect several quality traits [1,12,57]. Several Pinb-D1 alleles with a positive effect on wheat quality were identified [58,59]. However, relatively few of the markers in the present study were located on chromosome 5D [37], thus additional markers or sequencing would be needed to distinguish between each of the alleles.For Alveo P and Alveo W, significant SNPs were also identified on chromosome 1D. The HMWG loci Glu-D1 is located on chromosome 1D and has a large influence on wheat baking quality [4].Similarly, the glutenin loci Glu-B1 and Glu-B3, which are located on chromosome 1B, can affect quality. No SNPs on chromosome 1A were significantly associated with the Alveograph traits. The loci Glu-A1 and Glu-A3 are also known to affect wheat quality traits [4]. Thus, these loci might not be polymorphic in the studied material, their effects might be too low to detect, or the genotyped SNPs might not be located in or close enough to the loci. Several markers may be required in order to distinguish between the alleles of each of the Glu loci [60]. Therefore, the SNP chip array used to genotype the studied wheat lines can perhaps not capture all the genetic variants. Characterization of Gluand Pin loci in the breeding material could be useful for more accurate estimation of their effects and consequently more accurate predictions of the baking quality traits [4,38,58].The GWAS indicated that only few QTL with large or intermediate effects controlled the quality traits. The identified QTL only explained a relatively small proportion of the total genetic variance. This indicates that the traits were also controlled by many QTL with small effects. Identification of such minor QTL is challenging, especially if they have a low MAF or if they are located near major QTL. Lines with the positive alleles of the four largest QTL for Alveo W had considerably higher dough strength than lines with negative alleles of any of the QTL (Table 5). However, the four QTL together explained only 26.3% of the additive genetic variance based on the effects estimated from the single marker regressions, and these effects were possibly overestimated due to the Beavis effect [61,62]. The effects were lower when estimated using the Bayesian Power Lasso (Figure 4). Here, all SNP effects were estimated simultaneously, thus the effects were shrunk towards zero, and each QTL effect might have been distributed across several SNPs.Since only a relatively small proportion of the genetic variance could be explained by the identified QTL, genomic predictions based on a large number of genome-wide markers could be useful. The different CV strategies showed that the predictive abilities were affected by size of the training set, by the genetic relationship between lines in training and validation sets, and by the G×E interactions (Figure 5). The LSO strategy represents one way of implementing genomic predictions in breeding programs. Predicting GEBVs of new lines based on lines from previous years could possibly enable selection before any phenotypic information is available for the new lines. However, the LSO strategy resulted in lower and more biased predictive abilities than the other CV strategies (Figure 5, Table 6). Possible reasons for the lower predictive abilities could be the size of the training set, the genetic relationship between lines, and the G×E interactions. Including lines from the same year and the same families in the training set improved the predictive abilities considerably. Reducing the size of training sets had a negative impact on the predictive abilities (Figure 7). However, the decrease for very small training sets seen in the present study was not as drastic as in other studies [29,32], possibly due to the high heritabilities of the traits included in this study. Thus, a few hundred lines might be enough for the training set, if they are highly related to the validation set. The G×E interactions and the genetic relationship between lines might be partly confounded, since the lines were only tested from one location. These effects had a larger impact on predictive abilities than the size of the training set and the model used for the predictions. G×E interactions can be accounted for in, for example, reaction norm models if phenotypic data are available for lines replicated across several locations or years. Additionally, data about climatic conditions and soil types might be included to obtain higher predictive abilities [63]. Such models could also be used for selecting lines for target environments or lines that are performing well over many environments. Predictive abilities can also be affected by the number of markers used for the predictions [29,32]. If the markers are selected based on GWAS, the number can possibly be reduced to a few hundred markers without affecting the predictive abilities. However, the markers that are selected would not be the same for each trait, and the markers could change after each new breeding cycle [29].The predictive abilities of the Bayesian Power Lasso models were slightly higher compared to the GBLUP models for flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W (Figure 6). In the Bayesian Power Lasso model, the difference between small and large QTL effects can be bigger than in GBLUP [50]. Thus, the largest QTL effects might be shrunk too much in the GBLUP models. For Alveo L, no improvements were observed when using the Bayesian models, indicating that no major QTL were present for this trait (Figure 6). Previous studies have also shown that different types of Bayesian models can, in some cases, give slightly more accurate predictions compared to GBLUP models, especially for traits influenced by major QTL and for populations with low genetic relationships between training and validation sets [26,37,50].Other studies of genomic selection for wheat quality traits using breeding material have reported predictive abilities in similar ranges as in the present study [36,37,64]. Thus, genomic prediction appears to be a promising strategy for improving wheat quality in breeding programs. Nevertheless, the use of information from GWAS or from known major QTL in genomic predictions might be useful for modeling marker effects more accurately. Markers for major QTL can be specified as having fixed effects, while remaining markers have random effects. Bernardo (2014)  [39] recommended to specify fixed effects for markers that explain more than 10% genetic variance for traits controlled by fewer than 10 major genes. Zhao et al. (2014)  [26] used W-BLUP (weighted BLUP) to give few functional markers a larger weight than other markers. This improved prediction accuracies of heading time and plant height in hybrid wheat compared to marker-assisted selection (MAS), ridge regression BLUP (equivalent to GBLUP) and BayesCπ. Improved prediction accuracies were also reported by Arruda et al. (2016)  [34] when using fixed effects for QTL associated with Fusarium head blight resistance traits compared to ridge regression BLUP, and similarly for pre-harvest sprouting tolerance by Moore et al. (2017)  [40]. However, including QTL identified using the same lines that were also used for the genomic predictions could lead to inflation of the accuracies [34]. In a recent study by Michel et al. (2018)  [38], prediction accuracies for several wheat quality traits were higher based on ridge regression BLUP compared to specifying fixed effects for associated markers identified in independent populations. However, including one or more of the three Glu-1 loci as fixed effects resulted in improved accuracies. For each trait, Glu-1 loci were included if the locus explained more than 5% genetic variance [38].In the present study, an alternative approach using one G-matrix computed from the most significant SNPs and another G-matrix computed from the remaining SNPs could slightly improve predictive abilities (Figure 8). However, the optimal significance threshold depended on the trait. For the traits controlled by few QTL with large effects, a conservative significant threshold seemed to be best, while a loose threshold seemed to be better for traits controlled only by QTL with small effects. To avoid inflation of the predictive abilities, half of the lines were used for the GWAS to select significant SNPs, and the other half were used for the genomic predictions. Thus, larger datasets might be necessary to study the predictive abilities of the genomic feature models and the optimal number of SNPs more thoroughly.Implementation of genetic markers and genomic predictions in breeding programs could likely lead to increased genetic gains for the wheat quality traits. Resources needed for phenotyping could be reduced, and the selection intensity could be increased. The identified SNPs with large effects might be used for screening large numbers of lines early in the breeding program and selecting lines that potentially have good quality traits. Genomic predictions could be used for a more accurate selection of lines with good quality in later generations.SNPs significantly associated with flour yield, Alveo P, and Alveo W were identified on chromosome 5D. For Alveos P and W, associated SNPs were also identified on chromosome 1D. Likely candidate genes could be the Pina-D1 or the Pinb-D1 on chromosome 5D and the Glu-D1 loci on chromosome 1D. Furthermore, SNPs associated with Alveo W were identified on chromosome 1B, and SNPs associated with Alveo L were identified on chromosome 4A. Additive genetic variance explained by a single SNP was up to 13.3% (SNP on 5D for flour yield). The identified SNPs can be used in early generations of breeding programs to screen large numbers of lines. In later generations, it would be advantageous to use a large number of SNPs to ensure accurate prediction of breeding values. Predictive abilities of GBLUP models were 0.50 for flour yield, 0.75 for Alveo P, 0.79 for Alveo W, and 0.64 for Alveo L based on the LOO CV. Predictive abilities were lower when using smaller training sets but were still moderate when using only 10% of the 635 lines as the training set. Furthermore, predictive abilities were significantly lower when using LSO and LFO CV strategies because of reduced genetic relationship between lines in training and validation sets and because of G×E interactions. Predictive abilities were similar or slightly higher based on Bayesian Power Lasso and genomic feature models. Thus, GBLUP models could be used for genomic prediction of wheat quality traits with moderate to high predictive ability. Other models might give slightly higher predictive abilities for traits where major QTL are present in the breeding material.","tokenCount":"6769"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"97b21468a66cd749e222622d44457368","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_10851.pdf","id":"-1248061938"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fd1271d8-5cbd-454a-97a4-4c08ccf94d40","pagecount":"46","content":"A total of 13 WUGs were strengthened and reorganized covering an aggregate area of 2,000 ha. With this strengthened WUGs, nearly 3000 labor days have been contributed to clean about 40 km of canal. Labor contribution was based on land area in some areas and on households in others. Each WUG established fines for violation of rules. Nearly NRs 2300 were collected by seven WUGs. Meetings were held at four levels: 1) DIO and farmers, 2) DIO and WUG, 3) WUG committee and farmers and 4) WUG meetings.The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) was requested by the Department of Irrigation (DOI) to assist in the development and implementation of the action plan on participatory management. The system selected for implementing this assistance was the Banganga Irrigation System (BE). This collaborative project was supported by the Agricultural and Rural Development Office (ARD) of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Mission to Nepal.The Banganga Irrigation System was one of the sub-projects that was rehabilitated under the Command Area Development Project (CADP) during the period 1982-1 989. Under this project, the reservoir was enlarged, the main canal improved, tertiary facilities constructed, support services to farmers initiated, water users groups formed and the irrigation management plan developed. However, the management plan was not implemented and the water users groups formed were found functional. The DOI-IIMI collaborative project was carried out from May 1991 to April 1992 but was extended to July 1992.The overall objective of this project was to develop a set of effective approaches for establishing improved irrigation management practices through increasing water users participation in irrigation, that can be used by the Department of Irrigation throughout Nepal. For Phase I of this project, the specific objective was to help DO1 build a nucleus of staff with handson field experience in developing and implementing participatory irrigation management plans for the jointly-managed systems. The specific tasks in this project were in terms of : 1) institutional development; 2) main system management and 3) anabsis of the administrative linkages of Banganga Irrigation System. This final report presents the major findings and recommendations in fulfillment of the objective and the acomplishments of the project. The final report are in four volumes. Volume I contains the main report. Volume II deals with the details of institutional development, while Volume 111 covers the main system management. Volume IV presents the administrative linkage analysis.The DOI-IIMI collaborative project pursued the above objective and implemented the corresponding tasks. The strengthening of the water users groups led to the actual participation of farmers in operating and maintaining the system and also contributed to improvement in the management of the main system. The analysis of administrative linkages points out the optimal means for using available resources for increasing agricultural productivity in the Banganga Irrigation System. The following findings indicate the accomplishments achieved in pursuing the objective of the project.The project completion report for the CADP noted that most of these water users groups (WUGs) were not operating effectively. The IlMl initial field study determined that most of the WUGs were inactive and did not have any record of their members, their landholdings, or records related to the size and sub-command areas of each WUG and federated water users group (FEWUG). These WUGs were not maintaining field channels and farm ditches and were not collecting water service charges. This report on institutional development in Banganga elucidates on the various reasons why the WUGs were inactive. These reasons relate to several factors: i) the WUGs own internal structural cleavages and lack of irrigation leaders, ii) lack of communication between agency staff and farmers, iii) the agency's style of irrigation management, iv) the structural defects of the system, and v) the untimely, unreliable, and inadequate supply of water at certain parts of the system.IlMl felt that it was important for farmers to observe and hear from other farmers like themselves the possibilities in irrigation management. To this effect, farmer selected representatives and the system manager of BIS participated in a farmer-to-farmer training program. They were taken by the IlMl field staff to two large irrigation systems in the Terai to observe well managed irrigation systems. The farmers were exposed to other irrigation systems that were being managed well by farmers themselves. The system manager was also able to witness the efficacy and capacity of farmer organizations. These field visits to other systems and an awareness of organizational and irrigation management matters motivated the farmers of BIS to convene and form their own water users groups.It was not only the farmers who were motivated to form WUGs. The system manager also after returning from the field visit, began facilitating the formation of newer WUGs outside the research area.WUGs defined their responsibilities as: 1) forwarding requests for water, seeds and other inputs to the BIS management, 2) mobilizing resources for system O&M, 3) supervising canal maintenance and cleaning, 4) keeping minutes of the meeting, records of irrigation activities and financial accounts, 5) collecting fines, 6) allocationing and distributing water according to the water distribution schedule, 7) holding regular meetings, 8) resolving water conflicts, 9) implementing rules and regulations, 10) establishing good communication between the farmers and DOI, and 11) assisting in the preparation of the water distribution schedule. Each WUG formulated rules and regulations with the assistance of the District Irrigation Office (DIO) staff. The rules are still evolving as the farmers call meetings when necessary. Fines have been instituted, and collected for rule violations.Water allocation from the main canal to the branch, distributary and main outlets is the responsibility of the DIO. Water distribution within the branch, distributary and field channels is the responsibility of the WUGs. Some WUGs are considering allocating water based on land area or labor contribution, The water distribution schedule is prepared by the BIS in consultation with WUG chairpersons. The actual schedule implementation has been difficult due to water theft, rainfall, disrupted gate regulators, check gates and lack of staff.The operational activities were pursued in an effort to attain more equitable distribution of irrigation water. In the 1991 monsoon season, the pattern of distribution was better compared to that of the previous 1990 monsoon season. Despite the reduced rainfall, water availability was not significantly affected in the command area of BIS. More equitable distribution was achieved in the 1992 winter season. These results are significant improvements compared to that of the previous 1990 and 1991 monsoon and winter seasons, in terms of water distribution.These improvements can be attributed to the contributions made by the organized water users groups and the efforts of the BIS/DOI manager. The 1992 winter irrigation water delivery schedule was formulated in consultation with the water users groups. There were 28 chairmen of water users groups that participated in the pre-seasonal meeting for the 1992 winter season compared to only 8 chairmen for the 1991 pre-seasonal monsoon season. Schedule implementation was undertaken effectively despite the drastic reduction of BWDOI staff in BIS from 47 to 4 , with the assistance of the water users groups.In terms of maintenance, three major concerns namely siltation, weed growth and repair of control gates in the main canal. Even at the completion of the CADP in 1989, siltation at the diversion intake canal was already acute. Measurements revealed that only 18 percent of the design capacity was flowing in the link canal (canal joining the diversion headworks and the reservoir).Weed infestation was another serious problem which blocked and retarded the flow in the main canal. Two activities were undertaken to address this problem. One was an experiment to reduce or prevent weed growth, This involved lining the main canal with layers of gravel. There were two treatments, one with a uniformly graded gravel and the other with mixed gravel. Results of the experiment indicated that the mixed gravel lining was more effective than the uniformly graded gravel.The other activity was the hiring of a weed expert to suggest ways to suppress these weeds. His recommendations were to continue with the above experiment and to encourage the farmers and BIS/DOI field staff to uproot or remove the weeds. To motivate them, the different weeds were identified and clasified for its food, medicinal, forage, and fuel uses. This information ... then will have to be disemminated to the farmers and BIS/DOI staff, The status of the control gates along the main canal at BIS is deplorable. Only 43 percent were found functional, as indicated by the inventory conducted in 1990. The rotational irrigation schedule was implemented using \"mud plugs\" in outlets with no gates. It was noted that after the organization of these water users groups, reduction in destruction and vandalism of these gates was observed.The administrative linkage analysis of the Banganga Irrigation System covered the following aspects: 1) administrative and budgetary linkages with the Regional Irrigation Directorate and the Department of Irrigation central office in Kathmandu; 2) irrigation system functions in relation to other district level support institutions; 3) the potential for the formation of water users organizations to complement those activities undertaken by the DO1 staff with emphasis on operation and maintenance and resource mobilization and 4) the role of the District Irrigation Office (DIO) in relation to large-scale irrigation management.Overall, the analysis attempted to bring out the issues beyond system management. The analysis of external and internal administrative linkages were viewed in terms of the irrigation system's immediate objective of increased agricultural productivity. The roles of the DO1 and farmers are beyond mere water control in post-construction period, and include the management of the irrigation system, the water users organizations and system staff, and that of the support services for agricultural production.The accomplishments on this project were reviewed as part of the two-day national workshop on participatory management. The objectives of the workshop were to arrive at guidelines for DOl's policy on participatory management in agency-managed irrigation systems and to review and extract lessons from the results of the participatory management programs at Sirsia Dhudhaura, Mahakali and Banganga irrigation systems, which will be useful in the formulation of the guidelines. The workshop was held on 29-30 April 1992, with participants from DOI, DOA, ADB, ILC, ISP, UNDP, ILO, USAID, NGOs, IoE, IAAS and farmers from several systems.The workshop was organized jointly with DOI, with participation from the System Management Branch and Research and Training Branch. Farmers representatives were invited to write and present papers on their views on the participatory program implemented by DO1 in different projects. These papers included main system management and the formation of the water users organizations. The proceedings will be published as part of the accomplishment of this project.A task force on participatory management was organized at the end of the workshop. The task force convened afterwards to draft guidelines for participatory management which will be used in revising the irrigation regulation and DOl's participatory management in the agencyiv managed systems. The workshop also brought about for the first time farmers participation in a national forum.The DOI-IIMI collaborative project in Banganga Irrigation System has fulfilled substantially the objectives set forth. The tasks enumerated for the project also were undertaken, resulting in the attainment of planned outputs.Farmer participation has made a definite impact on irrigation activities in the Banganga Irrigation System. There has been an increase in farmers' participation in preparing water distribution schedule, in meetings with DIO regarding conflict management and the implementation of irrigation rules and regulations, and in the O&M activities of the distributary canals, main outlets, main farm and field ditches. There also has been an improvement in communication and coordination among the farmers themselves and with the DIO through the WUGs.Farmers through their WUGs have been able to work coilectively in acquiring support services and inputs for crop production and crop diversification. Farmers' participation in O&M activities has reduced the O&M cost to DOI. This year alone, the farmers mobilized Nrs. 11 2,397 for O&M activities in BIS. Being involved as partners in some of the irrigation activities of BIS and having invested their time, energy, money, and labour, farmers have begun to develop a feeling of ownership of the system. There has been a gradual introduction of early paddy and crop diversification, with a sense of confidence in the WUGs regarding the acquisition of water and its distribution as well as the safeguarding of crops from free-grazing cattle. The strengthening of 13 water users groups in BIS and the transformation and sensitization of the BIS/DOI staff, in particular the BIS system manager, for carrying out participatory management at BIS are some of the outputs of this project. The farmer-to-farmer training method for effective organization was also demonstrated to be very useful. DOI-farmer dialogue was enhanced through the frequent meetings that the BIS system manager has convened. Initial improvements in the management of the main canal were in terms of more equitable distribution of irrigation water, reduction of water-related conflicts and reduction of the destruction of irrigation facilities. The use of irrigation delivery days for monitoring and evaluation of water distribution was found practical and effective in this project. The improvements can be attributed to the participation of farmers in decision making particularly regarding seasonal allocation and water distribution, flexibility on the part of the BIS/DOI system manager in accommodating reasonable farmers' demands, and the frequent interactions between farmers and the BIS/DOI staff through meetings.The analysis of the administrative linkages of BIS showed that the operation and maintenance can be improved and sustained if farmers are organized effectively and budgetary support procedures from the Regional Irrigation Directorate and central DO1 office are rationalized. The provision of standards for maintenance requirements based on actual needs and reconcialiation of expenditure and outcomes has to be established. Management of agricultural support services was pointed out as another function that has to be undertaken. This is in conjunction with the provision of timely and adequate irrigation water supply by the DO1 field staff. The system manager's role then will need to be reoriented from merely construction activities toward increasing agricultural productivity.By bringing together the experiences and lessons learned in organizing farmersfrom three jointly-managed DO1 systems, the national workshop on participatory management was a fitting conclusion to the project activities. These lessons were incorporated in the guidelines drafted after the workshop. A task force on participatory management was organized to formulate these guidelines. The pioneering participation of farmers in a national workshop was also an accomplishment of this project.The following overall recommendations are made based on the foregoing conclusions and findings:1) The water users groups at BIS should be strengthened and organized for the entire system. This necessitates a thorough understanding of the existing situation before any participatory program activities are to be conducted.2) Reorientation of the system manager from construction activities to increasing agricultural production in the command area is one major task in participatory management.3) Training and motivating the DO1 field staff in water measurement and control and in organizing farmers should be undertaken. 4) A system level confederation of water users organizations should be organized. This third tier organization will then become the BIS management committee that will deal with the district agencies that provide support services to the farmers in the command area.Large irrigation systems should have a separate unit within the district until management capability will be established within the DIO.   6) Budgetary allocations for operation and maintenance should be based on actual needs and monitored accordingly in terms of productivity outputs. Standards for operation and maintenance budget allocation should be established within DO1 and regional irrigation directorates.The foregoing recommendations are deemed necessary if increased agricultural production in large irrigation systems will be attained. IntroductionThe Department of Irrigation (DOI) initiated an Action Plan for Participatory Management Program in 1989. This was in line with the other action plan for turning some systems constructed and managed by DO1 water users' associations, for operation and maintenance. The action plan for participatory management calls for water users groups to take an increased role in the operation and maintenance tasks of jointly-managed systems. The plan assumes that with increased involvement, farmers will improve irrigation service and mobilize the necessary resources to make irrigation systems self-supporting,The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) was requested by DO1 to assist in the development and implementation of the action plan on participatory management. The Banganga Irrigation System (BIS) was identified as the field site for ilMl to work collaboratively with DO1 staff in developing and testing ways for establishing O&M plan through more water user participation. This collaborative program was supported by the Agricultural and Rural Development Office of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Mission to Nepal.The Banganga Irrigation System was one of the sub-projects that was rehabilitated under the Command Area Development Project (CADP) during the period 1982-1989 (Figure 1). Under this project, the reservoir was enlarged, the main canal improved, tertiary facilities constructed, support services to farmers initiated, water users groups formed at the tertiary block level, and irrigation management plan developed. However, the management plan has not been implemented yet and the organized water users groups were not functional.During the winter season of 1991, water delivery in the main canal was reliable, but at the field level rotation of water use was not followed and inequitable distribution was observed.BIS was planned to be jointly-managed by DO1 staff and the farmers. At the start of the project, BIS management was under the Western Regional Irrigation Directorate (WRID). It was later transferred to the District Irrigation Office (DIO). IlMl was requested by the DO1 to assist in the implementation of the irrigation management plan for Banganga Irrigation System. This program was carried out from May 1991 to April 1992 and extended up to July 1992.The overall objective of the program was to develop a set of effective approaches for establishing improved irrigation management practices through increased water user participation that can be used by the Department of Irrigation throughout Nepal.For Phase I, the specific objective was to help the DO1 build a nucleus of staff with hands-on field experience in developing and implementing participatory irrigation management plans for the jointly-managed systems.Specifically, the major tasks proposed for this program were:(1)(2)To develop and test methods of strengthening water users groups; to facilitate dialogue among water users' groups, for the establishment of an organization to formulate and implement rules and regulations for operation and maintenance in accordance with the Irrigation Regulation 2045 and other DO1 guidelines; to determine a workable mechanism for continuous interaction between representatives of the water users organization and the DO1 Banganga System staff; to develop methods for improving delivery of water to farmers, particularly in the main canal, including alternative ways of water flow measurements and collection of relevant information for solving main system management problems and; to analyze systematically the administrative linkages among the Banganga field site, the District Irrigation Office, the Regional Irrigation Directorate and the central DO1 headquarters in order to determine fiscal and management changes necessary to implement and maintain cost-effective and efficient management of jointfarmer-agency systems. This final report presents the major findings and recommendations relevant to the objectives and expected outputs of the program. It covers four volumes, namely the main report, institutional development, main canal management and administrative linkages. The main report briefly covers the other three volumes.(3) (4) (5) Increasing Water User Participation in irrigation ManagementThe implementation of the DOI-IIMI collaborative program in the Banganga Irrigation System was to be undertaken with the DO1 staff at BIS, Research and Training Branch (RTB) and System Management Branch (SMB). Activities were planned and initial efforts were undertaken, with the involvement of RTB and SMB staff. Joint visits to BIS were made by the staff of RTB, SMB and ARD/USAID. One field workshop was also held at BIS to identify areas of collaboration with RTB and SMB. Agreement was reached on certain activities to be undertaken jointly with the staff of RTB and SMB. However, these activities were not carried out due to administrative difficulties on the part of RTB and SMB. One of these difficulties was providing field allowances to SMB staff. This was not allowed by USAlD in this project.Despite this inability to work collaboratively in the field or in Banganga, RTB and SMB were informed regularly on the progress of the project through meetings and quarterly reports. The staff of SMB and RTB were also very much involved in organizing the national workshop on participatory management as part of this project. The workshop was coordinated with RTB and SMB and, after the reorganization of the DOI, with the Irrigation Management and Water Utilization Division (IMWUD).In the case of the BIS/DOI staff, full cooperation was obtained particularly from the system manager. Although the overseers were not interested in the project, the system manager was enthusiastic in implementation specifically in reorganizing the water users' groups (WUGs)*. The other BIS/DOI field staff were also supportive of the program. With the staff reduction at BIS and the retention of only 1 gazetted staff, arrangements were made to hire on temporary basis ten field staff to help operate the system during the 1992 winter season.IlMl fielded one researcher, one field assistant, one research fellow and one driver. Its international staff (one social scientist and one engineer) made regular visits to Banganga to provide support in carrying out the tasks as outlined in the objectives of the project. Additional support was provided by a weed expert, as recommended by SMB and RTB, to study the weeds in the main canal of BIS.The resutts and findings of this report are presented in three sections, namely, institutional development, main canal management and administrative linkages.Efforts made reorganize and strengthen water users' groups effectively for participatory management are necessary in improving main canal management. Such improvement will be useful only if linkages within DO1 at all levels are established to support participatory management. Moreover, operation and maintenance budget * In this report, water users groups (WUG) refers to the lowest level group of water users that is slowly organizing itself for irrigation management and as yet, has not registered as a legal entity in accordance with current irrigation regulation.requests based on actual needs should be the major consideration for budgetary allocation. Likewise, linkages within the district between BIS/DOI and other support services for agricultural production should be functional. The llMi staff made several preliminary field visits to Banganga Irrigation System during the first six months of 1990. These field visits were made to assess the existing situation regarding water management in Banganga and to understand the history and evolution of the system, so as to plan a research activity there.During the middle of July 1990 IlMl assigned a research officer to be based in Banganga itself to carry out research activities there. The research officer was assisted by several field assistants on and off for different activities.Throughout August 1990, the research officer observed the irrigation management activities undertaken by the WUGs and FEWUGs. Through such observations and several meetings with the farmer members, the research officer began assessing the activities and efficacy of the users' groups. This process established rapport between the IlMl research staff and the farmers. Furthermore, living at the field site and interacting with them encouraged the exchange of ideas. The farmers felt more comfortable expressing their views and explaining to the IlMl research staff the reasons for undertaking and continuing \"irrigation management\". Such interactions provided a welcome opportunity to IlMl for evaluate jointly with the farmers the needs and performance of the water users' groups.For the purpose of detailed observation and data collection, IlMl selected a 500 ha area within the command area. An area of 250 ha was selected in the head reach of the main reach of the main system within Bilaspur distributary and main Outlet #21.The remaining 250 ha was located in the main outlets #40, 41, 42, 43 in the tailend Of the main system.Water measurements at the diversion, main and branch canals were undertaken to determine the availability of water at various points within the System.Simultaneously, socio-economic and agricultural data were collected forthe 500 ha study area. Data collected were: inventory of farmers, their names, landholdings, area under different crops, area lefl fallow and reasons thereof, cropping patterns, land types, types of crops and their varieties, types and use of fertilizers.With USAID funds to undertake this project, the research area was expanded to include 500 ha more to the previous 500 ha. The additional 500 ha were distributed among the main outlets 44, 45, 46, 47 in the tailend of the main system and main outlets 24, 26, 27, 28, 29,and 30 in the headend.Similar data collection activities as carried out in the previous 500 ha were conducted in the additional 500 ha, thus making the research area I000 ha.IlMl interacted with the farmers to form new WUGs or restructure old ones within the pilot study area of 1000 ha.Together with BIS management, IlMl conducted afarmer-to-farmer training tour to the Chattis Mauja and Pithuwa Irrigation Systems. This training was designed to expose and orient both BIS management and farmers to the management practices and capacities of farmers in well-managed farmer irrigation systems.The IlMl staff facilitated the formation of more WUGs after the farmer-to-farmer training programme. Similarly at the initiative of BIS management and with IIMl's assistance, six WUGs were formed by the farmers outside the pilot research area.Both BIS staff and IlMl research staff attended WUG meetings and guided the organizational arrangements and the formulation of rules and roles for the WUGs that were recently formed or reformulated. WUGs cleaned their respective canals through their members.BIS management facilitated thr involvement of farmer representatives in the preparation of the water distribution schedule for the winter crops.A joint field workshop was organized by SMB, RTB, USAID, BIS and IlMl at Banganga to review the status of work in Banganga and to propose collaborative activities between SMB, RTB, BIS and IIMI.Water measurements and gauge readings continued to be taken until the end of the research project.Aweed experiment was conducted using mixed gravel and uniform gravel, and comparing such use with the \"natural\" condition of the canal (control) in order to see the effect on weed growth and density.In this relation a weed expert was hired to assess the nature of weed growth in the main canal and to recommend environmentally and ecologically sound practices to reduce weed growth.Data on the number of farmers within a WUG, their landholdings within each WUG, and their villages were verified and given to the farmers for their verification and use as a basis for certain irrigation management activities.Water level at the Jagadish reservoir was continuously measured.Most of the WUG committees that were formed during CADP lacked even a membership list or a record on land areas within their WUG and the size of the area under the individual WUG's jurisdiction for water management, There were hardly any meetings held by the WUGs as a whole or their committees, and routine or emergency meetingsand discussions regarding water allocation, distribution, resource mobilization for maintaining their outlet and field channels, and conflict resolution were basically non-existent. The specific duties, responsibilities, and rights of the water users and water users' group committee members, as well as between WUGs, also were not worked out. The WUGs did not collect the water service charges nor were they active in the repair and maintenance of their field channels and farm ditches. In short, there was a lack of coordinated participation of the water users in irrigation management.The BIS office prepared the water delivery schedule without consulting the CADP WUGs, and this schedule was just dispatched to them and other government agricultural agencies. Very few meetings organized by the BIS office. When the IlMl research staff arrived in Banganga, only four meetings had been called by the office. Three of these were for paddy water delivery while one was for wheat. The irrigators informed the research staff that only a few leaders received the notice on the date of meetings. On an average only eight leaders out of 134 WUGs participated in these meetings.Water delivery into the branch and distributary canals were undertaken by supervisors, gate operators, fieldmen, and dhalpas at the instruction of the system manager. The supervisor made regular field visits and inspected water distribution at the main outlets and the main and branch canals. The assistant engineer also made periodic field visits to the main canal to give further instructions to subordinates regarding water distribution and water adjustment in the branch and distributary canals and the main outlets.Usually farmers (in groups or individually) approached the gate operators and supervisors to deliver more water to them. The gate operators and supervisors then informed their senior officials at the BIS office of these demands made by the farmers. Some farmers approached the system manager or his assistant engineer directly at the office for more water. The local people and irrigators informed the research team that these were big landlords, political leaders, and certain chairmen of the CADP WUGs. Thus adjustments in the water schedule were made at the instruction of senior officials to meet the demands of influential farmers, landlords, or politicians.Water delivery from the main canal to the branch, distributary, and main outlets was the responsibility of the BIS office, and the WUGs were responsible for distributing the water within their branch and distributary and field channels. Since very few CADP Increasing Water User Participation In lrrlgatlon Management WUG leaders were notified about the delivery schedule and hardly any of the WUG leaders were consulted in the preparation of the schedule, there was confusion in following the schedule properly. The WUGs did not take up their responsibility in water distribution. Thus, those at the headend diverted all the water (by even making \"illegal\" turnouts to their fields even though it was not their turn and the tailenders irrigated their paddy fields harvesting the drain water. The research staff observed a lack of understanding between farmers from the headend and the tailend regarding water sharing from the main canal.Farmers were dissatisfied with the officials for several reasons. Chief among them were: there was always shortage of water being delivered, water was supplied irregularly, water delivery schedule was prepared without WUG involvement, water delivery schedule was not adequately distributed to all concerned, compensation was not paid to all those whose land was acquired for the CADP project, water tax was collected without an assured supply of water, several unnecessary and useless field channels were constructed, and poor relations were maintained with the farmers. Farmers also criticized the officials for not sticking to the very schedule they themselves prepared. Water was not adequately and timely delivered according this schedule.On the other hand, the officials claimed that farmers did not want to follow the water schedule and that they preferred continuous water supply. The officials noted that the farmers were not interested in being involved in the preparation of the water schedule and were not active during their own water distribution period.In short, the research team observed several controversial issues between the farmers and the agency staff. Farmers were critical not only of the office-mode of water management but also of their own ineffective WUGs. The WUG leaders chosen by CADP were not interested in water distribution, in the preparation of water distribution schedule, and in the operation and maintenance activities of their field channels. The farmers noted that during the formation of the WUGs, the roles, rights, and obligations of the various functionaries were not laid down explicitly. The leaders of the WUGs were usually big landlords who were not interested in distributing water or willing to organize resource mobilization for their WUGs on an equitable basis. They did not know all the members of their WUG and how much land these members operated within the WUG's area of jurisdiction.Internal structural cleavages, land holdings of a single irrigator dispersed throughout the command area, and political influences were cited as examples of problems faced by farmers in water management.Farmers in general reported the presence of ill feelings between villages, between headenders and tailenders, and between and within the branch and distributary canals. Even within a main outlet, a branch, or a distributary, there were headenders and tailenders, although along the main canal this particular branch or distributary could be at the head or middle end. The headenders usually received abundant water and were not willing to share it with the tailenders.Due to unavailability of water at certain places in the system and where structure were non-functional, water was harvested from drainage channels for Increasing Water User Participation in Irrigation Management irrigation. However, there were also water logged areas where paddy was the only crop grown.Farmers felt that there was: i) a lack of good WUG leaders responsible for water management, and ii) lack of good coordination and collegiality between farmers and officials. Because of this, the preparation and implementation of the water delivery schedule was not participatory.IlMl was to select two alternative methods of strengthening farmer organizations but selected only one method: interactions together with farmer-to-farmer training. IlMl field research staff first interacted with various groups of farmers to learn from them the existing situation on irrigation management. An initial step was to establish rapport and gain the trust of the farmers. Later, the research staff facilitated the interaction of groups of farmers with the BIS office staff members through field visits, meetings and discussion sessions with or without the BIS office staff. During these visits and meetings, the IlMl research staff encouraged the farmers to form water users' groups to organize water management activities within their area constituting one branch canal or outlet. By having the farmers discuss their water management problems and by providing examples of effective water user groups, the staff were able to make farmers aware of the possibilities of organizing themselves at least for the purposes of their own area. As previously mentioned, a few water users' groups were formed by the water users themselves, with the by ilMl research team facilitating the process.In addition to the interactions facilitated by the IlMl research staff among the different farmers and with the BIS office staff members, IlMl with BIS office organized a farmer-to-farmer training for twelve farmer representatives selected by the farmers themselves. This training was undertaken in September 1991. The farmer-to-farmer training has proven to be very successful in BIS. Twelve farmers, one fieldman, and the system manager from BIS were taken to Pithuwa Irrigation System and Chattis Mauja Irrigation System. After the farmers returned from these systems, they felt the need for WUGs to improve their own irrigation management. They started to reorganize the WUGs themselves and also undertook the cleaning and desilting of the canals. It was precisely during the cleaning of the canal that the farmers felt the need for a strong WUG that would provide direction and supervision during any resource mobilization and operation and maintenance work.IlMl stressed the fact that the formation of water users groups should only be done by the farmers themselves and that outsiders can only facilitate the process. It was important to create an environment that brought about awareness among individual farmers of the need for an organization. Talking with the farmers about collective action, the IlMl field research staff met with them every week and in the process brought about interactions among the farmers themselves. During these meetings, the objectives of participatory management as well as the need for the involvement and participation of farmers in the management of irrigation activities were emphasized.The system manager was part of the farmer-to-farmer training program and also not only the farmer-selected representatives. They were taken to two large Increasing Water User Participation In Irrigation Management irrigation systems in the Terai to observe well-managed irrigation systems. The farmers were exposed to other systems that were being managed well by farmers themselves. The system manager was also able to witness the efficacy and capacity of farmer organizations. These field visits to other systems and an awareness of organizational and irrigation management matters motivated the farmers of BIS to convene and form their own water users' groups.It was not only the farmers who were motivated to form WUGs. The system manager also after returning from the field visit, began facilitating the formation of newer WUGs outside the research area.SMB and RTB were supposed to collaborate in the farmer-to-farmer training but did not. These should have been the institutions that were to train both farmers and fieldmen who, as Association Organizers, were to organize water users in the rest of the command area. In the absence of their involvement, IlMl tried out the complementary approach using interactions with farmers as Association Organizers and the farmer-to-farmer training.A total of 13 WUGs were formed under the participatory management program in BIS. The rest were outside the pilot area, in Laxminagar, Taulihawa, and Hathihawa branches of Banganga irrigation system's command area.The WUG committee consisted of a chairperson, vice-chairperson, secretary/ treasurer, members, and chowkidar (patrolman). Selection of the functionaries was done by the farmers themselves during general assembly meetings. During such meetings, the DO1 staff often interacted by providing comments on activities undertaken by WUGs. The one-year tenure of these functionaries and their renumeration were set during these very meetings. Chowkidars were provided paddy by the farmers as remuneration where others were excused from labor work. The duties and responsibilities of WUGs and their committees were written down in a book of minutes.Depending on the appropriateness, the WUGs have been formed based on either hydrological or village boundary. The farmers weighed various options regarding the number of water users. Since it was the farmers' first attempt in forming water users' groups, the processwas evolutionary and adjustments had to be made by the farmers.It was noted that in village-based WUGs, landowners and tenants lived within the area, and the main outlet was located usually in the village. This made possible easy communication among the members for resource mobilization, decision making, control of free-grazing, and conflict resolution. The interrelationships between the villagers as irrigators/farmers of the same WUG within the same village facilitated irrigation activities. Established social relations within the village also facilitate ongoing irrigation activities under WUGs. These tasks were divided among the various functionaries.Various activities were undertaken by WUGs during the participatory program.Irrigation rules and regulations were formulated by each WUG with the help of the District Irrigation Office (DIO) staff. Farmer dialogues were facilitated by the IIMI. Whenever they were faced with problems regarding irrigation management activities, the WUG committees called farmer assembly meetings for formulating and improving on the rules and regulations. Such behavior is indicative,of an evolving and dynamic organization. Fines were imposed on certain restrictions, and these fines were collected.After the formation of WUGs, farmers cleaned their main outlets and distributary canals and acquired water as groups rather than on individual or ad hoc basis.Within the newly established WUGs, water allocation has been made on the basis of the stage in the crop life cycle. Individual farmers now request water from their own WUG. Farmers are slowly beginning to relate their resource contribution to canal cleaning and O&M with water allocation. Some WUGs have begun to think about water allocation being based on either land area or labor contribution.Within some newly formed WUGs, water distribution is slowly being based on priority and felt need for irrigating the crop. If water is plenty and there is adequate soil moisture then continuous water distribution is practiced in each main farm ditch from the distributary and main outlet.Resources in terms of labor were mobilized for cleaning the canal. After the formation of WUGs, some 40 km of canal were cleaned with nearly 3000 labor days. This was the first time that the farmers cleaned the canals themselves. The amount of and basis for contribution from each of the WUG varied. For example, in Gobari WUG, contribution was on the basis of land area. However in Semari, Shivpura, Tilaura, Gothihawa, Bilaspur, Laxminagar, and Sukhampur it was on the basis of households. Some have questioned the household criterion on grounds of equity, and therefore this basis for labor contribution may change.Each newly formed WUG established sanctions and fines for violations of the WUG's rules and regulations. For example, penalties and fines were imposed on those absent from maintenance work, steal water, and damage the canal.Increasing Water User Partlcipatlon In Irrigation Management many farmers and to realize the least overall transaction costs and minimal misunderstanding between the agency staff and the WUGs. The agency staff made clear to the farmers that it was not possible for BIS management to deal with individual requests for every irrigation service. BIS/DOI stipulated that certain sfructural improvements were to be carried out only after the farmers and their WUGs agreed to fulfill out their responsibilities in operation and maintenance too. Thus minor structural improvements were used as bargaining or negotiating chips to bring about operation and maintenance within areas under WUG jurisdiction and thereby bring about social cohesiveness and self-reliance. The BIS manager had contemplated tapping the farmers for these improvements but faced a problem in using them for skilled labor (e.g., masonry) which was usually contracted out. He tried to find ways of involving the farmers in such a way that satisfied the auditors (given the current policies and practices for such minor improvement skilled work). Not all problems regarding irrigation operation and maintenance and the preservation of structures within the system have been solved by the different WUGs. Also some problems were minor and did not undermine the solidarity of the group. For example, when a rod for a gate was stolen and nobody knew about it, the concerned WUG discussed the situation and invited BIS/DOI and IlMl to participate in the deliberations. WUGs had been requesting both BlS/DOI and IlMl to attend their meetings so that the members could interact with the agency and seek help regarding certain organizational issues.Both BIS/DOI and IlMl acted as catalyst or facilaators in addressing organizational issues faced by the different WUGs. They requested several meetings with different groups of farmers and tried to make them aware of the importance of organizing into water users' groups. They took the farmers for a farmer-to-farmer training visit. They made suggestions regarding the organizational composition of WUGs, rules, responsibilities, and roles, and made the farmers aware that they (farmers) could accept or reject such suggestions.Continued farmer-agency dialogue was achieved through both formal and informal meetings. The WUGs recorded their agenda, decisions, and follow-up activities undertaken by their WUGs in their book of minutes. WUGs approached BIS/DOI to act as arbitrator. When conflicts occurred within WUG areas, WUGs committees wanted the support of DO1 to resolve the conflicts, especially those related to free-grazing, canal embankments damages, or the creation of illegal ofitakes. The BIS office met with these farmers and suggested an internal conflict resolution mechanism with rules, sanctions, and chowkidars to enforce them.New crops such as maize and early paddy were planted within the command area of the pilot WUGs. The farmers said that they now have some confidence in the WUG's ability to assure water supply and control cattle grazing and therefore ventured into planting new crops. The WUG committees collected information on the amount of seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides necessary for the farmers who were planting these crops and submitted these requirements for inputs to BIS/DOI. BIS/DOI In turn forwarded these demands to the various support services located in the district. BIS Increasing Water User Participation in lrrlgatlon Management Fines also were collected from those whose cattle grazed along the canal. Fines amounting to nearly NRs. 2300 were collected by seven WUGs.decision making, the WUG committees held periodic meetings, both formal and informal. Many of these were held at the request of the IlMl research staff and the BIS system manager. However, after the initial stage, these meetings were called and convened by the WUG committees. Four different levels of meetings, discussions, and dialogues were facilitated with farmer participation. These were: DlO/farmer, DIO/WUG, WUG committee/farmer, and WUG meetings3To facilitate communication, information exchange, and During the DlO/farmer meetings, topics such as the selection of WUG committees, selection of participants for farmer to farmer training, and resource mobilization for O&M were discussed. Ako, the dates for O&M, conflict resolutions, public hearing on accounts and expenditures, water delivery schedule, and the types of action to be taken on those who refuse to obey the WUGs and DlO's irrigation rules were discussed.In meetings between the DIO and WUG Committees, water distribution schedule, cutting of canal embankments, calculation and auditing of labor contributed for O&M for paddy crop, and announcement of accounts of the various WUGs were some of the topics usually discussed.In WUG meetings, announcements of annual accounts, labor mobilized and contributed, salaries of patrollers, collection of fines, and ensuring water distribution even in times of water scarcity were the issues covered.In WUG committee meetings, the collection of demands for seeds and other inputs of agriculture to be requested from the various support service offices through BIS, application for water from BIS, date for general assembly, division of labor for operation and maintenance, and proposition of annual irrigation activities for structural improvement of the system were some of the topics discussed.In each of these meetings, a constant monitoring and evaluation of irrigation rules and regulations set by the various WUGs were undertaken. At this initial stage of the formation of some WUGs, the meetings provided a forum for learning and enhancing coordination and communication among the parties concerned. It was in these meetings that new working relationships regarding irrigation and related activities were formed and roles, responsibilities, rights, and sanctions were endorsed and took a firmer form.' DIO here refers to BIS office. In the latter part of 1991, BIS was subsumedwithin DIO and thus DIOiFarmers or WUGs relationships have been used. When DIO is refereed to during meetings, the staff members representing DIO usually consisted of the system manager and one or hvo of his overseers.Interactions between the manager and the farmers also revolved around certain activities. Prior to the monsoon season of 1991, a general meeting of the chairmen of WUGs, whether functional or not, was convened by the system manager to inform them of the water delivery schedule. Previously, it was the BIS office that laid down the terms of the water delivery schedule and the farmers were informed only after the schedule had been made.In 1991, information about the water delivery schedule was conveyed to farmers at the different sections of the canal through successive meetings at those places.During these meetings, the system manager tried to motivate and convince the farmers that cleaning, repairing, and maintaining their canals was tor their own benefit. It was the system manager himself organized these meetings. The IlMl field staff were consulted by him for facilitating discussions and providing examples of farmer organizational strengths elsewhere in Nepal. One example was how some functional WUGs which, as organizations, were functional cleaned outlets and tertiary channels of about 15 km.During the 1991 monsoon season, the system manager along with the IlMl field staff organized a total of 25 meetings with farmers in 15 villages. These meetings were used to inform and discuss with the farmers about the water delivery schedule for the monsoon season, water users group formation, formulation of rules and regulations, labour mobilization for canal maintenance, and farmer selection for the farmer-to-farmer training activities. These meetings facilitated interactions and dialogues between the agency staff and the farmers. The farmers were informed about the water delivery potential, agency constraints in meeting maintenance costs, and proposed plans for water management activities to be carried out by the agency alone or with assistance from the farmers in the system. Thus, better understanding and rapport were achieved in relation to the operation and maintenance of the system for the monsoon season.In preparation for the winter cropping season, a general meeting for WUG leaders was held in the BIS office. The purpose of this meeting was to prepare the water delivery schedule for the 1991-92 winter season. A total of 38 WUG representatives participated in this meeting. This was a significant improvement over last year's meeting when only eight WUG representatives attended. The change can be attributed to the willingness of BIS involve the farmers in formulating the water delivery schedule, the sincerity and efforts of the BIS staff to meet with the farmers and discuss water management problems. In this meeting, the system manager explained and emphasized the necessity of rotation and the proper use of irrigation water due to the limited supply impounded in the reservoir. WUG leaders participated because it was for their benefit to be informed about the water availability situation of the system, represent their group's views, and interact with both agency staff and functionaries of other WUGs.During the winter cropping season of 199111992 and pre-monsoon period, several meetings and visits were held between the WUGs and BIS/DOI. The system manager participated in these meetings which discussed the scheduling of water delivery, water users' group formation, and annual income and expenditures of the various WUGs. During these seasons, BIS/DOI support was provided mainly in terms of continued strengthening of the already formed water users' groups. BIS/DOI stressed the need for strong organizations to deal with the various demands of the Increasing Water User Partlclpatlon In lrrlgatlon Management many farmers and to realize the least overall transaction costs and minimal misunderstanding between the agency staff and the WUGs. The agency staff made clear to the farmers that it was not possible for BIS management to deal with individual requests for every irrigation service.BIS/DOI stipulated that certain sfructural improvements were to be carried out only after the farmers and their WUGs agreed to fulfill out their responsibilities in operation and maintenance too. Thus minor structural improvements were used as bargaining or negotiating chips to bring about operation and maintenance within areas under WUG jurisdiction and thereby bring about social cohesiveness and self-reliance. The BIS manager had contemplated tapping the farmers for these improvements but faced a problem in using them for skilled labor (e.g., masonry) which was usually contracted out. He tried to find ways of involving the farmers in such a way that satisfied the auditors (given the current policies and practices for such minor improvement skilled work). Not all problems regarding irrigation operation and maintenance and the preservation of structures within the system have been solved by the different WUGs. Also some problemswere minor and did not undermine the solidarity of the group. For example, when a rod for a gate was stolen and nobody knew about it, the concerned WUG discussed the situation and invited BIS/DOI and IlMl to participate in the deliberations. WUGs had been requesting both BIS/DOI and IlMl to attend their meetings so that the members could interact with the agency and seek help regarding certain organizational issues.Both BIS/DOI and IlMl acted as catalyst or facilitators in addressing organizational issues faced by the different WUGs. They requested several meetings with different groups of farmers and tried to make them aware of the importance of organizing into water users' groups. They took the farmers for a farmer-to-farmer training visit. They made suggestions regarding the organizational composition of WUGs, rules, responsibilities, and roles, and made the farmers aware that they (farmers) could accept or reject such suggestions.Continued farmer-agency dialogue was achieved through both formal and informal meetings, The WUGs recorded their agenda, decisions, and follow-up activities undertaken by their WUGs in their book of minutes. WUGs approached BIS/DOI to act as arbitrator. When conflicts occurred within WUG areas, WUGs committees wanted the support of DO1 to resolve the conflicts, especially those related to free-grazing, canal embankments damages, or the creation of illegal offtakes. The BIS office met with these farmers and suggested an internal conflict resolution mechanism with rules, sanctions, and chowkidars to enforce them.New crops such as maize and early paddy were planted within the command area of the pilot WUGs. The farmers said that they now have some confidence in the WUG's ability to assure water supply and control cattle grazing and therefore ventured into planting new crops. The WUG committees collected information on the amount of seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides necessary for the farmers who were planting these crops and submitted these requirements for inputs to BlS/DOI. BIS/DOI in turn forwarded these demands to the various support services located in the district. BIS Increasing Water User Partlcipatlon In lrrlgation Management and WUGs have begun a process for coordinating support services and acquiring them for the various new crop growers.BlS/DOI together with IlMl explained to the various WUGs about the workshop on participatory management and facilitated the selection of the farmers' representatives to the workshop. These representatives presented papers regarding views on participatory management at the workshop in Kathmandu. During the workshop, DOI-farmer dialogue was elevated to the national level.The set of activities dealing for main canal management improvement is a major component of the DOI-IIMI collaborative program. This section briefly describes these activities and presents highlights that include procedures used and results obtained in the main canal improvement efforts. Details of this section can be found in Volume 3 of the Final Report, \"Main Canal Management in Banganga Irrigation System.\"The activities presented here cover two seasons, namely, 1991 monsoon season and 1992 winter season. To faciliate management and analysis, the system was divided into head, middle and tail sections (Figure 1).The cropping pattern at BIS starts in June during the monsoon season and ends in November. Paddy is the main crop. For the winter season, crops planted are wheat, mustard, vegetables, and other cash crops. Cropping starts in December and ends in April. Early paddy, corn and vegetables also are planted in limited areas, starting in March and ending in July.Prior to the monsoon season of 1991, the DO1 and IlMl field staff conducted farmer surveys for organizational purposes, initial water flow measurements in the main, canal and other relevant system data collection. A schedule for irrigation water delivery was formulated by the system manager and presented in a general meeting Only 8 chairmen attended this meeting but subsequent meetings were held in the villages within the command area. In these meetings, discussion were on the monsoon schedule, water users' group formation, and topics that dealt with the operation and maintenance of the system affecting farming activities.Water flow measurement in the main canal was initiated. However, due to siltation and weed infestation, accurate staff gage calibration was not feasible. An alternative method of monitoring water flow that was developed was the daily monitoring of flow by recording the number of days water flow was observed in the different outlets, distributary and branch canals along the main canal. This monitoring method fits the schedule of water delivery since it uses the number of days that each Increasing Water User Participatlon in Irrigation Management section of the canal is to receive irrigation water. It was found practical and useful by the DOI/BIS field staff.However, this method does not take into account the actual volume of water flow and also assumes constant flow in the outlets. Verification of the method was undertaken by comparing actual measuring flows in the head, middle and tail sections of the main canal during the 1992 winter season. The results were very similar in terms of seasonal average proportions of flows into each section. Despite the high variability in flows observed in this verification, the alternative method was found effective and useful in monitoring and evaluating water flow and adequacy in the main canal operation.An inventory of the main canal gates was also undertaken. Only 43 percent of these gates were found functional. This is an indication of farmer intervention in the main canal. There was a nominal density of 17 BIS/DOI field staff or 2.3 km of canal per field staff, who were supposedly providing control in the main canal. The laxity of the field staff contributed to the deterioration of the main canal gates. Notwithstanding the intervention of farmers in the main canal and the apparent laxity of the BiS/DOI field staff, efforts were made during the 1991 monsoon season to monitor flows, control gates where feasible, and operate the reservoir outlet gate in a timely manner to effectively use the rainfall. Farmer intervention was reduced due to the 25 meetings held in different villages within the command area. The system manager took the initiative in these meetings to explain to the farmers the merits of a water users organization and to discuss mutual concerns on the operation and maintenance of the system. With these efforts, a total of 13 WUGs were reorganized and strengthened covering about a third of the command area or about 2,000 ha.A comparative analysis was made of the 1990 and 1991 monsoon seasons. The head section received the largest proportion of irrigation water in terms of irrigation days, although water volume was reduced by as much as 12 percent. There was also an increase in the number of irrigation days in the middle section which show that improvement was being made in the distribution of irrigation water (Figure 2).Rainfall was observed to be 18 percent less in 1991 compared to that in 1990. However, this reduction in rainfall did not affect significantly water availability in the command area of BIS. These results indicate improvement in the effectiveness of main canal management efforts undertaken under the DOI-IIMI collaborative program.In the winter season of 1992, there were several events that affected the operation at BIS. Among these were the reduction of BIS/DOI staff and the transfer of the BIS management under the District Irrigation Office (DIO). The policy of terminatingproject appointed staff reduced the number from 47 to 4 gazetted staff. The BIS system manager was retained as acting DIO engineer, and the temporary hiring of 10 field staff for BIS was undertaken. Percentace of Delivery Days: Ratio of actual irrigalion delivery days for each section over the seasonal total Increasing Water User Partlclpatlon In Irrigation Management Despite these changes the BIS system manager organized the operation of the system. A meeting of WUG chairmen was called before the start of the winter season.Atotal of 28 WUG chairmen and 10 farmers attended this meeting which enabled the farmers and the BIS system manager to formulate the winter season allocation and schedule of distribution. The meeting also illustrated to the farmers that their participation in decision-making was important in the operation of the system. The sequence of water delivery schedule agreed upon was to start at the tail towards the headend.There was a total of three rotational schedules in all for the winter season. The two succeeding schedules were adjusted in accordance with the actual demands of the farmers. This flexibility on the part of the BIS system manager to accommodate the farmers' demands also points out the effectiveness of DO1 and farmer interaction through frequent meetings or dialogues. During this season there was a shift away from wheat and on with increase in other crops like oil seeds, vegetables, banana and sugar cane. To a certain extent such crop diversification indicates some degree of confidence in the main canal management undertaken by the BIS/DOI staff.For the winter season three levels of analyses were done, namely, comparing the patterns of distribution of the 1991 and 1992 winter seasons, comparing plan and actual distribution, and comparing the 1991 monsoon season and 1992 winter season. The 1992 winter season had significantly better distribution than the 1991 winter season. The head section received more than 50 percent of the total irrigation days for the 1991 winter season, while for the 1992 only 33 percent was received by the head section and 36 percent by the middle section (Figure 3). A comparison of the plan and actual water delivery shows that in the 1992 winter season about 12 percent of the total number of irrigation days was in excess of the plan in the head section, about 10 percent was less in the middle section, about 3 percent was less in the tail.Moreover, there was more equitable distribution during the 1992 winter season than during the 1991 monsoon season .The significant improvement in the water distribution can be attributed to effective participation of the WUGs in the formulation of the winter season irrigation deliveryschedule, increased efforts of the temporary field staff to enforce the schedule, cooperation by most farmers in abiding by the agreed upon schedule, and the efforts of the BIS system manager to meet and discuss with the farmers and manage the main canal effectively.In the maintenance of the main canal, 3 problems were highlighted. These were siltation, weed infestation and repair of irrigation facilities in the main canal. Yearly deposition of silt has been monitored at the rate of 25-30 cm per year since 1985. The silt deposition reduced the carrying capacity of the link canal, from the diversion to the reservoir, to only 18 percent of the design capacity. Out of the estimated 600,000 Nrs needed for complete desiiting, only 250,000 Nrs was provided. This amount was enough only to desilt 3 km of the 50 km long link canal. Though considered palliative, the desiltation done increased the capacity of the link canal and enabled the reservoir to store more water for the coming 1992 monsoon season.Weed infestation also affected the effective operation of the main canal. Weeds retarded the flow, causing unnecessary flows into the ungated outlets in the upstream section of the main canal. The result was lesser number of irrigation days for the tail section in both the monsoon and winter seasons. To reduce the excess delivery in these ungated outlets in the head section, mud was used to plug the outlets, particularly when the schedule for water delivery was intended for the tail section.An experiment for testing the effects of lining the canal with uniformly graded gravel and mixed gravel was conducted. Results indicate that the mixed gravel lining was more effective than the uniformly graded gravel. After eight weeks, an average weed population density of 20 per meter of main canal length was observed in the uniformly graded gravel. While for the mixed gravel, less than the average weed population density of 4 per meter was observed. The cost of the gravel lining was only 50 Nrs per meter of main canal length. This experiment needs further verification to determine costs and benefits and also feasibility not only in BIS but in other systems as well.Expert consultation was also tapped. A weed expert was commissioned to study the weeds in the main canal of BIS and to make recommendations for nonchemical suppression. The recommendations were that the experiment should be continued for further verification and that certain types of algae can be used to suppress weed growth in the canal bed bottom. The obvious practice ofweed removal including the roots and also for floating varieties was suggested. Moreover, several weeds growing in the main canal were categorized and their uses were identified, such as fodder, fuel, soil binder, food, medicinal material. With such utility, DO1 field staff and farmers can be motivated to remove these weeds more often, thus reducing weed infestation.The administrative linkage analysis of the Banganga Irrigation System covers the following aspects: 1) administrative and budgetary linkages with the Regional Directorate (RD) office and the Department of Irrigation (DOI) in Kathmandu; 2) irrigation system functions in relation to other district level support instiutions; 3) the potential for the formation of water users' organizations to complement the activities undertaken by the BIS, with emphasis on operation and maintenance (OSM) and resource mobilization; and 4) the role of the District Irrigation Office (DIO) in relation to large-scale irrigation management.The succeeding portions of this section highlight the results of this analysis. However, details can be found in a separate report entitled \" Administrative Linkages of Banganga Irrigation System\", Final Report Volume IV.Constructed in 1978, BIS was rehabilitated with an Asian Development Bank (ADB) loan, under the Command Area Development Project during the period 1982 to 1989. Since 1990-91, there have been no project activities. The system first came under DOI, later on was supervised by the Western Regional Irrigation Directorate (WRID) in Pokhara, and now is under the DIO in Kapilbastu district.increasing Water User Participation in lrrlgatlon Management The analysi's shows that the transition from one project to another and finally to a non-project status was not smooth. During the transition, there was a complete dislocation of every aspect of irrigation activities. Shortage of manpower, insufficient budget for O&M, and high silt deposits in the link and main canals were the general complaints. Specific issues during the non-project status of BIS were: 1) role of the irrigation system manager: 2) manpower allocation in the system; 3) budget provision; 4) support from RD and DOI; and 5) relation between system management and users' organization.One crucial consideration observed was that the system manager should be able to meet the target of water delivery. This consideration is needed in order to establish good rapport with other district level agencies, and to mobilize services and resourcesfor increased agricultural productivity in the command area. The manpower required depends on among other factors, the O&M needs of the system. Although O&M work is under the direction of the irrigation system manager, manpower allocation is decided by the RD and procedures for allocating the right manpower have not been developed either at the DO1 or the RD level.There are two components of the budget: administrative and program. In the program budget, the relation between the expenditure and its output (either in terms of expansion of irrigated area or increase in agricultural productivity) is not determined. An analysis of budget allocation shows the need establish standards for allocating O&M costs on an effective command area basis.There has been no input to the Banganga system from the RD regarding O&M standards and the formation of users' organizations. Neither technical nor supervisory support has been provided by the RD in the improvement of system management. close interaction can be found only in budget allocation and estimate approval. There is a very weak link between the DO1 (central Kathmandu office) and the staff of largescale irrigation systems. The DO1 through the RD is supposed to provide standard and guidelines for the O&M of large-scale irrigation systems. The DO1 gets involved only when the O&M problems of these systems become unmanageable.The government is not capable of continuing to pay the O&M costs of large irrigation systems. The water fee collection rate is below 7 percent, and less than 20 percent of the requested maintenance budget for large irrigation systems like BIS is approved by the RD. Thus, possible alternatives for financing O&M must be considered. Such alternatives call for government and farmers to jointly bear responsibility and for the government to have a strong policy on the joint management of irrigation system. With this vision, it is important to delineate division of work, undertake institutional rearrangements, and strengthen farmers' organizations.increasing Water Usw Participation in Irrigation ManagementThe analysis also points out that there are various line agencies at the district level whose mandate is to provide support services to farmers to help them increase their agricultural productivity. These offices are: 1) District Agriculture Development Office, 2) Agriculture Input Corporation, 3) Agricultural Development Bank, 4) Chief District Office, and 5) District Irrigation Office. Since the irrigation system manager has a defined area of work, the initiative to bring goods and services to the command area through his coordination is very crucial. Therefore one of his important roles is to manage support services for the command area farmers. The activities as well as the manager's performance are to be focused on the objective of increasing agricultural productivity within the command . . area. Therefore, productivity targets must be set.The activities that will help achieve agricultural productivity are: 1) regular maintenance activity, 2) better water distribution, 3) strengthening and activating users' organizations, 4) making credit available, 5) ensuring the availability of agriculture inputs, and 6) water fee collection.The role of the system manager should be reoriented from construction activities to \"management of agricultural production activities.\" Only with such a reorientation would it be possible for him to take up the initiative of bringing the scattered district level services to benefit the farmers of the command area.There are important issues to be considered regarding large-scale irrigation system management under DIO as decided and implemented by DOI. These issues are related to: 1) the initial objective of the DIO to work for district level small-scale irrigation systems, 2) the lack of experience on the part of the DIO in managing largescale irrigation systems, 3) the possible neglect of large-scale irrigation systems because of the DlO's mandate for the entire district's irrigation systems.One alternative is having large-scale irrigations systems as a separate entity, directly under the RD. An effort should be made to keep the systems semiautonomous, in which case guidance from the RD will be more effective. Since most of the large-scale irrigation systems are to be under joint management, the DIO should provide more support than what is currently available.Overall, the analysis tries to bring out issues beyond mere system management. External and internal administrative linkages were seen in view of the immediate objective of the irrigation system, i.e., increased agricultural productivity.Increasing Water User Partlclpatlon in Irrigation Management Thus, agency staff and users both should be guided by the performance criterion of enhanced aaricultural Droductivity. Both parties, would have to tap support services, make them available for system management, and be accountable to the farmer members in bringing in the resources. The performance evaluation of system management, support services, and water users should therefore be focused on increased agricuttural productivity. Corollary to these incentives, rewards, and sanctions should revolve around this performance criterion.Thus a crucial role for the agency and farmers beyond mere water control in the post-construction period is the management of the irrigation system, water users' groups and system agency staff, and support services.The analysis also brings out the concern regarding the capability of the DIO in view of merging large scale irrigation systems within DIO.To review the accomplishments of the DOI-IIMI program at the Banganga Irrigation System, a two-day national workshop on participatory management was held on 29-30 April 1992. This was undertaken also in fulfillment of the stipulations under the cooperative agreement with the donor of the program (USAID Mission to Nepal).To broaden the scope of the workshop two objectives were pursued, namely: 1) To arrive at guidelines for DOl's policy on participatory management in agencymanaged irrigation systems; and 2) To review and extract lessons from the results of the joint or participatory management programs at Sirsia Dudhaura, Mahakali and Banganga irrigation systems, which will be useful in the formulation of the guidelines.Three topics were prepared for each of the systems. These were on main system management, formation of water users' associations and view from the farmers regarding participatory management.One of the main features of this workshop was the actual participation of the farmers. The decision to involve the farmers in this national workshop was based on the obvious reason that if farmers are to be partners in development, they must be treated accordingly. From DOl's experience, this was the first time that farmers were invited to write papers, present them and also discuss with DO1 staff their views on a program that concerns them.The entire proceedings of the workshop from paper presentation to discussions and wrap-up were conducted in Nepali, Only when non-Nepali speaking participants intervened was English spoken. This arrangement further encouraged the farmer participants to voice out their views during discussions.Increasing Water User Particlpatlon In lrrlgatlon Management budget. In contrast, to MIP which is still on a project budget has sufficient funds for maintenance.The basic issue on water users' organization or group formation is that of organizing for collective action. In all of the three systems, this common purpose made the formation of WUOs/WUGs viable. If the farmers feel that by there is a clear purpose for organizing, in particular to solve problems that confront most of them, then the organization can be functional. These problems can be directly or indirectly irrigationrelated, such as unreliable and inadequate water supply or free-grazing of livestock.In MIP and BIS, previous organizational formation efforts had failed. These efforts were deficient in providing a clear purpose for solving existing problems and in clearly defining specific tasks, responsibilities and rights. In the case of SDIS, the initial failure was due to the adhoc formation of WUOs which was based primarily on village boundaries rather than on hydrologic considerations.Association organizers (AOs) were used extensively in the formation of MIP and SDIS. A three-tiered overall organization resulted from these efforts. In the case of BIS and SDIS, the farmer-to-farmer training approach was used in faciiiating the WUO/WUG formation. BIS also plans to organize into a three-tiered overall organization.The major difference among the three systems is that they located in different Terai regions, with SDlS in the Central region, MIP in the Far West, and BIS in the Western region. MIP for its part has to share its water source with India. Also the MIP the farmers have no experience irrigation. SDlS and BIS, on the other hand, are relatively older systems.At SDlS and BIS, background information on farmers (particularly on the location of field plots in relation to their primary water source), mapping, and other relevant information were necessary in forming the WUO/WUG. Such information was needed in determining membership in the WUG and the basis for organization (whether village-based or canal-based). This information gathering was a time consuming activity that required patience and determination in discussing with farmers.Multiplier or demonstration effects were clearly illustrated in the case of MIP, where 2 1/2 years later, all of the tertiary committees were able to form WUAs or the third tier of the overall organization. Similarly, in the case of SDIS, the overall organization resulted in the formation of the WUA or sangh (the umbrella organization representing the 13 tolis and 43 sub-tolis). However, due to some recent problems (inactive membership) this sangh has become non-functional.One of the major benefits of WUOs is the reduction of water-related conflicts among farmers. This was highlighted in all of the papers. In MIP, the tailend farmers began to receive water and more effective use of water was observed. Similarly in SDIS, irrigation water delivery became reliable, and water use efficiency increased by increasing Water User Participation in Irrigation Management as much as 20 percent. The result was increased irrigated paddy area from 900 to 1400 ha during implementation of the participatory program. In the case of BIS, more equitable distribution was observed in both the monsoon and winter seasons. In ail of the three systems, farmers were very effective in maintaining the tertiary canals.There were also common problems encountered in WUONUG formation such as convincing farmers that organization will alleviate or solve some of their problems, lack of good WUG leaders and mutual trust among farmers, and credibility of the DO1 in dealing with farmers' problems. Other problems encountered were mostly system specific.In both MIP and BIS, the existing DO1 staff were very much involved in the formation of the WUOWUG. This involvement contributed to WUG sustainability in solving water-related problems. The WUGs can also become the organization that will manage support services from other agencies concerned with agricultural production.There was a consensus in the farmers' papers from SDIS, MIP and BIS that the benefits of WUOs are: a reduction of water-related conflicts, formulation of water distribution schedule, implementation of equitable distribution, mobilization of labor resources for maintenance of tertiary canals and in some cases distributary canals, and inculcation of self-reliance and respect for public property or reduced destruction or vandalism of irrigation facilities and structure.The MIP farmers expressed the concern that the 25 percent rebate to the WUOs as stipulated in the Irrigation Regulation 2045 should be given promptly by the DOI. Lack of funds for maintenance was also cited by the SDlS farmers. Difficulty was also experienced in mobilizing voluntary labor for maintenance of the tertiary canals at SDlS and BIS. There were also system specific problems which should be addressed accordingly by the respective DO1 system manager.There was unanimous expression of concern from the farmers regarding the lack cooperation from the DO1 to make irrigation management effective. This is in contrast to what was claimed by the DO1 staff as one of the problems facing main system management. Such contribution clearly shows the need for more and frequent DO1 and farmer dialogue, if participatory management will be sustained and successful.The papers presented by the farmers, akhough brief, clearly pointed out that there is still a lot of room for improvement in effective communication between farmers and system engineers and also in the methods of organizing farmers, particularly in the sustainability aspects of these efforts. The commonalities among systems were extracted which should direct future procedures in organizing farmers. Specific issues raised by the farmers confronting each system will also be useful in addressing similar physical and social environments and conditions.Increasing Water User Partlcipation In Irrigation ManagementThe summary of the papers are presented above, and the following section will deal with the synthesis and summary of the discussions, the workshop proceedings, and resulting work of the task force organized at the end of the workshop.The discussion on the Sirsia Dudhaura Irrigation System centered on the achievements and results of the Irrigation Management Program. Farmers were organized, but after the program, additional resources particularly for maintenance were withdrawn. Although the organization of farmers is still functional, the third tier of the farmers' association is not effective anymore. The question of sustainability became the focus of discussion. The general consensus was that the program helped, but sustaining improvements is apparently not viable. Lessons can be learned from this experience in organizing farmers for participatory management.In the Mahakali Irrigation Project, the concern was on the share of the water users' organization in the water levy. in accordance with the Irrigation Regulation of 2045, the WUOs are entitled to 25 percent of the levy. The farmers were not satisfied with the answers given by the Project Manager. Returning the 25 percent to the farmers was being processed, but there were no procedures established to make this rebate effective.The other issue raised was that of operation and maintenance costs. Cost reduction through farmer participation was also discussed. Guidelines on O&M are still being prepared to address this issue. It was pointed out that activities involving farmers in MIP and SDIS were effective in addressing the problems of the system. However, there was concern that after the project, MIP will end up like SDIS, where maintenance resources from the DO1 are not anymore provided.In Banganga Irrigation System, there was concern on its continuity and sustainability. The experience at BIS is quite recent, compared to SDIS and MIP, and the promising results are impressive. There was concern on institutionalizing the results at BIS. After IlMl completes the program at BIS, the DO1 might not be able to complete the program or learn from this experience. There was consensus that the program at BIS should be continued and see organizing most of the farmers for the entire system. should be completed. DO1 then will have the responsibility of sustaining the ' achievements attained in this program at BIS. These discussions point out that the implementation of participatory management in DOI-managed systems urgently needs to be improved. The irrigation policy is undergoing revisions, and the action plans of DO1 have been the basis for its program on participatory management. Changes in the action plans are being made to improve on program implementation. lncreaslng Water User Participation In Irrigation ManugementThe second half of the workshop involved discussion of issues that are central to the implementation of the participatory program. These issues were grouped under six broad categories namely: 1) law and policy; 2) data needs, research and knowledge-building; 3) participation: at what level, where and in what activities; 4) formation of water users' groups or organizations; 5) institutional support for the implementation of participatory management and: 6) rights, responsibilities and mutual accountabilii. The following summarizes the discussions of these issues.The participants were divided into two groups that facilitated the discussions under the limited period of time. The farmer participants were distributed equally in these two groups. Each group addressed three issues. One of the highlights of these group sessions was the opportunity for the farmers to express their views on the issues.In the law and policy group session, it was clear that the farmers were not very much informed of the laws and policy pertaining to irrigation. Water rights were not explicitly recognized by the DO1 and provisions were not made to accommodate such rights. Compensation was used to placate the need to understand and accommodate this issue.In terms of data needs, the Research and Training Branch (RTB/DOI) will be the repository of data and research for participatory management. A commitment was made to include farmers in research and data collection. Other institutions like the Institute of Engineers and Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences are to be involved In this issue particularly in research and knowledge-building.On the issue of participation at what level, where and in what activities, the consensus was that the capability of the water users' organization is important. However, no commitment was made by the DO1 participants as to the minimum level of participation. Also participation was limited to after-construction and did not include planning before construction. The group discussion did not lead to a clear consensus as to what levels, where in the system and what particular activities will be sanctioned by the DOI.In the formation of the water users' groups, recommendations included that engineers should be involved in every activity of the water users' association. Transparency of accounts and control of the organization was also discussed. Legal provisions to protect the water rights of the water users' groups were another concern. Other issues were not thoroughly discussed for lack of time, but there was enough consensus that laws must be passed to support and protect the rights of the water users' groupslorganizations.3)Increasing Water User Participation in lrrlgation ManagementOn institutional support, legal recognition of WUGsWUOs will be necessary before anything else is done. It was expressed that preparation of budgetary requests for operation and maintenance of systems should involve the WUGs/WUOs, particularly in determining which items need attention. Upon implementation, transparency on the program of activities for maintenance was also discussed. Experimentation was also encouraged in developing new programs for institutional development. However, the involvement of non-government organizations should be limited only to small systems and on an experimental basis only. Joint planning with WUGs was also recommended. Discussion on needed support centered on the yearly allocation of resources in the operation and maintenance of the irrigation system.6)On rights, roles, responsibilities and accountabilities, it was recommended that traditional or existing rights must be preserved and be a part of the constitution of the WUGsWUOs. Legal recognition is also necessary for preserving these rights. Accountability of both the DO1 and WUGs/WUOs was also discussed and recommended for thorough discussion and formal agreement in each system.The recommendations from these working sessions were synthesized and presented at the pienary session towards the end of the workshop. To fully utilize the output of the workshop, a task force on participatory management was organized by the DO1 Director-General, The task force recommendations in turn will help the DO1 formulate and implement effectively its own program on participatory management in view of the changes, revisions and amendments made on its existing irrigation policy and irrigation regulation. The recommendations of the task force recommendations are found in Annex 1.This output of the workshop as part of the program clearly demonstrates one of the tangible achievements of the Phase I program, in fulfillment of the objectives set forth. The proceedings of the workshop will be published in both English and Nepali versions. This publication will be a joint effort of the Irrigation Management and Water Utilization Division of the DO1 and of IIMI. The Nepali version will include only the summaries of the papers presented and also summaries of the discussion, except for the farmers' papers which will be published in its entirety.With just a year of implementation, the objectives of the project were substantially met. Providing definitive conclusions about the impacts or establishment of replicable procedures for increasing water users' participation in irrigation management is not feasible at this time. The procedures presented in this report should be viewed with caution in the light of the limited period in which these In terms of collaborative work with DIO and BIS system management itself, a variety of activities were undertaken jointly and very satisfactorily. IlMl field staff worked together with fieldmen of BIS to collect information related to the formation of WUGs. The data collected included information on farm ditch areas, number of households, current situation of the functioning of WUGs, and parcellary maps for effective use of irrigation water.The research team also worked closely with supervisors to monitor water distribution according to the water schedule prepared for winter and monsoon crops. A close collaboration was also attained with the manager and his overseers on water measurement activities in the main and branch canals to control excess water at the headend of the system.The findings and recommendations of the administrative linkage study incorporated the different views and situations as expressed by the various line agencies present in.the district as well as Dl0 of Kapilbastu and WRiD at Pokhara. Constant exchange of ideas and interaction was fostered to prepare the administrative report in consukation with the line agencies.A joint field workshop was held in Banganga to identify areas of collaboration with RTB and SMB. Agreement was reached for certain activities to be undertaken jointly with the staff of RTB and SMB. However, unfortunately for collaboration, these activities could not be carried out by RTB and SMB due to administrative difficulties on the part of RTB and SMB.increasing Water User Participation in irrigation ManagementThe specific impacts of farmer participation on irrigation activities in Banganga can be outlined as foilows: 1)There has been an increase in farmers' participation in preparing water distribution schedule of DIO.There has been an increase in farmers' participation in meetings with DIO regarding conflict management and the implementation of irrigation rules and regulations.There has been an increase in farmers' participation in the O&M activities of the distributary canals, main outlets, main farm and field ditches.There has been an improvement in communications and coordination among the farmers themselves and with the DiO through the WUGs.Farmers through their WUGs have been able to work collectively in acquiring support services and inputs for crop production and crop diversification.Farmers' participation in O&M activities have reduced O&M costs of DOI. This year alone, the farmers mobilized Nrs. 112,397 for O&M activities in BIS.Being involved as partners in some of the irrigation activities of BIS and having invested their time, energy, money, and labor, farmers have begun to develop an ownership feeling of the system as theirs.There is a gradual introduction of early paddy and crop diversification with a sense of confidence in WUGs regarding the acquisition of water and its distribution as well as safeguarding the crops from free grazing cattle.3)Among the major achievements in this project, the strengthening of 13 water users groups in BIS and the transformation and sensitization of the BIS/DOI staff, in particular the BIS system manager, for carrying out participatory management at BIS are considered the main outputs of this project. The farmer-to-farmer training method for effective organization was also demonstrated. DOI-farmer dialogue was enhanced through the frequent meetings that the BIS system manager have undertaken.There were initial improvements in the management of the main canal. These resulted in more equitable distribution of irrigation water in both the monsoon and winter seasons, reduction of water-related conflicts, and reduction of the destruction of irrigation facilities. These can be attributed to the participation of farmers in decision making regarding seasonal irrigation water distribution scheduling, flexibility in accommodating reasonable farmers' demands, and the frequent interactions between farmers and the BIS/DOI staff through meetings. However, despite these initial improvements, there are plenty of opportunities for improvement which can be attained by effectively organizing farmers and providing responsive BISDOI staff support.Effective management of the main system was made possible with the participation of the water users' groups. Flexibility in responding to reasonable farmer demands in adjusting water delivery schedules during the winter season illustrate this effectiveness in managing the main system of BIS. The one-year experience at BIS also show that with existing DO1 resources, improvement in water distribution can be attained and more so, will be improved further with more farmers reorganized and also more WUGs strengthened. The experience gained by the BIS/DOI staff in carrying out main canal management was also successful in this project.The administrative linkage analysis shows that the operation and maintenance of BIS can be improved and sustained if farmers are organized effectively and budgetary support procedures from the regional directorate and central DO1 office are rationalized. Programming of maintenance requirements should be based on actual needs and impacts evaluated, rather than on adhoc resource availability and allocation. Furthermore, management of agricultural production support services by effectively harnessing timely and adequate irrigation and the attendant production inputs was shown to be critical in attaining the ultimate objective of increasing agricultural productivity. Such management can be done by having the 81s system manager or DIO engineer coordinate the provision of supportservicesfrom the other district-based agencies. Although the results of the analysis only leads to recommendations, these nonetheless brought out the alternatives and means of attaining concerted efforts in bringing about timely and adequate irrigation with appropriate levels of inputs in order to achieve increased production.The national workshop on participatory management brought together the experiences and lessons learned in organizing farmers for jointly managing three DO1 systems. The papers presented pointed out that previous efforts in organizing farmers failed due to unclear and wrong perception of the purposes of organization. In all of the three systems, the purpose for collective action was expressed in terms of solving problems that confronted most of the farmers. With effective organization, ,reduction of water-related conflicts, effective water delivery distribution, and maintenance of tertiary level facilities were attained. Moreover, better a working relationship between the farmers and DO1 staff was established with organized participation of farmers in the operation and maintenance of the systems.The other significant feature of this workshop was the pioneering participation of farmers in a national workshop organized by the DOI. For the first time farmers prepared and presented papers and participated in the deliberations of the workshop.This was an initial effort in a national level to build confidence of both the farmers and DO1 staff to discuss, resolve and plan for better and effective activities for participatory management. The workshop also demonstrated that farmers are able to discuss matters with upper level DO1 management staff and conversely, that DO1 staff have the capacity to meet and take into consideration the views of the farmers.To fully utilize the efforts in this workshop, a task force or committee of participatory management was organized at the end the workshop. A farmer was also a member of this committee. The recommendations of the workshop was used by the committee to fashion a set of implementing guidelines that sets down the specific actions that will be undertaken by the DO1 in carrying out participatory management in all of its systems.These guidelines specified clear actions on: water and land rights, giving authority to water users' groups for operation and maintenance up to the secondary canal level; formation of a coordinating committee at the main system level; utilization of water cess by water users group for maintenance; and other pertinent issues that will benefit both the farmers and the DO1 staff. The complete recommendations of the committee can be found in Annex 1.The project would have been more successful if full participation of RTB and SMB was made. Also intervening events during the implementation of the project such as the untimely absence of the BIS system manager, drastic reduction of staff, and abrupt merging of BIS management under the District Irrigation Office contributed to the difficulties in carrying out the project. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the project fulfilled substantially the objectives and the tasks set forth and also brought about additional achievements in having meaningful farmer involvement in a participatory management program.In view of the accomplishments and implications of the project, the following recommendations are presented for consideration by the Department of Irrigation and other interested parties (donors, consultants, research institutions and other nongovernment organizations) for large DOI-managed irrigation systems. These are in addition to the recommendations made by the task force or committee on participatory management formed as a result of the national workshop on participatory management. These recommendations or guidelines are found in Annex 1.A good understanding of the existing situation, social relations, and irrigation practices is necessary before intervention of any kind is introduced. It is important to find out first why certain activities are being undertaken. Such information will direct the course to be taken in terms of formation of WUGs, their involvement in irrigation activities and their relationship with the agency.increasing Water User Participation In Irrigation Management Constant meetings and discussions between all parties concerned is necessary for communication, coordination of activities, and to ensure greater understanding. Such forums help develop a sense of partnership for mutual cooperation and mutual solving of problems.The catalytic role of the research staff is very crucial. The staff should not be biased towards one group's viewpoints only. The research staff should reside in the command area of the system to gain the trust of the irrigators and the agency staff and to build healthy rapport with them. At times, they may have to take leadership roles in facilitating discussions and bringing out issues, but in the end these should be done in ways that make it clear that farmers have to take the ultimate leadership roles. Rather than imposing one's own conviction about a certain necessity (e.g., rules, roles, rights, or institutional arrangements), the research or institutional development staff should present alternatives for both the agency and farmers to consider and choose from. That is why the farmer-to-farmer training visit to other irrigation sites proved invaluable because the farmers were exposed to alternative forms of institutional arrangements.Furthermore, the institutional development staff should always be supportive of good relations between the farmers and the system management. It does no good to tolerate antagonistic relationships. The constraints and the problems should be carefully studied and alternatives that are positive and constructive should be offered for the concerned partners to choose from.Without a corresponding change in the attitudes and behavior of the agency staff, the farmers may not want to change. The new relationship to be established therefore has to be reciprocal. To realize the above, higher authorities under whose jurisdictions the system level agency operates will have to be supportive of the participatory management program being tried out at the field level. Frequent turnover of staff, lack or untimely disbursement of O&M funds, and contradicting orders may jeopardize the relations that are slowly being built between farmers and agency staff. Such behavior may be perceived by the farmers as a lack of sincerity on the part of the agency staff towards participatory or joint management of the system. Thus there should be proper monitoring and measurement of water supply by the agency staff and the implications of fluctuating water supply should be discussed with the farmers.The water schedule should be prepared jointly by the farmers and the agency staff, and both should make sure that it is enforced. A proper communication channel should be established so that every irrigator knows when hidher turn comes and what amount of water is being allocated to him/her. The repair of certain structural defects can be used as a bargaining chip by the agency to mobilize local resources for maintaining other smaller structures.As the different functionaries of the WUG should have responsibilities, so should the various agency staff. Responsibilities need to be balanced by rights. The Increasing Water User Participation in lrrigatlon Management evaluation of agency staff should be such that it takes into account their performance in fostering participatory management, a mandate of the irrigation department under the new irrigation policy.Like the farmers who were taken for training visits to other sites, agency staff also should be provided training on participatory management because their academic training is not enough.The irrigation agency (BIS office) should make it a policy to deal with irrigation matters through WUGs. Since not all sections within the command area have active WUGs, it is to the advantage of the agency staff to facilitate and promote the expansion of WUGs and later on a confederation for the whole system. For such an expansion to occuf, this report recommends the continuation of the present institutional development efforts for at least one more year.The 81s management and the confederation can be equal partners in managing irrigation for the system (but with distinct rights and responsibilities). This partnership will certainly reduce overall transaction costs. For a single confederation and a system committee, registration of existing and future WUGs for legal recognition should be facilitated by existing WUG leaders, the agency staff, and the regional irrigation directorate.A system committee composed of representatives of the confederation and the agency could decide on irrigation management issues. Both parties may present alternatives in carrying out certain activities, and a mutual understanding can be reached taking into account the respective expertise and knowledge base of the farmers and the agency staff. This system committee will be able to promote the management of support services crucial to increasing agricultural productivity, especially since water is only one input to crop production.Farmers through water users' associations should be involved in the main system activities of water allocation, scheduling and distribution. These activities can be facilitated through pre-seasonal meetings and frequent meetings with farmers in their villages. This practice of meeting with farmers should become a routine activity for the DO1 system managers and water users' groups/organizations/associations. Daily monitoring of rainfall and flows from the main canal into the branches, distributaries, and outlets need to be undertaken. Alternative measures such as days of irrigation delivery into these channels can be used as proxy indicators of water flow, provided corresponding water adequacy estimates are also undertaken. Regular measurements of flow by more accurate methods, such as current metering in strategic points in the main canal including the intake of the diversion, and periodic river flow measurements will have to be conducted toIncreasing Water User Participation In Irrigation Management determine operational capacity and subsequent maintenance if found necessary. Diversion of the system into sections should be done to facilitate management. The division and organization can be based on distance from the source (head, middle or tail) or equivalent distance from the source (i.e., levels of difficulty in providing irrigation water due to distance and relative elevation). This will identify sections of the main system which need more attention during water distribution, particularly if a rotational method of distribution will be implemented.Parcellary maps should be provided to DO1 field staff and also the WUGs. These maps will provide accurate assessment of water adequacy and also the actual extent of area fully or partially irrigated. Accurate information on the area irrigated is critical for operation and also for planning purposes.The DO1 system managers should be flexible enough to accommodate changes in water delivery schedules, taking into account reasonable demands of farmers.Information about the status of water availability, update on schedule of water deliveries and maintenance and repair schedule should be made available to the farmers in a timely and accurate manner. These can be relayed through meetings, or by the DO1 field staff to the chairmen of WUGs on a regular basis.Water users' groups can also be awarded maintenance contracts for desilting and weeding the main canal. This will further enhance the capability of the WUGs in participating in the maintenance of the main system.Operation and maintenance activities at the secondary and tertiary levels should be delegated with authority to the WUGs. However, training should be provided by the DO1 staff on these activities as soon as the farmers are organized.If the above activities can be carried out by the WUGs, then the DO1 staff can concentrate on the more complicated tasks of data collection and planning for making better decisions regarding water availability and distribution.The water users' groups should adopt the following activities for its sustainable existence:a)water distribution and management; b) resource mobilization for canal repair and maintenance; c) fertilizer distribution;increasing Water User Participation in irrigation Management d) credit mobilization; e) post-harvest loss protection; 9 storage facilities; g) collective marketing and land preparation and; h) control of livestock free grazing. These are tangible tasks that will lead to reduction of conflicts and problems facing farmers.The role or job description of the DO1 system manager will include the following activities: a) regular maintenance activity; b) better water distribution; c) strengthening and activating water users' groups; d) coordinating the management of agricultural support services for water users' groups and; e) pursuing water service fee collection. These activities will be included in evaluating the job performance of the DO1 system manager and likewise the other DO1 staff in the system.D l 0 large irrigation systems, the system managers should be a separate unit within the district with its own staff and resources to manage and coordinate other activities in the district.Budgetary allocations for maintenance should be based on actual needs and monitored on the basis of its impact on the performance or operation of the system in terms of providing timely and adequate irrigation water supply at the right location.3)4)The above recommendations depend a lot on the DOl's sincerity to implement participatory management not only in words but more important in deeds, It will take more than just the right rhetoric to make participatory management happen. The political will and hard work on the part of the DO1 will be needed to make participatory management a reality.","tokenCount":"17005"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa1fe5ca38b9c3b69bee2accf3b8d905","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/44cad37a-3960-4620-90a9-05426d94152a/retrieve","id":"-1361737864"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0a997ce0-1c2b-495c-87ef-56130efdb971","pagecount":"97","content":"Through an examination of the climate change perceptions and adaptive practices of three groups of organized rural women in and around San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico, together with a critical reading and analysis of the United Nations' Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy and strategies outlined in a Central America-specific project, this thesis explores how place-based approaches in Chiapas interact with processes and ideas operating at national and global scales. I found that the women in all three organizations studied, La Red de Productores y ConsumadoresResponsables Comida Sana y Cercana, Mujeres y Maíz Criollo, and K'inal Antsetik, not only observed changes in climate but were also working with their organizations to actively adapt to and mitigate them. Their strategies were influenced by personal experience, gender identity and the household or community gender division of labor, indigenous or campesino identity, and organizational affiliation. I argue that many of the practices and perceptions I observed in the field could be considered Climate Smart Agriculture approaches, however they were successful due to their local creation, specificity to the people involved, and their context. In Tortillas on the Roaster there is aTalking About the Weather I sat down at the market table with Esmeralda. It was early on a busy Saturday at the biweekly market in downtown San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico. The weather was hot and sunny before the afternoon rains. The market sat one block off of a walking street, or andador, in a popular area for tourists. Esmeralda was selling handicrafts, little prepared sandwiches, and homemade cheeses. I had initially approached her to ask if I could visit her home and conduct an interview about her perceptions of the climate and her participation in the organic market-el tianguis. She started going through her availability with me, travel to a workshop about women and religion, then she'd be visiting family, then to another workshop, but maybe we could get together on July 5. I noticed how slowly Esmeralda spoke to me, clearly, making sure I understood every word. She was adept at interacting with different types of people and busy traveling, organizing, and attending workshops. Intermittently we were interrupted by customers asking about her products-customers who were dressed in Western clothes and spoke Spanish with a variety of accents or not at all. Customers wandered in from the tourist areas, peppered with eco-hostels, vegetarian restaurants, and souvenir shops. This was a very different atmosphere and demographic than I'd seen in the communities surrounding San Cristóbal de las Casas.I explored numerous paths in my fieldwork in Chiapas. I had contacted an indigenous women's organizer, Margarita, through a friend of a friend of a friend of a friend who thought she could help me meet women for my interviews. Weeks later, early on a Tuesday morning in June, I was having coffee one moment and the next I was swept off with her and another indigenous organizer, José, to 2 small communities outside of San Cristóbal. They drove right onto the andador, and I took a seat in the back of the car, listening to them speak mostly in Tsotsil as we drove through the highlands. We stopped in one community where José spoke to a crowd of people gathered in the narrow, sloping street. Margarita asked if I'd like to go talk to the women who were standing together in the back of the audience. \"Has traído una gringa!\" 1 one woman exclaimed to Margarita as we approached. Others laughed as they commented to one another in Tsotsil. We traveled on to our final destination. People were crowded in the town center, waiting to hear the presentation and receive something in boxes piled all around the square. I turned to Margarita and asked what was in the boxes-agrochemicals. José's organization gives out agrochemicals to help recruit members. The presentation went on in Tsotsil and participants eagerly waited to sign-up and receive their rations of the fertilizers and pesticides. Margarita asked a woman, dressed in traje típico, 2 carrying one of the boxes how they grew maize before agrochemicals. There was no \"before agrochemicals,\" she replied. They had always used them. Their parents and grandparents and great grandparents and so on had always used them.We were later invited to have dinner with town leaders in a small and dark dirtfloored government building with low ceilings. Margarita and I sat down at the table with José and several other men while women and girls served us chicken soup, rice, and tortillas that they were cooking across the room. Across the muddy road from the 1 You brought a foreigner! 2 Indigenous dress or clothing government building, a wall was painted with a Zapatista mural, in which women, their faces covered, stood holding machetes declaring that \"otro mundo es posible\" 3 while inside at the table, Margarita and I were the only women with a seat.Climate change is a global phenomenon with effects that reverberate globally at individual, local, and national scales. Individuals, communities, organizations, states, nations, and regions often have different capacities and strategies to adapt to changing environmental realities, and those nuanced experiences contribute to difficult global conversations about climate change. The United Nations reports that men and women often have different capacities to adapt to or mitigate climate change as a result of gender differences in rights, opportunities, values, situations and outcomes, and agency; and that these different capacities may be exacerbated by ethnicity, race, income level, location, and age. Risk perception and willingness to adopt adaptive practices are also considered gendered components to climate change adaptation (FAO 2012). The climate change crisis is complex and is tied to social, economic, and political systems. However, despite the complexity of both gender systems and the climate change crisis, in modern development discourses the relationship between these issues is often portrayed as a problem that can be addressed by targeting poor, rural women. Nonetheless, rural women have been underrepresented at every level of climate change conversations and policy-making. 3 Another world is possible.It has been well documented that global atmospheric and oceanic temperatures have increased at unprecedented rates since the 1950s, that snow and ice have diminished, and sea levels have risen (IPCC 2014). Additionally, IPCC scientists project that surface temperatures will continue to rise over the 21 st century, heat waves will occur more often and for longer durations, and that extreme precipitation events will happen with greater frequency and intensity (IPCC 2014). The United Nations reports that women and men living in rural areas are particularly vulnerable to the changing climate when they are highly reliant on natural resources for their livelihoods, and that their experiences can provide valuable expertise in mitigation and adaptation strategies.They write, \" [W]omen are not only vulnerable to climate change but they are also effective actors or agents of change in relation to both mitigation and adaptation.Women often have a strong body of knowledge and expertise that can be used in climate change mitigation, disaster reduction and adaptation strategies\" (2009,1).Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is part of the United Nations' strategy for climate change adaptation and mitigation. It is defined as, \"agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces or removes greenhouse gases (mitigation) and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals\" (FAO 2013, 548). By addressing climate change, food insecurity, and poverty simultaneously, CSA is intended to be a more efficient use of resources than singlefocus strategies. The Climate Smart Agriculture model includes a three-pillar approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; (2) adapting and building resilience to climate change; (3) reducing greenhouse gas emissions (FAO 2013). The adoption of such strategies has been promoted globally, and many successful applications have been documented.The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) recently undertook the Tortillas on the Roaster study in Central America (Schmidt et al 2012). This study sought to predict the impact of climate change on maize and bean production in the region and suggested strategies for adaptation and mitigation of these effects. Tortillas on the Roaster results predicted that mean temperatures will rise by 1°C by the period 2010 to 2039 (2020s), and by 2°C by the period 2040 to 2069 (2050s) in Central America. They predict that this increase in temperatures could reduce maize and bean production by 25% due to widespread decreases in rainfall and severe soil degradation (Schmidt et al 2012, 33). Drawing on the CSA model and strategies outlined in the 2008 World Bank Development Report, the study identified five adaptation strategies for the region: sustainable intensification, diversification, expansion of assets, increasing off-farm income, and diversification out of agriculture as a livelihood strategy (Schmidt et al 2012).In \"'Si no comemos tortilla: no vivimos:' women, climate change, and food security in central Mexico,\" Beth A. Bee (2014) found that the viewpoints and strategies for maintaining food security of the women she interviewed were derived from their socio-political, environmental, and economic contexts. Bee argues that the gender division of labor (women's roles in certain farming practices and tortilla making, specifically), membership in agricultural organizations, and local embodied knowledge influence the perceptions women have about climate change and food security and the adaptive practices participants are willing to undertake. She writes, \"Gender and the lived experience of women in subsistence agriculture is therefore a critical factor in not only understanding food security, but also in understanding the opportunities and challenges to maintaining food security in a changing climate. These opportunities and challenges are an important aspect to consider in developing effective policies and programs aimed at addressing food security\" (616). Although Bee found that the sociopolitical, environmental, and economic context of interview respondents had a profound impact on their perceptions and strategies, her study does not consider the ways that indigeneity specifically intersects with these variables. The seasonality of the rain and the association of the wind with the cardinal points are interrelated with cosmology and knowledge of the land. These aspects allow Zoques to place a cultural and practical significance to weather and climate interpretation, however, this knowledge and symbolic meanings are expressed differently, depending on generation, gender, agricultural practices and personal experience. (Ibid. 377) Together these studies point to a need for further research on both the relationship between gender and climate change in Mexico and on the ways that indigeneity intersects with gender, class, perceptions, and practices. As Geraldine Terry (2009) writes:[C]limate change is not happening in a vacuum, but rather in the context of other risks, including economic liberalization, globalization, conflict, unpredictable government policies, and risks to health, in particular HIV and AIDS, that threaten poor men and women in the global South. Through an examination of the climate change perceptions and adaptive practices of three groups of organized rural women in and around San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico, together with a critical reading and analysis of the United Nations' Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy and a Central America-specific project, this thesis addresses three questions:At what points and on what issues do these place-based practices and perceptions connect or fail to connect with processes and ideas operating at national and global scales?• How do practices and perceptions observed in Chiapas fit into the Climate Smart Agriculture development model promoted by the United Nations?• What insights, questions, or options emerge from conversations with women in Chiapas that might be relevant for global understandings and actions related to climate change?Three theoretical currents form the basis of this thesis: political ecology, critical development theory, and gender theory. I draw on a political ecology framework to facilitate the discussion of human environment relations at varying scales-those at which climate change vulnerability, adaptation, and mitigation happen. Critical development theory serves as a lens through which I assess and reassess policies and actions happening at each scale, and critically examine the ways in which both I and study participants frame visions for the future. Finally, my analysis is informed by a gender theory that treats gender as a particular sociocultural system of power, one that interacts with other systems of power, such as those informing ethnoracial, class and regional differences.I draw on a political ecology framework to facilitate the discussion of human environment relations at varying scales and the power relations that influence both climate change itself and strategies and capacities to adapt to and mitigate it. A political ecology framework is particularly suited to the research questions here, allowing for a multi-scale analysis to situate local experiences in a global context. Additionally, political ecology calls for an analysis of global systemic power relations well suited to the study of climate change vulnerabilities associated with socioeconomic and geopolitical differences. As Robbins (2012) writes, political ecology is \"a field of critical research predicated on the assumption that any tug on the strands of the global web of humanenvironment linkages reverberates throughout the system as a whole\" (13). WhileRobbins chooses to define political ecology in opposition to what he calls \"apolitical ecologies,\" many scholars have defined the concept in more straightforward terms.Paulson, Gezon, and Watts (2005) write: Political ecology's originality and ambition arise from its efforts to link social and physical sciences to address environmental changes, conflicts, and problems. In this initiative, analyses of social relations of production and questions of access and control over resources-the basic tool kit of political economy-are applied in order to understand forms of environmental disturbance and degradation and to develop prospects and models for environmental rehabilitation and conservation, as well as environmentally sustainable alternatives. ( 17)I chose this definition for a number of reasons: access and control of natural resources significantly affects climate change vulnerability and capacities to adapt; access and control of natural resources has historically been influenced by systems of power at varying scales, including but not limited to gender, economic, and political systems; and finally, the participants in this study have developed environmentally sustainable alternatives rooted in both history and a vision for the future.In this study, I analyze these alternatives, their particular histories, and the confines limiting or enabling visions of the future through a lens that is critical of the modern development paradigm. Escobar (2010) describes post-development as an erawhere development ceases to be the central organizing principle of social life (12), and the participants in this study have rejected select aspects and contested certain assumptions and values of the modern development paradigm for the opportunity to forge and carry out their own visions.According to Wolfgang Sachs (2003):The last forty years can be called the 'age of development'. In its name, the South has struggled to catch up with the North, experts descended on villages near and far, and millions of people were turned into wage earners and consumers. But \"development\" has been much more than a socioeconomic endeavor. It is a perception which models reality, a myth which comforts societies and a fantasy which unleashes passion. (2003, preface) Since the era of neoliberal policies and structural adjustment enacted in the name of development, Latin America has experienced what has been called a \"turn to the left\" in terms of governmental regimes and social policy. However, as Arturo Escobar argues, in terms of the conceptualization of development the region has seen a more radical shift. He writes, \"It can plausibly be argued that the region could be moving at the very least beyond the idea of a single, universal modernity and towards a more plural set of modernities\" (2010,3). In this study, my analysis of key global policies reveals that assumptions of a single universal modernity persist in coexistence with possibilities for more plural and context-specific modernities.Finally, gender theory plays a significant role in shaping the framework of this study. Because of the complexity of the forces that make climate change a gender issue, it is important to define gender in terms of gender systems. I adopt the definition of Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin (1999):Gender is a system of social practices within society that constitutes people as different in socially significant ways and organizes relations of inequality on the basis of the difference. The continued, everyday acceptance of the gender system requires that both people's experiences and widely shared cultural beliefs confirm for them that men and women are sufficiently different in ways that justify men's greater power and privilege. In this, gender is similar to other systems of difference and inequality such as race and class. Gender is distinctive, however, in that its constitutive cultural beliefs and confirmatory experiences must be sustained in the context of constant interaction, often on familiar terms, between those advantaged and disadvantaged by the system. (192) This definition of gender highlights the fact that gender is a system that is perpetuated on both a societal level and an individual level, giving greater power and privilege to those recognized as men. Because Mexican society and the construct of indigenous communities in the region are historically patriarchal (Nash 1995)  2008). In this thesis, I take an intersectional approach to gender analysis, exploring qualitative differences between intersectional positions. The meaning and experience of being a Tseltal woman in Amatenango varies profoundly from being a Tseltal man in Amatenango which varies from that of a mestiza woman in San Cristóbal de las Casas and so on. Despite the complexity of both gender systems and the climate change crisis, the relationship between these issues has often been highlighted as a problem that can be addressed (in the modern development paradigm) by targeting poor rural women. The multifaceted nature of gender systems calls attention to the need for an intersectional and multiscalar analysis of the relationship between gender and climate change.In this paper I will use the  2007). Climate change mitigation refers to actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and adaptation to climate change refers to adjusting actions to better deal with its impact (IPCC 2007). Risk refers to shocks and stresses that affect agricultural production, including economic, climatic, environmental, and political instability.Resilience refers to the capacity to cope with risk and recover from shocks (FAO 2012, 19).Agroecology is featured in the climate change perceptions, adaptations, and mitigation techniques of many of the women who participated in this study and the organizations of which they are a part. My use of the term agroecology is based on Miguel Altieri's (2002) definition:[T]he holistic study of agroecosystems, including all environmental and human elements. It focuses on the form, dynamics and functions of their interrelationships and the processes in which they are involved. An area used for agricultural production, e.g. a field, is seen as a complex system in which ecological processes found under natural conditions also occur, e.g. nutrient cycling, predator/prey interactions, competition, symbiosis, successional changes, etc. (8)Agroecosystems are communities of plants and animals that modified by humans to produce food and other products and their interactions with their physical and chemical environments (Ibid.). Because many of the participants in this study define agroecology as it has been applied in their own practices, communities, and organizations, I will also use the definition of agroecology, agroecología, provided by La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana. Their definition defines agroecology as both a science (like Altieri above) and a practice:[L]a agroecología es una ciencia y una práctica. Los sistemas de producción basados en la agroecología son biodiversos, resilientes, eficientes energéticamente, socialmente justos y constituyen la base de una estrategia de soberanía energética, alimentaria y productiva. La sustentabilidad y la resiliencia se consiguen promoviendo la diversidad y la complejidad de los sistemas agrícolas a través de los policultivos, rotaciones, agroforestería, el uso de semillas autóctonas y criollas, y de las razas locales de ganado, fomentando enemigos naturales de las plagas, el uso de compostas y de abonos verdes para mejorar la materia orgánica del suelo optimizando su actividad biológica y capacidad de retención de agua. La agroecología está basada en el conocimiento de la gente y en conocimientos científicos. Privilegia los productos y mercados locales. 4 (2012)The United Nations (2009) reports that women and men living in rural areas are particularly vulnerable to the changing climate when they are highly reliant on natural resources for their livelihoods, and that their experiences can provide valuable expertise in mitigation and adaptation strategies. Agriculture, forestry, and other land use is The planet is a global concern incorporating a multitude of ecosystems, peoples, and cultures. As such, it requires collective input in its management, protection, and ultimately, its sustainability. Yet climate negotiations could be seen as a parody of an unequal world economy, in which men, and the bigger nations, get to define the basis on which they participate and contribute to the reduction of growing environmental problems, while women, and smaller and poorer countries, look in from the outside, with virtually no power to change or influence the scope of the discussions. (10) She argues that women are absent from climate change decision-making processes and that even including some women in these processes will not guarantee that the issues faced by women in poverty specifically will be addressed (12). Denton discusses the complexity of the link between gender, poverty, and climate change. \"Poverty,\" she writes, \"is linked in a complex way to exclusion and marginalization, and this results in the absence of people living in poverty, and a lack of analysis of the issues they face in macro-economic policy-making\" (12).In much of the research on gender and climate change policy-making, gender mainstreaming has been suggested as a solution to addressing the gendered dimensions of climate change. According to Margaret Alston (2013), \"Gender mainstreaming refers to the process of incorporating a gender perspective to any action, policy, legislation or action in order to ensure that the concerns of all are addressed and that gender inequalities are not perpetuated through institutional means\" (1). Based on Walby's three stages of gender equality policy, Alston urges governments and decisionmakers to implement gender mainstreaming in climate change policy. Walby's three stages of gender equality policy include: treatment for women equal to that of men through legal status, positive actions for both women and men, and gender mainstreaming (Alston 2013;Walby 1997) El Colegio de la Frontera Sur es un centro público de investigación científica, que busca contribuir al desarrollo sustentable de la frontera sur de México, Centroamérica y el Caribe a través de la generación de conocimientos, la formación de recursos humanos y la vinculación desde las ciencias sociales y naturales. 5They continue with their Principios directrices:La convicción de que la investigación es esencial para construir las bases del conocimiento y capacidad requeridas para lograr un desarrollo equitativo y sustentable en beneficio de las poblaciones marginadas de la frontera sur.La necesidad de enfatizar en el proceso de desarrollo, la conservación de los sistemas culturales, recursos naturales y riqueza biológica con que cuentan las poblaciones de la región. El valor de la diversidad biológica como patrimonio humano y compromiso con las generaciones futuras.La excelencia académica, como un mecanismo que promueve la calidad y relevancia de las contribuciones de la investigación para la innovación y para la formación de recursos humanos.Una visión regional de los retos del desarrollo sustentable, comprometida con el desarrollo conjunto de los países vecinos de América Central y el Caribe. Un compromiso con la generación de capacidades técnicas en el ámbito local y regional, buscando fortalecer la educación superior, el desarrollo productivo y social, y los procesos de descentralización para el desarrollo. 6 (ECOSUR 2015)Additionally, I used resources from both Latin American and international data banks including the United Nations, World Bank, Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía the generation of knowledge, the formation of human resources and the linkage of social and natural sciences. I chose semi-structured interviews, specifically, in order to allow for unsuspected key insights to arise and to preserve the language and expressions women used to talk about their relationship with their work and the climate. I performed nine 45-90 minute individual, semi-structured interviews, often followed by long tours of properties, organizational headquarters, or markets. Additionally, I led one eight-person focus group, with one participant serving as a translator from Tseltal to Spanish. I asked all of the participants the following questions:1.Have you noted any change in climate in your lifetime? 2.What have you noted? 3.What do you believe to be the cause of these changes? 4.How have these changes affected your agricultural practices?These questions, however, only served as the basis for the interview guide that provided structure. I formulated follow-up questions as interviews progressed with respondents often raising new issues or experiences related to climate change, the environment, and agricultural practices. I recorded the interviews and personally transcribed them in order to preserve the original expressions of the respondents and their context. According to CONEVAL, in 2012, 74.7% of persons living in Chiapas were in poverty, with 32.2% considered to be living in extreme poverty. In 2012, the national figures for poverty and extreme poverty were 45.5% and 9.8%, respectively (CONEVAL 2012). CONEVAL defines a person in poverty as one who does not have sufficient income to satisfy their needs; and a person in extreme poverty as those who do not have sufficient resources to acquire a basic food basket each month. For June 2014, a basic food basket would include maize, wheat, rice, beef and veal, chicken, fresh fish, milk eggs, oil, raw or fresh tubers, vegetables and fresh vegetables, legumes (beans), fresh fruits, sugar and honey, prepared foods to eat at home, and drinks and would cost 853 Mexican pesos or the equivalent of 56 USD per person monthly (CONEVAL 2015).Because the state of Chiapas exhibits such heterogeneity, with large indigenous and rural populations, the HDI may not be an accurate representation of the development of the state. According to INEGI, Chiapas is home to 13% of the country's indigenous population (2010). In 2010, 27% of the state's residents 5 years and older spoke an indigenous language, compared to a national rate of only 6.7% (INEGI 2010).At a national level, 14% of those who speak an indigenous language do not speak Spanish. The population of Chiapas is 49% urban and 51% rural. National urban and rural population rates are 78 and 22%, respectively (INEGI 2010). According to the Mexican Subsecretaría de Empleo y Productividad Laboral, 39% of economically active Chiapanecos are employed in the agricultural sector. Only 29% of women are economically active, and 4.2% of those participate in agricultural activities for income (2015). These statistics, however, do not include the number of Chiapanecos who participate in the cultivation of milpa or kitchen gardens for subsistence.San Cristóbal de las Casas is located in the center of the state, an hour drive southeast from the state capital, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. The city has for decades been an epicenter of political activism, most recently due to the emergence and continued existence of the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN). The EZLN appeared publicly in 1994 in protest to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. In preparation for the inception of NAFTA, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari modified Article 27 of the Mexican constitution, which would end land reform started during and promised by the Mexican Revolution. Article 27 was the legal structure for community held lands, ejidos, occupied by countless campesinos and indígenas. However, as June Nash (1995) points out, the ejido system itself was not implemented evenly, and Chiapas saw mixed effects. She writes that due in part to the isolation of the state, it took some communities 20 years or more to act on Article 27. Other indigenous communities never got state support to challenge large landowners (12). Nash (Ibid.) describes the issues raised by Zapatista rebels in relation to those raised by their namesake, Emiliano Zapata, in the Mexican Revolution and subsequent Constitution of 1917. She writes, \"The demands of the modern-day Zapatistas, however, go far beyond those of the earlier revolution in calling for recognition of ethnic distinctiveness and dignity as well as participation in the democratic process as the Mexican economy becomes integrated into global markets\" (8). Deere and León (2001) discuss the gender equity of both the ejido system and subsequent agrarian reforms in Mexico:The first agrarian reform of this century, born in a revolution in which women were active participants (C. Ramons 1993), thus established a mixed precedent for women's land rights. The land rights of female household heads were formally recognized, but single women were discriminated against compared with single men. Nonetheless, in 1971 Mexico became the first Latin American country to guarantee men and women an equal chance of being an agrarian reform beneficiary. (73)Deere and León's discussion of the gendered components of the ejido system make evident the fact that the abolition of Article 27 was not only a peasant/indigenous issue but also a women's issue. In fact, women's rights, equal participation, and selfdetermination were, at its formation and in its endurance, also major components of the Zapatista rebellion. The Zapatista Rebellion has been described in countless manners: an indigenous rebellion, a movement for democratic reform, a peasant rebellion, and also, by Karen Kampwirth (2002) as a \"women's rebellion\" due to the fact that women account for half of the base support and one third of EZLN combatants (84). In the decade prior to the uprising, indigenous populations in Chiapas prepared to go to war for their autonomy, building a large support base and drafting a series of laws that included the Women's Revolutionary Law. The document begins:In the fight for the liberation of our people, the EZLN incorporates women into the revolutionary struggle, regardless of their race, creed, color, or political affiliation, requiring only that they share the demands of the exploited people and that they commit to the laws and regulations of the revolution. (EZLN 1994) Drawing on a long history of women's participation in indigenous organizing (Toledo Tello and Garza Caligaris 2006), the Zapatista movement served as turning point for this process in Mexico. While participating in the struggle for land and democracy, indigenous women also began to demand more equitable gender relations within the family, community, and social and political organizations (Stephen, Speed, Hernández Castillo 2006, xi). Melissa M. Forbis (2002) writes that the political lens of women in Chiapas is rooted in their experiences living as women, indigenous, and poor and that each of these identities is inextricably linked (251). She argues that women's level of participation in the Zapatista rebellion is multi-leveled: one is collective, part of the larger struggle for indigenous autonomy, and one is personal, fighting to gain equality in their families and communities (252). Women are not disregarding traditional gender roles entirely, but actively changing gendered power relations (252). Gilbreth and Otero (2001) also describe the rise of the Zapatista movement in their article about the Zapatista uprising and civil society: Just when the country was being inaugurated into the 'First World' by joining its northern neighbors in an economic association represented by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), an armed rebellion broke out in the southeastern state of Chiapas. In the wake of a ceasefire following 12 days of fighting, a new social movement emerged that contested the direction of the nation's future as envisioned by the state and its ruling electoral machine, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party-PRI). The adherents of the new movement are primarily Mayan peasants, both members and sympathizers of the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (Zapatista National Liberation Army-EZLN), and their national and international supporters. (7)Gilbreth and Otero touch here on the significance of the international support for the EZLN and the links between the local movement and national and international economic development models. Maria Elena Martinez-Torres ( 2001) describes the president's acceptance of a ceasefire as a result of information flow out of the guerrilla zone that fueled both a loss of investor confidence and a growing international solidarity network. She writes, \"That information also flowed to members of a rapidly congealing transnational solidarity network, which today is a part of the broadening and thickening of civil society inside Mexico, in the Mexican diaspora outside the country, and among anti-globalization activists around the world\" (347).In The Tourism Encounter (2011), Florence Babb presents findings from ethnographic research to suggest that San Cristóbal de las Casas specifically is at the \"center of an expansion of cultural tourism that draws attention to indigenous peoples and traditions as well as to the contemporary context of revolutionary practices and politics\" (92). She argues that despite the decline in mainstream tourism due to armed conflict, the Zapatista's Internet presence and inclusive philosophy led to a significant upsurge in solidarity travel from all over the world. My observations about San Cristóbal de las Casas supported Babb's conclusions. At artesian markets women and men sell tiny Zapatista dolls, ski masks embroidered with \"EZLN,\" and t-shirts depicting Subcomandante Marcos. Popular tourist restaurants show nightly films about the Zapatistas and included small stores where visitors may buy Zapatista posters, postcards, coffee, handicrafts, and more. When I visited San Cristóbal a year after my initial fieldwork, I saw many of the same ex-pats still hanging around the Real de Guadalupe, playing guitar, selling their jewelry, and participating in Zapatista demonstrations.This particular tourist and ex-pat demographic, combined with the high concentration of research colleges and universities in the city, makes for a highly politically aware population. This has allowed for a particular niche market to develop around local, organic, and sustainable agriculture and production. Researchers and professors from colleges and universities in the city have participated in the organizations with which I worked, and in several instances served as my liaisons to interview respondents.Throughout the governments of Miguel de la Madrid and Salinas de Gortari, Mexico radically shifted its economic and social policies away from the import substitution industrialization (ISI) model, implemented around Latin America in the mid-20 th century, in what has been seen as a paradigmatic example of neoliberal structural adjustment (Moreno-Brid et al. 2009). Neoliberal reforms included a process of trade and financial liberalization, market deregulation, privatization, and a drastically reduced role of the state in economic regulation (Moreno-Brid et al. 2009). In 1994, President Salinas launched the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Since that time, Mexico has also entered into trade agreements with numerous other countries throughout the world, and in 2008, all nontariff restrictions on agricultural goods were lifted (Moreno-Brid et al. 2009). Appendini (2014) writes of the shift in maize policy focused on modernizing the countryside, Its central aim was to reorient government investment towards those farmers who were considered to have commercial and competitive potential in more open market conditions. Small-and medium-scale farmers, who formerly had sustained Mexico's maize production, now became categorized as \"inefficient\" and 'uncompetitive' and were excluded from government credits and subsidized inputs, technical assistance and market outlets that were available through CONA-SUPO….Peasants were no longer categorized as 'farmers' but as 'poor'. (6)Written into NAFTA was a fifteen-year transition to full liberalization, and maize continued to be protected under NAFTA until 2008 when those protections were lifted.Maize is an important staple food in Mexico, with over 3 million smallholders growing maize for subsistence (Borja-Vega and de la Fuente 2013). In addition to the threat to maize production imposed by economic liberalization, climate change may also have a significant effect. Climate change, specifically an increase in temperatures, could reduce maize production in Central America by 25% due to widespread decreases in rainfall and severe soil degradation (Schmidt et al 2012). In addition to the importance of maize for food security, maize is also culturally significant for the country.In \"'Si no comemos tortillas, no vivimos:' women, climate change, and food security in Central Mexico,\" Beth A. Bee describes the contributions Mexican women make to household food security through their responsibility for maintaining the milpa, or maize intercropped with beans, squash, and other edible plants. Chappell et al. (2013) describe the milpa as a centuries old polyculture system that helps to preserve biodiversity, non-economic cultural values, and food security. The title of Bee's article pinpoints the centrality of maize and the milpa to the lives of many Mexican women and their families. Throughout San Cristóbal and the surrounding areas, milpas sprout from sloping green spaces, and even many tourist products market the milpa and its cultural significance. Strategic essentialism can be seen, stressing the importance of the milpa and maize specifically to indigenous women. Tiny embroidered coin purses for sale in Zapatista women's collectives read, \"Sin maíz, no hay país\" 7 and elaborate posters depict rebels in the countryside surrounded by corn crops. Appendini (2010) links the change in maize policy and production to an overall shift in values related to globalization: Economic restructuring with the Mexican economy's recurrent crisis (1982,1987, changed the continuity of \"progress.\" Maize became less profitable to market, the younger generations no longer wanted to work in agriculture, nor do they have access to land which is still held by parents. Education and the social cultural impact of urban lifestyles, have changed the expectations of the young. They see more opportunities in migrating, until recently, to \"the North\" (USA).Because of the importance of maize and the milpa to Chiapanecos, the stark differences in development indicators for Chiapas and Mexico as a nation, and the cultural, geographical, and developmental similarities between Chiapas and Guatemala, I have decided to use and analyze a climate change report about Central America in this thesis. The Tortillas on the Roaster report was carried out to provide specific information on the effects of climate change on maize and bean production in Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. However, due to the importance of maize and bean production for subsistence farming in Chiapas, I believe this report could have valuable applications for the Mexican state. In the next section, I will describe the three organizations studied in this thesis.La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana is made up of 16 agricultural farming families and 15 families who sell processed 7 Without maize, there is no country. agricultural goods in and around San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas. Founded in 2005, the group organized its first organic market in 2007 with the intention of bringing together consumers and producers interested in organic products. The idea for the organization began with a group of women who wanted to create an alternative means for the consumption of organic products. The motivation for the inception of the organization is described on their website: Esta iniciativa supone el intento más consolidado de ofrecer a la población de San Cristóbal una alternativa que facilite una producción y un consumo responsable. La idea de iniciar un mercado con productos sanos surgió con un grupo de amigas, todas mujeres y algunas con niños pequeños, quienes compartíamos la preocupación con respeto a la calidad y seguridad de los alimentos con la que nosotras y nuestras familias consumíamos, preocupadas principalmente por el uso de aguas negras y agroquímicos. 8 (La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana 2009) It continues: En los 7 años que llevamos de experiencia y 5 funcionando como tianguis, podemos decir que no solo se trata de comercializar. Se trata de una propuesta integral de desarrollo local, que promueve la economía local, elimina intermediarios favoreciendo la relación directa entre personas productoras y consumidoras, acercando el medio rural con el urbano. Se favorece la integración de productores y procesadores artesanales, cuya actividad es de pequeña escala. Desde Comida Sana y Cercana se fomenta la producción Agroecológica de semillas orgánicas y criollas. Además tiene una clara posición de lucha contra los transgénicos y por el libre acceso a las semillas. Se da asesoría técnica y seguimiento a las personas productoras para acceder a una práctica agroecológica…. Asimismo, se promueve el consumo responsable que va más allá de comprar y consumir alimentos sanos. Se dan talleres, conferencias, intercambios de experiencias y otras actividades. 9 (La Red deThe Red organizes thrice-weekly markets (tianguis) where agriculturalists, artisans, and other producers sell products certified by the organization. Twice-weekly the markets are in downtown San Cristóbal, and once each week the market is held on the El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) campus. El tianguis was one of the first markets I visited when I arrived in San Cristóbal. When I finally decided to study this organization specifically, I had already been visiting, shopping, and taking notes at the market for weeks. The organization has a strict application process for researchers to ensure that each study will in some way benefit its participants. A member of the Comisión de Vinculación e-mailed me explaining this during the application process: La idea es que cada proyecto, tesis e investigación que se haga sea para beneficio de las mismas personas tinaguistas.Te cuento el procedimiento. a) Llenas una ficha. Nos la envías. b) Esa ficha se la damos después a las personas del tianguis para que en una asamblea la revisen y sea entre todas las personas del Tianguis quiénes decidan si es posible realiza entrevistas. 10 (June 24, 2014)On their website, they list and link to several studies undertaken through this process. One of which, a master's thesis from ECOSUR describes La Red Comida Sana y Cercana in detail. Antonieta Carolina Reyes Gomez (2010, 5) writes that the tianguis is much more than a market. It is a space for the exchange of information and rural environment to the urban. The integration of producers and artisanal processors, whose business is small scale is favored. Agroecological production of organic and heritage seeds is encouraged by Comida Sana y Cercana. It also has a clear position against GMOs and for free access to seeds. Technical assistance and follow-up is given to producers in order to access agroecological practice .... Responsible consumption that goes beyond buying and consuming healthy foods is also promoted. Workshops, conferences, skill shares and other activities are given.products, linking producers and consumers, and creating new ways of understanding development at the local level: En la actualidad, el Tianguis se ha convertido en un espacio de información e intercambio de productos, en donde se comercia de manera directa entre los productores y los consumidores. La oferta y la demanda han crecido en relativamente poco tiempo, así́ como el número de sus participantes. Mostrando nuevas formas de entender el desarrollo, no solo el comercial sino también del humano al implementar otras estrategias de organización, de comunicación y de toma de decisiones.Dentro del espacio del Tianguis, están presentes voluntades individuales en torno a un objetivo en común: la comercialización de productos locales que mantienen prácticas o técnicas similares a la producción orgánica. El colectivo del Tianguis, se conforma de actores sociales heterogéneos que articulan una acción colectiva que genera un cambio en los sujetos y en la sociedad. Como colectivo, elaboran su identidad en conjunción con otros actores sociales; facilitan nuevas formas de participación ciudadana y; la re-significación de lo \"orgánico\" a nivel local. 11Mujeres y Maíz Criollo is a collective of Tseltal women that formed in 2008 with the purpose of strengthening women's initiatives to produce tortillas, tostadas, and other maize-based products. Their products are sold at markets in and around San Cristóbal de las Casas (including at El Tianguis de la Comida Sana y Cercana) and at the Milpa Comedor Comunitario, a community restaurant run by women participants in Mujeres y Maíz Criollo. The organization promotes the use of heritage maize varieties grown in 11 Currently, the Tianguis has become a space for information and exchange of products, in which items are traded directly between producers and consumers. Supply and demand have grown in relatively little time, as have the number of participants. Demonstrating new ways of understanding development, not only economic development but also human development to implement other strategies for organization, communication, and decision-making.Within the space of the Tianguis, individual volitions center on a common goal: the commercialization of local products maintained by practices or techniques similar to organic production. The collection of the Tianguis is made up of heterogeneous social actors articulating a collective action that generates change in subjects and society. As a collective, they develop their identity in conjunction with other stakeholders; facilitate new forms of citizen participation; and the re-signification of the \"organic\" at the local level. Amatenango, Chiapas, specifically, due in part to the fact that participants prefer this type of maize for their personal tortilla-making. Funds generated from La Milpa Comedor Comunitario and other markets and economic outlets are used to construct energy-efficient wood burning stoves and hold workshops and events. These stoves use less firewood and decrease smoke inhalation. From the Mujeres y Maíz Criollo website:Para mejorar los procesos productivos se promueve el uso de fogones ahorradores de leña, los cuales además expulsan el humo a través de una chimenea, por lo que las mujeres ya no están expuestas al humo permitiendo con esto disminuir los riesgos en su salud. Además realizamos reuniones, talleres e intercambios de experiencias enfocados a mejorar la calidad, higiene y diversificación de sus productos. Fortalecer los lazos entre mujeres que realizan las mismas actividades y fomentar el trabajo organizado. 12 (Mujeres y Maíz Criollo 2013) Additionally, Mujeres y Maíz Criollo participates in organized public events that promote the use of heritage varieties of maize and maize products. The cultural significance of heritage maize and the milpa is a fundamental driver of the organization.Mujeres y Maíz Criollo embrace the importance of maize production in their mission, focusing not only on the consumption of maize and maize products, but the process of seed selection, and the physical act of tortilla-making. Their community restaurant is called La Milpa Comedor Comunitario, and its logos and imagery depict a woman literally sprouting from stalks of maize (Figure G-1). Their website statement continues: Participamos y organizamos eventos públicos (como el Festival del maíz y la tortilla) para fomentar el consumo de alimentos elaborados con maíz criollo así como fortalecer la cultura del maíz. Los eventos en los que participamos incluyen exposiciones de maíces criollos, intercambios de semillas, carteles informativos y actividades culturales…Otro de los puntos calves de este proyecto es la creación de relaciones solidarias encaminadas a crear una comunidad rural/urbana que vincula de productores/procesadoras/consumidores de maíz criollo en la región, la cual dará difusión a la \"cultura del maíz\", para la revaloración de su producción y consumo. 13 (Mujeres y Maíz Criollo 2013)In a meeting described in detail below, an organizer of Mujeres y Maíz Criollo linked the inception of their organization to the liberalization of agricultural imports into Mexico in 2008 and the crisis of maize production in Chiapas. Forming a collective provided protection and assistance when, due to economic liberalization, governmental protections were no longer available. Furthermore, the organization provided a means of resisting the disappearance of traditional maize varieties. Participants reported that in their community men did most of the farming and made most of the decisions about agricultural inputs (they were still using agrochemicals), and women made handicrafts (pottery) and tortillas and tended to kitchen gardens. I met with one organizer, Mari, at the Milpa Comedor Comunitario with before visiting the Tseltal women who live in Amatenango del Valle. The Milpa Comedor Comunitario is in a very southern part of San Cristóbal de las Casas, past the bus stations and far from the tourist areas. Mari worked for La Asociación Civil Capacitación, Asesoría, Medio Ambiente y Defensa del Derecho a la Salud (CAMADDS, A. C.), a civil organization devoted to improving the quality of life for campesinos and indígenas in Chiapas by strengthening local development in health, the 13 We participate and organize public events (Like the Festival of Corn and Tortilla) to encourage the consumption of food made with heritage corn as to strengthen the culture of corn. The events we participate in include presentations on heritage corns, exchanges of seeds, informational posters and cultural activities…Another of our key points of the project is the creation of solidarity to create a rural/urban community that is connected to the producers/processors/consumers of heritage corn in the region, which will spread \"the culture of corn,\" to revalue the production and consumption of heritage corn.environment, and agroecological production. Mari explained to me the motivation behind starting Mujeres y Maíz Criollo and the projects they are undertaking. Mujeres y Maíz uses traditional, local corn varieties grown in Amatenango, Chiapas to make tortillas. Mari described the corn they grow as more yellow, almost an orange, and the women prefer to make tortillas with this type of maize over the whiter corn that makes very white tortillas. They are slowly switching to organic agriculture, but it has been difficult because of the perceived risks. Although the women make a lot of decisions, most major decisions are still made by men in their community. Mari described the women in Amatenango as more forceful and less timid than women in many indigenous communities. All of the women who participate are Tseltales, and men in their families and communities are beginning to go to workshops with groups that are using agroecological methods. Mari said these workshops are successful because the men who participate are learning from other campesinos and Tseltales. Therefore they are more comfortable and more trusting. It is a solid example of campesino a campesino agriculture, but women are excluded.K'inal Antsetik, which means \"Land of Women\" in the Tseltal language, is a nonprofit organization that has been working since 1992 for \"empowerment of indigenous women in the state of Chiapas, Mexico\" (K'inal Antsetik 2014). Their work centers on health, economic development and production, leadership training, and human rightsincluding indigenous women's rights to the environment. Their mission and vision from their website situate indigenous women's participation in their communities into a global context. It states: K'inal Antsetik envisions a world built with the participation of women and men, without discrimination on the basis of gender, ethnicity, class or any other status, a world in which the participation of indigenous women is ensured in all walks of life. Through the education and training of indigenous women, Kinal Antsetik seeks to strengthen women's organizations and to have women leaders play a key role in the economic and social development of their communities, thus transforming the traditional role of women in society. (K'inal Antsetik 2014) They include caring for the environment and rights to a healthy environment in their health objectives: La formación y capacitación para el cuidado del medioambiente, en el marco de la concepción del derecho a un medio natural saludable como parte integral del derecho a la salud. La formación y capacitación abarca en este caso el desarrollo de iniciativas de reciclado de residuos y la producción de cultivos y elaboración de fertilizantes de tipo orgánico. Jolom Mayaetik has created several committees to expand on different areas of the cooperative. The committee for the quality assurance of production and selling includes women who represent Jolom Mayaetik at fairs nationally and internationally. The committee of health and rights of women is active in promoting various initiatives within these fields in their respective communities. This includes education on healthy living practices, the use of herbal remedies and organic farming initiatives. In addition to health these committees specialize in the field of women's rights, including participation in outreach activities for the defense of women against violence in their communities.   In this chapter I describe findings from interviews with participants in all three organizations, beginning with a detailed description of three key interviews (cases). I then discuss commonalities and differences between all interview responses, and finally describe climate change perceptions, adaptations, and mitigative practices expressed therein. I argue that personal experience, identification as a woman (and the household or community level gender division of labor), indígena, or campesina, and organizational affiliation have affected perceptions, adaptations, and mitigative practices of the women interviewed.Doña Carmela lives in Teopisca, Chiapas. She and her family are members of La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana, and were active participants in El Tianguis. When I interviewed Carmela at her home, she noted a significant change in the climate that resulted in numerous negative impacts to her property and her crops. At the time of the interview she was unable to sell at the markets because she had recently suffered a huge landslide on her property. Earlier in the year an atypical windstorm had caused her to lose the flowers from many of her avocado trees, resulting in decreased yields at harvest time. Of all the respondents her experiences with unpredictable climatic events were the most significantly negative. She noted that both the rainy and hot seasons had started earlier in recent years. This year, specifically, there had been a lot more rain, resulting in the disaster on her property. She attributed the landslide not only to the increased rain, but also to land erosion that was precipitated by her neighbors cutting down trees.Nos afecta en erosión de tierra… porque muchos compañeros campesinos que todo viven arriba, talan muchos de los árboles. 15   Like many other respondents, for her climate change could not be isolated from other factors related to social, economic, and environmental issues.I met Carmela through a professor contact I gained in the area. I was able to arrange a meeting with this professor at a small coffee shop one Wednesday afternoon.She is a friend of several women farmers who sell at el tianguis, and called Carmela while we were having coffee. Carmela agreed to have me visit her the following day.The next day I walked up and down the crowded strip of bus terminals listening for drivers yelling that their van, or combi, would take passengers to Teopisca. When I finally found the right combi, it was about a 30-45 minute ride from San Cristóbal de las Casas to my stop. I was given strict instructions on how not to get lost from the professor who put me in touch with Carmela. I had a lot of information about Carmela before I visited her, specifically that she is not currently selling in the tianguis due to numerous problems she has had with her crops. In February high winds caused her to lose the flowers on her avocado trees, and two months ago a landslide occurred on her property, resulting in catastrophic damage. We even met a young man from Argentina who had just been helping her with repairs for two days.I got off the combi at a school called Cobach, crossed the highway and walked down a gravel road to its bend and up the mountain a ways to Carmela's house. I was told to look for a barking golden retriever and a white truck. When I got to the fence, as predicted, there was a huge dog barking to announce my arrival. Carmela hurried to the gate and let me in. We settled into her living room to talk. Her house had a few areas insulated with four walls, but the kitchen and living room area were open to the outside.She swept off the floor by the chairs and couch before I sat down. She had what I came to learn was a domestic worker cleaning and cooking while she talked to me. She lives on her property with her mother, father, and children. The property once belonged to her grandparents. They all work on the land, growing mostly avocados, but also raising chickens and rabbits and growing lettuces, fruits, and milpa.She told me that she has started diversifying their practices due to problems with the avocados. They are infested now with small worms that burrow through the flesh of the avocados into the pit. After our interview she showed me the worms in a number of avocados found on the ground during a tour of the property. She said that due to this problem her family has started making avocado oil. The worms don't affect the meat, so they can still produce oil from the infested fruit. She also said they have started making jams from their fruit trees. She and the other women who participate in the tianguis seem to have a good support network through the Red and the markets. She was able to have volunteers come repair her property after the rain-induced landslide, and she has an outlet to sell diverse products like the avocado oil and jams.I asked her thoughts on how and why the climate had been changing and she had a lot to say. Her thoughts returned time and again to a responsibility to care for the earth. She feels a responsibility to do no damage to the earth for future generations, touching on how the earth belongs to and is inhabited by all of us. I asked her about her switch to agroecology in relation to this, and she told me that when her father first began farming, they used pesticides and chemical fertilizers, but her mother got very ill. They later began the process of turning to agroecological methods, to which her trees took several years to adjust. Carmela gave me a tour of her property, climbing fences and precariously balancing on rocks where the landslide happened. She showed me many times where the water came from-the top of the steep incline up the mountain. She described where the level of the rocks used to be, told me how the disaster had affected a number of her projects. She said it was all rainwater, due to the excessive rain that they have been experiencing this year. Carmela showed me the chickens, rabbit, lettuces, milpa and fruit trees she grows. She picked a fig, an apple, and an orange and gave them to me to try.Doña Carmela spoke at length about agroecology and how it intersected with her beliefs about the earth, ecosystems, and human responsibility to the environment. Her family decided to stop using agrochemicals when her mother became ill years prior.Her description of this change illustrates the decision-making process involved (her father making the decision and having the default knowledge about the process), and the effect both the experience and the adaptation had on their farm and her beliefs.Entonces iba prosperando más rápido pero fue un … todo había por las insecticidas… mi papa… y empezamos a ver que mi mama empezaba enfermar pero era por los químicos entonces eso fue otra de las cosas que mi papa hizo cambiar.[Papa] dice no pues ella está enfermando al rato pues a mí me enfermara y quien va a trabajar esta vuelta? Entonces era fue un montoncito de cosas y todo que nos hizo de cambiar a lo agroecológico. 16   She continued about the response of their crops to the change: 16 Then we were prospering more rapidly but there was a….it was all by insecticides…my father…and we started to see that my mother was getting sick, but it was because of the chemicals, so that was one of the things that my father changed. [My father] said no because she is getting sick soon I will get sick and then who will work? So it was a heap of things that made us change to agroecology.Para nosotros sí fue un poco difícil también porque los árboles y todo porque son árboles grandes no es igual como empezar desde que los árboles que vienen creciendo ellos se van acostumbrado a ese tipo de jabón o de fertilizante entonces si también nos disminuir un poquito lo que era la cosecha pero…año con año vaya pasando los árboles van ir adaptando a la nuevo alimenta. 17 Eso es a través … a contaminación, talación, pero nos cuesta mucho volver a regresar y todo como vivíamos antes pero... somos muy pocos que vamos intentando pero esperamos...que un día sea mucho más gente. 18   Principalmente con la tierra… cuidando la tierra y no contaminándola… yo siento que solamente de esa manera podríamos volver a cambiar nuestro planeta. 19  Y cada vez estamos destruyendo lo más y muchos campesinos no empiezan a cambiar su forma de trabajo pues cada vez va a ser más difícil para poder. Las personas que siguen destruyendo sus terrenos yo pienso que en un lapso de tiempo ellos no van a poder cosechar ella. 20   Incluso tantas cambios de clima es porque nosotros tenemos demasiadas plagas y por lo mismo que los campesinos le ponen tanto químico en la tierra también los animalitos y todo nosotros nos estamos interrumpiendo su ciclo de vida su ecosistema que ellos tenían. 21   During the interview, I asked Carmela if she had received any government support after the landslide, and she assured me that no formal support was available from the government. I mentioned that I met a volunteer from Argentina in San Cristóbal who had come to her house to help. She said that la red, the organization, had provided both economic support and volunteers to help repair the damages:Por parte de ellos sí, hemos tenido apoyo. Pues han venido 3 voluntarios ayudarnos dos días y nos ayudaron económicamente y nos ayudaron para.. para poder este (pointing around). 22   She also said that people from ECOSUR had come to her house to try to help with the pests that were plaguing her avocado trees. She explained that through ECOSUR and el tianguis, she and her family were learning to coexist with other ways of life and work more collectively with other campesinos. 20 And each time we are destroying it more and more farmers are not starting to change their practices then each time it is going to be more difficult to do. The people that continue destroying their land I think that after a while they won't be able to harvest it.21 A lot of climate change is because we have too many pests and for that reason farmers put so many chemicals on the land and the little animals we are interrupting their life cycle and the ecosystem that they have. 22 For some of them yes, we have had support. Three volunteers have come to help us for two days and they helped us economically and helped us to.. to.. do this.A través de lo .. de tianguis y de la ECOSUR pues hacemos aprendiendo a convivir con otra manera incluso va a trabajar un poco más en colectivo. The grandparents were extremely elderly. The abuelita kept telling me she was sick and speaking Spanish that was very difficult for me to understand (not her first language since she and the tia were speaking Tseltal mostly). The abuelo kept walking back and forth with his cane from a patio out-of-sight to where I sat with the abuelita and tia. The tia was sifting arena for the clay pots women in Amatenango traditionally make. She said the arena was wet, so she was letting it dry in the sun. Lucy arrived and went to get her cousins and other aunts for me to interview. We sat on the formerly out-of-sight patio and talked for over an hour. Lucy served as a translator from Tseltal to Spanish because many of her aunts and cousins were monolingual.At the time of the interview, they were building an oven at her house for making tortillas. She described the ovens as a better alternative because they use less firewood and keep women from inhaling as much smoke. When I asked what they thought about climate change the group reiterated what I've been told many times: that the rain and drought is variable and drastically affects their harvests, that unpredictable winds have also affected their crops. The group said that before, it was easier to find trees for firewood but now they have to travel farther, using cars and making sure to use all of the limbs and branches, whereas in the past they would only use the trunk. They said that men are responsible for these tasks now, although I saw women carrying small limbs in the streets. The group reiterated the gender division of labor, telling me that in their community women make a lot of clay goods and men are responsible for the majority of farming. After the interview, I accompanied Lucy to her house where she showed me her land and the construction of the oven on her property. Two young men in Western clothes were building it. She said that despite the workshops men in her community have attended, they still used agrochemicals and that a switch away from them has been very difficult. As we walked, she pointed out chemical fertilizers sprinkled among stalks of maize.When I asked the group if they had noted any change in climate in their lifetimes, Lucy translated the question into Tseltal to the rest of the group, and they all started talking very excitedly, raising their voices over one another. It was the first question I'd asked that elicited such a response. Lucy explained to me that they had all seen increased droughts, along with too much rain, and also illnesses due to the variability of the weather. I asked the group if they thought these changes were an important issue, and one of Lucy's cousins began crying while she explained in Tseltal that it was a major worry for them. Lucy translated:Los cambios climáticos son importantes para el mundo y la comunidad porque es una preocupación que estamos haciendo…cual es lo…lo que está pasando? 24She said that the changes in climate were due to cutting down trees, that this was negatively affecting the environment and also making it more difficult to collect firewood.She said that it was now necessary for men in their families and community to collect firewood, because they had to travel farther via motorcycle or car. Lucy later added that contaminación 25 was also a contributor to climate change, explaining to me that \"…anteriormente sembrada sin nada … pero ya …la revolución verde empezaba usar los químicos.\" 26 Now the majority of campesinos in their community used agrochemicals. However, some were changing to organic practices. Mari, the organizer who had gotten me in touch with Lucy and her family, explained to me previously that there was resistance to the reduction or discontinuance of agrochemical use and that many of the men in these communities were particularly resistant to her input because she is neither a man nor a campesino.During the focus group interview with Lucy and her family members involved in Mujeres y Maíz, they described the negative effects of the increased rain on their families and work. Not only could they not leave the house during heavy rains, \"estamos encerradas en la casa,\" but also this constriction affected their ability to work 24 Climate change is important for the world and for the community because it is a worry that we have been having… what is it…what is happening?25 pollution/contamination 26 Before we planted without anything…but…the Green Revolution started the use of chemicals.both in the fields and making and selling pottery. Lucy explained that if maize and bean crops are lost, they have to buy them because they are their main source of nutrition.They believed that men in their communities were most negatively affected by the changes they described. Because men were responsible for agricultural production, they had to find other work when there was a decreased harvest.I interviewed Elvia in a large conference room with huge murals that depicted indigenous women marching and organizing painted on the walls at the K'inal Antsetik offices in San Cristóbal de las Casas. I was introduced to her through a few visits with the organization, presenting them with my carta de presentación and explaining my project to them. Because of the nature of K'inal and its mission, many of the women living in San Cristóbal and working in their offices are involved in Outreach, teaching workshops and traveling to communities. Elvia explained to me that she grew up in a community near the border between Guatemala and Chiapas, working in el campo growing maize and beans with her family. She got involved with the Education and Training Center and now works providing workshops for K'inal Antsetik. She is interested in sustainable agriculture and indigenous women's rights to the environment.Elvia appears to be in her 20's and wears Western-style clothes rather than traje.Elvia grew up working on her family's farm and now helps organize workshops to help families change their agricultural practices-cooking with sunlight to use less leña, how to produce more from small spaces, and how to grow aromatic crops to repel pests. She told me a bit about how she thinks men and women think differently about the earth and the environment. She believes that women feel they need to care for the environment and men just want to produce more and more quickly. She reiterated resistance to changing agricultural techniques and that the workshops are important so that people can physically see them in practice. She explained to me part of the resistance is because she is a young woman, \"Eres una niña!\" 27 , and many campesinos do not think she can teach them anything. She talked with a lot of passion and excitement about trying new agricultural practices and had some personal experiences with strong winds and excessive rain. She reiterated what almost everyone has said about too much rain, too much heat, and droughts.Because Elvia had visited so many communities giving workshops, she had a lot to say about how the climate was changing and how it was affecting campesinos in the state. \"Que pasa con el tiempo?\" 28 She explained to me that in the past one could expect certain weather at certain times of year, tiempo de calor, tiempo de lluvia 29 but now it is disorganized: one will expect heat and it will be cold, expect rain, and it will be dry, and so on. The heat is tremendous, and maize yields have lessened because of it.\"Los campos se inunda y se imagina cuanta gente pierde allí.\" 30   I asked what farmers in this situation do, and she explained to me that many campesinos have more than one field. When one is one location does not yield harvests, they are able to depend on the other field or on the milpa in a third location.She said that in many communities there is also a network to give land or work to those who have had problems with their harvests. She believes it is because humans are \"destruyendo la selva, los bosques, los arboles\" 31 and continued to explain its relationship to consumption patterns:Yo considero que es como un afectación, no? …del tanto exceso tal vez de.. de lo consumir de productos procesados o fabricados de la industria. 32   She believes that it is everyone's responsibility to change consumption patterns and begin caring for madre tierra. She explained that many people believe their individual actions are too small to have an effect. After the interview she took me on a tour of K'inal Antsetik. I had already seen much of the property previously, but Elvia showed me their small organic garden and their composting area, both used for workshop instruction.In the following section I describe and analyze the data obtained from my field research in Chiapas, identifying common themes at the micro scale-the individual, family, or immediate community. In many instances, interview participants spoke abstractly about the world, the future, and their place in it. However, participants also spoke about very concrete and personal experience, identity, and culture. I argue that the economic activities undertaken, the types of seeds sown, and the adaptive practices participants were willing to undertake were all informed by personal experience, organization affiliation, and personal or community identity. Furthermore, personal and family safety and ethnic and gender identities shaped the missions and visions of the organizations.31 destroying the rainforests, the forests, the trees.32 I consider it like an affectation, no? ..of so much excess maybe of..of the consumption of processed and industrially manufactured products.During interviews, several women spoke to me about a specific experience or catalyst they attributed to the decision to change their farming or economic practices.For example, two respondents from La Red de Productores y ConsumidoresResponsables Comida Sana y Cercana described the personal experience of having a community or family member fall ill from what they attributed to the use of agrochemicals as a catalyst for their transition to agroecology. Doña Carmela attributed an illness her mother experienced to her family's decision to stop using agrochemicals. She said that several members of her community had also fallen ill or died due to exposure to agrochemicals. Another respondent from the same organization also experienced a community member falling ill at age 27 due to exposure to agrochemicals. The mission of La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana reflects this concern about the safety of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, citing worry about the safety of agrochemicals for members' families.Members of Mujeres y Maíz Criollo also expressed concerns about the health and safety of their families. Participants in the focus group all reported increased illness due to more variable climates. Additionally, wood burning stoves are installed on members'properties to decrease the negative health impacts women face due to smoke inhalation. These concerns about the quality of food, the health and safety of family members, and the need for more efficient stoves is a reflection of the gender division of labor in many households, with women responsible for caregiving and meal preparation.Members and organizers of K'inal Antsetik also reported concerns for health and the right to health as important drivers of their work.Organizational affiliation played a significant role in the perceptions and adaptive practices of women interviewed. Much of what respondents attributed to be the causes of climate change and their resulting adaptive practices could be found in the mission statements of their organizations. Members of La Red de Productores y ConsumidoresResponsables Comida Sana y Cercana considered unsustainable agricultural practices to be a driver of climate change, choosing to use agroecology as an adaptive and mitigative strategy. Furthermore, organizational affiliation increased social capital, providing access to networks and workshops, and increasing knowledge of alternative agricultural practices and access to niche markets. Organizational affiliation also provided access to disaster assistance. For Doña Carmela, La Red de Productores y Consumidores Responsables Comida Sana y Cercana provided assistance to repair the damages when no governmental assistance was available. She also reported that students and faculty came from ECOSUR to assist with the pests in her avocado trees.For members of Mujeres y Maíz Criollo, the lack of government regulation of agricultural imports (NAFTA) was offset by the creation of the organization.For a number of respondents, identification as a campesina or as an indígena was important in their decisions to continue farming despite challenging or even disastrous circumstances. Many respondents employed strategic essentialism to stress the importance of their message. One respondent said, \"De la tierra vienes y a la tierra te vas\" 33 to describe a campesina's relationship to the land. Furthermore, the importance of personal identity and cultural heritage can also be seen in the missions and visions of the organizations. From Mujeres y Maíz Criollo (2013):Otro de los puntos claves de este proyecto es la creación de relaciones solidarias encaminadas a crear una comunidad rural/urbana que vincula de productores/procesadoras/consumidores de maíz criollo en la región, la cual dará difusión a la \"cultura del maíz\", para la revaloración de su producción y consumo. 34   In response to an influx of corn from the United States, Mujeres y Maíz Criollo cites the cultural significance of heritage maize varieties as an organizing principle. Similarly K'inal Antsetik's work centers on the representation and empowerment of indigenous women in Chiapas, specifically. When touring their offices in San Cristóbal de las Casas, I was shown a small classroom with Tseltal words written on a white board. I knew that K'inal Antsetik provided health and translation services to women who did not speak Spanish, but my guide explained to me that they also teach Tseltal and Tsotsil to members who do not speak, read, or write an indigenous language.K'inal Antsetik's website states that one of the most important missions of the organization is to contribute to the \"transformation of gender relations\" at the household and community levels. They write, \"K'inal works to help women gain representation, and thus influence the collective construction of social justice, democracy and autonomy\" (K'inal Antsetik 2014). Household and community level gender relations played a significant role in the farming or other adaptive practices respondents were able to undertake. Members of Mujeres y Maíz Criollo described their families' and communities' reliance on agrochemicals despite their insistence that they discontinue their use. Because women in their community play only a small role in farming and 34 Another of our key points of the project is the creation of solidarity to create a rural/urban community that is connected to the producers/processors/consumers of heritage corn in the region, which will spread \"the culture of corn,\" to revalue the production and consumption of heritage corn. \"Hay sequía y hay mucho demasiado de lluvia.\" 35   All interview respondents had observed some change in climate patterns during their lifetimes, specifically noting increased variability and intensity in temperatures, 35 There is drought and there is too much rain.wind, and precipitation. Additionally, many participants had adapted or diversified their income generating activities in response to these occurrences. \"Porque antes este la vida era más saludable, más sana, más tranquila\" 37Membership in organizations, creating and utilizing niche markets, agroecology, seed selection, and diversification of economic activities were all adaptive strategies undertaken by interview respondents. Membership in the organizations themselves provided an important network and support system to aid in disaster relief, share skills, and generate income.Agroecological methods, a focus on locally produced and consumed products, and the construction of fuel efficient wood burning stoves were all mitigative strategies 36 It is the chemical that heats up the land. 37 Because before this life was healthier, purer, more tranquil.undertaken by participants. Because many participants believed that agrochemicals contributed to climate change, I consider their use of organic and agroecological farming methods a mitigative strategy. Additionally, the focus on small-scale local production and consumption not only reduces the use of fuel and carbon emissions, but can also be considered a mitigative strategy due to participants' views about The Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook points out that climate change may be felt in agriculture in the form of both variability and slow onset changes. They write that the focus of most research has been on the effects of these slow onset changes, while less is known about the effects of variability, which may in fact be felt sooner.Because variability changes are easier for farmers to comprehend, adaptations to increased variability may be a way to also prepare for slow onset changes (6). While agriculture may account for 13.5 percent of global GHG emissions (IPCC 2007), the CSA Sourcebook highlights the need to look vertically \"beyond the farm\" into the food chain, food system, and forest impacts (7).The CSA Sourcebook focuses on the need for more efficient systems. It states, \"Reducing emissions per kilogram of a given output might well be, for food security and agriculture, one of the main targets. Direct gains through increased efficiency also imply a series of indirect gains. These indirect gains include reduced emissions from deforestation as less land is necessary to produce the same amount of food\" with a footnote that considers the challenge in comparing \"outputs\" due to the fact that foods have varying nutritional content (8). For plant agriculture they cite the need for sustainable crop production intensification or \"save and grow\" techniques. Save and Grow intensification is productive while also conserving and enhancing natural resources, using an ecosystem approach. In this section of the report, they acknowledge problems associated with the overuse of agrochemicals:Increasing the sustainable intensification of crop production is achievable. This can be done through increasing resource use efficiency and cutting the use of fossil fuels. This saves money for farmers and prevents the negative effect of over-use of particular inputs. Inefficient fertilizer use is common in many regions. In some cases, this is a consequence of government subsidies. Yet over-use does not have the intended impact on plant growth and can result in the contamination of ground and surface water. Inappropriate insecticide use may actually induce pest outbreaks by disrupting the natural population of predators. Overuse of herbicides can lead to the emergence of herbicide-tolerant varieties of weeds. (2013,11) While the report at no point uses the term \"agroecology\" both \"Save and Grow\"techniques and the landscape approach identify and promote practices that are commonly included in agroecological strategies. The landscape approach uses the principles of natural resource management that recognize \"the value of ecosystem services to multiple stakeholders\" (45). The landscape approach includes societal concerns related to sustainable development. Furthermore, the CSA Sourcebook later promotes the diversification of crops to improve resilience of agricultural systems and the inclusion of legumes in crop rotations to exploit microbes that fix nitrogen (frijol in milpas). They attribute the diversity of production at farm and landscape level to increased income and the development of local markets (23).The CSA Sourcebook calls for a gender-sensitive approach, asserting the importance of gender-aware approaches in bringing about results from a CSA project.The report acknowledges the diversity of gender relations, demographic trends and cultural identities, and that failing to acknowledge these processes into a CSA system different adaptation scenarios across all the countries. The adaptation areas are as follows:• Areas where maize-bean systems are no longer an option -Hot Spots • Areas where maize-bean systems can be adapted -Adaptation Areas • Areas where maize-bean systems will be established -Pressure Areas (29-30)The report is mainly a technical report, predicting and illustrating rainfall, temperature, and production changes by country and city, so I will focus on the chapters that predict socio-economic impacts and focus area vulnerability. The authors collected information on vulnerability through focus group assessments and farm-level surveys.They write:The survey information is primarily aimed at the estimation of the vulnerability index of the household, which is composed of three composite indices: 1) the level of exposure of the maize-beans cropping system to changes caused by climate change, 2) The level of sensitivity of the household to the change in maize-beans production, and 3) the resilience or adaptive capacity of the household. (32)In a section called \"Development of local adaptation strategies\" the authors say they \"tried to generate ideas from participants\" and incorporate those ideas into their strategy. Unfortunately, nowhere in the report do they detail those ideas and how they were incorporated. Although their report found that maize and beans are the primary While every organization was connected to scholars and activists in the area, many involved in the organizations noted that campesinos and indígenas preferred to learn and were more receptive to learning from other campesinos and indígenas. I found from my interviews that personal identification and personal experience had profound impacts on the adaptive practices of farmers and their families. CSA calls for culturally appropriate, site specific, and gender sensitive agricultural programs for climate change, but participants and organizations involved in this study reached beyond this-seeking to transform and create new pathways for local development.The CSA Sourcebook mentions gender mostly as an aside-referencing cases where women were involved in a program, the particular vulnerability of women, and the need to consider local gender relations and the gender division of labor when implementing this approach. However, in the three organizations featured in this thesis, gender identity and gender relations were integral to the process of developing and working in their organizations. In many cases the transformation of gender relations or the gender-specific roles women and men played in agricultural activities were foundational aspects of the organization. Many women interviewed saw gender identity as an important factor in how decisions about agriculture and the environment were made at household, community, and societal levels.The Tortillas on the Roaster report provides valuable data for the prediction of climate change \"hot spots\" and its effects on maize and bean production. Because maize and beans are so important for food security and cultural identity in the region, predicting future climate change impacts on these crops could better prepare farmers to adapt to and mitigate changes. Three of the five adaptation strategies outlined in the Tortillas on the Roaster report have many observed applications in the field. The adaptive strategies outlined are sustainable intensification, diversification, expansion of assets, increasing off-farm income, and diversification out of agriculture as a livelihood strategy. While many study participants were sustainability intensifying and diversifying their products through workshops and networks created by their organizations (described above), diversification out of agriculture was not practiced and not a possibility for many interview respondents. In Some participants were increasing off-farm income. Members of Mujeres y Maíz Criollo described off-farm work men in the community would do when there were problems with crops or low yields, and women in Amatenango made clay pottery to sell at roadside markets. Furthermore, the Milpa Comedor Comunitario provided additional non-agricultural income, although many of the products sold were reliant on agricultural inputs from member farms. At el tianguis, many vendors sold prepared foods (also reliant on agricultural inputs) and non-agricultural products such as medicines, and woven or fabric items. While many participants generated income off-farm, diversification out of agriculture was not observed and was not a possibility. Campesino identity, the consumption of maize, and the cultivation of milpa were ultimately defining factors in many participants' lives-sin maíz, no hay país, etc. Even for Doña Carmela who had suffered so many setbacks she was not able to sell at el tianguis when I interviewed her, discontinuing agriculture was not an option.Although agriculture is one of the leading causes of greenhouse gas emissions, the Tortillas on the Roaster report does not offer suggestions for mitigation of the climate change impacts it predicts. The authors write that \"sustainable intensification\" strategies are \"climate smart\" and a \"win-win situation\" through the possibility of mitigating effects (114). Insinuating that mitigation activities need be accidental for Central American farmers discounts the strategic ways participants in this study have contributed to reducing carbon emissions. Because the women who participated in this study were part of organizations that not only practiced certain mitigating activities amongst themselves, but also promoted their practices through workshops and cultural activities, their mitigative potential was much higher than one smallholder on-farm might by EZLN solidarity tourism and local movements towards sustainable (post) development.Appendini writes that small farmers and maize producers were considered \"inefficient\" in the context of Mexico's push for modernization in the 20 th Century (2010, 6). The CSA Sourcebook reiterates this push for \"efficiency\" to smallholders in order to adapt to and mitigate climate change, using the words \"efficient\" or \"efficiency\" 404 times throughout the text. CSA defines efficiency as producing more of a given output by using less of a given input, including less land, less fertilizer, and less energy (2013,8). However, just as Doña Carmela described the slow transition in cultivating her trees with agroecological methods, moving to more sustainable practices may not yield results that fit this definition of efficiency. In San Cristóbal de las Casas at el tianguis, organic and agroecologically produced goods sell for higher prices than those at conventional markets; and for many interview respondents and their organizations, the cultural significance of certain (possibly inefficient) methods, varieties, and networks had value that could not be factored into the CSA definition of efficiency. At what points and on what issues do these place-based practices and perceptions connect or fail to connect with processes and ideas operating at national and global scales?The place-based practices and perceptions discussed in this thesis are part of processes and ideas operating at national and global scales. Each organization and its members connected with these ideas and processes when they developed their organizations and adapted their practices to changing environmental, social, political, and economic realities. Participants built and organized their programs through the shared experience of these processes. To see the ideas promoted locally by these organizations on a global scale would mean a radical economic and social reorganization and cultural revaluation. However, many of the driving factors behind these organizations (mostly those related to the environmental sustainability of food systems) are present in new strategies like Climate Smart Agriculture in extremely diluted forms. In reports like Tortillas on the Roaster there is a greater divide between what practices were observed in this thesis, those promoted as adaptation strategies, the adaptive and mitigative activities participants were willing or able to undertake. CSA calls for culturally appropriate, site specific, and gender sensitive agricultural programs for climate change, but participants and organizations involved in this study reached beyond this to transform and carryout new visions of development.Furthermore, the CSA program mentions gender mostly as an aside while the organizations featured in this thesis cited gender as both foundational and driving aspects of their work. Gender identity and gender relations were integral to the process of developing and working in their organizations, and the transformation of gender relations or the gender-specific roles women and men played in agricultural activities were foundational aspects of the organizations. Many women interviewed saw gender identity as an important factor in how decisions about agriculture and the environment were made at household, community, and societal levels.What insights, questions, or options emerge from conversations with women in Chiapas that might be relevant for global understandings and actions related to climate change?The results of the conversations I had with women in Chiapas have many relevant applications to global understandings and actions related to climate change.Much of the development literature about to gender and climate change casts women as victims (or a particularly vulnerable segment of the population) that can be used strategically for adaptation and mitigation projects dreamed up by development practitioners and policymakers. However, the women who participated in this study had their own ideas about climate change, the environment, and the meaning of development. With the help of their organizations they created communities of practice, strengthening markets and the cultural value of certain practices and products.Furthermore, participants reiterated that campesinos and indígenas were more apt to learn from other campesinos and indígenas, meaning that the top-down implementation of agricultural development programs is less likely to be effective than locally developed strategies. Locally developed strategies such as those discussed in this thesis are also more able to create culturally and situationally appropriate strategies, such as the utilization of niche markets, the revaluation of maize and the milpa, and the establishment of collectives and networks to provide protections against the effects of trade liberalization and a lack of governmental support.Based on the findings from my field research and the analysis of policy reports, I believe that a food sovereignty approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation is a more appropriate site-specific approach than Climate Smart Agriculture. Food sovereignty is an idea launched and promoted by La Via Campesina, an international peasant movement for small-scale agriculture. They write:Food Sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through sustainable methods and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems. It develops a model of small scale sustainable production benefiting communities and their environment. It puts the aspirations, needs and livelihoods of those who produce, distribute and consume food at the heart of food systems and policies rather than the demands of markets and corporations. (La Via Campesina 2011) Using examples of agroforestry, milpa, and uses of wild varieties in smallholder systems, Chappell et al. (2013) argue that a food sovereignty framework that utilizes agroecological methods would support biodiversity, rural livelihoods, and global food production. They write:Food sovereignty is an approach originating from the rural poor of Latin America (and beyond) that unites efforts to address unbalanced international trade policies, historical legacies and continuation of inequality, and the continuing consolidation of agricultural modernization policies often associated with negative impacts for small-scale farmers and sustainable ecosystems….The high on-farm biodiversity associated with smallholder agroecological practices has been empirically tied to greater stability in income and recovery from environmental disaster (i.e., resilience) greater food security, and generally positive effects for associated biodiversity. increase the likelihood that beneficial changes will be adopted. Holt-Giménez (Ibid.)describes the transformative nature of this movement:As such, sustainable agricultural development cannot be viewed as just a collection of projects and techniques, but as part of a larger process of social change. With hundreds of thousands of members and over a hundred grassroots organizations, the MCAC provides us with a view from the actors on the ground involved in this change. (xvii-xviii) Similarly, members of all three organizations in this thesis saw their practices and organizational participation as part of social transformations based on their alternative visions for the future. Utilizing grassroots organizations and community-level exchange of knowledges for social change makes possible the integration of a transformation of gender relations into agricultural movements.Spending only eight weeks in San Cristóbal de las Casas limited my ability to make contacts and arrange visits and interviews with a larger sample of participants.The study would have greatly benefitted from more interviews and site visits. ","tokenCount":"15480"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6886b819b9b7c6a94b1a25a791e8f68d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/83f263e6-b8ee-4c62-990a-9d778dd2a0d9/retrieve","id":"-1318026499"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c8fa5ff2-43bd-4d64-b7db-5372301afc34","pagecount":"24","content":"We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/fundersThe views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by CGIAR.Horticultural crops, particularly fruits and vegetables, have played a significant role in ensuring food security (Weinberger and Lumpkin, 2007). They offer abundant and costeffective sources of essential nutrients like fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants (Rajani and Joshi, 2017). Vegetable crops are crucial for developing countries, contributing to income and nutrition. (Tadese, 2023).However, horticultural produce is highly perishable and prone to postharvest losses, leading to an estimated 1.3 billion tons of agricultural waste during distribution activities worldwide (Augustin et al., 2020). These losses not only affect market availability but also increase prices and environmental footprints. Losses and waste of fruits and vegetables pose a challenge to the food supply chain, impacting food security and causing negative social, economic, and environmental consequences (Anand and Barua, 2022). Fruits and vegetables experienced the most substantial loss and waste, accounting 25-50% of the total production (Bancal and Roy, 2022).Postharvest losses of vegetables and fruits in different wholesale and retail markets in Davao del Sur, Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro City were determined through survey interviews and actual sampling. For the survey interview, a structured survey questionnaire was used to obtain important information such as commodity sold, sources of products, packaging, transportation and delivery time, cleaning procedures, sorting and repacking methods, storage and display areas, days of storage upon product arrival, estimated shelf life, price, and the perceived postharvest losses by the fruit and vegetable vendors (Olayemi et al. 2010).The actual sampling technique was conducted according to Underhill and Kumar (2014), with some modifications. Three replicate-randomly selected units (reckoned as weight in kilograms or number of pieces) of each type of produce were sampled in situ from the retailers and assessed based on quality characteristics. For the wholesalers, the assessment was performed by sacks or boxes of the product wherein each sack or box served as the replicate.On a scale of 5 to 1, visual quality was rated as follows: 5= excellent, fresh; 4=good, minor defects (1-5%); 3= fair, moderate defects, 5-10%; 2 = reject, marketable at lower price; and 1= reject, non-marketable, for disposal (Antolin et al., 2019 with modification). Losses were recorded based on the number and weight of rejects which were further classified according to the degree of defects (moderate defects, still usable for fresh cuts with a visual quality score of 2-3 and serious/severe defects, not usable with a score of 1).Actual loss assessments of vegetables were conducted in selected wholesale and retail markets in Davao del Sur in May 2023 and in Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro City in August 2023. About 13 wholesalers and retailers were interviewed in Davao del Sur specifically in Bankerohan (3), Calinan (3), Sta. Cruz (3) and Digos City (4) public markets. On the other hand, a total of nine (9) wholesalers and retailers in Bukidnon and three (3) in Cagayan de Oro City were interviewed for this assessment. Among the vegetable seller-respondents interviewed, majority comprised doing both wholesale and retail followed by those doing retail only (Fig. 1) Major sources for sweet pepper, tomato and eggplant per market and distance from each source are shown in Table 1.In the Davao del Sur markets, selected vegetables are often procured from Bansalan, Davao del Sur, followed by Brgy. Kapatagan, in Digos City. In addition, the sources for Bankerohan Market go as far as Bukidnon, Polomolok in South Cotabato and General Santos City with an average distance of 145.35 km.Meanwhile, in the province of Bukidnon, the wholesale and retail markets mainly procure within its various municipalities. Moreover, wholesalers and retailers in Cogon, Cagayan de Oro City procure vegetables directly from Bulua, a nearby public market within the city.The distance from each source of supplier influences the availability of crops. Presence of nearby suppliers in the marketplace allows direct purchase and faster delivery for wholesalers and retailers. This can be observed in both Calinan and Malaybalay markets wherein the average weekly availability of produce is 2.5 days and 1.5 days, respectively. Wholesalers and retailers in Calinan market are able to procure directly from either the Bankerohan Market (27.2 km) or within the consolidation area ('Bagsakan') of Calinan itself. Calinan district also comprises upland farms that can be a direct source of tomato, sweet pepper and eggplant. Likewise, a nearest supplier of produce for Malaybalay Market is found in Dalwangan, Malaybalay City which has a distance of 15.4 km.Davao del Sur, Polomolok and General Santos City are located in Southern Mindanao which contributes to 13% of vegetable production in Mindanao (Batt et al., 2007). The type IV climate in these regions, characterized by an even or less distribution of rainfall, assists in the production of vegetables all year round. Likewise, Bukidnon is part of Northern Mindanao which also has a Type III and type IV climate and contributes 62% of vegetable production (Batt et al., 2007).In contrast, availability of produce in Cogon, Cagayan de Oro takes 5 days on a weekly basis despite the nearby source of supply. Most of the produce procured from Bulua 'Wholesale' Market were mostly sourced out from distant markets mainly from Bukidnon, Maragusan, and few from Kapatagan.Availability of fresh produce for wholesale and retail markets in Cagayan de Oro are also in tight competition with those that will be transported to Visayas and Manila. This is due to Cagayan de Oro City being a port for fresh produce that is to be delivered to Manila especially in the months of June to November (Digal and Concepcion, 2004). Different vegetables are delivered in Bulua Public Market as a consolidation area for wholesale transactions for Visayas and Manila Market.Most market traders and supplier procurement/business relationships are based on verbal agreement (Table 2). Often, suppliers either farmers or middlemen traders, directly deliver the vegetables to their specific buyer, 'Suki' or in a consolidation area or 'bagsakan'. For Davao del Sur markets, suppliers are found to provide loan and cash advance services whereas for Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro markets, product containers and 'cleaning/trimming' services are provided. Figure 2 shows that tomato, sweet pepper and eggplant are delivered mostly during the morning (43%), specifically from 6 am to 8 am, followed by afternoon deliveries (12 noon to 2 pm) and at dawn (4 am to 5 am), with the evening (6 pm to 8 pm) accounting for the remaining deliveries at 7%. In Davao del Sur, deliveries are often done at dawn (55%) while in Cagayan de Oro, vegetables are mainly procured in the morning (75%). For the province of Bukidnon, the selected crops are delivered more during the afternoon (38%) and at dawn (31%). Wooden crates, cartons, and woven polypropylene bags are common packaging materials for vegetables, as they allow for bulk packaging (Villahermosa et al., 2011). This permits the transportation of a large number of produce items while using fewer containers, thus lowering the cost of transport. In the Philippines, the transportation charge for produce is based on the number of containers and not on the weight of the produce. However, this practice also results in mechanical damages and losses because the produce is fully packed and compressed in containers (Villahermosa et al., 2011).Moreover, these packaging materials also facilitate easier transportation from the farm to distant markets, usually in the form of trucks and open-type multicabs. Shipment of vegetables particularly in Visayas and Luzon are made faster through \"RO-RO\" vessels as produce are placed in self-driven vehicles (Villahermosa et al., 2011). On the other hand, motorcycles, tricycles, and manual hauling are used for procuring produce within nearby markets, especially for retail purposes, and are packed into 5 to 10kg lots using plastic cellophane (Nuevo and Apaga, 2010). In the Philippine supply chain, most fresh produce from the farm goes directly to the wholesale vegetable market which serves as the main trading post for buyers to bargain for the lowest price. During this stage, vegetables packed in bulks are sorted, weighed and repacked (Villahermosa et al., 2011). This was observed in Bulua Wholesale Market in Cagayan de Oro (Fig. 5). Also, fresh produce often passes through multiple wholesale markets before reaching retail wet markets and are repacked to smaller bunches to be delivered to other retail markets and to consumers (Nuevo and Apaga, 2010). Once at retail level, vegetables are washed, cleaned and re-arranged to be displayed mostly on tables (68%)for passing consumers (Fig. 3).Sorting of vegetables is also done in all levels of the supply chain from farm to market. In addition, this was observed as a common practice for sweet pepper, tomato, and eggplant throughout the different markets in Davao del Sur, Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro (Table 4).For cabbage and Chinese cabbage, sorting is only done among markets in Bukidnon Province while those in Davao del Sur are only trimmed daily. Sorting segregates and removes poor quality and damaged goods from those that are fresh and are in good condition to prevent contamination with other produce.Moreover, contaminants and dirt are also removed when crops are washed and cleaned. In   The prolonged shelf life of selected vegetables is characterized by lower percentage losses for each crop, influenced by postharvest practices done at the market. In Table 5, cabbage and Chinese cabbage in Davao del Sur markets exhibited a higher percentage of losses (30%)with an average shelf life of 2 days. This can be attributed to high trimming loss, as trimming is conducted regularly among wholesalers and retailers in the area. Meanwhile, cabbages in Bukidnon had a prolonged shelf life (8-9 days) and lower percentage of losses (17-21%). This is possibly because trimming is not practiced every day in Bukidnon, thereby reducing the incidence of trimming loss compared to Davao del Sur. The sorting of cabbages and Chinese cabbage by markets in Bukidnon might also have reduced microbial contamination and damage to the produce.Similarly, the absence of washing in Cagayan de Oro markets might have contributed to higher percentage losses and a short shelf life in eggplants (50%, 3 days) and tomatoes (18%, 5 days). Eggplant and tomato in Davao del Sur and Bukidnon province are mostly washed with either water or water with dishwashing liquid, followed by cleaning, sorting, and resorting. Meanwhile, markets in Cagayan de Oro only sort eggplants daily and wipe tomatoes with a cloth.Sweet pepper had the least postharvest losses (11%) in Davao del Sur compared to those in Bukidnon (17%) and Cagayan de Oro markets (33%). Sweet peppers in Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro are mainly cleaned by wiping with a cloth, often as a wet cloth. Although wiping fresh produce using a wet cloth removes dirt, in some cases, the water used for dipping the cloth is stagnant and often reused (Nuevo and Apaga, 2010). The transfer of a wet cloth to wipe another surface further increases microbial contamination on fresh produce.In Figure 4, the majority of tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper and cabbages are rejected due to microbial damage. This further explains why disease and rot are the common causes of rejection among selected vegetables across different markets due to high incidence of microbial contamination during handling (Table 5).        A total of 18 wholesale and retail markets in Davao del Sur, Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro were assessed for actual loss assessments of fruits during May and August 2023. For Davao del Sur, about 6 selected markets in Digos City and in Elenita Heights, Catalunan Grande, Davao City were interviewed and evaluated. Meanwhile, 9 wholesale and retail fruit stores in the province of Bukidnon specifically in Maramag, Lantapan, Valencia City and Malaybalay were included in the interview and assessment. Three (3) wholesale-retail fruit stores in Cogon Public Market in Cagayan de Oro City were also assessed. During the assessment, most fruit stores interviewed and assessed were considered at the retail level (n=13) while the rest were doing both wholesale and retail (n=5).Major sources of fruit supply in Davao del Sur, Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro and their availability on a weekly basis are listed in During this time, the available fruits on display included different varieties of mangoes, specifically 'Carabao,' 'Paho,' 'Native,' and Apple mango (Table 7). Other fruits observed and evaluated were 'Solo' papaya, 'Bangkok' santol, avocado, pummelo, and soursop (guayabano).Similarly, the fruit supply in Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro also comprised different varieties of mango, with 'Carabao' and 'Paho' varieties, and fruits like avocado and santol commonly seen in the market (Table 7). The loss assessment of fruits was evaluated in these markets in August 2023. During this time, it was observed that fruits like soursop and mangosteen were already scarce.Among the three major markets, Davao del Sur had the highest percentage losses according to weight (22.7%), with Digos City experiencing the highest mean percentage weight of rejects in all markets at 28.42%. This was followed by Cagayan de Oro City with a percentage loss of 20.3% and the least in Bukidnon at 16.18%. The percentage weight of rejects was the least in the markets of Lantapan and Maramag, ranging from 4.82% to 8.99%.  Bukidnon had the highest number of fruits (85%) that were marketable and of good quality (VQR scores of 3 to 5) (Figure 11). It also showed a smaller percentage of rejected fruit with 11% still marketable at a lower price and 4% for disposal. Among the retail and wholesale markets in Bukidnon, Lantapan exhibited a higher proportion of fruit with better visual quality at 93% (Figure 11). Most of the fruit rejects in Bukidnon were primarily affected by mild and severe microbial damage (37% and 16%, respectively), followed by mild mechanical injuries at 28% (Figure 12).Fruit quality in Cagayan de Oro also showed a higher percentage (35%) of fruit with fair quality and moderate surface defects (VQR score 3, Figure 11). This was followed by 20-25% of fruits with good to excellent qualities. And, about 80% of fruit rejects in the area were caused by mild and severe microbial damage (Figure 12).  Postharvest losses in vegetables and fruits are influenced by preharvest factors and poor handling practices from farm to wholesale and retail markets. This study was conducted to gather baseline information on supply, market agreement and different postharvest practices conducted at commercial level. Losses among some fruits and vegetables and its causes were determined at selected wholesale and retail markets in Davao del Sur, Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro City.Loss assessment of vegetables specifically on sweet pepper, tomato, eggplant, cabbage and Chinese cabbage were conducted in 25 wholesale-retail markets. Among the three major markets, Cagayan de Oro exhibited higher perceived postharvest losses in tomato, eggplant and sweet pepper ranging from 18-50%. The lack of proper cleaning and other appropriate postharvest practices on the selected fresh produce and the high tropical temperatures contribute to the high incidence of microbial and physical damage resulting in shorter shelflife. This is also supported by a large number of reports on disease and rots as a major cause of rejection and wastage. Moreover, daily trimming of cabbage and Chinese cabbage in Davao del Sur resulted in 30% reported trimming losses.For fruits, loss assessment was conducted among 18 wholesale-retail markets in the three major regions during May and August 2023. Most fruits found in the market included different varieties of mango such as 'Carabao', 'Paho', 'Indian', 'Zambales' and 'Ruso'. Other fruits included in the assessment were avocado, santol, papaya, mangosteen, soursop, pummelo and guava. Postharvest losses according to weight were found higher (22.77%) in Davao del Sur markets particularly in Digos City and least losses were reported from Bukidnon (16%). Bukidnon also showed a higher percentage of good quality and marketable fruit (85%) with the least percentage of fruit rejects for disposal (4%). Prevailing causes of rejects were mainly attributed to physical defects (mild) at 44% for Davao del Sur and 39% microbial damage (mild) for Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro markets.The CGIAR Research Initiative on Fruit and Vegetables for Sustainable Healthy Diets (FRESH) aims to use an end-to-end approach to increase fruit and vegetable intake and in turn improve diet quality, nutrition and health outcomes while also improving livelihoods, empowering women and youth and mitigating negative environmental impacts.","tokenCount":"2700"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"88770e77e9726da79c391ad9395dfb94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a265a128-f191-4145-84ab-53ffb3002d41/retrieve","id":"1175767581"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8a940ec9-6f3a-4b9a-abf7-45fceb6cb9ee","pagecount":"8","content":" Todos los actores, excepto los de la sociedad civil, reconocieron en su mayoría haber enriquecido sus conocimientos generales acerca de la ASAC. Los encuestados creen que actualmente el nivel más alto de conocimientos en ASAC lo tienen los actores de la investigación y los actores de la cooperación. Coincide con que estos grupos de actores dijeron mayoritariamente que su nivel de conocimientos mejoró \"muchísimo\" o \"mucho\" en los últimos 3 años. Los conocimientos y capacidades técnicas más fortalecidas por los encuestados fueron la elaboración de propuestas con enfoque ASAC, así como la implementación en el territorio. Las entidades que más han contribuido a fortalecer los conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y el uso/incorporación de la ASAC por parte de los actores encuestados son: FAO, CATIE y CIAT. En un segundo renglón aparecen mencionados el programa CCAFS y el proyecto 'Un viaje en común'. Las organizaciones de investigación y las de cooperación son consideradas como las de nivel más alto de institucionalización de la ASAC. Esto coincide con que los actores de dichas organizaciones son calificados por los encuestados como los de más alto nivel de conocimientos, capacidades técnicas e integración de la ASAC en su trabajo.La Alianza Bioversity -CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical), en el marco del Programa de Investigación del CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), tiene el objetivo de promover el escalamiento de la agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima (ASAC).En 2017, el Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC), con el apoyo de CCAFS, CIAT, IICA, FAO, CEPAL y CATIE, formuló la Estrategia de Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (EASAC) para la región del Sistema de Integración Centroamericana (SICA). Adoptada oficialmente por el CAC, en junio de 2017, esta estrategia regional tiene el objetivo de promover el enfoque ASAC y de escalar la ASAC en la región.Tres años después de su lanzamiento, se inició un proceso de evaluación de los resultados de la EASAC (Collazos et al, 2020). En el marco de este proceso se realizó una encuesta con el objetivo de medir el nivel de fortalecimiento de capacidades ASAC: conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y cambio de prácticas en temas ASAC de los actores de gobierno, investigación, cooperación y organizaciones de la sociedad civil en la región SICA.La encuesta se diseñó en la plataforma 'Surveymonkey' y se dividió en diferentes secciones, así:• Datos y perfil de los encuestados; • Percepción de los encuestados sobre su desarrollo de capacidades en la ASAC; Percepción de los encuestados sobre desarrollo de capacidades sobre la ASAC de otros grupos de actores (gobierno, investigación, sociedad civil); • Involucramiento en programas/proyectos/iniciativas de los encuestados.El cuestionario se envió a través de correo electrónico a 457 personas con diversos perfiles profesionales y vinculados a organizaciones de gobierno, de investigación, de sistemas de extensión, de la sociedad civil, académicas y de cooperación nacional e internacional. Al inicio de la encuesta se les explicó que la información colectada sería usada para informar sobre el nivel de avance de la EASAC y formular recomendaciones para orientar su implementación futura.De igual manera, se hizo énfasis en que toda la información recogida se mantendría anónima (sin información personal) y sólo sería revisada por los investigadores de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT relacionados al proyecto. Por esto, los resultados se presentan de manera agregada y anonimizada.Las preguntas fueron cerradas en su mayoría, usando escala de Likert para capturar las respuestas, excepto las correspondientes a la sección de datos y perfil del encuestado.A responder la encuesta ingresaron 85 personas, de las cuales 70 avanzaron hasta la primera sección indicando sus perfiles, y 50 finalizaron todo el cuestionario. Los perfiles de los encuestados que participaron fueron principalmente actores de gobierno, de la cooperación nacional o internacional y de investigación: Participaron personas de Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panamá.En esta parte de la encuesta se dieron 5 opciones de respuesta: nada, poco, ni mucho ni poco, mucho y muchísimo. Al ser preguntados acerca de qué tanto consideran que han mejorado sus conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y uso/incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo, los encuestados respondieron mayoritariamente la opción \"mucho\". La segunda opción más escogida fue \"ni mucho ni poco\", impulsada principalmente por los actores de la sociedad civil, de los sistemas de extensión y de gobierno.Se destaca los actores de la cooperación (en un 100%) y de la investigación (en un 75%) respectivamente consideran que su conocimiento ha incrementado mucho o muchísimo. Al contrario, el 40% de los actores de los sistemas de extensión y 50% de la sociedad civil afirman que no han incrementado su conocimiento (tabla 2), Los actores de gobierno consideran en su mayoría (61%) que incrementaron su conocimiento sobre ASAC, sin embargo, un 39% reconoce que esto no ha crecido mucho. Al igual que en el caso del incremento de conocimientos, los actores de cooperación son aquellos que, en su mayoría (75%), consideran que sus capacidades técnicas sobre ASAC han mejorado mucho o muchísimo (Tabla 3). Asimismo, ocurre con los actores de investigación y de los sistemas de extensión que optaron por la respuesta \"mucho\" en su mayoría. Los actores de gobierno tienen percepciones divididas en este punto pues mientras que un 55% escogió las opciones \"muchísimo\" o \"mucho\", un 45% prefirió \"ni mucho ni poco\"\".Como sucedió con el tema de los conocimientos, la mayoría de los actores de la sociedad civil (67%) también perciben que no se dio un mejoramiento en sus capacidades técnicas sobre ASAC. Se destaca que los actores de investigación, de los sistemas de extensión y de la cooperación reconocieron mayoritariamente haber mejorado en el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo, mientras que los actores de gobierno y de la sociedad civil, en su mayoría, no identificaron progresos en ese sentido (Tabla 4). Solo 1 persona afirmó que no ha mejorado en nada la incorporación y el uso de la ASAC: se trata del mismo actor de la sociedad civil del punto anterior, perteneciente a una asociación de agricultores y ganaderos.Tabla 4: Apreciación del nivel de mejoramiento del uso e incorporación de la ASAC en el trabajo de los encuestadosEn los últimos 3 años, ¿han mejorado el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo? Se destaca que los actores de investigación, de los sistemas de extensión y de la cooperación reconocieron mayoritariamente haber mejorado en el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo, mientras que los actores de gobierno y de la sociedad civil, en su mayoría, no identificaron progresos en ese sentido. Solo 1 persona afirmó que no ha mejorado en nada la incorporación y el uso de la ASAC: se trata del mismo actor de la sociedad civil del punto anterior, perteneciente a una asociación de agricultores y ganaderos.Si en la sección anterior se indagaba por las mejoras en los últimos 3 años en conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y apropiación de la ASAC, en la siguiente se preguntaba por la percepción del nivel actual de los encuestados en los mismos tópicos. Así, en esta parte de la encuesta se dieron 5 opciones de respuesta: muy bajo, bajo, medio, alto y muy alto.El grupo total de encuestados considera que su nivel actual de conocimientos sobre la ASAC es medio, aunque el nivel alto obtuvo un número de votos similar.Tabla 5: Apreciación del nivel actual de conocimientos en ASAC de los encuestados Los actores de la cooperación nacional e internacional, seguidos por los de la investigación y por los de los sistemas de extensión, son aquellos que se consideran a sí mismos en el nivel actual más alto de conocimientos sobre la ASAC.Los actores de gobierno y aquellos que se identificaron como 'otros' se ven, en su mayoría, en un nivel medio, mientras que los de la sociedad civil están entre 50% que se considera en un nivel medio, 25 % que se ubican en el nivel alto y, otro 25% que dice estar en un nivel bajo. La tabla 6 es coherente con la información de la tabla 2, es decir, los actores que dijeron haber mejorado sus conocimientos sobre ASAC en los últimos 3 años, son los mismos que afirman que sus conocimientos actuales están en un nivel medioalto. También coincide con los datos de los actores de la sociedad civil, que tuvieron pocas mejoras en su conocimiento y que su nivel actual es medio-bajo.Comparando las tablas 2 y 6 se concluye que el grupo mayoritario de encuestados considera que sus conocimientos sobre la ASAC se incrementaron en los últimos años, llegando hasta un nivel medio-alto actualmente.Al preguntarle a los encuestados acerca de los actores, organizaciones, programas y/o proyectos que han contribuido a fortalecer sus conocimientos generales sobre la ASAC, las instituciones más mencionadas fueron la FAO (9 menciones), CATIE (8) y CIAT (8), CCAFS (4) y el proyecto viaje en común (3).:El grupo total de encuestados considera que su nivel actual de capacidades técnicas sobre la ASAC es medio (tabla 7). Un grupo importante de participantes se ubicaron en el nivel alto (tabla 8), especialmente los actores de investigación (en un 50%), los actores de los sistemas de extensión (en un 60%) y los actores de la cooperación (en un 33%). Vale la pena resaltar que solo un 11% de actores de la cooperación dicen estar en un nivel muy alto. Ningún otro tipo de actores admite estar en esa categoría en la actualidad.Los actores de gobierno, por su parte, optaron principalmente por el nivel medio, aunque un 35% cree que su nivel actual de capacidades técnicas sobre ASAC es alto.Caso contrario ocurre con los actores de la sociedad civil que, al igual que con su nivel actual de conocimientos, se ubican en la categoría medio-bajo. Comparando la información sobre las mejoras en capacidades técnicas en los últimos 3 años (tabla 3) con el nivel actual de estas capacidades (tabla 8), se encuentra una total correspondencia: los actores de la cooperación que fue el grupo que más incrementó dichas capacidades también es el de nivel más alto. Lo mismo ocurre con los actores de los sistemas de extensión y los de investigación.Los actores de gobierno tienen un 55% de sus encuestados que reconocen haber mejorado mucho y muchísimo sus capacidades técnicas. Esto coincide con que un 35% de estos actores se vean a sí mismos en un nivel alto en este sentido. Sin embargo, un 6% considera que su nivel actual de capacidades técnicas es bajo.En el nivel bajo también su ubica un 25% de actores de la sociedad civil y un 17% del grupo de otros (los mismos que consideran que su nivel actual de conocimientos es bajo).Al preguntarle a los encuestados acerca de los actores, organizaciones, programas y/o proyectos que han contribuido a fortalecer sus capacidades técnicas en la ASAC, las instituciones más mencionadas fueron nuevamente FAO, CATIE y CIAT (7 menciones cada una). CCAFS y el proyecto \"un viaje en común\" también fueron mencionadas 4 veces cada una.Los encuestados consideran que su nivel actual de uso y apropiación de la ASAC en su trabajo es medio (tabla 9).Tabla 9: Apreciación del nivel actual de uso e incorporación de la ASAC en el trabajo de los encuestados Al igual que con los niveles actuales de conocimientos y de capacidades técnicas, los actores de la cooperación y de los sistemas de extensión son aquellos que se ubican en las opciones más altas (tabla 10).En menor medida sucede algo similar con los actores de la investigación y los actores de gobierno: se ubican en un nivel medio mayoritariamente, pero un grupo de ellos se ve en el nivel alto.A pesar de los buenos resultados que muestra la tabla 10 frente al uso e incorporación de la ASAC en el trabajo de los encuestados, es importante mencionar que aumentaron las personas que votaron por estar en un nivel bajo. Un 12% de actores de investigación dice estar en este nivel, lo mismo que un 22% de actores de gobierno.Lo anterior permite dilucidar que, para estos perfiles, el hecho de contar con un nivel alto de conocimientos y de capacidades técnicas, no garantiza totalmente que haya un uso y apropiación de la ASAC en sus trabajos. La tabla 4 muestra una importante mejora en el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en el trabajo de los actores de sistemas de extensión, de la cooperación y de la investigación. La tabla 10 refleja esa mejora en los niveles actuales, sin embargo, el porcentaje de encuestados que seleccionó el nivel bajo se incrementó frente a La tabla 4 y la tabla 10 son coincidentes en tanto que se refleja el incremento del uso e incorporación de la ASAC en el trabajo de los encuestados con su nivel actual. De igual manera, el porcentaje de actores que admitió haber mejorado poco o nada en el uso de la ASAC se mantuvo similar al que dijo estar en un nivel bajo de apropiación, dándose un ligero incremento entre los actores de gobierno.Al preguntarle a los encuestados acerca de los actores, organizaciones, programas y/o proyectos que han contribuido a integrar la ASAC en su trabajo, la institución más mencionada fue la FAO (5 menciones), seguida por otras entidades nombradas anteriormente: CIAT y CCAFS (4 menciones cada una), CATIE (3 menciones) y el proyecto \"un viaje en común\" (2 menciones).A los encuestados se les pidió calificar el nivel actual de conocimientos, capacidades técnicas e integración de la Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (ASAC) de cuatro categorías de actores: 1. Actores del gobierno; 2. Actores de la investigación; 3. Actores de la cooperación y 4. Actores de la sociedad civil.Los resultados muestran que, en general, los encuestados creen que el nivel más alto de conocimientos lo tienen los actores de la investigación y los actores de la cooperación (tabla 11).Lo anterior es coincidente la percepción propria de los actores acerca de la mejora en el nivel de conocimientos sobre la ASAC (ver tabla 2). Es decir, los grupos de actores que opinaron mayoritariamente que su nivel de conocimientos mejoró \"muchísimo\" o \"mucho\" son también aquellos que para el total de encuestados tienen el nivel más alto de conocimientos sobre la ASAC actualmente. Lo anterior es coherente con los resultados por grupos de actores acerca de la mejora en capacidades técnicas en ASAC (tabla 3) en cuanto a que los grupos de actores de la investigación y de la cooperación internacional que reconocen haber mejorado mucho en su nivel, también son identificados por la mayoría de encuestados como los grupos con el nivel más alto de capacidades.Sin embargo, la mayoría de los actores de gobierno dicen haber mejorado \"mucho\" (ver tabla 3) sus capacidades técnicas sobre la ASAC, pero el total de encuestados aún los ubica en un nivel medio en el nivel actual de dichas capacidades (tabla 12). No sucede así con el grupo de actores de la sociedad civil que, en su mayoría, admite no haber mejorado estas capacidades ni mucho ni poco, lo cual se refleja en que el grupo total de encuestados lo ubica en un nivel medio y bajo principalmente. En la encuesta también se indagó por los diferentes tipos de conocimiento, capacidad técnica o uso de la ASAC que fueron adquiridos por los participantes. Se les plantearon 7 opciones de respuesta (era posible marcar varias de estas opciones), entre las cuales estaba la posibilidad de que los encuestados dieran una respuesta propia, diferente a las otras alternativas.Sin embargo, la mayoría eligió \"sobre la implementación en el territorio y/o enfoques participativos de la ASAC\" como el tipo de experiencia en la que adquirieron más competencias (tabla 14).La opción \"Sobre la elaboración de propuestas con enfoque ASAC\" también fue seleccionada por más del 50% de los encuestados. Estos resultados son coherentes con las fuentes de conocimientos (ver tabla 15) que han propiciado este fortalecimiento de capacidades. Los actores de los sistemas de extensión, de la cooperación nacional e internacional y de la sociedad civil priorizaron la implementación en el territorio y/o enfoques participativos de la ASAC, como principal aprendizaje.De otra parte, los actores de la investigación votaron más por dos opciones: 'sobre la implementación en el territorio y/o enfoques participativos de la ASAC' y 'sobre los pilares de la ASAC y sus sinergias', mientras que la mayoría de los actores del gobierno se inclinaron por los aspectos transversales de la ASAC: ASAC y género, ASAC y políticas.Los espacios de intercambio de conocimientos y experiencias sobre la ASAC en la que mayor participación tuvieron los encuestados fueron los programas y proyectos sobre desarrollo de capacidades ASAC, los seminarios y/o talleres ASAC, las mesas técnicas agroclimáticas (MTA) y la mesa técnica de cambio climático (tabla 15). A pesar de lo anterior, la actitud de los gobiernos frente a la ASAC fue calificada principalmente como positiva por los encuestados. Hay coherencia en los resultados obtenidos: los actores que mayores mejoras tuvieron en sus conocimientos, capacidades técnicas e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo, son los que tienen un nivel actual más alto en estos 3 puntos. Los actores de gobierno tienen menor nivel de acuerdo sobre su mejoramiento en conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y, especialmente, en el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo donde la mayoría de ellos admitió no haber tenido mayores avances. Los actores de los sistemas de extensión tienen opiniones divididas: reconocen mayoritariamente haber mejorado en el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su trabajo, pero no están tan de acuerdo frente al incremento en sus conocimientos y capacidades técnicas en ASAC. Los actores de la sociedad civil, en su mayoría, no aumentaron sus conocimientos, sus capacidades técnicas y la incorporación de la ASAC a sus labores. Los que se identificaron como 'otros' aceptaron haber incrementado sus conocimientos, pero no tuvieron un acuerdo en cuanto a mejorar sus capacidades técnicas y el uso e incorporación de la ASAC en su quehacer. La mayoría de encuestados considera que su nivel actual de conocimientos sobre la ASAC se encuentra en un nivel medio. Sin embargo, los actores de investigación, de cooperación y de los de los sistemas de extensión se ubican en un nivel alto. Los encuestados consideran que su nivel actual de capacidades técnicas en ASAC es medio. La mayoría también cree que el nivel más alto lo tienen los actores de la cooperación, seguidos por actores de la investigación, y en el nivel más bajo ubicaron a los actores del gobierno y a los de la sociedad civil. Solo los actores de investigación y de cooperación internacional dijeron haber mejorado mucho o muchísimo en la integración de la ASAC en su trabajo. Esto coincide con lo que piensa el grupo total de encuestados que los ubican en los niveles altos en este ítem. En cambio, los actores de gobierno y de la sociedad civil quedaron en un nivel medio y bajo, para la mayoría de los que respondieron. Los resultados muestran que el nivel de conocimientos y de capacidades técnicas sobre ASAC de los encuestados es mayor que su nivel actual de uso e incorporación de la ASAC en sus trabajos. Es decir, tener conocimientos no garantiza un cambio en las prácticas laborales cotidianas. Los conocimientos y capacidades técnicas más fortalecidas por los encuestados fueron la elaboración de propuestas con enfoque ASAC, así como la implementación en el territorio  Los participantes en la encuesta expresaron que los programas y/o proyectos sobre desarrollo de capacidades ASAC fueron los espacios de intercambio de conocimientos y experiencias en la que mayor participación tuvieron. Los seminarios y talleres, así como las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas también fueron mencionados con un número similar de votos. Fortalecer las relaciones entre academia, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, entidades públicas y organismos de cooperación para establecer nuevas dinámicas de aprendizaje en torno a la ASAC. Aprovechar los proyectos relacionados para gestionar espacios de prácticas ASAC con la participación de productores y extensionistas. Intensificar el trabajo conjunto de los centros de investigación y los entes de cooperación con los organismos de gobierno y de la sociedad civil para generar nuevos proyectos con enfoque ASAC, que incluyan fortalecimiento de capacitaciones focalizados en estos grupos. Desarrollar intervenciones que no solamente apuntan a cambios en conocimientos ASAC, sino también a fomentar cambios en prácticas labores cotidianasComo parte de la Evaluación de la Estrategia agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima (EASAC) para la región SICA, esta nota informativa de CCAFS resume los resultados de la encuesta acerca del nivel de fortalecimiento de capacidades ASAC: conocimientos, capacidades técnicas y cambio de prácticas en temas ASAC de los actores de gobierno, investigación, cooperación y organizaciones de la sociedad civil. Los puntos de vista expresados aquí son los de los autores y no necesariamente están respaldados por la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT o sus socios y donantes.José Antonio Arana (j.a.arana@cgiar.org) es analista de gestión de conocimiento de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT.Sara Collazos (S.Collazos@cgiar.org) es investigadora junior de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT.Fanny C. Howland (f.c.howland@cgiar.org) es investigadora de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT y becaria de doctorado en la EHESS (Francia).Jean-François Le Coq (jf.lecoq@cgiar.org) es doctor en agroeconomía y HdR en economía ecológica, investigador en CIRAD, investigador asociado en la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT, líder del Flagship Program 1 (FP1) de CCAFS en América Latina.","tokenCount":"3505"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"45c9e3bf0ad8896c19a41d8af9766a43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8399c66e-a566-44d3-a434-b9eab6b92734/retrieve","id":"-784782953"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0b3c4796-0859-4ee8-8d3e-7af57c704dcc","pagecount":"6","content":"The initial steps to create the Journal were made possible via a seed money grant received from an anonymous donor in memory of Dr. José M. Toledo, Leader of the former CIAT Tropical Pastures Program in the 1980s. During the 5-year period 2013-2017, the Journal was sponsored by grants from CATAS and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). Since 2019, CATAS is the sole sponsor.The main features of TGFT are that the Journal is international, published online only, open access (no charges for subscription or publication fees), bilingual (English and Spanish), peer reviewed and guided by a 23-member Editorial Board, which is composed of the world´s leading tropical pasture scientists. Further information on the Journal is available at its website (www.tropicalgrasslands.info). There, also all issues of the former journals Tropical Grasslands and Pasturas Tropicales can be accessed.As of January 2021, the Journal is indexed in all major abstract and citation databases of peer-reviewed literature (see below). The Journal is indexed in the core collection of Science Citation Index Expanded and two additional indexes of Clarivate Web of Science, which provides the best-known impact factor indicator (formerly: ISI Journal Impact Factor). The Impact Factor of the Journal for 2019 was 0.703 (for 2018 was 0.441 and for 2017 was 0.389, showing a constant increase). The Impact Factor 2020 will be available in mid-2021.TGFT is also indexed in Scopus, and the CiteScore for 2020 is currently 1.60, making a considerable progress since 2017 (0.44), 2018 (0. Since inception of the Journal in September 2013, both the number of total visits and the number of unique visitors to its website have been increasing steadily.In 2020, the back end of the website was upgraded, to a newer and safer server. This also included the purchase of HTTPS certificates to establish secure connections. However, this also made the former statistics provided by AWStats/CIAT IT become obsolete and from this year the website is keeping tracks of the stats via Google Analytics.2020 performance of the website: 69,552 pageviewsFor the Americas, the countries from coming most of the visits are Brazil, USA and Colombia; For Asia the top 3 countries are India, Indonesia and China.This statistic shows the language of the operating system from where is browsing the website, as an indicator of the main language of the users. ","tokenCount":"384"}
\ No newline at end of file
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d4e3d2d03072d3f699805493cc72e10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/456f7966-42cf-4421-9725-1f92089406f5/retrieve","id":"-1578719639"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fd70103f-5e66-4b3b-9585-191dc3fd22d9","pagecount":"37","content":"The distribution of lethal wilt, a severe disease of oil palm, is spreading throughout South America. An incidence of about 30% was recorded in four commercial fields in Colombia. In this study, phytoplasmas were detected in symptomatic oil palms by using specific primers, based on 16S rDNA sequences, in nested polymerase chain reaction assays. The phytoplasmas were then identified as 'Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris', ribosomal subgroup 16SrI-B, through the use of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and sequencing.Cloning and sequencing of 16S rDNA from selected strains, together with phylogenetic analysis, confirmed the classification. Moreover, collective RFLP characterization of the groEL, amp, and rp genes, together with sequence data, distinguished the aster yellows strain detected in Colombian oil-palm samples from other aster yellows phytoplasmas used as reference strains, in particular from an aster yellows strain infecting corn in the same country. ___________________________________________________________________________ Production of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a recent and now a major agricultural activity in Colombia. Because it constitutes a key alternative for generating employment, it is considered strategic for the national economy. However, production has declined by 7.1% since 2002. This drop occurred mainly in northeastern Colombia, where production decreasedby almost 10% (17). The cause of this decrease is a disease known as \"lethal wilt of oil palm\" (\"marchitez letal\" in Spanish). Lethal wilt is present in Colombia in the Upía River area, in the oil-palm plantations of Palmar del Oriente (July 1994), Palmas del Casanare (1999), Palmeras Santana (2000), and Palmeras del Upía (2002) (44). By 2010, the disease had severely infected oil palms in these areas, leading to their eradication on about 690 hectares with a total of 97,619 plants (17). Symptoms of lethal wilt usually first appear as vascular discoloration and leaf yellowing when the palm is mature (i.e., flowering and fruiting) at seven years old.These symptoms are followed by leaf drying, wilt, and necrosis of infected tissues, and eventual plant collapse (Fig. 1). Root necrosis often accompanies leaf discoloration. Internal discoloration of trunk tissue may also occur but does not represent a distinctive symptom.Lethal wilt is potentially destructive because it spreads rapidly and causes plant death within 4 to 6 months after symptoms first appear (43).The pathogen was believed to be a phytoplasma, possibly related to that associated with lethal yellowing disease, which infect other palms such as coconut (2). Phytoplasmas have been associated with diseases in several hundred plant species (6). They are limited to the plants' phloem tissue, and to insect vectors that feed directly from phloem tissues. Vectors include planthoppers and leafhoppers in the genera Macrosteles, Euscelis, Euscelidius, and Scaphoideus, and Cacopsylla (52).Phytoplasmas are associated not only with lethal yellowing in coconut palms in many parts of the world, but also with diverse palm species. Worldwide this disease affects at least 30 species of palm, including Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), Veitchia merrilli (manila palm), Caryota rumphiana (fishtail palm), Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island date palm), and Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) (39,40). The disease has killed millions of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) throughout the Caribbean, Florida, Mexico, and Central America (23,24,41,42). In addition, a first report of phytoplasmas in symptomatic oil palms was confirmed by electron microscopy in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea (50). The group 16SrIV lethal yellowing phytoplasma has been shown to be vectored by Myndus crudus (American palm cixiid) and possibly also by Cedusa species of derbid planthoppers (8). Phytoplasmas closely related to the 16SrIV group have also been reported in date palm and other palm species in USA (22,23).They were also recently detected in weeds such as Emilia fosbergii, Synedrella nodiflora, and Vernonia cinerea (9,10). These weeds are all members of the Asteraceae, and were collected in Jamaica near diseased coconut palms.More recently, phytoplasmas from other 16S ribosomal groups have been associated with symptoms in palms in other parts of the world. In Saudi Arabia, a 16SrI group was found associated with the Al-Wijam disease of date palm (1). In North Sudan, a 16SrXIV group, 'Ca. P. cynodontis', commonly associated with bermudagrass, was found in date palm showing slow decline (11). Recently, a 16SrI phytoplasma was associated with coconut yellow decline and oil palm in Malaysia (39,40). Similarly, the Weligama wilt disease of coconut in Sri Lanka was associated with phytoplasmas belonging to the 16SrXI 'Ca. P. oryzae' group.Phytoplasmas from two phylogenetic groups, 16SrXI and 16SrXIII, Mexican periwinkle virescence, were associated with Kalimantan wilt in Indonesia (51).In South America, symptoms similar to those observed in Colombia were also described from oil palms in Brazil suffering from a disease known as \"fatal yellowing\" (7,38). Although the cause of this disease is still unknown, the symptoms and distribution of the problem in both Colombian and Brazilian plantations suggest that infectious agents are involved (49). A preliminary study also detected phytoplasmas in symptomatic plants in commercial crops of the susceptible oil-palm hybrid (Elaeis guineensis × Elaeis oleifera) (2) in Colombia.Phytoplasma identification and classification rely on 16S ribosomal gene analysis to identify 'Candidatus Phytoplasma' species and distinguish between the 16Sr groups and subgroups (6). In particular, 'Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris' ('Ca. P. asteris') is classified in the 16SrI group, in which at least 18 subgroups are recognized (30). Finer differentiation can also be obtained by studying polymorphisms on other genes (35,37) in order to monitor the spread of specific phytoplasma strains.The large survey carried out in this work allowed us to verify phytoplasma presence in diverse tissues from diseased oil palms collected in four areas of Colombia affected by \"marchitez letal\". The detected aster yellows strains were then characterized on four phytoplasma genes with a multilocus typing technique that allowed comparison and distinction of the strains infecting diseased oil palm from reference strains (5) and from a strain infecting corn in Colombia. Samples were taken from each symptomatic and asymptomatic plant by collecting entire meristems and about 50 to 100 g from each of three tissue types: chlorotic leaves, spears, and inflorescences. Three 10 × 10 cm segments were also excised from the base of the trunk, together with ten 25-cm-long root segments from the root ball of each palm at 50 cm from the collar. From 44 symptomatic trees 85 samples from different tissues were tested; about half of these samples were collected from palms with severe symptoms (see below). Comparable tissues from seven asymptomatic plants were collected at the same time from all four plantations surveyed (three plants from plantation A, two from B, and one plant each from plantations C and D). A total of 44 samples were tested as negative controls.A symptom severity scale was used to rate each symptomatic plant, where 1 represented a dead inflorescence and fruit rot; 2, chlorosis or necrosis of the oldest leaves; 3, leaf chlorosis in the upper canopy; and 4, a dead spear leaf and apical meristem rot. Plants receiving a score of 1 or 2 were characterized as having mild symptoms, 3 as having moderate symptoms, and 4 as having severe symptoms. The ability of detecting phytoplasmas from infected tissues was then compared between plants with mild symptoms and those exhibiting severe symptoms.Detecting and identifying phytoplasmas. DNA was extracted from 0.4 to 1.0 g of tissues from each plant sample as according to previously described protocols (19,44). Tissue samples were frozen and ground in liquid nitrogen using a sterilized mortar and pestle. After the final ethanol precipitation, nucleic acid extracts were resuspended in 30 to 50 µL of Tris-EDTA buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0; and 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0) and stored at -20°C.The phytoplasma universal primer pair P1/P7 (13,46) was used to amplify DNA from the 16Sr region and the beginning of the 23S rDNA genes, including the internal spacer region.Nested-PCR assays were performed on amplicons diluted at 1:29 with sterilized highperformance-liquid-chromatography-grade water, using primers R16F2n/R2 (20). Each PCR reaction was carried out in 0.5-ml tubes in 25-µl reactions, using final concentrations of 20 ng of DNA, 1X buffer, 0.05 U/µL Taq polymerase (Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA), 0.2 mM dNTPs (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA), and 0.4 µM of each primer.Positive controls employed for the molecular analyses included DNA from phytoplasma reference strains that represented different ribosomal 16S rDNA subgroups. These strains had been either maintained in periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don.] or were extracted from the original host plant, as for maize bushy stunt from Colombia (Table 1). Samples devoid of DNA template and from asymptomatic oil palms were added as negative controls for the PCR reactions.Direct and nested-PCR assays were carried out in a PTC-100 thermal cycler with a heated lid (MJ Research, Inc., Waltham, MA), using the following thermal profile: 30 s (90 s for the first cycle) of denaturation at 94°C, annealing for 50 s at 55°C, and extension of the primer for 80 s (10 min in the final cycle) at 72°C. For primer pair R16F2n/R16R2, amplifying about 1,200 bp within the 16S rDNA region in nested-PCR assays, the annealing temperature was 50°C. The PCR products were visualized in a 1.5% agarose gel, stained with 0.75 µg/ml ethidium bromide, and analyzed in a Stratagene Eagle Eye ® II video system (La Jolla, CA).The 98 amplicons obtained with the R16F2n/R16R2 primers (1.2 kb) were then digested with restriction enzymes, Tru1I and HhaI (Fermentas, Vilnius, Lithuania), following the manufacturer's instructions. Separation of bands generated from restriction digestion was performed in 6.7% polyacrylamide gels. The DNA was then stained and visualized as described above.Direct sequencing in both directions [using primers P1/F1 (12) as forward primers and P7 as reverse primer] was performed on the P1/P7 amplicons after purification with a QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA). The sequences were assembled using Sequencher 4.1 software. They were then compared with selected nucleotide sequences in the GenBank database using BLAST (version BLASTN 2.2.18) (National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda, MD).Sequence alignments were performed using ClustalX and BioEdit (21,48). Before constructing phylogenetic trees all sequences were trimmed to contain only 16S rDNA (1,245 bp). Phylogenetic analyses were carried out on 16S rDNA sequences from oil palm and from several 'Candidatus' phytoplasmas strains using Acholeplasma laidlawii as the outgroup.GenBank accession numbers and other sources of 16S rRNA gene sequences used in phylogenetic analyses are given in Table 1. Phylogenetic trees were constructed with maximum parsimony (MP) analysis, using the Close-Neighbor-Interchange algorithm, with the initial tree created by random addition for 10 replications of neighbor-joining (NJ) method, using MEGA version 5 (47). For all methods, all default values (gaps excluded) were performed with 1,000 replications for bootstrap analysis to estimate stability and support for the clades.Strain characterization on groEL, rp, and amp genes. These gene regions were chosen because they were useful in distinguishing among phytoplasma strains in several studies (28,35,37). Amplification was carried out on 44 positive oil-palm samples obtained from previous phytoplasma identification on 16S rDNA gene.The samples were employed for amplification in nested-PCR with groEL primers AYgroelF/AYampR, followed by AYgroelF/AYgroelR amplicons, diluted at 1:30 as described in published protocols (36,37). The negative and positive controls were as described above. RFLP analyses were carried out on amplicons using AluI and Tru1I restriction enzymes (Fermentas, Vilnius, Lithuania) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Restriction fragments were separated as described above. Direct sequencing and sequence assembly were performed on the AYgroelF/AYgroelR amplicon from sample OP47. A phylogenetic tree was produced, using available reference strains (Table 1), as described above.Previous studies indicated that the part of the ribosomal operon that includes the complete l22 and s3 genes can be used as a phylogenetic marker, as it has fine resolving power for differentiating distinct phytoplasma strains in 16S rDNA subgroups (35). The 44 oil-palm samples were employed for direct amplification with the rpF1/rpR1 primer pair (33), using the reaction mix and the negative and positive controls as described above. Thirty-eight PCR cycles were conducted under the following conditions: 1 min (2 min for the first cycle) for denaturation step at 94°C, 2 min for annealing at 55°C, and 3 min (10 min for the last cycle) for primer extension at 72°C. RFLP analyses of obtained amplicons with Tru1I, Hpy8I, TaaI, and AluI were then performed. The rpF1/rpR1 fragment of OP47 samples was also sequenced as described above and a search for SNPs presence in comparison with reference strains was also carried out using Mega version 5 (47).The amp gene codes for a surface membrane protein that was recently reported as being involved in insect to phytoplasma transmission. It is therefore also suitable for phytoplasma strain differentiation (4,28). Direct PCR assays with Amp-N1/C1 primers, which amplify 702 bp of the amp gene, were carried out according to reported procedures (29). The 44 oil-palm samples tested and the negative and positive controls were all as described above. RFLP profiles generated with TruI and Tsp509I were compared with those of the reference strains (Table 1). Direct sequencing and sequence assembly were performed on the amplicon from sample OP47. A phylogenetic tree was produced using available reference strains (Table 1) as described above. The full sequence of the amp gene was also analyzed with translated nucleotide query, using BLASTP (version BLASTP 2.2.18) (National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda, MD) (Table 2).Detecting and identifying phytoplasmas. Nested-PCR assays amplified 1.2-kb DNA fragments of the 16S rDNA in samples from the various tissues tested at different percentages.The assays detected phytoplasmas in samples from all 44 symptomatic oil-palm plants from the four plantations surveyed. All samples collected from the seven asymptomatic plants, together with the template without nucleic acid, were negative according to nested PCR.Symptoms were evaluated and compared with phytoplasma detection percentages in the diverse oil-palm tissues showing symptoms at different stages in two localities (A and B) (Fig. 2). Leaves or spears showed 86% to 100% incidence of phytoplasma detection in samples collected from plants with either mild (scoring 1 or 2) or severe (scoring 3 or 4) symptoms.Tissues from roots and trunks resulted in only 10% to 60% incidence of phytoplasma detection, regardless of symptom severity. RFLP analysis of the 1.2-kb 16S rDNA amplicons indicated that a phytoplasma belonging to subgroup 16SrI-B ('Ca. P. asteris') was present in all symptomatic oil palms. RFLP patterns from the positive samples were indistinguishable from each other and from phytoplasma reference strains belonging to subgroup 16SrI-B (Fig. 3A). Phytoplasma strain OP47, obtained from a palm hybrid growing in a Palmar del Oriente field, was then selected for further molecular characterization. The 1,491-bp 16S rDNA sequence was deposited in GenBank under accession number JX681021 (Table 1), and showed 99% with a number of strains in group 16SrI, 'Ca. P. asteris'. The sequence of strain OP47 was then employed for phylogenetic analysis and 20 equally parsimonious trees were constructed, using 27 additional strains of aster yellows (AY) phytoplasmas from different crops (Table 1). Results confirmed its placement in the 16SrI group (Fig. 4A).Strain characterization on groEL, rp, and amp genes. The expected length (about 1.4 kb) of the amplicons of the partial groEL gene was amplified from 21 of the 44 oil-palm samples tested. They showed identical RFLP profiles after Tru1I and AluI digestion. This profile was identical to the one observed in maize bushy stunt (MBS) strain from Colombia, thus differentiating aster yellows phytoplasmas in oil palm from other AY strains and assigning them to the groELI RFLP subgroup V (Fig. 3B). The groEL sequence from OP47 (1,397 bp) was deposited in GenBank under accession number JX681023. The phylogenetic tree confirmed the differentiation of phytoplasmas from oil palm and maize from Colombia (Fig. 4B).PCR assays with the rpF1/rpR1 primer pair amplified the expected fragment length of about 1,200 bp from 18 oil-palm samples. RFLP analyses with four restriction enzymes produced restriction profiles that were identical to each other and allowed clear differentiation of the two oil-palm phytoplasma strains from all the other AY strains, including maize from Colombia (Fig. 5). The rpF1/rpR1 sequence from OP47 (1,168 bp) was deposited in GenBank under accession number KF434318. The SNPs comparison confirmed the differentiation of phytoplasmas from oil palm and maize from Colombia in the restriction site Hpy8I (Table 2). However the further differentiation observed after RFLP analyses with AluI and TaaI that allow distinguishing oil palm aster yellows phytoplasma from maize as well as from all other reference strains employed was not retrieved in SNPs comparison, presumably due to the position of the sequenced fragment outside of the rp gene. Amplification of the amp gene was obtained for 22 samples. Restriction analysis showed RFLP profiles of all strains from oil palms to be identical to each other and to the one from maize (data not shown). Sequencing and alignment for oil-palm strain OP47 provided a 702bp sequence. It was deposited in GenBank under accession number JX681022. This sequence encodes 233 amino acids, and its predicted translation showed no significant similarities to any predicted amino acid sequence of aster yellows phytoplasmas available in GenBank (Table 3). The phylogenetic tree confirmed the differentiation of phytoplasmas from oil palm and maize in Colombia from other strains tested (data not shown).The results of this study confirmed the association of a phytoplasma strain related to 'Ca. P. asteris' with oil palms severely affected by a lethal wilt in Colombia. The work carried out expanded knowledge of this oil palm disease since a large geographic area was surveyed and a range of samples from different parts of the plants and from different stages of the disease were examined. Considering the sampling sites from which plants were tested and the presence of phytoplasmas in at least one of the samples from each symptomatic plant, the association of the disease with aster yellows phytoplasmas is clear.The 16S rDNA is a valuable classification tool, but it is not always able to discriminate phytoplasma strains. The fine-scale molecular characterization of the phytoplasma from oil palm indicates that it can be differentiated from all other phytoplasmas in the same ribosomal subgroup enclosing those infecting corn in Colombia. Multilocus sequence analysis on amp, groEL and rp genes indicated that they could be useful molecular markers to follow the Colombian oil palm epidemic.Only some of the diverse types of samples tested from symptomatic oil palms were negative in PCR assays. This result may be explained by uneven phytoplasma distribution in woody hosts, as recently described (3,16). The amplification of other genes allowed finer characterization of the phytoplasma strain infecting oil palms in Colombia, and indicated that it can be differentiated from all the other phytoplasma strains in the AY group, including a MBS strain from Colombia (15). To our knowledge, this is the first study in which the phytoplasma previously associated with lethal wilt of oil palm in Colombia (2) was classified and its molecular identity characterized. The phytoplasma was assigned to the 16SrI-B AY group, which was clearly differentiated from the other reference phytoplasma strains.The association of more than one group of phytoplasmas with a specific set of disease symptoms at different locations is not unusual. Napier grass stunt disease in Kenya was shown to be associated with a phytoplasma from group 16SrXI (27), while in Ethiopia a phytoplasma from group 16SrIII was found associated with the same symptoms in Napier grass (26). These findings suggest that such phytoplasmas are being transmitted among plant species at these locations, although vectors have yet to be identified.The epidemiological and etiological significance of the ability of phytoplasmas to move among plant species and into coconut and oil palm is unclear. Some phytoplasmas are known to be associated with 'dead-end' hosts, that is, plants to which the vector can transmit pathogens, but from which it cannot acquire them (52). For example, grapevine is a 'dead-end' host for the stolbur phytoplasma, although this phytoplasma is associated with \"bois noir\" in grapevine. However, phytoplasmas are also known to have variable genomes and 'potential mobile units' of DNA within their genomes (25). Spreading into 'dead-end' hosts is a first step towards these phytoplasmas eventually becoming adapted to these new hosts. Future studies in comparative genomics on more phytoplasma sequences and identification of insect vectors will be key to determining how these organisms are evolving and adapting to old and new plant and insect hosts.To our knowledge, this is the first time where a multigenic characterization of conserved genes other than 16S rDNA distinguished an AY strain in a specific host plant. The close association of this pathogen with oil palm lethal wilt disease was also confirmed since all symptomatic plants tested positive for the phytoplasma. In spite of the limitations of the data set in number of samples, sampling scheme, number of strains used for molecular characterization, and number of asymptomatic samples, the results of this survey provide important information and tools that can be employed to further study the disease. The epidemiology and insect vector identity can be defined for planning disease management strategies and contains further epidemics. Alvarez et al.a Strains in bold were used as references for PCR-RFLP analysis. b (?) refers to a strain with interoperon heterogeneity that is tentatively classified in this subgroup; -refers to a sequence not available in the  *SNPs making differential restriction sites for RFLP differentiation: 124 and 278 (Hpy8I), 277 and 285 (Tru1I), 444 (AluI), 667 (TaaI). Dots represent nucleotides identical to the OP47 consensus sequence. a -means \"not described as a ribosomal group\". 498In bold oil palm phytoplasma strain used for similarity comparison 499  Two-way analysis of variance for phytoplasma detection related to symptomatic tissues tested indicated significant differences between tissue types sampled (F = 57.81 at P < 0.001) and no significant differences between phytoplasma detection and symptom severity or geographic locality (F = 4.90 at P =0.0624 and F = 6.45 at P = 0.0387, respectively).     ","tokenCount":"3590"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2a7c69d9f68a199d0fdec007442257ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2027c7cb-dc8b-43f5-a641-0a0848d71cce/content","id":"147651374"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1ce915c3-6f8c-42bd-a3e0-bb46f4297882","pagecount":"8","content":"Maintaining wheat productivity under the increasing temperatures in South Asia is a challenge. We focused on developing early maturing wheat lines as an adaptive mechanism in regions suffering from terminal heat stress and those areas that require wheat adapted to shorter cycles under continual high temperature stress. We evaluated the grain yield performance of early-maturing heat-tolerant germplasm developed by CIMMYT, Mexico at diverse locations in South Asia from 2009 to 2014 and estimated the breeding progress for high-yielding and early-maturing heat-tolerant germplasm in South Asia. Each year the trial comprised of 28 new entries, one CIMMYT check (Baj) and a local check variety. Locations were classified by mega environment (ME); ME1 being the temperate irrigated locations with terminal high temperature stress, and ME5 as hot, sub-tropical, irrigated locations. Grain yield (GY), days to heading (DTH) and plant height (PH) were recorded at each location. Effect of temperature on GY was observed in both ME1 and ME5. Across years, mean minimum temperatures in ME1 and mean maximum temperatures in ME5 during grain filling had significant negative association with GY. The ME1 locations were cooler that those in ME5 in the 5 years of evaluations and had a 1-2 t/ha higher GY. A mean reduction of 20 days for DTH and 20 cm in PH was observed in ME5. Negative genetic correlations of −0.43 to −0.79 were observed between GY and DTH in South Asia during 2009-2014. Each year, we identified early-maturing germplasm with higher grain yield than the local checks. A positive trend was observed while estimating the breeding progress across five years for high-yielding early-maturing heat tolerant wheat compared to the local checks in South Asia. The results suggests the potential of the high-yielding early-maturing wheat lines developed at CIMMYT in improving wheat production and maintaining genetic gains in South Asia.Wheat, an important source of calories and proteins is a key cereal crop that impacts the global economy and food security. Continuous development of agronomically superior wheat varieties with high grain yield (GY), good nutrition and processing quality and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses is critical for ensuring food security. South Asia (comprised of India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh) is one of the most important wheat producing and consuming regions in the world. Though wheat production in South Asia has increased dramatically since the Green Revolution, multiple challenges such as high temperature stress and reduced water availability are major concerns. Rao et al. (2014) reported a rise of 0.32 • C and 0.28 • C per decade in the minimum and maximum temperatures over wheat growing areas in India. Warmer temperatures have already been determined to be one of the major factors in slowing the wheat productivity growth in South Asia and globally (Gourdji et al., 2013;Pask et al., 2014;Lobell et al., 2012;Sharma et al., 2007;Joshi et al., 2007a). Estimated GY losses in South Asia can range from 6 to 10% per • C rise in temperature during the grain-filling period (Lobell et al., 2008;Mondal et al., 2013;Asseng et al., 2015). Further, the current estimates by the World Bank indicate a population of 1.6 billion in South Asia, which is nearly 24% of the world population, adds to the urgency of increasing wheat production and maintaining food security.Though a cool season crop, wheat is widely grown in temperate, tropical and subtropical areas of South Asia. The subtropical western Indo-Gangetic Plain of South Asia has a cool climate during the crop growing season and late incidence of high temperatures (>30 • C) during advanced grain filling. In contrast, the eastern, central and southern regions of South Asia are warmer throughout the crop season with maximum temperature ranges of 27-30 • C during the vegetative stages that gradually rises above 30 • C during grain filling. Thus, there is demand for prioritization of developing new wheat varieties with improved heat tolerance in South Asia.The Cereal Systems Initiative in South Asia (CSISA), a collaborative effort between CGIAR centers (CIMMYT, IRRI, IFPRI, and ILRI) and national programs was established in 2009 to improve cereal productivity in South Asia (http://csisa.org). The CIMMYT bread wheat breeding program focused on developing early-maturing and heat tolerant wheat lines. Early maturity to escape high temperature stress has been suggested is an excellent crop adaptation approach in regions suffering from terminal and continual high temperature stress (Joshi et al., 2007b;Mondal et al., 2013). The new approach in breeding for early maturity has led to distribution and evaluation of trials in diverse locations in South Asia since 2009. CIMMYT wheat germplasm has shown excellent adaption to a wide range of climates and has been either directly released or been an ancestor of wheat varieties globally (Singh et al., 2007) and genetic gains have been reported in both optimal and stressed environments (Singh et al., 2007;Gourdji et al., 2012;Manes et al., 2012).Our objectives were to evaluate the performance of earlymaturing heat-tolerant germplasm developed in Mexico at diverse locations in South Asia from 2009 to 2014 and to estimate the breeding progress in developing high-yielding and early-maturing heat-tolerant germplasm for South Asia.Each year since 2009, high-yielding, early-maturing, heattolerant wheat genotypes were selected from advanced yield trials conducted at the Norman E. Borlaug Experiment Station (CENEB) in Ciudad (Cd.) Obregon,Sonora,Mexico (latitude 27.33,40 msal). The CIMMYT advanced yield trials are tested across multiple environments in Cd. Obregon. As part of CSISA, the advanced lines with stable grain yields under irrigated normal and late sown (for high temperature stress) environments constituted the CSISA Heat Tolerant Early Maturity Yield Trial (CSISA-HT-EM). These trials were evaluated in collaboration with national program partners across several locations in major wheat producing regions of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan from 2009 to 2014 for GY performance and adaptation (Table 1). Each CSISA-HT-EM trial included 28 new entries, one CIMMYT check variety (Baj), and one local check, i.e., the best locally adapted variety at each location. Each trial had 3 replicates and was arranged in an alpha lattice design. Information on locations, sowing and harvest dates and plot sizes are presented in Table 1. Management practices were based on the established procedures followed at each individual location which are similar to those used for national yield trials conducted at that location. In South Asia, wheat is sown in November/December and harvested in March/May of the following year, depending on the location.Locations in South Asia were also classified into mega environments (ME) based on the CIMMYT classification system described by Rajaram et al. (1995) and Braun et al. (2010), with ME1 and ME5 being most relevant to the studied region. This classification system defines ME1 as an optimally irrigated and highly productive environment where wheat grows in cool temperature but suffers from terminal heat stress and ME5 as hot, humid or non-humid, tropical, or subtropical regions, with continuous high temperatures during the crop season and the mean temperatures in the coolest month is >17.5 • C. These two MEs can be further differentiated based on the mean minimum temperature ranges of the coolest quarter, 3-11 • C for ME1 and 11-16 • C for ME5 (Ortiz et al., 2008).Consistent weather data was not available for all locations across years. Thus mean temperature data during the crop season was extrapolated from NASA POWER Data (NASA, 2016) for the following locations during 2009-2014: Dinajpur and Jessore in Bangladesh, Karnal, Indore, Ludhiana, New Delhi, Ugar, Varanasi, Jabalpur in India, Bhairahawa in Nepal and Faisalabad in Pakistan. The maximum and minimum temperatures for the some of the same locations were either received from the collaborator or extracted from online archived weather data (www. wunderground.com).At the end of the crop season, collaborators provided data on GY (t/ha), days to heading (DTH), days to maturity (DTM), plant height (PH) and trial management practices. DTH was estimated as the number of days from sowing date/first irrigation till 50% of the spikes had emerged from the flag leaf. DTM was recorded as senescence in the peduncles of 50% of the spikes. At maturity, plots were harvested to determine GY.Data for GY and agronomic traits for each trial were analyzed by using a mixed model for computing the least square means (LSMEANS) for each genotype at individual locations and across locations and MEs in each year using the program Multi Environment Trial Analysis with R for Windows (METAR, Alvarado et al., 2015). Genetic correlations between GY and DH were also estimated using METAR. The Dunnett's (one-tail) test and Fisher's LSD were estimated to compare the mean grain yield of the lines. The estimated LSMEANS of GY for each genotype was expressed as a percentage of the local check using the following formula:where, GY g is the mean GY of a genotype and GY c is the mean GY of the local check. Broad sense heritability (H) was estimated for each trait in the multi environment trial planted in e environment using the following formula:where, 2 g is the genetic variance, 2 e is the residual variance, 2 ge is genotype x environment (or location) interaction variance, e is the number of environments/locations and r is the number of replicates.Regression analysis was performed to measure the rate of progress in breeding for early-maturing high-yielding heat tolerant wheat lines (Sayre et al., 1997;Sharma et al., 2012). The mean%GY of the five highest yielding lines (HYL) over the local checks was regressed over the 5 years of evaluations and the rate of progress was estimated from the slope of the regression line. The CSISA-HT-EM trials were evaluated in a diverse set of locations across the major wheat producing areas of South Asia with India having the largest number of locations each year (Table 1, Supplementary Table 1). The sowing dates ranged from 1st week of November till last week of December. The plot sizes and management practices varied between locations depending on the local practices followed by the National Partners. Individual locations were also classified into MEs (Table 2). Both ME1 and ME5 included irrigated environments, though the nature of high temperature stress varies; ME1 locations experience terminal high temperature stress; ME5 locations suffer from continual high temperatures during wheat growing season.Mean monthly weather data from sowing till harvest in South Asia are presented in Fig. 1. The mean temperature trend is similar in all five years, with the coolest temperatures in January followed by a gradual increase till April. In the 2009-2010 crop season, mean temperatures were higher during March and April, corresponding to grain filling period than in other years. The 2011-2012 crop season had high mean monthly temperatures from November till January. Weather data for maximum and minimum temperatures were available for the following locations from 2009 to 2014: Ludhiana, Karnal, New Delhi, Varanasi and Ugar in India, Jessore and Dinajpur in Bangladesh, Bhairahawa in Nepal and Faisalabad in Pakistan. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Kar-nal, New Delhi and Ludhiana grouped as India ME1, Varanasi and Ugar grouped as India ME5, Jessore and Dinajpur in Bangladesh, and Bhairahawa in Nepal are presented in Fig. 2. Across all locations, the mean maximum temperatures in ME5 was higher by 2-3 • C than the mean maximum temperature in ME1, with the exception of 2009-2010, which was a relatively warm year in north western India and temperatures were nearly same in ME1 and ME5. Within ME1, the mean maximum temperatures in Pakistan were lower or similar to those for India ME1 across years, whereas the mean minimum temperatures in Pakistan were relatively higher. Bangladesh had the highest mean maximum temperatures, followed by Nepal and IndiaME5. The mean minimum temperatures in IndiaME5 were 1-3 • C higher than other locations across all years. Between the MEs in India there was a 4 • C difference in minimum temperatures, ME5 locations being warmer. Though classified as ME5, Bhairahawa in Nepal had cooler mean minimum temperatures compared to other ME5 locations in South Asia except, 2011-2012 and 2012-2013, when mean minimum temperatures was 2 • C higher compared to means for other crop seasons in Bhairahawa.The DTH and PH for the CSISA-HT-EM trials were recorded at all locations and years. The mean DTH ranged from 63-111 days in South Asia and 89-111 days and 63-74 days in ME1 and ME5 respectively. The cooler ME1 locations had longer DTH compared to ME5 with a mean difference of ≥20 days (Table 2). Data for DTM were received only in some years from certain locations. A mean Mean GY varied across locations and MEs for the CSISA-HT-EM trials. The mean GY of the trials ranged from 4.13-4.28 t/ha across years (Table 3). A significant genotype and genotype-byenvironment interaction variance were observed. The genotypic variance was higher than the genotype-by-environment variance in all trials. Mean GY across years was 1-2 t/ha higher for trials in ME1 locations than ME5 (Table 2). A similar difference was observed between ME1 and ME5 locations in India. Within ME5 and across South Asia, Nepal had the lowest mean GY of the trials in all years of evaluations. Differences are also observed in mean GY within ME1, with IndiaME1 having the higher grain yields than Pakistan.Each of the CSISA-HT-EM trials had wheat lines with significant higher GY than local checks. The top five highest yielding lines in each trial are listed in Table 3. The estimated Dunnett's one tailed test statistics (at 0.05 the test statistics values were 0.41, 0.29, 0.29, 0.26, 0.65 in 2009-2010, 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2012-2013, and 2013-2014 crop season respectively) is a conservative test and though it identified lines with significantly higher grain yield than the local checks we used Fisher's LSD to identify the HYLs in each year of the CSISA-HT-EM trials (Table 3). The highest yielding wheat lines had a 4-10% higher grain yield than the local checks. The heritability for GY ranged from 0.52 to 0.67 across locations during 2009-2014 (Table 3). A regression analysis of% GY of the HYL lines compared to local checks showed definite positive trends in progress in over years (Fig. 3). A linear regression model estimated breeding gains of 0.52%, 0.80% and 0.83% in ME1, ME5 and South Asia respectively, though the R 2 values were not significant. On further analysis, the progress in GY over five  years fitted well in a quadratic model: y = 1.14 x 2 − 6.03x + 114.48 (R 2 = 0.99, p < 0.01), y = 1.43 x 2 − 7.77x + 118.20 (R 2 = 0.99, p < 0.01), and y = 0.66 x 2 − 3.43 + 111.60 (R 2 = 0.89, p < 0.01) in ME1, ME5 and South Asia respectively.The mean temperatures across crop season had a negative association with mean GY (R 2 = 0.74, p < 0.05). The crop season was grouped into pre-heading and grain filling time periods based on days to heading for the locations with temperature data. The temperatures at grain filling showed significant negative association with GY (R 2 = 0.89, p < 0.05) compared to mean temperatures at pre-heading (Fig. 4). A negative association implies that increased temperatures reduced mean GY. Further investigation showed that the mean minimum temperatures in ME1 (R 2 = 0.79, p < 0.05) and the mean maximum temperatures in ME5 (R 2 = 0.90, p < 0.01) had a significant negative association with GY.Strong genetic correlations (ranging from 0.43 to 0.79) were observed between DTH and GY across years in South Asia and significant negative association (ranging from 0.52-0.81) were estimated in ME5 (Table 4). A similar negative association of GY with DTH was observed in ME1, except for 2012-2013, where the correlation was negative but not significant.The CSISA-HT-EM trials were evaluated at major wheat producing areas in South Asia that represented the diverse temperature ranges in which wheat is grown in these regions. The ME classification system developed at CIMMYT enables grouping of diverse wheat growing areas in the world and helps to target breeding activities. The early-maturing high-yielding wheat lines were targeted for adaptation under terminal and continual high temperature stress in ME1 and ME5, respectively. Information on irrigation was not available for all locations but nearly all locations in ME1 and ME5 were probably irrigated. Previous studies have shown that the performance of normally sown and optimally irrigated trials in Cd. Obregon, Mexico was able to predict the performance of the genotypes in ME1 testing locations globally (Trethowan and Crossa, 2007). Likewise, the performance of the genotypes in late-sown trials under high temperature stress at Cd. Obregon was comparable to that of genotypes in ME5 locations in South Asia (Lillemo et al., 2005;Mondal et al., 2013). The breeding program at CIMMYT evaluates the advanced lines for 2 years, first year in irrigated normal sown and second year in irrigated normal and late sown for heat stress in Cd. Obregon. Early maturing lines that have stable GY in both years were selected in current study to evaluate their adaptation in South Asia.Cropping season temperature variation had an impact on mean GY. The mean temperatures in South Asia at grain filling in 2009-2010 were higher than for other years. Such a trend has been reported by USDA (2014), where the temperatures in 2009-2010 were reported to be warmer and since 2010 the focus on higher productivity and favorable climate conditions has led to increased wheat production in South Asia. While average temperatures across crop season showed a significant negative association with GY, it was interesting to observe the impact of high temperatures at grain filling on GY in both MEs. Impact of high temperatures at grain filling in wheat has been reported in South Asia and globally (Chatrath et al., 2007;Mason et al., 2013;Zarei et al., 2013;Asseng et al., 2015). A difference of more than 1 t/ha is observed between the MEs in each year in South Asia. Similar grain yield differences between the MEs have been reported in other international trials conducted in South Asia (Sharma et al., 2012;Mondal et al., 2013;Pask et al., 2014). Within ME1, differences in GY were observed between India and Pakistan, which may have been due to temperatures or agronomic and management practices. It was observed that the Pakistan site had cooler mean maximum temperatures than those for India ME1, though the mean minimum temperatures were around 1 • C higher, with the exception of 2013-2014. In the crop season 2013-2014, the mean minimum temperatures in India ME1 and Pakistan were similar. With no reports on diseases the differences in GY may be due to local agronomic or management practices. The ME5 locations in India had relatively higher GY than locations in Nepal and Bangladesh. The maximum temperatures in ME5 locations in India were lower than those of Bangladesh, though the minimum temperatures were higher than Nepal or Bangladesh. Lower night-time temperatures are critical for wheat and studies have suggested that higher average minimum temperatures increases respiration rates in wheat and rice resulting in a negative impact on grain yield in wheat and rice (Peng et al., 2004;Pask et al., 2014). Whereas higher average minimum temperatures may have resulted in reduction of GY in Pakistan, no such effect was observed in ME5 locations in India, which may be due to the availability of irrigation and lower maximum temperatures during the crop season (than Nepal or Bangladesh). Since all locations are irrigated, delayed sowing in both Nepal and Bangladesh (which often occurs in wheat, following a rice crop) may have exposed the trial to extreme heat and thereby reducing GY. Considering the locations with similar sowing dates the average reduction of 8% in GY was estimated for a 1 • C rise in temperature.Continual high temperatures in ME5 locations led to early heading and shorter crop duration than for ME1 sites. Previous studies have reported similar effects of high temperature stress on days to heading and maturity (Mason et al., 2010;Yang et al., 2002;Mondal et al., 2013). The observed reductions in plant height due to high temperatures were similar to those reported in other studies (Zhong-hu and Rajaram, 1994;Mondal et al., 2013). The genotypes included in the CSISA-HT-EM trials had earlier heading than local checks, which were locally-adapted high-yielding varieties with early to normal maturity. A significant negative association  between DTH and GY was observed in each year implying that early lines had higher grain yields. The negative associations are significant in both terminal high temperature stress conditions in ME1 and continual high temperature stress conditions in ME5. Such a negative association has been reported in previous studies and supports the concept that earliness enables adaptation to high temperature stress (Tewolde et al., 2006;Mondal et al., 2013;Pask et al., 2014). A molecular marker analysis of the wheat lines for known Ppd, Vrn and eps genes showed no significant variation between the lines (Personal comm. Susanne Dreisigacker, data not shown). Further investigation is underway to identify genes that could link earliness and heat adaptation.Several wheat lines were identified each year that outperformed the local checks. The high yielding lines were not re-evaluated in the following years as a part of the project; though the highest yielding lines were selected by the National partners for further evaluations. The estimated progress in breeding for early maturing wheat in 5 years fits a quadratic model: implying that there are two phases in the curve. Similar results were observed in by Rodrigues et al. (2007) for estimating genetic gains in wheat in Brazil. A quadratic model indicated two phases in the grain yield progress over 40 years in Brazil and was attributed to changes in breeding objectives across several decades. In this study, however, temperatures during the crop cycle may have influenced the trends observed. The biggest difference (10%) in grain yield of HYLs over local checks was in 2009-2010, the warmest crop season. The lack of adaptation of the local checks was likely the reason for the difference in GY. As average temperatures reduced in 2010-2011, the grain yields of HYLs over local checks decreased to 7% though still statistically significant. Over the subsequent years, the mean difference in GY between the HYLs and local checks increased, implying an overall positive trend in breeding for the early-maturing wheat. It also suggests the wider adaptability of the HYLs for different temperature ranges across years. While linear increases in genetic gains cud not be estimated from this study, annual gains in yield through breeding at CIMMYT have been reported to range from 0.5% to 1.1% across a ten years or more (Trethowan et al., 2002;Lopes et al., 2012;Sharma et al., 2012).Results of the CSISA-HT-EM trials demonstrate that earlymaturing, high-yielding, heat-tolerant wheat lines with good adaptation potential, developed by CIMMYT's targeted breeding, are out-performing currently grown check varieties across MEs in South Asia. Results also suggest that earliness could be a key criterion in breeding for high temperature stress tolerance in South Asia. Short-duration wheat varieties are often preferred by farmers for use in rotation with other crops. They also require fewer inputs, especially for irrigation, due to the shorter crop cycle. Two lines from the CSISA-HT-EM trials were released in India and some are in the advanced evaluation phase with the national cooperators.","tokenCount":"3832"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"94598c4b81fe4520d9b7307a692035b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e54ba4f6-7add-4618-a914-7f6b882daefe/retrieve","id":"1637665898"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d918e4e7-1600-4a16-b3dd-caa9fd1d4192","pagecount":"18","content":"Soil degradation.23 000 ha of soil eroded per year. + 1 to + 2 °C Temperature  -10 to -25% precipitation 1.5 t ha -1 Vs potentiel 4 t ha -1 (Wheat).Low and unstable production.Horizon 2050Background and Goals 1Very low soil organic content (Bahri et al. 2022) https://www.yieldgap.org/gygaviewer/index.html Achieving sustainable production to ensure food security and resource sustainability.Improve, Optimize, Redesign our production systems. Low and unstable production.Background and GoalsAgroecology is a holistic and integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological and social concepts to the design of sustainable agriculture and food systems.Agroecology is based on bottom-up, helping to deliver contextualized solutions to local problems.There is no single way to apply agroecological approaches, it depends on local contexts, constraints and opportunities.What is Agroecology ? , Agro-ecological Food systems? The 10 elements that define agroecology, used in the TAPE framework.TAPE has been developed by FAO, integrating the contribution of representatives from 70 international organizations from around the world that support agroecological transitions (FAO, 2019).Tool for Agroecological Performance Evaluation (TAPE).Agroecological Transition need evaluation 7 -Gender is not involved -Necessity y of indicators (Mottet et al., 2020) Soil Health is Central: Soil texture and soil organic matter are identified as common soil health indicators across all landscapes.Soil organic carbon stock map of Tunisia  Agroecology can be also defined as a dialogue among different knowledges and ways of knowing, between farmers' and scientists' knowledge, between women and men, between practitioners and policy activistsThrough agroecological approaches, local communities can develop higher levels of autonomy by building knowledge, through collective action and inclusive approachesGender plays a key role in defining strategies for improving agro-ecological performance,  Gender might be included in the TAPE framework. ","tokenCount":"276"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a1895f6c53a1de0ef1be917691fa0c5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66e9b2fc-0fa7-46e6-ba84-41947a889ca5/retrieve","id":"-2036712270"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4347fc6-0ff0-494d-9a45-96c0ee3613d8","pagecount":"8","content":"Fund scientific research to provide evidence to validate the health and nutritional benefits of traditional crops and marine resources and support more informed policy decisions.Harness and integrate traditional knowledge with modern scientific knowledge on the nutritional, health and economic benefits of local foods to better address food and nutrition security (FNS) challenges. Foster greater collaboration between academic and research institutes, government ministries, non-governmental organisations, and local communities to increase awareness of the potential benefits of highly nutritious local crops and seafood. Identify species with known benefits that have agribusiness potential to meet growing demand for healthy and nutritious foods in local and international markets. Mobilise public and private investment to increase production, processing, consumption and marketing of nutritious local foods and marine resources to address FNS challenges in the region.Consumers in Pacific Island Countries (PICs) have become increasingly reliant on non-traditional and imported processed foods to meet food and nutritional needs.Traditional knowledge on edible plants (fruits, root crops and vegetables) and marine resources (seaweeds, sea cucumbers) is diminishing, and with it the loss of indigenous varieties.The rich biodiversity of terrestrial and marine organisms has yet to be fully studied to identify the bioactive compounds that have health and nutritional benefits; however, 75 crops and marine resources commonly consumed in PICs have been profiled for their health and nutritional benefits.There is need to invest in scientific research and product development of traditional local food crops and seafood to contribute to improving the food, health and nutrition situation in PICs, as well as provide new income-generating opportunities that specially benefit local communities.The seven Pacific Island Countries that are the focus of this brief cover a total land mass of 63,454.8 km 2 with hundreds of small islands and archipelagos. Although total land area is small, these islands are large ocean states, rich in biodiversity (terrestrial and marine), and with diverse cultures and traditions.Traditionally, Pacific Islanders depended on crop production and fishing to sustain their daily diets and livelihoods. However, in recent years, they have become increasingly reliant on non-traditional and imported processed foods, which are often high in fat, salt and sugar. As a result, many of the PICs have very high rates (average of 60%) of overweight and obesity and non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as cancer, diabetes (ranging from 14% to 44%), heart disease and high-blood pressure (average 25%).The decline in the FNS situation of Pacific Islanders is further exacerbated by a reduction and/or stagnation in agricultural productivity, overexploitation of marine resources and climate change, which make it challenging for many low-income households to afford nutritionally balanced, diversified diets.There is a rich biodiversity of terrestrial and marine organisms in the PICs, many of which have been used for generations for food and medicine but are yet to be fully studied for their health or nutritional value. It is imperative that Pacific people consume a more diverse diet that incorporates more locally available nutrient-dense foods, including fruits, root crops, vegetables and seafoods, to reduce the high NCD rates across the region.This brief provides insights into the current status of knowledge on key nutrients and bioactive compounds, known or associated with traditional crops and seafood available in seven Pacific Island Countries: Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. The results can be used to advocate for the greater incorporation of traditional crops and marine resources as part of diversified diets for a healthier Pacific population to improve the FNS situation and enhance income-generating opportunities for local communities.An integrated approach combining traditional and scientific knowledge was used to gather information on traditional crops and seafood consumed in the seven PICs. Information was initially gathered through guided interviews with traditional knowledge experts. In the Pacific, much of the traditional knowledge on foods with nutritional and/or medicinal value is passed on orally and there are few published reports on such traditional knowledge. Although traditional knowledge experts/ leaders may not know the active ingredients or the bioactive compounds present in traditional foods, the nutritional benefits or medicinal values are well known, and such information has been gathered over a long period of time spanning several generations.A definition for traditional foods was applied and includes indigenous or locally grown or introduced crops and seafood, which form part of the traditional diet. Additionally, a systematic literature review was carried out to determine scientific knowledge on the nutritional value and bioactive compounds from the identified crops and seafood.From the interviews with traditional leaders, a total of 75 crops and marine resources were identified as commonly consumed and/ or having health benefits or foods which could be better used in daily diets. Further information gleaned from 433 scientific articles on the bioactive compounds and health benefits in these 75 crops and marine resources was also compiled under the categories: root crops, fruits and vegetables, seaweed, fish and shellfish (see Table 1). Agriculture and nutrition series1.Corm consumed boiled or baked in most PICs.Antihyperglycemic, antioxidant anti-inflammation, antimicrobial, anticancer, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant and antifungal and cytotoxic properties.Taro Taro leaves and stalk widely consumed.Corm is a staple in Pacific diets. Cultural significance.Contains flavonoids, steroids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, anthocyanins. Used as laxative, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-hepatotoxic, anti-helminthic.Widely consumed in Fiji, Kiribati, Tonga, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. Less popular in Marshall Islands and Samoa.Flour is also used. Leaves are nutritious but seldom used.Antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, antibacterial, anti-helminthic and antidiarrheal activity. Contains carotenoids, nitrate, polyphenols, oxalate, and saponins.Widely consumed in all PICs.Leaves and bark used as medicine.Contains phenols, ß-sitosterol and flavonoids, carotenoids. Has antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anticancer properties.Widely consumed in all PICs.Coconut cream and oil widely used. All parts have some use.   Increasingly, nationally and internationally, there is a focus on consuming foods which have health benefits in addition to meeting nutritional requirements.Seaweeds are a relatively inexpensive source of protein, vitamins and minerals and are a promising source of bioactive compounds.There is increased interest in using them for enriching other food products, as well as in the cosmetic industry. For example, seaweeds used instead of salt in brown bread has been reported to have resulted in a longer shelf-life. However, research is needed on the associated health and other commercial benefits of Pacific seaweed varieties, and protocols should be developed for value-added products destined for local consumption and for export markets (see Box 2).Breadfruit is high in complex carbohydrate (fibre), low in fat and cholesterol and is gluten free. It is also rich in carotenoids (Vitamin A).In order to increase availability, breadfruit can be processed (e.g. flour, slices -dried/baked/ frozen) to provide new income-generating opportunities for local communities. The most suitable PIC varieties for processing also need to be determined as well as their nutrient composition and health benefits.Seaweed (mozuku) is high in nutrient value and an important resource for coastal communities. A decrease in wild seaweed in Tonga had been observed due to overharvesting and climate change. In 2017, South Pacific Mozuku (SPM), a Tongan owned SME with the assistance of researchers, examined the possibility of farming mozuku (Limu Tanga'u). This was followed by a trial that proved its potential despite farming the seaweed outside the optimal season and following Cyclone Gita.The government has established Special Management Areas (SMAs) to preserve, protect and, where possible, to restore the natural resources of the coastal zone owned by local communities. SPM has been developing sustainable seaweed cultivation techniques. Through trial and error, SPM has identified key factors for success through working in partnership with coastal communities in SMAs.Agriculture and nutrition seriesSea cucumber/bêche-de-mer (Holothuroidea) contains several macro and micro-nutrients and can be further processed to expand market opportunities (see Box 3). However, there is scope for better management as several species are slow growing and populations are dwindling due to overexploitation. Sea cucumbers could be better targeted for development through aquaculture; thereby ensuring consistent supplies.Bêche-de-mer (English: Sea cucumber) are eaten raw or smoked, cooked or boiled. The Kiribati social enterprise Atoll Beauties has successfully developed a sustainable and commercial bêche-de-mer farming technique, which can be easily implemented by local communities. A process to preserve bêche-de-mer shelf life for more than 2 years in a 'ready to cook' state has also been identified.Tilapia fish is regarded as a sustainable source of protein in PICs. Tilapia is mostly farmed, and aquaculture projects have been successful in a number of PICs including Fiji, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.Similarly, crabs, eels, prawns and shellfish also have potential health benefits and nutritional value and could be targeted for aquaculture farming to meet FNS, as well as provide income-generating opportunities for Pacific Islanders.A lack of knowledge of the properties, as well as taste preferences or cultural beliefs, means that various parts of several crops (leaves, stems, seeds etc.) remain underutilised (see Box 4). For example, cassava, sweet potato and pumpkin leaves (and seeds in the case of pumpkin) -although nutritious -are not exploited for their potential. Further research documenting their uses and bioactive properties is needed.In addition, some of the traditional varieties of commonly consumed crops, like breadfruit, banana and taro, are declining. Many nutrient-dense vegetables that are available in most PICs could be sustainably grown and used to develop new market opportunities and increase consumption.Plants in the PICs continue to offer prospects of new medicinal compounds. Some of the crops are not widely utilised by all cultural groups. For example, bitter melon is commonly found (cultivated or wild) in Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu, but is not widely used possibly due to people's taste preferences (see Box 4).Agriculture and nutrition seriesTraditional knowledge from PICs needs to be harnessed and integrated with modern scientific knowledge to address nutritional and health problems. Research on nutritious local foods must be given greater emphasis, given their potential role in addressing the health, economic and FNS challenges in the PICs. ","tokenCount":"1614"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c4c0bb34b14facb55e9f073115f1335","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d69cad8d-f312-45d3-9fc0-94d987267a90/retrieve","id":"1090871576"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5dedfeb0-e7c2-459b-aadb-6fc7d4567f61","pagecount":"22","content":"The agenda was structured in three main sessions:1-One session dedicated to the framework; 2-One session dedicated to the indicators, organized in 8 shorter sessions; 3-And a final session to discuss next steps and methodology for data analysis.In his introduction, T. Allen pointed out the three main objectives of the workshop:1-Establish a multidisciplinary task force of experts. Joint effort is key to advance on the agenda on the metrics of sustainable diets and food systems. The organizing team would like to promote future personal and institutional cooperation in the field of sustainability analysis and assessment of the food systems and encourage project oriented co-operations. 2-Explore the different approaches to assess the sustainability of diets and food systems. It is also broadly expected that the symposium and workshop will be an opportunity for the participants to exchange of information on current initiatives and research activities. 3-Refine a framework and shortlist of indicators for sustainable diets and food systems. The final objective is to gather some recommendations with regard to the development of indicators of sustainable diets and food systems and identify a process for an improved list of indicators.The assembled group of experts should be seen as a scientific network which, on the one hand, discusses the work done to monitor and assist the team in establishing the metrics and, on the other hand, as a group of possible partners to join the teamthough their own activities or in prevision of future collaborative activitiesto design, validate and apply the system of indicators.This first workshop aimed to provide a forum to discuss jointly key questions with regard to indicators of food system sustainability reflecting the various backgrounds and different perspectives. It builds on the expert consultation undertaken through a Delphi process to select candidate indicators. It is expected that the expert panel functions as an expert network which meets on a regular basis.In this context, Bioversity International and CIHEAM-IAMM intend to engage further with the participants, review and test different methods for measuring sustainability that have already been developed, but also to examine different features of sustainability which have not yet been captured sufficiently in existing approaches. In their presentation, T. Allen and P. Prosperi pointed out the three principal objectives of the metric system: informing, measuring progress and support decisionmaking. They presented the research process, suggesting the following steps: 1) extensive review of indicators and conceptual frameworks; 2) two focus group sessions with a small group of experts to discuss and refine framework and list of indicators; and 3) three iterative rounds of a Delphi survey for the selection of indicators with a large panel of experts. See Figure 3.1.It was explained the system-oriented approach proposed for the assessment of sustainable diets and food systemsincorporating elements from the vulnerability and resilience theories. Exposure, sensitivity and resilience provide the concepts to identify the system's properties that shape a causal pathway towards food system's outcomes. Results of the consensus on the indicators were then presented.There is one crucial question to answer when applying this approach: Vulnerability/resilience of what to what? Four main food and nutrition security issuesi.e.food system outcomes at risk specific to the Spanish, French and Italian contextand four global and regional drivers of changerelevant to the Mediterranean region and likely to impact the identified issueswere identified. Brief definitions of these main issues and drivers were repeated and are provided below.Water depletion is \"a use or removal of water from a water basin that renders it unavailable for further use\" (Molden, 1997). Water availability is closely related to climate change trends altering precipitation patterns and rainwater (Freibauer et al., 2011). It is also related to agrofood patterns and the use and concentration of agrochemicals, impacting the quality of water, further contributing to water scarcity.Biodiversity loss is defined as \"the long-term or permanent qualitative or quantitative reduction in components of biodiversity and their potential to provide goods and services, to be measured at global, regional and national levels\" (CBD, 2004). Biodiversity loss is cogenerated by climate change, environment depletion and water stress. It is strongly related to modern food production and consumption patterns (Altieri, 2000) that have become more intensive and homogenizing.Food price volatility refers to large and atypical \"variations in agricultural prices over time\" (FAO, 2011). Climate change impacts, changing trade patterns, new dietary trends and growing demand for biofuels are often invoked as among the causes of food price volatility.The rising demand for food and fuel, originated from consumption and industrial purposes, is engendered by both population growth and changes in food consumption patterns (Brown, 2008). Furthermore speculation on commodity markets and reduction of food stocks are also crucial determinants of price variations (Fisher, 2008;Robles et al., 2009).Changes in food consumption patterns 1 refers to the changing structure of global food consumption, related to changing dominant values, attitude and behaviours (Kearney, 2010). Food choices are deeply embedded in social norms. Individual food consumption patternsi.e. dietsare the results of changes in culture, social values and representations attached to food consumption, driving effectively behavioral changes and resulting in modified diets. The global changes in food consumption patterns -some talk about a \"westernization\" of food consumption patterns (Drewnowski and Popkin, 1997) are largely driven by demographic factors and income growth, and related to changes in dominant values and lifestyle, influenced by globalization, urbanization, changes in occupational status and employment distribution, and more effective dissemination of information (Meade, 2012).The Nutritional quality of food supply refers to the nutritional composition of the food products on the market (Oquali, INRA/ANES). The improvement of the nutritional quality of the food supply is one of the eight specific actions defined by the WHO European Action Plan for Food and Nutrition Policy 2007-2012. A balanced diet is achieved through personal habits but also requires that the foods on offer to consumers have a satisfactory nutritional composition. In France, a food quality observatory (Oqali) was set up to monitor the quality of the food supply.According to Ingram (2011), affordability of food is \"the purchasing power of households or communities relative to the price of food\". It refers to the \"economic access\" to food (Foran et al., 2014). Affordability is about food being available at prices that people can afford to pay, and in particular, whether low-income consumers can afford to buy enough nutritious food to meet basic needs (Barling et al., 2010).Dietary energy balance refers to the balance between caloric intake and energy expenditure (Patel et al. 2004). Excessive fat accumulation is acknowledged to be a risk factor for various health problems, including cardio-vascular diseases, diabetes, cancers and osteoarthritis (WHO, 2014). A range of environmental, social and behavioral factors interact to determine energy intake and expenditure, such as sedentary lifestyles, heavy marketing of both energydense foods and fast food outlets, adverse social and economic conditions, the consumption of high-sugar drinks, etc. (WHO, 2000;Swinburn et al., 2004).Cultural food preferences are environmental factors related to social background, which contribute to food choices and intakes. It now acknowledged that honoring ethnic and cultural food preferences, compatible with nutritional requirements, is essential for food acceptance and wellbeing. Food preferences, socially or culturally determined, are now recognized as a key consideration in food security, as highlighted already in the 1996 definition of food security 2 . Assessing cultural issues surrounding food preferences may also help improve dietary adherence to recommendations.The main purpose of the indicator sessions, initiated with presentations from participants of specific indicators selected during the Delphi survey, was to intensify the discussions and develop first recommendations on how to proceed with regards to the development of indicators, taking existing approaches and indicators into account.Some discussions concentrated mainly on the framework, highlighting the needs from some participants to open up the framework to other food systems' outcomes than food and nutrition security. Other discussions focused on specific indicator and technical issues regarding the selection and validation of indicators.Based on the presentations in the morning and group discussion in the afternoon of the first day, it was agreed to amend the agenda on the second day to accommodate for brainstorming activities on three main points that emerge. It was proposed to the participants, individually or in group, to:1-List critical food system's outcomes, for each of the economic, social and environmental dimensions, which need to be considered; 2-List potential indicators and detail what they are supposed to measure; 3-A final important subject discussed during the workshop referred to the criteria for indicator selection and validation. The following is a brief summary of the issues and aspects discussed during the workshop; it will follow the three points mentioned above and does not intend to be comprehensive.An important part of the discussion focused on the framework. This emerged from an acknowledged incomplete understanding of the proposed framework, but also from questions around its comprehensiveness. The proposed framework builds on the vulnerability and resilience theories. A participant explicitly wondered what was \"the direct link [between these concepts and] sustainability\".Several participants would have liked to see other food systems' outcomes than food and nutrition security issues considered. As was already emerging from the Delphi consultation, environmental and social outcomes are standing out as crucial elements to consider and include in the assessment exercise. \"Environmental and social factors are key in the process and need to be considered as a product of the activities\" [of the food system]. It should be \"recognized that food systems are responsible also for diverse environmental and social outcomes\". It was highlighted that this would be more in line with the general perception of what sustainability means: \"People think about sustainability as an outcome\". \"People want a descriptor of a state rather than the prediction of a state\". Furthermore, some experts would have also liked to complement the list of food and nutrition issues, adding elements such as \"dietary quality\".Related to the topic, a connected discussion emerged around the type of policy-makers targeted and the role of the media in informing policy-makers. \"Who are the stakeholders we need to influence?\" \"What would be the policy makers?\" A participant added that \"the media are critical\" [for informing policy-makers].The use of the framework to anticipate and predict possible future outcomes of the food systems was acknowledged. A participant presented the framework as \"a model\", highlighting the causal pathway that it aimed at providing. Some participants recalled in particular that \"understanding what is driving the outcomes is important\".An expert summarized nicely the discussions by suggesting that there might be different goals for policy-makers at different level: 1) \"Goal to communicate to high-level policy makers (/consumers) and media about the overall state of the food systems. We have thus to focus on outcomes, but need to know more of them\". 2) \"Diagnostic models and causal analyses can help policy-makers but other type of policy-makers\".Another comments stressed the linear dimension of the vulnerability/resilience framework. \"There is a missing part concerning the feedback\". It was suggested to \"add more nonlinearities to [the] framework\" to account for the \"dynamics of the food systems\". Although specific areas and topics need to be defined more precisely, a participant stressed the point that the approach should integrate systemic approaches.Following these discussions, it was decided to accommodate a new session to give the group the opportunity to list the essential food systems' outcomes that need to be added and considered. The propositions were written down on boards (See Figure 4.2) and are recorded below. Participants had also the possibility to comment on others' inputs. Some match already proposed issues, others were already suggested by participants during the Delphi survey, and others are new proposals. When enumerating outcomes of interest, participants were encouraged to think globally, and not only on the contexts of France, Spain and Italy, the initial focus of the first phase.- -Availability: \"The supply outcome/issue currently only considers the nutritional quality of food and completely ignores the topic of quantities at play\". \"Is the amount of food supplied sufficient and likely to be sufficient in the future? This needs to be captured\".-Access: \"Food access/Food affordability/Food price\" -Utilization: \"Diet quality or nutritional content of diet (not only energy)\" -\"Access to animal products\" -\"Human health/Optimal health/Longevity\" -StabilitySeven indicators were presented, namely the water footprint of an average diet, the nutritional functional diversity, the percentage share of household food expenditure, the percentage share of diets locally produced, the prevalence rate of overweight and obesity, the household dietary diversity score, and the irrigation water efficiency index.Discussions followed each of the presentations, and tend to focus more on the specificitiesstrengths and weaknessesof the indicators, than on its inclusion in the framework and relevance to address the question of the sustainability of the food systems.Common subjects of discussion across most of the seven indicators are:-Applicability at diverse scale; -Comparability across countries [To compare between the scoring of other countries\"]; -Relevance in all contexts [\"Index of deprivation to guide interventions in the UK? A policy maker already knows the area where we need to do something\"]; -Availability of data: \"Data availability is most important\".Participants were then asked to list candidate indicators, including indicators already proposed in the Delphi consultation or suggesting new ones, and answer the following question 8 : What is the attribute that the indicator is supposed to be measuring? (describe it in words as precisely as possible, including the object to which it applies and the time-frame reference) Please find below brief syntheses of the propositions and comments on some specific indicators that have been discussed and highlighted during this session:-Prevalence rate of overweight and obesity: \"Focus on a specific group of critical relevance for the future, e.g. adolescents [or women]\".-Household Dietary Diversity Score: \"Measure of the number of unique foods or food groups consumed by household members over a given period (24 hr). At household level, it is a proxy for the average economic ability of a household to access a variety of foods\" 9 . A participant indicated that this indicator might be more \"helpful in really critical places\". This score is different to the measure of micronutrient adequacy used in low income countries of child and women's dietary diversity score.-Irrigation Water Efficiency Index: \"Product of 'network for irrigation water transport and distribution' efficiency by plot efficiency\" 10 . A participant noted that this indicator better reflect the quality of the infrastructure, rather than water depletion. It was reminded that this was precisely the reason why it had been proposed as an indicator of system's resilience to water depletion.-% of food household expenditure: A participant proposed another indicator \"of access to food\" \"that is simple to access [and] easier [to compute]: % of poor people or number of poor people\".-Nutritional Functional Diversity: \"The indicator is capturing the diversity of food supply [in terms of nutrients]\" 11 .-Healthy Food Basket Index 12 : \"Indicator about food nutritional quality […] describing food availability/access\".-Water Footprint of [nutrient-dense] foods: \"An indicator of environmental outcomes of food systems (foods that make up the overall supply)\".-Water Footprint for an average diet: Suggestion to compute the indicator by \"income quintile\". A participant suggested these added water footprint indicators: Blue & green water footprint; gray water footprint; blue water scarcity; water pollution level; water use efficiency.-Presence of safety net programs: \"Measures the presence of public programmes to intervene when neededto facilitate access to food by providing an additional income to vulnerable people, thus enabling them to purchase food on free markets\".-Ecological footprint 13 : \"Deals with intensity of land and resource use and […] compares current rate of resource supply with rate of resource demand by humans\".-Screen time: \"Measures propensity to obesity\"; -Internet use 14 : \"Measures consumer information access\"; -Import Dependency Ratio: Two participants highlighted the \"need to look at export volume and local production volume\". Another participant added that the IDR \"can […] be calculated on the basis of the […] cropland footprint variables\".-% of diets locally produced: \"What is 'local'? What spatial scale […]? What food are included?\" A participant mentioned the \"Traditional Food Variety Scores (TFVS) [Roche et al. 2008] or Traditional Food Diversity Score (TFDS): indicates the number of traditional foods consumed by each individual in a 24-hour recall. This means having an inventory of traditional foods. Consumption frequency of 30 traditional foods, selected for their nutritional value from the preliminary investigation of the traditional food system (Creed-Kanashiro et al., 2009)\".-Crop Agrobiodiversity Factor [89%] -% of nutrient intakes from 10 most volatile foods [72%] -Food Purchasing Power Index The outcome shows that some indicators cannot be assigned solely to one category, but capture both social and economic aspects. It turned out also that the different understandings of sustainability influenced the selection of proposed indicators and complicated the discussion. An expert highlighted that some of the proposed indicators are more \"outcome indicators\" and others more \"predicting/system indicators\", and suggested splitting the indicator in two groups.The exercise of selecting metrics imperatively implies considering selection and validation criteria for good quality indicators. This aimed at discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the indicators that were chosen. Special attention was given to the relation between indicators, goals, framework and data. A list of important criteria was drawn up to help select \"good and appropriate\" indicators. Classical scientific criteria, like statistical reproducibility and representativeness, were also mentioned.A participant proposed 4 priority criteria, and a set of appropriate questions, to assess the quality of a proposed indicator:-Causality: Is it causally linked to the attribute, in the sense that a change in the attribute causes a change in the indicator value? -Identification: Are there other phenomena that may 'move' the indicator, apart from the target attribute? -Reliability: Is there a way to assess how 'noisy' is the indicator? (i.e., what is the extent of 'measurement error' around the value of the indicator?) -Feasibility: Are the necessary data available? What is the geographic coverage of existing data? What is the time coverage?Another set of criteria has also been mentioned during the discussion:-Understandable and easy to interpret, in particular for policy-makers if they are the targeted users -Policy-relevant -Cost-effective and easy to collect -Accessible over time -Appropriate scope -Capture causal mechanisms -Accurate or statistically sound -Sensitive or responsive to change Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was mentioned as a statistical tool used to select variables through the identification of association and dependency relationships between variables. It was reported that PCA is appropriate to synthetize information from data, but it needs a dense matrix of data to be representative and reveal a metric structure. Otherwise, it is necessary to define a structure or framework first.The main findings of the discussion can be summarized in the following bullet points:  The development of indicators for food systems' sustainability requires a broader reflection on outcomes;  The approach should further take into account systems' dynamics and feedback, focusing on the dynamics between elements of the system and underlying process;  Final indicator selection should be based on a set of agreed and recognized criteria. These can include analytical soundness, feasibility, relevance, etc. See discussion 4.3. The final aim being to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each selected indicator and to check the quality of the available indicators;  More analysis of the various elements of sustainability of diets and food systems, as well as the development of an appropriate and applicable information tool for decision-making processes, are necessary.Although we will reflect on how to improve the discussion methods used in the workshop, the overall results met the expectations. Altogether the presentations and the discussion provided a good basis for the future work of the team and the related research at Bioversity International and CIHEAM-IAMM. In this context the workshop held directly after the symposium provided an excellent basis for the exchange of information with regard to current concepts and research activities. A special visiting scheme has been proposed to expand further the personal and intellectual engagement achieved during these two days and will lead to concrete institutional co-operation initiatives in the future. The workshop showed that more research is needed. Continue the community of practice already established for a consolidated and scientifically robust understanding and application of the multiple dimensions of food system sustainability. The community of practice built with the Delphi method in Phase 1 and the two international symposia 15 will be used to provide a reference for the further development of the indicators. A set of core partners will be instrumental in supporting the community of practice, as well as the host for further technical development of the tools. Further development and testing of candidate indicators: The systematic selection of indicators for sustainable diets and food systems has been initiated during the first phase of the project and resulted in a first shortlist of candidate indicators. However, missing dimensions and gaps have also been identified, and further work is needed.Following recommendations from the recent workshop, the selected indicators should now be confirmed as validated measures of the crucial system elements and outcomes that need to be monitored. New indicators need also to be identified. Each proposed indicator will be assessed regarding a set of agreed criteria for final selection. Using quantitative analyses, the degree of correspondence between the framework elements or constructs with the indicators will be tested. Members from the panel will be consulted and a specific visiting scheme has been proposed to engage further with the experts. The indicators will be applied in different contexts. It is desirable that indicators are tested in different settings and mapped out at different scales. Geographical Information System (GIS) could be used to display the diverse dimensions fundamental to understanding the food system outcomes at different geospatial levels. To ensure the relevance of the maps and results, stakeholders will be consulted at specific points throughout the project. The CIHEAM-IAMM proposed to compute and include the final set of indicators in the database of its Mediterranean Observatory 16 for the 19 countries it monitors.","tokenCount":"3620"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7e14e39d43c822a9b9d5348c4250e7c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a250f314-7c0f-402d-a77e-92656112162c/retrieve","id":"389786673"},"keywords":["Florence","Pierre","Marjolaine","Gilles","Manu","Manue","Emeraude","Benoît","Alexandra","Elodie","Lassina","Alfred","César","Daïna","Angélique et tout ceux que j'oublie. Nicolas Moiroux -M2 Aménagement du Territoire et Télédétection -Sept. 2006 Annexe 1 : Modes d'occupation du sol et évolution"],"sieverID":"56c43288-be1e-42cb-969e-d2e8211ef21e","pagecount":"32","content":"Mes remerciements iront d'abord à Philippe CECCHI pour la confiance qu'il m'a accordée tout au long de ce travail et pour son accueil au sein de l'UR Cyroco au centre IRD de Ouagadougou. Je remercie également Valérie LEDANTEC et Patrick MORDELET pour leur confiance, leur aide et leur compréhension. J'adresse ma plus vive gratitude à Jean-François LECORNU pour son aide précieuse et amicale en SIG et programmation. Pour ses conseils et son accompagnement, je remercie Aude NIKIEMA.Pour tous les petits services rendus, merci à Célestin SANOU BAKARI.Un grand Merci, à l'ensemble des chercheurs, doctorants, volontaires, stagiaires, étudiants, loueurs de P50… pour leur accueil, leur aide, leur gentillesse et leur amitié. Merci Nico,Aujourd'hui, la protection des milieux aquatiques et la gestion de la ressource en eau sont devenues des préoccupations majeures à l'échelle planétaire. L'accroissement de la consommation et de la dégradation de l'eau dans de nombreux pays du monde, représente un défi sans précédent pour l'humanité : celui du partage, de l'approvisionnement et de la préservation de l'eau pour les générations futures. (Water Institute, 2005) En Afrique sahélienne, la diminution des précipitations observée depuis 50 ans a naturellement conduit les populations de ces zones défavorisées à modifier et adapter leurs systèmes de production agricole. L'utilisation des bas-fonds s'est imposée et la construction de petits barrages fut privilégiée comme opportunité de stockage d'eau pour lutter contre la sécheresse. (BERTON, 1998) DURAND & Al. (1999) ajoute que le développement de l'Afrique suppose la maîtrise des ressources en eau, parmi lesquelles les eaux de surface qui ont une importance vitale pour toute entreprise agricole ou pastorale entre autre. Ainsi, depuis plusieurs décennies, l'édification de petits barrages a été une solution très largement utilisée pour résoudre les délicats problèmes de mobilisation des ressources en eau.Ainsi, de très nombreux réservoirs ont été édifiés au Burkina Faso depuis quelques dizaines d'années pour sécuriser la ressource en eau, tant à l'échelle saisonnière qu'interannuelle.Beaucoup continuent à être édifiés. Cette densification d'aménagements et son impact à l'échelle des bassins versants fait émerger de nouvelles interrogations quant aux propriétés et services attendus de ces aménagements : impacts économiques, hydrologiques, sanitaires, écologiques, etc. Si par le passé les études ont préférentiellement concerné des \"individus réservoirs\", les questions nouvelles qui se posent concernent des \"ensembles de réservoirs\", considérés comme unité de résolution. Les approches conduites à une telle échelle demeurent rares. (CECCHI, 2005) Le Nakambé, ex. Volta Blanche, est l'un des principaux cours d'eau du Burkina Faso. Se concentrent sur son bassin versant environ 50 % de la population nationale, la majeure partie de la demande en eau toujours à l'échelle nationale, et une fraction importante des cette rivière sont considérés comme stratégiques, tant en raison de la forte dépendance nationale que du partage des ressources en eau avec le Ghana, pays riverain situé en aval.   Deux grands types de modèles de données doivent être distingués :-Les modèles de données graphiques (géoréférencées) qui peuvent se présenter sous deux formats. Premièrement le format vectoriel qui permet de représenter des objets graphiques sous la forme de points, de lignes ou de polygones. Les points sont des paires de coordonnées x, y, les lignes des jeux de paires de coordonnées définissant une forme, et les polygones des jeux de paires de coordonnées définissant des limites qui entourent des zones. Chaque objet possède un identifiant unique. Deuxièmement, le format raster qui correspond à une image (matrice) dont la plus petite zone élémentaire (cellule ou pixel) possède une valeur (compte numérique).-Les modèles de données tabulaires sont des tables regroupant une population d'individu identifiés de manière unique et caractérisés par les mêmes informations.Ces tables sont organisées en base de données. Elles peuvent contenir de l'information relative à des entités géoréférencées (dont les objets graphiques sont stockés sous forme de fichiers vectoriels). Un objet d'un fichier vectoriel peut donc être lié (grâce à son identifiant) à une série de donnée contenue dans une   -1.1 (un à un) si aucune des cardinalités maximale n'est n.-1.n (un à plusieurs) si une des deux cardinalité maximale est égale à n.-n.m (plusieurs à plusieurs) si les deux cardinalités maximales sont n.Les entités identifiées sont les suivantes :Barrages.Retenues : réservoirs de barrage.Echantillons : prélèvements d'eau analysés.  -Longueur totale de cours d'eau.-Somme des longueurs des cours d'eau du même ordre de Strahler.3/ paramètres météorologiques : étant donné la taille de la zone d'étude (environ 1000 km²) et la précision (géographique) des données météorologiques, l'uniformité météorologique de la zone d'étude rend peu pertinentes des interpolations à l'échelle des bassins versants. Cependant, l'hivernage étant caractérisé par des épisodes orageux violents et parfois très localisés, il est important de savoir que des différences significatives peuvent être observées en divers points du territoire étudié.Pour une description globale de la zone d'étude, les paramètres retenus sont :-Températures.-Précipitations.-Vents dominants.-Ecarts de température diurne.-Nombre de jours de pluie.-Humidité relative.4/ paramètres socio-économiques : ces paramètres décrivent les bassins versants du point de vue des populations (structure, répartition, activité…), des équipements (accès à l'eau, scolarisation, santé) et de l'utilisation de l'espace (occupation du sol) :-Population totale.-Densité de population.-Nombre et densité de structures d'enseignement et taux d'équipement.-Nombre et densité de structures de santé et taux d'équipement.-Nombre et densité de forages et taux d'équipement.-Surfaces et pourcentages de chaque mode d'occupation du sol.Concernant les zones périphériques, ce sont les caractéristiques socio-économiques qui présentent de l'intérêt. Ces zones pourront être décrites par les mêmes paramètres socioéconomiques des bassins versants.Dans le cas des retenues, les paramètres descripteurs sont issus de deux campagnes de terrain. Deux catégories de paramètre sont distinguées :1/ Les paramètres de qualité de l'eau (physico-chimie, diversité biologique…).-pH.-Conductivité.-Concentration en Matières En Suspension (MES).-Particulate Organic Matter (POM) : part organique des MES (en %).-Particulate Inorganic Matter (PIM) : part inorganique des MES (en %).-Concentration en Cyanobactéries, et part dans le peuplement algal.-Concentration en algues vertes, et part dans le peuplement algal.-Concentration en algues brunes, et part dans le peuplement algal.-Concentration en chlorophylles.-Activité photosynthétique.-Concentration en nitrates, nitrites, azote total, -Concentration en phosphates.-Turbidité.2/ Les caractéristiques physiques et socio-économiques de la retenue (usages, occupation des berges…).-Nature et état de la digue.-Etat du déversoir.-Pourcentage de la surface recouvert de macrophytes.-Présence et quantité d'arbres morts.-Mode d'occupation du sol des terres adjacentes.-Présence/Absence des activités de pêches, puisages, baignades, élevages, briques et jardins.-Profondeur, surface.Pour traduire un MCD en MLD, cinq règles doivent être respectées :1/ Toutes les entités deviennent des tables où les attributs sont des colonnes et l'identifiant sans doublon la clé primaire. La troisième étape (Modèle Physique de Donnée, MPD) consiste à traduire le travail précédent dans le logiciel SGBD (Système de Gestion de Base de Donnée) : Microsoft Access. Il s'agit de créer les tables (en respectant les caractéristiques précédemment définies) et mettre en place les relations.NB : le type de donnée est important, ainsi, les champs sur lesquels des calculs peuvent être effectués seront de type numérique, les clés primaires seront toujours de type caractère (ou texte dans Access) car aucun calcul ne peut être effectué sur ces champs. La taille des champs doit être minimale (en fonction des données qui y seront implémentées) pour optimiser le fonctionnement de la base de donnée.   Les deux dernières fonctions sont bien évidemment à renouveler autant de fois qu'il y a de fichiers de barrages. Les fichiers raster des bassins versants ainsi obtenus doivent ensuite être vectorisés. Enfin, une série d'intersections (fonction « intersecter ») entre ces fichiers de bassins versants permettra d'extraire les bassins versants élémentaires puis de les rassembler dans un seul fichier vectoriel.Une grande partie des données est directement disponible et ne pose aucune difficulté à l'intégration dans la base de donnée. En revanche, nombreuses sont les données, notamment les paramètres descripteurs qui doivent être calculés. ArcGis offre des possibilités de calculs de paramètres simples (avec l'extension Spatial Analyst) :1/ Calculs des paramètres géométriques des polygones d'une couche (périmètre, aire, compacité… de chaque zone) : fonction « géométrie zonale ».   ","tokenCount":"1298"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ccb05545b4ce05cba5daffce0e4a9943","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b13ea75-550f-44bf-81de-ce77bfa7b8f0/retrieve","id":"793985095"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cb858125-903f-4ca8-83fa-ec70fff449da","pagecount":"78","content":"Map 1. The 10 Project Pilot Learning Sites (PLSs) in the Four Regional States .....................5 Table 1. Total population by holders and sex ..  13. Project support for PLS knowledge management system (first year) ....................37 Table 14 Potential Woreda staff to be included in the innovative methods training ..............38 Table 15. Project support for PLS general capacity building support (first year.....................39 Table 15a. FTCs with potential for priority commodities and NRM technologies in the ice/Fish/Livestock system 40 Table 15b. FTCs with potential for priority commodities in Cereal/ Livestock system............40 Table 15c. FTCs with potential for NRM technologies in both farming system .....................40 Table 16. Project Support in fish marketing ..  22. Project Support for improving dairy products and beef marketing .........................45 Table 23. Project Support for dairy products and beef input supply system .........................46 Table 24. Project support for dairy products and beef production improvement....................47 Table 25. Project Support for poultry marketing . The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) initiated a 5 year project in June 2004 with the financial assistance from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The project, entitled: \"Improving productivity and market success\" (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers, aims at contributing to a reduction in poverty of the rural poor through market oriented agricultural development.The IPMS project will assist by bringing knowledge on technologies generated by International and National Research Institutes as well as from other sources to the attention of the technology transfer agents and the farming community. It will also facilitate the feedback on these technologies. Such assistance will be provided to 10 pilot learning sites (PLS) across the country; (See map 1). Fogera district is one of the 10 sites selected. To further enhance the utilization of such knowledge and the introduction of technologies, the IPMS project will also provide assistance to extension, input supply, marketing and finance institutions, including cooperatives. Such institutional support will be in the form of technical assistance, capacity building, supply of demonstration and training materials, some limited funds for innovative institutional arrangements and studies aimed at developing innovative institutional arrangements.Map 1. The 10 Project Pilot Learning Sites (PLSs) in the Four Regional States 2. Farming systems, crop and livestock prioritiesFogera Wereda is one of the 106 Woredas of the Amhara Regional State and found in South Gondar Zone. It is situated at 11 0 58 latitude and 37 0 41 longitude. Woreta is the capital of the Woreda and is found 625 Km from Addis Ababa and 55 Km from the Regional capital, Bahir Dar. Woreta and Alem Ber are two major towns in the Woreda. Both towns have supplies of potable water and electric power. Woreta town has also telephone service. Telephone service will soon be installed in Alem Ber town. The Woreda has 17 Km of asphalt road that crosses the town, There are also 38 Km of all weather road and 67 Km of dry weather road. The Woreda is divided into 25 rural Peasant Associations (PAs) and 5 urban Kebeles.The total land area of the Woreda is 117,405ha. Flat land accounts for 76%, mountain and hills 11% and valley bottom 13%. Average land holding is about 1.4 hectare with a minimum and maximum hectare of 0.5 and 3.0 hectares respectively (see annex 1.1 and 1.2). The total human population of the Woreda is 233,529. The rural population is estimated at 206,717. The proportion of male and female population is almost similar in both rural and urban areas. The number of agricultural households is 42,746. Fogera woreda is endowed with beautiful diverse natural resource, with capacity to grow diverse annual and perennial crops. The woreda is one of the eight Woredas bordering Lake Tanna and has an estimated water body of 23,354 ha. The Woreda is classified as one of the surplus productive Woredas in the Region. Altitude (Map 3) ranges from 1774 to 2410 masl and is predominantly classified as Woinadega ecology.The mean annual rainfall is 1216.3 mm and ranges from 1103 to 1336 mm (Map 3). There is no rain gauge at the woreda level and hence is difficult to monitor proper agricultural planning. Belg and Meher are two cropping seasons, with short and long rainy periods respectively. Farmers depend on Meher season rain for crop production.According to the Woreda Office of Agriculture, the dominant soil type in the Fogera plains is black clay soil (ferric vertisols), while the med and high altitude areas are orthic Luvisols (Map 4).There are two major rivers that are of great economic importance to the Woreda. These rivers are mainly used for irrigation during the dry season for the production of horticultural crops, mainly vegetables. Some farmers also use water pumps to produce vegetables, cereals and pulses.• Gumara River: Passes through Fuafuat Gajera, Kinti Merewa, Abagunde Sendega, Aba Kiros, Bebeks, Quahr Michiel, Shena Kidist Hanna, Wagatera and Guramba PAS.• Reb River -Passes through Wetemb, Addis Betekerstian, Reb Gebriel, Debasi Fatra, Abana Kokit, Shaga, Naber and Shina PAS and ends into Lake Tana.There is one high school (grade 9-10), 4 junior secondary schools (grade 5-8) and 28 elementary schools in the Woreda. There are one health center, 7 clinics and 2 health posts are found in the woreda. Health posts are located in the rural areas. Some farmers have been trained to teach farmers on basic health care such as precaution measures against malaria, construction of latrine pits, birth control, first aid, HIV/AIDs etc. The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia operates in the Woreda capital, Woreta. According to the Woreda Office of Agriculture, there are three agro-ecological Zones in the Woreda which grow different types of crops and are suitable for different species of livestock (Table 2).Source: Fogera Woreda, OoA However, the IPMS team has identified two major farming systems that have relevance to market-oriented production system in the Woreda.1. Rice/Fish/Horticulture/Livestock System (Hereafter referred to as Rice/Fish/Livestock system)The system is found north of the main road transecting the Fogera Woreda This area is known as the Fogera Plains and used to be a livestock production area until recently. The area gets flooded during the wet season and is not accessible. Farmers along the coats of Lake Tanna are also fishermen and use traditional way of fishing using papyrus boats.Rice production has been introduced some five years ago in the Fogera plains and currently about 4,516 ha of land is under rice cultivation using the X-Jigna variety. A number of other crops such as noug, finger millet, teff are also produced in this area. During the dry season, much of the area is left for livestock grazing (Map 5). The major animal diseases in the area are trypanosomes, liver fluke, gastro intestinal parasites. Biting flies are also major problem in the area and restrict animal grazing. Horticultural crops production, particularly onion, is becoming a major agricultural activity during the dry season using irrigation. This system is found southern part of the road transecting Fogera. The terrain varies from relatively flat bottomlands to mid and high altitude areas. The dominant soil type in this area is luvisols. This system is dominated by cereals (maize, Finger millet, tef), horticultural crops (mainly pepper), and oil crops (mainly noug). Cattle, sheep, and goats are the major ruminants in the area. There is a long tradition of honey production in this area and some farmers own up to 250 traditional beehives (Map 6).Map 6. Maize and pepper production and apiary in the mid and high altitude areasThe crops that are grown in these two farming systems are as follows:System 1 -Fogera plains The current major marketable crop commodities in each farming systems as agreed by the Woreda are as follows System 1• Rice • Horticulture (onion, pepper and tomatoes)Oil crop (Noug) Horticulture (pepper, tomato, onion) System 1: Rice Production Rice grown during the main rainy season and is planted in June. Rice was introduced to the Woreda in 1987 E.C. with 30 farmers in two PAs on 6 ha of land. The average yield was 20 qt/ha. This was subsequently expanded into 5 PAas. Currently, 14 PAs are involved in rice production and this supports about 11,000 households. Average land holding in this system is about 2 ha. The total area under rice is about 3980 ha. The only rice variety used is locally known as X-Jigna. The mean yield is about 35 qt/ha and ranges from 20 to 80 qt/ha depending on the land type and management practices. The Woreda OoA estimates a total yield of 139,300 qt for the 1996/97 cropping season. Price depends on whole or de-hulled rice (de-hulled rice is up to 300 Birr and whole rice is about 180 Birr). The current average market price of de-hulled rice is about 260 Birr/qt. According to the Woreda OoA, there is potential to expand rice production in 28,000 ha of land. Rice straw is used as animal feed and for roof thatching. Rice hull and rice bran are used as animal feed and is often mixed with a local brewers grain known as 'attela'. The hull is also used as for cooking and for manufacturing chip wood.The rice system is well integrated with fish production from lake Tanna and cattle production in the plains. In addition to rice, other major crops grown in this system are teff, maize, noug, safflower, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, basil and coriander. In the dry season, horticultural crops , mainly onion, garlic, pepper and tomatoes are grown under small scale irrigation.Systems 1 and 2. Pulses (Chickpeas and Lentil) production Chickpea and lentil are produced on residual moisture or as relay crops in the Fogera plains and in the bottomlands of the mid and high altitude areas. Production is labour intensive and farmers do not apply fertilizers. Farmers use local varieties and as such there has been no introduction of improved varieties. The major problems reported on chickpeas and lentils include disease (wilt root rot complex), insect (cut worm and African boll worm, aphids) and storage pests such as weevils.Systems 1 and 2. Horticultural crops production (onion, pepper, tomato) Horticultural crops production is important in both farming systems. This is a smallholder production system and integrated with cereal crops in both the plains and highland areas. Crops are grown during the wet season under rain-fed conditions and irrigated system during the dry season using hand dug shallow wells (4 -6 meter), rive diversion, treadle pump (just started). There are water use groups for the management of irrigation and water pumps. Drip irrigation has just started with two farmers. Land allocation ranges from 0.06 -0.75 ha per household. There is a lot of interested farmers in horticultural crops production and contract farming has started with trader. Yield ranges from 8-10 qt/ha and there is price fluctuation.Availability of seed is a major problem. The price is also high. (improving -support by SIDA) -(Onion -Adama Red -410 /kg; Red Bombay -205 Birr/kg; Red croyl -345.75 Birr/kg. Farmers use fertilizer for vegetative only, soil is OK. Need location specific study on soil fertility. Agro-chemicals -expensive; unavailable, particularly fungicide; poor quality; low efficacy.. Shortage of pump, farm tools and equipment. Farmers indicated that they lack knowledge in river diversion and irrigation system management.To diversify cash income farmers produce different types of oil crop. Although noug is the dominant oil crop, safflower, rapeseed, linseed and groundnuts are produced. In the Fogera plain, noug is planted in the rainy season and is grown on slightly drained areas and in small pockets of patches. In the mid and highland areas, plots are larger. Farmers use local varieties and do not use fertilizer. Parasitic weeds and insect pests are major problems.The area has very great potential for livestock production. According to the Woreda OoA, the major local livestock resources are cattle (157,128), goats (27,867), sheep (7,607), chicken (246,496), beehives (21,883), donkey (13,189), mule (339) and horse (8) (source: Fogera OoA, 2004). Exotic breeds include heifer ( 22), young bull (10), cow (22), calf (3) and improved beehives (19).Systems 1 and 2: Cattle production Extensive cattle production is a traditional practices in both farming systems. The Woreda is home of the well-known Fogera cattle breed which originated in the Fogera plains. The breed is large framed and one of the best indigenous milk animals in the country. It is also known for its meat production and traction power. However, the animal is threatened as the number of pure Fogera cattle is decreasing. In addition, it has been crossbred with the local small framed animals such as the Simada. Currently there is a national effort to rehabilitate and conserve this breed. Major animal diseases in order of importance are trypanosomes, internal parasites (liver fluke, lung worm, gastro-intestinal parasites) and external parasite (ticks and flies); anthrax, black leg and foot and mouth disease. Cattle are kept in-house between 11 AM and 3 PM to minimize fly bite. Cattle are mainly kept for traction and milk production. About 29.3 percent of the farmers do not have oxen. There is no experience of fattening cattle.During the dry season, there is transhumance mode of production from other Woredas such as Derra and Libo. As a result there is genetic dilution and disappearance of of Fogera cattle. The Andassa research center has a Fogera cattle improvement and conservation project through community based breeding system. In addition, there is need to improve the utilization of rice residues for animal feed. The major crop residues used for animal feed include rice and finger millet straws. Grass peas said to be used for fattening animals and is considered to have medicinal value. Fresh (green) maize Stover is not used as green feed by some farmers due to the belief that it causes bloat and breathing problem. Chickpea straw is also believed to cause diarrhea in ruminants.A total of 54 crossbred animals are available in the Woreda. These include 16 animals in rural areas and 38 animals in urban areas. There is one AI technician in the woreda and has produced about 277 animals through inseminations from 1995 to 2004. So far, there is no bull service in the woreda. The technician give AI service in 6 centers within 10 PAs. Eight farmers have been trained in AI techniques and work in 12 PAs.The current major marketable livestock priority commodities in each farming systems as agreed by the Woreda are as follows System 1: Fish, Butter, Beef, Hide System 2: Apiculture, Butter, Poultry, Beef System 1: Fish production The estimated potential of fish production from Lake Tanna is about 10,000-15,000 tones per year. There are eight Woredas bordering Lake Tanna. These are Bahir Dar Zuria, Dera, Kemekem, Gondar Zuria, Dembia, Alefa, Achefer and Fogera. There are two fishing sites in Fogera Woreda. These are found in Wagatera and Nabega PAs. Fishing is based on traditional system using papyrus boats and is limited to the dry season due to problem of access and lack of motor boats. There is a problem of quantity and quality of production for sustainable fish production system. Farmers are not organized into fishermen's groups and as such lack of modern fishing gear and boat and slaughtering, handling, processing and storage (cold chain) facilities. As a result, the produce is not handled in good hygienic conditions and is of poor quality. Farmers also lack modern fishing skills.There is an attempt to introduce aquaculture using Tilapia and is practiced in one farm. Although fish farming is suitable with rice farming, appropriate fish species be need to be identified. About 33 farmers have been organized to participate in specialization development fish program. Each has paid 305 Birr to participate in package (fishing gear and boats). There is a problem of illegal fishing by farmers/fishermen from other adjacent Woredas. Fishing Legislation has been approved by the Regional Government and operational procedures are being worked out. It is anticipated that this will deal with illegal fishing, payments of royalty, regulation of fishing procedures, etc. to ensure protection and sustainable production.The possibility of integration of fish farming with the rice production system is being examined by the Regional Research Institution. Breeding programs have started on barbes, tilapia and cat fish (netch assa) for possible introduction into the farming system. System 2: Poultry production Although there are 247,000 local poultry in the Woreda there has been no attempt to improve their management and productivity. All the improvement efforts are being made through the introduction of improved exotic breeds. Pullets (3 months) and day old chicks have been distributed to formers from Andassa government farm at 2 bin/day old chick including 2.5 Kg of feed for 2 months and 6.60 Birr per 5 Cock plus 1 hen.System 2: Apiculture productionThe main apiculture areas are in the mid and highland areas. Almost all production is based on traditional system. There are about 18,980 traditional beehives. Individual farmers own up to 250 traditional beehives Modern apiculture has just been started and 4 Zander (urban) and 15 transitional (Kenya top bar) beehives have been introduced. Honey yield ranges from 5-10 kg/year in the traditional beehives to about 30 to 50 kg in the improved ones. There is shortage of trained manpower and equipment. There is a decline in bee forages and the Andassa research center is testing introduction of new bee forages including indigenous bee forage plants for the production of unique market product including chemical properties of the honey. 'Gaja grass' is one of the unique indigenous bee forages with special qualities. There is a Regional apiary research and training center near Haike town in Wello under Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI).Insects (wax moth, ants, argebgabi), pests, mongoose, birds such as bee eater (locally known as nebe bella), lack of supplementary feeding during the dry season, premature harvesting, poor harvesting, handling, storage facilities and system are major problems associated with honey production. Lack of farmer marketing organization affects incomes of farmers. For example honey is sold for about 12 Birr/kg during the dry season and drops to 8 Birr/kg right during harvest in October and November. Most farmers sale their honey to three traders in town who market it in Addis Ababa.The Fogera woreda office of agriculture cooperatives desk, organized under four teams (cooperatives registration and inspection, market and credit, non-agricultural cooperatives promotion which includes credit and saving, house construction cooperative etc, and audit service ) is mandated for the organization and development of cooperatives in the woreda.There are 16 co-operatives in the woreda of which 9 are multi purpose, 4 irrigation and 3 financial cooperatives. Multi purpose cooperatives give milling service, sell basic household goods, distribute agricultural inputs in collaboration with Agricultural Input Supply Corporation (AISCO), Ambasel and Merkeb Union cooperatives. The cooperatives also coordinate financial distribution obtained from commercial bank of Ethiopia in order to purchase agricultural inputs, water pump, livestock production, vegetable seeds etc.Merkeb Union is a recently established union of service cooperatives and has become strong input supplier like AISCO and Ambasel. The union is located in Bahar Dar town and has 30 cooperative members, one of which is Alember service cooperative from Fogera Woreda.The Service Cooperatives get 7.5% interest on transaction and the bank gets 5.25 %. Service Cooperatives also buy crop from farmers at harvest time, store and sell when prices are high. Alember and Bebks cooperatives distributed a maximum of Birr 50 and a minimum of Birr 0.35 profit from this venture to their members. Alember cooperative is one of the successful cooperatives and produce farm implement, household furniture, church equipments etc. as a means of additional income generating venture.The four irrigation cooperatives mentioned above mainly provide input like, seed, farm implements etc, and perform management of irrigation water. They produce vegetables, cereals etc. They also buy vegetable products from farmers, sell and distribute profit to members .The Gonderber saving and credit co-operative currently has 68 members and a total capital of Birr 18,000. Each member can borrow money 3 times as much as its contribution. Interested members of the cooperatives who would like to take credit should organize themselves in groups. Each member is responsible in the repayment of the credit and farmer as a group are taken as a collateral to each other. So far, they have lent out 6000 Birr at 12% interest rate.The current capital of the multipurpose cooperatives is about 540,244.45 Birr, irrigation cooperatives 462,153.33 Birr, financial cooperatives 30,379.00 Bir, totaling 1,032,781.78 Birr (see annex 1.4 and 1.5).Traders from Woreta town, Alem ber and the surrounding areas buy grain, livestock, honey and sell in Bahar dar and other regions. Because of the involvement of intermediaries in the marketing chain, cooperatives could not compete with traders and buy as much products as expected from farmers.Input supply Desk of the woreda office of agriculture Major function of the input supply, distribution and follow up desk is to coordinate the purchase and distribution of inputs like vegetable seeds, fertilizer and improved seed (mainly Maize variety Awassa 511). In 2002/03 Teff DZ 32 and DZ 195 used to be distributed to farmers. Supply of these crops has now stopped since price and yield had no significant difference when compared with local varieties. Wheat has no large scale demand because of incongruous soil type and less familiarity of farmers to the crop. Maize BH 660 and BH 140 input price was found too high. Because of these and other reasons input is restricted to Awassa 511. follow up and field supervision is conducted by the input supply desk together with the DA in areas where germination performance is reported to be poor.The other function of the input supply desk is to follow up the budget allocated for sheep and cattle fattening, dairy and apiculture inputs.The major supplier of chemical fertilizer is the agricultural input supply corporation (AISCO). It Is a government organization whose main function is to procure and distribute fertilizer (DAP and Urea), pesticide and insecticide to farmers. In 2004/2005 cropping season 4217.5 Quintals of DAP and 2581.25 Quintals of UREA has been distributed to farmers, cooperatives, Merkeb Union on cash. Farmers located in the bottom land areas do not use fertilizer because of water logging problems.The other players in the supply of inputs are the multipurpose cooperatives, Ambasel and Merkeb Union cooperatives. Multipurpose cooperatives also provide cash on credit to purchase inputs like goats and oxen for fattening, poultry, bee hive, crossbred dairy. ( see section 3.1 and annex 1.5)ACSI is the major provider of credit and saving service for the rural population. It has 10 branches and 174 sub-branches in the Amhara region, one of which is in Fogera Woreda. The following services are rendered by ACSI : a. Group credit: 5 -7 farmers can organize themselves and borrow money to purchase inputs like seed, oxen, fattening, dairy, fertilizer, bee hive, poultry etc. Poor farmers are given priority to get credit. Individual farmers will submit credit request through their respective peasant associations. The PA will screen farmers by taking certain parameters who are believed to be hard working, economically active (18-60 years of age), socially acceptable, motivated, ownership of one or no oxen which is an indication of poor wealth status. Since its establishment in 1998 GC, the institute lent out a sum of Birr 8, 678,581 on credit to 5484 people to purchase seed, fertilizer, fattening, draft oxen, dairy cows, poultry etc. Out of these, 53 people were found defaulters and did not repay Birr 24,725.30. Farmers organized by the woreda Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) whose projects are believed to be in line with the established food security program will receive credit at 12.5 % interest. This special program started in 2003/04 GC and 94 farmers have taken Birr 79,520 to purchase modern bee hives. Out of these, 2 are female. Those group of farmers whose projects are not related to food security will get credit at 18 % interest rate.This loan is mainly given to government employees by consider their salaries as collateral and one person as a pledge. Loan is given by multiplying one third of the salary by 12 months. Interest is calculated using government rate. Maximum loan can't exceed birr 15,000 or USD 1744. Credit is given to purchase household furniture, house construction etc. In 2003, ACSI gave asset loan of birr 99, 700.00 or equivalent of USD 11,593.00 to 45 people including teachers, traders, ministry of agriculture staff etc. c. Money transfer services: ACSI also administers retirement fund worth birr 100,000.00/month or equivalent of USD 11,627.00 received from government to 820 retired persons in the woreda. ACSI provide money transfer service to institutions like Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ALMA) and Organization for Rehabilitation Development Agency (ORDA).Besides the microfinance institution, cash credit is provided by saving and credit cooperatives and multipurpose cooperatives to purchase inputs.The agricultural extension service in the Woreda is under the direct leadership of the Vice Head of the Agricultural and Rural Development. Extension and home science, animal and fisheries resources development and protection, crop production, technology promotion and protection desks deal directly with agricultural production. Natural resources development and protection and environmental protection, land utilization and administration deal with natural resources management. Cooperatives promotion, water and mining, rural roads and input supply are also under this office. The teams in animal and fisheries include livestock production, animal health, apiculture, livestock processing and marketing, and forage development. There are 5 experts under the extension system and are supported by about 60 development agents. Development agents (DAs) in the Woreda are involved in the distribution of inputs supplied to farmers on credit, and collection of down payments and credit repayments. Extension activities include teaching on timely ploughing, weeding, harvesting, maintain optimum seed rate, use of quality seed, etc. It is also important for the DA to teach farmers visit their field regularly and check if there is any pest attack, flood, water logging etc. Livestock extension teachings include planting improved feeds, preparation of compost, maintaining optimum number of livestock etc. Farmers are also advised to report disease outbreaks to veterinarians. In order to alleviate poverty, it is indicated in the 3 years strategic plan that each household member (working and non working) should be able to earn birr 10.00 per day or 3650 birr per year. Assessment of income will be conducted during 2004/05, in the month of May, 2005 (GC). This strategic plan started during 2004/05 cropping season.There is one Technical Vocational Training Center (TVTC) in Fogera, Woreta town. In 2004, a total of 269 trainees have graduated and 21 of them will be assigned in 7 FTCs in Fogera Woreda. The rest 248 will be assigned in different woreda offices within the region.The Fogera Woreda HIV/AIDS control and prevention office provides two kinds of services.In an effort to reduce the spread of the disease, the woreda HIV/AIDS office has organized 5 commercial sex workers and establish beauty saloon. Community Voluntary Preli Mondo (CVM), an NGO based in ITALY has opened 6 zonal offices, one of which is in Debre Tabor zone and is helping orphans in handicraft training, brochure preparation etc. Government employees also contribute 2-20 Birr per month in order to assist orphans. Focal points have been established in all government offices and are giving training on HIV/AIDS to their respective employees. In 1996 EC,VCT was given to 514 people in the woreda and the following result was obtained. The following tables provide a brief description of production, input supply and marketing aspects of the priority commodities together with areas requiring attention and potential interventions as suggested by farmers and professionals during the woreda planning workshop. In addition, the possible institutions to be involved in executing these activities are also shown. Table 5: Vegetables -pepper, Tomato, Onion Production Vegetables are grown using irrigation during the dry season. Shallow well, hand dug (4 -6 meter); river diversion, treadle pump (just started); water use groups (for pump; small water pumps; drip irrigation just started (two farmers)) are used to produce vegetables by smallholder farmers. On average, 0.06 -0.75 ha/HH is allocated for vegetables. There is less focus on horticultural crops, even though there is a lot of interest to grow these crops from the farmers' side. The extension system needs to conduct workshops, training for farmers/experts, demonstration and seed multiplication plots. As these vegetables are high risk and input crops, lack of knowledge about these crops could lead to failure. They are highly perishable. The high price during fasting season may encourage farmers for better production. For example, in Fogera, pepper could yield about 8-10 qt/ha.Responsibilities The cattle population in the Woreda is estimated at 157,128, mainly local cattle. Dairy production is mainly based on local Zebu cows in rural areas and some crossbred (Fogera x Friesian) cows around urban areas. There is trypanosomes, high level of infestation with liver fluke and gastrointestinal parasites in the area. The predominant cattle breed is Fogera cattle and Semada cattle are found in higher altitude areas. Cattle production is based on extensive grazing system in the Fogera plains and cattle are kept in house between noon and 3 PM to minimize fly bite. Cattle are mainly kept for traction and milk production (mainly household consumption). Butter making and marketing is a common practice. There is no experience with systematic cattle fattening. Although the area has great potential, there is little experience in dairy and beef production Areas which need to be addressedPoor genetic potential of local Fogera breed  There is an expert in the woreda. DAs have been trained in apiculture management; production under highland condition, traditional system; number of beehive 18,980 traditional; 4 Zander (urban); 15 transitional ( top bar); plus 5 new 1997; traditional yield 5-10 kg/year; During dry season, honey is sold at 12 Birr/kg; during harvest October/November 7-8 Birr/kg; Traders in town purchase honey and wax.. 3 traders send to Addis; Tej houses; Highland areas with forest cover have potential, but bee forage is problem and in short supply; chemical 2-4D becoming a problem on bees in the area; no alter system, no demonstration on modern honey production (transfer, harvesting, processing); no excluder, no honey extractor, no wax printing machine, there are 203 zander behives plus 7 queen excluder, one honey extractor , wire for only 50 hives sent, but price has not been fixed for distribution through cooperatives.Responsibilities/tasks The woreda has distributed 5730 improved day old chicks as part of the three years development plan of the woreda. These chicks were obtained from Andassa farm. The package include 50 day old chick/person, 2.5 kg of feed/chicken/2 months and costs birr 100.00. Hay box (30 cm height X 57 cm width X 57 cm length) and chick run (30 cm height X 127 cm width X 127 cm length) which amounts to birr 110.00 and birr 120.00 respectively was distributed free of charge by the woreda bureau of agriculture. 20 farmers had been trained in vaccination for one month and charge 5 cent/chick. Chicks need at least three rounds of vaccination. Good season for poultry production are November, December, January, and February. Farmers need to acquire knowledge in improved feed preparation after two months.Shortage of improved breed (variety as well as quantity. During the project's first year, attention will be focused on innovative technology practices and institutional innovations for the following priority commodities and their supporting NRM technologies.System 1 -Rice/Fish/Livestock farming system Crops: Rice/ irrigated vegetables (Onion, Pepper, Tomato), Noug, Chick pea Livestock:: Fish, Butter, Beef, Hide NRM technologies: Trypanosomes and malaria control, soil and water management, shallow well, pump, river diversion irrigation systems, floodingThere is no bamboo in Fogera woreda. However, there is bamboo in some of the neighboring woredas like Awi, Farta, Lay Gaint etc. Carpenters from these woredas take bamboo to Fogera and other woredas and make household furniture like chair, floor carpet etc.Eucalyptus is growing widely and is one of the source of cash income and construction. A market study need to be undertaken before embarking on any commercialization strategy.System 2. Cereal/Livestock farming system Crops: Noug, irrigated vegetables (Pepper, Tomato, Onion) Livestock: and livestock products: Apiculture, Butter, Poultry, Beef NRM technologies: trypanosomes and malaria control, soil and water management, shallow well, pump, river diversion irrigation systems.Based on the knowledge captured and the lessons learned during the initial implementation of the innovation program some of the priorities commodities may be dropped, while others may be added.To improve the capturing and sharing of knowledge on priority commodities and the supporting NRM technologies in the PLS, the state of knowledge and knowledge requirements will have to be assessed on a continuous base during the project life. (The initial PRA and the subsequent assessments will form an integral part of this process).The knowledge will be synthesized and assembled at the federal level in a Resource Information Centre using electronic data base formats.To share this knowledge with institutions and communities, various processes and mechanisms will be used including the distribution of appropriate printed materials (manuals, training materials, posters, and leaflets in the local language), radio programs, local exhibitions etc.To link the PLS institutions with the Resource Information Centre, electronic linkages with the Woreda Agricultural Desk will be established. This effort will have to be integrated and synchronized with other activities in this field i.e. Woreda Net, School Net and Agri Net (Fogera was one of the test woredas for this project and received computers and staff training, however the system is not operational now) . Simultaneously innovative ways of creating a culture of knowledge capturing and horizontal knowledge sharing between the actors in the PLS and between the actors at PLS and the regional and federal level will have to be developed. -see section 5.3 on capacity building. Project staff * For details see commodity program described in section 5.4. -indicated with code 100There is one high school in the woreda and School net has already started. The program is a one way (only listening including picture) transmission using 12 plasma TVs. Two staff members have been trained for 35 days in Bahar Dar with the assistance from UNDP and government in computer (Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, etc), operation of the plasma TV, video conference arrangement etc. Desalegne Alem has also been trained for 5 days in Bahar Dar on how to operated the plasma TV. There are 8 channels and 8 subjects are transmitted.According to the technician, major problem encountered is that teachers do not have lesson plan and found it difficult to prepare note for a particular subject. Broadcasting is not adjusted according to the program. For example, Chemistry is broadcasted instead of Biology in that specific period of time.Two people have been trained from the Woreda Ministry of Capacity Building for a period of 35 days in Bahar Dar. In this system, two way communication with picture and sound will be transmitted where participants will receive and send messages. The apparatus has been installed successfully, but operation has not started yet until the date of this report.To introduce the project, and to train public institutional staff in innovative technology transfer methods, inter-institutional collaboration and cross cutting themes like gender and environmental assessment, various trainings will be conducted for Woreda staff. (Materials for such training will be prepared by the project with the help of consultants and contributions from the project partners). To stimulate the integration with private institution staff, some of the staff of the private institutions will also be involved in this training. The training will be continuous during the project life and the effectiveness of the training will be assessed regularly. Lessons learned will become an integral part of follow up training events. The FTC staff (involved in the program) will be trained by Woreda extension specialist, and some other specialists (gender, natural resource management) and they will in turn use these concepts during their daily work with the farmers and communities (see section 5.4).Use of these innovative methods by FTC staff will be monitored and evaluated by the project staff and form the basis for adjustment in future trainings (see before).Besides the building of the capacity of the Woreda and FTC staff in the use of innovative methods and institutional arrangements, technical training on the priority commodities, including new production methods/techniques, farmer/group/cooperative based input supply and marketing systems will be provided (Materials for such training will be prepared by the project with the help of consultants and contributions from the project partners). Details for such training are included in the PLS sustainable livelihood development activities described in section 5.4.An integral of the capacity building activities at the Woreda level is the development of the FTCs. In the initial phase the project will support these FTCs with printed materials (see knowledge management) and demonstration materials in support of the priority commodities and supporting NRM technologies (see section 5.4 for details).While many capacity building activities have been undertaken for public staff by numerous projects operating in Ethiopia, the actual use of the increased capacity by the staff in their daily work is often minimal because of a host of other bottlenecks and a lack of reward for those staff which have made progress despite the presence of these bottlenecks.The project will introduce various other capacity building initiatives at the PLS level to alleviate some bottlenecks in order to facilitate the introduction of technologies and institutional innovations. This will include the supply of credit funds and financial and technical support for market studies and linkages for priority commodities and operational cost of experts to supervise and guide the DA staff at FTC level. These activities are integrated in the PLS sustainable livelihood activities (see section 5.4).The project will furthermore set aside some funds for rewarding experts and FTc staff which have been made good progress in technology and institutional innovations. One potential reward may be in the form of visits to places of interest (this will be introduced in the second project year).Finally, an integral part of the PLS capacity building support is to create a learning system between the region and the PLS and to create an inter-institutional learning system at the Woreda and FTC level. To facilitate this arrangements the project has established Regional and Woreda level Advisory and Learning Committees (RALCs and WALCs). A budget will be made available to use/develop various learning mechanisms including field visits and small workshops. An integral part of this learning will be the sharing of knowledge between the regions and institutions concerned. ) and an initial set of activities was designed with regional and woreda representatives and partner institutions in the national planning workshop. At the start of the implementation of the project communities will be consulted about the identified priority commodities by FTC as well as the proposed activities.The following sections deal with activities on the priority commodities which are envisaged to be accomplished within the first year of the project 's life.There is already established dried fish market in the Sudan. Value added options and market study need to be carried out. There are 33 households who are involved in marketing of fish. These households are located in two PAs (Nabega and Wagatera ). Efforts are under way by Fogera cooperative desk to organize these farmers to form a cooperative. Once they form their own organization, they will be linked to appropriate credit institutions to acquire the necessary fishing equipments like fishing gear and boats. So far, there are no FTCs established in the area. In line with the regional breeding strategy, the supply of different fish species will be introduced. Equipments like fishing gear, boats, slaughtering house, handling and processing, storage facilities will be improved. Project will make the necessary efforts to encourage consumption habit of fish with the objective of enhancing nutritional status of households. The most serious production and NRM problem to be addressed is the practice of indiscriminate and destructive fish harvesting. Farmers grind seeds of Millitia ferruginea plant and put in to the lake. This toxic plant kills small fish and makes big fish unconscious float on top of the water and easily harvest. The negative impacts of degradation of catchments due to irrigation activities, destruction of wetland on fisheries resources and breeding areas should be focused. There is great potential for honey marketing. Farmers need to be linked with potential buyers from Addis or big towns like Bahr Dar and international market for better price. Indigenous knowledge on apiculture production will also be explored. To facilitate credit and increase house hold income, formation of cooperatives will be given paramount importance.  200) TOT on quality control, grading, processing and handling of honey and wax; and role of honey on household livelihoods and regional economy 5 supervisors, 1 expert (include women expert or supervisor) and staff from 6 FTCs SOS Sahel / project staff/ARARI/ Holeta bee center (300) Training of farmers on quality control, grading, processing and handling of honey and wax; and role of honey on household livelihoods and regional economy Farmers near 6 FTCs (include women) and DA posts FTC staff guided by woreda/project staff/SOS Sahel (300) Help establish cooperatives to be able to get access to credit.There is a need to increase the supply of improved and indigenous bee forages. An innovative farmer based system of modern bee hive equipments need to be developed. Project will make the necessary efforts to train and follow up farmers and experts in making and repairing improved bee hives and other necessary equipments Modern apiculture system like the use of Zander type (4) and Kenya top bar (15) beehives has just started. This need to be strengthened and expanded to other areas. Honey yield need to be increased from 5-10 kg/year/hive of the traditional system to at least about 30-50 kg/year/hive in the coming one year. According to the woreda bureau of agriculture and farmers, there is no problem of market demand for dairy products. However, supply of these products need to be studies in more detail. In some cultures, especially in muslims community, dairy product is consumed at home and is rarely marketed. Further study need to be conducted in this aspect as it has a direct implications on marketing. The project will try to avail the improved ILRI churner to start with and develop skills on locally making this churner and others. Demand for this churner and others need to be studied. Identified forges like Napier grass need to be expanded in large scale. The main problem in relation to dairy and beef production is shortage of fodder and trypanosome. Efforts will be made to help avail different forage species and eradicate trypanosomes in collaboration with relevant organizations. The Fogera breed which is one of the best indigenous dairy and beef animal is disappearing as a result genetic dilution with other small framed and genetically poor breeds like the Simada. In the coming one year, the project will focus on innovative methods of maintaining this important breed by introducing knowledge to farmers and FTCs. In addition, there is a need to increase the knowledge in the use of zero grazing system, improved pasture management etc. Poultry is marketed within the nearby villages, woreda and regional town in Bahar Dar. There is no problem of market demand for the products. However, supply and demand for chicken, eggs and its by products need to be studied in more detail for large scale marketing. Poultry production is not considered as a major farm or household activity by many farmers. Hence, its management is often neglected ( scavenge around homestead, no follow up of vaccine, housing etc). In the coming one year, the project will focus on innovative system of production and improve knowledge on the management practices. The project will also focus in training and involve women from production to consumption and to marketing. Raw hide is marketed within the nearby woreda by individual farmers. Local tanners are the major buyers of hide from farmers. There is no problem of market demand within the domestic market. The woreda is well known for its local tanners. There are more than 20 individuals in Woreta who buy the hide directly from farmers and produce items like stool, traditional food basket, rope, household furniture etc. from hide and sell in local markets and big towns like Bahar dar. Cost benefit analysis of local carpentry versus sale of raw material to modern tanneries is very important for further development of the commodity. Establishing cooperatives, involving them in buying and linking them to potential tanners will increase their bargaining power and increase income to farmers. It is expected that knowledge from the research is to be transferred to farmers through the existing FTCs in the area. Noug is grown in both farming system. The major problems addressed during the group deliberations were that problems with shattering and parasitic weed as the major problems in addition to the poor inherent genetic potential. Emphasis will also be put on increasing the linkages of farmers with oil processing factories in both Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar. As Bahir Dar is only 55 kms away, it is possible that this area could be a good source of these and other vegetables to the town. On the other hand, these commodities (mainly onions) are also sold to other neighbouring zones and regions including Tigray. The production of vegetable is practiced immediately after the rice is harvested in the Fogera plains (Rice/fish system), while it is vegetable after vegetable in the other system. All these vegetables are produced using irrigation (river diversion and shallow wells using manual or motor pump) systems. Middlemen have been reported to cause major problems in marketing vegetables. Strengthening the capacity of service cooperatives for marketing produces of own members or others could solve this problem. The fact that these vegetables have short shelf life has also been another major problem in marketing these commodities. However, the existing Service Cooperatives are not able to buy and sell these commodities because of lack of knowledge and sufficient capital. Demonstration and introduction of cool storage facilities developed at Adet is needed, especially for less perishable ones like onions so that if the commodity is not sold in one market it will enable it to be stored at least until the next market. These and other things need to be improved if marketing of these commodities is going to be successful. The marketing of these commodities is hence a major issue for the farmers. In addition to Bahir Dar, the meat and the tomato packing industries in Gondar, Gondar University, Ministry of Defence are other potential market sources for the produce and contact is needed with these institutions. The completion of the roads to both Addis and Sudan will also facilitate the exportation of some less perishable products. Most of the germplasm for vegetable is bought from small shops in the woreda town and are very expensive. There exists no farmer-to-farmer seed supply system and hence the cost of planting materials of these commodities is very high. Sometimes however, the produce itself is directly used as a planting material (eg. Potato, onion, etc). The major source of planting material, mainly for onions, is from farmers who specialise in vegetable seed production around Melkasa Research Centre. To increase the supply of vegetable seeds demanded by the farmers however, a farmer to farmer seed supply system needs to be developed. Farmer to farmer improved seed supply system could be organized through the Cooperatives Desk in the woreda. Other alternative options should be explored including on farm seed production linked to a cooperative distribution system or otherwise. Currently, there exist other arrangements in input supply of vegetables where private traders avail planting material, motor pump and fuel while farms avail land and labour and equally share the produce at the end. Vegetables are produced in both farming systems. The major vegetables in the rice system are onion, pepper and tomatoes are important. In the Cereal/livestock system, pepper tomatoes and onions are important crops. Production problems related to vegetables are lack of knowledge and high risk due to poor shelf life. In addition, there are a number of diseases and pests that are affecting the productivity of these vegetables. Water management issue due to silting up of shallow wells is also a problem because it requires annual digging of these shallow wells. On the other hand, the incidence of trypanosomes on cattle (mainly draught oxen) and malaria (humans) are also affecting vegetable production because these crops are especially grown after the main rains when these diseases are prevalent in the area. Vegetable farmers, mainly in rice/fish farming system rent in water pumps at 7 birr/hr from private traders in the woreda town or fellow farmers for irrigating vegetable fields. This is in addition to the system mentioned above (input supply) This will be conducted to contribute to improving the marketing and quality of rice. Post harvest process and quality added activities (better packing, storage etc) for better marketing would be conducted. Sasakawa Global 2000 has promised to import a polisher machine for the rice growers in Fogera. This will have a significant positive impact on marketing rice. Currently, polished rice is sold around 300 birr/qt while the unpolished is sold at 180 birr.Rice is sold to many regions in the country, including Dire Dawa, Somalia and Gambella.There is a high potential for marketing this crop even beyond its current marketing area, because, if the management in rice production is improved and the acreage is also increased, the amount of rice to be produced from this PLS will be very big. Hence, assessment of means of delivering rice to whole sellers or potential buyers will need to be conducted without the involvement of intermediaries. Overall, cost benefit analysis for all identified commodities will be needed, including rice, from which gaps and possible interventions will be identified.( A number of studies have been proposed (see RBM code 400) to assess technologies, and input output marketing aspects of priority commodities. During the project life the introduction of these innovations will be closely monitored (see 300 activities) to enable the project and its partners to draw up recommendations on technologies and public and private institutional innovations.Most of the studies on technologies and institutional innovations cut across several PLS and the findings of the studies will be synthesized across these sites. These will be used to draw lessons on the uptake and impact of technology innovations as well as institutional innovations for marketing (in particular marketing studies and clustering of small farmers with linkages to the larger trade bodies) and the supply of inputs for crops and livestock. Particular attention will be paid to the impact of these innovations on gender and environment. The synthesized findings will contribute to policy recommendations at the federal and regional level.Besides the studies already indicated, the project will undertake a baseline and follow up study on some key indicators. Such base line data will be gender disaggregated and also include environmental indicators. Guidelines for the baseline data collection can be found in Project implementation Plan.The project will also prepare environmental briefs for each of the PLS as well as HIV/AIDS and gender studies in 2 Kebelles of each farming system. Guidelines for the preparation of the briefs and the gender and HIV/AIDS studies were prepared by the project consultants and are included in the Annexes attached to the project implementation plan. Planning workshops will be held to present and discuss the findings of the HIV/AIDS and gender studies. The first step in the PLS planning was the introduction of the IPMS staff with the regional Ministry of Agriculture officials, regional research staff and RALC members. The next step was the introduction of the IPMS team with the woreda office of agriculture administration and technical staff, followed by the creation of a woreda Advisory Learning Committee (WALC), see annex 2.2. The next step was the identification of the major farming systems in the PLS and the potential market commodities within them, together with the WALC members and based on the commodities identified in the strategic plans prepared by the regional and woreda agricultural staff. Farming systems and potential commodities were then discussed with the various Woreda agricultural service institutions (crop, livestock, natural resources, cooperative department, women affairs and HIV/AIDS officials) 1 . This was followed by field visits to the selected farming systems by teams (two to three) consisting of project staff, project research partners and Woreda staff. During these field visits, semi-structured interviews were conducted with field staff (DAs and supervisors) and community members (male as well as female) to explore the nature of the farming system, to identify the major marketable commodities and their production methods/problems (including natural resource management), input supply and marketing arrangements. Problems associated with the production to marketing continuum of the identified commodities were also discussed. Triangulation technique was used in order to validate information. The suitability and possibility of introduction of new commodities was also explored and discussed 2 . The findings of this initial PRA were then summarized, presented and discussed in a 2-day PLS planning workshops (one in each PLS) which were attended by representatives from the RALC, WALC, Woreda experts, DAs, community representatives, male and female farmers, NGOs, and national and international research partners. _________________________________________ 1 To facilitate this process the project staff had collected/prepared secondary data on the PLS, including GIS referenced maps with bio physical and socio economic data. 2 The project team prepared guidelines for these PRA of institutions and community members as well as some notes on the different methods to be used for the PRA. ","tokenCount":"8881"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c93f5c86fd5fcf35774401e12d970a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_16371i.pdf","id":"-586583216"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a1f7aace-536b-48a1-94d6-d52eee48af68","pagecount":"127","content":"Chepter 1 * * An important and positive indication derived from the study is the potential for improvements through better managerial and operational control. Simulation of different scenarios has demonstrated concrete possibilities for improved system control and enhanced management.' ' Dera Distributary and, therefore, excess supplies do not represent a problem. Distributary # 4 has a design discharge of 5.94 cumecs (206.59 cfs).STUDY ACTIVITIES . . . , . . . , . . . . , : . . . . , . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 116 iii LIST OF FIGURES . Figure 1- Seasonal Relative Water Supply (Average Per Watercourse) . .   This report, however, concentrates on the activities undertaken in the Chashma Right Bank Canal Irrigation System (CRBC) where the greatest share of the study's interventions took place. The results and implications of the efforts concerning the Lower Swat Canal Irrigation System (LSC) have been adequately reported in Volume I of the Final Report. This document is intended to be self-contained in the sense that the reader does not have to refer to the other volumes of the Final Report in order to understand the research carried out and the results derived. For an in-depth analysis of the project, all of the final documents (3) should be reviewed. Figure 1-1 provides the location of the two irrigation systems, CRBC and LSC, where the study was conducted.This report has been divided into seven inter-related components. In Chapter 1, the generalities of the study, an introduction to the concept of \"crop-based irrigation, and a brief description of the research layout are provided. Chapter 2 describes the present operation of the system ---from the main canal down to the farm level---and addresses both physical and human constraints to its operation. Chapter 2 also provides the setting under which the study was designed and implemented.Chapter 3 deals with the simulation studies undertaken : the justification, the type of model applied, the results of the simulation interventions, and the lessons derived. The intervening parameters in the supply and demand of the irrigation water are treated in ..Chapter 4 and subsequently related to the concept of crop-based irrigation. Chapter 5 describes the farmers practices at the watercourse and farm levels, as well as their effect on agricultural production. Chapter 6 closes the irrigation cycle by exploring the performance of the CRBC through both technical and economical considerations.Finally, in Chapter 7, lessons from the study are derived and the implications of moving towards crop-based irrigation operations are explored.The method chosen to deliver water to the crops determines the degree of complexity under which the system is to be operated. Normally, this decision is taken at the irrigation system's design stage and influences the type, size and quantity of structures and the managerial input level to be required.Water delivery can be typified in terms of !hree parameters: frequency, rate and duration. Combination and variations of these factors leads to a wide array of possibilities to fit particular delivery needs dictated by climate, crops, soils, topographical conditions, organizational set-up, etc.The final mode under which water is eventually delivered to the user constitutes the irrigation delivery schedule. Three main categories are usually defined: Sumlv-driven, Arranged and Demand-driven. In the first one, a good example is the Rotation method, where all three parameters that establish the water delivery approach -frequency, rate and duration--are fixed beforehand and, therefore, it is the most restrictive of all irrigation schedules; it does not allow for changes and the user has little, if any, input; he is simply told when, how much and for how long he will have access to water. On the other side of the delivery spectrum, under Demand-driven, no restrictions are imposed on any of the paraneters and the user can decide how the water will be received. A classical example of this type of delivery is associated with urban water supply, where the user opens a faucet and the water is there for immediate use; this constitutes a \"pure-demand\" delivery. The Arranged delivery falls somewhat in the middle with certain limitations imposed on one or more of the delivery parameters; crop-based could be viewed here, placed more towards the demand side than the supply side of the alternatives.What has been described above, indicates that there is a continuum of options on how the irrigation service can be provided. The water detivery mode ranges from one where the user plays an entirely passive role, in which decisions are taken without his tnput (strict Rotatioh), to one where the user has complete control aver !he water delivery decision-making process (pure Demand).. .The concept of crop-based irrigation operations, while part of the continuum as indicated above, should .not be defined in terms of the frequency, rate and time during which water is delivered to the field. Rather, it should be thought of as being a concept that places itself parallel to the Demand-driven side of the delivery options. The terminology emphasizes the need to seek a better match between the water requirements of the crops and the amount of water available for delivery. It does neither advocate nor encourages the idea that users should be able to satisfy, at all times, their individual needs.The core of crop-based irrigation operations lies in that the system needs to have a certain degree of design and managerial flexibility, and that users need to play a more active role in determining beforehand what their water needs might be. Because the end-objective is to satisfy crop-needs ---as much as possible---it is a concept that works better under cbnditions of relatively higher water availability than under conditions of extreme water scarcity; it is therefore not conducive to Kgh efficiency of produce per unit of water but rather to high efficiency of produce per' unit area.The above paragraph would seem to suggest that crop-based irrigation operations is not suitable for the conditions present in Pakistan where water is delivered under a Rotation mode, there is little or no input from users in system operation, and water scarcity is a main feature of its irrigation. However, it is the impact that the crop-based concept can have on the water use efficiency that makes it so worthwhile to consider its potential in the Pakistani context The country is on the verge of facing food shortages and needs higher yields per unit of area in order to be able to meet the food requirements of its population. This is no longer possible under the present irrigation set up. Crop yields are conspicuously low in Pakistan because the emphasis has been more on spreading the limited water resource than in obtaining high production. Since yield increases can come only if more attention is given to the needs of the crops, more attention needs to be given to the primary input ---their water requirements This dichotomy between \"protective\" or \"productive\" irrigation being faced by Pakistan's agricultural sector has led the Government to explore inncvative irrigation approaches. Under certain conditions, crop-based irrigation cat? be part of a broader strategy to solve the food gap; as such, the efforts pursued under this study are well justified and constitute a legitimate researchable theme The essence of the research has been to explore the merits and demerits that the introduction and application of crop-based irrigation in Pakistan might have. To determine possibilities and constraints, and at the end to guide the GOP in generai. and the GONWFP in particular as to the feasibility and/or viability of this approach In technical. economical and social termsA first step in determining the research layout to be implemented was to consider the different area options that existed within the CRBC irrigation system.The CRBC project, currently under implementation, has been designed in three stages, for construction purposes. Stage I serving 56,680 ha (140,000 acres), a quarter of the total culturable command area (CCA), has been completed. This stage comprises 42,105 ha (104,000 acres) within the old Paharpur Canal System with the remainder constituting the so-called New Area.Stage II was still under construction at the time of study inception; only three of 13 distributaries had been completed and made operative. The respective command areas, however, were in the initial stages of development. Inspection of those areas led IlMl to conclude that there was little scope for conducting any study-related activities under Stage II at that time. Stage 111, on the other hand, is still in the planning phase and not scheduled to be in operation until the late 1990s.With the above information in mind, it was clear that the alternatives for selecting a study site in the CRBC system lay in Stage I. Three options could be considered: within the new area, within the old Paharpur canal system, or a combination of the above.Both the new and old areas had their advantages and disadvantages with respect to their suitability for conducting research.. For example, the New Area was much more physiographically representative of the areas to be developed in stages II and 111. In addition, the soils were generally heavier than those encountered in the indus alluvial plain. which is also typical of the Old Area.On the other hand, the Paharpur Canal System, being a relatively old scheme, had farmers who were experienced with irrigation practices. The New Area, on the contrary, was obviously a new settlement where a large percentage of the occupants had little or no previous experience with irrigated agriculture, which would be more relevant to the conditions that would be encountered in the near future by farmers in stages II and Ill. Therefore, the choice was made to locate the study area in the New Area of Stage I. However, as a compromise it was also decided to select a minor canal within the Paharpur Canal System to be included in the field activities.Within Stage I. four distributaries (numbers 1.2,3,and 4) were considered. However, it became clear that the first two, because of their small command areas, would not be good choices. That left numbers 3 and 4 as potential research sites. The team decided .to start work on Distributary # 3 which presented some practical and technical advantages (related to command area configuration. design 3;srharge and canal hydraulics), and then work on Distributary # 4 as the study made progress. 'n addition, it was decided to also select the Girsal Minor of the Paharpur System Canal, which receives water from the \"tail\" of Distributary # 3 off-taking at RD 237+320.CCA (ha)The basic characteristics of the thrpe resear-h areas are summarized in Table 1- The research layout per se followed 3 typical irrigation-related configuration, Eight watercourses were selected, along the distributary. for in-depth study that were located two each ---left and right side---on every canal quartile. A similar treatment was followed for both Distributary # 4 and Girsal Minor, but selecting only four watercourses in the latter, because of logistical constraints. The physical location of Distributary # 3 is at the tail-end of the CRBC Stage I, an added advantage for the system performance-related studies. The Girsal Minor, in turn, is located at the tail of the distributary. The actual location of the selected areas of study are referenced to their turnout distance from their respective headgate and are given in  .A large number of IlMl staff, both national and international were associated with the study, at one time or another, during project implementation. Annex-2 provides the full list of staff by study period.. 1538247 ..-CURRENT SYSTEM MANAGEMENTThe Chashma Right Bank Canal Project is a major perennial surface irrigation,system that, once completed, will cover a gross command area (GCA) of about 280,000 ha The Main Canal's full capacity of 138 cumecS (4,800 cfs), to be distributed through 50 distributaries, or so. which will be fully utilized only upon completion of Stage ,II (presently in an advanced stage of construction) and Stage 111 (construction scheduled to begin in 1994, while completion is expected in the year 2000, or beyond).The command area of CRBC presents special topographical features which account for the present design. To cover the maximum command area, the main canal was designed as a contour channel, running on the highest possible contour, with quite flat longitudinal slopes for most of its length and feeding distributary channels on its left side only.Construction of Stage I has been completed and became operational in early 1987; it includes the old Paharpur Irrigation System, which has been remodelled for increased discharge capacity, and is now being fed by the CRBC through four link channels. In Stage I, the four Paharpur-related link canals are followed by the four distributaries already mentioned. Another canal named \"Additional\" off-takes before Paharpur, and as its name indicates, was added after the original layout. Two other small canals offtake from the main canal in this stage but, their size and command make them irrelevant within the studies' context. In The operation of the CRBC irrigation system is unique within Pakistan because, unlike other systemsin the country, it involves two main agencies: (1) the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) responsible for main canal .operation; and (2) the Provincial Irrigation Department (P.ID) responsible for water distribution at the secondary (distributary) level and beyond.An early step in the study's implemefitation wa$ to conduct both a field and desk-based assessment of the current operational practices vis-a-vis the main canal. This revealed that while the managing agency was well aware of the concept of crop-based irrigation, and that the CRBC irrigation project had been conceived with thz eventual establishment of this innovating practice in mind, no effort had been und,ertaken to internalize this concept .within some institutional framework.This finding was not at all surprising since it was precisely the lack of a mechanism by which the concept could be introduced'in the country.that led to the study in the first place. The exercise, however, was useful because it provided a first glimpse of the constraints that existed regarding the introduction of a relatively revolutionary irrigation concept in the midst of a? ingrained irrigation bureaucracy accustomed to supply-based irrigation operati.ons.The main canal, and by default, the entire .system, was being operated under the traditional supply-driven water Uelivery mode. Inflow into the system was. kept fairly constant at pre-established levels and changed occasionally in response, to rainfall, crop development staoe and cropping season ---Rabi or Khan'!--with the latter drawing relatively higher inflow levels. Actual crop water requirements played only a.minor role.There was no indication that derived flows at the Ch.ashma Barrage were following the water delivery pattern advocated in the system design documents.In essence, water derived into the CRBC system at the Chashma Barrage'had little or no correlation with the area under irrigation, although the PID does provide from timeto-time an irrigation \"indent\". Other demands playing a more dominant role were:. (1) sediment-load requirements to fill-in the over-desig4d main canal's unlined section; (2) water elevations required to assure appropriate discharge rates at the off-takes of Stage I tail-end distributaries; (3) construction needs of Stage II; and (4) perceived canal losses, sediment load transport needs, etc.In addition to the rather loose form by which'the agency fixes the irrigatisn demand, the appraisal study also found that, with the exception of the main cross-regulators, there has been no effort towards calibration of the remaining structures on the.main canal. Thus, the agency has very little, if any, control over the amount of water that is actually being diverted into the different off-takes from the main canal. The idea of delivering water under a.crop-based approach in a system that totally lacks calibration of its mainstructures constitutes a technical impossibility. Great. effort is required to overcome particular weakness.Another problem associated with the current operation of the main canal is the existing day-to-day practice of impounding water at the tail-end of Stage I with the idea of keeping a suitable \"head\" over the distributaries' off-takes. Such an operational procedure not only defeats the purpose of water savings, through varyi.ng flows in the main canal to fit crop water demands, but also affects main canal design velocities and increases the sediment load in that particular reach of the canal. Such an accumulation of sediments. which has a negative impact on the up-keep of the canal, has already been documented as a potential maintenance problem.As expected, an'd as a consequ,ence of the prevailing operating mode at the main canal level, water delivery into the distvibutaries followed, likewise, a supply-driven, rather than a demand-driven, water delivery pattern.The PID3, responsible 'for the operation of the system below the main canal, had not readily accepted th,e principles .required for a crop-based irrigation approach. The .idea that the,main canal 'could be operafed ,with varying discharges ---in response to crop water demands-and 'therefore, tiiat flows into the distributaries would not be both.'continuous and coneta'nt ''at,T upply level, reppented a radical departure from thk;;entrenched supply-driven delivery schedule bei'ng practiced in the country, with various d.egress of sucesses and failures; over. the past .fOtoO. years or so.While the study determined'that the PID had placed staff gauges at the tail-ends of ' . . most distributaries, it also uncovered that the calibration of the gauges had been done only once in the entire period of operation since project inception in 1987. These rating curves, developed at that time, have not been upgraded even when significant changes due to maintenance and remodelling activities have been undertaken in various reaches of'the distributary and minor channels. Thus, as in the case of the main canal, the infomation oil flows distribution at the secondary levebis highly unreliable and does not follow the pattern of water.demand dictated by the cropping pattern' in the field, as called for in the system's design documents.A second operational problem at the distributary level deals &ith the nature of the existing pipe outlets. Construction of these structures was implemented with a view that it was to be a \"temporary\" arrangement;. the result was a large discrepancy between the design and the actual flow capacity of the outlets. Not only the physical characteristics, but also the location itself of the structures, compounds the inequity and urireliability of the water distribution. The configuration of the canals makes it necessary to rely heavily on the use of harries o l stoplogs, in order to maintain adequate hydraulic head at a large number of the outlet offtakes This poses a burden on an already scarce field staffThe study also disclosed that the PID does develop a water indent. based on crop patterns in the field, that is eventually utilized for purposes of water requirements. But, this is done almost an entir'e season behind schedule because the primary purpose of the crop survey is more related to water fee collection than to the water requirements per se. In fact, this type of survey is done by the revenue section of the agency rather than by its operational arm. Direct observation of system operations at the secondary level intimated that the ,PID does respond to farmers behavior; for example, the PID reduces flows in the aflernoans :.in anticipation of farmers closing outlets for.the night. But this response is more related to basic operational principles to protect canal overflows or excessive wastage through canal scapes, rather than as a measure to move towards a demand-.based water delivery pattern.Finally, through direct field measurements supported by 'close interaction with fiel,d personnel, the conclusidn was drawn~ that the lack of control on water distribution was resulting in excessive flows being deliverd throughout CRBC's Stage I. Since the system is, under construction, some of the excess may be unavoidable because of operatio'nal',constrai'nts;, but it estab.lishes a precedent of .higher th.an needed, water supplies, vi/hiqh will create an illusion on farmers perception of the systems' capabilities.In the shorilfun, this will have a negative impact on the performance of the system as a whole.Watercourse Level Operations Operation of the watercourses followed the same pattern of water delivery found at the upper levels of the system. Water is being delivered continuously and simultaneously to all watercorses. Once again. it simply refiects that management was unprepared to make changes from t.he traditional mode of system operation.However, a unique teature of CRBC was found to be farmers behavior vis-a-vis the operation of the outlets It was mentioned earlier that pipe outlets had been install.ed along the distributaries. These outlets have no provision for water .control as they are not gated. Nontheless, because of the configuration of the watercourses themselves, with the provision of a simple check structure at its. head (downstream side of the outlets) the farmers are allowed to manipulate at will the amount of . . water they do not want to receive.' .The consequence was a de facto move towards a crop-based irrigation app.roach in which farmers had the opportunity to exercise some degree of control over the pattern of water delivery. This, in turn, meant that the PID had to be ready to react to farmers behavior at the watercourse level in order to cope with the potential refusal water.Other observations on farmers practices in their watercourses confirmed these perceptions of excess water deliveries. For example, night irrigation was practically non-existant during the Rabi season and observed very ocassionally during the Kharif. In the latter. night irrigation was carried out only in the context of rice; the farmer diverted a small water stream into his plot and went home without providing any further supervision.Likewise, only in a few watercourses have the farmers made an official request to the PID to set up a warabandi scheme. In general, farmers feel that water is abundant and that there is no need to establish a rotation that would have them working night shifts in order to obtain their water. Farmers seem to have been able to establish an unstructured arrangement by which all are able to meet their water demands within a reasonable period of time.Following the traditional pattern of other areas in the country. an effort had been made to establish Water Users Associations at the watercourse level. These had been organized around the construction and lining of the watercourses. Once this main operation had been accomplished, the WUAs lost their justification and slowly but surely disappeared. Only some remnants of organized behavior are left, which the farmers have used primarily to share water in the watercourses as response to large flow allocations. In addition, they have devised a system by which the responsability for closing or opening the outlets is clearly demarcated.Maintenance practices were found to be no different than in other systems in the country: farmers make informal arrangements to clean those areas under their respective jurisdictions and get together for larger efforts. In general, the study found the watercourses to be physically in good shape; not a surprising finding since the system is still fairly new. Finally, as expected, farmers have an excellent knowledge on the topographical limitations of both their watercourse and cultivated areas, and they work jointly or individually towards overcoming any diffitulties.. *In this section, some of the limitations will be briefly mentioned that were perceived as constraints to project implementation at the time of the study's inception. Because it was obvious that some of the solutions to these constraints fell beyond the reasonable I capabilities and responsablities of the implementing agencies involved. they are presented only to set the context under which the study evolved and not as a criticism of the agencies themselves..The foremost constraint in relation to irrigation facilities was the fact that the CRBC irrigation system had been designed having in mind the traditional supply-driven water delivery pattern approach, while its operation was eventually intended to be realized through a relatively innovative ---in the context of Pakistan irrigation---demand-driven delivery schedule.This design-operational missmatch becomes obvious by the low numbers of water control structures found in the canal network. By trying to operate the system at full supply level, while at the same time maintaining the flexibility of being able to deliver water to the outlets under a wide range of flows, has resulted in a complex operation at the distributary level that puts undue pressure on both the system's facilities and its human resources.The operation of the system is further complicated by the dual management arrangement that calls for the close interaction of two agencies with different objectives and perceptions on the type of irrigation service that should be provided. The endproduct has been a \"no-mans\" land in which Sach agency expects the other to have the responsability for upgrading the irrigation fscilities.The large distances between crucial control points requires that communication facilities be readily available at all times. While both telephone and telegraph are available, they are not entirely reliable, so communications was found to be sluggish. Wireless phones, or walkie-talkies, are another option being used occasionally, Finally, the use of vehicles provides support to expedite operational decisions, but the large area commanded by the system is by itself a constraint because of the relatively high Operation & Maintenance costs for the vehicles.The main limitation concerning the project's human resource was found to be the actual number of individuals available. Under the guidelines of project implementation, the Government was to establish a System Operations Division under the PID properly staffed with experienced personnel. While the agencies made ::tforts to comply with this component of project development, standing government labor policies, at the macrolevel, prevented its implementation. Less than 25 percent of the intended field period..personnel had been actually hired; this low percentage remained throughout the studyThe problem of less than desirable numbers of field personnel was further aggravated by the skill levels of those already in place. For example, distributary gatekeepers were found to be iliterate and therefore incapable of providing adequate support on flow data documentation. Technical staff kept being rotated, both within and outside the project, taking with them the skills acquired in their previous positions. Sometimes, the study also documented people being assigned to jobs either far beyond their capabilities, or even worse, to activities far below their training.In essence, limitations found in both the irrigation facilities and the availability of human resources to the project were bound to impose delays on the study's implementation. This was evident as the research activit.ies got under way.In the next chapters, the report builds upon the basic information provided thus far and analyzes the field data collected over the three-year period of the study.. These chapters will provide the justification and technical support for the recommendations made in Volume I of the Final Report.. Chapter 3In the beginning of the study, it was envisaged that the CRBC Irrigation System had peculiar and complex characteristics regarding design, 'hydraulics and operations. The preliminary studies indicated that the physical instability and special operational conditions of the canal, caused by the partial operation of the system and aggravated by the un-optimized functioning of the main and distributary canals, have resulted in increased complexity of the hydraulic phenomena. In addition, a new dimension was added regarding the management of this irrigation system on a crop-based mode, which was a new concept for the managers. The technique of mathematical simulation was applied to capture this multidimensional process and simulate the dynamics of the system. The following paragraphs briefly describe the important features of CRBC Crop-based Irrigation System which have necessitated the introduction of sophisticated techniaues.Chashma Right Bank canal designed with a flat slope of 1 in 14000 for the 223 km (132 miles) length of lined section and 1 in 8000 for the 35 km (21 miles) length of unlined section. Stage I of the canal runs for 78 km (46 miles) and feeds eight secondary channels. the zone. The unlined section is in high \"fill\", while the lined section is in \"cut\". The lined section has been designed using Manning's equation with a roughness value of ,016 and a velocity of around 1 mls (3-4 feet per second). The bed-width to depth ratio .is 25:l for the unlined reach and 2.51 for the lined reach. After completing construction, the actual bed of the unlined section was more than 3 m (ten feet) lower than the required (planned) level, which caused a severe seepage problem in the area. Many remedial measures were taken, including special operations of the combined structure at RD 98+000 to trap the sediment in the upstream reaches.After the trial operation, an important physical modification was the installation of lower offtaking pipes from the main canal to deliver water to Paharpur feeder canals. The remodelling had to be carried out because the original structures were too high to draw water from the main canal.Water allocation for the CRBC system from Chashma Barrage has been fixed recommended cropping pattern. However, no means and methods have been suggested to implement the design cropping pattern and allocation schedule. The only facility provided to handle the variable flows in Stage I was the provision of three crossregulators located along 77 kilometers (46 miles) of main canal. As a consequence, the system was not flexible enough to accommodate' the expected variations..The first reach has been kept unlined due to high water table conditions in . .according to the ten-day crop water requirements of the command area for a . . . Contrary to the complex situation of the system, a simple operational control has been adopted so far. The operational targets have been defined only for two cross-regulators by fixing their upstream gauges to the maximum. No water distribution plan or operational guidelines have been prepared for the distributary head regulators. Occasionally, operators receive instructions about the downstream gauges which are neither calibrated nor proper flow measuring devices. Virtually, the operators are responsible to satisfy the farmers, or to ensure the security of the canal.Figures 111-1 and 111-2 show the physical instability and the operational variability of the system. In the former, the rapid sedimentation that took placed between 1988 and 1990 has slowed down afterwards and design bed-level still remains to be achieved.In the latter, we can see the contrasting structure operation between the head and tail of stage I; during a 200 hour period the head structure was adjusted only once whereas the scape at the tail was done so many (21) times.The above considerations can be summarized as three major issues that need to be explored:i) Comprehension of the design limitations of the system with an objective of finding solutions for both permanent and transient problems;Develop guidelines for the operational practices and procedures at each level (main canal and distributaries) to handle the typical operational problems of the CRBC; andEvaluate the critical values for some of the hydraulic parameters (like velocity and Froude number) to cope with the variable flows in the main canal.ii)iii)To address these issues, a hydraulic siinulation model was applied, along with other analytical techniques.The selection of the model was based on two considerations, its user friendliness and its potential to simulate the variable inflows and the characteristics of alluvial and lined Choice of reaches. The hydraulic network is divided into homogeneous reaches in terms of discharge (i.e with no local inflows or oufflows) located belween an upstream node and a downstream node. The points of inflow and oufflow (all types of offtakes in the case of the canal network) can occur only at model nodes, so it is a constraint imposed by the model for a reach. The user may, however, divide any part of the canal into several reaches in order to take into eccount any particularity; for instance, a shift from an unlined to a lined section, or a different administrative zone (for example from one sub-divisional engineer to another).Choice of branches. A branch is a group of reaches serially linked to one another. A channel can be defined as one branch or can be divided into many branches.Downstream conditions. The calculation of a water surface profile is initiated at the downstream end of a reach and proceeds upwards. Therefore, a relationship between water surface elevation and discharge is needed as a downstream boundary condition in order to begin the calculations.The geometry of the reaches is the basic element of all the hydraulic computations. The reach geometry is defined through the cross-section profiles indicating the shape and volume of the canal. The cross sections can be described and entered in three different ways: (1) abscissa-elevation; (2) width-elevation; and (3) parametric form. The type of description may vary from one section to another, within a given reach. Sections of special geometrical shape can be input in parametric form (circle, culvert, power relationship, rectangle, trapezium or triangle).Sinclular sections. Cross sections containing structures like regulators and bridges are called singular sections. In these sections, the general hydraulic laws for computing water surface profiles are not applicable. These laws are replaced by the appropriate discharge formula for each structure. This unit does not deal with the geometry of the device itself.. . Comwtational Sections. Data sections may be unequally distributed along the canal, but the user can select sections of any length for the computations. The spacing for these cross-settions depend upon the physical conditions of the canal in each reach.Unit I generates the topography files for the computational programs of units I 1 and 111. It also produces an ASCII file, that shows elevation, width, wetted perimeter and area.In case of problems with topography computations, the ASCII file will indicate the reaches where errors have been found.Unit II computes the water surface profile in a canal under steady flow conditions for any combination of offtake discharges and cross-regulator gate openings. These water surface profiles may be used as initial conditions for the unsteady flow computation in Unit I l l . A sub-module of the steady flow module computes the offtake gate openings to satisfy given target discharges, while another sub-module computes the crossregulator gate opening to obtain given targeted water surface elevations upstream of the regulator. These sub-modules, therefore, allow computation of gate settings to satisfy a given demand-supply configuration of water flow. All of the basic hydraulic calculations for canal regime, cross regulator structures and off-take regulators are done in this module.The water surface profile is calculated under subcritical, steady flow conditions in a reach. The classic hypotheses for uni-dimensional hydraulics assumes that:The flow direction is sufficiently rectilinear, so that the free surface could be considered to be horizontal in a cross section: To solve this equation, an upstream boundary condition in terms of discharge and a downstream boundary condition in terms of water surface elevation are required. In addition, the lateral inflow and the hydraulic roughness coefficient along the canal should be known. This equation is numerically solved using Newton's Method.When a cross structure exists on a canal, the gradually varied flow equation cannot be used locally to calculate the water surface elevation upstream of the structure. The hydraulic law governing the flow through the irrigation structure present in that specific reach of the canal should be applied. In SIC, all structures are modelled either as weidorifice type of devices (high sill elevation) or weirlundershot gates (low sill elevations).Unit 111 computes the water surface profile in the canal under unsteady flow conditions. The initial water surface profile is provided by Unit II. It allows the user to test various scenarios of water demand schedule and operation at the head works and control .structures. Starting from an initial steady flow regime, it helps the user to identify the best way to attain a new water distribution plan, or to study the transition from one rotational plan to another.To compute the unsteady flow water surface profile in a single reach, the same hypothesis as for Unit II are applicable. Furthermore, only smooth transient phenomena are considered, whereas the propagation of a rapid wave or surge cannot be simulated.Two equations are needed to describe unsteady flow in open channels: (1) the continuity equation; and (2) the momentum equation. These equations are expressed as:-+ -These partial differential equations must include the initial and boundary conditions in order to be solved. These boundary conditions are the hydrographs (water volumes) at the upstream nodes and a rating curve at the downstream node of the model. The initial condition is the water surFaac;e profile resulting from the steady flow computation.The Saint Venant equations have no known analytical solution. They are solved numerically by discretizing the equation; the partial derivatives are replaced' by finite differences. A four point implicit scheme, known as Preissmann's, is used to solve these equations.Application of the model requires site-specific field data collection to define and calibrate the model. Study-oriented data need to be collected to interpret and evaluate particular scenarios. A brief description of the Model Input Data used for the CRBC is given below..These data can be further divided into two categories: (1) topographical & geometrical data; and (2) hydraulic data. The input data requirement for the steady and the unsteady states are the same.. A hydraulic survey is recommended for collecting these data because the water volumes in a reach, and flows diverted to the ofFtakes, are simulated through these information. The purpose of calibrating a mathematical model is to make sure that the user's defined geometrical and hydraulic variables or parameters are reliable and appropriate enough to accurately reflect the actually observed field situation in the canal. The calibration of hydraulic models is an essential step of model application; the accuracy requirements of this step are dependent on the objectives of the user's need. For model calibration is necessary to accurately establish the values of roughness coefficient, canal losses and discharge coefficients. A second step is to collect a few The roughness coefficient is used in the computation of the friction gradient, which accounts for the resistance offered by the canal to the flow of water under steady state conditions. The exact computation of roughness (based on field data) is difficult because the standard equation used for this purpose is valid only for uniform flows, a condition seldom found in the field.The standard Manning-Strickler equation is represented as: In the case of CRBC Stage I, the canal has unlined, brick-lined and concrete-lined sections with different side and bed slopes. The regulators at RD 98+000 and RD 257+000 are being used for water ponding in the upstream reaches. Hence, the initial values of the coefficient were calculated for selected reaches where the backwater effects were minimal. The final values of the roughness are adjusted through a trialand-error method in order to achieve a reasonable agreement between computed and observed water surface levels. These values are shown in Table 111-1 above, along with seepage losses.The final values gbtained (n=.022) for some of the reaches of the lined section are higher than the design values (n=.016). This difference can be explained by the existing physical conditions of the bricklconcrete lining and the heavy sedimentation in the canal.Many sets of discharge measurements, water levels and gate openings are required to compute the discharge coefficient for each device (gate, weir, pipe, orifice, culvert etc.). These coefficients are then used by the model to calculate the discharges through the devices when the gate openings and the water levels are known..The cross regulator at RD 98+000 was calibrated using a standard free flow orifice equation (Eq 1) and an experimentally derived equation for slow sill elevation structures (Eq 2). Both of these are available in the model who by itself selected the latter, because it fitted better the actual structure.The discharge equation for a free flow cross regulator is:The The evolution of the coefficients using (Eq 2) indicates that the discharge contraction factor varies as a function of the ratio of gate opening and upstream working head. Figure 111-3 shows measured discharge as a function of hlNV, while Figure 111-4 shows u & u l as a function of HINV. It is obvious that the second equation (Eq 2) gives better results for the free flow structure because u and u l takes into account the variation of Q with respect to HINV.The head regulators for distributaries # 1 to # 4 were calibrated using discharge data collected by the IlMl field team. For other structures, ACOP's measurements were used to calculate the discharge coefficient. A value of C, equal to 0.4 was found satisfactory for all ofFtake head gates under free flow conditions. As a final verification procedure, steady state flow conditions were simulated so that observed water levels in representative reaches of the canal could be used to adjust the roughness coefficient (\"n\" value). The main canal model was calibrated and verified for inflows of 65 and 105 cumecs (2300 & 3700 cusecs). As the complete field data were available in both cases, measured canal losses and boundary conditions were used for the model validation.. The computed and measured water surface levels show a good fit in both cases as shown in Figure 111-5. .As discussed above, preliminary studies provided an indication of the appropriateness of using simulation techniques in addressing design and operational.-related problems. After simulating the main canal, it was clear that in order to obtain a better picture of the system performance, the study should be extended beyond the main canal. Thus, it was decided to extend the simulation work, utilizing the same model, down to the distributary level.Consistent with previous efforts, Distributaries # 3 and # 4 were obvious choices for this work. A detailed topographic survey had been conducted in the former canal, at the beginning of project activities, in anticipation of this very possibility. A partial survey had been done in the latter canal; this survey was upgraded in January 93 for this same purpose.For both distributaries, the model was calibrated for observed field conditions during peak demand at the end of June 92 when all outlets remained open. For Distributary # 3, the discharge was 126 % of the design discharge, while it was 100 % for Distributary # 4 . Also, the use of stop-logs in each distributary were closely documented. The observed field values matched the simulated values --in terms of water levels and outlet discharges-so well that no further effort was considered necessary for the verification.Afler calibration, the SIC model was used to predict the water surface levels and compute the hydraulic parameters like velocity, Froude number and roughness at different flow rates for both steady and unsteady flow conditions. The scenarios presented in the following sections address the three aspects of main canal functioning:  A knowledge of the maximum carrying capacity of a canal has always been a practical concern for the canal manager. A feasible and safe discharge for range canal conveyance needs to be known in order to operate the lined canals with appropriate freeboard, and to manage the unlined canals without overtopping or erosion of the embankments. Furthermore. in the case of crop-based irrigation operations, most of the time systemsare to be operated at lower than the peak water demand;, hence, field information remains insufficient to confirm the maximum conveyance capacity of such a system.In the case of the CRBC Stage I, field data indicated the physical and hydraullc constraints on the maximum conveyance capacity of the canal. These findings have been substantiated by recent operations associated with the partial functioning of the main canal. The system has never been operated at the maximum design discharge of 138 cumecs (4800 cusecs), but one complete set of hydraulic data availabkat 107 cumecs (3800 cusecs) indicates that there are freeboard limitations at two locations;. namely, the lined-unlined transition.(RD 120+000) and the tail reach of Stage I (RD 237+000 to RD '253+000).Many possible scenarios-were simulated to desagregate the effects of unusual operations under the prevailing circumstances from the expected canal functioning under normal conditions when the entire project is completed. Results indicate that the main canal possesses physical constraints at the lower, as well as at the upper, limit of the authorized supply (40' to 138 cumecs (1400 to 4800 cfs}) for the CRBC main banal. All of the offtakes could hardly get .their share of water at 47 cumecs (1450 cfs) inflow (29% of the maximum) while at 105 cumecs (3700 cfs; 85% of the maximum) some of the reaches could not maintain the recommended freeboard (Figure 111-6).To evaluate the causes of unexpectedly higher water levels in the main canal, the model was run with the design and actual values of roughness coefficient for the maximum authorized flow of 138 cumecs (4800 cusecs).  . sedimentation on the bed and banks has reduced the area of the cross section. Hence, the higher water levels in the main canal can be attributed lo the current operations, higher than design roughness, and local effects.There is difficulty in maintaining the maximum desisn velocity when a canal is operated for ,crop-based deliveries (variable flows). The situation may become critical for the management when the need for sediment transportation could not be sacrificed. Alluvial channels of the lndus Basin are expected to run at higher than 70% of the design discharge to avoid siltation. It has also been recommended for tk,ese channels that the spatial variation in velocity should not be much different from the discharge variations along the canal to avoid the siltation and scouring caused by the imbalance of stresses aiong the canal prism.The temporal and spatial variation of velocity in Stage I has been quite pronounced in the last five years. The velocity profile discloses those reaches which have more likelihood of sedimentation: and i)ii)iii)There is a need to estimate and maintain an appropriate operational velocity, which might be different from the design velocity, but must tie adequate to carry the sediment load through the main canal.A number of operational scenarios were simulated to investigate the CRBC main canal behavior under existing operations in order to evaluate and suggest improvements in  .This section demonstrates that even under the worst of conditions improvements are possible by optimizing the operations of the escape and offtake regulators, and by taking appropriate managerial decisions at the system level. No changes of inflow conditions was considered, only the operations have been optimized utilizing the available facilities. The inflow in the canal was 50 cumecs (1750 cfs);.  n Exst dliv patternii)The gates at the head regulators for all distributaries were adjusted to deliver only the appropriate share of water to each channel. The crop water requirements were computed using the Khasra records for the cultivated command area of year 1992; andiii)The operations of the tail regulator and escape structures were optimized to avoid any unnecessary water pondingDuring the pre-improvement operations, the gates at the first four distributaries were kept completely open. which caused them to draw much more water than their authorized discharge. During the improved operation, by fixing the share for each distributary, more water was available at the tail. In addition, the water level at the tail was lowered about 0.30 m (1 foot) but still providing a depth of 4.30 m (14 feet) at that point Hence, by restoring the equity among distributaries, and by an active control of the daily operations, considerable improvement is possible. The CRBC main canal is not utilizing its maximum authorized discharge at the present time. The calculations show that until Stage Ill is completed, the minimum limit could be raised to 67 cumecs (2200 cfs) without exceeding the total authorized volumes. This increase of the minimum limit doubles the velocity at the tail of CRBC, although it is still less than 70 % of design, however, during the high demand period, substantial water ponding would still be required The physical and operational refinements discussed in the previous section suggested the need for well planned, properly scheduled and controlled operations of the CRBC system. Such a plan requires a knowledge of the water demand at each offtake, but no such flow targets exist for CRBC. The monitoring of daily gauges was started during IIMl's work, but still no clear guidelines have been developed by the managers for the operators; hence, each operation is practically a localized phenomenon. The targets for the operators at the cross regulators are rigidly defined, but the causes and the effects of these operations have never been studied and established. The CRBC is a relatively complex irrigation system and the proper information about permanent and day-to-day aspects of the system must be available with the manager in order to operate the system efficiently.A three step procedure for developing an operational plan for the main canal is given below as a guideline. This procedure has been used to develop a set of ten-day operations for CRBC, which was presented to the local authorities as an intervention, but unfortunately, was not field tested because of managements reluctance in introducing an \"unproven element\" in the system's operation. The proposed operational procedure is described below.Taraet setting. There are different ways to establish the targets for water distribution.It can be through a crop water requirements approach, through an observation approach by means of an \"indent sheet\" prepared by the irrigation department, or by requesting from farmers their needs, etc. The crop-based approach was used to calculate the water requirements for Kharif 92. The cultivated command area shown in the Khasra data of 1991 was adjusted by 20 YO to accommodate the new developed areas. After incorporating farm and canal losses, a 'ten-day table' of water requirements for each distributary was prepared. Simulation of existinu svstem conditions. This means gathering reliable information about the hydraulic parameters, water distribution and operations of the system at the time of the intervention. These pieces of information are simulated using the steady state option of the model. The boundary condition defined in the model must be verified by comparing the computed and observed water levels Information about the dimensions and Lhe rating tables of the canal structures must be updated before the final computations are made. Tim2 lags at all importmt node points should also be known, which can be predicted using the model by generating an impulsive wave at the head and following its propagation through the main canal, or using a spread sheet for the calculations, if the velocities are known. Figure 111-13 shows the computed time-lags along the CRBC main canal at different flow ratesThe Final Operational Plan. At this stage, the manager has his water distribution targets and updated information about the system operation. He has already simulated and verified the existing state of the system. For his final scheduling, a quantitative estimation of the expected operations and their timings are then required. Utilizing the already verified steady state model, target discharges, and the time lag information, gate operations and their timings were computed. The unsteady state model was used here with small time steps to observe the flows. Timings for the operations were adjusted in a way to assure the minimum fluctuations in the secondary canals. Figure 111.-14 shows the adequacy of the computed water delivery against the targeted. Test whether the distributary could be run at a range of discharges as required under crop-based operations, and to identify which operational manipulations would be needed to achieve this; andSimulate a unique practice of farmers, the opening and closure of outlets, and to relate it with the daily flow fluctuations at the distributary head. ii)Implications of Reduced Supply on Water Distribution to the Tertiary CanalsThe simulation was undertaken by reducing in steps the discharge at the head of the distributary without changing the respective status of the outlets and drop structuresThe result was basically the same in both cases Figure 111-15 summarizes three head-discharge runs and their impact on outlet discharges as a percentage of design discharge. It will be noted, for example, that for 100 YO head discharge, the outlet's variations range from 80 to 300 YO of the design.Given that almost all outlet sizes are the same throughout the distributary, these variations can only be attributed to the large numbers of outlets in the distributary that function under submerged downstream conditions to various degrees.The graph shows that it is possible to secure about 40 % discharge (the estimated lowest crop water requirement) in all outlets if those that are currently withdrawing much more than their fair share are kept under control (imposed discharge at 36 % of design) and stop-logs are used to raise head elevations at critical points. It also shows that when the discharge at the heads of distributaries drops to 50 YO of design, some outlets fall dry completely due to the lower water levels in the distributary.In general, the results of the simulation exercise correspond quite wed with the observations in the field. Predictions of the model as to the particular heights of stoplogs under several scenarios have already been confirmed in the field in cases where farmers have taken it upon themselves to raise the crest levels of existing structures with brick masonry. As may be expected these profile walls were not able to withstand the increased water pressure and collapsed soon after. The exercise also points towards the need to address the issue of the need for more permanent outlet structures f in the system. .As has been already mentioned elsewhere, the opening and closure of outlets in the distributaries is a unique feature of the CRBC system. It allows the farmers to have a certain degree of control over the amount of water received. Herein lies the importance and the potential of this intervention -being able to move towards a more flexible approach in system operation.From interviews conducted with WAPDAs distributaries head-gate operators, it is clear that they are aware of this intervention and that sometimes they react by opening the head gates somewhat more in the morning and reduce the gate opening again a number of turns in the afternoon coinciding with the farmers openlclose outlet behavior.When the farmer faces an excess amount of water, he responds with any (or combinations thereof) of the following decisions:  .There is a need to better control the water delivered to the secondary channels. For a system designed based on crop water requirements, the extra water is not only a wastage, but also harmful to the crops and can have a negative environmental impact on the area. Managers must have some better knowledge of the crop water requirements at different times of the year, so that the practice of preparing \"Indents\" (weekly water targets) can be more effectively pursued.. * Daily monitoring and recording of water deliveries in the main canal and distributaries is an essential water management activity which cannot be avoided if sufficient water supplies are to be delivered throughout all of the three stages of the CRBC. Gated structures, designed to de1iver.a wide range of flows, require frequent operational input and quick response to special conditions like, rain, or less demand for water utilization downstream. Hence, a clear set of guidelines, including rating tables and specific instructions for each structure, should be prepared for the field operators.operational plan needs to be prepared., even if based on approximate estimates for different values. Such a plan needs to clearly identify the process which should take place at different levels of management in order to simplify operational procedures, as well as provide guidelines for unusual operating events. however, distributaries # 3 and # 4 have good natural slopes and drop structures. The present practice of stop-logs is not an authorized procedure, To standardize the operational practices at the secondary canal level, there is a need to provide the proper control structures. feature of the system because most of the present \"temporary\" outlets have larger discharge capacities than required. Without the manipulation of both stop-logs and outlets, actual outlet discharges have little correlation with the design (maximum authorized) discharges. At full supply, there is considerable difference in the discharge drawing capacity of the outlets of the same size due to submerged downstream conditions. At low supply, some outlets go dry, while some can still draw much more than the design discharge. This points to the need for replacement of temporary pipe outlets by more permanent outlet strucutres.In  on the other hand, shows comparatively less fluctuation but higher average flows; they ranged from 80 to 120 percent of full supply discharge The comparison of the two Khanf seasons data show that the supplies during 1993 were higher than in 1992, on the average a 5 to 10 % increase in daity flows has been notedThe performance of the distributary during the Kharif periods, as given above, suggest that daily supplies at the head were exceeding its upper limit most of the time. Under crop-based irrigation operations, the design upper limit will be required only during a 10 to 20 days peak crop water demand period; otherwise, supplies should remain below the design peak demand. Such high flows during the Kharif seasons are alarming as they can have a negative impact on future water availability in the lower stages, especially Stage 111, of the CRBC irrigation systemIn the case of the Rabr seasons, not enough information was gathered for the 91/92 period as field staff were only finally in place and operational towards the end of that particular period. However, data collected for the following similar period shows that the earlier half of the Rabr 92/93 season consumed less water than the second half with quite a significant difference For example, the distributary was operated at 20 to 60 percent of ifs full capacity during October and November, but at 60 to 90 percent in December when farmers normally over-irrigate to \"fill-up\" before the annual closure. The channel remained in high flow during March-April with the exception of a four day closure of the main canal for repairs. 1 'As in Distributary # 2, the daiiy supplies at the head of Distributary # 3 exceeded the,,. 'upper limits of design discharge during the Kharifseasons. However, a comparison of flows for 1992 and 1993 (and contrary to the situation.found in Distributary # 2) showed a reduction of 5 to 10 % in'the supplies at the head during 1993. While there is no solid evidence that this reduction in the discharge could be attributed to the presence of IlMl in the area, the fact is that the proposed flow reduction was part of the study's management innovation, which did take place in this distributary. Thus, it isworth considering that there was indeed ,some .impact since other, distributaries. showed anThe Rabi '92/93 season. does not show.'any significant variationi : v i b w 6 except for .November '92 and January 93 when it reached almost 100 pereeqt of the full suppEy .discharge. The higher'valdes can be explained for 'November when the wheat,mop ' ' requires its first irrigation 'after sowing; in January, when 90 percent of the command area is cultivated, every farmer wants to irrigate before the annual closure of the system, as explained earlier..   The climate of the area can be described as arid and hot. Therefore, agriculture is highly dependent on irrigation water. Accordingly, rainfall plays a relatively minor role as a factor in the supply side of the irrigation equation.Precipitation is fairly uniform geographically, but with wide variations from season to season. The average rainfall for the 1961 to 1992 period, as recorded by the nearby D.I.Khan Meteorological Station, is only 250.44 mm (9.86 in). The maximum rainfall periods, resulting from the summer monsoon, occur during the months of July, with an average for the same time period 1961-92 of 71 mm (2.79 in), and in August with 67 mm (2.40 in). On the average, rainfall has been less than .1.0 mm (0.4 in) in the months of October, November, December and January.' Detailed rainfall data is provided in Volume 111 of this Final Report.However, from an irrigation system's operational standpoint, this amount, particularly depending on its intensity, needs to be considered in relation to the safety of the canal network since it could become a factor in canal overtopping.Considering rainfall as a component of the irrigation supply, a value of Effective Rainfall (ER) was utilized by taking 80 percent of the total precipitation. This is perceived as an appropriate value, commonly found in the literature for areas having a similar rainfall pattern. Furthermore, given the relatively low rainfall in the area, and considering other climatic factors like humidity and wind speed, would tend to make this chosen value an appropriate safety margin in the calculations. An important and unavoidable component of the demand side for irrigation water IS constituted by the water losses; these are normally divided into conveyance losses accrued at different levels of the system (like main canal, distributaries, and watercourses), plus the seepage and percolation losses on-field. This study excluded the measurements at the main canal level because there was already in place a monitoring program for that purpose being conducted conjunctively by WAPDA and ACOP, in addition, this particular type of loss had received sufficient attention during the design and construction phases of the canal. Thus, for this study, the overall value of 10 percent losses as utilized for the design of the main canal was used.In any case, the treatment of water losses during thts study was considered of a preliminary nature. A limited number of measurements were made in order to establish orders of magnitude as guideline within the broader context of crop-based irrigation.Only if this concept is finally institutionalized by the GOP, would detailed water losses merit an in-depth analysis in order to fine-tune the demand for irrigation water Water loss measurements in the watercourses were conducted during the Rab, 1991192 season For losses in the distributaries, measurements were made during the Khanf 1992 season The inflow-outflow method was used to calculate these losses in three watercourses of Distributary # 3 and two watercourses of Distributary # 4.Flow measurements in lined reaches were madeusing current meters at the begtnning and end of the lined section RBC flumes were used for unlined reaches by taking measurements at the head, middle and tail of the sampled sections. In most eases, seepage losses from the bed and sides of the channel, as well as overtopping, leakages and small flows through open field outlets, were taken into consideration.The results showed that seepage losses from the lined reaches were in the range of 0 I/s per 1000 m2 (0 mm/day) in well maintained watercourses to very high values of 8 I/s per 1000 m2 (691 mm/day) in poorly maintained watercourses. In unlined reaches, the range of losses was from 5 to 10 11s per 1000 m2 (432 to 864 mm/day).Given the small number of measurements eventually made, it was not possible to calculate seepage losses for individual watercourses However, by making certain assumptions based on the limited direct field measurements, and the values obtained from the literature, it is possible to derive a fairly reliable average value for losses in a typical watercourse of the sample area Using the following field data, this value will be derived as shown in the box below The 19 Ils value is equivalent to a seepage loss of 1.5 mmlday, if water is running day and night in the watercourse under' the conditions specified in the data presented above.For the two distributaries, which are unlined, measurements were taken at the head and at the tail. For Distributary # 3, the discharge at the head was 1,870 I/s and the tail reading was 1740 Ils or 130 Ils less than the head discharge. There were 14 outlets between the two measuring points; out of these, 8 were fully closed, 2 were drawing 48 Ils and 2 were partially closed drawing 28 Ils. A flow of 30 Ils was also being pumped from a flooded field into the distributary during the time of measurements. Therefore, the total conveyance loss is determined as 70 Ils, or approximately 4 % of the incoming flow into the distributary.In Distributary # 4, the discharges were 3,710 Ils at the head and 3,390 Ils at its tail, or a total difference of 320 Ils. Out of the 19 outlets located between the measuring points, 10 were completely closed and 9 were partially closed. The total measured discharge drawn by these outlets was 227 I/s. Hence, the conveyance loss was 93 I/s, or approximately 2.5 YO of the incoming flow. The measurements are summarized in the table below.The crop water requirements per se represent the greatest share of the demand side of the irrigation equation. The water requirement of a crop is a function of the climatological conditions of the area in which'the crop is being grown, particularly as it refers both to the amount of water transpired by the plants, and the evaporation taking place in the surrounding soil. These two factors combined constitute the Crop Water Requirement (ETc) parameter required to asses irrigation needs of any crop during any time period. To determine the water requirement of each crop, the following basic universal equation is used: Where:The reference evapotranspiration, or ETo, represents the potential evaporation of a well watered grass crop and its surroundings (i.e., a crop growing without any water-related constraints). The water needs of other crops are directly linked to this climatic parameter by means of the crop coefficient which is specific to each crop, but also varies with the physiological growth stages of each crop. Thus, for each crop, the crop coefficient varies with time according to the various growth stages. In line with the above, other information normally required pertains to the cropping pattern, crop calendar, length of growth stages (normally described as Initial, Development, Middle and Maturing, for the purpose of establishing ETc values).Because the relationship described in the equation above is one of the most researched themes in the field of irrigation engineering, the study team decided to rely on the abundant information already available on the subject. This is particularly true in the case of the values needed on crop coefficients. While it would have been ideal to be able to determine the crop coefficient for each particular crop under the D.I.Khan climatic conditions, there has been a considerable amount of research done on this subject worldwide that has allowed the preparation of tables that can be used with a good degree of confidence in the absence of site-specific information.In order to facilitate the calculations, the CBlO project has used the computer program CROPWAT, a software developed by the F A 0 to determine both crop water and irrigation requirements based on climatic and crop data'. Thus, the project used the appropriate Kc values taken both from the CROPWAT software program and CRBC project-related reports.' ..For the determination of ETo, the CROPWAT program uses the Modified Penman Method (also known as the Penman-Monteith equation) which requires information on the following climatic data: average d4ily temperature, relative humidity, sunshine hours during the day, wind speed, latitude and altitude. This method has proven useful because, normally, these type of data are readily available from basic meteorological stations throughout the world. This proved true in the case of the D. I. Khan area. The monthly ETc values, based on actual cropping pattern, can be seen for distiibutaries # 3 and # 4 in Figure IV-5a and 5b, respectively. Notice that while the'ETc trend is similar, as would be expected, for both areas there are some differences in the total values for particular periods accrued from the differences in the cropping pattern.The climatological data for the D.I.Khan station was collected from the Regional Meteorological Center based at Lahore, which is responsible for data processing and analysis for that area of the country. The data used for the calculation of water requirements was based on different time series for different parameters available within a span of thirty-one years (1961 to 1992). In the particular case of the rainfall, an average fos 30 years was utilized assuming 80 % as the effective rainfall. This is a reasonable assumption for rainfall below 100 mmlmonth, which is the normal pattern in the area of study. While the precision of the information obtained under the crop surveys is beyond any doubt, it should be understood that this type of work can only be accomplished in a research setting; IlMl has no expectation that such a detailed ---although unsophisticated---work could be the norm for an irrigation agency. Therefore, the Khasra data' was collected from the ID and used in the estimation of crop water requirements for comparison with sampled areas and in other distributaries outside those areas studied. Not unexpectedly, considerable discrepancies were found between the PID and the detailed survey information which was the source of friendly disagreement between different actors involved in the study.. With both cropping intensities and cropping patterns shifting from the originally designed vatues, as has been amply documented and observed during the study period, the crop water requirements for particular areas will likewise experience modifications, theEby having a significant impact on system operation. These changes and their impacts .ale analyzed more in-depth in the subsequent chapters under .the sections dialing with: (1) agricultural production; and (2) the performance of the irrigation system.The previous two sections provided the details of the two sides of the irrigation equation: the to be delivered and the demand to be fulfilled. In this section, the intent is to bring these two parameters together and relate them to the principles of crop-based irrigation operations. Furthermore, implications will be drawn for the future sustainability of the CRBC Irrigation System in view of the present relationship of the two variables.On the supply side, the data shows that water is being delivered with little consideration to the needs of the crop. Other factors related to the hydraulics and safety of the irrigation netwark have by far taken preference. While the importance of the latter is not in dispute, it should not be the sole consideration as it does have implications towards obtaining the ultimate goal of the project, which is the establishment of a crop-based irrigation operations in the CRBC. In general, more water than needed is being delivered thrhghout the network. The main reason for the over-deliveries is related to the lack of water control at strategic points since no calibration of structures is in-place.Therefore, water cannot be measured or monitored with any degree of precision.The lack of water control notwithstanding, there is evidence that project managers do make an effort to adjust to the general farmers' cropping practices in the field. This is observed by the relatively higher water deliveries during the Kharif season compared with the Rabi. Another indication is the response to rainfall, when flows in the network are reduced, or the fact that flows are diminished during the late afternoon accounting for the lack of night irrigation. But these responses are done outside the context of crop-based irrigation.Analysis of the demand-side data shows that there has been a significant departure from the designed crop water requirements. The shifts in cropping patterns and intensities are addressed further below; however, from the water perspective, the changes have repercussion on the operation of the system. The peak water requirements have \"moved\" and set the stage for potential water shortages in the near .future. Also, there are serious implications for the on-going design of CRBC Stage 111. Not only can 'the design per se of the canals be affected, but the water allocation among the two provinces would need to be reviewed with all the political consequences this might entail.. In Figure IV-7, a comparison of design and actual crop water requirements is provided for the head of Distributary # 4. The peak water requirement can be observed shifted from October, under the design projections, to July under actual existing conditions in the area. The difference is related, of course, to the larger areas under both rice and sugarcane. However, it should be noted that the total crop water requirement has not changed significantly between the two cropping patterns. This is to be expected as the potential evapotranspiration in the area would remain fairly constant.By taking the analysis one step further, it was possible to determine the impact that the present supply over-deliveries, coupled with the relatively significant shift in the cropping pattern (and hence in the demand), would have 'on the systems' short-term sustainability .A series of scenarios were developed where the management (in terms of the response to water allocations), the operation of the system (in terms of water deliveries), the demand for water (in terms of different crop combinations), the \"leaks\" in the system (in terms ofwater losses in the system), and farmers response (in terms of opening and closure of outlets) were assigned different degrees of importance. The end-product was to determine the impact on the potential water availability for each stage of the CRBC under each set of conditions. While it could be argued that this type of exercise involves a good deal of subjectivity and therefore weakens its use in reaching decisions, the two years of field work provided enough information and insight into the actual behavior of the system in a way that predictions can be made with a fair degree of accuracy regarding the consequences for the various scenarios.In Figures IV-8a and IV-8b, one such scenario is .depicted related to the present command area of Distributary # 4. Assuming that management will continue the current pattern of water allocation decision-making, and therefore that supply deliveries will remain at the present higher levels, and using the information on water losses, cropping pattern trends and farmers response observed during the last two years, the daily volume of water required per unit area was calculated. This Q vs A relationship is shown in Figure IV-8a. If the entire CRBC system were to be operated under the present conditions being observed in the Distributary # 4 command area, not enough water would be available in the system to irrigate the entire area to be commanded by Stage 111. The figure shows that the entire areas under Stage I and II would be serviced. However, no less than 50,000 hectares (133,500 ac) in Stage Ill would be deprived of the irrigation service. The economic and financial implications of this scenario are staggering. Furthermore, the fact that this entire \"dry\" area is located in the Punjab Province raises some serious' political concerns. As stated earlier, the higher water allowances given to the two systems (0.60 Ilslha for CRBC and 0.77 W h a for LSC, as opposed to the traditional 0.21 to 0.28 Ilslha), provides greater flexibility in overall system operations. However, the effective use of this flexibility would largely depend on how the increased supplies are managed at the tertiary level of the system. In this regard, the way farmers share their water supplies and how they use this water to irrigate their fields become two critically important issues. A study activity was carried out in selected sample watercourses in the CRBC and the LSC irrigation systems to understand the tertiary-level water distribution and management practices prevailing in the two systems. Particular attention was paid to how the farmer's irrigation practices relate to, and are constrained or facilitated by, the existing water rights and water distribution methods. In the following paragraphs, only fully reported in Progress Reports # 2 and # 3.With one watercourse selected from each quartile of the distributary or minor, the study sample included 12 watercourses from Distributaries # 3 and # 4 of the new CRBC Stage-I area, and Girsal Minor of the old Paharpur canal system. In each selected watercourse, a sample of 6 farmer respondents representing head, middle and tail portions of the watercourse were interviewed and their irrigation practices were observed. The total sample size thus obtained was 72 farmers well distributed throughout the study area. Field observations and interviews with farmers and agency staff were supplemented by a literature review to understand the irrigation traditions prevailing in the study areas.The analysis of field data collected during this study shows that the increased water supplies so far made available to the project areas have brought about a fair degree of flexibility in water distribution at the watercourse level. This flexibility can be seen in three principal farmer practices observed in the study area:. the results of study activities in the CRBC are reported, since LSC work was already(1) Farmers in the study areas under the CRBC system do not follow any official warabandi schedule:(2) They close and open distributary outlets at their own discretion, depending on their water needs; andThey exchange, lend, borrow and trade their water turns(3)These aspects of flexible behavior are deviations from \"normal\", or officially recognized, water distribution practices in Pakistan, which points toward the fact that farmers are already engaged in some de facto crop-based irrigation management at the watercourse level.Theoretically, an overall shortage of the water supply forms the basis for the official warabandi water distribution method, and the primary objective of the warabandi system is to distribute this restricted supply in an equitable manner. For warabandi to be practiced according to this main objective, certain conditions have to be satisfied. These conditions include, among others: -  warabandi was in the process of being drawn up because there was a dispute among the farmers regarding water distribution. All the paper work had been completed and only the approval of the Executive Engineer was required. However, this process was abandoned when the dispute was resolved; all the farmers agreed to follow the unofficial warabandi already being practiced.In many watercourses of CRBC Stage I, no official or informal warabandi has yet been fully established. Water distribution methods are still evolving. In the present context of abundant water supplies during most of the cropping season, farmers make no formal request for an official warabandi. For the same reason, even in the few watercourses where an official warabandi had been developed as a result of rare water disputes that had emerged and then formally presented to the authorities, the need to follow the drawn-up distribution schedules had not been felt by the farmers.Thus, according to the observations during the study period, water distribution in the two sample distributary commands can be described as being in a state of flux. This can be attributed to several factors. Changes were still being effected in the physical infrastructure, and the farmers lacked experience as water users. Keeping in line with the normal practice, initiall}f:?only the pipe outlets had been provided in this newly developed area, so that they could later be converted to properly built (Pucca) outlets after the farm layout (Chakbandi] was fairly stabilized. Some of these outlets were being relocated at the request of the farmers, to better command the area. A new Initially, the time for each turn was fixed on the basis of three groups within the total of 20 farmers in the watercourse, probably as decided by some influential farmers. Subsequently, each group further distributed the time available to them among its members by their mutual consent. The average time turn for a farmer of this watercourse should be 1.90 hours per hectare on the average, but eventually, in the process of sharing the turns by each of the three groups, substantial inequity evolved. The farmers. who were not receiVlrig any water in the third group were later accommodated in the adjoining watercourse. Unless a dispute arises, and a specific request is made to the Irrigation Department authorities, this ad-hoc schedule of turns is likely to persist. Otherwise, after several seasons of this practice, further refinement might be made to this schedule by mutual agreement, and the turns could be fixed on an individual farmer basis.Field data indicated some differences between the two sample distributaries in this evolutionary process of establishing water distribution practices.Of the 20 watercourses along Distributary # 3, only 3 did not have some form of warabandi. The 17 with warabandi had all unofficial arrangements. In Distributary # 4, the picture was slightly different: out of 36 watercourses, only 14 had warabandi, 2 of which (7670-L and 19248-L) had official warabandi even if it was not strictly followed by the irrigators mainly due to an excessive water supply. One possible explanation for the difference in irrigation practices between the two distributaries is the relatively greater abundance of water in the watercourse commands of Distributary # 4 when compared with Distributary # 3, as reported by farmers'. Another explanation relates to the social characteristics; the population in Distributary # 4 being more diversified and with a higher proportion of recent settlers, have not yet been able to agree on a distribution schedule.In Girsal Minor, official warabandi schedules determined by the Irrigation Department provide the basis for water distribution. At the tail watercourses, although the official warabandis have been drawn up after the remodelling, differences already appear between the design-stage and the current practices. For the last 5 tail watercourses, differences are observed due to soil erosion by the lndus River, which has resulted in a decrease in the culturable command area of these watercourses.Most of the farmers have reported that water is in excess of their requirements during the Rabi season and that they are not keen about adhering to the warabandi. Thus, changes from whatever warabandi schedules they have commonly accepted frequently . Farmers perception of somewhat higher water allocations in Distributary # 4 as opposed to # 3 have been confirmed by IIMl's regulator flow monitoring data as discussed in Chapter 4 above. Of particular interest is the impact of water shortages on Stage 111 when projecting present management effects (see section 4.3). take place d'uring the Rabi season. During the Kharif season, farmers cultivate a lower percentage of their land; again, they are not particular about following any strict warabandi. In all cases, the duration of the warabandi rotation, which is generally followed as a practice, was found to be 7 days. As no conveyance allowances are provided in the waer turns, tail-end farmers reported receiving less water as compared to the farmers near the head of the watercourse. No farmer reported any dispute in the operation of. the present system. Apparently, the Chairmen of the Water Users Associations (which were formed during the watercourse lining program), who were usually the big landowners, or any other big landowner, intervened in the event of a dispute. Interviews with officials of the Irrigation Department confirmed this situation; they stated that there was no pucca warabandi for these new watercourses as there had been no formal request by any affected farmer, or farmer group, for the Irrigation Department to step in and lay down the official warabandi.In the newly established CRBC Stage-I irrigation system, the absence of a vvarabandi practice is vividly demonstrated by the unusual farmer-behavior of closing and opening the outlets at the farmers' own discretion. This behavior appears to be wide-spread; 92% of the farmers interviewed in Distributary # 3, and 96 % in Distributary # 4, have Paharpur area, the incidence was less, but still at 88 of the farmers interviewed. Basically, the need to close the outlets is explained by the water supplies being much greater than the crop water requirements as assessed by the farmers. The incidence of outlet closure in the Girsal minor was substantially less, and could be explained by the presence of several escapes in the canal, which tended to reduce its flow level during times of excess water supply.The number of instances during which the outlets were observed to be kept open, closed, or partially closed, was recorded for four crop seasons. Then results are shown in pie-chart form in Figure V-I During the first period of observations, which was the 1991/92 Rabi season, the farmers appeared to be hesitant in closing their outlets as the practice was understood to be against Irrigation Department rules, but in the absence of any official reaction, they proceeded to stabilize a \"refusal system\"' in which the farmers closed the outlets whenever water was not needed. 'This development can be seen in the changes of this behavior between the 1991192 Rabi and 1992 Kharif seasons. The percentage of time the outlets were observed to be kept open decreased from 66 % in 1991192 Rabi to 50 % in 1992 Kharif, while during the latter period, farmers also resorted to closing the outlets partially 16% of the time during observations. However, the 1993 Kharif, which was conspicuously a water-short season, saw the farmers keeping the outlets open for Interestingly, the pattern of keeping the outlets open is seen to be very closely matching the crop water requirement for the particular cropping pattern (see Figure V-3). This suggests that, even in the absence of any formal arrangement for crop-based irrigation operations, the farmers on their own are managing the supply-oriented delivery system in a manner that water use seems to take into consideration the crop water requirements.The allocation of water per watercourse, and per farmer, is an important factor that influences the effectiveness of water management below the outlet. The water allocation in the warabandi system, in which the frequency of the rotational delivery is kept constant (usually once in 7 full days, or 168 hourslCCA), is measured in hours per hectare. This value varies from one watercourse to the other, depending on the command area to be irrigated in each watercourse. The command area determines the size of the outlet through which a constant discharge of water is supplied to the watercourse.If the warabandi is strictly adhered to, each farmer receives the full supply of the watercourse during his turn, the duration of which is proportional to the size of his farm. Considering that the frequency and the rate of delivery are both kept constant, the allocation of water in terms of hours per hectare for each farmer in a given watercourse should be the same, provided that the CCA of the watercourse does not change once the outlet discharge is fixed. However, considerable variability was found in the study areas, both in terms of actual flow received at different outlets, as well as the water turn durations and supplies received, or used, by the different farmers within each observed watercourse.Variability can occur due to the design parameters themselves. This was tested using the Irrigation Departments data; the water allowance (defined for the purpose of this presentation as design discharge per unit of CCA) was calculated for each waterc6urse along Distributaries # 3 and # 4, and Girsal Minor. Table V-3 gives the averages and the coefficients of variation of the water allowances given to outlets in the three channels. The water allowances were found to be almost the same for different outlets along the two new Distributaries # 3 and # 4, as should be the case if the design criteria was applied uniformly. However, as seen in the graph, there is considerable variability in the allowances for outlets along the Girsal Minor. This high variability can be attributed to the post-design changes that may have been occured over a period of time in the old Girsal Minor, which have since been officially recognized.Table V-I in Section 5.1.2 above, which gives the type of warabandi for the 12 observed sample watercourses in CRBC, also provides their water allocations command areas were not substantially adjusted after the outlets were fixed according to a uniform discharge rate per unit of land, these allocations should represent an equitable distribution of water. This was tested for four sample watercourses along Distributary # 3. Another important observation was that, generally, most outlets in all three sample channels were drawing more than the design discharge during this period, the major exceptions being the tail watercourse and the 1993 Kharif season water withdrawals in the Girsal Minor. In the case of Distributary # 3, as seen in Table V-4, head and middle outlets are drawing more water as compared to tail outlets, even more than the design allocation, which must be based on the peak crop water requirements. The actual average daily withdrawals cise in the Kharif seasons because the area under rice (24   .   An important finding was that, in actual practice, there is considerable variability in the use of water turns by the farmers. In the observed watercourses, farmers irrigated their land taking more or less than their share due to them according to the uniform water allocation for the watercourse. The actual time durations of their irrigation turns were observed for the 9 watercourses supposed to be having some form of warabandi, and the data so collected were analyzed. The results are given in Table V-5 below..  This table shows that almost all farmers in the watercourses having a warabandi are exchanging water turns. In fact, the warabandi turns have little practical meaning for the timing of the irrigation. Their real meaning lies in the fact that they fix the riqht to irrigation water for the participating farmers, something that they can use for appeal when their access to water is jeopardized in any way. They refer to this function of the warabandi as \"haqooq\".When farmers cannot meet their water requirements for one reason or other, they start buying canal or tubewell water. Oflen, sellers are tail-end farmers who cannot fully benefit from their water turn; thus, they sell it to head farmers on a seasonal basis In order to have an irrigation water supply to irrigate their crops, they make a contract with neighboring tubewell owners which usually take 113 of the harvest. Purchase and sale of canal water usually takes place during the Kharif season. Another category of water sellers are farmers who do not grow rice during KharifWater sellers and buyers have only been found among sample farmers froin the Girsal Minor command area. The percentage of farmers in a.watercourse involved in water selling activities seems to increase from the head to the tail of the Girsal Minor command area. The last watercourse, however, does not have a single farmer selling or buying water, since ther is an excess of water because of the loss of agricultural land on the lndus River side. The comparison of the level of the water selling activity along the watercourse shows a slightly larger percentage of farmers participating in the sale of water at the head and middle (13% each) reaches of the watercourse than at the tail (8%) of the watercourse; with an average for the minor of Ilo/n Only the number of sellers has been counted, including buyers would give somewhat higher percentages.In conclusion, there is a substantial degree of flexibility in managing water at the watercourse level. At the same time, a fair degree of variability exists in the use of water turns, and in a context of water abundance, this cannot be seen as a factor that is likely to perpetuate inequity in water distribution. However, the role of big or influential landowners is observed to be significant in contributing to the variability in water use along the watercourse. Since land is still being brought under development in the CRBC area, it is too early to say whether this flexible water management by the farmers has some similarity with crop-based irrigation.To complement the technical and institutional facets of the Crop-Based Irrigation Operations in the NWFP research study, an economic component was also included Specific activities focused on irrigated agriculture and its relationship with irrigatiori water supplies were undertaken during the two years of field work. The first activity. :-I base-line socio-economic survey, has been described in Progress Report # 1 a:or:g wi!hthe main results and conclusions. Thus, the results of this activity have not been included in the present report.The specific objectives of the analysis of irrigated agriculture in the CRBC area were: i) to assess the current level of agricultural production (i.e. analysis of cropping patterns in selected watercourse command areas, as well as the analysis of yields for major crops among sample farmers);ii) to estimate the performance of irrigated agriculture in the CRBC command area by comparing design an current levels of production;iii) to understand the impact of changes in irrigation water supplies on agricultural production. To address this issue, two methods were chosen: (a) analysis and economic modelling of farming systems in the CRBC area; and (b) the analysis of agricultural production in the Old Paharpur command area as a result of the recent changes in water duties; and iv) to analyze the impact of the current system of water charges on agricultural production within the context of crop-based irrigation operations.The results from the analysis of irrigated agriculture in the CRBC area were to be used to evaluate the benefits of crop-based irrigation operations and identify costs and opportunities for implementation on a wider scale. However, it was understood that the economic evaluation would be based on the monitoring of the impact of management changes on agricultural production. As it was not possible to field-test proposed management changes, therefore, it was not possible to assess the impact of these changes on irrigated agriculture in the CRBC area.The main aspect to be stressed in this section is the significant difference between the design and actual cropping patterns. This difference is partially explained by the higher than designed water supplies to the Stage I command area, as highlighted previously in this report. However, as stressed by the analysis of the farming systems as presented below, a significant portion of the difference is related to the use of faulty assumptions at the design stage of the CRBC project regarding the relation between irrigation water supply and the farmers' decision-making process.Cropping patterns were determined through intensive crop surveys for 12 sample watercourses along Distributary # 3 (8 watercourses) and Distributary # 4 ( 4watercourses). The first objective of the crop surveys was to analyze the impact of irrigation water supplies on farmers' cropping decisions; the second, and most important, objective was to calculate the crop water requirements and compare them with the irrigation water supplies (using the Relative Water Supply parameter) as Table V-7 presents the Rabi 1992/93 and Kharif 1993 cropping patterns for Distributaries # 3 and ## 4 and compares them: i) with the original CRBC design cropping pattern; and ii) with the cropping pattern expected after 5 years of operation that was used for the project's economic analysis (see PC-I 1991 (revised)).. presented in Chapter 4. .The table suggests that farmers have responded rationally to the high water supplies by cultivating as much as possible of the command area, as confirmed by the high cropping intensities for the Rabi season. The table also highlights, however, the high discrepancy between the actual and design cropping patterns. Particularly, the area under rice has been significantly underestimated. The problem of coming to grips with the cropping pattern has long ago been recognized, as stressed by successive consultants involved in the evaluation of Stage I and the design of Stages II and 111 of CRBC.The initial cropping pattern used for the design of the CRBC irrigation system estimated that only 2 percent of the area would be under rice; this value was subseqtiently increased to 10 percent for the economic evaluation of the project after 5 years of operation (as shown in the last column of Table V-7). However, this value is still far off from the 25 to 30 percent of the area under rice reported under sample watercourses served by Distributaries ?# 3 and # 4.The analysis of the cropping pattern at the watercourse level shows that there is a high variability in the area under rice and sugarcane, which are crops with high water requirements. Figure V-6 compares 'the ratios between the design and actual percentage of the CCA under rice and sugarcane for the selected sample watercourses.The differenCes in the area under rice and sugarcane between the different outlets, however, pwld not be explained by the water supply available relative to the crop demand. Regression analysis with the Relative Water Supply as the dependant variable, and the percentage of the area under crops with high water requirements as independent variables, failed to show any significant relationship between the mentioned variables... . Constraints other tha.n water (labour, access to credit, availability of fertilizers, etc) are predominant in influencing farmer's cropping decisions, as there is sufficient water in the distributary as highlighted by the frequent closure of outlets. However, the analysis undertaken, of both the farming systems and the economic modelling of farms, clearly indicated that water can be a constraint for some farms during the rice transplanting period at the beginning of the Kharif season.The crop-cut method was used for the collection of rice and wheat yields for   ii)To reduce the yield gap between newly developed and Old Paharpur command areas, the extension services of the Provincial Agricultural Department should make a significant effort in supplying irrigation related messages to the former (and less productive) areas, as these areas present a good potential for further yield increases..In order to better understand the relationship between irrigation water supplies and agricultural production, an in-depth analysis of farming systems for the Distributary # 3 command area was undertaken, based on data collected during the base-line socioeconomic survey (EDC, 1991, see Annex-I) and complemented by information regularly gathered by IlMl field staff during the first two seasons of field activities.The main issue to be addressed under the analysis was the difference between design and actual cropping patterns. Why do farmers have a cropping pattern different from the design cropping pattern? Are high water supplies the main cause explaining this discrepancy? Or, has the design cropping pattern been based on unsound assumptions regarding the relationship between irrigation water supplies and agricultural production? The modelling of farming systems indicated that the design values of the area under rice had little, if any, resemblance with the expected value predicted by the model. This tends to reinforce the idea that some of the current cropping pattern problems (like the impact on the available supply for the other stages of the CRBC) are due mostly to design miscalculations and to the lack of an in-depth analysis of the relationship between irrigation water supply and agricultural production as opposed to supply overdeliveries per se.The Old Paharpur irrigation system presents a unique opportunity for assessing the impact of irrigation water supplies on the agricultural production. With the commissioning of CRBC Stage I, the water duties of the Old Paharpur irrigation system have been increased and a significant impact on the agricultural production of the area was expected.The Girsal Vinor. in the Old Paharpur irrigation system, was thus selected for the analysis. Regular data collected by the PID have been analysed and complemented by IlMl primary field data and observations. The full results of the analysis, summarized The changes in water duties did not have any impact on the cropping intensity recorded for the area. However, farmers have reacted very positively to the changes in canal water supplies by modifying their cropping pattern, with a major shift towards more Kharif crops.Farmers now plant larger areas under rice and sugarcane, and less wheat and gram. However. only the changes in the area under rice are significantly related to changes in water duties as shown by regression analysis. On the other hand, for the area under sugarcane, the installation of a sugarcane mill in the vicinity, and its related incentives for increasing production, is probably the main reason explaining the recent development in area under sugarcane.Calculation of the Relative Water Supply (RWS) parameter indicates that farmers now apply more water per unit area than before the remodelling of the Girsal Minor took place. Although the quantity of canal water used has significantly increased between the Before and After remodelling stages, the increase in the RWS has been minimal, due to increases in the area under rice and sugarcane accompanied by a significant reduction in private tubewell operation and groundwater use. The number of private tubewells, also, has been drastically reduced afler the remodelling and the commissioning of the CRBC.The improvement in the quality of irrigation water supplies has favoured farmers' investment in other inputs as well. After the remodelling, farmers apply significantly larger quantities of fertilizers (Urea. DAP) on their rice and wheat crops, compared with the Before remodelling situation. The increase in water duties, however, did not modify the effectiveness of fertilizer use.Finally, the cumulative effect of the increase in water duties and in fertilizer use has led to a significant increase in yields of the major crops Regression analysis shows that 65 percent of the total increase in rice yield can be attributed directly to the changes in water duties, while the remaining 35 percent is caused by increases in the quantity of urea The deficiencies of the current system of water charges has been highlighted by severa! researchers and planners in Pakistan. Problems often cited are the absence of a relationship between water charges and the quality of irrigation services, the lack of transparency in the allocation of water charges to the,Operation and Maintenance of the irrigation systems, the lack of incentive for farmers to use irrigation water efficiently, etc. These problems are not analyzed here, although these need to be addressed effectively by policy makers and operating agencies alike.During the March 1993 Workshop on Crop-Based Irrigation Operations held in D.I.Khan as part of the study, the PID highlighted the discrepancy between O&M costs, and water charges assessed and collected. As specified in the the CRBC irrigation project documents, an increase in the level of water charges was planned to reduce this discrepancy, with a related (expected) improvement of water use efficiency.In this regard, the first important aspect found in the study was that farmers do not know the exact level of water charges for each crop. It came as a surprise to discover that the majority of 100 farmers interviewed during the Rabi 1992/93 were not aware of any differences among crops in the level of water charges. Thus, even if water charges are increased, but still remain unknown to farmers, to expect changes in water use efficiency as a result is rather doubtful. A serious effort should be made to get farmers to incorporate water charges in their decision making as another important economic variable in their agricultural production process.A second aspect is that an increase by 30 % on the level of water charges would not have any significant impact on agricultural production and cropping patterns. The economic models, developed under the farming system analysis, for several representative farms of the Distributary # 3 command area show that a change in the current structure of water charges, rather than a uniform increase for each cropl would have more impact on farm's performance indicators and cropping patterns.The lessons learned from the modelling exercise is that it is probably not possible to influence farmers cropping decisions by only increasing the level of water charges under the current system. A major change will be required, one that can offer a better link between the price paid by farmers for their water and the quality of the irrigation service they receive. Moreover, farmers would start to use their water more efficiently only if the adjustments he makes on the water supplied to his fields have a direct impact on the water charges to be paid at the end of the season.,agencies to impose a supply-based approach rather than one considering crop requirements.The limitations of the analysis, however, were fully recognized by IlMl as the research results were based. only, on water flow data collected during less than two cropping seasons and for a limited number of locations Furthermore the systems performance analysis --in terms of its agricultural production--had also some limitations due to.the unavailability of appropriate data.The remainder of this chapter presents the results of the direct follow-up to the initial research work done on the evaluation of the performance of the CRBC Stage I irrigation system. The main objective of this chapter is to assess the current Performance of the CRBC again, within a crop-based irrigation operations context, utilizing a little over two years of primary data (from September 1991 to October 1993) which was collected by IlMl'field staff as a part of the regular activities of the study By providing a comprehensive picture of the CBRC (Stage I) irrigation system performance, this chapter also tries to summarize some of the information presented in previous sections of this report pertaining to. (1) the supply of irrigation water at different levels of the system. (2) the demand for irrigation water, and (3) the resulting agricultural productionThe analysis of performance presented below focuses on the secondary and tertiary canals only, since Chapter 4 above has already addressed the main canal issues indepth. Special importance is given to the problem of over-supply deliveries (comparatively with the design expectations) at the distributary and watercourse levels, as this is perceived as a major problem impacting negatively on the environment (salinity and waterlogging) and on the future distribution of water among the three stages of CRBC.The concluding section of the chapter stresses the need to institutionalize the assessment of system performance on the part of the operating 'agencies; this needs. tn be carried out within the context of an appropriate and efficient Management Information System (MIS), a component of a decision support system for management of irrigation schemes.Performance Assessment and Performance IndicatorsThe nature of the indicators used for assessing the performance must be dependant on the objectives of the system. In the study's context, the main objective i s t o matchAs referred to above, the main focus of performance evaluation under this set of indicators is at the watercourse and distributary level. At the former level. the indicators selected are analogous to the ones defined by Strosser and Garces (1992). They are also similar to indicators developed by Molden and Gates (1990), but based on the Relative Water Supply parameter (see Chapter 5) rather than on discharges at specific points in the system. The indicators assume that every. watercourse in the system would have the same importance for the operating agencies. However, it is recognized that this is not the case as problems in the operation of larger watercourses, for example, would be seen as relatively more important than similar problems in the water supply of smaller watercourses. To tackle this issue, specific wbights could be given to each sub-unit of the system according to its respective command area, maximum design discharge, or current irrigation water demand. However, this would further complicate the indicators. Moreover, calculations completed for some Indicators have shown that very little difference results from the introduction of specific weights.In the case of the distributaries, the main focus has been on the difference between the volume of water currently supplied to the distributaries and the volume of water that should be supplied if the design assumptions were valid. A simple indicator is used, the Volume Ratio, which is based on the relative difference of the actual volume supplied with the design volume. Here, as there is a large variability in the size of the distributaries, the volume supplied to each distributary is weighted by its respective area served. The mathematical expression is given below as: AS specified previously elsewhere, the values utilized for actual yields were crop-cut yields adjusted by a percentage to take into account the differences between crop-cut and interview-based yield values, in order to make the comparison compatible.Yield per unit of water, as well as gross margin per unit of land and per unit of water, are also seen as important productivity related variables that should be included in a comprehensive assessment of system performance. These particular indicators, however, have not been presented since no target values were readily available for calculating these productivity parameters. Thus, the performance assessment of the CRBC Stage I system, in terms of agricultural productivity (of land and water), necessarily remains rather subjective. Moreover, the data required to calculate these analysis presented by Strosser and Garces (1992), which showed that the supply and the demand of irrigation water were nearly matched at the watercourse level. The reason explaining the difference can be that only 4 watercourses of Distributary # 3 were used in that initial analysis. Furthermore, the focus was only on the Rabi season, which had a much better performance for the Adequacy indicator as compared with the Kbarif seasons.The Dependability indicator suggests a poor performance for the two distributaries, especially during the Rabi season whcih was negatively influenced by the canal closure period. The differences between the demand for, and the supply of, irrigation water are rather erratic, with a large variability over time. In this table, similarly to table Vl-I, a good performance is given by values of the Volume Ratio Indicator close to 0 (column \"Objective\"). The volume ratla represents the relative difference between the volume delivered to a given distributary and the maximum volume as per design. A positive value indicates an over-supply as compared to the maximum design supply, and a negative value represents a supply lower than the maximum design supply.- For each output performance indicator, a value of 0 (column \"Objective\") is desired, showing a good match between expected levels of agricultural output (in term of cropping intensity, area under rice, yields, etc.) and current levels of agricultural output.Values represent the difference from design values in terms of percentage. For example, the value of 0.35 for the Rabi Cropping Intensity Variance for the \"total sample area\" means that the current cropping intensity for the Rabi Season is 35 percent higher than the cropping intensity predicted at the design stage for the \"after 5 years of operation\" situation of the CRBC Stage I. A wheat yield variance of (minus) -0.44 for the \"total sample area\" shows that current yields are 44% lower than expected after 5 years of operation.  although the RWS values are rather close to but higher than 1, the performance in terms of yields is rather disappointing, especially for the wheat crop. Under the same 5-year scenario, actual wheat yields fall 44 percent short of the expected yield. Fortunately, for the rice crop, the relative difference between actual and expected yields is only (minus) -4 percent, thanks to the Girsal Minor area farmers that record yields 28 percent higher than expected.Finally, in the case of wheat production, the higher than expected area cultivated is negatively compensated by the poor level of yields, leading to a total production for the area equal to only 75 percent of the expected production.The calculations presented above stresses that farmers are using more water to irrigate their crops than required, especially during the Kharif season as highlighted by the values of the corresponding adequacy indicators. Specific water related messages should be developed and delivered by the extension services in order to reduce farmers' perceptions about the quantity of irrigation water required for managing their crops. However, the main problem highlighted by the analysis of the operational performance remains at the head of the distributaries through their over-deliveries. The expected negative impact on the water supply downstream of the CRBC Stage I would justify some rapid actions by the operating agencies to reduce flows.The output performance analysis also indicates that the area now being irrigated is ahead of targets, but is probably not sufficient to compensate for the relatively low yields (especially for the wheat crop) recorded in the newly irrigated areas. Regression analysis was performed to identify the irrigation related factors influencing the average watercourse yields of rice. The best linear equation found is given below:Rice Yield = 3357 -678 x Year + 43. The regression analysis indicated that the seasonal RWS does not have any impact on the level of yield. However, the coefficient of variation of the RWS shows a significant and negative impact on the average yield under a watercourse: farmers who do not match their crop water requirements and irrigation water supply closely enough during the season (i.e. a high Coefficient of Variation) have lower yields. This is specially true when RWS values are less than 1The analysis highlights also that yields were significantly higher for the 1992 season (as stressed by the negative coefficient before the dummy variable \"Year\"), and that yields are higher for those watercourses having a high percentage of the CCA under rice.The impact of the results of Output performance, presented in Table VI-4, on the economic viability of the CRBI) project should be assessed further. At present, Stage I of CRBC is using more water than designed, especially during the peak water requirement period. The expected negative impact on the. future water supdy downstream, and ultimately on the agricultural production of those areas, can not be overemphasized. At the same time, yields in Stage I areas are still lower than the targeted values, but should not be used as a justification for the high quantities of water currently being supplied.Although at the design stage, crop-based irrigation operations were partially taken into account, mostly as it relates to canal capacities, current objectives of the operating agencies (which concentrate on main canal safety, sedimentation-related needs, and avoiding disputes) are not conducive to crop-based irrigation operations (this is especially true at the main canal level). The difference between the current objectives and the ones drawn from a crop-based irrigation operation can go a long.way towards explaining the poor performance of the CRBC, as discussed here . There is an urgent need to address issues related to the primary objectives of the system at the main canal (WAPDA), and at the distributary and minpr level (PID), in delivering crop-based water requirements.Once the major objectives are redefined and ready to be mef, the assessment of performance should be included in the day-to-day activities of the operating agencies (i.e., institutionalized). This means that targets need to be well defined, performance indicators need to be identified, set up feedback mechanisms established between different actors in the system and, finally, performance assessment needs to be compared with operational plans. To accomplish this, an appropriate and efficient Management Information System (MIS) should be put in place. Improved system performance should follow! This will be the challenge for current and future managers of the Chashma Right Bank Canal Irrigation System. The broad objective underlying the study on Crop-Based Irrigation Operations in the NWFP, as given in the study proposal, was \"to improve the overall productivity of water resources in the two irrigation systems, CRBC and LSC, through improved irrigation operations in accordance with crop water requirements within the authorized water allocations and subject to available water supplies\". With this purpose in view, several study activities were initiated in both of the systems, but due to delays in infrastructure development in the LSC, the emphasis of the study efforts shifted to CRBC. The study aimed to identify the main facets of a water delivery system that would correspond with crop water requirements, based on a viable cropping pattern, predictions of rainfall, estimates of evapotranspiration and seepage rates, and observations of existing fzrming practices and cropping calendars.The study initially brought out three major concerns arising from the nature of operations observed in the CRBC:The rather generous water deliveries to the distributaries encourage the farmers to adopt a more rice intensive cropping pattern than anticipated at the earlier design stage. Seeing more water than currently required, farmers are likely to further increase the area under rice, and probably sugarca'ne as well, depending on tfie market incentives.Persistent delivery of excess water into the canal system is likely to exacerbate drainage problems. Even if escapes are used along distributaries, the effect of frequent escapes may lead to a build-up of watertables in the tail portions of Stage I and Stage II command areas. * *The generous use of water currently in Stage I of CRBC, which possibly could continue in Stage II, is likely to reduce the area that can be irrigated in Stage 111. This will affect the profitability of the project as a whole, and also the equity between various stages of the system.The study results described in the foregoing chapters confirm these initial concerns. Although each of the three concerns taken in isolation does not appear to be so alarming, combined, they can represent a serious water management problem in the CRBC system, which also is described in some detail in Chapter 4 of this Volume II of the Final Report. Although cropping intensities in the areas so far developed in CRBC-.correspond to overall project design intentions, 90% in Rabi and 60% in Kharif, the actual cropping pattern has deviated from the design. Rice now accounts for about 25% of the area, as against 2% planned in the original project documents, and 14% assumed in the later consultancy reports. Even with increased rice cultivation, farmers appear to operate within a favorable Relative Water Supply range of 1.0 to 1.5, while engaging in some unusual farmer behavior of voluntarily closing their outlets when water is not needed. These observations lead to the conclusion that water delivery is substantially more than crop water requirements, which is further evidenced by the absence of warabandi practices.The present situation of water over-deliveries in CRBC Stage I relates to a tendency that can be expected in any newly developing irrigation system; that is, to give rather more water than required to the first areas developed for irrigation. The time has come, therefore, for fine-tuning the operations, before the over-supply of water in Stage I gives rise to stabilized farmer demand for more,water than can be actually delivered when all of the three stages are fully developed. Thus, the immediate need underlying the concern regarding crop-based irrigation, as anticipated in the broad study purpose mentioned above, should be to assess appropriately the existing cropping pattern for Stages I and 11, and monitor the supply conditions that would meet the crop water requirements for that cropping pattern.This effort involves the need to fine-tune main system management by WAPDA, distributary system management by the Irrigation Department, and farm and watercourse management by farmers with the necessary technical assistance from the Agriculture Department. Since de-facto flexible water management has already been initiated by the farmers through their demonstrated willingness and ability to monitor the flows through the outlets, their efforts will be greatly assisted with some support to establish well-organized water users associations. Based on these conclusions, a set of recommendations have been formulated, which are given in Volume I of the Final Report.The study also concludes that it is possible to shift away from the traditional supplyoriented irrigation operations to a more flexible management system in which the operations are modified to be mdre responsive to crop water requirements, particularly in situations where increased water allocations are possible. The rationale lies strongly in an understanding of the limitations with the traditional system operations, which inhibits improvements in agricultural productivity.This section attempts to provide, in brief form, some guidelines for the line agencies --WAPDA, PID and PAD-. regarding the implementation of Crop-based. Irrigation, Operations ,in a selected area of CRBC. While guidelines that follow pertain, .for Implementation of Crop-based Irrigation Operatians points in order to make water deliveries in accordance with crop requirements. The computer model will also be used to simulate different management and operational scenarios that will lead to enhanced system performance, like minimum flotv working levels, water releases from the barrage, etc. The effective use of this model also require,s a good communications between the operations center and all field staff.Select and or hire new gatekeeping personnel capable of reading and recording gate settings as well as handling wireless telephone equipment to transmit data readily and accurately to the Unit center. One gatekeeper per off-take plus one or two .stand-by replacements bill be needed.Formulate and develop a simple method to calculate on a regular basis the seasonal, crop., water demands that can provide feedback into operational plans. Start this application in one distributary and extend subsequently to the entire target area. Develop water management-oriented messages geared towards the cropbased approach and introduce gradually with participating watercourses and, eventually, to all target areas.Pursue the formation of \"organized behavior\" groups with the endobjective of upgrading these groups to full Water Users Associations. In this connection, work on the development of a WUA manual i.ndicating the activities to be undertaken and the benefits derived from farmers belonging to this type of organizatioh.Establish a link between the PID and farmers groups by promoting frequent meetings, field and demonstration days, and the potential benefits of crop-based irrigation.Enhance the presence of AD personnel in the CRBC Stage I area, no less than one agricultural officer per watercourse to be monitored should be specifically assigned for this purpose. .","tokenCount":"20023"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f59ed31a6753c93c93dc0624c82cabee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a70d0915-9c5f-4afe-959a-55ef1f04a1ff/retrieve","id":"-648247567"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aba27a09-9571-4345-a9a0-52899491be35","pagecount":"18","content":"Durante 2001 se continuó la labor de recolección, actualización y adición de datos (datos del año 2000) a las diferentes series de datos almacenadas en los sistemas de información que desde hace algunos años el proyecto BP1 viene manteniendo con el propósito de disponer de información clave que sirva de apoyo tanto para estudios propios como para estudios de colaboradores.Dado que los programas de mejoramiento genético en el CIAT y en otros centros de investigación han venido trabajando con miras a incrementar el contenido de algunos micro-nutrientes en diferentes cultivos, es importante conocer la situación de los diferentes países de América latina en lo que respecta a su nutrición y a los problemas de deficiencia a micro-nutrientes que se están presentando en la población.Por lo anterior, a la base de datos de América Latina se le incorporó información sobre el consumo de alimentos por parte de la población en los diferentes países, información sobre el contenido de micro-nutrientes de que disponen los diferentes alimentos e información sobre el estado de los países latinoamericanos en lo que respecta particularmente a deficiencia de Vitamina A y a deficiencia de Hierro.En lo que hace referencia a la base de datos de Colombia se actualizaron un año todas las series de datos en ella incluida; es decir que a la fecha se dispone de información hasta el año 1999. Igualmente se adicionaron nuevas series de datos (cuadro-1) relacionadas con el cultivo de la Yuca y otros cultivos suplementarios o complementarios a la yuca en la elaboración de concentrados para la alimentación de animales.El CIAT emprendió durante 2001 el ajuste de su página web a nuevos estándares de diseño, más gratos a la vista y con características comunes a todas las páginas que identifican claramente la institución y que facilitan la navegación al visitante. Como parte de la gran web CIAT, las páginas correspondiente al proyecto BP1 (Evaluación de Impacto) fueron ajustadas a los nuevos patrones de presentación como puede observase en la figura-1.Figura-1: Nueva Página Web de Impacto.Como se observa en la figura anterior, la parte superior de cada página muestra un menú horizontal cuyas diferentes opciones despliegan submenús que le permite al usuario ir a cualquiera de las áreas institucionales.De igual manera, cada página muestra en su margen izquierda un menú que le permite al usuario ir a cualquiera de las áreas de información del respectivo proyecto. En el caso de la página de Impacto, con esta facilidad el usuario podrá moverse entre tópicos como bases de datos, Modexc, recursos de información, etc.En el presente año, la página web de impacto también fue adicionada con tablas de tendencias (Trends-2001) en la producción de los productos de interés del CIAT y con información correspondiente a los costos de producción del cultivo de la yuca en seis regiones de producción en Colombia.El sistema de información sobre uso de la página web de Impacto reporta que durante el período 21/Sep/2000 al 27/Sep/2001, la página fue visitada en 2883 ocasiones, lo que significa un incremento del 187.1% con respecto a período similar en el año inmediatamente anterior durante el cual se realizaron 1541 visitas.En la medida que la página se hace más conocida por la comunidad afín a nuestros intereses, el número de visitas es cada día mayor como puede observarse en la figura-2. En lo que respecta al origen de las visitas, la figura-3 muestra que el sistema no ha podido determinar el origen del 27.4% de ellas, pero de aquellas identificadas, el 38.9% corresponde a visitas originadas desde el continente americano, el 17.3% corresponde a visitas desde organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro en el mundo, el 11.4% a visitas desde países europeos y el 5.0% restante a visitas desde los continentes Asia, Australia y África. Al descontar las visitas de origen desconocido, los porcentajes antes relacionados se convierten respectivamente a : 53.5%, 23.9%, 15.7% y 6.9%.Figura-3 : Origen de visitas a la página Web por continente.El cuadro-2 muestra la lista descendente por número de visitas de los 20 primeros países con mayor frecuencia de visitas. El grupo de visitantes de organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro ocupa el primer lugar seguido por Estados Unidos, Colombia y México. Las instituciones Educativas y Comerciales de Estados Unidos ocupan también un lugar importante en la lista.Un total de 77 países (12 más que el año anterior) a través de los diferentes continentes, aparecen registrados con usuarios que han visitado nuestra página web.En cuanto al uso de las bases de datos del proyecto BP1 vía Internet, las estadística del sistema de información muestran que durante el presente año se realizaron 2347 consultas a la base de datos de América Latina, 944 a la base de datos de Colombia y 52 consultas a la base de datos de variedades. El análisis se centro alrededor de las actividades desarrolladas por cada componente y los productos/resultados técnicos esperados.? Este fue el paso inicial, para la elaboración de un marco conceptual de referencia que incluye la estructuración y articulación de las diferentes metas y los resultados esperados del Convenio, así como también elementos conceptuales relacionados con los procesos de adopción y difusión tecnológica y los métodos y herramientas para el monitoreo y la evaluación del impacto.? Se identificaron los productos y resultados tecnológicos del Convenio durante los dos primeros años de ejecución, 1999-2000. Dada la gran heterogeneidad de los resultados científicos, que van desde conocimientos básicos de apoyo a la actual y futura investigación, pasando por nuevas metodologías y procedimientos hasta productos terminados listos para ser utilizados como son las bases de datos o los nuevos cultivares, ellos se agruparon en 7 clases o categorías.? Se contabilizaron 152 productos/resultados tecnológicos aportados por las nueve Metas que conforman el Programa de Investigación. Más de la mitad de ellos (55.9%) se agrupa en dos categorías: a) nuevos conocimientos científicos y b) desarrollo de cultivares y sistemas de producción.Informe de Avance: El Convenio de Cooperación técnica y científica suscrito en 1998 entre el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural de Colombia (MADR) y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), para ser ejecutado en el período 1999-2003, tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de nuevas alternativas para la producción agropecuaria en la Orinoquia y Amazonia del país.Este acuerdo busca aprovechar al máximo la dilatada experiencia de trabajo del CIAT en la región objetivo en los temas de desarrollo de germoplasma de cultivos y de pastos y en el manejo de los recursos naturales, para promover un desarrollo agropecuario regional diversificado, eficiente y sostenible.Adicionalmente el Convenio busca complementar y fortalecer las actividades de investigación y desarrollo realizadas por otras instituciones en la región de referencia.En la actualidad dicho acuerdo registra avances que se expresan en numerosos productos/resultados técnicos y científicos logrados durante los años 1999 y 2000 los cuales se detallan en este estudio.El trabajo de investigación del Convenio está estructurado alrededor de 9 Metas o subproyectos, las cuales se articulan y complementan para lograr el objetivo de dinamizar el crecimiento económico regional, mediante generación y utilización de nuevas alternativas y formas de producción apropiadas, mientras se mantiene y/o mejora la base de recursos naturales.Una de las Metas es la evaluación del impacto económico, la cual se propone monitorear y evaluar los efectos económicos de los desarrollos técnicos logrados. La relevancia del trabajo de esta Meta radica en el hecho de que cada vez es mayor la escasez de recursos públicos, por lo cual es imperativo justificar ante la sociedad la inversión de esa clase de recursos en investigación agropecuaria. Para ello es preciso asegurar la pertinencia, eficiencia y eficacia de las acciones de investigación ejecutadas.Dentro de este contexto el trabajo de monitoreo y evaluación se plantea como una herramienta que permite retroalimentar el sistema de investigación y apoyar el proceso de toma de decisiones.Este estudio tiene como propósito presentar un marco conceptual para el diseño de un sistema de monitoreo e incluye los siguientes tópicos: 1) Rutas críticas para lograr impacto sobre el desarrollo. 2) Estructuración del Convenio MADR -CIAT en términos de Metas y logros esperados. 3) Etapas secuenciales del monitoreo y la evaluación del impacto. 4) Articulación de las Metas del Convenio y sus relaciones con los objetivos generales. 5) Identificación y categorización de los productos/resultados científicos obtenidos en el período 1999-2000. 6) Monitoreo de los resultados logrados y enfoques metodológicos para el monitoreo y la evaluación Para establecer un marco conceptual de referencia el estudio plantea esquemáticamente el camino o ruta que deben seguir los productos/resultados tecnológicos generados por el Convenio, para finalmente lograr un efecto significativo sobre la meta social más importante, que es acelerar los procesos de crecimiento y desarrollo económico. En la figura 1 se presentan las rutas críticas, para alcanzar el impacto, de los productos tecnológicos que se esperan obtener del trabajo de investigación del CIAT, en el agroecosistema de sabanas, en el cual se enmarcan la mayoría de las actividades de investigación que adelanta el Convenio MADR -CIAT.Las 9 metas o subproyectos que conforman el Convenio, para efectos del análisis, se agrupan en tres grandes áreas de investigación a saber: 1) Recursos genéticos. 2) Herramientas de apoyo para la toma de decisiones de investigación y para la planeación del desarrollo y 3) Diseño y ajuste de sistemas de producción y actividades de capacitación. En la figura 2 se ilustra como se articulan y complementan estas metas y áreas de trabajo, para obtener como resultado final nuevas opciones de germoplasma en términos de variedades e híbridos, nuevos y más eficientes sistemas de producción de diverso grado de complejidad que involucran distintos componentes de pasturas, cultivos y árboles.Igualmente se espera que las actividades del Convenio en el área de referencia permitan obtener nuevos conocimientos científicos y metodologías que posibiliten al mismo tiempo, tanto acelerar los procesos de investigación como obtener más y mejores productos tecnológicos para el área de referencia y para otras zonas agropecuarias del país.Adicional a la evaluación de la estructuración del Convenio en su conjunto, el estudio incluye un análisis particular para cada una de las metas, en términos de actividades a desarrollar y productos/resultados técnicos a lograr. En el trabajo se hace particular énfasis en la dimensión de tiempo dentro del proceso de monitoreo y evaluación y se plantea que existe un continum entre las actividades de investigación y desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías, los procesos de adopción y difusión y las actividades de evaluación del impacto del cambio técnico. Se enfatiza en el hecho de que el impacto de la investigación agropecuaria sobre el desarrollo no es inmediato: Debe transcurrir cierto tiempo entre el momento en que los productos técnicos son liberados por los centros de investigación, se adoptan y difunden entre los productores hasta que finalmente se observan mejoras en los indicadores de desarrollo tales como consumo por habitante, niveles de pobreza, uso de los recursos naturales, etc.Con base en la revisión de los planes de trabajo y de los informes de avance se identificaron 152 productos/resultados científicos ge nerados por las actividades adelantadas por el Convenio en el período 1999-2000. Estos se agruparon en 7 categorías a saber: 1) Nuevos conocimientos científicos. 2) Avances en recursos genéticos. 3) Desarrollo de cultivares y de sistemas de producción. 4) Investigación y validación en fincas. 5) Desarrollo de bases de datos y fuentes de información. 6) Capacitación y divulgación y 7) Liberación de cultivares.En el Cuadro 1 se incluye una síntesis de la producción científica del Convenio en el período de referencia. Se identificó un total de 152 resultados/productos tecnológicos, los cuales se agrupan por meta y clase de producto/resultado técnico. Más de la mitad de los mismos (56%) se concentra en las categorías 1 y 3, referidas a la generación de nue vos conocimientos y al desarrollo de germoplasma y de sistemas de producción.Se plantea que los productos/resultados técnicos que liberan los centros de investigación para su utilización por productores/usuarios, son susceptibles de seguimiento para conocer el grado de difusión y los factores positivos o negativos que la condicionan, para finalmente evaluar su impacto sobre variables sociales y económicas críticas como producción, productividad, consumo, nutrición, pobreza, etc.Se señalan los enfoques e instrumentos metodológicos más frecuentemente empleados para el monitoreo y la evaluación del impacto y se sugiere que para una eficiente retroalimentación es indispensable ordenar y sistematizar la información obtenida en una base de datos que incluya los siguientes elementos: 1) Información general sobre la estructura del Convenio, sus metas y objetivos. 2) Las actividades planeadas anualmente por cada una de las Metas. 3) Los informes de progreso de cada una de ellas. 4) Un inventario de los productos/resultados tecnológicos producidos anualmente. 5) Los resultados de los estudios de seguimiento y de evaluación del impacto.En el Cuadro 2 y dentro del contexto del proceso de investigación -adopción -impacto, se incluyen los diferentes elementos de importancia crítica para las actividades de monitoreo, en cada una de las fases de dicho proceso.Meta 8Diseño y ajuste de sistemas de producción sostenibles y apropiados para La Orinoquia y Amazonia de Colombia Meta 9Herramientas para la toma de decisiones Meta 5Metas 1 y 5 Para efectos del diseño de un sistema de monitoreo, como paso inicial, se elaboró un marco conceptual de referencia que incluye la estructuración y articulación de las diferentes metas y los resultados esperados del Convenio, así como también elementos conceptuales relacionados con los procesos de adopción y difusión tecnológica y los métodos y herramientas para el monitoreo y la evaluación del impacto Se identificaron 152 productos/resultados de la ejecución del Convenio durante el período de análisis, los cuales se agruparon en las siguientes categorías: ) Nuevos conocimientos científicos que incluye dos grupos: a) De apoyo a la investigación y b) De aplicación inmediata por productores/usuarios. 2) Avances en recursos genéticos. 3) Desarrollo de cultivares y de sistemas de producción. 4) Investigación y validación en fincas. 5) Diseño e implementación de bases y fuentes de información. 6) Capacitación y divulgación y 7) Liberación de cultivares.Si bien la cantidad de logros representa una medida de la actividad del Convenio durante el período de observación, no hay lugar a comparaciones entre los distintos resultados, por tratarse de productos de muy variada naturaleza.Las funciones de monitoreo y evaluación del impacto son claramente aplicables a esta clase de resultados técnicos. Sin embargo no es posible efectuar un seguimiento y evaluación de todos los productos tecnológicos obtenidos, por diferentes razones: 1) Es muy amplia y variada la gama de resultados obtenidos. 2) La adopción y el impacto en algunos casos solo son visibles varios años después de culminado el proceso de investigación. 3) La limitada disponibilidad de recursos para desarrollar estas funciones. Se plantea que la alterna tiva más viable es efectuar un seguimiento y evaluación selectivos del impacto en los casos de resultados tecnológicos en los cuales se observe cierto grado de adopción antes de la culminación del Convenio, p. e., variedades liberadas, metodologías entregadas.Un elemento esencial para la retroalimentación es la organización, sistematización y disponibilidad para consulta de la información obtenida. Para este propósito se propone la implementación de una base de datos que incluya 1) Información general sobre la estructura del Convenio, sus metas y objetivos. 2) Las actividades planeadas anualmente por cada una de las Metas. 3) Los informes de progreso de las diferentes metas. 4) Un inventario de los productos/resultados tecnológicos producidos anualmente. 5) Los resultados de los estudios de seguimiento y evaluación del impacto. ","tokenCount":"2545"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe296541ebdd0995471b1956f4e0726c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2cf1aa85-5065-464a-9a49-ea126789cfce/retrieve","id":"-1768183366"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e11800f0-5370-43cd-9725-33bec53d8efd","pagecount":"11","content":"The current state of research The livestock research policy environment Sectoral and macro policy effects on livestock research impactDeveloping countries have nearly two thirds of the world's livestock but produce only about a quarter to a third of the world's meat and a fifth of its milk. Low output in the developing regions is due to both low offtake rates and low yields per animal. Beef and veal output per head of cattle in North America is 281 kg whereas yields in Africa and Asia are about half at 142 kg and 129 kg. In South America, the developing region where livestock production is most advanced, beef and veal output per animal is 213 kg. Milk yields are almost ten times lower in Africa and four times lower in South America and Asia than in North America and Europe (USDA, 1990;FAO, 1992a;1992b;1992c;World Bank, 1993). Relatively few cows are milked in Asia but the market is growing quickly. These figures suggest that major improvements in livestock productivity are possible. Research can provide technologies to help achieve productivity increases but technology needs to be transferred to producers to ensure impact.Global research and development is expanding to include not only international, national, regional and developed country research institutions but also development and donor agencies (including NGOs) and developing country governments. These developments can be seen as problems or opportunities. They are opportunities if this group of expanding partners and stakeholders develops closer links and new functional models. New modes of functioning can help to link the interests and activities of all concerned in development. The mandate of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is also being broadened at a time when the growth rate of available resources may be slower than in the past. Making an impact in a global context with so many partners and stakeholders will require more focus and closer cooperation and coordination.A framework for international action to support livestock development is thus timely. The goal of this framework is to help achieve increased and sustainable food production and generate more income for improved food security in low income countries. This goal fits within the new global mandate of ILRI which, although its main function is research, cannot ignore the need to link its research to technology transfer efforts if it is to make an impact. This paper considers issues related to the role livestock research can play in strategies making up this framework for action and especially its effective linkage with technology transfer. The focus is on Africa because the region, while not being unique in facing the problems of the developing world, provides the greatest challenge to the global agricultural development community.Development of an effective framework for action needs to take into account the current state of research in the global system and particularly in developing nation programmes (Sanders et al, 1995). Prevailing research and national policy need to be considered. The neglect of agriculture, and especially of research, since independence in Africa defines the current state of national research programmes. The great need of national programmes in Africa remains human capacity and institution building.From the time of the Green Revolution successes in the late 1960s to the early 1980s the international and developed country donors operated on the paradigm that introduction of agricultural technology was the engine of growth. This was not only for agriculture but also for the whole economy in most lower income developing countries. The global research system has consisted until recently mainly of the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and the International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs) sponsored primarily by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR grew out of the Green Revolution successes and has provided the predominant institutional model. Following the success of the Green Revolution, the response of the international donor community was to expand the IARC system. The IARC model has been that agricultural research requires narrow definition of priorities, well trained multidisciplinary teams of scientists and long term commitment (Ruttan, 1982). Developed country donors have attempted to isolate the IARCs from short run political and economic pressures and provided sufficient financial incentives and infrastructure to create and motivate multidisciplinary teams of scientists over long periods covering 10-20 years.Donor support was also provided to NARS, the IARC model being adopted by most of these. Human capital formation in the NARS has now been supported by both the developed countries and the IARCs for over 20 years. NARS have been unable, however, to remain isolated from local political and economic pressures and to maintain size and continuity in their research programmes. As agencies of their governments NARS have had to respond to the continually changing objectives of their governments and, often, of donors. Thus, despite the progress made the NARS still need to improve human capital and institutional capacity.The current state of research in Africa is also in part a function of the nature and focus of the institutions set up during the colonial period and the technical assistance model that has dominated since independence. A skeletal agricultural research infrastructure was established in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa early in the 20th century (McElvey, 1965). Research concentrated almost exclusively, however, on export crops such as oil palm, cocoa, coffee, groundnuts and cotton which yielded rather substantial returns. Little attention was given to research on food crops and, essentially, hybrid maize in Kenya and Zimbabwe was the only staple food receiving substantial research effort during the colonial period. After independence the institutional base of agriculture was largely geared to supporting large farms, plantations, ranches and export agriculture (Eicher, 1993).African governments have mainly been concerned until recently with highly visible development projects. They have considered the agricultural sector to be a labour pool for industry and a source of cheap food for urban areas. Policy makers have overlooked the potential returns from investing in agricultural research. In economic terms the rate of time discount was too high. Agricultural research, especially increasing the institutional and human capital capacities of research institutions, is a long term investment. It has very high payoffs but most returns are subtle and not immediately obvious to policy makers. Diffusion of new technology is usually gradual and food price declines are small. With the historic major disincentives against the agricultural sector in most sub-Saharan countries, there should be even greater appreciation of the gains from new technologies that have been achieved.Research policy is mainly translated into investment in agricultural research capacity. Where investment has been inadequate, such as in Africa, there has been a marked lack of success in development and transfer of new technologies. Slow development due to lack of support for human capacity and institution building by governments has been compounded by donor insistence on using expatriate technical assistance to support national research programmes (Eicher, 1990).Life became more difficult in the global research system during the 1980s when there was a shift in the predominant paradigm in development to \"getting the prices right\". This implied structural adjustment, accompanied by devaluation, changes in emphasis from parastatals to development of a private sector and a stress on exports rather than achieving food self sufficiency. The forced economic changes of structural adjustment and extraction of capital to repay the loans of the 1970s made the 1980s and the first half of the 1990s very difficult for most developing countries, especially the low income countries. Many changes resulting from structural adjustment will help the agricultural sector in the long run. With the shift of the development paradigm, however, there has been a levelling off of donor funding for international agricultural research. Competition for donor funds then became more intense and acrimonious in the 1980s and 1990s due to efforts by both IARCs and NARS to sustain research budgets.The scientific gap and institutional immaturity in Africa is also in part the result of lack of investment in developing scientific and managerial capacity (Eicher, 1990). Following 30 or more years of independence, Africa has the lowest scientific capacity of the developing regions. It has only one fifth the number of research and development scientists and engineers per million compared to Asia. About a quarter of the total value of human resources in NARS, including academic staff, are expatriates (Eicher, 1990). About 20 per cent of researchers in sub-Saharan Africa are engaged in research related to livestock production compared to 17 per cent in Asia and the Pacific (excluding China), 21 per cent in LAC, 16 per cent in WANA and 18 per cent for the developing world in general (TAC, 1993). Africa, however, has far fewer scientists than other developing regions.To function effectively NARS need not only trained personnel but also adequate funds to cover fixed and operating costs. Government funding for NARS in Africa has rarely been sufficient and has often been used ineffectively. Average expenditure on agricultural research for the less developed countries, including SSA, in 1981-1985 was 0.94 per cent of agricultural GDP (Pardey et al, 1991cited by Eponou, 1993). Other sources put the figure at 0.54 per cent of agricultural GDP and state that this is only about a quarter of the percentage investment in developed countries (Jain, 1990). National resources are now mainly used for maintaining staff salaries, which often account for 90 per cent of the total budget, and infrastructure. Donor funding is thus used most often for the marginal costs of experiments. Many NARS are still considered to be performing badly in spite of donor aid.The human capacity/institution building model must replace long term technical assistance in order to develop national research capacity. Building effective national systems capable of doing adaptive, as well as applied, research will require continued investments in human capacity through higher education in the agricultural sciences. IARCs can play an important role in NARS capacity building through training and collaborative research. Short term training courses should be supported by research training to collaborators in the context of projects undertaken in CGIAR-sponsored cross-centre and ecoregional initiatives. CGIAR scientists can also act as technical resource persons in applied and adaptive research projects that build upon results and technologies developed by the CGIAR. Increased efficiency will result from regional groupings of NARS or using established networks to carry out this research.It is, however, questionable whether the necessary human and institutional development can take place in a research environment increasingly dominated by short term project related research funding. Short term funding is a particular problem for livestock research since the reproduction cycle of animals is so long. Many technological advances in the continent, such as the development of Zimbabwe hybrid maize, have their roots in research studies undertaken by a small group of scientists working over several decades (Delgado and Mellor, 1984). Human capacity/institution building strategies and long term funding for livestock research projects would be worthwhile components of any framework for action.The environment affecting research is determined not only directly by research policy but also by sectoral and macro policies. These policies can have a direct bearing on the demand for technological change and the extent of adoption and thus the impact of research efforts. Some such policies can depress domestic production and encourage poor management of the natural resource base. These include: food pricing policies that subsidize consumers and tax producers; overvalued exchange rates that favour imports rather than domestic production; and inefficient input and credit market policies that inhibit the uptake of new technology (Ehui and Lipner, 1993).Sound sectoral policies in support of animal agriculture can have several effects on producers. They provide incentives to intensify livestock production with purchased inputs and to commercialize livestock activities and integrate them in the market economy. They also encourage investment in items such as barns and fencing, encourage public investment in infrastructure to improve market efficiency, provide regulations that facilitate market operations for the supply of inputs and the delivery of animal health services and assist in providing improved credit facilities (Fitzhugh et al, 1992).Macro policies can affect research impact through their influence on food production, distribution and consumption. Until recently trade policies encouraged imports of cheap dairy products into Africa and discouraged development of domestic dairy industries (von Massow, 1989). Policy changes on the part of the EU, the USA and other major dairy exporters under the GATT agreement have led to a decline in world milk supplies, pushing up world market prices and making African domestic production more competitive with imports from developed, especially European, countries. Even if world market prices do not continue to rise as expected (Shapiro et al, 1990;Shapouri and Rosen, 1992) domestic milk production in many sub-Saharan countries will remain competitive due to recent currency devaluations (Walshe et al, 1991). Livestock production in the semiarid areas of West, East and Southern Africa also has a comparative advantage relative to livestock production in coastal humid countries that improves the prospects for interregional trade.Policy reforms such as structural adjustment need to go beyond liberalizing output and input prices. A recent analysis of effects of price and macro policies on livestock production shows that, since the early 1980s, there has been a reduction in price discrimination against producers in sub-Saharan Africa. There is still scope, however, for improving price incentives if macroeconomic imbalances that cause exchange rate distortions and high domestic inflation are corrected (Williams, 1993). An analysis of the effects of policies on periurban dairying near Nairobi looked at institutional factors beyond prices that needed policy reform. Producers were found to have major opportunities for higher profits since market access is good and productive technology can be profitably used (Steal and Shapiro, 1994). An analysis of dairy price decontrol indicated, however that the market remained non-competitive. The effect on producer incentives is thus still negative compared with potential profitability in a policy free environment.Policy research and information dissemination may need to be a part of the strategies making up the framework for action. Such efforts will need to improve the data base on livestock, as well as its accessibility to NARS and regional research institutes (RRIs). The framework for action should also improve the ability of NARS to provide analyses to help policy makers in developing countries anticipate and understand the probable consequences of policy actions. Policy research and analysis of this type is needed because new livestock policy instruments such as full cost pricing for input services, payment of full market prices and interest rates are being introduced in many developing countries. There is a need to know whether these policies facilitate or hamper livestock development, including the sustainable use of the natural resource base.Livestock research objectives have a direct bearing on the strategies chosen and the ways that research is organized to achieve them. The chosen objectives also affect the ability to obtain the needed resources. Research objectives derive from policy decisions made by partners and stake holders in development -NARS, RRIs, research networks, developed country research institutes, IARCs, NGOs and developing country governments and donors. Objectives should ideally reflect the goals and aspirations of the direct beneficiaries in addition to consideration of the interests of society as a whole. Stakeholders in developing countries, including farmers, extension agents, agribusiness and policy makers, must be involved in setting research and development priorities. Involvement is essential to ensure that research is relevant to the needs of the targets.It is increasingly recognized that even local decisions can affect the whole world. In a world growing ever smaller and more closely interconnected the global interests of the developed world are not only becoming broader but also more powerfully enunciated. International concerns about livestock development are exerting a strong influence on research policy and affecting donor attitudes to funding of livestock activities. These concerns include: the environment; human health; animal rights; equity issues, including poverty and gender; the use of existing food surpluses from the developed world; and private versus public sector involvement in agricultural development. The concerns and interests of donors and interest groups must be carefully considered and efforts made to educate the general public. Education of the public and policy makers in the developed countries would be a worthwhile component of the framework for action.The case of environmental concerns is particularly instructive. Too often, and mistakenly, development of animal agriculture is seen as harmful to the environment. Global losses of tropical rainforest are a major international concern and deforestation has been associated with increased production of greenhouse gases and global warming. Another global concern is desertification. That livestock are a major factor in deforestation and desertification has become a widespread controversy in the developed world and affects donor contributions to research and development. Empirical evidence does not support the contention that livestock necessarily contribute to these problems. In the humid and subhumid zones the major impetus for expansion of agricultural land is population growth combined with shifting cultivation (NRC, 1993).Work on the dynamics of Sahel ranges shows that livestock are not a major factor in degradation. Even under the extreme grazing pressure that occurs during drought less palatable and lower productivity plants supplant more palatable, more productive species only in the short run. The more productive species are then able to re-establish themselves earlier than they might have if they had been subject to continuous grazing pressure (Hiernaux, 1994). A recent review of literature on the impact of livestock on rangelands (Dodd, 1991) concluded that effects of grazing and drought had been confused and that there was no solid evidence of irreversible effects on vegetation from livestock except around water points and permanent human settlements.Other recent research shows that it is mainly poverty that drives farmers to exploitative resourcedepleting practices (Vosti et al, 1991). Raising farm incomes by cash generating activities such as livestock can lead to a withdrawal from marginal areas that are susceptible to degradation. Neither people nor policy makers in poor countries will feel concern for the environment or biological diversity, however until a higher proportion of the population is able to satisfy its basic needs and the economic system develops its capacity to respond to the rapidly increasing demands for food products. The immediate problem, therefore, is to get intensive technologies moving through NARS research systems and onto farmers' fields. Developing country policy makers will then have the flexibility to respond to environmental concerns (Sanders et al, 1995).More research and policy attention should certainly be devoted to the environmental concerns of the global community. These issues should not, however, be barriers to funding livestock research and efforts to introduce new livestock technologies since such introductions can help resolve these problems. The low income developing countries need to accelerate the pace of food output increases.Until recently the IARCs had global or continental objectives for specific commodities. The NARS role was seen as selecting and adapting what was most useful for their own environments from IARC results and to do agronomic and production systems research Specific to their regions (Lynam and Blackie, 1994). NARS have taken over more of the breeding functions as they have developed and have fought for a larger share of international resources as these have become scarcer. RRIs are also coming into being to achieve critical mass and to attempt to solve problems common to more than one developing country. This is causing the IARCs to redefine their roles and seek to move upstream in the technology development process. At the same time the IARCs must ensure that their work results in impact. To accomplish this there is a need for greater cooperation and closer collaboration between IARCs and NARS so that more impact is achieved with available resources.Among modes of functioning that are emerging to meet global agenda needs are research programmes headed by the CGIAR. Cross-centre programmes are being called for by TAC and ILRI has been charged with taking the lead in livestock research in the CGIAR system. ILRI will thus have a major role in the livestock components of many CGIAR projects. It will also take the lead in CGIAR systemwide livestock programmes and collaborate with sister institutions concerned with livestock research including CIAT, ICARDA and IFPRI. A challenge facing ILRI and the CGIAR is effective integration of NARS in ecoregional and global initiatives to help them develop their human and institutional capacities.In these new modes the comparative advantage of the various partners in research needs to be taken into consideration in defining their respective roles. Research can be categorized as basic/strategic, applied or adaptive (Figure 1). These categories form a continuum in the research spectrum and all have implications for development. Basic/strategic research is scientific investigation that advances the knowledge of feasible biological processes but may not have immediate application in farming practices. In basic/strategic research the problem definition is more general, the degree of predictability of results is moderate and the extent and time of impact are broad and long. Applied research is oriented towards achieving a practical objective, such as developing the genetic resistance of animals to parasites. Adaptive research refers to adjustment of technology to a particular set of farming conditions, an example being the selection of certain forage species for use as feed in a specific agroecological zone or region. Problem definition in adaptive research is very specific, the predictability of results is very high and the extent and time of impact are narrow and short.In the global system, NARS and RRIs have a comparative advantage in adaptive and applied research whereas the IARCs and advanced institutes have advantage in basic/strategic and applied research. Basic research requires expensive equipment and staff skills that few developing countries possess. The IARCs represent, however, only about 3.5 per cent of the global agricultural research expenditure of US $ 9 billion (Eicher, 1993). IARCs are well positioned to assist NARS and RRIs with transfer of basic research results from specialized institutes in developed countries. IARCs and RRIs have comparative advantage for doing research from which results \"spill over\" to similar agroecological and socioeconomic conditions across national boundaries.One challenge of the framework for action will be to define strategies to increase cooperation with institutes in donor countries. Some of these already contribute to development of the livestock sector in developing countries. There is, however, a need to increase collaboration with universities in North America, Europe and Asia. Involvement of these institutions in the new modes of undertaking research will influence the policies of their governments with regard to research in developing countries and will help determine the extent of support provided. Effective collaboration with RRIs offers opportunities to accomplish more with the scarce resources available. Several regional organizations have been formed in Africa in attempts to use resources more efficiently while tackling problems of a regional nature. The Centre International de Recherches et Développement sur l'Elevage en Zone Sub-humide (CIRDES, formerly Centre de Recherches sur les Trypanosomes Animales -CRTA) in Burkina Faso and the International Trypanotolerance Centre (ITC) in The Gambia are attempting to serve broader regional mandates. Regional programmes can complement the functions of NARS and IARCs and serve as mechanisms for NARS to pool resources and rationalize responsibilities in the accomplishment of individual and collective objectives. Like NARS, however, they frequently lack sufficient funds.Networks are another mechanism for cooperation and are maturing rapidly as an effective means of allocating resources. Networking allows collaborating NARS partners to pool and coordinate scientific efforts, do more effective research on problems of mutual interest and avoid inefficient multiplication of effort. National scientists are increasingly well trained but there are few in the same discipline in one institute or even in one country. Multilocational projects managed through networks provide opportunities for enhancing research efficiency and allow the introduction of standardized methodologies that lead to more significant conclusions than can be obtained from isolated experiments.IARCs already play a major role in networks as partners in collaborative research, providing training opportunities to network participants, disseminating research methods and results and facilitating the exchange of information. IARCs also assist with network support functions which include helping to attract donor funding, organization of meetings for setting up network steering committees, sponsoring meetings of participating scientists and providing services in areas such as data analysis, documentation and publishing. A challenge for ILRI to be included in the framework for action will be how to maintain and expand its networks to include the new NARS partners of the global mandate.The organization of dairy research programmes within the conceptual framework developed by ILRI provides an example of how partners in research can work together to increase impact. The conceptual framework is a research management tool that ensures:• coherence between strategic, applied, and adaptive research objectives and across disciplines;• research at any level is done in a systematic manner;• organization of mulidisciplinary research;• there is no duplication of research across sites; and• consistency of research methods and resulting data across sites to increase relevance and impact.Use of the conceptual framework (Figure 2) allows involvement of many partners, enables them to coordinate efforts at all research levels and encompasses both systemwide and ecoregional endeavours. Support for these activities in the framework for action would ensure that there are sufficient resources to realize the potential impact. As the number of partners and stakeholders expands the effective linkage of livestock research and technology transfer is becoming more complicated. Greater coordination and synergy between research and technology development will also be required if technologies are to be transferred and impact achieved. The expanding global research system will need greater interaction with development agencies, including multilateral organizations such as FAO and UNDP, trilateral government agencies and NGOs. Developing country governments will also have an increasingly greater say in the research and development activities that take place within their borders. The framework for action must thus tackle the effective linkage of technology transfer with research.Among other international organizations, FAO confronts livestock development across a broad spectrum.It provides technical advice and assistance to the agricultural community, governments and funding agencies. It collects, analyses and distributes information, advises governments on policy and planning and provides opportunities for governments to meet and discuss food and agriculture problems collectively. FAO is taking the lead in organizing work on the conservation and utilization of animal genetic resources in which ILRI plays a major role. Partnerships of this kind can provide essential critical mass and state of the art technology and knowledge for the benefit of national research institutes.NGOs can also play an important role in transferring livestock technologies in developing countries. They have close contact with producers and their potential to expand delivery of technical services to producers and to participate in field testing activities is high. Many donors are increasingly channelling development support through NGOs.Examples of new modes of functioning in this area include the \"FAO/IARC Collaboration for Technology Transfer\" projects organized by FAO in collaboration with CGIAR centres. These projects are to promote proven IARC technologies that are awaiting diffusion. Included are NARS and extension experts from countries in a region (or ecoregion) where conditions conducive to the adoption of the technologies prevail. In the first phase, a workshop is held to present the technologies and to prepare country project proposals that can be part of a regional proposal to be submitted to donors. In the second phase the country projects are carried out with technical assistance from FAO experts with the IARC scientists who developed the technologies acting as resource persons. An important innovation of these projects is the role of information sharing between regions. In the FAO/ILRI project on cow traction the second phase projects are initially to be carried out in Eastern and Southern Africa but Asian traction experts will participate in the first phase workshop to share their expertise and experience and to explore the possibilities of extending the project to Asia.African governments will need to improve their support for agricultural research and extension institutions. They will also need to become more efficient in the use of their own funds. Reliance on donor funding for critical investments is increasingly risky because donors often have short time horizons and make quick changes in priorities and funding. This is incompatible with institutional research development requiring long term investment. The key issues in Africa are whether and where governments can find resources to support agricultural research.Structural adjustment is making agriculture more profitable. African governments are increasing their revenues through these programmes by tax reform and by selling public enterprises that they had to subsidize in the past. They are also cutting food subsidies to urban consumers. Since agricultural research is a public good with a very high return on investment -even though it takes a long time to realize -more revenues should be invested in it as they become available.As economies in the developing countries improve they need to play a greater role in funding research but developed country contributions will clearly be required for some time. This need not be seen solely as a philanthropic or humanitarian activity as funding research in developing countries can benefit agriculture in developed countries. Far more genetic diversity exists in plants and animals in Africa than in the developed countries. This is true, for example, of resistance to endoparasites in some African sheep and goat breeds. Embryo transfer has allowed five African goat and sheep breeds to be introduced to Australia where they will be reared for live (re)export. This was not possible before due to the disease considerations that have been a constraint to export of live animals from Africa. The transfer of this technology was possible due to the public good nature of research generated technologies.There is current debate in the donor countries on whether the private or the public sector should finance the development of agriculture in developing countries. Its origin lies in concerns for liberalization and privatization arising from the process of structural adjustment being undertaken in the developing world and it is gaining in importance with the conclusion of the GATT negotiations. The belief is that in many countries the economic situation can only improve if the public sector disengages from economic activity. This argument neglects, however, the role that government can play to correct for market failures arising from the existence of public goods (Smith and Thomson, 1991).An example is the significant role that research can play in economic development. There is now broad consensus that a large proportion of agricultural research must be recorded as a public good and requires funding by the public sector even in countries pursuing free market philosophies. The reasons for this (Ellis, 1992) are:• most agricultural innovations (including, for example, cultivation practices and disease resistant animal breeds) are in the public domain after release and cannot be protected by patents or copyright laws;• private enterprise usually restricts itself to applied research that lends itself to copyright protection but this is a small fraction of the research needed to achieve the long run output, equity and food security goals of society;• small holders, who are often the main beneficiaries from research in developing countries, cannot easily organize and finance the scale of research required for widespread advances in technology; and• consumers, who are the other main category of research beneficiaries, would not organize and finance agricultural research of their own volition.It has been said that \"The only meaningful approach to modern agricultural research is to conceptualize most of its contribution as public goods. As such they must be paid for on public account, which does not exclude private gifts to be used to produce public goods.\" (Schultz, 1984). Public investment in livestock research can also be very profitable judged by the high rates of return to research of greater than 50 per cent obtained in other parts of the world (Pinstrup-Andersen, 1982).Major improvements in livestock productivity are possible and needed to assist economic growth in developing countries. Research can provide technologies to help achieve productivity increases but transfer of technology is needed to achieve impact. The global research and development community is expanding and new functional modes are required to ensure coordination of the use of resources. This paper considers issues related to the role of research in the strategies making up an action framework to promote livestock development and especially effective linkage of research with technology transfer.The action framework will need to include strategies for research and technology transfer policies especially in the developing countries. It will also need measures to promote an increase in agricultural research investment within the framework of a human capacity and institution building model to replace the technical model that has been dominant in the past. The effects of macro and sectoral policies affecting research impact also need to be considered as do international concerns about the consequences of livestock development on the environment, human health, equity and other critical issues.An effective mix of the various types of research and the strengths of all the partners in the global research and development system need to be included in the strategies chosen to promote livestock development goals. Models such as CGIAR ecoregional projects, the CGIAR systemwide livestock initiative and the ILRI conceptual framework for dairy research provide useful examples. Organizational models that ensure the transfer of research generated technologies also need to be designed and must include the role of international organizations and NGOs. FAO/IARC cooperation provides a useful model for the effective linkage of research and technology transfer.To accomplish the framework's objectives explicit measures will be required to harness resources and ensure impact. Such activities could include:• an ILRI/FAO/IFPRI policy unit charged with carrying out impact and policy analysis, educating the public, and garnering advocacy and support for livestock development; and• a livestock policy network such as that seen as part of the ILRI/IFPRI project on the determinants of dairy demand, which could help train NARS scientists in policy research and analysis and could be tied to the previously described policy unit.Using these two structures, a \"2020 Vision for Livestock Development\" could be mounted to promote the message of the positive effects of livestock development for the public, interest groups and donors in the developed countries. These tangible measures would ensure that the framework for action is translated into reality and result in livestock development that will have a strong impact on human well being in low income countries.","tokenCount":"5674"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d06e840fe7b166cf26a8d3f1003062a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5eb5635e-8547-46c4-8ed1-20f28377fed1/retrieve","id":"-1523749307"},"keywords":["DArTseq","forage","genebank","genetic diversity","Lablab purpureus"],"sieverID":"4bb72144-8784-4dee-8ad7-86bdf4f5519f","pagecount":"4","content":"Lablab (Lablab purpureus L.) is an important annual multi-purpose legume used as a vegetable for human consumption, as forage for livestock, and as green manure and a cover crop to improve soil fertility. It has a high feed value with good digestibility and high crude protein content. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) forage genebank holds a diverse set of about 340 lablab accessions collected from different regions of the world. A total of 1,843 plants from 142 lablab accessions (1 to 29 plants per accession genotyped individually) were genotyped by the genotyping-bysequencing (GBS) method of the DArTseq platform. The genotyping produced a total of 38,824 and 64,793 genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and SilicoDArT high-density markers, respectively, on 1,768 plants from 139 accessions. The short sequence reads corresponding to the markers were mapped on the mungbean (Vigna radiata) reference genome, with approximately 37% of the SNPs and 26 % of the SilicoDArTs able to be mapped. A subset of 1,000 robust markers was filtered by different criteria and used for the diversity analysis. Plants within accession were classified into \"true-to-type\", \"progeny\", or \"contaminant\" based on a pairwise IBD (Identity-By-Descent) analysis and 1440 true-to-type plants from 120 accessions were filtered after removing contaminants. Clustering analysis using the discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) detected four major groups. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed a highly significant (P < 0.001) variation, explaining more than 95 % of the variance among the accessions. However, the variation among plants within accessions was not significant and explained only 5 % of the variation. The results of this study provide a useful guide for the management and rationalization of activities of the lablab germplasm collection at the ILRI genebank. The substantial genetic diversity observed in the collection reveals the potential of the population for further genetic studies.Lablab (Lablab purpureus L.) is an important annual multi-purpose legume used as food for human consumption (Duke et al. 1981;Smartt 1985), as forage in commercial and smallholder agriculture (Pengelly and Maass 2001), and as a green manure and cover crop to improve soil fertility (Nyawade et al, 2019). It has a high feed value with good digestibility and high content of crude protein (https://feedsdatabase.ilri.org/). Lablab is one of the tropical forage legumes that are highly demanded for research and agricultural production in Africa and other regions in the world. In the years leading to 2017, over 2,300 samples of Lablab purpureus were distributed by the ILRI genebank to germplasm requesters both internationally and nationally, showing the high demand for this species. The ILRI Genebank holds around 340 accessions of this species, with some information on the genetic diversity among the accessions. Previously, about 200 accessions of the collection were characterized using morphological and Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers, which revealed a significant amount of genetic diversity in the collection and enabled the development of a core collection and the identification of best bet accessions for dryland and sub-humid environments (Whitbread et al., 2011;Pengelly and Maass 2001;Wiedow 2001). Those marker types, however, have limitations associated with reproducibility and distribution across the genome. In addition, the analyses were based only on variability among accessions, but there is no information on the genetic diversity of the within accessions. This study aimed to assess genetic diversity within and among Lablab purpureus accessions held at the ILRI genebank using genome-wide DArTseq markers.Seedlings were raised from seeds of 142 Lablab purpureus accessions and genomic DNA was extracted from leaves using a DNeasy ® Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA). The DNA samples were genotyped by the DArTseq genotyping platform at Diversity Arrays Technology, Canberra, Australia. A pairwise IBD (Identity-By-Descent) analysis was conducted using the PLINK software (Purcell, et al., 2007). Genetic diversity analysis was done in in R statistical software (https://www.r-project.org/).A total of 1,843 plants from 142 accessions, with 1 to 29 plants per accession, were genotyped by the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) method of the DArTseq platform. The remaining 75 samples from three accessions were failed to produce analyzable marker data. The genotyping generated a total of 38,824 and 64,793 genome wide SNP and SilicoDArT markers respectively. The short sequence reads corresponding to the markers were mapped onto the mungbean (Vigna radiata) reference genome (Kang et al. 2014), with approximately 37% of the SNPs and 26 % of the SilicoDArTs mapped across the eleven chromosomes (Figure 1).In both SNP and SilicoDArT markers, the polymorphic information content (PIC) and heterozygosity (He) values ranged from 0 to 0.38 and 0 to 0.50 with an average value of 0.05, respectively. The number of SNP markers with PIC and He values above 0.2 were only 2,685 (7%) and 2,805 (7%), respectively. Similarly, for the SilicoDArT markers, only 4,771 (7%) and 4,884 (8%) markers had PIC and He values above 0.2, respectively. This low level of polymorphism in the marker sets might be attributed to the low sequence diversity of the species. To analyze the genetic diversity, 1,000 robust SNP markers were selected based on the marker's minor allele frequency (MAF ≥ 5 %), missing values (less than 10 %), independence from each other (Linkage disequilibrium-LD ≤ 0.5), and their distribution across the genome. The PIC and He values of the markers ranged from 0.13 to 0.37 and 0.14 to 0.50 with an average value of 0.30 and 0.38, respectively. The MAF of the markers was above 5 %, while the missing values were less than 10 %.Before the genetic diversity analysis, the genetic integrity of plants within accessions was tested based on a pairwise IBD (Identity-By-Descent) analysis, which classified the plants into \"true-to-type\", \"progeny\", or \"contaminant\" based on a PI_HAT (Purcell, et al., 2007) value. A total of 1440 true-to-type plants from 120 accessions were filtered after removing the plants detected as \"contaminants\" by the IBD analysis.Clustering analysis using discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) detected four major groups (Figure 2). All plants per an accession were clustered in the same group, except for accessions ILRI_14466-4, ILRI_11617-5, and ILRI_18636-3. Few plants from these three accessions were grouped differently from the majority. Group 1 was the largest containing 46 accessions, followed by group 4 with 36 accessions and group 3 with 27 accessions (Table 1). Group 2 was the smallest having 13 accessions, including accession #147, the cultivar Highworth (https://doi.org/10.18730/FT38T) that was used for genome sequencing (Chang et al. 2018). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed the presence of significant genetic variance among accessions and the variation among accessions was greater (95%) than the within (5%) (Table 2), which is expected as lablab is predominantly a self-pollinating species. The genetic variation within accessions may be as a result of segregation occurring in those accessions, or due to cross pollination during regeneration in the field. The generated information provides an improved understanding of the genetic diversity held in the collection and is useful in guiding the management and rationalization of activities of the lablab germplasm collection at the ILRI genebank. The information also help to enhance the conservation and utilization of the genetic resources particularly by the plant breeding community.p. 3  ","tokenCount":"1171"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7bb730737923a7f43b21d738dfdf3e02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/080efe43-c53f-4fe2-8950-3649600e50d0/retrieve","id":"-1797181208"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6ecf1966-c1eb-433a-aacc-2d3bf3c6e69c","pagecount":"180","content":"El material consignado en estas páginas puede reproducirse por cualquier medio reprográfico o visual para fines sin ánimo de lucro. El CIAT agradece a los usuarios incluir el crédito institucional respectivo en los documentos y eventos en los que se utilice.Los pequeños productores en América Latina han sido tradicionalmente productores de alimentos básicos. Originalmente, buscaban suplir sus propias necesidades de alimentación y algunos lograron producir excedentes para comercialización. Este sector es bastante heterogéneo, y se diferencia por su nivel de bienestar y diferentes grados de orientación al mercado.Actualmente se reconoce la importancia de promover el vínculo entre los pequeños agricultores y el mercado. Esto se debe entre otras razones a las siguientes:− La globalización y apertura de la economía mundial que hace que el vínculo de los pequeños productores rurales con los mercados sea cada vez más necesario, tanto para los agricultores como para los clientes y consumidores. − Como una estrategia de desarrollo y de incremento de ingresos ante el alto índice de pobreza que existe entre los pobladores rurales. − El interés creciente de los mercados desarrollados en en la biodiversidad y en los productos de la economía campesina por motivos de justicia y equidad, demanda por productos exóticos, y las tendencias hacia los productos orgánicos y naturales. − La ventaja competitiva que puede ofrecer este sector en la producción de ciertos productos con demanda creciente. − Como estrategia para estimular un mejor manejo de los recursos naturales por parte del productor rural.La metodología presentada en las primeras tres secciones de este manual fue desarrollada e implementada exitosamente para la región piloto del CIAT correspondiente al ecosistema de Laderas, localizada en la subcuenca del Río Cabuyal al norte del departamento del Cauca en el suroeste de Colombia. Adicionalmente, se han preparado perfiles socioeconómicos y desarrollado estudios rápidos de mercado para otras dos regiones piloto en Yoro (Honduras) y en Pucallpa (Amazonía peruana). Se proyecta iniciar el mismo proceso en San Dionisio en Nicaragua.La Sección 4 sobre Proyectos Productivos Integrados se fundamenta en la amplia experiencia del CIAT, junto con instituciones nacionales, en el diseño y ejecución de proyectos integrados de yuca en varios países de América Latina. Esta metodología se ha enriquecido con las lecciones aprendidas del trabajo interinstitucional alrededor del tema de agroindustria rural en la subcuenca del Río Cabuyal.Tradicionalmente, el desarrollo rural ha carecido de un enfoque empresarial y de mercados ya que ha concentrado sus esfuerzos en la producción tradicional caracterizada por una oferta de economía campesina y no en responder a una demanda de los mercados. En otras palabras, se ha dado prioridad a buscar cómo comercializar lo que ya se está produciendo y no tanto a estudiar las demandas del mercado para proponer alternativas adicionales de producción agrícola.Esta Guía es una herramienta que promueve la orientación hacia el mercado para el sector de pequeños productores rurales. No solo promueve la diversificación de la producción agrícola, sino que ayuda a detectar oportunidades para los productos tradicionales de la economía campesina. También promueve el enfoque empresarial al incluir un proceso serio de evaluación agronómica, comercial y económica de las opciones de mercado potenciales. Adicionalmente, plantea un método innovador para incluir al agricultor en el proceso evaluador a través de la etapa que se denominará Evaluación Participativa.En este manual se describe una metodología para identificar, evaluar y aprovechar oportunidades de mercado para pequeños agricultores localizados en una microrregión determinada. Sus componentes están organizados de acuerdo con una secuencia lógica, así:• Elaboración del perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de la microrregión.• Diseño y ejecución del estudio rápido de mercados para identificar opciones de mercado.• Proceso de evaluación y selección de opciones de mercado: − Criterios de evaluación de opciones de mercado para pequeños agricultores. − Caracterización agronómica, comercial y económica de opciones de mercado. − Diseño y ejecución de la evaluación participativa de opciones con productores. − Uso de un modelo de programación lineal.• Esquema para el desarrollo de proyectos productivos y de investigación.En este último componente se propone un formato integrado de intervención a nivel de microrregión que facilita el aprovechamiento de la oportunidad de mercado y de capitalizar todo su potencial como instrumento de desarrollo rural.Esta Guía puede ser utilizado en su totalidad ya que describe un proceso lógico. También se pueden utilizar las secciones por separado. La Guía incluye ejercicios y prácticas para cada sección.La serie de nueve Guías sobre Instrumentos Metodológicos para la Toma de Decisiones en el Manejo de los Recursos Naturales está dirigida a dos tipos de usuarios específicos.El primero, compuesto por profesionales y técnicos que trabajan en organismos e instituciones de los sectores público y privado, dedicados a la investigación, al desarrollo y a la capacitación en el manejo de los recursos naturales renovables. Este nivel de usuarios puede aprovechar las guías para apoyar la planeación, ejecución, seguimiento y evaluación de sus iniciativas en esos tres campos de acción. Pero, sobretodo, se espera que este grupo, una vez capacitado en la aplicación de las metodologías, ejerza un papel multiplicador para cientos de profesionales, técnicos, voluntarios y productores en la promoción, análisis y adaptación de dichas metodologías a la toma de decisiones en el manejo de los recursos naturales en los ámbitos local, regional y nacional.El segundo grupo de usuarios está conformado por quienes, en última instancia son herederos legítimos de las propuestas para el manejo de los recursos naturales generadas a través de la investigación y presentadas en las guías: los habitantes de las cuencas y subcuencas de América Tropical. Estos, a través de la capacitación, asesoría y apoyo de una variedad de organismos no gubernamentales y agencias del estado, podrán apropiarse de los métodos y estrategias que aquí se ofrecen, para participar activamente en el manejo y conservación de los recursos naturales.Este material tiene una especial dedicación para los docentes de las facultades y escuelas de ciencias agrarias, ambientales y de los recursos naturales. Son ellos quienes forman profesionales y técnicos, que acompañarán a las comunidades agrícolas, en el futuro inmediato, en la ardua tarea de mantener o recuperar los recursos naturales, puestos a su custodia, para las próximas generaciones.La serie de Guías de Capacitación sobre Instrumentos Metodológicos para la Toma de Decisiones está basada en un modelo didáctico fundamentado en el aprendizaje a través de la práctica. Este modelo propone a los usuarios inmediatos de estas guías -capacitadores y multiplicadores-un esquema de capacitación en el cual los insumos de información resultantes de la investigación en campo sirven de materia prima para el desarrollo de habilidades, destrezas y actitudes requeridas por los usuarios finales para la toma de decisiones acertadas y relacionadas con el manejo de los recursos naturales.Los usuarios de estas guías observarán que sus componentes metodológicos se diferencian de otros materiales de divulgación de tecnologías. Cada una de las secciones en que se dividen las guías, contiene elementos de diseño que le facilitan al capacitador ejercer su labor de facilitador del aprendizaje.Las Guías están orientadas por un conjunto de objetivos que le sirven al instructor y al participante para dirigir los esfuerzos de aprendizaje. Este se lleva a cabo a través de ejercicios en el campo o en otros escenarios en los que se practican los procesos de análisis y toma de decisiones, usando para ello caminatas, simulaciones, dramatizaciones y aplicación de diferentes instrumentos de recolección y análisis de información.Otro componente son las sesiones de información de retorno, en las cuales los participantes en la capacitación, junto con los instructores, tienen la oportunidad de revisar las prácticas realizadas y profundizar en los aspectos que deben ser reforzados. La información de retorno constituye la parte final de cada una de las secciones de la guía y es el espacio preferencial para que el instructor y los participantes lleven a cabo la síntesis conceptual y metodológica de cada aspecto estudiado.En resumen, el modelo consta de tres elementos: (1) la información técnica y estratégica, que es producto de la investigación y constituye el contenido tecnológico necesario para la toma de decisiones; (2) la práctica, que toma la forma de ejercicios en el sitio de entrenamiento y de actividades de campo y que está dirigida al desarrollo de habilidades, destrezas y actitudes para la toma de decisiones; y (3) la información de retorno que es un tipo de evaluación formativa que asegura el aprendizaje y la aplicación adecuada de los principios subyacentes en la teoría que se ofrece.Las prácticas son el eje central del aprendizaje y simulan la realidad que viven quienes utilizan los instrumentos para la toma de decisiones presentados en cada guía. A través de los ejercicios los participantes en la capacitación experimentan el uso de los instrumentos, las dificultades que a nivel local surgen de su aplicación y las ventajas y oportunidades que representa su introducción en los distintos ambientes de toma de decisiones en el ámbito local o regional de cada país.Los ejercicios que se incluyen en las guías fueron extractados de las experiencias locales de investigación de los autores en microcuencas de Honduras, Nicaragua y Colombia. Sin embargo, los instructores de otros países y regiones podrán extraer de sus propios proyectos de investigación y de sus experiencias en el campo excelentes ejemplos y casos con los cuales reconstruir las prácticas y adaptarlas al contexto de su localidad. Cada instructor tiene en sus manos guías que son instrumentos de trabajo flexibles que pueden adaptar a las necesidades de distintas audiencias en diferentes escenarios.Es importante que los usuarios (instructores, multiplicadores) de estas guías conozcan el papel funcional que brinda su estructura didáctica para que la utilicen en beneficio de los usuarios finales. Son ellos quienes, van a tomar las decisiones de introducir los instrumentos presentados, en los procesos de desarrollo a nivel local.Por ello, se hace énfasis en el empleo de los flujogramas por los instructores a quienes les sirven para presentar las distintas secciones; las preguntas orientadoras, que les permiten establecer un diálogo y promover la motivación de la audiencia antes de profundizar en la teoría; los originales para las transparencias, los cuales pueden adaptarse a diferentes necesidades, introduciendo ajustes en su presentación; los anexos citados en el texto que ayudan a profundizar aspectos tratados brevemente dentro de cada sección; los ejercicios y las prácticas sugeridos, los cuales, como se dijo antes, pueden ser adaptados o reemplazados por prácticas sobre problemas relevantes a la audiencia local; las sesiones de información de retorno, en las cuales también es posible incluir datos locales, regionales o nacionales que hagan más relevante la concreción de los temas y los anexos didácticos (postest, evaluación del instructor, evaluación del evento, evaluación del material, etc.) que ayudan a complementar las actividades de capacitación.Finalmente, se quiere dejar una idea central con respecto al modelo de capacitación que siguen las guías: Si lo más importante en el aprendizaje es la práctica, la capacitación debe disponer del tiempo necesario para que, quienes acuden a ella tengan la oportunidad de desarrollar las habilidades, destrezas y actitudes que reflejen los objetivos del aprendizaje. Sólo así es posible esperar que la capacitación tenga el impacto esperado en quienes toman decisiones sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales.Elaboración del perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de la microrregión Diseño y ejecución del estudio rápido de mercados Evaluación y selección de opciones de mercado Diseño de proyectos productivos integrados Caracterización de opciones de mercado Evaluación participativa de opciones de mercado Uso de un modelo de programación lineal para selección de opcionesEl proceso de identificación de mercados se inicia con la determinación de la microrregión de interés para continuar con la caracterización biofísica y socioeconómica de ésta. Con la preparación de un perfil se busca, primero, asegurar la disponibilidad de información básica y clave para continuar el proceso y, segundo disponer de un documento de referencia en el cual la información pertinente está resumida y organizada.En este proceso primero se determinan los objetivos y estrategias del estudio que se va a ejecutar. Se propone un método práctico que se puede enfocar en los mercados locales, regionales, nacionales e inclusive internacionales si así lo amerita el potencial productivo de la microrregión bajo estudio. Generalmente este método se concentra en el contacto con agentes e instituciones que participan en la cadena de comercialización de productos agropecuarios y agroindustriales. Se sugiere, mientras sea económicamente factible, que la información de mercado recolectada sea de origen primario, aunque en algunos casos la información secundaria puede ser útil. El propósito de este estudio es el de identificar oportunidades en el mercado, y se colecta información útil para la etapa de caracterización de opciones de mercado y la evaluación participativa con agricultores.En este proceso se definen los criterios de evaluación de las opciones de mercado identificadas en la fase previa. Se plantea aquí la importancia del estudio sobre la conveniencia o no del negocio, la viabilidad en el minifundio o pequeñas fincas y la contribución a la sostenibilidad de la producción. Posteriormente, se efectúa una caracterización agronómica, comercial y económica de las alternativas de mercado bajo estudio. Para efectos prácticos, se recomienda el uso de matrices resumidas como herramienta de trabajo. La caracterización económica implica la evaluación de paquetes tecnológicos apropiados para los pequeños productores y el desarrollo de modelos de rentabilidad financiera. Este proceso de caracterización puede resultar en el descarte de algunas opciones de mercado.A continuación se sigue con el proceso de evaluación participativa de opciones de mercado, el cual combina técnicas de pruebas de conceptos de productosinvestigación de mercados-como de investigación participativa. El objetivo de este ejercicio es conocer las preferencias del agricultor respecto a las opciones de mercado y de los productos agropecuarios y agroindustriales, y detectar los criterios de decisión del productor rural. Este proceso implica, entre otros aspectos, la categorización de los agricultores usando una variable relacionada como grado de orientación al mercado o nivel de bienestar, la subdivisión de la microrregión, el diseño de fichas de producto y la realización de una serie de reuniones donde se lleva a cabo la evaluación participativa propiamente dicha. Este ejercicio es importante para evaluar la viabilidad de las opciones bajo consideración en el contexto de la finca pequeña.Posteriormente, mediante el uso de un modelo de programación lineal se busca encontrar un balance entre dos objetivos paralelos en conflicto, como son obtener un incremento en ingresos para el agricultor y la conservación de los recursos naturales.El resultado de este proceso evaluativo es un portafolio de cultivos que tienen potencial de mercado, son aceptados por los agricultores, rentables y contribuyen de alguna manera a la conservación de los recursos naturales.Una vez definido un portafolio de productos para la microrregión, y partiendo de la base que existe cierto grado de presencia institucional -gobierno local, organizaciones no gubernamentales locales y organizaciones comunitarias-el paso siguiente puede ser el establecimiento de proyectos integrados, tanto de producción o agroindustria como de investigación. Por proyecto productivo integrado se entiende el conjunto de actividades coordinadas en los temas de producción, manejo poscosecha y procesamiento, mercadeo u organización empresarial. A su vez, los proyectos de investigación se plantean dentro de uno o más de estos temas, de acuerdo con las limitaciones principales en la cadena agroindustrial.En esta parte introductoria se presentan algunos interrogantes dirigidos a los participantes que le ayudan al facilitador a explorar el conocimiento general que ellos tienen acerca de los diferentes tópicos que trata la Guía. Al mismo tiempo, las preguntas sirven para hacer una especie de introducción de los distintos temas que se estudian.Al dirigir las preguntas, el instructor debe hacer claridad a la audiencia de que no se trata de un examen para calificar sus conocimientos, sino una manera de averiguar el estado inicial o punto de partida de la capacitación. De esta manera, al finalizar la misma es posible comparar con otra prueba similar cuál ha sido el aprovechamiento de los participantes en relación con el nivel de conocimiento logrado.Estas preguntas aparecen por escrito con el fin que los instructores hagan el mejor uso de ellas. Por ejemplo, se pueden formular directamente por medio hablado, o se puede entregar una pregunta a cada uno de cinco grupos para que la resuelvan en forma colectiva. Esto permite organizar una discusión en plenaria u otra forma de presentación para explorar las respuestas que el grupo da a las preguntas teniendo en cuenta las características de la audiencia.Es necesario advertir a la audiencia que una vez hayan contestado las preguntas, el instructor en una sesión plenaria compartirá sus propias respuestas para compararlas con las producidas por los participantes.Apreciado participante:A continuación aparecen seis preguntas que se refieren a los cuatro componentes esenciales de esta Guía. Le agradecemos sus respuestas a cada una de ellas, usando el conocimiento que tiene sobre estos temas.Posiblemente usted desconoce las respuestas correctas a varias de estas preguntas.No se preocupe. Una vez usted haya hecho su mejor esfuerzo para responder, el instructor compartirá sus propias respuestas con el fin de hacer una discusión introductoria de los temas con los participantes en la capacitación. Orientaciones para el instructor De acuerdo con las anteriores explicaciones, el instructor compartirá con los participantes las respuestas a las preguntas antes formuladas.El instructor puede emplear una serie de estrategias para llevar a cabo la sesión.Por ejemplo, en una discusión abierta se comparan las respuestas del instructor con las de los participantes, dando explicaciones breves sobre los temas seleccionados con cada pregunta, dándole a los participantes la oportunidad de identificar algunas fortalezas y debilidades de sus conocimientos.Un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de una región incluye aspectos físicos, sociales, económicos e institucionales.'Orientación al mercado' significa que los agricultores, empresarios, personas o instituciones estudian las tendencias y demandas del mercado antes de decidir qué productos o servicios ofrecer.Una oportunidad de mercado para el pequeño agricultor significa que hay fuerte evidencia que tal producto cumple varios requisitos, entre ellos:• Se puede producir en la microrregión de interés.• El producto y los requerimientos del mercado son compatibles con la economía campesina.• Existe un crecimiento en la demanda del producto.Si además el producto presenta estabilidad de precios en el tiempo y la economía campesina ofrece ventajas competitivas para su producción, con mayor razón se puede hablar de una oportunidad de mercado.Algunas diferencias entre un agricultor grande o mediano y uno pequeño son:• El pequeño productor generalmente vive en su predio, mientras que los otros tipos de agricultores no viven necesariamente en él.• El pequeño productor tiene menor capacidad de riesgo y puede hacer inversiones de menor valor. • El pequeño agricultor tiene menos acceso a los servicios rurales como crédito, asistencia técnica e información de mercados.Los criterios de evaluación del pequeño productor agrícola son particulares, de acuerdo a su contexto socioeconómico. Por ejemplo, la experiencia y su propio conocimiento son importantes. Así mismo, en general evitan el riesgo y prefieren cultivos rústicos y cultivos de ciclo corto. El flujo casi permanente de capital es clave para él. El potencial para autoconsumo puede ser muy importante para algunos de ellos.Es probable que un técnico no tenga los mismos criterios de decisión, por lo cual es posible que tenga conclusiones diferentes a las del agricultor. Por ejemplo, su actitud ante el riesgo o su capacidad de inversión pueden ser distintos a las del pequeño agricultor.Algunas características del proyecto productivo integrado son:• Tiene una orientación al mercado.• Tiene un enfoque integrado o de sistema.• Se diseña de manera participativa con los usuarios y socios.• Identifica áreas prioritarias de investigación y desarrollo.• Es multidisciplinario e interinstitucional.• Promueve la sostenibilidad de las organizaciones y de los resultados.General ü Luego de estudiar esta Guía el participante estará en capacidad de dirigir o ejecutar el proceso metodológico de identificación y evaluación de oportunidades de mercado y de diseñar un proyecto productivo integrado para aprovecharlas.Al finalizar la capacitación con esta Guía los participantes estarán en capacidad de:ü Preparar un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico para una microregión.ü Ejecutar las etapas del proceso de planeación y ejecución de un Estudio Rápido de Mercados para una microregión determinada.ü Realizar la caracterización y evaluación participativa de las opciones de mercado para una microregión.ü Diseñar un proyecto productivo integrado a nivel rural. El participante podrá:Explicar la importancia de disponer de un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de una microrregión antes de iniciar cualquier trabajo.Describir los principales aspectos que deben tenerse en cuenta en un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico.Proponer un cronograma para elaborar un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico1. Imagine que usted va a iniciar una empresa bajo dos condiciones diferentes, una en un valle fértil cercano a una ciudad y otra en una zona rural alejada, de difícil 1-6 acceso y despoblada. Contraste las dos situaciones en términos de los retos que usted tendría que enfrentar como empresario.2. ¿Qué entiende usted por la palabra perfil?3. ¿Qué entiende usted por las palabras biofísico y socioeconómico?4. ¿Si no dispone de información secundaria sobre una región, qué haría para conseguir este tipo de información?1.1 La Importancia de Elaborar un Perfil Biofísico y SocioeconómicoEl objetivo del perfil biofísico y socioeconómico propuesto es presentar, en forma organizada y concisa, los aspectos más sobresalientes de una microrregión como base para trabajos posteriores en temas sobre desarrollo rural, producción, investigación de mercados, agroindustria, y otros. La idea es ofrecer un panorama general de los aspectos socioeconómicos de una región, sin profundizar en un tema específico con el fin de que sea posible leerlo en 2 o 3 horas.En la actualidad se enfatiza la importancia de tener una visión global o integral de la realidad, incluyendo situaciones concretas o problemas específicos. Se debe, por tanto, evitar la perspectiva parcial o fragmentada de ella. El concepto de sistema sugiere que todo está relacionado, encadenado y que una intervención en un tema específico puede tener impactos inesperados. El perfil biofísico y socioeconómico es un documento que revisa en forma general múltiples aspectos físicos, sociales y económicos dentro de la microrregión, dando así una idea del sistema prevalente en ella.El perfil también se puede considerar como un documento que describe los diversos capitales de una microrregión, como el capital social, capital humano, capital físico, capital tecnológico, capital financiero, etc. El desarrollo rural se puede considerar como el resultado del desarrollo de uno o más de estos capitales.Un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico bien elaborado ayuda a enfocar mejor los temas de trabajo y a evitar errores y sirve para tomar decisiones. En un contexto de trabajo interinstitucional sirve para promover una visión común de la realidad. Además, es una herramienta práctica que ahorra tiempo. Por ejemplo, sirve para que un visitante o un funcionario se forme rápidamente una idea de la región.1-7El contenido del perfil social y económico está influenciado por los objetivos más generales del trabajo en el cual se inserta. Por ejemplo, si el objetivo fuera el de mejorar la salud rural, seguramente el contenido del perfil incluiría algunos temas muy relacionados con la salud. En este caso, el interés consiste en descubrir nuevas posibilidades de actividad económica para promover el desarrollo rural. En consecuencia, interesa que el perfil incluya información sobre el potencial productivo de la región, las características de los habitantes, organizaciones comunitarias existentes, actividades económicas destacadas existentes, y presencia institucional en la zona, principalmente.Los grandes temas del perfil incluyen los aspectos físicos, sociales, económicos e institucionales. Lo físico describe la localización geográfica, extensión, relieve, climas y suelos y aguas. Lo social comprende la información sobre los habitantes de la región, como la población, historia de los pobladores, caracterización de los pobladores. En lo económico se incluyen la información sobre las actividades económicas sobresalientes, indicadores de capacidad productiva instalada, descripción de los sistemas de producción y comercialización predominantes, problemas en la conservación de recursos naturales y datos sobre las organizaciones empresariales y comunitarias existentes. Adicionalmente, se describe el sistema de apoyo al comercio y agroempresas. Por último, lo institucional abarca información sobre el tipo de organizaciones de desarrollo tanto del Estado como las ONG's y la historia de sus intervenciones.A continuación aparece un listado detallada de los temas propuestos.A. Aspectos físicos   La información se divide en primaria y secundaria. La primaria no está disponible y debe ser generada y la secundaria es aquella que ya está disponible en algún documento como un libro, periódico ó revista. La existencia de información secundaria depende de muchos factores, como por ejemplo, la importancia de la región bajo estudio, el grado de intervención institucional previa, etc. Generalmente el Estado es un proveedor de información secundaria. Si ha habido presencia institucional, es posible que existan informes, estudios y encuestas que pueden contribuir al perfil biofísico y socioeconómico. Sin embargo, lo más probable es que la información secundaria no exista o sea insuficiente, razón por la cual es indispensable recurrir a la información primaria. Se supone que un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico bien hecho incluirá tanto información primaria como secundaria.Cuando existen vacíos de información, una situación muy común en los países en desarrollo y especialmente en las zonas rurales, es necesario recoger información primaria mediante la realización de estudios, sondeos, sesiones de grupo o entrevistas. Un estudio puede significar la aplicación de un cuestionario y el procesamiento y análisis de datos. Este mecanismo puede tener un costo alto, dependiendo del tamaño de la muestra utilizada. Un sondeo se refiere a un estudio menos ambicioso con un cuestionario corto o una guía de preguntas y una muestra bastante reducida. Las sesiones de grupo o grupos focales son entrevistas en grupo donde varias personas, consideradas como informantes claves, intercambian opiniones y responden preguntas sobre uno o más temas de interés. Los grupos focales son dirigidos por una persona entrenada que hace las veces de guía de grupo por diferentes temas y trata de que todos participen. Por último, las entrevistas se hacen a personas consideradas informantes expertos sobre algún tema en particular.En general, se recomienda que la información primaria de la zona la suministre la misma comunidad. Esta información se puede recoger mediante las estrategias ya mencionadas (en negrilla), o mediante el uso de formatos simplificados en forma de matrices, que ayuden a miembros de la comunidad a describir los aspectos esenciales de su microrregión.La persona más indicada para preparar el perfil biofísico y socioeconómico es un profesional que conozca bien la zona. Este consultor, interno o externo a la región, podrá identificar fácilmente fuentes de información secundaria e informantes clave. Se sugiere realizar un contrato de trabajo con un consultor con el perfil mencionado. El contrato debe especificar tiempo de entrega del documento final y el sistema de pago.Se recomienda preparar los términos de referencia para la consultoría especificando de manera clara las características deseadas del documento final. El contrato puede ser por dos a tres meses, tiempo suficiente para que el consultor recolecte información secundaria y genere información primaria con la participación de la comunidad. El trabajo debe ser supervisado en una o dos ocasiones para asegurar que el consultor ha entendido su labor. El documento final puede tener entre 20 y 30 páginas y debe incluir mapas de localización, bibliografía y explicación de los métodos para conseguir información primaria. El consultor entrega el documento original y el disquete respectivo y luego se sacan las copias necesarias. El pago final no se efectúa hasta que el documento final se reciba a entera satisfacción por parte del contratante.Este perfil biofísico y socioeconómico se puede entregar como herramienta de consulta a todos los actores interesados en el tema de desarrollo rural, como organizaciones del Estado y ONG's, organizaciones comunitarias y empresas privadas.1-12Objetivo ü El participante desarrollará un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico simplificado para una microrregión de interés.Para la realización de este ejercicio:1. Forme grupos de cinco participantes y pida que nombren un relator quien se encargará de presentar ante la plenaria los resultados obtenidos en la discusión de grupo.2. Cada grupo debe preparar un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico simplificado para la misma microrregión utilizando el esquema del Punto 1.2.2. Se puede usar la Hoja de Trabajo.3. Seleccione un grupo para que presente el trabajo en plenaria, usando el papelógrafo.4. Todos los grupos restantes deben contribuir con el perfil del grupo que expone para obtener, de esta manera, un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico más completo.Se espera que los participantes reconozcan los vacíos que existen en la información y que es importante investigar antes de iniciar un trabajo interinstitucional. Para participar en este ejercicio:1. Intégrese a un equipo de cinco miembro y nombren un relator quien se encargará de presentar ante la plenaria los resultados obtenidos en la discusión de grupo.2. Cada grupo debe preparar un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico simplificado para la misma microrregión utilizando el esquema del Punto 1.2.2. Se puede usar la Hoja de Trabajo.3. En el ejercicio se sugiere escribir de manera corta y esquemática, anotando los vacíos de información.4. Posteriormente un grupo presentará el trabajo en plenaria, haciendo uso del papelógrafo.5. Los demás grupos deben contribuir con el perfil del grupo que expone para obtener, de esta manera, un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico más completo de la región.1-14 Un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico no debe ser extenso. Debe contener información relacionada con la situación local, en forma organizada y concisa y estar disponible para la toma de decisiones. Debe proporcionar una idea rápida y apropiada del sistema de la región en estudio y facilitar una visión común a varias instituciones. También debe incluir mapas topográficos y de localización. Se deben identificar los vacíos de información, los cuales se deben llenar con información primaria o secundaria.1-16Objetivo ü El participante diseñará un cronograma efectivo para la elaboración de un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico.1. Agrupe a los participantes en subgrupos de cuatro.2. Cada subgrupo debe desarrollar un cronograma en conjunto, usando la Hoja de Trabajo.3. Explique que un cronograma es una lista de actividades, incluyendo su duración y personas responsables, que se ejecuta en orden cronológico con el fin de alcanzar un objetivo determinado.4. Mencione que es posible realizar actividades de manera simultánea o paralela, pero que hay otras que necesitan de una secuencia especial.A continuación solicite al coordinador de cada grupo que presente a la plenaria los resultados obtenidos. Sugiera adherir en la pared los diferentes cronogramas con el fin de compararlos.• Sección No.1 de la guía 2. Desarrolle un cronograma de trabajo que incluya todas las etapas desde el momento en que se decide subcontratar la elaboración del perfil biofísico y socioeconómico hasta la entrega de éste a las instituciones pertinentes.3. Incluya la duración de cada actividad (en días, semanas o meses) y la persona responsable. Recuerde que hay actividades que se pueden realizar de manera simultánea o paralela, pero que hay otras que necesitan de una secuencia especial. Al final de la práctica el coordinador de cada grupo presenta los resultados obtenidos en plenaria. ü Después del estudio de esta sección, el participante estará en capacidad de ejecutar las etapas del proceso de planeación y ejecución de un Estudio Rápido de Mercados para una microrregión determinada.El participante podrá:Explicar el objetivo y las estrategias del Estudio de Mercados.Describir los principales aspectos que se deben considerar para desarrollar un Plan de Investigación.Determinar el número de instrumentos de investigación necesarios.Desarrollar un cuestionario de acuerdo con las recomendaciones suministradas en esta sección.Explicar los prerrequisitos y el procedimiento para recoger información primaria y secundaria.Explicar cómo se puede organizar el contenido del informe final del Estudio de Mercados.1. ¿Para qué sirve la investigación de mercados?2. ¿Cree usted que una finca pequeña tiene algunas similitudes con una agroempresa?3. ¿Quién debe hacer investigación de mercados?4. ¿Porqué cree usted que la información secundaria por sí sola es insuficiente para un estudio de mercados?Como ya se mencionó en la introducción de esta Guía, existen varias razones para que cada día se asigne una mayor importancia al enlace sostenible de la economía campesina ó pequeños productores rurales con los mercados en crecimiento.La investigación de mercados es una herramienta que permite identificar las tendencias y oportunidades que se presentan para ellos. Generalmente se relaciona esta disciplina con las grandes empresas comerciales, pero la verdad es que las organizaciones que trabajan en desarrollo rural, las comunidades rurales, las organizaciones campesinas y las agroempresas rurales se pueden beneficiar de su implementación. La investigación de mercados se puede plantear de tal manera que se adapte a las capacidades económicas del interesado. Por esta razón, es importante que estos sectores tengan conocimientos sobre el tema y puedan ejecutar la investigación de acuerdo con sus capacidades económicas.La secuencia propuesta para esta sección es igual a la de las diferentes etapas necesarias para ejecutar una investigación de mercados. Se empieza por definir los objetivos y estrategias, se continúa con el establecimiento de un plan de investigación, recolección de la información primaria y secundaria, el procesamiento y análisis de datos y se finaliza con la interpretación de éstos y el informe final.Este estudio de mercados puede ser planeado y ejecutado por un equipo de uno a tres profesionales. Se recomienda, además, incluir en este equipo a una pequeña muestra de pequeños productores rurales (al menos dos personas), que sean escogidos por su interés y liderazgo. La participación de los productores rurales en el Estudio Rápido de Mercados es recomendable para mejorar la credibilidad, facilitar la retroalimentación y aprovechar mejor la información generada. Como se ha expresado, en los tiempos de apertura económica y globalización es de vital importancia buscar maneras para ayudar a que la economía campesina se vincule de manera rentable y sostenible con mercados en crecimiento. Parece lógico que uno de los primeros pasos hacia este propósito está expresado en los objetivos mencionados.Ante todo, es conveniente aclarar que el objetivo final respecto al desarrollo rural es promover la diversificación de la producción rural y no la de substituir los cultivos tradicionales. La producción tradicional es clave para la seguridad alimentaria tanto a nivel urbano como rural, razón por la cual el propósito es la de complementar la producción actual. La diversificación productiva puede ser una estrategia para generar mayores ingresos y para reducir el riesgo inherente a la producción agropecuaria y forestal.Adicionalmente, se debe subrayar que este trabajo tampoco está promoviendo el monocultivo sino la asociación de cultivos, lo que está más acorde con las necesidades del pequeño productor rural y con las tendencias actuales hacia una agricultura más sostenible y con menos agroquímicos.Una vez conocido el objetivo, la pregunta es: ¿cómo es posible alcanzarlo? Contestar esta pregunta es fácil porque supuestamente se tiene a disposición un perfil socioeconómico de la microrregión de interés y, además, un conocimiento 2-8 bastante completo de la zona. Si no es así, es posible que debamos delegar este trabajo en otra persona con mayores conocimientos de la zona y que pueda enfocar mejor el estudio de mercados.Antes de entrar a plantear estrategias de investigación, se sugiere desarrollar una tarea preliminar consistente en identificar las grandes tendencias a nivel mundial en relación con el comportamiento de compra de la industria y a los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. A manera de ejemplo, actualmente existe una tendencia del consumidor final a preferir productos que sean prácticos, o sea fáciles de usar o preparar. También hay un gran interés por la salud y la buena nutrición, incluyendo los productos naturales y orgánicos. En los Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea, el crecimiento del mercado para productos agropecuarios orgánicos alcanza cifras impresionantes, por encima del 20% anual. Adicionalmente, el consumo de fibra en la dieta, incluyendo frutas y verduras, está en aumento. Los consumidores de los países desarrollados exhiben un gran interés en consumir productos exóticos del trópico y subtrópico, como frutas y hortalizas. También existe un renovado interés en la medicina natural, la cual se basa en el uso de plantas medicinales. Por su parte, la industria está interesada en materias primas renovables y, además, en responder a las preferencias ya mencionadas del consumidor.La matriz de crecimiento producto-mercado es un instrumento que ayuda a plantear un estudio de mercados para una región. Favor ver el Cuadro 2.1 Esta matriz se propuso para la clasificación de las alternativas de crecimiento en una empresa, pero puede ser utilizada también si se supone que la microrregión se compone de un conjunto de pequeñas fincas o minifundios, que guardan relación con el concepto de agroempresa rural. A continuación se explican las oportunidades de crecimiento para la microrregión.1. Penetración de mercados: consiste en incrementar las ventas de los productos a los segmentos actuales del mercado, sin cambiar el producto ofrecido. Esto se puede conseguir mediante rebaja en precios, aumento en la promoción y en la distribución.2-92. Desarrollo del mercado: consiste en identificar y desarrollar nuevos segmentos de mercado para los productos actuales. Estos segmentos pueden ser los mercados institucionales y otras zonas geográficas, incluyendo la exportación.3. Desarrollo del producto: consiste en ofrecer productos nuevos o modificados a los segmentos actuales del mercado. Los productos se pueden mejorar, empacar de diferentes formas, colocarles marca, etc.4. Diversificación: consiste en producir nuevos productos para nuevos mercados.El nivel de riesgo se incrementa con el número de la alternativas de crecimiento debido a que la variable cambio va en aumento. Por ejemplo, la diversificación representa mayor riesgo que la penetración de mercados, ya que la primera implica más cambios y situaciones nuevas.Con este marco de referencia en mente, es posible proponer estrategias para alcanzar el objetivo. Estas estrategias pueden ser:1. Detectar categorías de productos agropecuarios, forestales y agroindustriales que presenten un crecimiento alto y medio en su demanda.2. Identificar productos agropecuarios, forestales y agroindustriales que estén escasos, o sea que la demanda supere la oferta, y conocer las causas de la escasez. También nos interesa detectar los productos que están siendo importados.3. Estudiar las tendencias de la demanda para productos asociados a instrumentos de conservación de los recursos naturales.4. Estudiar las tendencias de la demanda para productos en los que se considera que la región ofrece ventajas competitivas.5. Estudiar tendencias en la demanda para productos agropecuarios, forestales y agroindustriales tradicionales de la región en estudio.Estas estrategias son pertinentes para mercados locales, regionales, nacionales e internacionales. Sin embargo, se debe aclarar que conseguir información primaria sobre el mercado interno es más factible y menos costoso que sobre el mercado internacional, especialmente si se hace referencia a los países desarrollados. Se recomienda separar la investigación realizada en el mercado interno de la realizada en el mercado externo. La segunda debe enfocarse mayormente hacia la ubicación de información secundaria en agencias especializadas del Estado (comercio exterior, promoción de exportaciones) y del sector privado; o si es viable económicamente, contratar consultores especializados en los mercados de los países desarrollados. También se debe resaltar la creciente utilidad del Internet para obtener información de mercados.La descripción de estas estrategias se profundiza en los puntos siguientes.Los productos pueden presentar varias tendencias de crecimiento. El crecimiento se mide generalmente como un porcentaje del aumento anual en las ventas o en la demanda de un producto. El crecimiento puede ser alto (más del 6% anual), medio (4% a 6%), bajo (1% a 3%, o sea, similar a la tasa de crecimiento poblacional) y nulo o negativo. Interesa sobremanera detectar las categorías de productos que tengan crecimiento alto y medio. Generalmente, este comportamiento en el crecimiento está relacionado con productos novedosos y con aquellos que responden bien a las actuales tendencias en los hábitos del consumidor.En este punto es importante considerar productos como frutas, hortalizas, raíces y tubérculos frescas y procesadas y granos básicos. También considerar productos propios de la biodiversidad como especies, plantas aromáticas y medicinales, aceites esenciales y colorantes naturales.También es útil identificar aquellos productos que por ser escasos son difíciles de conseguir. La escasez de un producto puede ocurrir por varias razones, entre ellas:− Por un crecimiento en la demanda que supera a la oferta. − Porque no está en temporada de cosecha. − Debido a problemas en la oferta ocasionadas como enfermedades, plagas y sequía.La escasez de un producto puede representar una oportunidad, pero es importante identificar la causa de ella, ya que éstas pueden ser temporales, como en los dos últimos casos o más permanentes como en el primero.Adicionalmente, se deben identificar los principales rubros agrícolas, pecuarios y forestales que se importen. Generalmente el Estado ofrece buena información al respecto. Es posible que la producción interna de algunos de estos productos sea económicamente viable si tenemos en cuenta que seguramente habrá un ahorro en fletes.Esta estrategia amerita una explicación especial, ya que está muy ligada con aspectos de sostenibilidad y conservación del medio ambiente. No se debe olvidar que un gran porcentaje de los pequeños agricultores en América Latina están asentados en ecosistemas frágiles como laderas y bosques húmedos tropicales, donde la probabilidad de tener problemas de erosión y degradación ambiental es 2-11 elevada. Existen productos que están directa o indirectamente relacionados con herramientas de conservación como las barreras vivas, las gramíneas, y los cultivos de coberturas. En la medida en que estos productos representen una oportunidad de mercado, su adopción por parte de los pequeños productores rurales puede ser más viable. Esta estrategia responde al hecho que muchos sistemas de producción se han propuesto en el pasado, pero no se ha estudiado su factibilidad económica. Es claro que el agricultor no puede adoptar sistemas de producción sostenibles, pero que no garantizan el sustento de su familia.Para proseguir con esta estrategia, hay que elaborar un listado de productos asociados directa o indirectamente con algunas herramientas de conservación de los recursos naturales. Por ejemplo, si la comunidad ha expresado su preferencia hacia barreras vivas de pastos de corte, se puede estudiar la demanda local o regional para productos relacionados como la leche y sus derivados lácteos. Estudiar la demanda para un producto significa lo siguiente:− Tener una idea de la tasa de crecimiento anual de las ventas (alto, medio ó bajo). − Tener una idea del volumen de ventas. − Conocer las condiciones de compra: precios, presentación, calidad del producto y competidores. − Identificar compradores y tipos de mercados (local, regional, nacional o internacional)Primero se debe aclarar qué significa tener una ventaja competitiva. Si en una región es posible producir un producto con una calidad o un margen de utilidad mayor que en otras zonas, esto significa que se tiene una ventaja competitiva. O sea que lo más probable es que la región pueda competir exitosamente en el mercado para ese producto determinado.En ocasiones, las ventajas competitivas son obvias. Por ejemplo, en la Amazonía existen muchos productos nativos exóticos, como frutas, nueces y materias primas que no se producen en otras regiones. Si se supone que se pueden establecer agroempresas eficientes con un sistema de apoyo adecuado, también se podría suponer que la región ofrece una ventaja competitiva para la producción y comercialización de esos productos nativos.Sin embargo, no siempre es tan evidente la identificación de ventajas competitivas para una región. Es necesario, por tanto, estudiar la ubicación geográfica de la zona, la demanda y oferta de mano de obra, los sistemas de producción y la agroindustria rural existente, sus microclimas y las características de población para empezar a desarrollar hipótesis sobre cuáles son las ventajas competitivas. Por ejemplo, si la microrregión bajo estudio tiene una buena comunicación con un centro urbano 2-12 importante y ofrece variedad de microclimas, es bastante probable que tenga ventajas competitivas.Además, conviene tener en cuenta que la economía campesina puede presentar ventajas competitivas en algunos productos agrícolas como frutas, hortalizas, especies, plantas medicinales y aromáticas, raíces y tubérculos, productos orgánicos, fibras, especies menores, etc. Por ejemplo, en Colombia se estima que el 80% de la producción frutícola proviene de pequeños productores (Asohofrucol, 1998). Es posible también que existan ventajas competitivas en tejidos, artesanías y otros rubros.En este sentido también se debe explorar si la región presenta ventajas competitivas respecto al procesamiento de productos tradicionales del pequeño productor, tales como el café, maíz, frijol, yuca, leche, cacao, etc. Una idea relacionada es el uso de marcas regionales para productos que sean típicos de una región; esta estrategia sirve para diferenciar el producto de otras ofertas en el mercado.Al igual que en el punto anterior, estudiar la demanda interna para un producto significa conocer si su venta presenta un crecimiento anual alto, medio o bajo y tener una idea del volumen de ella. Además, se debe analizar el precio de venta, la presentación y la calidad del producto e identificar la competencia y los compradores.Esta estrategia se refiere a la oferta disponible actualmente en la microrregión de interés, y es importante para asegurar que el estudio de mercados no ignore la producción agropecuaria, forestal y agroindustrial ya existente. Posiblemente se pueden identificar oportunidades de mercado interesantes para productos tradicionales, incluyendo la generación de valor agregado y el uso de marcas regionales. Esta estrategia tiene relación con las alternativas de crecimiento de la matriz de Ansoff. Por ejemplo, es posible que una región productora de café pueda producir su propio café listo para el consumo, usando una marca regional.En la zona de laderas al sur de Colombia existe una región con dos agroindustrias rurales: rallanderías de yuca y trapiches de caña de azúcar. En las primeras se produce almidón agrio de yuca que se usa para elaborar un pan típico conocido como 'pandebono'. En los trapiches se produce panela. Pues bien, al estudiar la demanda para ambos productos se encontraron dos oportunidades de mercado:− Una presentación de almidón agrio de alta calidad destinada a un segmento industrial especializado. − El desarrollo de un nuevo producto consistente en la pulverización de la panela para convertirla en una especie de azúcar integral y natural.De esta manera, un producto tradicional que enfrenta un mercado estático o decreciente, se inserta en un mercado moderno y de alto crecimiento.En este punto también es importante incluir productos no tan comunes u obvios, propios de la biodiversidad de la región. Para este caso, se recomienda recurrir a informantes claves (técnicos, empresarios, profesores, etc.) que puedan ayudar a elaborar una lista de plantas de la región que tengan utilidad como aromáticas, medicinales, especies, colorantes, aceites, aceites esenciales, etc. Las personas de edad pueden ser informantes claves para identificar productos útiles que hayan desaparecido de la región o estén en vías de extinción.Un ejemplo de este último caso es el árbol \"laurel de cera\". De este arbusto se extrae una especie de cera natural que se usa como insumo en la producción de panela y en la elaboración de velas naturales. Este arbusto ha desaparecido de grandes zonas del departamento del Cauca al suroccidente de Colombia.También puede ser buen idea consultar a los productores rurales respecto a productos en los cuales ellos estén interesados, aunque no sean productos tradicionales. Algunos de estos productos se pueden incluir en el estudio de mercados.Al igual que en los dos puntos anteriores, estudiar la demanda local para un producto significa conocer su crecimiento de venta y el volumen de la misma. Además, se debe analizar precio de venta, presentación y calidad del producto y cuáles son los competidores y compradores.Una vez se definen los objetivos y estrategias, se debe iniciar un proceso de planeación de la investigación para asegurar el cumplimento de los objetivos de manera eficiente.Es indiscutible que la información secundaria puede aportar mucho al estudio de mercado pero lo más probable es que la información primaria sea más importante. Para aprovechar el potencial de la información secundaria, se debe definir primero los productos correspondientes a las estrategias ( 3), ( 4), y ( 5) mencionadas en el Punto 2.1.2. Posteriormente, será posible establecer un plan de búsqueda de información secundaria.Como se dijo anteriormente, la información secundaria es especialmente importante para el estudio de los mercados internacionales, especialmente en los países desarrollados. También se debe subrayar que la información debe estar actualizada, ya que los proceso de mercado son dinámicos y cambiantes. Por esa razón, este tipo de información debe tener una antigüedad no mayor a 2 o 3 años. Las fuentes de 2-14 información secundaria se tratan en el punto 2.3.1. Se resalta la importancia actual del Internet en este sentido. El Anexo Técnico 7.4 presenta un mini-directorio de organizaciones dedicadas al comercio alternativo. El comercio alternativo puede ser una fuente tanto de información primaria como secundaria.Adicionalmente, se debe buscar información secundaria relacionada con series de precios a nivel mayorista o de consumidor para los productos de interés. Esto sirve para determinar el grado de estabilidad del precio de un producto, lo cual es importante porque una mayor estabilidad en el precio significa un riesgo menor para el pequeño productor rural. Debido a su fragilidad económica, estos productores tienen una muy baja capacidad de riesgo.La información primaria es la más importante en el estudio de mercados, ya que en las fuentes secundarias es imposible conseguir toda la información actualizada necesaria. Para todas las estrategias del punto 2.1.2 es indispensable obtener información primaria.2-15Para el presente estudio, la investigación mediante encuestas es la más adecuada porque con ellas se consiguen datos descriptivos. Algunas encuestas pueden ser estructuradas y otras no. Las primeras utilizan listados de preguntas que se hacen a todos los encuestados de la misma manera. Las no estructuradas permiten al entrevistador sondear a los encuestados y dirigir la entrevista de acuerdo con las respuestas. También hay espacio para la investigación por observación, que consistente en la recolección de información primaria mediante la observación de personas, acciones y situaciones.Aunque es posible solicitar información por correo tradicional y electrónico, teléfono o en entrevistas personales, se recomiendan para este caso la dos últimas alternativas.El cuestionario por correo es poco flexible y la tasa de respuesta es bastante baja. La entrevista por teléfono puede ser una opción válida para contactar a personas conocidas o si están muy alejadas geográficamente. El método de contacto recomendado es el de la entrevista personal. Estas entrevistas pueden ser individuales o en grupo (sesión de grupo o grupos focales). La más común en este caso es la individual, que es flexible y efectiva, aunque puede ser más costosa.Como este estudio de mercados no se enfoca en los consumidores, sino más bien en los canales de comercialización e industria, la población bajo estudio no es tan extensa. Si se enfocara en los consumidores, habría que sacar conclusiones sobre éstos con base en una muestra pequeña del total de la población.Es muy posible que en este estudio sea necesario seleccionar algunas muestras. Para diseñar la muestra hay que tomar las decisiones siguientes: primero, quién debe ser entrevistado (unidad de muestra); segundo, cuántas personas serán entrevistadas (tamaño de muestra); y tercero, cómo seleccionar a las personas de la muestra (procedimiento de muestreo). La selección puede ser al azar entre toda la población (muestra de probabilidad), o de personas que permitan obtener información fácilmente (muestra de conveniencia). También se puede entrevistar a un número específico de personas de grupos demográficos diferentes (muestra de cuota).En el caso presente, la muestra se compone de un listado de contactos que incluye, entre otros, intermediarios locales y regionales, mayoristas y minoristas en centrales de abasto o mercados, jefes de compra de autoservicios o supermercados a nivel regional o nacional, funcionarios de empresas agroindustriales y otras empresas y expendios. Si estos contactos no son tan numerosos y están relativamente próximos, es posible entrevistarlos a todos. Pero si son numerosos o están alejados, es necesario escoger una muestra representativa.Además, se debe elaborar un listado de los contactos necesarios para conseguir información secundaria pertinente. Generalmente se incluye a funcionarios de agencias del Estado que laboran en comercio exterior, en promoción de exportaciones o en desarrollo económico; funcionarios de agremiaciones relacionadas y de las cámaras de comercio (ver punto 2.3.1).Para el presente caso que nos ocupa, los instrumentos claves son el cuestionario y la guía de entrevista. El cuestionario consiste en un conjunto de preguntas que el entrevistado debe responder y que se elaboran cuidadosamente: se debe hacer una encuesta de prueba. Las preguntas pueden ser cerradas o abiertas. Las primeras incluyen todas las respuestas posibles, las cuales son escogidas por el sujeto. Algunos ejemplos son las de selección múltiple y las de escala. Las preguntas abiertas permiten al interrogado contestar con sus propias palabras; deben ser sencillas, claras y tener un orden lógico dentro del cuestionario.La guía de entrevista es un instrumento que se utiliza cuando la encuesta no es estructurada porque se busca dirigir la entrevista de acuerdo con las respuestas. Generalmente, consiste de un listado de puntos que el entrevistador debe tener en cuenta, pero sin mayor detalle. Este instrumento permite mucha flexibilidad.Se deben preparar instrumentos -cuestionarios o guías de entrevista-diferentes para cada grupo de personas a entrevistar. Por ejemplo, preparar una guía de entrevista para intermediarios, y cuestionarios para jefes de compra de autoservicios, empresas agroindustriales y procesadores de alimentos. Es posible que sea necesario desarrollar un cuestionario o guía de entrevista diferente para cada agroindustria. También se sugiere preparar guías de entrevista sencillas para los contactos -funcionarios del Estado, de cámaras de comercio, y de agremiacionescuando se busca información secundaria.Como herramienta para definir el plan de investigación y determinar los diferentes cuestionarios/guías de entrevista que se deben desarrollar, se puede preparar la Matriz de Instrumentos de Investigación que aparece en Cuadro 2.2. Se recuerda que antes de hacer esta matriz, deben definir los productos correspondientes a las estrategias ( 3), ( 4), y ( 5) mencionadas en el punto 2.1.2. Este paso previo es necesario para saber por cuáles productos hay que preguntar y cuáles son los contactos correspondientes. Esta matriz también sirve para planear la búsqueda de la información secundaria.La matriz de instrumentos tiene como columnas las cinco diferentes estrategias del estudio de mercados y como filas los contactos que se deben entrevistar. Las celdas sombreadas de la matriz indican qué temas o estrategias se pueden incluir en los instrumentos dirigidos a cada tipo de contacto. Por ejemplo, el cuestionario o guía de entrevista dirigido a intermediarios y mayoristas puede incluir una sección para identificar productos de alto crecimiento y productos escasos, pero, además, pueden existir secciones enfocadas a identificar tendencias en la demanda para productos Para ofrecer una mayor claridad al lector, en el Cuadro 2.3 se muestran las grandes áreas de trabajo del estudio de mercados especificadas con letras mayúsculas. Como se mencionó, el énfasis en los componentes depende de las prioridades establecidas y de los fondos disponibles. Sin embargo, se considera que los componentes A, B, y F son prioritarios. Para el caso de América Central, habría que agregar el componente C a este listado. Los demás componentes se pueden considerar como opcionales y aparecen entre paréntesis. En este punto se hará una serie de recomendaciones prácticas sobre el diseño de cuestionarios y guías de entrevista para obtener información primaria (Ver ejercicio 2.2)− Como ya se mencionó, algunos cuestionarios y guías de entrevista deben estar separados en secciones que correspondan a dos o más de las estrategias del estudio, tal como lo sugiere la matriz de instrumentos (Cuadro 2.2). Es el caso de los instrumentos para intermediarios, jefes de compra de autoservicios y agroindustrias.− En otros casos, los instrumentos se enfocan en una sola estrategia del estudio. Como ejemplo, se analiza el caso de los instrumentos para la estrategia ( 5) del estudio de mercados, enfocada en el estudio de la demanda de productos tradicionales. Se supone que se va a estudiar dos productos tradicionales de la región: maíz y yuca. Las celdas sombreadas de la matriz sugieren que se deben desarrollar instrumentos específicos dirigidos a contactos y empresas que venden, compran y procesan estos productos. Estos pueden incluir intermediarios y agroindustria.− Siguiendo con el ejemplo anterior, la matriz también indica que en los instrumentos para intermediarios, jefes de compra de autoservicios y agroindustrias, se puede añadir una sección para estudiar las tendencias del maíz y la yuca.− Como se mencionó en el Punto 2.2.2, los cuestionarios y guías de entrevista deben incluir, para todos los productos de interés, preguntas sobre comercialización para alimentar la etapa posterior de caracterización comercial de las opciones de mercado. Esta incluye datos sobre condiciones de compra como precios, requerimientos de calidad, empaques, variedades, y volúmenes de compra.− El instrumento debe estar encabezado por un nombre o título que lo identifique; por ejemplo: Cuestionario a intermediarios, y con un código si es necesario.− La primera parte de los instrumentos debe identificar el contacto o fuente de información, su cargo, nombre de la empresa, dirección y teléfono, la fecha y nombre de la persona que hace la encuesta. Esta información es importante tanto para el procesamiento de datos como para efectos de control de la encuesta.− Las diferentes secciones del instrumento deben estar claramente identificadas y separadas. Las secciones pueden corresponder a estrategias del estudio o a diferentes productos.− Todas las preguntas deben llevar un número que las identifique. − Se debe dejar suficiente espacio a continuación de las preguntas para que el encuestador escriba las respuestas.− Las preguntas generalmente serán abiertas, aunque en ocasiones las preguntas cerradas son útiles.− Es conveniente que los instrumentos, al menos los más importantes, hayan sido ensayados previamente con uno o dos contactos.− El cuestionario debe incluir instrucciones precisas en negrilla para evitar confusiones al encuestador o entrevistador. A veces existen preguntas de sí o no que determinan si el encuestador debe saltar/obviar algunas preguntas. Por ejemplo, cuando se pregunta al encuestado si compra o vende maíz. Si contesta negativamente, no tiene sentido seguir preguntando sobre este producto y se continua con otra parte del cuestionario.Generalmente, diseñar preguntas no es difícil, pero tampoco es tan fácil como se puede pensar. A veces el significado de la pregunta es claro para quien la hace, pero puede ser confuso para otras personas. Cuando se planea una pregunta también se debe pensar en facilitar la anotación de las respuestas y en no alargar el cuestionario demasiado. A continuación se presentan algunos ejemplos de preguntas enfocadas en detectar productos de crecimiento interesante y productos escasos. Las preguntas se pueden hacer para categorías de productos (como frutas, verduras, y harinas) ó para productos específicos (como banano, habichuela, y harina de maíz).• ¿El volumen de ventas de ___________ en su cadena de autoservicios fue mayor (+), igual (=) o menor (-) que el volumen del año pasado? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________• ¿Más o menos en qué porcentaje? __________________• ¿Qué productos presentaron el mayor incremento en su demanda y en qué porcentaje aproximadamente? Una vez desarrollado el plan de investigación, diseñados y ensayados los cuestionarios ó guías de entrevista, se continua con la recolección de la información.Antes de recolectar información secundaria, se supone que se ha:− definido los productos correspondientes a las estrategias 3, 4, y 5, − determinado las prioridades para el plan de investigación que aparece en el Cuadro 2.3, − elaborado la correspondiente lista de fuentes de información secundaria.En el Cuadro 2.4 se presenta un listado de contactos potenciales para la obtención de información secundaria.Cuadro 2.4. Fuentes de información secundaria.• Centros de información de centrales de abasto, galerías y mercados• Prensa, publicaciones y revistas especializadas y normales• Agencias de comercio exterior• Agencias de promoción de exportaciones• Internet y consultores• Agencias de comercio exterior• Agencias de promoción de exportaciones• Agencias estatales de los países desarrollados• Agencias de desarrollo• Internet y consultores• Estudios anteriores que estén actualizadosSe resalta que los centros de información de centrales de abasto, galerías y mercados son buenas fuentes para conseguir series de precios a nivel mayorista o consumidor para los productos de interés. Las publicaciones de economía y agricultura, al igual que las secciones agropecuarias y económicas de la prensa, pueden ser buenas fuentes de información del mercado y precios. Por último, es posible que se justifique la contratación de un consultor para que agilice la consecución de información secundaria.A continuación se ofrecen algunas recomendaciones para promover el éxito del proceso de recolección de información primaria.− Este no es un estudio masivo porque no se enfoca en consumidores, de tal manera que el trabajo lo pueden ejecutar entre una y tres personas de confianza con el apoyo, si es del caso, de consultores. − Es importante que los encuestadores estén informados del objetivo del estudio y familiarizados con los instrumentos desarrollados. − Es importante que los encuestadores consigan citas anticipadamente con las personas a contactar; que las confirmen y que las cumplan. El contacto para las citas se puede hacer telefónicamente. − Se recomienda preparar cartas formales usando la papelería de la organización ejecutora del estudio para identificar y autorizar al encuestador. La carta también debe informar los objetivos del estudio y recalcar que la información se manejará de manera confidencial. − Los encuestadores deben explicar verbalmente los objetivos del estudio a la persona entrevistada y reasegurarles que la información será manejada de manera confidencial. − Los encuestadores deben evitar influenciar o sugerir respuestas. − En lo posible, las encuestas no deben ser muy largas, aunque en ocasiones esto es inevitable. Una encuesta de media hora se considera larga. Si la encuesta demora más, se debe informar al encuestado. También se puede solicitar más de una cita, para completarla en varias secciones. − La necesidad de ejercer control sobre los encuestadores es opcional, dependiendo del grado de confianza existente. El control se ejerce principalmente mediante llamadas telefónicas a los encuestados para confirmar que sí fueron entrevistados.En los puntos 2.3.3 a 2.3.7 a continuación, se ofrece información sobre los diferentes contactos, la cual puede ser útil en el momento de programar la recolección de información.La figura del intermediario es importante tanto a nivel urbano como rural en la comercialización de productos agropecuarios y agroindustriales. Se debe seleccionar una muestra, que puede ser por cuota, de acuerdo con los productos que manejen.Se recomienda usar una guía de entrevista para este caso. Es posible que los entrevistados sean de escasa educación y que no se expresen bien. Existen intermediarios o acopiadores rurales que compran productos del campo y los llevan a otros intermediarios urbanos o mayoristas. Generalmente los intermediarios y mayoristas se especializan en una categoría de productos pero pueden también estar informados sobre otros productos. Los intermediarios y mayoristas serán clave en los estudios de productos asociados con herramientas de conservación, de productos con ventajas competitivas y de productos tradicionales (estrategias 3, 4 y 5).En estos sitios se deben tener dos objetivos:− Conseguir información primaria y secundaria en los centros de información, si existen, sobre los productos de alto crecimiento en ventas y sobre los productos que interesan de antemano porque corresponden a las estrategias 3, 4 y 5. − Entrevistar a los mayoristas y minoristas sobre los productos de alto crecimiento en ventas y sobre aquellas que interesan de antemano, porque corresponden a las estrategias 3,4 y 5.También se recomienda usar una guía de entrevista para este caso. Es posible que los entrevistados tengan escasa educación. En los centros de información se puede conseguir series de precios con el fin de establecer qué tan estables son.Este es un sitio donde se puede conseguir mucha información. Nótese que se hace referencia al centro de compra de una cadena de supermercados. Este es un sitio ideal para identificar productos de alto crecimiento o productos escasos, y para conocer las tendencias de los productos de conservación, ventajas competitivas y de productos tradicionales.Generalmente, los jefes de compra se mantienen muy ocupados y hay que solicitar una cita con anticipación. Es posible que haya varios jefes de compras, cada uno especializado en una categoría de productos diferente. Interesa sobremanera contactar al jefe de compras de frutas y verduras porque estos productos tienen una estrecha afinidad con la economía campesina.Se debe advertir que la encuesta puede resultar larga; y es posible, por tanto, que sea necesario tener más de una cita. Se recomienda para este caso el uso de un cuestionario, ya que seguramente se recolectará información sobre muchos productos.A continuación se presentan algunas categorías de productos de origen agropecuario existentes en un supermercado. Si la encuesta se dirige sólo a empresas a nivel local, es posible hacerla con todo el universo; en caso que la cobertura sea más amplia, es necesario seleccionar una muestra por cuota, de acuerdo a los productos que comercialicen o compren. Estas empresas utilizan materias primas como frutas, granos, cereales, raíces, tubérculos y hortalizas producidas por pequeños agricultores y son una buena fuente de información para todas las estrategias del estudio. Es posible que sea necesario desarrollar un cuestionario o guía de entrevista para cada tipo de empresa, de acuerdo con la materia prima que compra o al producto que elabora.Es importante identificar la persona más apropiada para encuestar, ya que generalmente hay diferentes niveles jerárquicos y funciones. Si la empresa es pequeña, es posible que la persona ideal sea el propietario, gerente general o gerente de mercadeo. Si la empresa es mediana o grande, es mejor contactar al jefe de compras. Estas empresas manejan mucha información confidencial y se debe garantizar que la información se manejará de manera confidencial. Es posible que no estén dispuestos a dar información de volúmenes de venta, pero es más importante aún obtener información sobre tasas anuales de crecimiento en ventas de sus productos y condiciones de compra.Aquí caben los mismos comentarios del punto anterior. Adicionalmente, se debe anotar que al estudiar tendencias para productos agropecuarios ó agroindustriales.− relacionados con la conservación de recursos naturales, − en donde la región bajo estudio ofrece ventajas competitivas, − actuales o tradicionales de la región el trabajo implica encuestar un amplio rango de empresas que compran las más variadas materias primas para la elaboración de sus productos. Por ejemplo, en el estudio de mercados que se realizó para una zona piloto al sur de Colombia, se entrevistaron una fábrica de velas, floristerías, empresas procesadoras de lácteos, y productoras de pulpa de fruta, entre otras.2-25Cuando ya se ha terminado el trabajo de campo y se ha recolectado la información primaria y secundaria, se procesa y analiza la información para preparar los respectivos informes y así cumplir con los objetivos propuestos inicialmente.Ya el lector se habrá dado cuenta que la información generada por este estudio de mercados estará vertida en una gran variedad de cuestionarios y guías de entrevista, bastante diferentes entre sí y con muchas preguntas abiertas. Se tendrán instrumentos usados con intermediarios, centrales de abasto, supermercados, empresas agroindustriales, y empresas de otros tipos. También existirán documentos, artículos y datos sobre muchos tipos de productos y oportunidades de exportación. Todo lo anterior indica que este estudio de mercados tiene características de un estudio cualitativo, lo que puede hacer difícil o poco práctico que la información se procese por medio de un paquete estadístico automatizado.En consecuencia, se sugiere que el procesamiento de datos se realice manualmente por uno o más profesionales altamente capacitados que tengan muy en claro el objetivo del estudio y buena capacidad de análisis y síntesis. Además, para facilitar el procesamiento y análisis de la información, se recomienda que desde un comienzo se tenga en mente la organización de la información por estrategia y/o por producto. (Cuadro 2.3). Adicionalmente, se debe separar la información sobre oportunidades para mercados internos y para mercados de exportación.El manejo de datos propuesto en el punto anterior significa que las actividades de procesamiento y análisis son casi simultáneas porque el profesional encargado debe sintetizar las informaciones primaria y secundaria obtenidas y luego ordenarlas por estrategia del estudio. El tipo de información que se obtiene se puede clasificar en cuatro grandes categorías:• Oportunidades en los mercados nacional e internacional.• Informes sobre tendencias del mercado para productos de crecimiento alto y medio, productos escasos. • Informes sobre tendencias del mercado − productos relacionados con herramientas de conservación de los recursos naturales. − para productos, con ventajas competitivas y − para productos tradicionales • Condiciones de compra para todos estos productos de interés.2-26Para una mayor claridad, en el Cuadro 2.5 se propone una estructura de informe, la cual está organizada por tipo de mercado y estrategia. Favor notar que los productos correspondientes a las primeras dos estrategias 1 y 2 del estudio NO se determinan previamente, sino que se identifican precisamente durante el estudio. En contraste, los productos de las estrategias 3, 4 y 5, SI se escogen de antemano, como ya se ha explicado.Las celdas sombreadas en el Cuadro 2.5 corresponden a los componentes del informe final considerados como los más importantes, aunque esta decisión se debe dejar a criterio de cada proyecto. La matriz propone un informe final con una parte enfocada en el mercado nacional y otra en el mercado internacional. Las Partes I y II se dividen en cuatro informes, uno para cada estrategia del estudio de mercados. A su vez, cada informe se divide en dos secciones. Como el informe final puede ser extenso, se recomienda preparar un resumen el cual debe presentar las conclusiones más importantes de acuerdo con los objetivos y estrategias originales del estudio de mercados.A continuación se ofrecen algunas sugerencias sobre el contenido y la redacción del informe final:− El cuerpo del informe debe estar debidamente organizado por partes, informes y secciones. − Se debe incluir solamente información relevante a los objetivos y estrategias.En lo posible, se debe profundizar en el caso de productos que representan una oportunidad del mercado para la microrregión objeto del estudio. − Se debe sintetizar, lo más posible, y no repetir. Se recomienda el uso de matrices y cuadros. − El informe debe incluir portada, página de contenido, resumen ejecutivo, bibliografía y un listado o directorio de contactos o compradores. − Se deben especificar las fechas en que se hizo el trabajo de campo. − Dentro de lo posible, la información se debe presentar de la misma manera, es decir, usando matrices en formatos similares. − Cada sección o informe debe terminar con las conclusiones para facilitar su lectura.Objetivo ü El participante determinará instrumentos de investigación y sus diferentes formatos necesarios, para obtener información primaria en el estudio de mercados.1. Organice a los participantes en grupos de cinco y pida que nombren un coordinador.2. Este es un ejercicio para que el participante cumpla el objetivo con la ayuda de la matriz de instrumentos (Cuadro 2.2) que aparece como la Hoja de Trabajo No. 1.3. La información más relacionada con este tema se encuentra en los puntos 2.1.3 a 2.2.6.4. El participante debe usar las dos Hojas de Trabajo incluídas.5. En la primera, la matriz de instrumentos, debe identificar y enumerar los diferentes instrumentos que necesita; puede usar códigos o abreviaturas para identificarlos.6. En la segunda Hoja de Trabajo debe pasar el listado de los diferentes formatos para cuestionarios y guías de entrevista e identificar cada formato.7. Al finalizar el ejercicio el coordinador de cada grupo presentará en plenaria los resultados obtenidos.8. Los resultados pueden variar; lo importante es que los instrumentos propuestos cubran todos los requerimientos del estudio de mercados.• Sección 2 de la Guía Los pasos para efectuar este ejercicio son los siguientes:1. Haga un listado de los tipos de contactos que piensa hacer para cada una de las cinco estrategias del estudio. Fíjese en las celdas sombreadas de la matriz de instrumentos.2. Decida, para cada tipo de contacto, si necesita un cuestionario o una guía de entrevista.3. Decida, para cada tipo de contacto, si el instrumento le sirve para una o más estrategias. Recuerde que las estrategias (1) y ( 2) pueden ir en la misma sección; las restantes estrategias requieren cada una de una sección.4. Identifique y escriba los diferentes instrumentos que necesita en la Matriz de Instrumentos (Hoja de Trabajo No. 1). Use códigos o abreviaciones para cada instrumento.5. Luego en la Hoja de Trabajo No. 2 haga una lista de formatos de instrumentos (teniendo en cuenta que si sirve para varias estrategias, el instrumento debe estar separado en secciones) con su respectiva identificación .Asegúrese que la lista de instrumentos que hizo cubre las necesidades de todas las estrategias. 1. Organice a los participantes en grupos de cinco personas y pida que nombren un coordinador.2. Este es un ejercicio para que el participante aprenda a diseñar un cuestionario dirigido a un jefe de compras de frutas y verduras de una cadena de autoservicios.3. El cuestionario será simplificado porque debe incluir sólo preguntas sobre frutas para las estrategias 1 y 2, el número de preguntas será reducido y no se incluirán preguntas sobre las estrategias restantes.4. La información más relacionada con este tema está en los puntos 2.1.3, 2.1.4, 2.2.6, 2.2.8, 2.2.9 y 2.3.5.El participante debe usar la Hoja de Trabajo para desarrollar su cuestionario.6. El tipo de preguntas puede variar; lo importante es que las preguntas estén bien planteadas y que se sigan las recomendaciones del punto 2.2.8.• Sección 2 del manual, especialmente los puntos mencionados Los pasos para elaborar el cuestionario sobre frutas son los siguientes:1. Observe la Hoja de Trabajo, la cual contiene las secciones de un cuestionario simplificado sobre frutas.2. En una hoja aparte prepare la información y preguntas para cada sección, así:• Título o nombre del cuestionario 12. ¿Qué exigencias de calidad tiene para las frutas de la Sección 2?13. ¿Está usted interesado en tener algún tipo de contrato con los agricultores?Práctica 2.1 Visita de Observación a un Supermercado Objetivo ü El grupo observará y hará un inventario de los productos agropecuarios y agroindustriales que se venden en un autoservicio.1. Esta práctica sirve para que el participante esté más consciente de la variedad de productos agropecuarios y agroindustriales que se están ofreciendo en un país.2. Organice los participantes en ocho grupos y asigne a cada uno una categoría de productos agropecuarios con el fin de que sean reconocidos y evaluados.3. El instructor debe conseguir un permiso previo de la administración del autoservicio para la visita y para tomar apuntes en el local.4. En la visita al autoservicio, el instructor debe estar atento a que el grupo observe todos los productos de interés y utilice la Hoja de Trabajo.Al finalizar la visita reúna al grupo en plenaria y pídale a cada coordinador de grupo que presente los productos observados en cada categoría.• Hoja de Trabajo • Permiso de la administración del autoservicio a visitar ü Luego de estudiar esta sección, el participante podrá realizar la caracterización y evaluación participativa de las opciones de mercado para una microrregión.3-6El participante estará en capacidad de:Explicar el objetivo y ejecutar el proceso de caracterizar las opciones de mercado.Enumerar los componentes de un modelo financiero de rentabilidad e interpretar los diferentes parámetros.Dar algunas razones por las cuales se deben descartar opciones de mercado.Explicar los objetivos y ejecutar la evaluación participativa de opciones de mercado.Con la ayuda del manual, elaborar un cronograma para la ejecución del proceso de evaluación participativa.Diseñar los diferentes formatos ó instrumentos que se usan para la evaluación participativa, incluyendo las fichas por producto.Explicar el objetivo del modelo de programación lineal.1. ¿Qué diferencias sociales y económicas se pueden resaltar entre un pequeño productor rural y un gran hacendado?2. ¿Qué hace que un cultivo sea más atractivo que otro para un pequeño productor rural?3. ¿Qué tipo de información es necesario recolectar para saber si un cultivo o un proceso agroindustrial es factible y atractivo para los pequeños productores rurales?4. ¿Qué diferencias de conceptos o apreciaciones existen entre un técnico y un pequeño productor rural?5. ¿Cómo toman la decisión los pequeños productores rurales sobre qué cultivos sembrar?En la Sección 2 se presentó un procedimiento para identificar oportunidades de mercado mediante un estudio rápido a nivel local, nacional e internacional. La siguiente sección se ocupa de evaluar estas alternativas del mercado, sean productos agropecuarios o agroindustriales, con el fin de seleccionar las más apropiadas para el sector de pequeños productores o la economía campesina.Ante todo, es clave definir bien cuáles serán los criterios de evaluación que están relacionados con las condiciones del cliente, en este caso el pequeño productor rural. Con estos criterios en mano, se procede a caracterizar las opciones de mercado, o sea, a recolectar y sintetizar la información necesaria para la evaluación. Esta información se clasifica en tres grandes temas: agronomía, mercadeo y economía, la cual se organiza en matrices para facilitar su análisis.Parte de la información requerida, especialmente la comercial, posiblemente fue recolectada en la etapa anterior (Estudio Rápido de Mercados), pero lo más probable es que esta fase de caracterización signifique la búsqueda adicional de información primaria y secundaria, especialmente para los aspectos agronómicos y económicos.En algunos casos la información generada, sea agronómica, comercial o económica, demuestra de manera clara que una opción de mercado no es factible en el contexto de la región de interés y/o de la economía campesina, y, por ende, se debe descartar. Sin embargo, la perspectiva directa del cliente, o pequeño productor rural, es de vital importancia en el proceso de evaluación y, por tanto, se emplea el procedimiento denominado 'evaluación participativa'. En este tipo de evaluación se presentan las diferentes opciones del mercado a los productores rurales, incluyendo fichas con las características del producto, las cuales el productor organiza en orden de preferencia. Este procedimiento se inspira en las 'pruebas de concepto', comúnmente usadas en el campo de mercadeo y desarrollo de productos. Este ejercicio también puede resultar en el claro rechazo de algunas alternativas de mercado.Por último, las opciones más promisorias según las etapas anteriores, se incorporan en un modelo de programación lineal multipropósito, el cual busca un balance entre objetivos en conflicto, como la generación de ingresos de los agricultores y procesadores rurales y la conservación de los recursos naturales. El modelo señala cuáles serán las opciones de mercado de mayor interés para los proyectos de desarrollo rural interesados, tanto en la dimensión económica como en el manejo adecuado de los recursos naturales.Alrededor de estas alternativas de mercado se pueden organizar proyectos productivos integrados, los cuales buscan desarrollar el potencial social y 3-8 económico mediante un enfoque integrado que involucra aspectos de producción, manejo poscosecha y procesamiento, mercadeo y organización empresarial. Los proyectos integrados son el tema de la Sección 4 de esta Guía.Los objetivos de esta fase son dos: (1) definir criterios de evaluación de las opciones de mercado de acuerdo con la economía campesina, y (2) recolectar y organizar la información sobre opciones de mercado que permitan llevar a cabo esta evaluación.Teniendo en cuenta el perfil del cliente final (el pequeño productor rural) y la importancia de la sostenibilidad productiva, se plantean los siguientes criterios de evaluación:− Factibilidad en la pequeña propiedad rural − Atractivo como negocio − Contribución a la sostenibilidad productiva• Factibilidad en la pequeña propiedad rural Los pequeños productores se distinguen de los grandes y medianos, entre otros aspectos, porque tienen menor capacidad de riesgo, menor acceso a servicios y crédito, carecen de suficiente capital de trabajo y sobre todo por la importancia de la mano de obra familiar. Esto significa que las opciones o cultivos propuestos deben ser de fácil implementación, el nivel tecnológico debe ser bajo o medio, y la inversión inicial y los costo de producción deben estar al alcance del productor. Adicionalmente, y debido a la importancia del conocimiento y la experiencia del productor rural, es importante conocer sus preferencias, mediante la realización de la etapa de evaluación participativa.Obviamente la aplicación de este criterio está muy relacionado con las políticas estatales hacia el sector rural, ya que la factibilidad de un proyecto depende del grado de apoyo que se puede esperar. En este caso, estamos suponiendo que el Estado ofrece poco apoyo al sector de la pequeña producción rural, situación que ha sido lo normal durante la década de los noventa 3-9• Atractivo como negocio En América Latina, los pequeños agricultores se pueden clasificar en varios tipos de acuerdo con su grado de orientación al mercado; por ejemplo, hay agricultores comerciales que venden casi todo lo que producen. Otros son semicomerciales y consumen una mayor parte de lo que producen; y por último, están los agricultores de subsistencia quienes consumen casi todo lo que producen. Sin embargo, todos los agricultores venden un porcentaje de su producción. Algunos agricultores de subsistencia se ven obligados a complementar sus ingresos mediante la venta de su mano de obra, o sea que trabajan como 'jornaleros'.Es evidente que antes de proponer nuevas alternativas de cultivo, aunque sean complementarias a los cultivos tradicionales de la pequeña propiedad, es importante estudiar su conveniencia desde el punto de vista empresarial y comercial. En este sentido, es conveniente conocer estos aspectos relacionados con los renglones productivos en estudio: existencia de ventajas competitivas para la economía campesina, niveles de rentabilidad sobre la inversión, tasas de crecimiento de la demanda, grado de estabilidad de precios, tipo de exigencias del mercado, cantidad y tipo de competidores, entre otros.• Aporte a la sostenibilidad productivaUn alto porcentaje de los pequeños productores rurales se localizan en zonas de laderas y trópico húmedo bajo, ecosistemas frágiles que son altamente susceptibles al deterioro de los recursos naturales. Por esta razón, es importante estudiar este aspecto en relación con las nuevas oportunidades de mercado. En este sentido, es interesante conocer el daño potencial que puede causar un cultivo determinado en los recursos naturales y, además a la inversa, entender cómo un nuevo cultivo puede contribuir a la protección del medio ambiente.Una vez se tengan definidos los criterios de evaluación, es posible proceder a la caracterización de las opciones de mercado mediante la obtención de información agronómica, comercial y económica. Esta información se puede organizar y sintetizar en matrices, como las que se presentan más adelante. La información recolectada en la fase de caracterización nos permite evaluar las opciones de mercado de acuerdo con los criterios ya definidos.La caracterización agronómica es importante porque permite saber si un cultivo o agroindustria rural es viable en la microrregión bajo estudio o bajo condiciones de la pequeña propiedad rural. Por ejemplo, si una región se caracteriza por sus suelos de baja fertilidad, difícilmente se podrán desarrollar alternativas agrícolas que sean muy exigentes en este aspecto. Si una región presenta una 3-10 precipitación escasa y carece de infraestructura para riego, será necesario disponer de alternativas productivas acordes con esta situación climática. En este sentido, el perfil socioeconómico será útil.En el Cuadro 3.1 se muestra la Matriz de Caracterización Agronómica dirigida a un cultivo o producto primario. A continuación se explican algunas columnas cuyo significado puede resultar confuso para el lector.Se debe anotar que para el caso de un producto agroindustrial, la matriz sería diferente. Habría que incluir otro tipo de información, como capacidad instalada, productos principales, subproductos, factores de conversión (relación entre la materia prima y el producto principal), infraestructura especial requerida, etc. Ciclo total: El período de un cultivo, desde su siembra hasta que la productividad baje a niveles inferiores al 30% de su máximo potencial.Ciclo preproducción: El período de un cultivo, desde la siembra hasta que empieza a producir al menos el 30% de su máximo potencial.Exigencia técnica: Se trata de anotar si el cultivo no demanda tecnologías mejoradas, es tolerante o requiere de mucho manejo e insumos.Necesidad riego: Si el cultivo requiere riego para alcanzar su potencial productivo.Algunas fuentes de información sobre agronomía de cultivos son las instituciones de capacitación y/ó asistencia técnica agropecuaria; publicaciones como libros y manuales técnicos agrícolas, revistas técnicas agropecuarias, informantes claves como agricultores; y profesionales del agro. Lo más posible es que sea necesario viajar a diferentes regiones o países vecinos para conocer experiencias con los cultivos en estudio.También se debe tener en cuenta que la información secundaria disponible sobre densidad de siembra y productividad se refiere, frecuentemente, a experiencias con productores comerciales grandes, quienes practican una agricultura intensiva en insumos. En consecuencia, se debe tratar de obtener información de agricultores pequeños o medianos; en caso de esto no ser posible, se recomienda estimar un porcentaje de los rendimientos comerciales, en ocasiones tan bajos como el 10% o menos, para estar de acuerdo con los rendimientos de la economía campesina. De esta forma, no se generan falsas expectativas respecto a rentabilidad.Como ya se dijo, es posible que mucha de esta información de tipo comercial se haya recolectado en la etapa anterior, o sea en el Estudio de Mercados. La información comercial incluye datos sobre el producto, los mercados y los requerimientos de los expendios o clientes. El Cuadro 3.2 presenta la Matriz de Caracterización de Mercadeo. A continuación se explican las columnas de esta matriz:Comercialización actual: Si la región bajo estudio ya produce o no el producto en mención.Grado de perecibilidad: Se clasifica el producto de acuerdo con su duración en bodega o en estantería, bajo condiciones normales de medio ambiente.Tipo de cliente: Se especifica el tipo de cliente que forma parte de la cadena de distribución del producto en mención.Se especifica si el cliente presta algún tipo de servicio al productor rural para promover la producción.Si el mercado es local, regional, nacional o de exportación.Crecimiento de la demanda: Se clasifica de acuerdo con un estimado de la tasa de crecimiento anual de las ventas o demanda del producto bajo estudio. El crecimiento es alto si la tasa es mayor de 6%; medio si es entre 4% y 6% y bajo entre 1% y 3%.Se califica de acuerdo al grado de exigencias del cliente; por ejemplo, si el producto es para consumo en fresco, generalmente se exige más calidad que si es para procesar.Requerimiento de empaque: Si el cliente exige que el producto se entregue en algún tipo de presentación o empaque, como caja plástica, caja de cartón y bolsas.Requerimientos de entrega: Si el cliente desea que el producto se le entregue en su bodega, en algún otro sitio de acopio o en la misma zona de producción.El tipo de relación formal o informal que el cliente está dispuesto a establecer con los productores rurales.Sobre la columna 'relación comercial', existen generalmente tres alternativas de relación: (1) 'Acuerdo' informal que significa que si la calidad, precio y volumen de entrega del producto son adecuados, se realiza el intercambio. ( 2) 'Alianza' es una relación ya más formal, existiendo un mayor compromiso entre las dos 3-13 partes.(3) 'Contrato' es una relación formal en la cual existe un documento legal de por medio. Es posible que la relación comercial evolucione de una forma hacia otra.La caracterización económica es importante porque permite descubrir parámetros financieros, entre ellos, monto de inversión y rentabilidad, los cuales están muy relacionados con los criterios de evaluación en términos de 'conveniencia como negocio' y 'viabilidad en el contexto de la pequeña propiedad rural'.Esta caracterización es la que exige más trabajo ya que para completar la matriz económica hay que desarrollar primero los modelos financieros; es decir, las columnas de la matriz económica son para presentar parámetros financieros derivados de los modelos financieros. Adicionalmente, el desarrollo de los modelos financieros requiere investigar y definir tecnologías o sistemas de producción que sean apropiados para el sector de la economía campesina. Estos dos temas, tecnologías de producción y modelos financieros de rentabilidad, se tratarán en los siguientes dos puntos.En el Cuadro 3.3 se muestra la Matriz de Caracterización Económica. A continuación se explica cada una de las columnas. El significado de Tasa Financiera de Retorno (TFR) y de Valor Presente Neto (VPN) se explica en la sección sobre modelos financieros. Nivel de tecnología: Se clasifica la alternativa de acuerdo con la complejidad tecnológica necesaria para desarrollar el cultivo.Estabilidad de precios: Se clasifica la opción de acuerdo con su índice de estabilidad de precios; este índice es igual a la desviación estándar de una serie deflactada de por lo menos 18 precios mensuales.Inversión preproducción: El monto de dinero necesario antes de la primera cosecha del cultivo.Promedio anual de jornales: La sumatoria de los jornales requeridos durante la vida del proyecto dividida por el número de años del proyecto.Ventas por jornal: El valor total de las ventas durante la vida del proyecto dividido por la sumatoria total del número de jornales.Flujo efectivo por jornal: La sumatoria del flujo de efectivo (o el margen neto) durante la vida del proyecto dividido por la sumatoria total del número de jornales.TFR sin financiación: La Tasa Financiera de Retorno (TFR) para la opción de mercado, un parámetro de rentabilidad, que se calcula por el modelo financiero; es una medida pura de rentabilidad porque excluye gastos de financiación.TFR con financiación: La Tasa Financiera de Retorno (TFR) para la opción de mercado, un parámetro de rentabilidad, que se calcula por el modelo financiero; en este caso sí se incluyen los gastos de financiación.VPN sin financiación: El Valor Presente Neto (VPN) para la opción de mercado, otro parámetro de rentabilidad, el cual se calcula por el modelo financiero; excluye gastos de financiación.VPN con financiación: El Valor Presente Neto (VPN) para la opción de mercado, otro parámetro de rentabilidad, el cual se calcula por el modelo financiero; incluye los gastos de financiación.3-15La definición de paquetes tecnológicos realistas para los cultivos bajo estudio es un requisito previo al desarrollo de los modelos de rentabilidad financiera. La selección del nivel tecnológico apropiado depende de varios factores, como los requerimientos del cultivo ó grado de rusticidad, las condiciones edafoclimáticas de la región bajo consideración, el contexto de los pequeños productores rurales y los requerimientos del mercado.Algunas fuentes de información sobre este tema son los informantes clave como agricultores pequeños y medianos, profesionales del agro, instituciones de capacitación agropecuaria y asistencia técnica; publicaciones como manuales y revistas técnicas. En lo posible, sin embargo, los paquetes tecnológicos se deben basar en información primaria como observaciones de campo y entrevistas con pequeños agricultores. A veces, es necesario efectuar viajes a otras regiones donde existen agricultores con experiencia en el cultivo en estudio.Si la información secundaria es la única disponible, hay que recordar que los datos sobre densidad de siembra, cantidad de insumos y productividad se refieren, frecuentemente, a experiencias en granjas experimentales o con productores comerciales grandes, quienes practican una agricultura intensiva en insumos. En consecuencia, hay que adaptar estas cifras a la realidad de la economía campesina. Esto significa que el uso de insumos y la productividad serán menores. Así mismo, se deben evitar los componentes tecnológicos muy sofisticados y enfatizar los insumos ya comunes en la región en estudio.Es importante tener en cuenta que el rango de rendimientos por unidad de área de los cultivos es muy amplio. Un ejercicio útil para determinar un parámetro de rendimiento intermedio es el de anotar los rendimientos mínimo y máximo para cada renglón productivo. Por ejemplo, un cultivo tecnificado puede tener un rendimiento hasta 30 veces mayor que un cultivo bajo condiciones semisilvestres. Sin embargo, la idea es presentar paquetes tecnológicos que permitan obtener un rendimiento intermedio en la escala de producción.La información obtenida en este proceso sirve también para completar la matriz de caracterización agronómica. El Anexo 7.1 contiene un formato especial que puede ser utilizado para facilitar la recolección y organización de la información referente al paquete tecnológico. Este formato, o memoria del paquete tecnológico, se divide en cinco partes.En la primera parte se identifican el producto, el nivel tecnológico y un estimado de la productividad. En la segunda sección se documentan las actividades a realizar antes y durante la siembra. La tercera parte especifica el número de aplicaciones ó repeticiones de tareas durante el período de producción. La 3-16 cuarta sección documenta las dosis por planta o árbol de los diferentes tipos de insumos. La última parte es un cronograma de actividades de producción.Una vez definidos los paquetes tecnológicos, se procede al desarrollo de los modelos de rentabilidad financiera. Estos modelos se desarrollan utilizando una hoja electrónica como Lotus o Excel. El objetivo del modelo financiero NO es obtener un dato preciso sobre nivel de rentabilidad y otros parámetros financieros, sino, mas bien, poder clasificar la opción de mercado como de rentabilidad alta, media, baja, nula ó negativa. La información financiera generada por el modelo se traslada a la matriz de caracterización económica.• Información teóricaExisten muchos parámetros de rentabilidad pero uno de los más comunes es la Tasa Interna de Retorno (TIR). Esta tiene dos versiones: la Tasa Económica de Retorno (TER) y la Tasa Financiera de Retorno (TFR); para los efectos de esta Guía se usa la segunda, o sea la TFR que supone el punto de vista empresarial y precios y costos del mercado. La TFR se define como aquella tasa de interés que descuenta una serie de flujos anuales de efectivo de tal manera que el valor presente de la serie es igual a la inversión inicial. La Figura 3.1 presenta una interpretación gráfica de esta definición.Tal como se muestra en la Figura 3.1, se supone que hay un proyecto de inversión cuya vida es de cuatro años, pero el número de años puede ser variable. En el Año cero se realiza una inversión y cada año esta inversión genera un flujo de efectivo. El flujo de efectivo puede estar representado por las utilidades netas. Como se sabe, el valor del dinero depende de la variable 'tiempo'; es decir, $100 ahora valen más que $100 dentro de dos años. Por esta razón, es necesario descontar la serie de flujos de efectivo hacia el año cero, para poder comparar su valor con la inversión inicial. Tal como se expresó en la definición anterior, el valor de la inversión inicial y del valor presente del flujo de efectivo debe ser igual.La tasa de descuento o tasa de interés utilizada para descontar la serie de flujo de efectivo es la misma TFR. Para que el proyecto sea económicamente atractivo para el inversionista, la TFR debe ser igual o mayor que el costo de oportunidad del capital ó dinero. El costo de oportunidad del capital es el interés que el sistema financiero reconoce por el ahorro; por ejemplo, depósitos a término fijo (DTF). Si la TFR es menor al costo de oportunidad del capital, significa que para el inversionista es mejor dejar su dinero rentando en el sistema financiero.Valor presente del flujo de efectivo El valor presente neto 'valor actual neto' es otro parámetro de rentabilidad usado comúnmente. El VPN es el valor en el año cero de la serie de flujos de efectivo si se descuenta usando una tasa de interés igual al costo de oportunidad del capital.Para que un proyecto sea financieramente atractivo para un inversionista, el VPN debe ser igual o mayor a la inversión inicial. Si es menor, significa que es mejor dejar el dinero rentando en el sistema financiero.Es importante tener en cuenta que los modelos financieros pueden o no incluir la inflación. Si no la incluyen son modelos deflactados y, en este caso, la TFR debe ser igual o mayor que el costo de oportunidad del capital menos la tasa anual de inflación.Al calcular la TFR no se debe considerar la depreciación, porque ésta no representa un desembolso de efectivo. Al estimar rentabilidad, la depreciación solamente se considera al calcular la cantidad de impuestos a pagar; generalmente las asociaciones o cooperativas de productores rurales están exentas de impuestos.Además, existen algunos términos utilizados en contabilidad de costos con los cuales el lector debe estar familiarizado: costos variables, costos fijos, margen bruto y margen neto. Costos variables son aquellos que varían directamente con el volumen producido; por ejemplo, materia prima, empaques, combustible. Los costos fijos son aquellos que no varían con el volumen de producción, sino que permanecen relativamente estables; por ejemplo, gastos de administración. El margen bruto se puede expresar como porcentaje ó como una suma de dinero y es equivalente a las ventas menos los costos variables. El margen neto ó utilidad neta es igual a las ventas menos los costos tanto variables como fijos.Sin embargo, se advierte al lector que la TFR o el VPN son parámetros de rentabilidad que pueden ser más apropiados para proyectos a mediano y largo plazo (3-20 años). Para proyectos a corto plazo (1-24 meses) se pueden usar otros parámetros como, por ejemplo, el tiempo necesario para recuperar la inversión inicial (payback).• SuposicionesPara simplificar el desarrollo de los modelos financieros, se hacen dos suposiciones poco frecuentes: que el área sembrada es una hectárea y que se siembra en monocultivo. En verdad, se sabe que el pequeño productor, por falta de tierra y capital de trabajo, siembra en lotes que pueden ser menores a una hectárea. Además, generalmente siembra cultivos en asociación, como estrategia para reducir el riesgo e incrementar la frecuencia del flujo de dinero.Estas suposiciones no eliminan la validez de los modelos porque, como ya se explicó, el objetivo del ejercicio no es obtener parámetros financieros muy exactos, sino clasificar las diferentes opciones de mercado en 'niveles de rentabilidad'.•En el Anexo 7.2 se presenta un modelo financiero típico, tal como aparecería en la pantalla del computador. El modelo consta de cinco partes principales, a saber: precios, matriz de cantidades, matriz de costos e ingresos, análisis de rentabilidad sin financiación y análisis de rentabilidad con financiación.La sección de precios incluye información sobre monto y desglose de la inversión inicial, el costo de los diferentes insumos a utilizar, el costo del jornal diario y los precios de venta de las diferentes calidades a ofrecer en el mercado. La matriz de cantidades cuantifica los elementos de inversión, insumos, jornales y volumen de producción. La matriz de costos e ingresos utiliza la información de las dos matrices anteriores para desarrollar un estado financiero similar a uno de pérdidas y ganancias, con el propósito de obtener la serie de flujos anuales de efectivo.El componente de análisis de rentabilidad sin financiación contiene las fórmulas usadas para calcular los diferentes parámetros y relaciones financieras. Utilizando la serie de flujos anuales de efectivo, se estiman la TFR y el VPN. Adicionalmente, se calculan otros parámetros financieros, los cuales ya se describieron en el punto sobre la matriz de caracterización económica. La sección de análisis de rentabilidad con financiación es similar, pero en este caso se incluyen los cálculos de los costos financieros correspondientes a créditos para inversión.• Elaboración y uso del modelo financiero Como se mencionó, los modelos financieros se desarrollan en hojas electrónicas y organizados en los componentes antes explicados. Las hojas electrónicas están compuestas por celdas, en donde se digitan cifras, fórmulas ó funciones. El modelo debe estar totalmente encadenado, o sea que el cambio de una cifra o de una fórmula debe cambiar los parámetros financieros estimados por el modelo. Por ejemplo, si se aumenta el precio de venta del producto, la TFR debe incrementarse automáticamente.El modelo financiero puede tener muchos usos. Ante todo, sirve para estimar niveles de rentabilidad y otros parámetros financieros de interés. Además, permite efectuar análisis de sensibilidad, o sea determinar qué variables afectan más un parámetro financiero bajo estudio. Esto sirve para estimar precios mínimos de venta y precios máximos de compra. También sirve como apoyo a la toma de decisiones referentes a créditos y a estrategias para reducir costos de producción.Con base en la información generada por el proceso de caracterización de las opciones de mercado y considerando los tres criterios de evaluación planteados originalmente, se deben hacer algunos descartes. Esto se facilita con el uso de las matrices de caracterización agronómica, comercial y económica. Se debe descartar toda opción que no responda a uno de los criterios de evaluación. Así se aumentan las probabilidades de que las opciones de mercado a proponer sean realmente atractivas para los pequeños productores. Para mayor ilustración, a continuación se presentan algunos casos donde se debe hacer descarte, sin olvidar que el contexto de políticas estatales hacia el sectro rural es importante:− Si el nivel de rentabilidad es negativo ó nulo. − Si la tecnología ó infraestructura es demasiado sofisticada, costosa, ó no está disponible en la región. − Si se necesitan condiciones edafoclimáticas que no existen en la región. − Si la inversión inicial es demasiado elevada para una asociación de productores rurales. − Si se demuestra que la opción de mercado perjudica el medio ambiente cuando se cultiva en zonas de laderas. − Si el precio de venta exhibe una alta fluctuación a través del año. − Si el mercado exige niveles de calidad exagerados o demasiado estrictos.Las opciones de mercado no descartadas pueden pasar a la siguiente etapa de evaluación participativa con pequeños productores.3-20La evaluación participativa es un procedimiento novedoso desarrollado en el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), que combina técnicas de pruebas de concepto, utilizadas en desarrollo de productos y de investigación participativa. Como ya se mencionó, el procedimiento permite conocer la perspectiva del cliente final, en este caso el pequeño productor, referente a las opciones de mercado. La evaluación participativa es clave para determinar si una opción de mercado cumple con el primer criterio de evaluación, o sea, el de la viabilidad en la pequeña propiedad rural.A grandes rasgos, el procedimiento consiste en efectuar reuniones en las diferentes subregiones para presentar a los pequeños productores las opciones de mercado. La presentación de los productos se hace mediante una exposición de cada producto propuesto, seguida por una sesión de preguntas y respuestas. En la exposición se presentan las fichas de productos, las cuales contienen información clave para el productor, según un sondeo de criterios de decisión que se debe realizar previamente. Posteriormente, se entregan copias de las fichas de producto a cada productor y éste las debe ordenar de acuerdo con sus preferencias. A continuación se hace el mismo ejercicio de ordenamiento, pero en grupos de tipos de agricultores. Los productores también explican las razones para sus preferencias.Conocer las preferencias del pequeño productor rural respecto a las opciones del mercado, sean cultivos o agroindustrias.Conocer los criterios de decisión del pequeño productor al seleccionar nuevos cultivos.Detectar variaciones en los criterios de decisión de acuerdo con los tipos de productor. Por tipo se entiende la clasificación de los pequeños productores de acuerdo con alguna característica social ó económica pertinente.El proceso de planeación de la evaluación participativa se inicia con la toma de una serie de decisiones básicas las cuales se describen a continuación. Es importante definir un equipo de trabajo y asignar las responsabilidades con anticipación, ya que este proceso es eminentemente multidisciplinario y exige un 3-21 fuerte apoyo logístico. También se debe nombrar un coordinador del proceso global.• Subdivisión de la región Se debe buscar una variable pertinente para subdividir la región. El propósito es asegurar que las opciones de mercado propuestas sean compatibles con las diferentes subregiones. Por ejemplo, en zonas de laderas o en microcuencas puede ser necesario hacer la división por pisos térmicos o altitud y presentar diferentes opciones de mercado en cada subdivisión. Por ejemplo, en la región representativa de laderas al sur de Colombia, se reconocieron cuatro zonas, a saber: baja (1100-1300 m.s.n.m.), media baja (1300-1500 m.s.n.m.), media alta (1500-1700 m.s.n.m.) y la alta (más de 1700 m.s.n.m.). En las zonas de laderas en América Central se escogió el grado de acceso al mercado como una variable de división. En la región de la Amazonía peruana alrededor de Pucallpa, zona plana, se hizo la división en términos de la localización y actividad económica de los habitantes rurales. En esta zona se ha propuesto dividirlos en agricultores de tumba y quema, agricultores de tumba y quema con cultivos perennes (palma africana, pijuayo, y camu-camu), agricultores ribereños y agricultores a lo largo de la carretera.• Tipos de productores Se considera importante establecer categorías o tipos de agricultores debido al objetivo global que consiste en vincular a los productores rurales con mercados en crecimiento. Estas categorías pueden definirse a partir de variables como grado de orientación al mercado, nivel de bienestar o tipo de actividad económica, como en el caso de Pucallpa.En la zona representativa de ladera al sur de Colombia se clasificó el productor de acuerdo con su orientación de mercado, reconociéndose tres categorías: comerciales, semicomerciales y de subsistencia. Si se clasifica el productor de acuerdo con el nivel de bienestar, se pueden considerar las categorías de alto, medio y bajo. En un estudio en 1996 realizado por el CIAT, se confirmó la fuerte correlación entre el nivel de bienestar y el grado de orientación al mercado; es decir, los agricultores más orientados al mercado tienden a tener un nivel de bienestar más alto y viceversa.• Portafolio de opciones de mercados por subregión Generalmente, las opciones de mercados no son viables en todas las zonas dentro de la región bajo estudio. Si se analiza desde otro punto de vista, cada subregión requiere de su propio portafolio de opciones de mercado. Por esta razón es importante elaborar un listado de productos para cada subregión, en lo posible un mínimo entre seis y ocho. Por ejemplo, al productor localizado a 1800 m.s.n.m. no se le puede ofrecer las mismas opciones que al productor localizado a 1100 m.s.n.m. En el caso de las zonas bajas, como la Amazonía, es probable [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] que al agricultor ribereño sea necesario presentarle opciones de mercado diferentes a aquellas que se le presentan al localizado al borde de la carretera. No obstante, algunos cultivos ó alternativas de mercado pueden ser comunes para varias subregiones.Como ya se mencionó, un instrumento clave en la evaluación participativa es la ficha del producto. Para diseñarla adecuadamente, es necesario efectuar previamente un rápido sondeo entre una muestra representativa que incluya todas las categorías predeterminadas para los productores rurales. El propósito del sondeo es el de conocer los criterios de decisión de los pequeños productores rurales al momento de seleccionar un cultivo para siembra.Este sondeo se puede realizar mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas, utilizando una guía de entrevista, la cual puede estar enfocada en cultivos tradicionales y en cultivos nuevos. La pregunta clave es ¿qué tiene en cuenta usted cuando va a escoger un cultivo tradicional ó un cultivo nuevo? Los resultados de este sondeo en la zona de laderas al sur de Colombia indican que los criterios más importantes para el productor al momento de seleccionar un cultivo para siembra eran los siguientes:− que el productor conozca y tenga experiencia en el cultivo, − que el cultivo esté adaptado a la región y que sea rústico, − que el cultivo sea de ciclo corto o medio, − que el precio del producto sea estable, y − que el producto tenga mercado.Cuando se hayan tomado las decisiones básicas y se tengan los resultados de los criterios de decisión del punto anterior, se puede iniciar el diseño de las fichas de producto. La ficha de producto usada en Colombia fue cuidadosamente diseñada para lograr un balance entre la facilidad de comprensión y el contenido informativo. En la Figura 3.2 se presenta un esquema simplificado de la ficha de producto para un cultivo o producto primario.Esta ficha consta de dos secciones principales. La primera es de identificación, en donde aparecen una foto o ilustración y el nombre del producto; y la segunda la de información, que contiene datos relacionados con el grado de adaptación, ciclo de producción, rendimiento anual, gastos de inversión (incluyendo número de jornales) y un parámetro de rentabilidad simplificado la -Tasa Financiera de Retorno-. Para facilitar la comprensión, cada tipo de información se acompaña con un dibujo ó símbolo. Adicionalmente, se informa sobre requerimientos de agua y densidad de siembra. Para facilidad en el manejo de datos y para efectos de comparación, el área de siembra siempre fue de 1600 m 2 en 3-23 monocultivo. El área de cultivos escogida debe ser normal en el contexto del pequeño productor de la región. En la Figura 3.3 se presenta un ejemplo de ficha de producto usada en el caso colombiano. Esta ficha es similar a las fichas de concepto usadas en pruebas con consumidores en el campo de desarrollo de productos.Area de cultivo Fotografía Simbología Información clave para el productor Figura 3.2. Esquema simplificado de una ficha de producto.Se debe anotar que una ficha para un producto agroindustrial tendría información diferente, como capacidad instalada, productos y subproductos, infraestructura requerida, requerimientos mínimos en cuanto a insumos, maquinaria y equipos, nivel de tecnología, factores de conversión, etc.El procedimiento desarrollado en el CIAT consiste en el ordenamiento de las fichas de producto en orden de preferencia. Para ello, primero se le pide al agricultor que agrupe las fichas en dos grupos según sus preferencias: buenas y malas. El tercer grupo resultante es el de las regulares. A continuación se solicita a los agricultores que ordenen las fichas de producto dentro de cada grupo. Posteriormente, se pregunta por las razones para ordenarlas en los puestos primeros y últimos. Al final se pregunta, con el fin de conocer el ideotipo o sea el concepto de producto ideal, sobre qué condición le falta a la alternativa escogida como primera para mejorarla aún más.En el Anexo 7.3 se muestra el formato utilizado para este ejercicio de ordenamiento. Quien anota en el formato debe ser el encuestador. Los agricultores deben estar debidamente identificados de acuerdo con su categoría ó tipo. Este procedimiento se debe efectuar tanto individualmente como por tipo 3-24 de productor. Los materiales requeridos son: un juego de fichas de producto por cada encuestador, hojas de respuesta para los productores y lápices.En este punto se describe una secuencia posible de la reunión de evaluación y se ofrece un listado de verificación como apoyo a la organización de estos eventos. Se puede planear una reunión por cada subzona definida en la región bajo consideración. Cada reunión se puede llevar a cabo con un máximo de 25 agricultores que representen todas las categorías propuestas. Es necesario invitar un 20% de productores de más para garantizar la muestra.El recurso humano necesario incluye entre tres y cinco profesionales quienes estén en capacidad de realizar una o más de las funciones siguientes:− Facilitar el desarrollo del evento. − Presentar las opciones de mercado. − Responder preguntas técnicas sobre las opciones de mercado . − Encuestar y llenar el formato de preferencias (mínimo tres personas).Adicionalmente, se debe tener a disposición conductores y vehículos, si se ha ofrecido apoyo para el transporte de los campesinos.Es importante tener en cuenta que los miembros del equipo de trabajo deben estar capacitados para asumir sus responsabilidades dentro del proceso de evaluación participativa.3-25 A continuación se presenta una posible secuencia para la reunión de evaluación:1. Antes de iniciar la reunión, se deben colocar distintivos a los productores rurales si éstos han sido divididos por tipos.2. Cuando haya llegado la mayoría de los productores invitados y todo esté listo, se da comienzo a la reunión, la cual generalmente dura tres horas. Esto significa que se debe iniciar a las 2:00 p.m. o a las 10:00 a.m.3. Se procede a dar una introducción general a la reunión, explicando los antecedentes y algunos supuestos.4. Se realiza la exposición de las opciones de mercado mediante la presentación y explicación de las fichas de producto y cualquier otro tipo de material que se considere conveniente. Para esta presentación se pueden usar carteleras, fotos, proyectores de opacos ó acetatos, o proyectores de diapositivas. Si no hay energía eléctrica en la zona, se puede llevar una planta generadora a gasolina o ACPM. Se recomienda llevar muestras físicas de los productos. Después de la exposición de cada producto, se continua con la sesión de preguntas y respuestas.5. Se procede a explicar el proceso de ordenamiento individual de las fichas de producto (opciones de mercado). Se puede entregar fotocopias de las fichas de producto a los productores.6. Se lleva a cabo el ordenamiento individual de las fichas de producto.7. Luego se procede a realizar el ordenamiento de opciones, pero en grupos por tipos de agricultores.8. Se dan los agradecimientos y se invita a los participantes a un refrigerio o comida ligera.9. Se procede a repartir a los agricultores a quienes se les prometió ese apoyo.El Cuadro 3.4 ofrece una lista de verificación de los recursos requeridos para la realización de las reuniones de evaluación. Una de las actividades en la planeación de las reuniones de evaluación es su adecuada programación. Para ello es necesario definir sitios de reunión que tengan los servicios y equipamiento mínimo necesario y que sean fácilmente accesibles, tanto para los organizadores como para los agricultores. Se debe tener en cuenta que cada reunión requiere de un gran esfuerzo de coordinación y de un fuerte apoyo logístico y, por esta razón, no se debe programar más de una reunión por semana. Como ya se dijo, se debe programar una reunión por subzona que incluya la participación de representantes de todas las categorías de productores rurales. La convocatoria de los agricultores integrantes de la muestra debe realizarse con dos semanas de anticipación y se debe recordar 1 ó 2 días antes de la fecha programada.En el Cuadro 3.5 se muestra un ejemplo de una matriz de programación de reuniones, utilizada en el caso de Colombia. Una convocatoria a productores rurales bien ejecutada es clave para el proceso de evaluación participativa. Primero, asegura que la muestra de productores y veredas sea representativa y, segundo, se incrementan las posibilidades de una buena asistencia de los agricultores.Antes de convocar a los productores, se debe seleccionar una muestra representativa de veredas dentro de cada subzona. Los criterios de selección se deben determinar de acuerdo con una o más variables relacionadas, como por ejemplo, grado de acceso por carretera ó infraestructura de servicios básicos.A continuación en cada vereda seleccionada se procede a identificar agricultores que representen las categorías predeterminadas. Esto se puede realizar con el apoyo de encuestas anteriores ó de informantes clave. Se recomienda incluir la mujer campesina dentro de la muestra. Por cada tipo de agricultores se pueden invitar el mismo número de personas; por ejemplo, si cada reunión se va a realizar con 21 agricultores, se invita un número igual de agricultores de cada tipo ó categoría. Se recomienda invitar a un 20% de productores de más para asegurar que el número de agricultores que asistan a las reuniones sean suficientes, ya que siempre habrá un porcentaje de agricultores que no podrán asistir por múltiples motivos. Esto significa que en vez de invitar 21 agricultores, se invitan 25.Para incentivar la participación del campesino, se recomienda diseñar tarjetas de invitación en cartulina que a la vez sirven como cupón para reclamar un refrigerio o una comida ligera. Las tarjetas deben llevar el nombre del productor,  especificar el lugar, la fecha y hora de la reunión, y mencionar el estímulo que se ofrecerá.Una vez realizadas todas las actividades anteriores, se procede a efectuar las invitaciones formales a los agricultores. Esto requiere de una visita con una o dos semanas de anticipación para explicar el motivo de la reunión, se confirma ó averigua sobre el tipo de productor y se entrega la tarjeta de invitación. En la Figura 3.5 se muestra un ejemplo de tarjeta de invitación. Una vez realizadas todas las reuniones programadas, se tienen los formatos de ordenamiento de preferencias, tanto a nivel individual como por tipología de agricultor (Anexo 7.3). Estos formatos contienen la información que se debe procesar y analizar utilizando un paquete estadístico computarizado.Se recomienda que la información se presente por subzonas, en varios tipos de cuadros con frecuencias y porcentajes de ocurrencia. Estos parámetros se refieren al número de veces en que una opción de mercado es clasificada en el grupo de las buenas o en el primer lugar, o en el grupo de las malas. Las frecuencias y porcentajes se presentan para toda la muestra de cada subzona y también por tipo de productor. A continuación se presenta un listado de los títulos de los cuadros sugeridos:3-30− Número de veces en el grupo de buenos, general y por tipos. − Número de veces que aparece en el primer lugar, general y por tipo. − Razones para escoger las primeras dos opciones, en forma general y por tipología. − Razones para escoger la opción ganadora, en forma general. − Número de veces que aparece en el grupo de malas, en forma general . − Número de veces en las últimos dos lugares, en forma general. − Razones para rechazar las últimas dos opciones, en forma general. − Qué le falta a la opción preferida (tipo ideal o ideotipo), en forma general.− Opciones más preferidas − Razones para preferencias. − Opciones menos preferidas. − Razones para rechazo.En el Cuadro 3.6 se muestra un ejemplo del primer cuadro ó formato de presentación antes nombrado. La organización de la información en esta serie de cuadros permite cumplir con los objetivos iniciales de la evaluación participativa, o sea, conocer las preferencias y criterios de decisión de los productores rurales en cada subzona y también por tipos de productor.El informe final es un documento que tiene por objetivo explicar de la manera más clara posible los resultados de la evaluación participativa, de acuerdo con los objetivos planteados originalmente. Adicionalmente, debe presentar antecedentes y la metodología de trabajo. Los resultados se pueden presentar de dos maneras:1. Como un texto haciendo referencia a los diferentes cuadros agrupados al final en forma de anexo.2. Como una combinación de texto y cuadros. Los resultados deben incluir una sección de conclusiones y recomendaciones. Adicionalmente, los diferentes instrumentos y formatos se pueden incluir como anexos.Cuadro 3.6. Ejemplo de un formato de presentación de la información. Una vez elaborado el informe final del ejercicio de evaluación, queda claro cuáles opciones de mercado fueron preferidas y cuáles fueron rechazadas por los productores rurales. Las opciones rechazadas por una gran mayoría de los agricultores deben ser descartadas, ya que los productores rurales están expresando que estas opciones de mercado no son las más viables ó atractivas desde su perspectiva y su contexto socioeconómico.Las alternativas de mercado que ocuparon los lugares intermedios no se deben descartar. Si un producto nunca ocupó los primeros lugares, pero tampoco fue rechazado de manera categórica por los productores, no debe ser descartado. Con estos resultados, ya se tiene un portafolio de productos bastante depurado que ha sido aceptado por los productores rurales y se puede continuar con el modelo de programación lineal.A continuación se presenta un resumen del trabajo realizado con el modelo de programación lineal en la zona de laderas de Colombia.En esta zona se realizó una evaluación ex-ante de las alternativas de producción más atractivas para los pequeños productores de la microcuenca del Río Cabuyal, al sur de Colombia, mediante el uso de un modelo de programación lineal multipropósito. Este modelo se usó para comparar las diferentes alternativas de producción dentro de una finca y para buscar un balance entre objetivos posiblemente en conflicto, tales como los objetivos del agricultor (ingreso y reducción de riesgo) y los objetivos del investigador, entre ellos la reducción de la erosión. Como prerequisito se deben caracterizar desde el punto de vista biológico y económico los sistemas tradiconales o actuales de producción y aquellos sistemas que incorporan nuevas alternativas productivas. El modelo se alimenta con datos relacionados con erosión del suelo, rendimientos de los cultivos, costos de producción, ingresos, etc. El modelo permitió concluir que, en la 'subregión alta', los sistemas de producción de las frutas: mora, lulo o naranjilla y uchuva pueden complementar los actuales sistemas de producción. Una vez se mejoran las pasturas, la producción de leche puede ser otra alternativa. En la 'subregión media' el actual sistema de producción de café y plátano debe mantenerse por ser una buena alternativa tanto a nivel de ingresos como de sostenibilidad. La yuca y los pastos se consideraron las mejores opciones para la 'subregión baja'. Para mayor información sobre este trabajo, ver Girón y Estrada (1998).Las opciones de mercado seleccionadas después del proceso descrito en esta Sección 3 de la Guía, o sea las alternativas que pasaron las pruebas de caracterización agronómica, comercial, económica, evaluación participativa y modelo multipropósito de programación lineal, serán el tema central de posteriores proyectos productivos integrados de investigación y desarrollo. Los proyectos productivos integrados son el tema de la siguiente Sección 4.Ejercicio 3.1 Caracterización Agronómica de un Cultivo Objetivo ü El participante llenará una matriz de caracterización agronómica para un cultivo que sea importante en la región.1. Organice a los participantes en grupos de cuatro.2. Los grupos usarán la matriz de caracterización agronómica que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.3. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en el Punto 3.1.3.4. Cada grupo debe caracterizar, en lo posible, un cultivo diferente que sea común en la zona.5. Cada grupo presentará la caracterización de su respectiva zona en la sesión plenaria.• Hoja de Trabajo y lápices • Punto 3.1.3 del manual • Papelera, papel, y marcadores Tiempo requerido: 60 a 90 minutos depende del número de grupos.Instrucciones para el Participante 1. Intégrese a un equipo de cuatro participantes y nombren un coordinador.2. Escojan un cultivo que sea importante en la zona y sobre el cual uno o mas miembros tengan un buen conocimiento agronómico.3. Utilicen el formato de caracterización agronómica que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.4. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en el punto 3.1.3. Si no se conocen algunos datos, el equipo debe hacer una suposición inteligente. Cuando hayan terminado, pasen el formato a una hoja de papel de tamaño apropiado para la presentación final.5. El coordinador del grupo presentará la caracterización en la sesión plenaria. 1. Organice a los participantes en grupos de cuatro.2. Los grupos usarán el formato de ficha de producto que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.3. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en el Punto 3.2.4 y en las Figuras 3.3 y 3.4.4. Cada grupo debe elaborar una ficha de producto para un cultivo diferente que sea común en la zona.5. Cada grupo presentará su trabajo en sesión plenaria.• Hoja de Trabajo y lápices • Punto 3.2.4 y las Figuras 3.3. y 3.4 de la Guía • Papelera, papel, y marcadores Tiempo requerido: 60 minutos.3-37Instrucciones para el Participante 1. Intégrese a un equipo de cuatro participantes y nombren un coordinador.2. Escojan un cultivo que sea importante en la zona y sobre el cual uno ó más miembros tengan buenos conocimientos.3. Utilicen el formato de ficha de producto que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.4. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en el punto 3.2.4 y en la Figura 3.3.5. Si no se conocen algunos datos, el equipo debe hacer una suposición inteligente.6. Cuando terminen, pasen el formato a una hoja de papel de tamaño adecuado para la presentación.7. El coordinador del grupo presentará la ficha de producto en la sesión plenaria. Objetivo ü El participante desarrollará un cronograma para el proceso de evaluación participativa de opciones de mercado1. Organice los participantes en grupos de cuatro.2. Los grupos usarán el formato que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.3. Primero deben desarrollar un cronograma en borrador antes de pasarlo al formato en la Hoja de Trabajo.4. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en la parte 3.2 de la Guía.5. El coordinador de cada grupo presentará su trabajo en sesión plenaria.• Hoja de Trabajo y lápices • Parte 3.2 de la Guía • Papelera, papel, y marcadores Tiempo requerido: 60 a 90 minutos, dependiendo del número de grupos 3-40Instrucciones para el Participante 1. Intégrese a un equipo de cuatro participantes y nombren a un coordinador.2. Utilicen el formato de cronograma que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.3. El número de actividades que aparece en el formato no es una sugerencia; pueden ser más o menos. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en la Parte 3.2.4. En la columna de 'fecha', empiece con la Semana 1 y siga trabajando en términos de semanas. Algunas actividades demoran más de una semana.Recuerde que algunas actividades se pueden realizar al mismo tiempo (paralelas) y que la secuencia es importante, ya que algunas actividades son prerequisitos para otras.5. Cuando hayan terminado, pasen el formato a una hoja grande de papel.6. El coordinador del grupo presentará el cronograma en la sesión plenaria. El participante identificará los criterios de decisión de los pequeños agricultores al escoger un cultivo para siembra.Organice los participantes en grupos de cuatro. Esta práctica requiere de dos días divididos en tres sesiones, así:• Sesión de planeación (2-4 horas)• Sesión de trabajo de campo (3-5 horas)• Sesión de informes y presentaciones (2 horas)La Hoja de Trabajo incluye un formato de guía para entrevista y otro para el informe. La información relacionada para esta práctica aparece en los puntos 3.2.2 y 3.2.3.Primero se conforman los equipos de cuatro participantes. Si no se ha hecho previamente, se escogen unas cuatro veredas que sean representativas de la región y también se definen las categorías ó tipos de agricultores. Luego se debe desarrollar la guía de entrevista ó cuestionario, o sea, el instrumento de investigación con los productores rurales.Cada equipo deberá entrevistar una muestra de ocho agricultores en una misma vereda. La muestra debe incluir todos los tipos de agricultores. Una vereda podrá ser atendida por más de un equipo, si es necesario.Cada equipo prepara su informe y luego el coordinador de cada grupo presentará su trabajo en sesión plenaria.• Transporte ida y regreso a la zona rural Intégrese a un equipo de cuatro participantes y nombren un coordinador. La Hoja de Trabajo incluye un formato de guía de entrevista y otro para el informe. La información pertinente para esta práctica aparece en los Puntos 3.2.2 y 3.2.3. Esta práctica requiere de dos días divididos en tres sesiones, así:− Sesión de planeación − Sesión de trabajo de campo − Sesión de informes y presentacionesSi no se ha realizado previamente, se escogen cuatro veredas que sean representativas de la región y también se definen las categorías ó tipos de agricultores. A continuación desarrollan la guía de entrevista ó cuestionario, o sea, el instrumento de investigación con los productores rurales. Recuerde el objetivo del sondeo de criterios de decisión. Durante la entrevista también debe averiguar el tipo de agricultor que se está entrevistando. No se olvide de usar un lenguaje sencillo.Se entrevista una muestra de ocho agricultores en una misma vereda. La muestra debe incluir todos los tipos de agricultores. Una vereda podrá ser atendida por más de un equipo si es necesario. Un miembro del equipo puede realizar la encuesta mientras otro toma notas en el formato.Cada equipo prepara su informe y luego el coordinador de cada grupo presentará su trabajo en sesión plenaria.3-46Se adjuntan dos formatos, uno para la Guía de Entrevista y otro para el Informe.Sondeo: Criterios de decisión para la selección de cultivos para siembra 1. Salude al productor y explíquele el objetivo de la visita.'Buenos días/Buenas tardes, somos de tal organización y nos gustaría saber si nos puede atender para hablar sobre un tema que nos interesa.'2. Haga una pregunta para averiguar el tipo de productor.'Lo que usted produce mayormente lo vende ó lo consume usted mismo?' Nota: Esta pregunta es pertinente solamente si decidieron clasificar a los productores rurales de acuerdo con su grado de orientación al mercado (comercial, semicomercial, subsistencia).3. Anote el nombre del productor, el tipo, la vereda y el nombre del grupo que encuesta.4. Haga la pregunta sobre criterios de selección para escoger cultivos tradicionales.¿Qué razones ó motivos tiene usted para escoger un cultivo tradicional para la siembra?5. Anote las respuestas.6. Haga la pregunta sobre criterios de selección para escoger cultivos nuevos.¿Qué razones ó motivos tiene usted para escoger un cultivo nuevo para la siembra?7. Anote las respuestas.8. Agradezca la colaboración al productor. Se notaron diferencias en los criterios entre tipologías de productores Los agricultores de subsistencia estaban más interesados en que el cultivo fuera rústico y que fuera de ciclo corto Sección 44-5Etapas del proyecto productivo integrado Aspectos de sostenibilidad Objetivos General ü Al finalizar el estudio de esta sección, el participante podrá diseñar un PPIa nivel rural.El participante podrá:ü Explicar las principales características de un proyecto.ü Describir los diferentes aspectos que se tienen en cuenta en un proyecto productivo integrado y sus implicaciones.ü Explicar porqué el proceso de definición de prioridades de acción dentro de un proyecto productivo integrado rural debe ser participativo.ü Enumerar algunas áreas donde el concepto de sostenibilidad es importante ü Definir el término 'etapa piloto', y explicar su utilidad.ü Enumerar los principales puntos de un política microrregional de proyectos productivos 4-61. Parta de la base que usted ya identificó un cultivo que representa una oportunidad de mercado para la región donde usted vive o trabaja. Ahora usted desea promover ese cultivo. ¿Cuál sería su primer paso hacia este objetivo?2. Reconstruya el camino que ha recorrido una piña desde la siembra hasta el momento que usted coloca mermelada de piña en el pan.3. ¿De que factores depende la permanencia o sostenibilidad de una agroempresa?Como se vio en las secciones anteriores, ya se identificaron una o más oportunidades de mercado para una región en consideración. En esta sección se estudiará la forma cómo es posible trabajar con las organizaciones de productores rurales y qué actividades se deben ejecutar para aprovechar estas oportunidades. El enfoque que se presenta es el de 'Proyectos Productivos Integrados' (PPIs), concepto que tuvo origen en el CIAT en la década de los setenta y que originalmente se aplicó a proyectos de desarrollo rural centrados en el procesamiento de yuca, pero que es aplicable a cualquier cultivo o producto agroindustrial.Un Proyecto Productivo Integrado (PPI) se puede enfocar en fortalecer un negocio o agroindustria rural ya existente o en establecer un nuevo negocio o agroindustria rural. El PPI se subdivide en subproyectos, algunos de carácter investigativo y otros de desarrollo agroempresarial.Ante todo, es conveniente explicar lo que se entiende por un formato de proyecto. Un proyecto es un conjunto de actividades que se planean y ejecutan para lograr uno o más objetivos dentro de un período de tiempo y con unos recursos predeterminados. El cumplimiento del objetivo es la razón de ser del proyecto. En consecuencia, se define una estrategia, procedimiento o metodología, que permita alcanzar el objetivo. La estrategia se puede dividir en subcomponentes del proyecto que se pueden denominar como 'productos', 'resultados' o 'módulos'. Cada uno de estos subcomponentes de la estrategia se ejecuta a través de la implementación de una serie de actividades. Para cada actividad es necesario definir quién es el responsable y un marco de tiempo. En un PPI se ejecutan actividades de investigación y desarrollo con el propósito final de producir y comercializar un producto agropecuario, forestal o agroindustrial para el beneficio del poblador rural. Es posible que existan vacíos tecnológicos o de información que limiten el cumplimiento del objetivo del proyecto, caso en el cual se deben incluir temas de investigación. Las actividades de desarrollo son aquellas que se dirigen directamente hacia el desarrollo del negocio en mención. Generalmente las actividades de investigación y desarrollo se mezclan o combinan dentro del proyecto.Este proyecto productivo se puede ejecutar con la participación de varios de los siguientes actores del desarrollo rural: empresarios rurales, organizaciones de productores, organizaciones gubernamentales y ONG's locales, nacionales, e internacionales, empresa privada, universidades, centros de investigación, entre otros.En los siguientes puntos se describen las áreas de acción del PPI.El nivel de intervención del PPI en producción agropecuaria va dirigido a mejorar los diferentes aspectos del producto o materia prima, como calidad, costos de producción, sostenibilidad productiva, continuidad de oferta y volumen de producción. Algunos de estos aspectos están relacionados con el manejo poscosecha y con la organización empresarial.4-9Este tipo de proyecto puede implicar trabajo en manejo poscosecha o en procesamiento o transformación. El manejo poscosecha adecuado se refiere al tratamiento de los productos en fresco, de tal manera que garanticen frescura, homogeneidad, calidad y buena presentación. Puede involucrar actividades dirigidas a mejorar el producto en presentación, selección, limpieza, clasificación, refrigeración, almacenamiento, empaque y transporte. En este caso es indispensable efectuar un inventario de tecnologías disponibles.Es posible que el producto objeto del PPI no sea en fresco sino que demande cierto nivel de transformación o procesamiento. En este caso, es posible que sea necesario desarrollar, adaptar o mejorar una tecnología de transformación. La tecnología de procesamiento abarca el conocimiento en procedimientos, equipos, infraestructura e insumos. Esto puede significar la necesidad de establecer plantas experimentales y piloto antes de entrar de lleno al mercado.Este es un componente esencial dentro del proyecto. Como se recordará, esta Guía tiene un enfoque netamente de mercados, ya que en la Sección 2 se describe un método para efectuar investigación de mercados y en la Sección 3 se describe, entre otros, un procedimiento para realizar la caracterización comercial y económica de un producto.El PPI en el área de mercadeo debe definir tanto el potencial como las estrategias de mercado para el producto bajo consideración. Para este efecto, el proyecto debe promover la elaboración de planes de negocio y de mercadeo. Estos últimos describen las decisiones y la gestión alrededor de las cuatro variables de mercado, a saber: producto (¿cuáles son las características del producto que se venderá?); precio (¿a cómo se va a vender el producto?); distribución (¿mediante qué canales de distribución se va a hacer llegar el producto al cliente o consumidor?) y promoción (¿cómo se puede motivar a los clientes o consumidores para que compren el producto?).Este es quizás el componente más importante dentro del proyecto productivo integrado. Es posible que ya exista una organización rural empresarial eficiente que pueda liderar el proyecto. O puede ser que la organización esté establecida, pero que requiera de apoyo y fortalecimiento. En ocasiones, la organización no existe y es necesario estimular su creación, aprovechando siempre las capacidades empresariales y de liderazgo existentes a nivel de la comunidad rural.De todas formas, uno de los objetivos sobresalientes del PPI es el fortalecimiento de la capacidad empresarial y de autogestión de la organización de productores. Esto se puede promover mediante técnicas que permitan que la organización se 4-10 autoevalúe usando guías especialmente preparadas. Así mismo, la preparación y ejecución de Planes de Negocio y Planes de Mercadeo son una excelente estrategia para mejorar el desempeño empresarial. La función de las instituciones es el acompañamiento temporal de la organización rural, adelante en este documento.El PPI debe tener un espíritu participativo. Esto quiere decir que al tomar decisiones se debe tener en cuenta a los usuarios y beneficiarios del PPI, o sea los pobladores, productores y organizaciones rurales y además a los diferentes actores en la cadena agroindustrial del producto en consideración. El PPI tiene dos tipos de clientes: como mecanismo de desarrollo rural su cliente es el habitante rural, y como empresa proveedora de productos o servicios, su otro cliente es comprador o el consumidor final.Al diseñar el proyecto productivo, es decir al definir las prioridades de intervención dentro del sistema o la cadena del producto, es indispensable llevar a cabo un proceso participativo que incluya habitantes rurales e instituciones de desarrollo rural.También, se debe estudiar la cadena de comercialización de los productos en consideración para detectar debilidades y 'cuellos de botella'. Se recomienda desarrollar reuniones con muestras representativas de los diferentes actores a lo largo de la cadena agroindustrial. Si nos referimos a un PPI centrado en fortalecer un negocio tradicional o ya establecido, es importante estudiar previamente las intervenciones institucionales anteriores para mejorar el enfoque del PPI y evitar errores pasados.En síntesis, el proceso participativo de toma de decisiones debe detectar las fortalezas y debilidades en el sistema y en la cadena del producto para determinar de esta forma, las áreas de acción prioritarias. Adicionalmente, se debe definir si las áreas de acción corresponden al ámbito del desarrollo o de la investigación. En el Cuadro 4.2 se presenta una matriz que permite visualizar este tipo de decisiones.El concepto de sostenibilidad ha adquirido una creciente importancia en el mundo actual. Generalmente este término hace referencia a la necesidad de conservar los recursos naturales, proteger el medio ambiente y mantener la capacidad productiva del campo. Sin embargo, se puede aplicar este término a la economía campesina y a la agroempresa rural y referirse a la importancia que las organizaciones y actividades económicas sean permanentes y mantengan su vigencia. Un PPI bien diseñado trata de que sus acciones y resultados sean sostenibles en el tiempo.Esto implica que la forma de producción de la materia prima en el campo debe ser sostenible, o sea, que conserve los recursos naturales como los suelos, el agua y la biodiversidad, de tal manera que las siguientes generaciones puedan obtener los mismos o mejores rendimientos agrícolas y pecuarios. Así mismo, los procesos agroindustriales deben conservar el medio ambiente, evitando su contaminación.El concepto de sostenibilidad es clave en el campo empresarial. En este sentido es importante recordar que sin rentabilidad no hay sostenibilidad. El PPI no puede garantizar sostenibilidad de las agroempresas porque el riesgo forma parte del mundo empresarial, pero sí la puede promover. La sostenibilidad de la agroempresa se promueve mediante las acciones siguientes:− Proponiendo opciones de mercado que sean viables y rentables. − Impulsando las capacidades empresariales y de liderazgo en el sector rural. − Acompañando, pero no reemplazando, a la agroempresa rural. − Favoreciendo siempre la autogestión de la organización rural mediante la capacitación, evitando posturas paternalistas, delegando responsabilidades y estimulando la participación y toma de decisiones por parte de los productores o pobladores rurales.− Estimulando la capacidad de autocrítica y la cultura de eficiencia y calidad al interior de la agroempresa rural. − Favoreciendo la creación de servicios de apoyo a la economía campesina que sean locales, rentables y permanentes. Este tema merece una atención especial. Como ya se dijo, un producto no es un elemento aislado sino que forma parte de un sistema, el sistema del producto. De la misma forma, una agroempresa debe formar parte de un sistema que incluya servicios de apoyo como instituciones de ahorro y crédito, transporte, información comercial, talleres y asesoría técnica. Es difícil que una agroempresa sea tan autosuficiente que pueda sobrevivir de manera aislada. En las áreas urbanas se puede detectar claramente la existencia del sistema de empresa.Para que sean verdaderamente sostenibles, los servicios de apoyo deben generar sus propios ingresos, o sea que no deben ser gratuitos. Esto generalmente significa que deben ser también locales, o sea manejados por el gobierno local o la misma comunidad rural. Estos servicios pueden surgir de manera espontánea de la comunidad, o se pueden promover a través de intervenciones externas temporales que incluyan, por ejemplo, capital semilla y asesorías.Recientemente (1999), el director del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) comentó que los subsidios eran válidos siempre y cuando fueran temporales y promovieran actividades benéficas para la sociedad en común. Creemos que este es el caso del establecimiento de servicios de apoyo para la empresa rural.En este punto es conveniente mencionar el caso de los consultores externos. Cuando se dice que una agroempresa rural ha alcanzado un nivel de autogestión, no se quiere significar que es autosuficiente, sino que es capaz de tomar decisiones racionales, tales como decidir que requiere de un apoyo o consultoría externa. Esta consultoría, sin embargo, debe ser temporal y no debe ser gratuita. Si la agroempresa rural tiene la capacidad económica, puede contratar personal gerencial o administrativo externo.En la Figura 4.1 se muestran las etapas de un PPI. Como ya se mencionó, este proyecto parte de la identificación de una oportunidad de mercado en una región determinada. Luego, se continua con una convocatoria de los diferentes actores en la cadena agroindustrial bajo consideración y prosigue con un diseño participativo en donde se identifican las prioridades de acción, tanto a nivel de investigación como a nivel de desarrollo. La importancia relativa de los componentes de investigación y desarrollo depende del grado de complejidad tecnológica de la oportunidad de mercado y del estado de conocimiento técnico y comercial del equipo de trabajo. Si la oportunidad de mercado es un producto en fresco, generalmente se requiere menos investigación que si es un producto agroindustrial transformado. Así mismo, si el producto es nuevo en la región y para el equipo de trabajo, o representa una innovación, el componente de investigación será más importante.Adicionalmente, la existencia de ciertos vacíos tecnológicos no significa necesariamente que sea necesario detener el proceso de desarrollo agroempresarial; es posible adelantar los procesos de investigación y desarrollo de manera paralela. Sin embargo, hay que saber reconocer cuándo un vacío tecnológico o de conocimiento es tan grande que hace inconveniente el trabajo en desarrollo agroempresarial. En este caso, se debe llenar el vacío primero y luego proseguir con actividades de desarrollo.La etapa piloto es un concepto clave en el PPI y es un concepto empresarial. En la etapa piloto se ejecutan actividades agroempresariales a pequeña escala bajo las condiciones reales del mercado. Si es necesaria la construcción de una planta, ésta será de carácter piloto, o sea, a pequeña escala. La etapa piloto es una estrategia para minimizar riesgos; es una estrategia para evitar los elefantes blancos.Existe un concepto similar en mercadeo, llamado el mercado de prueba. En él, una empresa introduce un nuevo producto no a nivel nacional, sino en una sola ciudad, departamento o provincia con el fin de evaluar el nivel de éxito. Si le va bien, el nuevo producto se lanza en otra ciudad o a nivel nacional. Si es un fracaso, la empresa tiene que decidir entre insistir o eliminar el nuevo producto.Así mismo, si la etapa piloto del PPI es exitosa, se pasa a la fase comercial donde la escala de operación se amplía de acuerdo con cálculos sobre el potencial de la demanda. Un proyecto de este tipo que llega a la fase comercial es un proyecto exitoso.Todas las consideraciones anteriores conforman una propuesta de política microrregional de PPIs, la cual se resume a continuación.− Mantener una orientación de mercados y seguridad alimentaria. − Mantener un portafolio priorizado de proyectos. − Diseñar proyectos productivos integrados de manera participativa.− Identificar áreas de investigación de manera participativa.− Realizar el trabajo multidisciplinario de instituciones y/o consultores de manera coordinada. − Promover la sostenibilidad de las organizaciones y de los logros del proyecto. − Promover el establecimiento de servicio locales sostenibles de apoyo.Esta política puede guiar las actividades de organizaciones regionales enfocadas en desarrollo rural como consorcios interinstitucionales, organizaciones de productores y gobiernos locales.Ejercicio 4.1 Determinación de Areas de Trabajo Prioritarias para un Proyecto Productivo Integrado Objetivo ü El participante definirá las prioridades de trabajo dentro de un proyecto productivo integrado centrado en una oportunidad de mercado de una región determinada.Para la realización de este ejercicio:1. Organice los participantes en grupos de cuatro.2. Los grupos usarán la matriz de prioridades en el sistema del producto que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.3. La información pertinente para este ejercicio se encuentra en los Puntos 4.2, 4.3 y 4.5 principalmente.4. Cada grupo se debe enfocar en una oportunidad de mercado diferente, en lo posible real.5. El grupo deberá discutir cuáles son las áreas prioritarias de trabajo, y si corresponden a investigación o desarrollo. Se pueden señalar las celdas correspondientes con una X y hacer anotaciones si lo consideran necesario.6. Cada grupo presentará sus prioridades de trabajo en la sesión plenaria.• Hoja de Trabajo y lápices Para participar en este ejercicio:1. Intégrese a un equipo de cuatro participantes y nombren un coordinador.2. Escojan una oportunidad de mercado real en la zona y sobre la cual uno ó más miembros tengan un buen conocimiento general.3. Utilicen el formato de matriz de prioridades que aparece en la Hoja de Trabajo.4. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en los Puntos 4.2, 4.3 y 4.5. Si no conocen algún dato, el equipo debe hacer una suposición inteligente.5. El grupo deberá discutir cuáles son las áreas prioritarias de trabajo, y si corresponden a investigación o desarrollo.6. Pueden marcar las celdas correspondientes con una X y hacer anotaciones si lo consideran necesario.7. Cuando terminen, pasen el formato a una hoja de papel de tamaño adecuado para la presentación.8. El coordinador del grupo presentará la matriz de prioridades del PPI en la sesión plenaria. Para la realización del ejercicio:Organice a los participantes en grupos de cuatro. Los grupos usarán el formato disponible en la Hoja de Trabajo. La información pertinente para este ejercicio está en el Punto 4.4. Cada grupo debe realizar un diagnóstico de los servicios de apoyo para zonas diferentes. Algunos ejemplos de servicios de apoyo a la economía campesina o agroempresas rurales son los siguientes: financieros (ahorro y crédito), transporte de productos agrícolas, teléfono, comunicaciones, información de precios, asesoría técnica, venta de semillas e insumos.El primer grupo definirá cuáles son los servicios de apoyo más importantes, según su criterio, para la economía campesina y, luego, calificarán el estado actual de cada servicio en la región como bueno, malo o inexistente. Cada grupo presentará su caracterización en la sesión plenaria.• Hoja de Trabajo y lápices Cada grupo debe realizar un diagnóstico de los servicios de apoyo para zonas diferentes. Algunos ejemplos de servicios de apoyo a la economía campesina o agroempresas rurales son los siguientes: financieros (ahorro y crédito), transporte de productos agrícolas, teléfono, comunicaciones, información de precios, asesoría técnica, venta de semillas e insumos.El grupo primero definirá cuáles son los servicios de apoyo más importantes, según su criterio, para la economía campesina y, luego, calificarán el estado actual de cada servicio en la región como bueno, malo o inexistente. Cuando hayan terminado, pasen el formato a una hoja de papel adecuada para la discusión. El coordinador del grupo presentará la caracterización en la sesión plenaria.Calificación del servicio (marcar con X) Tipo de servicio a la economía campesinaA-5Esta evaluación consta de seis preguntas que se refieren a las cuatro secciones de esta guía. Esta evaluación, como la que se hace al iniciar la capacitación, también es de carácter formativo. No se califica al participante; tan solo se le ofrece la oportunidad para asegurarse de sus conocimientos y revisar algunos de los vacíos que pueden haber quedado pendientes a lo largo de su aprendizaje.A-6A continuación aparecen preguntas sobre las cuatro secciones de esa guía. Lea detenidamente cada una de ellas y proceda a contestarlas a lápiz en el espacio disponible.Esta no es una prueba para calificar sus conocimientos, sino, más bien una oportunidad para revisar lo que ha aprendido. Al terminar de contestar, el instructor compartirá con usted las respuestas que él ha formulado. Entonces, usted tendrá la oportunidad de aclarar con él y con sus compañeros algunos aspectos que pueden no estar aún claros. Una vez los participantes han terminado de contestar el cuestionario anterior, el instructor comparte con ellos las respuestas que aparecen a continuación, haciendo este ejercicio de acuerdo con su estilo personal y con la intención de 'aclarar y llenar vacíos' antes que de 'evaluar'.1. Para qué sirve elaborar un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de una región de interés?Un perfil biofísico y socioeconómico de una región sirve para:• Tener información pertinente, organizada y resumida a la mano para la toma de decisiones. • Que visitantes y personal nuevo puedan formarse una idea rápida del sistema de la región. • Facilitar el desarrollo de una visión común de la región por parte de funcionarios e instituciones.Describa al menos tres de las cinco estrategias del estudio rápido de mercados.Las estrategias contempladas en el estudio rápido de mercados son:• Detectar categorías de productos agropecuarios, forestales y agroindustriales que presenten un crecimiento alto y medio en su demanda. • Identificar productos agropecuarios, forestales y agroindustriales que estén escasos (cuya demanda supere la oferta), o que estén siendo importados. • Estudiar las tendencias de la demanda para productos asociados a instrumentos de conservación de recursos naturales • Estudiar las tendencias de la demanda para productos en donde se considera que la región ofrece ventajas competitivas. • Estudiar tendencias en la demanda para productos tradicionales (agropecuarios, agroindustriales y forestales) de la región bajo estudio.3. Nombre al menos cinco fuentes de información primaria sobre tendencias en el mercado de productos agropecuarios Las fuentes de información primaria para este propósito son:• Jefes de compra de autoservicios • Mayoristas o intermediarios A-9• Empresas procesadoras de alimentos • Centros de información de centrales de abastos o mercados • Expendios 4. Cuáles son los criterios de evaluación propuestos para las opciones de mercado dirigidas a pequeños productores?• Factible en la pequeña propiedad rural • Atractiva como negocio • Aporta a la sostenibilidad productiva 5. Explique qué entiende por Tasa Financiera de Retorno.La Tasa Financiera de Retorno es aquella tasa de interés que descuenta una serie de flujos anuales de efectivo de tal manera que el valor presente de la serie es igual a la inversión inicial. La tasa de descuento ó tasa de interés utilizada para descontar la serie de flujo de efectivo es la misma TFR. Para que el proyecto sea económicamente atractivo para el inversionista, la TFR debe ser igual o mayor al costo de oportunidad del capital ó dinero.6. Mencione y explique al menos tres características de un proyecto productivo integrado.Algunas de las características más importantes de un proyecto productivo integrado son la siguientes:• Tiene una orientación de mercado y responde a la demanda A continuación aparece una serie de descripciones de comportamientos que se consideran deseables en un buen instructor. Estas han sido recogidas de la literatura educativa con respecto a las características que describen un buen docente o una buena capacitación.Con este instrumento se pueden analizar cuatro dimensiones del desempeño del instructor: (1) organización y claridad, (2) conocimiento del tema, (3) habilidades de interacción, y (4) dirección de la práctica. Para cada una de estas dimensiones se incluyen descriptores frente a los cuales la persona que se autoevalúa puede marcar si el comportamiento descrito fue ejecutado o no por ella, durante la capacitación.Marque una X en la columna SI cuando usted esté seguro de que ese comportamiento estuvo presente en su conducta, independientemente de la calidad con la cual podría evaluarse su ejecución.Marque una X en la columna NO cuando usted esté seguro de que no se observó ese comportamiento.El proceso de autoevaluación tiene dos momentos: (1) cuando se está preparando para la capacitación, el instructor hace una revisión de cada ítem para recordar todos los aspectos que debe tener en cuenta para que su desempeño sea exitoso; (2) inmediatamente después de la capacitación, para reconocer los desempeños que no tuvieron lugar durante la misma, por diferentes causas.Cada instructor, en forma individual, es el primer beneficiario de la autoevaluación.Este instrumento le ayuda a mejorar su desempeño en futuras actividades de capacitación.Este formulario también puede entregarse a algunos de los participantes en la capacitación para que consignen sus percepciones acerca del desempeño del instructor. Luego, se recogen los formularios y se tabulan las respuestas usando la hoja de tabulación (A-16). La evaluación del material puede hacerse con la participación de: § Expertos en el contenido (científicos, investigadores) § Expertos en comunicación § Técnicos, facilitadores de procesos, profesores, etc. § Productores, agricultores, miembros de organizaciones comunitarias, etc.Para este efecto, los evaluadores pueden usar un formato como el siguiente:La información que se presenta es técnicamente válida en el contexto en que se utiliza El contenido está dividido en segmentos que siguen un proceso claro y ordenado El contenido se presenta objetivamente, es decir respetando principios y métodos válidos El contenido es adecuado para el nivel de la audiencia (ver usuarios de la Guía)El contenido está actualizado desde el punto de vista científico-técnicoLa calidad de la impresión es excelente Análisis de sensibilidad Estudio que se hace usando el modelo de rentabilidad para determinar las variables que más afectan a un parámetro financiero de interés.Período de un cultivo, desde la siembra hasta que empiece a producir al menos el 30% de su máximo potencial.Período de un cultivo, desde la siembra hasta que la productividad baje a niveles menores del 30% de su máximo potencial.Costos que no varían con el volumen de producción, y permanecen relativamente estables; por ejemplo, gastos de administración, vigilancia.Costos que varían directamente con el volumen producido; por ejemplo, materia prima, empaques, combustible.Costo de oportunidad Interés que el sistema financiero reconoce por el ahorro del capital por ejemplo, el interés de los depósitos a término fijo (DTF).En el contexto de esta guía se refiere a los aspectos que tiene en cuenta el pequeño productor rural al escoger un cultivo para sembrar.En el contexto de esta guía, los aspectos que se analizan para tomar decisiones de selección o descarte de elementos, en este caso opciones de mercado. Los criterios usados son la factibilidad en la pequeña propiedad rural, el atractivo como negocio y el aporte a la sostenibilidad productiva.Una herramienta de planeación y control de proyectos que define la secuencia, duración y responsabilidades de las actividades.Desarrollo del mercado Estrategia de crecimiento empresarial consistente en identificar y desarrollar nuevos segmentos de mercado para los productos actuales. Los nuevos segmentos pueden ser los mercados institucionales y otras zonas geográficas, incluyendo exportación.Desarrollo de productos Estrategia de crecimiento empresarial que consiste en ofrecer productos nuevos o modificados a los segmentos actuales del mercado. Los productos se pueden mejorar, empacar de forma diferente, y colocarles marcas.Variable de mercadeo que define los canales por medio de los cuales el producto o servicio llega al cliente.Estrategia de crecimiento empresarial que consiste en producir nuevos productos para nuevos mercados.Encuesta estructurada Instrumento de investigación consistente en un formato con preguntas que se hacen de la misma manera a todos los encuestados.Instrumento de investigación consistente en una guía de estructurada entrevista que permite al entrevistador sondear a los encuestados y dirigir la entrevista de acuerdo con las respuestas.Estabilidad de precios Grado de variabilidad de los precios de un producto. Se puede medir con un índice equivalente a la desviación estándar de una serie deflactada de al menos 18 precios mensuales.Evaluación participativa Metodología inspirada en las pruebas de concepto utilizadas en investigación de productos que permite a los pequeños productores rurales expresar sus preferencias, respecto a opciones de mercado que se les presentan.Calificativo relativo a si un cultivo es rústico y tolerante a las condiciones edafoclimáticas, o si requiere de tecnologías sofisticadas y grandes cantidades de insumos para su desarrollo.Etapa del proyecto productivo integrado que sigue a la fase piloto si ésta es exitosa, en la cual la escala de operaciones se amplía de acuerdo con el potencial de demanda estimado.A-20Estrategia para minimizar el riesgo dentro de un proyecto productivo integrado, consistente en una etapa en la cual se ejecutan actividades empresariales a pequeña escala bajo condiciones reales del mercado.Formato especialmente diseñado para la evaluación participativa que representa el concepto de una opción de mercado. Las fichas se ordenan de acuerdo con las preferencias del pequeño productor rural.En el modelo financiero, la utilidad o pérdida neta que genera el proyecto. La serie de estos flujos se usa para calcular los parámetros financieros.Flujo efectivo por jornal La sumatoria de flujos de efectivo durante la vida del proyecto dividida por la sumatoria total del número de jornales.Concepto de lo que sería un producto ideal para el pequeño productor rural y que se usa en la evaluación participativa.Disciplina empresarial que permite identificar, mediante la mercados consulta de fuentes de información primarias y secundarias, las tendencias, oportunidades en el mercado y las opiniones y preferencias de clientes y consumidores.Inversión preproducción El monto de dinero que hay que gastar antes de la primera cosecha del cultivo.En investigación de mercados es la información que se obtiene de primera mano mediante varios métodos de contacto como entrevistas personales y sesiones de grupo.Información secundaria En investigación de mercados, la información que se obtiene de segunda mano, o sea que ya está documentada.Término empresarial que se refiere a las dos actividades y desarrollo complementarias necesarias para el desarrollo de productos. Abarca investigación de mercados, de producto, de procesos; desarrollo de marca y empaques. Es parte importante del proyecto productivo integrado.Término contable igual a las ventas menos los costos variables. Se puede expresar como porcentaje ó como un monto de dinero.A-21Término contable igual a la utilidad neta, o sea, las ventas menos los costos tanto variables como fijos.Una función empresarial dedicada a la identificación y satisfacción de las necesidades del mercado mediante la oferta rentable de productos y servicios.El conjunto de consumidores, industrias e instituciones que pueden comprar un producto o servicio.Estrategia empresarial para minimizar el riesgo cuando se introduce un nuevo producto o servicio, consistente en lanzarlo a un mercado restringido para evaluar el nivel de éxito.Una parte o segmento de una población seleccionada para representar al total de la misma.Procedimiento en el cual los elementos de la muestra se conveniencia escogen con base en la facilidad que brindan para obtener la información.Procedimiento en el cual se incluye en la muestra un número específico de elementos de cada grupo o segmento de una población.Muestra de probabilidad Procedimiento en el cual los elementos de una muestra se escogen al azar.Grado de complejidad tecnológica necesaria para desarrollar un cultivo de manera adecuada. Es similar a exigencia técnica.Aquel producto o servicio de alto crecimiento o en el cual de mercado los niveles de demanda superan la oferta, y que una organización o región pueden producir de manera rentable.Adjetivo que hace referencia a todo aquello que tiene en cuenta el punto de vista de los usuarios, beneficiarios o socios de una organización o proyecto en la toma de decisiones.A-22Estrategia de crecimiento empresarial consistente en de mercados incrementar las ventas de los productos en los segmentos actuales del mercado, sin cambiar el producto ofrecido. Esto se puede conseguir mediante rebaja en precios, aumento de la promoción y de la distribución.Perfil socioeconómico Documento breve que resume los aspectos físicos, sociales, económicos e institucionales de una microrregión, dando así una idea rápida del sistema microrregional.Variable de mercadeo que define cuánto se va a cobrar por un producto o servicioPreguntas de un cuestionario que permiten al interrogado contestar con sus propias palabras.Preguntas de un cuestionario que incluyen todas las respuestas posibles, las cuales son escogidas por el sujeto. Algunos ejemplos son las de selección múltiple y las de escala.El método usado para escoger una muestra de la muestreo población.Variable de mercadeo que define las características del objeto o servicio que se va a comercializar.Producto agroindustrial Producto con algún grado de valor agregado, en este caso a nivel rural.Producto agropecuario Producto con poco o ningún valor agregado a nivel rural.La sumatoria de los jornales diarios requeridos durante la de jornales vida del proyecto dividido por el número de años del proyecto.Variable de mercadeo que define cómo se informa y/o motiva a los clientes o consumidores para que adquieran el producto o servicio que se ofrece.Un conjunto de actividades que se planea y ejecuta para lograr un objetivo dentro de un período de tiempo y con unos recursos predeterminados.Proyecto de desarrollo rural que tiene en cuenta los elementos del sistema de un producto bajo consideración, A-23 como producción agropecuaria, el manejo poscosecha o procesamiento, la comercialización y la organización empresarial. Un componente importante del proyecto es la investigación y el desarrollo.En el contexto de esta guía y del desarrollo rural, son los servicios complementarios de carácter sostenible o permanente que facilitan las dinámica de la economía y las organizaciones campesinas. Estos servicios incluyen ahorro y crédito, asistencia técnica, información comercial, transporte y comunicaciones.Un conjunto u organización de elementos relacionados o conectados de tal manera que forman una unidad o un todo orgánico.Permanencia de cualquier condición, como la capacidad productiva del agro. También se aplica a la vigencia en el tiempo de cualquier actividad económica u organización.El ritmo de crecimiento en las ventas de un producto, el cual se mide como un porcentaje de aumento anual de la demanda. El crecimiento puede ser alto (más del 6% anual), medio (4-6%), bajo (1-3%), o sea, similar a la tasa de crecimiento poblacional, nulo o negativo.La tasa de interés usada para convertir una serie de flujos anuales a un solo valor presente.Tasa de interés que descuenta una serie de flujos retorno (TFR) anuales de efectivo de tal manera que el valor presente de la serie es igual a la inversión inicial.La Tasa Financiera de Retorno calculada como un parámetro de rentabilidad pura porque excluye gastos de financiación.La Tasa Financiera de Retorno calculada incluyendo gastos de financiación.La clasificación del pequeño producto rural de acuerdo a alguna variable pertinente o de interés; por ejemplo, grado de orientación al mercado o nivel de bienestar.En investigación de mercados, quien debe ser contactado.A-24El resultado de una actividad poscosecha o de procesamiento, en este caso a nivel rural, que puede ser de diferente complejidad, desde nivel I hasta nivel III. El nivel I se refiere a operaciones sencillas como lavado, limpieza, desmote, tostado, clasificación, embalaje y almacenaje. El nivel II incluye procesos más complicados como enfriado, molienda, cortado, mezclado, deshidratado, cocido, enlatado, etc. El nivel III considera operaciones como extracción, destilación, congelado, fermentación, extrusión, y procesos enzimáticos.El valor en el año cero de una serie de flujos anuales de (VPN)efectivo generados por un proyecto si se descuenta usando una tasa de interés igual al costo de oportunidad del capital.Condición competitiva de una persona, organización o región que le permite ofrecer un producto o servicio de mejor calidad o a un menor precio que otros.El valor total de las ventas durante la vida del proyecto dividido por la sumatoria de jornales diarios.El valor presente neto calculado excluyendo gastos de financiación.El valor presente neto calculado incluyendo gastos de financiación.A-26  Notas:(i) El gasto de administración se calcula como unidad porcentaje (10%) de la inversión en mano de obra e insumos. (ii) Se plantean tres niveles de costos para la asistencia técnica, así: cultivo rústico/conocido: $25.000; rústico/nuevo y norústico/conocido: $50.000; y no-rústico/nuevo: $150.000. (iii) El monto total de inversiones en activos y gastos requeridos en el periodo de preproducción (iv) Monto de ventas obtenido por cada jornal pagado durante el ciclo total (v) Monto de flujo de efectivo obtenido por cada jornal pagado durante el ciclo total (Vi) Promedio del No. de jornales por año (vii) Se supone unidad tasa de interés deflactada del 16% anual.A-33 ","tokenCount":"26651"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5787f91bbe142b03f049102440586dc7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f829ba8-1288-4768-abc0-c103d71f29bd/retrieve","id":"-834880102"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"db7744ef-56ba-43b4-b9fa-a84362cb22d2","pagecount":"95","content":"The project is working with the CGIAR Livestock CRP Country Coordinators, ICARDA in Ethiopia, and ILRI in Tanzania and Burkina Faso.Funded by the United Kingdom Department of International Development (UK DFID), SAIRLA is a five-year programme (2015 to 2020) that seeks to generate evidence and design tools to enable governments, investors and other key actors to deliver more effective policies and investments in sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) that strengthen the capacity of poorer farmers', especially women and youth, to access and benefit from SAI inThis report presents the design for and preliminary results from the second ResLeSS workshop in Ethiopia involving five stakeholder groups of livestock producers, traders, local leaders/administrators, experts/researchers from local research institutions and national level stakeholders. The workshop is focused on the development of socio-economic indicators that are shared between stakeholders, and a \"Transformation Game\" that engages stakeholders in scenario development and assessment using the CLEANED-R environmental impact simulation tool. This approach enabled participants to appreciate the tradeoff between increasing production and productivity while maintaining or reducing environmental impact.The stakeholder groups identified that easy access to good quality education, health, and infrastructure services (electricity, roads, water, telecommunications), having the modern equipment and technology needed for ones work (production, processing, trade, advisory services etc.) and joint decision-making were all important indicators for evaluating whether Atsbi would have achieved a 'good life' for its inhabitants by 2030. Furthermore, increasing the quantity and quality of livestock products (meat, milk, and honey) was also identified as an overriding objective or indicator of livestock production. When playing the simulation game, groups found that it was difficult to meet the objective of increased production if one also tried to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and water use for feed production.A common pattern that emerged through the Transformation Game was that the numbers of dual purpose cattle in Atsbi woreda will reduce. Local dairy cows will be replaced by improved cross-breed cows that have a much higher productivity, while draught animals will be replaced in part by tractors, at least for the flatter areas of Atsbi which are suitable for mechanization. These two shifts allow production to increase while reducing the number of animals, and therefore reducing the overall environmental pressure in the area.Most of the groups also decreased the number of fattening animals, in favour of increasing production of the Atsbi sheep. From participants' experience, conditions for fattening are better in the transition zone between the upland plateau of the study area and the lowlands of neighbouring Afar region (where the government is also resettling landless people to fatten cattle). However, the Atsbi sheep is a well-known product, which has a regional market, therefore the meat lost from a reduced emphasis on cattle fattening can be compensated by increasing sheep production. Sheep are also more efficient in term of greenhouse gas emissions than fattening cattle. The feeding system in general would be improved by relying more on purchased concentrates (brans and oil cakes) which come from outside Atsbi and therefore do not require land and resources in Atsbi, or planted fodder which uses less land but more water to produce the same calories as crop residues. Yet all these changes come at a financial cost; a more detailed analysis should be performed before a conclusion can be drawn on how profitable these changes are. Furthermore, the point was raised that one feeding strategy for everyone (either concentrates or planted fodder) would not work, as individuals have different priorities for how to use their land, for example to first feed their family, or to prioritise the highest financial returns.Overall, the workshop was a positive learning experience for all. Both the national and the local stakeholders learnt from each other: about the necessity of keeping some draught animals for the rough terrain; of the relatively lower suitability of fattening cattle when compared to sheep, which can be considered a pro-poor strategy; of the critical importance of increasing production; and of the concern about reducing greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption. One indication of the value of the process was that during the workshop one group (the experts and local researchers group) began thinking of how the Transformation Game process could be extended to other woredas. Among the lessons learnt about the process, it was found to be particularly important to retain a women's mixed stakeholder group (separate to the two men's mixed stakeholder groups) to allow the women to explore their own ideas at their own pace during the Game.This report summarises the design and initial findings from the second workshop of the Research and Learning for Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Livestock Value Chains (ResLeSS) project in Atsbi Woreda of Tigray Region, Ethiopia, which is part of the Sustainable Agricultural Intensification Research and Learning in Africa (SAIRLA) programme, funded by UK DfID and managed by the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) at the University of Greenwich and WYG. The overall aim of the second workshop is to support participants to undertake a shared evaluation of the social, economic and environmental consequences of plausible livestock futures. The workshop was officially opened by Atsbi Woreda's Administrator, Alganesh Teklay, who encouraged the participants to contribute and share the learning with other society members.ResLeSS is investigating a process that supports decision-makers in using a rapid ex-ante environmental impact assessment tool (CLEANED-R 1 ) and a participatory economics approach together with input from local stakeholders, to produce decisions that have taken into account three pillars of sustainability -the environment, economics and equity. Using a social learning approach, the project follows a facilitated process of two workshops supported by a reconnaissance tour and ongoing outreach that is designed to enable stakeholders to consolidate their own understanding and priorities before acknowledging the perspective of others.Workshop 1, conducted in June 2017, gathered data from stakeholders connected to livestock livelihoods in relation to the environment and socio-economics. This work set the stage for the second workshop in two ways. First, the environmental data gathered enabled the parameterisation of the computer-based environmental impact assessment tool (CLEANED-R), so that it can be used to explore the impacts of alternative livestock futures in the study area in Ethiopia. Second, engaging with participants around desirable socio-economic futures started a process of capturing an understanding of value that is wider than that offered by a financial assessment alone. Together, these two steps provide the grounding for a process of disciplinary integration and participatory appraisal of potential livestock futures, which we understand to constitute a transdisciplinary research approach.This transdisciplinary enquiry into livestock futures, via a participatory process that explores the relationship between economics and the environment, is the focus of Workshop 2. The second workshop is a two-day event (balancing the need for sustained interaction with the realities of stakeholder time commitment) that builds on Workshop 1 through: Use of the CLEANED R tool to generate environmental impact data for different livestock scenarios, parameterised for the case study site in each country using the data gathered in Workshop 1  The assessment of livelihood impacts of alternative livestock scenarios, using the socio-economic indicators developed during Workshop 1.Taken together, the two workshops offer a systematic process that works towards the development of more equitable relationships between stakeholders through improved mutual understanding and shared learning.To achieve the workshop aims, the design incorporates five central tools and concepts.First, the workshop makes use of a computer-based environmental simulation tool, called CLEANED-R. The tool is an application of the CLEANED framework (Notenbaert et al., 2014) and calculates environmental impacts (water use, greenhouse gas emission, biodiversity loss and nitrogen balance) for a given area based on the livestock production that is being undertaken in that area. This production is expressed in terms of parameters that can be defined via a user interface (developed during the project). The underlying code consists of 5 modules: livestock productivity, water, greenhouse gas, biodiversity and nitrogen balance.Second, the report refers to livestock production practices to describe ways of keeping livestock (a combination of livestock species -cows or sheep, traditional or improved breeds -feed requirements, and management). In CLEANED-R, each livestock production practice is parameterised by approximately 17 parameters (differences in land use for feed production, feed basket, animal productivity, manure management etc.).Third, a vignette is a pre-defined narrative description of a particular livestock production practice (e.g. traditional cattle extensively grazed, or improved cattle tethered and fed with locally grown grasses). A combination of vignettes can be used to quickly formulate a plausible livestock future for the landscapereferred to as a scenario. For each vignette all CLEANED-R parameters are fixed, and by only selecting which vignettes to include and the number of animals assigned to each vignette, the participants can define a scenario (e.g. 5000 animals in vignette A, 500 in B, 7000 in C).Thus (and fourthly), a scenario refers to one possible mix of different livestock production practices in a defined landscape. This encompasses the types of livestock production practices assumed to be present and the proportion (or scale) of each practice. For a particular scenario, CLEANED-R calculates the environmental impact from the mix of livestock production practices in a landscape.Finally, the workshop culminates in participants playing the Transformation Game. The Transformation Game enables groups of participants to define a livestock scenario using the vignettes, and then explore the socio-economic consequences of that scenario (via indicators developed in Workshop 1 and refined at the outset of Workshop 2) and environmental consequences (using computers running the CLEANED-R simulation).Through discussion of how these results might be interpreted and valued, the Transformation Game enables learning to develop between stakeholders with different viewpoints on livestock livelihoods. Together, the group can then revise their scenario, and test this new scenario using the socio-economic indicators and CLEANED-R. In this way, the game allows participants to explore livestock futures and develop a better sense of the trade-offs that are embedded in different choices and how these trade-offs are experienced by different stakeholder groups.The report is organised into three substantive sections, together with this introduction and a conclusion that draws together the main findings. Additionally, there is a companion report that sets out the parameterisation of CLEANED-R for Ethiopia (Pfeifer et al., 2018). Section 2 describes the design of the Transformation Game, setting out the key features, how it is initialised to provide a representation of plausible livestock futures in Atsbi, how it is played and how it forms part of the overall participatory workshop design. Section 3 presents the results of the workshop and Game, in terms of the socio-economic indicators jointly agreed between stakeholder groups, the desirable scenarios developed by each stakeholder group, and the discussions and trade-offs that emerged during playing of the Transformation Game in mixed stakeholder groups. Section 4 provides a discussion that reflects on the results in terms of stakeholder priorities, the conditions for learning, trade-offs and synergies, and the wider context that was not embedded into the Game but became an important part of the discussion.As far as possible, the participants invited to this Workshop were the same as those present in Workshop 1. Throughout we used purposive sampling to select participants, with the primary objective to have representation from each potential stakeholder group connected with the cattle and sheep value chains, and as a secondary objective, to aim for gender balance. The workshop had 33 participants from the local area, representing 6 types of value chain stakeholders, identified in consultation with local researchers: livestock producers; traders; processors; consumers (hotel and butchers); local government administration; and researchers and extension service providers from the regional research institutes and Mekelle University. For further detail of the composition and selection of chosen stakeholders and groups, see Appendix A.For the activities, participants were split into four roughly equal-sized groups in Workshop 1, and these groups were maintained for the first section of Workshop 2. These four groups were homogeneous with respect to stakeholder type, so that members within a group were more similar to each other, in terms of experiences and perspective on the value-chain, than to the members of other groups.For this workshop, the Ethiopian SAIRLA National Learning Alliance (NLA) sent a delegation of seven of its members to observe the workshop and learn about the CLEANED-R tool and process, and about any tradeoff messages that could be policy-relevant. These 7 members were invited to actively participate as an additional stakeholder category and group representing national level stakeholders. The information in the report is drawn from documentation recorded and discussions held during and after the workshop: flipcharts that recorded intermediate outcomes during the two workshop days;  six reports written by the workshop facilitators recording their observations and reflections on the proceedings of the workshop;  reflections by the facilitators and project team collected in de-briefing conversations during and after the workshop;  pre-and post-questionnaires filled in by the participants; and  individual semi-structured interviews held with ten selected participants following the workshop (selected because they showed particular interest in the proceedings or were representative of specific groups; representing livestock production, milk processing, feed suppliers, vet services, butcher, Atsbi Administration, and local research institute).The 'Transformation Game' is a novel contribution of the project that allows participants to devise and assess future livestock scenarios. It forms the central focus of Workshop 2.For the basic methodology, which is the same as was used in the Workshop 2 in Burkina Faso, see Appendix B. Changes made for Workshop 2 in Ethiopia based on consultation with the local facilitators or in response to how the workshop unfolded are included in Appendix B (Section 8.4). The following section describes the initial parameters of the CLEANED-R tool and Transformation Game for Atsbi Woreda, Ethiopia (Section 2.1).A significant change to note here was the participation of the SAIRLA NLA delegation. They were treated as a new stakeholder group, having a separate fifth group for the first part of the workshop and joining the mixed stakeholder groups for the second part of the workshop. They did not have a dedicated facilitator for the first part, instead were given an introduction to the activities, and impromptu facilitation when possible from the project team. As a result, their discussions are more sparsely recorded than the other groups.Full details of the parameterisation of CLEANED-R for the study site can be found in the companion report (Pfeifer et al., 2018). Here, we summarise the key points that define how the Transformation Game is played to allow interpretation of the results.Five livestock categories were maintained, based on the reflections from Workshop 1, combined with a decision to reduce complexity of the tool by restricting the study area to the plateau and therefore excluding goat production, following the maps produced in Workshop 1. Based on a literature review on livestock productivity and most recent research data available at ILRI and ICARDA in Ethiopia, the vignettes were developed in relation to each of the production categories. Each vignette represents a credible combination of feed basket 2 and animal productivity for each animal category. Parameters defining the feed basket required to support a particular milk yield have been derived from the literature and reviewed by a feed and fodder expert. These define vignettes that are credible and based on nutrition available in Atsbi.Five vignettes represent the current type of production, one for each of the five production categories. Each category has one or two options for an alternative type of production that is more progressive than currently, adding a further eight vignettes. One vignette allows the players to increase all crop productivity by 20%.For Ethiopia a new type of vignette was added, a blank vignette card for each category with no pre-set parameters, giving stakeholders the option to develop their own if they completely disagreed with the available vignettes. This addition was made following reflections on the Tanzania workshop that the vignettes provided may have been too restrictive. Therefore, the addition of blank vignettes allows stakeholders to reject or 'escape' the assumptions made by the research team in interpreting the results and discussions from Workshop 1 and create their own feedbasket if necessary.Table 1 sets out the total of 19 vignettes; all except the 5 blank vignette cards are pre-programmed into CLEANED-R to allow them to be rapidly accessed during the workshop. Dual purpose dairy DD0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep lactating animals in the dual purpose herd. These are local breed animals. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates given for milking.Lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is mainly replaced by planted fodder.Lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than DD1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Dual purpose fattening and rearing DF0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd. These animals are local breeds. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates given for fattening.Non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good fattening oxen, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is mainly replaced by planted fodder.Non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good fattening oxen, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than DF1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Draught animal DA0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep draught animals. These animals are local breeds. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates.Draught animals, local breeds, with better management: better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, but still mainly fed on natural grass.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Specialized dairy system SD0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep cross-breed animals for specialised dairy production. The feed basket already has a good portion of concentrates, as well as some hay and planted fodder, with a small amount of natural grass and crop residues.Specialised dairy with better management: controlled cross breeding to maintain good performance; good health and balanced feed ration. The improved feed basket has slightly more concentrates but partly replacing natural grass and crop residues with planted fodder.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.The current way to keep sheep, including rearing and fattening, mainly fed on natural grass, crop residue and a very slight amount of concentrates.Sheep with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is partially replaced by planted fodder.Sheep with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than SH1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Increase crop and fodder yields by 20%. More manure and chemical fertiliser is applied to croplands.The baseline or current state number of animals in each production category were defined for Atsbi as set out in Table 2, along with the number of animals represented by each brick used in the Transformation Game. The productivity and environmental measures presented in the workshop to contribute to the discussion were tailored to capture relevant aspects of resource use in Atsbi. The results indicate the average impact for the whole study area for that scenario, showing how the measure has changed as a percentage difference compared to the baseline. The baseline is an approximation of the current situation.Productivity measures (See Table 22, in Appendix B, for the scorecard template): Milk produced (litres): how much more/less milk is produced in total by all the cows in the study area in one year (+/-x %)  Meat produced from cattle (kg): how much more/less meat is produced in total by dual purpose dairy, dual purpose rearing and fattening and draught cattle 3 in the study area in one year (+/-x%)  Meat produced from sheep (kg): how much more/less meat is produced in total by all the sheep in the study area in one year (+/-x %)  Cereals produced (tons): how much more/less cereals might be produced in the study area as more/less crop land is used for planted fodder in the study area (+/-x %) 4  Area required for planted fodder (ha): how much more/less cropland is required to produce the planted fodder needed by the herd in the study area for this scenario (+/-x %) 5  Concentrates required (kg): how much more/less concentrates is required in total by the herd in the study area for this scenario, including bran type and oil cake type concentrates and atella (brewing residue) (+/-x %) Environmental measures, in terms of the change in resources used to produce the feed for the scenario compared to today (See Table 23, in Appendix B, for the scorecard template): Water used, both in total (litre) and as an intensity (Litres water per cow, Litres water per sheep)  Green-house gases emitted, both in total (kg CO2eq) and as an intensity (Total CO2eq (kg) per cow, Total CO2eq (kg) per sheep)  Soil fertility: how the Nitrogen balance may change (kg Nitrogen in minus kg Nitrogen out), and how much manure is produced by the herd in the study area (tons)The biodiversity pathway was disabled for Atsbi, as no land use change was envisaged. Based on literature, the landcover map and the reconnaissance tour, in light of the fact that the area is drought-sensitive and often in a state of food deficit, it was felt that all land that is suitable for cropping will be cropped, and land that is not cropped is not viable or is protected. Therefore, it is unlikely that any land is available for land use change, and therefore the biodiversity indicator (the number of endangered species losing critical habitat in the event of a land use change) is not informative in this case.3 Workshop resultsEach stakeholder group was asked to revisit the top five socio-economic indicators which they had codefined in their groups in Workshop 1, which had been developed from the group's \"Narrative of success\" focused on a day in the life of a fictitious individual ten years in the future (Table 3). These indicators were refined during the opening session of Workshop 2 to make them more specific and measurable, such that they could measure progress towards the achievement of the successful futures envisioned during Workshop 1. Due to the short time available, the groups were asked to choose just three to refine. Details of the refined group indicators, and the discussion that underpinned their refinement, are provided in Appendix C. Combined indicators 6 that would represent all participants were developed in a two-step process as illustrated in Figure 1: first, drawing together similar indicators from the different stakeholder groups and identifying an average or dominant trend in the low/medium/high targets 7 . It was important that, as far as possible, (a) the particular views of a group were not subsumed within a cluster (i.e., being sure to emphasise subtler differences within each cluster), and (b) that those groups with 'outlier' views (e.g., in a cluster of one) were not ignored or undervalued.Second, this initial set of combined indicators was refined following feedback from each stakeholder group. Feedback was invited per stakeholder group to ensure that each group's consideration of the combined indicators was undertaken with the support of their facilitator, enabling each group to voice its concerns/satisfaction at this stage in a coherent and representative manner. A plenary feedback session may not have achieved this. Once agreed upon, the combined indicators were used in the rest of the workshop to assess the socio-economic impact of different scenarios. The following provides the detail for each finalised combined indicator, incorporating changes arising from the group feedback, along with a summary of the stakeholder groups from which it was derived. Broadly, all the refined indicators are represented by these combined indicators. However, the experts/researchers' group indicator of 'improved quality and quantity of livestock products' and the traders' 'improved farm management practice' are not captured, as it was felt that they focus on improved livestock production instead, which represents the objective of the scenarios to test in CLEANED-R. This indicator collates the priorities expressed by all four groups and the national level stakeholders (NLA).The groups gave specific details of what services should be provided to warrant achieving success, including: a health centre with ambulance service and a livestock clinic with a doctor of veterinary medicine in each of the 16 rural tabias, four medium hospitals across Atsbi woreda and one comprehensive hospital in Atsbi town;  a class 0 within a 1km radius, a primary school (grades 1-8) within a 3km radius, or one in each of the 18 tabias, one high school (grades 9-12) for 4 tabias, one technical and vocational college in Atsbi woreda, and an adult education centre in each tabia;  good quality equipment and skills, including a library, modern laboratories, sufficient supply of drugs, qualified staff and ongoing capacity building to maintain skills Education and health were put together as opposed to being either separate or grouped with infrastructure because they both provide an ongoing skilled service, requiring skilled staff and continuous replenishment of supplies. As such, the two indicators could be considered as 'Soft services provision' (Education & Health) and 'Hard services provision' (Infrastructure).Percentage of households that have access to and good coverage of roads, electricity, telephone and water services.Medium: 60-80%This indicator collates the priorities expressed by the traders and experts/researchers.Groups gave specific details of what services should be provided to warrant achieving success, including: Good quality roads to connect: Atsbi woreda with each tabia; tabia with tabia; and tabia with villages (kushets)  Electric grid connection to each tabia supplying non-intermittent electricity supply  Expansion of telecommunication network infrastructure to each tabia to supply good quality network  Provision of clean water based on WHO standards  Accountable and transparent service provision system  Presence of private and public financial institutions 8Percentage of households that have access to inputs, equipment and services needed for improved production and processing.Medium: 40-75%High: >75%This indicator collates the priorities expressed by the farmers, local leaders and the national level/NLA. The experts/researchers 'agro-processing plants' indicator may fall under here as well, although they ran out of time to refine it.Detailed description from the groups include: access to improved agricultural inputs, improved agronomic practices, improved post-harvest technologies, market linkages, well organized and functional cooperatives and credit access.Groups would like to see 1-3 tractors per tabia, 1 combine harvester/tabia, 5 modern hives/hh, seed, improved breeds 50 poultry/hh and 4 dairy cows/hh; an organized Farmer Training Centre and veterinary service in the woreda, five qualified Development Agents per tabia, 2.5 ha demonstration land per tabia, drug and artificial insemination stores in each tabia, and a water pond for each household. Medium: 50-80%This indicator collates the priorities expressed by the local leaders and the national level/NLA.The five indicators above incorporate minor changes made following plenary feedback from each stakeholder group. The immediate reaction to the proposed indicators was broad agreement as, for the most part, groups found their indicators reflected in the common indicators. A few adjustments were suggested, and made after minimal debate between the groups:1) that the targets set for having improved technology were too modest, and were consequently increased from 30-50% of the detailed list of services being provided (being the lower and upper thresholds) to 40-75% (suggested by the experts/researchers). 2) that the joint decision-making should not just be between the wife and husband, but include the whole family.Other points and reactions raised:Local leaders group reflected that Infrastructure indicator is one that they did not have separately in their group, as they considered provision of infrastructure and services to rather be the enabling conditions for achieving the other indicators. This showed them a different way of thinking about the indicator, suggesting that it might be a key indicator to paving the way for the other indicators. They were also pleased to see how much commonality there was amongst all groups.The experts/researchers group were surprised that the combined socio-economic indicators did not include an indicator about increased livestock productivity. Given that the objective of the workshop was to find ways to change livestock production to improve livelihoods, they felt that the indicators should more or less be related to livestock productivity.Methodologically, securing feedback from each group ensured that all voices were heard at this stage and enabled a structured discussion (group by group), rather than a potentially more long-winded plenary negotiation.The combined socio-economic performance indicators were used by each stakeholder group as a basis for designing a desirable future livestock scenario -that is, one in which the group believes significant progress will be made against the socio-economic indicators, assuming that making changes to livestock production can help to achieve that progress. The scenarios discussed and agreed by each stakeholder group are listed in Table 7. This details, for each stakeholder group, the vignettes chosen and the number of animals per vignette (see Appendix D for details of each group's scenario design, results and discussions). Groups' motivations and concerns underlying their final choices of herd composition are summarised in Table 4, indicating which choice of vignette they made and reasons for or against that choice.The experts/researchers readily decided on the concentrates-based feedbasket for all categories: firstly, to boost quality milk production and quality sheep meat; secondly, for farmers to have a controlled feeding system that avoids open grazing without affecting staples production. By contrast, the national level stakeholders chose a home-grown feedbasket focussed on planted fodder across the board, because the fattening 9 is not specialized and therefore buying feed will not be attractive. All groups agreed that dual purpose fattening and rearing should have a concentrates-based feedbasket (DF2), but dual purpose dairy and sheep divided opinion. -F, T, E: invest more here to increase the numbers a lot for maximum milk production; because the milk production is important, there is willingness to accept the improved management practices and use of planted fodder and higher concentrates -L: the money from specialized animals milk and others will be used for improved agricultural technologies and helps for access to education -N: 5,000 is a credible number as these animals will produce good milk that can be sold in towns within 100 km, including Mekelle, Wukro and Adigrat. This is a profitable business.-L: decrease the number of specialized animals so that the cost will be affordable in acquiring and in feeding them a Current (DD0, DF0, DA0, SD0, SH0): current type of feeding and management; Level 1 (DD1, DF1, DA1, SH1): improved feeding and management, mainly relying on home-grown planted fodder; Level 2 (DD2, DF2, SD1, SH2): improved feeding and management, mainly relying on commercial concentrates b F = Farmers group; T = Traders; L = Local leaders and administrators; E = Experts/Researchers; N = National level stakeholdersThe results produced by the CLEANED-R tool for the groups' scenarios were presented to the group in a bar graph (see Appendix D for details of the group results and discussions) with productivity measures (Table 5) and environmental measures (Table 6), also summarised here in Figure 2. During the workshop, the soil pathway in CLEANED-R was giving questionable results and the calculations could not be fixed on the evening of Day 1, so the research team asked participants to ignore the soil pathway results (nitrogen balance and manure produced). The pathway calculations have since been fixed and the results presented in the tables and result graphs in this report are now correct.There were mixed reactions from the groups. The traders group and experts/researchers groups were generally happy with their scenario, producing significantly more meat and milk than today. However, these two groups also were the only two to increase total GHG emissions (+71% and +24%, respectively). The experts/researchers were particularly unhappy with this outcome, as they expected a reduction in GHG emissions. As a result, they questioned whether the calculations in the model were correct. All the groups were happy with the small savings in total water use. The local leaders/administrators were very unhappy with their scenario, as it performed worse than the current situation in terms of meat and milk production, and therefore would not improve the wellbeing of the people of Atsbi. While they have some of the lowest GHG impacts out of the five groups (-13% total emissions), the farmers achieved a similar low GHG impact with increasing milk production by 39%. Even so, the farmers were unhappy with this low increase in milk production, yet were concerned that their GHG emissions per cow were much increased. All scenarios caused a small to medium loss in cereal production (-3% to -11%), but the expert/researchers were disappointed in their result as their goal was to increase productivity without affecting staples production. a Letters in brackets present the groups' evaluation of the results as Acceptable (A), Indifferent (I) or Unacceptable (U). a Letters in brackets present the groups' evaluation of the results as Acceptable (A), Indifferent (I) or Unacceptable (U).b The facilitators of the traders group added the evaluations during the break after the session, and were not sure how the group would have evaluated the water impacts c Unfortunately, during the facilitator training a problem in the soil pathway was found, which could not be fixed in time, so the groups were asked to ignore the soil pathway results (manure produced and nitrogen balance) as they looked suspiciously wrong. Since the workshop, the soil calculations have been fixed and the numbers presented in the tables and graphs in this report are the correct results. In this session, the workshop participants were split into three groups, with a mix of stakeholders in each group. After Workshop 1 in Atsbi, the facilitators suggested that women might be feel more comfortable contributing freely in a women's only group, and the research team had a similar reflection after workshop 2 in Tanzania. As there were a sufficient number of women in Workshop 2 in Atsbi, and a woman facilitator who was willing to lead a mixed group discussion, the research team decided to make a mixed women's group with all the women participants ( 9). The men were then allocated to two groups by giving each person number 1 or 2 when sitting in their groups for the plenary. Each group contained an equal number of participants from each stakeholder group (or as near as was practical). This is a significant change in workshop dynamics: up to this point, stakeholders had worked together to develop their understanding of their particular needs and interests. Moving to mixed groups ensured that there were at least two representatives from each stakeholder group in discussions that were facilitated to build understanding between stakeholders, through the activity of playing the game and negotiating game strategies. Note that steps had been taken throughout the workshop up to this point to start building towards shared understanding, principally through sharing and discussing group interests in plenary sessions.The mixed groups started playing the Transformation Game on Day 2 with a fresh scenario designed by the research team, to kick-star the process and save having to negotiate a fresh scenario from scratch. The groups then reacted to that scenario, evaluated it and revised it to address what they found unacceptable. Then, as far as time allowed, the idea was to repeat the process, evaluating the results of their first revised scenario and making changes, running it through CLEANED-R, then evaluating, making changes etc.Unlike in Tanzania, no unifying storyline emerged from the stakeholder group scenarios on Day 1. We chose not to make a simple average for everyone to start from, because then the interesting scenarios that push a boundary are lost. Instead, we created three storylines so that each group had a different starting scenario to initialise their discussions. These storylines were inspired by the stakeholder group scenarios from Day 1 while not necessarily reproducing any one of them entirely. Variations in how groups implemented the shift to higher-producing feedbaskets or breeds and the type of improvement (level 1 or level 2) are summarised in Table 9. The three starting scenarios (for groups referred to as: women (W) mixed black (MB) and mixed red (MR)) are indicated at the bottom of the table in bold.There was a very clear consensus on the number of draught animals, so all three starting scenarios have the same (taken as an average of all Day 1 scenarios). For the other categories, there was a wide choice of the number of animals across the groups. There was more tendency for commercial feed than planted fodder as the main constituent of the feedbasket. There appears to be a choice for slightly higher numbers of dual purpose dairy animals when choosing the planted fodder feedbasket.Taking this into account, the starting scenarios tell three stories:1. The mixed women's group were given a milk-oriented scenario with a home-grown feed-basket in order to discuss the trade-off between fodder and cereal. Animal numbers are roughly the average for each category, except in rearing and fattening where it is the lower end of the range as the scenario is milk-oriented. 2. The first mixed men's group ('black') were given a more commercially-oriented scenario focused on dairy, with mainly commercial feed basket vignettes. The animal numbers take an average of the lower animal numbers for all except specialised dairy. 3. The second mixed men's group ('red') were given a meat oriented scenario that was inspired by the traders' scenario, taking the higher number of rearing and fattening cattle and of sheep, but the lower number of specialised dairy and average number of dual purpose dairy.The resulting starting scenarios represent a reduction in cattle numbers of 13% (mixed red) to 45% (women), and for sheep a reduction of 30% (mixed black), no change (women) or increase of 40% (mixed red).  Where a group drafted more than one scenario, their preferred is in black, while the secondary ones are in grey text.c For the researchers group, we understood on Day 1 that their preferred was number 3, and used that to inspire the starting scenarios, whereas on Day 2 they told us number 4 was in fact their preferred scenario.After revisiting what the tool and Game were, the group considered their starting scenario and the associated CLEANED-R results (excluding the soil pathway results 11 ), and discussed which changes in productivity and environmental indicators were acceptable or not. Then to gather suggestions of what to change, one woman stood and set out on the game board her idea of how the scenario should change, explaining it as she went. Taking into account group responses and suggestions this became the first revised scenario (Scenario 1). While the CLEANED-R operator was running the scenario and drawing out the results, the group discussed more broadly the implications of the new scenarios, for example who would be in control of the money, whether the typical gender roles might change, and who would be doing the extra work implied in the new scenarios. The group discussed the results, and a second woman then tried out her idea, which became the second revised scenario (Scenario 2). In response to the results of both the first and second revised scenarios, the group collectively agreed on a third revised scenario to see if they could improve (Scenario 3). The vignettes and numbers of animals describing the starting scenario and subsequent three revised scenarios are presented in Table 10 together with an indication of what was changed in each scenario compared to the starting scenario.The scenarios were quite diverse, as were the results which were presented to the group in a bar graph showing, for each productivity and environmental indicator, the percentage change compared to the baseline, i.e. how each indicator changes compared to what the indicator result is for today's production system (Figure 3, Figure 4). The changes in the indicators are also presented in numeric form for reference 11 During the workshop, the soil pathway in CLEANED-R was giving questionable results and the calculations could not be fixed on the evening of Day 1, so the research team asked participants to ignore the soil pathway results (nitrogen balance and manure pro duced). The pathway calculations have since been fixed and the results presented in the tables and result graphs in this report are now correct.for the starting scenario and for each of the three revised scenarios, in   * for vignettes chosen, -means the vignette is one level less than the starting scenario, e.g. DA1 to DA0; + means the vignette is one level higher than the starting scenario; 0 means no change in vignette  b The reporter extracted the wrong numbers from the CLEANED-R tool to present to the group for these values: the correct total CO2eq per cow is +53% and total CO2eq per sheep is +17%. c Unfortunately, during the facilitator training a problem in the soil pathway was found, which could not be fixed in time, so the groups were asked to ignore the soil pathway results (manure produced and nitrogen balance) as they looked suspiciously wrong. Since the workshop, the soil calculations have been fixed and the numbers presented in the tables and graphs in this report are the correct results.  * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 20 ha for the starting scenario of the Women's group (run 0), for example, translates to around 10,000% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the yaxis are presented using a log scaleMost participants accepted the change in milk production (+70%) and mutton production (+50%) in the starting scenario, but all were unhappy with the very low beef production showing a marked decrease from present day beef production (-53%).In response, there was broadly an agreement to try to increase cattle meat production. With their first revised scenario, the women try to achieve this by: increasing the number of cattle for fattening and rearing by 50% from the starting scenario  increasing the number of specialised dairy and sheep by 50% from the starting scenario  and changing the feeding strategy of draught animals back to the current feeding practice (DA0)Most participants accepted the milk production and mutton production, but all found the result of the scenario unexpected, as they were expecting to produce more meat. The improvement in beef production from -53% in the starting scenario to -44% in Scenario 1 was not enough (Table 11). They appreciated the higher milk production (+102%) because, as they said, selling the milk would change their life by earning them a lot of money. The women were pleased by the mutton production (+125%) because the high altitude and hilly topography of Atsbi Woreda is suitable for sheep rearing. In addition, sheep mature in a shorter time period, so more households in Atsbi Woreda could benefit from sheep than could benefit from cattle.There were mixed reactions to the reduction in cereal production (from decreasing the area planted with crops to make way for planted fodder). Some complained that the further reduction is too high (from -9% in the starting scenario to -12% in Scenario 1), while others were not so concerned about it since they think that they would buy cereals using the money from selling extra milk. There were two strong standpoints: one woman resisted the idea of buying concentrates from the market, arguing that the cost of the food for family is less than acquiring the concentrates, and furthermore that the alfalfa which they would produce (planted fodder) is cheaper since it is subsidized by the government.  in contrast, one woman was against the complete fodder planting in their land and would rather buy livestock feed from the market. She explained that had she had land, she would use all her land for cereal production, and not for livestock improvement. She would prefer to use it for cereal production to first secure food for the family as she would not want to take the risk of food shortage for the family. Also, since she has no land, it might not be easy for her to get land for planting fodder.One woman explained the water and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission results to the others, for example that the negative result means water would be saved (Table 12). The others were silent as they had little understanding or opinions to contribute.Thinking of the good life indicators, participants felt that life would be improved due to high income from milk products and meat from sheep. Improving life in this way could also result in joint decision-making. They felt that the scenario would imply using improved agricultural technologies (for example, buying or renting tractors by using their income from high milk and meat products). The improved productivity from modern management of their livestock would also contribute to access to education and health.The women discussed in detail how the scenario would impact people differently. For instance, it would increase the demand on women's labour (milking and selling milk, feeding the specialized cows). Sheep are also taken care of by the women and young boys rather than by the husbands. In terms of income, both wife and husband would benefit the same, yet women could gain more confidence when they get more income.The majority of women participants were working together, wanting to change especially the unacceptable results of the starting scenario, but there were some participants keeping quiet and accepting simply what others discussed. At this point, a few women participants were still confused about playing the game (understanding the numbers, deciding about the number of the cattle and sheep and the impact).For the second scenario, a different approach was tried. The main concern was still a high desire for meat production from cattle. Several individuals contributed ideas to try, including: decreasing the number of the dual purpose dairy cows because they provide little milk and meat production and contribute to overgrazing the land (suggested by a woman from the farmers group)  decreasing the number of the sheep, since the GHG emissions were high (suggested by a woman from a local leaders and administrators group)  changing the feeding system of fattening and rearing cattle (DF) and sheep (SH) to rely more on commercialized concentrates than planted fodder, which the group believed could speed up the process of fattening  abandoning draught animals by removing them completely and using tractors instead, to decrease food consumption of draught animals and to benefit from cheap rent of using the kebele tractor Though the participants did not accept the meat product from cattle, it was decided not to increase the number of the cattle for rearing and fattening, instead the group just changed the feed basket.Trying out a shift in emphasis to concentrates answered the concerns of the one or two participants who would rather plant cereals on their land than planted fodder, to secure household nutrition.The results of this scenario were generally less well received. The milk production and sheep meat decreased compared to the first revised scenario, and cattle meat has an even larger reduction than the starting scenario (-61% in scenario 2 compared to -53% in the starting scenario). Seeing the results, the group were disappointed, as they wanted to focus on efficiency in the dual purpose dairy cattle to improve milk productivity, rather than increasing their numbers 12 .The disappointing results can be explained by the choice of animal numbers and vignettes. Reducing the number of animals in three categories meant that the total livestock population is 25-30% less than scenario 1. Removing draught animals entirely meant that the cattle population is 2,000 less than the starting scenario, explaining the further reduction in beef production. In this workshop, changing from vignette level 1 to vignette level 2 did not change the productivity of the animals, only where the feed comes from, so the loss in animal numbers was not compensated by increased productivity.Most accepted the increased amount of concentrates required and the increased area required for planting fodder. One woman strongly resisted in all scenarios and did not want to use her land for planting fodder, but the majority accepted the results.The majority of the group agreed that the GHG emissions were very high and should be decreased. Although they were happy with the reduction in GHG emissions per sheep, the participants found the higher GHG emissions per cow unsatisfactory. Similarly, the majority of participants found the water consumption per cattle and per sheep to be too high and found the total water use unacceptable as it represented less saved water (-7% for Scenario 2 compared to -11% for Scenario 1).While the group accepted the value of mechanisation (using tractors as an alternative to draught animals), only one participant agreed that draught animals would be totally replaced by tractor (i.e. having 0 draught animals). The majority of the women would want to have some draught animals and some tractors.Joint decision-making was discussed again in detail as an example of achieving a better life from livestock since the income from milk products and mutton will empower women. Also, women can use savings from the high livestock production for investment, better education and health. Increasing the use of tractors was also discussed again as a way to have a better life, and that increased livestock production can enable them to buy or rent the kebele tractor.This scenario would reduce the labour demand for women because the number of cattle and sheep, including the draught animals which need additional labour from women, was decreased. Again it was discussed that the income from livestock products would empower women and increase their confidence more than it would for men 13 . Due to this, women are happy to have more animals.By this stage, all except a few were discussing the issues actively. Participants appreciated the knowledge they gained from the discussion on livestock management methods, especially knowing the benefits and the costs implied by their scenario.The participants became a little bit more concerned about the environment than in the first scenario. A few participants focused more on GHG emission reduction, while the majority of the participants focused on milk and meat production.The discussion was intense and interactive, with justifications made for each suggestion. A few kept silent but, as a group, participation increased. More women participated in the discussion than for Scenario 1, their interaction increased after having experience from the previous scenario and they could feel more confident in what they were saying. More participants tried to explain their feelings and wanted to try their improved scenarios. The facilitators felt that the women expressed their ideas more freely once they were in a group separate from men. The facilitators reflected that this is, for instance, due to cultural influences such as the male oriented society, with women have less exposure or opportunity to participate in such kinds of forum or workshop.Almost all participants agreed to try again for a better scenario. While the majority still appreciated the high milk productivity in Scenario 2, all agreed to continue trying to improve milk and meat from both cattle and sheep, to reduce water consumption per cattle and per sheep and agreed to change the number of animals.Learning from the second scenario, the group proposed to increase the number of draught animals again to fit the existing situation (topography of land, affordability of the tractors by smallholder farmers). Also to increase the number of fattening and rearing animals to improve again the meat production, and to use all land for production of cereals and buy concentrates.Consequently, the number of draught animals was increased from 0 to 3,000, the number of fattening and rearing cattle increased to 15,000 (this is three times the starting scenario and almost back to the baseline of 19,000) and sheep increased to part way between the starting scenario and Scenario 1 (i.e. to 120,000). The vignettes were reverted to those based on more planted fodder (DF1 and SH1), despite the stated aim to buy all concentrates. An idea proposed by an older woman idea was influential here, who suggested an increase in the number of sheep from 100,000 to 120,000, since these are common animals and easy to manage.More women were able to talk, defend their decisions or positions, fight for their choices, and explain their feelings than in Scenario 1. Participants tried to see from Atsbi Woreda point of view rather than their personal life, which is different from Scenario 1. For example, when the women were discussing about total sheep demand, they noted that small holder farmers in Atsbi Woreda would benefit more from sheep as the topography is appropriate to sheep and sheep need shorter time to get ready for market than cattle. When discussing draught animals as an alternative to tractors, they noted that there are some areas in Atsbi Woreda which are inaccessible to tractors.The majority accepted the milk production (+81%) although they were disappointed that it was no better than in Scenario 2 (+81%) and less than Scenario 1 (+102%). They did not accept the meat production.One participant was concerned about the beef production result (-35%), being concerned that there may be a shortage of cattle meat, but for the majority this was not a concern. On the other hand, all women were pleased with the large improvement in mutton production (+80%).One woman (a business woman) focused only from the perspective of earning money and the costs from reduction in cereals. The heated discussion continued about the reduction in cereal production and using a high percentage of land for planted fodder. They discussed the comparison of the cost of cereal food versus cost of livestock feed, including the costs of the planted fodder, alfalfa, which is subsidized.The group were happy with the improvement in sheep meat production compared to Scenario 2, and appreciated the lower water consumption per cattle and per sheep as it has implications in decreasing women's labour 14 . However, they did not approve of the decline in the number of sheep, and found the GHG emissions per cow unsatisfactory.As for the previous scenarios, the group discussed that the better life from livestock can contribute to joint decision-making since the income will empower women and also women can use the savings from the high livestock production for investment, better education and health. Tractors were also discussed again as a means to have a better life and that it is the increased livestock production which would enable them to buy or rent the tractor.For Scenario 3, the group discussed that the income from increasing meat production from sheep would benefit men more than women, as the women said that usually sheep are sold by men and the money is controlled by the men. At the same time, the increase in the number of the sheep from Scenario 2 affects women more negatively than men, while the reduction in consumption of water per cattle and sheep benefits the women more than men, as women are responsible for the sheep. The reduction in cereal production would worry women more than men since women are more responsible for taking care of the children and the family in general.Participation was better than the previous 2 scenarios. They appreciated the opportunity to try the game again to try to improve on the results of Scenario 2.There was more concern about the cost and benefit of acquiring feed for cattle and sheep. After discussing and sharing ideas, the women showed a tendency to shift their thinking from focusing only on high productivity to consider also the environment, water consumption and cost of feeding. There was also more concern about the differences between cattle types. Women spent more time discussing which type of animals should they have and what number, for example, choosing whether to allocate more to specialized dairy (SD) or to the dual purpose dairy (DD).However, the facilitators also got the impression that by this stage it was becoming repetitious 15 , so the women rushed through the discussion. Some people attentively discussed about the result but just agreed to ignore the third scenario and accept the first one. One woman seriously tried to compare and contrast the different scenarios and reach a consensus.Tradeoffs arising during the discussion were: the tradeoff between the high cost of concentrate versus improved milk and meat production; and the reduction in cereal production versus increasing planted fodder production to boost animal production.There was a recurring strong debate across all scenarios over whether to use land for food for the household, or for planted fodder. This discussion reflects a wider question of how much land or resources are at one's disposal and how one's priorities influence which commodity is considered more valuable. While planted fodder objectively earns more money and may be considered more lucrative than planting cereals, taking other factors than income into account such as risk and food security may alter the perceived rationality of one over the other.A key point that participants highlighted at the end of the session was how they gained an appreciation of the multiple interconnected costs and benefits that result from change in livestock across various aspects, which should be compared before coming to a decision. Aspects they picked out in particular were: the change in milk and meat production,  the effect on environment, total water use and water use per cattle and per sheep,  the impact on cereal production.In response to the question \"What was the most important thing you learned?\", participants said the following: \"I learned a lot, to mention some: participation in such workshops enables individuals to gain an idea about something different from what they know.\"  \"The knowledge about modern livestock management system and I can tell my community at least to change their way of feeding\" \"I discovered also that I … have the ability to understand new ideas and transfer to others in an easier and quick way.\"  \"From now onwards, I can explain about livestock and I got an experience to explain what I feel.\" One explained how much she appreciated the discussion and how much she learnt from the group about livestock, management systems and awareness about the environment.The women appreciated being grouped as women alone, which helped them to explain their ideas freely.The facilitators noticed that with each round, more participants engaged more confidently in the discussion of the scenario and results. They liked the discussion and sharing of information, experience, knowledge within their group, as in the second and third scenarios they could then express their feelings, feel selfconfident and enable them to explain the cost and benefits of the livestock feeding systems. But they didn't like the uneven understanding of the livestock management system which makes few people to discuss much and others less.The facilitators observed participants changing their perspective during the discussions by gaining new knowledge. For example: Participants gave more emphasis on a clean environment in the second scenario by wanting to reduce the GHG emissions from livestock.  There was detailed discussion about the costs and benefits of livestock management system, including the impact in terms of women's labour, and comparing the cost of cereal and cost of concentrated feed for livestock.  Following the discussions, participants were much more aware about the potential for the scenarios to offer opportunities for women's empowerment (in terms of the possible increased income bringing more finance under women's control, giving women confidence, allowing more access to education, and in terms of family management) Key tradeoffs arising from the discussions were: the increase in women's labour versus the compensation of higher income from high milk production; and the reduction of cereal production if the land is used to produce planted fodder for animal feed to increase milk and meat production.After splitting into their mixed group, the mixed black group considered the starting scenario they had been presented with (a commercial dairy-oriented storyline) and the associated changes in production and environmental indicators. They spent a very long time discussing the scenario, trying to understand how the results link to the scenario and how and why they would want to change it for their first revised scenario (scenario 1). After some discussion of Scenario 1 and near the end of the time allocated to the activity, they requested extra time to quickly run and review an alternative revised scenario (scenario 2) before choosing a final scenario. The vignettes and number of animals describing the starting scenario they were given and their two revised scenarios are presented in Table 13. The results from CLEANED-R showing the changes in production and environmental indicators are presented in tabular form in Table 14 (the productivity scorecard) and Table 15 (the environmental scorecard). In the activity, the results were presented to the group in a bar chart quickly drawn out on a flipchart. This graph is reproduced in Figure 5 and Figure 6 (the results for the change in the amount of concentrates required and the change in the area required for planted fodder are many times higher than the rest of the results and are therefore presented separately).Participants were most satisfied with the milk produced (75%), as this was in line with the first economic indicator, which stated as \"availability of livestock and livestock products in quantity and quality improved\". The reduction in cattle meat (-44%) was agreed to be acceptable because the goal was to increase meat from sheep but not meat from cattle. However, the increase in sheep meat was disappointing (+5%), and considered too small to make up for the loss in cattle meat (Table 14, Figure 5). The participants found the small reduction in cereals produced and the increase in concentrates to be expected based on the vignettes chosen for this scenario. However, they were confused by the high value for the area of planted fodder 16 (Figure 6).The water impacts were as expected, and participants were happy that the total water use would reduce slightly, which would benefit water scarce areas like Atsbi (Table 15). However, participants were very surprised by the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission results, as they did not match the participants' expectations, leading the group to question the CLEANED-R calculations. It was expected that the GHG emissions would reduce due to the improvement in the feeding system, which according to the group should mean that the cows process the feed more efficiently. However, in all cases there was an increase in GHG emissions 17 .The change suggested was to increase the amount of meat produced from sheep. The reason for the suggested change was that Atsbi is a highland area, whereby farmers can rear sheep with the use of limited land resources. By comparison, cattle fattening is less suitable because there is too little land, and the cooler climate means that fattening takes longer and therefore more feed. Furthermore, consumers prefer sheep from highland areas, offering a market demand.However, the only change proposed to improve the scenario was to change the vignette in the sheep category to feed more planted fodder rather than concentrates to minimise the extra cost of purchasing feed. Since the initial discussion that participants had established strong agreement on the importance of cost reduction from concentrate purchase the change was voted and accepted by all members. The rationale was to improve meat production by farm management instead of increasing the number of sheep (but the two vignettes have the same meat yield, so this expectation did not match the available vignettes). * for vignettes chosen, -means the vignette is one level less than the starting scenario, e.g. DA1 to DA0; + means the vignette is one level higher than the starting scenario; 0 means no change in vignette 16 This indicator was added after a last minute request in the facilitator training, and is not ideal. The numbers are so hig, because the baseline value is so small (almost 0) so although the absolute value in scenarios is still fairly small (e.g. 12ha), the perc ent change from 0 is very high. 17 CLEANED computes IPCC tier 2 CO2 equivalent emmissions, which are driven by the energy requirement of an animal that is defined by animal weight and metabolic processes (maintenance, growth, lactation, locomotion). The feed basket composition does not influence the CO2 equivalent emmissions. In addition, it is a misconception to believe that an improved feed basket reduces greenhouse gases (Goopy et al., 2018).   * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 11.5 ha for the starting scenario of the mixed black group (run 0), for example, translates to around 5,400% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the y-axis are presented using a log scale.As the only change was to one vignette, most of the results are the same, apart from those related to planted fodder: a slight increase in areas required for planted fodder, a decrease in the amount of concentrates required, a marginal reduction in water use and an increase in water use per sheep. In general, participants' reactions are the same as before, including disagreeing with the GHG emissions.Three reactions from the participants show they had a different understanding of the CLEANED-R results and Transformation Game than the research team. These (mis)understandings reveal the value of the Transformation Game, of using the CLEANED-R tool as a group and discussing unexpected results. First, participants assumed the increase in water use per sheep to be due to an increase in the number of sheepbut the number of sheep had not been changed. Secondly, participants were unhappy that mutton production did not change -which makes sense given that they did not increase the number of sheep and the change of vignette did not entail a change in sheep productivity. Finally, participants found the further decrease in cereal production unacceptable (-5% to -6%) because the goal was to increase productivity of sheep without affecting cereal production. Yet, the change implemented was to increase the reliance on planted fodder, so this reaction is counter-intuitive.All participants agreed that sheep production makes more sense than cattle production for Atsbi woreda, considering the scarcity of land and the fast reproduction rate of sheep. In their discussions, participants discovered that there is a likely to be a trade-off in allocating Atsbi's scarce resources, if environmental impact is to be minimised. Emphasizing improved ways of sheep management necessitated compromising on the number of dual purpose fattening and rearing cattle to re-allocate resources to sheep.An important change in perspective of participants was to acknowledge the potential benefits that can be obtained from specialized dairy farming as well as sheep.Together, these discussions reinforced the opinion of some members of the group that intensive farming offers a way to mitigate environmental impact. By the end, participants had a firm decision to intensify sheep production, which brought all participants to work together for achieving the proposed scenario. For example, the group suggested that promoting improved ways of sheep management in the Atsbi highland could encourage rural famers to adopt a more market-oriented production system 18 .To address the trade-off mentioned above, participants suggested to revert the change to the sheep's feeding basket back to concentrates, reduce the number of dual purpose fattening and rearing cattle (from 10,000 to 5,000) and increase the number of sheep (from 70,000 to 95,000).As expected, cattle meat reduced further (-60% in Scenario 2 compared to -44% in Scenario 1) but participants were happy to finally have a substantial increase in sheep meat (+43%). Total GHG emissions reduced in this scenario, although not as much as participants expected. Discussants preferred this scenario overall because it achieves improvements in milk production and mutton production, maintains water consumption and decreases GHG emissions.Considering the good life indicators, participants felt that the second revised scenario had the potential to contribute to maintaining livelihood improvements. In particular, the scenario could contribute to the indicators of the earlier yellow group (experts/researchers) such as improved quantity and quality of livestock and livestock products and improved access to services. Participants presumed that this scenario may generate benefits by way of the improved productivity of meat from sheep and milk from specialized dairy cows, reduction in GHG emissions across cattle and sheep and reduction in water consumption.Although the participants disagreed about the GHG results, they readily agreed that the increased number of sheep in Atsbi could bring about improvement in households' wellbeing.Reflections:As an outcome of the discussion process, participants hoped that reducing dual purpose cattle numbers (from 10,000 to 5,000) could result in better benefits to the poor as sheep can reproduce quickly within a year. Along with this, promoting improved ways of sheep management could encourage rural famers to become more market-oriented in their production of sheep.Trade-offs were identified between: cattle meat and sheep meat; water consumption and GHG emission; and a land allocation trade-off between growing animal feed and staple feed.The group thought that the second revised scenario is the best because it could maintain sheep productivity in Atsbi, while maintaining water consumption and reducing GHG emissions.Key points highlighted by the facilitators from the discussion were: participants' concern about GHG emissions; maintaining production to improve livelihoods; and livestock intensification versus GHG emissions.The most important things learned by the group were: The trade-off in livestock production versus mitigating the associated environment impact,  That with more practice, i.e. by playing the second iteration of the Game, they achieved a better scenario 19 .Throughout, views were freely aired without any barrier. Participants appreciated sharing ideas among themselves and final decisions were made on the basis of information contributed by every participant.After splitting into their mixed group, the mixed red group considered the starting scenario they had been presented with (a meat-oriented storyline) and the associated changes in production and environmental indicators. When discussing how to improve on the starting scenario, the group members agreed on which vignettes to choose, but not on the numbers of animals to allocate to each category. After much discussion, the group agreed to try out three variations to take into account everyone's visions. While the group went for lunch, all three variations were run through CLEANED-R and the results extracted. After lunch, the group discussed the results of each option in turn, but did not do a second iteration of the Game to produce a new scenario. The vignettes and number of animals describing the starting scenario they were given and their three variations of a revised scenario are presented in Table 16. The results from CLEANED-R showing the changes in production and environmental indicators are presented in tabular form in Table 17 (the productivity scorecard) and Table 18 (the environmental scorecard). In the activity, the results were presented to the group in a bar chart quickly drawn out on a flipchart. This graph is reproduced in Figure 7 and Figure 8 (the results for the change in the amount of concentrates required and the change in the area required for planted fodder are many times higher than the rest of the results and are therefore presented separately).Considering the results of the starting scenario, the majority of the participants were happy about the increase in sheep with its associated 110% increase in meat (mutton) production. They agreed with this because the agro-ecology and undulating topography is suitable for sheep production. Sheep production can also provide benefits to more households in general, and particularly to poor households because of the low initial capital required and because it is a cultural rearing practice. Mutton is often preferred over beef as it is more affordable and is considered a softer meat. Atsbi is also lucky to have a system of enclosing areas of pasture and wetlands during the wet season to protect the fodder from grazing, which is then allocated to community members to collect at the end of the wet season. The scenario would create job opportunities for landless and unemployed people. The participants felt that for nutrition and food security, it was acceptable that the area required for planted fodder leads to only a minimal change in cereal production (-9%); the crop yield deficit can be compensated by income earned from selling livestock products. The advantage of producing one's own feed by planting fodder is to minimize feed cost and decrease dependency on feed suppliers. Participants were also happy that the starting scenario suggests lower water consumption than currently, giving an opportunity to save some water compared to the present situation, which creates a chance to produce additional feed.On the other hand, participants were highly concerned about the change made in milk production. As the current milk production is very low, increasing milk production by 21% was not considered enough to achieve the intended wellbeing of the people of Atsbi that the group would hope to see after 10 years. So there was a clearly agreed need to increase the milk yield, for example by increasing the specialized milking cows. Members of the group were also concerned about the increase in total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.The group was happy with all the vignettes suggested in the starting scenario, as well as the number of sheep and cattle for rearing and fattening and for draught so they made no changes to any of those categories. Given the existing resources (feed availability, topography, nutrition security, etc.), the discussants pointed out that if milk production was improved, the overall life standards could be improved. However, they there were very unhappy with the low milk production. There was common agreement that two things should change: to increase milk production; and to reduce or at least maintain the amount of GHGs emitted.The participants argued that more households can be involved in dairy production, and that the environment in the area is suitable for dairy production (it is on a plateau, with cooler temperatures). This would also create job opportunities for landless and unemployed people. To bring about higher milk production, there was common agreement to reduce the number of dual purpose dairy and increase the number of specialised dairy animals. However, the extent of change was contested, with three different variations proposed by members of the group (Table 16). Option 1: the most ambitious, to further halve the number of dual purpose dairy cattle (from 10,000 to 5,000) and double again the number of specialized dairy cattle (from 5,000 to 10,000).  Option 2: more conservative, a smaller decrease in dual purpose dairy cattle (from 10,000 to 7,000) and a smaller increase in the number of specialized dairy cattle (from 5,000 to 6,500).  Option 3: even more conservative, a minor decrease in dual purpose dairy cattle (from 10,000 to 9,000) and a small increase in the number of specialized dairy cattle (from 5,000 to 6,000).The discussion was open and participatory. Each person wanted to express their own idea or view.Participants from national level policy makers' group and from the experts/researchers' group were concerned about GHG emissions while the farmers, local leaders/administrators and a few experts were highly concerned about productivity increment. Between these two parties, there were intense discussions as they attempted to convince each other of their concerns.    * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 18.5 ha for the starting scenario of the mixed red group (run 0), for example, translates to around 8,500% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the yaxis are presented using a log scale.All the participants were happy about the small increase in GHG emissions (+29% total emissions for Option 1 compared to +27% in the starting scenario) and small change in water consumption (-5% in both starting scenario and Option 1). The participants were not concerned that cattle meat reduced by 1% from the present situation as the significant increase in mutton production remains (+110%). However, they were highly concerned with the change made in milk production (34% increase, compared to 21% in the starting scenario), which was still not high enough to achieve the intended wellbeing of the people of Atsbi.As a result of seeing the results for Option 1, there was an increased understanding in the group of the dynamics of dairy production and productivity, and of supplementation of livestock from purchased feed. In the quest for increased milk production, they took 5,000 dual purpose dairy cattle and transformed them to specialized dairy cattle. They reasoned that the further reduction in dual purpose cattle led to the decrease in cattle meat. On the other hand, they attributed the increase in milk production to the doubling of specialized dairy, but saw that this also led to an increase in the amount of concentrates. They also noted that the shift of 5,000 cattle from dual purpose to specialized cattle led to only a small increase in GHG emissions. The facilitators noted a growing understanding and concern for GHG emissions -by the end a considerable number of farmers (two of the four) stated their concern for GHG emissions.Considering the good life indicators, sufficiently boosting milk production and mutton would increase household income and also secure food and nutrition security. As already mentioned, the change in milk production is not considered sufficient to contribute towards this. Participants also mentioned that there is a general preference for mutton rather than cattle meat, in relation to affordability by the average household, palatability and health. For instance, one can buy an average size sheep for 2,000 Birr but an average size beef cow costs 10,000 Birr 20 . There is also a traditional belief by farmers that mutton is softer and healthier meat compared to beef.In relation to ensuring joint family decision-making, livestock products especially milk are mostly controlled by women and all household members which gives an opportunity for the wife and her children to control the income because the husband is not fully involved in daily transactions (routine activities like selling, distribution, auditing and so on).Considering how the scenario might impact people differently, milk production provides benefits for most of the households in the woreda. However, within the household, sheep fattening and rearing benefits women and youth more than men. As mentioned for the starting scenario, sheep production provides more benefits for poor households.Option 2 results in a decrease in milk production and cattle meat compared to the starting scenario and Option 1 with a slight decrease in GHG emission. Participants all agreed that they approved of the fewer GHG emissions in relation with the other scenarios. However, everything else was unacceptable, particularly the milk production (+23%), which was even less than the poor performing starting scenario. Participants were also confused that the per sheep indicators continued to show a change, whereas they had not changed the number of sheep.After thorough discussion this scenario was rejected, as the production results were so bad, despite having lower GHG emissions. This option would not make any significant contribution to the good life indicators compared to the other options. The learning/ change in perception from discussing this scenario was that an increase in livestock productivity should not be at the expense of GHG emissions and should not significantly harm the environment. This was especially a concern from the experts, local government and national policy makers' point of view while some farmers and traders were not as such concerned about GHG emissions. This built further understanding of the issue of GHG emissions especially by some farmers.This third option, the most conservative change, still did not achieve the group's objective of increasing milk production. With this option, the +23% change was almost as low as the +21% change in the starting scenario. Participants were pleasantly surprised to see an increase in cattle meat change (+6%) compared to Options 1 and 2 (close to 0), but less than the starting scenario (+8%) -although that was not the main objective of the options for a revised scenario. Apart from that, participants found the scenario results unsatisfactory, as all other production and environmental indicators were worse or similar to previous Options and the starting scenario. Again, any change made in relation to water consumption per sheep compared to the starting scenario was unexpected because they made no changes to the number of sheep in this option.No discussion was made on good life indicators as the change made on the scenario was intended to boost milk production. Farmers were observed to make a compromise between environmental sustainability and livestock productivity improvement.Participants were generally concerned with the revised scenarios because it proved difficult to achieve a much higher milk production. They were very disappointed with Options 2 and 3 as these produced less or similar milk production to the starting scenario, although they were happy with the reductions in GHG emissions that could be achieved. In discussing the three revised scenarios, the group learned about the trade-off between the wish to increase milk production but also to reduce GHG emissions.After intense discussion the participants accepted the changes suggested by farmers, local administrators and a few experts (Option 1). The chosen scenario is a success because: Milk yield increased by 34%,this is far better compared to the other scenarios attempted  Less or similar GHG emission as compared to the other scenarios  Mutton production benefits more households compared to cattle production  Requires less land for forage (fodder) production Key points that participants wanted to highlight from the discussions were: Learning about environmental sustainability in terms of GHG emissions, water and land use systems  Livestock production and productivity  The comparison of benefits and costs, for example of cattle meat vs mutton, milk vs meat  Cattle production involves fewer households than sheep production due to high initial capital investment. Most of the time the husband (household head) has control over decision-making of what to sell, and collects the money from selling large animals. On the other hand, income from selling milk and small stock like sheep gives women and children a relatively better chance to control income and use it for different purposes.The most important things the participants highlighted that they had learned were: Environmentally friendly livestock production system: any livestock production system must be practiced without significant negative impact to the environment.  Modern livestock husbandry: there was a change in perception of farmers to look for feed basket options to modernize livestock handling practices.  Land allocation for fodder production: some farmers started understanding the importance of allocating land for fodder production as long as it can boost livestock production and productivity.The discussion was interactive with everyone reflecting their ideas and views and having a say at least once in discussing each scenario. There was less discussion of Option 2 as it was not promising. Since some of the participants were interested in increasing production and productivity while the others were more concerned about GHG emissions there was a heated discussion between the two groups. Finally, they reach consensus through a 'give and take' approach. Evaluation was made through a voting system.The three groups had different scenarios in the end in terms of number of animals, reflecting the differences in their starting scenarios (Table 8). Nonetheless, the final scenarios of each groups are an improvement in line with the groups' objectives of increasing dairy production, balancing meat production and limiting impact on the environment, which turned out to be common to all groups (Table 19 and Table 20). a Unfortunately, during the facilitator training a problem in the soil pathway was found, which could not be fixed in time, so the groups were asked to ignore the soil pathway results (manure produced and nitrogen balance) as they looked suspiciously wrong. Since the workshop, the soil calculations have been fixed and the numbers presented in the tables and graphs in this report are the correct results. b The reporter presented the wrong numbers from the CLEANED-R tool for these values: total CO2eq per cow should be +53% and total CO2eq per sheep should be +17%A common pattern that could be found across all final scenarios is that the number of dual purpose cattle in Atsbi will reduce. Participants showed a preference for replacing local dairy cows with improved cross-breed cows that have a much higher productivity. It was widely agreed that draught animals should be replaced in part by tractors, at least for the flatter areas of Atsbi which are suitable for mechanisation. These two shifts allow production to increase while reducing the number of animals and therefore the overall environmental pressure in the area, yet both come at a cost. Cross-breed animals are much more sensitive, so they require more care and more commercially acquired inputs such as concentrates and veterinary services.Most of the groups also decreased the number of fattening animals, claiming that conditions for fattening are better in the transition zone between the upland plateau of the study area and the lowlands of neighbouring Afar region (where the government is also resettling landless people to fatten cattle). Moreover, the Atsbi sheep is a well know product, which has a regional market, therefore the meat lost from a reduced emphasis on cattle fattening can be compensated by increasing sheep production. Sheep are also more efficient in terms of greenhouse (GHG) emissions per kilogram of meat than fattening cattle.The switch to improved feeding for all animal categories reduces the overall pressure on land. This is because a greater proportion of the energy required by Atsbi's livestock is coming from concentrates. These are high-density feeds that come from outside the area, meaning that they do not require land in Atsbi, and therefore also reduce the overall volume of water used in Atsbi for feed production. Yet, concentrates are financially costly.Also planted fodder is reducing the pressure on land, as less land is needed to produce the same number of calories from crop residue. Planted fodder is more water intensive but overall when combined with using concentrates, the water use for feed has decreased in all scenarios. Yet, this comes at a cost. Planted fodder usually grows on arable land and therefore reduces the amount of staple food available in the area and therefore can threaten the food security in households that are not well connected to the market. Clearly, the livestock transformation in Atsbi requires relying on area outside the boundaries, either for purchased feed and fodder or for cereals and staple food.On the other hand, there is some literature from European studies suggesting that having patches of perennial fodder crops such as alfalfa in an agricultural landscape may provide some refuge for wildlife from the variable and frequently altered habitat provided by annually harvested crops (Bretagnolle et al., 2011). In this way, planted fodder may have an impact on biodiversity at a landscape or regional scale, but this needs further study.From the workshop, there is no clear pattern showing whether planting fodder or buying concentrates is the preferred option. It is likely that this decision depends on household characteristics. For example, the (possibly) landless 21 woman would never convert her small amount of land to feed and fodder as her food security is too important to her, in contrast to the woman who rationalised that concentrates are more expensive than staple food and alfalfa is subsided, so she does not see the point of growing cereals.This connects to the wider issue of the landless system in Ethiopia. Most landless people can get access to a very small piece of rehabilitated land, so that little piece of land would have a lot of value to her, for example playing a key role in food security, as she mentioned. Often, this land for landless people is irrigated, so she might have high value crops on it rather than cereals, in which case planting fodder returns less than that high value crop.Benefitting from the above trends are the marginalized groups. Women think that producing more milk and therefore contributing more to the household income will give them more rights in the family, leading to increased joint decision-making. Clearly, most of the increased labour from the cross-breeds is likely to fall on women, but women expressed their willingness to work more in order to build a better life for their children. No comment was made, however, about what would happen to existing household/care work, or other activities currently undertaken by women. Also, within increased decision-making power, they also expect that the family will have more labour sharing.The focus on sheep is also strongly supporting the poorer households including the landless. Sheep need little initial investment, have a high reproduction rate and are easy to keep. This is also possible because the biomass from the protected areas in Atsbi is shared among all the inhabitants including the landless.The losers with this change are likely to be the butchers and the meat traders as cattle meat will be reducing. Traders in the debate accepted this change as it would partially be offset by additional mutton production 22 . Yet it is unclear if this is a general agreement, as not all the final mixed stakeholder scenarios have reduced the fattening cattle.A more detailed analysis of the various costs and benefits should be performed before a conclusion can be drawn on how profitable any of these changes are.The socio-economic indicators described by the groups are somewhat less tied to individual household income than in other countries. Across all groups, the focus of the indicators was less about households having the income to be able to send children to school, or to buy medicine, but rather that the infrastructure and supply of services that are required to be put in place before individuals can access them. The local leaders group, for example, explicitly had infrastructure and services provision as the enabling condition for their other indicators; they remarked on seeing Infrastructure as a separate combined indicator/KPI.The national level group discussed how the indicators elicited in the Workshop 1 were a mix of different types of indicators -some being outputs and some being outcomes -and as a result found it more difficult to identify which to prioritise. As in the other countries, this is an example of the value of having a longer time devoted to developing individual group indicators and then putting more nuance into common, combined indicators.A women's only group with a woman facilitator was one of the mixed stakeholder groups on Day 2. It was the most dynamic group. Their end scenario was similar to the dairy-oriented men's scenario, expect that women overall preferred the home-grown feed basket compared to the commercial one. The use of a women's only group gave more space for women to express themselves, compared to Burkina Faso where women did not contribute much to the final debate, and in Tanzania, where the women's option quickly disappeared from the debate. Although it was a great experience, it required more resources to run the workshop with 3 groups instead of two. It was only possible thanks to the facilitators who could independently lead the negotiations (compared to the research team members leading in other countries). Also in the Ethiopian context, there were enough women participants to justify a separate group, and a woman facilitator who brilliantly engaged all the women in the group.On the other hand, one of the main design objectives of the ResLeSS project was to build understanding between different groups, which was the reason for combining the groups on Day 2. Arguably, having the women separate from the men took away the opportunity to build understanding between men and women. However, this experience suggests that it was too soon to combine women and men; they would need more support to build their confidence before their voices could be heard in combined groups. In future, the CLEANED/ResLeSS approach should consider the variety of actors between which to build understanding, acknowledging that the value-chain stakeholders are one group of actors, but so are men and women, young and old, ethnic groups, or other communities 23 .The workshop process required four groups of participants that represented four groups of stakeholders, meaning that the individuals were more similar to each other than to individuals of another stakeholder group. Those four groups should also have roughly equal numbers of participants. In reality, people have multiple roles and the boundaries between stakeholder groups are somewhat diffuse with experiences from other roles colouring how individuals represent other roles (Long and Long, 1992; Cornwall, 2004). Getting to know the participants revealed some examples of individuals' multiple responsibilities: the community leaders who are also livestock producers and teachers; the butcher/cattle fattener who also now has some cross-breed cows and is so impressed with dairy production so started a milk shop; the younger generation working in the office but starting to have one and then two cows.The vignettes in the CLEANED-R tool in Ethiopia were parametrized quite differently from the other countries. The two improved vignettes had the same productivity gain, so there was not one that was \"better\" than the other. This decision was consciously made to avoid groups just selecting the vignette with the highest productivity. This has increased the capacity of the tool to start a more in-depth debate about food security. This has also increased the diversity of the final mixed stakeholder scenarios.On the other hand, the women's group were disappointed in their second scenario compared to the first scenario, because they wanted to reduce animal numbers and focus on efficiency in the dual purpose dairy cattle to improve milk productivity. This suggests that the vignettes may not have provided enough scope to explore different combinations. The selection of what options to offer via the vignettes, and seeing how participants then used the vignettes in each country, has shown the challenge of making such a selection, but also reinforces that it was a good decision to introduce the vignettes as a way to simplify the complexity of the situation that the game represents. The number of variables implied when combining feedbasket, breed and management variables into a strategy option to enter into the CLEANED-R tool could result in endless combinations.The decision to add the blank vignettes was one way to solve this trade-off between simplifying the complexity and restricting the options to explore. However, reflecting on how everyone experienced the workshop confirmed that the game is still complex; it presents a lot of information to take in as it is and in the limited time for discussions there just may not be the space to change focus and 'quickly' design a new vignette that meets the group's expectations. This would be more relevant if the mixed group discussions were the sole focus of the 2 day workshop, or if the Game was being played by small groups who already know the Game or the system variables very well.Because Ethiopia was the last of the three countries, the facilitators' training could learn from the earlier workshops and was more focused as a result. The facilitators also had a high base level of skill in training others, from lecturing at Mekelle University and carrying out extension and training in Tigray, and a high level of interest in the inner workings of the CLEANED-R tool. As a result, this training was just as long, if not longer, than in other countries and meant that the facilitators were much better prepared. They understood not just the process but also how the CLEANED-R tool works and how it links to the Transformation Game. They could understand, and question, how the impacts are computed and could explain much better to the participants what was happening in the stakeholder scenarios. Because they could explain the output of the scenario, the workshop went much more smoothly, particularly as they could directly introduce and explain the CLEANED-R tool and the Transformation Game in the local language. Also we could have more than two mixed stakeholder groups, as it was not necessary for one of the two from the international team to be in each group.The process in Ethiopia was also particular as we had national level policy actors from the National Learning Alliance in the room. We treated them as a separate stakeholder group representing national level stakeholders, so that they could not influence the process in the other stakeholder groups. However, we decided to split them into the 3 mixed-stakeholder groups as full participants. The idea behind this approach was to make space for developing cross-scale learning, i.e. that farmers can learn about national-level actors' priorities and policies, but also so that policy-makers from the highest level could get a chance to understand the position of someone that would have to live with the consequences of their policies. It appears to have worked, as members of the national learning alliance mentioned afterwards that for them the learning space was a unique opportunity to talk to farmers.However, the national learning alliance members brought in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which then became a much-discussed topic, a topic that was much less relevant in the other countries' discussions where we did not have the national level represented. It is a topic that is usually not an issue for farmers who hardly know that their cows are emitting \"something bad\" or \"pollution\". The end scenarios tried to minimize GHG emissions, but not to reduce them to the Ethiopian target (to reduce overall GHG emissions by 60%).This report has presented the design for and preliminary results from the second ResLeSS workshop in Ethiopia. More detailed analysis of the results of the workshop will follow later in the project, focused around contributions to the academic literature and including comparative analysis between the three countries. However, at this stage a number of observations can be made. Overall, the blending of the CLEANED-R simulation tool with scenario development, and the bringing together of multiple stakeholders, via the Transformation Game enabled participants to appreciate the tension between increasing production and productivity while maintaining or reducing environmental impact. Both the national and the local stakeholders learnt from each other: about the necessity of keeping some draught animals for the rough terrain; of the critical importance of increasing production; and of the concern about reducing GHG emissions and water consumption. In Tanzania, reflections from participants suggested that the workshop provided tools for exploring the possibilities that small-scale dairy offer, for setting a vision for the future and planning how one might progress towards it. In Burkina Faso, the CLEANED-R tool and the Transformation Game acted as a neutral point of mediation between two opposing parties representing settled and transhumant livestock production, enabling them to come together and have a rational debate about how to manage landuse to start to address the conflicting interests.The outcome of the workshop in Ethiopia is not a full design for livestock futures in Atsbi but, rather, will provide a better understanding among and between stakeholders, and for the research team. This includes understanding of the key trade-offs and the socio-economic context within which those trade-offs need to be negotiated. In this case, it seems that a common strategy to increase productivity while minimising the change in GHG emissions is to reduce dual purpose dairy in favour of specialised cross-breed dairy cows, and reduce dual purpose rearing and fattening cows in favour of the Atsbi sheep. This strategy relies on an increased dependence on purchased concentrates, which has an immediate cost to the producer, and relies on infrastructure and services development to make the increased volume of concentrates available, as well as veterinary supplies, dairy processing and marketing. In addition, there was fairly consistent agreement that the basic services of roads, water, electricity, telephone network and education and health are an underpinning foundation to achieving development of the livestock sector to achieve a good life.The experience of the workshop showed that to adequately explore issues requires allowing time to let the participants immerse themselves in the discussion -to get used to the Transformation Game and understand the dynamics of the scenarios and the accompanying results, in order to engage with and respond to the results. This, among other reasons, is why it was also clear that having a women's group was important. While having the mixed stakeholders represented is core to the process, the experience of this workshop showed that it could be valuable to consider other criteria when designing the mixed groups. For example, several factors influence the level of understanding of the Transformation Game from Day 1: previous experience of the more academic representation of the livestock system, of thinking of the system as a whole, or of thinking in the ways demanded by an analytical workshop process; or personality, being quick to think and speak or being more reflective and taking time to build ones responses or contributions; and cultural, social and other power dynamics that influence who can speak in the same space as others, or after others have spoken. Where possible, it is useful to separate groups along some of these distinctions to allow more similar groups to play the game at a pace that better suits more members of the group.Overall it was a positive experience for all -even where there are points that need further clarification; we now know what those points are, as well as the significant debates that need to be kept at the centre of decision making.Table 21 describes the 5 stakeholder groups identified as being important in the smallscale dairy value chain in Atsbi, Tigray, and being more similar to each other within a group than to members of other groups. The 'Transformation Game' is a novel contribution of the project that allows participants to devise and assess future livestock scenarios. It forms the central focus of Workshop 2.As noted in section 1, the aim of the workshop is to support participants to undertake a shared evaluation of the social, economic and environmental consequences of plausible livestock futures. Central to this is the use of CLEANED-R. While the results of CLEANED-R are relatively straightforward to interpret, developing sufficient understanding of the model and how it can be parameterised is beyond the scope of a multistakeholder workshop. The workshop design is therefore driven by two requirements: To simplify the use of CLEANED-R in real-time, so that alternative livestock futures can be assessed without the need to understand, discuss and enter all possible parameters; and  To simplify the process of making choices between (a potentially huge number of) livestock management options.The 'Transformation Game' addresses these requirements through the use of vignettes. Each vignette is parameterised prior to the workshop and is available to be called-up via the CLEANED-R user-interface, allowing rapid but straightforward user engagement. At the same time, the vignettes define a limited number of livestock management options, reducing the complexity of decision making in the workshop by constraining the number of options available to participants. Together, these factors enable interaction with CLEANED-R within a manageable time, allowing for relatively quick iterations of scenario development, meaningful discussions of results, and deliberation over potential scenario revisions.As set out in Section 1.1, vignettes and scenarios are deployed within the Transformation Game to allow iterative assessment of the socio-economic and environmental impacts of scenarios, as illustrated in Figure 9 and explained in Section 8.1. The Transformation Game comprises five components that are deployed by players in the workshop: Vignette cards: Central to the game is the vignette, or short description of key elements of a livestock management practice. Each vignette is printed on a card, with an image illustrating the vignette on the front. On the back, an interested participant would find all the associated CLEANED-R parameters that define the vignette. Figure 10 provides an example from the Ethiopia game. For each production category (e.g., fattening animals, dairy animals; in the Ethiopia case there are five, as discussed below) one vignette represents today's practice, and a further one or two vignettes are provided describing possible (and plausible) future changes to animals, feed and/or management for that category (e.g. introduction of high yielding dairy cows). These vignettes are pre-set within the CLEANED-R tool, so that the non-expert can develop credible scenarios (that is, combinations of vignettes defining the production across the landscape).  Game board: The game board allows participants to select a combination of vignettes. Figure 11 provides an example from Ethiopia. The bottom row sets out the current scenario -representing what is found in the study area today. This is fixed. The top row is initially blank, allowing participants to choose which vignette card they wish to place in each production category to define their future scenario.  Bricks (defining number of animals): Lego-type bricks are provided to participants, with each brick corresponding to a defined number of animals. The bricks are placed on each vignette card to allow the participants to select the number of animals involved in each vignette across the 'landscape'. Sufficient bricks are provided to represent the total number of animals currently in the study area, as well as allowing for an increase in animal numbers in future scenarios. Figure 12 illustrates the bricks in use in Ethiopia.  Environmental score cards: Once a scenario has been selected, participants use CLEANED-R to produce a set of productivity indicators (recorded in Table 22), and environmental impacts (water, greenhouse gases, and nitrogen balance; Table 23). The results are presented by CLEANED-R in tables and provide average impact measures for the whole study area for that scenario, as well as a percentage difference in these measures for the scenario from the baseline. Two environmental score cards are provided to allow participants to record the key results given by CLEANED-R tool for a particular scenario. CLEANED-R also provides an automatic guide as to whether this change is low, medium or high, relative to the range of possible impacts for the study area (based on plausible scenarios; not calculated for Ethiopia). This assessment allows the participants to gain a sense of the scale of change. The participants then make their own (subjective) evaluation of what this impact means to them, recording their view as to whether the impact is desirable, acceptable or unacceptable and why. This evaluation is captured in the 'Participant Evaluation' column.   Socio-economic score cards: Once a scenario has been selected, participants discuss the anticipated socio-economic impacts in relation to each of the indicators agreed during the first day of the workshop (Table 24). The score card encourages the participants to think in terms of the different impacts felt by different groups. Based on these discussions, participants score their assessment of the progress the scenario makes against the indicator as low/ medium/ high. Combined indicator 1 etc.Having assessed the environmental and socio-economic consequences of a particular scenario, participants negotiate a revised scenario -using vignette cards and bricks -that they believe will better meet their environmental and socio-economic goals. The revised scenario can then be evaluated and revised in a further iteration of the game.  Full details of the parameterisation of CLEANED-R for the study site can be found in the companion report (Pfeifer et al., 2018). Here, we summarise the key points that define how the Transformation Game is played to allow interpretation of the results.Five livestock categories were maintained, based on the reflections from Workshop 1, combined with a decision to reduce complexity of the tool by restricting the study area to the plateau and therefore excluding goat production, following the maps produced in Workshop 1. The remaining categories were identified by following the rules that each category should have a consistent energy requirement -lactating animals have different requirement than fattening animals -and that the collection of categories should allow users to explore the interventions imagined for the future in Workshop 1. This resulted in four categories for cattle and one for sheep:1. Dual purpose dairy (Local animal) 2. Dual purpose rearing and fattening 3. Dual purpose draught animal 4. Specialised dairy 5. SheepBased on a literature review on livestock productivity and most recent research data available at ILRI and ICARDA in Ethiopia, the vignettes were developed in relation to each of the production categories. Each vignette represents a credible combination of feed basket 24 and animal productivity for each animal category. Parameters defining the feed basket required to support a particular milk yield have been derived from the literature and reviewed by a feed and fodder expert. These define vignettes that are credible and based on nutrition available in Atsbi. Table 25 sets out a total of 19 vignettes; 14 of these were preprogrammed into CLEANED-R to allow them to be rapidly accessed during the workshop and five blank vignette cards gave stakeholders the option to develop their own if they completely disagreed with the available vignettes 25 . Dual purpose dairy DD0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep lactating animals in the dual purpose herd. These are local breed animals. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates given for milking.DD1: Improved farm produced feed basket Lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is mainly replaced by planted fodder.Lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than DD1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Dual purpose fattening and rearing DF0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd. These animals are local breeds. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates given for fattening.Non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good fattening oxen, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is mainly replaced by planted fodder.Non-lactating animals in the dual purpose herd, local breed, with better management: selective breeding for good fattening oxen, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than DF1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Draught animal DA0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep draught animals. These animals are local breeds. Feed comes mainly from natural grass and crop residues, with a very slight amount of concentrates.Draught animals, local breeds, with better management: better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, but still mainly fed on natural grass.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Specialized dairy system SD0: Baseline (current state)The current way to keep cross-breed animals for specialised dairy production. The feed basket already has a good portion of concentrates, as well as some hay and planted fodder, with a small amount of natural grass and crop residues.Specialised dairy with better management: controlled cross breeding to maintain good performance; good health and balanced feed ration. The improved feed basket has slightly more concentrates but partly replacing natural grass and crop residues with planted fodder.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision. The current way to keep sheep, including rearing and fattening, mainly fed on natural grass, crop residue and a very slight amount of concentrates.SH1: Improved farm produced feed basket Sheep with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates, and natural grass is partially replaced by planted fodder.Sheep with better management: selective breeding for good performance, better quality and quantity of feed and good health. The improved feed basket has more concentrates than SH1, natural grass and purchased hay.Blank: 'Something else' Option for the group to say 'None of the above' and create something new that better reflects their vision.Crop productivity (+20%)Increase crop and fodder yields by 20%. More manure and chemical fertiliser is applied to croplands.aThe current version of each production category is comprised of five vignettes; there are a further one or two progressive futures for each category (eight vignettes); An additional five vignettes have no parameters pre-set, to offer stakeholders the opportunity to reject our assumptions and create their own feedbasket; and one final vignette to allow a crop productivity increase. Total = 19 vignettes.The baseline or current state number of animals in each production category have been defined for Atsbi as set out in Table 26, along with the number of animals represented by each brick used in the Transformation Game. These vignettes and numbers of animals initialise the Transformation Game on the game board. Important elements of the game board are (Figure 13):A: the name of each production category -translated into the appropriate language B: two rows of spaces to place vignettes -the starting situation (B1) and the scenario to be designed (B2)C: a definition of what 1 brick represents -how many animals (C1) -leading to a corresponding number of bricks in the current scenario (C2).During the game, vignettes are laid in the squares (along the row B2) and bricks piled on each vignette commensurate with the number of animals to be represented. The two day workshop reviews and expands on the findings from Workshop 1, culminating in the participants playing and reflecting on the Transformation Game. The key stages in the workshop are set out below.Workshop 1 defined and ranked socio-economic indicators for each stakeholder group. Workshop 2 commences with an opportunity to review and refine these indicators (to avoid ambiguity, where similar indicators had a different meaning for different groups, and to ensure each indicator is specific and measurable, allowing for progress to be assessed). In the second workshop session, combined indicators, representing the views of the entire workshop participant group, are discussed (Figure 14). The facilitator presented the 5 top indicators agreed in Workshop 1 to check that everyone still agreed with those indicators, and to introduce the indicators to any newcomers who were not at WS1. The facilitator then led the group in a process of refining each indicator, using a reporting sheet to structure the discussion (Figure 15). The objective was to reach a description that was as specific as possible, with thresholds defined for what constitutes low, medium and high progress towards the overall goal. For qualitative indicators, the groups gave a narrative description of what low, medium and high progress look like.The indicators were expressed at the level of the district, not in terms of individuals. Each group was provided with an opportunity to present their detailed indicators to the plenary. Expected output: Maximum 5 Key Performance Indicators, agreed by all stakeholder groups as the shared priorities for the workshop. Increase in understanding between those in different stakeholder groups of the differences in socio-economic priorities.The research team reviewed the detailed indicators and proposed common themes to the plenary. Each group was then provided with time to reflect on the proposal and provide feedback to the questions: Could the group live with the indicator list, even if it is not perfect? If yes, identify one or (max) two key changes that would improve the list. If no, identify key changes that would enable them to live with the indicator list, even if not ideal. From this, the research team developed a final list of indicators for use in the Transformation Game. 26The second part of the workshop comprised two stages. The first stage, on Day 1, introduced participants to the Transformation Game (the vignettes and the game board) as a way to think about how livestock production in Atsbi might look in the future -and in terms of how to design a scenario. In their homogenous stakeholder groups, they then discussed and designed an initial scenario from their group's perspective. This was used to inform the starting scenarios for Day 2. In the second stage (Day 2), the CLEANED-R environmental impact assessment tool was introduced, before splitting participants into two new groups, now with a mix of stakeholders, to evaluate the scenarios using the CLEANED-R results and the socio- This session began with introducing the three production categories, explaining these as the research team's interpretation of how participants described livestock management in Atsbi in Workshop 1. Then, the vignettes were introduced as our interpretation of how the participants see those livestock keeping categories changing in the future -the pathways of transformation. The participants were then introduced to and played the Transformation Game to produce an initial scenario.Activity 4: Common scenarios in mixed groups (Day 2, morning and afternoon)Expected output: Each mixed group arrives at their preferred scenario through exploration of tradeoffs between environmental and socio-economic impacts -by playing several rounds of the Transformation Game.Following an introduction to CLEANED-R, the two mixed stakeholder groups played the Transformation Game. Each group started from a different initial scenario, produced overnight by the research team based on the outputs from Day 1. Trend(s) observed in the scenarios developed on Day 1 were used as the starting point(s) for Day 2. Facilitation was required to ensure representation and voice for all stakeholders in the mixed group, such that all stakeholders were able to express themselves. The participants first discussed the initial scenario giving their subjective evaluation of the CLEANED-R environmental impacts, using their knowledge of the local area (for example, thinking of what the impact means in terms of availability and access of resources, and competing users). These discussions were captured in the score card. The participants then evaluated the socio-economic indicators, considering the cost and benefits and their distribution in terms of who the winners and the losers might be. The participants scored the scenario against each of the socio-economic indicators, as low, medium and high.Activity 1: Refining indicators by group (Day 1, morning)Being conscious of time constraints, we asked groups to refine the three most important indicators of their top five indicators from Workshop 1 (and if they finished early, they could then do the final two). For all groups this meant an initial activity of choosing which three were the most important. Secondly, we added a sub-section to the Description in the indicator definition sheet (Figure 15), called 'Enabling Environment', to prompt the group to consider what is needed to move from the present situation to their target.The National Learning Alliance delegation made a fifth stakeholder group, who adopted one of the Workshop 1 narratives and indicators to carry out this exercise.As in Tanzania, we decided to extend Activity 3 for an hour on Day 2, to introduce and explain the CLEANED-R tool and results while participants were still in five stakeholder groups, and carry out the first evaluation on their scenario(s). This would allow them to see the outcomes of the scenarios they designed on Day 1, and to learn how to interpret the CLEANED-R results in smaller groups with more opportunity to ask for clarification. A second change, new in Ethiopia, was that we presented the results as a bar graph drawn out on a flipchart, rather than on the score-cards (Figure 16). This replaced the score-card, so the onus fell on the reporter to make note of the group's evaluations and comments on the results, and on the facilitator to lead a discussion about all the results. We asked that the group indicate the group evaluation of each result on the graph with a tick (acceptable), 0 (indifferent) or x (unacceptable). Environmental score-cards Impact results were tailored to be relevant to Ethiopia (see Section 2.2). Four new indicators were added to the environment score-cards. As in Tanzania, the amount of manure produced in the scenario was added to the environment results sheet upon realising that manure is an important commodity for the participants. A staples production measure was added to the productivity results sheet as an indicator of potential tradeoffs between fodder for animals and feed for humans as you move to higher quality fodder that relies on cropland. However, during the facilitator training, the facilitator requested some indication of the cost to individuals -we show the benefit in the form of milk and meat produced, but no costs. So, the total amount of concentrates required (kg) was added, summing the volume of bran concentrates and oil cake concentrates portions of the feedbasket. Secondly, the area of planted fodder was added, as a complement to the 'staples produced' indicator. Finally, the 'cropland used', 'grazing land' and 'import' indicators were removed as being too confusing to interpret.Unfortunately, during the facilitator training a problem in the soil pathway was found, which was not fixed by Day 2, so the groups could not assess the soil pathway results (manure produced and nitrogen balance).The automatic evaluation of results that was generated by the CLEANED-R tool in Burkina Faso and Tanzania was not calculated for Ethiopia.The socio-economic score-cards were replaced with a simpler method of capturing the socio-economic evaluation of the scenarios. The challenge was to better trace and record the link between the scenarios and the socio-economic indicators -how did groups design the scenarios to support progress towards achieving the indicators, and upon seeing the results, how did they evaluate whether the scenarios could fulfil their expectations? The score-card (Table 24) were seen as cumbersome to fill in -a trade-off between having an explicit prompt to discuss and capture reflections about each socio-economic indicator, and having a complicated form that would mire the conversation and sap energy from the group by becoming repetitious.Instead, we asked groups on Day 1 to reflect on the scenario they had designed and capture on a sheet 'Why do we like this scenario?'. On Day 2, we anticipated that most socio-economic evaluations would be connected with the productivity results, and could therefore be captured in the comments to the productivity score-card. We also reminded facilitators to refer to the 'good life indicators' during the discussions.The story arc of the vignettes was different for Ethiopia. Instead of offering three options of incremental improvement in production (i.e. 0 = current day, future 1 = a little bit more yield, future 2 = a lot more yield), both future 1 and 2 options produced the same amount of meat and milk, though both produce more than present day (except for specialised dairy). However, the difference is that the two use a different feed basket to achieve that increase in production (either using mainly more planted fodder grown on local cropland or using more purchased feed, such as hay and concentrates). This approach was chosen to encourage discussion about the different implications of the two alternatives for increasing yield.The land use change vignette was removed for Ethiopia. From the landuse map and from the reconnaissance tour it seemed that every piece of land that can be cropped is already used, so there would be no possibility for a landuse change for more cropland -and equally no landuse change away from cropping; in the workshop training, the facilitators supported this decision.Following observations by one of the facilitators, a livestock feed expert, the live weights of certain categories were increased as he considered that we had artificially reduced them too far to account for the feed gap -the difference between the ideal amount of food required and how much they actually receive in drought-prone areas. Current dual purpose fattening and rearing (DF0) was changed to 150 kg from 140 kg; current specialised dairy (SD0) was increased to 210 kg from 190 kg; and level 1 specialised dairy (SD1) was increased to 250 kg from 200 kg. Also, he pointed out that the cross-breeds are already well-managed, and there is not really scope in Atsbi to consider two levels of improvement in the future, so the vignette representing a very commercialised specialised dairy (SD2) was removed.A delegation of 7 members of the SAIRLA Ethiopian National Learning Alliance (NLA) joined the workshop from Addis. To maintain continuity of having homogenous stakeholder groups in the first part of the workshop, a fifth stakeholder group was formed for the NLA representing national level stakeholders. We did not have extra facilitators, so the international research team provided facilitation when possible. For the second part of the workshop, the NLA mixed with the other stakeholders in the mixed groups, to represent the national voice.The second part of the workshop had three mixed group as opposed to two -a women's group was added.After Workshop 1 in Atsbi, the facilitators suggested that women might be feel more comfortable contributing freely in a women's only group, and the research team had a similar reflection after workshop 2 in Tanzania. As there were a sufficient number of women in Workshop 2 in Atsbi and enough to represent almost all groups (except the researchers/experts group), and a woman facilitator who was willing to lead a mixed group discussion, the research team decided to make a mixed women's group with all the women participants (9). The men were then allocated to two groups by giving each person number 1 or 2 when sitting in their groups for the plenary.The following sections detail the target and associated indicators decided by each stakeholder group. Any additional discussion in reaching the final decision is also reported, together with any facilitator reflections. Note that these results constitute the \"co-defined indicators\" anticipated in the project proposal.Prioritisation of these indicators is provided by the ranking, with indicator 1 being the highest priority.In the last workshop, different groups came up with long list of economic indicators. From the long list five indicators were put in their order of importance by the participants. In this workshop (day 1), producers were expected to list three prior economic indicators and then describe, identify steps needed and establish level (low/medium/high). Farmers debated for long time to agree on the list and order of three indicators. Accordingly, the group came up with access to improved agricultural technologies as the first priority, access to health and access to education were also put as second and third priority indicators in their district. According to the producers, access to improved agricultural inputs, improved agronomic practices, improved post-harvest technologies, market linkages, well organized and functional cooperatives and credit access were important elements to be described in this indicator. Farmers want to have easy access to improved seed, organic and inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, improved farm implements (tractor), row planter, improved breed, improved churner, rationed feed and modern hive. Farmers had also interest to intensify their production through improved agronomic practices. As to the farmers' explanation, post-harvest technologies like thresher and silo were import to make easy and sustain their production. Well organized and functional market linkages were also necessary to sell agricultural products at a reasonable price. In order to have easy access to agricultural inputs and smooth supply of agricultural outputs, as to the group members, it is mandatory to have well organized cooperatives at tabia level. Credit access, which help to realize the above mentioned issues, should get due attention mainly from the government side. According to the producers, the above mentioned elements of improved agricultural technologies should be seen in terms of coverage and quality.Enabling environment/ Steps needed:In order to realize the above description, enabling environment should be there. According to the farmers explanation, awareness has to be created on the importance, how to access and manage improved agricultural technologies. Proper demonstration was also important to see success in the economic indicator.Strengthen existing and establishing new cooperatives for agricultural inputs and products should get attention so as to have enabling environment. Farmers also found that credit access to the diversified subsectors of agriculture was crucial. In a nut shell, well organized and functional input and output supply and credit institution should be there. It was also important, according to the farmers, to introduce farm recording so as to lead their life on plan basis.After describing and putting enabling environment, farmers established existing and expected level i.e., low, medium and high in percentage. The existing (low level) for access to improved agricultural inputs, improved agronomic practices, improved post-harvest technologies, access to market and credit is about 50% of households. In medium and high level, according to the farmers, about 70% and 85% of households will have access to the above mentioned agricultural technologies, respectively. Producers gave attention specifically to supply of tractors. There are two tractors at this time (low level) in the district. They want to see ten tractors in the district after five years (medium level) and sixteen tractors after ten years (high level), when every rural tabia should own one tractor. Percentage of households employing good personal hygiene and environmental sanitation practices.Medium: 50-75%According to the group members, coverage and quality were discussed to describe health improvement. Access to health centre, medium and comprehensive hospitals were important for the community. Farmers expected health centres, medium and comprehensive hospitals to be fulfilled with the required manpower and facilities.Livestock should have also access to animal health clinics in time and in the required quality. Likewise, animal health clinics should be fulfilled with the required manpower and facilities. Farmers also mentioned that personal hygiene and environmental sanitation are important in this indicator.Enabling environments/ Steps needed:Enabling environments to realize the descriptions in the health improvement indicator, according the farmers, were establishing standardized health institutions, human capacity building in the required level, increase participation of community, local, regional and federal government and non-government organization.Group members put number of health centre, medium and comprehensive hospital and personal hygiene and environmental coverage to the different levels. At this time there are 4 health centres in the district which they put as low level. They want to have 10 health centres and 10 animal clinics in the medium level. Farmers expect 16 health centres and 16 animal clinics in the high level (i.e. one per rural tabia). With respect to medium hospital, they have one medium hospital in the district and farmers expected three and four medium hospitals in medium and high level. Besides, producers expected one comprehensive hospital at district level which is to be based at Atsbi town. As to the farmers' explanation, personal hygiene and environmental sanitation is at 50% of households at this time which is low level. They want to see 75% and 95% of households' personal hygiene and environmental sanitation in the medium and high levels, respectively.Observations and reflections: Group members debated for a long time to prioritize the economic indicators. Part of the group members said access to health has to come before education and the remaining others said vice versa. Those who went for health said that if children are not healthy, they could not go to school. Those who put access to education as priority reasoned out that if educated personnel are not there, it will be difficult to look in to heath care. After debating with different justification, majority agreed to bring access to health ahead of access to education.There was also debate on percentage of establishing levels. Some members put the levels at 20%, 60% and 80% to low, medium and high, respectively. Few members put 50%, 80% and 95% and the remaining members put 50%, 70% and 85% in their order to low, medium and high levels.Farmers from the beginning agreed access to improved technologies as the first priority economic indicator. After debating, they agreed finally to put access to health and access to education as second and third priorities. In establishing the levels, they finally came to agreement with 50%, 70% and 85% to low, medium and high, respectively.In order to come up with final output, producers debate by raising cases in their locality. They talked turn by turn and try to convince each other. They listen to each other patiently and reached consensus on the final output.There was no debate in putting the levels in the indicator of access to improved health. A member of the group put starting points for the levels and all agreed on them. The discussion was held with active participation of the members. Each member was interested in sharing ideas. They were also active in listening. When one member started to talk, all other members listened attentively. The other good thing was that after debating they reached consensus.There were group thinking for the first indicator, access to improved agricultural technologies, where each member has raised issues and came to majority consensus. In the second indicator, access to improved health, individual opinions lead to group agreement. This might be due to shortage of time when we were in hurry to finish the session. The third indicator, access to education, was not discussed due shortage of time.In the first workshop held in October 2017, the traders selected 11 different economic indicators they thought were among the most important for their livelihoods. In this discussion, the traders were asked to cascade down and prioritize the 11 indicators into 3 most important indicators. Out of the 11 indicators identified in the first workshop, 8 of them were identified among the 3 most important indicators (Table 27). This shows that there were differences in priorities (preferences) in the socio-economic indicators of the different traders. Among the 8 indicators prioritized by the traders in this workshop however, there was a high degree of agreement on the special importance of availability of quality education nearby, modern agricultural systems, and improved infrastructure. The group discussion went well. Everyone in the group was invited to voice their preferences and concerns.Most had a say on what the most important indicators for them are. But, of the three women in the traders group, two did not bring themselves to speak about what the most important indicators for them were (the facilitators encourage them and pushed them to some extent but it did not work out). The discussion was started where everyone who wanted to speak expressed their view. Once group members spoke, they were invited what changes they would make on the most important indicators other members proposed.Interactive discussion was made. Once enough discussion was made, group members were asked to compromise and finally select three indicators they most agree with one another.There were no unique or unexpected debates. But, at the beginning it could be seen that different traders had different priorities. What was the first most important to the only female trader who spoke, which was good living houses (homes) was not mentioned by any other trader. Men did not think having a good life had something to do with living in good houses (at least in the top 3). Otherwise, the feedback culture was very good and group members were listening and learning from one another. They were openly and cordially arguing one economic indicator was more important than another indicator not just for themselves or traders but for the Atsbi community in general.Choosing the top three indicators One participant (the disabled woman) was not clear about the indicators since it is the first time for the participant to be in the workshop. A few participants also suggested accepting all the 5 indicators as they had already been selected in the previous workshop.After a thorough discussion, the participants reach an agreement, the 3 indicators were assumed to be highly achieved after 10 years, except 2 women participants with reservations (though not giving much explanation).The participants reach an agreement by voting to the best 3 indicators as follows: Full access to education: 7 votes = 7/7 = 100%  Health insurance: 2 votes = 2/7 = 28.5%  Using improved agricultural technologies: 6 votes = 6/7 = 85.7%  Joint decision making: 3 votes = 3/7 = 42.8%  Saving 800,000 ETB: 2 votes = 2/7 = 28.5% * Progress towards achieving success appears to have been recorded as to which extent the people in the group think that the indicator will be achieved in the future, in this case everyone thought that the district will fully achieve full access to education, so all 7 are in 'High'Enabling environment/ Steps required:1. In measuring improved agricultural technologies, one of the measurement was 3 tractors at tabia level, audience asked -Isn't this number high or over ambitious and will be difficult to achieve?Answer: since tractors are already available in the Woreda even though few, it is not beyond the capacity of the woreda to make it and there is high demand to modern tractors.2. The group also take one of the measurement of improved agricultural technologies is modern hives for honey bees and poultry. However, the project is over, so how do you think is this will happen?Choosing three indicatorsThe five economic indicators prioritized during the first workshop (last year) were enlisted herewith.1. Availability of livestock and livestock products in quantity and quality 2. Attitudinal change 3. Access to services improved 4. Agronomic processing plants improved 5. Social and economic infrastructures developed Then, the expert team members continued choosing three major indicators out of the above five choices.1. Availability of livestock and livestock products in quantity and quality improved was ranked 1 st with six votes 2. Access to services improved ranked 2 nd with four votes 3. Agro-processing plants introduced ranked 3 rd with three votes, and 4. Attitudinal change improved ranked 3 rd with three votes Though there were no differences in accepting the first and second economic indicators as they were, there was an equal chance in selecting the third indicator from the two as they got the same votes -three for each. Then to resolve this we asked Catherine to give us her advice and her advice was to take the two top indicators and describe them further while leaving the two with same vote, and see if there was time for the others. Thus, detailed descriptions for the top two are presented below. Points of difference  In the initial discussion, one participant proposed that the indicator \"Agro-processing plants introduced\" shouldn't have been considered as an indicator. Rather, it had to be part of another indicator \"Access to services improved.\"  There were certain differences on how to set evaluations within each indicator. For instance, an indicator may comprise several activities which require measurement each. According to participants, multiple activities representing a single indicator should have separate scores.  The story success of Mr. Angesom does not reflect the real situation in Atsbi. Agreements were created on the bases of discussions among the participants. The experts distinctively defined the two indicators and concluded that the indicators cannot be overlapped.  After making thorough discussion, participants agree that multiple activities that make up a single indicator can be evaluated separately first. Then, weighted mean can be calculated to represent a grand indicator.  With respect to the success story, the experts eventually agreed that the story was an imaginary representation for improved future in Atsbi after ten years.Changes in perspective? What prompted it? Acquired knowledge on how to develop indicators that represent improved ways of livestock management.  Pressing factors that lead to improve the wellbeing of livestock producers prompted the experts to look for feasible solutions by setting pertinent indicators. Participants appreciated the successful story about Mr Angesom who represents a capable expert in Atsbi, mainly of his successful achievements in his future destiny using the livestock resources.The experts/researchers group put forward one major argument about the combined socio-economic indicators presented. Their main objection was that the indicators should have been focused on livestock related indicators, instead of the broader indicators of wellbeing that we intended to elicit. As far as they could see, issues related to livestock productivity, access to agricultural inputs and outputs, market access, animal feed, environmental sustainability and improved ways of farm intensification were missed 27 . Given that the prime objective of this project is to create some sort of life improvement among livestock herders, they felt that the indicators needed to be in line with the interests of the community involved in the livestock sector. Discussants believed that socio-economic indicators pertaining to livestock improvements would bring about real changes in the life of livestock producers. They identified a trade-off between education and livestock productivity, arguing that for the poor, education might result in returns after long term efforts, which did not conform to the existing demands of family members in each farmer. The immediate demand in this time is fulfilling livestock improvement and income of farmers and this can lead them towards long term growth. Therefore, all members of the experts/researchers agreed that the indicators should also reflect this by focusing on interventions that bring about improved livestock productivity. As the research team only learnt about this afterwards (the discussion was all in Tigrigna), we did not have the opportunity to give our response to this different perspective on the indicators. Our intention was specifically to capture broader indicators of well-being (if they were relevant), acknowledging that livestock is not the only activity in the lives of the people of Atsbi, particularly those who are not livestock producers themselves. We intended to find indicators that could be relevant to all members of Atsbi, to some extent.The NLA team was new to the whole process, so one of the project team sat with the group to begin with. The session started with an overall discussion about livestock, that livestock is at the same time the biggest environmental threat and the biggest economic opportunity for smallholders in view of the growing demand for animal sourced food driven by both population growth and increased wealth. But we cannot have it all, there might be some synergies that are critical to implement but also trade-offs. Policy-makers will need to make tough choices regarding these trade-offs. If no decisions are made, then it is likely to have sub-optimal development and everyone will lose.Making these choices is difficult and therefore there is a need to understand these trade-offs and who will be a winner and who will be a loser in order to develop inclusive, sustainable and locally relevant livestock development plans. This project aims at creating a learning space in which all voices can be heard in combination with a simulation tool that computes credible environmental impact measure. The objective is to understand these trade-offs and develop a shared vision around an inclusive and sustainable livestock future.After a review of the first workshop, the shortest success story was picked, namely the one of the local government group. We read the story aloud, and then there was a moment of confusion about whether this was a real story of success or a fiction. We then worked on the already existing list of indicators (we did not re-extract them from the story) and started discussing ranking them. The initial discussion turned around whether to use output or outcomes as an indicators. In the initial discussion education, agricultural technologies and health ranked high. It was first agreed that joint decision making would be an output and not an outcome and therefore should be discarded after quite some discussions in Amharic and a long speech by the only woman in the group, joint decision making ranked first. When I asked why, I only got the answer that all participants now agree that this is a good measure to measure change.The 3 retained indicators in order of importance were joint decision-making, agricultural technologies and education. To improve joint decision-making the following is needed: empowering women to increase gender equity  empowering women and victims through income (I guess increasing women's decision making about money or by giving her more rights or actually cash transfers) and education  awareness creation about the importance of division of labour (I guess this means that some tasks that are generally done by women are now performed by both)  policy on gender mainstreaming and implementing it!  engagement of women in development and government  introduction of gender sensitive technologiesThe use of improved practices such as machineries, crop variety, animal breeds, improved farming practice and knowledge, as well as the use of appropriate pesticide, feeding and management system.Medium:High: >50%The steps needed are: Access to improved agricultural technologies  Training and experience sharing  Awareness creation for improved agricultural practicesFormal education for children at least to BSc level, informal training and skill for the use of modern technology and live skill training for the household.Medium:High: >95%To reach this the followings steps are needed: School access (formal and informal)  Saving and income  Appropriate policy environment There were stars in front of these number, as far as I could understand, these were to say that this apply to all form of education and should be interpreted as a weighted average.A personal note on this: enrolment in primary school in Ethiopia is one of the highest in Africa, hence explaining these very ambitious numbers.Following the introduction to the game in plenary, the producers group continued discussion to build a livestock scenario in order to achieve the common indicators identified in the plenary session (Table 28). Game board, vignette cards, bricks, flip chart and pens were the materials which were important and availed to play the game. Before starting game the farmers were made clear about each category, options and feeding system. ii) Reasons for the different scenarios Scenario 1: that was suggested by one farmer who was interested in transferring 500 cows to SD1 and sell the remaining 11,000. As to his explanation, these local dairy cow breeds were not productive and should be reduced to 10, 000. Capability is to be developed, as to his expectation, to feed more concentrated feed. For the dual purpose fattening and rearing (DF), the farmer was interested to keep most of the animals. He intended to feed properly with more concentrated feed and work on fattening. The farmer was highly interested to reduce the draught animals (DA) to few numbers and feed planted fodder by allocating own farm land. He hoped that tractors will be introduced and tremendously minimize ploughing by oxen.However, few (about 3000) should be kept to plough inconvenient farm lands by tractor. He has also intended to increase specialized dairy because they are productive in milk production and high return will be gained out of it. More of planted fodder will be supplied to the dairy cows by trading off farm land for cereal crops. The farmer wanted to reduce sheep by half and interested to feed mainly planted fodder. He justified that it will not be important to feed sheep as such because he was more interested on cattle.Scenario 2: A female farmer wanted to reduce dual purpose dairy tremendously to 5000. She transferred 10,000 cows to SD1 whereby milk production was important for her and feed them more concentrated feed. She kept 5000 for indigenous breed maintenance. With respect to DF and DA, she had the same explanation as scenario 1. Number of specialized dairy cows should highly increase, as to her interest, to increase milk productivity. On contrary to scenario 1, she did not reduce number of sheep as she was interested on sheep fattening. Feed should be more of concentrated type. She explained that sheep can be managed easily and many small holder farmers could earn income out of it.Scenario 3: Farmer who chose this scenario was more or less similar to scenario 2 except for less number of sheep.Group scenario: After debating for a reasonable period of time, all group members agreed to fix scenario 2 and the justification put there took as their justification.Observations and reflections: almost all group members chose similar vignettes except one member who chose SH1 instead of SH2. Producers (not all, few had same choices) had different choices on number of animals. Differences had been observed in DD, DF and SD and SH. Group members agreed immediately on vignettes and number of DA. Changes had been observed through the discussion especially on the number of animals. Justification from the female farmer in scenario 2 had convinced them and all agreed on her scenario. In all cases, except in SD, farmers wanted to reduce large number of animals. According to the producers, they were interested to introduce improved way feeding i.e., planted fodder and more concentrated feed which they felt will be expensive. Hence, they wanted to have manageable number of animals.With respect to reflection, each member was allowed to put his/her scenario and some merged with the already mentioned scenarios. Hence, individuals suggested scenarios, each was discussed in detail, and finally one group scenario was reached. For the facilitators, the interesting part of the game was the reasonable justification and active participation of female farmers.Evaluation of the scenario:After agreeing on the vignettes and number of animals, the scenario was run in the CLEANED-R model. Results of the chosen group scenario were presented to the group as a bar chart (Figure 17 and Figure 18), and here in numeric form (Table 29 and Table 30) showing the change in productivity and environmental indicators compared to the base run. Milk produced (litres) +39 U Farmers wanted more milk production to earn more income. Meat production from cattle was also reduced below their expectation and wanted to deal more on fattening.As they were interested in more milk and meat production, change for concentrate feed should be higher than +202 kg.    * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 20 ha for example translates to around 10,000% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the y-axis are presented using a log scale Farmers were happy to the less reduction in cereal production. According to their explanation, they didn't want to see much reduction in crop production. They showed their concern to the environment by appreciating the less change in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from total and per sheep CO2eq (kg). Farmers didn't like the reduction of milk and meat production. They wanted to have more milk and meat production in order to earn more income. They were not also happy with GHG increment per cow and raised their concern to the environmental pollution. The producers liked to change (increase) milk, meat and concentrate feed production in order to earn more income. They wanted to reduce, on the other hand, carbon emission per cattle so as to have environmental friendly production.Observations and reflections: the changes made as mentioned above were raised by one group member and all agreed on the changes he made.Once the group obtained a reasonable understanding the game and the choices and tradeoffs they had to make, two members of the group were randomly chosen, one after the other, and invited to play the game.The process of the game the randomly selected trader played together with the explanations (reasons) for the choices is described as follows in Table 31.The first player preferred to reduce the number of dairy cattle by 10,000 as their milk productivity is not big enough. Yet, increasing the share of concentrates by a large amount in the feed basket in addition to good management practice of the remaining dairy cattle can help contribute to good life after 10 years. Despite that he is working in fattening, he still wanted to reduce the number of dual purpose livestock for rearing and fattening by 9,000. The benefit (through milk and meat) from the remaining 10,000 cattle for rearing and fattening would be increased through improved commercial feed basket. He reasoned he was doing that because the benefit of investing more on the specialized cows, which increased to 10,500 (through better management and increased concentrates in the feed basket) was far larger than fattening activities as the much higher milk from the specialized cows is generally more profitable. The draught oxen had all to go because he believed that tractors can cover for the majority of the work oxen do. The second player preferred to reduce the number of dual purpose dairy cattle by 7,000 (to 15,000) but implement improved farm produced feed basket (plant fodder on own land). He reasoned that he wanted to increase the number of specialized dairy cows by downscaling the investment on other types of dairy cows for milk productivity reasons. In addition, fattening takes a long time and huge investment in terms of time, money and energy. As a result, I want to reduce the number of cattle for rearing and fattening to 9,000. More focus on commercial feed basket will be made to maximize milk and meat returns from these 9,000 cattle for rearing and fattening. The number of draught oxen was reduced to 5,000 which will be managed through improved feed basket through using more concentrates. The reduction in the number of draught oxen will be compensated by the potential to use tractors for land preparation. The more important investment would be rearing specialized dairy cows for maximum milk production. In this regard, the number of these cows was increased to 12,000, where with improved management practices and use of planted fodder and higher concentrates, benefits from milk can be maximized. Sheep represent among the livestock assets that many smallholder households in Atsbi depend for their livelihoods. Given this importance, smallholder benefits would increase by increasing the number of sheep population. Hence, the number of sheep was increased to 125,000. For these sheep, more focus would be given to producing improved farm produced feed basket but also some concentrates for maximum meat production.Following the games by the two traders, other traders were asked about their preferences and ways they might play differently. Some members suggested that dairy cows constitute among the most important livestock assets in Atsbi and care should be taken not to significantly reduce their population. One trader indicated that fattening is a very expensive business which takes longer time in mid-temperate areas like Atsbi. He suggested that it might be more economical to reduce the number of dual purpose dairy and fattening cattle and invest more on specialized cows managed with a combination of improved fodder plantation on own land and commercial feed basket. Another trader indicated fattening is a business venture that started recently and can still be profitable in which case it may not be a good idea to reduce the number of cattle reared for fattening. Another trader indicated that sheep openly graze but grazing land is declining. This may limit the sustainable management of sheep. As a result, it may be better to reduce the number of sheep and focus on other livestock such as specialized cows with improved commercial feed basket. Other traders were also asked to reflect their preferences for the proposed scenarios of livestock production systems. While most voiced their preferences, two women traders barely tried to do that. In the end, the trader group compromised on their preferences and reached an agreement on a final scenario (C) shown in Table 31.The scenario the trader group finally elected was subjected to the CLEANED-R model. From the model, impact on crop productivity, water, emission of GHGs and soil fertility were calculated. Results of the chosen group scenario were presented to the group as a bar chart (Figure 19 and Figure 20), and here in numeric form (Table 32 and Error! Reference source not found.) showing the change in productivity and environmental indicators compared to the base run.The result show an increment in milk production and meat (both cattle meat and sheep). In addition, the area of land allocated for fodder plantation increased significantly while the share in concentrates in the feed basket also increased. Total water use decreased although the group found it difficult to figure out where this water reduction came from. Otherwise, the group welcomed the reduction in water use.GHGs emission significantly increased overall. The highest contribution to the growth of emission of GHGs came from dairy cows. The unit contribution of specialized cows to emission of GHGs is significant since these were the only dairy cows whose number has increased. So, overall, despite crop produced reduced and GHGs emission increased, the trader group reckoned that the benefits outweigh the losses. Based on this, the group accepted the scenario and subsequent impact (changes). After a plenary introduction to the game, the participants returned to their five groups to design their own scenario. After discussing some alternatives, the scenario chosen by the group was as follows: This was agreed to be a good scenario and was chosen for the following reasons:DD2: all members agreed on this vignette and number of animals, as for Atsbi woreda, the group thinks it is better to be efficient and keep fewer cows and increase the milk production. This choice was also made to allow to increase the number of the SD (specialized dairy cows) and to decrease greenhouse gas emissions.This vignette was chosen to offer production efficiency, and an increase in market value from better quality and quantity of meat.DA1: It was agreed to improve draught animals to have strong power from draught (ox). A few were kept to use in difficult topographic areas where tractors cannot reach.This was chosen to get more milk productivity and increase income.This choice was made to decrease environmental impacts from greenhouse gas emissions. The initial proposal of 40,000 was challenged for being too low, yet the alternative suggestion of 70,000 was rejected for fear of increasing greenhouse gas emissions and land grazing too much. The compromise was to settle on 50,000.Group members also discussed how the money from specialized animal milk and others will be used for improved agricultural technologies and help to achieve access to education.An alternative scenario was also favoured, but agreed to be a secondary option, which has a different source of feed and different numbers of animals:  The number of sheep in the group scenario is very small though sheep are very important and can be more available in the market in Atsbi than other animals for use in the household, like meat, money from sale for health, education. They suggest increasing the numbers from 40,000 to 70,000 would be fair  Draught animals should be increased to be used in the slippery topography /land of Atsbi, as it is not possible to use tractors in all places  Decreasing the number of specialized animals so that the cost will be affordable in acquiring and in feeding themOnce the vignettes and number of animals had been agreed, the scenario was run through CLEANED-R.Results of the chosen group scenario were presented to the group as a bar chart (Figure 21 and Figure 22), and here in numeric form (Table 34 and Table 35) showing the change in productivity and environmental indicators compared to the base run.    * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 20 ha for example, translates to around 10,000% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the y-axis are presented using a log scale    * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 20 ha for example, translates to around 10,000% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the y-axis are presented using a log scaleThe group were happy with the milk produced from the specialized dairy and meat produced from the sheep. This was mainly due to the fact that this was in line with the first economic indicator, which is stated as \"availability of livestock products in quantity and quality improved\".However, the group were unhappy about the amount of manure produced and area required for planting fodder. This was mainly because: i) the reduction in manure amount demands extra chemical fertilizer to be purchased; and ii) the extra land required for fodder planting competes with staple crops production.There were not as such major points of difference among the members except some of them were in doubt about the accuracy and/or reliability of the software while others had no idea about it.To improve on this scenario, they suggested a new scenario: DD2 5,000 animals, DF2 5,000 animals, DA1 6,000 animals, SD1 13,000 animals, SH2 92,000 animals.Participants were viewing most discussions in the sense that the final findings of this project could be scaled up to other woredas having similar contexts to Atsbi.Participants were expressing their views with no hesitation; mainly, a continual efforts of stakeholders in looking for efficient scenario was highly interesting.As participants discussed the success story of Mr. Angesom, they felt that lessons could have been learned from failure stories as well, such as an expert who lacked knowledge and technical skills to assist famers, or an expert who couldn't provide any solution to farmers' request, or an expert who lacked diligence to bring desirable changes in rural farming. The group made a suggestion for the research team that in future, the model could include other missing components that have not been included at this time.The group started the game with a huge resistance, claiming that they cannot play this game because they do not know the area. So the facilitator started by giving a picture of Atsbi and this might have influenced their understanding and decisions.The main points raised to describe Atsbi (based on the reconnaissance tour and Workshop 1) were as follows: It is a water deficient area on a plateau and therefore is cool enough for dairy production  Though we have no evidence, it seems the area often gets food aid (for both humans and livestock)  The livestock master plan foresees that the area will focus on milk production to supply a dairy hub in Tigray, and the government is introducing cross breeds and pure breeds to the area. Those animal are quite well managed, partly because they are new.  However, farmers on the ground have their doubts. Dairy cows are expensive to acquire, it is difficult to keep them healthy and feed them correctly throughout the year. Therefore, many farmers may prefer keeping sheep.The scenario that the group agreed on was: DD1 8,000 DF1 6,000 DA1 5,000 SD1 5,000 SH1 95,000The major reasons for reducing dual purpose were: To reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emission  As land is getting scarce due to population growth, it will be difficult to maintain the existing stock  When dual purpose dairy are reduced then the management will be easier. Hence owners will shift their time, expertise and resources to other activities In the same line, the fattening animals were reduced. There was a discussion to choose between home grown and commercial feed basket. They decided that the fattening is not specialized and therefore buying feed will not be attractive.The draught animal were reduced by half for several reasons: To reduce greenhouse gases  That mechanization will make these animals redundant.  There will be a productivity gain resulting from mechanization.The team increased the specialized dairy to 5,000 animals. They think this is a credible number as these animals will produce good milk that can be sold in towns within 100 km, including Mekelle, Wukro and Adigrat. This is a profitable business.Because the area is convenient for sheep, the group decided to only reduce a little bit, also because now production per sheep is higher.Once the vignettes and number of animals had been agreed, the scenario was run through CLEANED-R.Results of the chosen group scenario were presented to the group as a bar chart (Figure 25 and Figure 26), and here in numeric form (Table 39 and Table 40) showing the change in productivity and environmental indicators compared to the base run.   * The values for planted fodder area are so high because the value of area of planted fodder calculated for the baseline by CLEANED-R is so small (0.2 ha), so an increase in area up to 20 ha for example, translates to around 10,000% change from 0. Note that, for ease of viewing, the values for the y-axis are presented using a log scale","tokenCount":"27572"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"08dc3d1f0f127ec5d71b373ed35c014e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50d36ed8-ac1a-48a9-bebb-ef2f15309559/retrieve","id":"907596085"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"074040fd-624f-4998-8ad1-710803a8a826","pagecount":"5","content":"World Bank agricultural investments for improved climate change resilience in the ag sector and reduced contributions to GHG emissions rise from 28% (2016) to 45% (2018) of committed budgets of new agriculture projects Short outcome/impact statement: Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at WBG headquarters. The role of the researcher has been to strengthen the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes as reported by high-level Bank officials to an independent consultant (see Ref 1). -(1) Teams in the Agriculture Global Practice which design agricultural projects and programs; (2) plus governments/local partners-incorporating activities addressing climate change challenges; (3) behavioral change in many WB (low-income) country clients/governments towards adoption of CSA approaches, policies, actions; (4) Directors and regional managers at WB incorporating climate smart approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of their corporate strategy and in international climate and food system negotiations.CCAFS knowledge and evidence has informed >$500 million of investments in agricultural development. Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at World Bank Group (WBG) headquarters, with the aim of strengthening the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes (see Ref 1):Changes in behavior leading to more evidence-based, forward-looking (to deal with a changing climate) and impactful investments. In FY2018 alone, technical advice and knowledge products from CGIAR centers and CCAFS shared with project design teams contributed to improvements in at least 65 large agricultural projects and programs in low-and middle-income countries supported by WB grants and loans. The key improvement has been the inclusion of CSA activities and actions, enhancing their outcomes related to reducing GHGs while enhancing poor rural livelihoods. In 2016, only 28% of agriculture projects included actions aimed at addressing climate change. In FY2018, on average across the entire portfolio of new agriculture projects (worth $4.1 billion), 45% of their budgets are dedicated to activities and actions that are contributing to making project recipients/countries more resilient to a changing climate, while contributing to GHG emissions reductions.Contributions to a paradigm shift in the behavior of WBG clients and local partners towards an understanding and adoption of CSA approaches. During planning, client/ stakeholders' engagement, and project design/ implementation CGIAR/CCAFS has been contributing knowledge, methodologies, technologies and policy analysis, data and know-how -in at least 20 low-income countries. Examples include:• Tools / methods co-developed by CCAFS and CIAT on CSA planning and implementation have helped contribute to mainstreaming of CSA across WBG agricultural operations in many countries. CSA 'country profiles' were developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers for over 20 countries.• CCAFS-affiliated scientists and the embedded researcher helped developed a methodology and provided technical advice to two pilot countries (Mali and Cote d' Ivoire) in the development of CSIPs (Climate Smart Investment Plans) that are now helping direct new investments in agricultural and food systems in additional countries.Managers are incorporating CSA approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of the corporate strategy they present, including in international climate and food system negotiations. High-level WBG staff noted CCAFS technical inputs were provided at a critical time for a joint CGIAR/World Bank submission to UNFCCC on agriculture-related issues and ongoing collaboration on COP24 negotiations (Ref 1).• https://tinyurl.com/y4t5cubu Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at WBG headquarters. The role of the researcher has been to strengthen the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes:Changes in behavior within the Agriculture Practice Group leading to more evidence-based, forward-looking (to deal with a changing climate) and impactful investments. In FY2018 alone, technical advice and knowledge products from CGIAR centers and CCAFS shared with project design teams contributed to improvements in at least 65 large agricultural projects and programs in low-and middle-income countries supported by WB grants and loans. The key improvement has been the inclusion of CSA activities and actions, enhancing their outcomes related to reducing GHGs while enhancing poor rural livelihoods. In 2016, only 28% of agriculture projects included actions aimed at addressing climate change. In FY2018, on average across the entire portfolio of new agriculture projects (worth $4.1 billion), 45% of their budgets are dedicated to activities and actions that are contributing to making project recipients/countries more resilient to a changing climate, while contributing to GHG emissions reductions.Contributions to a paradigm shift in the behavior of WBG clients and local partners towards an understanding and adoption of CSA approaches. During planning, client/ stakeholders' engagement, and project design/ implementation CGIAR/CCAFS has been contributing knowledge, methodologies, technologies and policy analysis, data and know-how -in at least 20 low-income countries. Specific examples include:• Tools and methodologies co-developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers on CSA planning and implementation have helped contribute to mainstreaming of CSA across WBG agricultural operations in many countries. CSA 'country profiles' were developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers for over 20 countries .• CCAFS-affiliated scientists and the embedded researcher helped developed a methodology and provided technical advice to two pilot countries (Mali and Cote d' Ivoire) in the development of CSIPs (Climate Smart Investment Plans) that are now being undertaken and are helping direct new investments in agricultural and food systems in additional countries.Globally, directors and regional managers at the World Bank are incorporating CSA approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of the corporate strategy that they present, including in international climate and food system negotiations.A consultant conducted interviews with WB staff to assess the outcomes of the researcher. Her report is available as additional evidence through the link below (Ref 1). ","tokenCount":"938"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f68db4ecef8c849ce05eb8448a054637","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f5682ad-8e20-417b-a695-e9fb98452ef8/retrieve","id":"992149866"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8f2df881-2ff8-4167-8413-3bbc4ead31f0","pagecount":"2","content":"Africa is rapidly urbanising. Fresh sweetpotato roots are already an important part of urban diets in many countries. Exciting new initiatives include the use of orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) puree in bread recipes by a major supermarket chain in Kenya. However, a year-round supply of fresh sweetpotato roots and sweetpotato products is required to meet these urban consumers' demands. Research indicates that storage of fresh OFSP roots to cover periods of low supply makes sense in certain settings.A major supermarket chain in Kenya has begun to include OFSP puree in its bakery products. Urban customers are enjoying the OFSP bread loaves and rolls, and want to be able to purchase them throughout the year. An OFSP processor, identified through a competitive process, has begun to produce OFSP puree in Homa Bay County and is supplying it to the supermarket's bakeries in Nairobi. To ensure this exciting OFSP business opportunity, the puree processor needs a constant supply of fresh OFSP roots. Even in areas without long dry spells, there are several months each year when fresh roots are in low supply, and therefore expensive. Sweetpotato roots begin to deteriorate after harvest, especially if they are damaged during the harvesting, handling or transport. But given the right conditions and where damage is avoided, fresh roots can be stored for up to 9 months. Fresh root storage could help ensure the constancy and quality of OFSP root supply to ventures such as puree production in Kenya. However, no commercial fresh sweetpotato root storage facilities currently exist in Africa outside of South Africa. In Mozambique, a group of farmers want to store OFSP roots to benefit from higher sales prices later in the season and to have better access to premium markets such as supermarket chains. A small-scale processor is interested in using OFSP roots in several products and wants to ensure his supply of raw materials throughout the year. A need for fresh root storage at household level has been identified in drought-prone northern Ghana to provide year round access to OFSP in order to combat vitamin A deficiency.To better understand whether fresh root storage might offer opportunities with the Kenyan OFSP supply chain a detailed study was undertaken involving 59 stakeholder and focus group interviews across eight focal counties in Kenya to understand existing sweetpotato value chains, their seasonality, farmers' production trends and constraints, traders' root sourcing and trading patterns, price dynamics, retailing behaviours, and consumers' preferences. It was found that large quantities of yellow-fleshed sweetpotato roots are traded from Kabondo and Migori to the large urban markets in Kisumu, Nakuru and Nairobi, with traders sequentially purchasing roots from different areas during the year in order to smooth the supply (Fig. 1). Price varies between the peak and low supply seasons by up to 70%, suggesting that storage has the potential to reduce cost to the consumer. The findings of this study were combined with different OFSP puree and fresh roots requirement scenarios to calculate the storage capacity needed for the processor to hold at least one month's stock of OFSP roots to control and smooth their supply chain, and reduce the impact of price rises during the low season. Based on this, a medium scale (10 -30 tonnes) fresh root storage facility has been constructed at the processor's site in Homa Bay (Fig 2). In addition, storage life trials have been designed to test practical postharvest handling methods to minimise damage during harvesting, handling and transport. These methods will inform a series of follow-up trials to identify optimum fresh sweetpotato root curing (healing of any wounds inflicted during harvest or transport) and storage conditions. In Manica and Maputo Provinces of Mozambique, a similar value chain study found a much smaller scale of sweetpotato trading to urban markets. In the absence of middlemen, farmers were selling roots directly to retailers or acting as retailers themselves (Fig. 3). The fresh root buying price varies between peak and low supply seasons by 30 to 130%. Two fresh root storage opportunities have potential: the first to support a group of commercial farmers in Namachaa district to provide a year-round supply of OFSP roots to urban consumers in Maputo city; the second to support a processor in Manica Province who is exploring the potential of OFSP-based products.Household level fresh root sand box storage is being explored in Northern Ghana. A layer of sand is placed between each layer of roots in a mud-walled box built inside the home.Where are we working? Storage of one month's supply of fresh OFSP roots can help the OFSP puree processor in Kenya smooth and secure a constant supply of raw materials. With a minimum root buying price increase of even 20% between peak and low supply season, it is cost-effective for the processor to invest in constructing a 20 -30 tonne fresh root storage facility.A 10 tonne capacity fresh root storage facility is being trialled at the OFSP puree processor's site in Homa Bay County, Kenya. Studies to extend the storage-life of fresh OFSP roots through improved postharvest handling, packaging and transport techniques, curing and storage regimes have also been initiated. In Mozambique, a small-medium scale store will be designed with the farmer group wishing to supply the Maputo market with OFSP roots throughout the year. In Ghana, the household level sand storage box technique for fresh root storage will be trialled for a further season. ","tokenCount":"895"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6589ecd0ec79688443d9b18941617ef2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/24517de5-19f0-4365-8179-2630109063bd/content","id":"987386883"},"keywords":["•","2. 7 ~:~!:::_•-~_:::_","___ ~:=~ ~: ::: ~-~~:~:: -~~ CRAMAN o 12°'4 91.3 2 90.7 s2.2 200\"2 107 ..!:! ---~ ~ ---~ ----~-2 8490 14.2 814 31.5 1 s 19.2 5.2 2.1 ___ __!~ 191 98.6 i~~--~-=~~~-99.i~\"Si_~ ~1--•£f-_ __2:1 4650 15.4 85.5 J0.7 12 15.9 4.9 3 ~ ::::~~-:-:--__ -~--f-~~-----~::::-%-: ::~ ~:: ::: ::: ~::: :: ::~ --2~f-:_54~.•. ~=,-.~.•.:~~~,' . • ::~ ~=:~ ::: : : : 2 ::~ .~r---_::: :!: :::: ::: :~.","~:: ::.: 4: •~::~-~~f-~=1~~ii~~~","~~~ --::--~!-----~~ -•--~~1 83~ ~*~~~--2.~ ::: o.~ : : ,",".: ~:: :::: ::","19~ :.~ 2 ::: :::! :•:::: _ 1 0 ~ o~ : •","~:: ___ ~","_~f--1--•_:oo~ ~~:•","-}~ ---","-. . ~r--eo~r-~4 •---~~-:: --~-~ ~~~--** -H-:•:--Ts~~ -~ ~~:-~ 1 ~ :•:~ --~","-:.~ --~:~:~-~i~ii-•--~~:~ 183 5.2 16 --,---s 14:s•-2-11•09 -----,-054 -o:s:4--•-m,f-•a:s","-s---:4-:J8--=t44 c•RAMAN 7 -~~~•goo~~-~~---•--~ -__ 91 2148 125 ~~-~~-s..~~-z,-•• •42 -5060-12\"5 ••-~ ~..!~~_!!_!_~I!:~ =_J.~ 135•. ___ _!-=-~ § --~ ~~~~ --wr-aa86 --~.Tm --~j~~ ii--~~ :","~ :~.: _!~~ 30 ~ -~11~ ~~-2 :--~i-::~----~ -+~ ~•: ----•~:: :.: :•: -~----%~~ -1*--_-___ --_ _ _ -: _ _ ~-. •-_ f -. , _ , _ 2 2 2 : , -12 F CRISCO 7 83 il.9 2.4 79.1 83.7 188.2 !M.3 6.2 2 51.2 18.2 4.5 -3.410 -1 7 o. 7 ar.,~,+v~ .• +-,~.2+--18~ .• +-4-cJ+--\"1,-,oc.+-~11+----.,,+--,~.,+.~ .. '+ 0.82 o.s 321.1 .o.53 0.911 -0.57 o 37.7"],"sieverID":"83ec225a-ce67-4b88-9f75-ed017e47fff9","pagecount":"151","content":"We have completed the first cycle of RRS in the tropical and subtropical yellow gene pools. The best S2 lines were increased for seed distribution. In pool 25 and 26, to determine combining ability of the S2 lines selected by RRS, 10 best S2 were chosen to make the testcrosses with two inbred lines and the opposite pool. A half of the highland gene pools were planted and advanced to S 1. Enhancement of donor germplasm sources and their testcross evaluations were performed for tropical and subtropical yellow flint and dent pools. Yellow flint and dent donor sources were developed for tropical gene pools: 17, 18, 25, and 26. Latin American germplasm regeneration project has continued, receiving the regenerated accessions from Mexico, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru. CIMMYT regeneration was focused on Chile, Argentine, and Brazilian accessions. Accessions evaluation was conducted with the accessions from Argentine. The regeneration and germplasm evaluation was slightly less than what was desired. Seed distribution was met as requested. The number of seed packets prepared for distribution was less as compared to those in the previous years. 1 Maize Germplasm Collection and Management 1. Evaluation of bank accessions for development of core subsets: Races of Argentine -a trial at TlaltizapanCateto and related germplasm were introduced from Argentine bank in 2001. They were partly regenerated at Tlaltizapan in 2001B. Including all accessions described as Cristalino Colorado and Cristalino Amarillo Anaranjado, the evaluation trial was set up in alpha lattice design of 16 x 16 with two replications and planted at TL02A. The two races belong to Southern Cateto group in which Cristalino Colorado is orange flint and Amarillo Anaranjado is yellow flint type. More accessions are found in the group of Cristalino Colorado, orange flint germplasm (Table 1). Yielding ability was low with a range of 4-6 tones per hector. Catato race is known by having a relatively low yield potential with orange and yellow flint grain types. Phenotypic diversity shown in the figure drawn by the canonical 1 and 2 indicated five non-overlapping groups with racial differentiations. Cluster 5 and 6 (b and f in the table) had yellow flint race of Cristalino Amarillo Anarando (Fig 1 ). Other clusters included mostly Cristalino Colorado.Amarillo Anaranjado, drawn from the data taken TL 02A.5 r--------------------------------------------------------------------1     ,. f•-t--------f---------• --------t ----~-~r-----• • -~----+--+----1---t---i ---• -• ---f--------------------+----+--+---l    -•---------------------------------• ----I --• -• -----~ ----------------~ \" ------------+--+---+----+-- ---------1----1---+------11--+----4--  -------------•• .--~-•---1--------•------------------------• ~-----,----------------------------  1-------------~------------I------~---e------• ------------• • -------------• -------1------•--I------'-----•------I -----1--••------------c-------   ----•---~~----------------• ------------------'------------------1--------t---••---e-------     -----• ----------1-----------t ----r --------------------------• ----------•-----i-------------- ---+ ------f ------------------•----------~--------------•-- -------------------• ----------• ---------• --------------------------------t ---------------- ------l--------------------------------------------------------• ----  -------- --------1---------------• ---------------------------•---------------------------------~-r----•----------------------------------      • --------------------------    F--------CRiSAMl-------0-0eNAMA -59 96.1 2.5--751 -755 •166 -ru -s~--2 479 1s-e--•••1ie-,-,'°-92-825 •m --1:1~--,--ss-51-u -36 ITT J 111oas----•0153--,-.. ---353--0723 --F--_________ ,CRISCO ------e----~-aer--97.5 \"2.6 ---79.5 834 1803 92.1 \"-e1 •~ -5sJ -ai--\"62 4520 --5--,-835292 •uru• 4:7 -27 32 13.4 --3 1o4 o:sa ---067 -••051 -745.9 ---0571 --ijJel--D.357-• r----o -!--------            -------1-----•---• -------------1 -------------------~-----1 --------------•• -------1---~>-~ --------.~--------------------------------t-------t-----   ••-------------1 ----------------• --------_ _ .____I------'---------•----------f -1 -• • -• • • -------1----1------   ----------------t ----r -------------• • -------1----i-----------i -----------.1 --------1 ----  ----~-r-----t------1-------------I ----------1 ----f ------!-------------i--------  -• -------------------~-!---•--------------   -------------•>---•----------•---------- c~--.T~-~t--------f----r----r ---------t------•--------1----------f-----------.~----------------------r ---------------                                  ;--243---25714ARQ---ARZM\"17031 ,---      •l---153.1    1998). The number of collection will increase with more introductions in near future to fill a gap in the collection.NAS-NRC collection has been widely distributed and used in many parts of maize production areas in the world. It is with this germplasm that CIMMYT has developed enhanced maize germplasm pools, populations, and inbred lines. However, systematic charaterization and evaluation of the field performance on the collection has not been documented as collection management tool. The current information compiled by the authors intends to provide the germplasm users with agro-morphological data and phenotypic diversity among maize races that were grown in CIMMYT experiment stations.CD-ROM (Taba et al., 2003) presents field evaluation trails data of Mexican Dent, Caribbean flint and dent, Cateto and related races, and Brazilian dent and flint races. It does not include Andean races and Central American highland races. In order to complete performance data of Andean races and Central American highland races, and others that are adapted to in-situ on-farm conditions in Latin America and else where, in-situ on-farm evaluation should be planned and conducted to obtain their performance evaluation in collaboration with our cooperators.Using agro-morphological data of accessions that were evaluated in the trail(s), we grouped them by multivariate analysis for classification and ordination. Core subsets (20%) that best represents each of the homogeneous groups (clusters) are chosen by selection index ba,sed on agronomic performance rating, yield, grain moisture and ear quality. Core subsets should facilitate collection management and use (Brown 1989(Brown , 1995;;Brown and Spillane 1999). Preliminary core• subsets based on phenotypic diversity of agro-morphological traits can be used as a management tool to choose best option to meet seed requests and to enhance breeding populations with the germplasm collection available to maize breeders and research scientists through prebreeding.Primary and secondary race classifications of the Bank passport data were used setting up trial entries that belong to a maize race under evaluation. Originally, maize race names were described in race bulletins of NAS-NRC (Goodman and Brown 1988). Most often, however, landrace collections were not typical to the described maize races. Race classification of an accession has been recorded by recognizing primary and secondary races that could have formed it. As reference to the accessions described in the maize race bulletins of NAS-NRC, we have recorded them with purity level \"9\" together with the name of the race in the passport data. The accessions of similar geographic origins or adaptation also were evaluated in a trail. Intra-racial or intra-regional diversity is found in the trials.Agro-morphological traits that were studied are days to anthesis (AN), days to silking (SI), plant height in cm (PH), ear height in cm (EH), seed moisture% (MO) at harvest, tillers per plant (TI), ear length in cm (EL), ear diameter in cm (ED), kernel length in cm (KL), kernel width in cm (EW), kernel row number (KRN), shelling % (SH), ears per plant (EP), leaf senescence (LS): number of days from silking to ear leaf senescence. Yield (Y), root lodging (RG) and shoot lodging (SG) or standability, and ear rot % (ER) were not included in the multivariate cluster analysis. Instead, they were used for constructing selection index to choose the best accessions of having good agronomic performance within the cluster. Seed moisture % was used for both cluster analysis and selection index.The multivariate cluster analysis was applied on data of the individual and /or combined trials. The entries were tabulated within clusters formed by the multivariate cluster analysis. In the analysis employed in this study, the Ward method was used for obtaining the initial groups and the likelihood-based approach of Normix was utilized for improving those groups (Franco et al. 1997). The analysis was performed using the software CLUSTAN (Wishart 1987). Canonical discriminant analysis was then performed on the groups formed by the Ward-Normix method using SAS (SAS Institute Inc 1996) to display the variability between subgroups explained by the canonical variables. Mahalanobis distance, in some cases, was calculated to determine average distances among cluster centroids (Mahalanobis 1930). Presence of intra-racial diversity can be indicated between and among the clusters formed by the multivariate cluster analysis (Franco et al.1997;Taha et al. 1994Taha et al. , 1998a;;Crossa et al.1995).Preliminary core subsets (best 20% of the accessions from each of the non-overlapping clusters that are formed by the multivariate cluster analysis) are chosen by higher scores of selection index values and agronomic performance ratings, and by specific variations observed in the accession. G x E interactions have not adequately taken into account for choosing core subsets.We have chosen preliminary core subset (20%) to indicate probable useful variations present in the germplasm collections. The trials were evaluated in a few environments (mostly CIMMYT experiment stations) with two replications. Some trials were conducted in many environments and core subset was chosen using the data from the combined analysis. Preliminary core subsets include a wider spectrum of diversity within a race or race complex. We have 7762 unique accessions evaluated in varying numbers of trials in this report.Preliminary core subsets should be useful to breeders and research scientists for screening useful genetic diversity in a cost effective manner. They are particularly helpful when no information is available for probable sources of the traits of interest-for instance a source of resistance to a new pathogen strain or a new pest biotype.Race names used in accessions evaluation include local names or common names, apart from maize races described in the race bulletins (publications on races of maize in Mexico, Central America and the Caribbeans, and South America: Wellhausen et al. 1952Wellhausen et al. , 1957;;Brieger et al. 1958;Brown 1953;Grobman et al. 1961;Grant et al. 1963;Hatheway 1957;Roberts et al. 1957;Timothy et al. 1961;NAS-NRC 1954, 1955)     Dentado and semi':<lentado amiiiiTi07iJianc . . o . . ----  :                                                                                                                                            ____ . ft}~ON--• _j.:i.:_~~n or Tuzon---. . ======~~:~:~~=~- .QUICHL , Quicheiio late , PURITO ! Purito QUICHR -TQuchefio rojo --•-------•Tuci-:IuQD----ruchuquilla-------      --;-,,,.---=,--,----,.~---,,.----,-,,..---1 : Sao Paulo white dent /dente SPWHDTi Tablilla de ocho TAB LIL \\ Tablilla TABLON ---i Tab'\"\"'l-on-c\"\"\"i,..,llo--------t.TABPER TAMA UL TAMBOP -TAMPIQ --TEHUA i Tabloncillo perlaResults of a field evaluation trial and part of passport data on grain type and color of the accessions (entries) are shown in an excel file with the field book number. The list of the evaluation trials shows the field book numbers, trial environments, and specific germplasm complex or maize races. The users can locate the summary of the results of a trial by entering desired field book number and/or title of the trial. Summary data of the evaluation trials include the adjusted means of agronomic traits in the trial. Each trial was arranged in alpha-lattice design of two replications with two rows per plot having 32 plant hills in Sm long rows. We made a combined analysis of several trials to designate preliminary core subsets of Caribbean maize accessions (Taba et al. 1998) Original landrace accessions often have a mix of grain types and colors. In our passport database, information of grain types and colors are coded for each accession with up to three codes in a series with first code for more frequent occurrence. In summary tables of the evaluation trials, the same codes are used for describing grain color and texture of the accession at harvest. In some cases, there are differences in descriptors shown in passport data and the evaluation data due to xenia effect on grain color. Codes for grain types and colors are listed below. Other pas~port information such as collection site and collection altitude is also shown in excel file.List of the trials to evaluate phenotypic diversity among the landrace accessions.Evaluation trials consisted of Mexican races, Central America and Caribbean races, and part of races of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay. Highland races included only those of Mexico. Entries of the trials were searched in primary and secondary race name in the passport data of CIMMYT maize bank database (MZBANK). They were evaluated in a set of trials when the number of the accessions was so large to include them in one trial. Each trial has unique field book number(s). Field book number, title of the trial, and trial site are used to access the evaluation data in excel files.  'Location: El Batan, Mex.Plot I Id. Num.Approved == 28 Repeat== 0   App~~:Y_eE ___ ._, __ ?._Q __ J __ . . .     __ J 4~ _ _1__~-~~~~3~::~:-~1==~~~---~ 49 =r--~M __!_ 3 l:l._2 ___ j ___ :~PPiov.~~:::=.150 i 25640  ._j___~proved    Location: Tlaltizapan, Mor.Repeat= 15Plot I Id. Num. I Acc. Num. .  i 449781 !Amarelo (Nodzob udze)   Plot Id. Num.      . . -----------------~ . . •---~eat ____ .Plot Id. Num.25761 25762 In April 7-10, 2003, we had a PI (principal investigators) workshop at CIMMYT, including several other gerrnplasm investigators in Latin America. Several recommendations were made from the workshop: 1) make a list of accessions for regeneration for the next three years, 2) make and update passport database of the national accessions, 3) cost of regeneration should be adjusted from the current rate, 4) conduct evaluation of the accessions of the maize races that are adapted in specific onfarm in-situ conditions and take evaluation data for development of racial core subsets, 5) conduct evaluation of grain quality traits: protein, oil, and starch and exchange the data among the principal investigators, 6) prebreeding will be done to enhance and broaden the genetic base of the local race to meet requirement of the farmers, 7) continue capacity building for maize gerrnlasm conservation and use, 8) renew the current contract and the MOU for the regeneration project in pursuant to the international treaty for plant genetic resources, 9) to compile existing evaluation data on the accessions under preservation at CIMMYT, 10) to continue core subsets development of the racial collections, 11) to help farmer breeders with prebreeding of the local races with more funding available to the Pis. CIMMYT has made new contract and the MOU signed for the regeneration project with Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Guatemala after the workshop. The new contract will last for the three years. We are expected to receive the contracts signed with the rest of the countries in Latin America under collaboration. (The CD will be sent to NCGRP separately).Expected accomplishments or plan in the next few years.Table 2 and 3 show current status of the accessions ofNCGRP for regeneration. Table 2 indicates the numbers of the NCGRP accessions received at CIMMYT for regeneration and those that have been regenerated in 2001-through the cycle A 2003.Table 3 indicates the numbers of the accessions that are to be received at CIMMYT for regeneration in 2003-2005 to complete the regeneration of old NCGRP seed accessions.Table 4 summarizes the estimates on the numbers of the accessions for regeneration in the cooperator countries in the next three years.In case of Chile, NC7 has increased most of the PI assigned accessions of Chile that.were collected by an IBPGR-funded mission. NCGRP and CIMMYT do not have the duplicates. We either request NC7 for the seed samples or Chile gene bank for us to regenerate them with the original seeds.Argentine, Bolivia, Colombia and Peru are at slower regeneration rate than that could be desired. However, a continued support would be necessary.African maize germplasm that is held at ITTA should be incorporated in CIMMYT collection. They are about 700 accessions. This proposal is included in the CG genebank-upgrading plan.Nicaragua teosintes will be replanted this year again since the original seed samples were so small that we did not produce enough seeds last year.In Colombia, CORPOICA needs to arrange the regeneration project approved in the context of Andean pact. We will try to help CORPOICA to make a possible agreement on the maize germplasm project with the authorized Ministry.Core subset development will continue, using the accessions evaluation at CIMMYT and the evaluation data obtained from the cooperators. CIMMYT has made the mutual agreements with Guatemala and Bolivia to evaluate some of the landrace accessions at in situ. We would like to make the similar agreements with some other cooperators when the fund becomes available.2.9 Jose Crossa and Jorge Franco will study a method to choose core subsets from the cluster analysis in their next research agenda.2.10 SDA-NCGRP and NC-7 can share the evaluation data of the accessions compiled in the CD-ROM: The CIMMYT maize collections: Preliminary evaluation of accessions.We would update the information in 2005.On Patent and property rightThe current research and collaborative activities did not involve any patent claim nor intellectual property by the collaborating parties.    2002). These pools were self-pollinated and ears were selected at harvest on plant and ear height and ear characteristics.CIMMYT gene pools are divided into two heterotic groups (flint and dent) and are classified by adaptation (highland, subtropical, tropical), maturity (early, intermediate and late), and grain color (white and yellow). Half-sib reciprocal recurrent selection is used for improvement of the pools, with half-sib families and S 1 and S 2 lines formed for within and between family selections. To enhance combining ability of the partner pools, reciprocal recurrent selection is employed in inter-population improvement, using either inbred testers or the opposite heterotic pool. Also, the intra-population population improvement scheme of modified ear-to-row halfsib selection is used to improve ear and plant traits conditioned by additive gene effects. The goals of improving the gene pools include superior yield performance, good agronomic traits, and broad based germplasm with useful genetic diversity. The goal of recombination of selected lines is to make crosses between the different clusters in order to derive germplasm with the best agronomic characteristics of each of the clusters. This is done by crossing the lines from each cluster with a bulk of the selected lines of all other clusters (clusters are formed based on trait evaluation data of S2 lines x tester, with traits such as days to flower, plant and ear height, and ear and grain characteristics, but not yield, used in the analysis). In the field, the selected lines of each cluster are planted (for example, rows 1-17 representing cluster a) followed by a single row or a few rows representing each of the other clusters (following the example, rows 18-24 represent clusters b-g). In the case of this. example, pollen is collected from rows 18-24, bulked, and used to pollinate rows 1-17. The kernels on each harvested ear represent HS progeny and are planted ear-to-row in the next cycle for S1 formation. It can be argued from a breeder's standpoint that breaking up favorable linkages is a bad practice, but in this case we are trying to develop new, potentially more favorable linkages while also maintaining the genetic diversity of the breeding pool.Pool 19 ClO TIWF: One hundred and eleven S1 lines were selected in 2001 cycle B (2001B) based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred forty-two ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation in 2003.Pool 20 ClO TIWD: One hundred and fifteen S 1 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred seventy-three ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S1 formation in 2003.Pool 23 C33 TL WF: One hundred and sixteen S 2 lines were selected in 2001 B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred thirty ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation or further recombination in a HS crossing block.Pool 24 C33 TLWD: Ninety-eight S 2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred twentythree ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation or further recombination in a HS crossing block.Pool 25 C32 TLYF: One hundred twenty-two S 2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred twenty-seven ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation in 2003.Pool 26 C32 TLYD: One hundred twenty-three S 2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred fifty-nine ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation in 2003.Pool 29 C24 SEYF: Eighty-eight S 2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. Ninety-six ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted further recombination in a HS crossing block in 2003A.Pool 30 C23 SEYF: One hundred four S 2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. These recombined ears had to be discarded due to the presence of one line derived from a private company hybrid containing a proprietary gene for herbicide resistance. The recombination was repeated in 2002B with one hundred three lines S2 lines, and two hundred thirty-seven ears were selected based on plant and ear traits. This second recombination featured a slight modification of the previous methodology, in that crosses were made between the female rows and specific male rows (each male row representing a different cluster) instead of bulking across the male rows, and the female rows were not crossed with males from the same cluster (i.e., females from cluster a were crossed to males from clusters b-f but not cluster a). Also, recombination was performed within each of the male rows to recombine individuals from within each cluster. These changes in methodology will be used in all future breeding pool recombinations. The ears selected from recombination will be planted in a HS crossing block in 2003A.Pool 33 C23 SIYF: One hundred thirty-six S 2 lines were selected in 2001 B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. Two hundred eight ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S1 formation in 2003.Pool 34 C23 SIYD: One hundred two S2 lines were selected in 2001B based on cluster analysis for various agronomic traits and on yield (see Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001) and these lines were recombined in Tlaltizapan in 2002A. One hundred twenty-six ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and these ears will be planted for S 1 formation in 2003.2.2 Formation of S 1 and S 2 families in Tropical Pools 17, 18, 21and22Following recombination of selected lines, S 1 and then S2 lines are formed and selection is performed to improve the pool for important agronomic traits such as plant and ear height, foliar and ear disease ear rot, and plant and ear aspect. The best S2 families are then testcrossed and evaluated in replicated trials. S 1 formation in these pools was originally performed in AFOlB, but due to a strong storm during mid-season most of the pollinations were lost and had to be repeated at Tlaltizapan in 2002A.Pool 17 C35 TEYF: Two hundred seventy-eight HS ears were planted ear-to-row in Tlaltizapan 2002A and self-pollinated, with six hundred three S1 ears selected for planting earto-row in Agua Fria in 2002B. These lines were inoculated with Bipolaris maydis (foliar) and Fusarium moniliforme (ear) and were also exposed to a natural infestation of Diabrotica spp. in the soil. Selection against diseased and/or lodged families was performed at pollination and again at harvest to eliminate susceptible families, and two hundred seventy-four ears were selected to be test crossed to the opposite heterotic pool (Pool 18).Pool 18 C31 TEYD: Two hundred seventy-eight HS ears were planted ear-to-row in Tlaltizapan 2002A and self-pollinated, with six hundred thirty-two S 1 ears selected for planting ear-to-row in Agua Fria in 2002B. These lines were inoculated with Bipolaris maydis (foliar) and Fusarium moniliforme (ear) and were also exposed to a natural infestation of Diabrotica spp. in the soil. Selection against diseased and/or lodged families was performed at pollination and again at harvest to eliminate susceptible families, and three hundred thirty-one ears were selected to be test crossed to the opposite heterotic pool (pool 17).Pool 21 Cll TIYF: Two hundred ten HS ears were planted ear-to-row in Tlaltizapan 2002A and self-pollinated, with four hundred eighty-five S 1 ears selected for planting ear-to-row in Agua Fria in 2002B. These lines were inoculated with Bipolaris maydis (foliar) and Fusarium moniliforme (ear) and were also exposed to a natural infestation of Diabrotica spp. in the soil.Selection against diseased and/or lodged families was performed at pollination and again at harvest to eliminate susceptible families, and two hundred eighty-three ears were selected to be test crossed to a late tropical yellow dent tester in 2003A.Pool 22 Cll TIYD: Two hundred sixty-six HS ears were planted ear-to-row in Tlaltizapan 2002A and self-pollinated, with five hundred forty-two S 1 ears selected for planting ear-to-row in Agua Fria in 2002B. These lines were inoculated with Bipolaris maydis (foliar) and Fusarium moniliforme (ear) and were also exposed to a natural infestation of Diabrotica spp. in the soil. Selection against diseased and/or lodged families was performed at pollination and again at harvest to eliminate susceptible families, and two hundred ninety-six ears were selected to be test crossed to an early tropical yellow flint tester. Results and discussion: Results across two locations for the entries from pool 15 crossed to CL-04935 are presented in Tables la and lb. Overall the entries from pool 15 performed very well, with the overall mean across trials (6.8 t/ha) slightly larger than the mean across trials of the check (CL-04935 x CML 419; 6.6 t/ha) and with thirty-six entries significantly outyielding the check. The highest yielding entry (9.2 t/ha) out-performed the check by almost 140%. While many entries flowered significantly later than the check, all entries flowered within three to four days of each other, an acceptable range. Plant height is a greater concern, as the mean of the trial was significantly higher than the check, but mean ear height for the trial was not different from that of the check, reducing some concerns over plant height. The mean of the trial did not differ significantly from the mean of the check for other traits. Aside from flowering and plant and ear height, differences between the two environment_s were minimal. Results and discussion: Results across two locations for the entries from pool 16 crossed to CML-419 are presented in Tables 2a and 2b. The yield of the check across trials (CL-04935 x CML 419; 6.4 t/ha) was similar to that observed in the pool 15 trial, but the overall mean across trials (5.9 t/ha) was much lower than that observed in the pool 15 trial, and a much smaller number of entries significantly out-yielded the check, which could be due to a lack of heterosis between CML 419 and pool 16. The mean number of days to flowering across entries was lower for the mean of the trial as compared with the check, while plant and ear height were not significantly different for the overall mean across trials and the mean of the check across trials. Due to the poor performance, the S 2 lines from the pool will be crossed to Pool 15 in 2003B at Agua Fria and re-evaluated in 2004. The lines from pool 15 will also be crossed to Pool 16 in an attempt to improve heterotic response between the two pools. Pool 31 Cl9 SIWF: Two hundred and forty-one S 2 families of Pool 31 were test crossed to CML 78 in Tlaltizapan 2002A, one hundred and twenty-four of which were evaluated in a two-replication trial in Agua Fria in 2002B. The trial will be repeated in 2003 and the combined results for the two locations will be presented in the next annual report.Pool 32 C24 SIWD: One hundred ninety S2 families of Pool 32 were test crossed to CML 75 in Tlaltizapan 2002A, one hundred and fifteen of which were evaluated in a two-replication trial in Agua Fria in 2002B. The trial will be repeated in 2003 and the combined results for the two locations will be presented in the next annual report.The initial stages of this project are described in the 2001 annual report (Maize Genetic Resources Annual Research Report, 2001). In Tlaltizapan in 2002A, three hundred and five S 1 families of Jalisco 281, San Luis Potosi 105 and Veracruz 193 backcrossed twice to Pool 16, Pool 24, Population 21 or Across 8443 were planted and selfed to produce S 2 ears. Two hundred nineteen ears were selected based on plant and ear traits and kernel color, and these will be divided by maturity and crossed with the appropriate tropical yellow flint testers in 2003 or 2004 to evaluate agronomic performance and for selection of lines to be used to improve the tropical yellow dent pools.A core subset of Brazilian accessions was developed based on evaluation data of germplasm from the bank, and these materials, along with several older varieties from the United States, were crossed to CML 323 (\"B'' heterotic group tester) and CML 327 (\"A\" heterotic group tester) to determine to which heterotic group they belong. The evaluations were conducted at Tlaltizapan in 2001B and 2003A, and the results are presented below.The means across two locations, values for GCA and SCA, and proposed heterotic group are presented in Table 3. The overall perfomance of the materials was very good, with the overall mean yield for the trials was slightly higher than that of the check CML 323 x CML 327, although none of the entries out-yielded the check Pop 33 x Pop 45. The Brazilian entries generally performed better than the U.S. entries, likely due to better adaptation to the subtropical environment. The Brazilian entries largely fell into the \"A\", or dent, heterotic pattern, which is not surprising considering that southern US dents are a significant component of their background, while the U.S. materials were almost evenly divided between the two heterotic groups. Some entries from both germplasm sources performed equally well with both testers and therefore could not be classified as either \"A\" or \"B\", and possibly belong to another heterotic group(s). The high yields observed indicate that this material is very promising, but most of the entries are late flowering and tall, and so these aspects will need to be addressed in the enhancement process. The majority of the entries (mirius those that performed poorly) will be crossed to a second tester in the same heterotic group (likely an inbred derived from Pop 33 or Pop 45) and then selfed to produce enhanced S2 lines which can then be tested for performance.           Results and discussion: Data for enhanced yellow dent germplasm crossed to CML 422 is presented in Table 4a, while summarized data is presented in Table 4b. Across environments, the mean yield of the check (CML 422 x CML 423) was lower than the overall mean for yield across the trials, with about one-quarter of the entries significantly out-yielding the check. As expected, days to flowering were greater and plant and ear height and yield were lower for the trial planted in 2003 cycle A, as the mean temperatures and rainfall in cycle A are much lower than in cycle B. Days to flowering and plant and ear height were similar for the overall mean across trials and the check mean across trials, while the overall mean across trials was lower than (but not significantly different from) the mean of the check across trials for ear rot, foliar disease and agronomic aspect, and was significantly lower for ear aspect. The high number of entries that out-performed the check in this trial indicates the potential of these materials for improving tropical early yellow dent germplasm. The best entries from this trial, along with entries from Pool 18, will be crossed to Pool 17 in 2003 cycle B in Agua Fria and tested in 2004, and the best entries from those trials will be recombined in the next cycle of Pool 18. 59 197 87 7.5 0.0 52 6.5 15.9 83 20 16.6 4.7 2.3 2.5 14 1.3 0.89 1.9 2.6 2 6 (Rdom300 x GI 8)-8-3-93 3.1 58 59 197 96 6.8 0.7 47 4.9 14.0 85 19 14.5 7.0 2.9 3.  58 58 176 89 6.7 0.9 55 6.3 17.9 84 19 12.6 5.0     59 182 85 7.0 -0.3 51 6.0 17.1 74 18 13.5 5.2 2.7 3.0 16 1.2 0.87 2.1 2.9 .......x Gl8)-l 14-l-3 59 59 200 94 6.8 0.4 52 6.1 17.0 86 19 14.9 4.7 2.8 2.9 16 I.I 0.84 2.4 3.0 x Gl8)-126-l-2 108 (MBR/MDR C3 AmS 1 100 2.2 59 59 188 76 7.6 0.6 53 5.7 16.I 85 18 15.1 4.7 2.7 3.2 14 1.2 0.86 2.2 3.1 x Gl8)-128-l-1 109 (MBRIMDR C3 AmSl JOO 2.1 59 58 196 97 6.9 3.3 47 6.4 15.0 85 19 15.8 4.8 3.  59 59 203 92 7.6 0.6 46 4.4 14.5 86 15 14.5 4.7 3.2 3.7 14 1.2 0.90 3.6 3.4x 018] -20-1-156 172 80 6.7 0.5 50 5.6 16.1 83 19 13.8 4.9 2.6 3.1 15 l.2 0.86 2.2 2.9   59 59 209 103 7.9 2.2 54 6.5 18.8 86 16 17.5 4.7 3.1 2.9 14 1.3 0.95 5.5 15.8 89 17 14.9 5.0 2.9 3.  1.2 0.89 2.5 3.0 12.I 0.3 l.5 l.8 14.9 15.3 0.3 0.4 11.3 0.5 2.6 6.0 3.9 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.2 9.2 22.5 2.0 2.2 5.6 I l.8 7.7 66.6 6.6 11.7 9.6 5.1 10.9 4.9 7.1 17.7 15.0 5.3 4.6 5.1 21.7 13.3 NPT =Number of plants VIG= Seedling vigor (scale 1-5, 1 is best) AN= Days to male flowering (anthesis) SI= Days to female flowering (silking) PH= Plant height (cm) EH= Ear height (cm) LAE =Number of leaves above the ear HC = Husk cover (scale 1-5, 1 is best) SE = Days to senescence YLD = Yield in metric tons/hectare MO= Grain moisture SH = Shelling percentage EHV = Ears harvested EL = Ear length (cm) ED = Ear diameter (cm) ERT =Ear rot (scale 1-5, 1 is best) KRN = Kernel row number KL = Kernel length (cm) KWD = Kernel width (cm) DIS -Foliar disease rating (scale 1-5, 1 is best) AGS =Agronomic scale (scale 1-5, 1 is best) Flint core subset accessions from the Caribbean and from the physiology and entomology subprograms of the CIMMYT maize program were used as donor sources for germplasm enhancement. These were crossed with pools 17 and 25, backcrossed, and then selfed two generations to produce S 2 lines that were test crossed to CML 423 (early tester for pool 17) or CL-02450 (late tester for pool 25). One hundred thirty-six entries for the early pool were evaluated in Agua Fria in 2002B and 2003A, and the combined results for the two trials are provided below. Seventy-seven entries for the late pool were evaluated in Tlaltizapan and Agua Fria in 2002B in the same trials with germplasm enhanced with tropical yellow flint testers, and those data will be presented together in a later section with the germplasm enhanced with flint testers.Results and discussion: Data for enhanced yellow flint germplasm crossed to CML 423 is presented in Table 5a, while summarized data is presented in Table 5b. Across environments, the mean yield of the check (CML 422 x CML 423) was equal to the overall mean across trials for yield and was also equal to the mean yield of the check across trials for the tropical early yellow dent germplasm (see above). The overall mean yield across the trials was lower for this trial than for the dent trial, probably due to the lower mean yield for the trial in 2003A. Only a dozen or so entries significantly out-yielded the check, with the two top yielding entries derived from germplasm developed by the CIMMYT maize entomology project. Plant and ear height are of some concern among the entries, as the overall mean across trials and the best performing entries had higher values for those traits than the check across trials. The overall means across trials for days to flowering, days to senescence, and grain were lower than the mean of the check across trials, though the differences were not significant. Pool 17 per se had significantly lower values than the check for these traits, and probably contributed to a decrease in the values of these traits in the enhanced accessions. The mean of the check across trials was lower than (but not significantly different from) the overall mean across trials for husk cover, ear rot, ear aspect, foliar disease and agronomic aspect, though for each of these traits there were individual entries that out-performed the check. The best entries from this trial, along with entries from Pool 17, will be crossed to Pool 18 in 2003 cycle B in Agua Fria and tested in 2004, and the best entries from those trials will be recombined in the next cycle of Pool 17. 59 196 94 6.8 0.5 52 5.1 17.6 91 18 14 4.9 2.5 2.8 14 44 [(Guad6 x GI 7) x GI 71-47-2-2 96 2.8 57 59 185 85 6.5 0.7 49 5.1 16.2 90 18 12 4.9 2.5 2.5 15 45    Results and discussion: Table 6a shows data for enhanced yellow dent germplasm crossed with CL-RCY003, with summarized data presented in Table 6b. In this trial the check, CL-RCY003 x CL-03618, did not yield well and in fact was not significantly different from pools 25 and 26 •per se. Several entries topped 9.0 tons/hectare, presumably indicating that favorable alleles were derived from the accessions. The entries also performed well for other plant and ear traits, though plant and ear height could be lowered to improve plant type. Table 7a shows data for enhanced yellow dent germplasm crossed with CML 451, with summarized data presented in Table 7b. The two checks in this trials (CML 413 x CML 287 and CML 451 x CL-02450) performed relatively better than the check in the other trial, but were still out yielded by several entries, with at least one entry each derived from Snlp105, Vera193, Cuba91, Brvi146, and Jali281 exceeding the checks. CML 451 x CL-02450 is a newer hybrid with better plant and ear traits (lower plant and ear height, better ear aspect) than CML 413 x CML 287, but the latter out yielded the former by almost 1 ton/hectare in this trial. The better entries in the trial tend to fall in between CML 413 x CML 287 and CML 451 x CL-02450 in their plant and ear heights, a good sign considering that the entries include unadapted germplasm that could have adversely affected these traits. The best 10-25% of the lines from both of these trials will be used as females in a half-sib progeny selection scheme in 2003B or a later cycle. The best entries from this trial will also be made available to the tropical breeding program.    As noted above, flint core subset accessions from the Caribbean were used as donor sources for germplasm enhancement. These were crossed with CML 413 and then CML 451 to create 75% enhanced, 25% unimproved germplasm, then selfed two generations to produce S 2 lines that were test crossed to late yellow dent testers CL-03618 and CL-02450. One hundred twelve S 2 families crossed to CL-03618 were evaluated together with germplasm enhanced with pool 25 (see above) in Tlaltizapan and Agua Fria in 2002B, while sixty-eight lines crossed to CL-02450 were evaluated in a separate trial in Tlaltizapan in 2002A and Agua Fria in 2002B.Results and discussion: Table 8a shows data for the enhanced yellow dent germplasm • crossed with CL-03618, with summarized data presented in Table 8b. In this trial the check, CL-RCY003 x CL-03618, performed better than in the previously mentioned trial, but that may be related to the overall improved performance of the entries in this trial, as indicated by Pools 21, 22, 25 and 26 per se, which again were not significantly different from the check. A few entries topped 9 .0 tons/hectare, presumably indicating that favorable alleles were derived from the accessions, though the best entries did not out perform the checks to the degree observed in the trial of dent accessions. The entries also performed well relative to the check for other plant and ear traits, though plant and ear height could be lowered to improve plant type. Table 9a shows data for enhanced yellow dent germplasm crossed with CL-02450, with summarized data presented in Table 9b. The two checks in this trials (CML 413 x CML 287 and CML 451 x CL-02450) performed relatively better than the check in the other trial, but were still out yielded by a two entries with Cuba94 as the donor. As noted previously, CML 451 x CL-02450 was out yielded by CML 413 x CML 287 but had a better plant type. Some of the better yielding entries in the trial more closely resembled CML 413 x CML 287 in their plant and ear heights, and reduction of these traits may be important for further improvement • of this germplasm. The best dent accessions out-performed the best flint accessions, indicating, at least in respect to the germplasm herein, that more favorable alleles are present in the dent donors, or that the dent donors more favorably complemented the dent testers and pools that were used for enhancement. The best 10-25% of the lines from both of these trials will be used as females in a half-sib progeny selection scheme in 2003B or a later cycle. The best entries from this trial will also be made available to the tropical breeding program.Other core subset accessions were chosen for making breeding crosses with tropical yellow and white testers, and with subtropical yellow testers.        ","tokenCount":"6971"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4ed5ae5fefc234494438cef887529e13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/11cb7d04-ee09-4bfa-bbdf-da4ee0b6c056/retrieve","id":"-540545962"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a40cb44d-74d8-40fa-96f2-036c4818ed1f","pagecount":"38","content":"The two-person team worked under the overall direction of Allison Grove Smith, Director, CGIAR Advisory Services Secretariat. These reviews are being led by the CAS Secretariat Senior Evaluation Manager Svetlana Negroustoueva. Ravi Ram, Senior Evaluation Consultant to CAS Secretariat, managed the first cohort of three CRP2020 Reviews -WHEAT, GLDC and A4NH. Angela Giménez Barrera provided review and coordination support for the review process. Paolo Sarfatti served as senior advisor to the evaluative reviews project 2020. Gaia Gullotta and Max Rünzel provided analytical support. Curtis Jolly, Senior Professor, provided a peer-review of the preliminary findings and final report.CAS/Evaluation and the review team gratefully acknowledge the FISH CRP staff and the CGIAR SystemThe primary purpose of this independent review of the FISH CRP is to assess its quality of science, its effectiveness, and its future orientation. The primary users of the review will be the CGIAR System Council, with recommendations for increased quality of science, effectiveness, and future orientation developed from the review for use by the FISH CRP and the CGIAR System. This review covers Phase II of the CRP (2017 through 2019).Q1: To what extent does the CRP deliver quality of science, based on its work from 2017 through 2019? Q2: Effectiveness: What outputs and outcomes have been achieved, and what is the importance of those identified results? Q3: What programmatic evidence exists for future effectiveness within the life of the program (through 2021), considering the comparative advantages of the CRP and its Flagship Programs and drawing on their progression according to their corresponding theories of change?This review was implemented over an 11-week period by a two-member team composed of a senior evaluator and team leader and a senior subject matter expert. The review team employed a mixedmethods approach to derive findings, which included document review and key informant interviews (KIIs) with members of CRP stakeholder groups. Data analysis was parallel and sequential in order to identify emerging themes and trends for pro bing in order to strengthen findings as they emerged.RQ 1: Quality of Science RQ 1.1 Quality of CRP Scientific Inputs W1/W2 funding is insufficient to conduct dissemination and impact research in genetics, as well as in other aspects of the FISH CRP, to fully accomplish the theory of change (ToC). Likewise, scientific expertise was of high quality, but output appears quite variable among the team.• FISH is highly effective in leveraging available funding (4:1) and resources for increased funding, scientific expertise, and facilities access. • Managing partners are highly supportive of FISH and its comparative advantages, which connect them to resources, research opportunities, outputs, and impacts that they would not otherwise have. They desire a long-term relationship. • There are shortcomings in the number of WorldFish and managing partner scientists, which are at least partially funded with W1/W2 resources, as well as in facilities and budgets. However, this is overcome by a vast network of high-quality collaborators, a legacy of effectiveness, and a highquality team.• In summary, low levels of investments-i.e., small budgets, low numbers of core scientists, and insufficient facilities under FISH direct ownership-represent low-quality inputs, creating significant challenges for the lead center of FISH, WorldFish, and its managing partners and stakeholders.Scientific processes ensure high quality outputs and effectiveness. The director of aquaculture and fisheries supports a workplace that scientists perceive as transparent with good communication.• Monitoring, evaluation, and learning (MEL) and impact assessment research have implemented processes that are conducive to tracking high-quality outputs and effectiveness.Germplasm outputs are outstanding, with GIFT tilapia growing 18-200% faster than commonly used Nile tilapia and controls. The CRP has developed high-quality, award-winning tools and technologies.• Journal articles are of very high quality, including one with 92 citations in three years or less.• Grey outputs such as reports, manuals, blogs, videos, as well as scholarships, are numerous and of high quality and award winning (29 awards).The majority of milestones (76.7%) expected during 2017-29 have been achieved. Both innovations and Output Impact Case Reports (OICRs) are numerous, at 87 and 29, respectively.A total of 552,998 people received training in low-income countries, with 69.8% being women. Scientists, farmers, fishers, various members of the value chain, and students have received training.• Work on climate change has produced extremely high-quality outputs and made progress along the ToC; an increase in fish production resulted in a 37% reduction in water usage and a 22% reduction in greenhouse gases.• Gender work has significantly increased the participation of women in fisheries and aquaculture (women's engagement in fishing rose from 5 to 75% of women in low-income target countries in FISH CRP projects) and, for example, enhanced women's contributions to intrahousehold decisions about the income generated from processing fish from 45 to 94% in Zambia. This work on gender has produced high-quality and innovative outputs, receiving four awards and recognitions. • Research on youth has been effective considering the low level of funding and was part of five OICRs.Management and governance have helped translate research results into meaningful impact.Significant progress has been made along the ToC, and the impact appears to grow each year. Hundreds of thousands of individuals in low-income countries have had their income, empowerment, and nutrition enhanced (the initial 2022 goal was that 3.5 million people would exit poverty and the nutrition of 2.4 million would be improved).• The System Level Outcome (SLO) 1.1 target was that 5.0 million more farm households would adopt more improved varieties, breeds, and/or management practices; 104,215 have been reached, but assessment is incomplete. • SLO 1.2 target was 3.5 million people assisted in exiting poverty, of which 50% are women; 350,477 have been assisted to date. • SLO 2.3 target was 2.4 million more people without deficiencies in one or more essential micronutrients, of which 50% are women; 309,365 are without deficiencies thus far. • SLO 3.1 target was to increase efficient fish production by 4.8 million metric tons (MT) to reduce water consumption by 5%; thus far 400,000 MT more fish have been produced, decreasing water use by 37%. • SLO 3.2 target was to increase efficient fish production by 4.8 million MT to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 5%; thus far 400,000 MT more fish have been produced, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by 22%. • SLO 3.3 target was to restore 3.3 million hectares (ha) of land and water ecosystems; 981,771 ha of water ecosystems were restored. • Market actors and practitioners perceive that FISH has accomplished much that has benefited them greatly, look forward to more interaction, and desire even more future outputs and innovations. • Policy development and intervention have created an environment and landscape that improves the lives of the poor with respect to benefits from both aquaculture and small-scale fisheries.Past and current accomplishments, resources, inputs, networks, and collaborations predict that high quality of science and effectiveness will continue. However, uncertainty of funding and COVID-19 are potential obstacles that could impede high quality of science and effectiveness.For the CRP RQ 1: Quality of Science 1. Efforts to unify and reduce reporting effort should continue.2. The interaction of small-and large-scale fisheries should be given more future consideration.3. Slightly more emphasis on reproduction has the potential to enhance quality of science and effectiveness in both aquaculture and small-scale fisheries. 4. More funding needs to be devoted to research on impact assessment.1. The value of various traits differs between countries. To increase impact, the Fish Breeds and Genetics cluster in FP1 (C1 -Fish Breeds and Genetic Cluster) should consider that it is likely different lines will need to be developed for different countries. 2. Development of genetically enhanced tilapia is at a critical juncture. To make a quantum leap forward, FISH needs multiple trait selection or simultaneous use of multiple genetic enhancement. 3. The poor are not always in a position to adopt some of the most effective new technologies. More involvement of medium to large businesses may increase technology transfer to the poor. 4. More manuals and grey outputs should be produced in the native languages of target groups.RQ 3: Future Orientation 1. Shortcomings in resources and inputs were overcome by partnering with high-quality scientists from universities, research institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and other CRPs to create a network. 2. Harnessing Global Fisheries to Tackle Micronutrient Deficiencies was extremely impactful research focused on marine species, and parallel analysis of freshwater fish is underway. 3. Although the FISH CRP is of high quality and effective, small improvements in communication would be beneficial for improving the remaining life of FISH. 4. FISH has been effective at identifying research priorities, and no major changes are needed with regard to the clusters and cross-cutting themes addressed.1. Quality of science and effectiveness would benefit from avoiding delays in funding and early termination of CRPs. 2. The main objectives of the unfunded FP3 (enhancing the contribution of fish for the nutrition and health of the poor) were integrated into FP1 and FP2. This has been one of the most successful and impactful areas of research and should receive increased support in the future. 3. The FISH CRP, with a relatively small budget, has done an excellent job of leveraging resources (US$4 per every dollar invested). More support would likely result in good return on investment. 4. More funding needs to be devoted to research on impact assessment. 5. More funding needs to be devoted to the highly impactful work on small-scale fisheries.This section provides background on the FISH CGIAR Research Program (CRP) review, including defining the review purpose and audience and detailing an overview of the FISH CRP and its context in development research. Next, it describes the scope of the review and details the review questions. It also provides a description of the methods employed by the review team and a summary of quality assurance procedures. Finally, it describes the organization of the review team and the potential limitations of the review and measures the team took to mitigate these (see Annex 1: CRP 2020 Review TOR).Fisheries and aquaculture provide 3.1 billion people with 20% of their animal protein. Fish are highly nutritious, providing micronutrients and essential fatty acids essential for cognitive and physical development. Fish is an especially important food in poor countries. Three-quarters of the countries where fish contributes more than one-third of animal protein in the diet are low-income, food-deficit countries. Often fish is the cheapest and most accessible animal-source food in these countries. Additionally, aquaculture and fisheries contribute to livelihoods for 800 million people, providing affordable food as well as income to improve quality of life. Another important attribute of fish is that it can be partially harvested providing meal-size portions without sacrificing a large animal where storage could become problematic.To meet future demand for fish, particularly in low-income countries, production from aquaculture will need to double by 2030 as global seafood consumption is projected to increase by 46 billion kg by 2030. This increase must come from aquaculture as capture fisheries has been level or declining for the past 50 years. This situation illustrates the importance of preventing overexploitation of natural populations and of building sustainable fisheries to protect and wisely use our natural resources. The scale of these challenges requires research innovations across the whole spectrum of aquaculture and fisheries production systems and associated value chains.FISH is one of 12 CGIAR CRPs that all aim at (1) reducing poverty, (2) improving food and nutrition security for health, and (3) improving natural resource systems and ecosystem services. To that end, the overarching long-term goal of the FISH CRP is to enhance the contribution of fisheries and aquaculture to reduce poverty and improve food security and nutrition. FISH objectives include:Enabling sustainable increases in, and gender-and socially equitable livelihood returns from, aquaculture production without creating adverse socioeconomic or environmental impactsSecuring and enhancing the contribution of sustainable small-scale fisheries (SSFs) to genderequitable poverty reduction and food security in priority geographies; andIncreasing the availability and consumption of safe and nutrient-dense fish, primarily for women of reproductive age, infants, and young children.FISH conducts research and develops technologies according to its theory of change (ToC) in order to achieve local adoption and dissemination of technologies and management practices, to promote private sector investment and replication of innovative and gender-inclusive business models through small-and medium-scale entrepreneurs, to guide public sector policy improvement and strengthen institutions, and to influence the policies and priorities of civil society and development agencies.As a stand-alone CRP, FISH was initiated only in 2017 and focuses on fish agri-food systems. Prior to FISH, WorldFish had similar mandates and projects, and developed a strong reputation coupled with a large impact on aquaculture and food security in low-income countries. As laid out in the CRP Review Guidelines developed by the CGIAR Advisory Services Shared Secretariat (CAS Secretariat), the primary purpose of this review is to assess the FISH CRP with regard to its quality of science (QoS) and its effectiveness in relation to the FISH CRP theory of change (ToC). It also assesses the future orientation of the CRP. The objectives of this independent review are as follows:• To fulfill CGIAR's obligations regarding accountability for the use of public funds and donor support for international agricultural research • To assess the effectiveness and direction of FISH in its second phase, 2017-21; andTo provide an opportunity to generate insights about FISH research contexts and programs of work, including lessons for future conduct of CGIAR research to increase quality and effectiveness, if appropriate.The primary users of the review will be the CGIAR System Council, with recommendations for increased quality of science, effectiveness, and future orientation developed from the review for use by the FISH program and the CGIAR System.This review is an independent review conducted under the leadership of the CAS Secretariat during 2020 as part of the reviews of the 12 CGIAR CRPs, including FISH. The reviews provide information on QoS (ISDC, 2020); the effectiveness of each CRP, using CGIAR review policy, which is based on criteria from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the CGIAR Evaluation Policy; and the future orientation of the CRPs. This review covers the Phase II years of 2017 through 2019 with the intent to ascertain positives and negatives to assist with future research pathways. The review includes the work of FISH and its FPs, guided by CGIAR's quality of science and effectiveness criteria and the ToCs for the FISH FPs. Outcomes and impacts would not be expected to be extensive three years into a five-year program. Thus, outcome-level changes, Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs), and System Level Outcomes (SLOs) were predicted based on the documented outputs of FISH and its Flagship Programs in relation to their ToCs.Because some of the FPs of the FISH CRP overlap with previous WorldFish research, related CRPs, and legacy research, additional outcomes existed and were relevant for discussion or for prediction of the IDOs, SLOs, and impacts of the current phase of the FISH CRP (2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021). The focus of the review was the quality of inputs, activities, processes, and outputs, referred to as \"QoS,\" and short-term and intermediate outcomes that are expected to lead to a development impact (effectiveness). Productivity and rate of progress were considered. The likelihood that the first users of the research outputs would be the research community or that these outputs would be close to market adoption was also noted.Outputs evaluated by the team included peer-reviewed journal articles, reports and bulletins, media outlets, germplasm, inventions, patents, new technologies, and processes. The team also reviewed impacts related to CRP milestones and its ToC (see Annex 8: FISH Theory of Change).This independent review seeks to answer the following review questions and sub-review questions: Future Orientation: Q3: What programmatic evidence exists for future effectiveness within the life of the program (through 2021), considering the comparative advantages of the CRP and its Flagship Programs and drawing on their progression according to their corresponding ToCs?The review team employed a mixed-methods approach, building on the initial document review to derive findings (see Annex 2: CRP-specific review methodology). Data collection included FISH CRP management documents and any subsequent modifications, evaluation and strategy documents related to the CRP, peer-reviewed journal articles, reports and bulletins, and background and research documents on topics related to the project themes and context (see Annex 3: List of documents reviewed). It also included key informant interviews (KIIs) with members of all CRP stakeholder groups (see Annex 4: List of persons interviewed). The team used structured interviews guided by interview protocols (guides) developed from a base protocol used for Program Management Unit (PMU) staff and FP leaders, which was modified to reflect the anticipated specialized knowledge of additional stakeholders following initial interviews (see Annex 5: Base data collection tool).Data collection through document review, stakeholder interviews, and analysis of Outcome Impact Case Reports (OICRs) continued up until the writing of the initial draft report. Subsequently, the team completed analysis of CRP bibliometric and Altmetric data and triangulated data sources (see Annex 6: Bibliometrics). Data analysis was parallel and sequential to identify emerging trends for probing in order to strengthen findings as they emerged, formulate conclusions, and test accuracy.The review methodology had a number of potential biases and limitations that have implications for the types of findings and conclusions that can be drawn from this review. These, and the steps the review team took to mitigate them, included the following:• Positive response (\"halo\") bias: Probing questions regarding progress and outcomes may result in positive response bias-i.e., the tendency of respondents to subjectively focus on positive outcomes. The review team mitigated this bias by probing for both successes and challenges to develop the most holistic picture possible of CRP FISH achievements and challenges relative to the review questions. Responses were triangulated between data sources and against document review.Selection bias: Selection bias is an inherent risk when implementers help facilitate contact with members of stakeholder groups. The review team worked closely with the CRP PMU to select stakeholders for KIIs. However, there remains a risk that staff selected the most active, responsive, or engaged individuals, meaning that the team heard only from key informants that would report positive experiences. To mitigate the risk of selection bias, prior to launching data collection the team requested a universal list of stakeholders and attempted to contact each group universally. Where a universal sample was not possible, the team identified individuals from the list to contact for interviews, using a snowball approach as applicable within the limited scope of the review.Subjective measurements: Qualitative approaches can make data analysis dependent on the professional opinions and experience of the review team, which may result in findings, conclusions, and recommendations derived from their subjective experience. The team mitigated this bias through systematic triangulation of findings and by drawing evidence-based conclusions and recommendations based on data. In addition, where possible the team sought the professional opinion of relevant personnel to corroborate findings and conclusions to improve the accuracy and soundness of those conclusions.This section presents review findings by review questions and sub-questions based on data collection and analysis carried out over the review period.Findings here are based on the team's exploration of the extent to which the CRP created a balance (or not) in terms of the right set of skills, gender, and age profile of its researchers, as well as by diversity of nationality and geographic origin. The team also considered, to the extent possible, the availability of research means, including infrastructure and funding.Based upon the files on personnel and KIIs, we determined that there is a good mixture of senior, midcareer, and young scientists working on the FISH CRP at WorldFish and at the managing partners. These partners included the IWMI, the Aquaculture and Fisheries Group at WUR, the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Coral Reef Studies at JCU, and the NRI at University of Greenwich, with scientists originating from a large number and diverse range of countries. According to respondents and project documents, the scientific team is high quality, extremely hard working, and dedicated, with the appropriate mixture of skills. The team has experience and training in aquaculture, genetics, genomics, feeds, nutrition, fish diseases, fisheries, population dynamics, ecology, policy, social sciences, and economics. Research is enhanced by strong multidisciplinary approaches. Likewise, project documents demonstrated a good gender mix among the scientists, with women currently accounting for 36.8% of scientists and 35.0% of leadership. In general, this is a high number in the aquaculture and fisheries field. However, attempts to obtain global percentages of female senior scientists in aquaculture and fisheries for comparative purposes was difficult to find. Thus, the only basis of comparison was the United States, where approximately 25-30% of senior scientists and faculty are women, with the percentage decreasing as rank increases (see, for example, Oregon State University, 2016;Fishbio, 2018;Arismendi & Penaluna, 2016).As a whole, the quality of the CRP scientific team is high as demonstrated by the h-index of the 26 most productive authors, which was 2-51 (7-28 for women); 7 (2 women, 5 men) had an h-index greater than 25, indicating a group of highly productive scientists who work is cited often. This is evidence that the CRP's scientific personnel constitute a high-quality input. Not surprisingly, four of the five countries producing the most papers housed WorldFish or managing partners, according to CRP dashboard data.Partnering was conducted with quality scientists in target countries, as evidenced by the fact that three of eight countries with the highest citations per article were from low-income countries. One concern is the apparent variability in productivity. One individual produces more than five papers per year, 20% of the scientists produce three or more papers per year, 27% produce two or more papers per year, and 33% produced no papers in a three-year period. The mean number of papers per scientist per year was 1.22.Based on KIIs, potential explanations from the review team for the relatively low number of papers per WorldFish and managing partner scientists funded partially with W1/W2 funds could be the CRP's emphasis on quality over quantity, excess administrative duties, senior scientists providing leadership without demanding authorship, large numbers of meetings and reporting, extensive time-consuming quality assurance procedures, legacy from earlier CRPs, or scientists' responsibility for bilateral projects, for which emphasis is on grey products and other outputs. This concern is offset by the very high-quality outputs from these scientists, including landmark papers, discussed below (see section 2.1.3: Quality of CRP Scientific Outputs).Another indicator of the quality of the CRP team is comparative output with the available funds. FISH produced 2.25 journal articles per US$1 million (calculated from provided budgets), according to annual reports and other documentation. Three other CRPs produced 1.24, 1.83 and 2.75 journal articles (mean = 1.94) per US$1 million (calculated from provided budgets). 2 Of course, rate of publication can be affected by many factors, including the field of research. The School of Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences at Auburn University produced 5.77 journal articles per US$1 million invested, but the school does not have the same burden of administrative tasks, the added travel expenses associated with international development research, training and technology transfer, and output of grey products. 3 The FISH CRP produced 9.73 grey outputs, including bulletins, videos, blogs, newsletters, briefs, training manuals, and working papers, per US$1 million. By way of comparison, the Livestock CRP produced 5.86 grey outputs per US$1 million, according to its 2020 Review.In addition, the FISH CRP has a smaller budget compared with other CRPs, which makes low numbers of scientific personnel within the current budget problematic. In year 1, FISH received US$3.4 million in W1/2 funding while other CRPs averaged US$14.1 million and the Platforms averaged approximately US$11.2 million in year 1. Flagship 2, SSF, had no W1/W2 funding the first year and received only 40% of the allocated budget the second year. Administrative costs remain constant regardless of budget size, challenging research activities to operate at maximum efficiency, and the CRP cannot afford waste.However, in KIIs, respondents described the available monies from W1/W2 as well leveraged by FISH, with the budget shortcomings overcome by partnering and leveraging with high-quality scientists from universities, research institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and other CRPs (5 KIIs). The low level of W1/W2 funding requires strong support from the lead center as well as management of other partners, all of whom have provided additional staff and facilities beyond the W1/W2 funding provided by the CGIAR and are helping ensure the sustainability of actions beyond the FISH CRP. In fact, the legacy, reputation, and vast network of WorldFish, has allowed them to leverage this investment of W1/W2 funding to obtain significant bilateral funding and partnerships with universities, research institutions, the private sector, and governments that bring resources and funds into the CRP. Thus, according to one respondent, \"the spider has spun an enormous, highly effective and high-quality web.\" Respondents describe the strategy as \"to work with the best,\" an approach and result recognized and admired by all partners interviewed, including all managing partners, several private companies, end users, and country partners. W1/W2 supplies 20% of the budget and bilateral funding the remaining 80%. In summary, low levels of investment such as small budgets, a low number of core 4 scientists, and insufficient facilities under FISH direct ownership represent low-quality inputs, creating significant challenges for the lead center of FISH, WorldFish, and its managing partners and in-country stakeholders. However, these impediments are overcome by the high-quality input of highly skilled, motivated, dedicated scientists; high-quality collaboration and leveraging with country partners, other CRPs, universities, and managing partner institutions; effective support teams such as marketing and communications; and other financial and administrative services. Considering the funding obstacles, the approach of partnering with high-quality research institutions, private industry, other CRPs, other NGOs, and national agricultural research systems (NARSs) has proven to be a good strategy to overcome personnel, budget, and facilities shortcomings. This has resulted in a highly effective, high-quality, highly productive CRP. The external scientists, especially the managing partners, find this symbiosis beneficial and hope to have a long-term relationship with FISH.In contrast, one respondent within the FISH CRP suggested that this outsourcing is the wrong approach and that whatever resources are available should be used to build up permanent capacity within the WorldFish core. However, in the absence of a greatly increased investment of W1/W2 funding or a very large investment by donors for internal capacity building, the current partnering and networking strategy is sound and is currently working well for producing high-quality science and effectiveness and setting the stage for the future, as indicated in the following sections.The review team considered issues such as (1) how CRP partnerships are effectively built and function on the basis of mutual understanding, trust, and commitment, with clear recognition of partners' perspectives, needs, roles, and contribution;(2) research ethics, transparency, and procedures for managing conflicts of interest;(3) internal review mechanisms; (4) mentoring and training of junior research staff; and (5) the scientific credibility of outputs.Annual reports note that stringent protocols and committees are in place to ensure quality of science. These have been further enhanced and reinforced by the managing partners, which also have highly stringent protocols in place. In KIIs, respondents described FISH and managing partners working together to ensure that experimental design and methodology are credible and legitimate and result in quality outputs. Policies are in place for the ethical conduct of research. Policies and processes of FISH are reasonable and effective and conducted in ways that prevent bias. Ethics policy is administered internally. Animal welfare and human subject approval and protocols are conducted by independent review boards outside of WorldFish, depending on national legislation where the research is conducted.Respondents stated that this system works well and there is no need to change.Respondents also described monitoring, evaluation, and learning (MEL, initiated in 2018) as having had a large impact on QoS, credibility, legitimacy, and improved operations once it became operational. The MEL and impact assessment research team has executed an operational flowchart and protocols for all scientific outputs, including journal articles, books, book chapters, working papers, manuals, reports, blogs, videos, posters, pictures, and maps. Stakeholders and users are in the feedback loop of this process, and next-stage users and stakeholders are also involved. Research projects undertaken appear highly relevant and with great potential impact on poverty alleviation, nutritional enhancement, aquaculture and fisheries production and policy, climate change, capacity development, and gender/youth equality. 5To derive findings related to the review questions, the team review assessed issues such as (1) quality and quantum of research and technical publications;(2) development of physical products (e.g., germplasm, digital innovations); and (3) communication of research findings.The outstanding germplasm output from FISH and CRP's legacy is well known in tilapia aquaculture (ADB, 2005). GIFT tilapia and Abassa tilapia, developed via selection for improved growth rates, have been widely distributed in low-income and high-income countries, according to FISH documentation. These varieties usually outperform conspecifics throughout the world (ADB, 2005). This is high-quality output is one of the best examples of genetic enhancement in aquaculture. However, these genetically enhanced tilapia would be of much higher quality if made genetically male. KII respondents note that initial experiments have been conducted to head toward genetically all-male GIFT but are not yet available for evaluation. However, some low-income farmers have been taught how to conduct sex reversal and now have the advantage of both monosex culture and selectively bred tilapia for growth improvement.Research groups outside of CGIAR are also aware of this potential benefit and are taking steps to combine GIFT select lines with monosexing technology (Chen et al., 2018).Interviewees stated that these fish need to be improved for additional traits, especially resilience traits and disease resistance. Initial experiments have been conducted to determine the inheritance of these traits, but manuscripts are in preparation, so their quality cannot yet be evaluated. The tilapia germplasm is of high quality but can still be further improved by addressing other traits and combining this selection with other genetic enhancement programs. For example, cold tolerance, disease resistance, and salinity tolerance have equal or greater value than growth rate in Egypt, and breeding for these traits should be addressed, though funding limitations need to be overcome.The research on the tilapia lake virus is of high quality and will result in future effectiveness (Jansen et al., 2019). According to respondents in KIIs, in some areas of tilapia aquaculture, this virus is not a large problem, but it has the potential to be devastating. With the caveat that this disease could worsen, and that funding and scientific personnel are limited, other diseases that have greater economic impact in some countries should integrated into the breeding programs, which could perhaps be country or region specific. Of course, this would make outcomes more extensive and more difficult to achieve in the future. A total of 685 authors were included on 159 papers, and the average number of coauthors per paper was 5.97, a strong indicator of collaborative research. Authorship was distributed among scientists from 59 countries, indicating both the collaborative nature of the FISH CRP and its breadth and footprint. Twentythree of these countries were high-income and 36 were low-income countries, illustrating the partnerships in both the North and South. Average citations per document were 7.6, and per document per year was 2.6. Approximately 30% of scientific papers have 20 or more citations, and 90% of scientific papers have 5 or more citations (Beaulieu, 2015). Twenty-three of 159 papers had 15 or more citations during the first one to three years after publication.In general, judged by impact factor (a method of evaluation of scientific papers), the journal articles were of very high quality. While it is valuable, impact factor also has certain biases and shortcomings that must be considered. For example, impact factors in aquaculture and fisheries journals are naturally lower as there are fewer individuals working in these fields compared with other disciplines, such as molecular biology. Quality of peer review can also affect whether a poor paper is published in a high-impact journal or a very useful paper is published in a low-impact journal.The journal Aquaculture has an impact factor of 3.2 and is where FISH had the highest number of publications, at 18. Regardless of impact factor, Aquaculture is considered the premier journal in the field of aquaculture. Additionally, several articles were published in premier journals such as Nature, the Nature series, and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). Several papers have very high citation rates, including one in Nature Climate Change that has been cited 92 times in three years or less. This paper had an Altmetric score of 656 and was widely shared across 28 news networks with 1,098 tweets.The top 50% of journals in agricultural and biological sciences have an impact factor of > 1.44; in genetics and molecular biology, > 2.79; in environmental sciences, > 2.05; and in social sciences, > 1.27 (SCI Journal, 2018). To make the list of the top 75 journals for fisheries and aquaculture research, the impact factor has to be at least 1.03, with some considered the best in North America for fisheries being 1.44 (Branch, 2020). Based on the criteria above, 90% of FISH papers would be subjectively considered above average. Approximately 62-77% would be good to very good, 22-62% would be excellent, and 5% would be exceptional. These papers were frequently cited, with 5% of papers cited at least 10 times per year, 11.3% at least five times per year, and 44% at least two times per year. In addition, FISH has produced numerous award-winning outputs, including, for example, the paper \"Harnessing Global Fisheries to Tackle Micronutrient Deficiencies.\" (Hicks et al. 2019) This paper was published in Nature with an impact factor of 42.8 and was cited 92 times over a three-year-period. This output comes from what was intended to be part of FP3 (enhancing the contribution of fish for the nutrition and health of the poor). When funding was not awarded for FP3, priority areas such as nutrition and micronutrients were integrated into FP1 and FP2. Both the bibliometrics and Altmetrics of this paper are extremely high. In this sense, this work can be considered a landmark output that may have long-lasting dramatic impact if used properly, suggesting that funding of and emphasis on FP3 should be reconsidered in the future.Likewise, a FP2 output \"Supporting coastal fishing communities and improving food security in Bangladesh\" 6 was highlighted as one of the best outputs in the 2019 CGIAR performance report. Also, research on small-scale fisheries made significant progress in setting critical high-level policy and investment agendas at global and national levels. High-impact research products also included a 2019 report The Future of Food from the Sea. This report included related recommendations for decisionmakers as an output of the expert group to the High-Level Panel (HLP) for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (Costello et al., 2019).Aquaculture pathogen sequencing was combined with rapid diagnostics to build and scale a \"Lab in the Backpack\" concept to improve fish disease detection and management. This output won this year's biggest prize at the 2019 Inspire Challenge, CGIAR's digital signature process run by the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture. As this technology matures and is scaled, it should have worldwide impact in both low-income and high-income countries, according to respondents. In addition, the nutritious pond concept was recognized by the Rockefeller Foundation and private sector partners as a key innovation for increasing productivity and improving the environmental benefits of pond-based tilapia aquaculture, and several high-quality papers were published on the nutritious ponds efforts.Also, in FP2, Hidden Harvest (program brief) and documentation of the importance of small-scale fisheries was cited as well known and impactful in KIIs and the 2019 annual report. However, although large-scale fisheries and commercial fisheries are not totally missing from the CRP's analyses, the interaction of large-scale fisheries and small-scale fisheries needs more emphasis because of the multiple ways that large-scale fisheries affect small-scale fisheries. Additionally, integrating aquaculture and small-scale fisheries with other food production systems into an agri-food systems approach within the CRP, such as cooperating with Rice CRP and RTB, could be an impactful approach (one KII).In addition, KII comments from all stakeholder groups noted that FISH produces many useful training manuals such as Guidelines for Community Fish Refuge: Rice Field Fisheries System Management in Cambodia (Khmer version). Some of these outputs are in the native tongue of the target countries, and clientele in KIIs described finding these extremely valuable and want many more in their own languages.FISH's science is leveraged by its effective communications and marketing strategy. During 2017-19, the CRP produced 527 grey outputs, including books, book chapters, reports, blogs, briefs, videos, posters, and conference papers. The number of outputs is accelerating as the CRP matures; 329 were produced during the first eight months of 2020 prior to the initiation of this review. Results and outputs target different audiences, often using innovative digital technologies. Evaluation of samples of these outputs suggests they are of high quality. For example, a blog on small-scale fisheries research impact won the 2018 RAID blog award (https://raidnetwork.crawfordfund.org/blog/connecting-with-timorese-youththrough-fisheries-research/), and three of these grey reports received recognition. Overall, 29 outputs or programs received awards, recognition, or scholarships. Some were in multiple FPs and cross-cutting themes: 8 were in FP1, 17 in FP2, 2 in Climate Change, 3 in Gender, 4 in Big Data, and 1 in Management.The review team implemented this analysis in three parts: First was a quantitative assessment of CRP (and FP) performance against planned milestones, annually and for the three years under review. Further quantitative analysis examined performance disaggregated by milestone risk levels; cross-cutting issues; and achievement of policies, innovations, and outcomes (recorded in OICRs). Second was a qualitative appraisal of CRP and FP performance based on interviews with respondents from the CRP, partners, and others. Third was an assessment of documented performance against the CRP ToC (and FP impact pathways) to ascertain how the annual planning and conduct of research was derived from and linked to the ToC.For most FISH FPs and clusters, outputs and outcomes are on schedule, although some delays occurred because of late arrival of funding for FP2 from W1/W2. Throughout the KIIs, respondents stressed the urgent need to streamline the funding process, stating that \"the combination of delayed funding and early termination of CRPs is not conducive to meeting milestones in a timely fashion.\" Nonetheless, a 6 As part of a five-year project (2014-2019), \"Enhanced Coastal Fisheries in Bangladesh\" (ECOFISH-BD)high percentage of milestones have been completed or partially completed and extended. Some genetics milestones are behind schedule because of an outbreak of a new disease, tilapia lake virus disease, which forced FISH to quarantine brood stocks and delay experiments for biosecurity. Thus, the percentages of milestones completed, extended, and canceled are 76.7%, 23.3%, and 0.0% respectively. FP1 and FP2 had 83.3% and 68.4% of milestones completed from 2017 to 2019. KII respondents stated that this apparent difference was due to the delayed funding of FP2. However, as of September 2020, when this review was initiated, only one of the milestones extended in the respective reporting years remains extended, while six have been successively completed and three are due to be completed and reported in 2020. This would bring the current values respectively to 90.7% and 6.3% (97.7% and 0.3% by end of 2020). Output and outcomes are gaining momentum each year. FISH has produced 87 innovations to date, and as expected this number is increasing as the CRP matures. According to FISH annual reports, there were 22, 20, and 45 innovations in 2017, 2018, and 2019, respectively. Innovations originated from nine Asian countries, nine African countries, and two Pacific countries. Fifty-eight percent of the innovations were generated in Asia, 18.6% in Africa, and 11.6% in the Pacific; 3.5% were regional, and 34.9% were global. The status and number of CRP innovations are illustrated in Table 5 (see Annex 7: Classifications). To derive findings, the team conducted a deep dive on two selected OICRs to assess: (1) sub-IDOs and other unanticipated outcomes reported by the CRP, whether positive or negative in context, to link to the CRP ToC and the CGIAR Strategy and Results Framework (SRF); (2) the program's engagement with cross-cutting issues, namely gender, youth, capacity development, and climate change, as well as partnerships;(3) the program's age and maturity (with research in some cases preceding the current CRP cycle); and (4) the relationship of the reported outcomes to the CRP ToC and FP impact pathways (see Annex 9: OICR Analysis Templates).Hilsa Production and Fishers' Income Increased due to co-management strategies aimed to enhance the socioeconomic resilience of fishing communities in Bangladesh is related to a level 3 outcome. The main findings are as follows:Co-management interventions helped in producing a 6% annual incremental increase in production, resulting in production of over 130,000 tons of hilsa over the past three years, valued at over US$1.04 billion. As a result of increased hilsa production and improved hilsa size, total household income of fishers and income from fishing activities increased by 65% and 67%, respectively. A total 4,257 hilsa fishing households were fully engaged in sound and sustainable alternative income generation as a strategy to improve co-management.This activity met sustainable development goals targeted by FISH for successfully completing a pathway to the FISH ToC and the CGIAR SRF. The outcome resulted in progress toward goals to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development; end poverty in all its forms everywhere; end hunger; and achieve food security and improved nutrition. An additional benefit was attained as the livelihoods of fishers and traders in the hilsa value chain and the nutrition of the consumers throughout the country was improved. Effectiveness will be multiplied, as the success of hilsa management in Bangladesh attracted attention in two neighboring countries, India and Myanmar, which will apply similar incentive-based management. Myanmar has already initiated this approach for fish stocks in the Ayeyarwady Delta to safeguard biodiversity and improve the livelihoods of local fishing communities.In terms of improvements in nutrition, 30% of participants impacted by this initiative were women and youth. The process was highly legitimate as the villages formed a number of organizations and committees and took ownership by supplying their own governance and enforcement. The research effort resulted in a sound, high-quality journal article and several grey outputs. The project required significant impact assessment research, and to study impact, the CRP collected baseline data in 2016, just prior to the initiation of FISH, and completed this research in 2019.How rice field fisheries are netting nutrition gains for over 124,876 people in Cambodia is related to a level 2 outcome. The main findings follow:Well-managed community fish refuges (CFRs) significantly improved fish productivity in the rice field environment as soon as one year after the intervention. In one year, the quantity of fish caught increased by 30%, and the proportion of young children under five eating small fish increased by 50%. Over 124,876 people in Cambodia consumed more fish at home following behavior change interventions associated with enhanced rice field fish productivity. This activity met the FISH goal for completing a pathway to the ToC and for using a sphere of influence to increase the availability of diverse nutrient-rich foods for people, of whom 50% are women, with deficiencies in one or more essential micronutrients, making it a highly relevant activity.To accomplish this objective, the pathway included establishing local and Cambodian government policy. Cambodia's 10-year Strategic Plan for Fisheries Conservation and Management was altered to include CFRs. Acute malnutrition of children and the associated stunting and micronutrient deficiencies cost Cambodia up to US$266 million annually, or about 1.7% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). This project promoted wild fish conservation and improved management of 140 community fish refuges, making more nutritious fish-one of the best sources of nutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamin A-available for catch in the surrounding areas. Rice fish environments are particularly beneficial for lactating mothers and other caregivers who experience poverty and vulnerability. Local communities managed CFRs, adding a high level of legitimacy to the project (also adhering to the ICLARM (WorldFish) philosophy of \"give a fish to a man and he will eat for a day; teach a man to fish and he will eat for a lifetime\"). Local communities provided their own night patrols to prevent illegal fishing.Future orientation and expectations are that by 2021 more than 296,000 people will benefit from the project's integrated approach to improving food and nutrition security. Fish consumption by young children in households participating in the project was very high, including 67.7% of children aged 6-11 months and 95.5% of children aged 12-17 months. Between 2017 and 2019, the proportion of households maximizing the nutritional value of small fish species increased steadily and significantly from 7.9% in March 2017 to 34.5% in September 2019.The effort was highly credible, resulting in several high-quality grey outputs, primarily reports and briefs, and one journal article. The contents of the reports are highly credible, and at least two high-quality journal articles have been published related to the background and pilot aspects of this project. The baseline data and a pilot study were conducted jointly by USAID and L&F prior to the start of FISH. The project was implemented by FISH, and all impact assessment data were collected from 2017 to 2019.In KIIs, respondents described capacity development activities as extremely active and effective. Involvement of graduate students and postdocs has greatly increased since the end of the L&F CRP and mentoring and opportunity have expanded. Likewise, students from low-, middle-, and high-income countries have gone on to be employed in good positions, and some of these have become FISH scientists (2+). There are good advancement and development opportunities for young scientists. In contrast, a minority opinion of CRP respondents described the mentoring as \"poor.\" These opinions are partially based on the fact that FISH does not normally consider any projects under US$100,000 unless they are of strategic importance. Given that FISH is already handling a large number of projects and grants and cannot handle more administratively, it preferentially targets higher-value (monetarily) projects. The paucity of smaller projects decreases opportunities for postdoctoral fellows to be heavily involved in grant writing and project management.In KIIs with CRP staff, respondents describe the relationship with the managing partners as highly synergistic and beneficial for capacity building as the ongoing research and vast network of the FISH CRP has provided opportunities for development-related research for large numbers of MS students, PhD students, and postdocs from low-, middle-, and high-income countries that can lead to careers in development research. This, coupled with the education, course work, and mentorship of top aquaculture, fisheries, and social scientists from the managing partners at universities completes this symbiotic capacity building of top young scientists for the future.For In KIIs, a number of respondents stated that the director of aquaculture and fisheries for FISH has fostered an environment conducive to progress in gender studies. In terms of staffing, while the Gender team (12 people spread across three regions) has a predominance of women (as with other CRPs), there are researchers from both genders on the team. In terms of gender integration in FISH research, Gender has pursued an enthusiastic and systematic approach to enabling integration in all clusters of FISH. This has been accomplished despite unpredictable and inadequate funding, making gender research more challenging as a result of low personnel numbers. Training efforts emphasize gender inclusion, as 75% of training has been geared toward women.The Gender program has discovered important nuances regarding effectiveness evaluation and developed interventions and invested in innovations to increase impact, including gender-transformative approaches. Enumerating women in training activities was found to be a poor indicator of effectiveness. Upon returning home, women were prevented from contributing to fish activities and prevented application of the training, as husbands were threatened by changes in gender roles. However, by integrating gender-transformative sessions into future trainings-including engaging husbands and mothers-in-law of trainees-this obstacle was overcome, and women were able to contribute what they had learned to the benefit and appreciation of the entire household. Respect and happiness for the trained women was increased. KIIs respondents described follow-up research as \"essential.\"Another key innovative training approach involved transfer of knowledge to poor communities in remote areas where face-to-face training may not be possible. In this case, the approach was to focus not solely on individual training, but on researcher and government staff training. This includes instruction of trainers and staff at other partners or institutions. The domino or pyramid effect of spreading knowledge scales the number of individuals trained and the subsequent impact.Gender was active across all clusters and themes despite a minimal gender science legacy from AAS and L&F. The FISH CRP has already generated 30 science-based outputs on gender, with more in progress. These include policy contributions to the High-Level Panel on Sustainable Ocean Economies (Blue Paper on Equity), articles for high impact factor journals, and leading a chapter for the collaborative CGIAR Gender Platform book. According to the CRP's dashboard data, it generated 30 relevant journal articles in a three-year period examining gender in aquaculture, small-scale fisheries, gender preferences, and the value chain. Innovative approaches also contribute to gender research related to genetics, feeds, and biodiversity. Insightful findings indicate that even choice of feed impacts gender, as common fish feeds have ingredients that compete for nutrients used in women's other livelihoods. Men and women prioritize the same traits for genetic enhancement but rank them differently. With regard to biodiversity, women can have a different view on how to best utilize a resource. Large-scale fisheries are dominated by men, but small-scale fisheries are more important to women.FISH expertise and outputs are well recognized for their attention to gender. A 2019 Gender Special Issue of the journal Maritime Studies was led by a member of the FISH gender team. A young emerging scientist on the Gender team brought together multicountry insights as editor of the first Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries Newsletter. According to the 2019 annual report, additional awards and recognitions include \"Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries,\" which was awarded best student paper at the Global Conference on Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries in Bangkok; a student fellowship for the Crawford International Engagement Award from the Crawford Fund for small-scale fisheries and gender training; and a merit award from the Asian Fisheries Society for organizing the Gender Aquaculture and Fisheries Society meeting in 2019.This review found youth-related outputs to be \"limited,\" although some interviewees expressed that the output is excellent considering the low level of funding. Despite low funding, youth was addressed in five OICRs, and FISH was selected by the Steering Committee of the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) to be part of the project team that will draft the 16 th HLPE report \"Promoting youth engagement and employment in agriculture and food systems,\" according to the 2019 annual report and dashboard data. Obstacles to youth engagement cited in KIIs included lack of interest by youth in aquaculture and fisheries in some countries and older farmers' practice of not employing youth because of their generally poorer work ethic compared with older, more experienced workers. Some reviewers stated that for youth research to be effective, funding must increase.The review team considered issues such as (1) changes and adaptations in the program's planned activities, objectives, and strategy based on lessons learned; (2) capacity to meet the unaddressed changes in context or other challenges; and (3) risk management planning (identification, prevention, and mitigation) by the CRP. The team also assessed the value of the CRP research management committee, the Program Management Team , the MEL unit, and its independent steering/advisory committee. The review identified practices that have supported (or not) the quality of research for development and considered the country coordination structure as well.In KIIs, respondents say the director of aquaculture and fisheries for FISH has created a pleasant, agile, flexible working environment with free discussion that the vast majority of the scientists interpret as conducive to high productivity, high morale, and transparency. They described the policies and processes of FISH as reasonable and effective, conducted in ways that prevent bias. The ethics policy is administered internally. Animal welfare and human subject approval and protocols are conducted by institutional review boards (IRBs) outside of WorldFish, depending on national legislation where the research is conducted. On the other hand, several respondents, particularly researchers, added that administration is \"top heavy.\"MEL has helped promote accountability in meeting milestones and reporting deadlines by producing a quarterly review to keep scientists informed and keep milestone schedules on track. A system was also developed for researchers to upload deliverables, planned outputs, and status of deliverables in real time. CGIAR's end-of-year reporting requirements have made this time of year extremely challenging and stressful, but the new MEL real-time reporting system has organized and streamlined the process, making it much more effective and \"livable\" by accumulating reporting materials year-round. MEL also assists with an adaptive management style and lessons learned.On the other hand, CGIAR indicators and reporting requirements were portrayed as difficult and frustrating for scientists, leading to a lack of cooperation. In addition, reporting requirements are different for different donors to CGIAR and the CRP, resulting in a double reporting burden that wastes time and effort. MEL is trying to work with all parties involved to unify reporting.The MEL team of the FISH CRP has developed a \"strong\" data management capacity, taken advantage of the Big Data platform, worked on data quality, made archiving improvements, and improved how data are collected. Collaborative partners have helped vision and harmonization across all the countries. The data management is described as \"a great improvement\" (from 2016 evaluation of L&F) in which large volumes of data were accumulated without analysis at the CRP level.There are varying opinions within FISH regarding certain management and governance aspects. Some respondents believe there are too many meetings and excessive bureaucracy, while some within the administration feel that scientists respond too slowly and resist necessary bureaucracy. A challenge for the MEL team, described in KIIs, is to change researchers' mentality regarding reporting on workshops and training. The central question is \"how do you measure quality of training?\" Many scientists resist surveys and training follow-up. However, MEL expresses a need to run surveys about workshop at 6 months and 12 months after training to measure the impact and retention of the material. If the donor requires surveys, scientists cooperate, but they sometimes resist MEL efforts regarding surveys for impact assessment. Nonetheless, some programs such as Gender have used this methodology, suggested by MEL, with apparent success.Some scientists interviewed said that human resources (HR) at WorldFish is one negative aspect of the FISH working environment and reported feeling that HR is not supportive of workers. At least some scientists feel that HR projects an atmosphere of \"supremacy\" and a \"lack of appreciation of the scientist's efforts.\"The MEL team within FISH works to fill gaps and together with research leads is implementing a strategy for increasing quality, according to KIIs. This strategy includes (1) creating a research quality group to set up research, (2) hiring high-quality scientists and placing them in the right places or positions, (3) reinforcing data management and the quality check process (though not enough resources are available to completely execute this properly), and (4) implementing a research pipeline. To ensure quality and transparency, clearly written protocols are reviewed internally and by partners. Experiments are examined for rigor, robustness, and ethics. The relevance of research is guided by consultations with multiple stakeholders, partners within countries, and country teams.Communications and marketing have impacted the QoS. The CRP has developed a communications strategy that includes a branding identity, development of the website, production of short video abstracts of high-impact papers and an innovative online annual report, quarterly program newsletters, the monthly Hot off the Press publications newsletter, and aggressive social media marketing. The review team found the WorldFish website to be not user-friendly, lacking links to specific topics, cluster areas, and lists of outputs, for example. Advanced planning is used to increase impact and Altmetrics. The communications and marketing team works with scientists to help translate key science outputs into more digestible formats for different target different audiences.Outputs are displayed at meetings of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the team reaches out to various countries, picking the most important projects to highlight. They target high-tier journalistic outlets. The CRP has implemented a fish learning hour and a \"Fish for Thoughts\" to share information across the CRP and partners online. In 2019 there were 38 learning hours and 38 \"Fish for Thought\" events, with estimated attendance of approximately 100 per event.To derive findings regarding progress along the ToC, the review team assessed issues such as (1) the quality of the ToCs (explicit or implicit), (2) how the program has used its ToC to inform the plan of work and budget (POWB), (3) progress along the ToC-defined impact pathways, and (4) the degree of adaptation based on evidence and experience (see Annex 8: FISH Theory of Change and Table 8).With regard to SLO 1.1-impacting 5 million households through improved breeds, feeds, aquaculture systems, aquaculture management practices, and fisheries management practices-the CRP disseminated genetically improved tilapia in 16 countries, according to the 2017 annual report. To date, 53% of the hatcheries in Bangladesh and 40% of the hatcheries in the Philippines are using GIFT or GIFT-derived tilapia. This is highly effective and likely to position FP1 significantly closer to achieving SLO 1.1. COVID and lack of research funding have prevented actual measurement of the number of households impacted. However, the data throughout this review as well as the constant rise of tilapia production, let alone other species targeted by FISH, would lead to a conclusion that 5 million households or more have likely been impacted (Mapfumo, n.d.). However, according to KIIs, not all farmers are obtaining increased production from the genetically enhanced tilapia. The very best genotypes cannot exhibit enhanced performance without being placed in a good environment and properly managed. The problem may lie in the dissemination system, as the farmer may not put forth the proper effort if his own investment is not required. Impact research revealed this yield gap, and more scaling impact research needs to be conducted for the germplasm releases. However, funding is a limitation.Establishing the impact of research is especially difficult considering the extent of impact research needed along the entire value chain. For example, and in the case of the GIFT tilapia, elite breeders sell to multiplier hatcheries, then the multiplier hatcheries sell to small farmers, who both consume and distribute in the community. To obtain true numbers on the impact, additional research is needed to determine the on-farm performance and benefit of the genetically improved fish.Traditional dissemination can be problematic, and FP1 is addressing this in two ways with their partners and clientele. Involvement of the private sector may improve the effectiveness of dissemination. Farmers are being trained in Best Management Practices (BMPs) to derive the improved benefit from the genetically enhanced brood stock and fingerlings. According to KII respondents, this is being done in several countries (such as Egypt and Timor-Leste) but needs to be expanded. However, lack of personnel and funding would be an impediment in this case. There may be a shift to more partnering with private industry to more effectively achieve the dissemination and effectiveness goals of improved germplasm. Government policy and protectionism as well as societal norms can impede dissemination and effectiveness. Private industry had a significant role in overcoming this block in India, leading to high effectiveness of legacy outputs of improved tilapia germplasm.One impediment to the ToC goals cited in KIIs is that poor farmers need genetically enhanced fish to have greater access to protein. This trait, however, also enhances value and thus raises the price of fingerlings, putting them out of reach of some of the targeted poor farmers. Timor-Leste scientists believe increased fingerling production will bring down costs and rectify this problem. This is an important topic, and research is needed to show causality of poverty reduction and dietary diversification and whether those are achieved through income or production pathways, since selling higher-priced fish does have the benefit of increasing income.Although great increases in hatchery skills of small-scale farmers have been reported, hatchery research on reproduction could improve both FP1 and FP2, according to the 2019 annual report. In the case of genetically enhanced tilapia, demand is outstripping supply, and improved reproduction can help alleviate this obstacle as well as decreasing costs and increasing profits. Supplemental stocking, necessitating hatchery expertise, may be a future tool in small-scale fisheries management. Spawning of highly nutritious fish such as mola in hatchery environments could lead to new opportunities for small-scale fish farmers and impact community nutrition. A reproductive specialist would add another dimension to understanding the dynamics of small-scale fisheries. Reproduction is a major component of fitness, and fitness is key to small-scale fisheries. Reproduction and reproductive cycles are key to recruitment, sustainability, and policy on harvest and management. Additionally, from the perspective of small-scale fisheries, gamete cryopreservation, preservation of stem cells, and technologies such as xenogenesis would be beneficial. This allows preservation and protection of biodiversity and genetic biodiversity of the South's natural resources. If this preservation were parlayed into technologies such as xenogenesis, endangered species of importance to small-scale fishers could be more readily expanded, and difficult-topropagate species could be propagated for aquaculture, supplemental stocking, or stock rescue, which could be of great value to the poor or hungry directly or indirectly.Under SLO 1.1, 104,215 households benefited from improved aquaculture and fisheries practices. Some examples of this impact include women involved in carp-based polyculture improvements, improvements in hilsa management, and management of rice-fish refuges. In addition, increased adoption of fisheries co-management was accomplished in Bangladesh, including government policy as well as the most marginalized fisher communities, benefiting 4,350 households. Fisheries co-management and community-based fisheries management (CBFM) measures were implemented in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Solomon Islands. In Cambodia, 244 management plans for fish refuges integrated within community investment plans benefited 12,300 households. A total of 64,459 households across five countries benefited from aquaculture and fisheries improvements; 30,115 of these were women fish producers and 2,563 were youth.Progress was also made toward SLO 1.2, the goal of having 3.5 million people exit poverty. Another 320,717 people in four countries exited poverty through aquaculture and fisheries interventions.Additionally, in Bangladesh, 25,473 household members (15,180 men and 10,293 women) showed increased economic benefits through provision of livelihood support measures during the period when hilsa fishing was banned by government legislation. Furthermore, the co-management interventions helped raise extra annual incremental production by 6%, which comprised about 130,000 tons of hilsa over past three years, worth about US$1,040 million.As a result of increased hilsa production and improved hilsa size, the total household fishers' income and income from fishing activities have been increased by 65% and 67%, respectively. A total of 4,257 hilsa fishing households have been fully engaged in sound and sustainable alternative income-generating activities (AIGAs) as a strategy to improve co-management. Gender-transformative approaches in smallscale fisheries and small-scale aquaculture have contributed to gender equality and women's empowerment-for example, catalyzing increases in women's engagement in fishing (from 5 to 75% of women) and enhancing women's contributions to intrahousehold decisions about the income generated from processing fish (from 45 to 94% in Zambia).Significant gains were made toward meeting SLO 2.3: 2.4 million more people, of which 50% are women, without deficiencies in one or more essential micronutrients. The CRP documented increased fish consumption and/or dietary diversification among 309,365 vulnerable women, children, and men associated with aquaculture and small-scale fisheries interventions. Examples include Cambodia, where 104,478 people consumed more fish at home following behavior change interventions associated with enhanced rice field fish productivity, and India, where 2,300 children received more fish through school feeding programs.Progress was also made toward SLO 3.1 (5% increase in water and nutrient efficiency in agroecosystems) and 3.2 (reduction in agriculturally related greenhouse gas emissions by 5%). To reduce water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, the FISH CRP increased efficient fish production by 4.8 million metric tons, according to the 2019 annual report. Overall, 400,000 metric tons (MT) of fish were produced under efficient management practices and technologies, reducing the water consumption by 37% and cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 22%. The FISH CRP target for SLO 3.3 is 3.3 million hectares (ha) of restored land and water ecosystems. A total of 981,771 ha of water area was added under improved management through co-management in four countries.The CRP is high quality and effective with regard to impact on policies in the target countries for both aquaculture and fisheries. A few examples from the 2019 annual report include the fish health commission in Bangladesh, feed policy in Zambia, FAO fisheries management, Myanmar government policy enabling rice fish culture, and national fish health policies developed in several African countries. FP1 and FP2 produced or influenced 19 and 27 policies, respectively. Setting appropriate policies is critical for providing the environment needed for impact. Policy change has led to the establishment of rice fish gateways, refuges, and ecosystems, providing impact toward multiple SLOs.FP1 is working with both small-scale and large-scale feed companies and having a large influence by increasing feed availability to small-scale farmers. This work has led large feed companies to engage with small-scale farmers, resulting in great impact. The nutritious pond concept and the use of novel ingredients in feed are being scaled through partnerships with Skretting, several national feed companies in Bangladesh, and DeHeus. Pilot projects in Vietnam on small farmer shrimp production also had promising results.Impacts sometimes are not evident until long after a CRP has ended. By employing and interacting with people in low-income countries, hard-to-measure qualitative impact can occur with changing culture and attitudes. A legacy example is found in the Solomon Islands, where WorldFish former in-country employees independently rescued and perpetuated giant clam brood stock during a period of civil unrest, according to the 2019 annual report. Recently, many years after the event, these individuals received an award from the Solomon Islands government for this heroic act.Finally, innovations' level of maturity-that is, their stage of development and adoption-is indicative of progress toward the ToC. Bibliometric data show that a total of 26 innovations reached stage 3 or 4, available/ready for uptake or uptake by next user.To derive findings related to this review question, the review team took a holistic view of research under the CRP and how the program has added value to that research, to assess (1) the potential future contribution of the program's deliverables at the CGIAR sub-IDO level; and (2) aspects of the program's management and governance (i.e., enabling environment, capacities, partnerships, etc.) that are considered to be useful for a future research modality.The past is an indicator of the future. FISH occupies a unique niche and is widely respected across the world. Historically and currently, FISH and its legacy CRPs and research programs been productive, of high quality, and effective. This section presents the conclusions of the review team by review questions and review sub-question based on analysis of data collected over the review period.The quality of the inputs is quite variable. However, mechanisms have been implemented to turn the main disadvantages to advantages, leading to overall inputs leading to effectiveness.• W1/W2 funding was inadequate.Funding is insufficient to conduct dissemination and impact research in genetics, as well as in other aspects of the FISH CRP, to fully accomplish the theory of change.Scientific expertise was of high quality, but output appears quite variable among the team.FISH is highly effective in leveraging available funding (4:1) and resources for increased funding, scientific expertise, and facilities access.Managing partners are highly supportive of FISH and its comparative advantages, which connects them to resources, research opportunities, outputs and impacts that they would not otherwise have. They desire a long-term relationship.There are shortcomings in number of WorldFish and managing partner scientists that are at least partially funded with W1/W2 resources, facilities, and budget. However, this is overcome by a vast network of high-quality collaborators, a legacy of effectiveness, the building of a very high-quality team, resulting in a high-quality CRP that is highly effective.In summary, low levels of investments such as small budgets, low number of core scientists, and insufficient facilities under FISH direct ownership, represent low-quality inputs, creating significant challenges for the lead center of FISH, WorldFish, and its managing partners and in-country stakeholdersThe CRP scientific processes are of high quality, facilitating high quality and effective outputs.• Scientific processes ensure high quality outputs and effectiveness.The director of aquaculture and fisheries has helped support a workplace that scientists perceive as transparent, communicative and lifts morale.MEL has implemented processes that are conducive to high quality outputs and effectiveness.The quality of scientific outputs, journal articles, grey outputs, germplasm, and tools are outstanding.• Germplasm outputs are outstanding with GIFT tilapia growing 18-200% faster than commonly used Nile tilapia and controls.Tools and technology developed is of high quality and have been recognized with awards.Many outputs are award winning.Journal articles are of very high quality, including one with 92 citations in 3 years or less.Grey outputs such as reports, manuals, blogs, videos, as well as scholarships, are numerous and of high quality and award winning (29 awards).The vast majority of planned outcomes have been achieved and are on track for likely total completion.The majority of milestones (76.7%) expected during 2017-2019 have been achieved.Both innovations and OICRs are numerous, 87 and 29, respectively.Outcomes greatly contributed to the cross-cutting issues, capacity development, climate change, gender and youth, particularly in a strong way for gender and least so for youth.The CRP achieved high-quality outcomes for Capacity Development, Climate Change, Gender, Youth and Partnerships despite the lack of predictability of funding and legacy timeframe for the CRP.• A total of 552,998 people received training in low-income countries with 69.8% being women. Scientists, farmers, fishers, various members of the value chain and students have received training.• Climate Change has produced extremely high-quality outputs and has made progress in the ToC with an increase of fish production resulting in a 37% and 22% reduction in water usage and greenhouse gases, respectively.• Gender has significantly increased the participation of women in fisheries and aquaculture, (women's engagement in fishing (from 5 to 75% of women), and for example, enhanced contributions to intrahousehold decisions about the income generated from processing fish from 45 to 94% in Zambia. Also, female empowerment in family contributions, their income and their access to nutritious foods increased.Gender has produced high quality and innovative outputs (four awards and recognitions).• Youth has been effective considering the low level of funding and was part of 5 OICRs.Management and government were effective in facilitating science and impact.• Management and governance have had a positive influence on the on the translation of research results into meaningful impacts.Impacts and budgets have both been tremendously leveraged due to the management style and reputation of FISH. FISH leadership has organized itself, other NGOs, research institutes, governments, and country partners into coordinated productive teams in various countries to enhance research and policy development.Excellent progress was made along the Theory of Change. Goals were high so much still needs to be accomplished. More has been accomplished than appears because of delayed impact assessment from lack of funding.• Significant progress has been along the Theory of Change, and the impact appears to grow each year. Hundreds of thousands of individuals in low-income countries have had income, empowerment and nutrition enhanced (the initial 2022 goal was 3.5 million people to exit poverty and nutrition of 2.4 million to be improved. • SLO 1.1 target was 5.0 million more farm households have adopted more improved varieties, breeds, and/or management practices and 104,215 have been reached, but assessment is incomplete. • SLO 1.2 Target was 3.5 million people assisted to exit poverty, of which 50% are women, and 350,477 have been assisted to date. • SLO 2.3 target was 2.4 million more people without deficiencies in one or more essential micronutrients, of which 50% are women, with 309,365 without deficiencies thus far. • SLO 3.1 target was to increase of efficient fish production by 4.8 million metric tons to reduce water consumption 5% and thus far 400,000 MT more fish were produced, decreasing water usage 37%. • SLO 3.2 target was to increase of efficient fish production by 4.8 million metric tons to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 5%, and thus far 400,000 MT more fish were produced, decreasing greenhouse gas by 22%. • SLO 3.3 target was to restore 3.3 million hectares (HA) of land and water ecosystems, and 981,771 HA of water was restored.Market actors and practitioners perceive that FISH has accomplished much that has benefited them greatly, look forward to more interaction and desire even more outputs and innovations in the future.Policy development and intervention has created an environment and landscape to improve the lives of the poor in respect to both benefits of aquaculture and small-scale fisheries.• Past and current accomplishments, resources, inputs, networks, and collaborations predict that high quality of science and effectiveness will continue.Uncertainty of funding and COVID-19 are potential obstacles that could prevent high quality of science and effectiveness.In relation to One CGIAR, with its emphasis on food (land and water) systems, FISH can provide a sound foundation and starting point to the future One CGIAR. Most of the flagships, clusters and cross-cutting themes are highly impactful and should be continued to derive full benefit from the strong foundation that has been laid. Genetics, feed stuffs, diseases (the most important problem in aquaculture), nutritious ponds, micronutrients, small scale fisheries in general, rice refuges, policy enhancement, the small community self-management as a continuum and gender standout, in particular. Youth and climate change are difficult topics, and perhaps increased collaboration with other centers in One CGIAR would be beneficial. Obviously, increased efforts on impact assessment research should be part of the way forward.1. Effectiveness is not just total numbers of people reached. Retention of knowledge and performance of outputs and tools must be measured.2. Involving small communities as a continuum of coordinated management units and teaching them conservation and fish management principles while giving them ownership through self-governance and enforcement can be highly effective in sustaining and increasing a natural resource that ultimately greatly increases the income and nutrition of low-income communities.3. Partnering with medium and large enterprises in transferring technology to the poor can increase the likelihood of successful dissemination, with benefits for the entire value chain.4. Facilitating communication between men and women can break down barriers, resulting in greater empowerment and participation of women while increasing their income and self-satisfaction.This section presents the recommendations of the review team by review question based on analysis of data collected over the review period. It also presents CGIAR system-level recommendations.1. Efforts to unify and reduce reporting effort should continue.2. The interaction of small-and large-scale fisheries should be given slightly more consideration in the future. 3. Slightly more emphasis on reproduction has the potential to enhance quality of science and effectiveness in both aquaculture and small-scale fisheries as outlined in this review.1. More funding needs to be devoted to research on impact assessment.2. The value of various traits differs among countries. To increase impact, different lines will likely need to be developed for different countries.3. The development of genetically enhanced tilapia is at a critical juncture. To make a quantum leap forward, either multiple trait selection or the simultaneous use of multiple genetic enhancement programs is needed.4. The poor are not always in a position to adopt some of the most effective new technologies. Increased involvement of medium and large private businesses may help with technology transfer to the poor and may open employment for the poor, shifting the paradigm toward more exporting of foods and fish and less importing, improving the nutrition and quality of life of the poor.5. An increased number of manuals and grey outputs should be produced in the native tongue of the target countries.1. Shortcomings in resources and inputs were overcome by partnering and leveraging with high-quality scientists from universities, research institutions, NGOs, and other CRPs, creating a large web or network. The legacy, reputation, and vast network of WorldFish have allowed them to leverage the investment in FISH into a high-quality and effective CRP, and this strategy should continue.2. Partners stated that WorldFish's reputation and network have allowed them to obtain significant bilateral funding and partnerships with universities, research institutions, the private sector, and governments that bring resources and funds into the CRP; thus \"the spider has spun an enormous, highly effective, and high-quality web.\" Respondents describe the strategy as \"to work with the best,\" an approach and result recognized and highly admired by all partners interviewed, including all managing partners, several private companies, end users, and country partners, and this should continue.3. Harnessing Global Fisheries to Tackle Micronutrient Deficiencies was extremely impactful research. Perhaps small-scale fisheries, aquaculture systems, and genetics should diversify even more in the future and gravitate more toward increasing micronutrients and protein, not just protein. This paper focuses upon marine fish, and it would be impactful to repeat this analysis with freshwater fish.4. Although this CRP is high quality and effective, small improvements in communication would be beneficial for improving the remaining life of FISH. Perhaps a small number of team-building exercises could be considered to improve communication, trust, empathy, and respect between administration and research, which would likely impact quality and effectiveness.5. Most of the flagships, clusters, and cross-cutting themes are highly impactful and should be continued in One CGIAR to derive full benefit from the strong foundation that has been laid. Genetics, feed stuffs, diseases (the most important problem in aquaculture), nutritious ponds, micronutrients, small-scale fisheries in general, rice refuges, policy enhancement, small community self-management as a continuum, and gender stand out in particular. More impact assessment research should be instituted. Youth and climate change are difficult topics, and increased collaboration with other Centers in One CGIAR may be beneficial.1. Quality of science and effectiveness would benefit in the future if delays in funding and early termination of CRPs could be avoided.2. The main objectives of the unfunded FP3 (enhancing the contribution of fish for the nutrition and health of the poor) were integrated into FP1 and FP2. This has been one of the most successful and impactful areas of research and should receive increased support in the future.3. The FISH CRP, which had a relatively small budget, has done an excellent job of leveraging resources (US$4 per every dollar invested), and increased support would likely result in a good return on investment.4. More funding needs to be devoted to research on impact assessment.5. More funding needs to be devoted to the highly impactful work on small-scale fisheries.","tokenCount":"13102"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5aa5f8943e1199878a7e8262e8544d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96ab722e-f42e-4ea0-8872-54502d41d3a6/retrieve","id":"1767660162"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0edbc1b-6b8f-41bf-83b5-be5fa96e1845","pagecount":"38","content":"• Informal markets have no agreed definition. Defined by what they are not.• Traditional, wet, informal, territorial markets: selling dry, fresh (even live) food all over the world.• Often poor infrastructure, lack health and safety regulation, traditional foods, some but not all compliance with regulations.Informal Markets or Majority Markets?Roesel & Grace, 2015 Two decades of research in Majority Markets• From a niche to a major concern, personally:• Edited 3 books• >200 papers• 81 chapters• >20 policy processes• 30 graduate fellows• 36 projects PI and co-PI Food Safety Solutions• Pioneered research in the neglected area of informal, traditional food markets which are responsible for most of the burden of foodborne disease.• Risk-targeted approaches re-focusing priorities from food fears to impact on health and economic costs.• First quantitative risk assessments in LMICs and first estimate of economic cost of FBD In LMICs.• Contributed to AU Food Safety Strategy for Africa • 14 major interventions in 9 countries reaching > 10 million HH and reducing food pathogens up to 50%.• Integrated gender, nutrition, waste and animal welfare with food safety.The future of food safety in Majority Markets ","tokenCount":"184"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b814340c815b054339cf51b569a63c3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H032637.pdf","id":"1737092707"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e905451f-c61f-4007-8b23-1148995368b6","pagecount":"14","content":"The opportunity for increasing water productivity under saline conditions is contingent on the determination and accurate implementation of the leaching requirement needed to prevent unnecessary percolation below the root zone. The leaching fraction of the applied irrigation water percolates through the root zone to maintain soil salinity at an acceptable level. Crop water use (evapotranspiration) and leaching requirement (LR) together constitute the beneficial depletion of the water resource. Evapotranspiration and leaching are linked through the yield-water-production function. The more the crop growth is affected by salinity, the lower the evapotranspiration and the higher the leaching fraction of the applied irrigation water.Crops differ in their tolerance for salinity. Under controlled conditions, crops have salinity threshold values below which crop yields are not affected. However, evidence is presented that under field conditions, where plants are subjected to periodic and simultaneous water and salt stress and to non-uniform water application, yields are lowered by salt concentrations below the assumed threshold values. In addition, rather than having one specific seasonal crop salt tolerance (threshold value), crops react differently depending on the timing of the imposed salinity stress.Irrigation water that is consumed by evapotranspiration leaves the remaining water more concentrated with salts. The leaching requirement increases with the salinity of the water supply and the sensitivity of the crop for salinity. This chapter illustrates how uncertainty about LR, resulting in part from uncertainty about yield-salinity relations, imposes constraints on the possible improvement of water productivity under saline conditions. The chapter points out implications for the successful production of crops with a mixture of saline water and good-quality irrigation water (e.g. conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water).Saline water has been successfully used to grow crops. Saline water can be mixed with better-quality water prior to application, or the two types of water may be applied intermittently. Sensitivity may vary during the growing season, but crops apparently respond to the weighted mean water salinity regardless of the blending method (Letey, 1993). An example of a crop often irrigated with saline water is cotton. Even when irrigated with water of relatively high salinity, the yield of cotton is nearly as much as when irrigated with good-quality water. Cotton is considered a salt-tolerant crop. More sensi-tive crops can also be irrigated with relatively saline water, but they are likely to yield less than when irrigated with goodquality water. Equally high yields, as with the application of non-saline water, can often be obtained by applying more of the saline water. As the salinity of irrigation water increases, its effective quantity decreases (Letey, 1993). The degree by which the quantity is diminished depends on the crop to be grown and the relative yield to be achieved. This relationship is expressed in crop-watersalinity functions.During the last 100 years, many experiments have been carried out to determine the salt tolerance of crops. Maas and Hoffman (1977) carried out a comprehensive analysis of salt-tolerance data, which was updated by Maas (1990). Based on this analysis, Maas and Hoffman (1977) concluded that crop yield as a function of the average root-zone salinity could be described reasonably well by a piecewise linear response function characterized by a salinity threshold value below which the yield is unaffected by soil salinity and above which yield decreases linearly with salinity. This relationship is found to be varietyspecific, and it may also depend on the unique soil conditions, evaporative demand and water-management conditions (van Genuchten and Gupta, 1993).The threshold-slope model of Maas and Hoffman (1977) has been used widely in a variety of applications in research and water management. Nevertheless, other salinity response functions have been found equally successful in describing the observed data on crop salt tolerance (e.g. van Genuchten and Hoffman, 1984;Dinar et al., 1991). One of the problems with the threshold-slope model in describing experimental data is the rather poor definition of the salinity threshold value for data sets that are poorly defined or erratic or have limited observations. An example of such data is presented in Fig. 6.1 for wheat grown in the Fordwah-Eastern Sadiqia Project of Pakistan -from data reported by Kahlown et al. (1998). The relationship between yield and salinity of the applied irrigation water is even more difficult to ascertain, as illustrated in Fig. 6.2, also from Kahlown et al. (1998).A smooth S-shaped response function, as proposed by van Genuchten and Hoffman (1984), describes the various reported data sets at least as well (see also van Genuchten and Gupta, 1993). The equation for the Sshaped curve is:In this equation, Y is the yield, Ym yield under non-saline conditions, c is average root-zone salinity, c 50 is the soil salinity at which the yield is reduced by 50% and p is an empirical constant. The curve shown in Fig. 6.3 is for wheat with an average value of p = 3 and c 50 = 23.9 dS m Ϫ1 . Van Genuchten and Gupta (1993) reported that the value of p in Equation 6.1 is close to 3 for most crops.Based on lysimeter studies in California, Dinar et al. (1991) derived quadratic yield response functions relating yield to the seasonal amount of irrigation water, its average salt concentration and the average soil salinity at the beginning of the season. A major conclusion from this study is that a direct relation between yield and average seasonal salinity does not apply to conditions where several factors are interrelated. For example, when salinity of the soil and the applied water is high and the amount of applied water is not sufficient, average soil salinity itself will not explain yield reduction. One should have relationships between water quantity, water quality, yield, soil salinity and drainage volumes. The quantity of drainage water is likely to increase as more  Kahlown et al., 1998).water is applied, with higher initial salinity levels of the root zone and with higher salt concentration in the irrigation water. This behaviour implies that increased salinity of the irrigation water results in smaller or fewer plants with decreased evapotranspiration rates and, hence, in greater deep percolation for a given irrigation application.When the salinity is mainly the result of sodium salts, the structure of the soil will be adversely affected. High values of the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) in the soil can cause the hydraulic parameters, such as percolation rate and infiltration rate, to change significantly. The potential hazard of reduced water infiltration is partly related to the intensity and timing of rainfall. Rainwater has a very low salinity. When it infiltrates the soil, the salinity of surface soil can decrease rapidly, but the soil may remain at almost the same ESP. As a result, the potential of dispersion by rainfall is especially high if the ESP of the soil is high. Rainfall also contributes dispersive energy because of its impact on the soil (Kijne et al., 1998). So far, these effects of sodicity have not been incorporated in any of the saltresponse functions. It is to be expected that, with sodic soils, reduced plant growth and, hence, reduced evapotranspiration will not lead to increased percolation for a given irrigation application. Percolation into sodic soils may be so slow that most of the irrigation water will runoff without leaching salts from the root zone.Apart from the S-shaped relation between yield and soil salinity (Equation 6.1), quadratic yield functions were developed by Dinar et al. (1991), quadratic, log-log and linear functions by Datta et al. (1998) and a linear function by Lamsal et al. (1999). None of these functions show a threshold salinity below which yield is unaffected by salinity. There is now considerable evidence from field observations that yield starts to decline at much lower values of soil salinity than predicted by the threshold-slope functions of Maas and Hoffman (1977). For example, Hussain (1995) reported field data that illustrated this earlier response, and Katerji et al. (2000) confirmed this effect in their lysimeter experiments in Bari, Italy. Shalhevet (1994), in a seminal paper on the use of marginal water ) Fig. 6.2. Yield as a function of irrigation-water salinity (from Kahlown et al., 1998). for crop production, observed that under conditions of high evaporative demand the salinity response function may change so that the threshold salinity decreases and the slope increases, rendering the crop more sensitive to salt. Tyagi (2001) reported a set of empirical relations between relative yield, the amount of water applied as a fraction of panevaporation and the salinity of the applied water. These relations were developed at the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India, for five crops, including wheat, cotton and maize. The curvilinear relations reflect the local conditions and show a gradual decline in yield with an increase in salinity of the irrigation water.The effect of salinity on yield differs depending on the timing of the salt stress, another factor not considered in saltresponse functions. Zeng et al. (2001) and Francois et al. (1994) reported the importance of timing of salt stress on yield components for rice and wheat, respectively. Shalhevet (1994) hypothesized that the duration of salinization is more significant than sensitivity at a critical growth stage. Zeng et al. (2001) argued that this hypothesis can only be tested when the salt-stress periods during the various well-defined growth stages are of equal length, which is the way they designed their experiments. Hence, at least for rice, they repudiated the hypothesis.In general, yields in farmers' fields tend to be lower for a combination of factors than those predicted on the basis of yields obtained under more controlled conditions (see, for example, Warrick, 1989;Howell et al., 1990;Kijne, 1998). Contributing factors appear to include at least the following: spatial variability of soil structure and fertility, water-application rates, soil salinity, plant density and temporal variability in sensitivity of crops to drought and salt stresses.The accuracy with which yields can be predicted is relevant in the assessment of leaching requirements. Leaching is a nonproductive but beneficial water use. Without maintaining an acceptable salt balance in the root zone, it would not be possible to continue to grow crops in many irrigated areas of the world. But how much water should be allocated to leaching? Guerra et al. (1998) report data for seepage and percolation in rice-fields ranging from 1-5 mm day Ϫ1 in puddled clay soils to as high as 24-29 mm day Ϫ1 in lighter-textured soils. Seepage occurs in irrigation canals but percolation occurs over the whole area planted with rice. The reported range of values implies that percolation from rice-fields can vary from the same order of magnitude as evapotranspiration up to about eight times as much. The latter is surely excessive in terms of salinity control. In this chapter, the focus will be on leaching requirements for non-rice crops.In most definitions of irrigation efficiency and water productivity, no allowance is made for leaching as beneficial use of irrigation water (Seckler et al.,Chapter 3,this volume).Water-productivity values vary with the geographical scale, as Keller and Keller (1995) illustrated for the Nile valley. A major cause of this variation is the fact that runoff or drainage from one field may be reused on another. However, because of its higher salt content, drainage water is inevitably of lower quality than the applied irrigation water. Even runoff will be degraded if it picks up disease organisms, agricultural chemicals or salt (Solomon and Davidoff, 1999).Reuse of drainage water (including seepage from canals and percolation from fields) between parts of an irrigation system or within an entire river basin complicates the distinction between consumptive and nonconsumptive beneficial use of water (Molden et al.,Chapter 1,this volume). To correctly determine the potential for reuse of drainage flows, it is necessary to account for all components of the salt and water balances at the different geographical scales and to know the leaching requirements for the crops to be grown.High water tables are often associated with irrigated agriculture. They provide a source of water for plant growth through capillary rise of water into the root zone. Substantial contributions from shallow groundwater to crop water requirements have been reported in the literature (e.g. Grismer and Gates, 1991;Letey, 1993). However, when this shallow groundwater is saline, the harmful effects caused by the salt accumulation in the root zone probably out-weigh the potential benefits of the groundwater as a source of water for plant production. Usually, the only option for sustaining agricultural production on fields underlain by shallow saline groundwater is to install a subsurface drainage system. Thorburn et al. (1995), studying the uptake of saline groundwater by eucalyptus forests in part of the flood-plains of the Murray River in South Australia, showed that groundwater depth and salinity are the main controls on the uptake of groundwater, while soil properties appear to have a lesser effect. Model studies indicated that uptake of saline groundwater would result in complete salinization of the soil profile within 4 to 30 years at the sites studied, unless salts were leached from the soil by rainfall or floodwaters. However, a relatively small amount of leaching may be sufficient to allow groundwater uptake to continue. Thus groundwater, even when saline, may be an important source of water to salt-tolerant plants and trees in arid and semi-arid areas. Grismer and Gates (1991) carried out a stochastic simulation study for a salinityaffected area underlain by a shallow water table, representative of conditions in the western San Joaquin valley of California. The model analyses the effects of irrigation-drainage management on watertable depth, salinity, crop yield and net economic returns to the farmer over a 20-year planning period. They found that cotton farming on salinity-affected soils subject to shallow saline groundwater is economically optimal if the application efficiency is 75Ϫ80%, which may be attainable with wellmanaged surface irrigation, and a subsurface drainage system is capable of removing 79Ϫ93% of the downward flux. The study illustrates the need to approach management strategies on irrigation and drainage together, from a regional perspective.The data for this chapter were collected at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)'s research sites in irrigation systems in the Indus River basin of Pakistan between 1988 and 1995. The salt problem of the Indus is formidable. Smedema (2000) reported that the average salt influx by the Indus river water, taken at the rim stations, is estimated at 33 million t, while the outflow to the sea contains only 16.4 million t. Hence, the average annual addition of salts to the land and the groundwater amounts to some 16.6 million t. Most of this accumulation takes place in the Punjab. This is in sharp contrast to Egypt, where a large portion of the irrigated land is underlain by subsurface drains that take the drainage water back to the river. The salts do not stay in the Nile basin but are discharged into the Mediterranean Sea. During part of the year, the salt content in the lower Indus is much lower than in the lower Nile (in the Nile delta) and more salt disposal into the Indus could be accepted. However, during critically low flow periods, such disposals would not be possible. The only option during such periods would be to store the drainage water temporarily for release during high flood periods. Extending the left bank outfall drain, now operating in Sindh, into the Punjab may provide a more permanent (but quite expensive) solution than the present inadequate number of evaporation ponds.Much of the drainage water from agricultural land in Pakistan's Punjab is being reused, either from surface drains or pumped up from shallow groundwater. The leached salts are therefore returned to the land rather than disposed of to the sea. IWMI's research sites in the Indus basin, the data-collection methodology and data analyses were described by Kijne (1996), Kuper and Kijne (1996) and Kuper (1997).Specifically, information on the quantity and quality of applied irrigation water at the study sites in Punjab, Pakistan, is obtained from Kijne (1996). The electrical conductivity (EC, i.e. the standard measure of salinity) of canal water was 0.2 dS m Ϫ1 in most of the experimental sites. The EC of pumped groundwater was obtained from measured values of water quality of tube wells in the sample areas. For the calculations of the salt balance of the study sites, Kijne (1996) used 2.5 dS m Ϫ1 as a representative value for the salinity of pumped groundwater, ignoring the large variations in water quality that often occur even from pumps close to one another. Average values of the leaching fraction (LF) (the fraction of the infiltrated applied water that passes below the root zone) for the three irrigation systems reported in these studies were between 10 and 15% (Kijne, 1996, Table 2).Data on LFs for four irrigated fields in the Fordwah-Eastern Sadiqia irrigation system, Chistian subdivision, Punjab, studied in considerable detail, are obtained from Kuper (1997). The latter set of data is summarized in Table 6.1.ECe is the electrical conductivity of soil water at saturation, the usual parameter for measuring soil salinity in the profile. The value in the third column refers to the linearly averaged electrical conductivity of soil water in the profile down to 1 m. No leaching for field 2 (last column of the table) indicates that there may have been capillary flow from the water table (water table was at 2 m depth).The spatial and temporal variability of soil salinity is large. Values in columns 4, 5 and 6 give some indication of the vertical spatial variability. Soil salinity increases when the soil dries out between irrigations or in rainfall events, and it varies greatly between upper and lower layers of the root zone. It is generally accepted that plants respond to the average salinity in the root zone and vary their water uptake in the growing season depending on relative values of the osmotic potential in the root zone.The excessive leaching in field 1 (leaching fraction of 0.65) is blamed on a combination of poor water management by the farmer and the light-textured soil with high permeability. Leaching in the other fields is inadequate for maintaining an average rootzone salinity equivalent to an ECe value of 2 dS m Ϫ1 . The attainable yield level under these low leaching conditions is less than the maximum.When more water is applied than is taken up by the plant roots, water flows out of the root zone and carries soluble substances, such as salts and agrochemicals, with it. During this process of downward flow (percolation), soil salinity in the root zone increases with depth. In planning the desired leaching requirement (LR), it is commonly assumed that EC values of the soil extract at the lower root-zone boundary corresponding to 25-50% yield reduction are still acceptable. The weighted average EC value for the entire root zone (weighted according to root distribution) would be much less than at the lower root-zone boundary and the corresponding yield reduction for plants growing in this soil would be less than 25-50%. Such yield reductions are assumed to be economically viable (Smedema and Rycroft, 1988).The rate of downward flow and leaching varies with the soil water content. It is highest during the first couple of days after irrigation, when the soil water content is still above or near field capacity. Thereafter, leaching continues at a much reduced rate. In many soils, the soil solution at field capacity is about twice as concentrated as when the soil is saturated (shortly after irrigation). When the soil dries out further between irrigations, the soil solution becomes even more concentrated.J.W. Kijne Not all downward flow is equally effective in leaching salts from the root zone. The most effective leaching occurs when water moves through the soil mass, rather than through cracks between aggregates. Water moving through cracks and wormholes has been called preferential flow. How much of the percolation occurs as preferential flow depends on the structure and texture of soil and is difficult to determine. As a result, the leaching efficiency of the percolating water is also difficult to assess. In cracking clay soils, initially as much as three-quarters of the applied water may flow through the cracks.Once the soil swells up with moisture, cracks close and the leaching efficiency increases (Smedema and Rycroft, 1988).In its simplest form, for steady-state conditions, the relation between the LR and the amounts of irrigation and drainage water and their EC reduces to:where D is depth of water (subscript a for applied water; subscript d for drained water) and EC is the corresponding electrical conductivity. Equation 6.2 states that the amount of salt added in the irrigation water must equal the amount drained to maintain the salt balance. If the actual LF is less than the requirement, salt will accumulate (Hoffman, 1990). The relationship between the salinity of the applied water, the LF and the resulting soil salinity is an important one. It would be easier to estimate expected yields if it were possible to unambiguously predict the soil salinity likely to result from irrigation applications of known salinity and a specified LF. Table 6.2 presents various relationships between LF and the dimensionless ratio of the average weighted root-zone salinity (Cs) and the average salinity of applied water (Ca).The values in the table are based on steady-state conditions. However, the relationship between soil and water salinity as governed by leaching is a dynamic one, subject to feedback mechanisms between growth of the crop (hence, evapotranspiration) and leaching of salts (see Dinar et al. (1991), referred to earlier). In all cases the salinitytolerance data are from threshold salinityresponse functions. In addition, the leaching equations ignore the effect of sodium salts on the soil structure. The variations among the data in the table are due to the site specificity of the relationship between root-zone salinity and salinity of applied water for any given leaching fraction. A contributing factor is the variability in measured values of the EC of soil-saturation extracts. The coefficient of variation of the EC of soil moisture at saturation is about 50% (Kijne, 1996) (see also Datta et al. (1998) and Tedeschi et al. (2001), who give similar values).The various analyses that resulted in the data in Table 6.2 indicate that the ratio of root-zone salinity to irrigation-water salinity is very sensitive to changes in the leaching amount at LF below 0.1. The implication is that a small change in the leaching amount can make a large difference in root-zone salinity. This ratio of root-zone salinity to irrigation-water salinity is less sensitive to changes in the leaching amount at LF values between 0.1 and 0.4, which are most common. Hence, in this range of LF values, rootzone salinity increases about linearly with the salinity of the applied water. Therefore, difficulties in the accurate determination of LF from field data can affect the fit of the leaching equations.The study by Prendergast (1993), in particular, emphasizes the need for local data of the salt-and waterbalance parameters.The leaching equation of Hoffman and van Genuchten (1983) uses a root wateruptake function that is exponential with depth and incorporates some empirical coefficients that can be adjusted according to the local conditions. Of the relations reported in Table 6.2, Hoffman and van Genuchten is probably most commonly used in modelling studies where a relationship between leaching and root-zone salinity is required. It is plotted in Fig. 6.4.Leaching water, as was pointed out before, is a beneficial, non-consumptive use of applied irrigation water. Its benefit is in the removal of salt from the root zone. If a portion of the drainage and runoff water is reused elsewhere in the irrigation system, part of their salt load is reapplied, rather than being removed, and the benefit of the drainage and runoff water is reduced. Solomon and Davidoff (1999) have presented analytical expressions relating irrigation-performance parameters for an irrigation system (called a unit) and its subunits (e.g. watercourse command areas (WCAs)) when drainage water and runoff from one subunit are reused on another. The performance parameters considered are the irrigation consumptive-use coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of irrigation water going to consumptive uses over irrigation water applied, and irrigation efficiency (IE) is defined as irrigation water beneficially used over irrigation water applied. The numerator of IE includes beneficial consumptive use (evapotranspiration), beneficial runoff and beneficial drainage water.Rather than following this analytical analysis, perhaps the same point can be made by the following simplified example. A series of WCAs of an irrigation system, characteristic of conditions in Pakistan's Punjab, apply a blend of canal water and some drainage water from the upstream command area. The EC of the blend applied to the first WCA is 1.35 dS m Ϫ1 . All WCAs require 100 units inflow to meet their consumptive-use demand (crop evapotranspiration). According to the relationships of Fig. 6.4, the LR is 0.2 to maintain the root-zone salinity at a level corresponding to an EC of 2 dS m Ϫ1 . Hence, rather than an inflow of 100 units, 100/(1 Ϫ LR) = 125 units of water need to be applied. The EC of the drainage water issuing from this first WCA is assumed to be 2.5 dS m Ϫ1 . In the first example, plotted in Fig. 6.5, the next WCA in line applies a blend consisting of 60% canal water and 40% drainage water from the upstream WCA. The second WCA has as its source of irrigation water a blend of water with an EC of 1.35 dS m Ϫ1 for the irrigation-water component and an EC of 2.5 dS m Ϫ1 for the drainage component, resulting in an EC of 1.8 dS m Ϫ1 . Its LR is 35% and the required inflow is 154 units of water. The drainage water from this second WCA has an EC equal to 2.7 dS m Ϫ1 . This procedure is repeated for four WCAs. The characteristic values for the fourth WCA are an inflow salinity of 2.5 dS m Ϫ1 , LR of 45%, inflow of 180 units and drainage salinity of 3.3 dS m Ϫ1 .The WCAs of the second example, plotted in Fig. 6.6, take only 10% of their applied water from the upstream drainage flow and 90% from the irrigation supply. In this case, the characteristic values for the fourth WCA are an inflow salinity of 1.74 dS m Ϫ1 , LR of 36%, inflow of 156 units and drainage salinity of 3.3 dS m Ϫ1 . The salinization of the water supply is slower when less water is taken from the more saline source. However, the trends are the same: more and more water from the 'good' source needs to be applied to the crop to maintain the root-zone salinity at an acceptable level.Field 3 in Table 6.1 referred to a farmer's field where the LF was only 0.07. For a water demand of 100 units, this small amount of leaching would bring the inflow to 108 units and, with an EC of 1.35 dS m Ϫ1 , as in our example, the average EC of the root-zone moisture would be about 10 dS m Ϫ1 . This level of root-zone salinity would lead to significant production losses of even salt-tolerant crops.Reuse of drainage flow from another WCA is very common in Pakistan's Punjab. Percolation from one WCA flows to the groundwater and is pumped up by tube wells for reuse elsewhere in the system. In many systems, pumped groundwater makes up between one-half and two-thirds of the irrigation water. Keller and Keller (1995) used a different method to calculate the leaching requirement:where ECa is the EC of the irrigation water and ECe is the EC of the soil-saturation extract for a given crop and a tolerable degree of yield reduction. They assumed an allowable ECe of 1.5 dS m Ϫ1 . The use of this equation leads to LR values that are almost identical to those obtained in the manner described above.Water Productivity under Saline Conditions 97 Several factors contributing to the present uncertainty about LRs have been mentioned.The most important ones derive from the inherent complexity of the dynamic plantsoil-water system in terms of its reaction to variations in water quality. Current saltresponse functions and leaching equations are valid for static conditions, whereas the system itself is a dynamic one, with seasonal changes in the quality of the applied water, especially where rainfall meets a large part of the crop water demand during one or part of one growing season. Feedback mechanisms in this dynamic system are poorly understood and have rarely been quantified.One example of such a mechanism is the increase in downward flow when crop evapotranspiration declines as a result of salt stress on the crop. Rather than one specific crop, cropping sequences should be considered (see the examples given by Tyagi, Chapter 5, this volume). If the reported threshold values for salt tolerance are too high for most field situations, LR values would be higher than calculated. The effect of this difference is probably small in view of the overall uncertainty in the calculation of leaching requirements. Depth of water table may vary throughout a season or from one season to another, and hence the potential contribution to the evaporative demand of the crop through capillary flow varies as well. The effect of irrigation water rich in sodium salts (alkaline water) on crop production and soil structure is not considered. Accurate determination of LRs is obviously not easy. Does it matter? It appears that under most conditions more than enough water is applied to the fields to meet the LR. Or, in other words, those low LFs reported in Table 6.2 must surely be exceptions rather than the rule. One gets that impression when considering the values of the relative water supply (the ratio of irrigation supply plus rainfall over water demand) and the relative irrigation supply (irrigation supply over demand) for 26 irrigation systems reported by Molden et al. (1998).Relative water supply values varied between 0.8 and 4.0 and half of the systems had values greater than 2.0. The reported variation in relative irrigation supply was between 0.41 and 4.81, while 22 of the 26 systems had values in excess of 1.5. The relative irrigation supply should be near 1 when irrigation supplies tightly fit the gap between demand and rainfall. System-wide values of these two parameters, however, do not tell us where the excess water is applied. In many irrigation systems, subsystems served by a distributary canal in the head reach of a system receive more water per unit land than those located in tail reaches of the same system. This same variation in water distribution is repeated at lower levels of the systems, i.e. between head and tail WCAs within a distributary command area and between farms located in head and tail reaches within the same WCA. The worst salinization often occurs in those tail areas.A more equitable distribution of water within irrigation systems and better knowledge of LRs would contribute to greater water productivity (yield per unit of water beneficially used for evapotranspiration and leaching of salts) than that presently occurring in many irrigation systems. A condition for such an improvement is more extensive monitoring of the amounts of water and salts applied to and drained from irrigation systems as a whole and especially from their subunits. The data collection should cover all aspects of the water and salt balances at the different levels of irrigation systems. Salemi et al. (2000) and Droogers et al. (2001) give examples of insights that come from modelling of the water and salt balances in respect of the relation between water application, its salinity and the resulting water productivity for different water application and salinity conditions. The effect of water quality on the attainable water productivity is apparent without explicit knowledge of the LR.Water productivity in rice cultivation has not been considered in this chapter. Paddy rice is often grown as an ameliorative crop. The high rates of percolation from the fields help reduce the salinity of the root zone for subsequent crops. A drawback of this approach is that rice is often grown on unsuitable lighttextured soils that are poorly puddled at the start of the season, leading to excessive percolation rates and rising water tables. Water productivity as low as 0.14 kg m Ϫ3 of water applied to the rice-fields has been recorded in Pakistan's Punjab. This uncontrolled leaching wastes water. Kotb et al. (2000) describe rice cultivation in salt-affected lands of the northern Nile delta in Egypt. They illustrate that the use of rice paddies to control salinity is faced with a number of constraints, such as periodic water shortages and salinity of supply water, which consists of a blend of fresh water and drainage water. Diversified cropping in the same subsurface drainage system compounds the problems, as rice and the other crops in the cropping system vary in their irrigation and drainage requirements. The authors propose that, to alleviate the problems of water shortage, the rice-cultivation area needs to be reduced by 50% and that rice cultivation in the delta should be consolidated to monitor its extent and to have uniform drainage requirements. Kotb et al. (2000) recommend rice cultivation only in saline soils of the delta but perceive that enforcement of such a policy may be difficult to achieve. In addition, longterm changes in the salinity of the delta water resulting from increased drainage-water reuse are not clearly known.This example is typical in two respects. In many developing countries, the long-term productivity impacts of using saline and sodic irrigation water are unknown and the enforcement of policy measures that would lead to greater equity of distribution is doubtful, at best. A set of measures suggested by Kuper (1997) for a specific command area in Pakistan's Punjab included diversion of good-quality canal water from head to tail reaches to improve the blend of irrigation water available in the tail reaches and thereby curtailing further salinization. The consequence of this measure was that less canal water would be available to headend farmers, who may object to this measure and compensate for their perceived shortage by pumping more groundwater and hence increasing the likelihood of salinization in the head reaches. The suggested measures were probably not economically viable or enforceable. Because of the current low levels of yield, the expected slight improvements in yield did not raise the economic returns in tail reaches by much (Kijne, 1998).Unfortunately, few data are available on the economics of salinity-control measures. One complicating factor in the calculation of benefit/cost ratios is that the potential yield level under non-saline conditions is not well known. Yield levels between 4 and 7 t ha Ϫ1 for wheat and rice irrigated with canal water in India's Punjab (e.g. Tyagi, Chapter 5, this volume, Tables 5.2 and 5.3) are lower than the maximum irrigated yields attained elsewhere when all growth factors are closer to their optimal value. This chapter has shown that the potential exists for improved water productivity by better-managed leaching practices but is not easily realized. Better knowledge is needed about the magnitude and interaction of the various components of the water and salt balances under field conditions and their changes over time. Those studies are expensive and timeconsuming. Modelling studies, such as those discussed by Salemi et al. (2000) and Droogers et al. (2001), will contribute to our understanding, but they need to be validated in the field. In addition, it should be realized that the recommendations arising from such studies are probably difficult to implement. Reallocation of water supplies to achieve greater equity in access to and quality of water for farmers in different parts of irrigation systems requires greater management inputs and control. Using good-quality water only for high-value crops and poor-quality water for fodder crops and trees is politically unacceptable in a country like Pakistan, where the introduction of such measures would lead to greater poverty and unemployment for those farmers left with the saline groundwater. Reducing cropping intensities or changing cropping patterns to ensure adequate leaching applications is also likely to increase the gap between relatively rich and poor farmers.In the long term, the installation of subsurface drains in a substantial portion of Pakistan's Punjab and the disposal of saline effluent into salt sinks and ultimately into the sea may be unavoidable. The investments required for this type of work are huge. The recent gradual decline in multilateral infrastructural investments in agriculture gives no reason to think that improved drainage will happen soon. In the meantime, yield levels and water productivity will remain lower than necessary.","tokenCount":"6055"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"329579d2849735d73bbae719c1f49a68","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/247ebf5a-4d99-441f-bc06-79fea40128ad/retrieve","id":"-594372765"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec8e5890-4f29-4582-93e6-3a42d1cff35b","pagecount":"53","content":"En un intento por estratificar las poblaciones rurales de ese país, me sentí intranquila de aplicar criterios venidos desde el exterior de las comunidades locales. lA técnica de Barbara Grandin para clasificar el \"bienestar\" me proporcionó una alternativa. Me sentí entusiasmada al ver la facilidad con la cual la población local proporcionaba una medida integral del bienestar, basada en sus propias percepciones .La desventaja de tales clasificaciones es que son sencillamente específicas de una localidad. En una investigación posterior traté de superar esta limitación mediante la determinación de técnicas para extrapolar, cuantificar y combinar indicadores que fueron identificados mooiante clasificaciones del bienestar; de ese modo se pudieron obtener perfiles regionales que fueron compatibles con las clasificaciones locales de la pobreza hechas en las localidades.El método descrito aquí es un producto de la investigación que sobre este tema se ha hecho hasta el presente. El trabajo se realizó en Tanzania (1989Tanzania ( -1991)), Zimbabwe (1993-1994) Y Colombia (1994-1996). Pronto se realizará en Honduras una prueba adicional del método dentro del marco de un proyecto dirigido por el CIA T con recursos financieros del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID). Indudablemente, necesitaremos revisar aún más el método con 10 que aprendamos acerca de sus ventajas y defic:encias en Honduras.Aunque hay que trabajar más este 11'étodo, decidimos presentarlo a un público más amplio con la esperanza de adquirir la experiencia que nos falta para mejorarlo un poco más. En consecuencia, cualquier comentario que se haga sobre el método será bien recibido.Muchas son las personas que contribuyeron a la realización de este trabajo. Los numerosos pobladores de Tanzania, Zimbabwe y Colombia, quienes suministraron una valiosa apreciación de los conceptos locales de bienestar y pobreza; J annik Boesen, director de investigación del Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo en Copenhague, Dinamarca, por la ayuda que prestó al desarrollo del sistema de puntaje que sirve para convertir los indicadores cualitativos en variables cuantificables y para combinarlos en un índice de bienestar; y Hans-Dtto Sano, profesor asociado de Roskilde University Centre, Dinamarca, por sus valiosos aportes a nuestra discusión sobre la medición de la pobreza.Agradezco a todas estas personas por su contribución al manual, pero asumo la responsabilidad por aquellos errores o ambigüedades que todavía persistan. Helle Munk Ravnborg vii ; . , Introducción El alivio de la pobreza es un objetivo importante de muchos programas. proyectos y políticas de desarrollo. Para disenar o evaluar una actividad que pretenda aliviar la pobreza, quienes participen en ella deben ser capaces de:• comprender lo que significa ser pobre;• considerar la forma en que las condiciones de los pobres difieren de las de los menos pobres; y• poder evaluar el número de personas pobres en diferentes partes del área elegida como objetivo.Ahora bien, resulta inquietante observar que, con frecuencia, esos trabajadores saben muy poco acerca de estos aspectos. Casi siempre, la información disponible es solamente general, y se ha obtenido mediante la utilización, por ejemplo, de la denominada\" relación per cápita\". Esta relación describe la fracción proporcional de una población en un área objetivo -por ejemplo, un municipio-cuyo ingreso o gasto se calcula inferior a un cierto nivel. Por lo regular, este nivel es el que se considera necesario para llenar los requerimientos nutricionales mínimos.¿Por qué tiene importancia la medición de la pobreza?Esta medición, junto con otras convencionales usadas para calcular los niveles de pobreza, son importantes por varias razones. En primer lugar, afectan significativamente nuestra comprensión de la pobreza, y se utilizan frecuentemente en el diseno de estrategias e intervenciones importantes destinadas a aliviar la pobreza.Sin embargo, no indican la fuente de la cual derivan su ingreso los pobres y los menos pobres. ni la forma en que lo gastan. Tampoco revelan las diferencias de ingreso existentes dentro de un área objetivo. En consecuencia, dichas medidas están siendo calificadas cada vez más como \"reduccionistas\". Por ejemplo, Chambers (1988)  dice: ..... la pobreza es vista como algo que se mide y se muestra en estadísticas .... por consiguiente, la pobreza se define no por los deseos y las necesidades cambiantes y variadas de los pobres, sino por los deseos y las necesidades más estáticas y estandarizadas de los profesionales. La necesidad que tienen los analistas de manejar números hace más estrecha su percepción de la pobreza. Desde el punto de vista conceptual, los profesionales están atrapados en su propia trampa de la pobreza. n La pobreza. como lo han señalado diversos autores, es un problema multifacético, que experimentan millones de personas en todo del mundo. No puede ser comprendida ix EvaÚú1Ción de Pobrt:a RuraL. .. adecuadamente por medidas unidimensionales basadas en el ingreso o en el gasto (Chambers, 1988;Jazairy et al., 1992;UNDP, 1990).En segundo lugar, las mediciones de la pobreza son significativas por cuanto desempeñan un papel importante en la identificación y el diseño de intervenciones concebidas para aliviar la pobreza. Con mucha frecuencia esas mediciones estimulan la creación de diseños en lo' :uales puede medirse y reconocerse el impacto de una intervención dada; por ejemplo, se estudia el aumento proporcional de una población cuyo ingreso anual es superior a un cierto \"nivel de pobreza\", en tanto que otras dimensiones no cuantificadas -como la variación estacional del ingreso-se pasan por alto. En consecuencia, las mediciones imperfectas de la pobreza tienden a desembocar en intervenciones mal diseñadas.Finalmente, las mediciones de la pobreza son la herramienta con que se determina el número de personas pobres que viven en una región específica y la forma en que este número cambia con el transcurso del tiempo. Por consiguiente, podemos evaluar, entre varias situaciones, la que ha sido golpeada por la pobreza; esa evaluación servirá, por ejemplo, antes o después de una intervención dada, o para países que hayan desarrollado diferentes políticas, o para países que compitan como candidatos para recibir el apoyo de donantes. Esos análisis, basados en el uso de la relación per cápita, son la base de la estrategia del Banco Mundial para el alivio de la pobreza (World Bank, 1990;1992). Para responder a la crítica de las mediciones convencionales de la pobreza, el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) ideó una medición multidimensional de la pobreza que se llamó indice de desa\"olIo humano. Esta medida combina datos sobre la esperanza de vida al nacer, la tasa de alfabetismo adulto y el PIB real ajustado per capita. Sin embargo, este enfoque también tiene deficiencias. Como sucede con las mediciones convencionales, el índice de desarrollo humano del PNUD es una medida estática: describe la pobreza como un estado de privación y no considera los procesos que conducen a la pobreza o la intensifican. Ninguna de las medidas estáticas renejan las relaciones existentes entre los pobres y los menos pobres (Jazairy et al., 1992;  Rahman y Hossain, 1992; Ravnborg y Sano, 1994).En este manual describimos la manera de desarrollar una medición más integral de la pobreza que refleje tanto la naturaleza multidimensional de ésta como los procesos que la crean o la mantienen. El fundamento de nuestra metodología es la investigación de las percepciones locales de pobreza (o del bienestar, que es su antítesis). Por lo tanto, los conceptos locales y no las perspectivas externas servirán de base para más aplicaciones a un nivel más global de la medición de la pobreza. . ,El manual describe la manera de generar percepciones locales de la pobreza y de extrapolarlas y cuantificarlas para desarrollar un perfil regional de la pobreza. Este perfil ayuda no sólo a determinar el nivel regional de pobreza (como se hacía con las medidas convencionales), sino también a identificar y caracterizar a los pobres y a los menos pobres.Además, la medición de la pobreza que discutimos aquí, requiere datos que son relativamente fáciles de obtener, en comparación con los datos de ingresos o gastos que se necesitan para las mediciones convencionales de la pobreza -datos notoriamente difíciles de obtener. Por ejemplo, entrevistas de seis horas por hogar fueron empleadas como promedio de la encuesta doméstica integrada de los SDA del Banco Mundial\\ (Delaine et al., 1992) con que se obtienen los niveles nacionales de pobreza. En nuestra metodología, en cambio, una entrevista tendría en promedio, 15 a 30 minutos de duración.El manual está dirigido a profesionales que participan tanto en el diseño, la planeación y la evaluación de actividades de investigación o desarrollo -o de ambos tipos-como en el trabajo de establecer prioridades para tales actividades. La metodología se desarrolló para zonas rurales donde predomina la producción agrícola a pequeña escala, el manual describe la metodología en los siguientes nueve pasos:1. Selección de sitios 2. Clasificación de bienestar dentro de una comunidad 3. Agrupación de los hogares en categorías promedio de bienestar 4. Extrapolación a toda el área ~studiada de las clasificaciones de bienestar de las comunidades muestreadas 5. Cuantificación de los indicadores de bienestar 6. Elaboración ue un índice de bienestar para toda la zona de estudio 7. Verificación de la lógica interna y externa del índice de bienestar 8. Definición de categorías de bienestar basadas en el índice 9. Creación y utilización de un perfil regional de pobreza Del Paso l al Paso 4 muestra: (1) la manera de obtener percepciones locales de la pobreza mediante la aplicación de una técnica que obtiene niveles de bienestar en sitios seleccionados, y (2) determina hasta qué punto pueden extrapolarse estas percepciones a toda el área de estudio. Esta técnica fue desarrollada primero por Silverman (1966) para estudiar el prestigio en una comunidad italiana. Posteriormente fue modificada y descrita por Barbara Grandin (1988) en su manual de campo Wealrh Ranking in Small1wlder Communities. Al lector que no esté todavía familiarizado con la técnica de clasificación del bienestar puede serie útil leer primero el Paso 2 para luego devolverse a leer el Paso l.Del Paso 5 al Paso 9 se indica la manera de convertir las descripciones de bienestar en varios ¡ndíc..... res de bienestar cuantificables y la forma de combinarlos en un {ndicl' de bienestar. Sugerimos que la información sobre estos indicadores de bienestar se obtenga mediante la aplicación de una encuesta de hogares a una muestra aleatoria en la zona de estudio. El empleo del índice de bienestar permite desarrollar un perfil de bienestar o perfil de pobreza para la totalidad de la zona de estudio; de este modo describe la prevalencia de la pobreza en la población de esa área y las condiciones de los pobres y de los menos pobres.A lo largo de todo el manual ilustramos la forma en que funcionó el método en un estudio de caso de una \"microcuenca\" del río Cabuyal, en el sur de Colombia (Figura 1) . Paso 1Entre las entidades interesadas en el alivio de la pobreza hay programas internacionales de investigación, agencias gubernamentales y organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONGs). Se caracterizan por trabajar en áreas demasiado grandes que no les permiten indagar acerca de las percepciones locales en cada sitio de sus áreas respectivas para crear así indicadores de bienestar para esos sitios. Si usted trabaja en una de estas entidades, necesitará elegir ciertos sitios dentro del área establecida. Una vez que haya identificado percepciones de bienestar en estos sitios seleccionados, debe determinar luego hasta dónde se aplican en toda el área.Trate de identificar tantas percepciones de bienestar diferentes como le sea posible (es decir, evite identificar una percepción •promedio• del bienestar). De lo contrario, no podrá justificar o validar la extrapolación a un área más grande de las percepciones halladas en los sitios seleccionados. Esto significa que necesitará seleccionar los sitios utilizando una estrategia de muestreo de máxima variación.Para identificar percepciones locales de bienestar -como se explica en el Paso 2será necesario seleccionar sitios cuya población sea de 40 a 100 hogares.Para determinar cuáles y cuántos sitios pueden elegirse, deben hacerse primero suposiciones acerca de los factores que puedan causar la existencia de diferentes percepciones del bienestar; es decir, los factores que explican la variación en su área de estudio. Tales factores se llaman factores de muestreo.Si encuentra que alguno de los datos a nivel de la comunidad es difícil de obtener o que la zona de estudio abarca un número excesivamente grande de comunidades, entonces puede usted muestrear en dos etapas:Primera: Describa la zona de estudio según los factores de muestreo pero para una • población • más grande que la comunidad, como el municipio o el distrito. Utilice la estrategia de muestreo de máxima variación para seleccionar (por ejemplo) varios municipios iguales al número de las comunidades que desea incluir en la muestra final.Segunda: Continúe con la descripción de las comunidades dentro de cada municiplv seleccionado según los factores de muestreo. Seleccione luego la comunidad que mejor represente el municipio en su totalidad, según los factores de muestreo.Los siguientes son ejemplos de factores que influyen en la existencia de diferentes percepciones del bienestar: la distribución de la tierra; las condiciones agroecológicas; la presencia de instituciones (de cédito, escuelas, centros de salud y ONGs); la composición étnica; la densidad de la población (que indica presión general sobre los recursos\\' las condiciones físicas que facilita el acceso; y las oportunidades locales para empleo diferente al agrícola.Las condiciones agroecológicas, la facilidad de acceso físico y la densidad de la población indican las condiciones físicas generales de producción y, por tanto, las fuentes materiales de bienestar. En cambio, la composición étnica, por ejemplo, y el predominio relativo de cada grupo indican el rango de percepciones, posiblemente diferentes, de lo que constituye el \"bienestar\", dadas unas condiciones físicas similares o unas fuentes materiales de bienestar.Es frecuente que la información sobre todos estos factores sólo se recolecte o se encuentre disponible para áreas más grandes, como los municipios, y no para la comunidad. La disponibilidad de datos varía también de 'n factor a otro; por ejemplo, los datos detallados sobre densidad de población a menudo se encuentran disponibles a partir de los censos de población, mientras que apenas hay algunos datos sobre la distribución de la tierra. Generalmente hay información disponible sobre factores definidos ampliamente como condiciones agroecológicas, a saber: altitud, precipitación anual y tipos de suelo; topografía; facilidad de acceso (por ejemplo, por carretera); y composición étnica.Por consiguiente, usted tendrá que escoger los factores de muestreo para los cuales haya información disponible.Cuando seleccione el sitio, debe considerar no sólo la influencia que cada factor de muestreo ejerce por sí mismo, sino también la influencia que puede ejercer mediante su interacción con otros factores. Por ejemplo, la alta densidad de población junto con un acceso fácil puede conducir a percepciones del bienestar que difieran de aquellas en que hay alta densidad de población con deficienv; facilidades de acceso.Para nuestro estudio de la cuenca del río Cabuyal, elegimos cuatro factores de muestreo:Condiciones agroecológicas. Tomamos altitud como factor representativo y distinguimos entre sitios en zonas \"bajas\" (1.200 a 1.500 msnm), en zonas \"medias\" (1.500 a 1.700 msnm) y en zonas \"altas\" (1.700 a 2.200 msnm) (Figura 2). Facilidad de acceso. Unos sitios tenían buenas facilidades de acceso en la estación lluviosa o estaban próximos a la Carretera Panamericana (o cumplían ambas condiciones); en otros el acceso a ellos era difícil en la estación lluviosa o estaban lejos de la Carretera Panamericana (o cumplían ambas condiciones). -\"1500 Figura 2. Vía principal (Carretera Panamericana), límites administrativos de los distritos del poblado y curvas de nivel (m) de la cuenca do! rfo Cabuya!, a! sur de Colombia .Densidad de población. Los sitios estaban más densamente poblados (factor \"alto\") o menos densamente poblados (factor \"bajo\") que el promedio para el área 2 • La composición étnica de los habitantes era predominantemente mestiza o predominantemente indígena.2.La densidad promodio de la población es de 70 persooasllun', coo UDa variación de 20 aPor lo tanto. para el primer factor de muestreo (condiciones agroecológicas) había tres opciones, mientras que para cada uno de los otros tres había dos opciones, lo que daba un conjunto de 24 combinaciones posibles). En consecuencia, para tener en cuenta todas estas combinaciones teóricamente posibles, y con ellas los patrones de interacción. debimos haber seleccionado 24 sitios.Sin embargo, en la realidad no siempre es posible incluir sitios que representen cada combinación teóricamente posible de factores de muestreo. Puede ser que sencillamente no existan algunas combinaciones o que el costo de incluir los sitios representando todas las combinaciones teóricamente posibles sea demasiado alto. En el último caso, usted tendrá que seleccionar algunas de las combinaciones teóricamente posibles.En un análisis a priori no puede excluirse ningún factor de muestreo por ser menos influyente que otros en la determinación de la existencia de diferentes percepciones de bienestar. Por lo tanto, el principio orientador debe ser seleccionar sitios con el máximo de co/Uraste, para lo cual se consideran simultáneamente todos los factores de muestreo. Una vez que haya seleccionado un número de combinaciones equivalente al número de sitios convenidos por usted para incluir en el estudio, entonces debería escoger un sitio de cada combinación que seleccionó.Por ejemplo, en el Recuadro l se describen ías 1 l comunidades de la cuenca del río Cabuyal con respecto a los factores de muestreo que se seleccionaror De las 24 combinaciones teóricamente posibles, solamente 10 estaban representadas por los ll sitios (Santa Bárbara y Buenavista tienen la misma combinación de factores de muestreo). Sin embargo, si nuestro presupuesto nos hubiera permitido escoger solo 4 de estas 10 combinaciones que existen actualmente, entonces, basados en los anteriores principios de variación máxima tenemos 3 de los posibles conjuntos de 4 combinaciones (Recuadro 2). Como todas las combinaciones -excepto una-contienen apenas un sitio, resulta innecesaria la selección de sitios para estas combinaciones. No obstante, para la combinación que comprende tanto a Santa Bárbara como a Buenavista, tenemos que escoger un sitio o el otro.3, 2 , 2 , 2 = 24 combínaciones de opciones.Para ~l estudio d<l río Cabuyal. lUcimos un análisis de varianza para los cuatro factores de muestreo en rdación con la frocuencia de diferentes indicadores de bienestar utilizados en 11 comunidades (31 informantes). ....unque la mayoría de estos indicadores fueron utilizados en todos los sitios. inJependient~mentl.. le los factores de muestreo. algunos de !!Stas indicadores se usaron relacionados con uno o más de los factores de muestreo. Pues bien. no pudimos concluir dd análisis que algunos dé los factores fueran más import.1/ltes que otros pa'\" determinar <1 uso de diferentes indicadores del bienestar. Paso 2Clasificación de \"Bienestar\" dentro de una Comunidad \"La clasificación del bienestar\" es una técnica para comprender tanto la diferenciación socioeconómica' dentro de una comunidad como los indicadores que la gente de la localidad usa para describir diferentes niveles de bienestar. Diversos autores (Grandin, 1988;IIED, 1992;Scoones, 1988) han sugerido diferentes maneras de clasificar el bienestar, como las siguientes:l. Clasificación de tarjetas por los miembros de la comunidad, individualmente o en grupos.2, Discusiones en grupo. Los grupos pueden escogerse empleando como criterio el género de sus integrantes o el ganado que posean. Las discusiones pueden combinarse con la clasificación de tarjetas.3. Elaboración de mapas que indiquen la condición social.Recomendamos la \"clasificación de taljetas por miembros de la comunidad en forma individual\". Es probablemente el método más s.encillo; es menos exi~ente para el investigador en lo que respecta a la habilidad para facilitar las discusiones en grupo; los datos son más sencil!os de reportar; y la información suministrada por los informantes será, probablemente, más confiable. La mformación acerca del bienestar toca puntos sensibles y es mucho más probable que las presiones de grupo afecten la forma en que los informantes individuales proporcionan esa información. Finalmente, la confiabilidad de la información obtenida puede verificarse más fácilmente.U sted debe hacer lo siguiente: 5.l. Definir la comunidad. Debe comprobar que tiene una comunidad o vecindario bien definido. Este debe ser lo suficientemente pequeño para que las personas sepan acerca del nivel de bienestar en que se hallan aunque lo suficientemente grande para poder abarcar las diferencias. En la mayoría de los ambientes rurales. una comunidad de esas características tendría entre 40 y I ()() unidades u hogares. Grandin (1988) utiliza la expresión \"nivdes d. riqueza'. Sin embargo, 01 IA!rmino \"riqueza\" qUIzás 00 sea el mejor, muchas veces, porque implica un enfoque materialista. En cambio, \"bienestar\" se relaciona más con la noción más amplia de calidad de vida y por lo tanto se rdaciooa más diroctamenlé con la pobreza.Es probable que, en la mayoría de los casos, usted desee clasificar hogares. Sin embargo, puede elegir otras unidades de análisis, lo que depende del objetivo de su estudio, como son individuos, mujeres adultas o vecindarios completos. Cualquiera que sea la unidad seleccionada, debe definirla cuidadosamente. Por ejemplo, debe indicar claramente si dos familias que viven en la misma casa se clasifican como dos hogares separados o como un solo hogar. Trate de utilizar conceptos locales para ayudar a definir su unidad.3. Elaborar una lista de todos los hogares de la comunidod. Una vez haya definido su unidad (por ejemplo, hogar), haga una lista exhaustiva de todos los hogares de la comunidad. A cada hogar debe darse la etiqueta más conveniente según el ambiente de la localidad; por ejemplo, el nombre del jefe del hogar, o los nombres del marido y de la mujer. Cada etiqueta se transfiere luego a una tarjeta de manera que haya tantas tarjetas como hogares. i Escriba siempre con letras grandes! Cada tarjeta debe numerarse para facilitar su referencia.A menudo, la manera más práctica de hacer esto es solicitar a los líderes de la comunidad que identifiquen, por ejemplo, de 3 a 5 informantes que estarían dispuestos a participar en el ejercicio de clasificación. Los criterios para la selección de estos informantes son: (1) que hayan estado viviendo en la comunidad durante el tiempo sl''iciente para conocer el nivel de bienestar de otros hogares;(2) que los informantes representen, en la medida de lo posible. una fracción amplia de la comunidad en características tales como el género, el grupo étnico, la posición social, el vecindario y el nivel de bienestar. Este criterio es importante porque las personas tienden a ser más conocedoras y haciendo discriminaciones más exactas de aspectos tales como la escala de clasificación y el género en áreas que están más cerca de su propia (Silverman, 1966). En consecuencia, la elección de diferentes informantes ayudará a detectar las variaciones posibles en la percepción del bienestar dentro de la comunidad. Usted comprobará que, normalmente, son suficientes de tres a cinco clasificaciones, porque los informantes individuales están de acuerdo, generalmente, en la manera de clasificar los hogares y en el tipo de indicadores que utilizan para describir las diferentes categorías de bienestar. Sin embargo. si los informantes difieren en muchas cosas, entonces habrá que realizar más clasificaciones y, en consecuencia, buscar más informantes.Si varios informantes individuales de una comunidad deciden realizar juntos una clasificación, contabilice su clasificación como una sola.Una etapa crucial en la clasificación del bienestar es traducir con precisión el término \"bienestar\" al lenguaje local. \"Bienestar\" es un concepto neutra! que no implica componentes o elementos específicos que constituyan bienestar. Por lo tanto, cuando traduzca o explique \"bienestar\", debe asegurarse de que preserva esa neutralidad. Para explicar el concepto, puede utilizar frases generales como \"la forma en que vive la gente\" o \"los que viven una vida buena'. Debe ser muy cauto en evitar los ejemplos específicos de lo que podria definir el nivel de bienestar, como poseer mucho ganado, tener una casa buena o gozar de buena sal ud.Cuando explique el objetivo de la clasificación del bienestar, debe hacer énfasis en que usted desea obtener información acerca de las categorías de hogares. y TU) acerca del nivel de bienestar de cada hogar (por ejemplo, lo que tienen y lo que hacen).Debe ser también cuidadoso de explicar, de la manera más abierta y detallada posible, el objetivo general de hacer clasificaciones de bienestar en cuanto tiene aplicación dentro del contexto específico. Por ejemplo, los hogares que viven con diferentes niveles de bienestar tienden a enfrentar diferentes problemas y a tener diferentes oportunidades y estrategias para resolverlos. En consecuencia, es probable que se beneficien de diferentes tipos de programas de investigación, de proyectos, etc. Para que tales actividades sean exitosas, los profesionales necesitan comprender las diferentes condiciones que experimentan los hogares.Asegúrese de que esta clasificación se realice en un lugar tranquilo, donde el informante no se sienta presionado a clasificar determinados hogares de una manera específica.Una vez se haya presentado el objetivo global de la clasificación del bienestar, usted debe describir en forma breve la manera de hacerlo. Si utiliza el hogar como la unidad de análisis, asegúrese de que el informante considere y clasifique el hogar como tal, en lugar de que lo hagan precisamente las personas cuyos nombres aparecen en las tarjetas.Deje que el informante lea cada tarjerta, o, si fuere necesario, lea usted en voz alta los nombres escritos en cada tarjeta. Pída1e que haga por lo menos tres montones, cada uno de los cuales representaría los hogares cuyos niveles de bienestar se asemejan más entre sí. También debe recordarle esporádicamente al informante las categor.'as ya establecidas leyendo en voz alta algunas de las tarjetas ya clasificadas. Solicite a su informante que tome una tarjeta, que considere el nivel de bienestar del hogar representado por esa tarjeta. y que la coloque luego en el montón correspondiente. No le pida al informante que explique su decisión. Si ve que el informante vacila al clasificar un hogar en particular, sugiérale que deje esa tarjeta aparte. De esta manera no se hará ninguna clasificación errada.Cuando el informante se sienta satisfecho con los montones de tarjetas, c1asifíquelos del más alto al más bajo nivel de bienestar.Ahora solicite al informante que describa cómo se asemejan entre sí los hogares representados por un montón dado, y cómo se diferencian de los hogares representados por los demás montones. Anime al informante a que verifique todas las tarjetas del montón que se está describiendo para estar seguro de que la descripción se aplica no sólo a la tarjeta (o al hogar) que está en la parte superior del montón sino a las demás del montón.Hay que anotar (o grabar) cuidadosamente las descripciones del informante, es decir, tan literalmente como sea posible. Recuerde que constituyen información primaria. Espere hasta que el informante haya descrito todos los montones antes de solicitarle información adicional o alguna aclaración. Así puede distinguir entre las descripciones dadas en forma espontánea por el informante y aquellas emitidas directa o indirectamente por usted.El Recuadro 3 contiene descripciones dadas por tres informantes diferentes de la cuenca del río Cabuyal.Para evaluar el grado hasta el cual los informantes están de acuerdo en el nivel de bienestar de un hogar dado, anote en un cuaderno el rango asignado a cada hogar. Procure mostrarse abierto y escriba ese rdrlgo en presencia del informante. Así puede lsted enterar a los informantes de los datos que se llevan \"fuera de la comunidad\".Numere los montones de 1 a M, donde M es el número total de montones hechos por el informante, y organícelos en orden descendente de bienestar, de manera que el montón 1 represente los hogares que viven en el nivel más alto de bienestar y el montón \"M\" los que tienen el nivel más bajo de bienestar. Anote en un cuaderno el montón en que quedó ese hogar (Recuadro 4).La Figura 3 muestra la forma en que en nuestro estudio de la cuenca del río Cabuyal, se distribuyeron los hogares de La Laguna asignándolos a los diferentes montones empleando tres clasificaciones individuales. NoIAS: Eltuto en letra cursi .... i•1!MIic. informlción suminiatn.da como reapue ..... l.u pre¡u.otu focmuladaa por toa i.nve5ügldorea.El ~xto encern.do en 10& con:het .. ' : .. dradol corresponde a nolII& del autor.EvaÚUlCtó\" . Pobr~:.a Rural: ...Extracto de las notas de campo sobre cómo se asignaron a los montones los hogares en La Laguna, cuenca del río Cabuyal, sur de Colombia Cuando usted explicó la técnica de clasificación del bienestar a sus informantes, les pidió que hicieran por lo menos tres montones de tarjetas. Ahora bien, usted no puso (porque no debía hacerlo) ningún límite superior al número de montones. En consecuencia, algunos de sus informantes pueden haber hecho tres montones, mientras que otros tal vez decidieron hacer cinco o seis montones. Esto significa, por ejemplo, que los hogares clasificados por casi todos los informantes en el más bajo nivel de b:::nestar pueden recibir de unos el rango 3 y de otros el rango 5 ó 6. El simple promedio de rangos no tendrá. por ello, mucho valor. Lo que se necesita es nivelar los diferentes rangos dentro de una escala común. Por esta razón se calcula un rango de bienestar para cada clasificación.Imagínese una escala de bienestar con puntajes de O a 100 puntos (Figura 4). El extremo de la izquierda en la escala (O puntos) representa el nivel más alto de bienestar y   el extremo de la derecha (lOO puntos) el nivel más bajo de bienestar. De dos informantes, uno (1) distingue tres niveles de bienestar, que se indican como \"1\", '2\" Y \"3\" en la Figura 4. Estos niveles se representan en la escala de bienestar como \"O puntos\" (clasificación 1), \"50 puntos' (2) y \"lOO puntos' (3).El otro informante (11) distingue, por su parte, cuatro niveles de bienestar, que se representan como '0 puntos\" (1), \"33 puntos\" (2), \"67 puntos' (3) y \"lOO puntos\" (4) en la Figura 4, Así pues, al colocar o nivelar las clasificaciones en una sola escala de bienestar, logramos un sistema de puntaje en el cual los hogares clasificados en el nivel más alto de bienestar reciben un puntaje de O puntos y los hogares clasificados en el más bajo nivel de bienestar reciben un puntaje de 100 puntos, haciendo caso omiso del número de montones hechos por los informantes, La fórmula para calcular este puntaje \"P' es: P = m-l/Mol * 100 donde: m = el rango o el número del montón al cual está asignado el hogar y M = el número total de montones hechos por el informante Se multiplica por 100 sencillamente para no manejar decimales, Una vez calculado el puntaje de bienestar para cada clasificación realizado en una comunidad dada, se calcula el puntaje promedio de bie1U!star. Por lo tanto, el puntaje promedio P se calcula para cada hogar como el promedio de puntaje: {PI~J obtenidos en las clasificaciones individuales (x = número total de clasificaciones : .!lizadas en la comunidad). El Cuadro 1 presenta los puntajes calculados a partir de los datos del Recuadro 4; la Figura 5 muestra la distribución de hogares según el puntaje promedio de bienestar.Para probar el nivel de acuerdo (o desacuerdo) entre clasificaciones individuales, compare los puntajes (PI~J por parejas, utilizando la prueba de correlación del orden de rangos de Spearman (la \"Rho' de Spearman). El Cuadro 2 resume las comparaciones que hicimos con las tres clasificaciones realizadas en La Laguna, las cuales dieron una correlación significativa al nivel de confianza del 99,99%.De las 31 comparaciones hechas entre las clasificaciones realizadas en 11)s, todas -a excepción de una-presentaron una correlación significativa al nivel de cOI,,,anza del 95 %. Este resultado indica que los informantes suministraron clasificaciones coherentes. Si emplea las clasificaciones individuales y el puntaje promedio de bienestar que acaba de obtener, puede elaborar ahora las \"categorías promedio de bienestar\" para cada comunidad. Primero, determine el número de categorías que deben hacerse y después establece en qué lugar del eje del bienestar (Figura 5) se colocan los límites de las categorías.Generalmente, el número de categorías debe corresponder a! número promedio de montones hechos por los informantes. N() debe superar este número porque esto daría una imagen errada de precisión. En el caso de La Laguna (Figura 5), los informantes hicieron un promedio de 3,3 montones, con los cuales elaboramos tres categorías.Ahora bien, si usted hace clasificaciones de bienestar en más de una comunidad para compararlas más tarde, le será útil construir, en la medida de lo posible, el mismo número de categorías promedio de bienestar en cada comunidad. Aun así, el número de categorías no debe ser superior al número promedio de montones hechos por los informantes. En rluestro estudio de la cuenca del río Cabuya! hicimos tres categorías en cada una de las 11 comunidades muestreadas.Una vez haya decidido usted el número de categorías que quiere hacer, necesita determinar cómo definir o limitar las categorías. La norma que debe seguir es hacer qtle las categorías correspondan lo más posible con la información suministrada por los informantes en los puntos siguientes: (1) la distribución numérica de los hogares en los diferentes montones de bienestar (es decir, el porcentaje de hogares en cada montón):(2) el nivel de acuerdo entre los infOrman/es con respecto a la clasificación de cada hogar iruJividUlll. Le indicaremos la manera de lograr esta correspondencia tomando como ejemplo el caso de La Laguna: En primer lugar, verifique la distribución numérica de los hogares en los montones para establecer la distribución numérica promedio. En La Laguna hubo un alto nivel de Paso 3: ... HogQr~s ~\" Caugoria.s Promedio d~ Bi~1t~.slar acuerdo entre los tres informantes en lo que respecta al número de hogares que colocaron en cada montón (Figura 3). Sin embargo, el Informante II prefirió, aparentemente, distinguir los hogares que tenían un nivel muy bajo de bienestar (montón 4) de los hogares que tenían un bajo nivel de bienestar (montón 3), mientras que los Informantes 1 y m decidieron colocar todos estos hogares en el montón 3 (Recuadro 3). Por lo tanto, para determinar la distribución numérica promedio, considerando sólo tres categorías, combinamos los montones 3 y 4 del Informante Il en un montón. Esto dio como resultado una distribución promedio de 19 % de hogares en la categoría L, 12 % en la categoría 2 y 69% en la categoría 3 (Cuadro 3).Sin embargo, tal combinación no considera el desacuerdo en que estuvieron, probablemente, los informantes sobre la forma en que clasificaron los hoga. éS individuales. El Cuadro 2 indica que, aunque las clasificaciones individuales se correlacionaban significativamente, algunos hogares fueron clasificados de manera diferente por los tres informantes. De no haber sucedido así, habría habido una correlación del 100% (\"Rho\" de Spearman = 1.00). Esto indica que hay que tener en cuen ta el nivel de acuerdo (o desacuerdo).En vez de definir las categorías basado en la distribución numérica promedio, como se explicó anteriormente, usted debe definir un nuevo conjunto de tres categorías, esta vez partiendo del nivel de acuerdo entre los informantes y de la distribución de hogares según el puntaje promedio. Primero, defina una categoría en que estén lo~ hogares que, según todos los informantes, gozaron del nivel más alto de bienestar -es decir, tuvieron el más bajo puntaje promedio posible (= O). Defina después una categoría que contenga aquellos hogares que, según todos los informantes, tuvieron el más bajo nivel de bienestar. Como en el caso de La Laguna, fusionamos los montones 3 y 4 del Informante 1I, Y los puntajes promedio que calificaron un hogar para esta categoría fueron de 89 (o aun mayores), es decir, (100 + 67 + 100)/3 = 89. Por último, defina una tercera categoría -que sería intermedia-compuesta por aquellos hogares en los cuales los informantes no estuvieron Cuadro 3. ElaboraciÓD de la distribuciÓD Dumérica promedio de los BOgares en montones de bienestar, partiendo de clasificacioDes individuales, en La Laguna. cuenca d~1 río Cabuyal. sur de Colombia. acuerdo entre los tres informantes en lo que respecta al mí mero de hogares que colocaron en cada montón (Figura 3). Sin embargo, el Informante II prefirió, aparentemente, distinguir los hogares que tenían un nivel muy bajo de bienestar (montón 4) de los hogares que tenían un bajo nivel de bienestar (montón 3), mientras que los Informantes 1 y III decidieron colocar todos estos hogares en el montón 3 (Recuadro 3). Por lo tanto, para determinar la distribución numérica promedio, considerando sólo tres categorías, combinamos los montones 3 y 4 del Informante II en un montón. Esto dio como resultado una distribución promedio de 19% de hogares en la categoría 1, 12% en la categoría 2 y 69% en la categoría 3 (Cuadro 3).Sin embargo, tal combinación no considera el desacuerdo en que estuvieron, probablemente, los informantes sobre la forma en que clasificaron los hoga. ~s individuales. El Cuadro 2 indica que, aunque las clasificaciones individuales se correlacionaban significativamente, algunos hogares fueron clasificados de manera diferente por los tres informantes. De no haber sucedido así, habría habido una correlación del 100% (\"Rho• de Spearman = 1.00). Esto indica que hay que tener en cuenta el nivel de acuerdo (o desacuerdo).En vez de definir las categorías basado en la distribución numérica promedio, como se explicó anteriormente, usted debe definir un nuevo conjunto de tres categorías, esta vez partiendo del nivel de acuerdo entre los informantes y de la distribución de hogares según el puntaje promedio. Primero, defina una categoría en que estén 10$ hogares que, según todos los informantes, gozaron del nivel más alto de bienestar -es decir, tuvieron el más bajo puntaje promedio posible (= O). Defina después una categoría que contenga aquellos hogares que, según todos los informantes, tuvieron el más bajo nivel de bienestar. Como en el caso de La Laguna, fusionamos los montones 3 y 4 del Informante n, y los puntajes promedio que calificaron un hogar para esta categoría fueron de 89 (o aun mayores), es decir, (lOO + 67 + 100)/3 = 89. Por último, defina una tercera categoría -que sería intermedia-compuesta por aquellos hogares en los cuales los informantes no estuvieron Hasta ahora hemos discutido las descripciones de bienestar y la distribución de hogares en las diferentes categorías de bienestar únicamente en relación con una comunidad dada.Pues bien, la mayoría de los investigadores, de los planificadores y de quienes trabajan en desarrollo rural están interesados en extrapolar esas descripciones a áreas más grandes.En el Paso 4 indicaremos la manera de evaluar hasta qué punto las descripciones de bienestar de las comunidades de muestra pueden aplicarse a las comunidades vecinas. Esto significa que usted deberá comparar las descripciones de bienestar de las comunidades escogidas. En vez de comparar las descripciones completas, puede resultarle práctico transferir o reducir las descripciones de los diferentes niveles de bienestar a conjuntos de indicadores y luego comparar estos conjuntos.Haga que otra persona, por lo menos, lea también las descripciones de bienestar para estar seguro de que hay con fiabilidad en la traducción o \"reducción\" de las descripciones a indicadores. Sin embargo,-antes de realizar esta tarea, debe comprobar el número de niveles de bienestar. Le resultará más fácil manejar un número fijo <le niveles para todas las comunidades escogidas y que ese número sea el mismo de las categorías promedio de bienestar basadas en la clasificación, que elaboró usted en el Paso 3.En la cuenca del río Cabuyal distinguimos tres niveles de bienestar. El Recuadro 5 indica la manera como \"redujimos\" a indicadores las descripciones de los montones de bienestar hechos por el Informante 1 en La Laguna (Recuadro 3).Cuando determine hasta qué grado las descripciones y los indicadores de bienestar identificados en las comunidades muestreadas pueden aplicarse a las comunidades vecinas, debe recordar que las comunidades fueron seleccionadas mediante una estrategia de muestreo de máxima variación. Es decir, fueron escogidas respecto a factores ~ se suponía causaban diferencias en las percepciones locales de bienestar. Usted entonces puede encontrarse frente a una de estas cuatro situaciones: l. Los indicadores obtenidos para diferentes niveles de bienestar presentan grandes semejanzas en todas las comunidades, a pesar de que estas comunidades fueron muestreadas mediante una estrategia de muestreo de máxima variación; usted puede suponer, entonces, que estos indicadores son válidos para todo el conjunto de las comunidades del cual se seleccionaron las comunidades de la muestra, y que pueden extrapolarse a ese conjunto.2. Los indicadores muestran diferencias mayores entre los grupos de comunidades, pero son similares dentro de estos grupos. Por ejemplo, los indicadores de las comunidades que tienen facilidad de acceso son iguales y difieren de los que se usan en las comunidades de difícil acceso. En este caso, los indicadores  Fueotes de ingreso 00 agrícolas• Trabajan juntos• E,\"-_, \" de re.;;ursos Acceso a recursos• Trabajo al dúo y labores de • Problemas para cooseguir finca propia suficlcmte alimento Fuentes de ingreso relacionadas con la agronomía• Problemas de salud Capacidad para dar preseoteos,• Cultiva muchas especies definidos para un grupo de comunid3.des pueden extrapolarse a otras comunidades solamente si éstas tienen características similares a las del grupo (por ejemplo, facilidad de acceso similar).Paso 4: Extrapolación a Toda el Area Esllkii.ada ...Los indicadores de bienestar identificados en las comunidades muestreadas son completamente diferentes. En este caso, usted no puede extrapolar y tal vez tiene que revisar los factores de muestreo que escogió (Paso 1).Para facilitar la comparación de los indicadores utilizados en las diferentes comunidades, cuente el número de veces que se emplea un indicador en diferentes comunidades para describir diferentes niveles de bienestar. Utilice una matriz similar a la del Cuadro 5. Puede hacerlo tanto en una hoja electrónica de computador como Excell o Lotus, o empleando un paquete estadístico como SPSS. Los indicadores (las filas en el Cuadro S) se colocan en la secuencia en que se encuentran en las descripciones. Los conteos se hacen en las columnas, las cuales diferencian al informa ~, la comunidad y el nivel de bienestar que el indicador describe.En el Cuadro 6 se resume la frecuencia con que se emplearon los indicadores en las 1I comunidades de la cuenca del río Cabuyal donde se hicieron las clasificaciones de bienestar. El Cuadro 7 muestra la frecuencia con que se usaron los indicadores para describir los diferentes niveles de bienestar.En el Cuadro 6 se puede observar que, para la cuenca del río Cabuyal, se usaron ampliamente en las comunidades algunos de los indicadores que describieron el bienestar, como \"tierra propia\", \"jornaleando, principalmente\", o \"buena casa\"; otros indicadores, en cambio, como \"mayordomo\", fueron más específicos de algunas comunidades. Algunos indicadores parecen expresiones específicas de una comunidad o ejeeplos de otros indicadores; por ejemplo, \"problemas en amortizar el crédito\" o \"no puede cultivar su tierra por falta de recursos\" son ambas expresiones más específicas del indicador \"falta de recursos, por ejemplo, para la finca\". Otro ejemplo es el indicador \"ganado propio\", empleado principalmente en Santa Bárbara y Buenavista para describir niveles altos de bienestar. Este indicador es una expresión específica del más general \"tiene recursos, capital, vehículos, etc\". Así pues, existe un alto grado de complementariedad en el uso de estos dos indicadores. El Cuadro 7 indica que los informantes fueron muy congruentes en el uso que daban a cada indicador para describir los diferentes niveles de bienestar. Por ejemplo, el indicador \"capacidad para emplear personas en su finca\" se usó casi exclusivamente para describir un nivel alto de bienestar (12 veces de 13), mientras que \"mala casa\" se utilizó casi exclusivamente para describir un bajo nivel de bienestar (23 veces de 25). El indicador \"colabora en el grupo familiar o fuera de él, o de ambos modos\" se utilizó sólamente para describir los tres niveles de bienestar. Por consiguiente, para la cuenca del río Cabuyal, la notable coherencia con que se usaron los indicadores en todas las comunidades justificó el trabajo de identificar un conjunto común de indicadores para extrapolar a toda el área de estudio (Figura 6).El Cuadro 6 nos permite conocer lo que habría sucedido si hubiéramos extraído muestras, por ejemplo, de cuatro comunidades en lugar de 11. El Recuadro 6, que se basa en el Cuadro 6, muestra los primeros !O conjuntos de indicadores para el conjunto total de las 11 comunidades. También muestra los primeros !O a II indicadores usados en cada una de las tres muestras de las cuatro comunidades, muestras que fueron extraídas para b. l...as de.scripciones hechas por el Informante Il en los montones de bienestar 3 y 4 se combinaron en un conjunto de indicadores (ver Paso )).Cuadro 6. Free=i. con que la romWlÍww w;a los indicadores de diferentes niveléS de bi\"\"éStar. \"\" la cuenca del no Cabuya!. sur de Colombia.No neceaita. trabajar en su prop,-fmc&No puede conseguir trabajoLas mujeres tienen que trabajar fuera de .1Capacidad para dar regalos. préstamo •. et.:,Capacidad para emplear personas enTiene recUrsol, capital. vehkulo., etc.   Cuadro 7. Fre<:uencia con que se usan de los indicado\"\", de dif\",ent .. nivel .. de bienestar. cuenca del no Cabuya!. <Uf de Colombia.Indicador N ivel de bienestar Alto Medio Bajo Total No necesita trabajar en su propia (Ulea 3No puede conseguir trabajoLas mujcrea tienen que trabajar fuera de No. Se buscó trabajo pero sin éAito 9 NadaLas respuestas a estas y a otras preguntas elaboradas para otros indicadores se combinan luego en un solo índice de bienestar para la wna estudiada. El Paso 6 muestra la forma de elaborar ese índice.Cuando administre la encuesta, no olvide asignar un código a cada entrevistado para poder identificar los hogares que estaban incluidos en las clasificaciones de bienestar. Después puede comparar (ver Paso 8) la posición que ocuparon estos hogares mediante las clasificaciones de bienestar y la posición que lograron según el índice de bienestar que vamos a desarrollar en el Paso 6. Elaboración de un Indice de Bienestar para Toda la Zona de EstudioLlegado aquí, usted puede elaborar un [ndice de bienestar\". Este es una \"medida\" única del bienestar que combina los indicadores de bienestar cuantificados. Ahora bien, es decisivo el esfuerzo que usted ponga en preservar el sentido en que los informantes emplearon los indicadores para describir los diferentes niveles de bienestar. Como ejemplo de este esfuerzo de preservación, recuerde que los indicadores no fueron criterios estrictos, definidos de ante\"'1no, sino que surgieron de un análisis retrospectivo por parte de los informantes despué::. _ construir los montones de tarjetas y se basaron en frases como \"la mayoría de los hogares en este grupo• y \"algunas familias\". En consecuencia, los indicadores se emplean únicamente como descripciones parciales del fenómeno complejo del bienestar.Además, algunos indicadores describen apenas un nivel de bienestar, mientras que otros distinguen varios niveles de bienestar (Figura 6). Finalmente, lo que importa realmente para algunos :icadores es la existencia de ciertos valores críticos relacionados con un significado cual¡¡ativo y no precisamente con su significado numérico o cuantitativo. En el estudio de la cuenca del río Cabuyal la tenencia Me tierra era un ejemplo. Los informantes emplearon este indicador para dar a entender, no sólo la cantidad de tierra que poseía un hogar (significado concreto o cuantitativo), sino también para disting_ir entre los hogares cuya única fuente de ingreso es contratarse como mano de obra y aquellos hogares que, además de su propia mano de obra, tienen acceso a suficiente tierra, y así, tienen la oportunidad de emplear mano de obra para su propio beneficio. independientemente de otra gente (significado cualitativo).Siguiendo estos principios, es posible desarrollar un sistema de puntaje para los indicadores identificados en el Paso 4 y cuantificados en el Paso 5. El sistema asigna una calificación a cada hogar, para cada indicador. El índice de bienestar se define entonces como la SW1Ul de puntajes qUR obtiene un hogar por cada indicador. La ventaja que ofrece este índice es que con diferentes combinaciones de puntajes dados a los indicadores individuales (o sea, las variables) se obtiene un mismo valor para el índice de bienestar.El sistema de puntaje desarrollado para la cuenca del río Cabuyal comprende tres niveles de calificación, que corresponden a los tres niveles de bienestar: 33, 67 Y 100.Sin embargo, el valor concreto de estos puntajes es arbitrario; lo que importa es que el número de niveles de puntaje corresponda al número de niveles de bienestar incluidos en el 7.El procodimientD para elaborar un índice de bienestar fue desarrollado primero por Boesen y Ravnborg ( 1993).Evaluación d, Pobr~::.a Rural: ... análisis y que el intervalo entre los puntajes sea uniforme. Así, en vez de elegir niveles de 33, 67 Y lOO, podríamos haber elegido niveles de lOO,200 Y 300;o de 6,12 Y 18. La Figur;¡ j nos ayuda a asignar puntajes a los indicadores individuales. Observemos el ejemplo de tener tierra: mientras no fuera\" muy poca\", la tierra propia indicaba niveles de bienestar tanto altos como intermedios. Tener extensiones muy pequeñas de tierra era una característica de los hogares que tenían el más bajo nivel de bienestar. En consecuencia, el puntaje asignado a este indicador debería ayudarnos a distinguir entre los niveles alto e intermedio de bienestar, por un lado, y el nivel bajo de bienestar, por el otro. Así, los hogares que tenían menos de 1 hectárea de tierra (que se considera \"muy poca\" en la cuenca del río Cabuyal) tuvieron un puntaje de 100 y los que tenían extensiones mayores recibieron 67 puntos.Otro ejemplo es el indicador \"fuentes de ingreso no agrícolas\", que se empleó principalmente para describir los hogares que gozaban del nivel más alto de bienestar. Por lo tanto, los hogares que tenían fuentes de ingreso no agrícolas (por ejemplo, plantas para el procesamiento de la yuca, trapiches, o empleos en otras actividades) tuvieron un puntaje de 33. Los hogares que no tenían esas fuentes de ingreso podían tener n nivel intermedio o un nivel bajo de bienestar y, en consecuencia, recibieron un puntaje de 67. El Recuadro 7 indica la forma en que se asignaron los puntajes a cada indicador cuantificable que hacía parte del índice de bienestar desarrollado par\" la cuenca del río Cabuyal. En el Cuadro 9 se señala la distribución de los hogares según cada una de las variable que constituía un índice.Indicadores de bienestar cuantificables y sus puntajes Indicador Trabajo como jornalero para otros agricultores (10RNPUN)• Si ningún miembro del hogar sale a jornalear como ocupación principal • Si un miembro dd bogar sale a jornalear como ocupación pnacipal Tenencia de tierra (TIERRAPUN)• Si el hogar tiene 1 hectárea o más El índice de bienestar no puede aplicarse antes de comprobar que su lógica interna y su lógica externa concuerdan con las descripciones de los diferentes niveles de bienestar y con las clasificaciones hechas por los informantes.Esta verificación consiste en asegurarse de que los indicadores individuales contribuyen al índice tal como se había planeado. El procedimiento para hacerlo es estudiar la desviación que causa en el valor promedio del índice global de bienestar la variación de cada una de las variables que constituyen el índice. Se puede emplear otro método más complejo para verificar la lógica interna del índice de bienestar. Tal es el análisis de correspondencias múltiples que permite descubrir las posibles asociaciones entre los indicadores que representan variables constitutivas del índice; es decir, permite saber si dos indicadores -o más de dos-expresan sistemáticamente la misma cosa.En el caso de la cuenca del río Cabuya!, un análisis de correspondencias múltiples indicó que, aunque hay una asociación estrecha entre alguno de los indicadores en alguna de sus modalidades l0, no hay ninguna asociación significativa entre cualquiera de los indicadores en toda:; sus modalidades. Por ejemplo, hay una asociación estrecha entre tener muy poca tierra (tenencia de tierra = 100) Y tener pocos recursos (acceso a Jos recursos = 100). En cambio, no existe ninguna asociación entre tener tierra (tenencia de tierra = 67) Y tener algunos o bastantes recursos (acceso a los recursos = 33 ó 67, respectivamente). Esto indica que ninguno de los siete indicadores, por sí mismos (Recuadro 7) podría servir como indicador adecuado del bienestar. Nuestros resultados confirmaron, por tanto, que la naturaleza multidimensional del bienestar, como fenómeno de la vida real, necesita retlejarse en su medición. Verificación de la lógica externa del índice de bienestar Para verificar la lógica externa del índice de bienestar, se examina el ni vel de correspondencia entre el índice de bienestar y los puntajes de bienestar basados en las clasificaciones iniciales hechas por los informantes (Paso 3). Esto puede hacerse empleando la prueba de correlación de órdenes de rangos de Spearman (\"Rho\" de Spearman) para cada comunidad individual en la que se establecieron niveles de bienestar . Cuando la correlación entre el índice de bienestar y los puntajes de bienestar no es fuerte. se sabrá entonces que el índice de bienestar no logró captar los diferentes niveles de bienestar tal como los describieron los informantes; esto significa que es necesario hacer de nuevo el índice de bienestar.Para la cuenca del río Cabuya!, la prueba de Spearman arrojó una correlación significativa entre el índice de bienestar y los puntajes de bienestar (Cuadro 10) en 9 de las II comunidades en que se hicieron clasificaciones del bienestar.La Figura 8 da una idea más completa de la variación en el índice de bienestar con respecto a las diferentes categorías de bienestar basadas en las clasificaciones.Los recuadros delimitan el rango de percentiles del 25 al 75, mientras que la línea al interior de un recuadro indica la mediana; esto ~ignifica, por ejemplo, que para la categoría 1 (la más alta) basada en las clasificaciones de bienestar, e; 50% intermedio de los hogares (rango de percentiles del 25 a! 75) obtuvo un índice de bienestar entre 40 I Y 468 puntos, y los hogares que quedaron debajo de la mediana -el 50% inferior de los hogares-obtuvieron un índice de 434 puntos o menos.Para la cuenca del río Cabuya! hubo una correspondencia significativa entre el índice de bienestar y las categorías de bienestar basadas en las clasificaciones de bienestar, lo que indica que el índice de bienestar refleja las descripciones de bienestar suministradas por los informantes.Con la condición de que el índice de bienestar tenga lógica tanto interna como externa, puede utilizar dicho índice para hacer un perfil de bienestar o de pobreza, no sólo para las comunidades donde inicíalmente hizo las clasificaciones de bienestar, sino para toda la zona estudiada.Ahora bien, usted se dará cuenta de que, en vez de trabajar con un índice, suele ser más conveniente hacerlo con nivele' o categorías de bienestar que distinguen entre los hogares que tienen niveles mayores, lOtermedios e inferiores. Puede definir esas categorías (ver Paso 8), partiendo del índice de bienestar y guiándose por las categorías de bienestar basadas en la clasificación. Definición de las Categorías de Bienestar Basadas en el Indice Después de haber confirmado la lógica interna y la externa del índice de bienestar, usted necesita definir las categorías basadas en el índice. Estas deben corresponder, tanto como sea posible, a las categorías basadas en la clasificación.En primer lugar, busque \"saltos naturales' en la distribución de hogares a lo largo del índice de bienestar. En la Figura 9 se señala la distribución de hogares a lo largo del índice de bienestar en la cuenca del río Cabuyal. Para definir tres categorías, los saltos ~ encontraron en los índices correspondientes a los rangos 401-467 y 510-567.En segundo lugar, examine las combinaciones de puntajes que dan lugar a los valores del índice en los que ocurren los \"saltos naturales'. Comparando estas combinaciones y los indicadores de bienestar, se determinan los límites exactos de las categorías de bienestar. Para la cuenca del río Cabuyal, definimos las categorías de bienestar basadas en el índice en forma tal que la categoría 1 contenía los r '1gares con valores del índice que eran menores que 435; la categoría n, los hogares 1:<-. valores del índice entre 435 y 520; Y la categoría III, los hogares con valores del índice mayores que 520. Ind!ce de bIenestar Figura 9. Distribución de bogares según el índice de bienestar. Número de bogares ~ 960.• Paso 9Creación y Utilización de un Perfil Regional de Pobreza ed ya llegó a la etapa en que se puede elaborar un perfil regional de pobreza. Debe pensarse en la manera en que éste se presentará a la entidad que usará el perfil, y los mapas y figuras que usted empleará y el texto que escribirá. Hay que interpretar y resumir los resultados obtenidos para que los usuarios los entiendan sin dificultad.Nuestro perfil de pobreza para la cuenca del río Cabuya! (Figura 10) nos dice que, en general, el 23% de los hogares pertenecen a la categoría de hogares menos pobres, el 46% a los que presentan una pobreza intermedia, y el 31 % a los más pobres. La muestra que tomamos para hacer la encuesta del cuestionario era representativa de cada una de las comunidades l !, y no simplemente de toda la cuenca; por ello, el perfil de pobreza describe en detalle la distribución de la pobreza dentro de cada una de las comunidades.El perfil proporciona no solamente una imagen geográfica de la pobreza (es decir, cuántos hogares pobres y menos pobres hay y dónde se localizan), sino también información importante acerca de cómo son los hogares pobres y los que no son tan pobres. En la Figura ll se describen los diferentes niveles de bienestar en lo que respecta a los siete indicadores de bienestar empleados para elaborar el índic/' de bienestar.Cuando se combinan los indicadores con las descripciones de bienestar hechas originalmente por los informantes, se obtiene información importante para diseñar y evaluar las actividades que pretenden aliviar la pobreza. Por ejemplo, ahora sabemos que, para la cuenca del río Cabuyal, jornalear es la principal fuente de ingreso para un grupo considerable de los hogares más pobres. Sabemos también, gracias a las descripciones de bienestar, que Jos agricultores pobres preferirían vivir de su propia tierra, sin que les importe lo poco extensa que pueda ser, si ésta les garantiza un ingreso equivalente o superior a lo que están ganando como trabajadores por días.Esta información debe incitar a los que están comprometidos en actividades de desarrollo y a los investigadores a explorar opciones para que garanticen a los agricultores pobres dicho nivel de ingreso, dados los recursos limitados que éstos poseen. Tales opciones deben mejorar la vida para la población pobre según los propios criterios de ésta y no según otros definidos desde fuera. Nivel de bienestar Figura 11. Nivd~s dif\"r~nt\"s de bienestar .mpl~dos \"n combinación con muic.dores de bi\"ne,tar para daborar un índice d~ bienestar, en la cuenca dd río Cabuyal. sur de Colombia. El número J~ hogares t:mcucstaJos fuI! d~ 960.","tokenCount":"9601"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7556103907cceef470a7bd26f25e4dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb251156-776f-4ce3-a173-01f434cd5aa0/retrieve","id":"-1104890898"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d9e94837-e5ac-4853-a5ad-4b22e493e8a8","pagecount":"109","content":"This thesis is dedicated to my father Woldetensaye Edetto to whom I pay tribute at every step in my life.Table 3.1: Summary of research design -----------------------------------------------------39 Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents by age, marital status and type of marriage --------------------------------------------------------------48 Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents by household income and expenditure -------------------------------------------------------------------------51T able 4.3: Relationship between annual income and marital status---------------------52Table 4.4: Distribution of respondents by household food sufficiency and means of meeting household food needs ---------------------------------------54 Table 4.5: Distribution of respondents by means of land acquisition -------------------56Table 4.6: Relationship between marital status and means of land acquisition--------------------------------------------------------57 Table 4.7: Relationship between marital status and entitlement to land ----------------63 Table 4.8: Distribution of respondents by decision-making on sales and control of income -------------------------------------------------------------64 Table 4.9: Relationship between marital status and control over income ---------------65Table 4.10: Distribution of respondents by knowledge and information on Kebele LACs election --------------------------------------------------------67 Table 4.11: Distribution of respondents by involvement in agricultural activities -------------------------------------------------------------69 Table 4.12: Relationship between marital status and involvement in agricultural activities -------------------------------------------------------------70 The study is designed to explore the status of rural women in access to and control over land in the current land administration system in two rural Kebeles in East Shewa Zone Ada'a Woreda of Oromia region on smallholder farmers' landholding registration. The Ormia National Regional State Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation and its implementation procedure are examined from a gender perspective in terms of ensuring rural women's land holding rights and control they have over land.Historical overview on the land question in Ethiopia revealed that tenure systems evolved through historical periods. Land remained under men's control throughout history and men's control over land was strengthened by the rural land reform carried out by the Derg. This tenure reform applied rural land distribution using households as unit for rural land allocation and women were disadvantaged as most rural households were headed by men. The Oromia rural land proclamation is not discriminatory on basis of sex. However, policy gaps are evident in addressing women specific issues such as issues of FHHs and women under polygamous marriages. Gaps also exist between policy and implementation. Customary laws and practices have serious impacts on women's land rights at the level of implementation.The research applied both quantitative and qualitative methods in view of feminist research methodology to properly address issues from a gender perspective. Survey of 318 households was conducted administering questionnaires in the quantitative method. The qualitative method applied was interviews with relevant Woreda office and Kebele LACs, focus group discussions with rural women, case stories and observation. Triangulation method is applied in data collection, data presentation and in analysis of findings.Study findings reveal that women's access rights to land is less equal than legally provided. This study evidences gaps between policy and implementation. Customary laws and traditional practices generally have impacts on land access rights of single/unmarried, divorced, widowed women and on access rights of women in polygamous marriages. Women's control over land is not efficiently addressed by the regional rural land policy. This is a significant policy drawback as women's equal rights on land could not be achieved without gaining control over land. The land administration system in general and the land registration process in particular has not considered women's participation in community activities and decision-making. Women are not represented in LACs and Sub-Committees in both Kebeles.Study findings indicate absence of autonomous institution as gap in addressing women's issues in the land administration system. This study also revealed loose linkages between the rural land policy and other regional legislations like the regional family law which provides women's equal rights on land in marriage and on its abandonment.This study forwards recommendation to address gender gaps identified to ensure women's equal access to and control over land in the study area. The Oromia rural land proclamation needs revision from a gender perspective to address women's specific issues and the land administration system should consider women's participation in the process, their contribution to the system as well as their equal benefits from policy outcomes.Women's access to and control over land is very critical as land is a major resource in women's livelihood. However, women are discriminated against in terms of realizing their rights to land. Over the past three decades women's issues and more recently gender issues have gained prominence on the development platform. International women's conferences held consecutively; in Mexico City in 1975, in Nairobi in1985 and in Beijing in 1995 were measures towards realizing women's political, social and economic equality with men (UN Action for Women, 2003). Many gender issues which are very important to well-being of millions of women and girls around the world got public attention after these conferences.Despite this progress women have remained disadvantaged in many ways. Gender equality has not been achieved and women do not enjoy equal rights with men in accessing and having control over land and other productive resources. Access to and control over resources and benefits is determined by socio-cultural norms which have significant impacts on gender relations. Social relations of production and consumption (access to and control over means and benefits of production) show constraints on women in many communities (Davison, 1988, World Bank, 2004). These inequalities of opportunities in access to and control over resources have made women more vulnerable to poverty than men in many parts of the world.There is policy move towards provision of gender-equitable land reform in many countries (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1995). Farming systems, customary laws on marital and inheritance rights, gender roles at households and on farms, household assets ownership and control, control over household income and expenditures, access to social resources, etc. have influences on women's access to and control over land. These factors should be seriously considered to enhance formulation of land policies and provision of implementation regulations that could effectively address gender inequalities. Significance of land reform policies depend on ensuring women's rights in practice not only in principle.Policy makers and implementers should be gender sensitive so that women could benefit from land reform policies. Policy implementers' capacity and commitment to translate policy to reality have significant impact at level of implementation. Women may not benefit even from gender sensitive rural land policies, if policy implementers lack commitment.This study is carried out in one of the regions in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). FDRE is located in Sub-Saharan Africa, has a population of 75,067,000 (CSA, 2006 estimate) and a total land area of 1,104,300 square kilometers. Arable land accounts for 10.71% of the country's total land area. Land is the most significant livelihood-sustaining asset for a vast majority of the Ethiopian people. Oromia National Regional State is one of the nine regions in FDRE with a large population, (constituting 35.4% of the country's population), occupying large area of land (353,006.81 square kilometers). The region has a population of 26,553,000; consisting of 13,249,999 male and 13,303,001 female. About 23,030,000 (86.7%) of the population live in rural areas (CSA, 2005).The 1995 FDRE Constitution gives importance to improve socio-economic situation of women and there are provisions on equal rights of women to property ownership, particularly land (FDRE, 1995:40). Land policies have been issued at federal and regional levels consistent to the constitution. The FDRE rural land administration and use proclamation first issued in 1997 and revised in 2005 offer mandate to regional governments to issue land policies based on the federal rural land administration and use proclamation and consistent to region specific socio-economic situations (FDRE, 1997 andFDRE, 2005). Four regions, Tigrai National Region, Amhara National Regional State, Oromia National Regional State and Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) issued proclamations on rural land administration and use subsequently. Rural land administration systems are established to implement issued proclamations and land administration programs are being carried out in these regions. The current Oromia rural land proclamation and its implementation process will be considered in this study with regards to women's access to and control over land.Women's equality in land rights is a global issue. Governments have entered commitments through ratifying various women's rights conventions and have issued national policies supporting women's access rights to land in many countries. In spite of these commitments, problems exist in ensuring women's equal landholding rights with that of men in many countries, mainly due to deep rooted patriarchal gender power relations in societies. Women's land rights issue has become more critical in developing countries like in Africa as land is a major resource for survival to the majority of the people. Access to and control over land and its products are critical to women because, women are responsible to ensure household food security by their community assigned gender roles. Oromia National Regional State issued rural land policy in 2002 by Proclamation No. 56/2002(ONRS, 2002) in realizing the FDRE constitutional mandate and mandate provided by the 1997 FDRE Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation (FDRE, 1997). Rural land administration regulation is issued by Proclamation No. 39/2003 to give directives on detail implementation of the policy (ONRS, 2003). A new land administration system has been introduced and land administration programme is being implemented throughout the region.The rural land policy provides equal landholding rights to men and women. However, effectiveness of the rural land policy in addressing rural women's specific issues and challenging existing gender disparities in access to and control over land needs to be examined from a gender perspective.Land is commonly allocated to households and is registered on names of household heads in the region. The rural land administration process applies spousal-joint land registration and certification in married households. Studies carried out on women's land rights revealed that women's access to their husband's land entitle them to secondary rights (Nizioki, 2002). Land rights acquired through marriage expose women to crisis especially when marital conflicts lead to divorce or separation or upon death of husbands. Besides, women's marital statuses and their status under different family structures affect women's access to and control over land. Women in male headed households and FHHs (single, widowed and divorced women) access to land and the control power they have over land, particularly decision-making on land use and control of income earned from farm products is affected by their status in their households.Community customs and traditions become major challenges in implementing policies that favor women in land acquisition. Traditionally rights to property pass through the male line in Ethiopia. This implies that women's status is generally inferior to that of men.Researches carried out on rural land policy implementation in Amhara region revealed that policies favoring women's equal landholding rights didn't bring required changes at community level (Sida, 2003;Askale 2005). This study will examine underlying socio-cultural issues that hamper effective implementation of the regional rural land policy on women's access to and control over land in Ada'a Woreda of Oromia Region.The FDRE and the Oromia rural land policies give emphasis to establishment of transparent land administration system and enhancement of community participation at the level of implementation. Studies carried out in other regions however, reflected women's low awareness on their land rights and low involvement in the land administration process (Askale, 2005;Deininger, Daniel, Holden and Zevenbergen, 2007). This study looks at problems that retarded women's involvement in the land administration process in Oromia region.This study therefore, intends to find out the extent to which rural land policy of Oromia and its implementation process had effect on the stated problems on women's equal access to and control over land.Objective of the studyThe overall objective of this study is to assess effects of the rural land use and administration policy implementation with respect to rural women's equal access to and control over land with focus on smallholder farmers' landholding registration in Oromia National Regional State, East Shewa Zone, Ada'a Woreda two rural Kebeles.Specific objectives are:• to find out gender gaps in the regional rural land use and administration proclamation in terms of women's access to and control over land; • to assess the land administration system vis a vis landholding and administering rights of women;• to explore impacts of customary landholding practices on women's access to and control over land in the two rural Kebeles;• to analyze the practice of land registration and certification in terms of women's socioeconomic benefits and decision-making power; and • to comment on the regional land administration processes with respect to its contribution to women's empowerment in the study area.Gender is the sex role identity used to emphasize distinctions between males and females. It refers to behaviors associated with members of a given sex. There are set of attitudes and behaviors developed and perpetuated in society towards people that judge or belittle them on the basis of their gender (Parpart, 1989). Gender became a critical analytical tool in the discourse of women's rights and entitlements to social and material resources.Developmental challenges faced by policy makers because of differences between the sexes in roles and statuses that hindered development, initiated upcoming of different policy approaches that link gender issues to development (Parpart, 1989). Women in Development (WID) was the first gender policy approach that focused on fulfilling practical gender needs 1 .Although the WID approach improved opportunities for women, it failed to address the empowerment aspect, the power sharing. So there was a need for the programs of gender and development to move further. Thus the second policy approach Gender and Development (GAD) emerged. The GAD approach commenced on integration of gender issues into the design and implementation of development programs. The GAD approach was projected towards addressing strategic gender needs 2 which can empower women and transform gender relations. The overall goal of the GAD approach is women's empowerment. Empowerment entails increasing women's access to knowledge, resource and decision-making power to change their disadvantaged positions to the level of having control over their own lives (Parpart, 1989). This goal was not easy to achieve and gender inequality still persists. It is reflected in many aspects in women's lives including their acquisition of resources.Women's struggle emerged to remove these inequalities and to bring change in women's lives hence, feminism was born. Feminism is an organized movement which aims to promote equality between men and women in political, economic and social spheres. Feminism is defined in a number of ways. I prefer this definition of feminism for it covers most of the underlying facts:Feminism is, \"A belief that women universally face some form of oppression or exploitation; a commitment to uncover and understand what causes and sustains oppression in all its forms and a commitment to work individually and collectively in everyday life to end all forms of oppression\" (Maguire, 1987: 79 sited on Brayton, 1997).In the 1970's women started developing theories to explain their oppression and feminism as an ideology emerged. Feminists started to raise different issues and feminism branched out into many theories by the 1980's (Brayton, 1997: 1). Feminist economic theory will be analyzed with respect to women's access to and control over land for the purpose of this study.Feminist economists concern across the field of economics was based on its relation to gender and on firm rejection of gender marginalization in traditional economic theories. These feminists developed an economics that serve interests of large and different group of people Strassman, 1999). Feminist economists contributed new insights to economic thought and were creative in engaging in economics that resulted in positive difference in people's lives especially on that of women.Feminist economists argued against traditional economics because traditional economics depicted women as dependent on fathers, husbands or male partners by considering the family as a basic economic unit. They affirmed that this assumption enforces women's dependence on men, women's secondary status within the family, the community and women's exclusion from decision-making.Feminist economists insisted on economic indicators that measure people's well-being. They argued that economic growth which basically considered the amount of money flow in the country's economy has little concern to social well-being of people. They rationalized that economic growth didn't give emphasis to resource distribution within a country. Feminist economists have also evidenced that economic discourses had perpetuated masculinist biases in theoretical and empirical researches. Gender biased research outcomes create low status, low power and less rewards for women since economic theories and discourses influence political, economic and social policies. Feminist economists had contributed to economic theory and methodology and created alternative models such as the Capability Approach.Feminist economic methodology was categorized in to Domestic systems, Economic success, Human agency, Ethical judgments and Gender, race, class (Power Marilyn, 2004).In the domestic system feminist economists asserted that the household should be treated as an important economic institution and unpaid work performed by men and women in a domestic setting ought to be valued. In addition feminist economists emphasized on issues of power relation and inequalities within families and households. Bina Agarwal and other feminist economists contributed to basic understanding of intra-household bargaining power (Edith and Jolande, 1995). In feminist economics methodology, economic success should consider individual needs and entitlements on top of production of goods, distribution of wealth or income. In respect of this feminist economists; Amartya Sen, Sakiko Fukuda-Parr and others had been forerunners in developing alternatives to the GDP such as the Human Development Index-HDI (Edith and Jolande, 1995).A human agency methodology attempts to look at women's relationships within a given system, their relationship with people and institutions. It looks at where power in a system lies and who has unequal access to it. Women's limited access to institutions in a given system constrains their involvement in decision-making. According to these feminists, many decisions are not made on women's own free-will but rather out of the limited choices in their lives.Ethical judgments methodology looks at systems from a specific moral position and viewpoint rather than from point of view of neutral observer (Folbre, 1994). Feminist economists emphasized on importance of considering societal norms in economic issues.Feminist economics methodology asserted on the need for incorporating issues of different groups of people. Gender, race, class and caste were focuses of attention. A gendered perspective exposes that economic relations and actions are directly affected by gender roles.Feminist economists therefore, underscored that a gendered perspective is central to the study of economics to spell out gender aspect of the economy.Feminist economists' major area of inquiry was development. They argued that economic development, particularly in developing countries largely depend on gender equitable laws on ownership and inheritance and provision of gender sensitive sectoral policies. Feminist economists asserted that cultural factors are very important in explaining women's issues in the agriculture sector in developing countries. Feminist economists gave due emphasis to the agriculture sector as major area of development. Their view on the agricultural sector revealed that agricultural economic concepts should consider effects of gender relations in the system.Feminist economists further underlined that economic approach in the agricultural sector and farming systems reflect gender ideologies in society. They affirmed that farm is seen as a purely economic unit managed by a male farmer, often considered active on the agricultural economic development. Women are associated with the domain of the family and the household hence, they are invisible in agricultural production regardless of their contribution to the sector and the rural economy. Feminist economists asserted that family farm should be conceptualized in a different way because of its characteristics. They explained family farm as a farm where capital, labor and management are mostly provided by the family who owns/uses the land. Family farm is primarily based on family labor and there are interlinks of economic activity and family life. Furthermore they affirmed that existing economic concepts could not be applied to study gender relations on family farms. Underlying reasons for these feminists view was that family farm is an area where labor and property relations are based on marriage and kinship and that power relation between men and women in society are reflected on farm activities. Feminist economists' further emphasized that farm activities are outcomes of household decision-making processes although women and men farmers do not always have the same needs and interests. Women and men have different influences in the decisionmaking process. They underscored the need for more actor oriented approaches to incorporate women's roles in economic analysis and to address their issues effectively.Feminist economic theory discussed so far is used as frame work and method of analysis in this study. It reflects feminists' standpoints that are considered useful for the study. Feminist economists' position reflected in theory, methodology and practice in the agricultural sector gives clear picture on gender aspect of the farming system. Their method of analysis of family farm and emphasis on socio-economic factors affecting the farming system will be considered to analyze situations in the study area.Working definitions 1.5.1 Patriarchy: From a gender perspective patriarchy is defined as a set of social relationships which cause domination of men over women. Patriarchy is a social system and societal structure that institutionalize male physical, social and economic power over women.Men are regarded as the authority within the family and the community and power and possessions are passed on from father to son. Feminists define patriarchy as:\"A set of social relations between men which, have a material base and which, though hierarchical establish or create interdependence and solidarity among men that enable them to dominate women\" (Heidi, 2003: 211).\"…the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action including legislation, policies or programmes in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.\" (ECOSOC, 1997:3).  ,1995). Reference was made to importance of the mainstreaming strategy for each strategic objective identified in the Beijing Platforms for Action. Systematic consideration of differences between situations and needs of women and men in all community policies and actions were set as basic features and principles in gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming involves restructuring policies, programs and activities to make sure that needs of women and men are equally addressed and both women and men have equal participation and both gain equal benefits. Gender mainstreaming is a process which requires shift in organizational cultures and attitudes. The ultimate goal of gender mainstreaming is achieving women's empowerment and gender equality.Literatures reveal that power has different definitions in social and political theories. Feminists define power in terms of social relations of domination and subordination. Feminists' understand power as power-over which is unjust and oppressive to those over whom it is exercised (Joan, 1979). Gender relation is a way in which, culture in a society prescribes rights, roles, responsibilities and identities of women and men in relation to one another. Men hold superior position in households and communities and women are put to inferior position. In women's land rights issues power in gender relation implies men's higher access to and control over land and women's less access and low control over land.Resources are means and goods including those that are economic like household income, productive like land, equipments, agricultural inputs (including labor) and opportunity to leadership and decision-making, information, organization and time. Access to resource implies to the ability to use resources and/or benefits and to make short-term decisions on these resources (Akuna Beatrice, 2004).Women's access to land has terms of use rights that imply getting opportunity to use and benefit from land. Access to land is a means to gain control over land.1.5.5 Control over land and other resources: Control over resources implies the ability to use and even dispose a resource or benefit. Women's control over land means that women can access land (use it), can own land (can be legal title-holders) and can make decisions on selling or leasing out the land (Akuna Beatrice, 2004). Therefore, women's control over land implies that women get access to land and they make major decisions on land. Women's control over land is realizing equality.In the context of land rights decision-making refers to decision on land use as an agricultural resource and its disposition. Decision-making related to land includes, land use and improvements, control of products harvested from land including incomes earned from sales of products and decisions on land transfer through bequeath, inheritance, sale or rent.1.5.7 Land rights: Land rights are legally recognized claims on land enforced by legally established institutions. Women's land rights need deep understanding of the relationship between legal and social recognitions as well as the relationship between legal provisions and enforcements. Women's land rights should be recognized in terms of access and control in order to ensure security of rights (Akuna Beatrice, 2004). Women may have land rights recognized by law but such rights are meaningless unless those rights are socially recognized and effectively enforced.It is a recording procedure describing a parcel of land and identifying its current owner/holder and the form of ownership she/he or they had. It is a process of recording rights on land which provides safe and certain foundation of acquisition and disposal of rights on land (ELTAP, 2006:165). Landholding registration and issuing certificate to holders is a recent phenomenon in Ethiopia. Women's land rights registration and titling need to be defined explicitly in order to ensure their equal rights on land.1.5.9 Tenure system: Is the way in which ownership of land or rights to land is organized.Tenure system may be determined by statute, agreed precedent or by customary practices.Tenure systems represent relations of people as individual and as group in society with respect to their access to and control over land (Moyo, 2002). It is culture-specific and dynamic, changing as social, economic and political situations change. In Ethiopia for example, different regimes followed different tenure systems.The study is conducted in Ada'a Woreda, one of the This research is aimed to study women's access to and control over land in Ada'a Woreda of Oromia Region with respect to the current regional rural land use and administration proclamation implementation on small holder farmers' landholding registration. Women's access to and control over land is vital for rural livelihoods. However there are considerable social, economic, political and institutional challenges faced in ensuring women's access to and control over rural land.Researches show significant relationship between women's land holding rights and women's key roles in rural development, poverty reduction and food security. It is also emphasized that gender issues are often overlooked in land policy and/or its implementation and gender discrepancies persists in access to and control over rural land. It is mostly difficult to realize women's equal access to and control over land even in cases where rural land policy demonstrates gender equality. Customary laws and traditional norms are different from statuary laws in most communities and women lack awareness that is needed to challenge customary and traditional practices that deny their equal land rights. Identifying and removing barriers which hamper realization of women's equal access to and control over land has to be a major concern to effect changes on the status of rural women.In Ethiopia the land tenure system has undergone through various reforms under different regimes. In the current regime the FDRE Constitution states that land is property of the state and the people and land tenure system is based on land administration and use proclamations issued by FDRE and regional governments. In this respect Oromia National Regional State had issued land proclamation in 2002 and had started land administration programme implementation. This study is considered to be appropriate as the rural land policy issued introduced a new land tenure system and implementation started in 2006 in the research Kebeles. It will examine gender sensitivity of the policy and its implementation regulation as well as gender inclusiveness of the land administration process at the level of implementation.The study will help to identify gaps and barriers to women's equal access to and control over land in the study area which will give a general idea about other parts of the region.Women's equal access and control over land is constrained by their social positions in society.Demographic information on Oromia Region reveals that women are over 50% of the regional population. Equal access to and control over rural land to women in this region obviously will have positive impact on the rural development. This study will be a bit of contribution to show significance of women's equal access to and control over land to the socio-economic wellbeing of women as well as the rural livelihood in the region.Researches carried out on the current rural land policy implementation reveal that the current land administration system has not challenged pre-existing gender biases in actual implementation (Askale, 2005;Deininger, Daniel, Holden and Zevenbergen, 2007). This study will look at factors affecting women's equal access to and control over land in the land administration system in two rural Kebeles in Oromia. Study findings will give better insight to gender issues and significance of addressing these issues in rural land administration system to ensure women's equal access to and control over land. The study will come up with important recommendations on gender issues to be considered in the regional rural land administration policy which is under revision currently. This will help policy makers to give emphasis to important gender issues that need to be addressed at the level of policy formulation as well as at the level of implementation. The study will also serve as an entry point for further research undertakings in areas of women's land rights and rural development.This study is limited to Ada'a Woreda two rural Kebeles located near Debre Zeit town. This will limit upcoming of some important gender issues existing in distant Woredas of the region.Finance was constraint to carry out research in distant Woredas. Nevertheless, this study will hopefully give insight to gender aspect of Oromia rural land policy and land administration system with regards to rural women's access to and control over land in the current land tenure system.The thesis is structured as follows after the introduction part:Chapter two presents a condensed relevant literature review on gender and land policy issues in developing countries, Africa and Ethiopia;II.Methodology of the research is presented on chapter three;III.Chapter four focuses on data presentation, findings and analysis of major findings;IV.Chapter five presents summary of findings, conclusion and recommendation.This chapter will focus on review of relevant literature on women's access to and control over land and assessment of relevant policies and legislatives. Rural land policy of Oromia National Regional State is assessed and linkages with relevant sectoral policies and legislations are reflected in brief.Land is recognized as primary source of wealth, social status and power throughout history to those who have access to and control over it. Arguments raised on women's land rights in the course of the 1990s that influenced international discourses on gender equality is well established as basic component of policy nowadays. Gender equality was included and promoted as a major goal in the Millennium Development Goals -MDGs (World Bank, 2001) and in country Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (MOFED, 2006).However, there is a persistent gender gap in landholding rights because, women's access to and control over land are affected by various factors in communities (FAO, 2002). Socioeconomic, legal and institutional factors affect women's access to and control over land.Gender inequalities are pervasive across many dimensions of societal life including households, social, economic and political institutions. The UN recognized that gender inequality resulting from women's low status persist in all societies although the extent of the gap varies across countries, cultures and time. The UN presented the burden of this inequality as follows: \"Women, who comprise half the world's population, do two thirds of the world's work, earn one tenth of the world's income and own one hundredth of the world's property\" (UN, 1980). A World Bank study on regional patterns of gender inequalities in basic rights and in access to and control of resources reflect that disparities exist all over the world and no woman in the developing regions has equal rights with man (World Bank, 2001). Gender inequality is difference in rights and privileges between women and men reflected in legal statutes, customary laws and community practices. These differences are reflected in marriage, inheritance, property ownership and management, in household and community activities and decision-making. Deprivation of women's land right through customary practices regarding land inheritance and property distribution after divorce is challenge in patriarchal societies.Men remain central heirs and holders of land rights in patrilineal 6 communities.Women's direct access to land is often limited in traditional societies. Women have indirect access to land in terms of use rights acquired through kinship relationships and their status as wives, mothers, sisters or daughters (Davison, 1988). However, these use rights may not grant enough security for women when family structures break due to various reasons. Breach in marriage is a serious issue in women's access to and control over land because, it results in vulnerable group of women, FHHs as single parents, widows or divorcees.The gendered face of poverty makes gender an issue in women's access to and control over land. The outcome of a study carried out by UNDP in developing countries reflected that poverty has a gendered face and that women are poorer than men (UNDP, 2000). This UNDP study carried out on selected countries of Sub-Saharan Africa showed the GDP per capita figures for women were less than that of men. Comparative figures in 1998 were US$1,142, per woman and US$2,079, per man (UNDP, 2000: 162).International human rights instruments related to women's property ownership and inheritance revealed that denial of these rights makes women's land rights a human rights issue. Gap exists between international human rights provisions and national legal provisions because national laws of property rights are influenced by customs, attitudes and perceptions (Benschop, 2002). The interaction of statuary laws and community customs and traditions will determine how women's legal rights on land are actually realized in practice. Gap between legal systems and customary practices is obvious and nature of the gap defines the extent to which women's rights are neglected or promoted in access to and control over land in communities. Therefore, women's equal right on land is a human rights issue.Women's equal access to and control over land is an issue of equity, poverty reduction, food security, sustainable development and even human rights. Therefore, these issues as discussed above make gender a critical issue in access to and control over land.International law has framed gender equality as part of global concern on human rights and basic freedoms for social, economic and political rights. These include claims on access to and control over productive resources like land. Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948 (UDHR, 1948) and international laws and conventions developed afterwards have a number of provisions to address gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) prohibits any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of gender that harms or nullifies women's human rights and fundamental freedoms (UNCEDAW, 1979:3). It establishes women's rights on par with those of men to political, economic and social participation and benefit. Articles 7-8, 10-13 and 16of CEDAW have comprehensive coverage and oblige signatory states to achieve these goals.The Beijing Declaration on its Article 35 states that governments should ensure women's equal access to economic resources including land, credit, science and technology, vocational training, etc. as a means to further the advancement and empowerment of women (UN DES DAW, 1995: 35). Governments are required to incorporate gender perspective in all policies and programs to bring about political, economic and social development through women's empowerment and gender equality. Women and the economy and women and poverty are critical areas of concern in the Beijing Platform for Action (UN DES DAW, 1995: 41). These were considered critical areas of concern because feminization of poverty had become a significant problem in developing countries. Women's limited access to productive resources and inequitable decision-making power was put as major reason for feminization of poverty.Governments are required to re-formulate macro-economic policies that address gender disparities in economic power sharing to alleviate poverty and advance economic growth.Gender mainstreaming was considered a major strategy to be followed by states to alleviate poverty especially among women living in rural households.The United Nations Higher Commission on Human Rights passed resolution on women's equal ownership access to and control over property and land (UNHCR 2003/ 22).International conventions ratified by governments including international human rights instruments and women's equal rights conventions were bases for considering women's access to and control over land as human rights issue in the resolution. African Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women in Africa adopted by the then OAU called upon all African states to eliminate discrimination against women and to ensure women's rights as set in international declarations and conventions (OAU, 2003). It demanded African governments to combat all forms of discrimination against women through appropriate legislative and institutional measures. The protocol includes a number of articles on women's social, economic and political equality and gives particular emphasis to the rights of widows and divorcees.UN agencies and international organizations play significant roles in supporting women's equal rights on access to and control over land. FAO is the responsible UN agency to lead international efforts to overcome hunger. FAO draws special attention to rural development and facilitates debate forums on land policy issues. FAO established ILC that focuses on women's access to land and gender relations in land tenure. ILC runs 'Gender Relations in Tenure Project' on women's rights to land which focuses on key issues regarding women's access to land (ILC, 2007). Furthermore, the World Bank, USAID, SIDA, Oxfam GB, etc. are taking gender issues as major concern in land policy formulation in their land and agriculture related development programs in developing countries.International laws had significant influence on national laws. Most countries around the world affirm principles of basic human rights and most national constitutions give explicit reference to equality between women and men. A country's legal system often incorporates national statutory law, international commitments entered and conventions ratified. Statutory law affects all parts of the formal legal system from legislation issued by central governments to regulations and directives issued at different levels of administrations in government structures. Nevertheless, barriers exist to effective implementation of national commitments to gender equality because customary laws mostly deny women's equal rights to land to that of men.Ascertaining gender equality in rights and using regulatory policies to address specific areas of gender inequalities are critical roles of the state since gender equality has been formally acknowledged as a goal by most governments (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1995). Addressing women's particular disadvantages in relation to land ownership, access and control should be major focus in drafting new land policies. However, creating gender equality is a principal challenge for land policies and land administration systems. This is mainly because of lack of understanding on complex nature of property rights in existing gender relations in society.Regimes are not able to provide effective institutional structures that can protect and strengthen equitable access to land within the framework of a country's land policy goals.There are evidences where outcomes of land reforms and land administration systems resulted in different repercussions for men and women (Agarwal, 1994;Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1995).Disparities exist between land policy goals and implementation practices in many countries. In the face of these limitations land policies and land administration systems need to consider impacts of land reforms from a gender perspective. Policy makers should take gender equality as major component in land policy formulation. Progress achieved on issuing gender-equitable land policy became deficient at level of implementation in most African countries (Jacobs, 2001). Patriarchal norms prevail even where land legislation specifically recognizes women's equal rights on land. Constitutional and legislative provisions on women's equal access rights to land become quite worthless unless effectively enforced. Land policy implementation basically needs efficient land administration system and strategy to address gender inequality and to ensure gender equality.Bina Agarwal provided explanation on why gender equality should be major component of land reform policies in her book A Field of One's Own (Agarwal, 1994). Agrarwal emphasized on the need for land policy focus on women's access to and control over land. She particularly stressed on the need for policy to address women's control over land and identified four main reasons on the need for women's control over land in addition to getting access to it. Agarwal identified welfare, efficiency, equity and empowerment as major reasons for women's need in gaining access and control over land. With respects to welfare she stated that women's control over land improve their households' livelihood and thus, improves household food security. In terms of efficiency, women's control over land increases agricultural productivity. Equity is gaining justice for women so it is recognizing women's equal access to land. With regards to empowerment, she emphasized that gaining control over land strengthens women's ability to struggle for equality, dignity and additional economic rights. Agarwal justified and stressed on significance of women's access to and control over land to achieve economic, social and political equality with men.In recent years land administration reforms have been projected in the notion of good governance focusing on decentralization and democratization of land administration institutions (Quan, 2000;Adams, 2001). This is practiced through initiating community participation at local levels and restructuring local land administration within the framework of statutory laws. Land administration system includes land ownership or holding rights registration and entitlements. In such documentation whose name(s) is/are registered on certificates or records will be an issue. Land titling is an area where most gender issues prevail in access to and control over land. Land titling tend to be vested on men either by legal condition or by socio-cultural norms (World Bank, 2001). Even where formal title is given jointly to husband and wife, women might lose decision-making power in management of household land (Rocheleau and E. David, 1997). In this regard unregistered marriages, divorces and polygamy have major impacts on women's rights to land. Polygamy is a significant complicating factor in issuing land titles.Land administration institutions have got problems with respect to registering full information, documentation and updating. Land registers could not be reliable sources of information on all rights related to land because registers record limited set of rights in most cases (ELTAP, 2006). Such limitations could result in significant impacts on women's land rights. The situation becomes more complex when documents or registers are not kept safely and in cases where registers are not updated. Updating is very important since changes in landholdings and entitlements could occur in course of time.Moreover linkage of land tenure legislations with other relevant legislations is very important.Land tenure legislations may not cover whole issues that affect gender equality unless the remaining part is addressed by other relevant legislations. A major step is to establish basic equal rights in family laws for protection of equal rights on marital property within marriage or at divorce (Agarwal, 2001). Such targeted laws and regulations can address critical gender inequalities on rights to land if implemented effectively. Effective implementation of these laws depends on the degree of access to law enforcing institutions, ability to finance litigations and level of support provided by the family and the community (Ogendo, 2005). This is critical to rural women because they lack family and community support due to gender biases and their low economic status affect their capacity to finance litigations. Land policies should also explicitly address gender inequalities in inheritance to ensure equal landholding rights of women.Women's access to and control over land  , 1998). Gender disparities in rights constrain women's choices in many aspects of life and limit their opportunities to participate in economic activities of society. Access to land and land tenure relations are critical as most communities depend on land to ensure food security (FAO, 1997). Access to land is a means to access membership in agricultural associations, to access agricultural inputs, credit, etc.Lack of access to rural land is an obstacle to agricultural productivity and to increase rural women's income as they cannot access these resources without holding land and securing tenure.Gender power relation has serious influence on land tenure systems because it determines roles and statuses of women and men in society. Intra-household gender relations reveal gender power imbalances (Parpart Jane, 1989;Young, 1992;Peters, 1995). These relations are reflections of inequalities in access to resources, intra household distribution of income and decision-making power. These inequalities are directly related to level of household poverty and food insecurity. Ensuring property rights is considered as one mechanism to enhance women's bargaining power at household and community levels (Agarwal, 1994a). In Africa predominance of the patriarchal system induces gender power relations which downgrade women to inferior position. The patriarchal system influences socio-economic and political structures, government policies and strategies and this has impact on accessing, managing and controlling resources.In many communities access to land is governed by both statutory and customary laws.Customary laws emerge from unwritten social rules derived from shared community values and traditions. Customary laws limit women's rights on land to secondary rights mainly derived from their membership in patriarchal households. This law underpins patriarchal system of traditional authority to reinforce patriarchal values which disadvantage women and place them to subordinate position in society (WLSA, 2001;Walker, 2001a).Marriage has been primary means of getting access to land under customary system of tenure.In Sub-Saharan Africa, unmarried women have little access to land because, they are not allowed to inherit property in most patrilineal societies while wives have better access to their husbands' land through marriage. Security of marriage thus becomes major requirement for security of tenure (Davison, 1988;Nizioki, 2002). On the other hand, studies revealed that marriage as an institution and family structures are becoming more and more unstable especially by impacts of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa (Nizioki, 2002).Some customary laws give sons exclusive right to inherit land and other property whereas wives and unmarried daughters have the right to be maintained. Pre-existing customary norms in some patrilineal societies in Africa used to allow widows continued lifetime rights on their marital land which passes on to male heirs after their death (Sebina Zzwa, 1981;Davison, 1988;WLSA, 1998;Nizioki, 2002). But, this practice is not necessarily adhered to as land gained value. Widows are becoming vulnerable being forced off their deceased husbands' land by their in-laws or by their sons.Customary laws generally sanction male authority over women. Men control household land because, community customs and traditions support land allocation to male. Under customary laws all property acquired by the spouses except, personal goods belong to the husband.Adams M, S Sibanda defines land reform as:\"…Generally accepted to mean the redistribution and/or confirmation of rights in land for the benefit of the poor; and as one major type of intervention by the state. A planned change in the terms and conditions on which land is held, used and transacted, e.g. through converting informal rights to formal rights, establishing mechanisms for managing common land rights, recognizing customary rights of occupation, etc.\" (Adams, 2000:1-2).Land tenure reforms have different purposes in African countries. Objectives of tenure reforms vary from an intention to address land question in view of equity and bringing change in rural livelihoods like in Ethiopia to stimulating land markets in countries such as Kenya and Uganda (Moyo, 2002;Nizioki, 2006).In African cases most land tenure reforms are male dominated and patriarchal in focus (Moyo, 2002). The predominant male scholarship on land questions neglected gender issues and there were cases where land tenure reform programs promoted gender inequalities (Boserup, 1970;Rogers, 1980). Women's access to land was complicated by legal land tenure systems, traditions and social norms, and women were affected by it. It might not be possible for land reform laws to address wide diversity of traditional laws (accepted norms) within a country (Bruce J., Migot-Adholla, 1994). Socio-cultural factors act as barriers because customs and traditions often fail to recognize women's enforceable rights to access and control land.Reconciling statutes and contradictory customary laws continue to be persistent challenge to land tenure reforms.Gender issues are mostly over looked or misunderstood in land tenure measures. This results in long lasting negative impacts on development. Emerging social, economic and technological changes are requiring land administration programs and institutions to reexamine individual and group rights to land and other productive resources in order to effectively address gender issues (FAO, 2002;Moyo, 2003). Changes occurred with commoditization of land and the modern economy has resulted in change in roles and functions of households. Land is no longer a relatively abundant non-marketable resource now days, it is bounded, finite and has price (Moyo, 2003). Women often get marginalized when the value of land increases as a result of external investments. They can even lose benefits they gained before and miss opportunities to be accommodated in such situations.Literatures reviewed so far give an overview on the international and regional context of women's access to and control over land. Most issues discussed are relevant to the Ethiopian context. The following part will reflect the Ethiopian context in general and that of OromiaRegion in particular as this study focuses on Oromia region.The issue of rural land has been primarily a political and social question in previous and in contemporary Ethiopia. Rural land has been center of focus and land tenure system has a long history in the country. There were peasant uprisings and revolts during the imperial era against the regime starting from the 1950s (Bahru, 2002:192). The government faced serious challenges when it increased tributes in the aim of increasing income to modernize the country.The first significant peasant uprising took place in the then Tigre province in 1943 (Bahru 2002:192). Peasants of the then Bale province took up arms against the Ethiopian state between 1963 and 1970 as the imperial bureaucracy expropriated huge portion of cultivable land under the guise of tax default gradually turning peasants into landless tenants (ibid). The last rural uprising prior to the 1974 revolution took place in the province of Gojjam in 1968, where new agricultural income tax was introduced in 1967 (ibid).Beginning of private land holding and introduction of large scale farming system in the country offered opportunity to the nobility residing in towns and cities to hold large areas of farm land in the southern and western parts of the country. Thus, a class of absentee land lords emerged (Haldon, 1993). This resulted in complex land tenure system with significant differences between the northern and the southern parts of the country. In the northern part the major form of land ownership was a type of communal system known as rist. Rist was hereditary, inalienable and inviolable and all descendants (both male and female) of an individual founder were entitled to share land (Bahru, 2002). In the southern and western parts of the country where Oromia National Regional State is located the major form of tenure was the gult system. Gult is ownership right to land acquired from the monarch or provincial rulers who were authorized to grant land. There were also other forms of tenures by which, land was granted to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church in perpetuity and land granted to government officials, war veterans and other patriots in substitute of pension or salary.\"Land to the Tiller\" was the leading slogan of the popular Ethiopian Student's Movement in the 1960s (Helland, 1999;Bahru, 2002:193). The land question of the 1960s or early 1970s was primarily a political question aimed to bring to an end the feudal form of exploitation of peasants by few landlords especially in the southern part of the country (Helland, 1999;Bahru, 2002). Eventually opportunity was created to mobilize peasants, workers and the middle class against the imperial regime. And finally the Emperor was overthrown by the Derg (military government) in 1974, and this ended the imperial land tenure system.The land tenure system before the 1974 land reform was blamed for causing inequity, inefficiency and for being a major obstacle for development of the agricultural sector and the country as a whole (Desalegne, 1984).Following the overthrow of the imperial regime a land reform was carried out by Marxist-Leninist rhetoric. The Derg government issued proclamation on rural land (PMAC, 1975). The government proclaimed public ownership of rural land, nationalized rural land and abolished tenancy and private ownership of land. The proclamation granted each peasant family right to hold land up to ten hectares and outlawed any transfer of interest by sale, lease, mortgages or similar means on land. The objective of the Derg's land reform was addressing issues of inequity which was inherent in the feudal system by providing access to land to the farming population through distributing rural land to peasant farmers (Desalegn, 2005). However, the outcome of the 1974 land reform was tenure insecurity and decrease of farm size that hindered development of the agricultural sector (EEA, 2002).In 1991 the Derg government was overthrown by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Land policy is framed in the constitution in the current government. The FDRE rural land policy granted free access to land to every rural resident who wants to live on farming. The rural land policy grants women equal rights on land as women have constitutional right to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property (FDRE, 1995:35). Women are particularly provided equal rights with men in respect to use, transfer, administer and control of land and to inherit land.Rural land policy issues still continue to be agenda of scholarly debates in view of its impacts on rural livelihoods, the rural economy and that of the country as a whole. Moreover, women's land rights issue is becoming an aspect of rural land policy.Historical records reveal that land registration started almost a century ago in Ethiopia. It began during Emperor Menelik's reign (Pankhrust, 1966). The emperor issued decree on land registration throughout the country and ordered land registration to include cadastral survey in Addis Ababa city. Land owners were issued certificates written in Amharic and French with a map showing boundaries of land owners attached in Addis Ababa.An independent ministry was established during Emperor Haile Selassie's regime. Ministry of Land Reform and Administration was established to create free hold tenure system (Hoben, 1973). This ministry was responsible for measuring and registering rural land in collaboration with the Mapping Agency and was functional until 1974. Land measurement was carried out using cadastral survey and individual title to land was registered. Land market system was institutionalized during Haile Selassie's regime.The Derg rural land reform gave mandate to the newly established PAs to register land and to set boundaries in their respective areas. Land was registered on names of PA members entitled to use rights and the registry was used for tax collection (ELTAP, 2006). Land users do not hold any legal document on their landholdings except, receipt they get upon tax payments.The current land administration system is based on land administration and use proclamations issued by regional governments that have provisions on land registration. The land registration process includes land measurement, boundary setting, collecting information on different parcels under individual holdings, etc. and data are kept in official records. Land holders are issued with a certificate or book of holdings carrying information about the landholder and landholdings registered under his/her name (FDRE, 1997, FDRE, 2005).As stated on the first part of this chapter national legislations incorporate international conventions ratified and commitments entered by governments. In view of this the FDRE Constitution explicitly states that \"all international agreements ratified by the country are integral parts of the law of the land\" (FDRE, 1995: 9/4). Hence, all international conventions ratified on women's rights and commitments entered to implement the Beijing Platform for Action and to meet the MDGs are included in the constitution and government is obliged to implement these provisions.Land policy measures taken by the current government affirm that land is public property.Land policy is embedded in the FDRE's Constitution and the constitution states: Land issue has strong touch on a wide range of issues in different thematic areas. Besides, gender issue is not a stand alone issue by its nature, it is a cross cutting issue and touches all aspects of social, economic and political activities. Rural land policy linkage with other sectors is basically the land tenure system in relation to other socio-economic sectors. These sectors include agriculture, environment and natural resources, gender, population, etc.Policies relating to these sectors have linkages with the land tenure system in one way or another. Thus, land policy should consider interlink with other sectors and sectoral policies should consider land policy to contribute to the over all socio-economic development of the country. The following part will focus on most relevant sectoral policies and legislations for the purpose of this study. Land policy linkages with agriculture and rural development, women's policy and family laws will be discussed in brief.Land agriculture and rural development: Land is basic resource for agricultural production in Ethiopia. Agriculture accounts for almost 41% of the GDP, 80% of exports and 80% of the labor force (CSA, 2005). Eighty five percent of the Ethiopian population is rural and agricultural based. Major agricultural development issues underlie on the existing land tenure system.Women are affected by many issues related to land and agriculture. Women's right to land is affected by land scarcity. Women are marginalized from accessing land whenever land is scarce (Hadera, 2002;Tesfaye, 2003). Rural women do not have equitable access to land and agricultural resources. They have low involvement in development activities and have low decision-making power. Their labor contribution to the agricultural sector is invisible because of the gender division of labor in communities. The ox-plough farming system and cultural taboos on women ploughing and sowing had affected women's right on land particularly that of FHHs (Desalegn 1994;Zenebework 2000;Hadera, 2002). These households mostly end up in poverty because of lack of adult male labor which, the farming system requires. A study on FHHs in Highland Wollo and Waghamra reflected FHHs are poorer and more food insecure than male headed households (Devereux, S., Sharp, K. and Amare Y., 2003).Women's policy and women's rights to land: The National Policy on Ethiopian Women was milestone for Article 35 of the FDRE Constitution. The policy affirms women's equal right with men in social, economic and political spheres. One of the major objectives is to facilitate conditions for rural women to access productive resources particularly land and basic social services (TGE, 1993:25). Contents of the policy further emphasize on ensuring women's equality through legal reforms, awareness creation, initiating women's participation in formulation of government policies and implementation of programs (TGE, 1993:26-28).Furthermore, government had developed and issued National Action Plan for Gender Equality (NAP-GE, 2006). Therefore women's policy and rural land policy have strong linkages because women's policy put rural women's equal access to productive resources, particularly land, as basic for women's equality. an underlying principle in the Oromia rural land proclamation. 8 The proclamation affirmed free access to land to any resident of the region 18 years or above who wishes to live by farming. Land use right is for life and no one will be deprived of these rights unless, land is needed for investment by the regional state. The person will be fully compensated for investments she/he made on the land in this case.Although land distribution was not carried out in the region after the Derg regime the rural land proclamation prohibits future land redistribution. Future land redistribution in the region is conditional to government's need to use land for irrigation schemes or lease for investment or distribution of unoccupied or abandoned land to the landless. Life long certificate of holding will be provided to every landholder to ensure tenure security. Spousal joint registration and certification will be applied in the land administration system of the region. 9Land use right is not subject to permanent residence in Kebeles where land is located or will not be terminated if the land holder leaves his/her Kebele and resides elsewhere. 10 It specifically states that women will have rights to land on equal basis with men on divorce and that the family holding will be shared equally between the spouses. 11 The proclamation has provision on the rights of women under polygamous marriage. 12 The rural land administration and use regulation states that all spouses shall get holding right certificate with their husband and that all of them have equal access rights on the husband's land unless, the wife/ wives live far from the land holding area and get engaged in other businesses. 13 Land use right transfer through inheritance to family members is endorsed by the proclamation. 14 Proclamation 56/2002, further had provisions on establishment of regional institution to implement the proclamation and on mechanisms for conflict and dispute resolution. Land administration system is a means by which land policies are implemented at required levels. It requires establishment of formal institutions and provision of guidelines that determine roles and responsibilities of different bodies that take part in policy implementation.The regional land proclamation states that the region will establish an autonomous institution to carry out the land administration process. However, there is no evidence of establishment of plot size not less than 0.5 hectares for cereals and 0.25 hectares for perennials. They should enter into agreement on how to use the land either on sharing the product or renting to one of the parties or abandoning land use by informing the respective organ to shift the use right to one of the spouses.such an institution in the region. A comparative study carried out in four current land policy implementing regions including Oromia revealed that the task is being carried out by Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office in Oromia whereas regions of Tigrai, Amhara and SNNPR had already established institutions (Tesfaye, 2005).Two different researches focused on the land administration process being carried out in four regions of the country (Amhara, Tigrai, Oromia and SNNPR) revealed that the process reflected a range of issues in regional similarities and differences (Tesfaye, 2005;Deininger, Daniel, Holden, and Zevenbergen, 2007). These studies reflected community participation at early stage of the land administration process and decentralization of the process was similar in the four regions. LACs are policy implementing bodies established at the lowest level of local government in Kebeles and Sub-Kebeles. LAC members constitute 92%, directly elected by vote and 8%, Kebele council appointees (Deininger, et al. 2007:8). LACs are required to include at least one female member out of five members. However, research findings reflected low female representation. Only 20% of LACs included a female member from all these regions and female representation was effected in only 8% of LACs established in Oromia (Deininger, et al. 2007:11). Provision of short-term training to LAC members, duties and responsibilities assigned and rendering free service to communities was similar across these regions. LACs' access to written materials was limited in all these regions. About two thirds of LACs received copies of the regional proclamation in Oromia (Deininger, et al. 2007:12).LACs' duty is to collect data on individual holdings at field levels and to present data collected to Woredas. Field information obtained from LACs is put on a book of register kept by Woredas. Land users receive first stage certificates in form of passport-sized booklets that contain holders' pictures signed by Woreda level officials (Deininger, et al. 2007).Rural land proclamations issued in Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR regions mandated jointtitling to spouses and land is registered on names of both spouses. Space is provided on the landholding certificates to put photos of both spouses in Amhara and SNNPR but, not in Oromia (Deininger, et al. 2007). In Oromia the certificate had space to put photo of the landholder only even in spousal joint-registration. The comparative research reflected significant differences between regions that applied spousal joint-registration on number of certificates issued in the name of husbands. Number of certificates issued exclusively in names of husbands in Amhara was less than 9% of the total certificates issued in the region whereas it was 58% in Oromia (Deininger, et al. 2007:13).In Oromia the land administration process started from calling community meetings to explain about the land administration programme and conducting election of LAC members (Tesfaye, 2005). LACs demarcate boundaries of communal lands and individual holdings, measure individual plots using traditional measurements and record information on formats provided by Woreda Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development. Field information is transferred to Woredas and is compiled in the registry book. The information is finally recorded on books of landholding (certificates). A landholding certificate carrying photo of the landholder is finally signed and handed to the land holder by Woreda offices.This chapter gives highlight on the subject of the study in view of relevant literatures and assessment of international, national and regional policies, legal frameworks and institutions.These are considered to be useful in designing the methodology, carrying out the research and for analysis of study findings. Analysis, conclusion and recommendations will be based on themes in this chapter, theoretical frameworks of the study and survey findings on women's access to and control over land in the study area. The research design used in this study is descriptive survey. The research describes existing situations in the selected study area, analyzes major issues and forwards sound recommendations. Recommendations will address significant gender issues that could add to the principle of knowledge in the field of gender studies.This study looks at the gender aspect of the rural land policy and the land administration system in general and the land registration process in particular with respect to women's access to and control over land. The study is based on feminist research methodology. It is framed on feminist theory as Reinharz stated: \"Empirical feminist research is guided by feminist theory\" (Reinharz, 1992:249). In respect of feminist research methodology women's issue is studied from their perspectives (Harding, 1987). The research undertakes feminist concerns in research by showing women's lived experiences.The research applies both quantitative and qualitative methods to clarify concepts, characteristics, descriptions, counts and measures to demonstrate implications of the issue under question. These multiple methods are applied in the theme of feminist research methodology as Reinharz put it: \"Just as feminist research draws on multiple disciplines, so too it often draws on multiple rather than a single method in a particular project\" (Reinharz, 1992:197).Data presented in the study are obtained from primary and secondary sources. Primary data is collected directly from respondents using quantitative and qualitative methods. Secondary data is collected through review of relevant literatures on women's access to and control over land in developing countries, Africa and Ethiopia. International policies on women's land rights issues and land policies and legislatives of the FDRE and Oromia Region are thoroughly assessed. Research reports and publications on land and gender related issues are also consider to get clear understanding of women's land rights issues. Background information on the research Woreda and Kebeles is obtained from ILRI documents and Woreda and KebeleOffice records.The quantitative research relies on field data collected using structured questionnaire that included questions on different issues on women's access to and control over land. Basic information was collected on demographic and socio-economic situation of survey respondents. Imperative information was collected on women's access to land and on women's control over land and other household resources including incomes from agricultural products and on household decision-making. Data was also collected on women's participation in community activities and decision-making, their contribution to farm activities and benefits they gained.The questionnaire was coded by Kebele to distinguish the two Kebeles because, each Kebele comprises of independent population from which sample is considered for the study.Accordingly Dire Arerti Kebele was coded '1' and Koftu Kebele was coded '2' simply representing alphabetical order of their designations.rural land use and administration proclamations and started implementation under the current land tenure system. • Oromia is a region with the largest female population in the country. Female population of the region is 13,303,001 (CSA, 2005 estimate). The researcher believes that research findings and recommendations on women's access to and control over land in one of the Woredas will benefit a large female population. Because, gender issues discovered in the land administration process in Ada'a Woreda could be considered in the rural land policy implementation in other parts of the region.• Ada'a Woreda is nearer to Addis Ababa of all Woredas in Oromia hence, accessibility was the other reason for selecting the study site. and • Support provided by ILRI for this study was extended to getting support from its project office IPMS located in Ada'a.The two rural Kebeles Dire Arerti and Koftu are selected randomly for the land administration process is being carried out in the entire Woreda. A team leader from Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, an expert from Women's desk and assistant project coordinator from the IPMS office facilitated preliminary visit to the Kebeles. The situation on the field was assessed in both Kebeles and a total of 6 villages (locally called Gote/Mendera) are selected randomly, 3 villages from each Kebele. Dire Arerti, Turura and Arerti Chelleba villages were selected from Dire Arerti Kebele and Filtino, Koftu and Balchii villages were selected from Koftu Kebele. Basic information was obtained from Kebele records and was cross-checked with information on Woreda record to plan for data collection.Population for quantitative data collection for this study is women from rural households in Dire Arerti and Koftu Kebeles in Ada'a Woreda. It is the total number of women from rural households in the two Kebeles each household represented by a woman. So, it is 1,548 women representing 807 households from Dire Arerti Kebele and 741 households from Koftu Kebele.The researcher deemed necessary to take independent sample for each Kebele to ensure equal representation of households as the two Kebeles have different number of households.Therefore, sample size is determined on the total number of households 1,548 and independent sample is considered from households in each Kebele, 807 and 741 households from Dire Arerti and Koftu Kebeles respectively using random sampling method.The sample size for collecting quantitative data for this research is determined using Cochran's (1977) formula as indicated on Bartlett Kotrlik and Higgins (Bartlett and Higgins, 2001). This study uses the following formula to calculate sample size:The following step is used to determine sample size derived from the above formula to collect quantitative data using questionnaire: The required sample size is 318 women (respondents).Sample size for each Kebele is calculated using proportion of number of households in each Kebele (Dire Arerti 807 and Koftu 741) to the total number of households of the two Kebeles (1548). Therefore Sample size for Dire Arerti Kebele is: _807 x 318 = 166 1548 manageable. A total of 32 rural women, 17, (10% of 166) from Dire Arerti Kebele and 15, (10% of 152) from Koftu Kebele participated on the focus group discussion. Two case story participants were selected on the basis of relevance of issues they raised on focus group discussions carried out in two sample villages selected from the two Kebeles.The overall goal of feminist research is to explain and accurately communicate the real experience of the target population. This study applied appropriate mechanisms to collect important information on the existing situation from survey respondents on women's access to and control over land. The research questionnaire was originally prepared in English. It was carefully articulated to ensure clarity, to avoid bias and to get reliable information. The questionnaire was translated to the local language Afan Oromo, so that language should not be barrier to respondents to spell out what they have in mind. The translated version of the questionnaire was carefully cross-checked with the initial English version and was similar in content and structure. This was done to avoid error during data entry.A pre-test was conducted before actual data collection using small representative sample to find out whether the questions are measuring what is intended to be measured. Clarity of wordings in view of respondents' level of understanding was checked on the pre-test to avoid research bias. It was proved that respondents have good understanding of questions presented in the questionnaire. Pre-test survey respondents were not included in the main survey to avoid bias on responses. The main survey was conducted from May to June 2007.The researcher first identified Kebeles and villages and quantitative survey respondents were drawn from households of selected villages. Qualitative survey participants were drawn from Ada'a Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, Kebeles and rural households.The quantitative data is collected by employing six enumerators, 3 women and 3 men. Fluency in the local language Afan Oromo, experience in data collection and good knowledge about research Kebeles and villages was considered in recruiting enumerators. Three enumerators were assigned to each Kebele.A male co-supervisor and a female local language interpreter were employed to assist the necessary to collect reliable and valid information. For example, enumerators were trained on collecting demographic information in cases where women cannot tell their ages but, relate it to some events to calculate and cross check with respondents' physical conditions.Enumerators were also trained on how to repeat and clarify questions and to be careful not to offend respondents even if they know responses are incorrect.The researcher carried out the qualitative data collection. Interviews with Woreda experts and Kebele LAC members and focus group discussions with rural women were arranged on respective participants' convenience and were conducted on places, dates and time of their choices.Quantitative raw data collected using questionnaires was organized and pre-processing test was carried out right after the field data collection was completed. Method of data entry was arranged categorically. Questionnaires were coded by Kebele to facilitate analysis of questions on which respondents were required to specify their opinions and to facilitate analysis of the open-ended question on the questionnaire. Responses on these questions were carefully collected and summarized. Outputs were categorized into different components relating relevant variables for convenient use in analysis of findings.Qualitative data collected through interviews, focus group discussions and observations were put into different categorical variables. Major themes were identified and analyzed thematically in line with research questions and were summarized for use in descriptive analysis. Identified themes of the qualitative survey were related to categorical arrangements of the quantitative survey outputs.Issues intended to be addressed by the research are analyzed using findings from both quantitative and qualitative surveys applying triangulation method. Survey findings are used to draw arguments on relevant issues with data collected from secondary sources and to draw conclusions and recommendations.Data is presented using statistical techniques frequency distributions, tables, pie chart and simple measures of dispersion specifically ranges using percentiles and/or counts. Explanation is provided to clarify information on observed data.The researcher received official permit from Oromia Region Agriculture and RuralDevelopment Bureau to conduct this study on Ada'a Woreda. Ada'a Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office was willing to assist the researcher.Quantitative survey respondents and qualitative survey informants were provided detail explanation about the overall objective of the study ahead of time. Interview is administered on free will of interviewees. Respondents were informed that they can decline if they don't want to be interviewed. Information provided by interviewees will not be transferred to a third party or will not be used for any other purpose apart from this study. Case stories are presented using hypothetical names.Quantitative data is collected and analyzed on demographic and social characteristics of survey respondents. Respondents are asked about their age, marital status and type of marriage they are in (monogamous or polygamous), their ethnic and religious affiliations and educational background. There is also religion practiced by the Oromo ethnic group in the study area.Socio-economic characteristics of survey respondents is measured on educational background, annual household income and expenditure trends, household asset ownership, household food sufficiency, household gender division of labor and access to infrastructures and social services. These issues are also considered in the qualitative survey questions and observation check list.Grade 5-8 (4.1%) spend income on household need satisfaction, 7.6% responded income is used for house construction and maintenance and 0.3% responded that income is spent on purchase of farm inputs like fertilizer, plough oxen, etc.On the other qualitative information obtained from focus group discussion with rural women on income and expenditure trends revealed that they give priority to loan payments mainly for fertilizer provided by Kebele Administration on credit basis in fear of measures on delay or failure.Findings on average annual income revealed that 64.4% of the survey respondents earn Birr 1000 to 5000 average annual income from sales of agricultural products, 13.8% earn over Birr 5000 and 9.7% do not earn income from agricultural products (Table 4.2 on page 51). Trends on income and expenditure reveal that most respondents use their incomes for investment like leasing land, house construction and maintenance and purchase of cattle. responded that they earn Birr 1000 -3000 from sales of farm products, 21 responded they earn Birr -5000, 3 responded they earn Birr 5000 -7000, 3 responded they earn over Birr 7000 and 10 responded they did not earn income from sales of agricultural products. Out of 10 divorcees, 3 responded that they earn Birr 1000 -3000, 2 responded they earn Birr 3000 -5000, 1 responded she earns Birr 5000 -7000 and 3 responded they earn no income from sales of agricultural products. Responses obtained from 4 single/unmarried reflect that 3 responded each one of them earn Birr 1000 -3000, Birr 5000 -7000 and over Birr 7000 from sales of agricultural products and 1 responded that she did not earn income from sales of agricultural products. Seventeen married women and 7 widows didn't respond to this question.Findings reflect average annual income earned from agricultural products varies across marital statuses. Out of the total 83 FHHs (considering total number of single/unmarried divorced and widowed women) 15 do not earn income from agricultural products (Table 4.3 on page 52).Quantitative data collected on asset ownership and control reflects that 51.9% of the total survey respondents own cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and the like whereas, 46.9% of the respondents do not own these assets. Out of the 51.9% respondents who own cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, etc., 17 % responded that they own poultry and sell animal products and poultry, 15.7% responded they own assets but do not have control over assets like cattle, sheep, goat, etc., 9.4% responded that they do not own and control assets and 8.5% responded that they have equal ownership and control over all assets including income from sales (Table 2, Annex).Qualitative information obtained from interviews with Kebele LAC members and focus group discussions with rural women on ownership and control of assets reflected that women own poultry, use and sell hens, eggs and animal products like milk, butter and cheese. It is also disclosed that cattle, sheep, goats and pack animals like donkeys and horses belong to men and using pack animals is constraint for women because of culture.In contemplation to feminist theories applied for this study, survey findings reveal gender biases in assets ownership and control. Women in the study area own and manage assets that have less value. Women mostly own poultry and manage animal products. Findings further reveal biases not only in asset ownership but also cultural constraints in women's using household assets. Qualitative survey information obtained from focus group discussions conducted with rural women on household food sufficiency reflects that most households in the study area face seasonal food shortages and women engage in selling local drinks (arekie and tella) 16 and in petty trade to earn income for purchase of food grains.Survey findings on household food sufficiency reflect that over half of the total survey respondents disclosed that they did not stock sufficient food grain to feed their families all the year round. These women experience problems in household food sufficiency mainly due to an increased trend in marketing agricultural products by husbands. Pertinent to literatures reviewed and feminist theories applied for this study, study findings reflect that household food shortage is mostly mitigated by women. Women engage in different activities to earn income in order to fulfill their community assigned gender roles and responsibilities.Quantitative data collected on household gender division of labor reveals that 83% of the respondents responded fetching water, collecting fire wood, caring for children, cooking food, etc. are done by female family members, 8.2% responded female get support from male family members, 6.3% responded they do not get support from male family members and 2.2% responded both male and female family members engage in all household activities (Table 3, Annex).Consistent to literature reflections and feminist theories on women's reproductive roles and responsibilities, survey findings on household gender division of labor reveal that female family members are responsible for household laborious tasks. On the other hand, findings show slight change in household gender division of labor since 8.2% survey respondents responded that male family members share some household activities and 2.2% responded male family members engage in all household activities. A number of questions were included in the survey questionnaire and qualitative survey tools to collect data on women's access to land. Questions focused on women's access to land are means of land acquisition and size of landholdings. Land access rights of different group of women are also included in the survey questions. Data collected on means of land acquisition in the study area reflected that out of the total 318 respondents 61.3% responded that they accessed land through land distribution, 19.8% responded they accessed land through marriage, 6.9% responded they accessed land through inheritance, other 6.9% responded they get access to land through other means and 4.1% responded that they lease land from land holders. Table 4:5 on page 56 reflects distribution of respondents by means of land acquisition. divorcees and 2 are single/unmarried. Out of 13 respondents that responded they accessed land by lease, 9 are married 2 are widows 1 is a divorcee and another 1 is single/unmarried. Two married women and a widow did not give responses to this question.Survey findings on means of land acquisition in the study area revealed that most respondents (61.3%) acquired land through state land distribution carried out by the Derg before 32 years.However, most respondents (55.6%) are in 18-42 age group and they might not be able to be of age to acquire land through the Derg land distribution. This study shows that marriage has impact on women's access rights to land. Most women get access to land through marriage, because most survey respondents are married women who get access to their husbands' land and widowed women who get access to their deceased husbands' land. Literatures revealed that women's access to their husbands' land offers them secondary rights and this right is seriously constrained in reality because women's rights to their husbands' land is secured as long as the marriage lasts.Qualitative information obtained from focus group discussions with rural women in both Kebeles reveal, respondents that responded they accessed land by other means are custodians of lands of individuals residing out of the Kebeles. Information obtained from the focus group discussion further reveal that most women get access rights to land through marriage but lost access rights to their natal land at the same time. The case story below explains this fact.Abebech is a middle aged woman living in Dire Arerti Kebele Arerti Chelebo village. She raised the issue on the focus group discussion. She was willing when we approached her to tell us her story. Her tears drop as she tells multiple problems she faced in her life because she was denied access right to land. land to the first wife in polygamous marriage and provides rights to hold land on their own to other wives. On the other hand, the regulation (Proclamation 39/2003) states that all wives within polygamous marriage should register jointly on the land registered on the husbands' name and share yields produced on the land.Furthermore, the regional rural land proclamation affirms that land holding right is not subject to permanent residence in the area where land is located. This policy provision which allows free movement of landholders denies this right to women under polygamous marriages as stated on the land administration implementation regulation. The regulation doesn't allow these women to use land if they reside out of the Kebeles where land is located and if they engage in other businesses. These inconsistent provisions make difficult realization of land holding rights of women in polygamous marriages.Information obtained on single/unmarried women's access to abandoned or unoccupied land from interviews with LAC members in both Kebeles reflect that abandoned or unoccupied land is not distributed to single/unmarried women. LAC members mentioned that single/unmarried women did not apply to get land when abandoned or unoccupied land is distributed in the Kebeles. Quantitative survey findings reflect that none of the single/unmarried women accessed land through inheritance (Table 4.6on page 57). Means of landholding for unmarried/single women is through inheritance or government redistribution of abandoned or unoccupied land. Findings reflect single/unmarried women's access to abandoned or unoccupied land is not realized and none of them accessed land through inheritance in the study area. In confirmation to literatures assessed for this study, the patrilineal inheritance system disfavored women in terms of land acquisition through inheritance because women are not considered as custodians of family property in community practices. The tradition in the study area gives inheritance right to male descents (grandsons)denying inheritance right to daughters of their deceased parents' land.Information obtained from focus group discussions with rural women on land access right of widows confirm that widows' access to deceased husbands' land is attached to fertility. These informants further disclosed in-laws would not allow a widow to live on their deceased relative's land if a widow is childless from that marriage. The case story below reflects this fact.Gadisse is a 40 years old widow the researcher met on the focus group discussion in Koftu Kebele. She lives in Filtino village. Gadisse is cute and even looks younger. She welcomed us with smile as we asked her to tell us her story. Gadisse started telling her story from her childhood. She told us that she was very much attached to her father. I wonder why her father didn't inherit her land and she explains the reason. Gadisse is aware now that she has equal inheritance right. She is also optimistic about getting her share from her deceased parents' land.In contemplation of literature assessed survey findings reveal that widows traditionally have rights to inherit their deceased husband's land which they later on pass to sons in the study area. However, this right is conditional to having a child from the deceased husband. Widows with children are relatively secure to use their deceased husbands' land than widows without children. This case story reflects this practice in the study area. Widows with children usually continue farming in their deceased husbands' lands as they continue to raise their children.Literatures reflected that their right however is 'indirect' as they exercise these rights through their children; they use their children's land.In addition, the researcher observed at the Woreda office land registration desk an elderly man from Dire Arerti Kebele asked by an expert to register his daughters on his book of land holding on the space provided to register inheritors saying, \"Daughters belong elsewhere.They inherit their husband's land. Mine is for my sons. If they were sons they could have inherited mine.\"This view reflects strong affirmation of daughters belonging to their husband's place after marriage. Such beliefs detach daughters from their own line of descent and retard their access to parents' land.Quantitative survey questions focused on women's control over land include rights to land registration and certification, decision-making on land use and on the amount to be stocked for household consumption and amount for sale and control of income and expenditure. Interview and focus group discussion guide questions further gave emphasis to these issues.Quantitative data collected on survey respondents' entitlement to land registration and certification revealed that 51.6% out of the total 318, responded land is registered and certified in the name of husbands, 21.7% responded land is registered and certified in their own names,16.7% responded land is registered and certified in the name of both spouses, 5% responded land is registered and certified in other persons names and 2.2% responded that land is registered and certified in leasers' names (Table 4,Annex). Data obtained on the relationship between marital status and land registration and certification on own names reflect that out of 235 married respondents, 12 responded land is registered and certified in their own names, 154 responded land is registered in the name of their husbands, 53 responded land is registered in the name of both spouses, 4 responded land is registered in leaser's name and 11 responded that land is registered in the name of other persons. Out of 69 widows 47, responded that land is registered in their own names, 10 responded, land is registered in the name of husbands, 3 responded, land is registered in other person's names and 1 responded that land is registered in leaser's name. Out of the 10 divorcees, 9 responded that land is registered in their own names and 1 responded that land is registered in leaser's name. Out of the 4 single/unmarried women, 1 responded land is registered in her name, another 1 responded land is registered in leaser's name and 2 responded that land is registered in other person's names. One married woman and 8 widows did not respond to this question. However, few actually have control over it. Women's control over land has direct relationship with women's direct access to land. Women's direct access to land is related to marital status.Confirming to literatures reviewed in this study, control over land is less vested on women in the study area. responded that it is decided by others and 5% are not willing to respond to this question. Data on women's decision-making on income expenditure reflects that 28.3% involve in decision, 24.8% decide on their own, 22.6% have equal say with their husbands on income expenditure, 21.7% responded that their husbands decide on their own and they are informed later and 0.9% responded that they sometimes decide on their own and their husbands decide on their own at other times.Qualitative information obtained from focus group discussion with rural women on women's involvement in decision-making on land and land related issues reflect that women in male headed households have little say on what crops to grow, on the amount to be stocked for household consumption and on the amount to be sold. Women explained that they usually need to grow crops they prefer to use for household consumption but are not mostly accepted by husbands. They stated that land is mostly used to cultivate crops/grains that have good market prices. Information obtained from interviews with Kebele LAC members disclose that wives are not mostly consulted on matters related to land and are not informed on serious issues like leasing out land. LAC members in Koftu Kebele referred to specific case they handled with the Kebele Administration on a woman's appeal to the Kebele because her husband leased out land without her knowledge and the family was in short of food as a result. The above table reflects the relationship between women's marital status and control over incomes from sales of agricultural products. The data on the above table reveal that out of the total 235 married respondents, 90 responded that they involve in decisions on income expenditure, 72 responded they have equal say, 67 responded that they are informed after decisions are made by their husbands, 3 responded they sometimes decide on their own and 3 married women did not respond to this question. Sixty six widowed respondents out of the total 69 responded that they decide on their own on income expenditure and 3 widows did not respond to this question. All divorced women responded that they decide on their own on income expenditure. Out of the 4 single/unmarried women, 3 responded that they decide on their own on income expenditure and 1 of them did not respond to this question.Qualitative information obtained on women's involvement in marketing agricultural products from focus group discussion with rural women reflect that women in male headed households are allowed to sell small amount of crop/grain in markets. Income from sales is used to buy food items needed in households. All concerned discussion participants stated that money earned from allotted sales is not sufficient to buy what is needed in their households.In view of literatures reviewed, women who gain control over land gain right to take major decisions on land like land use type, sales of proceedings and control of income and expenditure, etc. Survey findings on decision-making on land and land related matters reflect that decisions are not usually made in women's interests. In short of women's decisionmaking power on the amount of food grain to be allotted for household consumption over half of the households (51.9%) in the study area face food shortages (Table 4.4 on page 54).Women's involvement in decision-making on income and expenditure reflect that 22.6% of the respondents have equal say in such decisions (Table 4.8 on page 64). The data on the relationship between marital status and control over income (Table 4.9 on page 65) reveals that women in male headed households exercise less decision-making power as compared to FHHs. Only 72 married women have equal decision-making power over income out of the total 235. As displayed on Table 4.10 above quantitative data collected on women's knowledge and information on Kebele LACs election process reveal that 78.6% of the respondents, responded that they do not know how it was carried out, 12.6% responded it was initiated by Woreda Administration and all community members participated in the election process, 3.8% responded male community members elected LACs, 2.5% responded household heads elected LACs and 1.9% responded that Kebele Administration facilitated the process and all community members elected Kebele LACs.Information obtained from interviews with Kebele LACs in both Kebeles reflects women's low participation in community activities and in community decision-making. LAC members explained that the trend in calling community meetings is using PA (Peasant Association) members list from Kebele Administration records. Names of those who had land registered in their own names are put in Kebele records. PA membership is also associated with household headship. Although, LAC members said that they are elected by all community members in both Kebeles, they confirmed that the need for women's participation was not mentioned at time of their election. They explained that they were not aware of it. On the other hand, information obtained from rural women on the focus group discussion in both Kebeles reflects that most of them have no information about these meetings. They also mentioned that they usually do not attend community meetings. Few FHHs disclosed that they have information on Kebele LACs election and that they have attended those meetings.Information obtained from focus group discussion with rural women on their participation in other community activities reflects that women's participation is generally low. Rural women explained women's associations are not established in both Kebeles. Interviews with Kebele LAC members on women's presence on the field when their plots are measured and registered disclosed that women seldom come to fields. They either send male household members/relatives or leave it to the LACs.With regards to women's participation in community decision-making LAC members explained that no woman is represented in Kebele LACs and Kebele Sub-Committees in both Kebeles.Women's low involvement in community activities and marginalization from community decision-making is a strong feature in community practices in the study area. Survey findings reveal that women have no participation in the land administration process including decisionmaking and leadership. Women's marginalization from governance of the land administration process reflects dominance of patriarchal cultures in community practices which put women to subordinate positions. Survey findings reveal that most participants (78.6%) do not even know how the LACs election process was carried out (Table 4.10 on page 67). Findings further reveal that trends followed in calling community meetings, women's low access to information and less experience in attending community meetings had contributed to women's marginalization from community activities. Furthermore, women are not encouraged to organize in women's associations.Survey questions that focus on other factors that affected women's access to and control over land in the study area include women's participation on farm activities and women's access to agricultural inputs. Study findings reveal that land is ploughed by husbands in most married households. FHHs face labor constraint in absence of adult male labor in their households and the cultural taboo in women's ploughing. The ox-plough technology is female unfriendly. Women hardly manage to plough using those plough equipments even if they make up their minds to break the cultural taboo. The relationship between marital status and involvement in agricultural activities displayed on the above table reflects that out of the total 235 married respondents 197 responded that they always involve in farm activities, 12 responded that they sometimes involve on farm activities, 5 responded that they do not involve in farm activities because they work at home, 17 responded that they do not involve in farm activities for different reasons and 4 did not respond to this question. Out of the total 69 widowed respondents 44 responded that they always involve in farm activities, 8 responded that they sometimes involve on farm activities, 1 responded that she does not involve in farm activities because she works at home, 15 responded that they do not involve in farm activities for different reasons and 1 did not respond to this question. Out of the 10 divorcees 9 responded that they always involve in farm activities and 1 responded that she sometimes involve on farm activities. Out of the 4 single respondents 2 responded that they always involve in farm activities and the remaining 2 responded that they do not involve in farm activities for different reasons.The findings reveal that most women always involve in farm activities although farm is considered as a male undertaking as reflected in literatures. Involvement of FHHs is high as compared with married women as out of 83 FHHs (considering the total number of widows, divorcees and single) 55 always involve in farm activities and 9 sometimes involve in farm activities. Women's contribution to farm activities and the benefit they gain the control power they exercise on agricultural products and income including decision-making power doesn't consider their labor input.Quantitative data collected on possession of plough oxen reveals that out of the total 318 survey respondents 47.5% responded that they own a pair of oxen, 22.3% responded that they do not have oxen, 15.4% responded that they own only one ox, 11.3% responded that they own two pairs of oxen and 2.8% responded that they own more than two pairs of oxen.Respondents who do not own a pair of oxen to plough with responded that 11% responded that they borrow ox/oxen from friends and/or relatives, 5% responded they lease out their lands and use the money, 4.7% responded they use other means, 3.5% responded they enter into sharecropping arrangements and 0.9% responded that they rent oxen to make use of their farm lands (Table 5, Annex).Qualitative information obtained on access to other agricultural inputs such as labor, fertilizer, selected seeds, credit facilities etc. from rural women on focus group discussions reflected that FHHs have less access to agricultural inputs. Rural women asserted that FHHs do not get information on when inputs are distributed to farmers in their Kebeles. FHHs mentioned that they usually buy fertilizer from markets which is a disadvantage to them because Kebeles sell fertilizer at subsidized price and on credit basis. FHHs mentioned that they do not use fertilizer LAC members explained that personal attribute and educational background was requirement for LAC members' election. Five LAC members and 5 Sub-Committee members were elected in each Kebele. Sub-Committee members were elected from community elders and Kebele Administration officials. LAC members were trained at Debre Zeit on land measurement and field data recording skills and were oriented on the rural land proclamation of the region and its implementation procedures. Each Kebele LAC was provided with a copy of the rural land proclamation and land registration process guideline. LAC members disclosed that duties and responsibilities were not given in writings but they were told that their duty is measuring communal lands and individual holdings, collecting and registering information on individual holdings. Land is measured using traditional method (using ropes With regards to benefit gained by women from the current land administration system as compared with past experiences, information obtained from interviews with LAC members reflected that women are gaining equal rights with men in accessing land. On the other hand they disclosed that men control household assets and incomes. Information obtained from focus group discussion with rural women on the current land policy reflects optimism on their side. Women stated that their equal rights to land were not respected in the past and that there is no significant change at present also but, they affirmed that their situation will improve gradually and will change in the future.Women's land rights issues had become prominent in women's equal rights in international conventions and international human rights instruments set by the UN. Gender inequalities persist regardless of these efforts because of gender power relations in communities. The patriarchal gender relation determines women's socio-economic status at household and community levels. Feminist economics concepts reflect that women's empowerment is affected by socio-economic factors in all societies.Access to and control over land is critical for rural women's empowerment in terms of economic benefit and social status. Rural land reform policies affirming women's equal rights to land hardly bring intended changes in reality and bring about women's empowerment. Most land reforms institutionalize systems that usually fail to challenge existing community gender perspectives on women's access to and control over land. Rural women's access to land and control power they exercise on it is constrained by multiple interweaving factors. Major factors affecting women's access to and control over land are summarized below:Land tenure system: Land tenure systems applied in the country had impacts on women's access to and control over land. Various reforms were observed in land tenure systems over the past four decades in Ethiopia which affected communities under this study. Land tenure system has evolved over many years in the country and could be analyzed from a historical perspective. The major form of land tenure in Oromia Region before the 1974 land reform was the gult system. In the gult system land ownership right was acquired through grants from the monarch or from provincial rulers to government officials, war veterans, etc. as referred in chapter two. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church was also granted a large share of land. These grants were offered on the basis of positions, government services and religious dedications.As women were not in a position to render such services to government (with exception of very few) and as were not allowed to involve in religious rituals control of land remained in hands of men. Following the overthrow of the imperial regime rural land reform carried out by the Derg considered households as unit of rural land allocation in the land distribution carried in the land registration process and on women's marginalization from participating in the land administration process. Realization of married women's right to joint registration and certification on household land is relatively low because only 53 women out of the total 235 married women have registered land jointly with their spouses (Table 4.8 on page 64).Besides, the land holding book carries photo of the landholder and is signed by the landholder only even on spousal-joint registration.Updating of books of landholding is not considered in the land administration process.Although, findings reflect that reason for not considering updating of books is the short time passed since the start of the process in the study area, situations that require updating of books could occur in short time.Decision-making: Secondary sources assessed for this study reflected that the land administration implementation programme was aimed at initiating community participation at local levels. Despite this policy commitment, practice in the study area reveals that women are mostly marginalized from participating in community activities and decision-making. Female participation is not considered in the land administration process from its early stage to final implementation. None of the Kebele LACs and Sub-committees has female members. The problem is not limited to women's marginalization from the process but, also their lack of information on how LACs election was carried out. Only 12.6% out of the total 318 survey respondents actually know how it was carried out in both Kebeles (Table 4.11 on page 69).Furthermore, the study reflects that women rarely participate in community activities and women are not organized and women's associations are not established in the study area.At household level women have less influence on decisions on land and land related matters like on what crops to grow on the land, on sales of proceedings and control of income. Low decision-making power has become challenge to women's meeting their responsibilities in household food sufficiency. Women mostly involve on off-farm activities to fulfill family food needs. The relationship between decision-making power exercised by women, land registered in own names and their marital status are made evident by this study. Out of the total 318 households only 21.7% of the households have land registered in women's names (Table 4,Annex). Women in male headed households have relatively less decision-making power because, men control land in most married households.Women's land rights issue has gained focus in the gender discourse and is considered as mechanism for enhancing women's empowerment at household and community levels.However, land tenure discourse is lagging behind in ensuring women's access to and control over land. Land tenure systems have not yet challenged gender power relations which have major impacts on land tenure relations. This study indicates clear gender differences in access to and control over rural land in Dire Arerti and Koftu Kebeles in Ada'a Woreda.Literature reviewed in this study reflected women's access to and control over land has positive impacts on household food supply, household income and family welfare. Above all women's equal access to and control over land enable them to gain higher status in households and in communities. In spite of substantial global advancements and policy considerations in women's equal rights, their equal right to land is not ensured in most settings. Achievement is even less in ensuring women's control over land.The Oromia National Regional State rural land use and administration proclamation is issued based on the current and land tenure system. It is non-discriminatory on the basis of sex owing to the FDRE constitutional commitment on gender equality. However, assessment on the rural land proclamation and the implementation regulation from a gender perspective discloses that the policy is not efficiently gender sensitive 17 to address existing community gender biases on women's access to and control over land. Rural land administration system should pay attention to gender power relations in households and communities. Because it affects women's involvement in community activities including decision-making and their access to and control over agricultural resources. Therefore gender aspect of rural land policy as well as its implementation should consider gender power relations, particularly intra-household gender power relations to ensure women's equal access to and control over land.Moreover, using households as unit of rural land allocation in the land administration system has impacts particularly on women's control over land. Women's access to land should not be deemed as an overall policy goal although it is a means to women's control over land. This is a significant policy drawback as rural women cannot get empowered and achieve equality without gaining control over land. Control over land therefore is very important for ensuring gender equality in land rights as rural women's empowerment brings about sustainable rural development, alleviates poverty and ensures food security.As per findings of this study, implementation of the land administration process has not fully achieved policy aims in women's access to and control over land. This is reflected on policy limitations to address competing factors that hinder women's equal access to and control over land in the study area. Rural land policy should apply effective implementation strategy to address women specific issues that affect their equal rights to land. Gender mainstreaming strategy should be applied in the rural land administration system to remove existing barriers that retard women's equal access to and control over land. The rural land administration system needs to be gender inclusive and gender responsive to ensure women's equal access to and control over land.This study reveals that the regional rural land administration system lacks an autonomous institution to implement the policy regardless of policy commitment. This is a significant gap because policy implementation requires institutional mechanism with clear duties and responsibilities at all levels. Support from a well established institution at Woreda level will facilitate policy implementation at Kebele levels.Knowledge and awareness on women's equal land holding rights is critical to all concerned bodies including women themselves to realize women's rights on land. Knowledge and information on the regional land administration and use proclamation and other relevant legislations is limited among women in the study area. Knowledge and information is essential for women because most women hold secondary rights. They have to be aware of the rules and their legal rights to raise claims and to challenge denial of opportunities and rights. As reflected in the two case stories, women's awareness on their land rights plays vital role in breaking traditional barriers to women's access to and control over land. Those women in the two case stories started challenging community traditions on land acquisition as they get aware of their rights.Linkages between rural land policy and other laws such as family law that recognizes women's rights to own administer and control property in marriage and equal share at divorce is important to ensure women's equal rights on land. Therefore, linkages between rural land policy and relevant legislations should be strengthened and the laws should be promoted to ensure women's equal rights on access to and control over land.The study reveals that customs and traditions affect women's access to and control over land in the study area. Land acquisition by unmarried, divorced, widowed and women in polygamous marriages are affected by community customs and traditions. Rural land policy needs to address issues of these different groups of women to make sure that rural women get equal right to land as well as equal benefits from land. Access to land has become challenge to single/unmarried women. Daughters are not protected by customary laws on inheritance and statutory law has not yet challenged community customs and traditions. As per the study findings type of marriage women entered into determines women's land rights in addition to marital status in the study area. Situation of women in polygamous marriage is an area where gap exists between policy and the implementation regulation in the regional land administration system. Implementation of the rural land proclamation did not show significant difference with community customs and traditions on land rights of women in polygamous marriages. This study further reflects that community practices deny childless widows' access rights to deceased husbands' land. Since widows mostly get hold of land by inheriting their deceased husbands' land this practice will result in landlessness on widows. Divorced women's access to marital land at divorce is hardly realized in the studied communities.Customary divorce law allows women to take only their clothes as they leave their homes on divorce. Divorced women hardly get justice through community dispute settlement procedures and they have no easy access to legal systems thus, their legal right to share of marital land is not effected in reality.Therefore, the land administration system should consider issues of unmarried, divorced, widowed and women in polygamous marriages and should design strategy to bring attitudinal Mainstreaming gender in the land administration system: Gender mainstreaming strategy should be applied in the land administration system in order to address women specific needs, to initiate their equal participation in the process and to ensure women's equal benefit from the system.Carrying out advocacy and awareness creation programmes: Promoting women's equal access to and control over land requires addressing socio-economic issues particularly customs and traditions that affect realization of women's equal rights to land. Therefore the regional land administration system should design strategies to address these issues through advocacy and awareness creation programmes to change community attitudes and practices.Establishing strong women's organizations: Women's organizing has an aspect of empowerment and women's associations could serve as forum to women focused interventions. Thus rural women should be initiated to organize and struggle for their equal landholding and administering rights. Therefore the land administration system should design strategies to initiate active involvement of women in the land administration process including at decision-making levels.Tables Table 1:   ","tokenCount":"18779"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce992ba4f31a6a32b86d3b59f20296eb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89a9fd69-724b-4175-a6ab-fa0d4f9a7164/retrieve","id":"-207548248"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"375f8639-2d81-4a7f-b2f1-c935acf92ffc","pagecount":"48","content":"L e a d e r s d e l ' a g r o b u s i n e s s Le développement agricole et agroalimentaire analysé et déchiffré Sensibiliser la communauté du développement ACP-UE depuis 2007 aux défis agricoles et ruraux d'aujourd'hui www.bruxellesbriefings.net Briefings de Bruxelles sur le développement Les Briefings de Bruxelles sont une initiative du CTA et de ses partenaires : la Commission européenne (DG DEVCO), le Secrétariat ACP, le Comité des Ambassadeurs ACP et la confédération CONCORD. SPORE 187 | 3 TENDANCES 4 | Agriculteurs de demain : connectés et entrepreneurs PRODUCTION AGRICOLE 8 | Aux Caraïbes, des producteurs à la page 9 | Le poivre certifié qui a tout changé ENVIRONNEMENT 10 | Avec WaSA, l'eau bien gérée 11 | Un combustible propre pour la cuisson RECHERCHE 12 | Du maïs amélioré pour relancer l'agriculture haïtienne 13 | Des intrants écologiques à base de déchets NUTRITION ET SANTÉ 14 | Des agriculteurs cultivent pour les écoles 15 | Combattre la malnutrition au Mali ÉCONOMIE BLEUE 16 | Du poisson à la campagne 17 | La sécurité maritime en cartes INTERVIEWS 18 | Akinwumi Adesina : \"L'agriculture au centre de la création de richesse\" 20 | Josefa Sacko : \"Les femmes, actrices du développement\" N°187 34 | CHAÎNES DE VALEUR Beauté naturelle, version Pacifique 36 | COMMERCE Le lait, \"or blanc\" de l'Afrique de l'Est 38 | BUSINESS Au Cameroun, l'ananas donne du peps à l'économie 39 | FINANCE L'agriculteur, cet emprunteur méconnu 40 | PUBLICATIONS 33 | Économie 21 | Dossier Leaders de l'agrobusiness : les femmes, cheffes de file de l'innovation agricole PHOTO DE COUVERTURE © DARREN BAKER/ALAMY STOCK PHOTO © AGRICOLLEGES INTERNATIONAL › Des formations délivrées sur smartphones permettent aux jeunes étudiants en agriculture de découvrir des innovations agricoles en vue d'améliorer leur productivité et leurs rendements. © JOERG BOETHLING/ALAMY STOCK PHOTO Qui dit information dit contenu et donc recherche, avec des nouveautés intéressantes.Hugo Plus produit jusqu'à sept fois plus que les variétés de maïs traditionelles.La première Semaine de l'agriculture du Pacifique (PWA, Pacific Week of Agriculture), pour laquelle le CTA plaide depuis plusieurs années dans l'espoir de reproduire le succès de la Semaine caribéenne de l'agriculture, a eu lieu au Vanuatu du 16 au 20 octobre 2017. Le forum a réuni les ministres de l'agriculture et autres hauts représentants gouvernementaux de la région, des agriculteurs, des groupes du secteur privé, des partenaires du développement et des représentants d'organisations internationales et régionales. Le forum a été organisé par le gouvernement du Vanuatu, en collaboration avec la Communauté du Pacifique et la FAO.L'un des thèmes clés de la PWA était l'agritourisme, qui constitue une opportunité majeure pour les agriculteurs et les entreprises agroindustrielles des petits États insulaires en développement (PEID), en particulier dans le Pacifique, où le tourisme et l'agriculture sont deux des secteurs les plus importants. Le CTA et ses principaux partenaires ont ainsi organisé un atelier sur les Nouvelles opportunités dans le secteur de l'agritourisme dans le Pacifique durant la PWA afin d'examiner les progrès réalisés et de soutenir les nouveaux développements dans ce domaine. Les participants à l'atelier ont appelé les ministres de l'agriculture et les ministres du tourisme du Pacifique à créer un environnement propice aux entrepreneurs locaux et à soutenir le développement de nouveaux marchés.Dans cette édition de Spore, l'article Chaînes de valeur examine le succès des entrepreneurs du Pacifique dans l'un de ces nouveaux marchés -les produits de beauté naturels. Pour comprendre les principaux facteurs de réussite des entrepreneuses, notre Dossier examine les cas de différentes entreprises agro-industrielles dirigées par des femmes et les organisations qui les soutiennent. Pour garantir la croissance économique et la sécurité alimentaire, il est essentiel que les femmes et les jeunes soient encouragés à s'investir dans le secteur agricole, et qu'ils reçoivent un soutien approprié. Le panel de haut niveau sur la Promotion de l'agri-entrepreneuriat des jeunes dans le Pacifique -organisé par le CTA et des partenaires lors de la PWA -a mis en avant la nécessité d'investir dans les programmes comme l'initiative Pitch AgriHack du CTA, qui promeut l'entrepreneuriat des jeunes dans l'agriculture.Le succès de la première PWA a renforcé notre détermination à continuer à soutenir la collaboration et les partenariats Sud-Sud pour promouvoir l'agriculture, non seulement au profit de la sécurité alimentaire et de la nutrition, mais aussi en tant que moteur de la croissance économique et de la création d'emplois.Michael Hailu, directeur du CTALa daba et la machette, c'était du temps de nos parents. Les jeunes ne sont pas prêts à aller vers l'agriculture dans ces mêmes conditions\", constate Léa Boulo, de l'Agence nationale d'appui au développement rural (Anader) de Côte d'Ivoire. Si le niveau de mécanisation sur le continent demeure le plus faible au monde, les choses changent vite. Tant mieux car, pour nourrir une population globale de 9,1 milliards d'individus d'ici 2050, dont 2 milliards en Afrique, la production mondiale de nourriture doit faire un bond de 70 %, selon la FAO.Sur le continent africain, de nombreuses initiatives portent déjà leurs fruits et esquissent le portrait de l'agriculteur africain de demain : volontaire, connecté, apte à gérer une entreprise.L'image de l'agriculteur -souvent perçu comme un \"laissé-pour-compte\" -évolue. En 2015, à l'ouverture du Forum sur la révolution verte à Lusaka, une figure emblématique de l'économie africaine, Strive Masiyiwa, patron zimbabwéen d'Econet Wireless, déclarait, en évoquant dans quel secteur il investirait aujourd'hui : \"Je n'irais pas dans les télécommunications, j'irais dans l'agriculture.\" De son côté, le milliardaire nigérian, magnat du ciment, Aliko Dangote, n'hésite pas à investir dans le secteur agricole. En juillet dernier, par exemple, il a annoncé consacrer 3,2 milliards d'euros ces trois prochaines années à la filière du sucre, pour faire passer sa production de 100 000 tonnes à 1,5 million de tonnes d'ici 2020, et à celle du riz pour accroître d'un million de tonnes sa production actuelle. Cinq raffineries de sucre et dix usines à riz devraient être implantées dans le nord du Nigeria. De plus, Dangote Rice sera cotée au Nigerian Stock Exchange \"le moment venu\", a précisé en juillet Edwin Devakumar, directeur exécutif des unités industrielles de Dangote. Le groupe consacre aussi 680 millions d'euros à l'acquisition de 50 000 vaches capables de produire 500 millions de litres de lait par an d'ici 2019.Des entreprises agricoles ou liées à l'agriculture sont aujourd'hui publiquement de plus en plus encouragées et récompensées, s'attirant le soutien d'investisseurs et de mentors. Le patron de la Banque africaine de développement, Akinwumi Adesina, n'est-il pas l'ancien ministre de l'Agriculture du Nigeria ? Dans une interview exclusive pour Spore, il déclare : \"Si l'Afrique parvient à nourrir ses habitants, le marché et la stabilité économique des pays africains s'en trouveront améliorés, les réserves de devises seront préservées, les zones rurales transformées et des millions et des millions de personnes auront accès aux emplois ainsi créés. L'agriculture doit donc être au coeur de la stratégie de diversification économique et de la création de richesse en Afrique. Je suis convaincu que les millionnaires et les milliardaires africains de demain seront issus du secteur alimentaire et agricole -et non des secteurs du pétrole et du gaz.\"Partout sur le continent, des start-up liées à l'agriculture, de plus en plus nombreuses, sont portées aux nues : la plateforme eFarm au Nigeria, mettant en relation agriculteurs, investisseurs et acheteurs, est lauréate du Pitch AgriHack 2017, organisé par le CTA lors du 7 e Forum sur la révolution verte en AfriqueUne multitude d'initiatives permettent de dresser le portrait de l'agriculteur africain du futur : il sera connecté, informé et gagnera bien sa vie.Un métier d'avenir pour les jeunes.Bénédicte Châtel TENDANCES SPORE 187 | 5 (AGRF), qui s'est tenu à Abidjan en septembre. L'autre start-up récompensée, Farmart, qui commercialise au Ghana des produits agricoles frais, témoigne de l'importance croissante de l'innovation dans l'agriculture. \"L'innovation parmi ces jeunes a le potentiel de dynamiser l'agriculture\", a souligné à cette occasion Michael Hailu, directeur du CTA.Agriculteur, un vrai métier L'agriculteur de demain le deviendra, plus souvent qu'aujourd'hui, apprenant son métier ou adaptant ses connaissances tout au long de sa vie professionnelle.Son téléphone portable lui sera indispensable. Selon la Global System Mobile Association, le nombre d'abonnés au téléphone mobile en Afrique subsaharienne devrait passer de 420 millions en 2016 à 535 millions en 2020. Parmi eux, 40 % auront accès à Internet. Signe des temps, Agricolleges International a été lancée en mai 2017. Cette émanation de la Faculté d'agri-sciences de l'Université de Stellenbosch, en Afrique du Sud, propose une formation agricole initiale ou en continu à travers sa plateforme Desire2Learn's (D2L). Une des applications mesure la rapidité avec laquelle l'étudiant apprend à partir de son smartphone, ce qui permet d'ajuster le rythme de l'enseignement prodigué. De cette façon, la formation est moins onéreuse que de suivre un cours sur un campus et son accessibilité permetDeux des principaux obstacles auxquels est confronté l'agriculteur en Afrique sont de trouver un financement et un client. Pour y répondre, l'application 2Kuze, qui signifie \"grandissons ensemble\" en swahili, a été lancée en janvier 2017 en Afrique de l'Est. 2Kuze est une plateforme numérique développée dans le Lab Mastercard pour l'inclusion financière et financée par la Fondation Bill & Melinda Gates. Elle vise à connecter les petites exploitations agricoles, les agents, les clients et les banques, leur permettant de réaliser des transactions via leur smartphone ou par SMS sur leur téléphone portable, \"sans avoir à marcher des heures pour se rendre sur les marchés\", souligne Mastercard. \"Cette solution soutient notamment les agricultrices qui ont généralement des tâches ménagères à gérer, les empêchant de quitter leur exploitation, et sont souvent contraintes d'accepter la première offre qui leur est faite le jour même.\" 2Kuze n'en est qu'à ses débuts et s'appuie sur la fondation Cafédirect Producers pour travailler avec 2 000 producteurs de thé à Nandi Hills, au Kenya. L'activité a été étendue à la Tanzanie et lancée sous le nom eKilimo en partenariat avec la National Microfinance Bank. 2Kuze n'est pas seule sur ce créneau des plateformes numériques dans l'agriculture africaine. Les opérateurs téléphoniques comme Orange ont développé des applications dans de nombreux pays depuis plusieurs années, tout comme le Conseil céréalier d' Afrique de l'Est avec G-Soko. d'élargir considérablement le spectre des étudiants en agriculture et de leur formation continue.Autre exemple de cette tendance : l'information agricole diffusée par SMS. Le programme eShamba de la multinationale Syngenta, par exemple, fournit à 230 000 jeunes agriculteurs au Kenya et en Tanzanie des formations et des conseils sur les bonnes pratiques agricoles. Selon de premiers résultats récoltés par l'entreprise, ces agriculteurs auraient déjà constaté une hausse de 50 % de leurs rendements et un retour sur investissement de plus de 125 %.La formation est le socle fondateur de l'agriculteur de demain. Là aussi, des incubateurs jouent un rôle croissant, à l'image de 2SCALE, dont une grande partie du programme repose sur le renforcement des capacités des agriculteurs, notamment des femmes, les aidant ainsi à se mettre en réseau avec les commerçants, les intermédiaires et d'autres opérateurs de la chaîne de valeur.Qui dit information dit contenu et donc recherche, avec des nouveautés intéressantes. En témoigne l'accord de partenariat signé en août entre le Réseau des incubateurs des agribusiness africains (AAIN) et l'Association pour le renforcement de la recherche agricole en Afrique de l'Est et centrale (ASARECA) : les technologies agricoles pourront être davantage vulgarisées et portées à la connaissance des acteurs de terrain.Il y a fort à parier que l'agriculteur de demain pratiquera une plus grande diversité de cultures sur sa parcelle avec des cultures intercalées, en alternance ou/et en pratiquant l'agroforesterie. Par exemple, planter des avocatiers et des bananiers dans une cacaoculture permet de faire de l'ombrage, de protéger le cacaoyer de chaleurs excessives et de la sécheresse, mais aussi de le prémunir contre les maladies. Cela permet aussi aux cacaoculteurs \"d'améliorer leurs revenus en diversifiant leur production\", précise Moussa Sawadogo, président de la coopérative SCINPA COOP-CA, au nord d'Abidjan. De leur côté, Syngenta et le centre de recherches AfricaRice proposent des variétés de riz qui se cultivent en alternance avec des cultures de base comme le maïs et les céréales, et qui présentent des rendements de 20 % supérieurs aux variétés classiques.Rappelons qu'aujourd'hui 80 % de la production alimentaire sur le continent émane de fermes de moins de 2 hectares avec de faibles rendements, selon la FAO. Si les grandes exploitations semblent à la mode, elles se heurtent aux inquiétudes de la société civile à l'égard du risque d'accaparement des terres. D'où la recherche d'alternatives, comme l'agriculture contractuelle propulsée par l'essor des partenariats public-privé, très en vogue, qui offrirait un modèle agricole plus \"inclusif\". Le procédé n'est pas nouveau : il y a dix ans, les brasseurs SABMiller (à l'époque) en Ouganda et Delta Beverages au Zimbabwe ont commencé à s'approvisionner en sorgho auprès d'agriculteurs locaux pour fabriquer leur bière. Récemment, Dangote Group a eu recours à cette approche pour se lancer dans la filière riz dans l'État de Sokoto, au Nigeria.En parallèle, on constate l'émergence des \"fermiers moyens\". Ces personnes s'intéressent ou reviennent à la terre, ont eu une carrière hors de l'agriculture, sont souvent issues de la diaspora ou investissent de l'argent dans des fermes commerciales de taille moyenne, qu'elles possèdent ou non. C'est le cas de Claudia Ngassa, camerounaise et banquière en Afrique du Sud, qui a décidé, avec l'aide du Conseil interprofessionnel du café-cacao (CICC) au Cameroun et de son programme New Generation, d'investir dans la filière du cacao. \"Je continue en Afrique du Sud, mais mon projet évolue bien au Cameroun. Cette année, j'ai déjà planté 6 hectares en cacaoyers\", déclare la jeune convertie.Cauchemar Les relations entre agriculteurs et banquiers évoluent aussi, notamment grâce aux services bancaires mobiles. Au Kenya, 2Kuze est une plateforme numérique qui met en contact les agriculteurs avec des agents et des acheteurs (voir l'encadré, p. 5). Les paiements sont rapides et sécurisés, les transactions plus transparentes, ce qui permet à l'agriculteur de mieux négocier sa part du prix final. Les transactions étant répertoriées, cela facilite aussi les emprunts bancaires.Tous ces exemples témoignent combien les nouvelles technologies -les images aériennes par satellites ou drones, les prévisions météorologiques, les senseurs dans les sols qui aident à développer l'agriculture de précisionseront omniprésentes dans le quotidien de l'agriculteur. Selon l'enquête Africa Agribusiness 2016 de l'agence de conseils PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), intitulée AgTech -don't wait for the future, create it (en anglais), 47 % des entreprises interrogées ont déjà investi, ou prévoient d'investir, dans l'agriculture par le biais de l'intelligence artificielle. Les exemples sont déjà légion. Le fabricant français de drones Airinov, en collaboration avec le CTA, a formé en février 2017 des agriculteurs du Ghana, de Tanzanie, d'Ouganda, du Bénin et de RD Congo, à l'usage de ces drones, permettant de surveiller les cultures, d'optimiser l'usage d'engrais et de cartographier les cultures. Au Kenya, UjuziKilimo utilise des réseaux de capteurs sans fil, les technologies du mobile et les mégadonnées pour améliorer la productivité. Les kits d'irrigation goutte-à-goutte du kényan SunCulture utilisent depuis 2013 l'énergie solaire pour pomper l'eau, ce qui réduit le coût de l'irrigation, de la main-d'oeuvre et des engrais. Avec sa formule \"Paie quand ça pousse\" (Pay-as-you-grow), SunCulture avance l'argent pour acquérir la pompe solaire et l'agriculteur lui rembourse au fur et à mesure de ses rentrées financières. Citons aussi Zenvus, fondé au Nigeria par le professeur Ndubuisi Ekekwe : une solution intelligente pour les exploitations agricoles qui leur fournit le maximum d'informations sur leur propre exploitation et les fermes aux alentours. Enfin, les TIC deviennent abordables et accessibles au petit fermier.Il le faudra bien. \"L'exploitation agricole de demain pourra être très grande ou très petite, mais, ce qui est sûr, c'est que la nécessité d'une utilisation plus durable des matériaux et des terres sera au coeur des décisions des agriculteurs\", prévient Brian Harding, spécialiste du changement climatique au sein de l'organisation d'aide au développement néerlandaise SNV, dans un post de blog pour Spore. Les outils de demain, affirme le chercheur, aideront l'agriculteur à mieux connaître son environnement et à en anticiper les changements.Enfin, le boom démographique engendre un essor sans précédent du marché de la consommation alimentaire en Afrique, qui pourrait atteindre une valeur de 2 milliards de dollars (1,7 milliard d'euros) d'ici 2025.\"S'il est encore trop tôt pour évaluer les impacts de la digitalisation des systèmes agricoles en Afrique, en termes de productivité et d'amélioration des conditions de vie, on constate déjà une tendance prometteuse : la technologie rend l'agriculture très enthousiasmante pour les jeunes\", écrivait en mai dernier Ndubuisi Ekekwe, fondateur de Zenvus, dans la Harvard Business Review. \"Au fur et à mesure qu'ils verront que développer les applis mobiles ne suffit pas à nourrir l'Afrique, nombre d'entre eux se tourneront vers l'agriculture comme business.\"Pour lire l'avis de cinq experts sur les \"agriculteurs de demain\", voici le lien vers le site de Spore : https://tinyurl.com/n23oejqPour donner une visibilité à ceux qui se sont lancés dans l'agriculture durable, le Centre du commerce international (CCI ou ITC), le Pacte mondial des Nations unies et l'organisation à but non lucratif GS1 ont lancé Bluenumber Initiative, un registre mondial pour les agriculteurs durables. L'agriculteur se voit attribuer un numéro bleu de géolocalisation comprenant toute une série d'informations sur lui. Une fois dans le registre, le fermier peut se connecter à un marché de la durabilité, fonctionnel depuis 2016, trouver des acheteurs et avoir des informations auprès d'autres membres du réseau. En juillet 2017, plus de 60 000 agriculteurs avaient reçu un numéro bleu. Celui-ci leur permet, notamment, de naviguer sur Internet et donc de se familiariser avec les différents critères des normes à appliquer. Mi-septembre, Bluenumber a introduit le Bluemark process en partenariat avec slaveFreeTrade, le premier certificat au monde garantissant le non-recours à l'esclavage moderne dans la fabrication de produits.Le poivre de Penja est l'un des trois produits africains qui bénéficient d'une indication géographique protégée interdisant l'utilisation du nom de produit en dehors de sa région d'origine.Elias Ntungwe Egalame L e poivre de Penja, produit par une association de producteurs du village de Penja, dans la région du Littoral, dans l'est du Cameroun, s'est vu décerner une indication géographique protégée (IGP) en 2013 par l'Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle (OAPI), avec le soutien de de l'Agence française de développement (AFD). Depuis, le nombre de membres de l'association est passé de 20 à 300 et le prix du précieux poivre blanc a grimpé en flèche. Le poivre de Penja est l'un des trois produits africains, avec le miel d'Oku du Cameroun et le café Ziama Macenta de Guinée, à détenir une IGP interdisant l'utilisation du nom de produit en dehors de sa région d'origine. Le label impose aux producteurs d'observer des principes stricts pour répondre aux plus hautes normes de qualité. Ils doivent notamment produire le poivre dans une zone géographique délimitée, accepter le code de conduite défini par l'association et se soumettre à l'inspection régulière d'une équipe de membres de l'association, explique Emmanuel Nzenewo, secrétaire exécutif de l'Association des producteurs de poivre de Penja (APPP). Le respect de ces principes contribue à l'amélioration continue de la qualité du produit. \"Les producteurs de la région travaillent dur pour conserver la qualité naturelle du produit et ces efforts portent Les producteurs togolais à l'école de l'entreprise aujourd'hui leurs fruits\", affirme Amos Ngolle, de la délégation divisionnaire de l'agriculture au Moungo, un département de la région du Littoral. Avec le succès de la certification et la demande consécutive provenant de restaurants des quatre coins du monde, la production est passée de moins de 150 tonnes en 2014 à 350 tonnes en 2016. Le prix a aussi fortement augmenté : de 3,80 €/kg avant septembre 2013, il est passé à 12 €/kg en 2014, puis à 21,3 €/kg en 2015/2016. Cette envolée du prix a permis aux producteurs d'améliorer leurs revenus et d'étendre leurs zones de production. \"Depuis la certification, le marché de notre produit est devenu stable et sûr, garantissant ainsi nos revenus\", témoigne David Nzoto, un membre de l'APPP. Une autre productrice, Gabrielle Elung, a fait passer la surface de son exploitation de 8 ha en 2012 à 12 ha en 2017. Dans le même temps, le nombre de membres de l'association a été multiplié par quinze.La culture du poivre de Penja attire aussi de plus en plus les jeunes : le secteur en emploie plus de 500 dans la région lors des périodes de récolte. \"Je n'emploie pas moins de 20 jeunes dans mon exploitation lors des récoltes, car l'activité demande beaucoup de maind'oeuvre. Nous devons récolter, nettoyer puis sécher le poivre avant de le vendre\", explique Gabrielle Elung. D'après le président de l'association, des efforts particuliers sont déployés pour attirer davantage de jeunes, notamment par des formations en production poivrière et par la création de nouvelles plantations.En 2016, face au poids économique croissant du poivre de Penja, le gouvernement a construit et équipé un bureau pour l'association des producteurs et il leur a fourni 10 tracteurs et 15 puits à eau potable. Cette aide a permis d'augmenter la production et d'avoir de l'eau à disposition tout au long de l'année.Des agriculteurs sont formés à la gestion entrepreneuriale afin de tirer un meilleur profit de leurs terres. En établissant des plans d'affaires précis, ils bénéficient d'un meilleur accès aux financements.Aimé Mensah a appris comment gérer ses affaires de façon à enregistrer des bénéfices.\"Les producteurs de la région travaillent dur pour conserver la qualité naturelle du produit et ces efforts portent aujourd'hui leurs fruits\" U ne initiative promouvant les technologies et les pratiques liées à la gestion intelligente des eaux agricoles (WaSA, Water Smart Agriculture) au Ghana, au Malawi et au Mali vise à permettre à au moins 40 000 petits exploitants d'avoir un meilleur accès à l'eau. Ceci devrait les aider à subvenir à leurs besoins et assurer leur sécurité alimentaire dans un contexte de variabilité du climat. Lancé par CARE International en 2016, le programme WaSA through Pathways, d'une durée de trois ans, travaille directement avec des milliers de petits exploitants, en majorité des femmes, pour les familiariser avec les outils et les informations de WaSA.Les bénéfices des pratiques WaSA sont triples. Le travail réduit du sol, l'utilisation de compost et le système Vétiver -des haies de vétiver, une espèce de graminée, créent des terrasses naturelles qui piègent les sédiments et favorisent l'écoulement des eaux de ruissellement dans le sol et les systèmes radiculaires des cultures -améliorent la structure du sol et réduisent l'érosion. Ces techniques, combinées à des systèmes WaSA d'irrigation à petite échelle, garantissent une utilisation efficace et équitable de l'eau et améliorent le rendement des cultures, donc contribuent à renforcer la sécurité alimentaire. Les agriculteurs utilisant le système Vétiver ont accru leurs rendements de 30 %.Au Malawi, 112 agents de vulgarisation ont été formés aux pratiques WaSA et 42 écoles agricoles et commerciales disposent de parcelles de démonstration active, où sont présentées des techniques comme le paillage, les billons cloisonnés et le zaï.Le zaï implique de planter les semences dans des fosses de 20 à 30 cm de long et de 10 à 20 cm de profondeur, creusées dans le sol tous les 60 à 80 cm avant la plantation. Ces fosses, qui contiennent le paillis ou le compost, collectent l'eau de pluie -1 % de matière organique peut retenir 185 000 litres d'eau assimilable par les végétaux par hectare. Les agriculteurs qui utilisent le zaï ont augmenté leur production de 79 %. Charles Mkoka A u Kenya, la plateforme technologique innovante KOKO Networks améliore la distribution de combustible de cuisson à l'éthanol -baptisé SmartCook -à destimation des consommateurs urbains. La plateforme s'appuie sur un réseau d'agents et d'infrastructures d'approvisionnement en combustible, comme les stations-service et les points de vente urbains, pour fournir une alternative abordable et sûre aux combustibles \"sales\". Le combustible de cuisson réduit les émissions de CO 2 et la déforestation associées à l'utilisation de charbon et de kérosène, et améliore la santé des ménages en diminuant la pollution de l'air dans les habitations.KOKO Networks estime le marché des combustibles de cuisson dans les 40 plus grandes villes d'Afrique à 21 milliards d'euros par an. Cependant, la majorité des dépenses sont consacrées à des énergies qui nuisent à l'environnement et la santé humaine. Selon le partenariat public-privé Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, le charbon et le kérosène sont à l'origine de plus de 20 000 décès par an, rien qu'au Kenya.Le combustible de cuisson à l'éthanol SmartCook est produit à partir de la fermentation de la mélasse -un sous-produit agro-industriel issu de la transformation de la canne à sucre. L'éthanol obtenu est inutilisable dans l'industrie des boissons car il contient des impuretés. En modifiant les propriétés chimiques du mélange, le sous-produit peut alors servir à la fabrication de combustible.KOKO Networks produit aussi une cuisinière SmartCook qui consiste en deux brûleurs et un réservoir \"intelligent\" durable qui peut être rechargé chez les détaillants locaux, via les \"KOKOpoints\", des distributeurs automatiques de combustible. KOKO Networks s'associe aux grossistes en combustible et à un réseau d'agents, y compris des commerçants urbains, pour accroître la disponibilité de son produit. Lorsqu'un détaillant est sélectionné pour devenir un agent KOKO, l'entreprise installe dans sa boutique un \"KOKOpoint\" d'e-commerce connecté au cloud. Celui-ci affiche les détails du compte client lorsque le réservoir KOKO est connecté au KOKOpoint grâce à la puce unique insérée dans le réservoir SmartCook. Un kit SmartCook coûte 37 €, soit deux fois moins qu'une gazinière avec deux brûleurs.La demande élevée en éthanol a déjà été démontrée en 2013 au Mozambique où 40 000 foyers de Maputo (10 % des ménages) ont abandonné le charbon au profit de l'éthanol dans les douze premiers mois de commercialisation. KOKO a lancé son concept de combustible et cuisinière au Kenya en avril 2017 et le commercialise actuellement dans douze quartiers de Nairobi.Des déchets à l'électricité DANS LE VILLAGE DE RIJE, au Nigeria, un mini-réseau électrique alimenté par des déchets organiques produit de l'énergie pour 550 personnes grâce à un digesteur de biogaz. L'usine \"Waste2Watt\" génère 20 kW d'électricité par jour, ce qui permet de faire fonctionner les appareils électroménagers, y compris les éclairages et les congélateurs. La quantité de déchets requise quotidiennement (1,2 tonne) pour produire l'énergie provient des abattoirs, des élevages de volaille et d'habitations de la région, ce qui réduit l'enfouissement des déchets et la libération de méthane dans l'atmosphère due à la décomposition. Les ménages qui utilisent l'électricité paient 12,80 € par mois, moins qu'en utilisant de l'essence ou du diesel, selon Fatila Ademoh, la conceptrice de Waste2Watt.Au Kenya, un combustible à l'éthanol facile à utiliser et abordable réduit les impacts sur l'environnement et la santé humaine.Les KOKOpoints permettent aux clients de SmartCook de recharger leurs bombonnes \"intelligentes\".UN ATLAS CARIBÉEN DES SÉCHERESSES a été développé par des scientifiques de l'Université Cornell. Avec des cartes typographiques combinées à des données météorologiques collectées depuis les années 1950, l'atlas permet de comprendre la variabilité des sécheresses et leurs tendances, ainsi que d'évaluer les dynamiques et la prévisibilité de l'hydroclimat pour améliorer la résilience et les capacités d'adaptation des 40 millions d'habitants de la région. La base de données en ligne sera mise à jour tous les mois et est \"particulièrement importante pour les Caraïbes, étant donné que bon nombre de nations de la région figurent parmi les plus exposées aux sécheresses extrêmes\", explique Dimitris Herrera, coauteur de l'atlas.En Haïti, du maïs amélioré pour relancer l'agricultureUne variété de semence de maïs améliorée produit sept fois plus que les variétés traditionnelles haïtiennes, ce qui aide à lutter contre l'insécurité alimentaire sur l'île.Sophie Reeve U ne variété de maïs riche en protéines, avec une plus grande pureté sur le plan génétique et un meilleur potentiel de rendement que les variétés locales, a été produite en croisant plusieurs variétés et distribuée en Haïti. Ce maïs amélioré -\"Hugo Plus\" -est plus nutritif que les variétés locales car il contient plus d'acides aminés essentiels et est une bonne source de protéines. Hugo Plus permet de produire jusqu'à 7 tonnes par hectare, contre en moyenne moins de 1 tonne pour les variétés traditionnelles. Le Centre international d'amélioration du maïs et du blé (CIMMYT) a produit 150 tonnes de cette semence améliorée afin de renforcer la sécurité alimentaire locale et réduire la malnutrition.Haïti, où 50 % de la population souffre de malnutrition, enregistre les plus faibles rendements de maïs de la région. Sans sécurité alimentaire, Haïti ne peut pas se développer et devenir un pays stable, selon l'USAID qui a participé à la mise en place du projet. L'absence d'entreprises semencières officielles n'aide pas. \"Après la récolte, les agriculteurs vendent souvent la totalité de leur production, ce qui ne leur laisse plus rien pour la prochaine saison et les force à planter de simples grains de maïs achetés sur les marchés locaux plutôt que des semences certifiées, réduisant ainsi le rendement au fil du temps\", explique Alberto Chassaigne, spécialiste du système semencier du maïs au CIMMYT.Une première variété Hugo \"basique\" a été produite et fournie aux agriculteurs haïtiens en 1998, après des décennies de recherches en Haïti et en Amérique latine conduites par le CIMMYT et l'ONG Organization for the Rehabilitation of the Environment. Cette Hugo \"basique\", bien que populaire, a perdu de sa pureté génétique au fil du temps en raison de l'absence de production certifiée de semences dans la région. Par la suite, les rendements ont diminué.Pour préserver la pureté génétique du nouvel Hugo, le CIMMYT organise des activités de développement des capacités de production et de transformation de Hugo Plus. Trois groupes d'entrepreneurs désireux de créer une entreprise de semences ont été formés à la production et la transformation de semences.\"Un projet partenaire\", Feed the Future Chanje Lavi Plantè, travaille avec 60 000 exploitants agricoles, dont 3 000 \"maîtres agriculteurs\" qui promeuvent l'utilisation de Hugo Plus. \"Le plus important est qu'il y ait ici des gens bien formés à la production de semences de qualité, afin de réduire la dépendance\", assure Alberto Chassaigne.Sur les 150 tonnes du nouvel Hugo Plus produites en 2016-2017 au Mexique, 20 tonnes sont déjà arrivées en Haïti, où elles vont être vendues à des agriculteurs à un prix abordable, via des magasins d'intrants établis par le programme Feed the Future de l'USAID et ses partenaires. Le reste servira de réserve stratégique de semences disponibles en cas de catastrophe naturelle.Par ailleurs, les scientifiques du CIMMYT ont découvert les germoplasmes de deux nouvelles variétés résistantes -\"Mayi Plus I\" et \"Mayi Plus II\" -plus performantes que toute autre semence disponible dans les cultures irriguées et pluviales. Ces variétés sont actuellement multipliées pour être fournies aux cultivateurs de maïs haïtiens.u Kenya, un biopesticide développé par l'industriel Donatus Njoroge aide les agriculteurs à protéger leurs récoltes de céréales contre les attaques de charançons. La \"bioressource Molepse\" a des effets répulsifs et toxiques et tue les nuisibles qui entrent en contact avec elle. \"Le produit est formulé à partir de différentes espèces de plantes que l'on trouve au Kenya. Une goutte d'huile essentielle extraite de ces plantes agit comme un pesticide efficace\", affirme M. Njoroge.Il a fallu quatre ans pour mettre au point ce biopesticide à faible coût, désormais disponible sous forme de poudre et de liquide. Le sac contenant les céréales est d'abord traité par fumigation, puis placé dans un autre sac pour éviter que les vapeurs de biopesticide ne s'échappent. Douze sacs de 90 kg de céréales peuvent être protégés avec seulement 60 ml de Molepse (0,80 €) pour une période allant jusqu'à six mois. \"Le biopesticide ne contient pas d'additifs chimiques, ce qui joue un rôle majeur dans la réduction de ses coûts de production et le rend donc abordable pour les agriculteurs plus démunis\", ajoute M. Njoroge. Utilisé par plus de 100 céréaliers dans le centre du Kenya, le produit a fini second de l'East Africa Post-Harvest Technologies Competition en 2017, un concours organisé par le cercle de réflexion africain Inter Region Economic Network.Samuel Rigu, un autre innovateur kényan, a développé un engrais et amendement de sol sans émissions de carbone à partir de balles de riz disponibles localement. Safi Sarvi®, un mélange de biochar (du charbon à base de résidus de culture), de calcaire broyé et de déchets végétaux, augmente le rendement des cultures de 30 % et permet d'éviter le rejet d'au moins 5,4 tonnes d'équivalent CO 2 dans l'atmosphère par an et par hectare. L'engrais fait aussi baisser l'acidité du sol et contribue à la rétention des éléments nutritifs et de l'humidité, réduisant ainsi les besoins en eau de 15 %.D'après M. Rigu, Safi Sarvi® est deux fois moins cher que les engrais traditionnels (12 € pour un sac de 50 kg). Au Kenya, il est utilisé par plus de 1 000 exploitants agricoles qui cultivent du riz, du maïs, du blé, des haricots, des pois, des légumes et des fruits. Par ailleurs, l'entreprise de M. Rigu, Safi Organics achète aux agriculteurs les déchets autrefois indésirables. Certifié biologique par Ecocert, l'engrais a aussi remporté plusieurs prix et a été parmi les finalistes du Prix de l'innovation pour l'Afrique en 2016.Un biopesticide à base de mauvaises herbes et un engrais biologique évitant les émissions de carbone présentent des résultats prometteurs pour les agriculteurs kényans.Safi Sarvi® augmente le rendement des plantes de 30 % et est moitié moins cher que les engrais conventionnels. produisant plus de viande et d'oeufs -comparable aux Sasso de France et Kuroiler d'Inde -a été obtenue après 20 ans de recherche par l'Université fédérale d'agriculture d'Abeokuta au Nigeria. Dix-sept races locales, de poids supérieur et résistantes à des maladies comme la leucose aviaire, ont été multipliées et croisées pour produire FUNAAB-Alpha. Ces poulets pèsent entre 1,2 et 1,5 kg et produisent 200 à 250 oeufs par an, contre 0,9 kg et 40 à 60 oeufs pour les races locales. Le programme African Chicken Genetic Gains, de l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage, a permis de les distribuer à 2 500 éleveurs nigérians depuis 2016.En fournissant à 170 établissements de quoi préparer des repas quotidiens, des milliers d'agriculteurs améliorent la nutrition et l'éducation des enfants.our améliorer les mauvais résultats et les taux de fréquentation des écoles primaires des zones rurales, des associations d'agriculteurs de la province de Nampula, dans le nord du Mozambique, fournissent des produits frais qui servent aux repas quotidiens de plus de 64 000 enfants. Avec le soutien de l'ONG World Vision (WV), des milliers d'agriculteurs ont ainsi pu accroître durablement leur production et fournir assez d'aliments pour aider les élèves à poursuivre leur éducation.\"Autrefois, beaucoup d'enfants arrêtaient l'école car ils n'étaient pas motivés pour rester en classe pendant des heures avec le ventre vide\", se souvient Paulo Adelino, président du groupe d'agriculteurs Wakhaliherya. Dorénavant, à l'école primaire Intenta, \"les élèves sont heureux car ils reçoivent de la xima [purée de maïs] et des haricots\". Ces aliments sont fournis par l'association d'agriculteurs de M. Adelino, avec le soutien du \"Educating Children Together Project\" (ECTP) de WV, lancé en 2012 dans les districts de Muecate et Nacaroa de la province de Nampula.L'initiative contribue à lutter contre la faim et, à long terme, améliorera la production agricole, la santé et l'alphabétisation. \"Deux de nos agronomes travaillent avec des agriculteurs pour développer de nouvelles techniques agricoles visant à améliorer la production, la diversité des cultures et le rendement\", explique José Daniel, directeur adjoint de la deuxième phase de l'ECTP. \"Nous distribuons également des semences et des fournitures agricoles à 80 associations, qui représentent environ 1 600 petits exploitants. Ces associations travaillent avec 170 écoles.\" Au cours des trois prochaines années, les associations d'agriculteurs, qui seront soutenues par les agronomes et suivront des formations à l'agrobusiness, feront don de 30 % de leur production aux écoles.La diversité alimentaire et la valeur nutritionnelle des repas scolaires forment une composante majeure de l'initiative et ont été intégrées aux formations des producteurs locaux. WV Mozambique et le gouvernement de la province de Nampula encouragent les agriculteurs à investir dans des produits de haute qualité, grâce à des formations ciblées, comme l'ananas et la papaye. Les organisations d'agriculteurs reçoivent aussi une série de semences leur permettant de cultiver des aliments nutritionnels tels que le maïs, les cacahouètes et le chou. \"En donnent du maïs, des haricots, du chou, des oignons, des poivrons et des tomates, les associations d'agriculteurs contribuent à promouvoir la diversité alimentaire dans les repas scolaires des enfants\", fait remarquer Anthony Akwenyu, chef de projet chez WV Mozambique.Il ajoute : \"Une évaluation d'impact menée par WV a révélé que le nombre d'enfants capables de lire, d'écrire et de comprendre un texte spécifique à leur année scolaire [ou groupe d'âge] est passé de 8 % quand le projet a commencé en 2013 à 25 % en janvier 2016.\"Les repas scolaires nutritifs ont un impact positif sur l'assiduité des élèves.1 600 agriculteurs offrent leurs produits pour la préparation de repas scolaires. Selon le médecin Moulaye Sangaré, qui a suivi l'usage de la farine depuis son lancement au Mali, \"de nombreuses études ont démontré l'efficacité de la farine Misola sur la santé des enfants\". Comme celle publiée en 2012 dans le Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism montrant que des enfants atteints de malnutrition sévère affichaient des scores \"poids-taille\" normaux après huit semaines de consommation de Misola.Consommatrice de Misola, Safiatou Coulibaly, 24 ans, explique : \"J'en consommais régulièrement quand je souffrais de malnutrition. Même maintenant, je continue d'en acheter plusieurs fois dans l'année.\" Un sachet de 500 grammes coûte 400 FCFA (0,60 €) et peut servir à plusieurs repas.Les UPA, constituées de femmes, s'engagent à respecter des critères de qualité de la farine et à dispenser des formations pour une meilleure appropriation du produit par les populations. Des tests en laboratoire sont régulièrement effectués afin de garantir la qualité nutritive de la farine.D'après le PAM, en 2016, environ 2,5 millions de Maliens étaient en situation d'insécurité alimentaire, dont 315 000 en situation d'insécurité alimentaire sévère pendant la période de soudure. Près d'un tiers des enfants de moins de cinq ans sont affectés par le rachitisme. Des organisations comme le PAM, l'UNICEF, Save the Children ou CARE commandent régulièrement de la farine aux UPA. En 2016, le Mali en a produit 600 tonnes.Créée au Burkina Faso en 1982 par l'association française Misola, la farine est préparée, commercialisée et consommée dans neuf pays d'Afrique : Bénin, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinée Conakry, Mali, Mauritanie, Niger, Sénégal et Tchad. En 2016, l'association Misola a signé un contrat de franchise avec l'entreprise Acouns Nigeria Limited afin de produire et commercialiser la farine au Nigeria. Des agriculteurs et transformateurs maliens collaborent pour produire la farine Misola, conçue pour lutter contre la malnutrition chez les enfants et les adultes.Une approche sur mesurea été développé par le Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network. L'outil en ligne identifie les ISN appropriées pour un projet déterminé en fonction du système agricole (culture, élevage ou mixte) et des domaines d'intervention (par exemple, les technologies améliorées). L'outil classe l'impact des ISN potentielles sur une échelle de 1 à 8 -1 représentant l'impact le plus important. Le score est évalué selon l'impact de l'ISN dans trois domaines : productivité agricole, égalité des sexes et nutrition. Les professionnels peuvent alors prendre des décisions éclairées quant à l'ISN la mieux adaptée à leur projet.En créant de nouveaux marchés dans les zones rurales, l'aquaculture peut répondre à la forte demande en poisson et renforcer la résilience des foyers éloignés des côtes.aux petits agriculteurs de générer des profits attractifs\", soutient Colby Silvert, coordinateur de la vulgarisation du projet pour WorldFish.Afin de les aider à générer des revenus supplémentaires, \"nous formons les agriculteurs à évaluer les marchés locaux et les marchés secondaires comme les restaurants\", explique Colby Silvert. \"À mesure que le poisson frais deviendra disponible, moins de poissons marins seront transportés de Freetown vers les marchés du pays.\"Le projet a aussi réhabilité l'usine de production de fretins de Makali. Propriété du gouvernement, l'usine emploie six personnes et sert aujourd'hui de centre de sélection des espèces les plus viables génétiquement, fournit les agriculteurs en fretins et les forme à la gestion des ressources en poisson pour devenir éleveur à leur tour.Dans les campagnes, le poisson de mer fumé, facile à conserver et à transporter, se vend entre 0,95 € et 3,30 € le kilo. \"Cependant, le poisson frais a plus de valeur et est plus apprécié par les consommateurs. Cela peut offrir un avantage pour les poissons d'élevage des fermes piscicoles des zones rurales, qui pourraient être transportés frais ou vivants jusqu'aux marchés\", fait valoir Paul Bangura, consultant pour l'aquaculture à la FAO.Entre 2015 et 2016, la FAO et le ministère de la Pêche ont aussi mis en place deux projets pour construire 64 viviers de 400 m 2 dans quatre districts (Bo, Kenema, Kono et Tonkolili), détenus et gérés par des groupes communautaires de 30 personnes au maximum, surtout des jeunes ; 800 agriculteurs, dont 30 % de femmes, bénéficient directement de ces projets. Parmi eux, 128 ont été formés à la bonne gestion d'une ferme piscicole. De plus, 16 fonctionnaires des ministères de la Pêche et de l'Agriculture ont reçu une formation afin de soutenir les agriculteurs dans la gestion de leurs ressources, l'évaluation de la qualité des poissons et l'accès aux marchés locaux. Au total, à raison d'une ou deux collectes par an, la FAO estime que ces bassins à poissons produiront 20 000 kg de poissons frais, soit l'équivalent de près de la moitié de l'actuelle production nationale annuelle de poissons d'eau douce (45 000 kg). L'indice insiste sur le fait que les solutions à l'insécurité maritime doivent s'attaquer aux causes profondes de l'instabilité et reposer sur les efforts multilatéraux et la coopération entre pays.L'indice catalogue neuf problématiques interconnectées, comme le résume le Dr Christian Trimua, directeur exécutif du Centre interrégional de coordination, basé à Yaoundé et qui est en charge de la stratégie de mise en oeuvre régionale de la sécurité maritime en Afrique centrale et de l'Ouest : \"La piraterie ne pourra être éradiquée tant que la question de la pêche illicite sera négligée. Et celle-ci ne pourra pas être réglée tant que la pollution sera négligée... La solution à l'un des problèmes passe par la prise en compte des autres.\"En évaluant l'impact de la piraterie, de la pêche illicite ou de la traite d'êtres humains sur les économies des pays d'Afrique subsaharienne, un indice permet de prendre des mesures adaptées.Les navires étrangers capturent trois fois plus de poissons que les pêcheurs somaliens. Ainsi, de grandes quantités de conques mortes se sont échouées sur des bancs de sable. L'industrie de la pêche de Barbuda, qui dépend de la production de conques et de langoustes, a rapporté entre 125 000 € et 312 000 € par an ces cinq dernières années. Dans les Bahamas, environ 6 000 personnes sont employées dans le secteur et des produits d'une valeur de 84 millions d'euros sont exportés chaque année.L'Afrique doit devenir un acteur international majeur du secteur de l'alimentation et de l'agriculture. En lançant le système de portefeuille électronique au Nigeria, nous voulions mettre fin à 40 années de corruption dans le secteur des engrais et des semences, conséquence de la corruption gangrénant les systèmes de passation de marchés publics. Nous avons utilisé le pouvoir de diffusion de la téléphonie mobile et envoyé sur les portables des agriculteurs des bons électroniques leur permettant d'acheter des intrants aux négociants des zones rurales. Nous avons pu enregistrer électroniquement les agriculteurs et ainsi atteindre plus de 15 millions d'entre eux sur une période de quatre ans. Cette initiative a mis les petits agriculteurs au coeur de la politique publique et a renforcé la responsabilisation et la transparence en matière de gestion des biens publics. Le Nigeria a pu ainsi augmenter sa production alimentaire à hauteur de 21 millions de tonnes sur une période de quatre ans.Au Kenya, environ 20 milliards d'euros sont actuellement transférés chaque année via le système M-Pesa. C'est la raison pour laquelle la BAD participe aux efforts d'amélioration des services de financement mobile en faveur de millions d'habitants d'Afrique centrale et de l'Ouest, en coopération avec la Fondation Bill et Melinda Gates. J'ai le sentiment que la téléphonie mobile et la technologie numérique transforment la vie des populations pauvres. Elles permettent aujourd'hui aux agriculteurs d'avoir accès aux marchés, d'obtenir des informations sur les prix du marché, de contracter des assurances, de se procurer des intrants agricoles et de bénéficier de services financiers. C'est vraiment une technologie transformatrice !C'est pour moi un immense honneur d'avoir reçu le Prix mondial de L'agriculture est au coeur de la création de richesse Président de la Banque africaine de développement (BAD) et ancien ministre nigérian de l'Agriculture, le Dr Akinwumi Adesina évoque le rôle majeur de l'industrialisation de l'agriculture pour faire des zones rurales africaines pauvres des zones de prospérité économique. Nous devons transformer toutes les zones d'Afrique pour faire de ces \"zones de misère économique\" des zones de prospérité économique, et pour cela il faut que le secteur agricole fonctionne de manière parfaitement efficace. Ma mission est de faire en sorte que les pays comprennent que l'agriculture n'est pas un mode de vie ou une activité de développement, mais bien une activité économique à part entière.L'Afrique produit aujourd'hui 75 % des fèves de cacao dans le monde alors qu'elle ne détient que 2 % du marché mondial du chocolat, évalué à 85 milliards d'euros. L'Afrique produit beaucoup de coton, mais l'exporte sous forme de fibres de coton brut. Même chose pour le café : les pays d'Afrique sont dans le top 10 des producteurs de grains de café mais ceux-ci sont exportés sans être transformés. L'Afrique doit industrialiser son agriculture pour ajouter de la valeur à toute sa production et devenir ainsi compétitive sur les marchés mondiaux.L'Afrique importe actuellement des produits alimentaires à hauteur de 30 milliards d'euros par an. À ce rythme, la facture des importations alimentaires atteindra les 93,5 milliards d'euros en 2030. Si l'Afrique parvient à nourrir ses habitants, le marché et la stabilité économique des pays africains s'en trouveront améliorés, les réserves de devises seront préservées, les zones rurales transformées et des millions et des millions de personnes auront accès aux emplois ainsi créés. L'agriculture doit donc être au coeur de la stratégie de diversification économique et de la création de richesse en Afrique. Les millionnaires et les milliardaires africains de demain seront issus du secteur alimentaire et agricole -et non des secteurs du pétrole et du gaz.Prenons le cas des petits agriculteurs thaïlandais : ils produisent l'essentiel du riz consommé dans le monde. Nous consommons aussi du riz et certaines légumineuses produits par les petits agriculteurs indiens. Il n'y a donc aucun problème d'efficacité s'agissant des petits exploitants. Mais nous devons faire en sorte que ces petits producteurs accèdent au financement, à l'information, aux marchés, aux meilleures technologies mondiales et aux infrastructures rurales.C'est à ce niveau qu'il faut clarifier le rôle des secteurs public et privé. Il doit y avoir des petits exploitants, des exploitations agricoles commerciales de taille moyenne et de grandes exploitations. Il faut pouvoir faire le lien entre celles-ci. Les exploitations commerciales à moyenne et à grande échelle fournissent l'accès aux marchés et soutiennent l'infrastructure dont les agriculteurs ont besoin. Les PPP devront donc s'assurer de la présence d'agribusiness privés dans les zones rurales.Le problème, en Afrique, c'est que les agribusiness du secteur privé, en particulier les entreprises agroalimentaires, sont tous situés en milieu urbain. Ils vendent leurs produits à proximité des ports vers lesquels ils acheminent les matières premières pour les transformer et les exporter. Une approche qui ne crée pas le moindre emploi en Afrique.À la BAD, nous plaidons actuellement pour un nouvel accord de PPP et pour la mise en place de \"zones de transformation des cultures de base\" ou \"zones de développement agro-industriel\". Les entreprises privées du secteur agricole seront encouragées à implanter leurs entreprises de transformation alimentaire dans ces vastes territoires situés en milieu rural. Elles se rapprocheront ainsi des agriculteurs, pourront créer des marchés pour ces derniers, transformer et valoriser sur place les produits agricoles, contrôler les volumes élevés de matières premières qui quittent l'économie rurale et créer de très nombreux emplois. Ces zones bénéficieront du soutien de la BAD et d'autres acteurs, et les gouvernements mettront à leur disposition des infrastructures -électricité, eau, réseau routier et TIC -qui diminueront leurs frais d'exploitation. Elles transformeront ainsi toutes les zones rurales en \"zones de prospérité économique\". Nous devons donner aux femmes les moyens de s'organiser et de créer des petites et moyennes entreprises. Les femmes et les jeunes doivent bénéficier pour cela du soutien du gouvernement, du secteur privé et de la société civile.Les femmes ne doivent pas être considérées comme des victimes mais comme des actrices du développement. Lorsque j'étais secrétaire générale de l'OIAC (Organisation interafricaine du café), il y avait une association de femmes du secteur du café de Yaoundé (Cameroun) très bien organisée qui est parvenue à faire élire une de ses productrices au Parlement. L'Afrique a des difficultés à accepter que les femmes accèdent à de tels niveaux décisionnels et mettent sur la table leurs préoccupations. Il faut élire des femmes compétentes afin qu'elles puissent défendre les intérêts de leur communauté et soulever des questions clés au Parlement.La sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle s'est nettement améliorée malgré le changement climatique. Nous devons travailler sur des initiatives comme la Grande Muraille verte pour le Sahel afin de stopper la désertification. Nous devons nous adapter aux phénomènes comme la désertification, la sécheresse ou les inondations si nous ne voulons pas qu'ils anéantissent nos avancées sur le front de la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle. Nous devons développer l'agriculture intelligente face au climat. Elle est surtout pratiquée dans les pays d'Afrique de l'Est mais l'UE s'apprête également à lancer une initiative d'agriculture intelligente au Mozambique.Nous devons tout d'abord nous organiser et stimuler nos revenus en exportant nos produits de base et en renforçant les échanges agricoles. Deuxièmement, il faut assurer la sécurité alimentaire au niveau national et promouvoir le commerce régional, le commerce Sud-Sud. Nous voulons aussi encourager nos exportations alimentaires, mais nous ne voulons plus dépendre des seules matières premières. Plus nous améliorerons notre chaîne de valeur, plus nous pourrons vendre nos produits à des prix plus élevés.Le secteur africain de l'agriculture peut être compétitif sur la scène internationale si nous investissons dans celui-ci. Il faut affecter des dépenses publiques à l'agriculture, à la recherche, au développement et à l'innovation pour améliorer la productivité. Il faut aussi investir dans le capital humain, procéder à des réformes foncières appropriées, et assurer l'accès des femmes, des jeunes et des investisseurs étrangers aux terres. Et surtout, nous devons partager nos expériences afin que la transformation aille dans le sens que nous souhaitons. On ne peut agir isolément. Il faut intégrer nos efforts et coopérer. Le multilatérisme est la marche à suivre.Josefa Sacko, commissaire de l'Union africaine à l'économie rurale et l'agriculture, explique pourquoi les femmes doivent accéder aux responsabilités.Josefa Sacko explique comment elle compte transformer l'agriculture africaine. Parmi les principaux obstacles au succès des agro-entreprises dirigées par des femmes figurent un accès limitéDans le monde entier, des femmes entrepreneurs gèrent des affaires rentables dans le secteur agricole, malgré de nombreux obstacles. Mais pour briser le \"plafond de verre\" et être compétitives au niveau international, elles ont besoin de liens forts avec des marchés à forte valeur, de formations commerciales et d' accès aux financements et aux ressources. Cherchant à exploiter les technologies du web et de la téléphonie mobile pour accroître l'accès des femmes aux marchés agricoles, Awa Caba a cofondé Sooretul, un marché en ligne permettant aux femmes sénégalaises de promouvoir et vendre leurs produits agricoles aux sept millions de consommateurs numériquement connectés du pays. Les clients peuvent acheter en ligne les produits qu'ils recherchent et les faire livrer. Avec cette plateforme en ligne pour produits agricoles, Sooretul contourne les difficultés que rencontrent les productrices contraintes de parcourir de grandes distances pour vendre leurs produits dans les marchés.Il est vital que les femmes mettent à profit le potentiel des technologies pour améliorer la compétitivité et la pertinence de leurs entreprises. Le CTA est bien conscient de la nécessité d'aider les jeunes femmes, ainsi que les hommes, à innover dans les TIC pour contribuer à renforcer les capacités des femmes en agriculture. En tant que lauréate du prix Pitch AgriHack 2016 du CTA dans la catégorie avancée, qui aide les jeunes entrepreneurs à développer leurs agro-entreprises en s'appuyant sur les TIC, Sooretul a reçu une subvention de 15 000 € et bénéficié du parrainage et de l'appui au réseautage de Prohaus VC -une plateforme mondiale de capital-risque dirigée par des femmes qui soutient les jeunes entreprises high-tech.En plus de faciliter l'accès aux marchés, la technologie peut aussi améliorer l'accès des femmes rurales aux financements pour leur permettre de créer des entreprises plus rentables. L'innovation de Rose Funja en a le potentiel : elle utilise la technologie SIG pour fournir › En tirant parti des connaissances et expériences de son réseau de femmes entrepreneurs du Canada et de quinze pays africains, l'Alliance des femmes d'affaires canadiennes et africaines facilite l'accès des entreprises dirigées par des femmes africaines aux informations sur les formations et ressources. Ce type de collaboration intercontinentale peut offrir un appui très efficace aux entreprises dirigées par des femmes pour les aider à élargir leurs activités, comme le montre l'expérience de Lucy Karuga, directrice générale d'Eldoville Dairies au Kenya. Dans le cadre du programme danois de développement du secteur privé Danida, Eldoville Dairies a pu utiliser des technologies de transformation laitière et de gestion des déchets pour améliorer son efficience et sa productivité.Le personnel de Lucy Karuga a aussi bénéficié en France et au Kenya de formations animées par de grands fromagers, ce qui lui a permis d'étendre la production à sept types de fromages et de créer une gamme de yaourts et beurres au lait entier et allégés, ainsi que › ANALYSE des confitures, compotes et miels. L'aide du Danida au développement des capacités a facilité l'expansion des activités de l'entreprise, ce qui lui a permis d'ouvrir un deuxième établissement à Mombasa pour alimenter le circuit touristique côtier et élargir l'approvisionnement des principaux hôtels, hôpitaux, traiteurs pour compagnies aériennes et supermarchés du pays, en visant aussi le Rwanda et l'Ouganda.Les Quand mes parents se sont installés à Bamako, ma mère a investi dans une boutique les indemnités de licenciement de l'usine où ils travaillaient. À l'époque, les gens n'achetaient pas beaucoup de céréales transformées en dehors de la famille, à part ceux qui vivaient hors du Mali et qui venaient en vacances. Pendant une dizaine d'années, elle l'a fait à la maison. En 2004, elle a construit une unité de transformation de 100 m 2 sur un terrain qui lui appartenait.À l'époque, la transformation n'était pas considérée comme une activité professionnelle, mais artisanale. Impossible d'obtenir un prêt des banques. Elle a tout fait elle-même.Aujourd'hui, nous avons démontré que la transformation est une activité rentable et un métier d'avenir. Avec nos partenaires, nous essayons de formaliser l'activité des femmes qui font de la transformation. Elles ont besoin d'être formées et soutenues pour devenir professionnelles et obtenir des produits de qualité.La plupart de ces femmes se heurtent à des problèmes de financement. Pourtant, on ne peut pas industrialiser et se développer avec de petits moyens.Après mes études ma mère m'a dit : \"au lieu de chercher du travail, il faut venir travailler avec moi\". Je n'avais jamais pris son entreprise au sérieux. Nous avons grandi avec, mais pour nous ce n'était pas une entreprise. J'ai d'abord travaillé avec une fondation qui soutenait les femmes rurales, donc j'ai vu l'impact que ce secteur peut avoir. En 2010, nous nous sommes associées et avons créé la société à responsabilité limitée Danaya Céréales. Mon aide a été de formaliser l'entreprise, d'établir un système de gestion clair et une comptabilité faite par un cabinet.La deuxième chose, c'est la visibilité. Je me suis investie dans les réseaux sociaux pour la promotion de l'entreprise. Grâce à cela, beaucoup de partenaires ont vu que Danaya Céréales est une entreprise crédible. La BICIM (Banque internationale pour le commerce et l'industrie au Mali) nous a ainsi accordé notre premier prêt de 75 millions de FCFA (114 346 €) pour finir la construction de l'usine. Aujourd'hui, nous sommes en plein processus de certification ISO. Nous essayons de nous professionnaliser le plus possible. Depuis peu, nous exportons aux USA, en plus de l'Europe et de la sous-région.Tout le monde ne peut pas faire des céréales ou du jus de fruit. Il faut d'abord déterminer les secteurs qui sont en déficit d'entreprenariat et encourager les femmes à s'y investir, en mettant à leur disposition des formations adéquates et des financements.Au Mali, il n'y a ni les équipements adéquats pour faire de la transformation, ni de main-d'oeuvre qualifiée. Par exemple, il nous a fallu plus d'un an et demi pour trouver un responsable qualité. Il existe des secteurs d'activité que les jeunes ne considèrent pas et qu'il faut mettre en lumière.Soyez courageuses. Le financement est très lent, donc tout ce qu'on gagne, on le réinvestit. Soyez ambitieuses, rigoureuses, patientes et aimez ce que vous faites. Beaucoup de gens n'ont pas tenu cinq ans, parce que c'était fatigant et pas aussi rentable qu'espéré.Halatou Dem, PDG de l'entreprise malienne Danaya Céréales, a aidé sa mère à industrialiser la production pour répondre à la demande internationale.n 2005, avec les économies tirées de la vente des produits de son exploitation, Yemisi Iranloye a créé Psaltry International Limited, une entreprise de production de manioc. Six ans plus tard, pour répondre à la demande de produits à base de cette plante, elle a ouvert, à Alayide, dans l'État d'Oyo, une usine qui produit de l'amidon de manioc de haute qualité alimentaire et de la farine de manioc de haute qualité (FMHQ). En raison des fluctuations des taux de change et de la pénurie de céréales d'importation, comme le blé et l'orge, la demande industrielle pour ces produits continue d'augmenter. De plus, les matières premières locales qui se cultivent facilement, tel le manioc, sont dès lors de plus en plus rentables.\"L'accès au marché a été facilité par le fait que notre produit (amidon de qualité alimentaire) est une matière première utilisée par le secteur industriel et qu'il est d'excellente qualité, sans avoir rien à envier à celle de l'amidon fabriqué ailleurs dans le monde\", explique Yemisi Iranloye. De grandes entreprises nigérianes -brasseries, entreprises pharmaceutiques et entreprises de transformation alimentaire, par exemple -utilisent de l'amidon de qualité alimentaire dans la fabrication de leurs produits, tandis que les entreprises meunières et de confiserie emploient la FMHQ, qui remplace le blé, pour leurs farines et sucreries. Depuis son extension, Psaltry International est devenue l'une des plus grandes entreprises de production d'amidon du Nigeria, avec deux lignes produisant chacune entre 20 et 30 tonnes d'amidon de qualité alimentaire par jour, soit environ 10 000 tonnes par an.Au Nigeria, Yemisi Iranloye a bâti le succès de son entreprise de transformation du manioc, Psaltry International Limited, sur un modèle inclusif : les petits producteurs sont au coeur des activités.Les investissements consentis par les entreprises du secteur secondaire contribuent à satisfaire la demande en amidon. Ainsi, après avoir utilisé à titre expérimental l'amidon de manioc dans son processus de brassage en 2014, Nigerian Breweries Plc s'est associée à Psaltry International et au Centre international pour le développement des engrais (IFDC), dans le cadre du programme 2SCALE financé par les Pays-Bas. Ce programme a pour objectif d'améliorer la chaîne de valeur du manioc et d'assurer un approvisionnement régulier en manioc de qualité à l'intérieur du pays. Des petits producteurs sous-traitants ont été formés en vue d'améliorer la qualité et la production du manioc. Nigerian Breweries Plc est ainsi devenue le principal acheteur de l'amidon de qualité alimentaire produit par Psaltry International.Des banques nigérianes ont aussi joué un rôle. L'usine de Psaltry à Alayide a été créée grâce aux fonds du programme de crédit à l'agriculture commerciale de la Banque centrale du Nigeria, distribués par FirstBank Nigeria. Deux ans plus tard, la hausse des bénéfices de l'entreprise qui en a résulté a permis à Yemisi Iranloye de faire construire une seconde usine.La clé de la réussite de l'entreprise, selon Yemisi Iranloye, réside dans son modèle inclusif. En 2012, Psaltry a lancé son premier programme en faveur des petits producteurs sous-traitants en leur offrant un prix plus élevé, afin d'encourager les agriculteurs de subsistance à augmenter leur production de manioc et à la commercialiser. Forte de la réussite de ce programme, Psaltry a pu étendre son approvisionnement à d'autres communautés rurales situées dans un rayon de 50 km autour de l'usine d'Alayide. Les petits fournisseurs sont aujourd'hui 2 000 environ. L'usine d'Alayide est stratégiquement positionnée à proximité de ces petits fournisseurs afin de diminuer les pertes postrécolte. En effet, lorsque les agriculteurs transportent leur manioc sur de grandes distances, sa teneur en amidon peut diminuer de 17 % à 5 % et les tubercules pourrissent souvent. La proximité de l'usine d'Alayide permet de transformer les tubercules à maturité riches en amidon dans les 24 heures. Approvisionnée de manière fiable et régulière par les producteurs locaux, l'entreprise a maintenu les prix à un niveau relativement stable tout au long de l'année. Elle est ainsi devenue compétitive au niveau international.Busari Dauda, chef du village d'Alayide, cultive du manioc depuis 30 ans. \"Le tout premier avantage a été l'augmentation de la superficie de mon exploitation, qui est passée de 2 à 20 hectares en deux ans grâce aux services de Psaltry. Je possède actuellement plus de 60 hectares de terres agricoles.\" Psaltry utilise une application du cloud -Farmforce -qui se sert de GPS pour prédire le rendement et la date de la récolte dans chaque exploitation. Cela permet à Psaltry de contrôler l'approvisionnement. Ces données dissuadent les producteurs de procéder à des ventes parallèles, mais les aident à obtenir des prêts bancaires pour l'achat de matériel végétal et d'intrants, comme des herbicides et des engrais que Psaltry se procure à un taux subventionné.Les petits producteurs sous-traitants sont tenus de signer un protocole d'accord qui les engage à vendre exclusivement leur production à Psaltry et à respecter les normes de qualité du manioc de Psaltry, conditions posées à l'octroi d'un prêt. Toutefois, afin de consolider l'engagement des producteurs et renforcer leur pouvoir économique, Yemisi Iranloye tient à augmenter la participation de ces derniers dans Psaltry. Ils détiennent collectivement 10 % de l'entreprise.Psaltry International mise aussi sur le renforcement des capacités de ses 300 employés -plus du double qu'en 2013, dont 40 % de femmes. L'entreprise gère ainsi un programme annuel de formation professionnelle en partenariat avec l'école de Nigerian Breweries, à Ibadan. Par ailleurs, la formation technique assurée par China Sino -Food Machinery a permis au personnel de Psaltry d'assurer en interne les opérations de maintenance. Les coachs du Stanford Institute for Innovation in Developing Economies (Seed) assurent quant à eux la formation stratégique du personnel d'encadrement et de direction. Les femmes caribéennes, une autre approche de l'agrobusinessNatalie Dookien Amérique latine et aux Caraïbes, les femmes représentent environ 20 % de la maind'oeuvre agricole (contre 43 % en moyenne pour l'ensemble des pays en développement) et, selon la FAO, ne reçoivent que 10 % de l'aide mondiale totale pour l'agriculture, la pêche et la sylviculture. Bien qu'il existe un certain nombre d'agricultrices commerciales dans la région, les femmes restent essentiellement cantonnées à la distribution des aliments dans les marchés locaux. Le développement de chaînes de valeur plus inclusives pour soutenir l'agrobusiness a toutefois permis à davantage de femmes des Caraïbes de développer des entreprises agroalimentaires.Allison Butters-Grant, PDG de Global Seafood Distributors au Guyana, est l'une des actrices du changement. Ses parents possédaient plusieurs crevettiers et elle a très tôt travaillé pour l'entreprise familiale. Une fois installée aux Etats-Unis, elle a ouvert avec son mari un magasin de gros et de détail, important du Guyana des produits à base de poisson, fumés et congelés. Lorsque leur fournisseur a cessé son activité, Allison Butters-Grant est retournée au Guyana avec l'objectif de créer une structure d'approvisionnement de ces produits.L'entreprise de Allison Butters-Grant est aujourd'hui davantage axée sur la production de valeur ajoutée et 95 % de la matière première provient de pêcheurs artisanaux. Elle acquiert les produits de la mer et les convertit en filets, en nuggets sans peau ni arêtes ou en poisson fumé. Son établissement est le seul du Guyana à posséder un séchoir solaire à poisson salé. En plus de nombreux clients locaux de poids, comme la Force de défense du Guyana, la société d'exploitation aurifère Guyana Goldfields Inc., la chaîne régionale de restauration Royal Castle et plusieurs restaurants locaux, l'entreprise exporte vers la Jamaïque et les États-Unis.Les raisons de sa réussite ? \"Mes compétences en commercialisation et développement de l'entreprise ont été déterminantes, tout comme ma capacité à travailler en réseau avec les bonnes personnes. Ayant vécu aux États-Unis, je savais comment les marchés y fonctionnaient et comment en conquérir de nouveaux \", explique Allison Butters-Grant. \"Notre établissement investit également dans des programmes de mentorat et de mobilité ascensionnelle pour nos employés, dont 95 % sont des femmes. Nous organisons aussi des formations continues sur les bonnes pratiques de fabrication et les principes de l'analyse des risques et de la maîtrise des points critiques (HACCP) pour maintenir la qualité de nos produits.\"Allison Butters-Grant s'implique aussi fortement dans des activités communautaires. Elle est présidente du Conseil national des normes et membre fondateur de l'association African Business Roundtable, qui promeut les intérêts des entreprises africaines et des personnes d'ascendance africaine. Elle a fondé l'association Women in Fishing and Agriculture (WIFA) pour encourager les femmes à s'engager dans la pêche et l'agriculture. Par ailleurs, elle parraine des entrepreneurs en leur apportant un soutien commercial. \"Les femmes contribuent de manière essentielle à l'industrie des produits de la mer par leurs activités dans les secteurs primaire et secondaire de la pêche, mais cette implication retient peu l'attention au Guyana parce qu'elles occupent surtout des postes à faible salaire dans la transformation du poisson\", dit-elle. Selon le rapport annuel 2016 de la Banque du Guyana, le secteur de la pêche a crû de 17,5 % alors qu'il avait subi un déclin de 2,6 % en 2015. Ces perspectives de croissance dans le marché local ont poussé Global Seafood Distributors à se développer. L'entreprise installe actuellement un nouvel établissement \"zéro déchets\" d'une valeur de 6,8 millions d'euros sur 0,8 hectare du village côtier de Victoria. \"Nous allons tenter d'assurer notre approvisionnement en collaborant avec WIFA et les organisations de pêcheurs côtiers et de services maritimes pour renforcer les capacités permettant aux pêcheurs de développer leur flotte, ce qui contribuera à accroître notre approvisionnement et notre chaîne de valeur\", explique Allison Butters-Grant. \"Nous nous maintiendrons à la tête du secteur par l'innovation. Nous avons aussi l'intention d'utiliser des énergies alternatives telles que le solaire et l'autogénération.\"À Trinité-et-Tobago, Katherine Bethel, fondatrice de B's Homemade Ice Cream, a démarré sa microentreprise à domicile il y a plus de 30 ans, avec l'aide de son mari. Elle a commencé avec un chariot de crème glacée, en fabriquant les glaces chez sa belle-mère, avant que B's Ice Cream devienne une › marque connue localement. \"Nous avons lancé notre affaire avec un très petit capital : nos 380 € d'économies\", racontet-elle. Puis, quand la réussite a été au rendez-vous, il a fallu s'adresser aux banques. \"Des institutions financières nous ont aidés à acheter notre entrepôt de 2 500 m 2 et à l'équiper progressivement en matériel, dont notre première unité de stockage frigorifique. Nous avons de nouveau investi lourdement lorsque nous avons commencé la distribution et avons eu besoin de fonds pour acheter des camions frigorifiques.\"Étape suivante : apprendre la technologie de la crème glacée et la standardisation de la transformation. \"Nous avons mis en place un système de gestion de la qualité pour être sûrs que nous appliquions de bonnes normes de fabrication. Pendant cette phase, nous avons amélioré nos pratiques et reconsidéré notre marque et nos emballages pour assurer notre compétitivité avec les marques nationales et internationales\", explique Katherine Bethel. \"Nous avons pu accéder, entre autres, aux services d'aide au développement des entreprises de l'Institut de recherche industrielle des Caraïbes (CARIRI), de l'association des agro-entrepreneurs de Trinité-et-Tobago et de l'ancienne société de développement des entreprises. J'ai toujours essayé de travailler avec des intervenants dont les compétences et installations pourraient m'aider à améliorer mon activité.\"La réussite de Katherine Bethel doit beaucoup aux relations qu'elle a établies : \"Grâce à notre affiliation au CARIRI, j'ai pu développer des partenariats avec des membres de l'Alliance des petits agro-transformateurs de Trinité-et-Tobago. Ils ont commencé à transformer tous les fruits que nous achetions dans le pays en pulpe et que nous utilisions pour fabriquer la crème glacée en respectant des normes de qualité élevées. Nous avons aussi renforcé notre chaîne d'approvisionnement en fruits et légumes avec des producteurs d'ananas, fruits de la passion et noix de coco, entre autres. Nous avons continué à élargir notre réseau d'approvisionnement et collaborons maintenant avec des producteurs de corossol de la Grenade.\"Il y a 16 ans, l'entreprise a fait un premier pas dans la grande distribution en créant des boutiques dans tout le corridor est-ouest de Trinité. En ouvrant des points de vente dans une importante chaîne régionale de supermarchés et en les proposant dans d'autres grandes chaînes de supermarchés à Trinité-et-Tobago et dans les Caraïbes, l'entreprise a rendu ses produits plus accessibles. B's Homemade Ice Cream exporte désormais vers Saint-Vincent et Bequia.\"Ma passion pour mon activité est mon principal moteur\", confie Katherine Bethel. \"J'ai toujours voulu me développer personnellement, pris de nombreux cours, de la préparation des aliments à la gestion de la qualité, et obtenu des diplômes d'études de deuxième et troisième cycle. Mon investissement dans la formation et le développement a été déterminant. Aujourd'hui je fais du coaching d'entreprise et j'utilise mon expérience dans le lancement de microentreprises prospères pour aider d'autres petites entreprises.\"Créée en 2012, Caribbean Treats Inc. est une entreprise familiale basée à la Barbade, qui produit plus de 40 condiments, dont des sauces pimentées, des confitures, des gelées, des sirops, des marinades et des assaisonnements, ainsi que du chutney, du café et même une gamme de souvenirs. Sa fondatrice et actuelle directrice, Paula Manning, s'est lancée lorsqu'elle travaillait comme consultante en informatique dans les Bahamas : elle peinait à trouver des cadeaux de Noël pour la femme de son employeur qui aimait cuisiner. Lui est venue l'idée de créer son affaire. L'entreprise, axée sur la commercialisation et s'appuyant sur un vaste réseau de contacts régionaux, a d'abord répondu à la demande des marchés d'exportation des Bahamas et de Grand Cayman avant de s'établir dans le marché local de la Barbade. En tant que membre actif de Slow Food Barbados, une organisation populaire internationale créée pour prévenir la disparition des cultures et traditions alimentaires locales, Paula Manning et ses partenaires ont mis à profit cette connexion pour établir des liens avec des agriculteurs et des chefs cuisiniers locaux. Ces partenariats l'ont aidée à développer son entreprise et élargir sa gamme de produits.La très innovante Caribbean Treats s'est différenciée sur le marché de la Barbade en élargissant l'offre traditionnelle de confitures et sirops locaux à la limonade, aux groseilles et au tamarin, comblant ainsi une niche avec ces nouvelles saveurs. Démarrée avec un capital initial provenant des économies de la famille, l'entreprise a ensuite bénéficié des programmes d'aide aux fabricants de l'Association des agro-entrepreneurs de la Caraïbe et de l'Institut interaméricain de coopération pour l'agriculture. \"Cela a allégé la pression de devoir réussir\", explique Paula Manning. \"J'avais très envie de faire quelque chose de nouveau et de comprendre le processus créatif. Caribbean Treats est actuellement en phase de transition car nous avons dépassé nos capacités et obtenu récemment l'approbation pour la construction d'un nouveau bâtiment par le biais de la Barbados Investment and Development Corporation. Nous sommes en pleine expansion et visons la conquête de nouveaux marchés. Je suis ravie de la rapidité de notre progression en six ans et enthousiaste à la perspective de ce que nous allons réaliser à l'avenir.\" Économie D epuis des siècles, les femmes du Pacifique utilisent des produits naturels pour hydrater leur peau. Des processus traditionnels servent désormais à créer, à partir de divers produits, des savons, des exfoliants, des huiles et des lotions de luxe pour les marchés internationaux. Du village à l'usine, les réussites commerciales se multiplient.Le spa Essence of Fiji, créé en 1998 par l'esthéticienne Debra Sadranu, utilise des extraits marins et végétaux dans sa gamme d'hydrothérapies. Son défunt mari, né dans le village de Tamasau à Yasawa, lui a fait rencontrer des femmes rurales qui cherchaient des sources de revenus réguliers. Debra Sadranu s'est associée avec l'Unité de développement des marchés (MDF) à Fidji, un organisme soutenu par le gouvernement australien qui finance la créations d'entreprises villageoises et des formations. C'est ainsi que l'entreprise a lancé en 2015 une gamme de soins de la peau de haute qualité (gels, lotions, crèmes et exfoliants) à base de raisin de mer (nama), une algue des lagons bleus des îles Yasawa, à Fidji. \"Les extraits du produit ne sont pas transformés. Les villageois récoltent le nama organique et nous l'envoient\", explique Debra Sadranu. L'entreprise aménage actuellement des fermes de nama afin de garantir une gestion durable des algues.À Samoa, l'entreprise internationale de cosmétiques The Body Shop se fournit en huile de noix de coco auprès d'une entreprise villageoise, après avoir pris contact, en 2007, avec l'ONG Women in Business Development Incorporated (WIBDI), qui aide les agricultrices à générer des revenus sans quitter leurs terres. En 2016, 200 familles samoanes fournissaient ainsi 32 tonnes d'huile de noix de coco extra-vierge à The Body Shop, utilisée dans plus de 30 produits de l'entreprise. \"Nous ciblons les petits fermiers, mais nous avons aussi besoin de volumes conséquents, donc nous travaillons également avec des agriculteurs semi-commerciaux\", indique Alberta Vitale, directrice associée de WIBDI.WIBDI exploite cinq sites de transformation. Les fermes sont certifiées biologiques et les noix de coco sont entièrement utilisées, les coquilles servant à fabriquer du charbon. Les familles ont développé des compétences allant de l'extraction de l'huile par pression à froid au développement de micro-entreprises à partir d'investissements minimaux. WIBDI gère les formations et transactions financières avec The Body Shop et utilise les primes versées pour financer d'autres projets consacrés à l'huile de noix de coco. De plus, l'entreprise Earth Oil, qui fournit des ingrédients à l'industrie cosmétique, offre un soutien logistique et teste les produits. Au final, le projet a créé de nouveaux marchés pour les agriculteurs, augmenté les revenus des exploitations et réduit la dépendance aux versements de la diaspora, qui représentent 25 % du PIB du pays.La formation est l'élément crucial de la réussite des projets. L'Organisation du secteur privé des îles du Pacifique (PIPSO) y contribue en travaillant avec des membres des organisations nationales du secteur privé disposant de réseaux de cultivateurs, de producteurs et d'entreprises. La PIPSO aide ses membres à participer à des formations régionales et internationales, à des ateliers de formation commerciale, à des séminaires sur les TIC et à des forumsDans les pays insulaires du Pacifique, des entrepreneurs développent, avec les communautés locales d'agriculteurs, des produits de beauté naturels pour les vendre sur les marchés régionaux et internationaux. Les produits Essence of Fiji sont fabriqués au siège social, à Nadi, qui héberge aussi une école de formation en esthétique et hydrothérapie. Les produits à base de raisin de mer sont vendus au magasin de l'usine, avec les produits d'autres petites entreprises locales. Ils sont aussi proposés dans les hôtels et stations thermales de Fidji et dans la gamme de produits hors taxes de Fiji Airways. La MDF a aussi offert des formations aux fournisseurs locaux et a aidé Debra Sadranu à créer un meilleur site web et des vidéos pour toucher de nouveaux acheteurs. Enfin, l'entreprise a désigné des distributeurs pour ses produits à base de nama en Australie, en République tchèque et en Nouvelle-Zélande.L'obtention de la certification biologique est déterminante pour conquérir de nouveaux marchés. L'organisme régional de commerce biologique et éthique (POETCom) travaille avec les agriculteurs biologiques, les organismes nationaux et les organisations comme la FAO pour améliorer les pratiques d'agriculture biologique. Debra Sadranu espère bientôt obtenir sa certification biologique et celle pour les produits sans expérimentation animale.Island Rose Dream a été créée en mai 2014 par la femme d'affaires tongienne Rosie Akauola. L'entreprise emploie 10 à 15 villageois, essentiellement des femmes, pour produire de l'huile de noix de coco destinée aux huiles corporelles, savons et exfoliants.\"Je voulais utiliser des ingrédients naturels de Tonga, comme de l'huile de noix de coco et des produits curatifs à base d'herbes et de végétaux bénéfiques pour la peau\", souligne Rosie Akauola. Les noix de coco de plusieurs fournisseurs réguliers sont livrées au village de Lapaha, où sont fabriquées les huiles artisanales qui ont \"une plus grande valeur ajoutée\". L'huile est ensuite enrichie avec des plantes comme le gingembre rouge et l'ylang ylang, et transportée à l'entrepôt dans des contenants de 10 litres pour le conditionnement, l'étiquetage et l'expédition afin d'être vendue en Australie et à Tonga.L'entreprise tongienne cible aussi le marché lucratif des mariages pour les touristes et les points de vente à l'étranger avec une gamme spéciale de produits miniatures accompagnés de cartes personnelles. \"Mon objectif étant de percer sur le marché australien, j'ai fait des recherches approfondies sur les exigences de qualité et nous espérons recevoir bientôt la certification Fairtrade Australia\", explique Rosie Akauola, qui souhaite aussi vendre ses produits en Nouvelle-Zélande, dans les Îles du Pacifique et aux États-Unis.Le secteur laitier est l'un des secteurs agricoles avec la plus forte croissance dans les pays d'Afrique de l'Est, ce qui a généré des retours économiques significatifs et des opportunités d'emplois dans les chaînes de valeur\", note un rapport du Centre européen de gestion des politiques de développement (ECDPM). En plus de fournir à la majorité des foyers ruraux une source de revenus réguliers et de nutriments en Afrique de l'Est -d'où est issu 68 % du lait produit sur tout le continent -, le lait est l'objet d'une demande croissante, du fait entre autres de l'émergence d'une classe moyenne urbaine, très friande de produits laitiers.Entre 2002-2005 et 2010-2013, les exportations intrarégionales de produits laitiers ont augmenté de 1 106 %, de 1 530 tonnes à 18 449 tonnes, d'après un rapport de l'International Growth Center. Au cours de la même période, les exportations hors de la région ont augmenté de 596 %, soit de 1 576 tonnes à 10 988 tonnes. Ces progrès considérables ont été, en partie, rendus possibles par une plus forte intégration économique de la Communauté d'Afrique de l'Est (EAC), qui a simplifié les procédures douanières avec l'instauration d'une zone de libreéchange (Single Customs Territory), en 2013.    Ce système de cartes d'évaluation a déjà permis d'établir le profil de plus de 6 000 agriculteurs, dont 580 ont atteint la note A, la plus élevée. Du fait de l'existence de variables comme la météorologie ou les ravageurs, les évaluations ne seront pas fiables à 100 %. L'initiative sera sans doute utilisée en parallèle avec les processus décisionnels actuels d'Opportunity Bank et ajustée à mesure que les données de prêt prouvent leur efficacité à prédire les risques.Ces innovations peuvent influencer les banques afin qu'elles tiennent davantage compte des facteurs qui peuvent réduire la capacité et la volonté de l'agriculteur de rembourser. Juhudi Kilimo soumet les demandeurs de prêts à des tests psychométriques afin de rendre les décisions de crédit plus inclusives.Le Burkina Faso plus d'une soixantaine de groupes ethniques dont les Bobo. Ils sont aussi appelés les Madarè. Ils occupent l'Ouest et le Nord-Ouest du pays, sur un territoire de 200 km de long et 50 à 80 km de large, qui fait partie des zones agricoles les mieux arrosées et les plus riches du pays. Au plan démographique, la population typiquement madarè, composée des Bobo-fing (agriculteurs sédentaires) et des Zara ou Bobo-Dioula (commerçants), est estimée à 300 000 ou 400 000 habitants.L'appropriation peut se définir à partir des verbes \"approprier\" et \"s'approprier\". Approprier quelque chose, c'est l'adapter à un usage précis, à une fonction précise. Dans ce cas, parler de l'appropriation des technologies agricoles modernes par la société madarè serait synonyme de l'adaptation de celles-ci à ses besoins de développement. C'est donc ajuster, ici, ou assembler les deux choses en les faisant coïncider l'une à l'autre, ou en les arrangeant de telle sorte qu'elles arrivent à coexister ou à être ensemble.Or l'adaptation des technologies agricoles modernes aux besoins de la société madarè n'est pas synonyme de leur intégration à sa culture. Dans le cas présent, l'appropriation est un processus qui, à terme, aboutira à l'intégration des technologies agricoles modernes à la société madarè. Les technologies agricoles modernes qui se sont engagées dans ce processus depuis plus de trente ans sont, entre autres, l'agroforesterie, les cultures attelées et motorisées, la riziculture irriguée à Bama.L'agroforesterie est un succès, avec notamment l'emploi d'arbres utilitaires comme le baobab, le niébé, le karité, etc. Il y a aussi eu appropriation au niveau des normes techniques comme le nombre d'arbres par hectare, fixé à 25 au Burkina Faso. Ensuite, pour leur plantation, ils se sont appropriés de nouvelles techniques comme la végétalisation des courbes de niveau, qui n'est pas dans leurs habitudes. C'est leur appropriation.Un autre exemple d'appropriation est le recours aux haies vives, ces arbres qu'on plante pour protéger les champs. Ce n'était pas une technologie agricole de la société en tant que telle mais ils l'ont adoptée.La culture attelée est un échec. Un certain nombre de faits montrent que cette société n'a pas pu l'enraciner totalement à sa culture.L'utilisation des technologies modernes agricoles par les sociétés locales dépend de nombreux facteurs. Explications autour du cas des Madarè, au Burkina Faso, avec Diaboado Jacques Thiamobiga, ingénieur agricole et universitaire.Approprier ou s'approprier les technologies agricoles ?Diaboado Jacques Thiamobiga, auteur d'une thèse sur l'usage des technologies agricoles au Burkina faso. En outre, la société madarè ne travaille pas les champs en profondeur, comme le permet la culture attelée. On ne le fait pas car il y a une vision mystique qui fait du sol un objet sacré dans lequel dorment les ancêtres. On ne doit pas troubler leur sommeil. D'où le manque d'appropriation ou une insuffisance d'appropriation par ceux qui l'emploient.La société madarè a créé sa propre daba (une bêche, ndlr) qui permet de travailler le sol. Même si elle ne s'est pas approprié la technologie de la cultures attelée, elle crée ou fabrique un matériel de culture attelée. D'une manière ou d'une autre, elle ne peut pas refuser à partir du moment où ça l'aide à produire davantage. C'est une réalité objective.C'est évident qu'il y a des choix de technologies. On n'arrête pas le développement du manioc ! Essentiellement perçu comme un aliment de base -une réalité pour plus de 800 millions de personnes dont 500 millions en Afrique -, le manioc de plus en plus en vogue dans les filières de l'agro-industrie. Cette recrudescence de la demande conduit au développement de sa culture intensive, notamment en Asie du Sud-Est. À noter que 50 % de la production d'éthanol en Chine provient du manioc, pour l'essentiel importé du Vietnam où celui-ci est devenu la troisième culture, derrière le riz et le maïs. Mais c'est en Afrique où la consommation humaine, par personne, est la plus importante. Les auteurs du manuel Le manioc, entre culture alimentaire et filière agro-industrielle en ont fait un document très complet et documenté. Les chercheurs soulignent la mondialisation de la culture de la plante : \"Bien qu'originaire d'Amérique tropicale, le manioc est maintenant une culture largement africaine mais connaît une progression également forte en Asie.\" Les auteurs se penchent sur différents pays africains producteurs, comme la République du Congo, qui cultive le manioc selon un \"système avec écobuage maala\", lequel représente un \"exemple de système de culture semi-permanente à jachère de moyenne durée\". Ils évoquent aussi le Bénin, où la culture est souvent associée aux céréales et légumineuses. Au Nigeria, pourtant premier producteur mondial, la culture reste largement manuelle, \"avec seulement 10 % des surfaces labourées au tracteur et 3 % 'herbicides'\". Par ailleurs, le succès mondial du manioc est d'autant plus assuré que la plante présente de fortes résiliences aux contraintes climatiques. Le manioc tous azimuts Des bienfaits de partager ses préoccupations \"Le monde complexe et interconnecté d'aujourd'hui a clairement besoin de collaboration et de partenariat entre des groupes d'intérêt décloisonnés issus du milieu des affaires, des pouvoirs publics, de la société civile et du monde des sciences\", affirment les auteurs du guide des partenariats multipartites (PMP).Les auteurs nous mènent à travers les différentes étapes, de la conception du processus de PMP aux différents principes qui en font l'efficacité, conseillant sur le choix des outils pour une connexion, un langage commun ou une cocréation. Ils vont même au-delà, offrant des témoignages de personnes qui en ont fait l'expérience, soulignant ainsi la diversité de nature des PMP, les différents secteurs auxquels ce type de partenariat s'applique et les différents styles de leadership que cela suscite. Car les PMP prospèrent lorsque l'instigateur du partenariat \"peut faire de sa préoccupation la préoccupation de tout le monde\".\"La mentalité habituelle de l'industrie est que seules les personnes instruites prennent la parole et présument que leurs idées sont les plus importantes pour l'industrie\", expliquent Kathy Hurly et Thandokwale Sibiya, tous deux responsables chez Canegrowers, en Afrique du Sud. \" Mais en fait, beaucoup de producteurs ont aussi de bonnes idées, même s'ils n'apprécient pas toutes les complexités des politiques qui régissent l'industrie. Nous considérons que l'un de nos rôles consiste à aider nos producteurs à apprendre de façon à ce qu'ils se préparent à tenir ces discussions dans la tranche verticale. Cela peut prendre du temps pour arriver à une décision collective éclairée mais finalement on peut obtenir un bon taux d'adhésion de la part de tous les participants. Ce point est essentiel car, comme le passé nous l'a montré, un manque d'adhésion dès le départ engendre un conflit et une impasse par la suite durant la phase de mise en oeuvre.\" Ces réglementations exigent l'intervention d'un grand nombre d'acteurs, le coût total du respect de ces obligations est supérieur à 500 000 rands (32 600 €) et la procédure dure plus de deux ans. Il arrive souvent que certains documents expirent, par exemple l'ASL, d'où l'obligation d'un renouvellement avant que le ROC puisse être délivré.Depuis la publication de ces réglementations en 2014, seules 14 entreprises ont été autorisées à opérer, avec plus de 400 demandes en retard. On peut se demander si une de ces 14 entreprises peut respecter les exigences du secteur agricole qui imposent souvent le survol de distances très éloignées de l'opérateur. Pour le survol de zones situées au-delà de 500 mètres de l'opérateur, une dispense spéciale est nécessaire et c'est à l'entreprise de prouver aux autorités qu'elle est en mesure d'effectuer la mission en toute sécurité et qu'elle dispose de manuels pour le faire. Il est peu probable qu'un petit ou un moyen exploitant prenne la peine de se lancer dans une procédure aussi coûteuse et ardue.D'aucuns ont suggéré que l'Autorité sud-africaine de l'aviation civile n'avait pas les moyens de lancer et de réglementer toutes les opérations prévues pour les drones. La situation risque encore de s'aggraver étant donné que le nombre de drones (plus de 500) et d'opérateurs (plus de 400 pilotes) ne cesse d'augmenter. Certains estiment qu'il serait préférable de supprimer l'ASL, ce qui contribuerait à accélérer et simplifier la procédure. C'est ce qu'ont déjà fait avec succès d'autres pays. Les réglementations sur les drones améliorent la sécurité de l'espace et facilitent la fourniture aux agriculteurs de services liés aux drones.Il n'existe pas de réglementations sur les drones. Cela représente une menace à la sécurité et la vie privée.Les réglementations sur les drones représentent, pour les opérateurs de drones, un fardeau inutile qui empêche le développement de l'industrie agricole.Les réglementations sur les drones augmentent les coûts et établissent des standards techniques trop élevés.Visitez les pages Opinion sur le site de Spore pour lire l'avis de trois autres spécialistes sur le sujet. Un nouveau débat est mis en ligne tous les mois. Comparé aux autres pays africains, où les procédures de demande et d'obtention de permis coûtent des milliers de dollars, la réglementation du Ghana est très favorable aux prestataires de services. Cela va très certainement stimuler la création de solutions innovantes apportant des services à valeur ajoutée aux usagers, et en particulier aux agriculteurs. Il n'est pas surprenant que la GCAA ait enregistré plus de 400 drones depuis septembre 2016.La GCAA pourrait améliorer le cadre réglementaire et faciliter le processus de déclaration et l'obtention de permis en automatisant les procédures de demande et de paiement. Par ailleurs, il serait bénéfique d'ajouter sur le site Internet des informations sur le processus d'enregistrement de drones et une carte interactive permettant aux opérateurs de savoir quelles zones requièrent des autorisations explicites. Ceci éviterait que des condamnations à des peines de prison allant jusque 30 ans pour avoir opéré des drones dans des zones non autorisées. Enfin, en sensibilisant le public aux conditions requises pour opérer un UAV, on encouragera davantage de personnes à déclarer leurs drones.Pour en savoir plus sur l'utilisation de drones pour l'agriculture et partager votre expérience, rejoignez la communauté UAV4Ag sur www.uav4ag.org ou suivez-nous sur Twitter : @uav4ag et Facebook : @uav4ag Worlali Senyo Directeur de Growth, Research and Development, Farmerline Ltd ","tokenCount":"14845"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2a7a7d56b3ffb2491212ca12a98a81f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/83e05095-b7a4-402c-b266-e8ab621af4b8/content","id":"1330213623"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca1b45a6-87a9-4657-a4e4-16b232fadbef","pagecount":"82","content":"have to attack the various problems be they biologic, input supply or economic adjustments. This is a broad field and any attempt to cover it in its entirety will necessarily suffer more from the sins of omission rather than those of commission.It may seem peculiar to start a paper on crop production with the population problem. However, this is not only basic to the problem of food, it is an historical eve,nt unknown before but not surprising if one looks at the underlying causes.When man first appeared his numbers were small and he was completely subject to natural •law in 1ihe sa.\":le way tnat animals were , and are, subject to natural law. He was forced to work hard at survival. Being an inferior animal in this art he developed a social structure beginning ~ith the family extending to the tribe and to the country and later to the very comp~ex societies of today where national poundaries form his outer regions of defense. Like the animals with whom he has much in common he is territorial and defends those rights in order to obey the natural law of survival. Unlike the animals he became endowed with reason and an ability to protect himself against his enviroiu~ent.Anthropologists are not unanimous as to how this came about and it is further• complicated by the religions which man has raised. I do not intend to enter into this type of discussion except ta-say that these religions have at the worst e~~odied large co~ponents of superstiticn and at the best have provided hope and enshrined iaws which were necessary fo:r-survival of the social. institutions. In so doing they have provided t.~e guidelines for responsible action in society.When did man change? At the evolutionary point in history where man was truly an ani~al he was probably a gatherer of plant products with the occasional addition of some animal products he could collect win ease. He no doubt ~earned which he s~ould gather from observation of produciS gathered by ot?er animals.as food. Then he began to invent tools. Unquestionably this was associated with consistent and continuous development of thought processes arising from cause and effect. This allowed him to have his .first limited control of the environment, since he now had a leverage ~v~r other animals •whom he• could harvest for food. The day of the hunter had arrived and he could now become a carnivore in addition to.his l~~gely herbivorous past. He also had the tools to defend his territory which •he dl.d. This is still in process as exemplified by the various national arms races. ~e, however, did not yet !1ave •the means to set up complex societies. This latter event ca~e about 9 000 years ago when it is genen~lly conceded that settled ag~iculture, based on domestication of plants he had previously collecte~ and. aniDals.he.had previously hunted, was established somewhere in the region cf the T~gris Euphrates Valley and adjacent ar~as of the Zagros Mountains. For the first time he was now able to grow and store food. Of even greater.significance he could now gro~ more food than he could expect to consume. As a specie~ he was thus .able to.spend more time on technological and cultural inprovement and specialization was now possible. This ability to produce beyond ones own requirement (Agriculture) has continued unabated since that time and has reached its present zenith in North America where about four percent 0,f the people are now estimated to be engaged in direct food production in the United States. I daresay the Canadian percentage is not f o,r behind and the European percentage while larger is not too far away.Returning to the theme, man developed culturally and in the complexity of his societies. However, it was a long and hard road since culture tended to be location specific and for thousands of years these centres were preyed upon by looters who still followed a nomadic existence and periodically r&ided these centres for spoils. This led to a banding together of centres or soci~ties into mutual protection groups which eventually formed under kingships, rudimentary democracies and other groupings. Slavery and ser.tislavery became common in order to sustain societies and men sold their freecom for physical protection. This basic element persists in modified for~s to this day, in our own societies, although abject' slavery has essentially disappeared.Duri~g these early days of agricultural the production of food was_ very elastic. Much land was available into which agriculture could penetrate. The area was formed bounded primarily by the area which a group could protect from depredations of other groups. -One exception to• \"his might be Ancient Egypt where tillable land was finite and con.fined to \"he• flood plains of the River Nile. It is not an accident •that this was the area in which the Pharaoh's granary was established to tide. the population over poor years. • Thus man continued to exploit new-land using his new found technol9gy.This continued through European expansion into North Ame_rican as one recent example. The preseiit exploi-tation of poorer semiarid and forested areas is -a:ri attempt to continue 'this expansion ... Man_ gradually incre~sed in numbers but he was• still subject \"b many privations which• periodically decimated his nur.:lbers. Wars were fought ~ver rj.ght_s.Starvation often depleted hi$ numbers whenthese wars completely disrupted agriculture as in _the 39 year war of Europe, the 100 year war of Europe and so on.Periodic plagues of diseas_e are reported t> have C4-t his numbers inha1f at Tegular intervals in medieval Europe. The population duri~g this long period only by mini:r.ial numbers through upward and downward fluctuations. Food could be grown by and large to meet needs.One interesting aspect is that because of .the. severe. _winters, the temperate zone peoples thro~gh force of circumstances were forced to grow crops beyond their im.~ediate need to store for the winter when no food was available and even beyond this to maintain surpluses to carry them accross unfavourable year$ of production. In the tropics and subtropics, however, this need was absent since people could. grow food of one type or another al~ost year around._ The same pressures that prevailed in the tem~erate zone, were not present. Although people were still preoccupied with growing food, storing food was not considered• necessary.Exceptions to this rule occurred in the more severe environments of higher altitudes. In the Inca Empire for example, the Inca decreed that.the finest farmland be cultivated for religion mainly to. provide vast quantities of •food and textile? to be burned as offerings. The second share supplied government storehouses with grain for use in war or famine. The remainder was allotted to the families; just enough land to raise £ood.Because of the slack winter periods the temperate zone peoples had ti~e to think and plan.  ----------- At the present rate of increasing growth the population is expected to be at least 6 billion but more.likely will be seven by the end of the century if projectiC?nS are.made of the trend. Within the table presented the.lesser developed countries. showed virtually no increase until 1900 while the developed countries were growing at a rate of about 1.0 percent. From 1900-~950 both ~onulations advanced about the same , .rate, and since 1950, the lesser developed are growing at a much faster rate \"than the developed. This then, presents the conundrum which man as a species faces. In the areas where food production technology will provide food for the population, the increase in numbers is following a decreasing trend. In the areas.where both, technology and land availability are lacking the population increase is at its greatest. Failure to solve this problem and control numbers will endanger the survival of the species and Malthus prediction will be fulfilled:In 1798, Malthus wrote: \"I think• I nay fairly make two postulates. First, that food is necessary. to the existence of man. Second, that the oassion between sexes is necessary and will rem~in in its present state.Assuming this•, my postulates as granted, I say, that the power of-population is indefinitely gr~ater than the power in \"the earth to produce subsistence for . .man.Population when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will shew the immensity of the first power as compared with the second.By that law of our natune which makes food necessary to the life of man, the effects of these two unequal powers mus_t be _kept . equal~ This implies a strong and constantly operating check on population from the difficulties of subsistence. The race of plants.and the race of animals, shrink under this great restrictive.law, anp the race cf man, cannot by any efforts of reason, escape frcn it. Among plants and ani::i.als its effects are waste cf seed, sickness and premature death. Among manki~d misery and vice. The forr.:.e~. misery, is an absc:!.'..!~e necessary cons~quence of it: Vice is a highly probable consequence. I see no way by which ~an can escape from the weight of this law which pervades all anioated nature   and its diminishi~g effects. This is the basis of his real predicament and one could say that without the.full application of reason, man will have to pay up for his failure to obey the fundamental law of nature-compliance with environment-when the bill finally comes due. One could also say that the Malthusian principle tdll come true but the question really is -Whe.n? Some writers take the view that it will be soon.Others who are carried, away by the euphoria of green revolution propaganda and other technological advances say, \"We always find ways to get out of these problems\". Not to worry. They say the world can continue to• provide food fo~ up to 45 billion people. I say this is \"hogwash\" and the sooner we disabuse ourselves of this concept, the sooner. we will. get on the right track and control our numbers. Assuming food could be produced for this num.ber of people and I do not for  The exploitation of land (expansion) ca::i proceed for some time in certain countries of Latin America~ the Soviet Union and parts of North America and Africa. The rest of the world has little expansion rooi:n lei\"t so_ that the food expansion must be vertical.(more production/ha/year).In 1971, the. cereal production in the world reached an all time high of 1,106,000,000 tons.This sounds like a massive pile or grain and it is.Borla~g CS) puts this in perspective wh~n he says this constitutes a highway around the world at the equator which is 18.5 metres wide and 2 meters deep or • .c   .l.J..placed as a footbridge to the moon it would be 3. 7  Let me comment on these i~ turn. I would agree that•\"he impact has been modest and the greatest gains have been made on i~rigation under higher levels of fertility. Could anythin~ else be expe_c;ted? In• comr.lon with all biological organishls, these crops yield nore when better fed just as I. gain weight when I eat adequately and even.more when I overeat (a condition becoir.ing more and more of• a oroblem arou...-id the waist). Some .of the dwarf wheats have done very well indeed on rainfed areas and have now taken over very sizable acre~ges in such countries as Iran, Turkey, Tunisia,_ A~geria, Syria and Iraq to name a few.In certain countries where dryland .farcing .is practiced, their sp_ring t~heat areas no~1. grow a I:lajority of these wheats. Dwarf ri.qe varieties were never .::.eant to be used under deep flooded conditions where up to five and . ~ix feet of water are• encountered. Long-ste;.x.ed fast_ growing varieties for these areas are being bred and introduced. In• a similar fashion does aii.y biologist consider that dwarf spring habit wheats or for that matter any spring habit wheats are likely to !:>e grown under severe winter conditions. In regard to the drYland f ar~er and our lack of interest I ca.~ only reply that 80 percent of the nurseri~s we distribute are for selection in rainfed agriculture in countries where virtual~y no irr.igation is availa!:>le. Their failure to do as well under erratic rainfall is not really legitimately bl~T.ed on these or any other varieties. \"The new varieties are less.resistant to disease than those being replaced\". In regard to rust this is an outright fallacy since ~ do not know of a si~gle.case where this has been true. In fact, in many countries including India they were the first resistant varieties •in coni.mercial •production.In the case of resis-tatnce to Sentoria tritici we fully admit that the.first varieties distributed in the Mediterranean area where this is a problem were largely susc~ptible. However, among them were resistant.ones which are currently being grown.They are not in the top_ group in potential yieid but remedial.measures were 1mmediately .. taken. Our present progr~~ perhaps leans too heavily toward incorporating resistance to Septoria. With regard to hardiness, it is a most peculiar.thing that ~ost countries are introducing• these strains even under extreme conditions or drought and finding they are equal to or better.than the native• strains -even there.The complaint about q'uality•is largely one of• colour of grain being different for some varieties in These two types of wheat have been cnly marginaily co~~ined. Thatcher is one of the f~\"'I'..iliar derivations of such a cross. We are exploiting these crosses for both winter wheat improver:-,ent and spring wheat improveme.nt.The spring wheat side is co'ncuc\"ted principally at CIM::MYT and we expect to get frof.:l the •winter i:•:heat added genes for yield. In addition ~e a.~ticipate greater drought tol.erance bas•ed on long tern observatio:-.s of such• varieties as Thatcher and prelir.inary pe=-for::-\"a.~ce of some of the newer crosses under drought conditions in other countries. There has been a long es~ablished belief that the qualities o! drought resista.\"\"lce and winter hcµ-diness are related. We are not sure why, but expect it may be due to better water binding ca?acity of the tissue and a deeper set crown. •The latter probably provides an earlier and stronger develop=ent of the secondary root system. We also expect to selec\"t from these crosses a variety of maturity dates whic..~ will allow for greater flexibility in sU:iting varieties more closely to the needs of specific conditions of growth.On the winter wheat side, most varieties a.re lacking in disease resistartce; primarily for t~e rusts. Breeding.wor~ and cultural practices must be provided e:.s control measures. On the• whole, however, the diseases in wheat are much more important.Stability in relation to control• of disease is -extremely.important. It is even more important when a good technological package. of fert.ility is e:nployed.A susceptible variety grown under these conditions can build a disease epidemic of greater proportions than if it is starved for fertility and water. In the latter case the wheat starves and the disease o~ganisms starve. Our program in common with others places. great emphasis on producing resistant varieties.However, the organisms are forced into a position where their mutants for virulence are selected and every variety can be expected to succumb in the long run. This has been the case with virtually all varieties released. What then can be done to remove this hazard?One way is to continue to produce varieties with resistance at a sufficiently fast rate to keep replacements coming. The problem has always been that we can't foresee the build up in some cases with sufficient warning to make seed supplies of resistant varieties available in time.Another way is to incorporate the so..:called \"horizontal resistance\" which carries resistance factors capable of off setting the virulence of many physiologic variations of the disease. Our present knowledge does not provide techniques for ensuring selection for such factors in the fie.ld. We have, howev€r, an inc1rect approach to this through testing potential varieties over a wide geographic ra!lge .. This is done in suqh nurseries as the USDA's International Spring Wheat Rust Nursery, the CI:MMYT screening nursery, the Regional Disease and Insect Screening Nursery distributed from Lebanon and the Latin American Still another method for control is to introduce alien_germplasm from wheat relatives into wheat. This was thought at one time to be the final answer but the . .( 18) work of Sam.bors~ishowed the fallibility of this approach with the.Aegilops umbellulata gene fpr.resistance to leaf rust In addition to rielding the pathology problems in the various countries two nurseries are operated. One is the RDISN mentioned and the other is a Regional Trap Nursery (RTN). The RDISN i:;; comprised of varieties which are known to have broad resis1:ance. In addition., plant breeders of t~e r~gfon are encour~ged to submit their lines which are in an advanced state for widespread testing.This nursery is sown in many c;ountries of the regiQn at locations where disease is known to be prevalent In each case one or two RDISN nurseries are arown in C> Mexico and similarly the LADISN in Beirut. We hope to exchange the best varieties of each on a continuing basis between these two nurseries so that all :the plant breeding programs will be in mutual assistance on a global basis. We feel that these nurseries can greatly assist the various national programs.We, along with many other centres are investi.gating the contribution of such characteristics as up-~ight leaves, long peduncle, better root systa~ and so forth, to yield. We are confident that certain c.~aracters are definite plus factors and other are IT~nus in their effect on yield. This of course is true in general but we are trying to identify the ones which are. contributing.In discussing another aspect in expanding the quantity of food I will refer briefly to the \"multiple cropping~' system. While this is not possible to do in the temperate zone, it is very feasible in the tropics and sub-tropics, and provided fertilizer and water are available this is quite, farm size neutral. As the size of farm is reduced, the fa~ily labour available per unit area increases and hence the possibilities of greater intensity of production is increased. In Taiwan, in the Phillipines and in certain parts of India, I know of as many as five crops being taken each year on small areas of land by interplanting succeeding crops between rows of the growing crop before it is harvested. Thus when harvest comes, the new crop is already firmly established. This is the extreme case but 2-3 crops can readily be taken in almost any area where moisture is sufficient. Over vast areas of the subcontinent, rice and wheat are taken in rotation and a short season crop may be grown between these two seasons. One of the dangers in.this system is that one or more of the component crops may be grown outside its best period of growth.This becomes a problem in particular when one is dealing with daylength neutral crops. Thus, in the best production area of India -The Punjab-the late maturi~g rice variety IRS has been placed in rotation with wheat. This results in a two-week later sowing of the wheat which, in turn, lowers the yield of the crop because it is incapable of reaching its maximum yield. The hot weather at the end of the cycle may cause premature ripening and it is exposed .to a lo~ger period of disease attack when the latter is at its strongest development. The concept•, however, is summed up in the maximization of production through kgs/hectare/year. This multiple cropping approach promises tremendous_ gains .in• overall food production in the humid tropics and subtropics, provided adequate fertilization is available.Quality is a much abused term since it is so dependent on the product f~r •which the. grain is to be used. I pre;fer, therefore, to use the term in relation to nutrition properties and not in the industrial sense.In the developed nations where almost all cereals for human consumption are marketed, and.the finished product purchased by the farmer, it is quite easy to fortify the foods with essential nutrients.The diet in itself is well-balanced with animal products, fruits and other varie\"ties of food so that fortification is only marginally necessary. It is perhaps peculiar but certainly aniillal feeders are very cognizant of the need for nutrition fo-r anima~s from an economic standpoint. They.know that if more of the ration can consist of cereals rather than soybean and .41 fish meal, and still give equal nutrition, the• economic gains are appreciably higher.Why then have we neglected improving human nutrition at no extra cost and become instead ob-se~se.d with industrial quality in the cereals?In the lesser developed nations, the• farmers make up 50-80 percent of the population. There is some variation in food to balance diets -e.g. maize and beans in Mexico or wheat and rice with chickpea, p~geonpea, lentils, etc. in India. The effect of these ••should not be urideres tima ted and breeding work•should be active in these crops to make them. fully competitive with the cereals. The fact•ramains that the diet is cer-eally based and animal products are.often scarce. Fp.rther, the cereals are largely consumed .at source under primitive preparation.Additives, therefore, are out of the question except•.in urban centres. It is imperative under these conditions to raise the nutritional level of the c~reals which provide the bulk. of caloric and protein intake.Rice and wheat the twq major cereals are low in nutrition. In rice the amino acid balance is reasonably good but t~e percentage of protein is low.Wheat is much h~gher in_ protein but it is low in certain essential amino acids such as lysine i. trypto;i!1ane methionipe and others. Much work has been done to screen for higher levels in•wheat with only marginal success.Some improvement in rice may be possible by increasing endosperm dispersion of protein.   Nitrogen can be produced by a number of methods w:U.ch includes the use of natural gas, naptha; fuel oil::. coal or compression from the air. This •element is very widespread and virtua11y inexhaustible. The derivation from fossil fuel, however, is exhaustible and it is likely that the power and fuel.needs of \"the world will force man to eventually turn to the air as a ••source. 'l'he liquefaction of N as NH3 reqtiires tremendous input of energy since it requires hydrolysis of water for H and o 2 in the process, in addition to compression of N itself •. This is the reason that N from fossil fuels is favoured. .Again, however, it can be done. The need for these three major elements can be expected to be tremendous in a period of vertical increase of production on the same land area. .In a similar way it will increase the profitability of extracting petroleum from shales and tar sands, which iri North America contain many more times the fossil reserves. now presen.tly known in the oil fields of the world. In 1:he lorig term 'this may be beneficial to mankind. In the short and medium long term and perhaps for ever i't will mean increased prices for fertilizer and food and a greater percentage of consumer income spent on food. In the ~ast with fertilizer in surplus supply delay. in purchase was used as a basis for beating down price. This can no.longer be done in the present fertilizer short situation and the soc-ner domestic supply is built, the more stable will be that country.They will have to depend on imports for some time but Much more can be done. In its use, however, care should be taken to employ it judiciously and on crops which will give the greatest return in production.Rice grows well in monsoon climates where other crops are depressed. To grow paddy rice under irrigation in the winter season,_ on the other hand, requires about 60 inches of water (150 ems). Wheat requires about• 18 inches (45 ems). Simple calculations show that more than three times-the area can be. covered for wheat with the same amount of water. Why then•do .some CO\\l!\\t~ies persist in incurring the energy expense required for pumping•wate.r .to.grow rice instead of wheat and get about the same yield per hectare? I submit it is habit and further that this habit is expensive to maintain.I referred b;t-iefly to small scale.impounding -of water as another means to increasing production.thro~gh the supply of one drought protecting, yield enhanci!lg irr~gation. This is feasible. and is worthy of consideration in.future develop~ents.In an earlier section, reference was made to the need for cultur.al practices such as weed control~ better mulcb cover and maintenance of .the moisture to prevent evaporation. These practices are essential if the best use is to be made of water in the dryer • regions.Power has become one of the essentials not only to our way of life in the developed countries but to maintaini!lg life in ourpresen't world. The demands for power in the agricultural sector• hav~ increased tremendously. At the farm level the efficiency of production is based primarily on the mechanization of cultivation. Without this much of the agricultural land would be devoted. to feeding animal power and much less would be available for food production. The. need fo~ mechanization in the lo~ger term is an essential since we are increasingly short of land. In the agro-industry sector, imnense provision of power is required for fueling the various manufacturing proces.ses• be they the manufacture of fertilizers, the making of machines, ptlr.lping of water, transport of agricultural products and so forth.I have said that countries should produce their own fertilizers. They cannot do this without substantial increases in domestic power supply. Furthe~, the sources must be diversified. In 1972, for example, India suffered a monsoon failure. Much of its power was fed from hyd~oelectric da~s. Because of low rains the reservoir levels were low, canals were low and greater dependence w•as placed on electricity for pumping. In many other countries there are virtually no scientists ~d very little investment in their development. This must be remedied as early as possible. In so doing, they are going to have to look for the superior people. Unfort~nately, in these days of ever lowering standards in the universities of the world, the process of uncovering unusual talent is obscured. There is no room for mediocrity in this race for survival.We from the developed nations must assist as best we can in providing education for a cadre of .people who take over the manning Governments have and continue to wrestle with these problems, I should like to cite some of these.We could begin by assuming that\"frle genetic part of the picture is already a fact and higher yields have materially lowered production costs per unit land area. On the question of inputs, some governments have taken the• view that subsidizing fertili:;er, farm machinery, water de•qelopment and so• on is the method ~est designed to get the farmer to use inputs. The aims are undoubtedly at least partially successful This encourages and results in an unnecessary smuggling of grain across country borders. This low support price is usually associated with a subsidy on inputs so that the country loses on both scores -the fertilizer flowing out and the product flowing out.Credit to buy inputs is a two-edged policy.It can be argued that credit at reasonable rates will encourage the small farmer to use inputs.I think it does, if There is yet no known solution to this problem or the associated one of poor ~ecord on repayment.Land tenure in many countries works against production. In a system where the landlord takes half or, in one case of which I have knowledge, as much as 75-percent of the tenant's crop, one cannot loo~ for much increase in the use of inn~ts unless ..the landlord provides it -and this• rarely happens.Many answers have been tried but there seer::s to be no universal solution. These range from continued fractionation of land to provide each farr:ier with a small plot to the immense state farms of t~e advanced socialist systems. Continuous subdivision of land leads to economically inefficient plots with the operator unable to afford the necessary infrastructure for efficient farming.  Too .often the seed producing organizat\"ion is expected .to show a profit and is reluctant to take new varieties on a pre-release multiplication basis with ~fie possibility that they will not be releaseci and the pro- On the international scene there is a real need .for governments collectively to set up international granaries of food in strategic locations such that food shortages due to weather vagaries can be met expeditiously to avert famine. It is not the responsibility of exporting countries to oaintain such granaries, but should be the responsibility of all countries under soP.J.e international body such as the U.N. This should not take the pl.ace of bu£fer stocks established within national boundaries.There are many other governmental activities which need enactment as agriculture becomes rr.ore fully developed but .. I think that those enumerated are countries are possibly at optimal size but there is little evidence that any country should increase its population. In economic terms, the more people the less to divide, the greater is the pollution and the poorer is the quality of life.Agricultural change can only provide a breathing space in which population pressure can be controlled. There is no• question that food quantity in itself can be at least doubled and with proper investment and husbandry can probably be quadrupled.Nutritional quality can be markedly improved. But man cannot exist on bread.alone. Existence can be very dreary if that is his only preoccupation.It is unlikely that populations can be controlled in the near future, barring an unforeseen development in sterility. factors .that can readily be introduced into food and accepted as a social necessity. It follows, therefore, that we must look to agriculture to provide as •much• food as cheaply as possible to humanity in the transition period.There is documentary proof that in its. initial .talent be nurtured, advanced and encouraged through decentralization of authority as rapidly as possible.In the short term we will be obliged to depend on surplus food transported to deficit areas to avoid fa.mine. Tnis can be much more effective if an international granary systa~ is developed with stores, stocked nea~ potential disaster areas. This will mean making the necessary financial ar~angements for food distribution in years of poor harvest. I do not believe that everything produced in tne world should be divided equally. Some utopians espouse the principle of unlimited migrations of people £rom over-populated to under populated areas. This is no solution. It can only lead to depressing the life standard of all to a less than animal existence.The problems of each country must be solved by that country. The more richly endowed countries can, however; protect the populations of the lesser endowed while solutions are made. To do otherwise would be an affront to humanity.In the early stages of agricultural change, there is no doubt a widening in the disparity of the incomes of more and lesser advantaged groups ","tokenCount":"5115"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7fb72eaafcf199d9c119265ca02fd0ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87635b61-4b83-4a99-b36a-064c8e08c926/retrieve","id":"-1385894033"},"keywords":["base-of-the-pyramid consumers","multivariate probit","food insecurity","effective outlets","informal urban settlements"],"sieverID":"adf02d13-14e6-48cb-9d0d-05b7df91de44","pagecount":"13","content":"Many Kenyan base-of-the-pyramid (BoP) consumers-defined as the poorest two-thirds of the economic human pyramid-remain food insecure, despite the availability of nutrient-dense foods in the market. This study reveals how effective marketing strategies can strengthen food security among BoP consumers through increased access to nutritious foods such as nutrient-dense porridge flour. Nutrient-dense porridge flour refers to a multi-composite porridge flour composed of diverse nutritious ingredients that are necessary to achieve a healthy diet. The main objective of the study was to determine the most effective channel for making nutrient-dense porridge flour available to BoP consumers. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey in Kawangware, Nairobi County, using a multistage sampling design and a sample size of 603, via structured questionnaires. A multivariate Probit (MV-Probit) model was used to analyze the most effective channel for providing nutrient-dense flour to BoP consumers. The study results show that the most common outlets used to access this flour were supermarkets (51.08%), followed by cereal stores (25.54%). According to previous studies, using appropriate marketing strategies leads to increases in the uptake and consumption of nutritious products in informal urban settlements among developing countries. Consequently, policies and interventions targeting BoP consumption of nutritious products toward reducing food and nutrition insecurity in informal urban settlements should be based on appropriate marketing strategies that consider the institutional factors and significant household characteristics of the BoP communities.Global food production is abundant/sufficient, yet approximately 0.8 billion people still go hungry [1]. One of the major global challenges is that of ensuring sufficient quantities and quality of food to cater for the nutritional needs of an ever-growing population, which is projected to increase to about 10 billion by the year 2050 [2].Progress toward improving food security continues to be uneven across Sub-Saharan Africa regions [3]. Remarkable progress toward reducing hunger has been made by some regions, such as Northern Africa, Latin America, Eastern Asia, and Central Asia [4]. Progress in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Southern Asia, however, has been poor, further compacting/increasing to the point of creating major food-insecurity crises in these regions [1].The individuals who are most vulnerable to food insecurity in Kenya are those living in the arid and semi-arid areas and the informal urban settlements, also referred to as slums [5]. About a quarter of the Kenyan population lives in these areas, where disease, Sustainability 2022, 14, 12264 2 of 13 conflict, structural underdevelopment, and poverty are rampant [6]. Consumers living in informal urban settlements have been categorized as the base-of-the-pyramid consumers (BoP). These are the resource-poor consumers living on less than US $1.9 a day [7,8].The prevalence of food insecurity in Kenya has been attributed to unsupportive political activities, environmental factors (e.g., rainfall patterns), and socioeconomic factors [1]. The number of individuals living under acute food insecurity declined to 2.6 million in 2018 from 3.4 million in 2017 [3]. This improvement has been attributed to increased rainfall, widespread nutrition response mechanisms by governmental and non-governmental agencies, emergency cash and food transfers, and early diagnosis and treatment of acute malnutrition [5].Dietary diversification-in this context, meaning that households and individuals have access to a wide variety of food items in their daily meals-is one of multiple approaches that can be used to reduce malnutrition [9]. Improved nutrition could be made possible if frequently consumed foods are diversified so that they contain more than one food item or, rather, foods from more than one food group [10]. One of the foods that is mostly consumed by the BoP consumers in the informal urban settlements is soft porridge, and it is consumed as a complementary food for young children, by pregnant and lactating mothers, and by the other household members either in the morning, as a snack, or in the evening [4]. Most of the porridge consumed by BoP consumers in the informal settlement is not diversified. Most often, the porridge is cereal-based, and it contains only one food item, such as maize or millet, or a combination of the two, which eliminates hunger but lacks important micronutrients that are needed to support optimal physical growth and mental development. Addressing hunger alone is not sufficient [11]. There is an urgent need to address micronutrient deficiency. This would entail diversifying porridge flour to include other food items that will provide important micronutrients to the consumers [12]. However, it should be noted that diversifying the porridge flour may increase its cost, so that some of the BoP consumers may not be able to afford it [8].Affordability, accessibility, and availability are important factors determining whether or not diversified nutrient-dense porridge flour would be purchased by the target consumers [2]. Affordability increases the consumers' purchasing power and thus increases the quantity of porridge consumed. Accessibility and availability both reduce the transaction costs linked to information and access, thus indirectly increasing nutrient-dense-porridgeflour consumption. Availability indicates the extent to which nutritious foods are stocked in the right market channels that are common among BoP consumers, while accessibility refers to the process of ensuring that these foods can be easily reached physically by the consumers based on the location of the outlets.Increasing access to affordable and high-quality diets via value chains meant to improve nutrition is an effective way of dealing with malnutrition, which is highly prevalent among the BoPs [13]. Furthermore, food preparation time will also determine whether and how often these foods are consumed. Foods that can be cooked quickly are highly demanded since they save on resources (cooking fuel) and cooking time, thus allowing the poor consumers more time for other activities, such as work [14].Most often, the BoP consumers have limited access to nutrient-dense foods because the foods are developed, introduced, priced, distributed, and marketed in ways that do not often consider the social and economic circumstances of these consumers [15]. This makes it difficult for these consumers to access the foods despite their presence in the market. To help address this challenge, the main objective of this study was to assess the consumption of nutrient-dense porridge flour by BoP consumers in the informal settlements of Kawangware in Nairobi. Kawangware dwellers are classified as BoP consumers since they live on less than US $1.9 a day and they are not able to afford more than one meal a day [16]. It is important to assess the purchasing power of these consumers by considering available market outlets, to ascertain the factors that influence their purchasing decisions. This will help to inform the right food-marketing strategies in the informal urban settlements.Globally, food abundance exists, yet millions of people especially in the informal urban settlements of developing countries are still food insecure [17]. This can be largely attributed to factors such as accessibility and low purchasing power among potential consumers. Over 10% of the total food retailing in Kenya is accounted for by supermarkets, and more than 20% of food retailing in large cities in Africa is also accounted for by the same market channel [18]. Information regarding the contribution of other market distribution channels, such as kiosks and mom-and-pop shops, is not yet clear. There is a need to ascertain the role of market access and household characteristics in achieving food security, especially in informal urban settlements. The right market channels and product-promotion strategies need to be used when availing nutrient-dense food to the BoP's, and this will help in dealing with the current situation of food insecurity in the informal urban settlements.Even though traditional distribution channels are regarded as being complex, they are the most effective channels to reach the BoP [19]. Traditional channels, in this case, include kiosks and door-to-door delivery methods. This report argues that traditional channels can build customer loyalty and create demand. On the other hand, it is also argued that the use of supermarkets among developing countries has been known to have a positive correlation with the income of households [20,21]. The information on the most effective outlet that can be used to reach out to the BoP is thus not clear; hence, it is imperative to carry out more research.This study conducted an assessment to ascertain the best market channels that can be used to supply the products to the consumers. So far, little is known regarding the best marketing channels and product-promotion strategies that can be used in such informal urban settings. A total of 603 respondents were interviewed for this study. The study placed emphasis not only on the entire households but also on women of reproductive age (15-49 years) and children under five years of age (6-59 months). The latter are the most vulnerable in terms of attaining a healthy and nutritious diet [22].This study was carried out in Kawangware, Nairobi County. Kawangware is an informal urban settlement, or slum area, which lies approximately 15 km to the west of the Nairobi Central Business District as shown in Figure 1. It extends between longitude 36 • 44 37 E and latitude 1 • 17 4 S. Kawangware occupies an area of 1.2 square kilometers and is among the fastest-growing slums in Nairobi [23]. It has a total population of 133,286, of which 65% of the population is mainly composed of youth and children [17]. Most of the inhabitants of Kawangware live on less than a dollar a day. The level of unemployment is high, and most of the adults are self-employed entrepreneurs. The majority of the families in this area is not able to afford more than a single meal a day, thus exacerbating their level of malnutrition [6]. Most of the children are also malnourished, particularly due to lack of proteins in their daily diet [24]. There are fewer government clinics and hospitals in Kawangware, and residents mainly rely on the healthcare services offered by non-governmental organizations such as AMREF, Medecins Sans Frontiers, and other goodwill providers. Access to clean water is also a major problem among the slum dwellers. Overall, most of the families in Kawangware are subject to high poverty levels, and they struggle to fight disease and to support their families [25]. The poverty level among these slum dwellers classifies them as BoP consumers [16].Multistage sampling was employed to select the sample for this study as shown in Figure 2. The areas of interest were chosen purposely due to the presence of the BoP consumers. Systematic sampling was then used to choose respondents for the study. The study focused on the entire household, women of reproductive age (15-49 years), and children below five years of age (6-59 months).  Multistage sampling was employed to select the sample for this study as shown in Figure 2. The areas of interest were chosen purposely due to the presence of the BoP consumers. Systematic sampling was then used to choose respondents for the study. The study focused on the entire household, women of reproductive age (15-49 years), and children below five years of age (6-59 months). The sample population was drawn from the household units of BoP consumers in Kawangware, [26] and a formula was used to determine the sample size since the population of the targeted study area was greater than 10,000.The formula is presented below:where n is the desired sample size, z is the significance level, p is the prevalence level of malnutrition in slum areas [27], q = 1 − p, d is the degree of accuracy n = (1.96 2 × 0.4 × 0.6) ÷ (0.05 2 ), and n = 603.This study therefore collected data from a sample of 603 respondents representing the target population in Kawangware, Nairobi County, using a cross-sectional survey. A The sample population was drawn from the household units of BoP consumers in Kawangware, [26] and a formula was used to determine the sample size since the population of the targeted study area was greater than 10,000.The formula is presented below:where n is the desired sample size, z is the significance level, p is the prevalence level of malnutrition in slum areas [27], q = 1 − p, d is the degree of accuracy n = (1.96 2 × 0.4 × 0.6) ÷ 0.05 2 , and n = 603. This study therefore collected data from a sample of 603 respondents representing the target population in Kawangware, Nairobi County, using a cross-sectional survey. A structured questionnaire was designed by the authors so as to capture all the study variables.Systematic sampling was used to select the BoP consumers. The first respondent was selected randomly from the available household units, and the subsequent respondents were selected by taking every 77th item, where 77 referred to the sampling interval. This process was repeated until the targeted sample size was achieved:Supermarkets-A self-service store that offers a large variety of foods, household products, and beverages. These foods can be highly processed, refrigerated, and frozen [9].Mom-and-pop shops-These are individual/family-owned retail shops found in fixed locations, selling merchandise over the counter in small packaging, with a possibility of issuing credit to customers. They offer a moderate variety of brands and foods, processed staples, and some refrigerated foods [9].Kiosks-This is a traditional retail that is characterized by the sale of merchandise over the counter, offering a limited variety of brands, unprocessed staples, and fresh vegetables and fruits. Other features include offering merchandise in small packaging, giving credit to customers, and individual ownership of the respective outlet [9].Cereal stores-This is a retail outlet that is characterized by the sale of a wide variety of cereals in both a processed and unprocessed state. Some of these stores operate in selfservice mode, while others do not. The stores allow customers to choose various cereals which they feel suit their nutritional needs.Village health teams-These are small groups that have been organized by the ministry of health at the village level to help in empowering communities to participate in making decisions which affect their health, mobilize communities for health programs, and enhance the delivery of health services at the household level. These teams act as a good means of increasing access to nutritious foods since they advise households on available nutritious foods and where they can get them.This study assumed that BoP consumers purchase the nutrient-dense porridge flour from several outlets, such as supermarkets, mom-and-pop shops, kiosks, and cereal stores. These consumers can choose to purchase from one or more of these outlets. The most appropriate model was used to measure this objective, which is the Multivariate Probit (MV-Probit) model. This model aided in ascertaining the probability of a BoP consumer choosing one or more outlets over the others. The MV-Probit model was used to jointly estimate several correlated binary outcomes. The model is written as follows:where Y im (m = 1 . . . M) is the dependent variable of the market outlet chosen by the ith BoP consumer. These dependent variables are polychotomous variables that show whether porridge sales are made via the marketing outlet chosen by the consumer. These outlets were aggregated into five groups: supermarkets, mom-and-pop shops, kiosks, cereal stores, and village health teams. Each consumer could use 1, more, or none of these outlets. The independent variables, as described in Table 1, are (i) distance to outlet (X 1 ), (ii) gender of the household head (X 2 ), (iii) household income (X 3 ), (iv) ready availability (X 4 ), (v) consumer credit (X 5 ), (vi) service mode used (X 6 ), (vii) convenient operating hours (X 7 ), and (xiii) level of hygiene (X 8 ). The service mode used indicates whether the customer was served over the counter or on self-service mode, while consumer credit indicates whether the consumer could be sold goods on credit or cash terms only. The most effective marketing outlet was ascertained by identifying the outlet where most pieces of the nutrient-dense porridge flour had been purchased in the last month.The explanatory variables mentioned in the previous paragraph were used to explain the factors that determined the selection of the various marketing outlets. It was expected that the education level of the head of the household, household income, and the outlet's level of hygiene would have a positive impact on the use of supermarkets, while distance, consumer credit, and convenient hours of operation would have a positive impact on the use of kiosks and mom-and-pop shops. On the other hand, sellers' knowledge of the products being sold was expected to have a positive impact on the use of cereal stores and village health teams. The nutrient-dense porridge flour is always stocked; hence, the customer can purchase it at every visit to the outlet. Convenient operating hours: Having flexibility in the hours of operation, allowing customers to access the outlet at any time of the day, including late in the evening. Service mode: Whether the outlet operates on a self-service basis or not. Seller's knowledge of the products sold: Whether the outlet operators are aware of the quality of the food products they offering and how those products will benefit the customer. Outlet hygiene: Whether or not the outlet operates in a clean space that guarantees food safety.X im is a 1 × k vector of independent variable(s) that influenced the decisions about the choice of marketing outlet, and β im is a k × 1 vector of unknown parameters that were to be estimated, where m = 1, . . . , k, with m being the marketing outlets under consideration. Moreover, ε im and m =1 . . . , m are the error terms that were distributed as multivariate normal, with each having a zero mean and variance-covariance matrix, V, where V has a value of one on the correlations and leading diagonal.The equations mentioned above are a set of equations shown below:The latent dependent variables are observed through a decision to purchase from the outlet or not, such that we obtain the following:There were only 10 possible combinations of choosing or not choosing the 5 outlets. The probability of having all the 5 outlets being chosen by a single consumer, \"I\", is given as follows:This system of equations is estimated jointly by using the maximum likelihood method. This estimation is conducted by using user-written STATA Mv-Probit methodology (Cappellari and Jenkins, 2003), which employs the smooth recursive conditioning simulator of GHK (Gewek-Hajivassiliour-Keane) to evaluate the multivariate normal distribution [29].Descriptive statistics were used to ascertain the most effective outlet through which to supply the nutrient-dense porridge to the base-of-the-pyramid consumers. The outlets that were used to supply the nutrient-dense porridge were mom-and-pop shops, kiosks, supermarkets, cereal stores, and village health teams. From the results shown in Table 2, the majority of the BoP consumers preferred to make their porridge-flour purchases from supermarkets (51.08%). This, therefore, qualifies supermarkets to be the most-effective outlet for the supply of nutrient-dense porridge flour to the BoP consumers. The second most-effective outlet was the use of cereal stores (25.54%), followed by kiosks (19.40%). Mom-and-pop shops (1.82%) and village health teams (2.16%) were the least-used outlets in the purchase of the nutrient-dense porridge flour. An MV-Probit model was used to ascertain the factors influencing the respective outlets chosen by the BoP consumers. Table 3 shows the pairwise correlation coefficient between the error terms of the five equations of outlets' usage. All ten pairs of the estimated correlation coefficients were statistically significant from zero, therefore implying that there was a strong interdependence among the five outlet types in usage for access to nutrient-dense porridge [30]. Table 4 shows the MV-Probit model results that revealed the significant variables that influenced the usage of the identified outlets among the BoP consumers. The Wald test [x 2 (45) = 175.11, p < 0.0000] implied that the data that were used were fit for the MV-Probit model, and the likelihood ratio [x 2 (10) = 158.92, p < 0.0000] of the independence of multiple usage of various outlets was strongly rejected. This shows that the multiple usage of different outlets among the BoP consumers is not mutually exclusive. The distance to the outlet from the household location had a negative effect on the use of supermarkets, with an additional unit increase in distance reducing the probability of supermarket usage by 0.0004 percentage points. These results indicate that an additional distance to an outlet is associated with lower probability of the household choosing to use the supermarket as a source of nutrient-dense porridge. This coefficient was statistically significant at a 5% level of significance. Distance to the nearest outlet determines the ease in the accessibility of commodities by consumers. Most consumers prefer to carry their shopping from retail outlets that are located close to their residential areas. Consumers also tend to establish close ties with those running the retail outlets that are near to their households, and this makes it very difficult for them to switch to those that are located slightly further away, unless absolutely necessary. Purchasing from an outlet that is close to the household is also very convenient, as it reduces travel across long distances [31]. The close proximity of outlets offering nutritious foods to households is one of the key factors which play a great role in ensuring that food and nutritional security is enhanced in the society [32].Household income had a positive impact on the use of cereal stores as the preferred choice of outlet. This implies that one unit increase in the income level of the household head increased the probability of purchasing the nutrient-dense porridge from cereal stores by 0.0001 percentage points. This variable was statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. A household tends to be more cautious about the health benefits of what the members consume as income increases. Unlike the other outlets being considered, cereal stores have been known to supply various types of products that can be blended to prepare a porridge flour that is highly nutritious and meets the desired health benefits. This is the reason why the household heads with higher incomes increasingly preferred to purchase the nutrient-dense porridge flour from the cereal stores. Household heads whose income is low have no other option than to consume what is available at the market. This is because their incomes cannot allow them to choose a variety of products in the market that will enable them to end up consuming a healthy diet. They can only afford to purchase food to quell their hunger and that provides them with enough energy to get by, regardless of whether the food offers health benefits. BoP consumers will continue to face the issue of food insecurity as we move into the future, unless adequate interventions are introduced, since a majority of them struggle to afford any type of food, let alone what is nutritious. Rising food costs, together with other shocks, such as economic crises, foods, and drought, have major impacts on food and nutrition security since they push vulnerable households, such as those of the BoP consumers, further into poverty, therefore weakening their ability to have access to sufficient food [32].The ability to purchase on credit had a positive impact on cereal stores and a negative impact on supermarkets. These variables were found to be statistically different at a 10% significance level for the cereal stores and a 5% significance level for the supermarkets. Cereal stores that could sell their porridge on credit had a higher probability of attracting the BoP consumers, unlike the supermarkets. Providing access to credit increased the number of nutrient-dense porridge units that could be accessed through cereal stores by 0.7177 percentage points. The negative impact that credit access had on the use of supermarkets was expected, considering that it is very rare to find supermarkets offering goods to consumers on credit. Supermarkets would rather supply the retailers on credit rather than the consumers for many reasons, including the logistics involved in collecting cash from the customers who owe money to the supermarket. Cereal stores attract consumers who would shop at the supermarket, if given the access to credit. The majority of individuals who run the cereal stores usually have close relationships with their customers, and this facilitates the process of selling goods on credit. It is also worth mentioning that the majority of the BoP consumers do not always have access to sufficient cash, and during such times, they need to find alternative ways of obtaining food. Buying food on credit is the most common alternative available to them during such situations. Supplying the nutrient-dense porridge flour through cereal stores is, therefore, one of the ways of dealing with food insecurity in the slums since it almost always guarantees the BoP consumers a constant supply of food, as long as they show a good credibility in settling their debts. Sale on credit increases access to food in the slums, and the use of this alternative is, therefore, helpful in reducing the high prevalence of food insecurity among BoP consumers [33]. Food security will only exist when all individuals, at all times, have both economic and physical access to sufficient, nutritious, and safe food which meets their respective dietary needs and preferences for a healthy and active life [34]. Thus, access to credit plays a very vital role toward increased food accessibility, therefore enhancing food security.The ability to purchase porridge in self-service outlets had a positive impact on the use of supermarkets and cereal stores and a negative impact on the use of kiosks as a source of accessing the nutrient-dense porridge flour. This implies that supermarkets and cereal stores selling their porridge on a self-service basis had higher probabilities of attracting the BoP consumers compared to the kiosks. This was expected in the case of kiosks because they are not designed to allow users to serve themselves. The self-service strategy increased the units of the nutrient-dense porridge flour purchased through the supermarkets by 1.6317 percentage points and by 1.1697 for the cereal stores. These coefficients were statistically significant at 5% significance level. Self-service stores are convenient and attractive to most consumers since they allows the customers to easily compare different commodities before purchasing them. A majority of the BoP consumers compare the commodities in terms of price before they start comparing other aspects/elements, such as quality, brand, and packaging, among others. This makes the price element a key indicator. Thus, it is imperative to ensure that the prices of nutrient-dense food products are competitive and affordable, so that they can easily penetrate the informal urban markets. This approach will contribute to solving the issue of food insecurity, which is currently a key challenge experienced by dwellers in these settlements. Food affordability in the slums is an important factor toward solving food insecurity since it enhances the access to various food commodities available on the market [35]. It increases the purchasing power of the BoP consumers, therefore enabling them to access food that is adequate in both quality and quantity and thus boosting their food and nutritional security [34].Convenient hours of operation had a positive impact on kiosks, implying that kiosks operating during hours that were convenient to the BoP consumers had a higher likelihood of attracting these consumers for the sale of porridge. From our survey results, we determined that kiosks that operated during convenient operating hours were highly likely to increase sales by 0.5327 percentage points. This variable was found to be statistically different at a 1% significance level. Economies in the urban areas operate both during the daytime and at night, making it possible for outlets to operate 24 h per day so that they can always cater to the needs of their clients. The majority of the individuals who run the kiosk businesses in the slums usually live around their business premises, thus allowing them the flexibility to operate their businesses during odd hours, unlike those running the other types of outlets considered. This situation offers a competitive advantage to kiosks to some extent. It is vital for companies to give special attention to kiosks when they are identifying outlets that can be used to supply commodities such as the nutrient-dense porridge flour to BoP consumers in the informal urban settlements. The use of such effective distribution outlets is one of the best strategies for more easily penetrating the market, while also enhancing the consumption of nutritious products among the BoP consumers. Directly supporting these types of outlets would also allow them to save on the resources that could be used to run certain marketing campaigns. Customers are always loyal to retail outlets that operate during the hours that best suit them. These results conform the findings of Reference [36], who found that outlets that operated during times that were more convenient to the target customers were more likely to attract more customers compared to those that did not consider this factor. With such convenience, BoP consumers are able to have guaranteed access to nutritious foods, thus contributing to improved food security.The hygiene levels of the outlets selling nutrient-dense porridge flour also played a key role in influencing BoP consumers' levels of purchase. Our survey results showed that high levels of hygiene increased the consumption level of the nutrient-dense porridge flour by 0.889 and 0.359 percentage points in the use of kiosks and village health teams, respectively. On the other hand, poor levels of hygiene in the use of the mom-and-pop shops were more likely to reduce the consumption level of the nutrient-dense porridge flour by 67.94%. The creation of a good retail environment helps to increase the length of time the shopper will spend in the outlet and generates loyalty with the established brand. It also encourages people to be repeated customers. After pricing, hygiene is one of the main factors that plays a vital role and aids in the creation of such a good environment, particularly when customers are shopping for food commodities. This is because they believe that a clean outlet will supply goods whose quality has not been compromised by factors that lead to poor hygiene. A hygienic environment will enhance the shopping experience among customers and the overall impression that they have toward the brand and the shop. This implies that they will always shop at the outlets with good hygiene, as demonstrated by the results of our study. A superior experience is a unique and valued asset for any type of business, especially considering that competition is high, and every business wants to maintain its customer base and attract more of them [37].Although the consumption of nutritious foods is still low among BoP consumers, this study has shown that this trend can be reversed, thus helping to fight food and nutrition insecurity. Supermarkets, cereal stores, and kiosks play a very vital role in ensuring that access to nutrient-dense foods is enhanced in the informal urban settlements. Mom-andpop shops and village health teams were the least used outlets in the purchase of the nutrient-dense porridge flour. Despite the village health teams being the least preferred BoP consumer choice, so far, they have played an instrumental role in increasing awareness on the importance of consuming nutritious products. Ensuring that the right outlets are stocked with sufficient quantities of nutritious products will aid in addressing food-and nutrition-insecurity problems in the informal urban settlements, since they will enhance the accessibility of these products. This study makes a significant contribution to the body of knowledge in understanding how marketing approaches can and should be used to address the issue of food and nutrition insecurity in informal urban settlements. Further research should also be conducted with regard to ascertaining the impact of different institutions on improving food security in the informal urban settlements of Kenya and globally.","tokenCount":"5236"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eb97ff9da477b41a1ea4ba5f11ee2784","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47bb95d4-273c-48fc-b59c-796d8ef24740/retrieve","id":"1261190041"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6562ad5d-7dbd-401f-8ebe-2cd85e574c67","pagecount":"7","content":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climatesmart African future, driven by science and innovation in agriculture. As the world strives to feed the increasing human population through improved agri-food systems, it is important to ensure that we are combating climate change and sustaining the health of the ecosystem. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) innovations enhance our adaptation and mitigation of climate change by making these CSA practices One Health sensitive. That is, the CSA practices ensure a healthy ecosystem (humans, animals and plants, and their shared environment). This policy brief highlights CSA and One Health concepts and outlines how CSA innovations and for that matter, any innovation can be made One Health sensitive. Ensuring CSAs are One Health sensitive brings great benefit to our agri-food systems, livelihoods as well as to the ecosystem.To meet global demands of increasing population, especially food and nutrition, there have been increase in production either by expanding area under cultivation or increasing productivity of existing cultivated lands. However, efforts to increase production are severely impacted by biotic and abiotic stresses including pests, diseases and climate change resulting in excessive use of agrochemicals, habitat destruction and ecosystem changes. To address the challenge of climate change, global and regional policy frameworks such The AICCRA project is aimed at driving scientific innovations for climate change mitigation and adaptation into African agri-food systems. This policy brief highlights measures to ensure that the climate-smart agriculture innovations being introduced under this project are one health sensitive.According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach that helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate resilient practices. CSA supports reaching internationally agreed goals such as the SDGs and the Paris Agreement. It aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.What constitutes a CSA practice is context-specific, depending on local socio-economic, environmental and climate change factors and may include innovations that reduce agricultural water use, adapt production systems to climate related stresses and reduce greenhouse gas emission among others.The CGIAR considers CSA as an integrative approach to address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change that explicitly aims for three objectives: 1. sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, to support equitable increases in farm incomes, food security and development; 2. adapting and building resilience of agricultural and food security systems to climate change at multiple levels; and 3. reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (including crops, livestock and fisheries). Different elements which can be integrated in climate-smart agricultural approaches include: management of production systems (farms, crops, livestock, aquaculture and capture fisheries) for sustainable resource utilization to produce more with less while increasing resilience; ecosystem and landscape management to conserve ecosystem services for increased to increaseingd resource efficiency and resilience; and services for farmers and land managers to enable them to implement the necessary changes.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines 'One Health' as an approach to designing and implementing programmes, policies, legislation and research in which multiple sectors communicate and work together to achieve better public health outcomes. The FAO provides a more inclusive definition as an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimize the health of people, animals and ecosystems. It recognizes the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the wider environment (including ecosystems) are closely linked and inter-dependent. FAO promotes a One Health approach as part of agrifood system transformation for the health of people, animals, plants and the environment. This involves a spectrum of actors and work on sustainable agriculture, animal, plant, forest, aquaculture health, waste management, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), food safety, food security, nutrition and livelihoods. Ensuring a One Health approach is essential for progress, to anticipate, prevent, detect and control diseases that spread between animals and humans, tackle AMR, ensure food safety, preventenvironment-related human and animal health threats, as well as combatting many other challenges. A One Health approach is also critical for achieving the global, regional and national goals.The One Health concept has been overly focused on human and animal health, with little focus on plant and environmental health and most importantly, the link with agriculture (crops, livestock and aquaculture).Apart from the impact of antibiotic use in livestock production, general agrochemical (insecticides, weedicides, fungicides, plant growth regulators and fertilizers) use has huge impact on human, animal and environmental health. It is important to identify these impacts and manage the risks associated with them as part of a wholistic One Health approach to the implementation of any programmme. Ghana's draft National One Health policy expects the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to provide technical support for safe, hygienic and nutritious crop production, pest control, disease management and animal health as the Ministry's role in the implementation of the policy.As we implement programmes to improve our agri-food systems, it is important to ensure that the systems are also One Health sensitive. Being One Health sensitive means that the innovations are proven to have no adverse effects on human, animal and environmental health and not only improvement of crop/livestock health. For example, in implementing a livestock production system, selection of feed source that has low greenhouse gas emission, managing antibiotic use to prevent residues in meat and the environment, managing waste to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transmission of zoonotic diseases among others make the production system climate smart and One Health sensitive.The efforts to integrate agri-food systems, One Health and climate change, especially specifically seeking out opportunities to link adaptation and mitigation efforts results in holisticaly maximizing multiple outcomes and minimizing tradeoffs in management. CSA practices and technologies aim to improve food security, resilience, and low emissions development, where possible and appropriate. Beyond the benefits of CSAs, ensuring they are One Health sensitive makes agri-food systems sustainable, environmentally friendly and economically viable, resulting in sustainable livelihoods, healthy people, animals and plants.Economically, it reduces excess money spent on the outcome of input-use and savings on managing human, animal and environmental health problems.The health of humans, animals, plants and their shared environment (i.e. the health of the ecosystem) should be assessed by their sustainability, financial savings and social resilience achieved during any human economic operation. When assessing a One-Health risk of an operation, it is important to identify what might go wrong (hazard) with humans, animals, plants and their shared environment (soil, water and air) now or in future and how it can occur due to the operation. The identified hazard is then evaluated and the needed measures to prevent or minimize the negative effects to the ecosystem's health (i.e. sustainability, financial savings and social resilience) are determined.For the key AICCRA CSA innovations, protocols will be examined for each operation (activities; equipment/products/inputs to use; where/when and how they will be used) and answers to the following questions sought and the set of actions proposed in the steps below taken:• What is the potential harm this operation will have on other components of nature (the ecosystem)?• What is the likelihood of it happening and severity on the ecosystem when the operation is undertaken?• Who or what might be harmed? Eg. Farm hands, water, useful soil fauna, natural enemies, other beneficial organisms etc can be harmed by a particular pesticide to be used.• How will they be harmed? Eg. Polluted water unwholesome for human and animal use and will cause a fortune to clean it; Targeted pest may develop resistance to the pesticide and call for more frequent and expensive pesticide usage.• Evaluate the risks and decide what precautions/corrective measures to take. Eg. Observe the recommended dosage; Do not use the same active ingredient of pesticides repeatedly beyond 25 successive days on the crop; Alternate pesticides with respect to their different modes of action in order to delay or prevent resistance.• Document the findings and develop an action plan to prevent or minimize the harm.• Implement the action plans (precautions/corrective measures) by incorporating in what are on the protocols.• Review the implementation and if necessary find ways to improve the operation by repeating the steps.As we strive to improve agri-food systems towards attaining national, regional and global goals by adopting science, technology and innovation, it is important to keep our eyes on the bigger picture and adopt a systems approach. Innovations should be seen through the lenses of the ecosystem, ensuring that all components are minimally impacted negatively. Thus the focus should not be on maximizing production but rather sustainable optimum production, with present and future of the ecosystem in mind. The AICCRA project has incorporated into all its protocols and manuals a One Health sensitivity check to ensure sustainability.Identify the potential harm to the ecosystem from the operation.Is there a high likelihood of occurrence & severity? Document what or who in the ecosystem will be harmed and in what way?Record precautions or corrective measures to be taken?Develop an action plan to prevent or minimize the harm.Implement the action plan.Regularly review the operation and if necessary find ways to improve it.","tokenCount":"1510"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f824ad117724f26a680667f09bc848c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14715938-38ca-4e91-879f-fdb139d67534/retrieve","id":"430000955"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4f0a7f0c-86a7-445f-a01d-8485a507e3ea","pagecount":"122","content":"During 2008-09 a series of meetings were held that explored different aspects of scaling up index insurance. Many of the players who worked on pilot projects and are now involved in efforts to scale up attended and contributed their experiences, insights and technologies.This publication is largely a distillation of the outputs of this process. It is not a detailed collection of the workshop materials; these are available elsewhere (Barrett et al., 2007;Bhojwani et al., 2008; technical  papers at http://iri.columbia.edu/csp/issue2/workshop). Rather, it synthesizes the main points, and builds on them to reflect the ongoing debate on if and how index insurance could have a role to play in poverty reduction, disaster risk reduction and development. The document reflects a Index insurance, development and disaster managementOutcomes of the inaugural Forum made it clear that we have the technology, the expertise and the financial resources to take on the challenge presented by climate change -but that action to tackle these problems is largely missing.We need to step out of our narrow confines and areas of expertise and share our knowledge -to pool our resources and act together in order to have real impact. This publication, born out of discussions at the Forum and subsequent meetings, represents the commitment of one group of experts to pool and share their experience and knowledge of index insurance.I applaud the efforts of this community to take It further states that there is now higher confidence in the projected increases in droughts, heat waves and floods, as well as their adverse impacts -which will be hardest felt by the most vulnerable, who are often in the weakest economic position.Climate has always presented a challenge to those whose livelihoods depend on the weather.Even though a drought (or a flood, or a hurricane) may happen infrequently, the threat of the disaster is enough to block economic vitality, growth and wealth generation during all years -good or bad. The risk of drought and flooding can keep people in poverty traps, as risk-adverse behavior limits productivity and the willingness of creditors to lend to farmers, for example. Lack of access to financial services, especially in rural areas, in turn restricts access to agricultural inputs and technologies, such as improved seeds and fertilizers. At the national level, when disaster strikes, many developing countries rely on humanitarian aid, whose delay can lead to higher human and economic costs.There is a global recognition of the pressing need for fresh approaches to confront these challenges at scale. This type of thinking is epitomized by the Hyogo Framework, which advocates for a new approach to disaster management focusing on disaster risk reduction, as well as the Bali Action Plan which advocates for a more comprehensive consideration of risk sharing and transfer mechanisms, such as insurance. In this publication, we discuss one innovative response to enable poverty reduction through better climate risk management: index insurance.The partners and contributors to this publication are working together in their networks throughout the world on developing and testing index insurance as an approach which, when combined with other financial, governance, structural and policy options, can enable us to better meet our collective goals of poverty reduction and economic growth. This Group for their contributions to the report, which greatly enhanced the quality and the process.The team gratefully acknowledges the financial support of Oxfam America, UNDP and NationalThe climate has always presented a challenge to those whose livelihoods depend on it.Moving away from such dependence is usually an early step in economic development, but For poor people, a variable and unpredictable climate presents a risk that can critically restrict options and so limit development.The climate presents a challenge to small-scale farmers and can significantly limit their options; Scott Wallace/World BankThe risk materializes at two levels: the direct effects of a weather shock, and the indirect effects due to the threat of a weather shock (whether it occurs or not).When a weather shock occurs, poor people are vulnerable. Local coping strategies often break down. Poor people have few assets to fall back on, and may be forced to sell these in order to survive so that when the crisis is over they are in a much worse position than before.These impacts can last for years in the form of diminished productive capacity and weakened livelihoods. And climate change threatens both more frequent and more severe extreme events (IPCC, 2007).Under the threat of a possible weather shock, poor people avoid taking risks (Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1993). They shun innovations that could increase productivity, since these innovations may increase their vulnerability, for example by exhausting the assets they would need to survive a crisis or by requiring them to spend money without being sure of a return (Dercon, 1996). Creditors are unlikely to lend to farmers if drought (for example) might result in widespread defaults, even if loans can be paid back easily in most years. This lack of access to credit critically restricts access to agricultural inputs and technologies, such as improved seeds and fertilizers. Even though a drought (or a flood, or a hurricane) may happen only one year in five or six, the threat of the disaster is enough to block economic vitality, growth and wealth generation in all years -good or bad.Poverty limits the capacity of people to manage weather risks, while these same risks contribute to keeping people poor. Climate change will greatly exacerbate this situation; and developing countries, which are least responsible for climate change, face its greatest impacts. New tools are urgently needed to help vulnerable people deal with climate change, and the uncertainty that accompanies this.It is not only the poor who need such tools. After a climate-related disaster, governments struggle to finance relief and recovery efforts and maintain essential government services. Disaster response can be delayed for several months as humanitarian aid trickles in, which results in even higher human and economic costs (Goes and Skees, 2003).Risk transfer approaches such as insurance have played a role in mitigating climate risk in many parts of the world. However, they have generally not been available in developing countries, where insurance markets are limited if they exist at all, and are not oriented towards the poor. A new type of insuranceindex insurance -offers new opportunities for managing climate risk in developing countries. If designed and introduced carefully, it has the potential to contribute significantly to sustainable development, by addressing a gap in the existing climate risk management portfolio. However, this potential has yet to be proven; and there are some significant challenges that must first be addressed. Index insurance can be applied across a diverse range of weather-related risk problems, from loss of crops due to drought, to loss of livestock in harsh winter conditions, to losses resulting from hurricanes. It can be purchased at different levels of society -at 'micro-level' by small-scale farmers, at 'meso-level' by input suppliers or banks, or at 'macro-level' by governments, for example. It is not a 'cure-all' and will be inappropriate in many situations; but it may be a useful option in many others. As awareness and knowledge of this new tool increase, and if the challenges described in this publication can be overcome, index insurance could become widely available as an additional option for those facing a weather risk. Climate risk is not a new phenomenon, and climate risk management (CRM) in the broad sense has long been practised. Farmers anticipate the rains, using various indicators, and time their planting and inputs based on their best estimates; they install irrigation systems if they can; and they reduce risk exposure by diversifying their livelihoods as far as possible (Dercon, 1996;Ellis, 2000). Scientists have also sought ways to help manage the risk that climate presents. Agricultural research has developed crop varieties that are drought tolerant, for example, and soil management practices that increase soil moisture-holding capacity. Weather forecasts have been a major advance in helping people plan appropriately.In recent years, advances in climate science have catalyzed the development of new CRM practices. The improved use of climate information in planning and resource management has contributed to robust advances in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation (Meza et al., 2008;IFRC, 2008). The first publication in the Climate and Society series describes and analyses some examples of CRM in Africa (Hellmuth et al., 2007). Index insurance is proposed as a new CRM tool that may help people cope with current weather-related risks and, if designed properly, perhaps also future risks associated with climate change. Depending on their circumstances, people have a variety of risk management mechanisms available to them. Index insurance will not replace these options, but should find a role alongside them. It could fill the gap that occurs in the current portfolio of coping mechanisms when these break down in the face of a weather shock.Index insurance is insurance that is linked to an index, such as rainfall, temperature, humidity or crop yields, rather than actual loss. This approach solves some of the problems that limit the application of traditional crop insurance in rural parts of developing countries. One key advantage is that the transaction costs are lower. In theory at least, this makes index insurance financially viable for private-sector insurers and affordable to small farmers. Another important advantage is that index insurance is subject to less adverse selection and moral hazard than traditional insurance. 1   An example of index insurance, and the most common application in developing countries so far, is the use of an index of rainfall totals to insure against droughtrelated crop loss. Payouts occur when rainfall totals over an agreed period are below an agreed threshold that can be expected to result in crop loss. Unlike with traditional crop insurance, the insurance company does not need to visit farmers' fields to assess losses and determine payouts. Instead, it uses data from rain gauges near the farmer's field. If these data show the rainfall amount is below the threshold, the insurance pays out.As well as reducing costs, this means that payouts can be made quickly -a feature that reduces or avoids distress sales of assets. This process also removes moral hazards such as the 'perverse incentives' of crop insurance, where under certain conditions farmers may actually prefer their crops to fail so that they receive a payout. With index insurance, the payout is not linked to the crop's survival or failure, so the farmer still has incentives to make the best decisions. Another feature that reduces moral hazard is that index insurance 1 Adverse selection occurs when potential borrowers or insurees have hidden information about their risk exposure that is not available to the lender or insurer, who then becomes more likely to erroneously assess the risk of the borrower or insuree. Moral hazard occurs when individuals engage in hidden activities that increase their exposure to risk as a result of borrowing or purchasing insurance. These hidden activities can leave the lender or insurer exposed to higher levels of risk than had been anticipated when interest or premium rates were established.uses objective, publicly available data, so individuals are unable to distort a situation to their benefit.Rapid payouts are the major advantage of index insurance when this is used as a disaster management tool. Again, time-consuming loss assessments are not needed, as payouts are based on objective data. With index insurance in place, governments and relief agencies can plan ahead of crises, knowing that funds will be available when they need them. Planning is also facilitated because governments and relief agencies can track the index and prepare an early response.But several critical components need careful attention if index insurance is to be workable. Index insurance is new, and can be difficult for stakeholders to understand -time and resources must be invested in explaining how it works. It depends on the availability and reliability of quality data, which is a significant challenge in most developing countries.But perhaps most importantly, index insurance is vulnerable to basis risk. Simply put, basis risk is when insurance payouts do not match actual losses -either there are losses but no payout, or a payout is triggered even though there are no losses. Obviously, if either of these situations occurs too frequently, the insurance scheme will not be viable, and may even damage livelihoods (Skees, 2008). The contract design, and in particular the selection of an appropriate index, is crucially important in minimizing basis risk. Other factors that have implications for basis risk are proximity of the insured crop to a weather station, and availability of climate data (Carriquiry and Osgood, 2008).The potential of index insurance has been demonstrated by a number of projects in various developing countries. A selection of these projects, representing different regions of the world and different applications of index insurance, are presented as case studies in this publication.Index insurance is just one of a number of related index-based financial risk transfer products that work on the same principles (for details of others, see Skees et al., 2008b). In this publication, the term index insurance is used loosely to include the range of products.Some of the case studies, for example, use other related products such as weather derivatives, but for ease of reading we call them all index insurance. The reader should bear in mind that much of the discussion is relevant to the broader range of products. Also, the discussion refers mainly to index insurance for crop failure due to drought, since this is the most common application so far; but much of it is also relevant to applications beyond drought and crop failure.Index insurance may be able to help people manage the weather risk that is partially responsible for keeping them in poverty traps.Poor people are not only at direct risk from extreme weather events, but even without bad weather they are at a disadvantage because the risk blocks their opportunities. Lenders, for example, may not extend credit to them. They are therefore unable to invest in inputs that would improve productivity in good-weather years. Evidence suggests that farmers often sacrifice 10-20% of income when using traditional risk management strategies (Gautam et al., 1994). But if they can take out insurance, either individually or collectively (by farmer associations, for example), the picture may change. When lenders know that borrowers are covered by insurance, they may be more likely to extend credit to them. Farmers may then choose to make investments that may raise their productivity. If the weather is bad and crops fail, the insurance will pay out and, as a Malawian farmer put it, \"I do not have to worry about paying back loans in addition to looking for food to feed my family\" (Hellmuth et al., 2007). This insurance can be sold either at the micro-level -to individual farmers or households, or at the meso-levelto banks or cooperatives for example.Many of the case studies illustrate this use of index insurance (Tables 1 and 2). 'Unlocking development potential in Malawi', on page 13, is a good example. Malawi is one of Africa's poorest countries, with the majority of its workforce engaged in smallholder farming. Crops are mostly rainfed, and drought is an ever-present risk. These farmers have little or no access to formal financial credit to buy agricultural inputs, because the chance of them defaulting on loans is high (although, Several pilot projects have been exploring the use of index insurance as part of the disaster risk management portfolios of governments and relief agencies (Tables 1 and 2). Disaster risk reduction emphasizes preparedness ahead of disasters, in order to limit the lives, livelihoods and assets lost. Governments and relief agencies, which usually bear the costs of responding to large-scale disasters, have taken -but may be forced to sell them to survive a crisis, and then find themselves without the means to earn a living once the crisis is over (Baulch and Hoddinott, 2000;Barrett et al., 2001;McPeak and Barrett, 2001). Here, insurance is designed to enable prompt disaster response, allowing people to hold on to their assets and quickly recover after the crisis.  period 1994-2004) between losses that would have been covered by the index and the number of food aid beneficiaries. As this type of project proceeds, it will be valuable to substantiate this correlation with direct measurements of crop yields and beneficiary livelihoods (WFP, 2007).There is much debate about the implications of climate change for index insurance, centered around the following three questions. Index insurance is a tool that could be added to the existing portfolio of CRM options; Jason Hartell/GlobalAgRisk  Case studies I Maize suffers from significant price volatility and fragmented marketing, so farmer loans are generally not available for maize inputs alone without some other collateral for the lender.By combining a loan (and weather insurance)for maize with a loan for a cash crop covered by insurance, lenders felt comfortable that the profits from the cash crop could be used to repay the loan for maize if necessary.These pilots stimulated interest among banks, financiers and supply chain participants such as processing and trading companies and input suppliers. However, they also demonstrated that other risks within the supply chain can have a serious impact on loan recovery rates and on the sustainability of the supply chain itself, threatening the viability of a stand-alone index insurance scheme. For example, during The groundnut pilot revealed that problems related to production, marketing and sales can undermine credit repayment and hence the effectiveness of the insurance policy. To make insurance viable for this sector, complementary investments are necessary to strengthen contractual relationships. These will likely feature additional flows of resources, improved farmer advice and oversight, and better links between input provision and commodity sale. Efforts to reduce side-marketing will also be important. The Ethiopia Drought Index (EDI) was developed using historical rainfall data from the national meteorological agency, and a crop-water balance model. The index had an 80% correlation with the number of food aid beneficiaries from 1994 to 2004, indicating that it is a good proxy for human need when drought strikes.As the 2006 agricultural season progressed, rainfall was monitored daily at 26 weather stations across the country. Extension officers in the field reported that the index effectively tracked rains and crop growth during the 2006 season; at the same time, areas where the index and approach could be improved were noted. Remote sensing of rainfall was used to ensure that there was no tampering with station-based rainfall data.The EDI value at the end of the contract period, 31 October 2006, was well below the US$55 million trigger level, so there was no payout (see figure). Some basis risk was evident within the contract. Standard Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS-NET) sowing periods were used to calibrate the 2006 model, but these did not always correspond with actual farming practices. For example, the traditional cereal teff, used to make bread and for forage, was sown later than modeled.In some cases it experienced water stress because the rains ended early, but according to the model the crop had already been harvested and was not shown to be affected. Scaling up index insurance: The contract Scaling up index insurance presents many challenges. This section focuses on the issues surrounding the design of insurance contracts -issues that must be addressed if large-scale implementation is to be feasible. Getting the contract 'right' is critical -but there is no shortcut to doing this. What is largely an experimental product will require a great deal of adaptation and validation to meet the diverse applications and objectives that many expect of it.Expectations are high for index insurance -perhaps unrealistically so. For social protection and disaster management purposes, identification of key risks is somewhat easier. Major threats to lives and livelihoods at the local, regional and national scales are well known and are already the focus of national disaster management efforts.Thus identifying the risk falls upon the disaster management system.In most of the farmer-level case studies, the task of identifying the risk and choosing the index has been addressed in part through a participatory stakeholder process.Agricultural systems modeling was first developed in the 1960s and 1970s to help understand interactions between the environment and crop and livestock systems. It has evolved so that today very complex systems can be modeled. Indeed, systems modeling is not limited to biological processes but can also look at climate and livelihood systems, for example. These models can be used to produce indices that better correlate with crop production than simple rainfall indices. This is because models better reflect the 'real-life' situation, where yields depend not simply on the amount of rain but on interactions between the weather, soil-water-nutrient dynamics, crop management and crop physiology. Better correlation reduces basis risk, making these models attractive for index insurance contract designers. Accuracy can be improved by incorporating remote sensing of vegetation conditions or soil surface moisture into modeling. Agricultural systems modeling offers an array of tools of varying complexity, from simple water balance models such as the FAO Water Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI) to sophisticated processbased models such as the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) suite.There are a few examples of agricultural systems models being used in index insurance. The Agriculture Insurance Company of India (AIC) used the INFOCROP model developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) to model weather-yield relationships and design weather indices for different crops and locations in 2007-08 (see 'Scaling up in India: The public sector' on page 87). WRSI-related products have been used as indices in the Ethiopian government's disaster relief contract as well as some of the Millennium Villages Project (MVP) contracts. WRSI is based on a relatively simple model that predicts water-limited crop yields by looking at evapotranspiration (actual and potential) against crop sensitivity during the different growth stages. The WRSI is essentially a rainfall index, but one that also takes account of how crops respond to rainfall. At the other end of the complexity spectrum, an index insurance product based on DSSAT yield predictions has been used for maize production in southern Georgia, USA (Deng et al., 2008).Agricultural systems modeling can also be useful in modeling the linkages between the index and the risk, as well as in understanding the role insurance might play among the suite of risk management options. Another use is to demonstrate the potential benefits of index insurance by modeling how improved access to resources such as fertilizer might impact production and income. Models can also estimate optimum levels of inputs to production systems, and hence levels of credit (or inputs) that might be usefully bundled with insurance. Finally, models can help to understand how seasonal forecasts may affect index insurance and agricultural management decisions (see box 'Seasonal forecasts' on page 35).As with any tool, agricultural systems modeling is not a panacea, and it will produce unreliable results if used inappropriately. It is important not only to validate the model with past outcomes but also to physically verify the predictive capacity of the model during implementation. When considering use of a crop or forage model as the basis for an index, one should understand its capabilities and limitations, and also understand the system being modeled, consider the levels of accuracy needed, evaluate model performance for the given application, and ensure that calibration is performed if needed, ideally by an independent technical institution. Discussion of model assumptions and outputs with farmers and local experts can be very valuable in this process. For example, in Tanzania it was found through validation with stakeholders that the most vulnerable period for maize occurred a few weeks later than had been modeled. If the climate and agricultural knowledge of farmers and local experts had not been included, this could have led to contracts with a high level of basis risk. Closing the loop through responsible agricultural systems modeling and communications yielded a much improved product.Adapted from Baethgen et al. (2008).with stakeholders, allowing for feedback on critical issues, particularly trade-offs such as how much (if any) of the premium should be dedicated to addressing competing risks, or between payout size and payout frequency.Experimental approaches are being explored as possible methodologies for index selection.In Kenya, Malawi and Ethiopia, farmers have played games based on index contracts, using real money. The farmers select between the alternative versions of the index contract being considered by designers, under simulated weather conditions and events. During the game, the farmers are asked questions about how similar the game is to their own experiences, to quantify agreement and mismatches between farmer experience and other information sources (Patt et al., 2008).For scale-up, methodologies will need to be established to perform this time-intensive exercise more systematically and efficiently.The tailored approach to identifying and quantifying the risk has been effective in pilot projects but was at times very costly (see 'Participation: Key to farmer uptake?'). It is critical that efforts continue to streamline these procedures, relying more on local champions, to build more replicable indices.The challenge is to balance efforts to lower the costs of scaling with the need for reliable and effective contracts.Once a contract period has begun, the parameter indexed needs to be measured, with data that are reliable and tamper proof. Measurements need to be made close to the insured location so that they accurately reflect weather events at that location. With pilots, these requirements have been relatively easy to meet; with larger scale projects it is a different matter. Ultimately, scaling up of index insurance for poverty reduction and development will depend on a large number of farmers choosing to take up the insurance. This must be an informed choice based on a clear understanding of the insurance -what it covers, what it does not cover, and what it offers vis-à-vis other risk management options. This is no simple matter. Index insurance is new and can be complex, and farmers (as well as other stakeholders) have a difficult time understanding it. Farmer decision making is also not a simple process. The concern is that farmers may, for these reasons, make a decision that is against their own interests and miss an opportunity to reduce the risks they face.Participation may be the key. By involving the potential beneficiaries of index insurance projects in design and implementation, it is hoped that their input and assistance will both improve the design and create greater support for the project within the target communities. The interactions during these stages should also enhance trust in the project and among its participants.All of the pilot projects invested a great deal of time in interaction between stakeholders. This has been a twoway process, helping implementers to understand the needs of farmers as well as helping farmers to understand the insurance and its potential benefits. At the same time, alongside some of the pilots, there has been research into farmer decision making. This has yielded some interesting and sometimes unexpected results, which have implications for scaling up.Both economic and non-economic factors play a role in decisions whether to buy insurance. From an economic perspective, researchers found that farmers did not always make the 'obvious' choice -the one that would be most likely to benefit them economically in the long run. Instead, the decision depended on factors such as the cost of the premium, the timing of the premium and the payouts, and the bundling of the insurance with other inputs in a loan package. In Ethiopia, for example, farmers explained that they only had cash available to pay the premium just after the harvest, so efforts to sell premiums to them at other times would likely fail. Farmers in both Ethiopia and Malawi Many factors influence farmer decision-making; Eric Holthaus/IRI automated. To make the insurance product workable, insured farmers must usually be located close to such stations. However, it is a fact that there is a shortage of these stations, particularly in the regions of the world where index insurance might prove most useful for development and disaster relief. This needs to be addressed as a fundamental constraint to scale-up.Projects in India and Mexico came up against a shortage of weather stations as they began to scale up (see 'Insurance for contract farming in India' and 'Disaster relief in Mexico', on pages 47 and 49). Both have addressed this problem by building new private stations. In India, some 1200 new stations have so far been set up, by private and public companies. In Mexico, Fundación Produce is building some 764 automated stations. Alongside the urgent need to expand the network of weather stations, whether through public or private sector efforts, capacity building and resources to manage both the stations and the data are also required.Insurance Facility (CCRIF) is currently investigating the feasibility of including confirmed that it was important for them to receive payouts at roughly the same time that cash from crop sales would have materialized, as they had arranged their financial commitments around this period.But researchers also found that non-economic factors often override economic considerations. Investigations in Malawi, Ethiopia and India all show trust to be a crucial factor in guiding people's decisions over insurance -trust in the product itself, and in the organizations involved in selling and managing it. People are more likely to buy insurance if they see other members of their community buying it; and their own prior experience with insurance is most important of all. In particular, this translates into willingness to buy if there has been experience of a payout.There are many other factors that influence decision making, some at the individual or household level, for example a potential customer's perception of risk and degree of risk aversion. All of these factors will be very relevant in efforts to scale up index insurance. Indeed, the researchers who investigated decision making in the pilot studies strongly recommend that similar levels of interaction are included as projects are scaled up and out. They believe that participation has a crucial role in developing trust in the institutions involved, in the product, and also in the clients' own decisions to purchase the insurance -and without this trust there may not be sufficient uptake. Of course, a balance must be established between the level of interaction and the cost of interaction at large scales.The same researchers also stress the importance of regulation, by the government, international bodies and the insurance industry itself. Regulation needs to ensure that contracts are fair, that they are accompanied by transparent information, and that claims will be paid promptly. It is crucial that the commercial actors in index insurance markets are honest players, and that their actions contribute to trust in the product, rather than destroying trust. A single bad example could, the researchers say, set index insurance development back by many years.Adapted from Patt et al. (2008). Data from satellites can be used in index insurance as an alternative or a supplement to ground-collected data. These remotely sensed data have several advantages. Data are independent and tamper-proof, for example, and are available across large areas of the Earth and in near real-time. They, and their derived products, are easily available via the internet. However, the data are not direct measures but proxy measures of, for example, rainfall or vegetation. This means they come with a level of uncertainty. The majority of data from satellites is relatively 'coarse' , i.e. low quality and low resolution; the satellites with highest resolution often do not have global coverage and are usually very new. And many satellites are deployed for temporary research projects, so collection of long-term data may not be part of their program. Given these caveats, there is a great deal of promise in remote sensing if effort is taken to research, validate and improve products. Remotely sensed data may be particularly useful coupled with other types of information; and offer a valuable fallback option when a ground-based observation station fails during the contract period.There are two main ways of estimating rainfall from satellites. One uses thermal infra-red imaging to look at storm clouds and their height. The assumption is that more rain falls from storm clouds with deeper vertical extent. The height is related to the temperature of the top of the cloud, which is obtained from the infra-red images. The colder the temperature, the higher the cloud top. Rainfall is estimated based on the length of time the cloud top is below a certain temperature.Passive microwave measurement offers an alternative way of estimating rainfall. The sensors measure actual rainy areas rather than clouds, making this a more accurate method. However, these sensors are not currently available on geosynchronous satellites, so fewer data are available (in both time and space). (Geosynchronous satellites have orbits that match the earth's rotation, keeping them above the same spot on the earth all the time.)Data from these two approaches may be merged to combine the better rainfall identification of the passive microwave method with the better sampling of data from the thermal infra-red images. These data can also be blended with rain gauge data to further improve accuracy.Remotely sensed rainfall data are potentially very useful where there are limited rain gauge data, because of few weather stations or uneven distribution of gauges, for example. This is often the case in rural parts of developing countries -which are precisely the areas that index insurance is targeting with development objectives. However, the level of uncertainty with these data is high, and they often fail to adequately reflect the actual amount of rainfall. Thermal infra-red sensors do not allow for variation in rainfall intensity under the clouds; rain may fall from lower clouds, for example near coasts or in mountainous areas; and cirrus clouds may incorrectly indicate rainfall because of their height, whereas in fact they are not deep enough for rainfall to develop. Passive microwave limitations are mainly due to background emission from the land surface, which varies for different vegetation and soil water content, as well as to the relatively few data available, including historical data.There are ongoing efforts to extend and enhance archived satellite rainfall data to produce useful time series. Other plans for the future include a satellite mission with advanced passive microwave and radar instruments, which should greatly improve satellite rainfall estimation (the Global Precipitation Measurement Mission, http://gpm.gsfc.nasa.gov/). Adapted from Dinku et al. (2008).The vegetation measure that is most commonly used for index insurance is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (although new, improved vegetation measures are on the way). The NDVI is derived from satellite measures of 'greenness' , which reflect the level of photosynthesis in the vegetation on the ground. Higher values of NDVI indicate greater vigor and amounts of vegetation, and index insurance contracts generally insure against a decline in NDVI over an area, which would usually be due to drought.The assumption with NDVI is that crop (or forage) production correlates with remotely measured vegetation vigor over a given area and over time. This usually works well for forage, but is less straightforward with food crops such as maize, soybean and wheat. Here, final crop yield (seed production) is affected by factors such as nutrient availability or water stress during critical growth stages, which may not be reflected in average 'greenness' .Nonetheless, NDVI has been piloted for index insurance in different parts of the world, with some success. In the USA, where crops are grown on a large and uniform scale which enhances the NDVI correlation, the Vegetation Index Plan of Insurance is being trialed for pasture, rangeland and forage (http://www.rma.usda.gov/policies/ pasturerangeforage). The Millennium Villages Project (MVP) has developed index insurance using NDVI combined with a rainfall index to insure against maize losses.Where crops are mixed with natural vegetation, such as over much of Africa, monitoring crop status with the NDVI is more of a challenge. In this case, NDVI is often not used to measure yields directly, but rather to detect a drought that would cause losses. The MVP index used the average NDVI over a large region to detect the browning of natural vegetation during times of year when a lack of rainfall would severely damage crops.Many NDVI products are now available through the internet. Some datasets extend from the early 1980s, providing very useful time series. Reprocessing of older data has improved resolution, while sensors with ever higher spatial resolution are also becoming available -currently down to 10 meters, allowing the identification of very precise areas with pasture or crop problems. The US Department of Agriculture is also developing an NDVI product with 9-hour latency and 500-meter resolution, which will enable rapid analysis of crop conditions.Adapted from Ceccato et al. (2008).The HARITA project in Ethiopia is using satellite data to complement ground data (see page 44); Google, LeadDog Consulting, MapData, TerraMetrics; prepared by Daniel Osgood and Chris Small/IRI and up to 50 km for products based on temperature and humidity; but analysis is lacking on how to establish such distances.Again, the implication is a need not only for more weather stations but also for improved understanding of the differences in climate between locations and across regions.Remote sensing may have a role here too, to give a sense of the magnitude of these differences.The vulnerability of an index to spatial basis risk also depends on the index itself as well as the risk being targeted. Because of the nature of drought, for example, it is often relatively easy to develop indices for this risk that are robust. Since drought is a phenomenon that builds slowly over time, differences in daily rainfall between locations are often not critical; instead it is the longer term total which is important. The problem can be much more challenging for excess rainfall, flood, wind or frost insurance, in which a single highly localized event may drive the bulk of the loss. Where these risks must be dealt with in the course of scaling up, research is needed to quantify them in more detail. For a discussion of index insurance applications and challenges in water resources applications, see ' Applications for reservoir and flood management' on page 31, and 'Vietnam:Flood insurance in the Mekong Delta' on page 59. These challenges are particularly great for farmer-level projects. For disaster relief projects, contracts can be designed to pay out when large aggregate losses are likely to occur so that relief efforts can be financed without having to determine exactly where the losses occur.Getting the index 'right' depends on a solid understanding of the probabilities associated with a given risk. This typically depends on long datasets of acceptable quality, which enable the likelihood of an extreme event, the level of vulnerability and exposure, and the losses incurred to be reliably estimated. A key scale-up issue is the limited availability of data, both historical and current; and ways to circumvent this lack of data.One common approach, known to insurance designers as 'historical burning cost analysis', is extremely transparent and can be easily communicated to stakeholders. For this analysis, the probability distribution of the indexed parameter is calculated entirely by observing past measurements. For example, for a rainfall index, the past several decades of rain gauge data are used to represent the set of possible rainfall events. These are then used to calculate possible payouts. Although useful, when applied without other analyses this approach has significant limitations. For example, one or two major events can distort the probabilities, while any event that has not happened in the historical record is not considered.Because of the limitations of historical burn analysis, it is typically complimented with rainfall modeling and simulation (see 'Rainfall simulation', page 34). Using data that Applications for reservoir and flood management Index insurance has so far mostly been used to insure against drought, but it has promise beyond this. Its application to water resources, particularly reservoir and flood management, is attracting interest as an alternative or complementary strategy to traditional methods.Reservoir index insurance can help smooth costs associated with shared demands on limited water resources. Where urban needs compete with irrigated agriculture, for example, payouts to farmers in dry years would compensate their losses. Experts envisage a combination of insurance, forecasting and adaptive operation strategies as the way forward -though they emphasize that success depends on water managers being open to new ways of working. Progress also depends on the development of effective indices, which is a significant challenge. Reservoir inflows have been used, but are susceptible to basis risk where there may be diversions upstream.After drought, floods are the next biggest threat to agriculture -does index insurance have a role in managing flood risk? Work is still experimental, and flood is clearly more problematic than drought to link accurately to an index, but there is some potential.Disasters arising from floods may also be managed using index insurance, with the same advantages -rapid payouts, not dependent on actual assessments of damage or destruction -as other disasters. Again, the challenge is to develop an appropriate and effective index.Southeast Asia has the highest number of people affected by flooding, and studies to investigate the feasibility of index insurance have been carried out in Thailand and Vietnam. The Thailand project examined farmer-level insurance, and concluded that it was unlikely to be workable. Frequent, localized flooding in the river valley would lead to the scheme attracting only high-risk farmers and would also lead to very high premiums. Results from Vietnam were more promising. Rather than targeting farmers, this project looked at the feasibility of 'business interruption insurance' , to be purchased by the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. The bank would lend money to rice farmers and would cover itself against losses in the event of flooding early in the growing season. This may be trialed in the near future, with a contract based on recorded water levels at a main river gauge station (see 'Vietnam: Flood insurance in the Mekong Delta' on page 59).These two studies provide some useful lessons for those working on the development of flood insurance. First, farmers do to some extent manage their own risk exposure to floods where these have some pattern. Insurance is only feasible for infrequent, unpredictable and widespread flooding. Second, there are significant technical issues that need to be addressed. Each floodplain is unique, and its specific characteristics need to be considered. Upstream development can affect flood events downstream, for example. Defining agricultural flood events requires a good understanding of various aspects of flooding -extent, duration, depth, etc -and their relationship to the different stages of crop growth. As a crop grows, the critical thresholds at which a flood event results in damage also change. This issue of timing makes modeling of flood risk for agriculture very challenging. However, remote sensing may be a useful tool here, enabling rapid and objective assessment of flood extent and duration, even at high resolution. Application of these technologies is most feasible for river inundation flood rather than flash flood events.Farmer-level flood insurance has additional technical challenges because of highly localized variation in flood exposure and the potential for anti-selection against the insurer. Flood index insurance aimed at intermediaries such as banks, or at governments, therefore seems more promising in the current data and technological environment than schemes directly targeting farmers. Risk management projects need to take a more holistic approach in working with intermediary clients like agricultural banks. It is important to understand the credit risk management methodology used by these institutions, specifically related to how natural disaster risks are currently treated and the broader policy environment in which they operate. A flood insurance product can complement and support more formal procedures for credit risk management such as interest or principal repayment scheduling.Flood risk mapping and remote sensing have additional applications. Notably, risk mapping can provide agricultural credit banks with an objective assessment of risks of default arising from such factors as flood timing and duration. Better mapping of flood risks, linked to geo-location of borrowing farmers, should enable banks to refine their lending policies and to plan risk transfer or loan rescheduling policy and pricing. It may support government departments in advising on farming practices, variety selection, etc. Further, detection of flooded areas using remote sensing can support objective ex-post compensation systems, where these exist. Although the data from these interviews are qualitative rather than quantitative and may have a great deal of inaccuracy, they do provide an additional source of information on historical events. Again, the issue for scaling up purposes is whether this level of interaction is necessary on a large scale, and whether it can be replicated in large-scale projects.Seasonal climate forecasts are relevant to index insurance because they may alter the probability of losses expected on the basis of other data (see 'Seasonal forecasts', page 35).There is a danger that seasonal forecasts might be used strategically by clients, undermining the financial stability of the products.However, if insurance contracts can integrate forecasts, the farmer can take advantage of the forecast while being insured against forecast inaccuracies. In theory, insurance contract and project designers could combine the use of forecasts with that of insurance to provide price incentives for conservative behaviorModels that simulate rainfall are very useful where there are limited actual rainfall data. Using the data that do exist, and an understanding of the variables that influence rainfall, the modeling software generates thousands of years of synthetic rainfall, which includes events that are possible but may not have occurred in the past. Thus, the use of rainfall simulators can lead to more robust contracts and pricing.Modeling also helps improve understanding of rainfall correlations between different locations within a region. This understanding has the potential to help insurers spread risks across areas (see page 36 and 'Spreading risk' on page 37). A third role for rainfall models is to incorporate seasonal forecasts, decadal trends, and climate change into index insurance contracts (see 'Seasonal forecasts' on page 35).There are different types of rainfall models, and they vary in complexity. Generalized linear models are the simplest, and have the advantage that they can account for climate change over long timescales. Nonhomogeneous hidden Markov models are useful because of their ability to reflect real scientific phenomena, such as regional atmospheric conditions. Nonparametric models have the advantage of more flexibly describing relationships between rainfall and other variables, because they do not rely on standard probability distributions. Finally, mechanistic models are a relatively new approach to rainfall modeling in which the occurrence and movement of rain storms and rain cells are modeled explicitly.The uncertainty inherent in rainfall simulations is reduced where more actual data are available and used to 'train' the model. Also, as understanding improves of the variables affecting rainfall, for example, El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) effects, models will become more reliable at predicting future rainfall.As with any tool, rainfall models and simulations have their limitations, particularly since they were not developed for index insurance design. They often under-represent the true variation in rainfall, leading to indices and prices that underestimate risk. They are also bad at representing seasonality, the beginning of a rainy season, the end of a rainy season, dry spells and other features that are usually of importance in crop losses and index payouts. Since these tools are often applied in pricing and design, research is needed to improve their performance for these types of rainfall features.Adapted from Shirley et al. (2008).in years with forecasts of bad weather, and for productive investments in years where such investments face low levels of risk (Osgood et al., 2008). However, a great deal of methodology must be developed before this combination can be implemented in practice.Similarly, long-term climate trends can also be built into index products -in theory.However, the current level of technology available for updating insurance probabilities and for distinguishing between short-term processes and long-term change are in their infancy and a great deal of work remains to be done to provide workable techniques for practical application.The price of insurance reflects the probabilities of payouts, which are in turn driven by the probabilities of adverse weather eventsForecasts of the weather for the season ahead are becoming increasingly skilful, particularly in some tropical regions, and this has implications for index insurance. On the one hand, forecasts could undermine insurance schemes as farmers might decide to insure only when the forecast is for a bad season. On the other, if insurance contracts can be designed to incorporate the seasonal forecast, this could enhance decision making in response to the forecast. For example, where a seasonal forecast predicts a wetter than normal season ahead, a farmer might take advantage of the likely good growing conditions by purchasing inputs -but at the same time use insurance to protect against the lesser likelihood of a drier than normal season. In this way index insurance can help manage the uncertainty inherent in probabilistic forecasts.The Malawi case study 'Unlocking development potential in Malawi' on page 13 helps to illustrate this. El Niño, La Niña and neutral years are identified using historical rainfall data, and insurance cost and size of the input loan are adjusted as if these had been forecast. Premiums decrease in La Niña years, when there is very little drought risk and farmers would have been able to cover a significantly larger loan. The figure shows how gross revenue can greatly increase due to these inputs in La Niña years. This is a very simple example, and seasonal forecasts have not yet been integrated into index insurance contracts in practice (although planned contracts on sea surface temperatures in Peru will put some of the key pieces in place). More work is needed to better understand the effects of a forecast on the insurance, and especially people's behavior in the light of a forecast. Tools are also needed to help design and price insurance that integrates a forecast. Climate forecast products that can be readily applied to insurance would also facilitate integration.Different strategies might be developed to address the issue of seasonal forecasts depending on the ability of clients to respond to the information in the forecasts. Where there is no potential to change activities in the light of a forecast, strategies include closing contract sales before forecasts are available, multiple-year contracts, or selling options on the right to purchase the insurance. But if farmers have the capacity to make better decisions based on the forecast it would be appropriate to integrate forecasts into contracts.Rainfall simulation methods offer a way of integrating forecasts into insurance contracts. Forecasts are treated as variables, and rainfall is simulated for different forecasts. Contract design optimization and pricing can then be based on these simulations.Agricultural systems modeling can be used to better understand how people might change their decisions in the light of a forecast. The assumption is that farmers would intensify production under anticipated favorable conditions and be more conservative under a forecast of adverse conditions. Models include additional farm-level factors that influence decision making, including farmers' goals, constraints and attitudes to risk. These models can help develop insurance packages that exploit forecasts to support farm management.Adapted from Robertson et al. (2008).Risk spreading by insurance (and reinsurance) companies makes index insurance more affordable. Scaling up will open up new risk-spreading opportunities, particularly as climate patterns and relationships across space and time become better understood. Risk spreading across space -geographic risk spreading -is feasible where complementary climate patterns have been identified in different regions. In Africa, for example, a dry season in the eastern region is often associated with a wetter season in the southern region, and vice versa. This observation is linked to the ENSO phenomenon -la Niña events are associated with lower rainfall in eastern Africa and higher rainfall in southern Africa, while during El Niño the reverse pattern is often seen.Insurance companies could take advantage of this pattern by developing programs that cover both regions: drought insurance contracts would be very unlikely to pay out simultaneously in both regions, thus reducing the company's risk exposure. Vicarelli (2008) illustrates the potential for premium savings through pooling of contracts from Malawi and Tanzania, while Hess and Syroka (2005) have estimated premium savings of 23% if the regions could be covered together in a single insurance portfolio.Risk spreading may be particularly relevant with climate change ahead. Much of the damage from climate change is expected to occur through extreme events, but it is unlikely that these events will simultaneously blanket the earth; rather, they will occur in some places in some years and other places in other years, driven by processes similar to those we observe today. The global climate can thus self-insure against the risks of extremes from climate change.From an institutional point of view, geographic risk spreading might translate into the development of largescale (national and multi-national) risk mitigation strategies as well as partnerships between national governments and the insurance and reinsurance sector.The Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF) is based on geographic risk spreading. Participating countries pool their country-specific risks into one, better diversified portfolio. Since natural disaster risks in any given year among the Caribbean islands are randomly distributed, the cost of coverage for the pooled portfolio is less than the sum of premiums that countries would have to pay individually for the same coverage. In practice, premiums are reduced by almost half (see 'Catastrophe risk insurance in the Caribbean' on page 52).Adapted from Vicarelli (2008). To arrive at index insurance products that make effective adaptation tools -ones that are not undermined by climate processes -it is essential to remember that climate is more than a long-term trend. Climate is a complex system of anthropogenic and natural processes operating at yearly, decadal and long-term timescales. If climate science and index insurance methodologies continue to improve, addressing the complete spectrum of climate processes, it is likely that index insurance can be robust to climate variability and change and hence a useful part of societies' adaptation toolbox.Today's insurance need not be built to cover a loss 100 years into the future. Instead, insurance addresses the coming year, and can therefore be adapted over time, improving as our understanding of climate improves. For a given year, short-term climate (and market) processes dominate, with long-term trends representing only a small fraction of the climate variability faced. However, over time, as the cumulative impacts of climate change start to materialize, they can be reflected in insurance in ways that incentivize gradual adaptation.Because the dynamics of climate vary from region to region, the implications of climate processes for index insurance will not be uniform over the globe. For example, for the Sahel in West Africa, medium-term climate processes are particularly strong -more than a quarter of the variation in measured rainfall is on a decadal timescale (Greene et al., 2008). In this region, it is especially important to build index insurance that is robust to decadal processes (Skees et al., 2008a). For Sahel index insurance contracts in the MVP, substantial work had to be done to explore decadal scale insurance adaptation algorithms.For the index insurance contracts in Nicaragua, the picture is different. The past 40 years of data do not suggest any trend in rainfall (Osgood et al., 2009). However, climate predictions by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that in Nicaragua there could be strong drying trends due to climate change. The figure below presents the individual IPCC models (light lines) as well as their average (heavy line) for this region. It can be seen that, over the next decade or so, the models provide little evidence of a drying trend. However, over the next 100 years, most (but not all) of the models predict a slow reduction in rainfall, roughly 0.25% per year.Nicaragua illustrates that the timing of these processes must be taken into account when developing insurance contracts. In the near future, climate change is unlikely to affect the probability of a drought. For approximately the next decade, the yearly price of insurance can therefore be expected to be driven by year-to-year variability, because that is the climate risk faced. During this period, farmers should be able to use insurance to safeguard investments that increase their productivity. This should help them build wealth and acquire the assets needed to allow them to shift into other livelihoods if this becomes necessary. In the further future, the probability of drought increases slightly each year. As this trend unfolds, the price of the insurance should gradually increase. Over time, the cumulative rise could incentivize improvements in farming systems or a gradual transition to other livelihood activities.For the projects in Ethiopia, the climate picture again looks different. IPCC predictions show little evidence of any trend in precipitation (see figure). If anything, the models suggest increases in rainfall. In contrast to the models, over the past decade, there are some sites in Ethiopia where the instrumental record shows decreased rainfall. This is the case for Adi Ha, where the Oxfam-led pilot is located. Here the observed trend, a decline of about 1% per year, is strong enough to have increased the insurance price.The difference between observations and IPCC predictions is being debated by climate scientists as they work to understand what is likely to occur in the future, what is due to climate change and what is driven by other processes (Funk et al., 2005). Many scientists argue that the drying observed is not due to long-term climate change but is a decadal process. Research on this issue has fundamental implications for the design of index insurance and for the broader policy environment. If the drying is due to climate change, it could signal the importance of an eventual transition out of the insured activities, or of fundamental changes that enable these activities to be viable with less rainfall. In addition, if the drying is driven by greenhouse gas emissions, the burden faced by the farmers is directly due to those emitting the gases. However, if the drying is part of a decadal cycle, it will be more important for contracts to be built into climate risk strategies that protect against alternating decadal periods of drought and high rainfall.Temperature is an additional, complicating element. There is a consensus that climate change will lead to higher temperatures in Ethiopia, as in much of sub-Saharan Africa. This anthropogenic temperature increase will increase the water needs of crops, leading to more severe and more frequent water stress. However, higher temperatures could also lead to higher yields in years with large amounts of rainfall. Thus, on top of any impacts climate change has on rainfall, its temperature impacts are likely to increase the variability faced by farmers and hence also increase the value of insurance.Although science does not yet provide us with definitive answers to these questions, what is currently known is revealing important issues for index insurance design. Substantial effort needs to be put into advancing climate science and index insurance methods, so that these can keep pace with climate change.Adapted from Greene et al. (2008). showed that, while take-up rates had been high overall, the unsubsidized premiums to be paid up-front led to low amounts of insurance bought by the BASIX microfinance and livelihoods group, farmers and self-help groups. Thus, behavior and investment patterns did not change much. The survey also found that trust in BASIX as well as education levels mattered a great deal for the buying decision, whereas risk aversion did not matter much (Giné et al., 2006).Studies of this kind will be essential in the future, to support scale-up.Malawi   greater economic value, so a country's capital and major economic centers will have a greater weight than undeveloped rural areas. This is so that the index acts as a good proxy for actual losses to governments.Measurements are objective and transparent. For earthquakes, data from the global seismic data centre of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are used to determine the level of shaking at the measuring points. Wind speed measurements are calculated using information published by the US National Hurricane Center (the WMO's regional reporting agency for tropical cyclones), and modeled using simplified wind models. When a trigger event occurs a preliminary calculation is made immediately after the event, but the final calculation is made 14 days later, to ensure that the best information is available from the reporting agencies. The payment for any given event is made based on a sliding scale relative to the scale of the loss. The limit of total payments to a country in a policy year is agreed with each country individually, although no country can purchase coverage worth more than US$100 million per hazard.In the first year that the CCRIF was opera-  In keeping with the aim to ensure project sustainability, it was specified that payouts from this scheme would be used to support core development interventions, such as subsidizing a school feeding program which provides a market for local farmers and encourages primary school attendance.Insurance payouts would also provide resources to replace agricultural inputs, which the project subsidizes for the local community.Thus this product aims to keep people from falling back into the poverty traps the project is working to remove.The result is a unique development innovation. For the first time, a major development project has insured itself against a major climate risk -drought -which was identified by project participants as most likely to affect the project's achievement of its objectives.Equally as innovative, the project is working with insurance experts at Swiss Re to explore a combination index based on vegetative remote sensing and local rain gauges. The remote sensing component is used to diagnose large-scale regional drought, while data from rain gauges identifies more localized drought.The index was designed to indicate moderate to catastrophic drought events, which recur This large coverage area allowed the index to capture regional climate trends, which are more coherent than trends at smaller spatial scales. Research conducted by IRI showed that, for many of the MVP locations, when native vegetation shows signs of stress at this spatial scale, crop yields are typically greatly reduced.To make the index still more robust, local rain gauge data were added in those locations which are less spatially coherent (such as humid forest, mountains and coastal ecosystems). These data were then weighted with the regional scale vegetation data to provide a greater sense of local climate variability. Early flooding remains a risk despite infrastructure improvements, as confirmed through flood risk modeling and mapping which incorporates these improvements.The financial strain on farmers from early flooding often translates into loan repayment difficulties. As a result, VBARD is exposed to significant direct and opportunity costs, or 'business interruption loss'.The prototype index insurance contract, designed to offset these early flood-induced business interruption losses, is underwritten against recorded water levels. This is similar to weather index insurance using weather measurements at meteorological stations, but using river gauge data as a proxy for flood damage. The flood event index is calculated as the maximum 3-day moving average of daily water levels at the Tan Chau station during the period of cover, 20 June to 15 July.Indemnities are paid for each centimeter of water once the river level index reaches the 2.8 meter threshold, with maximum payout occurring when the index reaches 3.5 meters.Early flooding that exceeds 2.8 meters is empirically estimated to occur approximately 1 in 7 years, a recurrence rate that represents a commercially insurable risk.The product was fully priced and loaded by a domestic insurance company, Bao Minh Insurance Corporation, which then sought and obtained reinsurance against its exposure from the international company Paris Re.No subsidies were involved in the price for Scaling up index insurance: Operational issues demand for index insurance products, local ownership of products, legal and regulatory issues, and the complex question of subsidies.Demand for index insurance is the most fundamental issue confronting scaling up efforts.For a product to be successful it must be worthwhile, address an important risk to the clients and basis risk must not be too high.Index insurance is not a viable proposition in all situations. Also, it is essential that client The insurance must be affordable. Index insurance should not be used to insure against high frequency risks with big losses, since the pure risk cost is likely to be too high. The cost must also be competitive with the alternatives for managing the risk.where weather is one of the major risks confronting households, banks or relief agencies.In many cases market risks may be greater for farmers and bankers, while the risk of war or conflict may be greater for relief agencies.When projects seek to address the needs of the poor, it is essential that local partners have strong ownership from the outset. Thus, the starting point in developing weather insurance markets is often to lay the knowledge foundations.It can be challenging to find good contract designers at the international level -such people must combine mathematical skills with a knowledge of climate science and experience with agro-meteorological models. At the local level, this challenge is even greater.In addition to specialized index design skills, local partners need insurance selling skills. When eligible people obtain vouchers they would also be able to register their residence and leave their cell phone number to receive localized early warnings as well as payment notifications (Hess and Portegies, 2009). The public sector' on page 87).Measurements must be reliable, timely and resistant to tampering, with fallback options formally specified when there are data problems. Capacity building may be needed to ensure that these criteria are met. And local meteorological stations and the national meteorological service must be included in the list of national partners needing to take ownership of index insurance projects. This can be difficult to achieve where already overstretched national services do not see the project as a priority. Data issues are discussed in detail in the previous section.The importance of trust is a theme running through all the pilots. The glue that binds In general, regulators have two primary responsibilities. First, they must protect the consumer from any form of misconduct that can emerge when this new form of insurance is developed and sold. Second, they must protect the insurance provider from the financial exposure that can follow when offering insurance against events that have highly correlated losses, requiring many payouts in the same year (Skees and Collier, 2008). By doing the latter, the regulator is also ensuring that the consumer will be paid when he or The underlying value can be an asset, an index (e.g. interest rates or exchange rates), weather conditions or other items. The option taken depends on the application.For programs aiming at development, insurance is the preferred classification as it is simpler to regulate. This is because the regulatory framework for insurance is well suited to protect the interests of a large number of smaller clients, with regulations focused not only on honoring contracts, but also guaranteeing protection against losses. It is also a widely accepted financial instrument, often with existing delivery chains that currently reach intended clients.Derivatives are more common as negotiated deals between two large entities, each with a substantial capacity for analysis. Because of this, disaster relief contracts are typically transacted as derivatives.The laws of most countries require that, to be considered insurance, a risk transfer product must have certain key characteristics.The two characteristics that offer the greatest challenge for an index-based product are:(i) an insurance contract must indemnify or compensate the insured for loss sustained due to the occurrence of the insured risk;and (ii) the insured must have an insurable interest in the subject insured. If the index is a sufficiently good proxy for the loss, there is a clear link between loss and payout and the first condition can be satisfied. Although there may be some basis risk, this is also the case for traditional insurance products, even where the loss is assessed by a loss adjuster (Barnett et al., 2005). In some cases, framing the index insurance product as a form of business interruption insurance also eases the regulator's concerns about basis risk, by allowing the insurance to target risks it can cover more transparently. The second condition is less of a challenge when products are developed with exposed users in mind as it is relatively easy to make the case that the insured has an insurable interest. In some cases, limits may be needed on the sum insured, so as to ease the regulator's concerns that users might take on larger financial commitments due to the availability of insurance and thereby increase their risk exposure rather than reduce it. The second condition can make it challenging to offer insurance to laborers or merchants who do not own cropland but who are impacted by the crop losses of others.Regulators should be involved from the beginning of the product development process, as specific aspects of the contract design may determine whether or not it meets regulatory conditions. Likewise, if contingent capital is required, potential reinsurers should be involved in contract design to make sure that the risk can be transferred into reinsurance markets.Issues surrounding subsidies are very different for the two major kinds of applicationdisaster relief and development. Since disaster relief programs are themselves funded by subsidies, the insurance is simply a financing mechanism to make more effective use of these subsidies. Responsibility for addressing the subsidy-related problems of distortions, delivery issues and perverse incentives falls to the relief program as opposed to the index insurance provider.When the objective is to address poverty and development, the very poor may be excluded because they cannot afford risk-based premiums. Some therefore argue that premiums should be subsidized, so that a higher proportion of this group will be reached.However, when insurance is part of a package that promises significant income gains -for example, a package that includes credit and inputs -subsidies may be less justified. When an inability to pay is not a problem of insufficient wealth or productivity but instead a cash constraint at the beginning of the season, loans that cover the premium as well as the inputs may be the answer, not subsidies.It is important that the insurance leads to societal benefits that exceed its opportunity costs; that is, the benefits that would have accrued had the subsidy been used differently.Once participating households have achieved higher levels of productivity, the subsidy should be withdrawn. Proponents argue that premium subsidies can thus be used to channel social benefits to the poor in a structured and controlled way.Another argument for subsidies is that they 'prime the pump' for insurance markets by offsetting high start-up costs until the market expands, economies of scale are realized, and prices decline. In this approach, the government or donor guarantees the deficit in the initial years, thereby instilling confidence in the insurer and allowing time for the insurance-buying habit to become established in the farming community. The premiums can gradually be brought into line with 'commercial reality', turning the deficit into a profit. It would be foolish to experiment with a product that is not priced to the risk, but it does make sense to exclude the development costs and to predicate the economies of scale and the benefits of reinsurance that will apply only once a scheme is fully scaled up.It is also argued that premium subsidies can stimulate adoption by encouraging farmers to use insurance and learn about its benefits (World Bank, 2007). However, care should be taken to ensure that subsidies are not used to encourage the adoption of ineffective products.There is a significant school of thought that directly subsidizing premiums distorts the insurance process and makes it counterproductive, encouraging people to engage in overly risky behavior (Skees et al., 1999;Siamwalla and Valdes, 1986). Opponents of direct premium subsidies note that farmers may take out insurance because it is cheap rather than because it targets a risk they are facing. Subsidies may directly challenge the development objectives of index insurance. Because the common mechanism for direct premium subsidies is to make them a percentage of the premium, subsidies tend to be captured by the imprudent or those who take out large amounts of insurance simply to obtain the subsidy, eroding the poverty objectives of index insurance. Also, it may become more difficult to obtain client feedback to determine if a product is useful if the client is merely seeking a subsidy. Finally, subsidies may encourage clients to over-insure, which can lead to insurance that increases the level of income variability, making the insurance payments the source of variability instead of the crop loss.As an alternative to direct premium subsidies, governments and/or donors may agree to pay for the most extreme risk layers, covering catastrophic losses, while other layers of risk are covered by the commercial market (World Bank, 2005; see also 'Livestock insurance in Mongolia' on page 90). For example, for an extreme rainfall insurance contract, the commercial sector may set an upper limit, with the government and/or donors covering the risk above that limit. Using this approach, a commercial layer of risk can be fully priced to allow the insurance market to expand.Should the cost of covering the subsidized catastrophic layer of risk become too great, a commercial market would stand a much greater chance of remaining in place when governments or donors decide to abandon the subsidy. The balance between direct relief, insurance and hybrid approaches is complex.For example, there are arguments that providing the poor with post-disaster assistance directly may be more distorting than subsidized insurance (Bayer and Mechler, 2007).Governments need to consider carefully whether subsidies for insurance are the most cost-effective option for achieving the desired social objective, compared with such alternatives as food aid, better extension services and cash transfers (World Bank, 2007). Whenever possible, it is important to use a subsidy to remove the cause of a high premium instead of subsidizing the premium itself. A role for index insurance was proposed because of the weather risks to agriculture in the country. Multi-peril crop insurance was available, but the loss adjustment procedures were unclear and payouts were often delayed for up to 6 months.The pilot project team consulted six insurance companies, but only one -Credo-Classic -agreed to join the project; the others cited lack of funds for the development of new products and a desire to focus on the government's subsidized crop insurance program.Marketing was in the hands of Credo-Classic, but unfortunately the company did not The private sector builds a market in India Another problem was that premiums for private contracts were not subsidized and were therefore higher than for NAIS contracts (6-14% of the sum insured versus 2-3.5%). To address this price discrepancy, in    However, there are barriers that need to be addressed if the scheme is to be scaled up and to prove sustainable in the longer term.The main one is that the scheme currently uses the seed program as its only delivery channel; this means it is dependent on the seed program and the government's support.AgroBrasil is interested in extending the scheme to other regions and has proposed including it in the programs of other states.The participation of more private companies in the initiative could also offer more distribution channels.For additional information see Neves (2008).The  Thus, the commercial exposure (BIP) is for the layer between 6% and 30% mortality and the social component (DRP) is for losses exceeding 30% mortality. Herders are allowed to select their sum insured based on an aggregate value of all their animals belonging to a given species.Typically, herders have been insuring about 30% of the estimated value of their animals.Herders have the option to pay a small fee to obtain the DRP product, with a sum insured representing 50% of the value of their animals.They can do this whether or not they purchase the BIP policy.  In general, the IBLI program has exceeded the expectations and performance goals set for it when the project started. Mongolia represents a novel approach to the development of index insurance using a public-private partnership. The most extreme events (above 30% mortality), which are costly to insure against, are completely financed by the government. If these risks had to be priced in the market, the resulting package would be far too expensive for most herders. Index insurance products provide the unique opportunity to layer risk in this way.Mongolia represents one of the strongest cases of mixing social and commercial insurance in a carefully designed project that meets both needs. Should the government decide it can no longer afford to take the extreme risks, a commercial product will still be firmly in place.At that stage it might even be possible for the insurance companies to increase their exposure to at least some of the extreme risk through reinsurance markets.The Low data quality and quantity restricts the implementation and scale-up of index insurance. It is important to improve data systems and explore new technologies to fill data gaps Climate variability can amplify poverty, especially in the developing world (Dercon, 2004;Hansen et al., 2004). The potential of index insurance to help manage climate variabilityto enable economic development despite it and to manage the disasters that result from it -is being tested in a growing number of developing country settings. The case studies presented in this report provide a wealth of practical experience and knowledge which must be drawn on if this new tool is to be successfully scaled up so that it has widespread impact.This section is an attempt to distill the lessons learned thus far -and so to provide guidance to donor agencies and others planning to invest in index insurance in the future.What is the potential of index insurance for development and disaster management?In this publication, index insurance has been examined under two broad categories:• Index insurance for development (farmer and community scales), and Insurance has stimulated new markets for weather data. In some cases private companies are stepping in to fill the void -in India, for example, there is an active private-sector effort to build new weather stations and sell the data to insurance providers. This has demonstrated that there can be a useful role for the private sector; however, public investment is likely to be far more important in most developing countries. Governments need to support their meteorological services so that quality data can be collected, processed and made available.Premium subsidies for developmentoriented projects need to be carefully Insurance is mentioned as a CRM tool in the 1992 UNFCCC (Article 3.14), the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (Article 4.8), and the 2007 Bali Action Plan (adopted at COP13). The Bali Action Plan calls for \"consideration of risk sharing and transfer mechanisms, such as insurance\" to address loss and damage in developing countries particularly vulnerable to climate change (Decision -/CP.13, Bali Action Plan). At the 2008 climate talks in Poznan, Poland, insurance was one of the major items of discussion on the adaptation agenda, promoted in proposals by Parties (notably AOSIS) and Observers (such as MCII). Insurance was mentioned over two dozen times in the draft text, which served as a starting point for negotiators. The many elements proposed between Bali and Poznan must now be combined into a coherent framework that will become the agreement on how the international community mitigates and adapts to climate change after 2012, when the current Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends. The essentials of this agreement are to be hammered out at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP15), to be held in Copenhagen in December 2009. A UNFCCC pre-negotiation text called for Parties to consider the establishment of an insurance mechanism to facilitate disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation, to identify funds to pay for such insurance activities, and to identify a suitable operational arrangement for implementing insurance solutions (UNFCCC 2009). The Global Index Insurance Facility has been set up by the IFC with the support of donors, to develop and promote index insurance for weather and other natural disaster risks in developing countries. The Facility is establishing an international commercial reinsurance company to support local insurance companies by underwriting index insurance contracts, thereby protecting clients, including governments, private companies, financial intermediaries and farmers. The Facility also includes a trust fund to provide technical assistance and capacity building, and premium cost-sharing funds to promote the growth of markets.The United Nations Development  ","tokenCount":"13296"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"67911b6cb0c77a3c0485bfb8d0840358","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1cd8b270-7f6a-4970-8250-b3bf253ce0d7/retrieve","id":"-1183371461"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"388f53aa-df94-4ca3-a521-877ee2977451","pagecount":"28","content":"The project \"Alliance to Create Opportunities for Rural Development through Agro-enterprise Relationships\" (ACORDAR) aimed to help increase the income, ensure permanent employment and strengthen the business capacities of 7000 poor rural households in 50 municipalities of Nicaragua, in alliance with municipal governments and the private sector.ACORDAR was financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented by an important consortium headed by Catholic Relief Services (CRS), together with other partners such as Lutheran World Relief (LWR), TechnoServe (TNS), Global Village (GV), Latin American Financial Services (LAFISE), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), and other local partners in the area of influence of the project.1. In the case of ACORDAR, this alliance involved providers of financial and non-financial services, municipal governments, governmental entities, and territorial development projects.This project was initially established in 2007 for a 3-year period; however, given its significant impact, it was extended for another 2 years until the end of 2012 to further disseminate its results and empower more farmer families and producer organizations.The technical committee of the cocoyam value chain established by the ACORDAR project was represented by consortium organizations (CRS, LWR, AG and TNS), Caritas-Esteli, the Association for Community Agricultural Diversification and Development (ADDAC, its Spanish acronym), the Nicaraguan Association for Social Development (ASDENIC, its Spanish acronym) and the \"Aroma del Café\" Union of Multiple Service Cooperatives (CECOSEMAC, its Spanish acronym).This report addresses the process of establishing and strengthening the cocoyam value chain through innovations implemented at different stages. Highlights are (i) the important learning process that occurred at different stages of construction of the value chain; (ii) the results obtained by the collective action of Alliance 1 actors; and (iii) the lessons learned throughout the process, which serve as basis for decisionmaking tools in future initiatives.Cocoyam was only used as food for rural families and feed for domestic animals. As a result, there was no adequate service network to support crop establishment and development.At the onset of the ACORDAR project, cocoyam was not positioned as a high-value product for export and its economic importance was limited to small production zones in wetland areas. The crop was only used as food for household consumption and as feed for domestic animals. As a result, the crop lacked an adequate service network in terms of funding, technical assistance, and research to support crop establishment and development. In addition, farmers in the northern part of the country had almost no technical know-how of its cultivation.But the opportunity arose as, at that time, ADDAC was initiating a formation process of grassroots cooperatives through which community development projects focused on food security were executed, thus facilitating the subsequent production and marketing of cocoyam. Furthermore, not only was TNS conducting a coffee diversification project but it was assisting the Jorge Salazar Cooperative in its cocoyam marketing initiatives. This growing organizational base offered great potential to socialize the experience of the cocoyam value chain through partner organizations.However, these newly formed grassroots organizations had limited financial resources for institutional strengthening. Assistance in business development issues was lacking, the infrastructure for postharvest processes was scarce, human resources were very limited and poorly trained, and no accounting systems or business plans were in place.The Jorge Salazar Cooperative already had in place adequate infrastructure for postharvest processing and marketing due to the support offered by the TechnoServe Diversification project and Partnerships for Food Industry Development (PFID), which are funded by USAID and the Argidius Foundation. Enterprises such as TechnoagroThe lack of cultivation know-how and the secondary importance of the crop in national rural economy limited the interest to build capacities and make pertinent resources available.in Jinotega, the Association of People in Community Action (APAC, its Spanish acronym) and the exporting company Exportadora del Norte S.A. (Proreymar) in Matagalpa, and the Frutonica RL Multiservice Cooperative in the municipality of San Ramon also had postharvest and marketing facilities. But these collection and processing hubs had a weak production base because of their inadequate geographical distribution.On the other hand, the lack of cultivation know-how and the secondary importance of the crop in national rural economy limited the interest of both governmental and nongovernmental entities to invest in capacity building and make pertinent resources available. Neither were there stable marketing alliances for cocoyam nor public strategies or policies that addressed the development of this value chain.No initiatives supporting the cocoyam sector were being conducted by state institutions such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAGFOR), the Nicaraguan Institute for Agricultural Technology (INTA, its Spanish acronym), and the Institute of Rural Development (IDR, its Spanish acronym).Relationships with local governments were limited to fulfilling tax-related obligations related to traditional crops such as coffee and other activities such as cattle-raising because these were better organized and better positioned in the national economy.A few exporters had experience in commercial negotiations, which facilitated the introduction of the product in international markets. These exporters, however, provided limited information depending on their interests, thus hindering marketing processes and the access of small producers to markets with fair prices.Another factor considered was that women had few opportunities to access resources and decision-making functions because of prevailing cultural patterns that prevented the creation of equal opportunities for participation and hindered gender equity in development processes. This problem was also observed at the institutional level.With the exception of ADDAC, partner organizations did not have gender-sensitive policies and strategies in place.Despite initial limitations, the exit of the Dominican Republic from the international market due to quarantine reasons allowed Nicaraguan exporters and intermediaries to position their product in the market. When the ACORDAR project was launched in September 2007, partners continued to work with producer organizations. The project's first mission was to strengthen production and marketing. The Cocoyam Technical Committee was established later that same year to play a managerial role in the transition from a production chain to a value chain 2 . This Committee was formed by personnel of the organizations forming the ACORDAR consortium.In 2008, consortium partners began to conduct workshops with service providers and municipal mayors to discuss the different concepts and goals involved in the construction of a value chain. These workshops aimed to facilitate knowledge appropriation by these actors so that they could identify the role they would play in the process. That same year a competitiveness strategy 3 was designed for the chain, addressing problems previously identified in analytical workshops held with the participation of the different actors involved in the chain. Four intervention strategies were defined as follows:(1) strengthening producer trade organizations: (2) improving the access to production, harvesting, and collection/ storage technologies;(3) adding value to production; and (4) establishing strategic alliances between producers, collectors, processors, and exporters.To take advantage of potential high market prices in those areas with a low offer of cocoyam, commercial plantings of the crop were established using upland planting systems 4 and irrigation systems to be able to harvest in 9-10 months.To achieve expected production levels and meet quality standards, the project carried out a capacity-building program for both men and women technicians and farmers. Strategic alliances were also established with suppliers of inputs, traders, and exporters so that men and women cocoyam producers could access the most competitive prices to purchase inputs and sell their produce (cocoyam and cocoyam corms for propagation).In 2008, ADDAC supported the cooperatives Rios de Agua Viva and Nueva Waslala in the construction of two produce collection centers. Although this construction project was not funded by ACORDAR, it was important because it facilitated postharvest processes, reduced crop losses by 28%, and led to improvements in product quality.It also generated employment, with women forming 70% of the workforce.As a result of the aforementioned activities, 93,714 qq 5 of cocoyam were marketed in 2008, with a total income due to sales ofIn 2008, cocoyam ranked highest (55%) in export sales reported by ACORDAR and second (10.3%) in income generation for small male and women producers.US$2,370,219, positioning the area as second nationwide for generating income for small men and women producers and representing 10.3% of total income generated by ACORDAR.The socialization of the Competitiveness Strategy of the Cocoyam Value Chain proved to be decisive for the strengthening of relationships. A negotiation workshop was held in February 2009, with ample and representative participation of value chain actors. Workshop participants had the initiative to create a Governance Committee with a representative group of chain actors. This Committee aimed to promote the competitiveness of the chain through the development of national policy initiatives.The Committee was consolidated the following month with the election of its Board of Directors. The Technical Committee of ACORDAR participated actively as Board member of the Governance Committee, ascribed to the Association of Producers and Exporters of Nicaragua (APEN, its Spanish acronym). Committee regulations were drawn up in September 2009.Until then, the importance of addressing gender-related issues had not been considered in the different activities of the cocoyam value chain. Therefore GV created a revolving fund policy in 2010 for Women's Enterprise Development Groups (GDEM, its Spanish acronym). ACORDAR allocated US$6,437 for the purchase of cocoyam seed, in addition to US$18,323 available from other sources of funding to ensure efficient agronomic management of the crop. This initiative incorporated 61 women, organized in 13 GDEM, who were able to access the revolving fund because of its gender-sensitive policy that took into account existing gender gaps (lack of real warranties).But in 2010 Mexico entered the international market as both producer and exporter of cocoyam, and its favorable cultivation conditions and proximity to the US soon saturated the market, significantly 8 Mexico's entry to the cocoyam export market caused significant losses to Nicaragua's value chain because it could not compete with the prices offered by Mexico.affecting Nicaragua's share of the market. It was very difficult for Nicaragua to compete with the large amount of Mexican product suddenly available and the resulting low prices offered by Mexico. This forced a lowering of costs at both collection centers and on-farm purchase, with costs falling to levels where sales margins equaled purchase costs (C$80 per hundredweight of topquality cocoyam).Stricter quality standards were also promoted, with a demand for larger, topquality cocoyams weighing more than 3 lb. Both male and women producers suffered losses during this period, and the fall in exports affected other links of the chain. These problems forced three producer cooperatives (Flor de Dalia, Ríos de Agua Viva, and Nueva Waslala) to leave the marketing process as prices did not offset production costs. Organizations such as ASDENIC and CECOSEMAC also abandoned the market.Faced with this adverse situation, GV began searching for alternative outlets for the product to avoid further losses for men and women producers. A business trip was made to Miami and Puerto Rico in November 2010 to visit importers of tropical roots that had previously imported from Nicaragua or were importing from competitor countries like Mexico. In addition, the conditions and quality characteristics of competitor products available in the warehouses of these importers were analyzed to serve as basis to improve the quality of the Nicaraguan product for the export market.The importers visited were very receptive.Most of them expressed a special appreciation for Nicaraguan exporters and producers, and sales contracts were established to reactivate the marketing and export of cocoyam, which at that time was stagnated.To further support these achievements, a packaging plant equipped with cold rooms was built as part of a concerted effort between different actors of the chain, with the financial support of the ACORDAR project (US$181,436). Inaugurated in December 2010, the plant aimed to provide the services of weighing, washing, sorting, curing, packaging in plastic nets, storage, and shipment of the product towards its final destinations, thus facilitating postharvest processes and reducing losses by 12%. Product quality was also improved.After the 2010-2011 production, harvesting, and postharvest cycle had culminated, the technical committee of the cocoyam value chain continued to search for opportunities to develop solid actions that would help it tackle similar situations in the future.An initiative came forth to form a group of Promoters of Innovation for Rural Agro-industry (GIAR, its Spanish acronym) 6 , involving different actors of the tropical roots value chain (men and women producers, MAGFOR, service providers, and universities), whose main objective was to counteract the weaknesses found in the various links of the value chain by implementing different measures such as:• Preparation of technical guidelines and specifications for crop cultivation.• Establishment of an alliance between the National Agrarian University (UNA, its Spanish acronym) and project management to conduct a knowledge sharing event with the GIARs, at which the University shared the results of research on seed production by vitro plants. The GIARs considered this action useful and plan to disseminate these results to other producers.Mexico did not plant cocoyam for the 2011-2012 cropping cycle, shifting to the cultivation of sugarcane. Once again, this triggered significant market performance changes and the demand forAfter Mexico exited the cocoyam market, the prices of this crop in Nicaragua skyrocketed from C$60-100 per quintal of top-quality cocoyam to C$300-650.6. The GIAR methodology is an initiative linked to rural enterprise development that considers that the participation of small producers is fundamental to innovation processes. The methodology also integrates different technology suppliers into the process and gathers the distinct actors of the same agroindustrial chain around market demands.cocoyam skyrocketed and international prices rose. The price per quintal of topquality cocoyam increased from C$60-100 in 2010 to C$300-650 in November 2011 and continued so until 2012. As a result, domestic producers had higher income returns but the quality standards to export the product became permissive and the weight requirement of top-quality product fell to greater than 2.5 pounds.Although the aforementioned situation stimulated production, the problems that had limited the establishment of commercial plantings in 2010 had forced producers to reduce production and areas planted to cocoyam by approximately 50%.The value chain therefore had to continuously improve product quality for exportation and began to implement good manufacturing practices (GMP) to enhance product safety, offer increased security to production plant staff, and provide more efficient services.It is important to highlight that although the grassroots cooperatives working with ADDAC (Flor de Dalia, Ríos de Agua Viva, and Nueva Waslala) stopped producing and marketing cocoyam, as a result of participating in the ACORDAR project they were strengthened as organizations, reaching a level the project refers to as \"graduation\". ACORDAR strives to steer companies towards self-sufficiency and therefore each organization participating in the process prepared and restructured their business plans, strategic plans, operational manuals, and credit procedures, as well as established accounting systems.The cooperatives also completed an inventory and a training plan oriented toward leadership formation.As a result of participating in the ACORDAR project the grassroots cooperatives were strengthened as organizations, reaching a level the project refers to as \"graduation\".Organizations are more resilient because of their improved organization and operation. Some have even organized themselves into grassroots cooperatives or producer committees. (DAISA), and the 20 de Abril Cooperative, promoting alliances with exporters and trade associations. By the end of the project, the consolidated value chain had benefitted male and women producers by facilitating their access to financial services, the signing of marketing agreements, and the purchase of inputs.Major project results include the following:• As result of the alliance between ADDAC and DAISA to promote training and marketing, the quality of the cocoyam produced was improved and postharvest losses were reduced by 15%-40%.• As result of the alliance of GV with AGROMARI, Tecniagro, RAMAC, and Sagsa Disagro, producers were able to purchase inputs more easily, at more favorable prices, thus saving at least 10% compared to what they spent before.• Agreements were signed with AgroEsNica to market cocoyam as food and feed as well as planting material (corms) 7 to establish new production areas.In addition, eight alliances were established with local governments (Santa María de Pantasma, San Rafael del Norte, El Cuá, 7. Plant material used for asexual reproduction of cocoyam.San Sebastian de Yalí, Quilalí, Rancho Grande, Waslala, and La Dalia) to promote citizen participation and increase the impact of producers on community decisionmaking processes. By doing so, the proposals made at the production level reached the municipal councils and were included in both Municipal and Annual Investment Plans. An important outcome was the repairing of roads, which facilitated the transfer of produce to the different collection centers.Another important project outcome was that cocoyam was included in MAGFOR's agenda, through the Seed Directorate. GIAR members participated in the review of Nicaragua's Mandatory Technical Standards regarding root and tuber seed production, which was subsequently published. The Government through MAGFOR, with the support of the project \"Strengthening of the Certification System of Accredited Services and Implementation of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Quality and Safety of Agricultural Products\" (MOTSSA, its Spanish acronym), promoted the implementation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in cocoyam cultivation, leading to the establishment of demonstration plots to showcase them accordingly. UNA and INTA also promoted research on seed production.Regarding associativity and enterprise development, organizations are now more resilient in all aspects because of their improved organization and operation. Some have even organized themselves into grassroots cooperatives or producer committees. A tangible proof of this outcome is that grassroots cooperatives underwent a capacity-building process that empowered them to build managerial capacities and allow them to acquire accounting systems, develop both business and strategic plans, recruit more, better qualified personnel, and build postharvest facilities-reaching a level the project refers to as \"graduation\".Considerable advances were made in crop production thanks to technical assistance, technological innovation, and improved infrastructure. The crop was produced in modern upland planting systems, and those farmers with water reservoirs applied irrigation during dry seasons. The use of irrigation also facilitated staggered plantings of the crop.The agronomic management of the crop was also improved with the use of environment-friendly technologies to control pests and diseases, application of chemical fertilizers approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the use of organic products such as bokashi and vermicompost, and crop cultivation using GAP. During the project, the average cocoyam yield was 197.6 qq/mz 8 (12,784 kg/ha). Total production was 263,300qq, of which 14,493 were produced by women.Great advances were also made in the area of postharvest handling. The training of producers and personnel of processing plants helped reduce losses in the field and differentiated products to achieve competitive advantages in the market.A tangible output was the reduction of crop losses from 40% to 12%. Activities were also carried out to improve processes in the packaging plant by training personnel in GMP.During the project, the average cocoyam yield was 197.6 qq/mz 8 . Total production was 263,300 qq.8. 1mz (manzana) is equal to 1.72 acres or 7,026 m 2 .Access to and use of information were significantly improved, with the active participation of partner organizations in the root and tuber crop committees of ACORDAR and APEN. Tours and business meetings were promoted and national agricultural fairs held, facilitating the flow of information among actors of the chain and making it possible to better plan new plantings based on the data collected on product demand and prices.Women were also integrated into several links of the cocoyam chain. Their levels of participation in decision making about production and marketing issues increased significantly. In addition to being active members of the different organizations, women now occupy leadership positions on the boards of directors of different cooperatives and steering committees.In this context, 139 women entered the workforce, establishing on average 52.44 mz of cocoyam each year and reporting sales of 14,493 qq of cocoyam.As a solid group of organized women, 161 permanent jobs were generated. In addition, the GV processing plant generated 35 jobs and facilitated the participation of more women, who constituted 80% of plant personnel.The aforementioned data illustrate how the project has benefitted women producers. Not only were they integrated into the links of the value chain from the phase of seedling production through the establishment of cocoyam crops in the field through the processing of the product in the packaging plants, but, at the organizational level,Cocoyam losses due to postharvest handling decreased from 40% to 12%.women groups have been strengthened and are beginning to elicit changes based on gender-sensitive policies and strategies, which have resulted from the implementation of ACORDAR's gender-sensitive strategy. Women also work with other institutions to promote the development of credit policies and facilitate their access to funding as producers.Other external factors also influenced project outcome, such as the rising prices of oil, which had a direct impact on production costs and postharvest handling, the climatic factors that occurred in 2010 and affected most areas planted to cocoyam, and the entry of Mexican cocoyam into the international market, which drastically decreased the price of the product.It should also be mentioned that Nicaragua has no ports on the Atlantic Ocean for export, and many of its roads are in poor conditions, which increases the costs of production and export.Notwithstanding, other circumstances favored project outcome, such as the exit of China and the Dominican Republic-two important cocoyam producing countriesfrom the market and the reduction of the area planted to cocoyam in Mexico to plant sugarcane. These facilitated the continued production of cocoyam in Nicaragua and triggered a significant rise in prices. At C$650 per quintal of top-class cocoyam, more areas are being incorporated into the production of this crop.• The development and strengthening of the cocoyam value chain were essential to address the problems that arose throughout the entire process, especially when Mexico became a major exporter of cocoyam and prices fell as the market collapsed. The way these problems were addressed clearly demonstrated that the chain approach strengthens the actions of the actors involved in each of its links and that, despite the difficulties, the chain remains strong and ensures the implementation of crop development activities in Nicaragua through the Governance Committee.• It is important to encourage the active participation of women by implementing a gender-sensitive strategy and policy in the value chain. This process has generated reflection and created institutional awareness so actors will hopefully incorporate a gender-sensitive policy in their operational strategies. This experience transcended all levels, allowing women to actively participate in public spaces and decision-making processes, while also giving them the opportunity to access financial resources for technical assistance and training.• Monitoring and training are essential to ensure technology transfer and continuous capacity building of producers. These efforts ensured product quality throughout the process.Fusarium oxysporum 9 , a soil-borne fungus that multiplies in infected seeds in the field.• To determine business profitability, the seriousness of buyers must be confirmed. To avoid problems in the recovery of investments as well as falling into the hands of unfair marketing systems, the recommendation is to avoid going into business with dubious companies.• Building alliances and promoting coordination between local governments and the different actors of the chain proved fundamental to the development of activities of common interest. Project outcomes were possible due to these concerted efforts.• Strategies to define actions for environmental protection and production• Technological innovation is fundamental because it facilitates the extended use of efficient technologies for the rational use of water and soil resources. It also promotes the implementation of new ways of preserving and improving vegetative material suitable for planting, and helps in crop zoning and in reducing the environmental impact of agricultural activities (such as the effect of changes in land use).• Research on seed production should continue as well as the search for cocoyam varieties resistant to drought and fungal and bacterial diseases.Although actions have been taken to improve the planting material used, efforts should be made to ensure the use of healthy planting material because disease problems continue. One of the most important diseases affecting cocoyam is storage rot caused by 9. Fusarium oxysporum is a fungus that mainly appears as a saprophyte (feeding on dead or decaying organic material in the soil) or as a specialized pathogen denominated as special forms or formae speciales (f. sp.), depending on the host plants it affects.sustainability should be proposed.Although actions were implemented during the project, a space should be created to share viewpoints and ongoing work in this field that are of special national and international interest. These influence the improvement of living conditions, raise community awareness about why it is important to protect the environment, strengthen existing organizations, and affect the stability of productive or environmental activities.• A market information system that contains key data about suppliers, prices, production, bargains, market windows, and trends should be implemented.Because the volume of available information grows so quickly, to reap the most benefits, this information must be managed and processed in a systematized way. Communication channels that are most accessible and traditionally used by persons engaged in agricultural activities should be considered.• Pressure must be placed on the central government to find new alternatives to ship produce (domestic ports). Nicaraguan exporters are less competitive than exporters of other Central American countries because of the lack of a seaport. They must cover the cost of having to transport the cargo to ports in Honduras and Costa Rica, in addition to the cost of exporting a container of produce (US$600-800).Finally, the validation and development of other high-value products that could substitute new items on the market should be included in future strategies to lessen the impact in case the cocoyam-producing countries that once dominated the cocoyam market decide to return.• The process of developing a cocoyam value chain was based on the establishment of alliances with all the links of the value chain. Strategic actions with all actors helped identify synergies to leverage the benefits of the chain.• To ensure the sustainability of experiences similar to the ACORDAR project, work must be carried out in different areas as follows: development of a market information system; linking of actors with municipal authorities; implementation of environment protection measures; and development of activities to achieve gender equity.• Throughout the project, technological innovation was decisive to improve production, postharvest, and marketing processes. The new technologies implemented in the value chain helped improve and maintain the quality standards required to position the product in the international market.• The construction, improvement, and equipping of collection and processing centers proved fundamental to improve the capacities of producers and other actors, who managed to guarantee the preservation of product quality and good postharvest handling of the product.• Continued work with organized groups optimized human and financial resources and avoided the duplication of efforts.• Grassroots organizations have been strengthened and now have business plans, strategic plans, and credit policies in place, making not only operational planning easier and more consistent with the business development strategy but also the sustainability of these organizations more viable.• The use of staggered plantings and irrigation systems is necessary and should be planned accordingly. By doing so, advantage can be taken of better prices in the international market, the continuous supply of the product can be ensured, and permanent relationships can be developed with buyers.The \"Jorge Salazar\" Cooperative: Leveraging the Cocoyam Governance Commission to consolidate the crop within the Nicaraguan export sector* \" \"International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)The \"Jorge Salazar\" Agricultural Services Cooperative, LLC, grows, collects, processes, and trades the tubers of (Xanthosoma sagittifolium    ","tokenCount":"4514"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9d43f7613c6485083b911b52abf815d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96d34009-1811-4670-86c7-a6c065c255f6/retrieve","id":"77597132"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3c15125a-4eca-455f-a342-a1a7c85c6e2c","pagecount":"2","content":"The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has played a central role in elevating the issue of widespread informal wastewater irrigation from a barely known concept to a challenge of global importance. IWMI's efforts to nurture a debate around wastewater use in farming began at the turn of the millennium. At that time, little attention was being given to the unplanned use of sewage and polluted water to irrigate crops, which was already a common reality in developing countries.In 2002, IWMI and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) jointly sponsored research into the extent, benefits and risks of informal wastewater irrigation. The findings outlined the considerable scale of the issue. Around the Ghanaian city of Kumasi, for example, farmers were using polluted water sources for irrigation on some 12,000 hectares, more than twice the area under formal irrigation in the entire country. Globally, IWMI estimates an area of 6 to 20 milion hectares.The research was presented at a conference in Hyderabad, India. IWMI specifically drew attention to the World Health Organization (WHO) 1989 Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture. IWMI felt that its emphasis on 'irrigation water-quality thresholds' was difficult to apply in the developing world. In low-resource countries, no treatment plants existed, and informal irrigation with polluted stream water was already practiced by millions of poor farmers.The common recommendation in such situations was to stop farmers from using polluted water for irrigation or to ensure they grew crops that would not be consumed by humans. However, both suggestions failed frequently. \"The idea of changing crops was often rejected by farmers because their livelihoods were based on growing crops that sold the best, and not any other,\" explains IWMI's Pay Drechsel, who led the research.These new insights were discussed with WHO and led to the 'Hyderabad Declaration', which urged decision makers to give due attention to livelihood issues, while designing alternative risk mitigation options. When the US government published its Guidelines for water reuse in 2004, it printed the complete Hyderabad Declaration and included case studies from IWMI's research.IWMI and its partners worked intensively on alternative 'non-treatment' or 'post-treatment' options that would help reduce health risks when poorly treated wastewater was used. This research supported the current 2006 WHO guidelines, updates and a related FAO Farmer Field School Manual.Richard Carr, WHO's project coordinator at that time, explicitly recognized IWMI's influence on the 2006 guideline revision, stating \"Definitely the guidelines were positively influenced by IWMI.\" He noted that the Institute's work had raised awareness of the beneficial aspects of wastewater for many poor communities.IWMI also worked with the World Bank to produce the Policy Research Working Paper Improving wastewater use in agriculture: An emerging priority, and in 2011, joined a two-year initiative of the UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development for the Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture. This involved seven international workshops, reaching nearly 160 participants from over 70 countries. Based on the feedback, WHO is currently developing Sanitation Safety Plans. This work is part of a larger project on safe resource recovery and reuse, co-led by IWMI.When the US revised its 2004 guidelines in 2012, IWMI co-authored the international chapter and is currently assisting the Water and Sanitation Program of the World Bank to develop a guidance document on wastewater use for India.Having helped draw the world's attention to wastewater irrigation during a decade and a half of research, IWMI is now helping to define sensible indicators for a wastewater target for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Contact Pay Drechsel, Theme Leader, Resource Recovery, Water Quality and Health, IWMI, Sri Lanka (p.drechsel@cgiar.org).","tokenCount":"598"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"49e7662140b897a22610899f054924a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7576f99e-db0b-44eb-944d-11167cfed218/retrieve","id":"2028175772"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"60e64cfe-7e40-4164-b6c3-8ae80ee324f7","pagecount":"30","content":"Name Organization Email 1. Brigitte Mass CIAT3 Douthwaite, B., Alvarez, B.S., Cook, S., Davies, R., George, P., Howell, J., Mackay, R. and Rubiano, J. 2007. The Impact and 2) it also uses network maps to examine stakeholder interactions 4 . Impact Pathways workshops will be held in each of the 9 program value chains/countries 5 . This report summarizes the discussions and outputs of the Tanzania dairy value chain impact pathways workshop.The workshop objectives were to:1. Communicate and validate the program's intervention logic in the Tanzania dairy value chain.2. Question and clarify the program's potential for achieving impact in the Tanzania dairy value chain.3. Develop an initial framework for program monitoring and evaluation /impact assessment.Workshop participants were drawn from a wide range of stakeholders including: program implementers in the value chain, various scientists involved in the dairy value chain, representatives of Tanzania dairy regulatory board, representatives of farmer forums, representatives of implementing partner organizations, representatives of National Agricultural Research institutions, representatives of the government, and representatives of the private sector.The workshop was opened by Professor Kurwijila from Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). He presented an overview of all previous activities aimed at rallying different stakeholders towards developing the Tanzania dairy value chain. Professor Kurwijila emphasized the importance of strengthening partnerships in developing the dairy industry in Tanzania, particularly partnerships between local actors and international development partners. He appreciated the fact that so far, partnerships in the dairy value chains were growing and getting more consolidated. In line with these efforts, Maziwa Zaidi a 4 Douthwaite, B., Alvarez, B.S., Cook, S., Davies, R., George, P., Howell, J., Mackay, R. and Rubiano, J. 2007 partnership forum that seeks to have a common approach to the Tanzania dairy value chain has been successfully developed. He closed his overview by reiterating the significance of the workshop since it was aimed to discuss and validate how the partnership forum planned to deliver the desired change in the dairy value chain.Participants then introduced themselves to each other using two approached suggested by Isabelle, the workshop facilitator. The first method required participants to locate themselves along a gradient of knowledge about the Tanzania dairy value chain and justify their locations. The second method required participants to group themselves by value chains actor types with the aim to assess the representativeness of value chains actors at the workshop. At the end of the second exercise it was clear that the workshop was over presented by researchers and under presented by private sector actors.As a mechanism for initiating a value chain problem review and analysis exercise, participants were requested to give their opinions on what the biggest challenges of the Tanzania value chain were. A majority of participants argued that the challenges were largely production related but were related with the following: producer are mostly subsistence and do not produce for the market, low production was actually the cause of low per capita consumption of milk, farmers are mostly using poor technologies including poor feeds and poor genetic materials/practices resulting in low output, and the inability to access good practice information was also a major cause for the low output. Those who claimed that the challenges were largely market orientated also argued that the challenges were aligned with lack clear mechanisms to link the markets and production. Some participants mentioned that the value chain challenges were mainly consumption related and linked to inadequate processing of milk and low consumption due to poor awareness. A small number of participants argued that the challenges where highly interlinked. For instance, the lack of organizational capacity for marketing and production, poor enabling policy framework, and the poor access to services were major challenges but were also highly interlinked.These sessions included presentations of a recap on all previous activities aimed at building a dairy value chain partnership forum, clarifying how these efforts were feeding into the current exercise, and revising and clarifying the program value chain vision and goals. It was during these sessions that more clarity about relationship between maziwa Zaidi and livestock and fish program were clarified. It was mentioned that although the two were not the same they nonetheless shared the visions and goals and their impact pathways will likely be similar. The visioning session started with Amos Omore presenting an overview of the building blocks of Maziwa Zaidi impact pathways. He reminded participants that the present Impact pathways workshop was building on previous efforts aimed to ensure that all dairy value chain stakeholders were moving at the same pace and that they shared a common vision for the value chain.He presented the following stakeholder workshops, meetings, and studies as some of the preceding activities that have formed the foundation for the workshop:1. Consultation on building partnership between ILRI and Heifer held at Heifer offices on 17-18 January 2013 (http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com/VCD+Tanzania) proposed the following rationale for Maziwa Zaidi:• Reduce confusion among stakeholders regarding which projects they were collaborating with,• Encourage synergy among collaborating projects,• Rally Tanzania dairy value chain research and development partners towards a shared purpose.  Maziwa Zaidi includes all projects sharing the vision of developing the Tanzania dairy value chain. At the moment they include: MilkIT which is piloting feeds innovations, MoreMilkiT which is involved in piloting hubs and promoting partnerships, and EADD2 which will be involved in scaling-up and scaling-out of the innovations. We need a strategic approach to research unlike previous approaches where research was delinked from development. Therefore, Maziwa Zaidi is meant to bridge this gap to make research more useful. A major challenge exists in changing the attitudes of farmers for instance for them to accept that they can benefit from zero grazing. A typical example of the strong negative influence of farmers' attitude on adoption of technologies was of a farmer who questioned why he should be toiling to get fodder for a zero-grazing cow and yet it spends the all-day sleeping. It was also mentioned that it was important to understand farmer's priorities in developing intervention strategies. An example was given of a project where about 75% of beneficiaries demolished sheds given to them by Heifer International and instead increased their stocks of local animals because they valued owning large numbers more than zero grazing. There is need to consider the contextual issues within which the farmers operate, for instance, promotion of zero grazing may not work in arid or semi-arid areas and this raises the importance of appropriate targeting of interventions. There is need to revisit and review the interventions from time to time and making the necessary amendment for the program to be successful. At the end of this session, a fundamental question was whether the program should mostly focus on promoting foreign breeds in order to improve dairy production. It was agreed that there is need to first consider all the pros and cons in order to explore the most rational pathways to impact. There was consensus that adapting local breeds to our local environments and feeds would be the right path to pursue.Michael Kidoido introduced participants to the basic principles of impact pathways. In his presentation, he reiterated the fact that Maziwa Zaidi's vision is to cause meaningful changes in Tanzania dairy value chain. In doing so, however, two main challenges needed to be addressed: 1) how well the interventions will be delivered and 2) how beneficiaries will put to use the interventions for their own benefit. Thus development of well-articulated impact pathways would, ex-ante, effectively deal with these challenges. In a summary his presentation defined impact pathways as causal result chains describing how research outputs, research outcomes, development outcomes, and impacts were logically linked.Impact pathways are mostly used for: 1) highlighting project rationale, 2) guiding project planning and management, 3) guiding program evaluation, and 4) providing hypotheses for future monitoring and evaluation of the program. Michael also provided specific definitions of each of the components of the impact pathways. He further mentioned that in the case of the program, impact will be achieved through two specific pathways. The first pathway will include working through the value chains, piloting innovations, building capacity, generating evidence, and thereby attracting large scale research for development investments to upscale the most viable technologies. Once this happens, the dairy value chain will become more efficient and actors will become better coordinated resulting in improved uptake of technologies and then the achievement of Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs) among key actors. The second pathway will involve the generation of international public goods which will eventually lead to the achievement of IDOs and system level outcomes (SLOs).To bring participants to the same page regarding which key actors need to be considered in the Tanzania dairy value chain, a generic dairy value chain was constructed. James Rao facilitated the construction of a generic Tanzania dairy value chain. In his presentation participants were able to describe the key actors in the value chains and the existing relationships among the actors. The most important actors identified during this session included: producers/farmers, regulators/policy makers, service providers, project implementers, researchers/knowledge producers, consumers, implement manufacturers, development partners, and traders. The following generic value chain describes the key actor groups and how they are related.Participants were organized in three groups and each group was instructed to identify the three most important challenges affecting the Tanzania dairy value chain. Each group was later instructed to generate a problem tree for each constraint beginning with the top most constraint. The group activity for each problem tree included the following steps:  Participants first identified the goal-level problems. These problems largely included the ones for which the program will have little influence. Participants then proceeded to link high level problems to lower level ones (i.e. problems at the tail end) up-until they could clearly identify problems that would be directly solved by program's outputs. The three groups focused on the following problems: low productivity of the dairy animals, low milk availability, and poor access to production and market services, as the most constraining problems.The problem analysis then formed a foundation for reviewing the program vision statement and its goals. Participants were requested to assess whether the draft vision statement and the goals would be sufficient to deal with the challenges of the Tanzania dairy value chain.However, Amos Omore first presented the Maziwa Zaidi vision statement as \"more inclusive dairy development in Tanzania\". The proposed relationship between DDF and Maziwa Zaidi that was later endorsed by the DDF Advisory Committee is captured below: He mentioned that the vision was based on the Dairy Development Forum's vision. He then later presented following draft program goals for review:  Poor smallholder dairy farmers have reliable and consistent access to quality inputs and services in order to achieve high milk productivity at low costs. Smallholder dairy farmers have access to reliable, well-coordinated and efficient milk marketing arrangement with resultant increase in household income and improved livelihoods. Poor consumers have improved access to quality and safe milk at affordable prices and indeed increase their per capita consumption of milk and other dairy products. It was clarified that 'inclusiveness' in the vision implies: Including all livestock production systems e.g. both pastoral systems and intensive systems,  Including access by all systems to appropriate support and inputs services,  including not only farmers but also all other actors in the dairy value chain such as input suppliers,  including women and children who are currently marginalized in the value chain. It was proposed that 'sustainable development' should be included in the vision statement. The goals need to be specific in order to identify all the changes taking place in the value chain following the intervention. It was agreed that a time line of 2025 be included in the vision in order to align it with the Tanzanian government's dairy development objectives. A dairy cow was defined as any cow that produced milk in excess of it calf's needs, regardless of its breed.  In the first goal there is need to replace 'at low cost' with efficiently. A suggestion was made to drop the term 'poor' as it was found to be inconsistent with the basic objectives of most development partners. However, it was agreed that pro-poor does not necessarily imply focusing on the poor. It was advised that the program should not solely focus on developing efficient marketing as the end in its self since not all farmers will use the market. There is need to add milk and milk products to the description of the goals. It was noted that poor consumers also include poor milk producers, who may not consume the milk they produce, as well as non-farmers who buy milk,  It was agreed that the first goal includes nutritious milk.The second day of the workshop started with a recap of the previous day's activities which later evolved into a discussion of the performance indicators of program success.To facilitate the exercise of identifying performance indicators, the following question was  Increase in milk production per herd/animal differentiated by breeds. Increase in number of farmers accessing services (including women and youth). Percentage change in number of organized dairy marketing groups. Percentage increase in number of farmers selling in organized markets (including women). Increase in income from dairy production at household level (emphasizing intra household distributions of benefits). Status of natural resource not changed or improved. Percentage change in the five key livelihood assets including human, physical, natural, social, and financial capitals. Increase in per capita consumption of dairy products at intra-household level but also focusing on increase in the poorer strata. It was agreement about the need to consider both outcome and output indicators since some outcomes are difficult to capture and may require the use of output indicators. However, at the Maziwa Zaidi level it will be important to focus on using outcome indicators and leave the output indictors for monitoring of individual projects.The various projects will relate to the program overall vision, goals and indicators.Maziwa Zaidi will not be an implementing agent therefore we will not focus on output indicators because maziwa zaidi will not have activities. Moreover, if we get too specific with indicators and goals then some funders might feel they do not want to fund that specific component.There is need to have a dairy master plan, with Maziwa Zaidi operating at that top level and contributing projects being part of the master plan  There is need to think of using incentives, for instance encouragement schemes, to encourage service providers to bring services closer to farmers.There's need to have a sufficient budget for disseminating results.Regarding research, researchers need to collaborate closely with policy makers.Regarding quality control, regulation should also be extended to the informal sector.Working in four groups, organized around value chain actors, participants were asked to imagine they were members of identified groups of actors, describe the changes in behavior (knowledge, attitude, and behavior) needed to happen to the actor group for the vision to be achieved. The groups were then required to describe the current relationships of the actor group with other actor groups in the value chain, and lastly to describe how the actor networks will be required to change in future to achieve the value chain vision.    Farmers need to be directly linked with famer organizations/groups. It will be through the farmer groups and organizations that farmers will access credit, input and services, gain higher bargaining power and favorable prices through milk bulking.  Regulators, MFIs, banks, SACCOS, and processors will need to be linked with farmers through their farmer groups and organizations  In future the direct links between input suppliers and service providers with farmers will need to be weaker.  Links between researchers and universities, media, and government and NGOs will need to be direct and strengthened  Farmers will need a more stronger linkage with policy makers and local governments Traders  Traders are currently linked with farmers, processors and collecting centers, and consumers  Traders should be organized around marketing hubs in which case they will be linked to several other actor groups in the dairy value chain  In the marketing hubs traders should then link to BDS to access capacity building services  They will need to be linked to inputs and service providers to facilitate input and service provision to farmers The following summarizes the analysis of the current situation of value chain actor network and how in future the network will have to change to achieve the vision:  Regulation is relatively strong for processors but weak for other actor groups. It was observed that networks may be different for women and youths. For instance, they may be mostly involved in the informal networks. It was suggested that women specific networks should be explored and used in planning, implementation, and monitoring of the program. In future regulators may have to use the media to achieve greater coverage. There is need for researcher to provide feedback to the farmer. Informal institutions perform certain specific and important functions and should be considered in the network gap analysis. Sudden enforcement of regulations may kill informal systems therefore their implementation should be gradual to enable transformation of informal systems into the formal ones. There is need to facilitate farmer group formation and fast tracking of this process will require providing them with adequate information regarding the importance membership to groups. Researchers need to determine the appropriate research evidence to disseminate. It is important for researchers to understand factors behind milk consumption in Tanzania.Current input and service providers network ( 2013  ","tokenCount":"2914"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd6e87488db50ed57d2757614b936d1e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5aaab7f1-7013-4ef5-84db-6d607a27a596/retrieve","id":"-921172864"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2eb46d34-d7a8-4261-b519-8506dc890547","pagecount":"4","content":"plan! breeding, offers the possibility of giving a second mirror to these other realms. PPB has ¡he advantage ofbeing able to follow fanners' practical, and ofien varying, contríbutions in very specific ecologícal and historical contexts. Símilarly, within PPB work, ¡he contríbutíon of plant breeders is gíven well-defined geographical and historícal specificity. PPB has many variations, rangíng from superficial consultation on fanner preferences to fanners actually being in volved in choosing parents and crossing materíal. Scrutiny of the varíations of PPB-and the reflections on property rights assocíated wíth these different farmer-breeder relationships-might indeed prove useful for grounding sorne of the discussions about fanners' rights and plant breeders' ríghts. This short note announces SWP PRGA's incipient work (ínc\\uding development of a state-of-theart paper) on property rights and participatory plant brecding. We use the term property rights as shorthand for considering three separate but related aspects: legal issues, best-practice options to guide field programs, and cthical concerns in PPB work.The \"think paper\" is bcing based on intensive discussion of actual and developing practice in PPB. The paper's development is a four-step process:1. identification of 8-1 O type-case scenarios for PPB 2. analysis oflegal, best-practice, and ethical issues for each scenario by a team of specialists: lawyer, breeder, and social scientist 3. feedback of ínitial recommendations/insights to the SWP PRGA and a wide range of groups involved in plant genetic resources (pGR) and intellectual property rights (IPR) 4. synthesis/publication/distríbution ldentification oftype casesfor PPB We recogníze lhat there are substantial variations in PPB (as there are, in reality, even in many fanners' breeding situations). We are in the process of identifYing the 8-10 classic types by analyzing programs along such variables as • Goals of PPB-skill buildinglempowerment; varietal improvement/release • Roles of partuers (fanners/researchers)--everytrung from simple consultation on preferences to actual collaboration in choosing crosses and crossing (analysis of stages of involvement) • Type of germplasm used-Iocal/exotic; stablelvariable • Sites in wruch material is stabilized-farmer controIled, researcher controlled, mixed • Type of product derived-homogeneous/variable • Means by wruch product is distríbuted-informal or formal seed channels The Plant Breeding Group ofthe SWP PRGA, now encompassing 170 members from a broad PGR spectrum, is he1ping to identify these classic PPB types through email discussion.A team of three, an IPR Iawyer specialized in cultivated plants, a plant breeder, and an applied social scíentist will analyze the cases-legalIy, ethically, and operationaIly-in terms of such lssues as• broad obligations of each party (legal, ethical, bes! practice)• germplasm ownership issues (i.e., recognition of contribution to Ihe creative process) • distribution rights (i.e., recognition of rights to move seed)The team will synlhesize know!edge on existing practice (including constraints and opportunities) and suggest draft recommendations or options for better practice (e.g., what is being tried where).The draft document will be widely distributed among PPB, breeding, and PGR advocacy groups. JI aims to stimulate lively discussion-and present a more grounded view of what different types of farmer and breeder collaboration might entail.The final paper will be published as a SWP PRGA working document. Decisions on wider distribution should be made afier an independent panel evaluates Ihe final product.The primary output would be a think paper on options for considering property rights (in the broad sense) in participatory plant breeding. It would be geared to those who variously reflect on (1) legal issues, (2) best-practice options, and (3) ethical issues as paramount.Whíle no! binding, Ihe paper would be written in such a way as to achieve the following:• guide ongoing practice within SWP PRGA • guide practice among PPB projectsin general • inform and ground debates surrounding farmers' rights and plant-breeders' rightsTwelve to 18 months (project to be completed end 2000, early 2001).We recognize that there are substantial variations in PPB (as there are, in reality, even in many furmer breeding situations). We aim to identifY the 8-10 c1assic types by analyzing programs according to such variables as Type cases for PPB analysisBelow we have oullined a range of cases in which there has been PPB collaboralion. They include bcth farmer-Ied and formal-!ed collaboralions. The cases in general represen! the mosl cornmon of the curren! applications ofPPE. However, severa! have been constructed lO anticipate future trends inPPB.Case 1• Formal breeders decide to increase the production of a crop in a given farming area.• There is no prior agreement with the local population, which is mixed ethnically and has no strong views on germplasm rights one way or the other.• Formal breeders screen exotic stabílized materia!s received from an IARC and make decisions at all stages.• Formal breeders decide what lo pul inlo on-farm trials.• Individual farrners, mostly male, ron the on-farm trials.• Farmer preferences are taken into account for the formal release of varieties.• The released varieties are forwarded to the stale seed-distribution chain.Case 2• Formal researchers are given the government mandate to improve crop production in marginal areas and specifically seek out farmer breeding priorities there.• There is no prior consultation or subsequent formal agreement with the cornmunities involved.","tokenCount":"825"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cabca7a0cf49e808c748dcd7b5caf873","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d2882d3-ae9b-45c7-b621-70344a6d93a4/retrieve","id":"1886326413"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69bbd881-4b75-415a-b462-23b43df0a7e9","pagecount":"38","content":"4744 7 CC~ §\\TI F BIBLIOTECA t 1 JUN f979 *fBecano Prognma G'ln'ldo de Carne CIAT -P.1lnura -Colombn Coordenador ProJetos Pccu:irla da EMAPA Sao Lu1s -Maranhao -Brasil Pallmra, Colombn, 27 de Nov¡embre de 1978 ' * Normas agrfc ohs de c<thd<td que se aphcan a las semillas en denstdad Ducensland, Austraha 1975 -J Nilson S Mac1elEl campo de la producción de sem 1llas forrajeras es diferente a la producción de semillas de cult¡vos trad¡c¡onales (Atroz, Mafz, etc), el pnmero busca producción de sem 1llas para la producción de forr'lje y el segundo bu~ ca producc¡ón de semillas certifiCadas para obtener rendmuentos altos de ~ milla para consumo En camb1o, las prácticas culturales y las regiOnes a-propiadas son muy similares en ambos camposPor otro lado, con las forrajeras tropiCales, el productor de semilla, tiene un objetivo completamente dúerente al ganadero que esta ¡nteresado en produCir forrajes para producción animal (Carne-leche) Tamb1én es 1mportante tomar en cuenta que una zona muy buena para desarrollo ganadero pu~ de ser inaprop¡ada como reg¡ón para la producc¡ón de sem1llas forra¡eras Esto qu¡ere decir que no Siempre en una región ganadera se puede produc¡r semillas forr'ljeras, especialmente vanedades nuevas que necesitan manejo Intensivo En producc1ón de semillas, las forrajeras trop¡cales presentan los siquientes p1 oblema~ -Madut ez desumforme -Bajos md1ces de producc¡ón -Alta humedad en el culhvo maduro -Baja ef¡c¡enc¡'l de la coscch.¡ -Rendmucntos y rat'ls de multlphcac¡6n relatn amente bajos Todo aquello cuando se comp'lran con los cultivos de gr'lno trad1C10nales Selección de germoplasma -Desde luego, en la plamfJCación para el establecmtiento de una empresa de producción de semillas debe primeramente def¡nfrse que especies y que vanedades forraJeras son con las que debe trabaJarse CuaJqu1er productor o pars que en su orgamzac16n conteonnle la posib11!dad de Involucrarse en la producción de semfllas debera pnmero cons1derar si ex1ste fnformac¡ón suf¡c¡ente para def1mr las vanedades adaptadas S1 tal informaCión no puede ootenerse, la producción de semillas en gran escala pue de ser apresuradaPor otro lado es más que Importante 6 ¡mpresc¡nd¡ble determ¡nar si hay suficiente mercado, para el uso de sem11la forraJera Más adelante, cuando el mercado de sem1llas esté bten establecido, se podrá considerar la utibzac¡ón de algunas formas de certtftCacl6n de semillasEn caso de vartedades nuevas, la sem11la básiCa, Idealmente, deberá ser su mfmstrada a los productores comerc1ales a través de algun'l 01 gamzac¡ón o comtté que designe las variedades adaptadas Cualqu¡er Programa de Produ.2, cf6n de Sem1llas debe estar enfocado a Germoplasma adaptado y probado, es to Implicará también que el desarrollo de un Programa de semillas debe ser antecedido por un programa exitoso de desatrollo de vanedades aptas o supenares por med1o de la mtroducc16n, la selecci6n o el fltomeJoramJento     /1 Sistemas de Eroducc16n de semtlhs -Un sistema de producción, esta defimdo como \"la combmactón de prá_s ttcas de mane¡o aphcadas a una especie particular productda en una reglón especrrtcli'Un sistema de producc16n se podrf'l resumir en h s1gu1ente fórmula Sistema de produ~;c1ón = espec1e x reg1ón x métodos espec1f1cos de mane¡o Con el fin de ofrecer un'l perspectlv'l ampha se proponen cinco grupos de producc1ón reumdos de acuerdo con componentes comunes Durante el periodo do Dorman01a, se puede hacer la -Prueba do viab1hd'td con tot1 uol -que es muy 1ihl y se logra una \"eshm'tc16n mdnocl'l do h gcrmm'tc16n potenchl de h sem1lla\" Tamb1én en el periodo de do1 mane 1a, con los datos de peso/umdad se puede lograr una ind1Cacl6n de propo1ción de las sem1llas maduras e mmaduras Se determma la muestra de semilla pura para la prueba 100 en total, d1V1d1das en dos fracc1ones (50 y 50)Con una navaJa de afeitar se procede a QUitar la gluma de las dos fracciones, es dec1r se trabaJa con can6ps1s hbres, esto con el fm de facilitar la 1nerpretac16n 3 Se condicionan las dos fracciones en platos petn que contengan un poco de agua Se colocan en una estufa u horno a una temperatura de 39•c por esp'lCIO de 2 horas Se secan y med~ante la ayuda del m1cr6scop¡o se cortan muy superfiCialmente longltud111almente sobre el embn6n c'ld'l una de hs semilhs componenetes de cada fr'lcc•6n Se welven a colocar las dos fracciOnes en phtos petn que contengan so lucl6n de tetrazol Se colocan en una estufa u horno a una temperatura de  ","tokenCount":"710"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"346817fa35ee3b2d4a066f2da6cd7d06","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dfd02a31-1c8a-436d-8750-b6a2812fee6b/retrieve","id":"-717981778"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"723147e7-5840-4117-aa28-8b4d778c8f77","pagecount":"4","content":"The information in this guide can be freely reproduced for non-commercial use, if credited as coming from CTA.Reproduction for commercial use requires prior authorization from CTA.Other banana products, which may be made from the non-edible parts, include compost, animal feed and a wide range of craft items from banana fibre, such as hats, bags and purses.So, the banana is important for health, food security and wealth creation. 1. Peel the unblemished mature green bananas. 2. Slice the bananas into 0.5-cm thick pieces (about the thickness of a pencil). 3. Soak sliced bananas in a solution of anti-browning agent. To make the solution, add 10 mg (one teaspoon) of the chemical to each litre of water. Soak the slices for 15 minutes. 4. Drain the slices by placing them on trays with plastic mesh and then place them in the dryer. 5. Dry in the sun (open or solar dryer) or in a hot-air dryer until dry and brittle. This will take about two to three days in good sunshine.1Importance and benefits of bananas Bananas are a staple food in many parts of Eastern Africa. They are:• a good source of potassium, which helps keep your body fluids in balance. • an ideal food for toddlers, invalids and people living with HIV/ AIDS.Currently, there is very limited commercial processing of bananas:• Most people consume bananas fresh, steamed or boiled. • During bumper harvests, farmers sell bananas at give-away prices and many go to waste.But did you know that bananas can be processed into dried chips and flour on your farm? The chips and flour can be stored for up to six months, and can be sold or used to make value-added products to further increase your income.Banana chips and flour are easily transported to distant markets, where bananas are not grown. They can also be sold in local markets and to hotels and supermarkets. The flour can be mixed with other cereals, legumes, and root-or tuber-crop flours to make tasty and nutritious porridge, bakery products and baby foods. It can also be used as a relief food during droughts, floods and other emergencies. Use clean (potable) water to avoid contaminating the final product.Use recommended packaging materials.Infestation by storage insect pests (e.g. weevils)Rats in storage areaStorage of product on the ground Ensure proper packaging (use strong, sealed bags).Put in place measures to control storage pests.Make storage area rat-proof and control rats.Store bagged chips or flour off the ground.In 1982, Mr. Robert Nyirenda and his wife Edna started Nyirefami Limited, a business to process sorghum and millet in Arusha, Tanzania. Although they did well, they had another idea to expand the business in 1999. When they were young, they remembered that their parents used to dry bananas in the sun and make flour using a pestle and mortar. The flour was either used plain or mixed with maize flour to make stiff porridge (ugali or sima) or thin porridge (uji). Robert and his wife knew that a lot of their bananas went to waste. These were mainly the small fingers at the ends of the bunch, as well as the broken bananas which were not fit for sale. While selling their sorghum and millet products, and through their social interactions, they established that there was a high demand for banana flour in Tanzania.In 1999, Robert asked a local metal fabricator to design and make an electric dryer.At that time the price of bananas was quite low and Robert and his wife employed extra workers to assist them to process the bananas. Robert also sought the services of a firm in Nairobi to print packaging materials. Later that year, Robert started selling banana flour to shops and supermarkets in Arusha at US$ 0.50 per kilogramme. They were able to sell at such a low price because the bananas were very cheap. Robert had to buy additional bananas to meet the very high demand for the flour. As a result, Robert and his wife made a good profit which allowed them to invest in more processing machines, further expanding their business.","tokenCount":"676"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"780f905ad6adf9e365febd4824354474","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/872d3360-eca3-4051-a08b-05c0e49fdac0/retrieve","id":"991231981"},"keywords":["Banana and plantain (Musa spp.)","cassava (Manihot esculenta)","potato (Solanum tuberosum)","sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)","yam (Dioscorea spp.)","metabolomics","genebanks","modern breeding"],"sieverID":"fc7987db-5db6-4168-9aa0-28cdd381ca49","pagecount":"11","content":"Roots, tubers, and bananas (RTB) are vital staples for food security in the world's poorest nations. A major constraint to current RTB breeding programmes is limited knowledge on the available diversity due to lack of efficient germplasm characterization and structure. In recent years large-scale efforts have begun to elucidate the genetic and phenotypic diversity of germplasm collections and populations and, yet, biochemical measurements have often been overlooked despite metabolite composition being directly associated with agronomic and consumer traits. Here we present a compound database and concentration range for metabolites detected in the major RTB crops: banana (Musa spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta), potato (Solanum tuberosum), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and yam (Dioscorea spp.), following metabolomicsbased diversity screening of global collections held within the CGIAR institutes. The dataset including 711 chemical features provides a valuable resource regarding the comparative biochemical composition of each RTB crop and highlights the potential diversity available for incorporation into crop improvement programmes. Particularly, the tropical crops cassava, sweet potato and banana displayed more complex compositional metabolite profiles with representations of up to 22 chemical classes (unknowns excluded) than that of potato, for which only metabolites from 10 chemical classes were detected. Additionally, over 20% of biochemical signatures remained unidentified for every crop analyzed. Integration of metabolomics with the on-going genomic and phenotypic studies will enhance 'omics-wide associations of molecular signatures with agronomic and consumer traits via easily quantifiable biochemical markers to aid gene discovery and functional characterization.The annual global production of root, tuber, and banana (RTB) crops exceeds 1000 million tonnes (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2019) and feeds over 2 billion people worldwide (Scott et al., 2000) (Figure 1). RTBs are especially vital in the least developed countries where they provide ≥15% of daily calories and are a source of economic subsistence to over 750 million people (Kennedy et al., 2019). In Africa, the production of RTBs exceeds that for all other staples combined (Sanginga, 2015) and are the most important crops for direct human consumption. Over 30 000 RTB crop accessions are currently held in the genebanks of four CGIAR institutes with many further accessions in national and regional collections, representing the diversity currently available for breeding (Tay, 2013). Whilst the RTB crops are cited to have high yield potential (especially regarding calories per hectare production) when compared with other staples (cereals), the extent of diversity available for breeding cannot be capitalized upon due to limited knowledge on the biological potential of these accessions. In addition to the dearth of genetic resources, basic characterization such as phenotypic and agronomic traits, including growth and yield parameters, are scarce for a large proportion of accessions. Consequently, insufficient germplasm characterization and evaluation has hindered the exploitation of the available diversity within breeding programmes (Jansky et al., 2015). Depending on the RTB crop three factors have contributed, to a varying degree, to the current situation: (i) poor or under-representation of crop wild relatives in germplasm collections (Castañeda-Alvarez et al., 2016); (ii) high levels of accession duplication and misidentifications in the collections, particularly prevalent in clonal crop collections (yam up to 30% (Girma et al., 2012), potato varies from c. 4.5 % (Ellis et al., 2018) to c. 75 % (Huam an et al., 2000) across different subsets); and (iii) the poorly recorded assessment of germplasm diversity, which is especially complex in RTB crops due to crop wild gene flow via ennoblement, hybridization from overlapping natural and cultivation habitats, and genetic assimilation from vegetative propagation (Scarcelli et al., 2017).In recent years many large-scale efforts have sought to further understand these crops using genome sequences (Xu et al., 2011;D'Hont et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2014;Tamiru et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2017;Li et al., 2019) and genome diversity studies (Bredeson et al., 2016;Hardigan et al., 2017;Nyine et al., 2017;Christelov a et al., 2017;Muñoz-Rodr ıguez et al., 2018;N eme ckov a et al., 2018), genetic selection (Wolfe et al., 2016), molecular markers (QTLs) (Monden and Tahara, 2017;Kim et al., 2017;Sharma and Bryan, 2017), and comparative transcriptome resources (Kundapura Venkataramana et al., 2015;Sarah et al., 2017;van Wesemael et al., 2019;Cenci et al., 2019) widely developed alongside morphologic, agronomic and phenotypic classifications (Oliveira et al., 2015;Rahajeng and Rahayuningsih, 2017;D epigny et al., 2018;Girma et al., 2018;van Wesemael et al., 2019). The progress of the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (www.rtb.cgiar.org), applying genomics-assisted breeding to RTBs, has recently been reviewed (Friedmann et al., 2018). Although typically in the early stages, the authors noted that success will be dependent upon the quality of phenotypic characterization.Agronomic and consumer traits can often be directly associated with metabolite composition (Bino et al., 2004), which favours the use of metabolomics to generate measurable biochemical signatures for characterization. Metabolomics approaches can provide a standalone technique when genetic mechanisms are not well understood (Price et al., 2017), as evident in RTB crops. Phenotypic evaluation of materials is required multiple times along the breeding pipeline and integration of metabolomics into current practices is advocated to greatly shorten the development time of new varieties, reduce costs, and provide unbiased phenotypic profiles for validation of genetic parameters (Fernie and Schauer, 2009), and has the potential of being a powerful approach for future precision breeding (Zivy et al., 2015).Various different metabolomics approaches can be undertaken, generally encompassing untargeted metabolite profiling including broad-scale relative quantification of known and unknown metabolites and targeted profiling and absolute quantification of identified metabolites. As the accuracy of identification and quantification increases, so does the time required for analysis. Through integration with other 'omics to associate genotype with phenotype, the regulation of agronomic/ phenotypic traits (phenomics) at the genetic (genomics, epigenomics), transcriptional (transcriptomics), translational (proteomic) and metabolic level (metabolomics) can be dissected in a holistic systems biology manner to enhance the understanding of crop development and its responses to biotic and abiotic changes. The development of bioinformatics tools and resources has rapidly progressed alongside 'omics technologies to facilitate the integration and management of these large and complex datasets. However, the interpretation of integrated datasets is complex, requiring expertise and collaboration across many scientific fields, and remains the major challenge for multiomics investigations (Pinu et al., 2019;Misra et al., 2019). This system biology approach has already been applied to model crops such as tomato, rice, and wheat, in which metabolomics analyses have provided a richness of resources (Grennan, 2009;Perez-Fons et al., 2014) available to integrate with genetic breeding approaches. These resources rapidly accelerated progress for identifying trait markers (Schwahn et al., 2014;Li et al., 2016a;Sprenger et al., 2018), elucidation of biosynthetic pathways contributing to traits (Schwahn et al., 2014;Daygon et al., 2017), and validation of genetic/ metabolic prediction (Wei et al., 2018). For example, integrating genetic and metabolite markers for phenotypic traits of wheat has provided more robust signatures than either alone (Ward et al., 2015), and both were equally predictive for complex traits (Riedelsheimer et al., 2012).Furthermore, metabolite markers are inherently affected by environmental factors and can provide more precise measures for crop trait variation compared with genetic markers. Metabolite markers can be stably inherited (Chan et al., 2010) and, as such, the metabolome can be viewed in an analogous manner to the epigenome, acting as a dynamic yet conserved network comprised from genetic and environmental influence. Consequently, when performing comparative analyses of crop growth under different environments, quantifying the contributions of biochemical signatures towards phenotype is often simpler than for genetic markers, especially in highly heterozygous crops, like RTBs. This gives rise to the potential to generate chemotype core collections (CCC) for use in breeding, in which material selection is based on fixation of a complement of biochemical signatures that could confer the desired characteristics more robust to environmental variation. This is contrary to genotypic core collections, in which breeding tries to fix gene variants that can then often harbour different traits under different environments. Furthermore, increased trait stability of CCCs would provide a suitable base for comparative GxE (Genotype 9 Environment) studies to elucidate environmental effects on crop production (Xu, 2016). CCCs would therefore complement genotypic core collections to facilitate localized precision breeding in the future.Despite these advantages, the deployment of enhanced cultivars directly from metabolomics-directed breeding is still limited, largely based on the slow uptake by breeders and the limited access to this technology, with the field still being listed as prospective but with the potential to be game-changing for future agricultural practice (Kumar et al., 2017).Given the role that RTB crops play in the livelihoods of millions of people in the least developed nations, improvement is paramount. On the whole, RTBs are primarily grown through small-holder farms with a large proportion of child and female labour and, therefore, the crops hold extreme importance for the most vulnerable portions of society.Increasing the precision and speed of phenotyping during the breeding ladder (Figure 2) would enable faster crop improvements and, therefore, a multitude of benefits: (i) enhanced agronomic, breeding efficiency and consumer traits (e.g. increased yields, increased flowering, reduced dormancy and bio-fortification) to tackle food insecurity and malnutrition, which are more prevalent in RTB growing regions; (ii) decreased fertilizer inputs and improved pest and disease resistance to lower production costs and increase incomes; (iii) increased abiotic stress tolerance to improve climate change adaptation and yields on marginal, saline or drought prone soils; and (iv) facilitate a better understanding of basic phenomena such as crop evolution/domestication, ploidy, and inheritance mechanisms for understudied clonal crops.The metabolomics workflow implemented and optimized for each crop was based on a general concept (Figure 2). All plant materials collected were flash-frozen, lyophilized, and ground to a homogenous powder before undergoing metabolite profiling workflow to ensure consistent reproducibility. A common two-phase solvent extraction method was implemented to extract a broad range of metabolites from each type of sample. This standardized and widely used method also allowed rapid optimization of different tissue types. Furthermore, the partition into aqueous and organic phase allowed the independent analysis of polar and non-polar extracts, which simplified sample handling, chromatographic method development, and metabolite identification. During analysis, the requirements for extraction blanks, quality controls and internal standards were implemented to maintain consistency and good laboratory practices and enable normalization and batch correction (Fernie and Klee, 2011).The data generated can be deposited in public repositories addressing metabolomics in general (Metabolights, Dataverse, Metabolomics Workbench, Metexplore or Metabolonote) and/or crop specific database such as Cas-savaBase and MusaBase or PlantCyc. Initial fingerprinting via LC-MS was conducted on materials to enable a rapid screen of biochemical diversity, especially focussed on secondary metabolism as this is typically where the largest proportion of chemical diversity resides (De Luca et al., 2012). The bottleneck in many LC-MS based metabolomics studies is compound identification and use of the same chromatographic method meant data generated could also be used to guide the purchase of metabolite standards for LC-MS library generation. Typical fingerprinting screens were performed on methanol extracts and measured only one biological replicate for speed. A minimum of three biological replicates and at least two analytical platforms were used for untargeted studies, including study of both aqueous and organic extracts for more comprehensive coverage of the metabolome. For the identification of features/compounds detected during the untargeted analysis, quality controls representing a pool of samples for each species were used. Peaks detected during GC-MS and LC-MS analyses were identified using published libraries (e.g. NIST, GMD (Kopka et al., 2005), MassBank (Horai et al., 2010) etc.) and confirmed by authentic commercial standards to build a crop specific library. After database curation, automated analysis was possible for the whole dataset of each species and the identification process integrated as an element of the metabolomics data analysis pipeline. Nevertheless, manual curation was undertaken for each dataset to reduce matching errors. The analysis of isoprenoid derived metabolites, such as carotenoids and chlorophylls, was carried out using ultra high or high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector (U/HPLC-DAD). As the composition of leaf and tuber materials has been reported extensively (Burns et al., 2003;Drapal et al., 2017;Price et al., 2018;Drapal et al., 2019b;Drapal et al., 2019c) and methods previously validated (Fraser et al., 2000;Nogueira et al., 2013), this was performed in a semitargeted mode in which the majority of compounds was quantified absolutely. This approach remains essential due to the intrinsic chemical nature of the photosynthetic pigments displaying a lack of amenability to MS.The database curated for banana, cassava, potato, sweet potato, and yam, currently includes over 300 identified metabolites (Table S1). Additionally, significant numbers of reoccurring unidentified features summarized as 'unknowns' were measured (Figure 3 and Table S2). The metabolites identified in each crop present a broad range of the plant metabolome including amino acids, organic acids, compounds of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, isoprenoid derived compounds, phenylpropanoids, sugars, fatty acids, sterols, and corresponding subfamilies. The metabolite libraries have been implemented in the current projects of the RTB programme, facilitating the assessment of biochemical diversity, with future intentions to aid the identification of trait biomarkers in the RTB crops. The limits of metabolite concentrations have been reported to include all the available quantitative range for use in targeted breeding. This is exploitable because extremes are often favoured in crop breeding to achieve the maximum gains and enhancements above the average range and contrasts with other databases reporting the average and/ or standard deviation.Potato had the simplest biochemical profile with the presence of just 10 chemical classes (excluding unknowns); four of these related to primary metabolism. Sweet potato and banana comprised 13 and 16 chemical families, respectively, whilst the cassava and yam chemo-libraries sum up over 20 families of compounds (Figure 3a).Sugars was the largest annotated chemical class in all crops. This is expected in sink/storage organs as for the tissues analyzed in the collection. Similarly, chemical classes related to primary metabolism (namely amino acids, organic acids and components of the TCA cycle) were also well annotated in all species. Potato's chemical composition presented the largest proportion of these primary metabolite sectors with sugars comprising more than the other crops representing the presence of higher starch quantity.The divergence between crop compositions resided mostly in components related to secondary metabolism. For example, yams had a greater proportion of odd-chain fatty acids, which are rare in plants. Also characteristic of yam was the higher content and diversity of nitrogencontaining compounds such as amines, nucleobases, and catecholamines. Nevertheless, the catecholamine dopamine was vastly more abundant (up to one order of magnitude) in Musa. Triterpenoids also constituted a source of chemical diversity within the RTB crops with a more complex composition found in both cassava and yam. Whilst typically these compounds were detected in the leaf tissue of the accessions, yam tubers also presented significant amounts of sterols. Crude extracts of yam presented a range of triterpenoids, including cholesterol, reflecting the production of glycosylated steroidal saponins within this crop (Sautour et al., 2007). Similarly, cassava leaves showed an accumulation of amyrins and Metabolic fingerprint analysis typically takes c. 20 min per sample and generates c. 10 000 features, with data analysis being c. 1 h per 100 samples. Library creation is on-going but requires c. 20 h per crop before implementing automation, inclusive of machine time. Untargeted metabolite profiling takes c. 60 min per sample per analytical platform and data analysis plus manual curation takes c. 10 h per 100 samples. Example statistical visualizations created using SIMCA-P (Umetrics), Metscape (Basu et al., 2017) in Cytoscape (Shannon, 2003), and an in-house pathway mapper, Biosynlab (Royal Holloway University of London, UK). isomers, which are likely to represent the glycosylated pentacyclic saponins. High levels of b-carotene and xanthophylls were also observed for orange-fleshed lines of sweet potato and yam tubers, cassava roots, and Musa fruit, as to be expected. The largest diversity of phenolic compounds such as phenylpropanoids, coumarins, flavonoids and lignin/lignin oligomers was encountered in cassava and sweet potato, although for sweet potato many phenolics remain structurally elusive (level 3 unknown).Unknowns comprised over half of all metabolites measured (Figure 3b) and ranged from approximately one-quarter to one-third of features recorded, for each individual crop following the analysis of crude extracts (Figure 3a). Distinguishing the chemical features detected via LC-MS, and turning these into distinct compounds was challenging and will require further work to determine whether each peak is of biological origin. Given that in typical LC-MS screening over 90% of features detected are not true metabolites (Mahieu and Patti, 2017;Aksenov et al., 2017), a conservative approach to limit false positives was chosen in which only unknowns that are well characterized (e.g. via MS/MS, clear UV-vis spectra) were included in the database. The drawback to this is that the true level of unknowns may be greatly underestimated in the current database. As to be expected, the unknowns that could be assigned to a compound class were predominantly secondary metabolites (Table S2). Unknowns have been given unique identifiers to allow on-going annotations of compounds for libraries and curation and updating of the database (Table S2).The diversity of compound classes recorded was highest in yam and cassava, then banana, sweet potato, and lowest in potato (Figure 3a). This finding is not unsurprising, given that cassava was most intensively studied (most accessions and on all platforms) and yam is a multispecies crop and large biochemical diversity has previously been evidenced across the genus (Price et al., 2016). In line with this, yam presented the highest proportion of unknowns (c. 50%, Figure 3a); despite not undergoing LC-MS study as per the other crops. Sweet potato also had a comparably large proportion of unknowns (c. 45%) mostly comprising phenolic-derived compounds, which are likely to be conjugates (Drapal et al., 2019c). Accurate identification of such compounds has been shown to require comprehensive MS 3 fragmentation and is therefore beyond that typically conducted in current metabolite screening practices (Akimoto et al., 2017). Interestingly, even with the relatively extensive application of metabolomics to potato (Puzanskiy et al., 2017), a large number of unknowns still exists and is mostly sugars (Table S2). Carbohydrate analysis is particularly complex, with high numbers of isomers and complex polymers that are likely to contribute to the lack of conclusive annotation. Level 3 unknowns detected in banana extracts were mostly sugars and phenolics. Furthermore, cassava had the lowest proportion of unidentified metabolites. Cassava material has been the most intensively studied area (subjected to all three analytical platforms and the largest number of tissues and accessions analyzed). This highlights that extensive analysis via diverse methods can elucidate unknowns and slowly conquer the challenge of identification, commonly touted as metabolomics' biggest hurdle.Overall, the observed differences between crops' metabolite databases may be the result of the application of different analytical platforms to each crop within the modular pipeline. However, current observations match that expected from literature. Dominance of particular classes of compounds in each crop reflected the plasticity of plants metabolism to develop physiological features than can be linked to particular phenotypes.Presenting the ranges of metabolites recorded in a simple spreadsheet format enables the easy use of information regarding the comparative biochemical diversity of these under-characterized crops. All compounds detected represent a portion of the steady-state metabolome of the plant samples and can be used for untargeted data analysis to unravel the great amount of variation that can be used to guide breeding decisions. The system has proven to be robust over datasets even when measured months apart. Therefore, it is possible for future work to extend the platform from relative to proximate absolute quantification for many compounds through the generation of relative response factors to the internal standard (Cifkova et al., 2012) and subsequent correction following testing of extraction recovery. Therefore, the next step will represent the transition of the untargeted pipeline to a holistic semitargeted system. From this, data can be more informative for use in flux modelling and genome-wide reconstructions, which are essential for understanding the fundamental processes governing plant physiology (Kruger and Ratcliffe, 2015).More elaborate sample preparations, such as solid phase extraction (SPE) and molecular recognition, via immunoaffinity, or imprinting, can be used to extend the breadth of metabolites captured and increase metabolome coverage. However, this would concurrently increase the number of unidentified compounds, which already represent a considerable proportion of the dataset (Figure 3b). Extensive structural elucidation via multistage MS fragmentation (MS n ) and/or coupling of LC to NMR platforms (e.g. LC-SPE-MS/NMR) or ion mobility (e.g. LC-IMS-MS)has not yet become routine, largely hindered by the high capital costs at outset, and expert knowledge required for data interpretation, which is labour intensive. That said, in recent years a great deal of progress has been made towards the accessibility of tools for computational interpretation of such data (Spicer et al., 2017;Tsugawa, 2018). Investments in automated structural elucidation of unidentified compounds have the potential to revolutionize metabolomics workflows by overcoming the current bottleneck of structural elucidation.However, knowing the structure of a compound does not allow one to fully assess biological relevance. Recent years have seen a shift towards increased spatial resolution via mass spectrometry imaging and localization through cell sorting and laser microdissection etc., alongside flux-omics and longitudinal (time-series/developmental) applications. These applications evidence that contextualizing metabolomics data requires a detailed understanding of metabolic network dynamics and functional activity, which will become the next hurdle for the field.Screening of complete germplasm collections will allow the establishment of a CCC that comprises the majority of biochemical diversity available. CCCs would therefore represent an advance in precision over morphological core collections and can be overlaid with genotypic collections to reduce and focus the selection on accessions with the highest prospects for successful transfer of desired traits, that is through overcoming genetic differences that do not translate through to phenotype and by encompassing biochemical traits not observed at the morphological level.Future work appears set to capitalize on the synergy of pursuing a multiple 'omics platform for rapid progress during crop improvement and breeding. At the forefront of this pursuit is the combination of genomics and transcriptomics for breeding and trait understanding. Moreover, recently, metabolomics has been favoured to enhance precision during molecular phenotyping, and the utilization of such methods looks set to increase. Metabolomics can prove especially useful when tackling complex traits, that is those with many determinants, as the metabolome inherently reflects environmental factors and other stimuli such as chemical interactions. This is evidenced by the preference for elucidation of 'interactomes' such as the rhizosphere and volatile-ome of plants by incorporating deep sequencing of the microbiome (Hu et al., 2018;Jacoby and Kopriva, 2019) or atmospheric transformation of volatiles (Blande et al., 2014;Li et al., 2016b), respectively. Combining these measurements expands the biological system to the complete local environment and therefore characterization occurs at the ecosystem level.Improvement of RTB crops is vital for the attainment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals and improving livelihoods in the most deprived regions of the globe. In addition, the RTB crops show potential as scientific models for the analysis of complex genetic architectures, revealing the interplay between evolution and domestication in clonal crops.Breeding and development for each of the RTB crops shows unique pitfalls and problems, yet each is widely grown due to the unique traits they present. The complexities that have hindered crop improvement and agronomic development for production of RTBs to date may also be the crops' largest saviours. In light of climate change, the large morphological plasticity, limited genetic assimilation, and resilience of these crops to extreme conditions and low technology agricultural systems provide the potential to adapt and overcome the impacts of global warming and, therefore, provide the incentive to increase research efforts towards these critically important understudied RTB crops. To ensure this, the breeding community needs to move beyond viewing metabolomics and other 'omics as a hypothesis-free service science to techniques that can be integrated to solve complex biological questions in a rapid, large-scale manner. Ironically, the initial characterization of plant genetic resources and diversity available is crucial to pose the biological questions for investigation and, as such, metabolomics can progress on both fronts.Samples from in vitro cultures and plants grown in the field were harvested, flash-frozen with liquid nitrogen, and lyophilized to remove all water content. The samples comprised a collection of different tissues, for example leaf, root, tuber, stem, and fruit from each crop. The tissue samples were then ground to a fine powder and metabolites extracted. Sample preparation and extraction and the profiling procedure of the extracts was based on previously published protocols and optimized for each crop to account for the matrix effects of the respective tissue (Perez-Fons et al., 2014;Price et al., 2016;Drapal et al., 2017;Price et al., 2017;Price et al., 2018;Drapal et al., 2019a;Drapal et al., 2019b;Drapal et al., 2019c). To account for the difference in chemical properties of the metabolites, three different platforms were utilized in a modular manner for the screening process: ultra/high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (U/HPLC-DAD), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The yam materials underwent GC-MS of both polar and non-polar extracts alongside HPLC-DAD of the non-polar phase. All other crops underwent GC-MS and LC-MS analysis on polar extracts and UPLC-DAD of non-polar extracts. Non-polar extracts from cassava and sweet potato were also subjected to GC-MS analysis.The curation of crop specific libraries with identified metabolites followed the same workflow for both the GC-MS and LC-MS analytical platforms (Figure 3), whereas an established UPLC-DAD library was used for all crops (Fraser et al., 2000;Burns et al., 2003) with an extended version used for yam and sweet potato (Price et al., 2018). All features detected in the generated sample set were aligned and following statistical analysis, significant features were identified and confirmed with standards (Fernie and Klee, 2011). GC-MS data were processed via AMDIS (v2.71, NIST) whereas the alignment and filtering of chromatograms for LC-MS was achieved via metaMS (Wehrens et al., 2014;Franceschi et al., 2014). U/HPLC-PDA data were analyzed via Empower 2 TM software (Waters Corp.). Manual confirmation of the identified compounds was carried out (Table S1) and recurrent unidentified features that represent hypothetical compounds have been reported with unique identifiers per species (Table S2) (Bino et al., 2004). Normalization to internal standards and sample weight allowed relative quantification, concatenation of data from the platforms, and subsequent comparison between tissue types and species. For the UPLC, absolute quantification for the major photosynthetic compounds (b-carotene, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, phytoene, phytofluene, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, b-cryptoxanthin, lutein, antheraxanthin, and zeaxanthin) was achieved via comparison with dose-response curves of authentic commercially available standards. For carotenoids, for which an authentic standard was not available, quantification was based on standard curves of carotenoids with the closest chemical structure and spectral properties similarity. When compounds were detected on more than one analytical platform, the values reported in the database represent that of the maxima recorded and the analytical technique that proved to be more amenable was cited first. The database and pie-charts were created in Microsoft Excel 2013.As the compiled dataset was comprised of numerous independent analyses undertaken over a three-year time-frame, the metabolite ranges reported for each crop differed in the number of samples analyzed and replicate measurements made. However, for each metabolite reported per crop a minimum of 12 measurements were taken and the validity and repeatability of measures were controlled within each independent study. Furthermore, analytical drift and different response factors were controlled platform-to-platform, batch-to-batch and study-to-study via the analysis of both reference sample (quality control) and reference metabolite (internal standard) to ensure robustness. discussion of data, Harriet Berry (RHUL) for validation of a subset of data sets and Michael Friedmann (CIP) for critical reading and suggestions.","tokenCount":"4565"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d917d26926c93e4332a734ac50931c1d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/006265fd-e6ce-4d6d-90c5-df3566adb3a5/retrieve","id":"16372792"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5300f4b6-a09c-4076-9565-0b7c9ea81544","pagecount":"18","content":"• New vaccines being developed -not much attention on vaccination strategies• Current strategy -reactive vaccination which often fails to achieve required coverage• RVF vaccines often delivered through state financing -can value chain actors cost share? Are they willing to pay? What influences acceptance?• One Health dimension -economic benefits of vaccination in livestock?Activities and their schedules timing • To determine the effect of livestock population turnover on herd immunity against RVF in cattle, sheep, goats and camels• To collect demographic and socio-economic data that can be used to estimate parameters for modelling livestock population dynamics in a pastoral production systemWhat do we know about longevity of RVF response?Vaccination study -Sampling design• Two sampling designs:-Longitudinal study using 30 cattle, 30 sheep/goats and 30 camels -Repeated cross sectional sampling of 22 herds from which these animals come from  Smithburn RVF vaccine• Collect WBC at early for transcriptomics • Collect sera at all time-points -cELISA -VNTVaccination study -Data collection ","tokenCount":"155"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"123c4d84e0c26db2c891bbdf56dedbb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2d731ba-b99c-420e-946f-44aa5048194c/retrieve","id":"1716589477"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf5e6c07-9db3-48dc-9f5a-85d5a0bc8081","pagecount":"28","content":"• 22,657 accesiones conservadas en -18C Since it rains about 100 days a year in Palmira, we take advantage of the generosity of the local climate. Therefore, at Future Seeds We take all the water we need from the rain and then treat the used water before retuning it to the land.Near Future Seeds there is a solar panel plantation that provides almost hald of the electrical energy the building needs to operate.The use of efficient lighting, cooling systems and materials that reduce energy consumption, make this place always environmentally friendly.The roof is designed to let in sunlight, but only as much as necessary, so that heat does not accumulate. This large pergola protects the spaces it covers with its shade and allows them to be open to the landscape, to the wind, to the singing birds.This building is intended to behave like a tree, a forest, and a canopy. It is built with the most environmentally friendly materials. Its structure, like the branches of the saman tree, is open to the landscape, the light, the air, and the rain.The vegetation we plant is native to the region or adapted to the local climate and needs only rainwater to thrive. It also attracts birds and insects and maintains the health of the soil.We wanted the construction materials to be the least polluting for the environment. Being sustainable not only implies thinking about the planet and its finite resources, but also about our wellbeing.The windThe canopyThe materialsIn vitro    Favorable alleles• Se identificaron varios loci/alelos asociados con climas calientes y secos• Se seleccionaron accesiones con las mejores combinaciones de alelos para pre-mejoramiento Cassava CassavaMónica Carvajal","tokenCount":"273"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"791f829ee4962f4f4a1ff8dcc890306e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e98b5375-d0bd-48af-be5e-12632b6fb3e7/retrieve","id":"766932988"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"90f8f64d-569d-4578-8a46-552322f40ef2","pagecount":"2","content":"Whcn Akwa Ibom was declared a new slalc in Nigeria in 1987, Ihis was a dream come lrue for ils morc Ihan Iwo million inhabilanlS, dedicaled principally 10 farming and fi shing.Located in Nigeria's riverine, oilproducing area of Ihe soulheasl, Akwa lbom wasaffecled by occasional oil spills, which conlaminaled bOlh farmland and aqualic life. II was hoped Ihal, as a Slale, il would reccivc a largcr share of lhe nalional budgel deSlined for allevialing problems in oil-producing Slales, and Ihal Ihe impaci of govemmenlal developmenl programs would be grealer.In 1988, however, Ihe newly nedged slale faced a tOlally unexpecled crisis-a severe allack of African cassava leaf mosaic disease (ACMD), which ruined Ihe slale's crop. ACMD manifeslS principally by wrinkled leaves wilh while palches, caused by lack of chlorophyll. Thus, Ihe leaves cannOI produce the food Ihal the planl needs, which, therefore, eslablishes poorly, lacks vigor, and yields lillie (Figure I).Thc epidemic spread rapidly Ihrough thousands of hectares, which yielded al Icss Ihan 2 tons/l,. (inslead of the 20 10 This vigorous campaign to promote improved varielies had a large impacl: Ihe price of improved Slakes, which was 8 to 10 nairas' per bundle in 1988, dropped to 5 nairas by 1991, and the price of gari fell from I cup per naira to 3 cups per naira in the same period. In addition, farmers did not have to use chemicals, thus avoiding environmental problems.I. 1988 exchlnge rale: N20.oo \"\" USS1 .oo.In 496 pages, this CIA T working document includes about 80 themes from conferences, presentations, and reports of the working groups of the first international meeting on cassava biotechnology held in Cartagena, Colombia, 25-28 August 1992.The book offers the reader a complete vision of the present status of biotechnology in cassava research, and the implications and perspectives of this methodology for Third World countries. Themes include cassava quality, processing, and utilization; studies on photosynthesis, cyanogenesis, and plant-microorganism associations; policies for biotechnology research ; the most recent advances in tisslle culture and genetic transfonnation; methodo logies for applying biotechnology in research on cassava physiology, and in the characterization and conservation of its germplasm; and the role of social sciences in the biotechnology of cassava.CIAT has a limited number of copies available for sale to scientists in industrialized countries (at US$25 .00). To scienlists from developing countries, copies arc sent free after study of each request 10The improved, disease-resistant varieties are now available in all cassavagrowing areas of Akwa Ibom, and farmers are multiplying them on their farms. These varieties are higher yielding and are also resistant to cassava bacterial blight. Farmers are enjoying a bener standard of living. They have enough NEW PUBLICATIONS and on the expectation that these copies will be shared with other interested colleagues.For further information, contact: Dr. Ann Marie Thro Coordinator Cassava Biotechnology Network CIAT Apartado A~reo 6713 Cali, Colombia EI cultivo de la yuca en Ecuador: Su comerciaJizacion, impacto en la agroindustria, aspectos socioeconomicos y de organizacion de los productores A compilation of presentations made at three seminars on cassava in 1988, 1989, and 1990  In 473 pages, the publication describes cassava research and devclopment carried out by CIA T and collaborating institutions, the principal results of this work, and future prospects. The book begins with a 20-page summary and is organized by discipline and by special projects carried out cooperativcly in different countries of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.","tokenCount":"564"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eec8c91821d1dccec6369f15ce9ab9e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1bc8d04-e3df-453f-9428-ef3c2cab0e68/retrieve","id":"-462725855"},"keywords":["flupyradifurone","parasitoids","Encarsia spp.","Eretmocerus spp.","CMD","CBSD","IPM"],"sieverID":"906a63db-1f1d-4ce5-8a59-e4cf9a51b403","pagecount":"15","content":"The results from this study, conducted under farmer field conditions, show that application of the insecticide flupyradifurone through cassava cutting dips is effective at reducing whitefly numbers and cassava mosaic disease incidence and increasing cassava root yield. Insecticide application through cutting dips is geared as an integrated pest management strategy that could limit the trophic transfer of pesticides. We found that the rate of parasitism by individual parasitoid species was not significantly affected by the application of flupyradifurone. This strategy could be scaled further for the management of whiteflies in cassava, while at the same time minimizing the impact on non-target beneficial insects.The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera), is one of the most economically damaging pest species of crop plants in Africa [1,2]. It causes physical damage as well as transmits many plant viruses. Besides the importance on cassava, the species complex is well-known across the world as one of the most important global pests and has been reported on 500 plant species in 74 families [3]. Severe prolonged whitefly infestations coupled with sooty mould, leaf chlorosis, and leaf fall results in considerable root yield reduction in cassava [4]. In sub-Saharan Africa, B. tabaci is considered a major pest of Insects 2023, 14, 796 2 of 15 cassava because it vectors viruses that cause two major diseases that negatively impact agronomic and economic aspects of cassava production. These are cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) [5]. Overall, these viruses affect more than half of all cassava plants in sub-Saharan Africa and cause annual losses of more than USD 1 billion [6].Insecticide development against B. tabaci was undertaken following outbreaks across North America in the 1990s. The compounds used were conventional neurotoxic compounds, such as bifenthin, insect growth regulators (IGRs), and most recently neonicotinoids. Reports show that pyrethroids were most efficacious, however, as spray mixtures, as the compounds used alone only provided minimal protection against B. tabaci [7]. Nicotinic accetylcholine receptor agonists (nAChR) present the newest groups of insecticides, with a unique systemic mode of action due to high water solubility and long residual efficacy. Among nAChR agonists, there are different classes, such as neonicotinoids and butenolides. Metabolized neonicotinoids are found to have a tenfold greater toxicity than the initial compound. Neonicotinoids can be applied as foliar sprays but also with other methods, such as soil drenches, subsurface granule application, and seed treatments. Imidacloprid was the first neonicotinoid that was widely used for the management of B. tabaci on vegetable crops [7].B. tabaci is a cryptic species complex with the cassava-colonizing type identified based on mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase I (COI) sequencing as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), which has five groups (SSA1-5), with the major one, SSA1, divided into subgroups (SSA1-SG1 to SG5) [8,9]. Recently, six major haplogroups of cassava B. tabaci were defined (SSA-ECA, SSA-ESA, SSA-CA, SSA-WA, SSA2, SSA4) based on more robust SNP genotyping [10]. B. tabaci cryptic species respond differently to insecticides, with some, such as MEAM1 and MED, developing resistance to a wide range of current chemistries [11]. The cryptic species that is predominant in the study area is the haplogroup SSA-ESA (mitotype SSA1-SG3) [9,10].Flupyradifurone, registered name Sivanto (SL 200), is a systemic insecticide with flexible modes of application and is mainly intended for the control of sucking pests, such as aphids, hoppers, and whiteflies. Flupyradifurone acts as a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, such as the neonicotinoids; however, it is included in the class of butenolide insecticides based on its butenolide scaffold. It acts on a variety of pests with piercing and sucking mouthparts with high selectivity, quick action, and long-lasting effects [12]. Flupyradifurone has particular promise as an insecticide due to its relatively safe toxicological and ecotoxicological profile and versatility in application [12]. It is reported to be effective on nicotinoid-resistant B. tabaci in cotton, opening new options for resistance management. Flupyradifurone has been evaluated using various assays under laboratory and field conditions and is reported to be among the most effective insecticides against adult B. tabaci whiteflies [13][14][15]. Flupyradifurone has also been shown to control whiteflytransmitted viruses through the suppression of transmission [16,17]. Promising advantages over imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin were highlighted by findings of a 100-fold lower toxicity to honeybees, also considering the sublethal effects and low acute contact toxicity [18].Parasitoids have been recognized as effective biocontrol agents against a broad range of agricultural pests, and many have been commercially developed for biocontrol for several crops [19]. Parasitoids have several benefits, especially in the IPM context. Parasitoids have been shown to be permanent pest managers outside of target fields, as they provide similar levels of B. tabaci parasitism on other herbaceous plants surrounding cassava fields [20]. Not only are natural enemies sustainable and safe, but they are inexpensive, once naturalized, thus appropriate in the subsistence farming context. Bemisia tabaci is parasitized by an estimated 34 species of Encarsia, 14 species of Eretmocerus, and several species belonging to the genera Amitus and Metaphycus worldwide [21]. The parasitic wasps Encarsia spp. and Eretmocerus spp. are known to utilize the cassava whitefly B. tabaci as their host in East Africa [20,[22][23][24], in Cameroon [25], and in Burkina Faso [26]. Six species of Encarsia were reported in Tanzania, with Encarsia sophia Dodd and Girault as the most prevalent parasitoid, followed by Encarsia lutea Masi. Eretmocerus has four species, with Eretmocerus mundus Mercet as the most prevalent [20]. The intensive utilization of insecticides for the control of arthropod pests is a significant factor in the disruption of biological control by parasitoids and predators through reduction in population density and activity in the field [27,28]. Options are employed that minimize the impact of insecticides on biological control agents, such as reduced application, the use of selective and less persistent chemistries, targeted application, and changes in mode of application [27,28].The electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique is a powerful tool used to study the feeding behavior of piercing-sucking insects, including whiteflies. EPG creates an electric circuit through the insect and the plant and measures the fluctuations in voltage in real-time while the insect is feeding, producing the waveforms that describe the feeding behaviour in detail [29]. The EPG technique has been widely used on B. tabaci in studies focusing on virus transmission, host resistance factors, and insecticide effects [30][31][32][33][34][35].Cassava cuttings as seed material permit insecticide application with the soaking of the cuttings. This provides a protection for the initial growth phase. Research plot testing of flupyradifurone through cassava cutting dipping showed that it is effective at reducing adult whiteflies in the range of 46-83% and nymphs by 64-91% in small research plots [36]. The current study aimed to test the efficacy of cutting dipping in a real farming situation through farmer participatory trials and to assess the impact of flupyradifurone on whitefly parasitism. In addition, we ran laboratory experiments to monitor the probing behaviour of cassava whitefly on plants established from cuttings dipped in flupyradifurone versus non-treated control plants using the electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique. EPG elucidates the impact of systemic flupyradifurone one month after cutting dipping, giving us a detailed understanding of the whitefly probing and feeding time, at the nexus of the insecticide uptake, as well as the virus transmission. Other EPG studies have so-far focused on direct foliar spray application, monitored within days after application [33,[37][38][39].Incidence-Farmer Field Study 2.1.1. Plant Materials, Insecticide, Farmer Selection, and Field Planting Ten volunteer farmers were recruited through collaboration with agricultural extension officers within the selected village named Mkuchembe (7 • 21 18 S 39 • 05 51 E • 92.2 m) in the Mkuranga District of the Pwani Region, Tanzania. The location selected has tropical weather conditions with a bi-modal rainfall pattern that comprises a long rainfall season (Masika) between March and June and a short rainfall season (Vuli) between October and December [40]. This location was selected because farmers encounter high incidences of CMD and CBSD and abundant populations of the whitefly vector B. tabaci. The trials were established during the long rainfall season of Masika (planted 3 March 2021). Each farmer agreed to prepare a plot of 50 m × 20 m size. The farms were randomly selected with a separation distance of 1 to 1.5 km apart. Cassava virus-free planting materials of the variety Kiroba were bought from a local authorized cassava stem producer in Kimanzichana, Mkuranga, for all 10 farmers. The insecticide flupyradifurone (Sivanto ® 200SL) was provided by Bayer AG (Monheim, Germany).The cassava stems were cut into 15 cm long cuttings, each with 5 to 7 nodes. Each of 10 farms was divided into two sections, such that there were 20 × 20 m arrays of 400 untreated cassava cuttings that served as the control and 20 × 20 m arrays of 400 cassava cuttings that were treated with flupyradifurone. For treating with flupyradifurone, the 400 cassava cuttings were divided into two groups of 200 cassava cuttings, and each group was tied together and dipped for 1 h in 160 L diluted insecticide solutions contained in plastic drums. The dividing was performed purposely to allow the tied stack to fit in the drums properly. The cuttings both for control and treated were planted in respective farm portions at a spacing of 1 m × 1 m within and between rows. The manufacturerrecommended concentrations were used for flupyradifurone at 100 g a.i/100 L. The cuttings in the control were not dipped in water; this was necessary to demonstrate the practical application of this technology under farmer field conditions.The percentage of sprouted cuttings was recorded as the proportion of sprouted cuttings out of the 400 planted each for flupyradifurone and non-treated control 3 weeks after planting. A central square plot with 100 plants was then selected, and 30 plants were randomly picked and tagged for data collection. Assessment was performed monthly for a period of six months for whitefly and nymph counts, as well as for the incidence and severity of CMD and CBSD. Parasitism was evaluated on 4-month-old plants (4 months after planting). Adult whiteflies were counted on the top five fully opened leaves, while whitefly nymphs were counted on the 9th and 10th leaves from the top of the plant (lowest two fully opened leaves in the case that plants did not have 10 leaves). CMD and CBSD were assessed visually on the same plants, and foliar symptom severity was recorded using the following method. CMD severity was assessed using the 1-5 scoring scale, where 1 = cassava plant showing no leaf symptoms; 2 = mild distortion and mild chlorosis on the leaves; 3 = significant distortion and chlorosis on one-third of most leaves; 4 = extreme distortion and presence of mosaic patterns on two-third of most leaves and general reduction of leaf size; and 5 = very severe mosaic symptoms on all leaves, appearance of distortion, twisting, misshapen, and severe leaf reduction of most leaves, accompanied by the severe stunting of plants [41]. CBSD plants were assessed using a score of 1-5, where 1 = no apparent symptoms; 2 = slight foliar feathery chlorosis and no stem lesions; 3 = prominent foliar feathery chlorosis, mild stem lesions, and no dieback; 4 = severe foliar feathery chlorosis, severe stem lesions, and no dieback; and 5 = defoliation, severe stem lesions, and dieback [42]. CMD and CBSD incidences were recorded as the proportion of plants with symptoms out of the 30 plants that were tagged for data collection. In addition, three plants were randomly selected from each farm to record stem height and number of stems per cutting planted. At 10 months after planting (MAP), the 30 plants from which monthly data were collected were harvested, and the yield in grams and number of roots per plant were determined. The CBSD root severity was assessed on all harvested roots from each plant using the 1-5 scoring scale, where 1 = no apparent necrosis, 2 = ≤ 5% of root necrosis, 3 = 6-10% of root necrosis, 4 = 11-25% of root necrosis and mild root constrictions, and 5 ≥ 25% of root necrosis with severe root constriction [42]. The cassava whitefly haplogroup that colonizes cassava in the Mkuranga District of the Pwani Region, Tanzania, where this study was carried out, is predominantly sub-Saharan Africa East and Southern Africa (SSA-ESA-mitotype SSA1-SG3). The other haplogroups have so far not been detected in this region [10].The plants used in this activity were selected from the ten farms that had flupyradifuronetreated and non-treated control plots, and using the same plots that were used to monitor whitefly abundance, CMD and CBSD. Leaves were stripped off four randomly selected 4-month-old plants (4 months after planting) per treatment, and leaves were arranged to maintain their order. In total, eight plants were selected per field, totalling 80 plants from all ten fields and equating to 40 control plants and 40 flupyradifurone-treated plants. All leaves from the 80 plants were harvested in a single day. The ordered leaves from young to old (top to bottom in cassava) were stuck in between two long strips of masking tape with spacing in between and placed in fabric bags to prevent condensation and rotting. Samples were transported in a cool box and stored at 9 • C in a cool room over the counting period.The undersides of leaves were inspected through a stereo microscope. The 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instar nymphs and pupa stages were identified and recorded based on size and shape. The condition of the instar stages was differentiated by checking for green-paired mycetomes indicating a healthy instar; glossy flattened instar shell with no mycetomes indicating predation; and pale instars with orange discolored mycetomes, indicating death of unknown cause. B. tabaci pupae and nymphs parasitized by Eretmocerus spp., Encarsia sophia, and En. lutea were identified using standard morphological techniques [22]. The B. tabaci haplogroup used in this study was from sub-Saharan Africa East and Southern Africa (SSA-ESA-mitotype SSA1-SG3) [10]. The whiteflies were collected from cassava plants in Chambezi in the Bagamoyo District, Coast Region, Tanzania, in May 2019 and introduced to potted cassava plants placed in 50 × 50 × 100 cm netted cages. The cassava plants were grown in 7.5 L pots containing a mixture of soil and farmyard manure at a 4:1 ratio, and the whitefly colonies were reared on the cassava plants in the screen house at 25-30 • C and 65-75% RH. Whiteflies were transferred to fresh one-month-old cassava plants at intervals of four to six weeks to maintain the colonies. The cassava plants were established in a screenhouse at IITA-Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, using the whitefly-preferred cassava variety Albert. Cassava cuttings were dipped into solutions of flupyradifurone (100 g a.i/100 L) or water for 1 h. A total of 40 cuttings were planted individually in 1 L pots containing a mixture of soil and farmyard manure for each treatment. Thirty-two plants were selected and used for EPG experiments at the four-leaf stage.The probing and feeding behaviours of whiteflies on plants treated with flupyradifurone vs. the control were monitored using the electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique [29]. The experiments were carried out using the Giga-8d DC-EPG device, which has an input resistance of 1 Giga-ohm and can record up to 8 insects at once (EPG systems, Wageningen, The Netherlands). A 1 cm long, 2.5 µm thick platinum wire (Sigmund Cohn Corp., Mt Vernon, NY, USA) was attached to the top of the head of the test insect (adult female whitefly) using electrically conductive silver glue (EPG Systems, Wageningen, The Netherlands). The other end of the platinum wire was attached to a 2.5 cm copper wire, which was then soldered to a brass nail inserted into the EPG probe. The platinum wire was thin and flexible, which allowed the attached insect to move around freely [35]. One insect was placed on one plant, and plants were used only once. Insects were placed on the abaxial surface of the second leaf from the top of the plant. To access the lower surface, leaves were inverted, and their bases were taped to a solid surface with electrical tape. The abaxial surface was used since it is usually the preferred feeding site for whiteflies. Eight plants were recorded at one time for 12 h. Four of the eight were flupyradifurone-treated, and the other four were water-treated controls. A total of 32 plants were recorded per treatment for flupyradifurone and the control. The EPG waveforms selected for analysis included the following distinct waveforms: (i) C: the intercellular apoplastic stylet pathway where the insects showed the cyclic activity of mechanical stylet penetration and secretion of saliva; (ii) Pd: potential drops resulting from intracellular stylet puncture occurring during the stylet pathway; (iii) E1: salivation into phloem sieve elements at the beginning of the phloem phase; (iv) E2: passive phloem sap uptake from the sieve element; (v) G: the active intake of xylem sap; (vi) Np: non-probing, where insect stylets are withdrawn from the leaf [35].The field experiment data were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using PROC GLIMMIX (SAS version 9.4; SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) with Poisson distribution for whitefly adults, nymph numbers, and parasitoid numbers and lognormal distribution for percent cutting sprouting, percent incidence of CMD and CBSD, percent parasitism, and yield data. The fixed factor was treatment, and the random factors were farmers' plots and replications. The flupyradifurone treatment was considered significant at p = 0.05. The LSMEANS statement was used to obtain least squares means, and the Tukey-Kramer test was used for means separation. Treatment means and standard errors were ob-tained using the PROC MEANS statement in SAS. The disease severity scores for CMD and CBSD were subjected to a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. Raw EPG data were recorded by EPG Systems Stylet+d and manually annotated using EPG Systems Stylet+a software v01.30. The annotated files were imported into the EPG_analysisworksheet_v4.4.3.xls, which contained a worksheet and data subjected to analysis of variance using PROC GLIM-MIX with lognormal. The flupyradifurone treatment was considered significant at p = 0.05. The LSMEANS statement was used to obtain least squares means, and the Dunnett test was used for the comparison of treatment to the control. Treatment means and standard errors were obtained using the PROC MEANS statement in SAS.The adult whitefly numbers were in the range of 0-18 in the control group and 0-12 in the flupyradifurone group. The differences were only significant (p < 0.05) at 1 month after planting (MAP), 3MAP, and 5MAP, and on average, there was a 41% reduction in numbers on treated plants (Figure 1A). The number of nymphs ranged from 6 to 65 for the non-treated control and 1 to 29 for flupyradifurone-treated plants. On average, there was a 65% reduction in nymphs on treated plants. This significant reduction (p < 0.0001) persisted over the entire six-month period (Figure 1B).   The incidence of CMD was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) in flupyradifurone compared to the control for the six-month duration (Figure 2A). The incidence range for non-treated control plants was 0-55% with an average of 41%, while the treated plants had a range of 0-39% with an average range of 27%. The CBSD incidence was not significantly different in the control group and flupyradifurone group (p > 0.05). The incidence was 0% at 1MAP after planting, but in subsequent months, it was in the range of 82-98% with an average of 76% in both treated and non-treated control plants (Figure 2B). The disease severity of CMD was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in flupyradifurone-treated plants compared to control plants at 3MAP, 4MAP, 5MAP, and 6MAP (Table 1). The severity of CBSD foliar symptoms was significantly lower in flupyradifurone-treated compared to control plants at 5MAP and 6MAP (Table 1).     The cutting sprouting in plants treated with flupyradifurone was not significantly different (p = 0.6046) compared to control plants (Table 2). The plants treated with flupyradifurone produced significantly longer stems (p < 0.0001) by 46% compared to non-treated control plants at 6MAP (Table 2). The average number of stems per cutting at 6MAP was slightly higher in the flupyradifurone treatment, but this difference was not significant compared to non-treated control plants (Table 2). The number of roots in plants treated with flupyradifurone was significantly greater (p < 0.0001) by 38%, while the root weight was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) (49%) compared to non-treated control plants (Table 2). The incidence of CBSD in roots was very low (<1%) with only 1 out of 300 plants in the control group and 3 out 300 plants in the flupyradifurone group showing mild necrosis (score 2 ≤ 5% of root necrosis). Whitefly stages and parasitized pupae were counted from leaves stripped from entire selected plants per each treatment. The mean total number of eggs, first stage, and fourth stage nymphs were significantly lower (p < 0.0144) on flupyradifurone-treated plants compared to non-treated control plants, but there were no significant differences for second and third stage nymphs (Table 3). The mean total number of parasitoids Eretmocerus spp. was significantly less (p = 0.0216) on flupyradifurone-treated plants compared to non-treated control plants, while the numbers for Encarsia sophia and E. lutea were not significantly different (Table 3). The percentage of parasitism calculated as the proportion of parasitized nymphs to total nymph counts (sum of parasitized and unparasitized nymphs) showed there were no significant differences for Encarsia spp. on flupyradifurone-treated plants compared to non-treated control plants for individual parasitoid species. Combined parasitism (Encarsia spp. and Eretmocerus spp.) showed that the flupyradifurone treatment was marginally lower but not significantly different (p = 0.0551) compared to the control plots (Table 3). A total of 18 whitefly EPG probing behaviours were reported in this study (Table 4). The time from the start of the EPG to the first phloem phase (E) and the time from the start of probing to the first E were significantly shorter (p < 0.05) by 1.9 times in non-treated control plants compared to flupyradifurone-treated plants. The total probing duration (C) was significantly longer (p = 0.0125) in control plants compared to flupyradifurone-treated plants, while the total non-probing (np) duration was significantly longer (p = 0.0105) by two times in treated plants compared to control plants. The mean np duration in flupyradifurone-treated plants was significantly longer (p = 0.0005) by five times compared to the control. The total potential drop duration (pd) was significantly longer (p = 0.0399) by two times on control plants compared to flupyradifurone-treated plants. The phloem ingestion total and mean durations were 1.8 and 2 times longer, respectively, in control compared to flupyradifurone-treated plants, although these differences were not significant (Table 4). The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is a damaging pest of numerous crops worldwide. This study sought to evaluate the efficacy of cassava cutting dipping in flupyradifurone against cassava whiteflies under farmer field participatory trials and to assess the impact on whitefly parasitism. The cutting dipping method for flupyradifurone proved effective against cassava whitefly B. tabaci haplogroup SSA-ESA (mitotype SSA1-SG3) under screen house and small research plot experiments [36].The farmer participatory study reported here was carried out during the long rainfall (Masika) season because farmers prefer planting cassava during this season, although whiteflies are known to be abundant during the short rainfall (Vuli) season [36,43]. Surprisingly, the farmer fields had abundant whiteflies that were comparable in numbers to those usually recorded during the Vuli season, and the nymphs at 6MAP in control plots were in the range of 5-65 compared to 7-43 that was reported for a Vuli season experiment [36]. This could be attributed to the unusually dry conditions experienced during the study period.The findings from this experiment showed that dipping cassava cuttings in flupyradifurone before planting is effective at reducing whitefly numbers and nymphs for up to a duration of six months under farmer field conditions. The incidence and severity of CMD was also significantly reduced, a fact that is a likely consequence of the reduced whitefly populations in treated plants. Previous studies under controlled conditions showed that the application of flupyradifurone reduced the virus transmission of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus [16,44] and Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus [45]. Tomato yellow leaf curl virus incidence was significantly reduced on tomatoes under field conditions in flupyradifurone-treated plots compared to the control [46]. The incidence of CBSD was high from an early stage, reaching an average of 83% at 2MAP, but the severity score was in the range of 2.46 to 2.96 which corresponded to foliar feathery symptoms. This suggests that there was a very high inoculum pressure from surrounding infected fields. The viruses that cause CBSD are transmitted semi-persistently by B. tabaci [47], which means that plants can be rapidly inoculated but that the virus is not retained for long periods, meaning that most transmission occurs over short distances [48]. The mild severity of foliar symptoms of CBSD throughout the six-month duration, despite the early infection of plants, and the <1% root infection incidence indicate that the variety Kiroba has some tolerance to CBSD [43]. By contrast, the begomoviruses that cause CMD are persistently transmitted, which means that inoculation takes several hours of feeding, but viruses can be carried throughout the insects lifetime and spread over relatively long distances [49]. These facts mean that CMD is more readily controlled using insecticides, as feeding adults are likely to die before inoculation has occurred. It should also be noted that having an untreated control adjacent to the treated plots meant that the effectiveness of the insecticidal treatment was compromised to some degree. This could be addressed in the future by establishing treated and control plots in different locations. For farmers applying cutting dip treatments, however, it is anticipated that the benefits of virus control would be greater than those demonstrated in this experiment, as they would treat their entire field rather than just a portion.The yield increase of 49% shows that farmers who adopted the use of flupyradifuronetreated cuttings, based on yield obtained in this study, could harvest approximately 11.5 t/Ha compared to non-treated cuttings with a yield of 7.7 t/Ha. This significant increase in yield shows that whitefly damage alone in cassava, apart from the transmission of viruses, also does cause high yield losses. The stems in treated fields were on average 46% longer, which is an indication that farmers who sell stems could benefit more with treated cuttings. A previous study on cassava testing combined cutting dipping and spraying of imadicloprid and reported reduced whitefly numbers and CMD and CBSD incidence and a yield gain of approximately 50% in treated compared to control plots [50].The use of chemical pesticides is one of the components deployed in IPM programs; therefore, it is critical to understand the effects of insecticides on parasitoid natural enemies, as this knowledge will help enhance the combined use of these control strategies [51][52][53][54]. Studies involving testing the effect of various insecticides on parasitoids revealed that toxicity does vary depending on insecticide chemistry and the timing of field applications in relation to the prevalence of natural enemies [52,55]. The presence of Encarsia spp. and Eretmocerus spp. parasitizing cassava B. tabaci in Tanzania is consistent with earlier findings that these are common species in East Africa [20,22,23]. The percent parasitism of these two species, 27.3% (Encarsia spp.) and 26.7% (Eretmocerus spp.), are equal in proportion to those reported previously, although earlier studies recorded Encarsia spp. as the predominant genus [22]. In Burkina Faso, Eretmocerus spp. was reported as the most predominant compared to Encarsia spp. [26]. Under natural field conditions, parasitoids have a limited impact on controlling cassava whitefly populations and the prevention of cassava virus transmission where vector populations are high [20,22]. The total parasitism percentages of 39% (flupyradifurone) and 54% (control) are comparable to the 40-58% earlier reported from farmer field surveys, the 26-42% under large-scale field experiments in Uganda [22,24], and the combined parasitism of 41.8% for En. lutea and En. sophia in Cameroon [25]. The level recorded here was higher than in Burkina Faso, where there was less than 20% parasitism of whiteflies in cassava [26]. The slight lower combined parasitism in flupyradifurone could be attributed to the lower availability of prey compared to the non-treated control plots, considering the latter had two times the number of fourth instar nymphs. Studies have reported a positive correlation between whitefly nymph abundance and parasitism rate under field conditions [25]. A previous field study in cotton revealed that reduced predation could be due to reduced prey in plots treated with pyrifluquinazon as opposed to toxicity to predators [56]. Flupyradifurone was also tested and found to have no significant effect on predators [56]. In a laboratory study comparing the effect of insecticides on the parasitoid Trichogramma evanescens Westwood through the dipping of parasitized eggs, flupyradifurone was categorised as the least harmful compared to spirotetramat and deltamethrin [57].The cutting dipping application of flupyradifurone significantly reduced whitefly numbers and had minimal impact on individual parasitoid species. Imidacloprid has been examined for a few species of B. tabaci parasitoids, and results suggest that, while systemic applications are generally harmless, foliar applications can be highly toxic [27]. Non-selective systemic insecticides that are harmful to parasitoids and predators when applied through spraying may be altered to be selective by changing the mode of systemic delivery, for example by seed treatment through coating, cutting dips, and root dips for seedlings [28]. There is a need to adopt agricultural management practices that benefit natural enemies, such as the elimination of frequent spray applications of broad-spectrum insecticides [58]. Several studies have shown that parasitoid abundance or whitefly nymph parasitism tend to be lower in conventional farms that employ insecticidal sprays when compared to farms that utilize organic practices [58][59][60]. This is the first study to explore the effect of insecticide application through cutting dipping on whitefly parasitism in cassava farmer fields.The time from the start of EPG to the first probe and the duration of the first probe were not significantly different between treated and controls, which is an indication that flupyradifurone was not a deterrent to the initial probing. A previous study reported similar findings, in which tomato plants sprayed with flupyradifurone 24 h before EPG recording were not different from the controls [37]. Flupyradifurone significantly reduced the probing time, which also coincided with an extended non-probing duration. These are indications that this treatment made the plant unfavourable for whitefly feeding and inhibited pathway activities compared to the control. Similar findings were reported in other studies, in which insecticides reduced whitefly pathway activities associated with feeding and virus transmission, even though most studies used plants treated within 24 h or a few days [33,38], as opposed to our study, in which plants were used almost at four weeks after cutting dipping insecticide application. Studies evaluating the effect of various insecticides on the feeding behaviour of B tabaci (acetamiprid, bifenthrin, cyantraniliprole, flupyradifurone, imidacloprid, and pymetrozine) reported reduced probing and phloem activity in treated plants compared to control non-treated plants [33,45,46,61,62]. Systemic insecticides are important for the control of semi-persistently and persistently transmitted viruses, as they reduce vector numbers and alter the feeding behaviours associated with virus transmission [45,46,63,64].The cutting dip technology should be considered for incorporation in an IPM package for the control of whiteflies in cassava. This will be beneficial to non-target organisms and the environment as opposed to the use of the spray application method. The effectiveness of flupyradifurone in reducing whitefly populations up to six months after planting could play a critical role in reducing damage caused by this pest and the viruses it transmits. It is noted that the infection of cassava plants with CMD five months after planting does not significantly impact yield, as the plants would have already initiated root formation [65]. The first six months of cassava growth also coincide with those through which B. tabaci populations peak. Thereafter, they reduce drastically as plants grow taller, become woody and shade lower leaves [66]. The set of results presented here suggests that cutting dips will help cassava growers throughout sub-Saharan Africa to increase their yields, as well as produce increased quantities of planting material. As commercial opportunities for cassava seed and root production continue to increase across Africa, this component of improved cassava crop management could contribute significantly to strengthening this important part of the agricultural economy.This study shows that the application of flupyradifurone in cassava through cutting dipping under farmer field conditions is effective at reducing cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies, which resulted in a 49% yield increase that could be attributed to reduced whitefly damage and CMD incidence. Flupyradifurone application through cutting dipping had no significant effect on parasitism by the individual species of Encarsia spp. and Eretmocerus spp. parasitoids, an indication that this mode of application would minimize effects on non-target organisms that are usually harmed through spray applications. This technology could be adopted as a component of IPM for the management of whiteflies in cassava and can be expanded to test other vegetatively propagated crops that are affected by whiteflies.","tokenCount":"5470"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"51ac43a70ac97d9ab800ac8268731266","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/050aa272-df00-4549-af32-8a52afb16f95/retrieve","id":"1392186583"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"658564f4-145e-4a3b-b016-2c7b3c10eadc","pagecount":"98","content":"As a strategic enabler of impact, capacity development is important in all four change mechanisms of the FISH theory of change. It is required to support movement from the research output of the three flagships to research outcomes and ultimately to development outcomes. For each mechanism of the theory of change, capacities of key stakeholders along the pathway are identified:• capacity of aquaculture farmers to assess technology needs and apply improved practices and fishing communities to implement co-management (change mechanism a); • capacity of private investors to identify appropriate opportunities and enterprises to adopt innovative business models (change mechanism b); • public sector capacity to design and implement policy and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations (change mechanism c); • civil society capacity to promote solutions drawing on research evidence, as well as the capacity of development agencies to integrate these into their programming and investment priorities (change mechanism d).Strengthened policies and institutions are an integral part of the scaling strategy to reach program-level outcome targets. Consequently, the sub-IDO enhanced institutional capacity in public sector and private research organizations is identified as a goal at CRP level. Further, improved capacity of women and youth to participate in decision-making will be achieved through the program's gender and governance research. Program research on sustainable aquaculture (flagship 1) seeks to contribute to increased capacity of beneficiaries to adopt research outputs relating to aquaculture technologies and enhanced individual capacity within partner research organizations to conduct aquaculture technology research. Research on sustainable small-scale fisheries (flagship 2) seeks to contribute to enhanced capacity to deal with climate risks and extremes with an emphasis on poor households and enhanced capacity of women and youth to participate in decision-making around small-scale fisheries management. Research on fish for nutrition and health (flagship 3) seeks to contribute to enhanced capacity of women and youth of poor households to engage in decisionmaking around production and consumption of fish as part of a micronutrient-rich diet.The CGIAR Capacity Development Framework identifies nine elements to help organize, plan and implement capacity development activities using a systems approach (Figure 1). Our strategy identifies how each of the elements will be pursued to develop the capacities required to ensure quality implementation and support movement along the impact pathways (see next section for specific interventions in each flagship). In designing and implementing the FISH capacity development strategy, we draw upon learning from the L&F and AAS CRPs, which supported development of the CGIAR framework, as well as our work through bilateral projects.Specifically, the strategy will use a systems approach to capacity development, building on learning from the AAS CRP (Apgar et al. 2015) and associated methodologies that include working across individual, institutional and organizational spheres, which have been used successfully to develop capacity in gender research and practice (Sarapura et al. 2015).We will build on capacity development within fish value chains in Bangladesh through L&F and its use of novel training methods and strategies, such as developing husband-wife family teams and career progression for national scientific staff. We will use the high-quality learning materials developed with partners through bilateral work on aquaculture technologies in Bangladesh, and build on the strong track record for training African researchers in aquaculture technologies at the Abbassa aquaculture research and training center in Egypt. To build capacity around small-scale fisheries, we will continue to use training materials developed through work on community-based marine resource management in the Pacific (WorldFish 2013).At the program level, there are three ways in which capacity development will involve cross-flagship coordination: (1) monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of capacity development (element 7) will be integrated into program M&E through identification of specific capacity indicators and tracking for learning and progress as theories of change are evaluated;(2) development of FISH and managing and implementing partners' capacity to collaborate (element 3) will support the partnerships strategy (see Annex 3.2); and (3) geographic and thematic coordination of capacity development activities across flagships will be managed through coordination among capacity development leads in each flagship.Capacity development interventions are also instrumental to the FISH program's gender and youth strategies. Specifically, capacity development will enable interventions in gender-sensitive technologies and innovation processes, women-targeted opportunities, and gender-transformative strategies contributing to gender outcomes, including improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making. Further, capacity to implement quality gender research will be developed through work with the cross-flagship gender team. FISH will promote youth engagement in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture by using age-relevant skills training methods and content, including on fingerling production and distribution, feed and handling methods, and co-management and youth leadership.Each of the FISH flagships will implement a program of capacity development activities organized around the nine elements of the CGIAR framework. This will enable quality implementation with local stakeholders and partners and consequently support the change mechanisms and sub-IDOs identified in their theories of change. Table 1 provides a summary of the prioritization of the nine elements for each flagship. Criteria used to prioritize include the importance of the element to successful implementation of research activities and change mechanisms and the level of investment required. These four elements of the framework are understood as part of a capacity development process that starts with identifying specific capacity needs of critical stakeholders. Each flagship has already broadly identified the target stakeholders and thematic areas that will inform more detailed capacity needs assessments to be carried out at the outset where necessary.Flagship 1 will focus on the capacity needs of smallholders to effectively demand and adopt new aquaculture technologies and apply best management practices, as well as the needs of service providers to effectively supply inputs, knowledge and skills targeted at men and women fish farmers. In Africa and Asia, a focus on enhanced capacity for aquaculture technologies research in partner organizations will continue.Flagship 2 will focus on the needs of natural resource management NGOs and government agencies, multi-stakeholder networks, regional and inter-governmental agencies, and individual researchers within national research institutes in focal countries. The flagship will assess the following capacity areas: gender-sensitive and transformative approaches, learning and governance networking, community livelihood and co-management interventions, and responsive and accountable institutions.Flagship 3 will focus on the capacity needs of public and private sector actors (such as hatcheries) to manage a central mola broodstock and improve pond management, and of women farmers to harvest small fish. For work with fish value chains in Africa and South Asia, the flagship will identify needs of implementing partners and value chain actors to develop and test appropriate gender-inclusive technological, market and institutional approaches to reduce waste and achieve improvements in fish consumption by women and young children.Across all interventions, the learning methods and materials used will be gender-and youth-sensitive. Implementation will use a blended learning methodology across three phases of learning: learning in, from and for action ( Garison and Kanuka 2004; Wilson and Biller 2012). This will build on experience of developing quality materials in past work. M&E will be integrated into CRP-level learning processes, including annual reviews within flagships to revisit capacity needs and inform annual planning of interventions and monitoring of capacity development indicators.(2) Developing CRPs' and Centers' partnering capacities (element 3) Development of the capacity for FISH, participating CGIAR Centers, and managing and implementing partners to work together will be implemented within each flagship by working with multi-stakeholder partnerships designed to harness emerging science in aquaculture and fisheries (see Annex 3.2).(3) Institutional strengthening (element 6)The program aims to develop public sector capacity to design and implement policy and regulatory measures that affect the viability of scalable technologies, management practices and organizational innovations for aquaculture, fisheries and nutrition outcomes. To achieve this, each of the flagships will focus on specific interventions with associated institutions.Flagship 1 will focus on strengthening public institutions and private sector organizations, such as farmer associations, to manage fish breeding programs, integrate new technologies into extension and outreach programs, and achieve research and development outcomes at scale. Interventions will use policy dialogues associated with multi-stakeholder forums and innovation platforms (in Egypt), engaging decision-makers through the research process (in Bangladesh), and conducting participatory action research with partners to test and adapt new institutional arrangements (in Zambia).Flagship 2 will work towards institutional strengthening in two modes. First, it will develop the capacity of learning and governance networks and platforms to realize impact (i.e. to become more than the sum of their parts) through multistakeholder engagement. Second, it will increase the capacity of institutions (national public institutions and regional intergovernmental institutions) to help secure the ecological sustainability, food security and poverty alleviation functions of small-scale fisheries through targeted capacity development, multi-stakeholder dialogues and strategic planning activities.Flagship 3 will focus on strengthening public and private partners to develop and use technologies for production of nutrient-dense fish. It will test gender-inclusive and women-targeted methods, technologies, institutional options and products for addressing postharvest loss challenges and other value chain issues identified through multi-stakeholder processes and platforms formed as learning alliances; i.e. ''a series of linked platforms existing at different institutional levels (e.g. community, district, national, regional, global) created with the aim of bringing together a range of stakeholders interested in innovation and the creation/use of new knowledge in an area of common interest\" (Moriarty et al 2005).(4) Develop future research leaders (element 4) Flagship 1 will develop future aquaculture research leaders in both Africa and Asia through internships and masters and PhD programs with discovery and upstream research partners to accelerate national capacity for research and extension. A new partnership with the University of Malawi, as a NEPAD African center of excellence for aquaculture research, provides an opportunity to enhance postgraduate training of aquaculture researchers within sub-Saharan Africa.Flagship 3 will work with postgraduate students and develop individual and tailored capacity-strengthening plans. These will be delivered by our partners in tertiary education and supported by those engaged in research.This section presents the gender analysis that informed and shaped FISH priority setting and research design. It draws in particular on learning from L&F and AAS CRPs in FISH focal and scaling countries.Women's involvement in small-scale aquaculture production helps increase productivity (Jahan et al. 2010) and fish consumption within the household (Heck and Béné 2007;Jahan et al. 2010; Kawarazuka and Béné 2010). Yet women's participation in small-scale aquaculture production is low compared to men (Jahan et al. 2015). Lack of access to and control over key assets such as land or ponds (Veliu 2009;Ndanga et al. 2013), capital, skills, technologies, and extension services (Puskur and Pant 2015) limit women's engagement. Moreover, social norms and power relations shape-and limit-women's adoption and use of aquaculture knowledge, technologies and practices through extension (Farnworth 2015;Morgan et al. 2016). Therefore the program will identify and test innovative strategies to increase women's engagement in small-scale aquaculture production by addressing these barriers.Women receive lower returns and are disproportionately represented in less-profitable nodes of aquaculture value chains (Kruijssen et al. 2013). Driving factors identified to date include the following:• women's limited access to credit (Bene and Merten 2008;Kruijssen et al. 2013;Ndanga et al. 2013 • socialization towards income generation in less-profitable activities (Weeratunge et al. 2012).Women also display lower levels of entrepreneurship than men and more frequently abandon entrepreneurial ventures (Weeratunge et al. 2012). Thus, the program will focus on refining and testing factors, models and strategies by which poor women can equitably participate in and benefit from the entrepreneurial and employment opportunities presented by aquaculture.Finally, program scoping has identified two important areas not addressed in L&F: assessment of gendered preferences and needs; and gendered impacts of genetically improved fish, fish feeds and disease prevention practices. Insights in these areas are needed so that fish breeding, feeds and disease innovations equitably meet the needs of both women and men. The FISH CRP will therefore prioritize these areas in flagship 1.Decision-making in small-scale fisheries governance tends to be widely gender-imbalanced (Hilly 2012;Schwarz et al. 2014; Cohen and Steenbergen 2015;Cole et al. 2015;Rajaratnam et al. 2015), with men dominating resource decisionmaking and men's priorities more strongly reflected in resource-management strategies (Weeratunge et al. 2012;Kruijssen et al. 2013). Gender norms and power relations underpin these imbalances, shaping women's relatively low agency in determining their time spent on and involvement in activities inside and outside their homes (Weeratunge et al. 2012;Cole et al. 2015;Rajaratnam et al. 2015). Without fundamental changes to norms and power relations, improvements in governance and gender mainstreaming (Hilly et al. 2011) are unlikely to be sustained and may be only partially effective in addressing gender biases in representation and distribution of authority in decision-making. To combat this issue, the FISH CRP prioritizes research on strategies for enhancing effective participation of women in fisheries and natural resources management and governance, including identifying and testing novel ways to increase gender-equitable engagement in decision-making. This ensures that both visible and underlying factors shaping participation are addressed.There are substantial gender inequities in access to and control of natural resources, including land and many aquatic resources (Weeratunge et al. 2012;Burnley et al. 2014; Kwashimbisa and Puskur 2014;Cole et al. 2015;Rajaratnam et al. 2015). Addressing these inequities requires understanding of (1) which assets are most beneficial to women and men to support their individual and joint livelihood security; and (2) why gender asset gaps exist (Weeratunge et al. 2012).The first research area was not pursued in AAS or L&F, and will be addressed in FISH. Investigation of the second focal area through AAS elucidated the potent roles of gender and social norms in shaping access, innovation and poverty outcomes (Cole et al. 2015;Rajaratnam et al. 2015). Furthermore, gender analysis indicated that strengthening fisheries conservation risks negatively affecting the livelihoods of poor women most dependent on these resources (Schwarz et al. 2014). In response, assessing strategies for win-win scenarios for women's livelihoods and ecological outcomes will be a priority for FISH. This includes testing the innovative, gender-transformative approach to microfinance piloted in AAS that applies gender-transformative strategies to overcome barriers to women's control over savings and create potential investment for alternative livelihoods.In Bangladesh, the relatively poor fit of small fish-harvesting technologies with women's needs was identified as an obstacle to women's involvement in homestead fish farming (Morgan et al. 2015). Early findings from pre-tests of women-targeted technologies indicate that they warrant full investigation. Moreover, AAS analysis signaled the need for research to address women's time and labor burdens in small-scale aquaculture (Weeratunge et al. 2012). In response, FP3 will focus on developing and testing women-targeted technologies and test labor-and time-effective strategies to enable women to raise and harvest small fish.L&F identified significant sex-disaggregated data gaps in existing fish value chain literature, including extent of participation and costs and benefits of engagement, as well as a need for further understanding of policy and informal factors that result in gendered inclusions or exclusions. L&F found that women were concentrated in postharvest aspects of value chains (Macfadyen et al. 2011;Weeratunge et al. 2012), meaning that the estimated 27% postharvest losses in fisheries (Kelleher 2005) have a negative effect on women's incomes. Moreover, preliminary action research signaled that when a postharvest innovation is introduced and external partnership is involved, men's interest in postharvest roles increases. This suggests that women's postharvest roles must be protected for innovations to have positive gender impacts. The FISH CRP will generate sex-disaggregated data across fish value chains and evaluate factors that result in gendered exclusion or inclusion. As detailed for each FP in section 2, the program will identify and assess opportunities to protect and expand women's engagement in and benefits from fish value chains, including womentargeted processing techniques and fish-based product opportunities.The global recognition of the importance of fish in nutrition for children and pregnant and lactating women has not translated into increases in consumption in many social and economic contexts (Thilsted 2012). Preliminary evidence from both Asia and Africa indicates that withholding animal-source foods from women and children is fairly common (Gittelsohn and Vastine 2003;Nguyen et al. 2013). Consumption of fish depends on household decisions about child feeding practices and intra-household distribution of food (Puskur and Thilsted 2012), which are influenced by norms, attitudes and perceptions about appropriateness of fish for particular groups. Improving women's involvement in household decisions, including about intra-household food distribution, can result in higher levels of empowerment (Weeratunge et al. 2012). In response, the FISH CRP will undertake novel research into potential for scalable gendertransformative strategies to catalyze integrated behavior shifts in gender and social norms, women's empowerment, and intra-household food distribution.Gender research will be integrated in the research agenda for each flagship, supported by a cross-cutting team coordinated by the Gender Research Lead. This section presents the aims, organization, operationalization and indicators for M&E.The overall aims of the gender research team in the program are to do the following:• Apply and support gender analysis to shape the priorities, agenda and design of the CRP and each of the three flagships. • As a part of each flagship, undertake cutting-edge strategic gender research leading to the identified products and outcomes in each of the three flagships. • Support all FISH research so that it is effectively gender-inclusive and gender-integrated, including through sexdisaggregated, intersectional analysis, as appropriate. • Identify, develop and empirically test needed methods for gender research, in particular for assessing transformative change and women's empowerment. • Contribute to systemic gender changes via gender capacity building for and with researchers and local to international partners, including young female scientists.• Contribute to the continued development of gender in CGIAR through scientific and collaborative engagement in the CGIAR Collaborative Platform for Gender Research.The gender team will be comprised of the Building on the success of the gender approach in L&F and AAS, the gender team will be organized towards the achievement of its goals by developing and implementing a road map for effective integration and implementation of gender research in FISH. The road map will be based on a collaborative process of visioning, goal-setting and action planning across key areas, including capacity development, research quality, outputs and M&E. This process will involve gender team and CoP researchers, as well as the FISH management committee and partners. The road map will be revisited and updated each year as part of ongoing M&E, catalyzing learning about progress and strengths, weaknesses or gaps, challenges, and opportunities, thus enabling iterative improvement in the planning and implementation of gender research (see also Annex 3.6).As part of research activity planning in FISH, flagship research teams will involve gender researchers to consider in what way and to what extent gender is relevant to their research and integral to achieving the research aims. Researchers will jointly establish how the research will be gender-integrated, if there will be strategic gender research, and/or if gendertransformative strategies are required or should be tested. These are distinguished as follows:• Gender-integrated research is defined by CGIAR as research that integrates consideration of gender into technical research of the principal topic of study; for example, plant breeding, aquaculture, postharvest technology development or systems intensification (CGIAR 2015). Note that the FISH CRP will aim to be intersectional in its approach to gender; i.e. addressing cross-cutting differences such as age, wealth, livelihood groups, caste or ethnicity, rather than simply distinguishing men vs. women. • Strategic gender research is defined by CGIAR as research that studies gender as the primary topic in a social analysis designed to understand what the implications of gender are for agriculture; for example, how men and women allocate labor resources in intra-household decision-making about farm production (CGIAR 2015). • A gender-transformative approach to research is an approach that \"can be applied within research to examine, question and, most fundamentally, enable changes in inequitable gender norms, attitudes, behaviors and practices and the related imbalances of power (IGWG 2010). Through encouraging critical awareness among men and women of social inequality and practices, [gender-transformative approaches] help people challenge and re-shape distribution of and control over resources, allocation of duties between men and women, and access to and influence in decision making (Caro 2009). They also enable men and boys to question the effects of harmful masculinity, not only on women, but also on men themselves\" (Meng 2015, 1 in McDougall et al. 2015, 42).In terms of research processes and methods, all types of FISH research will be gender-inclusive (i.e. applying tested and innovative strategies, methods and tools to ensure that women and men have equitable opportunity for, quality of engagement in, and returns from participation in FISH research processes).In conjunction with the above, the gender team will organize integration and collaboration between various activities for the sake of coherence and synergies and spearhead synthesis of gender research across activities, generating international public goods as a result. Moreover, the gender team-together with the FISH flagships and management committee-will work with research teams to identify and address gender-related capacity development processes and initiatives. These will include in-house processes such as iterative reflection processes and mentoring, as well as externally led capacity development such as trainings and workshops. This will dovetail with the CGIAR Gender Platform capacity development agenda.As noted above, M&E for learning in relation to gender takes place annually through a systematic review based on the gender road map. The FISH CRP adopts a youth-responsive research agenda to engage young women and men in aquaculture production, small-scale fisheries and fish value chains that are socially just and economically and ecologically sustainable. The program seeks to increase opportunities for safe and rewarding youth employment and entrepreneurship in aquaculture and small-scale fisheries value chains in diverse geographic regions and socio-economic contexts. Further, our research on governance, management and technological innovations will deliberately engage youth and determine the factors and processes that enable or hinder youth participation and representation.Challenges and opportunities for youth in small-scale fisheries and aquacultureIn 2025, the youth population in Asia is estimated to exceed 1 billion (Ashford et al. 2006), while in sub-Saharan Africa, 17 million young people enter the job market every year (Losch 2012). Because of limited employment and enterprise opportunities for youth in rural areas, rural to urban migration is increasing, leaving a large aging population in rural areas. Barriers to youth participating and investing in fisheries and aquaculture production and value chains range from limited access to fishing grounds and land, capital, inputs, and knowledge and training on fisheries and aquaculture management and markets, to youth perceptions of the sectors as undesirable (cf. White 2012;van Asseldonk 2015).To unlock the potential of the younger generation to develop entrepreneurial capabilities for productive livelihoods within small-scale fisheries and aquaculture value chains, youth policies have to be examined at the intersections of gender and other social and economic divisions. Any innovations that target youth must also ensure basic norms of safety and human rights. This is especially important given that in both the fisheries and aquaculture subsectors there are documented abuses of labor standards, including the use of child labor. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), child labor is \"work that impairs children's well-being or hinders their education, development and future livelihoods.\" In the case of the capture fisheries and aquaculture subsectors, children have been found to engage in a wide variety of activities, both in the harvesting and farming of fish and in related processing and marketing operations. The use of child labor appears to be widespread in the informal small-and medium-scale sectors; a preliminary study by the FAO and ILO notes \"the total number of child laborers in fisheries and aquaculture in the world is likely to be many millions\" (FAO-ILO 2011). A study in Cambodia indicated that children make up over 30% of fishprocessing workers (Chhorviririth et al. 2005). Efforts to improve fisheries governance can provide a vehicle to address such abuses (Ratner et al. 2014).With a lack of data and context-specific studies indicating the relevance of and opportunities for female and male youth in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture, youth are often neglected as a specific target group in policies and as relevant stakeholders and agents of change within these landscapes. Socio-cultural norms and practices within gerontocratic societies also limit youth decision-making abilities and access to resources. Hence social, cultural, institutional and economic barriers and opportunities for youth to engage in fish value chains by adopting innovations in production, processing and trade need to be understood and targeted to promote sustainable youth employment and entrepreneurship. Youth engagement has trans-generational importance: youth are gatekeepers to the diffusion of innovative ideas and knowledge within households. It is therefore essential to target them in efforts to promote adoption of novel agricultural technologies, as well as in behavior change communication interventions on nutrition and health.The program will use qualitative studies to explore and investigate the perceptions of female and male youth on their roles, aspirations and needs with regard to livelihood opportunities in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture value chains. Particular capacity development needs will be addressed through the capacity development needs assessment in each focal country. The program will adopt rights-based approaches to engage with youth, to help create socially just and safe, youth-friendly livelihood opportunities and positively inform fishery reform processes. All research activities involving youth will be subject to the research ethics review and child safety policies of the lead center, WorldFish.The FISH CRP will use research to build on and align with national and international efforts, such as the National Youth Policy of Zambia for example, to identify suppliers of improved fingerlings or fish feed or to contact traders to buy their farmed fish. In Bangladesh, there are emerging opportunities for partnering with IT service providers such as mSTAR to pilot the use of mobile services and organizations such as Amar Desh Amar to test the potential for farmers to sell aquaculture products, where young people can play key roles in the computer center and selling points.FP1 will support the incubation of youth aquaculture businesses, including mentoring, business attachments or competitions, such as a new Aquaculture Business Incubator proposed in Myanmar in collaboration with Project Hub Yangon. WorldFish experience with an ASEAN youth innovation prize, as part of the YSEALI project, will also inform approaches to be adopted in FISH. The development of suitable business models to be developed and tested through FISH, involving young people and the use of IT in different aspects of the aquaculture value chain, can then be adapted to the scaling countries under FP1 (i.e. Zambia, India and Nigeria). We will also collaborate in Nigeria and Tanzania with the IITA Youth Agripreneurs program, where there are emerging opportunities to include aquaculture.Providing specialist aquaculture services (e.g. fish harvesting teams or pond preparation and construction teams with better equipment than individual farms can afford) is another opportunity to employ youth that will be tested in Egypt under FP1, cluster 3. As 50% of the people employed in aquaculture in Egypt are less than 30 years old, there is huge potential to include youth in such enterprises.Young people have proven to be important team members in community-managed aquaculture processes, such as the monitoring of on-farm performance of fish stocks. Under cluster 1, young people can therefore be considered agents of research and employed in teams for data gathering and monitoring processes, as in the case of fish farming in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Egypt. This will also help improve their technical skills and organizational capacity.Flagship 2: Sustaining small-scale fisheries FP2 will engage with young people as targets for research and policy development, as co-researchers, and as agents of change in fishery-dependent households and communities. Youth bring a unique perspective and energy to collective action problems and often play important roles in catalyzing change. However, in many social and economic contexts youth do not enjoy the opportunities, empowerment and 'voice' of other members of society.In fishery co-management action research in clusters 1 and 2, we will continue to engage with youth in developing momentum for change as a particular constituency in decision-making and implementing resource management plans. Community engagement in Myanmar, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Solomon Islands and the Philippines will target youth by providing forums for youth inclusion and participation in decision-making. While we have experienced greater success where youth have been involved in management and research (i.e. higher compliance and fit of fisheries management, and high quality and sustainability of resource monitoring), in our future research we will more fully engage with youth aspirations and support them to have a voice in program-related decisions.We will engage with young people as opinion makers and innovators to help scale successes in co-management. We will exploit a range of media, including smartphone apps, theatre, comics and traditional media to spread awareness of comanagement innovations. We will include young people in participatory scenario development to give voice to a distinct range of opinions, including those of male and female youth, about the future. Where applicable, FP2 will work with national agencies for education and youth affairs to deepen awareness of natural resource management issues among young people and to promote next-generation research leaders and policymakers.In cluster 3 we explore two case studies of intra-regional trade-in the Great Lakes fish trade corridor in Africa (Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) and the Mekong Delta (Cambodia and Vietnam). We will explore opportunities for enhancing the safety of and improving the benefits derived by male and female youth engaged in different segments of these fish value chains. We will also investigate what structural support is required, such as inputs, finance, knowledge and skills, for different social and economic groups of young men and women. In terms of knowledge and skills, we will place special emphasis on better understanding the role that IT could play in capture fisheries value chains and how young people may get involved.Flagship 3: Enhancing the contribution of fish to nutrition and health of the poor In FP3, we will assess the existing and potential roles of youth in nutrition-sensitive aquaculture production, and develop and test youth-responsive technologies to maximize the production of nutrient-rich fish in pond polyculture systems in Bangladesh (cluster 1). The technologies we test and promote will explore ways of minimizing the time demands on women in particular, including young women. We will work in close partnership with organizations such as Helen Keller International and Save the Children, whose networks can help scale the impact of our research beyond our focal geographies.Under cluster 3, which focuses on research to increase consumption of nutritious fish in the first 1000 days of life, we are considering targeting schools as a channel to drive behavior change. Targeting school curricula provides an opportunity to raise youth awareness on the importance of fish for pregnant and lactating women and for infants and young children. Given that many of the adverse pregnancy outcomes that contribute to maternal mortality worldwide occur during the first pregnancy (such as pre-eclampsia and early preterm delivery), and growing evidence that the nutrients in fish can help prevent those outcomes, targeting adolescents with those messages is important. We will also explore collaborations with school feeding programs, building on the results of a survey by the Global Nutrition Foundation that suggests there is strong demand for more information about fish and animal-source foods in school feeding programs in many countries throughout the world.FISH will implement outcomes-focused results-based management (RBM) to support improved program performance. We will use this approach to improve learning and accountability, track progress towards our objectives, and provide quality information for adaptive program management. We also plan that the RBM system will include systematic and rigorous evaluation to identify effective implementation strategies that are evidence-based.Our focus on results measurement is embedded in the program's overall theory of change (Section 1.3, Figure 2), where feedback and associated learning is based on the routine monitoring of progress towards intermediate outcomes.Information generated will be used to validate the theory of change, to understand the shifts in assumptions that have occurred, guide adaptive management as needed and update the program and flagship level theories of change. Each of these steps is summarized below together with a summary of implementation plans and main budget elements.The program's impact pathways and theories of change describe how we envisage the program's research leading to outputs, and in turn to outcomes and impacts. The RBM system will track progress along these pathways, and the validity of our assumptions and approaches to managing risk, and use learning and feedback loops to modify design and implementation so as to enhance performance. We will integrate program and flagship level investment in RBM with that conducted as part of bilateral projects. Using this system, we will keep our impact pathways and theories of change under regular review and adapt as necessary.The RBM system depends on the continuous collection and analysis of data on outputs, outcomes and impacts, together with information on our key assumptions underpinning our theories of change and associated risks. We will use these data to track progress against a set of program milestones (see Performance Indicators Matrix) as part of annual assessments of progress. Impacts will be assessed through dedicated and discrete impact assessment studies. For sub-IDOs we will use a suite of specific indicators. A first analysis of these is provided in Table 1, and a refined list will be developed in preparing for program implementation. We will complement these indicators with methods to estimate our contribution to SLO targets. A first description of these is provided in Table 2, and these will also be developed further in preparing for program implementation. Method to estimate contribution SLO Target 1.1: 1.5 million farm households have access to and are using faster-growing and more resilient FISH strains of tilapia and carpFlagship 1: 1.5 millionTracking of improved broodstock dissemination to hatcheries in all countries and records of fingerling dissemination from hatcheries to grow out farmers. Validation of this approach using direct sampling is currently being undertaken in Bangladesh for GIFT Tilapia using molecular assay and will selectively be undertaken in other countries to validate the approach described above. SLO Target 1.1: 2.5 million farm households have adopted disease detection and control strategies, cost-effective and sustainable aquafeeds and/or improved aquaculture management practices Flagship 1: 2.5 million Sample surveys, coverage estimates based on analysis of secondary data from public and private sector partners on sale of feed, feed use surveys, estimates of dissemination, use of data from government monitoring and quality control programs. For shrimp, uptake of Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) certified seed will be measured directly. In countries where similar certification is available for fish seed we will sample hatcheries/multiplier centers/farmers to estimate adoption of this practice. SLO Target 1.1: 1 million fisherydependent households have improved wellbeing as a result of adopting improved fisheries management Flagship 2: 1 million households Household surveys in places where FISH works directly, augmented by secondary data from Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES), national census data and other third party data to extrapolate to national and regional scales. Indicators and sampling will utilize WorldFish implementation of OECD (2013) wellbeing indicators. SLO Target 1.2: 1 million people, of which 50% are women exit poverty through livelihood improvements Flagship 2: 1 million people Detailed sample surveys in places where FISH works directly augmented by secondary data from HIES, census data and other third party data to extrapolate to national and regional scales. An environmental baseline will be established for all focal countries (already done for Bangladesh and Egypt). Sample surveys will be used to assess adoption of best practices and LCA analysis (building on LCA L&F research on tilapia VCs in Egypt). National aquaculture statistics will provide data on volumes. Coverage estimates will be based on analysis of secondary data from public and private sector partners. SLO 3.3: 3.3 million ha of ecosystems restored through more productive and equitable management FP1: 1.25 million ha FP2: 2.1 million ha GIS mapping of land use before and after program implementation, complemented by surveys of ponds under better environmental management practices (FP 1), and surveys, sub-national and national statistics, public domain databases (FP2).SLO 2.3: 2.4 million people, of which half are female, with one or more micronutrient deficiencies eliminated.Flagship 1: 0.7 million Flagship 2: 0.3 million Flagship 3: 1.4 million peopleWe will collect information through baseline and follow-up surveys on fish consumption (frequency, amount, and species) as well as dietary diversity measures (minimum dietary diversity for women (MDDW) and for children (MDDC) and the WFP Food Consumption Score in FISH CRP Focus countries and will rely on secondary information to estimate changes in fish consumption in other settings where our M&E information suggests our research has been scaled. In our ex ante estimation of the contribution of value chain interventions to these SLO targets (flagship 3, Table 14), we have used first estimates of the volume of fish moving through the value chain each year, waste rates, and ability of the interventions to improve access, and used average fish consumption figures per capita to estimate the number of people benefitting. As we move to implementation, we will adjust estimates based on actual findings of the baseline assessment and tracking of true fish volumes/reduced rates of waste. SLO 2.4: 4.6 million women of reproductive age consuming more food groups as a result of increased fish consumption 3 Secondary: Flagship 1: 1.8 million Flagship 2: 0.6 million Flagship 3: 2.2 millionWe will conduct a rolling program of discrete, well-constructed, and specific evaluations and impact assessments to support effective decision-making and systematic learning. Evaluation activities will be coordinated by the Independent Steering Committee (ISC) and be supported by internal evaluation resources and external contractors. We see internal resources as essential for effective data collection and to ensure evaluation use; external contractors are essential to guarantee independence and methodological rigor. Internal evaluation responsibilities will be integrated into the research work of CRP staff but coordinated by the M&E Lead, other program staff and ad hoc external advice.Evaluation activities will draw on available monitoring data and seek to rigorously 'test' the theory of change. They will also aim to establish causal links between CRP actions and observed outcomes using both counterfactual and 'theory' based methodologies. Some controlled interventions and comparative data will be generated, thus supporting experimental and quasi-experimental design and analysis. However we anticipate that much of the data available will be observational, requiring a broader range of methods to support causal claims.The Independent Steering Committee will commission a Common Evaluation Framework (CEF) from a suitable evaluation contractor that will guide a program of evaluative activities. The CEF will identify: a detailed evaluation timeplan; High Level Evaluation Questions (HLQs); a range of appropriate methods to address such HLQs; the kinds of quantitative and qualitative data that will be needed; how this data will be collected; and outline guidance for data analysis and synthesis.The two main arms of the evaluation will be (1) Annual Evaluations and Reviews (AERs) and (2) Impact Assessments (IAs). AERs will be flagship specific and where possible cross-country comparative, and will complement 'real-time' and routine monitoring data. Timing of IAs will be aligned with expected outputs. For example whenever particular research products, or significant program components (thematic or geographical) are reaching significant milestones such as completion of bilateral projects, or when specific research products are approaching their anticipated peak level of adoption. IAs will also conduct meta-analyses of a suite of projects in specific countries or regions. IAs will focus on estimating the realized economic, social and environmental benefits of FISH research outputs; the contribution and value added of CRP interventions; and contingent and contextual factors that support claims for CRP effectiveness. We see the latter as an essential foundation for future up-scaling. Wherever possible these assessments will disaggregate impacts for men, women and youth.AERs will be undertaken primarily by external contractors, although working collaboratively with internal evaluation resources. IAs will be primarily undertaken by internal resources but with methodological support from external contractors and advisors.The outputs of AERs and IAs will provide systematic insight into the achievement of intended outcomes, and guide allocation of resources to maximize outcomes, including shifting the program's approach as required. We intend to synchronize our in-country AERs as part of site integration in Bangladesh, and other feasible CGIAR integration sites as we expand our program to leverage the potential resources of multiple CRPs. We will stagger the timing of AERs as noted in Table 3 according to the relative progression of each flagship. The timetable for IAs will be finalized by the Independent Steering Committee following the advice of the contractor preparing the Common Evaluation Framework. It is anticipated that a single integrated IA workstream will be designed linked to sub-IDOs and SLO targets rather than Flagships although drawing on Flagship data. IA outputs will be timed to link with key CRP decisions and review points.It is anticipated that the AER for each flagship as well as the synthesis CRP evaluation will conducted as Center-Commissioned External Evaluations (CCEE). The IEA commissioned evaluation that will be conducted once during the first six years of the program will be able to draw on the outputs of the planned program of AERs and IAs. If timed correctly, this IEA commissioned evaluation may take the place of the synthesis CRP evaluation. Learning FISH will collect information collected through the program's monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment frameworks to support learning at multiple levels. We will use annual reviews in each focal country to consolidate learning from implementation across cluster research activities, with a focus on validating or revising the hypotheses of our impact pathways and theories of change. Similar program meetings will be held annually with cluster and flagship teams comparing learning across countries, to feed into the annual planning cycle, providing opportunity for corrective measures to be taken.The FISH ISC and Management Committee will use the systems described here to adjust program implementation as required to improve performance. We will normally do so on an annual cycle and annual budget allocations will reflect documented performance against milestones, including stopping particular lines of research should the evidence support this. Particular emphasis will be given to acting upon the conclusions and recommendations of external evaluations as agreed with the ISC.The RBM system will be managed by a dedicated M&E team, headed by the M&E Lead, serving on the program management committee and reporting to the program director. However we recognize that sustaining a results-culture that measures performance by achievement of the outcomes we have outlined for the CRP requires senior-level leadership to establish and reinforce the right incentives (Mayne 2007). Our approach to RBM will therefore include investment in capacity development of senior science staff at global and country levels. FISH has been designed in collaboration with each of the global integrative CRPs, in addition to the cross-cutting platforms. The rationale for these links is summarized here, with details provided in Tables 1 and 2a.Making smart choices among various agricultural technologies and investment options requires a comparative perspective across food production sectors. Therefore, we will continue to collaborate with PIM to develop and apply foresight modeling tools and models to conduct ex ante assessment of alternative aquaculture technologies, policies and investment options and explore future fish supply and demand scenarios at national, regional and global levels. Impact assessment domains will include fish supply, demand, trade, prices, and implications on fish food security, nutrition and health. The IMPACT model developed by IFPRI and the fish sector model developed by WorldFish (AsiaFish) will be used in foresight modeling research. Additional linkages with PIM focus on three opportunities to jointly develop and leverage comparative lessons and tools:• Value chain assessment. We will continue to collaborate with PIM on value chain tools and innovations, including postharvest loss assessment tools. PIM will provide general methodologies, which we will adapt, pilot and use for fish value chains. The FISH CRP therefore provides PIM with a context to test the suitability of tools for a specific commodity. Fish, with the highest trade value among the agri-food commodities, has many unique features distinct from agricultural crops. This includes great diversity and variation in the species and products being traded; the limited correlation of price trends in wild and farmed species; the great variation in income and price elasticities of demand between species, regions and income groups; and high perishability. Because of these features, fish requires specific attention. Collaboration between PIM and FISH is important, as PIM provides the tools and methods, while FISH provides the specific expertise on fish value chains. In addition, FISH will draw on PIM's research on broader trade policy issues where required. The FISH CRP will also link into the broader postharvest waste and loss platform that PIM has been setting up with FAO.• Gender equity. The FISH program will be an active player in and contributor to the CGIAR Collaborative Platform for Gender Research (PIM FP6). We will contribute to gender agenda setting and increasing visibility of gender in CGIAR through active engagement in the platform and dissemination of quality gender outputs, ranging from peerreviewed scientific publications to popular media. We will apply the experience from L&F and AAS to support the gender methods development aims of the platform, including refining tools for assessing women's empowerment in fisheries contexts. Drawing on PIM learning regarding the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index, the FISH program will contribute by refining and testing ex ante and ex post gender assessments and the adapted tool for fisheries initiated under AAS: the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for fisheries. Moreover, while benefiting from the platform's continued development of sex-disaggregated standards and protocols, the FISH CRP will build on AAS and L&F experience in the area of gender-transformative strategies by further developing and sharing empirically tested methods and tools for gender-transformative change.• Policies and institutions for inclusive natural resource governance. PIM FP5 has been designed to develop analytical tools, synthesize lessons, and strengthen policies and institutions aimed at securing resource tenure for poor producers and promoting inclusive governance of agro-ecological landscapes. Fisheries governance is a priority for comparative analysis alongside forest, pastureland and water management cases, which face comparable challenges of gender and social equity in stakeholder representation, participation in decision-making, and public and private sector accountability towards poor resource users. Tools such as the Collaborating for Resilience approach aim to promote inclusive multi-stakeholder deliberation over the roots of resource competition and strategies to address these. PIM FP5 will enable an exchange of lessons on the application of such tools across countries and resource systems, and derive policy lessons for governments, development agencies and civil society networks. The FISH CRP will apply these in its work on small-scale fisheries and in addressing competition over water and land as an aspect of sustainable intensification of aquaculture.To identify adaptation options most appropriate to expected future climate regimes, we will use CCAFS climate modeling to better understand where our aquaculture technologies can contribute most effectively to adaptation to climate change across our key geographies. We will continue partnership on documenting the outcomes of local innovations as part of the FISH scaling strategy to aid in influencing policies and investments targeting future climate-smart agriculture. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam, we and other CCAFS partners are developing a process in which fishing and farming communities prioritize and test a suite of climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices suited to the local context, such as rice field fisheries enhancement and dry season water management for aquaculture. This approach will be refined and scaled out to other communities through action research and peer learning, and contribute to sub-national agriculture planning at commune and district levels. In the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Cambodia, FP2 will also consider the inadvertent risks to fisheries brought by infrastructure-based strategies favored by local governments for climate adaptation, such as construction of dikes and irrigation schemes.We will work with CCAFS to communicate evidence on climate-smart aquaculture options, such as water-use efficiency, disease management and responses to salinization in coastal deltas. Research on climate-smart farming systems, involving integration of fish into household farming systems, has shown promise in Bangladesh and Vietnam, and such experiences will continue to be explored, increasingly scaling from both countries to elsewhere in Asia and Africa.Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH). Fish provide exceptional nutritional benefits but remain poorly represented in nutrition strategies of national governments and development agencies. Our partnership with A4NH will address this gap by strengthening the evidence on nutritional outcomes and disseminating cost-effective solutions for nutrition-sensitive fish production, processing, and behavioral change to improve fish consumption by women and children. Our research results, focused on production and consumption of nutrient-rich fish, will feed directly into A4NH research at country and regional levels to develop and promote policies that enable food system innovation and scaling for improved dietary diversity and healthier diets. This will be fostered through the strong partnerships A4NH has developed with international and regional networks such as Scaling up Nutrition (SUN) and the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP).We will also partner on risk assessment and mitigation for fish food safety. Working with A4NH FP3, our work on fish value chains for poor consumers will benefit from A4NH research on technological and institutional solutions and appropriate policy and regulatory options, especially for perishable foods sold in informal markets, where the majority of poor people buy and sell fish.Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). The productivity and sustainability of inland fisheries depend critically on changes in the broader landscape, notably water resource infrastructure and land-use change. Our partnership with WLE seeks to ensure that deliberations over basin and watershed-scale resource competition and development scenarios address fisheries outcomes. FISH FP2 research at landscape level in Cambodia and Vietnam will be nested within the basin-scale analysis of water variability and water benefit tradeoffs for the WLE flagship on managing resource variability and competing uses for increased resilience. This will provide a route to promote adaptation within a broader biophysical and socio-economic context. Similarly, FP2 work in Bangladesh will contribute to and benefit from the basin-scale perspective offered by WLE work in the Ganges basin. At more local landscape scales, we will partner to optimize water management in crop and fish production, and to manage water quality and pollution risks associated with aquaculture intensification. WLE research with AAS in Bangladesh has shown how water management regimes and governance remain critical to achieving productivity gains for farmers from improvements in integrated rice and fish farming technologies. FISH research on scaling new aquaculture technologies will benefit from ongoing links with WLE addressing these critical dimensions of the broader landscape.Genetic Gains Platform. FP1, through its cluster on fish breeds and genetic improvement, is the focus for links with the Genetic Gains Platform. The platform is expected to provide bioinformatics tools and services, genotyping and sequencing tools and services, and phenotyping tools and services to support the improvement of fish (tilapia and carp) breeding programs to achieve more rapid genetic gains. The FISH CRP will contribute to the community of practice in animal breeding and provide an opportunity for the platform to consolidate learning on genetic gains in fish, as well as testing tools and methodologies, including key metrics around breeding program performance (e.g. rates of genetic gains, delivery to farmers and use of varieties).Big Data Platform. Investments by the FISH program into fish genomics open new opportunities for genetic improvement of fish and new gene discoveries. Genomic approaches applied in the CRP will generate large amounts of data, and new and improved data management and analytical approaches are required. Collaboration with the Big Data Platform will allow the CRP to access methods and approaches to managing and analyzing larger databases through consultations and training. The platform will also gain access to large datasets of fish genetics and related data, helping to make them more widely used by allied research programs globally.Particular site integration activities also include links with the following AFS CRPs:RICE on integrated rice-fish systems. Integrated rice-fish systems are widely practiced in Asia, particularly in the coastal deltas of South and Southeast Asia, where the addition of fish to rice farming systems can yield significant productivity, income and nutritional gains for farm households. FISH will collaborate with RICE to identify opportunities for further promotion of such integrated systems through site integration in Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia and Myanmar) and to identify opportunities for scaling such systems to Africa. In addition, a research partnership between CSIRO and FISH provides access to technology that uses microbial processes to bio-convert plant wastes, such as rice husks, into a bioactive product (Novacq™). This technology enhances the growth and health of farmed prawns and eliminates the need for wild-harvest fishmeal in prawn feeds, a world-first achievement in aquafeed sustainability. In collaboration with RICE, we will test the bioconversion efficiency of different forms of rice waste (including variations in preprocessing the waste) for conversion into bioactive ingredients for fish feeds, then test the effects on the growth of tilapia and shrimp. Proof-of-concept trials will be done in the Philippines in partnership with IRRI and national partners CLSU and BFAR. Successful proof of concept would provide a sound basis for subsequent funding support for scaling up the technology in Asia and then Africa, enabling local entrepreneurs to develop aquafeed enterprises, a focal point for capacity development for the aquaculture industry.Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) on cassava waste inputs to novel aquafeed. In collaboration with RTB we will explore use of Novacq™ technology to test the bioconversion efficiency of different forms of cassava waste (including variations in pre-processing the waste) and the bioactive effects on the growth of crustaceans (prawns and crabs) and fish (tilapia and catfish). The proof-of-concept trials will be done in Livestock on animal health and human nutrition. Cross CRP-collaboration will be achieved by strengthening the already established research partnerships between WorldFish and ILRI under L&F flagships on livestock animal health, feeds and forages, and livelihoods systems, the latter with an emphasis on value chains and animal-source foods and human nutrition. We will continue to share experiences on best use of ingredients for fish feeds, making extensive use of ILRI feed ingredient data and NIRS capacity. Tilapia disease has been identified as a topic of mutual interest for joint research in Egypt under the animal health flagship and new investigations into unsolved fish disease problems, building on analysis started in L&F. We will seek access to BecA hub with scope for training and capacity development in animal health and continue sharing of analytical methods and tools across the Livestock and FISH CRPs.Primary countries for site integration are FISH focal countries Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania (each highest priority ++ for CGIAR site integration), and Zambia (high priority + for site integration). In these countries we aim to partner with PIM, A4NH, CCAFS and WLE, where possible, on analyses of opportunities to integrate fish-based solutions in support of national policies on food security, nutrition, land and water management, and climate change adaptation. In addition, we look to develop linkages to other agri-food system CRPs and their associated Centers in these countries. This includes collaboration with RTB on the use of cassava waste inputs to novel aquafeed. Further details of this intended collaboration with other CRPs is provided in Table 2b, together with a summary of the status of country and partner engagements to advance this site integration.In addition to this focus on high-priority countries for CGIAR site integration, the FISH CRP will pursue opportunities for collaboration with other CRPs in other countries wherever possible. For example, WorldFish and IWMI have already worked closely with IRRI to identify opportunities for collaboration in Myanmar's Ayeyarwady Delta, and this will be pursued through collaboration between FISH, WLE and RICE. This collaboration will also be pursued in Cambodia. An initial roadmap to further development of site integration in Tanzania has been developed, and WorldFish will engage in this process in its role as lead Center for FISH. Specific areas of integration being pursued are linkages with PIM on the development of tools and methods being used in the study of the small fish value chain from Lake Victoria; with A4NH regarding integration of fish in national nutrition strategies, and analysis of food safety and fish quality issues in the small fish value chain; and with RTB regarding conversion of cassava waste into fish feed. Zambia +The Zambian site integration consultation workshop was held during 9-10 February 2016 and brought together key stakeholders from government, research and academic institutions, donors, NGOs and the private sector. The Zambian National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) provided a basis for the discussions and will be a key focus for alignment of the CRPs in Zambia. FISH was represented at the workshop by WorldFish.An initial set of steps for site integration in Zambia have been agreed upon, and this will be developed after GCARD3. WorldFish will engage in this process on behalf of FISH and pursue best opportunities for integration with other CRPs. This is likely to include WLE on fish in multifunctional landscapes, and with PIM on governance of inland fisheries.A summary of the skills, experience and capacity of the science teams engaged in FISH is provided in the attached CVs. Roles are summarized below and grouped by flagship. Cross-cutting roles are listed as well. Flagship leaders are named first, followed by respective cluster leaders and then key science leadership. Contributors may be listed more than once, where they contribute to multiple flagships. No CV is provided for the Program Director, as this position will be subject to international recruitment. • Saravanan, S., Geurden, I., Figueiredo-Silva, A.C., Kaushik, S.J., Verreth, J.A.J., Schrama, J.W. ( 2013) Voluntary feed intake in rainbow trout is regulated by diet-induced differences in oxygen use. The Journal of Nutrition 143: 781-787. • Saravanan, S., Geurden, I., Orozco, Z.G.A., Kaushik, S.J., Verreth, J.A.J., Schrama, J.W. ( 2013  • Keane, M., Craig, T., Alföldi, J., Berlin, A.M., Johnson, J., Seluanov, A., Gorbunova, V., Di Palma, F., Lindblad-Toh, K., Church, G.M., de Magalhães, J.P. ( 2014   Sr. Scientist -Genomic resources for fish, FP1 Sustainable aquaculture• 25 years' experience in research in aquaculture; the last 12 years working specifically on the design of breeding programs for aquaculture species.  Sr. Scientist -Aquaculture systems analysis, FP1 Sustainable aquaculture• Over 30 years' technical leadership and policy guidance on sustainable aquaculture; over 30 years' experience in aquaculture and aquatic animal health management. • Expertise on fish and shrimp pathology, aquatic epidemiology, surveillance and risk management, small-scale aquaculture.• Secured funding and implemented several national, regional and international research and development projects in the area of aquatic animal health. • Published over 60 research papers. Secured funding and implemented several regional aquatic animal health projects in Asia-Pacific in previous role at NACA. Involved in two aquatic animal health (UK Newton fund)  • Contributions to regional and global fisheries science and policy forums, symposia and documents with FAO, World Bank, and SPC. • More than 20 years' experience in project leadership of large multi-stakeholder projects.• Recent major grants awarded: 2013 ACIAR Research Grant FIS/2013/074 (USD 4.2 million) for Pacific small-scale fisheries governance, 2015 ACIAR Research Grant FIS/2015/031 (USD 1.2 million) for fish in regional food systems.Flagship Leader, FP2 Sustaining small-scale fisheries Principal Investigator -Small-scale fisheries governance, FP2 Sustaining small-scale fisheries CGIAR regards results of its research and development activities as international public goods and is committed to widespread dissemination to advantage the poor, especially smallholder producers in developing countries.The FISH strategy for management of open access should be read in conjunction with its strategy on intellectual asset management. The FISH program will rely on the policies, procedures and capabilities of the lead Center, WorldFish, to ensure compliance with the CGIAR Open Access and Data Management (OADM) Policy and its Implementation Guidelines, both of which have been adopted by the WorldFish Board. Follow this link for more information on WorldFish's Ownership and Archiving of Research Data Policy.This policy framework stipulates that open access is required for all CGIAR information products. Information products include peer-reviewed journal articles; reports and other papers; books and book chapters; data and databases; data collection and analysis tools (e.g. models and survey tools); video, audio and images; computer software; web services (e.g. data portals and modeling online platforms); and metadata associated with the information products above. Key exceptions include information that is sensitive due to privacy concerns, political sensitivity and adverse effects on farmers' rights; and confidential information associated with permitted restrictions or subject to limited delays to seek IP rights.The program will use Creative Commons licensing on its self-published information products. All program publications (journal articles, book chapters, policy briefs, factsheets, manuals and guides), along with other published knowledge products (tools and software), will be catalogued and searchable via a FISH program website, in addition to other outlets. For its peer-reviewed research publications, the program will encourage its scientists to publish in open access journals. In those instances where publishing in fee-paying journals is preferred, the program will purchase open access privileges. To ensure proper deposit of journal articles, a pipeline tracking system will be implemented to ensure the program has a clear view of the journal articles and other external publications (e.g. book chapters) to be produced each year, and to ensure that fees for open access are included in the communications budget for particular research activities.Open access database products produced and maintained by the program will include geo-tagged data, as relevant, on topics such as the genetic characteristics of farmed fish species, comparative data on the implementation of fisheries management regimes, household survey data, and estimates on fish postharvest waste and losses in different locations.Where appropriate global database projects exist, data collection and storage protocols will be designed to contribute to these. Finished datasets will be migrated to the open source Dataverse network hosted by Harvard University.Notable databases that will be generated or contributed to by the FISH program include the following:• FishBase. Through FP1 and FP2, the program will contribute aquaculture species data to FishBase, the world's leading open access database on fish biology. WorldFish maintains this database, which was developed by ICLARM (now WorldFish) in the 1980s. • Coral Triangle Atlas. Under FP2, the FISH program will contribute data research in the Philippines and Solomon Islands. The Coral Triangle Atlas (CT Atlas) is an online GIS database, providing governments, NGOs and researchers with a view of spatial data at the regional scale.Qualitative research information consisting of ongoing knowledge and learning that is amassed over time will be made readily accessible to researchers and other program partners via the CGXchange Google Apps tool. The cloud-based system emphasizes collaboration and learning. A hierarchical set of repositories has been established to co-develop, store and access research information and learning outputs by people working on the same program across the world. Collaboration within and across countries and regions is supported with tools and guidelines and complemented by training and support provisions.To ensure adoption of best practices, WorldFish, as the lead Center for FISH, will continue to participate in the CGIAR Open Access Implementation Working Group and the CGIAR Data Management Task Force, which takes a lead role in coordinating implementation, with a focus on data management. Will provide oversight of data standards and provide policies on standards and interoperability protocols across CGIAR open access repositories.Research data management and open access implementation will comply with the FAIR principles, which stipulate that information products should be findable, accessible, interoperable and re-usable.FISH research staff, visiting scientists, consultants and collaborators are expected to be efficient when writing and publishing scientific data and information products (whether through journal publication, accessible databases or other means), in line with the CGIAR OADM policy. The program supports publication in open access journals. Individuals or teams generating data have the first right to publication unless they specifically waive this right. The FISH program will aim to make all information products open access, subject to the legal right and legitimate interest of stakeholders and third parties, including intellectual property rights, confidentiality, sensitivity, and farmers' rights and privacy, with respect to personally identifiable information as described in Annex 3.10 on the intellectual asset management strategy.The decision to provide open access is subject to the value and relevance of the information product to the broader public and with respect to the quality and general characteristics of the product.Specific conditions are set on the sharing and use of (raw) prepublication scientific data (PSD), meaning all research data, databases, data analyses, data interpretations, draft presentations, reports, manuscripts, intellectual property (whether in preparation or filed, but not published), or other documentation of research results or outputs that are confidential to, or not (yet) disclosed by partners engaged in implementing research within the FISH program.The FISH management committee will ensure that research teams include the cost of implementing research data management and open access principles in activity budgets and will ask for information about application of these principles as part of the reporting process. Periodic meetings will be organized with managing partners to discuss status of delivery and any concern related to research data management and open access.At project planning, agreements will be made among project partners on the sharing of PSD, the anticipated resulting information products, publication strategies, and the storage and sharing media to be used. Where PSD sharing is required to meet the objectives of multi-organization projects or programs, the project team should define principles and procedures for data sharing at the initiation of the project or at an appropriate time thereafter. Such principles and procedures for data sharing may be embodied as clauses in a funding or collaboration agreement and will be assessed by the implementing Centers prior to contract execution. Where sensitive data (because of IP, contractual obligation, publication or other reasons) is to be shared between organizations, a confidentiality and nondisclosure agreement will be entered into, which defines the purpose of the data transfer, confidentiality arrangements, and the ways in which the data may be used. Donors or R&D collaborators may request data sharing or confidentiality policies or mechanisms, but such requests must be consistent with the pertinent policies of the implementing Centers and in line with the CGIAR Principles on the Management of Intellectual Assets. Within 12 months after completed data curation and quality control, or within 6 months from publication, information products will be made available through dedicated and pertinent open access media. To ensure sustainability after the CRP ends, the implementing Centers will be responsible for maintaining open access databases and information products. These Centers will follow their OADM policies developed in line with the CGIAR OADM policies and guidelines. The technical OADM infrastructure will adhere to the FAIR principles described above. Data will be findable and accessible through websites of FISH and the implementing Centers and their partners. The lead Center, managing partners and other research partners will ensure, as permitted by law, that they have the rights to the information products produced by their staff, visiting scientists, consultants, students and any other person acting on their behalf. Therefore, the Centers and partners have stewardship and ownership responsibilities towards the information products produced under FISH. Partners will typically co-own information products created under the program, as specified in letters of agreement or partnership contracts.Parties engaged in program implementation will secure appropriate licenses in accordance with their policies and the CGIAR IA policies as required. They may enter into agreements for the acquisition and use of third-party IA that restrict the global accessibility of the products or services resulting from the use of such IA for commercialization, research and development provided that: (1) they are, to the best of their knowledge, unable to acquire equivalent IA from other sources under no or less restrictive conditions; (2) the products or services that are intended to result from the use of such third-party IA will contribute to the goals and objectives of the program; and (3) managing and implementing Centers and partners shall use their best efforts to ensure that such third-party IAs are only used in relation to, or incorporated into, such intended products or services.The program will access specialized legal services as required to ensure that policies and practices for IA management are consistent with the following:• the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its objectives, including conserving biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from the utilization of genetic resources • fundamental rights outlined in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and other relevant international treaties • all applicable international treaties, and supranational and national laws on IPMechanisms to ensure compliance include IA obligations in staff contracts and partner agreements, a tracking system of databases and publications in progress, confirming that partners follow prior informed consent and confidentiality principles in data collection and storage, and centralized data management protocols.The FISH management committee will ensure that research teams include the cost of implementing IA principles in project budgets (i.e. open access costs for publications and datasets) and apply IA principles in their reporting processes. Meetings will be organized periodically with cluster leaders to discuss the management and delivery of IA principles. Expectations around IA management and IP sharing arrangements will be included in all project contracts. These will be developed and agreed upon with project partners, including the appropriate distribution channels as per relevant institutional and CGIAR IA policies.With respect to fish genetic improvement and dissemination, reviews of IP regimes have been completed with respect to patent and fish breeders' rights protection in Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Philippines), Africa (Egypt, Zambia), and Pacific islands (Solomon Islands).WorldFish will base its data preservation strategy on the Open Archival Information System (OAIS) reference model (ISO 14721:2012); the repository system will provide long-term access to submitted works along with associated metadata. In order to provide long-term access, WorldFish will back up files in a secure and redundant manner, periodically refresh the storage media, and migrate obsolete file formats to recommended open file formats.As a condition of program participation, WorldFish and the FISH managing partners commit to keeping their programrelated IAs, including germplasm, inventions, improvements, data, processes, technologies, software, trademarks and publications, as freely available as possible to any public or private sector entity in compliance with the CGIAR Open Access and Data Management (OADM) Policy and its Implementation Guidelines. To the extent possible and when appropriate, publication or contractual provisions will be used to ensure that such information, innovation or material remains available for use by the public and private sectors.In accordance with all relevant biosafety, quarantine, import and export regulations, WorldFish and partners will supply samples of fish genetic resources, whether or not they are conserved in their genebanks, to others for the purposes of research, breeding, and training for food and agriculture. This will be done under the terms of a Standard Material Transfer Agreement and within the limits of capacity and availability, provided they are not subject to IP or other contractual restrictions set by FISH collaborators. Transboundary transfers of live fish will take place in line with the recommendations and guidelines set out in WorldFish policies on movement of tilapia from Asia to Africa, and other non-binding international declarations, such as the Nairobi Declaration on aquatic biodiversity conservation and the Dhaka Declaration on ecological risk assessment of genetically improved fish.For innovative models and private sector involvement, WorldFish and managing partners will establish collaborative relationships with the public and private sectors, including civil society organizations. These relationships will enable the FISH program to achieve its goals and objectives, enhance the quality and impact of research, contribute to capacity development, and ensure continued availability and delivery of information and inventions.In the case of improved fish breeds and feed formulations, time-limited licensing may be pursued to enable commercialization under certain conditions where this is deemed the most effective route to bring the technologies to scale. Where access to patented technology is required, such as the CSIRO aquafeed technology, we will negotiate the terms and conditions of the FISH CRP license to operate. We will adopt this same approach for other patented technologies, including disease screening and prevention technologies.Capabilities to support implementation are centered in a WorldFish research support hub, including a research data management support specialist, database specialist, and administrative staff dedicated to publications tracking and management, along with a grants and contracts unit and legal advisory services to monitor compliance in contracting procedures. The primary responsibility for compliance with intellectual asset management rests with research teams, and the budget for this is reflected in the FP research budgets. Additional costs to support implementation and compliance for IA and OA jointly, including oversight by the management committee, are included in the program management budget.Annex 3.12 Response to ISPC commentary on the resubmission of the FISH CRP pre-proposal (2017-2022)In its review of the pre-proposal for a FISH CRP (September 2015), the ISPC recommended that the Fund Council invite the proponents to submit a revised pre-proposal that addresses the main concerns and recommendations of the ISPC. The resubmission of an overview of the FISH CRP pre-proposal was received by the ISPC in January 2016. The resulting ISPC commentary was structured around the four main recommendations made previously by the ISPC and focused on the extent to which the resubmission provided a response to these concerns and recommendations, giving the ISPC confidence that a strong full proposal would be submitted. The ISPC acknowledged that considerable progress had been made but considered that a number of the points and concerns from its previous review still needed substantial additional attention. Each of the recommendations made by the ISPC in its most recent commentary is provided below, along with a summary of the response addressed in the full proposal.Original ISPC Recommendation 1. The CRP's analysis of sector dynamics, ToC, impact pathways, targets, and budgetary allocations need revisiting to address the issues detailed in the ISPC commentary.Recommendation: Meeting future demand growth is highlighted as the central challenge for the CRP. The narrative, however, is not clear on its analysis and understanding of the significant regional differences in addressing this challenge. The current narrative describing impact pathways and ToC needs additional clarity on the changes required, impact pathways, and how these will ensure the systemic change necessary at both local and global levels to achieve the impact at scale that the CRP is aiming for.In response to this recommendation, we internally reviewed the probability of the FISH CRP's success across four dimensions:• science challenge and capability (science base, technical challenge and project complexity, world-class capability relative to others, and unique capacity) • capacity to deliver (track record of leadership, team composition and effectiveness, scientific partnerships and linkages, and infrastructure and equipment) • clarity of planned outcomes (quantitative and qualitative) • clearly defined delivery pathways (capacity of focus countries, stage of partner involvement, partner capacity to coinvest, and end-user capacity to adopt research advances).The results of this review have been incorporated into the revised FISH impact pathways and theories of change. We have included identified risks and assumptions for CRP and flagship levels in the design of corresponding strategies and risk management actions (see sections 1.3 and 1.15, as well as theory of change for each flagship). To test assumptions and improve results at the CRP and flagship levels, we will use an integrated approach to outcome evaluation and impact assessment. These assessment activities will help us refine the targeting and design of project activities and demonstrate quantitative progress towards SLO and IDO targets, enabling us to adjust investment in our research areas and geographies for best impact. The revised impact pathways and theories of change were also key to the revision of the proposed FISH budgetary allocations.Original ISPC Recommendation 2. The CRP needs to show that it has selected its priority research opportunities based on its comparative advantage and address the quality of science in the associated research activities.The FISH resubmission makes the case for the CRP's contribution to all three SLOs, via significant contributions to IDO targets in 7 priority focus countries and 7 other scaling countries. While this initial targeting effort is commended there is a need for further prioritization and a process that would allow the CRP to set and refine its research strategies and targets its specific areas of comparative advantage.Response: We comprehensively reviewed and refined our geographic focus based on the following factors:• the current status and projected future potential of aquaculture and SSF in developing countries • the probability that FISH and its managing and implementing partners can effectively and competitively respond to demands for research and deliver impacts at scale • striking a balance between the needs of producers and consumers in regions where the poor already have good access to fish versus regions where the potential to increase supplies of fish and improve livelihoods is yet to be realized • where FISH can best integrate and optimize the co-contributions of aquaculture, small-scale fisheries and fish value chains to reduce poverty and improve food security alongside improvements to environmental sustainability.From this review we selected six priority focal countries: three in Asia (Bangladesh, Myanmar and Cambodia) and three in Africa (Zambia, Nigeria and Tanzania), where we can most coherently integrate our multidisciplinary strengths in sustainable aquaculture, SSF and enhancing the contribution of fish to nutrition and health of the poor. Two additional countries will constitute a focus for particular areas of research: Egypt as a research hub and training center for our aquaculture capacity development in Africa, and Solomon Islands as a hub for our learning networks on SSF governance in the Pacific. As detailed in the revised FISH proposal, in selecting our focal countries and scaling countries, we applied a series of metrics tailored to each of the three flagships (sustainable aquaculture, sustaining small-scale fisheries, and enhancing the contribution of fish to nutrition and health of the poor). See section 1.1 and details in each flagship on focus and scaling countries.The SLO2 description would benefit from further clarification of its intention in respect of \"small indigenous fish species\". What would be the justification for a significant investment in this area, and what research strategy do the proponents suggest to pursue? Similarly, in the SLO3 description on resource governance in aquaculture, FISH needs to clarify its comparative advantage in this area, and how this integrates with related global and regional initiatives.The justification for investment in the production of small indigenous fish species and the proposed research strategy are fully articulated, with relevant citations, in the revised proposal (detailed in FP3). In summary, the potential for controlled, year-round production of highly nutritious small indigenous fish in small-scale enterprises in the developing world is a new approach based on initial discovery research in Bangladesh that has significant potential to scale in South and Southeast Asia. Fish farming in Asia is dominated by carp and tilapia, comparatively large species whose major nutritional value is their contribution to dietary protein. There are, however, several species of small freshwater fish, notably mola (Amblypharyngodon mola), that are a rich source of the nutrients needed for healthy growth and brain development, including iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin B12, calcium and essential fatty acids. Extensive field experiments in Bangladesh have demonstrated that mola can be grown in polyculture with tilapia, carp and other commonly cultivated large fish species without adversely affecting total productivity. Ex ante analysis has shown that scaling up production of mola in a national program could be a cost-effective nutritional intervention for reducing vitamin A deficiency. We contend that conducting research to overcome barriers to achieving such scaling of mola production, alongside our research on the more established tilapia and carp sectors, provides FISH significant additional capability to contribute to the SLO nutrition targets.The analysis of national fisheries strategies in the Pacific regions and importance of inshore fisheries for national food security and well-being, suggests demand, but clarification of the comparative advantage for the CGIAR, and FISH in particular, in this area is required. This is particularly important, as the Pacific does not seem to be part of the priority focus areas of the CRP. The confirmation of the CAADP national stakeholders' commitment to the FISH program is welcome but more details will be needed in the full proposal on the research priorities and the targets of FISH in SS Africa, and how they are embedded in NEPAD and the CAADP roadmap.Response: In the revised proposal, particularly in the FP2 narrative, we detail the comparative advantages for FISH and its managing and implementing partners contributing to national fisheries strategies in the Pacific, as well as the importance of inshore fisheries for national food security and wellbeing. We also clarify the reasons for and extent of the engagement of FISH in the Pacific. Likewise, we more clearly articulate FISH research priorities and targets in SS Africa, and how they are embedded in the CAADP roadmap. We highlight this for FP1 in particular, where the program has been designed to align explicitly with the priorities of the African Union's Pan-African Plan of Action for sustainable aquaculture development, and the national priorities such as improved seed, feed and fish health being pursued under this framework. By working closely with AU-IBAR and NEPAD in the design and implementation of this research agenda (including via facilitation of a regional workshop in March 2016) and in the dissemination of outputs through support to capacity development and policy initiatives, the program is also positioned to contribute to achieving outcomes at wider scale as an increasing number of African countries expand their investment in aquaculture development under their CAADP compacts.The gender narrative in the CRP needs to provide additional evidence of its understanding of gender, and how this has shaped the CRP research agenda. Inclusion of the lessons learned in the past and how current proposals build on that is equally important. In addition, providing a clearer link of the gender narrative to the subsequent descriptions of the Flagships and clusters is also recommended.We have addressed this concern via a comprehensive expansion of the gender narrative, as now detailed in section 1.4, in each of the flagships and in Annex 3.4.A recurrent issue in the current narrative seems to be the absence of other CRPs (apart from IWMI in FP2; cluster 1). Much more information will be required in the full proposal on the links with other CRPs, e.g. PIM's role in foresight; and the role of other AFS-CRPs e.g. on feeds; nutrition; resource use; diets; food safety etc. Moreover, lessons learned in the current AAS, and Livestock & Fish CRPs, and how these are integrated, acted upon, and taken forward in the current proposal need clarification.We have addressed this concern with a more detailed and inclusive narrative of the engagement of FISH with other CRPs. We detail the nature of FISH collaborations with four global integrative CRPs: PIM, CCAFS, A4NH and WLE. Additional, targeted linkages include those between the aquaculture breeds research and the CGIAR platforms on Genetic Gains and Big Data. Particular site integration activities also include new links with RICE on integrated rice-fish systems, RTB on cassava waste inputs to novel aquafeeds and Livestock on animal health and feeds. An overview of cross-CRP integration is provided in Annex 3.7, Table 1.Original ISPC Recommendation 3. The CRP needs to clarify its networking and partnership arrangements, roles and responsibilities on the basis of comparative advantage and subsidiarity.Recommendation: Compared to the previous version of the pre-proposal, there have been significant changes in the strategy and design of the CRP partnership. However, the partnership approach needs further details, and clarification; what, for example does the \"careful selection of partners in target countries\" entails. The partners are still largely presented as a list, with no evidence of the strategic thinking underlying choices and the comparative advantage of the selected research partners in the various clusters. In addition, limited attention seems to have been given, thus far, to national partners, site integration, and country objectives. Given the number of clusters suggested to be led by partners and ARIs, there is a need to document the leadership and value added of WorldFish. Further clarity on how the CRP will link its development and testing of foundational science and practice to global multi-stakeholder initiatives critical to knowledge application, systemic change, and impact at scale, is also required.We have addressed this concern via a more detailed explanation of our partnership strategy, including partner types, partnership modalities, selection of partners, and the competitive advantages and specific contributions of these partners along the discovery, proof of concept and scaling stages in the impact pathways. This includes a more detailed illustration of partnerships for each cluster of activity and examples of strategic research partnerships, as well as cross-CRP collaboration and site integration. We have also provided further detail on the comparative advantage of WorldFish and partners in section 1.8 on Partnerships and Comparative Advantage. We complement this with further information on multi-stakeholder partnerships in the flagship narratives, and an illustrative sample of these is tabulated in Annex 3.2 (Partnership Strategy).Original ISPC Recommendation 4. The CRP needs to provide a rationale for its geographical focus, and a strategy on how it will link local level multi-stakeholder partnership with higher-level alliances, thereby creating conditions for the systemic innovation that is required to attain the levels of impact indicated.The revised FISH pre-proposal states its focus on local and system-level analyses and interventions to support improved governance of fish food systems, but does not elaborate convincingly on the rationale for this. It is also not clear whether the proposed focus on \"governance of fish food systems\" is related to capture fish systems, inland, sea, aquaculture, or all of the above. The FISH regional focus and particularly the differential features of this focus need further clarification. The current network of partners and partnership seems to be lacking clear pathways or processes that will contribute to systemic change and impact at scale (see comment #3 above). The only description that gives a hint of this is in relation to the mentioned partnership with the SPC. Similarly in SS Africa, evidence should be presented on how the CRP's research will be embedded in the AU-NEPAD and the CAADP strategies, for instance in targeting the Malabo declaration goals. More information will also be needed on the specific role and the comparative advantage of FISH in these processes.We have clarified the program's focus on fish food systems; i.e. building \"the evidence base needed to influence policy\" enabling productive and equitable SSF and the associated change mechanisms specified in the impact pathway and theories of change for flagship 2. We have also provided more specificity (in Annex 3.2, summarizing the program's Partnership Strategy) on the mechanisms through which we believe that the program's research can lead to systemic change. We provide more detail on our partnership with SPC, which builds on long-standing collaboration, and with AU-IBAR and NEPAD, focusing on the African Union's Pan-African Plan of Action for sustainable aquaculture development.","tokenCount":"14383"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dba4195b13991c880326863e74a0168d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f001247c-baba-4aed-bbba-f7d2af99826e/retrieve","id":"-1303453974"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"26c1e633-bfce-491e-bef0-3147f1a7e73d","pagecount":"8","content":"Cognizant of the need to refocus breeding efforts toward end-product quality traits taking into account consumer preferences and considering the rapid urbanization in South-eastern Asia, we investigated consumer preferences for sweet potato in Hanoi. Using a mixed-methods research design, we identified the most preferred and least preferred attributes of both the fresh and boiled products. We found the absence of external defects to be the main sought-after characteristic in fresh roots, followed by flavor, texture, weight, size, color, and shape. Both women and men preferred medium-to large-sized roots (with men preferring larger ones) having elongated shape and smooth peel. Women paid more attention to the color of the peel (purple or yellow preferred; white least preferred) and uniformity in root size, while men were more attracted to the firmness of the root. Regarding the boiled product, both women and men indicated mealiness and sweetness among the three most important characteristics. In addition, women prioritized smell and flavor; men, its softness. Unlike men, women indicated that the color of the flesh and the size of the root are other important requirements. The study also determined preferences and associated traits of six popular varieties. Results indicate that while these varieties largely already meet consumers' preferences, consumers have a clear preference for a few varieties that require marginal adjustments to further increase their acceptability among the growing urban population. The findings provide insights for enhancing the current seed product market segmentation and for adjusting the existing target product profile. It is expected that this will contribute to higher and faster variety uptake and adoption and ultimately increase food security, nutrition, and livelihood opportunities in the region.Over the past decades, advances in crop breeding have led to the release of superior productive and nutritious varieties. However, breeding programs have focused on productivity increase and agronomy-related characteristics (e.g., resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses), while attention to end-user preferences has not been prioritized. The lack of attention to end-user preferences is considered to be a primary cause of low adoption of improved varieties (Eriksson et al. 2018).There is growing recognition of the need to refocus breeding efforts toward end-product quality traits considering consumer preferences for quality characteristics (Dufour et al. 2021). Consumer preference for a particular crop variety is often influenced by quality attributes such as appearance, smell, texture, and taste, among others, which must be considered for effective varietal improvement. Integrating end-user preferred traits in the current breeding efforts, especially based on sensory acceptance attributes, has been shown to be a worthwhile strategy to drive demand for new varieties (Baafi et al. 2016). While increased productivity can contribute to improved farmers' livelihoods and incomes, farmers can only achieve these benefits if the varieties they cultivate respond not only to their needs but possess the traits demanded by consumers and other end users in the value chain, such as retailers and processors.CGIAR has shown continued interest in a demand-led approach to the design of varieties and the prioritization of breeding efforts and has been increasingly looking to better align its breeding pipelines with current and future demand for varieties. As part of this effort, market intelligence and seed product market segmentation are rapidly becoming a central element to support evidence-based decisions on product design and investment prioritization. A seed product market segment (SPMS) represents a group of farmers with common variety requirements. Notably, these requirements consider not only grower requirements (where and how the crop is grown) but also end-user requirements (what the crop is used for). Currently more than 400 SPMSs have been identified and included in the SPMS Database. For each market segment, a unique target product profile (TPP) exists that provides the blueprint for the ideal seed product that meets the requirements of farmers, processors, and consumers (Donovan et al. 2022).Understanding the requirements and preferences of consumers is essential for developing a more demanddriven breeding product (varieties). They are elements that both define the SPMSs and are captured in more detail in the relevant TPPs.In the case of root and tuber crops, the relatively poor quality of end products is a particularly common issue across improved varieties, translating into low levels of varietal adoption and its subsequent benefits (Thiele et al. 2021). This brief presents the main results of a study that investigated the preferences for boiled sweet potato of urban consumers in Viet Nam, with a specific focus on the capital city, Hanoi. The boiled product was selected because it is the most common mode of consuming sweet potato in the country. The study identified the most common and preferred varieties and the most liked and disliked characteristics of both the fresh and cooked roots. It provides directions for future varietal development to better respond to the preferences of the expanding urban population and, in turn, increase variety uptake and adoption. These results were used for refining the existing market segmentation for sweet potato in South-eastern Asia and can inform adjustment in the existing TPP (Vu et al. 2023). Viet Nam is the world's tenth largest sweet potato producer and Asia's third largest producer, after China and Indonesia. Sweet potato is the most widely cultivated food crop in Viet Nam after rice and maize. However, arable land allocated to this crop has declined over the past 20 years, from about 250,000 to 110,000 ha, currently representing about 1 percent of total cultivated land (FAO 2022). Nevertheless, due to its tolerance to heat and drought and its resilience to extreme weather events (Gatto et al. 2021), the trend is expected to reverse due to climate change, and an expansion of its cultivation is projected in Southern and South-eastern Asia over the next decades. Despite the reduction in land allocation over the past 20 years, annual harvested output has decreased to a much lower extent, from 1.60 to 1.37 million tons due to a sharp increase in productivity, from 6.3 to 12.5 t/ha (FAO 2022). The average per capita annual consumption of sweet potato in the country is estimated at 4.7 kg.CGIAR has made an important contribution to the sweet potato breeding program in Viet Nam through the introduction of higher yielding varieties. According to Gatto et al. (2018), Viet Nam has released 19 improved varieties, 5 of which are linked to efforts by the International Potato Center (CIP)(i.e., selected from CIP crosses or crossed from CIP progenitors). About 20 percent of total land in sweet potato is planted with CIP-related varieties.In the SPMS Database, there are 14 market segments identified for sweet potato globally. One market segment is included for South-eastern Asia (Table 1). Table 2 shows the relevant TPP.The hedonic test was conducted according to the ISO 4121:2003 and ISO 11136:2014 guidelines. Panelists were asked to score their general liking and the preferences for specific attributes (odor, taste, texture, and aftertaste) on a seven-point scale. The hedonic scores were subjected to a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Hierarchical ascendant classification (HAC) was carried out to identify clusters with similar preferences.The CATA test was carried out in accordance with the standard method developed by Ares (2015). Terms extracted from FGDs were used in the test, and consumers were asked to check the terms they found most appropriate to describe the samples. Correspondence analysis was conducted to generate a frequency matrix of CATA descriptors; results were used to interpret the results of the hedonic test and to do a preliminary identification of the key sensory attributes that made a certain variety more (or less) preferred by the panelists.Following the methodology developed by Lawless and Heymann (1998), consumers were invited to test the products and rate the intensity of six key attributes on a three-point scale, with a central score of \"just about right\" (too little/just about right/too much): yellow color, color intensity, odor intensity, softness, wet surface (sap), mealiness, and sweetness. Penalty analysis was used to determine the attributes that needed to be adjusted as well as the direction of adjustment (increase or decrease) to maximize consumer satisfaction.Sweet potato was perceived as a tasty, fulfilling, and healthy food that is affordable and easy to prepare. On the other hand, issues related to its perishability and limited appeal to some children were reported.Table 3 shows the most and least preferred varieties for boiling. Most participants, particularly men, were unable to name the varieties and referred to them by the color of the flesh and/or peel, or the origin. Both men and women preferred a wide range of varieties of different colors. Strong taste, sweetness, and mealiness were key attributes of the most liked varieties. The study used a mixed-methods research design. We adapted the methodology developed by Forsythe et al. (2020) to the specificities of urban consumers. The design included focus group discussions (FGDs) and consumer tests. For the FGDs, 64 participants were purposively selected to ensure diversity in gender, age, and income level. During the process, boiled sweet potato samples were served for testing. The descriptors mentioned in the FGDs were extracted and used for the consumer-test questionnaire.For the consumer test, the six most common sweet potato varieties found in markets and farmer fields in and around Hanoi were collected, prepared, and served to a panel consisting of 80 participants (45 women and 35 men). We recruited the participants from the network and database of the Sensory Laboratory of the Hanoi University of Science and Technology (HUST). The varieties tested were Red Hoang Long, White Hoang Long, Beniazuma (Japanese variety), Khoai Mat, Khoai Bo, and an unknown variety imported from China. Each participant was first interviewed using a structured questionnaire to collect data on the socioeconomic characteristics and then subjected to three standard methods for consumer testing.  Most of the respondents (82 percent) indicated that the main criterium for selecting fresh sweet potato in the market is root quality. Absence of external defects (holes, black spots, cuts, and bruises) was the main sought-after characteristic, followed by flavor, texture, weight, size, color, and shape of the root. Both women and men preferred medium-to big-sized roots (with men preferring larger ones), with elongated shape and smooth peel. Women paid more attention to the color of the peel (purple or yellow preferred; white least preferred) and uniformity in root size (for ease to cook), while men were more attracted to the firmness of the root. Higher-income women paid more attention to defects (withered, wrinkled, and dark peel; presence of shoots, holes, and soil), while those with lower income were more demanding in terms of peel color and firmness of the root.Regarding the boiled product, both women and men indicated mealiness and sweetness among the three most important characteristics. In addition, women prioritized smell and flavor; men, its softness (Table 4). Unlike men, women indicated that the color of the flesh and the size of the root are other important requirements. Disliked characteristics included boiled sweet potato that is fibrous, not mealy, too mushy, too powdery, and with a bland taste.The hedonic test found that all varieties were in the liking region (>4 points). However, two varieties stood out: Beniazuma and sweet potato imported from China. Beniazuma was the preferred choice for older consumers with higher incomes and married, while the Chinese variety was preferred by single youth with low incomes.CATA results showed that Beniazuma is preferred because of its starchy texture, smell, and taste; sweet potato from China, because of its eye-catching appearance and honeylike smell (Figure 1). Based on JAR results, only one trait needed to be adjusted for increasing the acceptability of these two varieties: in the case of Beniazuma, its texture should be softer. This result is not surprising as this variety has been developed for Japanese consumers, for whom dry-mouth feeling is a key characteristic (Tan et al. 2007).In the case of sweet potato from China, the sap (the sticky mixture of sugar and starch produced when the fresh root is cut open) should be reduced. Two more varieties would require changing one single attribute only-more yellow flesh (variety White Hoang Long) or firmer texture (variety Khoai Bo). The other two varieties examined would require the adjustment of at least two attributes.The results were presented and discussed with CIP and national breeders and experts. The new insights into consumers preferences triggered a broader review of the traits demanded in a successful variety, including farmers' requirements. It was noted that the SPMS for sweet potato in South-eastern Asia refers to both irrigated and rainfed production environment, while the ideal maturity is indicated as mid. However, in the Mekong delta and South-eastern Asian tropical mega-deltas at large, paddy cultivation dominates and sweet potato is mostly grown as a relay crop under irrigation. Therefore, the ability to produce well under irrigated conditions and a short growing cycle are characteristics that drive varietal adoption and should be prioritized in the breeding effort.  Based on these findings, the current segmentation for sweet potato in South-eastern Asia can be enhanced to better reflect the dominant varieties in the market and consumer preferences, especially related to the color of the flesh. Color is one of the key criteria defining a market segment. Currently, the only sweet potato segment in the SPMS Database refers to purple flesh. In Viet Nam, purple sweet potato is extensively grown in one province only, Vinh Long, which specializes in export to Japan where consumers appreciate fresh roots of that color. However, in Hanoi, none of the most common varieties found in markets and farmer fields were purple-fleshed. While purple varieties exist, other flesh colors were reported, namely yellow, orange, and white. The findings suggest the need to add three more segments in the SPSM Database to capture these additional, and more widespread, colors.Furthermore, following extensive interaction with and feedback by CIP and national breeders and experts, we propose revising the current description of two of the criteria defining the sweet potato market segments in the region: production system and maturity. The former should refer to irrigated conditions only; the latter, to early maturity (Table 5).The study results provide additional insights on how the existing TPP (for purple sweet potato) can be adjusted and how the TPPs of the newly proposed market segments can be developed (either for all segments or for the ones that future assessments will identify as offering the highest opportunity for impact).Sweetness and mealiness were identified as key attributes of the most liked varieties by both women and men. While in our study, sweet taste was found to be important, this is not a preferred trait in several countries, especially in Western Africa (Baafi et al. 2016). To reflect the actual preference of consumers in South-eastern Asia, increasing the minimum score (currently 0 to 5 on a 0-10 scale) for this trait should be considered.Consumers are attentive to the color of the flesh, and this is reflected in the existing TPP, which lists this trait as \"essential.\" The current score (9) refers to the purplefleshed SPMS for which the TPP has been designed. This score will have to be adjusted when developing the TPPs for other colors.The color of the peel was found to be an important determinant of consumer choice, with purple-and yellowpeel varieties being the most preferred. In the current TPP, peel color is categorized as a \"nice-to-have\" trait. Consideration should be given to elevating this to an \"essential\" trait and to include in the TPP the option related to yellow color (score 3).Finally, TPPs might have to be expanded to capture traits related to storability and sap production. The short shelf life of the fresh roots was reported as a factor potentially limiting consumption, and it likely affects other actors in the value chain, especially traders and retailers. The excessive sap, although usually a sign of a very fresh root, is a characteristic disliked by most consumers. Many of those find the exudate too sticky to touch, associate the sap to a rotten or spoiled root, and, in a few instances reported experiencing irritated skin after handling the root.","tokenCount":"2651"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fda02a664b615c381b0e83b83c49f8f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4fc38a73-b16a-4489-9090-acce833e6b7b/retrieve","id":"2093758487"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5e72192-dd05-42bb-b6db-bded3bab9a00","pagecount":"13","content":"In most developing countries agriculture plays a significant role in enhancing food security among smallholder farmers. It is regarded as a significant economic activity that can reduce absolute and relative poverty among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Odame et al. 2013). However, both presently and in the future, the agricultural sector is increasingly threatened by the adverse impacts of climate risks. As a result of climate change, inconsistent and unstable agricultural yields will ultimately increase the risk of food and nutritional insecurity among the vulnerable populations in SSA. It is expected that climate change will ultimately lead to increased nutritional disorders, diseases, hunger and socio-economic instability in Africa (Msowoya et al. 2016). Since most families in rural SSA provide own farm labour in agriculture (Dieterich et al. 2016), poorly fed families may provide low quality labour, which can also affect production. With continuous deterioration in production over seasons, the standards of living for farmers in rural Africa will be compromised. In the case of Uganda, a decrease of a 2-4% in Gross Domestic Product is foreseen, if sufficient measures to combat climate change are not taken into consideration (Markandya et al. 2015).Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies, such as stress-tolerant varieties have the potential to increase productivity and reduce poverty levels of smallholder farmers (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2013). In addition, stresstolerant varieties may reduce the risk of pests and diseases that are accelerated by climate change (Jellis 2009;Nyasimi et al. 2017). Among the challenges experienced by farmers in northern Uganda are a high prevalence of crop diseases and an increasing occurrence of inter-and intra-seasonal dry spells (Mwongera et al. 2014). Therefore, stress-tolerant varieties can reduce the cost of production and lower the economic risk of investing in agriculture. Although trade-offs are possible, adoption of stress-tolerant varieties can contribute to the three pillars of CSA by increasing production and enhancing the resilience of farming systems (Shiferaw et al. 2014). Furthermore, stress-tolerant varieties enhance the optimal use of available household resources and are, therefore, central to sustainable economic development (Khatri-Chhetri et al. 2017).We carried out studies in 2015 to prioritise context-specific CSA practices for Nwoya District (Shikuku et al. 2015). The use of improved stress-tolerant varieties was ranked highest among the shortlisted CSA practices by stakeholders. However, the adoption of the stress-tolerant varieties was still low in the District, partly due to past experience of other improved varieties as well as a lack of financial resources. The most prevalent challenges to agriculture production, linked to climate stresses, were: the high prevalence of pests and diseases, unpredictable rainfall patterns, soil erosion, droughts and floods. Other practices that were selected as relevant to address these matters included: maize legume intercrop, agroforestry, silvo-pastoral systems and crop rotation. Few studies have assessed the impacts of climate change and climate-smart agriculture options on farm income, labour demand, food security and nutrition, thus empirical evidence is still insufficient. Existing studies include, Makate et al. (2016), which reported that households became more food secure and resilient to climate change on the adoption of crop diversification. Also, Manda et al. (2016), which argued that the adoption of improved varieties only increases the cost of production; but, when blended with a maize-legume intercrop, household crop income increased. And Brüssow et al. (2017), which found that the adoption of CSA technologies by farmers in Tanzania increased household food security in terms of diversity and stability. In this study, we assess the welfare effects of adopting stress-tolerant varieties in Nwoya District, using per capita crop income as a proxy to measure farmers' welfare. The study considered stress-tolerant varieties of maize, beans, cassava and groundnuts. To fill important gaps in the evidence, this study asked the following research questions: (i) what are the drivers for adoption of stress-tolerant varieties? (ii) What is the impact of adopting stress-tolerant varieties on households' welfare?The study used a household survey data set collected in Nwoya District, Uganda in October 2014. The District covers a geographical area of 4736.2 square kilometres (km 2 ) and has an average population density of 36.99/km 2 . Over the course of the year, the temperature varies from 18 to 36 °C. The region has a wet season that begins in March and ends in November each year. Planting of annual crops normally begins in April, while harvesting starts in July depending on the crop. Figure 15.1 presents a map of the study area. A detailed description of the study area, sample size, target population, sampling procedure and accessibility of the data is provided by Mwungu et al. (2017). Data were collected from 585 farm households in Nwoya District via one-to-one interviews. The survey questionnaire captured information on socio-demographics, dwelling characteristics, assets ownership, food availability, access to financial services, adoption of CSA technologies and practices, membership of agricultural groups, sources of agricultural information, farming activities and production for different crops at plot level, personal values, and farmers' perceptions of climatic changes. Empirical analysis began by assessing the determinants of adopting stress tolerant varieties using a binary choice logistic regression model. This analysis constituted the first step in the propensity score matching (PSM) technique of impact assessments. Within a regression framework, a binary choice model is specified as:where W it * is a latent unobserved variable whose counterpart, W it , is observed in dichotomous form only; where W it = 1 represents households that adopted a CSA technology and W it = 0 represents households that did not adopt; β refers to a vector of coefficients estimated by the model. The signs and magnitude of the marginal effects are important in explaining the effect of the independent variables on the adoption of improved varieties or simply the propensity to adopt. A vector of independent variables is represented by \uD835\uDC65 while ε is the error term. The choice of the independent variables was informed by literature on the adoption of agricultural innovations (see, for example, Manda et al. 2016). This first step generated propensity scores, that is, the estimated probabilities of households to adopt stress tolerant varieties based on the observed covariates, \uD835\uDC65.In the second step, average treatment effects (ATE) were estimated based on a matched sample of adopters and non-adopters, which was obtained using the propensity scores generated in the first step. Using this approach, we controlled for unobserved heterogeneity due to self-selection into adopter and non-adopter groups. The probability of self-selection bias in non-experimental studies might imply that the adopters are systematically different from non-adopters and, if this is not adequately controlled for, the estimated impacts may be biased and the conclusion misleading. The fundamental assumption in PSM is that outcomes are independent of treatment assignment and conditioned on explanatory variables. Furthermore, it is assumed that there is sufficient overlap in propensity scores so that both adopters and non-adopters have an equal probability greater than zero and less than one of adopting improved varieties. These two underlying assumptions are, respectively, referred to as the 'conditional independence assumption' and the 'common support assumption'. Causal effect, therefore, refers to the difference between the observed and counterfactual household welfare. Following Becker and Caliendo (2007), average treatment on the treated (ATT) can be calculated by:where ATT is the observed per capita net crop income for improved varieties adopters, y i is the observed average household welfare for adopters of improved varieties, while y o is the estimated household welfare if the adopters had not adopted improved varieties. The logistic model was initially fitted in the first stage of the PSM to assess the factors that influence adoption of improved varieties and determine the propensity to adopt for each household. The dependent variable was a binary stress tolerant  varieties adoption. To establish the reliability of the estimates from the logit model, a variance inflation factor (VIF) test for multicollinearity and Hosmer-Lemeshow (HL) test for goodness of fit were conducted. The VIF test ruled out serious multicollinearity and the HL test showed that the logit model was properly specified. Additionally, the log likelihood ratio obtained was −608.5264, which was statistically significant at 1%, while the pseudo-R 2 value of the model was 0.1421. This indicated overall significance of the logistic model and a good fit for the data. As shown in Table 15.2, the decision to adopt stress tolerant varieties was positively influenced by household size, gender of the household head, access to agricultural information from NGOs, perception of future changes in climate, number of years' residence in the village and the asset index. This indicated that for every unit increase in any of the variables, the probability of adopting improved varieties increases by the corresponding marginal effects.These results are in harmony with other past studies on theoretical and empirical literature about agricultural technology adoption. For instance, farmers who had access to NGO information were 10.33% more likely to adopt stress-tolerant varieties than their counterparts. This is partly because access to information reduces uncertainty about new technologies as farmers become aware of the new technology and how to use it effectively. These findings are in agreement with (Bonabana-Wabbi 2002) which reported that farmers who had access to agricultural information had a higher probability of adopting integrated pest management technologies in Uganda. However, against our expectation, farmers who had access to demo plots information were not more likely to adopt improved varieties. We hypothesise the reason for this finding is based on the context of the study site. Communities in northern Uganda suffered conflict and were displaced in camps and have only resettled back in their farms within the last decade. Approaches relying on trust and social networks are, therefore, more likely to influence learning and the adoption of stress tolerant varieties. In this case, we see that learning through NGOs-most of which have been in the community for long periods and have built good relationships with the farmers-is likely to be more effective compared to demonstration plots, which are often set up for short periods. In addition, CSA technologies are context-specific and so might be the approaches used to promote CSA. In Nwoya District, for example, households as well as villages tend to be geographically quite far from each other. In such cases, farmers (in a previous and related study) indicate that distance to the plot was the main reason why they were not actively participating in the demonstration plots (Shikuku et al. 2015). Such farmers often demanded the reimbursement of transport and refreshments costs during training, without which they were unwilling to actively learn.Household size had a positive effect on the adoption of stress tolerant varieties. This is plausible because a greater number of household members means there are more people available to provide the intensive labour that comes with the adoption of new technologies. This is in agreement with Adepoju and Obayelu (2013) who reported that household size was an important factor in determining the type of livelihood strategies adopted. The significance of the number of years of residence in the village meant that a farmer who stayed in the village for more than 1 year was 7.19% more likely to adopt new seed varieties. This could be attributed to strong social networks along with a greater number of years' farming experience in the village. Simtowe et al. ( 2012) also reported that farmers who'd lived in their village for a longer time were more likely to be exposed to the availability of improved pigeon pea varieties, unlike their counterparts, because of the social capital in information sharing. Asset index was used as a proxy for estimating the wealth of the farmers. Farmers with more assets are likely to have more money, equipment and materials that will aid easy access to new technologies. The results in Table 15.2 show that a 1% increase in the asset index increases the probability of adopting new varieties by 19.55%. This is in line with Tesfaye et al. ( 2016), where the authors reported that asset ownership was positively correlated with the adoption of improved wheat varieties in rural Ethiopia. Lastly, the significance of the variable 'noticed change in climate change' indicates that farmers who had noticed change were 10.98% more likely to adopt improved varieties. We can argue that such farmers know about the negative impacts of climate change and would, therefore, prefer to adopt technologies that will increase production and make them food secure, unlike their counterparts. Asayehegn et al. (2017) similarly argue that farmers who were aware of climate change were more willing to implement climate adaptation measures to mitigate themselves from the dangers.In the second step of PSM, we applied three different matching algorithms: nearest neighbour matching, kernel matching, and radius matching. The PSM model was used to determine the impact of the different CSA technologies on household welfare. After matching, ATE was computed. The propensity scores for both adopters and non-adopters ranged from 0 to 1. The reduced magnitude of Pseudo-R 2 as well as the statistical insignificance of the p-values associated with the likelihood test, justified the choice of PSM model for our data. In addition, as shown in Table 15.3, there was a substantial reduction in bias after matching which is important in examining balancing powers of estimation. The reduction in the value and the insignificance of Pseudo-R 2 after matching indicated that there were no significant differences in the values of the independent variables for the adopters and non-adopters of stress-tolerant varieties after matching. Likewise, the p-values of the likelihood ratio test were insignificant after matching. Lastly, the mean and median bias were all below 20% justifying the choice of PSM model in this study.The estimates of the average adoption effects from all the three matching algorithms are presented in Table 15.4. The results showed that the adoption of stress tolerant varieties has a positive impact on household welfare. Results from all the three matching algorithms were consistent. As shown in Table 15.4, per capita crop income was higher for the adopters than the matched non-adopters. From the findings-assuming that the two groups were matched on the equality of their propensity score-we can infer that the difference in the household per capita income results from adopting stress tolerant varieties.Statistically, it is important to test the reliability of the estimated values of ATT and ATE (Becker and Caliendo 2007). This helps the researcher to examine the sensitivity of the estimated treatment effect to small deviations in the propensity scores. Doing so also acts as a check on the quality of the comparison group. Due to the limitations of observed data, such as bias creation, sensitivity analysis helps in checking if the unobserved variation has a significant effect on the estimated values of ATT and ATE. As shown in Table 15.5, the significance level is unaffected even if gamma values are increased by threefold. This clearly shows that the estimated values of ATT and ATE will not change to any external deviation. This study assessed the drivers behind the adoption of stress-tolerant varieties and their impact on farmers' welfare. The results showed that household size, access to agricultural information from NGOs, perception of future changes in climate, number of years' resident in the village and asset index all have a positive influence on the propensity to adopt stress-tolerant varieties. Further results show that stresstolerant varieties have the potential of increasing net crop income within a range of USD 500-864 per hectare per year, corresponding to an 18-32% increase. Our empirical results suggest the need to implement a bundled solution in scaling up the adoption of stress-tolerant varieties. Specifically, a bundled solution that includes the strengthened capacity of households to own farm assets and increased access to agricultural and weather information (relying on pathways reinforced by trust and social networks) can be effective for adaptation to climatic risks in northern Uganda.The findings support the view that, in a similar way, CSA interventions are contextspecific as are the pathways for scaling up the adoption of these interventions.Overall, in harmony with existing literature, the adoption of stress-tolerant varieties as CSA technologies can be a corridor to improving the welfare of farm households in northern Uganda. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.","tokenCount":"2734"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5afe83f524fb259a7cc8742c7e8ea78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a54eddf1-b7e0-4204-8f59-e6df3806826b/content","id":"1946496997"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"563d073c-4232-4170-a1d0-d22826f07a45","pagecount":"31","content":"The participation, engagement, and interaction of local actors in the Innovahubs is an essential part of the development and strengthening of the subnational innovation systems, so knowing and understanding the nature, identity and presence, and involvement of each type of actor over time is essential to understand their behavior and motivations to partake in the knowledge and innovation processes.Therefore, this report seeks to update on the actors participating in the relevant activities in the Innovahub, their activities, and the type of relations they have with other actors. This includes analyzing the level of involvement of each actor in the activities organized in the Innovahubs and mapping the stakeholder networks in Guatemala and Honduras.In addition, within the Innovahubs, one of the activities to be carried out is the scaling up of innovations (technologies or practices) that can better respond to the AgriLAC Initiative's impact areas of: a) Nutrition, Health and Food Security; b) Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods and Employment; c) Gender Equality, Youth and Social Inclusion; d) Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation; e) Environmental Health and Biodiversity.As part of the work to be carried out this year, there was a need to evaluate the progress of the Innovahubs in these impact areas, and to know which innovations have the potential for scaling up from the regions. Because scaling up requires the support of different actors in each context, focus group sessions were conducted with scientists and local agents in the Innovahubs of Guatemala and Honduras to learn about their perception of the work done, and the potential innovations for scaling up in the following years.To this end, a system analysis was carried out to analyze to what extent the work of the Innovahubs in the first two years had responded to the needs of the region in the areas of impact, as well as to co-create potential proposals to solve the remaining challenges in a collaborative manner. The results showed that the areas where there has been the greatest impact are in Science, technology and infrastructure and in Society and culture. In comparison, the areas where there has been the least impact are Markets and Public policy and government.Technical ReportDurante el segundo año de implementación de la iniciativa se desarrollaron acciones encaminadas al logro de metas y objetivos entre los que destaca el impulso de las redes de innovación. Para esto, se tomó como base el aprendizaje adquirido durante el primer año, se buscó fortalecer los vínculos ya existentes, incentivar la creación de nuevo y la integración de otros actores a la red.La gestión de la participación e interacción de los actores es una parte fundamental en el fortalecimiento de los Innovahub por lo que entender ¿qué actores la conforman, cuál es su rol, de qué forma participan y qué tipo de recursos intercambian es parte fundamental para conocer el estado actual y su evolución.A partir de un breve análisis de la participación de los actores en las actividades realizadas en cada uno de los países de intervención (Guatemala y Honduras) se identifica que hubo un incremento en el número de eventos realizados (5 y 4 eventos respectivamente) con el objetivo de fortalecer la interacción entre los actores y sus conocimientos y capacidades. Para el caso de Guatemala hay 23 actores que se suman a las actividades realizadas durante 2023 y 31 para Honduras; de igual forma se observa un número de actores en las actividades de 2022 que ya no se integraron a las del año de reporte, esto se puede explicar dado que en el primer año las acciones estuvieron centradas en generar conciencia en torno a la Iniciativa AgriLAC Resiliente y conectar con diversos grupos de interés, para 2023 los actores participantes han identificado el valor de la interacción al interior de la red. El análisis también permitió identificar algunos atributos de los actores y el nivel de participación con la asistencia en los eventos programados, algunos datos se muestran a continuación:Los actores de la red en Guatemala tuvieron un buen grado de participación durante el ejercicio 2023 donde el 23% participó por lo menos a la mitad de las 4 sesiones programadas: i) El curso intensivo introductorio para asesores técnicos. ii) Un recorrido de campo para ver algunos resultados de la implementación de prácticas, iii) El diplomado en extensionismo innovador (programado para actores del Innovahub oriente y iv) y el hubmeeting anual; dentro de esta participación es importante resaltar que cinco de estos actores (dos de carácter privado, una asociación de productores, uno de escala internacional y otro más de la academia) participaron en todos los encuentros.En la tabla 2 puede observarse que los 37 actores activos en Guatemala son en su mayoría asociaciones de productores y del sector público, le siguen las instituciones de carácter internacional, la academia y el sector privado, lo que da muestra de la gran diversidad de perfiles que suman el logro de los objetivos de una forma colaborativa. En el caso de Honduras se desarrollaron cuatro encuentros: i) Evento de agricultura digital, ii) Reunión con mancomunidad Chortí, iii) el cuso de agricultura sustentable y iv) el hubmeeting anual donde la participación de los actores fue muy similar a la de 2022; es conveniente precisar que la Secretaría de de Ganadería y Agricultura (SAG) tuvo una participación importante en 3 de los 4 eventos organizados donde además cinco actores participaron al 50% de las actividades (ARSAGRO, CECRUCSO, Fundación Jicatuyo, ODECO, OCDIH y CRAC).Como puede observarse en la Tabla 3 el 45% de los actores involucrados en las actividades conjuntas en los innovahub son de carácter privado y de organizaciones internacionales, seguidos muy cerca de actores de la academia y del sector público donde se encuentra la SAG y algunas alcaldías municipales y dos mancomunidades.} Para contar con la actualización gráfica de la red, se llevaron a cabo dos ejercicios con los actores participantes en las sesiones de hubmeeting realizadas en el mes de noviembre de 2023 donde se obtuvo lo siguiente:Se implementó un ejercicio con los actores de Guatemala donde a través de la metodología de Análisis de Redes Sociales (ARS) que a decir de (Ávila-Tosano, 2012) \"…es el estudio de la estructura social, y en un sentido más amplio se puede entender como un método cuantitativo por medio del cual se obtiene la estructura social a partir de las regularidades en el patrón de las relaciones entre entidades sociales definidas como personas, grupos u organizaciones\".Se diseñó una encuesta formada por dos secciones: i) Información general (Nombre, nombre la institución que representa, ubicación, Innovahub al que pertenece, objetivo de la organización, ii) Redes de colaboración: se hicieron dos preguntas 1) ¿Con qué actores se vincula? y 2) ¿Qué tipo de recursos intercambian? a través de una matriz de doble entrada se colocaron algunos nombres de los actores y espacios en blanco para que se agreguen otros y elijan los recursos intercambiados entre cada par de actores: i) Información técnica, ii) Realizan actividades de manera coordinada, iii) Resuelven problemas, iii) Tienen proyectos y iv) Mezclan recursos económicos. Esta encuesta se aplicó a 31 personas que pertenecen a 15 instituciones (de los Innovahub oriente y occidente); la respuesta pudo haber sido compartida en una encuesta impresa el día del evento del hubmeeting o bien, a través de un formulario en línea que fue compartido con los asistentes al evento.Con la información recabada, se integró una base de datos que permitió la construcción y cálculo de indicadores de redes empleando la metodología propuesta por Rendón et al. (2007) que fueron: densidad e índice de centralización de entrada y salida por cada nivel empleándose los programas UCINET6.523®, (Borgatti et al.,2002) y Gephi0.8.2® (Bastian et al., 2009).Calcular los indicadores de la red como densidad y centralización permite identificar cómo se concentra la información y/o toma de decisiones.Densidad: es el número total de relaciones existentes dividido por el total posible de la red. Una alta densidad puede indicar un amplio acceso de los actores a la información disponible en la red -una densidad del 0% muestra que todos los actores se encuentran sueltos sin estar vinculados y por lo tanto sin acceso a información.Centralización se expresa en porcentaje; es una medida de contribución de una posición en la red para la importancia e influencia de un actor en la red. Una alta centralidad en la red es dominada por uno o pocos nodos. Si esos nodos son removidos la red rápidamente se fragmentará en subredes desconectadas. Por otro lado, una red con baja centralidad no tiene un único punto de falla por lo que las hace mucho más resistentes (Kuz and Giandini, 2016).El mapa de la red está integrado por 28 actores, representados cada uno por un nodo. El 32 % de los actores de la red son Asociaciones de productores, seguidos por actores de carácter privado con el 22%, le siguen con el mismo porcentaje (7% cada uno) los actores de la academia, la investigación y del sector público y finalmente 26% de los actores no mencionaron el perfil de su organización.En la figura 1, se pude observar que es una red medianamente conectada donde la vinculación con otros actores es clara. Por el tamaño del nodo se identifica al MAGA y al CIAT como los actores más referidos. Además, se observan vínculos fuertes entre varias organizaciones de productores con el CIMMYT y CIAT y también entre ellas lo que da muestra de los ejercicios de integración y gestión al interior de la red.En cuanto el tipo de recursos que se intercambian se identificó una gran variedad de combinaciones, pero los que más sobresalieron fueron: Información técnica, realizan actividades juntos y tienen proyectos en común. Este tipo de vínculos se conocen como lazos fuertes e indican relaciones cercanas y solidarias (Granovetter, 1973).Figura 1. Sociograma con las relaciones de colaboración que identifican los acotes de la red de Innovahubs en Guatemala. El tamaño del nodo representa el grado de entrada, es decir entre más grande es el nodo, mayor número de veces fue referido por otro actor. La densidad de la línea o vínculo representa el número de recursos que intercambian.En cuanto a los indicadores de la red se tienen una densidad adecuada, ya que no se espera que existan necesariamente vínculos entre todos los actores en primer lugar porque se trata de una red con actores de los dos Innovahubs y por lo tanto puede explicarse de cierta manera por la dispersión geográfica de los actores y en segundo lugar, porque la encuesta se aplicó solo a los asistentes al evento de hubmeeting.Sobre la centralización se observa que la influencia de dos o tres actores de la red, que están funcionando como actores puente para la vinculación con otros actores y que posiblemente tiene un peso importante en la dirección o toma de decisiones.Tabla 3. Indicadores de la red de los Innovahub, Guatemala 2023Número de vínculos 61 Densidad 7.7%Para un siguiente momento, un mapa con los actores de cada uno de los Innovahub podrá permitir identificar las variaciones a nivel regional, así como aquellos actores que tiene una cobertura regional para determinar el grado de influencia por región.A diferencia de Guatemala, en Honduras, se hizo un ejercicio que consistió en un taller centrado al análisis de las redes existentes en cada uno de los Innovahubs, el propósito de hacer una reflexión de las acciones realizadas para la colaboración que permita dar respuesta a las necesidades locales.Una vez que se identificaron a los actores asistentes al taller, se hizo un recuento de las actividades realizadas durante los 2 años de la iniciativa; después se hicieron dos preguntas que fueron contestadas a través de la aplicación digital mentimenter: 1) ¿Con qué actor de la red colaboras con mayor frecuencia? 2) ¿Cuál es la frecuencia de las interacciones?Los resultados se mostraron de forma inmediata en la aplicación y fueron comentados en la sesión.La encuesta fue respondida por 34 participantes donde 15 forman parte de organizaciones internacionales que para este evento tuvieron un papel de organización. El resto de los participantes son miembros de algunos socios y de instituciones de enseñanza o investigación. La distribución geográfica muestra que el 34% participantes son del Innovahub Oriente, 31% del Innovahub Occidente y 34% que operan a nivel nacional.Como respuesta a la pregunta ¿con qué actor de la red interactúan o colaboran de manera frecuente? se generó con la aplicación utilizada, una nube de palabras que puede verse en la Figura 3. Donde ARSARGO aparece como un socio especialmente estratégico en el hub Oriente. Adicionalmente, se observa que el CIAT y el CIMMYT también sobresale, lo que se podría explicar con la dependencia con los centros de CGIAR y/o al papel que desempeñan en la gestión del fortalecimiento de la red en esta etapa de desarrollo.  (PDF) Redes sociales y confianza entre productores de rambután en el Soconusco, Chiapas. Available from: ▪ Granovetter, M.S. (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties. The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 78, No. 6, pp. 1360-1380. ▪ Kuz, A., Falco, M., & Giandini, R. (2016). Análisis de redes sociales: un caso práctico. Computación y sistemas, 20(1), 89-106. ▪ Rendón, M. R. ( 2007). Identificación de actores clave para la gestión de la innovación: el uso de redes sociales. Serie: materiales deformación para las Agencias de Gestión de la Innovación.UACh-CIESTAAM. 50 p. Recomendaciones para un escalamiento sostenible en los InnovahubsEl \"escalamiento de impacto es un esfuerzo coordinado para lograr una colección de impactos en la escala óptima, que ocurre si está moralmente justificado y garantizado por la evaluación dinámica de la evidencia\" (McLean Robert and Gargani John, 2019). El escalamiento es útil para hacer consciente la intención de los proyectos en buscar la manera de incrementar su impacto durante y después de la implementación de los proyectos. Hay tres tipos de escalamiento: horizontal, vertical y profundo. El horizontal consiste en generar una mayor cantidad, el vertical cambiar regulaciones e instituciones, y el profundo generar un cambio de comportamiento. Por lo cual, el análisis de cómo realizar un escalamiento para incrementar el impacto requiere de una visión integral de los lugares y contextos donde estamos trabajando. También, requiere de una colaboración con personas líderes que estén trabajando en el contexto mismo (Woltering et al., 2019) Por lo anterior, se realizó un taller para analizar en el contexto los temas donde sería necesario, y donde habría interés en que haya escalamiento de parte de los científicos de CGIAR junto con los representantes locales del Innovahub. Este taller fue realizado el día 14 y 16 de noviembre del 2023 como parte de las Hubmeetings anuales que realiza el Innovahub.Analizar cuáles son potenciales áreas de escalamiento dentro de los Innovahubs en Guatemala y Honduras, conforme a la opinión de la red de actores parte del Innovahub. Para lo cual, nuestras preguntas de investigación para conocer esta información son:-¿En qué medida se ha logrado responder a las áreas de impacto dentro de los Innovahubs con el trabajo realizado hasta ahora por los miembros? -¿Cuáles son desafíos que se han tenido en el Innovahub para responder a estas áreas de impacto? -¿Cuáles son áreas de oportunidad para escalar el impacto dentro de estas temáticas?El Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo busca realizar ciencia aplicada para responder a los desafíos dentro de los sistemas agroalimentarios. Se escogió realizar entonces un grupo de enfoque para analizar las percepciones del trabajo de los Innovahubs en el sistema, durante el evento de los Innovahubs anuales. Se escogió este evento debido a que participan actores representantes del trabajo que se realizó, realiza, o realizará en los Innovahubs de Guatemala y Honduras respectivamente.Para analizar las áreas de potencial escalamiento con los actores de cada Innovahub, se hizo un análisis de sistema basado en el marco teórico de \"Perspectiva Multinivel\". Dentro de este marco teórico, Geels and Schot (2007) proponen que, para generar un cambio sistémico, cuando existen sistemas complejos desde un punto de vista social y tecnológico, se deben atender cinco sectores: Políticas Públicas, Sociedad y Cultura, Mercados, Inversión y Financiamiento, y Ciencia, Tecnología e Infraestructura.Respondiendo a la complejidad del sector agroalimentario en Guatemala y Honduras, se utilizó entonces este marco teórico para analizar cuáles eran las formas en que se puede realizar un escalamiento que tome en cuenta las necesidades del contexto en donde se trabaja.Se realizaron dos grupos de enfoque, uno en Guatemala y otro en Honduras con aproximadamente 40-45 individuos. Dentro del grupo de enfoque de Guatemala se invitó a participantes de gobierno, de empresas, organizaciones no gubernamentales, agentes de extensión y productores. En comparación, en el grupo de enfoque de Honduras, se invitó a los participantes de organismos no gubernamentales y empresas que están trabajando en conjunto con el CGIAR para implementar la iniciativa AgriLAC Resiliente en la región. En cada grupo de enfoque, se dividió a los participantes en grupos entre 4 y 8 personas, para poder tener tiempo de que todas las personas pudieran ser parte de la discusión.Se entregó un rotafolio, donde se capturó la información resumida del grupo. Se respondieron las preguntas presentadas en Tabla 6. La evaluación cuantitativa se hizo del 1 al 5 conforme a los siguientes criterios: 1 -muy malo, 2 -malo, 3 -regular, 4-bueno, y 5 -muy bueno.Además, en el caso de Honduras, se hicieron entrevistas con los colaboradores de la iniciativa, para conocer más a fondo la información que había sido discutida en los grupos de enfoque. Se tuvo 20 minutos con 8 colaboradores, y 20 minutos con 8 colaboradores juntos.Guatemala a) Implementación del grupo de enfoque: Dentro del grupo de enfoque de Guatemala, se dividió a los participantes conforme al lugar de trabajo donde realizaban sus actividades: Innovahubs Oriente, y Innovahub Occidente. Los ocho grupos de enfoque resultantes tuvieron participantes diversos, y fueron moderados por staff del CGIAR.b) Resultados: El análisis cuantitativo del sistema de Guatemala mostró que los sectores donde el Innovahub ha realizado mayor aportación para responder a las necesidades del lugar (conforme a las áreas de impacto) ha sido mediante el desarrollo de actividades de: ciencia, tecnología e infraestructura, y de sociedad y cultura. En comparación, se mostró que donde ha habido menor trabajo en el sistema agroalimentario ha sido en políticas públicas y gobernanza, y en mercados. Esto se observa en la Figura 5.Dentro del análisis cualitativo conforme al Anexo A de resultados se observó que, dentro del sector de ciencia, tecnología e infraestructura, se dio una buena calificación a las acciones relacionadas con el desarrollo de infraestructura con las plataformas y módulos, al fortalecimiento de capacidades a técnicos para la mejora de prácticas agrícolas para el autoconsumo, la herramienta de E-Agrology y el conocimiento transmitido sobre igualdad de género. Asimismo, en la parte de sociedad y cultura se reconoció el trabajo que se ha hecho en los Innovahubs para trabajar con mujeres, y para incorporar y reconocer la implementación de prácticas ancestrales y tradicionales. Dentro de los temas más referidos en los demás puntos del sistema, se mencionó que el Innovahub ha incrementado la producción, la accesibilidad a materiales e insumos para la misma.En comparación, como se muestra en el Anexo A se mencionó que todavía no ha habido fortalecimiento de capacidades en tecnologías que permitan producir excedentes para poder ser comercializados tales como invernadores, y la diversificación de cultivos. También, se mencionó en los talleres que falta realizar más vinculaciones en el Innovahub con gobierno y otros actores privados, y tampoco ha habido suficiente trabajo para apoyar programas en la política pública que fomenten el desarrollo de los agricultores y apoyen a grupos de mujeres.Los resultados de la evaluación cuantitativa de los Innovahubs han variado conforme al Innovahub Occidente y Oriente de igual manera como se observa dentro de la Figura 6 y Figura 7. Dentro del Innovahub Oriente resalta que ha habido un fuerte impacto de igual manera en las inversiones y financiamiento recibidos para promover sistemas agroalimentarios resilientes, y esto se reconoce por todos los grupos de actores que participaron en el grupo de enfoque como se muestra en la Figura 6. En comparación, en el Innovahub Occidente resalta la percepción de que el trabajo en políticas públicas ha sido muy poco, al calificarlo todos los grupos con calificación 1, como se muestra en la Figura 7.Por la evaluación realizada en el Innovahub de Guatemala (en Oriente y Occidente) se propuso que como acciones para escalar del Innovahub se incrementara el número de módulos y se realizara un fortalecimiento de capacidades en tecnologías que permitan producir excedentes para poder ser comercializados tales como invernadores, y la diversificación de cultivos. Se propuso involucrar a jóvenes y grupos de mujeres de mayor manera en el trabajo realizado. Se propuso generar formación en finanzas. También, se propuse que los Innovahubs se vincularan de mayor manera instituciones con gobierno y otros actores privados, al igual que promover programas en la política pública que fomenten el desarrollo de los agricultores y apoyen a grupos de mujeres. Finalmente, se propuso la idea de trabajar en favor de bancos comunales. Dentro del grupo de enfoque de Honduras, no se hizo división conforme a las regiones donde realizaban su trabajo. En algunos grupos de enfoque se tuvo moderación por parte del staff del CGIAR. Se juntó a socios que habían trabajado con el Innovahub anteriormente, junto con nuevos socios interesados en ser parte del Innovahub.De igual manera durante el carrusel de Honduras, se realizaron 8 entrevistas de 20 minutos con colaboradores, y otra entrevista de 20 minutos con otros 8 colaboradores. Las primeras entrevistas se realizaron a profundidad, para entender potenciales áreas de interés de los colaboradores en el área de escalamiento. En la última entrevista, únicamente se conoció el interés específico de cada persona al poder ellos describir su interés en qué innovaciones quisieran escalar.Dentro del grupo de enfoque del Innovahub en la Figura 8 de Honduras se observó que la acción más fuerte que ha realizado el Innovahub ha sido en Ciencia, Tecnología e Infraestructura, y en Sociedad y Cultura. En comparación, la acción donde ha habido menos resultados es en política pública y gobierno El análisis cualitativo, en el Anexo B, mostró que las acciones donde ha habido mayor trabajo en ciencia, tecnología e infraestructura es con e-agrology, la capacitación de técnicos, y el desarrollo de plataformas de investigación. De igual manera, a pesar de que no se analiza el contexto de manera integral, se valoró que se incorporen algunas buenas prácticas agrícolas tradicionales con semillas criollas, que haya talleres de empoderamiento e inclusión social y que haya transferencia de conocimiento tal como ocurre con los boletines informativos de las mesas agroclimáticas.En comparación, como se muestra en el Anexo B, se mencionó también que el trabajo en Honduras está actualmente en proceso, no se ha acabado el proceso de socialización, y falta un análisis de contexto más integral. Se mencionó que no se está trabajando lo suficiente dentro de Mercados y Política Pública, ya que no hay suficiente producto para cubrir la demanda existente de cultivos, y no hay acciones prácticas realizadas sobre política públicas. Para el trabajo a escalar los siguientes años, se propuso entonces que se complementa la colección de datos con la difusión de los mismos, consolidar esfuerzos iniciales, hacer consultas de abajo hacia arriba para promover mayor incidencia y organización desde la población, asegurar financiamiento, generar ferias agroecológicas para diseminar productos, fomentar la articulación de actores, capacitar en temas administrativos y financieros, promover los bancos comunales, generar espacios de propuesta de políticas públicas tales como la política de precios de agricultura, dar continuidad al monitoreo de los cultivos y a la inclusión de jóvenes y mujeres.Figura 8. Resultados del Grupo de Enfoque en Honduras (1-muy malo, 2-malo, 3-regulart, 4-bueno, y 5 -muy bueno) e) Resultados del carrusel:• Arsagro -La organización tiene interés en escalar el número de módulos de 8 a 16, de 20 a 25 productores. Ellos quisieran colaborar en temas de escalamiento para generar una mayor consciencia para el cambio de semilla, y la promoción de políticas públicas para jóvenes para prepararlos para producir, poscosecha, fertilización o con herramientas digitales. • CECRURSO -Ellos quisieran escalar los insumos orgánicos de las biofábricas, para tener ellos también más clientes/consumidores. Para hacerlo consideran que es necesario que dentro de la planificación de escalamiento se pueda trabajar en conjunto para formular mejores procesos con maquinaria e investigación, que estén validados científicamente. • Magro Servicios Climáticos -Ellos buscan escalar la información de los servicios climáticos, y para ello les gustaría tener capacitación en el tema. • Jicatuya -Ellos estarían interesados en escalar la digitalización en la región, para lo cual quisieran tener ellos la capacitación para poder después ellos implementarla. De igual manera, quisieran conocer más sobre el escalamiento profundo para entender como cambiar de mentalidad a productores para que utilicen nuevas tecnologías en granos básicos. • ODECO -Ellos están interesados en fortalecer la red local con este escalamiento. Ellos están también interesados en escalar la información sobre prácticas alternativas de manejo de maíz y frijol para seguridad alimentaria relacionadas con la fertilización y el suelo, interesados en género también. • Orson Hernández -Él quisiera escalar la información de las mesas técnicas agroclimáticas al añadir diversos canales de difusión, al mejorar la calidad el contenido de los datos del boletín, y al mejorar la consciencia de interpretación del contenido del boletín (considerando que el cambio climático no puede dar diagnósticos certeros). De igual forma, está interesado en escalar los productores que tengan acceso a recomendaciones para cómo mejorar el suelo con base a capturar y retener agua y agregar dentro de estas capacitaciones nuevos parámetros que generalmente no se usan. • Francisco Zuñiga -Se busca escalar el número de parcelas que tengan un diagnóstico, y la cantidad de datos en la aplicación para que los diagnósticos sean mejores. • Ludim -Se busca escalar el fertilizante que ellos tienen, y tener un acompañamiento para la mejora de la calidad del mismo. • Universidad de Zamorano -Están interesados en escalar la mecanización de granos básicos en occidente.• Carlos MAP -Se busca escalar las estaciones pluviométricas, ampliar la red para llegar a una mejora toma de decisiones, y/u otro instrumento que permita mejorar los pronósticos meteorológicos, en zonas cafetaleras. • Secretaría SAG Santa Rosa -Está interesado en escalar la información de casos de éxito para convencer a los productores de realizar los cambios de prácticas. De igual manera, está interesado en reducir la escala de los pronósticos meteorológicos, para que sean éstos a nivel regional y respondan mejor a la escala que ellos necesitan de producción. • Caja Rural Malutena -Ellos buscan escalar los diagnósticos de las parcelas de los productores, y escalar los graneros para que hagan comunitarios. • EAPO -Ellos están interesados en hacer procesos investigativos de jóvenes, y las capacitaciones para la plataforma de eagrology.Conforme a los anteriores resultados, se respondieron a las preguntas de investigación de manera diferente en cada uno de los Innovahubs en Guatemala y Honduras respectivamente, de la manera siguiente.¿En qué medida se ha logrado responder a las áreas de impacto dentro de los Innovahubs con el trabajo realizado hasta ahora por los miembros? a) Guatemala De acuerdo con los grupos de enfoque realizados, se muestra que en Guatemala se ha trabajado principalmente con un enfoque de incrementar la producción del autoconsumo mediante mejores prácticas tales como la diversificación de cultivos, respondiendo al área de impacto de nutrición y biodiversidad. De igual manera, se ha mostrado, que los talleres e información otorgada sobre género también ha sido una acción donde ellos han observado cambios, a pesar de que todavía se propone que se busque incorporar más a mujeres y jóvenes en el trabajo realizado. Por lo cual, ha funcionado bien la parte de concientización sobre mejores prácticas de autoconsumo, y el trabajo realizado con los actores de la región en materia de inclusión social.Conforme a los grupos de enfoque se ha trabajado de manera en que se involucre las tradiciones y conocimientos ancestrales, mientras se colectan datos, y difunden conocimientos sobre mejores prácticas que se puedan realizar en la agricultura. Los mejores medios para lo último han sido a través de capacitaciones y a través del desarrollo de las plataformas de investigación.¿Cuáles son desafíos que se han tenido en el Innovahub para responder a estas áreas de impacto? c) Guatemala Los desafíos para el escalamiento han sido que todavía no hay suficientes módulo, plataformas y capacitaciones que muestren mejores prácticas para la comercialización de los cultivos para responder al pilar de impacto de bienestar. De igual manera, no se han generado vinculaciones en el Innovahub suficientes con gobierno y empresas, por lo cual no se han generado conexiones suficientes de inclusión social que puedan redundar en potenciales respuestas en política pública.En Honduras, la percepción de los participantes es que los procesos no están terminados dentro de la colección, y falta difusión de información sobre sus resultados. De igual manera, no se ha hecho todavía trabajo en mercados, ya que no existe aún producción suficiente para llegar a mercados y no se ha hecho un análisis de posibilidades de mejora en la política pública.¿Cuáles son áreas de oportunidad para escalar el impacto dentro de estas temáticas? e) GuatemalaPor lo anterior, las áreas de oportunidad que los actores del Innovahub proponen para escalar las acciones para enfrentar a las problemáticas antes descritas, incluyen el desarrollo de capacidades para la mejora de prácticas para generar una producción excedente y poder entonces comercializar cultivos. De igual manera, para lograr anterior, se propuso que se incrementen el número de módulos y la extensión de los mismos para que se muestre de qué manera puede haber producción a la siguiente escala. Se propuso que se pueden hacer mayores vinculaciones con actores públicos y privados de gobierno para la promoción de políticas públicas que fomenten el desarrollo de agricultores, y trabajar en conjunto con jóvenes y mujeres. Una idea muy concreta compartida fue la creación de bancos comunales.Por lo anterior, se propuso que se consoliden los esfuerzos iniciales de colecta de datos sobre las parcelas y se informe a los participantes sobre los datos analizados con e-agrology y en las investigaciones. También, se propuso que se sigan desarrollando procesos participativos para promover la incidencia y organización de los productores. De igual manera, se propusieron diferentes medios de difusión de la información tales como ferias agroecológicas, y espacios de co-creación de política pública respecto a precios.De igual manera, conforme al carrusel generado con los participantes del hubmeeting, se encontró que existen algunos temas comunes donde hay interés en escalamiento, y otros temas específicos donde se podría dar algún acompañamiento técnico agronómico o de capacitación digital.Algunos temas donde hubo un interés de escalamiento común, conforme a los sectores del sistema fue:-Ciencia, tecnología e infraestructura: o Incremento del número de módulos. o Incremento de número de parcelas diagnosticadas.o Desarrollar capacitaciones sobre e-agrology, digitalización (para jóvenes fue una propuesta), servicios climáticos, sobre cambio de mentalidad de productores para incrementar el cambio a nuevas tecnologías, sobre prácticas de fertilización y humedad de suelo, o Información de las mesas técnicas agroclimáticas. Se propuso que el escalamiento debería buscar un mayor número de productores que tuvieran acceso a la información (y capacitaciones para interpretar esta información), al igual que a incrementar la calidad de la información (y así la confianza en los boletines) mediante la obtención de pluviómetros u otros dispositivos de infraestructura que permitan capturar más información a nivel regional para hacer mejores diagnósticos o mediante el escalamiento de personas que puedan usar la herramienta de eagrology. o De manera particular buscan generar escalamiento en particular para las innovaciones de las biofábricas de CECRURSO, fertilizantes de Ludim, y graneros comunitarios de Caja Rural, al realizar un acompañamiento técnico con CGIAR que mejore su producto, y esto ayude así a incrementar también su número de clientes. Con base en los resultados anteriores, se observa que hay potencial de escalamiento en Guatemala y Honduras para los 5 sectores descritos en el marco teórico de \"Perspectiva Multinivel\". Existe mayor potencial para escalar en el sector de ciencia, tecnología e infraestructura, al igual que en el de sociedad y cultura. Sin embargo, existen también recomendaciones específicas de cómo se puede empezar a planear impacto dentro de las áreas de políticas públicas y mercados.Con la información anterior, se recomiendan las siguientes acciones que tienen potencial para escalar, basadas en el trabajo ya generado por los Innovahubs: a) El trabajo de capacitación a los socios y colaboradores (Honduras) y a agricultores (Guatemala y Honduras) para difundir mejores prácticas de agricultura que beneficien la nutrición y la biodiversidad. En caso de ser posible que se generen entrenamientos de entrenadores para algunas de estas prácticas para los socios, esto se vio como una versión de interés para los socios y viable para escalar el impacto en conocimientos sobre e-agrology, y género. Falta analizar si es posible realizar un programa de técnicos certificados para también escalar los temas agronómicos. b) La colección de datos, y el conocimiento de cómo beneficiarse del e-agrology podría hacerse como una capacitación en temas de digitalización, e interpretación de datos donde el resultado sea incrementar el acceso a datos para la producción en parcelas. c) Generar materiales de difusión de resultados para productores y socios que surjan de los estudios realizados por CGIAR, de la colección de datos de e-agrology. d) La información de las mesas técnicas agroclimáticas podría escalar, mediante el seguimiento para incrementar la calidad de los pronósticos con pluviómetros o algún otro colector de datos, al igual que los medios de difusión sobre los pronósticos realizados. Se podría dar seguimiento a la evaluación de esta innovación realizada el año anterior. e) Los módulos y plataformas de investigación que se han reconocido como parte del proyecto podrían crecer en número, para que llegue la información a un mayor número de productores. f) El trabajo que se ha realizado para comprender las tradiciones ancestrales y el conocimiento tradicional en las regiones podría de igual manera escalar. Se ha realizado trabajo con diferentes actores, pero todavía se mencionó que podría haber mayor involucramiento con un mayor número de actores públicos y privados, al igual que con un mayor número de jóvenes y mujeres.Además, se recomienda que se pueden realizar nuevas acciones para generar un escalamiento del trabajo ya realizado en los Innovahubs: a) Generar materiales para los productores y socios de cada región que sirvan como difusión de resultados sobre casos de éxito que han utilizado las nuevas innovaciones que se busca instalar. b) Apoyar el desarrollo de bancos comunitarios de semillas. c) Promover la generación/mejora de políticas públicas en temas de apoyo para agricultores, y en particular para mujeres y jóvenes. d) Generar capacitaciones sobre: finanzas, digitalización, interpretación de servicios climáticos.Además, se observa que existe claramente trabajo realizado para las áreas de impacto de a) Nutrición, Salud y Seguridad Alimentaria; Reducción de Pobreza, Medios de Vida y Empleos; Igualdad de género, juventud e inclusión social. Sin embargo, a pesar de que existan acciones para las áreas de impacto de Adaptación y Mitigación del cambio climático; Salud Ambiental y Biodiversidad, éstas no están reflejadas o concientizadas por los participantes del Innovahub. Por lo cual, se sugiere incrementar la visibilidad de las acciones generadas por AgriLAC en estas dos temáticas. Anexo A -Resultados grupo de Enfoque de Guatemala a) Innovahub Oriente:   ","tokenCount":"5844"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2fb5c43629038191a5a5e073f58d1a5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aee83346-1015-4d47-b2b4-58472488b418/retrieve","id":"574353943"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f1c6c28c-7173-488a-b54f-e61d4347825a","pagecount":"10","content":"Present methods for species identification Comparison of trypanosome DNA Species identification based on VSG genes Search for more sensitive probes A probe for T brucei DNA studies distinguish two populations of T congolense DNA probes for the two T congolense groups DNA probe for T simiae DNA probe for T vivax Simplified procedures for field use The first field applications Future directions Further reading New tools for trypanosomiasis field studies One goal of ILRAD's trypanosomiasis research program is to develop simple, sensitive and accurate methods to detect trypanosomes in infected tsetse flies and mammals, and to determine parasite species and antigenically distinct populations, called serodemes. This work is important for trypanosomiasis diagnosis and treatment and for epidemiological studies, for instance to predict the level of trypanosomiasis risk in an area before introducing susceptible livestock.Different species of trypanosome infect nearly every type of domestic animal, many species of wild animal and man. The most important species in economic terms are those which infect cattle, sheep and goats in Africa: Trypanosoma congolense, T vivax and T brucei brucei. Closely related T brucei subspecies, T b rhodesiense and T b gambiense, cause human sleeping sickness. T simiae, which causes a severe disease in pigs, is related to T congolense, while T evansi, which infects camels, is related to the T brucei group.Most African trypanosomes are transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies, but T evansi is transmitted mechanically by other types of biting flies.Field workers and laboratory staff identify trypanosome infections by microscopic examination of tsetse organs and mammalian blood. The bloodstream forms of the three major trypanosome species can be distinguished by their appearance, but the number of parasites present in the blood of an infected animal varies widely during the course of infection. The microscopy techniques which work best for detecting parasites in small numbers are not as well suited for distinguishing trypanosome species.Can you name the parasites? These micrographs show bloodstream forms of five different species of African trypanosome -Trypanosoma brucei brucei, T congolense, T vivax, T evansi and T simiae -though not in this order. The first three species were produced at ILRAD and the other two at the Kenya Government's Veterinary Research Laboratory. Can you tell which is which? The answers are on the last page.It is also difficult to distinguish trypanosome species in infected tsetse. An experienced technician can dissect tsetse organs and tentatively identify the infecting trypanosome species based on the parasites' location. This is possible because the three T brucei subspecies develop in the gut and salivary glands while T congolense and T simiae develop in the gut and proboscis and T vivax is found almost exclusively in the proboscis. It is not possible to identify particular species within the major groups by this method, for instance to distinguish T simiae from T congolense or T b brucei from T b gambiense and T b rhodesiense. This is done by subinoculation into experimental animals. For instance, if T congolensetype parasites are inoculated into a pig and a severe parasitaemia develops the trypanosomes are identified as T simiae. Clearly, this approach is expensive and time consuming and there are drawbacks in terms of animal welfare.Another major problem is that many infections encountered in the field-particularly in mammals and at times also in tsetse-are mixed, consisting of more than one trypanosome species. In this situation, the process of species identification by microscopic examination and subinoculation into experimental animals can become long and complex.Given the problems inherent in current methods, scientists in several laboratories are working to develop better diagnostic tests for the identification of trypanosome species. Such diagnostic tests must be sensitive enough to identify parasites present in small quantities of crude materials collected in the field, specific enough to distinguish the most important trypanosome species and simple enough to be performed on a routine basis in areas lacking sophisticated laboratory facilities. Each living organism contains its own characteristic deoxyribonucleic acid-DNA. DNA carries the blueprints for all the functional protein components of a plant or animal, as well as elements which control when and in what quantities these components are produced. This information is encoded in a fourletter alphabet consisting of four different molecules, called nucleotides or bases, linked in a chain. Each nucleotide is matched with the complementary nucleotide in a second chain to form a base pair, the fundamental unit of DNA structure. The two chains are wound around each other to form the famous double helix structure of DNA.Among other approaches, molecular biologists at ILRAD and elsewhere are developing diagnostic tests based on differences in parasite DNA. A high proportion of the trypanosome genome is composed of repetitive DNA sequences, most of which may be unique to each trypanosome species or subspecies. Other biochemical methods for species identification, such as isoenzyme analyses, require large numbers of parasites that must be grown either in vitro or in experimental animals. By contrast, the identification and use of speciesspecific repetitive DNA sequences offers the possibility of not having to grow the parasites at all: trypanosomes can be identified directly from blood samples taken from infected animals or preparations from infected tsetse.In the past few years, ILRAD scientists have developed DNA typing techniques and have cloned DNA hybridization probes which can be used to identify all the major species of African trypanosome. Further work is now required to develop simplified procedures which will make it possible to use these powerful new tools in the field.The first DNA hybridization experiments at ILRAD originated from studies on the genes coding for trypanosome variable surface glycoproteins (VSGs). Three VSG genes and a DNA fragment located in the flanking region next to one of the genes had been cloned from different stocks of T b brucei.Trypanosomes were isolated from the blood of rats, each infected with a stock or clone of T b brucei, T b gambiense, T b rhodesiense, T congolense, T evansi or T vivax. Parasite DNA was purified, split into fragments by restriction enzymes and the fragments separated by electrophoresis on agarose gels. The DNA was then transferred from the gels onto nitrocellulose filters by a technique called Southern blotting. The three genes and the flanking region were labeled with radioisotopes and applied to these filters which were already bearing singlestranded DNA fragments. The radiolabeled DNA hybridized to complementary strands of DNA on the filters. When the filters were exposed to Xray film, the spots where DNA hybridization had occurred appeared on the film as dark bands. The patterns of banding revealed that all four probes hybridized with DNA from all the stocks and clones of T b brucei and T b rhodesiense tested but with no stocks or clones of any of the other species.These experiments showed that DNA hybridization techniques could be used to identify trypanosome species. They also confirmed previous observations that the two trypanosome subspecies, T b brucei and T b rhodesiense, are closely related. However, the techniques used-involving the isolation of pure trypanosome DNA and Southern blotting-were too cumbersome for general field use. The next step was to see whether the probes could be used to identify trypanosome species in preparations of whole parasites or blood from infected animals. This work showed that these probes were not sensitive enough to be useful in the field. Using whole trypanosomes, a minimum of 10,000 parasites was required to obtain a positive hybridization signal after a 16hour exposure; using blood from infected animals, the probes could not detect fewer than 100,000 parasites.Since specificity and sensitivity are important features of a diagnostic test, scientists began searching for DNA sequences in the genomes of the most important trypanosome species which would hybridize exclusively with DNA from the same species and which would recognize DNA from a small number of parasites. The original T brucei DNA probes met the first criterion, but not the second.The VSG genes and genes encoding other proteins are only present in one or a small number of copies in the parasite genome. The remainder of the genome consists of sequences of DNA which may be present in hundreds or thousands of copies. The function of most of these repeated sequences is unknown but they tend to be specific to particular trypanosome species. Because they are present in such large numbers, these sequences are much more easily detected in small numbers of parasites than singlecopy genes.To identify sensitive, speciesspecific DNA probes, total DNA was purified from cloned parasites of various species, the DNA was split into fragments with restriction enzymes and the fragments were separated on agarose gels by electrophoresis. This involves passing electrical charges through the gels which allow the fragments of DNA to move from one end to the other. The fragments move at various rates depending on their size so that the smallest fragments move all the way to the bottom of the gel while the largest remain near the top. Identical fragments, representing DNA sequences which occur in multiple copies, move at the same rate and thus end up clustered at the same position in the gel.The fragments of trypanosome DNA were transferred onto nitrocellulose filters and incubated with radiolabeled whole DNA from the same and different parasite species. In this case, the whole DNA was used as a probe. Conditions for hybridization were selective -only a small amount of radiolabeled whole DNA was used and the incubation period was short (12 to 15 hours). Under these conditions, hybridization would occur preferentially at places where multiple copies of identical DNA fragments were clustered. Again, the points where hybridization occurred could be observed as dark bands on Xray film. Nearly all hybridization signals detected in this way appeared to be species specific: they were only seen when whole radiolabeled DNA was applied to filters containing DNA from the same species.The DNA fragments showing the strongest hybridization signals, as visualized on the Xray film, were cut out of identical agarose gels and the DNA inserted into a plasmid vector which was used to infect the bacterium Escherichia coli. The bacterium was then multiplied in culture. Bacterial colonies were screened again with radiolabeled total DNA from different parasite species and clones showing the strongest speciesspecific hybridization signals were selected. The plasmids containing putative trypanosome repetitive DNA sequences were purified from these bacteria and radiolabeled: they were then ready for use as hybridization probes.A probe for T brucei Using these techniques, radiolabeled whole DNA from one clone of T b brucei (ILTat 1.4) was allowed to hybridize with DNA fragments derived from clones of the major trypanosome species. Under selective conditions the radiolabeled DNA hybridized exclusively with DNA fragments from T b brucei and T b gambiense.Two fragment-of 1350 and 1600. base pairs (bp)-showed particularly strong hybridization signals. The 1350 bp fragment was a wellcharacterized unit of DNA which was known to occur as about 200 copies in the T b brucei genome. The 1600 bp fragment gave hybridization signals of similar intensity, suggesting that about 200 copies of this fragment were also present in the genome. At the time, scientists did not believe a sequence which occured only 200 times would provide a probe of sufficient sensitivity for field use.Another approach involved the construction of a genomic library from the T brucei ILTat 1.4 clone. A sequence of 9500 bp obtained from this library also hybridized exclusively with DNA from T b brucei and T b gambiense. Further experiments showed that the 1600 bp fragment hybridized strongly with the 9500 bp fragment, suggesting that it might be contained within the larger DNA sequence. This was subsequently confirmed and the repeated element within the larger fragment was shown to be 5280 bp long. Two different copies of the whole 5280 bp fragment have now been sequenced, one by scientists at ILRAD and the other by colleagues at the Université Libre de Brussels in Belgium. Between 150 and 250 copies of this sequence occur in the T brucei genome, which-scientists now realize-probably made it adequate for use as a hybridization probe. Since the 5280 sequence was isolated from an African trypanosome, ILRAD scientists have named it ingi, the Kiswahili root adjective meaning many. A plasmid vector, called pgDR1, has been purified from DNA containing the 1600 by portion of this sequence. Under stringent conditions, this probe hybridizes exclusively with trypanosomes of the T brucei group, including T b brucei, T b gambiense, T b rhodesiense and T evansi. It can be used to identify as few as 100 parasites in the blood of infected animals and has also been used to detect trypanosomes in tsetse.The sequencing of the 5280 bp T brucei DNA fragment has evoked considerable scientific interest apart from its potential use as a diagnostic probe. Ingi appears to be a type of randomly repeated DNA sequence called a retroposon, a mobile element dispersed in the genome by retrotransposition to new sites. This is the first time a retroposon of this kind has been described in a protozoan. Its function is unknown. The ingi sequence resembles a type of retroposon called a long interspersed nuclear element (LINE) which is present in very large numbers in the genomes of mammals. Similarities in ingi's nucleotide sequence and mammalian LINE sequences suggest a significant evolutionary relationship. Ingi is even more similar to a retroposon found in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Could early trypanosomes have usurped the original ingi sequence from their mammalian or tsetse hosts? Or could this type of retroposon be more widely distributed than was previously apparent, suggesting a very early evolutionary origin?A second DNA probe for T brucei has been identified by scientists at the National Cancer Institute in the Netherlands. This probe is based on a small sequence of 177 by which appears to be present in very large numbers in the T brucei genome, arranged as a series of tandemly repeated nucleotides. This type of repeated sequence is known as satellite DNA.The classification of T (Nannomonas) congolense trypanosomes has attracted considerable attention since the first trypanosomes of this type were described early in this century.These parasites occur over vast areas of tropical Africa, causing serious disease and death in livestock and substantial economic losses for farmers. Populations of T congolensetype parasites cannot be distinguished on the basis of appearance, but by other criteria they are highly diverse.ILRAD scientists recently identified two distinct groups among East African isolates of T congolense which differ from each other in terms of the size distribution of chromosomes, visualized by a technique known as molecular karyotyping. Chromosomesized DNA molecules from different T congolense clones were freed of protein and separated according to size by electrophoresis on agarose gels. The gels were stained with ethidium bromide and photographed under ultraviolet light, revealing chromosomes of different sizes of different positions along the gels. This technique, known as orthogonal field alternation gel electrophoresis (OFAGE), revealed two clearly distinct chromosomeprofile types. One group consisted of parasites isolated during an epidemiological survey at Kilifi on the Kenya coast, while the other consisted of populations of T congolense type trypanosomes isolated in savannah areas of East, West and Central Africa. To evaluate the significance of these differences, the chromosome profiles of these two T congolense groups were compared with those of T b brucei and T evansi, which are considered to be distinct species. The chromosome profiles of the two T congolense groups-derived from parasites which cannot be distinguished by appearance and which are considered to belong to the same species-were more different from each other than were the chromosome profiles of T b brucei and T evansi.These results were extended to include a comparison of repetitive DNA sequences within the genomes of these two T congolense groups by hybridization experiments using total DNA from different parasite clones. DNA sequences from T congolensetype clones isolated in Kilifi hybridized only with DNA from other Kilifi clones, whereas DNA sequences from savannahtype T congolense parasites isolated elsewhere in Africa hybridized exclusively with DNA from other nonKilifi clones. The total absence of crosshybridization between the DNA of these two groups contrasted with results for the T brucei group, showing considerable hybridization of DNA from T b brucei with DNA from T b gambiense and T evansi This suggests that some populations of T congolense are phylogenetically more distant from each other than are the two separate species, T evansi and T brucei.What is the relationship between these two groups of T congolense? T evansi may have evolved from T brucei but it is unlikely that either one of the two T congolense groups evolved from the other-at least not recently. The simplest interpretation is that they are genetically distinct trypanosome species or subspecies; it is possible that they evolved independently from an ancestral trypanosome.Purified DNA from several trypanosome species was split into fragments and after electrophoresis on agarose gels was blotted onto nitrocellulose filters. The DNA fragments were hybridized with whole radiolabeled DNA from two T congolense clones, one (ILNat 5.1) originating from Kilifi and the other (ILNat 2.1) originating from savannahtype T congolense parasites isolated in the Transmara region on the Kenya/Tanzania border. DNA fragments were identified which were characteristic of each clone and which produced strong hybridization signals. Neither sequence hybridized with DNA from the other T congolense group or from any other trypanosome species.These two DNA fragments are made up of a series of tandemly repeated nucleotides in an arrangement characteristic of satellite DNA. They are smaller than the dispersedrepeat sequence identified in the T brucei genome. The fragment originating from the Kilifi clone consists of 450 bp, whereas the fragment from the other T congolense clone consists of 372 bp. Both sequences are present in large numbers: there are approximately 4000 copies of the 450 by fragment in the genome of the Kilifi parasites and 3000 copies of the 372 bp fragment in the genome of the savannahtype T congolense.The sequences were cloned in E coli and recombinant plasmids were purified from the bacterial colonies which showed the strongest hybridization signals. The recombinant plasmid vector which hybridizes with T congolense parasites from Kilifi is called pgNIK450; the vector which hybridizes with savannahtype T congolense parasites isolated from other parts of Africa is called pgNRE372. Both can potentially identify DNA from as few as five trypanosomes.A DNA probe which appears to recognize a third group of T congolense parasites, originating from a forested area of West Africa, has recently been identified by scientists at the University of Bristol (UK). This group has exchanged material with ILRAD and tests have been conducted with all three probes which showed that they each recognize a distinct group of parasites.There is a particularly urgent need for a method to identify T simiae and distinguish this species from T congolense because T congolense causes a severe disease in cattle while T simiae does not affect cattle but causes fatal infections in pigs. The two species cannot be distinguished reliably in terms of appearance. The methods currently used to distinguish them are laborious and can be extremely expensive.Using the techniques already described, ILRAD scientists have identified a repetitive DNA sequence in the genome of T simiae which is specific for this species and is present in sufficiently high copy number to indicate its potential usefulness as a sensitive hybridization probe. Like the DNA probes for the two groups of T congolense, the T simiae probe consists of a tandem array of nucleotides; for T simiae the sequence is 550 bp long. The T simiae genome contains about 1000 copies of this sequence, located predominantly in the minichromosomes. The recombinant plasmid vector which contains this sequence, pgNS 600, can potentially be used to identify as few as 100 trypanosomes in an infected tsetse.The specificity of ILRAD's three DNA probes-for T simiae and for the two groups of T congolense-has been tested using 7 clones and 1 stock of T simiae from one location in Kenya, 10 clones of T congolense from Kilifi, 7 clones of T congolense from different locations in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Burkina Faso and clones of T brucei and T vivax. So far, each probe has hybridized exclusively with the group of parasites from which it was derived.Additionally, the T simiae probe was used to test parasite material derived from infected tsetse captured at different locations in The Gambia. The probe hybridized specifically with T simiae whether the parasites were present in single or mixed infections. Material for these tests was provided by colleagues from the International Trypanotolerance Centre in The Gambia and from the University of Bristol.DNA probe for T vivax ILRAD's first T vivax DNA probe was derived from the genome of a West African clone, ILDat 1.2. A sequence of 10,000 bp was identified which gives strong, speciesspecific hybridization signals. DNA from a recombinant bacteriophage containing this sequence was purified and radiolabeled and the probe was named lambda gDIL10. It is capable of detecting as few as 240 T vivax parasites in the blood of infected animals.When this probe was tested against T vivax populations from different parts of Africa, it hybridized with parasites from West Africa, but not as well with T vivax originating from East Africa. A DNA probe has recently been developed from an East African T vivax clone which also appears to hybridize predominantly with parasites from its area of origin. T vivax parasites from East and West Africa cannot be distinguished by appearance: the only distinction scientists have observed in the past is a tendency for infections with West African parasites to be more acute. Up to now, ILRAD's two T vivax DNA probes have only been tested with a small number of parasite clones: further testing is required before conclusions can be drawn regarding differences between T vivax populations from the two regions and from areas in between.The first step in simplifying procedures for trypanosome identification using DNA probes has been the development of methods for collecting and storing parasite material which can then be sent to a well equipped laboratory for analysis. Ultimately, the goal is to develop procedures which will allow the use of DNA probes for trypanosome characterization under field conditions with a minimum of equipment and material.A serious limitation on the field application of experimental procedures was the requirement for purified DNA, which is obtained by long and complex procedures. ILRAD's DNA probes are sensitive enough to detect small numbers of trypanosomes in preparations of tsetse organs or blood from infected animals, but better procedures were needed for collecting, storing and preparing these samples for analysis. For detection of trypanosome infections in tsetse, various means of sample preparation from tsetse organs have been tested. Material from tsetse midguts or salivary glands was blotted onto nitrocellulose filters and incubated over night with ILRAD's pgDRI probe for T brucei. The probe gave strong hybridization signals for all material from T bruceiinfected tsetse. The probe also hybridized, although weakly, with material derived from the proboscides of infected flies, but there was no hybridization with any material from uninfected tsetse.Scientists also tested a simpler procedure involving cutting off the distal quarter of the tsetse abdomen to expose the guts. These were then squeezed and the contents sequentially touchblotted, at up to eight different spots, on dry nylon filters. Caustic chemicals were added to the filters to kill the parasites and break up and fix their DNA, followed by addition of the pgNRE372 T congolense probe. Although there was variation in the intensity of hybridization, positive signals could be observed in all eight touch blots for each of eight flies infected with T congolense. However, a filter touchblotted with material from the same flies and stored for 10 days without further treatment showed no hybridization to the labeled probe. It thus appears necessary to fix the parasite DNA before filters are stored.If DNA probes are ever to be used for identifying trypanosome species in the field, another method of labeling is required which does not rely on radioactive isotopes. Scientists have investigated the use of biotin labeling but it has not yet been possible to develop a procedure of sufficient sensitivity because mammalian blood or crude material from tsetse also tends to be labeled.Recently, several procedures have been developed in different laboratories for chemically modifying DNA so that it can be detected by standard immunological techniques. ILRAD scientists are currently investigating the use of chemically derivatized DNA probes which might be suitable for the identification of trypanosome species under field conditions.The first field applications ILRAD's DNA probes have been used to identify trypanosome species in infected tsetse flies from East Africa and in blood samples collected from cattle in West Africa. The tsetse flies were collected from different sites in Kenya by cooperating scientists participating in the Trypanotolerant Livestock Network. The collection exercise was part of a Network training course which is conducted at ILRAD every year. Samples from infected cattle were collected in connection with ILRAD's collaborative project with the International Trypanotolerance Centre in The Gambia. In both cases, analysis with ILRAD's DNA probes revealed mixed infections with two or more trypanosome species which would have been difficult to detect by standard procedures.The highly repeated nucleotide sequences used as the basis of ILRAD's DNA probes tend to be specific for particular species of trypanosome. Other elements in the trypanosome genome may be specific for larger or smaller categories of parasites. For instance, certain VSG genes which are important in the process of antigenic variation appear to be characteristic of particular serodemes. Potentially, DNA probes may be developed for serodeme analysis based on these genes.DNA hybridization shows a clear distinction among T congolense clones originating from different locations in Africa. Whole, groundup trypanosomes were blotted at identical spots on duplicate nylon filters (I and II). Parasites in slots AI to A7 are clones of savannahtype T congolense isolated from different places in East and West Africa. Slots A9 to All and B1 to B11 contain T congolense clones derived from isolates from Kilifi on the Kenya coast. Slots C1 to C11 contain material from T congolense parasites isolated at Muhaka, a village near the Kenya coast about 90 km from Kilifi. Filter I was incubated with the DNA probe for savannahtype T congolense (pgNRE372) and filter II was incubated with the Kilifitype T congolense DNA probe (pgNIK450). Each probe hybridized only with DNA from the parasite group from which it was derived. Interestingly, all the parasites isolated from Muhaka hybridized exclusively with one or the other probe-there was no cross hybridization. This provides further evidence for the genomic distinction between Kilifitype and savannahtype T congolense.Other elements in the trypanosome genome are characteristic of broader parasite categories. DNA probes may be developed which are based on sequences found in common in all members of a major trypanosome subgeneric group. A probe which could hybridize with all three groups of T congolense would be particularly useful. Such common sequences have been identified in the ribosomal DNA of filaria parasites, suggesting that ribosomal DNA might be a good place to look for DNA sequences with broader specificity in trypanosomes.Grab, D.J. and Bwayo, J.J. (1982). Isopycnic isolation of African trypanosomes on Percoll gradients formed in situ. Acta . Majiwa, P.A.O., Masake, R A., Nantulya, V.M., Hamers, R. and Matthyssens, G. (1985). Trypanosoma (Nannomonas) congolense: identification of two karyotypic groups. . Majiwa, P.A.O., Matthyssens, G., Williams, R.O. and Hamers, R. (1985). Cloning and analysis of Trypanosoma (Nannomonas) congolense ILNat 2.1 VSG gene. . Majiwa, P.A.O. and Webster, P. (1987). A repetitive deoxyribonucleic acid sequence distinguishes Trypanosoma simiae from T congolense. .  (1982). Genomic environment of T brucei VSG genes: presence of a minichromosome. Nature .Touchblotting reveals trypanosome infections in tsetse. The distal quarter of the abdomen was removed from two tsetse flies captured in the field and the gut contents were touch blotted onto a nylon filter eight times. The filter was treated to fix parasite DNA and incubated with the DNA probe for savannahtype T congolense (pgNRE372). This procedure showed clearly that the fly blotted along the top line was infected with savannah type T.congolense, while the fly blotted along the bottom line was not. Hybridization signals were as strong for the eighth touchblot as for the first, indicating that different blots from the same fly could be exposed to different DNA probes to detect mixed infections.The trypanosomes pictured on page 1 are, from left to right, T congolense, T b brucei, T simiae, T vivax and T evansi. T congolense and T simiae are similar to each other but they can be distinguished from the other species because they lack a free flagellum (the whip like appendage extending from the anterior end). T b brucei and T evansi resemble each other. T vivax can be distinguished from T brucei and T evansi by the larger kinetoplast (which appears as a dark spot near the posterior) and often by a more rounded posterior end.International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases En cas de non remise, renvoyer à KLM-Publication Distribution Service P.O. Box 75220 1117 ZT Schiphol, Holland","tokenCount":"4824"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7c8fdb477c6e5a74843a93ea97c209d7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/53dfbb19-7aa2-4be6-a6cc-b2a2c127d93c/retrieve","id":"-1487023121"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"52cea852-4270-44cc-baed-00523cf49470","pagecount":"3","content":"In Costa Rica, WLE and partners are highlighting ecosystem benefit-sharing mechanisms in the resource-rich Volcanica Central Talamanca Biological Corridor. The work shows that better management of forests, coffee plantations and dairy pastures can help control pests, reduce soil erosion, and improve biodiversity and animal migration. In one example, farmers receive small annual payments from an electric utility in exchange for soil conservation practices that reduce sediment buildup, which threatens to hamper hydroelectric operations.\"Thoughtful design and management of ecosystems can produce multiple benefitsnutritious food, clean water, economic, cultural and recreational serviceswhile also contributing to conservation,\" said Bioversity's Fabrice DeClerck, leader of WLE's Ecosystem Services and Resilience core theme. WLE is parlaying its experience at the ecosystem level in Costa Rica and elsewhere into a more influential role in regional and global policy. WLE scientists increasingly are participating and contributing to the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), which is modelled after the well-known Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPBES was formed in 2012, at a time when biodiversity and ecosystem services were declining at an unprecedented rate, with calls for changes in local, national and international policies. IPBES, with its 124 member countries, seeks a sustainable use of ecosystems that contributes to human wellbeing.IPBES provides a mechanism recognized by the scientific and policy communities to assess and evaluate information generated worldwide by governments, academia, scientific organizations, non-governmental organizations and indigenous communities. The goal is to strengthen capacity to use science effectively in decision-making at all levels. To accomplish that goal, the IPBES focuses on four functions: knowledge generation, assessment, policy support tools, and capacity building.In August 2014, WLE scientists provided input to the IPBES process of identifying regional assessment priorities for Africa and the Americas, with WLE specifically supporting a focus on the food-energywater-livelihood nexus. The term recognizes that food, water, energy and livelihood security are linked in such a way that an action in one area often has impacts in others. Other themes stressed by WLE scientists included land degradation, the environmental health dimensions of invasive plant species, and the balance between sustainable use of resources and conservation.The work in 2014 reflected WLE's collaborative style with local partners and stakeholders. \"One of the main benefits of such collaboration is to bring in different voices to discuss how to best tackle land degradation and ecosystem restoration,\" said Fred Kizito, a scientist with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).Most recently, WLE scientists have been asked to co-chair and serve as authors for three (Americas, Africa and Asia Pacific) regional assessments, which will be submitted to the IPBES plenary for approval in March 2017. Kizito, for example, will be a coordinating lead author of the IPBES Africa assessment.\"This is an important opportunity for our scientists both to share and learn from these assessments,\" DeClerck said, \"while strengthening relationships with national partners in our regional programs.\" ","tokenCount":"475"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2acc1adad8d9329b6a02252694c71f31","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f40f3d91-8db6-444c-a74d-bd0e09a8cea4/retrieve","id":"-244822307"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"13b4c444-dfba-46dc-828c-e98d3090e232","pagecount":"13","content":"Mainstreaming the low glycemic index (GI) trait in breeding programs is constrained by low-throughput and high-cost clinical GI phenotyping. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of starch fine structure components and simulated digestion parameters in predicting GI in rice. Amylose (AM1 and AM2; r = − 0.94 and r = − 0.80, respectively, p < .05) and amylopectin fine structure (MCAP, SCAP, and SCAP1; r = 0.78-0.86, p < .05) measured through size-exclusion chromatography along with resistant starch (r = − 0.81, p < .05) in seven (7) rice accessions showed high correlation with in vivo GI. Meanwhile, starch hydrolysis extent (SH) and the corresponding area under the digestion curve (AUC) obtained through in vitro digestion were found to be of higher correlation with GI, even within shorter digestion periods of 5 min or 30 min (r = 0.96, p < .01). These results highlight the potential use of these parameters as predictors of GI, with improved predictive capacity through a multiple regression model. Higher correlations of simulated digestion AUC with GI may be due to its ability to account for the overall food matrix native macro-and micro-structures, gaining an added advantage over SEC method as a predictive tool in studying rice GI variability. Validation in a larger population is an inevitable next step.Shift in dietary practices and lower energy expenditure brought about by various socio-economic developments linked with urbanization has led to the emergence of obesity as a serious global concern. Recent statistics reported that 1.9 billion adults are overweight; of them 422 million have diabetes (World Health Organization, 2020). Consuming energy-rich foods and drinks create chronic hyperglycemia (Yan, 2014). Obesity and hyperglycemia contribute to the increased incidences of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), hypertension, and some cancers, among others, which account for more than 70% of annual deaths worldwide (World Health Organization, 2021).Starch is the major source of carbohydrate in the diet. Interestingly, not all starches are created equal due to various intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting their digestibility (Jukanti, Pautong, Liu, & Sreenivasulu, 2020;Toutounji, Farahnaky, et al., 2019). Slow starch digestibility is an important target trait in food since high postprandial glucose levels have been associated with various non-communicable diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (Blaak et al., 2012). Monitoring the quality of carbohydrates (which account for 40-80% of daily energy intake) is an essential intervention for glycemic control. More than half of the global population, mainly in Asia, derives more than 50% of daily calories from rice (GRiSP, 2013). Incidentally, 60% of people with diabetes live in the continent (Nanditha et al., 2016), making rice a vital food component in diet-based solutions to the growing epidemic of diabetes, at least for rice-consuming populations.Starch-rich cereals which include rice are typically of intermediate to high GI (Anacleto et al., 2019;Fitzgerald et al., 2011;Kaur, Ranawana, & Henry, 2016;Miller, Pang, & Bramall, 1992). In rice-based diets, reducing the glycemic index (GI) of a variety through genetics, postharvest processing, cooking, and diet diversification solutions are critical (Jukanti et al., 2020). GI is a clinical measure of the tendency of food or drinks containing 50 g of available carbohydrates to influence the blood glucose response upon intake relative to the same amount of glucose standard (Jenkins et al., 1981). GI classifies food as low (≤55), intermediate (>55-69), or high GI (≥70) (Atkinson, Foster-Powell, & Brand-Miller, 2008).With more than half of the global population being dependent on rice as a staple carbohydrate source, it is crucial that low GI rice cultivars are made available to consumers to ease the burden of NCDs. To breed low GI varieties, (a) understanding of the genetics of glycemic index in rice through genome-phenotype associations and identifying diagnostic markers and (b) a rapid high-throughput GI phenotyping exhibiting higher correlations with gold standard in vivo clinical method are prerequisites. The lack of a low-cost, high-throughput in vitro method to replace the gold standard in vivo GI screening with human volunteers, which is both expensive and time-consuming, remains a serious limitation. To date, in vitro technique to estimate GI has been described by Goñi, Garcia-Alonso, and Saura-Calixto (1997), which makes use of gastrointestinal enzymes pepsin, pancreatic α-amylase (AA), and amyloglucosidase (AMG) in the digestion of common dietary starchy foods. Briefly, glucose released through hydrolysis is quantified as a percentage of starch hydrolyzed at different time points (SH) typically 0-180 min at 30 min intervals. Taken from a plot of these values is the area under the digestion curve (AUC) of the test food, whose ratio (expressed in percentage) with the AUC of a reference food, is referred to as hydrolysis index (HI). Two equations from the experiments of Goñi et al. (1997) were found to best estimate in vivo GI values of the test foods used in their study: GI = 39.21 + 0.803(SH 90 ) (Equation 1, r = 0.909, p ≤ .05) which can be used to estimate GI using hydrolysis value at a single time point (t = 90 min), and GI = 39.71 + 0549(Hl) of food but lower linear correlation (Equation 2, r = 0.894, p ≤ .05) which makes use of HI derived from multiple time points less accurate. The said equations have been used in numerous studies to estimate the GI of various food matrices (Chung, Shin, & Lim, 2008;Germaine et al., 2008;Kim & White, 2012;Lal et al., 2021;Leoro, Clerici, Chang, & Steel, 2010) including rice (Deepa, Singh, & Naidu, 2010;Fernandes, Madalena, Pinheiro, & Vicente, 2020;Kale, Jha, Jha, Sinha, & Lal, 2015;Kunyanee & Luangsakul, 2018;Tutusaus, Srikaeo, & Diéguez, 2013). Although widely used, it should be noted that in vitro GI equations are derived from a wide range of food types with varying starch hydrolysis characteristics (Goñi et al., 1997) for which the hydrolytic process was found to follow the first-order equation C--C ∞ (1-e -kt ). However, some slowly digestible foodstuffs reach a plateau by 90 min of hydrolysis (essentially zero-order) and thus cannot be subjected to first-order kinetics analysis; which will otherwise result to unreliable C ∞ values (Edwards, Cochetel, Setterfield, Perez-Moral, & Warren, 2019). Starch digestion is known to be affected primarily by starch multi-scale structure spanning hierarchical structural levels such as compositional, short-range, helical, crystalline, lamellar, and morphology structures, which is perhaps made further complex by proteins, lipids, and secondary metabolites that modify the said structures, as thoroughly reviewed elsewhere (Chi et al., 2021).Several alternative protocols that differ in digestion conditions such as activities and incubation times were proposed (Brodkorb et al., 2019;Edwards et al., 2019;Fitzgerald et al., 2011;Germaine et al., 2008;Toutounji, Butardo, et al., 2019). In contrast to methods that aim to compare GI across various food matrices such as the INFOGEST method (Brodkorb et al., 2019), a protocol intended for a specific food such as rice could benefit from lower variability in food matrix composition and structure due to a more narrow range of protein (4.91%-12.08%) (Banerjee, Chandel, Mandal, Meena, & Saluja, 2011) and lipids (0.5%-0.8%) (Juliano, 1985, pp. 59-174) compared to a wider range when comparison is made across various botanic sources.Moreover, the association between GI and starch digestion rate has been previously studied by Englyst, Vinoy, Englyst, and Lang (2003). They classified starch into fractions that differ in their rate of hydrolysis in the small intestine: rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS) that are hydrolyzed within the first 20 min, between 20 and 120 min, and remains undigested after min, respectively. Furthermore, correlations between these fractions and amylopectin fine structure have been examined in rice (Benmoussa, Moldenhauer, & Hamaker, 2007), where among the amylopectin fractions, those with degrees of polymerization (DP) of less than 13 showed a positive correlation with RDS while longer DPs showed negative correlation.Based on these premises, we hypothesize that fine structure components of amylose (AM1 and AM2) and amylopectin (medium-chain MCAP, short-chain SCAP, and its subfractions SCAP1, SCAP 2, and SCAP 3, that differ in degrees of polymerization) can be used to predict the GI in rice. We further hypothesize that in vitro amylolysis protocols employing low sample requirements, shorter digestion period, and/or lower enzyme activities can be modified for rice samples such that amylolysis parameters SH and AUC strongly correlate with in vivo GI. The purpose of the study was to evaluate and compare the performance of these methods for predicting the GI in rice. A reliable, highthroughput, and more affordable GI phenotyping method may fasttrack the research efforts on understanding the genetics of GI in rice, with the ultimate goal of mainstreaming this human health-promoting trait in rice breeding programs.The milled rice samples of seven indica rice cultivars previously validated through in vivo GI estimation through human subjects (Anacleto et al., 2019;Pasion et al., 2021) were used to establish in vitro GI prediction methods. These cultivars include GQ02522 (50.4, low), GQ02497 (51.5, low), IRRI147 (55, low), IRRI162 (57, intermediate), IRRI163 (64, intermediate), IR64 (66, intermediate) and IR65 (90,high).Meanwhile, the variability of predicted GI values across various linear regression models and parameters was then demonstrated using 10 market samples, of these three are brown rice and the rest are milled (Table 5).Starch indices such as total starch (TS), digestible carbohydrates (DC) and resistant starch (RS) were measured using commercially available kits (Megazyme K-TSTA and K-RSTAR) with downscaled enzyme buffers as described in Alhambra, Dhital, Sreenivasulu, and Butardo (2019) with minor modification. Meanwhile, the starch regions (AM1, AM2, MCAP, and SCAP) were characterized using size exclusion chromatography following the procedures described in Guzman et al. (2017).Rice flour (10 ± 0.1 mg) weighed in 2-mL microfuge tubes was dispersed in 0.5 mL of 80% (w/v) ethanol and incubated at 85 • C for min. Another 0.5 mL of 80% ethanol was added followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min. After carefully decanting the supernatant, the pellet was re-suspended with 1 mL of 80% ethanol. After another centrifugation step, the supernatant was decanted once again, and the remaining pellet was added with 0.2 mL of 2M KOH. A magnetic spin bar was added to aid mixing, and solubilization of the pellet was allowed to proceed for at least 20 min in an ice bath. After the incubation, 0.8 mL of 1.2 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 3.8) was added followed by the addition of 10 μL each of thermostable α-amylase and AMG. The sample was then incubated at 50 • C for 30 min with intermittent vortex mixing every 15 min. After the enzymatic hydrolysis, an aliquot (0.1 mL) was added with distilled water to bring the final volume to 1 mL. The mixture was mixed and centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 10 min. An aliquot (10 μL) of the supernatant was mixed with 0.3 mL of GOPOD reagent, incubated at 50 • C for 20 min, and absorbance was read at 510 nm using a microplate reader (SPECTROstar Nano, BMG Labtech, Germany).Rice flour samples (10 ± 0.1 mg) weighed in a 2-mL microfuge tubes were dispersed in 0.4 mL of enzyme solution containing 10 mg/mL pancreatin and 3 U/mL AMG in 0.1 mM sodium maleate buffer with 5 mM CaCl 2 ⋅H 2 O (pH 6.0). The tubes were then secured on a rack and incubated horizontally in a shaking water bath set at 100 strokes/min and 37 • C for 16 h. Twelve minutes prior to the end of the incubation period, the tubes were removed from the water bath and individually dried using a paper towel. At exactly 16 h, the reaction was stopped by adding 0.4 mL of 99% ethanol followed by vortex mixing. The tubes were centrifuged at 18,231×g for 30 min. The supernatant was then carefully decanted in a 15-mL conical tube and was set aside for the quantification of total digestible carbohydrate (DC). The remaining pellet was then re-suspended in 0.2 mL of 50% ethanol and mixed using a vortexer and added with a further 0.6 mL of 50% ethanol. Following another centrifugation, the supernatant was carefully decanted into the conical tube containing the first decantate, pooling both decantates together. On the other hand, a stir bar was placed in the tube containing the pellet over an ice bath and 0.2 mL of 2 M KOH was added, allowing complete solubilization for at least 20 min. At the end of the reaction time, 0.8 mL of 1.2 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 3.8) was added followed by the immediate addition of 10 μL of AMG (3300 U/mL). After mixing, the tubes were incubated in a water bath at 50 • C for 30 min (with vortex mixing after the first 15 min). Without the stir bars, the tubes were then centrifuged at 18,231×g for 10 min, and glucose concentration in a 10-μL aliquot of the resulting supernatant was quantified as in the preceding section.The pooled supernatants (previous section) were diluted to 10 mL with 0.1 mM sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.5). After mixing, a 10-μL aliquot was collected, added with 2 μL of AMG suspension (300 U/mL in 100 mM sodium maleate buffer with 5 mM CaCl 2 ⋅2H 2 O; pH 6.0) and the mixture was vortexed and incubated in a 50 • C water bath for 20 min. Glucose was then quantified using GOPOD reagent (0.3 mL) as in 2.2.1.Waters Alliance 2695 HPLC with 2414 Refractive Index Detector and fitted with Waters Ultrahydrogel 250 Å column was first calibrated for molecular weight using pullulan standards (P-82 Shodex, Showa Denko, K. K. Kawasaki, Japan). Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation for universal calibration (Pullulan: K = 0.0126 mL g − 1 and a = 0.733; Linear starch: K = 0.0544 mL g − 1 and a = 0.486) as described in Castro, Dumas, Chiou, Fitzgerald, and Gilbert (2005) was used with 0.05M NH 4 OAc with 0.02% sodium azide (pH 4.75) as mobile phase.Gelatinization of rice flour (50 ± 0.1 mg in a glass scintillation vial of known weight) was done by adding 0.4 mL of 95% ethanol and 1 mL of 0.25 M NaOH, followed by heating at 150 • C for 12 min. Within the heating period, successive aliquots of 0.8 mL hot water (100 • C) were added at 0, 4, and 8 min from the onset of heating period to prevent drying of sample. After heating, the final weight of the solution was adjusted to 4 g by adding hot water (60-65 • C). Debranching of the gelatinized starch was then induced by adding 0.206 mL of sodium acetate buffer (prepared by mixing 10 mL 0.2M NaOAc at pH 4.0 with 0.360 mL glacial acetic acid) to a 0.794-mL aliquot of the sample. The resulting mixture was then incubated with 10 μL of isoamylase (P113541, Megazyme) in a 50 • C water bath for 2 h with mixing by inversion every 15 min. Isoamylase was then inactivated by placing the tubes in a vigorously boiling water bath. After centrifugation at 12,5000×g for 10 min, the supernatant is carefully decanted into a 1.5-mL microfuge tube containing ~0.1 g ion exchange resin (Bio-Rad AG 501-X8 (D)) which was then incubated at 50 • C for 30 min (with mixing by inversion every 10 min). An aliquot (0.15 mL) of the supernatant was then transferred to an SEC vial for analysis (stop time, 35 min; flow rate, 0.5 mL/min; injection volume, 40 μL; sample temperature, 40 • C; and column temperature, 60 • C). The degree of polymerization (DP) was derived from the molecular weight computed using the Mark-Houwink-Sakurada Equation, and the four regions were determined using this distribution: AM1>1000DP, AM2 121-1000DP, MCAP 37-120DP, and SCAP 6-36DP. SCAP was further distributed into three regions, SCAP1 25-36DP, SCAP2 13-24DP, and SCAP3 6-12DP, based on Hanashiro, Abe, and Hizukuri (1996).Three different in vitro GI methods were standardized for sample preparation, digestion, and/or glucose quantification in this study (Table 2).A slightly modified version of the procedure by Goñi et al. (1997) was employed to test its applicability in rice using reference samples of seven cultivars with established in vivo GI (Anacleto et al., 2019;Pasion et al., 2021). In addition, Method 1 was modified (referred to as Modified Method 1) by incorporating the following changes: whole grains (100 ± 5 mg) were used instead of flour (50 mg, passed through a μm mesh), a 1:2 rice to water ratio was used instead of 3 mL water, and all incubations were conducted at 37 • C to simplify the process, as opposed to the two incubation temperatures in the original Method 1.Briefly, rice grains (100 ± 0.3 mg) were added with 0.2 ml distilled water and cooked for 23 min over vigorously boiling water in a covered pot. The cooked sample was then allowed to cool down for 5 min and equilibrated in a 37 • C water bath for another 5 min. The grains were then minced in 0.5 ml of HCl-KCl buffer (0.05 M, pH 1.5) using a stainless steel spatula with 20 downward strokes. Then, 9.7 ml of HCl-KCl buffer (0.05 M, pH 1.5) containing 40 U of pepsin (Sigma; 4.12 U/mL or 95.9 μg/mL) was added and allowed to incubate for 1 h with constant magnetic stirring (90 rpm). The pH was then adjusted to 6.9 by adding 2 mL of aqueous NaOH (~0.163 M), followed by the addition of 14.8 mL of Tris-maleate buffer (0,05 M, pH 6.9) containing 2.6 U of α-amylase (A3176, Sigma; 0.176 U/mL or 11.7 μg/mL). Starch hydrolysis was allowed to proceed for 180 min in the water bath (37 • C, rpm). Sample aliquots (0.1 mL) were collected at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min and immediately placed in boiling water for 5 min to deactivate the enzymes. The aliquot was then centrifuged at 13,500 rpm for 10 min, and 10 μL of the resulting supernatant was added with 30 μL AMG (2.75 U/mL) in sodium acetate buffer (0.4 M, pH 4.75), vortexed, and incubated at 50 • C for 20 min to convert starch oligosaccharides into free glucose. After incubation, 60 μL of Milli-Q water was added, vortexed, and a 10-μL sub-aliquot was transferred into a 0.6-mL microfuge tube. Glucose was then quantified using a GOPOD reagent as in Section 2.2.1. A reagent blank was incubated under the same conditions, and absorbance at different time points was also measured to correct for interferences due to the digestion medium. The calculation of SH from glucose concentrations and predicted GI (pGI) value is described in Section 2.3.4.The second method employed the protocol reported by Alhambra et al. (2019) with modifications. Whole milled rice grains (500 ± 10 mg) were soaked for 10 min, and brown rice samples were soaked for 20 min in 6 mL distilled water using 50-mL tube with a foil cap, under room temperature. Afterwards, the sample was cooked in a beaker with boiling water (heater set at 250 • C) for 20 min. Excess water was removed, and rice was allowed to cool for 5 min. The tubes were then placed in a 37 • C water bath and 0.5 mL α-amylase (Megazyme; 75 U/mL in simulated salivary fluid) was dispensed. The grains were minced using a spatula for 20 s to mimic the buccal phase, followed by the addition of 5 mL pepsin (P6778, Sigma; 1 mg/mL in 0.2M HCl). Spin bars were added, and the speed was set to 200 rpm. After 30 min, 5 mL of NaOH (0.2 M) was added to neutralize the pH, followed by the addition of 20 mL sodium acetate buffer (0.1 M, pH 6.0), and 5 mL pancreatin (P1750, Sigma; 2 mg/mL buffer)-AMG (10115-5G-F, Sigma; 25.4 U/mL or 0.41 mg/mL buffer) mixture while the speed of stirring was increased to 700 rpm. This reaction was allowed to carry out for 180 min, and 0.2 ml of aliquots were collected at time points 0,5,10,20,30,45,60,90,120, and 180 min, and placed in a 0.6 ml microfuge tube. To quench the reaction, the tubes were placed on an ice bath prior to centrifugation at 13,000 rpm (4 • C) for 10 min.Samples were diluted with 0.1M sodium acetate buffer (pH 6.0) when needed (dilution starts at aliquots 5 min and beyond). Aliquots of 50 μl were added with 5 μL of amyloglucosidase (300 U/mL) and incubated for 20 min at 50 • C. Starch hydrolyzed was quantified using the GOPOD assay at 510 nm (Beckman Coulter DU 800 spectrophotometer). The calculation of predicted GI (pGI) value is described in Section 2.3.4.A third starch digestion protocol was employed following the method of Germaine et al. (2008) with some modifications. Briefly, whole milled rice (300 ± 0.3 mg) with 1:2 rice-to-water ratio was cooked in 50-ml tube over boiling water for 23 min, after which the sample was set aside at room temperature for 5 min. After equilibrating in a 37 • C water bath for another 5 min, it is added with 1 mL of 0.1 M sodium potassium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) and minced using a stainless-steel spatula (35 downward strokes within 10 s). After placing a magnetic spin bar, 2 mL of α-amylase (A3176, Sigma; 55.5 U/mL or 3.7 mg/mL of 0.05 M sodium potassium phosphate buffer, pH 6.9, 37 • C) was added, and amylolysis was allowed for 75 s in a water bath with constant stirring (37 • , 60 rpm). The reaction was stopped by adding 3 mL of aqueous HCl (pH ~0.92) to acidify the digestion medium. Then, 3 mL of pepsin (Sigma; 19.5 U/mL or 0.45 mg/mL of 0.1 M sodium potassium phosphate buffer, pH 1.5, 37 • C) was added and allowed to incubate for 30 min (37 • C water bath, 60 rpm). Enzymatic reaction was quenched by adjusting the pH to 6.9 using 15 mL of aqueous NaOH (pH ~12.6). A 15 mL enzyme solution containing pancreatin (28.4 μg/mL; P1750, Sigma) and amyloglucosidase (10115-5G-F, Sigma; 13 U/mL or 0.208 mg/mL) in 0.1 M sodium potassium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) was then added and allowed to incubate for another 180 min (37 • C, 120 rpm). Sample aliquots (0.70 mL) were withdrawn at 0 (just before pancreatin-AMG addition), 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min and placed on ice until the succeeding centrifugation step (13,500 rpm, 10 min, 4 • C). A 1-μL aliquot of the supernatant was transferred to a 0.6-mL microfuge tube and was added with 9 μL of AMG solution (33.3 U/mL in 0.4 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0), vortexed, and incubated in a water bath (50 • C) for 20 min. Finally, glucose in the mixture and reagent blank were measured by adding GOPOD reagent and analyzed as in Method 1.Sample and glucose standard absorbance values at 510 nm were corrected using a reagent blank, and converted into glucose values (mg/ ml of aliquot) using the following equation:where the fraction 10/1000 was used to convert mcg glucose/0.1 ml aliquot to mg/ml. The percentage of starch hydrolyzed (SH) was then calculated using the equation:where glucose is in mg/ml, DF is the dilution factor used on the sample aliquot, V is the volume of the digestion medium at the time point during which the aliquot was drawn, 162/180 is the conversion factor from glucose to starch, and %TS is the total starch content of the sample. Finally, AUC was calculated from SH values based on the trapezoidal rule.The Pearson correlation coefficient (r, P < .05; R package \"corrplot\" (Wei & Simko, 2021)) was used to assess the correlation between in vivo GI and each of the parameters tested. Following the tests for linearity (ANOVA for linear regression), normal distribution of the residuals of regression (Shapiro-Wilk; R package \"dplyr\"; Wickham, François, Henry, & Müller, 2022), and homoscedasticity (R package \"lmtest\"; Zeileis & Hothorn, 2002) of each parameter showing a good correlation with in vivo GI, linear regression analysis was then performed to generate the corresponding pGI equations and values. Statistical analysis was performed using RStudio 2022.2.3.492 (RStudio Team, 2020).The applicability of the derived equations for predicted GI (pGI) using different amylolysis parameters were demonstrated for ten (10) market samples. SEC experiments were performed in triplicates while simulated digestion were performed in duplicates.The range of starch indices (TS, RS, and DC) and debranched starch regions separated through SEC (AM1, AM2, MCAP, and SCAP and its subfractions) in seven (7) rice accessions are presented in Table 1. RS, AM1, and AM2 declined whereas MCAP, SCAP, and SCAP increased with increasing GI. On the contrary, no such statistically significant trends were observed for TS and DC (p > .05, Table S1). Although direct positive correlations (MCAP, r = .780; SCAP, r = .855; SCAP1, r = 0.856; AP, r = .886) and inverse correlations (RS, r = − 0.809; AM1, r = − 0.941; and AM2, r = − 0.802) were observed with in vivo GI values (Fig. 1), they were found to be less than those achieved using amylolysis parameters SH and AUC for in vitro GI methods 2 and 3 (Fig. 4) even when individual fractions are pooled together (AM and AP, r = − 0.886; AM AUC and AM AUC, r = − 0.880). This observation is also reflected in the corresponding R 2 values when linear regression model is applied (Fig. S1). Further inspection of the SCAP fractions revealed that GI was significantly correlated with SCAP1 only (r = 0.856, p = .014) which is slightly higher than that for the totality of SCAP (r = 0.855, p = .014). These parameters passed the assumptions of linearity with GI, and normal distribution and homoscedasticity of the corresponding residuals based on ANOVA, Shapiro-Wilk test and Breusch-Pagan test, respectively, which served as the bases for linear regression analysis (Table 3).Based on these results, only RS, AM1, AM2, SCAP1, AM, and AM AUC were used as proxy parameters in succeeding analyses (Section 3.3). AP Glucose = Absorbance of sample/Absorbance of glucose standard x 100 x 10/1000 and AP AUC were not included since they both give pGI equations with the same value of slope (but of opposite sign) as that of the pGI for AM and AM AUC (Figs. S1h and S1j,respectively).The trends in AM1 and AM2 (and collectively as AM or AM AUC ) in this study corroborate previously reported negative correlation between amylose and GI (Fitzgerald et al., 2011;Goñi et al., 1997;Guzman et al., 2017;Hu, Zhao, Duan, Linlin, & Wu, 2004) since low amylose digestibility is attributed to its linear nature that limits the surface area for hydrolytic enzyme action. In addition, amylose is known to provide the structural integrity to retard swelling and disruption of starch structure during cooking and reassemble into ordered structures upon cooling (Chi et al., 2021). While the DP of amylopectin has been shown to affect the digestibility of starch (Martens, Gerrits, Bruininx, & Schols, 2018;Srichuwong, Sunarti, Mishima, Isono, & Hisamatsu, 2005), we report a contrasting result with respect to MCAP which displayed a positive correlation with GI. This can be explained by the \"building block and backbone\" model of amylopectin structure (Bertoft, 2004;Perez & Bertoft, 2010) which suggests that DP > 36 (which includes MCAP) mostly interlink through α-(1,6)-linkages to form the backbone to which the building blocks of double helices of DP ≤ 36 (SCAP) are subtended. A huge proportion of the backbones are situated perpendicular to the crystalline clusters and are therefore mostly found in the amorphous lamella which is more accessible to hydrolytic enzymes.In addition, among the SCAP sub-fractions, our results show that only SCAP1 (DP 25-36) is significantly positively correlated with GI, contrary to previously reported negative correlation with starch digestibility while positive correlations were observed for shorter SCAP fractions (DP 6-24) only (Lin et al., 2016;Srichuwong et al., 2005). This may imply that double helices formed by longer chains (DP 25-36) believed to have higher resistance (Nakamura, 2018) could exist as amorphous double helices (Kim, Choi, Choi, Park, & Moon, 2020) and may actually potentially cause uneven packing and thus reduce crystallinity, as more often attributed to shorter helices (Chi et al., 2021). DP 25-36 has been previously reported to introduce defects into the structure of rice starches (Koroteeva et al., 2007), and thus potentially increase digestibility which is consistent with our result. Moreover, the backbone model suggests that SCAP3 of DP 6-8 anchored to the backbone rather than the helical clusters or building blocks may be present, which may introduce defects in the crystalline structure. It is thus tempting to speculate that SCAP1 (DP 25-36) also contributes to such structural defects and to a greater extent. With these premises, superior haplotypes for bHLH transcription factor on chromosome 7 identified to elevate AM1 fraction over SCAP (Butardo et al., 2017) will be useful as a quick screening technique to enrich the germplasm of low GI potential from the gene bank accessions (Brotman et al., 2021).Furthermore, the \"glucan trimming\" hypothesis (Ball et al., 1996) behind the water-insoluble properties of amylopectin could further explain the observed correlations. Briefly, a tightly branched \"preamylopectin\" produced by the action of starch synthase (SS) and starch branching enzyme (SBE) isoforms, is trimmed down by the debranching enzyme (DBE). The trimming process occurs simultaneously with two important structural changes: (a) the remaining branches of the The values are expressed as the mean of six ( 6  \"preamylopectin\" form the characteristic double helices in the building blocks, and (b) the amylopectin backbone being cleared of several chains is being further elongated (Tetlow & Bertoft, 2020). The inter-block chain length (IB-CL), or the segment between successive building blocks, could affect the crystallinity of the resulting amylopectin supramolecular structure, whereby shorter IB-CL limits parallel packing of double helices leading to low onset gelatinization temperature characteristic of decreased crystallinity (Vamadevan, Bertoft, & Seetharaman, 2013). The possibility that backbones of interlinked AM2 (DP > 120) accommodate longer IB-CL (more crystalline amylopectin structures) than MCAP (DP 37-120) backbones could potentially explain their opposing correlations with GI. Similarly, RS negatively correlated with MCAP only (p < .05), while the latter negatively correlated with AM1 and AM2, and positively with SCAP1 and SCAP3 (p < .05). Still based on the backbone model (Vamadevan et al., 2013), short IB-CL is thought to be associated with higher number of building blocks per cluster which may explain positive correlation between MCAP and SCAP, whereas longer IB-CL (which we hypothesize to be correlated with AM2) had fewer building blocks and may thus explain the strong negative correlation between AM1 and fractions MCAP and SCAP. The propensity of a rice cultivar to form more AM2 than MCAP backbone as the amylopectin chains are being trimmed and elongated could lead to a more stable crystalline structure with fewer amylopectin short chain double helices and thus lower GI. Consistent with this, moderate RS lines were determined to have elevated AM2 as compared to other starch regions (Parween et al., 2020).The soundness of the most widely used Method 1 (Goñi et al., 1997) as an in vitro method to predict the GI was evaluated using the same set of milled rice samples with known in vivo GI. It was compared to a second in vitro method (Alhambra et al., 2019) previously used for in-house GI screening. Finally, a slightly modified version of the simulated digestion method by Germaine et al. (2008) employing lower enzyme concentrations than Method 2 was used. The components of each method are summarized in Table 2.As a starting point, Method 1 was employed to predict GI based on starch hydrolysis rate at 90 min (SH90) and HI, as previously employed in other studies (Deepa et al., 2010;Fernandes et al., 2020;Kale et al., 2015;Kunyanee & Luangsakul, 2018). By the end of the digestion period, hydrolyzed starch values ranged between 63.96% (IRRI163) to 75.40% (IR65). As shown in the corresponding digestion curves in Fig. 2a, only IR64 and IR65 are clearly separated from the rest, whereas both intermediate and low GI lines are grouped together in a narrow range of SH values despite the huge differences in their in vivo GI values. Strong correlations with in vivo GI (Pearson correlation coefficient, r; Fig. 3a) were found between various SH (SH60-SH120 with r = 0.76-0.86) and all AUC (r = 0.82-0.86, except for AUC(120-180)) (p < .05, Table S2), while a very strong correlation was found for SH30 (r = 0.90, p = .005). The limitation of Method 1 to separate the groups was made apparent when equations 1 and 2 are applied using single-point hydrolysis rate SH90 and hydrolysis index HI (encompassing 0-180 min), respectively (Fig. 3c and Fig. A1). Actual in vivo GI values ranged between 50.4 and 90, while predicted GI values using equations 1 and (pGI 1a and pGI 1b , respectively) fall between 64.9-71.1 and 66.9-73.0, respectively. Consequently, the plot between pGI 1a and pGI 1b and in vivo GI only achieved R 2 values of 0.732 and 0.690.To check whether the more intact grains will improve the separation of digestion profiles, Method 1 was slightly modified (referred as Modified Method 1). As hypothesized, a significant improvement in the separation of digestion curves according to GI categories (Fig. 2b) and correlation with GI (Fig. 3b) was established for all SH and AUC parameters in the modified method compared to that of the Method (Figs. 2a and 3a). Among the AUC ranges, highest correlation was established between GI and AUC (30-60) (r = 0.97, p < .001) for which the linear relationship is described by the equation pGI 1c = 0.04 × AUC (30-60) + 43.86 (R 2 = 0.932, Fig. 3d).Simultaneously, Method 2 was performed to test whether wellresolved digestion profiles consistent with the trend in the GI of the samples would be achieved. Final hydrolysis rates were between 49.73% (IRRI147) and 60.08% (IR65), as presented in Fig. 2c. It showed better separation during the first 60 min according to in vivo GI values, resulting to higher positive correlation with GI (with r = 0.93-0.95 between 0 and 10 min and r = 0.77-0.89 between 10 and 60 min, p < .01-.05, Fig. 4a), while succeeding time points had no significant correlation with GI. AUC(0-5) achieved the highest correlation with GI (r = 0.96, p = .0007) and this linear relationship is represented by the equation pGI = 0.44 × AUC(0-5) + 33.43 (R 2 = 0.917, Fig. 4c).Fig. 2d shows the digestion curves of the same samples when subjected to Method 3 which produced better separation between GI groups compared to Method 1 and 2. In contrast to the previous methods, Method 3 produced a gradual increase in starch digestion rates between 0 and 180 min, with final values ranging between 16.78% (IRRI147) and 57.66% (IR65). Curves for GQ02522, GQ02497, and IRRI147 (GI = 50.4-55.1), and IRRI163 and IR64 (GI = 64-66) were clustered accordingly while that of IR65 (GI = 90) was clearly separated from the rest. Correlation of the SH values and corresponding AUCs calculated from successive time point ranges with in vivo GI (Fig. 4b, Table S5) was highest for SH180 (r = 0.980, p < .001) and AUC (150-180 min) (r = 0.976, p < .001). A good linear relationship between in vivo GI and AUC (150-180) is described by the equation pGI 3 = 0.031 × AUC(150-180) + 37.60 (R 2 = 0.953) to estimate GI based on AUC(150-180) as shown in Fig. 4d. However, it is important to note that very high significant correlations were also established using any of the SH and AUC values, with the lowest being r = 0.957 for AUC(0-30). Moreover, it should be noted that SH180 values of Method 3 (16.78%-30.60%, excluding IR65) fall within the SH10 values of Method 2, which may be due to the higher enzyme concentration and conceivably higher digestion rates in the latter (Table 2). This also explains higher SH/AUC correlations with GI established at earlier time points in Method 2. As observed with the various starch structure parameters (Section 3.1), selected simulated digestion variables AUC(0-5) from Method 2 and AUC(150-180) from Method 3 comply with the assumptions of linear regression (Table 3).Various in vitro enzymatic digestion conditions such as enzyme concentration and sample form affect the rate of starch digestion (Woolnough, Monro, Brennan, & Bird, 2008) and may explain the observed discrepancy across the three methods. In contrast to the first   two methods which produced high starch hydrolysis rates at the onset of the digestion period, Method 3 induced slower digestion as well as lower final SH across samples. This could be attributed to food matrix integrity. For instance, the use of cooked rice flour in Method 1 may have caused the high onset SH across all samples despite the use of lower units of α-amylase (0.087 U/mL digestion medium) compared to that of Method 2 (11.3 U/mL) and Method 3 (0.441 U/mL), and even in the absence of AMG and initial α-amylase digestion. Meanwhile, although both Method 2 and 3 made use of whole milled grain samples, the use of higher amounts of enzymes at all three stages in the former most likely caused the higher SH values, despite the higher AMG concentration in Method 3. In addition, this effect may have been compounded by the fact that Method 2 employed excess water in the cooking step and possible increased mechanical breakdown due to higher stirring speed. The same  effect of cooking in excess water on starch digestibility has been observed in previous studies (Hsu, Lu, Chang, & Chiang, 2014;Huynh, Shrestha, & Arcot, 2016). It is highly likely that higher SH also will have been measured if the excess water used for cooking in Method 2 was not discarded, since amylose and amylopectin leach out of the starch granules upon cooking (Ong & Blanshard, 1995). In this regard, we hypothesize that certain levels of enzyme concentrations, to some extent, is only of secondary importance to matrix integrity when it comes to affecting starch digestibility. Overall, the use of whole milled grain, lower water-to-rice ratio (2:1 vs in excess), and lower enzyme activities in Method 3 may have produced the more gradual and lower extent of starch hydrolysis compared to both Method 1 and 2. In fact, modifying Method 1 by simply employing whole grains (100 mg) and 1:2 water to rice ratio, instead of rice flour and excess water, respectively, led to the establishment of higher correlations with in vivo GI (Fig. 2b), thereby supporting this hypothesis.The discrepancy between the correlations with GI established by starch fine structure components and simulated digestion of more intact starting material may highlight the importance of the overall macro-and micro-structures in the release of glucose from starch over the total content of amylose and amylopectin alone (Chi et al., 2021). For instance, the distribution of DP within amylose and amylopectin chains have been found to influence digestibility; higher short-medium amylose were found to be associated with lower digestibility (Gong, Cheng, Gilbert, & Li, 2019;Yu, Tao, & Gilbert, 2018) due to their tendency upon retrogradation to form smaller and densely packed gel networks that are less accessible to amylolytic enzymes (Yu et al., 2018). With respect to amylopectin, short-chain double helices (DP 6-12) are generally positively associated with increased digestibility while DP 25-36 and DP ≥ 37 are known to reduce it (Lin et al., 2016;Srichuwong et al., 2005). However, these fractions could behave otherwise; short helices (DP 6-12) may contribute to the slowly digestible starch (SDS) fraction by either packing into ordered structures (Lin et al., 2016) or promoting steric hindrance against proper enzyme-substrate complex formation (Li & Zhu, 2017), while long-chain helices may comprise the readily digestible starch (RDS) fraction when not in an ordered structure (Kim et al., 2020;Zhang, Ao, & Hamaker, 2008). Going up the hierarchical starch structure, short-range ordered structures associated with SDS and RS (Chi et al., 2019), and starch-complexes with non-starch moieties such as hydrocolloids, proteins, and phenolics decrease digestibility due to localized molecular interactions upon cooking (Chen et al., 2019). Densely-packed single and double helices by amylose and amylopectin, respectively, form different crystalline structures A-, B-, C-, and V-type (starch-hydrophobic molecule complexes) categorized to have high, low, intermediate digestibility and resistant, respectively. Due to the less dense structures of B-and C-type starch crystals that allow for the incorporation of water molecules, they are less readily digested compared to A-type (Shrestha et al., 2012). It was reported that cereals of low to normal amylose content had proportionally high content of A-type crystals with high short:long amylopectin ratio (DP < 24: DP > 36), B-type crystals with longer amylopectin side chains were found in potato starch, while high-amylose starches in cereal and pea had intermediate proportions (Martens et al., 2018). It was also reported in the same study that both %A-type structure and amylopectin side-chain length distribution were the only parameters among those tested (amylose content, granule size, and number of pores) that explicitly predicted the variations in starch digestion kinetics (in vitro pig model) across selected botanical types (rice, barley, corn, wheat, potato and pea). Thicker crystalline lamellae relative to the amorphous lamella (where disordered amylose and amylopectin chains are located), highly-ordered reassembled aggregates, and granule surface proteins and lipids are all associated with reduced digestibility. In essence, orientations at various levels of the starch hierarchical structure that limits or slows down enzyme action reduce starch digestibility (Chi et al., 2021).High rates of digestion due to high enzyme concentration and reduced food matrix macro-structure in both Method 1 and 2 may have diminished the inherent variations in starch fine structure and other inherent hierarchical structures across samples, with SH almost reaching a plateau at earlier time points. In contrast, the more intact samples digested at lower pancreatin and AMG concentrations (as in Method 3) may have introduced lower digestion rates that best reflected SCAP DP variations. For instance, it can be observed that final SH in Method were substantially below %TS content and may likely include mostly SCAP digestion. This can be supported by the results from Benmoussa et al. (2007), where they determined that amylopectin fine structure distribution affects in vitro digestibility of rice cultivars, although their results showed a negative correlation between MCAP and RDS.To establish an in vitro GI method that can predict in vivo values with higher accuracy, SH and AUC measured from in vitro digestion of milled grains are thus superior parameters to use than starch fractions (Fig. 5). This could be due to the ability of the method to account for the effects of various starch parameters (AM1, AM2, SCAP2, RS) and other underlying factors such as the presence of starch-lipid and starch-lipid-protein complexes (Wang et al., 2020), dietary fiber (Qi, Al-Ghazzewi, & Tester, 2018), phenolic compounds (Giuberti, Rocchetti, & Lucini, 2020;Zhu, 2015) which are known to affect starch digestibility and thus GI. Although the use of the single time-point measurement (SH) poses an advantage over AUC measurements with respect to throughput, the use of the latter is less sensitive to errors than SH and is therefore more preferred. The earlier time points of Method 3 (e.g. 0-30 min) can also be used without significantly affecting the predicted GI (R 2 = 0.91, Fig. A3). The comparison of three different in vitro digestion methods and fitting the results into models suggests that both Method 2 and Method 3 show potential as in vitro screening methods for GI in rice. However, their full utility as an alternative to in vivo measurements is remains to be further explored involving large number of varieties with in vivo GI evidence.A summary of the equations derived from the various methods and parameters which showed statistically significant correlation with in vitro GI were then used to calculate the pGI of the seven samples of known in vivo GI (Table 4), where pGI(AM1), pGI 2 and pGI 3 equations gave GI values with less than 7% mean percentage error (MPE = 6.6%, 5.4%, and 4.0%, respectively). Interestingly, a multiple linear regression model built from AUC(150-180) of Method 3 and AM1 (Table A.15) and described by the equation pGI(M) = (0.021 × AUC(150-180)) -(1.66 × AM1) + 58.65 (R 2 = 0.995, p < .001) gave an MPE of only 1.1%. This implies increased predictive capacity when multiple parameters that strongly correlate with GI are used. This result was not surprising given that SEC provides details on the fine structure while simulated digestion could account for the macro-and micro-structure of the food matrix.Bland-Altman plots (Fig. 5) show the bias (deviation from an ideal mean difference of zero) and agreement limits (within which 95% of differences between the two methods lie) (Giavarina, 2015) between in vivo GI and pGI when selected parameters obtained for the 7 samples were fitted in their corresponding linear regression model (except for pGI 1a which was calculated using the equation by Goñi et al., 1997). Another set of in vitro values (pGI 4 , measured at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and extracted from Anacleto et al. (2019) was also evaluated (Fig. A4h). In terms of the mean of differences, most of the models gave a zero bias (or mean difference of 0) except for pGI 1a and pGI 1b (− 5.2 and − 7.0 units) and pGI (+3.8 units), indicating that the said in vitro methods will give estimates that are 5.2 and 7.0 units higher, and 3.8 units lower, respectively, than in vivo values. In terms of the range of differences between in vitro and in vivo values, the linear regression model with the most accurate agreement range with in vivo GI was observed for pGI 3 (− 6.0 to 6.0 GI units), which means that 95% of in vitro GI measurements will differ by ±6.0 units compared to the mean of the two measurements. In contrast, wider agreement intervals measured from the bias were observed for the following (in increasing order): pGI(AM1) (±6.0), pGI(AM2) (±6.2), pGI (AM) (±6.3), pGI(AM AUC ) (±6.4), pGI(SCAP1) (±6.5), pGI(SCAP) (±6.8), pGI(MCAP) (±7.2), pGI 2 (±7.7), pGI 4 (±11.7), pGI(RS) (±15.8), pGI 1a (±22.9), and pGI 1b (±23.2). Notably higher predictive capacity was observed for the multiple regression equation pGI(M), achieving a narrow ±1.9 units of agreement interval.Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves (Fig. 6) were generated for pGI(AM1), pGI 2 , and pGI 3 using individual replicates for the seven rice accessions to graphically illustrate their ability to predict in vivo values. For this purpose, pGI measurements that fell within ±1 to ±10 units (at increments of ±1) from the in vivo GI were classified as \"passed\", and otherwise, \"failed\". Based on AUROC (Hosmer et al., 2013), both pGI(AM1) and pGI 2 gave acceptable predictions while pGI has an excellent predictive ability. Interestingly, the multiple linear regression model pGI(M) derived from the parameters AM1 and AUC (150-180) of Method 3 gave and outstanding prediction of GI. These results further support the conclusion that these models may be further explored for the potential to predict GI at acceptable capacities or levels.A total of 10 market samples were then used to demonstrate the phenotypic variability of estimated GI across different methods (Table 3). Models pGI(AM1), pGI(MCAP), and pGI 3 were able to predict GI values that are close to that reported for low-GI rice (LGR) at 49.9, 45.8, and 55.3, respectively (Table 5). Estimates of GI for Iddly rice (IR) were also within, or at least close to, the low GI range except for pGI(RS) Fig. 5. Bland-Altman plots for (a) pGI(RS), (b) pGI (AM1), (c) pGI 1a , (d) pGI 2 , (e) pGI 3 , and (f) pGI(M) showing the differences between their estimated values and in vivo GI vs. the mean of both measurements. The middle horizontal line represents the \"bias\" (deviation from an ideal mean difference of zero) while top and bottom horizontal lines represent upper and lower limits within which 95% of the differences will fall (calculated as bias ± 1.96 std. deviation, respectively). pGI(M) is a multiple linear regression model derived AUC(150-180) of Method and AM1. and pGI 2 which gave higher values. All models were able to assign high GI values for both glutinous white and black rices (GWR and GBR) which is expected for waxy rices (Kaur et al., 2016). All models also classified the Jasmine rices (WR and BJR) accordingly as high GI cultivars, while Thai Red as intermediate to high. Meanwhile, the Basmati rices (LBR and BR) got low to high pGI values. The differences in pGI using eight models was smallest for Extra-Long Basmati Rice (LBR), differing at least 10.1 units, while the pGI for White Glutinous Rice (WGR) and Black Glutinous Rice (BGR) varied for more than 40 units across models, highlighting the variability of the predictive capacities of different methods, and thus, the need to come up with the most accurate one.This work aimed to establish an in vitro method for GI screening in rice by exploring the use of amylolysis, starch indices, and starch fractions as parameters for GI prediction. This study demonstrated that resistant starch (RS), amylose (AM1, DP > 1000, and AM2, 121 < DP ≤ 1000), and short-chain amylopectin (SCAP, particularly SCAP of DP 25-36) are strongly to very strongly correlated with in vivo GI. Meanwhile, higher correlations were observed for SH and AUC measured through modified in vitro amylolysis protocol employing intact grains, low sample requirements, and lower enzyme activities, even within shorter digestion periods of 5 and 30 min. However, lower mean percentage errors were achieved when AUC(150-180) and AM1 were combined into a multiple regression model. We conclude that simulated digestion Method 3 can be explored for in predicting the GI in closer to in vivo situation. We infer that amylolysis of cooked whole milled grains at conditions that do not diminish the effect of grain structural integrity (whole milled grain, lower rice-to-water ratio during cooking, and lower concentration of amylolytic enzymes) and thus improved in vitro methods exhibit more accurate predictive capacity than the use of more specific starch indices and starch fractions. This could be due to the ability of digestion models, with certain incubation conditions, to simultaneously account for differences in various factors (e.g. SCAP2 and AM2, starch-lipid and starch-lipid-protein complexes, and enzymeinhibiting phytochemicals) affecting starch digestibility. However, AM1 data can further improve predictive capacity. In addition, we found that previously reported pGI equations did not accurately predict in vivo GI for the rice accessions used in this study, and hence, the need to generate more accurate pGI equations specific to an in vitro digestion protocol, which was demonstrated herein. Future studies involving higher number of samples with profiles on protein, lipids, and phenolics content, and more variety of botanical sources could be used to overcome some of the limitations of the current study.Nese Sreenivasulu acknowledge the funding support of CGIAR Rice Program, Foundation for food and agriculture research (FFAR), Fig. 6. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves comparing the in vitro GI values obtained using linear regression models pGI(AM), pGI 2 , pGI 3 , and pGI (M) against in vivo GI. A single measurement using either method was categorized as \"passed\" (otherwise, \"failed\") when it is within ±1 up to ±10 GI units (at increments of ±1 unit) of the in vivo value of the seven ( 7  ","tokenCount":"8490"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e1a27cff04ea227ce09204007b500c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36b321f4-493c-462a-9ec8-3176590f2f32/retrieve","id":"-548027303"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5edc71e7-ca2e-49f9-a049-85fdbe3f3aaf","pagecount":"6","content":"The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) is a systematic method to assess local feed resource availability and use. It helps in the design of intervention strategies aiming to optimize feed utilization and animal production. More information and the manual can be obtained at www.ilri.org/feast FEAST is a tool in constant development and improvement. Feedback is welcome and should be directed feast@cgiar.org. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is not responsible for the quality and validity of results obtained using the FEAST methodology.The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) was used to characterize the livestock production system and in particular feed-related aspects in Nabitanga dairy farmers association (DFBA), in Sembabule district, Uganda. The assessment was carried out through structured group discussions and completion of short questionnaires by key farmers' representatives. The following are the findings of the assessment and conclusions for further action.Nabitanga is located in Sembabule district in the western part of Uganda. Households in this area are composed of approximately 8 (range 6-11) members and utilise on average 75 acres of pastoral land. Table 1 shows farmers perceptions about average land sizes for different categories of farmers.  The production system is primarily pastoralist focused on livestock keeping with very few farmers growing food, mainly common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), maize (Zea mays), and cassava (Manihot esculenta) as seen in Figure 2. All crops are grown during the wet season; however, rainfall patterns are becoming unpredictable and unreliable (Table 2). Crops are grown mainly for household food production. Milk production is an important means of regular income generation with most farmers possessing the Ankole type of indigenous cattle. These are also sold for meat to provide substantial income when the need arises and to pay dowries. A few farmers keep improved cross bred animals for increased milk production. Goats are also kept by some farmers for sale when funds are needed quickly.Due to the large size of land holdings and herds, labour is generally required to herd cattle especially in the dry season when herds migrate to look for pasture. However management during migration has become easier since most herdsmen have mobile phones. Herding labour costs between 150,000 -200,000 UGS (64-85 US$) per month in addition to provision of food and 4-6 litres of milk daily. Manual labour to open an acre of land is more costly at 70,000-90,000 UGS (29-38 US$). Factoring in daily provisions overall labour costs become very costly. The main contributor to income is milk sales (70%) (Figure 3). Milk is important because most households in this area own cattle. Crop and livestock sales contribute approximately 25% to household income. OFF FARM 15%Cattle are the most important livestock species in this system as they provide milk, meat and cash income to the households (Figure 4). Local indigenous breeds are overwhelmingly the most important in this area kept by approximately 81% of all households.At present, approximately 25% of the farmers keep improved cattle. Approximately 10% of farmers fatten bulls for steers. All cows (predominately indigenous breeds) are milked regularly during lactation. The average milk production per cow per day is 2.5 litres. The resultant milk is then sold to Nabitanga Dairy Farmer Association (DFBA) and also sold in the local market for an average of 400 UGS (0.17 US$) per litre throughout the year (range 300-500 UGS/litre (0.13-0.21 US$)).Crossbred and improved cows are kept and managed separately. Both classes of cattle are grazed throughout the day and confined in kraals overnight. However improved cattle are often grazed on improved pastures while local cattle are allowed to search for pasture in the thickets of trees and shrubs. Improved cattle may be supplemented with additional forage or supplements overnight.Most farmers access animal health services through check off at the DFBA through the use of contracted Community Animal Health Providers (CAHPs). This is so because the services of both private and government health providers are costly to most farmers. For example treating East Coast Fever (ECF) costs farmers 40,000-60,000 per dose. In most cases farmers buy drugs and administer to the animals by themselves. However, this has great risks as these farmers are not trained and therefore they may end up either over dosing or under dosing animals which is risky.Artificial Insemination (A.I.) is scanty in Nabitanga just like other pastoral areas. A.I. charges are variable depending on distance and type of practitioner. Nabitanga DFBA charges UGS 40,000 (17 US$) per service per cow and the same again for repeat services. This includes UGX 10,000, 5,000, and 5,000 for straw, liquid nitrogen and disposable items cost respectively plus UGS 10,000 and 10,000 for labour and transport charges respectively. Most farmers use their own local bull service. However, those who do not have bulls pay USH15,000 (6 US$) per service. AI adoption is still a challenge in this area, due to the fact that this a pastoral community where animals are grazed communally.At present cattle prices vary with season increasing during the wet season (700,000 -800,000 UGS (292-333 US$) per head) and dropping drastically in the dry season (250,000 -300,000 UGS (104-125 US$) per head) during the dry season. Sheep and goat prices tend to remain the same throughout the year ranging 50,000 -60,000 UGS (21-25 US$) per head.Grazing contributes the largest proportion of the feed base on a dry matter (DM) basis in the area and consequently metabolisable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP). Purchased feed and naturally occurring feeds are also important. Maize stover is overwhelmingly the most import purchased feed resource in the area.Grazing is the primary component of the feed base within this area throughout most of the year. However, grazing drastically reduces during the dry season in January -February when crop residues are plentiful compared to grazing as shown in Figure 6. However, after April the quantity of residues are proportionally smaller than grazing but are still present for most of the year. Farmers also purchase small amounts of concentrate feeds throughout the year. Concentrate contains predominately wheat bran. Concentrate feeding tends to be targeted toward improved breeds with higher amounts available during the wet than dry season. The main issues faced by farmers are lack of water especially during the dry season and the bush encroachment problem on grazing pastures. The expansive pastoral system does not have adequate water dams and these are located long distances from most households. Poor use and drainage has compromised water quality (Photo 1). This system relies heavily on grazing and collected feedstuffs such as agro by products as a source of feed. With migration as a result of severe drought within the area, the quantity of collected feeds available each year is decreasing as cropping decreases. The encroachment of bush on grazing pasture has drastically reduced biomass production from grazing lands and this has led to overgrazing. This is aggravated by presence of termites on grazing lands reducing grazing areas even further.There is an emerging trend in purchasing forage especially crop residues. However, there is no attempt by some farmers to improve the quality of the crop residues. A lack of improved dairy breeds is also a clear constraint to the further development of milk production within the area. Artificial Insemination (AI) services will help disseminate improved genetics; Crop residues Legume residuesRainfall pattern (score 0-10) however, the service is not reliable within the area and is costly to farmers. Other animal health related issues include the prevalence of tick borne diseases.The combination of shrinking grazing lands and reduced availability of collected feeds as well as lack of cereal crop residues put the farmers in this area in a difficult position in terms of increasing their productive output as there are very few on-farm options available to them.To alleviate feed constraints it will be necessary for farmers to produce more feed biomass per hectare from grazing. Improved biomass production from grazing can be facilitated through the use of simple pasture improvement technologies such as bush clearing and using over sowing strategies e.g. strip and circular sowing. Integrated termite control strategies will also mitigate the issue of decreasing grazeable area.Farmers also have the option to purchase larger quantities of concentrate but this will significantly increase the cost of production. Enhancing pasture quality through collective action is a promising option. However, increased milk production will also be required to offset the increased cost of production. Therefore, it will be imperative that an integrated approach is taken and efforts are also made to upgrade existing cattle breeds through improved access to AI services.-Lack of water especially during the dry season -Termite infestation -Bush problem leading to decreased grazing pastures -Lack of feed sources, both in terms of quantity and quality -Poor milk yields -Lack of access to AI services and improved dairy cattle breeds-Introduce strategies to improve pasture through collective action -Enhance arrangements for purchase of fodder from urban fodder producers -Commercial hay production -Improve AI servicesThis area is predominately extensive characterised by pastoralism with mainly the indigenous type of livestock. At present, milk and livestock sales are the primary agricultural contributors to household income. Cattle are the most important livestock species. The area is currently experiencing feed shortages and farmers are looking into other options such as purchasing feed. Improved milk production is constrained by a lack of feed sources (both in terms of quality and quantity) and access to improved dairy breeds. To mitigate these constraints farmers (and other stakeholders) will be required to take an integrated approach to improve feed production through pasture improvement strategies, importing feed and improving access to AI facilities to ensure farmers can rapidly upgrade the genetic merit of their cattle holdings.","tokenCount":"1592"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70d7106e89efe51e4464bbb2a6aeabee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a72d2a2-9ee2-4cff-9e7d-2fc9d43dbd79/retrieve","id":"-1869767317"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"99491e7f-fc7f-44a2-ae1e-551b95dab70b","pagecount":"38","content":"No 04/2 POULTRY REARING CTA is funded by the European Union The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was established in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the ACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific) Group of States and the European Union Member States. Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement.CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area.Broadly speaking we can divide small-scale poultry rearing into two main systems. Firstly, there are what are often referred to as 'village chickens'. These are free range birds which scavenge for food during the day, and are usually housed overnight. Secondly, there is the more intensive production of either broilers (for meat) or layers (for eggs), where the birds are kept in specially built houses, sometimes in cages, and provided with feed and water in a controlled way. There are also semi-intensive systems which combine both feeding and scavenging within an enclosure.Many of the issues that affect poultry rearing apply to both scavenger and intensive systems, for example protecting the birds from disease and predators, ensuring they have sufficient feed and providing appropriate housing. However, the way that farmers achieve these things will differ between the two systems, and therefore it is important to be clear which system you are discussing. Here are some of the issues in more detail.Housing: Village chickens are usually housed overnight, in order to protect them from cold, bad weather and predators. Chicken houses need to provide adequate ventilation for the birds, but ventilation holes should not allow predators such as snakes and rats an entry point, and should therefore be some distance (at least 1 metre) off the ground. Houses should be designed so that they are easy to clean, and have few places where insect pests such as ticks can hide. A raised house may be easy to clean as chicken droppings will fall through the floor and not build up in the house. The house should be rainproof. Using locally available materials to construct poultry houses is important in reducing costs. The interview Housing for village hens contains advice for farmers in constructing appropriate housing for village chickens.Feed: Village chickens get most of their food from scavenging. However at certain times of year, particularly during the rainy season, food may become scarce. Farmers are therefore encouraged to save some feeds -such as maize bran or soya bean caketo supplement their chickens' diet during these periods( see Vaccination for village chickens?). Supplementing the diet can be done throughout the year as a way of improving productivity. Some farmers will assess what foods their birds are finding themselves, and balance this with supplements, to increase for example the protein, vitamin or mineral content. Earthworms or maggots can be bred as a source of protein, and certain shrubs have leaves that contain valuable vitamin content. Phosphorus from burned bones, and calcium from chalk or sea shells are important for egg production. Good feeding for guinea fowl has advice which also applies to other poultry.Disease control: While village chickens may have better resistance to diseases than imported exotic birds used in intensive production, the loss of birds to disease is the biggest problem associated with village chicken rearing. Newcastle disease in particular, kills as much as 70 -80% of unvaccinated village hens each year in developing countries. However vaccination campaigns for village chickens have proved difficult and expensive to organise; poultry owners are very widely spread, making them difficult to reach. And apart from a recent vaccine developed in Australia, vaccines for Newcastle disease have needed to be kept cool, requiring an expensive 'cold chain' of refrigeration equipment. Because of the difficulties, few governments are able to provide vaccination campaigns for village chickens. In Zambia (see Vaccination for village chickens?), that task has been handed over to private vets, and farmers are encouraged to team up in order to reduce the costs. In Malawi a three-monthly vaccination programme is being managed by the FAO's Special Programme for Food Security (see Housing for village hens).Apart from vaccination and the use of other preventative or curative medicines, farmers can best protect their poultry flocks from disease by providing suitable housing and feed, by keeping chicken houses and runs clean, and by closely observing their birds' health. If signs of illness are noted, the sick bird should be separated from the rest of the flock immediately, and not returned to the flock until it has recovered. Some farmers use local plants, such as aloes, to make medicines for their birds -see Meeting the market for indigenous birds.Feed: Feed is the biggest input cost for commercial poultry production (between 60-80% of total costs). Obtaining a well-balanced feed at a low cost can greatly improve profitability. While many producers buy commercially mixed poultry feeds, a cheaper option is for poultry producers to mix their own feed using locally available resources, such as by-products from local industries eg breweries, fishing, oil mills, crop processing. Most farmers buy premixed vitamin feeds, since providing the correct quantities of vitamins is important, but difficult if farmers try to mix their own. Poultry have different nutritional requirements at different stages. Chicks are fed a starter feed, which is high in energy, protein and vitamins. After about 8 weeks they are given a grower feed, which has a lighter nutrient density. Laying hens will be given a different feed with high levels of calcium and phosphorus for egg production. Farmers need to be able to assess the nutritional requirements of their birds and change their feeds accordingly. A balanced diet for commercial poultry is a detailed look at feed requirements, and Intensive care for layers includes the benefits of home mixing. Caring for chicks describes the changing needs of poultry chicks as they grow up.Various important poultry diseases can be vaccinated against, including Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, Marek's disease and fowl pox. Other diseases such as coccidiosis can be protected against using suitable drugs.Vaccination schedules must be carefully followed for the vaccination to be effective. Some vaccines are injected, but more commonly vaccines are given in the birds' drinking water. Poultry farmers must know the correct rates of dilution, in order to get the correct amount of vaccine for the number and age of the birds. If not properly handled, vaccines can lose their potency. For example, most Newcastle disease vaccines must be kept cool, and must not be mixed with treated (i.e. chlorinated) water. Training farmers to tackle Newcastle Disease describes training given to poultry farmers in The Gambia to keep their poultry flocks healthy, including vaccination against Newcastle disease.Management methods: Good management also keeps poultry flocks healthy. The 'all-in, all-out' system is a good way of minimising the risk of disease entering a flock. Under this system, once a flock has reached the end of its growing or laying period, the whole flock is sold, and the poultry house is cleaned, disinfected and left to stand empty for at least two weeks before a new flock is introduced.Young birds are most at risk from diseases carried by older birds. Therefore when a new batch of chicks are brought to a farm, they should be kept in a brooder house at some distance (ideally 100 metres or more), from houses containing adult birds. Farm workers who are looking after the adult birds should not enter the brooder house, as they may carry diseases on their clothing or shoes. Young chicks should never be housed with adult birds. Nor should new birds be introduced to a flock, for example to replace a bird that dies, since this also risks bringing in disease. Sick birds should be removed from the house immediately and, if necessary, destroyed. It is better to lose one bird than risk infecting the whole flock. Keeping poultry houses free of disease contains many suggestions for how farmers can prevent the spread of disease.Farmers will normally buy day-old chicks from a hatchery. These are kept in a brooding house, on bedding material known as litter, at a correct 'stocking density'. The chicks need to be kept warm and dry, for example by use of lamps or heaters, fed on a protein rich diet and have clean drinking water. They are normally kept under lights for the first few weeks, to maximise their feed intake and growth. They should be vaccinated against diseases, and protected against contamination from adult birds. Some farmers de-beak their chicks to prevent them from pecking each other. Cannibalism in chickens can be a problem, particularly in hot weather. Caring for chicks gives more information.Poultry rearing is a subject that will have very wide appeal among your listeners, as poultry are the most popular type of livestock in most countries, particularly among poorer families. And while the interviews in this pack are drawn from across West, East, Central and Southern Africa, many of the issues and information they contain will be relevant to listeners in your country. As already explained, it is important that any discussion of poultry rearing is directed either at village poultry keepers (largely free range, scavenger chickens of local varieties), or at commercial, intensive producers, keeping large numbers of broilers or layers. Here follow some suggested subjects you could cover for both systems, and advice on how the interviews in the pack could help you.How can vaccination for village chickens be managed? This is a question that will interest many of your listeners; Newcastle disease in particular, kills a high proportion of village chickens each year, but vaccination campaigns have proved difficult to manage. Does the answer lie in training and assisting farmers to do their own vaccination, or handing responsibility to the private sector? A discussion on this could be supported by the interviews Vaccination for village chickens? and Training farmers to tackle Newcastle Disease.Improving the diet of scavenger poultry for better production. Scavenging birds may not be able to find all the nutrients they need for health and good growth. Many farmers may wish to learn about how they can complement their scavenged diet with cheap, locally available feedstuffs. You may wish to invite listener farmers to phone in with suggestions. Several interviews in this pack contain ideas for local feeds, including Good feeding for guinea fowl and Meeting the market for indigenous birds.Properly designed and built housing for village chickens protects them from bad weather and predators, and if houses are easy to clean, diseases are less likely to occur. How to build a suitable house for poultry is a difficult subject for radio to tackle, but you could raise the important issues with an invited guest -perhaps an extension officer with expertise in village poultry. Housing for village hens contains some good points about design.Selecting the best qualities in local poultry species for cross-breeding can produce significant increases in production and greater tolerance of diseases and environmental conditions. Listeners may be interested to hear from local poultry farmers who have managed to crossbreed their birds successfully. Cross-breeding local chickens could be used to introduce the subject.How to maintain feed quality while reducing cost? Since feed is by far the biggest cost in intensive poultry production, finding ways of reducing that cost while maintaining nutritional quality is an important subject. The interview A balanced diet for commercial poultry is a good place to start in discussing this, and could be complemented by a local poultry farmer/expert to give information on what sources of feed are available for farmers in urban and rural areas in your country. The farmer in Intensive care for layers has a side business mixing and selling feed, in order to make his feed production cost-effective.How to protect poultry from disease using vaccination and drugs? A vital subject for poultry farmers, and hopefully one that most if not all commercial farmers will be aware of. However there may be important issues, for example the availability of drugs, the level of expertise among farmers, and how to make vaccination as cost-effective as possible, that you could invite an animal health expert to discuss. Listeners may well wish to phone in questions to an expert in the studio. Intensive care for layers and/or Training farmers to tackle Newcastle Disease could be used to introduce the subject.A subject on which there is likely to be a very wide range of knowledge. Some farmers, such as Wilfred Nkumbuh in Keeping poultry houses free of disease, follow extremely strict management rules to reduce opportunities for disease to enter flocks. Others may be less strict, and are likely to suffer more disease outbreaks. An excellent subject for a studio-based interview or discussion.Intensive care for layers 6'46\" Mr. Wainaina, who keeps over 5000 layers, explains the management systems he uses on his farm in Moisbridge, Kenya.5'35\" Dr Rashid Mwanga of Tanzania Poultry Farm Ltd explains the important factors in providing cost-effective and healthy feed to chickens.4'34\" Wilfred Allo Nkumbuh explains to Martha Chindong how, by keeping strict rules, he prevents the spread of disease on his poultry farm in Cameroon.4'55\" Maurice Munyenyembe, and expert with the FAO in Malawi, explains the important principles in building appropriate housing for village chickens.4'34\" Mr. Demba Touray of The Gambia's Department of Livestock Services describes the work of the department to control Newcastle disease.5'36\" Bob Akinwumi, who keeps layer hens, describes the feeding and disease control methods he uses in raising day old chicks.5'22\" David Daka of the Zambia Institute of Animal Health discusses how small scale farmers can manage Newcastle disease vaccination for their poultry flocks.5'00\" Patrick Mphaka reports on a project that is introducing guinea fowl to farming communities in Malawi.4'15\" Childwell Nyirenda of the Zambian Ministry of Agriculture explains how crossbreeding can improve productivity in local birds.3'42\" Alphious Moyo, a poultry farmer from Matabeleland North in Zimbabwe, explains why and how he rears local breeds of chicken.Intensive poultry production, whether for production of meat or eggs, requires very high standards of care. In particular, farmers must guard their birds against disease and provide suitable feed. In our next report, Eric Kadenge visits a poultry farm in his home country of Kenya, and learns some surprising things, both about the advantages and the methods for keeping laying hens.\" The workers work in individual houses. They don't move from one house to the other house. That's how we also control the diseases.And now moving away from the vaccination part of it, how do you feed these birds? Where do you get the food from?Well, we make our own food. We get raw material like maize bran, wheat bran, fish, cotton seed cake and sunflower seed cake and then we mix them here locally for our use and for our neighbours. I also sell it to my neighbours to make it a bit economical because if you make so little food, it will not be economical. I have to have purchasing power.So the main reason why you decided to make your own food is to reduce the cost?Yaah, one point was to reduce the cost. The other one was to get quality feeds. Because sometime we might find that some food manufacturers, if they lack one material they can even do without that material but with us, we make sure that all the material must be there before we make the food.And how do you tell that your birds are getting proper feed? Does it show in productivity for example?Yaah, for the layers it is easy, you just note by the reduction of eggs if the food is not good. For chicks, you have to wait for sometime because you can only note that through growth. If they are retarded you will know that they are not growing well and so the food is not good.And it terms of productivity, how many eggs do you get from these 5000 birds?We get about 4500 eggs per day.After how long do the birds stop laying and you have to get new birds?Well from the day the chicks come to the farm, we finish two years and then we sell the birds. After selling the birds, we clean the house, disinfect it and then bring in the new flock, but we usually change the birds on only half the farm.Now why is this?First our customers will have problems with their supply and you know you have to keep your customers with a supply throughout the year for him to keep his customers hence you will be in business. The other issue is we have to time the birds to sell them when there is a good market for meat. So like December is when we sell the birds. So immediately after we sell, we bring new flock.Is rearing the chicks the same as rearing the grown ups in terms of taking care of them?Rearing the chicks is a bit difficult. One has to be extremely careful otherwise they will die, so many. You have to keep them warm, you have to keep them with clean water, give them light for the first three to four weeks and make sure they are all comfortable.What is the importance of the light?The importance of the light is that they have to eat throughout the night and throughout the day for the first three weeks so that they can get strong quickly.The house has to be raked regularly and it has to be dry -completely dry.Now I can see that some birds have half beaks. What happened to the beaks? Is that the way they were when they were hatched?Oh no, they were hatched with full beaks. The process of reducing the beak is called de-beaking. During the hot season like the last season we had to debeak them because they started pecking one another and they do that until they eat the whole bird.Now given a farm like this with all these birds, is there any other farming activity that benefits from these birds?Yaah, there are two more activities that benefit from these birds. First I have got dairy cattle. We get our milk from those cows. They eat the chicken droppings. The other is, we grow our crops from the manure -chicken droppings -so we don't use chemical fertilizer, we use these droppings.Now did you say that the cows eat chickens droppings, I have never heard of this!Yaah, they do. You know when a hen eats more than enough, it doesn't digest completely so it just removes it. So the cow digests it further so it gets a lot of minerals and food from the droppings.So they eat the droppings plain or do you mix them with other feeds?First you have to mix to make it like it. Then after it's used to it, it will just eat it plainly.Now let's visit one more house that I can see right here ahead us. How many birds are there in this one?Now here we have just a few -about 700 birds.And how old are these?These ones are almost two years. We are going to cull them soon. Culling is the word for selling them after they have laid enough.So right now their egg production is reducing or has reduced?The egg production has reduced to about 68% so by the time they get to 65% we shall sell them. End of track.Apart from controlling diseases, another major factor in having a successful poultry business is good feeding. Obtaining feed for intensively farmed broilers and layers is by far the biggest investment in a poultry business, and it is therefore extremely important that spending on feed is cost effective. To keep the costs down, farmers who mix their own feed are advised to find locally available feedstuffs that can meet the energy, protein and mineral requirements of their birds. Most farmers provide vitamins in the form of premixed foods, bought from an animal feed supplier. Feeds need to be given in the right quantity, to avoid wastage, and with the right balance of ingredients to meet the nutritional requirements of the birds. This is detailed information that farmers need to learn from expert sources. In our next report, Lazarus Laiser finds out more about the feeds used in commercial poultry production from Dr Rashid Mwanga of Tanzania Poultry Farm Limited.\"Feeds are of course a very … OUT:…what I would advise farmers.\" DUR'N 5'35\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Dr Rashid Mwanga of Tanzania Poultry Farm Limited on some of the important factors in providing cost effective and healthy feed to poultry.Feeds are of course a very important aspect in poultry production, and the costs are almost about 80% of the cost of production. And as such we are having a feed mill here, whereby we are using different ingredients like maize, cotton seed cake, sunflower cake, fish meal, wheat and bran, maize bran. We mix them in special proportions and on top of that we add some premixes, salt and lime to meet the poultry needs. Of course we establish what are the poultry needs and what are we expecting from these different feedstuffs, and we compound for them.So you mean that also the chicks need vitamins and minerals?Oh sure. As human beings we don't differ much biologically from the chickens; they also need what we need. All the vitamins and minerals are needed by the chickens.Is there any balance of feed ingredients according to the changes during the life of the birds?Yes. Different developmental stages also call for more of the nutrients. for instance if it is a layer chicken, the first eight weeks we shall give them starter feed. It is high in energy, high in vitamin, high in protein, because during that time there is a very rapid development. Then, at the grower stage, they don't require all that high nutrient density, therefore the feed is a bit lighter in nutrient density. During the production, they will require very high amount of calcium and phosphorus, therefore we have to provide that, otherwise they won't give us the eggs the way they are supposed to.How much food is needed per chick per day?The chicks, during the first four weeks we give them ad lib feeding. We don't restrict them, it eats as much as it can. Especially if it is a broiler chick, we are taking care that up to the fourth week it can take up to 32 grams per day, per chick.How about water, is it important to feed the chick with water?Yes, water is very important, and in fact they are taking twice as much water as feed -if they are taking about, say, 10 grams of feed, they will need 20 ml of water. They need it very very highly.What can you say about safety of the water that is given to the chicks?Always give them potable water. Potable water is very very important. Your water should never a be a source of infection for your birds; avoid contaminated water, be it micro-organisms or toxic chemicals, avoid that. Just as for humans, we need potable water.How about the storage of feed, which conditions?The feed must be kept in a well-secured place, to avoid rodents, to avoid any other contaminant, or being damp, maybe a leaking roof. And it should be in a cool dry condition, so as to avoid the internal ingredients getting spoiled.Dr Mwanga, how do you keep the cost of feed down, at the same time you have the quality of the feed maintained?In compounding your own feed you have to see what are the easily available raw materials to be considered in your formula. You can see a lot of maize being grown; it's the same maize that chickens can eat. You can realise we have so many food processors, in terms of wheat and so forth; you can get the by-products from them, and compound the feeds. We have oil industries, you therefore can get the sunflower cake and the cotton seed cake. Even groundnut cake can be used. If you are producing good quality feed at a reasonable cost, that's very important, because you'll avoid losses to the chickens. Therefore that is cost effective. Therefore you have to keep in mind the price of the raw material and the amount of that raw material to get to the end product. They should balance. But let's avoid using cheap feeds that do not reach the standards, because it will turn out to be the most expensive.That's what I would advise farmers. End of track.For commercial poultry farmers, the spread of disease in their flocks is the greatest danger.With birds housed close together in large numbers, diseases spread easily and quickly. While vaccination provides some protection, farmers should also do everything possible to prevent diseases entering their flocks in the first place. This requires strict management rules; for example, older and younger birds should not be kept together, visitors to the farm should not be allowed to enter the poultry houses, and sick birds should be removed immediately. Once a batch of chickens has been sold, the poultry house must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and then allowed to stand empty for at least two weeks, before introducing a new batch. This helps to prevent a build up of disease on the farm.Wilfred Allo Nkumbuh is a poultry farmer from the north west province of Cameroon. When he first went into poultry farming he experienced some serious problems with disease in his flocks. The problem was so bad that he actually decided to change the location of his farm. He told Martha Chindong about the management rules he has developed that are now keeping his birds free of disease.\"The first one is that … OUT: …don't have the problem of cannibalism.\" DUR'N 4'34\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Wilfred Allo Nkumbuh was talking to Martha Chindong.The first one is that, initially when we started, we did not know that it was necessary to be changing environment just like ordinary crop farmers do rotation. So when we concentrated on one spot, we realised that after a number of months or years, diseases began to build up, so that even treatment was impossible. So we moved from our first location to the second, and now we are at the third location, because we are really running away from diseases which were also rampantly following us. So now moving to the third location, where we took a lot of precautions, we have now really got a lot of success. And some other methods of keeping the chickens; like we moved from keeping chickens on the floor in deep litter, to keeping chickens now in cages, because we also realised that keeping chickens on the floor and using deep litter, in most occasions we bring in the diseases ourselves mechanically. Formerly we used to keep the chickens on the floor and we move in to attend to the chickens, thereby carrying diseases. But now we realise that keeping chickens on a raised floor, it's very convenient, because it is difficult for some of the diseases to move in the air -some of them are airborne though -but now when we keep them in cages when they are raised on a platform, the contamination is reduced. Then the third thing is that we had to create a number of brooding rooms, so when we have used one brooding room, we allow it to be fallow for two or three months before we come back to that same room. So sometimes even when diseases start building up there, they will soon die, because the host would not be there.And then the last one, which I think is most important, is the breed. Most breeds that farmers want to go with are imported breeds which are not localised. But we have developed breeds which are local. So we finally see that we can grow chickens for up to four months without treatment, and we grow very successfully.In other poultry houses we see liquid, some disinfectant at the door. When you use these boxes, do you still use disinfectants?We fumigate the whole room, because even the air can carry diseases. Many people think that you can only carry diseases with your legs, but let me tell you, without mincing words, that you can carry disease with your dress; like dust from infected chicken houses on your dresses will be transmitted.Making the doors small and difficult to pass through -with other chicken houses anybody will just want to walk in immediately to see, thereby infecting the place, and tomorrow he will come back and find nothing there again, not knowing that he or she caused the damage. So we make the doors to be uncomfortable, so that you stand and see from a distance. So we make it inconvenient both for human beings and animals to stray in freely.If you discover that one bird is sick in that space, can you replace it?We normally don't advise replacement, because sometimes you may be replacing a bird which also may be having a problem without you knowing. So we advise that if you identify a bird which may be sick, take it out completely, and sometimes destroy it. Because in some occasions you are advised to take it and quarantine it, but you don't know, the problem may be airborne and it will continue spreading the problem before it finally dies.We have seen one chicken, there is one behind us which is so nervous, making a lot of noise more than other ones.When I was doing feeding yesterday, I realised that that chicken was showing some nervous symptoms, which may be after the effect of some drug or some disease. So I immediately isolated it, and I want to observe it for one or two days, before deciding whether to slaughter it, to destroy it, or to send it back in to the house, if those symptoms disappear. So I did not want a situation where a symptom will be realised, you'll be careless, and then the disease spreads through.OK. There's one common thing with chickens -cannibalism. How do you avoid that?For many many years we have not been having that problem, although sometimes we had the problem. But to me, I tried to trace the problem down in to the feeding regimen. There used to sometimes when I was compounding my feed and using animal blood, cow blood as one of the ingredients, and I soon realised that each time I fed chickens with cow blood, they went out for more blood, so that provoked them into eating themselves and fighting within themselves and drinking their blood. So when now I use greens and other crop products, I never had that problem. So sometimes when you move to some poultry farms, you find that they have de-beaked their chickens, and the chickens look very very not beautiful, because of the way they are debeaked. But here we do not debeak chickens, but we also avoid the feed materials that would provoke them into going for blood, so we don't have the problem of cannibalism. End of track.One of the most important aspects of keeping poultry is providing suitable housing. A good poultry house needs to offer protection for the birds from bad weather as well as from predators. It also needs to be well ventilated and easily cleaned, to reduce the risk of disease spreading in the flock. In Malawi, the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation is currently supporting poultry keeping under its Special Programme for Food Security. As part of this support, farmers have been trained in how to build poultry houses or kholas. Excello Zidana spoke to Maurice Munyenyembe, the National Expert for the programme, to find out more about the qualities of a good poultry house, and other aspects of poultry rearing.\"To begin with there are recommended … OUT:….fertilisers are very expensive.\" DUR'N 4'55\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Maurice Munyenyembe emphasising how poultry and crop production can support each other.To begin with there are recommended technologies in how to build a poultry house which does not leak, which has enough ventilation and which is having nice bedding for the chickens. There are two types of poultry houses that have been introduced in this programme. One is the raised khola and the other one is the ground khola and both of these are ensured to have enough ventilation. The kholas which are raised they have got advantages in that the droppings of the chickens go down and can be cleared quickly and easily leaving the khola clean. That's the main advantage of having the raised kholas.I understand that the project is targeting the poor masses in the rural areas. Is it easy to construct these types of kholas as you are saying?Munyenyembe We are aware that there are problems of money and these kholas are constructed using locally available materials such as poles, grass and just earth. In the areas where farmers cannot find the special poles the ones which in some cases are very scarce we encourage farmers to mould bricks and these bricks are very easy to find. And they can have burnt bricks or sun dried bricks to build their chicken houses.Munyenyembe There are two strategies of trying to prevent the chickens from being predated. One is to ensure that the ventilators are not below one metre from the ground. Secondly the farmers are advised to build some fences around their chicken kholas so that the predators are kept out because these chickens are fed with a free range system. So during the day time they can go out but in the evening they are taken in, in their khola which is surrounded by a fence.Is there any special lesson in terms of space provided for each bird?Munyenyembe I can say that there is enough space given to each bird so that diseases are not rampant within their kholas.Do you also construct these kholas looking at providing perches or the laying spaces for the birds in the khola.Munyenyembe This is done for the improved birds like the Black Australorps and perches are provided for those kinds of chickens but for our local chickens we do not have perches in those kholas.Now you talked about disease or protecting the birds from disease spread.In the villages there is this problem of Newcastle, what arrangement is there or what mechanism is put in place to make sure that the birds are protected from the spread of these diseases?Munyenyembe We have done three stages of prevention and treatment of the Newcastle Disease. The first line of defence has been the training that we have given to the farmers. All farmers in the communities where we are working have been trained on the importance of vaccination of their chickens. And a vaccination regime of three monthly intervals has been put in place.Secondly the communities have selected two of their own people from each community that we are working with and those have been trained as paravets. And after training these they are able to assist their fellow farmers in ensuring that the vaccination regimes are adhered too. The project has also given a drug box which includes vaccines as well as the storage of those vaccines. So with these kinds of mechanisms we are very sure that the farmers are well protected to ensure that their chickens do not get wiped out by the Newcastle Disease.Lastly looking at the introduction of these poultry elements in these schemes, is there any change in terms of maybe production from crops regarding the introduction of the poultry?Munyenyembe As a matter of fact the packages that we have put together are complementary in the sense that indeed the products, the by-products from the crops are fed to the chickens like the vegetable leftovers, like the husks from maize bran, as well as the crops benefiting from the chickens by use of the chicken manure into their gardens. So productivity has actually been improved realising that fertilisers are very expensive. End of track.Newcastle disease is a killer disease in poultry flocks all over the world. Young chickens are particularly vulnerable, and outbreaks can easily cause 100% mortality. Apart from a sudden high number of deaths, symptoms of the disease include paralysis, breathing difficulties and green diarrhoea. To prevent spread of the disease all birds should be vaccinated, with chicks needing a double dose of vaccine, once during their first week and a second dose after two months. Vaccines are usually given in drinking water, but to be effective must know exactly how much water to mix the vaccine with. Timing of vaccination in adult birds also needs to be carefully controlled, since outbreaks of the disease are often linked to seasonal changes in the climate. For this reason, if poultry farmers are to vaccinate their own birds, they usually need training from livestock officers. In The Gambia, such training has been provided by the Department of Livestock Services from its poultry unit in Abuko. Mr Demba Touray, a livestock assistant at the unit, recently spoke to Ismaila Senghore about the disease, and attempts by the Department to control it.\"Well it's drastic because it is a disease… OUT:….farmers are doing it on their own.\" DUR'N 4'34\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Mr. Demba Touray on how the Gambian Department of Livestock Services has been helping farmers to tackle Newcastle disease in their poultry flocks.Well it's drastic because it is a disease that can wipe out your whole flock, especially that of Newcastle Disease. It's a major concern. I think it's worldwide.So The Gambia is no exception when it comes to Newcastle Disease?The Gambia is of no exception, especially now if you go to the rural areas Newcastle is everywhere. So this is a concern.Yes formerly it normally happens during the Harmattan but now the disease is persistent, it has no time.It used to be around November, December?Yes sometimes around October, November, December but now it's all year round.Well the department is doing vaccination programmes. Every three months we are vaccinating against Newcastle and other domestic diseases. But the problem is I think there are certain gaps that are lacking especially at the farmers' level because to dispose of the dead carcasses from the disease is also a concern. So farmers will be sensitised, how to go about the disease when there is an outbreak. Proper disposal of dead carcasses, disinfecting the environment and so on will at least reduce the risk of disease.Now what are the kind of drugs that you have in stock, or the kinds of drugs that farmers demand from you?Now we have all these vaccines that are concerned. We have the NCD vaccines in various doses. Well what other people can benefit from our experience is the simple method, whereby farmers now, they can vaccinate their own birds because they have been trained here, they learn a lot of practices. Now even farmers have gone beyond, that they are even ordering their own stock, their own day old chicks. They manage their own flocks through the training that they have gained from this department. So I can see that now the technology has been effectively transferred even in terms of disease control, farmers are doing it on their own. End of track.You go to the market to buy the ingredients like maize which is about 60% of your feed mixture. You get the Soya bean cake, cotton seed cake, these are to boost the protein content. You add some fishmeal, which you also get from the market. You add some pulverised seashells or animal bone, crushed animal bone to improve the calcium content of your feed. You add some salt for the mineral and then you put in some additives which are already premixed from the pharmacy shop, from the veterinary shop.Now you do that for what space of time?The starter feed is for just a couple of weeks between the second day to about two weeks after. Two weeks after they are removed from this special room where they are kept warm and put in your normal rearing deep litter shed and then you can start them off with your growers feed.What do you mean by grower feeds?Grower feed is the feed they feed on to develop before they start laying which is also a little different in formulation to the starter.Yes what is the difference and what is grower feed…………….The difference is that the birds can now tolerate…..They can easily digest?They can digest easily the cotton seed which you do not put in a larger quantity for the day old chick.Now lets talk about diseases. These day old chicks, are they susceptible to diseases?Yes poultry is very very susceptible to diseases and there are many kinds of diseases.Yes and what are these diseases?The common diseases around here are the Gumboro, the Newcastle, the Infectious Bronchitis which is the infection of the breathing system. There is the coccidiosis which is easily transmitted from one bird to the other through their droppings and the fowl pox.Usually a poultry farmer should prevent his birds [getting sick] from day one.Ok now what are these………..As soon as the day old chicks come in from the second day onwards there is a table to be followed, a table that tells you the kind of vaccine that should be used periodically for your birds to prevent them from contracting these common diseases.Yes and is it you who applies these vaccines and drugs or do you do it with the help of……..Yes, yes they are easily applied because most of these vaccines are -some of them are injectable -but you can also go for liquid that you can push into their drinking water and makes it very easy.Do you also boost the immunity or you boost the energy of these day old chicks with vitamins?Yes what you usually do in poultry, since you are subjecting your birds to all kinds of vaccines it is assumed that these vaccines are another source of stress for the birds. So to help the animal to overcome this stress every time you introduce a vaccine you cover it up by giving them vitamins.Have you had any cause to mix old and new birds together?No this is never done.Why?We avoid doing this in my farm because usually you find out that the old birds have the tendency of claiming the landlordship of the area where they are and therefore the tendency is to attack the new birds. That's the first thing. The second thing will be, it will not be advisable if even if they are tolerable because you risk transferring of infection from the old birds to the smaller birds, or to the new birds.We do not mix. End of track.Cue:While the vaccination of poultry against diseases such as Newcastle disease is a standard practice on commercial farms, among village chicken keepers it is much less common. The reasons for this are not hard to guess. In the first place, vaccines tend to be expensive, and only available in large doses suitable for hundreds or even thousands of birds. Secondly, until recently Newcastle disease vaccines have needed to be kept at a low temperature in order to remain effective. This has meant that vaccination programmes have needed to maintain a cold chain, a system for keeping the vaccine cool, while being transported to villages, making the process much more difficult and expensive to manage.So how can an effective system for vaccinating village chickens be managed? That was the question that Chris Kakunta asked when he spoke to David Daka, Chief Animal Husbandry Officer at the Zambia Institute of Animal Health.\"One of the diseases you are … OUT:…So you must feed well.\" DUR'N 5'22\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: David Daka of the Zambia Institute of Animal Health with some advice on village chicken rearing.One of the diseases you are looking at could be Newcastle disease, which can wipe almost 80-90% of the flock, you lose everything. So this is the challenge.How can small scale farmers effectively manage a vaccination programme so that their chickens, village chickens do not die of Newcastle?Before I come to your question, we must know that Newcastle disease is a viral disease. Once birds are attacked, it means that there is no treatment, they just have to die. Those that survive will have problems in growth rates. So we must do everything possible to prevent the outbreak of Newcastle disease in our birds. But if it breaks out, the impact will be reduced if you did vaccinations. Now, for you to have an effective vaccination programme, when you have chicks which hatch, these should be vaccinated at three days old, and you can also give them another dose at six weeks. As they grow, and you hear about the outbreak of Newcastle disease here and there, you can continue vaccinating, but at three days, six weeks, eighteen weeks, you can vaccinate your birds.And what vaccines are we talking about here?There are various types depending on the brands. Our next report comes from Blantyre in Malawi, where Patrick Mphaka reports on the growing popularity of guinea fowl among village poultry keepers. One reason for this popularity is a reported resistance of guinea fowl in Malawi to a major poultry disease, Newcastle disease, which every year has a devastating impact on unvaccinated poultry flocks. While this reported resistance may reflect a greater hardiness in guinea fowl to some common diseases, guinea fowl are, in fact vulnerable to Newcastle disease, in common with nearly all poultry species, and those keeping guinea fowl should follow appropriate steps to keep their birds disease free.\"Traditionally, popular domestic birds… OUT:….Newcastle which troubles our chickens.\" DUR'N 5'00\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Village headman Magombo Ngondo ending that report on a community guinea fowl project in his village. Please note that while in his experience, guinea fowl are more resistant to Newcastle disease, veterinary advice suggests that guinea fowl are, in fact, vulnerable to the disease, in common with other poultry.Traditionally, popular domestic birds kept by most people here are chickens. These have their advantages, and, naturally, their disadvantages. One of the most menacing problems for the poor lot of chicken keepers is the seasonal outbreak of Newcastle disease. It is a big problem for most people because though easily preventable when appropriate vaccination is supplied to the birds, most of them can not afford it. The result is death en masse of chickens once or twice each year.Due to this problem, most people are turning their attention to alternative birds. To this end, the introduction of guinea fowls in some areas has become handy. To date, there are no locally known diseases which attack guinea fowls. This quality directly solves the problem most bird keepers have been having with chickens.Since the retail price of guinea fowls is higher than that of chickens, it has not been easy for most people to start rearing guinea fowls. There are some instances, however, where Non-Governmental organizations have intervened in introducing the birds to some communities. One such community is in Magombo Ngondo village in Traditional Authority Kuntaja in Blantyre district. The community here was given some twenty birds to keep on community level and that as the birds multiply, they can start sharing amongst themselves. I paid the village headman a visit to learn more about the feeding practices, among other relevant issues.[Vernac] As far as feeding is concerned, we provide them with food two or three times each day within the stall before we release them to fend for themselves outside. In addition, we also ensure that the water containers which you see there are cleaned and filled with clean water each day. We feed these guinea fowls with maize bran, sorghum, or sometimes we look for white ants, so that we are sure that when they are going to fend for themselves, they have already had enough food.You told me earlier that sometimes these birds are 100% stall fed, and sometimes, like this period, they are on semi-free range. Would you elaborate on that?We stall feed them 100% when we have just planted various crops in the fields. This is done to ensure that the planted seeds grow without being eaten away by the guinea fowls. As you know, these birds are very notorious with seed, especially maize. Once the seedlings are of good health, and can not be destroyed anymore by the guinea fowls, we then put them on semi-free range.These guinea fowls belong to the community. How does the community assist you in taking care of the guinea fowls in terms of feeding them and other things?The community assists in several ways. They take turns in making sure that the inside and outside of the guinea fowl house is clean. They are also the ones who do the actual feeding of the guinea fowls.Would you like to tell me the difference in terms of production of eggs between the times when you are giving them food inside their house, and when you are allowing them to go out free range?They lay eggs more continuously when they are on semi-free range. We think this is because they are able to supplement on the food we give them inside the stall. Again, we think that the space and fresh air which they enjoy outside, give them more freedom which make them healthier.What would you say is the advantage of rearing guinea fowls over chickens?Guinea fowls are better than chickens when it comes to diseases. Guinea fowls are resistant to Newcastle which troubles our chickens. End of track.Cue:Local village chickens that scavenge for their food are, in many parts of Africa, the most important form of livestock, particularly among poor households. Unlike the exotic birds kept in intensive poultry systems, local chickens can generally survive with very little financial input, providing small amounts of eggs, meat and income. However, there is also potential for village chicken keepers to improve the productivity of their birds. Better management of housing and feeding can keep birds healthy and speed up their growth. And by careful crossbreeding between different local varieties, some poultry farmers are even managing to produce animals that can lay more, and larger eggs. Childwell Nyirenda is an animal breeder with the Zambian Ministry of Agricuture, Food and Fisheries who specialises in crossing local breeds of chicken. He spoke to Daniel Sikazwe about the importance of village chickens in Zambia, and how cross-breeding can improve poultry productivity.\"We conducted a survey in … OUT:…we can survive on that.\" DUR'N 4'15\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Childwell Nyirenda on the benefits to be had from crossbreeding local village chickens.We conducted a survey in some districts of North western Province. The survey has shown that chicken is the most pre-eminent livestock, owned by about 76% of the households, with an average of about 10 in each household, which means it's the most popular livestock, is the chicken. Chickens play the most important role among livestock species in the social, economic and socio-cultural life of the people. Most of the households depend on chickens for subsistence, selling them very easily by the roadside, farmgate, market and so forth. Chicken is here known as 'bank on hand'.Meaning that you can easily sell it and then get the money, and it's easy to rear as well.Yes. However, productivity of the chickens is so low in the tropics. A successful transition from the extensive to the semi-intensive production system is needed to improve productivity.In terms of management, where do you think things have gone wrong, especially if you compare with those who are keeping broilers?The most important thing is feed and housing. There is no accommodation, proper accommodation for village chickens. Some of them sleep in the house where even human beings sleep; that's the problem.And then what about feed, what happens? People in the villages, or people in areas where village chickens are being kept don't go to buy feed and then give it to the chickens, they just allow the chickens to roam about?Yes they are scavengers. During the dry season like this one, they can be given a bit of maize, grains. These grains are given to them at times, but they should not be competing with the farmer himself, the peasant farmer. What we need it suitable, cheap management and a source of feed for them -the local feed. Now when it comes to improvement of local chicken production, it's very important that one. The goal is to make accessible to peasant farmers genetically productive breeds of chickens. For instance, some look like guinea fowls. Guinea fowl like type of local chicken, crossed with local chocolate looking type will produce breeds that will lay almost 25 or more eggs, instead of nine or twelve only. Normally with birds from Europe, the weight of the eggs is 57 grams, but ours it's only 30 grams. But at times, when we cross breed them, the weight goes up.Oh, so you are saying that the local chickens, the so called village chickens lay very few eggs, maybe nine to twelve?Very few, nine to twelve, and the hatchability is also low, that is why we are saying productivity is very low. But if we cross the breeds, the local breeds, among themselves -we know how to select them, the selection is very important -some can produce, the offshoots can be producing maybe 25, 29 which cannot compare with European breeds that produce up to 250. But ours can produce up to 25, given a low level of management, then it's OK, we can survive on that. End of track.Cue: Despite the growth of commercial poultry farms rearing highly productive chickens for expanding urban markets, local, indigenous chickens continue to be popular among many consumers. Local chickens that are kept in free range conditions are widely regarded as having better flavour than mass-produced birds, and less likely to have any kind of contamination. Hence the rearing of indigenous chickens continues to be a good way for small-scale farmers to earn income, and if farmers are taking the right steps to keep their birds healthy and well-fed, the business can be profitable. In our next report, Busani Bafana talks to Alphious Moyo, a farmer from Matabeleland North province in Zimbabwe who takes a keen interest in crossing local breeds of chickens to produce hardy, productive birds. Speaking through a translator, Mr. Moyo begins by explaining the advantages of raising indigenous chickens.\"The advantages of raising indigenous chickens are .… OUT:…. feed their families and send their children to school.\" DUR'N 3'42\"BACK ANNOUNCEMENT: Mr. Alphious Moyo, a poultry farmer from Matabeleland North in Zimbabwe.[Vernacular] The advantages of raising indigenous chickens are: one, they mature early. The second one is that they are cost effective, meaning that there are minimum overheads required or things like electricity, you don't need electricity to raise them. You don't need to go to the market as people are the ones who come and buy them at home. Feeding these chickens is also not expensive as they do not consume much and I always supplement their feeding by giving them crushed grain, sunflower which I grow in my field and sorghum. The other great advantage is that they are resistant to diseases.For an example flux and lice. Normally when we have got a problem with such diseases we treat them by using naturally grown aloe, which we add to their drinking water.Have you received any technical assistance for your chicken breeding project?[Vernac] Yes I have received assistance from the Agritex Officers. They have taught me that my chicken, my fowl runs should always be clean so as to reduce diseases and pests. I have also learnt to look out for symptoms of diseases by examining chicken feathers, eyes, the beak and the position of the wings and this can also show me that my chicken is not healthy. Normally if the chicken is not healthy I use my aloe treatment to take corrective measures.If my aloe treatment does not do any good to my chickens I always consult the Agritex Officers for further treatment of my chickens.There are concerns by some urban residents about chickens that are raised commercially. Do you think your free-range chickens are considered organic and therefore more healthy?RRRP 2004/2 Poultry rearing 34[Vernac] Yes I believe my chickens are very healthy than those that are raised commercially because they are free-range, they exercise and they are fed on natural grains.With the high price of beef is there a market for your chickens and approximately how many do you sell a month?[Vernac] Yes I have got a ready market. Per month at times I sell about ten chickens and this numbers varies depending on the demand. Normally when there are functions, like wedding functions or funerals a lot of chickens are bought and the profit, normally I plough half of my profits back into the business while the other profit I normally buy things for my family.Would you then encourage other farmers to go into chicken breeding?[Vernac] Yes I will encourage a lot of farmers to raise these chickens as the demand is getting higher and higher on a daily basis. And these chickens they help to complement their diets as well as they might get a lot of money so that they can feed their families and send their children to school. End of track.","tokenCount":"9555"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd59bd149996c8425c85991a399e08b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b641bf7-9581-4f89-ba0a-8a51d899ec3a/retrieve","id":"1871727235"},"keywords":["Headquarters atTe1 Hadya (963-21) 2213433","2213477","2225112","2225012"],"sieverID":"8a4af041-87b0-4286-8a09-0dda0eea11fe","pagecount":"38","content":"ICARDA's research portfolio comprises the following six mega-projects (MP):M P 1: Management of scarce water resources and mitigation of drought in dry areas MP 2: Integrated gene management: conservation, improvement and sustainable use of agro-M P 3: Improved land management to combat desertification MP 4: Diversification and sustainable improvement of crop and livestock production systems in dry areas MP 5: Poverty and livelihood analysis and impact assessment in dry areas MP 6: Knowledge management and dissemination for sustainable development in dry areasThe first four MPs (MP1 -MP4) address specific thematic problems, whereas the last two MPs (MP5 and MP6) are cross-cutting in nature. MP5 supports the entire research agenda through the analysis of welfare and poverty issues and constraints in dry areas and, through impact analyses and feedback, will refine the targeting of our research to alleviate poverty. MP6 focuses on the management of and dissemination to end-users of the research knowledge generated'in MP1-MP5.The structure of the six mega-projects ensures the continuity of previous research activities and additionally accommodates a number of new approaches and avenues in research direction. These newer avenues include: improved income generation from high value crops and by adding value to staple crop and livestock products; rehabilitating agriculture research in conflictlpostconflict situations; and closer alignment of agricultural research with mainstream development programs through research for development applications and a program for Knowledge Management and Dissemination for linking research with development.In the Dry Areas in genedl and in CWANA in particular the management of scarce water resources and the mitigation of drought are critical issues in agnculture and development. The new Mega Project on this theme focuses ICARDA's research and increased emphasis is being given to this research with a new senior water scientist and postdoctoral fellow joining in 2005.In December 2005 ICARDA signed a Memorandum of Understanding with CIMMYT for a joint ICARDA-CIMMYT Wheat Improvement Program in CWANA hosted at ICARDA and run by a jointly appointed Director covering both Centers wheat research in the. region. Together ICARDA and CIMMYT have launched a Global Rust Initiative (GRI) to combat the new stem rust emerging from East Africa. . ICARDA is the CGIAR focal point for UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and represents all centers on the advisory Facilitation Committee of the Global Mechanism. In 2005/6 ICARDA has been active in a wide range of UNCCD-related activities, such as the Sub Regional Action Program of West Asia with United Nations Environment Progradegional Office of West Asia (UNEPROWA); in the WANA regional dryland program to prepare a training course on designing integrated financing strategies to combat desertification; as a member of the Strategic Partnership Agreement in Central Asia; as a member of the Central Asia and the Caucasus Integrated Land Management Task Force Committee to help countries in the region to develop their national program frameworks to implement the UNCCD; as a panel member for the UN Convention to Combat Desertification -Committee to Review Implementation of the Convention (UNCCD-CRIC) consultations; and in formulating with partners a carbon sequestration network for Central Asia.To diversify the range of livelihood options in dry areas ICARDA has expanded its research in 2005 through hiring a date palm specialist and a scientist on medicinal and herbal plants. Increased emphasis is being given to protected aMculture and in 2006 we will recruit another senior small ruminant scientist.To ensure that the outputs of the ICARDA's research for development program are put to maximum use in development ICARDA has expanded its 'research into use' activities in 2005 in the new Megaproject (MP6) Knowledge Management and Dissemination through strategic partnerships, the exploration of knowledge pathways, computer expert systems and other media to capitalize on our existing knowledge internationally. The Seed Unit continues to research the efficacy of village-based seed enterprises in Afghanistan. Eritrea and North Africa. The MP serves as the CWANA hub of the International Assessment of Agriculture Science and Technology for ,Development (IAASTD).In 2005 a total of 1 178 participants from 49 countries were trained by ICARDA. ICARDA continued its strategy to gradually decentralize its training activities by offering more non-headquarter training courses. In 2005, ICARDA offered 22 training courses at headquarters, representing 37% of participants, and 35 in-country, regional and sub-regional courses representing 73% of participants. Of the total participants, 16% were women. The total number of graduate students doing M.Sc and Ph.D research were fifty-five.The Center has developed a wide range of partnerships with Advanced Research Institutes (ARI), The Center operates through its Director General who is assisted by an Executive Committee consisting The Fi m e The Management of the Center reviews the internal control environment as an ongoing process. The overall assessment of internal control function and checks and balances in place relating to processing of all financial documents were enhanced and found appropriate and satisfactory. The Center's ongoing internal audit activity, conducted by CGIAR Internal Audit Unit, provides the checks and balances for the ongoing evaluation of the adequacy, effectiveness and adherence to Management's established policies and procedures. The CGIAR Internal Audit Unit'visited five times during 2005 to conduct internal auditing as well as to review the progress of the Oracle Implementation.The Board adopted at its meetings held in April 2005, a Risk Management policy for the Center which is designed to provide guidance in implementing a Center-wide risk management process. The Board also adopted a Statement on Risk Assessment and Internal Control in its April 2005 meeting. The Center put in place a risk review process for Finance, Computer Services and Genetic Resources Unit and it was reviewed by the CGLAR Internal Auditors. Financial risks are part of day to day operations of the Center in headquarters and outreach. All identified control weaknesses including financial irregularities were brought to the attention of the Management were addressed.as a matter of high priority . The Center has put in place an annual self declaration process of adoption and application of CGIAR Financial Guidelines and good financial accounting practices in the outreach locations. The continued unpredictability of the level of core grants received by ICARDA is a key financial risk along with the performance of outreach location bearing on the reputation of the Center. The Center is exerting efforts to identify new donors and preparing funding request and proposal for project donors. It has the capacity to operate in the short run without any negative impact. The Board, as part of its risk review process, continues to monitor the financial risks and opportunities for the maximum benefit of the Center.The Center addressed several of the management letter points raised by the external auditors and significant efforts were put in the inter-module reconciliation in the Oracle financial system. Progress has been made to adopt the Project Management System developed by CIAT for ICARDA.The Board comprises of fifteen members who are specialists in field of science, management and institutional governance. The Board .overseas the implementation by Center Management of fair business practices, implementation of sound and trusted personnel and financial policies, operational transparency at a standard expected of an international publicly fhded organization coupled with a view to enhance and sustain stakeholders value. The Board selected Dr. The Board of Trustees is responsible for ensuring that an appropriate risk management system, including internal control process, is in place to identifl, assess, manage and monitor various risks faced by the Center towards achieving its objectives. These include operational, financial and reputation risks that are inherent to the Center's activities.The Center endeavours to minimise these risks by ensuring that appropriate infrastructure, controls, systems and people are in place throughout the organisation. The risk management strategies include: Developing short-term, medium to long-term strategies to identify and pursue the objectives of the Center efficiently and effectively.Establishing guidelines for the appraisal of various research themes and approval of expenditure proposals including delegations of authority to minimise interruptions to the Center's activities.Monitoring, through the audit committee of the Board of Trustees, the functioning of the internal control systems, assessing the effectiveness of Center's financial policies and procedures including financial reporting, reviewing the work of internal audit and approving its annual work plan.Employing professionally qualified and suitable staff to meet the Center's business objectives.Ensuring that the organisational structure of the Center is appropriate to its needs.Establishing annual budgets for various business units and monitoring the actual expenditure through monthly management reporting.Establishing policies and procedures for disbursement of funds, authority levels for expenditure, hiring of employees etc. Establishing proper contingency plans to respond to the threats to the security and effectiveness of the Center's employees and systems to maintain continuity of operations.The Center's risk management strategies are reviewed by the internal auditor and the external auditors to ensure these are in line with leading practices. In The Center's management is responsible for the preparation of these financial statements, related notes and all other information presented in the financial statements.The management hereby confirms that the financial records of the Center have.been properly maintained and these financial statements have been prepared from the accounting records of the Center and comply with the provisions of CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual.The Center is using Oracle Financials modules for recording its financial transactions since 1996. Due to the necessity of upgrading the Financial systems, the Center outsourced the implementation of Oracle Financials version 1 1 -i. The Center's financials for the period January to August 2005 were recorded under version 10.7. After which, all transactions were recorded in the new financial system. The transfer of data from the old to the new system was reviewed by external auditors and CGIAR internal audit unit. The quality assurance review of the entire process of implementation was outsourced to a professional firm of chartered accountants.The financial statements include amounts that are based on estimates founded on management's best judgement. The management hereby confirms to the best of their knowledge and belief that the financial statements and notes thereto, provides a true and fair view of the financial position of the Center as of 31 December 2005 and the results of its operations and its cash flows then ended in accordance with the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual (Financial Guidelines Series No. 2 issued in March 2004 and as modified to date. Dr. Prof. Adel El-Beltagy Director General ..We have audited the accompanying statement of financial position of International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (\"the Center\"), a not for profit organisation, as at 31 December 2005, arid the related statements of activities, cash flows and net assets for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Center's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit.We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those Standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are fiee of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Center as at 31 December 2005 and the results of its activities and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices.The data presented as -supplementary information in Appendices 1 to 4 (statement of grant revenue, statement of pledges and expenditure for temporarily restricted projects, schedule of property and equipment and schedule of indirect cost allocation), although not a required part of the financial statements, have been subjected to the auditing procedures applied in our examination of the financial statements and, in our opinion are fairly stated in all material respects, in relation to the financial statements taken as a whole. Net Assets Net assets represent the residual balances of the total assets minus total liabilities and are further classified as follows:These represent the accumulated surplus of the Center's revenue over expenses.These represent the cost of equipment net of disposals and accumulated depreciation relating to unrestricted projects, the reserve for replacement of equipment and certain designated funds, the usage of which is restricted by the Center's management for specific purposes.The attached notes 1 to 19 form part of these financial statements. Government had leased land on which the Center's premises are built, at nominal rent for its absolute use. The lease agreement was for a period of 15 years and expired in 1992. The terms of the lease incorporate an automatic renewal for another 15 years, unless objected by either party. In the event of dissolution of the Center or termination of the lease agreement, the land and permanent fixed capital improvements thereon revert to the host country Government.Owing to its international status, the Center operates under a general immunity granted by the host country Government from local laws and taxes accorded to bodies like the United Nations.The Center employed 105 internationally recruited staff and 385 support staff as of 31 December 2005 (2004: 106 internationally recruited staff and 364 support staff).Basis of reporting The Center used to follow the accounting policies and reporting practices recommended by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). These financial statements do not purport to comply with International Financial Reporting Standards.Basis of preparation These financial statements have been prepared on a going concern assumption based on the financial support expected from members of CGIAR and the expected flow of grants that secure the source of funding of the operations of the Center, without having any adverse impact on the Center's research agenda.Accounting convention The financial statements are prepared under the historical cost convention.These accounting policies are applied consistently in dealing with items that are considered material in relation to the financial statements.Grants are recognized as revenue upon fulfilment of the grant conditions or when the conditions have been explicitly waived by the donor. Recognition of grants as revenue does not depend on the time when they were pledged. The recognition point is when the donor imposed conditions are met. Grants in kind, if any, are recorded at the fair value of the assets (or services) received or promised, or the fair value of the liabilities satisfied.This relates to grants, which do not have any permanent or temporary donor restrictions.This consists of both permanent and temporary restrictions. This comprises a donor-imposed restriction that stipulates that resources be maintained permanently but permits the Center to expend part or all of the income (or other economic benefits) derived from the donated assets.This comprises a donor-imposed restriction that permits the Center to expend the donated assets as specified and is satisfied either by the passage of time or by actions of the Center.This is a time-bound, independently-governed program of high-impact research, that targets the CGIAR goals in relation to complex issues of overwhelming global ankor regional significance, and requires partnerships among a wide range of institutions in order to deliver its products.Interest income is recognised on effective yield basis.These represent claims on donors for grants promised or pledged for which conditions have already been met. Donor receivables are stated at their gross principal amounts less provision for doubtful amounts. The provision for doubtful amounts is based on the estimated collectibility developed through management's periodic review and analysis of the receivable balances. Uncollectible outstanding grants receivable are written off in the year in which they are identified.The unit for accounting and maintenance of the Center's books and presentation of the financial statements is the United States dollar since it is the principal currency of operations of the Center. Grants in foreign currencies are recorded at the actual amounts received. Transactions involving currencies other than the US dollar are recorded at the exchange rate prevailing on the date of transaction. Monetary assets and liabilities in currencies other than US dollar are retranslated at the rate of exchange ruling at the balance sheet date. Any resulting exchange differences are taken to the statement of activities.Cash and cash equivalents Cash and cash equivalents comprise cash on hand and at banks, excluding restricted cash and short-term deposits with an original maturity of three months or less.Property and equipment are stated at cost less depreciation. Items of property and equipment relating to unrestricted projects, those acquired prior to 2004 which revert to the host country, and other assets less than US$ 500 are expensed in the year of acquisition. Cost comprises the purchase price and all other incidental costs incurred in bringing the asset to its present location and condition for its intended use.Depreciation of property and equipment, is calculated on a straight-line method commencing from the month in which the property or equipment is placed in operation, so as to expense the cost of the assets over their expected useful lives, as follows: Expenses incurred for renovation of existing property or equipment, exceeding US$ 500 that increases the estimated life, the capacity or operating efficiency of the property and equipment are capitalized. Cost of normal repairs and maintenance of existing property and equipment is treated as current operating expense.When property h d equipment is sold, the cost as well as the accumulated depreciation is removed from the books. Any gain or loss from the sale is included as other income under other revenue and gains.Property and equipment relating to restricted projects were expensed in the year of acquisition, until 2003.Effective 2004, these assets are recorded in the Center's books as additions and fully depreciated in the same year, in adherence to the new CGIAR Financial Guidelines.i)Inventories are stated at the lower of cost and net realisable value. Costs are those expenses incurred in bringing each product to its present location and condition and is determined on a weighted average basis.Accounts payable donors These represent liabilities for amounts received in advance from donors for which conditions have not been fulfilled and include amounts repayable to donors.These represent amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services received, whether billed by the supplier or not.Provisions are recognised when the Center has an obligation (legal or constructive) arising from a past event, and the costs to settle the obligation are both probable and able to be reliably measured.The Center provides for end of service benefits payable to employees in accordance with the personnel policies of the Center based on the period of service and level of compensation.The Center also provides repatriation benefits towards the cost of repatriating expatriate staff and vacation benefits for unused leave, which are both calculated in accordance with the personnel policies of the Center. For the regional staff, a staff savings scheme is being administered by the Center. The staff contribute up to sixty per cent of their basic pay and the Center contributes between 5 and 25 per cent of the basic pay to the savings scheme. For the international staff, a pension fund is being administered by the Association of International Agricultural Research Centers (AIARC). The Center's contribution to the pension fund is charged to the statement of activities in the year in which the benefit accrues based on the level of salary and the age of the employee..The Center provides for the above reviews in equal annual instalments based on the estimated cost md timing of such reviews.   2005 (2004: 1.48% to 2.25%).This represents cash received from donors for certain temporarily restricted projects, which remains unspent as of the balance sheet date (Note 3). Equipment includes farming, laboratory and scientific, office, housing and kitchen equipment, computers, and vehicles.Refer to appendix 3 for the detailed schedule of property and equipment.This represents the removal of fully depreciated assets. These are maintained separately in the Center's fixed assets register for better control . Contributions made by staff and the Center are invested in short-term deposits with maturities of three months or less. The cash held in trust has been offset against the recorded accrued benefits to report the status of the employee savings scheme. Such presentation more accurately reflects the Center's financial position since this ' cash held in trust represents funds invested directly related to the discharge of the Center's responsibilities under the savings scheme. Earnings on the invested funds are added to the accrued benefits. The funds involved are not available for the Center's activities.Other accrued benefits for staff School revenue is net of depreciation charge for the year amounting to US$34,000 (2004: US$39,000).International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS .  Covers the cost of publication of annual reports and technical bulletins, translation and printing of various public information activities and the library service.Management and general expenses are as follows: Management and general expenses comprise of the following:Includes expenditure related to the Board of Trustees, Management and Finance.Include expenditure related to personnel, purchasing and supplies departments, the outreach offices, catering services, workshops, building maintenance, security and site maintenance sections. Also included are expenses incurred in respect of general services at Tel Hadya and housing expenses.The indirect cost recovery of US$898,000 (2004: US$801,000) represents the overheads recovered from certain restricted projects based on the rates agreed with the donors.Indirect costs represent management functions with no direct link to the project activities and common sustenance services, which support the performance of the Center's activities on an institutional basis. The indirectldirect cost ratio for the year 2005 is 18.1% (2004: 19.6%) [Refer to appendix 41.Transactions with other CGIAR centers included in the statement of activities are as follows: The terms and conditions of these transactions are approved by the Center's management.Amounts due from and due to other CGIAR centers are disclosed in notes 6 and 10 respectively.At 31 December 2005, the Center had commitments of US$ 1,252,000 (2004: US$ 1,184,000) outstanding for purchases of capital and operating items, relating to unrestricted projects.Segment reporting is defined on the basis of determining the source of risks and rewards of the agenda activity.  ","tokenCount":"3669"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bdc3e543790a29cde9a4dc56889a9b2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2af8a9dd-617d-4ae9-ae7b-3d75e7b1aab7/content","id":"-2086123479"},"keywords":["Zimbabwe","Food production","Production factors","Soil fertility","Soil management","Soil conservation","Soil classification","Site factors","Research projects","Research networks","Small farms","Rapid rural appraisal","On farm research","Technology transfer","Innovation adoption Participatory research","CIMMYT AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies F01 Crop Husbandry Dewey decimal classification: 338.1406891 participatory methods, soil fertility, local taxonomies, smallholders, Zimbabwe v"],"sieverID":"15c3863a-b959-4f36-ac5b-cdb249d3ecd4","pagecount":"24","content":"CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises about 60 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT's research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies.CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture-peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 1999. Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. The designations employed in the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Soil infertility is a major constraint to food production in Southern Africa (see Kumwenda et al. 1996). Soils can be very poor, and inorganic fertilizers have become expensive. Furthermore, the low fertility of the soils diminishes the effectiveness of these inputs. The development and adoption of new technologies to enhance soil fertility are important components of improving food security in the region, particularly among smallholders.Smallholders in the region recognize the problems of low soil fertility and have devised ways of coping with them (for Zimbabwe see Huchu and Sithole 1993;Carter and Murwira 1995;Scoones et al. 1996). The new technologies would either improve on those practices or substitute them. Therefore, it is important to understand what those practices are and what are their advantages and disadvantages in order to assess the appropriateness of these new technologies, their adoptability, and, if necessary, to modify them to better suit farmers' needs. Farmers' current practices do not exist in a vacuum. Associated with them is a knowledge system that provides a framework for their application and evaluation. Furthermore, farmers' socioeconomic conditions also heavily influence the use of these practices.An important contribution of farmer participatory research has been the recognition of the value of farmers' knowledge systems in general, and in particular, their potential role in the development, evaluation, and diffusion of new agricultural technologies (Ashby et al. 1995;Bentley 1994). Farmers' taxonomies are a well-documented part of their knowledge systems. The taxonomies include soils and productive environments (Bellon and Taylor 1993;Carter and Murwira 1995;Sandor and Furbee 1996), insects and pests (Bentley et al. 1994), crops and crop varieties (Richards 1986), and soil and water management practices (Lamers and Feil 1995).This study describes the use of farmers' taxonomies of themselves and their soils to identify and understand the options available to them and the constraints they face in managing poor soil fertility in Chihota, a sub-humid (650-800 mm rainfall, Natural Region IIb) communal area in northern Zimbabwe. Soil infertility is the major biophysical constraint to agricultural production in this area.The Soil Fertility Network for Maize-Based Cropping Systems in Malawi and Zimbabwe (Soil Fert Net) began in 1994 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is a grouping of agricultural researchers and extensionists from government research institutions and universities in Malawi and Zimbabwe, together with their colleagues in international research institutes. It is coordinated from CIMMYT-Zimbabwe. The Network aims to help smallholder farmers in Malawi and Zimbabwe produce higher, more sustainable, and profitable yields from their dominant maize-based cropping systems through improved soil fertility technology and better management of scarce organic and inorganic fertilizer inputs. In recent years, Network members have become more confident that some of the technologies they are working on will provide benefits to smallholder farmers. The Network is now moving toward fully integrating farmers through initiatives that expose many farmers to promising soil fertility technologies. In addition, this move toward integrating farmers allows researchers to get feedback on the merits and feasibility of the various technologies and to help farmers experiment with them. Network members decided to establish one such major initiative in Chihota during 1998. The participatory work described in this paper was the first step in that initiative and was aimed at learning more about farmers' current knowledge, concerns and opportunities with soil fertility in that communal area.Chihota communal area is located in Marondera district, Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe. It has nine wards, each with five to six villages. Chihota is relatively close (50-80 km) to Harare, and therefore farmers have important farm and off-farm opportunities. Maize continues to be the most important crop in the region, however, the production of vegetables in gardens, off-farm labor, and migration are important sources of income. From a strategic perspective, these conditions make this area an interesting place to conduct research because it is an area where soil fertility problems and their management options interact with the nonagricultural sector of the economy. If we assume that in the future more farmers in Zimbabwe will have access to these opportunities as the economy develops, our results will illuminate the potentials and constraints of these technologies under changing conditions.Most of the soils in this area are sands of granite origin and many show a catenary 1 association. Under the US Soil Taxonomy system, upper and midslopes are classified as Arenic or Plinthic Paleustalfs or Typic Kandiustalfs and lower slopes as Aquic or Typic Ustipsamments (Anderson et al. 1993). They vary in texture from sands to sandy loams on upper and midslopes to sandy clay loams in the lowest dambo or vlei areas. Soil depth ranges from moderately shallow (>50 cm) to moderately deep. Average crop yields in the area are well below the potential. Low pH is an important constraint in these soils (Dhliwayo et al. 1998:217). Furthermore, considerable research on soil improvement methods including liming, use of inorganic NPK, legume rotations, and green manures has been carried out in the area (Waddington et al. 1998a) .Four wards were selected based on whether or not soil fertility research work had been conducted there, two and two, respectively. In each of the wards, 14 to 23 farmers took part in group discussions; in all, 69 farmers participated, 46% of which were female. Discussions took place during the dry season during a two-week period in September 1998. In an effort to capture the different views of gender groups, the participating farmers in each ward were divided into three groups: male, female, and mixed. The farmers were invited to participate in this exercise by a local officer from the Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (Agritex). Members of the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS) and CIMMYT also participated. The discussions were led and recorded by members of Agritex and DR&SS.Group discussions were used to elicit three types of farmers' taxonomies: (1) of farmers, (2) of soils, and (3) of climate. In this paper, we report only on farmers and soils. With those taxonomies as a framework, a discussion followed on management practices to improve soil fertility. The aim was to use farmers' knowledge and perceptions in an open but systematic way to illuminate the problems and opportunities they have with improving soil fertility.Under farmer taxonomy, participating farmers came up with a list of farmer categories, category descriptions, and category strengths and weaknesses. On soil taxonomy, various soil types were listed and described. Strengths and weaknesses of each soil type were explored. Farmers then suggested how each soil type could be improved and discussed their constraints regarding such improvements.Following each group discussion, a short questionnaire was administered to all participants. It solicited information on personal characteristics of the respondent, such as age, education, marital status, as well as household characteristics, which included identifying the head of the household, family size, landholdings, crops grown and area planted to each for the previous season (1997/98), ownership of livestock, and agricultural implements.Participants were asked to rate six different sources of income in terms of their importance to the household during the past five years (e.g., very important, regular importance, not important): cited sources were (1) maize production, (2) production of other crops, (3) animal production, (4) off-farm labor in agricultural activities, (5) off-farm labor in nonagricultural activities, and (6) remittances. Farmers were also asked about their use of six soil fertility improvement practices during the previous season: (1) application of manure, (2) application of chemical fertilizers, (3) application of lime, (4) planting of a leguminous crop in rotation with maize, (5) intercropping of a leguminous crop with maize, (6) planting of green manures. Finally, they were asked whether they had previously worked with the Agritex extension worker in their area or with DR&SS.Knowing who your participants are is a central issue in any type of participatory research.The content and quality of the information elicited and the joint outputs obtained depend on with whom one works. In this exercise, farmers were invited to participate by their ward's Agritex extension worker. As is often the case in participatory research, this was clearly a self-selected and therefore biased sample (involving principally farmers that work in groups with Agritex). Nevertheless, it is important to identify the characteristics of the farmers we work with, and the extent of their similarities and differences. We were able to achieve this through the short questionnaire.To assess the degree of heterogeneity among the informants, we applied a two-stage modified location model (Franco et al. 1998) to generate groups or clusters of farmers that share the same socioeconomic characteristics. The information used to form those clusters included only part of the data set that we had collected, specifically, family size, landholdings, area planted, number of livestock (oxen, cattle and goats) owned, ratings of six sources of income, and ownership and use of agricultural implements. The results of applying the clustering method are shown in Table 1. Five groups of farmers emerged. The group characteristics suggest a gradient of wealth and access to resources. Group A appears to be the wealthiest. Its members have the largest average landholdings, area planted, and number of oxen and cattle. As a source of income, animal production was viewed by the highest percentage of farmers as being \"very important,\" remittances by the lowest percentage, and off-farm agricultural labor by the next to lowest percentage. All of the members of this group own a plough, and most own a cultivator and a cart. This group also has the highest average family size, and therefore the highest potential for family labor availability.Group B appears to be the second wealthiest, in terms of average landholdings and number of oxen and cattle. A high proportion of its members rated maize and animal production as \"very important,\" followed by remittances and nonagricultural off-farm labor. This group seems to have the most diversified sources of income. Most own a plough, and all own a cultivator and a cart. They also have the second largest average family size.Group C appears to be the third wealthiest, following the patterns of the previous two in terms of assets, but with a substantially smaller average number of cattle. The two sources of income that received a high proportion of the \"very important\" rating are maize and animal production. In contrast to group B, other sources of income received substantially fewer votes for \"very important,\" which suggests a higher degree of specialization in agriculture. In this group, the ownership of ploughs, cultivators, and carts decreases substantially, and farmers depend more on either renting these implements or simply do not use them at all.Group D ranks fourth, with less than half the average landholdings and area planted of Group A. Few farmers in this group own oxen, as the average for the group is one head of cattle per farmer. As with groups C and B, the two sources of income that received a high proportion of the \"very important\" rating are maize and animal production; remittances, however, also got a relatively high proportion. No one in this group owned a plough, and only a few own a cultivator or a cart. Most of the Group D farmers either rent these implements or do not use them.Group E, apparently those with the least wealth, was the smallest group with only five members. On average, its members have the fewest agricultural assets of all groups, in terms of landholdings, oxen, cattle, and implements. Maize and other agricultural activities were rated as a \"very important\" source of income by the lowest proportion of group members. On the other hand, off-farm labor, both agricultural and nonagricultural, seem to be important income sources among its members. This group could be viewed as the poorest. Alternatively, given off-farm sources of income, this group may simply be the least involved in agriculture. However, considering that agricultural off-farm labor is usually poorly paid and that ownership of animals is a good indicator of wealth and savings in Shona rural society, it is likely that indeed this group may be the poorest.Table 2 presents other characteristics of these farmer groups that were not taken into consideration in their formation. Female-headed households were found in all groups, except group A; and although their proportional representation varied, they are not necessarily associated with the groups classified as poorer. Not surprisingly, most of the farmers have worked with Agritex or DR&SS in the past; of the groups, Group D had the lowest percentage of farmers who had such contacts.Table 2 also presents the extent of adoption of practices to enhance soil fertility. The application of manure and chemical fertilizer is by far the most commonly adopted practice, both overall and within the groups. The use of legumes in rotation or intercropping with maize shows intermediate levels of adoption, except for group A, in which adoption is high. Finally, lime and green manure are the least commonly adopted practices.In general, the adoption patterns are similar among the groups, however, a few groups display some unique and interesting characteristics. For instance, Group A shows the highest adoption of all the practices, except for legume intercropping. For lime and green manure, adoption is as high as 25% and 20% of its members, respectively. Group D has the lowest proportion of adoption of manure and fertilizer, though this does not hold for the other practices. Group E has a high proportion of members using manure, which is surprising given that few group members have animals. This suggests that they are purchasing this input, probably with part of the income derived from off-farm labor.Although this is a biased sample, the information presented above indicates variation among the participants. There is a gradient of assets and sources of income among them, however even the \"best-off\" farmers in our groups could be considered resource poor by most measures, as average landholdings and number of cattle are not very large. The composition of Group A-better-off male farmers, who have adopted some practices at higher rates than the other groups-suggests that this group is made up of \"master farmers,\" i.e., farmers who have completed a comprehensive training course managed by Agritex and who afterwards agree to undertake \"good\" farming practices. The farmers in these groups classified themselves in many ways. The classifications are based on the presence or absence of an attribute, and therefore are dichotomous. Some of these attributes refer to personal characteristics, such as age and sex, though most involve the ownership or lack of an asset, such as cattle, or access to income or knowledge. Not surprisingly, inherent in most of these classifications are common socioeconomic categories such as age, gender, wealth, and access to inputs and knowledge. However, some of the attributes associated with these \"types\" include value judgments such as laziness and industriousness.The different types of farmers identified by the groups are presented in Table 3.Recognizing that the participants' classification of farmer types reflect common socioeconomic categories, we grouped them by age, gender, ownership of assets, labor allocation and organization, access to cash, knowledge, linkages to the market, and synthetic, (i.e., a type that incorporates attributes from several other types).Age is associated with the ownership of assets, access to family labor, and knowledge. In general, younger farmers are considered worse off than older farmers. Gender is associated with control over labor, assets, and income. Male farmers are in control and, not surprisingly, there seems to be tension between male and female farmers. For example, females believe that they are not rewarded for their labor and that their fields are prepared last.The ownership of assets in general is linked with the timing of farming operations, the ease of performing them, and the crop yield achieved. It is thought that owners perform operations on time and easily, and therefore get higher yields than nonowners. A particularly important asset is the ownership of gardens. Six different groups mentioned gardens in very positive terms. Gardens provide a stable income and are less subject to drought than dry lands, on which income is more seasonal, less stable, and production is more vulnerable to drought. The size of a landholding is another interesting variable. Survey participants thought that farmers owning larger fields tended to spread inputs thinly, while those with smaller fields concentrated them. Agritex advocates farming smaller areas and concentrating inputs in them, even if one has a larger landholding. The authors do not understand why farmers with larger landholdings do not concentrate inputs in smaller areas. On the other hand, maximization of the area under cultivation has been observed in marginal environments in Africa and it may, in fact, be a risk management strategy (Carter and Murwira 1995:82).Labor allocation refers to the ability of farmers working outside the area to hire local labor. This is a process by which those with skills to work elsewhere substitute their own labor with hired local labor, indicating an increased integration of these farmers into the market economy. Another dynamic in these circumstances is labor organization, whereby farmers working in a group cooperate by sharing labor, knowledge and the purchase of inputs.Working in a group may be more common among farmers who work closely with extension, because extension officers promote such group arrangements. One particularly puzzling taxonomy is based on classifying farmers as lazy or industrious. It is not clear whether lazy farmers are actually lazy or rather, poor or sick. The farmer participants recognized such \"lazy\" farmers as a good source of labor. But, if these farmers are indeed lazy, why are they working for others?Access to cash was associated with the timely performance of farm operations, and the ability to purchase inputs and hire labor. Not surprisingly, those with access to cash were considered to be in a better position that those without it.Farmers who possess knowledge are viewed very positively. The groups provided a long list of advantages for those who have knowledge and a long list of disadvantages for those who do not. Knowledge was associated with timely operations, high yield, and crop rotations. The emphasis on knowledge may also be related to the fact that almost all participants work with Agritex, and therefore value access to knowledge-they have been exposed to the message that knowledge is important. One group of farmers also classified farmers into those with and without a Master Farmer Certificate, which, in effect, recognizes the technical training that Agritex provides.Linkage to the market captures the differences between those who sell their produce and those who are subsistence farmers. However, this distinction may not be so rigid, because most likely many farmers are both.Finally, three farmer types recurrently appear, frequently together, as attributes in the other taxonomies: timely performance of farming operations, high crop yields, and planning of operations. These attributes are highly correlated. In the view of farmers, ownership of assets, access to cash, and possession of knowledge lead to good planning and timely operations, which in turn lead to high yields.Farmers in Chihota have a broad and sophisticated soil taxonomy. They recognize ten different soil classes, although not all classes were described by all groups (Table 4). The most widely recognized soil classes with an agricultural use are Shapa, Jecha, Rukangarahwe, and Churu. Rebani (also known as Doro) and Rondo (also known as Chidakha) were mentioned by less than half of the groups, Mhukutu (also known as Bukutu) by two groups and Chinamwe by only one. Two soil classes without agricultural uses were also mentioned: Gokoro and Chibandati.As Table 4 shows, the male groups mentioned slightly more soil classes than the female groups. The mixed groups reported the largest number of soil classes, in many cases twice as many as those reported by the other two groups.Table 5 presents a description of the soil classes and their respective advantages and disadvantages according to the farmers. The descriptions and assessments given by the different groups were very similar. These descriptions are based on texture (i.e., particle size), fertility status, and color (the latter is used to distinguish subclasses). The advantages/disadvantages mentioned by the farmers refer particularly to the water holding capacity of the soil class, the ease of working it, inherent fertility, response to fertilizers and manure, proneness to waterlogging, particular uses (e.g., use in gardens and appropriateness as a building material).The soil classes described by these farmers can be segregated into two classes based on their texture:• Lighter texture soils with high sand content, found in areas where dryland agriculture is practiced and maize is the primary crop. • Heavier texture soils, with high clay content, found where gardens are located, near the bottom of the catena, and usually close to water sources.Based on local perceptions, the two most important soil classes for maize production are the lighter texture soils Jecha and Shapa. Jecha is a sandy soil of low fertility and poor water-holding capacity. It can be easily waterlogged, is easy to work, and is good for building. Shapa is a sandy loam soil, with low to average fertility (yields may be low unless additional inputs are applied), but better water-holding capacity than Jecha. It can also be waterlogged and is easy to work, but it is not good for growing groundnut. The subclasses of Shapa depend • can be used for • difficult to work when too wet capacity, very rice and vegetable hard when dry, production also used in pottery • can be cultivated all year on the position of the soil in the toposequence; they include • the darker soil, which is considered more fertile, located at the lower areas close to the dambo (vlei) areas; • the whitish soil, located in the intermediate areas, in the margins of dambo areas;• and the grayish soil, the least fertile, located at the top of the toposequence.The soil taxonomy elicited from the farmer groups is consistent with findings from other studies in local soil taxonomies. As in other parts of the world, soil texture and color are the most important characteristics recognized by the smallholder farmers. Other characteristics that farmers refer to and that have also been found by others include appropriateness for agricultural use, ease of cultivation, water-holding capacity, and fertility (e.g., Bellon and Taylor 1993:772 for Mexico; Sandor and Furbee 1996:1507 for the Andes). Farmers' distinction between upland and riverbank soils has also been reported for Zambia (Edwards 1987:7) and Zimbabwe (Carter and Murwira 1995:78).Table 6 presents a list of the practices that farmer groups identified as improving soil fertility and the number of farmer groups that cited each practice. These practices may or may not actually be used by farmers, but, nevertheless, are recognized by them. The most common practices include the addition of termite mound soil, cattle manure, and inorganic fertilizer to the soil. Lime was also widely mentioned, however, this may be because the farmers have been exposed to this knowledge through past work with extension, and so it may not be an indicator of widespread use. As Table 2 shows, the adoption of lime is relatively low.  * The churu or termite mound soil can be used to improve other soils, but also can be planted. Therefore there are a few specialized practices for this soil type, which includes: potholing to trap water, add sand, plow when moist.Only one group mentioned the rotation of maize with a leguminous crop as a soil improvement practice. Most of the groups did not recognize it as a soil improvement practice, even though rotations are widely practiced by the participating farmers (Table 2). This may be because of the dominance of the maize cereal crop and the low fertility of the soils where rotations take place, which restrict the production of legume biomass and N fixation, and therefore their beneficial effect on the soils.Similarly, no farmers identified intercropping of maize and a leguminous crop as a soil improvement practice, although it is widely used. Clearly, farmers do not perceive a benefit to soil fertility associated with the use of legumes. This indicates a knowledge gap that must be addressed if research and extension want to promote the use of leguminous crops for soil improvement. It also indicates that this gap may be because current rotations have little effect over the soil fertility in local conditions.Several of the practices the farmers referred to could not be considered as enhancing soil fertility per se, such as early or dry planting, early or deep plowing, draining excess water, raising beds, or timeliness of operations. These practices may be perceived as improving soil fertility because they can interact with more conventional practices, such as the addition of fertilizers or manure, and thereby enhance their effectiveness. For example, early planting may lead to a larger production of crop biomass, particularly if cattle manure or fertilizers are added, which, if incorporated back into the soil will improve soil fertility. The identification by the farmers of practices such as soil analysis and conservation works may result from interactions these farmers have had with extension workers, who in the past promoted, or at least referred to, these practices.There does not appear to be a clear association between the soil improvement practices cited by the farmers and the soil types they recognize, as most they would prescribe most of the practices for all of the soils (or at least Jecha and Shapa, the most important ones). However, there were a few exceptions, specifically the use of deep plowing for Rukangarahwe, raised beds for Rebani/Doro (heavier soils in gardens), and fallow, mostly associated with Jecha.Overall, this would seem to suggest that we should not be overly concerned with trying to tailor practices to farmers' soil classes, at least when dealing with dryland farming. However, such an assumption may be premature because new practices or technologies may not respond equally well to the various soil types and/or the lack of specificity exhibited by the farmers may result from a lack of knowledge. Whether matching soil improvement technologies, current or future, to farmers' soil classes generates additional net benefits, and therefore is merited, requires further thought and research.When farmers were queried about the soil fertility management practices we've been discussing, they were also asked to provide constraints to their use. Table 7 lists these constraints together with their associated practice(s), and notes the number of groups that mentioned it. The constraints reflect a number of underlying themes or issues. The two most common themes are • scarcity of and access to inputs-both local, such as manure and termite mound soil, and purchased, such as fertilizers and lime; and • labor scarcity for the application of inputs, due to the labor intensiveness of the operations or simply the lack of available labor or cash to hire it.A similar theme that emerged was that of priorities given to alternative uses for the input; for instance, the preference for applying manure to gardens rather than field plots, or the low priority given to improving some classes of soil (in this case, Rukangarahwe). The lack of implements and power were also cited as limitations, although these relate to the specific practices of deep plowing and the application of termite mound soil. Also mentioned was lack of land, which limits the frequency and duration of fallows. Several farmer groups mentioned lack of knowledge about application rates for fertilizer and the use of lime as constraints. This was surprising given that, in general, these farmers work closely with extension agents. This suggests that there may be a need for better communication between them. Finally, one group also mentioned soil erosion as a constraint.The overriding theme regarding constraints to employing better soil fertility practices center on the scarcity of the factors of production-labor and capital, and to a much lesser extent land, and also knowledge. Although the sample may include better-off farmers, they are still resource poor. If anything, these constraints may be even more acute in the rest of the farming population.The list of elicited constraints can be incorporated into a scheme for the assessment of new soil fertility improvement technologies. Farmers and researchers would want to assess how a new soil fertility management technology performs with respect to • access to the inputs;• labor intensity, including timing of the labor used;• additional knowledge required to successfully apply the new technology;• requirements for the effective use of implements, in terms of the types of implements, access to them, and timing of their use; • assessments of the new technology as it relates to farmers' current priorities and resource allocation.This assessment involves not only the technology per se, but the infrastructure and institutional setting in which it may be deployed, as well as the changes that would be required for increasing its possibility of adoption.The analysis of the farmers' taxonomies shows that the systems are consistent and logical. There are no glaring contradictions, and the surprises can be explained; for example, the fact that nearly all groups failed to consider crop rotation to be a soil improvement practice. The information contained within these taxonomies provides a framework for understanding the farmers' soil fertility practices.There is great consistency between the themes that emerged from the taxonomy of farmers and the constraints they face in applying soil fertility improvement practices. The ownership of assets (such as cattle and draught power), access to cash to pay for labor and inputs, and possession of knowledge are important categories in the taxonomies of farmers. Indeed, these factors allow or constrain the use of most of the soil fertility improvement practices recognized by farmers. Those with cattle, draught power, and financial resources, i.e., wealthier farmers, should be better able to use soil fertility improvement technologies than those without them, i.e., poorer farmers. Young or female farmers, considered to have less access than others to these resources, are probably in a poorer position to apply these practices. Not surprisingly, the cluster of participants found in Group A, which could be considered the wealthiest, reported the highest rate of adoption of all soil fertility practices. Although this should not be interpreted as definitive evidence, it certainly is consistent.The most recurrent theme cited by the participants is the timing of farm operations, typically a major concern for farmers in areas characterized by unimodal rainfall area. Delays imply decreased productivity. Ignorance of the correct scheduling of fertilizer and/ or lime applications was mentioned as a constraint to using these inputs. Delays are also associated with a lack of assets and access to resources, consequently, such delays should be a greater issue for poorer farmers. Undoubtedly, the factor of timing in the use of soil fertility improvement practices, and the potential for conflict and complementarity between the practices and other farm activities, must be an important consideration in their improvement, design, and assessment.Many of the practices, relationships, and themes identified here have been reported in previous studies, which used different methodologies, in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. Carter and Murwira (1995:78) observed most of the same soil fertility management practices and crops for the Mutoko communal area in northeast Zimbabwe. They also found that gardens are very important for farmers. Huchu and Sithole (1993:45-48) also reported many of the same soil fertility practices for communal areas in other natural regions of Zimbabwe. Crop management and productivity levels among smallholders in the adjacent areas of Mangwende and Mutoko were found to be closely related to cattle ownership (Shumba et al. 1989:446;Carter and Murwira 1995:77). In Mangwende, ownership of cattle was used to identify target groups for potential technologies (Shumba et al. 1989:444). It was found that farmers with cattle had larger arable landholdings. In addition, they applied manure, had better and more timely seedbed preparation, more timely weed control, winter-ploughed and consequently planted earlier, achieved larger crop yields, and earned higher incomes.Another study showed that for maize and groundnut, increased quantities and earlier application of inputs increased grain or seed yield and economic return (Shumba et al. 1990:112). Another study in the same agroecological region showed that late planting of maize is a major contributor to low yields (Waddington et al. 1991:28). Because our results are consistent with other studies in the region and with what \"common sense\" would tell us, we are comfortable generalizing our results, despite the fact that they are based on a self-selected sample of farmers.Given these results, what is the way forward? Many of the factors that constrain the use of soil fertility improvement practices cannot be eliminated through the efforts of Agritex or the Soil Fert Net, for example, those practices that require greater access to draught animals or farming implements. Nevertheless, these constraints should be taken into account in the identification, design, assessment, and promotion of \"best bet\" soil fertility technologies (Huchu and Sithole 1993: 49;Waddington et al. 1998b: 246). The technologies must be compatible with farmer circumstances and interests and where possible should improve the efficiency of resource use. One constraint that Agritex and Soil Fert Net can greatly impact is the knowledge gap. By providing better information on the time of application, quantity, and long-term management of lime and fertilizers, Agritex and Soil Fert Net can help farmers glean the full benefits offered by these inputs.One practice that deserves special attention in future research efforts is the application of termite mound soil. It is one of the most widely mentioned practices, but it carries with it many constraints. Farmers seem to appreciate this practice, despite its high cost in terms of labor, implements, and management. In conversations among farmers, experiments with termite mound soil are frequently mentioned. Clearly, the practice is a very important option for farmers, and they appear willing to invest resources in it. Supply, however, is limited. This suggests the need for further research in the use and management of termite mound soil, particularly in conjunction with farmers, who are already experimenting with it. Furthermore, the application of termite mound soil could be a useful basis for comparison in the assessment of new soil fertility improvement technologies.The farmers in our study area have relatively sophisticated taxonomies, which provide a good picture of the resources, constraints, concerns, and opportunities they have regarding soil infertility and ways to manage it. The farmers' taxonomy of themselves provides a good picture of their socioeconomic environment, while the farmers' soil taxonomies provide important insights into the fertility and management of their soils. The taxonomies provide an important framework for the integration of technical interventions with farmers' requirements, systems, and circumstances. They also provide valuable feedback to researchers on gaps and opportunities for new participatory research on soil fertility technologies.Soil infertility and practices to reduce it are very prominent issues in the minds of farmers. Effectively addressing the issue will require a partnership that brings the best that outside research and extension have to offer together with the time-proven knowledge and practices of the local farmers.","tokenCount":"6015"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"573fe271c466c0f99de57fb44513fc90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed2381b2-c50d-4052-a545-d0e4b7afa3b0/retrieve","id":"-567199453"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b2795df-4547-449d-8be5-f88a0059627b","pagecount":"1","content":"Reflecting the multi-disciplinary approach, the project brought together expertise in smallholder pig systems, animal health, risk analysis, socio-economics, veterinary epidemiology, and public health. Specific elements of the research approach included:• Risk profiling, qualitative and quantitative risk assessment for microbiological (e.g. Salmonella)and chemical hazards (growth promoters, antibiotics, heavy metals).• Health assessments, cost of hospitalisation and treatment due to food-borne diseases in humans.• Economic and value chain assessments (e.g. pig producers).• Evaluation of adoption of good agricultural practices (GAP).• Stakeholder engagement including policy level and ownership were enabled through an explicit and structured communication strategy developed at the start of the project.• Evidence developed on the burden of pork-borne disease in Vietnam.• Various papers on the subject matters have been published in international (6) and national (16) journals.• Additional outputs include synthesis or discussion papers, fact sheets and research briefs.PigRISK findings and outputs have been presented at more than 60 international and national conferences and symposia. • Feedback workshops in the study areas included advocacy for better management of food safety and more effective communication to raise public awareness.  ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system.• Salmonella-a bacterial pathogen which pigs host-is one of the most common causes of food-borne illness. We found Salmonella in 44% of pork sold at the markets in the study.• For the first time, a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model estimated the health impacts of food-borne disease in Vietnam. It indicated that 17% of pork consumers are at risk of Salmonella poisoning every year.• Prevalence surveys found smallholder pork is as safe as that from the formal sector.• Risk due to chemical hazards is low (heavy metals, grow promoters and antimicrobial residues) -overwhelming majority of meat samples negative tested.• Other research found that much of the human health risk comes not from eating pork (which is often well-cooked and relatively safe), but from cross-contamination at household level.• The annual costs of hospitalization in Vietnam due to food-borne diarrhoea amounted to USD2.5-7.6 million annually.• Associated studies on the gendered adoption of good agricultural practices (GAP) demonstrated the long-term impact of participatory extension initiatives, and identified ways of increasing adoption and effectiveness of national GAP initiatives. Farmers found some GAP guidelines unreasonable to achieve or do not follow as concrete benefits are not clear. Fred Unger, f.unger@cigar.org , ILRI, Vietnam","tokenCount":"393"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"acc59cb3a27dcb72b2399f4fb2da3d3a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9dafe269-d6ff-4f57-888c-9e5302d28fad/retrieve","id":"100743293"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0c3dc324-3d61-4cac-9ade-897573f3f0f3","pagecount":"13","content":"African yam bean, AYB (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), is an underutilized legume of tropical Africa. AYB can boost food and nutritional security in sub-Saharan Africa through its nutrient-rich seeds and tubers. However, inadequate information on germplasm with desirable agro-morphological traits, including insufficient data at the genomic level, has prevented the full exploitation of its food and breeding potentials. Notably, assessing the genetic diversity and population structure in a species is a prerequisite for improvement and eventual successful exploitation. The present study evaluated the population structure and genetic diversity of 169 accessions from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) collection using 26 phenotypic characters and 1789 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. The phenotypic traits and SNP markers revealed their usefulness in uniquely distinguishing each AYB accession. The hierarchical cluster of phenotypes grouped accessions into three sub-populations; SNPs analysis also clustered the accessions into three sub-populations. The genetic differentiation (F ST ) among the three sub-populations was sufficiently high (0.14-0.39) and significant at P = 0.001. The combined analysis revealed three sub-populations; accessions in sub-population 1 were high yielding, members in sub-population 2 showed high polymorphic loci and heterozygosity. This study provides essential information for the breeding and genetic improvement of AYB.African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst ex. A. Rich. Harms), otherwise known as \"AYB, \" is a nutritionally rich seed and tuber producing crop of tropical Africa. AYB is a diploid species with a chromosome count of 2n = 22 1,2 . Its flowers are cleistogamous and mainly exhibit self-pollination (91%) 3 . AYB genome size is presently unknown. AYB seeds contain sufficient protein, approximately 37%, and about 64% carbohydrates 4,5 . The protein content in tubers is about 16%, and its carbohydrate content is roughly 68% 6 .Consequently, the seeds, tubers, and leaves are extensively used in various dietary preparations; the seeds could be roasted, boiled, used as a spice, or processed into a paste 7,8 . Furthermore, the fresh tubers are usually roasted or boiled; the leaves are also boiled and utilized as vegetables 9 . Categorized as an underutilized legume 10,11 , AYB is mainly cultivated among smallholder farmers; these farmers also play significant roles in maintaining the crop's genetic resources 10,11 . In addition, IITA GenBank presently conserves about 200 accessions. However, farmers' interest in cultivating the crop is seen as dwindling 10,12 ; the diminishing interest could be linked to the identified limitations. Significant among them are; long cooking hours of about 6-24 h, the abundance of anti-nutritional factors in seeds, and an extended maturity cycle of about 9-10 months 13,14 . Realizing the enormous potential of AYB and the constraints associated with the crop, there is a need to investigate variations across the species. The variations identified can be explored to develop improved or entirely new varieties 15 . Characterization at the phenotypic and genotypic levels is reportedly the most widely used in accessing variations in plant studies 15,16 . The phenotypic approach has wide applications in detecting unique characters, identifying duplicates, and selecting germplasm with desirable features 17,18 . Nevertheless, the environment could influence phenotypic studies 19 ; because it's dependent on visual identification, it could be subjective and time-consuming 20 .In contrast, genotypic characterization is selectively neutral and not affected by the environment 21 . Presently, advances in DNA technology have resulted in high-throughput sequencing approaches facilitating singlePhenotypic differentiation and diversity across 169 AYB accessions. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed the most discriminative phenotypic traits across the 169 accessions. The traits that largely contributed to the observed variation in each PC axis are shown in bold (Table 1). Days to 1st flowering, days to 50% flowering, dry seed matter, petiole length, seed moisture content (SDMC), terminal leaf length (TLL), terminal leaf width (TLW), 100 seed weights, and seed color are traits that had high loading on more than one principal components (PC). The first eight PCs cumulatively explained 68.68% of the total phenotypic variation; the eigenvalues of the eight PCs varied from 1.11 to 4.81. PC1 made the highest contribution of 18.48% of the total variations, and nine quantitative traits contributed most in the PC axis. PC2 accounted for 13.63% of the total variation of which two quantitative traits; dry seed matter, seed moisture content, and four qualitative traits; mainstem pigmentation (MASPIG), branch pigmentation (BRAPIG), petiole pigmentation (PETPIG), and seed color, contributed most to the observed variation. The traits, dry seed matter, petiole lenght, terminal leaf length, and terminal leaf width, were the main traits that contributed to the observed variation in PC3. PC4 accounted for 7.42% of the total variation across the accessions. The traits that contributed most to the observed variations in PC4 were days to 1st flowering, days to 50% flowering, and 100 seed weight. Seed thickness, 100 seed weight (PC5); seed variegation, seed color (PC6); flower color (PC7), and growth habit (PC8) contributed 5.93%, 5.40%, 5.05%, and 4.25%, respectively, to the total variations across the accessions.The genetic distance among the accessions based on their phenotypic evaluation varied from 0.06 to 0.57, with an average of 0.27. The maximum distance was observed between TSs-363 and TSs-446, whereas the minimum distance was observed between TSs-445 and 59B. Furthermore, the hierarchical cluster dendrogram grouped the 169 accessions into three major clusters representing three sub-populations (Fig. 1). Sub-population 1 had the highest number of accessions (72), followed by sub-population 2 (61) and sub-population 3 (36) accessions. The goodness of fit of the cluster dendrogram showed a high cophenetic correlation coefficient of 0.89. The mean values (Supplementary Table S3) of the sub-population showed that accessions grouped in sub-population 1 produced more grain (66.93 g) and were significantly different from sub-population 3 (53.06). More so, the number of seeds per pod (12.18), pod length (16.77 cm), and seed moisture content (7.00%) of accessions in sub-population 1 were higher and significantly different than observed in sub-population 3. Sub-population 3 presented a pod length of 15.77 cm, seed moisture content of 6.58%, and number of seeds per pod of 11.50. About 54% of accessions in sub-population 1 were none pod-shattering; the sub-population was different from sub-population 3.The correlation among the 10 qualitative traits (Supplementary Fig. S1) showed a positive correlation for all the qualitative traits evaluated. A strong correlation (0.95) in the forward and backward direction was observed between main stem pigmentation (MASPIG) and branch pigmentation (BRAPIG). Likewise, a moderate correlation (0.55) was obtained between seed variegation (SEDVAR) and seed color (SEDCOL) in the backward direction. Furthermore, the correlation among the 16 quantitative traits (Supplementary Fig. S2) showed a statistically significant correlation at P < 0.001 for most of the quantitative traits evaluated. Seed moisture content (SDMC) and dry seed matter (DRMAT) showed highly significant (P < 0.001) and perfect negative correlation (-1.00). Highly significant (P < 0.001) and strong correlation (0.67) was observed between days to 1st flowering (DISFL) and days to 50% flowering. More so, a highly significant, moderate, and positive correlation (0.58) was observed between total seed weight (TSDWT) and seed moisture content; however, a negative (−0.58) but highly significant correlation was found between total seed weight and dry seed matter.A total of 1789 SNPs from DArTseq was used in studying the genetic diversity of 169 AYB germplasm of IITA collections. The number of effective alleles (Ne) in the population was 1.61, and Shannon's information index (I) was 0.59. The population's expected heterozygosity (He) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) were 0.35 and 0.15, respectively. Across the 1789 SNPs, the minor allele frequency ranged from 0.05 to 0.5 with an average of 0.22, and the major allele frequency ranged from 0.50 to 0.95 with an average of 0.78 (Table 2). The genetic distance of the studied accessions based on the Identity-By-State dissimilarity matrix varied from 0.004 to 0.41, with an average of 0.29. The maximum distance (0.41) was observed between accessions TSs-109 and TSs-23C, whereas the minimum (0.004) distance was obtained between TSs-151B and TSs-449. The cophenetic coefficient correlation of the dissimilarity matrix was 0.73, confirming the accuracy of the matrix used for cluster generation. The constructed hierarchical cluster dendrogram separated the accessions into three major clusters representing three sub-populations (1, 2 and 3) (Fig. 2). Sub-population 3 had the highest number of accessions (138), followed by sub-populations 1 (20), and sub-population 2 had the least number of accessions (11).The population structure of the accessions showed optimal delta K value = 2 and K = 3 (Supplementary Fig. S2). Based on the information from the hierarchical cluster, dendrogram delta K = 3 was selected as optimally describing the population structure within the accession. Thus, indicating three sub-populations within the 169 accessions (Fig. 2). The distribution of accessions into sub-populations followed the same pattern as the dendrogram clustering (Fig. 2). For example, the population structure showed 27 admixed individuals in subpopulation 3; likewise, 3 accessions were admixed in sub-population 1, whereas 2 accessions were admixed in sub-population 2. Similarly, the principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) based on a pairwise genetic distance matrix across the 169 AYB accessions also split the accessions into three groups representing three sub-populations (Fig. 3). The PC1 axis represented 5.87% of the explained variation in the accessions, while the PC2 and PC3 axis explained 3.98% and 3.28% of the observed variation, respectively (Supplementary Table S4). Genetic diversity of identified sub-populations. Accessions in sub-population 3 were relatively genetically diverse, as shown by the number of unique alleles (154), Shannon information index (0.58 ± 0.004), expected heterozygosity (0.35 ± 0.003), observed heterozygosity (0.17), and % polymorphic loci (100%). In addition, sub-population 2 had the highest number (400) of unique alleles (private allele) in contrast to alleles in sub-population 1 (0) and sub-population 3 (154); similarly, sub-population 2 showed the highest number of effective alleles (1.64 ± 0.011) among the sub-populations. Sub-population 1 showed low values for all the estimated diversity parameters, being the least diverse; however, sub-population 3 was the most varied, followed by sub-population 2 (Table 3). Furthermore, the genetic distance among accessions in each sub-population revealed the existence of considerable genetic diversity in the studied materials. The distance matrix of accessions in Sub-population 1 ranged from 0.004 to 0.314 with a mean value of 0.194. The maximum distance in the sub-population was observed between accession TSs-431 and TSs-47, and the minimum distance was recorded between TSs-151B and TSs-449. In sub-population 2, the genetic distance between TSs-69 and TSs-95 was the highest (0.34), whereas TSs-109 and TSs-89 showed the least distance (0.14) in the sub-population. The average distance across the sub-population was 0.28. In addition, accessions in sub-population 3 presented a genetic distance that varied from 0.60 to 0.99 with an average of 0.71. TSs-60 and TSs-82 were the most diverse accessions based on their genetic distance. In contrast, a closer relationship was observed between TSs-166 and TSs-2015-07 than other accessions of the same population. Expected heterozygosity (He) was higher than the observed heterozygosity (Ho) in all the subpopulations viz; sub-population 1 (He = 0.23 ± 0.004, Ho = 0.05); sub-population 2 (He = 0.34 ± 0.004, Ho = 0.07) and sub-population 3 (He = 0.35 ± 0.003, Ho = 0.17) an indication of inbreeding.  The calculated distance was used to analyze molecular variance (AMOVA). The AMOVA performed on the three sub-population identified by STRU CTU RE revealed that 13% of the total variation was found among populations, whereas the remaining 87% was found among individuals (Supplementary Fig. S3). The pairwise F ST among the three sub-populations varied from 0.14 to 0.39 and were significant at P-value (0.001), while the F' ST ranged from 0.12 to 0.28. A high level of differentiation was observed among accessions in sub-population 1 and sub-population 2 (0.39). Additionally, the level of differentiation observed between sub-populations 1 and 3 (0.20) was slightly higher than that observed between sub-populations 2 and 3 (0.18). (Table 4).  Combined analysis of phenotypic and genotypic data. The distance matrix of the combined phenotypic and genotypic data revealed a maximum genetic distance of 0.89, observed between TSs-446 and TSs-363. The minimum distance, 0.12, was displayed between TSs-151B and TSs-87B, while the average distance across the accessions was 0.56. A hierarchical cluster generated from the summation of the phenotypic and genotypic distances revealed three clusters representing three sub-populations (Fig. 4). Sub-population 3 had the highest number of accessions (61), which was followed by sub-population 1 (59) and sub-population 2 (49). The high cophenetic coefficient of correlation (0.84) reported for the combined matrix further confirms the goodness of fit of the combined hierarchical cluster dendrogram. The grouping of accessions based on phenotypic, genotypic, and combined (phenotypic and genotypic) analysis showed that most accessions remained together in a cluster across the different dendrograms. Comparing the dendrogram drawn with the phenotypic data to the dendro-  The Mantel test revealed a low correlation (r = 0.02); between the dissimilarity matrixes of phenotypic and genotypic data; however, the correlation r = 0.22 observed between genotypic and combined matrixes suggests that the matrix entries are moderately associated. A high positive association r = 0.96 was observed between the combined matrix and phenotypic matrix (Supplementary Table S5; Supplementary Fig. S5). The mean analysis of the three sub-population generated from the combined (phenotypic + genotypic) shows that accessions in subpopulation 1 reached 50% flowering (117.79 days) earlier than accessions in sub-population 2 (121.70 days) and sub-population 3 (118.26 days) and was significantly different from sub-population 2. Also, accessions grouped in sub-population 3 germinated earlier (12.32 days) and significantly differed from those in sub-population 2 (12.84 days). Furthermore, accessions in sub-population 1 yielded more seeds (67.31 g) than accessions in subpopulation 2 (56.28 g) and 3 (61.14 g), and the mean value was significantly different from that of sub-population 2. Across the three sub-populations, accessions grouped in sub-population 2 showed more diversity in flower color (2.02) and were significantly different from accessions in sub-population 3 (1.92). The diversity in seed color was also more prominent in sub-population 2 than observed in sub-populations 1 and 3. Moreso, a reasonable number (49%) of accessions clustered in sub-population 3 showed no variegation on seed, and the sub-population was significantly different from sub-populations 1 and 2. Similarly, 33% of accessions in sub-population 3 exhibited pod-shattering; the sub-population was significantly different from sub-population 1 and 2. Although the diversity parameters of the genotypic data varied across sub-population, an estimate of heterozygosity showed that sub-population 2 were more diverse than other sub-populations; again, the SNP markers associated with accessions in sub-population 2 showed 100% polymorphic loci, which was followed closely with markers associated with accessions in sub-population 3 (99.94%) and those in sub-population 1 (99.27%) (Table 5). Despite the food and nutrition potentials of AYB, farmers' interest in cultivating the crop is perceived to be dwindling 10,12 ; the lack of interest could be linked to identified limitations, including prolonged cooking time of about 6-24 h, the abundance of anti-nutritional factors in seeds, and an extended maturity cycle of about 9-10 months. Understanding the population structure and identifying genetic variations within the crop's germplasm can facilitate its improvement 18 . Phenotypic and molecular methods are widely explored for genetic study in plant species 18,37 , neither of the methods is superior to the other 29 . The methods can, therefore, be used independently or complementary 31 . The present study used DArTseq derived SNPs and combined approach to study the genetic diversity and population structure of a selected AYB germplasm. The significance of PCA in studying the extent and pattern of variations across populations has been documented by authors Sharma et al. 38 ; Nadeem et al. 15 . Previous characterization studies in AYB likewise reported the relevance of phenotypic traits in understanding genetic diversity in the crop 17,32 . In the present study, analysis based on phenotypic traits indicated a substantial diversity within the accessions. PC1 to PC8 accounted for 68.68% of the phenotypic variability observed in the accessions. In particular traits, including days to 1st flowering, days to 50% flowering, dry seed matter, petiole length, 100 seed weight, and seed color contributed highly to the observed variations as shown by their PC values and contribution to more than one PC axis. The mentioned traits can be used to assess diversity in AYB collections efficiently. A genetic distance range of 0.06-0.57 was observed in the present study and the accessions clustered into three sub-populations. In similar studies using phenotypic traits, Aina et al. 17 obtained a distance of 0.0003-0.59 across 50 AYB collections sourced from IITA. The variation across means of phenotypic traits, e.g., days to 1st flowering (95.31-98.67 days), days to 50% flowering (117.17-124.33 days), total seed weight (53.06-66.39 g), observed in our study is an indication of the existing diversity in the crop. However, the mean values reported for days to 1st flowering and days to 50% flowering differs from earlier findings; in the phenotypic evaluation of 16 AYB accessions grown in Nigeria, days to 1st flowering was reported to vary from 139.40 to 159.21 days 35 . Also, Aina et al. 17 obtained mean values between 65.00 and 97.00 for days to 50% flowering in 50 accessions characterized in Nigeria. Similarly, Ojuederie et al. 32 reported days to 50% flowering as between 97.50 and 115.83 across 40 accessions evaluated in Nigeria. Nevertheless, the differences between our findings and previous studies could be due to variations in environmental conditions and sample size.In addition, the correlation among 26 traits phenotypic traits in the present study showed significant associations across most of the traits; for instance, days to 1st flowering showed a significant positive correlation with days to 50% flowering (0.67), which is a good indication towards breeding for early maturity. The availability of accessions with less than 9-10 months maturity could encourage the crop's cultivation by farmers. Seed moisture content correlated positively with total seed weight (0.58), showing the importance of trait in assessing seed yield. Positive correlations between seed weight and other characteristics were also reported in earlier studies 14,34,35 . Accessions including TSs-2015-07, TSs-1, TSs-12, TSs-10, and TSs-109 found in sub-population 1 characterized with reduced days to 50% flowering (117.17) could be choice materials for breeding of early maturity in the crop. Sub-population 1 was likewise associated with high seed yield (66.93 g) and number of seeds per pod (12.18) and could therefore be exploited for improving seed yield in the crop. The selection of such materials for improvement has been recommended as an important improvement strategy for the crop 39,40 . Also, nonshattering accessions in sub-population 1 could be useful in breeding for accessions with reduced pod shattering. Same with our findings, TSs-1 and TSs-12 were also identified as non-pod shattering accessions 39 . Furthermore, improved cultivars could be developed from hybridizing the distantly related accessions (TSs-363 and TSs-446) identified in this study by phenotypic and genotypic analysis (TSs-431 and TSs-47). Past genetic diversity studies in AYB using AFLP, RAPD, ISSR, and SSR markers transferred from cowpea reported considerable diversity in the crop [33][34][35] . Among the three sub-population observed, sub-population 3 was the most genetically diverse of the three sub-populations followed closely by sub-population 2 and then sub-population 1 as indicated by the population's high expected heterozygosity (He), Shannon information index (I), and percentage polymorphic loci (PIC). Across the three subpopulations, the observed heterozygosity was lower than the expected heterozygosity, which can be attributed to the non-random mating among the individuals of the population suggesting inbreeding. The finding could be explained by the fact that AYB shows a high percentage of self-pollination 2,3 . The SNPs dependent approaches, STRU CTU RE, hierarchical cluster dendrogram, PCoA, and AMOVA implemented in the present study consistently identified three subpopulations across the 169 AYB accessions. The consistency in the clustering pattern agrees with reports in Camelina 41 rice 42 , and cowpea 43 . The genetic differentiation among the three sub-populations was significant was significant (P < 0.001) and the fixation index ranged from (F ST, 0.14-0.39), indicating a medium to a high amount of genetic differentiation 42,44 . Therefore accessions from each sub-population can be crossed and tested for heterosis.In the present study, the combined genetic distance generated from phenotypic and genotypic data also indicated three sub-populations. The high cophenetic correlation coefficient ≥ 7.0 observed across the three distance matrixes used in constructing each hierarchical cluster dendrogram shows each dendrogram's fitness and ruling distortion in the data. Subjectively, the degree of fit is interpreted as: 0.9 ≤ r, very good fit; r < 0.7, very poor fit 45,46 . The Mantel test, Mantel 47 , showed a low correlation between the phenotypic and genotypic distance matrix, similar to findings reported in the diversity analysis of pepper 44 and winged yam 18 . The absence of a strong association between the phenotypic and genotypic data could be because the SNP data are not associated with the phenotypic traits evaluated; it could also be because molecular markers generally detect the non-adaptive types of variation and are not subjected to either/both natural and artificial selection which is attributed to phenotypic traits 18,48 . However, due to the inconsistency observed in studies involving phenotypic and genotypic evaluations, authors have recommended combining genotypic and phenotypic data as the best option for the efficiency of diversity assessment [48][49][50] . The evaluation of the grouping of accessions in the three dendrograms (phenotypic, genotypic, and combined) revealed a high pattern of similarity. The accessions grouped in sub-population 3 of the combined dendrogram retained 100% of their membership in sub-population 2 of the phenotypic dendrogram. Also, 83% of the accessions in sub-population 1 of the combined dendrogram clustered together in sub-population 1 of phenotypic dendrogram; however, the remaining 7% grouped in sub-population 3 of the phenotypic dendrogram. Similarly, 86% of the accessions in sub-population 1 of the phenotypic dendrogram remained together in sub-population 3 of the genotypic dendrogram, while 14% of the accessions clustered in sub-population 2 and 3 of the genotypic dendrogram. Furthermore, 86% of the accessions grouped in sub-population 1 of combined dendrogram maintained their membership in sub-population 3 of the genotypic dendrogram. The high correlation between phenotypic and combined dendrogram observed in this research is similar to the findings in winged yam 18 . However, the level of correlation obtained between the genotypic and combined dendrogram differs from the reported in winged yam 18 .In our study, the genetic diversity across the AYB population was confirmed further by the presence of high polymorphic loci of SNP markers associated with each population across the combined analysis. For example, sub-population 2 showed 100% polymorphic loci; more so, high heterozygosity was visible in sub-population 2, indicating high genetic diversity.Conclusively, a sufficient level of genetic diversity was revealed among and within the 169 AYB accessions evaluated with phenotypic descriptors, DArT-SNPs markers, and combined analysis. The correlations observed between traits, including early maturity, seed yield, and main stem pigmentation, are valuable for AYB breeding activities. The polymorphic DArT-SNPs markers likewise showed efficiency in detecting the population structure and genetic diversity; the markers can therefore be explored for use in genome-wide association study (GWAS) and marker-assisted selection (MAS) in AYB. The complementary approach of combining phenotypic and genotypic data can be implemented in selecting divergent parental materials for hybridization, markerassisted selection (MAS), and genome-wide association study (GWAS).Plant material. A total of 169 AYB accessions sourced from the GenBank of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) were evaluated for the present study; the passport data of the materials are shown in Supplementary Table S1. The AYB accessions were sourced and received following all the rules guiding plant material transfer between Nigeria and Ethiopia.The 169 accessions were planted over two cropping seasons (2019/2020; 2020/2021) at Jimma Agricultural Research Center (JARC), Jimma, Ethiopia. The field evaluation was carried out under regulations guiding field experimentation of JARC. The experimental field sits at 1739 masl, N07°39.962′, and E036°46.74′ and was laid in Alpha lattice design with two replications of ten plants per accession. After sowing, each plant was stalked with a 3 m stick. Each accession was characterized using 26 phenotypic traits (16 quantitative and 10 qualitative); the traits were selected based on their abilities to comprehensively capture the existing diversity through all the crop's vital developmental stages to yield attributes. The IITA AYB descriptor list guided the trait selection 51 . The phenotypic traits evaluated, the assessment period and the method are presented in Supplementary Table S2.DArT sequencing. Two weeks after planting, about 1 g of young, healthy leaves was collected into labeled 1.2 ml cluster tubes. The tubes were immediately capped, placed on an ice bucket, and transferred to the Plant Molecular Laboratory at Jimma University, where they were kept in −80 °C freezer before lyophilization. The lyophilized leaves were shipped to SEQART Africa Laboratory at International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (ILRI), Nairobi, for DNA extraction and genotyping. The genomic DNA was extracted using the NucleoMag Plant kit, and DNA was purified with genomic DNA clean and concentrator. The purified DNA was quantified on 0.8% agarose gel electrophoresis. The DArT genotyping was done using SEQART Africa genotyping protocol 52 . In brief, genomic DNA was digested with two restriction enzymes; Mst1 was used as the rare cutter and pst1 as the frequent cutter. The digested DNA fragments were ligated using a common adapter, and a barcode adapter, the DNA fragments with a combination of common and barcoded adapters were selectively amplified. The PCR products were pooled and purified using a QIAquick PCR purification kit. The purified PCR products were sequenced on Illumina Hiseq 2500 using single reads. After the sequencing, FASTQ files generated by DArT were aligned against the African yam bean draft genome unpublished (provided by the Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (BeCA-ILRI), and a HapMap file was generated.The phenotypic data were analyzed with the R statistical package (Version 4.1.1) 53 . Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each quantitative trait across two years was calculated using the PBIB.test function from the Agricolae R statistical package. Tukey's HSD test was performed to test the significant difference among the means. The ANOVA was performed using where Y is the traits, µ is the grand mean, E is the environment effect (years), B(E) is the block effect in environment, G is the genotype effect, GE is the genotype by environment interaction, e is the error. Furthermore, means analysis for qualitative data (ordinal) was analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test, and a post-hoc Dunns test was performed to test the significance of the means. The (binary data) were analyzed using the Chi-square test. Principal component analysis (PCA) across the LSmeans of phenotypic traits generated from the genotype by environment analysis was computed using the PCAmix function from the PCAmixdata package. PCAmixdata the model :","tokenCount":"4417"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ede945d1893d16e6e308584e7a9ee7d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9606dfaa-0b76-4eda-9bed-cfb1fed66679/retrieve","id":"-991321920"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4469b347-1b0d-46e3-ae61-29124220a195","pagecount":"14","content":"Potato virus Y (PVY) is the type member of the Potyviridae and a major economic disease agent in most solanaceous crops. PVY in potato has received a lot of attention in recent years, and indeed this virus is the most economically important disease problem in seed potatoes in many areas of the world. The virus is responsible for decreases in yield and quality, but the main issue in seed potato production is a requirement for strict virus tolerance limits for certified seed. High levels of PVY have been responsible for many seed lots being rejected as certified seed, resulting in a significant reduction in crop value, and at times in a shortage of certified seed, especially of certain cultivars that are highly susceptible to infection.PVY has a wide host range, naturally infecting plants in more than nine families, including 14 genera of the Solanaceae, such as pepper, tomato, eggplant, and tobacco (43). Some of the nonpotato isolates will also infect potato, but others apparently will not (44,55,80). PVY isolates from each of these crops have become the subject of many classification schemes that will not be covered in this article. The reader is referred to several recent reviews that provide in-depth information on this topic and list numerous additional references (44,76,89). Here we concentrate on PVY as it has and continues to affect potato.PVY is common in most potato production areas around the world, and there is increasing recognition of various strain types. The classification of the potato-infecting isolates is in a state of flux (89), but there are several recognized strains and groups. The ordinary strain of PVY, PVY O , is the most prevalent in North American potato production and in general causes mosaic, leaf necrosis, and leaf drop symptoms, although the type and severity of symptoms will differ among potato cultivars (Fig. 1). PVY O   does not cause veinal necrosis in tobacco. Tobacco veinal necrotic strains include PVY N , PVY NTN , and PVY N-Wi . The latter is not serologically distinct from PVY O , and its genome likely arose via a recombination between PVY N and PVY O (Fig. 2). PVY N and PVY NTN are serologically distinct from PVY O . PVY NTN isolates were originally named for their ability to cause potato tuber necrosis in addition to tobacco veinal necrosis (2,6,48,65,93). They apparently arose from both recombination (32) and mutation events (45,59). Interestingly, the tobacco veinal necrotic strains tend to be less symptomatic in potato plants than PVY O (12,96).All of the PVYs are transmitted in nature by numerous species of aphids; the current total is more than 50 species that are able to transmit PVY with varying efficiency (74). Aphids transmit PVY in a nonpersistent manner which requires acquisition and inoculation times of less than one minute (7), allowing many species of aphids that are only casual visitors to potato plants ample opportunity to either acquire or transmit the virus. There are data that indicate some of the PVY strains may be more efficiently transmitted by some aphid vectors than by others (1,11,26), although transmission efficiency will differ among virus isolates within a strain and aphid populations within a species (94). Once the plant foliage is inoculated by aphids, virus is translocated to tubers; although the efficiency of this translocation can vary among cultivars. Nevertheless, given the vegetative propagation of the potato crop by tubers, infected tubers are a main source of initial inoculum in an emerging crop, and the planting of infected tubers is a major contributor to overall virus incidence. In many developed countries, the planting of seed lots with a high incidence of virus infection is minimized by growers adhering to the requirements of potato seed certification programs in which virus levels in seed production fields and harvested crops are effectively monitored and managed. Seed lots with virus incidence exceeding 1 to 3% are not usually certified and cannot be sold as seed. Seed certification programs can be extremely effective in limiting PVY incidence in seed stocks, but the program's success is dependent upon the ability of inspectors to visualize and/or detect the virus, the established threshold, and the willingness of growers to plant only certified seed. Some U.S. states and Canadian provinces have mandatory seed laws which require all commercial potato fields to be planted from certified seed. As you will see, seed certification programs and growers have faced some challenges in recent times whose underlying causes have contributed to the re-emergence of PVY as a serious disease problem in potato, especially in the seed potato crop.PVY O has been recognized as an issue for potato production at least since its description in the early twentieth century (79) and likely long before that. However, the necrotic strains of PVY are a relatively recent introduction to potato grown in both the United States and Canada. The first report of a tobacco veinal necrosis strain of PVY (PVY N ) (Fig. 3) in the United States was by Kahn and Monroe (41), but this was intercepted on potato introductions from South America, and the virus was not found in the field. PVY N was identified in Ontario, Canada tobacco fields in 1969 (85) and again in 1989 (55). Using the tools available at the time, McDonald and Kristjansson (55) characterized several of these isolates and found they shared properties reported for other potatoinfecting PVY N isolates from Europe and South America. In 1990, PVY N was reported in seed potatoes growing in Prince Edward Island (PEI) and New Brunswick. Summer sampling and subsequent winter tests identified PVY N in several fields from both provinces, but all the seed originated from a single seed source in PEI (86). A massive survey (4.7 million leaves) in the summer of 1991 identified low levels of PVY N in other eastern Canadian provinces (86). The extremely low incidence of the tobacco veinal necrotic strain of PVY found prompted a study to determine if eradication was possible. The conclusion was that an eradication effort carried out primarily through the potato seed certification program could prevent the multiplication of any PVY N -infected seed potatoes and their spread to other geographic locations (86). A similar eradication effort had been successful in New Zealand during the 1980s (27) and remained effective well into the 1990s (28). The survey of 1991, in addition to the PVY N disclosure, also identified other variant forms of PVY N . For example, while investigating possible sources of the PVY N introduction into Canada, three isolates collected in 1991 from table-stock potatoes imported from California, and apparently grown from Canadian seed, were identified as belonging to the PVY NTN group on the basis of their induction of potato tuber necrotic ringspot disease (PTNRD) (57). Also, two isolates from Manitoba induced veinal necrosis in tobacco, but failed to react with four different PVY N -specific monoclonal antibodies in ELISA (56). During this time, postharvest test samples representing seed lots from seven Canadian provinces and five American states were grown-out in California and Florida in the United States and in Jamaica as part of the seed certification process. Surveys of these seed lots by sampling leaves and testing with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for PVY and PVY N were done by Peter Ellis, then of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. This survey was conducted from 1991 through 1994 with no  PVY N found, giving additional evidence that PVY N strains are a recent introduction into the seed potato system in North America (24).The diagnostic tools developed from 1991 to 2002 in Canada allowed further classification of these PVY N isolates into European and North American PVY NTN  (88,97) and PVY N-Wi (this strain is often designated PVY N:O in the literature from North America and elsewhere) (61,62,69). The PVY N-Wi strain was later shown to be present not only in Manitoba, but also in seed from Minnesota, Montana, and North Dakota (87). Subsequently, the determination of complete nucleotide sequences of PVY O , PVY N-Wi , PVY N , and PVY NTN (50,59,60,84) showed that some strains were molecular recombinants, while others were not.Necrotic strains of PVY were first reported on potato growing in the United States in 2002 (15). These included isolates related to PVY N-Wi , PVY N , and both European and North American PVY NTN types. Samples used to identify more than 50 isolates that induced veinal necrosis in tobacco were collected from a wide and diverse area of the Northwestern United States. These results suggested that these strains were not localized to a geographic area or to a single seed source and that introduction had likely occurred many years prior. Indeed, a PVY N isolate was reported by McDonald and Kristjansson (55) that was obtained from tablestock potato imported into Canada from California, and data were presumably available, although not published, that additional testing of U.S. seed potatoes from several states revealed detectable levels of PVY N (29).The report of PVY N in Canada in 1990 triggered regulatory action by the United States and Canada. Canada had initiated a plan designed to test the feasibility of eradicating PVY N by concentrating efforts on eliminating the virus from seed stocks (86). This plan advocated testing all seed lots at a recommended rate of 1,000 to 5,000 leaves per field, and in the first year of the plan there appeared to be some success in reducing the overall incidence. The annual potato trade between the United States and Canada is val-ued in the hundreds of millions of dollars, which facilitated a strong desire on both sides to find a solution to the quarantine measures applied following the detection of PVY N . To facilitate continued trade of seed and commercial potatoes between the two countries, a PVY N management plan was developed and implemented in 1994; this was amended 5 October 2001. The objective of this plan was to facilitate trade of potatoes within and between Canada and the United States, while minimizing the impact on the tobacco industry, and to protect the potato industries from widespread establishment of PVY N in the potato crop. The plan focused on serological testing of early generation (G2) seed lots for PVY N . Although participation was mandatory in Canada, it was voluntary in the United States, and many of the states suspected of having PVY N opted out of participation.Hindsight is always 20:20, and we now know that even by the late 1990s, and quite possibly well before this, PVY in North America had evolved well beyond the typical PVY O and PVY N strains to include the recombinant PVY N-Wi and PVY NTN strains and likely other variants as stated earlier. Had this information been available, it would have negated any strategy to use a serological test to identify seed lots infected with a tobacco necrotic strain of PVY. Monitoring of the early generation G2 lots only detected PVY N in a few lots over the time the management plan was in place. Testing of late generation seed lots (e.g., G4 or G5, i.e., fourth or fifth generation seed lots) may have detected an influx of PVY N sooner. However, the plan achieved its primary goal of allowing continued trade and movement of seed potatoes.Adoption of the 1994 PVY Management Plan did not contain the spread of PVY N or other tobacco necrotic strains of PVY. Indeed, in the years following the adoption of the PVY management plan, many scientific publications identified a multitude of tobacco and tuber necrotic isolates of PVY from potato growing in all regions of Canada and the United States. Also during this period, Potato mop-top virus (PMTV) was reported for the first time in both countries (47,99), and other tuber necrotic viruses also appeared to be expanding their distribution (18,37,46,100). The PVY N strain, now a nebulous definition for many recognized variants that could not be accurately identified by any one diagnostic assay, and other potato tuber necrotic viruses (e.g., PMTV) remained on the list of quarantined or regulated pathogens. In an effort to update the management plan and to facilitate research on appropriate disease management strategies for tuber necrotic viruses, discussions commenced in the early 2000s on the development of a revised PVY management plan that would also include other tuber necrotic viruses, specifically PMTV, Tobacco rattle virus (TRV), and Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV).The Canada/US-Management Plan for Potato Viruses that Cause Tuber Necrosis was finalized in October 2004 and officially adopted in February 2006 (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_ health/plant_pest_info/potato/downloads/pvy/NecroticVirusManag ementPlan.pdf). This was the product of many bilateral discussions among scientists, seed certification officials, industry representatives, regulatory officials, and growers. The overarching goal was similar to that of the 1994 PVY management plan: to facilitate unencumbered trade of potatoes among states, provinces, and the two countries while protecting the potato industries of both countries from economically damaging levels of any of the viruses causing tuber necrosis. One immediate benefit was to exempt the finding of these viruses from any type of regulatory consequence, an action that facilitated research on the distribution, incidence, and genetic makeup of PVY affecting the U.S. and Canadian seed potato crops because growers did not fear any reprisals if necrotic strains of PVY were found on their farms. The management plan was designed to be a living document that would be continually discussed and revised as new information was acquired. The management plan was not designed to be heavy-handed, but rather to provide guidelines that would encourage additional testing and inspections to identify and facilitate the management of PVY, and more importantly for the potato industry to acknowledge the occurrence of all the tuber necrotic viruses including PVY NTN , PMTV, TRV, and AMV. Initially, testing of G2 lots for PVY N was to continue, but within the first year a recommendation was made to discontinue the testing. This recommendation was based on results of a national survey conducted in both Canada and the United States that investigated the PVY population in all late generation (G5-G6) seed lots. The 3-year survey, discussed in detail below, was designed to identify the genetic diversity and the geographic distribution of PVY infection in U.S. and Canadian seed potato crops. The information was used to provide advice to seed certification agencies, industry representatives, and growers, and to refine the management plan so that it was based upon sound sampling, detection, and management practices.Historically, seed certification programs have been able to keep the levels of PVY under control by using a \"flush through\" system in which seed potatoes are kept in the program for a limited number of generations. Each generation is assumed to accumulate virus slowly over time provided best management practices are adopted, and flushing later generations out of the certified program reduces the risk that virus will accumulate to levels that result in economic loss. Each generation of seed potatoes is carefully inspected in the field, and in many instances in postharvest tests, to determine the level of virus. If the level exceeds tolerance limits at any time, the seed lot is downgraded or removed from the certification system depending on the virus level. The success of the seed certification programs at keeping virus levels under control is dependent upon disease symptoms being expressed and observed on the crop in the field and/or on the harvested tubers, and/or being accurately identified in various postharvest testing schemes. Disease observed in the field can often be minimized by roguing virus infected plants. When virus infection cannot be observed visually, the system is less effective and seed lots that would normally be rejected may be recertified, and then the level of inoculum begins to climb. While the incidence of PVY depends to a considerable extent on whether growers utilize best management practices, three changing factors were paramount to the re-emergence of PVY: a change in the genetic composition of PVY strains, the release and widespread acceptance of cultivars that express mild or no PVY symptoms, and increased aphid pressure later in the growing season. Each of these three factors (discussed below) impedes the visual identification of infected plants, resulting in virus levels that build in each successive seed crop and consequently become more widely distributed in the commercial crop.PVY O induces easily recognized mosaic symptoms in most potato cultivars, but it is being displaced by tuber necrotic and/or tobacco necrotic strains (PVY NTN and PVY N-Wi ) once thought to be excluded from the United States (34,51). Many of these new strains are genetic recombinants between PVY O and the original tobacco necrotic strain, PVY N , and the genetic diversity among these recombinants is vast (Fig. 2). In Europe, PVY NTN has displaced PVY O as the predominant strain within the past 20 years (76). Interestingly, PVY NTN and PVY N-Wi tend to induce less severe foliar symptoms than PVY O on most cultivars, and this has likely contributed to the rise in incidence of the necrotic and recombinant strains because they often go unnoticed during field inspections. Exacerbating the problem is that no one simple test can accurately classify the multitude of emerging necrotic PVY strains. A cocktail of biological, serological, and/or molecular diagnostic tests are required, at considerable labor and expense, to effectively classify these strains (51). Inaccurate field inspections and improper diagnosis have contributed to some unnecessary trade restrictions (42). Indeed, ELISA using antibodies specific to PVY N and PVY O strain types may have contributed to the spread of the recombinant isolates of PVY N-Wi . Recall that PVY N-Wi is a tobacco veinal necrosis strain, but has the serological phenotype of PVY O due to the recombinant nature of its genome. When seed lots were tested by serology for PVY N , lots infected with PVY N-Wi would have tested negative and would not have been eliminated as a seed source unless the overall PVY incidence was above tolerance limits. This could have perpetuated the PVY N-Wi strain and increased its distribution.The success of seed certification programs has limited the interest of potato breeding programs to include virus resistance as a trait for selection. Limited testing for virus susceptibility has resulted in the selection, release, and widespread acceptance of several potato cultivars that are tolerant to virus infection, i.e., the cultivars are symptomless carriers of the virus or symptoms are very mild and/or transient. These symptomless carriers are also good sources of virus that is spread to neighboring crops. Tolerant cultivars infected with PVY and expressing mild or transient symptoms have reduced yields, and virus is readily acquired from such plants by aphids and spread among other susceptible cultivars (39,77,78,91). Many cultivars are included in the \"tolerant\" category (http://oregonstate.edu/potatoes/latent to PVY list.htm), but cultivars Shepody and Russet Norkotah are two of the most problematic, and they are widely grown, accounting for over 12 and 5% of the total U.S. and Canadian seed acreage, respectively, in 2009. The demand for seed, coupled with high levels of PVY in the seed crop, has often limited the availability of certified seed for these cultivars. Resistance or susceptibility to PVY is a trait that has been included in the most recently released cultivars, but it is usually mentioned in the context of foliar symptom severity. Furthermore, the reaction to PVY is often determined from natural infections that may occur in evaluation plots. The strain of the virus is rarely considered. As early as 1978, crosses for virus resistance were begun in the USDA-ARS Aberdeen, ID breeding program. Selected clones from these crosses were evaluated in replicated plots for resistance to Potato virus X (PVX), PVY, and Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) starting in 1985 (14). These evaluations relied on natural and artificial inoculations to obtain high virus pressure. Recent releases from this program have included information regarding PVY strain reactions (90). As more breeding programs recognize the value of PVY resistance (66,98), there is a need to develop some standard materials and protocols that will allow potato genotypes to be evaluated properly against a range of PVY strains that predominate in the regions of the country that will likely produce the released cultivar. Evaluating PVY responses as part of the field testing of advanced breeding lines allows breeders, growers, and seed certification programs to identify potential problems and discover new sources of resistance.A third factor contributing to the increase in PVY levels is the increase in aphid populations, especially in late-season flights of both colonizing and noncolonizing species. The introduction of the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) to the United States in the early 2000s is a prime example. Late-season inoculation of plants by migrating aphids can result in infection, but foliar symptoms are not manifested in the mature plants while tuber infection can be significant.As mentioned above, a provision of the Canada/US-Management Plan for Potato Viruses that Cause Tuber Necrosis was to conduct a survey of all seed production areas in both countries to determine the genetic makeup and distribution of the PVY strains affecting the seed potato crop. In each of 3 years, 2004, 2005, and 2006, tuber samples were collected by growers in the United States and in Canada and submitted, in the United States to the seed certification agency in their state, and in Canada to a CFIA-approved laboratory. All U.S. seed growers were asked to collect random tubers at harvest from each field generation 5 (G5) seed lot on the farm; the sampling rate was 2 tubers per acre. If there were no G5 lots on the farm, then G4 lots or in some cases G3 lots were sampled. The certification agency submitted the tuber samples to a laboratory that they generally use for testing, which was usually associated with the state departments of agriculture. A few states opted to send tuber samples directly to a university-based laboratory either at Idaho Falls, ID or Ithaca, NY. Each state was responsible for testing sprout or leaf tissue from sprouted tubers by ELISA using the monoclonal antibody 4C3 (Agdia), which recognizes all strains of PVY. Positive samples were retested using the PVY N -specific monoclonal antibody 1F5. Once each of the states reported the initial findings, scientists directing the survey worked with each state's lab director or certification official to identify a subset of infected tubers that would be sent to laboratories in Idaho or New York for further strain characterization. The overall goal was to get a set of tubers that were representative of the total number of tubers collected in each state and that represented all the geographic regions and the different cultivars grown in that state. Funding allowed for ~1,000 isolates to be characterized in each of the 3 years.In Canada, seed growers in all seed-producing provinces collected 100 tubers/seed lot of the lower classes of seed (field generation 5-6) and submitted them to one of five CFIA-approved laboratories. The approved laboratories sprouted or grew out the tubers and then tested them in composites of two by ELISA using monoclonal antibody 4C3. Both tubers of all the PVY-positive composites were sent to the CFIA reference laboratory in Charlottetown, PEI. The Charlottetown Laboratory tested individually all tubers received from the approved laboratories with monoclonal antibody 4C3 to confirm the presence of PVY. PVY-positive tubers that had adequate sprouts were inoculated directly to tobacco for further serological characterization with monoclonal antibodies Mab2 and 1F5, which are purportedly specific for PVY O and PVY N , respectively, and to determine the symptom type in tobacco. Inadequately sprouted tubers were grown out in the greenhouse prior to further testing. A total of ~1,700 isolates collected in Canada over the 3 years were characterized.The original testing plan for the PVY isolates was to determine the serotype using monoclonal antibodies 4C3 and 1F5. These were previously approved by the North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) for determining the presence of PVY N . Additionally, the PVY P1 gene was to be amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (primers were based on Nie and Singh [61]) and sequenced. A number of diagnostic tests had previously utilized sequence diversities in the P1 gene to distinguish among several PVY strains including PVY O , PVY N , PVY NTN , and PVY N-Wi (61,62).The actual testing protocols were modified to include several other tests that allowed a more in-depth characterization of a subset of the total PVY isolates identified from the field-collected tubers. Tobacco inoculations were not originally part of the analysis for each of the PVY isolates, but many of the tubers that were eventually sent to NY or PEI were of poor quality and limited growth potential. To ensure that there was adequate material to conduct all the tests and to be able to prepare the isolates for long-term storage, the PVY-positive tubers were planted in the greenhouse and developing leaves (or sprouts) were harvested and used to mechanically inoculate tobacco plants, Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi NN, Samsun, or Burley 21. Leaf tissue from grown-out potato or inoculated tobacco plants were subsequently lyophilized or kept frozen at -20°C for later reference. Fresh tobacco leaves from inoculated plants were observed for veinal necrosis or mosaic symptoms (Fig. 3) and tested by ELISA with monoclonal Mab2 (specific for PVY O ) and 1F5 (specific for PVY N ) to confirm presence of PVY and determine the serological type. They were also tested in ELISA with PVX antibodies to detect mixed infections. Veinal necrotic symptoms were only considered in PVX-negative tobacco plants because mixed infections of PVX and PVY can also cause veinal necrosis in tobacco (17). Leaf tissue from tobacco plants infected with the individual PVY isolates was used to amplify the P1 gene for subsequent sequencing (in 2004 and 2005), or for a RT-PCR multiplex assay (in 2005 and 2006). The multiplex assay (51) provided additional information on strain differentiation and the identification of mixed infections and was substituted for the P1 sequencing in the analysis of the 2006 samples. A subset of PVY isolates was inoculated from tobacco to potato plants (cv. Yukon Gold) to determine if the isolate would induce potato tuber necrotic ringspot disease (PTNRD) on progeny tubers (Fig. 4).Over 214,000 tuber samples were collected from the 16 seed producing states in the United States and subsequently tested by ELISA (Table 1). Tubers from Idaho, Maine, Colorado, Montana, and North Dakota comprised nearly 75% of the samples. Accurate counts were not reported from three different states in one of the survey years. A total of 2,452 individual seed lots were tested in the United States during the 3-year survey, and PVY was detected in 836 (Table 1). Over the 3-year survey, 34.6% of the lots tested positive. The range of positive lots from any one state in any one year ranged from 0 to 100% with a median value of 30.6%. Double-antibody sandwich (DAS)-ELISA using a non-strain-specific monoclonal antibody, 4C3, detected PVY in ~4.5% of the tuber samples over the 3-year survey. The mean maximum was 11.7% in one state and ranged to a mean minimum of 0.2% with a median of 2.4%. Of the 9,093 PVY-positive tubers, 7,982 were subsequently analyzed by DAS-ELISA using the PVY N -specific monoclonal antibody, 1F5. Many of the secondary tests were done in the Ithaca, NY lab, and by the time the tubers reached the lab they either had rotted or did not sprout. A total of 716 of the 7,982 tubers (9.0%) tested positive for PVY N (Table 2). The percent found in the different states ranged from 20.9 to 0% with a median of 0.24%. PVY N was not detected in seven states and was detected in less than 2% of the samples in five other states.A total of 132,600 tubers were collected from the nine seed producing provinces in Canada (Table 1). To maintain grower anonymity, there was no attempt to maintain a collection location for the tuber samples and all data are reported as country-wide. A total of 1,326 individual lots were tested, and PVY was detected in 584. The 3-year mean of the seed lots being infested with PVY was 44.0%, with the yearly totals ranging from 39.3 to 51.8% (Table 2). PVY was detected in 2.5% of the tubers tested over the 3 years. Overall PVY detection levels were similar in 2004 and 2005 for Canada and the United States, but higher in the United States in 2006 (Table 2). Of the 3,277 PVY-positive tubers identified in Canada, 1998 were subsequently tested for PVY N and 131 (6.6%) were positive.The tobacco bioassay proved to be invaluable in identifying the predominant PVY strains present in the United States and in identifying the true tobacco necrotic isolates. The serological tests described above and used by all of the seed certification agencies and defined in the NAPPO standard are able to distinguish N and O serotypes, but were not able to accurately identify all isolates that cause veinal necrosis in tobacco. There was a significant discrepancy in the total number of PVY isolates that would be categorized as PVY N depending on whether one used serology or the tobacco bioassay. In the United States, a total of 2,800 tobacco inoculations determined that 66% of the isolates induced mild mosaic and/or vein banding symptoms and 28% of the isolates induced veinal necrosis (Fig. 1). Similarly in Canada, 1,742 tobacco inoculations determined that 81 and 19% of the isolates induced mosaic/vein banding or veinal necrosis symptoms, respectively (Table 2). These totals do not include inoculations that also tested positive for PVX (i.e., mixed PVY/PVX infections). No attempt was made to separate mixed infections of PVY and PVX to determine if the PVY isolate would induce different symptoms on tobacco in the absence of PVX. The percentage of necrotic versus mosaic isolates, as determined by the tobacco bioassay, were remarkably consistent over all 3 years in each of the countries.The real significance of both the serological and the tobacco bioassay results came when the data were combined. This allowed us to differentiate four distinct groups, PVY O , PVY N , PVY N-Wi , and PVY O -O5. The first three are recognized strains that were described above. PVY O -O5 was initially identified by Ellis et al. (24), and recently characterized as a serological variant of PVY O (42). PVY O isolates do not react with the 1F5 MAb and induce mosaic symptoms in tobacco. PVY O was the predominant strain in both Canada and the United States comprising 77 and 64%, respec- tively, of the total number of isolates characterized by both serology and tobacco bioassay over the 3-year survey (Table 3). PVY N isolates do react with the 1F5 MAb and induce veinal necrosis in tobacco. They accounted for 6 and 3% of the total isolates in the United States and Canada, respectively. The PVY N-Wi isolates are recombinants between PVY O and PVY N that have PVY O serological properties, i.e., they do not react with the 1F5 MAb, but they are similar to PVY N in that they induce veinal necrosis in tobacco. PVY N-Wi comprised 24 and 17% of the total isolates in the United States and Canada, respectively. The PVY N-Wi strain has a wide distribution in both the United States and Canada (16,59,60,69, and this study) and is problematic because it is not always detected in serological tests used by certification and regulatory agencies as a tobacco necrotic strain. The PVY O -O5 variant accounted for 6 and 3% of the total isolates from the United States and Canada, respectively. This variant was found in several areas of the United States, but was in one state (42). The distribution in Canada is unknown. This variant poses little disease risk to the potato or tobacco industries beyond the ordinary PVY disease, but it has caused problems for some growers in the United States since it is detected as a necrotic strain by serological tests currently sanctioned by NAPPO.Molecular diagnostics, i.e., the P1 sequencing and the multiplex RT-PCR assay, identified additional strains and variants. The P1 sequence allowed separation of isolates into different strain classi-fications including PVY O , PVY N-Wi , and PVY NTN . Only one Canadian isolate but none of the U.S. isolates were identified as PVY N . The P1 sequence also distinguishes between European and North American PVY NTN isolates (62,101), as does the multiplex RT-PCR method used in 2005 and 2006 (51). All of the PVY NTN isolates identified in the United States from 2004 and 2005 samples using the P1 sequence were European PVY NTN isolates. Another advantage of the P1 sequence was a further breakdown of the PVY N-Wi isolates into two distinct groups, PVY N-Wi a and PVY N-Wi b , based on the presence or absence of a recombination junction in the P1 gene (32,51). A majority of the U.S. PVY N-Wi isolates were of the 'a' type. The PVY N-Wi 'b' type isolates were identified from four states, but found in significant numbers in only one state (39 and 60% of the PVY N-Wi isolates in 2004 and 2005, respectively) and comprised 22 of 197 and 28 of 163 samples analyzed in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The tuber-necrotic PVY NE isolate (49,69) was only detected as a mixed infection with other strain variants in two samples. The presence of a unique signature sequence in all PVY NTN P1 sequences and the very high homogeneity among classes of PVY N-Wi isolates were more consistent with descent from single recombination events rather than multiple events recreating these strain variants.The multiplex RT-PCR assay developed by Lorenzen et al. ( 51) was able to simplify the sample analysis and provide more complete data than the P1 sequencing. The assay distinguished the  3). In addition, the multiplex assay defined a new group of isolates that we called PVY N-Wi minus . These are isolates that have a PVY O serotype and a recombinant genome organization, but do not induce vein necrosis in tobacco. Using all of the information from all of the various assays, eight different groups of isolates can be defined (Table 4). There were 2,223 isolates from the United States that were fully characterized using serology, the tobacco bioassay, and genome data (P1 sequencing and/or multiplex RT-PCR). PVY O isolates were the most common and accounted for 1,446 isolates (64%), but 131 of these isolates were the PVY O -O5 variant (~6% of the 2,223 total). A total of 506 isolates (23%) belong in the PVY N-Wi strain, but 60 (~3% of the 2,223 total) of those were the PVY N-Wi minus variant. The PVY N-Wi isolates can be further divided into the 'a' and 'b' subgroups. Only two of the PVY N-Wi minus variants were from the 'b' subgroup, whereas 48 of the 353 typical PVY N-Wi isolates characterized from 2004 and 2005 were identified as 'b' subgroup isolates. The isolates from 2006 were only analyzed by multiplex RT-PCR, and that did not define the 'a' and 'b' subgroups. PVY NTN isolates accounted for only ~5% of the total, and only three of these were identified as PVY NA-NTN . A total of 90 samples (~4%) contained mixtures of strains or variants.The findings were similar for the Canadian isolates. Of the 1,975 strains characterized from Canada, 67% were true PVY O strains and an additional 3.6% were PVY O -O5, compared to 64 and 6%, respectively, of the strains characterized in the United States. Only in 2006 were a significant number of isolates of the PVY NTN type identified in Canada, perhaps because these strains are clustered in a limited geographic area or limited to a particular seed source. In any case, PVY NTN strains formed only a small component (~1%) of the Canadian PVY strain mixture. As in the United States, the recombinant strain, PVY N-Wi , comprised a sizeable percentage (~27%) of the PVY isolates in Canada. The evident displacement of PVY O by the recombinant PVY N-Wi is perhaps a function of the greater ease with which the latter is vectored by aphids, as has been reported in European studies (12,13,33,45). A more in-depth study of the epidemiological factors determining strain incidence and distribution was beyond the scope of this study, however.The PVY NTN strain has been historically associated with PTNRD, but it is apparent that molecular identification of PVY NTN isolates does not always correlate with the isolate's ability to induce PTNRD (40,101). Similarly, isolates identified by serology or molecular analyses as belonging to strains other than PVY NTN can also induce PTNRD (5). Based on these reports and a general lack of information on tuber necrosis potential in most North American cultivars, a subset of the characterized isolates described above were tested for their ability to induce PTNRD. Over 350 Canadian isolates collected during the survey were evaluated for ability to cause PTNRD by inoculation into greenhouse-grown potato plants (cv. Yukon Gold) and observation of tubers at harvest and after storage for 1 month. Of the 22 PVY NTN strains tested, all caused PTNRD, but 81% of the 16 PVY N-Wi and an additional 11% of the 118 PVY O isolates tested also caused PTNRD; none of the 50 Canadian PVY O -O5 isolates caused tuber symptoms. Additionally, a total of 116 U.S. isolates representing each of the different strains and subgroups of PVY were tested for capacity to induce PTNRD on Yukon Gold (Table 4). Similar to the Canadian results, typical PTNRD symptoms were observed on tubers from plants infected with isolates of PVY NTN , both North American and European subtypes; PVY N-Wi , both the 'a' and 'b' subtypes; and PVY O . In addition, plants infected with isolates representing all the strains or subgroups with the exception of PVY NTN-NA in general produced tubers with milder PTNRD symptoms (e.g., Fig. 4A, B, and E). Although many of the strains that induced PTNRD also caused veinal necrosis on tobacco, some exceptions were observed. A smaller subset of the U.S. isolates was also tested on Yukon Gold, Russet Burbank, and Ranger Russet in greenhouse bioassays in Idaho. These results show that Russet Burbank was resistant to PTNRD, while Yukon Gold was susceptible and Ranger Russet was moderately susceptible. PTNRD was produced on Yukon Gold from one of the PVY O isolates, and this isolate also produced symptoms on Ranger Russet and Russet Burbank but at a lower incidence (Table 5).In several studies, the North American cultivars (AC Chaleur, AC Novachip, Allegany, Atlantic, Bellisle, Century Russet, Cherokee, Conestoga, Frontier Russet, Jemseg, Kennebec, Norchip, Ranger Russet, Red Gold, Redsen, Rosegold, and Yukon Gold) have developed PTNRD when inoculated with North American or a PVY N-Wi isolates can be further divided into two subgroups, 'a' and 'b'. The 'b' subgroups contain a recombination junction in the P1 gene that is not present in the 'a' subgroup. b PVY N-Wi minus isolates are a variant of PVY N-Wi that are characterized by having a PVY O serotype and a recombinant genome organization like PVY N-Wi , but they do not induce vein necrosis in tobacco. c PVY NTN isolates can be further divided into two subgroups, North American (PVY NTN-NA ) and European PVY NTN-Eu . d These samples contain a mixture of PVY strains or subgroups. e The combination of serological and molecular data did not clearly differentiate these strains into one of the PVY groups described in this study.European PVY NTN  (57,88,97). Yukon Gold was found to be extremely susceptible and Ranger Russet moderately susceptible to PTNRD when infected with PVY NTN or PVY N-Wi (J. L. Whitworth, unpublished). In a recent study, Singh et al. ( 2010) developed a fast-reacting, sensitive, and reliable indicator for potato tuber ringspot necrosis symptoms caused by PVY NTN isolates. It was shown that AC Chaleur can develop PTNRD with both recombinant and non-recombinant PVY NTN isolates within 50 to 60 days of inoculation in 50% of the tubers and up to 75 to 90% of tubers after 2 months storage at 25 to 28°C. However, it failed to develop PTNRD with PVY O , PVY N , and PVY N-Wi isolates.Results of the survey presented in this article clearly show that PVY in the Canadian/U.S. potato industry consists of a complex of strains. While the preponderance of isolates collected and characterized from the survey belonged to the ordinary PVY O strain, a number of variant types that have apparently arisen at some point as a result of recombination and mutation (Fig. 2) are not uncommon and appear to be spreading within North America. It is likely that mixed infections with recombinant strains resulted in even greater strain diversity. While some of the variant strains such as those that induce PTNRD are of concern to potato producers, strains that cause veinal necrosis in tobacco would be of concern to the tobacco industry. Fortunately, the variant strains thus far form only a small percentage of the total PVY population, which is still dominated by PVY O . It is also clear, however, that currently available serological and molecular tools available for PVY detection and identification are unable to efficiently and reliably differentiate the strains of concern. They can only be characterized by bioassay on tobacco and specific potato cultivars.The inability to readily identify specific PVY strains makes any efforts to eradicate or control any specific PVY strain type difficult. The best and most practical option at this time is to control PVY as a virus complex. Given the lack of PVY symptom expression in several major cultivars and no published evidence that existing strains or variants of PVY are not detected by polyclonal antibodies or monoclonal antibodies with broad specificity, it would be advisable to use those antibodies to screen seed lots for PVY. Bringing the incidence of all PVY infections to low levels within the potato industry will concomitantly lower the incidence of variant strains to very low levels indeed. If the total PVY incidence in a seed lot is below 2 to 3%, the incidence of variant strains will be far below 0.1% and perhaps will diminish even more with diligent flushing out of seed lots with high PVY content.Thus, PVY management on seed-producing farms needs to focus on keeping the initial inoculum in the fields at a minimum and protecting the crop from viruliferous aphids that can introduce and spread existing virus to other healthy plants. Reducing initial inoculum in seed potato fields will be accomplished by effective seed certification programs, while crop protection will result from skillful, clever, and informed management decisions on the farm.Seed certification is the most effective means of monitoring seed grower best management practices that could reduce the overall levels of PVY and potentially eliminate the tuber necrotic strains of the virus that are not widely established nor present in significant numbers in the seed crop. However, seed certification will only be effective if PVY can be accurately identified and adequately removed from the system. Identification of the virus by inspectors will require enhanced training to recognize the wide spectrum of virus symptoms on a wide variety of cultivars (Figs. 1 and 3). Quick and accurate diagnostic assays that can be conducted in the field are useful to determine if a suspect plant is infected with PVY. Identification of infected plants to be rogued will still be an important aspect of PVY management, but postharvest testing using randomly collected samples and appropriate laboratory assays will be essential and critical to accurately determine infection levels in many cultivars and environments. As mentioned previously, several cultivars have a tolerance to PVY infection that is manifested as a lack of symptoms or their transient expression. Furthermore, some isolates of PVY may induce very mild symptoms, and late-season infections may not induce foliar symptoms, even in cultivars that normally express obvious symptoms; therefore, there is a need to incorporate a stringent virus postharvest testing component within the various seed potato certification schemes.Planting early generation certified seed would be an ideal method to minimize PVY inoculum since these lots are less likely to be infected with PVY, but it is not currently practical due to restraints on increasing seed stocks over several years. Minitubers, the small tubers produced from tissue culture plants grown in PVY-   free greenhouses, are the early generation seed potatoes that are subsequently grown in the field to produce conventional seed potatoes. Although the value of the minituber crop is relatively small, it is the base for the $3.2 billion U.S. potato industry. Minitubers are more expensive and more difficult to handle than field grown seed, but there is great interest in expanding minituber production among seed potato growers because they offer benefits such as diseasefree planting material and a 1-or 2-year decrease in the amount of time that it takes to bring new potato cultivars to market. However, there is a potential problem, i.e., the growth of minitubers in the field differs from that of plants grown from field-grown seed (23).Plants generated from minitubers are more susceptible to aphid inoculation of PVY than plants generated from field tubers, a fact that also needs to be considered (54). More research is needed to determine if minituber production can be refined to quickly increase volume and reduce the number of field generations while avoiding increased PVY incidence. A review of existing cultural practices will be essential to maximize production of quality seed potatoes from minitubers. Given the current situation, it is doubtful that seed certification alone will control the incidence or spread of PVY in seed and commercial crops, although some fundamental changes if adopted industry-wide would be extremely advantageous. These would include: 1. A comprehensive seed law that dictates and enforces that only certified seed potatoes are planted. The recent adoption of the Potato Memorandum of Understanding by all potato producing states in the United States requires that all seed exported out of state be certified to have virus levels at or below 2%. However, growers may not be required to plant only certified seed if the seed comes from their farm or another source in-state. Of the 14 states that account for 95% of the U.S. fall production (NASS 2009), only eight have a Mandatory Seed Law. This type of law requires that all potato production be planted using certified seed. In Canada, all seed potato producing farm units must plant seed potatoes of the Foundation class or better. Furthermore, all major seed potatoproducing provinces have a mandatory seed planting law, some of whom do require the planting of Foundation seed class or better. 2. Mandatory postharvest virus testing (PHVT) for the certification of all seed potatoes. Currently, all seed that will be recertified in the United States is required to have a postharvest test, but not all seed that is sold to plant the commercial crop is required to be tested. In Canada, some provinces also require PHVT and set PVY tolerance levels for seed potatoes planted within the province. While visual inspection of plants during the growing season is helpful, these inspections (as discussed above) do not provide an accurate indication of virus infection levels in harvested tubers. To better determine virus incidence in seed lots, a sample of randomly selected tubers, collected in a manner that is representative of the entire lot, should be visually inspected for PTNRD and subsequently subjected to some type of PHVT. Lots eligible for recertification as seed or commercial planting should be free from any symptoms of PTNRD and have a low incidence of PVY. 3. Strict adherence to reasonable virus tolerance limits allowed in certified seed. While it is not appropriate to expect seed potatoes to be free of detectable levels of PVY or other viruses, it is prudent to move toward establishing tolerance levels that are meaningful from a virus disease management standpoint. For example, Nolte et al (63) have shown that initial levels of PVY in the seed can be expected to increase 5-to 10-fold or more during the course of a typical growing season. Furthermore, for every percent increase in PVY incidence, a 1.5 cwt/acre decrease in yield can be expected. Although more research is needed to model anticipated disease increase and yield decrease in other cultivars and environments, this research suggests that initial virus levels in the seed should be less than 5% to avoid significant yield loss in commercial plantings. Ideally, virus levels should be below 1% in seed that is planted for recertification to minimize loss and chance of rejection (63) as certified seed. Reducing initial inoculum levels in all seed will help to lower the amount of PVY overall and thereby decrease the probability of virus spread. Current tolerances are higher than these ideal levels in many seed production areas, but the industry should consider adopting stricter standards that would include refraining from relaxing these stricter standards when seed for a particular cultivar may not be widely available due to high virus levels in certain years. Relaxing tolerance standards may help maintain supply in the short term, but it will invariably lead to an increase in virus levels in the overall crop and a shortage of quality seed over the longer term.Effective on-farm PVY control can also be realized by adopting strategies used to reduce virus availability to aphids and to reduce the potential for aphids to inoculate plants. These would include eliminating weed reservoirs of aphids and virus, the use of border crops to effectively cleanse aphids of virus before they enter the seed potato crop, and the use of chemicals that would impede aphids from feeding on potato plants (25,68,72,75,92). The success of these methods will depend somewhat on knowledge of what the major vector species are and when they are moving into or through the potato crop. The seasonal phenology of aphid flights and population dynamics of colonizing and noncolonizing aphids affecting the potato crop have been studied in various localities. Numbers are generally variable from year to year, although seasonal phenologies are relatively consistent; still it has been difficult to develop any useful predictive models for most geographic regions (22,73,75,83,102). One significant change in recent years has been the emergence of the soybean aphid in the United States and Canada. Although not an efficient vector of PVY, the sheer numbers of soybean aphids moving through the potato crop late in the season can result in significant spread of the virus within the potato crop. Soybean aphid has not been a major problem in the Western United States, but grain aphids, especially the bird-cherry oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi), are potential contributors to the spread of PVY in potato in this and other potato growing regions (22,31,38,67,82,94). Late-season inoculation of plants by these and other migrating aphids will result in infection, and although foliar symptoms are not manifested in the mature plants, tuber infection can be significant. This will contribute to the discrepancy between field ratings of virus in the crop and results of postharvest tuber testing. Another consideration, in addition to the numbers and diversity of the aphid populations, is the efficiency with which they transmit the various strains of PVY. One hypothesis for the spread and increased incidence of the necrotic and recombinant strains of PVY is that they are spread more effectively by aphids than the ordinary strain. There are limited data on aphid transmission efficiency of various PVY strains, and results are inconsistent with some studies reporting no difference (26,58,94) and others reporting significant differences (1,11). Furthermore, differences among aphid species and clones of the same species, as well as differences among virus isolates within a strain, are likely to affect the outcome of these types of experiments.Identification of and minimizing local sources of PVY and aphid reservoirs will also be critical to the success of on-farm management practices. In most seed production areas, there are a limited number of cultivated hosts of PVY, but volunteer potato and solanaceous weeds, especially the nightshades, can be significant sources of virus. Hairy nightshade is widespread in many of the seed production areas of the United States and has been introduced to the Maritime provinces of Canada in recent years. Hairy nightshade is a natural host of PVY and several other potato viruses including PMTV and TRV. Although the viruses are not known to be seed transmitted in hairy nightshade, the weed can overwinter in some areas and serve as a source of virus inoculum early in the growing season. More importantly, infected hairy nightshade plants have been shown to be very attractive to aphids and therefore are a good source of viruliferous aphids especially later in the growing season. In fact, transmission of PVY from hairy nightshade to potato was more efficient than transmission between potato plants (11).Another PVY management tool that has been successful, especially for high value crops such as early generation seed potatoes, is the use of border crops (3,9,21,25). Surrounding crops with rows of a PVY nonhost crop provides a barrier to immigrating aphids. This method is most effective for small acreages (<0.2 ha) (22,74). Aphids flying long distances tend to land at the edges of crops, especially when there is fallow land surrounding the crop. Since PVY is a stylet-borne, nonpersistently transmitted virus, aphid landing in a nonhost border will probe those plants and have a tendency to clean their stylets of virus, thus reducing the chance of transmitting virus to potato as they move further into the field. Skips in the planting of fields can mimic fallow borders in the eye of an aphid, so it is important that plantings be solid to minimize the attractiveness to immigrating aphids (19). Crop borders will not stop or reduce the spread of PVY when the inoculum source is within the seed lot, so keeping PVY levels low through effective certification programs remains a critical tool.Insecticide applications are generally not effective in the management of PVY due to the short acquisition and inoculation times; however, they can be effective at controlling populations of colonizing aphids and reducing within-field spread of the virus by these aphids. Mineral oil sprays have generated mixed results in completely controlling PVY (3,4,8,20,30,52,53,71,81,95), and when initially registered were considered prohibitively expensive to apply at the frequencies prescribed for effective control. More promising is the recent introduction of chemicals and oils that have antifeedant properties. These compounds work by reducing the ability of the aphid to probe on epidermal tissues or by impeding the uptake or release of virus during feeding. While several studies have shown these compounds to be somewhat effective at reducing the spread of persistent and semipersistent viruses, i.e., those viruses that require relatively long transmission times such as PLRV (10,35), there are few studies on viruses like PVY that only require feeding times measured in seconds (36). Combining these compounds with other management practices such as border crops may also improve their efficacy (3).Clearly, the success of on-farm management practices will vary across geographic ranges and will be influenced by the timing of crop cycles, the diversity of crops in the region, as well as by potato cultivar, predominant PVY strains affecting the crop, and seasonal phenology and species composition of vector populations. The ultimate goal would be to develop regional \"best management practices\" for PVY in seed potatoes, a portion of which would also be useful in the commercial crop. However, there is a need to develop fundamental information on the transmission efficiency of the new PVY strains, the susceptibility of various potato cultivars to different PVY strains, and the carryover of virus in seed.Potato cultivars that are resistant to PVY infection would be the ideal management tool for controlling virus incidence. Unfortunately, there are few cultivars grown widely in North America that express any type of resistance that would significantly reduce virus incidence or transmission. Effective PVY resistance genes are well described and are widely used in breeding programs outside of North America, but as previously mentioned, the success, until recently, of seed certification programs at maintaining virus disease below economic thresholds has limited the enthusiasm of breeding programs to concern themselves with virus resistance. 'Eva', released by NY and PA, expresses the Ry-adg gene and has extreme resistance to all strains of PVY and PVX (70), but is not widely grown. Some older cultivars such as Kennebec, Sebago, and Katahdin, which have some level of field resistance conferred by unknown genes to some PVY strains, have been replaced by other cultivars that do not have PVY resistance. However, breeding programs in the Western United States have been looking more carefully at incorporating PVY resistance genes related to those in materials used to develop 'Eva' (66,98). These programs have also been testing new cultivar releases for resistance to the range of PVY strains, and some have significant levels of resistance against PVY O (64,90).North American potato production differs from other geographical regions such as Europe in that it is essentially a closed system, i.e., seed potatoes are not imported and production is dominated by only a few cultivars. The lack of significant seed imports provides a mechanism for seed certification to be extremely effective at minimizing virus levels in seed lots, especially if the changes in seed laws, postharvest testing, and tolerance limits discussed above are adopted. This is an opportunity to effectively manage PVY at levels that are at or below detection and well below economic significance. Aiding the seed certification programs in the adoption of the Canada/US-Management Plan for Potato Viruses that Cause Tuber Necrosis has and continues to build consensus and cooperation within the industry to reform and modernize seed certification practices and, as importantly, modernize best management practices that growers can implement so that their production meets or exceeds virus tolerances set within the seed certification standards. Seed inspectors could also benefit from continually updated information from the research community to help them better recognize the spectrum of symptoms caused by the various strains and variants of PVY in all the different cultivars now being grown in their states and provinces. They could also benefit from improved field diagnostics that will assist them and the growers in identifying problem plants that should be rogued. If PVY levels in seed can be minimized and on-farm management strategies can be optimized, then PVY incidence in the potato crop will be marginalized. The restricted distribution of the tuber necrotic strains also offers an opportunity to prevent these strains from becoming economically significant if appropriate testing of seed lots in those areas could prevent them from being planted. Shipping point inspections of tubers will also help in identifying and eliminating tuber necrotic viruses.The dominance of a few cultivars has been eroding in recent years. Russet Burbank, a cultivar introduced over 100 years ago, still accounts for 40 to 50% of the U.S. acreage, but acreage in the Northwestern United States has been declining steadily as other russet cultivars come on the market and gain acceptance. Potato cultivar has had a significant impact on the PVY problem, as with the release and widespread acceptance of Shepody, Russet Norkotah, and other asymptomatic carriers of PVY (http://oregonstate. edu/potatoes/latenttoPVYlist.htm), which in 2008 comprised more than 15 and 12% of the total U.S. and Canadian seed acreage, respectively. These cultivars have certainly contributed to the overall increase in PVY in the seed potato crop and by extension the commercial potato crop. The increased diversity of potato cultivars grown in both countries has also introduced a wider spectrum of PVY symptoms, most notably the milder symptoms that are characteristic of the PVY N/NTN and PVY N-Wi strains on many cultivars. Since the success of seed certification is dependent upon visual assessment of the crop, mild or absent symptoms means that many more infected plants go unnoticed. The more symptomatic PVY O strains are observed and removed, but the other strains remain in the crop and are passed along in the seed, contributing to an overall increase in PVY incidence and more importantly to a shift in PVY strain composition.The U.S. and Canadian potato industry stakeholders are increasingly aware of the PVY-associated challenges and have been moving rapidly to work with researchers and all aspects of the industry to implement plans to suppress PVY incidence. Continued education of growers, seed certification officials, and researchers alike, coupled with the development and adoption of new or revised best management practices and diagnostic tools, and the renewed inter-est of breeders to develop virus resistant cultivars, will be the keys to success in bringing PVY incidence under control and in minimizing tuber necrotic strains.","tokenCount":"10055"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"634aa28b523a5529e0d284fb7e288c2f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/afe86f5e-8e52-467f-af11-77066a733b56/retrieve","id":"812204264"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"701b984c-f5a4-4126-bd4f-f87cc343fa79","pagecount":"5","content":"In order to achieve the SDGs, global food systems need to transform within the next decade. Actions led by farmers and consumers, which enable leapfrogging of traditional learning curves through application of technology and adoption of best practices, will be key. Non-traditional models of leveraging private and public investment are needed to finance this transformation. Supply chains, food retail, marketing and procurement systems need to be reformed to improve efficiencies, reduce waste and respond to challenges posed by climate change. An enabling environment to support this transformation needs to be in place, which addresses existing inequalities in food systems. Changes in consumption patterns are inevitable to realize a food systems transformation, and can include changes in consumer choices and social organization, as well as new products, markets and investments.If we are to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to poverty, climate change and food and nutrition security, the agricultural development community (research institutions, private sector, farmer organizations, national and international agencies) will have to work collectively with the world's 700 million small-scale farmers by 2030 to transform the way food is produced, processed and consumed. Never before have we faced such ambitious goals.Achieving the SDGs will not be easy, as it will have to be met in the context of climate change impacts on all aspects of food and nutrition security, increasing resource constraints and trade-offs, massive urbanization, an ageing farming population, a need to rapidly reduce emissions from food systems, and dietary shifts. The pace of changes required has never been seen before, and necessitates radical changes as opposed to incremental adjustments. Effectively designed and implemented, such changes can generate multiple benefits, including improved productivity, nutrition, health and water quality, and empowerment of women and youth, translating into transformed and thriving rural livelihoods and communities.We consider climate change challenges in relation to poverty and food and nutrition security as the focus of the transformation discussion: what will it take to increase agricultural productivity, enhance food and nutritional security and health outcomes and raise farmer incomes to get rural communities out of poverty in a world where climate is changing? How will we build resilience to climate change and other stresses, and reduce agriculture and food systems greenhouse gas emissions and other agricultural environmental impacts? In this context, this Info Note discusses a comprehensive action plan to transform food systems and accelerate progress towards the SDGs.For food systems transformation to be successful, farmers and consumers must have a central role. Therefore, strengthening farmer and consumer organizations, and strengthening their networking, will be part of the efforts to drive transformation. Such a bottom up approach can help drive more effective implementation and scale up successful actions.Examples of farmer-led actions are emerging, for example, in Ethiopia, a citizen science approach with farmers enables testing of new seed varieties.Agriculture and allied sectors have lagged behind in the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs). Changing this, and ushering in the digital era in food systems, can accelerate food systems transformation. This shift will be characterised by increased interaction between food systems actors to improve efficiencies, reduce costs and enable better decisions in the context of climate change impacts. Such changes are emerging; for example, in Colombia rice farmers saved USD 1.7 million in 2014, following advice based on big data analysis, carried out by researchers at the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Scaling up such best practices and improving extension services through ICT tools can deliver benefits for the sector.Adoption of climate-resilient and low-emission practices and technologies in agriculture are still not at desirable levels. It is estimated that current technologies and practices only deliver 21-40% of the emissions reductions needed in agriculture to meet the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to 2 °C. If agriculture is to deliver its share in realizing the Paris Agreement goals and the SDGs, climate-resilient and low-emission practices and technologies will need to be scaled up. In addition, new technologies and practices will need to be developed, and effective research and innovation systems are needed.Innovative finance solutions are needed to drive food systems transformation, as current levels of financing are inadequate. Blended finance can play an important role in mobilizing private capital and unlocking new market opportunities. This will require public investors to shift their focus towards de-risking and mobilizing private sector capital, and private investors to move away from the \"business as usual\" assessment of investment More innovative financial structures, as well as greater coordination between public and private investors and more \"investment-ready\" projects, will be critical to making capital flow. In addition to increasing the flow of capital at the macro level, financial instruments such as well-designed index insurance schemes can help protect farmers' productive assets in the face of extreme climate events, and promote the adoption of improved technologies and access to credit and market opportunities.Food supply chains in developing countries are going through rapid transformation, recognizing and harnessing these rapid trends would seem an intelligent strategy for assuring lasting food systems transformation at scale. For example, small and medium enterprises are driving change in many countries, installing processing and cold chain facilities that may underpin future resilience to climate change in critical food systems. Reductions in post-harvest losses and in food waste throughout the supply chain is another opportunity that has the potential to deliver on multiple SDGs. One key expected impact is a reduction in demand on agricultural systems, delivering large reductions in the environmental impacts of farming and fishing. A further benefit might be increases in the profit margins, incomes, savings and resilience of smallscale farmers, delivering on food and nutrition security, poverty reduction and climate change adaptation.Actions are also needed to create a conducive enabling environment that encourages innovation, promotes gender equality and enhances the impact of actions. Advancing gender equality is a priority, given women's prominence among people living in poverty, their lack of access to resources and power, and the disproportionate labor burden they face. Moreover, advancing gender equality will generate positive outcomes for food and nutrition security: it is estimated that if women had the same access to productive resources as men, the yields on their farms could increase by 20-30%. Key elements of an enabling environment include policies (for agriculture as well as other sectors) and incentives. This will need to be complemented by efforts to enhance capacity at various levels for effective implementation.While the above elements represent immediate priorities for a comprehensive action plan, this will need to be complemented by beyond 'business as usual' actions to successfully result in a transformation. We have identifiedfive key areas that need to advance within the next decade, which have the potential to redefine the way the food systems function.There are many examples of potential technologies that may have transformational (even disruptive) effects over the next 20 years. There have been recent high-profile developments around artificial (in vitro) meat. There are also many research groups working on a wide range of genetics-related production issues such as nitrogen fixation in cereals, reconfiguring plant photosynthesis to increase its efficiency, and asexual reproduction in staple food crops, to name just a few. Replacement protein sources, including algae, seaweed and insects, are rapidly being developed and marketed, and one day molecular printing of proteins may be possible. Digital agriculture developments include robotics, high-precision farming, and management of inputs and outputs using big data analytics. Social media is already being used to target food products to specific segments of society, and food packaging that includes microchips with information on sourcing and environmental metrics is not that far away. On the consumption side, we may soon see nutrition status sensors that optimize diet for a person's physiological status, with automatic diet supplementation.There are prospects for total reconfiguration of agriculture itself: mass vertical farms operating hydroponically, for example, or the rise of small, self-sufficient farming communities coupled with robotic and drone technologies that minimize use of land and human labor. In the next two decades, many of these technologies will pass from the realm of science fiction into reality-some already have-and their effects could be huge. For some of these technologies, there are profound socio-cultural and governance issues associated with them-highly-targeted genome editing, for instance. Such technologies have far-reaching ethical and moral challenges that society will have to grapple with.Farming systems are increasingly differentiated. For some farmers, agriculture is their sole livelihood activity and income source; others maintain a small-scale subsistence focus with highly diversified livelihoods, including beyond the agricultural sector, especially where returns from agriculture are insufficient to survive. Still others are integrated into capital intensive global trading systems. This diversity encompasses a range of different motivations and reasons for farming superimposed over a complex mosaic of cultural identities, incentives, technologies, subsidies and sanctions. Systemic shifts that activate adaptation and transformational pathways that support different types of farmers across the globe are needed, specifically: Adaptation and development pathways need to be tailored to context and to the nature of the farming system. Many pathways offer opportunities for climate resilient development, but challenges remain as inequalities should not be exacerbated. Food sovereignty pathways to transformation emphasize communities and claim a more just and sustainable approach that recognises the importance of local decision-making and the maintenance of genetic diversity in enhancing resilience. Innovations in urban and peri-urban agriculture, e.g. through vertical farming or urban horticulture initiatives, to allow closer links to be made between production and consumption.For a true transformation in food systems-one that enables food and nutrition security for all, today and tomorrow-policy has to create incentives, foster a level playing field, ensure support for those left behind, and catalyze investment and action in food systems that meet the SDGs and the goals of the Paris Agreement. It must address the drivers of inequality and degradation that we see in today's food systems. Those drivers leave over 800 million people chronically hungry and over 2 billion overweight or obese; they relegate women to the margins despite their rights and roles in livelihoods and household well-being; they render hundreds of millions of smallscale food producers unable to grow or buy enough food; and they generate rising greenhouse gas emissions and increasingly degraded ecosystems.Policy change is needed beyond agriculture strictly as a means of food production. That policy change may be in extension services, land rights, and seeds; food safety and dietary guidelines; trade, market regulations, and technology; and the list goes on. For some countries, transformation in agriculture and food systems will mean a transformational change in the economy itself. And because any kind of transformation will come with tradeoffs between actors, policy that galvanizes transformation must be grounded in a commitment to equity and sustainability. The pathways to achieving policy change will be a critical means of demonstrating this commitment and therefore must engage the wide range of actors in food systems. This transformation will demand action from all and must begin with political and public will.To accelerate a transformation in food systems, public finance must be used to address key market failures and emerging opportunities, and to de-risk and leverage private capital that can be invested at scale. For instance, countries can ensure that the annual average of USD 600 billion of support directly provided to agricultural producers is designed to improve productivity, enhance resilience of farmers and promote sustainable practices, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and leveraging private capital. In addition, a significant amount of the annual USD 87 billion directed to general services supporting the sector can be allocated to designing effective enabling environments, and accelerate innovations in scientific knowledge, infrastructure (both digital and physical) and delivery of advisory services.Transformation of global food systems presents attractive investment opportunities in a variety of areas, such as health and nutrition, resilience of markets and supply chains, resource efficiency of business operations, innovative technologies to change the shape of food demand, promote value-chain linkages and create effective production systems, etc. Such investments in food systems will take different forms, from company investments, to infrastructure and fixed income assets. To seize these opportunities, new partnerships, including public-private partnerships, will be needed to promote entrepreneurship and more innovative arrangements. A radical shift is also needed to develop adequate financial products and delivery channels, as farmers and agribusiness will need working and investment capital, along with a set of innovative financial and non-financial services, to undertake transformative actions. Disruptive technologies will be critical not only in connecting farmers and agribusiness with public and private financiers, but also in bringing increasingly more informed and demanding consumers into the finance conversation.Food systems are wasteful, converting large inputs of natural and synthetic resources into under-nourishing diets, excess calories and substantial amounts of discarded food. Overconsumption is driving startling increases in obesity and non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, coupled with growing negative impacts on climate change, species loss, nitrogen pollution and competition for freshwater. Meanwhile, micro-nutrient deficiencies remain a global phenomenon, and hunger and undernutrition are entrenched among many poor communities in Africa and South Asia.The trend of ever-growing, yet inefficient and nonnourishing, food supply and demand is supported by many parts of the agrifood industry and abetted by governments that prioritise economic development over positive outcomes for health and environment. The transition that is needed-towards both efficiency and sufficiency-faces steep challenges from the prevailing political economy. But this agenda is not impossible. It will take a combination of incentives for individual behaviour change and wider institutional shifts. Key areas for innovation and change include: new products (and associated markets) that substitute for unhealthy and unsustainable options, for example diverse plant-based foodstuffs that substitute for meat or dairy; changes in social organisation that create the conditions for healthier eating, for example communal cooking and meals; original technologies or processes that reduce waste and inefficiency, for example edible sprays that prolong vegetable shelf-life without need for packaging; changes in consumer choice architecture that make sufficiency and sustainability the easier option, for example food delivery services that by default provide a portioncontrolled and climate-friendly meal; and a continued deployment of smart nutrition interventions that improve the health and resilience of poor consumers, for example cash transfers and promotion of breastfeeding.","tokenCount":"2350"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d5b97428cc883f8ad112e91e441aa90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/1787d0ab-dd73-4965-a5e3-f15db76c01e7/content","id":"1598717672"},"keywords":["Triticum aestivum L.","Slow mildewing and slow rusting resistance","Durable resistance","Gene pyramiding","QTL"],"sieverID":"b58db099-5fb4-4a8e-8cfb-9bc27173597c","pagecount":"8","content":"Pyramiding quantitative trait loci (QTLs) is an effective method to improve resistance to powdery mildew, stripe rust, and leaf rust in common wheat. We have developed 21 lines (F 6 ) carrying 2-5 slow mildewing QTLs by crossing slow powdery mildew cultivars Bainong 64 and Lumai 21 possessing four and three slow mildewing QTLs, respectively. These F 6 lines were evaluated in the field in Pianxian, Sichuan and Tianshui, Gansu for stripe rust resistance and in Baoding, Hebei and Zhoukou, Henan for leaf rust resistance during the 2012-2013 cropping season. According to the maximum disease severities (MDS) and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), QTLs QPm.caas-4DL, QPm.caas-6BS and QPm.caas-2BL were highly resistant to stripe rust (P < 0.01), which explained 16.9%, 14.1%, and 17.3% of phenotypic variance, respectively. Locus QPm.caas-4DL also showed high resistance to leaf rust (P < 0.01) with phenotypic contribution of 35.3%. Lines that pyramided five (QPm.caas-1A/QPm.caas-4DL/QPm.caas-2DL/QPm.caas-2BS/QPm.caas-2BL) and four (QPm.caas-1A/QPm.caas-4DL/QPm. caas-2BS/QPm.caas-2BL) QTLs exhibited higher resistance to both stripe and leaf rust compared with their parents. This resultindicates that the combination of QPm.caas-4DL (from Bainong 64), QPm.caas-2BS and QPm.caas-2BL (Lumai 21) has a marked effect on improving adult resistance to powdery mildew, stripe rust and leaf rust, and the more QTLs are pyramided, the stronger slow disease resistance can be achieved. In breeding practice, the combination of 4-5 slow mildewing or rusting QTLs can result in durable resistance to multiple diseases.害 , 分 别 由 小 麦 白 粉 菌 (Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici)、小麦条锈菌(Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici) 和小麦叶锈菌(P. recondita f. sp. tritici)引起, 具有发 生频率高、流行范围广和暴发性强的特点, 可致 3.0%~49.0%的产量损失 [1][2][3] 。长期以来, 利用寄主抗 性防治这些病害取得了显著成效 [4] 。 寄主抗性分为垂直抗性和水平抗性。垂直抗性 又称为生理小种专化性抗性、苗期抗性、全生育期 抗性或主效基因抗性, 是由 1 个或少数几个主效基 因控制, 对特定病原菌生理小种表现出高抗或免疫, 具有病原菌生理小种专化性, 常因病原菌生理小种 变异而丧失抗性; 水平抗性亦称慢病性、成株抗性 或非小种专化抗性, 由多个微效基因控制, 对病原 菌无小种专化性或专化性弱, 苗期表现为感病, 成 株期表现为中抗或高抗, 且抗性持久 [5][6] 。慢病性由 多个微效基因的加性效应控制, 基因聚合是获得慢 病性、选育兼抗多种病害品种的重要方式。Singh 等 [7] 发现, 聚合 4~5 个微效慢病基因的小麦材料对条Libellula 含有 Yr18/Lr34/Pm38/Sr57 和 2~4 个其他慢 病基因 [8] ; 平原 50 含有 3 个慢条锈基因和 3 个慢白 粉基因 [9] 。Yr18/Lr34/Pm38/Sr57 对小麦条锈病、叶 锈病、白粉病和秆锈病均具有抗性 [10][11] 。 随着 QTL 定位和分子标记研究工作的不断深入, 育种家可以利用分子标记聚合抗病 QTL, 培育持久 抗性品种 [7,[12][13] 。从 20 世纪 70 年代开始, 国际玉米 小麦改良中心(CIMMYT)选育出一批抗性持久且兼 抗多种病害的慢病性品种, 例如 Amadina、Chapio、 Cook、 Kukuna、 Parula、 Pavon 76、 Sonoita 81、 Tonichi 81 和 Tukuru, 均 含 有 Yr18/Lr34/Pm38/Sr57 或 Yr29/Lr46/Pm39/Sr58 位点及 2~3 个微效基因 [14][15] 。 因此, 聚合慢病性基因是获得兼抗多种病害的持久 抗性小麦品种的重要手段。 虽然小麦抗病性 QTL 定位研究很多, 但是由于 不同遗传背景下的 QTL 聚合到同一遗传背景存在诸 多困难 [16] , 不同来源的 QTL 可能存在互作, QTL 聚 合育种实践的报道很少。Miedaner 等 [17]  [19] 、条锈菌和叶锈菌 [20] 流 行小种均感病, 但田间成株期表现抗病, 具有典型 的慢病性特征。在百农 64 中检测到 4 个慢白粉病抗 性 QTL (QPm.caas-1A、QPm.caas-4DL、QPm.caas-6BS 和 QPm.caas-7A) [21] , 在鲁麦 21 中检测到 3 个慢 白粉病抗性 QTL (QPm.caas-2BS、QPm.caas-2BL 和 QPm.caas-2DL) [22] 。 Bai 等 [23]  系(编号: BFB5~BFB25) [23] ; 利用 16 个分子标记 [21][22] 进行检测, 明确这些株系携带 2~5 个慢白粉病 QTL。   [20,25] 。白粉病数据为 2009-2010 和 2010-2011 年度北京和河南安 阳两点的平均值 [23] 。条锈病数据为 2012-2013 年度四川郫县和甘肃天水两点的平均值。叶锈病数据为 2012-2013 年度河北保定和河 南周口 2 点的平均值。平均值后不同字母表示品系间差异显著(P < 0.05)。BN64: 百农 64; LM21: 鲁麦 21。 Slow powdery mildew QTL were mapped by Lan et al. [21][22] QTL 4DL is short for QPm.caas-4DL and by analogy for other QTLs.QPm.caas-4DL and QPm.caas-6BS have significant resistance to powdery mildew, stripe rust and leaf rust; QPm.caas-2BS and QPm.caas-2BL have significant resistance to powdery mildew and stripe rust [20,25] . Powdery mildew resistance was the means of evaluation values in Beijing and Anyang of Henan province in 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 cropping seasons [23] . QPm.caas-4DL 缩写为 4DL, 余此类推; Env: 环境; E: 误差; \"%\"表示部分平方和占总平方和的百分比, 即可以解释的表型变异。 ** 表示 0.01 的显著水平; \"-\"表示数据不存在。 QTL 4DL is short for QPm.caas-4DL, by analogy for other QTLs; Env: environment; E: error; ** Significant at P<0.01; Partial sum of squares as \"%\" to the total indicates the percentage of partial SS; which can be interpreted as an indication of phenotypic variance explained.\"-\" indicates that the data does not exist.  [23] . Pm38/Sr57 的小麦品种种植面积约有 2600 万公顷 [31] ,在病害流行年份发挥着重要作用。美国、澳大利亚 和欧洲的研究重点近年也从垂直抗性逐步转向慢病 性 [32][33][34]   ","tokenCount":"604"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3409e76a334f549ba8435da046ca415f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8011f9bc-0b5b-44e4-bd1a-30e5bfdce4ac/retrieve","id":"-1629181772"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dcb1f57d-84f6-467e-9597-e4f49a38eac1","pagecount":"2","content":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), a member of the CGIAR Consortium, is a non-profit organization based in Africa. ILRI's mission is to use the best and safest livestock science available to confront poverty, hunger, and disease in the developing world, where livestock provide livelihoods and food for hundreds of millions of people.One of ILRI's most important priorities today is to help poor livestock keepers in Africa deal with the constant threat of a devastating disease called trypanosomiasis. This disease is arguably Africa's most important livestock disease, wasting and killing cattle, commonly the most important asset of poor households. The human form of the disease is called sleeping sickness, which afflicts tens of thousands of people every year, killing many of them, and putting tens of millions more people at risk.As part of ILRI's comprehensive fight against trypanosomiasis, the institute is now in the very early stages of a project to develop disease-resistant cattle, which could save the lives of livestock and people both. Thus far, ILRI and its partners have taken a preliminary step in the process, which involved successfully cloning a male calf from one of East Africa's most important cattle breeds, the Boran. The calf is healthy and is being raised at ILRI's research facilities in Kenya.A next step is to develop a new Boran clone modified with a gene that naturally confers resistance to the disease. This involves using a synthetic copy of a gene sequence originally identified in baboons that should protect cattle against this devastating disease.A final step will be to use these disease-resistant cattle in breeding schemes that will provide African countries with another option in their fight against trypanosomiasis.This research potentially offers a reliable, self-sustaining and cost-effective way of protecting tens of millions of African cattle against disease and untimely death, as well as dramatically reducing poverty across Africa. By reducing the reservoir of pathogens, this should also help to save thousands of human lives each year.It could take up to two decades to develop disease-resistant cattle herds for Africa. ILRI and its partners are also continuing to pursue other options for fighting trypanosomiasis, such as rationale drug treatment and integrated disease control methods.For ILRI, public safety and animal welfare are paramount; this means working with all the relevant Kenyan and international regulatory authorities to ensure that the highest bio-safety standards are always employed. In line with its commitment to transparency, ILRI places all of its research results in the public domain.ILRI is working with a team that includes scientists from New York University, along with experts from the Roslin Institute in Scotland, and Michigan State University in the USA. The fundamental research aspects of this project are being funded by the US National Science Foundation.Steve Kemp ILRI, Kenya mailto:s.kemp@cgiar.orgThe International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium, a global research partnership of 15 centres working with many partners for a food-secure future. ILRI has two main campuses in East Africa and other hubs in East, West and Southern Africa and South, Southeast and East Asia. ilri.org.CGIAR is a global agricultural research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by15 research centres that are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. cgiar.org.","tokenCount":"564"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a5703ff3e151f87a4ed74be765749a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ee3fa72-8e14-4d25-af94-f3f6c3da3f62/retrieve","id":"-205517485"},"keywords":["Pailom","Laos","situation analysis","needs assessment","village","CCAFS"],"sieverID":"17d1bbf7-3190-4699-9ce0-dc5c8fd779fb","pagecount":"44","content":"The tools and guidelines used for implementation of the village baseline study across all CCAFS sites, as well as the mapping outputs at a higher resolution can be accessed on our website (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/ resources/baseline-surveys).in policy analysis, gender, health policy and economics, and fishery social science.• Leocadio S. Sebastian, PhD. He is the current regional program leader for CCAFS SoutheastAsiawhere he leads the integration of CCAFS agenda into the regional agenda and national program in CCAFS focus countries.  Table 1. Sub-administrative units of Savannakhet province Table 2.Land use change in Savannakhet Province between 1990 and 2000 (unit in 1000ha) Table 3.Agricultural production in Savannakhet Province, 2009 Table 4.Area and products of industrial agriculture in Savannakhet Province, 2009 Table 5.Rice area and yield in districts of Savannakhet province in 2008 Table 6.Impact of natural hazards in Champhone district in last 10 years Table 7.NGOs and their operation in Savannakhet province Table 8. Some health indicators of Savannakhet Province The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic ten-year partnership between the CGIAR and Future Earth to help the developing world overcome the threats posed by a changing climate, to achieve food security, and to improve agriculture and livelihoods.In 2014, CCAFS South East Asia region began identifying and implementing Climate Smart Villages (CSVs). Six CSVs were selected in three countries: Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. The objectives of CCAFS CSV are to increase the adaptive capacity of small-holder farmers in light of climate change effects, improve livelihoods by sustainably increasing productivity and resilience, mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs), and enhance national food security and development goals.This report presents the results of the situation analysis and needs assessment (SANA) for Pailom village in Champhone District, Savannakhet Province, Lao PDR. The SANA was conducted in conjunction with, and to complement other CCAFS studies in Pailom village including the village baseline study (VBS) and organizational baseline survey (OBS). The situation analysis is a broad and comprehensive review of information related to climate change, agriculture, and food security. The needs assessment provides information to make decisions regarding key priorities, challenges, opportunities for CCAFS interventions. Both systematic analyses were conducted at the provincial, district and CSV levels.The aims of the SANA are to: 1. Understand the broad context of climate change, agriculture and food security at the provincial, district and village levels. 2. Be used as a guide to CCAFS project implementation › Reveal key priorities, local attitudes and core issues for CCAFS planning. › Identify stakeholders (people, groups and institutions) that can influence on the outcomes of the project. › Aid in the design of an appropriate modality for introducing key interventions. Identify capacity building needs for the community and project implementers. 3. Be used as a baseline to monitor and assess the changes occurring in the area through time in relation to adaption and mitigation to climate change.The data collection for this study used methods developed and provided by CCAFS (http://://ccafs.cgiar.org/ where-we-work  The province has a total land area of 21,774 km 2 with an average elevation of 144 m ABS. The elevation reduces from East (1350m) to West (75m). The landscape varies from low-lying floodplains to foothills and mountains. Most (90%) of the province is flat land, and only 10% is hilly (Figure 1). The western part of the province close to the Mekong River is considered as lowland area. This is the largest rice cultivation area of Laos. Savannakhet is connected to Thailand, other areas of Lao PDR, and Vietnam via road No. 9, and it is linked to China and Cambodia via road No. 13. The province is lying on the East West Economic Corridor of Laos (Andriesse and Phommalath 2012). Sanvannakhet Province has 15 districts (Table 1) with a total population of 900,000 people (2011), which accounts for about 13% of the country's population. The province is the most populous in the country.According to the 2005 Census, the average population growth rate in Savannakhet was 2.1%/year, similar to the rate at the national level (IUCN and NERI 2011). The average population density is 35 persons/km 2 (Figure 2).The province has 49 ethnic groups, each is characterized by its own culture and tradition. The majority of the population in Savannakhet is Lao Lum, accounting for about 62% of the population, followed by Phu Tai (15%), Ma Kong (9%), Ka Tang (9%), and others (5%) (Somphong 2004). There are no major differences between groups in terms of natural resource management and livelihood (SmartWood 2006). About 63% of the population is in working age (16-60 years old). Members of the labor force have relatively low education level; most are mainly engaged in subsistence agricultural production and have little experience with commercial agriculture or off-farm works. These are the main disadvantages of labor force in Savannakhet. The field survey conducted in 2014 shows that Pailom village had 669 people, including 430 women and 239 men. Most people were born and raised in the village. Houses in Pailom village have a compact layout.There is an increasing trend among villagers, especially the men, in moving out of the village to find work The highest rainfall is in August, about 345 mm (in Savannakhet City) (Inthavong, Fukai, and Tsubo 2011;Kosaka, Takeda, Sithirajvongsa, and Xaydala 2006). Inthavong et al. (2011) showed the mean monthly rainfall observed over 20 years (from 1985 to 2008) (Figure 4b) and found that annual variation in earlyseason rainfall had a large influence on the spatial variation in field water availability, which contributed to the year-to-year variation in time of rice sowing and transplanting.The average number of hours of sunlight per year is 2,280, which is about 256.8 hours longer than the national average. However, this climate condition does not influence agricultural production, especially industrial plantations, including sugarcane, cassava, rubber, and more (IUCN and NERI 2011).The farmers in Pailom make use of a variety of indigenous weather forecasting techniques. There is a belief that heavy rains are signs of the early onset of the cold season and lots of fruit on the mango trees in March.  Forestry is the second most important sources of income in the province, after agriculture. However, this natural resource is declining quickly due to increasing population, expansion of settlement area and agricultural land, and deforestation. According to Kosaka et al. (2006), over 10 years, from 1990 to 2000, land use pattern of the province changed significantly (Table 2). The province lost 128,000 ha of dense forest while agricultural land increased 64,000 ha. In 2005, 60% of Savannakhet province was under forest land but it dropped to 52% after five years (IUCN and NERI 2011).Based on the statistical data provided by Savannakhet PAFO, the province has 1.5 million ha of arable land, representing about 68% of the total provincial land area. However, a large share of this land is considered to have low fertility. Currently, about 209,589 ha (14% of total arable land or 9.6% of the total provincial area) is being used for agriculture production. The remaining 86% of arable land is not yet utilized for any purpose (IUCN and NERI 2011).Agriculture is the most important economic sector in the province, and rice is the most important crop. Savannakhet is the province that has the largest paddy rice area in Laos, covering about 194,157 ha or 21% of total national rice area (Boulidam 2012). Most of rice cultivated lands are located in the central, southwestern and north-western corners of the province. Generally, the rice fields are situated in flat and gentle slopping (0−8%) lands (Inthavong, Fukai, and Tsubo 2011).Shifting cultivation still exists in some districts of Savannakhet province. Slash-and-burning practice has been destroying natural resources. In 2001, this practice was found particularly in Phin, Xepon, Vilabuly and Nong districts, with a total of about 2,500 ha. Nowadays, under the national program on stabilization of shifting cultivation, which was carried out by government agencies (PAFO and DAFO) in collaboration with international organizations (SIDA, FOMACOP, CIDSE, OXFAM, and Action North Sud), the area of shifting cultivation has significantly reduced.In upland areas, however, agro-forestry practices that can still be considered as shifting cultivation continue to exist. During the first year, villagers apply the slash-and-burn practice to clean new land plot and cultivate rain-fed rice or other cash crops (e.g. sweet corn, watermelon, beans, etc.), mixed with perennial crops (i.e. fruit trees or timber). For the first three years, they harvest products from annual crops while fruit trees and timber are still small. When perennial crops grow up with closer canopy and production of annual crops reduced accordingly, they start slash-and-burn in a new plot.In Pailom village, deforestation is rampant, but there still remains one community forest with high tree density. This forest is an important community resource supplying food/NTFP and wood for the village.With permission, the villagers can cut down trees for timber used for village construction such as temple, school and village office. For firewood, villagers have to go to the forested area in NongBone village, approximately 4 km outside of Pailom. In 1996, a soil survey was conducted in Savannakhet province. The sampling density is about 50−100 ha per sample pit. Each district had an average of 26 samples for identifying soil type, soil depth, soil texture, slope, and topsoil fertility. The dominant topsoil texture types are coarse textured− sand, sandy loam, and loamy sand, which account for 4.5%, 38% and 41% of total land area, respectively. Less than 20% of land area have the clay loam and loam texture. In the subsoil layer (below 20 cm), typical soil textures are sandy loam and clay loam, account for 67% of the total area. The soil depth varies greatly among soil types, with deep (more than 100 cm) soils being the predominant category, covering about 78% of the province, whereas shallow and thin soils account for less than 6% (Inthavong, Fukai, and Tsubo 2011).The study conducted by Inthavong et al. (2011) shows that the rice cultivated lands in the province mostly have low soil fertility in terms of organic matter, total CEC, base saturation, total available P, and K2O. In the lowland area, more than 50% of the rice lands are on the Acrisols soil group, the highly weathered soils with a low content of primary minerals, and a low base saturation (<50%). The study also shows that in wet season, soils contains 8.2 -56.4 kg ha-1 of N, 0.6 to 43.6 kg ha-1 of P, and 38.6 to 140.5 kg ha-1 of K. Average soil indigenous nitrogen supply is lowest in Songkhone district (19.3 kg N ha-1) and higher in Champhone and Xepon districts (42.8 kg N ha-1 and 56.4 kg N ha-1, respectively). The soil indigenous phosphorus supply is lowest in Khanthabouri district (3.1 kg P ha-1) and the soil indigenous potassium supply is lowest in Xepon district (39 kg K ha-1).The main rivers that flow across the province are Mekong, Xe Banghiang, Xe Bangfai, Xe Noy, Xe Champone, Xe Sansoy, Xe Lanong, Xe Pone, and Xe Thamouak. The rivers and wetlands provide an important habitat for aquatic species, as well as a basis for irrigation system development and electricity generation. The province already has existing irrigation schemes, including Nongtao Lake, originally constructed for rice paddy irrigation. Currently, the national and provincial governments are also conducting feasibility studies for a number of additional large irrigation projects for agriculture in the area, as well as investigating and constructing a total of five hydro-electricity projects (i.e. Tad Sakok, Tad Salean, Se Lanong, Se Banghiang I, Se Banghiang II) (IUCN and NERI 2011).There are a few ponds in Pailom and villagers use this resource for domestic water use and to collect fish, amphibians, and wild vegetables for home consumption and to sell at the market. However, the ponds tend to be shallow and dramatically reduce in size during the dry season. About 8km from Pailom is the large Soui reservoir that is abundant in natural resources. Villagers in Pailom go to this reservoir for fishing and to collect other aquatic species for household consumption and to sell for income.Savannakhet Province is rich in mineral resources, such as copper, gold, ceramics, potassium, sodium, and iron with more than 10 important mineral deposits have been found in the province. The two mines already established in the province are Sepon Gold & Copper mine (Australian/Chinese investment) and a ceramics mine (Vietnamese investment). The Sepon mine produces about 100,000 ounces of gold and 60,000 tons of copper annually to the world market and employs over 4,000 people. In 2009, it brought revenue of USD$80.5 million to Laos's government. Nowadays, national and provincial governments have permitted mining companies to investigate 16 mining deposits in Savannakhet Province: gold and iron deposits in Sepon District, barite deposit in Villaburi district, sodium deposit in Champhone district and three potassium deposits in Champhone, Xonburi, Songkhone and Xayburi districts (IUCN and NERI 2011).In Laos, 95% of the population depends on agriculture as the main source of livelihood, particularly in rural areas (Boulidam 2012). In 2010, agriculture contributed 49% of the total production value of Savannakhet province, followed by service and industry sectors (IUCN and NERI 2011). The main agricultural products are rice, maize, vegetables and industrial crops (i.e. sugarcane, rubber, and acacia and eucalyptus).Table 3 shows the traditional agriculture products of Savannakhet province (IUCN and NERI 2011). Rice is a staple food for daily consumption and the main source of livelihood of Laos' people. Among the six main rice-cultivated provinces in southern Laos, Savannakhet has the largest area of lowland rice, accounting for 23% of the lowland rice area of the country (Inthavong, Fukai, and Tsubo 2011). In 2009, the province has 185,674 ha of rice.The rice production system is classified into lowland rice and upland rice cultivation. In the lowland area, rice can be grown in the single or double rice cropping. The average rice yield range between 1.5 and 4.7 ton/ha, depending on varieties, land quality, fertilizer input and weather condition. Most of the grain production is for domestic consumption. The majority of the present production system in Savannakhet is a single wet season cropping, particularly where there is no irrigation supply. Sowing seedling is in late May to mid-June, followed by transplanting in mid-June to mid-July. However, the timing of practices depends on rainfall distribution. Besides rice production, Savannakhet province has various other annual crops (i.e. wheat, peanuts, beans, watermelon, cucumber, etc.) with total area of nearly 19,000 ha. The province also has 7 buffalo and cattle farms, 79 pig farms, 19 poultry farms and 16,183 fish ponds (Somphong 2004). The number of domestic livestock is being raised steadily. Industrial agriculture, which characterized by large-scale plantations, advanced techniques used, and commercial orientation, is relatively new introduced in Savannakhet province by foreign companies, but it is expanding rapidly. Table 4 provides a list of industrial crops grown in the province in 2009. The total actual planted area is only 17% of the planned area for planting. In terms of planted area, the top three industrial crops are sugar cane, eucalyptus and rubber.More than 143,000 ha (about 6.5% of the total provincial land area) was allocated to plantation companies, mainly located in Xayburi, Outumphone, Atsaphanthong, Palanxay and Phin districts, but only about 25,000 ha is being used. The main industrial crop products are sugar cane, eucalyptus, rubber and cassava.In 2009, production of sugar cane and cassava were 56.4 tons and 7.5 tons, respectively.In 2007, the province had 27 big wood processing companies. The wood processing industry plays an important role in Savannakhet's economy. According to Savannakhet PDPI, the total value of wood and products exports accounted for USD 47.5 million in 2006-2008, approximately 3.5% of the total export value of the province. Wood and wood products are the third important export products of the province, after copper and gold (IUCN and NERI 2011). Forests and other natural resources play an important role in local livelihoods. Wildlife and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (e.g. bamboo, dipterocarp resins, medicinal plants, mushrooms, cardamom and rattan) are consumed by households as well as sold for extra cash income. They are an important part of livelihoods and safety net for rural people in terms of food insecurity (IUCN and NERI 2011). A study of Kosaka et al. (2006) conducted at communities in Savannakhet showed that other products such as wild fruits, shoots or greens could be collected anywhere in the villages, except protected areas and private land. Forest supplied the largest number of useful products. More than 100 plant species are collected and used by villagers as food (bamboo, vegetables), timber (Dipterocarpus alatus, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dialium cochinchinense and Peltophorum dasyrrhachis), fuel (Irvingia malayana) or basketry (Abundant Calamus sp. and Dendrocalamus strictus). Some of them had good economic value as they can be sold in local market or to traders (Dendrocalamus strictus shoots, Nephelium hypoleucum fruits, Syzygium gratum var. gratum shoots). Fallow fields are also sources of edible plants as main ingredient of a popular Lao dish. In some areas, pineapples have become the most popular crop and income source, replacing previous upland rice. Grassland is an important source for roofing material and making brooms. Many kinds of vegetables are collected long waterside for home consumption and also sold in the market.Figure 7 shows the distribution of agricultural and forestry products over a larger geographical scale by trade. There is a central market in the town of Savannakhet province, where villagers can sell their products and buy goods. The bamboo screens and other handicraft products are produced in Savannakhet.Source: Kosaka, Takeda, Sithirajvongsa, and Xaydala (2006)According to Andriesse and Phommalath (2012), nowadays, non-farm activities in rural area (e.g. collecting forest products, wildlife hunting, logging, etc.) do not contribute much in household income as before.Labor migration brought good opportunity for household livelihood. Remittances have become one of the main sources of income for the villagers. In Giang Pho Sy village, a household that has one or more migrant labor is able to generate an additional average income of USD 2,139 per year. Poor households mainly use remittances for their basic needs. Average households use remittances for the diversification of their income structure (e.g. cash crops, trading and services). Well-off households use this opportunity to invest on a larger scale agricultural production and education of children.The poverty rate reflects the percentage of people living below the national poverty line 1 . From 1992 to 2009, poverty rate in Savannakhet province reduced significantly, from over 50% to below 10% (Andriesse and Phommalath 2012;IUCN and NERI 2011). However, the province was in the middle class of national poverty ranking. Figure 8 shows the distribution of poverty rate over districts in Savannakhet province.From 2005 to 2010, the province has a remarkable economic growth with provincial GDP increased by 10.5% yearly and the GDP per capita increased from USD 525 (2005) to USD 897 (2010) (IUCN and NERI 2011). However, over 84,000 people or 14,286 households were still living below poverty line, especially in the remote areas in the eastern part of the province, where road and other infrastructure is less developed and access to markets is difficult.The economic growth resulted in provincial budget surpluses, expanded job opportunities in the city of Savannakhet, income generation and increased commercialized production. The physical infrastructures (e.g. rural accessibility, rural schools, health centres and water sanitation) has been improved and expanded (Andriesse and Phommalath 2012). As the negative effect of economic growth and openness in Savannakhet, various inequalities have emerged between the city and the rural areas, between men and women and between the Lao Loum (well-off lowland people) and the Lao Theung (upland people) (Cornford 2006).1The food poverty line in Lao PDR is understood as consuming of less than 16 kilogram rice per person per month and the general poverty is understood as food poverty line plus 20% of local price of 16 kg rice. That means households consuming and spending less than the line are identified as poor household. In general poverty in Lao PDR is understood as inability to satisfy basic needs including food consumption, clothing and housing.Together with provincial economic growth, socioeconomic stratification within the village can also be obviously seen. Well-off households tend to develop agricultural production for both consumption and commercial purposes. This group also diversifies their income sources from relatively large paddy fields, many animals and plantations. They also hire labor and applied modern technology in farming. The middle group is often engaged in long-term investments and cash crops or mixed agriculture production and wage labour. The poor households are characterized by a large number of dependents (elders and children), small pieces of land or landless. The livelihood of poor households is based in forests and wage labor.Although Savannakhet is one of biggest provinces in Laos, the province is not able to create enough jobs to meet employment demand. Labour migration is very popular in the province. A study of Andriesse and Phommalath (2012) showed that percentage of migrant workers in a village increased from 3% (2002) to 48% (2010). Many people migrate to cities or even other countries to find jobs. Most migrant workers are in the ages between 18 and 30 years old, where 55% are female. The increase in migration is attributed to two reasons: (1) from 2005, all citizens in Laos can obtain a passport, and (2) in 2006, the bridge connecting Savannakhet with Mukdahan (Thailand) was built. Andriesse and Phommalath also found that most of the migrant workers (91%) migrated to Thailand, and only 9% work in cities of Laos. Similarities in culture and language and a high labor demand in Thailand are advantages for migrant labors. They often come back to the village once a year during the Lao New Year. This resulted in changes in labor structure in the villages. Farming works are mainly managed by children and elders.Meanwhile, Pailom villagr is predominantly agricultural community with 90% of the population's main livelihood is farming, particularly rice paddy farming. The minimum area of land owned per household is 0.8 ha and the maximum is 5 ha.All household members are involved in rice cultivation. Part of grain production is used for household consumption and the rest is sold to the middlemen at a price set by the middlemen. No price negotiations take place with farmers being price takers. Farmers feel that they are being cheated as the weighing machine is sometimes not functioning. Moreover, although the planted area is increasing, rice yield has been declining for the following reasons: increase of pests and diseases, monoculture production, and soil degradation. In addition, climate change such as the hotter and longer dry season and more frequent and extreme droughts are also challenges mentioned by farmers that contribute to the decline in rice production. Under such negative impact of climate change, some households have depended on government food aid program. To deal with this problem, some farmers are using more chemical fertilizers, engage more on livestock production, and other farmers migrate to Thailand for wage labor. About 90% of households in Pailom village raise cattle and livestock. All household members join this activity: both husband and wife take care of animals and the children are mainly responsible for feeding. The number of cows has been increasing while the number of buffalo has been decreasing. Compared to buffalo, cow brings higher income and requires less water than buffalo (i.e. for bathing). Furthermore, buffalo as a farm animal is being replaced by machines. With increasing cow herds in the village, there is a high demand on pasture land.There are 5% of households are into fishing, 5% have supplementary household income from handicrafts (i.e making rice box, hats, mats, etc.), and 2% have a small business (i.e, small store). In Pailom, only women produce handicraft products. More households are engaged in handicrafts given that the market price of these products has been increasing.In Laos, rice is the staple food.. In 1990s, about of 80% of households were engaged in rice cultivation (Kosaka, Takeda, Sithirajvongsa, and Xaydala 2006). A number of changes in farming practices have taken place in the last decades (Andriesse and Phommalath 2012). New agricultural technologies have been introduced, machinery replacing human labor, and animal power, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are applied, and new crop and animal varieties are being used. Agricultural labor has better access to education and has more chances to learn innovative agricultural technologies. In 2005, the total area planted to rice in Laos was approximately 793,980 ha ( about 80% of the cultivated land).In 2009, the total rice area increased to approximately 872,896 ha (Boulidam 2012). There are many rice varieties grown in Savannakhet province, including commercial varieties (TDK 1, TDK 11, TDK 7, TDK 8, Thasano 1, PG 1, RD 6 and RD 8) and traditional varieties (Luengboonma, Douyuan, Peutnam, Jasmine, Saiyan, Khaosuong, Dou Obon, Khamnoy, Dounoy, Eephond, Dounuan, Phanbouli, and Eekhaoyai, etc.). Farmers commonly plant early, medium and late maturing varieties to have a continuous food supply in the year. Boulidam (2012) used six scenarios to simulate yield of lowland paddy rice under climate change in Savannakhet and showed that the mean rice yield up to year 2100 will vary between 3.5 ton/ha to 3.7ton/ha. The rice yield may reach highest value of 4.1 ton/ha.In Pailom village, sticky rice is the preferred and main staple food. In the daily meal, rice is the basic food and, generally, accompanied by small portions of animal products such as chicken, duck, pork, beef, and egg, amphibians, and fish. For the most part, these animal products originate from small household livestock production or are collected in community ponds. However, there is not enough livestock production to meet household consumption needs and additional meat is bought from the markets. Vegetables and fruits are available in small amounts and consist of chilies, papaya, morning glory, and mint. Most of the farmers collect the natural vegetable and amphibians from the paddy fields and forests. Villagers have an insufficient amount of food, especially rice during September and October.Food crisis, in the form of rice shortages, is a recurring problem in Pailom. Small food shortages occur nearly every year and the most serious food shortage happened 30 years and 5 years ago. The more severe food crisis occurred because of severe droughts and floods in Champhone district. During times of food shortage, villagers are offered rice and corn powder (emergency food aid) by the government at a subsidized price. Also, villagers cope with the situation by seeking work as farm labour for others in the village or temporary migrate for work in Thailand to supplement their family income.In Laos, drought or flooding can occur at any period of the rice growing season, especially in the early and the later period of the growing season. In 1991 to 2002, several floods have significantly impacted on the lowland rice area in the Mekong River Valley, including Savannakhet, resulting in losses to more than about 70,000 ha of rice planting areas. In 2011, the tropical storms Haima and Nock-Ten caused floods and damaged more than 37,000 hectares of ricelands. More than 300,000 people were affected and the damage was estimated at more than USD 100,000,000 (Boulidam 2012). In Savannakhet province, annual droughts and flooding are more commonly seen in the eastern uplands than in other regions.In Champhone district, people suffer from seasonal flooding every year (Table 6). Although the land is not seriously damaged by the extreme flood event but almost all products (crop, livestock and fish) are affected (e.g., strong Nock Ten typhoon in 2011 caused deep flood and damaged rice and livestock production in this area). Therefore, food insecurity is the main problem for many people during the flood events (UNDP and MAF 2012).Meanwhile, pest and disease outbreaks during the wet and dry seasons are common problems for crops, livestock, and fishery production. However, the problems occur differently from year to year. Outbreaks of golden snail, blast, stem rot, sheath blight, foot rot and sheath rot often happened in the district. During the last 10 years, several hazards and extreme weather events that impacted on agricultural production in Champhone district were recorded. In addition, people in Champhone district have also experienced cold spells in some years. The low temperature has killed many cattle (cow and water buffalo) and poultry (chicken and duck).In Pailom village, due to a lack of irrigation, farm land is completely dependent on rainfall, is prone to droughts, and has a deep water table, which limits production. Although flooding is a problem for most farmland in Laos, floods in Pailom do not occur due to its geographic position. However, flooding occurs in nearby villages, which indirectly impacts on Pailom village as they depend on the food supplies from these villages to meet their needs.It is widely known that deforestation and forest degradation are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The estimated global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from land-use change over the 1990s had an average of 1.6 Gt C•a −1 . In 2005, land-use change in Laos was responsible for 26% of the GHG emissions of the country and these emissions are expected to increase annually. Over 28 years (from 1982 to 2010), forest in the country lost a total volume of 148 million m 3 (Vicharnakorn et al. 2014). Vicharnakorn (2014) showed that in Savannakhet, the overall carbon stock was approximately 230.50 mt, with an average of 120 t/ha (Figure 9). The mixed deciduous forest had the highest total carbon stock, followed by the dry dipterocarp forest and dry evergreen forest. The soil carbon content of the dry evergreen forest, disturbed forest, and paddy fields sites was higher than their above-ground carbon stock.  The climate in Savannakhet province is dominated by the south-west monsoon with higher rainfall, air humidity and temperatures in the period between April and October. There is strong variability in seasonal rainfall distribution with seasonal droughts and floods.Historical climate data observed over 39 years (1971 -2009)   Savannakhet province frequently faces significant impacts of climate variability as well as extreme climate events. Rice production of the province is strongly influenced by climate change. There are two types of drought, classified based on the time of its occurrence, including early-season drought (from mid-June to mid-July), late-season drought (late-September to October) (Inthavong, Fukai, and Tsubo 2011).There are also climate-related risks in agriculture production. During unfavourable weather, diseases and insects such as grasshopper, rice stink bugs, armyworm may appear more often. These directly impact crop yield (Boulidam 2012). Figure 12 shows the organizational hierarchy of the Agriculture and Forestry Office at provincial and district levels. The Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office (PAFO) belong to the provincial government horizontally and vertically to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). Under PAFO, there are six provincial assistance offices: the executive office, livestock office, irrigation office, cultivation and extension office, meteorology office, and the forestry office. PAFO also has local offices in individual districts, called the District Agriculture and Forestry Office (DAFO).The main role of PAFO is governmental and strategic management for agricultural and forestry production.It manages plan and also budget for agriculture and forestry development of district office. DAFO has responsibility to implement activities at villages within the district. The organizational structure of DAFO is similar to PAFO but at lower level (Somphong 2004).Source: Somphong (2004) Figure 12. Organizational hierarchy of the Agriculture and Forestry Office at provincial and district levelsOthers important agencies are: 1. Provincial Water Resources and Environment Office (WREO) was established in 2007. This is an important agency for reviewing and/or conducting social and environmental impacts assessments to issue an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECCs). However, the office is only able to conduct initial environmental examinations for small scale investment projects that do not have high social and environmental risks. In terms of governance, Savannakhet province has 10 special zones established since 1995 in order to improve people's livelihood and alleviate poverty in rural and remote areas. PAFO implements projects on rural development at each special zone in collaboration with other government agencies (public health, education, industry and handicrafts, road construction, etc.) and NGOs (i.e. CIDSE, OXFAM, Action North Sud, etc.). Some activities (i.e, land and forest allocation and stabilization of shifting cultivation) are implemented both inside and outside the special zones. Among the 10 special zones, 4 zones are categorized as provincial level with activities implemented by provincial and district staffs from government agencies. The other six zones are managed by district government staffs. . The activities conducted at the provincial zones will be refined and applied in specific condition of district zones (Somphong 2004).• Phonh Am: belongs to Atsaphone district; including 13 villages.• Lago: belong to Xepon district; including 14 villages.• Angkam-Namchalo: belong to Vilabouly district; including 16 villages.• Xeku-Phoumaly: belong to Thapangthong district; including 18 villages.• Ladho: belong to Xepon District, including 23 villages.• Tanvay-Lamthouay: belong to Xonbouly district, including 32 villages.• Paloa-Asing: in Nong district, including 15 villages.• Hoay hoy-Thoun kham: in Phin district, including 31 villages.• Keng Cheep-Nalay: in Phalanxay district, including 15 villages.• Xieng Kai: in Saybouly district, including 9 villages.Beside agriculture and forestry development, socio-economic development activities have been also implemented in the special zones, including (i) expanding stable rice paddy fields to replace shifting cultivation, (ii) developing timber and fruit trees in rural area, and (iii) developing livestock (i.e., poultry, cow, pig, and buffalo).Natural resource management is strongly considered by Laos' government. The five action plans of the government (Somphong 2004)  The mechanisms of forest management were also reformed, whereby, community control of forestlands, zoning and provision of incentives to manage forests sustainably were taken into consideration (Kosaka, Takeda, Sithirajvongsa, and Xaydala 2006).Three major national programs for natural resource management were implemented in Savannakhet province:• Land and forest allocation program-this program started in Savannakhet in 1996 in order to conserve and sustainably use forestry resources. Staffs from DoF and PAFO were trained to become implementers of the program. The 10 steps of the program, from preparation and planning to evaluation, were implemented with support of SIDA and FOMACOP. • From 1996 to 2000, SIDA contributed funds to implement the program in Atsaphone, Phalanxay, Phin, Xonbouly, Vilabouly and Xephon districts, with a total of 36 villages. FOMACOP supported the project in Songkhone and Thapangthong districts with a total of 39 villages. Afterwards, the program was implemented by the District Forestry Unit (DFU) of PAFO. By the end of 2003, FOMACOP continued its support for improving the management of national production forest (Somphong 2004). As a result, the program was completed in 415 villages (27% of the total number villages in Savannakhet province). • Establishment of National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (NBCA) -There are three NBCAs in Savannakhet,: the Phou Xang He (109,900 hectares), Dong Phou Vieng (197,000 hectares) and Xe Bang Nounh (150,000 hectares). These protected areas are rich in habitat and wildlife, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish and forest trees. These NBCAs were established in 1993 to 1995. There were still many communities living inside NBCAs. Besides implementing activities to conserve the natural resources, DAFO collaborated with international organizations (SIDA, FOMACOP) to improve the livelihood of communities inside the areas and also train them on how to manage the forest. The UXO, an international organization that manages unexploded bombs, and the Action North Sud, the international development organization, had also joined actions in these NBCAs to search and destroy unexploded bombs left behind from the Indochina War. • Stabilization program to replace shifting cultivation -Although shifting cultivation still exists in rural area of Phin, Xepon, Vilabouly and Nong districts, area of shifting cultivation has reduced significantly as the result of the stabilization program. Over 5 years, from 1996 to 2001, area under shifting cultivation reduced from 5,392 ha to 2,499 ha (Somphong 2004). The program focused on the basic needs of the rural people in order to substitute their shifting cultivation practices with stable agricultural systems, e.g. coffee, fruit tree, forest plantations, livestock raising, and permanent paddy rice fields.The following organizations related to agriculture, food security and natural resources management are operating in Savannakhet province:The Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office (PAFO) and its representative offices in districts (DAFO) are important agencies. The PAFO, however, has a mandate assigned by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). The main role of PAFO and DAFO is governmental and strategic management for agricultural and forestry production at provincial and district level, respectively.Provincial Water Resources and Environment Office (WREO) established in 2007 conduct initial environmental examinations, which are usable only for small scale investment projects that do not have high social and environmental risks. The Savannakhet WREO has a total of only 23 staffs, among them, 2 has a masters degree, 3 has t bachelor degree, 8 has high school level, and 8 graduated at vocational school.Many of these officers have non-environmental-related background. WREO also has many limitations in its coordination network, equipment and budget. The office has no budget for regular monitoring, observing and controlling social and environmental impacts of approved investment projects (IUCN and NERI 2011).Provincial Land Management Office (PLMO), established in 2007, is responsible for land management at the provincial level. In cooperation with other departments, it is mainly responsible for land use planning, allocation (agriculture land, mining zone, industrial zone, residential areas, etc.), land titling and collecting land fees and taxes. Recently, the PLMO has only completed basic allocation of agricultural, forest, protection, residential and industrial land in 41 villages in Phin District as a pilot project. The PLMO has a total of 325 staffs, among them, 2 got master degree, 7 got bachelor degree, 24 got high school level, 64 of have attended vocational schools and remaining (228 people) completed secondary school and work as temporary staffs. Most of them are financial staffs that are responsible for collecting land fees and taxes for the government. (IUCN and NERI 2011).The Agriculture Promotion Bank (APB) is a state-owned with headquarters in Vientiane Capital and a branch in each province of Laos. In Savannakhet, the APB has a representative office in each district. The APB provides low interest loans (about 7% per year) to support agricultural production.The Policy Bank (PB) is also state-owned with headquarters in Vientiane Capital and a branch in every province of Laos. In Savannakhet, the bank only has offices in the poorest districts such as Nong, Sepon, Phin and Villabury to support poverty reduction. However, the PB operates as an agriculture promotion bank.There are other commercial banks in Savannakhet, including the Development Bank, Banque Pour Le Commerce Exterier Lao (BCEL) and Phongsavane Bank, provide credit for any activity with a relatively high interest rate (about 17-20%).In October 2014, an organization baseline survey was conducted in Savannakhet province. Organizations that are related to food security, food crisis and natural resources management have been surveyed. The following organizations were cited and ranked by the villagers during the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) section: (1) IRRI's project on Climate Change Adaptation in Rain-fed Rice Areas (IRRO CCARA), (2) Room to Read project, and (3) UNICEF + district hospital. 2 IRRI CCARA is the sole organization that provides specific activities in tackling climate change. In general, there is seemingly low awareness on climate change issue and limited access to CC information particularly at the village level. It is also important to mention that at the provincial level, there is an organization currently being initiated by the GoL and multi-national development agency to address climate change in agriculture sector.Of all the organizations mentioned only IRRI CCARA project is intended to address adaptation issues for farmers to withstand extreme climate events in the future by providing farmers important information on the onset and intensity of rainy season. It also promotes optimal timing of farming practices to reduce risks associated with rice production. It is important to note that the project itself is new and on-going and that meaningful project result is still being documented.For natural resources management, any issue arising in the community is dealt by the village chief and village elders. In Pailom village, forestry is mainly a community-led initiative, where households share responsibility in making sure that forest resources in the village are kept intact. The communal land allocated by the government is predominantly managed by the community(e.g. designated land for NTFP collection, such as community forest). Water resource is scarce in certain part of the village and this is exacerbated by drought. The unknown organization promoted a rainwater harvesting scheme, but was abandoned by the community due to the introduction of a water pipeline by a private company. In Pailom, Huaybak organization is responsible in the maintenance and distribution of irrigation, a small fee is required to the immediate users. It is important to acknowledge that at the village level, management of existing natural resources is community-based and community-led in the effort.With the advantage in geographical location, natural resources and existing infrastructure, Savannakhet province attracts most of investments in Laos. In 2004 to 2010, the total FDI of USD 1.207 billion was invested in the province, of which, 29% from India (USD 350.1 million), 23% from China (USD 277.7 million), 16% from Australia, 9% from Vietnam, and the remaining 23% from other countries. A large share of total investments was for agriculture and forestry (66%) (Figure 13). Currently, more than 20 foreign agricultural businesses are established and operating in Savannakhet province. Big foreign companies, such as Birla-Lao (timber), Savan (Sugar cane), Mitr Lao (sugar cane), Lao-Thai Hua -Vietnam (rubber) started to expand their production into Savannakhet Province. These companies have contributed in the economic growth, socio-economic development, and have shifted traditional subsistence to industrial agriculture in the province.No farmer association exists in Savannakhet province. Promotion of agriculture production in the province is now undertaken by financial organizations:• The Agriculture Promotion Bank (APB) is owned by the state. It has headquarters in Vientiane Capital and a branch in each province of Laos. In Savannakhet, the APB has a representative office in each district. Through subsidies from the central government, the APB provides low interest loans (at about 7% per year) to support agricultural production. In 2009, the bank was only able to provide credits of 60.08 billion Kip for agricultural production in Savannakhet Province. • The Policy Bank (PB): PB is also owned by the state. Similar to APB, the PB also has headquarters in Vientiane Capital and a branch in every province of Laos. In Savannakhet, the bank has offices in poorest districts such as Nong, Sepon, Phin and Villaburi. It is not mandated specifically to promote agricultural production, but supports government policy, especially poverty reduction. Because the poverty rate rather higher in rural areas than in cities, PB often functions as an agriculture promotion bank. Over 70% of PB's money is used for supporting agriculture production (i.e, rice, vegetable and fruit plantations, livestock production, agriculture processing factories, etc.). In 2009, the bank provided credits of 36.31 billion Kip in Savannakhet province.In general, the financial capacity of both banks is limited, meeting only about 10% of the credit demand. The largest share of the short term credits is provided by domestic agricultural production-related companies.Only a small share is provided directly to independent farmers.There are other commercial banks providing credit in Savannakhet Province with a relatively high interest rate (about 17-20%). These include the Development Bank, Banque Pour Le Commerce Exterier Lao (BCEL), and Phongsavane Bank. The high interest rate makes access to these credit sources difficult for the households Currently, there are 38 projects being carried out by 22 NGOs in Savaanakhet. Among them, 6 NGOs have projects related to CCAFS activities as listed in Table 7.Organizations are also sources of information. Currently at the village level, agriculture extension and DAFO have not addressed the technical and information needs of the farmers. Projects by international partners (e.g., IRRI CCARA project) provide information to farmers beneficiaries of the project. Private companies visiting the village teach fertilizer application techniques.Access to education is more in favor of the males, especially in rural area. In 2005, the literacy rate of female and male (from 15 years old) in Savannaket province was 59% and 79%, respectively. In general, women are less l educated and prone to various forms of exploitation (Andriesse and Phommalath 2012). Estimate in 2006 (IUCN and NERI 2011) shows that the proportion of girls who have never been to school was 14.8% while the same proportion of boys was about 12.5%.In Pailom village, villagers define being poor as \"not enough food (rice) to eat, house in the bad condition, and lack transportation: i.e. no car, no tractor\". Villagers also think that the type of occupation that a person has can be used to define the poor. For example, people who have government jobs are better off than farmers. Villagers in Pailom considered themselves belonging to poor (50%) and medium (50%) classes.Starting 2005, villagers in Pailom began to migrate to Thailand for temporary works in factories and for crop harvesting. Youth in the family tend to work in the factories and the adults tend to work in farming. On average, every household has one son or daughter in Thailand for this type of work. Similar to the results of the study of Andriesse and Phommalath (2012), these temporary migrant workers often send remittance to their family, which contributes to household income.In the past, women in the village were not given a voice and did not have as many rights as men. For example, 40 years ago, girls were not allowed to attend school, only the boys. However, in the present time, women have the right to speak and attend village meetings, are encouraged to go to school, and are able to be a village leader. In Pailom, however, the men are the village authorities and the ones who attend most of the village meetings on community planning and development. Women in the Women's Union also attend meetings.Both women and men are involved in rice cultivation. Men are responsible for the 'hard labour' such as ploughing and carrying the products after harvest. Women, on the other hand, are responsible for taking care of the seedling nursery, transplanting, and weeding. Additionally, women are responsible for collecting NTFPs including amphibians, wild vegetables, and herbs in the forest. They also play a key role in taking care of the household by cleaning, cooking, and taking care of the children.Savannakhet Province has a relatively developed health care system. The province has one provincial hospital, 15 district hospitals, and 115 community health stations. This health system covers about 89% of the province's geographical area and provides population with relatively good access to health services.Vaccination for mothers and children covers about 78% of the population, which is significantly higher than that for the whole of Lao PDR. The relatively comprehensive access to health services leads consequently to relatively good health indicators in Savannakhet Province (UNDP and MAF 2012) (Table 8). However, the province has a significant number of HIV/AIDS cases, likely linked to its convenient transit routes, high migration rates, and increasing tourism flows. In 2009, Savannakhet Province had 1,275 HIV cases, representing 41% of all cases in Lao PDR. It was the highest HIV/AIDS-infected province in the country.Malnutrition is a problem in Pailom as villagers do not get enough nutrients from the food they consume. They do not consume enough fruits and vegetables and lack diversity in their diet. Under-nutrition is also a problem because they do not produce enough food to eat. In some months villagers go hungry and rely on rice or corn powder supplied by the government as emergency food aid. UNICEF in collaboration with the district health department provides information on health and nutrition to the villagers, but with low income and low agricultural production villagers are unable to fulfil their nutritional requirements. Additionally, UNICEF targets mothers and children for vaccination programs.Illness is also a problem in Pailom. Dengue fever, cholera, malaria and other stomach problems are prevalent and exacerbated by undernutrition. The birth mortality rate is high, 3-4 children/year in the village. The health clinic is far from the village, and is a very basic health clinic that does not offer full health services. Most villagers do not see a doctor.Savannakhet province is situated in the East-West Economic Corridor of Laos, connecting Thailand and Vietnam. Investment contributes substantially to employment and income generation activities for people in Savannakhet province. It has helped the province achieve a higher economic development status than the national average. The province has a strong labor force with 63% of the population in working age (16-60 year old). However, the labor force is mainly engaged in subsistence agricultural production and has little experience with commercial agriculture or off-farm works. There is an increasing trend among villagers to move out of the village to find work, especially men. Sixty eight percent of total land area is arable, of which, 90% is considered as flat land favorable for agriculture production. Soils are suitable for several annual crops, such as rice, wheat, peanuts, beans, watermelon, cucumber, and more; and perennial crops like rubber, cassava, sugarcane, coffee, and more. However, most of agricultural lands have low soil fertility (i.e., low organic matter, total CEC, base saturation, total available P, and K2O). Forests and other natural resources play an important role in local livelihoods. Nowadays, wildlife and non-timber forest products do not contribute much to household income as before.In Laos, rice is the staple food. Savannakhet is one of top six provinces in rice production in Laos. Pailom is an agricultural-based community with 90% of the population mainly engaged in rice production. According to the farmers, although the area planted to rice is increasing, rice yield has been decreasing due to pests and diseases, monoculture production, and soil degradation. In addition, hotter and longer dry season and more frequent and extreme droughts contribute to the decline of rice production. Villagers have an insufficient amount of food for consumption, especially rice, during the months of September and October.The province has various rivers that can be sources of water supply for domestic and agriculture use. However, irrigation system in the province is not developed as a large percentage of rice area is rain-fed. In Pailom village, water resource is scarce in certain parts of the village. This is exacerbated by frequent drought. Rainwater harvesting was introduced to the village, but was abandoned by the community due to the introduction of a water pipeline by a private company. Rainfall in the province is rather high, but the temporal distribution of rain is unequal. Most of the annual rainfall is during in the rainy season from May to October. The majority of the present agricultural production system in Savannakhet is a single cropping during the wet season.Savannakhet faces significant impacts of climate variability as well as extreme climate events. People suffer from seasonal flooding every year. Extreme floods damaged almost agricultural products in the area. Pest and disease outbreaks during the wet and dry seasons are common problems for crops, livestock and fishery production. The farmers in Champhone have developed their own adaptation practices and measures such as using native crop variety, changing cropping calendar, improving storage, and grazing livestock in elevated areas.The Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office (PAFO) and its representative offices in districts (DAFO), Provincial Water Resources and Environment Office (WREO) and Provincial Land Management Office (PLMO) are important agencies. They are responsible for agriculture and forestry production and natural resources management in the province. However, the main limitations of these organizations relate to their human capacity, coordination network, equipment and budget.There are various sources of information that farmers can gather to support their farming practices, such as television, radio, organization and organizations. However, individual communication (i.e. via face to face meetings or telephone calls) seems to be the most popular way in Pailom village. Therefore, wide dissemination of farming techniques and information is limited.The following issues are prioritized by farmers during FGDs conducted at Pailom village:• Water and drought management -Rice fields are mostly rainfed and droughts occur very often during the growing season. It is well acknowledged that the current lack of water significantly reduces crop yields and also reduces the cultivation area. Although there is an irrigation canal from Nong Souy Reservoir, it ends just outside the village border. This shows a potential for Pailom village to get irrigation water from this system. It also suggests a sustainable water management scheme that can save water and expand the irrigated area. • Crop diversification -Rice is currently the main source of income and accounts for food security of households in Pailom village as well as in Savannakhet province. Actual practice shows that there are many risks in rice production. To deal with uncertainty of climate change and weather variability, diversifying cropping systems is one of the options, especially for small households. Developing household vegetable gardens (e.g., chilly, green bean, long bean, onion) and producing high value crops can crease resilience and household income.Soil management -Most of agricultural lands have low soil fertility and farmers lack innovative techniques to improve crop yield. Training on soil management is necessary. The trainings can focus on effective use of cover crops, green manure, animal manure, compost, and chemical fertilizer. • Develop plantations -According to the farmers, the increase of temperature and prolong drought relate to continuous decline of the forest nearby. They proposed to increase th number of palm trees (materials for handicrafts and house construction), coconut, papaya, banana, and more on abandoned rice fields of the village. • Establishment of the farmers' association -Currently, there is no farmer association in the village and very little extension outreach to farmers. There is a high demand on information on fertilizer use, available varieties, livestock production, pest and disease management. These suggest that the establishment of farmer groups to share experiences on farming is necessary. In addition, through these groups, climate smart agriculture practices may likely be effectively transferred to farmers. The high priority practices that can be introduced in the area include rice varieties that are drought, salinity tolerant, pest and disease resistant; exploiting groundwater, rain water harvesting; greenhouses, mulching and composting techniques, etc.• More involvement of women in agriculture extension activities -Women are generally responsible for cooking and caring for family. Nowadays, however, more women are responsible for farming while men migrate for off-farm jobs. Therefore, involving women in agriculture extension workshops and community development plans is one of their needs. Encouraging women to diversify their income (e.g.producing handicrafts such as rice boxes, chopsticks; engaged in weaving, etc.) also need to be considered.In preparation for CCAFS future flagship project, preparatory activities have been formulated to strengthen the community's ability to adopt a flagship project. A series of activities were formulated in-line with farmer's demand, which prioritize the needs valuable to the overall well-being of the community in terms of climate change adaptability and resilience. These are:• Creating partnership with local organizations such as PAFO, DAFO as well as NGOs.• Building capacity of local community through the establishment of farmer groups (i.e., livestock group, irrigation group); organizing training on water management, handicraft, pig raising, gardening, and food processing; and conducting field visits for a small group of farmers. • Characterizing natural resources that relate to farming. It is necessary to build community-based soil map, land use and land use planning maps. Participatory approach can be applied to develop climaterelated risks for the community. • Providing information on climate and existing practices that can enhance resilience of households in the face of climate change and extreme weather events.","tokenCount":"9212"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ad97afde76d56a1f4d34ed56181b306a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/350e6797-23f0-486e-ba90-26da5e08dd80/retrieve","id":"-224509178"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"16f6d7bd-0cbe-4ad2-9740-5ed110966bf0","pagecount":"114","content":"By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I followed all ethical and technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis and compilation of this Thesis. Any scholarly matter that is included in the Thesis has been given recognition through citation. This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for a Master of Science degree in Haramaya University. The Thesis is deposited in the Haramaya University Library and is made available for the borrowers under the rules of the library. I solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any institution any elsewhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.Brief quotation from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate and complete acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission of extended quotation from or reproduction of this Thesis in whole or in part may granted by head of School or Department when his or her judgment of the proposed use of the material is in the interest of the scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the authors of the Thesis.3.9.1. Advance rate computation 3.9.2. Distribution uniformity 3.9.3. Application efficiency 3.9.4. Storage efficiency 3.9.5. Yield assessments (y) 3.9.6. Water use efficiency 3.9.6.1. Crop water use efficiency 3.9.6.2. Field water use efficiency 3.9.7. Statistical Analysis  Irrigation is an age-old art-perhaps as old as human civilization. Nevertheless, the increasing need for crop production due to the growing population in the world is necessitating a rapid expansion of irrigated agriculture throughout the world (Awulachew et al., 2005). This situation is not different in Ethiopia. It has been loudly stated that if our country is to feed its ever increasing population and lessen risk of drought, continuous and extensive effort needs to be made towards developing intensive irrigated agriculture. Crop and livestock production is, therefore, only possible if water is made available through either rainfall or irrigation. If rainfall is adequate to meet the total water requirements of the crop and if it occurs at the time when the crops need it, irrigation may not be as such required as supplementary and crop production can be totally rain-fed (Arora, 1996).However, such ideal conditions are rare, particularly in any country like Ethiopia where the vagary of weather exposes primarily farmers to frequent drought. Generally water availability for crop production is highly erratic both in space and time. In some areas, there is a substantial rainfall and consequently high runoff in some months of the year, while others suffer from dry spell (Awulachew et al., 2007). This calls for the storage of excess rainfall and runoff that can be utilized during the dry season. Efforts to ensure food self sufficiency at house hold level requires efficient use of the stored water and appropriate water application technologies that can be adopted by small holder farmers. The traditional irrigation development effort is aiming at supplying sufficient water to crops to avoid water stress during the whole growing stage, so as to achieve maximum yield (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1992). However, the limitation in water availability and also salinity related to over irrigation obliges to adopt alternative irrigation schedules with different frequencies of irrigation. Because of the limited water and high level of competition, most irrigators in Ethiopia, especially these at tail of a scheme, allocation of irrigation water to the field is below the maximum crop water requirement for maximum yield (Lorite et al., 2007).In order to overcome the deficit in water required for crop production and minimize the impact of drought on crop performances, supplemental water has to be supplied in the form of irrigation. With irrigation, it is not only possible to avoid risk in production but also possible to grow multiple crops in a year which helps in food and nutritional security strategies. But, the question is which type of irrigation technology should be employed, from the three broad categories of irrigation: surface (flood, basin, border, and furrows), sprinkler, and drip (microirrigation) methods based on application of water in the field. Among the above methods, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods are known to be efficient in maximizing water utilization, but their initial investment cost is often prohibitive and not affordable by the majority of smallholders' farmers. Under such circumstances, less precise and yet least capital-intensive irrigation systems have to be considered. In this relation, furrow irrigation method is the most widely used in Ethiopia in almost all-large and small irrigation schemes. It has been reported by FAO (2001) that 97.8% of irrigation in Ethiopia is done by surface methods of irrigation especially by furrow system in farmer's fields and majority of the commercial farms. Furrows are particularly suitable for irrigating row crops such as vegetables, cotton, sugar beet, maize, tomatoes and potatoes planted on raised beds, which are subject to injury if water covers the crown or stems of the plants (Michael, 2008).Conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), where every furrow is irrigated during consecutive watering, is known to be less efficient particularly in areas where there is shortage of irrigation water. CFI usually causes excessive deep percolation at the upper part of the furrow, insufficient irrigation at the lower part and considerable runoff, resulting in low application efficiencies and distribution uniformities. Proper furrow irrigation practices can minimize water application and irrigation costs, save water, control soil salinity build up and result in higher crop yields (Michael, 2008).The development towards optimum utilization of irrigation is to irrigate alternate furrows during each irrigation time (Zhang et al., 2000). By irrigating alternative furrows, half of root is exposed to wet soil condition and the other half is exposed to dry soil condition. A drier soil condition stimulates the creation of phytohormone known as Abscisic Acid (ABA) in shoots.ABA is a primary regulator of the stomatal aperture in water stressed plants. It is presumed that irrigating alternative furrows can help to save irrigation water both by minimizing evaporative loss from plant leaf due to reduced stomatal opening with absence of visible leaf water deficit and by reducing deep percolation losses at the same time (Devlin and Witham, 1986).Different techniques of saving agricultural water use have been investigated globally. Various researchers (Hodges et al., 1989;Graterol et al., 1993;Stone and Nofziger, 1993) have used wide spaced furrow irrigation or skipped crop rows as a means of improving WUE. They selected some furrows for irrigation while other adjacent furrows were not irrigated for the whole season i.e. fixed furrow irrigation (FFI) which means that irrigation is fixed to one of the two neighboring furrows. In general, these techniques are trade-off of lower yield with maximum water saving.Water use efficiency should be improved by reducing leaf transpiration as stomata control leaf gas exchange and transpirational water loss. Investigations have shown that stomata may directly respond to the availability of water in the soil by reducing their opening accordingly (Kang et al., 1998). The advantage of this type of regulation is that plants may delay the onset of serious leaf water deficit and enhance their chance of survival in times of unpredictable rainfall: the optimization of water use for CO 2 intake and survival. The recent evidence has shown that this feed-forward stomatal regulation worked through a chemical signal, i.e. increased concentration of abscisic acid (ABA), in xylem flow from roots to shoots (Kang et al., 2000). Part of the root system in drying soil can produce large quantity of abscisic acid while the rest of the root system in wet soil may function normally to keep the plant hydrated.The result is that plants may have a reduced stomatal opening with the absence of visible leaf water deficit. Kang et al. (2000) evaluated the alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), fixed furrow irrigation (FFI) and conventional furrow irrigation (CFI) with different irrigation amounts for maize production. They reported that yield reduction in AFI was not significant unlike FFI. Mohajer et al. (2004) investigated application of the saline water in furrow irrigation systems for cotton and maize productions. Water productivity in the alternate furrow irrigation was greater than that in conventional furrow irrigation. Horst et al. (2007) applied surge flow to alternate furrows in cotton fields. The performance of alternate furrow irrigation considerably increased and provided the highest water productivity (0.61 kg m -3 ) and irrigation application efficiency (85%) as compared to the conventional furrow irrigation. Alternate furrow irrigation also increased water use efficiency in wheat-cotton rotation in Punjab, India (Thind et al., 2010).Moreover, application of the alternate furrow irrigation increased water productivity rather than conventional furrow irrigation in sugarcane fields in southern part of Iran (Sheyni et al. 2009). Slatni et al. (2011) conducted field experiment to evaluate three irrigation systems including AFI, FFI and CFI for a potato crop. Application and irrigation efficiency were the highest in FFI and lowest in CFI. Water productivity was reported to be 8.0, 8.7 and 5.9 kg m -3 for the AFI, FFI and CFI treatments, respectively. Now a day's, farmers in the study area pump irrigation water from ground or lake for intensive irrigation practice. Because, poor rainfall distribution during the growing season and over application of irrigation water without determining the crop water requirement during a dry season were identified as the major problem of a crop failure in the area. Under such existing condition in the study area, irrigation is vital in improving water productivity and stabilizing agricultural production through an increased production of high value horticultural crops. This in fact increases the economic wellbeing of small holder producers. In addition to this, it also increase the knowledge and capacity of smallholder farmers involved in irrigated agriculture production and other value chain actors and service providers.To study the effect of deficit irrigation on yield and water use efficiency for improved agricultural production, environmental sustainability and water productivity Specific Objectives: i. Evaluating the effect of deficit irrigation on soil properties ii. Investigating the effect of different furrow irrigation methods on water use efficiency iii. Evaluating the effect of deficit irrigation under furrow irrigation method on yield of tomatoThe need for additional food supplies is necessitating a rapid expansion of irrigation throughout the world. Even though irrigation is of major importance in the arid and semi arid regions of the world, it is also becoming increasingly important in humid regions (Israelsen et al., 1980).There is no single nutrient requirement for plant life, which is more vital than provision of water. Adequate quantities of water should be readily available within the root zone of all kinds of plants. When such water is not present in the soil naturally, it may be applied by irrigation or derived directly from the rainfall during the crop season. Rainfall is beyond the control of human being. It is estimated that one-third of the earth's surface receives less than 250 mm of yearly rainfall and the other one-third receives only 250 to 500 mm yearly. In the some other parts, rainfall is received only during few months during the year. This shows that we cannot afford to depend exclusively on rainfall. Irrigation is therefore, required when rainfall is insufficient to compensate for the water lost by evapotranspiration. The primary objective of irrigation is to apply water at the right period and in the right amount to sustain crop growth (Sahasrabudhe, 1996).A reliable and suitable irrigation water supply can result in vast improvement of agricultural production and productivity and thus ensures the economic vitality of a region. Many civilizations have been dependent on irrigated agriculture to provide the basic needs of a society and enhance their livelihood security. As little as 15-20% of the world wide total cultivated area is irrigated. Comparing yields obtained from irrigated and non-irrigated farms, relatively small fraction of irrigated agriculture is contributing as much as 30-40% of gross agricultural output (Walker, 1989).A general comparison made by FAO (2002) between irrigated and rain-fed agriculture for food production revealed that irrigated agriculture has been an extremely important means of food production over recent decades. It was also reported that highest yields obtained from irrigation were more than double of the highest yields obtained from rain-fed agriculture.In Ethiopia about 80% of the total rainfall occurs between June and September. This means also many rivers in Ethiopia are seasonal. Dry season flow originates from springs, which provide base flows for small-scale irrigation. The total annual water resource is estimated at 122 km 3 , of which 76.6 km 3 drain into the Nile basin. The initial estimate of ground water potential varies from 2.6-13.5 billion m 3 per year. There are numerous lakes in Ethiopia; the eleven major lakes have a total surface area of about 7000 km 2 . There are also 12 major river basins that provide an estimated annual run-off of 125 billion m 3 , with Abay basins (in central and northwest Ethiopia) accounting for 45% of this amount (Awulachew et al., 2010).Annual rainfall varies from less than 100 mm along the border with Somalia and Djibouti to 2400 mm in the southwest highlands. The national average is estimated at 744 mm/year. In the southern and eastern highlands, there is a pronounced bi-modal rainfall distribution, with the first and generally smaller rains peaking in April, and the second in September. The main dry season extends from October to February, being longer and drier in the north. Rainfall variability is important, particularly in the lower rainfall areas of the northeast highlands (FAO, 1995).Traditional irrigation is very old in Ethiopia (Awulachew et al., 2007). The traditional smallscale schemes in general are simple river diversion. The diversion structures are rudimentary and subjected to frequent damage by flood. Modern irrigation was started at the beginning of the 1960s by private investors in the Middle Awash Valley, where big sugar estates, fruit and cotton farms are found (FAO, 1995).The need for developing irrigation for crop production is getting more and more attention in Ethiopia in response to the growing demand for agricultural produce. Before 1974, private capital investment in agriculture had been increasing due to the government's policy encouraging the development of commercial farm in sparsely populated lowland areas of the country. Concessionaire farms included the Middle Awash Agricultural Estate Share Company of Melka Sedi banana farms and cotton and sugar cane plantations. The military government nationalized the rural lands and commercial farms, and changed the then commercial farms together with newly established ones (mainly rainfed ones), into state owned enterprises (Fekadu et al., 2000).Ethiopia comprises 112 million hectares of (Mha) land. Cultivable land area estimates vary between 30-70 Mha. Currently, high estimates show that only 15 Mha of land is under cultivation. For existing cultivated area, the estimate is that only about 4-5 percent is irrigated; with existing equipped irrigation schemes covering about 640,000 hectares. These irrigation schemes vary widely in size and structure, from micro irrigation (rain water harvesting), to river diversion, pumping, and small or large dams (Awulachew et al. (2010). Based on data from IWMI (in Awulachew et al., 2007) and grey document from Ministry of water resource (MoWR) and ministry of agriculture and rural development (MoARD), from a total of 640,000 hectares of irrigation nationwide; 128,000 hectares from rain water harvest, 383,000 hectares from small scale irrigation (SSI), and 129,000 hectares from medium scale irrigation (MSI)/large scale irrigation (LSI). The M/LSI includes Fentale and Tibila schemes.Furrow irrigation method is one of surface irrigation methods in which small regular channels direct water across the field. Furrow irrigation method is best suited to deep, moderately permeable soils with uniform flat or gentle slope of 0.1-0.5% for crops that are cultivated in rows such as vegetables, maize, cotton, tomato and potatoes etc (FAO, 1986). Furrows are particularly well adapted to irrigating crops, which are susceptible to fungal root rot since water ponding and contact with plant parts can be avoided (Michael, 2008).As compared to other methods of surface irrigation, furrow method has several distinct advantages: when the available irrigation streams are small, for land of uneven topography, water in the furrows contacts only one-half to one-fifth of the land surface, using furrows irrigation necessitates the wetting of only part of the surface (20% to 50%), thus reducing evaporation losses, lessening the puddling of heavy soils, earlier cultivation is possible which is a distinct advantage in heavy soils, adapted to use without erosion on a wide range of natural slopes by carrying the furrows across a sloping field rather than down the slope, reduces labour requirements in land preparation and irrigation, no wastage of land in field ditches compared to check basin method, Nearly all row crops can be irrigated using furrow method rather than flooding (Michael, 2008).Moderate to high application efficiency can be obtained if good water management practices are followed and the land is properly prepared. Different kinds of crops can be grown in sequence without major changes in design layout or operating procedures. The initial capital investment is relatively low on lands not requiring extensive land forming as the furrow are constructed by common farm implements (FAO, 2002). Soils, which form surface crusts when flooded, can readily be irrigated, because water moves laterally under the surface. This irrigation method is best suited to medium and moderately fine textured soils with relatively high available water holding capacity and hydraulic conductivity, which allow significant water movement in both the horizontal and vertical directions. The method is also suited to fine textured soils on level sites, where it permits water impoundment (Michael, 2008).Alternate Furrow Irrigation system (AFI) is where half of root is exposed to wet soil condition and the other half is exposed to dry soil condition. It offers opportunity for reducing size of irrigation and permits irrigating a field in a shorter time with a given water supply. The reduced size of irrigation may not reduce yields appreciably and thus increase irrigation-water use efficiency (Musick and Dusek, 1974).When the supply of water is limited, irrigation is applied through alternate furrows. Besides this, AFI system is adopted where salt is a problem. This system save quite a good amount of water and is very useful and crucial in areas of water scarcity and salt problems (Majumdar, 2002). Alternate furrow irrigation system may supply water in a manner that greatly reduces the amount of surface wetted leading to less evapotranspiration and less deep percolation. Deep percolation can be reduced because the lower wetted surface with alternate furrow results in lower infiltration. It has been suggested that the reduced evapotranspiration in the alternatefurrow irrigation method is due to a reduction for wet soil surface compared to that in every-furrow irrigation (Stone et al., 1979). AFI system leads to continuous stomatal inhibition and reduced leaf transpiration. In AFI drying lead to an even distribution of the root system in the soil, while drying of the fixed root zone resulted in more roots in the wet and less in the dried zone (Kang et al., 1998).According to Karajeh et al. (2000), application of alternate furrow irrigation system has improved irrigation water use. Under this furrow irrigation system, 56.7-72% of the water supply has been used to replenish soil moisture, 12-21.1% for infiltration within the temporary irrigation network and 11.3-17.8% for surface runoff. Working conditions of labors carrying out irrigation process were improved as this technology allowed them moving on the dry furrows. Alternate furrow irrigation system has been widely used in the USA, to improve irrigation efficiency with good results in potatoes, corn, sorghum, cotton and peppermint. Large water savings (up to 50%) without a loss in yield or only slight reduction have been achieved in the USA with substantial reductions in the labor required to carry out the irrigation (Stone and Nofziger, 1993).Fixed furrow irrigation system supplies water to one side of each furrow ridge. Usually, this technique applies water to more area in a given amount of time than does irrigating conventional furrow irrigation. Benefit of irrigating every other furrow is the ability to store rainfall in a recently irrigated soil. FFI should not be used on steep slopes or on soils with low intake rates. On steep slopes, the water flowing down the furrow is in contact with only a limited amount of soil surface, causing low intake rates. Research indicates that every other furrow irrigation results in yields comparable to those achieved when every furrow is irrigated.Irrigation water application may be reduced 20 to 30 percent by implementing every other furrow irrigation (FFI). Because of increased lateral flow, infiltration is not to be reduced by one-half compared to watering every furrow (Yonts et al., 2003).Many ways of conserving agricultural water have been investigated. Researchers fixed some furrows for irrigation, while adjacent furrows were not irrigated for the whole season. Water was saved mainly by reduced evaporation from the soil surface, as in the case of drip-irrigation and also used wide spaced furrow irrigation or skipped crop rows as a means to improve WUE (Kang et al., 2000).According to karajeh et al. (2000), under conventional furrow irrigation (CFI) option, irrigation water has been used as follows: 51-54% of the total water supply was used to moisten soil (saturation), 20-25% for infiltration within the temporary irrigation net work and in the fields, 5-6% for the evaporation from water surface, and 18-21% for surface runoff. Significant quantities of irrigation water losses by infiltration and surface runoff is about 40% of total water supply which reduced water supply to the irrigated lands and decreased the efficiency of agricultural production as well as the reliability of drainage systems. This irrigation system has speed up the processes of decomposition and removal of organic elements and mobile forms of nutrients in the root zone that eventually, brought to soil fertility losses.As reported by Graterol et al. (1993), the great evapotranspiration and deep percolation in the CFI system did not increase yields. This may be so because a greater portion of the evapotranspiration and deep percolation (Dp) could be due to non-productive water losses arising from evaporation from the higher amount of wet soil surface or from deep percolation. Mintesinot et al. (2004), made a comparative study that has been undertaken over two irrigation seasons (1998/1999 and 1999/2000) between the traditional furrow irrigation management and scheduling; and alternative water management options (furrows-scientific scheduling and every furrow-scientific scheduling) on maize plots in northern Ethiopia. Results were compared on the basis of yield, water productivity and economic productivity concepts.Yield-based comparison has shown that every furrow-scientific scheduling generates the highest yield levels followed by alternate furrows-scientific scheduling. The yield increase by every furrow-scientific scheduling over the traditional management was found to be 54%.Water productivity based comparison has shown that alternate furrows-scientific scheduling generates the highest water productivity values followed by every furrow-scientific scheduling. The increase by alternate furrow irrigation, scientific scheduling over the traditional irrigation management was 58%. Economic productivity-based comparison has shown that the highest economic return was obtained from every furrow-scientific scheduling followed by alternate furrows-scientific scheduling. The increase in income by every furrow scientific scheduling over the traditional irrigation management was 54%.Crops need a continuously and right amount of water from the time of sowing to maturity.The rate of use of water is not, the same for all crops. The rate of use of water varies with the kind of crop grown, time taken by the crop to mature, and the weather conditions like, temperature, wind, solar radiation and relative humidity. The same holds true for tomatoes.Over a wide range of climatic conditions, the simple product of air temperature time's radiation can be used to estimate maximum tomatoes water use (Tan, 1980).When irrigation water is provided to the land, quantity of the water is stored in the root zone of the plant. Soil moisture should be sufficient for the period of crop growth that may vary from few days to several weeks. The length of the period between two watering is dependent on the capacity of the soil to hold the available water and the type of crop grown on that soil (Sahasrabudhe, 1996).The amount of water used in producing a crop is commonly referred to as consumptive use or evapotranspiration. It includes the water transpired by the leaves of the plants and evaporated from the wet soil. Part of the consumptive use requirement may be satisfied by rainfall during the growing season, or precipitation prior to planting and retained in the soil. The amount of water needed in addition to effective rainfall to satisfy the consumptive use requirement of the crop is referred to as the consumptive use of applied water. This is the amount that must be supplied by irrigation (Sahasrabudhe, 1996).Water requirement of crop is the total amount of the water required to sustain the normal growth of plant. This includes the amount of water required to meet; losses through evaporation, losses through transpiration, plant metabolism needs, application losses and special needs. Water requirement of crops can be expressed mathematically as (Sahasrabudhe, 1996) The yield threshold depletion or allowable soil water depletion is the percentage of available water that can be depleted from the soil before there is an adverse effect on yield and quality of the crop. The allowable soil water depletion value for tomatoes is about 50% (Tan, 1980). To avoid deep percolation losses that may leach essential nutrients out of root zone, the net irrigation depth should be smaller than or equal to the root zone depletion (Sahasrabudhe, 1996).Stomata of plant leaf close when the leaf potential declines below a threshold value. This is manifestation of the development of plant water deficit. Stomatal closure can cause marked but indirect effect on cell metabolism; changes in CO 2 influx, water loss, leaf temperature and solute transport within the plant (Zhang et al., 1990).Evidences show that, stomatal regulation process works through a chemical signal; the increased concentration of abscisic acid (ABA), in the xylem flow from roots to shoots controlling transpiration (Zhang et al., 1989(Zhang et al., , 1990(Zhang et al., , 1991)). Reduction of evapotranspiration to decrease crop water requirement or reducing irrigation requirement has been a long-standing goal in arid and semi-arid regions. In this regard, much of the research work has been directed toward modifying canopy resistance through the use of chemical, anti-transparent. Several of the suggested chemicals, however, are toxic to plants and animals. In some cases, the reduction of transpiration is accompanied with a reduction in photosynthesis; the water use efficiency of the plant is, therefore, unaffected (Zhang et al., 1989(Zhang et al., , 1990(Zhang et al., , 1991)).A naturally occurring plant hormone, abscisic acid (ABA) has shown promise to be a nontoxic anti-transparent. Abscisic acid content tend to increase in leaves, which are exposed to water stress and has the effect of reducing stomatal aperture in opening. An exogenous application of ABA lowers the magnitude of transpiration in the plants. Approximately there is a linear relationship between transpiration rate and the logarithm of the concentration of exogenously applied ABA. The magnitude and persistence of the effect was related to ABA concentration.However, a later study on plants subjected to water stress, indicated that once a sufficient concentration of endogenous ABA has been built up in the stressed plants, no further reduction of transpiration could be expected by additional exogenous applications of ABA. Thus, ABA might be most effective anti-transparent at intermediate soil water potentials. The effectiveness of ABA applications in reducing transpiration seems to be related to plant species and variety.A single exogenous application of ABA has been reported to reduce transpiration for several hours in wheat plants to 21 days in young seedlings. However, the ABA content of water stressed plants has been observed to fall rapidly to the pre-stress level upon watering while stomatal resistances remain high. Thus there seems to be no direct correlation between residual ABA and the delayed recovery of transpiration rate (Zhang et al., 1989(Zhang et al., , 1990(Zhang et al., , 1991)).The early release of abscisic acid (ABA) in to the apoplast appears sufficient for rapid stomatal closure furthermore, there is evidence that ABA produced by roots in drying soil moves up through the stem and accumulates at or near guard cells with concomitant decrease in leaf conductance (Zhang et al., 1987). Stomata control the opening of plant gas exchange and transpiration water loss. Recent investigations have shown that stomata may directly respond to the level of available water in the soil by regulating their size of openings (Davies et al., 1991).The advantage of such regulation is that the plant may delay the onset of an injurious leaf water deficit and enhance its chance of survival under unpredictable rainfall conditions; the so called optimization of water use for CO 2 intake and then survival (Jones, 1980;Cowan, 1982).Advance rate in the furrow is a function of soil texture and furrow design. In soils that are fine in texture, water is absorbed slowly and higher advance rates are observed. Where soils are quite permeable, more water is infiltrated and advance rates are lower. Furrows that are narrow and deeper exhibit lower amount of water infiltration and faster advance rate. This configuration is used to discourage excessive percolation at the upper end. On the contrary, shallow and wide furrows leave more wet area for the water to infiltrate resulting in lower advance rate (Michael, 2008).The performance of furrow irrigation can be improved by measuring furrow irrigation advance rate, from which optimized values for irrigation parameters can be determined and implemented in subsequent irrigations (McCarthy, 2004). Rates of advance of water down the furrow in every-furrow irrigation system have been estimated to be from 1.23 to 1.48 times greater than in the alternate furrow irrigation depending upon soil type and slope (Hodges et al., 1989).According to Graterol et al. (1993), advance ratios were, 1.97 and 0.91 for AFI and CFI respectively. This indicates that water in alternate furrow irrigation system reached the first half and the end of the furrow length more lately when compared to the CFI system due to deep percolation caused by poor uniformity and lower runoff in AFI.In a field experiment on irrigated maize plants for two consecutive years to determine soil water distribution, uniformity and water-use efficiency under alternate furrow irrigation in arid areas, water advance time did not differ between AFI, FFI and CFI at all distances monitored.Water did not advance more slowly in AFI than in FFI and CFI under a covering of plastic film over the soil surface (Zhang et al., 2000).Among the factors used to judge the performance of an irrigation system or its management, are distribution uniformity, application efficiency and storage efficiency (James, 1988). A reduced amount of water applied does not consistently reduce yields because water use efficiency may be increased. The uniformity of soil water distribution in the AFI and FFI treatments did not change noticeably when irrigation amount was reduced. Maize plants grown under conditions of AFI succeeded in taking up more applied irrigation water because of larger and deeper root system than that found under CFI. The deep percolation found in CFI was larger than in AFI. Plants took up therefore more irrigated water with alternate furrow irrigation than with conventional furrow irrigation (Zhang et al., 2000).When a field with a uniform slope, soil and crop density receives steady flow at its upper end, a waterfront will advance at a monotonically decreasing rate until it reaches the end of the field. If it is not dyked, runoff will occur for a time before recession starts following shut-off inflow. Application uniformity concerns the distribution of water over the actual field, divided by the average infiltrated depth over the whole field. Two of the most commonly used uniformity indices in surface irrigation application are distribution uniformity (DU) and Christian's uniformity coefficient (UCC). UCC is defined as the ratio of the difference between the average infiltrated amount and the average deviation from the average infiltrated amount (Zerihun et al., 1997).Application uniformity concerns the distribution of water over the actual field. A number of technical sources suggest the Christian's Coefficient as a measure of uniformity. Others argue in favor of an index more in line with the skewed distribution. Distribution uniformity is defined as the average infiltrated depth in the low quarter of the field, divided by the average infiltrated depth over the whole field. This term can be represented by the symbol, DU and same authors also suggest an 'absolute distribution uniformity', DU which is the minimum depth divided by the average depth (Walker, 1989).According to Zhang et al. (2000), using UCC to evaluate irrigation distribution uniformity of the soil, there was no significant difference among the treatments although irrigation water use in AFI and FFI was smaller than that in CFI, possibly, because water flow was increased in the furrows by covering the surface with plastic film.Christian's developed UC to measure the uniformity of sprinkler systems, and it is most often applied in sprinkler irrigation situations. UC has been occasionally applied to other forms of irrigation, though DU has been applied to all types of irrigation systems. These two uniformity measures are approximately related by the equations (Solomon, 1988). UC = (0.63) (DU) + 37 and DU = (1.59) (UC) -59)Application efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water stored in the subject region to the volume of water diverted into the subject region (Zerihun, et al., 1997).( Total volume of water infiltrated over that part of the channel, which receive irrigation amounts at least equal to the perceived requirement, (Z r )Volume of water retained in the subject region over the reach that excess irrigation received, and = Total volume admitted in to the subject region. In practice, inlet flow rate does not vary continuously with time, but rather in a step wise fashion.Exact expression therefore can be proposed for the denominator as follows:(4) where i = time index I=the total number of time interval, (t i ) t i = the i th time interval during which the inlet flow rate is set at, Q oi , andCase 2 (Zmin < Z r < Zmax): all the three terms in the numerator of Equation (3) have to be evaluated using numerical integration as Simpson's Rule of Equation ( 5).(where L = Constant distance interval between computational nodes or observation station ( =L/n) n = Number of intervals (must be even number), and Zi = infiltrated amount at station i, (m 3 m -1 )The second term in the numerator of Equation ( 3) can also be evaluated using Equation ( 5), only by changing the upper limit of integration from L to L ov . Note that the distance, from the upstream end, of a station with a Z i value nearest to Z r can be taken as an approximate value of L ov .Often considerably more water is applied to the soil than it possibly holds. The concept of water application efficiency can be applied to a project, a farm, or a field to evaluate irrigation practice. Irrigation efficiencies can vary from extremely low values to values approaching 100%. However, in normal irrigation practice, surface irrigation efficiencies of application are in the range of 60%. Sprinkler irrigation had the highest application efficiency of 70% while basin irrigation of rice had the lowest of 30%. Wild flooding had low which is 45% (Bakker et al., 1999). Walker (1989) reported that irrigated agriculture faces a number of difficult problems in the future. One of the major concerns is the generally poor efficiency with which water resources have been used. A relatively safe estimate is that 40% or more of the water diverted for irrigation is wasted at the farm level through either deep percolation or surface runoff. These losses may not be lost when one views water use in the regional context, since return flows become part of the useable resource elsewhere. However, these losses often represent foregone opportunities for water because they delay the arrival of water at downstream diversions and because they bear almost universally poorer quality water.According to Israelsen et al. (1980)  Many variable factors such as land uniformity, irrigation method, and size of irrigation stream, soil texture, permeability and depth influence the time the irrigator keeps water running on his farm and hence the depth he applies. Losses from the field occur as deep percolation and as field tail water or runoff. To compute Ea, it is necessary to identify at least one of these losses as well as the amount of water stored in the root zone. This implies that the difference between the total amount of root zone storage capacity available at the time of irrigation and the actual water stored due to irrigation be separated, i.e. the amount of under irrigation in the soil profile must be determined as well as the losses (Walker, 1989). Feyen and Zerihun (1999)  According to Kassa (2001) evaluation of the performance of surface irrigation methods at Melka-Werer, middle awash valley, indicated that the maximum possible application efficiency (E a ) for furrow irrigation computed was 64.5% for inlet flow rate 2.5 l/s and 0.8 m furrow spacing. Whereas the total irrigation-water losses due to deep percolation and runoff was 56-62%. Water application efficiency gives a general sense of how well an irrigation system performs its primary task of getting water to the plant roots. However, it is possible to have a high Ea but have the irrigation water so poorly distributed that crop stress exists in areas of the field. It is also possible to have nearly 100 percent Ea but have crop failure if the soil profile is not filled sufficiently to meet crop water requirements. It is easy to manipulate water delivered to field (Wf) so that Ea can be nearly 100 percent. Any irrigation system from the worst to the best can be operated in a fashion to achieve nearly 100 percent Ea if water delivered to field (Wf) is sufficiently low. Increasing Ea in this manner totally ignores the need for irrigation uniformity. For Ea to have practical meaning, water available for use by the crop needs to be sufficient to avoid undesirable water stress. Determination of application efficiency of a specific irrigation system is generally time consuming and often difficult. One difficulty is that efficiency varies in time due to changing soil, crop and climatic conditions. Reported ranges of application efficiency (E a ) for furrow irrigation are from 50-70% (Rogers et al., 1997).Storage efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water actually stored in the subject region to the volume of water that can be stored (Zerihun et al., 1997). The adequacy of irrigation is the percent of the field receiving sufficient water to maintain the quantity and quality of crop production at a \"profitable\" level. Storage efficiency (Er) is the measure of adequacy when the desired depth of irrigation fills the soil to field capacity (James, 1988).The requirement efficiency is an indicator of how well the irrigation meets its objective of refilling the root zone. The value of Er is important either when the irrigations tend to leave major portions of the field under-irrigated or where under-irrigation is purposely practiced to use precipitation as it occurs. This parameter is the most directly related to the crop yield since it will reflect the degree of soil moisture stress. Usually, under-irrigation in high probability rainfall areas is a good practice to conserve water but the degree of under-irrigation is adifficult question to answer at the farm level (Walker, 1989).Surface irrigation losses include runoff, deep percolation, ground evaporation and surface water evaporation. Runoff losses can be significant if tail water is not controlled and reused.Although use of tail water reuse pits could generally increase surface application efficiency, many surface irrigators use a blocked furrow to prevent runoff. Usually the lower portion of the field is leveled to redistribute the tail water over that portion. While runoff may be reduced to near zero, deep percolation losses may still be high with this practice (Hansen, 1960).Efficient furrow irrigation requires reducing deep percolation and surface runoff losses. Water that percolates below the root zone (deep percolation) is lost and not available to the crop production, although deep percolation may be necessary to control salinity when required.Improving the evenness of the applied water and preventing over irrigation can reduce deep percolation. Surface runoff can be captured with a tail-water recovery system and used on lower lands or re-circulated on the field being irrigated (Blaine, 1993).Deep percolation fraction, an index used to quantify the irrigation water loss by irrigation water percolating below the root zone (Feyen and Zerihun, 1999).Deep percolation fraction (Df) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water percolated below the bottom boundary of the subject region to the total volume admitted into the subject region (Zerihun et al., 1997). Case 2 (Zmin < Z r < Zmax): Equation ( 7) is directly applicable. The integral expression in the numerator can be evaluated using the procedure described in connection with Equation 3.Case 3 (Zmax < Z r ): this implies that L ov = 0, therefore Df = 0High deep percolation losses aggravate water logging and salinity problems, and leach valuable crop nutrients from the root zone. Depending on the chemical nature of the ground water basin, deep percolation can cause a major water quality problem of a regional nature. These losses can return to receiving streams heavily laden with salts and other toxic elements and thereby degrade the quality of water to be used by others (Walker, 1989).The runoff fraction can be defined as the ratio of the volume of run off to the volume of water diverted into the subject region (Zerihun et al., 1997).where Rf= runoff fraction (%)Df and Ea as defined in equation 8 and 3 respectively Run off fraction is an index used to quantify the irrigation water loss by surface run off (Feyen and Zerihun, 1999).Runoff losses pose additional threats to irrigation systems and regional water resources.Erosion of the top soil on a field is generally the major problem associated with runoff. The sediments can then obstruct conveyance and control structures downstream, including dams and regulation structures (Walker, 1989).The term water use efficiency is used to describe the relation between growth and water use (Gregory, 1988). Water Use Efficiency (WUE) is expressed as the crop dry matter or yield production per unit of water used by the plant.Increasing the amount of water used by the plant or increasing the growth and yield of the plant can change water use efficiency. Soil management practices like, tillage and residue management, and plant nutrient practices like, addition of nitrogen and phosphorous have a positive impact on water use efficiency (Stewart et al., 1981;Jones, 1980).Crop producers in water-limited areas have used water use efficiency as a method of comparing farming systems. In the higher rainfall areas, water use efficiency can be used to improve nutrient management practices across fields. A survey of literature around the world indicates that, the potential that exists to increase crop yield per unit of water used (Hamblin et al., 1987).The agronomic definition of water use efficiency involves two major terms: a biological component also called transpiration efficiency, which specifies the amount of dry matter produced per unit of water transpired, and a management component, which specifies the fraction of the total water supply used for transpiration. Thus, water use efficiency is usually a seasonal value defined as yield in an area per water used to produce the yield. Yield is frequently expressed as grain yield. But in many dry land areas, the straw has an economic value as great as that of the grain because it is used to sustain livestock. In dry land agriculture, yield is expressed as the total shoot mass (Gregory et al., 1984;Gregory, 1988).The aim of any producer is a high yielding, high quality crop that satisfies the end user. There are a large number of agronomic factors which can influence this, many are within the control of the grower, under given growing systems and climatic and soil conditions.Plant may be either indeterminate or determinate type. Indeterminate type is the one which when side shoots are removed, produce a continuously growing single stem and also continue to produce flowers. They ideally suit greenhouse production and can grow over 10 m in height after 9 to 10 months. Staking, while expensive, helps increase yield and maximizes quality potential in both indeterminate and determinate crops. Determinate type is ending in the formation of a flower cluster and a bush-like structure. It is usually earlier to mature, because, once flowers are formed they divert all energy into filling and producing a uniform crop. They are more often used where seasons are shorter and just one crop is produced. They are bushy in character with a short main stem, and ideal for mechanical harvesting of processed crops and field cultivation of fresh tomatoes (http://www.yara.us/agriculture/crops/tomato/key-facts/agronomic-principles/).Tomatoes are warm-season crops and sensitive to frost at any stage of growth. If subject to temperatures below 50°F, crops suffer from delayed seed germination and slow early growth.Low temperature will also reduce fruit set and delay maturity. Similarly, temperature extremes of over 95°F will reduce fruit set and restrict red coloration. If water stress and high temperatures occur together the plant will produce soft fruit.The optimum temperature range for tomatoes is between 64.4 and 80.6°F. Above 80.6°F, flower formation is adversely affected. For this reason, most outdoor crops are grown in temperate climates, between the 30 th and 40 th parallels in both the northern and southern hemisphere. However, with the introduction of modern varieties, tomatoes are increasingly grown in higher temperature, tropical conditions. Optimum relative humidity in glasshouse crops range from 60-80%. Under hydroponics, 75% and 85% respectively are typical night and daytime relative humidity.Maturity dates range from around 60-75 days for determinate varieties grown in more northerly latitudes to more than 95 days where a longer, single season harvest period is used.Tomatoes are sensitive to low light conditions, requiring a minimum of 6 hours of direct sunlight to flower. However, if the intensity of solar radiation is too high, cracking, sunscald,and uneven coloration at maturity can result. For this reason, under greenhouse conditions, shading of fruit is essential. Day length is not critical to the production of tomatoes and so greenhouses occur across a very wide range of latitudes.Tomatoes can be produced across a wide range of soils as long as drainage and physical soil structure is good. The plant produces a fibrous root mass, which can exploit the subsoil given the absence of cultivation pans. Most of the root mass though, is normally concentrated in the cultivated zone, or top 23.6 inch and 70% of the total root volume is in the top 7.9 inch of topsoil. Tomatoes require good nutrition. Thus, the best crops are on the more fertile soils.Optimum soil pH is between 6.0-6.5, but crops are grown in soils with a pH of 5.0-7.5. When pH drops below 5.5, magnesium and molybdenum availability drops and above 6.5, zinc, manganese and iron become deficient, (http://www.yara.us/agriculture/crops/tomato/key-facts/agronomicprinciples/).The experiment was carried out at Dugda district irrigation scheme, which is located in East Shoa Zone, Oromia Regional State. The experiment was conducted from mid January to mid April 2016. The site is situated at 130 km away from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia on the way to Ziway. The study site is located in South East direction from Meki town at an altitude of 1685 m a s l and lies in 08 0 00'-8 0 20'N and 38 0 30'-39 0 00'E longitude and latitude respectively (figure 1).The study area has mild, and generally warm temperate climate with an average annual temperature of 18. The area is known for its mixed crop livestock farming system. Cultivated and grazing lands of the woreda accounts 30.9% and 8.7%, respectively. The major rain fed crops grown in the area includes wheat, teff, barley, bean and field pea, while onion, tomato, water lemon, hot pepper, cabbage, papaya are grown in irrigation. Forest and shrubs lands accounted about 9.6% of the district, while swampy and marshy land covered 0.4%. Degraded and others accounted 44.3% of the district. The area is characterized by sandy and clay soil type. Sub-tropical grass lands are the dominant vegetation cover of the district (BoANRD, 2004).Figure 1. Map of study area (Dugda district)Before the start of the experimental activities, different field and laboratory materials:tensiometer, Parshall flume, soil auger, core samplers, plastic bag and double ring infiltrometers were collected from Haramaya University, Melkassa, Ziway Soil and BakoResearch Centers. The collected materials were used for different purposes such as pipette method for soil texture analysis, Walkley and Black (1934) method for organic matter content determination, pressure plate apparatus for soil moisture contents determination at FC and PWP, plastic bag for soil sample collection, double ring infiltrometer for measuring of soil infiltration rate, parshall flume for water flow rate calibration and measurement, soil auger and core sampler for taking disturbed and undisturbed soil sample respectively. About 0.1298 hectare (59 m wide and 22 m long) of land was used for a total of 36 plots and ploughed using animal drawn implements. Each plot contained four ridges and four furrows. Each bed had 1mwidth and 6m length. The U shape furrow was prepared with an average depth of 25 cm and width of 35 cm. Furrow that enables to receive irrigation water from secondary canal to the experimental plot was prepared by using local plough and blockage materials. Plot designing, furrow slope aligning and all specification was accomplished using string, water level, meter and pegs. Parshall flume was installed at 7m away from the experimental plots to control the flow rate at different water head. Once it installed, water was released through it for calibration purpose by uniform velocity and constant head. Then, the water pass through it was collected into a graduated cylinder and the time required was also recorded. The total collected water was divided by a total recorded time to know the discharge rate. The calibration was done three times and the average flow rate is almost similar with the standard table on FAO irrigation and drainage_56. The end of each furrow was blocked to prevent the out flow of tail water and also to maintain the required depth of water within the furrow. Appropriate slope was selected for water flow along the advance.The average of twenty two year's maximum and minimum temperature, rainfall, wind speed, 12 years relative humidity and 1 year sunshine climatic data on monthly bases were collected from National Meteorological Service Agency (NMSA). The mean daily reference evapotranspiration were computed using CROPWAT version_8 program from the monthly total rainfalls and the result is presented as (Appendix Table1 and Figure 1).  2 and 3). Then, a daily soil water balance was calculated with the model, predicting water content in the soil root zone by means of a water balance equation, which takes into account the incoming and outgoing flow of water.The experiment was implemented in two factorial combination namely, three irrigation  Depending on the requirement of each parameters and also considering the greatest concentration of root depth which is 30cm for transplanted tomatoes, the disturbed and undisturbed composite soil sample before planting and after harvest from each treatment at a depth of 0-20 and 20-40 cm were collected and analyzed for different soil physical properties such as bulk density, texture, field capacity and permanent wilting point and also for chemical properties such as soil pH, organic matter content, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and potassium at Ethiopian Water Works and Design Enterprise, Bako and Ziway Research Center Soil Laboratory.Soil texture was determined using pipette method. This is based on direct sampling of the density of the solution. Using a pipette, samples of the suspension (usually 20 cm 3 ) was withdrawn at a given depth after various periods have elapsed after initiation of sedimentation.As per Stoke's law at a depth 'L' below the surface of the suspension and at time 't', all particles whose terminal velocity 'v' is greater than was passed below this level example silt passes through but clay remains.The soil bulk density is defined as the oven dry weight of undisturbed soil in a given volume, as it occurs in the field. It was determined by core sampler method by taking undisturbed soil sample at a depth of 0-20 and 20-40cm. After weighing the soil sample, it was placed in an oven dry at 105 0 c for 24 hours. After drying, the soil was weighed again for dry mass and the bulk density was calculated by using the following formula.(10) where ρb= soil bulk-density, (g/cm 3 ) Wd = weight of dry soil, (g) Vc = volume of core sampler, (cm 3 ) Double ring infiltrometers were used to measure infiltration rate of the soil. The tests were done at five randomly selected points in the experimental site and the average result was taken.The Water content field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) were determined at Ethiopian Water Works and Design Enterprise using a pressure plate apparatus by applying a suction of 1/3 and 15 bars to a saturated soil sample and when water is no longer leaving the soil sample, the soil moisture was taken as FC and PWP respectively. The moisture content of the soil samples on volume basis was determined by multiplying the gravimetric water content on weight basis by the bulk density.pH was measured in 1:1 soil: water mixture by using a pH meter. Distilled water was used as a liquid in the mixture. 10 g air dried < 2 mm soil was weighed into 100 ml beakers and 10 ml distilled water was added to 1:1 soil/water suspension and transferred to an automatic stirrer, to be stirred for 30 minutes and pH on the upper part of the suspension was measured.Organic carbon content was determined by titration method using chromic acid (potassium dichromate + H 2 SO 4 ) digestion according to Walkley and Black (1934) method.Total nitrogen was determined by micro Kjeldahl procedure (Kjeldahl, 1883). The soil sample was digested in sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide with selenium as catalyst and whereby organic nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate. The solution is then made alkaline and ammonia was distilled. The evolved ammonia is trapped in boric acid and titrated with standard acid. This procedure determines all soil nitrogen including adsorbed NH 4 + except that in nitrates.For non acidic soil, available phosphorus was determined by Olsen method (Olsen et al., 1954). The readily acid soluble form was extracted by combination of HCl and NH 4 F.Phosphorus in extract was determined calorimetrically with the blue ammonium molybdate method by flame emission spectrophotometer (FES) at a wavelength of 766.5.Available potassium was determined by flame photometer method (Reed and Scott, 1961).Potassium was converted to a water-soluble form by heating the tetraphenylborate salt for 20 minutes in a furnace at 350 0 C or in boiling aqueous solution of mercuric chloride. Then, it was separated from the mineral residues by adding acetone to the aqueous system and filtering. The potassium in the filtrate was then determined by flame photometry after the tetraphenylborate salts have been destroyed with aqua regia.Tomato improved Galilea varieties having a total growing period of 75 days after transplanting was grown in a modern green house for 21 days and transplanting on experimental plot on 26January, 2016. The total Recommended fertilizer rate of 200 kg/ha DAP and 50% of 150 kg/ha Urea were applied during transplanting time, while the remaining 50% of the Urea was applied at 21 days after transplanting on each seed bed to increase the fertilizer use efficiency by minimizing the leaching loss.There is no single chemical product that is effective against all important foliar diseases. For example Mancozeb give good control but, Chlorothalanil gives fair control of early blight.Therefore, it is necessary to use a combination of different chemicals such as Ridomil Gold MZ WG, Mancozeb 80WP 4 , Modan 5% E.C and Profit turn by turn in a spray program to optimize disease management. Ridomil Gold MZ WG was applied at a rate of 2.5kg in 500-700 liter water/ha to control early leaf blight (Alternaria solani) and late leaf blight fungal diseases. A maximum of 3 applications at 10 to 14 days intervals was done during the period of active growth. The first application was done when the crop has fully emerged and before disease has occurred. Shorter spray interval was used as a weather conditions favors the diseases occurrences especially during active crop growth in the period prior to flowering.Mancozeb 80WP 4 (Wettable Powder) was applied at a rate of 500g/ha in 600ml of water per ha to control powdery and fungal diseases such as early blight (Alternaria solani), late blight (Irish blight), anthracnose leaf mould (fulvia fulva) and grey leaf spot. First application was done at the time, when disease symptoms first appear and then, repeated at 7 days intervals at higher rate with shorter spray interval as the weather condition was favorable to disease development. Modan 5 EC and Profit were applied at a rate of 100-150ml/ha in 200-500 liter of water per ha and 750ml/ha in 400-500 liter of water per ha to control white fly (aphid) insects respectively.Under chemical uses, one important consideration is that products have different pre-harvest interval (PHI). So, a chemical product with a PHI greater than 2 days such as ridomil (7 days), mancozeb (5 days), Modan 5 EC (4 days) and profit (7) cannot be used, when the growers harvest 2 or more times per week.The recommended spacing of 60 cm between plants and 100 cm between rows was used.Irrigation water was applied according to treatments arrangement and calculated irrigation interval. All needed management aspects was done according to the agronomic recommendation of the crop. Tomato yield was harvested from the two center ridges of all plots to minimize the border effects on yield.Soil moisture were monitored both at field condition by installing a tensiometer at different depth of 30, 40 and 60 cm and laboratory by taking undisturbed soil sample. Soil samples were taken at 11 and 15 days interval for the initial and remaining three growth stage respectively depending on irrigation interval from the third furrow of each plot at depths of 0-20 and 20-40 cm at locations of 3m from a head of furrow. This was provided a total of 2 samples from each plot, 24 from a block and 72 out of the experimental field. The collected soil samples were placed in an oven set at a temperature of 105 0 C and dried for 24 hrs. Its gravimetric water content was then determined using the expression (Cuenca, 1989).(where Wws= weight of wet soil, (g) θ dw = water content expressed on weight basis in (%)W ds = weight of dry soil, (g)And the volumetric water content was calculated from the gravimetric water content using the following expression.(12) where = Volumetric moisture content in (%) = Soil bulk density, (g/cm 3 ) ρw = Water density g/cm 3 , (1g/cm 3 ) θ dw = as expressed in equation 11The total amount of water requirement estimated using the CROPWAT version_8 program was diverted to the furrow with calibrated parshall flume having appropriate opening diameter of three inch (3\") with a length of 2 m and its appropriate head ranges from 3-33cm. Water flow to each furrow was controlled by the difference in depth between the water level in the feeder canal and free water level at the outlet at the furrow head. It was calculated as suggested by The time required to deliver the desired depth of water into each furrow was calculated using the equation recommended by Israelsen (1980). The depth of irrigation was divided by value of Ea which is 60% for different loss compensation.The setting time, advance time, time of application and recession time was monitored using stopwatch during each irrigation water application in order to assess the treatment effects on advance and recession rates. Data on water volume and length of irrigation time was taken during all irrigation events from discharge of the parshall flume.Advance rate (AR) is the ratio of the length that the waterfront travels to the time required to cover the same length. Its comparisons were made using two parameters i.e. the recorded advance time and the total length that the water travels. It is computed using the equation (Israelsen, 1980).(where AR= is Advance rate, (m/s) LT = is Length travelled by water, furrow length, (m) AT= is the time taken by water to travel from head to the tail of furrow, (s)Comparison between the irrigation methods was made on basis of the infiltration distribution uniformity. The soil samples were taken at a depth of 0-20 and 20-40cm before irrigation and after irrigation from all plots. The tool used to evaluate irrigation distribution uniformity was Christian's Uniformity Coefficient, which is given as: Application efficiency is defined as the ratio of water stored in the root zone to water applied to the farm during irrigation Israelsen (1980).(where Ea = Application efficiency (%)Ws= Water stored in the root zone, (mm) Wf = Water applied to the field, (mm)Water application efficiency can be estimated from the amount of water diverted into the furrow at a given irrigation (Wf), the amount deep percolated (Df) and runoff collected as a tail water at the end of the furrow at that specific irrigation (Israelsen, 1980).where Rf= is the amount of runoff during irrigation, (mm) Df= is the amount of water deep percolated during irrigation, (mm) Runoff fraction (Rf) is an index used to quantify the irrigation water loss by surface runoff.Runoff fraction was computed from the volume of tail water collected at the end of the furrows using the following expression: In order to assess the overall effect of treatments on crop yield, the amount of tomato produced was harvested from the central ridges only; this is to avoid boarder effects. The results were then converted to hectare basis using the following formula:Yield obtained per ha = y 10 4 where y = is yield obtained per square meterThe water use efficiency was calculated by dividing harvested yield in kg per unit volume of water (kg/m 3 ). Two kinds of water use efficiencies namely total water use efficiency (CWUE) and net irrigation water use efficiency (FWUE) was calculated.3.9.6.1. Crop water use efficiency Total water use efficiency is the yield harvested per ha-mm of total water used.(where CWUE = crop water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm) Y = yield in kg ha -1 and ETc = evapotranspiration in mm 3.9.6.2. Field water use efficiency Field water use efficiency is the yield harvested per ha-mm of net depth infiltered.(Where FWUE = field water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm) Y= yield in (kg/ha) Net irrigation is in (mm)The collected yield, irrigation systems and depth of applied water levels data during the field studies were compared using SAS, ANOVA and least significance difference (LSD) was used for mean comparisons.Irrigation system performance indicators such advance rate, recession time, distribution uniformity, application efficiency, storage efficiency, yield assessment and water use efficiency (water productivity in terms of total water use efficiency and net irrigation water use efficiency) were measured to evaluate the performance of AFI, FFI and CFI under deficit irrigation system. The results obtained were presented and discussed in the following sections.Crop water requirement is the quantity of water, regardless of its source, required by a crop in a given period of time for its normal growth under field conditions at a place. Estimation of the water requirement of a crop is one of the basic needs for irrigated crop production planning.The net crop water requirement was computed by deducting effective rainfall from ETc. The gross water requirement was computed by adopting a field application efficiency of 60%. In fact furrow irrigation efficiencies vary from 45-60% (Bakker et al., 1999). However, in this experimental set up, where water was applied more accurately and there was no runoff, a higher value of Ea (60%) was adopted.The values of ETo estimated using CROPWAT model based on climate parameters need to be adjusted for actual crop ET. The crop water requirement of the tested crop is calculated by multiplying the reference ETo with crop coefficient (Kc) as presented (Appendix Table 4).According to Appendix Table 4, the seasonal irrigation water requirement of tomato was found to be 246.58 mm. This amount of water was needed for 100% ETc with CFI, AFI, FFI (full irrigation) level treatments. Accordingly, 85%, 70% and 50% of full irrigation (100% ETc)with CFI, AFI, and FFI level were 210 mm, 173 mm and 124 mm, respectively.The CROPWAT model predicted effective rainfall depth of about 68mm during the growing season. But, there was no rainfall during the experimental period. The depth of irrigation water applied during each irrigation event and water application level is presented (Appendix Table 5 and Figure 4).The result indicates that, the maximum depth of water was applied during mid of March which is the mid development stage of tomato. Sahasrabudhe, (1996)   To characterize the soil in the experimental site in terms of infiltration characteristics, texture, FC, PWP, organic matter content, pH, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and potassium, field  6, 7 and 8).According to appendix table 6 and appendix figure 1, the basic infiltration rate was about 28.2 mm/hr. It was consistent with the basic infiltration rate of sandy loam soil which ranges from 20 to 30 mm/hr as reported by different researchers (Haider, 1986;Scherer et al., 1996).Result of soil textural analysis as depicted on Table 1 and Appendix Table 7 showed that, the composition of sand, silt and clay percentage were 71, 8 and 21 and 69, 17 and 14 for a depth of sampling 0-20cm and 20-40cm respectively. The result indicates that, there is a significant textural change with depth and thus according to the USDA soil textural classification, the soil is classified as sandy clay loam and sandy loam for a depth of 0-20 and 20-40cm respectively.The overall mean result indicates sandy loam with textural composition of sand, silt and clay percentage 70, 11 and 19 respectively.As indicated on Table 1 and Appendix Tables 7 and 8, the analysis results of soil pH before irrigation were 7.15 and 7.55 for a sampling depth of 0-20 and 20-40cm respectively. This shows that, there was soil pH variation with depth, though not exaggerated. ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc respectively.According to Brady (2000), the pH range from 7.4-7.8 and 7.9-8.4 indicates moderately and strongly alkaline respectively. The results of AFI system and 50% ETc of water application levels were changed from neutral to moderately alkaline, while the results of FFI, CFI and water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 70% ETc were changed from neutral to strongly alkaline. Because, the lake water used for irrigation has pH (8.7), ESP (60.42%) and EC (0.64ds/m) which is categorized under sodic and with high application of irrigation water 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 70% ETc and also in CFI and FFI systems, the amount of sodium cation added to the soil from the irrigation water increases the soil pH. According to Cruz-Romero and Coleman (1975), Exchangeable sodium and calcium carbonate (Ca 2 CO 3 ) react in low carbon dioxide and low neutral salt environments to produce high pH and appreciable concentration of sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ). Since the soil of arid and semi-arid regions nearly always contain some Ca 2 CO 3, a build up in the exchangeable sodium in the absence of an appreciable quantity of neutral soluble salts will always result in high pH. That is why the soil pH increases after the implementation of irrigation.According to Appendix Table 7, the bulk density result of 0-20cm and 20-40cm of soil of the area were 1.32 and 1.34 g/cm 3 respectively. This indicates that, the top surface soil has slightly lower bulk density than the subsurface.As indicated in the mean results of (Table 1, Appendix Tables 7 and 8), the organic matter content of the soil of the experimental site before and after irrigation were less than 2% which is very low (Landon, 2014). But, after implementation of the experiment the organic matter content of the soil increases from 1.15% to 1.20%, 1.25% and 1.38% for FFI, AFI and CFI systems and from 1.15% to 1.22%, 1.39%, 1.32% and 1.18% for water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc respectively. This is consistent with the report of an increased trend in soil organic matter content was observed as the water deficit level of 85%ETc which further decreasing consistently (Abu and Malgwi, 2012). This clearly shows that, the organic matter in the soil stayed without decomposed and then, it was decomposed after the soil gets moisture through irrigation. There is also a variation with depth of sampling, which shows the top soil contain higher organic matter than the subsurface. This is match with the concept of soil having high organic matter is lower in weight and bulk density.According to Table 7, the moisture content at field capacity varies with depth between 23.77% and 20.10% on volume basis. The top 0-20 cm has a larger field capacity value of 54.18%while the subsurface 20-40 cm has a lower value of 45.82% and the moisture content at permanent wilting point also shows variation with depth, having 12.28% at the top (0-20 cm) and 11.89% at 20-40cm.This variation is because of the decreases in composition of clay and sand contents with depth, especially clay contents as clearly seen from the analysis results of soil texture.From Table 1, the mean results of total nitrogen content of the soil before and after irrigation were less than 0.15% which is low (Havelin et al., 2013). However, the total nitrogen content in the soil increases after irrigation from 0.08% to 0.1075%, 0.1128% and 0.1075% for FFI, AFI and CFI systems and from 0.08% to 0.11%, 0.1167%, 0.11% and 0.10% for irrigation water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc respectively.According to Richard and Michael (2012), a conversion factor of 4.43 multiplied with the results of total nitrogen before and after irrigation, the results were changed to nitrate (NO 3 -) form which is the water soluble form of nitrogen. This helps us to judge how the solubility and availability of the nitrogen increases after it gets moisture through irrigation.As described on Table 1 and Appendix Tables 7 and 8, the mean results of available phosphorus before and after irrigation were between 30-80mg/kg of soil which is optimum (Karltun et al., 2013). After irrigation, it was increases from 44.19 mg/kg of soil to 46.89, 46.02 and 46.96 mg/kg of soil and 46.45, 45.95, 47.07 and 47.03 mg/kg of soil for FFI, AFI, CFI and 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc respectively. Similar trends for organic matter and total nitrogen was observed and similar pedogenic process given for organic matter and total nitrogen makes differences may explain this.Another inference from Table 1 and Appendix Tables 7 and 8 were the degree of decreases in available potassium. As already indicated, the available potassium content of the soil was decreased to some extent after irrigation on both irrigation systems and water application levels. As a result, it was decreases from 306.29 mg/kg of soil to 257.87, 274.88 and 304.61 mg/kg of soil for FFI, AFI and CFI systems, while it was decreased from 306.29 mg/kg of soil to 254.25, 284.15, 284.81 and 293.26 mg/kg of soil for 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc respectively. These results show that, when the soil gets enough moisture from irrigation, the plant uptake rate of the potassium is increased, while its content in the soil decreases. In addition to uptake, it is well established that potassium is liable to leaching and thus this might have also decrease its content in the soil. This situation was mostly pronounced in moisture stress area where soil moisture is a limiting factor. Experiment undertaken in the middle Awash reported by Haider (1986) is in agreement with the results obtained in the present study. *OM-organic matter, FC-field capacity, PWP-permanent wilting point, Bd-bulk density, N-nitrogen, P 2 O 5 -phosphorus penta oxide, K-potassium.To measure inflow rate to each furrow of the treatments, Parshall flume was calibrated at different head for discharge and results were presented in Appendix Table 9 and Figure 6.The effective head of 8cm was calibrated and hence the resulting discharge out of the Parshall flume was 3.532 liters per second. Advance rate, infiltration distribution uniformity and water application efficiency were some of flow characteristics used to measure the effects of the treatments.Figure 5. Parshiall flume head and discharge relationshipThe time required for the water to advance to the end of the field length or to cover the field completely is an important consideration in managing surface irrigation systems. The advance time dictates in large measure when the inflow must be terminated and it provides the time when field tail water begins flowing from the field or when the field begins to pond.To evaluate the effect of FFI, AFI and CFI systems and water application levels on advance rate, advance time was recorded and computed using the expression discussed in section 3.9.1 and results are presented in Appendix Table 10. Discharge(L/s) Head (cm)According to analysis of variance (Table 2), there is no significant difference between the three irrigation systems at (p<0.05) in terms of advance rate. However, the maximum and minimum mean values were observed from CFI (0.370) and AFI (0.35) system. Water advances more slowly in an alternate furrow irrigation system due to the greater potential for lateral movement (Musick and Dusek, 1974). The probable reason for the non significance of the irrigation systems on advance rate was the shortness of the furrow length of the experimental plot.As clearly seen from the analysis of variance (table 2), advance rate of water application levels were also not significantly different at (p<0.05). However, the maximum and minimum mean values were observed for irrigation water application levels of 100% ETc (0.374) and 85% ETc (0.360) respectively.Regarding to advance time, as indicated in analysis of variance (Table 2), there were no significant interaction between irrigation systems and water application levels. None of alternate, fixed and conventional irrigation systems accelerated or slowed down any of irrigation levels significantly on advance rate. To observe the infiltration opportunity time of irrigation water for AFI, FFI and CFI systems with water application levels, recession time were recorded during experimental period and results were presented in Appendix Table 11.As indicated on analysis of variance (Appendix Table 12), there were highly significant difference among the three irrigation systems at (p<0.01) in terms of recession time. As it is clearly seen from Table 3, recession time of AFI system was significantly different from both CFI and FFI systems, but there were no significant difference between CFI and FFI systems. The probable reason for this could be the difference in soil-water potential between the three irrigation systems which makes the recession time different. The water suction of CFI may be smaller and need longer recession time than AFI and FFI. In an AFI, soil desiccations was higher with low soil water potential due to alternate wetting of neighboring furrows and the recession time is shorter. In FFI system, the neighboring furrow stays dry during the whole irrigation period and the lateral movement subsequently higher than the rate of infiltration. This is consistent with the results of slower recession time that have been associated with AFI and FFI (Hodges et al., 1989;Musick and Dusek, 1974;Woldesenbet, 2005). Looking into the effect of irrigation water application levels from the accompanying analysis of variance (Appendix Table 12), there were highly significant difference at (p<0.01) among the water application levels on recession time. As indicated on Table 4, the significant difference in recession time were observed between 100% ETc and the remaining three application levels, 85% ETc and 50% ETc and 70% ETc and 50% ETc. But, no significant difference between water application levels of 85% ETc and 70% ETc. This result indicates that, the time needed for recession depends on the levels of irrigation water applied. As depicted from the analysis of variance (Appendix Table 12), there were significant interactions at (p<0.05) between irrigation systems and water application levels. As indicated on two ways Table 5 and Appendix Figure 2, recession time of CFI and FFI systems were significantly different between 100% ETc and the remaining three application levels, 85% ETc and 50% ETc and also between 70% ETc and 50% ETc for CFI system. This indicates that, the recession time of CFI and FFI systems were affected by water application levels. But under AFI system, recession time of water application levels at 50% ETc was significantly different from the three application levels, while there were no significant difference among 85% ETc, 70%ETc and 50% ETc.  13.According to the analysis of variance (AppendixTable14), there were highly significant difference at (p<0.01) among the three irrigation systems in terms of UCC. As indicated on Table 6, UCC of CFI system was significantly different from AFI, but no significant difference between CFI and FFI, AFI and FFI systems. This is not consistent with Woldesenbet, (2005) who reported that UCC is not affected by irrigation systems rather than application levels.According to Hanson (2005), a uniformity of 100% means the same amount of water infiltrates everywhere in a field. Practically, no irrigation systems, however, can apply water at 100% uniformity. Regardless of the irrigation systems, some parts of a field infiltrate more water than other areas. Another inferences that can be drawn from the results of analysis of variance (Appendix Table 14) was the comparison among irrigation water application levels which is highly significant at (p<0.01) in terms of UCC. As clearly observed from Table 7, UCC of 100% ETc is significantly different from 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc application levels, while there were no significant differences between the remaining three levels. This difference came from the difference in intake opportunity time for water distribution. At large water application levels, the tail end furrows get comparable opportunities for water infiltration as that of furrow heads (Walker, 1989). From the analysis of variance (Appendix Table 14), interaction between irrigation systems and water application levels were highly significant at (p<0.01) on UCC. As indicated on two ways Table 8 and Appendix Figure 3, the water UCC of FFI, AFI and CFI systems depends on the application levels. But, the degrees of the effect of water application levels for the three irrigation systems were different. As a result, UCC of FFI system at water application level of 50% ETc was significantly different from 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 70% ETc. Moreover, CFI system is better in UCC at 100% ETc which is significantly different from the remaining three application levels. While in AFI system, UCC at 70% ETc was significantly different from water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 50% ETc. UCC in AFI system increases from 70% ETc to 50% ETc water application levels. This is because of the soil-water potential difference and suction force of the soil, as the lateral flow to the dry area is greater than the rate of infiltration in this case. In order to evaluate FFI, AFI and CFI systems in terms of application efficiency, soil moisture data was taken from all plots before and after irrigation and computed using equation 11 which was used as input data for equation 18 and 19 for computation of application efficiency and the obtained results were presented in Appendix Table 15.From the results presented in analysis of variance (Appendix Table 16), application efficiencies of irrigation systems were highly significant at (P<0.01). As it can be clearly seen from Table 9, both of AFI and FFI systems were significantly different from CFI system, but no significant difference between AFI and FFI systems. This is consistent with the significant improvements in application efficiency that have been associated with AFI (Feyen and Zerihun 1999;Kassa, 2001;Woldesanbet, 2005). According to the analysis of variance (Appendix Table 16), the application efficiency due to water application levels was also highly significant at (P<0.01). As indicated from Table 10, the significant difference was observed between water application levels of 85% ETc and 50% ETc, while the rest were none significant. This is due to the higher infiltration rate than lateral flow in sandy loam soil, which increases the deep percolation losses as water application levels increases rather than improving application efficiency and vice versa for low water application levels. Analysis of variance (Appendix Table 16) indicates that, there were highly significant interaction effect at (P<0.01) between irrigation systems and water application levels on application efficiency. As observed from two ways Table 11 and Appendix Figure 4, application efficiency of CFI system at 100 % ETc was significantly different from the water application levels of 85% ETc,70 ETc, 50% ETc and also between 85% ETc and 50% ETc. This indicates that, application efficiency of CFI system was affected by water application levels. As water application levels decreases the application efficiency also decreases linearly. Under FFI system application efficiency of 50% ETc was significantly different from the rest of water application levels. In AFI system, application efficiency was significantly different between 100% ETc and 85% ETc, 85% ETc and 50% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc. This shows that, for AFI and FFI systems as water application levels decreases the application efficiency increases linearly except at 85% ETc. This is because of the significant improvement in application efficiency of both AFI and FFI systems. Soil moisture before and after irrigation was taken to evaluate the effects of FFI, AFI and CFI systems on storage efficiency and then, the soil moisture content was computed using equation 11 and used as input data to compute storage efficiency using equation 22.The results were presented in Appendix Table 17.According to the analysis of variance (Appendix Table 18), there was highly significant difference at (P<0.01) between the three irrigation systems in terms of storage efficiency. The recession time of CFI system was significantly different from AFI systems, while there was no significant difference between AFI and FFI systems (Table 12). This difference may be because of the irrigation technique, as all furrows was getting the opportunity of irrigated at once in CFI system, while it was turn by turn in AFI and the depth of applied water also differ. As indicated in analysis of variance (Appendix Table 18), water application levels were highly significant at (P<0.01) on storage efficiency. On storage efficiency, there was a significant difference among all water application levels expect between 70% ETc and 50% ETc (Table 13).These results indicates that, as a water application levels become decreases under deficit irrigation, the storage efficiency is also decreases, as storage efficiency is a measure of adequacy when the desired depth of irrigation fills the soil to field capacity (James, 1988). As clearly indicated on analysis of variance Appendix Table 18, there was no significant interaction between irrigation systems and water application levels on storage efficiency.Surface irrigation losses include runoff, deep percolation, ground evaporation and surface water evaporation, but in this experiment only deep percolation loss was considered. While the tail water lost as runoff is prevented by blocking the tail end furrow with a locally available blockage materials to maintain the required depth of irrigation water in the furrow and the remaining two losses were neglected. Then, D f was computed by the formula discussed in section 3.9.3 and equation 21 and results obtained were presented in Appendix Table 19.From the analysis of variance (Appendix Table 20), irrigation systems were highly significant at (P<0.01) on deep percolation losses. As indicated on Table 14, deep percolation losses of CFI system was significantly different from both of AFI and FFI systems, but there was no significant difference between AFI and FFI systems. This is consistent with the significant water loss that has been associated with CFI (Graterol et al., 1993). The result of present study was below the range of irrigation water losses reported by Kassa (2001) and also not consistent with the report of Feyen and Zerihun (1999).  An observed from analysis of variance (Appendix Table 20), the interaction effects between irrigation systems and water application levels were highly significant at (P<0.01) on deep percolation losses. As indicated on two ways Table 16 and Appendix Figure 5, deep percolation losses under CFI system at 100% ETc was significantly different from 85% ETc, 70% ETc, and 50% ETc and also between 85% ETc and 50% ETc water application levels. This shows that, a deep percolation loss in CFI system was not affected by water application levels, because as water application levels decreases deep percolation losses increases. Deep percolation losses in FFI system at 50% ETc was significantly different from 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and also between 85 % ETc and 70% ETc water application levels. In AFI system there was a significant difference between 100% ETc and 85% ETc, 85% ETc and 50% ETc, 70% ETc and50% ETc on deep percolation losses. For both AFI and FFI systems, deep percolation losses decreases as water application levels decreases except at 85% ETc. Water use efficiency is usually a seasonal value defined as yield in an area per water used to produce the yield (Gregory, 1988). So, under this experiment, to evaluate AFI, FFI and CFI systems and water application levels in terms of yield and water use performances, yield and water use efficiencies were considered. As the objectives of doing this experiment was to assess how much water could be saved by alternate and fixed furrow irrigation systems without compromising the anticipated yield as compared to conventional irrigation system. To see these effects, different irrigation variables affected by furrow irrigation systems such as net irrigation, CWUE, gross irrigation (ET), FWUE and yield were considered. The results of gross irrigation and yield were presented in Appendix Tables 5 and 21 respectively.These results showed that, water consumption was low in the treatments irrigated from one side (AFI and FFI) in comparison with the treatments irrigated from two sides (CFI), which were naturally predictable. At a time, when the experiment was conducted there was no rainfall which causes runoff or tail water lost as runoff. Because of this, gross irrigation was used for computation of both CWUE and FWUE.As clearly observed from Table 17, the trend of decrease in yield is directly related with the decreases in water application levels. This indicates the effects of applied irrigation water levels on yield more or less. But, the degree of variation in yield may differ between the irrigation systems and applied water levels. As depicted from analysis of variance (Appendix Table 22), there were highly significant yield difference at (P<0.01) between irrigation systems. As observed from Table 18, yield obtained from CFI (25194.45 kg/ha) and AFI (24020.83 kg/ha) systems were significantly different from FFI (20000 kg/ha) system. But, there was no significant difference between the yield obtained from CFI and AFI systems. As already known, there was a significant reduction (50%) in the volume of water applied to the AFI treatments. This means 2465.8 m 3 volume of water is needed to irrigate 1 hectare area in CFI system which is enough to irrigate 2 hectare area of land in AFI system. So, when the area to be irrigated becomes double in AFI system using the saved volume of water, the yield obtained also becomes double. In both AFI and FFI systems labour (4050.93 birr/ha), time (19:22'48'' hrs/ha) and fuel (5457.18 birr/ha) needed for pumping irrigation water from the source were saved, which is half of CFI system. The reason why the yield result is well performing as compared to CFI system is probably because of a better application efficiency and physiological response associated with AFI (Franandez, 1994;Kang, 2000;Zhang et al., 2000) and less evapotranspiration associated with AFI (Stone et al., 1979). As clearly indicated in analysis of variance (Appendix Table 22), there were highly significant difference at (P<0.01) among the yield obtained from different levels of applied water. As shown on Table 19, the yields obtained from all water application levels were significantly different. This is consistent with the report of continuous water stress during the period of fruit set and fruit development can results significantly reduced fresh fruit yield and blossom-end rot (Sahasrabudhe, 1996). Another inference from analysis of variance (Appendix Table 22) was the interaction effects between irrigation systems and water application levels which is highly significant at (P<0.01) on yield. From two ways Table 20 and Appendix Figure 6, yield obtained from CFI at all levels of applied water was significantly different. This shows that, yield was significantly affected as water application levels decreases, because of the low application efficiency associated with CFI system. Under AFI systems, there was a significant yield difference between 100% ETc and 85%ETc, 70% ETc, 50% ETc and also between 85% ETc and 50% ETc water application levels. For FFI system the yield result of 50% ETc was significantly different from water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 50% ETc. But, in all of the three irrigation systems the yield decreases were low between water application levels of 85% ETc and 70% ETc. And when we compare the three irrigation systems in terms of yield obtained and the total irrigation water used, AFI system has best yield performance than the remaining irrigation systems. With the intention of comparing CWUE and FWUE of the three irrigation systems, both efficiencies were calculated by the equations 23 and 24 as discussed in section 3.9.6.1 and 3.9.6.2 respectively, the obtained mean results were presented in Appendix Table 23.From the results of analysis of variance (Appendix Table 24), there were highly significant difference at (P<0.01) between the three irrigation systems both in CWUE and FWUE. As clearly indicated on Table 21, both CWUE and FWUE of the irrigation systems were significantly different from each other. This is because of the difference in percentage of water actually converted to evapotranspiration out of the total amount applied. This is consistent with the significant improvements in CWUE that have been associated with AFI (Zhang et al., 2000). As observed from analysis of variance (Appendix Table 24), there were no significant difference among the water application levels on CWUE and FWUE.As shown on analysis of variance (Appendix Table 24), there were no significant interaction between irrigation systems and water application levels on both CWUE and FWUE. However, the maximum and minimum mean values were observed from AFI (256.69 kgha -1 mm -1 ) and CFI (130.53 kgha -1 mm -1 ), while the maximum and minimum mean values for irrigation water application levels 100% ETc (206.00 kgha -1 mm -1 ) and 85% ETc (192.81 kgha -1 mm -1 ) respectively.In arid and semi-arid regions of the tropics, the amount of rainfall is low and its distribution is highly erratic to meet the daily crop evapotranspiration requirement. To overcome this problem, using irrigation is one of the means for improving and sustaining food production. The study area is known by intensive irrigation with problems of over application and high frequency irrigation in addition to irrigation water sodicity which reduces the land production and productivity. Now, the question is how to achieve the most economic use of available water so as to get the optimum benefits per unit of available water.Considering the above problems, the experiment was designed in RCBD with two factorial combination having twelve treatments and replicated three times. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of deficit irrigation on soil properties, yield and water use efficiency of tomato under three furrow irrigation systems and four water application levels for tomato production. These different irrigation systems were AFI, FFI and CFI and four water application levels were 100% ETc, 85% ETc, 70% ETc and 50% ETc.Evaluation of the performance of AFI, FFI and CFI systems in terms of application efficiency, Storage efficiency, UCC of applied water, advance rate, recession time, CWUE and FWUE and yield were considered as an important parameters in evaluating their performance. Then, on farm measurements were carried out to identify field parameters such as infiltration characteristics of the soil, advance and recession times, yields and soil moisture before and after irrigation.ANOVA and LSD were used to separate mean difference statistically.The results were compared at P<0.01 and generally indicate that, maximum depth of irrigation water was applied during the mid developmental stage of a crop at the time when the crop needs high amount of water, the mean pH value of the soil before irrigation was nearly neutral and changed to moderately alkaline for AFI system and 50% ETc water application level, while it was changed to strongly alkaline for CFI and FFI systems and water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 70% ETc. Soil organic matter, total nitrogen and available phosphorus contents were increases after irrigation while it was decreases for available potassium.The conclusions drawn from this study are:1. Results obtained from this study show that, in AFI system the total water used was 50% of CFI system, but the tomato yield obtained was similar. Significant amount of water (1232.9m 3 /ha) was saved by AFI system while it also maintains an acceptable tomato yield and quality. AFI and FFI systems saved labour (4050.93 birr/ha), time (19:22'48'' hr/ha) and fuel (5457.18birr/ha) used for irrigation water pumping which is 50% of CFI system. Because in CFI system four furrows irrigated at same time while in AFI and FFI only two furrows out of four furrows. This may improves working conditions as technology allows irrigator moving on the dry furrows. This reduction in applied water is also important to minimize the risks of soil sodicity development in irrigated area, especially when the quality of irrigation water deteriorated. Rather than using 2465.8m 3 of water for 1 hectare in CFI system, it is possible to double the irrigated area to 2 hectares in AFI system.2. Tomato needs high amount of irrigation water during the flowering stage, but in FFI system as half of the root stay dry throughout the growth period, continuous stress significantly reduces fresh fruit yield.Based on the scope of the study and findings, the following recommendations have been made.1. As intensive irrigation practice is already common in the study area, giving a training and advisory service for communities as to how to use crop water requirement based irrigation system is a basic, as over application and high frequency irrigation causes water logging, aggravate soil sadicity, water losses as runoff or tail water, increases cost of labour and fuel for pumping irrigation water.2. As the experiment is carried out for one season and in one place, repeating the experiment in space and time is important to improve the validity of the finding.Appendix Table 1. ","tokenCount":"15804"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d82ac8fabc8d5c068e3d0d60de770660","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7b1c1258-18eb-4d98-91e1-dfafe0ee8eb3/content","id":"419739481"},"keywords":["Developing countries","Wheats","Food production","Food consumption","Production factors","Productivity","Production increase","Economic environment","Research institutions","Research projects","Diffusion of research","Innovation adoption","Economic analysis","Economic trends","Statistical data CIMMYT","NARS AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies E16 Production Economics Dewey decimal classification: 338.1601724"],"sieverID":"128f8508-2fdc-4155-81fa-253122950ca9","pagecount":"54","content":"CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises about 60 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT's research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies.CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture-peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 1999. Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. The designations employed in the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.By 2020, demand for wheat is expected to be 40% greater than its current level of 552 million tons (Rosegrant et al. 1997), but the resources available for wheat production are likely to be significantly lower. Viewed in this light, the challenge for increasing wheat supplies in the developing world is as great today as it was three decades ago at the start of the Green Revolution.The strategies that developing countries adopt to meet future demand for wheat will depend a great deal on how they are affected by the changes that are world? The answer explored here is for the research system to focus on sustaining the competitiveness of wheat production in developing countries. This goal can be achieved through a shift in the yield frontier, a constant drive to stabilize yields, and enhanced input use efficiency and input responsiveness in wheat varieties. The emphasis on improving the profitability of wheat production should not be restricted to irrigated, favorable environments; similar opportunities ought to be explored for marginal, rainfed environments.In exploring these issues, we focus on the roles that global wheat research and germplasm exchange have played-and should play-in sustaining growth in wheat productivity over the next two decades. After discussing past trends in wheat productivity, we review potential technological advances for favorable and marginal wheat environments. We conclude by discussing how the integration of world food markets, economic liberalization, and greater intellectual property protection are likely to affect the chief source of gains in wheat productivity: the global system of germplasm and information exchange.The development and release of modern wheat varieties in the early 1960s triggered the Green Revolution. The first and most important factor contributing to the success of the wheat revolution was wheat itself: semidwarf, highyielding, rust-resistant wheat seed. The second was the establishment of a free, unrestricted global wheat research system based on the exchange of germplasm. The third was large-scale investment in fertilizers, irrigation, and transportation infrastructure. Lastly, the strong political will in developing nations to achieve food self-sufficiency, combined with a conducive agricultural policy environment, also contributed to success.The largest gains in productivity were made in land-scarce countries, where the new seed and fertilizer technologies fostered rapid growth in land productivity. By the late 1970s, 40% of the wheat area in developing countries was sown to modern high-yielding varieties; the figure for Asia was close to 70% (Table 1). By 1994, 78% of developing country wheat area was under modern varieties. The corresponding figure for Asia was 91% and, for Latin America, 92%. Between 1961 and1994, wheat yields increased at an average annual rate of more than 2% in all developing countries except China and India, the two largest wheat producers (Pingali and Heisey 1996). Wheat yields in China and India grew extremely rapidly over much of this period. Yields in India rose sharply in the early years of the Green Revolution, from the mid-1960s until the late 1970s. Although rates of growth in wheat yields in these countries have declined since the late 1980s, they have still been 2% per year or more in the latest periods for which data are available. Wheat yields in South and East Asian countries other than China and India grew at an average rate of 2.75% annually over 1961-94, displaying much the same pattern as seen in India but slowing more markedly in recent years.The West Asian/North African countries and the wheat-producing countries of sub-Saharan Africa also experienced rapid wheat yield growth from 1961 to 1994, approximately 2.4% per annum.Latin America lagged behind with a yield growth rate of around 1.8% per annum, although it started from a higher base. In West Asia/North Africa, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa, rates of yield increase have tended to vary over time, but, except for the last region, they have been lower in later periods than during the first two decades of the Green Revolution. (The potential implications of slower rates of yield growth are discussed in the next sections of this report.)From the mid-1970s onwards, wheat production has grown at a faster pace than population. A similar trend has occurred for rice. The increased yields of these two major cereal crops belied the widespread fear that the world would run out of food. Instead, the world has gained access to more and cheaper food. Since the mid-1970s, global wheat prices have declined in real terms, resulting in significant consumption benefits for both the urban and rural poor (Figure 1).The international investment in breeding more productive wheats for developing countries paid off handsomely. The rates of return to wheat research have generally been calculated at 50% or more for individual developing countries since the early 1970s (Table 2). Given all of these achievements, why should anyone be concerned about wheat productivity? The wheat revolution was good for the majority of poor people, but the world has changed in the three decades since farmers sowed the first seeds of the Green Revolution.The forces that drive productivity gains in wheat are changing. They can be expected to transform how and where wheat is produced, and for what purposes; they will also change the objectives of wheat research, the way it is conducted, and the way its products are made available to farmers. They may well determine whether poor farmers and consumers have enough food to eat in 2020. Source: Byerlee and Moya (1993); CIMMYT (1996); CIMMYT wheat impacts database. a Excludes tall varieties released since 1965. If these varieties are included, the area under modern varieties increases. b Excludes China. c Important countries such as Morocco and Iran not included. d Excludes unknown cultivars (i.e., those for which pedigree and origin are not known).  Morris et al. 1992Nepal 1960-90 75-84 Macagno and Gómez Chao 1993Argentina 1967-92 42 Source: Echeverría, cited by Morris et al. (1994); CIMMYT (1993). The first gains in wheat productivity were seen in irrigated and high-rainfall environments, the so-called favorable production environments. By 1977, 83%of the wheat area in these environments was planted to modern, high-yielding wheats. By 1990, this figure was close to 100% (Byerlee and Moya 1993).The irrigated wheat-growing environments exhibited substantial yield growth. In northwestern Mexico, for instance, average farm yields had risen from 2.2 t/ha in 1960 to 6.0 t/ha in 1998, almost a three-fold increase (CIMMYT Economics Program data).Similarly, in the Indian Punjab, average yields rose from 1.5 t/ha in 1960 to 3.5 t/ha in 1989 and 4.2 t/ha in 1999 (Sidhu and Byerlee 1992;Punjab Agricultural University, pers. comm.).During the first three decades after modern varieties were introduced, the yield potential of subsequent generations of modern varieties in favorable environments rose by 1% per annum (Byerlee and Traxler 1995) (Table 3). The initial yield boost of 35-40% on farmers' fields was followed by a period of less dramatic but nonetheless steady yield growth, during which the second-and third-generation varieties with higher yield potential and increased disease resistance replaced the original improved varieties (Byerlee and Morris 1993).The rainfed environments, marginal for wheat production, also benefited from technological change. First they benefited from a spillover of new varieties from the irrigated environments; later, from new varieties adapted to rainfed conditions, especially varieties with improved drought tolerance. By 1990 approximately 44% of all wheat varieties released were bred specifically for dryland environments (Table 4).  Byerlee and Moya (1993) Source: Byerlee and Traxler (1995). Note: Regression results and data available from authors. a Semidwarf varieties only. b Unpublished data.  (Dubin and Rajaram 1996).Characteristics of wheat mega-environments (ME)  Rajaram and Van Ginkel (1996). a Rainfall refers to just before and during the crop cycle. High = > 500 mm, low = < 500 mm. b Refers to the mean temperature of the coolest month. Hot = >17 C; temperate = 5-17 C; moderate cold = 0-5 C; severe cold = -10-0 C. c Factors additional to yield and industrial quality. SR = stem rust, LR = leaf rust, YR = yellow (stripe) rust, PM = powdery mildew; BYD = barley yellow dwarf. d Further subdivided into: (1) optimum growing conditions, (2) presence of Karnal bunt, (3) late planted, and (4) problems of salinity. Byerlee and Traxler (1995) reported that over the past few decades the yield potential of drought-tolerant varieties has risen at a modest 0.5% per annum (Table 3).Rainfed area sown to modern wheat varieties has risen steadily since the midto late 1970s (see Figure 2 for examples). Yield gains from the adoption of modern varieties in these marginal environments have been modest (Byerlee and Morris 1993), but an observable drop in yield variability has resulted from the release of wheat germplasm possessing improved tolerance to drought and other abiotic stresses. Using time-series data for 57 countries, Singh and Byerlee (1990) found that variability in wheat yields declined by an average of 23% from 1951-65 to 1976-86.   (Dubin and Rajaram 1996)    (Sayre 1996).In environments favorable to wheat production, the economically exploitable Given the trends we have just described, the competitiveness of wheat farming    6.In the 1950s and early 1960s, breeders generally sought to incorporate the hypersensitive (race-specific) 3 type of resistance into wheat. This approach was attractive because the cleanliness of the 2 One or more of the rust diseases (leaf rust, stem rust, or stripe rust) are the most economically important diseases in many wheat production environments (Byerlee and Moya 1993). 3 Race-specific resistance, controlled by major genes having large effects, is easily detected with a specific race of pathogen (pathotype). In wheat rust pathosystems, this resistance is recognized by its characteristic low infection type. Numerous genes for race-specific resistance are now known and have been catalogued by McIntosh, Hart, and Gale (1995). Detection of these genes requires either seedling evaluation or testing at post-seedling growth stages. crop was preserved and it was simple to incorporate resistance into improved germplasm. However, the protection afforded by race-specific genes (or combinations of them) eroded quickly, leaving scientists to look for alternative approaches.In the late 1960s and 1970s, the concept of general (race-nonspecific) 4 resistance and its application in crop improvement was revived (Caldwell 1968) and widely used to breed for rust resistance in wheat (Borlaug 1968(Borlaug , 1972;;Caldwell 1968). This concept, commonly known as slow rusting, 5 has dominated  The profitability of wheat production 4 Race-nonspecific resistance operates against all pathotypes. This type of rust resistance, based on the additive interactions of several genes having minor to intermediate effects, is usually complex and relatively difficult to identify. 5 Slow rusting is a type of resistance in which rust develops slowly, resulting in intermediate to lowdisease levels against all pathotypes (Caldwell 1968). Partial or incomplete resistance is characterized by a reduced rate of epidemic development despite a high or susceptible infection type (Parlevliet 1975). Improved nitrogen use efficiency.Since the 1950s, successive CIMMYT wheat releases have shown either increasing yield stability, higher mean yields, or both (Traxler et al. 1995). Planting wheat on beds provides easy 6 Almost no pesticides are used to produce wheat in developing countries.  Even if the anticipated productivity gains in the high-potential environments become a reality, the projected growth in demand for wheat from the present to 2020 may not be met. Gains in wheat productivity must also be sought in the The international wheat research system plays a crucial role in maximizing the spillover benefits of research on unfavorable environments across countries. Maredia (1993)  because water availability also differs across years in these environments, it is prudent to construct a genetic system in which plant responsiveness provides a bonus whenever higher rainfall improves the production environment. With such a system, improved moisture is immediately translated into greater yield gains for farmers (Calhoun et al. 1994;van Ginkel et al. 1998).By the mid-1980s, CIMMYT-bred germplasm occupied 45% of the semiarid wheat area receiving between 300 and 500 mm/yr of rainfall and 1% of the area receiving less than 300 mm/yr (CIMMYT 1992), including large tracts in West Asia and North Africa. By 1990, 63% of the dryland area was planted to semidwarf wheats (Byerlee and Moya Source: Maredia and Byerlee (1999); see also Maredia (1993) and Maredia and Eicher (1995)  Considering this evidence and the general failure of traditional breeding methods to deliver superior, widely adapted wheat germplasm for semiarid environments, combining input efficiency and input responsiveness appears to be a rational operational methodology for breeding droughttolerant wheats. This methodology is supported in recent research publications (Bramel-Cox et al. 1991;Cooper, Byth, and Woodruff 1994;Duvick 1990Duvick , 1992;;Edhaie, Waines, and Hall 1988;Uddin, Carver, and Cutter 1992;Zavala-García et al. 1992) which indicate that testing/ selecting in a range of environments, including well-irrigated ones, has proven effective for identifying superior genotypes for stressed conditions.As hybrid wheats are developed, their performance under drought conditions ought to be more closely examined. Both hybrid maize and hybrid rice have exhibited superior performance under low-rainfall conditions because of their greater rooting depth (CIMMYT 1997b;Virmani 1999). Spillover benefits to drought-prone areas from hybrid wheats developed for high-potential areas may be significant.  (Morgounov 1995). New data indicate that canopy temperature depression is a useful criterion in selecting for heat tolerance (Reynolds et al. 1994;M. van Ginkel, CIMMYT, pers. comm.). When leaf temperature is less than the ambient air temperature, the plant is more likely to be tolerant to heat stress. AbdElGhani, AbdElShafi, and Ghanem (1994)  On approximately 1 billion hectares in  Although modern varieties may play some role in boosting yields in marginal areas, germplasm will usually not be the main stimulus for rapid technical change, as is the case in favorable areas.Marginal environments would benefit more substantially from improvements in crop and resource management technologies, which often precede changes in variety (as has already happened in Turkey) (Morris, Belaid, and Byerlee 1991). For example, given that moisture is the primary constraint in the marginal environments, the primary 7 It later became clear that soil acidity affected not only Brazil but also many wheat-growing regions of Africa and Asia. Given that growth in population and The anticipated global integration of food markets and rapid urbanization make it less likely that governments will Other countries would continue to rely on the international germplasm exchange system.The • document the use of CIMMYT-related and other improved wheat germplasm;• document the farm-level adoption of improved wheat germplasm;• identify factors that affect adoption of modern varieties (MVs);• generate information for setting research priorities; and• provide information to raise awareness of the importance and benefits of international wheat research.Questionnaires were sent to the 41 developing-world countries that produce more than 20,000 t of wheat annually. 1Responses were received from 36 countries, representing just under 99% of all wheat production in the developing world. On a regional basis, coverage ranged from 94% of production in West Asia/North Africa to nearly 100% in Latin America (Table 1). This preliminary assessment of the achievements of the international wheat research system concludes with a discussion of several issues that impinge upon the future effectiveness of the system.Studies conducted in the early 1990s by Bohn and Byerlee (Bohn and Byerlee 1993;Bohn, Byerlee, and Maredia 1999) and updated more recently by CIMMYT found that research intensity, measured as the number of scientists per million tons of wheat production, tended to fall with increasing wheat production (Figure 1). This appears to be an empirical regularity: because of the inverse relationship between production level and research intensity in the developing world, small wheat-producing countries tend to have a high intensity of wheat improvement research. The resulting implications for research efficiency, particularly for small research programs, have been considered by Maredia and Byerlee (1999).   The  Source: CIMMYT wheat impacts database.Varieties per million hectares per year, 5-year moving average • 9% were NARS crosses with known CIMMYT ancestry;• 41% were NARS semidwarfs with other ancestry; and• 18% were tall varieties Slightly more than 80% of the wheat area in the developing world is planted to semidwarf varieties (Figure 7). Sixty-two percent of the wheat area in the developing world is estimated to be Spring bread wheat is the dominant type of wheat grown in the developing   In contrast to spring bread wheat and spring durum wheat regions, areas planted to winter/facultative bread wheat are dominated by semidwarf wheats that are unrelated to CIMMYT wheats. Among the regions where winter/facultative bread wheat is grown, Latin America was the only region where CIMMYT material was dominant (Figure 10). In China, where winter/facultative bread wheat occupies more than half of the wheat area, nearly two-thirds of the winter/facultative bread wheat area (36% of the total wheat area) consisted of non-CIMMYT winter/facultative semidwarfs. In the other region with a large winter/facultative wheat area, West Asia/North Africa, nearly 40% of the winter/facultative wheat area was planted to landraces and another 35% was sown to varieties with some CIMMYT ancestry. In South Africa, which is the only country in sub-Saharan Africa growing winter/facultative wheat, two-thirds of the area was planted to tall varieties with pedigrees (versus tall varieties whose pedigrees are unknown). The data for numbers of released varieties and area planted indicate that CIMMYT plays a major role in wheat improvement research for developing developing world's major wheat growing regions was planted to CIMMYT-related material. The use of CIMMYT crosses was greatest in West Asia/North Africa and Latin America, where more than 50% of the spring bread wheat area was planted to CIMMYT crosses. In China, about one-third of the spring bread wheat area was planted to CIMMYT-related germplasm, and an additional 40% was planted to semidwarf wheats that did not contain CIMMYT germplasm.Spring durum wheat area, which is relatively small compared to area sown to other wheat types, is predominantly sown to semidwarfs, primarily CIMMYTrelated varieties. As was the case with adoption of spring bread wheats, Latin America and West Asia/North Africa were the major adopters of CIMMYT crosses in spring durum wheat. More than 50% of the spring durum wheat area in West Asia/North Africa, where over 80% of the developing world's durum wheat is grown, was planted to CIMMYT crosses. In Latin America, the percentage of area planted to CIMMYT crosses was more than 90% (Figure 9). The extensive data collected for the 1990 and 1997 studies allow us to look for longitudinal trends, albeit using a rather short time frame. Our estimates of wheat area have relied on fairly simple ways of assessing the CIMMYT contribution. Here, we recapitulate some of those measures and present an additional one based on a geometric rule developed by Pardey et al. (1996).This additional measure analyzes a variety's pedigree by applying geometrically declining weights to each level of crossing for as many generations as desired. The weights applied to the earliest generation included in the analysis are increased to make the total of all weights sum to 1. 2   For comparison, we present estimates for 1990 based on the data analyzed by Byerlee and Moya (1993). In presenting the 1997 data, we provide figures that both include and exclude China, the decline is proportionately the lowest when using the \"any ancestor\" rule (Figure 11). The reason for this finding is that, compared to other breeding programs, the Chinese wheat program often uses CIMMYT material at an earlier stage of the crossing process.2 For example, if the analysis were carried back to the level of great-grandparents, the source of the final cross would be given a weight of 1/2, the source of each of the parents would be given a weight of 1/8, and the source of each of the grandparents would be given a weight of 1/32. The next fraction in this series is 1/128, but the source of each of the great-grandparents would be given a weight of 1/64 to ensure that the weights sum to 1. 3 Calculations for spring durum wheat are being revised. As a result, estimates for spring durum wheat and for \"all wheat\" are not presented; however the patterns for spring durum and all wheat are fairly clear. 4 Although the estimates for spring durum wheat are being recalculated, it is likely that in comparison with spring bread wheat, CIMMYT crosses are more important in terms of area planted in spring durum than in spring bread wheat; NARS crosses with at least one CIMMYT parent, and NARS crosses with earlier CIMMYT ancestry, are less important in durum wheat. Genetic contribution as measured by the geometric rule is greater in spring durum wheat than in spring bread wheat, again because of the higher weight given to the final cross. Slightly more than 50% of the genetic contribution to spring durum wheat planted in developing countries would be attributed to CIMMYT by this rule.   In assessing the impacts of international wheat breeding research in the developing world, several issues merit further study and analysis. These include the rate at which varieties are replaced in farmers' fields, the rates of genetic gain in wheat yield and yield gain in farmers' fields, and the future of international collaboration in wheat improvement research.Our most recent data indicate that, as reported in the 1990 study by Byerlee and Moya (1993), a significant proportion of the total wheat area is still planted to older improved varieties.Despite the fact that farmers in developing countries have widely  Most Latin American countries, with the exception of Peru and Mexico, seem to replace their varieties in the field more rapidly than other developing countries, which is consistent with earlier findings (Byerlee and Moya 1993). In Mexico, however, varietal replacement was much more rapid in the past (Brennan and Byerlee 1991), primarily because of a shift in the major wheat-growing areas of northwestern Mexico from bread wheat to older durum wheat varieties.In contrast to Latin America, in most nations of West Asia/North Africa the weighted average ages of varieties in the field exceeded 14 years. Interestingly, even some large wheat-producing countries such as India had weighted varietal ages exceeding 12 years, although wheat varieties were replaced much more rapidly in some regions of India, particularly the northwest (Byerlee and Moya 1993). Factors affecting the rate of varietal replacement in wheat are discussed from a theoretical perspective by Heisey and Brennan (1991) and empirically by Heisey (1990) and byMwangi and colleagues (see, for example, Alemu Hailye et al. 1998;Regassa Ensermu et al. 1998;and Hailu Beyene, Verkuijl, and Mwangi 1998).Considerable debate has surrounded the question of whether breeders are continuing to make genetic gains in yield potential in the major cereals or whether most recent progress has come from raising the bottom of the yield distribution by increasing resistance to stress (see Evans and Fischer, forthcoming;Mann 1999). It appears that the genetic yield potential of wheat has continued to increase (Evans and Fischer, forthcoming;Sayre, Rajaram and Fischer 1997). An extensive review of studies about gains in wheat yields in developed and developing countries also concluded that there is no convincing evidence that genetic gains in wheat yield potential have leveled off (Rejesus, Heisey, and Smale 1999). As is apparently the case in rice and maize, in wheat the larger proportion of genetic gains in yield also results from increased stress tolerance rather than gains in yield potential per se. Much of the progress in developing stress tolerance in wheat has come from dramatically improved resistance to wheat diseases, particularly the rusts (Sayre et al. 1998).Meanwhile, there is ample evidence that yield advances in farmers' wheat fields have slowed. Worldwide, some of this slowdown may be partially explained by reduced growth in demand for wheat, but it is noteworthy that yield increases in advanced wheat-producing areas of developing countries (e.g., northwestern When countries move from low-to middle-income status, per capita consumption of maize and rice for food declines, while per capita consumption of wheat tends to rise (see \"Wheat for Asia's Increasingly Westernized Diets,\" p.). 1 In China for example, wheat consumption is expected to rise from 83 kg per capita per annum in 1993 to 88 kg per capita per annum in 2020 (Rosegrant et al. 1997). India, on the other hand, is expected to see per capita wheat consumption rise from 55 to 64 kg per annum.Although wheat demand is expected to rise, it is not clear that expanding domestic production will be competitive The IFPRI IMPACT model (Rosegrant et. al. 1997)  Asia's increased demand for wheat   Note: For more detail on wheat in Kazakhstan, see Longmire and Moldashev (1999). The foregoing discussion is not meant to imply that countries with smaller wheat growing areas will find their production unprofitable or that they will be unable to benefit from improved technologies. The data source for all production and consumption statistics is FAO, FAOSTAT (1999).Growth rates were calculated using the log-linear regression model:  ","tokenCount":"4330"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f0759457913900f2d4e8936c1358b883","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/fa2c67ff-d57b-43ef-9a80-931a42147cd8/content","id":"-1178986659"},"keywords":["seed systems, informal and formal systems","seed supply","improved varieties","seed projects, local varieties, modern varieties, seed sector, seed policy, seed production, seed multiplication, community based seed, seed distribution","seed storage, Sudan","Blue Nile","South Kordofan","Khartoum","Sudan Seed laws, harmonization, RECS, Sudan, South Sudan 7. African seed systems -laws and regulations (Herpers, Vodouhe, Halewood, & de Jonge, 2017 mapping, quality seeds, adaptive technologies, Rashid, inputs, agro dealers, seed suppliers, climate change, Gedaref and Kassala, Sudan Seed systems/formal, improved seed varieties, East Sudan Innovation platforms (IP), Sudan, demonstration plots, improved varieties, attitude"],"sieverID":"825a6d26-fd0b-4561-9630-d54a09618d74","pagecount":"36","content":"We explored the internet for scholarly articles for our study, focusing on Google Scholar and Research Gate, as well as Google for project documents and popular literature. The materials that were studied were those for case studies' documents, journals, project documents (assessment or evaluation reports), Arabic research papers, theses and popular press releases, such as blogs, news bulletins, magazines, websites, and conference proceedings. Referencing was done using EndNote.The purpose of this literature review is to provide partners with information to aid them in developing the Sustainable Agrifood System Approach for Sudan (SASAS) initiative in Sudan. It consists mainly of a desk review of recent publications, scientific journals, project reports, and news articles to acquire information on seed systems in Sudan. Arabic documents were also reviewed. The main objective is to build on both successful and unsuccessful lessons learned to prevent repeating failed tactics or doing the same thing twice. This section includes best practices and insights gained from different states in Sudan regarding seed systems.Information for this review was gathered through desk research and field research which included both Key Informant Interviews (KII) over the phone, and in-person meetings. The desk research involved reviews of both English and Arabic seed system related documents. Representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture, NGOs, agencies, and SASAS partners participated in Key Informant Interviews (KII), which were done both over the phone and in-person meetings. The UN-FAO, CARE International, Plan Sudan, VSF, ADRA Sudan, World Vision, Action Against Hunger, Practical Action, Islamic Relief, Human Appeal, World Relief, Goal Ireland, DRC, Concern WW, and national NGOs such as Ariaf, Idafa, Tanmiat Alatfal, and Mobdioon participated in the KII which was conducted by the seed system research assistant, Omer Abdalla. Agriculture researchers from Agricultural Research Stations in the Blue Nile and South Kordofan States, as well as representatives from the Ministry of Production and Economic Resources (MPER), also took part. The lessons learned from the executed actions as well as current stakeholder seed system activities were recorded during this phase.The interviews found that the two state research stations (Agricultural Research Stations in the Blue Nile and South Kordofan States) and the MPER are engaged in seed multiplication and distribution of sesame, sorghum, groundnut and millet seeds, but with limited capabilities. However, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) station in South Kordofan State in 2022/2023 season produced 70 metric tons of sorghum seeds of two varieties (Wad Ahmed and Arfa Gadamak). The South Kordofan agricultural research station also multiplies two varieties of millet seeds (Ashana and Umbadir), sesame (Prumo variety) and groundnut (Gebaish variety). according to the director of Kadugli Research Station, all produced seeds have been sold to farmers directly and/or through seed companies and agro dealers.In the interviews, the director of the Blue Nile ARC station revealed that the station produced a limited quantity of certified sorghum seeds (Arfa Gadamak variety) in 2021-2022, working with the FAO office in Damazin. The output was around 10 metric tons. The FAO distributed their portion to smallholder farmers, whilst the ARC contributed some of its share to the ARC head quarter in Wad Medani and sold the remaining amount to farmers and agrodealers.Communication was also made with the representative of the National Seed Directorate, who confirmed that the directorate plays only regulatory and controlling role in seed trading, multiplication and certification as well as in the process of releasing and registering new cultivars of all domestic crops. But the directorate is not involved in any commercial seed trading or distribution activity.• Importance of informal sector• Several studies mention that Sudan is dominated by the informal seed systems.• The studies indicate that the use of farmer-saved seed is dominant in Sudan.• Many studies show that the informal seed system provides almost all the seed of the local varieties. • Only few farmers using improved varieties.• There is a predominance of landraces and local varieties over modern, improved varieties. • Farmer seed systems largely dominate the seed sector.• Farmers mostly use recycled seed.• Literature more on formal• Several studies focus on the formal seed systems with only a few on informal seed systems. • There are many projects delivering seed to farmers.• Public sector and NGOs are involved in the multiplication of certified seed.• NGOs are supplying certified and improved seeds.• Government policy encourages private sector participation. o This review on seed systems aims to provide a brief introduction to the importance, challenges and concepts in understanding the seed sector and how it can impact the livelihoods of poor smallholder households. It defines the informal and formal seed systems as follows:• Informal seed system: Refers to farmer and community-based seed systems for producing, saving and exchanging seed of landraces and uncertified improved varieties. The document indicates that this system is a significant source of seed of preferred varieties for farming households because of proximity to the farmers. The cost of seeds in the informal system is lower than the formal system and farmers may receive seed as a loan, a gift or through barter. • The formal seed system according to this publication represents certified/commercial seed production and marketing, usually by seed companies and sometimes by governments, and includes the importation of seed under the supervision of a national seed service. This seed is sold to farming households through, for example, agro-dealers, seed companies, government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).Farmers and traders may also sell seed of uncertified new varieties or local landraces in local markets (overlap of the circles in the middle).• The article at the end has a glossary consisting of detailed definitions and descriptions of various types of seeds, terms used in seed systems as well as regulatory elements.o This publication presents some key lessons from the experiences of IFAD and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and other seed-related development projects. These lessons will help the reader of the How To Do Note (HTDN) to have a greater understanding and appreciation of the framework for analyzing national seed systems and how to use the HTDN to inform the design and implementation of more effective seed projects. Substantial lessons include:• Local seed companies play the essential role of taking new varieties and getting them into the hands of farmers, but they require sufficient early generation seed to produce certified seed to fulfill this role. • The formal seed market should be based on farmers purchasing seed and not provision of free seed to farmers. • Farmers require direct experience with new varieties through demonstrations, farmer field schools (FFS), on-farm trials or seeing the crop in a neighbor's field before they will decide to try it and potentially adopt it. • Project designers need to know farmers' cropping systems and their seed needs, and to determine if newly released improved varieties will be superior to what they already have.o The article presents Sudan project-The Seed Development Program (SDP) as a case study. Substantial lessons from the Sudan SDP include:• Seed-grower groups were established to produce improved seed for sale to local communities, and grain-producer groups were established to buy this quality seed of improved varieties to produce grain for consumption and sale. No study was conducted on farmer seed demand during or after the design process, and it was finally conducted as part of the mid-term review. • The SDP planned to give grants to private seed companies to produce improved seeds in North and South Kordofan through contracting SGGs. This did not happen because the seed companies already had their seed farms under irrigation in other parts of the country to ensure stable seed production and they did not what to undertake seed production in risky rainfed areas where there are frequent droughts.  • This article reviews the state of knowledge on seed system development, outlining insights emerging from the literature that can help navigate the way forward.• The article provides a synthesis of the evidence on the contributions and limitations of the different actors, activities, and institutions pertaining to all seed systems smallholder farmers use, formal and informal. The article further defines three types of seed systems as follows: • The informal system-also called traditional, local or farmers' seed system-refers to the practices and institutions that are involved in farmers' on-farm management of crop diversity, and in their access to seed through own production, farmer-to-farmer exchange, and local markets. These practices are largely mediated by social rules and norms that have evolved over time and are closely linked to local cultures and traditions. • The formal seed system is understood as the development, distribution, and sale of certified seeds of \"improved\" varieties in registered outlets. It usually covers only a few crops with higher commercial value. This system is generally governed by national policies and legal frameworks defining variety release, seed certification and phytosanitary controls. • The intermediate seed system is also increasingly recognized, referring to individuals or organized farmers that produce and sell seed not sufficiently covered by the formal seed system, often following simplified certification schemes. • While the complexity of seed systems eludes a simple roadmap, we conclude by planting a \"signpost\" with principles to guide efforts to develop resilient and inclusive sed systems.Keywords: Seed systems/informal, seed systems/formal, Seed systems/intermediate, definitions • This article documents the degree to which the informal sector remains the core for seed acquisition, especially in Africa.   • The objectives of the workshop were to review the status of the seed sector in Africa, and, informed by the findings of the report, to develop an Action Plan for the ASBP. Information on farmer saved seeds and the status of seed sectors in Egypt and Sudan was added during the workshop. Key findings relating to Sudan include: worldwide had approved the commercialization/planting/importation of GM crops within their territories. Of these, seven are in Africa: Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, and Swaziland. The approved crops are canola, cotton, cowpea, maize, rice, sorghum, and soya bean. Specifically, transgenic Bt cotton has either been released or is nearly ready for release in Nigeria, Sudan, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Malawi. Similarly, significant progress towards the release of GM varieties has been recorded for Bt cowpea (in Nigeria, Ghana, and Burkina Faso) and for Bt/drought-tolerant maize (in Kenya, Mozambique, Ethiopia, Nigeria South Africa). Of these eight countries, only Sudan and South Africa engaged in the commercial production of GM crops in 2017. All have developed regional variety catalogues for the regional trade of certified seed. However, the regulations of these RECs are not in harmony with one another or necessarily with the national laws of their members.For each of the mentioned RECs, the harmonization process may in many instances require amendments to national seed laws to ensure compliance and these processes could further threaten Farmer Managed Seed Systems (FMSS). • For the most part, African seed laws require registration in the formal system for growers, sellers and often processors and distributors. In a few cases there are exemptions or lesser criteria for registration of farmer seed producers in communities and/or express support for farmer managed seed systems.Reference : Herpers, S., et al. (2017). \"The support for farmer-led seed systems in African seed laws.\"• The objective of this report is to compare regional and national seed laws in Africa, and analyse the extent to which they support (or undermine) farmers' participation in seed systems. More specifically how current seed laws affect informal (farmer-based) seed systems and in what manner seed laws can be adapted to support these seed systems. • Policies, laws and regulations of 32 African countries (including Sudan) were carefully reviewed to identify some best practices and key issues and challenges in regulation. Findings from the study indicate that the main challenge for many African countries is that their seed regulations don't include provisions that support farmer -led seed systems. Substantial findings mentioning Sudan and South Sudan include: ü Legislation in 23 countries forbids the trade of unregulated seed -Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burundi, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, DRC, Egypt, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sudan, Togo, Tunisia. ü Legislation in nine countries allows for local sale and exchange within farmer-led seed systems: Senegal, Niger, South Africa, Tanzania (full certification is not obligatory, yet seed does need to have its quality declared), Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Ethiopia and South Sudan ü Also in South Sudan, Mali, Benin and Guinea, recognition can be found for the important roles played by landraces and local varieties in the context of crop improvement, adaptation to climate change and resistance/tolerance to pests, diseases and soil disorders, etc. ü The following countries allow for the sale of seed produced by smallholder farmers under certain conditions: Senegal, Burkina Faso, Niger, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Malawi and Zambia. ü Currently, eight countries mention Quality Declared Seed (QDS) in either their acts or policies: Ethiopia, Ghana, South Sudan (draft policy), Tanzania, Uganda (draft policy), Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia ü The draft policy of South Sudan supports farmers in the following provision:\"Farmers or any group of farmers who produce seed for their own use or for use by their neighbors or others in their immediate area shall be eligible for all Government guidance and support, so as to improve the quality of their seed and operations.\" South Sudan intends to set up different standards for categories of seed production fields and seed lots, in order to secure high seed quality and cost-efficiency, seeking \"a balance between the needs of farmers for high quality vs. realistic production capabilities\" (1 Draft Seed Policy 1993, South Sudan, Section 17.2: Seed and seed field quality control.).Keywords: Seed laws, 32 African countries, Sudan, South Sudan 8. Arab food security status report for the year 2005, Sudan (AOAD, 2007)Reference: Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD). ( 2007). Al dirasa Hawl Tanseeq Tegarat Albozoor Wa Altaqawi Lil Mahasel Al Gizaeia Alraiesia Fi Addwal Alarabeia. Study on coordinating seed trade of main food crops in Arab Countries. Available at https://aoad-app.org/Linked_Studies/ -The report explained the role of both government and private sector in the seed industry of Arab countries including Sudan -The Sudanese government and the private sector provide seeds for sorghum, millet, sesame, peanuts and vegetables for small scale farmers in the rain-fed and traditional sectors as well as in the national state-owned agricultural schemes like Rahad and Gezira Schemes.-The report stresses the big role of government to assist the small-scale farmers across the country by providing them with certified seeds.Keywords: private sector, government, Rahad, Gezira Scheme, Arab countries  • The research goal was to identify existing and future market requirements and potential for the vegetable/Field crop seed industry in Sudan. • In the study, 14 states were included. Data were obtained through field surveys and interviews; 26 vegetable crops were considered in this study. • Results show that the seed sector in Sudan are divided across two main seeds systems, the informal and the formal sector. The article details that the Informal Sector is comprised of farmer-saved and farmer-to-farmer seed systems which represents the majority of seed volumes in crop farming in Sudan. The formal sector is identified by Certified Improved Local Varieties and Imported Improved and Hybrid Varieties, dominated by the private sector for both categories. • While farmer-saved seeds and farmer-to-farmer seed exchanges represent the majority of seed volume in Sudan in general, estimated at 89% of total, adoption of improved varieties has become more significant in vegetable farming with particular emphasis of certain crops. The farmer-saved seed system remains the most important source of seed volume in the vegetable farming sector, estimated at 53%. • Sudanese seed was perceived as the best by small farmers, mainly because they have been tried. American and Dutch seeds had the highest recognition within the imported category according to farmer perception. • The network of agro dealers is quite extensive and well distributed across the country. The estimated number of agro-dealers active in Sudan approx. 1,050 dealers, the bulk of their business 85% is with small farms. Importers are fewer in number only 28 registered companies are active in producing, importing, marketing and distribution of vegetable seeds to the Sudanese farmer. Importing Seed companies face challenges, including high import costs and competition from cheaper, uncertified seeds in the informal market. • The use of seed depends on the type of the crop; certain crops such as leafy vegetables (arugula, parsley, fennel, mallow) are dominated by farmer-tofarmer distribution of seed of local varieties, together with beet, squash and chili pepper, whereas a higher adoption of imported improved seeds in watermelon, carrots, tomatoes. Local varieties are available in a few crops mainly okra and egg plant. • In 2022, the Federal MoAF delivered 803 tonnes of sorghum seed to the state ministries of agriculture in the 18 states, and they were distributed mainly to smallholder farmers in western traditional rainfed agriculture areas (Table 5). The amount of distributed seed is similar to the very low quantities delivered in 2021, half of those distributed in 2020. • The majority of the farmers interviewed during the field visits, especially in the traditional and semi-mechanized sector, reported to have utilized seeds retained from the harvest of the previous year due to the limited seed distributions by state authorities and the high prices prevailing on the market. • Farmers' access to seeds has improved through seed distributions carried out by FAO, which provided about 5 400 tonnes of seeds (Table 6), 56 percent higher compared to the amount distributed in 2021. Out of the total amount distributed, 3 764 tonnes were seeds of staple cereals (3 637 tonnes of sorghum and 127 tonnes of millet) and the remaining were seeds of cash crops, mainly groundnuts (1 392 tonnes). Smaller quantities of seeds of pigeon peas, cowpeas and chickpeas were distributed. • Seed requirements for 2023 planting are estimated at about 122 000 tonnes on the basis of the average planted areas during the last three years and the recommended seed rate in the country. The following seed rates have been used: 7.5 kg/hectare for sorghum; 4 kg/hectare for millet; 20 kg/hectare for maize; 120 kg/hectare for wheat and 75 kg/hectare for rice.Keywords: Seed systems/formal, Seed systems/informal, sorghum seeds, FAO, Sudan 14. Seeds and their contribution to the production of agricultural crops in Sudan (SUNA, 2022)Reference: SUNA, (2022) Seeds and their contribution to the production of agricultural crops in Sudan. Available at https://suna-sd.net/read?id=741680• This seed related work is a report presented by Sudan News Agency (SUNA). The report explains that both public and private sector are involved in seed production. • The report highlighted that the public seed sector has recently received financial and technical support from external parties. This helped in developing the infrastructure for the production and approval of improved seeds. The external support has also been used for qualifying and training a number of cadres in the field of seed technology. • One of the key issues raised in the report is that the National Council for Seeds at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests in cooperation with the International Fund for Agricultural Development have recently organized a workshop headed by the Minister of Agriculture and Forests, Dr. Abu Bakr Omar Al-Bushra, in Khartoum to launch the National Seed Policy. This action clearly defines the public sector commitment for building legalized, resilient and effective seed systems. • The report also indicated that the government represented by the minister of agriculture decided to encourage the private sector to invest in the seed industry. Although, in the past such policies of encouraging the private sector to invest in this field were launched, the private sector could not invest much in the seed industry for several reasons, including the wellknown risks in agriculture in general, and the rates of return of capital invested in the seed industry are not attractive compared to other investment alternatives. • The report reveals that this necessitates the use of encouraging means to push the private sector to enter these important vital areas. The report proposes encouraging policies which may include announcing the seed industry as an investment activity that qualifies for tax exemptions.Keywords: seed policy, seed industry, investment, seed systems 15. FAO Crops and Food Supply Assessment Mission (CFSAM) to the Sudan (FAO, 2021a) (English version)Reference: FAO. ( 2021). Special Report -Brief FAO mission to Sudan to assess crop production and food supply for 2021. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb9122en• This report was conducted by FAO to assess productivity of agricultural crops and food supply.• The report suggested that instead of the current system of distributing seeds, it would be of great significance to adopt a national program for expanding the production of improved seeds and increase the availability of certified seeds to ensure their timely delivery to farmers.Key words: distributing seeds, improved seeds, certified seeds, timely delivery 16. Crop production assessment, Sudan (FAO, 2021b) (Arabic version of the previous document, 15) FAO, (2022). Special Report -Brief FAO mission to Sudan to assess crop production and food supply for 2021 (in Arabic). Available at https://www.fao.org/3/cb9456ar/cb9456ar.pdf• This report was conducted by FAO to assess productivity of agricultural crops and food supply.• The report suggested that instead of the current system of distributing seeds, it would be of great significance to adopt a national program for expanding the production of improved seeds and increase the availability of certified seeds to ensure their timely delivery to farmers. • The study aimed at providing essential information of the field crop structure and major field production constrains for resource poor farmers in North Kordofan. Two localities, Sheikan and Elrahad were selected. • The study identified; sorghum, pearl millet, sesame, ground nut, hibiscus, cow pea, okra, watermelon, snake cucumber as main cultivated crops in Sheikan and Elrahad localities of North Kordofan in Sudan. • The stakeholders identified include local leaders, households, and local markets constituting the farmer sources of new technologies. The farmers highly relied on local material in both localities which produced annually from their farms and kept in the storage. The seeds flow from farmer to farmer, from one neighbor village to another and from the local market. • The paper concludes that in North Kordofan, most of the planted varieties are farmer varieties and that the informal seed system plays major role in seed dissemination.Keywords: Seed systems/informal, participatory tools, resource poor farmers, North Kordofan, Sudan. (IMPROVE) § The study covered both formal and informal seed systems in the area § Farmers' adoption and practice of seed selection shows that, 72% of the surveyed farmers are using local varieties that is normally acquired from informal seed sector (farmers saved seeds, or bundling between farmer, to farmer seeds from local village market or small town markets), on the other hand, 28% of the surveyed farmers are using improved seeds obtained from Agricultural Input Companies Agents (AICAs), agro dealers and seasonal seed suppliers distributed in the locality or in § A local groundnut seed multiplier was found in Rashid area of Galabat Al Garbeia locality, which produces seeds for local demand. § The study suggested promoting programs that might raise awareness about adaptive technologies to climate change including the use of improved varieties which could attain higher yields.• Lack of improved wheat seed in sufficient quantity and quality at affordable price was widely regarded as a driving factor significantly contributing to the poor adoption and weak performance of wheat in Sudan among which prompted the scaling up of heattolerant wheat technologies for farmers in Sudan. • To tackle the wheat crisis, Sudan's National Agricultural Research System, in collaboration with international Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) developed and released a number of high yielding heat tolerant wheat varieties with production potential of 5-8 t/ha. • Experiences to promote these heat tolerant wheat varieties in Sudan through the AfDB-funded SARD-SC (wheat) project revealed that technology adopting wheat farmers at project intervention sites increased their wheat productivity to 4-7 t/ha, while farmers with their traditional varieties rarely exceed 2.5 t/ha. • Particular attention was given to train youth and women in wheat production, value addition and farm machinery maintenance services at the Basatna, Wad Elbur and Mukashfi innovation platform (IP) sites. • The document reveals that Field days, seed production farms visits, along with farmers' fields were involved in scaling-up activities. • The study was part of a conservation agriculture project implemented in Gedarif State in Eastern Sudan. • The project distributed certified improved sorghum seed to all beneficiary farmers for free.• Interestingly, the study found 68% of farmers to have actually used the improved seeds distributed by agricultural extension and ARC.Keywords: seed distribution, improved seeds, farmers, conservation agriculture • The study found that Sudan has a large number of traditional sorghum varieties that have been selected by farmers over the years. Actually, farmers are found to prefer their local varieties for location specific considerations such as tolerance of drought, resistance to pests and diseases, for cultural and economic considerations like taste, quantity and quality of cane and its suitability for animal feed or building shelters. • This paper's aim is to develop a detailed description of the socioeconomic characteristics, farming system, production and marketing of vegetables' crop in Khartoum State. It also aims to assess the problems and obstacles which face the vegetables farmers. • Results reveal that farmers use both local and improved seeds verities to grow vegetable crops. The use of seeds however depends on the type of the crop; for example, imported improved seeds are a must to use when growing crops like potatoes due to the unavailability of technology to produce them locally while local or imported seeds can be used to grow the onion crop. • A problem is that the quality of imported seed potato has declined because the commercial companies and individual importers focus on high profits and ignore the quality of seed potato and consequences on potato production and famers loses. The other problem that farmers suffer from is the very high cost of potato production, especially the cost of imported certified seeds (planting materials). • The goal of this framework was to support seed companies and suppliers to expand and strengthen rural seed sales networks and encourage the adoption of certified seeds by smallholder farmers in South Kordofan State. • Main activities included the establishment of new and strengthening of existing rural retail networks, conducting seed promotion campaigns and subsidize sale of certified seed to smallholder farmers. • Project location: localities of Kadugli, the eastern countryside, Dilling and Habila • The program was designed to support at least two seed companies to implement the following activities:Ø Company No. 1 will operate in Kadugli and Eastern Countryside localities and target 5,000 male and female smallholder farmers. Ø Company No. 2 will operate in Habila and Dilling localities and target 5,000 male and female smallholder farmers Ø Support can also be provided to a company with proven potential to operate in all four localities and have the capacity to reach the targeted 10,000 smallholder farmers. The products whose prices will be reduced will include peanuts, sesame seeds, sorghum, and a variety of vegetables such as tomatoes, onions, okra, cucumbers, carrots, and others. • Developing a network of retail seed business in 20 villages by April 15th, 2021.• Capacity building of seed sellers in rural areas to provide basic agricultural advisory service to farmers by May 15, 2021. • Develop and implement a specialized marketing and sales strategy to increase the number of women as seed retailers and customers of certified seeds by May 15, 2021. • Develop and implement complementary activity(s) by August 30, 2021, that minimize potential negative impacts of increased adoption of improved seeds and improved agricultural practices on the environment. These can be environmental awareness messages of tree planting, proper disposal of packaging etc.Keywords: rural seeds, sales network, agricultural practices, environmental awareness, packaging, adoption, certified seeds, sales strategy 5.6.2. Supporting farmer and community seed production 30. World Vision seed multiplication concept (Murunga & Ghallab, 2019) Reference: Ghallab., L. M. a. G. (2019). \"World Vision's Seed Multiplication Concept Contributes to Increased Food Security in South Darfur.\" https://www.wvi.org/stories/sudan/world-visionsseed-multiplication-concept-contributes-increased-food-security-south• The blog presents stories on how World Vision implemented a seed multiplication project in two localities in South Darfur. • The seed multiplication was conducted by groups of farmers who agree to a payback system through a community-managed seed bank. There were 12 seed multiplication groups in two locations, consisting of 10 farmers each. • World Vision supported the groups by ploughing the 8land that would be used for the seed farms (10 feddans per group) and then provided the groups with certified seeds. After that, the farmers were responsible for planting and managing the crops until harvesting. • In total, 1,720 kilogrammes of improved sorghum, millet and groundnuts (staple in most households) seeds certified by the Agriculture Research Centre were distributed to the farmers. In terms of capacity building, farmers were taught different farming techniques including storage of seeds. • Key is that seed multiplication groups could be a community-managed seed banking system that will be a collection point for seeds, multiplied through the group farms. This was to be achieved through the establishment of the seed banks stores.• The Seeds collected from the multiplication farms, were then be distributed to farmers for the next planting season. Key is that seed multiplication groups were expected to continue contributing to the stock at the seed banks. Additionally, it was expected that each farmer who received the improved seeds will return at least the amount they received to the seed banks. Beyond the group multiplication farms, each member also had their own individual farms.Keywords The ICRC conducted an assessment of agricultural yields after distributing seeds and planting tools in Darfur in 2008. One of the findings showed that some of the seeds distributed were not adapted to local conditions. The ICRC decided to adopt a new approach of multiplying seeds locally in an effort to improve production and maximize efficiency. • The ICRC is to purchase an agreed quantity of crops for 2009, after approval by the National Seed Authority, in order to redistribute them to the population in dire need in different parts of Darfur. • ICRC signed agreements with three local research centers in the cities of Zalingei, Nyala and El Fasher. The purpose of this plan is to help the centers revive the production of climate-appropriate seed varieties that have been certified and make them available in local markets. • The families who work will benefit in agriculture and participate in the project at a higher price when producing the agreed quantity based on an agreement. Perhaps this incentive will encourage those families to produce a surplus that they sell for their own account • A similar distribution campaign is currently taking place in different parts of Darfur. This new campaign will make it possible to provide at least 340 000 people with seeds and basic agricultural tools, taking into account lessons learned in the past, such as making sure not to distribute seeds that were found in the past to be unsuitable for local conditions. Farmers will also receive food rations for their own consumption for one month, allowing them to focus on their work during the planting season rather than looking for ways to provide for their families.Keywords: local agriculture, foundation seeds, Zalingei, El Fasher, climate-appropriate, local markets, local conditions, ICRC, Sudan 32. Community based seed supply in North Kordofan (Osman, 2007) Reference: Osman, A. K. (2007). Community based seed supply in Sudan. Leisa Magazine. 23: 18. were also able to sell their inspected seeds to the project, to individual farmers, and to formal seed sector companies. It then became possible to purchase seeds locally instead of buying externally produced seeds, and transport and seed distribution costs were reduced. Another benefit was that the prices the farmers were able to charge for the seeds became an incentive for promoting and establishing the informal seed production sector. • The study found out that community-based system is very effective in improving the dissemination, accessibility and availability of quality seeds of the adopted improved varieties.• The report provides the following substantial considerations provided to ensure the projects sustainability:-Supporting the formation and capacity building of the community-based organizations, -Continue decreasing dependency on external resources, -Increasing the involvement and interaction of government counterparts and strengthening their linkages with the communities, -Improving seed repayment rates and building seed storage facilities. Key words: Sudan, North Kordofan, Seed distribution, seed repayment system, Improved varieties, Community based organisations 5.6.3. Free seed distribution 33. Free Seed Aid Distribution in Bor, Twic East, Pochalla and Pibor, South Sudan (Maguet, 2014) • The purpose of this study is to explore effects of free sorghum and maize seed distributions to farmers in Jonglei state and to assess how these distributions affect farmer seed use of local varieties of these two crops. • The guiding question: does free seed aid distribution have an effect on farmers' use of local varieties of sorghum and maize? The sub-questions are: do combination of local and modern (formal) seed makes farmers dependent on seed aid distribution? How do modern sorghum/maize varieties perform (in terms of yield) compared to local sorghum and maize varieties? • A positive effect is defined as follows: despite free seed aid distribution to farmers, local seed varieties are still being grown by farmers. A negative effect is seen as the inverse: free seed aid distribution limits the use of local seed varieties.  -This article examines how seed vouchers, seed voucher fairs, and their variants have expanded in their use and application over the last two decades. This report aims to identify whether or not seed vouchers, seed voucher fairs, and their variants implemented through emergency and/or resilience programming can promote seed market development over time, e.g., 2-5 year projects instead of 1-2 year projects. The article points out that strengthening capacity within the seed sector to support the emergence of a sustainable, market-based seed system can offer quality, affordable seeds to smallholder male and female farmers in the long term, but this has not always been an objective of seed vouchers and fairs. A review of both adjustments to the seed voucher model itself as well as alternatives used in similar emergency and/or resilience contexts, numerous instances were found of approaches to foster sustainable market linkages which do not rely on seed fairs. Key examples from Sudan and South Sudan include:• CRS Sudan's RISING II and Taadoud II projects where seed multiplier groups were trained by Taadoud II project and then linked to DiNER fairs offered in the emergency response RISING II project, allowing them to benefit from temporary boosts in sales through the fairs while encouraging connections between emergency and development projects. • FAO South Sudan worked with seed multipliers to build their capacity in interventionswhere cash was the selected modality. FAO combined business and seed technical capacity strengthening in their work with seed producer groups and local seed producer associations in Haiti and South Sudan, where FAO strengthens their capacities to produce high-quality seed and their ability to compete with existing seed businesses.  This seed supplier agreed to open two new seed distribution points in Abukershola and Umbaraka localities to facilitate the project. Fortunately for Mercy Corps, the company had a strategy to expand its operations in South Kordofan and this project provided it with an opportunity to do so, supporting the building of the local market system for seed distribution.-The report provides the several lessons that Mercy Corps gained from the Voucher system use in the project which it will integrate into its future programming including: o Many individuals in the target area lack formal identification which created challenges in verifying the identity of the beneficiaries. To overcome this, Mercy Corps worked with the local community leadership, Village Farmer Committees and other stakeholders in the project to verify the identity of the beneficiaries and facilitate the participation of those without formal identification papers. § The need for partner in this activity with a strong supplier. The strong technical and financial capacity of the seeds supplier enabled Mercy Corps to overcome the challenges caused by inflation and rapid price increases which occurred during the delivery time and was exacerbated by fuel shortages and heavy rains in May and June. § Mercy Corps leveraged its existing and long-standing relationships with the communities and local authorities to pave the way for the seeds supplier to build its own relationships and networks in the area. -Successes reported include:o Beneficiaries reported that the voucher system was easier to use than direct distributions as they can go to the seed outlet at a time that suits them. It was however observed that the value of the voucher did not take into account the different households sizes as households received the same value voucher regardless of their number of dependents. o The impact of the FSL activities beyond the scope of the project-opening of the two new seed distribution points in Abukershola and Umbaraka localities. o During the seeds distribution, non-project participants also utilized the seed outlets to purchase seeds with their own resources. The seed outlets have remained open and continue to operate beyond the closeout of the project. o The seed outlets are now providing a service to the wider community and the increased local availability of improved seeds in a previously underserved community should have a larger impact on the overall agricultural production in the community. o This project helped meet the unmet needs of the wider community through the opening essential agricultural input distributors in the target community.Keywords: Voucher System, Mercy Corps, Seed suppliers, Certified seeds, South Kordofan 5.6.5. Support to extension to increase seed demand 38. Digital Extension to Supports Seed Systems (Benett, 2020) Reference: Benett, G. (2020). \"Digital Extension Supports Seed Systems in South Sudan \" AGRILINKS https://agrilinks.org/post/digital-extension-supports-seed-systems-south-sudan.-The Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) had been strengthening seed systems in South Sudan and disseminating information of new and improved seed varieties through a Farm Inputs Promotion Services model, which relies on in-person visits and trainings to smallholder farmers to promote uptake of new practices.• AGRA requested the support of the Feed the Future Developing Local Extension Capacity (DLEC) to effectively scale their reach by introducing digital extension approaches in South Sudan.• DLEC conducted farmer and stakeholder needs assessments and identified the need for better training on the use of improved varieties, quality seeds, and fertilizers, as well as on improved seed production practices such as roguing and gap filling for crops like maize, sorghum, groundnuts, and millet. • DLEC trained representatives of nine local private seed production companies in the use of Digital Green's community video approach, which includes how to develop and disseminate short videos, while also creating a system for collecting farmer feedback and tracking progress. By integrating use of video to visually convey the benefits of high-quality seed and improved agronomic practices, these private seed companies were able to increase the number of farmers reached five-fold. • The nine seed companies that DLEC trained in partnership with AGRA have begun using video as one of the tools for delivering information on improved seeds to smallholder farmers. This local ownership of the approach builds sustainability and contributes to the growth of seed systems in South Sudan.  - ","tokenCount":"6538"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15cada24c5b75142cb5a084194e91c4f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.mel.cgiar.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:20.500.11766.1/FK2/OOJCU6/T9RDZS","id":"690487395"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bb6e0276-33d9-44a8-97d2-e5ef0c70d085","pagecount":"2","content":"My name is ___________________________ (name of the interviewer). I work for the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). ILRI is an international research organization on livestock development in developing countries. In Tanzania, ILRI is working towards promoting proven dairy technologies and innovations through agriprenuers which will subsequently lead to increased dairy smallholder competitiveness. We are carrying out a baseline study to understand the pre-intervention conditions which include farming practices, dairy management, dairy productivity and returns, access and use of available innovations, food security among others. At the end of the project interventions there will be a follow up survey to assess the impact of the interventions. The agriprenuers will continue to provide the dairy technologies to all farmers after end of the project. The project is funded by the CGIAR research program on Livestock.Any information that we collect about you as part of this activity will be kept confidential, so will not be shared with or given to anyone except the researchers in this project. However, the findings from this research will be put in publicly accessible databases and used by researchers and others both within and outside of Africato help understand the impacts promoting proven dairy technologies and innovations. I want to emphasize here that the open access data cannot be traced back to you as an individual by users.Participation in this research is entirely voluntary, and refusal to participate will not result in a penalty or a loss of benefits to which the research participant is otherwise entitled, and that the research participant may discontinue participation at any time. However, it is our hope that the knowledge gained from your participation in this research will benefit the dairy value chain by informing us on how to better design interventions that will enhance delivery of inputs and services to the dairy producers and at the same time improve the livelihoods of value chain actors.No risks anticipated in this study, except for loss of your time during the interview. However, we hope to finish the interview in 50 minutes and during this time the researcher will be writing down the responses in a mobile device-Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)-to the questions discussed. If you experience any discomfort during the interview do not hesitate to inform the researcher who shall advice you on the action to take. The research study has been reviewed by the relevant authorities who have approved it.For further queries or concerns you would like to raise, kindly contact any of the contacts provided below PART B: Consent I have read (or someone has read to me) the foregoing information. I have had the opportunity to ask questions and all my questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I confirm that I have agreed to answer the questions that I will be asked. I also confirm that I have retained a copy of this consent. Email address:","tokenCount":"477"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ad238074b003207fc5415f97bcb9763c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1aceeff3-3e40-46d8-89de-576a82c3022c/retrieve","id":"-941856945"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8c69243d-1634-4d7b-a081-7bb711456d27","pagecount":"76","content":"Risk management plays a role in avoiding and escaping chronic poverty throughout the world, particularly for women, who are disproportionately negatively affected by shocks. Using three years of household survey data, administrative records and qualitative interviews, this paper examines the relationship between gender and demand for index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) among pastoralists in southern Ethiopia. Though IBLI appears to be equitably accessed by men and women alike, demand is gender-differentiated along three dimensions: risk aversion, informal insurance and product education channels. We also find modest differences associated with age and share of income from livestock. Observations 514 512 514 512 T-statistics and standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.Multiple studies demonstrate how, in the developing world, women and their children are disproportionately negatively affected by household-level shocks (Dercon and Krishnan, 2000;Hoddinott, 2006;Hoddinott and Kinsey, 2000;Dercon and Hoddinott, 2005;Behrman, 1988;Rose, 1999). In a majority of these studies, low-income households exhibit larger intra-household inequalities relative to higher income households, suggesting that poor women and their children experience shocks more profoundly than their wealthier counterparts do. As a result, women are overrepresented among the world's poor and vulnerable and therefore may benefit disproportionately from improved risk management (Banthia et al., 2009). The social norms and institutions that render women's physical, social and economic vulnerabilities different than those of men may, at the same time, impact their access to innovative products intended to mitigate the long-term detrimental effects of shocks, such as index insurance. Index-based livestock insurance (IBLI), designed to protect against catastrophic livestock loss due to drought, is one such product, and the question of whether and how access to IBLI coverage varies by gender remains unexplored. Understanding what determines access to IBLI by gender can shape strategies to equitably provide access to this and other innovative risk management products.Unlike standard insurance, index insurance contracts are not designed around policyholders' actual losses, but around an exogenous index that is supposed to be highly correlated with policyholders' losses. In the case of IBLI, the index was originally designed for implementation in northern Kenya using longitudinal data on herd mortality statistically fit to remote-sensing data known as Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI), that depicts the vegetative conditions (that is, greenness and brownness) in these difficult-to-reach areas (Chantarat et al., 2013). i When the cumulative deviation of NDVI from mean levels predicts livestock mortality rates beyond a given threshold, insurance payouts are triggered. Compensation varies linearly with the size of the predicted loss. IBLI was subsequently adapted to southern Ethiopia's Borana Zone, the focus of this paper.Index-based products are particularly useful in developing country settings where insured amounts tend to be small relative to the transactions costs associated with executing a contract in a limited infrastructure environment. Information asymmetries that plague insurance products (that is, moral hazard, adverse selection) may be more likely to exist in remote parts of the developing world due to poor infrastructure and monitoring capacity.Despite its potential to overcome difficulties associated with more standard insurance products, demand for IBLI and similar products has been weaker than expected (Jensen, et al., 2014). One key difference between standard insurance products and index-based products that may explain poor demand is basis risk. Basis risk is the mismatch between a policyholder's actual losses and the losses predicted by the index, which can result in the policyholder being compensated for losses he or she did not experience or experiencing losses without receiving compensation. The relationship between basis risk and demand for index insurance has been investigated in multiple contexts and suggests that basis risk has an inverse relationship with insurance demand, but the magnitude of the effect remains largely unknown (Mobarak and Rosenzweig, 2013;Jensen, et al., 2014).Basis risk aside, theory and prior empirical work suggest that other primary determinants of demand for index-based products include price, trust, credit constraints, understanding of the product and the consumer's attitude toward risk (Hill et al., 2011;Giné et al., 2008). A willingness to pay field experiment and ex ante simulation of IBLI performance suggests that the availability of coping strategies, a household's expectation of loss and herd size are key determinants of demand for IBLI specifically (Chantarat, 2009).To the best of my knowledge, there are no studies that focus specifically on gender and demand for index insurance products. In northern Kenya in 2010, 62 per cent of IBLI purchases were made by women, while female-headed households made up 37 per cent of the sample, yet Jensen et al. (2014) find no significant gender effect on demand. In Ethiopia, roughly 20 per cent of purchasers are women, which corresponds to the proportion of households that are female-headed. Virtually all purchases in Ethiopia were made by household heads. Takahashi et al. (2014) find that being female is associated with a greater likelihood of IBLI purchase, but a lower total insured herd value. Given these ambiguous findings, and the pastoralist environments in question where men have higher financial literacy, greater control over assets, more education and access to information, one might expect differential access to innovative risk management products between men and women.This study exploits the overlap between purchasers and household heads in Ethiopia to understand determinants of IBLI demand that may vary by gender using household-level panel data informed by a series of qualitative interviews. Building on previous empirical findings, we posit that risk aversion, informal insurance, product education and female-held assets are particularly relevant to women's demand for IBLI. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, we find no gender difference in overall demand for IBLI, but that there are subtle differences in drivers of demand by gender. We find gender-differentiated average marginal effects of informal insurance access and homecentered marketing on the IBLI purchase decision and level of purchase, respectively. Older age of female household heads is associated with slightly lower demand by women, while women's smaller shares of livestock income is associated with higher demand. Finally, we find evidence of gender influencing IBLI purchase through means not captured in the model, which may be due to vulnerability to pressure by sales agents.The remainder of the paper begins with a review and discussion of key elements of insurance demand and gender, followed by descriptions of the study setting, and data. We then discuss qualitative findings related to model specification before moving on to the estimation strategy and interpretation of results. After a final discussion of synthesized results, we conclude with implications for policy and further research.A consumer's attitude toward risk should be a key determinant of his or her willingness to pay (WTP) for insurance. However, in the case of index insurance, the presence of basis risk may confound the theoretically positive relationship. If the factors that drive IBLI's basis risk have a gender dimension, then we could expect to see gender-differentiated responses to equal levels of risk aversion.Much empirical and experimental work has attempted to determine whether there is a relationship between gender and risk aversion and, if so, what the underlying mechanisms of the relationship are. In a review of the topic, Eckel and Grossman (2008) note that many studies on gender and risk aversion lack rigor and fail to control for difficult-to-measure traits like confidence, or even measurable ones such as income or wealth. Furthermore, measures of risk aversion and its associated characteristics, such as perceptions of risk, are likely highly sensitive to context and risk domains (Weber et al., 2002). The vast majority of studies on gender and risk aversion have taken place in experimental settings at American or European universities, often with relatively low stakes. Given the sensitivity of risk aversion measures, caution should be exercised in applying findings from one context to another.One study of risk aversion in the Ethiopian highlands found no difference in risk preferences between men and women (Yesuf and Bluffstone, 2009), though these results may not be generalizable to pastoralist Ethiopia given the substantial difference between the two settings. In the context of index insurance, Giné et al. (2008) find no relationship between demand and gender, but they suggest an interaction effect between risk aversion and knowledge in that risk averse individuals with little knowledge of the product are less likely to purchase than those with greater knowledge. In cases where women's knowledge of the product is systematically lower, this could translate to a gender effect associated with risk aversion. Similarly, a gender difference in perceived risk of, say, drought, could translate to a gender effect on demand operating through risk aversion. Given the lack of consistent, generalizable findings on gender and risk aversion, the relationship between gender, risk aversion and demand for livestock insurance remains an empirical question. Any differences in the impact of risk aversion on IBLI uptake by gender may be attributable to inadequate controls for product understanding, differences in trust of the product or of the insurance company. We can expect the effect of risk aversion on IBLI uptake to vary by gender, but the direction of the effect remains ambiguous.Informal risk management institutions exist in virtually every society and include kin networks based on reciprocity, indigenous lending organizations and similar arrangements designed to mitigate the impact of shocks, either ex ante or ex post. The effect of informal insurance on demand for formal insurance products remains an empirical question. Studies on the coverage of informal risk management institutions, both aggregate and differentiated by income, have repeatedly shown that informal insurance falls short of fully protecting households against covariate shocks and performs only slightly better in protecting against idiosyncratic shocks (see Morduch, 1999;Bhattamishra and Barrett, 2010 for reviews), but whether informal insurance is a substitute for or a complement to index insurance is unclear. Where index insurance protects households against covariate shocks, it may serve as a complement to informal mechanisms that protect against idiosyncratic shocks and a substitute for informal mechanisms, such as remittances, that protect against covariate shocks.To what extent do informal mechanisms among pastoralists in southern Ethiopia cover idiosyncratic risk? Lybbert et al. (2004) suggest that idiosyncratic risk dominates among these pastoralists and that livestock transfers offer only limited insurance coverage. In the same context, Santos and Barrett (2011) find that that informal loans of cattle function as a safety net rather than as insurance in that loans are given contingent on the borrower's expected gains rather than the borrower having experienced a shock. These two cases suggest that informal mechanisms weakly, if at all, insure pastoralists against idiosyncratic or covariate risk. Mobarak and Rosenzweig (2013) consider participation in informal networks in the context of index insurance where basis risk is present. They find that participation in networks that cover idiosyncratic risk, as opposed to the covariate risk targeted by index insurance, interacts with basis risk to affect demand for the index insurance product. Where basis risk driven by idiosyncratic risk is high, index-based products complement informal insurance participation, but where basis risk is low informal risk sharing has no effect on demand. If idiosyncratic risk is poorly covered by informal mechanisms IBLI is unlikely to complement informal insurance. If that is the case, then informal insurance should have a negative or no effect on demand for IBLI.While none of the above findings pertain specifically to gender, women's risk might be less covered by informal institutions than that of men, due to differences in wealth or social connectedness.Even if IBLI were to cover covariate shocks perfectly over a given index area, women's experience may be more or less like the average of the index area. If gender is correlated with something that makes women different from the average, such as social connectedness, this could drive levels of idiosyncratic losses.Additionally, access to informal groups and networks is not exogenously determined and thus the most vulnerable might be excluded from some informal insurance arrangements due to their inability to keep up with reciprocity arrangements or pay entry costs (Santos and Barrett, 2011;Cohen and Sebstad, 2005;Bhattamishra and Barrett, 2010). A gender effect operating through variation in wealth or social networks may emerge in econometric analysis if adequate measures of these attributes are not included. It is also important to remember that heterogeneity within female-headed households likely plays a role, as the marital status of a female household head is likely correlated with her wealth and the nature of her social networks. If female-headed households and male-headed households are engaged in different types of informal insurance or experience different levels of coverage, they may exhibit a different demand pattern for an index-based product.The challenges of marketing a sophisticated insurance product to remote communities with high illiteracy and limited prior exposure to formal insurance cannot be understated, and consumer understanding of how the product works is essential to making the decision to purchase. Thus, marketing of index-based insurance products necessarily involves an education component. When information channels are male-dominated and women are difficult to reach, gender sensitivity in marketing and education matters for uptake by women (Banthia et al., 2009).Anecdotal evidence suggests that women do not have access to the information they want about IBLI, but it is not clear whether this is a gender-specific phenomenon. Women's community involvement and market participation is clearly on the rise in Borana (Hertkorn ,2013;McPeak et al., 2011), suggesting that the extent to which women are able to access information channels may also be in flux. The successful education of women about IBLI hinges upon effective strategies for accessing women. We would expect that education through female-accessible channels would have a stronger positive association with IBLI uptake by women relative to men.Asset holdings have implications for avoiding chronic poverty and, worldwide, women tend to command fewer assets than men (Deere and Doss, 2006). Pastoralist regions in Ethiopia are consistent with this. In this setting, livestock is the primary asset, but intra-household ownership arrangements are complex. Previous work investigating gender and livestock ownership focuses almost exclusively on household-level livestock ownership in relation to the gender of the household head rather than intrahousehold ownership arrangements. McPeak et al. (2011) suggest that male-headed households in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya are more likely to own all types of livestock, while female-headed households are more likely than male-headed households to own no livestock at all, but the intrahousehold details of these ownership arrangements are not clear.Although in pastoralist Ethiopia, ownership is not clearly articulated, it can be argued that women hold special rights over animals that are lactating, because milk production and caring for young animals falls squarely into the female domain in these societies (Coppock, 1994;McPeak et al., 2011). Lactating animals thus generate a large portion of the female income stream and lactation rates themselves are sensitive to drought. Given these factors, one would expect women to have greater incentive to insure when there are many lactating animals in the household herd. At the same time, a woman's control over lactating animals and associated income might increase her capacity to self-insure and lower her WTP for IBLI. Therefore, the relationship between such assets and IBLI uptake remains ambiguous.Asset ownership can also increase a woman's intra-household bargaining power, which is important in cases where the unitary model of household decision-making fails and household members do not share identical preferences (see Chiappori andDonni, 2009 andAlderman et al., 1995 for discussions of the unitary model). McPeak and Doss (2006) demonstrate contested decision-making processes in milk marketing decisions in northern Kenya, supporting the conclusion that preferences are likely different among household members. In the context of non-identical preferences, one of the factors that shapes an individual's bargaining position within a household is her defection point, or what she can expect to walk away with if bargaining fails and the household dissolves. The control a woman exerts over household assets such as livestock influences her defection point. Women's incentive to insure could be positively correlated with the size of her endowment, which would in turn be positively correlated with bargaining power, suggesting potential for a positive relationship between female assets and female IBLI purchase. Bargaining factors lead us to expect that female assets have a stronger positive effect on IBLI uptake by women than by men, but considering the ambiguity of the relationship between wealth and IBLI uptake mentioned above, the overall effect is ambiguous.In light of the four elements of gender and microinsurance demand discussed above, the remainder of this analysis considers demand for IBLI for an individual i at time t, (\uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) as \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 = \uD835\uDC53(\uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 , \uD835\uDC45 \uD835\uDC56 , \uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , \uD835\uDC3E \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , \uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , \uD835\uDC49 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61−1 , \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 where \uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 represents gender, \uD835\uDC45 \uD835\uDC56 represents an individual's time-invariant risk aversion, \uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents informal insurance coverage, \uD835\uDC3E \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents product education and \uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents female assets.Additionally, \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , \uD835\uDC49 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61−1 , and \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represent, respectively, price, current IBLI coverage and a host of demographic and insurance-related controls. Finally, \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents a disturbance term. Before specifying the model in depth, we turn to discussion of the setting, data and key variables.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Cornell University, and the Oromia Insurance Company (OIC), in collaboration with local government agents, and numerous researchers, introduced the IBLI product in the southernmost part of the Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia in August 2012, following the successful piloting of a similar product in neighboring northern Kenya in January 2010. IBLI is marketed and sold by OIC, with technical support provided by ILRI. IBLI policies are sold twice a year in August/September and January/February, which correspond to the ends of the dry seasons of the region's bimodal rainfall pattern. Contracts cover a one-year period and individuals choose the number of animals they insure. IBLI is priced by geographic region and species, according to drought risk. Insurance premiums range from 7.5-11 per cent of the estimated value of the animal. This analysis takes advantage of three sources of data. The introduction of the IBLI product involved collection of annual household survey data and several experimental features, all of which were designed to aid in impact assessment and encourage IBLI uptake. We validate key aspects of the survey data using OIC administrative sales records. Informed by initial exploration of two rounds of survey data, We implemented a complementary qualitative data collection tool in April 2014 with the express purpose of addressing gaps in the survey data and enhancing understanding of key concepts relating to IBLI uptake and gender.The survey sample was selected prior to IBLI implementation to capture geographic, agroecological and livelihood variation in the eight southernmost woredas of the Oromia Regional State where IBLI would be offered. The household survey sample was clustered by reera, a subunit of the woreda, containing approximately 100-300 households. Reeras inaccessible by vehicle were excluded for logistical and cost reasons. ii For the selected reeras, local government development agents (DAs) were deployed to compile household rosters containing the name of the household head and livestock holdings. iii Stratifying by livestock terciles, a proportional random sample of 15 per cent of each reera was drawn with a minimum rule of 25 households per reera. Where 15 per cent of households in one reera did not meet the 25 household minimum, neighboring reeras were combined into a single sampling unit, making a total of 17 sampling units (ILRI, 2014).The household survey is conducted annually in March, following the conclusion of the January/February IBLI sales period. Baseline data were collected in 2012 with repeated data collection in 2013 and 2014. Though data are collected annually, many variables are collected using a monthly or seasonal recall structure. This allows for analysis using two periods within each year that correspond to the twice-yearly IBLI sales period and bimodal rainfall pattern, as depicted in Figure 1. iv Data are collected on a broad range of household characteristics and behaviors relating to livelihoods, livestock management, herd dynamics, wellbeing, risk management and demographic characteristics. Baseline data consist of 515 households. After attrition and missing data, 456 households are retained for analysis. vIn order to encourage uptake of IBLI and aid in understanding the effects of liquidity constraints on insurance purchase, discount coupons were randomly distributed to 80 per cent of households across all reeras in the sample. Only 55 per cent of households reported having received the discount coupon, suggesting some implementation or recall error, therefore we use assignment data, rather than household self-reported data. Discounts ranged from 10-80 per cent for purchase of up to 15 tropical livestock units (TLU) of livestock. vi The remaining 20 per cent of households received no coupon. vii Because recall of coupon receipt and discount amounts was imperfect, we use assignment data, cross-validated against OIC records where possible, rather than that reported by survey respondents.The 2014 survey data collection involved two features designed to contribute to this study. First, marital status for all female-headed households was verified and, where the household head was a married female, additional information about the status of the husband was gathered. This served to validate previously collected marital status data. Second, ILRI collected information on the endowment of livestock brought to the household by brides at marriage, as well as information on current stocks and recent flows of such animals.Following Patton (2002) the qualitative sample is stratified along the key dimensions of IBLI purchase history and gender of household head. To better understand heterogeneity within female-headed households, we stratify within this category by marital status. This created eight unique categories from which we intended to sample two households at specific points along the distribution of wealth, measured by the household's herd size during the 2014 survey period (see Appendix C for complete description of qualitative methodology). Based on this sample, qualitative interview data were collected from 15 survey households in April 2014. viii The interview guide was designed after preliminary analysis of the first two rounds of survey data in order to complement survey data in order to test the four conceptual hypotheses outlined above.In particular, the qualitative data provided an opportunity to examine the perceptions of risk associated with IBLI in order to better understand the role of risk aversion. Interviews also explored the nature and extent of informal insurance coverage in Borana and perceptions of differences in coverage between men, women and people of different marital statuses. Lastly, interviews elicited consumer preferences surrounding sources of information about IBLI and the stated reasons for these preferences.Qualitative data also provided an opportunity to enhance description and contextual understanding, and bring new information about heterogeneity to categories and behaviors that appear homogeneous in the survey data. Ultimately, the qualitative data validated survey data to improve the identification and understanding of measurement error in key variables, thus informing variable construction, econometric model specification and interpretation of econometric results. The most salient qualitative findings are reported in the following discussion of variable construction and, later, in the interpretation and discussion of econometric findings.The ILRI survey contains a question asking if the respondent purchased insuraansii horrii, or livestock insurance, in the past year and the qualitative sample was selected based on reported purchase behavior. However, we found significant error in these variables when implementing qualitative interviews, which led us to validate survey responses using OIC administrative data. When compared against administrative data, only 87% of respondents correctly identified their recent purchase behavior.Of all misreported purchases, 80 per cent were false positives while only 20 per cent were false negatives, indicative of systematic over-reporting of IBLI purchase. The majority of false positives were households that had purchased IBLI at least once in previous years, but appeared to misunderstand the reference period of the survey question. Other false positives were households that may have failed to make the distinction between purchasing the IBLI product and being part of the survey sample. A majority of households (73%) in our qualitative sample conflated the ILRI survey or visits by OIC and ILRI staff with the IBLI product at least once in the interview when asked about insuraansii horrii, suggesting that people understand the term in a variety of ways. False negatives are likely due to the interviewee in the survey being different from the person who purchased and poor information sharing within the household, a pattern that could also contribute to false positives. Given the non-random nature of the measurement error in reported IBLI purchase, and its centrality to this analysis, for the main analysis we use OIC administrative IBLI purchase data as the dependent variable, instead of reported IBLI purchase.The gender of the household head is the most practical proxy for gender of purchaser, given that it is highly correlated with the gender of the person named on the insurance contract (bivariate correlation coefficient of 0.94). Furthermore, in the limited cases where the head was not the purchaser, one might assume that the household head influences the purchase decision in some way and, indeed, this dominates in the qualitative data on decision making. Being the household head was cited as the reason the respondent had the most influence over a livestock or budget allocation decision in 67% of households. In this analysis, a female-headed household with a male individual named on the insurance contract is considered a female IBLI purchase and vice versa. Neither of these cases is a common occurrence in the survey data where women in male-headed households made only 2.2 per cent of total IBLI purchases and 1.3 per cent of purchases were made by men in female-headed households.The baseline household survey included a risk preference experiment in which the respondent chooses from a set of six gambles where risk and expected outcome are positively correlated (ILRI, 2014). Using these data, we create a set of binary variables by combining the two lowest, middle and highest levels of risk aversion to represent low, moderate and high risk aversion.Finding a meaningful indicator of informal insurance coverage is a challenge. Prior studies' use of informal cash and in-kind transfers between households and network group participation as measures of informal insurance coverage (Lybbert, 2004;Jensen et al., 2014), motivated qualitative data collection tailored to explore the extent to which these institutions-groups and transfers-serve an informal insurance function in the Borana context. It appears that network groups and transfers capture participation in institutions that may function as informal insurance, but not all groups and not all transfers are insurance.The network groups captured in the survey-mostly savings and loan groups and small business groups-provide extremely limited idiosyncratic insurance coverage and may not be meaningful as a measure of informal insurance. While all but one group allowed members to take out loans when facing a shock, the three respondents who had taken advantage of this option described the group contribution to the wellbeing of their household as 'small' or 'low' compared to other sources of assistance in difficult times. Two respondents stated explicitly that the group had not helped them to date and the remaining six respondents were unwilling to say the group had no benefits but at the same time were unable to articulate benefits they experienced. ix  Qualitative data suggest that the decision to give a transfer is driven by two factors. The first, which was demonstrated in the data from 100 per cent of qualitative respondents, is the normative belief that one is obligated to help those who are most in need, regardless of transfer history. The second consideration is the giver's recollection or expectation of reciprocity by the receiver, which was stated directly by 60 per cent of qualitative respondents. Qualitative validation of 58 specific transfers recorded in the survey data suggested that nearly half of transfers may be insurance-related in that they provide one of several overlapping types of coverage described by McPeak (2006) in the form of ex ante investment in future incoming transfers from recipients (50%), ex ante preparation for the receiver in anticipation of a planned expense such as a birth or marriage (34%) and/or ex post coping for the receiver after an idiosyncratic shock (42%). In light of qualitative findings, informal insurance is represented using the total of the absolute values of monthly cash and in-kind transfers received and given by the household in order to capture not only the insurance a household experiences in the form of a transfer receipt, but also the insurance a household experiences when they engage in ex ante insurance behaviors by giving to others with the expectation of reciprocity.The survey captures the IBLI education experience of the household based on 14 specific questions about sources of information through which the household learned about IBLI. Qualitative interviews probed the ways that people learned about IBLI and which information channels worked and didn't work for them individually. Again, the issue of whether people consider the difference between the IBLI product and participation in the IBLI survey sample comes into play. When asked about learning about insuraansi horrii, nearly half (46%) of respondents focused initially on 'learning' that the IBLI team was coming to do the survey (that is, being informed to stay home and wait for the enumerator) or similar administrative information rather than increasing their understanding of how the IBLI product functions. During the interviews, we took care to clarify the focus of our interest, but it is unlikely that enumerators did so during survey data collection. While all respondents-male and female-indicated that they prefer to be taught about IBLI in their homes for such reasons as convenience, reducing distractions and increased opportunity to ask questions, one might expect that this is more important for women whose domestic responsibilities, such as caring for children, cooking and looking after lactating and newborn animals, limit their mobility. Additionally, only two women indicated that they attended community meetings where IBLI was discussed, and both opted to listen and let others ask questions.One approach to measuring the product education experience of the household using existing data is the number of separate sources of information about IBLI that the household received. The survey data do not capture the intensity of information or the type of information received through these sources, so this fails to disentangle IBLI product-focused information itself from information about the implementation of the survey or the presence of OIC sales agents in the community. Another approach is to incorporate survey data on the 'most important source' of IBLI information, however qualitative data completely contradicted patterns in the survey data. x Another approach is to use only information sources that are explicitly product-focused such as radio, posters and OIC extension agents, but this fails to account for the unanimous sense among women that learning is more difficult in away-from-home settings. A woman may learn less from a product-focused information session at a community meeting and more from an incidental conversation about IBLI with a health worker performing a home visit.Coincidentally, home-centered and product focused information channels are nearly mutually exclusive (Table 1). The intersection of these two categories consists of radio broadcastsonly 10 per cent of the sample owns a radioand the cartoon/tape intervention assigned to one third of households in the first sales period only. Thus, in the variable construction decision there is a tradeoff between different types of measurement error associated with product-focused channels versus home-centered channels. Homecentered channels may be biased upward from information 'learned' related to implementation that is reported as IBLI product information, while product-focused channels may present information focused on the IBLI product directly, but without capturing the level of learning that took place. Given the importance of home-centered information to women, we opt to structure the variable as the proportion of total information sources that are home-centered.A good proxy for intra-household bargaining power will be correlated with a woman's bargaining power, but not endogenous to her decision to purchase IBLI. Commonly used proxies for bargaining power include women's inherited assets, women's current assets, women's income shares, unearned income and assets, and human capital brought to marriage (Quisumbing and Maluccio, 2003;Hoddinott and Haddad, 1995;Schultz, 1990;Thomas, 1990). We propose two different context-appropriate measures of female-controlled assets as proxies for bargaining power.In the process of marriage in Boran culture, the bride and groom bring livestock gifted from their family members to the newly-formed household herd. Cattle from the bride's father are known as horrii siiqqee (HS). Focus group discussions suggest that while everyone considers all animals to belong to the household, HS cattle and their descendants are identifiable by all as part of the wife's endowment and that there may be subtle restrictions on what can be done with these animals (for example, selling, slaughtering, gifting) without the wife's consent. Importantly, the wife retains these cattle in the rare, but possible, event of a divorce. At the same time assets gifted by family members at marriage may be correlated with the degree to which a woman's family invested in her physical and social wellbeing throughout her childhood. As such, a married woman's decision to purchase IBLI may be influenced by her bargaining power, but also directly influenced by the unobserved ways her parents invested in her as a child. Quisumbing and Maluccio (2003) suggest that virtually all proxies for bargaining are vulnerable to endogeneity, but that a strength of using assets brought to marriage is that, unlike current asset holdings, it is unaffected by endogenous decision-making processes within the marriage. HS animals are expressed as a percentage of original herd at marriage. An alternate measure of bargaining power using current assets controlled by the woman can be proxied by the number of lactating animals in the household herd.Milking and milk products represent the female contribution to the economy of the household (Coppock, 1994;Hertkorn, 2013). Lactating animals are expressed as a percentage of total herd.As summarized in Table 2, panel households are 21 per cent female-headed, a majority of whom are widows. Married female household heads comprise 20 per cent of the female-headed households and tend to be polygamous households where multiple wives maintain separate households, or cases where men were away herding at the time of the survey. In terms of female headship, the sample is consistent with other estimates of the prevalence of female headship in Ethiopia which range from 9 per cent of married households countrywide (Fafchamps and Quisumbing, 2002) to 29 per cent of households in southern Ethiopia specifically (McPeak et al., 2011). Ethnically, households were overwhelmingly Boran and practiced traditional forms of religion. More than three quarters of households are fully settled and few households remain nomadic.Table 3 shows the overall means for the full sample as well as means for male and female-headed households and differences. Detailed information on the construction of all variables is located in Appendix A. Households in the sample have, on average, 19 TLU of livestock. Total income is, on average, equivalent to $190 USD per household per month, only about $18 of which are cash earnings.Given the average household size of 7.3 individuals, this implies an average income of roughly $0.86 per day, 90 per cent of which is in-kind, highlighting widespread poverty and the subsistence economy in the region. Male-headed households (MHHs) have per-person income of $0.89 per day while female-headed households have a per-person income of $0.68. Other statistically significant differences between male and female-headed households suggest potential for gender-differentiated IBLI demand. Female-headed households (FHHs) have, on average, smaller herds, lower total income, and lower participation in transfers and network groups. FHHs' reliance on livestock income is 14 percentage points lower than men. Between male-and female-headed households there is no difference in highest educational attainment of any household member, but female households heads have significantly lower personal educational attainment than male household heads and also scored lower on a financial literacy test conducted at baseline. There are no differences in risk aversion or expectations of upcoming rangeland conditions. Female household heads are, on average, older than male household heads, probably due to the number of widows and longer female life expectancy. FHHs are smaller by almost two people, yet there is no apparent difference in dependency ratios. Members of FHHs also participate in fewer network groups. These two features are likely due to MHHs consistently containing at least two adults while most FHHs contain only one. With respect to IBLI, FHHs have fewer sources of IBLI information, yet this is not reflected in a lower score on a series of questions designed to test an individual's knowledge of IBLI.The rate of IBLI purchase does not differ by gender of household head. FHHs that insure animals, insure fewer animals, though the percentage of herd insured is not significantly different between household types.These means tests demonstrate multiple pathways in which demand could shift for women. To the extent that income and wealth impact demand, one might expect lower demand for IBLI in femaleheaded households due to smaller herd sizes and lower incomes, or, conversely, if income increases the capacity to self-insure, one might see higher demand among lower-income groups such as women.Gender differences in the proportion of income from livestock could also shift demand in either direction, depending on whether reliance on livestock income provides an incentive to insure or, given that it is largely in-kind, constrains liquidity with which to purchase insurance. Gender differences in education and financial literacy have the potential to impact demand for any financial product, yet this would likely operate through their understanding of the product which appears to be similar in this case. If there is an age dimension to the adoption of new financial products, female-headed households, being older on average, may exhibit differential demand. These possibilities will be further explored through regression analysis after examining the characteristics of IBLI purchasers and non-purchasers in greater detail.At the aggregate level, there are many differences between purchasers and non-purchasers (Table 4). Purchasers have larger herds, fewer non-livestock assets and a larger proportion of their income comes from livestock, consistent with the idea that dependence on livestock contributes to IBLI demand.Purchasers have greater financial literacy and IBLI-specific knowledge, highlighting the importance of the relationship between product understanding and uptake, although causality could flow either or both directions between those variables. An interest in the product could induce learning and understanding, or exogenous exposure to information that improves one's understanding of the product could prompt purchase of IBLI. Contrary to standard insurance demand theory, IBLI purchasers have lower risk aversion, suggesting that IBLI may not be perceived as risk-reducing, yet at the same time purchasers are more likely to expect below-normal rangeland conditions. Purchasers had greater access to home-centered information sources than non-purchasers, but we see no differences in total information sources between these groups.Among women, few differences emerge between purchasers and non-purchasers. Purchasers continue to have fewer non-livestock assets, but aggregate differences in herd size and proportion of income from livestock do not hold for the female subsample. Female purchasers do appear to give and receive less total transfers, suggesting potential for an inverse relationship between informal insurance and demand for IBLI. IBLI knowledge remains important for women's demand.When comparing purchasers by gender, the differences presented in the final columns of Table 4 largely mirror differences in the population as a whole presented in the final columns of Table 3. Notably, the absolute amount of TLU insured is significantly higher for men than for women, yet the proportion of herd insured is not significantly different.The econometric approach to estimating gender-differentiated demand for IBLI involves estimating determinants of an individual's propensity to insure as well as the level of coverage purchased by that individual. The binary purchase decision can be expressed as:in which the purchase decision, \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC50ℎ\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , by individual i in period t is regressed on gender, \uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 , where \uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 = 1 represents a female-headed household, as well as interactions of \uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 with the variables of interest described in detail. \uD835\uDC45 \uD835\uDC56 is a vector of dummy variables representing three levels of risk aversion, \uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents informal insurance coverage in the form of cash and in-kind transfers, while \uD835\uDC3E \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents home-centered sources of information about IBLI and \uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 represents female assets. We include the firstorder interacted variables and controls for price (\uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ), current coverage (\uD835\uDC49 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61−1 ), and household characteristics (\uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ). We also include \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , binary indicator of receipt of the randomly assigned discount coupon, independent of the discount received, which is incorporated into the regression as part of \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 xi .The composite error term consists, of \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56 , the unobserved individual effect, and \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , the idiosyncratic error with zero mean, finite variance \uD835\uDF0E \uD835\uDF00 2 and distributed i.i.d over all observations. Probit regression of equation(1) allows us to estimate the average marginal effects (AME) of the variables of interest on the probability of IBLI purchase, allowing for the possibility that they might vary by gender.The level of coverage purchased, \uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC3F\uD835\uDC48 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , can be understood best by incorporating the predicted propensity to purchase from the purchase decision results in order to correct for prospective selection bias arising from the fact that values of \uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC3F\uD835\uDC48 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 are only observed when \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC50ℎ\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 = 1. Level of purchase is modeled as where \uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC3F\uD835\uDC48 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is regressed on interaction terms, first-order variables and the same set of controls as the first stage. The unobserved individual effect and idiosyncratic error term are represented by \uD835\uDF14 \uD835\uDC56 and \uD835\uDF09 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , respectively. With the discount considered separately, the coupon, \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , merely represents a paper reminder of the existence of the IBLI product and the idea of purchase. As such, \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is justifiably excluded from the second-stage regression under the assumption that once the individual has already made his or her purchase decision, the reminder effect of coupon itself is irrelevant to the amount of insurance coverage purchased. Following Heckman's (1979) approach to correcting selection bias, we incorporate the inverse Mills ratio.When \uD835\uDF06 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is calculated as a function of the same set of covariates in the first stage regression as is used in the second stage, selection is theoretically accounted for, but in practice the process is strengthened by the inclusion \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 , the exogenous instrument in the first stage that predicts selection that has no relevance to the second stage dependent variable.Recall that in both equations, the composite error term consists of the unobserved individual fixed effect and the idiosyncratic error. The unobserved individual fixed effect is likely to induce bias if a pooled estimator is used. A fixed-effects estimator may be tempting, but the probit regression is then subject to the incidental parameters problem in estimations where the number of observations is large relative to the number of time periods, as is the case in these data. Furthermore, we are most interested in time-invariant household characteristics, which would wash out in a fixed-effects estimator. A random effects estimator will be consistent if the individual effect is uncorrelated with covariates, an assumption that is unlikely to hold. Building on Mundlak (1978) and Chamberlain (1980), Wooldridge (2002) proposes that, to the extent that the individual effect is associated with within-household means of timevarying household characteristics, incorporating these means as controls can reduce the bias associated with a simple pooled estimator in the presence of fixed effects. (5)to formally test the following four hypotheses:1. The effect of risk aversion (\uD835\uDC45 \uD835\uDC56 ) on IBLI uptake is invariant with respect to gender (\uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 ).2. The effect of informal insurance (\uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) on IBLI uptake is invariant with respect to gender (\uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 ).3. The effect of product education (\uD835\uDC3E \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) on IBLI uptake is invariant with respect to gender (\uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 ).4. The effect of female assets (\uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) on IBLI uptake is invariant with respect to gender (\uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 ).Simultaneity between an individual's knowledge or understanding of the IBLI product and their decision to purchase may leave the knowledge variable correlated with the idiosyncratic error term over time. The most logical potential instruments for the knowledge variable are two randomly assigned educational treatments implemented in the initial rollout of IBLI in Ethiopia. Preliminary analysis found these two variables to be only weakly correlated with households' understanding of the IBLI product over the time period in question for this study. xii To the extent that households adjust informal insurance behaviors based on whether they have purchased IBLI or not, or their level of coverage, the informal insurance variable will also be correlated with the error term. The lagged dependent variable, \uD835\uDC49 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61−1 , representing previous period IBLI purchase, or, put otherwise, whether an individual is covered in the current period, is likely correlated with household unobservable characteristics that impact the current purchase decision. Given the lack of suitable instruments to address these endogenous variables, results should be interpreted with this likely endogeneity in mind as reflecting associations between the variables but without any clear causal link. Other potentially endogenous variables include herd size and income, because income is primarily composed of herd-related income. The extent to which these related variables are endogenous depends on the ways in which households adjust their herding practices in response to being insured and differences in effects of drought on herd size between those who purchased IBLI and those who did not. As of data collection in March 2014, no Ethiopian households had received an IBLI indemnity payout. One might expect the credibility of the product and subsequent likelihood of detectable behavioral and herd size effects to develop substantially after a payout, but not before. xiii   Econometric ResultsMarginal effects from the first-stage probit regression of the IBLI purchase decision are presented in Table 5. We begin with a brief discussion of overall demand patterns that appear consistently across all models. xiv We then turn to the gender-specific results associated with the above hypotheses. The relationship between IBLI uptake and price is statistically significant, but modest, with a decrease in probability of purchase of 0.1 per cent for every 1 per cent increase in price. Where included in the model, previous period purchase reduces the probability of purchase by 8.6 per cent. This result is sensible, given that the previous purchase period is 5-7 months prior to the current period and an IBLI insurance contract lasts 12 months. Therefore, those who purchased in the previous period are currently covered and, assuming they understand the length of the coverage period, they would be less likely to purchase supplementary IBLI coverage. Coupon assignment increases the probability of purchase by 4.4 per cent, consistent with the assumptions that underpin its use as an instrument in the selection equation.Households that expect lower-than-normal rangeland conditions in the coming months are associated with a 3.5 per cent increase in the probability of IBLI purchase. Households with high livestock mortality in the previous period see a decrease in the probability of purchase of 3.5 per cent. In a society where livestock sales are a main source of liquidity, this points to liquidity constraints to access to IBLI.Moving now to gender-specific results, column (1) represents a restricted regression that excludes all characteristics that vary visibly by gender in Table 3, as well as any characteristics that have the potential to vary systematically by gender. The average marginal effect (AME) of female-headed household in this restricted regression is not statistically significantly different from zero. This specification implicitly assumes that characteristics such as financial literacy, education or others that are excluded from this regression have no effect on the probability of IBLI purchase, so if there is any correlation between such variables and gender and the exclusionary assumption is false, the coefficient estimate on the gender variable would be biased. What this regression tells us is that when we include all of the various gender-related factors, whether mediated by other (currently omitted) characteristics or not, there is no variation in IBLI demand by gender. This is consistent with the proportionality of IBLI purchase by female-headed households to the number of female-headed households in the population.Even if women's overall demand for IBLI is neither higher nor lower than men's, it is still possible that women's demand is driven at least partially by a different set of factors. Therefore, model(2) incorporates characteristics that we might expect to vary by gender and to influence IBLI uptake, either by shifting slopes or intercepts for women. Similarly, the percentage of income from livestock (scaled from 0-100) indicates that for every point increase in the share of income from livestock, the probability of purchasing IBLI decreases by a modest 0.1 per cent. The more livestock income one has, the less likely one is to purchase IBLI. This contradicts the idea that those who are more dependent on livestock income are more vulnerable to drought and would have higher demand for IBLI. This may reflect the superior self-insurance capacity of those with the largest herds; they do not need insurance the way those with small or moderate herd sizes do. The statistical differences in mean shares of livestock income by gender (Table 3) could translate to a systematically lower likelihood of IBLI purchase by women driven by these initial differences, something we will explore briefly in the next section.In model ( 2), we see no significant coefficient estimates on the interaction terms relating to product education, informal insurance and risk aversion and therefore fail to reject the null hypotheses that the average marginal effects are equal for men and women along these dimensions. However, the significant coefficient estimate on female-headed household suggests that there may be more to the story than is captured by our model. Simply being a female-headed household is associated with a 31.7 per cent increase in the probability of IBLI purchase, conditional on all observable factors that may differentially affect demand. An optimistic explanation is that women's sensitivity to risk, informal insurance and product education experiences are not fully captured by the variables included in the model, leaving women's perception of IBLI's risk reduction potential captured in the coefficient on female-headed household. A less optimistic, but perhaps more likely explanation is that, in a context where IBLI sales agents are paid on commission and all sales agents are men, women are more easily pressured to purchase.Models (3) and ( 4) use a sub-sample of two decision maker households to test for a bargaining effect associated with female assets in the form of HS animals at marriage and current lactating herd proportion. We fail to reject the null that the average marginal effects of female asset holdings on IBLI uptake are equal for men and women. A modest, but statistically significant gender difference in the marginal effects of total cash and in-kind transfers on the probability of IBLI uptake of 0.4% is identified, suggesting that the relationship between informal insurance and IBLI may indeed differ between men and women. Either women are covered differently than men in ways that are not captured by the transfers variable, or women respond differently to informal insurance coverage than men do. The effect of transfers on men's demand for IBLI is very modestly negative and not statistically significantly different from zero. For women, informal transfers appear to reduce demand for IBLI in a way that they do not for men.Table 6 presents the effects of a range of factors on the level of IBLI coverage purchased, conditional on the inverse Mills ratio to control for prospective selection effects. Independent of gender, several general demand findings are worth mentioning. IBLI demand is price inelastic, with estimated elasticities in the range of -0.33 to -0.46. This is consistent with price elasticities identified in a separate study of IBLI demand in neighboring Marsabit, Kenya (Jensen et al., 2014). Age of household head is negatively associated with the level of purchase. As with the purchase decision model, there appears to be no gender variation in IBLI demand as indicated by the lack of significant coefficient on female-headed household in model (1).As with the purchase decision estimation, model ( 2) incorporates all variables that potentially shift slopes or intercepts by gender. Unlike in the purchase decision model, here we do not see a significant marginal effect on female-headed household, suggesting that any effect related to sales agent pressure might be restricted to the decision to purchase and other factors drive the chosen level of coverage. A single point increase in the IBLI knowledge score is associated with a 4.1 per cent increase in TLU insured. Interestingly, the relationship between the education level of the household head and the level of IBLI purchase is negative, suggesting that each additional year of education is associated with a 5.1 per cent decrease in the TLU insured. If education and social status are correlated, this is consistent with the idea that lower status may result in vulnerability to pressure by educated, commission-motivated sales agents. This may reflect the gap between sales agents' education and household heads, both male and female, in Borana. This may lead those with less education relative to the sales agents, to purchase higher TLU coverage than they otherwise would, were they positioned differently in society. However, it is not clear why this effect would exist only for the level of purchase estimations.A change of one standard deviation in non-livestock assets is associated with a 14 per cent decrease in TLU insured. One might think that households holding diverse assets are less vulnerable to the threat of livestock mortality due to drought when such assets tend to be related to non-pastoralistlivelihoods. Yet at the same time one would not expect to see this effect operating through assets where estimates are conditioned on non-livestock income levels. In this case, proportion of income from livestock is included as a control and is not statistically significant, therefore we consider this result with caution.When gender is interacted with variables of interest in models ( 2) and (3), we fail to reject the hypotheses that there are no gender differences in the relationships between IBLI demand and cash and in-kind transfers. Female asset holdings in the form of HS animals appear to have no genderdifferentiated effect in model ( 3), unlike current lactating herd proportion in model ( 4) where we see a negative coefficient on the interaction term. This suggests that women in two-decision-maker households with more lactating animals have less incentive to insure, perhaps due to the increased ability to selfinsure, combined with a better bargaining position. We do, however, reject the null that the average marginal effect of high risk aversion differs between men and women. The effect of high risk aversion on males, represented by the coefficient on high risk aversion alone, is positive but not statistically significantly different from zero. High risk aversion increases women's purchase of IBLI by 36 per cent compared to an equally risk averse man. Insurance demand theory suggests that as risk aversion increases, demand for insurance also increases. This effect disappears when we control for female assets brought into the marriage in model (3). Gender and moderate risk aversion appear to have a similar, but opposite effect in model ( 4), but again only weakly and in one specification. Lastly, in model (3) only we reject the null that the effect of home-centered information sources varies by gender, finding that women's IBLI purchase level is slightly more responsive (0.4%) to home-centered information than men's.Neither the IBLI purchase decision nor the level of IBLI coverage chosen demonstrate genderdifferentiated demand when tested using the restricted regressions discussed above. Yet further analysis suggests that there are several pathways for gender-differentiated drivers of demand for IBLI, even if they do not amount to differences in demand outcomes. We first discuss gender differences in average marginal effects, and then discuss how differences in initial conditions may shape demand for women in relation to men.Risk aversion appears to have an appreciably different effect on IBLI demand for women than for men, but the direction of the effect is ambiguous in the measures we use. Future improvements that incorporate risk aversion measures that are appropriate to the context and decision-making domain could contribute to understanding this gender difference. Better understanding of gender and the perceived risks associated with IBLI specifically is also essential. Qualitative respondents, who were mostly women, appeared to accept IBLI's risk-reducing claims at face value, while simultaneously maintaining a waitand-see attitude toward initial or further purchase. Perceptions of IBLI as helpful were overwhelmingly positive (86%), despite no one having received an insurance payout. Some degree of response bias is likely, given that non-local IBLI staff were involved in qualitative data collection. As individuals learn about IBLI from experiences such as witnessing payouts or lack of payouts to themselves or their neighbors, understanding of the risks and benefits of the product will further develop. Post-payout data on these topics will be useful to understanding the relationship between risk-aversion and IBLI demand.For women, informal insurance has a negative effect on the IBLI purchase decision that is modestly different from the effect for men with equal informal insurance coverage, as we have measured it. The nature and extent of coverage by informal risk management underpins the perceived benefits of IBLI relative to other risk management approaches and using total transfers may not adequately capture gender differences informal insurance coverage. Qualitative respondents stated unanimously that access to basic levels of informal risk management in the form of mutual assistance and reciprocity is driven by need rather than social connectedness or wealth. If need is defined by the household's material and labor resources, then it is captured in our model through herd size, income, assets and dependency ratio controls. However, qualitative respondents described the extent of coverage provided by mutual assistance as a function of the 'good behavior' of the individual, defined as pro-social behaviors encompassing all manners of helping others to the best of one's ability given one's material and labor resources. Better understanding of the overall effect of informal insurance on IBLI uptake using data designed for such purposes will contribute to future understanding of any gender-differentiated effects.I find some evidence of a gender-differentiated effect of home-based product information. This suggests that targeting marketing strategies to women through home-centered education may provide a gender-differentiated benefit, and further consideration of the means of education that women prefer would be needed if improved targeting of women is a goal. Considerable confusion among qualitative respondents regarding the definition of insuraansii horrii (IBLI) in the context of the product education module of the survey points to unusually high levels of random noise in this variable, which may limit statistical identification by attenuating any true effect.I also find contradicting evidence of an intra-household bargaining effect associated with female assetslactating animals and horrii siiqqee -despite the latter's local relevance. Though we cannot know for sure, the significance of lactating animals for women may be less indicative of bargaining than indicative of capacity to self-insure. If bargaining is not taking place around IBLI, this implies that gender-based targeting in two-adult households is not relevant to increasing access to IBLI in this context.Combined with the finding that female headed households are responsive to home-based information sources, this suggests that gender-based targeting could focus specifically on single-adult female headed households. However, given a significant body of evidence that contradicts the presence of identical preferences among household members, these findings point to a need for further exploration of intrahousehold decision making in Borana. xv   Even where AMEs do not differ, gender differences in averages of key characteristics may also play a role in gender-differentiated IBLI demand patterns. Proportion of income from livestock and age are, on average, lower and higher, respectively for women relative to men. Multiplying the statistically significant AMEs from Tables 6 and 7, we see that average differences in proportion of income from livestock translate to a 2.8 per cent increased likelihood of IBLI purchase by women, while age differences account for a modest 0.5 per cent decrease in the same. No other characteristics with genderdifferentiated averages had statistically significant effects on IBLI demand.This paper provides an initial perspective on dimensions of demand for index based livestock insurance that might vary by gender, using a carefully conceptualized combination of data from a household survey, administrative records and structured qualitative interviews. Female-headed households purchase IBLI at the same rate as men, relative to their share of the population, yet the factors that drive women's demand appear to diverge slightly from men's. Econometrically, we reject the null hypothesis that the AMEs of risk aversion and informal insurance are equal to zero for the level of purchase and purchase decision models, respectively. The estimated average marginal effects of high risk aversion and informal insurance coverage have, respectively, positive and negative associations with IBLI demand by women. We reject the null that home-based product education have no gender-differentiated effect, and find that women are more responsive to home-based product education than men. We fail to reject the null that female HS assets have no gender-differentiated effects, a finding that contradicts much empirical evidence on intrahousehold bargaining. At the same time, we reject the null that female assets in the form of lactating animals have a gender-differentiated effect, which we interpret as a result of women's increased capacity to self-insure. We find that women's demand differs from men's due to differences in household head age and income shares from livestock. The largest gender-differentiated demand effects likely relate to women's lower social status, which is positively associated with the decision to purchase IBLI, possibly through women's vulnerability to pressure by sales agents. These results are consistent with Takahashi et al. (2015) whose gender control variables suggest that being female increases the likelihood of purchase, but not the level of coverage purchased.In addition to aiding in econometric specification and interpretation, qualitative data suggest that variables used to understand information sources and informal insurance may not capture these concepts precisely. Specifically, differences in informal insurance coverage and access may be driven by omitted variables reflecting pro-social behaviors and general confusion in terminology surrounding the IBLI product generate considerable noise in variables relating to the marketing experience of the household, such as IBLI information sources. A case is made for further investigation of the topic using data that captures difficult-to-observe dynamics that may underpin locally defined behavioral aspects of informal insurance access and gender differences in perceptions of IBLI's risk reduction potential, as well as ongoing reduction of measurement error in key variables such as IBLI information sources. Future findings can be leveraged to develop tools and strategies for ensuring that access to and benefits from innovative financial products are equitably distributed across the population.Lastly, the negative effect of education on IBLI uptake, along with the strong and positive effect of being female, merits a closer look IBLI marketing and sales processes in order to understand whether the methods and strategies used encourage IBLI purchase induce a gender or other effect that inflates IBLI purchase based on social pressure rather than the product's potential to reduce risk and limit the effects of catastrophic drought. Employing sales strategies that encourage information-based choice to purchase IBLI will contribute to sustainable demand over the long term. i NDVI images used in the construction of the IBLI contract has resolution of 8km 2 and is taken every 10 days from a U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association satellite used largely for weather forecasting (Chantarat et al., 2013).ii Note that reeras were not selected randomly and therefore cannot be said to be representative of the regional state, woredas or kebeles from which they were drawn. Reera-level population data outside of the selected reeras is not available.iii Households were defined as 'a group of people who live in the same homestead (which may consist of more than a single dwelling) and share food and other items bought from a common household budget.' In the context of polygamous marriages, one husband can have multiple wives and each wife may or may not have a separate household (ILRI, 2014). iv Rainfall data from Lasage et al., 2010.  v See Appendix A for further details on panel construction. See Appendix B for complete attrition analysis.vi TLU, or tropical livestock units, are calculated based on metabolic weight. 1 TLU = 1 bovine = 0.7 camel = 10 sheep/goats. vii The only exception was for participants in ILRI's annual herd migration survey, who had a 50 per cent chance of receiving a 100 per cent voucher for IBLI purchase up to 15 TLU. Only ten households received the 100 per cent voucher in a given sales period.viii Unforseen changes in marital status and purchase behavior resulted in only 15 out of the intended 16 households being interviewed. ix Four respondents had no household members participating in groups.x According to the survey data, the most important information sources for both male-and female-headed households were community meetings and NGOs, followed by the insurance company and informal conversations with friends and family. Qualitative data contradict this. All respondents who attended community meetings where IBLI was discussed reported not effectively learning about the IBLI product at community meetings. No one reported community meetings as a preferred channel, though for many people they were the only product-focused channel, which may explain why this was chosen as 'most important' in the survey data. No one indicated that they learned about the IBLI product from informal conversations with friends and family. The category 'NGO' meant different things to different people, including ILRI, OIC or anyone who comes to the community in a car.xi The effective price of IBLI per TLU of coverage, accounts for discount coupons received in addition to spatial and temporal price variations. However, IBLI is priced by species, not TLU. Therefore, the price facing each individual depends on the animals they choose to insure. For simplicity, we have calculated the effective TLU price as the price of insuring one cow rather than using the actual prices paid for the diverse combinations of animals individuals chose to insure. The latter method makes it difficult to define a price for those who chose not to purchase IBLI.xii First-stage regressions of IBLI knowledge on assigned cartoon and assigned tape for the time period used in this study yield p-values ranging from 0.05-0.88, depending on the specification. In their study of IBLI demand using the same data, but only the first two sales periods, Takahashi et al ( 2015) instrument for IBLI knowledge using the educational treatments. Their first-stage regressions suggest that the instrument is weak in the first purchase period, but acceptable in the second. Given that these interventions were only used in the first year of IBLI implementation, it is sensible that their influence on knowledge wanes over time and is not visible in the third and fourth purchase periods.xiii The first indemnity payments under the IBLI contracts were made in November 2014, outside the time span of the data analyzed here. xiv These results are consistent across all specifications, including those using reported IBLI purchase rather than OIC record of purchase. Those results can be found in Appendix D.xv Empirical tests of intrahousehold bargaining following Thomas (1990) reveal non-identical preferences across several household expenditure classes (sugar, tobacco, cooking fuel, and education) using lactating herd and HS animals. These results are reported in Appendix D, Table D5.  0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. The following coefficients are non-significant and not reported: Savings, non-livestock assets, income, herd size, head education, financial literacy, IBLI knowledge and expected rangeland above normal. HAC1 includes dependency ratio, expected rangeland conditions and effective price. HAC2 contains head age and age-squared, non-livestock assets, income, proportion of income from livestock, cash savings, previous period purchase, effective price, IBLI knowledge and all HAC1. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. The following coefficients are non-significant and not reported: Financial literacy, expected rangeland conditions, previous period losses, proportion of income from livestock,(ln) herd size, dependency ratio, cash savings, (ln) income. HAC1 includes dependency ratio, expected rangeland conditions and effective price. HAC2 contains head age and age-squared, non-livestock assets, income, proportion of income from livestock, cash savings, previous period purchase, effective price, IBLI knowledge and all HAC1.Daily average milk production per animal was valued using average market prices by species and season reported by households that sold milk. Price data were too sparse to calculate prices by each of the four seasons, so two seasonal sets of prices-dry and rainy-were used. This daily average milk value was then multiplied by 30.4 (average days per month) to get monthly average milk income.Livestock that was sold and slaughtered was valued at median sale price by species and rainy/dry season. Similar to milk prices, livestock sales data were too sparse across all 16 season/species combinations, we aggregated seasonal prices into dry and rainy season prices. Given high variance in reported prices and the presence of extreme outliers, we opted to use median season/species prices. We then estimated the animal sales revenue using transactions that were reported as sales, excluding gifts, loans and repayment of debts. While these non-sale transactions most certainly have value to households, assigning monetary values to these cases is problematic. Some of these activities are captured in the livestock transfers variable. The estimated prices ignore animal age, quality, and sex that are likely determinants of price but that we cannot capture. The alternative is to use prices as reported by households for livestock sales, but the problem of valuing slaughtered animals remains. The argument for using reported prices is that they may be more likely to correspond to the market value of the specific animals sold better than mean or median prices.Income from aid was reported by respondents as average monthly values of supplementary feeding, food aid and other aid. Respondents identified the number of months in the previous year that they received these three types of aid, which was then multiplied by the monthly value to get a yearly value of aid. This yearly value was apportioned to the panel periods by the number of months in the period and that value was used to create an average monthly value for each panel period. Cash income is calculated using respondent recall of income and income source by season (panel period). Seasons are then divided by the number of months therein to obtain monthly average cash income for corresponding periods. All income is included except that from sale of livestock, sale of milk and NGO work. This income should be captured in milk, offtake and other assistance sections of the survey.Cash savings are reported by respondents in P2, P4 and P6, but there are no data on savings fluctuations between these periods, making it difficult to determine an appropriate value for P1 and P3.Currently, total savings data are only used descriptively and not in panel analysis. In the panel analysis, we use a dummy variable to represent having enough savings to insure five cattle. For P1, P3 and P5 we use the P2, P4 and P6 values of this dummy variable.The asset index is constructed using principal components analysis on 58 non-livestock durable goods. Each item is listed in Table A2, along with the associated factor loadings for each survey round.Each variable is a count of the number of that item owned by household. Items for which there was zero ownership and/or zero variance, such as motorcycles and satellite dishes, were excluded. Complete stock of durable goods and housing amenities was taken at P2 and changes were collected at P4 and P6, allowing for calculation of P4 and P6 stocks. Any recall error at P4 will carry over to P6. For now, values for P1, P3 and P5 are assumed to be the same as P2, P4 and P6, respectively, though there is little basis for this assumption besides convenience. The assets section is one of the more tedious sections of the survey and is poorly tailored to the Borana context. Both enumerators and respondents regularly expressed frustration with the assets module. The stocks and flows nature of the data collection strategy creates potential for measurement error from previous periods to carry through to current periods and to accumulate over time. Transfers data are reported by respondents using the seasonal recall structure, allowing for calculation of season-specific values for all periods, which are then divided by the number of months in the period to create monthly averages for transfers received and transfers given. In regressions, transfers are represented as the total of the absolute values of transfers in both directions.Education is education level of the household head, in years. Through grade 12, each grade corresponds to one year. Beyond that, education levels were re-scaled to correspond to the number of years of education associated with each level of attainment. Education data are collected in full at P2, and then only information on household members who enter and leave school are collected in later periods.To calculate the attainment of an individual, one must make an assumption about whether individuals in school advance to the next grade. We assume that all individuals advance every year they are in school.Educational attainment of the household head for P1, P3 and P5 are assumed to be the same as P2, P4 and P6, respectively Financial Literacy Financial literacy is the number of correct answers to the seven questions listed below. Financial literacy data were collected only at baseline and is treated as a time-invariant characteristic. The dependency ratio is calculated as the number of dependents divided by the number of adults.Children are defined as those aged 15 and under, while adults are defined as those older than 15. We omitted elderly dependents due to suspected age inflation in the right tail. Including elderly dependents created households without adults. Ages for P1, P3 and P5 are assumed to be equal to P2, P4 and P6, respectively.Household size is a simple count of the number of members listed in the household roster. We do not have data on household size fluctuation between survey rounds and we assume that household sizes at P1, P3 and P5 are equal to P2, P4 and P6, respectively.Risk aversion is measured at baseline using a coin toss gamble where risk and return are positively correlated. The respondent is presented with the following introduction:Let me introduce you to a lottery, whose value depends on the outcome of a coin. We am going to flip a coin. In each lottery, if the coin lands on head, you will win the amount below the picture of the head. If the coin lands on a tail, you will win the amount below the picture of tail of this coin….I now offer a chance for you to choose one of the six lotteries displayed in the next image, which may allow you to earn from 0 to 200 ETB, depending on your choice of lottery and your luck. The total amount of reward you will get will depend on the outcome of the lottery you choose, which will depend on the outcome of the coin that I'm going to flip. (ILRI 2014) The respondent is then shown a series of six images of head and tail sides of an Ethiopian coin and associated amounts of money and is asked to choose. The six gambles are displayed in Table A3. Using these data, we created a set of binary variables by combining the two highest, middle and lowest choice numbers to represent low, moderate and high risk aversion, respectively. this question that was noticed during the qualitative phase of research, this variable was structured the percentage of total information sources that were home-centered, that is, information sources that potentially educate about IBLI that are accessible from home. This percentage is expressed as whole numbers between 0 and 100 to aid in interpretation. The number of information sources at P3 and P5 are assumed to be the same as at P4 and P6.The IBLI knowledge variable is constructed using a count of correct answers to the following eight questions:  For each of these five sets of questions, qualitative approaches bring more detailed descriptive content to existing quantitative data, which extends our understanding in three specific ways. The first of these, is aiding in model specification. Qualitative data will provide an opportunity to validate assumptions made during construction of key variables in the econometric model so that they more accurately reflect determinants of IBLI demand. This is particularly relevant given the unique and rapidly changing cultural and economic practices of southern Ethiopian pastoralists in the 21st century.Second, qualitative data may reveal heterogeneity within categories that appear homogeneous in quantitative data. Difficult-to-capture drivers of behavior such as social status may vary dramatically among the seemingly homogeneous categories such as \"women,\" or \"men,\" and qualitative exploration of these categories may explain contradictory or inconclusive findings. Finally, insights gained from qualitative data will be used to strengthen the interpretation of econometric findings in order to explain outliers, inconsistent findings and provide descriptive support. The ways which each of these purposes supports deeper understanding of the above research questions are described in detail in the following section.This line of inquiry is designed to investigate intra-household decision-making related to IBLI purchase. The quantitative strategy uses household level data with the gender of the household head as a proxy for the gender of IBLI purchaser. This approach may limit understanding of intra-household dynamics that affect the decision to purchase IBLI. The quantitative strategy accounts for some degree of bargaining in two-adult households, but is unable to shed light on decision-making in single-adult households. Single adult households in the sample are all female-headed, but autonomy and social status will affect the decision-making power of these individuals and likely varies by marital status (McPeak et al. 2011). Qualitative interviews will focus on who in the household initiated decision-making related to IBLI, the involvement and influence of different household members, and how this decision-making process compares to other household decisions. These data will be used to unpack heterogeneity of decision-making processes, with particular emphasis on single-adult households. Qualitative data on twoadult households will aid in the interpretation of bargaining-related quantitative findings.Perceptions of the IBLI product are clearly linked to the decision to purchase. Theory suggests that a risk averse individual will have a higher willingness-to-pay for insurance, however, the relationship between risk aversion and index-based insurance products does not convincingly follow this pattern (Giné et al. 2008, Cole et al. 2012). If purchasing the insurance product is perceived as risky in itself, then the individual's ambiguity aversion becomes an important factor if he or she prefers the known risk of, say, drought to the relatively unknown risk of drought insurance. Ambiguity aversion has been cited as a reason for poor uptake of index-based products and has been incorporated into some studies of demand (Clarke andDercon 2009, Clarke 2011). Elabed et al. (2013) link ambiguity aversion to compound risk aversion in an experimental setting involving index insurance decisions, finding that compound risk aversion may play a role in limited demand for index insurance products. The quantitative strategy for understanding risk aversion and IBLI demand does not allow for ambiguity aversion as a determinant of demand. Those who are risk-averse but opt not to purchase IBLI may be doing so because they perceive IBLI purchase to be an unknown risk relative to drought. In a review of four field studies of index insurance marketing, Patt et al. (2009) identify three sources of perceived risk by consumers as (a) lack of trust in the implementers of the insurance product, (b) lack of trust in the index and (c) lack of trust in one's own understanding of the product and associated ability to make the best decision. Qualitative interviews will focus on trust in these aspects of IBLI and, using Patt's framework, the data will allow for better understanding of the potential role of ambiguity aversion. Of particular interest is whether there is a difference in trust in the IBLI product between men and women, which will contribute to interpretation of econometric results relating to risk aversion.The relationship between informal insurance strategies and formal insurance products is key to understanding demand for IBLI. The quantitative strategy for understanding this relationship uses data on cash and in-kind transfers and network group membership to represent access to and coverage by informal insurance. Limitations of the use of observed transfers or network groups are multifold. First, transfers and network groups are institutions that have the potential to provide insurance, but the extent to which they do so is unknown and therefore these may be poor measures of informal insurance. Second, they do not represent the complete set of transfers or network activities available to the respondent; they represent only those the respondent chose to activate in the reporting period. Finally, informal insurance behaviors are driven by unobserved characteristics that are likely to simultaneously influence IBLI demand. These challenges are very difficult to overcome analytically using qualitative or quantitative methods alone. Mixed methods using the best techniques from each side may be especially useful.Interviews will attempt to understand the extent to which reported transfers and groups represent insurance by eliciting detailed information on the circumstances surrounding actual transfers received and given as well as network group participation reported in the household survey. Of particular interest are the circumstances and expectations surrounding the transfer and, for transfers given, the consequences of not agreeing to give the transfer. For transfers received, we will attempt to elicit information on hypothetical alternative sources of transfers and/or recourse available to the recipient had the giver refused to give. Qualitative data will serve to validate existing survey data by uncovering heterogeneity in the functions of transfers and group membership. This may inform the specification or interpretation of the econometric model. Qualitative data will also provide description of other informal insurance strategies outside of transfers and network groups that may not have been captured in the survey data.Empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that there exist notable differences in access to and coverage by informal insurance along dimensions of wealth and social-connectedness (Santos andBarrett 2011, Vanderpuye-Orgle andBarrett 2009). Gender differences in wealth and social-connectedness are visible in existing IBLI household data from the study region, suggesting the existence of gender differences in informal insurance access and coverage. Within female-headed households, one sees crosscutting patterns that derive their significance from having emerged out of heterogeneity (Patton 2002). Categories of interest in this study are IBLI purchase, gender of household head and marital status.IBLI purchase and gender of household head are the top characteristics of interest, therefore the full survey sample is divided into subgroups of those who purchased and those who did not and further subdivided by the gender of the household head. Adding marital status as a third sampling dimension allows us to better understand commonalities and differences among women based on the rationale that female-headed households may differ markedly depending on whether the female head is married, widowed or divorced. There is no variation in marital status of male-headed households, as men appear to remarry quickly after losing a spouse. Finally, given that wealth is associated, both empirically and in the survey data, with gender, informal insurance and marital status, we consider wealth when selecting my sample.The sampling scheme is depicted in Figure 1C. Distributions are stylized representations of relative distributions from the R2 data. xvii we sample eight individuals at the median wealth level in each cell, as illustrated by the solid stars. xviii As a measure of wealth, we used the household's herd size because of the centrality of livestock to Boran livelihoods. Given its importance, extra care and diligence is taken by enumerators when collecting herd size data and therefore they are hopefully measured with less error. Because wealth is a likely driver of many phenomena of interest in this study and wealth levels are significantly different in existing survey data between male and female household heads of different marital statuses, we have chosen to interview six additional women with wealth levels that correspond to the median wealth of the male interviewee of the same purchase category, as depicted by the blue lines and six transparent stars. Comparison of responses between men and women of the same wealth level may be suggestive of the extent to which wealth is a driver of the phenomena of interest.Time and resources necessarily limit the sample size. The choice to oversample women is justified by existing evidence in the survey data that there is notable heterogeneity in female-headed households within the study population. Better understanding how this heterogeneity influences insurance access by women is a necessary step toward understanding whether IBLI is a gender-neutral intervention.Although generalization is obviously not possible with such a limited sample size, the qualitative findings derived from this study will provide an inductively grounded set of propositions that can direct future analysis in the present study and help formulate questions for future studies.The sampling scheme was confounded by measurement error in the IBLI purchase and marital status variables. After attempting to correct for and replace households with mis-measured key characteristics, the structure of the sample changed from what is depicted in Figure 1C to that depicted in Figure 2C. Additional time for interviews also allowed for two extra males to be sampled that had been excluded previously due to anticipated time constraints.of information channels drew on data reported by the household on the sources of IBLI information that they reported in R3. This guide was refined in the field through pre-testing (out-of-sample) prior to the interviews.Interviews were conducted over three weeks following collection of the R3 household survey data. Interviews were held in or near the respondents' homes, with the exception of three interviews that were held in a neighboring village due to inaccessibility of the respondents' home villages. Interviews were conducted using an experienced interpreter who underwent three days of training specific to the interview guide. Training included discussion of key terms and their interpretations in Oromiffaa, careful translation of questions, probes and prompts, and field-testing of interview guide. Oral consent was obtained using the IRB-approved consent script included below. The interview took between 2 and 4 hours and the respondents were compensated with ETB 100 for their time.Transcription and analysis of interview data took place in the weeks following the interviews.Analysis took both deductive and inductive forms based on previous empirical findings, theory, and observed limits of theory. A pre-determined analytical framework for each theme (noted in the second column of tables in interview guide) was developed based on previous empirical findings. Where there was little or no previous work around which to structure a framework, a more inductive strategy was taken with the objective of exploring the range of responses.Deductive analysis began with a coding process associated with each pre-determined analytical bins. We also analyzed residual responses that did not conform to the analytical bins in a more inductive manner. The second stage of analysis was to involve comparisons of response dominance between men and women (Sections A-E of interview guide), purchasers and non-purchasers (Section B), lower and higher wealth households (Sections C and D) and among women of different marital statuses (Section D).Dominant responses are defined using a frequency threshold or those with low frequency but a direct relationship to theory or previous empirical findings. We define \"strong dominance\" as a response 0.000 0.000 0.000 Standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. The following coefficients are non-significant and not reported: IBLI knowledge, financial literacy, education, dependency ratio, expected rangeland conditions, non-livestock assets, income and (ln)herd. HAC1 includes dependency ratio, expected rangeland conditions and effective price. HAC2 contains head age and agesquared, non-livestock assets, income, proportion of income from livestock, cash savings, previous period purchase, effective price, IBLI knowledge and all HAC1.  Krishna's (2009) Stages of Progress methodology, Parker and Kozel (2007), Sharp (2007), Adato et al. (2007) for examples. xvii The number of individuals (n) in each cell of Figure 1C was determined using the R2 survey data. In Figure 2C, n has been updated using R3 survey data. xviii Median-based sampling is chosen due to the positively skewed nature of wealth distributions and outliers in the right tails.","tokenCount":"14642"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2598c192af5a04f988966360cae7d4c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5182448f-8f52-4128-991d-e830341b5c47/retrieve","id":"-105106557"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"966ce064-2238-4669-b77b-24a8df0398dd","pagecount":"22","content":"Table 3. Status of UAV rules and regulations by country in Africa, as of April 2016 Country Status of UAV regulations Angola No regulations. Drones being discussed at government level. Benin No regulations. Botswana Regulations in place. Burkina Faso No regulations. Burundi No regulations. Cameroon No regulations. Cape Verde No regulations. Central African Republic No regulations. Chad No regulations. CARs (Rules of the Air [RotA]) amended. See page 14. Comoros No regulations. Congo, Dem. Rep. No regulations. Congo, Repub. of the No regulations. CARs (RotA) amended. See page 14. Côte d'lvoire Regulations in place. Civil drones are banned. CARs (RotA) amended. See page 14. Djibouti No regulations. Equatorial Guinea No regulations. Eritrea No regulations. Ethiopia No regulations. Gabon No regulations. CARs (RotA) amended. See page 14.Table 7. Status of UAV rules and regulations by country in the Pacific, as of April 2016 Country Status of UAV regulations Cook Islands No regulations. Fiji Regulations in place.This study has the following objectives: for each ACP country, identify the authority or authorities that regulate and facilitate the ownership and operations of UAVs  for each ACP country, describe the current regulatory landscape governing the ownership and operations of UAVs: existing rules, policy dialogue, regulatory void, enforcement, and other relevant issues  for each ACP country, compile the rules into an easy-to-read fact sheet describing the processes and best practices for UAV owners and operators  for each ACP country, find and annotate cases of UAV deployment in resource-based activities.The study is based on desk research. The starting points being the Google search engine and the search function of the national civil aviation authorities' (NCAA) websites.Keywords associated with UAV technology and with civil aviation terminology in English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch were used to search specific websites and (country) domains. Most UAV-related regulations that are available online are compiled into PDF files, with the vast majority of these files allowing text search. Some PDFs were scanned images of the regulations and thus much harder to search. The table below shows the keywords used. For the top 20 search results, web pages were visited and relevant documents were perused either in their live version or in their cached version. 3 Four broad types of sources were distinguished and further researched: online newspapers for current, country-specific, news on UAVs; civil aviation authorities and government portals for legislative documents and relevant legal/policy discussions; businesses engaged in sales of UAV-related equipment and training UAV operators; and project websites (research programmes and initiatives by NGOs). Sources were explored in the following order: first, we looked for stand-alone UAV rules and guidelines, mainly on NCAA websites; if none were found, we checked the country's civil aviation regulations (CARs) for references to drones; if none were found, we searched online national newspapers for any articles on the use of drones or on pending government actions relevant to the technology in that country; finally, we looked at project websites on drone-related activities in that country. 4 These activities enabled us to feed the following categories of information into a database: rules and regulations, civic and political dialogue, business and training, and examples of deployment in resource management.Government actions related to drone use and permissions is evolving fast. Every day, official announcements are made and relayed by media.This document is a snapshot of the UAV regulation landscape in ACP countries as of April 2016. The results of the study in terms of national rules and regulations have been uploaded on a wiki hosted at www.droneregulations.info .Existing data repositories As expected, not every country in the ACP region has legislation or rules in place to control drone use (Figure 1).Out of 79 countries, 15 countries (19%) have rules or regulations specific to UAV operation; six other countries (7%) have announced soon-to-be-drafted legislation on drone use over their territory; and the other 58 countries (73%) have neither dedicated rules nor pending legislative action regarding UAVs. Only 12 countries (15%) in the ACP region have amended their national CARs with some or all RPAS-related 5 updates issued by the ICAO of the United Nations. 6 The amended national CARs do not automatically translate into hands-on rules for drone users, and there no correlation between updated CARs and available rules.The established drone rules of the 16 countries vary in content, documentation and formats: since there is no international standard yet, the countries have their own way of controlling and managing drone operations and enforcing the rules. Rules and regulation governing drones are incorporated into CARs, displayed and documented online on dedicated websites, and/or spelled out in pamphlets. Thus, when rules do exist, it is not always easy to find them and/or to understand them. This situation may well change in the near future when sustained demand from drone operators will push the authorities to better present and spell out the rules. However, all these countries have named their civil aviation authority as the facilitating agency, which acts as the information source on drone-related matters. Some countries are also involving local police departments or their ministry of Defence as additional facilitating agencies. The most common points addressed by the rules are: aircraft registration  permission to fly  no-fly zones  flying rules: maximum height, distance from operator, etc.  respecting privacy and property  aircraft categories by weight  aircraft documentation  permission to conduct aerial work  remote pilot certification.The majority of the rules, best practices and guidelines in these countries apply to recreational users and less so to professional drone operatorswho are currently required to contact relevant NCAAs to obtain necessary permits or authorisations. One reason for this differentiation is that aerial works are regulated by a separate chapter of a country's CARswhich any aviation professional, including a professional drone operator, must follow. DronesIn place, 15, 19% Pending, 6, 8%None, 58, 73%In place Pending None are a special type of aircraft and present CARs related to aerial work do not adequately address this new technology. We believe, however, that the current rules that do not explicitly include drone-based aerial works will eventually do so.In Africa, out of 48 countries being part of the ACP group of states, seven (15%) have developed a comprehensive set of rules or have clearly stated their position on drone use over their territory. Government officials in four countries (8%) have declared soon-to-bedrafted (pending) rules on drone operation. The vast majority, 37 countries (77%), have not prepared any specific rules on drone use. We found that 11 countries (23%) have amended their CARs to include some provisions for RPAS, though it does not directly translate into clear instructions from the countries' civil aviation authorities.Two countries, Senegal and Uganda, have banned the importation and use of droneattached cameras. Senegal has updated its CARs to include rules on drone identification and on drone operation as per ICAO's recommended amendments, and Uganda has also amended its aviation rules on drone identification requirements. Another country, Côte d'Ivoire has declared a ban on all civil drone use (drones are exclusively for the military) and modified its CARs to include that ban. Because Côte d'Ivoire incorporated the ban into its laws, we assumed that the country has drone rules in place (it is thus part of the seven countries that have rules in place). In place, 7, 15%Pending, 4, 8% None, 37, 77%Table 4 shows the status for each Caribbean country of the ACP group.In place Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad PendingThe Bahamas, Grenada and Suriname None Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Haiti, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Table 5 summarises in some detail the status of the UAV regulations in Caribbean countries as of April 2016.In place,In place Pending NoneOut of 15 countries, one country (Fiji), has published a set of rules and made forms available on the website of the Fiji Civil Aviation Authority. Official reports indicate that the rules were not followed by drone users, thus prompting the authority to enforce the rules more diligently. It is possible that if due diligence is encouraged, rules will be better adhered to in the near future. While 14 countries which are part of the ACP group of states have no explicit rules governing drone operation, the wiki maintained by the organisation UAViators states that five out these 14 countries (Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu) follow the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand's (CAA's) RPAS rules. Niue does not have an aviation authority of its own, relying on CAA for air transport services and regulations. It is probable that drone use on Niue will refer to New Zealand's RPAS rules. In all, there are six countries that are likely following New Zealand's RPAS rules.In place, 1, 7% None, 14, 93%In place None RPAS is a primary safety concern 8 for ICAO as stated during the Second High-Level Safety Conference 2015. During the Conference, ICAO recognised the complexities in safely integrating RPAS into national air navigation systems; and called upon States to refer to ICAO guidance when developing or amending RPAS regulations, and establish a formal means to educate users on the risks associated with their operation. It is looking to expedite the development of provisions to enable a harmonised approach to the regulation of RPAS and provide a forum for States to share their experiences and best practices. 9 In our research results, we found that a number of countries had adopted ICAO's RPASrelated SARPS and included them in their civil aviation regulations. While ICAO's Annex 2, Annex 7 and/or Annex 13 were integrated into existing regulations by some countries, it is still unclear how this new legal framework related to RPAS is being enforced without any other rules or guidance material for drone users to follow. The legal technicalities and language of these amendments, as well as their very difficult-to-find online location, renders them almost useless. Most countries' civil aviation authorities, which have developed RPASrelated rules and guidance material for recreational or professional UAV users have actually not amended their CARs, but prepared a standalone set of documents and forms readily available on their NCAA website. ","tokenCount":"1683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2585764bb00a7cbbf9a8d9416f40e91f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c2c05ec-e3d5-4a99-af5f-a52af57562e8/retrieve","id":"-527267291"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c46c6d36-f1c3-414f-9c8a-788dfbb86a7c","pagecount":"3","content":"This poster describes a short study on donor investment in animal health research in developing countries, in which an analysis is made of how research investments support different types of research in the innovation process (from upstream to very applied) and different potential pathways out of poverty (securing assets, promoting intensification of livestock systems, and promoting market opportunities).The donors supporting livestock research and development in the developing world commissioned a study to identify major collaborative research opportunities with potential to achieve significant impacts on the livelihoods of the poor. The study developed a conceptual matrix framework for the grouping of animal health research investment opportunities, that comprised three types of research on one axis (transferring knowledge and available tools; developing improved tools and strategies, better delivered; and developing new tools and approaches) with three approaches to poverty reduction through livestock (by securing the assets and reducing the vulnerability of the poor; reducing the constraints to intensification; and improving market opportunities) (Perry et al., 2002). As a follow-up to this, we conducted a survey of 14 donor agencies supporting livestock health research in the developing world to document their recent investments in this area. The objectives were to obtain information on the amounts of money invested, the regions, species, diseases and topics funded, how these investments coincided with the range of investment opportunities presented in the conceptual matrix, and what opportunities there might be for enhanced collaboration between donors in the future. This paper summarises the outcomes of the study.In January 2002, fourteen donor agencies were contacted by letter and asked to participate in the study. They were asked to provide data on their investments in active and approved animal health research and development projects for 2001 and 2002, and to provide information on a project-by-project basis. Twelve donors responded to this request, and completed questionnaires, and from these, detailed data were extracted from ten. The twelve donors were: ACIAR (Australia), Belgium, BMZ (Germany), DANIDA (Denmark), DFID (United Kingdom), EU (European Union), France, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency, Joint Division with FAO), USAID (USA) , Wellcome Trust and World Bank. Information on each project included total budget, annual allocation, duration, geographical focus (if any), livestock species targeted, disease focus and research subject (e.g. vaccines, diagnostics, epidemiology, etc). From 8 of the responses, data were sufficient for the study authors to determine the research category sponsored (transferring knowledge and available tools; developing improved tools and strategies, better delivered; and developing new tools and approaches), and for them to classify the research type according to the three pathways of poverty reduction developed by Perry et al., (2002), noted above (securing assets, intensification and marketing opportunities).The ten donors for whom detailed data were available were investing a total of US$ 52.5 million in 96 projects. DFID was the largest investor at almost US$ 14 million for the period under study. With some variation, the region of greatest support was Africa, in particular for DFID and France, and the species receiving the greatest support was cattle (Figure 1). With respect to type of research (or stage in the innovation process continuum), the majority of investments of the 8 donors with sufficiently detailed responses fell in the \"improved tools better delivered\" and \"new tools\" categories, with very little investment in the front line \"transfer\" of the innovation process.The results were also incorporated into the conceptual framework matrix developed by Perry et al. (2002), and expressed by individual donor, by region, by animal species, as well as aggregated for all donors. These are illustrated in Figure 2. According to the classifications made by the authors of which pathway out of poverty the research contributed to, there appeared to be more investment into the securing assets and intensification processes than the promotion of market opportunities, but there was considerable variation between donors.The results provide interesting insights into the development orientation of different donor organisations and countries. There is understandably some variation between donors in their investment strategies, but overall there is relatively little investment in the front line \"transfer\" side of the innovation process, for example in the use and application of available knowledge and technologies, and in animal health service delivery. Some prefer to focus on securing assets, while others support more the processes of intensification as mechanisms for poverty reduction. Much more investment goes into issues related to cattle than other species, and more investment is in Africa than other regions. This analysis is of value in highlighting potential areas for collaborative investment for greater impact on poverty reduction, and a proposal was made to develop a common database on investment activities.  ","tokenCount":"772"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"acb4933f4c286fd242629486b92ee8f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a9c00dc-8cf7-4b8d-814e-410a12f9955f/retrieve","id":"1296604677"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"20622a51-f306-4060-a012-5d0f5d8a0987","pagecount":"58","content":"The commitment of IITA communication and editorial staff made the production of the working paper possible within a few days.The YIIFSWA baseline study is part of the YIIFSWA project which is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. vii6. Nigeria and Ghana: Relationship between yam yield (tons/ha) and yam stand density (stands/ha), 2013.7. Nigeria and Ghana: Relationship between yam yield (t/ha) and percentage of yam harvested designated for sale, 2013.8. Nigeria and Ghana: Relationship between percentage of yam harvest designated for sale and yield (kg/ha), 2013.9. Nigeria and Ghana: Relationship between percentage of yam harvest designated for sale and field size, 2013.Yam and the African crises of poverty, hunger, and diseases 1   African countries are experiencing high population growth rates and the total population in some countries is already too high relative to available resources including fragile environments. Among the continents of the world, Africa remains the epicenter of the challenges of poverty, hunger, and deadly diseases such as HIV/AIDs, malaria, and blindness. A high percentage of the population of most African countries is dependent on arable crop agriculture. Globally, Africa's contribution to supplies of grains is modest: maize, about 5%; rice, 3%; and wheat, 3% in the late 2000s (FAOSTAT 2013). But Africa is the lead player in the supplies of cassava with 50% of world production and yam with 95%. Africa's two predominantly world food crops, yam and cassava, are produced at a high cost because of low technologies (Nweke et al. 1991; Odoemenem and Otanwa 2011).Investments in food crop Research and Development (R&D) by national governments, regional organizations, donors, and NGOs in Africa are focused on cereals and grains such as wheat, rice, and maize. Within the past 20 years, cassava has received R&D attention following the diffusion of IITA's (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) high-yielding mosaic resistant TMS (Tropical Manioc Selection) cassava varieties and following the COSCA (Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa) studies, which unveiled the crop's potential as a powerful poverty fighter in the continent.Yam continues to be sidelined in national food policy programs in West Africa and ignored by African regional development agencies such as the African Development Bank. For example, Nigeria's current Minister of Agriculture, Dr Akin Adesina introduced an Agricultural Transformation Agenda for the purpose of promoting nine commodities including all major staples in Nigeria except yam (FMARD 2012). The African Development Bank, Africa's premier development institution, provides loans and grants for R&D covering staples like rice, maize, cassava, and wheat except yam and some other crops in 54 member countries 2 .In West Africa, yam can be a formidable force in the war against poverty, hunger, and deadly diseases if R&D measures are implemented to develop and disseminate technologies that can bring the crop into central focus in national food policies. The technological innovations will enable yam to benefit from policy programs that can drive down production costs. Yam is a preferred food in the region; some varieties, especially yellow varieties are sources of betacarotene and it is increasingly becoming a major source of foreign exchange in the region as an export crop (Nweke forthcoming).In West Africa yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a food and cash crop; it plays an important role in food security and in the livelihoods of 60 million people in the region. The crop is cultivated mostly in the derived, humid, and southern Guinea savanna agroecologies. About 48 million tons of yam (95% of global supply) are produced on 4 million hectares annually in the region, mainly in five countries:Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo; Nigeria alone accounts for 70% of global yam supply.Yam ranks as one of the most important sources of calories in Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana. The crop also makes a substantial contribution to protein in the diet, ranking as the third most important source of supply after maize and rice. Additionally, yam plays a significant role in social rites of passage, thanksgiving, etc. giving it prominence over other food crops in the region. Demand for the commodity is increasing; as incomes increase consumers shift from substitutes to yam especially when the price of yam relative to prices of its substitutes declines (Maroya 2014).This working paper aims to demonstrate that in West Africa yam is produced more for sale than for home consumption. The working paper is based on information collected from the baseline survey component of the YIIFSWA (Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa) project.To achieve the working paper objective, levels and determinants of yam production with purchased inputs and yam harvest designated for sale by the farmers in Nigeria and Ghana are assessed.Farm level information on yam of the nature and magnitude presented in this working paper is uncommon. The information presented here has wide geographical coverage and is deep in terms of the nature of data collected and reported here and in subsequent reports to be prepared from the YIIFSWA Complementary Baseline Survey data. The information is collected from 76 yam fields, 75 households, 45 villages, three agroecologies, and two countries. The information collected includes oral interview questions and responses and direct field area and yield measurements as well as physical observations at field, household, and village levels. \"Production costs in the yam-based cropping systems of southeastern Nigeria\" by Nweke and others comes close to the one reported in this working paper in terms of depth of information but not in terms of geographical coverage.Besides, the Nweke study which was conducted in the mid-1980s and reported in 1991 is no longer current (Nweke et al. 1991). Therefore, this working paper is an overdue update of the Nweke study on a wider scale.which affect the yam food sector impede national policy program efforts aimed at promoting yam as a priority crop in the various countries in West Africa. High production costs arise from the high incidence of destructive yam pests and diseases such as nematodes, viruses, fungi, scale insects, beetles, etc. at both pre-harvest and postharvest stages; the high labor input associated with land preparation, planting, staking, weeding, and harvesting; and the increasing shortage of virgin land suitable for production of the crop. These problems are rooted in low production and post-production technologies in the yam food sector (Maroya 2014). These constraints have therefore formed the basis for YIIFSWA project's interventions. The Project aims at doubling the productivity of yams that would stimulate a sustainable increase in incomes for smallholder yam producers and contribute to their food security and economic development.YIIFSWA is a five-year research-for-development project of IITA which took off in September 2011.The project is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and executed in Nigeria and Ghana by IITA in partnership with a consortium of national and international R&D agencies, namely the Nigerian NRCRI (National Root Crops Research Institute), the Ghanaian CRI (Crops Research Institute), NRI (Natural Resources Institute) of the UK, AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa), CRS (Catholic Relief Services), and DDS (Diocesan Development Services) in collaboration with service provider organizations, the private sector, farmers, and yam traders (Maroya 2014).The project addresses the following broad constraints:y The high cost and unavailability of disease free seed yams.y On-farm postharvest losses.y Low soil fertility.y Unexploited potential of yam markets by smallholder farmers.y Unavailability of adapted varieties to stress environments of the savanna agroecologies.y Yam diseases and pests.y Limited opportunities for smallholder farmers, mainly rural women, in yam production and marketing.Sample design. This working paper is based on a sample survey of yam producing areas of Nigeria and Ghana; the two countries account for 80% of West Africa's yam supply. In either country all yam agroecologies, namely humid forest, derived savanna, and southern Guinea savanna were covered. In each agroecology communities were randomly selected: three in Nigeria and two in Ghana making a total of 25 communities, 15 in Nigeria and 10 in Ghana (Fig. 1). The sample size was determined by the time resource available for the survey which was November and DecemberIn each community a stratified random sample of three households was selected. Members of the community were assembled and requested to group themselves into three by size of their yam production operations-large, medium, and small; in each group one farm household was selected randomly. The household yam farm size categories were unique to each community and varied across communities. In each selected household, all yam fields planted in the 2013 season were surveyed.The time period when the survey was conducted was also an element of sampling. Yam planting dates vary depending on agroecology and in some cases on the yam variety, such as early or late maturing varieties. Each variety has a growing period at the end of which the variety must be harvested to avoid crop losses to damage. This means that the harvesting time for different varieties with differing growing periods and planting times was spread over several months in the year which could not be accommodated by the limited time frame and other resources available for the study.For this reason, the peak season of November and December when most mature yam was still in the field was purposely selected; most early maturing varieties had already been harvested and could not be represented in the yield sample taken.Data were collected through oral interviews of the selected farmers and through direct measurements in the yam fields. Oral interviews were conducted with structured questionnaires which were designed and pretested. There were three structured questionnaires, one administered at the community level, one at the household level, and the last at field level. Respondents to the community level interviews were all yam producers, men and women in the community who were interviewed as a group. Information collected at this level was such as would not vary with farm household, such as availability of market and other rural infrastructure. The community level interview was conducted in the village square and in some occasions in the community hall depending on the wish of the community leaders.The head of the household and spouse, where applicable, were interviewed at the household level in their home for information that would vary across households such as characteristics of the household, available resources, yam production objectives, etc. At the field level, the field owner responded to the oral interview for information such as production methods, yam varieties grown, plans for sale and for home consumption of yams to be harvested, etc. The field level interviews were conducted in the various yam fields.Yam yield and field area were measured with guidance from the owner of the field. Field area measurement was done with Global Positioning System (GPS). Yield measurement was based on a sample plot of about 50 square meters harvested close to the center of the field, weight and numbers of stands and tubers were counted. The yam was purchased from the farmer at the market rate; the initial plan was to leave the yam for the farmer after he was paid but extension guides and survey labor scrambled for it. Measurement was done regardless of yam variety and fields that had been milked for seed yam production were skipped in yield measurement.Local farmers were used as labor for harvesting, they and the survey farmers were paid the wage rate obtained in the community. Enumerators who conducted the interviews and took the field area and yield measurements were in all cases experienced scientists from IITA and the national R&D institutions in the survey countries.A few days after the field work for data collection which lasted 30 days between November and December 2013, (10 days in Ghana and 20 in Nigeria), the questionnaires were reviewed by the YIIFSWA scientists who led in the field data collection. The data were transcribed by data entry clerks who were university graduates. After the transcription, the YIIFSWA scientists went through the data in a verification exercise before analyses began. The verification was a continuous process because in spite of cross checking the questionnaire before transcription and the transcribed data, errors kept showing in the process of analyses. But none of the problems observed at the various stages of checking called for a revisit to survey sites. Credit should be given to the scientists who served as enumerators.Descriptive analyses are carried out and reported in Section II; the aim is to provide background information for more rigorous analyses. The bulk of the data analyses were based on economic models, including Ordinary Least Square (OLS), Logit, Probit, and Tobit models.This working paper is presented in six sections; Section I is the introduction. Section II is a discussion of the yam production contexts in Nigeria and Ghana by descriptive presentation of the survey data as a background for statistical analyses in the subsequent sections. Readers who may not wish to be bothered with rigorous econometric tests may be satisfied with the information in Section II.Section III demonstrates that yam is widely produced with a range of purchased inputs such as hired labor, seed yam, farm chemicals, etc. and identifies the determinants of the use of the various purchased inputs. Section IV shows that yam responds positively in terms of land area and yield to the application of the various purchased inputs. Section V estimates how much of the yam harvest the farmers designate for sale and identifies determinants of the levels of the yam designated for sale. The working paper is synthesized in Section VI.Following the stratified random sampling, weighted by a priori knowledge of levels of yam production, and the procedure adopted in the YIIFSWA Complementary Baseline Survey methodology, the yam producing villages in Nigeria and Ghana are as follows: 70% in the derived savanna, 20% in the humid forest, and 10% in the southern Guinea savanna. Village level information collected in the survey shows that in Nigeria, there are periodic markets in 20% of the villages and in Ghana 10%.Availability of village markets is a proxy for level of commercialization; it is also presumed that villages with periodic markets are not as remote from urban centers as others without the markets.The YIIFSWA baseline researchers investigated availabilities of health and farm input supply facilities in the survey villages. The result of this investigation turned out to be appalling; some of these facilities were found in only one or two of the villages in Nigeria and Ghana, respectively. In Ghana in particular, many of the villages drew drinking, cooking, and washing water from puddles and rivulets which become stagnant in the dry season. This dismal scenario points to the high level of deprivation under which yam is produced in West Africa.Yam is produced more for sale than for home consumption; in both Nigeria and Ghana 60% of harvest, after discounting for seed, is sold and only 40% is consumed in the farmers' households.The crop attracts a high price in the urban markets because it is patronized by high-income consumers. Producers work hard to produce so much yam, yet they live in penury; why? Nweke's hypothesis is that there is a problem at the level of outlet for yam from the farm to urban markets (Nweke forthcoming).In Ghana, a yam producer faces three options when disposing of his crop: one, the producer takes a loan from a trader at planting time to pay high production costs, at harvest the trader arrives at the farm with a truck and carries the yam away at his price; two, a trader also arrives at a farm of a producer who did not receive a loan and makes an offer, if the price is not acceptable to the producer the trader goes to another farm with his empty truck; and three, the farmer takes a truckload of his yam direct to the urban market and stops at the entrance (the league of middlemen prohibits farmers from entering the wholesale market with yam), a middleman takes the truck load and negotiates the price with wholesalers behind the farmer and takes his agreed and unagreed commission before handing the proceeds over to the farmer who does not know what the wholesaler paid. To take the truckload of yam back to the farm is an expensive option for the farmer.Obviously, the context in which yam producers sell their crop has a high potential to impoverish them; policy interventions are needed to change the unfair situation. The first step is to empirically assess the marketing situation to determine if the yam traders are enriched by the context which impoverishes the farmers. The empirical assessment will identify measures which if implemented will enable all participants in the yam value chain, the producers as well as the traders, to be equitably compensated for their efforts.Women are underrepresented as heads of yam producing households; the ratio of women to men as heads of households is 1:25 in the randomly selected sample of 75 yam-producing households in Nigeria and Ghana. This leaves a low degree of freedom that does not permit objective assessment of yam production performance by men and women. For this reason, further discussion of gender production activities in this working paper is limited.Concern is often expressed that the population of farmers is aging (Omotayo 2002  The young heads of households are concentrated in remote areas; such young people stay in farming for a number of reasons. They are not as much aware of urban employment opportunities, because of lack of exposure, as their age mates in peri-urban areas. In addition, in several cases, young men in remote areas are obligated by tradition to stay back on the farm and take charge of the family legacy after the death of their fathers, which is often early because of the short life expectancy among the yam farming communities. The relatively large number of under thirty-year-old heads of households observed in the survey were heads of extended families; some of them were in their early 20s and unmarried but heading their late fathers' households.Furthermore, the headship of households should be understood in the proper context of the surveyed areas. Often by tradition, in most parts of Nigeria and Ghana the oldest male member of a household is its head, even if he is an old man past working age in a household with economically active men and women or even if he is an underage boy in a household with economically active women members. This knowledge, if not accounted for, could lead to biased assessment of impact of age of household head on yam production.The level of formal education of the heads of the yam farm households, in terms of number of years spent in formal education institutions is low. In Nigeria, more than 40% had no formal education, 60%, five years or less; about 10% of the heads of yam producing households in Nigeria had 10 or more years (Fig. 3). The situation is more dismal in Ghana where more than 70% of the heads of the yam farm households had zero years of formal education; more than 85%, 5 years or less; and only 5% had 10 or more years. Yam producers interviewed in the YIIFSWA Complementary Baseline Survey that had 10 or more years of formal education in both Nigeria and Ghana are people who retired to farming from urban wage employments and are part-time yam farmers. The context of close to zero formal education among main line yam producers should be of primary concern in R&D efforts aimed at promoting yam production in West Africa as a business in the 21st century. Yam production practices in both Nigeria and Ghana include superstition and ritualism. Issahaq Suleman, a government extension officer in Ejura district in Ghana reported that ritual materials prepared in clay or calabash pots were sprinkled on seed yam before planting and after planting the pots were left hidden in the field to protect the yield of the crop from enemies because of the belief that through ritualism a farmer could transfer a good crop of yam in another's field to his own.In fact, during the YIIFSWA Complementary Baseline Survey field work, pots filled with uncertain materials were observed in yam fields visited in Brong Ahafo and Ashanti regions 4 . In Nigeria, Dr C.C. Okonkwo, the former international yam trials manager at IITA, reported that one reason a farmer would not sell his seed yam was that selling seed yam was interpreted as selling one's luck;equally buying seed yam could translate into buying bad luck 5 .The problem of superstitious and ritual practices in yam production which enhanced formal education can help address has implications for the management of yam production as a business. The ritual materials entail expenditure of resources including cash. More importantly, crop failures are blamed on the enemy next door; solutions to pest and diseases problems are sought in ritualism. Farmers who engage in superstitious and ritual practices are unlikely to be open to new technologies which they would view with suspicion.One reason for limited R&D attention to labor-saving technologies in African agriculture is the wrong assumption in R&D circles that relative to other inputs such as fertilizers farmers have labor because of the large farm household sizes 6 . The implication of the observed large yam farm households, average of about 12 persons and ranging from 1 to 35, in both Nigeria and Ghana, is that on farm labor availability depends on the composition of the households (Table 1). Many of the large households are composed of aged women in polygamous families and many school age or younger children whose contributions to farm work are minimal. This means that household size could be a misleading proxy for labor availability in yam production.  Most of the yam farm households had one yam field each; less than 5% of them had more than one in both Nigeria and Ghana. Average yam field size was 1.82 ha per household in Nigeria and 1.60 ha in Ghana (Table 2). In Ghana the yam fields surveyed are situated at distances of up to 15 km from the village centers. Yam is produced under a shifting cultivation system; each season farmers move into new forest lands in search of suitable land for yam production--suitable in terms of high fertility soil, low incidence of yam pests and diseases, and the availability of yam stake trees, without ever returning to land that has already been used for yam production.Some yam fields are located far from farmers' homes along forest tracks with thick bushes of such sharp grasses as imperata and across rivulets, some of which are knee deep. On-farm transportation is by bicycle or motorbike for men; virtually all women travel on foot, leaving home early in the mornings and returning late in the evenings with headloads of firewood in the planting seasons and firewood and crop in the harvesting seasons.In Nigeria, the context is dismal but less so than in Ghana because in Nigeria yam is produced under long fallow rather than under shifting cultivation as in Ghana. Nigerian yam farmers return to grow yam on land previously planted with yam every three to five years; in between, other crops could be grown on the land. Distances between home and yam fields are not as long as in Ghana and they are not increasing. Farm roads are foot tracks that are in most cases motorable by bush taxis.Women commute mostly on foot. In spite of these differences between Nigeria and Ghana, yield was not higher in Ghana than in Nigeria. In both countries there was no significance difference in yields (Table 3). In some agroecologies in the two countries yam is staked, sometimes elaborately. In Ghana, yam producers use preexisting small trees in the field as stakes for yam. During land clearing for yam cultivation, farmers collect and burn the residue around small trees which die and the yam vines are guided to twine on them. Nigerian yam producers carry stakes, usually split bamboo or suitable branches of other plants to yam fields in agroecologies such as the humid forest and derived savanna where the environment calls for elaborate staking of yam. In the southern Guinea savanna where there is more sunshine staking of yam is less elaborate; yam vines are directed to twine on stalks of corn and guinea corn intercropped with the yam.In both Nigeria and Ghana, sole cropping was not common. Most of the farmers practiced intercropping and relay cropping. Farmers aim at maximizing yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop through intercropping and relay cropping. Cassava is the most common crop intercropped or relayed with yam in both countries. Rice is particularly more common in Ghana than Nigeria. Other crops include sorghum, melon, and beans. In virtually all cases, yam is gown in mounds in both Nigeria and Ghana; the exception, as observed in the YIIFSWA Complementary Baseline Survey, is a relatively small niche area along the banks of River Niger with light and deep alluvial soil. In Ghana, the mounds are almost of uniform size but in Nigeria the size varies depending on soil depth. The near uniform size of yam mounds in all the surveyed villages in Ghana has a negative effect on the yam tuber shape in areas where the soil is too shallow for the standard mound size.Yam mound making is not only laborious, it is backbreaking; in later sections of this working paper it will be shown that cost of labor for mound making is one of three biggest constraints to yam production expansion, other major constraints are yam pests and diseases and the high cost, scarcity, and low quality of seed yam. But apart from mound making all yam production operations are labor intensive because all of them are performed with the hand hoe, machete, and digging sticks without any form of a labor-saving technology.Problems of yam pests and diseases, especially nematodes and viruses are ubiquitous in both countries. In Ghana, the yam beetle is causing considerable damage to yam tubers and it is a serious cause of distress to yam producers in that country; that problem is no longer of serious concern in Nigeria. The potential for improvement in yam production through information exchange between Nigeria and Ghana is high. Such information could be generated through comparative analyses of differences in yam production practices between the two countries.In yam production, the seed is the tuber, i.e., the crop. In Nigeria and Ghana yam producers purchase part and produce part of the seed yam they plant. Yam is widely produced with purchased inputs, especially the seed yam and hired labor; chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticides are used but not commonly. As much as 60% of yam harvested after discounting for seed yam is sold and 40% is consumed at home both in Nigeria and Ghana. These observations constitute indisputable evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in West Africa.The study reveals that yam is mostly produced in villages that are remote from urban centers especially in Ghana with limited health, sanitation, educational, farm input, etc. facilities. Some of the heads of most yam producing households are aged; the young ones are among them because of family traditional obligations or lack of exposure to urban employment opportunities. The mainline yam farmers have zero or little formal education. All these have negative implications for progress toward improvement of the yam food sector.Yam is produced with low technologies for labor saving, seed production, and the yam pest and disease control. But among the most critical constraint is yam production under shifting cultivation in Ghana which exposes the farmers to unproductive and tortious commutation between home and yam fields. Although some men are able to accomplish on-farm transportation through forest tracks by bicycles and motor bicycles, women commute on foot on a daily basis with head loads of firewood and crops over the long-distant bush tracks. The practice of shifting cultivation which is rooted in the farmers' continuous search for fertile land, low yam pest and disease incidence, and stake trees have negative implications for environmental degradation.In both Nigeria and Ghana, yam is grown on mound seedbeds which vary in size in Nigeria depending on soil depth. The near uniform size of yam mounds in all the surveyed villages in Ghana results in poor yam tuber shape in some areas where the soil is not deep enough. Making yam mounds is laborious and backbreaking. The difficulty of finding sufficient seasonal migrant hired labor for yam mound making is one of the biggest constraints to yam production expansion in both Nigeria and Ghana; other critical constraints are the yam pest and disease problem and the high cost, scarcity, and low quality of seed yam.Yam is widely produced with purchased inputs, especially seed yam and hired labor; chemical fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticides are used but not commonly. As much as 60% of yam harvested after discounting for seed yam is sold and 40% is consumed at home, both in Nigeria and Ghana.These observations constitute indisputable evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in West Africa.Women are underrepresented as heads of yam producing households; the ratio of women to men as heads of households is 1:25 in the randomly selected sample of 75 yam-producing households in Nigeria and Ghana. This leaves a low degree of freedom that does not permit objective assessment of yam production performance by men and women. For this reason, further discussion of gender in yam production activities in this working paper is limited.Numerous differences in yam production practices between Nigeria and Ghana suggest that the potential for improvement in yam production through information exchange between the two countries is high. Such information could be generated through comparative analyses of differences in yam production practices between the two countries..Yam production demand for labor, seed, and other materials such as stakes is high; if these inputs are not provided as required or provided but not in a timely manner, suboptimal crop performance results. For this reason, inputs available in the household are frequently supplemented by purchase from external sources, especially when the crop is produced for sale, which is more often than not the case. This section assesses levels of use of various purchased inputs in yam production in Nigeria and Ghana and tries to establish the circumstances under which the inputs are purchased with the aim of suggesting measures that if implemented can motivate farmers to expand the level of use of the purchased inputs where such can help improve resource-use efficiency in yam production.Inputs used in yam production which may be secured from sources external to the household include seed yam, labor, farmland, chemical fertilizer and herbicides, and mechanical and mechanized vehicles for use in field-to-home transportation. In both Nigeria and Ghana only one or two yam fields in the survey were cleared mechanically and in Ghana, where environmental conditions and other considerations such as access to machinery permitted, an uncommon situation, land was plowed before yam mounds were made. Therefore, the use of machinery in yam production was uncommon.Yam fields surveyed were on plots of farmland acquired by inheritance, plots allocated by the village central authority, or plots purchased or rented from neighbors for a fee in cash or kind. Farmland was considered a purchased input if it was purchased or rented for a cash or kind payment. Hired labor, i.e., labor paid for in cash or kind, was used in various combinations with family labor for land clearing, seedbed preparation, sowing, weeding, and harvesting operations. For each operation hired labor was considered used if the operation was executed mostly or in full with hired labor.Farm transportation is here referred to as field-to-home transportation because in areas where yam is not stored in the field it is stored at home, often for security reasons. Mechanical field-to-home transportation was by bicycle and hand-pushed carts or wheel barrows; mechanized transportation was by motorized vehicles such as motorcycles, tractors, and other four-wheeled motor vehicles.Bicycles, hand-pushed carts or wheel barrows, and motorcycles were usually owned by some of the smallholders. Four-wheeled motorized vehicles such as taxis and tractors were available locally for hire on a custom basis. Farmers with large quantities of yam output often rented tractors or taxis for transporting yam on an individual basis where farm road conditions permitted. On-farm transportation equipment is considered a purchased input if it is mechanical such as bicycles, carts or wheel barrows or motorized vehicles such as motorcycles, tractors, or other vehicles even if owned by the farmer since the equipment is purchased and is maintained with running expenses incurred in cash.Farmland. In Nigeria, 14% of the yam fields surveyed were acquired by purchase, 14%by renting, 70% by inheritance, and 2% by allocation from community leaders. In Ghana, 3% of the yam fields surveyed were acquired by purchase, 41% by renting, 34% by inheritance, and 22% by allocation from community leaders. Therefore, use of farmland as a purchased input in yam production was more common in Ghana than in Nigeria.Seed yam. Frequently, a yam field is planted partly with purchased and partly with farmer's own produced seed yam. Farmers interviewed were asked to state, for each field, how many out of 10 seed yams planted were purchased and how many were own produced; this information was converted to a percentage. Approximately 40% of seed yams used by the surveyed farmers in both Nigeria and Ghana were purchased and 60% own produced. In both countries there were fields planted with only purchased seed yams and in Ghana there were fields planted with only farmer's own produced seed yams (Fig. 4).Hired labor. Usage of hired labor in yam production is wide spread but more so in Nigeria than in Ghana. For example, hired labor was used for at least one of the five farm operations, namely land clearing, seedbed preparation (mounding), planting, weeding, or harvesting in about 95% of the fields in Nigeria and in about 80% in Ghana (Table 4). The wide spread use of hired labor can be explained by the high labor requirement in yam production. The hired labor was more commonly used in land clearing, seedbed preparation, and weeding than in sowing and harvesting. More detailed analyses of the survey data presented elsewhere reveal that mounding and weeding require more man days of work than land clearing, planting, and harvesting.  Inorganic fertilizers. Inorganic fertilizers were used in 25% of yam fields surveyed in Nigeria but in none in Ghana. Limited farmer access to chemical fertilizer could be a factor in non-use of the purchased input in yam production in Ghana but more important, Issahaq Suleman reported that Ghanaian farmers are uncertain about the value of fertilizer in yam production 7 . Farmers are concerned that fertilizer may have negative effects on food quality and storability of yam produced.However studies on the relationship between fertilizer application and incidence of certain pests and diseases on yam inspired on-farm farmer participatory fertilizer experiments by government researchers in Ejura showed that chemical fertilizers carefully applied to yam results in yield increase with no adverse effects on yam pest and disease attacks, yam storage, and food quality (Yahaya 2011). Therefore, there is need to convince farmers of the positive effects of fertilizer use in yam production.Herbicide. Herbicide was used either for land clearing, weeding, or both. For land clearing, herbicide was more widely used in Ghana; 46% of the surveyed yam fields compared with 17% in Nigeria.In Ghana, yam is planted in new forest land each year while in Nigeria yam is planted in fields with relatively short fallow. On the other hand, the chemical was more widely used for weeding in Nigeria;52% of the surveyed yam fields and 38% in Ghana. 7 Issahaq Suleman, personal communication, January 2014.Mechanized field-to-home transportation. Field-to-home transportation of yam was widely mechanized, especially in Nigeria where yam was transported by head load from only 5% of the fields surveyed to home, from 20% by non-motorized vehicles, and from as much as 75% of the fields by motorized vehicles. In Ghana, the crop was transported from 17% of the fields surveyed to home by head load, from 20% by non-motorized vehicles, and from 63% by motorized vehicles. In Ghana, yam cultivation in new forest lands each year makes use of certain motorized vehicles for field-to-home transportation of yam difficult because of the inadequacy of farm roads.Synthesis. The analyses above provide convincing evidence that yam is widely produced with a range of purchased inputs depending on the farmer's need to supplement family supplies, on farmer's access to the inputs, and on the farmer's assessment of the value of the purchased input in yam production. For example, among inputs purchased by yam producers, the frequency of use of purchased or rented farmland is the lowest; the reason is that farmers' need to supplement family supplies is low because, compared with other inputs, farmland is widely available from family sources.The frequency of use of farm chemicals, namely chemical fertilizers and herbicides, which are usually purchased, is low especially in Ghana. In Ghana farmers are uncertain about the positive value of chemical fertilizer in yam production and all the farm chemicals which are imported and distributed mostly by government agencies are often expensive and not easily accessible to the farmers in both Nigeria and Ghana. Seed yam is an important input whose value in yam production depends on its quality; farmers are aware of this but most of them use less purchased than own produced because purchased seed yam is not necessarily superior in quality than own produced ones; in addition, seed yam is not always available in the market in sufficient quantities.On the other hand, field-to-home transportation and labor are the most frequently used purchased inputs in yam production; the reasons are insufficiency or inadequacy of alternative family supplies and relative ease of farmer access. Under the condition of increasing home-to-field distances caused by farmers moving deeper into forests in search of virgin land for yam production, head loading is a non-viable alternative to motorized and non-motorized vehicles for field-to-home transportation of the crop, even under smallholder production. The transportation vehicles, once purchased, remain available locally because they are maintained by local artisans and some, especially motorized vehicles, are available for hire within the farmers' communities.Hired labor is the most frequently used purchased input in yam production among the farmers surveyed because family supplies are too low compared with need. In addition, hired labor, though expensive, is available locally; the survey reveals that 45% of hired labor in the surveyed villages came from within their areas and 55% from outside their areas. But even the hired labor that comes from outside the community is also accessible locally because it comes as seasonal migrants and they reside in the area during the crop season.The extensive use of purchased inputs which are in short supply from family sources and which are accessible to the farmers is convincing evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in West Africa.This conclusion is based on the fact that farmers invest cash in the production of commodities which are expected to yield cash in return.An attempt is made in this section to identify the factors which motivate a smallholder to invest cash in the purchase of farmland, seed yam, hired labor, chemical fertilizer, and herbicide and in mechanical or mechanized field-to-home transportation of yam, i.e., to adopt these purchased inputs in yam production.The two most popular functional forms used in explaining farmers' adoption decisions are the Probit (the standard cumulative distribution function) and the Logit (the logistic distribution) models (Polson and Spencer 1991). The Probit model is:where:Ti is the probability that the ith farmer chooses to use purchased input, zero otherwise. X is the n by k matrix of the explanatory variables and β is a k by 1 vector of parameters to be estimated. Hired labor was used in performing land clearing, seedbed preparation, sowing, weeding, and harvesting operations in the surveyed fields. In yam production, seedbed preparation (mounding) and weeding are the two most labor intensive farm operations (Tshiunza 1998). The survey data for this report show that virtually all fields prepared with hired labor were also weeded with hired labor and vice versa. For example, labor was employed for mounding in 80.33% of the fields surveyed and for weeding also in 80.33; these were virtually the same fields. Analyses of use of hired labor in seedbed preparation or in weeding provide sufficient insight into the determinants of use of hired labor in yam production. Use of hired labor in yam seedbed preparation is defined as a binary variable, one if the farm operation is performed mostly or fully with hire and zero otherwise.Field size and production objective (for sale or for home consumption) are possible field level determinants of the probabilities of use of hired labor for seedbed preparation or for weeding in yam production. The percentage of yam harvest from the field designated for sale by the field owner is specified as proxy for production objective. In practice, the decision before planting for sale is a better determinant of adoption of purchased inputs than the percentage ultimately sold because once a farmer decides to plant for sale he or she makes investment in purchased inputs, irrespective of how much he or she ultimately sells. After harvest, te amount ultimately sold is determined by crop performance, home consumption needs, and current market conditions. But farmers surveyed were unable to provide information on how much they planned to sell before planting.Seed yam as a purchased input is a continuous variable which varied from zero to 100 and is defined as the percentage of total seed yam planted in the field that was purchased. As in the case of hired labor, field size and percentage of yam harvested in the field designated for sale are possible field level determinants of the probabilities of use of purchased seed yam.Field-to-home transportation of yam as a purchased input is a binary variable defined as one if the yam is transported by a mechanical or mechanized means as defined above or zero if by head load. Location of the field in terms of whether the field is situated in a residential area or in distant fields could have been a likely determinant of the probability that field-to-home transportation is mechanized but yam fields are virtually all situated far from home, particularly in Ghana.Despite the fact that a few farmers used fertilizer in Nigeria, usage of chemical fertilizer, herbicide, and mechanization of farm land clearing are uncommon in both Nigeria and Ghana and therefore analyses of determinants of their use are unproductive.The household variables specified as determinants of the probability that any of the purchased inputs was used were household size and the age of the household head. Formal education of the head of the household is a possible determinant but it has low variability as the farmers usually did not have more than a few years of primary education. The few farmers who are better educated soon reason like the majority with whom they interact on a daily basis or if they show better ideas they are quickly copied by the rest. As a result, level of formal education does not make much difference to the adoption of farm technologies and practices in a village setting (Nweke 1996).Population density and level of commercialization are some of the village-level factors which can influence the probability of use of purchased inputs in yam production. Periodic village market meetings and distance to nearest urban centers are used as proxies for population density and level of commercialization of the village community. The frequency of village markets, and the distance to the nearest urban center are specified as discrete variables.Country dummies are specified as a binary variable, one if Nigeria and zero if Ghana. Similarly, agroecologies, namely the humid forest, derived savanna, and southern Guinea savanna zones are also specified as binary variables. The country and agroecology dummies are specified to remove their effects. The variables are defined in Table 5. In combination with country and agroecology zone dummies, specified field variables explained 14% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.1449) of the variability in the probabilities of use of purchased seed yam; household variables, 7% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0708); village variables, 17%(Adjusted R 2 = 0.1696); and all the variables combined, 48% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.4792) (Table 7).The percentage of yam harvested which is designated for sale has a significant relationship with the probability of use of purchased seed yam in the field and combined variables equations. Age of household head is significant in the combined variables equation. The relationship between household size in the household equation and field size and distance to urban market in the combined variables equation, respectively, and the probability of use of purchased seed yam in yam production is positive Together with country and agroecology zone dummies, specified field variables explained 12% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.1185) of the variability in the probabilities of use of mechanical or mechanized vehicle in field-to-home transportation of yam; household variables, 16% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.1650); village variables, 15% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.1521); and all the variables combined, 31% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.3117) (Table 8). None of the specified variables in all equations is significantly related to the probability of use of mechanical or mechanized vehicle in field-to-home transportation of yam. Field size is positively related with the probability of use of mechanical or mechanized vehicles for field-to-home transportation of yam in both the field and combined variables equations. Distance to urban market is positively correlated with the probability in the combined variables equation. Rented or purchased farmland. Jointly with country and agroecology zone dummies, specified field variables explained 21% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.2116) of the variability in the probability of use of renting or purchasing farmland; household variables, also 15% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.1510); village variables, 26%(Pseudo R 2 = 0.2580); and all the variables combined, 44% (Pseudo R 2 = 0.4403) (Table 9).  Clearly, the strong positive correlation between field size and the probability of use of hired labor in yam seedbed preparation is convincing evidence that availability of hired labor for seedbed preparation and weeding is essential for yam production expansion under the present hand tool technology (Table 10).This situation presents a gloomy picture for yam production expansion. Supply of farm labor for hire is inelastic; often when a farmer is willing to pay a high and increasing farm wage, labor for hire is difficult to find. Yam mound making is a backbreaking activity while opportunities for offfarm employment with better cash returns such as hawking manufactured goods in urban streets, motorcycle taxi operation, etc. are expanding in urban centers. Hired labor was used for land preparation more frequently in smaller households and family labor more frequently in larger households as would be expected (Table 11).But the hired labor for seedbed preparation was used more frequently in households headed by younger people than in others headed by older people (Table 12) because households headed by younger people cultivate larger yam fields than households headed by older people.The statistically weak and negative relationship between percentage of yam harvest designated for sale and the probability of use of hired labor in seedbed preparation is unexpected because hired labor is paid with cash proceeds from yam production activity. The positive though statistically weak correlation between distance to urban markets and the probability of use of hired labor in seedbed preparation implies that hired labor for seedbed preparation is more frequently used in remote than in peri-urban areas (Table 13). Distance to urban market is a proxy for level of commercialization of the village community and use of hired labor should be higher in commercial than non-commercial areas.What is the implication of the above observed correlations? The statistically strong and positive correlation between field size and the probability of use of hired labor in seedbed preparation and the unexpected correlations between the probability and market factors suggest that an increase in market value of yam without improved labor-saving technology is unlikely to result in expanded production.The statistically strong negative correlation between percentage of yam harvest designated for sale and the probability of use of purchased seed yam is determined by the informal nature of the yam seed system. The observed statistically strong and negative relationship suggests that the more a farmer plants yam for sale the less he or she depends on purchased seed yam. The informal yam seed system, which though market driven does not deliver quality seed yam in sufficient quantities, compels commercial yam producers to depend on own produced rather than on purchased seed in their production enterprises.The analysis of the probability of use of mechanical or mechanized field-to-home transportation of yam failed to yield a statistically significant correlation with any of the specified variables in all the specified equations. Field-to-home transportation of yam and indeed all travel between residence and yam fields is one of the toughest tasks in the yam production activities; farm roads in general have received little if any attention in national food policy programs in both Nigeria and Ghana but more so in Ghana.Due to the statistically strong relationship of the probability of renting or purchasing farmland for yam production which is positive with field size and negative with distance to urban market, a proxy for population pressure and commercialization is expected; large-scale farmers who are more common in remote areas rent farmland more frequently than smaller farmers who are more common in periurban areas (Table 14). The relationships which suggest that large-scale farmers have needed to rent or purchase farmland to supplement family land suggest that limited availability of suitable farmland is becoming an increasing impediment for yam production expansion. The situation is exemplified in Ghana where farmers are pushing deeper into forest lands in search of suitable land for yam cultivation and in Nigeria where farmers are cultivating yam under short fallow in spite of the high pest and disease implications of yam production under intensive practices.To summarize, analyses of determinants of use of purchased inputs in yam production reveals three serious impediments to yam production expansion, namely, the increasing shortage and high cost of hired labor, a shortage of suitable land for yam production and poor farm roads. These impediments call for development and diffusion of labor-saving and pest and disease control technologies in yam production; the constraints also call for improvement in farm roads. Under the present expansion of employment opportunities for unskilled labor in urban centers yam production expansion will be hard to achieve without labor-saving technologies for at least some of the yam production tasks including seedbed preparation and weeding and without improvement in farm roads. Effective yam pest and diseases control technologies will permit yam production under intensive methods and reduce farmers' need to search for virgin land for cultivation of the crop. Yam production response to use of purchased inputs could be with respect to change in land area cultivated, or yield per unit land area, or both. Availability of labor for hire would have positive effects on both land area and yield per unit area, especially if the labor is hired for relevant operations such as seedbed preparation for land area expansion and weeding for increasing yield per unit area.Farmers could supplement family labor with hired labor to expand yam land area. Hired labor may also be used to ensure timeliness in carrying out critical farm operations such as weeding. Similarly, availability of seed yam for purchase will have a positive effect on yam land area expansion because farmers could supplement own produced with purchased seed yam. The effect of purchased seed yam on yield increase depends on the quality of purchased relative to own-produced seed yam.Availability of farm land for renting or for purchase would affect field area expansion positively as farmers would be able to acquire additional land for yam production. Its effect on yield per unit area would depend on whether or not farmers apply other purchased inputs on rented farmland. As a labor-saving practice, field-to-home transportation of yam by mechanical or mechanized vehicles would have a positive effect on yam farm land area expansion; its effect on yield per unit area would be indirect. Use of chemical fertilizers may not have a direct effect on land area expansion; it has been shown, however, that yield would respond to some chemical fertilizers, especially under poor soil conditions and when the fertilizer application is appropriate in terms of dosage and nutrient content.The farmer groups interviewed in the survey villages were asked what had been the trend (increasing, no change, or decreasing) in yam production. Yam production was reported to be decreasing in 22 of the 25 villages surveyed; because of the low variation in this information analysis of yam land area response to use of purchased inputs is based on field level data generated from 76 yam fields cultivated in the 2013 season by 75 farm households in 25 villages across the three agroecologies surveyed.The relationships between land area expansion and uses of the relevant purchased inputs are determined through econometric analysis with the OLS model across the 76 fields. The yam field area in ha is the dependent variable; there are three groups of independent variables namely purchased inputs, household, and market factors. Relevant purchased inputs are hired labor for seedbed preparation, purchased seed yam, mechanical or mechanized transportation, and rented or purchased farmland. Household variables are age, gender of the household head, and household size; and market factors are percentage of yam harvested designated for sale, distance of the village to nearest urban center, and frequency of village market. Distance to nearest urban center and frequencies of village market are proxies for population pressure and commercialization. These explanatory variables are fitted in separate equations and combined in one equation. Agroecology and country dummies are specified in each equation to remove their effects. The variables are defined in Table 15.The purchased input specification explained less than 2% of variation in field area (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0168); household specification, less than 10% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0731); market specification, less than 5% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0325); and combined variables specification, about 10% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.1102) (Table 16). Hired labor was significantly correlated with field area at 0.08% probability level in the purchased input equation and at 0.11% in the combined equation; the correlation coefficient is positive in both specifications. All other specified purchased input variables are statistically significant at more than 20% probability levels in both the purchased input and combined variables equations. The correlation coefficient of rented or purchased farmland is positive in both the purchased input and combined variables equations. Purchased seed yam is negatively correlated with field area in the purchased input equation and positively correlated with it in the combined variables equation.Mechanical or mechanized field-to-home transportation is negatively correlated to the field area in both the purchased input and combined variables equation.The low explanatory powers of the specified variables in each of the four equations underscore the position of the 22 out of 25 farmer groups surveyed who maintained that yam production was decreasing in their villages. Analysis of FAO data which reveals that from 1961 to 2006 the trend of per capita yam area harvested was flat in both Nigeria and Ghana confirms the position of the 22 farmer groups (Fig. 5). The flat trend of the area harvested helps explain the difficulty of finding explanations for low statistical significance of most of the specified explanatory variables. However, yam field size is clearly positively responsive to use of hired labor, especially for farmland clearing, seedbed preparation, and harvesting. Since no other purchased input is significantly correlated with field size, hired labor is the most important purchased input which enables farmers to expand their yam production operations. The high cost and scarcity of hired labor are an effective bottleneck in yam production which neutralizes the positive effects of other purchased inputs in yam field area expansion. The implication is that an alternative to hired labor is needed to expand the production of the crop.Among the purchased inputs used in yam production in Nigeria and Ghana which can influence yield are hired labor for specific field operations especially weeding, purchased seed yam, rented or purchased farmland, fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides. Fertilizer was applied in some surveyed fields in Nigeria but in none in Ghana while the frequencies of application of herbicides and pesticides were low or zero in both countries.The relationships between yam yield and uses of the relevant purchased inputs are determined through econometric analysis with the OLS model across the surveyed fields. Yield in tons per ha is the dependent variable; there are three groups of independent variables namely purchased inputs, In joint Nigeria and Ghana estimates, the purchased input variables specified explained less than 10% of variation in yield (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0720); agronomic practices, nearly 60% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.5819); market variables, less than 5% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.02066); and combined variables, close to 70% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.6855) (Table 17).In separate Nigeria estimates, the purchased input variables explained less than 10% of variation in yield (Adjusted R 2 = 0.0682); agronomic practices, about 50% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.5194); market variables, about 5% (Adjusted R 2 =0.0650); and combined variables, more than 60% (Adjusted R 2 = 0.6203) (Table 18).In the joint Nigeria and Ghana estimates, none of the purchased inputs specified is significantly correlated with yield either in the purchased input or in the combined variables equation at 10%probability level. The yam stand density (yam plant population) and staking are significantly correlated with the yield at high probability levels in both the agronomic and combined variables equations, the coefficient of yam stand density is positive but that of staking is negative also in both equations (Fig. 6).Among market variables, only percentage of yam harvest designated for sale is significantly correlated with yield but that is only in the market equation; the correlation coefficient is positive (Fig. 7). In separate Nigeria estimates, fertilizer use is significantly correlated with yield at about 5% probability level in the purchased input equation, the coefficient is positive. Yam stand density is significantly correlated with the yield at a high probability level in the agronomic practices and combined variables equations, the coefficients are positive in both equations. The coefficient of percentage of yam harvest designated for sale is significant at less than 10% in the market equation, the coefficient is positive.The statistics estimates for yam stand density, staking, and fertilizer application in the various equations highlight the strong positive effect improved agronomic practices could produce on yam yield. The negative sign of the coefficient of staking is environmentally determined; staking is less elaborate in derived savanna where yield is higher than in the southern Guinea savanna. Other important agronomic practices in terms of effect on yield include size of seed yam planted which is not specified because the survey was conducted at harvest and soil fertility level which was not assessed because of the limited objective of the survey. The survey was conducted to provide baseline information for impact assessment of ongoing R&D measures being implemented by IITA in collaboration with national and other international R&D agencies in West Africa. In future the impact of the R&D measures will be assessed by repeating the survey in the same soil environments.The unexpected statistics estimated for some key market variables such as hired weeding labor and rented or purchased farmland reflect a number of real data situations, especially low variability in the data. The situation is that either the input was used in a disproportionately large number of the fields as is the case with hired weeding labor or the input was used in equally disproportionately low percentage of the fields as is the case with rented or purchased farmland. The unexpected estimates for purchased seed yam are for a different reason, namely purchased seed yam is not necessarily superior to own-produced ones because as already explained, the informal seed yam system in West Africa though market driven does not deliver quality or sufficient seed yam in the market. But percentage of yam harvest designated for sale reveals proper and expected statistics to show that production for market indeed has positive effect on yam yield.Within the limits of data available, clearly yam production responds, in terms of yield and area expansion, to market factors including use of purchased inputs and hired labor in particular. For this reason, improvement in farmer access to the inputs which they purchase will help expand yam production. Most importantly, development and diffusion of labor-saving technologies, especially for seedbed preparation and weeding, is called for because of the increasing scarcity and wages of hired labor. But agronomic practices such as the yam stand density and staking where appropriate are more powerful determinants of the yield than market factors. This conclusion underlines the need for development of improved yam agronomic practices including changing the universal yam seedbed type, namely mounds to perhaps ridges in order to accommodate higher yam stand density.However, measures to accomplish this change should be preceded by agronomic studies aimed at understanding farmers' rationale for planting yam in mounds.The yam sales information is based on farmer estimates of how they planned to use yam in the field when harvested. To facilitate the estimation process, the information was solicited on a field-byfield basis. Each farmer was asked how many out of 10 portions of total yam in the field he or she planned to sell for each of his or her yam fields. This represents the yam planted purposely for sale and not surplus over consumption needs.The result shows that about 60% of yam harvested after discounting for seed was designated for sale, average for both Nigeria and Ghana. The farmers' estimates of the number of portions of yam they planned to sale varied from a minimum of about 30% in Nigeria to a maximum of 90% which was in Ghana. The mean was about equal in Nigeria, 58% and Ghana, 60% (Table 19). There was no field in the survey where a percentage of yam harvest was not designated for sale. The determinants of the proportion of yam harvest designated for sale is identified in a regression analysis, the procedure is as follows:The proportion of the yam per field planted for sale has an upper and lower limit of 100% and zero, respectively. The distribution of this variable shows that a substantial number of the fields (25%) assumed the lower limit of zero while a small number (4%) assumed the upper limit of 100. The Tobit model is an appropriate framework for identifying, in a regression analysis, the determinants of a variable so distributed (Akinola 1987;Greene 2003). The Tobit model (Tobin 1958)  The theoretical framework of the Tobit model can be explained by the threshold concept. The decision to sell may be characterized as a dichotomous choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives.This implies that there is a \"break point\" in the dimension of the explanatory variables below which a stimulus elicits no observable response. Only when the strength of the stimulus exceeds the threshold level does a reaction occur and the second decision on the proportion to sell is taken.Let Y denote a decision variable which is the dependent variable and X a vector of explanatory variables. Y takes on two values, Y = y* if the decision results in a sale, and Y = 0 if it results in home use. At values of X greater than the break point there is a probability of I for sale; the proportion sold, represented by y*, is continuous. At values of X below or equal to the break point, the probability of sale is zero and proportion sold is zero.The stochastic model of the analysis is as follows:N is the number of fields, Yi is the proportion sold variable, Xi is a vector of explanatory variables, i β is a vector of' unknown coefficients, T is the threshold point, and i β is an independently distributed error term assumed to be distributed N (0, σ 2 ).To interpret the dependent variable as the probability of making a choice, some notion of probability is used as the basis of the transformation. The process translates the values of the Xi into a probability which ranges in value from 0 to 1. For the transformation to maintain the property, increases in Xi are associated with increases (or decreases) in the dependent variable for all values of Xi, the standard cumulative normal distribution of β ' X is used. It is given by:Where: s is a random variable which is normally distributed with mean zero and unit variance.To estimate the parameter, β a maximum likelihood method is applied.To estimate the parameter \" β \" a maximum likelihood method is applied. In order to judge the appropriateness of the above specification, two alternative models are posited: the discrete choice (Probit) model and the continuous (OLS) model described earlier. For the discrete model, the proportion sold is assigned a value of one for all values above the break point..The unit of analyses is the individual field; a smallholder household which grows a staple crop in multiple fields is unlikely to sell the crop from all its fields in equal proportions. The proportion of the crop from a field sold may depend on whether the field is owned by a male or a female household member; women are more often responsible for food expenditure in the households (IFPRI 2008).The proportion of the crop from a field sold could also depend on the use of purchased inputs in the field. Higher proportions would be sold from fields cultivated with purchased inputs than from fields cultivated with inputs generated internally from the household.At the household level, the household size may influence the proportion of a crop sold. The characteristics of the household head such as level of formal education, age, and gender mayThe coefficients of purchased inputs specified in the field variable equation are significant at high probability levels, especially in the weeding hired labor equation; probability levels vary from 0 to 5%. No coefficient of the variables specified in the household equation is significant at less than 10% probability level. In the village level market equation, the coefficient of distance to urban markets is significant at 2% probability level.The coefficients of hired seedbed preparation and weeding labor are positive in their respective field level equations; the coefficients of percentage of seed yam purchased and rented or purchased farmland are negative in both the seedbed preparation and weeding hire labor equations. The coefficient of the ownership of yam in the field by male household members is negative in relation to joint, family-owned fields in both the seedbed preparation and weeding hired labor equations but the coefficient of female-owned fields is positive in relation to female-owned yam fields in the seedbed preparation equation but negative in the weeding hired labor equation. In both equations, the coefficient of female-owned yam fields is larger than that of male-owned fields. The coefficients of field size and yam yield per hectare are positive in both the seedbed preparation and weeding hired labor equations.In the household variables equation, the coefficient of male head of household is positive in relation to that of female household head. In the village level market equation, the coefficient of distance to urban market centers is positive while that of frequency of village market is negative.In the combined variables equations coefficients of more variables become significant at less than 10% probability levels, some are highly significant, especially in the weeding hired labor equation.For example, in the weeding hired labor equation, the coefficients of all the purchased inputs, namely weeding hired labor, percentage of seed yam purchased, rented or purchased farmland and fertilizer are significant at less than 10% probability levels. In addition, the coefficients of field size, yam yield per hectare, and age of household head are also significant at less than 10% probability levels. The coefficient of distance to urban market centers and frequency of village markets are not significant at 10% probability level.In the combined variables weeding hired labor equation, weeding hired labor is positively correlated with the probability of sale of yam while percentage of seed yam purchased, rented or purchased farmland and fertilizer are negatively correlated with the probability of the sale (Table 21). The coefficient of the field ownership by a male household member is higher than that of ownership by a female household member. The coefficients of field size and yield are positively correlated with the probability of sale of yam. The coefficient of distance to urban market centers is positive and that of frequency of village market is negative.The above statistical analyses provide clear evidence of a strong positive relationship between yam production for sale and production with purchased inputs; farmers who produce for sale purchase production inputs and obtain higher yields than farmers who produce more for home consumption (Fig. 8).This suggests that the more commercial yam producers are more efficient in terms of yield achieved, than non-commercial producers. Larger scale farmers produce proportionately more for sale than smaller farmers (Fig. 9).  Men produce proportionately more for sale than women and male-headed households produce proportionately more for sale than female-headed households. Farmers in villages further from urban market centers or in less populated zones produce proportionately more for sale than farmers in villages closer to urban market centers or those in more populated areas, although the difference is not statistically significant. Because of the requirement for virgin land, yam production is concentrated in areas remote from urban centers and in less densely populated zones. This working paper is presented in six sections; Section I is the introduction. Section II is a discussion of the contexts in which yam is produced in Nigeria and Ghana. Section III demonstrates that yam is widely produced with a range of purchased inputs such as hired labor, seed yam, and farm chemicals. Section IV shows that yam responds positively in terms of land area and yield to the application of the various purchased inputs. Section V estimates how much of the yam harvest the farmer designates for sale.Most yam is produced in villages remote from urban centers especially in Ghana with limited health, sanitation, educational, farm input, etc. facilities. Young men are among heads of yam producing households because of family traditional obligations or lack of exposure to urban employment opportunities. The mainline yam farmers have zero or little formal education. All these have negative implications for progress toward improvement of the yam food sector.Yam is produced with low technologies for labor saving, seed production, and yam pest and disease control. But among the most critical constraint to yam production in Ghana is shifting cultivation which exposes the farmers to unproductive and tortuous commutation between home and yam fields. Although some men are able to accomplish on-farm transportation through forest tracks by bicycles and motor bicycles, women commute on foot on daily bases with head loads of firewood and crops over the long-distant bush tracks. The practice of shifting cultivation which is rooted in the farmers' continuous search for fertile land, low yam pest and diseases incidence, and stake trees have negative implications for environmental degradation.In both Nigeria and Ghana, yam is grown on mound seedbeds which vary in size in Nigeria depending on soil depth. The near uniform size of yam mounds in all the surveyed villages in Ghana results in poor yam tuber shape in some areas where the soil is not deep enough. Making of the yam mounds is laborious and backbreaking. The difficulty of finding sufficient seasonal migrant hired labor for yam mound making is one of the biggest constraints to yam production expansion in both Nigeria and Ghana. Other critical constraints are the yam pest and diseases problems and high cost, scarcity, and low quality of seed yam.Yam is widely produced with purchased inputs, especially seed yam and hired labor; chemical fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticides are used but not commonly. As much as 60% of yam harvested after discounting for seed yam is sold and 40% is consumed at home. These observations constitute indisputable evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in West Africa.Numerous differences in yam production practices between Nigeria and Ghana suggest that the potential for improvement in yam production through information exchange between the two countries is high. Such information could be generated through comparative analyses of differences in yam production practices between the two countries and disseminated through farmer-to-farmer extension methods by exchange visits by yam producers between the two countries.Yam is widely produced with a range of purchased inputs depending on need of the farmer to supplement family supplies, on farmer access to the inputs, and on the farmer's assessment of the value of the purchased input in yam production. Among inputs purchased by the yam producers, the frequency of use of purchased or rented farmland is the lowest; the reason is that farmers' need to supplement family supplies is low because, compared with other inputs farmland is widely available from family sources. Most of the farmers use less purchased than own-produced seed yam because purchased seed yam is not necessarily superior in quality than own-produced ones and seed yam is not always available in the market in sufficient quantities.Hired labor is the most frequently used purchased input in yam production among the farmers surveyed because family supplies are too low compared with need. In addition, hired labor, though expensive, is available locally; the survey reveals that the hired labor of the surveyed villages was 45% from within their areas and 55% from outside their areas. But even the hired labor that come from outside the community are also accessible locally because they come as seasonal migrants and reside in the area through the crop season.The extensive use of purchased inputs which are in short supply from family sources and which are accessible to the farmers is convincing evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in West Africa. This conclusion is based on the fact that farmers invest cash in the production of commodities which are expected to yield cash in return.Analyses of determinants of use of purchased inputs in yam production reveals three serious impediments to yam production expansion, namely, the increasing shortage and high cost of hired labor, shortage of suitable land for yam production, and poor farm roads. These impediments call for development and diffusion of labor-saving and pest and diseases control technologies in yam production; the impediments also call for improvement in farm roads. Under the present expansion of employment opportunities for unskilled labor in urban centers yam production expansion will be hard to achieve without labor-saving technologies for at least some of the yam production tasks including seedbed preparation and weeding, and without improvement in farm roads. Effective yam pest and diseases control technologies will permit yam production under intensive methods and reduce farmers' need to search for virgin lands for cultivation of the crop.Clearly yam production responds, in terms of yield and area expansion, to market factors including use of purchased inputs. For this reason, improvement in farmer access to the inputs which they purchase will help expand yam production. Most importantly, development and diffusion of labor-saving technologies, especially for seedbed preparation and weeding, is called for because of the increasing scarcity and wages of hired labor. Agronomic practices such as the yam stand density are as powerful determinants of yam yields as market factors. This conclusion underlines the need for development of improved yam agronomic practices including changing the universal yam seedbed type, namely mounds to perhaps ridges in order to accommodate higher yam stand density. Measures to accomplish this change should be preceded by agronomic studies aimed at understanding farmers' rationale for planting yam in mounds.","tokenCount":"12622"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"99bdf5bc1a5ef3b224f24944348ccc10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47abb9e9-5a58-4777-88f3-3da4e39e040a/retrieve","id":"-1996783818"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"41a2d0fd-abf4-4298-a7f1-d9ecc0fc2ce3","pagecount":"19","content":"Fiqur. l. niqración reqional de la población ganadera (l 9:i1'l-1 991'1 )1' 1 I , ,', ;\";.\".¡ V j I .. -: ..Es evidente que los suelos planos y generalmente fértiles de Colombia se están utilizando cada vel más en agricultura tecnificada y en ganaderia intensiva. sistemQ$ de producción éstos, que estan desolazando a l~ agricultura artesanal y a la ganadería semi-intensiva y extensiva hacia las áreas planas cuyos suelos tienen limítantes auímicos actuales oara los cultivos tradicionales, hdcia las laderas de suelas ácidos en las cordilleras y hacia las sabanas de la OrínoQuia y selvas del Pacifico y la Amalonia~ denominadas éstas últimas actualmente como zonas de frontera agropecuaria del pais (Figura l).Degradación del Suelo la Dérdid~ gradual de la capacidad productiva del suelo ha sido ocasionada por la erosión de la capa orgánica superficial a consecuencia de la tala indiscriminada del bosque nativo y del uso irracional del recurso suelo .. Total O,isole5 Ulti501es Total 0,isole5 Ultisol\"s La DOblación bovina de Colombia se estimó pa'. 1989 en 22.7 millones de cabezas (Arias et al., 1990). Esto permite calcular una carga global de @.57 animales/ha de pradera existente.El Sobrepastoreo en Areas de Ladera Vurante la éooca de lluvias l. alta carga animal en las praderas hace que los animales~ al resbalar durante @l pastoreo, arranquen porciones del suelo causando l~ denominada erosión laminar, formándose calvas que luego se hacen más hondas por efecto del agua de escorrentia formAndose entonces cArcabas donde no crece ninguna planta (Kelley, 1983). En el Piedemonte Amazónico del Caquetá~ en la región de mesones (colinas suaves) con un promedio de oreclpltación anual de 3500 mm, Navas (1982) midió durante 32 meses las cérdidas de suelo, en tonelad.s de suelo seco por hectárea bajo diferentes cultivos, intensidades de labranza y pendientes. Estas pérdidas se relacionan en el Cuadro 3.Los datos del Cuadro 3 permiten concluir Que ¡as pérdidas de suelo por erosión hidrica son mayor@$ en praderas de l~dera establecid~s con pastos de crecimiento erecto como el Micay. cuando se comparan con pastos de crecimiento rastrero ° cespitoso y mejor adaptados a las condiciones de suelos ~cidos, con alta saturación de aluminio y de baja fertilidad naturales (Ultisoles en este casol, que protegen el suelo en igual forma que el bosque, como l. gran mayoría de las Braeniarias Que se utilizan actualmente en Colombia entre @ y 1S88 metros de altura sobre el nivel del mar, con excepción del Para el sistema de cero labranza se deben utilizar herbicidas posemergentes no residuales y de baja toxicidad, Que pueden ser aplicados de mdnera total o parcial (franjas o surcos}w la aplicación del herbicida se debe hacer después del pastoreo del lote o después de que éste haya sido rozado o quemado y haya rebrotado, de tal manera que la veQetación que se v. a destruir se encuentre en estado tierno y crecímiento activo.Estos herbicidas destruyen l. vegetación existente propiciando la formación de conductos en el suelo (previamente ocupados por las raíces), haciéndolo así más mullido y apto para l. siembra de las especies deseadas (Botero, 1989).En el sistema de cero labranza el suelo queda protegido contra ¡.erosión hídrlca y eólica por l. hojarazca de la vegetación anterior mientras se establece la nueva vegetación, na se estimula la invasión de malez~s pues no hay remoción de las semillas de m~lezas existentes ~n el suelo y se reduce el costo de la labranla.Como inconvenientes oresenta la menor mineralización de los nutrimentos disponibles en el suelo y l. posible contaminación de aguas y toxicidad en hum~nos y anim~les~ ante una incorrecta utilización y falta de medidas de prevención en la aplicación del her~icida.En este CdSO se podría utilizar un herbicida sistémico y no selectivo elaborado a base de glifosato, aplicado a l. dosis de 700 g/ha de ingrediente activo, equivalentes a 2 litros/ha del producto comercial Roundup disuelto en 400 litros de aqua por hectárea (100 ce de Roundup por bomba de espalda de 20 litros de capacidad). L. adición de 2ee 9 de Úrea por bomba de 20 litros .u~enta la efectividad y rapide, de acción de este herbicida.Se Siembra y ~aneio de Praderas de Especies Adaptadas La causa inicial de la degradación de las praderas tropicales se debe a la falta de adaptación de las especies sembradas y la causa final a la deficiencia de nutrimentos como el nitrógeno principalmente. la cual se agrava por el manejo inapropiado.La gran mayoría de los suelos tropicales son deficientes en fósforo, Que es el elemento mineral más necesario oara lograr el buen establecimiento de una pradera. Se recomienda por lo tanto la aplicación de 20 kg/ha de fósforo al momento de la siembra de la pradera. Esto equivale a la aplicación de 200 kg/ha de roca fosfórica o fosforita, en los suelos con un pH menor de 5.S. índice de acidez que se presenta en la gran mayoría de nuestros suelos de ladera~ Para evitar la deficiencia de nitrógeno se deben estimular y conservar las leguminosas nativas y/o sembrar leguminosas introducidas. Las leguminosas fijan nitrógeno del aire mediante simbiosis en la raíz con bacterias del género Rhizobium, el cual es transferido a la gramínea asociada en la pradera.Las leguminosas además poseen un forraje de alto valor nutritivo, su enraizamiento leñoso y profundo les permite extraer agua y nutrimentos de capas más profundas en el suelo produciendo forraje aún durante la sequía y reciclando nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio sobre la superficie del suelo a través de su defoliación y del mayor contenido mineral de las heces y orina de los animales que consumen su forraje (Spain y Salinas, 19SQ). Esto permite una mayor y más estable producción de forraje en las gramíneas asociadas y hace que se pueda lograr una mayor producción por animal y por unidad de área.Para evitar la destrucción de las gramíneas y leguminosas nativas e introducidas, en las praderas en áreas de ladera se debe hacer un control cultural de malezas evitando el sobrepastoreo, reduciendo la carga animal ante mayor declive del área, haciendo un pastoreo rotacional que oermita la ~ecuDe~ación~ desarrollo. producción ocasional de semilla de las especies forrajeras y distribuyendo los saladeros. bebederos y puertas de acceso de manera Que se obligue a los animales a recorrer todo el potrero para hacer un pastoreo más uniforme (Lote~o. 1984).Se debe evitar el control de malezas mediante el arranque de raíz o el azadón. realizando éste en caso de control manual mediante el corte a ras de suelo con machete.El control químico de malezas debe hacerse localizado con Roundup, oTordón~ etc. o con herbicidas a base de 2~ 4-D amina Que no destruye la mayoría de las leguminosas nativas. En este caso se puede aplicar, de manera uniforme, 1.4 lt/ha del ingrediente activo, equivalentes a 3 lt/ha d~l h~ebicida comeecial Anikilamina q disueltos en 200 lt de agua poe hectáeea (300 cc poe bomba d~ ~spalda de 20 liteos de capacidad) y agregándole un adherente a la dosis recomendada por la casa comercial.Debido a Que el suelo suelto de los hormigueros es altamente susceptible a la erosión, se debe realizar un control frecuente de hormigas con cebos apropiados.\"ezcla de Gramineas para Utilización más Rápida de la PraderaEl establecimiento de peadeeas en áeeas de ladeea pu~de demoeaese hasta 12 meses, si se cuenta con lluvias abundantes y frecuentes y con una buena cobertura de las especies sembradas (mínimo dos plantas por metro cuadeado o una densidad de si~mbra de 0.7 x 0.7m ~n cuadeo). La fertilización localizada con roca fosfórica (10 9 o una cucharada sopera por sitio de siembra) puede reducir el tiempo de establecimiento a nueve meses.Si se desea reducir a unos seis meses el periodo de establecimiento se pueden mezclar los pastos macollados tradicionales (Puntero, Micay, Gordura, etc.) o las Braquiarias macolladas y de rápido crecimiento como el La fertilización anterior puede ser reemplaz~da por la aplicación uniforme d& 1 ton/ha de gallinaza o de excretas secas de aves. Este abono orgánico puede ser regado también en franjas en contra de la pendiente del lote, para que sea repartido uniformemente por el agua lluvia.En suelos planos o en laderas mecanizables la fertilización de mantenimiento se puede acompaña~ de la remoción del suelo compactado mediante la utilización de un pase con el arado de cincelo de bueyes aplicado e~ contra de l~ pendiente del lote.La fertilización y labranza de renovación se debe ~compañar del descanso de la pradera durante un tiempo minimo de 90 dias.[tililación de Legu.inosas COlO Cobertura en Cultivos PerennesEn cultivos perennes como café, cacao, palma africana, caucho, frutales, ","tokenCount":"1414"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab01a62611dc06d61f591e61c539afd2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cced6466-1899-407d-9ce7-8f786bea876e/retrieve","id":"-1020448329"},"keywords":["cyst biology","cyst DNA","cyst heritability","East Africa","nematode egg size","potato"],"sieverID":"3972f56b-9621-48cb-93eb-46a8949811be","pagecount":"7","content":"Potato production in East Africa is seriously impacted by the potato cyst nematode (PCN), Globodera rostochiensis, where it has been recorded in at least three countries. In Kenya, it is widespread in all major potato-growing regions, often at very high densities. Consecutive cropping of potato on the same land and a sub-tropical climate have influenced PCN biology. For example, unusually large cysts have been regularly recovered. We have analysed the biological properties of these 'giant cysts'. The giant cysts contained more eggs than those recovered from UK fields. Egg size did not differ from UK populations and there was no difference in overall lipid content or lipid profile in J2 from giant cysts, compared to control samples. The nematodes in giant cysts were also genetically indistinguishable from any other G. rostochiensis sampled. When grown under UK glasshouse conditions, the offspring of nematodes from giant cysts were no different in size from those grown from control cysts, indicating that gigantism is not a heritable trait and may simply reflect favourable conditions for PCN under Kenyan farming systems. To date, all the PCN tested from Kenya, including those from giant cysts, are avirulent on potato cultivars containing the H1 resistance gene.Potato cyst nematodes (PCN) originate from South America, where they co-evolved with their solanaceous hosts. PCN were imported to Europe in the mid-1800s (Evans et al., 1975), which then served as a secondary site of introduction to most potato-growing areas of the world. They are classified as quarantine pests in many regions and are amongst the most economically important pathogens of potatoes globally. Genetic studies of global PCN populations indicate that a relatively limited number of introductions of PCN into Europe have occurred (Blok et al., 1997;Hockland et al., 2012) and that distribution of PCN-contaminated seed from Europe has resulted in a further global spread of PCN (Hockland et al., 2012). In spite of extensive phytosanitary regulations and implementation of preventative measures, new infestations of PCN continue to be reported across the world. This includes the recent detection of one species of PCN, Globodera rostochiensis, from East Africa, in Kenya (Mwangi et al., 2015), Rwanda (Niragire et al., 2019) and Uganda (Cortada et al., 2020). Although G. pallida was also identified in Kenya (Mburu et al., 2018), detailed surveys found that this species is not widespread (Mburu et al., 2020).Cropping systems in East Africa are markedly different to those in Europe. In Kenya, there is no seasonal winter under the sub-tropical climatic conditions. Many growers will plant two crops each year in conjunction with the rainy seasons, while continuous year-round cropping is possible where irrigation is available (Mburu et al., 2020). Crop rotation is poorly practised, and potato will often be planted repeatedly in the same fields in the key potatogrowing areas, where smallholder farmers dominate. The most popular cultivar in Kenya, 'Shangi', grown by over 75% of smallholder farmers has no natural resistance to PCN. Consequently, extremely high populations of G. rostochiensis (up to 158 eggs (g soil) −1 ) have developed in fields across many potato-growing areas in Kenya and are responsible for extensive yield losses (Mburu et al., 2020). In the absence of harsh winters, some Kenyan populations of PCN have lost their need for the overwintering diapause (Mwangi et al., 2021) that is necessary for survival in Europe. Moreover, anecdotal reports have indicated extremely large G. rostochiensis cysts originating from Kenyan fields (Kim Davie, SASA, pers. comm.). In order to determine the basis for such reports, we conducted a study of Kenyan G. rostochiensis cysts to characterise the biological properties of these 'giant' cysts. Such information is required to understand the biology of new geographic populations, towards developing informed PCN management strategies for the region.Cysts were collected from three Kenyan field sites (Chairman, Kipipiri and Statehouse 0°40 57.792 S, 36°36 22.283 E; 0°18 54.068 N, 36°28 59.808 E; 0°39 02.2 S, 36°38 08.7 E, respectively) and compared with standard Scottish field population cysts collected from a heavily infested field in Angus (56°42 26.6 N 2°50 11.9 W). Extraction of cysts from soil was undertaken using standard flotation procedures and cysts were stored at 4°C until use. Eggs were extracted from cysts by dissection for further analysis. In order to obtain secondstage infective juvenile stage (J2) nematodes, cysts were immersed in tomato root diffusate (TRD) and J2 collected within 2 days of hatching (Price et al., 2023). Cysts, eggs and J2 were imaged using an OMAX A35180U3 microscope camera (AmScope) and their area quantified using ImageJ. A minimum of 100 cysts from each site were used for this analysis.Oil Red O lipid staining and quantification was used to compare lipid content of juveniles from giant cysts with those from small cysts and from Scottish populations. The staining protocol described by Wang & Ching (2021) was used for this but modifications for use with PCN were made. Cysts and eggs were crushed to release J2 using a tissue homogeniser. The J2 were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline overnight. Stained J2 were imaged using an OMAX A35180U3 microscope camera and staining was quantified in ImageJ. A minimum of 40 J2 were analysed in this way from each population. Total lipid extractions, made using the Bligh-Dyer technique (Bligh & Dyer, 1959) while vortexing overnight with glass beads, were dried under N 2 gas before adding 1.5 ml methanol, 0.2 ml toluene and 0.3 ml of 8% HCl in methanol:water (85:15) and then incubating overnight at 65°C to prepare fatty acid methyl-esters (FAMEs) for comparative analysis.DNA was extracted from at least five single cysts from each of the populations being studied. For this, individual cysts were crushed in a plastic pestle in a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube in 30 μl PCR Buffer. After a brief centrifugation to pellet debris, the supernatant was transferred to a fresh tube and heated to 95°C for 15 min before being cooled on ice. Proteinase K (Roche) (3 μg) was added to each sample, which was then incubated at 65°C for 2 h, followed by incubation at 95°C for 15 min. Samples were stored at −20°C until use. Diagnostic regions of the CytB and ITS regions were amplified using Phusion proof-reading polymerase (Thermo Fisher Scientific) with the primer pairs CytB_F (5 -GAAAAATTTTGGTAAT-3 ) with CytB_R (5 -ATCATTTAACCCCTTTTTAG-3 ) and ITS_F (5 -CGTAACAAGGTAGCTGTAG-3 ) with ITS_R (5 -AGCGCAGACATGCCGCAA-3 ). The presence of a single PCR product of the anticipated size was checked by agarose gel electrophoresis and PCR amplicons were cleaned by adding 2 μl of ExoSAP-IT (Thermo Fisher), incubating at 37°C for 15 min, followed by 15 min at 80°C to inactivate the enzyme. Products were sequenced in both directions on an ABI 377 sequencer at The James Hutton Institute sequencing facility using the primers indicated above.The heritability of the giant cyst phenotype was assessed by inoculating each population on susceptible 'Desiree') plants under standard conditions. For this, potato tuber plugs bearing a chit were planted in deep root trainers (Haxnicks) filled with sterile sand/loam mix (50/50) into which approximately 15-20 cysts had previously been mixed. Plants were grown at 20°C under 16 h light/8 h dark conditions in a glasshouse for 10 weeks. Four replicates for each population were carried out and at least 40 of the resulting cysts that developed were extracted and measured as described above. In addition, virulence against the H1 gene was assessed for each Kenyan population by assessing infection of the resistant 'Maris Piper' as described above.All box plots were created using the open source BoxPlotR webtool (Spitzer et al., 2014) (available at: http://shiny.chemgrid.org/boxplotr/). Analysis of variance was used to identify variance between multiple populations followed by t-tests to confirm significant differences between two population.Cysts present in Kenyan field samples showed a wide range of sizes and included cysts with a mean area of over 0.3 mm 2 , which are referred to as giant cysts (Fig. 1A, B). Giant cysts were present in each of the three farms sampled (Chairman, Kipipiri and Statehouse). Analysis of the size distribution of the cysts showed significant differences between the size of giant and smaller cysts from each of the Kenyan farms and that these were all significantly different from cysts collected from the Scottish site (Fig. 1C) (t-test, P < 0.01). Notably, the 'small' cysts from Kenyan samples were significantly (P < 0.01) larger than those from Scottish fields. The number of eggs present in giant and small cysts from each site were compared. At each site giant cysts contained more eggs than small cysts although these differences were not always statistically significant (Fig. 2A). There was no difference in the size of the eggs from giant, small or Scottish cysts (Fig 2B). The J2 from giant cysts were slightly larger than those from smaller cysts but these differences were not statistically significant (Fig. 2C). Oil red O staining was used to measure the lipid content in J2 (Fig. 3A). The area of each stained J2 was then measured as a proxy for total lipid content. No significant differences between the lipid contents of J2 from Kenyan giant or small cysts or from the Scottish field population were observed (Fig. 3B) (ANOVA; F < F critical ).GC-MS traces of fatty acid methyl-esters (FAMEs) extracted from each of the samples showed standard lipid abundance for PCN with large peaks for C18:1, C18:0, C20:1 and C20:0 and reduced C20:4. These data were similar to previous data for this species collected before exposure to hatching factors (Holz et al., 1998). There were no obvious differences in fatty acids between giant Fig. 2. Analysis of egg number (A), egg size (B) and J2 size (C) from giant and smaller cysts of Globodera rostochiensis from Kenyan field sites. Significantly greater numbers of eggs were present in giant cysts but there were no significant differences in size of eggs or second-stage juveniles (J2) from small and giant cysts. and small cysts (Fig. 3C, D), with the same fatty acid species present in similar abundances.Analysis of ITS and cytB sequences showed minimal differences (<2 bp) between giant and small cysts from Kenya or between Kenyan and Scottish samples (Suppl. Table S1 at 10.6084/m9.figshare.25965775). No structuring suggesting any genetic differentiation between the giant and small Kenyan PCN was observed.When raised on susceptible plants in the glasshouse, the second generation of Kenyan G. rostochiensis from both small and giant cysts all developed to a similar size (Fig. 4). Notably, none of the second generation cysts that developed from giant cysts reached sizes similar to their maternal cysts. These data indicate that gigantism is not a heritable trait. None of the G. rostochiensis populations, whether giant or small Kenyan cysts, were able to reproduce on plants containing the H1 resistance gene.Our study has established that under the sub-tropical climatic conditions in East Africa, G. rostochiensis naturally produces 'giant' cysts. Their mean fecundity and area are much larger than the Scottish comparatives used in the current study. Giant cysts were present at all three sites sampled in Kenya. Previous analysis of G. rostochiensis has shown that considerable variation exists in cyst size; Golden & Ellington (1972) reported cyst radii ranging from 125 μm to 405 μm, representing cyst areas from 0.05 mm 2 to 0.52 mm 2, with an average of 0.23 mm 2 . While the majority of cysts measured for the present study fell within this range, there were numerous cysts from Kenyan fields that were larger than this. However, few biological differences were observed in the eggs or J2 from small or giant cysts, or indeed between Kenyan or Scottish populations. Eggs and J2 are similar in size, irrespective of whether they are derived from small or giant cysts, with no differences in total lipid content or lipid profile recorded. No genetic differentiation was discernible between small and giant cysts and infection studies showed that gigantism was not a heritable trait. All of these data suggest that giant cyst development in Kenya is due to the favourable environmental and agricultural conditions present. It is also likely that G. rostochiensis is thriving on the dominant cultivar used Fig. 3. Lipid analysis of second-stage juveniles (J2) from giant and small cysts of Globodera rostochiensis. A: lipids stained with oil red O in J2 from giant (top) and small (bottom) cysts; B: Comparison of stained lipid area vs total body area between different populations. Centre lines show the medians; box limits indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles as determined by R software (available at: http://shiny.chemgrid.org/boxplotr/); whiskers extend 1.5 times the interquartile range from the 25th and 75th percentiles, outliers are represented by dots. There was no significant difference between the quantity of stained lipids in juveniles from giant and small cysts. FAME analysis (GC-MS) shows there was no substantial diversity in fatty acid species in cysts from giant (C) or small (D) populations. Reduced FAME abundance in smaller cysts likely reflects a smaller number of eggs/J2 in these cysts as shown in Figure 2C. FAMEs identified did not differ from fatty acid species extracted from Scottish cysts. by growers in the region, 'Shangi'. Although the genetic provenance of 'Shangi' is unclear, it is most likely a cultivar produced by The International Potato Centre (CIP) that was shared by growers after performing well in initial field trials (Thiele et al., 2021). The properties of 'Shangi' indicate that it likely has Solanum phureja in its genetic pedigree. 'Shangi' is a quick maturing variety with almost no dormancy that cooks extremely quickly and is highly favoured by farmers for these properties. In addition, tubers have a golden colour, suggesting high levels of carotenoids. It has been shown that transgenic potato lines in which the gene encoding carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (CCD4) was silenced by RNAi accumulated high levels of carotenoids (Campbell et al., 2010) and that significantly higher numbers of PCN developed on these lines compared to a control (Mei, 2015). 'Shangi' may therefore be an extremely favourable host for PCN.Population studies of PCN have shown that the number of eggs produced per unit of haulm is negatively correlated with initial population density (Seinhorst, 1986, Fig. 4. Size comparison of the second generation of cysts of Globodera rostochiensis developing from small or giant cysts grown under controlled glasshouse conditions. Centre lines show the medians; box limits indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles as determined by R software (available at http:// shiny.chemgrid.org/boxplotr/); whiskers extend 1.5 times the interquartile range from the 25th and 75th percentiles, outliers are represented by dots. There were no significant differences between second-generation cysts. 1993). However, while field densities are extremely high in Kenya, including at the sites sampled in the current study, this has not affected or prevented the development of giant cysts. It is likely that the conditions present in Kenya are currently strongly favourable for G. rostochiensis and that this nematode has adapted its biology to exploit these conditions, including through the production of giant cysts that contain substantial numbers of eggs.Although G. pallida has been described in Kenya (Mburu et al., 2018), it was from a single site and despite a substantial nationwide survey it has not been further detected (Mburu et al., 2020). Several studies have shown that G. rostochiensis is better adapted to higher temperatures than G. pallida (e.g., Robinson et al., 1987;Kaczmarek et al., 2014;Jones et al., 2017). Conditions in Kenya may therefore be more favourable for G. rostochiensis than for G. pallida. In addition, it has been shown that facultative diapause (as opposed to an obligate diapause) is more readily induced in G. rostochiensis than in G. pallida (e.g., Salazar & Ritter, 1993). It is therefore possible that the ability to avoid diapause in G. rostochiensis has enabled it to exploit more readily the favourable conditions present in Kenya and outcompete G. pallida.Effective tools for management of PCN throughout East Africa are urgently required. The deployment of plant host resistance against G. rostochiensis will form a critical component of any management strategy. Numerous cultivars are available in the region that contain the H1 gene and such cultivars can provide effective control of the nematode. However, this resistance needs to be available in cultivars that contain the other traits preferred by growers if it is to be accepted and adopted and used as a management tool. Current cropping systems coupled with the adaptations shown by G. rostochiensis in the region, including the ability to produce extremely fecund giant cysts, mean that the levels of the nematode present in the region are likely to continue to increase and cause extensive yield losses.","tokenCount":"2746"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"da4f96f9ffe33f5766f60572614f923e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c9371229-9b7c-4120-934c-d8394ec605bc/retrieve","id":"-1699510148"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"20b12844-aff2-4947-86bb-3041c0968f5b","pagecount":"86","content":"In this thesis work, my earnest gratitude goes to my advisors Prof.Zerihun Woldu, Dr. Don Peden, Dr. Girma Taddesse and Dr. Tilahun Amede. Their guidance, valuable comments and encouragement throughout the research were substantial. I am very much indebted to their financial support, field assistance and provision of research facilities.I have sincere appreciation to the ILRI family: Ato Solomon G/selasie, Ato Teferi Abegaz, Ato Yasin Getahun, Ato Taye Gidyelew, Ato Zerihun Tadesse, W/o Genet Delelegn, Dr. Amare Haileslasie, Ato Mesfin Eshetu, Ato Kebede Aydefer and many others for their formal and informal individual contributions in their ideas, technical and various efforts for the success of this research. I would like to express my thanks to Ato Getachew Kebede, Ato Yetmgeta Shiferaw, Ato Tola Robi, Ato Seyum Lakew and Ato Zewdie Eshete for their maximum cooperation in all field works.All my family members and many friends around me had also seen and unseen contributions to realize this research.AAU graduate studies, ILRI, Adama Meteorology Branch, Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Laboratory Service-Water Quality Section, Wuchale Wereda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, and others that did not mentioned here had direct contribution and should be warmly acknowledged.Thank you all.        Livestock interact with the environment directly or indirectly in the process of their production. The interaction with the water resources is also direct or indirect and can be positive or negative depending on the system of production. In the study area of this work, the mixed croplivestock production is the main type of livestock production by smallhoder subsistence farmers where cattle are reared for dairying.The study was done as a case study of two selected PA's of the   Small streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, springs, and wells are common sources of drinking water for ruminants (McDowell, 1985). They also take water in their feed of varying type and moisture content. The following describes what the livestock water productivity means.Water use efficiency is the ratio of an output to an input. For example, irrigation efficiency can be defined as the ratio of irrigated crop production to amount of irrigated water supplied to the irrigated crop (David et al., 2003). Water productivity is defined in physical terms or monetary terms as the ratio of the product (usually in kg) over the amount of beneficial depletion to multiple uses of water, including the non-agricultural sector, including the environment. Irrigated water is not depleted whereas evapotranspiration is depleted form of water (Kijne, 2003).Livestock water productivity is about accounting for water consumption of livestock as a ratio of output functions; milk, meat, dung, drought and threshing (ILRI, 2005). It is part of overall productivity of water for food production and is the scale dependent efficiency of direct and indirect use of water for provision of livestock products and services.There are two aspects of livestock water productivity: the livestock impact on water resources and the livestock water use for production (ILRI, 2005). Water productivity can be estimated by (Peden et al., 2002):∑ Depleted water for the livestock From this, the dairy cattle water productivity can be derived as:∑ Net beneficial outputs of dairy cattle ∑ Depleted water for the dairy cattle Strategies to improve dairy cattle water productivity (Fig. 1) include effectively distributing drinking water, reducing stocking rates, enhancing animal productivity, and encouraging zero grazing. Opportunities exist to increase dairy production and sustain environmental health by increasing livestock-water productivity.Nile River Basin supports more than 200 million lives in its riparian countries where most of them are found in poverty. The current available data for the dairy cattle water productivity in the area is almost scant. There has been a limited research information and scientific knowledge base regarding the dairy cattle water interaction which will be helpful in optimizing benefits and improve livelihood. The improvement of the knowledge base on livestock water productivity in the basin will compliment the future pressure on water use for the production of more food.Wuchale wereda is found in the Nile River Basin and the people in this area lead a very subsistence livelihood. There are two major tributary rivers of the Nile River: the Jema and the Muger rivers. The agricultural productions system in the area is mixed-crop livestock system where cattle are reared mainly for dairy, drought and threshing purposes.There is a great need to understand dairy cattle-water interactions for improving dairy cattle water productivity. Mixed crop-livestock systems are important areas for dairy cattle and livestock interactions and Wuchale represents a somewhat representative case study. From this stance, here the main spotlight is to generate research information on dairy cattle production and its water productivity in Wuchale.The general objective is describing the dairy cattle water interaction and evaluating the dairy cattle water productivity of Wuchale wereda.The specific objectives are:1. to describe the dairy cattle water interactions in Wuchale wereda;2. to compute the dairy cattle water productivity for selected locations of the study area and;3. to suggest options for increasing the water productivity of the dairy cattle.Major limitations encountered through the progress of this study were:1. In estimating dairy cattle-water productivity, focus was made on high priority factors based on significance of contribution due to limited time and the impracticability of measuring some of them.2. The other aspect of dairy cattle water productivity, impacts on water resources by the dairy cattle, was not included in this study.3. Feed measurement would be more appropriate if it was done at each feed season throughout a year.4. Only major feeds of the dairy cattle obtained during the study were measured.Dairy cattle get their water from three sources: drinking water, water contained in feeds and metabolic water (Kijne, 2005). Water contained in feeds consumed (performed water) is highly variable from feed to feed according to the moisture content, which can range from as low as 5% in dry feeds to as high as 90% or more in succulent feeds (Zinash et al., 2002). Water derived from dry feeds may be insignificant compared with the total water intake, while that obtained from succulent feeds can supply all the water needs. When water content of the feed ingested is low, drinking water is the major source of water intake, and its provision for livestock becomes the main concern. Most of the water that is utilized by the animal's body is ingested either as drinking water or as a component of the feed.Assuming that one m 3 of transpired water would be used to generate 4 kg of dry feed; water for feed production amounts to 450m 3 /TLU/year, and water for drinking purpose is 9.1 m 3 /TLU/year (Sonder et al., 2005). Transpiration is not the only form of depleted water associated with feed production. Water evaporates from plant and soil surfaces six times more than transpiration, particularly in heavily grazed areas with little vegetative cover.Livestock keeping is one of the most important agricultural livelihood practiced in Africa and particularly so in water scarce arid and semiarid regions. Globally, livestock make up, on average, 45% of the agricultural contribution to GDP and more than half in some African countries (e.g., Sudan and Somalia). Not included in this indicator are the economic importance of livestock which are difficult to value roles such as the contribution of livestock to traction and transport that are essential for producing food crops and moving them to markets and consumers. While demand for food must grow by 50% over the next 20 years to sustain human population growth, the demand for livestock products is expected to double during the same period. This depends partly on progress in reducing poverty resulting in an increasing tendency of people to spend more non reusable income on animal products particularly in urban areas. This is a phenomenon now well underway in Asia and expected in Africa. Already, food production uses more than 70% of managed water in developing countries.Achieving a 50% increase in food production with the same amount of water is not possible without increasing water use efficiency. Because of the current importance and the higher rate of growth of livestock production, there is a great need to include livestock production into planning for water resource development. As countries become more industrialized, livestock can use up to half of all agricultural water (Girma Taddesse et al., 2005).Water requirements for production of animal feed may be as much as 100 times greater than that needed for drinking (Peden et al., 2005).Animals raised on irrigated forages require much more \"managed\" water than those raised on rainfed grazing land. Even in rainfed mixed farming, production of water demanding feed such as the rhizomatic and deep rooted forages and trees and shrubs may compete with farmers' ability to grow food crops. The challenge is to develop strategies of how, when and where to produce animal feed in order to minimize demand on irrigated water and to reduce competition with rainfed crop production (Alemayehu Mengistu, 2002). Increasing use of crop residues for animal feed and shifting feed sourcing to land unsuitable for rainfed crop production may be part of the solution. The trade-off between using irrigated water for forage production and food crops must be considered. Furthermore, strategic investments in watering points for livestock can help spread grazing pressure to areas where feed production does compete with human food production.Balanced and selected investment in water supply for livestock drinking may complement investment in water development for production of human food and animal feed.Water requirement refers to the total water needed for the animals to survive. This can be obtained through feed, voluntary drinking and metabolic generation. The metabolically generated water in the animal's body is very small compared to the other sources. Water intake depends on food intake, nature of the diet, physiological state of the animal and ambient temperature (Matthewan, 1993). The water requirement of domestic animals for example, varies among species, breeds or varieties within species and between individuals within breeds. For example, heavy western breed cows have a higher water intake (60 to 90 liters/day) than zebu cows ( Pasture is one form of feed in Wuchale wereda and one has to include this feed source in describing the water interaction of grazing animals.Pasture is normally the cheapest source of roughage for dairy cattle. Changes in milking times and management may be beneficial in allowing cows to graze during the early morning hours and later in the evening after the sun has gone down.The availability and quality of pasture forage consumed directly influence milk production. When forage availability decreases, the bite size of pasture forage decreases. Consequently, milk production decreases. Forage availability in pasture needs to be maintained to allow cows to milk to their genetic potential. Lactating dairy cows will have dry matter intakes of pasture between 1.5 percent and 3.0 percent of body weight depending on the availability of pasture, amount of supplemental concentrates provided, and milk production and stage of lactation of the cows. Holden et al. (1994)  -TDS is a general term defining the sum of all inorganic matter dissolved in water (David, 2005). High amounts of TDS generally are considered an unwanted characteristic.However, TDS per se may not provide much information about water quality or the specific individual constituents of concern. For example, the TDS concentration could be quite high, influenced mainly by high concentrations of calcium and magnesium, yet little or no influence on water nutrition or cattle performance would be expected (Tab. 2A).Table 2A: TDS concentrations and their effects on cattle performance.Less than 3000 Usually satisfactory for most livestock 3000-5000May no cause adverse effects to adults 5000-7000Should not be used for pregnant or lactating females.Do not use for pregnant or lactating ruminants   In Ethiopia, the sale of livestock and their products is often the major or only source of income. However, productivity per animal is very low, due to mainly poor nutrition. Grasses contribute a large portion of the feed but the quantities are limited and the nutritive value is low.Where pasture is the sole source of animal feed, its crude protein content should be above the critical level of about 70% DM and if herbage with protein content below the critical level is fed, the low voluntary intake and protein deficiencies contribute to reduced production and retarded growth of animals (MoWR, 2002).Livestock keeping contributes up to half of the agricultural GDP (e.g., Sudan and Ethiopia). In addition; livestock provide subsistence Wuchale wereda is located from 9.451 dd bottom to 9.765 dd top orNorth and from 38.737 dd left to 39.081 dd right or East. This wereda is one of the weredas of the North Showa Zone in Oromia region, which is very recently separated from a former wereda of Wuchale and Jida, its zonal head administration being situated in the Selalie Fiche.The main town and the first kebele of Wuchale wereda, Muke Turi is 78 kilometers away from Addis Ababa on the way to Gojam and there are a total of 24 remaining kebeles also preferably called peasant associations located within a maximum of 27 kms away from the main town. The total area coverage of the wereda is 48, 780 ha.As selected to be a study area of this thesis work, the area is found in the Nile River Basin and there are two major tributaries, Jema and Muger Rivers in the wereda.   person/km 2 . The average family size per household in the area was 6.9.The majorities of the local people of the wereda were involved in subsistence mixed crop livestock agriculture and collect income from the dairy outputs and crops. The peri urban and rural peasant associations show typical cattle holdings and market accesses for cattle products. Most of the milk is not commercialized at the rural peasant associations, but rather converted into butter and cheese products.Wuchale wereda is mainly dega with a 13% woinadega. Enough rainfall and temperature data was not found to draw the climate maps of Wuchale wereda but from the FAO's New LocClim 1.06, they were estimated from one station as displayed in figures 3 to 6.    In the wereda, around eight types of crops are dominantly cultivated, which all depend on rain (Tab. 4). Tab. 5 shows the dry matter and crude protein content of these crop residues.   Animals here are raised for direct products and services: milk, meat, hides, dung, drought power and transport and also as a hedge against hard times, a form of capital readily converted to cash.The major water sources in Wuchale wereda functioning as drinking sites for the cattle in the area are some wells, stagnant water bodies and rivers. Cattle access water sources at specified points (Fig. 7).Generally, all data of this work were collected using field was based mainly on the weight of different feeds and dairy cattle manure using spring balance. One hundred and twenty household questionnaire interviews were administered by four animal science graduates where they were given meticulous training on the questionnaire so that the execution of the work was prearranged.In the sampling procedure, stratified random sampling was used in the data collection. The wereda was stratified as Peri urban and rural peasant associations to examine typical dairy cattle productions including the dairy cattle water productivities in the two spatial categories. The randomly selected peri urban peasant association was Boseque Jate and the rural peasant association was Ingoye Gordoma which is located more than 15 kms from Muke Turi, main town of the wereda. The farthest peasant association from the main town was Ilu Etaya which was 27 km away.For the questionnaire survey, the number of sample households was determined using Cochran, 1977 equations as:n o = Z 2 pq, and d 2 n= n o 1+ n o -1 N Where, n o = the desired size when the population is greater than 10, 000 n= number of sample size when population is less than 10, 000. Z= 95% confidence limit, i.e. 1.96 P= 0.1 (proportion of the population to be included in the sample, i.e. 10%) q= 1-p, i.e. 0.9. N= Total number of population d= degree of accuracy desired (0.05)The reconnaissance of the area shows that the area is uniform in the aspect of this research interest except between the peri-urban and rural categories. The sample households selected were 60 households from one peri-urban peasant association and 60 households form one rural category. The two peasant associations are selected based on convenience to accomplish tasks. The households were randomly selected from list of the two peasant associations of the wereda (Fig. 8).KilometersThe water samples used for analyzing quality of water for cattle drinking were collected from four major water sources; i.e. three rivers and one stagnant and artificial big pond that serve for drinking of large number of cattle in the area. Water samples were collected with plastic Boseque Jate Ingoye Gordoma and light proof bottles and were brought to the lab after their two hours of collection.The mixed crop livestock agricultural production systems, also true in Wuchale wereda show an important livestock water interaction. The main factor here is feed from crop residue. This shows that the type of feed can characterize the cattle water interaction.Water requirement varies among animal species (ILRI, 2002). Again according to Dan et al. ( 2006), cattle at different physiolocal conditions would have different water requirement. This also shows that the type of cattle species can alter the interaction with water.In order to describe the dairy cattle water-interaction in the study area, four factors were determined. These were distribution of the dairy cattle by species type, major feeds of the dairy cattle, ratio of water intake in feed to voluntary water intake and quality of water for the dairy cattle.The quality of water use for the dairy cattle drinking, was analyzed in the laboratory in standard methods. To identify the major feed type supplied the dairy cattle throughout the year, the year was divided in to three feed seasons: dry, wet and harvest seasons. This is because at each of these seasons the dominant feeds available for the dairy cattle were different. The dry season ranges from February to June, the wet season ranges from July to September and the harvest season being from October to January.The quantities of the major daily feeds provided for the dairy cattle at the current season were determined from sample field measurements.For this purpose, four random sites in the wereda were selected. The interviewed farmers have provided the feed so that the feed would be arranged for weighing.The water productivity of the dairy cattle at household level of the two selected peasant associations was quantified using (Peden et al., 2002) as:Where: the significant dairy cattle outputs and services were identified as milk, butter, cheese, hides, manure, traction and threshing powers.The water actually depleted while producing these dairy cattle products and services is the water used for the production of hay and pasture. The water used for the other crop residue feeds would not be included as it is part of the crop water productivities (ILRI, 2005). The drinking water would not also be included since it would not be depleted from domain of interest area.Arc GIS was used to display the study area and the locations where interviewed households & field measurements were conducted and sample water collection were collected. The major Data used were Survey, feed measurement and laboratory test and these were entered in spreadsheet and followed statistical analysis using SPSS 12.0.Descriptive statistics was used to calculate mean, average, range and From the survey data of the two selected PA's, sixty households from each, the distribution of the cattle species was indicated as in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.    Many studies have demonstrated the amount of DM in the feed intake markedly affects water consumption of animals (McDowell, 1985). So, quantifying the feed in DM can be used to estimate the water consumption of dairy cattle. Here, the weight of major daily feeds of  the dairy cattle was measured to determine their daily feed quantities in the two PA's (Fig. 15).      There were a number of instances that people and the dairy cattle use the same water sources. In the survey, it was found that out of 120 households only 9 households from the peri urban and 17 households from the rural peasant associations had experienced use of a water source similar to their cattle. Regarding health problems, 10% of the peri urban and 20% of the rural households faced problems related to water. Each household, 10% from the peri urban and 15% from the rural had also their cattle sick because of water quality problem.Selected quality parameters were tested for water samples collected from the four major dairy cattle water drinking places in the two PA's (Fig. 17). The dairy cattle water productivity (DCWP) for the two peri urban and rural peasant associations of the wereda was calculated using: ∑ Dairy cattle Outputs and Services ∑ Depleted water for dairy cattleThe nominator in the equation incorporates the monetary values in USD of major dairy cattle products and services and the denominator is the volume of water depleted because of the production of the dairy cattle that bestow these products and services. The dairy cattle products considered in the productivity appraisal were milk, butter, cheese, hide and manure, whereas the dairy cattle services assumed take in threshing and drought power.There was a disparity in the production and utilization patterns of milk in the two peasant associations given that there was higher production of milk in the peri urban than in the rural area and most of the produced milk in the peri urban area was sold as fresh milk whereas it would be converted into butter and cheese in the rural area before selling because of dearth of market in the former. In monetary benefits, selling of milk as fresh would have a higher income than the milk products.Dung though produced in the two peasant associations without much difference in quantity, the price of dry dung cakes in the peri urban was 1.4 birr/kg whereas it was 0.8 birr/kg in the rural locations on average.Drought power was computed based on the fact that cattle provide traction power for 95% of grain production (Abiye Astatke et al., DCWP = 2001). The value of a single drought ox was the same in both areas, i.e. 1.15 USD or 10 birr on average as found from the survey.In the case of threshing service of the dairy cattle, the survey indicated that on average 10 heads of cattle were able to thresh 12 quintals of crop in a day (Fig. 19).  The depleted water for the dairy production was assumed to be the water used for the dairy cattle feed production. The water voluntarily drunk would not be depleted rather recycled in the system of the area of the study.The water depleted from the dairy cattle feeds to produce the crop residues was not included in the calculation. This is because it was already included in the crop water productivity. Therefore, only the water depleted by Hay and Natural pasture production was assumed as the useful water for the dairy cattle productivity estimation for the two PA's. The total pasture area for the hay production was 35.35 ha ad 35.8 ha in the peri urban and rural PA's respectively. The hay yields were 94,215 kg in the peri urban and 73,040 kg in the rural PA. These weights were obtained from the donkey load equivalents, where one donkey load 55 kg on average as determined in the survey. This is summarized in Tab. 16. Most of the livestock composition was dairy cattle in the two PA's which imply the presence of higher water demand. In the composition of breeds, more cross breed dairy cattle were found in the peri-urban PA (Boseque Jate). This has a positive feedback to water demand in the peri-urban area.There were a total of 1,087. Pearson's coefficient of correlation was determined to find the correlation between the percentage of cross bred milking cows and the milk production per cow in a household. The analysis of variance for linear regression indicated that there was a linear relationship between the two variables (Tab. 20). The hypotheses to be tested were:percentage of cross bred milking cows and household milk production were not linearly related.H A : percentage of cross bred milking cows and household milk production were linearly related.As F cal was greater than F α , H 0 where α=0.05, was rejected and H A was then accepted indicating that the percentage of cross bred milking cows and household milk production were linearly related (Fig. 20).Y=18.9116t-9.074  The Pearson's coefficient of correlation (2-tailed) between the two linearly related variables is positive and significantly different from 0.The p value 0.02 is greater than 0.01and the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. This suggests that focus on cross breeding cows should be encouraged as it would have a significant effect on the amount of milk produced.From 4.1.2, the major feed of the dairy cattle in the wet season is natural pasture, in the harvest season the crop residue in general will supply the feed of the dairy cattle. Though the cattle are allowed to graze in the dry season, there will not be enough grass to graze and practically the animal's feed is from the previously collected cut and dried grass (hay) with different crop residues. The water depleted for the dairy cattle would be water used for the production of these feed types.Hay since available for longest period of time (in the dry season) of the year, is the major feed type in the two PA's for the dairy cattle. In the wet season of the PA's, grazing is dominantly the feed source for the dairy cattle. It will go on to be a major feed source even in the harvest season but next to the crop residue which is available in the form of crop stubble (Fig. 21A & Fig. 21B).    The higher DCWP of the peri-urban peasant association was attributed mainly to better milk production using cross bred cows & better price to dung cakes due to better demand in the peri-urban market. This study has also showed that, the better milk production in Boseque Jate was because of better holding of those cross bred milking cows by the farmers. Out of the 79 cross milking cows in the two peasant associations, 93.7% of them were in Boseque-Jate while only 6.3% of them were in the rural, Ingoye Gordoma PA.This study was all about describing the water interaction as one part and evaluating the productivity of water of the dairy cattle as a second part. Both parts were in the scope of the selected PA's of Wuchale wereda. In describing the dairy cattle water interaction, the following conclusions can be drawn:1. The two PA's were composed of highly water demanding stock of animals, dairy cattle. This has even enhanced as 54.8% of the dairy cattle were cross breeds.2. The major feed for the cattle were pasture, hay and residues. As crop residue is one component of the major feed, water required for the production of feed was reduced by 2.6*10 5 m 3 of water per annum. This implies an interesting aspect of water interaction of the animals.3. The water taken in feed was comparable to the voluntary water intake of the cattle. This is attributed to multiple factors. One of the reasons is because of feed of lower moisture content which increases the drinking habit of the animals to balance the water intake quantity in feed.5. The quality of water used for cattle drinking was acceptable. This is not true in the occasional instances when the animals made a huge crowd for drinking during dry periods. In the dry periods, animals concentrate to limited watering sites and the water would be dirty by the animals' hooves and wastes.In the evaluation of dairy cattle water productivity in the stratified study area, the peri urban PA had 0.41 USD per m 3 of water and the rural PA had 0.14 USD per m 3 of water. This was mainly because of higher prices of dairy cattle products and better milk production from cross bred milking cows in the peri urban area. In the rural locations, the market accesses for milk and milk products and dung cakes were also relatively very poor. As a result, the smallholder farmers do have a lower income out of their dairy cattle products. The productivity of water use for the dairy cattle of the two locations seems to have a great potential to be increased.The cattle feed from the crop residue has to be enhanced in quantity and type.Options for increasing the water productivity of the dairy cattle at the two peri urban and rural locations of Wuchale wereda should include:1. Establishment of artificial watering sites or trough like structures in both locations. The distance while the cattle travel to drinking water sources was so higher that it could decrease their performance.Drinking troughs reduce these regular travel distances to watering sites, particularly in the peri urban areas where animals travel higher distances from rural animals. The quality of water, drinking interest of the cattle and seasonal shortage of water would also be improved there by increasing productivity.2. Enhancement of market access. Non commercialized fresh milk, particularly in the rural area and lower prices of dung cakes would get better.3. Cross breeding (milk production, better water adaptation). The local cows particularly in the rural areas should be crossed with higher yield cows like the Holstein Friesian of the peri urban areas.4. Encouragement of alternative feed like vetch, oats, concentrates, etc. This would improve the seasonal variation of milk production that was observed in most of the interviewed households.The following research issues warrant future action: ","tokenCount":"4937"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36e099527c990c23da5308f9c7ce67ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d8a106ef-1041-42ed-90b1-fec3060e0e33/retrieve","id":"-974751558"},"keywords":["eutrophication","innovation platform","land degradation","nitrogen use efficiency","policy","quality standards"],"sieverID":"5f3282cf-4d25-496a-9f11-efc61765452e","pagecount":"10","content":"Food security entails having sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet dietary needs. The need to optimise nitrogen (N) use for nutrition security while minimising environmental risks in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is overdue. Challenges related to managing N use in SSA can be associated with both insufficient use and excessive loss, and thus the continent must address the 'too little' and 'too much' paradox. Too little N is used in food production (80% of countries have N deficiencies), which has led to chronic food insecurity and malnutrition. Conversely, too much N load in water bodies due mainly to soil erosion, leaching, limited N recovery from wastewater, and atmospheric deposition contributes to eutrophication (152 Gg N year -1 in Lake Victoria, East Africa). Limited research has been conducted to improve N use for food production and adoption remains low, mainly because farming is generally practiced by resource-poor smallholder farmers. In addition, little has been done to effectively address the 'too much' issues, as a consequence of limited research capacity. This research gap must be addressed, and supportive policies operationalised, to maximise N benefits, while also minimising pollution. Innovation platforms involving key stakeholders are required to address N use efficiency along the food supply chain in SSA, as well as other world regions with similar challenges.Africa's agricultural lands continue to be degraded, with an annual estimated economic cost of up to 18% of the gross domestic product as a consequence of soil productivity decline (Nkonya et al. 2011) arising from poor agronomic practices and nutrient depletion (Sutton et al. 2013;Tittonell and Giller 2013). Over 80% of the agricultural land is nitrogen (N) deficient (Liu et al. 2010) due to insufficient or non-use of N inputs. Barriers such as scarcity and high costs of inputs, poor economic returns on input use, limited financial capacity, and insufficient extension services among others, have drastically affected adoption of N fertilisers (Akpan et al. 2012a(Akpan et al. , 2012b;;Akudugu et al. 2012).Limited research capacity in most regions of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly for long-term trials, has also added to the difficulty of improving agronomic efficiency of applied N (AE N ). Soil acidification, poor organic matter content, deficiencies of various nutrients and reduced microbial activities are among factors affecting crop responses to applied N (Fairhurst 2012;Nezomba et al. 2015). Adequate diagnosis of the factors limiting application of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is required to optimise AE N (Giller et al. 2011) and increase the sustainability of agricultural intensification (Vanlauwe et al. 2015).The rural-urban food market system in SSA creates nutrient depletion in rural farmlands and accumulates nutrients in urban regions and cities. Furthermore, excessive soil erosion has also contributed N load into water bodies (Leip et al. 2014). These processes continuously create the spatial paradox of 'too little' and 'too much' N respectively, perpetuating food insecurity quantitatively and qualitatively (Marler and Wallin 2006) and leading to environmental pollution. For example, in highly populated regions of SSA like the Lake Victoria catchment, inadequate systems for municipal wastewater treatment have resulted in excessive N load into water bodies leading to eutrophication of certain sections of the lake (LVBC 2012; Zhou et al. 2014). Some other sources of N overload of the SSA environment come from (1) atmospheric deposition (Galy-Lacaux and Delon 2014), (2) N-rich runoff of organic wastes from municipal and industrial areas, (3) N leaching mainly from commercial farms, and (4) insufficient treatment of wastewater from industry (e.g. fisheries). High N load into water bodies has resulted in excessive eutrophication of fresh waters and threatened the lives of various fish species (Nyenje et al. 2010).The N management for future food security in SSA must take into consideration the 'too little' and 'too much' paradox and explore how to optimise N use efficiency (NUE) along the food system. This would require focused research programs on N recovery along the loss pathways and supportive policies. Existing policies lack focus on N; in most cases they have to be improved, strengthened, and importantly operationalised. Recent efforts have mainly been limited to improving food security and have overlooked environmental challenges related to the complete N cycle and various N sources. This review highlights the challenges and opportunities of improving N management in SSA to optimise NUE for food security, while minimising environmental pollution, with reference to selected case studies.Nitrogen depletion is a critical issue in Africa (Table 1). In certain countries, less than 1% of farmers are using fertilisers (Nkonya et al. 2011). Most of the countries have not been able to meet the target of 50 kg nutrients ha -1 set in the 2006 Abuja Declaration (Fig. 1). Nitrogen constitutes 90% of the applied fertiliser (Sutton et al. 2013) and is sometimes accompanied with a little phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), but rarely with secondary or micronutrients. This unbalanced nutrient application to soils with diverse nutrient co-limitations has led to the excessive yield gaps compared with other parts of the world (Fig. 2).Recent studies recognised the need to address the quality issues of agricultural inputs including N sources in SSA countries to improve crop productivity. In Uganda, for example, Bold et al. (2015) showed that urea sold in the fertiliser marketplace contained 31% less N on average. Analysis results for 369 samples showed all of them with N content below the authentic urea fertiliser grade (Fig. 3). They also demonstrated significant yield and profitability losses from the use of adulterated urea products in    field experiments. The quality issues also affect other N inputs like rhizobial inoculants. In a project-driven marketplace monitoring study in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Nigeria, Jefwa et al. (2014) evaluated over 22 rhizobial inoculants and concluded that ~40% neither contained the declared active ingredients nor performed as claimed. Other inputs such as animal manures contain little N due to poor feed quality and poor manure management (Diogo et al. 2013).The poor quality of agricultural inputs stems from several factors including adulteration, sub-standard formulations, and poor handling in transportation and storage, and points to weak regulatory frameworks. Recent development initiatives have advocated for quality control of agricultural inputs through strengthening the regulatory mechanisms (Masso et al. 2013;AGRA 2014). However, operationalisation remains a challenge (Kargbo 2010). The use of poor quality inputs coupled with volatile input and output markets reduces the profitability associated with using agricultural inputs, and consequently the capacity to invest in N inputs.The accessibility, i.e. availability and affordability, of fertilisers is among the factors limiting fertiliser use by smallholder farmers in SSA (Mtambanengwe and Mapfumo 2009). In a study conducted in East Africa (i.e. Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda), Guo et al. (2009) demonstrated that urea application to maize was only attractive for high market access in Tanzania and Uganda at a value cost ratio of greater than 3 (Table 2). Strengthening linkages to input and output markets to increase the profitability of ISFM practices in the smallholder farming systems is crucial to improve productivity (Shiferaw et al. 2014), and consequently food and nutrition security. The high costs of inputs and low output prices in remote areas can generally be associated with transportation costs, low availability of inputs, limited market opportunities, as well as many kinds of formal and informal taxation.The insufficient use of agricultural inputs particularly N has led not only to poor yields in terms of quantity, but also in terms of quality. Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in amino acids and proteins. Hence low soil N availability or use of N inputs would result in food crops with poor protein content as shown in the idealised model by Selles and Zentner (1998), and could explain the high prevalence of undernourishment in SSA (Fig. 4).Despite the low N use in food production, significant N losses still occur in SSA and exacerbate N depletion from agricultural lands. For instance, atmospheric deposition of N in SSA is equivalent to the current rate of fertiliser use, i.e. 4-15 kg N ha -1 year -1 (Galy-Lacaux and Delon 2014; Vet et al. 2014) (Fig. 5). The proportion of this N deposited on agricultural land represents a significant N input. It however becomes a significant risk to the environment when it ends up in water bodies or other areas where it cannot be used for plant growth. From a study by The costs of urea increase, whereas the prices of maize grain and the value-cost ratios decrease, with the distance to markets (adapted from Guo et al. (2009) who used an application rate of 35 kg N ha  Zhou et al. (2014), atmospheric N deposition accounted for 67% (i.e. 102 Gg N year -1 ) of the total N loading (152 Gg N year -1 ) into Lake Victoria in East Africa. At the catchment scale, N loading into the terrestrial area was estimated to be 305 Gg N year -1 with 13.6% (i.e. 42 Gg N year -1 ) of it coming from oxidised N deposition. Thus, direct atmospheric N deposition into the lake represented 71% of the total atmospheric N deposition (i.e. 144 Gg N year -1 ) into the catchment (Fig. 6).Very little of the remainder (29%) benefited crop production as it was also deposited on several non-agricultural land use types such as settlements, roads, and marginal lands.Based on an assessment conducted in South Africa, Lemley et al. (2014) reported that when there are no other limiting factors, concentrations of 400 and 30 mg L -1 of total dissolved N and P respectively, and an N : P ratio of 7-8 on a weight basis are enough for eutrophication to occur. Preventing eutrophication requires control of both N and P loadings into water bodies (Howarth and Marino 2006). Eutrophication related to anthropogenic activities has become a serious issue in SSA and has in some cases resulted in drastic reduction of dissolved oxygen and fish populations, and proliferation of toxic cyanobacteria blooms (Nyenje et al. 2010). As reported for Lake Victoria (Kishe 2004;Odada et al. 2004), eutrophication in SSA is mainly a result of soil erosion, nutrient leaching, atmospheric N deposition, runoff of organic wastes, and poor recovery of nutrients from wastewater among other sources. Reliable estimates of the contribution of each of these sources to N load into water bodies in SSA are generally yet to be determined to better inform policy decisions intended to reduce N losses to the environment.The NUE in cropping systems has been defined as the ratio of N removed in harvested product to the amount of N applied (Brentrup and Pallière 2006). In these systems, AE N is one of the commonly used indices of NUE. It is defined as yield gain per unit applied N and is a function of recovery efficiency of applied N (RE N ), i.e. the incremental N uptake per unit of N applied and the physiological efficiency of applied N (PE N ); PE N being the ratio of yield gain to incremental N uptake per unit of applied N (Dobermann 2005;Ladha et al. 2005;Fageria et al. 2010). The AE N can be affected by N application methods underpinned by the 4R nutrient stewardship principles of (1) the right source of N fertiliser, (2) the right rate, (3) the right timing of application, and (4) following the right placement (Majumdar et al. 2016), as well as other factors such as abiotic and biotic stresses, and crop management practices (Dobermann 2005).In addition to 'too little' N use for production in most SSA countries, AE N in smallholder farmers' fields is also low because of poor agronomic practices including blanket fertiliser recommendations, fertiliser application rates that are too low to result in significant yields, and unbalanced fertilisation where the focus is put, for instance, on NPK without secondary or micronutrients (Fig. 7). Even when the assessment is limited to N, P, and K fertilisers, studies conducted in multiple locations in India have demonstrated that application of P and K in addition to N significantly increases the AE N (Table 3). Recent interventions in SSA, including ISFM (i.e. improved seeds, use of balanced fertilisation, organic inputs, liming materials, water management, and appropriate tillage practices among others) showed that AE N could be doubled when good agronomic practices were adopted (Vanlauwe et al. 2015). For instance, the simple adoption of improved crop varieties like maize could significantly improve AE N under conducive  agro-climatic conditions (Fig. 8). Therefore, ISFM could be useful for narrowing current yield gaps (Mutegi and Zingore 2014).In addition to applying the right rate of N in the context of ISFM, timing of N fertiliser including split applications, can both improve yields and protein content (Table 4). Effective split application reduces N losses as the timing and rate for each application are adjusted to target the various demand peaks for N by the crop of interest during the growing season. Conversely, utilisation of high N rates to meet the crop N requirement in one single application generally results in increased N leaching and reduced crop RE N (Fig. 9). As smallholder farmers in selected SSA countries like Kenya have started adopting the practice of split application of N for some crops such as maize, there is a need for more investments in capacity building for farmers and supportive institutional systems that will enhance proper fertiliser N application and consequently AE N .However, the dilemma is that in SSA, farming is mainly practiced by resource-poor smallholder farmers who cannot afford most of the inputs at the actual market prices (Alobo Loison 2015). Similarly, there are no systematic policies to encourage (1) recycling of organic wastes from cities, (2) recovering nutrients from wastewater, and (3) collecting municipal sewage sludge for use on agricultural lands where they are needed. The N from those sources is either lost to landfill or discharged to water bodies and contributes to environmental pollution. Quantification of such N losses to inform policy decisions related to N recycling in food production is required.In addition to AE N , indices related to environmental sustainability like N budgets (Leip et al. 2011;Eurostat 2013;Özbek and Leip 2015) and N footprint (Galloway et al. 2014;Hutton et al. 2017) are important for informing practices and policies intended to minimise N loss to the environment, while optimising crop and energy production. Good N management must therefore reduce both N accumulation (Vitousek et al. 2009;Leip et al. 2011) and N mining (Edmonds et al. 2009;Bekunda et al. 2010;Kihara et al. 2015), which can be detected through N budgets, as both have negative environmental impacts. The former could result in losses to the environment and contributing to greenhouse gases, soil acidification, and eutrophication among others, whereas the latter could result in low crop productivity. Comprehensive quantification of all inputs and outputs is required to construct accurate N budgets and to estimate AE N . For instance, Özbek and Leip (2015)    demonstrated the importance of including soil N stock change in N budgets to minimise overestimation of N surplus and underestimating NUE. Soil N mining could be overestimated if N inputs from irrigation water, rainfall, crop residue, biological N fixation, and atmospheric deposition are ignored, but could be underestimated if losses through leaching, erosion, runoff, volatilisation, and denitrification are ignored (Majumdar et al. 2016).The N footprint tool is useful for identifying hotspots of N losses to the environment, simulating mitigation options, and informing policy decisions for good N management through raising awareness of social responsibilities (Galloway et al. 2014;Davidson et al. 2016). The application of the tool showed that in many countries the largest portion of the N footprint was associated with food production, with N accumulation in selected countries like the United States of America, whereas N mining occurred in countries like Tanzania in SSA (Hutton et al. 2017). Nitrogen footprint assessments would therefore represent a great opportunity to reduce N mining in SSA through identification of potential N available for recycling in crop production.In addition to adoption of good agronomic practices like ISFM to improve AE N , exploration of innovations that are cost effective to maximise the return on investment would be critical in the context of resource-poor smallholder farmers. One of the innovations that has proven cost effective in smallholder farming systems is the use of 'urea briquettes' mainly in rice production, although similar results have been reported in maize (Table 5). The potential has not only been shown in SSA, but also in Asian countries like Bangladesh (Huda et al. 2016). Although the innovation is labour-intense, the improved canopy reduces the labour required for weeding. Other slow N release innovations (e.g. inhibitors and N coating) represent a comparative advantage; however, their costs would generally represent a challenge for resource-poor smallholder farmers in SSA.Another innovation gaining momentum in SSA is the incorporation of bio-fertilisers such as rhizobial inoculants in ISFM practices, which not only benefit legume crops, but also subsequent crops in the rotation. Under conducive conditions, legume crops can fix more N than they require, and therefore leave behind residual N (Table 6, Fig. 10). The performance of biological N fixation (BNF), however, depends on the  interaction of legume genotype, rhizobium strain, environmental conditions like soil fertility, and crop management such as planting dates, weeding, and spacing (Woomer et al. 2014).Low BNF, i.e. <5 kg ha -1 , has been reported when soil fertility is poor and no-amendment is applied (Mapfumo 2011). The success of rhizobial inoculation in SSA will therefore depend on proper diagnosis of BNF-limiting factors for local adaptation and availability of effective strains for widely grown grain legumes. This would require enabling policies to facilitate smallholder farmers' access to high quality inputs and awareness creation about good agronomic practices to optimise the performance of inputs.Enabling policies targeting resource-poor smallholder farmers in SSA would be critical to addressing the barriers to adoption of good agricultural practices aimed at increasing AE N . Most of the constraints are of agronomic or socioeconomic nature. Agronomic policies must for instance address the following:* weak extension services to ensure good agronomic practices are understood and adopted by farmers (Akpan et al. 2012a(Akpan et al. , 2012b;;Kiptot et al. 2016) * poor quality of agricultural inputs not only for enhancing efficiency but also ensuring that farmers gain confidence in the products (Masso et al. 2013;Bold et  Currently, some of the policies have been developed in selected SSA countries, but operationalisation remains a critical issue (TerrAfrica 2009; Kargbo 2010). Future interventions must ensure that novel and existing policies are strengthened and effectively implemented. Hence, innovation platforms would be crucial to inform policy decisions in a participatory manner to improve accessibility to, and proper use of, high quality agricultural inputs including N for sustainable intensification as well as production of sufficient, nutritious, and safe food.In SSA, limited life-cycle assessment of N has been undertaken as a consequence of poor research capacity and the research priorities of most national and international research organisations. In general, human choices in terms of food consumption drive N use, particularly for food production (Sutton et al. 2013). Selected investigations in SSA have been made to improve AE N ; however, quantification of N flows in the whole food supply chain has been too scarce to be representative, which has resulted in many uncertainties in N budgets (Rufino et al. 2014;Zhou et al. 2014). Consequently, key intervention areas to optimise AE N and minimise N losses to the environment are often not well understood, particularly at national, regional, and continental scales. Based on current A The values represent the range based on the legume genotype, rhizobium strain, environmental conditions, and legume crop management practices. challenges and opportunities related to N management in SSA, priorities to improve food security among others, include the following:* using a participatory approach to determine segments of the whole food supply chain with low NUE (i.e. N footprint) and developing solutions to address the underlying causes to optimise food production * developing crop-specific N application rates in the context of ISFM to improve food production and quality, while minimising environmental pollution * developing smart subsidies for N inputs that promote N use, conducive to public-private partnerships, and minimise dependence on public support over time * advocating for market policies conducive to increased profitability of N use for food production * conducting comprehensive national, regional, and continental N budgets to determine (1) the various sources of N, (2) RE N and AE N for each source of N, (3) the types of N losses (i.e. N loss pathways) and magnitude, and (4) effective mitigation approaches for each type of loss to optimise food production, while minimising pollution * assessing the quality of emerging N inputs (e.g. bio-fertilisers) to improve effectiveness, while preventing food contamination and environmental pollutionSub-Saharan Africa is facing a challenge of 'too little' N for food production and 'too much' N lost to the environment. Appropriate interventions are required to reverse the trend and so meet the food demand of this region, which has the highest global population growth. This is particularly critical as the population pressure will exacerbate land degradation and N depletion if adequate solutions are not implemented. Participatory development of solutions for improved N management would be crucial to inform market policies intended to support resource-poor smallholder farmers and increase the profitability of N use for food production. Importantly, in addition to improving accessibility to N inputs, farmers will have to be empowered with relevant knowledge and the know-how and financing opportunities for the adoption of N inputs in the context of ISFM to be able to produce enough nutritious food, and diversify production systems to meet dietary needs. Public-private partnerships would therefore be critical to ensure that the private sector contributes to the capacity building of farmers and extension services, and that governments increase agricultural budgets, to effectively increase AE N , while minimising environmental pollution.","tokenCount":"3614"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1373b032a4a2ba77b48f9fb6ec645bc5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://carpanlibrary.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/noel_fruit-symposium-paper1.pdf","id":"1791377194"},"keywords":["mixed-tree based garden rehabilitation","quality seedling","budwood garden","technology transfer"],"sieverID":"efbb30f7-72ab-44b6-9b25-cf98c0fab5e3","pagecount":"8","content":"Civil conflicts and the December 2004 tsunami have impeded the development of local fruit germplasm despite the inherent high quality and potential of Aceh's fruit germplasm. Most of Aceh communities are composed of smallscale farmers with land ownership averaging from 0.25 to 4 ha per capita; they plant various trees species (fruits, rubber, cocoa, etc) in a mixed-tree based system (agroforestry) with extensive management. In Aceh' village markets most fruit is produced by local farmers. Increased price of fruits in Aceh region has urged the farmers to enhance their fruit production by planting more fruit trees. Farmers prefer to plant tree species that have good market prices and easy to domesticate, such as Durian, Rambutan, Mango, Duku. However, currently farmers have limited access to good quality fruit seedlings. Farmers with financial resources buy seedlings from Medan while most cash-limited farmers produce seedlings themselves. Farmers need good quality fruit germplasm resources if they are going to produce high-quality seedling. As part of posttsunami and conflict rehabilitation activities in Aceh region, we inventoried fruit germplasm resources (both indigenous and introduced variety) and demands in Aceh as source for livelihood and ensure food security (nutritional standpoint) particularly of the local community. The work was completed through discussion with local stakeholders (farmers, governments, universities) and direct observation. In this paper, we listed the fruit germplasm resources' location and condition in Aceh and how small scale farmers could access and use it to improve their fruit production.Aceh' tsunami catastrophe of December 2004 has changed not only the infrastructures, but also the social capital and sources for livelihood of the communities who live in the area. Changes to social network affect the ways in which people access everything from educational to market opportunities. Four years after tsunami, the communities are still trying to recover. The affected population is turning back to earn income from local resources such as agribusiness. Before the tsunami, perennial horticultural systems and tree crop agribusiness play an important role in the region. In year 2002, agriculture contribute 23% to the Aceh' Gross Regional Domestic Product and increased to 25% in 2004 (BPS Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, 2007). Tree crop from the region was played an important role in regional markets, supplying Banda Aceh, Medan and other areas with large amounts of areca nuts, durian and citrus fruits (DPH, 2007).Most of Aceh communities are composed of small scale farmers with land ownership averaging from 0.25 to 4 ha per capita; they plant various trees species (fruits, rubber, cocoa, etc) in a mixed-tree based system (agroforestry) with extensive management (Budidarsono et al., 2007). In the conflict era, farmers have less access to their garden, therefore their garden become less productive. Currently, in the era of post conflict and post tsunami, farmers in most Aceh region began to rehabilitate their garden.Good quality seedlings for garden rehabilitation are major investment to enhance the agricultural production in the area. Germplasm quality (specifically seed) determines the upper limits of yield and the productivity of labour, fertilizers and other inputs (Cromwell 1990;Cromwell et al. 1992). In the absence of other inputs, other inputs, high quality germplasm (seed) will enhance growth and productivity, particularly on degraded sites (Simons et al. 1994) or those that receive little agricultural inputs. Encouraging local tree nurseries and tree improvement are first attempts to rehabilitate the agribusiness in the area. Hence, as part of post-tsunami and conflict rehabilitation activities in Aceh region, we inventoried fruit germplasm resources (both indigenous and introduced variety) and demands in Aceh as source for livelihood and ensure food security (nutritional standpoint) particularly of the local community.Data collection was commenced as part of the survey to explore the seedling market potency in Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) province to support the development of small scale seedlings nursery enterprise. Specific objectives of the survey were to document and evaluate indigenous sources of improved germplasm and planting material in Aceh and Medan, and quantify tree seedling demand in Aceh.Data was collected from 23 January to 25 February 2008 in area that most affected by the Tsunami catastrophe (i.e. Aceh Barat, Aceh Jaya, Pidie and Banda Aceh of NAD province), and area for potential market of most commodity that were supplied to the Tsunami area (i.e. Medan, North Sumatra province). Information on fruit germplasm resources and demands in the region was collected through PRA (Focus Group Discussion) discussion with 156 farmers with 20% of them are females farmers (9 Farmer Group in Aceh Barat, 9 Farmer Group in Aceh Jaya and 12 Farmer Groups in Pidie), Local Government Unit representative per region (Dinas Kehutanan dan Perkebunan, Dinas Pertanian, Badan Pengawasan dan Sertifikasi Benih), universities (Universitas Teuku Umar, Universitas Jabal Nur, Universitas Syiah Kuala), commercial nurseries in North Sumatra (4 nurseries in Medan, 6 nurseries in Tanjung Morawa, 3 nurseries in Binjai), and NGOs. And complementarily to the information that collected through PRA, direct observations were also conducted.Farmers prefer to plant tree species that have good market prices and easy to domesticate. In Aceh' village markets most fruit is produced by local farmers. Increased price of fruits in Aceh region has urged the farmers to enhance their fruit production by planting more fruit trees. Farmers need good quality fruit germplasm resources if they are going to produce high-quality seedlings. However, currently farmers have limited access to good quality seedlings. Farmers with financial resources buy seedlings from Medan while most cashlimited farmers produce seedlings themselves. Green (2007) identified that not much is known on local seedling availability, reliability or genetic improvement in the region. The tree seedlings market in the region is limited in the short term by programs' reliance on genetic materials coming from Medan. Good quality seedlings will closely related to the availability of local germplasm resources and improvement. Conflicts and tsunami catastrophe that happened in Aceh have impeded the development of local fruit germplasm.Improved germplasm leads to improved tree productivity (in both quantity and quality) with a corresponding impact on farmers' livelihood. Improving germplasm quality can be initiated by selecting quality mother trees, and follow up by detail observation and laboratory experiments in research centre. As agriculture is the main sources of livelihood in Indonesia, government has designed mechanism to select good quality mother tree. For plantation commodities like rubber, coffee and cacao, Indonesian government has its own research centre that improves and maintains good quality germplasm, also develops and provides support for appropriate domestication techniques. While for fruit and vegetables plants, Indonesian government has mandated the Badan Pengawasan dan Sertifikasi Benih (BPSB -Bureau of Seed Control and Certification) to explored and developed mechanisms in improving fruit trees and vegetable germplasm. BPSB representatives are based in each district in Indonesia and are responsible to coordinate with Regional Agricultural Agencies. Due to time limitation and large area that need to be covered during the survey also due to non fruiting seasons in most of the district, we only collected fruit germplasm in the survey sites based on the information given by the farmers, BPSB, and Dinas Pertanian. Though most of that data was disappeared along with the Tsunami, secondary information was collected through interview with farmers and BPSB representatives in the region.Based on the interview, potential superior fruit species per district were identified as in the Table 1. Post-tsunami and conflict, limited info from the BPSB can be obtained, particularly on the location of mother tree and nursery that operated before the Tsunami.   Establishing tree nursery actually is not new technology for the farmers in Aceh region (or elsewhere in Indonesia) that has high dependency to agriculture for their livelihood. In the past, farmers built tree nursery to fulfill their seedlings stocks for their planting program to rejuvenate their garden. What is new for the farmers is establishing tree nursery to produce superior species/variety by using vegetative propagation techniques.Most of the farmers in the 4 focus districts (Aceh Jaya, Aceh Barat Pidie and Pidie Jaya) are aware on the importance of using superior species/variety to enhance their garden productivity. However, farmers still lack of knowledge and experience to produce and access seedlings of superior species/variety by themselves. Therefore to obtain good quality seedlings of superior species, they have to buy the seedlings from North Sumatra (particularly Medan, Tanjung Morawa and Binjai) that may cost them Rp 10,000 to Rp 25,000 per seedlings.Buying seedling will be no problem for farmers with financial resources, but will be a problem for cash-limited farmers who couldn't afford to buy and access the superior quality seedlings. Therefore, if the cash-limited farmers want to rehabilitate their garden, they will buy low quality seedlings or produce their own seedlings with unclear quality that in the end will affected their garden productivity and cash-income they could earn. Around 80% of the surveyed farmers -that were mostly cash-limited farmers-, said that if they could produce good quality seedlings, they would like to use the seedlings for their own uses. While farmers with limited-land tend to sale the seedlings they'll produce. These contrast farmers motivation is clearly seen for Pidie district case, where land-limited farmers near Sigli are more market-oriented than farmers in rural locations like Geumpang, where land is more accessible. The main priority for farmers in Geumpang is to produce seedlings to rehabilitate the land available to them. They are also interested in future seedling sells, once their own needs to plant or replant are met. have not yet been sufficiently socialized to those three important stakeholders -consumers, market agents, and local farmers.As like in most areas in Indonesia, farmers in Aceh also have limited access to the superiors species/variety released by BPSB, due to a lack of awareness at the smallholder farmer level and a preference to distribute superior germplasm to other stakeholders. Additionally, Aceh farmer access to superior varieties is limited because there are very limited budwood garden blocks managed at the district level. Based on the discussion with BPSB North Sumatra, same situation occurred in North Sumatra (the nearest province). Hence, in order to answer the demand for good quality seedlings, farmers explore new local superior species that occurred in their nearby area (local superior varieties or lokal unggul). Farmers selected the superior mother trees by developing criteria based on the characteristic that meet market specifications. Moreover, farmers still require more capacity building to enhance their knowledge and skills in superior mother tree identification and management. Transfer knowledge from research centre and BPSB would be of importance to enhance farmers' capacity on this.Support from the local government would play major role in enhancing farmers access to fruit germplasm resources. For instance like the current situation in Binjai district, North Sumatra that is known as the origin location of Rambutan brahrang. Based on the request of the farmers that are united in nursery farmer association (Aspenta/Asosiasi Penangkar Tanaman), the local government in Binjai has built budwood garden of Rambutan brahrang that can be accessed by farmers who would like to produce high quality Rambutan seedlings. To obtain the scion from the government budwood garden, farmers have to pay Rp 25,00/scion to the Dinas Pertanian Binjai. This Binjai government attempt was acknowledged by the farmers. Now, farmers have more access to good fruit germplasm and have more security in running their nursery business as main source of their livelihood.Development to enhance the quality of and access to fruit germplasm in Aceh required further serious follow up from multi stakeholder. Initiation and supports from the local government unit (particularly Agriculture Department and Forestry and Estate crop department) are vital for developing partnership between farmers with other stakeholders who would like be involved in improving farmer access to good quality fruit germplasm. Farmer association, research institution, university, NGO and private sector could be potential stakeholders to develop and improve good quality fruit germplasm and its accessibility particularly for smallholder farmers.Smallholder farmer access to good quality germplasm and seedlings could improve the fruit production in the area. Therefore, improvement may necessary be made by: (i) Enhancing farmer capacity and involving farmers in the germplasm inventory, selection, collection and domestication, as this would reduce the government efforts in exploring and identifying local fruit germplasm. Rewarding farmer, who could found mother trees with good quality, would be one of concrete activity. (ii) Developing budwood garden of registered superior fruit species that can be accessed by smallholder farmers and other stakeholder at district level.(iii) Developing information centre for farmer at least at sub district level would help to fill knowledge gaps between research centre, market and smallholder farmers. ","tokenCount":"2069"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3779654320965b088bafeaf3a60dac5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6faa0c9-59af-4d10-9924-afe82096703a/retrieve","id":"-38324146"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a78ab9e4-8dac-4fa3-bcdd-88c4c631ab61","pagecount":"7","content":"3. Africa needs investments in observation stations, data management, processing infrastructure and human resources to support the production, dissemination and uptake of context-relevant climate information and services.Climate data plays a crucial role in climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts. Climate data provides valuable insights into historical climate patterns, long-term trends, and variability in key climate variables. This information helps scientists understand the nature and extent of climate change, including its causes, impacts, vulnerability, and potential future scenarios. Moreover, climate data is also used to monitor and verify the effectiveness of climate adaptation and mitigation efforts. This helps policymakers and stakeholders evaluate the success of their initiatives, identify areas for improvement, and make informed decisions about future actions. In Africa, where compound extreme events are identified as a key risk from climate change , climate data can be crucial for disaster risk management. It also serves as a fundamental input in designing climate change impact models. Reliable climate data is essential in assessing the vulnerabilities of different regions, ecosystems, and sectors to extreme climate events such as sealevel rise, heat waves, droughts, or floods; and aiding in the development of reliable early warning systems and in detection and attribution studies. A good knowledge of prevailing climatic conditions allows for better planning and decision making to reduce and manage climatic risks. Developing and refining global and regional climate models that simulate the current and future Earth's climate system rely on good-quality climate data. These models are essential for precise climate projections used in developing evidence-based policies and effective climate action.Although Africa covers a fifth of the world's land mass, it has the lowest number of stations by comparison. Africa's density of weather observing stations constitutes only an eighth of the minimum density stipulated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) . It is estimated that only 10% of the world's ground-based observation networks are in Africa, and a little more than half of Africa's surface weather stations cannot capture data accurately. Most African regions are sparsely gauged, even with respect to basic climatic and hydrological variables. They often lack regular reporting of quality-controlled data (Figure 1 panel a). In some countries, the data collection and maintenance of previously installed stations have lapsed for an extended period. Since the 1980s, there has been a decline in the number of weather stations that are in operation and/or quality-controlled data has been declining (Figure 1  Weather observational infrastructure Although Africa covers a fifth of the world's land mass, it has the lowest number of stations by comparison. Africa's density of weather observing stations constitutes only an eighth of the minimum density stipulated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) . Most African regions are sparsely gauged, even with respect to basic climatic and hydrological variables. They often lack regular reporting of quality-controlled data (Figure 1 panel a). In some countries, the data collection and maintenance of previously installed stations have lapsed for an extended period.Since the 1980s, there has been a decline in the number of weather stations that are in operation and/or quality-controlled data has been declining (Figure 1   The coordinated exchange of meteorological data and products through the Global Telecommunication System (GTS) of the WMO enables real-time and varied time-scale forecasting activities. However, the inadequate observation networks in some countries impede the delivery of these functions. This inadequacy contributes to poor representation of weather systems, climate patterns and status of water resources affecting countries, and consequently adversely impacts the quality and range of climate services in Africa.In addition, inadequate and often obsolete telecommunication facilities and networks for exchanging data and products used by NMHSs in Africa hampers the efficient flow of observations and products, including multi-hazard early warnings.Given the important role of the NMHS in the national infrastructure for supporting vital socioeconomic functions such as disaster risk reduction, agriculture and food security, water resources, health, energy and transportation, their capacity to provide better early warning services to reduce disaster risks, supporting national development and life-supporting activities that are sensitive to weather, climate and water outcomes needs to be strengthened. Achieving these goals requires systematically observing and collecting data that form the foundation for monitoring and projecting weather, climate, water and related environmental conditions and issuance of warnings, alerts and advisories in a timely and effective manner for planning and decision making. Increasingly, satellite based platforms are being used to augment ground-based observations to contribute to climatological information. The usefulness of data derived from these platforms depends on how well they have been validated against the ground based observed datasets. Generally, the degree of automation of climatic and hydrometric networks remains very low, and telemetry is not used in most countries. Sub-Saharan Africa NMHS lack adequate or modern data acquisition and management systems for receiving, processing, storing, disseminating, and transmitting climate data and water resource data and information.Therefore, the development of data management systems, being one of the highest leverage activities for making climate information available for research and decision making is urgent for African countries.Climate models play a crucial role in fostering understanding of current and future climate variability and change. They help identify drivers of climate patterns and provide valuable projections for decision-making processes. Africa lags behind the rest of the world in developing climate models customised for the continent, despite the critical need for climate model outputs to address its inherent and deepening vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate change. None of the current generation of general circulation models (GCMs) was built in Africa. The few models that are run in the continent have been downscaled by a few national or regional climate centers including IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) in eastern Africa, the University of Cape Town in Southern Africa, The University of Mohammed VI Polytechnic (UM6P, Morocco) and the General Meteorological Directorate of Morocco. Several reasons could account for this shortcoming, including limited climate expertise, lack of computing resources, scarcity of weather observational data to validate and support the modeling process, scarcity of dedicated climate modeling centers, and limited funding for requisite research. Africa's unique climate requires customised models that are suitable for application in the continent. This inadequacy in African climate models is a crucial missing link in the continent's adaptation planning and resilience building. In response to these challenges, the first African Earth system model is currently under development to enable more reliable projections of future climate change over Africa and the Southern Indian Ocean. A few other centers are likewise undertaking works including in Morocco (UM6P) for the development and improvement of climate models and related expertise across the continent.Climate models serve as tools for researchers to analyze historical climate and gain a profound understanding of past climate variability and lay a sound basis for projecting future climate due to climate change. By simulating various components of the Earth system, including the atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, and land surface, these models possess the ability to recreate past climate conditions with precision. They also provide invaluable insights into the underlying mechanisms driving climate fluctuations, unraveling the complex interplay of factors that shape the evolution of the earth's climate and its variability. In retrospective analysis, climate models play a crucial role in identifying the drivers of climate change. By simulating different scenarios encompassing natural and human-induced forcings, these models facilitate a comprehensive assessment of the anthropogenic responses on the climate system. Through quantifying the contributions of greenhouse gas emissions, aerosols, solar radiation, and other relevant variables, climate models enable scientists to identify the primary factors responsible for climate change, thus shedding light on the intricate dynamics of our global climate system. Furthermore, climate models are extensively employed for projecting future climate conditions. By incorporating data on greenhouse gas emissions, land-use changes, and other influential factors, these models can simulate a range of future scenarios. As a result, they provide valuable estimates of crucial climate variables, such as temperature, precipitation, wind, and sea level rise. These projections are of immense significance to policymakers and planners, because they assist in anticipating and preparing for potential impacts of climate change. Climate models are critical in generating tailored information and assessments for specific sectors and regions. Through a process known as downscaling, these models can refine global climate projections, offering localized insights into the potential climate impacts on diverse areas. This localized information provides an invaluable understanding of changes in water resources, agriculture, coastal regions, ecosystems, and other critical domains. Stakeholders and decision-makers can then leverage this information to develop adaptive strategies and policies that address the unique challenges climate change poses.A shortage of observational networks is one of the main obstacles to climate modeling in Africa. It is challenging to calibrate and evaluate climate models in Africa due to the continent's comparatively small observational network. This is a result of insufficient and/or lack of weather stations, ocean buoys, and other sensors to gather the data required to run climate models. countries, is quite limited and often attracts a fee when available. This contrasts with the mandate of NMHSs to freely share data through the WMO's Global Telecommunication System (GTS). Data available from Africa is typically only a small subset of the total number of stations (less than 50% of what is expected by WMO) and data types managed by the NMHS8. While data sparsity is prevalent globally, it is particularly common in Africa, especially over remote geographies, and conflict zones. For instance, amongst the climate data reports received by WMO during 2004-2010, Africa's contribution was the least, with less than 50% of expected data . The challenge of data accessibility in the continent is driven by several factors, including legal restrictions, low financial investment, lack of dissemination capacity and tools, and high access costs. In some cases, historical climate records are available on paper and/ or magnetic tapes that have not been digitised, thus reducing their accessibility. Other impediments are linked to issues of lack of trust by the NMHS of how the meteorological data might be used (or misused) without their consent, especially through wanton sharing of their data with third parties and the risk of undermining demand for their products, which may potentially lead to private profiteering at their expenses. In addition, data restrictions may also stem from the need to charge fees to cover the cost of preparing and sharing data services. The lack of data sharing slows down the development of climate services for risk reduction and adaptation across the continent. Challenges of data gaps can be addressed through data rescue approaches and digitisation. This requires investment by African countries to fill the missing data gaps. Approaches for overcoming the challenge of data availability would require both short-and longterm solutions. Short-term solutions are approaches used to overcome the scarcity of historical data needed for research and different applications, while long-term solutions aim at addressing the challenges of data availability in future by strengthening the capacities of NMHS, and also through direct efforts by various actors to expand collection and dissemination of weather and climate data. In addition, NMHSs can leverage the efforts and databases of numerous climate research institutions across Africa, including the trans-African hydrometeorological observatory, the West African Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (WASCAL) , the Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change, Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL) and the AMMA-CATCH National Observation Service and Critical Zone Exploration Network as a start to bridge the climate data gaps in advance of further investment. In Africa, the low data quality of climate data is also principally due to low accuracy and/or precision. Weather observations and measurements are prone to human, instrumental, station siting and data entry errors into computers. This challenge is further compounded by a lack of tools to perform quality control coupled with inadequate capacity to use existing tools. Where climate database management systems with tools for basic quality control exist, lack of capacity to utilise the tools is also a major cause of low quality climate data.Weather station coverage is very sparse and has even been declining . Most weather stations are in cities, while rural areas where people are arguably the most vulnerable to climate variability experience poor coverage. Additionally, a notable amount of weather station data has not yet been digitized in Africa, reducing their accessibility and usefulness for climate research. Even when data exists, it is often of poor quality with inaccuracy and missing observations. To address these issues, preliminary efforts have been made to support observation climate networks across Africa, especially through different initiatives within regional climate centres and research institutions. However significant gaps still remain. Climate data infrastructure Infrastructure for climate data is essential for solving climate change concerns and guiding policy decisions. In addition to the creation and use of climate models and observational infrastructure, it also includes the gathering, management, and transmission of climate data . The Coupled Model Intercomparison Projects (CMIP) have been important tools in strengthening climate data collection and use. By creating cutting-edge multimodel datasets, CMIP seeks to improve our understanding of climate variability and change. This dataset contains climate simulations for the twentieth century as well as predictions for the twentyfirst century and beyond. It is, however, crucial to note that the resolution is coarse. Various initiatives to offer regionally downscaled data provide improved resolution information for better regional context planning. One such one is CORDEX, Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment. CORDEX aims to provide climate projections with much greater detail and a more accurate representation of localized extreme events. Experts indicate that CORDEX-Africa represents a unique initiative with tremendous potential to change the information availability on regional climate change for the African continent. Through an integrated but distributed data archive, the complete experiment design of CMIP and CORDEX makes a variety of model outputs openly available to researchers. This accessibility encourages teamwork and makes it possible for researchers to evaluate and validate the performance of the models . Policymakers and stakeholders can consider the outcomes of such experiments and other climate data infrastructure programs when creating successful policies for coping with and adapting to climate change. It is, however, critical to note that these datasets are at a resolution that may not be effectively used for local context adaptation planning as it is still coarse. It is worth noting that we now have new interesting computing capacities (in some few African countries) that may serve for model runs including in the context of international or regional experiments such as CORDEX. They can be used for providing more detailed climate model information and then better support adaptation and decision making in the continent. Experts indicate that CORDEX-Africa represents a unique initiative with tremendous potential to change the information availability on regional climate change for the African continent. This is expected to support more regionally and nationally appropriate adaptation strategies. In conclusion, further to climate models, the infrastructure supporting climate data, such as computing resources and observational infrastructure, is essential for supporting climate change policy development in Africa.Robust climate data is critical to understanding trends and changes in the climate system and assessing/ understanding how the climate will change in the future under different socioeconomic conditions. This information is critical for policy and planning in responding to climate risks. However, Africa suffers from insufficient observational networks, data management systems and maintenance. Investments in ground-based observation stations, data management systems, computing power and enabling access to climate data in Africa will enable the production and dissemination of context-specific climate information to support risk management, adaptation planning and decision making• A hydro-meteorological station master plan, including Earth observatory system for Africa would go a long way to address many of the challenges facing African countries in data issues. Development of this masterplan would ideally take a co-production approach, where users would highlight their weather and climate requirements for informed decision making and the impacts of fulfilling those requirements. ","tokenCount":"2637"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d2c6ea83a02722486202e27be7eefd7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7ca9db8a-951c-4158-9a50-9980c440fb68/retrieve","id":"-1032945182"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"08d784b7-3d19-4d5f-baf9-1c61414a31f7","pagecount":"16","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-The Feeds and Forages Development program continues to work towards strengthening the capacity of national research partners and the private sector engaged in feeds and forages development. To achieve this goal, the program has been proving a series of training programs on quality forage seed production, processing, and handling. It has also been proving expert advice to private forage seed producers to support national forage seed systems and operationalize quality declared forage seed as a means of seed quality assurance in the market. As part of this mission, the program has organized a training workshop under SAPLING initiative from 21-25 October for national staff in Ethiopia. A total of fourteen participants attended the training. The trainees were technicians invited from different agricultural research centres in Ethiopia who are currently working on forage seed production and handling.1. Build the capacity of staff of national research institutes 2. To address the skill and knowledge gaps of national staff on quality forage seed production and handling 3. Expose national staff with available forage options in the ILRI forage Genebank 4. Acquaint national staff with forage seed processing and handling equipment and procedures  The training involved classroom lecture presentations on selected topics (Annex II) followed by questions and answers and reflections based on each of the topics. The lectures were intended to deepen theoretical understanding of the participants on quality forage seed production, processing, and handling with tips to overcome challenges in the production process. The aim is to enable the trainees to apply the right techniques in the field and to be able to train their compatriots in the same. Each classroom lecture was followed by field practical sessions during which participants were taught practical skills and allowed to practice in the field and in the laboratory. The participants were able to interact with each other and exchange ideas, share experience on a range of topics and hence enrich their expertise.Participant in the classroom.Generally, the training was tailored to assist the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) forage experts to develop their skills and practical knowledge on forage seed from establishment to storage (production, management, harvesting, Drying, processing, quality, and storage) to produce quality seeds in the research centres and distribute to the wider farming community, thereby increasing livestock productivity and ensure return on investment. The training content was well-balanced in both theoretical and practical lessons (See Annex II).The practical field work has been instrumental in showing trainees how to select and prepare land for forage seed production, sowing/planting technics and isolation. ILRI's farm facility in Bishoftu used as demonstration site and trainees undertook practical exercise and sow forage seeds that included Sesbania sesban (brows), Lablab purpures (herbaceous legume), Chloris gayana (grass) (in rows and broadcasting), Panicum maximum (grass) by root splitting and Napier grass by cutting.Trainees planting seedPractical exercises included various methods of scarification including hot water, knife, sandpaper, and machine. Moreover, inoculation of legume seeds for nodule formation, methods of harvesting (hand picking, shaking, sweeping, striping, cutting with sickle and machine), post-harvest management such as stooking, sweating, bundles and windrowing, all seed processing/conditioning steps (drying, threshing pre-cleaning, cleaning grading, pesticide treatment and packaging) and the seed quality determination procedures/techniques (sampling, purity, germination, moisture content and seed health) were all demonstrated and practiced by the trainees. Principles of seed storage and routine management of seed store were also discussed.Furthermore, the trainees were split into small groups to in analyze the constraints to forage seed production in their own respective areas and to suggest ways to overcome them. They were also given assignments to gather indigenous knowledge of farmers on traditional methods of seed storage in various parts of the country where they come from to serve as feedback for ILRI Seed Unit.The following topics were generally covered in detail during training. In most of the cases, trainees were provided with the opportunity to work in groups and conduct practical field and lab work.• Characteristics of Important Forage Species and crops under different agroecological conditions• Establishment and management of sown pastures• Fodder trees / shrubs (MPTs)• Forage Germplasm• Forage integration in crop -livestock systems• Forage Seed Production possibilities and methods• Site selection for feed and seed production (soil, water, climate)• Forage seed crop establishment (land preparation, planting, scarification, Isolation etc.)• Management of forage seed crops (weeding, pest, disease, fertilizer, Irrigation etc.)• Harvesting of forage seeds (how and when)• Forage seeds processing (drying, threshing, cleaning, and grading)• Forage seed quality (purity, viability, moisture content and seed health)Training materials were given to the participants for further reference and training of colleagues in their respective centres on the various topics. The materials included manuals, training modules, handout notes and overhead copies.• All the trainees expressed their happiness with the training.• There was full attendance over the five days, except one attendee that could not continue due to unforeseen event.• All the trainees agreed to start expanding their research on forage seed multiplication and distribution to the farming community at their respective area• Follow-up of the trainees to establish and demonstrate forage seed production and multiplication work on their respective research station and make sure they share the skill and knowledge gained in the form of training to their team.• Contact the centre directors for feedback on the improvement and progress made on forage seed production after the training,• Provide technical back stopping based on demand from the centres.At the end the training, participants were given opportunities to reflect on their engagement and evaluate it. They thanked the institute and the trainer for the knowledge and skills they acquired. Feedback of participants was noted for further improvement of the course organization and delivery in the future (Annex III)The course was closed with final remarks to make maximum use of the new skills to improve the way forage seeds are produced and train other staff in their respective centres. The trainees were also encouraged to make use of the facilities available at ILRI Bishoftu and forage Genebank.Annex I ","tokenCount":"1032"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fdb1131a7d81d484d1b21df076a8e8f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dade69df-5c2a-4ad1-a10e-f9c1d39a6035/retrieve","id":"-1255340176"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3b60e434-a8cb-432e-a758-f05c07bcfa3a","pagecount":"50","content":". 40 p.El Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) -miembro del Consorcio CGIAR-en colaboración con cientos de socios en todo el mundo en desarrollo, genera tecnologías, métodos y conocimientos que permiten a los agricultores, en especial los de escasos recursos, lograr mayor eco-eficiencia en la agricultura. Es decir, contribuye a que la producción sea más competitiva y rentable, así como sostenible y resiliente, mediante el uso sensato, en términos económicos y ecológicos, de los recursos naturales y los insumos adquiridos. Con su sede principal cerca de Cali, Colombia, el CIAT realiza investigación orientada al desarrollo en las regiones tropicales de América Latina, África y Asia. www.ciat.cgiar.org CGIAR es una alianza mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre. La labor de investigación de CGIAR está dedicada a reducir la pobreza rural, aumentar la seguridad alimentaria, mejorar la salud y la nutrición humana y asegurar el manejo sostenible de los recursos naturales. Esta labor la llevan a cabo los 15 Centros que son miembros del Consorcio CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, incluidos institutos nacionales y regionales de investigación, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, la academia, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Derechos de Autor © CIAT 2015. Todos los derechos reservadosAl Ministerio del Ambiente de Perú, la Superintendencia Nacional de Servicios de Saneamiento y a todos los colegas e instituciones que vienen impulsando los Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos Hidrológicos, pues a través de su experiencia y participación en las entrevistas ha sido posible la elaboración del presente estudio.Fases del MRSEH Figura 13. Cuellos de botella institucionales reportados en las entrevistas Figura 14. Cuellos de botella técnicos Figura 15. Cuellos de botella (previos a la fase de implementación) más mencionados y su relación con aspectos claves para la implementación de los MRSEH Figura 16. Cuellos de botella posteriores a la implementación Las primeras referencias registradas en la literatura sobre la idea de pagar por los servicios que provee la naturaleza datan de principios del siglo XIX:\"The wind which turns our mills and even the heat of the sun, work for us; but happily no one has yet been able to say, the wind and the sun are mine, and the service which they render must be paid for\" (Say, 1829 citado por Sattler, 2013) Sin embargo, el concepto de Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) 1 , como una herramienta de conservación, es relativamente reciente. El origen del término de PSA se asocia con el reporte del Banco Mundial (World Bank, 2000), el cual hace mención a una nueva herramienta de política desarrollada por el Gobierno de Costa Rica denominada \"Pago por Servicios Ambientales\" (Derissen y Latacz-Lohmann, 2013).Más tarde, Wunder (2005), define PSA como un mecanismo voluntario, que involucra transacciones entre por lo menos un comprador y un vendedor, siempre y cuando el vendedor asegure la provisión del servicio ambiental por medio de un uso adecuado de la tierra. Esa definición está enmarcada en el teorema de Coase, donde se asume que una externalidad puede ser superada a través de una negociación privada entre los actores afectados (Engel et al., 2008). Como resultado de esta negociación se llega a un \"precio justo\" por el servicio ambiental, con el fin de crear un mercado o por lo menos cubrir los costos de oportunidad del cambio en el manejo de la tierra, que son necesarios para la provisión adecuada del servicio ambiental (Pascual et al., 2010).En la práctica, no obstante, pocas experiencias se ajustan de forma estricta a la definición de Wunder (2005), siendo más bien mecanismos tipo-PSA (Wunder, 2008;Quintero et al., 2009). Muradian et al., (2010) redefine el concepto de PSA como una transferencia de recursos entre actores sociales, que busca crear incentivos para alinear las decisiones individuales y/o colectivas entorno al uso de la tierras con los intereses de la sociedad en relación al manejo de los recursos naturales. Tacconi (2011), redefine el PSA como un sistema transparente para la provisión adicional de servicios ecosistémicos (SE) a través de un pago condicionado a los proveedores de este servicio. Más recientemente, Wunder (2014) ajusta su definición inicial de PSA a una nueva, en la cual estos mecanismos consisten en transacciones voluntarias, entre usuarios y los proveedores de los SE, condicionadas a unas reglas acordadas para el manejo de los recursos naturales con el fin de generar servicios ecosistémicos que se aprovechan fuera de las áreas donde están ubicados los proveedores (\"offsite ecosystem services\").1 No existe un consenso a nivel internacional sobre la nomenclatura de este tipo de mecanismos. En muchas ocasiones se utiliza indistintamente la denominación de Pagos por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) y Pagos por Servicios Ecosistémicos (PSE). En Perú, el Ministerio del Ambiente ha adoptado la terminología de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos (RSE).El Estado Peruano, por su parte, teniendo en cuenta los esquemas tipo-PSA que venían gestándose en diferentes lugares del país desde el 2005, tomó la iniciativa de establecer una definición propia acorde a la realidad nacional. A través de la Ley de Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos (Ley N° 30215), aprobada en junio del 2014, se adopta la terminología de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos (RSE) en lugar de Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA), al mismo tiempo que la define como:\"Esquemas, herramientas, instrumentos e incentivos para generar, canalizar, transferir e invertir recursos económicos, financieros y no financieros, donde se establece un acuerdo entre contribuyentes y retribuyentes al servicio ecosistémico, orientado a la conservación, recuperación y uso sostenible de las fuentes de los servicios ecosistémicos\". (Artículo 3c. Ley N° 30215)En ese sentido, el presente estudio busca evidenciar el estado de avance de los Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos Hidrológicos (MRSEH) en Perú, al mismo tiempo que analiza los cuellos de botella existentes en el desarrollo de esta herramienta de conservación. La evaluación del estado de avance de las iniciativas se realiza comparando los resultados de las entrevistas desarrolladas en el 2015 con relación a la información obtenida en el 2013; mientras que el análisis de cuellos de botella se basa en la Teoría de Restricciones propuesta por Eliyahu Goldratt.Este documento ha sido elaborado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), con el respaldo y a solicitud del Ministerio del Ambiente del Perú (MINAM) y la Superintendencia Nacional de Servicios de Saneamiento (SUNASS), instituciones que en los últimos años vienen trabajando de forma activa en la promoción de los MRSEH.El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado de avance de los MRSEH y analizar los cuellos de botella que dichos mecanismos vienen enfrentando y por los cuales no logran llegar a la fase de implementación o ésta no es sostenible. Dichos hallazgos se espera sirvan como orientación, para que las instituciones competentes prioricen acciones que permitan revertir los obstáculos encontrados. De ser así, se fortalecerá a los actuales MRSEH a la vez que se promoverá la creación de nuevos mecanismos.El presente estudio recoge los resultados del trabajo realizado sobre los MRSEH en el 2013 y 2015. En el 2013 el CIAT de la mano con el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), llevó a cabo entrevistas semi-estructuradas a las instituciones promotoras de los MRSEH en el Perú, obteniendo información sobre el estado de avance de estos mecanismos y las dificultades que afrontaban para llegar a la implementación. En el 2015, el CIAT repite el ejercicio del 2013 incluyendo a los nuevos MRSEH en desarrollo.De esta manera, la información recolectada durante el 2013 y 2015 ha permitido evidenciar el progreso de los mecanismos, así como identificar cuáles cuellos de botella han sido absueltos y cuáles persisten en la construcción de esta herramienta de conservación. Las secciones comprendidas en este estudio son las siguientes:• Metodología• Conceptos generales y normativa de los MRSEH • Evolución de los MRSEH • Cuellos de botella para la implementación de los MRSEH y soluciones emergentes En la primera sección se presenta la metodología utilizada para evaluar el estado de avance de las iniciativas de MRSEH y los cuellos de botella; en la segunda sección se muestra los conceptos utilizados en este estudio sobre los MRSEH y la normativa vigente al respecto; en la tercera sección se expone el estado actual de los MRSEH y su avance con relación al 2013; mientras que en la cuarta sección se presenta los cuellos de botella absueltos, aquellas limitaciones que persisten en la implementación de los MRSEH y algunas soluciones emergentes a los cuellos de botella identificados.Figura 1. Fases del MRSEHEl estudio ha sido elaborado a partir de la revisión de información bibliográfica, consultas a expertos, realización de entrevistas semi-estructuradas y la validación de resultados.Parte de la información bibliográfica estuvo conformada por los estudios desarrollados por las propias iniciativas de MRSEH y que para propósito de este estudio fueron facilitados a CIAT. Asimismo, se consideró la normativa vigente gestada por el MINAM y la SUNASS en relación a los MRSEH.En el caso de las entrevistas, éstas fueron realizadas en dos momentos: en el año 2013 y durante el año 2015. La misma entrevista semi-estructurada fue aplicada a las instituciones que lideran cada uno de los MRSEH en el país. El resultado de dichas entrevistas constituyó el principal insumo para la elaboración del presente documento.Las entrevistas fueron realizadas entre los meses de abril y agosto del 2013 y julio y agosto del 2015, con una duración aproximada de 1-3 horas. Debido a la dispersión de las iniciativas a nivel nacional, no todas las entrevistas se llevaron a cabo de forma presencial, por lo cual se empleó la red telefónica y el internet como medios alternativos. Una vez sistematizadas las entrevistas, éstas fueron socializadas con los entrevistados para su validación. Las entrevistas incluyeron preguntas para cubrir 5 aspectos: i) Información del encuestado; ii) Información general de la iniciativa de MRSEH; iii) Características generales de la cuenca donde se encuentra ubicada la iniciativa de MRSEH; iv) Descripción de la iniciativa de MRSEH con preguntas específicas para definir en qué etapa y nivel de avance se encuentra; y v) cuellos de botella u obstáculos del MRSEH para avanzar hacia o en la implementación.Para medir el avance de las iniciativas se dividió el proceso hacia la implementación en fases, por las cuales la mayoría de iniciativas han pasado para llegar a la etapa de implementación (Figura 1). Para cada una de las fases se estableció actividades, a las cuales de acuerdo a su cumplimiento se les asignó un puntaje (Anexo 1). Con este puntaje y respectivos criterios se proporciona un marco común para comparar el estado de avance de las iniciativas de MRSEH en el país. Cabe resaltar, sin embargo, que el estado de avance constituye una medida de progreso y no del grado de éxito o el nivel de calidad alcanzado en cada actividad.Para la identificación de los cuellos de botella, se les preguntó a los entrevistados por diferentes tipos de cuello de botella. Las opciones de tipos de cuello de botellas proporcionados en la entrevista fueron:A. Se refiere a limitaciones relacionadas con la falta de voluntad política que impulse estos mecanismos o a la politización de las iniciativas, propiciando que éstas respondan a intereses políticos particulares y pierdan su función de promover la acción colectiva y el interés social frente al manejo adecuado del recurso hídrico y los ecosistemas que lo proveen.G. Otro: Cuellos de botella no mencionados en las categorías anteriores.Los cuellos de botella identificados fueron posteriormente evaluados siguiendo el enfoque de la Teoría de Restricciones propuesta por Eliyahu Goldratt en los 80´s, la cual analiza los procesos con la lógica de la causa y efecto, para identificar los elementos o pasos en un proceso que afectan el resultado final (Dettmer, 1996). Estos elementos son los cuellos de botella que se definen como restricciones del sistema que limitan la producción de un bien 2 . Los cuellos de botella están inmersos en procesos compuestos por múltiples tareas y sub-procesos y terminan por disminuir la velocidad de todo el proceso (y por aumentar los costos de producción), aun si los demás componentes del mismo están funcionando bien. Por consiguiente, para los propósitos de este estudio, un cuello de botella se define como las actividades o aspectos que disminuyen la velocidad del proceso de implementación de un MRSEH, incrementando el tiempo de diseño e implementación, reduciendo el número de casos implementados en el país, y aumentando los costos de su implementación.El análisis de los cuellos de botella es un proceso iterativo, dado que éste varía dependiendo de los cambios que suceden en un proceso a través del tiempo, o porque la solución de un cuello de botella no garantiza que no vuelvan a presentarse elementos que disminuyan el desarrollo de los procesos.Finalmente, los resultados obtenidos en las entrevistas durante el 2013 y 2105 han sido validados y complementados con información adicional provista por diferentes actores relacionados a los MRSEH, obtenida en diferentes reuniones. Entre éstas vale la pena hacer mención a la reunión de trabajo desarrollada en el 2013 por el CIAT denominada \"Cuellos de Botella para la Implementación de los Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos Hidrológicos\"; la participación del CIAT en los 3 talleres macroregionales desarrollados por el MINAM en el 2014 sobre la implementación de los MRSE y los 2 talleres macroregionales desarrollados por el MINAM y la SUNASS en el 2015 sobre los avances, dificultades y perspectivas de los MRSEH.El intercambio de conocimiento con diferentes expertos en la temática sumado a la experiencia de quienes impulsan estos mecanismos ha enriquecido sustancialmente el estudio, otorgándole una visión crítica de la evolución de los MRSEH en el Perú.CIAT Perú -2015El Perú desde el 2014, con la promulgación de la Ley de Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos (Ley N° 30215), cuenta con un marco regulatorio específico que respalda a los MRSE a nivel nacional. Además, para el caso particular de las empresas prestadoras de servicios de saneamiento (EPS), se ha regulado la inclusión de los MRSEH como parte de la tarifa de agua potable y alcantarillado a través de la Ley de Modernización de los Servicios de Saneamiento (Ley N° 30045), su respectivo Reglamento y normas complementarias. El avance normativo en el sector de saneamiento y el sector ambiental ha sido el resultado del trabajo coordinado entre el MINAM y la SUNASS entorno a los MRSEH. \"Instrumento que permite delimitar las microcuencas de las que se abastece de agua la EPS, caracterizar el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas prioritarios para las EPS y los servicios ecosistémicos hídricos que de ellos se derivan, con el fin de identificar y priorizar acciones de conservación, restauración y uso sostenible de dichos ecosistemas, a partir de un análisis del impacto esperado. Este diagnóstico deberá incluir el diseño de un sistema de monitoreo y evaluación de las acciones priorizadas\".Servicio Ecosistémico Hidrológico (SEH):Los servicios ecosistémicos son aquellos beneficios económicos, sociales y ambientales, que las personas obtienen del buen funcionamiento de los ecosistemas.En el caso de los SEH, éstos hacen referencia a los beneficios que los ecosistemas de la cuenca hidrográfica proporcionan a los usuarios de agua. Estos beneficios incluyen la regulación hidrológica en una cuenca (que permite que se garantice el flujo de agua en época seca o que en época de lluvias se suavicen los caudales extremos); la disponibilidad de agua en ríos para diferentes usos; el control de erosión y sedimentos, entre otros. En consecuencia, estos beneficios dependen del funcionamiento de los ecosistemas, por lo cual los MRSEH se centran en el servicio que presta el ecosistema y no en el bien como tal (el agua). En la siguiente Tabla se presentan los principales SEH:Centrados en el suministro directo de alimentos y productos no alimentarios provenientes de los cursos de agua.• Suministro de agua dulce • Producción de cultivo y frutas • Producción de ganado • Producción de pescado • Energía hidroeléctrica Servicio de regulación Relacionados con la regulación de los cursos de agua o la reducción de riesgos.• Amortiguación de la escorrentía, infiltración de agua en el suelo, aguas subterráneas y mantenimiento del caudal base. • Prevención de inundaciones y reducción del caudal máximo de agua. • Protección del suelo y control de la erosión y la sedimentación. • Control de la calidad de las aguas superficiales y subterráneas.Provistos para apoyar los hábitats y el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas.• Hábitat silvestre.• Régimen de caudales requeridos para mantener el hábitat y los usos de agua en la cuenca baja.Relacionados con la recreación y la inspiración de las personas.• Recreación acuática Todas las cuencas hidrográficas en estudio, a excepción de la cuenca de Nanay ubicada en el llano amazónico, nacen en la Cordillera de los Andes. El 64% de dichas cuencas pertenecen a la Vertiente del Atlántico, mientras que el 36% restante corresponde a la Vertiente del Pacífico. Los MRSEH se encuentran en 17 departamentos del país, destacándose el departamento de San Martín al concentrar a 4 mecanismos (Figura 3).La dimensión de las cuencas hidrográficas involucradas en los MRSEH, varían desde cuencas pequeñas como las de Rumiyacu, Mishquiyacu y Almendra (Iniciativa N° 15), con una área conjunta de 923 ha; hasta cuencas de gran extensión como la de Nanay con un área de 1´721,343 ha. El 50% de las iniciativas poseen un área menor a 50,000 ha, el 9.09% abarca un área entre 50,000 y 200,000 ha, mientras que el 40.91% tiene un área mayor a 200,000 ha.La existencia de un porcentaje significativo (40.91%) de iniciativas que se desarrollan en cuencas de grandes dimensiones, implica un reto en la gestión, gobernanza y administración del mecanismo.Adicional al SEH que es reconocido a través de la implementación de estos mecanismos, los ecosistemas de la parte alta brindan otros servicios ecosistémicos. Muestra de la importancia de los ecosistemas en las zonas de cabecera de cuenca, es la presencia de áreas naturales protegidas y zonas prioritarias de conservación en el 73% de los MRSEH bajo estudio (16 iniciativas) (Tabla 3). Esto realza aún más el rol clave que poseen los contribuyentes en los múltiples esfuerzos de conservación. El alto porcentaje de iniciativas con expectativas de mejorar el SEH, se debe a que la mayoría de mecanismos (90%) nacen como respuesta a una problemática con la cantidad, regularidad o calidad del recurso hídrico. Sin embargo, aun cuando existe una problemática con el recurso hídrico, algunas iniciativas tienen como objetivo de corto plazo mantener las condiciones actuales del SEH.Aunque estos objetivos buscan el beneficio de todos los actores de la cuenca, es importante destacar el esfuerzo conjunto que las EPS, la SUNASS y el MINAM han realizado en priorizar cuál es el SEH de interés de la EPS y por el cual ésta recaudará e invertirá la retribución económica. La herramienta de gestión denominada \"Diagnósticos Hidrológicos Rápidos\" 6 ha sido de gran utilidad en el este proceso.A pesar que la Ley N° 30215 contempla la RSE como un mecanismo para la conservación de los ecosistemas fuentes de los SEH, se reconoce en las iniciativas estudiadas que adicional a los objetivos de carácter hidrológico se encuentran los objetivos de carácter social. La mayoría de los mecanismos espera que la retribución supere los costos de oportunidad de realizar actividades de conservación y/o recuperación de los ecosistemas. Con ello, las iniciativas intentan contribuir a mejorar la calidad de vida de la población que coopera en la provisión de los SEH, quienes por lo general se ubican en la parte alta de la cuenca y cuentan con recursos económicos escasos.Esta doble intencionalidad (ambiental-social) se hace aún más notoria en iniciativas como la cuenca de Cachi, donde aparte del interés de generar un bienestar económico en los contribuyentes, se suma el pedido manifiesto de reconocimiento de su labor en la conservación de los SEH, que en resumen 6 Esta herramienta ha sido desarrollada por la Incubadora de proyectos del MINAM, con el apoyo de CONDESAN y la SUNASS. El concepto de esta herramienta es compatible con la expuesto en la Resolución de Consejo Directivo N° 011-2015-SUNASS-CD, donde se hace referencia al Diagnostico Hídrico Base.Figura 4. Objetivos hidrológicos de los MRSEH *La disponibilidad hídrica incluye tanto el rendimiento hídrico como la capacidad de regulación de la cuenca, mientras que la calidad del recurso incluye la calidad química y física del agua.CIAT Perú -2015Figura 5. Fecha de inicio de las iniciativas de MRSEH podría entenderse como \"equidad o justicia hídrica\". Muestra de ello es lo expresado por Magdalena Machaca, integrante de la Asociación Bartolomé Aripaylla (ABA) que apoya a la iniciativa de Cachi: \"Los impulsores de la iniciativa exigen que el MRSEH sea un reconocimiento y amparo a la labor criadora del agua de las comunidades asentadas en la cabecera de las cuencas Cachi y Pampas\" (M. Machaca, entrevista personal, 01 de septiembre de 2013).El desarrollo de MRSEH tiene en el Perú cerca de doce años. El proyecto pionero a nivel nacional fue el correspondiente a la iniciativa de Rumiyacu, Mishquiyacu y Almendra. Dicho proyecto, que nace del trabajo conjunto de la sociedad civil, la cooperación internacional (ie. GIZ, en ese entonces GTZ a través de su proyecto \"Cuencas Andinas\") y el Gobierno Regional de San Martin, se inicia en el año 2004 y logra implementarse en el año 2009, marcando un referente para los siguientes MRSEH.De esta manera, es recién a partir del año 2010 donde se registra el comienzo de la mayor cantidad de iniciativas de MRSEH; dieciséis de las veintidós iniciativas se han iniciado en los últimos seis años (Figura 5).Otro punto importante respecto al origen de los MRSEH es la fuente impulsora del mecanismo, es decir quienes proponen la iniciativa. La sociedad civil (incluyendo en esta categoría a las asociaciones civiles sin fines de lucro, como las ONG) constituye el principal promotor de los MRSEH. Diez iniciativas (45.45%) han sido propuestas por la sociedad civil, nueve iniciativas (40.91%) se originan del trabajo conjunto entre la sociedad civil y el gobierno y las tres restantes (13.64%) nacen por el interés y promoción del gobierno local, regional y nacional.Entre la sociedad civil, sin embargo, es importante resaltar el rol que las organizaciones no gubernamentales sin fines de lucro (ONG) poseen en la puesta en marcha de estos mecanismos. De las diecinueve iniciativas en las que la sociedad civil ha participado como agente impulsor, las ONG han estado involucradas en diecisiete de ellas; es decir en alrededor del 77% de las iniciativas existentes en el país, las ONG han sido el motor en el inicio de los MRSEH.Dichas organizaciones apoyan tanto aspectos técnicos como económicos, siendo en la mayoría de los casos quienes financian el proceso de construcción de estos mecanismos. Por lo general, estas organizaciones cuentan con oficinas en la zona de intervención, lo cual facilita su participación y liderazgo en los proyectos de MRSEH. Esta situación deja entrever el papel clave que este actor ejerce en el desarrollo de gran parte de los mecanismos, pero a la vez el reto que tiene cada iniciativa de consolidar un esquema donde la intervención de estas organizaciones no sea indispensable durante la fase de implementación y en su sostenibilidad en el tiempo.Por otro lado, como parte de la sociedad civil, es importante destacar aquellas iniciativas que nacen por el impulso de la propia población local. Un ejemplo es la iniciativa de Cachi, la cual nace desde la Comunidad Campesina Quispillacta y la iniciativa de Quiroz que se origina como respuesta a la disposición de la Junta de Usuarios de Riego de retribuir a la población que conserva los ecosistemas en la parte alta de la cuenca.Por su parte, el gobierno ha apoyado a doce iniciativas (54.55%) desde sus inicios. Los tres niveles de gobierno (nacional, regional y local) han participado promoviendo el desarrollo de estos mecanismos, destacándose el involucramiento de los gobiernos locales (Municipalidad distrital y provincial). En la siguiente Tabla se detallan los agentes que han impulsado cada una de las iniciativas: Si bien se ha evidenciado la destacable colaboración de las ONG para la puesta en marcha de los mecanismos, su involucramiento y protagonismo va variando a medida que los mecanismos se van consolidando. En el 2013, la mayor parte de las instituciones sin fines de lucro que contribuyeron a la creación del mecanismo, eran parte del grupo de actores que lo gestionaba. Sin embargo, en el 2015 se identifica que las ONG reducen su protagonismo en la gestión alrededor del diseño e implementación de los MRSEH. Esto se debe a que en varias de las iniciativas, los proyectos de las organizaciones de cooperación internacional y de las ONG han culminado, teniendo que ceder su liderazgo al gobierno local. En otros casos, las ONG siguen participando activamente en los mecanismos pero como parte de un grupo más amplio de actores, el cual se organiza como grupos gestores o grupos técnicos de apoyo para la implementación de los MRSEH.Así, la información expuesta en la Figura 7 muestra que actualmente existe una mayor presencia del gobierno en el desarrollo de estos mecanismos, al mismo tiempo que sugiere que el trabajo conjunto sociedad civil-gobierno es la tendencia en la medida que se avanza hacia la implementación de los MRSEH. Sobre este último punto, es importante resaltar que hasta la fecha 12 iniciativas cuentan con plataformas de buena gobernanza (la cual recibe distintos nombres: grupo impulsor, grupo gestor, grupo técnico, etc.), que involucran a múltiples actores de la cuenca tales como organizaciones gubernamentales, sociedad civil, ONG y empresa privada y que en 4 casos han asumido el liderazgo del mecanismo. Nuevamente, el reto es lograr que no se cree una dependencia técnica/financiera a las ONG y organizaciones de cooperación, de tal manera que si finaliza su intervención en la zona exista una institucionalidad sólida que pueda seguir acompañando la puesta en marcha del MRSEH.CIAT Perú -2015La identificación de los contribuyentes y retribuyentes en el marco de la cuenca hidrográfica, es una de las primeras tareas en la construcción de un MRSEH. La priorización de los retribuyentes suele ser más fácil que la determinación de los contribuyentes, dado que los primeros están relacionados a los beneficiarios del SEH. En el caso de los contribuyentes, en cambio, es necesario previamente identificar la zona prioritaria de interés hídrico de la cuenca, lo cual puede requerir de la realización de estudios y/o salidas de reconocimiento en campo.Los contribuyentes, por consenso, se encuentran ubicados en la parte alta de la cuenca, debido a que en dichas áreas se encuentran los ecosistemas que se asumen son los claves para la provisión del SEH. Es posible diferenciar a los contribuyentes por su nivel de organización, su naturaleza jurídica o por el tipo de tenencia de la tierra. De acuerdo al nivel de organización los contribuyentes pueden ser las comunidades campesinas, comunidades nativas, asociaciones de productores o productores individuales. Mientras que en función del tipo de tenencia de la tierra, los contribuyentes son los propietarios del predio, posesionarios o comuneros. Estas dos características del contribuyente son de suma importancia al momento de establecer el tipo y términos de los acuerdos entre retribuyentes y contribuyentes del SEH.Si bien un alto número de las iniciativas de MSREH (16 iniciativas) ha logrado definir la zona prioritaria de interés hídrico y en consecuencia a la población contribuyente, no en todos los casos ha sido posible diferenciar cuál es la zona de interés para cada uno de los retribuyentes dentro de la cuenca. Este nivel de detalle viene siendo trabajado principalmente por las EPS con el acompañamiento de la SUNASS y el MINAM a través de los \"Diagnósticos Hidrológicos Rápidos\" (DHR). Un ejemplo de esto es la iniciativa de Tilacancha, donde la EPS EMUSAP ha priorizado sólo la parte alta de la microcuenca Osmal, la cual representa un porcentaje de toda la zona de interés hídrico del mecanismo 7 . Por consiguiente, para lograr una negociación transparente con los diferentes retribuyentes y para que se obtenga el impacto esperado sobre el SEH, será necesario se aplique la herramienta de DHR. A través de esta herramienta se podrá identificar cuál es el SEH de mayor interés para cada retribuyente y qué área geográfica dentro de la cuenca es la prioritaria para la provisión del servicio.En el caso de los retribuyentes, éstos se ubican por lo general en la parte baja de la cuenca y en algunas ocasiones en la parte media de la cuenca (por ejemplo cuando el retribuyente es una central hidroeléctrica). A diferencia de los contribuyentes cuya priorización, en la mayoría de casos, no ha cambiado entre el 2013 al 2015, Los retribuyentes priorizados son aquellos actores que en el corto plazo se espera participen como retribuyentes del MSREH o que en la actualidad ya son retribuyentes del mecanismo. La priorización de los retribuyentes es un proceso dinámico, el cual depende de múltiples factores, tales como el estado de avance del mecanismo, el poder de negociación del agente que lidera la iniciativa, la disposición de participar de los retribuyentes, el contexto social, entre otros. Así, por ejemplo, una iniciativa en la fase de diseño puede haber priorizado únicamente un retribuyente, pero una vez inicia la fase de implementación otros actores son incluidos como retribuyentes. De igual forma, el cambio del personal encargado de la iniciativa de MRSEH puede habilitar o restringir la participación de un determinado actor.Como se puede apreciar en el Figura 8, durante el periodo 2013-2015 se mantiene la preferencia de los usuarios de agua potable 8 y los usuarios de agua para riego como retribuyentes del MRSEH. Esto está directamente relacionado a que son los sectores con mayor demanda consuntiva del recurso. En el caso particular de los usuarios de agua potable, además, se cuenta con la Ley N° 30045, las disposiciones de su Reglamento y el Decreto Legislativo N° 1240, donde se especifica el deber de las EPS de incluir como parte de la tarifa a los MRSEH. Este mandato normativo constituye un factor impulsor importante en el involucramiento de las EPS como retribuyentes en los mecanismos.En la priorización del Gobierno y las ONG como retribuyentes, se evidencia un incremento significativo entre el año 2013 y 2015. En el 2013 el concepto de retribuyente estaba asociado principalmente al beneficiario del servicio hidrológico, con lo cual la mayoría de iniciativas priorizaban a los usuarios del recurso. Sin embargo, algunos factores como la promulgación de la Ley de MRSE (Ley N° 30215) y la experiencia adquirida por los propios mecanismos, han generado se involucre como retribuyentes a otros actores que de forma directa no son beneficiarios y/o usuarios del servicio hidrológico pero que tienen interés en la conservación y mejora de la provisión del SEH, tales como el gobierno y las ONG.En el caso de la Ley N° 30215, ésta oficializó el MRSE y esclareció el rol de los Gobiernos locales y regionales, otorgando la seguridad normativa que necesitaban las instituciones del Estado para involucrarse. Asimismo, a medida que las iniciativas han llegado a la fase de la selección de los retribuyentes ha tenido variaciones durante este periodo. En la Figura 8, se presenta el porcentaje de iniciativas que han priorizado a un determinado retribuyente durante el 2013 y 2015: implementación, el financiamiento de las acciones de conservación y restauración se vuelve un cuello de botella (ver sección \"Cuellos de Botella\"), siendo necesario incluir a otros actores dispuestos a contribuir con el mecanismo y a darle sostenibilidad al mismo.De esta manera, lo que demuestran las iniciativas que poseen un mayor avance en el desarrollo del MRSEH, es que en la etapa de implementación es indispensable involucrar a la mayor cantidad de retribuyentes, sean estos o no usuarios directos del servicio hidrológico. Todas la iniciativas, a excepción de una, que presentan un mayor avance han priorizado 3 o más retribuyentes.Como se puede apreciar en la Figura 9 y Figura 10, en general, entre el 2013-2015 se ha dado un avance significativo en el desarrollo de los MRSEH. Al 2015 la mayoría de iniciativas han culminado la fase de diagnóstico; la fase de diseño ha tenido un progreso importante pasando de un 18% a un 41% de iniciativas que han culminado esta fase entre el 2013 y 2015; en la fase de negociación entre el 2013 y 2015 hay un incremento del 18% al 25% de iniciativas que han culminado esta fase; mientras que en la fase de implementación hay un incremento del 12% al 14%.De esta manera, mientras que en el 2013 eran 4 las iniciativas que destacaban por su grado de avance hacia la implementación 9 : Piuray Ccorimarca, Quanda y Botijas, Jequetepeque y Rumiyaku, Mishiyaku y Almendra; en el 2015 se evidencian 9 iniciativas con un grado de avance considerable: Amoju, Cumbaza, Quiroz, Piuray Ccorimarca, Rimac, Chillon y Lurin, Quanda y Botijas, Tilacancha, Jequetepeque 10 y Rumiyaku, Mishiyaku y Almendra. Sin embargo, hay que señalar que las iniciativas de Zaña, Nanay e Ica-Huancavelica se encuentran actualmente paralizadas y no se tiene certeza sobre su reactivación. 9 Se destacan por su grado de avance aquellas iniciativas que han logrado un puntaje superior a 15, de acuerdo a los criterios del Anexo 1.10 La iniciativa de Jequetepeque logró tener un avance significativo a través del proyecto piloto CESAH. Actualmente se encuentra en una etapa de transición para la ampliación del mecanismo a través del FOBIRAJ. 11 En la margen derecha de la Figura se muestra el año de inicio de cada MRSEH. Las razones por las cuales el avance de algunas iniciativas es más rápido a comparación de otras serán expuestas en la siguiente sección (\"Cuellos de botella\"), sin embargo es importante destacar una variable que parece dificultar el avance de los mecanismos: el tamaño de la cuenca. Aunque este factor no impide el desarrollo del mecanismo, pues la iniciativa de Chillón, Rímac y Lurín se encuentra en fase de implementación, por lo general grandes tamaños de cuenca retardan la implementación de la iniciativa. Una cuenca de mayor dimensión requiere un mayor tiempo para la realización del diagnóstico, negociación con los actores y estructuración del mecanismo, a la vez que demandará de un mayor nivel de inversión para su puesta en marcha. Muestra de ello, es que a la fecha de las 9 iniciativas con un área mayor a 200,000 ha, sólo 3 (33%) han logrado tener algún avance en la etapa de implementación (Jequetepeque; Chillón, Rímac y Lurín; Quiroz); 1 tiene un avance medio (Cañete); 2 se encuentran en la fase de diagnóstico y diseño (Chili y Santa) y las tres restantes se encuentran paralizadas (Nanay, Ica-Huancavelica y Zaña). Mientras que el 70% de las iniciativas (9 de 13 iniciativas) que se desarrollan en cuencas con un área menor a 200,000 ha presentan avances en la fase de implementación. Si se toma en cuenta, además, el año de inicio de las iniciativas desarrolladas en cuencas de grandes dimensiones, se puede evidenciar que éstas tienen en promedio 5 años de desarrollo del MRSEH. 12Al ser los MRSEH un esquema voluntario, uno de los mayores retos es lograr que los retribuyentes se comprometan a retribuir de forma recurrente al mecanismo. La manera de formalizar el otorgamiento de la retribución y el compromiso de conservación por parte del contribuyente es a través de acuerdos. Según la Ley de MRSE, dichos acuerdos deberían ser firmados por lo menos por el retribuyente y contribuyente del mecanismo. En la práctica, en algunos casos como en la iniciativa de Quanda y Botijas, el acuerdo involucra directamente al actor retribuyente (Municipalidad) y al contribuyente (propietario del predio), mientras que en otras iniciativas como la de Quiroz el acuerdo es firmado entre la institución que representa a los retribuyentes y administra los aportes (presidente del Consejo Directivo del Fondo Quiroz) y el representante de los contribuyentes (comunidad campesina). Las particularidades de los acuerdos dependerán de las características de las partes involucradas, tales como: unidad administradora privada/pública, tenencia de tierra, existencia de áreas de conservación, existencia de comunidades nativas o indígenas, entre otros. (Ver Tabla 5).Además, es importante resaltar la existencia de preacuerdos o acuerdos de conservación preliminares (Iniciativas de San Alberto la Colina y Gera), los cuales involucran incentivos financiados por ONG y cooperación (no priorizados en estas iniciativas como retribuyentes) con el objetivo de dar inicio a las prácticas de conservación en el terreno, ganar la confianza de los contribuyentes e incentivar a los retribuyentes a participar. Posteriormente, se espera que dichos pre-acuerdos se ratifiquen o se renueven utilizando los aportes de los retribuyentes. El riesgo, no obstante, es que la ratificación de los acuerdos no se logre en el corto plazo y el mecanismo pierda credibilidad. Actualmente, 15 iniciativas han logrado invertir o comprometer recursos por parte de los retribuyentes, de las cuales 12 (55%) cuentan con acuerdos o convenios entre retribuyentes/donantes y contribuyentes, a comparación del 2013 donde sólo 5 iniciativas (29%) tenían acuerdos. Sin embargo, dichos acuerdos aunque implican un compromiso de conservación por parte del contribuyente no aseguran en todos los casos una retribución recurrente por parte del retribuyente. En consecuencia, las iniciativas procuran formalizar el compromiso de los retribuyentes a través de otros medios.En el caso de los usuarios de agua potable, la Ley de Modernización de los Servicios de Saneamiento (Ley N° 30045) es un respaldo legal que asegura que una vez incluido el concepto de retribución en la tarifa de agua, la aportación sea periódica. Actualmente, existen 7 EPS que tienen resolución tarifaria aprobada que incluyen al MRSEH. En el caso de las Juntas de Usuarios de Riego, que son el segundo retribuyente con mayor priorización, se ha optado por incluir la retribución dentro del Plan Operativo Anual y la tarifa de agua para riego, siendo necesario que todos los años dicha herramienta de planificación sea ratificada y aprobada por la Autoridad Local del Agua (ALA). Existen sólo 2 iniciativas (Quiroz y Cumbaza) que tienen un compromiso activo con las Juntas de Usuarios de Riego. 13 Cuando se involucra a una institución gubernamental, como es el caso de Quiroz y Quanda y Botijas, se han publicado ordenanzas y resoluciones municipales que validan su compromiso e incluso especifican el monto de aporte anual. Además, en el caso de Quanda y Botijas el MRSEH ha sido incluido dentro de los instrumentos de gestión municipal, lo cual segura una continuidad ante un cambio de autoridades. Finalmente, para asegurar el involucramiento y participación constante de otros actores como empresas privadas, ONG y cooperación, se firman actas de compromiso o incluso se vuelven a esto actores socios de la institucionalidad creada para el manejo del mecanismo. Ejemplo de ello son las iniciativas de Tilacancha (FOVAT), Rímac, Chillón y Lurín (Aquafondo) y Quiroz (Fondo de Agua Quiroz).Como se ha visto en las secciones anteriores, entre el 2013 al 2015 ha habido un progreso significativo en el avance de los MRSEH en el Perú, gracias al esfuerzo conjunto de la sociedad civil y el Gobierno. Sin embargo, una vez las iniciativas llegan a la etapa de implementación uno de los principales retos es conseguir una retribución constante que pueda significar un impacto positivo sobre los ecosistemas proveedores del servicio hidrológico y la población coadyuvante.Como se puede ver en la Tabla 5, no todas las iniciativas donde se ha retribuido a los contribuyentes, cuentan con recursos asegurados para los próximos años. Actualmente hay 10 iniciativas que tienen una retribución comprometida para los próximos años. Estos compromisos de retribución involucran a los siguientes actores: Empresas Prestadoras de Servicios de Saneamiento (EPS), Juntas de Usuarios de Riego, Gobierno y ONG. Como se muestra en la Tabla 6, la mayor cantidad de inversión comprometida proviene de las EPS, lo cual está directamente relacionado a la promulgación de Ley N° 30045 y normas complementarias.El 70% de las iniciativas con recursos comprometidos dependen de una única fuente de recursos. Un caso a resaltar es la iniciativa de Quiroz que ha logrado comprometer la aportación de tres diferentes actores. Además, se evidencia la ausencia de inversión comprometida por parte de hidroeléctricas, actor que cuenta con un alto nivel de priorización como retribuyente en los MRSEH. La participación de la empresa privada está igualmente ausente.  22.190 $ 41,20 $ 32.345,72 $ 160,94 $ 434,38 $ 1.184,55 $ 34.125,59 En la Figura 11 se muestra la inversión comprometida para los próximos 5 años (2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020). El gráfico 1 hace referencia al monto total comprometido de cada una de las iniciativas; el gráfico 2 muestra el monto total comprometido de cada iniciativa excluyendo a Piuray y Chillón, Rímac y Lurín; mientras que el gráfico 3 muestra la retribución por hectárea.Como puede constatarse en la Figura 11, la iniciativa de Chillón, Rímac y Lurín, será la que recibirá un monto considerablemente superior al resto de los mecanismos (cerca de $ 29 millones de dólares), seguida de la iniciativa de Piuray-Ccorimarca ($ 2.5 millones de dólares). Sin embargo, cuando se analiza la inversión por unidad de área, son las iniciativas de Piuray Ccorimarca y Rumiyacu, Mishquiyacu y Almendra quienes poseen una mayor cantidad de recursos por hectárea. Esto evidencia la relevancia de tener en cuenta la dimensión de la cuenca para la estimación del grado de inversión necesario. Esta primera aproximación involucra el área total de la cuenca, sin embargo a medida que todas las iniciativas delimiten su zona de interés hídrico, el valor deberá ser ajustado al área de intervención correspondiente.Por otro lado, es importante hacer mención que la EPS, adicionalmente de los recursos destinados para el MRSEH, vienen asignando un porcentaje de su tarifa para la gestión de riesgos y desastres. Teniendo en cuenta que muchas de las actividades propuestas en los mecanismos son compatibles con la gestión de riesgos y desastres, esta reserva adicional representa una oportunidad para reforzar la retribución en los MSREH.1 Fuente: Gerencia de Regulación Tarifaria de SUNASS.2 Se asume que el cambio de directivos y autoridades no afectará la continuidad de la aportación.3 El área de la iniciativa de Tilacancha incluye las cuencas de Osmal y Cruzhuyaco, mientras que la iniciativa de Quiroz incluye las cuencas de Macará, Quiroz y Chipillico. Las demás iniciativas involucran las cuencas a cuyo nombre hacen referencia.4 La EPS Seda Ayacucho involucra la localidad de Huamanga y Huanta. La localidad de Huamanga se abastece de la cuenca de Cachi, mientras que la localidad de Huanta de la cuenca de Razuhuilca. Lo recaudado deberá distribuirse en ambas cuencas.5 Tipo de cambio 3.2 soles/dólar Tabla 6. Retribución comprometida en los MRSEH Figura 11. Retribución comprometida en los MRSEHLas respuestas de los entrevistados con relación a las limitaciones y cuellos de botella en la implementación de los MRSEH fueron reclasificados para poder interpretar los resultados. Esto debido a que algunas cosas que se manifestaron como cuellos de botella eran más factores de contexto que limitan la factibilidad del esquema como tal, o en otras ocasiones eran cuellos de botella que ya se encuentran superados. Cabe recordar que los cuellos de botella son las actividades o aspectos que reducen la velocidad de avance de un proceso existente. Es decir no son limitaciones para que exista o no el proceso, sino aquellas que durante un proceso hacen que éste sea lento y no llegue a su fin (i.e. la implementación como tal del MRSEH).A continuación se describen: i) los cuellos de botella reportados en 2013 y superados al 2015; ii) lo reportado por los entrevistados como factores de contexto que inhabilitan un MRSEH; iii) los cuellos de botella que enfrentan los MRSEH al 2015 en su proceso hacia la implementación, y iv) algunas soluciones identificadas en determinados casos que podrían ser útiles para otras iniciativas existentes y por lo tanto importantes para remover los cuellos de botella identificados.El estado de avance en la superación de los cuellos de botella está principalmente relacionado a las limitaciones de carácter legal, las cuales fueron identificadas en un estudio elaborado por CIAT en el 2013 y priorizadas por autoridades como el MINAM y la SUNASS. En consecuencia, durante el periodo 2013-2015 se logró consolidar un marco normativo para los MRSE y lineamientos de política específicos para el sector saneamiento. Esto ha sido el resultado del trabajo conjunto entre el MINAM y la SUNASS, quienes a partir de una sinergia inter-institucional han absuelto los principales cuellos de botella legales identificados en el 2013.Tomando como referencia lo expresado por los entrevistados en el 2013 y 2015, los siguientes son los cuellos de botella reportados en el 2013 o en el 2015 que han sido superados y que no constituyen un cuello de botella en ningún caso de MRSEH en Perú.1. No existe marco legal y claridad sobre ente rector de los MRSE en el país: Con la Ley de MRSE (Ley N° 30215) promulgada por el Congreso de Perú en junio de 2014, este cuello de botella ha sido removido. La Ley provee un marco legal sobre los MRSE a través de lineamientos claros sobre su definición, objetivos y roles de diferentes actores. Así mismo la Ley establece que es función del Ministerio del Ambiente \"Ejercer la rectoría del sector ambiental que comprende los servicios ecosistémicos\".Con la promulgación de la Ley de MRSE y la Ley de Modernización de los Servicios de Saneamiento (Ley N° 30045), su respectivo Reglamento y el Decreto Legislativo N° 1240, se habilita a la EPS como retribuyente en los MRSEH, siendo su deber incluir al mecanismo dentro de su tarifa y otorgándole la facultad de formular, evaluar, aprobar y ejecutar proyectos en el marco de este esquema. Así mismo la SUNASS viene orientando a las iniciativas en relación a la información y requisitos mínimos necesarios en el proceso de establecer tarifas para recaudar aportes de los usuarios de agua potable para la conservación de las fuentes de los SEH.Optimizado (que se renueva cada 5 años) de las EPS se puede modificar para incluir la retribución por SEH antes del cumplimiento de su vigencia: Esto se ha aclarado en la Resolución de Consejo Directivo N° 011-2015-SUNASS-CD, donde se establece que la EPS podrá solicitar en cualquier momento del periodo regulatorio la inclusión del MRSEH dentro de la tarifa y con ello la modificación del PMO. La solicitud de tarifa incremental por concepto del MRSEH podrá ser presentada como máximo dos veces durante un año regulatorio. Además, dicha resolución define el concepto de \"Diagnóstico Hidrológico Base\" (ver sección \"Normativa de los MRSEH\").4. Falta claridad sobre la factibilidad de los gobiernos locales para ser retribuyentes en un MRSEH: En la Ley de MRSE se establece que los gobiernos regionales y locales pueden aportar a los MRSEH como retribuyentes; en otras palabras, pueden destinar recursos públicos para realizar retribuciones por SEH a través del Sistema Nacional de Inversión Pública (SNIP). Adicionalmente pueden canalizar recursos económicos de donaciones para el financiamiento de actividades de conservación, recuperación y uso sostenibles de la fuente de los servicios ecosistémicos.Aunque los aspectos mencionados anteriormente aportan de manera importante a legitimar los MRSEH en el contexto legal y político, y a viabilizar la participación del sector público en Perú, aun se presentan cuellos de botella que frenan la implementación de los MRSEH. Muchos de estos han surgido después del 2013 y otros se mantienen igual desde entonces. Los nuevos cuellos de botella surgen, en parte, por aspectos que han surgido una vez la Ley de MRSE y Ley de Modernización fueron aprobadas, como por ejemplo, falta de claridad en cómo asegurar que los recursos recaudados a través de la EPS sean manejados adecuadamente. Este cuello de botella no se mencionaba antes ya que las EPS no estaban legalmente habilitadas a realizar el recaudo de las retribuciones de los usuarios de agua potable.En la Figura 12 se compara el número de cuellos de botella, por tipo, para el 2013 y el 2015. En resumen, se muestra un aumento en el número de cuellos de botella institucionales, técnicos y económicos/ financieros en el 2015.Figura 12. Número de cuellos de botella por tipo en el 2013 y 2014.Los principales factores de contexto que impiden que se den las condicionantes habilitantes para el MRSEH, según lo reportado por los entrevistados, son la falta de estabilidad de funcionarios en entidades que tienen un rol en el esquema de RSE como los gobiernos locales y regionales, Juntas de Usuarios de Riego, EPS y en algunos pocos casos compañías privadas (como hidroeléctricas). Este limitante fue mencionado por el 38% de los casos entrevistados. Con el mismo porcentaje (38%) se mencionó la falta de interés por parte de autoridades para invertir en temas ambientales.Otros factores de contexto limitantes mencionados por el 14% de los casos entrevistados fueron: i) la población no está interesada en la conservación y ii) falta de acompañamiento y apoyo del gobierno nacional. Otras inquietudes similares fueron planteadas por algunos pocos casos, como: falta de recursos disponibles en el gobierno local para ser invertidos en el MRSEH (1 caso) y conflicto entre la población y el gobierno local (1 caso).Los cuellos de botella dependen del estado de avance en el proceso de implementación y en la etapa en que éstos se encuentran. Por esta razón los análisis de cuellos de botella deben realizarse de manera iterativa y teniendo en cuenta la etapa del proceso que se analiza (preliminar, diagnostico, diseño, negociación e implementación en el caso de los MRSEH). Como el objetivo de este proyecto es entender los cuellos de botella que frenan el avance de los MRSEH hacia la implementación, los cuellos de botella resultantes de las entrevistas se han clasificado entre aquellos propios del proceso antes de la implementación y los que surgen después de ésta.Como será expuesto a continuación, los cuellos de botella que se reportan en el 2015 están muy relacionados con los arreglos institucionales para la gobernanza de los MRSEH, la capacidad de recaudo, la sostenibilidad financiera y la capacidad para el monitoreo y evaluación de los MRSEH. Varios de los cuellos de botella se relacionan a las EPS, ya que al haberse resuelto la limitación de su viabilidad para participar como retribuyentes en un MRSEH a través de la Ley de MRSE y la Ley Modernización de los Servicios de Saneamiento, han surgido otros aspectos en relación a las capacidades de las EPS para poder ejercer su rol como retribuyente y recaudador de retribuciones por el SEH.Los cuellos de botella que se reportan para fases anteriores a la implementación son de tipo institucional (incluyendo aspectos legales), económicos-financieros, técnicos y de conocimiento, y sociales.Los cuellos de botella institucionales/legales reportados por los entrevistados (Figura 13) se listan a continuación (en orden descendente, de los mencionados con mayor a menor frecuencia):1. Dificultad y falta de claridad sobre cómo manejar y ejecutar los recursos recaudados por las EPS, de tal manera que se asegure su manejo independiente y transparente.2. Falta de claridad sobre cuál debe ser la estructura organizativa para tomar decisiones sobre el funcionamiento del fondo, de tal manera que se asegure la inversión adecuada de los recursos recaudados a través de entidades públicas. Algunas de las iniciativas han conformado plataformas (como comités gestores), donde los actores involucrados participan en las decisiones sobre el fondo de MRSEH. Sin embargo, en varias iniciativas todavía no está claro cuál debe ser el procedimiento para crear dichas plataformas y que rol tienen en el fondo del MRSEH. Este cuello de botella está presente principalmente en aquellas iniciativas cuyo retribuyente es la EPS o el gobierno, ya que al ser los recursos de carácter público y al tener que ejecutarse a través del sistema nacional de inversión pública (SNIP), no se define cuál será la participación de los comités gestores y su nivel de injerencia en la toma de decisiones sobre el manejo de los recursos y el monitoreo de los resultados.3. En los casos en que los aportes de los retribuyentes se recaudan a través de las EPS, los recursos recaudados se vuelven de naturaleza pública y por lo tanto su inversión debe darse a través de los lineamientos de inversión pública del país. En este caso, se plantea como cuello de botella la dificultad que existe en la formulación de los Proyectos de Inversión Pública (PIP) y el tiempo y recursos financieros requeridos hasta su aprobación por parte de Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas. Adicionalmente, una vez se aprueba el PIP, los respectivos recursos se invierten en forma de proyectos y no pueden utilizarse como pagos directos a los contribuyentes de los SEH. En algunas iniciativas se plantea que una posibilidad para agilizar la inversión de los recursos públicos en los MRSEH, es habilitando que dichos recursos se canalicen como gastos corrientes, con los cuales se podría incluso hacer pagos directos a los contribuyentes y no sólo retribuciones en forma de proyectos.4. En las iniciativas en las que las EPS tienen el rol de recaudar, administrar e invertir las retribuciones por SEH de los usuarios de agua potable, se plantea como un cuello de botella importante la inestabilidad institucional y financiera de las EPS, así como su falta de capacidad para fiscalizar el recaudo de los cobros por el servicio de agua potable (y donde se incluye un rubro para la RSEH).5. No es claro si el comité gestor, o cualquier plataforma de participación para la buena gobernanza del MRSEH, debe tener personería jurídica y si fuese así, de que tipo y figura jurídica. Para algunas iniciativas esto constituye un cuello de botella debido que al no tener personería jurídica, los comités de gestión de los MRSEH no pueden canalizar, apalancar y administrar recursos financieros de fuentes privadas, adicionales para el fondo del MRSEH.6. En iniciativas donde se han creado los comités gestores, no está claro hasta qué punto pueden ser parte de la toma de decisiones en relación a la administración del fondo de RSEH. Este cuello de botella se refiere sobre todo a iniciativas donde participan como retribuyentes el sector privado y la cooperación internacional.7. A las iniciativas que han logrado gestionar tanto recursos privados como públicos para el fondo del MRSEH, no les ha sido posible administrar los recursos en un fondo mixto (público-privado). En este sentido, la administración de los recursos se ha realizado de manera independiente. Esto implica no solo mayores costos de transacción, sino un desafío en la gobernanza del fondo ya que se debe encontrar la forma con la cual se armonice la ejecución de ambas fuentes de recursos a través de una única estructura para tomar decisiones frente a ambos tipos de recursos (aunque administrativamente se manejen independientemente).Los siguientes cuellos de botella de tipo institucional/ legal, no siendo menos importantes, fueron mencionados por algunos pocos entrevistados:8. Desconocimiento sobre la diferencia entre el canon hídrico (que se paga a la Autoridad Nacional del Agua y se denomina \"retribución económica\") y la retribución por servicios ecosistémicos. Esto ha causado que al momento de buscar el apoyo de beneficiarios de los SEH para que retribuyan en el MRSEH, éstos se reúsen manifestando que la retribución por SEH es similar a la retribución económica que se paga al ANA.9. No hay saneamiento legal del territorio donde se encuentran los contribuyentes a los SEH. Sin esta información y la falta de claridad sobre el tipo de tenencia (posesionario, comunidad nativa con derechos de uso, titular, etc.) no es posible diseñar un acuerdo legalmente apropiado entre retribuyentes y contribuyentes de los SEH, donde se establezcan los mecanismos de retribución y el tipo de acciones que el contribuyente se compromete a realizar para conservar y mejorar la provisión del SEH.10. Falta de claridad del ámbito de inversión de la RSEH por parte de la EPS. Existe un vacío en cuanto a la viabilidad de las EPS para invertir en: i) lugares que son de su ámbito pero no abastecen con agua a la microcuenca donde están localizados los retribuyentes por los SEH (de ser viable podría causar conflictos entre los retribuyentes y las EPS) y ii) los ecosistemas que son fuente de los SEH pero se ubican fuera de la cuenca principal de donde se abastece la EPS (por ejemplo un trasvase de agua de una cuenca a otra). Cuellos de botella financieros/económicos:El cuello de botella financiero mencionado con más frecuencia (33%) fue la falta de compromiso e interés del sector privado (por ejemplo hidroeléctricas) para hacer aportes económicos y recurrentes a largo plazo a un MRSEH. Esta falta de interés puede estar asociada a la falta de incentivos para que esto ocurra. Este cuello de botella hace que los esquemas basados especialmente en aportes privados no tengan sostenibilidad financiera y permanencia, y por esto se tiende a promover más la participación del sector público, el cual podría aumentar la recurrencia de los fondos hacia los MRSEH.Otros cuellos de botella de este tipo mencionados en algunos pocos casos son:• Falta de financiación para la operación de las plataformas de actores para la gobernanza de los MRSEH (comités gestos, secretarias técnicas, otros).• Corta duración de proyectos que estaban soportados por la ayuda de ONG u otro tipo de organizaciones hacia el diseño e implementación de los MRSEH. Esto ha conducido a que estas organizaciones hayan apoyado las primeras fases hacia la implementación de los MRSEH y hayan tenido que dejarlas a medio camino sin haberse consolidado una institucionalidad que continúe el proceso.De acuerdo con los entrevistados, los aspectos técnicos que limitan el avance de los MRSEH hacia la implementación son (en orden desde los mencionados por un mayor número de iniciativas de RSEH hasta los mencionados con menor frecuencia) (Figura 14):1. Falta de sensibilización y entendimiento del tema por parte de todos los actores involucrados en una iniciativa de MRSEH. En general, aún hace falta que actores no familiarizados con este tipo de mecanismos entiendan mejor los conceptos y objetivos detrás de éstos.2. Falta de conocimiento general sobre la normatividad vigente relacionada con los MRSEH (Ley de Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos, la Ley de Modernización del Servicio de Saneamiento y normativa complementaria).3. Falta de conocimiento y capacitación sobre prácticas de conservación, restauración y uso sostenible de los ecosistemas que proveen los SEH. Este cuello de botella incluye la falta de evidencia sobre la relación de causalidad entre los ecosistemas y las prácticas para su manejo y la provisión del SEH.4. Falta de guías para el diseño de MRSEH en Perú, que faciliten las etapas de diseño del MRSEH, sin limitar que surjan soluciones innovadoras en las fases de negociación e implementación.5. No existen estudios hidrológicos de línea base que provean insumos en las fases de diseño, negociación e implementación, y así mismo faciliten el diseño de un sistema de monitoreo hidrológico a futuro.6. Falta de capacidades técnicas para la formulación de PIP en los gobiernos locales y regionales en temas de conservación, restauración y uso sostenible de los ecosistemas proveedores del SEH, cuando los recursos públicos manejados por dichas instituciones hacen parte del MRSEH.7. Falta de capacidades en el manejo financiero y contable de los fondos que hacen parte del MRSEH. En algunos casos, las ONG han ayudado en el manejo financiero y contable de estos recursos, pero una vez éstas se retiran de las iniciativas queda un vacío de capacidades en este aspecto a nivel local.8. No existen o no hay acceso a datos hidrológicos confiables que sirvan de insumo para delimitar el área de interés hídrico a priorizar en un MRSEH. 9. No existen orientaciones de cómo involucrar a los actores privados. El único documento que proporciona orientaciones sobre cómo involucrar actores en un MRSEH es la Ley de MRSE, pero ésta se enfoca en el sector público y en especial en el sector de agua potable a través de las EPS. Esto último debido a que los MRSEH son de carácter voluntario y por lo tanto no existe la necesidad de regular el rol del sector privado. Sin embargo, los entrevistados perciben como cuello de botella la falta de una guía que permita involucrar al sector privado en acuerdos para la retribución por SEH.CIAT Perú -2015El principal cuello de botella de tipo social mencionado por los entrevistados (38%) fue la desconfianza de los pobladores hacia las EPS o municipalidades. En general la población no confía en estas entidades para el manejo de los fondos del MRSEH. Otros cuellos de botella mencionados solo por el 10% de los casos, es la expectativa de resultados en el corto plazo tanto en cuanto a la provisión de los SEH como en el tiempo que tarda la implementación de acciones de conservación y recuperación de las fuentes de los SEH. Así mismo, un 10% de los casos reporta falta de Figura 14. Cuellos de botella técnicos (Enumeración de acuerdo a la lista anterior)Figura 15. Cuellos de botella (previos a la fase de implementación) más mencionados y su relación con aspectos claves para la implementación de los MRSEH. (Nota: el tamaño del círculo refleja el porcentaje de mención de cada cuello de botella) confianza en el esquema general de MRSEH que se ha planteado.Todos los cuellos de botella mencionados anteriormente afectan el avance en el diseño como tal del esquema de MRSEH; la contextualización legal de los esquemas; la sostenibilidad y la facilidad del recaudo de los aportes; la claridad para la gestión y administración de los recursos del MRSEH y la consolidación de acuerdos entre las partes interesadas. En la Figura 15 se relacionan estos aspectos con los cuellos de botella con mayor mención por los entrevistados.Los cuellos de botella que se mencionan y que afectan la operación de los MRSEH una vez éstos llegan a la fase de implementación, están principalmente relacionados con la sostenibilidad y magnitud de los aportes de los retribuyentes, y con la verificación de los impactos esperados en la implementación de estos mecanismos (ver Tabla 7).En la Figura 16, se asocian estos cuellos de botella a aspectos relacionados a los aportes y al seguimiento y evaluación del mecanismo. En esta Figura también se comparan estos cuellos de botella de acuerdo a la frecuencia de mención por los entrevistados.Figura 16. Cuellos de botella posteriores a la implementación (Nota: Tamaño del círculo refleja el porcentaje de mención de los cuellos de botella entro los casos estudiados)Económico/financiero Recursos recaudados (o a recaudar) no cubren la inversión requerida.Falta de estabilidad financiera (aportes de ONG y donantes no son suficiente o ya no existen).Falta de aportes recurrentes por no haber nivel de obligatoriedad en aportes en los mecanismos, de tal manera sean de más largo plazo.Actualmente el interés bancario de los fondos patrimoniales es muy bajo.En algunos casos, existe morosidad en el pago de la retribución por SEH, especialmente en casos donde la retribución se recauda a través de un tributación municipal.Los acuerdos de conservación son a corto plazo y no aseguran una aportación continua de parte del retribuyente.Falta de guías para el monitoreo y verificación de las acciones de conservación de los ecosistemas y el desempeño del MRSEH.Insuficiente personal técnico y equipos para el monitoreo de actividades y estado de conservación de los SEH y los ecosistemas que los proveen.Sobredimensión de los alcances factibles de los MRSEH en términos de provisión del SEH en el corto plazo.Escala de las intervenciones realizadas no genera el impacto esperado a nivel de cuenca.Necesidad de monitorear los impactos en el SEH y en la implementación de acciones pactadas.Tabla 7. Cuellos de botella posteriores a la implementación de los MRSEHCIAT Perú -2015Desde algunas iniciativas se han reportado soluciones a determinados cuellos de botella que podrían aplicarse a otros casos que tienen una limitación similar. Vale la pena mencionar que, si bien algunos cuellos de botella pueden removerse a nivel nacional tal como ha sido el caso de las limitaciones absueltas a través del marco legal impulsado por el MINAM (Ley de MRSE) y la SUNASS (Ley de Modernización del Servicio de Saneamiento y normativa complementaria), hay otros cuellos de botella que requieren ser removidos según las especificidades del contexto local. Por lo tanto, cada iniciativa puede proponer una solución diferente frente a un cuello de botella en función de su propia realidad. En la siguiente Tabla se muestran algunas de estas soluciones que son promisorias y podrían ser también adoptadas por otras iniciativas con similares cuellos de botella.Falta de claridad en la estructura de gobernanza del MRSEH, que asegure la inversión adecuada de los recursos recaudados.Búsqueda de consensos entre actores involucrados en el MRSEH.Creación de estatutos del fondo que aclaran los roles de los participantes en la estructura organizativa del MRSEH (retribuyentes, contribuyentes, plataforma de buena gobernanza -comité gestor, secretaria técnica, etc.).Creación de comité de gestión de sub-cuenca, los cuales deben crearse para la gestión de las cuencas según la Ley de Recursos Hídricos. Esta solución se ha planteado para no crear dos instancias a nivel de sub-cuenca en relación al manejo y conservación del recurso hídrico.Conformación de un comité gestor incluyente: con representatividad de autoridades y sociedad civil.Acuerdos formalizados a través de convenios de largo plazo que involucran tanto los retribuyentes (como EPS y municipalidades) como a la plataforma de buena gobernanza (Comité gestor).Plataforma para alinear acciones de RSE: esta plataforma se ha creado de manera virtual y su principal fin es coordinar y armonizar las retribuciones por SEH que vienen de fuentes privadas y públicas y cuyo manejo financiero es independiente.Desconfianza sobre los resultados del esquema.Sensibilización y desarrollo de confianza con retribuyentes y contribuyentes a través de metodologías de mercadotecnia social.Falta de claridad del tipo de acuerdo de conservación legalmente viable que debe establecerse con la población migrante y nativa situada en áreas protegidas y que no cuentan con seguridad jurídica sobre la tierra.Reconocimiento legal de posesionarios que tienen derechos porque estaban antes de la creación del área protegida.Modelos de acuerdos de conservación legalmente viables, diseñados y firmados con habitantes en áreas protegidas.En caso de comunidades nativas, se cuenta con acuerdos de conservación en base a los planes de vida elaborados conjuntamente con las comunidades, en el marco del MRSEH.Tabla 8. Soluciones emergentes a los cuellos de botellaRecursos recaudados no cubren la inversión requerida y no son recurrentes.Gestión de fondos adicionales de cooperación internacional.Creación de fondos de RSEH que combinan una porción extinguible con otra patrimonial (no extinguible). Esto para asegurar un fondo para acciones en el corto plazo y otra parte que genere intereses bancarios que permitan disponer de fondos recurrentes que cubran gastos fijos del MRSEH.Aumento de aportes de usuarios de agua potable recaudados a través de las EPS.EPS o la municipalidad asume los costos de gestión y administración del MRSEH, de tal manera que la retribución aportada por el usuario es sólo utilizada para inversión en actividades de conservación/recuperación de fuentes de SEH.Aunque hay varios cuellos de botella relacionados con la formulación de PIP, estos últimos siguen siendo una opción para asegurar fondos recurrentes y de mayor magnitud para realizar las retribuciones por SEH. Recientemente se han publicado los lineamientos para la formulación de proyectos de inversión pública en diversidad biológica y servicios ecosistémicos.Inclusión de múltiples retribuyentes, cuyos recursos provengan tanto de fuentes públicas como privadas.Falta claridad sobre la figura o procedimiento para invertir RSEH en otras jurisdicciones.Se están creando fondos birregionales bajo la figura legal de mancomunidad a través de los cuales se espera que una región pueda invertir en otra (donde se encuentran los ecosistemas fuente de los SEH).CIAT Perú -2015Sobre el estado actual de los MRESH y su avance en relación al 2013• Entre el 2013 y el 2015 se ha presenciado un avance significativo en el desarrollo de los MRSEH, debido a la mayor disponibilidad de información sobre el tema; el aprendizaje continuo de las mismas iniciativas y al progreso logrado en el marco normativo.• La mayoría de los MRSEH en el Perú tienen, aparte del objetivo ambiental, un objetivo de carácter social, el cual pretende dar reconocimiento y mejorar el bienestar económico de la población que coadyuva en la conservación de los ecosistemas.• La sociedad civil y en especial las ONG han sido el principal agente promotor para dar inicio a las iniciativas de MRSEH. Sin embargo, a medida que las iniciativas avanzan hacia la implementación hay una tendencia de trabajo conjunto entre la sociedad civil y el gobierno.• Para lograr una negociación transparente con los retribuyentes y obtener el impacto esperado sobre el SEH, es necesario se defina el SEH de mayor interés para cada retribuyente y el área geográfica prioritaria para la provisión de dicho servicio. Para ello se cuenta con la metodología denominada \"Diagnósticos Hidrológicos Rápidos\" que facilita el proceso de priorización del SEH.• La priorización de los retribuyentes es un proceso dinámico que va cambiando conforme se construye el MRSEH y durante su implementación. Actualmente los retribuyentes con una mayor priorización son los usuarios de agua potable y los usuarios de agua para riego.• La tendencia es que los MRSEH involucren como retribuyentes tanto a los beneficiarios directos del SEH como a otros actores con interés en la conservación y mejora de la provisión del SEH, tales como el gobierno y las ONG.• Entre el 2013 y el 2015 se aprecia un incremento en la firma de acuerdos entre retribuyentes y contribuyentes, sin embargo dichos acuerdos no aseguran en todos los casos una retribución recurrente por parte del retribuyente.• La retribución comprometida para los próximos 5 años proviene de las Empresas Prestadoras de Servicios de Saneamiento (EPS), Juntas de Usuarios de Riego, Gobierno y ONG, siendo el mayor aportante las EPS y estando ausente la aportación de las empresas privadas. La mayor aportación de las EPS esta directamente relacionada a la inclusión de los MRSEH como parte del marco legal del sector saneamiento.• El trabajo coordinado entre el MINAM y la SUNASS ha permitido el desarrollo de un marco legal favorable y claro respecto a los MRSEH. Dicha sinergia interinstitucional no sólo ha permitido absolver varios cuellos de botella de carácter legal, sino que constituye un ejemplo exitoso de colaboración mutua entre instituciones del gobierno.• A parte del esfuerzo del MINAM y la SUNASS en la absolución de los cuellos de botella de los MRSEH, se requiere un mayor involucramiento de otros sectores del gobierno, tales como el Ministerio de Agricultura y el Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas.• Aunque varios cuellos de botella de carácter legal han sido clarificados a través de los avances recientes en el marco normativo para los MRSE en Perú, aún hay varios cuellos de botella sobretodo de tipo institucional, económico/financiero y técnico que deben removerse con el fin de seguir avanzando hacia la implementación de las iniciativas de MRSEH.• Desde el punto de vista institucional sobresalen los cuellos de botella relacionados con la capacidad técnica y financiera de las EPS en la formulación de los PIP para viabilizar el gasto de los aportes de la RSE y posteriormente para su manejo e inversión. Así mismo existe una falta de claridad en cuanto al poder de decisión de los comités gestores o plataformas multi-actores sobre la gobernanza de los MRSEH.• Sobre los cuellos de botella financieros, las principales limitaciones están relacionados con la sostenibilidad financiera de los MRSEH, la cual aún no se alcanza debido a la magnitud de los aportes y a la frecuencia con que éstos se realizan. Mecanismos o incentivos para asegurar retribuciones recurrentes en el tiempo son necesarios. Así mismo los aportes del sector privado aún son bajos.• Los cuellos de botella técnicos han sido mencionados en mayor medida por los entrevistados en el 2015 que en el 2013. Estos están principalmente relacionados con la falta de capacidad técnica para evaluar y hacer seguimiento del impacto de las actividades que realizan los contribuyentes sobre los SEH; la falta de información sobre qué actividades son efectivas para la recuperación, conservación y uso sostenible de los ecosistemas fuente de los SEH; y sobre los conceptos en si entorno a los SEH.• Por último, los cuellos de botella no son estáticos y varían dependiendo de la etapa de avance de los sistemas o en este caso de los MRSEH. En la medida que se resuelvan los cuellos de botella existentes es posible que otros nuevos surjan. Sin embargo, lo ideal es que cada vez sean menos los cuellos de botella con el fin de tener implementados en menor tiempo las iniciativas de MRSEH.","tokenCount":"11905"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8247db1fabe3187e11edbab4ecde2553","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f3c136b-7585-4e94-ad78-eca74f5ebc54/retrieve","id":"-497096086"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69ea65f2-070e-4e7e-8d61-848ee8429a8b","pagecount":"60","content":"• Antes de 1840s -finales del siglo 19 th , P. infestans A1 o A2, susceptibles a metalaxyl, HERB A1 (Irlanda), US-1 Europa. En México ambos A1 y A2 resistentes a metalaxyl• Finales del siglo 20 th (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999), Resurgencia de TT -A1 y A, reproducción sexual, una \"nueva\" población desde México central se diseminó a otras partes del mundo.   Estrategias efectivas para el manejo del Tizón tardío• Evitar inóculo primario • Uso apropiado de fungicidas • Desarrollo de resistenciaMonitoreo de poblaciones de P. infestans.Phytophthora infestans es el principal patógeno del cultivo de la papa:• Ocasiona grandes pérdidas a nivel mundial• Afecta además a otros cultivos de importancia económica• Tiene amplio rango de hospedantes• Su distribución y gran variabilidad hacen difícil su control El conocimiento de la variabilidad es importante para el diseño de estrategias adecuadas para el manejo de la enfermedad.Porqué estudiar las poblaciones de P. infestans?Porqué estudiar las poblaciones de P. infestans?Efectividad en el manejo actual de la enfermedad:• Entendiendo la procedencia del inoculo -naturaleza, origen • Actualizando los sistemas de apoyo a la toma de decisions • Manejando la resistencia a fungicidas (eficacia de fungicidas)• Seguimiento de la ruptura de resistencia del hospedero • Considerar si las estrategias de manejo pueden ser transferidas de una region a otra Estrategias de manejo duraderas:• Desarrollo de nuevas resistencias (convencional o a través de ingenieria genética)• Tasas evolutivas • Temas de bioseguridad / cuarentena -incremento del movimiento de semilla • Uso de aislamientos para la selección de resistencia• Co-evolución entre el patógeno y el hospedero • Marco para el estudio de diversidad global (cuarentena)• Contexto para ampliar el estudiio en la evolución de genes de Virulencia/R-genes • Mecanismos que desarrolla P. infestans para generar variaciónCon socios en LA recopilar información valiosa que permita a los productores de papa alinear de manera óptima su elección en fungicidas y variedades resistentes a los genotipos del patógeno que están presentes en su región.Qué tan malo es TT en Sur América?Monitoreo del patógeno: A1 y A2 ","tokenCount":"331"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d37ab10bcc5dd64e0adce6bd1fe0d1ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0093c31d-5276-4f43-9c6c-14335986b175/retrieve","id":"-1435286606"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dac35285-0c03-4819-b393-8adfd28074f1","pagecount":"12","content":"Time Activity Speaker Aim/Expected Output 11.15-11.30 Registration PART 1 -WP4 Setting the Scene 11.30 -11.45 Welcome Message Dr Jenny Ekman, AHR Acknowledge participants and their roles to link WP4 activities into the Philippine R&D Postharvest & Food Safety strategies Acknowledgement of Participants Review of first meeting notes 2022 Objectives of the Workshop 11.45-12.30 WP4 Progress (10m present/5min questions) UPLB -Review of food safety and quality fruit & vegetablesThe CGIAR FRESH programme is large, covering four countries, with six work packages. As they're talking about the end-to-end approach, not only do we want to find ways to work together as a group and integrate the different work packages, but also collaborate and coordinate with other domestic postharvest and food safety researchers. The overall outputs using this approach should have a greater impact. Interesting facts:• Fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption in the Philippines is well below the World Health Organization recommended levels • F&V are relatively expensive for many people • 40% of F&V grown is wasted after the farm-gate ( • Do we need to grow more food or develop better postharvest and food safety infrastructure and processes? However, the postharvest and food safety challenges in the Philippines are difficult:• Farms to market routes are usually long, rough, and require a sea crossing The literature estimates between 28-42% of food is lost between the farm and the table. Vegetables are particularly high for food loss. We did loss assessment trials and confirmed the data from the literature. Undertook a handling trial with tomatoes adding newspaper and less produce in wooden crates, a simple intervention that significantly reduced losses.• Pesticide residues: The literature was somehow limited because the data is very specific to certain locations in the Philippines. The reports from the BPI residue testing also showed some organic produce with pesticide residues. • Food safety: Hazards recorded for contaminations with microorganisms, parasites, and microbials. A key finding was no difference between contamination in wet markets and supermarkets. This was attributed to the use of animal manure as organic fertilizer, use of sewage sludge as fertilizer, use of contaminated water for irrigation, and improper handling during pre-and postharvest stages. residues and microbial contaminants because unlike with other countries, they have continuous and routine checking of pesticide residues as well as microbial levels of their produce. • Cool Chain: Trials on various fruits and vegetable underway using the CoolBot system to lower storage temperatures and maintain quality. • GAP: (WP3) Continue to work training and auditing GAP certification for farmers through demonstration sites. A socioeconomic study will be undertaken at these GAP demonstration sites. • IPM: (WP3) Work ongoing in Tomato IPM studies and other vegetables.• Indigenous F&V: (WP2/4/5) mainstreaming indigenous fruits and vegetables.Most of our studies are looking at the availability, affordability and preferences on fruits and vegetables in the Philippines. For the consumer and market vendor preferences. There is a high value market chain for indigenous vegetables that can be developed targeting high income consumers, especially women. There's a need to shorten the supply chain of indigenous foods and vegetables due to its shelf life and post-harvest processing requirements and costs. The shorter chain will favour household food security and biodiversity friendly enterprises. Adam Goldwater Outputs -screenshots below  ","tokenCount":"537"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"efde73bed86755c56fbdf0dcf68eb408","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f7d90bf-fd74-43e5-8aae-b7686274011b/retrieve","id":"-1203227171"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f72de07d-203f-475f-bb16-45de0b735c05","pagecount":"14","content":"Feed shortage is one of the main constraints of livestock production in Ethiopia.• Grazing lands, crop residues and concentrate feeds are major feed resources.• Grazing lands are shrinking and degraded • Crop residues are poor in quality• Concentrate feeds are high in price and not accessibleCultivated forage crops are one of the feasible options to increase feed availability and quality and improve livestock productivity.Why cultivated forages?• Easily accessible and affordable quality feed source: Most farmers can grow in their vicinity a high-quality forage. Forage seeds are key constraint for forage development and scaling:• Consistent and affordable forage seed supply is still a major constraint.• Transitioning from the current dominantly informal into formal seed production system requires tackling complex challenges.• Current forage seed supply is limited in quantity and quality.• Supply is often institutionally driven, not demand driven.•The institutional driven approach has resulted in exaggerated forage seed price.• It also resulted in market inefficiency as forage seed producers and suppliers face challenges to fulfill seed production and marketing standards.• Field inspection of forage seed production is rare, with little lab quality tests.Fodder Beet-Large scale production by seed enterprises o Seed enterprises are not yet fully engaged in this -Large scale production by forage seed producing companies o Access to land and capital are still a major problem for many companies.-Small-scale farmers-based commercialization o There is an extensive experience on this o ILRI had its footprint through development of forage seed businesses through FeedSeed Project.Transition from informal seed production to semi-formal/formal system is often constrained by ▪ Competing land-use by crop production ▪ Absence of market linkage for sell of surplus production ▪ Difficulty of getting formal inspection-Multiple stakeholders have to be involved within the forage sub-system.-Trade-offs and synergies with crop production systems must be managed.The commercialization model we are developing aims at integrating;• Land clustering: to get enough land that would make business case and make field inspection feasible. • Linkage with forage seed business: To create market for surplus production make business out of it. • Linkage with farmers unions with certification to produce and sell seeds.• Linkage with local inspection entities to get flexible formal field inspection service.• Cost-benefit analysis to develop extension and policy messages for wider scaling of the business model. o The target is to test the system, with 20 ha of vetch seed production.o Cost-benefit analysis will be done to understand the profitability and opportunity cost of producing food crops vs forage seeds.o Future actions will include:• Improving forage seed companies access to Early Generation Seed (EGS)• Developing local forage seed market in collaboration with local partners.• Promoting commercial forage bio-mass productionBy 2028 the Mixed Farming Initiative and partners will work together with Regional and Zonal Livestock Development Offices, NARS, Forage Seed Producers and other forage seed value chain actors to accomplish the use of commercial forage seed business by 20,000 livestock farmers, 8 researchers, 100 extension agents, 17 district/zonal/regional/federal decision makers to contribute achieving END-OF-INITIATIVE-OUTCOME transitioning towards sustainable intensification of mixed farming systems.","tokenCount":"499"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/1825179070.json b/data/part_5/1825179070.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..917255dbb162ed70c4dd06ab13be1e3612b7fc94
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d91934f4a482b9334f837e85af0d7e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/615d66c1-51e9-4702-8f39-931e67e0c266/retrieve","id":"2070420413"},"keywords":["CIAT","Mathias Lorieux (IRD/CIAT) & Joe Tohme (CIAT) Collaborators (institute[s]","researcher[s]):"],"sieverID":"6ff19aad-917d-4b47-bf89-24a2c8ff4695","pagecount":"18","content":"Cereals provide the majority of calories consumed by humans. Cereal production faces growing challenges due to increasing human population, changing nutritional requirements and variable environmental conditions that require new approaches to crop production. Wild relatives of modern crop species have survived for millions of years using natural genetic defenses to endure biotic and abiotic aggressions. These wild relatives represent a valuable source of under-utilized genetic variation that is available to plant breeders and represent an invaluable source of genetic information for modern genomics research initiatives. A systematic approach is required to identify and characterize genes from wild species that can be used to enhance crop productivity in a range of environments and under diverse cultural conditions. Using rice as a model, we propose to (1) develop four libraries of interspecific lines called Chromosome Segment Substitution Lines (CSSLs), targeting chromosomal introgressions from different rice relatives, (2) develop a set of 140 molecular markers (called SNPs) identified in genes associated with tolerance to abiotic stress (drought, acid soils, mineral deficiencies or toxicities), (3) validate the utility of the SNPs by using them in the development of the CSSLs in this project and exploring their value in breeding programs for other cereals (4)analyze a set of advanced CSSLs generated from Asian x African rice crosses for their phenotypic response to drought stress. Generating such resources and knowledge will contribute to the objectives of Subprograms 1 and 3 by (i) utilizing natural genetic diversity to develop whole-genome libraries of CSSLs as a permanent genetic resource for both breeding and genomics-based research (ii) producing high-throughput, costeffective markers to facilitate access to genetic diversity in a range of different cereal species (iii) making the CSSLs available to breeders and geneticists so that the intersection of their efforts will continue to generate new knowledge.Introduction/Background The future of crop improvement depends on the availability of genetic variation. Most modern crop varieties have undergone a genetic bottleneck associated with the process of domestication resulting in a restriction of the genetic options that are available to plant breeders. There is a larger pool of genetic variation available in landraces and wild relatives of crops. These resources are known to contain many interesting traits for breeding, including good to strong tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses and various nutritional traits of interest (Sun et al 2001). However, it is often difficult to utilize these natural sources of genetic diversity because of fertility barriers, linkage drag, the time and resources required to recover useful recombinants. This project is designed to take advantage of the unexploited reservoir that exists in the wild relatives of cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) through the development of introgression lines that will be of immediate use to breeders and will simultaneously serve to enhance our understanding of the \"wild alleles\" that contribute favorably to plant performance under drought stress. In this project, we propose to develop a comprehensive toolkit of genetic and genomic resources that will allow breeders and geneticists to explore and more efficiently utilize wild relatives in crop improvement. Our approach involves the systematic introduction of foreign alleles from four different AA genome O. species into one elite, highly productive O. sativa varieties and to provide introgression lines (ILs) or sets of overlapping CSSLs as the basis for genetic analysis and applied plant breeding. Complex phenotypes can be dissected genetically by evaluating and comparing CSSLs as a first pass. By linking the information about gene identity back to the Gramene database, we will be able to provide a dictionary of genes with known function that are contained in each of the CSSLs. This dictionary is also a key ingredient in enabling comparative approaches to the study of phenotype-genotype relationships. Once an association is established between a phenotype and a specific introgression line, it is possible to use advanced forward and reverse approaches to genetic analysis to mine down and identify the gene(s) that are directly involved (Yano, 2001;Jander et al., 2002), but it is also feasible to use the introgression line directly in a breeding program without knowing the identity of the gene(s) that are involved (Gur and Zamir, 2004). In addition to the targeted introgression of traits that can be identified phenotypically in the wild material, such as biotic or abiotic stress tolerance, it has been demonstrated that alleles hidden in low yielding, agronomically undesirable ancestors can enhance the productivity of many of the world's most important crop varieties. These yield-enhancing alleles are the basis of 'transgressive variation' and may confer an advantage in both favorable (irrigated) and unfavorable conditions (drought and weed competition) (Moncada et al., 2000;Gur and Zamir, 2004). Thus, the use of wild and exotic germplasm for CSSLs construction carries with it the possibility that favorable transgressive segregants will be identified, providing the basis for studies aimed at understanding the genetic basis of transgressive variation associated with resistance or tolerance to drought and acid soils.IV.A meeting was held 21-24 February/05 in CNPAF-Embrapa headquarters in Goiania, Brazil. Protocols and work plan for the development of these populations were defined. Criteria for choosing the recurrent parents were agreed upon, mainly yield under stress conditions, tolerance to drought stress under field conditions, tolerance to main diseases, seedling vigour, performance in farmers fields, stay green or late senescence, and improved grain quality.To facilitate the creation of easily comparable, low-resolution genetic maps with evenly distributed markers in rice (Oryza sativa L.), we conceived of and developed a Universal Core Genetic Map (UCGM). With this aim, we derived a set of 165 anchors, representing clusters of three microsatellite or simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers arranged into non-recombining groups. Each anchor consists of at least three, closely linked SSRs, located within a distance below the genetic resolution provided by common, segregating populations (<500 individuals). We chose anchors that were evenly distributed across the rice chromosomes, with spacing between 2 and 3.5 Mbp (except in the telomeric regions, where spacing was 1.5 Mbp). Anchor selection was performed using in silico tools and data: the O. sativa cv. Nipponbare rice genome sequence, the CHARM tool, information from the Gramene database and the OrygenesDB database The program uses a heuristic to determine the subset of lines that maximizes the representation of the donor genome and minimizes the undesired genetic background. It also displays graphical genotypes of the lines. The data were analyzed with the full set of 90 markers and, from the 353 lines evaluated, 64 were selected to be part of the introgression lines population. As the number of lines selected by the heuristic may depend on the number of markers selected for the analysis, we analyzed again the data with a subset of 75 markers, pulling out the ones that were redundant in terms of genome location. This way, 56 lines were selected. The size of the introgressions was measured based on the position of the SSR markers on the rice genome (TIGR release v. 2).Although the majority of the O. glaberrima genome was conserved in the two subpopulations, it appeared that some parts of the genome of O. glaberrima, especially on chromosomes 3, 4, 6, 10 and 11 were lost. Anticipating this result, we developed new lines from the same cross. A total of 125 BC1F1 lines were produced and 62 of them could be successfully backcrossed to IR64 to advance to the third generation. From the graphical genotyping analyses, we could select candidate lines for backcrossing that allowed us to fill the few gaps encountered in the initial BC2F4/BC3F3.We have been developing a series of introgression lines from 87 BC1F1 lines obtained from an interspecific backcross between the cultivated rice O. sativa BRSMG Curinga (an elite tropical japonica from Brasil) and its wild relative O. meridionalis accession OR44 (or W2112) from Queensland, Australia.Foreground and background selection of 516 BC2F1 lines led to the selection of 60 lines that were subsequently backcrossed. Six seeds from each of the 60 lines were sown to generate a population of 360 BC3F1 plants. Foreground pre-selection was done at CIATto select candidate BC3F1 lines, using SSRs and MITEs markers. Graphical genotypes of 130 lines with introgression target fragment obtained using CSSL Finder software, are shown in Figure 1.We then developed 848 doubled haploid lines from the pre-selected BC3F1 lines through anther culture at CIAT and were screened for the presence of the target fragment and genetic background at Cornell University. We observed a significant loss of target fragments in chromosome 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 and 12, meaning that O. meridionalis may possess unfavourable genes for anther culture (Figure 2). Forward selection of additional 67 BC3DH lines is currently being done at CIAT. Lines were chosen to fill missing chromosome fragments in a last effort to complete the Curinga x OR44 CSSL library. Additionally, selected BC3F2 lines will be selfed for at least 4 more rounds to recover fixed alleles in some remaining missing target introgression fragments. In a similar approach to the one used for the development interspecific lines with O. meridionalis as donor, we developed a series of CSSLs with the O. rufipogon species.The crosses and anther culture were made at CIAT, between Curinga and O. rufipogon acc. IRGC-105491.In the second semester of 2009, the BC 3 DH population was genotyped at for a positive selection with SSR markers. This type of selection allowed to check the plants that keep the desirable wild introgressed fragment. From each family, around three plants (total of 184 plants) were chosen to be negatively selected, selecting those with the smallest amount of donor genome in their background. These 184 plants were genotyped with an Illumina 384 SNP chip, designed at Cornell. 248 SNPs were polymorphic between the parents, with an average of 5 cM between them. Using CSSL Finder, 84 plants were chosen according to their fragment of interest and background recovery to be the CSSL library between Curinga and IRGC-105491. The final coverage in the BC3DH population was excellent. The population is ready for distribution to partners and we will also propose BC4F2/3 lines by the end of 2010.We developed a series of CSSLs with the O. glumaepatula species as donor. The crosses and anther culture were made at Embrapa-CNPAF, Brazil, between Curinga and O. glumaepatula acc. GEN1233. 153 BC3F1 plants were selected based on SSR genotyping and the BC4F2 seeds are now available. The BC4F3 families of O. glumaepatula x O. sativa cross are in the field to proceed to selfing for seed increase and further fixation. 142 BC2F2 plants were evaluated for yield-related traits at an experimental field in Porangatu, Goias, Brazil, under two conditions, one fully-irrigated and one under water stress. A QTL analysis was performed and eight QTLs were detected in both conditions, from which four were detected in the first treatment and four under water stress. A scientific paper will be submitted with the results from this experiment.The cultivar Curinga, used as female parent, was crossed at CIAT with the O. barthii IRGC101937 accession. The F 1 plants were backcrossed to Curinga to produce the population of BC 1 F 1 lines. A total of 80 BC 1 F 1 seeds have been obtained and sown at two times. Among them, 64 have germinated. A BC2F2 population was produced at CIAT and the seeds were sent to WARDA for sowing and genotyping. 214 BC2F1 lines bearing 54 O. barthii segments were selected among the 600 genotyped plants. The number of BC 3 F 1 seeds produced per plant varied from 5 to 62. Due to germination problems with the BC3F1 seeds, we had to use alternative lines that bear the desired O. barthii fragment but contain a higher proportion of residual genetic background.The new population derived from the cross (IR64 x TOG5681) x IR64 (125 individuals) has been evaluated for 141 anchors belonging to the Universal Core Genetic Map. This allowed us to compute a new interspecific genetic map, in order to confirm and to improve the previous O. sativa x O. glaberrima interspecific genetic map (Lorieux et al 2000), to derive graphical genotypes of the lines to monitor the derivation of BC2 lines, to validate the SSRs of the Core Map for their genetic location, to provide information about the interspecific sterility loci and to allow a direct comparison of the location of the O. glaberrima introgressions to the location of wild species introgressions obtained from this project. Eight regions showing segregation distortion (SD) have been found on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 11. Of these regions, six matched with the twelve O. sativa/O. glaberrima sterility loci described so far: S30(t) (Li et al 2005), S29(t) (Hu et al, 2006), S19 (Taguchi et al 1999), S1 (Sano 1990), S21 (Doi et al, 1999) andS3 (Sano 1983). Two new regions with SD that have not been described for the cross were found in the long arms of chromosomes 3 and 6.As expected, the strongest SD was found to be located at the short arm of chromosome 6, corresponding to the expected position for the locus S1.Due to uncertainty on some of the genotypes identity in the original BC1F1 population, which could generate mistakes in the choice of the BC2 and BC3 lines, we decided to build a new O. sativa x O. meridionalis genetic map from a new BC1F1 population. This allowed us to confirm the location of a few markers and confer more robustness to the choice of the lines.The two interspecific O. sativa x O. glaberrima populations comprising 54 CSSLs from the cross IR64 x TOG5681 and 93 CSSLs from Caiapo x MG12 (alias IRGC103544) were subjected to drought screening at WARDA trial fields at IITA-Benin headquarters, in Cotonou, Benin (B. Manneh). The IR64 x TOG5681 population was screened in hydromorphic soil and the Caiapo x MG12 population was screened in upland soil. The trials were conducted during the dry season of 2006/2007. A split-plot design with irrigation regime as the main plot factor and genotype as the sub-plot factor was used in the trials. Within each sub-plot the genotypes were randomized using an alpha lattice design. Two irrigation levels were used for the IR64 x TOG5681 population -full irrigation up to maturity and imposing 20 days drought stress from 48 days after sowing (DAS) till maturity. For the Caiapo x MG12 population three irrigation levels were usedthe two irrigation levels described above plus a third comprising intermittent drought stress imposed by irrigating every third day during the 21 days drought period. Data collected included: soil moisture content, plant height, tiller number, leaf number, length and width per tiller, leaf rolling score, leaf drying score, recovery ability, days to flower, leaf temperature, leaf greenness rating, grain yield and biomass per plant. Results from the analysis of yield data for the two populations are presented herein. Data analysis was performed using the Mixed Procedure of SAS (version 9.1). This same procedure was used to compute least squares means for grain yield of each genotype under continuous irrigation and under drought stress. Means were calculated for each genotype in both the fully irrigated and drought stressed plots. Mean separation for irrigation levels was done using the PDIFF option in the Proc Mixed model.Grain yield was significantly reduced by 33% on average in this population, from a mean of 2886 kg/ha to 1939 kg/ha following 21 days drought stress. Amongst the genotypes, percentage yield loss varied from 3-88% implying a wide range of drought tolerance within this CSSL population. This was also supported by the ANOVA output from SAS which also showed a significant genotype × irrigation interaction (p <0.01). However, there was significant correlation between grain yields under drought stress and without drought stress. Nine CSSLs were found to yield higher under drought stress than under continuous irrigation. For the parents, IR64 yielded higher than average under both continuous irrigation and under drought stress while TOG5681, the O. glaberrima parent, yielded significantly less than average under the same conditions. Under both drought stress and continuous irrigation transgressive segregation for grain yield was exhibited in this population because several CSSLs yielded higher than IR64 (the high yielding parent) under these conditions. This implies that O. glaberrima has contributed several genes in this cross that either alone or through epistatic effects can increase grain yield of rice in these conditions.Significant genotype-by-irrigation level interaction was expressed by this population and yield (8.56 g/plant) under continuous irrigation were significantly different from those of the two stress treatments -intermittent drought stress (7.55 g/plant) and continuous drought stress (7.70 g/plant). Meanwhile yields under the two stress treatments were not significantly different from each other. In this trial, Caiapo out-yielded O. glaberrima (MG12) in all conditions. However, transgressive segregation for grain yield was expressed within the CSSLs in all three irrigation treatments. The O. glaberrima MG12 parent exhibited high sterility under all treatments and this led to the very low yields recorded for the genotype in this trial.We set up a small lab to train visiting scientists in G40 Emerson Hall. It will accommodate up to 2-4 scientists at a time. It was designed with the idea that scientists with different levels of background training could learn to work in a basic molecular laboratory. The lab is set up to run PCR, both horizontal and vertical agarose gels and polyacrylamide gels. Data collection/analysis mechanisms are also provided. These basic functions will allow a scientist to learn how to do marker-assisted analysis of their plants.We tried to provide equipment that was adequate to accomplish the tasks required at reasonable prices. By doing so, we are hoping that visitors will be able to see the value in purchasing certain pieces of expensive equipment and on what things they can make due with lesser quality. Ultimately we want them to be able to return to their countries able to set up a lab of their own that will fit their budgets and resources, and with the skills to make that lab produce useable results.A set of 180 SNPs were selected in rice chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 and six PCRmultiplex experiments were designed. PCR-multiplex reactions were carried out in two sets of 30 markers, one for each chromosome. Single base extension reactions were carried out in multiplex of 13 to 19 SBE primers. No fluorescent signal was observed for 47 SNPs, eleven were monomorphic and seven were classified as no-specific since one allele could not be recognized alone and was observed always together with the alternate allele as a heterozygote. The remaining 41 SNPs (68%) were scored with high fluorescent signals and were also polymorphic, although two of them did not reproduced the polymorphism between Nipponbare and 93-11. The remaining 114 SNPs (64%) were scored with high fluorescent signals and were also polymorphic, although seven of them did not reproduced the polymorphism between Nipponbare and 93-11. For four markers, alleles could be scored only in O. sativa and O. rufipogon but not in the other species.Several SNPs were found to be polymorphic between the parents of wild x cultivated CSSLs populations (Table 1) and the definition of sets of markers to screen for each population was initiated.Several PhD or Master students spent 3 months each year at Cornell University analyzing DNA samples: Laura Moreno from CIAT, Juan David Arbelaez from Fedearroz, Priscilla Rangel from EMBRAPA, Gustave Djedatin and Mamadou Cissoko from AfricaRice (ex-WARDA).Template GCP Final Technical Report Updated October 2008Deviations from workplan There is no major deviation from the work plan. However, a few minor deviations need to be mentioned: -The construction of the Universal Core Map was not planned in the original project. The construction of this tool was decided later on to facilitate the construction of CSSLs and the related activities were partially financed with external sources of funding. The results and outputs issued from this activity, we believe, represent a substantial added value to the project.-Also, the decision was made to build a new O. sativa x O. meridionalis genetic map from a new population was taken due to the uncertainty in some genotypes identification stamps. We decided to redo the job in order to discard any even minor source of mistake in the subsequent selection of chromosomal segments.-The same strategy was adopted for the two O. sativa x O. glaberrima populations in order to recover lost fragments and validate the genetic map.-O. barthii CSSLs: 1) The project was seriously delayed during the year 2009 before of the departure of the staff in charge of the implementation of the project. The position was open and advertises and it took some time to find an adequate person. 2) We had low to no germination rate of CSSLs. It was decided to solve this issue before sowing the remaining material which is kept at -20C. A literature reviewed was made to review available rice seed germination protocols. Contact was also made with scientists familiar with the germination issue in rice. A protocol for rice seeds germination was selected. This protocol is being implemented on the parents of the CSSLs. It was also decided that the viability of seeds will be tested follow by the germination test using the new protocol.-Overall, we estimate that we were about six months to one year late on the CSSL development activity. This was mainly due to difficulties in handling some logistical aspects, i.e., re-directing some initial activities from WARDA to CIAT, or delays related to visa issues or other logistical issues.-Drought stress screenings: it has not been possible to carry out drought stress screenings at Fedearroz experimental station in good conditions. However, a collaboration (external to this project) with Thaura Ghneim's group (IVIC, Venezuela) that aims to screen 93 lines for various physiological parameters under drought stress from the Caiapo x MG12 cross should adequately complete the field screening, although the results cannot be considered as a GCP product. -SSR polymorphism for a collection of cultivated and wild rice accessions, Format: Universal Core Map database (Excel-compatible) -SSR genomic location of the Universal Core Genetic Map Format: Universal Core Map database (Excel-compatible) All of these data will be published on the GCP central database as soon as they have been valorized by publications.Although some deviations have occurred from the initial work plan, the main goals for this project have been achieved. As a summary: • We developed six populations of CSSLs (Chromosome Segment Substitution Lines) that bear introgressions from the AA-genome rice species O. glaberrima, O. barthii, O. meridionalis, O. rufipogon and O. glumaepatula. These populations will constitute a valuable tool for genetic analyses and will allow us to identify key genomic regions that are associated to agronomically important traits.• We developed a Universal Core Genetic Map for rice. This map has already been demonstrated as a very useful tool to help at designing introgression populations, particularly in the case of interspecific crosses. It is based on microsatellite markers that we discovered and choose with the help of several bioinformatic packages, including some that we develop at CIAT. • A database, Paddy Map, was created and is available online (http://mapdisto.free.fr). This database aims to provide means to easily and quickly choose a series of genetic markers to be used to genotype a population derived from a specific cross.• Five first-generation backcross segregating populations were genotyped and five interspecific genetic maps were developed from these data. These maps will be useful to assess the recombination rates for every wild species we use and will facilitate the localization of important genes or QTLs. All the maps we generated were based on the Universal Core Genetic Map.• In order to fully exploit the information given by the genetic mapping analyses carried out using crosses that involve the O. glaberrima species, we collaborated with the Arizona Genomics Institute to develop a library of Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BAC) for this species. The library is available to the international community of plant genomicists, and it will constitute the basis of positional cloning approaches to identify and characterize important genes for O. glaberrima (this work was also supported by USAID funds).• In parallel to this project, we designed a computer program that helps geneticists at creating CSSL populations. The program is called CSSL Finder at is available for download as freeware at http://mapdisto.free.fr/.• A bioinformatic tool to facilitate the discovery of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was set up.• Seven students and four research assistants were trained.• Four students from Africa and Latin America do shuttle research between their respective centers and Cornell University.• The international collaboration between several ARIs, CG centers and NARS was strengthened.• Several publications are in preparation. We expect the outputs of this project to provide very useful tools to the scientific community, for gene identification in wild species and pre-breeding purposes. It is worth to mention that this project is now strongly connected to the OMAP project (Rod Wing, Arizona Genomics Institute). Indeed, BAC libraries for four of the parental ","tokenCount":"4131"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff1e33a026559c5d14b2c21f0cf6c448","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/acc7d313-9df4-439d-b6a0-577e6e7b0a23/retrieve","id":"1608916334"},"keywords":["agrobiodiversity","neglected and underutilized species","local foods","Ethnobotany"],"sieverID":"24f1229d-ed80-4d02-b0c9-99ae3f12d91e","pagecount":"22","content":"Background: Locally available food plants are not only a good source of essential micronutrients but also provided culturally acceptable foods. Their evaluation could be a sustainable strategy that can effectively meet the nutrient requirements for vulnerable groups in rural areas. They are therefore of great importance in ensuring food security in low-and middle-income countries. Several communities in Benin depend mainly on indigenous food sources especially plant species.Method: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in southern Benin to document the edible plant species (EPS) used by people living in two agroecological zones (AEZ 6 and AEZ 8). Field investigations were carried out in eight villages of the two agroecological zones, with four villages per agroecological zone. Data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and analyzed using descriptive statistics.Results: A total of 146 edible plant species belonging to 46 families were recorded and herbarium specimens were collected and deposited at the national herbarium of Benin. Species diversity was lower in AEZ 6 compared with AEZ 8. Herbs and shrubs were the dominant plant habits, with leaves and fruits (arils, flesh, pulp) as the most reported plant parts that were consumed mainly as leafy vegetables or fruits.According to FAO /PAR (2011), agricultural biodiversity (Agrobiodiversity) includes all the components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture, and those that constitute the agroecosystem: the variety and variability of animals, plants and microorganisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels, which sustain the functions, structure and processes of the agroecosystem. It also plays a critical role in global food production and the livelihoods and well-being of all, regardless of resource endowment or geographical location. As such, it is an essential component of any food system. Agrobiodiversity is recognized as a culturally acceptable, low-input source of nutritious food that is often adapted to local farming systems (Bioversity International 2016).In most low-and middle-income African countries (LMICs) like Benin, most people depend on indigenous plant food resources for food security. These resources vary according to agroecological zones (Achigan-Dako et al. 2010, Chadare et al. 2018, Codjia et al. 2003) leading to diversity in diets. Several studies have documented how agrobiodiversity is used by local people in Africa. Nemoga (2019) and Whyte (2017) estimated that local and regional agrobiodiversity is well recognized as indispensable to the nutritional security and food sovereignty of many indigenous smallholder communities. However, there is limited use of plant species diversity worldwide, even though it constitutes a source of micronutrients for humanity (Cantwell-Jones et al. 2022). Indeed, only 7039 of the 40292 species of edible plants identified are used as human food globally (Diazgranados et al. 2020), indicating their neglect or the lack of knowledge on the food and nutritional value of agricultural biodiversity. Benin is among the sub-Saharan African countries with a high diversity richness of edible plant species, between 501 and 900 edible plant species (Ulian et al. 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to realize the value of agrobiodiversity through its increased use. This requires an understanding of the state of the food knowledge of the local populations. Studies have reported on ethnobotanical knowledge. Among others, Pandey et al. (2021) reported 39 crops and 04 indigenous breeds of livestock in the jhum (North-eastern India) farming system. These species were categorized into five core food groups that sustain nutritional security and the food culture of indigenous people. In Ethiopia, an ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants documented a total of 33 wild edible species. Of these, the families Moraceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae were the most dominant, with fruits being the most edible parts (Abera 2022). León-Lobos et al. (2022) found that 330 native species were documented as food plants, representing 7.8% of the total flora of Chile. These species belong to 196 genera and 84 families, with Asteraceae, Cactaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Apiaceae as the most diverse families. An ethnobotanical survey of wild food plants used by the local communities of Kumrat Valley in District Upper Dir, Pakistan counted 50 species of wild food plants and two fungal species comprising 30 taxonomic families and 40 genera. The Rosaceae family dominated with the highest species number (6 species), followed by Moraceae and Leguminosae. It is apparent, therefore, that some plant families provide more food species than others. With respect to plant habits, herbs, trees and shrubs are the most dominant (Ahmad et al. 2021). In Kashmir, a western region of Himalaya, a study related to food and culture recorded 75 edible species used in cultural foods in the Kashmir valley. Generally, vegetables, fruits and spices are dominant in the edible species in ethnobotanical surveys (Hassan et al. 2021a, Pieroni et al. 2017, Aboukhalaf et al. 2022). Traditional knowledge and use of wild edible plants in Sidi Bennour region (Central Morocco) indicated that a total of 56 plant species representing 56 genera and 27 families were used to make different food dishes and others. The most cited wild edible plants (WEPs) family was Asteraceae (Aboukhalaf et al. 2022).In Benin, several studies have shown a diversity of locally available plant and animal species that could be used as sources of foods with good nutritional value. Codjia et al. (2003), Dansi et al. (2009) and Achigan-Dako et al. (2010) inventoried respectively 162 edible plant species, 187 leafy vegetables in three agroecological zones and covered 73 villages, and 245 plant species belonging to 62 families that were used by communities. Indeed, species such as Annona senegalensis (Codjia et al. 2003), Borassus aethiopum (Codjia et al. 2003, Djagoun et al. 2010) as well as Elaeis guineensis (Akoègninou et al. 2006); Adansonia digitata (Chadare 2010); Moringa oleifera (Ashok & Preeti 2012); Amaranthus cruentus, Solanum nigrum, Cleome gynandra (Stoilova et al. 2014) contain not only high but also variable levels of essential nutrients. In southern Benin, ethnobotanical survey of 231 adults (138 men and 93 women) who recognized the species, revealed that 100% of them recognize the use of ripe fruits of Annona muricata as food (Gbonsou et al. 2020). Another study conducted on the knowledge and use of Cola millenii showed that the food use of the fruit pulp is a common practice in the Guinean and Sudano-Guinean zones of Benin (Lawin et al. 2019).The use of local food resources in infant and young children's food formulations is strongly encouraged to meet their nutritional requirements (Kageliza et al. 2014, Mitchikpe et al. 2010). The first step for achieving such a goal starts with the inventory and screening of available edible food resources in local communities to enable the selection of the most suitable products for designing appropriate nutritional food formulae. Ethnobotanical studies conducted in Benin have so far been limited to the inventory and description of the plant habits of the species (Achigan-Dako et al. 2010, Chadare et al. 2018, Dansi et al. 2008). There is a lack of knowledge on the specific food uses of these species by local populations, as well as their culinary knowledge to better characterize these species. This study, therefore, aimed to fill part of this gap by addressing, beyond the inventory, the different food uses in two agroecological zones (AEZs) of southern Benin. The study, therefore, documented local edible plants across the two AEZs, with a focus on their richness and how they are used by the indigenous populations in rural Benin.The communes comprise several villages including Hounviatouin, Djidjozoun, Tokpoe, Tchantchankpo, Sohoumè, Aguehon, Agongoh and Tohon which were considered in this study (Table 1). AEZ 6 is one of the most complexes and is dominated by the ferralitic soils. The main crops are maize, cassava, cowpea and groundnut. In this zone, the vegetation is essentially impacted by anthropogenic activities, characterized by a dense shrub thicket dominated by Elaeis guineensis and grasses. There are still some forest relics in a few places. AEZ 8 is mainly characterized by the development of inland and maritime fishing as a complement to agriculture, including maize, cassava, cowpeas and market gardening. Characteristic species of the natural vegetation include Adansonia digitata, Ceiba pentandra, Antiaris toxicaria, Azadirachta indica and other reforested areas consisting mainly of Tectona grandis, Acacia sp., Terminalia sp., Kaya senegalensis, Chlorophora excelsa, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Elaesis sp. and fruit trees. The lower vegetation is made up of grasses, marshy meadows and mangroves along the Ahémé lake. In both agroecological zones, Sahouè and Kotafon were the main spoken languages.An ethnobotanical survey was carried out in eight villages, from the two agroecological zones through focus group discussions (FGDs). A purposive sample of four villages in Bopa and four villages in Houéyogbé was drawn, considering the diversity of soils and livelihood options available for the population living in the area. The criteria for inclusion were rural/low level of urbanization, diversity of soils, and diversity in agricultural activities (cropping, breeding, fisheries) as well as the willingness of the communities to participate in the study. Each focus group was composed of key informants knowledgeable in plant uses, that were selected in collaboration with the village headman (Cotton 1996).An exploratory qualitative approach, via focus group discussions, was used to document all edible plant species (EPS) known at the village level and to gain insights into their uses. The decision to opt for participatory focus group discussions stems from the fact that we were interested in an inventory of all EPS known and used per village/ethnic group, rather than a more in-depth individual informants' knowledge. Mixed focus group discussions (men and women) were organized over one (1) week in each village to document all locally available food plants. The FGDs involved a total of 80 participants, with an average of 10 participants per village (Table 1).Study objectives and activities were explained before seeking the participant's written prior informed consent. During the first session in each village, we asked participants to enumerate all local plants they know and use as foods (\"free listing\" exercises) as suggested by Cotton (1996). These included all food plant species/varieties produced and consumed locally (wild as well as cultivated) and the foods derived from them as well as a list of additional foods that are consumed but not produced locally (exclusively bought from the market). To structure the discussion, participants were asked to name the plants (and foods derived) per commodity (fruits, leafy vegetables, other vegetables, roots, tubers, cereals, legumes, and nuts (domesticated as well as wild). Plant names were recorded in their native languages (Sahouè/Kotafon), and per village, and a list of all EPS was compiled.During subsequent focus group sessions, participants discussed the characteristics of the species, as well as their habits, edible parts and specific food uses for each listed species. At the end of this exercise, a book with pictures of documented food plants was presented to the participants, to probe for any missing species from their list. They were given some time to examine the different pictures and complete their list with any species that are grown and/or consumed in their village but were omitted during the free listing exercise.The list of food plant species developed by FGD participants were used to collect herbarium specimens of the different species from cultivated and uncultivated lands. Two participants were selected to guide the researchers in the field to collect the specimens. For each specimen collected, village name, date of collection, collectors' name and reference number, species local name, plant habit, geographical coordinates, and reference numbers of photographs were recorded. The photos and collected samples helped later on, after the fieldwork, in the identification of the scientific names of the plant species, based on the Flora of Benin Republic (Akoègninou et al. 2006), and by a botanist at the National Herbarium of the University of Abomey-Calavi. The online Plant List (www.theplantlist.org), the World Flora (www.worldfloraonline.org) and the Kew plant database (https://powo.science.kew.org) were used to crosscheck and update the scientific names of plant species.All the plant species from the FGDs were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies) to generate summaries and tables per village and AEZ. The dried and processed plant specimens were allotted voucher numbers and were then submitted to the National Herbarium, for future reference. Voucher numbers of the submitted plant specimens are given after their botanical name. The categories of specific food uses were based on the level 3 descriptors for food types (Cook 1996). Other categories such as beverage (soft and alcoholic beverage), which fall under the 'other food type' category in Cook (1996) were added to the food descriptors list to better comply with field realities.The sampling approach resulted in the selection of eighty participants, all adults, including 39 men and 41 women in 8 villages (Table 1). All of the villages are characterized by soils that are suitable for agriculture. In addition to agriculture, fishing is also practiced in Djidjozoun (Bopa) and Sohoumè (Houéyogbé). Generally, In AEZ 8, agriculture, fishing, livestock and trade are the main activities, while in AEZ 6, agriculture is the main activity. Results indicated that people managed high diversity of plant species in the surveyed areas (Table 2). Up to 146 edible plant species including 80 cultivated (55%), 8 semi-cultivated (5%), and 58 wilds (40%) were recorded in total. There is a slight difference between agroecological zones with 118 species in AEZ 6 and 124 in AEZ 8. Among the 46 plant families recorded, nine have at least five species. Families with more than five species included Malvaceae (19 species), Fabaceae/ Papilionaceae (11 species), Asteraceae (8 species), Amaranthaceae (8 species), and Solanaceae (7 species) (Fig. 2). All 46 botanical families recorded were known by AEZ 8 communities, while 40 were known in AEZ 6. There was a very high species diversity of food resources in the study area, although AEZ 8 presented a relatively high species richness compared to AEZ 6 (Fig. 3).The habits of plant species included trees, shrubs, herbs, palms, and vines. In AEZ 6, 51.7% of species were herbs (e.g., Pergularia daemia, Gongronema latifolium, Xanthosoma sagittifolium, Crassocephalum rubens, Launaea taraxacifolia), 23% were shrubs (e.g., Mussaenda elegans, Carpolobia lutea, Rytigynia umbellulata), 15% were trees (e.g., Vitex doniana, Adansonia digitata, Blighia sapida), 7% are vines (e.g., Telfairia occidentalis, Dioscorea bulbifera, Cucurbita pepo), 3% were palms (e.g. Phoenix reclinata, Elaeis guineensis, Cocos nucifera). In AEZ 8, herbs were the most dominant species with 49%, followed by shrubs (22%), trees (19%), vines (7%), and palm (3%) which were less common (Table 2 and Fig. 3).  In AEZ 6, the 118 EPS 95 different plant parts that are used for 130 different specific food uses. Results show that EPS were mostly used for their leaves (47%), followed by fruits (14%), seeds (9%), and roots/tubers/ rhizomes (8%). Some EPS have several plant parts used for food. For specific food uses, EPS are mostly used as leafy vegetables (44%), followed by their use as fruit (32%), and staple (9%). The 124 EPS inventoried in the AEZ 8 have 98 different plant parts that are used for 131 specific food uses. Leaves (47%), fruits (15%), and roots/tubers/ rhizomes (9%) are the most plant parts used (Tables 3-4). The most specific food uses are leafy vegetables (41%), followed by fruits (39%). Irrespective of AEZs, the 146 edible plant species have 173 different plant parts that are used for 184 different specific uses. .The survey revealed an impressive diversity of edible plant species in the study area with 146 edible plant species belonging to 46 botanical families. The diversity of edible plant species found in the present study appeared higher than that observed in the same area (Department) by Hadonou-Yovo et al. (2019). Indeed, they inventoried 35 edible plant species in the study on diversity and use pattern of woody plant species of Mono Biosphere. However, several studies found a higher diversity of edible plant species compared to this study. Indeed, Dansi et al. (2008), Achigan-Dako et al. (2010) and Codjia et al. (2003) inventoried respectively 187 leafy vegetables in three agroecological zones covered 73 villages; 245 plant species that were used by communities throughout Benin and 162 plant species that were consumed by the local population in Benin. A study conducted in arid and semi-arid areas in Benin by Segnon and Achigan-Dako (2014) recorded 115 edible plant species, showing lower plant species diversity than in this study. Compared to studies from other African countries, we observed that edible plant diversity recorded in the present study is higher than those from the south of Mali, where 87 food plants were recorded (Diarra et al. 2016). Likewise, in the Ilkisonko Maasai community of Kenya, Kimondo et al. (2015) observed that 30 plant were used as food and medicine. In Tanzania, Keding et al. (2007) recorded 74 vegetables in one single district (Muheza). Also, in Togo, one bordered country of Benin, 86 edible plant species were recorded in the maritime region (Effoe et al. 2020). These different trends observed could essentially be related to the scope, geography, ecology, ethnicity as well as the methodological approach used in the studies. This study also showed a difference in the level of species diversity between the two agroecological zones (AEZs). For example, AEZ 8 has higher edible plant diversity compared with AEZ 6. This could be due to the more favorable environmental conditions in AEZ 8 with several streams and lowlands, leading to more diverse vegetation than AEZ 6, in which natural vegetation has given way to a fallow palm vineyard. A similar trend was observed by Chadare et al. (2018) who found that AEZ 8 with a rainfall of 1200 mm had the highest food species diversity compared to other AEZs in Benin.Our findings revealed that the diversity of cultivated food plants was relatively higher compared to wild food plants. This seems reasonable since crop production was the main activity in the study area leading to easier physical access to cultivated species than wild. Conversely, Achigan-Dako et al. (2010) and Dansi et al. (2008) already described similar trends where they found a higher diversity of wild food plants compared with cultivated food plants. Indeed, of the 245 vegetables recorded by Achigan-Dako et al. (2010), 176 were wilds, only 47 were under cultivation and 22 of these resources were reported both as cultivated and wild. Dansi et al. (2008) recorded 47 cultivated leafy vegetables versus 140 wilds. Another study on food biodiversity including both locally cultivated and wild food species in Guasaganda, Central Ecuador reported lower diversity of wild (49 species) and cultivated (41 species) food plants (Penafiel et al. 2019). The differences with our findings could be explained by many factors including the study scope, cultural background and the level of survey participants' knowledge of food plants.The important share of wild and semi-wild species (45%) in the edible plants recorded in our study indicates that people are still relying on nature for food. Despite this relatively high diversity of wild and semi-wild food plants, studies have revealed their low contributions to the food intake of children and women (Boedecker et al. 2014, Powell et al. 2013). This indicates that the species may not be used frequently in food preparation for these categories. An explanation for this is that wild food plants, especially fruit-gathering are generally interpreted as being indicative of famine and their consumption connotes indignity and social stigma (Fentahun & Hager 2009). Also, Pawera et al. (2020) highlighted that the barriers to consuming wild foods were the low availability, time constraints, cultural acceptability and limited knowledge of their nutritional value. Powell et al. (2015) in their study conducted in rural South Africa concluded that not all known wild food species were consumed and the little that was consumed was in small quantities, despite their nutritional importance. Furthermore, N' Danikou et al. (2017) in their investigations in Mali found that the rural households which had access to higher diversity of wild food plants were less vulnerable to food insecurity compared to the others.Results showed that Malvaceae was the most diverse botanical family providing food species in the study area (Fig. 2). This could be due to their easy growth in tropical regions, where environmental conditions are favourable. Also, it could be due to their wider distribution and abundance in the flora as well as the presence of bioactive ingredients as explained by Lulekal et al. (2013), and by the ecological appearance theory (Gaoue et al. 2017). The high diversity of Malvaceae species could also be attributed to the cultural history of communities since ethnic groups were seen to be specific to food patterns (Hassan et al. 2021a), meaning that edible plant species belonging to Malvaceae were more the 'food identity' than other botanical families in studied communities. In contrast with the current finding, Rosaceae (Singh et al. 2021, Wali et al. 2021), Asteraceae (Dansi et al. 2008, Weldearegay & Awas 2021), Fabaceae (Boakye et al. 2022, de Oliveira et al. 2021) were reported as the dominant botanical families in other areas of Africa.This study highlighted that herbaceous plants were the most dominant plant habit used in the study area. This could be supported by the availability hypothesis whereby herbaceous plants are of short growing cycles and their resources are renewed at a higher frequency compared to shrubs, trees and others (Albuquerque 2006). Indeed, the localities involved in this study were rural communities with relatively easy access to natural resources, including wild and cultivated food resources where herbaceous plants were dominant.The level of knowledge of the population on the food use of plants is lower in the commune of Houéyogbé (AEZ 6) compared to Bopa (AEZ 8) in terms of the diversity of botanical families, species richness, plant parts use and specific food uses. This could be explained by the higher level of urbanization in Houéyogbé compared with Bopa. Indeed, the increase in the level of urbanization in communities participates in the alteration of plant diversity as pointed out by Hussain et al. (2022) in a quantitative ethnomedicinal study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the tribal communities of Central Kurram, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, and consequently contributed to the relative loss of their knowledge. Other authors discussed the linkages between urbanization and knowledge loss and have reported a negative impact of urbanization on the preservation of local ecological knowledge (Brandt et al. 2013;Gandolfo & Hanazaki 2014, Reyes-García et al. 2013, Sogbohossou et al. 2015).In the present study, leaves appeared to be the most used plant part. Similarly, Wali et al. (2021), in a study conducted in local people of Shishi Koh valley, Chitral, Pakistan, found that leaves were the most used plant part. Also, Weldearegay and Awas (2021) in the study conducted in and around Sirso Natural Forest of Melokoza District, Gamo Goffa Zone, Southern Ethiopia, found that fresh leaves were the most frequently reported plant parts.The dominance of leaves among other plant parts used by communities in rural Benin could be explained by their easy collection (Haq et al. 2020, Wali et al. 2021); availability of large quantities and ease of preparation (Jan et al. 2020, Weldearegay & Awas 2021). Also, in comparison with the harvesting of other plant parts such as roots, bulbs, stems, and whole plant harvesting, the use of leaves has minimal effect on the long-term survival of the plants, and this reduces the threats on the harvested plants and therefore makes plants safe and sustainable from the conservation point of view (Weldearegay & Awas 2021). One major explanation for the use of leaves more than other parts of the plant might be, in addition to being a source of micronutrients, leaves also contain various secondary metabolites (Ahmad et al. 2014, Haq et al. 2020) and other bioactive components that allow them to play an important medicinal role (Hassan et al. 2021b, Yousuf et al. 2020).The present study revealed that the plant species listed have multiple specific food uses. Indeed, the 146 edible plant species have 186 different specific uses. Termote et al. (2011) recorded 85 wild plant species with 96 plant parts that can be employed raw or prepared for 106 different specific food uses, while Ju et al. (2013) recorded 168 wild plant species with 191 specific food uses. More specifically, leafy vegetable uses were the most important followed by fruit uses. This can be explained and is only the consequence of the primacy of the leaves' uses over other plant parts since this study dealt only with food plants. A similar trend was found by Ngbolua et al. (2021) who observed that leafy vegetables followed by fruits were the most common uses of targeted wild edible plant species. Additionally, Sachula et al. (2020) in Inner Mongolian, China, andCao et al. (2020) in Jiangcheng County, Pu'er, Southwest China, found that vegetables including leaves were the most specific use of wild edible plants collected by the locals. Conversely, other studies showed instead that fruits use was the most specific food use among non-cultivated edible plants in Tshopo District, DR Congo (Termote et al. 2011) and are the most common commercialized in the Ho Central Market of Ghana indicating their dominance in the localities around the Ho Central market (Boakye et al. 2022).One of the strengths of this study is the documentation of the specific food uses of inventoried edible plant species. However, as important as making an inventory of plants is knowing their culinary uses. The strategies such as washing, soaking, dehulling, milling, heating, roasting, boiling, infusing, germinating, fermenting, curing, preserving, and dehydrating, or the combinations of some of these processes can act on the bioavailability of nutrients and the inactivation or reduction of antinutritional factors (Akeem et al. 2019). Therefore, it is relevant that ethnobotanical studies collect information on the culinary uses of food species. Another weakness lies in the methodological approach. Indeed, to confirm the high species diversity observed in the study area, it would be appropriate to use individual interviews that would help calculate specific diversity indices, such as the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, Simpson diversity index, or Pielou's index of Equitability, to better appreciate the level of food species diversity in the study site. Lastly, the use of the mixed focus group (men and women) could be a limitation of this study. We could have carried out focus groups with men or women separately to be able not only to compare data among sex but also to avoid the bias that would be induced by the presence of men on women. This may have prevented women from expressing themselves in complete peace of mind.This study showed the great potential of local food plants and related indigenous knowledge in both agroecological zones of southern Benin. Moreover, species diversity was higher in AEZ 8 than in AEZ 6. Different plant parts are used by local people, and the most frequently used parts were leafy vegetables, fruits, and seeds. These plants have different specific food uses, with leafy vegetable uses being the most frequent, followed by fruit uses. The nutritional potential of plant species in the study area could contribute to the improvement of food security and nutrition of the population. Findings suggest that locally available food plants especially leafy vegetables and fruits should be valued to combat micronutrient deficiencies among rural vulnerable populations in general, children and women in particular. The study presents the starting point of the valorization of local agrobiodiversity through their inventory and their various specific food uses. Further research should consider phytochemical analysis to identify plant species not only with interesting nutritional potential but also with acceptable levels of bioactive compounds like phenols, phytates, etc. This could be a better way to value local food plants in the formulation of complementary foods for infants and young children. Since the study populations rely also on wild species, domestication of these species would be necessary for their conservation and sustainable use.","tokenCount":"4588"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"78dc127ce1e325992e5a493ccf97f72a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed9c74c1-36f2-41d0-a9e0-b2752fbaaecc/retrieve","id":"1634360655"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1782da0c-365a-4a6b-b746-abfb05c835ae","pagecount":"1","content":"We thank farmers and local partners in their contributions to this work. We also acknowledge the support of all donors which globally support the work of the CGIAR and its partners through their contributions.National Agricultural Data HubEthiopian agriculture is characterized by small holding farming, low input and output and highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. Further, the agricultural extension system is characterized by low performance as the advisory system is not context and site specific and even not season smart. In addition, the advisory dissemination is not efficient and characterized by slow scaling.To address the challenge, the country developed a strategy on digital extension system and implementing together with its development actors and partners. As part of this effort the Alliance Bioversity International and CIAT working together with Ministry of Agriculture and other partners on the realization of digital agriculture in the country. In the process, however, there is challenge as most agricultural data are not digital, very fragmented, not findable and accessible, and non-interoperable. Thus, there is a need to develop national ag data hub that can be a base for development of digital agroadvisory system ","tokenCount":"188"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15fd935f3c308b54141e32f5be0676bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/17ec4d01-5082-4e04-bc44-7a1e4b23f8f8/retrieve","id":"-2010347014"},"keywords":["AO1, AO2, AO3, AO4, AO5-agroecological original plantations","AC1, AC2, AC3, AC4, AC5agroecological converted plantations","CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5-conventional original plantations","CC1, CC2, CC3, CC4, CC5conventional converted plantations"],"sieverID":"19ecedf7-6960-4c5c-baa8-5b432e5a03b7","pagecount":"20","content":"Tea is a very important cash crop in Vietnam as it provides crucial income and employment for farmers in poor rural areas. Unfortunately, the dominance of long-term, conventional tea cultivation has caused severe soil health degradationand environmental pollution. At the same time, as tea production may provide a better net income compared with other annual crops such as rice and vegetables, farmers have been converting parts of their allocated land to cultivate tea plants. Little is known about the benefit of agroecological management as an alternative to conventional tea management practices, and thus, there is a need to understand how it can improve tea yields, quality and the livelihoods of the farmers. Conducted in Northern Vietnam from 2019 to 2022, this study examined the impacts of agroecological tea management practices on soil health indicators, tea yield and quality, and net income of tea farmers. We showed that agroecological management practices significantly enhanced soil organic matter by 0.8% and soil pH by 0.5 units on average. Conversely, conventional management based on chemical fertilizer applications, significantly increased soil total nitrogen by 0.15%-0.2%. No significant differences were observed between soil texture and other soil chemical characteristics. Soil biological parameters were also significantly higher in agroecological tea soil and root samples than in conventional tea plots. Average AMF frequency and intensity of the agroecological tea roots were 98% and 37%, respectively, compared with 73% and 15% of the conventional tea roots. Likewise, soil macrofauna and mesofauna abundance in the agroecological tea plantations was 76 individuals/m 2 and 101 individuals/100 g fresh soil on average, respectively, while that of conventional tea farms were 34 and 63 individuals/100 g fresh soil, respectively. Interestingly, a comparison between the converted and nonconverted lands did not show any significant effect of the conversion on soil physicochemical and biological characteristics, apart from tea root AMF colonization. Conventional tea management consistentlyTea (Camellia synesis Kotze) has been cultivated for centuries and plays an important role in economic development and social sustainability in Vietnam (Bui & Nguyen, 2020;Viet San et al., 2021). Currently, tea plantations cover an area of around 130,000 ha, with over 1 million tonnes of fresh tea leaves being produced annually (Viet San et al., 2021). Since 2010, Vietnam has been among the top five leading tea exporters worldwide, with the annual revenue from tea exports over USD 200 million per annum (Van Ho et al., 2019). In Vietnam, tea is mainly grown in the Northern mountainous areas, where the conventional management method has been the dominant practice (Doanh et al., 2018;Viet San et al., 2021). Long-term intensive application of agrochemicals under conventional tea cultivation in this region has resulted in a range of serious issues, such as soil health and environmental degradation, human health concerns and reduced tea quality (Van Ho et al., 2019;Viet San et al., 2021). However, recently Vietnam has experienced an increasing transition from conventional tea cultivation to other alternatives such as organic and agroecological tea management practices (Ha, 2014;Van Ho et al., 2019). Apart from existing conventional tea areas, tea growers also convert their allocated croplands such as paddy rice and vegetable fields to cultivate tea crops. These conversions have been driven by the growing interests in greater economic efficiency of tea production, high tea quality and an increased awareness of agrochemical detrimental effects on human health and the environment (Doanh et al., 2018;Viet San et al., 2021).Soil health can be defined as the capacity of soil to provide ecosystem services and it has been typically assessed by considering all the attributes including soil physical, chemical and biological properties (Ippolito et al., 2021;Williams et al., 2020). Different agricultural management practices can lead to long-term and differing effects on soil health properties (Bai et al., 2018). For instance, conventional agriculture, which employs intensive agrochemical inputs has been widely known to negatively impact soil health in comparison with conservation and organic farming (Singh et al., 2020;Viet San et al., 2021). By contrast, the role of agroecology in restoring soil health, providing sustainable food production and environmental benefits has been increasingly recognized worldwide (Dumont et al., 2021;FAO, 2020;Nicholls & Altieri, 2018). Agroecological practices aim at optimizing agroecological processes, environmental and public health whilst minimizing social-ecological costs from agricultural activities (FAO, 2020;Kerr et al., 2021). For tea farming, numerous studies outside Vietnam have indicated the positive impacts of agroecological practices on soil health properties and tea quality indicators, such as the application of organic fertilizers (Gu et al., 2019;Han et al., 2021;Lin et al., 2019) and organic mulching (Zhang, Huiguang, et al., 2020;Zhang, Yang, et al., 2020). Similar positive outcomes have also been recorded from other agroecological practices such as intercropping (Wen et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2017), agroforestry (Tian et al., 2013) and integrated pest/disease management (Mamun & Ahmed, 2011;Shrestha & Thapa, 2015). However, all these studies focused on the impacts of agroecology tea management on soil microbial communities and their structures. Soil fauna and root mycorrhization with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been largely undocumented, while they play a key role in the decomposition of the organic matter and the mineral plant nutrition.Land use change will also have significant and direct impacts on soil health because of subsequent alterations of management practices, vegetation cover and soil organism communities (Graham et al., 2021;Rasouli-Sadaghiani et al., 2018). Previous studies have consistently reported serious degradation of soil health as the consequences of converting forestlands and grasslands tocroplands (Berkelmann et al., 2020;Gholoubi et al., 2018;Yang & Zhang, 2014). Yet, how crop conversion affects soil health properties and which mechanisms are involved have received less attention and in the specific case of tea plantations, several studies showed the negative impacts of land conversion from forestlands or perennial croplands to tea cultivation (Gholoubi et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2020;Zheng et al., 2020). These studies, however, did not focus on tea soil fauna communities, root AMF, as well as tea productivity, quality and the economic value of the conversion.This study was designed to investigate how different management practices and land use history affect soil physical, chemical and biological properties, tea productivity, quality and economic efficiency in four communes of the Thai Nguyen province. The outcomes of this study will develop an understanding of the role of soil physicochemical properties, root arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and soil fauna communities in maintaining soil health and tea productivity and quality in the Acrisol soils in Thai Nguyen province as well in Northern region of Vietnam, and the sustainability of agroecological tea management practices in the region in comparison with the conventional approach.This study was conducted in 4 neighbouring communes including Tan Cuong, Phuc Xuan, Phuc Triu and Quyet Thang, which are in the Northwest border areas of Thai Nguyen city, Thai Nguyen province, the largest teaproducing province in Northern Vietnam (Figure 1). This region is characterized by a tropical monsoon climate, with four distinct seasons with an annual mean temperature of approximately 23°C (Dao et al., 2021). The mean annual precipitation ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm, and the peak of the rainy season is from May to September (Xuan et al., 2013). Land areas used for tea production are generally slightly sloping (8-15°C), and the soil type is classified as acrisols according to FAO/WRB classification system (FAO, 1998). Agroecological tea management practices refer to tea plantations that have received organic manure (chicken, cow and/or buffalo compost, 2.5-3 tonnes/ha/ year) and commercial organic fertilizers (3-4 tonnes/ha/ year), organic mulching (crop straw, wood chips, tree barks and Fern), integrated pest and disease management (IPM/IDM, manual control and biopesticides) as the main pest and disease control method for at least 5 consecutive years to the date of sampling (Tables S1-S6). These agroecological tea plantations were granted the VietGAP certification, a voluntary standard accreditation providing the criteria and requirements for safe and sustainable agriculture production issued by the Vietnamese government (Hoang, 2020;My et al., 2017). Since 2017, these tea fields have been in transition to organic tea production, which means that no chemical fertilizers and pesticides have been applied since then to comply with the certification requirement. Conventional tea plantations were subjected to traditional management method, with NPK (3-3.5 tonnes/ha/year) and urea (100-150 kg/harvest/ha) as main nutrient supplies (Table S2); chemical pesticides as main pest and disease control method. Each experimental tea plot has an area ranging from 1000 to 5000 m 2 , and the tea variety is LDP1 (the variety that was crossed between Dai Bach Tra variety originally imported from China and PH1 variety from India), 6 years old (2019). In addition, all investigated tea plantations were irrigated regularly using underground water.Primary data concerning economic aspects of tea production were conducted using a household survey over 3 years from 2019 to 2021, which consisted of 35 households that adopted agroecological tea production and 31 conventional tea-producing households from the 4 communes listed above. To ensure the credibility of this study, we have closely collaborated with local agricultural agencies and tea cooperatives to select the most representative tea-growing households in the 4 communes, where about 70% of the total tea production areas of the city are produced. Criteria for selecting the representative households for interview included the production areas (at least 1000 m 2 for one selective plot), identity of tea variety and tea ages being cultivated (LDP1 variety, 6 years old as of 2019), household investment capacity and labor availability (number of working adults), tea farming experience and having equal access to extension services and technological support. The production economic efficiency of the two tea production management systems was compared using the equation as follows:where: NI is the net income that a tea-growing household earns from one hectare (ha) of tea production, either adopting agroecological or conventional management practices. R i is the total income per ha by selling tea fresh leaves, and any subsidies from government and other agencies for each type of cultivation method (r 1 , r 2 , … r n ). E i is the total expenses for tea production per ha and any related costs, such as fertilizers, pesticides, labor costs, irrigation equipment, machinery and other tools (e 1 , e 2 … e n ).All the amounts were converted from Vietnam Dong (VND) to USD, adopting the current exchange rate (1 USD = 23,200 VND).A total of 20 tea plantations from the 66 households mentioned above (10 agroecological and 10 conventional plantations), were selected from the 4 communes (Tan Cuong: 7 agroecological plots; Quyet Thang: 1 agroecological, 5 conventional plots; Phuc Xuan: 4 conventional plots and Phuc Triu: 2 agroecological, 1 conventional plots), with the objective to study the impact of different tea management methods on soil physicochemical and biological properties, as well as tea yield and yield components. Apart from meeting the criterion set out for all 66 plantations, these 20 plots have minimum areas of 1500 m 2 and are located within a small area (2.5 km 2 radius) to reduce the soil variability.Of the 20 tea plots, 10 plots were converted from annual croplands and 10 were original tea soils. Converted lands were soils used for one season as rice paddies and other annual crops such as maize, peanut and vegetable. These plots are flat (slope < 10 0 ), used for flood irrigation and have been converted to plant tea (1st tea generation) by adding hill soils on top (1-2 m deep). Original tea plantation soils were hill soils that have been used for tea plantations for at least 2 tea generations (15-30 years). They are slightly sloping (10-15 0 ) with thick topsoil, never been flooded (Tables S1 and S2).A sampling area (6 m × 9 m) was located in the center of each experimental field for conducting soil and root sampling. First, soil macrofauna was collected in the morning to avoid the effect of heat from the sun and other intensive activities such as tea harvesting and other sampling, as some macrofauna retreat quickly. In the center of each sampling area, a soil sample of 20 × 20 × 20 cm was dug, 20-30 cm away from the tea trunk, then all the soils were quickly collected into basins. Soil macrofauna was harvested by carefully hand-sorting the soils and then preserved in 50 ml plastic tubes containing 70% alcohol and then stored at 4°C until being identified to group levels. Likewise, about 200 g of fresh soil was sampled from holes with dimensions of 10 × 10 × 20 cm and stored in medium size resealable plastic bag, then immediately stored in a cool box containing ice blocks at the fields for analysing soil mesofauna. These soil samples then were transported immediately after sampling into the lab and stored at 4°C. Soil macrofauna and mesofauna were sampled at different dates within the same week. Following the soil fauna sampling, 12 soil samples were collected per plot, distanced by 3 m in width and 4 m in length from each other. Surface soil samples (0-20 cm deep) were collected, then mixed well and large stones removed. About 500 g of soil was then stored in a large-size resealable plastic bag, air-dried and kept at room temperature for physicochemical analyses. At the same time, 12 finest tea root samples (30-40 g per sample) were collected within a circle of 1 m from the same points for soil sampling then contained in paper envelopes and air dried for AMF analyses.Soil physicochemical analyses included soil texture (Kilmer & Alexander, 1949), soil pH (H 2 O) (1:5 Soil: water suspensions), soil OM (Walkley & Black, 1934), available Phosphorus (P) (Olsen & Sommers, 1982) and total Nitrogen (N) (Kjeldahl method, as described by Archibald et al., 1958). Fine roots were dried in an oven at 40°C following sampling, and AMF staining was implemented using the ink and vinegar method (Vierheilig et al., 1998). The frequency (F%) and the intensity (M%) of AMF colonization were assessed following the technique described by Trouvelot et al. (1986). Generally, 15 root fragments of 1 cm taken from each sample were observed and the presence and the intensity of colonization were recorded based on the scores (from 0 to 5) of each fragment.Soil mesofauna was extracted using two protocols: the heated funnel as described by Edwards (1991) and the modified centrifugal method (Dritsoulas & Duncan, 2020). For the funnel method, a thin layer of fine fresh soil (50 g per sample) was spread on a fine sieve or a small plastic basket and applied heat on top for 72 h. Under the effect of heat, soil mesofauna moved downward and was collected in the plastic tubes, which were tightly connected to funnels and filled with 70% alcohol.For the second method, fresh soil samples (50 g) were initially sieved using a mosquito net (mesh size ≈ 1 mm) to remove large materials and the fine materials that passed through were then filtered through a 400-mesh sieve to get a bulk subsample containing soil mesofauna and organic matter. The subsample was continuously filtered through a 38-mesh sieve, discarded materials that passed through and collected the remaining materials into 2-4 centrifuge tubes (total volume ≈ 50 ml), and centrifuged at 1700 revolutions per minute (RPM) for 5 minutes to remove organic debris and precipitate soil mesofauna and soil particles in the decanted supernatant. The subsample was then filtered again with the 38-mesh sieve, and the remaining materials were mixed with sucrose solution (1.3 M) and centrifuged (1700 rpm, 1 min) to suspend soil mesofauna in the supernatant for collection. Soil mesofauna were then preserved in 70% alcohol solution and identified at the group level, using a dissection microscope. Soil macrofauna extraction was undertaken within a week from the time of soil sampling.Tea yield and yield components in the two production systems were compared for 3 consecutive years, from 2019 to 2021. In the region, tea growers usually conduct 8 harvests per annum, starting in late February/early March and ending in late November/December with an interval of 30-45 days between harvest, depending on the seasons. The present research was conducted in LDP1 variety, which will be 9 years -old in 2022 and is in the middle of its life cycle. Tea yield components including density of tea shoots/m 2 and average weight of a shoot were measured by randomly placing a quadrat (1 m × 1 m) at the center of each trial plot during the harvest days then manually picked all tea shoots presenting in the quadrats, with 5 replicates per plantation. All harvested tea shoots (1 bud and 2 leaves) then were counted to assess the density, and 100 tea shoots were randomly selected for assessing their weight. Tea yield (tonnes of fresh leaves/ha/year) was measured by recording the weight of all fresh tea shoots harvested from the research sites from 2019 to 2021.A total of 60 samples were randomly picked by tea farmers from the 20 selected tea plantations, each contained approximately 500 g of fresh tea leaves (one bud and two leaves). After being harvested, the green tea samples were immediately sent to the Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (NOMAFSI) for processing and sensory assessment, adopting the standard TCVN 3218-2012 issued by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Vietnam in 2012 (Cuong, 2011;Luyen et al., 2014). Fresh tea samples were processed as follows: Light wilting → Enzyme destruction by drying in a barrel rolling → Rub → Drying in barrel rolling → Final green tea product, all of which were undertaken at the Tea Research and Development Center (NOMAFSI). Afterwards, a recognized panel of 9 highly trained and experienced members (4 female and 5 male), who are mainly senior tea researchers from NOMAFSI, were recruited to take part in the sensory evaluation, which was conducted in a panel room (22°C ± 1, free of food/drink odours, fluorescent lighting) for evaluating and presenting marks for the intensity of the target tea quality attributes, including the appearance of dried tea leaves, colour, smell and taste of the tea brew. In the test, 3 g of each dried tea sample was coded with 3 digits in random order and served to each panelist simultaneously for evaluating the appearance of the dried tea. In the meantime, a tea infusion was prepared by putting 3 g of the same dried tea into 150 ml boiled water (93-95°C) for 5 min, and then, the mixtures with the same codes as the dried samples were served and the sensory properties were evaluated. The panelist could discuss the selected representative descriptors for each attribute according to the standard TCVN 3218-2012, then independently decided the marks for each attribute, using the five scale marks in which 5 is the highest mark given to the best attribute and 1 mark is for the poorest attribute. The average marks of each sensory attribute were based on the marks given by 9 panelists, and the overall marks were calculated using the equations:where: D is the overall marks used to calculate the final grade of the tea quality as follow: very good: 18.2-20; good: 15.2-18.1; moderate: 11.2-15.1; poor: 7.2-11.1 and failed: ≤ 7.1. D i is the panel average marks of the attribute i (appearance, colour, taste and smell). k i is the important index for the attribute i as follows: appearance (1% or 25% if by percentage), colour (0.6% or 15%), taste and smell (1.2% or 30%).Data used in this study were analysed using Microsoft® Excel, XLSTAT (Addinsoft, 2016) and R software. Comparison data of economic efficiency between conventional and agroecological cultivation methods were subjected to one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA), while the different effects of cultivation management and land conversion practices on tea root AMF colonization, tea soil fauna compositional communities, tea yield and yield components, as well as sensory indicators, were determined using two-way ANOVA. Soil physicochemical data were ln(x) transformed and the normal distribution verification was performed before two-way ANOVA. To examine the differences between levels within each factor, Tukey-HSD tests were performed for post-hoc comparisons. In addition, a principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to assess the correlations between the soil characteristics and the mycorrhization indicators. Furthermore, soil fauna diversity indexes were performed using the vegan package in R version 4.0.3 (Oksanen et al., 2013).Table 1 compares the economic indicators between the agroecological and conventional tea production systems from 2019 to 2021 in 4 communes in Thai Nguyen city, Northern Vietnam. Overall, agroecological tea production requires significantly more inputs but provides significantly higher incomes for the adopters. Agroecological management requires investments in organic fertilizers (USD 5215), pesticides (USD 679) (Tables S1-S6) and labor cost (USD 6401) per hectare of tea. In comparison, the expenses of conventional tea farmers in the same categories were significantly lower (USD 3368 for fertilizers, USD 482 for pesticides and USD 4581 for labor cost). A similar trend was also observed in other costs (irrigation equipment, machinery, tools for growing and harvesting, etc.), where agroecological tea households needed to spend more than USD 770 year −1 ha −1 , compared with USD 605 invested by conventional tea growers. In total, farmers producing organic tea need to invest US 13,000 ha −1 , those producing conventional tea invest around USD 9000 ha −1 . However, households who adopted agroecological tea cultivation methods made significantly more money at the end of the year, which accounted for around USD 24,000 (year −1 ha −1 ) compared with the nonadopters (USD 15,636 year −1 ha −1 ). This was mainly attributed to the difference in selling prices of fresh tea leaves, as the average price for conventional tea products was around USD 1 lower than that for the agroecological tea products for each kg (USD 1.7 vs. 2.78). In addition, agroecological tea growers have been subsided by either local government agencies or organic fertilization companies, worth around USD 411 (year −1 ha −1 ), mainly via supplies of commercial organic fertilizers without any cost or with low interests. The aim of this initiative is to promote sustainable tea and other crop production in the province and country, which was not available for conventional tea production.Soil physicochemical properties (soil texture, soil pH, OM, available P and total N) and AMF colonization are presented in Table 2. Soils of the trial tea plantations were mainly clay loam in texture, with the proportions of sand and clay ranging from 30% to 40%, and soil texture properties across the treatments did not show any significant differences, suggesting that soil types among the experimental plots were similar. Regarding the soil chemical properties, agroecological management practices resulted in significant increases in soil pH and organic matter contents, compared with the conventional tea management approaches, regardless of land use history. Highest soil pH (4.69 ± 0.3) was observed in agroecological converted soils, while the lowest pH (4.11 ± 0.19) was recorded in the conventional original plots, indicating that all tea plantation  soils were strongly acidic. Average soil OM contents (%) in agroecological tea sites were greater than 3.0, compared with 2.32 and 2.30 of conventional original and conventional converted plots, respectively. By contrast, total nitrogen (%) was greater in conventional tea soils (0.37 and 0.30) compared with agroecological tea soils (0.22 and 0.23 for original and converted soils, respectively), while available P contents remained almost the same whatever the treatments (Table 2). The highest P availability content was found in agroecological original plantation soils (48.38 mg/ 100 g soil), while the lowest was observed in agroecological converted gardens (38 mg/ 100 g soil).Interestingly, soil conversion practices did not lead to any significant changes in the soil characteristics, regardless of the cultivation approaches.In this study, the roots of tea plants were colonized by native AMF, but the frequency (F) and intensity (M) varied greatly from 67% to 98% and 10% to 38%, respectively (Table 2). Tea root mycorrhization responded significantly to different tea management practices, regardless of converted or nonconverted soils. Highest F was observed in the plantations that practiced both agroecological management and soil conversion, which accounted for 38%. This proportion was more than 3 times higher than the lowest figure for tea root samples collected from conventional original farms. While the average proportion of AMF frequency of tea roots was close to 85%, the figure for AMF intensity was only approximately 26%.The principal component analyses (PCA) of the soil physicochemical indicators and tea root mycorrhization parameters are presented in the Figure 2a,b. The first two axes together explained nearly 52% of the cumulative variability. The first axis (F1), which accounted for approximately 32% of the accumulated variability, was closely related to soil chemical indicators including OM, N total and soil pH (0.610; −0.619 and 0.45, respectively). By contrast, soil texture (silt and clay) was strongly linked to the third axis (F3), which represented around 16% of the variation in the dataset. Root mycorrhizal F and M were strongly linked to the first axis (0.688 and 0.806, respectively) and significantly correlated with soil OM, soil pH and soil total N.The PCA observation charts clearly show the positioning of the agroecological and conventional tea farms but were unable to distinguish between the converted and nonconverted plantations. The observations were welldistributed along the F1 axis, indicating that tea management methods significantly impacted soil chemical properties such as soil pH, soil OM and total N, rather than the soil texture. Also, agroecological tea plantations were mainly distributed to the right side, suggesting a positive impact of the management practice on soil OM and AMF root colonization but negatively link to soil total  Ecological indices of soil macro and mesofauna are presented in Figure 3 and Tables S4-S6. First, densities of soil fauna in agroecological original and agroecological converted were 68 and 86 individuals/m 2 , respectively, while for conventional original and conventional converted treatments, the values were only 33 and 37 individuals/ m 2 , respectively. The abundance of soil mesofauna was strongly affected by management practices but was not always significantly different by extracting methods. With regards to the results obtained about mesofauna with the 2 different protocols, by centrifugation extraction, we found 92, 129, 58 and 68 (ind./100 g fresh soil) for agroecological original, agroecological converted, conventional original and conventional converted treatments, respectively, while the values extracted by employing funnel method were 80, 101, 58 and 68 (ind./100 g fresh soil), respectively. Community richness and Shannon index were also significantly different between the agroecological and conventional treatments (p < .05, Figure 3 and Table S4) but did not statistically differ between the extraction methods. For both soil mesofauna and macrofauna, the highest values of richness and Shannon index were recorded in agroecological converted and agroecological original treatments, which approximately doubled than the figures in conventional converted and conventional original treatments, regardless of the extraction methods. By contrast, soil conversion and its interaction with the cultivation approach did not result in any significant difference in the soil fauna community indices and diversity index.For soil fauna community composition, only 8 different soil fauna groups and 13 soil mesofauna groups were found in the experimental tea plots. Among the groups, earthworms were the dominant soil macrofauna species, accounting for nearly 34%, followed by centipedes and millipedes. Different tea cultivation methods also lead to a significant difference in the abundance of earthworm, centipede, spider and millipede species, while the impacts on other groups were not significant. For soil mesofauna, oribatei, millipede and enchytraeids were the most abundant groups, regardless of the extraction techniques. Interestingly, apart from millipedes, other mesofauna group intensities were not significantly affected by both cultivation and soil conversion practices (Tables S5  and S6).From 2019 to 2021, tea yield and its components recorded in conventional tea plantations were consistently higher than those from agroecological plots, but these increases were not always significantly different (Table 3). Average tea yield ranged from around 14.1 tonnes to more than 16.3 tonnes year −1 ha −1 , while the average shoot density and weight of 100 shoots varied from nearly 580 to 700 (shoots/m 2 ) and 31.8 to 36.6 (g), respectively. The conventional converted tea plantations produced the highest tea yield over the observation period, which accounted for 16.3, 16.0 and 15.9 (tonnes year −1 ha −1 ) for the years 2019, 2020 and 2021 on average, respectively, while the lowest yield was recorded in the agroecological original treatment over the observed period, which ranged from 14.19 to 14.59 tonnes year −1 ha −1 . Also, there was a reduction in tea yield and yield components in 2020 and 2021, compared with the figures in 2019. Over the 8 annual harvests, tea yield, number of shoots and shoot biomass were highest in the July and August/September harvests, which are summer times in the research areas, and then dropped quickly in the following harvests. The yield and shoot densities of tea harvested in the summer seasons were generally doubled than that in the first (spring) and last yearly harvests (winter seasons; Figure 4).Figure 5 presents the sensory evaluation results of the green tea samples including dried tea leaf appearance, colour, smell and taste of the tea infusion. Among the four attributes, the average marks for tea leaf appearance were significantly higher in conventional tea products (4.51 and 4.56 for conventional original and conventional converted tea leaves, respectively), compared with the agroecological dried tea (4.08 for agroecological original and 4.07 for agroecological converted tea leaves). By contrast, average marks given for smell and taste of agroecological tea infusion were significantly greater than for the conventional products. Agroecological original teas obtained the highest marks for both the brew aroma and taste, which amounted to 4.63 and 4.61, respectively, while the lowest marks were given to the conventional converted (4.15) and conventional original (4.18). Conversely, there was no significant difference in the marks given for the colour of tea brew, which accounted for 4.5 on average. Overall, agroecological tea products obtained a significantly greater mark (≈18) compared with the tea products that were conventionally cultivated (≈ 17.3). As a result, all the green tea samples studied obtained the 'Good' grade (total marks: 15.2-18.1) (Figure 5). As for the qualitative sensory description, all the dried tea leaves were young green, wiry, downy and creepy, even though the intensity of the creepiness and colour appearance were different. Also, the colour of converted and nonconverted tea brew was qualitatively different, regardless of the management method. Infusions of tea samples harvested from nonconverted farms were green and bright, while that of converted tea plantations were pale yellow-green, clear and medium bodies. The intensities of the fragrance and freshness (aroma) and sweetness after testing (taste) were also clearly different among agroecological and conventional tea products, which are crucial factors affecting the evaluation marks given to each type of infused tea (Figure 5).Aside from the environmental advantage, economic benefit has been considered as one of the most important drivers for moving from conventional to agroecological and organic farming, not only for tea production (Bui & Nguyen, 2020;Qiao et al., 2016;Viet San et al., 2021) but other cropping and livestock systems (Bouttes et al., 2019;Eyhorn et al., 2018). Our study shows that the agroecological tea farming provides a significantly greater net income for tea farmers compared with conventional tea management. This finding is similar to a number of studies (Deka & Goswami, 2021;Doanh et al., 2018;Tran, 2008) reporting that organic tea adopters earned a higher net income compared with the nonadopters, which mainly resulted from the premium price of organic tea products to offset the increased labour costs and yield reduction. Previous investigations also indicated that as new and more complex production systems, agroecological and organic farming required more capital investment than the conventional or traditional production systems, and it has been generally believed that only large-scale farms could afford this (Azadi et al., 2011;Bui & Nguyen, 2020). Our study confirmed this as the annual investments for labour, pesticides and organic fertilization and other maintenance costs for agroecological tea management method    et al., 2020). Surprisingly, we observed that numerous small tea farms in the research region with a total area of less than 1000 m 2 have been converted to practice organic and agroecological methods over the past 5 years. It is possible that a significant difference in the selling price of agroecological tea products, along with the subsidies from local governments and other agencies, has encouraged tea growers to apply agroecological management practices (Doanh et al., 2018;Qiao et al., 2016). Recently, a growing concern regarding the harmful effects of agrochemicals on human health and the environment also plays a part in promoting tea farmers from converting their conventional tea to organic management practices (Doanh et al., 2018;Viet San et al., 2021).4.2 | Soil physicochemical properties andAgroecology has long been known to benefit soil chemical and biological properties, while the negative impacts of conventional farming practices on soil health have been widely recognized (Gianinazzi et al., 2010;Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022). Our study showed that soil pH and OM content observed in agroecological tea plantations were significantly higher than the figures for the conventional tea plots, while total N was higher in conventional systems, which could be attributed to several mechanisms. First, the intensive use of synthetic chemical fertilizers of conventional tea adopters, particularly nitrogen to ensure tea productivity, and as a replacement for soil fertility loss, has caused serious tea soil acidification because of the nitrification processes (Li et al., 2015;Viet San et al., 2022;Yan et al., 2020). We noted that conventional tea farmers in the studied region used up to 1200 kg/ha/ year of single nitrogen fertilizers (urea, ammonium nitrate) for ensuring high tea productivity and replacing soil nutrient loss, excluding the N amount from NPK compound annual applications. When an intensive amount of nitrogen fertilizer is applied, around 2700 kg/ha/year, tea plants can only absored around 18.2%, and the majority (up to 52%) will be stored in the tea soils, which can lead to an increase in soil nitrogen (Chen & Lin, 2016;Xie et al., 2021). Also, tea plants take up the nutrient directly and an equivalent proton is subsequently excreted into the rhizosphere, causing hydrogen ion concentration to increase (Viet San et al., 2022;Yan et al., 2020). By contrast, agroecological tea growers employed organic and biofertilizers as the main soil nutrient supplies, which can restore soil pH because of their buffering capacity and higher pH values compared to that in tea acidic soils (Cornelissen et al., 2018;Gu et al., 2019;Ji et al., 2018). Increasing tea plantation age and plant density can also accelerate soil acidification, as tea roots could release organic and carbonic acids into the rhizosphere, decreasing soil pH (Hui et al., 2010;Viet San et al., 2022). Additionally, organic fertilizers and organic mulches that have been applied in the plantations such as fern (Gleichenia linearis), Acacia and Eucalyptus barks, rice straw and other plant residues supplemented a high input of organic materials into the tea soils, which can also increase tea soil organic carbon storage and organic matter (Cu & Thu, 2014;Li et al., 2014;Viet San et al., 2021). Tea plants prefer acidic soil with optimal soil pH values from 4.5 to 5.5, but strongly acidic soils could lead to numerous consequences for tea growth and quality, such as nutrient leaching and imbalance, and heavy metal toxicity (Ni et al., 2018;Zhang, Huiguang, et al., 2020;Zhang, Yang, et al., 2020). With regards to soil available P, our results are constrasted with the study by Han et al. (2013) who indicated that available P concentrations were significantly different between organically and conventionally managed tea farms. This may be due to the inorganic (mainly NPK compounds) and organic fertilization by conventional and agroecological tea adopters in the region providing an equivalent amount of phosphorus for tea plantation soils. Supplying a sufficient amount of phosphorus is essential for tea growth and productivity, as the vigorous growth of young tea trees and frequent harvests of tea leaves require a large demand for P, thereby reducing the total P content of the tea plantation soils (De Schrijver et al., 2012;Wu et al., 2020). Soil P availability also plays a key role in affecting plant mycorrhization (Herrmann et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2020). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been widely known to be associated with a wide variety of plants and play a key role in plant nutrition by providing access to soil-derived nutrients (Bhantana et al., 2021;Herrmann et al., 2016). AMF communities are affected by a number of environmental factors, such as soil characteristics, host plants and cultivation methods (Ji et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2017). In our study, the average AMF frequency (F) and intensity (M) of the agroecological tea roots were significantly greater than in conventionally managed tea plantations. This finding is similar to observations made by Wu et al. (2020) who indicated that organic tea management significantly increased tea soil AMF contents, while Wang et al. (2017) revealed that long-term application of chicken manure strongly modified tea soil fungal communities. Singh et al. (2008) also showed that the average AMF frequency of roots collected from natural and cultivated tea plantations was 77.6% and 86.5%, and intensity was 11.3% and 23.9%, respectively. Likewise, stimulation of AMF growth by the incorporation of different organic amendments such as rice straw and organic compost has been widely reported in other cultivars (Hammer et al., 2011;Qin et al., 2015). By contrast, numerous studies indicated that mineral fertilizers, especially N and P, adversely affected AMF growth in tea plantations (Toman & Jha, 2011;Wu et al., 2020), in arable soil (Lin et al., 2012) and in rotation system (Qin et al., 2015). It was reported that AMF prefers a near neutral or alkaline soil pH for optimal growth and are strongly correlated with phosphorus level in soil, therefore, intensive application of mineral fertilizers changed the soil pH and P volume in the rhizosphere, thus affecting AMF communities (Helgason & Fitter, 2009;Ma et al., 2021). Furthermore, we observed that the availability of P in this study was negatively correlated with tea root AMF frequency and intensity, suggesting that tea plants may find the necessary elements in the soil and thus the symbiosis with AMF was less profitable (Herrmann et al., 2016;Van Geel et al., 2016).In our study, tea root AMF frequency and intensity observed in converted tea soils were significantly higher than in original tea plantation soils. These findings are consistent with previous investigations, which have reported that land use changes significantly affected soil fungal communities, which could be attributed mainly to alteration in soil environmental factors, in which soil pH is a proxy (Monkai et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2020;Zheng et al., 2020). Since the highest root mycorrhizal intensity was only 38% across all the trials, it suggests that other options such as the application of bioinoculants containing effective AMF should be introduced to improve tea root mycorrhization, and subsequently soil health and plant growth (Bag et al., 2022;Shao et al., 2018). It has been reported that AMF's incorporation significantly enhanced soil-accessible P concentrations and encouraged P absorption by tea plants, as well as improved tea growth characters (root biomass, plant height) and quality indicators such as amino acids, polyphenolic compounds, caffeine, total protein content and sugars (Cao et al., 2021;Mei et al., 2019;Shao et al., 2021).Intensive agriculture is known to have long-lasting and negative effects on soil biota, making soil food webs less diverse and composed of smaller bodied organisms (Liiri et al., 2012;Tsiafouli et al., 2015). In this study, the abundance, richness and Shanon index of soil macro and mesofauna were significantly greater in agroecological treatments compared to those of conventional tea plots (Table S5 and S6; Figure 3). However, compared with the previous studies of soil faunal communities in tea and other cropping systems, these indices are significantly lower. For instance, a worldwide investigation conducted in 41 countries indicated that soil macroinvertebrate abundance in cropping systems ranged from 232 to 867 individuals/m 2 (Lavelle et al., 2022). Yu et al. (2021) also found up to 26 different soil faunal groups in tea cultivars, with the Shannon index value of 4.65. In our study, the number of soil macrofauna individuals/ m 2 was only from 37 to 86, and only 8 groups of soil fauna occurred in tea plantations, regardless of the tea soil management practices. Strongly acidic soils could be one of the key factors that negatively affect soil faunal communities. For example, it was reported by Han et al. (2007) that in tea plantations, a low soil pH (pH < 4) could lead to a loss of up to 70% of soil biota. Greater abundance of soil fauna communities of organic and agroecological farming over its conventional counterparts have been widely reported (Domínguez et al., 2014;Sofo et al., 2020). Manure and organic mulching applications have been widely recognized to positively affect soil faunal communities and functional structures, since these practices not only provided readily available food sources but also regulated soil temperature and moisture (Jiang et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2016). Particularly, Murray et al. (2006) found that organic fertilization directly supplied detritus and indirectly modified the soil nutrient environment for fauna, which subsequently induced an increase in soil faunal abundance. By contrast, conventional agriculture consistently has negative impacts on soil biota, which could be attributed to the detrimental effects of intensive agrochemical inputs, monocropping that systematically simplifies soil food web diversity and microclimate modification because of residue removals. Likewise, Domínguez et al. (2014) suggested that the nonuse of agrochemicals would be enough to produce shifts in soil faunal diversity.Several studies have also examined the effect of different extraction methods on diversity indices and communities of soil fauna. Active methods such as the Baermann funnel and passive approaches such as filtering and flotation-centrifugation are among the most recognized practices for sampling and extracting soil fauna, which are based on different physicochemical principles of soil fauna (Domingo-Quero & Alonso-Zarazaga, 2010). Dritsoulas and Duncan (2020) indicated that passive extraction methods consistently recovered significantly more soil microarthropods compared with the active techniques. This is in accordance with our findings since the ecological indices (abundance, richness and Shannon index) derived from the centrifugation method were constantly greater than the figures for the funnel techniques, though the differences were not always significant (Figure 3). In addition, the present study results on soil fauna composition are consistent with some previous studies, which indicated that earthworm is the dominant soil macrofauna groups in tea plantations (Jamatia & Chaudhuri, 2017;Kahneh et al., 2022). which has raised concerns about the potential role of these farming methods as a sustainable strategy in meeting the increasing demand for food and other agricultural services (Schrama et al., 2018;Seufert et al., 2012). Several studies have reported tea harvest yield gaps between conventional and organic tea farming systems (Deka & Goswami, 2021;Doanh et al., 2018;Qiao et al., 2016). This is consistent with our findings since agroecological tea adoption consistently produced less tea harvest yield than the conventional tea implementation over the 3 years of observations (differences were not always significant-Table 3). Agroecological and organic tea farming systems rely on nonchemical inputs such as organic materials and biofertilizers for maintaining crop productivity while restoring soil health and mitigating environmental pollution (Gui et al., 2021;Viet San et al., 2021). In return, these resources may not provide enough sufficient macroand micronutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus for crops to grow and obtain as high yields as a conventional method that employs the intensive application of synthetic fertilizers, especially during the transition period (the first 3-5 years since the conversion from conventional to organic farming management) (Doanh et al., 2018;Han et al., 2018). A comprehensive investigation by Seufert et al. (2012) also revealed that the yield gap between conventional and organic farming systems could be up to 34%, depending on conditions such as site characteristics, crop types and level of intensification. Han et al. (2018) also concluded that tea yields in organically managed agroecosystems are generally 8%-20% lower compared to those in conventional systems. However, our observations in 66 different tea plantations from 2019 to 2021 showed that the yield difference between conventional and agroecological tea systems was less than 8% on average (Table 1). In the studied regions, the agroecological tea adopters invested heavily in organic fertilizers, biofertilizers, organic mulches and other organic materials such as soybean or fish powder, to replace mineral fertilizers, as well as labour costs for weed, pest and disease management, all practices positively contributed to increased tea yield. In addition, the difference in the duration taken from conventional to agroecological farming could play a significant part in reducing the yield gap between conventional and agroecological farming systems, since longer application duration would lead to positive changes in abiotic and biotic soil properties leading to a more efficient, spatially and temporarily stable farming system (Schrama et al., 2018).Our findings about the tea leaf appearance are in line with the study by Luyen et al. (2014) who indicated that green tea leaves harvested in Tan Cuong commune, Thai Nguyen province were greener, less leafy, wirier and more creepy than tea leaves produced from other regions of the country, which were mainly attributed to the differences in geography, climate, cultivation practices and processing method. Also, the fragrance, fresh and light smell of the brewed teas, intensity of the astrigence, sweetness and bitterness in the taste found in the present study were similar to previous reports concerning the sensory attributes of green tea (Luyen et al., 2014;Tang et al., 2020). Previous studies have indicated that the smell and taste of green tea are mainly driven by the plant chemical components, such as the tea polyphenol with the bitter taste and the astringency, while the sweet, umami taste of green tea generally originates from amino acids, especially theanine, which accounts for about 65% of the total amino acid content in tea leaves (Pongsuwan et al., 2008;Tang et al., 2020). Finally, cultivation practices such as the application of cow manure could alter the metabolism of amino acid, sugar and fatty acids in tea shoots, thus enhancing the human sensory preference for tea brewed aroma and taste (Sun et al., 2021). This correlated with our results that agroecological tea management practices, which employed organic manure as the main nutrient supply, provide a significant difference in sensory marks for tea products. Since the aroma and taste of tea products are key factors determining the quality grade of tea and its market price (Qin et al., 2013;Su et al., 2021), a significant increase in these quality indicators as a result of organic tea management practices would enhance economic benefits for the adopters. Sumi and Kabir (2018) reported that the taste, natural content and the nutrient value of organic tea make it a popular choice for health-conscious customers. Qiao et al. (2016) also indicated that organic tea produced in Wuyuan, China fetches a premium price and consistent purchase orders for organic tea products have been offered, providing stability and incentives for tea farmers for adopting and expanding organic tea production.This comprehensive study compared the impacts of agroecological and conventional tea management practices on soil health properties, tea productivity, economical benefit and quality in Thai Nguyen province as well as in Vietnam. We show that converting conventional tea adoption to agroecological management practices significantly increased tea root AMF intensity by up to 24%, soil macro and mesofauna by 110% and 60%, respectively. Organic fertilizers and manure incorporations also significantly reduced soil acidification rates because of their naturally alkaline characteristics and provided supplement organic matters, thus improving soil OM, AMF colonization and soil faunal abundance and diversity. By contrast, soil conversion from paddy and other annual crop fields to tea plantations did not lead to any significantly adverse effects on soil health properties, suggesting that this practice could be as effective as cultivating tea in nonconverted lands. Despite the lower tea yields, the agroecological management method led to a significant increase in net income for tea farmers, which was mainly driven by the premium price of agroecological tea products and other credits from supporting agencies. These practices, therefore, could be scaled up in Northern Vietnam and other regions, which share similar natural and socioeconomic conditions for more environmentally sustainable economic tea production.","tokenCount":"7992"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80d1aa44f001d18b2d09146902428d1e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/df6ff7da-dd76-4fd2-ae0c-61934445a3ae/retrieve","id":"1053331369"},"keywords":["', .'\" , ... 2 :ICIatr4Qo mejor eoaportamlOGto. • COllllWllr4r COIIIO ::,opr,elIelltllt:lv::. de las sól.b,::mas ,,11.1. <ln ct3nto 11 flGadlet.1nell ubl<lbles y,","?~","Jr.\" 1.",".l ::CIlI?er,lt:u¡:,~ ?:~-.:. J I:!e<iu varta muchO vl1tr .. al ¡¡lo. y la ooclllil. ,:","¡ ¡Jl.'Q\\lUlJto .Iiu .... ..o .,nuotl \",il ,",".. uno. 27-28°(:. ' l.a p~1ptt.:tclón es de !lI\\08 ~OOO mm anua! ..... ~'l~,•(:i.!\":¡ \"{1 •c . ',:.:,.:. ' ...... rroile al • • f\\ae. •a,aced., ... -r","\"riQ tr.J.~r .. dadu. \"atft:41~ ::\"\"t.'l't.cGlal \"~.:' '","' ... ,:y.","',.:\"batldo, El 8\\14110 . . deJ'\" preiGlJII4aclOA POI' 24 d!ssa aotu de .lI1IIIbr .... n.a. ~~~tt:",".:","•","\\:i¡:~'",".... ,Al Aaftqva lue¡o <le Un :=os de sH!bzall' .. IIOtallaa c14l:t1111t!Dte 41fenllCiu ,. '''., . : .,.'"],"sieverID":"5ef1ecf1-9f11-4fc0-bdcc-ee434ce93ec1","pagecount":"26","content":"Loa tlmaadolt tIa.,. Orlillltale.8 de ColO1abia repruent.1ll1. '/5 partes .Id tarodtorlo nacional de loa euale. 2/3 correapolldea ••• ha (.tre 10, dOll CuaYiare 'J Allasoaa) y 1/14 U_rae herboaa •• (' ': tu 11.4ft11r •• h.rbulla 6\" sabluuae eCÍllprendeo vad.,ollO paUlille, lIoUy 'dlferl'la-~.' 1_\" .. • UlJ: al aone elel do Meu. e.ti la real_ c.oQOcllla eCllll(J CilsaEl.!U'S. Ilujet. 11 lDua.daclo. •• aleo '[JOrcOtllaje cl\\irllllte el 1l).Yiemu. al su:, 4-.J! do Mdo eati la altillanuN !;lO Bujota a :l.Q>lIWaci6Q eD el :l.QYiemo \" en la cual pedea 4lflttqld.rse doa 'fonaado,wlu la .1tilLaoura pl\":¡I'A. no cNdOMdll y la al-tUl.aa.u.n 4l1i1\\11!tIl.da (, \"8enIH11.\"., 'Se delJtaca la \")'01' r.a4uc.elOD _ .li\\.¡¡ ,~t'\"d~cóa la. eI __ \"4rtC!d&-!.:., .' anannallllllieDto ).. :, ') t\".IllS! No. 2!U1~ ! \" ¡ , , ' . .• .-\" , ,.,'< .. ' ' .\" .,:.,;~~:~~~, ~•\\•.:,:.:.z~ ¡ ~\", : .\";,.' '.;.....;.'_./ ...... _'_ .... _ . _ . _ _ _ _ \" _ _ _ _ _ _ :;..._._';... '_O _ _ _ _ '_' _._'..;.,_\".....;._:..-_ _ _ _ _ : (> .' , , ' \" :'.,\"',' '3':', \" 11      fal\" de napueeta y los bajos ~Sa1eu:oa~ .~ t.o405 _aaru, al _echar.  , . ' -\", : ..     ..Uaea . '~ . . ;, .. :~ ,,\\.'~.:~.~:'-:.' t • ,.,,' ,-! '. ',,:-\"'-\" ..~,-:;. ' ..' .,',,'. . • ' '~ :.~ l', '.Ea \\t1 a.teo lote doD4tt ... 1910 B IHI 11_1'6 el ennyo C. De \"~1'OIl 6 :.•i:;:;'•':~';:\" \" F • \", .\" \" \" , ; . :~.:.,• \" , ' . \" : -\" ' \" , • : : , ; • ..:.~\":~~~;~;: vartecSa4atJ .. an'Oa luaso ola anr y' batlr IlIU1!v_te el .uelo con el l'OtciY..nor.~ .. :•~\". ..~~::.;:;_:' (~:;;:::ml.:'f .. ~ .:';S~:;.~~;ttl \" ,.\"\" '. \" 200 lr8 Pi' fb4 fwmttl 8ft .,,'.,'\" '. ,.\" ,c• ;, ;\"\";',<\"\\ .. \".~¡,;,\\\\\"'''¡'',.. .:.'l:') ..... !is ~'¡..:;4 ):;>; . ; . ;\\~~.f:.;?; ;;r ,~;:¡U:t1~:ii:;;~~~ , ' , 1 COII cal\".. foellta ua1llUC1o le Caco \"MaG.\" .-':~>< ' , \" : ' \", \"',:',,;:,,;. : \":.. , .'p. ,r.~~:;\",: .::.~.' , ,~~\"'.:. <: . ~ '\", . \"' \" ' . \"'\" ;.$~ .. . . :r,.~~ .~~. q:.,~~~   ","tokenCount":"366"}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/part_5/1889356082.json b/data/part_5/1889356082.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..89ef3b3a62f94f594a0ddae0e45c2c252a8273a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/1889356082.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d55e3db738239dda9e731e5cc666c650","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d2610f4-4076-4980-a8ab-c5296e7fe6ed/retrieve","id":"613251980"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"05dd1b8d-a5a7-470b-83ab-8f85cc0202ff","pagecount":"3","content":"To provide a basis for discussion of our future collaborative efforts, an understanding of growth and yield production of cowpea under field conditions is essential. From growth analysis experiments and from gas exchange measurements in the field, we know that cowpea growth rates are just as high as those for high-yielding legumes (e.g. soybeans) grown in temperate areas.Both soybeans and co~vpeas grown at IITA produce total dry matter at rates up to 14 g/m 2 -day during our rainy season (Annual Report,  1972). Gas exchange rates of individual leaves in the canopy are up to 55 mg CO 2 /dm 2 -hr., which are similar to the highest rates quoted for soybeans under field conditions in Illinois (Annual Report, 1974).In spite of high total dry matter production, cov~ea seed yields are only half to two-thirds those of soybeans. Inefficient partitioning of dry matter is partly to blame for this, particularly for the indeterminate varieties, which continue vegetative growth into the late productive period. This vegetative growth is of course encouraged by unfavourable photoperiod in photoperiodically sensitive varieties, but appears to be enhanced by low light intensities during growth, even in photo insensitive varieties. Coupled ~vith inefficient partitioning is the short pod-fill period of individual pods, which averages only 19 days (Annual Report, 1973), though recently identified is a line with period of 24 days. Pod-fill time directly correlates with size of seed and pod (Table 1). Since the pod-fill time is so short, total yield is composed of the accumulation of yield over several pickings. The leaf duration of a variety determines how much yield ,viII be accumulated. If leaf life is shortened due to disease or high temperature, yield will suffer (Annual Report, 1974). Compact varieties have a feed-back mechanism by which the ripening of the pods induces senescence of the leaves and thus limits the yield. We have been able to induce this in an indeterminate variety by flower removal, after which many pods were set all at once (Annual Report, 1973). l~e are thus faced with the dilemna of not wanting vegetative growth in the reproductive period because of inefficient yield production, but needing additional leaf area to overcome the senescence-induction of the first-ripening pods.Source-sink relationship studies have indicated that compact varieties produce more than enough reproductive structures, but leaf area is limiting in the reproductive period. Removal of only one-third the leaf area at flowering decreases yield, whereas pod cutting in the \"thin green\" stage has no effect (Annual Report, 1974).Recent work with carbon-14 indicates that the compact erect variety TVu 4552 stores from 8 to 15% of carbohydrates assimilated in the week before flowering and during early flowering; these later end up in the seed. A large portion (45-59%) of the assimilates were lost in respiration before final harvest.  Gas exchange of the pods of this variety is not high enough to give a net positive uptake of C02, but with increasing light levels, the high respiration rate of green pods and seeds is considerably reduced. The dark respiration of pods is very sensitive to temperature. Temperature dependance of the gas exchange of leaves is also a problem, with CO 2 uptake declining as leaf temperatures rise above ~1-32oC. Since leaf temperatures above 35 0 C are fairly common under lITA field conditions in the early afternoon, high temperatures may limit gas exchange rates of leaves during part of the day.Leaf development rate also shows a marked temperature dependence, with the time interval between appearance of successive leaves decreasing to half with a 50 increase in average temperatures (from 24 to 29 0 C). The growth cabinet experiments of our Reading collaborators provide much more information on the effect of high temperatures on cowpea growth and yield. Further study is needed to determine if varietal differences exist in response to high day temperatures.","tokenCount":"638"}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/part_5/1890059927.json b/data/part_5/1890059927.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..666d34826b5c985393b2c2a84ec2c70c787e3369
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/1890059927.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c2118b216c8e4541ffdc938c695ce10e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e034e46-24b4-4de3-95ed-b5acb350722f/retrieve","id":"-133959014"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b98d4750-b355-4ffe-b8fe-08a22a2eb3b8","pagecount":"102","content":"Identifica~ao de agricultores com Compara~ao por pares 63 facilidade de expressiio 37 Tipologias para análise 64 Agrupamento de participantes para as avalia~Oes 38 Capítulo IX. A valia~iies em grupo 67 Capítulo VII. Como organizar a avalia~¡¡o com agricultores 41 Vantagens da avalia~¡¡o em grupo 67 A avalia,ao como um processo 41 Discussao em grupo 67 O passo seguinte: informar os agricultores 42 Retroinforma~¡¡o e interpreta,ao de resultados 68 Explíca,ao do ensaio 42 Aumento na representatividade dos Sele\"ao do local para o ensaio 46 agricultores 68 Distribui~iio de lratamentos para as Avalia,iio de numerosas op~Oes diferentes parcelas. com os agricultores 46 tecnológicas 68 Capítulo VIno A entrevista de avaJia¡;ao 49 Uso eficiente da equipe de pesquisadores 69 Planejamento da entrevista de avalia,llo 49 Desvantagens da avalia\"ao em grupo 69 Esclarecimento de expectativas 49 Organíza<;ao de avalía .. oes em grupo 70 O que necessita saber o agrícultor 49 Defini\"ao de objetivos 70 Avalia\"ao aberta 51 Forma~¡¡o de grupos para propósítos de Como estimular a expressao de preferencias avaliayiío 70 nas avalia\"oes com agricultores 56 A quantídade necessária de avalia\"Oes Avalía\\(áo absoluta 57 em grupo 73 Ordenamento entre várias alternativas 59 Quantos agricultores devem participar na avalia\"ao em grupo 74 Quantidade de elementos por ordenar 59 Destrezas dos modemdores para avalia\\(oes A melhor e a pior tecnologia 59 emgrupo 75 Ajuda ao agricultor no ordenamento 59 Manejo de participantes problema em avaliw,Oes em grupo 76 Como entender o mciocínio do 60 agricultor O falador dominante 76 Matriz de ordenamento 62 O participante passivo 77 iv o pal1icipante dependen te 77 o pal1icipante hostil 77 o falame que divaga 78 Inicio e encerramento da avalia~¡¡o em grupo 78 Registro e informes das avali\",;oes em grupo 78 Páginas Avalia~oes em grupo de numerosas o~Oes tecnológicas Capítulo X. Dez normas para realizar avalia~óes eticazes de tecnologia com agricultores Leituras complementares 81 83 87 Modelos para entrevistas de avalia~¡¡o 89 v Reconhecimentos A autora deseja expressar seu profundo reconhecimento pela valiosa ajuda de várías pessoas e institui~Oes no desenvol vimento deste manual. Douglas H. Pachico contibuiu de modo especial no desenbo inicial e como co-autor do documento de trabalbo que servíu como base para preparar este manual.Paradox icamente, outms prátieas novas, nao recomendadas pelos pesquisadores, escaparam das es~Oes de pesquisa agrícola e passaram rapidamente de agricultor a agricultor. Frequentemente estas atividades, iniciadas pelos agricultores, nao foram previstas pelo. profissionais envolvidos no desenvolvimento e transferencia de tecnologia. Este fenómeno tem preocupado uos profissionais; muitos creem que, nos procedimentos de pesquisa que eles utilizam para o desenvolvimento de tecnologías para os pequenos agricultores, faz falta um elemento: a participa,iío ativa do agricultor.Que é entao especial e importante sobre a perspectiva do agricultor? Os profissionais das distintas disciplinas científicas capacitam-se pura especializarem-se na compreensao de um aspecto particular de um problema agrícola. Todavia, nenhum especialista conhece tiío intimamente como o agricultor, os diferentes problemas e necessidades da pequena unidude de explora,ao familíar, e portunto, ninguem como ele está melhor equipado para visualizar como colocar em funcionamento uma tecnolgia na propriedade agrícola pam satisfazer essas necessidades. O agricultor é quem finalmente decide se urna nova tecnologia é útil ou nao (Figura 1).A decislio para saber se urna nova tecnologia é uma alternativa aplicável para as formas habituaís de cultivo nao é pummente técnica; requer também urna cornpreensao integral da~ necessidades humanas que se buscam satisfazer mediante urna determinada atividade agrícola. O agricultor de esca~sos recursos conhece intuitivamente este processo de tomada de decisOes, porque o tem utilizado desde menino. Ele ou ela sabe que sua aplica~¡¡o implica intera,Oes comple\"a~ entre muitos objetivos e necessidades diferentes, tais como os que sao apresentados na Tabela l.Este manual oferece técnicas para conseguir que o agricultor expresse como entende ti tecnologia a luz de taís princípios de tomada de decisOes.Uma avalia~¡¡o eficaz COIn o agricultor permite oos pestjuísadores estabelecer tais percep\\=Oes COIn dados sistemáticos, de forma que possam comunicar 2 mpidamente a informa,íio respectiva aos criadores da tecnologia; estes necessitam compreender o ponto de vista dos agricultores sobre a utilidade de urna nova tecnología.A pesquisa cm propriedades agrícolas, que envolve aos pequenos agricultores no manejo de tecnologia e~perimental, tem recebido urna enfil.~e crescente nos progmmas de pesquisa e extensao agrícola, relacionados com a inlrodu~ao do ponto de vista do pequeno agricultor na avalia~¡¡o de tecnologias.Sao necessárias análises agronómicas e económicas para avaliar os resultados da experimentu~¡¡o e outrds pesquisas em propriedades agrícolas, de tal maneim que se possam fazer recomenda,Oes. Além disso, porque se reconhece que a análise agroeconómica resulta incompleta quando se busca uma compreensao total dos critérios que utilizaram os agricultores para decidir se adotar ou recusar as recomenda\"Oes. Algumas vezes sljgere-se que se determinem a~ opiniOes e rea,Oes dos agricultores a tecnologia testada em propriedade agrícola (Tabela 1).Quando se realizam regularmente avalia~s de tecnologia com agricultores, a ínforma~ao sobre suas opiniOes pode-se tmnsmitir de forma regular nos criadores da tecnología. A participa~o na avalia,Oes dá aos agricultores a oportunidade de selecionar e tomar decisOes sobre a viabilídade de uma inova,ao, antes de que um programa de pesquisa fa~a investimentos significativos para recomendá-la e tmnsferí-la aos agricultores. Todas as pessoas envolvidas economizam tempo e dinheiro se as inova~Oes defeituosa~, do ponto de vista dos agricultores, regressam a \"mesa de desenho\". Por outra parte, na avali~¡¡o algumas vezes os agricultores resgatam alternativas que os pesquisadores esperam que descartem (Tabela 2).Envolver aos produtores como participantes ativos na avalia~~o das inova~Oes tecnológicas propostas pode ter numerosos benefícios para a gera~¡¡o de tecnologías por programas de pesquisa agrícola (Tabela 3). É posslvel institucionalizar a avaliw;ao regular do agricultor e oferecer assim urna oportunidade para que os pesquisadores e Tabela l. Exemplos de objetivos dos pequenos agricultores, que determínam como eles avaliam as novas tecnologías.• Dispor oportunamente e durante todo o ano de alimentos para a família, e aumentar a prodU\\'ao geral• Planejar o cultivo para incluir estratégias de seguran~u em tempos diffceis. Isto pode fazer que os agricultores pensem primeiro cm termos de seguran9u. em vez de max imizar os lucros na produ~¡¡o• Obter o maior rendímento possível da terra ou do capital escassos, mesmo que isto signífique trabalhar com muito baixo rendimento em rela~ao com o lempo empregado• Minimizar o tempo necessário para uma tarefa dada em urna época de máxima atividade, como a correspondenle ao come~o das chuvas e do plantío• Organizar o tempo de cada membro da família entre muitus tarefas diferentes. de tal maneíra que se f~a todo o trabalho necessário• Contribuir para a vida social da comunidade campesína. por exemplo, em ca.'ilImentos ou funerais, para que a família a,segure a aceita~¡¡o e o apoio da comunidade• Compartir recursos com outros membros da comunidade campesina, para que eles a sua vez ajudem a família em momentos de necessidade• Atender os gastos a curto prazo (diáríos ou semanaís) da famma campesina, o mesmo que seus requerimeotos de sobrevivéncia a longo prazo• Satisfazer outrds necessidades dos membros da famma oao relacionadas díretamenle com a propriedade agrícola, lais como a cria~lio e o cuidado dos filhos, a atent;áo médica e a educa,lio Tabela 2. Como é a avalia~¡¡o com o agricultor?• Existe contata direto dos agricultores com as op~1ies tecnológicas, em um contexto de trabalho experimental• Estimula-se a livre expressao de suas opini1ies, preferencias, críticas e sugest1ies sobre as tecnologías propostas pelos pesquisadores• Requer utilizar técnicas especiais de entrevista para obter e registrar a informa,ao• Dessa maneira, os criadores da tecnología e usuários potencia;s podem ínformar-se sobre a aceita~¡¡o das inova~5es propostas aos agricultores Tabela 3. As avalia~ com o agricultor proporcionam informa\\;ao sobre:• Que características de urna tecnologia os agricultores consideram importantes• Como os agricultores classificam preferentemente as op~óes tecnológicas alternativas• Porque os agricultores preferem um tecnologia a outm• Se os agricultores estilo dispostos a adotar um nova tecnologia agricultores truquem idéias sobre as inova~óes potenciais. Os pesquisadores podem participar da experí~ncia prática e do conhecimento tecnológico local que trazem os agricultores para estabelecer a utilidude de urna nova pr.llÍca agrícola. hto contribuiria para identificar e entender os critérios dos agricultores na scl~¡¡o de tecnologia.As avaliwtoes com agricultores proporcionam aos pesquisadores compreensao direta das prioridades destes e de como escolhem entre alternativas tecnológicas concreta~, sem necessidade de uma recopila\"ao pormenorizada de dados ou modelosO objetivo desta publica\\iao é oferecer técnicas pum levar a cabo avalia'f5es de novas tecnologías com o especialista ausente em pesquisa agrícola, isto é, com o agricultor.É um manual escrito para ajudar aos pesquisadores, em propriedades agrícolas, a envolver aos agricultores como participantes ativos na avalia\"iío de novas tecnologias. A eficácia das avali~oes com o agricultor depende da aplic,¡\"ao de procedimentos que coloquern uo referido agrícultor no papel de um colega no processo de teste das tecnologias.para simular o processo de tomada de decis5es pelos agricultores.Quando os agricultores avaliam um conjunto de alternativas tecnológicas contmstantes pari! solucionar urn problema, com os pesquisadores, esta situa\"lio pode ser o ponto de partida para construir com eles uma representa,lio de sua tecnologia 'ideal', ou um método para compreender aquilo que os agricultores enxergam como tecnologia 'melhorada'. ¡sto permite gemr novas idéias pam pesquisar. Finalmente, as avalia~oes com o agricultor siio uma forma de envolver usuários potenciais nas decisoes sobrequetecnologiare comendar.Nos procedimentos de avalia~¡¡o que sao tratados oeste manual, o agricultor nao atua como um objeto passivo que é estudado e avaliado, mas sim como um pessoa que estuda, avalia e critica em colabom~¡¡o com outros pesqulsadores em propriedades agrícolas.Os pesquisadores que querem canalizar a capacidade dos agricultores, pam a avuliwtíio de tecnologias, necessltam técnicas especials para envolve-Ios na aplícu9ao atí va de seus próprios critéríos de decósao no processo de avaliu91io.Um primeiro passo pafll adquirir estas técnicas é aprender sobre os princípios e conceitos gerais da realíza~fto de avalia~óes com agricultores, sobre o qual este manualtem o propósito de ofcrecer um tratamento sistemático.Os dois primeiros capítulos tralam sobre os objetivos e benefícios das avalia~Oes com agricultores e como tais objeti vos relacionum-se com as diferentes etapas em um programa de pesquisa agrícola, ou com diferentes tipos de pesquisa. Também referem-se ao planejamento dos diferentes tipos de avalialioes com agricultores em rela\\iiio uo calendário agrícola.Os Capítulos I1I, IV e V tratam sobre o manejo da interaliiío social nas avalia<;oes com agricultores e sobre as habilidades que se necessitam e das quais os pesquisadores dever estar conscientes.Os Capítulos VI e VII relacionam-se com alguns aspectos chave do planejamenlo de avalia~oes com agricultores, tais como determinar que tipo de agricultores deveriam participar e como organizar uma entrevista de avalia~¡¡o.O Capítulo VIII cobre diferentes técnicas que se podem utilizar em forma individual ou em distintas combina~Oes em uma entrevista de avalia~¡¡o, com exemplos dos dados que se podem gerar utilizando uma tabulU\\iiíO manual simples.O Capítulo IX trata da avalia~iio de tecnologia com grupos de agricultores.O último capitulo resume os exemplos chave para levar a cabo avaliU\\Oes eficazes com agricultores, os quals foram discutidas ao longo deste manual.Um segundo passo no dominio das técnicas para realizar avalia~Oes com agricultores é pratlcar as habilidades requeridas pard: planejar as avalia~Oes, comunicar-se eficazmente com os agricultores e manejar a informa~áo resultante.Pretende-se que este manual seja utilizado como leitura básica para o estudo de tres unidades de instruliao sobre avalia,Oes com agricultores. Tais unidades oferecem formas de executar esta, habilidades, tanto através de treinamento formal com um ins¡rutor, como de maneira informal cm grupos, ou atravé, de auto-aprendizagem. Com as recomenda~oes sobre leituras adicionais, oferecemse detalhes sobre as unidades de instru\\,ao.A compreensiio das técnicas de pesquisa e de comunica~¡¡o, que se discutem aqui, interessa a um amplo grupo de profissionais comprometidos com a pesquisa e extensao agrícolas, ainda que nem todos participem de forma ativa no contato cara a cara com os agricultores que avaliam a tecnologia.Um primeiro grupo de pessoas que pode utilizar este manual é o constituído pelos responsáveis pela pesquisa e supervisores de pessoal de campo que trabalhem em atividades de pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas. Estes profissionais necessitam estar conscientes das implica~Oes de realizar avalia~Oes com agricultores para a designa.;ao de recursos e para o manejo do tempo do pessoaL Também, deveriam conhecer as técnicas implicadas no estabelecimento de rela~Oes de conl1an\\,u mútua com os agricultores, requisito básico para avalia\\,Oes eficazes com eles.Um manejo adequado da informU\\iao que se pode gerar mediante avalia\\,Oes com agricultores, requer reunir as pessoas apropriadas no momento e no lugar adequados pum levar a cabo tais avaliU\\iOes, e informar sobre ela, de tul maneil\"d que os criadores de tecnología mantenham-se em contato com as rea~Oes dos agricultores frente as ínovU\\iOes agrícolas propostas.Um segundo grupo de possíveis usuários deste manual é o dos pesquisadores de progl\"dma~ de culturas ou de disciplinas, os quais podem nao estar diretamente comprometidos na pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas, mas certamente podem beneficiar-se da informu\\,ao obtida nas avalialiÚCs com o agricultor. Eles necessitam entender que a pesquisa orientada na soluli1ío dos problemas dos agricultores pode-se benefIciar utilizando as técnicas que se discutem adiante, nas distintas etapas de teste e avalia,uo de novas tecnologias.Um tereeiro grupo, é o dos pesquisadores em propriedades agrícolas e pessoal de extensao, os s quais lem a responsabilídade de testar recomenda.;:oes derivadas de pesquisas realizadas nas esta~oes experimentais. Estes profissionais sao os que tem maior probabilidade de aplicar, cm forma ativa, as técnicas tmtadas neste manual, ou de capacitar e supervisar o pessoal de campo que trabal ha em ensaios em propríedades agrícolas e tem 6 a responsabilidade de dialogar com os agricultores.Neste texto, todos os profissionais denominam-se cm forma genérica 'pesquisadores', para dar en fase que a avalia~¡¡o com agricultores inclui a pesquisa sobre as preferencias destes e nao é para convencelos de que adotem tecnologías.Quando realizar avalia~oes com agricultores na pesquisa agrícolaAs avalia~óes com agricultores nao sao um substituto da cuidadosa avalia\\rao agronómica e económica da tecnologia; sao um complemento essencial, que proporcionam inform~óes sobre o peso que as considera\\róes agronómicas, económicas e socioculturais tem para os agricultores, na elaboral<ÍÍo de suas pTÓprias conclusóes sobre a utilidade de uma nova tecnologia, nas condi~óes particulares de explor~ao de suas propríedades, U m programa de pesquisa agrícola compreende várias etapas que se podem subdividir assim: Diagnóstico: Planejamento e desenho: É a ídentifica<;ao de objetivos, necessidades eproblemas. Estabelecimento de prioridades entre os problemas; defini<;áo de solu~óes potenciais; formul~ao de estratégias par.! provar solu\\róes; desenho de urna tecnologia protótipo, Experimen~¡¡o: Prova e avalia<;ao da tecnologia protótipo, para obter como resultado uma tecnologia desenvolvida,valida~¡¡o:A tecnologia desenvolvida testa-se novamente e adapta-se a muitas condi,óes específicas locaís, para concretilr-se em recomendayoes pilra seu uso, Na pesquísa agrícola aplicada para o desenvolvimento de tecnología, as etapas descritas anteriormente desenvolvem-se tanto a nivel de esta\"ao experimental como de propriedades agrícolas, A maíoria dos programas de pesquisa íncluem a avalía,uo de grande quanlidade de solu,Oes alternativas protótipo para os problemas dos agricultores. Usualmente as solu\\rOes incluem novas e numerosas variedades de plantas, densidades de plantio diferentes, controle de pragas e doen~as e outros componentes. Estas solu,óes escolhem-se seletivamente, com o fim de identificar a~ OpyOes mais promissoras, A elei,ilo seletiva com~a geralmente na esla~ao experimental, com um gmnde número de o~óes que sao progressívamente descanadas até deixar urna quanlidade reduzida delas para as provas em propriedades agrícolas. Assim, no momento em que se comelia o plantío dos ensaios nas propriedades agrícolas, em geral a maioria das o~óes 'protótipo' foram descartadas e os agricultores ficam expostos somente aquelas poucas alternativas que parecem mais promissora~ segundo o ponto de vista dos pesquisadores, O risco deste enfoque é que os pesquisadores poderiam estar e~cluindo do processo de avalia<;iio de tecnologías em propriedades agrícolas, o~óes que poderiam ser promissoras segundo o ponto de vista dos agricultores.o objetivo das avalia~Oes com agricultores, como se anal isa neste manual, é proporcionar retroalimenta9iio uos pesquisadores sobre os critérios do agricultor para decidir se utiliza urna inoYa~ao potencial e como fare-Io. Por esta razao, quanto mais rápido integrem-se as avalia<;oes com os agricultores ao processo de desenvolvimento tecnológico, mais provávelmente vao coincidir as idéias dos agricultores e dos pesquisadores sobre as características desejadas para a tecnologia. Mesmo no caso de que se haja feito um excelente diagnóstico dos problemas dos agricultores, aqueles que os pesquisadores acreditam que os agricultores necessitam ou pensam, esses podem nao corresponder ao que em realidade necessitam ou pensam. As avaliagoes com agricultores sao um método para obter diretamente dos agricultores suas opinioes sobre inova<;6es tecnológicas propostas, independentemente do conceito dos pesquisadores.Portanto, vale a pena considerar o benefício, que em tennos de retroalimenta,ao a pesquisa, apresentam as avalia,6es com agricultores nas diferentes etapa~ de todo o processo de sele,ao de tecnologia. Em um sentído amplo, pode-se definir as seguínles etapas: 1) Avalía<;6es antecipada~ de várias alternativas ou 'protótipos' .2) Compara,30 de urnas poucas alternati vas protótipo, com o fim de chegar a tecnologías desenvolvidas.3) Avalia,ao da tecnologia desenvolvida durante a valida\\iao ou transferencia inicial.A valia~o inicial de várias alternativas Este manual está enfocado principalmente para as avalia~6es de ensaios agronomicos ou de variedades nas parcelas dos agricultores. Portanto, os mesmos princípios e técnicas podem-se empregar para realizar avalia~oes com agricultores em outros lugares (ex.: na esta~¡¡o experimental) e sobre vários tipos de tecnologia. O principio importante é dar ao usuário potencial --o agricultor --a oportunidade de ler acesso direto a inova~¡¡o proposta e poder assim avaliá-la. Desla maneira, o mais rápido que se fa\"a isto, maior será a possibilidade de que o produto final --a tecnologia desenvolvida --responda nos critérios de aceitu9iio dos agricultores.As avalia~iies com agricultores podem ajudar aos pesquisadores a selecionar alternativas múltiplas e orientar futuras pesquisas, ao permitir•lhes conhecer as preferencias dos agricultores Um grupo de pequenos agricultores que pesquisava com cultivos de hortalic;as solicitou ajuda para controlar a ferrugem. doen\"a do feij1ío de vagem.Mesmo quando os agricultores pulverizavam intensamente pam controlar a ferrugem. esta causava-Ihes grandes perdas porque os intermediários locais concordaram em exigencias de qualidade em reJacao a apresen~ao do feijao de vagem. Os pesquisadores estabeleceram um ensaio de variedades em propriedades com trinta linhas avancadas resistentes a ferrugem. Em cada colheila o grupo de agricultores fez avaliacóes.analisando um por um os materiais. examinando as plantas, as vagens e o rendimento. Muítas linhas de rendimento alto e resistentes a ferrugem. preferidas pelos pesquisado res. foram excluídas de entrada pelos agricultores, de vida a deficiencias na qualidade do grao: algumas vagens eram demasiadamente curta~ ou demasiadamente compridas, OUlras eram demasiadamente achatada~, de cor muito pálida ou tinham sementes demasiadamente protubemntes.Finalmente. os pesquisadores solicitaram aos agricultores qualificar as poueas variedades que nilo haviam sido descartada, nas primeiras avalia~óes. Entre elas, urna das mais resistentes a ferrugem e considerada como uma das melhores variedades tinha um defeito: suas sementes mudavam de verde claro a preto a medida que amadurecia a vagem. \"Se os intermediários veem estas sementes pretas ou se somente tomam conhecimento delas, recusaram a comprar toda a colheita\", disserám os agricultores. Os pesquisadores estavam convencidos de que os agricultores recusariam esta linha, cm outros aspectos promissora. Todavia, por seu alto rendimento, resistencia e aparencia aceitável, a linha de semente preta continuou sendo considerada promíssora para os agricultores: HA semente de cor preta é urna desvantagem. mas pode-se colher rápido, antes que a cor preta apare\"a. Mesmo quando isso reduz a possibilidade de adaptar a colheita as mudan~as de prec;o, vale a pena experimentá-Ia\", comenturam os agricultores. Dois anos mai, tarde a variedade de semente preta era cultivada por 54% dos agricultores de feijao de vagem, os quais em média, haviam reduzido em 30% a quantidade de pulveriza~óes.Como resultado da primeira avalia\"ao com agricultores, eliminaram-se da pesquisas várias alternativas consideradas promissoras pelos pesquisadores, já que eram inaceitáveis pelos agricultores. O feijiio de vagem de semente preta. alternativa que os pesquisadores teriam recusado baseado na informa\"ao obtida dos agricultores, recebeu destes uma segunda oportunidade. A participa\"ilo dos agricultores foi crucial ao decícir experimentar no mercado, a venda desta variedade de semente preta. Os melhoristas conlínuam fazendo novos cruzamentos, retroalimentados com a informa,ao sobre as preferencias dos agricultores.Quando se deseje que os pesquisadores tenham que escolher entre diferentes características no desenho de urna inova~ao proposta que afetaria a maneira como os agricultores fazem uso dela, é conveniente saber como reagiria o usuário diante da inova~ao.Isto significa que as avalia~óes com agricultores podem ser empregadas de modo útil nas diferentes etapas do processo de gera,ao de tecnologia, tal como discutimos anteriormente. Significa também As avalia~ com agricultores permitem conhecer quais sao as características da tecnologia importantes para eles e porque Urna equipe de pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas projetou um ensaio com a finalidade de validar recomend~oes para o estabelecimento de duas variedades novas de gramíneas forrageiras avaliadas previamente em ensaios de repeti~¡¡o, em pequenas propriedades da área para a qual se estava dirigindo o material. O propósito da pesquisa era melhorar terras em pousio sobrepastoreadas e erodidas, utilizadas como pastos em pequeRas propriedades.Considerando que os pequenos agricultores díspunham de poucos recursos para adquirir fertilizantes, as nOVas recomend~oes para o estabelecimento de pastagem íncluíam somente a aplica,.ao de uma taxa de fósforo de baixo custo (como rocha fosfórica). Após vários meses, as visitas ao ensaio mostraram que alguns agricultores estavam cultivando, entre as linhas de pastos do ensaio, feijlio intercalado utilizando nestes uma elevada aduba,ao. As entrevistas de avalia,ao mostraram que os agricultores pensavam que a taxa de estabelecimento do pasto era lenta, e vários sugeriram intercalar sementes vegetativas de pasto com o feij1ío, depois de eliminar as ervas daninhas e de adubá-Io novamente pum acelerar o processo de estabelecimento.Para esses agricultores. obter um retorno mais rápido da terra, uma vez que haviam invertido em sua prepara,lio para o plantio, era mais importante que simplesmente minimizar o custo do estabelecimento do pasto. Eles mesmos propuseram uma solu~¡¡o potencial a esta necessidade. Caso se houvesse realizado com anterioridade entrevistas de avalia,ilo com agricultores, em repetidos ensaios, os pesquisadores teriam podido incorporar os objeti vos e idéia, dos agricultores em futuros testes de recomenda90es. que os métodos discutidos neste manual podem ser aplicados com flexibilidade em diversos contextos institucionais.A avali~¡¡o com agricultores pode ser igualmente útil para avaHar componentes especializados dentro de um programa de pesquisa em uma cultura ou em uma disciplina, como seria a avalia~iio de ensaios de adapta<;lio em propriedades agrícolas conduzidos por um programa de pesquisa em sistema, de produ9ao.A valla\"iio com agricultores e pesquisa em sistemas de prodm;iio As avalia~Oes com agricultores sao um procedimento importante para a pesquisa em sistemas de produ~ilo, a qual deve desenvolver tecnología localmente adaptada para grupos homogeneos de agricultores. O teste em propriedades agrícolas é Ullla atividade principal da pesquisa em sistemas de produ<;ao e as avalia~Oes com agricultores podem oferecer retroinforrna9iio útil pam a forma~¡¡o de 10 recomenda~óes e para a sele~íio de componentes que se devem incluir nos ensaios futuros.Nao é desejável restringir as avaliayOes com agricultores exclusivamente a ensaios conduzidos por eles, Q qual se podería realizar em uma etapa relativamente tardia. É posslvel gerar muita infonna<;ao útil para a pesquisa em sistemas de produ<;áo, incluindo aos agricultores na avalia,.ao de uma tecnologia sobre ti qual os pesquisadores est1ío desenvolvendo hip6teses ou idéias, e que pode existir somente em forma de protótipo em ensaios exploratórios ou em esta~oes experimentais.A valia-;i:íes com agricultores e pesquisa com orienla¡;lío por disciplinas ou por culturas As técnicas de avalia,uo com agricultores podem ser utilizadas pelos programas de pesquisa em disciplinas Oll em culturas.Os exemplos de avalia~oes com agricultores que apresenta este manual foram tomados de experiencias em programas de pesquisa de culturas. Por exemplo. no processo de planejamento de uma estratégia de manejo integrado de pragas. podería ser do interesse dos entomologistas avaliar a.s rea90es dos agricultores as téenicas alternativas para O controle de pragas. Os pesquisadores de solos podem obter informa~ao de diagnóstico muito útil sobre o manejo que fazem os agricultores da fertiljdade de solos, através do uso de técnicas discutidas neste manual, para adjantar avalia~Oes com agricultores sobre suas práticas locai\" tipos de solos e adubll\\'ao.As rell\\'Oes dos agricultores diante de um viveiro ou um ensaio de um melhorista. que incluie tipos de variedades com diferentes eametí,ticas que os melhoristas podem estar considerando incorporar em um programa de mel horamento genético. padería ajudar aos melhoristas a identificar aquelas características varietais que tendem a ganllar maiar (ou menor) aceita,iio entre os agricultores.Qualquer que seja o meio institucional que fa,a possível realiz.ar avalia,oes regulares com agricultores. a informa,ao sobre as opiniOes e rea,Oes destes podem ser um elemento vital na oríenta,üo dos programas de pesquisa.A pesquísa participativa com agricultores é um conjunto de métodos, desenhado para permitir-Ihes contribuir ativamente nas decisOes para planejar e executar a gera~üo de tecnologia agrícola. As avalia,Oes com agricultores sao um subconjunto destes métodos participatí vos.Os métodos de avalia,iío com agricultores podem ser empregados em diferentes momentos da sequencia esquematizada na Tabela 4: diagnóstico. planejamento e desenho, experimenta~o, adapta,ao e valida~¡¡o. Tais métodos podem ser utilizados na etapa de diagnóstico, para ajudar aos agricultores no processo de expressar os critérios nos quais baseiam A tecnologia desenvolvida é testada posteriormente. convertendo-se cm recomenda,Oes para seu uso  Na etapa de planejamento, os métodos de avalia.,ao com agricultores podem ser utilizados para pre-selecionartecnologias 'protótipo' com agricultores, permitindo deste modo que agricultores e pesquisadores decidam, conjuntamente, que tecnologia testar.Urna vez que os ensaios tenham sido planejados com a participa~ao dos agricultores, a pesquisa participativa permite a pesquisadores e agricultores gerar e compartir informa~¡¡o sistemática sobre as reac;1ies dos agricultores sobre o desempenho da tecnologia nos ensaios.Na etapa de valida~ao e adapta~ao deve-se continuar fazendo avaliac;ao com agricultores, com o fim de verificar as opini1ies e critérios de sele~iio obtidos em etapas previas da pesquisa. As avalia.,1ies com agricultores, nesta etapa final, podem ser importantes para analisar critérios decisivos e características da tecnologia que somente pode-se identificar rapidamente urna vez que a tecnologia aplica-se a urna escala semicomercial.Quando se trata de estabelecer em que etapa do ciclo prodlitivo realizar avalia,oes com agricultores, o pesquisador deve considerar até que ponto os agricultores poderlio recordar a~ diferen-;:as entre as alternativas avaliadas. Urna regra chave é: quanto maior for o número de alternativas que o agricultor deve avaliar em cada entrevista de avalia~iio, menos poderá recordar suas diferen-;:as. Na etapa inicial de um programa de pesquisa exploram-se numerosas alternativas e conhece-se pouco sobre os critérios do agricultor. Portanto, a avaliac;ao de numerosas op,oes com agricultores, que se adiante neste etapa, deve concentrar-se em urna ou duas características chave da tecnologia, que se manifestem em cada etapa específica, durante o ciclo produtivo. Por exemplo, na avalia,ilo de ensaios de variedades de mandioca há sido útil avaliar com os agricultores, a arquitetura da planta e a susceptibilidade a pragas e doen\\,as, no momento da capina, enquanto que a qualidade da raíz e o rendimento sao o foco principal da avalia~¡¡o, no momento da colheita.As avalia<;1ies obtidas nessa forma slio mais confiáveis que quando se solicita ao agricultor que recordc todas as características, apenas em urna entrevista. Por esta raziio, as avalia,1ies exploratórias iniciais que involucram numerosas alternativas, tendem a requerer cantatas mais frequentes com os agricultores, que as avalia\\,1ies em que se comparam relativamente poucas alternativas.A valia~iles da cultura no campo Quando os pesquisadores querem saber sobre as rea\\,1ies dos agricultores as características ta;s como arquitetura da planta, vigor e resisténcia a pragas e doen,as, rela\"ao entre cultivos associados, precocidade relativa ou retraso no desenvolvimento da planta e requerimentos específicos de manejo, podem realizar avalia~oes com agricultores enquanto o cultivo permanece no campo.As avalia,1ies das culturas no campo, em etapas específicas de seu desenvolvimento, slio particularmente úteis a pesquisa exploratória, quando se conhece poueo sobre os critérios do agricultor, porque permítem compreender a maneira como ele percebe o cultivo, por ex.: o que ve e considera importante. A informa<;ao assim obtida pode ser indispensável para posteriormente desenhar a entrevista de avalia<;1io sobre os resultados fina;s de um ensaio.A valia~Oes pós-colheita Para estabelecer cm que momento fazer \"valia,oes de resultados finai, de um ensaio, o pesquisador deve ter cm conta a necessidade de conhecer a opiniao dos agricultores sobre características diferentes uo rendimento, tais como qualidades para a eomerciaIi7-u,¡¡0 e para o processamento pós-colheita do produto. Para fazer uma avalia,üo completa dos resultados finai\" os agricultores podem necessitar tempo pam processar e testar amostras, como também para levar amostras ao mercado, de tal maneira que possam av aliar os pre¡;os e a receptividade dos compradores. Para a avalí~ao de características comerciais ou de processamento depois da colheita, pode-se necessitar consultar diferentes pessoas da famíliu DU da comunidade rurdl, no caso de que a responsabilidade por estas atividades esteja em maos de indivíduos ou grupos diferentes ao agricultor que maneja a cultura. Por c)(emplo. com frequencia as mulheres tcm maiores responsabilidades na transforma,iio ou comercializ.a~ao de produtos cultivados pelos homen, e devem, por tanto, serem consultadas.Quando na tecnologia haja aspectos de póscol he ita, que pare¡;am afetar as opinioes dos agricultores quanto a sua aceita~ao, os pesquisadores podem estar ínter< ssados cm fazer avali~5es separadas para o r lcreado e o processamento póscolheita, com quem corresponda. Em alguns momentos pode ser desejável dar suficiente lempo ao agricultor ou agricultora para que interaja com as pe\"oas responsáveis da comercializa911o ou do processamento pós-colheita, de tal maneira que possa assimilar informas;ao sobre tais aspectos da nova tecnologia, antes de fazer sua avalias;ao final. Quando tal informas;ao é importante e nao se obtem, as avalia,5es realizadas no momento da colheita do ensaio r,carao incompletas ou podem ser distorcidas.A avalia9iio final, realizada depoi, de concluir um ensaio, apoia-se fortemente em reprodu<,;5es exatas. e portanto é menos adequada para o trabalho exploratório quando se avalía um grande número de alternativas. Aínda a,sim, a avalia<;ao realizada dois ou tres semanas depoís da colheita. de um ensaio em propriedades agrícolas, pode ser suficiente para identificar os principais critérios que usa o agricultor para diferenciar entre relativamente poueas alternativas. Neste caso, os agricultores recordarao características tais como arquitetura da planta, aspectos de manejo, rendimento e outras que formam parte de seus critérios para decidir se aceitar ou recusllf uma alternativa. Uma avalia<;ao eficaz é aquela na qual os agricultores expressam, de maneira fmnca e espontanea, suas opiniOes sobre a tecnologia que testam conjuntamente pesquisadores e agricultores, e na qual estes últimos estao disposto, a discutir as raz6es que defendem essas opini6es. Os elementos essenciais de €xito sao um alto grau de confian,a e de seguran<;a entre o pesquisador e o agricultor. ¡sto é. uma rela,ao na qual cada um sinta-se seguro para entender as mOlÍv:\\<;oes do outro.Estabelecer un, entendimento mútuo. como o descrito, implica uma intera,fio soeial entre o pesquisador e o agricultor, na qual se íntercambiam muitus express6es verbai, ou nao verbai\" como em qualquer comanica,ilo cara a cara entre pessoas. O conhecimento que tenha o pesquisador sobre estas manifesta<;Oes e suas habilidades pam manejá-Ias, de maneira consciente. determinarao o exilo da avalia<;ao. Esta se~lio está dedicada a revisar as técnicas que os pesquisadores necessitam realizar para alcan~ar uma comunica\"ao segura com os agricultores.O conceito inicio refere-se aos proeedimenlos que a equipe de pesquisadores em propriedades agrícolas emprega, pam conseguir que sua presen,a seja aceita pela comunidade de agricultores e para que estes compreendam os objetivos da equipe técnica na regiao. Entretanto, mesmo quando os agricultores estao completamente acostumados com a presen,a frequeme de pessoa, de fora, caja utivídade principal é fazer-Ihes pergulltas. as atividades iniciais do pesquisador em propriedades agrícolas geram impressocs iniciais que podem prejudícar ou favorecer o €xito das avalia,iies que se realizarao posteriormente com os agricultores.Quando o pesquisador ou equipe de pesquisa cm propriedades agrícolas come<;a seu trabalho em uma comunidade de agricultores, suas atividades despertarao curíosidade e comentários de mane ira mais ou menos intensa. Os agricultores farao entre si perguntas como: Que será o que real mente querem saber a oosso respeitoT' Como poderiam beneficiar-nos ou prejudicamos?\" É importante estar consciente de que as primeirds impressoes e a maneira como os agricultores discutem e comentam entre si suas interrogantes podem iociodir positiva ou negativamente no estabelecimento das rela~Oes de seguran~a e confian~a. Portanto, é necessário estruturM cuidadosamente a apresenta~¡¡o dos objetivos dos pesquisadores desde o primeiro contato.Tal como se discutia na se,ao anterior, o pesquisador pode encontrar várias expectativas na sua rela~¡¡o com os agricultores envolvidos na avalia~áo de tecnologia. Na Tabela 5 ilustram-se algumas das formas como o agricultor pode definir a situa\"ao social na qual se solicitou sua participa~¡¡o.Estas expectativas sao possíveis fontes de tendeciosidades, as quais levam a desestimular a expressao sincerd de oponiOes por parte do agricultor; podem. também. levar o agricultor a distorcer a informa9lio que proporciona durante as avalia~s. COI1,equentemente. o pesquisador que busca levar a cabo avalia~oes com agricultores deve ter como objetivo básico, no primeiro contato, a elimina9iio dessas expectativas; deve reformular-Ia, em um sentido similar conforme apresenta-se na Tabela 6.Tabela S. Expectativas frequentes na reJa\"íio agricultor.pesquisador • Seu nome.• Seu cargo no trabalho (simples descri,iio do trabalho).• A institui,lio que representa (no me da entidade e sua atividade principal).• Razlies pelas quais os pesquisadores desejum trabalhar em propriedades agrícolas.• Raz1íes pelas quais os pesquisadores necessitam conversar com os agricultores.• Explica.;áo do que é um experimento; que se faz e com que propósitos.• Explicu\\,uo do papel que desempenhariío os agricultores na pesquisa.• A importancia da contribui~lio do agricultor (o exito ou fracasso da pesquisa dependerá da participa,ao do agricultor).• Ex plica,ao do que o agricultor pode esperar obter ou nao com sua participa,lio.• Explica~¡¡o do que os pesquisadores níio estiio capacitados a resolver (eletrifica~¡¡o rural, constru~1ío de escalas, etc.).• Explica,lío de seus interesses especiais e conhecimentos (relacionados com cultivos específicos, doen~as, etc.) e do tipo de inforrna\\,ao que buscam.Para planejar e realizar diálogos abertos com agricuUores, sobre quaisquer temas, os fluxograms cOllstituem uma técnica útil. Eles ajudam a estruturar a comunica,ao com agricultores em fun,uo de um objelivo particular, sem impor a rigidez de um questionárío. Os pesquisadores podem utilizá-Ios em discuss1íes com agricultores ou grupos de agricultores para verificar se os temas essenciais foram abordados.No exemplo que apresenla a Figura 3, no qual o pesquisador espera que o agricultor aceite panicipar na pesquisa. o diálogo divide-se em tres etapa~: o descongelamento, o desenvolvimento e o encerramento. Na etapa inicial o descongelamento, as expectativas chaves que se resumem na Tabela 6 sao definidas pela auto-apresenta,ao do pesquisador ou pesquisadora.Na segunda parte do desenvolvimento da entrevista, o pesquisador trata dos temas gerais:1) O propósito geral dos con tatos com os agricultores e; 2) As expectativas do pesquisador quanto a sua relU9ao com o agricultor e as responsabilidades de ambas partes nas avalia<;Oes propostas.Finalmente. no encerramento O pesquisador busca verificar se hou ve comunica,uo efetiva. especialmente nos seguintes aspectos: 1) Com rela9iio aquilo que O agricultor pode esperar de sua participU9iio nas avaliay6es. Com este propósito estimula a formula<;ao de perguntas. para esclarecer as percepyoes dos agricultores. e 2) Acordo sobre compromissos mútuos e a,ao futura.No capítulo seguinte trataremos em detalhe várias t~cnicas. baseadas em habilidades de comunica,ao cara a cara, para utilizar este estilo aberto de comunica~iío com agricultores. Também será discutido alguns princípios básicos de conduta que estruturam as impressoes iniciais. e que influem na efetividade das avalia~Oes com agricultores.Tratar ao agricultor como um experto Um objetivo básico das avaHa,5es com agricultores é ativar a capacidade que eles tem para avaHar tecnologias. Enquanto nao se aceita que todos os agricultores possuem o mesmo nível de capacidade nas práticas agrícolas locais, o pesquisador deve tratar a cada agricultor como um experto. Este é um princípio importante para assentar as bases de urna boa rela~ao de trabalho com os agricultores. Por esta razlio é multo importante que. em seus primeiros con tatos, os pesquísadores em propriedades agrícolas comuniquem sua inlen,ao de aprender dos agricultores.A exp1íca~¡¡o verbal de porque os pesquisadores desejam aprender dos agricultores é importante, mas nao é sempre convincente para um agricultor, acostumado a sentir-se respeituoso ou desconfiado com visitantes oficiais. Consequentemente. o pesquisador deve comunicar de maneira nao verbal o reconhecimento que Ihe merecem a experiencia e os conhecimentos do agricultor, solicitando que lhe ensine ou explique alguma prática ou prátícas locais relacionadas com o ensaio proposto (Figura 4). o ensinamento pode ser dado por agricultores individuais ou em grupos. e pode-se enfocar o uso de ferramentas tradicionais. cm sistemas de plantío. ou em práticas de manejo (por ex.: a capina). ou cm técnicas de colheíta. dependento da etapa em que se encontre o cultivo no momento em que se está iniciando os contatos com os agricultores. Por exemplo. profissionais que nao ten hum praticado nunca a agricultura da maneira como fazem os pequenos agricultores. podem solicitar-Ihes instru~Oes para o manejo de determinada fermmenta de trabal ha. Ao receber a instru~¡¡o. provavelmente ficará surpreendido do difícil que é manejar com habilidade as ferramentas locais. O feito de mostrar incompetencia em situa~Oes como esta, em que o agricultor é experto, é benéfico, antes que prejudicial para a rela\\,80 de trabulho necessária nas avalíayOes com agricultores. Efetivamente. com iSlo reforya a mensagem verbal do pesquisador quando disse que os agricultores contribuem com urna experiencia única lis avalia<;iies de tecnologia. Ao sujar as maos. nesta silu~iío particular. o pesquisador envia a mensagem nao verbal de que as práticas agrícolas locais merecem respeito; isto é. particularmente importante em culturas onde o trabulho manual é associado com estratos muis pobres.Tmtar o agricultor como experto implica. também. mostmr respeito por seu tempo de trabalho. pela hospitalidade local e os costumes. Nao será possível conseguir uma avaliu~¡¡o efetiva se o agricultor está com pouco tempo porque necessita atender outras tare fas urgentes. enquanto o pesquisador em propriedades agrícolas insiste em explicar-Ihe um enguio ou em realizar urna entrevista de avalia~¡¡o com ele. Portanto. em quulquer momento de contato com agricultores. discutidos neste manual, é essencíal consultar ao agricultor sua disponibilidade de lempo para a atividade proposta. A resposta adequada a qualquer manifesta,lío de vacilo, por parte do agricultor, é melhor solicitar-Ihe que sugira outro momento muis conveniente.Igualmente. o lempo que se utiliza para aceitar a hospitalidade e conversar sobre temas nao relacionados com as avalia,iies é tempo bem empregudo. porque a,sim se expressa. de maneira nao verbal. respeito e interesse no agricultor como pessoa, o qual é indispensável em uma boa rela~ao de trabalho.Embora esses princípios de trabalho silo bem conhecidos e aceitas pelo pessoal de campo. é essencial para os pesquisadores que fazem um número grande de avalia,iies, ter em mente estas considera~Oes ao planejar e designar as responsabilidades. especialmente nas etapas preliminares do contato com os agricultores. O beneficio de fazer isto é indiscutível.Colocar o agricultor no papel de ensinar é urna técnica muito poderosa para reestrutumr as expectativas convencionais da rela~ao pesquisadoragricultor. esquematizadas na Tabela 5. e para trabalhar posteriormente até o alcance daquelas expectativas essenciais para obter boas avalia,iies com agricultores. Islo é também especialmente útil para o desenho das entrevistas de avalia,ao, uma vez que familiariza o pesquisador com a terminologia agrícola local. o qual é indispensável para compreender os coneeitos do agricultor. Além disto. comunica ao pesquisador em propríedades agrícolas respeito pelos conhecimentos do agricultor e disposi,ao para aprender dele. Adicionalmente, dá aos pesquisadores a oportunidade de entender a lógica dos diferentes agricultores quando estes explicam como e porque se seguem certa práticas locais. Este é um critério importante para a sel~iío de agricultores participantes nas avalia,iies.Nada parece maís natural e sincero no caso de um pesquisador agrícola ou um extensionista que conversar com um agricultor, especialmente porque o tema da conversa pode ser de profundo interesse para ambos. Todavia, por razao da dinámica social para as avali~5es cm países em desenvolvimento, discutida antes, as destrezas necessárías para alcanli'ar uma comunicw;ao efetiva com agricultores sao bem diferentes daquelas que surgem naturalmente em uma conversa,ao díária. Por este motivo, uma entrc\"isla de avalia,iío é muito diferente de uma s,mples conversa com os agricultores.A entrevista de avalia,iío aberta é também urna fonna de comunica~¡¡o diferente da enlrevista para urna pesquisa de opiniao. O formulário da pesquisa pode buscar opini5es predizíveis pelo pesquisador; em contraste, a enlrevista de avalía~üo aberta explora o que o agricultor pensa com respeito a tecnologia em teste. As resposlas sao espontiineas e nao facilmente predizíveis. A informa-;ao que obter1ío os pesquisadores mediante a avalia~¡¡o com agricultores nao se pode conhecer até quando nao se tcnha feito um certo número de entrevistas. Esta é precisamente a finalidade da entrevista de avalia~¡¡o: trazer a luz critérios do agricultor que de oulra maneira permaneceriam desconhecidos.Parte da informa<;ao mais valiosa das avalia~i:'ies com agricultores pode-se alcam;ar, de mane ira ótima, através do uso apropriado de perguntas abertas, uma técnica maito diferente das pergantas fechadas próprias dos queslionários. Por esta raziío é muilo importante conhecer o manejo das destrezas da comunicu\\iao cara a cam para realizar entrevbtas de avalia«1io.As deslrezas da comunica,iío cara a cara necessárias para a avalia~ao com agricultores podem-se dividir em dois tipos de técnicas: as técnicas para escutar e as técnicas para perguntar.O modo como escutamos o que diz o agricultor é tao importan le como aquilo que perguntamos. Em urna avalia,ilo bem realizada o pesquisador deve escutar mais que falar. ¡sto nao significa em nenhum sentido, que o pesquisador seja passivo; ao contrário, as pessoas que fazem avalia,oes devem estar permanentemente alenta.~ ¡¡ necessidade e oportunidade de canalizar os comentários do agricultor, de lal maneira que permitam esclarecer seu ponto de vista e obter uma informa,,¡¡o que seja compreensível para o pesquisador e que possa ser transmitida a seus colegas pesquisadores, em uma forma clara. As destre7.a.~ de comunica\"ao que se discutem aqui referem-se a métodos que naO entravem o desenvolvimento das entrevistas de avalia\"iío, mas sim que facilitem obler avalia,1ies eficazes.Se voce pudesse tomar dez ou quinze minutos para escutar uma conversa,üo entre um pesquisador ou extensionista (P) e um agricultor (A), nas condi,5es em que planeju realizar avalia,5es com agricultores, poderia ver e ouvir algo assim:• P está de acordo com A e o interrompe para dar-Ihe um exemplo de algo que refor~a seu ponto de vista.• P move repentinamente a cabeya, enquanto A fala,• P contradiz A.• P moSlra desaprovu~ao através de sua expressao facial ou retirando-se de A.• P fíea aborrecido, olha fíxamente a distáncia.joga com algum objeto. limpa as unhas.• P mostra a A como fazer algo e P sugere-Ihe como faze-Io de outra maneira.• P perde o interesse no que o A está dizendo, e introduz um novo tema, nao relacionado com a convers~iio.• P estende-se em um tema com A e bloqueia os intentos de interven9ao que este faz.Em uma discussao sobre agricultura entre um pesquisador ou extensionista e um agricultor este tipo de eventos podem suceder facilmente, porque os pesquisadores e extensionistas foram formados para aconselhar aos agricultores sobre como melhomr o que normalmente fazem. Nao obstante, qualquer destes comportamentos nonnais em uma conversa,ao é ínadimissível e contraproducente pam urna boa avalía,ao.Contra.~tante a uma conversa, a avaliar;ao com agricultores requer que o pesquisador ou o extensionista seja receptivo ao que diz o agricultor, embora pare,a contrárío a formar;¡¡() academica que lais profissionais receberam. É necessário que eles usem habilidades para escutar, com a finalidade de ajudar ao agricultor a expressar as raroes que explicariam seu ponto de vista.As habilidades básicas pam escutar aos agricultores facilitarao ao pesquisador comunicarlhes de maneira verbal e nao verbal seu reconhecírnento e seu vivo interesse nos comentários que eles fazem a tecnología que estao testando conjuntamente. Um exercício útil oeste sentido consiste cm anotar em um papel as express5es cultural mente apropriadas que voce poderia empregar em uma conversa,iío cara a cara, par\" manifestar interesse no que diz a pessoa que fala. Tai, expressócs poderiam ser do seguinte tipo:• Mover a cabe~a.• Empregar sons que expressem ínteresse (sim, ah).• Introduzir um Hentendd' ou Hmuíto interessante\".• Inclinar-se para frente.• Olhar nos olhos.• Sorrir.• Ter uma posic;ao relaxada. Escular efetivamente tem, por conseguinte, importantes 'nao fa~a' como:• Impacientar-se ou interromper ao agricultor.• Contradize-Io.• Mostrar desacordo com o que ele diz, rnesmo que se sinta assim.• Expressar juízos sobre a corre,ao ou incorre~¡¡o do que diz o agricultor.• Aconselhar uo agricultor durante a avalia\"ilO, mesmo que no caso de que lhe corresponda farelo em cumprimento de outra, utividades profíssionais.• Dar a impressao, em forma verbal ou nao verbal, de que está aborrecido com o que diz o agricultor, embora seus comentários afa,tem-se dos temas que Ihe interessam.Ao fazer urna lista de expressoes cultural mente apropriadas para um interlocutor interessado, deve ficar claro que muitas delas Icm que ver com a linguagem corporal. O manejo da proxímidade ou distáncia física durante uma avali~iío é uma técnica importante para inspirar respeito, intenc;ao séria de aprender e especial reconhecimento pela., opini5es do agricultor. Com a prática, estas técnicas tornamse naturaís para o entrevistador. Frequentemente, no trabalho de campo pesquisadores e agricultores permanecem de pé durante a entrevista, suando debaixo de um sol ardente. Pode-se mostrar considera,,¡¡o com o agricultor transferindo a entrevista para um lugar il sombra, quando isto seja possível. Desta forma, transmite-se a mensagem de que o pesquisador deseja o bem-estar do agricultor, Outro aspecto da linguagem corporal que pode afetar a comunica~¡¡o do pesquisador durante a entrevista é a distancia ffsica, Algumas pesquisas mostram que as pessoas colocam-se fisicamente em diferentes rela~oes, segundo sua intera~¡¡o social, e o sentido comum diz que é assim. Aceitam-se diferentes graus de proximidade física entre amigos íntimos, entre conhecidos ou entre sócios nos negócios. A distancia física é uma forma nao verbal de comunicar quando confiamos em alguém e o grau de igualdade entre todos. A prOl(Ímidade a que estamos colocados em rela,uo a oulra pessoa afeta nosso tom de voz. nossa capacidade para perceber e interpretar expressoes faciais, e muilos outros aspectos qualitativos da comunica~ao humana.Em entrevistas com agricultores é muito frequente que estes coloquem-se a uma distilncia do pesquisador, culturalmente considerado por eles como formal, como uma expressao de respeito diante dele. Em uma entrevista de avalia~áo, parte do processo de estabelecer rela~Oes de confian~a mútua inclui comunicar ao agricultor a inteor;oo do pesquisador de reduzir esta distancia. Para este próposito existe uma técnica que forma parte do processo de avalia~¡¡o do agricultor: solicitar a este que Ihe mostre algo, por exemplo, uma ferramenta de trabalho, urna folha doente, um inseto, um punhado de termo ou qualquer coisa apropriada no contexto da discussao em curso, e diminuir assim a distancia ñsica entre os dois enquanto examinam juntos o que o agricultor Ihe está mostrando. Por outro lado, o pesquisador pode tomar a iniciativa, tomando algum objeto de interesse e, enquanto o segura, convida ao agricultor a aproximar-se para que olhem juntos e comentem algum aspecto. Este simples ato redefine o espayo físico e social aceitável entre o agricultor e o pesquisador e modifica qualítativamente a comunicayao que se pode dar.Tomar notas pode ser uma parte importante do rcpertório de condutas, nao verbais do pesquisador. que refor\"a seu interesse sincero no que diz o agricultor.A aceita~uo do agricultor pela forma de lomar notas por parte do pesquisador varia em cada cultura e pode ser entendida como inibidord. Ainda assim, se forem seguidas as técnicas de avalia\\,ao com agricultores discutidas neste manual. os agricultores olharam os registros de informayoo, durante as avalia~Oes, como uma evidencia da importlincía que o pesquisador dá as idéias e comentários expressados por eles coro rela\"ao a tecnologia que est1ío testanto juntos. A a~¡¡o física de tomar nota por parte do pesquisador chega a ser, portanto, um sinal para o agricultor de que o que está dizendo é importante. A linguagem corporal varia de urna cultura a outra. As habilidades importantes quanto a linguagem corporal na comunic<!\\,ao cara a cara com agricultores incluiem identificar e pralicar uma linguagem corporal de valor neutro, a qual nao apoie seletivamente os valores pessoais do entrevistador, mas que estimule a livre expressao do agricultor.A sondagem é uma técnica na qual se combinam saber escutar com fazer perguntas que canalizem os comentários espontaneos do agricultor. A sondagem permite que o pesquisador fa~a isso sem intrometerse, repetindo de outra forma a maneira de perguntar algo de interesse especial que o agricultor disse. Esta técnica pode-se usar de várias maneiras:Repetindo o que o agricultor acaba de dizer (técnica do espelho): \"Entao, é resistente a seca ... \".Repetindo em forma de pergunta algum comentário que acaba de fazer o agricultor. Agindo desta forma é um convite para que o agricultor amplie um tema em particular: \"É resistente a seca?\" Vollar sobre algum comentário feito , anteriormente e repetí-lo. lsto pode ajudar a guiar os comentários do agricultor em um sentido que o entrevistador considere importante.Solicitar ao agricultor que esclare<;a: \"Poderia contar-me um pouco maí, sobre isto?\" Resumir, com suas próprias palavras, o que enlendeu e perguntar ao produtor: \"Compreendi bem?\" Estar disposto a admitir suas dúvidas, através da frase, \"Nao eslou cerIO de ter entendido corretamente; o senhor parece estar dizendo que ..... e repetir a frase do agricultor.Guardar silencio (urna pausa de cinco segundos) olhando nos olhos. Isto estimula ao agricultor a seguir falando.A palavra chave para sondar é uma técnica útil para veri ficar sua compreensao sobre o ponto de vista do agricultor. Consiste cm repetir alguma palavra chave do que foi dilO pelo agricultor e pergunlar para esclarecer: \"Em que sentido é resislente?\" (Tabela 7). Tabela 7. Exemplos de sondagem pela palavra chave, para verificar a interpreta~¡¡o do expressado pelo agricultor. No que consiste a vantagem?Como é o sabor?Como pode saber que é mais fácil?Que significa 'muito alta' --qual seria um bom tamanho?\" Sondar é também importante se existe suspeita de que o agricultor está desviando ou nao está dizendo a verdade por qualquer razao. Serve também para verificar a consistencia dos comentários do agricultor.Existe tres tipos principai, de perguntas que O pesquisador pode formular uo agricultor: perguntas induzidas, perguntas diretas e perguntas abertas.As perguntas induzidas sao muito frequentes na conversa~ao diária Levam implícita a resposta esperada; a pessoa que aS formula pode estar tratando, de maneira consciente ou inconsciente, que a outra pessoa esteja de acordo e apole seu ponto de vista. Se bem que este tipo de perguntas é comum em conversac;5es ordinárias, nao tem lugar na avaliac;iío com agricultores.As perguntas diretas estao geralmente orientadas a obter aspectos específicos de informa9ao; por exemplo: \"com que frequencia é necessário capinar este tipo de cultivo associado?\". A entrevista de avaliac;ao nao é o momento apropriado para obtcr este tipo de informa<;ao (que se pode recolher melhor através de uma pesquisa), salvo quando se necessita alguma informa<;Uo específica para esclarecer um juízo ou opiniao do agricultor. Por exemplo:Agricultor: \"Nao gosto de traballlar com este tipo de espiga\"; Entrevistador: \"Que tipo de espiga trabalha normalmente? E qual é a diferen9a?\" As perguntas sobre aspectos específicos de informa,Uo iniciam•se frequentemente COIll as seguintes palavras: como, que, quando, quanto, com que frequencia, qua!.Ainda assim, formular as perguntas abertas é LIma técnica chave na avalia<;ilo com agricultores. Estas pcrmitem a livre expressao do agricultor. sem dirigir explicitamente suas respostas. Portanlo, o pesquisador deve reprimir e controlar, de maneir\" consciente, sua inclina<;ao naturul para formular perguntas induzidas buseadas nas su as opini6es pessoais. Por Qutro lado, deve controlar cuidadosamente a maneira de formular suas perguntas, para que os agricultorc,; possilm expressar 30 suas proprius opinioes. Na avalia9ao com agricultores, mesmo perguntas como: \"Qual dos tratamemos deste ensaío o senhor gasta maís?\" incluí a suposi~¡¡o de que o agricultor gasta de algo no ensaio. A pergunta abet1a adequada seria: \"Qual a sua opiniiío sobre os tratamentos deste eosaíoT' As pergunta~ abertas mais úteis nas avaliu90es com agricultores sao aquelas que o estimula a expressar e explicar idéias e opínioes. Tais perguntas usam enunciados tais como: Que pensa?; que observa?; por que acredita? Quando a avalias:ao com agricultores encontr'd-se em urna etapa inicial da pesquisa, o uso de perguntas abertas como aquejas apreseotadas na tabela 8. as quais estimulam o agricultor a expressar e explicar opini5es, é especialmente importante. Por isso. é eficiente que os pesquisadores que realizam avali!l95es com agricultores tenbam um repertório de perguntas do seguinte tipo:• Que opiniao tem do ensaio?• Algum dos tralamentos Ihe parece especialmente interessante? Por que?• Por que acredita que se apresentou essa diferen,a (entre os tratamentos)?• Como Ihe parece estas plantas?• Como Ihe parece este trata mento comparado com aqueje?• Observa alguma diferen<,:a nos requerimentos de manejo (pulverizulj;ao, capina. irriga,lio, etc.)?• Por que acredita que isto (referindo-se a uma observaylio do agricultor) é importante?• Que tipo de rendimento pensa que vamos ter?• Pensa que existe aqui alguns problemas que devemos ver?• O senhor observa alguma vantagem ou desvantagem nisto? (referíndo-se a urna observa,ao do agricultor).• Como Ihe parece isto em compara,ao com o que o senbor está acostumado a fazer?• Que pensa do momento cm que se fez a capina? (ou qualquer outfa oper!l9iio).• Se plantarmos este ensaio novamente, gostaria de fa7..er-lbe algumas modifica,5es? Quais? Tabela 8. Perguntas abertas para estimular as idéias do agricultor.• Poderia dizer-me muís sobre isto?• Qual seria um exemplo disto?• O que faz vé-Ia assim?• Quais seriam algumas explica,5es para isto?• Poderia ajudar-me a entender melhor isto?• Tem alguma nutra idéia sobre isto?• Como se sente em rela~¡¡o a isto?• Como pensa que outros agricultore, se sentiríalll em \";'Ia,ao a isto?• Em sínte!<ie. a técnica de diálogo com perguntils abertas baseía-se em pergulUa ... enunciadas assim:• Por que?• Que?• Como?• Quando?• O senhor acredita.,,?• O seohor observa ... ?• Qual a sua opiniao.,,?• As perguotus assim formuladas, '''0 abenas porque:• O pesquisador nao inelue nelas sua opiniao.• O pesquisador nao presume que exíste uma resposta 'correta' a pergunta.Um Apesar de que nesle exemplo faz-se uo agricultor perguntas que incluem opiniOes. estas podem ser úteis como ponto de partida para a avalia~ao, enguanto Ihes comunica que: a) seus comentários críticos sao válidos e imeressantes para o pesquisador e b) nao existe uma resposta 'carreta' it pergunta do pesquisador.Vejamos outros exemplos de perguntas balanceadas que se poderium empregar:• \"O senhor acredita que isto pode requerer mais ou menos tempo/dínheiro/fertilizante/irrig~ao, etc. comparado com O que atualmente faz, ou necessíta u mesma quantidade?\"• \"Como venderia isto? ou destinaria os produtos para o consumo familiar?\"• \"Recomendaría que sigamos testando isto ou melhor buscamos uma alternativa diferente\"\"A désvantagem das perguntas balanceadas consiste cm que é o pesquisador que introduz os . aspectos de discu\"iío na avalia~¡¡o. Resumo das destrezas de comunica~¡¡o para a avalia~¡¡o através de diálogo o tipo de comunica~¡¡o cara a cara que se requer para uma boa avalia~ao com agricultores é muito diferente de uma conversa\"ao comum ou de uma palestra com agricultores. Ao contrário da conversa¡;¡¡o ou de uma averigua~¡¡o formal, a entrevista de avalia¡;áo envolve o pesquisador em um intercambio de idéias que requer:• Comunicar respeito e grande interesse pelas ¡déias do agricultor.• Criar as condi~Oes para que o agricuhor expresse suas próprias opiniOes.• Estimular e entender as razoes de tais opinioes.Para alcanyar a informar;ao válida sobre as opiniOes do agricultor, o pesquisador necessita utilizar, de maneira consciente, destrezas de comunic~áo como:• Destrezas para escutar -Comunicar receptividade e respeito.-Escutar com mentalidade aberta O que diz o agricultor.• Linguagem corporal -Comunicar respeito, confian\"a e uma rel~lío de cordialidade e camaradagem.-Melhorar qualitativamente a comunicar;áo, redefinindo o espa'i0 físico estabelecido pelas normas culturais, quando o pesquisador é socialmente superior ao agricultor.• Sondagem• -Combinar o escutar com receptividade com perguntas que canalizem, sem interferir, os comentários do agricultor.-Verificar a compreensao do ponto de ví~ta do agricultor e a consistencia de suas observayoes.Perguntas abertas -Estimular a expressao livre das opiniOes do agricultor.-Evitar dar indfcios das opinioes do pesquisador que possam tendencíar as respostas do agricultor.• Perguntas balanceadas -Estabelecer a neutralidade do pesquisador com respeito aos comentários positivos ou negativos.Iniciar e estimular a discussao, ao reafirmar no agricultor que se buscam diferentes pontos de vista e que nao existe respostas corretas.A sele<;ao adequada de agricultores para participar em avali~Oes eficazes de ensaios é definitiva.Como urna regra chave, o número de agricultores de um tipo específico que participem da avaliac,:ao de urna determinada tecnologia nao deverá ser inferior a dez, enquanto que um grupo de 15-20 participantes seria o ideal para proporcionar suficientes observ~Oes para a análise.Os agricultores convidados a participarem em ensaios em propriedades agrícolas sao selecionados geralmente com base no seu interesse, sua boa vontade para colocar ¡¡ disposi~¡¡o urna parcela para um ensaio e a sua representatividade em termos de recursos, ¡dade, sexo, grupo étnico, etc. Adicionalmente a estes critérios, que sao determinados pelos objetivos do programa de teste, existe outras consider~Oes especialmente importantes para atíngir avalia~Oes eficazes.Um dos aspectos que se devem ter em conta é a experiencia do agricultor. Se a cultura incluída nos ensaios é cultivada normalmente na regiiío, deve-se ter especial cuidado em selecíonar, como avaliadores. a agricultores que a comunidade reconhece como especialistas oeste cultivo; um exemplo destes seria os expertos locais. Para obter inform~ao de alta qualidade sobre a aceita~ao da tecnología em teste, é indispensável o nível de observa~¡¡o detalhada que um agricultor experimentado pode alcan~r dumnte a aval ímiao.É importante, também, identificar aqueles agricultores conhecidos na sua comunidade como experimentadores ou ¡novudores. com os quais será avaliada uma cultura comum na regí1io ou uma inova~¡¡o proposta para um sistema local de produ~ao. Os experimentadores locais tem a disposi~ao para ser pensadores criativos, em termos de perceber oportunidades potenciais dentro das limita~oes de seus próprios sistemas. Estes agricultores estao habituados a observar criticamente as práticas opcionais de cultivo. Eles sao os que ti pica mente introduzem novas variedades, ou que, com frequencia, testam novos métodos por iniciativa pessoal e sem nenhum eontato formal com os sistemas de pesquisa ou de extenslio.O diálogo com tais agricultores nas etapa, inieiais de um programa de pesquisa, por exemplo, quando se está elaborando o plano de entrevistas de avaliac,:ao, pode ser especialmente proveitoso porque pode dar idéias sobre como recebem os agricultores as possibilidades de mudan~a nas práticas locais.Ao selecionar os agricultores deve-se ter o cuidado de nao confundir sua experiencia ou seu desejo de experimentar, com o feito de que hajarn adotado técnicas de cultivo av~adas em raz30 de seu contato permanente com servi~os de crédito ou extensao. Estas cantcterísticas dos agricultores nao sao necessariamente sinónimas. Os agricultores experimentados e experimentadores devem ser selecionados font da elite de agricultores --em geml um minoda utípica--que adotaram recomenda~Oes técnicas que a maioria dos agricultores nao usa.Oulro \"\"pecto importante na sele<;ao de agricultores é sua facilidade para comunicar-se com os pesquisadores. Alguns agricultores simplesmente podem-se expressar melhor que outros. Aqueles que podem comunicar-se com maior facilidade nao sao necessuríal1leme maís inteligentes, nem melhores que seus vizinhos menos expressivos; mas sim possuem maior capacidade e disposi~¡¡o para verbal izar seus pensumentos. O pesquisador deve identificar primeiro os agricultores nece\"ários para assegurar a representatividade e logo. dentro desle grupo. selecionar urna sub-amostra que tenha maíor facilidade de expressao; assim pode aumentar as possibilidades de obter avalia,6es informativas de agricultores. enquanto mantém a representatívídade.Frequentemente a sele<;ao de agrieu llores e de locais para os programas de testes em propríedades agrícolas sao feitos imediatamente antes do come<;o da época de plantío. Em consequencía. dita sele\\Oao pode con verter-se em uma corrida contra o tempo para identificar o número requerido de participantes e localidades. Realmente. a disposi~¡¡o do agricultor para ceder uma parcela desejada para O ensaio. pode chegar a ser o critério mais importante para determinar que agricultores participum.A sele<;ao de agricultores para fins de uvalia,ilo pode-se planejar com antecipa,üo. preparando listas de participantes potenciais que satisfa~am os critérios de experiencia local. interes,e na pesquisa local e facilidade de comunicao. Tai, listas podem ser elaboradas durante a pesquisa de diagnóstico (início), incJuindo perguntas como as apresentadas no Quadro 9. através de entrevistas de sondagem formal ou informal e tabulando os nomes que resultem.Outro enfoque consiste em identificar um 00 dois informantes chave cm cada comunidade ou regiao agroecológica onde será realizada as avalill,oes. A cada informante chave é solicitado nomes de agricultores. dentro de uma área específica. que eles conhe,am e considerem como expertos locais.o entrevistador necessita solicitar UOs informantes chave que Ihe expliqucm primeiro os limites da área ou cOlllunidade que constilueseu marco de referencia. como é o mUllicípio ou o 36 povoado. Lago. é essencial que Ihes explique que tipo de agricultor está intere,sado em identificar, através de perguntas sobre a experiencia do agricultor como as apresentadas na Tabela 9. Uma vez que o pesquisador e o informante chave tenham identificado claramente um conjunto de termos para definir as características dos agricultores eom experiencia. p<XIem elaborar junIOS a lista correspondente.Quando seja possível dispor de urna lista completa de habitantes ou chefes de família de urna comunidade. seus nomes podem ser escritos separadamente cm cart6es que informantes chave eolocam em ordem alfabética e classificam para identificar os expertos locais. Logo. pode-se solicitar aos informantes chave identificar os experimentadores locais. Estas listas podem ser elaboradas usualmente em uma ou duas horas. dependendo do tamanho da comunidade que o informante chuve deve agrupar nos cartoos.Os agricultores reconhecidos como experimentadores locaís. mediantes esta técnica, podem ou nao coincidir com os identificados como expertos locaí, e. para o processo de sele<;ao. pode ser importante entender esta diferen~a. Assim poderiam-se identificar. por exemplo. tres grupos de informantes:• Informantes loca;s que praticam a tecnologia tradicional.• Expertos locais que experimentum com novas pníticas.• Experimentadores (que usum tecnologia nao tradicional).Das ti stas de oomes ou de grupos de indivíduos identificados desta maneira poderia-se ter uma amostra; estes indivíduos podem-se incluir nas visitas ou entrevistas preliminares na área de pesquisa. com a finalídade de obter uma idéia de sua capacidade para comunicar-se com os pesquisadores. • O agricutor cultiva regularmente a variedade em teste (ex.: em todas a.~ épocas) ou ocasionalmente?• O agricultor modifica regularmente as práticas típicas locais (variáveis nao ex.perimentais nos ensaios propostos) ?• Quem sao os reconhecidos por oulros agricultores como expertos nesta cultura (pecuária ou prálica) em tesle de interesse para a pesquisa?• O agriculor tem testado alguma forma diferente de cultivo da variedade (ou de manejo do gado) em teste? Que e por que?• Está o agricultor testando nova.~ idéias por iniciativa própria ou seguindo recomenda~Oes de um extensionista?• Quais sao os agricultores reconhecidos por seus colegas locais como 'experimentadores'; os quais sio reconhecidos como fonte de inov~¡¡o local?• O agricultor pode explicar (ensinar) alguma prática local?• O agricultor pode explicar claramente (vantagens e desvanlagens) a diferen~a entre dois ou rnais práticas alternativas locai,! para verbalizar seus pensamentos podem assim ser facilmente identificados.Urna técnica útil pam identificar a capacidade dos agricultores para comunicar-se com os pesquisadores consiste em organizar. durante as visitas preliminares, sessi'ies de ensinamento por parle dos agricultores para que eles expliquem a .seu, colegas locais os objetivos da pesquisa. Frequcntcmenle, os agricultores coro maior disposi~¡¡o ou capacidade A habilidade dos agricultores para comunicar-se com os pcsquisadores também pode ser conhecida solicitando ao agricultor ou grupo de agricultores para tomar parte em urna simples compara9ao por pares, de tres ou quatro componentes da tecnologia local (ex.: quutro variedades locais, ou diferenles métodos de preparo da terra).A compara~iío por pares discute-se cm detalhe maís adiante, ao trdtar sobre as técnicas para conhecer as preferencias do agricultor. Esta técnica pode proporcionar informa~ao útil sobre prJticas locais de ínteresse para ° planejamento de ensaios em propriedades agrícolas e, uo mesmo tempo, ajudar aos pesquisadores a identificar agricultores que tenham a possibilidade de expressar-se com maior facilidade na avalia~ao.A sele~ao de agricultores pode-se apelfei,oar posteriormente para tomar em canta outras características dos agricultores que possam ser relevantes para as avalia,5es propostas. Isto pode ser feito solicitando uos informantes cnave agrupar aos expertos que eles tenham identificado, segundo uma característica determinada; a Tabela 10 apresenta uma lista de características que poderiam ser considemdas. A sele~lio é obtida revisando a lista de expertos locai, e solicitando ao informante ehave que decida em que categoría estaria cada pessoa. ou que agrupe OS cart5es respectivos. Os expertos locais podem ser agrupados, por exemplo, naque les que possuem cabe~a de gado (um indicador de riqueza) e aqueles que nao as tem: ou aqueles que trabalham por jornadas (indicador de relativa pobreza) e os que nao fazem. De cada conjunto de nomes agrupados assim. pode-se tomar uma Tabela 10. Lista de características para selecionar participantes nas avalia~oes com agricultores, através de informanteS chave. o sucesso desta técnica depende de que se identifique categorias claramente diferenciáveis que os informantes chave possam utilizar facilmeme.Por exemplo, caso se deseje solicitar a um informante chave que agrupe os expertos loca;, que tem cla~síficado como grandes, médios e pequenos agricultores, é importante conhecer os critérios que o informante acredita distínguem a um agricultor grande de um médío, e a este de um pequeno.Nas regiócs onde os agricultores locais nao pode m quantificar facilmente os tamanho das propricdades agrícolas, a posse de um certo tipo de terreno, ou de uma certa quantídade de cabe9a de gado, ou a contrata<;lío ou pagamento de trabalhadores em dinheiro, podem distinguir ao agricultor rico. É possível solicitar ao informante chave que agrupe os expertos locais de acordo com um destes critérios localmente utilizados, de tal maneira que drntinga os grandes agricultores do restante. Por exemplo, agricultores que possuem . engenho para moer cana em sua propriedade também poderiam ser considerados como grandes agricultores. Logo pode-se fazer o agrupamento dos restantes com base em outro critério que o informante chuve identifique para distinguir médios e pequenos agricultores. No mesmo exemplo, os agricultores que sao muito pequenos, para cultivar cana de acu<;ar, poderíam ser facilmente agrupados pelo informante chave na categoria de pessoas com menos recursos na comunidade.Outro enfoque que também pode ser empregado facilmente com informantes chave para agrupar agricultores. com fins de selevao, consiste em elaborar uma lista de agrícultores da comunidade. de acordo com tipos ou categorias que se distingam localmente e que, portanto, scjam bem cOllhecidas para o informante cnave. Estas categorías podem ser considerada, como 'grupos de ínteressc' e geralmente podem ser identii1cadas da seguinte maneira:• Primeíro, perguntando uo informante chave quais sao os diferentes tipos de agricultores que existem na comunidade (ou na área); assim obtem-se as diferentes categorías locais de agricultores.• Logo. solicita-se uo informante chave que mencione nomes de agricultores cm cada categoria.• Finalmente, pode-se pedir que identifique os expenos e/ou os experimentadores dentro de cada categoria.Por exemplo, os agricultores poderiam ser agrupados por pessoas da mesma comunidade, assim: aqueles que se dedicam principalmente ao gado; os que se dedicam especialmente a comercializa~¡¡o de um cultivo principal, como a mandioca; e aqueles que tem cultivos diversos, principalmente para fins de subsisténcia, e que também trabalham por jornadas. Cada categoría teria seus expertos locais segundo seu tipo de agricultum.Os 'grupos de interesse' ou tipos de agricultores, assim definidos por informantes locais, sao particularmente úleís para selecionar participantes nas avalia~ócs, quando a tecnologia para avaliar necessila ser destinada a um grupo específico. Quanlo mais homogéneo sejam os participantes nas avalia~óes com agricultores, maí, consistente e confiável deverá ser a informa~ao obtida das entrevistas de avalia~¡¡o.Por outro lado, um programa de pesquísa pode estar interessado cm avaliar urna inoYa~¡¡o proposta estratificando os diferentes tipos de agricultores ou grupos de interesse. Selecionar agricultores para as avalia~i5es com base cm grupos definidos em termos de uma identidade comum, a qual é percebida pelos agricultores locais, ajuda uos pesquisadores a interpretar as diferen~as nos critérios que usam os agricultores para avaliar a tecnologia. Isto acorre porque os critérios de avalia~ao que o agricultor aplica para decidir que tecnología Ihe é útil, variam de acordo com os interesses que ele atinge quando avalia.A sele~¡¡o cuidadosa do agricultor é definitiva para o sucesso de um programa de a valia~¡¡o. ISIO é particularmente válido quando se faz avalia~oes cm um etapa explorat6ria preliminar de teste de tecnologia, quando a quantidade de ensaios e de agricultores participantes é relativamente baixa, e 40 quando se daria um peso considerável a qualquer opioiao do agricultor nos resultados da avalia~¡¡o, Por esta razao, os pesquisadores devem tomar o tempo suficiente para selecionar adequadamente os participantes nas avalia,oes, antes de preparar os ensaios.tA obten<;ao de dados confláveís sobre as rea,oes dos agricultores, com rela,iío a tecnologia que ajudam a testar, implica críar e alimentar rela,oes de conflan,a e entendimento mútuo entre o pesquisador e os agricultores quando se encontram cm ensaios em propriedades agrícolas e nas entrevístas de avalia,iio, Portanto, nao se empreende avalia,iies eficazes com agrícultores quando os ensaíos já estlio prontos para serem colhidos, O agricultor deve entender, com certa antecedencia a avalíul'iío, que é O que se está testando e que interrogantes esperam ser respondidas através do ensaio, Sem um conhecimento profundo do propósito que este tem e de como foí desenhado para testar o con.portamento da tecnología, o agricultor será incapaz de fazer julgumentos bem fundamentados; como resultado, a avalia9ao tenderá a obter dele informayiio superficial e inclusive o pinioes nao relacionadas com a avalía~1io.Quando o pesquisador em propriedades agrícolas chega a casa ou a parcela do agricultor pard re¡¡lizar a entrevista de avalia~¡¡o, já este deverá haver participado, com a equipe de pesquisa ou de extensüo, em algumas ou se possível em todas as seguintes atividades:• Explica9ao dos objetivos gemis da avalia<;iio (início),• Ensínamento por parte dos agricultores,• Planejamemo do eusaio,• Explícayao do desenho do ensaio,• Sele,üo do local do ensaío,• Localiza<;:ao de trulamentos dentro do ensaío e elabora,ao de um plano do mesmo,• Desenvolvimento da entrevista de avalía,ao.Completar o processo de avalia<;ao inclue realizar uma ou mai, entrevistas. dependendo das etapas de desenvolvimento da cultura que os pesquisadores desejam que os agricultores avaliem. Urna vez que as entrevistas foram analisadas. é desejável informar aos agricultores sobre as conclusOes gerais as quais se tenham chegado por mcío de sua participa~iio nas a valia~oes. Isto pode proporcionar urna oportunidade para planejar com eles atividades futuras, Com efeíto, as avalia~Oes com agricultores devem ser integradas com outras atividades típicamente necessárias para a montagem de um programa de ensaios em propriedades agrícolas, de tal maneira que a equipe humana seja eficientemente aproveitada, O número tOlal de contatos entre a equipe de pesquisadores e os agricultores, requerido para efeito das avalíaS'Oes, nao é necessariamente muito maior que o requerido pela equipe de pesquisadores para controlar os ensaios convencionais conduzidos por agricultores, nos quaís as opiniúcs destes nao se buscam de forma sistemática, Entretanto, nas visitas uos ensaios o contato com os agricultores é indispensável. Em tais visitas, devem ser programadas regularmente oportunidades e lempo para conversar com os agricultores, As entrevistas de avalia,ilo da cullura no campo e a avulia9iío agrqnómíca dos ensaios nao devem ser feitas pela mesma pessoa e nem ao mesmo tempo, uma vez que a entrevista de avaliu\\;ao está centrada nas opinioes do agricultor, enquanto que a avalia9ao agronómica eslá buseada nos critérios do pesquisador. Todavia, se ambas atividades ¡¡iio feitas simullaneamente. a avalia9iio do agrícultor tenderá a confundir-se com u do pesquisador. Quando nao existe duas pessoas que possam ocupar-se de forma independente da entrevista de avalia~no e do estado lIgronomico, seria melhor realizar a entrevista primeiro e depois adiantar as observa~6es agronómicas.Em síntese e como aparece esquematizado na Tabela 11. as atividades discutidas oeste manual deveriam formar parte da pesquisa cm propriedades agrícolas, mas tendo presente que a consulla sistemática com agricultores deve ser uma característica permanente.o passo seguinte: informar aos agricultores Urna vez que os agricultores tenham sido selecionados para participar em avalia~6es de ensaios em propriedades agrícolas, O pesquisador pode usar uma série de enfoques úteis para assegurar a compreensao clara do ensaio por parte do agricultor, de tal maneira que e,teja em boa posi~¡¡o para julgar a tecnologia em teste. Estes enfoques incluem:• Planejamento de ensaios em propriedades agrícolas com a partícipa~ao do agricultor.• Manejo ativo dos ensaios por parte dos agricultores.• Orienta~iio aos agricultores sobre o desenho e os objetivos do ensaio.Primeiramente. é desejável envolver uos agricultores desde o início da etapa de planejamento da pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas, de tal forma que possam influenciar nas decis6es sobre os componentes tecnológicos que se devem ter em conta e sobre a mane ira como estes devem 'er testados. O planejamento participativp de eusaios evita solicitar aos agricultores que avaliem uma tecnologia em condi~6es que ele, vejam como irrelevantes ou inapropriadas para o uso atual da tecnología.Quando os agricultores nao tenham participado na etapa de planejamento, é possível melhorar sua 42 compreensüo do ensaio envolvendo-os ativamente na etapa de manejo. Neste caso, geralmente, um dos objetivos do ensaio é avaliar o comportamento da tecnologia quando os agricultores fazem as opera~6es de manejo. Os agricultores podem contribuir com informa9ao valiosa somente se participam nas decis6es reais a respeito de quando e como fazer estas opera90es. e nlio com Stia simples presen~a física, no papel de trabalhadores de campo, que seguem um plano de trabalho definido pelos pesquisadores.Quando os objetivos do ensaio envolvem aos pesquísadores maís que aos agricultores no manejo do mesmo, podem ser feitas avalia~Oes com estes últimos, isto é. se os pesquisadores destinam tempo suficiente para explicar-Ihes cuidadosamente os objetivos e desenno do ensaio. Isto deve ser feito em termos compreensíveis para O agricultor. Quando se usum desennos de ensaios complexos, geralmente recomenda-se selecionar uma amostra de tratamentos que tende a estimular mais os comentários dos agricultores que estao f¡¡zendo a avalia~¡¡o.Com quaIquer destes enfoques pode-se seguir algun, pa~sos básicos para assegurar que os agrícultores tenham um conhecimento claro do ensaio e assim alcan~ar bans resultados na comunica,ao.Neste manual referimo-nos a ensaios de pesquisa, nao a demonstra~Oes. O objetí vo das avalia~oes com agricultores nüo é convencer ou persuadir o agricultor sobre os méritos ou vantagens de um ¡ratamento em particular. Os pesquisadores em propriedades agrícolas devem estar conscientes de que muitos agricultores, que tenham tido ou nao contato previo com parcelas demonstrativas dos servi~os de extensao, terao latente a expectativa de que o pesquisador espera de alguma maneira convencer ou persuadir aos agricultores de que a tecnologia do pesquisador é melhor. É frequente que um agricultor receba o ensaío como uma competi~¡¡o enlre suas práticas usuais (parcela testemunha) e as novas práticas do pesquisador, o qual pode levar aos   Muitos agricultores testam novas prálicas agrícolas por iniciativa pr6pria, estabelecendo comparac;Oes entre prálicas antigas e novas. Os pesquisadores podem dar urna explícac;íio simples de um ensaio. a rnaneira de um reconto passo a passo das compara~Oes que serao estabelecidas na parcela do agricultor e das interrogantes a que se dirige o ensaio.Urna explica~ao verbal tende a ser abstrata; entiio pode-se ilustrar as compara~Oes concreta e graficamente no solo ou em urna mesa com amostras dos diferentes componentes que serao incluídos no ensaio. Por exemplo: em caso de serem testadas quantidades de semente ou de fertilizantes, pode-se usar sacos de sementes e de fertilizantes para representar os diferentes tratamentos. Este enfoque de manejo visual permite aos agricultores manipular amostras e entender as diferen¡;as nos níveis de tratamento ao ver as quantidades contrastantes incluídas.Explicar um ensaio ao agricultor, antes de plaotálo, é eotao uma oportunidade para estabelecer a neutralidade e a objetividade do pesquisador em rela~¡¡o com as compara¡¡:óes estabelecidas no ensaio.Comunicar tal objetividade no agricultor é indispensável; uma mane ira de alcan~á-Ia consiste em introduzir compa~óes entre tratamentos no ensaio utilizando perguntas balanceadas. Por exemplo:\"Gostaríamos de saber se é mais conveniente para o senhor aplicar esta quanlidade de fertilizante ou esta outra.\" \"Seria para o senhor maís trabalhoso plantar desta forma que desta outra?\" \"Serao estas variedades maís resistentes a doen\\ias ou terao mais rendimento que aquelas? Ainda nao sabemos ... \"É conveniente também que os pesquisadores expliquem que o ensaio que vao plantar com um certo agricultor será repetido com outros agricultores. tal como se faz usualmente na pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas, e que os resultados ,erao reunidos para se ter uma imagem do que serve para essa comunidade. O propósito aqui é comunicar que a contribui~¡¡o do agricultor representa um servi~o 11 comunidade de agricultores, e nao simplesmente um favor 30 pesquisador.Ao final da explica~¡¡o do ensaio é importante que o pesquisador verifique que tao bem o agricultor entendeu os objetivos, sem preocupar-se pela compreensao detalhada dos diferentes tratamentos. Para isto pode-se usar uma pergunta aberta como: \"Que acredita o senhor que se pode averiguar com este experimento?\". respaldada por perguntas de sondagem, de tal forma que o agricultor possa 44 manifestar sua opiniao e as interpreta~óes equivocadas que possa ter. Assim, o pesquisador conseguirá estar seguro de que o agricultor nao tem expectativas falsas, que olha o ensaio nao como um jogo misterioso dos pesquisadores. mas sim como um exercício útil que gera informa~¡¡o valiosa para o agricultor, independentemente de que se identifique urna tecnologia com boos resultados.Finalmente. é importante discutir com o agricultor quais poderiam ser os momentos apropriados para visitar o ensaio. possivelmente com a perspectiva de fazer entrevistas de avali~ao em etapas específicas do desenvolvimento do cultivo.• Em resumo, na explíc~¡¡o do ensaio deve-se:• Comunicar ao agricultor a idéia de que está tomando parte em uma pesquisa para saber o que ocorre, nao em uma demonstra~¡¡o para convencí!lo ou persuadi-Io.• Estabelecer a neutralidade do pesquisadorcom rela~ao aos resultados finais, usando perguntas balanceadas.• Dar a conhecer formas específicas em que o agricultor e a comunidade podem ser beneficiados pelos resultados gerados pelo en,aio.• Usar métodos visuais simples para delinear compara~Oes entre amostras dos elementos que serao inclufdos no ensaio.• Verificar a compreensao do agricultor e eliminar qualquer mal entendido ou falsas expectativas.• Esclarecer as responsabilidades e a9óes mútuas dos agricultores e dos pesquisadores na reali~¡¡o do ensuio, incluindo visitas futuras.É conveniente planejar com tempo estes pontos, representundo-os em um fluxograma no qual pode referir-se o pesquisador durante a explica~o do ensaio proposto ao agricultor, para assegurar-se de que os aspectos relevantes sejam tratados. Na Figura 6 apresenta-se como exemplo um fluxograma que pode servir de guia aos pesquisadores para explicar aos agricultores um ensaio cuja avalia,ao espera-se que eles participem.Seja que o agricultor tenha a oportunidade de eleger o local do ensaio, ou que o fa,a o pesquisador, é essencial que este último explique ao agricultor quais sao as características desejadas para o local, em reJa\\iao aos objeti vos do ensaio. Com frequencia os pesquisadores em propriedades agrícolas encontram agricultores que aceitam colocar a sua disposi~¡¡o terrenos para ensaios, e logo destinam para eles locais que nao sao ideais, atípicos em rela\\i110 aqueles em que a cultura em teste é usualmente plantada pelos agricultores locais. Esta seria urna evidencia de que os agricultores nao entenderam os propósitos do ensaío e de que nao tem nenhum interesse em seus resultados. Para obter bons resultados em qualquer tipo de avalia~¡¡o com agricultores, o pesquisador deve comunicar ao agricultor de que maneira os resultados esperados proporcionariío informa~iío da qual poderia beneficiar-se o agricultor e como estes benefícios dependerao da sele~¡¡o adequada do local do ensaio.Muitos testes em propriedades agrícolas, nas que se planejam avalia,oes com agricultores, serao beneficiadas selecionando um local dentro do lote onde o agricultor realmente planeja plantar a cultura em teste por sua própria canta (testemunha). O processo de avalia~iio deve incluir urna discussao com o agricultor sobre porque ele considera que determinada parcela é adequada para o lipo de ensaio que está sendo proposto.Urna vez que o local do ensaio tenha sido selecionado, o pesquísador e o agricultor podem, conjuntamente, colocar estacas para marcar as parcelas individuais. Incluir uo agricultor no procedimento para distribuir os tralamentos é importante porque com ele orienta-se a localiza~¡¡o 46 de cada tmtamento desde o princípio. Isto é essencial, porque o agricultor deve poder avaliar as diferen~as entre tratamentos independentemente dos pesquisadores, enquanto observa o desenvolvimento do ensaio. O agricultor pode tomar parte na distribui~ao dos tratamentos ao acaso, utilizado pedacinnos de papel numerados para cada tratamento e colocando-os em um recipiente. No caso de agricultores analfabetos pode-se usar símbolos pitoresco, ou objetos diferentes, no lugar de números, para representar os tratamentos (Figura 7).A explicayao (Figura 7) ao agricultor sobre a distribui\\=ao ao acaso, poderia ser feita assim:Pesquisador: Agora, o senhor pode ver seu lote onde vamos plantar o experimento; em cada urna destas parcelas pequena~ demarcadas com corda, vamos a plantar urna variedade diferente (ou fertilizantel combinR\\'ao de insumos, etc.). O senhor acredita que o solo na área do experimento seja todo igual?... Nao podemos afirmar e nao podemos designar, a propósito, um local melhor a urna variedade que a outrns; entao vamos fazer um sorteio ... Observe os sacos de semente e de fertilizante colocados aqui em fila. Cada um tem um número diferente (Ol! um símbolo). Agora, cada um destes mesmos números estao escritos em um peda~o de papel os quai, colocamos no seu chapéu. Bom, come\\=emos por esta parcela. O senhor tirá um número do chapéu, e qualquer que seja, será o número do saco de semente que plantaremos aqui. forma, cada variedade e cada fertilizante terao a mesma o~¡¡o de ficar cm uma parte do solo boa ou má, sem que estejamos dando deliberadamente melhor oportunidade a uma variedade sobre as outras ...Com agricultores anafalbetos pode-se desenhar um croqui que mostre os limites do terreno e a locali~ao dos trata mentas no ensaío. Pode-se deíxar ao agricultor uma cópia destes planos.Em todo caso devem-se colocar marcas (tais como estacas marcadas) nos lugares apropriados do ensaio, para que o agricultor possa localizar os diferentes tratamentos.Um teste útil para saber que tao bom observador tem sido o agricultor, consiste em ver se durante uma visita com o pesquisador ao cultivo no campo, o agricultor guia o pesquisador pelo ensaío. Se o agricultor pode aponlar onde estao os tratamentos, sem a orienta<;ao do pesquisador, isto dernonstra que tem sido um bom observador e pode-se esperar dele urna avalia<;áo eficaz. Quanto menos oriente-se o agricultor dentro do ensaio, menos confiáveis ¡enderao a ser os resultados da avalía<;ao.A entrevista de avalia~íio que se discute nesta se~¡¡o pode ser utilizada para estabelecer, com agricultores. o potencial de qualquer quantidade de tecnologias diferentes. O contexto amplo é aquele 00 qual o agricultor avalía um eosaio em propriedades agrícolas ou um leste de tecnologia na esta~¡¡o experimental, e as entrevistas podem ser realizadas durante o desenvolvimento do cultivo no campo, ou depois da col he ita.Alternativamente, o agricultor pode ser entrevistado sobre a prática ou o uso de uma p~a de maquinário que, por exemplo, aplique-se no momento da prepara~¡¡o do terreno, do plantio ou da capina. Qualquer que seja a situ~¡¡o específica, no momento que se fa~ a avalia~¡¡o, o agricultor já deve ter algum grau de farniliaridade com o manejo da inov~¡¡o proposta e compreensao dos objetivos do pesquisador na busca das opinióes dos agricultores.É essencial planejar a entrevista de avalial,'ao de tal mane ira que se e.~tabele~ um claro entendimento mutuo sobre as responsabilidades e expectativas. A inform~¡¡o sobre as prefer8ncías do agricultor está particularmente sujeita a tendencias ou a distor~Oes, introduzidas por inumeras inibi\\,óes sociais a comunica~¡¡o sincera que se discutiram previamente. O agricultor pode sentir receio em criticar ou recusar alternativas diame do pesquísador porque acredita que, como resultado, o pesquisador deixará de fazer ensaios em sua propriedade. Todavia, no caso de que os benefícios materiais que obtenha por sua particip~¡¡o cm ensaios em propriedades agrícolas sejam poucos, pode temer a perda de status frente a outros colegas se OS pesquisadores suspendem a colabora~¡¡o. Por esta razíio, é particularmente importante esclarecer as expectativas com o agricultor antes de solicitar e consignar suas opinióes na entrevista. O agricutor oecessita entender como se utilizará a infonn~iio sobre suas opinióes e como ela pode afetar futuras pesquisas com sua colabora~¡¡o.Um primeiro passo, essencial para desenvolver o modelo de entrevista de avali~¡¡o, é fazer um esb~ sobre:• Como será resumido, com o agricultor, o propósito da avalia~¡¡o.• Urna explica~1io simples de como será usada a informa~iio.  agricultor para aceitar as tecnologias, entao as entrevistas devem ser planejadas prevendo que esta avalia<,¡iies sejam feitas. Em uma avalia<,;iio no momento da colheita o pesquisador deve ter em conta se a informa\\iao sobre as diferen\\iRs de pre\\(os nos insumos ou no produto é importante, e buscar robrir esta informa\\iÍÍo na entrevista de avalialiao, em termos compreensíveis para o agricultor.É essencial o uso de termos, conceitos e medidas agrícolas locais. Os pesquisadores devem por exemplo, estar preparados para medir e discutir o rendimento em unidades de medida regularmente empregadas pelos agricultores. Se o agricultor avalía o rendimento em termos de retorno a semente utilizada (quantidade colhida por unidade de semente utilizada), entlio a entrevista de avalia<,;ao deverá incorporar este conceito. Igualmente, os requerimentos de fertilizante podem-se interpretar em {un\\iao da quantidade de semente utilizada e nao em propor\\(iio il área plantada. Em qualquer caso, a Iinguagem técnica inibe a comunica<,;iio com os so agricultores, e o pesquisador necessita formar um glossário de termos agrícolas locais e u&á-Ios quando fa\\iR avalia<,;óes com agricultores.Uma razao importante para farer avalia\\ióes eom agricultores é descobrir se os critérios que eles aplicam diferem significativamente daquele utilizados pelos pesquisadores. Através desses critérios os agricultores devem poder expor coneeitos n¡¡o previstos pelo pesquisador e dar explica~óes sobre eles. Estes conceitos e suas análises constituem a contribui\"iio mais importante que urna avaliayao com agricutores pode dar a um programa de pesquisa.Com o propósito de registrar rea<,;iies espont!!neas e nao previstas dos agricultores dianle da nova tecnología, e com isto lograr avalia¡¡iies eficazes, os pesquisadores necessitam uma forma flexível de entrevista. Esta pode ser preparada de maneíra rápida, ern tomo a urna sequ8ncia de técnicas: \\• o uso inicial da avalia\"Uo aberta pura captar os comentários espontáneos • A prepara,uo de urna lista ou glossário de critérios do agricultor, buscando-se nos resultados da avalia,ao aberta• O uso de técnicas para obter as preferencias• O emprego de perguntas diretas, para explorar aspectos de interesse específico para os pesquisadores.A avalía\"iío aberta é um método para captar e registrar as reUl;5es espontáneas dos agricultores a tecnologia, sem usar perguntas diretas.A avalia\"ao aberta é um primeiro passo em dirCl;lío ao desenvolvimento de uma forma de entrevista de avalia,ao mais estruturada. Por isto, primeiro se faz algumas entrevistas de avalia,uo, para permitir aos pesquisadores 'testar as águas' ou fazer uma avalia,ao inicial dos critérios que os agricultores tendem a usar quando avaliam tecnologia. As entrevistas posteriores baseium-se nos resultados das avalía\"oes abertas iniciais, e incorporam outros critérios do agricultor identificados com ela.,. Ainda assim, a avulia~¡¡o aberta é uma técnica que também pode ser utilizada para estabelecer um clima de confian,a que anteceda 11 entrevista estruturada. Uma regnt útil é a seguinte: quanto mais se depende da memória (ou lembran,u) do agricultor, tanto muis importante é o uso da avalia~¡¡o aberta e a técnica de perguntas abertas discutidas anteriormente, para estimular ao agricultor a formular e expressar idéias e explica,ocs sobre sun avalia,ao.A avalia,üo aberta reune resposLUs do agricultor a pergunta: \"Que opina deste tratamento, por exemplo: distáncia de plantio, associa,ao de cultivos, variedades, etc ... \" O objetivo da avalia,üo aberta é captar os comentários espontaneos do agricultor e analizá-Ios como indicadores do que ele ve como características. mais importantes da tecnología (Tabda 12).Geralmente, o agricultor que tenha seguido e observado atentamente um ensaio de teste de vária~ alternativas distinguirá dois ou tres tralamentos, enguanto difícilmente faz comentáríos sobre os trutamentos restantes, ou os omite completamente. Toda a informa~lio do agricultor é importante, e o valor da avalia9lio aberta consiste em permítír que QCorra todo tipo de discrimina90es e questíonumentos, e que eles sejam registrados pelos pesquisadores.Antes de come~ar as avalia<;5es com agricultores, o pesquisador, buscado em seu conheeimento prévio, deve fazer uma lisIa do que ele pensa e o que seria importante para os agricultores. Esta lista pode incluir, por exemplo:Os pesquisadores devem estar familiarizados com esta informa~¡¡o, e a lista pode ajudá-los a discriminar, escutar e consignar os comentáríos previstos ou nlio. Os critérios esperados podem ir na folha de avalia,ao aberta e podem ser usados posteriormente para a codífica<;ao, como se ilustra no exemplo de modelo de entrevista para a avalia\\,íío aberta da página 55.Embora o pesquisador deseje fazer perguntas específicas ao agricultor sobre eertos aspectos da tecnología, é melhor fazer isto depois de ter dado ao agricultor a oportunidade de comentar livremente sobre qualquer coisa que seja de interesse, sem que seja influenciado por nenhuma idéia ou coneeito do pesquisador.Se a equipe de campo está disponível, é conveniente que haja dois entrevistadores nas avalia~oes abertas iniciais, para que um deles possa concentrar-se na formula,ao de perguntas ubertas e de sondagem para as explica,oes. interagindo com o agricultor. cnquanto o outro entrevistador concentrase no registro dos comentários do agricultor. Um gravador pequeno, que nao interfira, é uma alternativa útil quando issp nao é possível.\"Nunca haviu tmbalhado aqui; por que haveria cu de querer plantar ll...¡,sim? Por que naü? Que () scnhor diria se cstivcsse ensinando es la tccnologia:~ \"lmugine que () scnhor puuessc fazcr (ou descnhar) sua rr6pría e mais dcscjada (planta. fertilizante, arado, clC.)~ nüo se preocupe se ¡sto \"nO é po!>osível ... s(}mentc use sua imagina,'uo e diga-me comu seria'!\" \"Se (] scnhor podc~sc modifit.•ar ¡sto cm 4ua1quer forma que quizcssc, o que modificaria? . , . O que dejaria ¡gua}'! , É recomendável que as duas ou tres primeiras avalia~Oes abenas. que se utilizarao para desenhar entrevistas futuras. sejam feitas com agricultores que tenham maíor facilidade de expressao entre os que participem nas avalia'iiOes. e que tenham menos reservas para expressar opiniOes sinceras e interrogar a equipe de trabalho sobre o ensaio.Na avaliaS'iio aberta é muito importante registrar os comentários do agricultor o mais exato possível e em suas proprias palavras. As interpreta~Oes ou notas explicativas do entrevistador podem ser registradas em paréntesis. Na página 55 apresenta-se um exemplo do modelo com notas explicativas que se tomaram na avalia9iio direta de um ensaio de variedade de mandioca. real izado com pequcnos agricultores na Colombia, América do Su!' Na parte inferior do modelo de entrevista na página 55 aparece m os critérios originalmente listados pelos pcsquisadores. Os espa<;os em branco sao para acrescentar, no momento de codificar a entrevista, critérios nao previstos que se obtenham do agricultor. Assim. no exemplo da página 55. o agricultor mencionou o conteúdo de amido (ex.: comentou que era bom), a altunl de planta (o porte baixo é uma característica positiva segundo ele) e a altura das ramifica<;óes (a ramifica~ao baixu parece-Ihe uma característica negativa); estes critérios haviam sido previstos pelos pesquisadores na sua lista. Entretanto. o agricultor observou também que a cor cremosa da casca e da pulpa da mandioca poderiam ocasionar pre<;o baixo no mercado e que a disposir;:¡¡o das raízes em rela<;ao com o talo poderíam fazer que elas se quebrassem e se deteriorassem rapidamente depois da colheita. em comparar;:¡¡o com variedades com uma rela,uo diferente entre o talo e a raíz. Ambas características foram julgadas como negativas pelo agricultor. Os critérios nao previstos pelo pesquisador foram adicionados a listagem durante a codifiea,iio da entrevista.Desta forma. depoi, de que as du\", ou tres avalia~óes inieiai, sejam completadas e codificadas, tem-se como resultado uma listagem dos critérios que poderiam ser mene ionados com maior frequéncia. A lista pode ser anexada as folhas de avalia,ao aberta, enquanto os critérios, nao previstos pelos pesquisadores, poderiío ser anotandos nos espa,os em braneo.Pode-se realizar uma análise do conleúdo das avaliar;:óes abertas tabulando o número de vezes que cada critério é mencionado espontaneamente pelos agricultores. Um exemplo dos resultados que podem ser obtidos com a análise do conteúdo é o que se apresenta no Quadro l. A tabula,iío de frequencias nas avalia,oes de variedades de mandioca pelos agricultores no exemplo anterior dá um peso a cada um dos critérios. mostrando a importancia relativa de cada um deles para os agricultores que avalíam a tecnologia. Alguns critérios do pesquisador. mostrados no exemplo da página 55. demonstraram nao ter importilncia nas resposlas do agricultor, enquanto que outros eritérios adquiridos dele demonstraram ser muito importantes.A avalia\"ao aberta é mais útil como ferramenta exploratória. quando nao se conheeem bem os crÍlérios do agricultor. Ela permite verificar os critérios de avaliu9ao recopilados pelo pesquisador e e.,tabelece que estes possam ser colocados em termos familiares para os agricultores, ao usar o vocabulário agrícola local. A análise do conteúdo proporciona uma espécie de fotografia das característica da tecnologia que escolhem os agricultores nos seus comentários e de outras características que sao relativamente menos significativas para eles.Este enfoque é particularmente útil quando os pesquisadores desejam explorar um número consíderável de alternativas com agricultores. sem obrigá-Ios ti escolher entre clas; isso ocorre geralmente porque a avaIia~ao é feita na etapa preliminar da pesquisa.Exemplo: uso do modelo de entrevista para a avalia\\iio aberta. i Exemplo: uso do modelo de entrevista para a avalia,ao aberta. s A folhagem abundante nuo é dcscjadil.Prerere-se rnfzes ,\"'Om pedúnculos curtos. R<lízcs!-;Cm pt.xlúnculns relacionam-sc ~ . . om pcrdas no armazcnamcnto. Pedúnculos longos relacionam-se com baíxn rcndimento.1 Tipo de rarnHic~ao baixa nao é aprcdado (dificuha a c<lpina); ramifica'iun alta dificulta a culhdta.Como resultado de urna boa avalia;¡:1io corn agricultores, deseja-se obter urna imagem clara das preferencias que eles tem por urna tratamento ou tecnologia frente a oulra, e das razóes ou critérios que usarn para concilíar tuis preferencias.Quando se identificam critérios do agricultor para fins de avaliayao, é necessário distinguir entre os descrítores e os critérios de decisiío.Os descritores sao fmses como: esta variedad e é cheia de folhas, aberta, ou alta; este adubo cria torróes ou é poeirento; esta distftncia 56 de plantio dificulta o movimento no ensaio. Com frequenciu, muitas das observa;¡:óes feitas pelos agricultores nos ensaios sao descritores, Os critérios relevantes para a pesquisa sao aqueles que os agricultores lomam em conta quando estabelecern suas preferencias entre os tratamentos de um ensaio; é o caso daqueles critérios definitivos para decidir se urna certa tecnologia será aceita ou recusada. Por exemplo, urna determinada variedade de milho é alta e sombreia o cultivo associado, e por isso nao é aceita; a altura neste caso é um critério decisório. Conseguír que o agricultor expresse suas preferencias ajuda a identificar seu s critérios de decisao.Existem tres enfoques blÍsicos pam estabelecer preferencias na avalia\\,ao com agricultores:• Avalia,ao absoluta: cada alternativa é julgada segundo seus méritos; a cada urna se atribue uma preferencia (aceita<;ao ou recusa) ou urna pontua,ao.• Ordenamento entre várias alternativas, desde a que mais agrada a que menos agmda.• Compara~ao por pares: cada op.,ao tecnológica é considerada melhor ou piar ao compará-Ia com um tratamento básico, tal como a própría tecnología do agricultor, ou ao compará-Ia com todas as demais em conjunto.Estes enfoques podem ser combinados em urna entrevista de avalia<;ao. A conveniencia de qualquer enfoque individual para obter resultados válidos quanto as preferencias dos agricultores, é variável.Um aspecto que se deve ter em conta para decidir que enfoque utilizar é o número de alternativas para avaHar com o agricultor. Em urna etapa inícial do programa de pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas, devem ser feitas as avalia~Oes com agricultores para um espectro amplo de alternativas, de tal maneira que os critérios de aceita<;lío do agricultor sejam bem integntdos dentro do processo de sele~ao das op~Oes desejadas. Em alguns ensaios em propriedades agrícolas, tais como os de variedades ou de fertilizantes, pode•se comparar um número relativamente grande de alternativas. Em tais casos, a avaliul'ao absoluta, ou seja, aquela na qual o agricultor manifesta sua posi~¡¡o de agmdo ou desagrado sobre cada tratamento, segundo seus próprios méritos, é com frequencia o mdhor enfoque. devido a duas mzOes: Prime ira: a aval¡a~¡¡o de ensaios cam numerosas alternativas lende a ser exploratória, objetivo que os agricultores podem apreciar, já que frequentemente, nas etapas iniciáiS de seu con talo com uma nova tecnologia, eles nao estum díspostos a escolher 'a melhor op.,1ío'. Isto ocorre, em parte, porque os agricultores, igual aos pesquisadores, nao querem comprometer-se sobre a base de um experimento; eles desejam estar seguros de que os resultados observdos em um ensaio possam ser repetidos em diferentes circunstáncias. Desta forma, com frequencia, querem selecionar várias op.,Oes promissonls para futuros testes. Isto é exatamente o que a avalia~ao absoluta permite razer.Segunda: a propriedade agrícola. como pequena empresa, tem vários objetivos diferentes que o agricultor necessita manter em mente. Por tal motivo, os agricultores estao, em geral, buscando diferentes oNOes em rela\"üo a seus objeti vos. Eles pode m encontrar duas ou tres alternativas atrativas porque satisfazem determinadas necessidades ou porque apresentam certas vantagens. Em realidade, com a avalia\"iio absoluta, os agricultores podem escolher as op.,Oes que eles considerem que melhor se adaptem com os diferentes objetivos de sua propriedade.Ponanto, a avalia\"ao absoluta é mais apropriada para o tmbalho explomtório, quando o pesquisador e o agricu Ilor enfrentam a um número considerável de alternalivas, alguma, das quais devem ser descartadas para simplificar a quantidade de tratamentos que vao incluir em futuros ensaios em propriedades agrícolas. Ao início, é importante esclarecer este objetivo ao agricultor. pois ele pode estar indeciso em expressar. em forma categórica, seu gosto ou dasagrado por um determinado trutamento. A avalia~ilo absoluta pode ser come\"ada com uma introdu~1ío por parte do entrevistador, como a que se apresenta no exemplo da página 58.No trabalho exploratório, a avalja~ao absoluta é frequentemente urna avalia~iio 'negativa', na qual o pesquisador tende a estar mais interessado em identificar os critérios para a recusa de alternativas por parte do agricultor. Por esta razao, é muito importante esclarecer com o agricultor a neutralidade do pesquisador e sua receptividade frente a crítica honesta.Depois de que o agricultor tenha feíto seus comentários sobre um determinado tratamento e de Exemplo Introdu~iío de urna avalia¡;ao absoluta Plantamos aqui doze variedades diferentes, para ver que tao bem ou tao mal comportam-se nas propriedades agrícolas dos agricultores nesta regiao. Cada urna pode ter algumas característica que Ihes agradam e outros que nao Ihes agradem, e neccssitaremos que nos digam para poder escolher a mais promissora e testá-Ias novamente, no próximo cultivo_ Teremos que descartar algamas, tul vez a maioria dclas, porque é muito complicado trabalhar com tantas variedades diferentes. Desejamos que os sennores nOs ajudem a decidir de quais variedades devemos reservar sementes para plantá-Ias novamente. Isto é muito importante porque, desta forma, podemos assegurar-nos de que as variedades que vollemos a testar com os agricultores nesta regiao sejam as que os senhores gostarao e encontrarao muis úteis.Por suposto, pode acorrer que nenhuma destas novas variedades seja melhor que as variedades locais, e seria importante emendermos por que; dessa maneira, em uma próxima oeasiilo poderemos ter uma melhor idéia do que seria conveniente para agricultores como Os seo llores, Entilo, vejamos uma por urna, e gostaríamos que estes comentários sejam discutidos, utravés do uso de perguntas abertas e de sondagem, e ¡amhém registrados. o entrevistador pode pedir-Ihe para que fa~a um resumo, mediante perguntas como: Acredita que vale a pena plantar de novo esta variedade, no próximo ciclo produtivo? Continuamos testando-a? Retiramos esta do prÓximo eosaio?Pode-se tabular o número de vezes que os agricultores expressam em forma individual, o que Ihes 'agrada' ou o que 'nao Ihes agrada' eom rela,fio a.~ perguntas anteriores. Se, como é frequeme no caso de tecnologias que eles observam por primeira vez, os agricultores preferem \"esperar para ver\" cm lugar de qualificar categoricamellte cada nova 0Nao, pode-se, em troca. utilizar uma escala. Cada op,fío pode-se julgar segundo seus próprios méritos como 58 boa, indiferente ou má, por exemplo. Também pode-se atribuir de a I a 5 eslrelas ou outro símbolo culturalmente apropriado para o ca.so. Podem ser atribuídos pomos (ex.: 3 = bom, 2 = indiferente; I = pobre), para propósitos de tabulrut1íes simples ou de allálises estatísticas nao pammétrica.Em qualquer enfoque que se utilize, uma avalia~¡¡o aberta e\",plomtória antes da qualifica,áo com o agricultor, é sempre útil para ajudar ao pesquisador a entender como e porque o agricultor qualitica uma determinada tecnologia.A informa,ao que permite maior compreensao em uma avalia,uo absoluta nao se alean,a anotando os 'gostos' ou 'recusas' dos agricultores, mas sim conseguindo que eles falem de suas percep,,1íes sobre a tecnologia e manifestem seus critérios de aceila<riio, os quais podem ser aprovcitados para orientar pesquisas fuluras.Ordenar implica solicitar ao agricultor que coloque várias alternativas em uma ordem segundo suas preferencias, por ex.; primei\"\", segunda, terceira, etc. Esta técnica pode ser usada para obtcr tima ordem de preferencia global, depois da qual se solicita ao agricultor que explique os critérios nos quais se baseou sua orden~1io. A maioria das pessoas encontra esta técnica divertida, porque parece uma brincadeira. Com frequencia, exige muita concentra,ao de ambos 'jogadores' porque envolve ordenar e coordenar de cabe~a idéias que pode m parecer óbvias oa de intui,iío para o agricultor, e sobre as quais é interessante reflexionar e comentar. Para colocar em uma ordem de preferencia com bons resultados pam ambos 'jogadores'. o pesquisador necessita planejar com antecipw;iío: 1) a quantidade de elementos; 2) como ajudar ao agricultor a ordenar os elementos de uma forma concreta ou manipulável (ex.; colocando-os fisicamente em ordem).o ordenamento é feito com facilidade somente quando o número de alternativas que deve ordenar o agricultor é pequeno (ex.: nao mai, de seis).Todavía. a técnica nao requer necessariamente que o número total de alternativas possíveis de avalíar tenha que ser restrito. Por exemplo, uma entrevista de avalia~¡¡o de um ensaio que inclua 10 trutamentos diferentes, pode com~ar com uma avalia,iio absoluta para selecionar um subgrupo com os tres ou quatro (r¡¡tamentos mai, promissores do ponto de vista do agricullor, e continuar depoi, com a c1assifica,úo que t\"noa este de tais alternativas em sua ordem de prefer~l1cia.É igualmente importante em urna avalia~¡¡o entender porque certos tr¡¡lamemos sao recusados pelo agricullor. Este pode sdecion\"r urn subgrupo de tres ou quatro trutamentos mellos promissores. e logo ordená-Ios de pior a melhor. Finalmeme. podese discutir O grupo intermediúrio (que nao gosta e nem desgosta). Os agricultores podem ordenar as alternativas neste subgrupo, embora frequentemente é difícil para eles faze-Io. se as alternativas sao similares.A melhor e a pior tecnología Algumas vezes o ordenamento de diferentes tecnologias que avalia o agricultor, nao incluie um exemplo de 'o melhor' ou 'o pior'. Mesmo que o agricullor sinta-se indiferente sobre todas as alternativas pode ordená-Ias e isto pode dar a impressiío equivocada que o primeiro ordenamento é também 'o melhor'.Por essa razao, é conveniente concluir o ordenamenlO por preferencias perguntando ao agricultor: \"Como seria a variedade ideal (sistema de cultivo, densidade de plantio, etc.)'!\" \"Como seria por exemplo a variedade menos desejada?\" \"Como está o que viu aquí comparado com iss01\" \"Que ocorreria se voce pude\"e (ou náo) irrigar neste momento')\" Examinar os contrários (tipos de tecnologia, práticas culturais ou agricultura versus percuária, por exemplo) ajuda a obler os critérios chave do agricultor para definir 'o meloor' e 'o pior'.Com frequencia, para classilicar seis alternativas diferentes, os agricultores neeessitam dispor visualmente de diferentes elementos; assim, no momel1lo da colheita pode m ser ordenados sacos do produto colhido; em avalia~oes de consumo podemse ordenar pratos com produto para degusta~¡¡o. Podem ser atribuidos símbolos, cores ou nomes as diferentes alternativas para ajudar o agricultor a recordá-Ias ou diferenciá-Ias; isto é especialmente necessário quando as alternativas nao podem ser ordenadas fisicamente, como ocorre quando se faz a avalia~ao de trmamemos de uma cultura no campo. Em um ensaio pode-se colocar, com o agricultor. bundeira, de cores ou etiquetas cm cada trata mento durante a avalia~úo aberta prévia. Logo, ordenam-se as cores que represelllal11 os tralamentos (Figura 9). Ao contrárío de manipu lar físicamente as alternat¡va:.. ou os sírnbolo~ que as representao. Os Figura 9. O uso de símbolos apropriados que representem os tratamentos em um ensaio, ajuda aos agricultores a orden á-los.agricultores podem colocar pedrinhas ou valores a cada alternativa, para indicar a importancia ou o peso que dilo a cada urna. Em todo caso, é importante dar ao agricultor a oportunidade de c1assificar, ordenar e reordenar.Urna técnica útil para entender o raciocínio do agricultor consiste em solicitar-lhe que \"pense em voz alta enquanto ordena\". Isso dá ao pesquisador idéias sobre o raciocfnio do agricultor e pistas para formular perguntas abertas para identificar os eritérios do agricultor para um ordenamento específico de preferencias.A técnica de ordenamento entre alternativas necessita que se pratique com cuidado. É demasiado fácil apoiar-se muilo em um simples ato de atribuir um primeiro, segundo, terceiro lugar, etc., em um 60 conjunto de coisas. com o risco de que o entrevistador possa estar for,ando o agricultor a um ordenamento simplificado dos tratamentos, que nao reflete seu complexo conjunto de critérios de decisao. Assim, por exemplo, um agricultor poderia selecionar urna alternativa como preferlvel para um conjunto de condi<;6es em um sistema de produs:iio, e simultaneamente que outra alternativa é igualmente desejável para um conjunto diferente de condi,6es. Em Qutras palavl\"'d.~ quando um agricultor avalia urna nova tecnología, é bastante provável que (cnha em conta vários objetivos diferentes.Por esta I\"''¡zao, é muito importante pedir ao agricultor que explique as raziles do ordenamento que fez. Islo se faz combinando o ordenamento com perguntas abertas que permitam saber \"Por que esta é melhor que aquela que colocou em posí .. ao inferior?\" e \"Por que a inferior nao é tao boa como aquela que colocou anlesT' Código:(1) É possível colher ao n1eS1110 lempo o l11ílho e o feijao arbustivo e ussim plantar em seguida a balata em rola~iio.(2) O milho é tardio e i\"o dificlllla a capina do cultívo de cevada intercalado.(3) O feijao trepador pode ser colhido cm diferentes época, para aproveí!ar os diferentes pre~os.(4) O pousiollreslo do milho sUo necess,irios para o gado.( Através da compara~iio por pares pode-se julgar cada alternativa como melhor ou pior que outra, ao mesmo tempo em que se assinalam as razOes para esse julgamento. Esta técnica pode tornar-se facilmente cansativll quando é comparado mais de seis ítens; portanto, é melhor asá-Ia depois de identificar um número reduzido de alternativas. Em um conjunto de alternativas múltiplas pode-se selecionar um número reduzido deJas, atrav¿s da avalia~ao absoluta feita previamente sobre lodo o conjunto. As alternativas podem ser aquelas identificadas pelo agricultor, ou os !ratamemos de particular interesse para o pesquisador. A compara<¡ao por pares é feita com Ires ou qUiltro alternativas, da seguinte mane ira: todas as alternalivas comparam-se com cada urna das outras: A com B, A com C, A com D, B com C, B com D, e C com D. Esta técnica requer que os ílens que serio comparados sejam claramente diferenciáveis. Aos lratamentos de um ensaio pode-se atribuir, por exemplo, nomes simples ou pode-se empregar símbolos para cada lratamento e logo mostrá-Ios ao agricultor por pares.A compara,ao parcial por pares toma alternadamente um trdlllmento, por exemplo, a tecnología empregada pelo agricultor. como base de compara,ao, e todos os demais tratamento, serao tliscutidm em rela,iío ti esta base.A desvantagem desta técnica é que, quando a base de compara~¡¡o é a tecnologia corren te do agricultor, o pesquisador introduz implicitamente na avalia,ao um aspecto de competi~ao entre as prática~ regulares do agricultor e as novas alternativas. Isto poderia tendenciar as respostas dos agricultores, tanto porque recusariam ter que criticar suas próprias prátícas, como porque neste caso sao demasiado cortczes ou respeitosos para criticar as alternativas do pesquisador. O exito da cornpara~¡¡o direta entre a nova tecnologia e a tecnologia do agricultor como técnica de avalia,ao depende, portanto, cm forma definitiva, de que os pesquisadores conven,am aos agricultores que sao neutros, tcm inten,ao rería de aprender e apreciam sinceramente as prátícas do agricullor. Uma forma mais conveniente de come,ar este tipo de compara,ao por pares é, portanto, usando coloca~&\" como a' seguintes:V ários agricultores, como o senhor, explicaram que seu sistema de plantío usual para mandioca, com as estacas inclinadas com um angulo em o declíve, tcm várias vantagens. Nesta parcela estamos testando um método diferente, plantamos as cstaca~ em pé; gostaria de aprender mais sobre as vantagens ou desvantagens deste dois métodos. O que O senhor pensa de plantar as estacas em pé cm compara~¡¡o com plantá-Ias inclinadas?\" Outro momento para usar a técnica de companl~ao por pares é quando um agricultor identifica mpidamente a melhor (ou a pior) alternativa entre os tralamentos de um ensaio. Neste caso, o pesquisador pode usar o tratamento identificado como base de compara~¡¡o com outros trutamentos de interesse.Da mesma maneira que a ordem de preferencia, a compara,lío por pares pode tendenciar a informa'ilío sobre as preferéncias do agricultor, for,ando-o a expressar alguma preferencia. As diferentes alternativas podem ser igualmente atrativas e nenhuma melhor que outra. Oeste modo, na compara,ao por pares é essencial explorar as mzOes do agricultor e seus critérios de sele,lío de uma alternativa sobre outra. Niío é conveniente for~ar sele,Oes por pane do agricultor scm compreender, mediante o uso de perguntas abertas, qualquer dúvida ou dificuldade que ele possa ter ao julgar entre duas alternativas.A compara,ao por pares pode-se empregar para solicitar ao agricultor que ordene critérios. Esta técnica pode ser útil urna vez que se tenha identificado um conjunto relevante de critéríos de avaliu,ao e que o pesquisador esteja interessado em estabelecer o peso dos diferentes crítérios. O resultado é similar ao da tabula~¡¡o de frequencias derivadas da análise do conteúdo da avalia~1io aberta.As avalia,oes com agricultores pode m levar a resultados contradit6rios ou confusos quando se reune a informa,ao de várias entrevistas, porque diferentes agricultores tiveram distintos objetivos em mente quando fizeram o ordenamento. O Quadro 4 mostra um exemplo no qual se usam os resultados de nove avalia~Oes com agricultores as quais mostram que a variedade local foi preferida sobre todas as demais no conjunto. As variedades 'Pemto' e 'Radical' obtiveram pontu~ao total similares; todavia, fomm selecionadas pelos agricultores por razOes muito diferentes. Os agricultores que preferiram 'Perrito' ao invés de 'Radical' argumentaram que era boa para o consumo e requeria pouco trabalho; oS agricultores que deram a 'Perrito' uma pontua\\(ao baixa disseram que em muito difícil pal\"d a comercializa.ao.Aa di vidír os agricultores em dois grupos, segundo as razOes dadas para o ordenamento de 'Perrito', observou-se um padrao muito diferente: o Grupo 1 disse que \"Perrito é muito difícil de comercializar'; o Grupo 2 disse que \"Perrito é boa para o consumo\". Os agricultores orientados ao mercado (Grupo I no Quadro 5) classificaram a 'Radical' acima de 'Perrito' e da testemunha local. Os agricultores que deram prioridades aos objetivos de consumo (Grupo 2 no Quadro 5) classificaram a 'Perrito' como a melhor. Dividir os grupos de agricultores segundo as mzOes que dilo pard os diferentes ordenamenlos, pode portanto, ajudar a identifica,Uo de padrOes nao explicítos de preferencia. Avalia~oes em grupoA avalia~áo da tecnología com grupos de agricultores é apropriada quando os pesquísadores desejam 'testar as águas' e formar urna idéia rápida sobre as rea~iies dos agricultores díante de uma nova tecnologia,Este tipo de avaHa\"ao é, como norma, maís produtiva nas etapas exploratória da pesquisa. quando o investigador nao conhece bem os crítérios de aceit~ao dos agricultores. Também pode-se empregar pam avaHar um grande número de alternativas com agricultores. especialmente quando isso representa urna tarefa exaustíva e cansativa para urna única pessoa. Finalmente, as avalia~iies em grupo silo úleís para dar retroinforma~iio aos agricultores sobre os resultados de ensaios ou avalí~iies anteriores com a finalidade de obter sua interpre~¡¡o de tais resultados (Tabela 13),As avalia~iies em grupo podem ter várias fun~iies. Permitem aos pesquisadores a aprender sobre o intercambio de idéias entre agricultores e podem ajudar uos agricultores a superar suas inibi~iies para expressar idéias e críticas diante dos Tabela 13. Quando utilizar a avalia~¡¡o em grupo pesquisadores. Podem também estimular aos agricultores que expressem suas diferenl:as em opiniao. A discussilo em grupo é especialmente útil que se neee,sita especificar os conceilos e processos de tomada de decisiies dos agricultores com rela~¡¡o as diferentes características da tecnologia com o propósito de planejar avalia,iies futuras: quando, onde e com quem realizá-Ias.A avalia~áo em grupo pode-se utilizar também como substituto de duas ou tres avalia,iies abertas individuais. quando os pesquisadores estiío com~ando a desenvolver o modelo de entrevista de avalia,iío, como foi mencionado anteriormente. Discutir e discordar dentro de um grupo pode ser particularmente proveitoso para ajudar aos pesquisadores a compreender quai, critérios de avalia,ao süo compartilhados pelos agricultores e quais crítérios podem refletir diferentes objeti vos ou recursos de produtores individuais (Tabela 14). o pesquisador pode pedir ao grupo que explique porque as opiniiies sobre a utiidade de uma nova técnica ou insumo, diferem entre os membros do grupo. As explica\"iies podem também surgir de maneira espontanea, por exemplo: quando um agricultor faz a outro comentários como: \"Isso nilo é 1, Na pesquisa exploratória, quando as preferencias dos agricultores sao relativamente desconhecidas, 2, Para conhecer as rea<;iies dos agricultores diante de um número relativamente grande de alternativas, demasiado numerosas para ser avaliadas por urna única pessoa, 3, Como seguimento e na interpreta<;ao de resultados obtidos nas avalia<;iies individuas.Tabela14. Uso de avalía~Oes cm grupo para a pesquísa exploralÓria sobre preferencias dos agrícultores.Os pesquisadores podem aprender sobre os coneeitos e proces\"\" de tomada de decisOes dos agricultores, observando sua interven~ao e escutando seu vocabulário e discussao. enquanto eles avaliam a nova tecnologia Os pesquisadores podem desenvolver idéia,. com os agricultores. para planejarentrevistas de avalia~¡¡o: quando, ande e com quem realizar avalia90es fulums Os pesquisadores podem alean,ar, cm curto prazo, as reac;5es dos agricultores a diferentes características da tecnologia. como ajuda para desenllar O modelo de entrevista de avaliao,ao problema para o senhor, porque tem sua própria junta de bois para arar\"; ou \"O senllor sempre tem suficiente água para irrigac;ao ao principio do dia, mas eu algumas vezeS nao tenho sequer um pouco\"; ou \"O senhor pode estar interessado em capinar depois de que comecem as chuvas, mas eu quero eolher meu café nesse momento; entao, nao Ilaveria lempo\".Outra fun9lio importante das avaliaqOes de tecnologia cm grupo é dar a oportunidade para que os pesquisadores informem aos agricultores resultados tais como intervalo e médias de rendimentos, ganho, eusto e preferencias, obtidos dos ensaios conduzidos em uma regifío ou comunidade. Os agricultores individuais nao podem conhecer ou apreciar estes resultados a partir de um único ensaio em que tenham participado. As discussOes entre agricultores pode m ajudar a interpretar as varia90es nas preferencias obtidas anteriormente das avalia~Oes individuais.As avalia90es em grupo podem-se utilizar, também, para ampliar a base social ou 68 representatividade dos agricultores dos quais se deseja obtcr avalía~Oes. Na pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas é frequente o caso de localizar os ensaios preferentemente com os agricultores de maiares recursos e que dispOem. partanlO, de terreno para dedicar a ensaios, ou cam aqueles que estao dispasto.s a assumir os riscos da experimenta,ao. O ensaio com um agricultor de escassos recursos (ou qualqucr tipo de agricultor nao suficientemente representado entre os participantes no ensaio) pode-se utilizar como centro para avalia~oes cm grupo com vários agricultores simi lares, que nao pudenlm participar cm ensaios. Isto permite aos pesquisadores conseguir opinioes de um número de agricultores maior que aqueles que pode m oferecer terrenos para os ensaios.As rea~oes dos agricultores a conjuntos de tecnologia relativamente numerosos ou complexos podem ser exploradas com agricultores em um tempo relativamente curto, empregaodo algumas das técnicas que se discutem a seguir, para avalia~¡¡o em grupo. Com frequencia estes resultados nlio se podem obter mediante avalia~5es individuais, porque um agricultor geralmente se sentirá sobrecarregado com a tarefa de a va liar, por exempo, vinte ou trinta variedades, e perderá interesse em fazS-lo. Essa mesma larefa, todavia, pode-se dividir entre grupos e pode-se obler assim rea<;1íes de grupo. As interd,1íes do grupo também ajudam a motivar e manter o interesse dos agricultores, para fuzer avalia<;oes de um número considerável de alternativas. Uso eficiente da equipe de pesquisa Urna das gr,mdes vantagens das avalia<;oes em grupo. nas etapas iniciais do desenvolvimento da tecnologia a ser avaliada com agricultores, é o uso eficiente da equipe de pesquisa. A média de tempo da equipe para contactar agricultores, pode-se melhorar significativamente trabal hundo com grupos.As avalia,1íes em grupo requerem que nao somente os agricultores trabalhem em grupo, mas também os pesquisadores, urna vez que eles devem manejar a dinámica de grupo e anotar a informa<;íio. IsIO faz que os pesquisadores reunam-se para falar com os agricultores e para obter seus resultados. Além de interdtuar e obter retroinforma¡;ao de dez a viote agricultores, em duas ou tres homs, pode ser mais atrativo para um pesquisador de um centro experimental que se encontmr com tres ou seis agricultores em entrevistas individuais, durante um extenso dia de visitas de campo. Portanto, a avalia<;lio em grupo pode ser um mecanismo valioso para um diálogo com agricultores conveniente para os pesquisadores das esta¡;oes experimentais, cujo contato com agricultores seria de outra forma limitado.Apesar de lodas as vantagens que apresenta a avalia<;lio em grupo, esta técnica tem algumas desvantagens que devem ser levadas em considera,ao. Por exemplo, a utilidade das avalia¡;oes em grupo para fins exploratórios depende da facilidade dos participantes para ¡nterutunr em grupo. Se as características da tecnología incluem algum tema sensível como seriam a forma em que os agricultores individualmente negociam pre,os com os intermediários ou a qualidade da dieta familiar (pergunta sobre status social), as opini1íes relevantes podem nao ser expressadas em uma díscussao de grupo. Algums produtorcs podem sentírem-se inibidos em uma situa~¡¡o de grupo. enquanto um ou doís participantes tendem a dominar a interdlilío. Em Iais casos aparece um consenso falso que condul. a conclusoes poueo válidas ou erroneas sobre as opini1íes dos agricultores a respeito da tecnología em avalia\\,iío. Existem várias técnicas para ajudar ao pesquisador que realiza avalial<1íes em grupo a superar ou minimizar os riscos de um consenso falso que haja sido imposto, mas isto exige certa capacita\\,ao e prática no manejo da dinamica de grupos. As habilidades necessárias para ele nem sempre estüo disponíveis em urna equipe de pesquisa agrícola. Em geral, as avalia.¡:1íes em grupo nao sao apropriadas para obter cootagens individuais ou análises quantitativos de preferencias dos agricultores, pela tendencia dos grupos a impor consenso em seus membros.Nas avalia~Oes em grupo, o conceito eficiencia no uso do tempo deve-se manejar com flexibilidade. Isso depende muito do tempo necessário para motivar aos agricultores para que participem nas avalia<;1íes e informá-Ios sobre a hora e o lugar do evento, e da logística para reunir O grupo em um local. Os pesquisadores somente poder;io utilizar seu tempo com eficiencia no caso de poder delegar, com confian~a, esse trabalho preliminar a assistentes de campo, de tal maneira que eles nao tenham que fazer numerosas visitas individuais aos agricultores.Todavia antes que ° pesquisador ocupe-se da logística de suas aval ia<;oes em grupo deve escolher o grupo para tmbalhar. A maneira como se conformam os grupos de agricultores ou se contatem os grupos já existentes necessita ser considerada seriamente. Antes de organizar urna avalia~ao em grupo, geralmente é necessário estabelecer que tao aceitável é cultural mente a modalidade de grupo, e sobre que bases sociais, cultunlÍs, étnicas ou outro tipo podem-se formar os grupos que existem atualmcllte.Grupos existentes ou que sao cultural mente apropriados nao necessariumente servem pam propósitos de pesquisa. Por exemplo, os grupos de vizinhos sao logisticamente os mais fáceis para trabal har, em áreas onde os agricultores vivem em propriedades agrícolas dispersas e nao em povoados ou assentamentos concentrados. Contudo, esses grupos de vizinhos podem incluir produtores de estratos sociais heterogeneos, o qual inibiria a interayao de grupo e poderia invalidar os resultados da avalia\\,lIo em grupo.Os grupos de 'agricultores expertos' e/ou participantes em ensaios sao com frequéncia maís desejáveis para propósitos de pesquisa exploratória, mas pode ser necessário reuni-Ios de áreas relativamente gl'dndes, e apresentam-se dificuldades no transporte e na motiva9iío. Se a participa~1ío do agricultor em uma aval ia~¡¡o em grupo apoia-se na auto-sele\"lío, tais grupos podem incluir agricultores que disponhem de tempo e de outros meios para comparecer a reuniao de avalia9ao, e excluir aqueles que nllo disponhem destes recursos; deste modo potencialmente tendenciam os resultados.Existe grupos de agricultores que trabalham juntos. por exemplo, em grupos de trabalho compartilhado. Estes grupos podem-se convocar facilmente, mas tendem a representar urna c1asse social particular, uma casta, ou um conjunto de limita~Oes de recursos; suas preferencias podem. portanto, representar somente uma minoría de usuários potenciais da tecnologia. Por isto, espemse que as avali~Oes cm grupo produzam bons resultados e a sel~¡¡o do grupo participante deve ser feita com muito cuidado.As vantagens e desvanlagens das avalia~oes em grupo que se apresentam resumidas na tabela 15, sornen te podem ser estabelecidas apropriadamente se os objetivos da avalia~¡¡o e o tipo de informa~¡¡o que os pesquisadores esperam obter estao claros desde o princípio. Na se~áo a continua~ao, discutem-se vários procedimentos para organizar avalía<,:Oes em grupo.Ao organizar avaliayoes em grupo os pesquisadores 70 devem tomar várias decisoes a respeito da maneim de desenhar e realizar a avali~¡¡o. Tais decisOes inc1uem determinar os objetivos da avalia~ao, a forma<,ao de grupos para propósitos da avalia~ao, a quantidade e o tamanho dos grupos requeridos, a quantidade de alternativas tecnológicas que se vao avalíar, o mesmo que a logística do momento e do lugar.Os objetivos da avalia~ao em grupo depende m, em grande parte, de se a avalia\"ao da pesquisa está cm um etapa exploratória ou em urna etapa quando se pode fazer a interpreta~ao de resultados com um grupo de agricultores. No trabalho exploratório, os pesquisadores podem realizar uma avali~ao em grupo como primeiro passo até uma série de entrevistas de avalia~¡¡o individual. Ou entao, a avalia\\,íio em grupo pode ser por si mesma. o método princi pal de recopila~íio de informagao preliminar, especialmente quando os pesquisadores desejam conhecer as realiOes dos agricultores a um grande número de alternativas tecnológicas.A avalia\"ao em grupo pode ter um objetivo muito específico. Por cxemplo. conhecer a aceital.'ao, entre as mulheres, de algumas variedades de milho para a prepara\"ao de farinha caseira. Ou entilo, o objetivo pode ser bastante geml, por exemplo: estabelecer como reagiriam os agricultores a diferentes combina,oes de gramíneas, leguminosas e árvores forrageiras e oulros cultivos para propósitos de controle da erosao, combustível e alimento animal na propriedade agrícola. A composi9ao do grupo e a quantidade de grupos requerida variará dependendo do objetivo da avalia~ao.Forrnalríio de grupos para propósitos de avalia~íio A composi,ao do grupo de agricultores determinará em várias maneiras importantes a informa,áo que pode alcan\"ar-se em urna avalia,ao de grupo. Os participantes selecionados determinarao, primeiro que lodo, a qualidade do diálogo entre os agricultores e o pesquisador; e Tabela 15. Vantagens e desvantagens da avalia~ao em grupo. Em geral. quanto maís específicos sejam os objetivos da avalia\"üo mais importante será para os pesquisadores formar grupos com agricultores que tellham interesses comuns claramente definidos, elou conhecimelltos e experiencia. Por exemplo. geralmente é frustame pam agricultores com experiencia ter que gastar tempo escutando aos que nlio temo Assim. os participantes em grupos de avalia\\,lio de variedades de milho para o moinho deveriam ser mulheres para as quais a prepara,uo da farinna de milho é uma ativídade significativa; de outra forma, os critéríos de avalia,ao nao serao válidos.Em um grupo de avalia,ao de tecnologias de propósito múltiplo para controle da erosao, combust(vel e alimento animal, uma avalia,ao explorat6ria em grupo pode reunir deliberadamente um grupo heterogeneo. Este grupo pode incluir, por exempl0, agricultores homens que criam gado, suas mulheres que recolhem lenha e alimentam porcos ou cabras. o mesmo que outras pessoas dedicadas especialmente aos cultivos. Q propósito de reunir um grupo heterogéneo é aprender da discussao entre pontos de vista potencialmente em conflito. Os resultados podem ajudar aos pesquisadores a definir os diferentes grupos homogeneos com os quais adiantar posterionnente avalia90es em grupos separados, para ohter urna compreensao detalhada de seus diferentes pontos de visla sobre a aceila~áo da tecnologia. Qulro caso no que pode her importante misturar participantes de diferentes estratos é quando se deseja que se tomem decisoes conjuntas, por exemplo, entre um agricultor e sua esposa sobre o uso de uma tecnología.Uma desvantagem da homogeneidade no grupo é que se pode complicar a log(stica para reuní-lo. Se os membros do grupo de ínleresse nao vivem cerca entre si mas que estao dispersos em uma área, ou se os pesquisadores planejam trabalhar com o mesmo grupo em diferentes ocasíóes (um painel) para avalia~oes com agricultores, entao se necessitaria que o grupo pudesse ser facílmente convocado. De outra parte, uma vantagem clara é que a homogeneidade teria um efeito positivo na dinámica do grupo: os agricultores com interesses comuns tendem a comunicar-se com maior eficiencia entre si.Contudo, a heterogeneidade de um grupo pode dificultar a comunica,ao efetiva entre seus membros, especialmente se os interesses divergentes estao correlacionados com diferenyas en estratos sociais. Tais diferen,as, ilustradas na Tabela 16. podem conduzír ao domínío da intera~¡¡o do grupo pelos integrantes do estrato mais alto, por exemplo: os ricos, os velhos, os agricultores de sexo masculino sobre os membros de estratos mais baixos como sao Tabela 16. Exemplos de diferen~as de estrato social entre agricultores, que podem arelar na dinamica do grupo. Urna tarefa importante na forrna~ao de grupos para avalia~¡¡o com agricultores té, porlamo, identifícar os critérios para a sele~ao dos participantes, tendo em conta aquelas características que podem ir em detrimento ou a favor do livre interciimbio de pontos de vista dentro do grupo. Um método rápido para estabelecer estes critériosl características consiste em elaborar urna lista de agricultores que possam reunir-se socialmente com informantes chave conhecedores da política comunitária, das rivalidades entre famílias e das diferen~as de estmto que sejam importantes para a intera~ao do grupo na área de pesquisa, Em geral, as avalia~oes cm grupo serao mais efetivas se existe grupos de interesse relativamente homogéneos cada um dos quais faz suas próprias avalia~iíes, que se se juntam todos os participantes indiscrirnidamer,te, para formar um grupo. Entretanto, os pesquisadores nao sempre poderao trabalhar com grupos estritamente hoOlogeneos. No trabalho exploratório, por exemplo, quando o objetivo inicial da avalía,lío com agricultores é identificar uma gama ele critérios e conceitos que expressarao os agricultores para tomar sua deci,ao a respeito da aceita,ao de urna ;nov~¡¡o técnica, sería desejável tr<lbalhar com grupos heterogeneos. EOl tal caso podem-se utilizar técnicas para o manejo da dinílmica de grupo, de tal maneira que se evite o domínio de uns participantes sobre oulros durante a discussao.A quantidade necessária de avalia¡;oes em grupo o número das avalia,iíes em grupo necessárias dependerá de:• A diversidade da popula¡;iío usuúria • Se se trata de uma avalia¡;ao em grupo do tipo exploratório. seguida de perta de avalia,oes individuaís, ou• Se a avalia,ao em grupo é o método principal para a recopila,ao de elados.Se a popu la~:ío usu¡iría é muito heterogenea com respeita a local iza~iío geográfíca ou as diferen¡;as de estrato, ilustradas na tabela 16, e se a avalia~¡¡o em grupo é o método principal para recopila¡;íio de dados (por exemplo, nao haverá entrevistas individuais de avalia~¡¡o), entao os pesquisadores necessitam fazer Ilumerosas avaliu\\,oes em grupo. Se necessitariam pelo menos duas sessiíes de avalía,ito para cada tipo de agricultores ou grupos de interesses dos quais se espera obter pontos de vista diferentes sobre a utilidade de urna tecnologia, Tais tipos ou grupos sao, por exemplo:• Homens maís velhos; mulheres; adolescentes e jovens.• Agricultores com bois; agricultores que alugam bois; agricultores que nao usum bois.• Agricultores que pulverizam com agroquímicos e agricultores que nao o fazem.• Agricultores que produzem para o mercado e agricultores orienlados especialmente ao consurno,• Agricultores que vivem no vale e agricultores que vívem na montanha.Fazer pelo menos duas reuniiíes de avalia«ao permite, aos pesquisadores, verificar se os critérios obtidos de urn grupo sao amplamente comparáveis com os obtidos de outro grupo com participantes similares, Se dais grupos similares produzem avalia~iíes sígnilicativamenle diferentes, será necessário continuar avaliando com grupos adiciona;s para encontmr as causas da divergéncia nas idéias. Uma regm chave é continuar fazendo avalia~iíes em grupo, até que a inforrna,ao obtida ten ha-se repetido sem que revele novas idéias, critérios ou preferencias. Esta repetir;ao de descobrimentos indica no pesquísador que os resultados das avaliw,iíes em grupo sao confíáveis.Quantos agricultores devern participar na avalia¡;iio ern grupo Os pesquisadores podem tomar a decisao de quantos agricultores incluir em uma avalia,ao em grupo, baseado em:• A quantidade de moderadores qualificados disponíveis simultaneamente• A disponibilidade de um lugar apropriado• A facilidade de reunir um número determinado de agricultores.Nas avalia,Oes em grupo uma pessoa nao deve moderar um grupo de mai, de dez participantes. Em geral, a avalia,iío será mais produtiva e satisfatória para todos se o grupo nao passa de cinco ou seis agricultores (Tabela 17).Podem-se realizar avalia,Oes em grupo com vários subgrupos pequenos, de cinco ou seis agricultores. que trabalhem independentemente, sempre e quando cada um deles tenha um moderador; desta maneirn, o número total de participantes pode ser de 30 ou 40 agricultores, se assim se deseja. Trabalhar com diferentes grupos pode ser uma maneira de repelir em uma única sessáo a informa\"ao obtida. Também pode-se solicitar aos agricultores juntar-se em grupos de inleresses. e de cada grupo obtem-se assim uma perspectiva diferente.Em uma ava1ia~¡¡o em grupo constítuída por vários subgrupos pequen os, cada um deles pode upresentar suas conclusoes aos grupos restantes, mas ajuda ao grupo como um todo, especialmente se este tem vida própria por razOes diferentes as das avaliuvoes. para ter uma scnsa,iío de aproxima,lío ou de alcance em rela,ao com a atividade. Compartilhar resultados é tumbém importante para permitir a uma comunidade definir sua posi,ao ou série de posi,Oes, em rela,llo com inova,Oes tecnológicas propostas.Seja que um grupo ou vários grupos de cinco ou seis agricultores participem em urna avalia,llo em grupo, é importante para cada um deles dispar de um espu'i0 ande possam:.• Estar confortúvel (ex.: nao exposto ao sol)• Nilo ser interrompido por pessoas alheias ao grupo (curiosos, vizinhos. transeuntes, etc.)• Escutar facilmente aos demais e que o moderador veja e escute a todos os participantes.A avalia~¡¡o cm grupo com frequencia funciona melhor em um lugar como a casa ou a propriedade agrícola, debaixo de uma sombra de árvore no lote Tabela 17. Vantagens de grupos pequenos (nao mais de seis agricultores) para avalia,.Oes.• Cada pessoa díspoe de mai, lempo para íntervir, que em um grupo maior  • O modemdor agradece ao participante dominante por seus comentários e lan\"a um novo tema para discussao convindando outros agricultores a participar.• O moderador utiliza a linguagem corporal: evita o contato visual, desloca-se até o outro lado onde se encontra o participante dominante (ver el'emplo).Todavia, com frequéncia a capacidade de uro ou dois indivíduos para dominar a avalia,<iio em grupo surge de diferen~as de estrato social ou de valores culturai, que ¡ncidem no consenso, e isso inibe o intercámbio livre de opinioes em urna situaltao de grupo, apesar dos melhores esfor~os do moderador.Designar um moderador e um anotador, a cada grupo pequeno, ajuda bastante no manejo de Estratégia para separar participantes dominantes e participantes passivos em urna avalia~iío em grupo Vinte pequeno, agricultores, expertos em mandioca, reuniram-se para avaHar um ensaio regional de variedades em propriedades agrícolas. Formaram-se grupos pequenos, cada um com um moderador e um anotador. Cada grupo comC9ou avaliando um tralamento diferente e foi recorrendo todo o ensaio até avaliálo todo. Em um grupo o anotador observou, durante a discussao do primeiro tmtamento, que dois agricultores dominavam toda a discussao. Eles estavam avaliando a variedad e exclusivamente em termos de suas qualidades para o mercado, enquanto faziam a um lado a importancia de aspectos de manejo ralacionados com distancias de plantio e requerimenlos de capina. O anotador come,<ou, portanto, a falar com outros membros mais passivos do grupo, sem interferir, enquanto os dois membros dominantes interatuavam com o moderador. O anotador soube, pelos outros agricultores, que um dos membros dominantes do grupo era um agricultor de maiores recursos, amplamente reconhecido na comunidade como experto em mandioca por sua ¡dade e experiencia, e que contratava trabalho através de seus filhos; ele mesmo já nao estava ativamente dedicado ao cultivo da mandioca. O outro participante dominante era um Hder comunitário e intermediário da mandioca. O anotador pode obter opinioes dos agricultores mais pa.~sivos, sobre as distancias de plantio e a quantidade de trabalho necessário para a capina, com rela,<iío a arquitetura da planta. Estas opinioes foram incluidas nas notas na avalia9üo. As anotu90es do moderador, sobre a avalia~íio dos agricultores dominantes, nao incluíam tals critérios. tendencias dominantes na díscussao por parte de pessoas de maior status. O anotador deve observar a íntera,ao e, se nota que algons agricultores sao muito pa.~sivos ou condescendentes com os maís expressivos, deve tomar um papel atívo ínterrompendo com apartes a taís agricultores para escular suas opinioes, criando basicamente outro subgrupo. Alternativamente, o anotador pode interromper com apartes (cm outro lugar) aos participantes dominantes e explicar-lhes que já que eles tem maís conhecímentos sobre o tema, que haverá urna reuniiio especial para eles. o participante passivo. Os agricultores que falam pouco podem ser tímidos ou condescendentes com membros de maior status, mas com frequencia tem a capacidade de ser avalíadores profundos e críticos. As técnicas para estimular participantes passivos íncluem:• Separar estes agricultores pum uma conversu,ao informal, en',uunto o grupo continua reunido, e dar enfase na importancia e no interesse de suas opiniOes para o grupo.• Usar contato visual e corporal para incentivú-Ios a falar.• Estar atento para ver quando este tipo de agricultor tenIa falar e convidá-Io a fazer. • Entre as técnicas para superar a condescendencia carente de crítica es¡¡¡o:• Ter cuidado com este tipo de agricultores ao seledonar participantes. A hostilidade pode ou nao ter rela\"ao diretu com a pesquisa. Este participante poderia criticar pessoalmenle ao moderador ou as idéias de outros participantes. Neste caso:• Tmte de estabelecer críticas objetivas e a maneira como estas se relacionam com a tecnologia ou a forma como se avan\"am os ensaios. o grupo de agricultores entiio cominuou a avaliar e selecionur tres variedades preferidas.Algumas vezes os pesquisadores podem decidir realizar a avalia~áo com um grupo de agricultores nao familiarizados com a tecnologia, ncm com os ensaios em propriedades agrícolas. Poderia ser o caso de um grupo formado para a avalia~iio de um ensaio na esta9iio experimental, por exemplo. Neste caso, é especialmente importante comec;ar a avali~ao em grupo com uma interven\"ao curta, que resuma os objetivos da avalia~¡¡o. De outra maneira, alguns ou nenhum dos participantes saberá o que se espera deles, e isto poderia afetar a dinamica do grupo, o mesmo que a informa~ao obtida da avalia~¡¡o.Com frequencia, a discussiío em grupo entre agricultores está sujeita a introdu<;ao de temas tais como problemas para a obten~¡¡o de crédito ou pre<;os oferecidos por intermediários, os quais podem ser muito relevantes na avalia~¡¡o de tecnologia. Ainda assim, é essencial para o moderador do grupo esclarecer desde o princípio, como no processo de entmda para iniciar a avali~ao em pesquisa em propriedades agrícolas, aquilo que os agricultores podem esperar de sua particip~ao na avaliar;ao em grupo. Se no grupo nao existem expectativas claras a respeito do que se espera da avali~ao, podem surgir situa,oos nas quais os agricultores esperam servi~os que a equipe de pesquisa nao está capacita a proporcionar. Assim mesmo que em avali~OOs individuais, as falsas expectativas ou os mal-entendidos dístorcerao e conduzirdo a frusta,ao e a insatisfa~¡¡o de todos cnm o processo de avalia<;ao.No encerramento da avalia<;iio em grupo o moderador resume, sem julgar, os principais critérios e opinióes identificados pelo grupo para avaliar a tecnologia, Podem-se retomar as diferen~as de opiniao entre os agricultores, para esclarecé-Ia\" \"Que tiio importante é esta diferen~a? O que significa para os senhores esta diferen~a?\" Se o grupo elaborou urna ordem de preferencia, o encerramento é a oportunidade para que o moderador volte sobre as razoe~ pelas qua;, um tratamento foi classificado aeima ou abaixo de outro, por exemplo. No mesmo que na entrevista de avalia~¡¡o individual, deve-se fazer Urna recapitula~ao dos compromissos (se existem) para comatos futuros entre os agricultores e pesquisadores e do uso que se dará il informa~¡¡o. Quando vários grupos pequenos fizeram avali~Oes na mesma reuniilo, cada U111 pode apresentar seu ordenamento ou opiniOes aos grupos restantes, em uma sessao plenária.As opiniOes dos agricultores e seus eritérios na avalia~¡¡o em grupo pOde m ser registrados C01l1 notas escritas, utilizando um instrumento de registro como o que se apresentou anteriormente para o registro de avalia,Oes individuais. Ainda assim, aqui se busca a opiniílo do grupo e nao a de cada agricultor individualmente; os comentários dos agricultores individuais sobre um tratamento ou tecnologia registra m-se conjuntamente e nao em modelos diferentes.Da mesma maneira que em avalia~Oes individuas, o registro de notas implica escrever nas próprias palavras do agricultor, tanto corno seja possível. As interpretu\\(Oes do entrevistador sao anotadas entre parentesis. Um gravador que nao interfira é um apoio útil, mas dado que a avali~¡¡o com frequencia toma lugar no campo, e que o grupo descola-se bastante, as vezes é dificil fazer grava,oes. Em geral, na avalia,ao em grupo o moderador so mente pode anotar comentários breves dos participantes; portanto, é útil a ajuda de um anotador. Na análise das avali~oes em grupo é um erro contar o número de agricultores no grupo que expre\",ou um critério ou opiniao, por exemplo: \"tfinta por cento dos agricultores no grupo disse que plantariam de novo a variedade\". A razao disto é que a dinámica do grupo afeta o quem disse que e a frequencia com que o faz.Se se repetem as avalia\"oes com grupos representati vos dos usuários potenciais da tecnologia, cntao cada grupo poderá ser tratado como u ma observa,iío, para informar sobre opiniOes e ordenamentos. Por exemplo, poderia-se dizer: \"oito de dez grupos de agricultores comentaram que a variedade de milho é muito alta e que invade o cultivo intercalado\". Ainda assim, faltando consenso em um grupo, este resultado deve-se registrar separadamente: \"Em cinco dos dez grupos, os agricultores estiveram de acordo em que o método de tri lha tomava muito tempo. Entretanto. os outros cinco grupos de agricultores nao puderam colocar-se de acordo sobre o tempo extra requerido para a trilha seria compensado por uma maior quantidade de grao intciro.\" Da mesma forma pode-se informar sobre a ordem de preferencia em grupos, por exemplo: \"De tres dos quatro grupos os agricultores estiveram de acordo em que 'Pokareli' era a melhor variedade, pelo seu sabor; no grupo restante, vários agricultores sentiram fortemente que 'Tachine' deveria ser cla.~sificada em primeiro lugar por seu alto rendimento, embora outros d issemm: apesar de que o rendimento de 'Pokareti' é baixo, esta variedade continua sendo a melhor, porque é muito apreciada pelo seu sabor\". Similarmente, é possível fazer urna anáJise de conteúdo da frequencia com que se mencionam um determinado critério em diferentes grupos, por exemplo: \"De nove dos quinze grupos, os agricultores eslÍveram de acordo em que a precocidade era mais importante que o rendimento para escolher a variedade que mais gostavam\".o problema de contar quantas vezes urn critérío corno o rendimento, é mencionado dentro de um grupo é, por exemplo, que depois de comentar sobre os prímeiros tratamentos em um ensaio, o grupo ponha-se de acordo cm que o rendimento é obviamente importante, e dedique mais comenlários a outros critérios embora sejam de menor importancia geral para sua avalia9ao.Para recapitular os critérios o moderador faz verifica90es, como por exemplo: \"enquanto passamos a seguinte Irilhadora manual, querem dizer novamente que é o que o senhor considera importante ver aqui?\". Contudo, isto torna-se aborrecido em situa90es de grupo. A conlagem da frequencía dos critérios empregados em um grupo usam-se melhor para confirmar ou verificar que a s¡nlese qualitativa do moderador seja ampla.Finalmente. é conveniente comparar grupos e estabelecer o que nao se disse. As vezes, isto revela tanto sobre as prioridades dos agricultores como o que foi dilO. A falta de comentários sobre urna característica do grupo, por exemplo: a qualidade culinária pode nao ser mencionada em um grupo misto porque as mulheres nao mencionam crítéríos que nao sejam importantes para os homens.Corno um princípio geral, as avalia~Oes em grupo nao sao um método confiável pum obter contagens individuais, como resposta a perguntas tais como: \"quanto agricultores pensam que o plantío sedo é preferível que o plantio tardio?\" Ainda a,sim, as avalia<;6es em grupo sao altamente úteis para dar aos pesquisadores um 'sentimento' qualitativo sobre as rea,Ocs dos agricultores, dian!e das inova90es propostas. Por esla razao, os grupos sao especialmente apropriados para avalía~Oes exploratórias na etapa inicial de um programa de pesquisa, quando as preferencias dos agricultores podem ser relativamente desconhecidas e quando os pesquisadore, estao propondo várias solu~Ocs tecnológicas alternativas a um problema.Um exemplo seria um ensaio de melhoramento de plantas com sessenta materiais promissores que representam diferentes tipos de plantas e de graos, dos quais se devem selecionar um número menor para seu leste em propriedades agr¡colas. Outro exemplo seriam diferentes lipos de maquinária para debulhar milho para semente e que se pode usar em diferentes combina~oes; cada combina~¡¡o opcional de maquináría tem um requerimento diferente de trabalho e de estrutura de custos. Em outro exemplo, os pesquisadores podem desejar estabelecer ensaíos de conserva~¡¡o de solos em propríedades agrfcolas, combinando componentes tecnológicos distintos de diferentes maneiras: os protótipos ou componentes estao na esta~ao experimental e as avalía~oes agronomicas e economicas indicam que estes saos os tratamentos muis promissores; mas o custo dos ensaios é substancial e os pesquisadores desejam explorar as rea~oes dos agricultores antes de levar tal tecnologia as propriedades agrícolas.Figura 11. Pequenos grupos de agricultores avaliam tratamenlOs diferentes e logo se reunem para sua~ conclusOes.Em cada um deste exemplos, os pesquisadores podem definir subconjuntos entre as diferentes alternativas e avaliar cada subconjunto de ojJ\\ioes (ex.: materiai. varietais, urna combina,ao de maquínárío ou um conjunto de componentes de conserval;¡¡o de solos) com um grupo de agricultores, Supondo que os grupos sao símilares em sua composi~ao, as avalia,i'ies em grupo dos diferentes subconjuntos de tecnlogías pode m juntar-se para obter como urna imagem qualitativa geral das rea90es dos agricultores ao conjunto total de alternativas, Por exemplo, um grupo de trinta agricultores cuidadosamente seledonados, representativos dos usuários potenciais, é convidado a esta\"ao experimental para avaliar um viveiro de melhoramento de 60 materiais, Os agricultores dividem-se ao acaso em cinco grupos de seis membros cada um e acompanhados de um moderador, O viveiro ou ensaio divide-se em dez partes ou blocos cada um com seis materiais, A cada grupo sao assignados ao acaso dois blocas de seis materiais cada um, nos quais os agricultores fazem a avalia9ao aberta de cada material genético, Cada grupo pode realizar uma avalia,ao absoluta, e cada material pode ser classificado como 'aceitável' ou 'inaceitável', por exemplo. Na prática, os agricultores desfrutam ser consultados e com frequencia desejam seguir avaliando mai, do que se Ihes designa como tarefa, Nesta forma, é também possível para os grupos e para os moderadores intercambiar blocos de tratamentos e repetir avalia~i'ies em grupo, até que os agricultores simam-se cansados, No exemplo do ensaio de melhoramento de plantas, ainda que os sessenta materiai, varietais nao silo avaliados em sua totalidade por todos os agricultores, cada material é avaliado por um grupo deles, Alternativamente, com cinco subconjuntos de materiais em lugar de dez, e cinco grupos de 82 agricultores, cada subconjunto poderia ser avaliado duas vezes, Pode m-se usar várías combína~i'ies de subconjuntos de tecnologia e grupos de agricultores para fazer este tipo de avaliac;ilo em grupo.Os comentários dos agricultores sobre cada material sao registrados pelos moderadores e posteriormente as avalía<;t'íes em grupo sao reunidas e sintetizadas pan! responder com elas perguntas como:• \"Que comentaram com maís frequencia os agricultoresT Os comentários dos agricultores sobre cada material podem ser analisados para identificar os critérios significativos para a sele~¡¡o de variedades, desde o ponto de vista do agricultor, Esta inform~¡¡o sintetiza-se como um ponto de vista qualitativo das rea<;i'ies dos agricultores a todas as novas variedades. Podem-se obtcr resultados finais das avalia,oes absolutas, especialmente se mais de um grupo avaJia um subconjunto, Estes resultados podem ser interpretados com os comentários dos agricultores, pam c1assificar os tratamentos em ordem de preferencia, Destu forma, obtem-se um grande volume de comentários e opinioes, relativamente em curto tempo, Este método permite aos pesquisadores testar, de maneira exploratória, as rea\"i'ies dos agricultores a um gntnde número de tecnologias opcionais, sem requerer que um único agricultor tenha que avaliar uma quantidade excessiva de ítems.Exístem diferentes maneiras de realizar avalia.,6es com agricutores e nenhum enfoque ou método em particular é necessariamente o melhor. Uma vez que um programa de pesquisa que trabalha com urna cultura decide fazer avalia\"oes iniciais com agricultores na estu\"ao experimental, ou que urna equipe de pesquisa em propríedades agrícolas utilize as avalia~Oes para validar tecnololgia já testada agronomicamente em propriedades agrfcolas. ou que os pesquisadores decidem trabalhar com grupos ou com agricultores individuais e que se utilizem urna ou outra(s) técnica(s) para apontar e analisar as opíniOes dos agricultores. estas decisoes devem ser tomadas buseadas nos objetivos e nos recursos tanto dos pesquisadores como dos agricultores que tomaram parte nas entrevistas.Mas, independentemente do enfoque. existem algumas regras ou princípios básicos para faz.er avali~oes eficazes com agricultores. O presente capítulo resume a informul.'ao compreendida neste manual sobre os príncfpios básicos das uvalia~6es com agricultores, que os pesquisadores necessitam colocar em prática: l. Lembre-se que a avalia\"ao técnica de urna ¡nova~ao proposta é muito diferente de sua avalla~ao com um agricultor.Uma das justificativas mais importante, para fazer avalia96es com agricultores, é que estes tendem a avaliar a tecnologia com critérios e objetivos diferentes aqueles usados pelos pesquisadores. engenheiros ou extensionistas. Urna contribui~¡¡o valiosa das avalíw,oes com agricultores é assegurar que O desenho dos pesquisadores teste e recomende novas tecnologias a luz da informu9ao sobre os critérios dos agricultores quanto a utilidade da inova~ao.Portanto. é essencial nao combinar a avalia9ilo técnica com a avalía9ao com agricultores na mesma atividade. Por exemplo. a avalia\\i¡¡o agron6mica que fazem os técnicos em um ensaio de campo deve ser realizada independentemente da entrevista de avalia<;ao do mesmo ensaio com um agricultor. A expl ica~¡¡o destes é que a capacidade dos agricultores para expressar um jufzo crítico sobre a utilidade da tecnologia no ensaio tende a ser inibida ou tendenciosa quando um técnico faz ao mesmo tempo sua avalia~¡¡o.2. Assegure-se de que na avalia~íio esteja explícitamente estabelecido, e seja entendido por todos os participantes (pesquisadores, extensionistas e agricultores), suas obrlga~iies e o que podem esperar de sua participa~íio.Além da importancia ética de justificar o uso do tempo e dos recursos dos agricultores para avalia<¡:oes de tecnologia, este princípio é importante para assegul\"dr a obten<,;ao de informa\\iao válida e confiável dos agricultores. Para fazer críticas sinceras, os agricultores necessitam conhecer porque foram iocluídos nas avalia\\;Oes. As expectativas falsas podem conduzir a avalia<,;Oes distorcidas.única vez mas repetidamente) a neutralldade e a objetividade da equipe de pesquisa com rela~ao aos resultados da tecnologla, Se os pesquisadores e sua equipe de campo, que realizam avalia<,;oes com agricultores, identificam-se com o exito de uma tecnologia em particular, as opini6es expressadas pelos agricultores poderilo tornar-se tendenciosas. Uma opiniao real do agricultor sobre a tecnología de hito, pode ser bastante diferente da opiníao do pesquisador, mas este provavelmente nunca chegue a conhece-Ia. É prejudicial para a eficácía das avalíayOes que os profissionaís tentem vender uma tecnologia uo agricultor. Também o é estar na defensiva frente as críticas dos agricultores, apesar de errilneas que estas pare~am. pode tendenciar o que o agricultor disse.Por tal motivo. as avaliw;Oes com agricultores nunca devcm realizar-se simultaneamente com demonstra~6es convencionaís ou dias de campo, onde o objetívo é ensinar novas prática~ aos agricultores e persuadí-los para que as adotem. A entrevista de avaliu9!l0 n!lo é a oca,í1io apropriada para dar recomenda~6es uos agricultores, 4. Trate ao agricultor como experto.Os extensionístas e pesqui,adores agrícolas tem bastante inclina~¡¡o a fazer crrtica~ válidas sobre as práticas dos agricultores e duvidar sobre sua competi!ncia. Para compreender como estes avuliam a tecnología é necessário que estes profissionais suspendam tais dúvidas e críticas, com O fim de estabelecer. com os agricultores, uma comunica,uo sincera sobre a tecnologia.Os agricultores de escassos recursos necessitam adquirír a confian,a de que suas opinioes interessarn e que seus cornentários positivos ou negativos sao igualmente importantes para os pesquisadores. Um dos componentes principais na avalia9iio eficaz com agricultores é o desejo sincero dos pesquisadores por entender a maneíra como O agricultor recebe urna mudan\"a proposta. O manejo apropriado das habilidades de comunica,ao cara a cara nao é substituto de urna motivU\\(iio autentica para aprender a respeito do ponto de vista dos agricultores. A maíoria destas habilidades pode-se adquirir quando o líder do programa inspira em sua equipe de campo o respeito pelos agricultores e a motiva9ao por aprender com eles.5. Pergunte: \"Para quem é a tccnologia que está sendo avaliada\".Quando se planejam e realizam avaliu9Cíes é fundamental para os pesquisadores perguntarem-se e perguntar aos agricultores: \"Que m poderia utilizr esta tecnologia (exemplo: sisterra de plantio; trilhadora manual; fertilizante; rotu\"ao, etc.)?\" Os critérios para selecionar aos agricultores participantes nas avalia90es podem ser identificados explícitamente perguntando-se para quem será avaliada a tecnologia? O pesquisador que faz avaliayOes com agricultores que nao estilo interessados na tecnologia. ncm tcm cxpcríéncia relevante com a qual formar uma opiniilo, inclina-se a obter informu9ao tendenciosa e nao conli¡\\vcl. 84 6. Demonstre cortesia e respeito com os agricultores.Com muita frequencia os agricultores que avaliam tecnologia com as técnicas recomendadas neste manual silo de escassos recursos e!ou semianalfabetos. Por razCíes de sua religiao, origem étnica. idioma, sexo. tanto como por suas condi,Cíes socioeconómicas. serao de um estrato social mais baixo que quase qualquer pesquisador de campo. A distancia social existente entre agricultores e pe\"luisadores tem que ser reduzida urna vez que se espera que as uval ia,Cíes produzam informa\"ao válida sobre opiniCíes sinceras dos agricultores sobre a tecnologia.Uma vez que se aceita que costumes estubelecidos por muito tempo nao podem ser fundamentalmente modificados por um programa de a valia,ao com agricultores, os pesquisadores de campo necessitam ser conscientes de que as conc1usCíes confiáveis sobre a aceita,.ao de tecnologia por parte do agricultor depende da muneira de como é tratudo, como a pessoa que lhe interessa a pesquisa. e cujas opinioes tem importancia. A cortesia simples da boa prátíca de trabalho de campo. discutida neste manual, é um passo básico pam avalia~Cíes eficazes com agricultores.Muitos pesquisadores agrkolas tem dificuldade para escutar aos agricu ltores. Nao obstante, escutar bem é provavelmente a destreza de cornunica~íi.o mais importante para a1can,ar avalia~Oes eficazes com agricultores e a que merece especial i!nfa<;e na capacita\"ao ou a vínculu\\iao de pessoa ao tmbalho de campo. As boas destrezas para escutar sao básicas para estabelecer uma rela,iío de respeito múluo entre agricultores e pesquisadores que exige a avalia,.lío com agricultores. Ainda que sem urna entrevista formal de avaliu\\i¡¡o, um bom ouvinte pode obter infonna91ío valiosa para um programa de pesquisa atuando como um 'receptor'. alerta ti perce~Cíes dos usuúl'ios sobre a tecnologia nao evidente para os pesquisadores. Assegurar que os pesquisadores scmprt: es\\:ulem ao~ agrícuitores é a fum;ao mais importante que as avalia~Oes com agricultores apresenta em um programa de pesquisa agrícola.8. Assegure-se de compreender bem as razocs dos agricultores na avalia~¡¡o.A menos que se tenha o cuidado de averiguar as razOes do agricultor na avalia~¡¡o, o resultado tenderá a ser uma descri~¡¡o da tecnologia do ponto de vista dos agricultores. No fundo de sta descri~¡¡o estarao os critérios de aceita~¡¡o que realmente contam na tomada de decisOes destes, mas estes critérios chave serao diffceis de discriminar se nao se averigua; portanto, isto poderia conduzir a conclusoes erróneas a respeilO das opiniOes dos agricultores.Os pesquisadores pode m sentir-se tentados a fazer ava\\ia~Oes de tecnologia com agricultores, principalmente para detenninar a quantidade des tes que recusam uma inova~¡¡o proposta ou que 'gostam' dela e presumidamente podem adotá-Ia. Contudo, somente a compreensao das razOes pelas quai, os agricultores nao gostam de uma tecnologia em particular pode ajudar aos pesquisadores a redesenhá-Ia ou adaptá-Ia, para responder aos critérios de aeeita~¡¡o do agricultor.Igualmente, os pesquisadores necessitam ter presente que quando um agricultor faz urna avalia~ao positiva de urna tecnologia experimental, está indicando que 'esta valeda a pena testá-Ia um pouco mai,'. Do mesmo modo que os pesquisadores, os agricultores dcsejarao fazer testes posteriores antes de que uma preferéncia converta-se em ad~¡¡o, em cOlldi,Oes reaí, em sua propriedade agrícola.É portanto importante utilizar avalia~Oes abertas para compreender as razOes dos agricultores. Isso é Comportamentos que se devem evitar em avalia~¡¡es com agricultores NAO fa\"u avulia\\,Oes técnicas enquanto o agricultor esteja fazendo sua avalia~¡¡o NAO comeee a avalia~ao ,em explicar os objetivos e esclarecer suas expectativas mútuas NAO seja um vendedor de tecnologia; nao ensine nem fa~a recomenda~Oes durante a avalia~¡¡o NAO avalie tecnologia com agricultores que nlio pare~am usuários potenciales ou que nao tenham experiéncia relevante NAO imponha seu critério pessoal de avalia~¡¡o sobre os agricultores; nlio critique seus critérios; nao discuta nem contmdiga ao agricultor NAO seja descortes recusando a hospitalidade ou abusando do tempo do agricultor. Nao obrigue aos agricultores a avaliar quando se enconlrem ocupados com outros afazeres NAo interrompa nem apresse ao agricultor dumnte a avalia~¡¡o. Nao tome mais tempo em perguntar do que em escutar NAO termine a ¡¡valia,uo COIll uma descri\"ao da tecnologia por U111 agricultor, em lugar de suas raroes pard preferir características específicas ou urna alternativa sobre outras NAO interprete as opinioes e preferencias dos agricultores sem verificar sua própria interpretu¡;lio NAo reprima a iniciativa e a criatívidade dos agricultores controlando rigidamente que tecnologia avaHar ou quando. onde e como fazer as uvaliacrOes particularmente válido quando se conhece pouco sobre suas preferencias. Somente assim, as avali~Oes com agricultores ajudariio uos pesquisadores a entender o porque das existencia de urna estrutura particular de preferencias e o que isto implica para o desenho da tecnologia, 9, Verique rnais de uma vez a interpreta~ao das preferincias dos agricultoresAs técnicas para fazer avalia,Oes de tecnologia, discutidas neste manual, sao ferramentas para conseguir a contribuiyiio dircta dos conhecimentos dos agricultores para o desenho e teste de tecnologia agrícola. Ainda que estas técnicas incluem o registro cuidadoso daquilo que os agricultores usualmente dizem quando reacionam a uma inova,iío proposta, existe o risco de distorcer su as idéias e opini6es, a menos que a equipe que realiza as avalia¡;óes esteja bem capacitada na~ destrezas necessárias, Além de prover o treinamento adequado para assegurar que as destrezas de sondagem e verificayao sejam corretamente manejadas pela equipe na interayao com os agricultores, é conveniente verificar as interpretayOes das preferencias dos agricultores, fazendo vários tipos de avaliU90es complementares, Por exemplo, podem-se usar urnas poucas avaJiay6es individua;s para validar urna avalia~¡¡o em grupo ou vice-versa. Também podemse fazer algumas avaliU90es aberta., em diferentes momento ou em diferentes locais, pam verificar os resultados obtidos quanto a ordem de preferencia, IO,Assegure-se de que existe ambiente para que os agricultores tornern a iniciativa de organizar e realizar avalia¡;iíes de tecnologia Se podem realizar avalia~5es com agricultores com propósitos de valida~¡¡o mais ou menos como se fazem os testes de mercado de um novo produto 86 antes de seu lanyamento comercial. Neste enfoque, um grupo representativo de consumidores potenciais (ou de agricultores) expOe ao teste de amostras do produto (ou tecnologia) e estabelece-se sua aceitu\\,ao, Um enfoque diferente consiste em usar as avaliuliOes com agricultores como urna oportunidade para envolver usuários potenciais nas etapas inicias do desenho de tecnologías prot6tipo e na adapta\\iao de tais tecnologias as condi90es específicas da cultum, É frequente na indústria obter inovayOes de exitos, como consequencia de dar aos usuários potenciais a oportunidade de fazer ajustes ao desenho dos protótipos, Os pesquisadores podem desejar conduzir algumas avaliu\\,6es de urna maneira comrolada, em primeiro lugar para propósitos de valida\\Oao, e para fazer que os agricultores tome m a iniciativa e a responsabilidade em outras avalia90es. Nas avalia\\i6es do agricultor esta iniciativa pode darse a maneira de sugestOes su as pam tratamentos experimentais, ou para incluir tecnologias diferentes as oferecidas pelos pesquisadores, Os agricultores podem desejar ver o intervalo de opy6es potencialmente disponíveis para eles, mediante visitas a estaliao experimental antes de optar por um conjunto de alternativas que valeria a pena testar em propriedades agrícolas, de seu ponto de vista, Os agricultores poderiam tamoom sugerir algumas alternativa~ quanto a maquinária ou práticas culturais, porque algumas vantagens sao visíveis para eles, mesmo antes de comeyar os ensaios formais, A experiencia indica que quanto mais oportunidade tenha os agricultores para tomar a iniciativa em avalia~Oes de tecnologia, o benefício pum a pesquisa tenderá u ser maior em termos do desenho das tecnologias que os agricultores estarao mais dispostos a adotar. seis ítems e complete com ele a coluna \"NOME DO ITEM\". Exemplos de ítems podem ser: nomes de variedades, culturas. árvores. etc., segundo seja escolhido pelo agricultor.2. Caso scja necessário. complete a coluna \"CÓDIGO\" com sua própria identifica~iío de cada ítem escolhido pelo agricultor. Por exemplo. a variedade chamada \"Libenad\" pelo agricultor sería a \"CG 14-472\" no código dos pesquisadores.3. Com~e a compara,ao de cada par: I vs 2; 1 Vs 3; I vs 4, etc., escolnendo cada ítem segundo reconnece o agricultor e perguntando-Ihe \"Qual prefere'!\" A resposta é anotada como segue: Se o ítem 1 é preferido coloca-se urna cruz (+) no espa~o 1:2 do modelo. Se o ítem 1 é NAO preferido (por exemplo: quando o agricultor diz que o ítem 2 é melhor), emao coloca-se um sinal menos (-) no espu90 1 :2.  i \"11. Os critérios para a matriz dc ordenamento devem ser identificados a partir de discussOes prévias com agricultores, de tal forma que sejam feitas em termos do vocabulário locais. 1SIO pode ser alcan9ado realizando primeiro urna uvalia9uo aberla com o agricultor e logo, recapitulando com ele os critérios relevantes da avaliu9ao. Assim permite-se ao agricultor urna contribui9ao díreta na elabora9ao do modelo. Cada critério é um encube9umento de coluna, por exemplo: rendimento, tipo de planta, eusto da semente.2. Nomeie ou identífique os ítems que serao ordenados com o agricultor, usando a terminología que ele usa. Esereva esta identíficaliuo ao eneabe9ar cada col una. Use uma col una para cada ítem por ordenar.3. Cada ítem é ordenado com respeito a um crítérío, por exemplo: E quanto ao rendimento, qual destes tres considera o scnhor que é o melhor?\" Podem surgir díficuldades se o agricultor pensa que nao existe nada para escolher ent.re as alternativas, em relaliao com um critério ou dimensao particular.4. A avalialiao global, que busca um ordena mento geral, é útil na maneira de verificaliao. Nela nos perguntarnos se os ordenamentos sobre cada critério sao consistentes com a eleiliao final (que também pode dificultar-se).No exemplo que é mostrado na matriz de ordenamento da página seguinte, o agricultor recebe 150 e 250 kglha como similares enquanto a quase todos os critérios, exceto no custo dá semente e na necessidade de maior prote~¡¡o para a dosagem de 150 kglha. A matriz mostra que o agricultor prefere reduzir o incremento no dano de ¡nsetos e que necessita controlá-Io, ao invés de economizar 100 kglha de semente.5. As sugestoes do agricultor sao urna verifica~ao que impede que o pesquisador assuma que \"a melhor\" de um conjunto de alternatívas (tres propor90es de semente no exemplo) é na verdade o que o agricultor está buscando. Neste exemplo, a sugestao do agricultor nos diz que a alta proporc,;ao de semente que ele usa é sua solu9ao ao problema de ¡nsetos. De fato, neste ensaio nao se esta va lendo em conta a causa das altas taxas de semente que pareciam um desperdício para o agronómo que o desenhou. As taxas de semente dos agricultores, cerca de 250 kglha, (inham como explicac,;ao o dano que sufriam as plantulas por causa da infestac,;iío de insetos. Poderia-se desenhado apropriadamente um novo ensaio para testar diferentes nÍveis ou tipos de controle de insetos em combinado com distintas quantidades de semente. ","tokenCount":"26347"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a6f0731ddc16e315d4403e1a386d22df","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a27ea71-1b85-48e7-aab8-7c59b1c58c11/retrieve","id":"179925325"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d816f5aa-af5b-4ef4-84a0-122518596728","pagecount":"21","content":"La yuca es una de las pl'incipales fuent&s ,je ca¡'~rias en C,~lor¡,¡bi<\" principalmente pal'a consumi,jol'es en la C\"sta Atlántica y regi6n Ol'ient.aJ, par'a aquellos en el sectQp r'ural y para 10$ st?IJrrn?ntos h't.ás pIJbr'e-s '¡je la población. La yuca suminist.ra el 11..1 Y 8.51> de las calorías necesarias en Colombia y la CQsta Atlántica I'espectívamente. De acuerdo a la encuest.a DANE/DRI de 19:31, el consumo pel' cápita promedio es de 2.5.5, 41.1 v 17.2 kilos a nivel nacional, I'ural y urbano I'espectiv.\"mente.L~ yuca, pl'l,ducida principalment.e por pequeMos agricult.opes en a$ociacióll ccm fl'la1z y ~afiit=, demuestra su vel~satibilida¡j al adaptarse a la 9ran diversidad geogl'áfica de Colombia ya que se encuent.ra el1 la re,]iÓn caiet.el'.\"hast.a a 2.000 metrcls de alt.ura, el1 la5 Zü\\la-; cCtstel\"as~ en 1':)$ llanos ácidos del Meta y en las selvas de la región del Pacific,:,. Tendenc i as en e 1 Consumo de Yuc.a El conSUfflo per cépi ta de yuca fresca. en Ct)b:,¡rnbia ha venido disminuvellljo debidlJ al p,~()Ceso de urbanización. Esta t•endenci.3. se Ijebe -~ que (a,) el !~ápido det.el~icq~J) de la yuca posterior a su tOSech2 . . a los dos o tr-e's .jl.~s . . pr-esénta íT1conv~nientes péll\"'a su c(lrrp?pcializaciól1 en las á\\~eas urb3:nas 10 que l'esuLtae.n altos p\\'erios y p\\',)blemas de. calIdad p.,,!'a el e onsuffli ,jo l' final y (b) el clJl1sumidor tlr'ba.no tiene a su disposic ión div12Psas fuentes de energía. altei~nas CI)fflC' el a)~rI)ZI harina de b'í';JQ (paJi, pastas), etc. que por .10 .;¡eneral s')n más cOlivenientes de uS¿U'. El CUADF:O 1 fftUe,;;tra b 1. Detel'fúinación del Mercado Objetivo El mercad) objet.ivo se refiere a la ¡~egión o pais donlje se de5ea int.roducir' la tecnología de conservación. Dentr-o de este mal~C(j ,~eoqI'~.ficQ in!ci.Ztl 1 la pri,:rridad es int.e)\"venir 1':'5 grandes centros u,~bal1()s y.a ql..le ;us f\"¡a.cltt..9.nt.es son quil:?nes se-ven más afectad!Js pOI\" la )\".ttpída per-ecibi li,J2.,j de la vuc:~. Colclwbia se h.9, -asCO';l,id¡.j C':lf¡),:, mercado objet.ivo y Bal~r~.nq!Jill.3. será ~1 escena!' io dl?l t1ercado de Prueba. Los I:,tros tel1tPrjS u)~tJanüs en Co lombia c')\\\"1sider.:idos prior'it.ariüs Sl)D BC1'.Jc1t.á¡ t1edellii1 y (:'~li, L,:.s pasl)s esbc¡zadl:l$ en la p,~esente rlu=?t.1:tdologia se tienen que r•epetil' ¡:,a.ra cada centr':i urt .. 3.110 pr'Í()I'it.ari.ü . . e•;petialf(¡ent~ si el mercadQ objet.ivo present.a una g\\\"~.n ,jiversidad J;J8ogr'áfica.¡ cult.ural y de hábitos de alime¡1taciÓt1. En ca•;I:1 contl~al•io¡ se r'ecofi,ienda obviar-los est.u(ji/:,s .a nivel (\" Oiisum i dI:' \\'\"1 • 2. E•:;t.udiQ de Est-ruct.ur'a dI$! Dist.¡\"ibuc ión El (Ibjet.ivo ,je este estudio es el lje con()C~I' el pr•oces() mediant¿ el cual la yuca fresca se transfiere desde el prodWcto~ hasta al consumidor final. Los aspect.os principales a &st.Lldiap ';;on: (.~) la ca,jena de int.er'fllt:-diar'i,:,s pal'ticipal1tes, a quién le co:or,ip.'an y a quién 1 .. ven,jé?n, ,jetel'nlinal' su cQncent¡'ach:'i1 (cantí,jad de c.~da tipo dE-ínt.eI\"h~edia.i\"i.(f) / su función Y l(rS L COt-EUM IDOR GRAFICA 2. Canales de: com8Y'cializaci':11\"l de la Yl..,lca fresca en E;ar'l .El pt~imer'(j se fúanifiesta Ceffl') Uil•3. pi';)fli811taciónneg\\~ a y azu 1 ae ¡)mpaf1ada PCq'\" una di sec.3.C i':ln de 1 pa \\\"'énquifúa.E.s t.a.pigmentación se inicia a 121.5 pocas hIJr•::t-::; de la. cosecha. y requiere de oxfgenQ paya su apal~ición.El det.e,~ior'l:> filic:robial se desal'pol1apost.eri()rlY¡ent.e y c())1siste en la pudr'iciÓl1 y f~rrnent.::tci!:\\il de tejiljos1 1-:.1 cual apar'ece E:!n ¡~a1ces •:drilaCenctd2l$ ¡::H~f' flt•: §'S ,je C¡..I~tro!\\ siet 1 2 lji.~.S. Al t=?vi tal' el (Jafio mecáni co durante l-~ c05!?cha S8 T'edt.Jce de manera significativa la incidencia de ambos tipos de deterioro.La técnica de fOI'mar nuevas conservac il:111 se fundamenta en la células p\\,,~t.ect,:,ras en tej i,j,:,s C.::-.p-3.cidd.d de l.~ yuca malt.l'at.adQs (cU\\'¡¡,ci':'n) de y consiste en colocar las I\"afees inmediatamente después de la cosecha en bolsas de polietileno. En la bolsa sellada las raíces ';!enel'an la teroperatura. y hUlnedad necesarias pa\\\"a otltenel\" una rápi,ja.cur-~c ión. evitandlj as! el deterioro priu¡ario o fisioló'Jicü (l.Jheatley•, 19:3.S).Sinembargo, la alta temperatura y humedad en la bolsa también for ... ent.:iln el desarrollo del deterioro microbiano o secundario, el cual puede ocurrir I'ápidamente, inclusive antes ,je que que las partes rüaltratadas se curen. El fUllo;¡icida recomendado por su eficiencia para evitar la pudrición microbial y pOI' su baja to:üeidad pal'a human.)s es el Mel'tect. (Ciba-(]eígy, Co1'Jmbia) cuyo ingrediente activo es el tiabendazol. Este pI'o:,duct.o •5e usa e\\1 el tratamiento poste osee ha de la papa y el banano.Lo'S residuos de Mert.ect que traspasan la cáscara. hacia el parénquima repY'E-sent.aí1 menos de 1 ppm luego, de dos semanas de almaCe\\lamiento; los 1 lrl1i tes a.pl'ot!a1jo•:; pa.T'3. la papa s()n de .s ppm. El Mertect se aplica en la.s bCllsas por aSPE-J'si':1l1 .~ una concentración de 0.41.. El t.l'ataridento ,jescr i to al'l' iba .jebe ef ee tuai'se cel'ca al tel'l'eno a eosech31' ya que el t.iempc) má~<in'¡':, entr'e cosecha y empaque es ,je:3 r,ül\"as. Si se derucwa rnás, pue 1 jell ocuprir !;J1\"andes pérdidas pOl~ deterior'o fisio16';1ico.La cl'eación de estrat.egia pal'B mercados pal'a la yuca tratada, o yuca lograr los siguientes macro-objetivos: el'l bolsa, es -la e>:.pansil~ln del mercad:. de yuca fresca causando un incT'emento en el ingl'es() del pequef'io pt~oduct.or de yuca y en la di•;ponibiliaa.d ,je una impoI'tante fuente de ealodas en las ciudades, un~ la disrllinuci6n ,jel precio de un pl'oducto básico €11 la diet.a debido 2, la. ¡\"educc il::l\\1 de los márgenes de comerc ial izac i,sn causada pe11' la el iminac Ión del r ie590 de pérdidas por deterior.:) La E){pel' iene ia en Bananquí II,ª-La Costa Atlánt.ica• es la l'e';Jión en Colombia con el ffI.?,,/OP consumo pel\" c.~pita de yuca 8n,el ~la1s y produce el 3.5% de la YLlt•~ en Colornbia. t1ile':; de peque1~(Js B.';Jricult.')'f'es siembran ';'I....IC3. en asociación con otrcJs cult.ivos CI)rf1() el maíz y el Mame en tierras mar•9inales.ellfrentan un {¡\"¡ercado decr'ecient.e causado por el pl\"'oceso de Ul\"t'.:íni::ación.A comienz',s ,jel aNo 1'.387 el Fondo de Oesar'\"'rJIlo Rur.al Inte(Jpado <DRI) del G,)bier'no Ije CQlofllbia y el CIAT iniciar'o\\! un pl~Oy~ctlj piloto con el fin de illtroducil\" la tecnol!:lg1a de conse\\\"vaci6n de yuc.~ fl\"l:?':;c-~ en el merc.?.do Ba.rranqui lla. El componente de P't\"ü1jucc i,:¡il se local iza en Repelól1¡ una zona de riego ,je :';:.5.000 kfü:2 situada 86 kms al sut~oeste ,je E:;,,~ranOLJill.a V (1)11 potencial para pl\"oducir yuca de p,\"'iH¡era calida(! papa consumo huma.llo dUl\"ante todo e-l af10.Act.ualmente se l/ende yuc~ en bols.=!\\. a cadenas de •:;upermel~(?,dC1S y se están iniciando a.ctivida,jes de pron'¡f:~ción a. peclueNa escala ta'lto en super'rnercctdos corno en tiendas. La labCi)'\" e\\-I t.iendas !30stá apoyada pl:ll~ l.~ O.Jc,perativa de Tenderos eX,ist.ente..y. METOOOLOGIA F'ROPt.JE'3TA Enfoque de )1el'cadeo La metodolo>;¡1a tiel1e un enfoqu .. d .. merca,je', lo que si>;¡nifica que detecta por medi\" de la investigación las necesidades il1satisfechas del consumidor de yuca, desarrolla una s\"tución y la lleva al consumi,jol' pOI' medi,) ,je acciones coordinadas de ffn?l'cadeo.Al>;¡unas ejemplos de necesidades insatisfechas identifica,jas SOI1 (a) poder alll)acenar la yuca en el hcn~al' i) en la tienda de manel'a pl'actica, y (b) poder identificar facilrl,ent.e una yuca fl'esca de buena calidad.El Contexto de la Meta,j,:>log1a. La metod'Jloq1a se pl'op.:>ne para un proyecto integrado de yuca el cu•~l incorpor'a component.es de pro¡juctiótl, pl\"ocesamiento o tr'atamiento V comerc ial izac i6n. La implementac ión de este tipo de pl'oyec tos ti\"n,je ~ ser lenta debido a la ine;dstencia de estructw'as adecuadas ,je producción, distribuci,Sn y promoción, las cuales hay que desa.'rollal' a través de la capací ladón. La f',rmación de estructU\\'as requiere tl'abajar en los aspect.os de ol\"l~anizací6li de aqricultor'es en (()operativas de pro(jucciÓll, Afol\"tun;\"darnelite, en ab;:Junas ciudades e;<isleI1 cQ/:/perativi:I.s ya opgal1iza 1 jas ,je corüEH'C Lal izac ión CI de tenderos las cuales put'?ljen partic ipa\\~ en el pl~1Jyec t.e, rápidamente. El prQgreso que se obtenga en el proyee t,;, depende tante' ,j\", 1 é\":it,, comel'cial del product,) corno de la capacidad de (I'eal''' desarrolla.' estl'uc turas apropiadas de produce ión y distr ibuc ión.La Me todo 1 C>' J j a La GRAFICA 1 fúuestl'a las etapas de la metodologla propuesta y su secuenc la. A cClnt.inuación se de•5cribe cada etapa y se incluye en ,.)caSi(,¡1eS un ejemplo sobre la experiencia en Barl'anquilla.   (bJ precios y unidades de con•lpra y venta, 'Jastos de eomere ial ización, pérdidas por deter ioró y már,;¡enes pal'a cada nivel de intermediae ión. Otl'a dat.os que se pueden obtenel' en est.e estudi,) son: (al regiones de orí.;¡en ,je la yuca adquil'ida. (b) CÓfllO detel'f¡\"inan la cal idad de la yuca y (el variabilidad en la oferta y precios.Este estudio debe incluir \"Rest.aurantes\" I especialrcP?nte CQnocer' el V~)hJfúen de yuca fresca que compran diariamente y a quién.La GRAFICA 2 detalla los canales de comerc ial izac ión más impor'ta.ntes pal'a la yuca fl'esea en Barranqui 11a. Debido a la rápida pel'ec ibil ida,j de la propósi to de vendel' la el misfllo dta.Se calcula que el 65X .jel volúmen de yuca f re'5ca se vende al consufúidOl' en tiendas de barrio, de las cuales e~dst.en 4.000 vendiend,:, yuca. Aunque ca,ja tienda mueve solamente un prorr,edio de 103 kgs. por semana, en conjunto su volúmen es el más impor tan te.El tendero compra al mayor' i sta J yuquero I picadol' ,je Barranquilli ta, y en ocasiones compl'a a vendedol'es ambulantes o carretilleros. Este canal es el que más problemas tiene por detel'ioro de la yuca, ya.que es el último eslabón en la cá,jena de distribución. El IIX de la yuca la compra el consumidor direct.amente en Barran,~uillita, . espec ialff,ente a l'JS picadores ahí local izados. Otra canal import.ante es el de los restauralltes¡ quienes compran a los mayoristas J a los yuquef'os o los picador'es. L\\~s restaurantes venden el 9% de la yuca. Se est.iwa que el 77., del volúmen de yuca fresca se vende en loJS 24 supermerca,jos e;<Íst.entes en Bal\"ranqui lla. POr' lo ,:;]enepal las cadenas de super'mercados compr'an la yuca directamente al agricultor .. 3. Estudio de Hábi t'JS de Uso y Compra y Ac ti t.udes d.e1 COllsus¡ddor Simul táneamente ce,n el estudio anteri,~r se efectúa la investil.;:Jación en hc,lldar'eS con d.mas de casa consumidol~as de yuca fresca. ':'e ut.iliza una muestra al azar estratificada por ingreso: alto (AS), ffiedio (e) y bajo (O). Luel~o de clasifical' los bar'l\"ios pOI' nivel de inl ;ll'8S i ) , se selecciona una muestra proporc ional que representa los tres estl'at.'JS. Los princ ipales puntos a incluir en la encuesta son los siguientes: HABITOS DE COMF'F:A HABITO:3 DE USO ACTITUD Frecuencia de compra) unidad de compra, silioes) de compra y razones, como escoge lB. yuca Modcl Ije preparac ión, ocasión de consurllo) f recuene ia. de eC'ilsumo, unidad de (.:.nsumo, pérdidas por deter'ioro) almacenamient.o o tonSEI\"'vac ión Las acti t.u,jes hac ia la yuca se pueden Tiledi r present.andc al ama de casa di f el'entes enunc iados de i nt.erés pata el investi9ador' y pidiél1ljole que e::<prese su reacción a éstos I=u))' fillE:dio de (a) una escala Likert bi¡::u:.lar\" de cinco puntos (muy de acc./er•,jo-muy 21l desac'uEr'do) o Cb) si o nI) está de acuer'.jo. La .;¡ct.i tl~1j r'especto a los sb;¡uientes temas son de int.erés: nivel de precios, disponibilidad de oferta) calidad) potencial de almacenamiento! facilidad de preparación, rendimiento, sabor¡ nutriciÓn l etc.El Estudio ,je consumo anual que se ven,je utiliza en la Hábi t.os de Compl~a pe I'fili t.e ot,tener una idea .::pl~o~<irt\"la,ja del per cápi ta ¡:1I:q\"' t?st.rato S()C ial y 1jel porcellt.cde de \"y\"!..Jc.::.. f reSCd.en cada e::<pen,jio al consumidol' final. Esta informaciÓn •:¡e etapa de Análisis ,jel Nt?';lQcio.La yuca es un alirln?nto t.1~.=t.jicional en la Costa At.l.ánt•ic.::t iqua.l 1~!..,le el fíe.!\"!\"I!? y el plátano; la mayoría de los habitantes la consumen .jiariamente. AU¡lque la mayoría de la yuca 1jestina,j•a paT'a consur¡\"lo !-rumano se consume fresca (cocinada o frita), t.ambién se [':,11sume pl\"'l:)cesada CQrll!~ \"btJllo de yuca ll yIIl:!nyucalj.~\" .'El Cuadro 2 presenta los princi~.ales hábitos de cOUlpl'a y uso de la yuca fresca. La frecuencia de COtlipra de la yuca baja en la medida en que el estrato sClcial sube.LCl invi2-\\'''sQ tjcurre con la unidad de COfilpY'\"a.estrat.os medio-medio hacia B.bajo (eO) compran de cuatro a cinco veces a la. semana, generalmente en la tienda. mientras que la clase f\",?dia-aH\", y alta (AS) corrlpra cc.n men.~r frecuencia, con preferencia en el supel'triercado. El consumo per cápi ta es mayl)p en €:l est.rato rüedio. CUADRO  [y1ás de la f¡~itad dI? 1Q5 consumidores jUZ\\;:}Ci.n 1.31. cali¡j.:1.1j de la yuca obser'var\"l.j!) la tá5~ar.::t \"y\" la l'alz ínt.ePIl2.mente-.El C:uar:h'() :3 presenta la lCi¡portancia de cada e~(pen,jiQ de \"yL!ca en t•el.:;ciÓn 21 e'5t.rato socia.l. l~ tíend.;a es el p\\~iJlcip.~l e.,:<pendio en 1.3.5 cl.3ses CD. P.~)\"a el est.rato al t,o el superr¡\"I>2l\"'cado es el e::•::pendiQ domi n•~nt.e. La pr ínc ipal r'azÓn para escol;Jer un 'Eb::pendiQ 8S la p,~o>::íri¡ida}j al h(!~;Ja.l~. En la Cost.a Atlánt.ica la maY'JI'ia de la yuca se siemt>\\'a en a.bril ü ma.yo cuando comienza el per iodo de lluvias. Este petT'101j() tt:l~mina en no\\dembte tu.~ndo se inicia un periü,jl) de sequ1a. ,je diciefllbpe a mar'::,::,). DClnde la hUh)t=da.d de la tier\")\"'.3. no es una lifflitante . . se puede sefúbpa.i\"' en ot.rl:ls meses. la rti.;.yor'i.~ de la yuca en la.. ,\"'egil:Hl se siembr'a intercalada con ot.ros cul tivos tales COffl1] maíz, rlüllo, y f'iame. El monocultivo de \"Yuca IV) es muv c')fitún.El suministrü cl.:;ntinuo de ,¡uca fresca para el ffI8TCad,) de E:';'.f'r-.anquilla ':;12 logra mediante la cl)secha en diferentes é¡:II:!cas del aNo de aCLlerd() ct 18.S c()nditiIJn~s edafoclimáticas de las rel~io\\les product.oras. P01' ej efflplc, I 1ü5 principales meses de cQsecha en el depar't.auler1t.J) del At.l• §.nt.ico S(,\\1 octubre hasta diciembl\"'e; en el ljepartamento de E:ollvar de TnarZI~ a junio! en el ,jepart.amentcl ,je C6rdQba da jU11iQ a sept.iembre y en Sucre de octl.Jbr-e a enero. Una de estas re';Jiones productoras ,je yuca! la rnás cel~tana ,;,,1 füercado final y/o donde e::<ista una of'¡;tanízación campesina, se escoje con el fin ,je• efectuar un Evento de Oivu19ación con la papticipación .je CIAT e instit.uciones nacionales en el cual se presenta la tecl1>~loqia de cT)nservaci6n de yuca y se explican 11)s beneficios ecollónllcos y SCJcidl\"es del proyecto. Si se de\"::¡pierta el int.er'és ,jel grupo campesínQ, se prl::;lc€!,je a efect.uar pruebas para detel'fllÍnar la viabilidad de la. tecnologia de conservación bajo la.s condiciones en la zona. Una vez confirsúada é,::t.a, el >;jl'UpO campesino) suministra la 'yuca en bolsa necesal'ia para realizar el estudio q',,¡e se describe a 1;\" siguiente etapa, BARRAN'WILLA Repelón se esu)l~i6 (i)mO la zona product.I:1ra inici•~l pal',s. Barral1quil1a pl:lrque: (,a) es una z()na de pequeftos aqricultores J mayorment.e parceleros del. INeORA quienes tr'abaj.an la tierra en comOn, (b) P\\~clfjIJce yUJ:a de pr'ifúera calida.d para CC.lnSUfflQ humano y po,\" sep un dist..¡~it.ü de rie90¡ pU.o?l:1e producirla ,jurante todo el af\"io, (t) e>dst.ia una cljope\\~at.iva. ,je producción y r\"erca.jeo. COOF'ROt1ERCAR y (d) su localización 85 muy C8rcan\" a Barr2.nquilIa y posee una ~nvidiable infr'aestructura que incluye un•3. carret.era que conect.a la. ret;)h: 1 n (ef\\1 Barranquilla y Capt.3.IJi?nd .. est..e cálculo se deben tener' en cuenta, aderúás de los i ndi ca,j!}l~E.-•5 de prueba '''¡ recompra ya mencionadas, variables de precio, distribución y promoción tales como: precio de la yuca en bolsa vs. precio de la yuca normaL •nivel de dist\\~ibución factible a \\...In af\\o e-n tienda•:;, supeptl\"lert:ados . . Un3;•1\"'C-B.,j05 V l'estalJl'antes y la suma disp,:'nible p,Ha financial' las actividades de penetr.~c ión. Se I'ecomien,ja ser consErvaljor en est.os es t.irfrados.En est.a et.apa tarúbién es neces.:il'io efectua\\~ un aná.lisis ,j~ costos v ruarl;jenes par'a detel~minar un posible precio de vent.a para la yl.~Ic.:~. en t'!Jls.:'j .. Lf)S parti e ipantes en la ca,jena de come,'c ia1 izac ión con fIi.?r,~ené:s son: el agricultor! la cooperativa que hace el tratamiento, la distribuidora en la ciudad} lo•; tender• os y superme¡\"'cados. Es irnpClrtante tener' en cuent.~ que mientra•;;; mayor' Volúfl!en rnuev•::.t un illtennedi.3.1\"'io} meno!\"' es su rIIai~l~en; el mar ' ;je11 del SUp2rfirel~Cadc\" pOI\"' ejemplo, es meno\\\"' a.l de la t.ienda. BARRAtJQUILLA CUADRO .5. Volúrnen estimado lje yuca fresca consumido en E:arranquilla (C.Ostertag, 1'3:3:3. Basado en Encuesta de Nut.rición DRI-FAN, 19r::l; W. Janssen,19:33     Bajo las Tácticas de F'roffIIJcióll) el Plan dE-PenetraciÓn ident.ificó necesidades de material publici.t.ario pa.ra infor-ma!') edLtcar~ y pl?rsuadir .~l cOI,surnidQr y . ::. . los interrnediai\"'ios \"50b\\~e Id. yl...Ica >211 bolsa. En E:-std. E~t.CI.Q.~ es necesaria la asesoría de una A-]8ncia ,je Publicidad () E:üut.ique C\\~eBt.i\\/a los pasos a s~9uil~ en el ár'ea publicitar•ia SOll los si,~u.ient.es: a. Posie iC1namiento P'Jsicionar¡)iento es 1.9, idea básica de ventas usada para f{¡otiVa.l~ .a los consufüi,jores a •:selecciona,\"' un ppoduct.o.Est.a ide.~ presenta a.l i::\"¡j~(iduct;J como capaz de sat.isfacer una ¡-¡ecE?•:;id;..d insatisfecha y (jistir¡'~Ua al pY'oljucto lje ent.re t.oljas las opci'Jnes co({¡petido!~as.La superic)r'i1jad t.écnica de la yuta en bolsa -:;uqie¡~e que se IJ.;.be Ut.ili.z:al~ un IIPosicionam.ient.o Ije PI\"'Cujucto ll , 1)sea una pi~esentacióil en la cual la. il8cesilja.d Ije1. conscHlli,jof se satisface pOI~ medio de un atribut.o UniC(1 del pl~l)duct,).• b. Est.rat,\"gía de Te;(tos La Estl'ategia ,je Te:d,:.s '\"5 un.o< .;:¡uia para la A.;¡ene ia ,je Put, [ ie ida,j ouo'? incluye, como mínimo, la siguiente información: (a) el posicionamiento, (b) factol\"es Q beneficios a menciona)\" en apl:\"yij al posicionamie-nto y (e) la definición ,je la audiencia objetivo de la pl,blicidad. c. Concepto de Cafllpaf'la El Concepto de Campaf1a es la traslación del pJ~sicionamientQ a una idea de cafitpaf\"ia Gmita la cual puede exppE-sarse vi sualfllente y/o por medir) de te;<tü. El Mercado Ije Prueba €:os la etapa en la cual el pr'oduct.o)' el Plan de Penetr-ac ión se ensayan bajo cündic iones \\~eales para el irili 118.r el r ie-:;qo de obtener grandes pérdidas en un lanzamiento a mayor escala, si éste fracasa_ Su ejecución permitirá (a) estimar Mejor el potencial de velltas¡ (b) c!:lnc,cer la efect.ividad ,je los diferent.es medios publicit.~Tios, y ([) conocel~ mejQr el ambiente de mercadeo en general.La implementación dt? las est\\~ate9ia•:; y táct.ic.3.-5 del Pla.n de-F'ellt?t.racíón, 1) sea el Me) .. tado Ije Prueba, es e::<i tosa en la rn~di¡j.? en que 1':15 volLlrúe-nes obt.enidos se aprQ~(ifi1en a l!Js volúmenes propuestc's_ ~;íner(lbai\"'g(!J p3.r'-3. obtener un diagnóstico.,jel C()rupo)\"\\tamient.o del CÜIlSLHüidor, se recomienda efectuar un Estudilj\" de Se/;¡uimientcl para C1jn.~cer indices dt::? p\\\"\"ueba v• recompra del producto, conocimiento de marca y recordaci.5n publicitaria_ desarr'ollar cQncept.ualrilente los difef'entes rna.teriales pLlblicitai\"'ios. Una vez estén aprobados los bocetos de las ,jiferentes piezas publicita¡\"'ias J se prOcE¡je a su producción o impresión.BARRANI~V 1 LLA El Posicionamiento para prActicas prefieren a conserva fresca durante esta e iUljad es el Y1JCAFRESKA porque dos semanas y es de siquiente: \"Las amas es una yuca especial primera calidad\".El Conc\"pto de Car,.,paf1a será el de •YUCAFRESKA: Calidad por laargo rato\" El mat.epial publicitario pr'opuest.o consiste de Afiche para tienJjas¡ Follet•,:) para t.enderos, Folleto pa.ra consurilidores , Hablador' para SIJj:.n=:rrúercdd,o'=-J CQmel\"'cial de t.elevisión, Video pal~a sup~rfr'lerc.adosf Ct..!f1a r3.dial p.;.¡--~. t.endero y consuritidQr y Avi SlJ de pl'ensa para tendero y consumidor.11. Me¡'cado ,:le F'1\"u!?t,a/:3equimiento El r1ercado ,ji? Prueba es la etapa en la cual el PI'o,juc to y el F'lan ,je F'enetr'ac ión se ensay.::'l1 ba.jo cündic iones \\\"eales para el imi nar el r iesqo de obtener' J~l\"alldes pér'didas en un lanzamiento a mayor' escala, si éste f I'acasa, Su eJecución pefmitirá (a) e\":;tirna\\\"' mejor el p(ltencial ,je 'lentas! (b) conocel' l•~ efectivb::1ad Ije los diferente':; medios pub¡icít.al~ios, y (c) conoce¡\" mejor el ambiente de file,\"'cadeo en gene,~al.La implement.ación de las es.tl~ategia'5 y tactica:s del Plal1 de Penet.raciÓn¡ o sea el r1e¡'C3,do de Prueba) e';s e>::i to':;a en la medi.ja en C' ]!....I8 les volúmenes obtenidos se apPO}(irit811 a los \\/01 (¡menes propuestos.?; i nembaj\"'~o I pal\"a obtener un dia9111::1stico de-l comport.amient.o lj81 e onsuffIidor' ! se tecomienrja efectuar un EstudiQ de :3e9uimient.~ para conocer' in.jices de prueba y reCi)mpra del p\\\"oducto J conocimient.o de marca y recordación publicit.. 12. Comercialización ","tokenCount":"3236"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"462c8cecdf9e2b3426533dbe54938d48","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14ccf228-f4d7-4ff9-bd7c-fdfc04f5f4f8/retrieve","id":"-1519151098"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"681019e6-f211-485d-bb29-0f6ac075b968","pagecount":"85","content":"The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these participating organizations.Introduction to the participants Agreement on agenda, terms of reference of the Task Forces and goal and purpose of the NetworkOn behalf of the University of Perugia and the Province of Perugia, Prof. Valeria Negri welcomed all participants to the first joint meeting of the ECP/GR Task Forces on In situ and On-farm Conservation. 1 The location of the meeting was the island of Polvese, in the middle of Lake Trasimeno and within a natural park devoted to the protection of the biodiversity of Lake Trasimeno and its surroundings. On this site, the Province of Perugia manages a scientific and educational park with activities mostly addressed to young people. Five years ago this administration funded a project aimed at safeguarding germplasm threatened with extinction around the Trasimeno Lake area. The project's outputs were a documented germplasm collection, as well as an increase in acreage cultivated with landraces of a local species of cowpea. This project was successful in promoting and achieving effective conservation of crop genetic resources on-farm.The island of Polvese is pleasant, peaceful and inviting to meditation. Prof. Negri expressed her wishes that the location and the environment of the meeting be conducive to fruitful discussions and to a positive start of the Task Forces' work. She wished that the meeting conclude with concrete proposals and recommendations for effective cooperation for the safeguarding of these precious biological and cultural resources 'received on loan from our children' (as a native American chief said).In a short introduction, L. Maggioni (ECP/GR Coordinator) welcomed all the participants and explained the current structure and mode of operation of the ECP/GR Programme. The framework of the In situ and On-farm Conservation Network was established by the ECP/GR Steering Committee in 1995. However, only in 1998 were specific funds allocated to organize a meeting of two small task forces (ad hoc coordinating groups) with precise objectives and workplans. The ECP/GR Secretariat established the two groups of experts on the basis of suggestions received from the ECP/GR National Coordinators and organized a joint meeting at the island of Polvese, taking into consideration the recommendation of the European Symposium on the implementation of the Global Plan of Action (GPA) in Europe (Braunschweig, Germany, 1998), that two separate but allied groups be formed. Invitations were extended to a representative of the European NGOs nominated by the NGO meeting held at Ryton Gardens, UK, in June 1999. Representatives from EuroMAB, DIVERSITAS and EUFORGEN were also invited to join, as well as additional resource persons Prof. Massimo Angelini, University of Genova and Prof. Valeria Negri, University of Perugia.A number of recommendations made by the European Symposium in Braunschweig offered a list of tasks for priority action, and these were suggested for initial collaborative action in the preparatory process leading to this meeting. L. Maggioni wished to clarify that the Task Forces' members are expected to offer their expertise and to represent the interests of the European region as a whole, independently from their respective nationalities. He suggested that the Task Forces could be flexible entities, appropriately shaped to address specific tasks in the future. Coopting additional experts could therefore be an effective way to expand the level of activity within the Network. He also noted that the feasibility of any action plan arising from the present meeting should be compatible with the existing resources, namely the inputs in kind that the Task Forces' members and other experts will be able to offer, together with the funds that governments will likelyThe participants (see list in Appendix I) briefly introduced themselves and their respective institutes or organizations and explained their interest in this meeting and the main outcomes expected.On behalf of the ECP/GR Secretariat, Brigitte Laliberté presented the revised agenda for the meeting, which was approved by the Group. The terms of reference of the Task Forces and the logframe of the Network were also approved (see Appendix II).This section summarizes presentations made by the participants either during the plenary sessions or in the respective Task Forces' sessions. Relevant points that called for further discussions are summarized in Part II of this report.In Situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity, Genetic Resources Science and Technology Group, IPGRI, Rome, Italy IPGRI's in situ conservation activities can be characterized as a continuum of approaches and taxa. Activities fall within the three overlapping headings of Wild Relatives in Natural Ecosystems, Crop Varieties in Farmers' Fields, and Home Gardens. Projects are structured to research plant genetic resource conservation in the ecosystems to which they are adapted, whether natural ecosystems, agroecosystems, or the interface between the two. A selection of IPGRI in situ and on-farm conservation projects, investigating wild relatives, introgression between cultivated species and their wild relatives, and on-farm, home garden, and total agroecosystem conservation, is presented in Table 1. More information regarding in situ conservation of wild relatives, introgression, and on-farm conservation can be found at the following IPGRI Web site: <http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/themes/in_situ_project/home/insituhome.htm>. The implementation of in situ conservation in agroecosystems requires that key research questions be answered and strong institutional frameworks created.• The amount and distribution of genetic diversity maintained by farmers over time and space • The processes used to maintain genetic diversity on-farm • The people who maintain genetic diversity on-farm: men, women, old, young, rich, poor, certain ethnic groups, others • The factors that influence farmers' decision-making to maintain diversity: variety choice, management practices II. What partnerships are needed?• Linking disciplines and sectors -Linking disciplines and institutes (formal and informal) -Building rapport with farmers -Ensuring equity in participation and decision-making• Stakeholders involved -Ministries of Agriculture and of Environment -Agricultural Research Institutes -Universities -Extension workers -NGOs -Farmers (including male and female motivators) and storage system for these varieties. 3. How to link disciplines and create representative partnerships. 4. Options for enhancing the benefits of local crop diversity to farmers.In April 2000, the partners of the IPGRI Global Project met in Morocco to plan for the next three years of the project using the goal-oriented logical framework analysis method. From this method, the partners revised and refined the project's goal, purpose, outputs and major activities as follows.The in situ conservation and utilization of crop genetic diversity are ensured for sustainable agricultural development, food security and ecosystem health.The scientific basis, institutional linkages and policies that support the role of farmers in conservation and use of crop genetic diversity are strengthened.1. Methods for and examples of comparative analysis across crops that integrate data in key processes from different disciplines and countries are developed and promoted.(Note: the original output was a scientific basis for in situ conservation on-farm, but the partners felt that within the 3-year funding period of the project this longer-term output would not yet be obtained). 2. Principles, options and approaches to integrate agrobiodiversity in agricultural development are made available to project partners and other stakeholders. 3. National organizations are supported in the development of in situ conservation programmes and policies through increased scientific capacities and representative partnerships.Project activities (organized by outputs) 1.1 Standardize methods and tools for data collection 1.2 Develop a database system for cross-national analysis and data transfer 1.3 Determine across the project the relationships between farmer names for varieties and genetic distinctiveness 1.4 Assemble data on processes affecting genetic diversity in chosen crops and sites 1.5 Identify key factors that determine the maintenance of genetic diversity 1.6 Develop examples of determining the appropriate spatial and temporal scales for crop genetic diversity conservation 1.7 Agree on questions that the multiple country analysis will address 1.8 Evaluate data in hand to identify gaps in data needed to answer multiple country analysis questions 1.9 Set up an international network of persons from national, regional and global levels to be responsible for data integration from country components 1.10 Assemble and analyze integrated data from country components 1.11 Develop mechanisms for reporting, publishing and exploiting the results of analyses 2.1 Devise \"channels\" to communicate agrobiodiversity information to public, extension and education programmes and policy-makers 2.2 Adapt participatory and empowering methodologies for on-farm PGR management 2.3 Document case studies to show the emphasis of using agrobiodiversity for agricultural development 2.4 Document case studies to show adding-value options 2.5 Develop the understanding of national and international legal and economic policies related to agricultural biodiversity 3.1 Support training programmes where the gaps are identified 3.2 Publish and distribute training materials on in situ conservation for research and extension workers 3.3 Support scholarships for advanced degree training on in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity 3.4 Provide access to expertise on thematic issues 3.5 Facilitate exchange of experiences and scientific meetings at global level 3.6 Organize thematic coordination and transfer of research results among national groups 3.7 Develop ways to present scientific findings to different user groups 3.8 Synthesize experiences on interdisciplinary farmer-scientist partnerships to build models for collaboration 3.9 Facilitate recognition of interdisciplinary and farmer participatory research on in situ conservation 3.10 Provide incentives for efforts to increase gender equity and farmer representation.A summary of examples of the possible benefits of on-farm conservation of crop diversity for farmer households (private good) and for society (public good) is presented in Table 2. Many options are being tried within the IPGRI Global In Situ Conservation On-Farm Project to increase the benefits to farmers of conserving crop genetic resources. These options include those that improve the plant genetic resources themselves and those that increase the demand for the material such as:• Participatory plant breeding for adaptiveness, pathogen resistance, cultural uses, etc.• Improved access and awareness through seed networks, community genebanks, diversity fairs • Better processing, marketing, consumer awareness Jozef Turok IPGRI Regional Office for Europe, Rome, Italy Armenia hosts a unique diversity of plants, especially crop wild relatives. Although reserves were established to protect target genetic resources, many of them remain threatened, particularly in mountain areas. The national biodiversity strategic action plan recognizes major needs and objectives in the area of plant genetic conservation. The tasks of two recent PDF-B phase projects funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) were briefly presented: \"Agrobiodiversity Conservation in Armenia\" and \"In situ Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives through Enhanced Information Management and Field Application\". The latter is a global effort involving Armenia (from Europe) as one of the five countries participating.Centre for Genetic Resources, The Netherlands (CGN), Plant Research International, Wageningen, The NetherlandsThe presentation of Bert Visser is reported here. The concepts expressed below generated a lively discussion. Points of agreement are summarized in Part II.Why on-farm management of PGRFA?• Strengths -Coverage of diversity -Adaptive capability -Linkage to local knowledge -Maintaining a full system• Weaknesses -Sustained maintenance? -Limited access to original material -Limited documentation -Limited knowledge of mechanismsWhen on-farm management of PGRFA?• Genetic erosion on-farmBy whom on-farm management of PGRFA?• Farmers • Organic farming • Hobbyists/self-suppliers • NGOs • Formal sector (supportive)On-farm management of PGRFA concerns the conservation and continuous development of crop genetic diversity, through exchange, selection, breeding and storage, as part of and for the purpose of crop production, under the agroecological conditions available to farmers and self-suppliers.• To conserve cultural landscapes (traditional crops, forages)• To conserve traditional diversity (fruit trees, underutilized and neglected crops)• To maintain crop diversity originating in Europe (vegetables, herbs, cereals)• To maintain diversity not covered by the formal sector (organic farming sector)• On-farm conservation should include in-garden conservation• Farmers and hobbyists serving specific markets (traditional, regional, organic)• Self-suppliers serving their own needs • NGOs directly collaborating and providing services to farmers and hobbyists/selfsuppliers • Formal sector (breeding institutes, genebanks, universities) in a supportive role• Access to markets To avoid confusion it is important to place genetic reserve conservation of wild plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) in the broader context of in situ conservation as a whole. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in its definition of in situ conservation incorporates two distinct conservation techniques, i.e. the conservation of wild or cultivated species:\"In situ conservation means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.\" Article 2 (CBD 1992) Maxted et al. (1997a) proposed that in situ conservation be viewed as a general strategy which involved the conservation of genetic diversity where it is currently found, as opposed to ex situ conservation, where germplasm is moved away from the original location where it is found to a second, often distant location for long-term conservation. Maxted et al. (1997a) considered that the in situ strategy was composed of two distinct conservation techniques and proposed the following working definitions for these two techniques:Genetic reserve conservation -the location, management and monitoring of genetic diversity in natural wild populations within defined areas designated for active, long-term conservation.On-farm conservation -the sustainable management of genetic diversity of locally developed traditional crop varieties with associated wild and weedy species or forms by farmers within traditional agricultural, horticultural or agri-silvicultural cultivation systems. This report will therefore focus on current efforts to conserve the plant genetic resources in Europe in genetic reserves.To avoid further confusion it is necessary to more precisely distinguish between what has been referred to by Maxted et al. (1997b) as active and passive in situ conservation. Plant species are undoubtedly conserved in numerous European environments unlikely to be considered genetic reserves, such as areas of wasteland, field margins, primary forest and even national parks, but in each of these cases the existence of any particular species is coincidental, therefore passive and not the result of active conservation management by humankind for that particular species. These passively conserved populations are not actively monitored and, as such, are more vulnerable to extinction, i.e. any deleterious environmental trend leading to population depletion would be unlikely to be noted and therefore counter-management measures would not be adopted. In this sense, active conservation requires positive action to promote the sustainability of the target taxa and the maintenance of the natural or artificial (e.g. agricultural) ecosystems which contain them, thereby implying the need for associated habitat management and monitoring. Thus in this report the review is restricted to active conservation of PGRFA in in situ genetic reserves in Europe. Although applying this strict definition of genetic reserve conservation does seriously limit the number of projects or activities that can be included in the review, it is necessary to ensure that a realistic view is obtained and efforts can be focused to rectify the unsatisfactory position.European conservationists can learn a lot about the establishment, management and monitoring of genetic reserves from activities in neighbouring countries. Turkey, Israel and the countries of the Fertile Crescent (Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine) all have active genetic reserve conservation programmes.Perhaps the first genetic reserve was established at Ammiad in Israel and the workings of this reserve or area for genetic study have been reviewed by Anikster et al. (1997). The Ammiad reserve was established to conserve wild wheat and barley diversity; however, populations are not managed and monitored in the strict sense. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded the establishment of three genetic reserves in Kaz Dag area of northwestern Aegean Region, Ceylanpinar of southeastern Turkey and the Amanos region of southern Turkey in 1993 (see Ertug Firat and Tan 1997 and Kaya et al. 1998) for the conservation of broader woody and non-woody crop relatives in an integrated multi-species project. More recently in 1999 another GEF project was initiated in four countries of the Fertile Crescent (Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine) (Maxted et al. 2000). Like the Turkish project before it, this project also has the objective of conserving in situ in genetic reserves woody and nonwoody PGRFA. Thus far, sites have been selected and monitoring of target populations has begun. This project will provide an invaluable resource for the conservation and sustainable utilization of PGRFA because of its location at the heart of so much genetic diversity of our major crop species.To attempt to find European examples of genetic reserve conservation programmes, 18 national PGR representatives were contacted and each asked to provide information on the species conserved in their reserves. The information required was:1. Species conserved 2. Location of reserve (including latitude, longitude and altitude) 3. Land area (actual size in hectares) 4. Land ownership (e.g. private, public, other) 5. Name of organization managing the site 6. Type of management interventions 7. Type of monitoring interventions 8. Type of financial support (e.g. none, public, private) 9. Reason for establishing the reserve at that location 10. Involvement of local people in conservation project 11. Current users of the reserve 12. Access policy for the reserve, either in terms of public access or users' access to the conserved PGRFA 13. Linkage to ex situ conservation 14. Listing of key people/organizations involved in the genetic reserve project.Eight countries responded and interestingly none provided complete answers for a reserve. The national responses are briefly summarized below (countries are listed in alphabetical order).A fruit tree conservation network has been established in the Walloon region and the network now has approximately 2600 accessions of apple, pear and plum conserved.Examples are restricted to inventorying existing PGRFA found in conservation areas, such as:-Humulus lupulus L., Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr., Carum carvi L. in Northrhine-Westfalia, Germany -Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima Arcang. on the coast of the Baltic Sea -Beta vulgaris on the coasts of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean -Vitis vinifera var. silvestris on the islands in the upper Rhine -Forest species are actively conserved throughout federal Germany.The need to establish genetic reserves of PGRFA was realized in 1990, but lack of funds has inhibited practical activities; however, 12 sites have been identified which would be suitable once funding becomes available.The Ammiad reserve was perhaps the first explicitly established to conserve genetic diversity of PGRFA, in this case wild wheat, in Europe. The project is managed by the Israeli Gene Bank, but receives little financial support from the government.A project was established in January 2000 to conserve the genetic diversity of pasture grasses, but currently the project is restricted to inventorying ancient grassland.There are 19 national parks and numerous other protected areas, but there are no active conservation projects of PGRFA in in situ genetic reserves. There is national legislation to protect 28 PGRFA species and there is a project to place location information on endangered plant species in a database. Any in situ conservation work associated with PGRFA has focused on the conservation of fruit trees.Numerous in situ conservation projects exist but it is uncertain whether any can be regarded as active conservation of PGRFA in in situ genetic reserves.The European Common Catalogue has led to the cessation of cultivation of all landraces of PGRFA in the UK and there are no genetic reserves for the conservation of PGRFA species. However, the Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) is the largest organic gardening association in Europe with over 27 000 members. HDRA operates the Heritage Seed Library and 'Adopt-A-Veg' campaign, which actively lobbies and promotes the conservation of vegetable diversity.Thus it can be seen that the in situ conservation picture for Europe remains sketchy and, if taken at face value, does not provide a satisfactory complement to ex situ techniques. It is obvious from the response that there are few active genetic reserve projects in Europe and in situ conservation in genetic reserves in Europe remains clearly in its infancy. It is recommended that a further, more thorough investigation be undertaken.There are, however, also institutional problems facing genetic reserve conservation. Possibly the current situation in the UK may be unfortunately mirrored elsewhere in Europe. Interest in the in situ conservation of PGRFA in the UK began in the mid-1980s but expanded greatly following the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 and the ratification and implementation of the CBD in the UK in 1993. However, within the UK, conservation falls between two ministries, Agriculture and Environment (in many other European countries a distinct Ministry of Forestry may also be involved). To date the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has played an active role in the ex situ conservation of PGRFA, but regards in situ conservation as beyond its remit. The UK Ministry of Agriculture regards in situ conservation as being in the domain of the Ministry of Environment, Transport and the Regions. However, the latter ministry shows no interest in PGRFA species conservation and is certainly not interested in genetic conservation per se; they focus their conservation activities entirely on habitat and wild species. As a result of this unfortunate lack of a holistic governmental approach to plant conservation, the in situ conservation of PGRFA in the UK falls between two ministries and continues to be inadequately resourced.It might be hoped that this unfortunate situation is not reflected in other European countries, but discussion with European colleagues confirms that this situation is duplicated elsewhere. The first meeting of the ECP/GR In Situ and On-farm Conservation Network gives the participants the opportunity to voice serious concerns over the lack of in situ conservation coverage of PGRFA in Europe, a point that needs to stressed both to the European Union as well as to individual sovereign states until the situation is rectified.The great changes introduced into agricultural systems after World War II acted as a powerful leveller and changed the way food was produced and exchanged. As a result, landraces have disappeared from most sites in Europe and genetic erosion is still in progress.This paper represents an effort to acknowledge different on-farm conservation and management activities in Europe, to identify gaps and opportunities for future work in this area. Its purpose is also to circulate the information. Annex 1 provides summary information on some examples from selected countries in Europe. A list of contacts (NGOs and institutions) has been initiated and will be completed to produce a directory of organizations/individuals involved in on-farm conservation and management activities in Europe. The directory will be produced in electronic and printed form in spring 2001 and will be available from the ECP/GR Web site and printed copies from the Secretariat.Therefore this inventory is not to be considered as complete because of fragmentation of activities, different sectors (formal and informal) involved and lack of time which made it impossible to reach all people involved at this initial stage. The relative weight given to individual countries is mainly dependent on the information available and may not reflect the intensity of on-farm activities in the respective countries. The inventory has been carried out through the ECP/GR National Coordinators and focal persons, the ECP/GR In situ and On-farm Conservation Network Task Force members, NGOs, associations and various institutions that are involved in on-farm management of plant genetic resources in the different countries. They were asked to compile a questionnaire and/or to give any information or contact persons that could be useful for the inventory. A diversity of approaches was used to evaluate which one would be most successful. Therefore the information collected is also diverse and is intended to standardize the collected information and complement it through a more in-depth survey during 2001. We thank all those who, in different ways, contributed to this paper.No activities have been reported or information received from Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, France, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russian Federation and Turkey. Only details of contacts or a very brief summary have been reported from Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Israel, Hungary, Portugal, Slovakia and F.R. Yugoslavia. Contacts and summary information have been reported from Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Italy, Malta, Moldova, Norway, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and United Kingdom.Several of the focal points in countries not formally participating in ECP/GR welcomed ECP/GR's attention to in situ and on-farm conservation of PGRFA and welcomed future cooperation. There is a necessity for training NGOs in this area, as recommended during the Braunschweig Symposium, especially in the NIS countries.Several initiatives have been started in the direction to implement national strategies and plans of action for the conservation and management of landraces and traditional varieties. For example, the Department of Agriculture in Norway is currently working on a national plan for the conservation of plant genetic resources, to be ready this year. Onfarm management will be discussed as one possible method of conserving genetic diversity in crop plants. The Plant Production Inspection Centre, Seed Testing Department in Finland, carried out a project in 1997-99 for a system of characterization, registration and on-farm maintenance of landraces and old cultivars of cereals and forage grasses and legumes (Onnela 1999a). This maintenance and support system will be implemented soon, and farmers will be able to apply for support for their on-farm management activities. In Greece, the Ministry of Agriculture has identified a broader number of sites cultivating traditional varieties through surveys of its central and peripheral services and proposals by various scientific groups, farmers' associations, NGOs for environmental protection and ecological farming. The compilation of this work has been used to submit a major proposal for support of the traditional agriculture and maintenance of biodiversity. The proposal includes a provision for a specific national plan for on-farm conservation.There is a great diversity found in the European continent in terms of pedoclimatic conditions, agricultural practices, cultural heritage due to history, languages, religions and traditions, and socioeconomic conditions. This has led to diversity in patterns of on-farm conservation activities mainly with regard to species maintained, persons and institutions involved, reasons for maintaining species on-farm, location and acreage of on-farm conservation, and the type of support for carrying out work.Some countries surveyed have already undertaken national surveys to find out more about what activities are going on in this field, the species of landraces and traditional varieties, and the acreage managed on-farm. For example, Hungary does not have a formal network for the on-farm conservation of some of these resources but has undertaken a survey of what is being grown and conserved. A similar situation has been reported for Denmark, Malta and Moldova. In Malta, a survey has been carried out to identify old varieties of fruit trees, namely citrus, vines and stone fruits. A number of old traditional varieties have been identified from different fruit tree orchards and private home gardens. Work is still carried out on this aspect. In Moldova, the Centre for Plant Genetic Resources, founded in 1999, initiated the stocktaking of local varieties of crops and their description. The local varieties from different ecological regions of the country have been collected as an initial step. The following crops have been given a priority: varieties of Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris, Cicer arietinum, a number of fruit crops and vines, Cucurbitaceae, vegetables and aromatic crops. Generally, these varieties are grown on marginal land by rural populations. The population continues to cultivate these crops mainly for the following reasons:• Cultural food traditions (e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris)• Preferences of plant species and specimens resistant to limiting ecological factors (e.g. many local maize varieties are more resistant to drought than hybrids) • Genetic diversity of amateur varieties of some vegetables and melons and gourds is much higher than the commercial varieties and hybrids • Religious reasons (growing of Ocimum basilicum). In gathering information for this paper, Spain provided some very useful information on species cultivated, landraces, the type of management and support for the conservation and management of the landraces, and collected information on the main reasons for maintaining on-farm.Recently the Finnish NGOs have organized regional inventory projects of old landraces and cultivars. In 1999 the association Northern Heritage started an apple project in Northern Savolax area. The project succeeded to find several hundred local apple trees, of which the best were chosen to be tested in local nurseries.Some constraints in undertaking such surveys have been mentioned, however, such as the increasing amount of land privatization and the fact that farmers can change their priority in terms of use of different crops. This can result in rapid loss of local varieties. Other general constraints are related to the general lack of financial support to undertake these activities such as the lack of material for collecting missions and visits to farmers.Table 1 reports groups of species, landraces and old cultivars in existence in different countries. This information, gathered through the different surveys, strictly refers to landraces and old cultivars still cultivated and not to living collections, educational and research activities or private nursery activities. It is important to acknowledge that a more extensive investigation is needed to complete this list. This list is intended to show the diversity that still exists in Europe. For example, landraces and old cultivars of cereals are still cultivated in almost all of the European countries surveyed.In the case of fruit trees and grapevines, it is not always easy to understand to what extent particular varieties in certain areas are still grown on-farm as part of and for the purpose of crop production. All the contributors indicated the existence of living collections, material saved or exchanged from germplasm banks in public institutions, administrations, educational bodies and private organizations, associations and individual farmers and nurseries. As mentioned previously, a list of contact persons will be compiled as a directory. Areas where landraces survived Traditional agriculture did not survive in major agricultural regions where modern cultivars have been introduced in large areas. The spreading of these modern varieties has caused the loss of landraces, particularly in the eastern countries, where the past collectivization policy is considered to have been the major factor responsible, but also in western countries. The majority of landraces and old cultivars of crops are generally found in underdeveloped and marginal areas where old farmers still cultivate them on limited acreage, for home consumption and for local markets. It is also in these regions that the genetic erosion is more and more evident. Nevertheless in some cases, for particular products or species specific to a certain market, some of the most productive land is used for the cultivation of these landraces on large areas.Both the formal and informal sectors are involved in on-farm conservation activities. However, the informal sector plays, in general, a more predominant role. According to most country reports, the most active organizations at the national level are mostly NGOs, especially in northern countries. Some reports even put in evidence the lack of interest of the formal sector in on-farm conservation activities. As for informal sector involvement, amateurs and foundations are the most acknowledged type of people/institutions involved. Pro Specie Rara Pro Specie Rara is a foundation working since 1982 to promote the conservation and use of genetic resources both in plants and animals. In plants, more than 1000 volunteer \"seed savers\" are coordinated by a few paid professionals. There are about 60 orchards with more than 1000 fruit cultivars in total. Crop-specific groups are working on potatoes, tomatoes, grain crops and leguminoseae. The majority of individuals are interested in genetic variation, cultural diversity and history. Farmers who have to cover their income from selling agricultural products seem to be a minority.Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) and its Heritage Seed Library (HSL)HDRA is an international NGO concerned with researching, demonstrating and promoting organic gardening, farming and food. For the past 20 years it has been campaigning on issues affecting plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and is actively involved in the conservation of traditional vegetable varieties suitable for gardeners, through the work of its Heritage Seed Library (HSL), which is unique in the UK. The HSL currently contains over 700 varieties covering all the main sorts of vegetables. Seeds kept in the library can be broadly categorized as follows: commercial varieties that may no longer be sold, heirloom and historical seeds.A good example of cooperation between formal and informal sector is the case of the Walloon Region in Belgium. In response to the public concern and the need to preserve fruit germplasm, the Department of Biological Control and Plant Genetic Resources, Centre for Agronomic Research of the Ministry of Agriculture (DBCPGR), has developed since 1994 an on-farm orchard network with other public and private partners (public administrations, environment protection associations and NGOs). The network has for objectives to collect and characterize (both from a biological and a cultural point of view), and to safeguard on-farm. The purposes are didactic and pedagogic, as well as fruit production and processing and landscape restoration. Local people are therefore directly involved in these activities. The partners are committed through an agreement with the DBCPGR, which allows it to access the plant material. The partners are responsible for maintaining the orchards in good conditions for a certain period and are supported through technical assistance.Another example of cooperation among the formal sector and farmers is in Italy, in the Tuscany Region, where a group of 32 \"conservator farmers\" were supported financially for producing vegetable seeds, coming from the 10 years of collecting work of the Florence University of Agriculture and the conservation activities of the Germplasm bank of Lucca Botanical Garden. ARSIA (Agenzia Regionale per lo Sviluppo e l'Innovazione nel Settore Agricolo, a regional institution) is the coordinator of such programme with the double aim to preserve local varieties in the original collecting place and to reintroduce this material into cultivation. The Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale e Biotecnologie Agroambientali, of Perugia University, also cooperates with several local institutions (Provincia di Perugia, Abruzzo Regional Institution for Agricultural Development, Lazio Region) and individual farmers, farmers' organizations and private associations of central Italy for on-farm conservation of landraces and the development of economies based on their cultivation (Negri et al. 2000;Silveri et al. 2000).In Georgia the Academy of Sciences cooperates with the Agrobiodiversity Protection Society ' Dika' and with the German organization 'Renovabis' to preserve, recover and introduce endemic cultivated plant species and local varieties, to propagate information on agrobiodiversity conservation and utilization, and to train the personnel needed for carrying out the above-mentioned activities.On-farm conservation can be undertaken for a diversity of reasons, sometimes a mixture of all of them. The main reasons reported were for domestic consumption, for personal reasons (hobby), for commercialization of the final products (mostly at local level), or because it is promoted by local and national authorities for conservation purposes and for research studies.The first two reasons, for home consumption and as a hobby, are probably the least acknowledged and documented. However, they are probably the most substantial both in terms of number of species and of acreage. Many landraces are maintained by farmers in relatively large areas such as in the case of 'Grindstad' timothy in Norway, of emmer in the Garfagnana valley in Italy, or lentil in Colmenar Oreja in Spain. However, most farmers are probably cultivating landraces on a smaller scale and still maintain their seed. When exploration work aimed at finding landraces in Central Italy started 10 years ago, those landraces were considered extinct everywhere. Nevertheless in about 10 years of work over 300 landraces of different crops (cereals, vegetables, pulses, fruits and aromatics) were collected in Central Italy. It is therefore likely that in regions similar to Central Italy, landraces are still being maintained to a greater extent than is believed.When landraces are maintained for home consumption the following reasons are reported: traditional reasons (recipes peculiar to an area, links to certain rituals or religious practices) and better quality (Greece, Italy, Malta, Romania, Spain), better adaptability to local pedoclimatic constraints (Finland, Georgia, Greece, Italy, Norway, Romania). The cultivation of local varieties for local markets is also mainly linked to the reasons reported above. The niche products are strictly connected to a specific market demand at a local level, especially, but not only, in southern countries. The return of traditional taste and curious varieties tends to stimulate the return of previously abandoned germplasm both in the home gardens and on farms. In Italy some landraces are niche products which, being highly appreciated, have a greater value on the local markets (Falcinelli and Negri 1998). Landraces are also often reported to be used in organic and biodynamic agriculture (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Italy, and Spain); organic farmers often look for landraces or old cultivars for seeding their fields.The conservation of fruit trees deserves specific attention. Many educational activities and reintroduction activities carried out both by the formal and informal sectors are reported by several countries on this group of species (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Georgia, Italy, Spain, Sweden). The use of old varieties of fruit trees is also mentioned for landscape restoration in Belgium. Also on-farm conservation of fruit species is in some cases clearly market-oriented. The selling of fruits of peculiar varieties or derived products (juice, cider) is reported in some countries (Belgium, Italy, Malta and Spain). The activity of a number of nurseries in collecting, propagating and selling old varieties of fruit trees for home gardens was indicated in Italy. It should be noted that while this activity certainly contributes to the safeguarding of germplasm, it is somehow disengaged/unlinked with the ethnic and social substrate which created landraces. In catalogues, old varieties from different areas are reported but little information is given on their traditional uses. Also the customers are most likely to buy according to names and fruit appearance or ripening dates rather than to their links with their territory.There are social, economic and political reasons that limit the use of landraces in crop production. Some of those are farmers' age, farmers' awareness of landraces' importance, legislation coming into force and the lack of incentives for farmers.Landraces are mostly grown by old farmers; few of the young people, who are often not able to appreciate their biological and cultural importance, stay in the field of agricultural production. This makes it difficult to continue their cultivation if not to increase it, which is important for plant genetic resources conservation. A greater problem related to maintaining diversity on-farm in countries of the North is to maintain the people in agriculture. This is mainly a political problem.Another limitation to a more extensive use of landraces is represented by farmers' perception that modern cultivars are better producers (reported in some contributions from Slovenia, Greece, Italy). This is probably true, at least under certain agricultural systems. The raising of farmers' awareness of particular landraces seems a priority action to be carried out for on-farm conservation. It is also important to note that a restricted number of farmers and farmers' associations, aware of the use of local landraces because they are involved in on-farm conservation, are alone without any coordination and possibility of comparison of their work/activities.Present legislation also limits landrace maintenance on farms. Commercialization of landrace seed is discouraged by intellectual property rights on varieties and by the need to meet the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) standards (especially considering uniformity) to obtain the status of variety. The reception and application by state members of Directive 98/95/CE of the Council of European Communities of 14 December 1998 may solve problems related to landrace seed commercialization in the EU. Nevertheless, after reception, its implementation would require a list (Register) of existing landraces, to be compiled after an extensive regional survey to investigate and evaluate the situation. Such Register would first of all acknowledge the existence of autochthonous material belonging to different agricultural areas which are particular for biodiversity and local knowledge, traditions and history of inhabitants, and secondly offer a basis for taking appropriate safeguarding measures.On this topic it is worth mentioning the proposal recently developed in Finland for a system of characterization, registration and on-farm maintenance of landraces and old cultivars of cereals and forage grasses and legumes (Onnela 1999a(Onnela , 1999b)). The first step of the system is research based on the guidelines of the UPOV (however without the need to meet the strict requirements of uniformity and stability) aimed at describing the characteristics of landraces and old cultivars and at determining whether their morphological and phenological characteristics can be distinguished from those of other varieties. Following completion of this research, distinct landraces and old cultivars may be registered and maintenance contracts can then be drawn up. Such contracts could constitute a special form of environmental support in the new agri-environmental programme (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006) implemented in Finland according to European Council regulation No. 2078/92. When preparing contracts for subsidized maintenance of registered landraces, the farms where the landraces in question have been cultivated for decades are prioritized. In the case of registered old cultivars, breeders would primarily maintain cultivars, although they may forward this task to farmers. Within the system, the KTTK (Finnish Production Inspection Centre) Seed Testing Department would act as the registering authority, and would be responsible for varietal research, registration, contracts, maintaining the official contract list, and following up maintenance work. The maintenance and support system described above will be implemented soon, and farmers may apply for support for their on-farm management work. Before the support can be paid, the landraces and varieties have to be characterized and if proved unique, registered as mentioned earlier. The system proposal considered also the possibilities for marketing of registered and maintained landrace seed, which means alterations in the current seed marketing legislation. According to the amendments of EU seed directives concerning marketing of seed of 'conservation varieties', the updating work of Finnish seed legislation is now under way.In the EU, another constraint to the use of landraces is the present regime of incentives for farmers. For example, in the case of durum wheat, the EU allows contribution to farmers only if they use certified seeds. Under the present situation, landrace seeds cannot be certified. This sometime leads to paradoxical situations. For example in Sicily, farmers growing 'Timilia' landrace of durum wheat, selected and maintained by their own family for centuries, are disadvantaged twice: first because 'Timilia' is less productive and second because they have no access to subsidies.Educational and research activities are mostly funded by governments and local authorities. On-farm conservation is also, to a certain degree, promoted by the public. We have already presented the Finnish proposal; in Italy some Regions allow contributions for increasing acreage managed under landraces (in the framework of 2078 regulation and of its own financial budgetary disposability), but no extensive survey of landraces/old cultivars still in existence has been undertaken additionally to this preliminary survey.Since only in situ conservation can safeguard genetic resources, maintaining their ability to evolve in the face of biotic and abiotic pressures and social and cultural changes and to meet the needs of unpredictable future demands, effective incentives have to be offered to farmers to maintain their landraces. How best this can be done is presently under discussion since the simple payment of \"guardian farmers\" by the community does not necessarily address the future or create long-term incentives for conservation (Orlowe and Brush 1996;Zeven 1996).To conclude this overview about on-farm conservation and management, several fields of research were suggested, such as:• Exploration (leading to thorough regional inventories) and characterization work on Since 1975, the Department of Biological Control and Plant Genetic Resources (DBCPGR) has been collecting fruit tree cultivars, mostly landraces traditionally grown in Belgium. There are over 2600 accessions in the collection with the majority being apple, pear and European plum. DBCPGR is developing an in situ orchards network in the Walloon Region of Belgium, as a response to a general public awareness for old fruit cultivars. Since 1994, 12 orchards have been planted in all parts of the Region, with public or private partners such as public administrations, environment protection associations and NGOs that have as objectives to conserve local fruit tree cultivars and/or to restore orchards of historical sites. Farm diversification is also one of the objectives. The didactic and pedagogic aspect is mostly done by NGOs. Orchard planting is mainly supported by the Walloon Region but also by cities, the EU and individuals. Another objective of the DBCPGR is the safe duplication of the ex situ collections where possible, for Malus, Pyrus and Prunus accessions.Generally local people are involved in collecting local fruits and bud sticks, for maintenance of orchards and for fruit harvesting and processing. As an example, 20 years ago Dr Populer, gathered a lot of ethnobotanical information on old landraces. Such information is now seldom collected. People now collect a lot of fruit samples (sometimes 200-300) but without any knowledge about them, asking DBCPGR to identify the cultivars and their origin. The choice of cultivars for these orchards is based on their local origin, peculiarity, agronomic and phytopathological characters, taste and their global diversity of characteristics. Productivity criteria are seldom taken into consideration. DBCPGR also plant local cultivars collected by Dr Populer and which have now disappeared. DBCPGR duplicated some very rare or endangered cultivars. Most orchards are planted and maintained organically or with minimal maintenance.The size of the orchards may vary from 0.05 to 3 ha. For a total area of 22 ha, more than 1600 fruit trees have been planted with cultivars of apple (103), pear (33), plum (34), cherry (17) and peach (4). Different rootstocks are used but mostly seedlings are used for planting as standard trees. The fruits are used for fresh fruit production or for fruit processing (juice, cider, etc.). The cultivars come from the DBCPGR's ex situ collection (68% of cultivars) and from local organizations (32%). Currently, there are ten new orchards waiting to be planted in the Walloon Region. Before any plantation, the partners sign an agreement with DBCPGR for long-term maintenance of the orchard in good conditions and allow the DBCPGR to have access to the material. The agreement between the DBCPGR and the partners for establishing in situ orchards of old local cultivars clearly states the aim, partners, orchard location, some technical aspects, particular conditions and contract cancellation conditions.In Denmark the national programme for plant genetic resources is currently under preparation. For this purpose a survey of on-farm management and related activities has been carried out. The NGOs may organize mutual agreements, where their members are collecting information concerning species and collections maintained by individuals. Lists of PGR material available are published and forwarded to members and exchanged among them.The most important NGOs in this field are 'Center for biodiversitetet' (English: Centre for Biodiversity) and 'Frosamlerne' (English: The Seed Collectors). More than 300 members of these organizations work mainly with vegetables and fruits like Ribes, Fragaria, Malus and Prunus, but also to some extent with old varieties of cereals. The crops are mainly grown by private individuals using organic or biodynamic methods in private gardens or by smallholders. The members look for old material with specific characteristics and are interested in maintaining old landraces if available. Part of the material may have been conserved in genebanks. The members collect information about the history of the varieties and evaluate their quality characteristics, resistance and storage qualities. Their conservation activities have not been supported financially. However, for publishing material about old varieties and minor species, the organizations have received a limited amount of public support.Regarding ongoing on-farm management projects, a group of organic and biodynamic growers have started this year a project to test old cereal varieties (barley, wheat, oat and rye) through local production and to reintroduce the best varieties for organic production. The group intends to maintain and conserve the old varieties on-farm. The growers obtain old varieties from genebanks such as the Nordic Gene Bank. Growers have not yet received public financial support, but are most interested in participation if possibilities are provided within the ECP/GR In situ/On-farm Conservation Network.The Plant Production Inspection Centre, Seed Testing Department carried out a project in 1997-99. The project proposed a system of characterization, registration and on-farm maintenance of landraces and old cultivars of cereals and forage grasses and legumes (Onnela 1999a). The aim was to devise a system that encourages research, conservation and the sustainable use of landraces and old cultivars. The first step is the varietal research based on the guidelines of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). This research aims at describing the characteristics of landraces and old cultivars and at determining whether their morphological and phenological characteristics can be distinguished. Then distinct landraces and old cultivars may be registered and maintenance contracts can be drawn up. Such contracts could constitute a special form of environmental support in the new agri-environmental programme (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006) implemented in Finland according to European Council regulation No. 2078/92. The farms where the landraces have been cultivated for decades are prioritized. In the case of registered old cultivars, breeders would primarily maintain cultivars, although they may forward this task to farmers. Within the system, the KTTK Seed Testing Department would act as the registering authority, and would be responsible for varietal research, registration, contracts, maintaining the official contract list, and following up maintenance work.The maintenance and support system described above will be implemented soon, and the farmers may apply for support for their on-farm management work. Before the support can be paid, the landraces and varieties have to be characterized and if proved unique, registered as mentioned earlier. The system proposal considered also the possibilities for marketing of registered and maintained landraces seed, which means alterations on the current seed marketing legislation. According to the amendments of EU seed directives concerning marketing of seed of 'conservation varieties', the updating work of Finnish seed legislation is now under way. Regarding the landraces of forage grasses and potato, it is worth noting that, at the moment, there are three landraces of timothy and one of potato in the Finnish National List of Plant Varieties. In their case, therefore, the production and marketing of certified seed is possible.The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, Unit of Sociology in the University of Jyväskylä has formulated a research programme called 'Government, Voluntary Organizations, and Individual Savers as Actors in 'on-farm' Conservation of Local Farm Plants in Finland and Estonia'. The programme will start when the funding is confirmed. This social study concerns the social movement of farm plant germplasm conservation, and in particular voluntary civil activities in on-farm conservation and the active use of some landraces and old cultivars (i.e. cereal crops, some grasses and some vegetables) in Finland and Estonia.Beyond this topic, but closely related to it, one can mention the inventory and breeding projects of hardy ornamental plants and berry and fruit species, which have been carried out by the Universities of Helsinki and Oulu.With regard to the informal sector activities, in Finland the association Maatiainen (\"landrace\" in Finnish), a voluntary NGO established in 1989, has activities in conservation of plant genetic resources. The members of Maatiainen work mainly on an amateur basis. They search for and collect seed, and grow the landraces and old varieties, mainly of ornamental plant species, in their private gardens or field plots. The seeds are exchanged and sold among the network of seed savers. The newest seed catalogue of Maatiainen includes a total of 543 accessions of traditional ornamental and cultivated plant varieties. There are other associations in Finland which distribute seed of old varieties, like Hyötykasviyhdistys (\"Association for Useful Plants\") and Isoäidin Kasvit (\"Grandmother's plants\").Recently the NGOs have organized regional inventory projects of old landraces and cultivars. In 1999 the association Northern Heritage started an apple project in Northern Savolax area. The project succeeded in finding several hundred local apple trees, of which the best were chosen to be tested in local nurseries.Until recently the situation was immature for protection programmes and schemes for onfarm conservation. Much opposition was coming from the prevailing ideology of a strong competitive formal agriculture and the support for the maintenance of a strong seed trade system, intolerant to \"inferior\" landraces and non-breeder's material. The detrimental effect of these ideas to the agricultural biodiversity, the plurality of choices and the quality of life were largely ignored. Fortunately the situation has changed. Agriculture is now perceived in a more social and environmentally friendly context and room for lowerperforming germplasm and less competitive practices is beginning to open up, at least in the EU legislation. The legalization of the use and trade of the local traditional varieties is expected to provide a strong momentum for on-farm conservation, in the framework of integrated local development schemes involving agriculture, landscape, habitats and local culture.Plans for conservation were begun in 1990. Promising places with high species richness have been identified in the course of collecting expeditions of the 1980s and proposals were made to the authorities. However, funding has not yet been granted. The Ministry of Agriculture has identified a broader number of sites cultivating traditional varieties through surveys of its central and peripheral services and proposals by various scientific groups, farmers' associations and NGOs for environmental protection and ecological farming. The compilation of this work has been used to submit a major proposal for support of the traditional agriculture and maintenance of biodiversity to the EU in 1996, in the framework of the EU Directive 2078/92 that provides for the first time support for such an activity in the European Union countries. However, this proposal was not approved on the grounds of contradicting the established EU legislation on seed trade, which was considering the use and trade of seeds of landraces as illegal.Recently a new proposal covering all aspects of PGR work was submitted, and there is a general optimism for its outcome. The proposal includes a provision for a specific national plan for on-farm conservation. The approval of this plan of action will be the first step toward this demanding exercise and to tackle all the complex issues related. Several interests can be raised such as the local communities to include the selected farms in their agri-environmental development plans, the state and the local communities to provide certain support, the academic community to provide funds for their active involvement in the characterization/evaluation of the landraces and in exploring management and monitoring systems. The integrated protection scheme should combine support for processing of named products, advertising, marketing and for maintaining local agricultural tradition and culture.In most crops, the weight of the traditional agriculture is 1-2%. The landraces are maintained because they are linked to certain rituals, or because the cultivation of modern varieties is not suitable or rewarding in specific harsh environments. Farmers have access to germplasm, to new and diverse genetic materials, contributing to improvement of production of the existing crops, to yield increase and greater crop adaptability. Public institutes and private companies contribute most in providing germplasm to farmers.Governmental institutions such as the Greek Gene Bank and a few NGOs are now engaged in projects researching and promoting on-farm management and improvement of PGRFA. The Greek Gene Bank has submitted a relevant programme. Until the programme is funded, its involvement is mainly on the identification of sites and contacts with the local farming communities and authorities. A few NGOs attempt at this stage to reintroduce local landraces and revitalize farmers' interest on such germplasm, particularly for biological farming. This effort is presently at an amateur scale. In the future, however, the need for characterization, identification and evaluation of the landraces, for the definition of the areas where their cultivation will be permitted, for monitoring their genetic integrity, etc. will make necessary the involvement of more professional agents (breeding institutes, companies or farmers' associations, etc.). Regarding the balance between ex situ and in situ conservation, practically only ex situ conservation related to on-farm conservation is implemented. Regarding programmes aiming to increase farmers' skills in crop identification, selection and breeding and seed maintenance, only informal training of amateurs and ecologically minded farmers exists on a limited scale.Activities related to on-farm conservation in Italy are concentrated in the following 14 regions: Trentino Alto Adige, Lombardia, Toscana, Marche, Piemonte, Campania, Sardegna, Valle d'Aosta, Liguria, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Molise, Emilia Romagna and Veneto. Most of them are in the north centre of the country. Local crops and indigenous material are cultivated in their original sites (in situ conservation) such as fruit trees (apple, plum, peach, apricot, cherry, chestnut, grapevine, olive, fig, pear, lemon); vegetables (onion, asparagus, potato, pepper, rhubarb); legumes (pea, chickpea, \"cicerchia\" = L. sativus and L. cicera); cereals, maize and forage species (lucerne or medica). Surface areas for on-farm conservation of vegetables generally do not exceed 1 hectare, but recorded exceptions exist (i.e. 'cuneo' pepper in Piemonte). Larger areas of cereals and forage landraces are managed. As for vineyards it is possible to find a few hundred hectares of local old cultivars (i.e. 'sacrantino' and 'grechetto'in Umbria) managed in different regions. In olive tree orchards, owing to the longevity of the plants, local old cultivars are managed to a greater extent (as probably in most other Mediterranean countries). Finally, it is also noted that many local varieties are sold as 'commercial varieties' by seed companies (i.e. 'romanesco' artichoke, 'precoce di iesi' cauliflower, 'quadrato d'asti' pepper, 'rossa di chioggia' cicory, 'delle cascine' faba beans, etc.). They certainly derive from landraces and contribute to the safeguard of genetic resources, even though each year a lesser number of them is found in catalogues, but the extent to which they have been bred, if breeding occurred, is uncertain. Only a thorough inventory could define the real extent of on-farm conservation in the country. On-farm conservation is probably greater than suspected until now.Approximately 20 private associations, nurseries, farmers and private individuals aim to conserve and evaluate ancient local varieties, typical of their regions. Specialized nurseries for the cultivation of old and 'forgotten' plants publish their catalogues and propose the cultivation in private gardens.Examples of private associations are: Regional and provincial institutions are offices and agencies that aim to develop and sustain agriculture at regional or provincial levels. There are about 12 such institutions, e.g. Friuli Venezia Giulia (ERSA), Lombardia (Assessorato Agricoltura), Toscana (ARSIA), Marche (ASSAM), Abruzzo (ARSSA), Campania (SIRCA) and provincial consortiums as in Sassari (Sardegna Region) for fruit trees and in Provincia of Genoa (Liguria Region) for the local varieties of potatoes. Most of these institutions maintain ex situ conservation fields where one can study local species/varieties in order to maintain and improve them, and to reintroduce their cultivation among local farmers. Other institutions such as ARSIA-Toscana, ARSSA-Abruzzo and 'Assessorato Agricoltura-Lombardia' coordinate regional, provincial and local programmes that involve farmers directly in the cultivation and maintenance in situ of local species/varieties.The traditional management is the most generally adopted method, but some examples of biological (organic) management are used in Liguria Region (potatoes), in Molise (private farm) and in Emilia Romagna Region (private association Civiltà contadina). The cultivation of local varieties is mainly linked to the traditional uses and local habits. The niche products are strictly connected to a specific market demand at a local level. The come-back of old taste and peculiar varieties increases the presence in the home gardens of previously abandoned germplasm.In the majority of cases, farmers themselves economically support the on-farm conservation initiatives.Farmers involved in programmes coordinated by local, regional or provincial institutions receive reimbursements. The amount depends on the crop, location and surface grown. The results of the adoption at the regional level of the EU Regulation 2078/92 for the conservation of species at risk of erosion, is that out of 4 regions and about 10 crops reported, 1962 ha are being cultivated representing the support of 1134 million Lire. The Tuscany Region, thanks to the regional law L.R. 50/97, pays farmers involved in the cultivation of local endangered varieties a minimum of 100 000 Lire to a maximum of 400 000 Lire. An Internet forum, in Italian, has been prepared to gather the information and to reach as many people as possible. The site can be consulted at the following address: <www.mclink.it/personal/MF0485/onfarm/index.html>.In Romania, as in other eastern European countries, the cooperative and state farms were established during the socialist period. In the large fields of the lowlands old traditional cultivars and landraces have been replaced by new, modern varieties. However, 10% of the entire agricultural area have never been collectivized, including mainly isolated mountainous villages with small fields, often located on steep slopes with poor soil. Although genetic erosion is rapidly increasing, the 10% of the agricultural area still represents zones with traditional agriculture, where landraces and local varieties are valued in many families for their quality and special uses as part of the traditional life. Furthermore, the role played by women in Romanian rural households has always been very important. Both in fields and mainly in gardens, maintenance, multiplication and selection are some of the activities carried out by women.At present, no institution is engaged in projects researching and promoting on-farm management. There were some attempts on the part of governmental institutions such as agricultural research stations, institutes and especially the National Genebank, to slow down the on-farm genetic erosion by persuading farmers to maintain their old seed varieties. However, neither the Genebank nor other institutions are involved in on-farm improvement programmes.As early as the 1960s, institutes and agricultural research stations have used some old farmers' varieties (maize, rye and barley) to breed new cultivars, incorporating specific traits into local adapted materials. As a result of 12 years (1987-99) of exploring and collecting activities, the Romanian genebank identified the most important agrobiodiversity zones, considered as last refuges of the traditional agriculture, containing old varieties which belong to crops of major importance: maize, oat, barley, rye, wheat, potato, hemp and flax. Since on-farm conservation activities tend to decrease, maintaining the balance between ex situ and in situ conservation is a priority in Romania in order to reduce, to a certain degree, the irreversible loss of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.Farmers' access to new and diverse genetic materials, contributing to increase and improvement of yields, is to a large extent facilitated by governmental institutions such as agricultural research stations and institutes. Isolation in some difficult mountainous zones with specific pedoclimatic conditions limits the access to new germplasm, the farmers still preferring to keep and crop their old cultivars better adapted to local conditions. The recent economic situation prevents some farmers for buying seeds of new varieties, thus limiting access to new germplasm sources.In Romania there are no programmes for cooperation between formal and informal sectors and to increase farmers' skills in crop identification, selection and breeding and seed maintenance. However, there are \"zonal agricultural consulting centres\", at the district level, as a bridge between national agricultural research staff and farmers. In such consulting centres no training courses for on-farm conservation are organized, but only informative activities mostly regarding agricultural techniques, diseases and pests control; introduction of new varieties are undertaken. The activities of the agricultural consulting centres are mainly developed according to environmental sustainability and farmers' particular needs. Farmers' knowledge on selection (breeding, management, use and processing) of crops is necessary to improve on-farm activities and has been monitored to a small extent, by Suceava Genebank staff only. Furthermore, there are surveys on the population and conservation biology of some cultivars (maize, bean, potato) in certain zones with traditional agriculture. Research on crop improvement, including mass selection and simple breeding, as well as studies on little-known crops is about to be initiated.Traditional agriculture in Slovenia has not survived in major agricultural regions; new cultivars were introduced in large areas. The main sources of old landraces and cultivars of crops are preserved in some underdeveloped and marginal regions where old farmers still cultivate them. Also in these regions erosion is more and more obvious. The programme of bio-(eco-) farming, where farms should be exploited without input of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, is under development. The interest in old cultivars is now growing again. The role of women in rural households is very traditional. Maintaining the seeds of some garden plants is one of their tasks since they are responsible for the garden.Some institutions and firms maintain germplasm of some of the cultivars they develop. The Institute of Hop Research and Brewing is the major supplier of hop cultivars developed and bred by them. There is an Agricultural Institute of Slovenia where varieties of potato, grass and clover, beans and cabbage were developed from indigenous genetic sources. At the Biotechnical Faculty of Ljubljana University, the genebank of Buckwheat Semenarna is a firm which trades with seeds and has some domestic cultivars in the programme. Osvald is a privately owned enterprise devoted to breeding and production of some radichio cultivars. Limitations are in farmers' conviction that high-yielding cultivars of multinational companies are the best for them. In some above-mentioned segments, institutions have contacts with individual farmers concerning the maintenance of old seed samples. The genebanks are not engaged in on-farm improvement programmes. Ex situ conservation is institutionalized in genebanks; in situ is more sporadic, based often on the personal interest of the farmer and on informal cooperation with genebanks. Other institutions have possibilities for their own breeding fields and onfarm improvement is not widely practised. The Agricultural Institute of Slovenia and other genebanks also work on the identification of interesting cultivars. Some larger agricultural companies (former cooperatives) or individual farmers multiply varieties developed from landraces for distribution through Semenarna, a seed-producing company.In the past, activities were more oriented toward the planning of agricultural production; they are now individually oriented. Market conditions are also taken into consideration since Slovenia is a candidate for the European Union and the existing market is going to change drastically. The extension service is organized regionally. Around 300 people are engaged in all aspects of consulting and promoting new knowledge. Farmers' knowledge is monitored sporadically but not as a continuous programme. Studies are carried out on population and conservation biology, crop improvement based on domestic cultivars including mass selection and simple breeding. There are extension studies for different medicinal plants, flax, Camelina sativa and old varieties of apples. Priority is placed on population and conservation biology and crop improvement research including research in mass selection and simple breeding but interest for research and extension studies for little-known crops including seed production, marketing and distribution is growing.On-farm management of cultivated species is mainly based on voluntary activities of the informal sector. The most active NGO with a wide seed savers' network is the Sesam Association. The cultivation of different useful plants is also demonstrated in outdoor museums. One example is Julita Estate and Museum, once a medieval monastery, now an estate, near Katrineholm. Several old varieties of apple, pear and ornamental plants like rose and peony are cultivated in the museum parks and gardens. Also hop, rhubarb, several medicinal and kitchen species are grown in Julita (<http://www.katrineholm.se/ turism/julita.htm>). The collection of fruit varieties in Julita is one of the regional clonal archives of the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB). The Nordic fruit varieties and local cultivars are preserved in NGB's network of clonal archives. NGB keeps records of some 600 Nordic apple varieties, 100 pear varieties, and 100 varieties of plums and cherries.Switzerland is very active in on-farm management. It is among the first European countries to have implemented the FAO Global Plan of Action in a national programme and to transfer the Convention on Biological Diversity into a national programme. The interesting approach is that there will be contracts for projects instead of general subsidies based on acreage. This might be a model for other European countries, but experiences with this approach are still at an early stage. The NGO Pro Specie Rara is particularly active in this area. Pro Specie Rara is a foundation working since 1982 to promote the conservation and use of genetic resources in both plants and animals. In plants, more than 1000 volunteer \"seed savers\" are coordinated by very few paid professionals. There are about 60 orchards with more than 1000 fruit cultivars in total. Crop-specific groups work on potatoes, tomatoes, grain crops and leguminoseae. Most people working within Pro Species Rara are individuals interested in genetic variation, cultural diversity and history. Farmers who have to cover their income from selling agricultural products seem to be a minority.On-farm conservation of landraces is carried out in the Ukraine on the basis of individual initiatives, without any financial support. For example, spring rye (Secale cereale L.) is grown on a number of private farms of L'viv and Ivano-Frankivs'k regions, on a small scale (from 0.1 to 1 ha). In Chernyvtsi region, in several villages of Putyla district, the inhabitants grow an old local variety of maize named 'Gutsulskaya'. Local forms of faba bean are grown in many villages of the regions of Ivano-Frankivsk, L'viv, the Transcarpathian, Chernyvtsy. The acreage is up to 0.1 ha. For these crops, the type of management is traditional, and the main reason for maintaining these resources on-farm is for their traditional use. A cultivar of spring vetch (Vicia sativa), 'Kalus'ka misceva', is grown in Ivano-Frankivs'k region, in the village Zhivachiv, most often in mixture with oats and rape. Local vegetables such as beet, cabbage and onion, and spices such as garlic, fennel and poppy are grown in a number of villages, mainly in the western Ukraine. In the same region, a number of localities were identified where the inhabitants maintain old fruit trees. Dr Nadija O. Pilipchinets, a scientist from the Transcarpathian Institute of Agroindustrial Production, negotiated some agreements with farmers for the further maintenance of these old fruit trees, still used in the traditional ways.UK is the home country of one of the most active and well-known NGOs working on the conservation of traditional vegetable cultivars, the Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA). HDRA is an international NGO concerned with researching, demonstrating and promoting organic gardening, farming and food. For the past 20 years it has been campaigning on issues affecting plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and is actively involved in the conservation of traditional vegetable varieties, suitable for gardeners, through the work of its Heritage Seed Library (HSL), which is unique in the UK. HDRA's role in preserving plant genetic resources involves:• Campaigning for a change in restrictive EU seed regulations • The work of its Heritage Seed Library • Collaboration with the UK Vegetable Gene Bank at the Horticulture Research International Genetic Resources Unit (HRI-GRU), Wellesbourne • Assistance to Third World countries, as joint coordinator of the Seed Security Programme • Research, as a collaborator in the EU Potato Trial CT95 34-45.The Heritage Seed Library currently contains over 700 varieties covering all the main sorts of vegetables. Seeds kept in the library can be broadly categorized as follows: commercial varieties that may no longer be sold, heirloom and historical seeds. Our most usual sources of seeds are those that are deleted from the UK national list. As there is no official mechanism for ensuring that such seeds are preserved in a genebank, varieties that have managed to survive from the 19th century quickly become extinct. Heirlooms are seeds that have been handed down from one generation to the next, their origins often lost in family history. Perhaps the best example of this in the Heritage Seed Library is the crimson-flowered broad bean. Finally, there are those seeds with some historical or cultural significance. An example in the HDRA collection is the carlin pea -a tall, climbing variety grown for its dried peas. Carlin Sunday is the fifth Sunday in Lent and, in the northeast of England, it is traditional to eat a dish of carlins on that day. Another historical variety is 'Lumpers', the potato grown in Ireland in 1845 during the Irish Potato Famine.From small beginnings, the Heritage Seed Library has grown to more than 8000 subscribing members. Because it is an offence to sell seeds of varieties that are not on the UK national list, the Heritage Seed Library offers them free of charge in return for an annual membership fee.Seeds are grown at HDRA's Coventry headquarters, either outdoors or in polytunnels, according to the needs of the variety. However, because this could not possibly meet the demand, a network of over 250 volunteer 'Seed Savers' has been set up. Each individual undertakes to save the seeds of a specific variety and returns them to us for distribution. A catalogue is produced in December each year and seeds are sent out in January. In 2000, 30 000 packets were despatched.Inst. Landwirtschaftliche Botanik, Universität Bonn, GermanySeveral publications deal in detail with this subject. A compilation of existing guidelines will be completed as part of the Task Force workplan (see Part II, Session 3).It is useful to note that in 1998 and 1999, two expert meetings took place in Germany on the conservation of populations of wild plants from Central Europe. The following recommendations were made:• Geographical mapping of species is an important basis for conservation (this task has been completed or is under way in many European countries; data will be available in about 3 years) • Geographical mapping of biotopes (in progress in many European countries) • Site-specific mapping (GIS) (planned for some priority sites)• Conservation of the genetic diversity in plant genetic resources belongs to the subjects of nature conservation • The conservation management practices already established for certain biotopes are also suitable for plant genetic resources • The conservation of genetic diversity must be monitored using molecular markers.In addition, the impact of management practices on genetic diversity has to be monitored • Certain marginal sites cannot be conserved due to the atmospheric nitrogen input (4 kg/ha per year), which is changing the composition of the plant communities.A recommendation of the European Symposium (Gass et al. 1999) suggested a list of criteria to assist countries in determining priorities for in situ conservation. A first stage in the preparation of a preliminary priority list at the European level is the survey of the Council of Europe's catalogue of wild relatives of European cultivated plants (Heywood and Zohary 1995).The great advantage of the catalogue is to propose a list of European wild forms related to cultivated plants. Only the close wild relatives belonging to the primary wild genepool are listed. For the main timber trees, fodder crops, medicinal and ornamental plants, only the main cultigens are included. Although the catalogue is incomplete, since several wild crop relatives are not included, it still remains the best reference for determination of priority target species.Table 1 shows an extract of this catalogue where forest and ornamental species have been eliminated, leading to a total of 140 species. The wild species are listed in the first column, the relevant cultivated plant in the second one and the geographical distribution in the last one.The bases to choose the priority target species are therefore those 140 wild species. However, we should probably start basing our choices on the list of cultivated plants. We need criteria to make the choice. But first let me tell you how we have reasoned about these aspects in France.In France, the State Authorities have adopted in 1998 a National Charter for the Management of Genetic Resources (BRG 1999). This system organizes the management of plant genetic resources through networks. Currently 25 crop networks are established for temperate plants. They are mostly centred on ex situ conservation, characterization, database documentation and distribution.A specific network has, however, been established for the in situ management of genetic resources, of \"wild species relative to cultivated species\", which is linked to most other networks. As the involved stakeholders are different from those who participate in the other networks, we have made the choice to build a horizontal platform including all the species concerned with in situ conservation. This network gathers a lot of people, managers of wild flora or natural spaces and scientists but also some managers of the ex situ networks. The network's objective is to inventory and monitor the genetic resources in situ, as well as to carry out in situ management and ex situ evaluation, seed exchange and reintroduction in situ.The establishment of a list of the wild relatives present in France was our first step (Chauvet et al. 1999). Out of the approximately 177 species of the Council of Europe catalogue of wild relatives of European cultivated plants, 130 are present in France: 9 are forest trees and 35 are ornamental plants. The 86 remaining species are relative to fruit, vegetable, fodder, medicinal and field crops. The French in situ network has to take into consideration the 121 species listed, excluding the forest trees that are under the competence of the \"Forest trees resources network\".To initiate the process, 25 target species have been defined (Annex 1). Different criteria have been used, the main one being the existence of a suitable resource person. The second step aimed to produce a complete species form for each of the 25 species (Annex 2). The model form has been prepared by a group of experts, who defined all the relevant criteria without any hierarchical order: level of knowledge, state of present research, threats on the species and especially on its genetic diversity, importance as a genetic resource, protection status, distribution within natural reserves.A first analysis of the completed forms shows a distribution of the target species into three categories:1. Species for which a sufficient level of knowledge exists and with a protected status linked with existing threat to the species diversity 2. Species for which a sufficient level of knowledge exists, without protected status and insufficient knowledge on the level of threat to its genetic diversity 3. Species for which there is an insufficient level of knowledge, which requires scientific investigation.It was decided to focus on the second category for in situ management planning. Three model genera were chosen: Beta, Brassica and Olea.Coming back to the question of the best criteria to determine the European preliminary list of priority target species, ten criteria were defined by the European Symposium in Braunschweig (Gass et al. 1999):1. Is the target species/ecotype/population threatened nationally, regionally or globally? 2. Does the species occur in a recognized protected area? 3. Is the species subject to environmental legislation at a national, regional or global level that requires conservation action? 4. If the species does not occur in a recognized protected area, does it occur in an area where ownership/control/access can be gained and monitoring undertaken? 5. Is it a 'keystone', 'umbrella', 'flagship' or culturally important species? 6. Is it a component of an ECP/GR or other crop network? 7. Ecogeographical range or specificity of the species. 8. Population size, structure and whether isolated, marginal, introgressed. 9. Breeding system and phenological characteristics of the species. 10. Once priority species have been determined, an effective strategy is to conserve those that occur in the same ecosystem or habitat, i.e. give priority to the conservation of sites that are rich in species of wild relatives.The above criteria need to be clarified and ranked. The additional criterion of \"the level of knowledge and of current research\" has been very useful in the French process. If we combine these last criteria with the list of the existing ECP/GR networks and the wider distribution at the regional level, we can propose a first list to be discussed during the meeting (Annex 2). Annex 2. Form for information on French species• Introduction of the cultivated plant and its genetic pool inside the botanical genus (or more).• Existence of a network for the cultivated plant (coordinator, wild species in ex situ collection).• Past and potential interest of the wild relatives for breeding. Ecological interest. Heritage interest.• Taxonomy of species with genomes and ploidy level.• Flower biology and reproduction (pollination, sexual reproduction or not, incompatibility, etc.).• Demography, lifetime, etc.• Seed physiology.• Structure of genetic diversity (morphological characters, biochemical characters, molecular characters).• Global and French distribution area, with maps.• Habitat.• Structure of populations (social or scattered).• Indigenous or naturalized status.• Existence of predators or parasites.• Status according to IUCN criteria.• Threats on ecosystem or habitat.• Introgression risks with cultivated plants.• Identification of knowledge gaps and methodological bolts.• Identification of modifying factors on populations (human practices, etc.).• Possible types of management (in situ, ex situ, ecosystem management, ordinary observation, etc.).• Identification of possible stakeholders involved in ownership, in control of envisaged sites and in management.Schedule of knowledge and definition of priorities. Festuca pratensis Hudson, Festuca rubra L.Humulus lupulus L.Lactuca serriola L., Lactuca saligna L Lathyrus cicera L.Lolium multiflorum Lam., Lolium perenne L. MAB is an intergovernmental interdisciplinary programme conducting research in many different fields concerning interrelations between human beings and the environment. It offers opportunities for promoting both in situ and on-farm conservation of PGRFA.The MAB programme unites 120 countries worldwide. Thirty-two European national programmes (also including Canada and USA) form the EUROMAB network. The main instruments of the MAB programme are the biosphere reserves. At present the world net consists of about 350 biosphere reserves in 85 countries and 180 reserves are registered in Europe.Biosphere reserves are ideal sites for in situ conservation of plant genetic resources because they include strictly protected core areas where the ecosystems are kept in their original conditions and existing populations of wild plants are not disturbed by anthropogenic activity. They are protected on a legal and long-term basis. Biosphere reserves are managed by administrative and scientific staff, who can provide permanent scientific advice and accumulation of well-ordered scientific information.Biosphere reserves include 'maintenance zones' and 'development areas' which are, in fact, transition zones between the core area and the non-protected territories. These areas can also be used for in situ and on-farm conservation of PGRFA. They function with the participation of the local population. This means that the local farmers can benefit from conserving and managing plant genetic resources by being involved in specific projects or by direct marketing of valuable species.Biosphere reserves are connected with the international networks. This gives the possibility of international sharing of know-how, knowledge and experience and of coordinating programmes and projects.We think that the capacity of the biosphere reserves should be extensively used in the ECP/GR research projects. It is especially important to use the potential of local people and specialists who are already doing research and managing the reserves.Large territories included in the MAB programmes are not covered by the ECP/GR programme. Cooperation between MAB and ECP/GR provides access for the latter to the vast block of information on plant genetic resources of the New Independent States of the former Soviet Union. Information on plant genetic resources in this part of the world is scarce and still not easily available, but a great part of it can be obtained through the MAB information system.Director of Pro Specie Rara, Aarau, Switzerland Pro Specie Rara (PSR) is a Swiss Foundation, founded in 1982. It works with both PGRFA and animal breeds. In the year 2000, ten part-time workers coordinate about 2000 seed savers and breeders of rare animals. The overall turnover is about US$ 600 000. Less than 50% stems from formal sources, mostly the Swiss national plan of action and subsidies for programmes on rare animal breeds. The rest is paid by private donors.The plant projects are based on:• A seed library system, where seed savers get seeds and multiplication instructions. They then multiply the seeds and send them back to the library together with a small form where they declare whether they keep the variety or not, and where they specify their experiences with the variety. • Crop-specific projects in close collaboration with the formal sector, e.g. a potato virus cleaning system which includes cleaning by the Swiss research station in Changins, a microtuber multiplication carried out by the agricultural school of Flawil, and a few private seed producers in mountainous areas who maintain clean seed tubers under supervision of specialists. • A system of seed saver gardens where a great multitude of varieties is shown to a wide public. Pro Specie Rara coordinates the set of varieties which is shown (and multiplied) at each place. • A coordinated set of so-called \"arboreta\" or \"heritage vineyards\". These are private collections (orchards or vineyards) with a minimum set of 25 fruit trees or 300 vine rootstocks with rare varieties that are under contract with PSR, which provides the trees or rootstocks. Private individuals are responsible for maintaining the orchard/vineyard in good condition as well as the right to consume all products.PSR also provides support for planting and technical advice in their maintenance. All plantations are controlled regularly and data are stored in a database.Large databases are set up to monitor and coordinate the multiple work. Part of them is published and available on CD-ROM or diskettes. Soon, they will also be partly accessible via the Internet. Regular publications are produced for a larger public in four languages (French, English, Italian and German).PSR is open to collect and exchange any type of PGRFA, obtained from mostly elderly people, from active researchers, from partner NGOs and from genebanks. All PGRFA are shared with anybody willing to work with them.PSR is convinced that genetic diversity is based on the different methods people use when they work with their plants. So it is important to let people work in different ways to keep a wide diversity, to adapt the variability to new environmental circumstances and to find new economic niches. In-garden management and conservation is a relict system of selfsubsistence as well as a new area for further development of PGRFA under (western) Europe economic conditions. Some people pay, others do the work PSR projects are undertaken in collaboration between urban and non-urban people, where urban people share their money and their ideas with farmers and gardeners.A small professional centre coordinates a huge number of decentrallzed amateurs Voluntary work is highly esteemed, because people are enthusiastic, idealistic and full of good will. Nevertheless, a certain amount of coordination is needed, which is carried out by a small number of PSR professionals.PSR tries to include as many cultural aspects as possible, which always accompany a specific variety. PSR is convinced that the genetic and cultural aspects are equally important. Therefore, its projects are based on people and plant production systems and not only on gene conservation.As a consequence, PSR has to accept -as do other NGOs and genebanks -that their varieties may shift, adapt and vary over time. Therefore its work comprises both conservation and development of PGRFA.The EUFORGEN Programme was established in 1994 as the implementation mechanism of Resolution S2 adopted at the First Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe. Having a similar mode of operation as ECP/GR, the EUFORGEN Programme is overseen by a Steering Committee of National Coordinators from 30 participating countries. It operates through five networks and the coordinating secretariat is hosted by IPGRI. The outputs of the networking activities include European long-term gene conservation strategies and technical guidelines for different species or groups of species.The main objective of gene conservation strategies in forestry is to create good conditions for future evolution of populations. As most forest trees are long-lived, undomesticated and outbreeding species with wide distribution, dynamic in situ conservation represents the main approach used. Managing and conserving forest genetic resources require good understanding of genetic structures and processes, in order to sample the diversity of wild populations. The Multiple Population Breeding System was developed by forest geneticists to effectively combine gene conservation with tree breeding. The EUFORGEN networks have discussed and suggested ways for application of this concept to a number of species in Europe.Technical guidelines were also produced. They provide practical advice on methods and measures to be taken in genetic reserves. The recommendations target forest officers and agencies responsible for this area. They focus on the origin, size, silvicultural measures (e.g. thinning) and regeneration in genetic reserves. A survey recently conducted in 36 European countries indicated that a set of guidelines for genetically sustainable forest management in production forests had been widely adopted at national level, but only some of these are actually applied in practice.Until the beginning of the 20 th century, lentils were widely grown in Germany. According to Fruwirth (1914), lentils were grown on almost 40 000 hectares in 1878. Since then lentil production decreased rapidly and was nearly abandoned. The statistics for 1961-91 show some 5-26 ha. For the later years no data are available (FAO 2000). There are no breeding activities; the last variety was removed from the official list of varieties in 1966. According to my knowledge, traditional varieties have only survived in ex situ collections and there is no supply of adapted seeds (Völkel 1993). Lentils for cropping and consumption are imported from southern Europe or even North America. Nevertheless lentils have remained an important food. They are preferably eaten as soup during the colder months of the year. In 1998 imported lentils consumed in Germany amounted to about 20 000 t (FAO 2000). Lentils are traditionally grown on poor, calcareous soils (Becker-Dillingen 1929). The organic cultivation of such soils with low intensity is of great ecological importance to maintain habitats for a diverse fauna and flora. Lentils were often grown with a supporting crop to prevent lodging. Oats, barley and even winter rye have been reported by farmers as companion plants.Since 1997 several landraces of central European origin from ex situ collections have been screened on farms. Since 1999, 11 of them, chosen for their typical and different appearance, are multiplied in Schönhagen/Thüringen, a traditional lentil-growing area, and seeds will be offered for 2001. Since 1998 small portions of landraces have been distributed through Dreschflegel (organic seeds of farm-based regional production). Until May 2000 about 1500 packets found their way to farmers, backyard gardeners, school gardens and other interested users. They serve for educational purposes more than production. Poor yields caused by wet years and/or lodging are the major problems in lentil production.Both can be reduced considerably by mixed cropping. The multiplication plots in Schönhagen are sown with a mixture of lentil and spring barley, mainly free-threshing forms. Research into sowing date, composition of mixture and weed control is carried out. Suitable pairs of lentil and companion crop have to be identified in order to minimize the costs to separate the seeds. Mixed cropping can also provide a chance to cultivate cereal landraces.How does a variety develop on distinctly different farms? How does the mode of selection applied affect this development? These two questions led to the following experiment, carried out with three lentil landraces of different types. Seeds of the same origin were given in 1997 to three farms in northern and central Germany. During the period 1999-2001 three selection methods are applied: natural selection, positive mass selection and progeny testing. All these selection methods can be handled on-farm and can lead to living landraces.In 1997 and 1998 the work was carried out by Dreschflegel and the Institute of Agronomy and Plant Breeding in Göttingen. In the following 3-year period the collaboration between the Institute and Ms Karin Weng, farmer in Schönhagen, is funded by the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry.Selection on all three farms is done by the author to investigate the effect of the selection site independent of the influence of the person selecting.Living landraces require that farmers work with them continuously. Large-seeded Vicia species multiplying in lentil fields and the seed stock are the major reasons to buy new seeds after 2 or 3 years. Knowledge about seed storage, germination tests and selection methods is not sufficient. To keep a variety 'clean' and maintained under the best conditions, knowledge in handling a variety rather than a crop is required.Looking at lentil cropping, we come across two other restrictions in the economic and legal spheres. Lentil production in Germany cannot compete with the wholesale prices. North American organic lentils in health food shops often undersell even French produce. Consequently local marketing structures need to be built up and strengthened. Lentils in Germany are not touched by the Seed Act, but the supporting crops to prevent lodging are. Be it Avena sativa, Triticum aestivum, Triticum durum, Secale cereale or Hordeum vulgare, potentially suitable landraces of all of them cannot be traded legally from farmer to farmer. We need a legislation that allows an easy seed flow of landraces, often heterogeneous and changing, and abandoned varieties, to be able to cultivate them for particular purposes and enhance diversity.Including half of the Carpathian chain, mountains represent one-third of the Romanian surface. There are some 250 villages located between 800 and 1620 m altitude. Many of them are completely isolated, without road access for cars. Small fields often located on steep slopes with poor soil were never subjected to the cooperativization process.Staff from the Suceava Genebank have identified three zones with very rich agrobiodiversity and of special interest for on-farm conservation activity: Bucovina, Maramure and Apuseni mountains. There, the old agricultural practices as well as local landraces and varieties of crops and fruit trees are still used. They are highly appreciated by farmers for special qualities (cereals, pulses, legumes, spices) and flavours (fruits). These plant genetic resources are conserved ex situ as crop seeds, tubers, meristem cultures at the Suceava Genebank and as seeds, tissue cultures or field collections at some other institutes and agricultural research stations throughout Romania.Over 600 samples of old Romanian varieties from nine important fruit crops (plum, apple, pear, quince, sweet cherry, sour cherry, hazelnut, walnut, sweet chestnut) are conserved at 14 agricultural research stations and one institute. In some areas, traditional agricultural practices concerning crop selection, planting, harvesting and storage as well as processing and utilization are still used.In small farmers' households a positive selection is applied according to:• Seed size: the largest and flawless grains of straw cereals (wheat, oat, rye and barley) and other crop small seeds are picked out by a special sifting process. For maize, all sound grains from certain cobs are selected except those from cob ends that are smaller, not uniform and with reduced biological valueBesides the criteria already mentioned, farmers try to select seeds coming from plants resistant to lodging (i.e. straw cereals), to diseases or/and to pests (all crops). Farmers living in mountainous zones select and maintain seeds from plants resistant to local specific climatic conditions (cold, high humidity) and with a shorter vegetation period.The traditional planting process in small Romanian farms presents some peculiar characteristics. Small fields and gardens grown with wheat, rye, oat, barley, maize, beans, pumpkins and sometimes intercropped with beet, cabbage and other vegetables, pulses and spices, are often bordered by hemp rows. Each farmer also manages a small garden dedicated to ornamental plants, which is mostly tended by women.Regarding maize planting, the long experience generally prevents farmers from introducing new varieties or hybrids that could introduce the risk of modifying and causing the loss of their traditional maize qualities over time. Introduction of new cultivars is, however, made through:• Planting only new material, or• Protecting traditional varieties by inserting various crop species (such as hemp, flax, wheat, oat and barley) as isolation barriers.Bean and peas are sown separately, according to their type (bush or pole). In some zones (such as northern Bucovina), peasants prefer to plant a bean mixture of different morphological types and colour varieties which lead, in time, to a great genetic variability in seed shape and colour. In order to use more efficiently the space allotted to pole bean, in many gardens the farmers sow bean seed together with maize in the same planting hole (the creeping stalk of the first crop will use, as support, the stalk of the second one). For commercial reasons, the farmer carefully selects and separately plants two or three morphological types of the most requested beans for grain (white or variegated) or for pods.Potato varieties such as those with dark violet long tubers and dark violet flesh or yellowish sickle shapes, mostly identified in the northern mountains of Bucovina, are planted either as whole or half tubers (when the planting material is sparse).Besides some landraces of common wheat (Triticum aestivum), used for home-made bread, in Apuseni mountains (Brad Valley), einkorn (T. monococcum) is still cultivated as a fodder grain. Light, stony calcareous soils in this same area are suitable for einkorn, which is here more productive than common wheat and less attacked by wild animals.In order to protect crops, in many farms hemp rows are used as a protective fence against animals and even pests (insects). In some areas of Bucovina and Maramures, hemp stalks are used to keep pests away from stored wheat grain. During the potato vegetation period, one of the most efficient measures against pests is planting garlic rows or wormwood close to the potato plants.Farmers' lands are often isolated and located on steep slopes, where the use of mechanical equipment is not possible. Depending on a household's revenue, the small yield is often harvested and carried on beasts of burden.• Storage of crop produce is traditionally made depending on the species.• Straw cereals grain is stored in dry and cool places (barns and/or garrets). When yield is low, the seeds are mostly kept in the garret, laid in a thin layer (5 -10 cm). • Maize is stored as cobs, within a plank building permitting very good ventilation.Sometimes it is kept as grain when it is naturally well dried. • Bean, pea and horsebean are kept as pods after drying in the sun and the wind. Some farmers, having a few seeds, keep them sorted by type, variety, colour and/or culinary use, in various vessels (e.g. cardboard boxes). • Tubers and fruits are stored, as a rule, in cool cellars. Sometimes, fruits are dried and smoked (plums) or stored in vessels buried in the ground (apples) or kept between hay layers (apple, pear and quince).For processing and use of plant genetic resources, certain small farmer's communities are maintaining traditional customs.Local maize varieties such as 'Hanganesc', 'Moldovenesc' and 'Lapusneac' are maintained by farmers for their culinary qualities. The Romanian traditional maize product \"mamaliga\" is a corn flour cooked with water to a tough mass. Depending on the different customs, various consistencies are produced and various ingredients are added: sugar, pumpkinseed oil, butter, cream, cheese, cranberry juice. Grain and corn stalks are used for animal feed.Besides a few landraces of common wheat (T. aestivum) used for bread-making and animal feed, the grains of einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) are ground and, together with maize and common wheat, are utilized as fodder for pigs, cattle and hens. Rye, in higher altitudes, is grown especially for distillery uses (brandy) and for animal feed. Local potato varieties are valued in certain dishes, mainly boiled or baked.In all zones, most vegetables and some spices are used in various dishes. Mixed pickles are prepared with some of them. The preferred ones are cucumbers, green tomatoes, cabbage (white and red) and, in some zones (northern Bucovina), even small melons and bean pods as well as apple, pear and quince. Local pumpkins are widely grown for fodder purposes and seeds are used for oil or eaten roasted and salted.Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and runner beans (Phaseolus coccineus) are used for salads, mashed or baked, depending on shape, colour and fibre content of the hull. Spices such as savory, dill, celery, caraway, lovage and sweet basil are utilized in dishes and pickles. Some species are cultivated and used in various households as medicinal tea plants (Malva crispa, Calendula officinalis, Chrysanthemum parthenium, Inula helenium), odoriferous plants ( Geranium macrorrhizum, Tanacetum balsamita, Artemisia abrotanum, Artemisia absinthium), spice and medicinal plants (Artemisia dracunculus, Foeniculum vulgare, Papaver somniferum, etc.).Local varieties of fruits are consumed fresh or used in preparing a wide range of jams and compotes (sweet cherry, sour cherry, apple, pear, walnut, quince), soft drinks (apple, common elder tree flower), brandy and liqueurs (plum, pear, apple, sour cherry, cranberry) and cakes (walnut, sweet chestnut, hazelnut). In some farms of Maramures, old local crops for fibres (hemp and flax) are still processed for producing traditional clothes and towels.Coordinator of the Committee for safeguarding of potato heritage varieties on Genoese mountain (Co.Re.Pa.), Genova, ItalyTraditional varieties are evidence of slow selection made by generations of peasants; they do not exist in the wild; they are manufactured and like a document, they can be read and interpreted, and tell a story. Slow selection makes them suitable for the landscape in which they have been reproduced. They may not be the most profitable, but are often the most resistant to that specific climate and hardy to diseases of that landscape. Moreover, if we examine and sum up every effect, we would find them sometimes to be the most lucrative, and their lower dependence on industrial chemical products shows their ecological value. They preserve identity and make local communities alive, because farmers and small nurseries reproduce them, not seed industries. They have an unexpected economic value, sometimes a still potential economy, sometimes already existing, because they allow the creation of a small market that does not suffer from large market influences. Thus, they have a complex value.To find them, we must go to who exchanges and handles them. Finding and preserving them is valuable work, from both an ethical perspective (biodiversity is in itself a value, and its richness measures survival hope for everyone) and an economic perspective (they represent a good potential income for mountain lands, made marginal by intensive agriculture).Before the 1950s, seeds were usually preserved by peasants on Italian mountains or reciprocally exchanged, and seed exchange was one of the bases of local economy.Potatoes to sow, for example, went from highlands to lowlands every year. They were carried down from the higher villages to the lower ones (and carried down again, the year after) and exchanged for flour, wine and, rarely, money. This circulation of seed potatoes was also a good way to preserve their relative pureness. But after the 1960s, with the diffusion of rural cooperatives [consorzi agrari] selling high-yielding cultivars, everything changed: seed exchange stopped and peasants began to buy new varieties, progressively abandoning their own seeds. Now potatoes (and the other seeds) do not move any more from highlands to lowlands and from peasant to peasant, but rather from lowlands to highlands or from a shop to all peasants. This was a small revolution.We could represent the first situation (before the 1950s) as a \"net system\", where seeds were interconnecting all peasants reciprocally, and the second situation (after the 1960s) as a \"ray system\", where the absence of exchanges made peasants more isolated. A net system is the abstract shape of a society based on communication (i.e. on community), but a ray system is the abstract shape of a society based on isolation (i.e. on television, on supermarket and so on). All this shows the social importance of finding, preserving and promoting local seeds and traditional cultivars in order to lace up again the threads of the rural net and to bring back to life the memory of the local communities. This also explains better that local cultivars are not only cultivars, but a piece of a complex social, historical and environmental puzzle, composed of local economy, transactions, traditions, knowledge, practices, landscapes, languages and other elements. Local cultivars give meaning to the whole puzzle. Without the cultivars we can only partially see the puzzle, and therefore cannot fully understand their value. Cultivars are then only good for being collected.Landraces, resulting from a slow selection and handed down through the generations, are the result -and, at the same time, the source and the carrier -of specific rural knowledge applied to a specific landscape's resources. Being handed down, and being carriers of knowledge about their selection and preservation, those varieties are a living expression of the local culture and proof of its persistence. This continuity over time becomes a category of historical analysis and rural anthropology. Far from being just an expression of culture and biological diversity, landraces today are the focus of international protection projects and actions about valorization of marginal rural areas. Their recovery could therefore represent a feasible way of compatible development. In fact, they are valued exactly where they were preserved, in the place where they maintain and transfer the value of well-adapted and ecological and social bonds. If removed, they would lose their value, and at the most become objects for a collection.In order that heritage varieties may mobilize development for rural communities in marginal areas, the consciousness and the respect for some premises is necessary:• Concerning landraces, an inflexible condition is that conservation is coupled to use (domestic and local); for this reason, strategies aiming at their local conservation have to include market aspects: \"in order to preserve it's necessary to eat\". • Economic benefits deriving from landrace conservation must return to the rural communities that gradually, over time, selected and preserved them. This attributes -in fact, if not yet in law -to rural communities and farmers the same status as the founders of seed industries. • Rural communities and single farmers, who bring their knowledge on landraces, must be enabled to become active protagonists in the actions for the preservation and valorization of heritage varieties, through involvement in decision-making and the control of those actions.Nowadays, a great part of on-farm conservation activities is undertaken by different public or private actors with different methods and aims, and surely with a common element: the lack of communication, exchange, comparison between them, although each experience could get benefits from other's errors and failures. Starting from such reflections and with the aim of strengthening actions for on-farm conservation, some coordinated initiatives are proposed:• Establishing a constantly updated Web site for exchange of news, information and data about ongoing on-farm conservation initiatives • Carrying out a historical inventory of vegetable varieties, based on written sources, to be consulted for documentation and verification of their introduction (and of their names), diffusion and persistence in time; this is an initiative on which work has already begun together with Isabella Dalla Ragione (agronomist and coordinator of on-farm experiences on fruit in Central Italy) in order to set up a model project • Monitoring model experiences of on-farm conservation and, consequently, establishing a locally adaptable method and strategy for the economic valorization of landraces and the benefit of rural networks and communities that have allowed their conservation.The present attention to heritage varieties surely is the result of an increasing sensitivity toward questions linked to biodiversity; sometimes it is an effect of the fears produced by the quick process of world's economic globalization. But sometimes it is also the effect of a newly shaped consumerism, which is simply including niche's products in a new marketing strategy. In this case we assist deceitful marketing actions disguised under false ideals of preserving biodiversity. This is an additional reason for diligent monitoring to avoid dispossession and erosion of landraces.Gathering and sharing information on a Web site Proposed actions could be the following:• Inventorying experiences of landrace recovery and of their valorization through involvement, with an active role, of farmers and rural communities • Setting up and managing a European Web site aimed at gathering and sharing inventoried data and encouraging the comparison between coordinators and those responsible for on-farm experiences • Besides the two functions of databank and meeting forum, this system could have other important connecting roles, such as offering an up-to-date agenda of scientific and public awareness issues on on-farm conservation and a Web door to enter other databanks, reviews and sites related to on-farm activities.With the increasing interest in landraces, making them more and more a common choice for every territorial programming, the local and traditional cultivars lists (very heterogeneous in terms of method and research scale) have recently been multiplying. However, to ensure the persistence of varieties and associated practices and knowledge, instead of a generic recall of the past and its tradition, the adoption of rigorous tools based on historical sources is required. The need will therefore arise to support research and monitor activities about on-farm conservation with a historical inventory of traditional vegetables and fruit varieties, based on witnesses and citations collected from agronomic catalogues and manuals published until the 1950s. The inventory would not only testify to a cultivars' introduction and persistence, but also to the dynamics of its propagation. This is not the only way to show evidence of the spread of a cultivar; it is known how landraces easily elude written sources (for they are sometimes known only in vernacular and local circles), but surely a historical inventory might be a useful, although not complete, milestone for landrace research.Proposed actions could be the following:• Searching for written sources and inventorying them • Planning and developing a hypertext base for collecting and organizing data • Going through the sources • Gradual publishing of collected data and, eventually, pictures.The starting of actions toward on-farm conservation requires deep reflection on what has been done until today. This should allow the formulation and diffusion of a strategic proposal, common in Europe but locally valid, to be submitted to governments and the EU, in order to encourage the adoption of specific financial support, and to be suggested to local administrations interested in on-farm conservation actions. Proposed actions could be the following: As the most immediate way of diffusion for the inventory is by printed and Internet publications, the proposal for a method could be communicated at different levels, local and general.Proposed actions could be the following: The concept and definitions of on-farm conservation and management generated considerable debate and discussion. The main points of discussion were as outlined below.On-farm conservation and management of PGRFA describes a process that is highly dynamic and takes place in an ever-changing ecological and human environment. It not only refers to the conservation and management of crop genetic diversity but also to the mechanisms, in particular farmers' practices, which maintain the on-farm conservation and management systems. It concerns the conservation and continuous development of crop genetic diversity, through exchange, storage, selection and breeding, as part of and for the purpose of crop production, and under the agroecological conditions available to farmers and/or self-suppliers.The recommendation from the Group was that, for the time being, reference should be made to on-farm conservation AND management.The main strengths of the system were acknowledged to be the coverage of diversity, the adaptive capability, the linkage with local knowledge and maintaining a full system. Another positive aspect is the improved access by local farmers to material conserved and managed on-farm and the improved documentation of local knowledge. The weaknesses of the system were acknowledged to be its sustainable maintenance, the limited access to original material outside of the area of use, the limited documentation of the genetic material and the limited knowledge of the on-farm mechanisms.The following definition was agreed:On-farm conservation and management of PGRFA concerns the conservation and continuous development of crop genetic diversity, through exchange, selection, breeding and storage, as part of and for the purpose of crop production, under the agroecological conditions available to farmers and self-suppliers. It was also mentioned that on-farm conservation and management also deal with new introductions in the agroecosystems, although agreement of all Task Force's members could not be reached on this point and further clarification and elaboration of these concepts is needed.The following purposes were recognized as pertinent to on-farm conservation and management in Europe:• To conserve and develop cultural landscapes (such as traditional crops, forages, etc.)• To conserve and develop traditional diversity (such as fruit trees, underutilized and neglected crops) • To maintain and develop crop diversity originating in Europe (such as vegetables, herbs and cereals) • To maintain and develop diversity which is not covered by the formal sector.The following incentives were recommended as suitable to promote on-farm conservation and management in Europe:• Access to markets In Europe, a certain proportion of on-farm conservation and management activities consists of \"in-garden\" conservation. A considerable amount of diversity of crop and fruit tree genetic diversity is still maintained in gardens.It was therefore recommended that, acknowledging the importance of in-garden conservation and management in Europe, ECP/GR efforts should assist in supporting these activities.Farmers and hobbyists (also called self-suppliers) are regarded as the principal actors of on-farm conservation and management. In several cases, on-farm conservation and management is carried out within the context of organic farming. The Task Force emphasized the complementarity of the roles played by the formal and informal sectors and felt that they did not need to be categorized or separated.The group acknowledged that the preliminary survey prepared by Valeria Negri, Heiko Becker, Johanna Onnela, Alisea Sartori and Silvia Strajeru was not exhaustive and should be completed. Information gathering had been difficult, owing to fragmentation of activities, involvement of different sectors (formal and informal) and the short time allowed to collect information. All these factors made it impossible to reach all the relevant people involved in on-farm conservation and management in Europe.The Task Force confirmed the need to continue and maintain an ongoing survey of different on-farm conservation and management activities in Europe, to identify gaps and opportunities for collaborative work and to widely circulate the information.The Task Force agreed that present seed legislation in the European Union is a major constraint for on-farm germplasm conservation of seed plants and suggests appropriate changes. However, the reception and enforcement by state members of Directive 98/95/CE on seed legislation of the Council of European Communities of 14 December 1998 was recognized to be the first step needed to solve problems related to landrace seeds and the need for free-of-charge registration. A subsequent step could be the adoption of a list or register of existing landraces, to be compiled as a result of systematic regional surveys. The Register would acknowledge the existence of autochthonous material belonging to different agricultural areas characterized by high levels of agrobiodiversity, local knowledge, history and traditions. Moreover, the Register would offer a baseline for decision on the implementation of appropriate safeguarding measures. However, the adoption of a register of existing landraces also raised concerns within the Task Force, since it would go against a dynamic process of conservation based on adaptation to an ever-changing environment. Additionally, the danger to discriminate between registered and non-registered varieties would still persist. Also the problem of definition of \"landraces\" was mentioned and the risk that those old varieties would remain excluded (such as the old wheat variety 'Probus', which was deleted from the main list of varieties and could not be entered on a landrace list). An alternative mentioned would be a \"no list approach\" for minor crops and garden plants, based on limited production quantities.It was agreed that governments and local authorities could play a major role in implementing proper legislation and in supporting on-farm activities. information on seed legislation of their respective countries and other information available to them.3. Paul Freudenthaler to collect information regarding seed legislation, with special attention to variety registration fees and to the state of development of laws permitting the use and trade of landraces in Europe. 4. All documents will be circulated to the subgroup for comments and recommendations aiming at establishing effective lobbying strategies to facilitate the approval of appropriate seed legislation. The subgroup will also seek the opinion of the International Association of Plant Breeders (ASSINSEL) at this stage. 5. Documents and accompanying comments will be sent to the ECP/GR Secretariat by 31 October 2000 and published on the ECP/GR Internet pages.A strategy for rescuing traditional cultivars, actively involving local communities, was presented. The strategy gives value to the local products of landraces, assuring a higherquality product through organic cultivation and stressing the importance of preserving local traditions (including culinary), so that even with a relatively low productivity, landraces can be sold for higher prices, leading to increased profits for farmers.The following proposals and general recommendations were made: 1. To include in the characterization of landraces and local cultivars, when possible, historical and anthropological knowledge. This consideration will be investigated by the working group on descriptors and links with existing crop databases (see Session 5). 2. As a supplement to the survey of ongoing activities prepared by Valeria Negri et al.: -to identify and study different strategies used to promote and value landraces and local cultivars (attention should be given to traditional farmers' practices, geographical specificity, experiences of local organizations, private collections, organic farming networks, non-organized self-suppliers, etc.). These strategies could be documented, compiled and made accessible via the ECP/GR Internet pages (action included in the workplan of Session 6). -to monitor on-farm activities and methodologies used to add value to landraces (action included in the workplan of Session 6). 3. To promote the involvement of multidisciplinary teams, including persons with different roles, knowledge and skills, for the support of on-farm activities, with the aim of developing flexible and locally adaptable methods, involving farmers as main actors of on-farm activities and to add value to landraces. The discussion clearly indicated that the formal and informal sectors have a different conception of the use of descriptors. The formal sector aims at distinguishing the differences between all the accessions and describing all the characters that may be relevant for their current or future use. On the other hand, the informal sector often aims at describing just the most distinctive and discriminative characters in a user-friendly way. The formal sector is working mainly with detailed descriptions often based on IPGRI or UPOV descriptors. These descriptors have been developed to describe in great detail a plant in a systematic way. They often use descriptors based on a single choice and on codes. The aim is to fully characterize the accessions and facilitate data exchange, using standardized documentation systems.The NGOs have a different approach to data collection. They mostly use text-based systems, often with a small set (5-10) of variable descriptors (see Figs. 1 and 2). The aim is to quickly identify a few typical traits which differentiate a specific variety from a similar one or which are unique for this variety. They use descriptors that take into account the variability of landraces and allow for more than one choice to be recorded per descriptor. Ranges of variation are used to define a specific variety, thereby ensuring a close description of its typical characteristics. Specific and unique descriptors can be used to characterize the varieties of a species. For example, the extraordinary size, specific colour, particular shape of the leaves or the very early maturity will specify the most relevant traits of a tomato variety, compared with another.The Task Force recommended that, as far as possible, formal and informal organizations would additionally describe their varieties in a \"catalogue\" way, using short descriptions in a structured text. This information should be added to formal and informal sector databases. The aim is for interested people to have a rapid overview of the varieties to facilitate selection. The description, when possible, should also be recorded in English to facilitate the exchange of information.The proposition of the Task Force is to add a few text fields to the databases for the description of variety in words. The following information is proposed to be included in the following order: (1) Origin of the material, (2) Short history, (3) Short phenotypic description, (4) Typical uses, (5) Specialities.• Formal and informal organizations to participate in the development and processing of such descriptors, leading to a greater acceptance and utilization of germplasm.• A minimum number of descriptors should be agreed for the description of each species, which would give an overview of a variety/cultivar. A general recommendation is that such a list would not exceed 10 descriptors. • The possibility to make more than one choice per descriptor would be preferable to allow the description of the variability, e.g. of landraces/populations. • In order to provide an overview of European formal and informal databases, it would be helpful to have a short review (inventory) of the existing GO and NGO databases, which would be published and linked on the Internet.  Discussions during the plenary session raised concerns over the introduction of additional text descriptors, considering that existing descriptors used in the European Central Crop Databases (ECCDBs) and the IPGRI descriptors already provide sufficient information (i.e. descriptors on \"Country of origin\", \"Plant use\", \"Pedigree\"). Provisions allowing for more than one choice per descriptor have been made for many descriptors from the IPGRI lists of crop descriptors. However, it is acknowledged that the description of variable populations is a challenge even for the existing descriptors that aim at taking this variability into account, such as the IPGRI descriptors.A subgroup including Janko Rode, Martin Bossard, Wieslaw Podyma and Bert Visser will create a forum between formal and informal sectors on the use of descriptors. The dialogue by email, coordinated by J. Rode, should look at improving the compatibility between the formal and informal databases, keeping in mind the needs of a wide range of users. The subgroup is expected to report on progress made to the Chair of the On-farm Task Force by December 2001.The subgroup is welcome to involve other ECP/GR Documentation experts in the discussion (i.e. the Internet Advisory Group). The following objectives would be brought to the subgroup's attention:• Provision and use of conversion tables (from codes to text)• Opportunity to adopt descriptors summarizing the main characteristics of given accessions and their history • Development of descriptors for variable landraces and populations • Review of existing GO and NGO databases.The Task Force agreed on the importance for the European crop databases of providing links to databases of farmers' knowledge and other information related to germplasm held in the genebanks. It was noted that a few genebanks, e.g. in Romania, in Poland, and the Nordic Gene Bank, already include farmers' knowledge information in their documentation systems as a regular practice.• Regarding data-gathering methodology and development of databases, the Task Force agreed on the following general recommendations: • Collect as much information as possible (written documents, photos, videos, Geographic Information System data, soil samples, etc.) • Agree on a standardized set of farmer's knowledge data descriptors • Involve specialists from different fields (anthropologist, linguist, etc.) in the evaluation and analysis of collected data • Allow for a continuous update of the farmers' knowledge databases • Ensure feedback of information to the contributing communities • Establish links from crop databases to farmer's knowledge databases.The Task Force acknowledged that further research would be needed to develop recommendations on the appropriate mechanisms for the inclusion of farmers' knowledge data into documentation systems.As a first step, the Task Force recommended a compilation of information on the mechanisms currently adopted in different systems (genebanks, NGOs and others). Janko Rode and Martin Bossard agreed to collect existing information and make it available to the Task Force by October 2000.On the basis of this information, a subgroup composed of Janko Rode (coordinator), Martin Bossard, Wieslaw Podyma and Bert Visser agreed to work toward the solution of the issues listed below, in consultation with experts from the ECP/GR Documentation and Information Network. The subgroup is expected to report about its progress to the chair of the On-farm Task Force by December 2001.• Analyze the relevance of the data The Group agreed that improvement of collaboration between the informal and formal sectors is an essential element for the fruitful operation of the On-farm Conservation and Management Task Force of the ECP/GR In situ and On-farm Conservation Network.• The following general recommendations were agreed:• Individual ECP/GR member states are encouraged to establish joint formal/informal working groups • The European Commission and ECP/GR member states are encouraged to identify and eliminate existing legal restrictions to the use, exchange and trade of landraces and old cultivars • National Programmes are encouraged to involve the participation of NGOs in the implementation of their national plans of action and to facilitate access to national and international funds • Participation of NGO representatives as members, observers or resource persons in the ECP/GR Steering Committee, Working Groups and Task Forces should be enhanced • The ECP/GR Documentation and Information Network should include in the agenda of its next meeting an item related to the descriptors for the exchange of data between the formal and informal germplasm collections.• A subgroup on \"seed legislation\", including representatives from formal and informal sectors, is to be established (see specific workplan of Session 2). • The inventory of on-farm conservation and management activities compiled by Valeria Negri et al. will be supplemented with additional information from GO and NGO activities, and the document will be published on the ECP/GR Internet pages.• The document will be prepared jointly with NGOs and the costs will be partially covered from available ECP/GR funds (US$ 5000), provided that Steering Committee approval is granted.The following items should be included in the final document, to be completed by end of December 2001:• A catalogue of possible joint formal/informal actions (based on information collected for the inventory of on-farm conservation and management activities) By October 2000, a concept note for the implementation of the tasks described above and including proposed partners and cost estimate breakdown, will be provided to the ECP/GR Secretariat by M. Bossard, in agreement with the Task Force, for submission to the Steering Committee.A proposal for a pilot study was presented by Wieslaw Podyma to the Task Forces members. The Task Force on On-Farm Conservation and Management considered some regions of Romania as key areas for on-farm conservation and management in Europe based on the following criteria:• Pending approval by the ECP/GR Steering Committee, it was recommended that approx. US$ 5000 from available ECP/GR funds be used for the following activities:1. Measuring the genetic diversity conserved 2. Studying the process including socioeconomic reasons for conservation and management.Five target crops were proposed for study in this project: Triticum aestivum, Triticum monococcum, Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris and Cannabis sativa.The project could be implemented in three different sites: Depresiunea Radauti -Obcina Brodinei (Bucovina), Valea Izei (Maramures) and Depresiunea Brad -Halmagiu (Apuseni Mountains).Silvia Strajeru agreed to formulate a draft proposal following this request, based on the discussions during the meeting.The following section reports on discussions during sessions on various subjects connected with the conservation of wild species in genetic reserves. Each session resulted in a list of conclusion and recommendations. For each activity recommended, the name of the coordinator and the time scale for the activities is specified.Chair: Nigel MaxtedIt was decided that the title In Situ Task Force was misleading and inappropriate for the Group and after much discussion of an appropriate name it was agreed to rename the Task Force as the \"Wild Species Conservation in Genetic Reserves Task Force\". The preliminary survey of existing genetic reserves in Europe was useful but not comprehensive. There is a need to re-survey interested parties to obtain a more comprehensive list. To avoid confusion over what constitutes a genetic reserve, potential information providers will be given a definition of a genetic reserve and will be asked to complete an 18-point questionnaire for each reserve (see questionnaire in Appendix III).In several countries it is difficult to identify the agency and the person responsible within that agency for in situ conservation of PGRFA, thus making it difficult to promote genetic reserves or on-farm conservation within each country. • When ECP/GR National Coordinators are contacted for the details concerning genetic reserves in their countries, they should also be asked to clarify which agency and who is the named person responsible within that agency for in situ conservation of PGRFA in their country (ECP/GR Secretariat).There was much discussion about the purpose of producing a list of priority target species for genetic reserve conservation, how the list would be used and how many species should be included. It was also recognized that a list in this context could be disadvantageous, as excluded species might be considered to have been placed on a 'blacklist' of species unsuitable for genetic reserve conservation. There are already several lists of the PGRFA in Europe (e.g. Heywood and Zohary 1995;IPK and IGR 2000). Therefore, it was decided that it would be better to generate lists as appropriate to suit specific demands.Maintain a watching brief on the generation of novel lists of PGRFA species in Europe (Nigel Maxted).Chair: Ruth WingenderIt was recognized that the conservation of weeds is an important aspect of PGRFA conservation that is often overlooked. It was felt that by definition, weeds could not be conserved as such in genetic reserves, weeds being defined as plants growing where they are not wanted. Therefore, the responsibility for their conservation should be passed on to the On-farm Conservation and Management Task Force. However, the same species might be conserved in genetic reserves but then they would be regarded as target taxa and so not strictly as weeds.It was recognized that there are several existing published sets of guidelines for the establishment and management of genetic reserves (Gadgil et al. 1996;Maxted et al. 1997;Safriel 1997;Safriel et al. 1997) and numerous other unpublished methodologies have been applied. The compilation of these methodologies would be useful for those considering the establishment of future genetic reserves in Europe.7:233-239.It was suggested that any novel genetic reserves established as a result of the Task Force's activities should incorporate an element of experimentation with the existing guidelines to assist with the development of generalized methodologies.The On-farm Conservation and Management Task Force is asked to consider the conservation of wild and weedy species along with the traditional varieties of crops in on-farm conservation projects ( Nigel Maxted / request made during the workshop).An inventory of existing guidelines for the establishment and management of genetic reserves for the conservation of wild PGRFA species should be compiled. The information should be published via the ECP/GR Internet pages (Ruth Wingender / September 2000).Once the list of existing genetic reserves in Europe is available (see Session 1), an attempt will be made to elucidate the establishment and management methodologies used. The information will be published via the ECP/GR Internet page or printed guidelines by IPGRI (Nigel Maxted and Ruth Wingender / May 2001).Novel genetic reserves should be encouraged to incorporate an element of experimentation with establishment and management guidelines (All).After much discussion it was agreed that there are no general recommendations for general research initiatives as all aspects are species dependent. For example, methods of site selection, population size, management, monitoring and data analysis will vary depending on the target taxon characteristics, organization undertaking the conservation, country, etc. However, it is important to stress that there are extensive research questions to be addressed, but these will be specific in nature and often tied to individual target taxa or individual genetic reserve projects.It was recognized that there is already an extensive literature and research impetus in the field of ecosystem/habitat conservation and much of their findings would be applicable to genetic reserve conservation of wild PGRFA species. However, it is important to realize when interpreting the research findings from ecological conservation, that genetic conservationists place a greater emphasis on conserving genetic diversity. Assessing genetic diversity (via morphometric or molecular techniques) is the ultimate goal of all PGRFA conservation, whether in a genetic reserve or using a complementary technique. There is a need to establish explicit links to the utilization of conserved diversity.One of the most difficult aspects of establishing a genetic reserve is enacting the most appropriate management interventions at a site. It is recognized that mathematical modelling systems may prove useful in planning experimental management interventions and thus avoid any inadvertent population or genetic diversity loss. Chair: Nigel MaxtedIt was stated that the future of the Ammiad genetic reserve in northern Israel, possibly the longest running genetic reserve for PGRFA, was not secure and that the site may be threatened by development. It was agreed that the conservation of wild wheats at the site was highly desirable and that every effort should be made to retain the site in its existing form.It was agreed that there was a need for two distinct kinds of genetic reserve proposals, a general, strategic, species-comprehensive, as well as individual species-specific proposals. The general strategic proposal would provide the basic foundation and backbone for multiple individual taxon-specific proposals. It was also agreed at this stage to develop two specific genetic reserve proposals. The choice of the target taxa for these proposals should be limited to:• Species covered by existing ECP/GR working groups • Species suitable for genetic reserve conservation • Crops with diverse wild relatives found across Europe • Crops for which there is already extensive ecogeographic and genetic information on the included taxa.After discussion of potential alternative taxa, it was agreed to focus the initial speciesspecific proposals on cereals (wheat, barley and oats) and brassicas, though this initial choice need not preclude the development of projects for other taxa if there was either an urgent requirement or a particularly motivated group of experts. An outline of the three proposals to be developed is summarized below.Note: this project proposal was already well advanced prior to the workshop.To locate, catalogue and assist in the genetic reserve conservation of PGRFA species of Europe.For each selected priority taxon from the Heywood and Zohary (1995) list, the background ecogeographic data will be collated from the European botanical literature using the established methodology of Maxted et al. (1995). This will involve the collation and analysis of the available geographic, ecological, taxonomic and genetic data. The European flora is the most thoroughly studied in the world and the sources of data are likely to include: European (Tutin et al. 1980;Cullen et al. 1984Cullen et al. -2000) ) and numerous subregional and national floras, specific revisions/monographs, published articles, grey literature, botanical atlases, floral databases, as well as information from the network of country botanists for each selected target taxa.When the literature-based ecogeographic survey is completed, it will be possible to generate an ecogeographic statement for each target taxon. This synthesized report for each species will be held in a database and used to indicate the ecogeographic niche occupied by the target taxa and assist in locating target taxon populations.Ecogeographic studies may be used to indicate the broad area of geographical and ecological distribution of a species. This information may then be matched against the existing network of national parks and protected areas in Europe (IUCN 1994) using geographical information systems. The European network of protected areas is already held by WCMC in ArcView format. The result of this matching will be a predicted list of occurrence of the socioeconomically important native plant species to be found in the existing protected areas throughout Europe.Individual predicted lists of socioeconomically important native plant species for each protected area will be sent to individual national park and protected area managers for population verification/amendment and a revised taxon list for each protected area generated.Once the revised list of socioeconomically important taxa present in each reserve is known, we can more efficiently plan their conservation. One of the key necessities for active, longterm in situ conservation is an appropriate management plan. The information amassed during the ecogeographic survey on the specific habitat requirements of each species will be used to generate individual site management plans for each protected area. In many cases the protected areas are likely to contain more than one socioeconomically important target taxon per site and therefore the management plan will need to attempt to balance conflicting and complementary interests. The site management plans will be supplied to the protected area managers to raise their awareness of the PGR importance of the species found in their reserves and assist them in their management of the target taxa. Although the taxa may have been selected initially on the basis of their socioeconomic importance, they also have undoubted importance as genetic resources for the indirect agricultural uses as well, such as recreation, agrotourism, national culture, etc. Thus when formulating management plans, consideration of a taxon's use in the European plant industry, as well as other potential uses will be considered.The location and cataloguing of the socioeconomically important native plant species of Europe held in protected areas will greatly facilitate their future conservation.The management advice given to individual reserve managers will help them improve the efficiency of the management regimes they employ for the benefit of European socioeconomically important native plant species.The detailed location and cataloguing of the socioeconomically important native plant species of Europe found in situ will enable better judgements to be made about the genepool conservation coverage of these taxa by in situ techniques. The project output will highlight segments of the genepool not currently conserved, 'gaps' that subsequently can be filled by targeted conservation actions. Similarly the results of this analysis may prove useful in identifying germplasm not currently conserved using ex situ techniques.The detailed location and cataloguing of the socioeconomically important native plant species of Europe will ensure better access for future exploitation in the Europe.The detailed location and cataloguing of the socioeconomically important native plant species of Europe will provide a working example of how the remaining European flora might better be actively conserved using in situ techniques.It was agreed that there is a need to develop a project focused on genetic reserve conservation of wild wheat, barley and oats in Europe.It was agreed that there is a need to develop a project focused on genetic reserve conservation of wild Brassica species in Europe.• Ammiad genetic reserve IPGRI will write formally to the appropriate authorities in Israel (i.e. the Ministry of Science) and stress to them the importance of maintaining this reserve for wild wheat conservation, as well as the need to continue the established long-term research programme at the site (IPGRI and ECP/GR Secretariat / June 2000). ","tokenCount":"22845"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b2b395c8d4b8e84bcc98bcf3cb1c3cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de3e7f80-6eed-4536-823c-7ac1d48d6170/retrieve","id":"2078951665"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0f98949c-3ae2-4bac-a382-6b4a4a536fe8","pagecount":"3","content":"In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Senegal declared a state of emergency on March 23, 2020, followed by a range of policy measures to prevent the spread of the coronavirus: Transport was significantly restricted, wet markets were closed, and shops were required to limit their hours. These moves disrupted food supply chains, in particular, those for highly perishable products such as fresh fruits and vegetables (FFV). But these impacts were not evenly felt. Our survey of different actors in Senegal's FFV supply chains, published in Agricultural Economics, found larger agro-industrial companies in modern, capital-intensive supply chains were mostly able to weather the crisis with minimal disruptions, while smaller FFV actors in traditional supply chains faced substantial disruptions to their supplies of labor and inputs, with many smaller producers reducing their area for producing FFV.The majority of FFV for domestic consumption are produced by smallholder farmers. Disruptions to supply chains dominated by smaller actors can therefore lead to significant impacts on the availability of nutritious food, employment, and poverty. As we look for lessons from the pandemic's early impacts in order to better prepare for future shocks, these findings suggest policymakers should put a special focus on improving the resilience of domestic supply chains through supporting small producers, stimulating innovations, and regulating internal trade.To understand the implications of COVID-19 containment measures on FFV supply chains in Senegal, we interviewed all relevant actors, including farm and agro-industry workers, smallholder farmers, traders, agro-industrial companies, importers, and consumers -but without arriving at representative samples for all categories. Data were collected between April and June 2020, using phone interviews and self-administered online questionnaires. These primary data were complemented with secondary data on international FFV trade flows. We rely on recall data to compare the situation before and after the state of emergency but cannot completely disentangle COVID-19-related impacts from seasonal variation. Specific pandemic-related supply chain disruptions depend on the structure and organization of the supply chain in question. It is therefore useful to distinguish between two co-existing FFV supply chains in Senegal:1. A modern, vertically coordinated, capital-and labor-intensive supply chain is organized around a few large capital-intensive agro-industrial companies that produce, process, and distribute produce. These FFV companies mainly focus on supplying export markets.2. A more traditional supply chain is focused on supplying the domestic market, and has a high labor intensity but a lower capital intensity. This chain is dominated by smallholder farmers and small to medium traders and wholesalers, who transport produce from rural production zones to urban wet markets.The distinction between a modern export chain and a traditional domestic chain should not be interpreted as absolute. Some large-scale agro-industrial export companies recently started to supply the domestic market as well and are selling to domestic traders and local supermarkets. Nevertheless, our results indicate that these broad differences played a role in how the COVID-19 crisis affected modern and traditional FFV supply chains differently.On the supply side of Senegal's FFV chains, we find changes in the allocation and productivity of land, labor, and capital inputs in the months after the start of the pandemic and the declaration of the state of emergency.First, among export-oriented FFV companies, larger companies indicated they did not change their production area, but smaller companies indicated they reduced FFV production area by 50 to 75 percent because of the crisis. Among interviewed smallholders, 25 percent said they left land completely fallow during the hot dry season, for which preparation more or less coincides with the start of the COVID-19 crisis, while only 15 percent said they started a new production cycle of FFV in this season, and mostly on a smaller share of land than under normal circumstances. For the next season, the main rainy season that began at the end of the interview period, only 40 percent of the interviewed farmers indicated an intention to allocate land to FFV, while some farmers intended to switch to groundnuts or staple crops instead of FFV.Second, smaller agro-industrial companies and smallholder farmers faced important restrictions in hiring workers, because of both mobility restrictions and workers' fear of becoming infected. In contrast, larger agro-industrial companies reported no problems with the supply of labor. These companies invested in protective and sanitary measures, including setting conditions for social distancing between workers in the field and in processing units, and in a larger capacity or more frequent commuter bus service for their workers -a service that many large companies offer to attract workers. Nevertheless, because of reduced activities, the demand for labor in these companies fell by 20 to 90 percent. Only 66 percent of the sampled agro-industry workers were employed both before and after the declaration of the state of emergency, and 45 percent reported working less frequently afterward. We find no changes in wages and contracts of workers.Third, access to agricultural inputs was a major constraint for smallholder farmers and smaller agroindustrial companies because of mobility restrictions, closed shops, lower availability of vendors, increased input prices, and lack of cash. The largest agro-industrial companies did not experience input-related problems: they had sufficient input stocks, direct buying relations with international input dealers, and could switch between input suppliers in the case of delivery problems.In short, the variance in impacts on the supply of FFV depends on the size of producers and the type of supply chain in which they operate. Our data reveal that better vertical coordination contributes to more resilient supply chains and that the export-oriented supply chain adapts more easily to the COVID-19 situation through innovations.In addition to supply-side impacts, we also observed disruptions in other stages of the FFV chains, including drops in domestic and international demand and substantial changes in how FFV were bought and sold. Also in these stages of the FFV chains, we observe a resilient vertically integrated modern export chain, while the domestic chain was much more impacted, with a wide network of heavily affected traders, intermediaries, and retailers.The pandemic's differential impacts on large versus small producers and the different value chain actors (such as traders or retailers) in Senegal demonstrate the complexity of a shock like COVID-19, suggesting careful and targeted policy attention is required to mitigate the damage among the most affected. Further research is needed to understand the long-term impacts of these supply chain disruptions. However, our early findings point to a severe impact on the availability of nutritious foods, food insecurity, and hunger in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. To improve domestic value chain resiliency, and prevent disruptions during future crises, policy attention is needed to support vulnerable small-scale producers, enhance value chain coordination, and foster innovation. ","tokenCount":"1095"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8018555666832e18c31f96261151a6bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/efdab91d-7ae1-4dea-b79e-735fd0dcfb35/retrieve","id":"-945774900"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3af956d8-c0bd-4a3d-bfdd-832a7dca4840","pagecount":"4","content":"Palabras claves: parientes silvestres, recursos fitogenéticos, inventario, conservaciónEl Atlas Guatemalteco de Parientes Silvestres de las Plantas Cultivadas es una aplicación de Google Earth® desarrollada para estudiar las especies nativas estrechamente emparentadas con las plantas cultivadas, y facilitar el análisis de su distribución, diversidad, y el estado de su conservación a nivel nacional. Veintinueve acervos genéticos de plantas cultivadas fueron elegidos para el estudio, con base en su importancia económica, cultural y biológica. Para cada especie incluida en el estudio, ofrecemos mapas de su distribución conocida, basada en los sitios de recolección de muestras científicas. También se incluyen mapas de la distribución geográfica potencial de estas especies y de la riqueza de ellas en Guatemala, así como un análisis del estado de conservación actual de los acervos genéticos y algunas recomendaciones para mejorar su conservación tanto in situ como ex situ. El Atlas está respaldado por un Inventario de 2,593 registros de muestras científicas de las 105 especies o taxones infraespecíficos recolectados en Guatemala. Estos registros corresponden a muestras de herbario y/o germoplasma, conservadas en diversas instituciones tanto nacionales como extranjeras, y están recopilados en una base de datos en formato Excel. Se puede acceder y bajar esta base de datos a través de la sección Inventario de Especies y Base de Datos. El Atlas fue desarrollado mediante una colaboración extensiva entre el Servicio de Investigación Agrícola del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA-ARS), la Oficina Regional para las Américas de Bioversity International, la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (FAUSAC), y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT).1. Producir un inventario de accesiones existentes de germoplasma y ejemplares de herbario de los diferentes taxones silvestres nativos de Guatemala que son parientes cercanos de plantas cultivadas. 2. Analizar la diversidad de taxones, así como su distribución geográfica, para los parientes silvestres.3. Proporcionar información básica para evaluar el riesgo de erosión genética, así como para la planificación de expediciones de colecta de poblaciones amenazadas in situ y/o llenar lagunas identificadas en las colecciones nacionales de germoplasma conservado ex situ. 4. Proporcionar recomendaciones para futuras líneas de investigación que aprovechan este inventario y base de datos, para fortalecer la conservación, buen manejo y utilización sostenible de la agrobiodiversidad silvestre en Guatemala.Los datos obtenidos para el inventario provienen de monografías taxonómicas, artículos científicos, y miles de muestras herborizadas revisadas en diez herbarios, tanto nacionales (4) como en el extranjero (6), y de los registros de accesiones conservadas en seis bancos de germoplasma que conservan materiales de los taxones de interés. Toda la información rescatada fue compilada en una base de datos que fue utilizado para analizar la distribución de la diversidad y el estado de conservación de las especies de tres maneras:1. Predicción de la distribución geográfica potencial utilizando un modelo de nicho climático 2. Mapeo basado en cuadrículas del género y diversidad total de taxa 3. Análisis del área de ocupación y sobreposición con las áreas protegidas y hábitats afectados Para elaborar los mapas en que se pronostican la distribución potencial de los parientes silvestres en Guatemala, se utilizó el software denominado Maxent, que es un modelo de nicho climático (climate envelope model). Adicionalmente, se produjo un mapa de riqueza total de los taxones analizados al sumar todos los modelos de nicho climático. Esta última capa del Atlas permite identificar regiones con un alto potencial de encontrar varios taxones. Ante la falta de información de conservación in situ de los taxones bajo estudio, se definió el área de su distribución potencial que está dentro de la red de áreas protegidas declaradas, de acuerdo al World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA 2005).Claramente, Guatemala es un país muy rico en diversidad de parientes silvestres de los cultivos. Por estar en el corazón de Mesoamérica-uno de los principales centros de origen de plantas cultivadas a nivel mundial-no es sorprendente que exista en Guatemala un gran número de acervos genéticos (29) y una alta diversidad de taxones (105) dentro de estos acervos genéticos. Además, hay que considerar también la importante diversidad genética infraespecífica-todavía poco estudiada-que existe dentro de cada uno de estos taxones.Dentro de esta diversidad infraespecífica están los recursos genéticos, con su potencial-aun sub-aprovechado-de aportar características únicas e importantes para el mejoramiento de los cultivos.Varios de estos parientes silvestres son especies endémicas a Guatemala, por lo cual precisan de una atención especial a nivel nacional para salvaguardar su conservación para el porvenir del país y del mundo entero.El Atlas Guatemalteco de Parientes Silvestres de las Plantas Cultivadas es una de las pocas recopilaciones en el mundo tan comprensiva en cuanto a la información existente sobre recursos fitogenéticos silvestres a nivel nacional. Esperamos que este Atlas, y la Base de Datos que lo acompaña, sea útil como una referencia-así como un punto de partida para futuras investigaciones-para aquellas personas que desean promover y aumentar la conservación y uso de estas especies guatemaltecas de tanta importancia para la sostenibilidad de la agricultura y para la seguridad alimentaria del mundo.","tokenCount":"828"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"590f3a7b083532e3912549fb641fdee7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3c22a02-de83-41ab-b4ca-757963a8a46a/retrieve","id":"-2071808247"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d4e433f8-f5ab-41b2-a778-c4773ed280f5","pagecount":"102","content":"CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area. CTA's programmes are organised around three principal activities: providing an increasing range and quantity of information products and services and enhancing awareness of relevant information sources; supporting the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensifying contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and developing ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate information and communication management (ICM) strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. These activities take account of methodological developments in cross-cutting issues (gender, youth, information & communication technologies -ICTs, and social capital), findings from impact assessments and evaluations of ongoing programmes as well as priority information themes for ACP agriculture.Since 2003, CTA has been systematically conducting needs assessment studies across the Pacific, Caribbean and Africa regions -the regions it has been mandated to serve. These studies have been in direct response to calls for CTA, in various evaluations of its products, services and programmes, to be more strategic in its choice regarding the setting of its own agenda and reacting to demand. In putting together its Strategic Plan and Framework for Action 2001 -2005, CTA took a pragmatic view and opted to develop a strategy combining the benefits of both approaches, whereby the need to address the expressed demands of its stakeholders and the potential long-term advantages of developing programmes that address future needs were combined.The Centre's new strategic plan covering the 2007 -2010 period places emphasis on: improving CTA's efficiency and increasing the Centre's outreach by addressing the major bottleneck of difficult or insufficient access to information in ACP countries;(ii) honing CTA's profile and further defining the niche where the Centre has a comparative advantage. Consequently, reaching more beneficiaries and further strengthening CTA's partnership networks is key as well as the thrust to make ICTs and ICM strategies more widely available.The major objectives of this study are• Provide an overview of the agricultural services existing in Ethiopia (information supply side in terms of their strength, weaknesses and opportunities for collaboration with CTA;• Identify agricultural information and ICM capacity building needs of key actors/ key strategic partners for CTA products and cervices; • Identify potential partners for CTA activities and services (paying special attention to, for example, print media, editors, radio, TV, and journalist networks); • Develop some baseline data on the status of ICM and ICts in the country to facilitate subsequent monitoring and upgrading activitiesAccording to the information gathered from briefing in Uganda by CTA, the following methodologies were employed: a desk study was conducted to capture data and information on the general agricultural and socio-economic profile, media and telecommunications, and institutions involved in agriculture and rural development in Ethiopia. Seventeen institutions were visited to conduct interviews, using a standard semi-structured questionnaire, with key personnel involved in ICM activities.Participatory appraisal, methods were employed as needed. When appropriate ICM staff was absent, telephone and e-mail communications were used to gather information. A total of 34 key personnel involved in ICM and related activities, and top-level managers were interviewed. Data was captured on ICM operations, resources, sources, needs, impacts, constraints, as well as success stories.The expected results of the study are as follow:• status of infrastructure, information services and ICM capacity of institutions involved in Ethiopian agriculture and rural development described and analysed; • information and capacity-building needs in the area of ICM identified for key institutions in the country and potential CTA partners involved in agriculture and rural development; • baseline data on the status of ICM and ICT in agriculture and rural development of Ethiopia compiled for monitoring purposes and improved outreachThe study should therefore also provide updated country profiles on the status agricultural information services, the status of ICM/T in the country, which will allow CTA to make informed decisions re type and mode of intervention as well as partner selection.It was noted that institutions visited in this study depend on different approaches to satisfy their information needs to better execute their work programmes. Institutions also differ in their preference for formats. The common approach, among others, is dependence on interpersonal communications, which are either formal or informal. The formal ones are usually conducted during meetings such as workshops, conferences, seminars, and trainings. This necessitates devising a mechanism to strengthening the linkages among agricultural research and development institutions as well as exposing personnel to regional and international forums.The growing trend of using web technologies for accessing and managing information resources has been featured among institutions. This has the potential to exploit resources from a number of information centres both locally and internationally such as from CTA, FAO, World Bank, and CGIAR online resources.One of the major observations noted among institutions is the lack of understanding the needs of their clients. This has created a major gap on the kind of available and accessible information.One of the other observations is with the policy of FAO to download statistical information for research and educational purposes and poor countries like Ethiopia is very prohibitive.The priority capacity building needs as stated by the institutions interviewed are presented as follows:• Training in ICM and ICT • ICM/ICT/ knowledge policy and strategy formulation and implementation• Training in extension materials production especially multimedia production • Establishing stakeholders and partners forums • Establishing stakeholders and partners forums at national, regional and international levels Overview of CTA's Products and Services QAS was among the most referred services cited by some institutions that already have access to it either through EIAR, which is the national QAS service provider or from CTA. Therefore, the service should be realigned in a centralized way so that institutions and their clients could benefit from the knowledge resources available in various institutions as well as individually.The publications especially production guidelines for a number of agricultural activities were very much appreciated by those institutions that have an extension role in their mandate.The major producer of scientific, technical, and non-technical information and knowledge resources on Ethiopian agriculture and rural development is EIAR. A number of information materials are also produced by the MOARD, regional states agricultural and rural development bureaus, higher learning institutions with agricultural ands rural development interest and responsibility, regional state agricultural research institutions, NGOs such as Agri-Service Ethiopia working with farmers and pastoralists, and agro-pastoralists. Each of them could be a partner of CTA in their own right.The EICTDA is the institution responsible to enhance the ICM capacity of mainly governmental institutions. Though institutions interviewed mentioned a little about information and knowledge policies and strategies as constraints, there is a larger need to handle capacity building activities like training in ICT/ICM and dealing with formulating institutions information and knowledge policies and strategies. This Agency could be an appropriate partner for CTA.The Faculty of Journalism and Communications of Addis Ababa University is also a potential partner for undergraduate, postgraduate, and short-term training in development communications. The Faculty has also the capacity to take care of development communication trainings for the eastern Africa ACP countries.EIAR is one of the institutions that has the most qualified and experienced staff in agriculture and rural development. Stakeholders and clients should be able to use tap such massive resource judicially. CTA has identified the institution as a national QAS centre, therefore, the partnership of CTA and EIAR should be strengthened and the QAS should be able to render services in a very robust manner.It was also noted by a number of institutions that they have good partnership with international organizations such as FAO, UNESCO and UNDP. They also noted that the focus of partnership with such institutions is mainly development or researchoriented with some interventions in ICM. They also suggested that CTA might be able to identify such gaps, form partnership with the organizations, and enhance the capacity of institutions.As one of the problems identified by institutions surveyed, obtaining statistical information from CSA and other international organization such as FAO is difficult.From the local institution like CSA, the problem is more of a bureaucratic one, which could be improved by introducing appropriate policies and strategies. Therefore, CSA could be a potential partner for CTA to work with and avail relevant agricultural and rural development statistical data to users. To satisfy their information needs, reduce the difficulty of acquiring resources such as newsletters, summaries, full documents, leaflets, video tapes, CDs, DVDs, TV and radio programmes, and fact sheets and better execute their work programmes institutions should be able to devise a mechanisms to strengthen the linkages among agricultural research and development institutions as well as exposing personnel to regional and international forums. Also they should be able to spread their efforts to make partnership with CTAThe Institutions should be able to tackle the problem of acquiring certain information like farm problems, social development, gender issues, crop varieties, market data, and management of information through partnership interventions with institutions such as CTA and local institutions which have profound resourcesMOARD should be able to train extension agents and small-scale farmers and encourage them to use them for their comparative advantages especially for weather/ climate and market information.In this study, it was realised that institutions are mostly constrained by the lack of trained and skilled personnel to handle their ICM activities. The suggestion of respondents referred on the need to improve the working conditions for their staff by way of improving the remuneration schemes by government arrangements.The other suggestion was arranging skills upgrading trainings in conjunction with international institutions such as CTA, FAO, UNESCO and CGIAR research centres and local training institutions so that the attrition rate would be minimised.The EICTDA in partnership with international institutions like CTA should work together so that institutions would be able to formulate their internal information and knowledge policies and strategies.Training on basic ICM can help meet some of the institutional capacity needs identified in the study. In this connection, Institutions should make linkages with capable local institutions to acquire the trainings; while at the same time CTA help address such requests by organizing training of trainers' sessions at national or sub regional levels.As QAS was the most referred services cited by some institutions that already have access to it either through EIAR, the service should be realigned in a centralized way so that institutions and their clients could benefit from the knowledge resources available in various institutions as well as individually.The publications of CTA, especially production guidelines for a number of agricultural activities are very much appreciated by those institutions that have an extension role in their mandate. Therefore, CTA should produce and distribute these publications widely; while local institutions should participate with the activities of CTAOne of the critical observations in this study was that institutions have different degree of development in their ICM activities. The difference ranged from being nominal information and knowledge provider to the more resourceful ones. Therefore, CTA, as partner of these institutions, can intervene by way of capacitybuilding venture.Several institutions noted that the focus of partnership with organizations such as FAO, UNESCO and UNDP mostly is development or research oriented with some interventions in ICM. It is, therefore, recommended that CTA should work on identifying ways and means to form inter-institutional partnership with such organizations when they work in isolation for a similar case in the country.It is also recommended that CTA shall work by way of mediation with FAO so that FAO could deregulate the policy for downloading statistical information for research and educational purposes and poor countries for a little or no cast.The EICTDA and FJC are the major training and skill-upgrading institutions in Ethiopia, therefore CTA should be able to form a strong partnership for materializing its intervention strategies.The EIAR and MOARD are the major research and extension actors in the country. Therefore, CTA should be able to forge a strong partnership in terms of improving the information needs of researchers and ICT/ICM capacities of extension agents.As regards to the use of media for reaching the society at large, working with ETRA is colossal, because it is owned by the government and it is free especially for public and community based institutions1.The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) has envisaged that by 2010 its technical and financial support for capacity building will have enabled an increased number of African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) regional, national, and local networks and organizations to benefit from its products and services.2.CTA will continue to build on its achievements and pursue the two operational objectives of improving the availability of relevant, adequate, timely and well adapted information on priority topics for ACP agricultural and rural development, and improving the information and communication management (ICM) capacity of ACP agricultural and rural development organizations.CTA has been systematically conducting needs assessment studies of ACP countries with the aim to create better-targeted interventions for potential partners and beneficiaries including women, youth, private sector, and civil society organisations (CSO).The current needs assessment study is believed to maximise the benefit of CTA's interventions for eastern Africa countries by ensuring the systematic application of its corporate strategies emphasizing on the new ICM services; that will involve the use of ICTs and strategic partnership arrangements.The major objectives of this study are to identify potential and strategic partners for CTA to work with and to improve availability and effectiveness of ICM services to beneficiaries in Ethiopia.In this study, 17 institutions/ organizations were visited (Annex 3.2) to conduct interviews using a standard semi-structured questionnaire, with key personnel involved in ICM activities (n= 34) (Annex 3.1). Participatory appraisal methods were employed as needed. When appropriate ICM staff was absent, telephone and e-mail communications were used to gather information.The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is located in the horn of Africa neighbouring Eritrea in the north, the Sudan in the west, Kenya in the south, Somalia southeast and east, and Djibouti in the east. The country is landlocked and has a land area of 1.12 million km 2 . The elevations range from 112 m below sea levels in the Denakil depression of the Afar Region to more than 4,600 m above sea levels in Mount Ras Dashen. The country is endowed with huge water resources of rivers, lakes, and underground water. The livestock population is one of the largest in Africa. The existence of a wide range of flora and fauna and historical heritages makes it one of the preferred destinations for tourists.Ethiopia is divided into 18 major agro-ecological zones and 49 sub-agroecological zones. Nearly one-third of this country's land area belongs to hot to warm arid lowland plains, with hot to warm moist lowlands, hot to warm submoist lowlands and tepid to cool moist mid-highlands accounting for approximately 13.1%, 11.7%, and 11.2%, respectively. It can be seen that nearly 68% of Ethiopia is in the lowlands category whereas the mid-highlands and the sub-afro-alpine and afro-alpine zones account for about 30% and less than 2%, respectively (EIAR, 2007) 9.Ethiopia's economy is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector, which accounts for about 40% of national GDP, 90% of exports, 85 percent of employment, and 90% of the poor. The Country is largely an agrarian nation with majority of the population involved in agricultural, pastoral, and agropastoral activities. Over 60% of the country's foreign income and about 80% of domestic production are generated by these sectors. Smallholding and subsistence agriculture is the main engagement of the people. However, to date, large-scale commercial farms are operational in several regions. Recently however, the national economy is moving from being primarily agriculturebased towards more reliance on manufacturing, construction, and service sectors. As a result, there is a steady annual growth rate in the economy of the country, which makes Ethiopia one of the best performing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. However, income disparities among the population groups are still pronounced. The economic policies of the government and democratisation since the early 1990s have made advances in reducing poverty and empowering the disadvantaged sectors of the rural communities by widening access to social and economical services and infrastructure.10. The total population of Ethiopia in 2007 was about 77 million, of which 53% are below the age of 20 and 4.5% older than 60 years (Annex 2.2.1). Furthermore, 16.5% of the population is urban while the remaining 83.5% lives in rural areas.A slight but continued decline in the proportion of rural inhabitants who are migrating to urban areas in search of alternative income from the increased urbanisation schemes in different regions, has been observed (CSA, 2007).11. Ethiopia has a parliamentarian form of government with a federal government and decentralised regional governments within 9 regional states (Tigray, Afar, Amhara, Oromiya, Somali, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambella, Harari and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples) delimited based on settlement patterns, language, identity and the consent of the people and 2 city-states (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa).12. There are over 80 languages and several ethnic groups (nationals, nationalities and peoples) in Ethiopia. Every nation and nationality has a constitutional right to use and develop its language. However, Amharic is the working language of the Federal Government. English is the common language for science, education, and many other formal activities.2.1. Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, and Livestock 2.1.1. Agriculture 13. This country possesses a wide range of agro-ecological diversity and therefore produces a wide array of crops and animals. Major crops include cereals, roots and tubers, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits and cash crops such as coffee, cotton, tea, sugarcane, and tobacco. In addition, Ethiopia has large areas where many other high value crops such as black pepper, ginger, cardamom, cumin, and fenugreek could be grown, but this potential has not been fully utilized. This country ranks among the highest in Africa in its livestock resources. Cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, camels and honeybee are the major livestock species. The country also has rich water bodies and huge aquatic resources associated with them.14. Close to 31 million ha of the total area of Ethiopia (1.12 million km 2 ) is agricultural land but an average of approximately 10 million ha of this potential agricultural area is cultivated annually. Agriculture is the most important enterprise, providing employment for more than 83.5 percent of the country's population and accounting for more than 40 percent of the total GDP and 90 percent of export earnings (MoFED, 2006).15. In accordance with the UN Millennium Development Goals, the Government of Ethiopia is committed to achieving food security and reducing poverty by 50 percent by the year 2015. Ethiopia's chances of success in this endeavour are largely dependent on its agricultural development. There is a sense of urgency for agricultural research and development (R&D) to make impact on solving hunger, poverty and natural resource degradation and to reduce dependency on aid. There is high pressure and expectations for the agricultural R&D to deliver, perhaps even above the system's current capabilities. 18. There are several farmers' cooperatives, unions and agribusinesses that supply inputs and promote the interests of their members. Numerous NGOs also work closely with farmers or are involved in rural, pastoralist development, and extension activities.19. The major structural transformation in Ethiopian agriculture in the last decade has been the deregulation of markets. This has had a net positive effect on the livelihood of small-scale farmers and has strengthened commercial agriculture in the country.20. There are over 200 species of fish are known to occur in lakes, rivers and reservoirs In Ethiopia. The fisheries in the rift valley lakes and Lake Tana have become a dynamically developing sector of the food industry, employing well over 3, 000 fisher folks. The increase in the number of fishermen has been tremendous in some lakes such as Langano, while a corresponding decline of is seen in others, such as Lake Chamo. Many traders and fishermen have strived to take advantage of the new opportunity by investing in modern fishing and transportation in response to EU-supported Lake Fisheries Development Project (LFDP). Clear signs of over-exploitation of important fish stocks, modifications of ecosystems, significant economic losses, and management conflicts threatened the long-term sustainability of fisheries and the contribution of fisheries to food supply (EARO, 2000).The estimated average national per capita fish consumption is currently at 0.140 kg per year, an increase of 20% over the last four years. At Addis Ababa, the figure is about 1 kg per year, or about ten times the national average, while in towns located in production areas (Bahir Dar, Zewai, Arba Minch, Awassa, Gambella) per capita fish consumption is estimated at 10 kg per year, or about hundred times the national average (EARO, 2000).21. The major fishery and aquaculture R&D and training bodies are EIAR, Oromiya Regional Agricultural Research Institute (OARI), Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), South Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) Bahirdar University, Hawassa University, and Addis Ababa University.22. MOARD is the primary government body responsible for directing, structuring and regulating the fishery sub-sector at federal level in Ethiopia. However, at regional governments' level, the bureaus of agriculture and rural development, in each region, is responsible to direct and support the sector.23. Plantation and natural forest cover of Ethiopia is estimated to be about 3% of the total landmass of the country. Wood and non-wood products and firewood are the major products of the sector. There are several small-scale timberproducing farmers. The forestry sector is contributing to the livelihood of a number of people. Nearly 2 % of the populations is believed to be involved in forest production and conservation of natural forests. However, its contribution to the GDP is not documented yet. To date the country dose not export forest products 24. The major forestry R&D and training bodies are EIAR, all regional agricultural research institutes, most of the universities. There some NGOs that are involved in community forestry and agro-forestry development projects.  39. The strategic programme of agricultural-led-industrialization and the current economic growth record have motivated the institutions visited to do their best to share agricultural and rural development information and scale up their outreach activities in unaddressed and disadvantaged areas.40. The institutions surveyed did not claim any specific legislation that inhibits their efficiency of reaching their audiences to meet their information requirements. However, a few noted that there are certain inefficiencies by some government offices by way of getting sufficient information on time. Some persons also noted that extension agents are not properly trained or lack the experience to share their ICM knowledge with farmers; thus, impeding the rapid development of ICM at grassroots level.41. The government has a specific ICT development policy, which is mandated to the EICTDA. EICTDA has formulated an ICT development strategy aimed at identifying specific levels and types of interventions, which afford the greatest opportunity to achieve the high-level information and knowledge society/ economy goals in the national ICT policy; and lending ICT enabled support to targeted development initiatives such as the agricultural development-ledindustrialization (ADLI) policy.42. Most of the institutions visited are not aware of the existing national ICT development strategy. In addition, none of them has their own functional ICT strategies. However, there is a tendency of copying some institutions that have institutional strategies to develop and expand their ICM activities within their domain. No interviewed persons claimed that the absence of an institutional strategy is affecting their activities towards developing a functional and sustainable agricultural and rural development related ICM. However, a few claimed that there is management inefficiency in their own institutions to support the development of ICM. Some interviewees have also suggested that for subsequent development and sustainability, there is a felt need to have a comprehensive institutional ICM strategy and workable plans.43. EIAR is major producer of scientific, technical, and non-technical information and knowledge resources on Ethiopian agriculture and rural development.However, a number of information materials are produced by MOARD, regional states agricultural and rural development bureaus, higher learning institutions, regional state agricultural research institutions, NGOs working with farmers and pastoralists, CSA and professional societies. EIAR maintains collections of publications produced by such institutions and serves as the nation's repository for agriculture and rural development information and knowledge resources. All literature with content of Ethiopian agriculture and rural development are processed using International Information Systems for Agricultural Science and Technology (AGRIS) database and input to World Agricultural Information Center (WAICENT) to be part of the global resources. In addition, the National Archives and Library of Ethiopia also acquire such publications, preserve, and make it accessible to users.In every institution, it is customary to see a library and documentation centre/ unit, which are accessible internally and open to the public in most cases. The most common sources found in the centres are presented in Table 3.2.3.146. Printed and electronic copies of research findings, study reports, survey results, consultancy reports, etc, are available in all library/documentation centres. However, institutions such as the EIAR, IBC, and CSA also render agricultural information services online.47. Proceedings, research reports, technical manuals, production guidelines, newsletter, bulletins, magazines, and leaflets are published in Amharic and English and are common in 64% of the institutions visited. Certain publications, mostly mass circulating types like leaflets and brochures, are also produced in Oromiffa, Tigrigna, Somali, and other local languages. Largely professional associations publish agricultural scientific journals. Information products and services of the institutions are presented in Table 3.2.3.1. Source: Survey data 48. As one of its strategic activities, EIAR also provides Q&A services using different kinds of approach in collaboration with CTA. The most common ones are provision of relevant publications and answering questions using individual professionals face-to-face, telephone conversations, faxes, e-mail, or using mass media (radio, TV and the press). Users of this service are farmers, students, development agents, cooperatives, unions, local administrators, policymakers, educators/ trainers, researchers and the public at large. The most important challenge in providing this service is getting the appropriate knowledge expert to deal with answers expected by requesters.is becoming a common practice in the majority of agricultural and related institutions. Some institutions such as EIAR are also using WAN to share information resources mainly electronic journals (LANTEEAL). Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) also gives access to major journals in agriculture and related biological, environmental, and social sciences offered by the leading academic publishers.50. Web technologies are playing a significant role in information and knowledge sharing within the Ethiopian context. Most of the institutions surveyed (78.9 %) have websites hosted by ETC. In this regard, it was also noted that the majority of the institutions' websites are static and dedicated to describing their profile.Only 26.3% have portal-type sites with downloadable resources. The MOARD has also launched its portal very recently.51. As a state-owned institution, the Ethiopian Television and Radio Agency has become instrumental in development activities. This is evidenced in their mission statement which states, \"Prepare and present to the public radio and television major and current events taking place within the country and abroad, as well as educational and recreational programmes in accordance with media, press and other relevant policies and laws.\" The agency has a wide coverage of transmitting agricultural, rural, and pastoral information even beyond the nation. For example, the radio agriculture programme and the economy programme of ETV can be mentioned.52. The level of ICM capacity among the surveyed institutions varies widely. In terms of number of ICM staff, only 5.2% have more than 15 staff, 10.5% have 10-15 staff, 26.3% have 5-10 staff and 57.9% have less than 5 ICM staff. The experience and qualification of ICM staff also varies. ICM staff composition of the studied institutions showed that 6.1% have a Masters degree, 30.6% a Bachelors degree, 43.9% have diploma and 19.4% are high school dropouts. It was also noted that 86.7% of the staff have relevant ICM training background with short-term training opportunities. However, almost every person contacted for interview suggested the need more training opportunities in ICM.53. Only 31% of the institutions have an ICM unit while the remainder stated the existence of a library service only. Only EIAR mentioned the existence of an ICM strategy and the majority of the other institutions surveyed stated there is no separate strategy but rather an one within their institutions. No institution claimed the existence of a knowledge management policy or plan.54. The most readily available resource in each institution are personal computers and associated devices such as printers. However, about 79% have LAN and the rest do not have any computer networks of any kind. Among those who claimed to have LAN, 26.7% declared that they own WAN and web-based ICT.55. The only complaint with regard to the impact of government's ICT/ICM policy is the lack of awareness regarding budget utilization and the acquisition of ICTs using government funds. Moreover, the lack of experienced human resources was identified as the sole bottleneck for the sustainability of ICM in almost all institutions surveyed.56. Concerning the budget, 31.6% of all institutions surveyed claimed to have a separate budget for ICM, 57.9% stated that there is no specific budget for ICM, but obtain their budget from the core budget of their institutions. The remaining 10.5% revealed that they generate income for their ICM activities. The latter are all media institutions that depend on the sale of airtime and advertisement fees.57. The availability of information resources or content also varies from institution to institution. The main reason for this discrepancy is the objective or mission statements of the institutions. The most diverse resources were observed from research institutions such as IBC and EIAR. However, specific content, for example, meteorological information, statistical data, environmental and biodiversity information could be obtained from them. The study also indicated that some institutions (21%) require a formal way of delivering data and information to requesters. These institutions (all of them public entities) ask for a formal communication, i.e., producing a formal letter of request. Almost all the remaining institutions have an open door approach for their services; however, more than 80% of them do have certain restrictions for some of their services, which need the requester to appeal to a higher level of authority for permission.58. It was also noted that it is very difficult to get already broadcast programmes from media agencies when asked by some institutions that need such programmes for training and study purposes. This kind of complaint has been stated by 36.8% of responding institutions. As a solution, some institutions suggested arranging a national agricultural and rural development ICM meeting with all stakeholders to iron out the difficulties. They also suggested the involvement of CTA in this regard.59. As mentioned earlier, nearly 80% of the institutions have Internet access at the institutional level. However, all respondents are able to have Internet access from other private service providers in their localities. The most frequent complaint identified in this study was the low speed of access to the Internet even in large cities like Addis Ababa.60. The other most important grievance of responding institutions was inaccessibility of most full text agricultural and related documents held elsewhere, because of a lack of funds for downloading. When asked availability of some freely available resources such as AGORA and LANTEEAL only 31.6% know about their existence and are benefiting from such services, while the remainder are not aware of them. Even those who are exploiting AGORA and LANTEEAL still complain the unavailability of a number of journals in them.61. With regard to online statistical data from FAO, only 10-15% knew of their existence and only very few staff of those institutions interviewed had access to it because of limited funding. On the other hand, data from CSA is very much used by almost all responding institutions. 4.1. Information needs 68. All institutions surveyed stated their requirement for a wide range of information to support the attainment of their goals also to better serve the requirement of their audiences. The list of institutions interviewed and their role and category are summarised in Table 4.1.1. 72. Many of the institutions interviewed expressed the value of marketing information (74%). It seems that most of them are expecting such information to be obtained at no cost. Similarly, the need for market information among the emerging small-scale commercial farmers and pastoralists is crucial.73. Media institutions are very interested in having access to information products while development, research, and educational institutions prefer both information products and services. Certain FM radio stations, daily newspapers and local brokers are filling the gap on market information, but are not adequate and the majority of farmers and pastoralists still do not have the necessary facility to access the information and act based on it.74. Lessons learned from this finding were that institutions should properly identify their information requirements for their purpose or on behalf of their clients by organizing regular stakeholders meetings. They also need to establish appropriate pathways of information exchange by monitoring the ICM capacities of each institution.75. Most of the institutions are involved, in one way or another, in agriculture and rural development programmes or projects. Based on their interest they require various kinds of information and expert knowledge on issues related to farmers' circumstances such as farming systems, agro-ecologies, climate, livelihood, enterprise choices, demographic, socioeconomic, and conflicts on land and water use. As these institutions are working more closely with the farmers, pastoralists, and agro-pastoralists than ever before, they seek additional information to handle their programmes or project aimed at improving the livelihood system of farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. The most mentioned needs of responding institutions are presented in  77. All the institutions interviewed suggested some kind of capacity-building needs to better manage their ICM activities and render services to their clients sufficiently. Institutions identified a number of constraints to their activities. The most frequently mentioned constraints were shortage of funds and skilled workforce (Table 4.2.1).78. Most institutions stated that it is not only shortage of funds, but also less priority given to ICM activities to have an earmarked budget. Mostly budget is allocated from the core budget of the institute when a pressing request is made by ICM staff or when the head of the institution has some budget to spare to undertake certain ICM activities.79. It was also understood that in most institutions it is a matter of not having enough staff to handle the necessary ICM duties rather than shortage of skills among the existing staff. This implies a need for skills development training.80. It was also understood that, the common cause attributed to the increasing attrition rate of skilled and experienced personnel was the lack consideration by the management to reclassify positions and be able to retain them in their posts.81. Only very few institutions (16%) revealed that they are not limited by unavailability of ICTs to carry out their ICM activities. However, the majority of the institutions visited indicated that their staff do not have access to ICT resources. The constraints of ICT and ICM of the institutions are presented in Table 4.2.1. 82. Only EIAR and EDRI have in-house printing facilities for their different categories of publications. However, most of the time these institutions, require external assistance from commercial print shops for full colour printing of publications including posters. The rest depend on commercial enterprises to take care of their publications requirements.83. The research institutions visited suggested that their information and knowledge resources are not used sufficiently mainly because of the technical difficulties of clients to understand their contents. They also suggest that MOARD and regional agricultural and rural development bureaus, NGOs and media institutions should be able to produce less technical publications and multimedia contents for small farmers and pastoralists even for extension agents.84. EIAR stated that it is producing less technical and more practical publications in Amharic for mass distribution among the farming communities. This kind of approach is now a growing venture in most of the institutions visited (77%), but the production of such publications is not on a sustainable manner. They are produced only during certain events such as farmers training sessions and field days.85. The most noted concern mentioned by some of the institutions was that masscirculating publications are produced in limited languages. This is minimal in a country where over 80 languages are prevailing among farmers and pastoralists. The problem noted in this regard was lack of skilled translators even for languages spoken by a large number of clients.86. One of the strengths of the MOARD is that it has been producing radio programmes for farmers since the last five decades, which is known to be the oldest and sustainable programme in Africa. These days some regional bureaus of agriculture that have an FM radio station (for example Tigray, Amhara, Oromiya and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) are also broadcasting farmers programmes. Occasionally, some NGOs also buy airtime to for similar purposes. In all cases the common problem is that, the broadcast is of limited audience as it is transmitted in only a few local languages.87. One common activity observed in this assessment is that, for the same content, head of institutions make frequent interviews with journalists in both print and broadcast media. In this context, in addition to reporting execution of institutional plans, they tell their audiences pertinent information on agricultural and rural development aspects.88. As part of the e-governance initiative of the Government of Ethiopia, EICTDA is supporting the fulfilment of training requirements of most government institutions by way of building their skills to set up and administer their WAN and LAN connectivity and maintain the security of the networks. The Agency is also responsible to enact national ICM policies and strategies.  95. It was noted that institutions visited in this study depend on different approaches to satisfy their information needs to better execute their work programmes. Institutions also differ in their preference for formats. The common approach, among others, is dependence on interpersonal communications, which are either formal or informal. The formal ones are usually conducted during meetings such as workshops, conferences, seminars, and trainings. This necessitates devising a mechanism to strengthening the linkages among agricultural research and development institutions as well as exposing personnel to regional and international forums.96. The growing trend of using web technologies for accessing and managing information resources has been featured among institutions. This has the potential to exploit resources from a number of information centres both locally and internationally such as from CTA, FAO, World Bank, and CGIAR online resources.97. One of the major observations noted among institutions is the lack of understanding the needs of their clients. This has created a major gap on the kind of available and accessible information.98. One of the other observations is with the policy of FAO to download statistical information for research and educational purposes and poor countries like Ethiopia is very prohibitive.99. The priority capacity building needs as stated by the institutions interviewed are presented as follows: 102. QAS was among the most referred services cited by some institutions that already have access to it either through EIAR, which is the national QAS service provider or from CTA. Therefore, the service should be realigned in a centralized way so that institutions and their clients could benefit from the knowledge resources available in various institutions as well as individually.103. The publications especially production guidelines for a number of agricultural activities were very much appreciated by those institutions that have an extension role in their mandate.104. The major producer of scientific, technical, and non-technical information and knowledge resources on Ethiopian agriculture and rural development is EIAR.A number of information materials are also produced by the MOARD, regional states agricultural and rural development bureaus, higher learning institutions with agricultural ands rural development interest and responsibility, regional state agricultural research institutions, NGOs such as Agri-Service Ethiopia working with farmers and pastoralists, and agro-pastoralists. Each of them could be a partner of CTA in their own right.105. The EICTDA is the institution responsible to enhance the ICM capacity of mainly governmental institutions. Though institutions interviewed mentioned a little about information and knowledge policies and strategies as constraints, there is a larger need to handle capacity building activities like training in ICT/ICM and dealing with formulating institutions information and knowledge policies and strategies. This Agency could be an appropriate partner for CTA.106 112. To satisfy their information needs, reduce the difficulty of acquiring resources such as newsletters, summaries, full documents, leaflets, video tapes, CDs, DVDs, TV and radio programmes, and fact sheets and better execute their work programmes institutions should be able to devise a mechanisms to strengthen the linkages among agricultural research and development institutions as well as exposing personnel to regional and international forums. Also they should be able to spread their efforts to make partnership with CTA 113. The Institutions should be able to tackle the problem of acquiring certain information like farm problems, social development, gender issues, crop varieties, market data, and management of information through partnership interventions with institutions such as CTA and local institutions which have profound resources 114. MOARD should be able to train extension agents and small-scale farmers and encourage them to use them for their comparative advantages especially for weather/ climate and market information.115. In this study, it was realised that institutions are mostly constrained by the lack of trained and skilled personnel to handle their ICM activities. The suggestion of respondents referred on the need to improve the working conditions for their staff by way of improving the remuneration schemes by government arrangements.116. The other suggestion was arranging skills upgrading trainings in conjunction with international institutions such as CTA, FAO, UNESCO and CGIAR research centres and local training institutions so that the attrition rate would be minimised.117. The EICTDA in partnership with international institutions like CTA should work together so that institutions would be able to formulate their internal information and knowledge policies and strategies.118. Training on basic ICM can help meet some of the institutional capacity needs identified in the study. In this connection, Institutions should make linkages with capable local institutions to acquire the trainings; while at the same time CTA help address such requests by organizing training of trainers' sessions at national or sub regional levels.119. As QAS was the most referred services cited by some institutions that already have access to it either through EIAR, the service should be realigned in a centralized way so that institutions and their clients could benefit from the knowledge resources available in various institutions as well as individually.120. The publications of CTA, especially production guidelines for a number of agricultural activities are very much appreciated by those institutions that have an extension role in their mandate. Therefore CTA should produce and distribute these publications widely; while local institutions should participate with the activities of CTA124. One of the critical observations in this study was that institutions have different degree of development in their ICM activities. The difference ranged from being nominal information and knowledge provider to the more resourceful ones. Therefore, CTA, as partner of these institutions, can intervene by way of capacity-building venture. More institutions will know and understand the role and responsibilities of CTA and make use of its services and products These operational departments are supported by Planning Corporate Services (P&CS) which is charged with the methodological underpinning of their work and monitoring the ACP environment in order to identify emerging issues and trends and make proposals for their translation into programmes and activities. This current exercise, therefore, falls within the mandate of P&CS.Since 2003, CTA has been systematically conducting needs assessment studies across the Pacific, Caribbean and Africa regions -the regions it has been mandated to serve. These studies have been in direct response to calls for CTA, in various evaluations of its products, services and programmes, to be more strategic in its choice regarding the setting of its own agenda and reacting to demand. In putting together its Strategic Plan and Framework for Action 2001 -2005, CTA took a pragmatic view and opted to develop a strategy combining the benefits of both approaches, whereby the need to address the expressed demands of its stakeholders and the potential long-term advantages of developing programmes that address future needs were combined.The Centre's new strategic plan covering the 2007 -2010 period places emphasis on: improving CTA's efficiency and increasing the Centre's outreach by addressing the major bottleneck of difficult or insufficient access to information in ACP countries; (ii) honing CTA's profile and further defining the niche where the Centre has a comparative advantage. Consequently, reaching more beneficiaries and further strengthening CTA's partnership networks is key as well as the thrust to make ICTs and ICM strategies more widely available.3. Main issues CTA works primarily through intermediary public and private partners (research centres, extension services, libraries, NGOs, farmers' organisations, regional organisations and networks,) to promote agriculture and rural development. Under the new strategic plan, the organisations targeted will be extended to include print media, editors, radio, TV and journalist networks in order to further maximise outreach. Through these partnerships, CTA hopes to increase the number of ACP organisations capable of accessing and combining modern and conventional ICTs, generating and managing information and developing their own ICM strategies. The identification of appropriate partners is therefore of primordial importance, whilst bearing in mind issues such as geographical coverage, decentralisation, regionalisation, thematic orientation and transparent and objective criteria and procedures for partner selection.Collaboration strategies with ACP agricultural organisations and relevance of CTA's support to African ACP countries improved.The study will focus on:providing an overview of main agricultural services and actors existing in the country (information supply side) in terms of their strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for collaboration with CTA; identifying agricultural information and ICM capacity building needs of key actors / key strategic partners for CTA products and services; identifying potential strategic partners for CTA activities and services (paying special attention to e.g. print media, editors, radio, TV and journalist networks); developing some baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in the country to facilitate subsequent monitoring and updating activities.The study should assist CTA to improve and better target interventions and activities aimed at potential partners and beneficiaries (including women, youth, private sector and civil society organisations) to have a more informed picture of their needs and aid in the elaboration of a strategy and framework of action. The study should also highlight where there are specific needs for CTA's products and services thereby enabling improvement in the delivery of the same.The expected results of the study are as follow:status of infrastructure, information services and ICM capacity of institutions involved in agriculture and rural development described and analysed; information and capacity building needs in the area of ICM identified for key institutions and potential CTA partners involved in agriculture and rural development; baseline data on the status of ICM and ICT in agriculture and rural development compiled for monitoring purposes and improved outreach.The study should therefore also provide updated country profiles on the status agricultural information services, the status of ICM/T in the country, which will allow CTA to make informed decisions re type and mode of intervention as well as partner selection. This will be summarised in one (1) main report per country not exceeding 30 pages excluding annexes (cf. section 8 below).The consultant will use a combination of qualitative and quantitative rapid appraisal methods including:the desk review of available literature and information sources including the findings of programme evaluations; the conduct of face-to-face interviews with relevant stakeholders / concerned parties; the limited use of questionnaires.The rapid appraisal approach will allow a general overview of the key issues and company / organisational profiles on a per country basis and may give rise to more in-depth studies as and when needed in the future.The country reports will not exceed 30 pages (excluding annexes) and is broken down as follows: From the above analysis, establish a link between the needs which are not currently met or for which complementary actions are needed and CTA's supply (products and services). This should lead to an overall and coherent strategy for CTA and an action plan in priorities are identified and an implementation schedule defined. Timing The draft final report is to be submitted within three months after contract signature by CTA; the final report is due two weeks after receipt of comments from CTA.The national consultant should have a university degree or equivalent by experience. In addition, he/she should have at least 10 years experience in field of agriculture, rural development or social / economic sciences. He/she must have in-depth knowledge of the agricultural sector in his/her country and be able to identify key players and institutions / organisations active in this area. Some knowledge of information sciences would be an added advantage. The ability to communicate and write clearly in English is essential, while knowledge of at least one of the local languages for communication / interview purposes is an added advantage.In addition to the skills above, the regional coordinator is expected to be fluent in English, have some knowledge of the 9 countries forming the object of this study, have demonstrated experience in coordinating studies with several consultants and in producing synthesis reports.The overall coordination of the exercise will be carried out by 13. Definition of roles and responsibilitiesRespect the timeframe regarding submission of reports and deadlines Help identify/vet country consultants Attend pre-briefing and briefing meetings Review the terms of reference Finalise questionnaires 1 and methodological approach after due consultation with CTA Team Finalise the briefing notes and guidelines 2 for local consultants to ensure accurate and consistent application of the agreed methodology in data collection Answer queries (technical & otherwise) of local consultants During the studies, monitor and provide technical assistance/information to the local consultants Review preliminary country reports and findings and send comments back to local consultants Send edited draft final country reports to CTA for feedback 1 The documents used in previous needs assessment studies are available and will need some slight modifications. 2 See footnote above.Coordinate and ensure consistency of country reports Prepare the overall report taking into account the findings and recommendations of all the country reports (table of contents to be agreed).Respect the timeframe regarding submission of reports and deadlines Attend briefing meeting Familiarise themselves with background documents received from CTA; including the Terms of Reference Undertake desk study and prepare country profile, list of institutions involved in agriculture as well as preliminary list of select institutions. Undertake field visits in the country specified in the contract Conduct interviews and gather information in the country specified in the contract Draft preliminary country reports and send to Regional Coordinator for initial comments Based on comments received from Regional Coordinator, revise country reports and send draft final report to CTA within the specified timeframe Finalise country reports based on comments and observations received from CTA and send final report back to CTADraw up initial Terms of Reference and prepare relevant background documents Appoint the Regional Coordinator and the ACP Local Consultants Prepare and attend briefing meeting of consultants Invite the Regional Coordinator and Local Consultants for Briefing Meeting Provide input to the Regional Coordinator with regard to fine-tuning terms of reference, questionnaires, interview guide and reporting guidelines for the consultants Provide relevant background documents to the Local Consultants & Regional Coordinator Elaborate budget and discuss contractual obligations with the Team of consultants & Regional Coordinator Liaise with Regional Coordinator throughout the study Pay invoices for services rendered in a timely manner on condition that all payment conditions are fulfilled Overall responsibility for the supervision and implementation of the studies Bear the agreed costs of expenditure in respect of the study (economy class return tickets, hotel accommodation and subsistence allowances during briefing meeting, or during agreed and specified field visits) Provide feedback and comments on draft country reports to the Local Consultants Give feedback to the Regional Coordinator on the Overview Report.---------------------------Annex 2. Country Profile: EthiopiaAbout 31 million ha of the total area of Ethiopia (1.12 million km 2 ) is agricultural land but an average of approximately 10 million ha of this potential agricultural area is cultivated annually.The country is divided into 18 major agro-ecological zones and 49 sub-agroecological zones. Nearly one-third of this country's land area belongs to hot to warm arid lowland plains, with hot to warm moist lowlands, hot to warm sub-moist lowlands and tepid to cool moist mid-highlands accounting for approximately 13.1%, 11.7%, and 11.2%, respectively. It can be seen that nearly 68% of Ethiopia is in the lowlands category whereas the mid-highlands and the sub-afro-alpine and afro-alpine zones account for about 30% and less than 2%, respectivelyMajor crops include cereals, roots and tubers, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits and cash crops such as coffee, cotton, tea, sugarcane, and tobacco. In addition, Ethiopia has large areas where many other high value crops (e.g. spices such as black pepper, ginger, cardamom, cumin, and fenugreek) could be grown, but this potential has not been fully utilized. This country ranks among the highest in Africa in its livestock resources. Cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, camels and honeybee are the major livestock species. The country also has rich water bodies and huge aquatic resources associated with them.The total population of Ethiopia in 2007 was about 77 million of which 53% are below the age of 20 and 4.5% older than 60 years, 16.5% of the population is urban and the remaining 83.5% lives in rural areas. There has been a continued increase in the proportion of rural inhabitants migrating to urban areas in search of alternative income from the increased urbanisation schemes in different Regional States.Like any other ACP country, the population of Ethiopia is growing at a rate of about 2.7% annually. In the rural areas, the growth is a bit more than in urban areas. This is because of more family planning activities going on in urban areas than rural areas. The concentration of the population lies below the age of 20. The ratio of agricultural population in terms of age and gender is presented in Table 2.1.1. Ethiopia is endowed with diverse biophysical resources of which agricultural lands, forests and fishing areas occupy considerable portion of the country. Most agricultural producers are subsistence farmers with small land holdings, often broken into several plots. Most of these farmers lived on the highlands, mainly at elevations of 1,500 to 3,000 meters. The population in the lowland peripheries (below 1,500 meters) was pastoralists and agropastoralists engaged mainly in livestock raising. Almost all the forests in Ethiopia have been destroyed in the last 40 years, and only less than 3 percent of the entire country is now covered with trees, prompting fears of an impending environmental disaster if the problem is not addressed. The country is a land-locked country and depends on its inland bodies of water for fish supply for its population. The country's bodies of water have a surface area estimated at 7 334 km² of major lakes and reservoirs, and 275 km² of small water bodies (see tables), with 7 185 km of rivers within the country. The proportion of coverage of these resources is summarized in Table 2.1.2. The three most traditional agricultural systems classifications prevailing in Ethiopia are, the mixed crop/livestock system practiced in the mid and highland areas and the pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems exercised in the lowlands. Agropastoral production is relatively of a recent phenomenon. The description and major development issues relating to them are given below (EIAR, 2007;Gezahegn and Kidane, 2008):Mixed crop/livestock production system This production system is predominant in the highland agro-ecological zone. Here, crop farming targeting subsistent household food production and cash generation from minor seasonally surplus crops is the major agricultural business with livestock playing a major supportive role. Livestock make an important and significant contribution in draft power supply, organic fertilizer production, and the generation of cash income required for the purchase of other inputs for crop production, food items under the events of crop stock depletion and meeting incidental household expenses.The livestock sub-sector in turn benefits from crops through grazing on stubbles, straws, and other by-products (EAAP, 2006).The rangelands of Ethiopia are estimated to cover 625,000 km 2 distributed over seven regional states and are inhabited by an estimated 9.8 million people (5.5 million pastoral, 3.1 million agro-pastoral and 1.2 million urban communities). High variability in the seasonal distribution of precipitation that influences feed availability from the rangelands and the prevalence of harsh climatic conditions characterize the pastoral production systems of the semi-arid and arid lowland areas of the country. The major production challenge constantly confronting pastoralists in this system is matching the permanent livestock feed requirement with seasonally variable feed supply. To overcome this challenge, pastoralist households base their livestock management system on a strategy of the nomadic way of survival and ownership of multiple animal species with different feeding habits and production cycles. They obtain their subsistence livelihood from raising livestock (EAAP. 2006).Agro-pastoral production system arises because of the settlement of pastoral societies that find it difficult to continue their traditional way of nomadic lifestyle due to a number of reasons. Loss of herds, severe drought and the failure to re-stock due to economic reasons and the population boom that creates a new generation without adequate livestock resources to pursue tradition lifestyle are among these reasons. Settled herders reduce their animals since owning large herds in the harsh environment is impractical without nomadic management style. Agro-pastoralists engage in both crop and livestock production with livestock comprising the major agri-business for their livelihood. They herd their animals on rangelands close to their settlements and use seasonal migration in search of feed and water (EAAP. 2006).Ethiopia's economy is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector, which accounts for about 40% of national GDP, 90 percent of exports, 85% of employment, and 90% of the poor. The Country is largely an agrarian nation with the majority of the population involved in agricultural, pastoral, and agro-pastoral activities. Over 60% of the country's foreign income and about 80% of domestic production are generated by these sectors.Smallholding and subsistence agriculture is the main engagement of the people. However, to date, large-scale commercial farms are operational in several regions. In recent years however, the national economy is moving from being based primarily up on agriculture towards more reliance on manufacturing, construction, and service sectors. As a result, there is a steady annual growth rate in the economy of the country, which makes Ethiopia one of the best performing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. However, income disparities among the population groups are still pronounced.The economic policies of the government and democratisation since the early 1990s have made advances in reducing poverty and empowering the disadvantaged sectors of the rural communities by widening access to social and economical services and infrastructure (MoFED, 2006).Although the growth of agriculture value added declined by 11.4% following the drought in 2002/03, due to the prevalence of favourable conditions including adequate rainfall and provision of adequate supply of agricultural inputs, agricultural production has increased by 17.3% in 2003/04 and 13.4% in 2004/05 (MoFED, 2006). Agricultural contribution to GDP of agriculture is reported as 46.6% in 2005and 47.3% in 2006(MoFED, 2006)).Ethiopia produces a large number of crops for food, feed and fibre purposes. The major ones for export and local consumption are listed as follows (Table 2.1.5. a.). As secondary products, however, animal feeds are produced from farm bi-products such as crop residues.  Ethiopia is benefiting from increased market access to the USA, EU, China, Canada, Japan, the Middle East and African countries through a number of trade agreements. The country is exporting textile products to the USA through the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Moreover, Ethiopian coffee is being registered in the USA having its own trademark through which coffee farmers are getting more cash from the sale of the coffee products. The EU-Ethiopia trade agreement has also permitted agricultural products such as sugar and leather products to enter the European market. The COMESA trade agreements also allows Ethiopia to benefit by trading agricultural products such as meat and live animals Ethiopia has also bilateral trade agreements with several countries the major ones being China, Japan, India, and Saudi Arabia. The main export commodities are coffee, pulses, oil crops, hide and skins and leather products.Border trade agreements have also been signed with the Sudan. The country also has agreement with Djibouti and Somaliland in using their ports for the import and export of mainly agricultural products    According to the Ethiopian Constitution, each child has the right to be educated at least up to primary school level, and as a result, a number of ethnic groups are teaching their children in their mother tongue. There are over 80 languages spoken in Ethiopia of which about 16 languages are being used to teach children in elementary (first and second cycles) schools (Ministry of Education, 2005). The statistics of major languages in Ethiopia Shows that Amharic is spoken by 32.7%, Oromiffa 31.6%, Tigrigna 6.1%, Somali 6%, Guaraghe 3.5%, Sidamigna 3.5%, Hadiyigna 1.7%, other 14.8%. The English language is the major foreign language taught in schools (http://www.nationmaster.com/country)Some of the pertinent basic facts about accessibility to services of the Ethiopian populations are presented as follows (Table 2.2.3). According to the total population estimate of Ethiopia in 2007, 16.5% of the population is urban and the remaining 83.5% lives in rural areas. This shows that there is a decline in the proportion of rural inhabitants migrating to urban areas in search of alternative income from the increased urbanisation schemes in different regional states. (CSA 2007)As a state-owned institution, the Ethiopian Television and Radio and the press agencies have become instrumental in the development activities. This is evidenced revealed in the objective statement which states, \"Prepare and present to the public radio and television major and current events taking place within the country and abroad, as well as educational and recreational programmes in accordance with media, press and other relevant policies and laws (data from field survey).\" The agencies have wide coverage of transmitting agricultural, rural, and pastoral information even beyond the nation.Like most media activities, agricultural and rural development information and communication in either print or electronic format is not restricted by any kind of government legislation or policies in Ethiopia. Newspapers and magazines are published and owned by both government and private companies. Because of the Press Law of Ethiopia, the government does not control the content and concepts expressed in such publications. The Broadcast Agency of Ethiopia regulates the broadcast media (radio and television). Similarly, telecommunication is regulated by the Ethiopian Telecommunications Agency. The regulatory activity serves to promote a broader communication of agricultural and rural development information and to provide affordable telephone (both fixed and mobile) and Internet services as well as non-IP services such as radio and television. As part of the national ICT development strategy, the telecommunication industry of Ethiopia is expanding rapidly to cover the vast geographical areas to supporting the national economic development drive. The Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC) has invested heavily in network infrastructure in recent years and provided up-to-date data on connectivity nationwide. As per its commitment to enhance development through ICT, ETC is currently engaged in numerous projects to upgrade capacity throughout the country. As a result, telecommunication technologies are now penetrating all corners of the country. This endeavour has largely supported the various public sector capacity building programmes.ETC is responsible to operate as a public enterprise with the principal duty of maintaining and expanding telecommunication services to the country by the Proclamation 49/1996, and providing domestic and international telecom services under the supervision of Ethiopian Telecommunications Agency (ETA). ETA is a separate regulatory body with the objective of promoting the development of high quality, efficient, reliable and affordable telecommunication services in Ethiopia. In this respect, ETC is the sole operator of telecommunication services including Internet and public phone.Telecommunication services are one of the advancing infrastructural development activities in Ethiopia. The Government of Ethiopia is spending a huge amount of money on telecommunications development projects. The services and their capacities and tariffs are presented in (Tables 2.3.2.1, 2.3.2.2a and b). ETC has different tariffs for different services it is providing to the public. Tables 2.3.2.2a and b present the categories of services and the corresponding charges of subscription and monthly fees.   ","tokenCount":"10671"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"509ad2476b8862ca5ee748b08bbf19c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c021be32-7e2a-42fd-9270-a0197f853591/retrieve","id":"1114035399"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7d0180f-efa9-4cd0-96f8-5c1e87436ab9","pagecount":"14","content":"Farming experience and land allocation for beans❑ Seed production and marketing are crucial for agricultural productivity and food security.❑ Women contribute significantly to agricultural activities but often have limited access to resources.❑ Increase women's participation in grain production rather than seed production.❑ Seed production generates more income and promotes empowerment.Amplifying Women's Voices -Leadership and Governance Positions❑ SBC aims to change social norms, attitudes, and behaviors to achieve specific outcomes for all.❑ Men: Increased ability to optimize land use through high-quality seeds.❑ Women: Empowerment through greater participation in seed markets, leading to improved household food security.❑ Youth: Opportunities for innovation and entrepreneurship in agriculture.   Seed road map for beans","tokenCount":"108"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14cae4864d1f65a99871f5990ed13c02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a7b603d-032c-4c3e-880e-ffb06368671d/retrieve","id":"-399302783"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c066650b-b138-4266-bb29-a2df832ec960","pagecount":"2","content":"Usar semilla certificada, 2000 kilos por hectárea; sembrar en suelos francos; aplicar 10 t/ha de gallinaza o estiércol descompuesto; la densidad de siembra es de 1.00 m entre surcos y 0.30 a 0.40 m entre plantas para obtener un mayor porcentaje de tubérculos de primera y extra que permitirán tener un buen tamaño de los bastones fritos. Usar la dosis de fertilización de 200-220-180 kg de N, P2O5 y K2O por hectárea, utilizando nitrato de amonio, fosfato diamónico y sulfato de potasio.Se recomienda el manejo integrado, sin embargo, si la presión de las plagas insectiles es alta, usar de forma racional y oportuna insecticidas selectivos de baja toxicidad para tener un impacto ambiental leve. Las principales plagas insectiles son: gorgojo de los Andes (Premnotrypes spp.) y polilla de la papa (Symmestrischema tangolias y Phthorimaea operculella).Para el control de la rancha, si las condiciones de lluvia y humedad relativa son muy altas y favorables para una alta presión de la enfermedad, se recomienda hacer aplicaciones de un fungicida sistémico; en caso contrario, y por prevención, puede usarse solo un fungicida de contacto. La variedad CIP-PODEROSA POLLERA requiere un menor número de aplicaciones de fungicidas; por lo tanto, ayuda a conservar el medio ambiente y la salud de los agricultores y consumidores.CIP-PODEROSA POLLERA tiene rendimientos superiores a 30 t/ha y se adapta al sistema de producción familiar del país.","tokenCount":"227"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"93e7ebc0ced2af58444b04933668c5ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/951da22e-a551-43af-8383-f86485088871/retrieve","id":"-1935982913"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"732bda90-a559-4696-b4bf-f0b6541e4eb2","pagecount":"1","content":"The Iteso, Bakhayo, Banyala and Samia communities living in Busia County in Western Kenya helped researchers from the Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Initiative (www.b4fn.org) identify lesser-known agrobiodiversity species that are locally consumed. Termites as well as many leafy vegetables, fruits, wild mushrooms and indigenous poultry are still consumed, often during religious and cultural festivals, yet little is known of their nutritional properties while the indigenous knowledge surrounding the collection and preparation of these foods is rapidly eroding. The BFN Initiative in Kenya is generating nutritional data for priority species identified by communities for which data is missing, creating awareness of the importance of traditional foods through diversity fairs, developing markets and value chains for local foods with nutrition potential to provide alternative food security and livelihood options for community members.The Khasi -NE India Women are the main custodians of biodiversity and traditional food systems among the Khasi people -an indigenous, matriarchal community of North East India. Traditionally, women who controlled the sources of nourishment (fields and food) would transfer their knowledge of diverse local foods and medicinal species to their youngest daughter, but the custom is being challenged by urbanization and modern monoculture cultivation. In 2011 the Khasi joined forces with the Indigenous Partnership to revive interest in traditional food and farming systems. The Mei Ramew (Mother Earth) Food Festival was organized and attended by 23 communities who showcased 200 species of edible and medicinal plants, many of which gathered from the wild. Biodiversity walks were organized during which community elders guided children in identifying and collecting food and medicinal species. The Festival has since become an annual event followed by a community banquet featuring the gathered foods. Community and school gardens as well as school feeding programs featuring local foods have also multiplied as a result of the intervention. . These studies confirmed the diversity and complexity of Indigenous Peoples' food systems and diets. For example, in Pohnpei there was a major diversity and availability of local species and foods with 381 food items being documented including karat, an orange-fleshed local banana cultivar and pandanus cultivars rich in carotenoids. The Ingano diet revealed the utilisation of over 160 types of food ranging from roots to insects to palm tree products with milpesos palm, yoco liana, bitter cane and cayamba mushroom found to be a priority for maintaining local health. The Dalit food system revealed a diet highly reliant on wild plant foods with a total of 329 plant species or cultivars providing food recorded.Originally from the northern savannas, the Turumbu moved into the equatorial forest of DRC centuries ago and had to adapt to new agroecological conditions. Under colonial rule communities were forced to leave their forest dwellings and take up residence along the main roads. Scientists recently explored to what extent the Turumbu, who like the majority of DRC's population are food insecure following decades of war and political instability, still rely on forests for food. Rice, maize, cassava and plantain are the main staple crops, occasionally intercropped with pineapple, gourd, eggplant, chili peppers, sugarcane and sweet potato. Although 77 wild edible plants (WEPs) were recognized by local communities and documented as growing in the area, only a limited number are consumed. Interventions are needed to promote and exploit the dietary potential of many of these WEPs such as the mineral-rich Gnetum africanum and proteinrich Treculia africana which could be domesticated and integrated into innovative agricultural systems and home gardens for better nutrition security and health. ","tokenCount":"579"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"480104043b2986fccf0644f30a440a58","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49d70183-40a3-49fd-92d2-66126a776a02/retrieve","id":"586410052"},"keywords":["Establishing a Tree Nursery CTA Practical Guide Series","No. 10 CTA Practical Guide Series","No. 10"],"sieverID":"e12bebbb-ae64-49ab-b538-69c4bed26aee","pagecount":"4","content":"The information in this guide can be freely reproduced for non-commercial use, if credited as coming from CTA.Reproduction for commercial use requires prior authorization from CTA.A good soil for use in tree nurseries can be made by mixing:• 3 basins of soil collected from under vegetation cover, such as in forests or under large trees • 2 basins of clay soil • 1 basin of sand.To test the mixture, roll a damp sample in your hand. A good mixture should roll and hold its shape but break if the roll is bent.• If it does not break, then it has too much clay.• If it crumbles before you can roll it, then it has too much sand.• To ensure adequate fertility of the soil, add one basin of sieved manure or compost to every three or four basins of the standard mixture.• Ideally, establish the seedbed on a gentle slope.• The seedbed should not be wider than one metre to make working on the bed easy. The bed can be of any length. • Dig a trench about 10 cm deep all around the seedbed. • Set large pieces of timber, bamboo or flat stones into the trench to a height of at least 15 cm above the ground. • Put a 5-cm layer of coarse gravel or small stones at the 1Why tree nurseries?Many people in Eastern Africa depend on forests and trees to meet various needs. With growing populations, these resources are being rapidly depleted. Many farmers want to plant trees but cannot readily obtain high-quality tree seedlings. Establishing a tree nursery can help to meet this demand and provide you with extra income.• Income generation through the sale of seedlings • Production of uniform-sized seedlings leading to even plantation stands • Availability of seedlings when you and your customers need them • Production of disease-free planting stock • May be established on small pieces of land • Can make good use of land unsuitable for crop production • Inexpensive to establishPlanting trees provides many benefits• Increases availability of products like firewood, charcoal, fruits, timber, poles, fodder, and ornaments • Provides wind breaks • Improves the environment by preventing soil erosion and increasing soil fertilityA good site for a tree nursery should have the following features:• Reliable, nearby water supply • Source of soil • Access to market for seedlings.In addition it is desirable to have:• A well-drained soil with a gentle slope • A natural shelter, such as tree cover, to provide shade for nursery workers.CTA Practical Guide Series, No. 10 CTA Practical Guide Series, No. 10 bottom of the bed to improve drainage.• Add a 5-cm layer of standard nursery soil mixture on top of the coarse gravel.• Large seeds, about the size of maize seeds, should be sown in drills running across the beds, 5-10 cm apart. • Smaller seeds, about the size of pigeon peas, should be broadcast onto the bed and pressed into the soil with a flat board. • Very small seeds, about the size of simsim, should be first mixed with fine sand or soil before sowing to allow adequate spacing on germination. • Cover the seeds with a thin layer of fine soil or sand to a depth of about 5 mm.• Water twice daily (morning and late afternoon) in hot, dry weather.Pricking-out is the transfer of seedlings from the seedbed to pots.Pricking-out should be done when the seedlings develop three or four true leaves.• Choose a cloudy day or late in the afternoon to avoid seedlings wilting in the sun.• Water the seedlings well before pricking-out.• Remove the seedlings by inserting a small flat stick beneath them and gently lifting them from the seedbed. Take care not to break the small roots. • Put the seedlings in a tray of water immediately to prevent them from wilting.3 4• Pot the pricked-out seedlings in containers made from locally available materials, such as banana leaves or bamboo stems, or specially made black polythene bags. • Fill pots with the soil mixture and make a hole with a stick about the size of a pencil in the middle of the pot, just a little deeper than the roots of the seedlings. • Carefully lower the seedlings into the hole and refill so that there is no empty space around the roots. Gently press down the soil. • Put the potted seedlings into a nursery bed under shade.Cuttings allow farmers to produce seedlings for trees for which it is difficult to get seeds. Examples of trees that should be propagated by cuttings include tea, euphorbia and breadfruit.• Take cuttings from woody branches in the lower crown near to the main stem. Do not cut the main stem. • The cuttings should be about 15-25 cm long and 10-20 mm thick. • Cuttings should have at least two bud scars but preferably three or four • Remove leaves from cuttings.• Insert the cuttings in a slanting position, into the nursery bed or a pot. See illustration below.To ensure good performance of the seedlings, the following measures are recommended:• Construct the nursery shade in an east to west direction to protect seedlings from hot sun. The shade will also protect seedlings from strong winds and heavy rain. • Do not overcrowd seedlings in the nursery bed to minimize competition for resources like nutrients and water. • Water twice daily during hot dry days to protect seedlings from wilting. • Prune roots that grow out of the pots to prevent roots breaking when pots are lifted for planting out.• Weed regularly to prevent weeds competing with seedlings for water and soil nutrients. • Fence off the tree nursery to prevent damage from animals and chickens. • Control insects and diseases like damping-off that could destroy seedlings. Damping-off is mainly caused by overcrowding the seedlings. It may be controlled by thinning the seedlings to facilitate movement of air among them. Spray the seedlings with appropriate pesticide in case of pest problems. • Harden-off seedlings by gradually reducing the shade and frequency of watering. This allows them to get used to field conditions before transplanting. Most seedlings will be ready to plant out between two and six months, depending on the type of trees. • After hardening-off, seedlings can be planted in well-prepared sites, preferably at the beginning of the rainy season. Take care to protect them from grazing animals such as goats.CTA Practical Guide Series, No. 10 CTA Practical Guide Series, No. 10 Tip:The same procedure for establishing a tree nursery can also apply to any other type of the nursery, for example one producing vegetables or decorative plants for sale.","tokenCount":"1104"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d0d61961c5bb8828bc726f31a81a874","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abae5892-a839-4dd2-b48b-4b24b102ca42/retrieve","id":"61570268"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cab08b05-9ff3-431c-a1f0-0c6ef8a8a28f","pagecount":"18","content":"Over the past decades, climate change has brought about numerous detrimental consequences for agricultural production in many countries, posing a substantial challenge to the economic wellbeing of farmers while affecting national and international economies (Rosenzweig, et al., 2013;Koirala et al., 2022;IPCC, 2023). Meteorological data specifically indicates that extreme weather events are occurring with unprecedented frequencies, intensities, and durations. This includes events associated with variations in the El Niño -Southern Oscillation of ocean currents, such as unusually dry weather in June through August in Nepal and other parts of South Asia (IPCC, 2023;Rojas et al., 2019;Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, 2018). For example, during the El Niño year of 1992, a particularly severe drought occurred in Nepal, contributing in part to a 17.7 percent fall in rice production relative to the prior trend (Bhuvaneswari et al., 2013;Sharma, et al., 2021). Current indications are that another El Niño -related drought may already be underway in 2023 and into 2024 (Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 2023). With the extreme weather events, global economies have experienced a number of recent shocks -for example those associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and conflicts in countries such as the Ukraine and Russia that are important exporters of agricultural inputs and goods. As such, this research note explores the implications of a range of agricultural productivity shocks including but not limited to those resulting from a possible El Niño-related drought in 2023 and extending into early 2024 (coinciding with the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons).This study utilizes the Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) data and modeling system, which includes a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model for the analyses (International Research Institute for Climate and Society, 2023). The CGE model includes equations for economic linkages between sectors, households, governments, and the rest of world, including factor markets (land, labor, and capital), product markets, household incomes and expenditures, savings and investment, government, and the rest of world (external trade and transfers, etc.) The database, a 2019 Social Accounting Matrix for Nepal, includes 90 production activities (economic sectors) and 15 household groups (five per capita expenditure quintiles for each of three types of households classified according to source of income: rural farm, rural non-farm, and urban households). 2 A linked poverty module models individual households using data from recent household surveys.In determining the size of production shocks related to El Niño, this study analyzes time series data of global El Niño events from 1961 to 2017), national (yearly and seasonal from 1980-2017) drought events, and production data (yearly from 1961-2021) for selected crops: rice (grown primarily in the summer season), maize (spring and summer season), wheat (winter season), banana (perennial), potato (grown mainly winter), mustard (grown mainly in the winter), and soybean (also grown mainly in the winter). The data for global El Niño events were collected from the Australia Bureau of Meteorology (Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 2023), while Nepal's yearly and seasonal (i.e., summer, autumn, winter, and spring) drought events were extracted from (Sharma, et al., 2021). Similarly, yearly production data were compiled from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018). To make the data usable for analysis, we went through the following steps:• Each Global El Niño event was assigned a value of `1' or `0' for a year (considering the seasons associated with the crops above) with El Niño event or without event, respectively. • Each yearly national drought event was assigned a value of `1' or `0' for a year with a drought event or without event, respectively, considering the seasons indicated above. • Each seasonal drought event was assigned value of `1' or `0' for a year with drought or without an event, respectively. • Crops grown for each season and respective time series production (in MT) data (mostly from 1961-21) for rice, maize, wheat, banana, potato, mustard, and soybean were obtained from FAOSTAT and transformed to calculate the 5-year cantered moving average and percent changes in production, as explained below:We first calculated the 5-year moving average of each crop's production calculated by accounting t-2, t -1, t, t +1 and t +2 years to be able to analyze the percent change for each crop's production compared with its moving average. In doing so, we calculated percent change for each crop's production for year t compared to the moving average of its own production for t -2, t -1, t, t +1 and t +2 years, again assuring the seasons indicated above for each crop were considered. Since interaction between global El Niño event and droughts can affect the production of respective crops grown in different seasons, we only considered the percent change in production for each potentially affected crop. We also calculated percentage change (=\uD835\uDC65 100) for each crop across the years. This allowed us to observe changes in historical production, in particular El Niño and drought years, in comparison to normal years. While we recognize that there are other potential factors in addition to climate, this analysis is designed to provide estimates of the potential range of economic effects of these potential productivity and price shocks associated with El Niño in Nepal.The changes in sea surface temperatures linked to the El Niño Ocean current oscillation have raised concerns about the possibility of increased temperature and drought severity in Nepal in 2023-24 (Glauber et al., 2023). Reduced precipitation availability could affect both crops and livestock, with cascading effects on overall production and farmers' incomes. If El Niño-related effects result in reduced agricultural production in India and other countries that both produce and consume, international prices of rice, wheat, vegetable oils, and other products in world markets may experience an increase. These changes could affect Nepal as well as other countries.In 2016, during the most recent El Niño year with a notable decline in production in Nepal, the combined output of maize, rice, and wheat decreased by 7.2 percent (12.2 percent compared to a consistent growth trend) (Figure 1). In that year, rice and wheat production fell by 10.2 and 12.1 percent, respectively. However, maize production increased by 4.0 percent. These varying observations highlight the diversity of Nepal's agricultural environments, the seasonality of agricultural production, and the variable effects of non-climatic factors, such as technological change and progress affecting production. The most significant decline in agricultural production over the past sixty years happened in 1992.During that year, rice production dropped by 17.7 percent compared to trend production (defined as the 5-year cantered moving average). Wheat production also experienced a decrease of 7.5 percent, while maize production increased by 3.9 percent (Figure 2). 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 Production (million ton)  Source: Authors' calculations using FAOSTAT ( 2023) data (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018). 3It's noteworthy that only 37.0 percent of the land cultivated with rice in Nepal was irrigated in 1992, at 1.37 million hectares in that year, which coincided with the severe El Niño event (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018). The irrigation coverage, defined as the total land area that could be potentially irrigated (e.g., where farmers may have access to irrigation technologies or facilities) as a share of the total rice-cultivated area, was approximately 59.9 percent from 2014 through 2021 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018). Nonetheless, it is important to note that while farmers may have access to irrigation facilities and technologies, many rice farmers in Nepal choose to not actively irrigate their crop. Evidence suggests that most farmers prefer to wait for precipitation in the form of the onset of the monsoon rather than irrigate. A few farmers also apply more than a handful of irrigation events to rice, even when the climate is not favorable (Urfels, et al., 2021). The analysis of data from 2010 and 2016 indicates an average rice production shortfall compared to the other years of 11.2 percent, which is only 16.2 percent (lower than the 13.4 percent) over all three El Niño years.These shocks may therefore be considered as representing an upper bound for productivity due to a severe El Niño event. Improvements in irrigation access and use, varietal drought tolerance, and management practices may reduce the size of such effects, even if the temperature and rainfall in 2023-2024 are the same as in 1992. Additionally, as indicated in Table 1, production losses in other years, specifically in 2010 and 2016 during major El Niño events, were smaller than in 1992. Therefore, we consider the average losses of these three years as the most potentially likely outcome for 2023-2024 but present results for the shocks from each of the three years in this paper's analysis. Increases in world market prices of rice, wheat, petroleum, and other commodities also have the potential to affect Nepal's economy through increases in domestic prices. However, the correlation between prices in Nepal and prices in world markets is not perfect due to several major factors. First, there are major quality differences (positive and negative) between goods in Nepal and those in international markets. On the positive side, some of Nepal's production, being specialized in specific agroecological and market niches, can command higher prices. However, the quality of many products that are produced on a small scale by numerous farmers, generally do not meet quality standards. Second, seasonality of agricultural prices differs between domestic and international markets due to differences in the timing of major harvests. Third, there exists substantial transport and marketing costs between world prices at major ports and markets in Nepal. 4 Finally, perhaps most important, India's trade policies, including tariffs, non-tariff barriers and quantitative restrictions (quotas), further increase the friction between domestic and world market.As shown in Figure 3, from January 2019 through June 2023, domestic prices of coarse rice (wholesale, Kathmandu) were generally below the estimated import parity prices of rice sourced from Delhi wholesale markets and the import parity prices of Thai rice (A1, fob Bangkok). Somewhat surprisingly, Kathmandu prices are more closely correlated with Thai prices than with India prices (correlation coefficients of 0.56 and 0.25, respectively) and the results are consistent with the previous findings (Timsina, 2023). 5 This may be due to efforts by the Indian government to stabilize wholesale prices in major cities, while allowing the sales' price of India's rice exports to vary with the world market. In particular, the ratios of estimated import parity prices, for example, Bangkok to domestic prices averaged 1.3 (with annual averages ranging from 1.29 to 1.32), while the ratio of Kathmandu to Delhi prices averaged only 1.16 and declined from 1.27 in 2020 to 1.01 in 2023, (Table 2). The links between Nepal's domestic wheat market and international wheat prices are even less direct than those for rice, given the existence of major wholesale and retail markets for various products in the wheat value chain, including grain, flour, and various types of bread. While the wholesale price in Delhi has remained relatively stable in Nepali rupee terms, the world price of wheat has increased by 64.0 percent compared to the Delhi price between January 2020 and July 2023 (Figure 4).    (NPR/kg) In this study, we use a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of Nepal's economy that describes the economic linkages between sectors, households, government, and the rest of the world. 6 The model includes equations for factor markets (land, labour, and capital), product markets (supply, demand), household incomes and expenditures, investment, government, and the rest of the world (external trade, etc.). Various poverty measures and nutritional outcomes are estimated in a separate poverty module that simulates outcomes for individual households using data from recent household surveys. The database of the model is a 2019 Social Accounting Matrix for Nepal with 90 production activities (economic sectors) and 15 household groups.World prices of wheat, palm oil, crude oil, natural gas, and fertilizers rose sharply between June 2021 and April 2022, as the world economy recovered from the COVID-19 pandemic shutdown. Adjusted for overall inflation (as measured by the US CPI), real prices of these commodities rose 35.0 percent to 107.0 percent relative to June 2021 (Figure 5). However, by June 2023, prices of most of these commodities had again returned to their levels of June 2021. The major exceptions were prices of maize, fertilizers and natural gas, whose prices fell by 19.0, 19.0 and 40.0 percent, respectively. Given the relatively small magnitudes of most of these shocks and the small shares of these products in total imports of Nepal, the model simulations for this paper do not include world price shocks apart from changes in the real prices of rice (18.2 percent) and wheat (-12.8 percent) from February 2022 to June 2023. Simulations S1 through S4 show the results for four different agricultural productivity shocks: S1: Severe (1992), S2: Moderate (2010), S3: Moderate (2016) and S4: the average of these three shocks. In each of these simulations, total factor productivity of major crops is exogenously reduced or increased according to the magnitudes shown in Table 1. In addition, we simulate the combined effects of the productivity shocks and changes in import prices of rice and wheat (Simulation S5).Simulations S1 through S4 of the El Niño related agricultural productivity shocks of 1992, 2010 and 2016 indicate that the effects on macro-economic, sectoral, and household outcomes are broadly proportional to the size of the shocks (Figure 6). Total GDP would fall by 1.2 percent (2016) to 2.2 percent (1992), with a decline of 1.6 percent for the average El Niño agricultural productivity shock when simulated. Poverty increases by 0.8 percentage points in 2016 to 2.0 percentage points in 1992, with a 1.4 percentage point increase for the average productivity shock.Negative agricultural productivity shocks from an average El Niño-related drought reduces agricultural output considerably. Including the effects of price shocks (Simulation S5), agricultural GDP could fall by 2.9 percent; 7 essentially all the decline in agricultural GDP (-2.8 percent out of -2.9 percent) in simulations arises from the El Niño shock on agricultural productivity (Figure 7). Off-farm performance of parts of the agrifood system decline by 2.9 percent; world price shocks account for -0.4 percent of this decline. El Niño related shocks to agriculture have a major effect on non-agrifood system sectors, as well. For example, GDP outside the agrifood system could fall by 0.9 percent. Total GDP could decline by an additional 0.2 percentage points, increasing the total decline to -1.8 percentage points, based on our simulations.Our simulation results suggest that total household consumption also could fall by 2.1 percent. 8 Given that total real investment and government spending are assumed to be unchanged, total absorption (Consumption + Investment + Government expenditure) may by up to 1.4 percent. Nominal prices of paddy and wheat would also increase by 21.6 percent and 5.6 percent. Overall real food prices may increase by 1.3 percent, but lower household incomes result in lower demand and prices for non-food items. The CPI is essentially unchanged, increasing by just 0.7 percent. Since the nominal exchange rate is fixed our simulation, the real exchange rate (approximated as the nominal exchange rate divided by the consumer price index) appreciates by 2.0 percent. The potential decline in employment 9 in agriculture (-0.4 percent) is much less than the decline in total agricultural GDP (-2.2 percent) (Figure 8). Much larger employment losses in the off-farm part of the agricultural food system (-8.0 percent) may be possible as declines in agricultural production reduce demand for off-farm services such as transport and marketing of agricultural products. Job losses outside of the agrifood system could also be significant (-2.2 percent).Overall, these El Niño-related productivity shocks result in a 1.8 percent fall in total household consumption (Figure 9). World price shocks increase the magnitude of the decline to -2.1 percent.9 Employment includes farmers, paid and non-paid workers, and self-employed persons. El Nino (Average) World Price ShocksConsumption by urban households is most affected by weather shocks to agriculture with a decline of 2.3 percent. Including world price shocks, the decline in consumption is 2.8 percent. El Niño productivity shocks have a larger effect on poor than on nonpoor households, reducing total consumption by 2.1 percent and 1.7 percent, respectively, for these groups. Figure 10 shows that poverty rises significantly in these simulations. An additional 0.40 million people may fall into poverty due to the El Niño-related productivity shocks so that the headcount rate increases by 1.4 percentage points from 15.0 percent to 16.4 percent. 10 Among them, more than half of the increase in poverty (54.0 percent) would in urban areas. Poverty rises by 1.7 percentage points in urban areas vs. only 1.2 percentage points in rural areas.Differential effects on poor and nonpoor households drive changes in inequality (Figure 11). El Niño -related productivity shocks result in a 2.5 percent decline in total consumption of the poorest 20.0 percent of households (quintile 1). Changes in consumption for the second, third and fourth quintiles are similar in size: -1.5 to -1.9 percent for productivity shocks alone and -1.7 percent to -1.9 percent including price shocks. Higher income households (quintile 5) are more affected by both shocks than are middle-income households with lower incomes (quintile 4): -1.8 percent for productivity shocks alone and -2.3 percent including price shocks.To assess implications for nutrition, we estimate changes in the cost of six major food groups for the EAT-Lancet's healthy reference diet. Rising prices for cereals (included in staples) in these simulations increase the cost of the recommended healthy diet, though overall, the cost of a healthy diet rises by only 0.2 percent. Nonetheless, diet quality appears to potentially worsen for many households.10 Using a USD 1.90 poverty line. The poverty rate is higher in rural areas (16%) than in urban areas (10%).-1.8 -2.9 -2.9 -2.9 An estimated 60.0 percent of households in Nepal lacked levels of consumption and the diversity of food intake needed for a healthy diet before the simulated El Niño shock. Simulation results in Figure 12 indicate that the combined effects of productivity and price shocks may lead to an additional 362 thousand people (1.6 percent of the total population) experiencing a worse diet quality (become deprived in at least one other food group). The effects are estimated to vary between urban (131 thousand, 36 percent) and rural (231 thousand, 64.0 percent) regions.  The potential adverse effects of an El Niño -related drought in Nepal could be significant. Our simulations suggest that rice and wheat production in Nepal could fall by 17.7 percent and 7.5 percent, respectively, relative to trend production in the last major El Niño drought year which was 1992. If 2023-24 productivity losses are in the range of those in other El Niño years, model simulations of an El Niño-related productivity shock equal to the average of the last three major shocks indicate that GDP could fall from 1.2 percent to 2.2 percent with the average of 1.8 percent even without world price shocks. In this scenario, poverty could rise significantly. Poor and rural households that face direct shocks to their agricultural production are especially vulnerable. An El Niño-related productivity shock could increase poverty by 0.25 to 0.57 million people, raising the headcount poverty rate from 0.9 to 2.0 percentage points from the current level of 15.0 percent up to 15.9 to 17.0 percent.- The findings accentuate the significance of initiatives aimed at promoting rainfed varieties and other management technologies suitable for drought conditions. As of now, the National Agricultural Research Council (NARC) has introduced six drought-tolerant varieties, namely Sukha-1, Sukha-2, Sukha-3, Sukha-4, Sukha-5, and Sukha-6, along with rainfed varieties such as Ghaiya-3 and Hardinath-4 (Timsina, 2023). Technologies that enhance resilience, such as improved varieties with higher drought tolerance, agronomic practices conserving soil moisture, and accessible irrigation facilities, have the potential to mitigate adverse effects on crop yields, GDP, and poverty compared to past severe droughts. NARC has been collaborating with CGIAR institutes to develop climate-resilient varieties and management technologies to address the emerging adverse effects of climate risks on the major crops. However, funding for these research efforts remains insufficient when compared to the risks identified in our simulations. Moreover, our simulations nonetheless suggest that shocks could reverberate throughout the economy, affecting total household consumption with larger effects on poor households. Well-designed market systems interventions and targeted safety net programs could help supplement incomes and food consumption of poor households facing lower incomes and/or higher food prices.Furthermore, off-farm components of the agrifood system may experience parallel challenges, according to our simulation results for world price shocks. El Niño-related repercussions could extend to non-agrifood sectors, possibly causing a decline in GDP. Simulations suggest that household consumption levels may also decline. Adverse effects also appear to be more pronounced among impoverished households, leading to a slight increase in the overall poverty headcount rate. Simulations also suggest that diet quality may deteriorate for many households, potentially affecting 1.6 percent of the total population, with the largest impact among the rural poor.We note some limitations to our analyses and directions for future studies. Further analysis is needed to refine these model simulations to estimate differential impacts on households by region. Evaluation of policy options to mitigate impacts on food systems, poverty, and food insecurity is also a high priority. El Niño-related productivity shocks are recurring events in Nepal and throughout most of Asia. Improving our understanding of these events, their impacts, and mechanisms to reduce adverse effects on households may have significant benefits in 2023 and beyond. Therefore, research priority and focus should be towards addressing these effects and their potential interaction with other economic shocks in the future. The use of innovative learning platforms among a range of stakeholders and availability of data for forecasting is equally important to tackle with those issues. These caveats notwithstanding, this study analyses and provides preliminary ex-ante evidence how climatic events and global economic shocks could result in potential undesirable consequences to Nepali farmers and economically-disadvantaged consumers.","tokenCount":"3715"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"61718845b36e0ec795314e7792059137","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c10c5c2d-3003-4926-8ab2-ab9452ba55fb/retrieve","id":"-1886131366"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d7c51a6d-f919-4ee6-93a6-d995fc765f2a","pagecount":"56","content":"The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment.IWMI's mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.As a result of the growing demand for food and energy, the competition for water between upstream and downstream users in the Syrdarya River Basin has increased. The change in the upstream reservoir operation from a conjunctive irrigation/hydropower mode to exclusively hydropower generation resulted in reducing the river flow downstream in the summer and increasing it in the winter. This phenomenon caused a downstream water shortage of 2,000-3,000 Mm 3 /year in the summer and an excessive, often unutilized, flow of the same magnitude in the winter. This study suggests that the current practice of sequential in-channel reservoirs is not coping well with the needs of both upstream and downstream water users. Furthermore, it examines the alternative approach of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) in the upstream of Fergana Valley with a view to adapt to new water management reality. Favorable hydrogeology conditions prevailing in the Fergana Valley are envisaged to create benefits from MAR both at local and regional levels. The study follows a stepwise procedure of implementing MAR in the Fergana Valley, starting from the regional assessment of the MAR potential to testing MAR at the pilot scale through field and modeling studies. The regional assessment shows that over 500,000 ha, or 55% of the currently irrigated land in the Fergana Valley, can be shifted from canal irrigation to conjunctive surface water-groundwater irrigation. This will reduce the return flow to the river by 30% (or by 1,000 Mm 3 /year), and form free storages of 500 Mm 3 in the command areas of main canals. Pilot-scale studies for Isfara and Sokh aquifers in the Fergana Valley support the results of regional assessment. Overall, groundwater development for irrigation and MAR in the Fergana Valley is expected to reduce the winter flow of the Syrdarya River at the valley outlet by 1,500 Mm 3 /year, and consequently increase its summer flow by the same magnitude. This report proposes a major shift in the focus of development projects in the Fergana Valley, from rehabilitation of dense drainage systems to groundwater development for irrigation and MAR.The Syrdarya River Basin in Central Asia with its main tributary -Naryn -has a catchment area of 219,000 km 2 and generates about one-third of the total flow that used to feed the Aral Sea. Irrigated agriculture has been practiced in the basin from ancient times. But it was the massive scale of flow regulation in the second half of the twentieth century, and subsequent geopolitical changes in the 1990s with the formation of the newly independent states that dramatically changed the hydrology of the river and complicated the overall water management of the basin downstream. Under current conditions, the middle and the downstream parts of the Syrdarya Basin face severe seasonal water shortages for agriculture and the environment. These shortages are caused, primarily, by three factors:• Non-uniform distribution of limited water.The middle and the downstream of the basin generate only 10.9 km 3 of flow (29% of the long-term mean annual flow (MAF) of the entire basin), while the needs of the downstream agriculture and environment are at least twice as high (Abdullaev et al. 2007). As a result, with an increasing demand for water, the middle and the downstream water users become more dependent on the upstream inflow.• Growing competition for water. The growing competition for water between hydropower generation operations located upstream, and agriculture and environment demands downstream also causes water shortages.The shift of the upstream reservoir on the Naryn River from irrigation to hydropower generation mode in the beginning of 1993, and associated increase in winter discharges and reduced summer flow, caused an estimated shortage of 3 km 3 of water annually from the required amount for the middle and the downstream water requirement for agriculture (Mustafaev et al. 2006). The coincidence of the occurrence of peaks in the winter hydropower releases and return flow from the irrigated land in the Fergana Valley results in excessive flows that complicate the operation of the downstream reservoirs. There is not enough free storage in the middle and the downstream reservoirs to accumulate the releases from the upstream reservoir in winter for use in the summer.• Global climate change and its impact on water resources. Over the last 70 years, the air temperature has increased by 0 . 0 2 9 o C p e r y e a r f o l l o w e d b y h i g h fluctuations in precipitation. According to the Hydrometeorology Service of Uzbekistan, the reduction of the Syrdarya River flow by 2050 may be around 6-10%, with increased frequency of extreme, high and low flows, which will require more storage capacity (Agaltsceva and Pak 2007).The cascade of reservoirs located along the Syrdarya River, as recent history shows, is not able to meet the requirements of both upstream and downstream users. Excessive river flow in winter and lack of free storage, which causes freshwater discharge into the saline depression in the midstream of the river, and the resultant shortage of water for irrigation in the summer, are the main implications of the current water management practices in the basin.This emphasizes the need for alternative/ additional storage capacities. One potential option is associated with subsurface storage. The upstream of Fergana Valley in the Syrdarya River Basin has favorable hydrogeology conditions to store extra winter flows for summer use. Two main and multiple small tributaries form and feed the Syrdarya River in the Fergana Valley. Subsurface storage, which at this stage is almost full, is estimated to be 200 km 3 (Mavlonov et al. 2006). Renewable fraction of this water needs to be beneficially used, and this will also free some storage to accommodate winter flows -using managed aquifer recharge (MAR) (Dillon 2005(Dillon , 2011)). First attempts to implement MAR were exploited in Uzbekistan for municipal water supply (Mirzaev 1972;Akramov 1991). Artificial groundwater recharge structures, such as open ditches, were constructed in 1970 to store the flow of the Chirchik River underground -to supply Tashkent City with drinking water. Similar recharge structures were used for village water supply in Karakalpakistan and Khorezm in the downstream of the Amudarya River. In the sandy areas of Karakalpakistan, groundwater recharge structures were constructed in several locations aimed to increase leakage from canals during July-August (high water season), when water salinity is low. The leakage from the main canals forms temporary freshwater lenses above the saline brackish water. This water is then extracted to supply the rural population with drinking water. Modeling studies carried out by the Institute of the Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology estimated an optimal regime of groundwater extraction, which would facilitate the prevention of freshwater and saline water mixing, and thereby maintain the water quality in the lenses at the supply level that is acceptable for drinking purposes until the next high water season (Inna Gracheva, Groundwater Modeler, Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, December 18, 2009 pers. comm.).The MAR for agricultural needs in Uzbekistan was investigated in 1970-1990by Mirzaev, 1972;;Akramov, 1991;and Sherfetdinov, 2000. During this period, a number of aquifers were identified as having a high potential for aquifer recharge. They were Kitab-Shahrisabz in Kashkadarya River Basin, Iskovat-Pishkaran, Osh-Aravan, and Isfara and Sokh in the Fergana Valley (Akramov 1991). Free capacities of the Osh-Aravan Aquifer were estimated at 500 Mm 3 , and at 200 Mm 3 in the Sokh Aquifer (Akramov 1991). Field studies conducted at the Kitab-Shahrisabz Aquifer demonstrated that groundwater extraction increases free storages to 950 Mm 3 . Additionally, modeling of the Iskovat-Pishkaran Aquifer indicated that groundwater extraction with discharge of 5.5 m 3 /s will increase free capacities to 500, 800 and 1,043 Mm 3 after 10, 20 and 30 years, respectively. The main limiting factor for MAR was found to be free flow of rivers rather than free storages of aquifers. In the past, artificial groundwater recharge for agricultural purposes in Central Asia was limited to theoretical studies and modeling.The main difference in agricultural water use in the Syrdarya River Basin as compared to other countries of Asia is that agriculture, which is entirely dependent on the canal system with furrow irrigation, produces a major part of groundwater recharge. There are few irrigation projects that are based on the conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water in the foothill areas of the Fergana Valley (Tihonova 1972;Mirzaev 1972). Irrigation systems within Kazalinsk, Asht and Dalversin project areas demonstrated benefits of conjunctive use in preventing soil salinization and waterlogging. Groundwater abstraction achieved its maximum level in the mid-1990s, but then declined due to reduced investment in infrastructure in the countries undergoing transition.The growing shortage of surface water in the Syrdarya River Basin requires the consideration of alternative sources including groundwater. Advance planned MAR activities may prevent the potential negative consequences that arise from a shift from canal use to conjunctive use. Groundwater use for agriculture is low in the Central Asian region as compared to canal irrigation and MAR implementation, both of which have been adopted only to a limited extent at this stage. However, MAR implementation on a wide scale may significantly alleviate the looming water scarcity and improve water management, both, at local and regional levels. This report reviews the experiences of MAR in the arid regions of India, China, Australia and USA and proposes a way of implementing MAR in the Fergana Valley. This report aims to bring the attention of policymakers and practitioners to the benefits of adopting MAR practices in the region and proposes its implementation procedure for the Fergana Valley.MAR is intended to regulate groundwater recharge to increase water resources, improve water quality in subsurface horizons and regulate return flow from irrigated lands. The adoption of MAR practices may yield the following benefits:• Temporarily storing ('banking') water in subsurface horizons for later use.• Sustaining groundwater levels and preventing groundwater depletion or raising the water level, minimizing salinity and waterlogging.• Reducing non-processed water depletions for evaporation, flow to sink and pollution.• Flood control.• Improving surface water and groundwater quality.• Environmental gains (for example, stored water intended for landscape irrigation or baseflow to rivers).Various methods of MAR and preparatory activities can be applied in agriculture, including the following:• Regulating groundwater natural recharge.• Creating artificial groundwater recharge to increase or replenish groundwater storages.• Adoption of water-saving technologies to reduce areal or linear groundwater recharge caused by saline fluxes from the vadoze zone.• Using groundwater extraction to increase leakage from riverbeds, floodplains, canals and drains.• Using groundwater extraction to create free subsurface horizons.• Effecting changes in the cropping pattern and soil tillage.In the last few decades, there has been a p h e n o m e n a l i n c r e a s e i n g r o u n d w a t e r extraction worldwide. Unsustainable groundwater development was followed by drawdown of groundwater levels over large areas and degradation of the water quality (Shah et al. 2000). Higher rates of depletion are observed in many countries, including India, China, USA and Mexico, where increasing population pressure and expected economic gains resulted in the depletion of the resource (Rosegrant et al. 2002). In some areas, this made groundwater extraction uneconomical and prompted farmers and authorities to look for mitigation options.India has an agriculture-based economy and the shortfall of 174 km  (Jinxia et al. 2007).MAR implementation in China uses two methods: a) low-cost technologies, and b) underground reservoirs. Low-cost technologies include small gulley dams, diversion canals, rubber-dams, village pits and ponds, flooding of maize fields (following wet season storms), and diversion of river flow to flood-retention reserve land. In the North China Plain, Xu et al. (2009) have identified seven specific regions that could be targeted for MAR using low-cost technologies, all of which are alluvial fans in the piedmont of the Taihang Mountains, where regional recharge occurs. The source of water diverted for recharge could be a combination of treated urban wastewater and, potentially, excess surface water (e.g., from southern China, delivered via the South to North Water Transfer Scheme) during wet years. Artificial recharge experiments were implemented in some parts of the North China Plain. The first site is located in the downstream of the Chaobai River channel; nine weirs (width: 300-400 m, height: 3-5 m) were constructed from 1984 to 1998 to capture releases from the upstream of the Miyu Reservoir and recharge the overexploited shallow groundwater. The second site is located in the downstream of the Yongding River channel, which included artificial recharge in 2001, from both shallow groundwater and deep groundwater (Jia and You 2010).Recently, more advanced technologies were used for aquifer recharge. In 2009, well injection was applied to fill the groundwater reservoir in the Futuo River Basin (i.e., upstream of Ziya River). From August 20 to September 7, 2009, 18 Mm 3 of water from the upstream of the Huangbizhuang Reservoir was infiltrated underground (Jia and You 2010). Multipurpose underground reservoirs were constructed in different locations in China, including: Wanghe underground reservoir in Laizhou, with a regulating storage capacity of 56.9 Mm 3 ; Dagu River underground reservoir in the Jiaodong Peninsula with a capacity of 238 Mm 3 ;and others (Ishida et al. 2011). The reservoirs are built by constructing underground dams by grouting or with clay walls.Unmanaged aquifer recharge, or 'intentional water-related activity known to increase aquifer recharge, which usually has been undertaken to dispose of water rather than to recover it' (EPA 2009), has a long history in many cities and towns of Australia. Disposal of water in the form of roof runoff infiltration (since 1829) or storm water drainage wells have been used since the 1880s. However, the role of drainage wells in sustaining groundwater supplies was appreciated only much later, and steps have been successively introduced since the 1970s to protect groundwater quality. In the 1960s and 1970s, the significant MAR schemes in Australia were surface infiltration schemes primarily related to agriculture (Charlesworth et al. 2002). Since 1990, water injection and recovery from the same well, called 'aquifer storage and recovery' (ASR), is the most common type of MAR employed in Australia (Parsons et al. 2012) Another example is the wine region in the Barossa Valley, where water resources are managed according to the 'Water Allocation Plan'. Some wine growers had insufficient groundwater allocated to them to irrigate the additional area, and were not able to get their licensed allocation of groundwater increased. Hence, they turned to MAR. At that stage, surface water resources were not prescribed and could be accessed without a license. Water of low salinity and turbidity was pumped from the river to a tank prior to being fed to the vineyard irrigation bore. Hydrogeology conditions in many other parts of southern and eastern Australia are found to be suitable for managed aquifer recharge.Adoption of MAR has a long history in the USA. A very wet period suffered in Arizona in the 1980s indicated the need to store surface water surpluses by means of artificially recharging drafted aquifers. The laws adopted in 1980 and 1986 established the legal framework for all MAR aspects, including ownership of the recharged water and were the base for important artificial recharge projects in Arizona, i.e., Salt River, Central Arizona Project and others. Since then, direct surface and direct subsurface recharge methods have been successfully used to store water in many aquifers of the Arizona State. Water spreading methods using in-channel and off-channel basins are used to store large volumes of surplus surface water. There are other examples from Mexico, Spain, Nepal and other countries when groundwater depletion was attempted to be resolved by MAR (Dillon 2005). The main lessons from the MAR experience in the above countries are: i) advance planning of MAR can prevent negative impacts of groundwater development; ii) there are a variety of MAR methods which can be selected depending on hydrogeological and socioeconomic conditions of a target area; iii) simple methods of MAR have to be a priority, although advanced methods should also be considered; and iv) MAR inclusion into river basin water management can bring benefits both at the local and basin scale.The Fergana Valley depression is the area spread between the mountains of Kuramin and Chatkal on the north, Atoinak and Fergana on the east, and Alai and Turkestan on the south (Lange 1964) (1) glacier-snow;(2) snow-glacier; (3) snow; and (4) snow-rain. The Naryn River, the Sokh River and the Isfara River are of glacier-snow type. The Karadarya River and its tributaries are of snowglacier type. Over 55% of the irrigated soils are prone to salinity, including 71,922 ha that is highly saline. Mirzaev (1974) specified three hydrogeological zones in the Fergana Valley: (1) groundwater natural recharge and transit (Zone A); (2) spring (Zone B); and (3) groundwater dispersion (Zone C) (see Figure 1).Zone A represents the upper part of the fans of the small rivers in the Valley. The rivers and canals supply groundwater which is deep in Zone A. Water-bearing deposits of Zone A are represented by coarse shingle and gravel deposits, forming favorable conditions for water storage. These highly permeable deposits are gradually replaced by the loam and sandy loam deposits on the periphery of the fan, which belongs to Zone C. Between these two zones there is a narrow Zone B, where groundwater forms springs and discharges into the drain system (Figure 1). Transmissivity of the waterbearing stratum increases from Zone C to Zone A, and varies from 50 to 16,000 m 2 /day. On the other hand, groundwater level and soil salinity increases from Zone A to Zone C. Groundwater abstraction, which was at a maximum level of 4.4 km 3 in the beginning of the 1990s, had decreased to 2.7-2.8 km 3 by 2005 (Mavlonov et al. 2006). The 'excessive' flow available in the Fergana Valley for MAR includes the following:• Winter flow of small rivers. The average flow of small rivers entering the Fergana Valley from October 1 to April 1 is about 1,000 Mm 3 /year (Ivanov Yuri, Head of Department, the Uzhydromet, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, and Consultant to IWMI, pers. comm. 2009). At present, this flow, which is partially used for agriculture, supplies groundwater and forms the return flow to the Syrdarya River. Shifting from canal irrigation to groundwater irrigation in small rivers and upstream sub-catchments and adoption of water-saving technologies will intendedly preserve the in-stream flow and thereby increase the groundwater winter recharge.• Hydropower releases from the upstream reservoir on the Naryn River. The shift in the beginning of the 1990s of the upstream reservoir operations from irrigation to a hydropower generation regime increased the winter flow and reduced the summer flow of the upstream reservoir. There are no free capacities in the downstream reservoirs for storage of extra winter flow from the Fergana Valley. Furthermore, the ice-cover of the river flow in the downstream does not allow water to be delivered to the river delta and to the Aral Sea. This extra winter flow varies from 2,000 Mm 3 in low water to 3,000 Mm 3 in high water years (Mustafaev et al. 2006).• Precipitation in the natural recharge zone of groundwater. The groundwater natural recharge zone has an area of approximately 400,000 ha (Zone A on Figure 1), including irrigated and non-irrigated lands, where precipitation rate in winter is 126 mm, on average. Total precipitation available for groundwater recharge in Zone A is at 500 Mm 3 /year. Since current groundwater recharge from precipitation in winter is estimated at 100 Mm 3 /year, the adoption of appropriate technologies of soil tillage, crop selection and water harvesting may significantly increase groundwater recharge.Subsurface flow from the upstream irrigated land occurs along the valleys of small rivers and is estimated to be 950 Mm 3 /year (Mavlonov et al. 2006). Since the groundwater level is shallow in half of the study area (Dukhovny et al. 2005), most part of the summer subsurface flow discharges into the drainage system and enters the Syrdarya River in winter.The water resources available for MAR make 13-17% of the total inflow to the Fergana Valley, amounting to 24,600-28,300 Mm 3 /year in low and high flow years, respectively. MAR will allow increasing groundwater abstraction from 2,700 to 5,000-5,500 Mm 3 /year, mainly for irrigation purposes (Mavlonov et al. 2006). Implementation of this strategy at the regional scale may require different technologies. Simple structures, such as infiltration basins and percolation from the riverbeds and floodplains, can be used in some of the aquifers, while deep underground dams are the only option for subsurface water banking in other aquifers. The alternative option is to adopt water-saving technologies that will gradually create additional free subsurface storages in the aquifers with favorable conditions for water banking. Saved water can be used for improving water quality. This approach differs from the activities under implementation in the Fergana Valley by different development projects aimed to gain local benefits (Wandert 2009). The projects aim to lower the groundwater level by increasing drainage capacity. This way they increase the return flow to the river in the winter season when there is shortage of free storages in the river downstream. The approach, proposed in this report, suggests saving excessive winter flows in subsurface horizons and recovering this water in summer. This approach can reduce evaporation, flow to sinks and pollution -all for an overall regional benefit. The proposed MAR implementation strategy consists of several steps:in the Fergana Valley aimed to determine the subsurface free water storage available, or enhanced storage created by intensive groundwater abstraction; ii) determining appropriate technologies for MAR; and iii) estimating irrigated areas that have the potential to shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use and considering the adoption of potential water-saving technologies.• Step 2: MAR activities in one of the pilot aquifers should spread along the main canals.Since the groundwater level is high in the canal command areas, it is appropriate to start MAR implementation by intensifying the groundwater abstraction for irrigation purposes and lowering the groundwater level. Then focus on storing winter flow of the Naryn River and small rivers in the subsurface horizons. At the same time, create incentives for farmers to adopt water-saving irrigation technologies in the river upstream to reduce saline fluxes from topsoil to groundwater. The shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use in the Fergana Valley will increase the summer flow of the Naryn River for downstream use. Under new conditions, power stations can be installed in main canals to produce power for the operation of wells.MAR activities should be initiated in the Isfara River Basin located in the tail end of the Big Fergana Canal (BFC) as it is easy to estimate the impact of MAR and make the necessary refinements in the Isfara Basin. Then move to the next subbasin along the BFC, which is the Sokh River Basin. technologies in the river upstream and the midstream. In the upstream, low barriers, proposed across the riverbed will increase the groundwater recharge. This groundwater recharge will contribute to maintaining water quality and storage. In the BFC zone, after lowering the water level, recharge structures such as infiltration basins, boreholes and shafts can be constructed along the canal for storing the winter flow of the Naryn River in the subsurface horizons. Then the capacity of the power stations on the main canals can be increased to produce energy for the operation of wells. Then move to the next subbasin along the BFC.• Step 4: When the objective is achieved for all separate aquifers along the main canals, consider MAR at the regional scale within the whole Fergana Valley.The following sections describe the first three steps, progress achieved and results obtained to date. Step 4 is not yet considered here, as it has to include more advanced stages of technology development and has to capitalize on the success of steps 1-3.The MAR potential in the Fergana Valley is e v a l u a t e d c o n s i d e r i n g f a c t o r s , s u c h a s potential for water storage, depth to water table, groundwater salinity, availability of excess water and other factors. Areas selected with favorable conditions for water storage include parts of small river basins where free subsurface capacities are available, and areas where free capacities can be created by intensive groundwater abstraction or reducing the groundwater recharge by the adoption of water-saving technologies. The last approach contributes to decreasing groundwater salinity by reducing saline fluxes from the vadoze zone and increases the river free flow in summer, which is available for groundwater recharge. The areas suitable for groundwater storage were defined in the groundwater (GW) natural recharge zone (Zone A) and in the main canal commands with transmissivity of the water-bearing stratum above 300 m 2 /day and groundwater level below a 3 m depth. Sources available for MAR are (1) free winter flow of small rivers; (2) the flow of small rivers, which can be released by the adoption of water-saving technologies or increasing groundwater irrigation;(3) precipitation in Zone A; (4) subsurface inflow from the upstream; and(5) the winter flow of the Naryn River. Winter flow of small rivers can be used for increasing natural recharge in Zone A, which spread above the main canal commands. Natural recharge can be enhanced by increasing the leakage from the riverbed and the floodplain, canal and stream channels. The winter flow of the Naryn River can be stored underground by: a) increasing the leakage from the canals; b) installing infiltration basins; and c) boreholes or shafts. Open drains, after lowering the water table, may be used under favorable geology conditions as recharge structures as well.Areas suitable for groundwater irrigation or conjunctive use may be specified within each hydrogeological zone based on transmissivity of subsurface horizons, water depths and quality (at first approximation -salinity) in the following order:1) Subdistrict or hydrogeological zone (See Figure 1).2) Blocks, or part of a subsurface horizon, selected on the basis of the transmissivity of the water-bearing stratum in the top 0-100 m layer and categorized into several groups:• blocks with poor transmissivity of deposits less than 100 m 2 /day;• blocks with low transmissivity from 100 to 300 m 2 /day;• blocks with good transmissivity from 300 to 1,000 m 2 /day; and• blocks with high transmissivity above 1,000 m 2 /day.3) Subblocks selected on the basis of the depth of the groundwater level are as follows:• Subblocks with the groundwater level less than 3 m in depth from the ground surface;• Subblocks with the groundwater level ranging from 3 to 7 m in depth;• Subblocks with the groundwater level ranging from 7 to 12 m in depth; and• Subblocks with the groundwater level deeper than 12 m in depth from the ground surface.4) Micro-blocks separated on the basis of the salinity of groundwater:• Micro-blocks with salinity less than 2,000 mg/l;• Micro-blocks with salinity ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 mg/l; and• Micro-blocks with salinity above 4,000 mg/l.Groundwater irrigation is proposed for the area with the transmissivity (T) of deposits above 300 m 2 /day, the groundwater level is less than 3 m depths and the salinity less than 2,000 mg/l. Conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water is recommended for the area with T > m 2 /day and salinity less than 4,000 mg/l. The rest of the area is kept under canal irrigation. This area has a groundwater level below 12 m and/ or T < 300 m 2 /day. Single wells are proposed for the area with 100 < T < 300 m 2 /day. Groundwater irrigation area was specified using the data of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology and the Institute UzGIP (Mavlonov et al. 2006;Khasanhanova et al. 2006). Using these data, several GIS themes were created, such as: hydrogeological zones, specific water yield, transmissivity of the deposits, depth of the groundwater level, groundwater salinity, etc. Groundwater budgets were compiled for low (2001) and high (1995) water years for each aquifer of the Fergana Valley to determine the potential of groundwater abstraction within the selected areas.The data given in Table 1 indicates that free capacities exceeding 3,000 Mm 3 in Zone A are available for storing the winter flow of small rivers, which varies within a range of 1,000-1,200 Mm 3 /year and are predominantly allocated for winter crop irrigation. The indicated area is located at higher altitudes above the commands of the main canals, which deliver water from the Naryn River to water-short areas of the Fergana Valley.Free capacities available and those that potentially can be created within the main canal commands are illustrated by Figure 2 and Table 1.The data given in  3a.The estimates show that the area suitable for groundwater irrigation totals to 290,000 ha and 243,000 ha for conjunctive use. The rest of the area can be kept irrigated using canal water. The potential volumes of groundwater extraction depend on hydrogeology conditions (Zones A and B) and the replenishable groundwater resources.Total groundwater recharge in Zones A and B (Figure 1) is estimated to be in the range of 5,624-6,005 Mm 3 /year in low and high water years, respectively. Expanding the area under conjunctive use and the adoption of water-saving technologies (Figure 3b) will decrease the groundwater recharge in summer due to reducing losses from canals and irrigated fields. Recharge deficit (~1,000 Mm 3 /year) can be compensated using the winter flow of the Naryn River and small rivers. The data given above indicate the potential for MAR at the regional level and the next step is assessing the MAR potential at the pilot aquifer level.  Pilot MAR: The Isfara River Basin The Isfara River originates by the melting of glaciers and snow on the Alay Mountains. Longterm average discharge of the river is at 14.7 m 3 /s. The BFC crosses the aquifer in the upper part of the basin, which allows the use of simple structures for recharging the surface water into the subsurface horizons. Leakages from the BFC, the riverbed and streams and widespread canal system are the main sources of the recharge of the Isfara Aquifer. Gravel and shingle deposits (more than 100 m thick), representing the upper part of the river basin, form favorable conditions for groundwater recharge. To the north of the BFC, the gravel and shingle deposits are gradually replaced by loams and sand loams.The groundwater has a subsurface outflow to the northeast of the Syrdarya River and to the northwest of the Kairakum Reservoir. Salinity of the groundwater is less than 1,000 mg/l in the upper part, and 1,000-3,000 mg/l on the periphery of the basin with some isolated spots where groundwater salinity exceeds 3,000 mg/l. Irrigated soils spread in the upper part of the basin to the south of the BFC (that receive water from the Isfara River, and water lifted from the BFC in part) and soils located on the periphery of the basin are irrigated from the BFC. Groundwater extraction for irrigation purposes is 53 Mm 3 /year against a much higher 600 Mm 3 /year from the canal system. In the upper part of the basin, farmers grow mostly orchards and intercrops, such as vegetables, legumes, maize and sorghum for silage; whereas in the downstream in the canal command, they grow mostly cotton and winter wheat.A simple method of groundwater recharge was applied in the Isfara River upstream. One of widespread depressions along the BFC, a trench of 40 m x 25 m x 2 m size, was used in this study as an infiltration basin (Figure 4). The soil profile of the selected site was presented by shingle and gravel deposits filled with sand, and was representative for the area along the BFC in the river upstream (Figure 4c). The recharge study was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, from April 1 to 17, 2010, water of the BFC was infiltrated underground from the infiltration basin of 0.1 ha area. Before the trial, the walls and the bottom of the trench were leveled. Two water level meters were installed at the bottom of the trench. The water was entering the basin without initial treatment.The discharge of the water entering the trench was measured using a fixed channel. Measurements were done every hour in daytime and three times during nighttime. Altogether, 11 monitoring wells, located 100-1,000 m away from the infiltration basin, were installed to monitor the change of the groundwater level. Evaporation from groundwater was measured using the pan evaporator installed next to the infiltration basin. Precipitation data was obtained from the nearest weather station. The concentration of the suspended sediments was analyzed in laboratory conditions using the de-silting method. Soil samples were collected from the bottom of the trench before and after the groundwater recharge trial from depths of 0-25, 25-50, 50-75 and 75-100 cm below the ground. Soil samples were taken to determine particle size distribution, total dissolved solids, gypsum and carbonates by using standard methods applied in the region (Arinushkina 1970).The second stage of MAR was carried out from March 26 to April 26, 2011. Unlike in the first stage, two de-silting basins were built of 3 m diameter and 1 m water depth before the infiltration basin. Three monitoring wells, equipped with divers to get hourly observation data, were also installed 3, 30 and 35 m, from the north of the basin. The divers were installed on April 5 and dismantled on May 31, 2011. Before the second stage experiment, sediments accumulated at the bottom of the basin were collected and transported to the closest fields. Infiltration rates were measured in three replications before and after the experiment using the method of infiltration rings. The infiltration rate was measured in the beginning, middle and in the end of the infiltration basin at 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes after starting the experiment, and then after each 30 minutes. The measurements continued until stable infiltration rates were achieved, which were from 6.5 to 8.5 hours. After testing the MAR at the pilot field scale, groundwater modeling was applied to estimate the water banking potential of the entire Isfara River Basin.Stage 1. Starting from April 1, 2010, water of the BFC was supplied to the infiltration basin. Due to the high percolation rate, the bottom of the basin was covered by water only from day 3 after starting the experiment. The water level in the basin stabilized on day 5 at 58 cm and was continuous for the next 10 days. After interrupting the water supply, the water disappeared in the basin after 3 days. Figure 5 shows that the infiltration rate had maximum values in the first 3 days, when it exceeded 4.5 m/d, and then was stable at 2-3.5 m/d starting from day 4 up to the end of the experiment (Figure 5). Small regular variations of the water level can be explained by the high speed of the water entering the basin, especially in the first 3 days during the initial stage of infiltration, forming waves and due to high turbidity of the supplied water. Daily observations of the water levels showed that the groundwater level rose by 35-45 cm at a distance of 250 m from the infiltration basin (Figure 6).In total, 40,000 m 3 of water was supplied into the basin, of which 2,000 m 3 evaporated and 38,000 m 3 infiltrated to the groundwater.This was a significant amount of water infiltrated from a small basin. Since the length of the canal within the Isfara River Basin is 15,000 m, about 150 similar infiltration basins can be constructed along the BFC for groundwater recharge. The potential of full-scale MAR using these structures is modeled.To avoid over-estimation of groundwater recharge potential at the upscaling stage from  single point (0.1 ha) to the sub-catchment (15 ha), the recharge rates used in the modeling were 1.5 times to twice as less when compared to values found at the pilot site.The pilot GW recharge study indicated the risk associated with high turbidity of the BFC water (Table 3). Data given in Table 3 shows that the sum of silt particles (diameter from 0.002 to 0.05 mm) and clay particles (diameter less than 0.002 mm) exceeds 95% of the total suspended particles contained in the water of the canal. This data indicates a possible risk of soil porosity being blocked. However, the analysis of the particle size distribution indicated that the major part of the silt and clay particles is deposited at the bottom of the basin and above the topsoil, and much less in the soil profile. The thickness of the deposits was 10 cm in the head part, 7 cm in the middle and 3 cm in the tail end of the basin (Table 4).Soil texture given in Table 4 for November 2010 indicates the content of the silt and clay particles in the soil profile after the recharge trial carried out before the rainy season. As seen from the Table, the deposits form a separate layer on the topsoil and can be easily removed from the basin after completing the MAR trial. The data given for March 2011 indicates soil texture after the rainy season. A comparison of the content of the silt and clay particles in the soil profile in the infiltration basin before and after the rainy season indicates an increase in the content of the silt and clay particles in the soil layer by 0-25 cm in the winter season (Table 4). If during the groundwater recharge trial, clay particles accumulated mainly above the topsoil, the rainy season changed the distribution of the fine particles in the soil profile. In spite of the high content of the fine particles in the water of the BFC, their movement in the soil a Stone particles were removed before analysis of the mechanical composition of the soil; M -thickness of the deposits in the infiltration basin.(cm) the content of the suspended particles was still high in the head part of the basin. An analysis of the mechanical composition of the suspended particles in the water of the BFC showed that 68% of the particles was from silt and 31.3% from clay particles. In the second stage of the experiment in 2011, the thicknesses of the deposits were 18 cm in the head part and only 2 cm in the tail end of the basin (Table 3). In total, from March 26 to April 26, 2011, the volume of the water infiltrated from the basin to the groundwater was 20,200 m 3 , and evaporation from the groundwater level during the experiment was estimated at 139 m 3 . The rise of the groundwater level monitored at the monitoring well equipped with the diver is given in Figure 7.Figure 7 shows that groundwater level is raised by 30-35 cm in the well located next profile had taken place mainly during the rainy season after the completion of the groundwater recharge experiment. This data emphasizes the need for removing the deposits from the infiltration structure before the rainy season.Stage 2. The second experiment on the artificial recharge was carried out from March 26 to April 26, 2011. The concentration of the suspended particles was 2,030, 1,887, 62 and 30 mg/l in the water of the BFC, in the second desilting pit, in the middle and in the tail end of the infiltration basin, respectively. Towards the end of the experiment, the content of the suspended particles was 807, 783, 327 and 43 mg/l in the BFC, in the second de-silting pit, in the head part and in the tail end of the basin, respectively. It was noted that in spite of the availability of the de-silting pits before the infiltration basin, to the infiltration basin. The groundwater level rise was at 10 cm at the wells located 30 and 35 m from the basin. Water budgeting studies confirmed that infiltration rate during stage 2 was less than stage 1, despite the duration of the second stage being longer. The volume of groundwater recharge in stage 1 was twice that of stage 2. This was caused by: i) smaller flow discharges entering the basin, and hence less water heads in the basin; and ii) late removal of the deposits from the infiltration basin -after the rainy season. The results of the study suggest the importance of removing the deposits after completing the recharge trial without delay before the rainy season sets in. In spite of these limitations it was found that the recharge structures that have been tested have good potential to be used for water storing along the BFC. This concept was further tested through the groundwater modeling.A three-dimensional model of the Isfara Aquifer (Figure 8a) was constructed using Visual MODFLOW software (Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc. 2000). Visual MODFLOW is a widely used Microsoft Windows-based version of the US Geological Survey 3-D Finite Difference Groundwater Flow Model, MODFLOW (Harbaugh and McDonald 1996). The Isfara Aquifer Model covers approximately 380 km 2 . Grid spacing in the x and y model dimension is 50 m x 100 m, and in the areas with dense irrigation canals and drainage ditches the model has 50 m x 50 m resolution.The model boundary conditions were set based on the results of the hydrogeological studies carried out by the HYDROENGEO (Miryusupov, Chief Hydrogeologist, Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, pers. comm. 2010). The surface of the groundwater level acted as a recharge boundary. The loamy/ clay layer that is 300 m deep was set as a noflow boundary to represent the lower boundary condition. In the south, there is the subsurface inflow from the uplands through the valley of the river. The groundwater level in the northeast is sourced by the Syrdarya River and in the northwest it is provided by a constant head. There is a zone of natural groundwater recharge on the south and a discharge zone to the north of the BFC (Figure 8b). The model has eight layers; first, third, fifth and seventh layer are represented by gravel and shingle deposits in the recharge zone and by loam and sandy loam deposits in the discharge zone. Groundwater is unconfined in the recharge zone and confined in the discharge zone in layers two to eight. Main canals in the upper part are given in the model as a 'recharge boundary condition' because of their deep groundwater level. Canals that spread in the discharge zone are given as a 'river boundary condition' because they supply the groundwater in summer and drain it in winter. Recharge of a 'boundary condition' also includes percolation losses of precipitation and infiltration losses of irrigation water. The infiltration losses pattern depends on the soil type, crop and groundwater table that is given in the model on a monthly basis. The BFC in the study area is 2 m deep and 5 m wide. The water depth in the canal is 1.5 m and thickness of the deposits at the bottom is 0.3 m. Initial depths of the groundwater level were taken from the database of the Institute of the Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology. The initial groundwater level was 20 m deep in the recharge zone and 1 to 2 m below the ground to the north of the BFC.Initial values of the parameters were determined from pumping tests, carried out by the HYDROENGEO in the study area from 1980-1985. During that time 13 pumping tests were carried out including 9 in the unconfined zone and 4 in the confined zone. Location of the monitoring wells was dependent on the hydrogeological profile. For a uniform profile, the number of the observation wells taken was 2-3 in the upstream, 3-4 in spring zone and 4-10 on the periphery of the basin with a confined aquifer. The pumping tests were carried out with fixed yields of the wells so as to simplify the analysis of the obtained data. The yields were from 25 to 100 l/s and the groundwater level drawdown by 3-4 m in the exploited well. The yields of the wells were selected to achieve quasi-stationary regime and groundwater level drawdown by 20 cm in the remote well after 5-10 days. Duration of the pumping test was 10-15 days in the unconfined zone and 15-20 days in the confined zone. Groundwater level drawdown data was collected for each 1-10 minutes at the beginning of the pumping and three times per day at the end stages and at the remote well. The hydrogeology parameters were estimated using groundwater level drawdown and restoration data through analytical solutions of the Theis equation. According to these estimates, transmissivity of the water-bearing deposits varies in the range of 40-555 m 2 /day and specific yield from 0.13-0.22 m 3 /m 3 in the unconfined zone and at 0.0001 m 3 /m 3 in the confined zone.Simplified models using Visual MODFLOW were compiled for each of the 13 wells exploited for pumping tests. The size of each model was 1,000 m x 1,000 m. The simplified models were represented by eight layers, repeating the layers of the main model of the Isfara Aquifer.The model grid was non-uniform -5 m near the well and was increased to 20 m closer to the border of the model. In total, the model had 100 rows and 100 columns. The boundary of the model was taken as the constant head considering that short-term pumping will not affect the water levels at 500 m distance from the well. A low permeable clay layer that is 300 m deep was taken as an impermeable layer to represent the lower boundary of the model. In the beginning, the models were run using values of the parameters, coefficient of filtration and specific yield, determined from an analytical solution of the Theis equation. Four alternative water management scenarios were considered:• Scenario 1 (Sc1). The baseline scenario simulates actual trends in groundwater extraction for irrigation. The groundwater resources are preserved for domestic and industrial requirements as well as to cover irrigation water shortages. The groundwater extractions are at minimum levels of 1.7 m 3 /s, while the number of wells is 190 (Figure 9a).• Scenario 2 (Sc2). Conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water for irrigation. This scenario proposes groundwater development for irrigation in the upper part of the system and irrigation from the BFC in the downstream.The wells extract the annual groundwater recharge in the summer season. The number of wells is 230, of which 40 are projected along the BFC -0.5-2 km from north and south. This scenario aims gaining local benefits -more water available for irrigation in the Isfara Basin, but with no water saving for the downstream of the Syrdarya River.• Scenario 3 (Sc3). The groundwater extraction exceeds its annual recharge by 20% and is aimed to lower the groundwater level on the periphery of the basin and arrest the salinity and waterlogging issues.• Scenario 4 (Sc4). Managed aquifer recharge = Scenario 3 plus storing 100 Mm Location of the wells is given in Figure 9b.Simulations were done for each scenario for 13 years starting from 2011, and the water extraction regime was fixed under scenario 1, seasonal variations are considered under scenario 2 and long-term variation under scenarios 3 and 4 (Figure 10).Results of the modeling is shown in Figure 11 and indicate high groundwater levels under the current baseline scenario (Sc1) and forming the free capacities under scenario 2. A significant lowering of the groundwater level under scenario 3 is the consequence of the intensive groundwater extractions exceeding the groundwater recharge. The regime of filling and draw off of the subsurface reservoir is shown in Figure 12.Under scenario 1 (Sc1) of minimum extraction levels of groundwater for irrigation, the subsurface reservoirs are filled during summer and drawn off in winter for subsurface outflow and discharge to the drain system. Intensive groundwater extraction for irrigation (Sc3) results in drawing off water levels in summer and minor filling happening in the winter. This increases the risk of groundwater depletion and degradation in quality due to saline fluxes from the Vadoze Zone and surrounding inter-fan depressions. Managed aquifer recharge in scenario 4 sustains the groundwater storages and maintains the water quality, since 100 Mm 3 of freshwater will be stored underground. Groundwater storages are depleted in summer by intensive groundwater extraction but replenished in winter by managed aquifer recharge. This combination aims at sustaining groundwater storages and quality in the long run (see Figures 11 and 12). The water-saving effect of the alternative strategies expressed in the reduction of the nonproductive depletions is given in Table 5. Data presented in Table 5 demonstrates the dependence between the return fraction, a ratio between water extraction to recharge, and free   capacities. Increasing the return fraction from 0.22 to 1.22 increases free capacities from 90 to 173 Mm 3 (see Tables 1 and 5).The resources stored in the subsurface horizons under scenario 4 were used in the following way: 14% was used for irrigation in summer; 15% contributed for transpiration from shallow groundwater level; 21% contributed to the return flow to the river in the summer season; and 38% was still available in the subsurface horizon. Nonproductive depletions constituted 5% for evaporation and 14% for return flow to the river in winter. Furthermore, decreasing the groundwater storages under scenario 4 indicates the potential for additional recharge. Recovery efficiency of the aquifer recharge was estimated at 0.79.Modeling results indicated differences in the realization of the alternative strategies of the groundwater management. The first strategy of preserving the underdeveloped groundwater will result in expanding the area with high groundwater levels in the Isfara River downstream. Thus, it will also cause a further increase in the salt affected and waterlogged areas. In addition, this strategy will produce high non-process water depletions including evaporation, flow to sinks and pollution. The second strategy of seasonal regulation of the groundwater storage will result in the reduction of non-process depletions for evaporation, flow to sinks and pollution. However, regional benefits of this strategy will be insufficient. Unregulated groundwater extraction (Sc3) may result in the degradation of water quality and drawdown of the groundwater level, especially in the upper part of the basin where the groundwater is of high quality. Finally, MAR strategy will facilitate the prevention of groundwater depletions by storing up to 100 Mm 3 /year of the winter flow from the Naryn River. This strategy aims to effect regional benefits by reducing the winter return flow by 17 Mm 3 /year and storing 100 Mm 3 /year of the winter flow of the Naryn River in the subsurface horizons of the Isfara Aquifer. Wide-scale adoption of the alternative strategies requires different approaches. Farmers a Nonproductive depletions considered are the part of the evapotranspiration from groundwater table for physical evaporation and flow to sinks. The flow to sink in this case is the return flow to the river in winter, when the downstream reservoirs are full and there are no free storages.growing cotton and wheat under the State patronage, such as subsidized resources, including water, have little impetus to save irrigation water. In contrast, farmers growing market crops, such as orchards, grapevines and vegetables, in the upper part of the system are more inclined to get access to the groundwater. However, construction of wells may require a significant amount of their income. The use of low quality pumps, available in the local market, would be a high risk exercise and result in considerable losses for farmers who intend shifting to groundwater irrigation for growing perennial crops, especially during their establishment stage. Therefore, under the first strategy, there is a high risk of incurring losses for small farms, which are located in the water deficit zone and are attempting to get access to the groundwater.The second strategy can be adopted by allocating preferential credit to the farmers for installing wells and to cover the operational expenses during the first year of the establishment of the orchards and grapevines, when farmers do not have free resources to invest into groundwater development. The benefit of this strategy is lowering the risk of losses for small farmers shifting to groundwater irrigation and increasing the area used for high-value crops. Intensive groundwater extractions in the upper zone may, with time, cause negative processes such as: degradation of the water quality in the upstream and the surrounding area due to saline fluxes from the vadoze zone; and groundwater level drawdown which will make water extractions uneconomical. Since groundwater and surface water use is regulated under the same water law in Central Asia, there is a strong procedure to be followed to get special permission to access groundwater. The special permission restricts the amount of water that can be pumped and, as such, creates the basis for preventing groundwater depletions.The third strategy focuses on long-term regulation of the groundwater storage by accumulating the excessive flow of the rivers in the subsurface horizons in winter and its recovery in summer for irrigation. The modeling results indicate the regional benefits of this strategy. The shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use will release the summer flow of the Naryn River for downstream use. Low groundwater levels in summer due to groundwater extraction will reduce the area prone to salinity and waterlogging and also the area suitable for high-value crops. Increasing winter recharge using the freshwater of the rivers will contribute to sustaining the water quality and reducing the return winter flow from the study area.Increasing groundwater irrigation may increase consumption of electricity in the Fergana Valley. However, there is a widespread area under lift irrigation, which consumes even more energy. Shifting to conjunctive use will reduce the area under lift irrigation, and decrease consumption of electricity in those areas. In addition, small power stations proposed to be installed in the canal system can generate power for the operation of wells in the summer and for rural population needs in the winter.The Sokh River Basin extends over 183,738 ha from the northern foothills of the Turkestan-Alay mountain system till the Syrdarya River. The southern part of the basin is represented by the belt of the elevations elongated in the latitudinal direction with altitudes of 800-950 masl. The Sokh River crosses the elevations from south to north by narrow deep valley. Then to the north from the hills there is the fan formed by the river covering the main part of the study area. In the northern part of the study area, the periphery of the fan merges with the alluvial valley of the Syrdarya River with altitudes at 354-362 masl (Geintsc 1967).The Sokh River is fed by meltwater from glaciers, with a maximum flow in the summer and a minimum in February, when the baseflow is almost 100% sourced from groundwater. The head reach of the river across the alluvial fan is a natural recharge zone, contributing 44.5% of mean annual flow to groundwater. The Sokh River supplies water for irrigation in the upper part of the basin, where soil cover is represented by gravel and sand, and is also the main source of the groundwater recharge. The river flow is distributed into irrigation canals at the headwork called Sarykurgan, built on the river right after the elevations.The Sokh Aquifer, underlying the Sokh River Basin (Figure 13a), consists primarily of unconsolidated shingle and gravel outwash deposits. In the lower reaches of the river, a spring zone appears in the form of a 3-5 km wide spring line that runs parallel to and slightly upslope of the BFC (Figure 13a, b). Groundwater naturally discharges directly into the drainage system over a 5 km wide belt that lies downstream (just to the north) of the BFC alignment. The flow paths to the discharge zone are almost vertical in the narrow spring zone due to an impermeable anticline that almost intersects the surface (Figure 13b), and gives rise to surface ponding, which then evaporates or flows into the drains.The water-bearing strata consist of upper Quaternary (QIII), intermediate Quaternary (QII) and lower Quaternary (QI) deposits. These deposits contain gravel and shingle with an interlayer of loamy sand and loamy deposits. The gravel and shingle deposits predominate in the southern part of the study area with increasing proportions of loamy sand and loamy soils in the northern parts. The intermediate Quaternary (QII) layer is subdivided into (QII-1) and (QII-2) layers, with low hydraulic and high hydraulic conductivity, respectively.The depth to access groundwater varies from 72 to 116 m in the head of the system, and can be as little as 0.5 to 2.5 m below ground level in the discharge zone. More than 800 wells have been in operation since the 1970s, but have generally only been used to supply peak irrigation water demand in the summer in the 1980s to 1990s. The aquifer in the lower part of the basin is locally confined or semi-confined due to the discontinuous layers of clay and loam (Figure 13b) (Miryusupov and Gracheva 2006).The field study in the Sokh River Basin focused on estimating the leakage from riverbed and the ways in which it could increase. The gravel field of 600 ha area in the upper part of the fan creates a favorable structure for replenishment of the groundwater (Figure 14).The field study consisted of two parts: (1) water budgeting studies carried out from June to October 2010 (Figure 14); and (2) longterm data analysis of the river flow and water quality. Water budgeting studies included the measurements of: the river flow discharge at the Sarykurgan Headwork; the water intake to the left bank and the right bank canals; the river flow at the downstream of the headwork; and water diversions into the secondary canals. The measurements were carried out three times per day. The groundwater elevations were monitored once in 3 days by monitoring wells located along the riverbed. Water samples were collected once per month for chemical analysis, which was carried out in the laboratory conditions using standard methods applied in the region (Arinushkina 1970). Annually, in May, the water management organization builds a dam across the river to increase the water heads and divert the river flow to the right bank canal. The dam is 600 m long and 3 m high. The water depth in the riverbed was measured three times per day from June to September. Subsequently, a relation was found between the river flow at the headwork and the leakage from the gravel field on the river. Then this relation was applied to estimate leakage from the river in the long run using the river flow discharge data at the Sarykurgan Headwork from 1995 to 2010, collected from the archival data of the Syrdarya-Sokh Basin Irrigation System Administration.A significant part of the river flow released to the downstream of the Sarykurgan Headwork supplies the groundwater (Figure 15).The field studies in 2010 found that the leakage from the riverbed in the downstream  of dissolved solids in the groundwater (Table 6). Figure 16 shows that relative losses a r e i n c r e a s i n g a t s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s a n d stabilizing at 25-35% for discharges exceeding averages 30-35% of river flow releases to the downstream (Figure 16). The leakage from the gravel field allows for the maintenance of low concentrations FIGURE 15. Flow of the Sokh River in the downstream of the Sarykurgan Headwork (Q) and leakage from the downstream gravel field (Q с ).  50 m 3 /s. The data presented in Table 6 show a decrease in the concentration of the dissolved salts in the groundwater during the high leakage from the riverbed from July to September, and, thereafter, it begins to increase again. These data represent trends in the salinity change in the central part of the river upstream.The concentration of the dissolved ions is much higher in the groundwater of the inter-fan depressions. There are two main factors affecting the quality of the groundwater of the aquifer: i) the leakage from the riverbed contributes to the sustenance of the water quality; and ii) the subsurface inflow from the inter-fan depressions and the upstream and saline fluxes from the topsoil, increase the concentrations of the dissolved solids.During the field studies carried out in 2010, it was found that when the river flow exceeded the transporting capacity of the main canals, it is released to the headwork downstream. Using the relation obtained for 2010, the leakage from the riverbed was calculated for 1995-2010 and is given in Figure 17. Changes in the groundwater salinity in the study area from 1995 to 2010 indicate tight relations between the river flow and the groundwater. Data given in Figure 17 show that the losses from the riverbed in the summer varies from 98 Mm 3 in low water years to 137 Mm 3 in high water years. The salinity of the groundwater, as and when affected by the leakage from the riverbed, begins to decrease in the spring and continues to the fall (Figure 18). The gradual increase in the share of the saline water in the groundwater budget indicates the need for measures to sustain the quality of the water.There are at least two ways to sustain the water quality: i) to adopt water-saving technologies to reduce losses from the irrigated fields and to increase the natural recharge from the riverbed and other recharge structures; and ii) to restrict irrigation in the upstream of the river. This concept of adopting water-saving technologies for conserving water for enhancing natural recharge of groundwater was further tested through MAR modeling.  The Sokh Aquifer Model was developed using Visual MODFLOW (v. the land surface was created from 1:50,000 scale maps using the Gauss-Kruger (1942) coordinate system. The stream network was transformed into raster format for direct incorporation into MODFLOW. Data was mostly sourced from the HYDROENGEO database and used to create the following thematic layers: location and details of monitoring and pumping wells; groundwater contours; elevations of the top and bottom of each geological layer (in spreadsheets); and hydraulic conductivity of each geological layer. Wells deeper than 100 m are typically used for domestic and industrial water supply, as are those with screens placed at lower depths (>70 m), where water quality is better and cost of pumping is less significant than for irrigation or drainage. As a first step, the boundary conditions, layers and their interconnections were specified. The area represented by the model covers 54.75 × 50.25 km in a grid of 335 rows and 365 columns with a fixed cell size of 150 × 150 m. The aquifer system is represented by three distinct geologic units -QIII, QII and QI (Figure 13). On the basis of the earlier hydrogeology surveys (Mirzaev 1974), each unit was assigned a horizontal and a vertical hydraulic conductivity and thickness.The three geologic strata are represented as five layers in the model, as illustrated in Figure 19a and described below: Layer 1. Soil surface to 20 m below ground level. At the head of the valley, the layer contains no water, but in the valley the groundwater level is 0.5-3.0 m below the ground level.Layer 2. From the bottom of layer 1 to the base of stratigraphic layer QIII in Figure 13b, typically between 280 and 350 m above mean sea level.Layer 3. The elevation of the base of this layer corresponds to the stratigraphic boundary between geologic units QII1 and QII2 and varies from 253 to 218 masl.Layer 4. The base elevation of this layer is marked by the stratigraphic boundary of geologic units QII2 and QI1 and varies from 218 to 125 masl.Layer 5. The base of this layer is set at 50 m above mean sea level and is impermeable. The impermeable bed is very deep in the study area and there was no reason to consider such a massive stratum. The bottom of layer 5 is taken as constant to simplify the model and reflects the geological conditions of the study area. It was also assumed that a boundary condition at 300 m below surface will not significantly affect subsurface water abstraction from depths of 40-100 m from the soil surface.Groundwater in layers three, four and five are confined with a specific storage of 0.0001 1/m. The model is bounded on the north by general head conditions, governing drainage outflow, and the western and eastern boundaries are zeroflow boundaries lying at the edges of the aquifer. The upstream condition is a fixed flow boundary, representing the underground inflow. The Sokh River and the BFC flow in northern and western directions, respectively, and were included in the model to provide local recharge and drainage of the groundwater. The aquifer was divided into six zones as shown in Figure 19b. The discharge zone is divided into the spring discharge (zone 3), upwelling (zones 4 and 5) and dispersion (zone 6). Zone 3 is a belt that runs from 3 km to the south of the BFC to 5 km to its north.The BFC was included in the model as a river boundary condition. Average groundwater discharge downstream of the canal alignment is 1.99 m 3 /s compared to 6.77 m 3 /s along the spring-lines upslope of the BFC. The natural surface leakage along branches of Sokh River was included as a linear recharge. The natural recharge rates vary from 3,600 to 43,200 mm/year at the stream channels in the upstream, but then in the transit zone the intensity of the recharge at the stream channels falls to 1,080-18,000 mm/ year. In other areas, recharge from irrigated lands predominates. The natural groundwater recharge from precipitation is estimated at 36 mm/year. The groundwater discharge in the upwelling zone is represented as the inflow to a 3 m deep surface drain with a constant flow depth of 1 m. A total of 773 wells were in operation during the study period, of which 667 were for irrigation, 57 for drainage and 49 for domestic needs.In [1977][1978], the HYDROENGEO Institute carried out detailed water budgeting studies (Miryusupov and Gracheva 2006). The results of these studies were used to calibrate the model. The observed groundwater level elevations from 44 observation wells were used to create a groundwater contour layer in ArcView 9.1 and were then interpolated to provide values for MODFLOW. The water budget data included all inflow components, such as subsurface inflow, recharge from the BFC, riverbed and streams, and accessions from irrigation and rainfall. This was balanced by discharge data on either side of the BFC, upwelling, subsurface tail flows to the Syrdarya River, groundwater flows to surface drains and direct evaporation. It was observed that subsurface inflow was almost twice the subsurface outflow.Model calibration was conducted by a stepwise adjustment of the hydraulic conductivity of each layer. The detailed groundwater budget data collected by the HYDROENGEO from January 1977 to December 1978 was used for model calibration. The modeled heads for each month from January 1977 to December 1978 were compared to actual recorded values and other comparators, which included groundwater discharge to the drainage system, and subsurface inflow and outflow to each zone. The aquifer tests had determined hydraulic conductivity for the discharge zone to be in the range of 4 to 12 m/d for the first layer, with 4 m/d used as the initial value. The values of hydraulic conductivity in each layer were increased step-by-step and values that resulted in the best fit between observed and modeled water levels were retained. Vertical hydraulic conductivities were treated in a similar manner, using the observed and modeled flows between the consecutive layers as the objective function. Initially, the ratio of horizontal to vertical conductivity was assumed to be 10:1 in the recharge zone and 100:1 in the discharge zone. The reliability of the model parameters was assessed through the comparison of: observed and modeled groundwater level elevations; drainage flows; and evaporation losses from groundwater and canal seepage values. Actual and modeled groundwater levels were compared at successive time intervals of 30, 210 and 720 days after the beginning of simulation. Sample plots of observed and modeled groundwater level elevation over time are given for water levels in three different zones in Figure 20a, b and c, which show an acceptable level of overall correspondence, but indicates that further calibration improvements would be obtained through automatic calibration. However, the authors preferred to retain the manual calibration based on adjusted hydraulic conductivities, since this has a physical meaning and is related to their knowledge of the aquifer and its behavior.The comparison of calculated and actual discharge of groundwater into the drainage network is shown in Figure 21 The corrected values of horizontal and vertical conductivity are given in Table 8.Inter-layers of low permeability were not initially included in the model and their effect is accounted for through the determination of adjusted values of vertical conductivity. There was no change in the boundary conditions since 1978. Changes in the groundwater budget (groundwater extractions, recharge and evaporation) since 1978 were considered n the formulation of the modeling scenarios.Five scenarios were developed to support alternative strategies of groundwater recharge and development in the Sokh River Basin:Scenario 1 (Sc1) -the groundwater extraction at a minimum level of 3.8 m 3 /s. The surface flow is the main source of irrigation water under this scenario. Scenario 2 (Sc2) -on-farm furrow irrigation is improved by introducing water-saving technologies, such as mulches, and alternate and short furrows. It is expected that these measures will reduce the groundwater recharge from the upstream irrigated land by 20%.Scenario 3 (Sc3) -the introduction of advanced irrigation technologies in the river upstream. It is expected that this measure will produce a 40% reduction of the groundwater recharge in the river upstream.S c e n a r i o 4 ( S c 4 ) -t h e g r o u n d w a t e r abstraction at a maximum level of 22.4 m 3 /s.The effect of introducing advanced irrigation technologies in the river upstream on groundwater recharge is accounted for. Scenario 5 (Sc5) -the groundwater extraction level is the same as in scenario 4 plus increasing groundwater recharge in winter from the Sokh     13a).The results of the water level modeling are shown in Figure 22. Figure 22 indicates that following the first strategy without (scenario 1) and with (scenarios 2 and 3) on-farm improvements would cause high groundwater levels in both the upstream and downstream parts of the basin, and high return flow to the Syrdarya River in the winter. Development of groundwater for irrigation purposes under the second strategy (scenario 4) will reduce nonproductive evaporation by 58% and winter return flow by 46% (Table 9). However, this strategy may, with time, deplete groundwater storage, which would affect the quantity and the quality of the groundwater. The regime of filling and draw off of the subsurface aquifer is given in Figure 23.Under scenario 1, groundwater storage is filled in the summer and draw off occurs in the winter for return flow to the river. Under scenario 4 there is a minor drawdown in the summer and filling is done in the winter. Under the scenario of MAR (Sc5), the storages are filled in the winter and drawdown occurs in the summer. Groundwater extractions at the minimum levels simulated in scenarios 1-3 cause the   highest return flow to the river, which is estimated at 52% of the groundwater recharge, and evapotranspiration from the groundwater level, most of which is non-process and at 39-40% of the total recharge. Groundwater storages increase by 92 Mm 3 /year under this strategy, and thereby increase the area with shallow groundwater level on the periphery of the fan, followed by salinity and waterlogging issues.The shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use, modeled under scenario 4, will reduce the return flow to the river from 52% to 27% of total groundwater recharge and evapotranspiration from 52% to 18%. Gradual lowering of the groundwater level, with time, may cause groundwater depletion and affect its quantity and quality. The last may be caused by saline fluxes from the vadoze zone and from the inter-fan depressions and from the upstream of the Sokh River.Under scenario 5 of MAR, the return flow to the river is estimated to be 24% to 25% of the total groundwater recharge and the evapotranspiration from 13% to 16%.  10).The modeling results given in Table 10 show low efficiency of the groundwater management under strategy 1, which increases to 0.63 under strategy 4, with managed aquifer recharge and conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water for irrigation. Non-process depletions reduced from 48% under strategy 1 to 25% under strategy 3. Similar potential for MAR is available in other aquifers of the Fergana Valley, which demonstrates the importance of this strategy to improve water management in the Fergana Valley and in the Syrdarya River Basin, on the whole. It is observed that there is a growing demand for food and energy, and also an increased competition for water between upstream and downstream users in the Syrdarya River Basin. Furthermore, the change in the upstream reservoir operation from a conjunctive irrigation/hydropower mode to an exclusively hydropower generation mode reduced the flow of the river downstream in the summer and increased it in the winter.The coincidence of peaks in winter hydropower releases and return flow from the irrigated land in the Fergana Valley forms excessive river flows, which complicates the operation of the downstream reservoirs. As a result, there is a water shortage in the range of 2,000-3,000 Mm 3 /year affecting downstream water users in the summer and excessive, often unutilized, flows of the same magnitude in the winter. Projected reduction of the river flow by around 6-10% by 2050 due to climate change, with increased frequency of extreme, high and low flows may further complicate downstream basin water management, which is currently accomplished primarily by a cascade of reservoirs. This study suggests that the current practice of sequential in-channel reservoirs is not coping well with the needs of both upstream and the downstream water users.The study further suggests that MAR in the upstream of Fergana Valley and elsewhere in the Syrdarya Basin may help adapt to a new water management reality. Over 3,000 Mm 3 /year of subsurface free capacity is available in the upstream of the small river basins of the Fergana Valley. These capacities can be used for storing excessive flows of small rivers and thereby effectively reduce the return flow to the Syrdarya. Additional free storage for MAR can be created in the command areas of the main irrigation canals by intensive groundwater extraction. The water resources available in the Fergana Valley for MAR include: winter flow of the Naryn River from 2,000 to 3,000 Mm 3 /season; winter flow of small rivers at 1,000 Mm 3 /year, which could be free by increasing groundwater extractions for irrigation and by introducing water-saving technologies; and winter precipitation at 500 Mm 3 /year. The resources available for MAR make 13% to 17% of the total inflow to the Fergana Valley in low to high flow years, respectively.The study followed the stepwise procedure of implementing MAR in the Fergana Valley. The first step is the regional assessment of the potential for MAR and for shifting from canal irrigation to conjunctive surface water-groundwater use. The second step is the application of MAR for aquifers, located in the tail end of main canals. The next step is to move to the next aquifers along the main canals. When the process is complete for all of the separate aquifers along the main canals, MAR implementation for the entire Fergana Valley is considered.The regional assessments in the Fergana Valley show that over 500,000 ha or 55% of the currently irrigated land can be shifted from canal irrigation to conjunctive surface water-groundwater use, which will reduce the return flow to the river by 30%, or by 1,000 Mm The results of the study suggest that simple technologies, such as infiltration basins and enhanced natural recharge from riverbeds, can be used for MAR in the Fergana Valley. Small infiltration basins can be constructed along the main canals, delivering the water of the Naryn River to the water-short areas of the Fergana Valley. Enhanced natural recharge from river floodplains is found to be effective for sustaining groundwater storages and preserving the high quality of groundwater in small river basins. To ensure the science-based implementation of MAR at the scale of the Syrdarya River Basin at large, the following need to be examined:• Potential for introducing MAR in the Syrdarya River Basin, including the foothills of the northern Tajikistan and lowlands of the southern Kazakhstan.• Potential for adoption of advanced MAR technologies, such as subsurface artificial dams and aquifer storage and recovery technologies.• Management of groundwater quality by MAR.• Adoption of water-saving technologies, such as drip irrigation, and MAR.The results of the study propose (especially for projects already under implementation in the region) shifting the focus from reconstruction of dense drainage systems in the Fergana Valley to groundwater development for irrigation and MAR. The 'Meliorative fund', established for amelioration of salt-affected and low productive land and functioning under the Government of Uzbekistan, can also be used as a financial instrument for MAR activities.","tokenCount":"13026"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4ad169c3c82c7b576a8efc8659e9b9f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ab493d78-ec43-463e-98bd-f377f867b3cd/retrieve","id":"-63907457"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cb910092-4e19-4a43-a8d0-0e20a5020168","pagecount":"42","content":"In 2019, the average rate of rangeland degradation was 18.5% globally, ranging from 10% in North America to 32% in the Middle East and 35% in South America. Overgrazing and early grazing• Overgrazing occurs:• Too many animals (high SR)• Bad timing: early grazing or prolonged grazing periodRangelands are the source of wood production for fuel, construction of houses, hedges for protection, livestock pens, making of implements for use in cultivation and houses and small wood as fuelwood for cooking and heating other purposes.Human induced practices leading to rangeland degradation ▪ Poor policy such as subsidized animal feed (barley) ▪ Weak institutional support (lack/no reinforcement of pastoral code (laws), weak extension services, too many agencies, etc.As the pressure on our natural resource base increases, today the major challenge is how to achieve socio-ecological intensification to be able to sustain the increasing populations without compromising the environmental quality and natural resources that underpin crop and livestock production? Mapping and monitoring rangeland vegetation using Geo-informatics (RS -GIS -GPS)","tokenCount":"165"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b65895428f313264fbf30f1089c181a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/05e608b7-5acc-4f10-87ee-4f7c3fb95233/retrieve","id":"318671169"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4026a022-795d-44bb-a2cc-b7905a85d93c","pagecount":"9","content":"Why rattan?• Rattan grows up trees for support and helps save them from premature harvesting by providing additional benefits that outweigh those of early harvesting the companion tree. • • Rattan can be planted in natural forests without disturbing the existing structure or balance of the forest and can increase its financial value.• Rattan poles are light and extremely flexible and have a huge market in the furniture and handicraft industries. In order to guarantee future supplies, rattan plants must be properly managed and sustainably harvested.Why steam bend rattan poles?• Rattan poles are very widely used in the furniture industry because of their strength and pliability.They can be bent to tight radii down to four times the diameter of the pole and are used to form many parts of the furniture framework.• Rattan poles are traditionally bent with a blowtorch. This leaves unsightly scorch marks on the poles and consequently reduces the quality and sale price of the products.• Steam bending eliminates these problems.Heating with steam also softens the whole length of the pole at one time, allowing greater lengths to be bent, and involves fewer labour inputs. to set. in furniture making.• Reduces dependence on timber resources and thereby increases environmental protection and conservation.• Permits rehabilitation of degraded lands through increased areas of rattan plantations.• Creates income-generating opportunities for rattan growers who will supply the unit, and employment for unskilled, skilled and technical staff at the unit.• Uses only waste rattan to heat the boiler that produces the steam and is very energy-efficient.• Can be established as a central community enterprise to supply a wide range of different secondary rattan processing enterprises.• As a primary processing activity, the steam bending unit is ideally established as one of the central core units in a broader community-based rattan development programme, along with a rattan oil curing, bleaching and preservation unit and a propagation unit.• The use of jigs is very important to ensure uniformity of the bent components.• Maintaining close linkages to, and regular feedback from, the users of the bent components (who are the \"market\" for the components) is essential to ensure the unit is able to meet industry requirements.• Steam bending requires skilled operators and a programme of skills development coupled with staff promotion will maintain the vitality of the unit.Photo: Steamed poles awaiting bending in jigs• Sustained supply of quality poles.• Some skilled bending technicians.• Start up capital.• Sets of bending jigs to ensure uniformity of components and minimise breakage. • Well established linkages to the secondary processors who are the \"market\" for the bent parts produced.Left: Steam bent pole in jig.Right: Split and cracked poles due to improper bending.• Steam conditioning equipment $8250 • Other equipment (jigs, hand tools) $1275• TOTAL $9525Notes:• A number of different sizes of steaming chests are required for different lengths of poles.• Storage facilities for purchased poles after selection for quality and prior to bending, and for those being set after steaming will be required.• The unit should be designed to allow free and clear access to the steaming chests by all pole-benders","tokenCount":"511"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/1998132899.json b/data/part_5/1998132899.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a5a44f1353ceba0ef8fab5af5f21d911","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4928f055-1986-487d-afba-37faa0ad8b94/retrieve","id":"-1970725587"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b23f0a6b-e543-4a6a-b504-bda6c9d8a518","pagecount":"63","content":"12. Spatial distrihution of areas of significant cultivation (see white cn!or) in inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path:197, row:52; the areas encircled hy the polygons 1, 2, 3, and 4 indicate insignificant cultivationyiomlau peoi aqi pue s,uawalilas woij a3ueis!p ol o a d s a ~ q l ! ~ sa!i!sualu! uo!ie~!i[n3 S.P EE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uo!ieA!ilnn a3!i jo uo!lnq!~ls!p pue Li!sualu~ 1.v.p OE -. , . . a3uanbasodol ssoiae sa!i!suam! uo!ieA!i[nn pue sLalle~ puelu! jo L ~o r n a ~u ~ ~. p PZ \" \" \" ' spueldn pue 'saZu!y Lalle~ 'suro~~oq Lalle~ jo uo!lez!ia13e~eq3 asn-puel 6.p I T \" \" ' . . ' \" ' \" ' \" \" \" \" ' \" . . . . \" ' \" . . . Sl!\"S 2.2'2 le!ialew waled 1 '2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eaie Lpws aql jo s3!1s!iai3eieq3 les!sLqd 2.2 . . . . . . . . ' . . ' . . . . \" . . \" . . . earn ipms aql bq paiaho:, sauoz apssoi3em 1 .z \" \" \" ' \" ' \" ' \" ' \" \" \" \" \" \" s~!~s!~ameieqn eiep avllales pue eaJe Lpws ' 11 [ . . . . . \" . . 11. Land-use distribution in the different land regions of the WURP map determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row52 in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12. Land-use distribution in the different agroecological and soil zones determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row52 in the regions of Bobo-Dialousso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso, Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. Distribution of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands and their cultivation status in the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14. Inland valley morphometric characteristics determined using Landsat TM data of path: 197, row:52 (Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, Sikasso, Mali) . . . . . . . . . . . . .   see centerfold -1. False color composite of TM 4 (red), TM3 (green), TM5 (blue) highlighting the broad inland valley bottoms near Sikasso, Mali. For example, the bottom widths of valley bottoms were: 250 to 500 meters in Peniasso, and 500-800 meters in Banankoni and Lotio 2. Distinguishing the inland valley bottoms from the valley fringes and uplands through ratio RGB image of TM4lTM7 (red), TM4lTM3 (green), and TM4lTM2 (blue) 3. Inland valley bottoms delineated and mapped for the entire study area of Landsat Path:197, Row52 (Sikasso, Mali; and Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) (see the legend for color key) 4. Land-use classes mapped for the different components of the toposequence (valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands) for the entire study area of 3.12 million ha covered by Landsat path:197, row:52 in Sikasso, Mali and Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (see the legend for color key)5. Land-use classes in a sub-area near Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; note the relatively high density of cultivation across the toposequence in areas adjoining roads and settlements (see legend for the culor key) 6. Land-use classes in a suh-area near Sikasso, Mali; note the dramatic differences in land use in Farako reserve forest and the area in the immediate neighbhourhood of Sikasso (see legend for color key) 7. Rice cultivation in the inland valley bottoms surrounding Sikasso, Mali. Observe the contrast between the valley bottoms of the Farako forest reserve from that of the valley bottoms near and north Sikasso 8. Location of the potential benchmark research sites for technology development research activities in the study area covered by Landsat TM path:197, row:52 (Sikasso, Mali; Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) 9. Land-use classes uf valley bottoms in a sub-area (near Toussiana, Burkina Faso) of Landsat Path:197, Row:52. The valley system of Kamao (immediately west of Toussiana) is one potential valley for technology development research activity 10. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) map of sugarcane fields in a sub-area ( ) of Landsat path: 197, row:52; the higher the NDVI, the greater is the biomass and vigour leading to higher productivity 11. Spatial distrihution of areas of significant upland cultivation (see white color) in the entire study area of Landsat TM path: 197, row:52; areas inside the polygon indicate insignificant cultivationThe International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is currently conducting a characterization of inland valley agroecosystems in West and Central Africa (Izac et al. 1991). A macro-(subcontinental) scale stratification (level I) of West and Central Africa led to a map of 18 agroecological and soil zones (figure 1). Each of these zones represents an area of more than 10 million ha (table 1). Overall, about 36 million ha spread across 11 countries of West and Central Africa are targeted for level I1 characterization. This will be mesoscaled (regional, semidetailed).For this purpose, 1 I Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), and 5 Lz systkmepour I'obscrvation de la terre (SPOT) high r-solution visible (HRV) data bases were acquired in sample areas of level I. Each satellite scene over a particular area will be referred to as a study area. Each study ar-,a covers one or more of IITA's level I agroecological and soil zones (figure 1 and table 1).The ohjectives of level I1 (regional) characterization include inventorying and mapping inland va!ley bottoms; determining land use and land cover of inland valleys and their uplands; determining the cultivation intensities relative to settlements and the road network; mapping the spatial distribution of inland valley systems: testing hypotheses, such as relationships between uplandlinland valley cultivation patterns and cultivation patterns within and across agroecological zones; and determining the location of potential benchmark research sites for technology development activities.The level II characteristics are reported with respect to the subcontinental (level I) agroecological and soil zones (figure 1) and also with respect to geological and geomorphological land regions of the Wetland UtilizationResearch Project (WURP) in West Africa (Windmeijer and Andriesse 1993). The location of satellite images on the WURP map is shown in figure 2.Readers of this inlanil valley characterization report are referred to the resource and crop management research monograph of IITA hy Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a) for the background, definitions (see illustration in tigure 3), rationale, ohjectives, approach, and methodology of level 11 characterization which remain consistent across the study areas. A brief overview of this ~nethodology is described below.1. The valley bottoms were delineated using image enhancement, display. and digitizing techniques.The valley fringes were mapped by delineating the areas immediately adjoining valley bat-toms, by using a search radius on either side of valley bottoms equivalent to the mean fringe width measured during the ground-truthing. 3. Land-uselland-cover studies were carried out separately for valiey bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands using unsupervised classification of multihand data. 4. Several other characteristics such as the percentage area of inland valleys cultivated at varying distances from roads and settlements, have heen extracted through spatial data manipulation (e.g., boolean logic interpolation and contiguity analysis) of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) datalayers. 5. A methodology for key sitelkey watershed selection was developed based on expert knowledge and GIS modeling of various spatial datalayers. 6 . Ground-truth data, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) data, and other data sources were incorporated into digital image analysis. Analyses were conducted using Earth Resources Digital Analysis System (ERDAS 1991).    The results of each study area are published in the Inland Valley Characterization Report series. Each publication addresses the envisaged common objectives and adopts a consistent approach and methodology as presented in the monograph by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a). This study was conducted in parts of Burkina Faso and Mali covered by Landsat-5 TM path: 197, row52 of Landsat's world reference system (see figure 4 for location and geographic co-ordinates). The study area covers about 3.13 million ha. The major settlements in the study area are Bobo-Dioulasso, Orodara, Koloko, Toussiana, Koudougou, Kouka, and Faramana in Burkina Faso; and Sikasso, Kle'la, Koutiala, Karangana and Kouri in Mali (figure 4).The regional (level 11) characteristics are reported witli respect to two macroscale zones: a. IITA's level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure I and figure 5); b. land regions of the WURP report (see figure 2 and figure 6).Agroecological and soil zones were derived from stratifying West and Central Africa according to two agroecological parameters: 1. IITA's mandate agroecological zones, namely northern Guinea savanna, southern Guinea savanna, derived savanna, and humid forest, which were developed by the Agroecological Studies Unit at IITA (Jagtap, personal communication); the major factor determining a zone is the length of growing period; and 2. soils based on a digitized version of the soil map of the world FAOIUNESCO (1977); the 106 soil units of FAOIUNESCO (1974) had been merged to 23 major soil groupings (e.g., Acrisols, Luvisols, etc.).These data of agroecological zones and soils were manipulated using a geographical information system (GIS) which resulted in 18 zones, constituting the level I map (figure 1, table 1). Each zone portrays a specific combination of these two factors and represents an area of over 10 million ha in West and Central Africa (see table I). This study area covers two agroecological and soil zones (AEZs) (see figure 5): AEZ 1 and 2; the rest of the area is not covered by the level I map. The characteristics of AEZ I and 2 are given in table 1. The major soil grouping throughout the study area is Luvisols accortling to the F A 0 soil classification system of 1974 (FAOIUNESCO 1974). The following land regions are covered by the study area (see table 2): a. land region 2.8 -Interior Plains with sedimentary deposits as geologic formation b. land regions 3.1 and 3.2 -Plateaux region with basement complex as geologic formation c. land region 3.3 -Plateaux region with sedimentary deposits as geologic formationThe process of deriving geologically and geo~norphologically determined land regions in West Africa is explained in Hekstra et al. (1983). For a detailed description of these land regions see Windmeijer and Andriesse (1993). The mean population densities in this study area as determined from the WURP report (Hekstra et al. 1983) vary between 5 to 15 (see table 3 and figure 4).       1 .Level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure I) h. Geological and geomorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra d al. (1983) andWindmeijer and Andriesse (1993) (see figure 2) c. Wetland utilization research project (WURP), see Hekstra et al. (1983) The results and discussions will he presented ant1 discussetl for the following zones (see tahle 4 and figures 5 and 6): 1. Level I zones: AEZ 1 (45% of the study area) and AEZ 2 (12%); and 2. WURP land regions: land region 3.3 (68%) and land region 2.8 (24%); other land regions occupied very low percentages of the overall stutly area: land region 3.1 (2%) and land region 3.2 ( 6 % ) , and hence characteristics relative to these two zones were not reported.The study area comprises two zones with different lengths of growing period: the northern Guinea savanna with 151-180 days and the southern Guinea savanna with 181-210 days (see figure 5 and tahle 1). Land region 3.3 falls in this study area predominantly in the northern Guinea savanna (figures 5 and 6). The mean vegetation densities were nearly uniform across the different macrozones in the study area (tahle 5). The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values of 0.34 ttr 0.39 (tahle 5) are indicative of fairly vigorous vegetation. This was mainly due to the date of data acquisition (27 Septe~nher 1991) which is the peak rainy season in the region with crops in vegetative or critical growth phases. Other vegetation. such as grasses and shruhs, is vigorous to very vigorous in growth.  6). However, two land regions occupy only 2% and 6% of the study area, whereas the major part falls into land region 3.3 (68%), the Plateaux region with sedimentary deposits (paleozoic sandstones) as geological formation. In the northwestern part of figure 6 land region 2.8 occurs (24% of the overall study area). It is part of the Interior Plains region of West Africa with sedimentary deposits (paleozoic sandstones, tillites) as parent material. The gwlogical formations constituting the region are given in tigure 7. Much of the study area is covered by sandstones and tillites of Cambrian age. Ahout 90% of the ground-truth sites were located here.According to Si~npara (1995) a northwest-southeast axis divides the geologic formations of that region. The sandstone south of Sikasso is of a hard nature whereas north of Sikasso a soft sandstone occurs. Blanchet (1992) sees these changing sandstone characteristics as a major reason for independently circulating subsurface groundwater levels in the region which affects the hydrologic dynamic in inland valleys. The study area is predominantly sandstone with recent alluvial deposits along certain valleys (figure 7). The recent alluvial deposits in the valleys are as a result of periodic tlooding in the area. The tlooding deposits fertile soil and makes cultivation of rice and other crops extremely attractive.Soils. According to the classification of the level I map, Luvisols are to be found as the major soil grouping in the study area (see figure 1 and table I). In reality, the study area is characterized by very heterogenous soil conditions on uplands and the nonhydromorphic part of inland valley fringes. Figure 8 tlisplays the areal spread of 24 map units as given on the soil map of the world (FAOIUNESCO 1977) for that area. Their composition is listed in table 6. Based on the composition rules of F A 0 (1978) the following tlistribution of soil units was calculated: Farming systems. The agricultural systems are as diverse as the soils in the study area. Manyong et al. (in preparation) characterized farming systems in the middle belt of that area as market-driven and being in the intensification phase (figure 9). The influence of market access and good infrastructure on farming systems is also obvious in the area around Sikasso and between Bobo-Dioulasso and Toussiana. Farming systems here are in the market-driven expansion and early intensification phases, respectively. That means infrastructure, such as road networks, has reached a level sufticient enough to enable farmers to grow at least one cash crop as a major objective of farm households. Between these two regions, around Koloko un the Burkina Faso site, lies a region where population density is still the major driving force for farming systems hut land availability is increasingly scarce. Therefore, Mauyong et al. (in preparation) classified that region as population driven expansion phase (figure 10). Market factors mainly drive the farming (figure 9) with cotton and sorghum being the main upland crops (see their spatial distribution in figure 10) and rice being the main lowland crop. I percentages are \"rounded-off\" to nearest integer b. results for the area \"outside ledel I\" are not reported c. geological and gmmorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra et al. (1983) andWind~neiizr and Andriesse (1993)  Rainfall in the study area shows a monomodal pattern with 80% of the annual amount falling in four months, between June and September (figure I I). The annual total varies at stations in the study area among 832 mm (KoundougoulKouka in the northeast), 987 mm (Koutiala in the northwest), 1072 mm (Sidkradougou in the southeast, at the lower right comer of the study area), and 1310 mm (Sikasso in the southwest). Evapotranspiration around Sikasso is around 1800 mm (Blanchet 1992). The longterm spatial distribution of the rainfall in the study area varies between 1000 mm to 1250 mm, with rainfall decreasing towards the northern portion of the study area. Most of this rainfall occurs between the months of May ant1 September.Figure 1.l Monthly rainfall in 6 stations in the study area expressed as percentage of annual total [Sivakumar et al. (1984). Sivaku~nar and Gnoumou (1987)l 2.3.1 Hydrology with respect to the water dynamic in inland valley systems. The hydroldgical dynamics is best understood with a knowledge of the topographical or terrain features in the study area. The inland valley systems are. typically, characterized by large bottom and fringe widths with gentle transversal slopes of 0-2 degrees. Mild to very mild longitudinal slopes along with tlat to near-tlat valley bottoms in the first-to fourth-order streams do not facilitate quick drainage of water downstream. This results in shallow water being spread across inland valley bottoms of third-and fourth-order streams (which often exceed 500 In in width) as the water drains off from the first-and second-order streams. The inundation will last for several months during the peak rainy season (July through October). These characteristics are generally found in the whole of the study area and are best exemplified in plate 4: (i) the area between Nialninasso and Nougoussouala north of Sikasso, Mali, (ii) the area between Bama and Desso. nor& of Sikasso, Mali, and (iii) the area in the immediate vicinity of Sikasso. Mali. These areas are very well suited for inundated rice cultivation. Blanchet (1992) determined in the Peniasso watershed near by Sikasso in 1991 runoff coefficients (surface runoff in percent of rainfall) between 3.2% and 13.0% for eight events. The runoff coefficients were calculated to be 8-13% at the heginning and in the middle of the rainy season whereas at the end of the rainy season (September) they come down to 6% (Blanchet 1992). Runoff as a percentage of total discharge (defined as surface runoff [ruissc<llement] + hase flow [c'coulement de hase] was determined to be > 60% at the start of the rainy season and between 30 and 50% at the end.Ground-truth data were collected from 25 valley bottoms, 17 valley fringes, and 36 upland plots. In valley fringes, 17 sample plots were located at the upper, nonhydromorphic part and 8 sample plots at the lower hydromorphic part. Ground-truthing took place between 25 September and 1 October 1993 to correspond seasonally with the satellite overpass date of 27 September 1991. The locations of ground-truth sites are shown in figure 12. At each location (where a GPS reading was taken) there were 1 -2 plots with the GPS location reading being taken on the center of the road and the plots falling on either side of the road. The time frame of the project necessitated a heavy reliance on archived (or historical) satellite data. Real-time or near-real-time ground-truthing is not a feasible proposition due to numerous difticulties involved, such as a high uncertainty in obtaining a good quality real-time satellite image as a result of cloud and harmattan problems, and difficulties in planning ground-truthing activities across several study areas of West and Central Africa at short notice. A consideration of such data collection prccedures has been discussed in the monograph by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a). The data collection strategy, parameters measured or observed, and the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze parameters remain the same across study areas. These are described in the same monograph. A comprehensive inland valley database has been developed by Ofodile et al.(in press). Only a shortcut of the parameters measured is presented in the following paragraph.The location of each ground-truth site was determined using a global positioning system (GPS) Garmin 100-SRVYR. Locations noted were geographic co-ordinates (latitudellongitude) in degree, minutes, md seconds and universal transverse mercator (UTM) co-ordinates (x,y) in meters. The accuracy of these GPS readings was usually within + 30 m. GPS was also used to collect groundcontrol points to georeference the satellite image. A total of 21 ground-control points in prominent locations, such as a road crossing a river (over the center of the bridge) and a road crossing a railway line were recorded. These ground-control points were well spread across different portions of the image.Land-use measurements were made along a transect in a 90 m by 90 m plot in valley bottoms, at valley fringes (hydromorphic and nonhydromorphic), and on uplands. GPS-location readings were taken at the center of the valley bottoms. Leaf area index (LAI) of the canopy was measured in the same 90 m by 90 m plot of valley bottoms and uplaqds. Land-cover types recorded at each site were trees, shrubs, grasses, cultivated farms, barren farms, barren lands, built-up areas or settlements, roads, and others. Different combinations of these land-cover types led to specific land-use categories (see tables 7, 8, and 9).Several other characteristics recorded at each inland valley site included: valley bonom width (m), valley fringe width (m), transversal slope (degree), stream order (number), and qualitative observations, such as occurrence of a central stream in the bonom, nature of the water discharge, status of water management systems, and soil moisture conditions (see Thenkabail and Nolte 1995a). Note:Table 13 provides the exact cultivated areas for different components of the toposequenceThe first step in establishing the characteristics of inland valleys in the study area involved georeferencing the satellite image to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates. This was done using 19 of the 21 GPS-location data points gathered at different prominent locations of the image during the ground-truthing. The image was georeferenced with an accuracy of about 2 pixels (ahout 60 m). This precise georeferencing made possihle an accurate study of inland valley characteristics, such as their land use and cultivation intensities in different components of the toposequence (valley hottoms, valley fringes, and uplands).The study region is characterized hy valleys with large botttrm widths as exemplified in a suharea around Sikasso. Mali (plate I). The characteristics of this image include:1. a false color composite (FCC) image of hand TM4 (red). TM3 (green), and TM5 (blue) surrounding Sikasso, Mali: 2. an image displayetl with an magnifying factor of 1; and 3. an image that highlights the flat or ncar-flat hottoms which are seasonally inundated.Inland valley hottoms were distinguishwl from neighhouring fringes and uplands through image ehancenlent and display techniques such as the ratio RGB image of TM41TM7 (red), TM4lTM3 (green), and TM4lTM2 (hlue) (plate 2). These highlighted valley hottoms were delineated through digitizing. The illustration in plate 2 tlernonstrates: 1. an enhanced image. ohtained by using a ratio red-green-hlue (RGB) image of Landsat T M hands TM4lTM7, TM4lTM3. TM4lTM2; as a result, valley hottoms showed up in a white or cream Coltrred network oistreams. very easily distinguished from their fringes and surrounding uplands; and 2. an image, displayetl with a magnification factor of 2, to highlight inland valley hottoms, clearly distinguished from other features: thereby. valley btrtto~n boundaries could he easily and exactly digitized directly off the screen.The resulting valley bottoms in the entire stutly area of 3.12 million ha are shown in plate 3 along with their land-use classes (to be discussed later in this report). Plate 3 provides the spatial distribution of inland valley bottoms, their densities. and land-use characteristics.Following the definition in Thenkahail ant1 Nolte (1995a), inland valleys comprise valley bottoms and valley fringes (hydr~~morphic and nonhydromorphic parts) (see figure 3).Valley fringes adjoin valley bottoms and were mapped by a combination of image processing and GIS techniques as explained in the monograph of Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a). The mean widths of the valley fringes, measured during the ground-truthing, were used to \"spread\" on either side of valley bottoms and \"mask\" the image area other than that within this \"spread\" width. This results in \"masking\" the valley bottoms and the uplands in order to highlight only the valley fringes. The outcome is illustrated for sample areas in earlier reports of Thenkabail and Nolte (1995b and 199%).The same technique was adopted to map the valley fringes of the entire study area of Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso. Mali.The following parameters were determined using the TM data for each of macnrscale zones covered by the study area (tahle 3):1. presence or absence of major settle~nents; 2. number of major settlements; 3. presence or absence of major road network; and 4. density of road network (kmlkm').All the zones had one major settlement or more than one (tahle 3). The biggest settlements were Boho-Dioulasso (about 3050 ha) in Burkina Faso and Sikasso (about 835 ha) in Mali. All other settlements were much smaller (between 15 ha and 490 ha). A total of 70 major settlements were mapped. The location of these settlements with respect to the macrcrscale zones are given in tahle 3 (even though these settlements exist in plate 4, the scale of the map makes it impossible to notice smaller settlements). All macroscale zones in the study area have a major road system. The density of the road network was lowest in AEZ 2 with 0.022 km/km2 compared with the other zones which have road-network densities hetween 0.027 and 0.040 kmlkm? (tahle 3).Land-use characteristics were mapped separately t'or valley hottoms. valley fringes and uplands. This involved using the CLUSTR unsupervised classification algorithm of Earth Resources Digital Analysis System (ERDAS.) and incorporating ground-truth information to arrive at the desired land-use themes and classes (see Thenkahail antl Nolte 1995a for an extensive discussicln of the methodology). Six nonthermal hands of TM were used in the classification process. The GPS data and the land-use and land-cover data were used along with the spectral vegetation indices to identify the spectral classes of unsupervised classification. An initial 50 spectral classes of unsupervised classification were reduced to the final 16 land-use information classes (tahle 7, and figures 13a and 13h) which were then mapped unifc~rmly across the stutly area. Each of these classes has a varying percentage of 10 land-cover types (tahle 8). The 16 land-use classes (tahle 7) were displayed against the 10 land-cover types in a matrix fcirmat in tahle 9. For example, the class \"significant farmlands of valley bottoms\" (land-use class 10) contains 65% farmlands (59% harren farms plus 6 % cultivated farms), 8% trees, 9 % shrubs. 14% grasses. and 4% harren lands (table 9). This proportion of land-cover types will vary depending on the season. For example, in the dry season many of the farmlands are expected to be harren. However. the land-use class will remain the same. The varying proportion of landcover types for a land-use class is a result of the heterogeneity crf the information classes even within a single pixel (28.5 ~n hy 28.5 ~n ) and due to aggregating different spectral classes to a few predecided land-use classes. As mentioned earlier, in this study the original 50 spectral classes from unsupervised classification were aggregated to 16 land-use classes (table 6). Pure land-use classes (having a single land-cover type that occupies 100% of its area) are water, settlements, and roads. These classes also comprise gallery forests along the fourth-or higher-order streams. All these classes have high reflectance in TM4 (near infrared waveband) and low reflectance in TM3 (the red waveband). As a result, the vegetation indices for these classes are amongst the highest (see table 10). The uncultivated valley fringes (class 9) were significantly different in spectral characteristics compared to the other two classes for uncultivated areas (class 3 for uplands and class 12 for bottoms). This was mainly due to the higher vigor and greater density of valley-bottom vegetation relative to that of fringes and uplands. Gallery forest (lush green trees and shrubs) is mainly concentrated along the valley bottoms. This was also due to a higher percentage of sparse and short shrubs at the fringes (class 12) compared with the bottoms. The clusters of classes 2, 8, and 11 are very close in figure 12 because they both have a remarkably similar land-cover distribution (table 9).The classes showing significant farmlands at the fringes (class 7) and on the uplands (class 1) have similar spectral characteristics, but their clusters are notably different in position, illustrating significant farmlands in valley bottoms (class 10). This was mainly due to the cultivation of inundated rice (swamp rice) in the valley bottoms versus cropping of sorghum and cotton at the fringes and on the uplands. The presence of water in these valley bottoms caused a high absorption in the water absorption band TM5, resulting in low values of TM5 (figure 13b). Therefore, the midinfrared simple vegetation index one (MSVII = data of TM4 divided through data of TMS) discriminates better between class 10 and class 1 or 7, respectively, than the ratio vegetation index (RVI = data of TM4 divided through data of TM3).Class 16 (barren land) shows up as a wetland in these hispectral plots mainly due to a high soil moisture status because of rains during the date of overpass. a. significant farmlands (classes 1, 7, and 10): farmlands (cultivated farms + barren farms) constitute > 30 % 11f the total land area of this class:b. scattered farmlands (classes 2. 8, and 11): farmlands constitute 1 10 % hut 5 30 % of the total land area of this class: and c. insignificant farmlands (classes 3.9, and 12): farmlands constitute 5 10 % of the total land area of this class. The areas occupied by each of these 16 land-use classes have heen presented with respect to the WURP land regions in table I I and to the agroecological and soil zones of IITA in table 12. The land-use classes in plate 4 compress an area of 3.13 million ha. This plate is useful in getting a spatial view of land-use distribution in a region. Land-use maps for \"windows\" within this region of study provide excellent details (see, for example, plate 5).Land-use class 3 represents areas with savanna vegetation. It comprises 5 10% (insignificant) farmlands. The percentage area relative to the total geographic area occupied by this class varies between 6.5% (for land region 2.8) to 28.7 % (for AEZ 1) (see tables l l and 12). The entire study area had 23.2%. area of class 3. Land-use class 2 (for uplands). 8 (for valley fringes), and 11 (for valley bottoms) are also predciminantly savanna vegetation with 10% to 30% of the area being farmlands. The percentage areas covered by these predominantly savanna land-use classes, in each agroecological zone, were generally high. For example: in AEZ 1 the percentage areas covered by these classes were 25.9% for class 2 (uplands). 6.7% for class 8 (valley fringes). and 4.2% for class 1 I (valley bottoms). The overall percentage areas far savannas should include the percentages of the \"pure\" savanna class (class 3) and predominantly savanna classes (classes 2, 3, 8, and 11). Thereby, the overall savanna percentage areas were 65.5% (class 2, 3, 8, and 11) for AEZ I, 70.4% for AEZ 2, 65.4% for the entire study area, 67.1 % for land region 3.3, and 61.6% for land region 2.8. Dominance of these classes in land regions 3.3 and 2.8 (table 11); and AEZ 1, 2, and entire study area (table 12) are characteristics of this study area in the transition of northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna. On average, land-use class 3 consists predominantly of grasses (48%) followed by shrubs (24%), trees (9%), farmlands (9%), barren land (6%) and others, (4%) (see table 6).The forest classes 5 and 6 represent about 4% in different macroagroecological zones (table 11 and  12) as may be expected in this transition zone of the northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna study area. It has to be noted that, even within this area, a significant portion is gallery forests (trees along river banks) for higher-order streams (fifih-order or higher) (see these characteristics depicted in plate 4). The gallery forests along the fourth-or lower-order streams fall into the class \"uncultivated valley bottoms\" (land-use class 12) or part into the class \"uncultivated valley fringes\" (land-use class 9).    13).The land-use characteristics mapped for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha is depicted in plate 4. This plate provides an excellent spatial depiction of land use in a regional context. For example, the areas with little or no cultivation are shown in violet (upland savannas), rose, and red-orange (upland forest), red (predominantly valley-fringe savannas andlor forest), and magenta (predominantly valley-bottom forest and/or savannas), These colors are dra~natically seen in plate 4 and show up to occupy over 50% of the area. These colors contrast with those of significant cultivation (shown in gray for uplands, white for fringes, and cyan for bottoms) and scattered cultivation (seafoam for uplands; pine-green for fringes; and yellow for hottoms) mainly along roads and settlements (see roads and settlements in plate 8 and compare the distrihution of significant and scattered cultivation in plate 4).The detailed land-use characteristics are depicted forsub areas near two major settlements: Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (plate S), and ~ikasso, Mali (plate 6). Plate 5 illustrates the high cultivation intensities across the toposequence in areas nearer to settlement and road networks. In the immediate vicinity of Sikasso there is intense cultivation in valley botto~ns (mostly inundated rice) and valley fringes and uplands (mostly sorghum) (plate 6). In areas to the east of Sikasso, in the Farako forest resexwe, the land use dramatically changes to savannas (see dramatic differences in land use depicted for forest versus nonforest areas in plate 6).The area of inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) is a function of the density of valleys and their characteristics, such as their bottom width and fringe width. An inventory of inland valleys was made possible by this process of highlighting and mapping (see section 4.1). Using the same technique as enumerated in section 4.1 and illustrated in plates 1 through 3, inland-valley bottoms were mapped for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha (plate 3). The sparse network of inlandvalley systems in the entire study area (plate 3) is obvious from their spatial distrihution. A quantitative assessment indicated low drainage densities (ratio of the length of the streams to the area encompassed by them in kmlkm') and coarse stream frequencies (ratio of length of the streams to the area encompassed by them in number/km2) (tahle 14). The drainage densities varied between 0.35 kmlkm2 and 0.48 km/km2 and stream frequencies varied between 0.48 number/km2 and 0.69 number/km2. Although the spatial coverage of inland valleys is sparse, this study area is characterized hy large valley-bottom ant1 valley-fringe widths (table 15). The large bottom widths are evident in plate 1. These large valley hottom and valley fringe widths account mainly for the considerable percentage of area covered by inland valleys (tahle 13) in spite of the coarse stream frequency (tahle 14) in all the different macroscale zones studird.The mapping strategy conceptualized for use with remotely sensed data, as outlined in detail in Thenkahail and Nolte (1995a). is to map consistently all valleys as inland valleys along fourth-or fifth-order streams. The decision where to draw the line between inland valleys and floodplains (usually at fourth-or fifth-order streams) is hased on ground-truth data. However, not all valleys below, say, fourth-order when mapped as inland valleys are actually likely to be inland valleys.  Level I agroecological and soil zones (see figure 1)Geological and geomorphological land regions in West Africa according to Hekstra et al. (1983) and Windmeijer and Andriesse (1993) (see figure 2) 2. stream frequencies (numherlkm2) as: very coarse (0-0.5); coarse (0.5-1.0); medium (1-2); fine (2)(3); and very fine (> 3) b. When the suhara was too small such as for land region 3.1 (2% of total study area), stream densities and frequencies were not calculated and hence were marked \"-\" Some of them are tloodplains. This is due to the high variation encountered in characteristics such as bottom widths and flooding regime. Since floodplains have a different hydrological regime, soil conditions (Raunet 1985), and cropping patterns, they are to he distinguished from inland valleys. However, a strict distinction is not possible due to practical reasons and hence all valleys of fifthorder and below have been mapped as inland valleys. The inland valley frequencies and densities were higher in (1) AEZ 2 compared to AEZ 1; and (2) Land region 3.3 compared to land region 2.8 (see table 14). However, as a result of the presence of valleys with larger bottom widths in AEZ 1, the percentage area of valley bottoms in AEZ 1 (9.1%) exceeded that of AEZ 2 (7.7%) (as area is also a significant function of bottom width). For the same reason, the valley bottom area of land region 2.8 (9.1 %) exceeded that of land region 3.3 (8.2%).As a result of the methodology used in this study (see Thenkabail and Nolte 1995a for details) valley fringe area is a direct function of valley frequencies and densities. As a result, the zones with higher frequencies and densities (AEZ 2 in comparison to AEZ 1; land region 3.3 in comparison t o land region 2.8; see table 14) had a higher percentage of valley fringe area (25.5% for AEZ 2 in comparison to 17.8% for AEZ I; and 20.4%.for land region 3.3 in comparison to 18.1% for land region 2.8; see table 13). Both land regions have similar geology-sedimentary deposits (Cambrian sandstone, figure 7). Cultivation intensities (table 13) in the valley bottoms were highest for AEZ 2 (24%) as a result of nearness of this area to the major settlement of Sikasso, and conditions marketdriven expansion phase (see tlgure 9). Rice is the major crops in the bottoms. The highest intensities of upland (29.6%) and valley-fringe (27%) cultivation was in land region 2.8 as a result of marketdriven conditions and with well connected road network and with cotton as the major crop.Due to significant differences in the geographical areas studied (45% of the entire study area for AEZ 1, 12% for AEZ 2, 24% for lmd region 2.8, and 68% for land region 3.3, see table 12) a direct and realistic comparison of results across zones was not feasible. In a more regional context, in the entire study area, valley bottoms were 8.6% (see plate 3) valley fringes 20.4%, and uplands 70.2% (table 13). The cultivation intensities in the entire study area were nearly constant across the toposequence with around 20% (18.4% for valley bottoms, 19.2% for valley fringes, and 21.9% for uplands). The significant cultivation across the toposequence was as a result of:1. cotton + sorghum-based (figure 10) market-driven intensification or expansion phase (figure 9); 2. market-driven cultivation in lowlands (mainly rice) (see plate 7, for example).4.4.1 Intensity and distribution of rice cultivation. Rice cultivation forms an important component of inland valley cultivation in the rainy season in the entire study area, especially in the valleys surrounding Sikasso, Mali. The broad and flat or near-tlat valley bottoms offer an excellent opportunity for paddy rice cultivation during the rainy season as demonstrated in several valleys around Sikasso, Mali (see plate 7 for the spatial distribution of rice cultivation in valley bottoms near Sikasso and its surroundings). A total of 269,006 ha constitute valley bottoms in the entire study area, of which 18.4% (49,497 ha) are cultivated (tables 12 and 13). Of the cultivated inland valleys, 42% of the area (20,789 ha) had rice crop. Inland valleys with rice are primarily to be found in a large area near Bama, northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso (see plate 4) and in the vicinity of Sikasso (see plate 7). Potential inland valleys for paddy rice cultivation exist, especially valleys that have wide bottom width (typically second-and higher-order), and significant water submergence as shown near Niaminasso, Nougoussouala, and Sikasso (see plate 7). These valleys, however, would require appropriate technologies, such as low-cost water control measures (e.g., channels, levies, and bunding) and rice varieties adapted to inundated conilitions.Cultivation intensities of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands were calculated relative to their distance from major settlements and major road networks through manipulation of relevant GIs spatial data layers, using such techniques as hoolean logic interpolation and contiguity analysis. Cultivation intensities of valley bottoms, valley fringes, and uplands at various distance limits (0-2 km, 2-4 km, 4-5 km, and > 5 km) from major settlements and major road networks in the different level I zones are presented in table 15. Five k ~n was consitlereil the greatest distance for farmers to commute on foot to their farms on any given tl;~y; ant1 hence the maximum tlistance limit was set at 5 km.Generally, the cultivation intensities decreased with increasing distance from settlements and the road network for each component of the toposequence (table 15). However, in several cases such a fall in cultivation intensity between two distance limits was only marginal (within 1 or 2%). This is obvious from uplands in land region 2.8 where the cultivation intensity remained virtually constant. According to Manyong et al. (in preparation) this area is characterized by market-driven agricultural systems with cotton as the major cash crop which is likely to account for that effect. In most cases, however, the cultivation intensities were about 3% higher for distance limits within 0-5 km as compared to those heyond 5 k ~n .Significantly cultivated areas at each component of the toposequence are spatially illustrated for the entire study area of 3.13 million ha for uplands (plate 1 I), valley fringes, and valley bottoms @late 12). The polygons I and 2 were drawn for regions with insignificant cultivation. The regions with insignificant upland cultivation (areas within polygon 1 in plate 11) also had insignificant inland valley (valley bottom plus valley fringe) cultivation (areas within polygon 1 in plate 12). Similarly, regions with significant upland cultivation (several areas outside polygon 1 in plate 11) also have significant inland valley cultivation (several arras outside polygon I in plate 12). It is obvious from these figures that in dominant portions of the study area a high correlation exists between cultivation patterns on the uplands and in inland valleys. This proves one of the hypotheses of Izac et al. (1991) that the degree of upland cultivation has a strong influence on the degree of inland valley cultivation. These results further contlrmed the findings of Thenkabail and Nolte (1995b) in the Save study area. The cultivation intensities were strongly intluenced by the presence of settlements and the road network (see plate 4 along with roads and settlements shown in plate 8). Data of cultivation intensities across the toposequence are summarized in Tahle 16.Data of measurements of some morphological characteristics of inland valleys gathered duringgroundtruthing are highlighted in table 16. Only the data for areas with (Cambrian) sandstone as parent material (see tigure 7) are illustrated since descriptive statistical analyses were only possible in these areas with enough ground-truth sit& per respective stream orders. Due to the small number of observations per stratum, no statistical test was performed. However, data in table 16 show a clear trend that the bottom and fringe widths increase considerably with increasing stream order. At the same time, the data illustrate a high variation in measurements of bottom and fringe widths at each stream order. About 50% of the area (shape ratio of 0.49, table 16) of the valleys along first-and second-order streams constitute the hottom. The lower-order valleys also have 0.5 or 0.8 degree transversal slopes with almost flat or near-tlat fringes. Fourth-and fifth-order valleys had mean bottom widths of 495 m and 978 m, respectively. As mentioned in section 4.4 some of the higherorder valleys are to be considered as tloodplains. All the valleys (100%) investigated were U-shaped.In this wet season investigati~~n (last week of September) 69% of the valley bottoms had wet soil conditions. 21% were moist. and 10% had dried-out soils.The ground-truth land cover data provided the following important inferences (table 17):1. The nonhydromorphic valley fringes had significantly more shrubs (27.8%) when compared with valley bottoms (14.5%) and uplands (17%); and 2. Uplands had significantly more grasses (38.3%) when compared with valley fringes (27.5% for hydromorphic and 27.9% for nonhydromorphic) and valley bottoms (26.1 %).The valley bottoms were distinguishable through: 1. Significantly higher cultivation intensities (37.5%) in comparison to valley fringes (17% for nonhydrtrmorphic and 26.2% for hydromorphic fringes); and 2. Significantly fewer trees + shrubs + grasses (50.2%) compared to nonhydromorphic fringes (69%), and uplands (63.9%).However, the cultivation intensities based on ground-truth data were highly overestimated (table 17) when compared with the same tjgures from satellite data (table 13). For example, the cultivated areas for valley bottoms were 37.5% using ground-truth data compared to only 18.4% estimated by satellite data. This is due to factors such as: 1. dependency along road networks for ground-truthing; 2. possible hias in stopping for readings at more cultivated valleys rather than relying on selecting valleys on a purely random basis; and 3. the fact that the valleys along road networks are more likely to he cultivated than valleys away from them.   (3)  The bias becomes more pmrninent when one considers the low density of road network in the region (see plate 8, for example).In addition to the above points, it is important to note that the ground-truth data depends on plot measurement in each location. The diversity and variability even within a given valley are typically overwhelming. This is so because a timely representative plot exists only in theory. In practice (in the field) one hardly gets a clear view of variability due to accessibility and time factors.The above-mentioned difticultie with ground-truth data can be overcome through the spectral capability of remotely sensed data. This capability will enable a proper characterization of spatial variabilities that occur within and between valleys or uplands.Similar large differences were found hetween ground-truth and remotely sensed estimates of cultivation in another study area in Gagnoa, C6te d'lvoire (Thenkahail and Nolte 1995~). Due to the season (last week of September) of ground-truthing (main cropping season with most crops in vegetative to critical growth phases) 72-92% of farms were cultivated in different components of the toposequence (table 18). Grasses were the most dominant characteristic land-cover feature of uncultivated and fallow lands, irrespective of the toposequence (table 18). Valley bottoms were dominated by rice and closely followed by sorghum or maize (tahle 19). All other components of toposequence (nonhydromorphic ant1 hydromorphic fringes and uplands) were dominated by sorghum and maize fields. One surprising aspect of these results were that the numbers of cotton fields were very low or nonexistent an observation which contradicts data from Manyong et al. (see figure 10).Table 18 Relative distribution of land-use types within a cropping pattern at different toposequential components in the Boho-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Sikasso. Mali study area   The output spatial data layers of this study obtained from remotely sensed data (land use of valley bottoms, land use of valley fringes, land use of uplands, road networks, and settlements) were used for GIS modeling to select likely benchmark sites for technology development research. The data obtained from ground-truthing were incorporated into the above datalayers. The position data of each ground-truth site and the ground-control point data for georeferencing form integral components of the above datalayers.Expert opinion was sought to rate each of the above spatial datalayers on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being the best). This was done by weighing each factor of each datalayer according to their impact on inland valley cultivation as conceived by the expert. This procedure has been discussed in detail by Thenkabail and Nolte (199%). These data were sought in standard forms from members of the Inland Valley Consortium. Four international research centers (IITA, WARDA, CIRAD, Winand Staring Centre and Wageningen Agricultural University) and seven national research systems from Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso. CCte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria constitute the Inland Valley Consortium. Thirty scientists with considerable experience ant1 knowledge in inland valley agroecosystems and diverse background were requestetl to respond to the questionnaire. These scientists represented five international agricultural research centers (IITAINigeria, WARDAlCBte d'lvoire, Winand Staring Centre and Wageningen Agricultural UniversityIThe Netherlands, CIRADIFrance, and IMMIINiger) and seven national research institutions (Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria). Twelve persons responded.The modal value of each variable pertaining to a spatial datalayer was taken and incorporated into GIS modeling using the GISMO routine of ERDAS. The expert opinion indicated the following: 1. Significantly cultivated valley bottoms ( 2 30% of the total area is cultivated), valley fringes (hydromorphic and nonhydromorphic part), and uplands at present will drive further exploitation of the lands still left in the same valley system andlor in neighboring valley systems. 2. Inland valleys that are near already cultivated uplands have the best chance of being exploited for cultjvation; the greater the degree of cultivation in the uplands, the greater are the chances of inland valley cultivation.The nearer the settlements and road networks are to inland valleys, the greater are the chances of those valleys being exploited; proximity to settlements has a greater influence than proximity to road systems. 4. Inland valley utilization for agriculture is likely to peak when population density rises above 30 persons/km2; 5. The zones with a shorter length of growing period (e.g., northern Guinea savanna) are relatively more likely to have inland valleys utilized for agriculture compared to zones with a greater length of growing periotl (e.g.. equatorial forest). 'aas) sassel:, asn-puel aql pue 'q~omlau peoi aql 'malsKs Kalle~ aql se qsns uo!lemioju! 8u!moqs l!eiap u! paddew a n g aleld u! palsa%%ns seaie uo!ieaol le!iuaiod aql JO @iaAaS '~uamdola~ap 103 @!lualod lsaleai% aql ItIasa~dal qaym asoql ale sma1sLs Kalle~ puelu! lsaq aqL '8 aleld u! salsi!s pallg ~I ! M paiq%!~y%!q a n spaqsialefi qaieasai yiemqsuaq lo uaLele1ep le!leds asaqljo seaie qsieasai ynmq:,uaq a s a u ,(8 aleld) sa!i!~!pe qaieasai ,uamdola~ap L%olouqsa~ JOJ suo!~eaol Jsaq aqi Klle!lualod ale leq) m a n aql palq%!lq%!q %u!lapom s ~f ) a q 'siaKe[eiep legeds sno!ieA 01 mdu! uadxa aAoqe aql uo paseaThis inland valley agroecosystem research report presents and discusses the results of a level I1 (regional or semidetailed or meso-) characterization study of inland valley agroecosystems in the Sikasso and Koutiala regions of Mali; and Bobo-Dioulasso, and Kouka regions of Burkina Faso. The total study area is about 3.13 million ha covered by Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) path:197, row:52. (See the exact co-ordinates in figure 4.) The study adopted the methodology recommended by Thenkabail and Nolte (1995a) which involved digital image analysis and integrationof the remotely sensed data with GPS and ground-truth data in an GIS framework.One hundred percent of the inland valleys that were studied were U shaped, 74% were fndamas (that is, inland valleys with potential for dry-season cropping). At the time of ground-truthing 69% of the inland valleys were wet, 21% were moist, and 10% were dry. The mean transversal slopes were generally mild with about 1.5 degrees for the first-, to third-order inland valley streams, and about 0.5 degrees for the fourth-order inland valley streams.The total study area (3.13 nill lion ha) comprised 8.6% valley bottoms (see plate 3), 20.4% valley fringes, and 70.2% uplands. Water bodies, roads, and settlements comprised the other 0.8% area. The valley-bottom distribution was sparse (see plates 2 and 3). The drainage density of 0.4 km/km2, and stream frequency of 0.61 number/km2 obtained in the study area were classified as low (0.3-0.6 km/km2), and coarse (0.5-1.0 number/km2), respectively, by WURP (1983). In spite of the low and coarse drainage densities, and stream frequencies in the study area, the percentage area of inland valleys (valley bottoms plus valley fringes) was significant mainly as a result of the large valleybottom and fringe widths of the inland valley streams (first-to fourth-order streams). The mean bottom widths for the first-to third-order strea~ns were about 90 In, and increased dramatically for the fourth-order to about 400 m. Valleys with typically large bottom widths are illustrated in plate 1. The mean valley fringe (hydromorphic plus nonhydromorphic) widths were about 200 m for the first three inland valley streams and for the fourth-order stream about 920 m. Hence, even though the stream frequencies and stream densities were coarse and low respectively, the large sizes of the valley bottoms and valley fringes led to their significant percentages.Due to significant differences in the geographical areas studied (45% of entire study area for AEZ 1, 12% for AEZ 2, 24% for land region 2.8 and 68% for land region 3.3 see tables 11 and 12) a direct and realistic comparison of results across zones was not feasible. However, it may be noted that the valleys in AEZ 1 had greater bottom widths than valleys in AEZ 2, resulting in a higher percentage area of valley bottoms in AEZ 1 (9.1%) compared to AEZ 2 (7.7%). For the same reason, the percentage valley bottom area in land region 2.8 (9.1 %) exceeded that of land region 3.3 (8.2%).The study mapped 16 land-use classes (table I I) which were derived from the various combinations of the land-cover types (table 8). The spatial distribution of the 16 land-use classes in the entire study area of 3.13 million ha (plate 4) dramatically highlights regions with insignificant or no cultivation (violet, red, magenta, rose, and red-orange) in cornparison to regions with significant cultivation (gray, white, cyan). The seafoam color is the region with scattered farming. The characteristics of land use are best depicted when mapped in a smaller scale for subareas such as in plates 5 and 6. The spatial distribution of land use and cultivation patterns relative to road networks and settlements is available from plates 5 and plate 6. Forest and nonforest boundaries are dramatically highlighted in plate 6. Several characteristics of the inland valley agroecosystems can also be inferred from the landuse maps of the subscenes. For example, significant cultivation, mainly with rice crop, is seen mostly in the third-and fourth-order valley bottoms in the vicinity of Sikasso (plate 6). These valley bottoms are, typically, broad and flat and are often flooded and have recent deposits of fertile alluvium.The grassland dominant savannas are most extensive in the study area. The overall savanna percentage areas were 65.5% for AEZ 1, 70.4% for AEZ 2, 67.1% for land region 3.3, 61.6% for land region 2.8, and 65.4% for the entire study area. The forest classes are predominantly trees along the river banks and were about 4% for all level I zones within the study area. This very low percentage of forest cover was only to be expected in the study area as it falls in the northern Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna. Compared to other level I zones studied, barren areas of the Sudan savanna were most extensive with 6 % area of the respective level 1 zone.The cultivation intensities were nearly the same across the toposequence with 18.4% for valley bottoms, 19.2% for valley fringes, and 21.9% for uplands. The significant cultivation across the toposequence was mainly attributed to the market-driven conditions. In most cases, cultivation intensities were about 3% higher for distance limits within 0-5 km from the road network and settlements compared to those areas beyond 5 km.The valley bottoms in the study area were characterized by flat or near-flat surfaces (see plate 1 for example) that have shallow flooding all through the rainy season. Rice cultivation forms an important component of lowland rainy-season cultivation in the entire study area, especially in the valleys surrounding Sikasso, Mali (plate 6). These broad and flat or near-flat valley bottoms of the study area offer an excellent oppurtunity for inundated rice cultivation during the rainy season as successfully demonstrated in several valleys around Sikasso, Mali. (See plate 7 for spatial distribution of rice cultivation in the valley bottoms near Sikasso and surroundings.) However, the area of valley bottoms available for cultivation far exceeds their current utilization. A total of 269,006 ha constitute valley bottoms in the entire study area, of which only 18.4% (49,497 ha) was cultivated. Of the cultivated inland valleys, 42% (20,789 ha) had rice cultivation.Except for a few inland valleys such as the large farm near Bama, northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso (see plate 4), and in the area surrounding Sikasso (plate 7), there is very little rice cultivation andior only partial exploitation of inland valley systems for rice cultivation in the study area. However, an extensive potential for rice cultivation exists, especially in the inundated valleys of third-and fourthorder streams such as those near Desso and Laranfiara in Burkina Faso (see plate 9, for example); Banankoni and Lotio watersheds surrounding Sikasso, Mali (see plate 3 and 7); and Niaminasso and Nougoussouala, north of Sikasso, Mali (plates 3 and 7). These valleys, however, require appropriate technology such as low-cost water control nleasures (e.g., channels, levies, ant1 bunding), and appropriate rice varieties for inundated conditions.The study showed a strong relationship between upland cultivation (plate 11) and inland valley cultivation (plate 12) proving one of the hypotheses of this study.The study highlighted the strengths of remotely'sensed data in the proper inventorying of parameters such as percentage nf cultivated areas. Such estimates based purely on ground-truth data provided significant overestimates of cultivated areas. For example, the cultivated valley-bottom areas estimated purely based on ground-truth data were 37.5% compared to 18.4% provided hy Landsat TM data. Similar differences were observed in another study area in Gagnoa, Cote d'lv8ire using SPOT HRV data Fenkahail and Nolte 199.5~).Information from the different georeferenced spatial datalayers generated mainly from Landsat TM data (e.g., land use of different components of the toposequence, cultivation intensities of inland valleys with respect to road network and settlements) was used in conjunction with expert knowledge, through GIs modeling, to determine the potential sites for technology development research activities.This led to a map of potential benchmark research sites in the study area @late 8). These potential benchmark research sites were characterized by: (a) near-flat valley bottoms; (b) large valley bottom widths (about 100 m for first-to third-order valleys; and about 400 m for the fourth-order valleys); (c) well connected road networks (typically, within 6 km); (d) proximity to settlements (typically, within 6 km); (e) rainy-season shallow inundation of flood water in valley bottoms; ( f ) mild to very mild transversal slopes (mean of about 1.5 degrees for first-to third-order valleys; and a mean of about 0.5 degrees for the fourth-order valleys); (g) large fringe widths (about 200 m for first to thirdorder valleys; and about 920 m for fourth-order valleys). A final selection of the research sites should involve a visit to the several potential sites shown in plate 8 by a team of scientists of diverse expertise for a quick reconnaissance, interviews with farmers, and interaction with NARS. Detailed maps of each of the interested potential locations that are shown in plate 8 should be drawn to be taken to the field (see one such example in plate 9).The study resulted in digital georeferenced data bases for the land use of uplands, valley bottoms, and valley fringes; inland valley bottom areas; inland valley fringe areas; upland areas; rice cultivation areas: and benchmark research area locations.","tokenCount":"9788"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1439fb15903232fb2575bf9810c4ceda","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88f1966c-9442-4b1e-9553-75519e503fc8/retrieve","id":"1572738162"},"keywords":["Tribal fanners","particípatory researeh","rice","landraces","participatory plant breeding","India"],"sieverID":"3e949f25-9212-4075-aa7e-2470b22d5b9b","pagecount":"15","content":"Participatory researcb, including participatory plant breedíng (PPB), is now a recognized optíon for improvíng Ibe Iivelibood security ofunreached fanners. Tribal fanners in Indía provide an ideal group for testing the potential of participalory inlerventions. They live in remate areas, are intensively bound by tradition, and continue lo cultivate crops using tradilional practices. For instance, the sowing time of crops is often based on a particularmonth, wilh an almanac date lo harvestthe erop in time for ils use during festive oeeasioos. Although these traditional cultivation praetices are often poorly matched with the weather, Ibey continue because Ihey are consonant wilb the habitat, soíl, agroocology, and available infraslructure. Soils are relatively free from the problems of contínuous ehemical fertílizatíon. Most euhivated varieties are specific landrace. lbat carry special traits for cooking qua]ity and laste, catering lO the tribal fanners' metllods ofproeessing foad. Tribal fanners live in small villages, inconveniently distan! from one another, and do not have readily accessible mean. of produeíng .nd exchangíng cornrnunity seed. Traditíonal varietiesllondraces are olso not commercially competitive. Driven by poverty, the tribal Canners yíeld to eornmerci.] exploitation where the cultivation of landraees, local varieties, and other valuable genetic material is replaced by Ibe cultivation of modem varieties despite Ibe faet that they are no! peeferred by the tribal cornrnunity. Tho result is a gradual erosíon of precious genetíe diversity, most of whieh is .lso síte-specific. This situation c.ns utgently for preventive measures.Jeypore traet in Orissa State is a seeondary center of riee origin. Yet fanners do not realize the potential yield of Ibe riee landraces growing Ihere. One reason is tb.t the tradítional practices developed essenti.lIy for avoiding risks are out of tune with Ibose nceded for realizing hígh yields. Partícipatory initiatives, setting appropriate mothads of cultivation based on a realístíc evaluation should províde the right corrective step. This paper describes and discusses sueh initiatives in the Jeypore tract ofOrissa,There are differen! ways of conducting diversity fairs. The in silu project aims at strengthening CBOs tha! conduct on-farm conservation actívities with little input from outside. Initially, when CBOs were unfamiliar with the project's activities, project staff managed the fairs in partnership with them. Over time, as they have become better oriented, they organize the fair as an annual event. Sthapit and Jarvis (1999) have documented the concept and methods used, and the steps of the fair have been described by Rijal et al. (1999). There have already been five such fairs organized in Nepal, and as a result, the process has been refined over time. The fairs organized in Nepal have been successful in terms of the following:• documenting locallandraces and associated knowledge, as well as strengthening the farmerto-farmer seed supply system• linking outputs with research and development work• locating the status of diversity and the custodians• sensitizing farmers, along with the research and policy eornmunities, on the importance of agrobiodiversity• strengthening CBOs in on-farm conservation processesThe fairs organized through CBOs have documented equalIy good information, as well as increasing sample size and the number of crops. The information includes the special characteristics associated with the landraees, Le., huliya, sociocultural values, ecology, and status at the cornmunity leve!. These sets of information can be very useful for a number of stakeholders, including breeders, eeologists, socioeconomists, arid locál promoters for their varied interests. The informatíon may be shared among the farm cornmunities and other interested partíes. A very important aspeet of the fair, observed in a recent fair ín Begnas, Nepal, is the development of the sense of ownership in the cornmunity for the resourees they have eonserved for generations. Every CBO took back sampies with the knowledge that they had to maintain them for future use.The diversity block. A diversíty block is a participatory research technique designed to characterize locallandraees under farmers' management conditíons. Landraces to be grown ín the diversity block may be selected Hom materials from either the diversity faír or farmers' seed stoeks. The crops are monitored by both farmers and scientist-promoters, and agromorphologícal characteristies are recorded. The diversíty block has the value of enhancing public awareness at the grassroots level and máking germplasm more accessible o the local cornmunity. In Nepal, the diversity block has been used to acquire farmers' indigenous knowledge about local varieties, to identify parents for breeding, and to study the population structure.The cornmunity biodiversity register. A cornmuníty biodiversíty register ís a record, kept on paper or in eleetronic form by cornmunity members. It is a register ofloeal crop biodiversity and assocíated knowledge. The information maintaíned in the register inc1udes landrace names, the fimners who store the seed, associated local knowledge and uses, and traditional and nontraditíonal passport data like agromorphological and agroecological characteristies and cultural signíficanee. The register functions as a decentralized cornmunity gene bank (Sthapit and Jarvis 2000). CBRs have no implications for local seed exchange and storage systerns; rather, it helps lo improve aceess to information and seeds.Updated over time, the CBR allows cornmunitÍes to monitor Ihe level of genetíc díversíty and prevent the extínction of rare varieties, whieh may then be preserved ex siro. eBRs can be a practical tool to monitor genetic diversity at the village level, and ifthe capacity oflhe farming eommunity is strengthened with institutional support, it could be a good way of developing various options lo add benefits on a local or regional scale.Strengthening seed and information networks was one of the eoncerns in Ihis project, for which different strategic lools were explored. The cornmunity gene bank adopled by a few institutions, such as UBINIG in 8angladesh, was reviewed for its strengths and límitations. It was found lo re-quiTe additional structures to serve communities under situations of stress and risk, and may replace the local farmer-to-farmer seed-supply systems. C8R strenglhens local systems was developed through review of functions complementary 10 in situ conservation.Since eBR has only recentIy been developed, it still requires further refinement. However, it has multiple funclions and is worth the effort because of ils effectiveness al the grassroots leve!. This was discussed wilh farmers and e80 representatives, and Iheif responses are summarized below:o e8R provides an invenlory ofboth valuable and worst crop resourees.o It strengthens sharing of information and crop seeds by improving access.• It is useful for strengthening market and seed networks.• It lists Ihe slatus of a11 known crop resourees, with reasons for decrease, ¡nerease, or loss.o It is useful to R&D workers .. o lt enhances the process of developing a sense of ownership for Ihe resources held by eBOs.• 11 provides deseriptions of ecology and diversity with area-speeific identities.The reeords maintained in Ihe eBR assists in understanding the farmer' s decision-making processes as well. Thus, Ihe C8R implemenled in Nepal has guided eornmunities in developing a sense of ownership for their resources. Whatever significance it has depends on Ihe way it is developed and executed locally. Therefore, tbe potential benefils from eBR can onIy be reaJized when it is adopted with full consideration of the importance of (1) partnership witb farmers, (2) periodic up-dating, (3) local control, (4) sharing information among Ihe users/slakeholders, and (5) caution aboul providing access lo tbe informatíon to oulsiders.80th the eBR and diversity fajr can be llSed for a number of purposes, from developing R&D bases to strengtheníng at Ihe grassroots level in terms of improving access lo seeds, using informatíon in an effective manner, and assessing diversity. eBR records could provide a very useful basis for developing conservation strategies. Endangered species or Iandraces, for example, may be conserved ex situ. However, we are also equally concerned with the possible misuse of informatíon, such as intellectual and farmers' rights. The community must be made aware ofthis kind of danger as wel!.The demand for materials or processed products may be inereased by market melhods (box 1). Source: Sth.pit and larvis (1999).IdentifYing local promoters and then linking them with local producers and markets are crucial processes. In Begnas, Nepal, a series of consultations was camed out to identifY major local products that have market potential, assessing total production, price negotiations, qualíty control, and marketing outlets. In Nepal, the project identified local promoters Iike Gunilo and Bandobasta who played a catalytic role in establishíng línkages between promoters and consumers with the farming community. NGOs have been ínvolved in the project to facilitate networking. Associations ofhotel and tourlsm, Pokhara chambers of commerce, hostels, and hospital networks have also been sensitized to use more domestic products. The impact of such networks is yet to be seen.The project is keen to develop markets to enhance the value of local crop diversity through direct sales. Rice landraces, Jethobudho, aromatic sponge gourd, Khari in taro, and Samdi kodo in finger millet, are a few examples. To succeed, this initiative must also be supported by policy reforms. The role oflocal crop varieties in securing food at the household level is apparent, but diversity has also been enhanced for socioeconomic reasons (Rana el al. 1999). Nepali farmers use local rice landraces for al least six specific purposes (Rija! et al. 1997). On the one hand, these deserve special va!ue and there is Iess competítion, so a nonbreeding strategy is appropríate. On Ihe olher hand, breeding strategies are employed to make local crops competitive with other options, particularly those lhat have value and benefits in terms of ecology or physical indices Iike yield, disease resislance, etc. For example, Ihe bes! quality of Jethobudho is grown wílh cold water, as is Phewa and Kundahar of Ihe Pokhara valley, and always fetches a higher market price lhan when grown in an irrigated field. The strategies employed for adding values are presented in table 3.In niche-or ecology-specific areas where food security is Ihe main concem, as in Jumla, farmers always go for increased yield. Low yield is associated with rice blasts, poor response, and cold injury, for which the only way of addressing the problem is through breeding melhods. In silu slralegles employed for on-farm conservalion Breeding Markel Awareness Improved accessDeveloping an in-depth understanding oflhe value oflandraces through appropriate methods is Ihe prime need prior to deciding on any conservation strategies. Local crop diversity can be desegregated into broad categories by value-genetic, sociocultural, medicinal, or religious--to strengthen conservation of crops in situ by the farm community. Three broader categoríes inelude market, non-market, and polícy perspectives for improving direct and indirect benefits. No single strategy is perfect for addressing Ihe goal of conservation; a combination is required.Ofthe many innovative tools available, the diversity fair and community biodiversíty register have been most effective in terms of documentation and sensitizing communities of famlers, researchers, promoters, and policymakers. Furthermore, these two tools are very useful in monitoring diversity along with status. Valnes documented through these tools can be used for R&D purposes, where researchers, promoters, and planners may benefit. They also provide a basís for breeding work in Ihe short term as weIl as Ihe longer term.For local crop diversity witb socioreligious, cultural, or economic value, strategies that strengthen ínformation, seed, and market networks are particularly important if CGR and Iheir prodncts are to be promotedper se. The diversity ofthese sets of crops wíll be maintained as long as the local culture associated wilh them continues. On Ihe other hand, for crop diversíty associated with ecological and genetic traíts, the breeding strategy is Ihe right choice. Thus, for effective conservation of Usually lands situated aboye 900 feet are classified as upland; around 600 feet and below is lowland, and the rest is medium land.Agricultural practices are more primitive in Jeypore than in the neighboring states. Irrigation is rarely possible, alllands are completely rain fed, and rainfall is erratíc. Farmers occasionally apply farrnyard manure. Rice is the most cornmon food crop of the region. Landraces and local varietíes are mostly preferred because they cater to the cooking quality and taste of the tribal people. High-yielding varieties (HYVs) are not preferred and only cornmercial incentives compel some farmers to grow them. Government agencies and some private organizations are the ones that encourage trus. The planting and maturation of tradítional varieties are timed so tha! their harvest coincides with the time offestivals and family rituals (table 1). The varieties are usually photosensitive and of longer duration than high-yielding varieties. A large number of farmers still practice monoeropping. Thus we have the following basic realities in which PPB options have to be optimized: 128• Tribal farmers live in villages rich in genetic diversity and occupied by one or two tribes. They are situated far away from the reach of government extension agencies.• Farmers are highly tradition-bound socially and religiously, and would have reservatíons about switcrung to new options.• The enhanced yields ofHYVs do not attract them as much as the quality and taste oftheÍr lower-yielding landraces and local varieties, which they prefer.• They have rich indigenous knowledge of their crop diversity but poor knowledge of modero agriculture.• Their habitats are poorly connected by roads and are typified by poor or absent marketing facilities.• Against this backdrop, they are vulnerable to cornmercial exploitation of their natural resources.• They are ready to learn and practice profitable methods of cultivation, provided such methods can produce perceptible returns.• Currently there is neither a feeling of strong ownership of natural resources nor any awareness of intellectual property righrs.New PPB paradigms need, therefore, to be simple and productive to promote voluntary participation. They should be cost-effective and, al best, attempt to optimize practices under existing sÍle constraínts. They should respect farmers' tastes and be consonant with their strong preferences.They should be risk-insulated and entai! a low cost-benefit ratio. Complex PPB options can only be a long-tenn goal and should be based on short-tenn benefits.A number of years of work and association with farm families of several villages in the Jeypore district by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), based al Chennai, India, has prepared the ground for cooperative and participatory work to improve the productivity of farmer-preferred local varieties/landraces. The work plan envisaged a three-year activity module.The first year was eannarked to survey local varieties sown by fanners and to introduce organízed planting ofpreferred varieties. The seeds ofthose varieties would then be distríbuted by MSSRF. A few farmers would be eneouraged to raise the erop in their plots by their own methods. The yíeld data would be analyzed and a few varieties seleeted for further evaluation.In the seeond year, the seleeted varieties would be grown by PPB farrners in a field design in which farmers and formal practiees would be the two treatments. Data on grain yield and its components would be statistíeally evaluated to select the top two varieties for upland, medium land, and lowland conditions. In the third year, the selected varieties would be grown in large plots under fonnal technology, provided it proved superior to farmers' practices in the second year of evaluation. Varietíes to be evaluated, the sites for testíng their perfonnance, and the farmers who would participate in the program would all be selected by lhe farmen themselves. Periodíc checks on the progress of the experiments, the problems that cropped up in lhe execution of experiments, and related issues would be discussed in periodic PRAs wilh farrners, and acceptable solutions found.During the runy season of 1998, three districts and two blocks per district were selected for upland (U), medíum land (M), and lowland (L) eultivation in the Jeypore traet ofOrissa State. Fourteen farrners were ehosen to raise 10 upland, six medium land, and 10 lowland local raees/varieties in theír own plots of approximately of80 m 2 • The erop was raísed using farmers' practices eornmon in the respective areas. However, asevere cyclone at the time of erop maturity affected erop yields; the data could only be used for a relatíve evaluation. We devised a fonn lo record various field activities, with which data on cost-benefits were gathered not only on the PPB plots but also on farmers' own holdings. The overall performance and characteristics of varieties were discussed in a PRA wilh a large number of farmers from the sites.Only 3 U, I M, and 5 L varieties were selected in the PRA from the original 10 U, 6 M, and lO L varieties tested in 1998. In consultation with the fanners, 3 U, 7 M, and 3 L varieties were added to get a total of 6 U, 8 M, and 8 L varieties for experimentation in the crop season of 1999.To facilitate periodic visits to plots, ít was decíded to confine the experiment to two blocks and five víllages in the Koraput district, near the MSSRF site office at Jeypore. Nine PPB farmers agreed toPanicipatory Irnprovernent a( Rice Cr\",op\",s:..:w:.:' i\",th:..:Tr=ib\"' 0.:.c1 P' ,' -.é0\"' nn=e\"' rs:..:i::.ll-' .:In.:.:d:::io=-_____________ _ test the selected varieties in two test plots of 90 m 2 each. One of the test plots was divided into tbree replications ono m 2 and the selected varieties were grown in a randomized block designo The other was divided equally between varieties to be tested. They were planted unreplicated by fanncrs using their own traditional practices. In the replicated plots, fonnal methods of cultivatíon were introduced (box 1).Box 1. Formal Metbods Illtroduced lo Cultivale Local Varieties and Landraces in Jeypore, India o Preparing land and applying farmyard manute in residual moisture when the previous crop has been harvestedo Raising nursery stock in well-prepared land in rows spaced 20 cm apart with optimal moísture o Pre-soaking seeds in water for 12 hours and selecting only those seeds that sink o Direct seeding (in U and some M), or transplanting (in some M and L) of about 25-day-old seedlings, in rows spaced 20 cm apart, with plants at lO-cm intervals withín a row o Setting rows north-south to maximíze sunlight on growíng plants.Those fonnal methods were developed as a result of a survey of fanner' s plots grown to rice in the first year, where a number of problems were predominant (hox 2).Box 2. Problems with Rice Crops Raised under Fanners' Traditional Practices 1. Erratic rainfall, leading to the tradition of high seeding rate of about 4ü-60 kgjha 2. Consequent dense plant populations that lead to yellowing and poor plant growth , 3. III-or unprepared lands due to la(k of moisture prior to the planting sea50n, resulting in poor germi-! natíon ' 4. Poor seedling growth. leading to severe disease and high pest incidence 5. Farmyard manure occasionally applied in smaU quantities during 5Owing, resulting in no benefit to the crop 6. Nursery plants raísed in poor, mos! often unprepared lands with f100ded rain water 7, Transplantíng most often with very old seedlings, sometimes even 60 days old Crop growth on fonnal and fanners' plots was evaluated in periodic PRAs with farmers. Scientists recorded data on days to flowering, number of tillers, number of panicles, number of grains per panicle, and graín and fodder yield with the help of farmers in each plot. The data were used to compute graín filling and harvest índices. Based on multivariate statistical analysis ofyield and its component characteristics, the varieties were ranked on their joint perfonnance across al! traits.The results were striking. Theyare surnmarized and shown only for the varieties coromon in 1998 and 1999 ín table 2. The advantages of changing over to scientific methods of cultivation are obvious.The following inferences stand out: a. Fluctuations in the yield of varieties occurred even under traditional (fanners') methods of cultivatíon. For instance, tbe variety, machchakanta, was the top yielder in 1998-a year characterized by cyclonic weather and heavy rainfall. It gave low yíelds in 1999 under farmers' practices despite consístently good weather. In general, however, varíeties responded by giving good yields under the better climatic conditions in 1999, b. Yíelds under formal methods were consístently and sígnificantly superior than those under farmers' methods. Lowland varietíes, whích gave fairly good under farmers' practíces, responded 10 formal methods by gíving up 10 60% hígher yíelds (table 2). One popular upland variety, paradhan, preferred by a11 farmers, had a yield advanlage of 70% under formal methods. The trend of improvement was about the same for the olher 13 varieties (data not shown).c. Yield improvement usíng formal methods was achieved at no extra cosl. Initially farmers found it difficult and time-consuming to space-plant in rows, but quite soon they saw that they could achieve higher efficiency (see d.l, below).l d. Preliminary data show that the cost-benefit ratio is substantially more favorable under formal methods for the following reasons:l. The seeding rate is about one-fifth oftbat used in traditional methods (12 versus 60--65 kg/ha). Hence even row planting with uniform space between plants could become les s time-consuming. 2. Nursery seedlings produced under formal methods grew vigorously and were free from weeds, insects, and diseases. 3. Seedlings were well and quickly established in plots because of initial seed selection and healthy nursery plants. 4. The healthy initial stand discouraged weed competition and helped healthy crop growth without being affected by biotic stresses. 5. Row and space planting made interculturing operations easy, where needed, and harvesting of the crop took significantly less time. 6. The 20-cm spacing between rows proved ideal for the harvested plants 10 be stacked in a slanted, reinforcing standing position for the produce to dry in the sun in the field before transfer to threshing yards.These smalI but significant henefits added up to a cumulative advantage, reduced the drudgery of field operatíons, including weeding and harvest, and resulted in a more favorable cost-benefit ratio.In conclusion, we leamed a number of lessons, and the experiments evoked the desired response among farming families in hoth the experimental sites and surrounding areas,L Situations exist which do not exactly fit a !ypical case for PPR Any participatory ínitiative, including PPB, is a function of the target site, environment, site farmers and their tradítions, practices, and social and cultural norms, 2. Participatory programs must recognize this circumscribing frame, most often rigid, within which actions must be confined.3. Initial action plans mustproduce perceptible benefits in orderto ensure voluntary participation.4. When the basic constraints and opportunities for initiating participatory actions are recogWzed, respected, and acted upon, even farmers in difficult economic conditions wiIl willíngly participate wíthout incentives. .1. Farmers were c1early convinced•that the traditíonal high seeding rate and dense planting are not the way to counter theír dífficult environment, harsh c1ímate, and unpredíctable yields. They have realized by their own experience the logic of the formal methods they were shown.2. The message of formal methods of cultivation has spread so far and fast that a number of surrounding villages have started adopting the same practices, not onIy in rice but also in other crops, Iike red gram and finger millet.3. There is a high demand from the tribal farmers for training programs in various sites te ensure proper adoption offormal methods of cultivating traditional rice varieties.4. Farmers are willíng to extend their participation to breeding productive pure hnes, initiating from parents chosen fromtheir site-specífic local races and cultivars.Thus, the experience of participatory rice ímprovement has been exhílarating and productive, and efforts are under way to replicate the benefits of formal methods of cultivation by initiating site-specific PPB paradigms.There CONSERVE conducts both approaches-researcher-managed (or on-station) and farmer-managed trials-at the same time.The researcher-managed trials are conducted in the center's production farm, facilitated by program staff and later conducted by farmer-partners. Farmer-partners are invited to visit the station and identifY materials that are acceptable to them, usually before harvest season.There were 22 single crosses done by the center and coded as CONSERVE crosses (CC). Varieties crossed were mostly materials from the uplands, which were crossed with lowland rice in order to determine ifthe product ofthe cross will adapt or not. Out ofthese crosses, only 10 crosses survived at the first filial generation. These were planted in on-station (lowland) fields by plot, where program staff observed and evaluated the seeds. Records of the crosses and the number of selections have been kept. Distinct characteristics of the materials selected were noted, such as resistance to pests and diseases, yield (panicle length), number oftillers, height, and other agronomic characteristics. No back-up of the crossed materials has been made. After two cropping seasons, various selections were obtained and planted in the production area. Bulk selection was practiced. Program staffmade the decisions involving rejecting seeds not adaptable to the center's conditions and did the selection. Before the selection at harvest time, farmers were invited to the station and took part in the evaluation of the segregating materials. Group discussions were held and criteria were obtained to provide the basis for selection. Farmer-partners also took part in the selection; they freely selected what they wanted from the segregating material s on-field. This material was simultaneously distributed to 89 ｦ ｡ ｲ ｭ ｾ ｲ Ｍ ｰ ｡ ｲ ｴ ｮ ･ ｲ ｳ ＠ starting in May 1995.Breeding material s were continuously segregated and diverse characteristics were obtained. The center had difficulty managing all the materials, and the focus of the program staff was limited to keeping records of significant developments in the materials; thus, it was decided to distribute to farmer-partners. AH in all, CONSERVE was able to produce 100 lines from 10 single crosses. These were distributed to increase the number of selections and to enhance participatory research by exploring the process of selection until farmers can produce a stable selection for mass production.Lessons learned and recornrnendations:• It was interesting to note thatthe center did notkeep a back-up ofthose 10 crosses that might have served as good material for selection in the future. The center is maintaining short-term back-up storage ofthe seeds collected in the beginning ofthe project.• The crosses made also provided a good learning experience-an upland variety crossed with the lowland but with the experimental plots in the lowland area. The center should have tried conducting the same experiment in the upland area to know the performance ofthe offspring.• The involvement of funner-partners in the activity was very Iimited since they were only involved in the later part of the research and mos! of the selections were done by program staff. Farmers should have been involved not only in the later part but also in the whole process so that they could leam how the research is conducted.Farmer-managed trials are actually conducted on an individual farmer's field. Farmers have their own way of designing the experiment, either within the farm or across farmers. The evaluation ís usually informal, with their eriteria províding the basis for selection.After the segregated materials were given to the farmer-partners in the Arakan Valley Complex, project staff monítored their progress and provided assistance to them. The majority of farmers received a mínimum of five breeding lines in smalI amounts (around 5-10 grams) to try in their respective fields. Sorne planted the seeds in separate plots and others planted them in a portion oftheir rice field. Most ofthe farmers who received the segregating materials were graduates ofthe Ecological Pest Management-Farmers' Field School (training given to farmers on a weekly basis for one cropping season of about four to five months, to give them an understanding of rice production activities using the seven dimensions of sustainable agriculture).Farmers selected plants according to their own individual criteria. They practiced two types of selection methods: buIk and pedigree. Sorne farmers discarded materials, while olhers maS8 produced. As these materials expressed their characteristics under the conditions of different farmers' fields, materials were exchanged among farmers, nol just within the village but to other municipalities. Selection continued even when the materials reached the mass-production stage. Farmer-breeders continuously bree!, selectee!, and distributed their stable lines lo other farmers. It happened, too, that rejected materials were passed on to other farmers, still undergoing the proeess of selection according to individual preference. Whi1e the flow of materials continuously moved, the process ended when the breeding lines reaehed the mass-production stage. The flow of genetic materials from one farmer to another is extremely fasto The farmers' efforts to explore and expcriment through se1eetion were a very good example of participatory research and how farmers can be empowered by giving them control ofthe seeds and the resulting exchange of seeds withín the arca and to other víllages.From the survey conducted by' CONSERVE in 1998, a total of 191ines out of the 57 lines originally distributed from six single crosses (CCl, CC2, CC5, CC7, CC13, and CC20) were still maintained by farmer-partners. At present, the breeding lines are widely used for mass production not only by farmer-eurators but also by other farmers. CONSERVE Crosses 5 and 13 are commonly used. Seleetions by farmer-partners are eontinuously enhanced in farmers' fields, which has led to an increase in stable lines. On the other hand, ít was observed lhat over the years, although stable lines had been identified, the number of lines has decreased as farmers continue to select and adapt the materials given lo them. Their se1ection eriteria and the adaptability of the breeding lines are based on the conditions present in their respective fields. Moreover, only a few farmers keep many seleetions. Usually, they on1y keep two to three lines, on average. Farmers who keep many selections have the eapacity to manage them and lack storage facilities, leading to a diffusion of selections.Lessons learned and recommendations:• It was noted that farmers did not keep the original Iines given lo them, as the center also neglected to do. Like CONSERVE, they have lost the opportunity to go back to the mother","tokenCount":"4869"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e8ff0ae24041ef9a956e983013efcd5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2fdc9ec8-f25b-4692-86e6-d04e3ceb984a/retrieve","id":"-791207998"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9cf99c00-d2cc-4658-b02a-73a14dcb9bb4","pagecount":"1","content":"• Informal markets are highly preferred • Food safety matters to poor consumers • Hazards don't always matter, but risks do • Perception is a poor guide for risk managers • Draconian food safety policy makes things worse • Values and cultures are more important drivers of food safety than pathogens • Food-borne risk is a fixable problem• Most of the meat, milk, eggs and fish produced in developing countries is sold in traditional markets • Food-borne illness and animal disease in informal markets are of growing concern to consumers and policymakers alikeuse a risk-based approach to generate evidence of the risk to human health posed by informally marketed foods and the best way to manage risks while retaining benefitsContact Delia Grace, ILRI (d.grace@cgiar.org) or visit the Safe Food, Fair Food project website: http://safefoodfairfood.wordpress.com","tokenCount":"134"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1a59145ec7c2a5a22cc7ae3daf7bfcb9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51007588-1f49-4dda-b3d7-d7befea71aee/retrieve","id":"-1404609797"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"090b2de2-aafc-4111-b8d2-e953bba400e3","pagecount":"284","content":"The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes: (i) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme; (ii) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme; and (iii) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP).The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,Land is a valuable, but limited resource. Hence there is great pressure to change the way in which land is used, which is now leading to steady losses and increased isolation of habitat remnants throughout the world. Recognition of the urgency and the extent of forest loss has spurred an increasing number of studies on forest conservation and sustainable use. Most natural-resource planners recognize genetic diversity and its underlying processes as essential components of ecosystem and species stability, adaptability and conservation, but rarely is there explicit provision for the conservation of genetic diversity in management planning and decision-making.Conservation of genetic diversity is essential for many reasons. Among these are the adaptation of populations to changing environments, the risks to short-term seed and population viability from inbreeding depression, and the need to maintain genetic resources for possible future use. Therefore, goals for the conservation of genetic diversity must include maintaining the variation that affects the fitness of individuals, provides for adaptation to future environmental change, and permits ongoing genetic processes such as gene flow and natural selection to occur while genetic drift is minimized (Namkoong 1993)  1 .Given the pervasiveness of the processes of deforestation, landscape fragmentation, ecosystem simplification and associated species loss, there is an urgency to the task of integrating human population needs with the preservation of essential ecosystem processes. Some communities of forest and/or forest margin dwellers (indigenous or non-indigenous) still depend largely on forest resources for subsistence and income generation. However, increasingly, these communities are becoming disconnected from forest resources, and their economic strategies have become a less important element of community forestry-based conservation. There is therefore a need to first examine the nexus between the interests of resource users and the objectives of biodiversity conservation, and second, to analyze how current patterns of use affect the long-term maintenance of forest genetic resources (FGRs).This book presents research findings from case studies that have explored relationships between current patterns of forest use and their effects on FGRs in four forest ecosystems.The volume is divided into three sections. Chapters in the first section address themes that permeate the project case studies: the main threats to FGRs, the relationship between forest conditions and community-based forest management, the magnitude of extraction of nonwood forest products (NWFPs) and their current economic importance, and modelling approaches that support the management of forests and particularly FGRs.The seven chapters in the second section outline the structure of the project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the results that were generated from the four research sites during the four years of project activities. These include descriptions of the first meetings with local stakeholders and research partners, identification of the species investigated, discussion of the methodologies adopted, and the use of the data obtained in order to implement models that portray the relationships among social dynamics, natural resource management and forest genetic processes.There are two chapters in the third and final section. The first of these examines the degree of success that resulted from the adoption of a participatory approach during the research phase, and the difficulties of implementing a fruitful connection between the research disciplines (socioeconomics, species ecology, reproductive biology and genetics). It also discusses the lessons learned from project experience and provides general considerations on how to achieve better stakeholder participation and true interdisciplinary research. The second chapter in this section presents examples of practical applications for FGR research in the management of forest resources.The BMZ-funded project illustrated in this book contains core elements of the FGR research that is undertaken around the world within the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) programme. This programme is oriented towards the formulation of better FGR management practices that will simultaneously maintain ecosystem health and improve local community livelihoods while focusing on species that are overexploited, threatened or play particularly important roles in local economies. The dissemination of research findings from the BMZ-funded project via this publication is also an important part of IPGRI's FGR programme of increasing awareness about the need for FGR conservation and sustainable use. This is so that stable, diverse and healthy forest ecosystems will be able to provide a wide range of products and services to local as well as global beneficiaries for many years to come.The book's 13 chapters are briefly introduced below.Chapter 1 considers various impacts of human interventions on FGRs, including the biological consequences of major threats to forest ecosystems and associated tree species. A range of examples illustrates the effects of various types of disturbance on genetic diversity and on gene flow in species with different characteristics and within different ecosystems. Criteria and indicators for monitoring the conservation of genetic diversity are examined along with several modelled approaches to FGR conservation and use. The chapter then explores challenges to the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs from the vantage of species biology, conservation priority-setting and the allocation of funds.Chapter 2 analyzes the principal factors that have influenced the success or failure of community-managed forest resources in a range of South American contexts. It reviews and summarizes the findings of a growing body of literature that deals with this issue and then examines these within three South American case studies. A descriptive analysis of the International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) methods in documenting principal forest characteristics in South America is presented in order to highlight the opportunities and challenges for local forest-user groups.Chapter 3 illustrates how NWFPs are crucial resources for livelihoods in many parts of the world. This chapter addresses issues related to the potential of NWFPs for income generation at local, national and global levels. It examines how using and trading NWFPs affects the sustainability of different extraction regimes and livelihood strategies, with a focus on South America and particularly Brazil. Challenges in defining exactly what NWFPs are and in monitoring their sustainable use are highlighted, with recommendations made for further research.Chapter 4 demonstrates how models can help us understand biological processes and identify management options. It describes the growing use of models in the study and management of natural forest ecosystems, forest plantations and forests disturbed by humans, and presents the range of their applications (from predicting forest growth and yield to estimating the effects of natural and human-influenced disturbances on forest ecosystems). The chapter then examines in detail several models adopted in FGR studies to simulate forest genetic dynamics in order to predict the effects of human interventions on forest ecosystems.Chapter 5 introduces FGR and associated conservation issues in South America. It presents the structure and objectives of the BMZ-funded project in conservation, management and sustainable use of FGRs in Brazil and Argentina, undertaken under the auspices of IPGRI.Chapter 6 presents the first BMZ-funded project case study that investigated threats to the genetic resources of Araucaria araucana in Argentina. Genetic processes were examined in A. araucana forests that were differently affected by human activities and along an environmental gradient, and then analyzed in relation to biological dynamics and socioeconomic conditions. Suggestions are made on how to incorporate research results into guidelines for the sound management of A. araucana FGRs.Chapter 7 assesses the conservation status of another araucaria species, A. angustifolia, in the State of Paraná, Brazil. This BMZ-funded study investigated the repercussions of FGR access and use policy on the conservation status of mixed Part 1Threats to forest ecosystems and challenges for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources Challenges and opportunities for communal forest management in South AmericaModelling the biological processes: from genes to ecosystemsBy its nature biodiversity is complex and multifaceted (e.g., it relates to ecosystems, habitats, species, populations and genes). Most natural-resource planners recognize genetic diversity and its underlying processes as essential components of ecosystem and species stability, adaptability and conservation, but rarely is there any explicit provision for the conservation of genetic diversity in management planning and decision-making. As many aspects of genetic diversity are hidden from view, its importance can easily be overlooked. Resource limitations can also result in genetic information being ignored or allocated only minor consideration in conservation or management strategies. In fact, it is still much more common for ecological, social or economic criteria, alone or in combination, to drive conservation decisions. If well-conceived goals are to be achieved in resource management and in the maintenance of long-term evolutionary adaptability of species and ecosystems, then foresters, conservationists and geneticists must establish the conditions under which genetic considerations can become integral elements of the information that is drawn upon to determine the practical conservation of species or the management of protected areas.Conservation of genetic diversity is essential for many reasons. Among these are the adaptation of populations to changing environments, the risks to short-term seed and population viability from inbreeding depression, and the need to maintain genetic resources for possible future use. Therefore, goals for the conservation of genetic diversity must include the maintenance of variation that affects the fitness of individuals, provides for adaptation to future environmental change, and permits such ongoing genetic processes as gene flow and natural selection to occur while genetic drift is minimized (Namkoong 1993). With their unique life history traits, such as longevity, late attainment of reproductive maturity, greater opportunity for accumulation of mutations (Williams and Savolainen 1996), and their range of mating and dispersal systems, forest trees pose many challenges for genetic conservation. For instance, long life cycles produce overlapping generations, which in turn reduce effective population sizes and consequently imply greater minimal area requirements for conservation. Also, trees generally carry heavy genetic loads of deleterious recessive alleles (Williams and Savolainen 1996), such that inbreeding, and in particular self-pollination, may lead to reduced fertility and poorer regeneration, slower growth rates, limited environmental tolerance and increased susceptibility to pests or diseases (Sim 1984;Griffin 1990). The need to reduce the possibility or impact of inbreeding by maintaining genetic diversity in trees is clear, and indeed it may be critical to seed collections that are used for tree breeding programmes or for ex situ conservation.This chapter considers various impacts of human disturbances on forest genetic resources (FGRs) and examines the biological consequences of major threats to forest ecosystems and associated tree species. A range of examples illustrates the effects of different types of disturbance on genetic diversity and gene flow in species with different characteristics and within different ecosystems. Criteria and indicators for monitoring the conservation of genetic diversity are examined, along with modelled approaches to FGR conservation and use. The chapter also explores challenges to the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs from the vantage point of species biology, conservation prioritysetting and the allocation of funds.Human activities affect FGRs in many ways. Some of the activities that will be considered are conversion of forests to agricultural and other land uses, forest fragmentation, logging, use of FGRs in domestication or breeding programmes, and reforestation. All of these activities can be expected to influence genetic diversity in trees to greater or lesser degrees. For example, deforestation may lead to losses in genetic diversity, genetic bottlenecks, increased differentiation among populations and genetic isolation. Ecosystem fragmentation may alter patterns of pollen flow, leading to inbreeding or outbreeding depression and to the poor performance of seeds in plantations or habitat restoration programmes. Patterns of disturbance may also alter local environments, thereby changing selection pressures on remnant populations. The use of non-native species or nonlocal provenances of native species in reforestation may lead to hybridization with native plants, causing genetic pollution or even extirpation of native species or populations. Logging and associated management regimes may result in dysgenic selection, while over-harvesting of fruits may restrict regeneration (see Chapter 6, Araucaria araucana). Atmospheric pollution and climate change are more subtle disturbances, but they will nevertheless profoundly affect the adaptation of tree populations (e.g., Schmidtling 1994;Mátyás 1996;Geburek 2000). Understanding the influence of human interventions on the ecology of tree populations and the relevance of these changes to the conservation of genetic diversity, and how well current conservation strategies deal with them, are important considerations in the sustainable management of FGRs.Since the time when humans made the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture, land-use changes have resulted in steady losses of natural habitat and increasing isolation of natural habitat remnants around the world (Henle et al. 2004). Given the current worldwide pervasiveness of habitat fragmentation, integrating the conservation of essential ecosystem processes with human population needs is urgently needed (Henle et al. 2004). Nevertheless, successful integration first requires addressing many research and management issues. This requires the development of tools for quantifying risk and the prediction of species sensitivity to fragmentation, along with the continued development of theory and methods for reassembling fragmented landscapes (Melbourne et al. 2004).Fragmentation of natural ecosystems may have obvious results, such as the elimination of species, but there may also be less immediate effects on the longer-term viability of species through the modification of ecological and genetic processes within and among populations. More specifically, forest fragmentation may be seen as having three main effects:1. reduction in the numbers of individual trees, 2. reduction of population sizes as individuals are restricted to smaller forest fragments, and 3. spatial isolation of remaining populations and individuals within nonforest land-use matrixes (Young and Boyle 2000).The genetic consequences of fragmentation may be seen in losses of diversity at population and species levels, in interpopulation structural modifications and in increased inbreeding. Such changes may reflect the effect of nonrandom sampling, of short-term genetic effects (genetic bottlenecks and modified gene flow), or longer-term outcomes like genetic drift. However, the occurrence and extent of such predicted changes will depend in large measure on the degree to which deforestation is random, and on whether the physical fragmentation of the forest is reflected in the segregation of the remnant forest into genetically isolated patches.In contrast to the conservation of crop genetic resources and its historical emphasis on ex situ approaches, FGR conservation has accentuated in situ methods. Nevertheless, even though national parks and forest reserves exist all around the world, few of these have been established on genetic principles. Their selection and placement have usually been determined by nongenetic criteria at the ecosystem level, with reserve design and management influenced most often by political, social and economic factors. The location of many forest reserves in hilly regions, areas of low fertility and sites of low economic value, strongly bias their value for FGR conservation. For example, the extensive removal of natural forests from sites suitable for agriculture has occurred to such an extent in some countries that many tree species are now thought to be characteristic of river courses or mountain tops, even though previously they were far more widespread. Many large tree populations and in some cases even whole forest types have completely disappeared in several parts of the world, thereby reducing the genetic configurations of some species solely to limited and highly biased representations of their former diversity. As a consequence, the conservation potential of FGRs within existing protected areas may be limited (Ledig 1988). Neel and Cummings (2003) demonstrated that in the common absence of genetic diversity data it would be necessary to conserve 53-100% of populations to capture all the alleles of a species. The same authors argue that it would be necessary to conserve 20-64% of populations in order to represent heterozygosity reliably. However, ecogeographical variation in the distribution of tree species is generally linked to 'locally' common alleles (those that exceed 0.1 frequency in only one or a few populations) that make up an appreciable fraction of the genetic resources of many tree species. Despite their generally low frequency over a species' genetic range, such alleles may be crucial to conferring adaptive potential to a species under changing environmental conditions, and they are important to effective sampling and conservation of FGRs (Brown and Hardner 2000).Fragmentation of forests decreases the size of tree populations and increases their spatial isolation, and these processes will influence gene flow and the genetic structure of a forest stand. Ultimately, genetic isolation of stands via a curtailment of gene flow among forest fragments will negatively affect the evolutionary viability of a population by increasing levels of inbreeding and random genetic drift (Young et al. 1996). However, the extent of the disruption of genetic connectivity among spatially isolated stands, and of their conservation value, is the subject of debate (e.g., Saunders et al. 1991;Heywood and Stuart 1992;Young et al. 1996). The pessimistic view that remnant trees or small forest fragments in agroecosystems are the 'living dead' (Janzen 1986), with little or no conservation value, is countered by data suggesting greater optimism. Substantial gene flow among isolated trees of many taxa, resulting from pollen transport by animals or wind, shows that remnant forest patches and trees are still effective in conserving genetic diversity (Hamrick 1992).A number of studies of neotropical tree species have shown that the movement of tree pollen increased by distances of up to several kilometres following forest fragmentation (e.g., Dick 2001;White et al. 2002;Dick et al. 2003). In a study of pollen flow within continuous forest versus island populations of the self-incompatible species Spondias mombin, the continuous (control) forest showed pollen immigration rates of 45% at >100 m distances, while in the island populations the most effective pollination (60-100%) was from pollen originating at least 80-1000 m away (Nason and Hamrick 1997). However, the more isolated islands did show reduced seed set, apparently due to a lack of effective cross-fertilization. In the self-incompatible species Enterolobium cyclocarpum, a dominant tree of seasonally dry forests and associated pastureland in Central America that is pollinated by bees and hawk moths, no differences were found in the outcrossing rates between trees in continuous forest (t m 1.00; t m = outcrossing rate based on multiple loci) and those in pastureland (t m 0.99; Rocha and Aguilar 2001). Extensive pollen flow was found among fragments 250-500 m apart, with isolated pastureland trees experiencing more pollen donors than trees located within clumps (Apsit and Hamrick n.d.).Nevertheless, other studies of fragmentation effects on forest tree populations suggest that another possible outcome may be the reduction of genetic diversity in small remnants through the generation of genetic bottlenecks (Young et al. 1993;Prober and Brown 1994). Whether a rather rapid loss of alleles through reduced population size is followed by further long-term genetic effects, such as lower heterozygosity levels or genetic drift, will depend on the extent of gene flow within and among the fragmented stands (Friedman and Adams 1985;Schnabel and Hamrick 1995;Young et al. 1996). Studies of Acer saccharum in Canada (Foré et al. 1992;Young et al. 1993;Ballal et al. 1994) found no signs of reduced genetic variation within remnant stands in comparison to control populations, suggesting little genetic drift in the years following fragmentation. In contrast, Prober and Brown (1994) found allelic loss and a reduction in genetic variation in small remnant stands of Eucalyptus albens in southeastern Australia, but only when they were separated by at least 250 m from larger populations.Small populations of some broad-leaved tree species may be particularly susceptible to loss of incompatibility alleles. These alleles control mechanisms that regulate mating by imposing a 'barrier' between pollination and fertilization. This is explained as an evolutionary mechanism that prevents self-fertilization and promotes heterozygosity. Selfincompatibility is regulated by one or more loci that may have 50 or more alleles in large populations. If the same allele is present in a pollen grain and the stigma, fertilization by that pollen grain will not be successful. A lack of self-incompatibility alleles may directly threaten a population's viability through a reduction or failure in seed production. A welldocumented study of regeneration in small populations focused on the threatened daisy Rutidosis leptorhynchoides in southeastern Australia. Regeneration was limited by the small number of incompatibility alleles that reduced the frequency of compatible crosses in small, isolated populations (Young et al. 2000). The small daisy populations also showed an increase in the extent of correlated mating, such that effective population sizes (i.e., the number of plants actually contributing to reproduction) and gene pools were reduced. A study of mating patterns and regeneration of the tree Symphonia globulifera in fragmented and continuous tropical forests in Costa Rica (Aldrich and Hamrick 1998) showed similar effects. Here, the forest fragments studied were superficially healthy, with much higher seedling densities than those in the control forest. However, 52.5% of the seedlings in the forest fragments were fathered by only two pastureland 'super adults'. Such reproductive dominance by a few trees reduces effective population size with losses of genetic diversity in subsequent generations.Thus, for forest trees, the consequences of fragmentation are varied and complex. Studies such as those cited above show that while reductions in remnant population sizes can erode genetic variation because of bottlenecks generated at the time of fragmentation, for many tree species pollination has the potential to maintain genetic variation even over large distances under fragmentation. This picture contrasts with some traditionally held views that genetic effects such as those caused by reduced gene flow among fragments leading to losses in genetic diversity will always result from spatial isolation and population size reductions (Saunders et al. 1991).Despite this more positive assessment of fragmentation, there will still always be distances between fragmented populations beyond which genetic isolation will occur, with its associated problems of viability and long-term adaptability (Young et al. 1996). Genetic isolation thresholds will vary among species depending on spatial structure, the presence and strength of self-incompatibility mechanisms, pollinator characteristics and availability, and the specificity of tree-pollinator relationships.Indeed, changes in pollinator assemblages in fragmented landscapes may strongly affect patterns of gene flow and reproduction in remnant tree populations. This may occur to such a degree that pollinator management (e.g., knowledge of nesting requirements or of alternative food sources for birds or insects) may be as important as managing the trees themselves. Thus, growing concerns about declines in pollinator populations in agroecosystems, and about how these declines may eventually limit tree reproduction, must be addressed (Allen-Wardell et al. 1998). In this regard, the many tree species with broad-range, nonspecialist pollinator assemblages are probably far less susceptible to habitat disturbance than those species with more specialized or restricted range pollinators (e.g., Dick et al. 2003).Whether greater physical isolation of certain tree species results in increased selfpollination or not appears to be controlled in large measure by whether those species have self-incompatibility mechanisms. Self-compatible species that normally show some level of outcrossing, or are only weakly self-incompatible, show increased levels of inbreeding at much shorter distances of physical separation than do strongly self-incompatible species (Murawski and Hamrick 1992a). The latter species appear more likely to be characterized by a definitive physical distance beyond which seed production is substantially reduced (e.g., Ghazoul et al. 1998). Locally rare species are probably most vulnerable to deforestation and fragmentation. The reduction in potential partners with which to mate leads to greater self-pollination and increased inbreeding and seed failure.While tree species with different genetic profiles, breeding systems and pollinators will react differently to forest fragmentation and isolation, evidence to date supports the conclusion that forest remnants and isolated trees on farms should be included in the design of reserves and associated corridors for conservation programmes. 'Isolation' of an individual tree or of a forest fragment may be more of a human perception than a biological reality, such that remnant populations and trees may actually play significant roles in maintaining genetic diversity of species.The impact of logging on FGRs depends on many factors. As Ledig (1992) has noted, some of the more important issues are the forest type (e.g., mixed-age forests, singleage forests, monospecific forests), the portion of a species' breeding population that is logged (e.g., selective logging or clear-fell), the seed (or other) source of subsequent regeneration (e.g., existing seed or sapling bank or postlogging fruiting), and the reproductive ecology and genetic profile of the exploited species and consequent changes to flowering, mating and fruiting patterns. Factors associated with forest typology, the methods and extent of logging, and regeneration strategies as they affect FGRs are highlighted in this section.The genetic impact of logging on regeneration depends on the size at which trees start reproducing and on the proportion of reproductive trees left after logging. At one extreme are monocarpic species (trees that flower and fruit once in their lives, such as Tachigali versicolor) where logging before fruiting would have disastrous consequences for the regeneration and ultimately the survival of the species. More often, when the diameter of the trees at which logging is permitted is too small, that is, before reproductive maturity has been reached, effective population size will be reduced (Figure 1). Current data from Ghana indicate that most commercially important tree species reach reproductive size well below the 50-cm dbh (diameter at breast height) allowable cut limit (Hawthorne et al. 1999). However, for many tropical tree species, there is currently a dearth of information on how flowering and fruiting patterns of remaining trees are altered by logging, and on the size at which remaining individuals become reproductively mature.Specific types of forest management may also affect reproduction by altering sex ratios. A survey of community forest reserves in the Okavango valley in Namibia found that villagers preferred logging male trees while retaining female trees in species favoured for fruit collection (Robinson 1996). Such a strategy could alter the genetic base of the species by reducing its effective population size, and might ultimately affect fruit production if pollination became a limiting factor. Species' regeneration capacities also have the potential to be influenced when fruits are harvested for food or for other nonwood forest products. Ascertaining sustainable harvest levels for fruits should be an important research priority in many parts of the world (Chapter 3 in this volume).Logging practices in the tropics are generally species selective, that is, they remove large trees (above stipulated minimum dbh) of preferred species. Scientists will commonly make statements asserting that logging in the tropics results in dysgenic selection, that is, it will lead to losses in genetic diversity and will increase the occurrence of inbreeding within remaining trees. The extent to which logging the best-formed trees will lead to genetic erosion (dysgenic selection) is an empirical question. In order to answer this question it is first necessary to clarify what is meant by dysgenic selection: it is selection that is detrimental to the genetic quality of a population as it affects such important phenotypic traits as stem straightness or growth rate. For example, the harvesting of straight-stemmed trees prior to fruiting will normally lead to a dysgenic selection for trees of poor stem straightness if the phenotypic variation in form has a strong genetic basis (heritability h 2 is high). (Dysgenic selection is shown in Figure 2B; selection differential, S is large, where S is defined as the difference between the mean of the individuals selected to be parents and the mean of the overall population, so that S represents the average superiority of the selected parents. The change (R) in the population mean for any variable from one generation to the next is given by the equation: R = h 2 S.) Figure 1. Relationship between size of trees at flowering and at logging. When minimum diameter at breast height (dbh) for logging is too small, a lower proportion of trees (or even none) will have reached reproductive size, and the effective population size will be reduced.If only a small proportion of straight mature trees are removed, the change in the population mean from first to second generation (Figure 2A) will be insignificant. In reducedimpact culling, which is now typical of approaches to sustainable logging in tropical forests, the number of trees logged in a compartment will vary from as low as 2% to as many as 50%, depending on the species. Given that diameter is usually the main criterion for determination of yield, it is unclear how much selection for stem straightness occurs, especially if selection differentials for stem straightness are low. If size mainly reflects age, rather than growth rate, there will also be little selection against growth rate. Heritability for both stem straightness and growth rate is notoriously low (e.g., <0.1) in the highly heterogeneous conditions of mixed age natural forests. Thus, it is unlikely that low extraction rates would lead to genetic erosion. Only where virtual clear-felling results in regeneration from seedlings of only a few remaining poorly formed seed trees (Figure 2B) would there be a marked deterioration in stem straightness in subsequent generations, even with low heritability of form (Ledig 1992).Such theoretical considerations suggest instances where genetic erosion is likely to occur. The greatest potential for genetic erosion occurs in forests that have been over-logged to the point of near disappearance, leaving only a few seed trees to assure regeneration. For instance, logging for timber on St. Helena of all but a few individuals of Trochetiopsis erythroxylon and T. melanoxylon reduced both species to shrubby malformed trees (Rowe and Cronk 1995). In cases where felling or fires resulted in the removal of a high proportion of mature trees, leading to gaps in diameter classes, there may be grounds for concern about deterioration of the genetic base. But even then the situation is rarely simple. While removal of a whole generation of mature trees may adversely affect regeneration, such an action may not exert selection pressure if regeneration eventually comes from an existing cohort of poles or saplings.There are relatively few studies of the impact of logging on genetic diversity and mating in trees, and those that have been done concentrate on northern-hemisphere conifers.Impact of different logging scenarios on some traits (e.g., growth rate or stem straightness) after one generation. 2A shows how harvesting only a small proportion of trees will minimally affect the population mean, whereas in 2B, clear-fell, leaving a few poorly formed seed trees, will strongly affect the mean (e.g., of stem straightness). Actual changes will depend on the heritability of the trait of interest, as well as the selection differential. Source: After Ledig 1992.Harvested treesGrowth rate or stem straightnessTypically, in temperate coniferous forests, clear-felling followed by regeneration predominates, but selective felling, previously more typical of high-value timber extraction from broad-leaved and tropical forests, has recently increased. Temperate forests that are subject to natural disturbances such as fire and/or wind-throw generally contain trees that are adapted and relatively resilient to disturbance (Wickneswari and Boyle 2000). Using Pinus contorta in Alberta, Canada, as an example, Thomas et al. (1999) found no significant difference in levels of genetic diversity among nonharvested stands and regenerated trees. Similarly, no significant differences in genetic variation were found in the US state of Oregon among stands of Pseudotsuga mensiezii managed under a shelterwood regime and those left as uncut controls (Neale 1985).In contrast, comparison of preharvest and postharvest gene pools in old growth stands of Pinus strobus in Ontario, Canada, showed a loss of genetic diversity after 75% of the breeding population was harvested with seed trees left behind (Buchert et al. 1997). Reductions were seen in the percentage of polymorphic loci and the number of alleles, though heterozygosity levels were maintained. 'Private' alleles, those alleles unique to each stand, were especially vulnerable to harvest-induced elimination from the gene pool, with losses of 25% or more. Private allele losses of this magnitude may be common when these types of temperate coniferous forests are harvested at such intensities, raising concerns for the integrity of locally adapted gene pools after harvesting. Nonetheless, it is possible that genetic integrity may ultimately be restored during regeneration through the extensive gene flow typical of such conifers.The effects of regeneration practices, like aerial resowing or use of seed trees following site preparation by burning or mechanical disturbance, were studied with DNA markers in southeastern Australia (Glaubitz et al. 2003a and b) using the commercial species Eucalyptus sieberi (silvertop ash) and an uncommon noncommercial species E. consideniana. Using several genetic diversity measures (allelic richness, number of alleles, heterozygosity) Eucalyptus sieberi showed no significant differences (Glaubitz et al. 2003a). Nor was evidence found for recent bottlenecks. However, a dendrogram of the relationships among the sampled populations suggested that the seed-tree system might promote genetic drift, while aerial resowing after clear-fells with the same seed lot would lead to genetic homogenization. The apparent genetic resilience of E. sieberi in native forest regeneration was attributed to its local abundance and to the favourable characteristics of its reproductive biology, where seed is held on its branches for several years and good regeneration occurs from seed already on site. The presence of E. consideniana typically fell from 13% prior to logging to 5% in regenerated coupes. Significant reductions were also seen in E. consideniana genetic diversity (allelic richness, number of alleles, heterozygosity) in seed tree coupes, but not in clear-fell areas (Glaubitz et al. 2003b), while there was no evidence of increases in inbreeding under either management system. Eldridge et al. (1993) found that family structure in native eucalypt forests leads to a certain amount of inbreeding (t m 0.7-0.8).Evidence of logging effects on FGRs from tropical forest tree species is relatively scarce and, when found, presents mixed results. Loss of genetic diversity has occurred in some logged populations of tropical timber species in Southeast Asia, but not in others (Wickneswari et al. 1997a and b). Both Shorea leprosula and Dryobalanops aromatica in Borneo showed high rates of outcrossing in both logged and unlogged forests (Kitamura et al. 1994). In a study of the self-incompatible species Shorea siamensis (Ghazoul et al. 1998) in Thailand, there were no differences noted in seed set following a moderate level of logging (35% removed) when compared to unlogged forest (Table 1). Although pollination levels in S. siamensis were similar before and after high-intensity logging, a lower level of intertree movements by pollinators in the more open, postlogging environment increased the frequency of self pollination, resulting in much lower fruit set.Research on how mating varies with tree or flowering-tree densities in natural forests and on the genetic effects of reduced tree densities under fragmentation will help infer the genetic impact of logging practices that reduce the density of a species of interest.Several tropical tree species have different rates of outcrossing, both throughout the year and between individuals, that are reported as correlating with changes in the quantity of flowering and the spatial patterns of flowering individuals (Murawski and Hamrick 1991). Species occurring at low densities appear to combine some biparental mating with longdistance gene flow, whereas species occurring at higher densities showed more random mating, generally over shorter distances.Mating patterns in three tropical tree species (Calophyllum longifolium, Spondias mombin and Turpinia occidentalis) that occur naturally at low densities in Panama were strongly affected by the spatial distribution of reproductive trees, although all three species still showed high levels of outcrossing. Where the trees were clumped, the majority of matings were with near neighbours, whereas with more evenly spaced trees a larger proportion of matings occurred between trees separated by distances of more than several hundred metres, and from well beyond the nearest reproductive neighbours (Stacy et al. 1996). In contrast, Murawski et al. (1990) and Murawski and Hamrick (1992b) demonstrated that outcrossing rates in the self-compatible species Cavanillesia platanifolia decreased in line with lower flowering levels from year to year (t m 0.57 with 74% trees flowering, 0.35 with 49%, 0.21 with 32%). In years of greater flowering, with more floral rewards available, there was a greater tendency for pollinators to move among trees, resulting in more crosspollination. However, when few trees were flowering there was a greater tendency for selfpollination. Studies of Ceiba pentandra in South America demonstrated variable degrees of self-fertility, with some trees showing high levels of self-pollination in isolation, while others failed to set seed (Murawski and Hamrick 1992a;Gribel et al. 1999). Therefore, the effects of logging on this species range from increased inbreeding to reduced seed production.Genetic evidence from fragmentation and logging studies worldwide suggests that increases in inbreeding are especially dependent on the presence and strength of a species' incompatibility mechanism. Genetic variation can be conserved by reducing the frequency of inbreeding in naturally outcrossing tree species, while maintaining breeding system flexibility will be a conservation priority for species such as Ceiba pentandra that naturally combine outcrossing and inbreeding. Self-incompatible species like Shorea siamensis that show highly asynchronous population flowering may be more susceptible to reductions in population size following logging, both in terms of compatible pollination and reduced genetic diversity (Ghazoul et al. 1998), thereby reducing their regenerative capacity and their adaptive potential.Tree species with specialist pollinators are more likely to face threats from reductions in both pollinator and tree populations as successful pollination becomes a limiting factor. In contrast, species with unspecialized animal pollination regimes are only likely to suffer problems when there is a general loss of pollinator fauna in the immediate area where they grow. Table 2 summarizes possible characteristics of species that may be genetically susceptible to selective logging (Jennings et al. 2001). Nevertheless, it is useful to consider that increased levels of inbreeding may be genetically unimportant from a long-term adaptation perspective, as self-pollinated individuals are selected against at various stages of regeneration. For selective logging, Ledig's (1992) assertion that \"local genetic structure may be altered by selection and by changes in demography and in the mating system, but, in all probability, gene diversity and geographic structure will be little affected\", suggests that if postlogging regeneration of rare or commercial species is adequate, their population genetic structure and diversity will not be severely or permanently affected. Genetic variation and the systems that maintain it are adaptable by nature, providing a degree of buffering and adaptation to change, but this is true only if changes are neither too great nor too rapid. Increased inbreeding is likely to be both genetically and ecologically important if it results in a reduction in seed production and, hence, in regeneration; or if it is maintained over several generations.Where trees are planted, the levels of genetic diversity maintained will depend on the species involved and the germplasm collection practices. Tree planting can have a positive or negative effect on the genetic diversity of a plantation. Any existing level of inbreeding or reduction in genetic diversity in the sampled populations may have critical repercussions for plantations, on ex situ conservation or tree breeding programmes. Apart from the exceptions for self-compatible species already outlined, genetic diversity in trees is likely to be maintained when normal seed collecting protocols from natural populations are followed (Schmidt 2001). However, in the real world, departures from such best practice are not uncommon. With species that produce large quantities of seed per tree, there is a tendency to make collections from a limited part of the crown and from a small number of trees, leading to reduced and biased sampling of the gene pool (Boshier et al. 1995). This can also occur unknowingly, especially when a pollen pool is dominated by a few trees (Aldrich and Hamrick 1998), and can lead to fewer genetic benefits than might be expected, even when conservation-motivated protocols are used.Planting and using exotic trees or tree species at the expense of trees that have been either naturally regenerated or planted can also affect genetic conservation of local populations. For example, replacing native species or populations with introduced species or populations can reduce native population sizes, cause genetic contamination of native populations, and even eliminate native populations (Eldridge 1998;Hughes 1998). Hybridization of introduced tree species with native species is particularly prevalent in certain genera such as Leucaena (Hughes 1998) and Prosopis (Carney et al. 2000), and can have serious implications for the conservation of native gene pools, especially when threatened or endangered species are involved.Crossings among populations of the same tree species from different locations can lead to the break-up of co-adapted allelic complexes or the dilution of adapted alleles, resulting in reduced growth or fertility and in outbreeding depression (Ledig 1992). Evidence in trees of outbreeding depression is conflicting and inconclusive within the few studies done thus far. For example, Bombacopsis quinata showed reduced seed set when populations from Honduras and Colombia were crossed (Billingham 1999), while Stacy (1998) similarly found that species of Syzygium and Shorea in southwestern Sri Lanka showed substantial reductions in fruit set following crosses involving pollen donors located some 12 km apart. However this author believed that the small-scale outbreeding depression found was more likely due to spatial heterogeneity in the selective environment than to isolation by geographic distance, as the geographic heterogeneity of the study area appeared to be more finely partitioned than that of many other tropical forest landscapes. In other cases, such as those described by Hardner et al. (1998) who undertook experiments where they both self-pollinated and crossed individuals of Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus (from distances of 21 m to 100 km) in Tasmania, no outbreeding depression was found. Neither was there evidence found in Swietenia humilis when populations in Central America 500 km apart were crossed (Billingham 1999).Effective actions for the conservation of FGRs must be wide ranging and complementary at gene, population, species, community and ecosystem levels, and they must incorporate both in situ and ex situ strategies inside and outside reserves. Resource limitations dictate the need for integrated and simplified approaches. Consequently, in recognizing the importance of genetic considerations in achieving sustainable management, forest managers are now developing strategies that integrate the conservation of genetic diversity within production systems (Riggs 1990;Kuusipalo and Kangas 1994). It is now recognized that knowledge of the relationships between a species' genetic diversity, the heterogeneity of its habitat and the scale of its adaptation is important for understanding the evolutionary and ecological processes of the species and its associated biotic communities. This knowledge is also fundamentally important for the conservation of the species (e.g., priority setting for genetic reserves, sampling for ex situ collections, sourcing of material for use in ecological restoration), its successful reproduction, and its future adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Thus from both conservation and use viewpoints, it is necessary to know the extent of genetic variation within a species (allelic richness), how genetic variation is distributed (allelic evenness) and which geographic area retains the necessary and sufficient genetic variation to constitute a viable population in the long term.Over the last 30 years, genetic markers such as allozymes and, more recently, a variety of DNA markers have permitted direct study of the distribution of genetic diversity within and between populations. For instance, a difference in the inheritance pattern of molecular markers permits comparisons among relative levels of gene flow resulting from differential pollen and seed dispersal. Current data indicate greater interpopulation differentiation for maternally inherited genes than for nuclear genes in tree species (El Mousadik and Petit 1996;Hamrick and Nason 1996). Tests have also been developed that discriminate recently bottlenecked populations from stable populations (BOTTLENECK programme, see Cornuet and Luikart 1996;Luikart and Cornuet 1998). A small population size may be unimportant in a population that has always been characterized by low numbers, but it may be of fundamental importance to one that has only recently become small. While longterm demographic studies may provide a good understanding of long-term trends, rapid, informed solutions are required where populations face immediate threat. As demographic properties of populations influence their genetic make-up, so too can information from genetic markers go beyond the narrow study of marker diversity to provide estimates of demographic parameters of interest to conservation biologists.Genealogical analyses of DNA sequence data can also be used to quantify important demographic parameters (e.g., effective population size, mating system or migration rate).Owing to the historical nature of such sequence information, a genealogical analysis reflects the long-term demographic properties of the population and is therefore useful in inferring its future demography (Milligan and Strand 1996). Comparison of such long-term estimates and current demographic observations can be used to determine if and how current trends deviate from historical ones, thereby providing information essential to the evaluation and management of tree species.Molecular markers are now also being used to study phytogeographical patterns of variation in forest trees on broader scales. An example is the EU-funded CYTOFOR project (http://www.pierroton.inra.fr/Cytofor) that is investigating a number of genetic and ecological features of 22 economically important deciduous European trees through phylogeographic studies, the history of postglacial migration routes, assessment of hybridization between species, and the establishment of links between ecology and a population's genetic traits.This research has the potential to generate information on the locations of greatest genetic diversity for these species, to guide EU policy on exchange of forest reproductive materials, and to help in devising conservation strategies for the species based on best ecological and genetic science. In addition, CYTOFOR results could improve understanding of the true 'origin' of forests that were established with non-native materials so long ago that this kind of information could not be found in conventional records. In most cases, in situ species conservation cannot ultimately succeed without the conservation of associated ecosystems; investigating several interacting species simultaneously promotes conservation of both ecosystems and individual species. Moreover, information on the location of older 'evolutionary units' for each of the 22 tree species, combined with results obtained from provenance tests, has immediate practical implications, since, if needed, recommendations can be made to restrict genetic movement between these evolutionary units.The 1990s saw the development of a number of international sets of standards, criteria and indicators with which the sustainability of forest management could be assessed and certified. For use by auditors and managers in the field, these standards are often presented as checklists that give the principles, criteria, indicators and verifiers in a logical and progressive sequence, and from which it should be relatively easy to derive an objective decision on the quality of the forest management under assessment (e.g., Ghana's Forest Management Certification Standards and Checklist, Anon. 2000).Almost all current international sets of standards pertaining to sustainable forest management include criteria and indicators that can be used to manage and assess the conservation of genetic diversity in trees (Box 1). The function of criteria and indicators is to provide a practical means by which changes in forest condition, as a consequence of management actions, can be monitored. Thus, criteria and indicators should be defined and presented in ways that are clear, practical and easy to use. They should also be based as far as possible on good science (ITTO 1998).Unfortunately, the vital requirements of clarity, simplicity and practicality do not appear to have been seriously considered in the formulation of many of the genetic criteria and indicators developed to date for the management and monitoring of forest resources. For instance, all 23 verifiers (demographic and genetic) of the maintenance of genetic diversity proposed by Namkoong et al. (2002) require lengthy field trials or detailed monitoring of phenology, population structure, pollination and seed dispersal (Box 2,overleaf). Some even require sophisticated laboratory analyses that are impractical in day-to-day forest management. Several Namkoong verifiers involve the measurement of genetic parameters that are still the subject of scientific debate and that will produce values that vary according to the measurement method used. Decisions on baselines from which change and critical threshold values can be gauged are also problematical. In our view, such an overly theoretical and technical approach is not practical at the forest management unit level nor even at the country level when planners, owing to lack of information, face enormous realworld problems in designating nonloggable species and in determining other sustainable forest management strategies.It is also our view that the criteria and indicators that incorporate genetic parameters to measure levels of genetic diversity conservation and the consequent sustainability of forestry operations, such as those proposed by CIFOR, are impractical and will in fact deter forest managers from making meaningful attempts at maintaining genetic diversity in production Box 1. Some certification initiatives for sustainable forest management that mention criteria and indicators for measuring and/or assessing within-species genetic diversity 1. The Amazon Cooperation Treaty (the 'Tarapoto Process'; Grayson and Maynard 1997) is an international agreement subscribed to by eight South American countries in 1995 that seeks to ensure the long-term sustainability of forests in the Amazon. Criterion 4, Conservation of Forest Cover and of Biological Diversity, provides 'measures for the conservation of genetic resources' as an indicator of sustainability.sustainable management of natural tropical forests (ITTO 1998). Criterion 5, Biological Diversity, specifies a number of indicators, including 5.6, 'Existence and implementation of a strategy for in situ and/or ex situ conservation of the genetic variation within commercial, endangered, rare and threatened species of forest flora and fauna.' 3. The Centre for International Forest Research, Criteria and Indicators Toolbox (CIFOR C&I Team 1999). Criterion 2.3 requires the conservation of processes that maintain genetic variation. Indicators specify that there be no directional change in genotypic frequencies, no changes in gene flow/migration and no changes in mating systems. 4. Forest Stewardship Council Principles and Criteria 1 . Principle 6.3 requires that ecological functions and values be maintained intact, enhanced, or restored, and include criteria or principles for: (i) forest regeneration and succession; (ii) genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity; and (iii) natural cycles that affect the productivity of the forest ecosystem. Principle 9.3 requires that the management plan include and implement 'specific measures that ensure the maintenance and/or enhancement of the applicable conservation attributes consistent with the precautionary approach'.forests (Jennings et al. 2001). In our opinion, the impractical nature of such parameters explains why the Ghana Checklist omits mention of within-species genetic diversity in its principles, and only implicitly addresses conservation of a species' genetic diversity within coarse grain protection. In fact, the Ghana Checklist does not contain genetic verifiers, whether in the form of genetic assessments or of surrogate demographic parameters. If the maintenance of genetic diversity is not to be completely excluded in undertakings like the Ghana Checklist, a more pragmatic approach needs to be developed that is based on existing knowledge of how logging affects genetic processes. In order to establish the significance of observed levels of genetic diversity and inbreeding, baseline information is required from which deviations from the norm can be observed. However, studies to establish baseline data are often compromised by the inability of researchers to decide on a realistic baseline population from which changes can be observed and significance analyzed. Comparative studies of human disturbance are similarly hampered by the range of experimental designs and markers employed. Furthermore, problems in interpretation of results are compounded by both the diversity of management systems used around the world and the variety of reproductive and ecological regimes characteristic of the species under study. Most studies have looked only at the effects on genetic diversity immediately after logging or over one rotation, while several generations may normally be necessary before genetic erosion becomes evident. The cost and difficulty of carrying out such long-term studies requires the use of other approaches. ECO-GENE is a model that has been developed to study the impact of silvicultural actions on temperate forests (Degen et al. 1996). It combines research on population genetic and dynamic processes with the use of forest growth models to simulate the impact of management types and intensities on within-species genetic diversity. Adaptation and validation of such temperate models in more complex tropical forest conditions require extensive reproductive ecology and genetic data on the selected species being modelled (Degen et al. 2002; see also Chapter 4 in this book). Knowledge of a species' reproductive ecology, including phenology, incompatibility mechanism, pollination mechanism, dispersal, seed dispersal, seedling regeneration and stand dynamics enables researchers to predict how tree removal by logging will affect the subsequent capacity of that species to regenerate. The regeneration phase is critical not only to the maintenance of a forest, but also to assessing the genetic implications of increased levels of inbreeding for sustainable management. Although information exists on the reproductive ecology, genetics and mating patterns for a number of tropical tree species, there are relatively few studies on the effects of different management strategies on these processes. Use of existing genetic data from unmanaged or undisturbed forests is unlikely to produce valid comparative models and thereby help identify critical scenarios that will allow accurate predictions. The validation of models and their subsequent ability to predict accurately the impacts of management on genetic diversity will therefore depend on the generation of new data that estimate pollen flow within populations under logging conditions. Recommendations can then be made on a species-by-species basis that will help prevent managers from crossing subjective genetic thresholds by determining permissible levels of logging and patterns of tree selection that minimize inbreeding in species identified as problematical.It is also important to recognize that tree species have developed a range of reproductive strategies, and that the conservation of trees can be adversely affected by management approaches that dramatically alter these processes. Thus, reducing the level or impact of inbreeding while maintaining diversity in naturally outcrossing tree species will be important to their conservation. Maintaining breeding system flexibility will also be a priority for species that naturally combine outcrossing and inbreeding. However, as many commercial timber species fall into the ecological groupings of 'pioneer' or 'long-lived shade-intolerant' trees, the choice of species to model should not be limited to commercial species, but should also take into account other ecological guilds with different mating systems and spatial distribution. By their nature, many pioneer or longlived shade intolerant trees are to some degree genetically resilient to disturbance. A species will most likely be genetically suitable to management if it:• has low population densities; is slow growing• regenerates poorly under human disturbance • possesses specialized pollinators or seed dispersers • is characterized by clumped distributions (Jennings et al. 2001).Inevitably, generalizations like this will be qualified by the range of factors that have been shown to influence genetic variation in trees, but using a validated model to identify factors that leave species genetically favourable to management will allow species to be grouped into management groupings and for guidelines to be extended to a wider range of species. The ability to extrapolate from modelling results and to make more general management recommendations for groups of species will depend on accurate information that will enable classification of species into such management groups. An attempt has been made to model species conservation decision-making within a framework of goal conflicts and uncertainty (Drechsler 2004), but this was done without genetic considerations.Limited resources and the lack of ecological and genetic information, along with an immediate need to generate the measures required for certification of sustainable logging in many parts of the world, has led to pragmatic 'best guess' approaches based on available knowledge. Adopting simple silvicultural rules before felling is permitted helps to ensure that adequate natural regeneration will occur after logging, which can also keep the effects of logging on genetic diversity to a minimum. Identifying the types of species and the circumstances (whether ecological, managerial or other) under which simple silvicultural rules cannot be developed or will not work should be a priority for managers with limited research resources. This will force them to undertake realistic assessments of the species that seem to be at genetic risk from disturbance and to develop management strategies to alleviate possible problems (Table 2). Thus, reasonable questions for a certifier to ask a forest manager or a country's forest authority are: 'Which species are genetically threatened by logging?' 'What is the basis for this determination?' and 'What remedial actions have you put in place to conserve these species?'Managers must similarly make decisions about the conservation benefits of land-use alternatives. Several of the studies discussed here are optimistic about the conservation value of remnant trees and forests. In cases where large tracts of forest no longer exist, conservation initiatives have emphasized connectivity of landscape mosaics. Such examples illustrate a broader, integrated vision of conservation that embraces a range of land-use mosaics rather than just intact forests. Design, management and monitoring of forests and forest reserves will thus involve assessment of the managed land-use types in terms of how well -either individually or in combination -they meet the biological criterion of connectivity, as well as other genetic and ecological requirements, and how these land-use types may need to be modified to maintain or improve connectivity and diversity (Laurance et al. 1997). Nevertheless, assessments of this kind will still need to contain site-specific elements, given the varying connectivity, species management and sustainable land-use objectives of different people and organizations, and the different degrees of resilience of forests and their components to disturbance. In an area of high forest cover, agroecosystems may be valued principally for gene flow, whereas in much more highly deforested landscapes a fuller complement of biological benefits may be sought from agroecosystems, with their specific location within the corridor that connects different areas also of importance, depending on the species they contain. For example, in the highly deforested dry forest zone of western Honduras, the traditional Quezungual fallow system, which includes management of naturally regenerated shrubs, fruit trees and timber trees along with crops (Kass et al. 1993), is likely to provide a variety of genetic conservation benefits for a range of native tree species. Other complex agricultural systems, such as traditional shaded coffee, may also rate highly for genetic conservation benefits. In contrast, simpler systems with only a few pastureland trees may offer fewer genetic conservation benefits, and are unlikely to prove effective mediators of pollen flow for species without self-incompatibility mechanisms.Therefore, where appropriate, management of forests and tree species must also take into account the farming systems practiced in the area along with the density of the trees and their origin and whether regeneration is natural or planted. For example, the maintenance of native timber trees as an overstorey in large areas that have been converted to coffee plantations is likely to have beneficial genetic effects for gene flow, population numbers and the conservation of those tree species. In contrast, where such a management system is practised over only a small area, seed production may show reduced genetic diversity through related or biparental mating (Boshier et al. 2004).Gap analysis, a scientific means for assessing to what extent native animal and plant species are being protected, provides an appropriate tool to integrate such information and to examine the effectiveness of existing land-use mosaics in conserving the genetic resources of target species. Recent studies of eight native conifer tree species in the US Pacific Northwest stratified species distribution into genetic conservation units, and employed gap analysis to identify those units for which the genetic resources were not well-conserved (i.e., fewer than 5000 reproductive individuals) in existing protected areas (Lipow et al. 2004).Documenting and assessing human impact on genetic diversity in forest trees are challenging. The diversity of tree species' biology and genecology means that species will respond in varying ways to different types of human disturbance and, therefore, assessing causal relationships and direct impacts cannot be easily generalized. The remaining chapters in this book provide new examples of human effects on species with different biological characteristics.Nevertheless, some patterns are evident from the studies reviewed in this chapter and as such they have implications for actions to conserve FGRs. This is well illustrated by the issue of remnant forest fragments and trees on farms. The evidence summarized in this chapter suggests that trees that are present in a range of complex landscapes and agroecosystems may in fact play important roles in the long-term genetic viability of many native tree species. They will do this by facilitating gene flow among forest fragments, by conserving genotypes not found in reserves or fragments, by helping to maintain minimum viable populations, and by acting as intermediaries and alternative hosts for pollinators and seed dispersers (Harvey and Haber 1999), thereby functioning as biological corridors. Thus, it is important to recognize the complementary role that maintaining trees on farms can play in conserving FGRs.Despite this assertion, and although trees maintained in agricultural systems undoubtedly contribute to reproduction in remnant forests, the benefits and effects are complex and vary from species to species. Thus, unevenness and over-representation of such trees in pollen pools may lead to nonrandom mating and reductions in genetic diversity in subsequent generations. The use of trees growing in agricultural systems as seed sources for ecological restoration is under debate, especially in situations where 'local' seed sources, presumed to be adapted to local conditions, may have problems of low genetic diversity and inbreeding.Therefore, we should neither over-nor underestimate the extent to which trees growing in agroecosystems can benefit the genetic conservation of forest tree species. This is especially true for the many tree species found within agroecosystems that also occur in adequate numbers in existing forest fragments. On the other hand, some of the species threatened by low population numbers, either as a result of deforestation, fragmentation, logging practices or natural rarity, will not be found widely in agroecosystems, since in these domesticated environments conditions are unsuited to their regeneration. Thus, the greatest potential conservation role for trees in agroecosystems will be in highly deforested areas where forest fragments or reserves are small or nonexistent and where safeguarding these trees represents an important part of the gene pool of a particular population or species. Under these circumstances, the conservation of tree species in domesticated landscapes, often under the auspices of traditional management practices, can free resources for more critically threatened tree species that require more conventional, resource-intensive conservation approaches, usually involving in situ methods. Underestimating the capacity of many species to persist in large numbers in such agroecosystems could lead to the misdirection of limited conservation resources towards species not actually under threat (Boshier et al. 2004).The benefits of different land-use practices for the conservation of FGRs need to be recognized, promoted and, of course, evaluated on a continuing basis. Development and implementation of conservation strategies in areas of human disturbance demand an interdisciplinary approach that balances conservation requirements with basic human needs. We must raise awareness among development organizations that natural regeneration can have conservation benefits and also provide the socioeconomic resources favoured by local inhabitants. We should also seek close consultation with stakeholders to determine not only the potential for integrating conservation and economic development, but also which species could be conserved in these systems from both biological and use perspectives. This will require the involvement of development organizations in biodiversity conservation and effective two-way communication between the two groups. Collaboration like this will ensure both conservation and development benefits, and include the deployment of locally adapted, diverse tree germplasm to supply the multipurpose requirements of goods and services for people.This chapter analyzes the principal factors that influence the successes and failures of communally managed forest resources in a range of South American contexts. It reviews and summarizes the findings of the growing body of literature that deals with this issue and then examines the findings in the context of case studies from five South American countries.Most scholars who study the institutional arrangements for natural resource governance agree that forests should be considered as common-pool resources (CPRs) since they are neither public nor private goods, but share elements of both. This characteristic means that forests are particularly vulnerable to degradation and overexploitation because it is difficult to exclude people from them, leading to overconsumption (that is, they are 'subtractable' resources, see Section 2 below). In order to avoid such negative outcomes, and in order to manage forests sustainably, we argue that communities who manage forests need institutions. These are defined in this study as sets of agreed-upon rules that are followed by most community members and which control access to and regulate competition over forest resources (Winter 1998;Ostrom et al. 2002).Section 2 of this chapter is devoted to understanding forests as CPRs by describing and discussing the main problems that local forest-user groups face in managing their forests. This section also reviews the literature on the principal factors, attributes and indicators that relate to the effectiveness of communal forest management, summarized as attributes either of the resource or of the resource user. Our discussion relies principally on research by Ostrom (1998), Gibson et al. (2000), and Agrawal (2001) that summarizes the challenges to community management of forests. These challenges result from particular attributes of the resource, in this case the forest, and of the users.Section 3 provides a historical overview of some specific features of communal forest management in South America. When compared to formal community forestry groups in developing regions of East Africa and South Asia, South American forest-user groups have access to relatively valuable forest resources. While formal governmental legislation to enable community forestry is fairly recent in South America, the challenge for rural communities to govern their forests is not new. As a consequence, we predict that local institutions in South America will successfully mitigate the effects of exogenous factors such as national policies and market forces.Section 4 of this chapter presents three short case studies that highlight how some rural communities have modified local institutions to deal with or to take advantage of new governmental regulations and market opportunities in the forestry sector. Case 1 comes from Bolivia where laws required indigenous Yuracaré communities to document their historical use of land before they could secure forest ownership. The Yuracaré also had to develop a forest management plan approved by the forestry service before they could harvest trees -even from their own land. Working with an International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) team that included social scientists and foresters, the community was able to document its history and develop forest plans to gain these rights. As a consequence, the traditional subsistence uses of the forest were expanded to include harvesting for the market, and the Yuracaré had to develop new local institutions to deal with the new market opportunities (Becker and Leon 2000).Case 2 comes from Mexico. Here, a Zapotec indigenous group possessed local institutions for managing forests for subsistence but reorganized them to take advantage of new rights to market timber with the Mexican government. To date, the community has developed forest management plans and received a new forestry certification from the SmartWood programme of the Forest Stewardship Council, an international nongovernmental organization (NGO) created to promote responsible forest management worldwide.Case 3 comes from Honduras where new laws have moved legal ownership of large areas of the forests from the national government to municipalities. However, local people found this did not solve many of their problems, so they have organized cooperatives and federations of cooperatives to develop the power to negotiate better contracts, access and marketing.A descriptive analysis of IFRI data about the main characteristics of forests in South America is presented in Section 5 in order to shed light on the opportunities and challenges that local forest-user groups face there. In this section, we also introduce our expectation that we will find healthier forest at sites where user groups have reached more cohesive levels of organization in their collective activities.Also within this section, descriptive statistics and a simple cross-tab analysis are used to examine empirical data on attributes and characteristics of the settlements or villages, the forest-user groups and the forests themselves. Researchers in the IFRI research programme collected this information, visiting 34 sites in Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras andMexico between 1994 and2002. Information from each of these sites was collected following the same research protocol and methods, making the data comparable.The descriptive statistics generated from these sites illustrate the variety of local conditions that exist in our sample. The cross-tab analysis assesses the relationship of the local institutions with the forest conditions for each of the sites by testing whether there is a statistically significant association between highly organized collective activities and relatively good forest conditions. Our results indicate that the stronger the local institutions for harvesting and monitoring the better the forest conditions, but we cannot conclude that strong local institutions are sufficient to solve every kind of collective dilemma.As human populations and their demands on forest resources grow, citizens and officials from around the world search for solutions to the problems of forest degradation and deforestation. Many factors contribute to make forests very challenging to govern effectively. Most of these challenges emerge from the biophysical characteristics of forest resources.Policy scholars classify resources as public or private goods based upon two dimensions: (i) the ease with which potential outside users can be excluded from access to the resource = the 'excludability' of the good, and (ii) whether or not a good once consumed is available for others to consume = the 'consumption' of a good (Ostrom and Ostrom 1999). Consumption can be either subtractive or joint: the former being a good that once consumed by one household is not available to another household (e.g., a tree), and the latter depicting a situation in which a household can enjoy the benefit of a good without subtracting from the amount available to another household (e.g., clean air; Varughese 1999).Therefore, goods vary in their underlying attributes. Goods that are nonexcludable and subject to rivalry, like fish in the ocean, are called CPRs. Public goods such as a stable climate are nonexcludable and nonsubtractable and benefit all human beings; while private goods are both excludable and subtractable. Toll goods, such as toll roads, are excludable but nonsubtractable. Table 1 illustrates the complexity of forest resources by summarizing their different biophysical attributes.The definition of common property varies among scholars. However, most definitions of common property rights include these elements: (i) a well-defined group of co-owners, who (ii) develop and adhere to a well-defined management regime, that includes (iii) proscribed access by owners and exclusion of nonowners, and (iv) rights and duties of owners with regards to rates of use of the common property resource (Feeny et al. 1990;Swaney 1990;Bromley 1991).CPRs are all subtractable in their natural environment with poor excludability, and include resources such as fodder, wood, herbs, fruits and water. But once subtracted by a household they are converted into private goods and are therefore easily excludable. Public goods such as clean air and water can be consumed not only by the households sharing the forests but also by other people outside the forest. However, forests can also be referred to as toll goods if there are sacred areas where only selected persons are authorized to go, therefore excluding all other households by internal rules of the forestuser groups.Market mechanisms are thought to be the best governance institutions for private and toll goods, especially because of their characteristic of easy excludability. Because of their nonsubtractability, public goods are generally thought to be best managed within the purview of government. CPRs, on the other hand, combine problematic aspects of both dimensions. Since they are subtractable like private goods, they can be overused or even destroyed, but since it can be costly to control access to them (= excludability), it can be difficult to restrict the rate at which they are consumed. Most natural resources that everyone cares about are common-pool goods. Examples include forest products, water for irrigation, and fisheries. Their effective management remains one of the most difficult tasks facing modern public policy. Most forest ecosystems share the principal characteristics of CPRs and, as such, they pose different and arguably more difficult challenges to governance than do smaller-scale resources, whether these be private or public.Another complication in the use of forest resources is that certain types of forest use can produce significant secondary or external effects (= externalities). For example, harvesting trees on a hillside may alter the local species composition, the carbon uptake capacity of a larger forest ecosystem or, through silting, the quality of nearby streams and lakes. As a consequence, the effective governance of forest resources must take a broader view of management-related externalities in order to avoid negative effects.Finally, the spatial and temporal nature of forests and their potential externalities often do not correspond with existing political jurisdictions. Forest borders are rarely equivalent  to political boundaries, giving local managers only a partial understanding of the total forest resource. It often takes decades before degraded forests can regenerate, and it can take just as long to understand the true impact of forestry policies. However, political institutions generally encourage officials to operate within shorter time frames. Thus, it is not uncommon for policy-makers to ignore some of the more serious forest-related problems.In summary, forests exhibit many characteristics that defy simple policy solutions. CPRs, where the exclusion of potential users is difficult, can present management challenges to policy-makers and those that enforce policy. Forests possess important externalities with regard to atmospheric, hydrological and biological services, many of which are hard to quantify and control. Forests are also complex in the sense that they can generate a myriad of products such as wood for construction or fuel, wildlife that is trapped or hunted, and leaves, fruits, fodder, seeds, straw, shade, recreation, stones and fertile soil, along with scores of other products consumed by humans. All of these products can mature at different rates, may be managed using both consumptive and nonconsumptive approaches, and can possess characteristics of common-pool, private or public goods, all the while providing ecosystem services for localities, regions or countries.One of the most common sources of confusion about the management of CPRs is how to distinguish their characteristics from their associated property rights regime. Part of the confusion is likely to stem from the terminology itself. For instance, rights to a CPR such as a forest can belong to the general public (= state property), to a government (= governmental property), a private individual (= individual private property), or a group of individuals (= group-owned private property). Likewise, \"when they are owned by no-one or paradoxically by 'everyone', they are used as open-access resources by whoever can gain access\" (Ostrom 2003). McKean (2000) shows that individual private property rights often do not provide the best basis for effective forest management. Her argument is that privatization of forests often leads to forest fragmentation, which may seriously disturb the proper functioning of the forest ecosystem. Because of these drawbacks, she suggests that forests are better suited for management under common property regimes in which larger chunks of contiguous forest have a higher probability of being maintained. Such systems also tend to be more efficient to administer.The governance of forests as common property may have many advantages over treating them as individual private property, but that is not to say that it is free from its own problems. Forest users may have conflicting interests and goals with regards to their forest use. Furthermore, individuals within the same forest-user group may have different levels of knowledge about the resource and different access to information, economic resources and political power. These asymmetries complicate the individuals' efforts to achieve successful joint outcomes, i.e., the way in which they should manage their collectively owned forest. Social scientists have given considerable attention to the problems that challenge the governance of forests as common property. The next section reviews the main findings of this vein of social science research.Collective-action problems \"occur when individuals, as part of a group, select strategies generating outcomes that are suboptimal from the perspective of the group\" (Ostrom and Walker 1997). These problems are caused by a lack of information, difficulties in coordination, the existence of obstacles to exclusion and rivalry of extraction (Poteete and Ostrom 2002). This leads to information asymmetries, and motivational problems then arise (Ostrom et al. 1993). Any or all of these can lead to the deterioration of a community's forest(s). Some communities are able to overcome such problems by developing highly organized institutions to deal with them, while others are not.Using a range of field observations, Ostrom (1990) showed that it is possible for local communities to self-organize in ways that resolve complex collective-action problems related to natural resource governance. In fact, local communities have often demonstrated that their self-organized efforts in natural resource management can outperform government programmes (McCay and Acheson 1990;Ostrom 1990;Feeny et al. 1998).Nevertheless, institutions that effectively manage forests do not have to be selforganized, as it is possible for positive collective outcomes to occur through government coercion. This was the accepted approach to forest management as recently as 30 years ago in several areas of the world (Arnold 1992(Arnold , 1998;;Wunsch and Olowu 1995). The policies that flowed from coercive control emphasized the 'scientific' exploitation of forests within a context of economic return (Richards and Tucker 1988;Scott 1998). We now know that such an approach can be ineffective in forest management, not only because of the costs involved, but because local communities will often simply not buy into the centralized state programme. In regions of resource scarcity, where forest products are essential for local livelihoods or where forests are isolated, state-controlled agents are commonly unable to secure, manage or protect the forests. Such a topdown strategy can also generate undesirable side-effects, for example, policies may not be flexible enough to cope with local ecological variation or local people's needs, knowledge and preferences.Significant shifts in accepted forest governance standards have occurred in the last 30 years or so. One of the major changes has been to confer property rights over forests to local communities. Based on the idea that local communities live with forests, are primary users of forest products, and often create de facto rules that significantly affect forest conditions, scholars and policy-makers argue that more equitable and effective outcomes can frequently (though not always) be reached by transferring de jure rights over forests to local communities (Perry and Dixon 1986;Arnold 1990;Bhatt 1990;Dei 1992;Douglass 1992;Ghai 1993;Raju et al. 1993;Ascher 1995;Clugston and Rogers 1995; for reviews, see Wiesner 1990;Baland and Platteau 1996). The core theory is that local users hold important time-and place-specific knowledge necessary for the creation of successful forest management, particularly for the institutional arrangements that are needed to achieve success (McCay and Acheson 1987;Berkes 1989;Ostrom 1990Ostrom , 1992a;;Bromley et al. 1992;McKean 1992;Peters 1994;Wade 1994).With community management of forests now receiving increased attention from policymakers, an empirical literature is developing that addresses the causes of success and failure for community-based natural resource management. In her 1999 paper, Ostrom suggests that although the necessary conditions for effective communal forest management vary across contexts and countries, there are some that are basic to good local governance. These conditions can be grouped into two sets of variables: the attributes of the resource and the attributes of the users, as described in Box 1 (overleaf).If users have the attributes listed in Box 1, they are more likely to be willing to invest time and effort in the management of their forest resources, unless the resources are perceived to be threatened in some way and competition for them has become acute. A positive trade-off between costs and benefits must exist in order to achieve effective communal forest governance. Provided there is sufficient information available, forests in good condition with enough available products will give individuals more choice. Under these conditions, individuals are more likely to develop practices that can produce and sustain a self-organized system of forest management.The resource attributes described in Box 1 help to define scenarios where organizing for communal management pays off. However, this will only be the case if the forest-related products generate significant monetary or subsistence income for local populations, and possible sources of conflict are minimized so that agreements can be made based on trust. Among the attributes of the forest, size is a particularly important determinant of the success of communal forest management. Another important contextual factor is the autonomy that allows forest-using individuals to craft forest management rules themselves and to implement them. While this list is by no means an attempt to exhaust all possible determinants that shape self-organized management of common property forests, it does provide a comprehensive account of some of the more influential and relevant ones. However, one should keep in mind that, for any given situation, this set will depend upon the environmental and socioeconomic contexts.The resource is not either so degraded or so underutilized that attempts to organize it are pointless.Reliable and valid information about the state of the resource is available at a reasonable cost.It is relatively easy to predict the supply of forest products.The resource is small enough so that users, given the transportation and communication technology available, can understand its microenvironments and know where its boundaries are.Users are dependent on the resource for a major portion of their livelihood or subsistence.Users have a shared understanding of the resource and of how their actions affect it and each other.Users set a sufficiently high value on the future benefits to be derived from the forest resource to make community management appear attractive.Users are equally affected by coordinated management of the resource, irrespective of power or wealth.Users trust each other to keep promises and to form mutually beneficial relationships.Users are able to determine access and harvesting rules without external authorities countermanding them.Users have learned at least minimal organizational skills through participation in other local associations or from neighbouring groups.Source: Ostrom 1999.This section provides a brief historical overview of some of the features of communal forest management that are particular to South America. Compared with other developing regions, including East and West Africa and South Asia (Agrawal and Ribot 2000), South American forest-user groups have access to relatively valuable forest resources. While the legislation to enable community forestry in South America is fairly recent, the challenge for rural communities to govern their forests is not new. Historically, community forestry activities have been important to the livelihoods of most rural people in South America, even though formal state governments have not always been supportive of such activities.Most of the independent South American republics gained their freedom during the 19 th century. Since then, these newly created countries have continued to follow the old colonial rulers' policies of confiscating large land areas from indigenous people, allowing them to keep only small areas of forestlands in comparison to what they originally possessed. Beginning in the 1950s, many developing countries nationalized such natural resources as land and forests to improve forest management. These areas were converted to de jure government-property regimes, eventually to become de facto open-access regimes (Arnold 1998). Governments divided forested CPRs into individual tracts, and in due course these lands were then distributed as private property to members of the ruling elite, and not as government concessions as had been the colonial tradition. While such 'reforms' improved the security of forest owners' tenures, they also had several undesirable socioeconomic consequences, such as skewed distribution of forest property rights. These privatization reforms offered lucrative opportunities for the richer members of society, while poorer groups lost access to the resources on which their livelihoods depended.By the mid-20 th century, most South American countries had ongoing government programmes promoting mass colonization of both previously undisturbed tropical forests and forests inhabited by indigenous populations. Policies like these formed integral parts of governmental strategies to relieve pressure on increasingly scarce agricultural lands in more heavily populated regions and to stimulate growth of export-oriented agricultural economies.Thus, even by as late as the mid-20 th century, conservation of forest resources was not an issue for the South American governments, nor were they concerned with the customary rights of indigenous peoples. Typical government policies and practices continued to remove indigenous populations from their lands or severely reduce the geographical extent of traditional lands. Policies were aimed at improving the operating and ownership conditions of large-scale, private agricultural and timber entrepreneurs, although uneven implementation of policies led to situations where forests might either be publicly owned by the nation-state, de facto owned by private citizens, granted to private citizens under formal private property rights transfers, or remain open-access resources. A national policy bias towards agriculture, along with land-use conflicts among users with overlapping claims, produced a high level of forest tenure insecurity. As a result, rather than stimulating the investment of time and money to produce longer-term management systems and sustainable yields, maximization of short-term profits dominated the logic of forest management practices in the region (Pacheco 1999;Contreras and Vargas 2001;Andersson 2002).Despite the fact that most South American countries have at one time or another reformed land and forest legislation in favour of private rights, various forms of collective access to natural resources have persisted. These are exemplified by community institutions in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, 'ejidos' in Mexico and Guatemala, and indigenous territories in Bolivia and Colombia. Therefore, most of the recent legislative changes at the constitutional level have had no practical implications for many local people who were already managing the resources as if they owned them.By the end of the 20 th century, most South American countries had introduced a new set of policies that aimed to encourage conservation of the environment and to restore indigenous groups' rights to land. The change in some countries is occurring through a two-fold process whereby NGOs, which can be local, regional or international, help indigenous groups to articulate their demands, while central government organize the topdown transference of rights (Hernáiz and Pacheco 2001;Urioste and Pacheco 2001).Today, the national governments of most South American countries publicly acknowledge the importance of local institutions in sustainable natural resource management, although much of this has yet to be implemented. While some recent policies have supported de jure rights of previously ignored local forest-user groups and of local (municipal) governments, it is only now that they are beginning to translate into real empowerment of community-level institutions in forestry sector governance. Interestingly, recent studies in Bolivia, Colombia and Guatemala have shown that those newly empowered municipal governments that emphasize collaboration with a variety of governmental and nongovernmental actors, including local forest-user groups, perform far better in supporting forest tenure security than municipalities that follow a classical top-down governance scheme (Gibson and Lehoucq 2003;Andersson 2004).In this section, we introduce the opportunities and challenges that local forest-user groups face in managing their forests in South America. We begin by presenting three community forestry case studies from Bolivia, Mexico (from Tucker et al. 1999) and Honduras to illustrate how communities can organize their forest use in order to take advantage of newly occurring opportunities.The case studies are analyzed on the premise that the performance of local institutions is crucial not only to successful communal management of forests but to sustainable forestry practices in general. We then further examine our hypothesis in relation to data that were collected during fieldwork by IFRI's Collaborative Research Centers (CRCs) in Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, andMexico between 1994 and2002. We include a set of attributes and characteristics from 34 settlements and 47 forest-user groups who have access to forest areas of variable size. These were selected to reflect the heterogeneity of the South American region in terms of rural communities' relationships with forests.A forest-user group is defined as the people who share the same rights and duties to products from the forest(s) (e.g., a group might be devoted to timber harvesting, gathering of medicinal plants or fruits, and hunting), even though they may or may not be formally organized. A settlement refers to a local jurisdiction inhabited by one or more forest-user groups. It could also be referred to as either a community or a rural village. There is not a one-to-one relationship between the number of settlements and forests, since a settlement can encompass more than one forest; therefore the number of forests can be larger than the settlements, as in this study.The Yuracaré are one of Bolivia's indigenous groups. In the past, the Yuracaré have been quite mobile within large territories, but during the 19 th century they settled within the Chapare River watershed. This territory is now home to 11 Yuracaré extended families, each composed of 11 to 20 nuclear families. According to the 2001 census, the population of the entire group was then 2358 people.During the last 20 years, Bolivian forestry regulations have created conditions under which indigenous groups can commercially exploit the forest. As a result, the Yuracaré have become motivated to organize local forestry associations for commercial timber exploitation, and they have adapted their social organization and forest management practices to the scope of the regulations. Like the other indigenous societies that live in Bolivia's lowlands, the Yuracaré traditionally rely on self-governing institutions to manage their natural resources.By 1992, the Yuracaré had created a forestry association and had received an annual permit from the national forestry agency (CDF, Centre for the Development of Forestry), authorizing a regulated timber harvest. Within the association, each Yuracaré negotiated the amount of timber to be harvested individually according to their own experience and needs. This practice reinforced each Yuracaré's knowledge of the territory as a whole, and did not compromise the ecological conditions of the forests. There were no technical rules for cutting trees in terms of size, rather the Yuracaré developed their own system of forest classification, and harvesting occurred in relation to maturity. The Yuracaré harvest rotated within their territory, not because of a lack of resources but owing to their perception of 'using without depleting'. Normative social behaviour was an important mechanism that controlled the relationship between forest use, harvest and ecological conditions, and this permitted the Yuracaré to secure both forest and societal sustainability over time.In 1996, new land regulations in Bolivia transferred ownership of nearly 20% of the country's lowlands (20 million ha) to about 30 indigenous groups in the form of common property. The Bolivian lowlands encompass roughly 70% of the country, and approximately 80% of Bolivian forests are found there. The territories of the indigenous groups were recognized along with rights of customary ownership of renewable resources and governance. In 2000, the Yuracaré were given title to 240 000 hectares.This new regulation launched a process that reinforced the Yuracaré forest management system within a timber production paradigm, but it also required greater regulatory detail such as the formulation of a Forest Management Plan for the collective management of the forests. Since timber production was traditionally an individual undertaking, the Yuracaré were now required to develop new institutions to deal with the opportunities of the new legislation. They began a process of learning through experiencing. The Yuracaré are currently facing some important challenges such as how to bring together collective and individual management, how to harmonize collective and technical decisions, and how to arrange joint forest management contracts with business enterprises without losing institutional capacity.Today, the Yuracaré control the entire Chapare River watershed, practising farming, hunting, fishing and gathering of forest resources, mainly within a context of household self-consumption. The population is strongly dependent on the forest as the main source of food for its survival. Activities include itinerant seasonal agriculture, hunting, fruit and seed collecting for food and medicine, and harvesting of both construction materials for dwellings and timber products for the marketplace. Part of their economy is based on forest products and is thus subject to internal and external market dynamics (Becker and Leon 2000).It is estimated that as much as 80% of Mexico's forests can be divided into two common property categories, 'ejidos' and indigenous community lands. The 'ejido' is a traditional management system for land and natural resources dating from precolonial times that establishes common property rights for small-scale landholders and individuals with usufruct. Each 'ejido' encompasses a number of landholder households. Both 'ejidos' and indigenous community lands are governed and used by those who have rights under customary rules, hence self-organization is known in this part of the world.The municipality of Capulálpam de Méndez (Capulálpam) is a Zapotec-speaking indigenous community in the State of Oaxaca, Mexico. Capulálpam is located in the Sierra Norte to the northeast of Oaxaca de Juarez. It has a complex topography: the municipality is composed of 315 families whose dwellings are dispersed across a sloping pine-oak forest landscape and surrounded by agricultural fields. Community inhabitants practise many long-standing Zapotec traditions.In the 1960s, a conflict arose between the indigenous community and the state government which had granted a large timber company a forest concession. Because the inhabitants of Capulálpam were not benefiting from this commercial arrangement, they organized a major protest, claiming rights to the forest concession. The campaign was successful and, in the 1980s, what has started as a protest movement became UZACHI, a Zapoteco-Chinanteca union that encompasses people from these indigenous Mexican societies, with duties to plan and monitor the management and use of the forests.Today, the community enjoys exclusive ownership rights to the forests. It has received a forest certificate from the Forest Stewardship Council and a government-approved Forest Management Plan guides its decision-making. According to this plan, the forest has been separated into management units so that intensive use is limited to specific areas of the forest for given periods of time. The forest management plan is supervised with the help of UZACHI technicians. However, the assembly of comuneros, composed of all the adult community members, determines most of the policies for the administration and use of the forest resources, as well as the administration of the communal sawmill.Income from timber sales is invested back into the community, mostly for improvement of the municipal infrastructure. The benefits of a communally operated forestry firm are local jobs and further contributions to the municipal budget. While income from commercial forestry is not sufficient to meet all of the basic infrastructure needs of the small municipality, it does represent a crucial source of income, and it has helped to stimulate thinking and action in local forest conservation.Honduras is a country where 80% of the land slopes on grades of more than 15%, substantially limiting the areas where agriculture can be practised. Nevertheless, Honduras is rich in forests, with approximately 50% of the country forested. Many of the people living in and around forests see communal forestry as a way to improve their livelihoods, and many of them are organizing themselves to take advantage of new legislation that has moved legal control of large forest tracts from national administrations to municipal governments. Honduras is an interesting example of government-supported institutional forestry reform and of local people trying to address forestry-related problems by forming cooperatives.There are more than 80 locally formed forest product cooperatives in Honduras, the majority of which work in the area of resin collection. Other cooperatives deal with timber, including a few that have evolved from manual milling to more sophisticated techniques. For example, in the country, the market control of resin has progressively been restricted to three firms, mostly because of the low prices that the large resincollecting companies can offer. This limits the opportunities for local producers who cannot compete with the large companies. To overcome these drawbacks, the cooperatives have amalgamated into federations in order to deal more effectively with common problems, with the objective of organizing transport to sell resin in neighbouring countries for better returns.Recently, local community leaders, managers from forest-related cooperatives, and officials from the Social Forestry division of the Honduran Forest Service met in the small community of Yamaranguila to discuss forestry issues. Some of the problems raised by community leaders at this meeting were the difficulties in finding resources to cover the costs of producing management plans (which must be done before timber is harvested) and the lack of land ownership that limits access to forests. The community leaders addressed the benefits of a potential new forestry law that would help clarify these issues.Forests currently managed by municipalities require that municipal mayors sign and forward petitions to the national government before local use can occur. Although mayors are locally elected, in many cases they are nominated by political parties whose headquarters are located in the Honduran capital Tegucigalpa, and they spend most of their time there. While some community leaders reported that their mayors were helpful in preparing and forwarding forest-use requests, others reported that their mayors were frequently absent and did not seem interested in advancing the paperwork required for local access to resources or for transport of lumber. The most helpful mayors were found in the indigenous Lenca municipalities where forest protection and environmental movements have been organized for more than 20 years. The bureaucratic paperwork would be eliminated if cooperatives were granted access to the forests as owners.Representatives of local cooperatives and government officials are now encouraging reform legislation with the objective of clarifying the norms that regulate local access to forests. The reform is also aimed at increasing local control over forest access, developing less costly management plans and promoting management of forest resources with the participation of local communities.The IFRI Research Programme is a multicountry programme that functions through an international network of Collaborative Research Centers (CRCs) in South America, Asia and Africa. IFRI carries out field research by gathering comparable data about the relationships between rural communities and their forest resources (IFRI 2002). Each CRC uses multidisciplinary teams and the same ten research protocols to collect data on the biophysical conditions of forests at designated sites, and on related socioeconomic, demographic, cultural and institutional variables. Techniques such as participatory rural appraisal, surveys and interviews with key informants are used both individually and during group meetings.The purpose of this section is to examine the role of local institutions in forest management. Because local forest users seldom take national forest legislation at face value, that is, they will not automatically obey rules without considering their effects on either their individual or collective interests, forest management by user groups and its effect on forest conditions depends to a large extent on how forest users organize themselves. The local rules or institutions for forest management determine the effectiveness of such organizational efforts by constraining or rewarding specific types of behaviour among usergroup members. Consequently, local institutions play a mediating role in forest governance. In this section of the chapter we will test the hypothesis that local efforts by forest-user groups to collectively organize forest harvesting, marketing, and monitoring are positively related to superior forest health.The analysis occurs in two parts. In the first part we propose conditions under which collective activities are expected to occur by looking at local variation in several attributes of the resource and of the forest users. Our purpose is to provide contextual background for the 34 sites that we consider in the analysis (Table 2, overleaf). The descriptive statistics that we present illustrate the variety of local conditions that exist in our sample. In the second part, we analyze relationships among the local institutions and existing forest conditions at selected sites. We carry out a simple cross-tab analysis to test whether there is a statistically significant association between strong local institutions and good forest conditions.Our analyses are based on attributes that were directly measurable through IFRI field research, such as property ownership type, degree of forest deterioration, predictability of forest products, size of forest, salience of forests, and the culture of cooperation among local users.Earlier research (Ostrom 1992b;Gibson et al. 2000) showed the importance of property rights in excluding outsiders from forest exploitation and thereby for providing incentives to forest stakeholders to make forest improvements. While South American forests have differences in ownership and/or rights regimes -and some governments have conferred significant control of forest lands to local communities during the last decade -most countries have retained ownership of large tracts of forest resources under national or local governmental control.Figure 1   held in common as property of the settlement or of a village group, with the remaining 8% held as private property belonging either to individuals or corporations. In trying to understand the conditions that would favour collective action, it seems reasonable to assert that those communities whose members hold forest rights in common would be more likely to develop institutions to manage the forests than would communities or individuals that use forests on government-owned lands. This is because the less secure the property rights are, the less certain are the prospects of recovering the resources that are managed or produced through collective activities.Forest deterioration is another variable that helps to explain the motivation of forestuser groups in managing their forests. In order to come up with a better appreciation of the ways that forests can deteriorate (or lose value), four IFRI forest attributes were selected: vegetation density, species diversity, commercial value and subsistence value.Based on evaluations by botanical experts, Figure 2 (overleaf) shows that the conditions of the case study forests vary a great deal among the samples, and that the values associated with forest conditions are more or less normally distributed. Most expert opinions fall into the 'about normal' category. The attributes of roughly one-fifth of all forests assessed were considered to be in poor condition (very sparse or somewhat sparse), and a slightly higher proportion were considered to be in good condition (somewhat abundant or very abundant).Expert botanists used rapid visual assessments to determine forest vegetation density and species diversity. The commercial and subsistence values of forest resources were analyzed using data on the principal forest products (whether used for subsistence or trade), collected according to IFRI's protocol. The following possibilities were offered to assessors for each variable: very sparse, somewhat sparse, about normal for this ecological zone, somewhat abundant, and very abundant.We expected to see better conditions, that is less deterioration, in forests managed by user communities with a higher level of institutional development. This is because communities that have developed ways to work together effectively will generally do a better job of controlling access to a resource, thereby reducing the adverse effects of competition. A forest in good condition can also be an important stimulant for continued institutional development. People who do not have access to a forest in good condition may not have enough at stake (= a cost-benefit assessment) to be motivated to selforganize and assume management responsibilities for the resource.The predictability of forest products, that is, their availability from season to season, is also important for the cost-benefit calculations that forest users undertake when making   3, and we note that more than half (53%) of forest products are perceived as not varying from season to season. Fifteen percent of products are viewed as having little or moderate temporal variation in availability, and products varying substantially and dramatically only reach 10% and 8% respectively. Fourteen percent of the forest products lack this data and are considered missing cases.Our expectation was that communities facing higher levels of uncertainty in forest product predictability would be less motivated to organize and establish the rules for collective actions required to manage a forest and its resources. Such uncertainties are more likely to discount the perceived net benefits to be gained from organizing.  The size of forests is one of the more influential contextual variables that motivates community self-organization in forest management. We found that 52% of the sampled forests were less than 500 hectares, 28% fell in the range of 501 to 3000 hectares, and 20% were more than 3000 hectares (Figure 4). Forests managed by forest-user groups are relatively small: 89% of the forests are less than 5000 hectares.Nevertheless, the effect of forest size on the development of community forest management is not a direct relationship. For example, those communities with access to larger forests can have difficulty in establishing regulatory bodies to limit access to outsiders, monitor extraction of products by outsiders, and monitor use of forest resources by members of the community entitled to them. Communities managing larger forests will also need more time and effort to develop institutions and to undertake actions that will result in better forest conditions. Furthermore, the capacity of a local user group to manage a larger forest will also be important. This can sometimes be evaluated by examining the ratio of forest size to the number of user-group members; there is usually an upper threshold of how much forest a given user group can effectively manage.When analyzing salience of forest products for the people using them, we first asked how many households in the forest-user groups depend significantly on the forest for their own subsistence, which, on average, was 63% of the people interviewed. Secondly, we asked how community members derived their basic income. Combined responses showed that 63% of the people interviewed in the settlements derive their basic livelihoods from subsistence farming, 9% from commercial farming, and 9% through waged labour.Those people in the 'other' category (18%) gained their income mainly from artisanship and animal husbandry (Figure 5, overleaf).Harvesting forest products was not ever given as the main source of income. As a result, we concluded that forestry activities are important for family subsistence but are a complementary source of income, secondary to income from agriculture and paid manual labour. Therefore, forest users' main source of livelihood is a combination of agriculture for both subsistence and cash income, with gathering of forest products and hunting game for subsistence. The impact of forest users on the forests is thus complex. On the one hand, there is a need to clear old-growth forests for agriculture but, on the other hand, there is also a need to conserve forests for subsistence products.Members of some communities will fail to create and enforce rules to counteract over harvesting, while others will succeed in creating and enforcing rules that constrain  resource-damaging individualistic behaviours and/or reward resource-enhancing behaviours that contribute to the collective good (Ostrom 1990). This success or failure is related to a community's culture of cooperation. Our assessment (Figure 6) focuses on rules in-use rather than rules in-form (e.g., national forest regulations). We partition the observed community responses into five categories ranging from 'rarely or never' cooperate to following the rules 'very frequently'. Our analysis was based on activities observed during the harvest of 146 forest products. For 36% of the forest products, user groups do not or rarely follow community-established rules in exploiting these resources, while for 55% of the forest products group members obey rules frequently or very frequently. The remaining 7% of the forest products fall in between these two extremes. There was significant variation in the culture of cooperation among user groups. In our sample, those who engaged in more cooperative interactions with group members would be more willing to continue this behaviour as trust is developed and cooperation pays off. Those forest users that do not obey rules are less likely to develop trust and engage in the reciprocal behaviour that will, in turn, affect institutional development. We thus expect that user groups enjoying higher levels of trust would also cooperate more effectively when it came to forestry activities.When we considered the combined average responses, we found that community forestry had developed under normal forest conditions in a variety of types of property regimes in relatively small forests where forests were important for subsistence, and where there was a greater culture of cooperation, and less so for commercial purposes, where there were no significant changes in the availability of products over time. We now address the issue of whether organizational efforts are associated with superior forest health.If institutions influence the variables listed in Box 1, we would expect to see better conditions in forests where user groups are engaged in more highly organized collective activities. Here we use observations made of 47 IFRI forest-user groups to evaluate the significance of the relationship between their collective forestry activities and forest health, using a Chi-square test of the association between dichotomized variables as explained below. We chose the Pearson Chi-square test because it is well-known, easily executable in cross-tabs, and easy to interpret. IFRI protocols query when and how often individuals in each user group interact, classifying the options as follows: year round, seasonally, occasionally and never. Among the categories of interaction specified in this ordinal variable, the most important for communal forestry management are cooperative harvesting, cooperative marketing, and cooperative monitoring/sanctioning. The frequency of interactions in such categories allows us to compute the degree of collective activity in the 47 forest-user groups. In order to simplify the analysis, we created two categories: 'high level of collective forest activities' and 'low level of collective forest activities'.If the groups interacted only occasionally or if they never interacted we assigned them a 'low' level of collective forest activity and, conversely, if the groups interacted seasonally or year-round, we assigned them a value of 'high' collective forest activity.We relied on the expert opinion of local foresters to assess forest health. At each site, we asked the expert to classify the forest according to an ordinal scale ranging from 1 (degraded) to 5 (very good). In order to simplify the analysis, we dichotomized this variable into 'good' vs. 'degraded' forest health, reducing the categories identified from five to just two (see Figure 2 and Table 3, overleaf). A forest is recorded as 'degraded' if forest conditions with regard to tree density and species diversity are described as very sparse or somewhat sparse, while a forest is categorized as 'good' if it is described as normal, somewhat abundant or very abundant.The results of a cross-tab analysis are presented in Table 3. The results indicate that stronger local institutions for harvesting and monitoring forest resources are associated with superior forest health. This positive association is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level (Chi-square = 9.476, Df = 1, P < 0.05 for collective harvesting, and Chi-square = 4.102, Df = 1, P < 0.05 for collective monitoring).Our results suggest further that the effects of local institutions are not the same for all aspects of forest management. For instance, we found no significant relationship between collective activities in marketing and superior forest health. Consequently, one cannot conclude that local institutions are sufficient to solve all kinds of collective problems. Another limitation of this analysis is that we cannot say what is enabling some user groups to organize their forest activities while others have not been able to do so. However, we do know that the sample includes a wide variety of local conditions, and it is not biased towards communities with a higher propensity for cooperation (Figure 6).Our results are consistent with earlier findings in the literature about the importance of institutions as mediating or mitigating factors in forest management. For example, Agrawal and Yadama (1997) argue that institutions can reduce demographic and socioeconomic pressures on the forests of the villages of the Kuman region in India. Varughese (1999) studied the role of institutions that mitigated the dynamics of population change and group size to find that in 18 cases from Nepal population growth rates were not correlated with variations in forestry conditions, but collective action was. These same authors also concluded that ethnic, social and economic heterogeneity did not have a determining effect on either the likelihood or success of collective forest management.The importance of institutions in various forest conditions was tested by Gibson et al. (2003) using more than 150 IFRI cases in 12 African, Asian and South American countries. They found consistency of rule enforcement to be more important than levels of cooperative forestry activities in explaining variations in the condition of community forest resources.Forests are being degraded throughout the world and foresters, rural developers and environmentalists are searching for ways to reverse this trend and achieve sustainability of the biophysical landscape, biodiversity and rural livelihoods. In South America, many national governments have now concluded that local governments, communities  Research carried out under the IFRI Research Programme provides a useful approach to studying community forestry institutions, as it draws on broad, reliable and comparable sets of time-series data from a large number of community-managed forests around the world. Another of the strengths of the programme is that it provides a systematic way of studying how people interact with forest resources, permitting the measurement of the impact that communities have on forests. Although in this study we used foresters' opinions to gauge forest conditions, we are currently working with a group of forest ecologists to develop methods that will allow IFRI scholars to compare forest conditions based on more objective and measurable forest data. We believe that collaboration between social and natural scientists is key to gaining a better understanding of the role of local institutions in efforts to improve forest governance. Interdisciplinary researchers concerned with human-ecological interactions have a great deal of challenging and exciting work ahead as they study the world's forests and their users.Nonwood forest products (NWFPs) are crucial resources for livelihoods in many parts of the world. This chapter addresses issues related to the potential of NWFPs for income generation at local, national and global levels. It looks at how the use of and trade in NWFPs affects the sustainability of different extraction regimes and livelihood strategies, with a focus on South America and especially Brazil. Challenges to define NWFPs and to monitor sustainability of their use are highlighted with recommendations for further research.Many terms are used to capture the wide range of forest-based plants and animals from which goods (other then timber or wood) and services are derived. The oldest terms are 'minor forest products', 'secondary forest products', 'naval stores' and 'forest byproducts'. By the 1970s, these terms were supplemented with 'nonwood forest products' and 'nontimber forest products'. Since the 1990s, new terms have emerged including 'special forest products', 'wild crafted products', 'biodiversity products', 'natural products', 'nonwood goods and benefits' and 'tree-crops'.Why have these terms emerged? Deforestation in the tropics accelerated in the early 1980s and timber exploitation practices began to be perceived as overly destructive. Gradually, more emphasis was given to the interests of forest-dependent people in developing countries and to the importance of forest products other than timber. The sustainable use of a broader range of forest plant and animal species was receiving more attention, particularly from nature conservation agencies as a way of mitigating deforestation, while at the same time increasing people's income. To some degree, the terms were coined in order to facilitate a shift in emphasis towards the livelihoods of forest-dependent peoples and to more 'environmentally friendly' uses of forests, with the objective of encouraging more balanced uses of forest resources and a reduction in forest degradation and deforestation (see Box 1, overleaf, for an extended explanation).While the emphasis on promoting NWFPs was at first placed on tropical forests and on developing countries, awareness is now growing of their similar importance in temperate and boreal forests of the developed countries.The acronym and term NWFP will be used throughout this text for reasons of consistency and clarity.NWFPs are of primary significance for subsistence and/or income at the household and village levels in rural forested areas. Forest-dependent people are generally those who rely most on NWFPs, but many more people are also seasonally dependent on them.Seasonal examples include livestock browsing in forests during the dry season and displaced people during times of famine, floods or war. NWFPs thus contribute to the diverse survival options of rural people by providing buffers against environmental and economic adversities. NWFPs are also important elements of cultural, religious, spiritual and recreational needs. As NWFP use is mainly informal, there is a huge lack of reliable data on their production and trade and on the number of people involved, which makes it hard to assess the effective contribution of NWFPs to rural livelihoods.Moreover, most of the literature dealing with NWFPs describes and analyzes specific products or issues within small areas used by well-defined groups of people over short periods of time. One example of such a study is provided by Zitzmann (1999), who undertook a comprehensive analysis of NWFP impact on local economic strategies in Botswana. In comparing NWFP extraction with other income-generating activities, it was found that income derived from selling Imbrasia belina caterpillars represented 13% of the household total cash income per year, with the associated labour input representing only 5.7% of all income-generating activities. The sale of Imbrasia belina was therefore of great importance to local livelihoods. Nevertheless, although interesting, these results describe a rather small case study that is hard to generalize. Further problems in generalizing case studies like this stem from difficulties in understanding how NWFP-based economic strategies have evolved over time, particularly in rural areas that are experiencing rapid economic change owing to increased road access, rural population exodus and land clearing for farming, forest logging or mining.Nevertheless, some recent NWFP studies have tried to develop larger comparative frameworks. The ongoing study carried out by the Centre for International Forestry Research -CIFOR (Belcher and Ruiz-Peres 2001;WFC NWFP side event 2003 [see Box 6]; Ruiz-Pérez et al. 2004) compares the importance of different NWFPs to local livelihoods over a larger sample of case studies from developing tropical countries. The study is creating an analytical framework in order to facilitate comparative analyses of different extraction regimes for different products within a range of developing countries. The framework is designed to help identify those parameters that are critical to our understanding of how NWFPs contribute to people's livelihoods over time and space.Thus, when analyzing NWFP-based livelihoods at the local level, it will always be preferable to review them over larger populations/areas and over longer time frames. This will be essential to assessing their long-term effects, related sustainability issues Box 1. 'Extrativismo', a Portuguese term for NWFP Since colonial times, the Portuguese have used the term 'extrativismo' to group all those products that were obtained from gathering and hunting activities in their vast forest reserves in Brazil. These products include animal furs, fruits, nuts, latexes, medicines, timber, fuelwood, charcoal and natural dyes like the red dye extracted from the wood of Caesalpinia echinata. This dye was removed by heating the wood over a glowing brazier of charcoal, called a 'brasa' in Portuguese, which gave its name to the tree 'pau Brazil' and, subsequently, to the country.Today, the term 'extrativismo' is still used in the Amazon and by the national Brazilian Statistical Agency (IBGE) to classify the 'produção da extração vegetal', that is, the quantities and values of wood and nonwood products obtained from the exploitation of native forests (IBGE 2003, see web link: http://www1.ibge.gov. br). For wood and nonwood products obtained from planted forests, mostly using non-indigenous or exotic species, IBGE employs the term 'produção da silvicultura' that includes NWFPs like pine resins, eucalyptus leaves or bark from black wattle (Acacia mearnsii). Thus, by linguistically separating products gathered in natural forests from those from plantations, the IBGE statistics highlight the origin of their production. and market trends, and especially when comparing NWFP gathering with other income-generating activities in rural areas such as farming, fishing, tourism, mining or industry.Although the importance of NWFPs at the local level is becoming better documented, synthetic information at country levels is rather scarce. While dispersed information from local-level use of NWFPs now forms the basis of most associated policy creation and decision-making in rural development programmes of governments and international agencies, NWFP information remains inadequately incorporated into macro-economic indicators.For example, while some species furnish substantial amounts of raw material for industrial processing at national levels, such as pine resins in China, cork in Portugal, Arabic gum in Sudan, rattan in the Philippines, bamboo in Indonesia, and medicinal plants in India, only a few countries systematically monitor production and trade of their most important NWFPs. Reliable data on NWFP sources and the amount of labour involved in extraction and transformation are also often lacking. When these data do exist, they are often mixed with agricultural production information and/or are limited to internationally traded products.Many reasons can be advanced to explain why reliable data on NWFPs are difficult to obtain. Among these is the fact that many (sometimes scores of) products are involved, with these usually being gathered by large numbers of small-scale producers and scattered over large (and often remote) areas. In addition, the relatively low values of NWFP production when compared to those from agricultural crops or wood products is a serious disincentive to creating and maintaining quality NWFP data-acquisition programmes. Technical difficulties and the high cost of surveying and assessing the acquisition and transformation of NWFPs make it difficult for most countries to obtain reliable data on them.All these factors combine to make it difficult to assess the reliability of NWFP data when they exist, to monitor trends in production over time, and to compare statistics across countries. Even determining the economic value of NWFPs can be difficult when prices are reported at different stages of production and processing.An example of the national production levels and values of major NWFPs can be found in the Annual Statistical Yearbooks of Brazil, produced by IBGE (Tables 1 and 2, on pp. 54 and 55).In countries where reasonably reliable statistics are available, like these from Brazil, the economic contribution of NWFPs is usually found to be much lower than that derived from wood production. The total production value of Brazilian NWFPs for 2001 amounted to R$445 451 000, while wood-related forest production amounted to R$3 726 358 000. Using an average exchange rate in 2001 of US$1.00 = R$2.30, the value of Brazilian NWFPs was approximately US$193 million and the value of log production was approximately US$1620 million. In comparing the reported values of wood and NWFP outputs, we see then that NWFPs represent about 10.6% of total forestry production with logs accounting for about 89.3%.Looking at trends over time, Brazil provides a remarkable example of a significant decline in NWFP production over the last 30 years (Table 3, on p. 55), despite the efforts of governmental and nongovernmental nature conservation agencies to promote NWFP extraction and commercialization. Over the same period, wood production in Brazil increased substantially.The causes suggested for this decline in Brazilian NWFP production include: (i) deforestation; (ii) migration of rural people to urban areas, resulting in fewer people collecting NWFPs; (iii) low prices for NWFPs; and (iv) reduced markets for some products as alternative cheaper sources or surrogates became available (e.g., the supply of natural latex now largely comes from industrial plantations of Hevea brasiliensis outside the Amazon region).Nevertheless, Brazilian NWFP production trends reported by IBGE over the last three decades should not be used as an example of a worldwide trend, but should serve as a    In Amazonia, the best-known edible products are Brazil nuts and palm hearts. Both can be found in domestic, regional and international markets. Brazil nuts are still collected almost exclusively from wild sources of Bertholletia excelsa in Bolivia, Brazil and Peru.Palm heart production is more widespread, occurring mainly in tropical areas of Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Peru. Palm hearts are extracted from wild stands of Euterpe oleracea and E. precatoria or from cultivated species like Bactris gasipaes. The fruits of these palm species also play important roles in food and drink in the Amazon region. For edible seed and industrial oil production, other important palm species for both subsistence and commerce are Orbignya phalerata, Mauritia flexuosa and Jessenia bataua.The tree species Platonia insignis, Myrciaria dubia, Theobroma grandiflorum and Couepia longipendula also produce edible fruits or nuts of local importance. The seeds of Araucaria angustifolia in Argentina and southern Brazil and of Araucaria araucana in Argentina and Chile are commonly consumed by people and fed to livestock.In Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and southern Brazil, the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis are used to brew maté, an extremely popular tea-like beverage. Though wild in native forests of the Alto Paraná region, the Alto Uruguay region and northeastern Argentina, it is now cultivated on a large scale in plantations, especially in Argentina and Brazil. Latex extracted from the native Amazonian Hevea brasiliensis is used for the production of natural rubber. Other important exudates from tropical South America are jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril), maçaranduba (Manilkara huberi), sorva (Couma spp.), balata (Manilkara bidentata) and balsamo (Myroxylon balsamum). Copaiba (Copaifera spp.) and dragon's blood (Croton draconoides) are used in local medicine.South America has a long tradition of medicinal plant use. One of the great legacies of the South American people is the bark derived from Cinchona species, the source of the antimalarial drug quinine. World production of quinine bark is approximately 8000-10 000 tonnes per year. Brazil, Bolivia and Colombia are important producers of quinine in South America.Peru is the world's largest producer of fruits from the tara tree (Caesalpinia spinosa) for the extraction of tannins. Production is mainly from natural stands, but some trees are harvested from agroforestry systems. Caesalpinia forests are most extensive in Peru, followed by Bolivia and to a lesser extent Chile, Ecuador and Colombia. Quebracho colorado (Schinopsis spp.) is another source of tannin in Argentina and Paraguay.Examples of other uses of NWFPs include the extraction of fibres from the following species: the palms Carludovica palmata in Panama and Ecuador, Attalea funifera and Leopoldina piassaba in Brazil. L. piassaba is harvested on a smaller scale in Venezuela and Colombia for uses ranging from hats to brooms.The bamboos Guadua angustifolia and Chusquea spp. are widely employed in construction, furniture and handicrafts in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.Source: Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FAO 2001a).warning that expectations should not be raised too high with regard to significant and continuous contributions of NWFPs to the national income of many countries. This partly explains the low interest levels of policy-makers in several countries in creating incentives for developing the NWFP sector or to support programmes for NWFP data collection. Box 2 (opposite) has more information on South American NWFPs.NWFPs have recently attracted the attention of international development agencies and conservation-oriented nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) because of the environmental services and social benefits that they may provide. This has raised expectations among a wide range of nature conservation and forest management agencies that NWFPs and their commercialization could lead to forms of 'benign' forest utilization, possibly even creating incentives for forest conservation. Conservation organizations have been prominent among these advocates for the exploitation of NWFPs because they see them as a potential way of supporting local and regional sustainable development while simultaneously promoting forest conservation.Some NWFPs are export commodities and are significant in international trade. Most of these products are exported in raw or semiprocessed states. Examples are rattan, bamboo, cork, forest nuts (see Box 3, on p. 59) and mushrooms, gum Arabic, essential oils and medicinal plants (Table 4,overleaf).Table 4 lists 28 commodities covering a range of major NWFPs traded at the international level and for which specific HS codes exist. The Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System, generally referred to as the 'Harmonized System' or simply 'HS', is a multipurpose international product nomenclature developed by the World Customs Organization (WCO), headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. It comprises about 5 000 commodity groups, each identified by a six digit code, and arranged in a legal and logical structure that is supported by well-defined rules to achieve uniform classification. The system is used by more than 190 countries as a basis for their customs tariffs and for the collection of international trade statistics. More than 98% of the merchandise in international trade is classified in terms of the HS (http://www.wcoomd.org). The trends in trade for the Table 4 NWFPs between 1992 and 2002 suggest only a modest increase in total absolute trade value, while total value of world trade increased 2.5 times over the same period. It is interesting to note that many of the products with substantial increases in trade value between 1992 and 2002, such as natural cork, mosses and lichens for bouquets, truffles, mushrooms, chestnuts, bamboo, palm hearts and maple syrup, originate primarily in developed countries.The impact of international trade in NWFPs on poverty alleviation needs further study. Once trade goes beyond local and regional markets, it becomes more sophisticated in the sense that it requires capital investment and a wider range of skills that are usually not available to rural producers in developing countries. If the product is to be traded internationally, a number of import-export operations must occur and be paid for. These include fulfilling export and import requirements such as respecting quality standards and phytosanitary regulations, payment of permits and taxes, and storage, processing and transport involving an array of agents and distributors. All this must occur before a more highly processed and sometimes completely transformed product can be sold by retailers to consumers. Appreciation of and access to such systems can be intimidating if not impossible for producers of NWFPs. Indeed, access to international markets will almost always require a substantial level of organization from producers in order to ensure that they do not become marginalized in the process. This is particularly true for products from developing countries, and this seems to be reflected by the stagnating or declining trade values of many NWFPs as seen in Table 4.Nevertheless, at the international level, consumers are increasingly concerned that trade is 'fair' to all involved. This can mean promoting conditions or practices that safeguard the interests of less-powerful partners, typically producers, in trade chains, or working to increase their ability to exert power by promoting producer associations and networks. 'Fair trade', a common term applied to those schemes favouring more social  Bolivia and Brazil dominate world production and export of Brazil nuts (Table 5). The United States of America is the world's largest importer with a market share of 33%, followed by the United Kingdom (19%), Germany (9%) and the Netherlands (6%). Demand and price movements for Brazil nuts tend to be seasonal, with unshelled demand particularly high during the Christmas period. However, demand can vary because Brazil nuts are easily replaced by comparable nuts such as almonds, cashews, macadamias or hazelnuts. The principal forces influencing harvest levels in Amazonia are price and demand fluctuations of comparable nuts in international markets. As a result, annual production of Brazil nuts fluctuates substantially. For example, Brazil produced a record level of 104 487 tonnes in 1970 while in 1998 it produced only 23 111 tonnes (Table 3). During the same period, cashews, almonds, macadamias, pecans, hazelnuts and walnuts saw their production quantities and trade values significantly increase.The Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) or 'Castanheira' in Portuguese is one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest. While also providing good timber, the tree has nuts that are gathered in forests by local people who sell them to traders for further processing in urban centres. Nearly all Brazil nut production comes from wild sources, and the majority of this is for export. Total annual world exports fluctuate between 30 000 and 50 000 tonnes, with values ranging from US$39.6 million up to 78.5 million (Table 6).  While the certification of agricultural and wood products is well advanced with several schemes firmly in place (Box 5, on p. 62), the development of technical criteria and standards for certification of NWFPs is still in its infancy. Furthermore, certification schemes are usually set up to regulate international markets, while NWFPs are still traded mostly at local and regional levels. Although the market share of organic, fair-traded, or otherwise certified products is increasing, the contribution of NWFPs is still very limited. For instance, in consulting trade data on organic agricultural products in 34 countries worldwide gathered by Stiftung Ökologie and Landbau, Germany (2003), no reference to NWFPs was found (http://www.soel.de/publikationen/oel/oel_inhalt2003.html).Increased globalization of trade favours the cheapest suppliers, whatever their location, and this can have a devastating effect on the emerging activities of small-scale NWFP producers. Furthermore, international trade usually requires a large continuous product supply, which may not be achievable by NWFP producers unless they can somehow expand their production beyond natural forests. Moreover, many species that are of economic interest to producers of NWFPs have limited geographic distributions, often occurring in one or a few countries only, while their markets are global.The foremost issue in the successful and sustainable development of NWFPs for commercial use is resource availability. Subsistence use of NWFPs will in most cases not result in serious resource management challenges nor in resource depletion, apart from exceptional cases that can occur during droughts, floods or war. It is the commercial exploitation of NWFPs that leads to supply constraints, and this usually occurs in the context of free access systems where the resource is harvested in uncontrolled and unlimited quantities.Forest species that yield NWFPs usually occur in low frequencies, especially in tropical forests, and these species are unlikely to become important suppliers of commercially large quantities, as they can be quickly overharvested. On the other hand, some NWFP species are common, like açaí palms (Euterpe spp.) in the Varzea forests of the lower Amazon River, or the pines that occur in South American coniferous forests and produce resins. Mushrooms and caterpillars can sometimes be very common under favourable climatic conditions. Resource constraints are not a major limiting factor for trade in cases like these.Basic information about NWFPs, for example about their biology and population dynamics, or the socioeconomic context of their use, including access and user rights, is often unknown or largely ignored when commercial exploitation of an NWFP is promoted. Actions that address the supply of NWFPs for trade consist mainly of regulating access to the resource, enhancing the resource productivity through forest management, offering economic incentives or a combination of all three.Whether official or informal, regulating the socioeconomic context of NWFP exploitation is usually the first and easiest step taken when supply constraints appear. Key stakeholders in the market chain, whether producers, traders, consumers or governments, have decisive roles to play. Traders can influence the output of raw materials by increasing prices paid to producers. Through licences or gathering permits, governments can create legal frameworks that regulate access to public forests and monitor harvests. Consumers influence trade by their preferences for products or processes (e.g., organic products or fair trade), while producers can expand or improve their gathering intensity or change their production systems.In developing countries, 'fair trade' or forest certification and organic labelling schemes are becoming options to help protect the commercial viability of NWFP-based businesses against competition from similar products obtained through farming or synthetic substitutes. 'Proper' forest management certification schemes, along with schemes that certify 'appropriate' behaviours and procedures in agriculture (e.g., 'proper' labour practices, organic farming, fair trade), offer promising frameworks for successful commercialization of certified NWFPs. Such schemes can help guarantee better prices to gatherers, social equity within the processing and marketing chains, and ensure that attention is given to the environmental sustainability of the resources providing NWFPs. Fair trade markets and organic products offer major advantages to NWFP producers because of the smaller quantities needed to supply international trade (when compared to agriculture-based production), and because premium prices can be offered to producers.In addition, fair trade food markets and foods labelled organic are among the fastest-growing market sectors in the food distribution sector. Several NWFPs ideally fit such niche approaches, particularly those that have a high per-unit value, a long shelf life, and are easy to process, store and handle. Good examples are essential oils, honey, bamboo, herbs and nuts.Several types of certification schemes already exist, covering a range of products in agriculture, fishing and forestry, but NWFPs are only marginally involved in these schemes. Some major challenges to increasing certification of NWFPs include:• Dispersed nature of production: Monitoring the NWFP production of many small-scale producers dispersed over large areas is a problem. Difficulties arise in ensuring that products come from certified sites. This can result in higher monitoring costs that may be prohibitive for small-scale producers of NWFPs.• Definition of sustainable harvest levels: Appropriate methodologies and standards to define or verify sustainable harvest levels and practices for many NWFPs are still under development.• Resource user conflicts: Restricting access to certified harvest sites for NWFPs can create conflicts within and among forest-user groups.• Unclear market potential: Actual market demand for certified NWFPs is the driving force behind many certification initiatives and is key to ensuring the economic viability of NWFP production schemes. However, for many NWFPs it is not yet clear that customers will pay premium prices for products certified as fair trade or organic.• Insufficient product definition and classification: Most NWFPs are not yet included in international classification or standardization systems (e.g., the Harmonized System, Standard International Trade Classification, Codex Alimentarius), and this slows their marketability in international trade.• Insufficient collaboration/compatibility among existing certification schemes:The proliferation of certified products is creating confusion among consumers.• The limited potential for mainstream benefits of certification schemes to cover all producers in the sector: For example, the present market share of certified Brazil nuts is only a fraction of the total world production, so the number of Brazil nut gatherers that may benefit from a certification scheme is limited by the market share of the certified product.• 'Nontariff' trade barriers: In the areas of food and herbal/medicinal products, trade barriers can generate obstacles for certification efforts. For example, in 2003 the European Union declared a full ban on the import of Brazil nuts from Brazil because of high levels of aflatoxins. Although production from certified places of origin may have acceptable levels of aflatoxins, the certified products are equally affected by the ban.The example of fluctuating annual production of Brazil nuts (Box 3) illustrates that the supply of traded NWFPs for this species and for many others depends directly on the prices offered to gatherers. Prices tend to be cyclical, as they depend more on economic, social or climatic factors outside the producers' region or on the price fluctuations of their competing substitute(s). When higher prices are offered, producers will intensify or expand their gathering efforts over larger areas as appropriate to their means. When prices are down, they may even forsake gathering, as it may not compensate their time investment vis-à-vis other income-earning options. Export bans can also negatively affect prices paid to producers. A good example is the export ban that was placed on raw rattan cane in Indonesia in 1979. This resulted in a price decline for raw cane paid to producers and a fall in raw cane production. The export ban was abolished in 1999 and this liberated prices, and a sharp increase in cane production and exports followed (Purnama et al. 1998;Sastry 2001).Examples like these, whether for Brazil nuts and açaí in the Amazon, gum Arabic and shea nuts in the Sahel, or rattan in Indonesia and Malaysia, are similar in that the quantities extracted from forests for trade represent only a fraction of what is still potentially available for harvest. In such cases, price fluctuations will affect the supply much more than forestuse regulations or resource management initiatives, though this is true only in regions still rich in the forest or tree resources that provide NWFPs and when market demands are still relatively modest.However, the margin for increasing prices to producers is limited, as expanding extraction efforts over larger areas quickly become too expensive and time-consuming for the gatherers. Higher prices for raw NWFP materials make them less competitive in the market than their substitutes. Producers of NWFPs sell their production to intermediate traders who are the key partners in the market chain from producer to consumer, and whose decisions critically affect the NWFP trade. From the trader's point of view, when their NWFP profit margins decline, they may shift their investments to other products with better margins.Higher prices for gatherers will also lead to intensified collecting (harvesting more per unit area) and to an expansion in the areas for gathering (harvesting from a larger area).Traded NWFPs can be certified according to different objectives; the most important are: 1. Improvement in social equity. This occurs through social certification such as fair and ethical trade. Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International is an example; 2. Environmental concerns. These are addressed through forest-related certification schemes guaranteeing that the products are obtained from sustainably managed forests. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Pan European Forest Certification (PEFC) are examples; 3. Product quality certification, particularly for food products, and for which trade is governed by national, regional and international food control agencies. At the international level, trade in food products occurs according to international standards and specifications provided by agencies like the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Codex Alimentarius (FAO-World Health Organization [WHO]), and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). For medicinal plants, Good Harvesting Practices for medicinal plants (WHO) is an example; 4. Organic certification. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM) is an example; 5. 'Certificate of Origin' schemes. These are widely used to certify that a product originates from a given region that may have high prestige among consumers.Examples are wine, honey, mushrooms and berries.However, when the accessible forest area is limited, this can lead to stiff competition and conflicts among harvesters and other forest users (e.g., gatherers of wild mushrooms).When market demands for NWFPs increase, or the area of accessible forests declines, harvesters, local communities or governments can install informal or formal frameworks that regulate access to their forests and monitor NWFP harvests. This can occur through licences or gathering permits with the objective being to protect both gatherers' income and the resource supply. Governments can play a key role here, as in many countries they are the largest forest owners. Governments also have a social obligation to ensure equitable distribution of benefits among all forest-user groups, but with a particular attention to assist weaker groups of society such as indigenous forest-dependent communities, who usually gather NWFPs. However, the commercial success of an NWFP at a global scale has the potential to result in such high demand that supply cannot be assured from forest-based production and by forest dependent people alone. Some examples where industrial scale production has developed to meet demand are macadamia nuts in Australia, Hawaii (USA) and South Africa, wild rice in California (USA), and bamboo shoots in China.High levels of demand for some NWFPs traded internationally will thus require intensification of production to increase the quantity and the quality of the product. A stable and/or growing demand with fair prices offered to producers gives strong incentives to private investors at all levels to increase or improve production through more intense management of the resource, whether this occurs through silviculture, cultivation in farms, or intermediate agroforestry schemes.From a forester's viewpoint, increasing the resource supply of a species can be done by adjusting silvicultural interventions in the forest in order to promote more growth space for the selected species, or by implementing forest management regulations that limit access or user rights and specify stakeholder responsibilities. However, forest management regulations and silvicultural systems have their technical, economic and social limits. This is particularly true in those cases and forests where several user groups have conflicting user claims, like for timber, livestock grazing, gathering NWFPs or fuelwood, hunting, or ecotourism. For example, there are often significant value differences among NWFPs, fuelwood and timber for many tree species, and this can lead to conflicts, especially when the benefits from timber and NWFPs go to different forest-user groups. Entandophragma utile (sapelli -caterpillars), Baillonella toxisperma (moabi -fruits), Pterocarpus soyauxii (padouk -resin), Carapa guianensis (andiroba -nuts) and Milicia excelsa (iroko -bark), to give but a few examples, have both high timber value in overseas markets and high value to the native people who gather NWFPs from them.Farming NWFP species is ultimately the most viable option to address resource supply constraints when trade demands occur. Domestication of animals and plants began some 10 000 to 12 000 years ago (in the Near East) and this process is still continuing all over the world, particularly in the tropical regions. Several examples of 'new' crops recently introduced from Amazonian species are star fruit (Averrhoa carambola), cupuacu (Theobroma grandiflora), guarana (Paullinia cupana), acerola (Malphigia glabra), and pupunha (Bactris gasipaes). Animals like the paca (Agouti paca) and iguana (Iguana iguana) have recently been domesticated in South America.Moreover, intensified management or farming can also result in better-quality products, more control over the timing and quantity of production, and higher efficiencies in producers' time and resource inputs, while reducing production costs. 'Farming' an NWFP species can also significantly diversify areas of production compared to the limited occurrences of the same species in its natural habitat. For example, the expansion of walnut trees into many countries, including several in the southern hemisphere, now allows for production during the northern hemisphere winter, making fresh nuts available at world markets almost year-round. Such agricultural expansion spreads the production risks over more producers over a much wider geographical range characterized by many different climatic conditions. If demand levels and prices remain stable over time, rewards for intensifying management will increase. Moreover, having a product available in large and guaranteed quantities from many suppliers worldwide can significantly increase its trade potential.The process from gathering to domestication is dynamic and complex. It does not always occur in a linear progression in time and space and, indeed, gathering and farming of the same NWFP species can occur at the same time; the species that may be gathered by forest-dependent peoples from the wild in one country may be in production by farmers elsewhere. A good example is the sapota fruit (Pouteria sapota) that is still gathered in the Amazon for subsistence and local markets, while at the same time it is being cultivated in California (see the California Rare Fruit Growers at http://www.crfg.org and also the Alternative Field Crop Manual, Purdue University: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm). This can also occur in close geographical proximity, like for industrial plantation rubber and 'jungle rubber' in Indonesia. Introduced crop species may also become invasive in some regions and become a resource for gathering NWFPs in those regions. Examples are Prosopis spp. in Africa and Opuntia spp. in the Mediterranean, where both are now important for fodder. In contrast, there are instances when a crop falls from favour, farmers stop producing it, and the species reverts to its wild status. One example is the common medlar tree (Mespilus germanicus). Originally from the Balkans, it was spread all over Europe where, until the late Middle Ages, it was a popular cultivated fruit tree. In Europe, it is now a 'forgotten' crop, but trees can still be found growing 'wild' in forests.Nevertheless, domestication and farming NWFP species are not always technically possible, economically feasible or socially and environmentally acceptable; it works well for some species but not for others, like some highly valued mushrooms, mosses or lichens that we do not yet know how to cultivate. Some farmed products may also be qualitatively inferior when compared to wild-gathered products, like those from some medicinal plants. And the economic feasibility of farming NWFPs will be limited so long as the naturally occurring species are widely available and can be obtained at lower prices, e.g., Brazil nuts in the Amazon.The socioeconomic dimension of domestication is also an important factor. Forestdependent peoples or socially disadvantaged groups who depend on NWFPs for subsistence and monetary income may not have access to farm land or be able to compete with large-scale production on well-established farms.Farming NWFPs has important environmental implications in the sense that it can reduce incentives to conserve the ecosystems in which the NWFP species grow naturally. On the other hand, conserving forest biodiversity is a priority because many crops still have wild relatives growing in forests and these wild relatives are a valuable source of genes for plant breeders searching for disease resistant or more productive varieties of crops and domesticated animals.Gathering NWFPs in forests is felt by some environmental conservation organizations to be more compatible with biodiversity conservation than timber extraction. In reality, this premise depends very much on the type of product and on the way it is harvested. Low density NWFP extraction from natural forests, as occurs for some fruits, leaves or nuts, can have minimal impact on local biodiversity at landscape and species levels. But as harvesting intensity increases and techniques become more destructive, such as killing individual plants to harvest their products, the exploitation of NWFPs can become as harmful to the long-term survival of a species and its related ecosystem as timber extraction. Intensively managed NWFP production systems can even completely displace natural vegetation, like in the case of bamboo shoot production in China.The long-term effects of promoting commercialization of NWFPs for poverty alleviation and forest biodiversity conservation need further study (see Box 6). If the promoted NWFPs become more successful in international trade, demand will increase and, in the long run, their supply will increasingly come from farming, and this will benefit the farmers more than the gatherers and may even result in forest clearing to grow the NWFPs. Moreover, for some domesticated NWFPs, like nut and fruit species, their products will often be larger and of better quality, and they can be supplied with more regularity. In combination, these 'domesticated' attributes of NWFPs can result in their 'forest cousins' completely losing their marketability.The discussions at the World Forestry Congress (WFC; Box 6) highlighted the need for a multidisciplinary partnership approach for the development of successful livelihood strategies based on the use of NWFPs. Establishing public-private sector partnerships, including those with stakeholders from outside the forestry sector, such as in agriculture, education, industry, trade, tourism and healthcare, were described as essential first steps.Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, NWFPs have increasingly been described as a category of plants and animals with potential to generate income for forestdwelling people while, at the same time, the associated forests could be included in biodiversity conservation programmes. For example, issues related to the sustainable development of NWFPs were topics of discussion at the World Forestry Congress (WFC) side event Strengthening global partnerships to advance sustainable development of nonwood forest products held in Quebec, Canada on 20 September 2003 (http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/discussion). This full-day event was co-organized by the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO, Group 5.11 Nonwood Forest Products), the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), and the Nonwood Forest Products Programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The meeting identified and prioritized emerging issues for the development of the NWFP sector, drew the attention of the WFC and forest resource decision-makers to key NWFP research needs and policy recommendations for the years ahead, and underlined the relevance of partnership-building among agencies toward creating a sustainable NWFP sector. The recommendations made at the meeting were complemented by discussion summaries and documents on the themes Commercialization: A reality check; Linking NWFP management with livelihood development; and Institutional and policy dimensions. These texts are available online at http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu.The meeting presented a wide range of cases of forest management for NWFPs. Some studies showed how NWFP collection significantly improved the livelihoods of forest dwellers without compromising forest biodiversity, while other cases revealed only a modest potential for income generation with high risks of extinction of the harvested species. In some cases it seemed particularly difficult even to make an assessment of the impact of NWFP use on sound forest management and/or on the livelihoods of local communities. This was partly due to the methodological difficulties encountered in carrying out biometric inventories and economic assessments, and to the lack of a consistent terminology to define terms, products and processes related to biodiversity, sustainability or social equity that would allow full comparability of datasets and case studies. Most of the cases reviewed at the meeting showed NWFPs to be supplementing revenue from timber rather than replacing it.NWFPs that are supplied from 'farmed' origins are not covered in this section, as the sustainability of their production is no longer a significant issue. In contrast, for those wild NWFPs that are still gathered from forests, major challenges remain in defining sustainable use levels and in developing appropriate management and harvesting methodologies.Accurate information is needed on the growth and regenerative capacity of those species providing NWFPs (FAO 2001b). Although there is often considerable indigenous knowledge on NWFP species, it is usually geared towards subsistence uses and, as such, it is less applicable to the modern management and marketing needed to sustain production levels for trade. Moreover, it is important to recognize that not all traditional knowledge is biologically accurate. The notion that because it is traditional it must be good needs to be reconciled with scientific data, although scientific knowledge about many NWFPs is poor. Indeed, little scientific effort has been expended to date on sustainable NWFP yields. In fact, very few species providing NWFPs have as yet benefited from targeted research efforts, and basic information about their ecology, growth rates, silviculture, or responses to harvesting is often lacking entirely.Key biological, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of NWFPs which cause major challenges for their sustainable management are listed below.• Plants and animals that are known resource species for NWFPs are extremely diverse (trees, shrubs, animals, mushrooms, lichens, caterpillars, birds…).• Many of these species (mushrooms, insects, lianas…) have complex life cycles and population dynamics.• Different parts from the same plant or animal can be used, with each part requiring different harvesting techniques that ideally should not affect the plant's vigour or reproductive capacity (e.g., trees providing fuelwood, fodder, bark fibres, fruits….).• Harvesting techniques and intensities depend on the types of product extracted (exudates, leaves, flowers, shoots, fruits and nuts, removal of whole plant…) and on the biology of the species.• The seasonality of many NWFP species can cause difficulties in detecting them, for example, mushrooms, insects or small animals.• Many NWFP species have a limited geographical distribution, therefore the products are only of local importance.• Little to no socioeconomic data are available that quantify the importance of the NWFP to support forest policy and decision-making.• Many NWFPs are produced in small quantities, generating modest incomes. They may thus be of low priority for professional resource managers or investors.• Some NWFPs are gathered and used by a range of forest-user groups, often with conflicting interests and needs.• Many scale differences exist for assessing forest resources, from relatively simple tree inventories to very costly and complex biodiversity assessments which may discourage forest resource managers from including NWFPs in their forest management plans. Time, money and the trained personnel to carry out NWFP assessments are limited.• Many scientific disciplines, development agencies and conservation organizations include NWFPs (or NWFP-related issues) in their applied research, development or conservation agendas, often with little coordination.• There is a broad range of different cultural perceptions governing the use of NWFPs around the world, particularly for their use as foods (eating insects, for example).Priorities for the development of NWFP production are grouped here into four clusters: 1. Improve the technology for managing NWFP resources in forests. Low-cost technology solutions for inventorying resources, developing sustainable harvesting techniques, defining harvest levels, and modifying silvicultural regimes to simultaneously obtain timber, forest services and NWFPs need to be devised. Most NWFPs are still harvested from natural systems, so in situ sources still dominate NWFP supplies. Existing silvicultural treatments in forests still emphasize timber production, and little attention has thus far been given to the silvicultural needs of NWFP species. 2. Better integrate ex situ and in situ production of NWFPs. How, where and when domestication becomes appropriate as a complementary or substitute strategy for producing NWFPs is a thorny issue. Another is whether domestication, if and when it occurs, will improve the livelihoods of forest dwellers. Producing NWFPs through agriculture (ex situ or on-farm production) is a growing solution being driven by market demand, but gatherers are not necessarily the beneficiaries. While domestication may be a valid response to supply shortages, substantial research is still needed to solve the technical issues in both domesticating NWFP species and in identifying the circumstances under which domestication programmes can lead to successful outcomes for forest dwellers.world. How can forest management become more socially equitable, particularly for the rural communities that depend more on the nonwood resources of the forests? Other challenges are how to reconcile the objectives of different forest-user groups of timber and nonwood resources, how to manage user conflicts and how to have the intellectual property or other rights of NWFP producers adequately recognized and compensated by global trade. For instance, the shift from subsistence use to global commerce for some NWFPs is built directly on indigenous knowledge of these products and their longstanding traditional use. Local communities must benefit from their often very active role in conserving forest resources and from any contributions they make to the development of commercially interesting products. What is the impact of growing trade globalization on NWFP producers? How can entrepreneurship and the development of small enterprises be encouraged in forest communities still operating within village-or local-market contexts?The roles and impact of non-tariff, trade-related instruments such as certification schemes and best practice codes needs further clarification. The methods currently in place to assess the socioeconomic importance of the NWFP sector at international, national and local levels must be improved in order to address the issues mentioned above.arrangements to harvest, use and trade NWFPs may in some cases be wellestablished, in general there are few formal institutional arrangements in place to monitor and regulate the flow of NWFPs from producers to consumers. Formal institutional arrangements based on coordinated multi-agency approaches are needed to address the management and conservation of NWFPs. This is because in many countries forestry, agriculture, environment and/or health ministries deal with different aspects of NWFPs. For example, socioeconomic issues of NWFP production might be covered by ministries or agencies ranging from trade, industry, education, or research. Ministries that are concerned with social issues, such as regulating access to forests, may also deal with land reform or rural development issues, and include NWFPs. This fragmentation of competencies can result in poor management owing to poor communication and poorly coordinated action. Thus, communication among institutions within countries, and synergies among international partners, must be substantially improved. Policies generated outside forestry sectors may be as important as NWFP policy within the forestry sectors, and these must be included in the development of institutional arrangements governing NWFPs.NWFPs are significant at the local level mainly for subsistence and, when traded, for villagelevel markets. Their commercial importance at national and international levels is difficult to assess, but is undervalued by the present reporting schemes. The terminology related to NWFPs is ambiguous, and it includes a wide range of terms with different content and scope that makes reporting and information exchange difficult.The contribution of NWFPs to poverty alleviation needs further investigation. Trade at national and international levels requires large capital investment and social organization usually not available within groups of NWFP producers. Hence, NWFP gatherers can be easily marginalized in large-scale commercial situations.The impact of gathering NWFPs on the biological diversity of forest species is poorly understood, although subsistence use of NWFPs will in most cases not result in resource depletion. While harvesting NWFPs is generally felt by forestry experts to be less destructive of forests than logging, the commercial exploitation of NWFPs for (inter)national trade is usually undertaken through open-access systems involving uncontrolled quantities that may be unsustainable.For NWFPs traded on international markets, resource supplies are increasingly being derived from on-farm cultivation. But NWFP domestication appears to be providing more benefits to farmers than to gatherers, though it may also lead to reducing gathering pressure on wild sources of NWFP species. Although this may benefit the conservation of the forest ecosystems, it may lower the value of the wild NWFPs species in forests to local users.Many challenges remain in defining sustainable use levels and sound practices for managing, harvesting and trading NWFPs. A multidisciplinary approach based on partnerships among NWFP stakeholders and agencies within and beyond the forestry sector is essential if livelihood improvement is the goal.During the last three decades, simulation models have been used more and more to study forest ecosystems (Johnsen et al. 2001;Porté and Bartelink 2002). Models have now become important research and management tools because (i) trees are characterized by long generation times that limit empirical observation of their life cycles; (ii) the complexity of forest ecosystems can be studied to advantage using systems analysis approaches (Berg and Kuhlmann 1993); (iii) as pressures on forests grow, predictions are increasingly needed in forest policy and management decision-making; and (iv) computer and software performance has reached a level of sophistication that generates confidence in simulated forest management outcomes. Models have been used on natural forest ecosystems, on forest plantations and on forests disturbed by humans.Models have been used to predict growth and yield for forest management and to understand forest demography, dynamics and successional processes. They have been used to predict and analyze the flow and allocation of matter, energy and genetic information and to define new experiments. And they have been employed to estimate the effects of natural and human-influenced disturbances such as fires, pests, storms, air pollution, exploitation and climate change on forest ecosystems.Forest-related models have been classified in different ways. One broadly used classification distinguishes 'empirical' from 'mechanistic' models. Models are empirical when equations are statistically fitted to data. In contrast, mechanistic models attempt to integrate causal knowledge of physical, biological or mechanistic processes, that is, they attempt to establish functional relationships among elements of modelled systems. Another way to classify models is based on spatial scales, which are typically set at 'stand', 'gap' or 'tree' levels. In stand models, individual trees are not described, and horizontally homogeneous leaf layers represent the canopy. Gap models define and track individual trees competing and growing in spatially restricted areas called 'gaps ' that in most forest models range from 10 x 10 m to 100 x 100 m. Other types of models are constructed according to the structure and floristic complexity of the forest to be modelled, such as 'mono-species and even-aged forest' or 'mixed-species and unevenaged forest', or according to the way the spatial position of trees and competition is determined, such as 'distant dependent' versus 'distant independent' models (distant dependent tree models analyze a given tree's neighbourhood to estimate its competition according to the number and the size of other trees that occur within a certain distance).Finally, some models have been developed solely for scientific research or principally for management purposes.The current trend in model development is towards mechanistic models with high spatial resolution (tree or gap models) that integrate processes from different disciplines. An example would be a model that links soil and climatic data with eco-physiological processes of trees (Lindner et al. 2002). Nevertheless, empirical models, like those that are applied to traditional forest growth and yield, are still commonly used. Assuming that site conditions remain constant, such models predict future growth from actual measurements of historic growth. Because they ignore potential changes in environment, genetics and silvicultural treatments that may occur between forest rotations (Johnsen et al. 2001), they usually cannot be applied to other regions without re-parameterization (a parameter is a numerical quantity that mediates the relationship between variables in a model). However, they do provide accurate predictions when site conditions remain unchanged from the time when the parameters of the model were set. In contrast, mechanistic models have the advantage of being applicable to a broad range of forests, but their predictions (e.g., of growth and yield) are less precise, and the amount of data needed to make them work well is greater than for empirical models, thus rendering them less appropriate for forest management. Currently, most models of forest ecosystems are 'hybrids' containing both mechanistic and empirical elements.One of the oldest and most common uses of models in forestry is in the development and application of yield tables and growth models. During their history, which extends back more than 250 years, yield tables have evolved from elementary versions that used limited datasets for even-aged, mono-specific forest stands to sophisticated computer simulation models that now predict the dynamics of uneven-aged, mixed forests (Pretzsch 2000). The objectives of these models are primarily to predict forest growth and yield, estimate the effects of thinning and logging, and develop guidelines for the management of multispecies forests. For illustration, we will briefly describe two examples of this type of model. Both examples are empirical distance-dependent tree models. The SILVA model was developed for temperate forests in Germany (Pretzsch et al. 2002) and the SYMFOR model was developed for tropical forests in Asia and South America (Phillips et al. 2003;Phillips et al. 2004a).SILVA is an empirical distance-dependent single-tree forest growth model. The model simulates competition, mortality, growth, thinning and harvesting. The results provide classical tree and stand information for forest management, information on timber grading and monetary yield, and statistics on biodiversity and forest structure. SILVA has been applied in forest management for operational and strategic planning, and it has helped in the development of management guidelines for designated tree species or stand types under known site conditions. A typical application is to compare different approaches to forest thinning with timber production and monetary yield (Figure 1). The underlying equations of SILVA were developed from more than 155 000 tree observations made at permanent sample plots in Germany that included Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Silver fir (Abies alba Mill.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Sessile oak (Quercus petraea [Mattuschka] Liebl.). In order to start the simulations, the model needs spatial position, diameter, height and species data for all the trees in the stand. The model also includes site differences using parameters for temperature, soil water retention capacity, precipitation, soil nutrient supply, and NO x and CO 2 concentrations.As is typical of empirical models, the predictions are valid so long as the future site conditions remain within the range of conditions that were found at the permanent sample plots used to parameterize the model.SYMFOR is a simulation framework that combines models of natural tropical forest ecology with models that describe important elements of commonly recommended selective logging treatments in tropical forests. The part of the SYMFOR model that concerns natural forest ecology describes tree growth, mortality and seedling recruitment for each tree above a minimum diameter. This kind of model is individual based, meaning that each tree and the unique conditions of its environment are considered separately, and may be spatially explicit. Spatially explicit simulations in SYMFOR use information on the position of each tree to calculate competition through an analysis of its neighbourhood. Forest management measures like the construction of skid trails (temporary pathways used to shuttle logs and trees out of the woods) are given spatial dimensions (known as polygons) so that the damage to trees with known spatial positions can be computed. SYMFOR simulates the conditions that create the state of the forest, rather than simulating the forest state itself, so it is possible to simulate many forest management scenarios that were not described in the initial data used to calibrate the model. SYMFOR has been applied to tropical forests in Indonesia, Guyana and the eastern Amazon in Brazil. The Brazilian version of SYMFOR is based on measurements of all trees with a diameter of 5 cm or more located in experimental plots in the Jarí Forest and the Tapajós National Forest (Pàrà State, Brazil) over a 16-year period. As with most tropical growth models, tree species are grouped according to their recruitment, growth and mortality. For the Amazon version of SYMFOR, ten species groups were used to describe the natural processes affecting tree behaviour. Growth rates were calculated for each species group using the tree diameter and a competition index. The competition index is a numerical value indicating the competition pressure on a given tree. Different equations using information on the number and size of competing trees in a given neighbourhood around a tree, or the relation of the size of a given tree compared to the size distribution of all trees, are applied in forest growth models to calculate this value. Mortality and recruitment are simulated as stochastic processes. Recruitment probability is based on the predicted growth rate of a hypothetical tree. Options exist to vary human interaction with the forest in ways that reflect potential forest management decisions (Figure 2, overleaf). No thinning Combined thinningSelective thinning SYMFOR was applied in the Brazilian Amazon to simulate current forest management practices based on 40 m 3 /ha of timber extracted with a cutting cycle of 30 years. Results showed that yields could be sustained for three harvests following the first logging of primary forest, but that the composition of timber would move progressively towards lightwood rather than hardwood species (Phillips et al. 2004a).Many mechanistic models have been developed to understand the reaction of forest ecosystems to stress. Schwalm and Ek (2001) reviewed 12 mechanistic individual tree growth simulators designed to address climate change and air pollution. They argue that models seeking to address climate change and air pollution must include a specific suite of site characteristics. A 'site' is defined as the totality of abiotic and biotic factors that affect tree growth. The types of models reviewed vary from 'stand-level, single species, even-aged' models (Landsberg and Waring 1997) to 'tree-level, multispecies, multi-aged' models (Nikolov and Fox 1994).Mechanistic models contain various submodels that simulate below-ground processes like nutrient and water cycles, as well as above-ground processes like interactions with the atmosphere and other physiological processes. Temperature, precipitation and wind speed are integrated into these models as external variables that influence stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and hydrology. The length of the simulated time steps of the variables can fluctuate from model to model. Despite its importance in climate change, carbon dioxide concentration and its impact on photosynthesis are only included in a few forest models (Chen et al. 1998). The direct impact of atmospheric depositions on trees is less well understood than their indirect effects on soil conditions and forest nutrient cycling. Thus, mechanistic models are more sophisticated in simulating below-ground processes. For example, several models accommodate atmospheric inputs into nutrient pools with varying degrees of detail and data requirements, and the mechanistic models TREEDYN3 (Bossel 1996) and FORSANA (Grote and Erhard 1999) employ modifiers to depress photosynthesis. Other models treat only NO x and use it as an addition to the plant nitrogen pool. More sophisticated simulations on the impact of pollutants are possible with the model ACIDIC (Kareinen et al. 1998). This model includes a soil chemistry submodel that can include daily atmospheric depositions and their effects on nitrogen cycles, carbon dioxide dissolution, aluminium complexation, and several other soil chemical processes in a multilayered soil column.Other features included by mechanistic models are soil temperature, moisture status, microbial activity, nutrient availability, photosynthesis, crown geometry and the mechanisms of light interception.In multispecies models, species-specific global mean values are given for plant relevant parameters such as growth rates and photosynthesis. However, most processoriented mechanistic forest ecosystem models do not include genetic variation within species. An exception is the integration of phenological variation for different tree provenances by Berninger (1997). This is a branch of forest genetics specializing in socalled 'provenance tests'. These are field experiments or controlled condition experiments (e.g., in greenhouses) that study the genetic bases of phenotypic variation (e.g., growth, eco-physiological parameters, phenology or resistance to pests) in trees with different geographic origins (see Section 3.3).Many of the models mentioned thus far contain spatial components, thereby recognizing that forest species and their habitats are neither homogeneous nor randomly distributed across landscapes. The spatial distribution and arrangement of trees play important roles in ecosystem processes, and the distribution and density of tree species in forests often vary according to soil type, water regime, light availability and climate. Spatial variation in forest-related features occurs on many scales, from the microlevel to the macrolevel, and this variability can play a fundamental role in determining the nature and magnitude of certain ecosystem processes. A brief review of some applications of GIS and remote sensing to forest ecosystem modelling is presented here.Remotely sensed data such as satellite images or aerial photos of forests, or GIS datasets of associated environmental variables like climate, topography or soil, can provide a wealth of information about the spatial arrangement of important forest features in models. They also play a substantial part in constructing and calibrating models. Moreover, information like this, and especially that derived from remotely sensed images, can be used in validating model performance. Remotely sensed data can also reduce the cost of timeconsuming field measurements, while at the same time providing comprehensive datasets that cover very large areas.Because forest spatial features are so ubiquitous and important to forest structure and function, GIS and remote sensing technologies are now playing important parts in forest ecosystem modelling, whether through the software used for modelling spatial processes or by providing associated spatial data. Off-the-shelf commercial GIS and remote sensing packages like ESRI's ArcGIS or ERDAS's Imagine are not specifically designed for spatiotemporal modelling, focusing more on generic data manipulation and spatial analysis. Other software packages like ArcInfo (also from ESRI) or the PCRaster environmental modelling language (from Utrecht University, the Netherlands) provide better performance and flexibility in spatiotemporal modelling of forests by combining advanced spatial pattern analysis with temporal processes.Simple forest cover is the most basic forest feature to be monitored using remote sensing. Landsat satellites in particular have been used to monitor changes in forest cover (Skole and Tucker 1993;Helmer et al. 2000;Pax-Lenney et al. 2001). For instance, changes in reflectance of Landsat bands are noted when forest is cut, with bare soil reflecting considerably more light. The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellitemounted sensor has provided numerous 1-km resolution datasets of land use from around the world. This sensor is often able to distinguish forest types ranging from evergreen to deciduous and broad-leaved to needle-leaved, as well as canopy density (Belward 1996;Forest Resource Assessment 2000). The SPOT satellite-mounted sensor has also produced 1-km datasets (Global Land Cover 2000, http://www.gvm.jrc.it/glc2000). Foody and Hill (1996) introduced a method for classifying 12 tropical forest types using Landsat data.Studies that require finer scales within a forest stand or canopy can also use remote sensing to acquire data on structural and ecological features of forests. Woodcock et al. (2001) have established methods for monitoring forest change over time using Landsat images. They were able to identify logging operations as well as defoliation caused by insect damage in a temperate forest with Landsat. Similarly, Michalek et al. (2000) used Landsat images to identify fire severity and stand density in an Alaskan spruce forest. Several studies have been able to identify phenological cycles employing remotely sensed data (Everitt and Judd 1989), often using changed phenological patterns over time to distinguish among forest species (Thomasson et al. 1994;Wolter et al. 1995;Key et al. 2001). The forestry community has also used aerial surveys to monitor tree positions and to manage plantations in temperate environments. Pouliot et al. (2002) have pioneered a method for detecting individual tree crowns using high-resolution aerial imagery of coniferous forests, thus making it possible to calculate structural parameters of individual trees on large scales and to monitor tree growth over time. Wasseige and Defourny (2002) use multiple SPOT images of tropical forests to assess such structural parameters as canopy roughness or the presence of gaps through bi-directional reflectance analysis. Successional stage and/or succession over time has also been monitored in both tropical (Helmer et al. 2000) and temperate forests (Fiorella and Ripple 1993) using satellite imagery. With the advent of higher spatial and spectral resolution imagery, detailed structural parameters of trees may eventually become quantifiable (Asner et al. 2002).This review has presented several examples of remote sensing technology and how it has been applied to monitor and to model forest ecosystems. As we have seen, among their many applications satellite images have been used to monitor forest cover, forest structure and successional processes. The principal benefit of integrating remotely sensed data into forest models is that large datasets over large areas can be generated using nondestructive and comparatively rapid methods.We will show in the following short overview that the genetic structure of tree populations results from complex genetic systems that include processes and mechanisms of organization, expression, reproduction, combination, and temporal and spatial distribution of genetic information (Darlington 1939), both past and present. Different aspects of these genetic systems can be found in all the models used in population genetics.In comparison to other organisms, trees have a relatively high level of genetic variation (Ledig 1986;Hamrick and Godt 1990;Nybom 2004). Two explanations are usually given to account for this. Firstly, they need it to guarantee high adaptability to diverse environments. This is particularly important for sessile trees with long life spans. Secondly, because of their long life spans, large numbers of individuals and overlapping generations of populations, trees accumulate mutations that maintain genetic variation. Owing to its importance for adaptation and adaptability, the genetic diversity of tree populations has a significant function in ecosystem stability (Gregorius 1991). Thus, information on the structure and dynamics of genetic variation within tree populations is important in efforts to conserve forest genetic resources.Various processes affect the genetic structure and population dynamics of trees. Mutations generate variants of the same gene (alleles) and are the unique source of new genetic variation, though the frequency of mutations is often low. Mutation rates of 10 -6 per gene locus per generation have been reported for plants. Hence, it is clear that genetic variation resulting from mutations can only be generated over very long periods (Gill et al. 1995).Genotypes are formed from combinations of alleles and, depending on the mating system, these alleles can be differentially arranged into genotypes during reproduction. This includes all the processes combining haplotypes in zygotes (e.g., sexual types, self-incompatibility systems, flowering phenology and spatial distribution of pollen). The dispersal of seeds within and among populations (= seed migration), viability selection and random genetic changes due to population size reductions (genetic drift) determine the genetic composition and spatial genetic structure in the resulting ontogenetic stages that range from seeds to reproductive trees. The biotic and nonbiotic environments have an important influence on these processes, as do human activities, such as when seeds are introduced. Forest exploitation and forest management can also change the genetic structure of tree populations (Hosius 1993;Aldrich and Hamrick 1998;Rajora 1999;Takahashi et al. 2000). Products of human activity, such as air pollution (Scholz et al. 1989), may indirectly influence population genetic processes by affecting the environmental conditions to which forests must adapt. Since it is known that major changes in genetic patterns occurred in temperate and tropical tree populations as a consequence of extinction and recolonization during and after glacial periods (Petit et al. 1997;Caron et al. 2000), similar effects are expected from ongoing climate change (Giannini and Magnani 1994;Kremer 2000).Systems analysis approaches using simulation models are helpful in analyzing the temporal and spatial dynamics of complex systems (Berg and Kuhlmann 1993). Simulation models have been used in forest genetics to estimate or predict parameters of particular population genetic processes. For example, the mixed mating model fashioned by Ritland and Jain (1981) has been used to estimate the proportion of self-pollination, outcrossing and biparental inbreeding in many tree species (Friedman and Adams 1985;Murawski and Hamrick 1991;Bacilieri et al. 1996;Burczyk et al. 1996;Rossi et al. 1996;Doligez and Joly 1997;Collevatti et al. 2001). Hardy and Vekemans (1999) developed a model that estimates gene flow parameters from spatial genetic structures of tree populations. The 'twogeneration approach' compares the genetic composition of seeds from different trees. Information on the genotypes of the mother trees is then used to separate haplotypes of seeds coming from the mother tree from haplotypes coming from the pollen donors (father trees). Strong gene flow by pollen leads to uniform genetic compositions of effective pollen clouds, whereas limited gene flow is linked to stronger genetic differentiation of the effective pollen clouds of single tree progenies. The observed genetic differentiation is fitted to theoretically expected values in order to estimate a function of pollen dispersal. Recently, 'two-generation approach' models have been developed from data on genetic differentiation among pollen clouds of single tree progenies to estimate pollen dispersal and effective densities of reproductive trees (Austerlitz and Smouse 2001;Smouse et al. 2001;Austerlitz and Smouse 2002;Dick et al. 2003;Degen et al. 2004).Great effort has been expended on developing and applying simulation models to the dynamics of spatial genetic patterns within and among tree populations. Doligez et al. (1998) analyzed factors that influenced the spatial genetic structure and the level of inbreeding of a tree population by using an 'isolation-by-distance' model (in 'isolationby-distance', gene flow occurs among local neighbourhoods in a continuously distributed population). The density of trees, distances of pollen and seed dispersal, overlapping of generations, and selection on a biparentally inherited locus with two alleles were included in this simulation. The spatial clustering of trees and the outcrossing rate were found to have an important effect on spatial genetic structure and on the level of individual tree inbreeding. The degree of inbreeding at the population level was mostly predicted by the degree of generational overlap.Very few demographic models have been able to estimate the genetic impact of human activities on tree populations in a more sophisticated manner (Alvarez-Buylla et al. 1996). Nevertheless, a set of models designed to make better simulations of the mating systems and the gene flow of tree generations has been developed by Gömöry (1995). While these models deal well with different levels of allelic diversity and spatial structure, and are able to simulate different modes of pollen and seed dispersal, important genetic and demographic processes and characteristics such as overlapping generations, flowering phenology and tree growth were not included.Sophisticated simulations of the large-scale population dynamics of trees have been made with the simulation model Metapop, which is designed to study the genetic evolution of a subdivided population of a diploid species under natural selection. This model combines population genetics, quantitative genetics and population dynamics. Using Metapop, Le Corre et al. (1997) tried to reconstruct the postglacial recolonization of oaks in Europe from different refuges across a 100 x 300 km region by using simulations of a two-dimensional (2D) 'stepping-stone model' in which each population receives migrants from neighbouring populations. The simulations were made for a set of populations connected by migrations of seeds over long time periods (many generations). The authors simulated the distribution and spatial pattern of maternally inherited chloroplast haplotypes and compared them with experimental data. They found that a spatially restricted distribution of acorns combined with rare long-distance seed dispersal events (several tens of km) best explained the speed of the observed recolonization and genetic differentiation among populations.In another application of Metapop, Le Corre and Kremer (2003) studied genetic variability in a subdivided population of trees under stabilizing and diversifying selection conditions using three indicators: neutral markers, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), and the trait itself. The objective of this simulation was to explain differences in both quantitative and genetic traits among experimental tree populations (Jaramillo-Correa et al. 2001). Quantitative trait loci are regions on a gene or genes linked to a particular trait. They have been studied in trees for traits like growth, physical and chemical wood characteristics, bud set and other morphological and phenological characters. A quantitative model with additive effects was used to link genotypes to phenotypes. Using an analytical approach, the authors compared the phenotypical diversity within a deme (H S ) -a locally interbreeding population -to the genetic variance within a deme (V W ), assessed using neutral marker differentiation (F ST ) and the quantitative differentiation (Q ST ) for the trait. The difference between the results using F ST and Q ST was shown to depend on the relative amounts of co-variance between QTLs within and between demes. Simulations were used to study the effect of selection intensity, variance of optima among demes, and the migration rate for both an allogamous and a predominantly self-pollinating species. Contrasting genetic variability using neutral markers, QTLs, and the trait were observed to be a function of the level of gene flow under diversifying selection conditions. The greatest discrepancy among the three indicators occurred under highly diversifying selection conditions and high gene flow. Thus, the study reveals that diversifying selection conditions might cause substantial heterogeneity among QTLs, as only a few of the markers show allelic differentiation, while the majority behave as neutral markers. Austerlitz et al. (2000) developed a model to study the impact of the life cycle of forest trees, and in particular the length of their juvenile phase, on genetic diversity and differentiation during the last glacial period in Europe and the following colonization period. Their 2D stepping-stone model includes demographic structure (matrix model), mutations, pollen and seed dispersal and density-dependent fertilities (Figure 3). The simulation study was motivated by the observation that tree species have high within-population diversity and low between-population differentiation of their nuclear genes. This is in contrast to annual plants which show much more differentiation for nuclear genes but much less overall diversity (Nybom 2004). The usual explanation for this difference is that pollen flow, and therefore gene flow, is much greater for trees (Liepelt et al. 2002;White et al. 2002). However, this explanation is problematical because trees have only very recently recolonized temperate areas and have experienced many founder events that usually reduce within-population diversity and increase differentiation among populations (Scotti et al. 2000;Kremer et al. 2002). Only extremely high levels of gene flow could counterbalance these successive founder effects. Austerlitz et al. (2000) showed with their model that both a reasonably high level of pollen flow and a certain demographic distribution of trees were needed to explain the observed low genetic differentiation among most European tree populations. With the help of simulations, the weak founder effect was explained by delayed reproduction of trees during recolonization. When the first trees on the colonization frontier reach reproductive age, a non-negligible part of the space is already occupied by juveniles from seeds that arrived earlier from colonized areas and were stored in the soil seed bank. Furthermore, they showed that gene flow and life cycle also have an impact on maternally inherited cytoplasmic genes. These are characterized, both in trees and annual species, by much less diversity and much more differentiation than nuclear genes.Another category of simulation models used in forest genetic studies attempts to estimate the genetic adaptability of tree populations to global climate change. In most cases, predictions are based on quantitative genetic data from provenance tests, common garden experiments or data from international phenological gardens using clones (Beuker 1994;Kramer 1994; Refuges X Y Matyas 1994;Liesebach et al. 1999;Chuine et al. 2000). In common garden experiments, plants of different origin (genetically different material) are grown under the same controlled environmental conditions. Such experiments help forest scientists understand the genetic basis of the variation in the studied traits (e.g., annual growth rate, photosynthesis, frost hardiness and resistance against insects). Stimulated by a recommendation from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), a network of International Phenological Gardens (IPGs) was established in 1957 by the National Hydro-Meteorological Services (NHMSs) of several European countries. The idea underlying the establishment of this network was to observe the behaviour of cloned plants under different climatic conditions throughout Europe (from Finland to Greece and from Ireland to Russia).Genetically determined variation in Pinus sylvestris was included in the process-based model SICA (Simple Canopy Model) by Berninger (1997). The model was applied to a geographic transect at six meteorological stations in Europe. It simulated photosynthesis and transpiration at the leaf layer, and included respiration and soil water balance as functions of canopy properties and the environment. The model accounted for possible genetic adaptation of the phenology of photosynthesis to the local climate and to decreases in gas exchange owing to drought. In terms of photosynthesis, length of growing season and gross primary productivity (GPP), simulations adding genetic adaptation to the local climate differed by up to 20% from simulations neglecting genetic adaptation.With the objective of analyzing potential changes caused by global warming to interspecific and infraspecific tree diversity, Takenaka ( 2001) developed an individualbased model of a forest characterized by spatial structure and gene flow. The forest was represented as a 2D lattice (or grid) of 'cells' (1000 x 100), each of which could sustain at most one tree. A temperature regime gradient was placed along the long side of the lattice. Three groups of tree species were considered, with each group consisting of five species. The three groups differed in their suitable temperature regimes and, because temperature conditions affect the fecundity of trees, they also differed in the amount of seeds and pollen produced; the greater the difference between a tree's assumed optimal temperature and the temperature of the cell it occupied, the lower the fecundity. Each tree had a pair of alleles (genes), that determined the optimal temperature for the tree. A new tree inherited these alleles from the parent trees, which died stochastically. A new tree sprouting from a seed randomly chosen from those dispersed from neighbouring mature trees (age ≥ 25 years) then occupied the vacated cell. The densities of seeds and pollen dispersed from a mature tree followed an exponential function. Using this model, Takenaka investigated the possible consequences of climate change for the three groups of trees and found that the new distribution of trees following climate change was affected by the similarity between their ideal habitats. The model showed that the more similar the trees' habitat ranges, the less likely the tree distribution pattern was to change. Using the model, Takenaka also found that species diversity was reduced at the same time due to the founder effect, that is, dominant species near the front line also dominated the new area. Liesebach (2002) used the forest growth model SILVA described above to study the possible effects of increased annual mean temperature and decreased rainfall on the genetic structure of trees. Inventories of six isozyme gene loci in provenance trials of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) were used to estimate the genetic variation and differentiation of the spruce populations. The data were taken from a 25-year old Norway spruce trial located in Germany. A virtual stand of Norway spruce was generated from these data to simulate growth over a period of 75 years under seven environmental conditions, each of which was attributed two mortality scenarios: one where losses were due to natural death through competition, and another characterized by natural mortality combined with thinning from above (trees are removed from the middle and upper portion of the range of crown and diameter classes).Allele and genotype frequencies were determined for the trees at 100 years. For each simulated environmental condition, various parameters such as genetic diversity and heterozygosity were determined, using projections from the isozyme data. No substantial differences were found within the genetic parameters. Instead, the highest differentiation was found to lie among three growth parameters, which seemed to bear little relationship to the isozyme markers. It was concluded that changes in genetic structure over time were more likely to be caused by the genetic drift associated with declining population size, than by global warming.Studies simulating the impact of forest exploitation, other silvicultural practices and forest fragmentation on genetic diversity of tree populations are uncommon, and those that exist usually contain oversimplified representations of biological processes. Glaubitz et al. (2003) used Monte Carlo simulations to investigate whether the differences between two eucalyptus stands with distinct silvicultural histories in Australia could be explained by genetic drift. In other conservation genetic approaches, minimum viable populations have been estimated by combining models of population genetics with estimates of rates at which mutations arise (Alvarez-Buylla et al. 1996). In these models, two factors are expected to threaten tree population survival: (i) loss of potential adaptive genetic variation due to genetic drift; and (ii) increased inbreeding depression owing to self-pollinating and mating among relatives. Two disadvantages of these models are that they include strong generalizations that are usually not linked to experimental data, and that they do not consider specific forest management operations.The simulation model ECO-GENE was developed by Degen et al. (1996) at the Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products (BFH) in Germany to study temporal and spatial dynamics of genetic structures in tree populations of temperate forest ecosystems. It is an individual distance-dependent tree model that combines elements of forest population genetics, dynamics, growth and management models. Overlapping or separated generations can be created and different processes like gene flow, mating systems, flowering phenology, selection, random drift and competition can be simulated (Figure 4, overleaf). The ECO-GENE model has been used to study the impacts of different silvicultural practices and of air pollution on the genetic structure of tree populations in temperate forests in Europe (Germany, France and Austria) and Asia (Japan) (Degen and Scholz 1996;Degen et al. 1997;Geburek and Mengel 1998;Degen et al. 1999a;Takahashi et al. 2000;Degen et al. 2002). Work has been in progress since 1998 to adapt ECO-GENE for use on tropical tree species, and modules on pollen and seed dispersal by animals and flowering phenology have recently been added (Degen and Roubik 2004). The recent integration of the forest simulation model SYMFOR with ECO-GENE offers improved modelling of growth processes and management impact in tropical forests in South America (Phillips et al. 2004b).ECO-GENE and the new ECO-GENE+SYMFOR model are now being used to estimate the effects of forest operations on genetic diversity of tree populations in several projects in tropical and temperate forests. These include the 'Dendrogene' project in Brazil (http://www.cpatu.embrapa.br/dendro/index.htm), the EU INCO project 'Geneotropico' in several South American countries (http://www.nbu.ac.uk/geneo), and the EU project 'Oakflow' (http://www.pierroton.inra.fr/Oakflow).For initialization, the ECO-GENE model requires information on the spatial position, diameter and genotype of all trees within a stand or population. Several plots were established in temperate and tropical forests to collect these data. In northern Germany, position and diameter were inventoried and genotypes were analyzed using allozymes and nuclear microsatellites in two mixed oak and beech stands (Figure 5, on p. 83) (Scholz and Degen 1999). A 500-ha plot in the National Forest of Tapajós in Brazil, established within the framework of the Dendrogene project, gathered data for the initialization and the parameterization of simulations with ECO-GENE (Kanashiro et al. 2002). Dendrogene is collaborating with the 'Sustainable Forest Management for Timber' project of the Brazilian Institute for Environment and Natural Renewable Resources (IBAMA) and the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). Genetic, reproductive biology and ecological studies of seven timber species were carried out in Tapajós, before and after logging.For the parameterization of the different processes (Figure 4), ECO-GENE requires information on pollen and seed dispersal, species phenology, variation in fertility, growth, mortality, selection and self-incompatibility. This information is either elaborated from data gathered in intensively studied plots (ISPs) or is found in the literature. Incomplete data for initialization of the simulations can be filled in by a data generator. The data generator uses aggregated information like allele frequencies and tree densities in diameter classes to create artificial tree populations that can be used to start the simulations. A comparison between simulated and actual allele frequencies in single tree progenies in the ISPs was used to validate simulation outputs.Large segments of forest stands are artificially regenerated in several European countries. For regeneration purposes, seeds are usually harvested in certified stands. Different factors such as number and spatial distribution of harvested seed trees, variation in flowering phenology and fertilities of all reproducing trees, pollen dispersal, mating system, and the spatial and demographic structure of the stand determine the genetic composition of the harvested seeds. From a genetic aspect, good seed harvesting results in seeds with a genetic composition that is identical or similar to the original adult population, or which have genetic variation that is equal to or greater than that of the adults.In order to ensure quality control in regenerating such forests, a sensitivity analysis was carried out with ECO-GENE at the Institute for Forest Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding in Grosshansdorf, Germany. The objectives of this analysis were: (i) to determine the relative importance of the factors cited above on the genetic composition of harvested seeds; (ii) to estimate the risk of genetic erosion due to the seed harvesting procedure; and (iii) to identify thresholds of tolerable genetic differences between the adult population and the Outbreeding and/or inbreeding harvested seeds. The simulation was initialized with the oak dataset from the Behlendorf plot (Figure 5). Information gathered on 229 Quercus robur trees included dbhs of≥ 20 cm, spatial position and the genotypes using seven allozyme and three microsatellite loci. One thousand simulations were run with different parameter configurations selected randomly from within a given range, such as number of seed trees harvested (10-40), coefficient of variation for fertilities (50 < CV% < 300), standard deviation in starting date of flowering (2-7 days), and the exponent of pollen dispersal (0.001-0.05). In each simulation, a sample of 1000 seeds was produced for the selected seed trees, and the response variable was determined as the genetic distance (Gregorius 1978) between all adult trees and the sampled seeds. Finally, the sensitivity of the response parameter to the variation of input parameters was tested with a stepwise multiple regression analysis performed using ranktransformed values (Nathan et al. 2001). Results are given in Table 1.The simulations showed that the genetic distance between the adults and the simulated seeds varied from 0.048 to 0.243. Using the same gene markers, the genetic distance between the Behlendorf Quercus robur stand and another stand in the same region was  measured as 0.077 (Degen et al. 1999b). This value and the 95% confidence interval of the simulations (95% ≤ 0.147) can be used to estimate tolerable genetic distances between the original stand and harvested seeds for these same gene markers. In the sensitivity analysis, the number of seed trees was the most important input parameter (R 2 = 0.32), and was found to be negatively correlated with the genetic distance. This means that as the number of seed trees increases the genetic difference between the adult population and the seeds will be progressively lower (Figure 6). The variation in fertility was the second most important parameter, and it improved the explained variation of the model up to R 2 = 0.43; increasing the variation in fertility results in a higher genetic distance between adults and seeds. The tested parameters of pollen dispersal and flowering phenology had only minor influences on the genetic distances between adults and seeds. These parameters improved the explained variation by only 2% (R 2 = 0.49).The results of the simulations have various practical implications. They can be used to determine critical thresholds for seed harvesting by identifying a minimum number of seed trees, assessing the impact of variation in flowering patterns, or by making available reference values of genetic distances between adults and harvested seeds. Furthermore, the simulations can also carry out sensitivity analyses, which guide research in focusing on important processes and parameters.A significant problem that exists in efforts to integrate genetic variation and its dynamics into forest ecosystem models is the poor linkage between the genetic variation that is screened by gene markers and the genetic variation that determines differences in adaptive traits. Thus far, ecosystem models have integrated genetic variation as a source of variance of model outputs without knowing the underlying genes and their inheritance (Berninger 1997). Moreover, the dynamics of genetic variation screened by gene markers have been incorporated into genetic models in the absence of related information on their adaptive significance (Liesebach 2002). Understanding the link between genetic variation and its adaptive significance requires the identification of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in coding regions of QTLs and an analysis of genotype x environment interaction for each of the SNPs. These types of studies are now being developed for economically important species (Neale et al. 2002), and there is hope that at least some adaptive traits can soon be linked to genotypes. Nevertheless, there is a growing need to improve the integration of quantitative genetic data from provenance and common garden experiments into process-based forest ecosystem models (Berninger 1997).Several plant species have been studied using both biochemical and molecular gene markers to assess population genetic structure, genetic differentiation among populations and parameters of genetic processes such as pollen and seed dispersal, levels of outcrossing and spatial genetic structure. Depending on the type of gene marker being used, these studies have generated different results. This may be caused either by too few gene loci or individuals sampled, or by natural variation of population genetic processes in the different species studied. There are now more and more molecular gene markers available for population genetic studies in trees. Genetic inventories with amplified fragment-length polymorphisms (AFLPs) offer the possibility of studying more than 100 loci (Vos et al. 1995), and the level of variation that can be screened with new markers such as nuclear microsatellites is now high enough to permit the study of gene flow and spatial structure. As a consequence, marker-based problems will become less frequent and less limiting in the near future. In the past, recommendations on sampling strategies for genetic inventories have been elaborated using analytical and numerical models (Gregorius 1980;Krusche and Geburek 1991), and the design of sampling strategies is still an important field for future model applications. For the management of forest genetic resources and for the parameterization of the models, it is essential to know the natural variation of population genetic processes. For this purpose, it would be useful to establish a network of ISPs where these processes could be monitored over several years.Current forest genetic studies using simulation models allow better estimates of the potential loss of genetic variation as a result of forest exploitation, thinning and seed harvesting than were possible in the past. However, an open issue is the identification of critical levels of genetic variation that do not compromise population survival. What is the minimum threshold of genetic diversity that a certain population must possess to avoid extinction? The same question has been addressed in studying the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem stability (Schwartz et al. 2000). Most empirical studies and modelled predictions show saturation of ecosystem function and stability with just a limited sample of local species' variation. This observation supports the conclusion that most plant communities are characterized by the strong dominance of a few species that provide most of the community biomass. Many population genetic inventories have highlighted the existence of so called 'minor polymorphisms' that are characterized by one very frequent and a few rare alleles. This has led to a distinction being made between active and lethal adaptive potential by assuming that the frequent alleles are important for fitness under actual environmental conditions and that the rare alleles might be relevant for future adaptation (Gregorius and Bergmann 1995). The importance of rare alleles for adaptation of a population is a matter of debate (Bush et al. 1992). The adaptive relevance of different gene markers and the relationships among levels of genetic diversity, adaptation and adaptability are some of the most important unanswered questions in plant genetics. Modelling will be an important tool in answering these questions. This chapter focuses on forest genetic resources (FGRs) and associated conservation issues in South America. Special reference is made to the project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) in the conservation, management and sustainable use of FGRs in Brazil and Argentina, that was recently undertaken under the auspices of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).Forests fulfil basic life-support functions that include watershed protection, soil conservation, climate regulation, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and pest control (Salati et al. 1999). They also provide local communities and national economies with a variety of goods that include food, fodder, gum, fibre, fuelwood, timber and medicine. As a consequence, they play primary roles in both subsistence and modern socioeconomic development in many parts of the world. Forests also contribute to the cultural well-being of countless societies.Owing to their interdependence within the hierarchy of biological organization, ecosystems, species and genes represent the principal targets for biodiversity conservation. Ultimately, the capacity of plants to adapt to changing environmental conditions and continue evolving is dependent upon their infraspecific genetic variation. Genetic variation also constitutes the foundation of breeding programmes that aim to meet society's everchanging needs. FGRs, which are defined here as 'the present and potential value of the heritable materials contained within and among forest species', are among society's most valuable sustainable assets. However, in the past few decades, the threat to FGRs in the tropics has been growing dramatically. Severe and continuous tropical forest depletion is now occurring around the world. This results from nonsustainable timber extraction, other types of forest habitat degradation, and conversion of forests to other land uses.These changes have directly affected the amounts and patterns of genetic diversity in forest trees. Many populations and species possessing unique and useful properties are being lost, sometimes without even having been identified and studied by science (Mittermeier et al. 1999). While degraded ecosystems can sometimes be rehabilitated -often with difficulty and at great cost -extinction of species or the loss of unique genetic diversity within species is permanent. This can potentially have significant effects on future uses and development. As a result, the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs has become a pressing and vital requirement for all local, regional, national and international forest stakeholders (Ouédraogo 1997;Convention on Biological Diversity 2004). The task at hand is complicated by the fact that conservation strategies cannot aim to conserve the genetic makeup of forest species as they exist today -adapted to current environmental conditions, but rather they must be designed to maintain the evolutionary processes that will enable species to adapt to future conditions (Namkoong 1986;Eriksson et al. 1993). A central issue in FGR conservation is thus the definition of the amount and the pattern of genetic variation that should be maintained for forest species to meet this requirement (Palmberg 1999). Equally important is the work, whenever possible, of gene conservation programmes to prevent or reduce species extinctions, genetic erosion, and strong directional change in the genetic composition of conserved populations (FAO 1993).Forest scientists and the wider conservation and research communities are now involved in ongoing efforts to develop conservation and sustainable use strategies for biodiversity. Conservation can either be achieved through in situ or ex situ approaches (Ledig 1986), but the two should be implemented in a complementary manner whenever this is needed and possible. Nevertheless, the preferred strategy is often in situ conservation of FGRs, that is, conservation of FGRs within their original/natural environments, as this has several advantages (Frankel 1976). This is because in situ conservation of FGRs allows for the maintenance of basic evolutionary processes and it provides breeders with a dynamic source of variation. In situ conservation is especially recommended for species that cannot be established outside of their natural habitats, that require complex ecosystem interactions to subsist, and for those that produce recalcitrant seeds. Moreover, in situ conservation programmes designed specifically for forest species can often result in the protection of many other plant and animal species and even the ecosystems in which these species occur. Lastly, if practised correctly, in situ conservation allows for FGRs to be used while they are being sustained. Therefore, during conservation planning, the sustainable use of resources by stakeholders should be factored into decisions, thereby also potentially improving the cost-effectiveness and the political support for conservation.It is worth emphasizing that the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs is not just a problem for the future. It affects millions of people now. Because of this, conservation cannot be viewed separately from development, that is, from human needs and demands, and this is perhaps the greatest challenge to in situ FGR conservation. Reconciling conservation activities with immediate human needs, recognizing the importance of different stakeholders for their roles in maintaining and managing genetic diversity, and reducing tensions between biological and socioeconomic objectives are and will be areas in which forestry managers and researchers must invest themselves.Production of forest-derived goods and environmental services will require that basic genetic and silvicultural guidelines be incorporated into forest management prescriptions and interventions (Kemp 1992). Conservation of genetic resources through sustainable management is important, particularly for the large majority of forest tree species that are not being grown in plantation or domestication programmes (National Research Council, Board of Agriculture 1991).Nevertheless, while ex situ conservation methods are fairly well developed from a technical point of view and are widely applied around the world, relatively little in situ FGR conservation has occurred, especially as it applies to conservation of infraspecific diversity. In part, this may be due to the prevailing attention given to ex situ approaches, or to the still limited cooperation among breeders, foresters and conservationists. Moreover, the earliest efforts in in situ conservation were oriented towards the protection of endangered species and intact ecosystems, with much less emphasis placed on withinspecies diversity (FAO 1989). Nevertheless, during the last 20 years or so, awareness has grown that effective in situ conservation, management and sustainable use of plant and animal species must employ strategies that include information on the dynamics of infraspecific variation. In spite of such general progress in the philosophy of conservation and sustainable use, advances in in situ theory and method that can be applied to onthe-ground FGR programmes have been slow in coming. This is mostly due to limited knowledge about the extent of genetic diversity in forest trees, its spatial and temporal organization, the genetic processes in trees, and the impact of human activities on FGRs. In this last regard, investigation of the role of local communities in the selective regeneration, dissemination and planting of forest germplasm is a high priority.Genetic resources refer to all the genetic variation contained within and among forest species. In practice, a very large number of woody and herbaceous species which constitute important economic resources are covered by the term 'forest genetic resources'. While research has shown that tropical forest tree species possess high levels of genetic diversity, maintain large amounts of genetic variation within and among populations, and are predominantly outcrossed and have high levels of gene flow (Janzen 1971;Bawa et al. 1985), for FGR conservation purposes, two further areas of research are urgently needed. Much more needs to be known about the relationship between human activities and forest biodiversity and, in the same context, about the extent, distribution and structure of infraspecific genetic diversity within trees subject to human actions.Those forests referred to as lowland tropical rain forests contain the greatest number of species, and their destruction would have the most serious global effects (Whitmore and Sayer 1992;Alvarez-Buylla et al. 1996). Conservation of tropical forests is thus one of the most urgent and challenging tasks of foresters, biologists, social scientists, environmental managers, entrepreneurs, nonprofit organizations and public administrators. The challenging aspects are the high species numbers, their level of threat, the presence of many noncommercial species, the difficulties in regenerating target species, soil fragility and access issues.In situ conservation of FGRs has been slower in the tropics in comparison to temperate areas because of the following limitations and challenges (Bawa 1997;Ouédraogo 1997):• The very large number of species that occur in tropical forests. This has created problems in priority-setting for both research and conservation and, as a consequence, in obtaining funds for this work;• The often modest infrastructures of local institutions. The lack of trained research and conservation personnel and the high costs of training these people have contributed to the slow progress in generating knowledge about the taxonomy, biology and genetics of tropical forest species, and in developing effective management programmes;• The diverse biological characteristics of tropical forest trees and their complex ecological relationships. Features of tropical forest trees, including sophisticated pollinator requirements and interactions, highly variable densities and spatial distributions of species, mixed mating systems, and diverse phenological patterns often require that conservation methods be tailored to individual species;• The long-lived nature of trees can produce an illusion of forest health. Because tropical forests can persist for long periods of time without regenerating themselves, an impression of persistence can be conveyed when, in reality, the population is being genetically eroded or is even moving towards extinction (the 'living dead' of Janzen 1986);• Evaluation and comparison of morphological and heritable characteristics have only been undertaken for a few species. The tools and technologies to assess genetic diversity in tropical trees are recent and still developing. Genetic markers are limited;• Limited income options for forest-dependent communities. Limited employment or income options have led many forest-dwelling communities to adopt short-term forest management perspectives or even abusive practices. The development of effective forest management partnerships among local communities, indigenous people, governments and other stakeholders is an ongoing challenge that often requires specialized skills;• National policies and legal frameworks conducive to conservation and sustainable use of FGRs are often lacking. Complications generated by variable interests and actors, and differences among traditional, local and national laws have often been difficult to overcome.Many of the tree species found in rapidly disappearing tropical forest habitats require immediate conservation measures. These must be based on an understanding of the factors that will permit the long-term in situ conservation of genetic diversity in forest tree populations. And knowledge needs to be generated about the kinds and levels of genetic variation that are required to capture different types of adaptability. At the ecosystem level, knowledge of the processes that affect genetic diversity and particularly the genetic effects of human activities will be fundamentally important to the development of complementary conservation strategies. This same knowledge is needed to develop effective policies that can address the different needs and interests of local communities and governments (Cossalter et al. 1993;FAO 1993;Kageyama 1997;Palmberg-Lerche 1997).In order for it to work, conservation of FGRs must be integrated into an overall framework of sustainable forest management. In the past, efforts to conserve protected areas such as national parks or reserves did not give sufficient attention to the distribution and infraspecific variation of species. Information from both of these areas is central to ensuring the maintenance of the adaptive capacity and the productive potential of trees to meet present and future needs (Kemp 1992;FAO 1993;McNeely 1993;Bawa 1997;BMZ 1997).On the technical side, studies that demonstrate the compatibility of genetic conservation with managed use of forest resources need urgent implementation at national, regional and local levels, with the results disseminated widely. On the management side, integrated strategies for the conservation and use of FGRs must also be developed. Thus, priority should be given both to the research needed to identify patterns of genetic variation as well as underlying evolutionary changes in forest ecosystems, and to the development of practical conservation procedures. Enough flexibility must be built into the conservation strategies to permit management strategies to change as new findings become available (Ouédraogo 1997). In addition, concerted actions are needed to strengthen local, regional and national forest conservation capacities through information and technology transfers, and through networking and collaboration among countries and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). IPGRI is actively involved in tropical forest research and in related capacity building around the world. A more detailed description of some of IPGRI's research projects and their practical applications is presented in Chapter 12.IPGRI is part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), a strategic alliance of countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations supporting 15 international agricultural centres. These centres work with national agricultural research institutions and agencies, civil society organizations and the private sector to mobilize agricultural science to reduce poverty, foster human wellbeing, promote agricultural growth and protect the environment. Box 1 describes the way in which IPGRI works.Research at IPGRI includes a programme on FGRs that has several priorities:• to study patterns of and threats to genetic diversity in forest tree species;• to investigate biological processes that regulate genetic diversity;• to examine the effects of human activities on genetic processes;• to document local resource use and to analyze the consequences of FGR losses on rural livelihoods. The IPGRI FGR programme also:• establishes guidelines for FGR conservation, restoration and sustainable use;• analyzes policy and socioeconomic issues related to FGR conservation and use;• devises participatory FGR conservation schemes;• creates or selects methods that help IPGRI determine priority species and populations for research and conservation.Because in situ conservation of FGRs involves genetics, ecology and human social systems, it requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates biological and social science disciplines and strategies. Technical and scientific knowledge, regional collaboration, appropriate policies, public awareness, and commitment at local, regional, national and international levels are needed to create effective in situ conservation programmes that simultaneously promote sustainable livelihoods.The Convention on Biological Diversity provides a framework for the protection of forest ecosystems and their tree species (see the expanded programme of work on forest biological diversity adopted in 2002 by the Conference of the Parties at its sixth meeting, in annex to decision VI/22). Countries that ratified the Convention are required to assess and monitor their biological resources and to develop effective strategies for their conservation. As a result, the conservation and sustainable use of forests have become priorities for many regional, national and international forestry programmes. But our limited knowledge of the impact of uncontrolled exploitation, deforestation and other threats to forest diversity seriously limits the capacity of agencies and institutions to plan and execute appropriate actions. The development of strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of forests should ensure a fair distribution of their resources to the livelihoods of local communities and to national economies while securing the genetic diversity of target species for the future. This formula is particularly important in regions and countries where rural and urban populations are heavily dependent on forests (CIFOR/IPGRI 1997).IPGRI has carried out research in South America since the early stages of its FGR programme, established in 1993. Since then, work has steadily increased in the region, most of it in synergy with the IPGRI regional office in Cali, Colombia. This office has a high-level research capability on site, and research focuses mainly on the effects of anthropogenic activities on forest genetic diversity.The BMZ-funded project on FGRs was conceived as a response to a demand for appropriate strategies for FGR conservation and sustainable use in South America Box 1. IPGRI's mode of operation IPGRI works through partnerships, complementing its partners' resources to provide a collaborative research and conservation effort that is highly cost-effective. Savings accrue through the sharing of such things as staff time, laboratory and field facilities, and information technology. In addition, technology and information are transferred to partners who have limited resources. IPGRI operates directly or as a catalyst within almost all areas of the research and development processes related to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources (PGRs). With its partners, IPGRI identifies those places within recognized research and conservation priorities where its involvement would bring maximum gain. In this way, IPGRI and its partners optimize returns from resources invested in what are truly collaborative efforts.In undertaking its research and conservation programmes, IPGRI particularly values operating within networks, as networks help ensure that work occurs costeffectively and that materials, methods, results and information are disseminated widely. IPGRI also emphasizes research that is undertaken with partners, as this helps ensure that projects are well designed, and that local facilities, human resources and a willingness to undertake research activities are available for its implementation. Nevertheless, constraints and challenges are always encountered in PGR research and in situ PGR conservation. Several examples of FGR research and in situ conservation are illustrated in this book. and, with its partners, IPGRI planned and implemented a range of research activities in forest ecosystems in the region. The objectives of the project were to generate scientific knowledge and develop practical procedures that could improve understanding of sustainable forest management, assist forestry professionals at all levels, and enhance the well-being of the communities of users (IPGRI 1998). By improving our understanding of the impact of human activities on the genetic diversity and ecological processes in selected forest ecosystems, guidelines and tools could be developed to assist decisionmakers and forest managers in both forest policy development and its implementation.The research project was designed to promote collaborative efforts among national programmes in Brazil and Argentina, German research institutes and universities, and CGIAR centres. It built on existing collaborations among these countries and institutions and established new partnerships, especially with local communities. A multidisciplinary approach was adopted.The partnership consisted of an interdisciplinary research team of social scientists, ecologists, entomologists and geneticists. The project sought the active participation of local groups of forest users in Brazil and Argentina, where both rural and urban populations are heavily dependent on rapidly diminishing forests for a multitude of goods and services. Box 2 gives more information about the project's design. The formal and informal collaborating institutions and organizations that took part in the project are listed in Table 1. The principal scientists and their general areas of research are summarized in Table 2 (on p. 100). Figure 1 is a photo of some of the project participants.The project was divided into three thematic components: one that explored socioeconomic issues and policy, one that studied the ecology of 'model' species with variable characteristics in forest ecosystems near settlements with different socioeconomic conditions, and one that explored genetic features of the selected species. Agreement on research methods (e.g., sample sizes, genetic parameters, structure of socioeconomic surveys, etc.) was reached through preliminary planning meetings. Key partners in the project agreed on the research hypotheses and on the target ecosystems and species, as well as on the project components with highest priority.Since the project structure was particularly complex, involving different types of expertise and research methods, the ZOPP project planning method was used (ZOPP -Zielorientierte Projektplanung -in German, or GOPP -Goal Oriented Project Planning -as it is sometimes presented in English; for more information see the website: Box 2. Principles underlying the design of the BMZ-funded FGR project• Participatory approaches are to be used by national and international stakeholders, that is, forest-dependent communities must be involved in project development, implementation and outcome• A multidisciplinary perspective should be adopted, linking conservation and use of FGRs within socioeconomic contexts• Diverse (even contrasting) ecosystems are to be selected for study (e.g., from simple to complex; disturbed to less-disturbed to intact) for comparative purposes• Research is to be undertaken at the local level, and designed to address FGR conservation and use problems of global significance• Species with contrasting life histories and reproductive strategies are to be targeted, for comparative purposes • Studies should be devised to generate knowledge about patterns of genetic variation, and on processes that affect genetic diversity• Flexible methods and strategies, which could be modified as needed, should be developed • Practical tools and procedures in conservation and sustainable forest management are to be developed with an objective of wide application • International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI),• Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)National Institution Germany• Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products (BFH)• Institute for Forest Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding • Grupo Forestal, INTA-EEA Montecarlo, Misiones • Administración Parque Nacional, Delegación Técnica Regional Patagonia. Parque Nacional Lanín• Centro de Investigación y Extensión Forestal Andino-Patagónico (CIEFAP)• Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, El Dorado Regional NGO• Conselho Nacional dos Seringueiros, Acre, Rio Branco, Brazil• Instituto de Projetos e Pesquisas Ecologicas (IPE), Brazil http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sba102.htm). ZOPP's output is a planning matrix -the logical project framework -which summarizes and structures the main elements of a project and highlights logical links between intended inputs, planned activities and expected results. This tool was adopted during the second planning meeting in order to facilitate the selection of sound objectives, appropriate species, activities to be carried out and research techniques to be used to achieve the objectives of the project (GTZ 1988).The first (socioeconomic) component of the project addressed issues in policy and human resource development for conservation, and particularly focused on the following objectives: (i) document the relative contributions of timber and nonwood forest products to household incomes and to other off-farm and on-farm income sources; (ii) identify the economically important tree species and document the patterns of land-use intensity and change, especially including logging, livestock grazing, gathering nonwood forest products and rubber tapping; (iii) examine alterations in livelihoods resulting from recent social and economic changes and the consequences for FGR use; (iv) assess the impact of current land use and forestry policies on timber and nonwood forest product management; and (v) propose options favouring sustainable use.The second (ecological) component of the project examined the conservation status of selected forest stands and tree species and investigated the demographic structure of selected populations of those species. Work was specifically directed towards determining the effect of human activities on the selected trees in terms of their reproductive biology and ecology, phenology, pollinator foraging behaviour, seed dispersal, seed bank development, seed and seedling predation, and other regeneration dynamics.The third (genetic) component of the project analyzed patterns of genetic variation within the selected tree species and examined the effects of human activities like logging and gathering on the genetic diversity and genetic structure of those species, including nonwood forest product species.The project included activities that emphasized knowledge transfer among research teams from different countries. It also sought to promote exchange of views and information among scientists, local policy-makers and forest-user groups, focusing particularly on strategies and methods for conservation and use of FGRs.The working hypotheses to be tested were: 1. The types and intensities of forest resource use by local communities will depend on such socioeconomic factors as access to markets and availability of alternative employment (local or urban). 2. Derived from cultural background and economic conditions, the value attributed to the forest by local communities will determine the degree to which the forest is managed sustainably. 3. Increased levels of forest use will affect both the extent and the distribution of infraspecific diversity in tree species. 4. The impact of forest use on the genetic diversity of tree species will depend on the type and the intensity of forest use and the ecology of the species. 5. Broad predictive relationships among patterns of use, species ecology and changes in genetic diversity are identifiable. 6. A key biological factor that mediates the impact of use on the genetic diversity of the species is its reproductive ecology, including pollination and mating system and seedling recruitment. 7. Information on changing socioeconomic conditions and related human activities and their effects on genetic resources is important for generating sustainable management options for the future. Three major forest ecosystems and clusters of tree species were selected to test these hypotheses (listed in Table 3, overleaf):• Threatened Araucaria spp. forest ecosystems in southern Brazil and northeastern and southwestern Argentina (1% of original forest remaining)• Endangered Atlantic forest ecosystems of Brazil (7% of original forest remaining)• Highly diverse and relatively intact Brazilian Amazon tropical forest ecosystems, in areas with recently established and active sawmill industries and logging operations.The principal outcomes of the project are illustrated in the rest of Part 2 in this book. Chapters 6 and 7 focus on two types of araucaria forest ecosystems in Argentina and Brazil. The case study presented in Chapter 6 looks at the impact of current patterns of forest use by local indigenous communities on the conservation status of Araucaria araucana FGRs within and in areas immediately neighbouring a protected area in northern Patagonia (Argentina). Chapter 7 illustrates the findings of an assessment on the conservation status of another araucaria species, A. angustifolia, in the State of Paraná, Brazil. The research carried out within the A. angustifolia subproject mainly investigated the repercussions of different policy frameworks regulating access to and use of FGRs on the conservation status of A. angustifolia. In Chapter 8, different extraction regimes of nonwood forest products, derived from selected species within the Amazon forest ecosystem, are compared in the light of their influence on genetic processes. Chapter 9 presents an extreme case of forest degradation in the southeastern part of the State of São Paulo (Brazil) caused by heavy and rapid fragmentation, and analyzes the conditions of FGRs in priority species inside fragments of different size and with varied use histories.Finally, in Chapters 10 and 11, two examples of modeling applied to A. araucana forest ecosystems are illustrated. The first provides a landscape-scale view of the dynamic processes affecting araucaria FGRs, describing links and feedback mechanisms between (i) the conservation status of araucaria FGRs inside a protected area; (ii) the socioeconomic dynamics of local indigenous communities that are partly dependent on nonwood forest products and on forest services; and (iii) various productive activities carried out by the local communities that affect araucaria genetic resources. Chapter 11 uses a modeling application to explain and predict patterns of araucaria spatial genetic structure, based on the analysis of selection pressures, gene flow and species distribution patterns.Alvarez-Buylla, E.R., R. García-Barros, C. Lara-Moreno and M. Martínez-Ramos. 1996  This chapter investigates threats to the genetic resources of Araucaria araucana, studied as part of a project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) at a site in Argentina. Genetic processes were examined in A. araucana forests that were differently affected by human activities and which grew along an environmental gradient. These processes were then analyzed in relation to biological dynamics and socioeconomic conditions. Suggestions are made on how to incorporate research results into guidelines for sound management of A. araucana forest genetic resources (FGRs).Araucaria araucana (common name: araucaria, or pehuén in the Mapuche language) is a long-lived, canopy-tree conifer with a typical large umbrella-like form when mature. It is a member of the most ancient extant family of seed plants, Araucariaceae (Tomlinson 2002), and specimens as old as 1300 years have been recorded (Montaldo 1974). Trees can grow up to 50 m in height and up to 2.5 m in diameter (Veblen and Delmastro 1976). The species is endemic to the northern regions of the temperate sub-Antarctic forests of Chile and Argentina. Figure 1 (overleaf) shows its regional distribution in Argentina (northern Patagonia) and the location of the study sites. Araucaria is of high conservation concern because of its restricted distribution, slow growth and low regenerative capacity, making it particularly susceptible to human impact. The species is also important for its high economic and cultural value to the Mapuche people, ancient inhabitants of southern Chile and Argentina (Box 1, on p. 107). Livestock grazing, fuelwood exploitation and araucaria seed collection are the main activities upon which the economy of the Mapuche tribes is based. The araucaria seed ('piñon' in Spanish) is an important resource for Mapuche communities where it is consumed by humans and used as a livestock feed, with surplus usually sold in markets. The Mapuche communities practise transhumance, or seasonal pastoralism involving movement of humans along with the pastured animals. For most of the year people live in the steppe, a dry environment composed mainly of tussock grasses and shrubs, where isolated stands of araucaria are found, but some families move with their livestock to summer grazing grounds high in the mountains near or in araucaria and Nothofagus spp. association forests. Grazing occurs there in conjunction with fuelwood gathering and seed collecting while people are in these areas, known locally as 'veranada'. About 60% of the Argentine araucaria forests remain after deforestation (Veblen et al. 1999;Rechene 2000), and these continue to be degraded by fire, logging and overgrazing. Today, the most obvious sign of araucaria forest degradation is the lack of natural regeneration that, under normal conditions, follows a 'pulse' pattern of highly productive seed years followed by less productive ones. Livestock and wild animals also exert pressure on araucaria stands, consuming seeds in autumn and seedlings in spring, and trampling seedlings during grazing. Non-native mammals such as red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), European hare (Lepus europaeus), European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) have invaded forests where livestock are absent, with serious detrimental effects on native forest ecosystems (Funes 1996;Flueck et al. 1999). In forests experiencing intensive human use in the form of seed collecting and animal grazing, araucaria trees also exhibit low regeneration, and any regeneration that does occur is principally asexual with trees sprouting from roots (Figure 2, overleaf). In heavily used araucaria forests in Argentina and Chile, even trees that are over 80 years old can remain stunted (Veblen 1982;Rechene 2000).The use and management of araucaria genetic resources, and the effect that humans and the environment have on the genetic diversity of the species, were examined within the framework of this project, jointly run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the BMZ. Socioeconomic surveys were carried out in two Mapuche communities in Argentina to document current use patterns of araucaria FGRs. Araucaria genetic diversity was investigated within the natural range of the species in Argentina and also at the local level in the southern part of its range within the territories of two indigenous communities near the Lanin National Park (Figures 1 and 8), as well as in two forest stands, Rucachoroi and Tromen, the latter only partly located within the Lanin National Park. Seed productivity and predation studies were undertaken to serve as a basis for the later interpretation of observed regeneration patterns. Research results wereAraucaria or pehuén has both religious and economic significance for the 60 000 Mapuche people (mapu = earth, che = people) living in the southern Andes mountains, and it has given its name to one of the Mapuche tribes: the Pehuénches. Indigenous livelihoods are derived from livestock rearing, agriculture, production of wooden and woollen handcrafts, and different types of off-farm income such as government subsidies, salaries and pensions. From the pehuén forest, people obtain fuelwood, building materials both for their houses and shelters for livestock, resin for medicinal purposes, and food in the form of piñon. Piñon consumption varies in each household with seeds consumed as food, fed to livestock and sold as surplus. In some Mapuche communities, pehuén seeds represent from 10% to 15% of the diet during harvest time (February-May) and during the long winter (June-September) when they provide the main carbohydrate source. Tonnes of seeds are collected every year as food, and in the past some were exported. However, in 2002 araucaria was included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the international commercialization of seeds from Argentina and Chile was prohibited. Inside Argentina's Lanin National Park indigenous people are allowed to use dead wood for fuel and carvings, and to collect up to 300 kg of seeds per family per year. For some families, especially in Chile, the sale of araucaria seeds in local and national markets provides an important annual income.  translated into practical recommendations for the management of natural resources within the areas studied, including the conservation of araucaria FGRs.Our project focused primarily on the Mapuche communities of Chiuquilihuin, where araucaria forest use was moderate, and Aucapan (Figure 3), where forest use was intense. These communities are located in Argentina's Neuquén Province in Andean Patagonia, between approximately 39º35'30\"S, 71º13'30\"W and 39º39'30\"S, 71º0'0\"W and include araucaria stands which are located in the most southern part of the natural range of A. araucana in Argentina.These communities are bordered by Lanin National Park to the north and west and by private ranches to the south and east (see Figure 8, on p. 119). The topography is characterized by hills and mountains that vary from 750 to 2000 m above sea level (m asl), with average annual precipitation ranging from 1800 to 1200 mm from west to east.A third area was studied (Tromen) that is partly contained within the boundaries of Lanin National Park and partly defined as forest reserve and under a different management regime. The part of Tromen located inside the national park was adopted as a control because it is less affected by human use. Finally, the study also included araucaria stands in a fourth site with higher precipitation, located in the Rucachoroi watershed north of the Chiuquilihuin and Aucapan communities, (39º14'0\"S, 71º10'0\"W), where signs of intense araucaria forest use were recorded. Average annual precipitation there ranges from 2200 to 1800 mm from west to east, with the altitude varying from 1350 to 2300 m asl. The watersheds studied all have a prevalent west-east orientation.Forest associations of araucaria and Nothofagus species were characteristic of both community territories. Box 2 (overleaf) explains the main characteristics of the Andean forests and of the tree species associations found at the study sites (see also Section 4.1 in this chapter).Large areas were cleared after European colonization, causing a drastic reduction in the natural range of araucaria forest. In Argentina, the establishment of a National Park Administration in 1937 represented the first step towards the conservation of native forests.The Mapuche communities use the forest to gather seeds and fuelwood and to graze their domesticated animals at varying degrees of intensity. The forest is degraded by overgrazing, especially towards the eastern steppe which occupies the drier end of the rainfall gradient covered by araucaria stands.The Chiuquilihuin and Aucapan communities have official legal rights to the forest and surrounding lands. Houses are distributed within the community territories, but most are concentrated in the drier steppe. The grazing areas are not clearly demarcated. The communities have their own statutes and representative bodies such as 'Directive Commissions' that are elected by secret ballot every two years. The commissions are headed by a 'cacique or lonko' who is often a spiritual leader in the community. Important issues are decided at community meetings.The two communities surveyed, Aucapan and Chiuquilihuin, exhibited distinctly different levels of involvement in the project. Previous negative experiences of collaboration with research projects made the process of trust building slow and difficult, especially in the community of Aucapan where the data ultimately collected were much less complete.Despite these problems, socioeconomic surveys were carried out using a participatory approach. The experience and knowledge of the indigenous people quickly revealed itself to be crucial to the reconstruction of past practices and to the identification of land-use options. Indigenous community surveys included: (i) demographic analyses; (ii) land-use map updates; and (iii) documentation and analyses of economic activities.The Andean forests of Patagonia extend from latitudes of 35º to 55º south on both sides of the Andean cordillera. They are defined as 'temperate forests' because of this location and because of the low winter temperature tolerance shown by the woody species of which they are primarily composed. To the east they border the Patagonian steppe, to the south the Atlantic Ocean, to the west the Pacific Ocean and to the north the Atacama desert. They thus form a relatively isolated forest biome and biogeographic island in southern South America (Armesto et al. 1995).The Andean forests of Patagonia are dominated by broad-leaved species in association with a few conifers such as Araucaria araucana, Fitzroya cupressoides and Austrocedrus chilensis, and they are characterized by greater species diversity and higher species endemism than forests in the equivalent climatic zone in the northern hemisphere, indicating a distinctly different origin for the southern flora (namely Gondwana; Arroyo et al. 1995). Of the broad-leaved species, ten are found in the genus Nothofagus, and these species constitute the most important component of the Andean forests of Patagonia. They are found in a wide range of habitats, showing both great phenotypic plasticity and genetic differentiation over their natural range (Donoso 1987). A. araucana is found mixed with these and other species along a precipitation and altitudinal gradient. The three most common associations are:(i) A. araucana and Nothofagus pumilio (called 'lenga' in the Mapuche language). This association generally occurs in the western, wetter parts of the araucaria range at higher elevations (1100-1800 m asl) and on south-facing slopes. This forest type has been commercially exploited.(ii) A. araucana and Nothofagus antarctica in shrub form (called 'ñire' in the Mapuche language). This association is found in east-west running valleys near the upper forest limit. The araucaria canopy emerges from a prostrate and shrubby layer of ñire. Currently, this forest type is an important source of fuelwood for Mapuche communities and is affected by grazing and by natural and/or man-made fires.(iii) A. araucana in pure stands is found near the upper forest limit on poorer soils but also at lower elevations within the steppe environment. The isolated araucaria woodlots in the steppe are highly disturbed. The vegetation of this steppe ecoregion is xerophytic and highly adapted for protection against drought, wind and herbivores. Dwarf and cushion shrubs are the most widely occurring vegetation types in the ecoregion. There are three main types of vegetative communities: semidesert (accounting for 45%), shrub-steppe (30%) and grass-steppe (20%). Desertlike areas also exist with little to no vegetative cover as do wet meadow areas which have close to 100% cover.The Andean forests of Patagonia have been heavily exploited in the past, especially so in Chile.Demographic surveys of the two communities were undertaken (Table 1). The family group was defined as the people who live in the same house and share costs. For Chiuquilihuin, the survey started with a list of families provided by the Neuquén Province food aid programme. Information was cross-checked with members of the Directive Commission and other members of the community, and official sources were also consulted. Less Gender distribution in the two communities was analyzed. The data derived from official sources were not cross-checked with members of the community during the BMZ project, but a new census was undertaken in January 2002 in order to gauge growth trends. These data, though limited, reveal substantial growth during the last 15 years.Land-use maps were updated for the two communities, with the objective of locating the houses on community-controlled land. Information collected from local people and from recent satellite maps allowed us to create updated maps supported by geographic information systems (GIS), which were then delivered to the Directive Commission of each community. In Chiuquilihuin, houses were concentrated mostly along the Chiuquilihuin River within a limited geographic area, while Aucapan houses were more uniformly scattered across the community territory (Figure 4, overleaf). The extension and degree of fragmentation of araucaria forest stands within the communities' territory were assessed.The socioeconomic survey of Chiuquilihuin enabled us to identify different categories of farmers on the basis of their income structure (Figure 5, overleaf). Including children and elders, the survey revealed that approximately 40% of the members of this community (representing approximately 90% of the households) receive off-farm income. While men and women have equal opportunities to obtain subsidies, men are favoured when looking for employment, most commonly as shepherds on private farms in neighbouring areas.Provincial forest authorities also provide subsidies to farmers for planting trees on their land, and in 2002 the Neuquén provincial government provided a subsidy of US$0.27 per animal per year to promote grazing in rural areas.Within the two Mapuche communities, livestock overgrazing is a major cause of soil erosion and a factor that impedes tree regeneration. Therefore, a survey of livestock was undertaken to determine the number of animals owned within the community and the distribution of animal ownership across community members. Different sources were used to assemble these data, shown in Table 2 (on p. 113). The field observations that we made in February 2002, when compared with previous censuses, led us to conclude that prior censuses were serious underestimates.     This information allowed us to estimate the overall grazing pressure of animals both on pastureland and on the grazed forest area within the two community territories (see Section 4.4 in this chapter). According to the size of their herds, Chiuquilihuin farmers could be divided into four groups of livestock ownership as shown in Figure 6 (overleaf). Most community members owned small numbers of animals. Large-scale farmers were more likely to own cows, while small-and medium-scale farmers were more likely to own sheep and goats.As discussed later in Chapter 12, we employed a participatory approach to carrying out the socioeconomic survey. Despite problems related to what proved to be the timedemanding and slow process of building trust between the researchers and the local communities, it was possible to collect a large amount of information on indigenous forest resource use, livestock management and other economic activities. These data turned out to be crucially important in our attempts to address some of the practical issues raised by the Mapuche communities involved in this BMZ subproject (see Section 6 of this chapter).The forest stands that we studied near Tromen and Rucachoroi are both located within Lanin National Park but differ from one another in their composition, density, structure and intensity of human use (Tables 3 and 4, on p. 115), with the site in Rucachoroi showing more signs of human activity. The location of the forest stands investigated is shown in Figure 1. Tree density and basal area calculations helped us to identify the structural conditions and the developmental stages of different stands within Tromen and Rucachoroi forests (Table 3).In Tromen, a significant difference was found between western and eastern stands. The western stand was in a more advanced developmental stage, while the eastern stand  showed a bimodal pattern, indicating disturbance probably either by fire or human activity within the last 200 years. The level of regeneration in the two stands was substantially different. More than 24 000 seedlings/ha were found in the western stand, while fewer than 1700 seedlings/ha were found in the eastern stand.In Rucachoroi, to account for the larger range of forest types, we divided forest stands into four types according to location, composition and structure (Table 4): dense araucaria (Aa) stands in the east; Aa in the west; open araucaria + Nothofagus pumilio mixed stands (Np); and, araucaria + Nothofagus antarctica (Na). The level of regeneration in the four types of Rucachoroi stands was low (<1700 seedlings/ha), most likely as a result of historical livestock overgrazing (Rechene 2000). Larger proportions (24-57%) of trees with umbrella-like shapes were found in the dense stands. In contrast, open stands had a greater proportion of trees with conical shapes (47-82%), typical of individual trees that have been growing without competition from neighbouring individuals.In 2000, araucaria seed production in Lanin National Park was studied across the range of environments. Six forest stands were selected based on forest structure and position in the precipitation gradient. Stands were chosen using a stratified sample design based on work performed by Burns (1991) and aerial photographs (scale 1:28 000). The stands were characterized with regard to overall tree density, density of seed trees, tree size (shape, height and dbh) and sexual information, using plot methods (point-centred quarter method) applied on line transects with different geographic orientations (Mateucci and Colma 1982;Sutherland 1996)   gross araucaria seed production for the Tromen and Rucachoroi watersheds (western and eastern parts) was estimated. In Rucachoroi, we compared seed production estimates with official seed extraction data per hectare and concluded that when seed production is high, seed collection by local people also increases. Seeds are more easily harvested in productive years because people spend less time searching for suitable collecting sites. Thus, in order to estimate the historical periodicity of high seed production, we used data on seed collecting by humans between 1987 and 2000 in Rucachoroi as well as from several sites in Neuquén Province about 150 km to the northeast of Rucachoroi. Overall seed production for the six sampled stands was monitored over three years (Table 5).In general, dense araucaria forests in Lanin National Park were more productive than the open forests, with the exception of the open and dense western stands in Tromen, where this pattern was reversed (Table 5). In the very dense Tromen stand (see Table 4), competition among seed trees growing close together with typical, smaller umbrella-like crowns, results in a lower productivity of seeds per hectare.The production of araucaria cones per seed tree varied greatly from year to year. We estimate that the forests in the study area produce good quantities of seed every three years or so. Following high production years, seed trees require at least two years to recover, during which time seed production is lower. In the eastern, drier locations, seed production shows less annual fluctuation with precipitation, while in the wetter, western locations seed production is heavily depressed in years with high rainfall. This pattern may be due to the limited wind dispersal of pollen during years of heavy rain, which lowers seed output particularly in forests in the more humid areas located in western sites (Donoso 1998;Sanguinetti et al. 2000). This information strongly suggests that the weather influences araucaria seed production at the study sites and over the natural araucaria range in general.Mapuche collect seeds for their own consumption, to feed livestock, and occasionally to sell to traders, but most of the pressure on araucaria regeneration comes from seed predation by livestock and wild animals in the fall, from browsing of seedlings by these same animals in the spring, and from their trampling of seedlings and saplings during both seasons.Using microhistological analyses of samples of faeces, prepared and analyzed following the procedure of Holechek and Gross (1982) Despite the overall high digestibility of araucaria seeds, seed tissue residues were detected in most of the faeces examined from domesticated and wild exotic herbivorous mammals. Each of the herbivores' diets varied depending on the grazing habits of the different species and on the area studied (Figure 7). Araucaria seeds constituted a substantial part of the diet of two wild exotic herbivores (red deer and wild boar) and of cows.Mapuche collect, on average, around 14% of total seed production (calculating a mean over high and low years of seed production), which affects regeneration of araucaria (Sanguinetti et al. 2002), but the consumption of seeds by animals is generally much higher. Wild exotic animals alone usually consume around 22% of overall seed production.Our results show the need for greater control of access to forest stands by livestock and wild animals where regeneration of araucaria is threatened by predation and trampling of seedlings and saplings.We undertook a study to determine sustainable concentrations of grazing animals for the different types of pasturelands found within the Mapuche communities of Chiuquilihuin and Aucapan, to see if those grazing areas could provide enough food for animals without the contribution of araucaria seeds. The objective of this analysis was to assess the possibility of formulating pasture management strategies that could optimize forage production and meet the food demands of livestock and wild animals while reducing the pressure on araucaria regeneration. We distinguished pastureland types by the quality and the amount of forage each produced, using 1:60 000 maps derived from Landsat 7 TM images from 1999, images interpreted by the INTA GIS Laboratory in Bariloche, Argentina. Of the total land area studied in the two communities (14 114 ha), 63% was suitable for grazing. The different types of pastures identified, based on different plant assemblages, are described in Table 6.For each type of pastureland identified in Table 6, we determined the actual and recommended animal stocks in Sheep Livestock Units (SLUs) per ha, using a standard Merino sheep of 40 kg, fed with 365 kg of dry matter/year. This was done on the basis of forage produced by each pasture type, its total extension, its accessibility to livestock, and a coefficient we called 'use factor' (Stoddart et al., 1975) that relates to the extent of degradation of the vegetation and soil. Household surveys showed that the number  of animals owned by the communities of Chiuquilihuin and Aucapan and their grazing density on pastureland were on average five times higher than our recommended density. Furthermore, only a few families own the most productive pasturelands and this impedes an optimal exploitation of these pastures during the summer.Based on our analysis of forage available from different pastureland types, on the current size of the area grazed, and on the current rotation system used, we made recommendations for improved regulation of access to pasturelands, and proposed them to policy makers and local indigenous communities.Suggested improvements in livestock management practices were based on changes to the number of animals grazed in summer pasturelands combined with the identification of new areas for forage harvesting and an increase in the area harvested for winter forage. However, there are serious constraints to applying any of these solutions, the most important being that a reduction in the number of livestock owned by the community would have a negative impact on a traditional, fundamental source of income. However, just a few families own a large number of animals, therefore a reduction of livestock (properly compensated) could be introduced at the expense of only a few individuals.Considering the pressure posed by fragmentation, soil degradation, and lack of regeneration on araucaria genetic resources in Argentina, one of the objectives of our project was to survey both the ecological and genetic aspects of araucaria on a landscape scale in order to recommend best practices for the conservation and use of araucaria genetic resources. We were especially concerned by the state of the most fragmented araucaria stands located in the eastern, drier parts of the range in Argentina. Our study included both unused stands and those traditionally used by Mapuche indigenous communities within Lanin National Park and in surrounding areas (see Figure 8). In order to monitor genetic diversity, describe genetic variation and study genetic processes, well-defined gene markers are needed. Isozyme markers were identified for this species, and progeny and provenance trials with araucaria were initiated. We also undertook genetic diversity and differentiation surveys of the species in its natural Argentinean range (Figure 9).Isozyme markers were preferred for population genetic studies because, among their advantages, their co-dominant expression is especially important. Since endosperm tissue carries the information of two gametes, segregation patterns can be directly observed through the analysis of mega-gametophytes. Additionally, isozymes function as adaptive markers (Bergmann and Hattemer 1998) and this makes them useful for selection process analysis.Our forest genetic study of A. araucana in Argentina occurred on two spatial scales. Research at the local level analyzed the southern natural distribution of the species in Argentina. The objective was to describe the genetic connectivity among fragmented and continuous araucaria neighbouring populations and the effect of human use on the genetic diversity of the species. A second study was carried out at a regional level, throughout the natural range of araucaria in Argentina. The objective was to describe the general pattern of variation of the species in that country. Thirteen isozymes were assayed using laboratory protocols from Cheliak and Pitel (1985), slightly modified for araucaria. Sampling of trees occurred in four A. araucana forest fragments located in the eastern, drier steppe, where trees were widely separated and seeds on the ground could be assigned to a specific individual with reliability.Putative heterozygous individuals were detected by screening nine randomly selected seeds per tree. Seeds from heterozygous trees were used to test the observed segregation against the 1:1 Mendelian theory of inheritance (Chi-square test, α = 0.05), expressed by the law of segregation (each hereditary characteristic is controlled by two alleles, which segregate and pass into separate germ cells) and the law of independent assortment (the pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other when germ cells are formed). This allowed us to determine the gene markers.Bulk stand collecting and individual tree collecting were undertaken to gather seeds from 22 populations covering the natural range of the species in Argentina during two consecutive years (March-April of 2000 and2001). Samples were taken from inside the Chiuquilihuin community (moderate use of araucaria), in the Aucapan and Rucachoroi community lands (intensive use of araucaria), and in the Tromen forest (control area located inside Lanin National Park).The selected populations corresponded with the three most common araucaria forest types: Np, Na and Aa (from Table 4). These associations integrate with each other in the order presented along the west-east decreasing precipitation gradient. Continuing eastwards, the forests progressively disappear and are replaced by nonforested steppe.A local variation analysis was performed on several progenies originating from five fragmented but pure araucaria eastern populations (Figure 10) and nine additional populations from western mixed stands of araucaria + Nothofagus spp. A regional variation analysis of araucaria included 11 populations covering the natural range of the species in Argentina, including three that were analyzed in the local level analysis.Genetic diversity (variation within populations) and differentiation (variation between populations) were estimated in the Argentinean araucaria populations. For this purpose, 100 seed embryos from various populations spread within the araucaria range were analyzed electrophoretically. This sample size guaranteed the inclusion of alleles with a frequency value of 3.2%, and with a probability level of 0.95 (Gregorius 1980). For the analysis of genetic diversity, the parameters listed below were measured:• Average number of alleles per locus (A) • Gene pool diversity (v) equivalent to the effective number of alleles (n e )• Observed heterozygosity (H o )• Expected heterozygosity (H e )• Fixation index (f), a measure of heterozygote deficiency or excess (Wright 1978).For genetic differentiation, the parameters measured were:• Homogeneity test-G (significant differences among populations structures) • Absolute genetic distance (d o ; Gregorius 1974)  • Gene pool differentiation of a population or deme (Dj; Gregorius and Roberds 1986)  • Gene pool differentiation (δ; Gregorius and Roberds 1986).Significance of the genetic distance was inferred in terms of probabilities (through the matrix of probabilities α = 0.05). F ST is the most widespread measure of genetic differentiation used and describes the proportion of variance within a species that is due to population subdivision (Wright 1978). A cluster analysis based on the genetic distance proposed by Gregorius (1974) was adopted.F ST was used to obtain an indirect estimate of the historical number of migrants per generation (N m ; Wright 1951).For the genetic analysis of the observed phenotypic segregation (shown as bands in the zymograms) 16 putative heterozygote trees were used. The genetic analysis proved that the observed variation in four polymorphic loci (Idh, Pgm-A, Pgm-B and Got-C) was genetically controlled. The results of the Chi-squared tests for single-locus segregation are presented in Table 7 (opposite). The probability values indicate that there are no significant differences between the observed and expected segregates. Therefore, we could statistically determine nine gene markers for this species, distributed in four gene marker loci. Other observed genetic segregating variants without a statistical verification were not included in the population genetic studies.Table 8 (on p. 124) summarizes most of the genetic parameters estimated for local and regional Argentinean araucaria populations. For all populations, the average number of alleles per locus (A/l) was 2.5 (in each population all the possible allelic variants were detected). The mean gene pool diversity (v) for the local level analysis was 1.820, a value significantly higher than the 1.694 mean gene pool diversity for the regional level data. The AE sample, from a marginal population of isolated trees in the heavily exploited Aucapan steppe, had the highest mean gene pool diversity of 1.998. The lowest value corresponded to RO, a Rucachoroi west population just north of the Aucapan and Chiuquilihuin communities in a neighbouring valley that has a history of land use and forest fires.The observed heterozygosity (H o ) is based on observed genotypes and, therefore, it better expresses a real condition of genotypic variation versus potential variation (expected heterozygosity H e ) and was similar in local and regional level analyses. H e is the level of heterozygosity expected if the population were in Hardy-Weinberg (H-W) equilibrium (Nei 1973), which defines the genotypic frequencies expected when genetic drift is not occurring, mating is random, natural selection is taking place and neither migration nor mutations occur. The observed differences from these partly unrealistic conditions explain how Mendelian segregation influences allelic and genotypic frequencies in a population.Significant deviations from H-W expectations were observed for the four loci analyzed (as shown in Table 7) in several populations. In most cases this was due to an excess of homozygotes that are associated with inbreeding. This pattern was most prevalent in the western, continuous populations where higher rainfall probably restricted anemophilous (by wind) gene flow and contributed to creating a marked spatial genetic structure in these populations. In fragmented populations, we attributed inbreeding to the fact that seed dispersal occurs by gravity.123 Genetic differentiation among populations was found to be moderate with F st equal to 0.10 (Hartl and Clark 1997). A value of Gregorius' δ of 0.143 among populations is three times higher than in other Patagonian native forest species (e.g., Austrocedrus chilensis: δ = 0.043, Pastorino et al. in press; Nothofagus nervosa: δ = 0.047, Marchelli and Gallo 2001). Local level mean values were slightly lower than for those at the regional level (F st = 0.095; δ = 0.143).The gene pool differentiation of each population is graphically presented in Figure 11 (on p. 125) in a so-called 'differentiation snail' (Gregorius and Roberds 1986). The length of the radius of each 'pie portion' denotes the population differentiation with respect to the rest of the populations (Dj), their angles represent the population sizes weighted (cj; considered to be equal in this analysis), and the radius of the circle is the gene pool differentiation (δ = 0.143). The RO population was the most differentiated (Dj = 0.23), with the lowest values of gene diversity (0.1453) and H o (0.174), and minor polymorphism in the four analyzed loci. On the other hand, TE is the population that best represents the general gene pool constitution of the species in Argentina.Since significant genetic differences among population structures were found, gene pool distances were calculated (Gregorius 1974) and are shown in a cluster analysis in Figure 12 (on p. 125). The significance of the gene pool distances among populations was then demonstrated using a matrix of probability. Most of the gene pool distances were significantly different from a pooled population without subdivisions.The cluster analysis formed three well-defined groups of araucaria. The first consisted of mixed araucaria populations with Nothofagus pumilio, such as CP and TO located at Tromen in stands with low use intensity. Also in this genetic cluster were CHO, located within the Chiuquilihuin community territory and also with low use intensity, and RO and RE, located in the Rucachoroi basin to the north of Chiuquilihuin and Aucapan and with    The second cluster was composed of several fragmented populations, CHE, TE, NMA and AE, that were generally located in areas marginal to the study site, at the southern and eastern limits of the araucaria range and in more arid climates. These populations were greatly affected by past and present human use and showed limited natural regeneration.The last cluster consisted of four continuous populations located within the Mapuche communities of Aucapan and Chiuquilihuin: APR, TRL, MAU and TRN. These populations were characterized by moderate human use in the past (logging, fuelwood extraction, seed collecting and grazing of livestock) and currently exhibit different levels of natural regeneration.Indirect estimates of the effective number of immigrants per generation were calculated (Wright 1951;Nei 1973) to characterize gene flow using all populations, resulting in a rather low number of N m = 2.22. This value was lower than expected for gymnosperms when compared to the results from investigations carried out elsewhere on 89 species (N m = 3.17, Hamrick et al. 1992) and lower than the values found for gene flow in some Nothofagus species (e.g., Premoli 1997; Table 9).The low value of gene flow (N m = 2.22) found may be due to the limited dispersal of araucaria's pollen and seeds. In addition, the prevailing wind, blowing from west to east during the pollination period, could be one of the factors responsible for the limited gene flow observed, with the western populations less likely to receive pollen from outside.Gene flow was found to be slightly higher (N m = 2.39) in the southern part of araucaria's natural range, where it was studied in a greater number of populations. However, the most pronounced differences in gene flow values within the range of the species were found when comparing samples from populations along west-east transects at similar latitudes within the same watershed. Similar patterns were found in neighbouring watersheds, supporting the theory of a strong unidirectional wind effect that induces pollen dispersion from west to east. In all cases, the estimates of gene flow were up to 12 times higher in the eastern stands. The genetic diversity found in most eastern populations was also higher (Figure 13).The gene flow analysis replicated at a regional level confirmed the pattern found at the local level, showing eastern populations to have gene flow twice as high as in the western populations (Gallo 2003). We expected to see more genetic variation in years when more seeds were produced, implying more genetic contributions. Temporal mating system variation has been reported for Nothofagus nervosa species in relation to yearly variations in seed productivity (Marchelli and Gallo 1999), but this trend was not noted for araucaria during our study.   The BMZ-funded subproject described here allowed us to gather baseline data that supported the work undertaken within the Pehuenche project, aimed at achieving the following objectives: (i) increasing household incomes through the rational use of natural resources and diversification of economic activities, (ii) solving technical water management problems, and (iii) strengthening the capacity of the indigenous communities to manage their own resources sustainably. The Pehuenche project sees Mapuche communities as active participants in all natural resource management decisions.Besides being crucial to the promotion of local sustainable development initiatives, the Pehuenche project is also a promising model from which lessons of wide applicability can be drawn, with solutions potentially exported to other parts of the region where indigenous people hold communal land tenure rights within reserves. Indeed, the two Mapuche settlements involved in the Pehuenche project exemplify patterns of tension between traditional natural resource management regimes and the national and provincial governments seeking land for growing populations while dealing with natural resource use limits imposed by the proximity of a national park. Such local socioeconomic tensions are widely encountered in other rural regions of Argentina and in the South American countries generally. Nevertheless, our survey indicated that araucaria forests were subjected to heavy soil erosion caused by livestock overgrazing, and they show a lack of regeneration that is very likely caused by seed predation, livestock trampling of seedlings and saplings, and the resulting erosion. Cows and wild boars were found to be the largest consumers of seed among the species investigated. Without some sort of change, the current situation will become worse as the Mapuche population continues to grow.Given this rather bleak future scenario, we believe that urgent measures are needed to improve or maintain forage production through adjustments in livestock numbers and grazing land management. The pasturelands used by the Mapuche communities were categorized into types according to their forage productivity and ecological characteristics, and this enabled us to estimate optimal animal stocks and densities for the different types of grazing sites, and these should be used as a basis for improving current livestock management practices.Most of the solutions we envisage to improve livestock management imply a reduction of current animal stocks. The distribution of livestock ownership in Chiuquilihuin was found to be highly unequal, with just two farmers owning most of the animals. Therefore, a significant reduction in the number of animals kept would affect only a very small number of people. Nevertheless, if this measure is to be implemented, targeted incentives should be provided to these community members to compensate them for their loss of income from livestock raising, and subsidies to promote grazing in rural areas should be stopped and replaced by different types of inputs (such as forage supplied in periods of scarcity, e.g., during winter).The forest survey revealed that eastern araucaria stands are much more fragmented than western stands, and it showed slightly higher genetic fixation coefficients than the continuous ones. This could either be due to greater inbreeding or a reduced effective population size that could lead to genetic drift and increased homozygosity. Yet the eastern, more fragmented araucaria populations did not show worrying processes of genetic erosion when compared to western populations (Gallo 2003). However, in most of the fragmented populations of A. araucana studied, regeneration was absent or reproduction was mainly vegetative. Therefore, future adult generations in these fragmented populations will most likely show very different genetic structures from the ones observed today. The future of the fragmented stands located in the most arid parts of the range will most likely be characterized by serious reductions in genetic diversity.No clear trends of diversity or differentiation in A. araucana populations were found in relation to environmental conditions (e.g., in relation to the west-east precipitation gradient) or in relation to patterns of human land use. Estimated genetic diversity values were erratic among fragmented populations, and our hypotheses that allelic loss through genetic drift, increase of homozygosity through high inbreeding, or strong subpopulation differentiation through restricted gene flow in marginal populations could not be confirmed.Unexpectedly, our research revealed that a degree of inbreeding is occurring in the western populations that are located in denser, wetter and less disturbed parts of the araucaria range. A possible explanation could be the negative effects of heavy rainfall on pollen movement in years with high precipitation. Furthermore, and unexpectedly, gene flow was found to be higher in the more fragmented eastern populations, which we anticipated was due to the effects of the prevailing west-east winds and resulting pollen movement.The high within-population variation found in our study highlights the need to consider this variation in the design and implementation of restoration measures, especially in the eroded and fragmented eastern populations. Our research also showed that greater genetic variation is found in seeds during years of higher seed production and this finding has very important implication in the planning of seed harvesting for forest restoration and tree breeding purposes.Finally, our research showed that questions of sustainability of forest management practices must be answered on a large scale. It is also important to look at both direct and indirect effects of human activities on biological processes and, more particularly, on the genetic dynamics that characterize the macro-and micro-evolutionary processes in araucaria forests. Solutions leading to forest use sustainability must be found by taking into account the broad range of economic activities of local forest users and the development options for improving management of other resources (crops, livestock, etc.) that contribute to the livelihood of local communities.Furthermore, any potential solutions for improving management and use of pasturelands and araucaria forests in the areas surrounding the Mapuche communities studied must be discussed in wide consultation, engaging the indigenous communities, land managers, and government officials.This chapter asseses the conservation status of another araucaria species, Araucaria angustifolia, in the state of Paraná, Brazil. The project mainly investigated the repercussions of policy frameworks regulating access to and use of forest genetic resources of A. angustifolia. Mixed A. angustifolia forest is one of the most important biomes that occur naturally in south and southeastern Brazil. It extends from latitudes 19º30'S to 31º30'S and from longitudes 41º30'W to 54º30'W and includes a small area in the Province of Missiones in Argentina. The original A. angustifolia forest covered an estimated area of 200 000 km 2 (Maack 1950;Maack 1981), but the great value of its wood has led to a dramatic reduction in the number and size of its populations in southern Brazil. The species is today classified as vulnerable in the World Conservation Union (IUCN) 2000 Red List of Threatened Species (Hilton-Taylor 2000). The greatest extension of A. angustifolia in Brazil occurred in Paraná State where it originally occupied 7 378 000 hectares (Maack 1981), corresponding to 37% of the total area of that state.A. angustifolia (Bertoloni) O. Kuntze is a subtropical species in the Araucariaceae family, in the order Coniferales. It is known in Brazil as araucaria, parana-pine, pinheiro-doparaná or pinheiro-brasileiro. Trees can reach 35 to 60 m in height and 0.8 to 2 m in dbh (diameter at breast height) (Klein 1960). Araucaria is usually dioecious, rarely monoecious, with 2n (diploid chromosome number) = 26 (Bandel and Gurgel 1967). Like other conifers, araucaria is wind pollinated, and pollen maturation and pollination in Brazil occur from August through October. The seed cones begin to mature two years after pollination, and the complete cycle from primordial carpel to seed takes four years (Shimoya 1962). Young trees begin to set seed between 12 and 15 years of age. Seeds are dispersed from May through August (Carvalho 1994).Primary araucaria forest in Brazil is composed of mixed species and is usually characterized by having three canopy layers. The uppermost canopy consists of crowns of the older araucaria trees that allow penetration of a considerable amount of light. The middle canopy is mostly formed by Lauraceae species and the lowermost canopy by species of Myrtaceae and by Ilex paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae), called erva-mate.On the basis of photosynthetic and growth responses of araucaria trees grown under different light conditions (Inoue et al. 1979;Einig et al. 1999), A. angustifolia was found to be well adapted to moderate shade. However, since there is little information on the species' behaviour under natural light conditions, the observed absence of seedlings in some shaded environments in the wild led to the commonly held belief that araucaria was a sun-loving, pioneer species that would not regenerate in forest understorey.The commercial exploitation of araucaria wood was one of the most important economic activities in southern Brazil until the end of the 1970s (Guerra et al. 2002). Araucaria wood was a major resource for social and economic development in this region, providing highquality timber for construction and furniture, and long-fibre wood for pulp and paper industries (Carvalho 1994). The araucaria tree also supplies several nonwood forest products (NWFPs): buds and knurs (knots in the tree trunk) are used in folk medicine (Marquesini 1995) and handcrafts, and seeds are consumed as food by humans and livestock for their high nutritional value (Carvalho 1994) (Figure 1).Exploitation of araucaria forest increased after 1934 when road construction projects started and forest industries were established in Paraná and Santa Catarina states. This period also coincided with a growth in demand for agricultural and pasture lands, all of which was driven by population growth in Brazil. More than 15 million m 3 of araucaria timber was exported between 1958 and 1987, and this wood was the most important Brazilian forest product until the 1970s (Reitz andKlein 1966, cited by Guerra et al. 2002). By 1978, araucaria forest area had been reduced to 8% of its original extent (FUPEF 1978). Currently less than 3% of the original araucaria forest cover remains, with only 0.7% occurring in the form of primary forest (FUPEF 2001).According to Laboriau andMatos Filho (1948, cited by Guerra et al. 2002), most of the araucaria forest lands were exploited in three phases: first, the most commercially valuable trees were harvested; second, among the trees left after phase one, those trees with high-quality wood were logged; and third, the lands were burned to create pasture and agricultural areas. Since the start of commercial exploitation, the practices adopted to harvest araucaria have not been inspired by a philosophy of sustainable use, and they resulted in a dramatic change in the appearance of araucaria forest resources. Surveys of secondary araucaria forests harvested more than 50 years ago, carried out within this project, showed that the numbers of juvenile and adult araucaria trees that were expected to have originated from natural regeneration were not found. Only when weeds were controlled and when the light needed for regeneration was manipulated by silvicultural treatments did new trees do well.In 1993 the Brazilian government introduced new legislation (Decreto-lei no 750) that established rules for sustainable management of araucaria forests. According to the rules adopted in Paraná State, only trees with more than 40 cm dbh could be harvested, and at least ten mother-trees in this diameter class per hectare had to be left unharvested. Araucaria harvesting was prohibited by law in 2001 when surveys showed less than 3% of the original araucaria forest cover remained as fragmented forest land (FUPEF 2001).The transformation of most araucaria native forests into pastures and agricultural lands caused the extirpation of many natural populations. Before the adoption of sustainable management regimes, the dysgenic selection that had occurred in exploited populations contributed to reducing their genetic variability to levels now low enough to compromise their use for conservation and breeding purposes. As a result, conservation and breeding programmes are urgently needed that are based on an understanding of the genetic structures of the remaining populations.Awareness is growing in Brazil that A. angustifolia is vulnerable to genetic erosion.While not yet under threat of extinction, several geographic populations have already been lost. Many areas once occupied by araucaria are now used for cattle grazing or for plantations of fast-growing exotic trees. Reforestation programmes have to date been limited both in number and in success, and this may be related to the limited information on many important ecological and physiological features of the species.The Brazilian government is now promoting several initiatives to protect araucaria genetic resources. For example, the harvesting of naturally regenerated araucaria trees is now prohibited by law (PN-COMANA -National Programme of the National Environmental Council -278, 18 July 2001). And more recently, the federal government selected five regions in Paraná State where genetic conservation of araucaria forests is now a priority (PN MMA -National programme of the Ministry of the Environment -507, 20 December 2002). Under this legislation, araucaria or other native species must be used in any expansion of forest area plantations. However, financial constraints have limited the Brazilian government's ability to buy properties in order to establish conservation units like national parks or reserves.The government of Paraná State has been involved in this effort through the establishment of 'biodiversity corridors' by state agencies. This is a multi-institutional initiative that aims to increase connectivity between the araucaria forest fragments (Figure 2, overleaf) that are of interest to genetic conservation. This project is supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), Conservation International (CI), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Japanese government, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. The project is part of a programme designed to safeguard the world's threatened biodiversity hotspots in developing countries.The present poor condition of the natural araucaria forests in Brazil is a consequence of the fact that there is no adequate management model for native forests that combines ecological, genetic, social and economic factors. Because araucaria plantations are less profitable than other land-use options like pine plantations or agricultural crops, this situation perhaps results from the typical way that most Brazilians view forests: that is, simply as a source of timber.Local experience has led us to conclude that there are two viable approaches to achieving conservation of araucaria genetic resources. Both options will require the scientific knowledge obtained in studying the genetic diversity found in the remaining araucaria populations: (i) Establishing new araucaria plantations by farmers and private forestry companies in residual araucaria forests. This option will require genetically improved seeds and efficient agrosilvicultural techniques to increase the profitability of the araucaria plantations.(ii) Government or private initiatives establishing in situ and ex situ conservation programmes for araucaria. These initiatives will require substantial financial resources in order to purchase, establish and maintain conservation areas. The creation of private nature protected reserves (RPPN) in araucaria forest areas, mainly by volunteer landowners, could lead to successful outcomes. But local stakeholders would like to see responsibility for this undertaking shared with the government through incentives and subsidies. Local landowners have expressed the opinion that the government should either buy the land to establish conservation areas, or it should provide subsidies to local stakeholders to maintain the current araucaria forest cover intact until scientifically based, sustainable forest management practices are defined and adopted. Because this position has led to delays, several araucaria forest fragments, extremely valuable for the conservation of the species genetic resources, have yet to be protected.There is yet another management approach for araucaria forests that we feel should be considered. It is based on the traditional community-based system for natural resource management used by small-scale farmers in the Paraná forest, called 'faxinal' (Box 1). Historically, the Paraná countryside was organized into communities that kept agricultural land for individual use and forest land for common use. The system is still practised in some parts of Paraná State. Nevertheless, while many of the existing araucaria forest fragments are found within these communal land management units, the system is not now sustainable for the species in the long run because the forest is being used for grazing, and this adversely affects natural regeneration of araucaria trees.With modifications to the traditional faxinal system, we feel that the long-term conservation and sustainable use of araucaria would stand a good chance of success.The State of Paraná covers 19.5 million hectares, representing 2.3% of the country of Brazil. Of its population of 9.5 million people, 82% reside in urban areas, while 18% live in the countryside. Paraná State's agricultural production is the highest in Brazil, representing 23% of agricultural production in the country. Around 370 000 rural properties are spread across the state territory. Table 1 provides a synthetic picture of private property sizes and their distribution in the State (Turra 2003).The natural range of araucaria forest in Brazil lies within the southern part of the country. The natural vegetation pattern of the araucaria region is a matrix of patches of subtropical rainforest interrupted by often-extensive grasslands (Klein 1963). A. angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze represents more than 40% of the trees in this forest type (Longhi 1980 Some rural communities in Paraná State still practise a traditional agroforestry system called faxinal, introduced by Ukrainian immigrants in the 19 th century. In this system, the community uses forest land for timber, NWFPs, and for grazing domesticated animals (mainly cattle, horses and pigs). The system is designed around collective use of land for animal production and is associated with low extraction of forest products, resulting in a regular flow of income into the communities. Nonwood tree species like Ilex paraguariensis, whose leaves are used to make a tea called ervamate, play an important role in the system. I. paraguariensis occurs naturally in araucaria forests and its survival is dependent on their conservation. Individual families in faxinal communities cultivate annual crops such as maize, black beans and cassava outside the native forest land, which is surrounded by a fence in order to keep the animals inside and away from the cultivated areas. Some medicinal plants are grown in home gardens.The faxinal system has contributed to the conservation of many of the remaining araucaria forests. Despite their ecological, social and cultural advantages, there are fewer and fewer faxinais today, mostly because traditional practices make it hard for them to compete with the 'higher-tech' farming systems found in neighbouring areas.While the faxinal is a subsistence system with much lower agricultural and livestock production than modern farms, improvements in communal natural resource management could help the smallholder families remain on their traditional lands, improve their living conditions, and at the same time secure the conservation of the natural araucaria forest remnants. and Rotta 1982). It is the only species in its genus in Brazil and, along with Podocarpus lambertii Klotz (pinheiro-bravo) and Podocarpus sellowii (pinheiro-bravo-da-folha-larga), is one of only three native conifers to occur in Brazil.In 2002, in conjunction with this BMZ/IPGRI/FUPEF (German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute/ Foundation for Forest Research in Paraná) subproject, other research activities on araucaria were being implemented within the framework of the FUPEF/PROBIO (National Biodiversity Project) project that focused on research and development of demonstration projects and assessments for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in Brazilian biomes. The research carried out within the PROBIO framework helped to locate remaining fragments of araucaria forests in Paraná State (Figure 3), and to select sample plots for the BMZ/IPGRI/FUPEF subproject. Forest fragments were identified using satellite images (geographic information system -Landsat 1998/99). A field survey was conducted at 304 randomly selected points in the different araucaria forest ecological regions in order to map the distribution of fragments and to evaluate their phytosociological characteristics. A rapid ecological survey was undertaken using soil and vegetation characteristics to detect occurrences of human disturbance, and to check the quality of these remnants.The FUPEF/PROBIO research group identified 66 109 ha of primary araucaria forest (0.8% of the original area in Paraná State), 1.2 million ha (14.5%) of secondary forest and 1.2 million ha (14%) of forest in an early regeneration phase (PROBIO/FUPEF 2002). Forests dominated by A. angustifolia covered 75 783 ha (or 0.91% of Paraná State), and the group produced 53 maps (1:100 000) of the araucaria forest bioregion in Paraná State. Natural araucaria distribution was found to be 12.4% greater than the area previously determined by Maack (1981). Nevertheless, the araucaria forest is highly fragmented, with most fragments concentrated in the south-central part of the state. This is a mountainous area now dominated by agricultural land (60%), pastureland (18%) and forest (4%). It is comprised today of 112 000 small-to medium-sized properties, 86% of which are less than 100 ha. Historically, most of these properties were organized as faxinal agroforestry systems.Using non-adaptive markers, several researchers have identified genetic variation across the species' natural range. For example, Reitz and Klein (1966) described nine botanical varieties of A. angustifolia based on ripening time and seed colour, and an additional variety was identified later by Mattos (1994). Reitz and Klein (1966) and Kageyama and Jacob (1980) detected genetic variation within and among three natural populations, and A. angustifolia collected from five Brazilian states showed statistically significant differences in wood production when measuring quantitative traits (Monteiro and Speltz 1980). Studies of araucaria using biochemical and molecular markers have attempted to determine the species' genetic diversity across its natural range (Mazza 1997;Schlögl 2000;Shimizu et al. 2000). It was found that lower genetic similarities among araucaria populations were associated with larger geographical distances.The need for genetic conservation of araucaria forests has been recognized in Brazil since early in the last century. But few government initiatives were undertaken to establish conservation areas (such as National Parks or Reserves) in the natural habitat of araucaria, though some plantation field trials occurred between the 1950s and the 1980s. Until 1979, only about 90 000 ha of plantations had been established in Brazil (Shimizu and Oliveira 1980). The reasons for this limited interest in araucaria plantations are thought to be: (i) lack of knowledge about the most suitable abiotic factors (soil and climate) for wood production; (ii) difficulties in obtaining seeds from selected sites; (iii) the nonavailability of genetically improved seeds; (iv) the absence of specific silvicultural techniques; and (v) the slow growth rate of the species when compared to Pinus or Eucalyptus species (Shimizu and Oliveira 1980).Araucaria forest management procedures adopted in Brazil during the 19 th and 20 th centuries allowed for the removal of trees with 40 cm dbh or more. It was believed that the remnant trees would retain the variability of the population's gene pool and would produce the seeds needed for natural regeneration. However, evaluation of this management approach by IBAMA (Brazilian Institute of Environment and Natural Resources) showed that it produced rates of natural regeneration lower than expected. As a result, the legislation was changed in 1990 (O.S. IBAMA-PR 024/90) whereby at least 35% of trees above 40 cm dbh were required to be left uncut. But fragments of araucaria forest continued to be harvested until 2001 when a new law (PN CONAMA 278) was passed that prohibited harvesting araucaria trees from any natural population in Brazil. This law brought significant changes to araucaria forest management, with NWFPs becoming the main alternative cash-generating option for araucaria forests. Extraction of NWFPs required a different approach to forest management, with the participation of local people being seen as crucial to establishing viable and useful management strategies.A preliminary assessment of the ecological characteristics of fragmented araucaria forests was carried out. We felt that data from this assessment would be very important to the implementation of any in situ conservation strategies for forest genetic resources (FGRs) that were subsequently adopted. Representative 20 x 20 m plots were established in four fragments subjected to different management regimes and evaluated. Plots were located at Campina da Alegria in Santa Catarina State (latitude 26º52'07 S and longitude 52º08'01 W, altitude 880 m asl).An evaluation of the genetic diversity within and between several key remaining populations of araucaria in forest fragments was also undertaken in order to obtain data that we hoped to use in planning and implementing genetic conservation strategies for the species. Sample sites in Paraná State were chosen at Turvo, Candói, Mangueirinha and Palmas. Each study site was characterized by a different forestry management practice (Figure 4 and Table 2, both overleaf). RAPDs (random amplified polymorphic DNA) markers were used to evaluate genetic diversity within and between araucaria populations.The legislative policy framework was also investigated in terms of its potential repercussions on the status of araucaria FGRs. The law introduced in 1990 required 35% of araucaria trees above 40 cm dbh to be left in place, and we believed it was likely that this change affected the genetic structure of the population of araucaria stands. In order to assess the effects of this law, we compared genetic variation in three populations of araucaria at Campina da Alegria. The first (= pop 1) was a natural population with little human disturbance, the second (= pop 2), a managed population, and the third (= pop 3) was a newly established field progeny trial grown from seeds collected from harvested trees and planted 20 years ago. Seeds for the field progeny test were collected at a sampling intensity of one parent tree for each 2.4 ha of forest. Twenty-nine RAPD primers were selected to study the genetic distance among these three populations.A fourth research activity focused on identifying molecular markers that could be used to determine the sex of juvenile araucaria plants. Because the proportion of male and female trees in a natural population is 1:1 (Bandel and Gurgel 1967), for seed production purposes we felt it would be useful to be able to determine the sex of seedlings in order to guide small farmers in their restoration plans, and because we felt that regeneration of the species was likely to benefit from the maintenance of a proper ratio between female and male individuals. A bulk of male and female trees was assembled and a DNA analysis (using primers from Operon Tech, Alameda, California, USA) was undertaken to search for sex-specific markers by extracting DNA from a sample of ten female (Figure 5) and ten male plants.  Because of araucaria's economic importance, several forest research institutions in Brazil began work on the species in the 1950s, though there was little follow-up on the population trials that were started (FUPEF 1978). One of the objectives of our BMZ-funded subproject was to retrieve information on araucaria growth performance from those early ex situ field trials that were established with seeds from different sites and progenies.In the area of social science research, we carried out a survey of the traditional use of forest resources by a local community that had previously been organized as a faxinal. We gathered information on the knowledge associated with the management and use of araucaria forests by local people (Figure 6, overleaf), and we attempted to assess local perceptions of conservation issues. The community that we studied was chosen for its existing knowledge of forest products that were still important in making a living. Principal sources of income within the community were agriculture, livestock production and, more recently, medicinal plant gathering from araucaria forests. Data were thus collected on current uses of araucaria forest products and information was obtained both on local people's feelings about araucaria conservation and on the effects of the 2001 araucaria logging ban on local people's livelihoods.Table 3 (on p. 143) summarizes the ecological characteristics of the secondary araucaria forest plots at Campina da Alegria. The majority of young araucaria trees (individuals with a height of less than 3 m) were found growing under hardwood tree species mainly of the Lauraceae family, but a few were found growing under mature araucaria trees, apparently indicating better regeneration of araucaria under the canopy of other species. No seedlings were found in either deep shade or bright light, seemingly indicating that light is an important factor for natural araucaria regeneration and growth at a young age. We also observed that many of the young trees growing under hardwood crowns had low stem and crown quality. We concluded that further studies were needed in order to determine a suitable light management regime to take araucaria seedlings through to adulthood. This was important because it stimulated our preliminary thinking on the light conditions that would be needed to establish araucaria seedlings in plantations and recovery programmes. The level of genetic variability found at the four sites investigated in Paraná State (Turvo, Candói, Mangueirinha and Palmas) was 15% between populations and 85% within populations. Turvo and Mangueirinha populations displayed a larger percentage of polymorphic loci (81.97% and 77.05%, respectively), followed by Palmas (74.29%) and Candói (68.80%) populations. Based on these results, in situ conservation strategies should prioritize the Turvo and Mangueirinha populations.In assessing the impact of pre-1990 management on FGRs in three populations of araucaria from Campina da Alegria, we found genetic segregation among the three populations that could be linked in some way to human intervention (Figure 7, opposite). When comparing the natural (pop 1) and managed populations (pop 2), a reduction of 11.58% in the polymorphic loci was found. The difference increased to 27.43% when the natural population (pop 1) was compared to the progeny trial population (pop 3), showing a clear segregation of the progeny trial from both the natural and the managed populations.Based on these results, it would seem that the management regime adopted in the 1990s (leaving 35% mature araucaria trees) was sustainable from a genetic point of view, as it did not significantly reduce the genetic variability of the new populations established after logging in the secondary forest. However, these findings, in order to be conclusive and useful in developing guidelines for in situ genetic conservation programmes, would need to be supported by a more comprehensive study based on a larger sample of parent trees. Ideally, the collection of plant material for ex situ conservation studies should be done by harvesting seeds from a sample larger than one mother tree every 2.4 hectares or every 50 trees.    Nei (1978) The screening that we undertook to identify polymorphic bands for recognizing sex differences was carried out using 600 RAPD primers. The molecular markers identified turned out not to be linked to sex determination genes, therefore the proposed objective could not be achieved within the project's time frame.Table 4 summarizes the information we assembled on araucaria field trials and gene banks in Brazil. Some of these trials involved natural population growth tests and others combined these with progeny growth trials. This initiative generated data on the genetic composition of different natural plant populations from different regions of Brazil in the past, and as such will be very useful if and when recovery programmes are implemented.Results for only a few of these field trials were published. For example, Shimizu and Higa (1980) published the results of a 6-year field trial on plants from 12 natural populations established at Itapeva, São Paulo. The trials revealed the existence of significant genetic variation among the regions, and that populations from the same region were more similar to each other than they were to populations from distant regions. These findings support the hypothesis of Gurgel and Gurgel Filho (1973) on the existence of ecotypes or geographical races of A. angustifolia, although individual trees grown from seeds gathered nearer to the planted areas did not show higher survival or growth rates. In general, populations from rainier southern Brazil showed the best growth, and those from the drier northern region the poorest growth, with a few exceptions. However, a strong correlation was found between plant height and latitude, with individuals from a few northern provenances tending to grow even better in Itapeva, in the south, than individuals from southern populations (Table 5, on p. 146), indicating a considerable plasticity in this species' growth pattern.While work like that of Shimizu and Higa (1980) is promising, much more similar work needs to be done on araucaria in order to capitalize on these early field trials. Such information would be most useful in helping us develop breeding strategies for different parts of the country.While investigating the socioeconomic issues, we found that because current legislation limits araucaria logging, local people have shifted their economic focus in araucaria forests to NWFPs. Within selected households, collecting araucaria seeds for food or for seedling production was found to be an excellent economic alternative to logging, even though the seed production period is limited to the months of April, May and June. One hectare of araucaria forest has been estimated to produce an average of 180 kg of seeds annually. Using market prices of US$0.60 per kg, this equates to a gross annual income of US$108/ha for araucaria seed alone.While this remains a modest income-generating activity, the community survey also revealed that local farmers used more than 70 other species of shrubs and herbaceous plants solely for medicinal purposes (Bittencourt and Higa 2004). While our project focused on traditional use of medicinal plants, local people in their day-to-day lives used many other NWFPs. The maintenance of healthy A. angustifolia forest ecosystems thus provides many other benefits that are critical to local community well being. Though these benefits are hard to quantify in monetary terms, they should not be discounted in determining the conservation value of araucaria forest genetic resources.This study revealed that the current forest legislation in Brazil is inadequate to secure the maintenance of A. angustifolia forests. Indeed, the 2001 law seems to be having a negative effect on forest cover. Many local people are no longer planting the species because they are worried that their trees will become untouchable owing to the current logging ban.The research carried out within the context of the FUPEF/PROBIO project (2001) confirmed earlier evidence of pronounced geographic differentiation of the species from a genetic aspect. Regions with greater genetic diversity were identified, and these should become priority areas for conservation. In particular, among the populations studied in our research, two (Turvo and Mangueirinha) were found to be most suitable for in situ genetic conservation programmes in Paraná State.  We recommend that in situ conservation actions and seed collecting for ex situ programmes and restoration actions be implemented as a high priority within the remaining 66 000 ha of mature araucaria forest and within the 76 000 ha of mixed araurcaria forest in Paraná State.Sustainable management practices at the more degraded sites should be adopted, as araucaria responds well to silviculture and more is becoming known of its flexible reaction to different light conditions. Management of araucaria should be concentrated within the current 2.4 million ha of secondary araucaria forest, and should include augmentation Field trials involving araucaria trees from populations adapted to variable environmental conditions were undertaken in the past but only partially completed. Further research on growth performances of the populations sampled should be carried out to make appropriate plant material available for reforestation and forest recovery purposes. Northern provenances should be preferentially considered for commercial plantations, given their seemingly better growth performance.The present investigation was actively supported by the involvement and contribution of local communities whose livelihoods depend on the many NWFPs extracted from araucaria forests surrounding their villages and towns. Several important medicinal plants were found to grow under the araucaria canopy. Sustainable management of araucaria forest fragments by small landowners for the purpose of extracting NWFPs could be a potentially viable economic option for local people.This chapter provides an overview of the evolution of land use and land tenure regimes in the Brazilian Amazon, illustrated by examples from Acre State. It then assesses the genetic and ecological characteristics of four nonwood forest product (NWFP) species in two types of rural settlements: Settlement Projects (Projetos de Assentamento or PAs) and Extractive Settlement Projects (Projetos de Assentamento Extrativista or PAEs), as defined by INCRA (Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária or National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform). These two types of settlement were chosen because they encompass different tenure and land-use regimes, and therefore might lead to different patterns of impact on natural resources.We also review the settlement types and why they were created, and then make recommendations for improved forest management practices based on our research findings.In the late 1870s, driven by recurrent drought and encouraged by the government, about 250 000 people from northeastern Brazil (especially from Ceará State) migrated to the Amazonian region to work in the emerging rubber industry. The Amazonian State of Acre (ca. 150 000 km 2 ) in particular was subjected to significant rates of immigration. Following the collapse of rubber activity in the early 1900s, immigration dropped. However because of an increase in demand for rubber during World War II, the flow of migrants from northeastern Brazil began again.Starting around 1970, the federal government of Brazil launched a series of regional development programmes and agrarian reform initiatives. Among these, the National Integration Programme (Programa de Integração Nacional or PIN) in 1970 and the Programme for Land Redistribution and Stimulus of the Agro-industry of the North and Northeast (Programa de Redistribuição de Terras e de Estímulo à Agroindústria do Norte e Nordeste or PROTERRA) in 1971 received the most attention and resources. With the goal of occupying the area of the Amazon along the Trans-Amazon Highway, PIN created farming settlements (Colonization Projects or PCs) aimed at \"integrating the men without land in the northeast with the land without men in Amazônia\".Beginning in the late 1960s, stimulated by incentives for livestock raising, mining and logging, people and businesses from southern Brazil began moving into Acre. Until the early 1970s, rubber extraction had been the major industry in Acre, where it was practised through the so-called 'barracões de aviamento' where owners of forested land exchanged rubber for goods and services. By the 1970s, livestock raising had become widespread in Brazil and was causing tensions between traditional land users (communities, populations and farmers) and the new settlers with different tenure and access regimes.Between 1970 and 1975, about 80% of the state's territory was sold to new investors from the south (Brandford and Glock 1985), causing a decrease of about 65% in the area dedicated to 'extraction' activities (rubber tapping and Brazil nut gathering). Nevertheless, the number of rural landholdings declaring extraction as their principal economic activity increased, the result of growing numbers of newly autonomous rubber tappers who had remained in the forest after the collapse of the traditional rubber estates (Schwartzman 1992). In the 1980s, under the leadership of Chico Mendes, the rights of rubber tappers were defended in the face of increasingly powerful opposition from the newly created and enlarged farms.In 1985, the National Council of Rubber Tappers (Conselho Nacional dos Seringueros -CNS) was created, and it initiated a fight to award concessions in the form of 'seringais' (properties designated for rubber extraction) to communities actively involved in forest product extraction in Acre.At about the same time, the National Plan for Land Reform in Brazil was launched, and it created further types of settlements because of what were deemed to be unsatisfactory results obtained through the earlier PCs (later called Projetos de Assentamento -PAs or Settlement Projects). Thus, in 1987, the Federal Agrarian Reform Agency (INCRA) established Extractive Settlement Projects (Projetos de Assentamento Extrativista or PAEs) and, following a presidential decree in 1990, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), with the support of the CNS, created Extractive Reserves (Reservas Extrativistas -RESEXs; see Box 1). RESEXs emerged as a land use type that was designed to legitimize the forest resource use rights of families traditionally living in forested areas. A new type of Conservation Unit (CU) was thereby created in Brazil in the form of specially designated areas allocated to local people for the sustainable use of natural resources for both internal consumption and trade.Despite their sometimes conflicting agendas, two federal agencies -one (INCRA) traditionally engaged in opening up forests for human settlement and agricultural development, and the other (IBAMA) trying to protect forest ecosystems and their biological resources -became co-responsible agencies for overseeing extractive activities in Brazilian forests (Smith et al. 1995).In 2000, approximately 17% (or 2 598 886 ha) of Acre State was occupied by PAEs and RESEXs, with about 4500 families estimated to be living on this land. Approximately 72% of these families were living on RESEXs (IBGE 2000). A list of PAEs and RESEXs through 2002 is presented in Table 1 (on p. 152).Families involved in the earlier PCs or the later PAs were usually farmers who replaced the forest with crops, thereby securing their tenure rights at the same time. In contrast, the newer PAEs were managed by settlers who had already been in the area for some time, and these projects showed greater sensitivity toward resource conservation. Another significant difference between PAs and PAEs was the size of the plots allocated to the families, and this had implications for deforestation and landscape degradation. PAE plots were usually around 300 ha, while PC and PA plots varied between 25 ha and 80 ha (see Table 1). In the PCs and PAs, crop cultivation usually occurred for periods of one to three years after forest clearance. Annual crops were planted in the first year after slash and burn, to be replaced by perennial crops or pastureland the following years. In the PAEs, cultivated areas were much smaller and were often returned to secondary forest once they were abandoned. In the PAs, because the forest clearings were relatively larger than those in the PAEs, and because they were used for livestock grazing, they were also more likely to become seriously degraded. Because of these intrinsic differences, the impact of the PC and PA schemes on forest stands is substantially greater than that of PAEs.In Acre State, natural resource use conflicts occurred in areas where PAs bordered PAEs, and when PA farmers exerted steadily increasing pressure on the forest resources surrounding their settlements through hunting and collection of NWFPs. Despite these conflicts, Acre has the lowest deforestation rate among the Brazilian Amazon states (Lorentzen and Amaral 2002) and this has been interpreted as evidence that frameworks regulating access to and use of natural resources create good conditions for the conservation of forest ecosystems.A new natural resources management policy designed to improve local standards of living was introduced in 1999 in Acre State. Under this policy, the state government (called the Governo da Floresta or the Government of the Forest) encourages certified extraction of timber and NWFPs, and at the same time supports traditional agriculture. Under the new directives, forest exploitation is regulated by specific agreements and contracts between the state and third parties, whether these be private firms, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), traditional population associations and their representative institutions like the National Centre for the Sustainable Development of Traditional Populations (Centro Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentado das Populações Tradicionais -CNPT) or others.RESEXs are protected areas that aim to achieve economic self-sufficiency through the sustainable use of renewable natural resources by people practising traditional extractive systems. The extractive regime is regulated by a concession contract accompanied by a management plan approved by IBAMA (Allegretti 1992).Extractive reserves are characterized by a complex distribution of individuals and community rights, typically dictated by the spatial distribution patterns of the resources as opposed to the standardized patterns used in other tenure regimes. They have been defined by Allegretti (1990) as \"public lands designated for the specific purpose of sustainable use of forest products, with property rights designated according to traditional patterns of land use rather than imported models of occupation\".The 'seringal' is a rubber tree tract or forest that falls in part or wholly in the reserve and is divided into smaller management units ('colocacões'). Each landholding is occupied by one family and contains their rubber trails or estradas de seringa. An average family usually works three trails, each of which could contain as many as 150 rubber trees. The size of the colocação is actually defined by the number of adult Hevea brasiliensis trees found within it (CNS 1993). This land allocation system is thus very different from the other land allocation types where plots have less flexibility in their defined geographical extent.The resource rights in RESEXs are therefore defined initially by the location of the rubber trees and then by the trails that link them. The seringueros allow others to pass freely through their colocação, but the areas where the trails are located are regarded as relatively exclusive. In addition, each family has a cleared area where they live, cultivate a few subsistence crops and raise small animals (Murrieta and Rueda 1995). Brazil nuts constitute the second most important extractive product, and the trees are generally regarded as being the property of a particular colocação. The seringueros also exercise hunting rights over designated areas of the forest. was not yet officially recognized as such, although it was managed as a PAE.3.1 The study sitesWe selected study sites in the Brazilian State of Acre (Figure 1), in the municipality of Porto Acre. Officially established in 1992, this municipality covers 2923 km 2 and has a population of 9749 people, 88% of whom live in rural areas. Within these sites, we investigated one PA (Porto Alonso) and one PAE (Caquetá). We selected four tree species for our study based on their importance to local livelihoods, whether this was for their commercial value or for local consumption: Bertholletia excelsa, Hevea brasiliensis, Carapa guianensis and Euterpe precatoria. These species have different ecological traits and spatial distributions and therefore permitted good assessments of the impact of differential forest management. The principal characteristics of these species are presented in Table 2 (overleaf).Although the forest stands studied were subjected to NWFP extraction, no signs of clear cutting were visible. In the PA scheme, forested areas may be partially disturbed by their proximity to areas where the forest has been cleared or fragmented for conversion into agriculture. Despite the absence of recent deforestation, evidence of removal of individuals, especially of C. guianensis and E. precatoria, was found in the transects established in the Porto Alonso PA. Owing to the very small population size of B. excelsa found in the Caquetá PAE, sampling of this species was extended to another area called Colocação Rio de Janeiro, a part of the Chico Mendes extractive reserve (a RESEX), the largest in Brazil (about 970 000 ha), located in the southeastern corner of the state of Acre and stretching across five municipalities.With a special focus on NWFP extraction patterns and on income levels derived from NWFPs, household surveys were conducted in the two communities of Porto Alonso PA and Caquetá PAE in order to understand the past and current patterns of forest resource exploitation, and thereby to assist in the interpretation of results from the ecological and genetic analyses of the four selected species. The survey also enabled us to identify the main stakeholders and groups of forest users.  Two series of plots were established to investigate the diameter and spatial distribution of the four selected species: (i) five transects of 1 ha each were established in Colocação Limoeiro I, inside Caquetá (PAE); (ii) three transects of 0.8 ha each were created in Colônia Santa Luzia, inside Porto Alonso (PA). Adult trees (>30 cm dbh) and younger trees were sampled (only adults were sampled for E. precatoria). Seedlings and saplings were grouped into three size categories: juvenile I (individuals between 0.5-1.0 m in height); juvenile II (between 1.0-2.0 m in height); and juvenile III (above 2.0 m in height though still immature). Spatial distribution maps were produced for the adult trees of B. excelsa, C. guianensis and E. precatoria; H. brasiliensis was mapped in Caquetá (PAE) along a trail opened by rubber tappers. The number of individuals sampled for the four species is presented in Table 3.Owing to the variable size of samples, different genetic parameters were studied for each species, as follows:Microsatellite and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) techniques were used for the genetic analyses, and were selected based on the availability of protocols and markers from previous studies. Microsatellites were used for E. precatoria, C. guianensis and H. Brasiliensis (see Table 4, overleaf), and RAPDs were used for B. excelsa because simple sequence repeats or microsatellites (SSRs) were not available. DNA extraction was performed according to the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) protocol (Ferreira and Grattapaglia 1995).  Genetic diversity was assessed in juveniles and adults using the following parameters:° allelic richness or mean number of alleles by loci (A), ° effective number of alleles by loci (n e = 1/∑p i 2 where p i is the frequency of the i th allele), ° expected heterozygosity (H e ), and ° observed heterozygosity (H o ).The lack of heterozygote deficiency was evaluated by calculating the fixation index (f = 1 -H o /H e ). The genetic diversity between sites and size classes was estimated by bootstrapping across loci, using the software programs GDA (Lewis and Zaykin 2000) and GenAlEx (Peakall and Smouse 2001, http://www.anu.edu.au/BoZo/GenAlEx).Genetic structure was determined using the F-statistic and calculated using the formula developed by Weir and Cockerham (1984) that identifies a genetic structure by partitioning variation through an analysis of variance. The parameters estimated were:° mean coefficient of inbreeding within the populations (f), ° mean total coefficient of inbreeding of the species, or Wright's coefficient (F) and ° mean co-ancestry coefficient indicating genetic drift among subpopulations (θ p ).Confidence intervals at 99% probability were estimated by bootstrapping across loci, using 10 000 replications. The spatial structure was analyzed through the multiallelic spatial autocorrelation analysis, applied to adult populations in Colocação Limoeiro I (Smouse and Peakall 1999) using the GenAlEx program.  * Microsatellite loci are characterized by the repetition of a fundamental motif comprising a short sequence of nucleotides. Alleles at a microsatellite locus differ in the number of repetitions of this fundamental motif called the repeat number or allele size. The minimum and maximum number of repetitions provides the allelic range. This value is a key parameter that should be properly estimated in order to proceed with calculations of divergence times in phylogenetic studies and to better investigate the within-and between-population variability.The Multilocus Mating System Program (MLTR) developed by Ritland (1996) was used for H. brasiliensis to estimate outcrossing rate based on: multiple loci (t m ); the outcrossing rate for each individual locus by obtaining mean estimates for single populations (t s ); Wright's coefficient of inbreeding (F); the correlation between seed pairs (r t ); and the correlation between pollen grains of the outcrossed seed pairs (r p ).Gene flow (N m ) was analyzed in C. guianensis, E. precatoria and H. brasiliensis, and was calculated indirectly through the estimated values of F ST (genetic diversity among populations) according to the following model:Between the two study sites, the distribution of size classes was similar for B. excelsa and C. guianensis , but there was a statistically significant difference in the number of individuals of E. precatoria and H. brasiliensis in each size class (Figure 2). Only H. brasiliensis showed a typical inverted 'J' distribution of diameters, where the number of individuals progressively decreases with increasing size -normally expected when continuous regeneration of a species occurs. While there were a limited number of medium-and large-sized juveniles of C. guianensis, B. excelsa occurred at too low a density to allow us to detect any size structure within the transects investigated. Despite very high density of individuals, E. precatoria lacked small-and intermediate-sized juveniles, indicating constraints in the regeneration of the species.  Two populations were analyzed in Colocação Limoeiro I (Caquetá PAE) and in Colônia Santa Luzia (Porto Alonso PA), and compared. Owing to the much smaller size of the sample from Porto Alonso PA, the juveniles sampled at this site were lumped together in one size class. Microsatellite results from the two loci are presented in Table 5. At Colocação Limoeiro I, 24 alleles were identified (12 alleles per locus). The results showed that the number of alleles per locus, or allelic richness, did not differ significantly between size classes. Allelic richness (A) estimates were found to be consistent with results from other studies of the same species in Costa Rica (Dayanandan et al. 1999). Estimates of the effective number of alleles per locus (n e ) were always lower than the values of allelic richness (A). In our view, this indicates an uneven distribution of allele frequencies, indicating that many low-frequency alleles are more likely to be lost if the processes of bottleneck and genetic drift occur.The values of expected heterozygosity (H e ) were high and did not differ significantly among size classes, showing that high gene diversity is maintained throughout the generations.We found that the Colônia Santa Luzia (Porto Alonso PA) population of C. guianensis, which was more heavily exploited, still maintains values of allelic richness similar to the less-exploited population at Caquetá PAE, although the population studied from the Porto Alonso PA shows more signs of inbreeding (Table 6). This inbreeding may be due to a smaller number of mature trees contributing to mating or to self-fertilization. But assumptions about the effects of reproductive biology on the genetic parameters of C. guianensis are difficult to prove because so little is known about the mating system of the species. Although the high level of inbreeding in C. guianensis at Porto Alonso PA is apparently a recent occurrence, it nonetheless poses a risk to the maintenance of longterm genetic diversity.  The mean values of inbreeding caused by the mating system (f) were similar to those for total inbreeding (F). This seems to indicate that most of the inbreeding is caused by the mating system and not by genetic divergence among populations. The estimates of θ p were very low, showing that most of the genetic diversity is found within populations, and gene flow is counterbalancing the effects of genetic drift.In the juveniles, the values of these parameters were similar to those found in adults (Table 6).Table 7 presents the outcomes of the genetic analyses carried out on H. brasiliensis at the two sites. Levels of H e found at both sites were very high and comparable to data obtained on the species in Acre using other markers (H e = 0.45 using RFLP -restriction fragment length polymorphism -markers, Besse et al. [1994]; and H e = 0.60 using isozymes, Chevallier [1988] cited in Besse et al. [1994]).Adults  Low levels of inbreeding (f) were detected in H. brasiliensis at both sites. Surprisingly, the estimated fixation index for the juveniles in the more disturbed site of Colônia Santa Luzia is smaller than at Colocação Limoeiro I. The genetic divergence among adult populations due to forest fragmentation (θ p = 0.026) was not significant (Table 8), suggesting that gene flow among populations is buffering genetic drift.A t m estimate of 0.98 indicates that outcrossing is preferred in this species (Table 9). A difference between t m and t s of 0.13 suggests that biparental inbreeding is common. The r p value was 0.531 and r t value was 0.390, and even though the outcrossing rate was high, these results indicate a high probability of descendants from the same father and mother in a family (r p ). These values were higher than expected for populations with free pollination, indicating that the occurrence of descendants from the same father in maternal families is relatively common. Autofertilization was also observed for some families.One hundred and seventy E. precatoria trees were analyzed from both sites (Table 10). Genetic diversity (H e ) varied from 0.41 to 0.58. Allelic richness did not differ significantly among size classes, either within the same population or between populations. Both the estimated genetic diversity (H e ) and the observed heterozygosity (H o ) were lower than those found for other species in the genus Euterpe (Gaiotto 2001;Souza 2002).The fixation indices seem to indicate that the screened populations have genotypic characteristics close to that expected in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium conditions, where mating is random, and there is neither migration nor mutation.  Values of total inbreeding (F) and of inbreeding related to the mating system (f) were near zero (Table 11). Total inbreeding (F) in adults was lower than that found in younger generations. Although juvenile populations still maintain high values of allelic richness, gene flow among populations is not enough to buffer genetic drift.RAPDs were used to analyze the spatial distribution of genetic diversity in B. excelsa populations subject to different use regimes from Colocação Limoeiro I (Caquetá PAE) and from Colocação Rio de Janeiro (RESEX Chico Mendes, Xapuri;  compare findings with those obtained from other species. Seven primers were used to amplify 39 markers. Among these, 82% were polymorphic in trees from both locations, indicating high genetic variability for the species (Table 12). Higher polymorphism was found in the less-disturbed population at Rio de Janeiro, but the difference was not significant.The polymorphism recorded in our study was greater than that found in other genetic studies of this species from Acre. For instance, Pardo (2001) and Buckley et al. (1988) found 40% and 54.3% polymorphic allozyme loci respectively. However, this could be partly explained by the type of markers used, as RAPD markers tend to be biased towards lower values of expected heterozygosity and greater differentiation between populations (Isabel et al. 1995). Thus, this comparison with data from earlier studies has only an indicative value.There were no signs that the species investigated here had suffered adverse genetic events, despite undergoing reductions in population size that would normally be expected to cause substantial loss of genetic diversity. This is because heavy forest fragmentation had not yet occurred in the areas investigated in this study. Nevertheless, recent removal of individual trees was found to have left genetic traces in the study area located in the Porto Alonso PA.Levels of inbreeding were detected in C. guianensis in Porto Alonso PA and in H. brasiliensis at both sites. Moreover, inbreeding was found in adult and young individuals of both species, indicating that both are sensitive to forest disturbance from fragmentation and extraction of NWFPs.High inbreeding levels can be linked to constraints in gene flow. Gene flow vectors are essential ecological factors that can determine population genetic structure in species. For example, in tropical tree species pollen flow contributes more to total gene flow than does seed dispersal when seed dispersal is limited (Hamrick et al. 1993;Boshier et al. 1995), resulting in a different shape to the species' spatial genetic structure. Bawa (1974) has shown that tropical tree species are pollinated mostly by animals. Because deforestation and other forest disturbances can cause an alteration in the behaviour of pollinating agents, induced by lowered density of flowering trees, reduced pollen movement among populations can occur (Aizen and Feinsinger 1994). Forest disturbance may also decrease the abundance of pollinating agents, leading to a reduction in the number of fruits and seeds (Aizen and Feinsinger 1994) and lower outcrossing rates (Kearns et al. 1998).The ecological and reproductive characteristics of the four species studied were different, and these differences partly explain the variable genetic responses to forest disturbance recorded. Because of their differential gene flow characteristics, species that occur in very low densities (e.g., <1 individual/ha) respond differently to fragmentation  Genetic studies have shown that rare tropical tree species usually have less genetic diversity than common tropical tree species (Billington 1991). Our study showed that the species with the highest density, E. precatoria, also exhibited more pronounced genetic divergence between juveniles and adults. Nevertheless, the expected difference in genetic diversity between rare and common tree species was not observed in our study. While the four species still presented high allelic richness and genetic diversity in adults as well as in juveniles, levels of inbreeding detected in this study and the genetic divergence noted between populations might eventually lead to lower heterozygosity levels and, therefore, to future loss of alleles.In the short term, loss of heterozygosity can reduce individual fitness, diminishing the viability of remnant populations. In the long term, reduced allelic richness can limit the ability of species to respond to changes in selective pressure (Saunders et al. 1991;Frankel et al. 1995;Young et al. 1996) and ultimately can lead to extinction.The long-term survival of fragmented populations of tree species depends on the existence of adequate strategies for the management of forest remnants, supported by the analysis of spatial distributions of diversity and the monitoring of changes in genetic processes. A deeper understanding of the biological and genetic processes of a few model species like those presented here is fundamental to our ability to understand the evolutionary potential of forest trees and the conservation needs of forest ecosystems.Creating a market for important tree species and their products can generate income and also stimulate their conservation. A socioeconomic survey of communities living at our study sites investigated the possibility of trading forest products that traditionally have not been commercialized. We found that the exploitation of NWFPs caused less destruction to forest resources than logging or the creation of pastureland, but timber harvesting and cattle raising still seem to be more remunerative. Thus there is still a risk that people will shift from less-damaging extractive activities to forest clearance.The creation of markets for new NWFPs from C. guianensis and E. precatoria, to complement those that already exist for H. brasiliensis and B. excelsa, could be a solution to the continuing deforestation. However, these actions require investment to maintain the forest cover promoted by the rubber and Brazil nut extractive systems, and which is in contrast to the heavy clearing being practised in many of the rural settlements. The exploitation of species like C. guianensis and E. precatoria, that provide non-traditional NWFPs, should be supported by genetic studies that enable us to define thresholds for their long-term sustainable exploitation.This chapter describes the current status of forest genetic resources (FGRs) in four tree species found in fragments of the Atlantic Forest located in southwestern São Paulo State (Pontal), Brazil, now part of a heavily degraded agricultural landscape. The four species were selected in consultation with local stakeholders, and a genetic assessment was complemented by ecological and socioeconomic surveys on current patterns of FGR use by farmers. The first part of the chapter introduces how historical events led to the currently reduced forest cover in Pontal and to the serious degradation of what was once a highly diverse semideciduous forest biome. The selected species, representative of different guilds with different characteristics, along with details of the genetic and the ecological surveys, are also described. A socioeconomic survey was undertaken to identify the principal forest users and stakeholders and to permit interpretation of the ecological and genetic findings, which are presented in the second part of the chapter.The study area is located in the Pontal do Paranapanema region of western São Paulo State (Figure 1) in what was once the continuous Mata Atlântica forest. Large parts of this forest were cleared when the railway system came to the region in the 1920s. Crop plantations (e.g., coffee and cotton) and livestock raising expanded rapidly following deforestation as these activities attracted new settlers. A constantly growing population has put great pressure on the remaining forest fragments.Our study area overlaps with the region formerly known as the 'Great Reserve of Pontal do Paranapanema', an area created in 1942 by the governor of the State of São Paulo (Ferrari-Leite 1998) to protect the native flora and fauna (Valladares-Pádua 1987). Pontal do Paranapanema is one of the most recently occupied areas of São Paulo State, with deforestation occurring later here than in other parts of the state. Until the 1950s, the region was extensively covered by semideciduous seasonal forests (297 000 ha). However, even after being given legally protected status in 1942, it continued to be reduced by illegal timber extraction and by land clearing for coffee and cotton plantations and pasturelands for cattle grazing.In the 1950s, the state governor, Ademar de Barros, awarded land to his friends and political associates. Forest cover was further reduced as most of the land became consolidated into the hands of a few farmers, with 8% of the rural landowners now controlling 75% of the 246 840 ha of the Great Reserve of Pontal (ITESP 2002).By the 1960s, Pontal had become one of the most degraded regions in São Paulo State. During the 1970s, the construction of dams and hydroelectric power plants created temporary employment and more settlers arrived from other parts of the country. People displaced from areas flooded by dams occupied new land, and sugar cane cultivation was initiated on a large scale.In the early 1990s, rural workers organized themselves into associations and started occupying and exploiting land in the region (Beduschi 2003). In the late 1990s, the Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais sem Terra -MST (Landless Movement of Rural Workers) began to contest the unfair distribution of land and encouraged 'colonization' of the region by landless workers. Settlements were established around the Morro do Diabo State Park (Figure 1) and in some of the forest fragments. This had a further negative effect on the few remaining forest fragments as people collected fuelwood, hunted and started fires to clear areas for cultivation (Cullen 1998).Today Pontal is still a rather sparsely populated region occupied by large farms that were illegally established in past decades. Livestock raising is now the main activity in the predominantly agricultural economy of Pontal, and between 1996 and 2000 pastureland for grazing increased from 21 197 ha to 51 844 ha, resulting in the progressive loss of soil fertility. Official data reveal that pasturelands have now substantially replaced the forest cover and today account for about 60-70% of the Pontal region (ITESP 2002).Original Pontal forest cover was part of the Mata Atlântica (Atlantic Forest) biome (Joly et al. 1999), which was interspersed with patches of 'cerrado', a woodland-savannah vegetation representing the second largest biome in Brazil. Land use in the region currently consists of: (i) forested areas, principally in the Morro do Diabo State Park (MDSP) (35 000 ha) and also fragments in private and public hands (15 000 ha), totalling approximately 1.85% of the original forest; (ii) large farms owned by a few private individuals (240 000 ha); and (iii) settlements established by the government to relocate people immigrating to Pontal from other regions of the country (105 000 ha; Dean 1996). In 2000, approximately 14 600 additional hectares were allocated to forest conservation, including Permanent Protection Areas and Legal Forest Reserves.The major current threats to remaining forests are fire, hunting and illegal logging. Conservation measures need to be implemented as immigrants continue to come to the region and exert pressure on forest resources.Habitat fragmentation is known to cause reduced plant population sizes and a consequent loss of alleles from the original (nonfragmented) gene pool (Frankel and Soulé 1981). Owing to their isolation and small size, remnant populations will continue to lose alleles through genetic drift (Ellstrand and Elam 1993). The genetic repercussions of habitat fragmentation -a loss of population genetic diversity -can be seen immediately after disturbance or over longer periods of time (Young et al. 1996). The reduction of natural habitat and the resulting spatial isolation of populations also have consequences for the reproductive success and gene flow of tree species (Templeton et al. 1990;Young et al. 1996;Nason and Hamrick 1997).The long-term survival of fragmented populations of forest tree species depends on the implementation of adequate management strategies. To make these effective, it is first necessary to understand and to quantify the main impact of fragmentation on the patterns of distribution and the structure of genetic diversity. Such effects are more harmful to species that occur at lower densities, as these require more extensive areas to be preserved to secure sufficient numbers for regeneration and to avoid inbreeding. Such species can be used as models to infer the ecological and genetic effects that will be experienced by other species, and to help develop conservation measures to preserve the diversity and complexity of forest remnants. In order to explore a range of responses to isolation caused by fragmentation, for our study we chose forest tree species that had commercial value and were characterized by diverse biological traits.Research focused mainly on identifying the current effects of human activities on the genetic diversity of four tree species found in forest fragments and in the MDSP.The study sites were located in recent settlements, Madre Cristina and Tucano, that include forest fragments. A control site was established inside the MDSP.Created in 1942, the MDSP covers an area of approximately 35 000 ha (Figure 2, overleaf). In the 1940s, clearings were opened inside the park by 'posseiros' (invading agricultural workers) who were later removed. The park is crossed by major roads and by a branch of the São Paulo State railway system, and in 1986 the São Paulo Power Company (CESP) cleared about 8% of the park while building the Rosana hydroelectric dam. Some selective logging of commercial species also occurred then. Nevertheless, large parts of the park are still conserved and represent a good sample of the original Pontal forest cover.The Madre Cristina settlement was established in 1998. People had camped for three years along the side of the road before the settlement was officially recognized. Each of the 104 settled families now owns between 8 and 11 ha of land. Some families still live in flimsy shelters but the situation is improving. Sugar cane is the main crop, and settlers also collect wood for construction and fuel, and hunt in the forest fragment.A road separates the MDSP from the main forest fragment of about 436 ha in Madre Cristina. This forest fragment is diverse in structure and species. The survey we carried out in 2000 revealed no obvious signs of recent logging, but an old extraction road cuts the fragment in two, and traces of selective logging from about 15 years ago were visible.Established in 1991, Tucano is the oldest settlement in the area. With the arrival of settlers, the forest was cleared for crops and livestock raising. Plots for about 36 Through consultations with settlers and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), four species were selected for the study based on their ecological and economic importance. These were Cedrela fissilis, Hymenaea courbaril, Peltophorum dubium, and Copaifera langsdorffii. Table 1 (p. 172) summarizes relevant information about these species. Surveys were undertaken in the three study areas (MDSP, Madre Cristina, and Tucano). For the four species at each study site, we mapped the distribution of individuals above 10 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) and recorded their density within geo-referenced transects of 10 ha (20 x 5000 m). In order to maximize our chances of detecting the effects of fragmentation rather than the consequences of current forest resource use, transects were located in forest that seemed less-disturbed by human activity.The four species were well represented at the three sites, and individuals were sampled from clusters of at least 30 contiguous adult individuals inside each plot. In addition, density of juveniles was studied in plots of 1600 m 2 immediately surrounding ten of the adult trees. The juveniles were grouped into three classes: class 1 (JI) with height between 0.5-1.0 m; class 2 (JII) with height between 1.0-2.0 m; and class 3 (JIII) with height above 2.0 m but not yet in the reproductive stage (see Figures 3a and 3b  We identified stakeholders and social actors at the three study sites. The rights, responsibilities and revenues of each stakeholder group and the relationships among them were then identified using the framework in the 'Four Rs Methodology' (Dubois and Lowore 2000). Information from the Madre Cristina and Tucano community members and leaders was obtained through informal interviews with five families and leaders of COCAMP (Cooperativa dos Assentados de Reforma Agrária do Pontal -Cooperative of Farmers Settled Through the Agrarian Reform in Pontal) and MST.We undertook a forest genetic study aimed at understanding the correlation between the size of the forest fragments and the condition of their FGRs. We studied distribution of genetic diversity, inbreeding processes, current gene flow and genetic distance among populations from different fragments. The interpretation of the genetic data was supported by the availability of information on the use of nonwood forest products (NWFPs) and by data on the population size structure of the species investigated.Four exploratory transects were set up at each of the three study sites (MDSP, Madre Cristina and Tucano). Sub-plots, where at least 30 individuals above 30 cm dbh could be found for the four species, were identified in the transects and samples were collected. Population genetic structure was analyzed by sampling juveniles inside these subplots. Sample sizes are shown in Table 2.Latin name Peltophorum dubium Sprengel  ; 5-9 2,3,6; 5-8 7 Width 1-2.5 1 ; 1-1.7 2,6   ; 1-1.5 7  Leaf samples from Hymenaea courbaril, Cedrela fissilis and Copaifera langsdorffii were collected for DNA extraction, performed according to the CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) protocol (Ferreira and Grattapaglia 1995). The selected SSR (simple sequence repeats or microsatellites) loci for each species and their sources are presented in Table 3.A protocol for allozyme markers in Peltophorum dubium was defined. Four gel/electrode buffer systems were tested and combined with 32 enzyme systems for leaf tissue samples from adults and juveniles.Patterns of allelic diversity were examined in adults and juveniles at each site. The parameters estimated to evaluate the intrapopulation genetic structure were:• Allelic richness or mean number of alleles per locus (A)• Effective number (n e ) of alleles per locus (n e = 1/∑p i where p i is the frequency of the i th allele)• Expected heterozygosity (H e ) as a measurement of genetic diversity • Observed heterozygosity (H o ).Estimates of genetic diversity within life stages and study sites were obtained by bootstrapping across loci, using the software GDA (Lewis and Zaykin 2000) and GenAlEx (Peakall and Smouse 2001). F-statistics were calculated according to the formula of Weir and Cockerham (1984) that measures genetic structure by partitioning variation through an analysis of variance. The parameters estimated were:• Mean coefficient of inbreeding within populations (f) • Total coefficient of inbreeding of the species (F) • Co-ancestry coefficient between subpopulations or genetic drift between subpopulations (θ p ). Table 3. Primers used for three species, number of alleles and allelic range.The confidence interval of 99% probability was estimated by bootstrapping across loci, using 10 000 replications. Gene flow (N m ) was calculated indirectly through estimates of F ST (genetic diversity between populations) according to the following model: N m = (1 -F ST ) / 4 F ST The genetic distances between populations, for both adults and juveniles, were estimated by Nei's measure of genetic distance (Nei 1973) using the GDA software.We identified stakeholders and then analyzed their relationships with the natural resources of the MDSP and the two study site forest fragments. Forty-two households were surveyed in the various settlements surrounding the MDSP to understand the role of NWFPs in their livelihoods. We found that settlers mostly collect NWFPs for internal consumption and that this activity did not contribute substantially to income. The settlers' principal monetary income activities are listed in Table 4. Livestock raising, practised on extensive pasturelands, was the most important source of income. Livestock grazing areas averaged between 3.5 and 7 hectares per farmer.Several families in each settlement cultivated crops and fruit trees for internal consumption and/or commerce. While most agricultural production was not traded, cassava, maize, coffee, sugar cane and beans were sold in small quantities in local markets. Analysis of the population structure of the four species revealed differences across species and plots (Figures 3a and 3b, overleaf), although no clear patterns emerged. Our surveys showed that there were still large populations of all four species at the three sites, indicating that in the near term these species are not threatened by fragmentation. In fact, regeneration of Hymenaea courbaril and Cedrela fissilis seemed to be greater in the forest fragments than in the MDSP, though the significance of this must be tempered by the fact that fragmentation has taken place recently.Data from 202 individuals from three populations of Cedrela fissilis (87 adults and 115 juveniles) were analyzed (Table 5,on p. 177).Even though a significant loss of alleles was not detected in C. fissilis, inbreeding was found, and this could lead to loss of alleles in future generations. Indeed, juveniles show much greater inbreeding than adults, as indicated by the higher value of N m (see Table 6, on p. 177).     Nevertheless, forest fragmentation does not appear to have affected gene flow much, perhaps because of the mobile character of pollinators (bees) and the fairly close spatial distribution of fragments in the landscape. Analysis of the population structure (Table 6) of C. fissilis reveals that inbreeding in adult trees results from contributions of both the mating system (f = 0.163) and the fragmentation of populations (θ p = 0.067). Comparing the likely age of the adult individuals sampled with the time when disturbance and fragmentation began in Pontal, it seems that inbreeding was already occurring before the isolation of fragments took place. The Tucano fragment is an exception, as the forest has been affected not only by fragmentation but also by reduction in the density of individuals by selective logging in the more recent past. The indirect estimate of N m indicated that gene flow was slowing the effects of genetic drift in the populations sampled, although some genetic differentiation was found. Estimates of the genetic structure in juveniles suggested a smaller differentiation than among the adults, and there appeared to be higher gene flow.The main pollinators of this species are bees, and seeds are wind-dispersed. Thus, the matrix of open pastureland between fragments may be facilitating more gene flow than would normally occur in wind-pollinated tree species (Young et al. 1993).Gene flow differed across forest fragments as indicated by Nei genetic distance.The juvenile and adult populations in the MDSP were genetically distant from the populations in Tucano and Madre Cristina, with the greatest genetic distance found between the adult populations in the park and Madre Cristina (Table 7). One hundred and eighty individuals of Hymenaea courbaril were sampled (87 adults and 93 juveniles) from the three populations (MDSP, Tucano, Madre Cristina). The average number of alleles per locus (A) was higher in adults than in juveniles (Table 8), but the difference was not statistically significant. Estimates of genetic diversity were similar in the three adult tree populations, but considerable differences in observed heterozygosity were detected (Table 8). In the MDSP, adults showed a greater value of observed heterozygosity than expected heterozygosity, revealing high outcrossing rates. In Tucano, adults showed a high level of inbreeding, probably owing to the selective logging that occurred after fragmentation.The level of inbreeding was on average higher in juveniles than in adults at all three sites. However, fragmentation did not seem to be depressing gene flow in the three populations or causing alterations in genetic structure, as the value of gene flow in juveniles and adults is not significantly different (Table 9). This could be linked to the abundance of the main agents of dispersal (rodents and large, hoofed animals) that are still found in good numbers in the study areas. The regeneration of this species seems to be favoured by a forest edge effect, which implies more disturbed conditions, different quality and greater intensity of light, and a different microclimate from the forest interior.The Nei genetic distances between the populations in Madre Cristina and Tucano were higher in juveniles than in adults (Table 10). This suggests more inbreeding in the fragments owing to the more pronounced isolation of individuals. The genetic distances show that gene flow did not occur with similar intensities in the three populations. The greatest distance was found between adults in the MDSP and in the Madre Cristina fragment.  Data from 201 copaiba trees were analyzed (90 adults and 111 juveniles). Like Hymenaea courbaril and Cedrela fissilis, the three populations of C. langsdorffii showed high levels of genetic diversity (Table 11).  The average number of alleles per locus (A) and genetic diversity were high in the adult trees of the three populations. The effective number of alleles per locus (n e ) was much lower than allelic richness (A), indicating the presence of alleles with low frequency, and therefore suggesting that genetic drift was not strong. However, the fixation index (f) was high in the three populations. As with Cedrela fissilis and Hymenaea courbaril, the population of C. langsdorffii inside the MDSP presented the smallest indices of inbreeding (Table 12).The analysis of genetic diversity among C. langsdorffii populations showed that most of the existing allelic variability is within populations (Table 12). The main contributor to total inbreeding (F = 0.360) seems to be the mating system of this species (f = 0.341) and not fragmentation. The lower value of f versus F, the low estimate of θ p , and the estimate of apparent gene flow all seem to suggest that populations from the three sites were not undergoing a significant differentiation process. The parameters of genetic structure for C. langsdorffii match those expected based on its reproductive biology; the species is distributed in small clusters at low densities, with pollen travelling long distances by bees. Seed dispersal is by birds that, in general, regurgitate seeds near the mother plant.The estimates of the genetic structure obtained for the juveniles indicate smaller indices of inbreeding in this class compared to the adults (Table 12). However, when observing the confidence intervals, differences in inbreeding indices between the juveniles and the adults are subtle.Forest fragmentation has resulted in restricted gene flow among the C. langsdorffii populations. The species' infrequent and partly asynchronous blooming (Pedroni et al. 2002) can amplify the effects of fragmentation. Even though there was a lot of inbreeding, genetic diversity in populations with different blooming periods was high. This phenomenon has also been observed in the tropical tree species Pithcellobium elegans (Hall et al. 1996).Genetic distances between the adult populations were smaller than the other species for all the possible pairs (Table 13), indicating that gene flow occurred in similar intensities among the three populations and that genetic drift and selection did not cause differentiation among the populations. The data also indicate that gene flow was restricted mostly between populations located furthest away from each other (MDSP and the Tucano fragment).The adult individuals of Peltophorum dubium showed high genetic diversity in the three forest sites (Table 14, overleaf). The average number of alleles per locus (A) and the values of heterozygosity (H e and H o ) were lower than the ones obtained for the other three species. This is due to the lower capacity of allozyme electrophoresis (with co-dominant markers) to detect polymorphisms when compared to microsatellites.Genetic diversity was high for P. dubium juveniles (H e = 0.463) and adults (H e = 0.451), with no differences detected among the three populations for either H o or H e . The populations studied presented a practically null fixation index.In contrast to what was observed in the other species, the estimate of total inbreeding in P. dubium did not differ significantly from zero ( Table 12. Parameters of genetic structure for three adult and three juvenile populations of C. langsdorffii. Confidence interval of 99% was obtained by 10 000 bootstraps on loci.indicates that P. dubium has developed an efficient pollination system typical of species that reproduce using cross fertilization. A low divergence among the populations was observed (θ p = 0.027) and a balance between gene flow and genetic drift was found. Genetic divergence among juveniles was close to zero (Table 15).  past, the few fragments that remain continue to be threatened by illegal logging, fuelwood collection and disturbance linked to hunting.The genetic diversity research that we undertook indicated that forest fragmentation has not yet resulted in a significant loss of alleles in the adult populations of the four selected species. In fact, although two of the populations studied were located in fragments, these were large fragments and the loss of adult trees was not so drastic as to cause immediate and significant loss of genetic diversity; the genetic diversity also remained high in juveniles. Indeed, the populations of all four species displayed high levels of genetic diversity, contrary to what has been observed for rare forest species elsewhere (Hamrick and Murawski 1991). However, it must be emphasized that only recently have microsatellite markers been used to study tropical arboreal species. Therefore, the genetic parameter estimates obtained here were probably higher than those that would have been obtained with other methods because of their higher capacity to detect polymorphisms.Because of fragmentation, we expected to find spatial structure in the patterns of genes. However, we observed little spatial organization in adult populations of Cedrela fissilis, Peltophorum dubium and Copaifera langsdorffii (while a more pronounced genetic distance between populations was found in Hymenaea courbaril). The low genetic differentiation found among the populations examined in this study is consistent with the high outcrossing rates that tropical tree species usually exhibit (Hall et al. 1996). Considering the differences in the ecological and reproductive characteristics of the species studied, outcrossing rates by themselves are not enough to predict the degree and the type of differentiation noted in these populations. For example, species that occur naturally in meta-population structures will probably not have their genetic structure modified very much after fragmentation events (England et al. 2002).Nevertheless, environmental awareness is increasing in the Pontal region, and forest planting and other recovery programmes are beginning to be successful. Legislation and policies are increasingly directed towards conservation of forest remnants by restricting exploitation of both timber and NWFPs. Enforcement of the existing laws is also improving, albeit slowly. In addition, farmers' organizations like COCAMP and MST have incorporated environmental considerations into their principles and practices. Some farmers are starting to adopt agroforestry programmes using native species in areas bordering forest fragments, including the adoption of silvipastoral systems.One of the major objectives of this forest genetic resource (FGR) project, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), was to develop and apply a general model that could improve our understanding of the dynamics of FGRs in forests used by local communities. Our ultimate goal was to use this model to compare the behaviour of different forest ecosystems, and ultimately to identify the factors that influence their genetic processes. We believed that this approach would help us to determine and then to monitor sustainable levels of FGRs for both management and conservation purposes. In this chapter, we present the results of our modelling activities for the Araucaria araucana (pehuén or araucaria) forests of Argentina.In the last 30 years or so, the field of forest conservation genetics has mostly focused on identifying centres of tree species' genetic diversity and investigating altered genetic processes that somehow jeopardized FGR conservation (Young et al. 2000). But in terms of real world applicability, this work has largely missed a major component of FGR conservation and use by not taking into account the most important actors in conservation: human beings.Combined with such natural disturbances as fire, volcanism and windstorm, human actions have also shaped the characteristics of Araucaria araucana forests over time. As seen in Chapter 6, deforestation has significantly reduced the extension of Argentine araucaria forests (Veblen et al. 1999;Rechene 2000). Such major disturbances have affected the stability of araucaria ecosystems and the survival of their species. They have modified forest habitats and changed their floristic composition and genetic characteristics, but with an intensity that varies across the natural range of the species. Araucaria forests continue to change under the influence of human use. Selective logging and seed (piñones) collecting are now strongly affecting araucaria ecosystems and genetic processes, and this is especially true in the fragmented eastern populations of the species that now regenerate mostly by vegetative means. Therefore, when studying pehuén genetics and forest dynamics, the addition of the human element and its various socioeconomic contexts is essential, even though it increases the investigative and analytical challenge.The complexity of such human-modified systems is not easily disentangled through linear thinking or strictly deterministic analytical tools. The dynamic interdependencies among the many parameters and variables to be considered when modelling such systems mean that a holistic approach needs to be used (Haraldsson 2000). Systems thinking and one of its components, system dynamics, enhances our ability to understand dynamic interrelationships (Richmond 1993), and these are therefore appropriate tools for conceptualizing and analyzing entities like forests that we hope to conserve while still exploiting their resources (= 'conservation through use' systems).Through a model that applies systems research approaches, we try to describe the pehuén forests of Argentina that are dominated by Araucaria araucana and inhabited by indigenous Mapuche people. The most important elements integrated into our model are:• The extent of the forest ecosystem to be modelled and changes to it that result from human actions (= boundaries of the system)• Seed productivity in different forests • Seed consumption by domesticated and wild animals • Seed collecting by Mapuche • Forest genetic diversity • Condition of pasturelands (productivity and carrying capacity) • Amount and distribution of wealth within Mapuche communities, and • Per capita Mapuche income from off-farm sources.Throughout this chapter we call our modelled araucaria forest the Pehuén Model. We created it with two objectives in mind:• To represent the structure and dynamics of araucaria forests through a descriptive, conceptual model that identifies links and feedbacks among genetic, ecological and socioeconomic processes and variables, and• To predict the future behaviour of the system by factoring into the model both current management practices and more sustainable alternatives, thereby allowing us to evaluate the outcomes of different management regimes over time.The key species in the forest ecosystem we have modelled is Araucaria araucana. This large tree is native to Argentina and Chile, growing mostly at elevations of between 900 and 1800 metres above sea level (m asl), with sporadic occurrences at altitudes as low as 600 m asl (Armesto et al. 1997). Araucaria grows mostly on soils derived from recent volcanic ash deposits, though it can also be found on deeper soils derived from metamorphic and sedimentary rocks (Armesto et al. 1997). The natural distribution of araucaria covers a rainfall gradient ranging from 900 to 2500 mm of rainfall per year in Argentina, with some Chilean sites receiving up to 4000 mm per year.Araucaria araucana mixes with other tree species along rainfall and latitudinal gradients, but it is most commonly associated with Nothofagus spp. and Austrocedrus chilensis. The three most common forest associations are:• Araucaria araucana and Nothofagus pumilio (called 'lenga' in the Mapuche language). This association generally occurs in the western, wetter part of the araucaria range at higher elevations (1100-1800 m asl) on south-facing slopes. This forest type has been commercially exploited• Araucaria araucana and Nothofagus antarctica in shrub form (called 'ñire' in the Mapuche language). This association is found in east-west running valleys and near the upper forest limit. The araucaria canopy emerges from a prostrate and shrubby layer of ñire. Currently this forest type is an important source of fuelwood for Mapuche communities and is affected by grazing and by natural and/or man-made fires• Araucaria araucana in pure stands is found near the upper forest limit on poorer soils, and also at lower altitudes interspersed in a steppe environment. Forest fragments on the steppe occur in isolated woodlots that are heavily disturbed by human activities (such as seed collecting, livestock grazing, etc).The Pehuén Model was designed to answer a specific question: is it possible to simultaneously increase the regeneration capacity of the forest while also improving the livelihoods of the local people that depend upon it? Model design followed four steps, as outlined by Randers (1980): conceptualization, formulation, testing and implementation. During Step 1, conceptualization, the purpose of the model is defined and its boundaries and key variables are identified. The behaviour of a modelled system is dependent upon its structure and the elements included. Thus, establishing the system's boundaries precedes the identification of key variables and processes that are also included in the model (Haraldsson 2000). The model should include all the elements that interact to make it dynamic (Cover 1996). If the causes of a system phenomenon or process lie outside the system as it is currently described in the model, then it is necessary to expand the original boundaries to encompass it. It is also necessary to describe comprehensible units of the key variables and to define the causal relationships within the system that are represented through feedback loops.In Step 2, formulation, the diagrams that visually describe feedbacks are drawn and converted into level and rate equations. In Step 3, testing, parameter values are estimated and the model is tested using simulations based on the system's present conditions, but projected over a defined future period of time. Finally, in Step 4, the model is implemented to simulate system responses to management alternatives. Feedbacks within the system are described using causal loop diagrams (CLDs). Each component of a system acts as a cause or an effect in related processes (Haraldsson 2000). CLDs are maps that represent this behaviour by illustrating the relationships between and among components of a system. A feedback represents a cascading process where an initial event ripples through a causation chain ultimately to affect itself (Martin 1997). There are two kinds of feedback: positive and negative. A positive feedback occurs when compounding, reinforcing or amplifying processes produce an exponential behaviour. A negative feedback drives balanced or stabilized systems to produce either asymptotic or oscillatory behaviour (Haraldsson 2000). Figure 1 presents an example of a causal loop diagram with positive and negative feedbacks.System levels, flows and rates are determined so that computer simulations can be run. Levels are quantities that accumulate over time, flows are movements in and out of levels, and rates control the change in levels per unit of time. For example livestock population is a level, and recruitment and mortality of livestock are flows regulated by rates that modify the number of livestock in the system. The feedback mechanisms for the Pehuén Model, as exemplified in Figure 1, were imported into the STELLA (Structural Thinking, Experiential Learning Laboratory with Animation; Richmond 1994) modelling environment in order to run a computer simulation. In STELLA, levels and changes in levels are expressed through stock (rectangular boxes) and flow (arrows) symbols (Figure 2, overleaf). A rate of change might be thought of as a faucet that controls the flow of water into a bathtub (Roberts 2001).  The first step in designing a model is conceptualization (Albin 1997). It includes the following steps: (i) definition of the objectives of the model and its boundaries; (ii) identification of key variables; (iii) description of the behaviour of the variables; and (iv) description of the principal mechanisms or feedback loops of the system. The purpose of the Pehuén Model was to identify and analyze the relationships among the different elements, processes and players interacting within the araucaria forest ecosystem and, more specifically, to incorporate the impact of the indigenous communities on the forest and especially on the FGRs. Therefore, key ecological and socioeconomic variables were included in the system to help deepen our understanding of current araucaria FGR dynamics and to predict the evolution of the forest under future conditions.The boundaries of the system corresponded to the boundaries of the Mapuche community of Chiuquilihuin (for more details on this study site, see Chapter 6). The area inhabited by the Chiuquilihuin Mapuche was identified as the most suitable for the study because its socioeconomic, ecological and forest genetic dynamics were representative of those found in other Mapuche communities. The size of the community territory is approximately 5000 hectares, located in the southern Andes in the Province of Neuquén in Argentina, between approximately 39º35'30\"S and 39º39'30\"S and 71º13'30\"W and 71º0'0\"W. To the north and west it borders Lanín National Park and to the south and east it borders other Mapuche communities and private ranches. The landscape is hilly and mountainous, ranging from 750 m asl to 2000 m asl. Precipitation decreases from 1800 mm to 1200 mm per year along a west-east gradient. Nothofagus spp. and Araucaria araucana are commonly found in association at higher elevations and in the more humid western areas they form dense forests. In the eastern part of the modelled area several fragmented but pure stands of A. araucana are found scattered in a steppe environment (800-1000 m asl) that is degraded by overgrazing (Figure 3). Little or no sexual regeneration was found within the araucaria woodlots in the steppe.Three subsystems were identified as principally influencing the araucaria system within Chiuquilihuin territory: (i) community livelihood; (ii) seed availability for sexual regeneration of the forest; and (iii) livestock. The seed availability subsystem was divided into two We characterized the genetics of the forest stands used for the modelling exercise and studied their gene flow. Gene flow appeared to move from the west towards the eastern fragments in the study area, with genetic information arriving via pollen from the continuous western forest stands of A. araucana and Nothofagus spp. However, there were indications that differentiation through genetic erosion would begin in the not-too-distant future in the eastern araucaria stands, which are pure but fragmented old-growth trees, now degraded by overgrazing. This will most likely result from a lack of natural sexual regeneration and will dampen the relatively high genetic diversity still found in the seed pools of these fragments. The likely effects of low or no sexual regeneration, restricted seed dispersal by rodents owing to disturbance caused by continued fuelwood exploitation, and the eventual removal of some mature individuals are described in the Figure 4 (overleaf) CLD in relation to the genetic processes of (assumed) endogamy and migration.Research results generated for the seed availability subsystem allowed us to produce CLDs of seed production in relation to precipitation for the various araucaria forest stands included in the study. We found precipitation to be the principal factor controlling seed production in all the forest ecosystems investigated (see the simulation of seed production patterns over 50 years in Figure 9 p. 199). In fact, the number of seeds produced in any given year was determined by the annual average precipitation that occurred two years before. This could be related to the effect of precipitation during the pollination time (Sanguinetti et al. 2001). In researching the seed consumption component of the seed availability subsystem, we found that seeds were being removed from the system by domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, cows and horses, by wild exotic animals like red deer and wild boar, by native rodents and parakeets, and by the collecting activities of the Chiuquilihuin Mapuche. Some seed predators were also involved in gene migration as they contribute to the dispersal of seeds, and this is also reflected in our conceptual model. Because araucaria seeds were used as livestock feed by the Chiuquilihuin community, livestock management decisions also affected seed availability and we attempted to incorporate these into the seed availability subsystem of our model.The mechanisms by which the variables of the three main subsystems affect genetic diversity were identified through existing theoretical and experimental population genetic knowledge adapted to the characteristics of the pehuén system. For example, we assumed that araucaria forest fragmentation would have an indirect influence on genetic diversity by affecting gene migration. In the eastern araucaria forest, fragmentation increases the distance pollen must travel and/or decreases the available habitat for dispersers. At least at the time of our research, the genetic diversity of the fragmented araucaria populations was still comparable to that found in the denser forest stands to the west, with no evidence of increased endogamy and/or fixation or loss of alleles. Very likely, this was due to the sustained gene flow that was occurring along the west-east araucaria forest axis.Soil erosion is another important system variable that has serious ecological, genetic and socioeconomic repercussions. Habitat loss resulting from soil erosion was occurring with varying degrees of intensity within the study area, and this was factored into our model. The most dramatic erosion occurs in the fragmented and isolated eastern araucaria stands that were surrounded by grasslands. The model reflects our conclusion that erosion affected regeneration and induced vegetative regeneration. We flagged this as a subject for future ecological research.The community livelihood (or socioeconomic) subsystem was represented in our model with the following process components: livestock management, seed consumption, wood harvesting, income derived from seed, income from livestock, and income from off-farm activities. These components were analyzed and their variables quantified. In order to assess the sustainability of current livestock management practices, analyses of carrying capacity of the different grasslands scattered around the araucaria forests, and of their role in the pehuén system, were undertaken in collaboration with pastureland experts using geographic information system (GIS) tools from the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) in Bariloche, Argentina.The amount of seed available for natural sexual regeneration of araucaria trees was identified as the key variable in the long-term stability of the pehuén system. Seed availability was strongly correlated with the maintenance of genetic diversity and, consequently, with the long-term evolutionary potential of araucaria forests. Minimum production of 18 000 seeds per hectare was determined to be the threshold for genetic sustainability. This value was obtained by combining estimates of the average germination capacity (70%) of seeds produced by several A. araucana populations in the study area, along with observation of the natural regeneration density of stands not affected by human seed collecting or by seed consumption by livestock or wild exotic animals. Under ideal conditions, a 70% annual araucaria seed germination rate would provide 12 600 seedlings/ha. This amount would be expected to secure araucaria regeneration and therefore genetic sustainability in araucaria forest evolutionary processes.The indicator of the ecological sustainability of araucaria ecosystems was identified to be the forage productivity of wet meadows, one of several pastureland types found in the study area (see Table 6, Chapter 6). Wet meadows are the most productive, and are also the most resilient of the pastureland types to grazing pressure (see Section 3 below). Wet meadows were determined to be seriously degraded, and their carrying capacity consequently reduced, when forage productivity in relation to maximum productivity declined by 20% or more. This value represents the threshold for ecological sustainability.Annual average per capita income of US$500 (equivalent to 1500 Argentinean pesos/ year) was identified as the principal indicator for sustainability of the socioeconomic subsystem. Any downwards change in average income is considered unsustainable.The three subsystems identified above were adapted into the STELLA modelling environment to allow a prediction of future conditions through simulation (Figure 5). Forage availability for livestock was modelled separately as data were available to represent the dynamics of pasturelands. The subsystems modelled are described below.This subsystem simulates the behaviour of livestock (sheep, goats, cows and horses; see Figure 6 (on p. 196) in the Pehuén Model. The modelling exercise could be refined by better describing pastureland degradation and regeneration processes, but this is a first attempt to describe livestock dynamics, and further research is needed to gather more detailed information. In order to standardize representation of grazing densities and the food requirements of the animals, a conversion into sheep livestock units (SLUs) was adopted (one SLU is a standard measure used to homogenize livestock numbers per surface area) in order to make comparisons possible. One SLU is equivalent to 1 sheep weighing 40 kg consuming 365 kg of dry forage per year (Siffredi et al. 2002). The conversion used was 1 sheep or goat = 1 SLU, 1 cow = 7.5 sheep or goats (or 7.5 SLUs), and 1 horse = 10 sheep or goats (10 SLUs).The number of SLUs grazing in the study area was made dependent on annual variation in birth and mortality rates, and on the number of SLUs slaughtered annually. Livestock mortality was described in the model as partly controlled by the carrying capacity of the system, which corresponds to the ratio between the amount of food available on average every year and the amount of food consumed by one SLU. The amount of food available is calculated by converting the annual total production of all pasturelands into annual availability of dry forage, combined with pehuén seed availability. This latter value is calculated as the difference between seed production any given year and the amount of seed removed from the system by predators for consumption other than as livestock feed. Based on their nutritional values, Sanguinetti et al. (2001) converted araucaria seeds into equivalent dry forage units at a rate of 1 kg of seeds equalling 2.5 kg of dry forage.The size of herds found in the pehuén system at any point in time depends on such variables as livestock management practices, the amount of meat consumed locally, trading opportunities for meat, the proportion of reproductive females in relation to the herds, and the amount of livestock food available, this last variable being the limiting factor. We observed that livestock in the pehuén system consumed per year on average 82% dry forage (from pasturelands) and 18% araucaria seeds (from araucaria forests). When dry forage was limited, the quantities of seed consumed increased, and this had negative effects on natural regeneration of araucaria forest stands and ultimately on the genetic diversity of those forests. This relationship demonstrates how araucaria genetic diversity is indirectly dependent upon the livestock management practices of the Mapuche community.We determined the forage productivity in the five pastureland types and the number of seeds that could be sustainably harvested from araucaria forests (see Chapter 6). This enabled us to establish livestock carrying capacity for the pehuén system and to set a livestock density threshold above which overgrazing would occur. We also calculated a new variable that we called 'enhanced carrying capacity' that included livestock foods from sources external to the pehuén system, namely forage from summer fields in neighbouring areas outside our model boundaries, and hay supplied periodically.The most productive pasturelands for forage are wet meadows. These are areas where water covers the soil or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year round, Figure 5. Overview of the STELLA stock and flow representation of the Pehuén Model, indicating the complexity of the system.   or for variable periods of time during the year. Maximum forage production grazed in the pehuén system was determined to range from 3000-5000 kg/ha of dry forage for wet meadows to 20-50 kg/ha of dry forage for the driest steppe pastureland type (Figure 7). A yearly proportion of production consumed by livestock (= use factor) was determined for these two pastureland extremes to be 65% and 40% respectively (see Annex 1; Siffredi et al. 2002).The number of domesticated animals (= carrying capacity) that could be supported by the pehuén system was defined as the number of SLUs that could be fed sustainably by the combined supply of forage from the five pastureland types and from araucaria seeds. In our model, the availability of forage is linked to carrying capacity by a feedback mechanism. When overgrazing occurs, forage availability (pastureland forage and forest seed forage) declines along with carrying capacity. The equations that describe the relationship between the degree of overgrazing and the decline in forage productivity were formulated with the advice of experts from INTA.Annual per capita income in Chiuquilihuin was chosen as the variable to be monitored to assess socioeconomic sustainability of the pehuén system. The size of the Chiuquilihuin community (306 people) and its net growth rate of 2% (including births, deaths, emigration and immigration; Pinna 2002) were used to initialize STELLA simulations (Annex 1).Four sources of income were included in the model: livestock sales, araucaria seed sales, government subsidies and salaries. Subsidies and salaries were defined as offfarm sources. Annual per capita income from livestock was determined by calculating the volume of livestock sold by community members in a year (at current prices of 70 pesos or US$25/SLU) divided by the number of community members. Annual per capita income from seeds was determined by calculating the amount of araucaria seed sold at 1.5 pesos or $0.50/kg divided by the number of community members. The amount of seed collected any given year was set as a function both of seed availability and of motivation to collect, this latter variable assumed to be related to traditional domestic consumption rates and fluctuations in market prices. The amount of seed sold was calculated as a variable fraction of total seeds collected by the local community.Off-farm income from subsidies was set as a function of the proportion of adult community members entitled to receive government subsidies: 30% of the population are adults, 75% of whom receive subsidies (Pinna 2002). Income from salaries was set as a function of the number of adults with temporary jobs (25% of adult community members, working for 7.2 months/year on average) and of the average monthly salary of 350 pesos or US$120 (Pinna 2002). We determined average annual per capita income to be roughly $500, around 1500 Argentinean pesos/year.A subsystem was designed to describe fluctuations in the number of seeds available for araucaria regeneration. This value was defined as the difference between the average annual number of seeds produced by the araucaria forest stands and the average annual amount of seeds consumed, which varied in relation to animal predation (Figure 8, overleaf) and quantities collected by the Chiuquilihuin Mapuche.The average annual number of seeds produced was determined by the number of mature trees/ha and the annual precipitation in the preceding two years, reflecting the time it takes for the seeds to reach maturity. Rainfall amounts measured during four years of field research were used to extrapolate precipitation trends over a longer period. The number of cones/tree was inversely correlated with annual rainfall because we believe that high precipitation has a negative effect on pollination (Sanguinetti et al. 2002). Estimates of the number of seed trees/ha varied in our model in accordance with open versus dense pehuén forest settings. We also assumed that the negative effects of heavy rainfall on pollination would not be felt so much in open and drier forests as in denser, wetter forests (our model used 17 trees/ha to represent open, dry sites and 55 trees/ha for denser, wet sites; Sanguinetti et al. 2002). The proportion of modelled forest area exposed to the actions of livestock, which include seed consumption, grazing and trampling of seedlings and resulting erosion, was estimated by field observations to be 30% of the total forest area. Different seed consumption rates were also attributed to red deer and wild boar ('wild exotic animals') found within Chiuquilihuin territory, and to native wild animals (rodents and parakeets). Seed consumers were assigned different behavioural and timing values. For instance, wild animals were assumed to be the first to feed on available seeds and then humans gathering seeds for food would further reduce seed availability, and finally livestock would consume the amount left, either by direct grazing or consuming seed fed to them by the Mapuche.The amount of seed consumed by wild animals (both native and exotic) depended on their population sizes, on individual animal consumption rates, and on whether this was an area of forest where livestock grazing occurred. The amount of seed collected by local people or consumed by livestock and wild animals was also dependent on fluctuations in seed production.Densities of wild animals were determined to be 50/ha for natives and 2/ha for exotics (Sanguinetti et al. 2001). Seed consumption rates by humans are described in the 'community livelihood' subsystem that focused on economic activities.Initialization values were attributed to 27 parameters incorporated into the Pehuén Model (Annex 1). Parameters are also defined as 'variable constants' or coefficients, that is they are quantities that are known and which the modeller may wish to change, but which must be given a value to start a modelling simulation. The equations that define the relationships between the 120+ variables (Figure 5, on p. 195) were formulated. The behaviour of the Pehuén Model was then tested under current management conditions. Simulations were run over a 50-year period, which seemed a reasonable time for long-term forest management planning. This period also corresponded to the estimated time required for araucaria trees to reach reproductive maturity.The simulations revealed that current natural resource management practices in the pehuén system were not sustainable, whether viewed from genetic, ecological or socioeconomic points of view.Annual system carrying capacity for livestock was found to vary strongly in relation to annual seed production, which in turn showed a significant negative correlation with the precipitation level two years prior to the year of simulation. Forage production from pasturelands within Chiuquilihuin territory was less important than seed availability in contributing to livestock food needs.Under current management practices, the simulation predicted that in 50 years, wet meadow forage productivity would steadily decrease to 60% of its initial value, showing that present conditions are ecologically unsustainable.Under current conditions the simulation also showed that approximately 19 000 seedlings/ha would be found in dense araucaria forests unaffected by humans, while in open forests subject to anthropogenic pressures and grazing, there would be only about 500 seedlings/ha. In Figure 9, the cyclical peaks in araucaria seed availability, what we called 'potential natural regeneration events', are simulated over the 50-year projection period. Peaks in seed production occur at intervals of 3-5 years, reflecting low annual precipitation values two years before, but they never reach the minimum annual production of about 18 000 seeds needed to secure proper regeneration densities. We interpret this to mean that seed will not be available to ensure adequate natural araucaria regeneration in the pehuén system over the next 50 years if management practices remain unchanged. A final simulation was run to estimate variation in annual per capita income over the 50year future period. During this time, according to the current population growth rate, the Chiuquilihuin community is expected to increase to three times its current size (Figure 10). This growth should consequently increase araucaria seed consumption and, assuming a constant amount of SLUs in the community, reduce the annual per capita income by about 30% from US$500 to $330 (Figure 11). Over the same period, degradation of pastureland from overgrazing would lead to a reduction in available forage (mostly due to a reduction of the wet meadows forage production; Figure 12, on p. 202), negatively affecting livelihoods by increasing livestock mortality and decreasing income from livestock.Thus, without some sort of significant change, such as government interventions leading towards sustainable management and/or adoption of conservation principles, the living conditions of local communities will deteriorate and the environment will become heavily degraded, with very serious loss of araucaria genetic diversity.A sensitivity analysis was carried out to test how responsive the model was to changes in values of certain parameters. Sensitivity analyses help to identify variables that disproportionately affect the behaviour of systems and, for modelling purposes, the values of these variables should not be estimated but rather derived whenever possible from empirical observations (Breierova and Choudhari 1996). Nevertheless, in the present dynamic model, some variables were difficult to measure in the field and some relationships were difficult to predict, for instance, responses in araucaria seed collecting in relation  The number of sheep livestock units (SLUs) does not increase as it is constrained by forage availability (the maximum number of SLUs supported by the system has already been reached), therefore income associated with livestock will not increase over time either. Income from araucaria seed rises slightly owing to increased seed harvesting. Overall, annual per capita income (combining all sources) declines over the period of simulation.to changes in seed price. Hence, the value of some parameters and some conversion coefficients were based on best estimates.The sensitivity of the three primary indicators of genetic, ecological and socioeconomic sustainability (seeds available for regeneration, forage productivity of wet meadows, and annual per capita income) was tested. Analyses were also carried out to assess the sensitivity of the model to variations in forage productivity on the steppe, the fraction of dense forest accessible to livestock, the conversion coefficient of seeds into forage units, the total number of SLUs introduced into the modelled system, the birth and death rates of livestock, the proportion of dry forage in the livestock diet, the human population growth rate, the proportion of adults to total population, the percentage of adults that receive subsidies and salaries from government, and the amount of those salaries.The default values for 15 of the parameters (shown in Annex 1) used for the simulation of Chiuquilihuin community dynamics were modified by ±20% to test the repercussions of these changes on the system, considering that a ±20% variation in the values was a realistic possibility that could occur for many reasons. The sensitivity analysis was undertaken without considering forage inputs from sources outside the system. Using the new values, for the 50 year projected future period, we recalculated the three primary indicators of genetic, ecological and socioeconomic sustainability and compared the quantities obtained to the corresponding results of the original simulations. The repercussions of these changes on the three selected indicators of sustainability were monitored, and Figure 12. Simulation of the progressive decline in forage availability from wet meadows owing to protracted overgrazing (i.e., maintaining current exploitation rates of pasturelands) over the 50-year simulation period. Wet meadows represent a very small fraction of the overall pastureland used by the Chiuquilihuin community, but they are extremely productive and contribute to most of the forage availability (their forage productivity is 30 times higher than that of the steppe). The total number of sheep livestock units (SLUs) supported by the food available within the modelled system fluctuates in strong correlation with seed production pulses.changes of more than 5% from the original value were considered significant. Results are presented in Table 1. The analysis provided both predictable and unpredictable results. For example, the genetic sustainability (seed available for regeneration) of the pehuén system was strongly correlated with seed production and consumption, as highlighted previously in the model diagram (Figure 4, on p. 192).If livestock grazing could, in part, be shifted to denser araucaria forests further from the Chiuquilihuin villages, the amount of seed available for regeneration in the forests near the villages would increase because grazing would be distributed more equitably throughout the pehuén system. Even though this change would result in a more extensive grazing regime, the fact that the new forests now being exploited have higher seed productivity and are further from the villages means that the forests closer to the villages would be subjected to lower grazing pressure, reduced seed consumption, and thus exhibit more regeneration.However, the same response could result from any variation in the system that would reduce seed consumption, such as an increase in the proportion of grass in the livestock diet or an increase in the nutritional efficiency of seeds, or both. In contrast, a rise in seed collecting efforts driven, for example, by an increase in seed prices or an increase in the  number of SLUs in the system, would have a strong negative effect on the availability of seed for natural regeneration (genetic sustainability indicator). Interestingly, the sensitivity analysis showed that the system would be unaffected by an increase in the price of livestock. This might be explained, in part at least, by management constraints. The majority of the families in Chiuquilihuin own on average about 40 SLUs, and this number seems to represent an upper limit of animals that average families can manage for their own needs under their specific land ownership situations.Finally, increasing the number of animals in the community negatively affected natural araucaria regeneration by reducing seed availability. It also led to a depression in forage productivity in wet meadows owing to overgrazing. In contrast, if just 20% of the current 6500 SLUs were removed, substantial benefits would be achieved in genetic sustainability.Based on the results of the sensitivity analysis and on the knowledge we obtained through field research, we simulated several hypothetical management alternatives and monitored their outcomes over a 50-year period in terms of genetic, ecological, and socioeconomic sustainability. The evaluated alternatives were: 1a. Adjust livestock numbers to pastureland carrying capacity, or increase forage inputs 1b. Reduce grazing pressure (total SLUs) 2. Increase araucaria seed prices 3. Increase off-farm incomes.The ability of pasturelands to recover from grazing pressure was assessed by simulating regulatory regimes that maintained livestock numbers within the limits of pastureland carrying capacity. We began the simulation by using current rates of use and current conditions of pastureland degradation, but with no additional sources of off-farm forage. We found that over a simulated period of 8 years, the pastureland productivity declined to a point where the number of SLUs that could be sustained dropped from 6500 to approximately 940. This reduction in SLUs progressively relieved pastureland grazing pressure and, when maintained at this level, a slow but steady recovery in forage productivity occurred after another 8 years, especially in the wet meadows -our ecological sustainability indicator. Under these conditions, maximum pastureland productivity was restored near the end of the 50-year simulation period. The positive repercussions of reduced grazing pressure at this rate and magnitude could also be seen in more frequent regeneration pulses, because seed availability for natural regeneration now more often passed the minimum threshold for sustainability. While this scenario seems to achieve genetic and ecological sustainability in the pehuén system, it is economically unrealistic over the simulation period, both because of current population growth and because income reductions from lower livestock numbers would presumably be unacceptable to the Chiuquilihuin community.Nevertheless, other options exist that could maintain the current number of SLUs without causing lowered pastureland productivity, such as: (i) extending grazing areas to additional pasturelands located outside the community land that are not currently being used, (ii) increasing hay supplied by the provincial government during difficult times, (iii) implementing more intensive pastureland management practices, particularly in the wet meadows, by employing fences to regulate grazing, or (iv) by trying to restructure use of the wet meadows that are owned by a few families, by somehow making them more accessible to other community members (Siffredi et al. 2002). For example, with all other variables remaining unchanged, the simulations showed that by doubling off-farm forage inputs to 3 million kg of dry forage per year, the productivity of wet meadows recovered over a span of 12 years. However, this scenario did not result in natural araucaria regeneration nor increases in per capita income over time. Moreover, some of the management alternatives 205 simulated have practical limitations in that they conflict with traditional practices, which is the case with using fences, as well as with current property ownership patterns. We concluded that improvements in pastureland management should not be considered in isolation but rather in conjunction with other solutions.The Mapuche of northern Patagonia have practised livestock transhumance for more than 400 years, adapting themselves to a pastoral way of life (Lanari et al. 2003). During the BMZfunded project, we found livestock to be unequally distributed among Mapuche families (Pinna 2002), but most families owned on average about 40 SLUs. We called this value 'cultural stock' because it corresponded to the optimal number of animals most families chose to raise. Only two farmers owned more than 200 animals, while nine farmers owned between 51 and 150 animals (Pinna 2002). In the scenario simulated, the average cultural stock figure was multiplied by the number of families in Chiuquilihuin, thereby reducing the total community livestock holdings to 2520 SLUs, which represented about one-third of the 6500 SLUs now held by the community. This calculation reflects a hypothetical condition in which all farmers own an equal number of animals. When the number of SLUs is so reduced, grazing pressure diminishes and this triggers a fast recovery of wet meadow productivity. At the same time the frequency of araucaria regeneration events (seeds available above the regeneration threshold) increased. However, reducing the number of SLUs induced an immediate 30% decrease in annual per capita income and halved annual per capita income after 50 years. This alternative was thus not sustainable from a socioeconomic point of view.The management options thus far proposed have shown that by changing pastureland management and reducing grazing pressure, ecological and genetic sustainability can be achieved. However socioeconomic sustainability could not be achieved because of income losses from fewer SLUs combined with projected population growth. Therefore, we simulated alternatives that increased income using other products and income sources. We ran a simulation that maintained SLUs at 2520 while doubling income from araucaria seeds and keeping off-farm incomes unchanged. The simulation showed that this change was initially sustainable in genetic, ecological and socioeconomic terms, but in the long run higher seed prices combined with local population growth led to rates of seed harvesting that rapidly depressed araucaria regeneration. After ten years and thereafter, seed available for natural regeneration never reached the minimum threshold for genetic sustainability. Moreover, the temporary increase in income generated by higher seed prices did not balance the income losses from the reduction in SLUs. Therefore, an increase in seed prices was seen as unlikely to produce sustainable outcomes in the long run.A simulation was run with community livestock holdings again set at 2520 SLUs but now with average annual off-farm income increased from 350 pesos (US$120) to 500 pesos ($160). And we assumed that each family would benefit from at least one salary all year round. Thus, our original 'fraction of inhabitants with salaries' per family (see Annex 1) grew from the original value of 0.25 to 0.68, and the 'period during the year with employment', expressed as a fraction of a year, increased from 0.6 to 1. These relatively small and reasonable changes generated an immediate increase of 30% in annual per capita income. Combined with genetic and ecological sustainability achieved through reduced grazing pressure (Figure 13, overleaf), this socioeconomic change could secure long-term stability in the pehuén system. But because of projected population growth, off-farm incomes would need to rise over time in order to maintain the long-term socioeconomic, genetic and ecological benefits.Linear thinking or strictly deterministic analytical tools do not permit us to understand the complexity of human-modified ecosystems like those found in the araucaria forests of northern Patagonia. For this study, a systems approach was very helpful in representing the dynamic interdependencies among the many parameters and variables that were needed to model the functioning of araucaria forests in the area investigated.Our simulation revealed expected and unexpected dynamic behaviour, and it highlighted the need to undertake more detailed studies of links between genetic, ecological and socioeconomic aspects of the pehuén system. In future, we will particularly need to fill data gaps and to improve our understanding of several feedback mechanisms within the system. Nevertheless, using current data and trends to extrapolate conditions over the next 50 years, our simulation showed that the pehuén system would become less-and-less sustainable in forest genetic, ecological and socioeconomic terms. Indeed, over our 50-year simulation period, using current natural resource use patterns, further degradation of pasturelands and less and less forest regeneration will occur. This projected future scenario, when coupled with the projected growth in the Mapuche population, causes us to be seriously concerned about the future prospects of the pehuén system.The sensitivity analysis and the simulated management alternatives led to the identification of four variables as most important in moving the pehuén system towards sustainability:• Number of SLUs • Seed production in araucaria forests Figure 13. Simulation of forage productivity of wet meadows following an increase in offfarm incomes. Forage productivity of wet meadows displays small fluctuations and does not decline dramatically over time as projected under current livestock management conditions. The total number of sheep livestock units (SLUs) supported by overall food availability within the system is tightly linked to pulses of seed availability over time, but periodically reaches higher values than under current conditions (i.e., without an increase in off-farm incomes). 1. Annual forage production from wet meadows (kg/ha) 2. Annual contribution of seed to livestock feed (SLUs/ha) 3. Total number of SLUs supported by overall food availability within the system (forage and seeds)• Rate of population growth in the Chiuquilihuin community • Off-farm incomes.The factor exerting most pressure on the sexual regeneration of araucaria forests and, therefore, indirectly on araucaria forest genetic diversity, proved to be livestock grazing, and most of the scenarios we modelled showed that reducing the number of SLUs solved this problem. But while reduced grazing pressure lead to genetic and ecological sustainability, projected population growth and loss of income from fewer SLUs meant that socioeconomic sustainability was not achieved. Indeed, without some sort of significant compensation for income losses, reducing herd sizes would be unacceptable to the Chiuquilihuin community. Livestock is not only a key resource but is a traditional part of the Mapuche way of life.Thus, our simulations showed that annual per capita income must be maintained and progressively increased at the same time that genetic and ecological sustainability solutions are being implemented. The most likely way to achieve this is through increasing off-farm incomes in the system.However, even if more efficient livestock management could be achieved and complemented with alternative economic opportunities and without a reduction in the amount of SLUs, it would not guarantee genetic, ecological and economic sustainability over the long run. Such a situation indicates that political decisions are needed to achieve the two interlinked objectives of improving Mapuche socioeconomic conditions while conserving the evolutionary potential of pehuén forests. Measures implemented should be applied within a framework that respects local Mapuche culture and community traditions. We recommend that the government provide salaries for environmental monitoring and protection in compensation for the role historically and presently played by local families in conserving the araucaria ecosystems, as well as compensating local communities for the loss of income that would result from the recommended reduction in the number of SLUs.At least one member from each Chiuquilihuin family could be officially recruited to work on community-based environmental protection and restoration projects. This would also contribute to raising awareness of conservation issues. Such government investments in environmental protection and indigenous community development might draw resources from wealthy economic sectors such as tourism, petrol and gas extraction, fruit orchards or mining. Investments in technology and institutional development should also be planned for this region.The results of spatial modelling are presented for one of the sites of the project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) on conservation, management and sustainable use of forest genetic resources. Modelling was carried out to determine how genetic diversity of the vulnerable pine tree Araucaria araucana is spatially distributed throughout the species' range in Argentina. This information is of primary interest to both conservation biologists (Escudero et al. 2003) and evolutionary biologists (Manel et al. 2003). The evolutionary forces of selection, gene flow, drift and mutation combine to shape the patterns of genetic diversity seen in nature. Modelling these forces can help explain and predict patterns of spatial genetic structure (Manel et al. 2003).Although many models are available for analyzing genetic structure in one-dimensional selection clines (Barton 1999;Bekessy et al. 2002), they are of limited applicability to natural populations because most species inhabit selective environments that are complex and nonlinear. Here, we apply cline theory in a two-dimensional landscape analysis of selection pressures, gene flow and species distribution patterns to predict areas of high genetic diversity within the range of A. araucana (Molina). In eight populations of the species A. araucana we found a high correlation between observed levels of adaptive trait diversity and predictions based on the degree of environmental heterogeneity within the surrounding areas from which these populations can receive alleles through gene flow.This study provides a promising first step towards developing predictive tools for genetic conservation, both in A. araucana and other species, as well as a novel means of assessing spatial evolutionary processes.It is generally accepted that environmental heterogeneity acts as a diversifying force by providing many selection pressures to which a species must adapt (Hedrick et al. 1976;Linhart and Grant 1996;Nevo 2001). As such, one might expect that areas with the highest heterogeneity would tend to harbour the highest levels of genetic diversity within a species (Figure 1, overleaf, area A). While this relationship has often been demonstrated, it has typically been in primarily self-pollinating (Hamrick and Holden 1979) or asexual species (Bell 1997) that have low levels of gene flow.This theoretical relationship is more complicated in species with high levels of gene flow because patterns of genetic structure can be spatially redistributed, resulting in increased diversity in relatively homogeneous areas (Slatkin 1973(Slatkin , 1978; Figure 1, right panel, area B). Therefore, in studying how gene flow through a landscape shapes genetic structure, it is necessary to focus analysis on patterns within homogeneous niches.Depending on the degree of environmental variability, a continuously distributed population may span several niches. In considering genetic structure within these niches, we focus analysis on subpopulations delineated by selection pressures rather than by demographic and geographic distribution. But because selection pressure is uniform within these homogeneous niches, any local diversity is the result of incoming gene flow from neighbouring regions that are differentially adapted (assuming no drift or mutation). In this context, one would expect the diversity of incoming alleles to be proportional to the variability in selection pressures affecting the donor subpopulations. Therefore, we hypothesize that the level of genetic diversity in a subpopulation inhabiting a homogeneous niche should be correlated to the heterogeneity in the environments of any genetically connected neighbours (we refer to this as 'effective heterogeneity' versus 'simple heterogeneity', which is measured within the same scale as diversity).Because populations in nature are two-dimensionally distributed in space (unlike the simple model shown in Figure 1), we used maps of selection pressures and models of gene flow to represent two-dimensional clines (Figure 2).Measurements of genetic diversity within populations were taken from a study by Bekessy and colleagues (2003), which assessed levels of variance in δ 13 C and in the ratio of root mass to total plant mass. In this study, measurements were taken from seedlings grown in a common garden to control phenotypic plasticity. The dataset for diversity in RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) markers comes from a different study by Bekessy and colleagues (2002), where leaf samples were taken for analysis from mature trees in situ.We prepared spatial grid maps representing the environmental variables using climatic datasets (Jones 1991) and geographic information systems (GIS -ESRI's ArcInfo), with each cell representing an area of 100 x 100 m. We calculated three environmental variable For each of the environmental variable maps we measured simple and effective heterogeneity using Simpson's index, a measure of diversity on a scale of 0, no diversity, to 1 (Simpson 1949). Effective heterogeneity is calculated for each cell in the map, and is a measure of regional variation in a given variable for the areas surrounding the cell.To measure effective heterogeneity, all cells within a 20.1 x 20.1 km area were included, the contribution of each surrounding cell being weighted by the probability of gene flow from that cell to the centre cell of the calculation. Since A. araucana has very low rates of seed movement (Bekessy et al. 2002), the probability distribution used to represent gene flow was based only on models of pollen transport (Tufto et al. 1997) combining distance effects using the one-tailed half-Cauchy distribution (Shaw 1995):where b is the median distance of transport and r is the distance from the origin. Directional effects were represented by an average probability based on 'wind rose' data from three local weather stations (Fuerza Aerea Argentina 1975). Wind roses are polar coordinate datasets that show the frequency and wind speed for 360 degrees. We set the median distance of pollen transport, b, at 200 m which has been found in Quercus spp. (Streiff et al. 1999) and should be generally representative of A. araucana because both are wind pollinated. We took population density into account by eliminating from the calculations all areas uninhabited by A. araucana, derived from a species distribution map that we created by reclassifying satellite images from paths 232 and 233, rows 86, 87 and 88 (Global Land Cover Facility 2003, http://www.glcfapp.umiacs. umd.edu:8080/glcf/esdi). These paths and rows correspond to the areas over which the Landsat satellite passes that are inhabited by A. araucana.We calculated simple heterogeneity as explained above but used nonweighted probability distributions and measured heterogeneity within a radius of five cells around each central cell (since Bekessy and colleagues [2002] sampled 20 individuals at 100 m intervals, a radius of five cells [500 m] should be large enough to encompass all individuals in each subpopulation).We calculated Pearson's r 2 correlations between subpopulation diversity and effective heterogeneity for each variable at each geographically corresponding cell. We calculated the P-value significance levels by bootstrapping r 2 correlations with 1000 repetitions (Bekessy et al. 2003). We calculated map correlations using the CORRELATION command in ArcInfo.To test the hypothesis described above, we compared existing datasets of variance in a physiological trait for drought avoidance (δ 13 C) in eight subpopulations of A. araucana (Bekessy et al. 2003) to relative measurements of heterogeneity in a spatially mapped dataset representing drought stress (DRT). Although it is difficult to evaluate whether the subpopulations sampled by Bekessy and colleagues occupied homogeneous niches, all individuals were sampled over small areas (see above) with very low levels of local environmental variation (maximum range of precipitation variability in the area occupied by any subpopulation was < 5% of the mean value for the area). We measured heterogeneity both within the area occupied by the subpopulations (simple heterogeneity, ~1 km 2 ) and in the greater area from which they would be expected to receive pollen (effective heterogeneity, ~400 km 2 ). We found high and statistically significant correlation between adaptive trait diversity and effective heterogeneity in drought stress (r 2 = 0.828, P = 0.002, n = 8; Figure 3) and found low, non-significant correlation with simple heterogeneity in drought stress (r 2 = 0.030; P > 0.100, n = 8).Although generated from only eight samples, the high degree of significance in the former correlation suggests a strong relationship between fine-scale adaptive trait diversity and effective heterogeneity through selection pressure. Testing simple environmental heterogeneity allowed further confirmation that different selection pressures within the subpopulations are not shaping the levels of diversity, supporting the statement above that they are indeed occupying homogeneous niches.We also tested the correlation between diversity of δ 13 C and effective heterogeneity in both a random control variable (RND) and in a variable representing cold stress (CLD). Low, non-significant correlations with effective heterogeneity in RND (r 2 = 0.259, P > 0.100, n = 8) and in CLD (r 2 = 0.463, P = 0.074, n = 8) indicate that the correlations seen with effective heterogeneity in drought stress are effects stemming neither from the modelling process nor from nondrought-specific landscape heterogeneity. The higher correlation seen in CLD is likely the result of some similarity between the spatial distributions of cold and drought stress (we found medium map correlations between these variables, r 2 = 0.317). Similarly, fine-scale diversity seems to be density-dependent because correlations with heterogeneity calculated without modification by density (see above) were lower and nonsignificant in all variables (r 2 DRT = 0.376; r 2 CLD = 0.001 ; r 2 RND = 0.017; n = 8). Taken together, these results show that the fine-scale levels of δ 13 C diversity in A. araucana (Bekessy et al. 2003) are not a product of local environmental variation (because subpopulations inhabit locally homogeneous environments) but are dependent instead on the inflow of genes from other differentially adapted subpopulations, supporting the model in Figure 1. Although gene flow in macro-evolutionary terms is typically seen as a homogenizing force opposing local adaptation (Lenormand 2002), these results support Slatkin's theory (Slatkin 1978) that it can also have locally diversifying effects through redistribution, depending on effective heterogeneity.However, this relationship would not be expected to hold true for traits that are neutral or that experience only weak selection pressure, since factors such as genetic drift, mutation and 'hitchhiking' with other more heavily selected genes (Ohta and Gillespie 1996;Gillespie 2000) would more strongly affect their spatial distribution. Because heavy migration load (Lenormand 2002) can overwhelm local adaptation, and because the strength of this effect depends on selection pressure (May et al. 1975), weakly selected traits might not experience sufficient pressure to adapt locally. Patterns of genetic structure would not be expected to correspond with effective heterogeneity in the absence of local adaptation. Correlations between effective heterogeneity in drought stress and diversity in two other trait systems measured by Bekessy and colleagues (2002) were small and nonsignificant, probably because of their neutrality (in the case of RAPDs) or broad adaptive function (in the case of the ratio of root mass to overall mass [Bekessy et al. 2003]), which would be weakly selected.While these tests of simple and effective heterogeneity show that pollen flow from surrounding regions drives fine-scale diversity, we cannot be sure that the model accurately represents the effective distances from which pollen actually is migrating. There was no way to test whether neighbours at different distances were actually contributing to diversity through gene flow. This effective range is probably dictated by factors such as the strength of directional selection purging nonlocally adapted alleles and the fragmentation of the species distribution, which could prevent long-distance multigenerational gene flow.While the methods we used require further testing in other traits and species in order to increase confidence in them, the results have significant implications for both evolutionary and conservation biology. If these results describe a fundamental process applicable to all species, then effective heterogeneity in selection pressure should be well correlated to relative levels of genetic diversity in any strongly selected traits. The methods described should therefore be applicable to predicting spatial patterns in the relative levels of diversity of traits that experience selection by stresses that can be spatially mapped. As such, the methods could help prioritize areas for collecting germplasm for ex situ conservation, while identification of genetically homogeneous areas could be important for ensuring that seeds for replanting are uniformly adapted to the areas from which they are collected. In addition, identifying effectively heterogeneous regions could help in designing conservation areas to protect genetic diversity. However, such recommendations would be of limited usefulness until the region -within which gene flow effectively contributes to local diversity -can be quantified. Because these methods use relative measures, the most diverse areas are not necessarily representative of the total range of variability in a given trait, so prioritization for conservation would also require accounting for absolute ranges of genetic diversity within the species. Besides, since patterns of heterogeneity will tend to differ from one selection pressure to another (as seen with DRT and CLD), patterns of diversity would require study on a trait-by-trait basis.Many other analytical approaches developed to assess spatial patterns of genetic structure (e.g., Mantel tests and spatial autocorrelation, reviewed in Escudero et al. 2003 andManel et al. 2003) are of limited applicability to studying adaptive traits because they focus on the effect of geographical distances rather than on selection pressures. While there has been some debate about the strength of correlation between adaptive and neutral diversity (Merilä and Crnokrak 2001;Reed and Frankham 2001;McKay and Latta 2002), evidence seems to favour a poor correlation. Since adaptive diversity is important to survival, methods applicable only to neutral markers may be of limited use to conservation planning. Additionally, where spatial methods have been applied to create map-based predictions (Hoffman et al. 2003), they have required existing genetic datasets to create predictions of diversity in new areas.While the redistribution of alleles in migration-selection clines has been the subject of considerable investigation (Felenstein 1976;Barton 1999), experimental studies have tended to focus on descriptions of the strength of selection, extent of gene flow, or shape of clines based on patterns in observed allele frequencies, and have been limited to examining these in species whose distribution spans approximately linear clines in terms of selection pressure (Mallet et al. 1990;Lenormand et al. 1999). We have approached the relationship from the opposite direction, predicting patterns of genetic diversity from spatial map-datasets of selection pressure and models of gene flow and then testing predictions against observed patterns of diversity. By using spatial mapdatasets to represent highly complex landscapes of selection pressures, the methods used present a novel means of analyzing nonlinear two-dimensional clines. As such, they are applicable to the vast majority of natural populations that do not inhabit such simple environments. Moreover, since this method does not require delineation into what are sometimes arbitrary or biased a priori population designations (Manel et al. 2003), it is applicable to both continuous and fragmented species distributions. While it requires further testing and refining, spatial modelling of environmental heterogeneity and gene flow is an important approach both to understanding evolution in complex landscapes and to predicting patterns of adaptive trait diversity for conservation planning.Classical approaches to conservation have often viewed people as threats to the preservation of natural ecosystems. Even as late as the 1970s, when many protected areas were being established around the world, management plans for these areas either ignored the local communities that depended on forest products for their livelihoods or were designed to exclude local people and what was seen as their harmful activities. As a consequence, many areas that were at the time accepted as being in the long-term conservation interests of the world community are now recognized as having come into existence at the expense of social and economic dislocations of local communities (Barrance 1996;Guha 1997).Only fairly recently has it become understood that protected areas can be both sustainably exploited and conserved, and in so doing avoid this conflict of interest. In fact, forest resources that include both timber and nonwood forest products (NWFPs) can actually contribute to conservation by providing local people with incentives to protect forests, while furnishing them with economically attractive alternatives to deforestation. Furthermore, such alternatives can help strengthen community resistance to external pressures to log forests or to convert forested land to other uses.This pattern has several striking similarities with the way that plant genetic resources (PGRs) have been conserved and managed. Up until the early 1990s, the conservation of PGRs focused on ex situ approaches that mostly excluded the indigenous or peasant communities that had selected, preserved and used these same PGRs for generations. Since then, the involvement of local communities has been accepted more and more as an important variable in conservation and development success, and participatory approaches (PAs) are now widely applied, not only in PGR conservation, but also in programmes that emphasize PGR management and use (Almekinders and de Boef 2000). Indeed, strengthening community-level management of PGRs is now believed to be essential in order to make in situ conservation of crop genetic resources work and to guarantee that the community (members) share(s) in the benefits derived from the use of these resources. Farming communities also play important roles in improving PGRs for food and agriculture (FAO 1996) and PAs involving partnerships between conservation professionals and rural people in plant breeding and in the development of local seed supplies are now common elements of in situ PGR programmes worldwide (Ghimire and Pimbert 1997;Almekinders and de Boef 2000;Friis-Hansen and Sthapit 2000). A growing body of literature in rural development and natural resource conservation testifies to this evolution (Buchy et al. 2000).The project in which we participated, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and described in this volume, adopted a participatory approach in studying forest genetic resource (FGR) conservation and management across a range of social and environmental contexts in Brazil and Argentina. We describe the framework adopted to assess the performance of the participatory methods and we then use this as a point of reference to analyze the effectiveness of the approach as it was applied at the four project sites. This perspective helped us to evaluate the degree to which partnerships were developed between researchers and local people in forest resource management and policy development. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of lessons learned, emphasizing both the need for capacity building among researchers and the need for longer time frames to implement participatory research and to develop effective partnerships.Many PAs have been developed over the past 15 years with the goal of involving local people in research on agriculture, resource management and rural livelihoods. It is not possible to formulate a single easy definition for participatory research, as it needs to be designed and assessed within the context in which it occurs. It is better to understand participatory research as a collection of approaches that enables participants to develop their own understanding and control over processes and events being investigated (Ashby 2003).The application of PAs to PGR research and agricultural development, including conservation, is thus context-and time-specific. Adaptation of a general participatory framework to different times and places requires flexibility and, as a result, variants in applied approaches have been developed (Halwart and Haylor 2001). Waisbord (2001) describes a fundamental conceptual difference between PAs: one type of approach only involves local communities in research and development 'as a means to an end', while the other views local involvement 'as an end in itself'.In the first approach, participation of local communities is seen as a way of enhancing project effectiveness and impact; it corresponds with what Oltheten (1995) calls a targetoriented approach. Project objectives are defined in terms of outputs to be delivered by specific groups of stakeholders to 'outsider professionals', and participation is expressed in terms of the willingness of people to undertake and contribute to jointly identified activities.In the second approach, also called a process-oriented approach (Oltheten 1995), project objectives are achieved when local communities choose to participate in the development process (Buchy et al. 2000). Participation is seen as an 'end' in a process where empowerment and (political) liberation of stakeholders occur (IPAP 1997). As such, it explicitly recognizes the role-and power-reversal processes associated with participation. In this second approach, participation means that the people themselves assume ownership and accountability for project activities, which they have identified and developed themselves with the support of 'outsider professionals' (Oltheten 1995), and which involves learned local responses to changes in society, economy and ecology (Röling and Wagemakers 1998).The two approaches require different designs and implementation strategies. Each follows a separate path in determining the roles of participants who are most often research or other types of professionals and rural people (Buchy et al. 2000). Problems can arise when different participants have different expectations about the nature of the process and about project objectives. Yet, the two perspectives are not incompatible, and in practice their conceptual differences are not so clear-cut. Participation can therefore be seen as occurring on a continuum, where community involvement and mobilization might begin as a means to an end that eventually transforms itself over time into community empowerment, structural change and learned independent action. Similarly, projects might follow an approach that falls somewhere between a target-and a process-oriented approach. As we will see later in this chapter, the BMZ-funded project started as a more target-oriented research project ('means to an end') but increasingly became processoriented at several of the study sites ('end in itself').The literature is rich in examples that describe positive and negative outcomes that have resulted from adopting PAs in development projects. One obvious positive feature of PAs is that they usually help improve researchers' understanding of conditions, problems and issues that are faced by target communities. As such, PAs can help ensure that researchers address the actual problems and needs of project beneficiaries. Directly engaging target communities and developing politically desirable objectives with them give legitimacy to projects and further the acceptance of their results and products within both local communities and wider audiences (IPAP 1997;Shannon 2002).Based on lessons learned from case studies conducted in Africa, Asia and South America on participatory planning in community forestry projects, Oltheten (1995) concluded that PAs can also facilitate local empowerment by creating opportunities for especially disadvantaged groups to gain access to external resources such as training or credit, or to mobilize their own resources in the form of local organization, knowledge and skills. And positive outcomes like these enhance the capacity of local people to take action in defence of their own interests. Another advantage described by Oltheten is that PAs can lead to integration of local knowledge into project planning and implementation, thereby contributing to a greater likelihood of project success. Indeed, it would be fair to say that participatory planning results in a two-way learning and feedback process between local communities and researchers that improves the chances for timely adjustments of project support services to changing local realities. Moreover, the participation of local communities in research and development programmes strengthens capacity to identify and mobilize both local and external resources to undertake sustained action for positive change. Successful participatory planning can enhance political commitment and institutional support at many levels for local planning by building a common understanding between local groups and regional, national and international institutions.On the other hand, projects that adopt PAs usually require more time, effort and resources in project development, trust-building and decision-making than do typical top-down development programmes. Moreover, in these projects, outputs may be less predictable, time lines for completing projects may need revision, and even the scope of projects can require modification. Changes like these can sometimes be difficult to reconcile within time-bounded or rigidly defined programme structures and funding mechanisms (Martin and Sherington 1997). Thus, participation may be a good longterm strategy but can have drawbacks when applied within short-term contexts or when issues need addressing urgently (Waisbord 2001). Nevertheless, the benefits of PAs can be great and they will usually outweigh disadvantages (Section 2.3 in this chapter). At the very least, PAs can substantially help local communities understand more about national and international decision-making processes that have the potential to affect project regions and beneficiaries, and this alone will usually have a long-lasting and positive effect on everyone involved.In adopting a PA, the goal of the BMZ-funded project was to contribute simultaneously to sustainable development and to forest conservation through a deeper understanding of the effects of human activities on FGRs, in particular on the genetic diversity of selected target tree species. The outputs of the project's PA were information about and awareness of forest conservation, ecology and genetics that could provide local stakeholders with alternatives for managing their forests in a sustainable manner, and that could guide policy decisions in national and regional initiatives. A list of project objectives and possible impacts is presented in Table 1 (overleaf). The project goal was to achieve conservation and sustainable use of FGRs and to assist local stakeholders in contributing to this goal. By achieving the project objectives, and in particular the fifth objective -training, education and information dissemination -we believed that stakeholders would be better equipped to make well-informed choices, and thereby become empowered to assume full control over the future management and use of their FGRs.The project initially intended to follow a largely target-oriented approach by gathering data that would enhance our understanding of local resource use and management. This work was to be undertaken by the socioeconomic research component of the project. Involvement of local stakeholders in the genetic and ecological research activities was to remain limited. However, consultative meetings at the initial phase of the project led to substantially increased roles for various project stakeholders in the form of a continuous dialogue between researchers and these stakeholders. These meetings resulted in a gradual shift in project priorities, including the incorporation of activities tailored more to the needs of the local stakeholders. As we will discuss later in more detail, this enhanced consultation led to a wider acceptance of the project and more involvement of some stakeholders. Thus, from nearly the start of the project we began to experience a shift from a more target-oriented research project towards a process-oriented research approach.In the fields of applied agricultural science and agro-technology development, and especially in development-oriented research, the participation of rural people is essential for achieving sustainability (Reijntjes et al. 1992;Pretty 1995). Farmers can help scientists adapt agro-technology to specific environmental and agricultural settings, and they can help scientists apply external inputs more efficiently by drawing scientists' attention to their day-to-day decisions and actions with regard to those inputs (van Veldhuijzen et al. 1997). At the same time, scientists can shape research activities in order to meet farmers' needs and to elaborate best practices that incorporate locally generated innovation (Reij and Waters-Bayer 2001).Three types of agro-technology development have been described in the literature (van Veldhuijzen et al. 1997). The first type occurs in what Braidwood (1967) has called an 'atmosphere of experimentation'. Rural farmers have practised this form of agricultural innovation from Neolithic times to the present, and today it is still practised in those parts of the world that are not greatly influenced by national agricultural development programmes. This type of agro-technology development is also called 'indigenous technology development'.In modern times, and beginning especially in the late 19 th century, national governments created agencies that specialized in agricultural research and disseminated their results through formal outreach efforts. These agencies operated according to a model in which agricultural technologies were developed in government research institutions and then transferred to farmers through extension programmes. This second type of agro-technology development is often called 'transfer-of-technology' (ToT), and for the last century it has dominated agro-technology development in the agriculturally advanced countries and in their policies of providing agricultural assistance to lesser-developed countries.However, ToT programmes have not achieved the successes hoped for in developing countries, and in response to continuing criticism of the ToT approach, participatory approaches to agro-technology development were devised (Merrill-Sands 1986). This third type of agro-technology development, now called 'participatory technology development', stresses the combined importance of traditional farmers and scientists in agricultural innovation and change. When traditional farmers and scientists become partners in order to achieve common objectives, participatory technology development is viewed as a complementary approach to formal research and extension. Table 2 summarizes the main characteristics of the three types of agro-technology development.Notwithstanding their advantages, PAs in agro-technology research are not always easy to implement because of what can be myriad inputs and demands from a variety of stakeholders. While the advantages of PAs are easy to understand in socioeconomic research projects, some biological scientists may be reluctant to adopt a PA in, for example, a baseline study of population genetic dynamics, because the 'direct' involvement of rural people in such a study may be difficult for them to imagine (Section 2.4 this chapter). It is undeniable that some forms of basic research are better carried out in nonparticipatory ways unless great care is used in translating project methods and goals into terms accessible to all parties (Halwart and Haylor 2001). Nevertheless, in research projects that cover different fields, such as the ones described in this book, PAs can be more effective if applied by interdisciplinary teams of researchers and not individually by single scientists in their specific research area.Moreover, even when local communities may not be able to participate in the implementation phase of all research activities, their input in the planning and prioritization of research activities may improve the relevance of the research for those communities and it may help both researchers and communities translate results into practice. The positive engagement of the public will almost always improve the chances for acceptance and adoption of recommendations derived from research activities.Different phases can be identified in the unfolding of an 'ideal' PA in a research project: 1) participatory situational analysis -understanding problems and opportunities; 2) stakeholder identification; 3) consultation and negotiation on problem definition and project collaboration; 4) establishment of agreed-upon and transparent research strategies, objectives, responsibilities, roles and partnerships; 5) experimentation -data collection; 6) experimentation -data analysis; 7) sharing results and translation of results into appropriate outputs; 8) dissemination of results; and 9) sustaining the process (Jiggens and de Zeeuw 1992;van Veldhuijzen et al. 1997). Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms should be in place at all stages of research and involve relevant stakeholders.  Lessons learned from the BMZ-funded project: participatory approaches in the different phases of a research projectThe participation of stakeholders in research initiatives can occur at different phases of a project's implementation and to different extents. Table 3 describes the phases and events of the BMZ-funded project that were critical to identifying the stakeholders and to the consultative decision-making that occurred during the international and local implementation of research activities. A limited number of the eventual stakeholders participated in the actual development of the project proposal and, in fact, the intended project beneficiaries were not approached during this phase. Although Table 3 shows wide participation of stakeholders, especially in the planning workshops, in reality, other than local progress meetings, personnel of the international and national research institutions were the main participants.A stepped approach was adopted to identify and reach more stakeholders through a series of planning and consultation meetings that took place after the project had started. Stakeholders that were identified during one meeting were invited to attend the following consultation rounds. At subsequent meetings, the objectives and the proposed activities of the project were discussed again. This pattern parallels the reiterative process described in Figure 1.The project was first conceptualized when the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and several forest research institutions in Germany recognized the problem  of continuing deforestation and genetic erosion of FGRs worldwide, but in particular in Brazil and Argentina, and an opportunity presented itself to work together with stakeholders in these countries to contribute to its resolution. Time and financial constraints hindered a full stakeholder analysis at this point (as is frequently the case in project planning in research on conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, forestry and agriculture). The proposal submitted to the donor contained a general evaluation of the problem based on limited consultations between the international institutions and the national research partners in Brazil and Argentina.We felt that while a full and early local consultation would have been ideal, a stepped process that progressively involved more local stakeholders as the research activities began could be a successful alternative. Having adopted this strategy, we made efforts to ensure that the formal project procedures were flexible enough to allow for significant changes in the original work plan as consultations with local communities and other stakeholders revealed their inputs on and concerns about the project.An essential step in adopting PAs is the early identification of stakeholders. In general terms, stakeholders are those people, groups or organizations who have an interest in an issue. All people who are influencing a decision, can influence it, or are affected by it, are potentially concerned (Earth Summit 2002). As such, people who are intermediaries and without direct interests themselves can also be stakeholders (Brown 1998).As noted by Enters (2000) and Cramb et al. (2000), assumptions on whether communities are stable or homogeneous, and on the interest, commitment, knowledge or skills rural people possess, need to be carefully reviewed. Normally, communities are rarely harmonious groupings with single agendas on different subjects -development for instance -but are groups of stakeholders with dissimilar needs, priorities, and capabilities (Leach et al. 1997). Identifying these groups and their agendas can be difficult. An equally important challenge is to determine who (can) represent(s) a community. Communities may have various leaders representing a variety of community factions, or leaders with distinct roles and responsibilities. Moreover, one organization may claim to represent a community, but upon closer examination this organization's leadership may be found to be unacceptable to the (whole) community. Similar observations can be made about other stakeholder groups like 'the government', 'environmental groups', or 'scientists'. For example, even when the objectives of environmental organizations are similar, they can hold conflicting views on how to approach a problem. And when competition for funds comes into play, factors that determine relationships and the distribution of power within and among stakeholder groups can further disrupt progress.Furthermore, stakeholder representatives may not be willing or able to maintain effective two-way or multiple-channel communication with their constituencies about the participatory process. If gaps develop between the expectations of stakeholders and the stances taken by their representatives, this may result in decisions or outcomes that lack stakeholder backing, with consequent problems when implementation is expected to occur (Buchy et al. 2000).Degrees of involvement of project stakeholders can differ considerably. The most obvious way to evaluate the success of the PA adopted in any given project is to assess the levels and types of participation of the (intended) local beneficiaries, the organizations that are engaged in project implementation, and those organizations or beneficiaries that stand to gain from the outcomes. According to a typology of participation developed by Pretty (1994;1995), two primary forms of participation are distinguishable (Table 4). The first type of participation, and the one most often found in target-oriented PAs, is relatively passive, where people participate by being told what is happening. The exchange is typically one-sided, aiming to inform the public about activities or outcomes, or sometimes to educate them, and thereby to give legitimacy to the project and to further acceptance of its products.The second type of participation, and the one usually found in process-oriented PAs, might be called 'interactive participation'. This is where the public actively participates in joint analyses and decisions that lead to locally formulated action plans, and where joint learning capacity is enhanced. Here, communication is typically two-way, with significant stakeholder deliberation, and with the objectives of educating participants about issues and gathering data, including the knowledge of participants, and with experts and other stakeholders developing the best options together. In this type of PA, participants are involved in a continuous exchange, and their ideas are incorporated to the greatest extent possible into the project design and its outcomes.A range of power-sharing possibilities exists between Pretty's two types of participation (Buchy et al. 2000), which are not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, the level and form of participation can change over time and it may differ according to the activity in which people are involved or the topic that is under discussion. This may result in dissimilar types of participation following each other in a project cycle. For instance, when a project enters an implementation phase (e.g., to experimentation from data collection) participants and their various relationships may change as new partners join the project and different PAs are employed.Active participation of the direct stakeholders at early stages of problem definition and research priority-setting has important advantages in PGR or FGR development projects. Benefits include early definition of what technologies or behavioural changes users are likely to accept, as well as the opportunity to adapt prototype technologies earlier in the project in ways that will meet the needs and preferences of both the beneficiaries and the expert outsiders (Systemwide Programme on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis 1997).  As discussed above, in some research projects or project phases like those involving highly technical assessments of genetic diversity, local participation may not be useful or necessary. In projects like these, local community participation will usually be passive and/ or limited to remunerated fieldwork, with one-way communication occurring in the form of consultation. Nevertheless, a continuous exchange of information is desirable because even when stakeholders cannot provide effective inputs, their continued interest in the project will be needed to ensure their continued support for it.Many stakeholders were involved in the multidisciplinary, multisite BMZ-funded project. Because of this, we felt the need to distinguish between participation and partnership. We determined that an institution or a group of people were partners when they had project responsibilities that variously influenced elements or processes of the project. We determined that people or institutions were participants when they were involved in using or managing forest resources and thereby had interactions with the professional researchers. Thus, we determined that the intended project beneficiaries were principally participants who had an important stake in the outcome. While Buchy et al. (2000) state that participation is all about partnerships, there are types of participation that do not influence or become responsible for project implementation, but rather receive information and other products (Table 4 p. 231). In this regard, collaboration among stakeholders is largely based on power relations. When decisions are made without the beneficiaries, who are merely assigned the role of implementing and evaluating results, power inequalities between participants and partners are maintained or even enforced (Waisbord 2001).To understand stakeholder interactions in participatory research, we examined the partnerships and participants in this project, including the division of responsibilities, the mechanisms for decision-making, the relations within and among groups of stakeholders, and the extent to which the stated beneficiaries were included and benefited from the project.Because project activities were proposed at four sites in two countries, stakeholder identification was initiated by national research institutions (Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de Sao Paulo -ESALQ; Universidade Federal do Paraná -UFPR; Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria -INTA), which then became responsible for seeking and facilitating community involvement throughout the research phase of the project. The national organizations developed relationships with local stakeholder groups and assisted them in becoming involved in the organization and completion of fieldwork. In turn, local stakeholders facilitated access for national organization researchers to the field sites.In Pontal, Acre and Paraná (Brazil) stakeholders were important interest groups or organizations that represented professions such as the National Rubber-Tappers Movement (CNS), the Cooperative of the Landless Movement in Pontal (MST), the settlers' cooperative COCAMP (Cooperativa de Comercialização e Prestação de Serviços dos Assentados de Reforma Agrária do Pontal do Paranapanema), and rural syndicates in Paraná. These bodies acted as intermediaries between the projects and the representatives of local communities. At the project site in Argentina, this role was played by INTA's section for rural development.This stepped approach for developing relationships seemed to work well. We were confronted with the task of organizing projects in two countries and at many sites and involving several scientific disciplines and a myriad of rural communities and local interest groups, and all this was to be implemented across a range of environmental and socioeconomic contexts.From the outset, the BMZ project had a strong research orientation. The indigenous communities in Acre (Brazil) and Argentina had already collaborated with other research projects and claimed to have seen few tangible results (ETC, ESALQ andIPGRI in 2002, andETC, INTA andIPGRI in 2002). Small development initiatives were then incorporated into the projects in three of the four sites (Argentina, Pontal and Paraná). This triggered further development efforts at two sites, with additional funding from other sources later obtained to continue these activities.Appropriate representation of local stakeholders is a fundamental issue in projects adopting PAs, and it is important that mechanisms are in place to ensure the identification of all relevant stakeholders, followed by the selection of partners and their respective representatives. In practice, initial contact is usually made with well-known institutions and organizations in the rural communities, and community members who are not aligned with such organizations can be easily overlooked simply because they are unaware of the project during the planning phase or, even if aware of the project, they may not come forwards to express their interest in it. Community politics are dynamic and it might also be the case that subgroups and both formal and informal leaders have different views, even within the same organization. Thus the selection of representative members from the rural communities became an important undertaking requiring considerable care and discernment.In Pontal, COCAMP played a strong intermediary role between the project and the rural communities. Even though COCAMP leadership was not recognized by all the farmers, the project did manage to interact with a relatively large fraction of the communities and even with those not directly involved in the project. This facilitated the dissemination and the use of research outputs in other communities. The same happened at one of the Acre field sites where a large part of the rubber-tapper community became involved in the project through the efforts of the CNS and the local rubber-tapper association. In contrast, the lack of any clear leadership structure in the agricultural settlements of Acre made it difficult to establish good communication channels with local settlers.In practice, at all sites, most collaboration was between a small number of individuals, families or representatives appointed by local leadership and local field coordinators and representatives of national or international institutions and organizations. Through the assumption that local participants would disseminate information and ideas to the rest of their communities, either directly or through the body or organization they represented, the project more-or-less treated communities as homogeneous groups. No substantive assessment of participatory processes occurred and, as a consequence, we are unable to say whether all interested and/or relevant community members, especially marginalized groups, were reached.The BMZ-funded project used participatory tools to gather information on the uses of FGRs and on their place in local economies and livelihoods. Participation of local people in this phase of research was mostly passive and did not influence either the definition or analysis of problems, or the identification of potential solutions. An assessment carried out during the synthesis workshop in Pontal on the quality of the partnerships that were established during the project confirmed that researchers from national institutions played a dominant role in organizing and conducting research activities and that exchanges of information with beneficiaries was closest to what we earlier called 'transfer of technology' (Table 2 p. 227). While project aims were to enhance the understanding of rural people's role in forest management and use, the project was not sufficiently oriented towards incorporating indigenous knowledge and perspectives into the design of the activities, nor into final outcomes.Participatory processes were also adopted in order to introduce flexibility into the project's work plan. Table 3 (p. 229) illustrates the extensive consultations that took place during project implementation in order to review objectives and to prioritize activities. Consultations occurred through general and local planning meetings; the latter turned out to be especially important in stimulating the participation of local stakeholders in decisionmaking. Still, the national research coordinators and partners maintained the leading roles throughout the life of the project. On several occasions, national research partners and local stakeholders proposed significant changes to the original work plan. However, because there was an overriding tendency to try to fulfil donor expectations and to avoid substantive changes in work plans, only slight modifications were introduced. This was at odds with what Davis (1996) identified as a fundamental element of a true participatory approach, where \"The outcome of consultation should not be predetermined.\" Nevertheless, as we will discuss in more detail below, we did introduce several development-oriented activities at the request of participants of the local workshops organized at each study site in the course of the project implementation.Although we did not manage to achieve a fully participatory approach, local workshops helped to establish a consultative-type involvement of and interactions between researchers and local stakeholders. The fact that participation remained largely consultative was somewhat surprising, as some local partners such as CNS and COCAMP normally aim to establish only interactive or self-mobilizing partnerships (Table 4 p. 231). Their more passive role in the project reflected a disjunction between the scientific interests of researchers and the development perspective of these local organizations.At the Paraná research site, an interactive network was established among the research organizations involved, but there was little participation from local communities. In contrast, in Argentina, a consultative relationship was established between researchers and local people, leading to some limited ownership of the project by indigenous communities.The assumption that researchers could facilitate and conduct participatory research themselves was important to project design. But the reality of stakeholder interactions and project outcomes indicated that this part of the project needed strengthening. For example, local planning workshops led to only very limited participation of a consultative and/or collaborative nature by local communities in project implementation phases. Consequently, the commitment of local communities and other local stakeholders to research and to other outcomes was weak.In this regard, it is important to appreciate that research partners were identified on the basis of their ability to conduct FGR research and not on their potential to work in a participatory manner. The design and implementation of PAs requires careful preparation, and these are not part of the background of most biologists. As a consequence, we learned that when partners in a research project agree to apply PAs, their capacity to conduct research under these terms must be assessed beforehand. And possessing this skill, or being willing to acquire it, should be a condition of the acceptance of new partners. We now realize that PA capacity building should have been incorporated into the overall project design.Significant stakeholder participation in the inception of a project does not guarantee stakeholder engagement in later phases, nor does a lack of initial engagement preclude later active involvement. Both of these scenarios are dependent, in part at least, on the ability of stakeholders to express their views and to influence the course of a project. To secure continuous engagement of local stakeholders, project meetings were organized at different times at each of the BMZ-funded project sites, with the objective being to share and discuss research progress and findings. These gatherings did not produce significant changes in the work plan nor did they trigger engagement with additional stakeholders. Nevertheless, they did stimulate follow-up activities in Argentina and Pontal (Brazil).During July and August 2002, synthesis workshops were organized at each project site. The first part of these workshops was dedicated to an exchange of research findings and to attempts to gather results into a common framework. In the second part, local stakeholders joined the meetings, and findings from genetic, ecological and socioeconomic research were presented with recommendations made to guide implementation of conservation strategies for FGRs. The goal of this second part was for the participants to discuss the research results, translate them into practical recommendations, and agree on next steps.At all but one site, difficulties emerged in creating a framework into which research findings from the several disciplines could be integrated. The project workshop in Argentina was an exception, thanks to the use of a systems approach that enabled the data from different disciplines to be combined into a single model (described in Chapter 10). This, in turn, permitted translation of research results into conservation strategies, management practices and public policies. In this context, it is fair to say that we found that PAs did not play an essential role in creating this interdisciplinary or systems approach. It was instead the result of initiatives by the researchers themselves.Building solid links and a continuous exchange of information among the project sites was a difficult challenge that was only partially achieved. Ultimately, the project functioned more like a 'collection of case studies' than as an integrated network of research field sites. During the final synthesis workshop, emphasis was placed on those outputs that contributed to achieving general project objectives (IPGRI 2003) and it was not structured in a way that allowed broad participation. Research coordinators, some research partners and resource persons were invited, but no local stakeholders were invited to attend this gathering. Consequently, the consultative nature of the initial project meeting was not paralleled by a final sharing of outputs at the project's conclusion. This choice was largely dictated by funding limitations, and it thus illustrates the importance of adequate budgeting for stakeholders' participation throughout all phases of a project of this kind.One of the critiques advanced by representatives of local research partners in the planning and progress meetings, and during the synthesis workshops, was the lack of tangible results that would benefit local stakeholders. This is a common criticism of projects that are primarily research-oriented and occur among local communities, that is, local stakeholders may expect concrete answers to immediate problems that in many cases cannot be provided by the research results. Solving immediate local problems was neither a primary objective of the BMZ-funded project nor was it realistically possible. Researchers must be transparent about this, or project acceptance by local participants will be even less likely. If research projects like this one are expected to respond to local and other stakeholders' demands, much more operational flexibility will be needed along with the financial resources that permit inclusion of such additional activities. Taking a more opportunistic approach in project planning and implementation, where activities of more interest to local people can also be funded, will garner support for medium-to long-term research projects while enhancing the chances of solving some urgent local problems related to resource sustainability.To a certain extent, the BMZ-funded project adopted a more flexible approach following demands from local stakeholders at the planning meetings. Among the more visible outcomes were training opportunities for local stakeholders, organized at three of the project sites in Pontal, Paraná (Brazil) and Argentina. For example, in Pontal an agroforestry experiment with demonstration plots was added, as suggested by local community members during the regional workshop. The site and the species for these agro-forestry trials were selected locally through participatory meetings with representatives from 12 communities, and with the active engagement of COCAMP, which later became involved as a leading partner in the planning and preparation of a new project proposal that built on the results of this initiative.To address local demands, a herbarium of medicinal plants was developed in Paraná by a local NGO in collaboration with a rural community. This initiative focused attention on the BMZ-funded project from a community that was only marginally touched by the original project plan.Similarly, in Argentina, indigenous Mapuche communities requested that more development-oriented activities be included in the work plan, and a modest tree nursery was subsequently added. While this project was only partially implemented owing to funding constraints, it became an important element in building collaboration between the local communities and the project managers, and regular meetings between researchers and community representatives eventually led to a much more constructive dialogue.In conclusion, the most successful collaborations, especially those in Argentina and Pontal, occurred in contexts where relationships started out being consultative between project staff and local stakeholders but broadened when activities were developed that had more visible and immediate benefits for local communities.Participation of local people should be seen as a means of linking academic biological research with research on local resource management and use practices, as well as facilitating the incorporation of the needs and perspectives of local stakeholders in the research activities themselves, with the aim of developing better management policies and practices. An emerging perspective that stresses the use of PAs in ecosystem management and policy development within a context involving people is called 'adaptive management'.Adaptive management is a concept that has been developed over the past three decades by ecologists (e.g., Holling 1986;1995;Lee 1993) engaged in the management of large ecosystems like watersheds, lakes or forests and of a range of natural resources such as water, forests, grasslands or fish. In this perspective, natural resource management and conservation policies are thought to be effective only when planned and implemented within a framework of partnerships. Links between policy, management and local stakeholders are central to these partnerships (Gunderson et al. 1995;Berkes et al. 1998). Through these links and appropriate feedback mechanisms, stakeholders can learn from each other's experiences.The role of research in adaptive management is to provide and strengthen feedback and learning among policy, management and local people (Figure 2). Research provides the ability to monitor management practices, assess the effects of policies, evaluate involvement of local stakeholders, generate essential information about ecological and social processes, and translate new knowledge into new or revised management options. Research also makes policy and management organizations more responsive to socioeconomic variables and ecological change (Gunderson et al. 1995;de Boef 2000).In the following section, an adaptive management perspective is used to analyze those parts of the BMZ-funded project where policy, management and local people were linked through research. We particularly wish to assess the degree to which the BMZfunded project's PA yielded partnerships between local people and research, policy and management organizations, and facilitated capacity building for shared learning. We will look specifically at the following questions:• Did the project achieve participation of local people and other intended end-users?• Were local people approached as key stakeholders with their own contributions to conservation and given legitimate consideration within an adaptive management perspective?• In what ways did the research provide inputs for policy-makers, management institutions and local people?• Did research contribute to stakeholders joining forces in common action and learning?• Did the project lead to new initiatives by the target groups, or in any way stimulate target groups to want to continue any part of the project?Lessons learned from the BMZ-funded project: an adaptive management perspective Whether we described them as rural communities or local resident organizations, like in Paraná, Acre and Argentina, or as local civil organizations such as MST/COCAMP in Pontal or CNS in Acre, the local people at all the research sites were viewed by the BMZ-funded project as key players in FGR conservation and management. Nevertheless, in practical terms, their degree of FGR conservation and use varied a good deal. For instance, rubber-tappers were highly dependent on forest products, while forest settlers in Pontal were mainly dependent on agriculture and livestock grazing. Consequently, in their efforts to involve them in the BMZ-funded project, researchers approached local people and organizations in different ways. Below, we describe local contributions to research at the four principal study sites. We also evaluate the extent to which research activities were able to link partnership-building with management and policy, and whether research provided outcomes leading to adaptive FGR management.The project in Argentina (Chapters 6 and 10) focused on the Mapuche people and their use and management of araucaria forests. Systems analysis research demonstrated a fundamental role for the Mapuche in araucaria use and management. Consequently, we concluded that any policy and management recommendations we might make would need to apply both to araucaria forest populations and to the manner in which they were managed by the indigenous communities. Nevertheless, Mapuche participation in the project was largely confined to planning workshops and various local meetings that occurred between research partners and community leaders. The socioeconomic surveys, using participatory tools and conducted among Mapuche, provided valuable insights into their role in araucaria management, and when this aspect of forest use and management was discussed at meetings, community members showed active interest, much as they did during discussions on tree nurseries. This consultative approach resulted in the initiation of a rural development project, the main activities of which were determined by the members of the two Mapuche communities who thus played a proactive role in this phase of the project cycle from problem identification to project implementation.At the outset, the project in Argentina treated regional policy-making and management agencies as key stakeholders. Even before the project was started, several regional stakeholders were already organized into an informal network involving araucaria conservation. As a result of the BMZ project, the management staff at Lanin National Park decentralized administrative functions and increased the number of local staff assigned to conservation. The administration of the park and the Neuquén provincial authorities also agreed to coordinate their respective work within the national park and jointly to address environmental and social problems of the Aigo (Mapuche) indigenous community living in the area. Moreover, the Aigo community decided to send a representative to work with the park/province coordinating team. The project thus contributed to the formation of a stakeholder network of national and local partners that was involved in making decisions on policy, management and use. As such, an adaptive management framework was created during the implementation of that project (IPGRI 2003).While the projects at the other study sites focused on interactions between local communities and target species and ecosystems, the Paraná project focused solely on araucaria ecosystem management (Chapter 7). The primary event was an early consultative meeting organized by the local research partners. Representatives from state level research institutions and policy-making and implementing agencies and from the private sector (forestry and agriculture) discussed problems associated with araucaria conservation and use. No local communities participated in this or other meetings. As a consequence, stakeholders were defined as the policy-makers, the implementing agencies and the private forestry sector, and representatives of these organizations operated as a network that included various state and federal research partners.This research framework resulted in strong scientific outcomes that were translated into concrete guidelines for conservation and sustainable use. Recommendations were also made in the areas of policy change and follow-up research. Even though the project did not specifically provide for mechanisms that would further the adoption of guidelines and recommendations, we felt that the partnerships that were created during the project boded well for the implementation of some recommendations once the project was concluded. In contrast, while some activities with local communities did occur, there was little to no involvement of local communities as the project unfolded. The Paraná project thus only partially achieved adaptive management status for araucaria. While it focused on araucaria conservation, management and use, it involved mainly agency and industry representatives.Local participation in the BMZ-funded project at Pontal mostly occurred through the organization COCAMP. We thus expected significant involvement of rural people and their community organizations in FGR management and conservation. The settler communities were approached at the outset as potential key players in the conservation and use of forest products. Representatives of these communities, and especially COCAMP, embraced the conservation and sustainable use notions advocated by the researchers, and they especially showed interest in an agro-forestry approach. Unlike the Mapuche people in Argentina and the rubber-tappers in Acre, the Pontal settlers were not directly dependent on the forest and its products for their livelihoods.Because of its genetic and ecological orientations, the research project provided scientific information that was important to FGR conservation and it highlighted the critical conservation functions of individual forest fragments in the areas inhabited by the settlers. However, participation of community representatives in actual research was limited, though some did occur through contracts and passive participation. Participation of local stakeholders other than COCAMP was consultative in the initial phase, through the planning workshops, and became more passive during the planning and synthesis workshops.One consequence of this approach was that the settlers and their local organizations expressed only modest ownership over project results. Tangible and constructive outcomes for the local communities were limited, and it is questionable if the project contributed to an improvement in local FGR management. However, even though implementation of conservation outcomes and participation in research activities were limited, the experimental agro-forestry activities did involve many local people in a participatory manner. As a consequence, COCAMP and other community members expressed much stronger interest in sustainable use of FGRs. Eventually, this led to the development of several new initiatives and project proposals that supported the cultivation and use of medicinal plants and the development of sylvipastoral systems. In one of these initiatives, COCAMP took the lead with collaboration from ESALQ and several other policy-making and implementing agencies as contributors.Thus, while the participation of rural communities in the research activities themselves was limited, the introduction of a project component that corresponded with local needs and interests contributed to wider acceptance of the project and, we hope, its results. Because of the positive political climate that developed among the key players in the region, and especially with COCAMP, the state park authorities and the state land management agency, the project assisted in creating a more proactive attitude among local stakeholders towards conservation and sustainable use issues. The project thus contributed to creating and shaping local partnerships for decision-making and action and in so doing substantially moved Pontal towards more effective adaptive management of the park and its surrounding forest fragments.At the Acre study site the project worked with two communities -the rubber-tappers and the agricultural settlers -and with their associated land-use types. The links between FGRs and rubber-tappers were more evident at Acre than at any other of the project sites as they depend largely on forest products (such as rubber and pará nuts) for their income. Links between the agricultural settlers and the forest were similar to those of the Pontal settlers, where few direct uses existed other than during the initial phase of settlement when the forest was used for hunting and construction materials. The degree of organization of the rubber-tapper communities appeared strong at the outset. Their community leaders participated actively in project discussions and contributed to field research, though usually through contracts. Organization of the agricultural settlers was much weaker, perhaps owing to the fact that the settlements were recent. Settler participation was largely limited to one family.The dissimilar economic strategies of the rubber-tappers and of the newly established settlers were the main issues addressed by the socioeconomic research, which maintained a focus on the different effects of subsistence and income-generating activities on longterm FGR conservation. The focus of the socioeconomic research was descriptive rather than problem solving. That, and the limited use of participatory tools in the research and in the contractual and consultative interactions between researchers and members of both communities, resulted in rather passive involvement of the two communities in the project. As such, during the socioeconomic, genetic and ecological studies, only limited contributions were made by the project in addressing the resource-use conflicts that were identified between the rubber-tappers and the settlers.The partnership that we hoped would develop between stakeholders involved in research (Federal University of Acre, EMBRAPA -Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Acre) and policy and management (State Agency for Environmental Management) did not occur. This was due mostly to the fact that an external research organization (ESALQ) coordinated and implemented the research through a small group of community leaders and interested individuals. This partly contributed to an exclusion of other institutions and prevented the formation of partnerships with other important stakeholders. Consequently, the good potential we thought we had in Acre for partnership-building and for adaptive FGR management was not achieved. When we consider that forest management and 'extractivism' are key political concerns in Acre State, we were forced to conclude that the project made only modest contributions there.In drawing conclusions from the Acre project site it should be made clear that many of the organizations that joined in the BMZ-funded project there were also involved in other Brazilian forest management and conservation projects and activities. The Acre BMZfunded subproject was small compared with the many other continuing projects in Brazil that were tackling similar issues, and this may have limited the interest of local policymakers and research institutions in supporting this research initiative. Consequently, the Acre subproject was less successful in developing partnerships within an adaptive FGR management context.We have seen that project researchers were motivated to involve local people in their activities. However, we found that it was incorrect to assume that researchers had the skills to achieve stakeholder participation even when local people were interested in becoming involved. We also found that the inclusion of socioeconomic research does not guarantee the success of a participatory approach (PA).Bearing in mind that one of the guiding principles of the project was to use a PA, and that local people were viewed as stakeholders with important contributions of their own to make toward conservation and sustainable management, we still found a striking gap between the actual performance of the FGR research groups and what we expected them to produce using PAs. Thus, one project design oversight was that the ecological, genetic and socioeconomic researchers, although highly qualified in their respective scientific disciplines, should also have been trained to conduct participatory research, or that experts in participatory methods should have been included in the research teams from the outset of the project. This is an important lesson for donors and international agencies when they support and initiate projects like the one described in this book. A participatory project is inadequate unless the researchers involved have the skills or the support they need to engage in participatory research.The first phase of the BMZ-funded project included a broad effort to identify and consult with potential stakeholders. However, many of the people, organizations and institutions identified ultimately played little or no role in implementation phases. This was expected as interest, capacity and (financial and technical) resources will usually determine who finally participates. However, we should also recognize the importance of power relations. During the many meetings at different places a common complaint heard involved money and responsibilities and especially that both were unevenly distributed among partners. Relations of differential power were clearly at issue. At the level of the study sites, power in terms of research and financial responsibility was also unequally distributed. At all sites, research supervision and resource allocation were strictly coordinated by the lead national research partners (in Brazil: ESALQ in Pontal and Acre, UFP in Paraná; INTA in Argentina) and this resulted in limited manoeuvring room for the locally stationed junior researchers, research partners, and community representatives who supported the research activities. This structure did little to promote project ownership by other stakeholders and resulted in only very modest partnership-building, both of which are required for collective learning and adaptive FGR management.Power relations also influenced who could or wanted to represent the indigenous and settler communities and the professional organizations. We saw that participation of local people was usually limited to a few individuals, often through civil society organizations (Pontal, Acre) or community bodies (Argentina, Paraná). The project did not provide mechanisms to facilitate or evaluate information flow and consultation between these individuals and the communities they came from or represented. We implicitly assumed that individuals from or representing communities would reflect the needs and the opinions of those communities, including marginalized groups. This is an assumption we now believe was unjustified, given what we now know about the complexity of community and community-environment relations. The fact that we cannot say which community members benefited from the various projects underscores the importance of monitoring and evaluating power relations and interactions among community members and their representatives. This would have helped us to evaluate the success of the PA and thus to draw lessons for future projects. Just as importantly, it would have allowed for timely adjustments to the project design and its implementation in mid-course.An observation frequently made by local project coordinators was the difficulty in completing projects within established time frames. The report of one of four final regional workshops carried out in each of the project sites (ETC et al. 2002) phrases it as follows: \"The period of these types of participatory research projects is very short to achieve a real involvement and participation of the communities. It is necessary that the people can understand the importance of the social and natural environment research. This is a complex process that normally lasts decades.\"As the initial focus of the project was on participatory research that was geared towards obtaining specific ecological, genetic and socioeconomic information, the planned time frame of three years should have been sufficient. Given this research focus and the limited effective outcomes that resulted, it is not surprising that contributions to local FGR management were partial at best. Because local participation was generally low, specific activities tailored more to the immediate needs of the local communities were initiated. This programmatic change proved to be an essential step in gaining support or, in some cases, changes in attitude towards the projects. At Pontal and in Argentina, the BMZ project helped to initiate community activities developed by local stakeholders.The project now completed could be seen as the research phase of a larger undertaking (Figure 1 p. 228), and it could find its impact enormously enhanced if a complementary development programme was initiated soon to build on its achievements. Such a programme would make it much more likely that the BMZ project would lead to lasting changes in the management and use of FGRs at the respective research sites. This assumption underlines the importance of planning participatory research and development programmes that also address medium-and long-term goals linked to the essential first steps of gathering and analysing information through research. However, this conclusion should not cause us to underestimate projects of limited time and scope for as we saw, if well-conceived, they can also play important roles in winning the confidence and the support of local people.Research boundaries at the BMZ-funded project study sites were defined using geographic, biological, political and socioeconomic criteria. The sites, the species and the research and development partners were identified during consultative meetings and were thereby to a certain degree 'constructed' at that time. To some extent, these sites have now led to the formation of additional partnerships for managing the FGRs that they contain. A shared realization that conservation and sustainable use are emergent and important properties of these sites has now begun to bind some of the local stakeholders with other project partners.Even though it operated within a range of sites and settings and it adopted several strategies to achieve participation, the BMZ-funded project contributed to the formation of partnerships among researchers and rural organizations with the common objective of improving FGR management and related policies. In this context, more guidance and training for biological scientists in participatory research and development design will be required in order to create or shape future partnerships in sustainable FGR use and management involving rural people. Only when development outputs are linked to improvements in rural livelihoods will true progress beyond genetic, ecological and socioeconomic research be achieved.• What is the potential of economically important, priority species to adapt to climate change? Loss of variation in adaptive traits will usually reduce the rate at which species can evolve in response to environmental changes, thereby increasing their risk of extinction. Forest genetic studies contribute to the understanding of adaptive mechanisms in tree species and support 'active' forms of gene management in preparation for response to rapid environmental and climate changes.• Which species are more sensitive to threats? Vulnerability of species depends on their biological traits and the selection pressures to which they are exposed. Genetic diversity is particularly relevant to the long-term evolution of species. Genetic erosion vulnerability maps or indices are useful tools in helping to identify those species that require priority conservation action.• For more-or-less intact ecosystems containing priority species, where do we establish in situ conservation areas? What is their optimal size? These questions, which are particularly important to policy-makers and natural resource conservation organizations, can be answered in part by undertaking a set of research activities aimed at characterizing how infraspecific diversity is structured and spatially distributed for target species, thereby helping to define the locations and the minimum sizes of areas to be preserved.• When natural ecosystems have become seriously fragmented, what size and shape should fragments have to be in order to maintain minimally adequate diversity in target species, and what is the degree of ecological connectivity that will allow adequate gene flow? Species respond differently to forest fragmentation and isolation depending on their ecological and reproductive traits and their interactions with pollinators and seed dispersers, which are also affected by fragmentation. Genetic studies can determine the level of genetic erosion resulting directly or indirectly from reduced gene flow. They are also useful for assessing the genetic (gene flow) effectiveness of forest corridors.• What provenances are needed to recover target tree species? The translocation of organisms during the restoration of native ecosystems has generated a myriad of questions on sampling protocols and infraspecific hybridization between locally adapted and transplanted genotypes. Studies are now in progress by IPGRI and other researchers to determine both the extent of local genetic adaptation and the potential risks of introducing foreign genotypes, including founder effects, genetic swamping and outbreeding depression. Furthermore, novel molecular markers are being used to predict the genetic consequences of translocation across a population; in combination, such markers have great power to determine appropriate seed transfer zones in restoration planning for native plant populations.• Where, how and when do we collect material for ex situ conservation? In some cases, ex situ conservation may be the only option for safeguarding priority species during short periods of time, before augmentation or reintroduction can occur in natural environments or the species is used in planting programmes. Forest practitioners and managers need access to seed sources with known origins that are properly characterized from a genetic point of view. Furthermore, basic protocols for seed collecting, handling, storage, germination and bulking must be applied, and where they do not exist they must be developed.• What are the sustainable levels of exploitation for wood and nonwood forest products (NWFPs) in target species? Harvesting timber and extracting NWFPs from forests both contribute to the livelihoods of forest-dwelling communities. However, the use of forest resources affects the genetic diversity of many species. After clear-cutting, harvesting of reproductive structures from trees for food or medicine is likely to have the most significant impact on genetic diversity, especially when harvests are substantial, extensive and unregulated. Research on the genetic processes of trees harvested for NWFPs can help achieve a balance between the needs of forest-dependent peoples and the genetic integrity of the resource.• How widespread and how damaging is genetic pollution in target species? During the last decade, genetic pollution by pollen dispersal and/or hybridization has become a substantial concern for conservationists and forest managers. The risk of escape of transgenes from genetically modified organisms has focused public attention on the genetic pollution of native gene pools by introduced exotic species, nonlocal provenances and highly selected or genetically modified genotypes. More studies on genetic pollution are needed to provide a scientific basis to the regulatory frameworks that control the movement of genetic material within and across national boundaries. In the next sections, the research topics outlined above will be discussed in more detail. We use IPGRI case studies, particularly results from this project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), as background.Worldwide, the overall objective of the conservation of FGRs is the maintenance of genetic diversity in the thousands of tree species of known or potential socioeconomic and environmental importance. As the level and distribution of genetic variation in any species are expected to be in a process of constant natural change resulting from the main forces of evolution, the concern of conservation should be to preserve the evolutionary processes that promote and maintain genetic diversity, not on endeavours to preserve the present distribution of variation as an end in itself (Namkoong et al. 1997;Namkoong 2001).Thus, in situ conservation is usually the preferred strategy for most wild plant species, including the wild relatives of domesticated crops, because its dynamic nature permits ongoing evolution. It not only allows populations of interest to continue to be exposed to evolutionary processes, it also normally implies that rapid genetic erosion and strong directional change in genetic composition are avoided.Genes affecting the expression of adaptive traits fundamentally influence an individual organism's capacity to survive and reproduce, and the maintenance of adaptive trait variability in plant and animal species' gene pools is emerging as a primary objective of biodiversity conservation (Franklin 1980;Gregorius 1991;Eriksson et al. 1993). This is made especially important by the environmental and climatic changes that are now imposing substantial pressures on plant adaptive mechanisms, especially in forest tree species.Adaptive trait variability has thus become a conservation and research priority in forest biodiversity management (Ennos et al. 1998). Nevertheless, it is hard to identify genome portions that contain genetic variation of adaptive significance (Smith and Wayne 1996;Lynch et al. 1999). And forest managers must also contend with genetic changes in pests and pathogens, changes that may intensify with growing climate change (Dale et al. 2001;Scherm 2004). Forest geneticists must therefore identify the genetic control mechanisms of resistance, while also ensuring that adequate genetic variation is maintained in breeding populations in order to provide this resistance.Adaptive traits are usually quantitative, controlled by multigenic determiners, and their expression and variability have been affected by natural selection through environmental interactions (Falconer and Mackay 1996). However, neither geneticists nor forest managers can monitor and manage all loci relevant for conservation for three main reasons (Sherwin and Moritz 2000): (i) it is unlikely that the same set of loci is consistently responsible for the adaptive traits of interest under all conditions; (ii) although associations of gene diversity and fitness are often significant and positive, the range of values for the fitness component itself is often narrow, so it is unlikely that a particular locus will have an identifiable effect on fitness; and (iii) in short-term experiments, it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of heterozygosity at individual loci and heterozygosity at linked loci on the same chromosomal segment. Estimating adaptive traits for even one species is hard because it necessitates the observation of a large number of populations for adaptive traits in a range of environments. This is expensive and time-consuming, and impractical for many trees species.Thus, what can we monitor and manage within single populations in order to conserve adaptive genetic variation (whether multi or single locus)? It is usual to use molecular variation observed through genetic approaches as a surrogate for adaptive variation (Lynch et al. 1999). Another frequently used surrogate is the maintenance of large population size, based on a generally positive correlation between population size and genetic diversity (Frankham 1996). But this method should be used cautiously because of the exceptions to the correlation mentioned above (Leberg 1993), the difficulty of calculating effective population size from census and demographic data (Luikart and England 1999), and problems related to the determination of effective population size (Franklin 1980;Lande 1995). In relation to the spatial distribution of infraspecific genetic diversity, existing theory suggests that at least some components of a species' adaptive diversity can be retained by maintaining viable populations across the range of environments it occupies, called evolutionarily significant units (ESUs), and preferably within connected and heterogeneous landscapes. And Lesica and Allendorf (1995) conclude that the conservation of peripheral populations is particularly important for the maintenance of evolutionary potential.Pioneering studies have attempted to compare molecular genetic diversity with adaptive variation at within-species levels (Kremer 1994;Lynch 1995). As scarce as they are, data on adaptive traits are available for some economically important species where populations have been observed using rigorous experimental designs and across many environments (e.g., Pederick 1979;Alia et al. 1997).In studying adaptation to climate change, the spatial distribution of biological diversity and climatic data have been used to generate models to predict the impact of climate on the geographic distribution and genetic diversity of some tropical forest tree species (Enquist 2002). Studies of past responses of species to disturbance have also helped in understanding the effects of current environmental changes and in designing conservation strategies (McLachlan and Clark 2004).Work like this has occurred at IPGRI in collaboration with the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Information on the spatial distribution of genetic diversity was coupled with climate models using the geographic information system (GIS)-based modelling tool FloraMap. This enabled researchers to predict shifts in the ranges of 18 important crop species and wild groundnuts (Arachis spp.) in South America (Hijmans et al. 2001), as well as the extinction of distinct populations caused by habitat loss as a consequence of climate change. The scenarios painted by these authors point to a precarious future for most of the 18 species analyzed. Nevertheless, efforts are in progress to develop conservation strategies for several wild Arachis species in Bolivia, said to be the origin of the domesticated Arachis plant (Stalker and Simpson 1995).Such predictive tools now allow researchers to identify endangered, fragmented or marginal populations of important forest trees species, thereby guiding the collection of material to be preserved in gene banks and, ultimately, to be used in augmentation or recovery programmes.Given the urgent situation and the limited resources available, conservationists must choose where to focus their attention. Moreover, biodiversity is not distributed evenly and some biotas and ecosystems are more complex, distinctive or threatened than others.For these reasons, identifying priority areas and/or species and associated conservation activities is critical for developing effective conservation strategies.Studies of past and ongoing extinctions frequently describe nonrandom patterns of species losses across taxa (Raup 1994;McKinney 1997;Russell et al. 1998;Purvis et al. 2000), while studies of extant populations and species have identified factors associated with vulnerability to extinction (Laurance 1991;Gaston 1994;Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998;Foufopoulos and Ives 1999). It is well known that the main processes driving extinction are the 'evil quartet' (habitat loss, over-exploitation, introduced species and chains of extinction; Diamond 1984). But statistical testing for differences among species in terms of extinction vulnerability has proven to be difficult. Problems encountered include incomplete information on species' biology, conservation status and phylogeny, and on the interrelationships between possible predictor variables (McKinney 1997;Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998).Habitat loss inevitably leads to a reduction in population size; it has been known for more than 150 years that small populations of plants and animals face a higher risk of extinction than larger ones (Darwin 1985). Genetic factors may sometimes contribute to the failure of small populations to survive -whether it is from a lack of appropriate genetic diversity or an accumulation of deleterious mutations that lowers average reproductive rates in populations (Barret and Kohn 1991;Sherwin and Moritz 2000) -although a lack of genetic diversity in small populations is more likely to be a symptom of endangerment than its cause (Holsinger and Vitt 1997).However, since the work of Lande (1988) there has been a rethinking of the role of genetic data and processes in the management of rare species. For example, many conservationists now ask such questions as 'How expensive is it to obtain the genetic data?' and 'What is the relationship between the genetic structure of a population and its demographic processes?' In response, we would say the advantage of a model that accounts for genetic variation is that it forces one to be explicit about the effects of inbreeding, outbreeding depression, mutational meltdown and a range of plausible interactions between demographic attributes and genetic composition (Frankham 1995).Setting species conservation priorities based on the level of threat they face and their importance is a common exercise that should precede conservation action, and many criteria have been adopted by different organizations to help them set priorities in terms of targets, approaches and scales of intervention (Redford et al. 2003). To guide priority setting in conservation actions, categories have been defined that identify different levels of threats and vulnerability; lists of species have been compiled (e.g., The World Conservation Union [IUCN], http://www.redlist.org); and keystone species have been identified (i.e., species that have the capacity to significantly influence ecosystem stability). Furthermore, Henle et al. (2004) have conducted studies to identify predictors of tree species' sensitivity to threats, such as fragmentation, based on a set of demographic, life-history, community and biogeographic traits. Predictors also help understand species' proneness to extinction and therefore can aid in identifying those species most in need of conservation.IPGRI has been deeply involved in wide regional consultations aimed at identifying priority species for trans-boundary FGR conservation. In fact, at the 13 th session of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations Committee on Forestry (COFO), and the tenth and subsequent sessions of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, it was recommended that FAO, in collaboration with partners like IPGRI, assist countries to convene regional and sub-regional workshops to support the development of action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs. One of the highlights of the regional workshops held thus far has been the need to develop common approaches to priority setting, and especially for species that would benefit from genetic management. It was also recommended that mechanisms be in place to ensure that needs and aspirations of local communities are duly considered (Ouédraogo and Boffa 1999;Palmberg-Lerche and Hald 1999). An example of IPGRI's work on the selection of priority tree species for research and conservation is presented in Box 1 (overleaf).The status of forest biodiversity is determined both at the level of the community (such as ecosystems and habitats) and at various levels of its constituent parts (e.g., species populations or genomes). However, forest conservation has often been indirect and one dimensional, resulting from the establishment of national parks, as these have usually been created for the protection of megafauna, spectacular scenery or rare ecosystems, with little attention paid to the hierarchy of biological organization or the spatial and temporal dynamics of biological processes. Furthermore, the criteria for selecting conservation areas differ according to the conservation objectives, and areas selected to conserve ecosystems, species or genes may not coincide with each other. While awareness that there is a genetic aspect to forest conservation is growing, the level of understanding of the principles behind the issues and of the genetic implications for conservation and management are limited.Some scholars see genetic research as a way of monitoring the 'information content' of biodiversity (Crozier 1997). Crozier's thesis is that a utilitarian basis for preserving tree species, as opposed to a moral or aesthetical basis, depends upon their information content, most notably on the identification of genes that might be important to humans. Genetics can be used to assess this 'information content' in tree species and thus, by extension, can also help identify the location of biodiversity hotspots. An objective basis for comparing the information content of sets of taxa lies in various measures that evaluate their 'phylogenetic diversity'. Petit et al. (1997) note, however, that conservation priorities need to consider uniqueness as well as diversity. These authors suggest that a measure of 'allelic richness', analyzed by rarefaction techniques, provides an unbiased estimate of diversity and uniqueness across different sample sizes and tree taxa.Another of the applications of genetics to the selection of reserve locations lies in delineating biogeographic zones that are centres of endemism. Studies of the phylogeny and population genetic structure of a few well-chosen genera and families may point to patterns of differentiation that can be extrapolated to protect many species. Attempts have thus been made to maximize the capture of phylogenetic diversity in the selection of conservation areas (Rodrigues and Gaston 2002), and to determine whether genetic diversity or/and taxonomic richness can be surrogates for phylogenetic diversity (Polansky et al. 2001). While there is a positive relationship between phylogenetic and genetic diversity, these studies showed that using only taxonomic richness as a criterion for reserve selection may introduce biases towards sites containing many closely related species,Forests have incalculable value for the environment as well as for food, medicine, energy and other human needs. Their preservation is a global challenge. In 1998, IPGRI initiated the Sub-Saharan Africa Forest Genetic Resources Programme (SAFORGEN) to ensure that FGRs in this part of the world received the conservation and research attention they required.Countries within SAFORGEN set network priorities in terms of species and actions; determine national and collaborative activities; and disseminate results of activities to network members. Thus far, member countries have proposed to target priority species within four pilot sub-networks: food tree species, wood and fibre tree species, medicinal trees species and fodder tree species. Sponsored by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and IPGRI, field studies have been undertaken on the genetic diversity and the impact of human practices on two fodder tree species in Benin, two food species in Kenya and two medicinal tree species in Togo. Regional training initiatives on the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs have been organized through the network.while selection based on phylogenetic diversity will tend to select sites with monophyletic taxa. Unfortunately, data on the phylogenetic relationships among tree species can be scarce and/or incomplete, and this can hinder their widespread application to reserve planning (Polansky et al. 2001).Box 2 introduces IPGRI's phylogenetic studies on neotropical forest tree species in collaboration with the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.Analyses of the spatial distribution of forest genetic diversity are important to the decisions that are made on in situ conservation locations, as the ultimate goal of in situ forest conservation is to maintain broad genetic diversity so that tree species retain the potential to adapt to environmental change. This means that dynamic approaches to conserving genetic diversity are generally much more useful in this regard than approaches that focus on the static conservation of individual genotypes. A successful in situ gene conservation programme must thus fulfil three basic requirements (Koski et al. 1997): (i) regeneration of target tree populations must be assured with the new generation predominantly resulting from mating within the conserved populations; (ii) the number of genotypes in the conserved populations must be large enough to include most of the common alleles; and (iii) the conserved stands must be distributed in such a way as to cover the spatial genetic variation present in the species. For each site where a species is found, genetic, demographic and ecological factors must be considered in devising the most appropriate in situ conservation strategy.Molecular genetics and other biotechnology tools are being used more and more to assess levels of genetic diversity in tree species (Boshier 2000), and this has implications for determining forest conservation locations.An example of research undertaken to identify the most suitable in situ forest conservation areas in Europe is the framework of the European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, EUFORGEN (http://www.euforgen.org). This is a collaborative mechanism among European countries to promote conservation and sustainable use of FGRs, coordinated by IPGRI in technical collaboration with the FAO. Figure 1 (overleaf) presents a flow chart with an overview of the conditions for the selection of the most appropriate in situ conservation strategy for the European black poplar (Populus nigra). The overview is based on work carried out by the EUFORGEN Populus nigra Network.Biogeographic history contributes to the pattern of tree species' diversity across forest ecosystems by exerting influences on regional differences in speciation, extinction and immigration (Ricklefs and Schluter 1993). Historical contribution can be evaluated with paleontological or phylogenetic approaches. This second approach was adopted by researchers at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute to reveal differentiation in a widespread tropical tree, Symphonia globulifera L. f. (Clusiaceae), during the Tertiary period (Dick et al. 2003). In order to initiate historical analyses of such widespread neotropical trees, the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region was sequenced in populations of the species that occur in the neotropics and West Africa. The development and application of an ITS molecular clock also enabled researchers to estimate the time at which the populations diverged. These findings supported evidence from paleontological data that indicated three marine dispersal events of this species leading to the colonization of Mesoamerica, the Amazon basin and the West Indies. A strong phylogeographic structure was found among trans-Andean populations of S. globulifera, while ITS nucleotide variation was absent across the Amazon basin, suggesting marked regional differences in the demographic history of this rainforest tree species. Assessing the impact of forest fragmentation on the infraspecific diversity of important tree species Forest fragmentation resulting from the conversion of forests to other land uses is an increasing reality in most tropical countries and now represents a critical area of forest genetic research. Genetic variation in most tropical tree species has been known to be high for some time, with most variation residing within rather than among populations, indicating extensive gene flow within species (Hamrick and Loveless 1989). A general concern among forest managers and researchers today is that forest fragmentation is leading to reduced gene flow and increased genetic drift in forest tree species, potentially resulting in permanent loss of genetic diversity (Gilpin and Soulé 1986). However, fragmentation has also been found to lead to increased levels of gene flow among some fragmented populations and, hence, the maintenance or even increase of genetic diversity within these populations (Hamrick 1992;Young et al. 1996). More genetic research is thus needed on fragmentation and isolation responses in different groups of forest tree species so that meaningful generalizations can be drawn when conservation guidelines are being developed.It is also known that habitat fragmentation can indirectly affect forest genetic diversity by disrupting mutualisms such as pollination and dispersal (Levin and Kerster 1974;Aizen and Feinsinger 1994). This can lead to both genetic isolation of populations and reductions in the population size and genetic diversity (Young et al. 1996), thereby adding less obvious negative genetic effects to the direct effects of habitat loss. Formulating forest management strategies to conserve tree species requires an understanding of the consequences of fragmentation on the level and spatial distribution of genetic diversity and on the extent of connectivity among stands for gene flow.Our understanding of the impact of human activities on mating systems, gene flow and genetic diversity in trees also relies on the continued discovery and development of genetic markers that permit researchers to estimate gene flow and effective population size in trees. The development of highly variable microsatellite markers, and increased recognition of their importance in determining genetic consequences of fragmentation, have led to more research in this area (Chase et al. 1996;Dawson et al. 1997;Aldrich and Hamrick 1998;Nason et al. 1998;Dayanandan et al. 1999).Collaborative research between IPGRI and the universities of Costa Rica and Massachusetts (United States of America) is addressing several of these issues, including the characterization of new genetic markers for trees and the impact of forest fragmentation on the reproduction and gene flow of tropical dry forest species used for timber in Costa Rica (Box 3, overleaf).Sampling the distribution of forest genetic diversity for ex situ conservation Forest habitat destruction is happening at alarming rates all over the planet. Little is known of the patterns of threats and genetic erosion at ecosystem, species and infraspecific levels, but the survival of thousands of tree species will in all likelihood ultimately depend on their conservation outside of natural areas, for example, in managed forests, agricultural landscapes, botanical gardens and arboreta, and seed banks or field gene banks. Huge gaps exist in our knowledge of the distribution of genetic variation in forest trees. Through the collection and storage of standard seeds via reduced temperature and humidity techniques, cryogenic preservation of tissue and recalcitrant seeds, and controlled temperature tissue culture, ex situ conservation has proven itself to be a flexible complement to in situ conservation. It is also an efficient way of capturing the rare alleles that represent the most vulnerable component of diversity.In order for ex situ conservation to obtain minimally adequate levels of genetic diversity in trees, carefully conceived sampling strategies are needed. Thus, before implementing ex situ conservation strategies, genetic resources must be selected based on knowledge of spatial patterns of variation. Once these various parts of the conservation process are known and acted upon, the final step of the conservation programme is to regenerate the resource (Finkeldey and Hattemer 1993;Hattemer 1995).The literature treating the theory and rationale of optimal sampling strategies for ex situ conservation is very rich (e.g., Allard 1970;Marshall and Brown 1975;Namkoong 1988;Crossa 1989;Krusche and Geburek 1991;Lawrence et al. 1995).The provenance of the seed is generally recognized as the key unit of the genetic resource when collecting occurs (Matyas 1996;Brown and Hardner 2000). Many studies have highlighted the existence of genetic divergence among provenances of the same species (e.g., Stern andRoche 1974, Mikola 1982). Brown and Hardner (2000) state that the region orThe impact of fragmentation on the reproductive biology of Enterolobium cyclocarpum in Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica was the subject of a research project coordinated by IPGRI. The study compared the reproductive characteristics of E. cyclocarpum trees growing in continuous forests and in pastures. Researchers hypothesized that a reduction of continuous habitat would be accompanied by lower rates of flower visitation by pollinators and thus by the likelihood of a decline in pollination, fruit set and seed production per fruit. Nevertheless, in fragmented forests, the number of flowers with pollen on their stigma and the number of pollen grains deposited were found to be similar to those in continuous forest. However, in the fragmented forests, only a limited fraction of trees with pollinated flowers later produced mature fruits. This suggested that factors other than pollination were causing the reduced fruit maturation. Since plants may regulate the quality of their progeny, researchers then hypothesized that competition among developing fruits and/or genotypic interactions between paternal and maternal parents were responsible for the differential seed abortion. Because progeny vigour in seedlings from pasture trees was significantly lower than in seedlings from continuous forest, it was assumed that habitat fragmentation either disrupted mechanisms regulating progeny vigour and quality, or that progeny vigour and quality were affected by inbreeding. But the research also revealed that fragmentation had no effect on outcrossing rates. Furthermore, the study demonstrated how important isolated trees in fragmented landscapes are for the movement of pollinators and for gene flow while, on the other hand, also showing that seeds from fragmented sources are inferior to continuous forest sources for the establishment of commercial plantations (Rocha and Aguilar 2001).Another study was undertaken in Guanacaste National Park to identify and characterize simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci in Carapa guianensis that could then be used to detect polymorphisms in related species. Employing these markers, the study tested the effects of fragmentation on gene flow and genetic differentiation among fragmented and continuous forest populations, comparing individuals from pre-fragmentation adult cohorts with individuals from post-fragmentation sapling cohorts. Genetic distances between adults and saplings were greater in forest fragment populations than in continuous forest. For the site subjected to cattle grazing and selective logging, average allelic richness of the sapling cohorts was lower than in the adult population, while the opposite was true for the ungrazed and selectively logged continuous forest populations. Moreover, the larger genetic distances among all cohorts when compared to adult cohorts was mostly attributable to juveniles and, more specifically, to the substantial differentiation that existed between juveniles in the fragmented populations and those from the continuous populations. The project generally indicated that fragmentation decreases gene flow and increases allelic differentiation among populations. area where the tree species occurs should be divided into distinct ecogeographical zones, and they provide guidance on the number of populations -and the number of individuals in each population -from which seeds should be randomly collected.Microsatellites have been used in tree species to investigate the spatial distribution of genetic diversity across landscapes in order to identify areas most suitable for ex situ conservation collecting. Modelling tools are being developed to determine the most efficient sampling strategies once collecting sites are identified.The physical and financial limitations of most ex situ conservation methods will determine what type and amount of genetic variation can be sampled and therefore conserved. Although it is always desirable to capture as much genetic variation as possible, the total number of trees sampled must be manageable.IPGRI's FGR programme is investigating the amount and spatial organization of genetic variation in tree species with contrasting modes of distribution, dispersal, pollination and seed dispersal. For rare and endangered species, genetic studies are integrated with demographic and ecological research to develop management and restoration plans.An example of this work is the research undertaken by IPGRI in the Middle East, mainland southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, designed to locate genetic diversity in timber and nonwood forest species of economic importance or in species threatened with extinction (Box 4,overleaf). This research has identified distributional ranges of selected species, clarified their taxonomy and investigated their pollination and seed dispersal behaviours.IPGRI has also worked on ex situ storage problems for forest trees intolerant of desiccation (Box 5, on p. 257).Forest restoration for conservation purposes is defined by Brown and Lugo (1994) as the deliberate alteration of ecological patterns and processes for the purpose of recreating some presumed set of natural, pre-disturbance ecosystemic conditions. Restored forests should be similar in structure, function and composition to the historic forests of the region prior to disturbance by humans (Lamb et al. 1997). Some ecological factors relevant to the establishment of original forest conditions at various temporal and spatial scales are: (i) use of indigenous species; (ii) incorporation of natural successional dynamics; (iii) consideration of ecological relationships; and (iv) consideration of the effects of ecological patterns of species on ecosystem processes.The degree of isolation of a restoration site in relation to a seed source is a major factor limiting natural dispersal to the site. Ideally, restoration interventions should occur in areas neighbouring native forest seed sources. If this is not possible, consideration should be given to the development of planted forest corridors through which forestdwelling seed dispersers may travel to the restoration site. There are also examples of forest plantations established on degraded sites long devoid of native tree cover that have acted as successional catalysts, that is, they have facilitated the recolonization of native flora through their influence on understorey microclimate and soil fertility, suppression of dominant grasses, and provision of habitats for seed dispersing animals (Parrotta 1995). Properly selected provenances, well adapted to local environmental conditions, should be identified for the purposes just mentioned. Careful determination of genetic variation and the distribution of FGRs should be carried out before initiating restoration interventions.The proper selection of sites from where regeneration material should be collected is a fundamental part of the forest restoration process. This is because when seeds are planted away from their native environment, saplings and trees may suffer from maladaptation, leading to pest attacks, slow production and/or poor form. Seedlot registration systems are a simple way to minimize maladaptation by classifying administrative regions into ecologically similar 'seed zones', and they discourage the transfer of seedlots across zones (Conkle 1997). Reforestation projects frequently suffer reduced genetic diversity that could compromise their stability and resilience because they lack guidelines that specify minimally adequate numbers of trees and provenances from which seeds should be collected (O'Neill et al. 2001).In contrast, when rehabilitating forests for commercial forestry purposes, either using native tree species and/or exotic species, the management goal is not to recreate the original (often more complex) forest ecosystem. The aim of such forest rehabilitation is to manage and utilize the rehabilitated forests to fulfil various human needs (Lamb 1994).Rehabilitation studies for degraded forests, like for restoration research, should also try to understand the key factors that determine growth rates in small-scale plantations, Box 4. Ecogeographic, socioeconomic and genetic surveys of tree species in central and west Asia and north Africa (CWANA)In collaboration with local research partners (Lebanon: American University of Beirut, Saint Joseph University-Beirut, and Directorate of Rural Development and Natural Resources of the Ministry of Agriculture; and Syria: University of Tishreen-Lattakia, Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands, and Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform), IPGRI undertook ecogeographic surveys of several tree species important to the local economies of the CWANA region. Country ranges or when possible natural ranges of species were surveyed, with subsequent infraspecific genetic diversity investigated using genetic markers. Sampling strategies for these latter studies were based on results from the ecogeographic surveys. The species studied and the activities undertaken are described below.In Syria, exhaustive ecogeographic, socioeconomic and genetic diversity surveys were undertaken on pistachio (Pistacia vera), an important arboricultural crop in the CWANA region. Because many of its wild relatives are sources of genes that confer pest and disease resistance in cultivated pistachios, several natural areas that include wild pistachios have been conserved, especially in areas with poor soils or that are subject to drought. Surveys produced an understanding of the diversity of cultivated varieties of pistachio in Syria and also of one of its common wild relatives, Pistacia atlantica. The project produced distribution maps of pistachio genetic diversity in the country and an assessment of the threats to the two species. The agrobotanical characteristics of Pistacia vera were also determined.In central Asia, IPGRI is supporting the national FGR programmes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan as these countries survey, collect, study and rescue remnant wild populations of pistachio. Until now, these trees had mostly been used as sources of nuts and firewood by local people. Wild pistachio populations will now also be used to develop new and better yielding varieties for the rural areas of central Asia.The distribution of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) populations and their genetic variability in Syria and Lebanon were investigated. Carob is an important multipurpose species native to the Mediterranean basin. Precise data on carob's distribution and genetic diversity in Lebanon and Syria were not available, making it difficult to assess its conservation status. Carob trees have been selected and cultivated for centuries for the high pulp content of their pods, which are used for animal and human foods. Today, carob is receiving greater interest from industry, mainly from cosmetic and pharmaceutical companies. The tree is also valuable for its resistance to fire, which makes it attractive for use in vegetation corridors in fire-prone Mediterranean maquis. Because it commonly occurs in semi-natural areas near orchards in Lebanon, it was difficult to distinguish between cultivated and wild carob. In contrast, virtually every carob population in Syria seemed to be natural. But in this country, all the sites investigated were highly fragmented and threatened with habitat conversion. Leaf samples of the surveyed trees were analyzed using molecular markers to assess genetic diversity between and within populations in both countries. develop guidelines for selecting species and acquiring genetic information from them, and improve technologies for site management. All of these will raise production and increase the chances for sustainability of plantations on degraded and low-potential sites.Data are similarly needed to delineate 'seed transfer zones'. These are regions within which trees can be moved with little or no consequence to population fitness (Hufford and Mazer 2003).While forest restoration and rehabilitation include a range of objectives, conceptual frameworks and techniques, both require sound management of FGRs for the long-term sustainability of the resource. Whether their objectives are restoration or rehabilitation, national systems of tree seed registration should adopt minimum standards for seed collecting that specify: (i) the number of parent trees required for each seedlot as well as the seed bulking methods (Marshall and Brown 1975); (ii) the genetic distance between parent trees that will minimize relatedness (Dawson and Were 1997); (iii) the yield and physiological qualities of the harvested seeds; (iv) the health of the mother trees; and (v) location data. Strict standards for documenting collecting localities will ensure that collectors can return to populations that perform well in particular environments for particular purposes, while populations that perform poorly can be avoided.How much can we use tree species for timber and nonwood forest products?Commercial harvesting of timber by logging is the major form of forest disturbance in most countries. However, other forms of disturbance, such as NWFP extraction, fire or the cutting of wood for local consumption, can also threaten tree species, though the threat level from these disturbances will vary depending on the species' 'life history strategies' and mating systems (Noss 1983). Because natural forest ecosystems are composed of longlived indigenous trees, tree populations can be used as indicators of anthropogenic stress. Genetic variability within tree populations is potentially a high indicator of forest ecosystem stability and permanence because it is a major factor in determining the adaptive potential of tree populations and their survival abilities under various stress scenarios (Kim and Hattemer 1994;Baradat et al. 1995). Substantial research effort has thus been expended on the identification of criteria and indicators (C&I) for sustainable forest management, much of this within the framework of forest certification. C&I are neutral assessment tools for Box 5. Analyzing seed behaviour in forest tree speciesThe use of many high-value tropical forest species in tree planting and conservation programmes is hindered by seed handling and storage problems. Indeed, knowledge about seed physiology of most tree species ranges from scarce to nonexistent. Seeds from many tree species, particularly from the humid tropics, are difficult to handle because of their sensitivity to dry conditions and other physiological issues. Many are said to be recalcitrant or intermediate, meaning they are difficult to store even for short periods of time.One project, initiated in 1996 and recently completed, screened 61 such tree species in 18 countries. It was coordinated by IPGRI and the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Forest Seed Centre (DFSC) with funding from DANIDA. Results provided insights into the storage biology of economically important tree species, as well as into techniques that now give foresters and nurseries access to far greater numbers of tree species. Moreover, many species produced seeds that were not recalcitrant as was believed. Seeds from almost half the species examined could be stored for some time under reasonable controlled humidity and temperature conditions (http://www.dfsc.dk/IPGRIproject.htm).monitoring forest trends that provide the means of measuring, assessing, monitoring and demonstrating progress towards achieving forest sustainability over time. C&I initiatives for sustainable forest management have been reviewed (Castañeda 2000;Castañeda et al. 2001;McKinnell 2002), and the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) is actively working on forest C&Is in the context of its Criteria & Indicators Toolbox series.During the last decade, independent certification has gained momentum as an effective mechanism for improving and promoting sustainable management of forests (Pierce and Ervin 1999). A common element of certification bodies or programmes is that they operate within frameworks of clearly specified principles, criteria and indicators. Because C&Is are essential for defining or recognizing 'sustainable forestry' (Johnson and Cabarle 1993;Funston 1995), they offer tangible forestry management solutions by outlining conditions that must be met if forest management is to be deemed sustainable, rather than trying somehow to quantify the acceptability of forestry management (Boyle 2000).A commonly heard complaint is that knowledge about the genetics and ecology of most tree species in tropical forests is still largely incomplete, and attempts have been made to include genetic and ecological information within C&Is. Genetic and ecological C&Is considered thus far have emphasized methods that characterize or visualize genetic variation and ecological processes, methods that detect temporal changes and trends in genetic and ecological parameters, the choice of thresholds or critical values to apply, and how to combine information from multiple indicators (Boyle 2000).IPGRI's research on NWFPs currently focuses on understanding how patterns of NWFP use affect FGRs, the objective being to include thresholds for sustainable extraction of NWFPs into guidelines for forest management. A good example is the work on bamboo and rattan in Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1999a and b). IPGRI is also coordinating research activities on C&Is in collaboration with IMAZON (Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente da Amazônia) and IMAFLORA (Instituto de Manejo e Certificação Florestal e Agrícola; Box 6) as well as participating in the activities of the Steering Committee of the Dendrogene project funded by DFID (the UK's Department for International Development) and undertaken by EMBRAPA (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária) in Brazil.Limitations in applying C&Is to forest management reside in the sometimes poor quality of the data collected and in the inevitable restriction of focus to a small number of species. And an important question remains on how to incorporate specific C&Is for assessing genetic diversity into overall assessments of management practices.Challenges include creating C&I management guidelines that are clear, practical and easy to use, and that are based as far as possible on good science (ITTO 1998). Moreover, because costs (both financial and temporal) must always be contained, and because genetic studies can require sophisticated and expensive laboratory procedures (Boyle 2000;Jennings et al. 2001), another challenge is determining minimally adequate genetic indicators in the most efficient way possible. For example, should these indicators be based on direct measurements using molecular research or is there sufficient information available to allow genetic indices to be replaced by demographic indices such as population size, physical isolation, seed dispersal or number of mature individuals? Unfortunately, ecological processes occurring at large temporal and spatial scales are also difficult to monitor, and such information may not be readily available.Unlike some economic and ecological C&Is, it is usually more difficult to 'translate' genetic indices into a practical and easily used form. Nevertheless, some scientifically sound genetic C&Is have been proposed by Stork et al. (1997), Boyle (2000), Brown et al. (2000) and Namkoong et al. (2002), but they are complicated and difficult to apply in practice (Jennings et al. 2001).In order to trace illegally logged timber, improved genetic fingerprinting methods have recently been developed that can identify commercial timber and its geographic origin. from living buds and that of timber collected from the same individual oak tree. A statistical procedure was used to test whether the haplotype of several wood samples was consistent with their presumed geographical origin. While the study showed that the technique could not unambiguously identify wood products of unknown origin, it could link the genetic composition of wood samples with their region of alleged origin.Plant invasions from agriculture, forestry and horticulture have today captured the attention of most national conservation agencies as well as international forestry, agricultural and conservation NGOs (Higgins and Richardson 1998). The spread of 'wildlings' from exotic species' plantations is a well-known occurrence (Raybould and Gray 1994), and the literature on the concepts and concerns associated with 'invasive exotics' is now extensive (Rhymer and Simberloff 1996;Daniels and Sheil 1999). While it is known that the introduction of exotic populations can lead to competitive exclusion (displacement) of native populations, genetic pollution via hybridization is less well known (Huxel 1999).Genetic pollution occurs when diversity in a native population or species' gene pool is reduced and/or 'damaged' as a result of hybridization in such a way as to cause concern about the distinctiveness or future fitness of the gene pool in question. While it is recognized that the mixing of population (and sometimes species') gene pools through hybridization and consequent introgression is a natural evolutionary process in forest trees and in plants and animals generally (Arnold 1992), the term 'genetic pollution' usually indicates a situation where hybridization was initiated or significantly influenced by human activities.In the last decade, genetic pollution via pollen dispersal and/or hybridization has been recognized as a major concern in conservation biology. The risk of escape of transgenes from genetically modified organisms has helped focus public attention on the effects on native gene pools of hybridization and introgression from exotic species, nonlocal provenances and highly selected genotypes.Genetic pollution in forest tree species is reported for the California black walnut (Juglans hindsii), which is known to have hybridized with many congeners imported for commercial purposes (Rhymer and Simberloff 1996). Another well-known example is that of the native European black poplar (Populus nigra L.), once widespread and now being extirpated over large parts of western Europe. Its habitat is being reduced and its gene pool threatened by the large-scale presence of cultivated hybrids. Another example is the California sycamore (Platanus racemosa), currently disappearing from its native range via introgression with the London plane tree (Platanus x acerifolia; Rhymer and Simberloff 1996). Box 7 describes research in Australia that was motivated by genetic contamination of native gene pools of Eucalyptus spp.In most cases, conservation of FGRs is one aspect of a more complex management goal associated with sustainable forest management; a concept whose objectives alone can be difficult to determine, much less assess and measure. In this chapter, we presented the briefest of overviews of the practical usefulness and application of genetic research for FGR conservation and management.The portfolio of examples presented shows how genetic research is attempting to address some very urgent forest conservation and management issues. As we saw, developing what we think might be solutions to a myriad of pressing problems, applying them, and then monitoring their effects are very significant challenges for the forest genetics research community. In part, this is because it is usually time-consuming and costly just to acquire good genetic data, interpret them and develop recommendations for the conservation and sustainable management of trees, their populations and their ecosystems; and that is assuming that we have asked the right questions in the first place and that there are decision-makers prepared to apply our recommendations in the second place. To a certain degree, forest geneticists presuppose that genetic data are all that are needed to conserve and manage FGRs effectively. But ecological, socioeconomic and even inconsistent, too simple and/or just plain bad arise as a means of satisfying dominant or competing interest groups, and these can pose additional challenges to achieving FGR conservation objectives.All the elements mentioned thus far concur to demonstrate that long-term sustainable management of FGRs will be a challenge for the forest genetic research community. But there appears to be agreement on the need to continue gathering accurate baseline genetic information on a broad range of forest tree species, to extrapolate findings from model species to others, to develop management recommendations based on genetic information, to integrate FGR conservation and sustainable use recommendations into acceptable socioeconomic frameworks, to raise public awareness, and to establish an effective dialogue with policy-makers.The question of whether poverty reduction can be combined with biodiversity conservation is part of a debate familiar to conservationists (Adams et al. 2004): environmental conservation versus economic development. During the 20 th century, the dominant approach to development was to push for economic growth and assume that environmental problems and social justice could be sorted out later. However, using Ghana as the example, Brashares et al. (2004) have recently shown that programmes aimed at promoting economic development, food security and biodiversity conservation can have positive interrelated outcomes. As demand for forest goods and services continues to grow and forest managers, policy-makers and land use planners are asked to make more and more complex decisions about forest use and access issues, equity will increasingly need to be addressed. In most cases, trade-offs will be inevitable (Rose and Chapman 2002).While the value of forests to world food security has been widely documented (Pimentel et al. 1997), the relationship between forest genetic diversity and livelihoods is more difficult to study and measure. Indeed, with many national and international organizations including conservation and sustainable use of tropical forests among their top environmental and developmental priorities, we possess in fact only very limited knowledge of the effects of deforestation, fragmentation and uncontrolled exploitation on forest genetic resources (FGRs). In addition, our understanding of most appropriate practices for in situ and ex situ conservation of tropical forest tree species is only partial at best. Much more research is needed to document and to understand the levels of diversity that are needed to ensure sustainable economic development in forest-dwelling communities that depend on forest resources.Preserving, studying and using tropical forest diversity are challenges from conservation, research and utilitarian perspectives because intact natural forest ecosystems are rapidly being lost. This loss is not restricted just to tropical forests, for temperate and boreal forests are also affected, although deforestation and forest fragmentation are reducing the biodiversity of tropical forests at unprecedented rates. Some authors argue that humans cannot make use of biodiversity without causing harm (Redford and Richter 1999) and the debate about the role of humans in nature, whether integral or separate, is ongoing (McNeely and Watchel 1988;Visser 1992). Nevertheless, there is now general acceptance that the conservation of forest biodiversity cannot be achieved solely within protected areas (Kemp 1992). Increased attention is being given to conservation values in the emerging definitions of sustainable forest management, to criteria and indicators for monitoring its achievement, and to participatory approaches, all of which point to increasing opportunities for strengthening biodiversity conservation in tropical forests under productive use.However, biodiversity is complex and occurs at levels ranging from genes to species to populations to ecosystems and landscapes, each with its associated structure, composition and functional role in sustaining and reproducing itself. This implies that any biodiversity use pattern we choose to explore will have a cascading set of relationships and effects at the other levels. These relationships will not be easy to quantify or assess through single disciplines, nor will lone disciplines be able to master the spatial and temporal dimensions within which biodiversity operates and constantly changes.Within the project presented in this volume, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), we tried to establish an interdisciplinary and participatory framework that could simultaneously address genetic, ecological and socioeconomic issues of forest use in Argentina and Brazil. The objective was ultimately to devise methods and strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs that would guarantee the ongoing contribution of the forestry sector to the livelihoods of local communities and national economies.Thus, we analyzed the effects of human activities, such as extraction of nonwood forest products (NWFPs), on FGRs with the goal of identifying management guidelines that could be applied locally and, hopefully at some point, more broadly. In fact, data from our research sites indicated that the sustainable use of NWFPs had the potential for playing a role in reducing deforestation rates and thus biodiversity losses. We also found that resource-use tenure, empowerment of local communities and good governance were key issues that underpinned the maintenance of forest cover in both countries (Chapters 6 and 8).Indigenous management strategies tend to result in sustainable use of NWFPs only when a single cohesive community has sole access to the resource (Silva Matos and Bovi 2001). Nevertheless, we were encouraged by the fact that in more complex socioeconomic situations, collective action, strong social organization, good governance and secure tenure could contribute to achieving this goal, as the rubber tappers and the Mapuche communities have shown in Brazil (Chapter 8) and Argentina (Chapter 6), respectively. However, in such instances stricter penalties and monitoring may be required to control levels of exploitation and trade (Silva Matos and Bovi 2001).However, the widely held argument that 'sustainable forestry' is the preferred option for tropical forest management has recently been criticized by people who argue that it is neither more profitable nor necessarily environmentally preferable to conventional logging (Pearce et al. 2002). They argue that the focus of sustainable forestry should shift from wood to nonmarket values such as environmental services, but that the return from these must exceed the returns of alternative land uses and the cost of management, including the cost of preventing entry by colonists. This argument demonstrates that until proper value is attributed to forest biodiversity and to its underlying genetic resources, and the importance of FGRs for forest-dwelling communities is recognized, both the livelihoods of these communities and their FGRs will continue to be threatened.Thus, we support the ideas that forest management and sustainable use policies must include proper monetary and non-monetary returns to forest communities, that NWFPs should continue to be identified and their economic potential studied, and that stakeholders involved in forest management and use must be fully engaged in relevant decision-making processes. We also think that for it to be effective, conservation of FGRs must be integrated into the overall framework of sustainable forest management.However, in many developing nations, the minimal conditions needed for this to occur have been hard to assemble, meaning that the sustainable management of forests seems to be less likely to emerge as a viable land-use option in the near term (Hyde 1999). Indeed, in some instances, the design and implementation of workable regulatory systems seem to be almost utopian, especially in countries that lack the political, administrative and enforcement frameworks within which such policies can be developed and implemented.We therefore encourage the donor community and the relevant research institutions to continue to come together and to think strategically about how we can collectively engage and give a voice to forest-dwelling communities based on their very real needs. Equally importantly, we need to find ways to increase the likelihood that policy-makers in the lesser-resourced countries will support the conservation and sustainable use of FGRs in their countries.Before regional conservation and sustainable use efforts can be truly meaningful, national FGR programmes must be put into operation and supported by policy-makers. The commitment of policy-makers to the conservation of forest genetic diversity can be increased only if they are aware of the potential of FGRs for development. Increasing the use of FGRs within sustainable use frameworks will lead to FGR conservation, improved stability and predictability within local resource use, better regional collaboration and common conservation actions for priority species.The importance of these issues needs to be kept in the public eye, hence the decision to produce this book.In the second half of the 20 th century, development strategies tended to be narrowly focused on economic growth. Biodiversity, natural resource planning and social justice took a back seat to dollars and balance sheets. Often they were simply ignored. In South America, this myopic view of progress resulted in the massive destruction of tropical forests.Removing large tracts of forest radically alters the physical landscape and destroys natural habitats. It also erodes the genetic diversity of plants, animals and other organisms -diversity that is vital for species' ability to adapt to new conditions. When biological wealth is undermined, so too are human livelihoods. Yet nearly half a decade into the 21 st century, we still do not fully understand the impacts of pervasive deforestation.This book, Challenges in Managing Forest Genetic Resources for Livelihoods, is a must-read for all who work directly or indirectly on forest conservation or rural development in forested areas. Based on a four-year project across four different forest ecosystems in South America, it examines how current patterns of use affect forest genetic resources, and considers the fate of the forests and those who depend on them. Above all, this book asks: can we successfully combine poverty reduction with biodiversity conservation? What emerges is that while advances can and have been made, it is crucial that policy-makers and governments fully support the process.","tokenCount":"86940"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15f007809655f560f83cb85457996019","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/545baa39-d11c-434f-aece-7464d7315dd2/retrieve","id":"965687672"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6dd9f685-4c22-4f80-8572-a2cf7e094fdf","pagecount":"89","content":"3.9 Estimaci6n del coeficient~ de correlaci6n (r) .El camote es un cultivo oriundo de America y su desarrollo a nivel mundial se debe a sus excelentes caracteristicas para la alimentaci6n asi coma materia prima para productos industriales, ~omo el almid6n y el alcohol.En el Peru, el camote no es muy difundido, pese a ser un cul ti yo de gran potencial para diferentes regiones ecol6gicas del pais, coma son la Costa y la Selva.Los limites agroecol6gicos para un cultivo dependen de la magnitud de la interacci6n del genotipo x ambiente. En el caso especif ico del camote la influencia de un ambiente se manif iesta tanto en la producci6n de raices reservantes coma de f ollaj e, las cuales cons ti tu yen el valor econ6mico del cultivo.La interacci6n con el media ambiente dependera del menor o mayor grado en que un genotipo pueda desarrollar eficientemente procesos fisiol6gicos, aptitudes morfol6gicas y caracteristicas reproductivas bajo diferentes condiciones.Un genotipo con alto grado de interacci6n poseera poca capacidad de adaptaci6n y solo podra prosperar en una zona ecol6gica reducida con condiciones ambientales especfficas.Pese a que el camote es una especie que se cultiva bajo una diversidad de condiciones agroecol6gicas, se ha podido observar que las variedades peruanas tienden hacia una adaptaci6n especifica.Por tal razon el mejoramiento genetico se esta orientando actualmente hacia el desarrollo de variedades con un mayor range de adaptaci6n lo que requiere determinar criterios que faciliten este objetivo.El germoplasma es una~ fuente importante para un programa de mejoramiento. Los recurses geneticos deben ser debidamente evaluados para emplearlos ef icientemente en la creaci6n de material promisorio. Se necesi ta tener mayor inf ormaci6n acerca de las caracteristicas morf ol6gicas de la planta, su asociaci6n con el rendimiento y la influencia del ambiente. El rendimiento es afectado significativamente por las interacciones genotipo x ambiente. Es entonces deseable seleccionar variedades con un mayor range de adaptaci6n por lo que un programa de mejoramiento debe evaluar el material mejorado bajo diferentes condiciones agroecol6gicas.En el proceso de selecci6n se debe considerar f actores que pudieran modificar su efectividad, tal coma correlaciones con otros caracteres importantes y la interacci6n con el ambiente. La ef iciencia de la selecci6n tambien dependera del grade de variabilidad genetica presente en la poblaci6n.Los objetivos del presente trabajo son los siguientes:Determinar la eficiencia de la selecci6n de clones de camote por adaptaci6n y rendimiento en dif erentes zonas ecol6gicas, mediante el estudio de cuatro grupos de clones seleccionados en diversas condiciones agroecol6gicas y evaluados en 4 localidades.Establecer el grado de variabilidad entre las di versas caracteristicas agron6micas y morfol6gicas, y el grado de estabilidad de las mismas en 4~zonas ecol6gicas.Estimar correlaciones entre dif erentes caracteres del cultivo de camote y la influencia que ejerce el ambientes en estas asociaciones.La efectividad de la selecci6n aplicada a una especie dada dependera de la magnitud de la variabilidad existente y esta su vez dependera de la naturaleza del germoplasma J utilizado para crear la poblaci6n inicial. El estudio de la variaci6n de las caracteres morfol6gicos y agron6micos en una poblaci6n permite determinar la metodologia mas adecuada iniciar un programa de mejoramiento. VARGAS Y LUCIANI (1989), estudiaron la variabilidad morfol6gica de 9 caracteres del follaje y 7 caracteres de la raiz en una poblaci6n de camote de polinizaci6n libre. Se observe una amplia variabilidad fenotipica para las siguientes caracteres: forma de la hoja, lobulaci6n, color de las nervaduras, rendimiento del follaje, color de la piel de las raices, rendimiento de materia seca en estas, de raices totales y numero de raices comerciales.2.2 INTERACCION GENOTIPO-MEDIO AMBIENTE._,.\\ numero TAI (1971), remarc6 que hay dos estrategias para desarrollar variedades con baja interacci6n de genotipo par ambiente: a) subdi vidir una area heterogenea en pequefias regiones de ambientes mas homogeneos, y b) introducir variedades adaptadas a un amplio rango de ambientes. Ademas, indic6 que la primera estrategia podria no ser muy efectiva porque la interacci6n de genotipo por afio no puede ser reducida por la subdivision de una determinada area.Etimol6gicamente, el concepto de estabilidad indica permanencia, duraci6n y firmeza. Este concepto aplicado a la interacci6n genotipo con ambiente fue redef inido par varios autores, siendo los mas importantes: FINLAY y WILKINSON (1963). Estes autores emplearon la tecnica de regresi6n para clasif icar 277 variedades de cebada de acuerdo a su adaptaci6n y dif inieron el termino de estabilidad coma alga que permanece invariable 6 que no cambia. El criteria estadistico que ellos explicaron es que una variedad estable es aquella de coeficiente de regresi6n igual a cero.Por SU parte EBERHART y RUSSELL ( 1966) I definen la estabilidad del rendimiento come la capacidad de un genotipo para mostrar un minima de interacci6n con dif erentes ambientes, y par lo tanto existe sensibilidad a las cambios ambientales. Explican que una variedad estable es aquella con un coeficiente de regresi6n igual a 1. Ademas, incluyen un segundo parametro que es la variancia de las desviaciones a la regresi6n, que debe ser igual a cero.  JOHNSTON (1975), cuando las variables en estudio presentan diferentes unidades. BACUSMO et al ( 1988) , evalu6 14 clones de camote y utiliz6 4 metodos para determinar estabilidad y adaptaci6n de camote en 14 ambientes, y determin6 que el anal is is de Eberhart y Russell (1966) y el de Tai (1971) pueden ser utilizados con igual eficiencia.CAREY et al (1992) La heredabilidad es una medida de la correspondencia entre valores fenotfpicos y valores de mejora. Es estimada como la proporci6n entre la variaci6n observable debido a dif erencias geneticas (Vg) y la variaci6n fenotfpica total (Vf), FALCONER (1970).JONES (1977), estudio 7 caracteristicas de las raices tuberosas del camote y encuentr6 que la heredabilidad para peso de raices fue de 0.25 ± 0.13; para contenido de materia seca fue 0.65 ± 0.12; y para color de pulpa de 0.53 ± 0.14.  LI (1965), encontr6 correlaciones positivas y negativas entre las caracteristicas de la parte aerea (follaje) y la subterranea (raices) . La mas importante de las correlaciones negativas fue entre peso total y numero de raices, esto se deba a que el diametro de las raices fue menor, es decir hubo un buen numero de raices pero estas no acumularon fottosintatos; y peso total de raices con follaj e. Ademas, obtuvo correlaciones el peso total de positivas entre rendimiento de follaje con numeros de entrenudos, con longitud de entrenudos y con longitud de tallo.-~~f.:III. MATERIALES Y METODOS. =...os genotipos en estudio se clasif icaron de acuerdo a la z~ ecol6gica donde se seleccionaron (tabla 1) . Se considero a los genotipos una muestra aleatoria de una poblacion seleccionada por localidad (La Molina, Tacna, San Ramon, Yurinmaguas).Las localidades de prueba Jconsiderados en el presente l estudio fueron: La Molina y Vitarte en Costa y San Ramon y Yurimaguas en Selva.Los experimentos se llevaron a cabo durante el afio 1989. Se condujeron en DBCA, con 4 repeticiones y 40 plantas por repeticion. El distanciamiento entre surcos fue de 0.9 m. y entre plantas de 0.25 m; con una densidad de siembra de 40,000 plantas/ha.Se utilizo 3 bloques del disefio de campo para evaluar rendimiento total. El cuarto bloque sirvi6 para evaluar individualmente en 10 plantas representativas las diferentes caracteristicas morfologicas.Fueron las siguientes: caracteristicas cuantitativas.Rendimiento total. Se obtuvo al pesar todas las raices . reservantes por parcel a y posteriormente se transformo a toneladas por hectarea.Las siguientes caracteristicas fueron evaluadas en 10 plantas representativas, obteniedose luego promedio:-Altura de planta. Medido de la parte basal 6 cuello de la planta al extrema apical se expres6 en mts.-Diametro de tallo principal. Medido en de la parte media del tallo principal, expresados en ems. Color de hoja madura, de hoja inmadura, de pigmentacion de tallo, de peciolo y de la nervadura. ]. ij J.] J j J donde: Xij = Observaci6n de la i-esima poblaci6n en el jesimo ambiente.      As imismo, en el Cuadro 8, se observa la magni tud de range medic obtenido de promediar los ranges de los 4 ambientes, asi como la desviaci6n estandar de las magnitudes de range entre ambientes. Esto se interpret6 como una medida de consistencia de la variabilidad de las caracteristicas.Los valores cercanos a cero indican que el grado de variabilidad de una caracteristica cualquiera se mantiene de un ambiente a otro ambiente.La consistencia de un rango de variabilidad, es decir el grade constante de las dif erentes expresiones de la caracteristica, es importante para llevar a cabo selecciones ef icientes en diferentes ambientes a partir de una misma poblaci6n. Las caracteristicas de mayor consistencia del rango de variabilidad fueron: Peso de follaje, numero de ramas secundarias, tipo de 16bulo, f orma de 16bulo, pigmentaci6n de tallo, peciolo y venas, color de hoja madura e inmadura, numero de raices, diametro de raices, color de piel, color de pulpa y oxidaci6n de raices.Mientras tanto la formaci6n de capsulas y rajadura de raices fueron caracteristicas cuyo range de variabilidad fue altamente influenciado por el ambiente. Esto significa que hay poblaciones que en un determinado ambiente presenten solo un range minima de variabilidad; una selecci6n en estas condiciones dificulta una predicci6n eficaz. For ejemplo, se En cambio otras caracteristicas coma peso de raices, tipo de planta, altura de planta, longitud de peciolo, grosor de corteza, latex de raiz, formaci6n de raiz, y tipo de union de raiz al tallo, el grade de variabilidad varia de ambiente a ambiente. En estos casos la efecti vidad de la selecci6n sera diferente para cada ambiente.De otro lade, hay caracteristicas coma habito de floraci6n, producci6n de capsulas y rajadura de raices que no presentan gran variabilidad, y sin embargo el grade de variabilidad presenta diferencia de un ambiente a otro.Estes grades de variabili 1 dad al parecer estan asociados con la interacci6n genotipo x ambiente. Esto se demuestra observando la magni tud de las con tr ibuciones de la interacci6n al total de la variancia presente.caracteristicas de follaje tales como pigmentaciones, tipos de hoj a, al tura de planta, y co lores de pi el y pulpa no presentan interacci6n significativa con el ambiente por lo que poseen gran consistencia.En cambio, peso de raices, tipo de planta, numero de raices secundarias, producci6n de latex en tallo y raiz, oxidaci6n de raiz, peso y numero de raices, interaccionan con el ambiente.El peso de follaje interacciona significativamente con el ambiente y el progreso en la selecci6n seria lento. La magnitud del rango de variabilidad de esta caracteristica es similar en las diferentes ambientes. Para que la selecci6n sea ef iciente es necesario con tar con suf iciente variabilidad expresada en diferentes ambientes, y que la interacci6n genotipo x ambiente sea minima. Estes requisites son muy importantes en un programa de mejoramiento por adaptaci6n a diversas condiciones ambientales.La heredabilidad obtenida para rendirniento de raiz ha resultado de acuerdo a las estimados por Diaz y Mendoza (1989), para esta poblaci6n. Los valores bajos de esta caracteristica indicaria la necesidad de llevar a cabo selecci6n recurrente, para incrementar la frecuencia de  Los clones mas destacados ingresan a una parcela de policruzamiento para iniciar un nuevo clclo de selecci6n.Simultaneamente estos clones serian propuestos al programa nacional para pruebas finales orientadas a la selecci6n de variedades.Los detalles de selecci6n coma el numero de individuos que ingresan a una nueva etapa son condicionados por el mejorador, aqui solo se presenta una alternativa.Asimismo, el esquema de mejoramiento incluye muches f actores que no se destacan en el diagrama tales coma calidad, precocidad, tolerancia o resistencia a enfermedades y plagas, etc. Estas evaluaciones se deberan desarrollar en el transcurso de las diferentes etapas del ciclo.El esquema de selecci6n propuesto esta orientado a obtener material de alto rendimiento en un amplio rango de condiciones agroecol6gicas. Sin embargo, tambien permitiria la selecci6n de material con alta adaptaci6n local e intraregional.La interacci6n genotipo x ambiente fue altamente significativa para cada Grupo de clones selectos. Para disminuir dicha interacci6n la evaluaci6n clonal adaptaci6n, debe considerar una incorporaci6n gradual ambientes heterogeneos durante el proceso de selecci6n. par de -Hay presencia de un alto grado de variabilidad en todas las caracter isticas, excepto f ormaci6n de capsulas y raj adura de raices, par lo que la selecci6n, en general, puede ser eficientemente aplicada en esta poblaci6n.-Para una selecci6n eficiente no solo es importante una al ta consistencia del rango de variabilidad en diferentes ambientes. Ademas, es necesario con tar con un alto grado de estabilidad de la caracteristica en si. Esto debe considerarse en todo programa de mejoramiento que incluya selecci6n par adaptaci6n a dif erentes condiciones ambientales.-Las correlaciones estimadas en el presente estudio estan influenciadas mayormente par el ambiente; no obstante hay correlaciones consistentes en las dif erentes ambientes coma son las casos de: rendimiento de raices con sus componentes, numero de raices y diametro y longitud de las mismas, y rendimiento de follaje con numero de ramas secundarias, altura de planta, diametro de tallo principal y longitud de entrenudos.-El rendimiento de raiz result6 ser independiente del rendimiento de follaje, por lo tanto es posible mejorar estas caracteristicas simultaneamente sin menoscabo de una de ellas.-Realizar estudios que amplien el conocimiento de la naturaleza de la variabilidad genetica de las dif erentes caracteristicas del camote y su interacci6n con el ambiente. j La aplicaci6n de esta inf ormaci6n a un programa de mejoramiento mejorara su efectividad.-Continuar la selecci6n de clones por adaptabilidad y estabilidad, ya que en camote es la mejor alternativa para reducir la interacci6n genotipo x ambiente.-   5.5 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 5.0 6.5 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 7.0 5.5               Anexo 60. Analisis de variancia para color de piel.F.de V. g.l s.c.C.M.---------------~-------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------F.de V. g.l s.c.C.M.------------------------------------------------------AMBIENTE CLON CLON X AMB. ","tokenCount":"2271"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2753de13a35fe30aa1f94b590c26f41d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d6b823e4-6fae-4384-8a71-0e7d9d1e77b8/retrieve","id":"-750421428"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"60991015-23dc-471d-a099-895bb33c64a0","pagecount":"47","content":"S ub-Saharan Africa still has low agricultural productivity and a high percentage of poor and undern ourished people, both adults and chi ldren (Figures I and 2). As a proxy indi cator of the present state of deprivation amongst all age groups, it is eviden t from Fi gure 2 that low in fant weight is predomi nant ly cha racteri stic of West and Central Afri ca and the Great Lakes region of eastern Africa. These are the focus regions for UTA research.Demographic tren ds in sub-Saharan Nrica, of key importance in deter-Demographic mining UTA's strategy, clearly show the need for in creased agricultural trends productivity. In 1970 there were 3.7 ha of agricultural land per rural inhabitant of sub-Sahara n Africa; by 1998 the rat io had declined to 2.2 ha.In West and Central Africa 2.3 and 1.5 ha per rura l inhabitant were available in 1970 and 1998, respective ly. The ann ua l decl ine in this ratio over this period was -I .26% and --0.9% for sub-Saharan N ri ca and West and Centra l Afri ca, respectively. However, from 1993 to 1998, declines slowed signi ficantly to -0.50% and -0. 1 % for su b-Saha ran Africa and West and Ce nt ral Africa , re spective ly. Thi s change in t ren d reflect s rura l to urban migration, and in some areas the negative effects of t he HIVI AIDS pan demi c on the li fe expectancy of rural populati ons.In sub-Sa haran Africa mo re than 65% of t he labor force was employed in the agricultural sector in 1996, wit h 15% in industry an d abo ut 20% in services (ADB 1999). Some 60% of the economically active pop ulation are pro jected to be still employed in agricu ltu re by (ADS 1999). Agriculture, accounting for more tha n 33% o f CDP and 40% of exports, remain s t he dominant fa ctor in economic development in the majority o f African economies . As most of the poor are dependent on the rural economy for t he ir livelihoods, the performan ce of t he agricultural sector has far-reaching imp lications for food securi ty, poverty reduction , and inco me generation.Yet , urba n populations in sub-Sa haran Africa have grown at an ave rage annual rate of 5.3% since 1960. Unlike the structural transformations in North America and Europe , where technica l change pushed many farmers o ff the land, in Africa urban bias and a lack of tech nical progress in agriculture have driven poor farmers into becoming poor urban dwellers. Urban growth has been particularly pron oun ced in the hu mid coastal West Afri can countri es, wi th an average rate of 5.7%. In the 1990s urban growth rates slowed marginally to 5.1 % for both sub-Saharan Africa and coasta l West Africa, reflecting in part improved agricultu ral terms of trade following t he many structural adjustment program s implemented in t he 1980s and 1990s. Proj ecting recent urban pop ulati on growth rates, more t ha n 103 million of the expected 206 mil lion people in coastal West Africa will live in an urban setting by 2007 (compared to 80 milli on in 2000) This implies a minimum increase in the size of the urban food market of 29%, assuming urban incomes remai n constant. If urba n incomes increa se, and given the assumption of positive food income elasticities, the increase in t he market will be even larger. This rapid demograph ic change, which has witnessed the doubling of urban populations every 14 years in Africa at la rge , offers opportunit ies for farmers able to successfully commercialize thei r farm ing activities .Domest ic demand for food in sub-Sa haran Africa is expected to grow 3.3%, while growth in agricultural production is expected to rea ch on ly 30% per year for the period 1990-2010(FAO 1995)). As a result, per capita food su pp lies in sub-Saharan Africa will remain at very low levels: they are projected to reach only 2170 calories per day by 2010, compared to 2730 for the developing countries as a whole. The number of malnourished peop le will grow to some 300 million or 32% of t he total population . Sub-Saharan Africa wil l take ove r from South Asia as the regi onwith th e highest number of persons chronically malnourished.Pi nstrup-Ande rsen et al. ( 1999) note t hat the prospects for economic growth in t he developing world appear favorabl e, and ri sing incomes will push people to more diversified diets. The International Food Policy Research In st itute (IFPRI) projects that income in the developing world wi ll increase at an average 4.3% annually between 1995 and 2020; in sub-Saharan Africa this in crease will be 3.4%. As a result per capita income in all major developing regions, including sub-Saharan Africa, is expectedto increase over t his period. However, even by 2020 sub-Saharan Africa 's per capita income is projected to be on average still less than a dollar a day; poverty of t his magnitude wi ll condem n many people in this region to food i nsecurity. [n particu lar, poor househol ds in rural areas are vulnerab le. For example, in Ben in , where both nut ritiona l deficit and lack o f fina ncial reso urces to p urchase esse ntia l nonfood goods and services are considered essent ial indica tors of deprivation, it is cl early shown that poverty is more preva lent in rural t han in urban areas (UNDP 1996).Lack of adeq uate food in sub-Sahara n Africa wi ll in part icula r affect children. [t is pro jected t hat sub-Saha ran Africa will be the only developing region where the number of ma ln ourished children will increase, and will reach some 40 mi lli on by 2020 . Not o nl y t he quantity o f food bu t also t he qual ity of food needs to be increased; mo re effo rt s are needed t o in crease the consumption of m icronutrients, vi t amins, and minera ls.For exa m ple, anemia stemm ing from in su fficien t iron intake is widespread among women and ch ildren: 42% of pre-school chil d ren in sub-Sa ha ra n Africa and 50% o f pregnan t women are affected by anem ia (P inst rup-Andersen et al. 1999) . The debil ita tin g effect of ma l nutrition and anemia is further exacerbated by the p resence of en dem ic ma laria.Anot her major concern is t he con t amination of food with toxi ns an d ant inut ritiona l factors such as mycotoxins.The food supply situation in sub-Sa haran Africa cou ld be st ro ngly improved if agricultural product ion increases were well above t he projected 3.0% per annu m. For exa mple, in t he SPAARIFARA Vision for African Agricultural Resea rch the following is noted:To meet the needs of growing pop ulations and rapid urba nisation (feed ing an additional [ 0 million people per year), the productivity improvement cna llenge fws become more urgent now tnan ever before. Fo r tnese food needs to be met and income generation to be assured, a ra te of economic growth of no less than 4 percent per an num will be required. Given the economic structure of Africa, and taking into consideration the need for sustainable utilisation of the natural resources base, agriculture must contribute a significant portion of tnis growth by growing itself at 6-8 percent per annum. (SPAARIFARA [ 999) Under the curren t situa ti o n such a growth rate is a form idable challenge requiring many changes, in add ition to better support for agricultural resea rch.[n 1998, t he most impo rtant crops used fo r meeting t he energy requi rements o f t he 595 m illion peop le in sub-Saharan Africa were cassava (107 billion kca l ), maize (86 bi ll ion kca l ), ri ce (37 billion kca l ), groun dnut (32 billi on kcal), yam (30 billion kcal), and plantain (27 bill ion kcal); in terms o f crude p rotein con t en t t he most import ant con t rib ut ions were from maize (1 .9 mi llion to nnes), groun dnu t ( [ .5 mill ion tonn es), cassava (0.9 1 mill ion ton nes), rice (0 .69 m ill ion to nn es), ya m (066 milli on to nn es), planta in (0.19 mi ll ion tonnes), cowpea (0. 17 million tonnes), and soybea n (0 16 m ill ion tonnes) Acco rding to the FAO 20 10 study (FAO 1995), sub-Sa haran Afri ca pe r capita consumpt ion increase woul d depend to a large exten t on t he prospect t hat domestic cerea l product ion , most ly coa rse grains, wou ld grow at 3.4% pe r annum .But combined with the increase in dema nd for ce reals, t hat would st ill leave a 19 mi llio n to nn e shortfall by 20 I O. Notwithstanding this shortfall, sub-Sahara n Africa's net cerea l imports are expect ed to rema in low because of lack o f fore ign exchange and en trenched pove rty (Pi nst ru p- Andersen et al. 1999).Among the ma jo r developing regions, sub-Sa haran Afri ca is expected to experi ence t he largest increase in demand for all t he ma jo r food commodi ti es. For t he period 1993-2020 demand fo r cereals is expected to grow by abou t 120%, demand for roots and t ubers by some 90%, and demand for meat by over 140% (Pinst rup-Andersen et al. 1997) . More precise loca l estimates are being actively sought by current IITA resea rch efforts (IITA 2000a).Annual prod uct ion growth rates of starchy foods (root s, tube rs, and pla ntains) for t he next 10 years are pro jected at 2.8% for cou nt ries with high annu al consumpt ion rates (ove r 200 kg per capita) o f t hese staples and at 3.3% for co un t ries wit h a medi um cons umption rate ( 100-200 kg pe r capita) (FAO 1995). This means t hat pe r capita food supply of sta rchy staples wi ll st ay at abou t the same level. No radica l st ructu ra l cha nge o f diets away fro m t he high dependence on t hese sta rchy prod ucts is expected. Root and t uber crops have t he impo rtant adva ntage t hat th ey prod uce large qua nt iti es of ca lories in less time t han ot her crops. Howeve r, t hey need to be in tegrated wit h ot her food bas ket co mponents to bala nce protein and mineral needs. Pul ses are an im porta nt source of prote in , and i n deve lop ing count ries both demand and prod ucti on are ex pected to grow at about 2.2% per annu m . A relat ively strong growth is expected for t he prod uction o f soybeans in sub-Sa hara n Africa, fro m an annua l produ ction of 46,000 tonnes oi l eq ui va lent in 1988/90 to 120,000 tonnes in 20 10 (FAO 1995). However, this wi ll stil l be less than 1% o f tota l soybean product io n in all the deve lopin g count ries t ogether, which clea rl y shows t he need for mo re emphas is o n t hi s very va lua ble crop in sub-Saharan Africa.Esti mat es of a doubli ng in demand for milk and meat prod uct s have been made, which if co mpared to t he current and pro jected produ ction levels mea ns t hat su b-Saharan Afri ca has the great est deficit betwee n supply and dema nd (Delgado et al. 1999)  role in sustainin g biodiversity and sound management of natural reso urces. Important co nstraint s to the deve lopment of tree crop system s inclu de the sa me as for other agricul tural pro ducti on syst ems in sub-Sa hara n Afri ca . IITA, in col laboration with the Inte rn at ional Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and ot hers, wi ll contribute to the development of sustainable t ree crop systems to improve ho usehold income and to provide addit ional pathways for the in tensifi ca tion of food crop systems.In 1995 in sub-Sahara n Afri ca some 213 mill ion hectares of land was Sustainability of used for crop production, with slightly over 5 million hectares under irri-agriculture in gation. Sub-Saharan Africa has a relat ively large proportion of lan d wit h sub-Saharan potenti al for rainfed crop prod uct ion not yet in use-almost 800 mi llion Africa hectares. However, 72\"10 of t he total land with cro p poten tia l suffers from one o r more of the following soil and terrai n constrai nts: low natural fertility (42\"10). poor soil drainage ( 15\"10 ), steep slopes (11 \"10) , shall ow soils ( I \"10). sandy or stony so ils (36\"10 ), and soi l chemica l constraints (1 \"10 ).It is projected that an addit ional 42 million hectares of land will be put in use fo r crop production by 20 10 (FAO 1995).By 1990 soil degradation had affect ed 32 1 mi ll ion hectares of land in sub-Saha ran Africa, wa ter erosion 170 million hectares, wind erosio n 98 mill ion hectares , chemical degradation 36 mill ion hectares, and physica l degradation 17 mil li on hectares. Yet, the use of input-intensive t echnologies to co mbat t hi s degrada ti on rema in s ve ry limi ted. On average, the consumpti on of chemical fertil izers per hectare of arab le land and permanen t crops in 1997 was only 18 kg in Africa vers us abo ut 91 kg for the world. These figures were even lower for West (7 kg) and Central (2 kg) Africa. During th e early-to mid-1990s, about 96\"10 of cou ntries in Afri ca showed negative ba lances of nut rients greater t han 40 kg NPKlha! year. Use of fertilizers in Afri ca is largely limited to expo rt crops, confirming the very limited input use in food crops. Another indicator of agricultural intensification is the number of tra ctors in use per 1000 hectares: in 1998 that ind icator showed o nly 2.68 for Africa aga inst 17.37 for the worl d (0.67 for West and 0.6 3 fo r Central Africa).Given the cu rrent agri cultural pra ctices, in particu lar the very low fert ili zer use an d in put -hostile policy envi ronment, so il degrada tion will have fu rth er adva nced in a significant manner by 20 10. In sub-Sa haran Africa product ion levels of the ma jor crops are amo ng the lowest in the world. Only abo ut 55\"10 of the land in regular crop prod uction is cropped and harvested in any given year. In co ntrast to thi s, the cropp ing intensity in south Asia is 110\"10. Increases in agricultu ra l product ion must be based o n more intensive land use and increased yields, and not on a further expa nsio n of the area in use, to avoid further environmental degradatio n.Increased use of both organic and inorganic fertilizer will be the only way to significantly improve t he food productio n situation in t he region.Th is needs to be supported by comprehens ive fertil izer pol icy research, advice on proper use, and improved marketing infra structure. In this respect. where mixed crop-l ivestock systems are important. the roles of livestock in promoting sustainable intensification , through the provision of draught power, ma nure , food products , and income, will be given appropriate attention in future research and development efforts i n close collaboration with the Internat ional Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).Improved agricultural diversity and productivity and better balanced use of nutrients will he lp engender greater system resi l ience aga in st the predicted changes associated with global climatic change and wi ll help abate negative effects by sequestering additional carbon in t he soil.Since most of the crops grown in sub-Saharan Africa are of exotic origin there wi ll be a continuous risk of introduction of exotic pests and d iseases. Examp les are the cassava mealybug, the cassava green mite, and black Sigatoka affecting banana and planta in. It has been demonstra ted that solu tions can be found through class ica l biolog ical control, resistance breeding, and integrated pest management approaches. Such so lutions require an adequate research capaci ty and effective partnersh ips with national agricultural research systems (NARSI and advanced research organizations.The implications of t he above for agricultura l research are a continuous need fo r:  \"' co \",C?J \",C?i q) \". J C)'-' \" \" \" \" \"\"-.J\"\",, \"-.J\".J,,-.J,, '\"V Year 14,000 Grain legumes 1 '-,,- Role of agricultural research I ITA recognizes that agricultura l research and increased food supply, better food quality, higher incomes, red uced drudgery, and more conducive agricu lt ura l policies can make importa nt, but nevertheless only partia l contributions to overall poverty alleviation, Other development factors such as hea lth, water supply, education , etc., are all necessary accompanying issues, which need to be resolved if indicators of poverty reduction are to be clea rl y positive. However, beca use poverty is a complex human issue with a range of different root ca uses , it is approp riate for lITA to see its particular role as encaps ulated by t he Internationa l Fund fo r Agricultura l Development (IFADI in addressi ng two specific types of poverty: overcrowdi ng poverty, a comb inat ion of population pressure and stra in on marginal resou rces; and trau matic poverty, resu lting from nat ura l disasters such as catastrophic drought, floods , or pest attack (Iazairy et al. 1992) An example of lITA's efforts to address overcrowd ing poverty may be seen in its successful campaign with its nongovernmental orga nization (NCO) and NARS partners to convin ce farmers of the need to adopt ba lanced nut rient management strategies and improved crop rotations of cerea ls and legumes in the moist savannas of Nigeria and t he Benin Republic (BNMS 1999(BNMS , 2000)). An example of IITA's role in m ini mizing the effects of traumatic poverty wo uld be its sw ift re sponse to t he cassava mosaic disease pandemic in the Creat Lakes region o f East Africa. The institute assisted NARS and NCOs in the very rapid provision of replacement disease-resistant planting mate ria l and the development of emergency coopera tive plant quarantine arrangements between t he governments of Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania (IITA 2000b). Such d irect assistance to development efforts by IITA may increasingly become a feature of its activities given t he importance that its donors place on actions in support of post-war and post-natural disaster recovery and reconstruct ion in the alleviation o f poverty (Maxwell 1998).Developments in agricu ltura l research in sub-Sa haran Afri ca have been mixed duri ng t he past t hree decades. The number of scientists grew fourfold. Their leve ls of training increased markedly, and the resea rch syst ems are now largely staffed by nationals rather t han expatriates. Expenditures on agricultural research also grew. But t he growth in spending generally fai led to keep pace with the increase in personne l. In co nsequence, spending per scienti st has been squeezed, pa rt icula rl y in govern ment agencies. In 199 1 it averaged about 66% o f t he 1961 level (Pardey et al. 1995). Th e situation has certainly not improved during t he rest o f t he 1990s. Moreover, based on an analysis of the so urces o f fu nding i n 13 co un tries , it is shown that over time NARS in sub-Sa hara n Africa have beco me increas ingly reli ant on donor-sourced funds.In genera l, investments by the pri vate sector in ag ricul tu ral research in sub-Sa haran Africa have been ext reme ly l im ited , and seed companies, for exa mpl e, are re lying almost exclusively on publicly funded research. It may be expected t hat over t he next decade t he deman d of the pri vate sector for raw materials and cons umer prod ucts will increase. This will lead to increased emphasis on improved q ual ity sta ndards, among other t hi ngs. Th e greate r prese nce o f private companies over t im e should become of increas in g importance for t he development and distribution o f improved technologies .To make signifi cant progress, research wil l have to deliver techno logies that can really make a change for t he better in sub-Saharan Afri ca.Research orga niza tions will need to consider the req ui rements of smal land medi um-sca le farmers that can in tens ify t heir production systems based on ma rket dema nds. Farm size wi ll generally have to increase , together wit h i ntensification o f farm practices, to permit farmers to ra ise their tota l product ion and income to signifi cantly higher levels. Spec ia l efforts have to be made to identify co nd it ions for developing ru ral-based agroind ustries.  In ASARECA's strategic plan it is noted t hat at t he beginning of t he 1960s in the region the national policies and hence research emphasis began shiftin g towards food crops and problems of small -sca le farmers.But the stru ctures and tech nologies that existed then were fo und to be inadequate for addressing the new agenda. Improved techno logies were lacking, and t he support services created fo r large-sca le farmers and export crops were found to be poorly adapted to thi s new orientation (ASARECA 1997) The CORAFIWECARD draft strat egic plan l ists the following gUid ing principles for regional collaboration (CORAFIWECARD 1999)~ regional collaboration must all ow for the efficient and effective use o f resources to overcome the cons traints to agricultural production im provement and to reduce the effects of natura l resource degradation ~ the NARS should be cons idered as the basic elements for an effect ive and sustainable regional collaboratio n in th e area of agricultural research ~ regional collaboration is expected to ass ist and not replace the efforts o f the NARS.ASARECA cons iders that the most important ob jectives and advantages of collaborati ve regional research program s are to:~ address common constrai nts that cut across severa l count ri es In its strategic plan, ASARECA highlights the need to focus on activities that are likely to provide the highest return to research investment.It notes that food security can best be met by stimu lating growth in market -oriented production systems wh ich shou ld generate additiona l cash resources for smallh olders and increase off-farm emp loyment for rural and urban poor.The following cha llenges facing the agricu ltura l sector are highlighted by ASARECA:~ increa sed utilization of modern t ech nological inputs to i ncrease on-farm production and productivity~ the development of an appropriate techno logy transfer system to ensu re its efficient supply and utilization ~ a system, wh ich should largely be privately owned, needs to be developed to ensure t hat agricultura l produce is efficiently stored, transported, processed, and marketed in t he urban areas and to export markets ~ maintenance of the sustainability of the agricultural resource base.With respect to sustainab le resou rce use, t he ASARECA strategic plan notes th e follow ing:Farmers are likely to adopt solid col1servation tecnnologies if these lead to a more productive agriculture and improve living standards tnrougn economic growtn. In tnis respect, conservation technologies wilicillead to the farming enterprise becoming more prod uctive and able to sell a surplus and ilence be able to purchase inputs sucn as fertilizers, are likely to be the ones which will playa critical and successful role in reducing degradation 011 agricultural lands in the eastern and central Africa sub-region as well as the entire continent .. It is only when tne peasant farmers are assured of at least one square meal a day tilat tiley can become good conservationists and environmentalists. Tnis can only occur if tne farmers are able to purcnase and use modern inputs and tiley can only do so wilen tney are able to produce a surplus to sell in tile il1creasingly competitive markets.Details of the research priorities developed by t he three subregiona l organizations are given in the next chapter. Surprisingly, the regional plans give very little attention to grain legumes, in particular soybeans.Global production statistics clearly confirm the lack of soybean production in sub-Saharan Africa, whi le t he crop is high ly va lued in all other tropical regions. There is definitely a need to place more emphasis on this crop. The priority setting exercises of t he subregiona l orga nizat ions highlight t he need for Related to t he above, it may be useful to note the following statement from t he ASARECA strategic plan:Increase in on-farm production and productivity can only occur tnrougn increased utilization of modern tecnnological inputs. In this respect there is need to ensure that both the 'flardware' (e.g. high yielding plant and animal varieties, fertilizers, machinery and implements, irrigation systems, etc.) and the 'software' (i.e. the nusbandry and management tecnnologies wflich facilitate the optimal and economical utilization of the flardware) aspects of tfle technologies are developed and adopted by the farmersIn this respect it is also important to note that increase in agricultura l product ivity requi res support of a wel l-funct ioning resea rch and development continuum. Effective interaction must be promoted between all t he relevan t structures , and these should be adequately supported to be able to fulfill their complementary roles.  Research priorities developed by the subregional orga nizations  With respect to both food and cas h crops, crop improvement should receive higher priority over crop management due to location speci ficity of th e latter. This is consistent wi th the emphasis of the cu rrent Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) research projects. Howeve r, for food cro ps, beca use of the gai ns al ready made with res pect t o improvement in yields, th e emp ha sis shou ld be shifted to specific stress factors. For example, in maize emphas is shoul d now be on drought to lerance and nitrogen use effi ciency.Postharvest technology is a priority area in al l t he high ly perishable food crops and crops of l imited al tern ative uses such as sorg hu m and millets. Fut ure research in iti atives should address t his iss ue.Despite it s low ra nking at regional level, crop management research offers a better short-t erm opportunity in boosting crop product ivi ty. This is due to the fact t hat imp roved varieties are available both from nat io nal and regio nal programs.Greater emphas is shoul d be given to technology t ransfer t o ensu re that new technologies that are cu rrent ly being developed by the ongoing research programs reach t he needy farmers.IITA and its partners in sub-Saharan AfricaI ITA research activit ies cover three major agroecological zones: the savanna , t he hum id fo rest. and the midaltitude zo nes. Th e agroecological and socioecono mic conditions of these zones determ ine the developmen t needs of t he agri cult ural systems, whi ch in turn dri ve the 18 required research agenda.The lowla nd savanna zone is characterized by a length of growing period of 150-270 days and an elevation below 800 m. The zone covers over 370 million hectares in su b-Sahara n Afri ca , and has a relatively high production potential. The growing season is at least 4 months, enough for most cerea l and grai n legume crops, and in the more humid part it surpasses 6 months, adeq uate for root and tuber cropping or two crops of ma ize or grain legu mes. The dry season of 3 or more months hel ps to reduce pathogen inoculum compa red with the forest zone. Ra infall does not often exceed crop needs for long periods, therefore leachi ng of nitrate and potassium is li m it ed . Soi l acidity is not a major issue in large parts of the zone .On the other hand, there are very cl ear prod uction ri sks in the zone. The risk of soi l erosion is highest for the savanna zone with monomodal rainfall beca use of low vegeta t ive cover and high-i ntens ity rainfall. Soi l orga nic matter fall s below a crit ica l threshold level after 15-20 yea rs of cultiva tion. Water retent ion and nutrient supply are low and physica l propert ies are very susceptible to degradation.Major weeds are Imperata cylindrica in the moist sava nna and Striga hermonthica in the dry sava nna zone. Ma jor insect pests are those which attack cowpea in th e fi el d in all zones, maize in the moist savanna, and cowpea , maize, and yam in storage. The latter redu ce yield and food qua lity . Other pests of common importance are termi tes and nematodes on maize, cowpea , and ya m. Important diseases in the field are yam anth racn ose, yam viru ses, cassava mosaic, cowpea bacterial blight and bacterial pustule, and several cowpea funga l diseases. Aflatoxin s ca n be a serious postharvest quality problem in maize, particu larly when maize is produced under stress conditions such as low fertility and occasional drought.Population density va ries from very low to more t han 200 inh ab itan ts/ km'-Overa ll , Nigeria has the highest population but st ill has an underpopulated midd le belt. as do most of t he coasta l countri es. Poor road in fra structure will be a major limitati on to input and market access. Other socioeconomic constraints are lack of cash , lack of conducive policies, and irregular inp ut supply.In the savan na zone a di stinct ion can be made between: Ii) farming systems that make very limited use of improved techn ologies and inputs, but in which intensification is expected to take place over the next J 0 years; (i i) systems that already rely rather strongly on improved technologies and significant input use in both the dry and moist savanna; and (iii) peri-urban agriculture, the most input-intensive system.Each system has its specific soc ioeconom ic and technica l problems and research needs.Large numbers of savanna farmers rely on ce rea ls, grain legumes, and roots and tubers for subsistence as well as income. Intensifying these systems will be most important in the areas with relatively poor infrastructure and relative ly recent immigration from more populated areas.Access to externa l inputs is l imited and markets are not guaranteed. In these systems, fallows are stil l used to regenerate soil fertility and to disrupt weed and pest build-up. Fallow lands also provide grazing resources for increasing numbers of ruminant livestock. As fallow periods shorten these problems will become more important. A challenge will be to encourage the use of inorganic fert ilizer whi le maintaining the use of organic inputs. Cred it, infrastructure, conducive policies, and decision support wi ll be needed. Contro l of weeds such as Imperata cylindrica requires substantial human labor and has been a ma jor stimulus for adoption of the Mucuna fa l low system, for example, in southern Benin. Cover crops shou ld be integrated wherever possible with herbicides, mechanizat ion, and varieties that smother weeds. There will be a continued need for integrated pest management practices to reduce pre-and postharvest losses.The major problems of maize wil l be nitrogen supply and parasitism by Striga fJermonthica, which will move with immi grants from t he dry savanna. Maize variet ies with good resistance to S. hermonthica and improved nitrogen use efficiency will be promoted. For their nutrient needs maize-based systems wi ll partly benefit from spill-over of technologies from the more i ntensified systems (benefiting from gra in legumes and livestock). The use of improved soybean and cowpea varieties that produce high grain yie lds contributing t o improved human nutrition and income wi ll be an im portant component. These improved varieties also cause suicid al germination of S. hermontnica. When they are grown in rotation with cereals such as maize and sorghum they significant ly reduce the damage caused by this parasitic plant. In addition, these improved soybean and cowpea varieties fix large amounts of nitrogen and produce good quality fodder. This is important in particular to the increased interaction of crop and livestock production as agricu lture intensifies . Cowpea is becom ing a key crop on recession flood plains in northern Nigeria, where it is planted at the beginning o f the dry season.With appropriate interventions, the benefits of closer integration of crops and livestock, such as utilization of poor quality crop residues and the provision of manure, traction, and income, can be explo ited in order to encourage the sustai na ble evolution of the systems. Understanding the processes in fl uencing t he evolution of crop-l ivestock systems will be important to ensure appropriate tech nology target ing in this respect.Herbaceous legumes, which can provide fodder and improve so i l fertility, are likely to be important in specifi c niches.Cassava is an important cas h crop in many areas and cou ld even become an export crop. Market opportunities for ch ips, starch, and alcohol will transform the production and postharvest handling of cassava.Highly productive varieties are avai lable. Replacement of t he exported nutrients will be necessary. App ropriate varieties have been deve loped to smother weeds.Yam is an important cash crop, especially in t he Gui nea savanna zone with a long, monomoda l ra in fall pattern . Yam responds to good soi l quality and therefore the desi re to maintain this traditionally important crop can be seen as a window of opportun ity for mainta ining the resource base. Agroforestry and cover cropp ing may be targeted to the yam system. On the other hand, the sea rch fo r new areas for yam cu lti vation can lead to loss of savanna woodland. The yam chip technology has resulted in a less perishable yam product but postharvest insect damage can lower qua l ity. Thus a major chall enge is to maintain sufficient soi l organ ic matter levels wh ile still producing an economic product. In t he dry savanna zone this requi res crop residue return, animal manure app lication, and legume integration. The benefits of soybean and cowpea rotation with appropriate varieties will be the major t hru st. Opportunities to exploitthe synergies of crop-l ives tock in tegra tio n, for examp le, through the provision of manure and t ra ction power, will be sought. Whilst t here are examples o f long-term cont i nuo us cropping such as in the close-settled zo ne of Kano (nort hern Nigeria) where manure and traction feature predomi nant ly, it will be important to ensure that the benefits of crop-livestock integ ration are developed in relati on to increased productivity, without detriment to the natural resou rce ba se . Resea rch on nutrien t manageme nt, fodder quali ty and quantity (i n particular from crop residues). and the management o f crop res idues is an importa nt aspect.None of t he nutrient recycling opt ions can succeed in t he long term without adequate external inpu ts. Phosphorus is the most often li miting nutrien t in both savanna zones after nitrogen and is needed in particular for legum es. Farmers need cas h or credit and good roads and markets to favor access to these nutrien t i nputs, and support to help guide their decisions on when and where to use them . National fert ilizer policy is criti cal to t he process of making ferti lize r ava ilabl e.Intensified systems in the moist savan na zo ne are most li ke ly to be cassava, yam, or maize based as intermed iate products such as chips, starch , and alcohol beco me popular. Nutrient recycl ing technolog ies to be encouraged are grain legu me and forage legum e rotations. These also need to be co nsidered in relation to increasing numbers of rumin ant livestock, whi ch have t he poten t ial to make a sign ificant contributi on to intensi fi ed systems . Potassiu m plays an important role in disease resistance and is exported in large amounts by root and tuber crops and the refore can be expected to become defi cie nt in moist savan na areas before long. Weeds such as Im pera la cylindrica are a frequent reason for fa ilu re in contin uo us cropping in the moist savan na zone. Extra labor is often needed to fight weeds, even on agricultura l research statio ns, making integrated weed management criti ca l here. Post harvest pests occur in all of the potent ial co mmerci al crops mentioned above . Policies in favor of input use are needed as in the dry savan na zone.Following the cont inuo us growt h of t he la rge cities , horticulture (fruit s and vegetab les) will become an increas ingly impo rtant sector. Peri-urban agricu ltu re is ext remely productive and a smal l piece of la nd ca n provide inco me for ma ny families. Peri -urban systems result in high land values and conti nu ous cropping, with in sect pests and diseases becoming a problem. The use of pest icides can lead to t he occu rrence of seco nda ry pests and dependence on pesticides (pesticide treadmill). as has been observed in t he Phi lippines and Thailand . Consum ers are confronted with dangero us res idues on t hese crops.IITA has t he co mpetitive advantage of deal in g wi th pests , weeds , and diseases in an environ men tally sound way. IITA will be addressing such problems when and where t hey occu r, including pests , diseases, and weeds cutt in g across ag roecozones, for examp le , termi tes and water hyacint h. In t he savanna region , livestock is o ften impo rt ant in peri-urban areas, particularly for dairy and meat production from large and sma ll ruminants, respectively, Such enterprises presen t opportun it ies fo r opti ma l util izat ion o f crop byproducts, and manure ma nagement to promote soi l fertilityIn t he savanna zone criti cal agricultural development issues , determining t he current resea rch needs, may be summa rized as follows: With effective research the agri cultural situat ion in the sava nna zone by 20 l Ois li ke ly to be characterized as follows : contin uous cropping genera lly applied; signifi cant use of man-made inputs; increased crop-l ivestock integrat ion; improved food processing to meet increased demand; ce reals/grain legu mes/livestock-do minant production system in t he dry savanna , and maize/tubers/grain legumes/vegetab les in the moist sava nn a; co tton -based systems importa nt but diversifying (dry savan na); im proved market access; increased peri-urban agriculture; in creased The hum id forest zone has a length of growing peri od of 271-36 5 days and an elevat ion below 800 m. This zone covers 256 million hect ares in sub-Saharan Africa , o f wh ich 48 mi lli on hecta res are located in West Africa and 202 milli on hecta res in Ce ntral Afri ca . In general, a wider diversity of agricu lt ura l crops is grown compared to the savanna zone. Roo t crops tend to be t he mai n source of carbohydrates, with cassava, yams, and cocoyams of major im porta nce; planta in is also a ma jor staple. Both upl and and lowla nd ri ce are importa nt across Wes t Afri ca and i n the eastern Congo basin. Ot her cereal crops and gra in legu mes are cult iva ted less t ha n in t he sava nn a zone due to poor adaptation of cultivars to the cl imatic condit ions o f t hi s zone, pest and disease pressure, and difficulties in storage o f grai n. All crops su ffer from a variety of pests and di seases. Green maize is an increasi ngly impo rta nt sou rce o f income in areas with good market access to major urban centers. Tree crops are integral to most farming systems, and meet a wide va ri ety of needs ra nging from cocoa revenues used, for examp le, to send chi ldren to schoo l. to using t he bark from Alston;a boone; to treat mala ria.Once establ ished, agroforests such as co mp lex shaded cocoa or coffee systems are dependen t on internal nutri ent cycl ing and as such mimic t he fo rest. In cont rast. fertility fo r annu al cropp ing in most farming systems o f the region trad iti ona lly reli es on t he ash and litter in put fro m forest and fa llow conversion t hrough slas h-and-burn techni ques, Traditional crop/fallow rota t ional systems are susta in ab le as lo ng as the population -to-Ia nd rati o remains low, As popul at ion in creases and fallow pe ri ods shorten t o below 8-10 yea rs, t he total biomass and ava ilable pla nt nu tri en ts i n t he fa ll ow decline. This has resulted in declining vigor and yield s of crops, such as plan tain and cocoyam, trad itio nal ly pla nted in fo rest fiel ds, Howeve r, yiel ds of food crops such as cassava and groun d nu ts do not appea r to dim ini sh in 4-to 5-yea r-old bu sh fallows dominated by Cnro molaena odorata. The sho rt en in g of fall ows is also associated wi th increasing weed press ure and nu mbe r of problem weed s, whi ch makes weed ing, ge nera lly done by woma n and chi ldren , more tedi ous and t ime consu ming.Poverty and poor infrast ruct ure and socia l services such as exten sion, prima ry ru ral health ca re, rural roads, ru ral electrification, and ed uca ti on are among the majo r social prob lems in most areas o f the humi d fo rest zone. Rural poverty is associated, inter alia, wi th a degrading natu ral resource base. Short-term food security ri sks among rura l ho useholds are less of a concern than in t he savanna zone due to rnore stable and abundant rainfa ll pattern s. Ru ral households in most areas Iwith the possib le Humid forest zone exception of the more densely populated portions of Ibo lands in southeast Nigeri a) have been able to meet household su bsistence food requirements, but this is not to say t hat a nutritionally ba lanced d iet has been achieved. The dom inant goal of these fa rm households is to strive for greater in co me th rough t heir agri cul tural activities.The comb ina ti on of increasing popu lation pressures and techno logically stagnant agriculture has led t o irreversibl e environmen tal loss through the expansion of slash-a nd-burn agri culture and slow rura l development. The closed canopy Guinea-Congolian forest origi nally stretched from Gu inea in West Africa to the western ri m of the Ri ft Valley in Centra l Africa. In West Africa most of it is now gone, replaced by a 'cu ltivation and forest mosa ic'. In Central Africa there are still signifi ca nt areas of closed ca nopy forest , however populatio n growth ra tes and logging pressu res are high. Biodiversity hot spots , i.e. , areas whi ch have hi gh leve ls of endem ic fl o ra l and fa unal d iversity that are under t hreat. have been identified in the region by di fferent conservation o rganizati ons (Conservation International , t he World Conservation Uni on, the World Wide Fund for Natu re) . The farmers in these areas need to be presented wi th technology options that all ow the m to in crease prod uctivi ty, efficiency, and income on the land t hat has already been deforested. At the sa me time , appropriate poli cies and supportive insti tutions are requi red for in tensifyi ng agricultural systems and for controlli ng rural migration patte rn s. In areas li ke southeast Nigeria, where the pressure o n the land is high and t he soi l is being rapid ly degraded, soil and nut rient conservat ion and crop protectio n measures need to be introd uced that resu lt in increased prod uctivity.Increas ing land and labor productivity is necessary for reducing poverty and slowin g deforestation, and agricultural research has an importa nt ro le to play in t he process. Po licy-led agricult ural intensifi cat io n, if success ful, will increase farme r welfare , improve regiona l food secu rity, and in co mbin at ion with appropriate forestry conserva ti o n and mi grat io n pol icies, slow t he expans ion of the forest margin thereby maintaining vital forest resources and their im portant ecologica l se rvices fo r the needs of both present and future generations. Fa ilure wilJ have both local and globa l conseq uences ra nging from spirali ng poverty to globa l cl imate impacts and biod iversity loss.In the hu mid forest zone a d istinction can be made between: (i) forest field systems, that trad itiona lly rely on long fallow periods: (ii ) short fa llow food crop systems, where population pressu re has resu lted in shortened fall ow lengths; (iii) speciality field systems, growing crops strictly for comm ercial purposes wit h high input use; and (iv) mu ltistrataiperennial tree crop systems usua lly growing a range of tree crops, Each system has its specific socioeconomi c chara cte ristics and techni cal prob lems, as well as different re search needs.Traditionally, fields that are directly cleared from the fo rest are planted to a variety of crops, for marketing as wel l as for subsistence, depending on the region. In southern Cameroon, forest fields are pla nted mainly to plantain , cocoyam, and a few other crops that are more location specific.These forest fields are then in a further cycle after a short fallow of 3-4 years converted to mixed food crop field s with cassava, maize, and groundnut. Plantai ns are one of t he preferred sta rchy crops among consumers in the humid forest zone and in many areas are the most important commercia l food crop. In forest fields, yields are primarily limited by the lack of productive ratoons due to constraints i n nutrient supp ly, viral and fungal diseases, and pests such as nematodes and weevils. In areas with declining fa l low periods, these problems are further aggravated. Plant crop yields and t he length of the productive ratoon period need to be increased by elimi nating nematodes at plantation establ ishment, using improved varieties, and developing appropriate biomass manage men t options in assoc iation with the application of economica l rates of fertilizer. Adapting such tradit ionally forest-based systems to land in shorter fal low cycles and to home gardens will allow for greater production of importan t food crops in already deforested areas and so reduce the pressure on existing forests.Popu lation pressure and growing market demand have resulted in shortening fallow le ngths with associated problems of soil degradation, weed and pest and disease prob lems, and declining crop productivity. The use of external inputs or improved planting material in main ly mixed crop associations is extremely low, especia lly in Central Africa. This is due to the lack of proven crop responses, limited cash availability of farmers, and fai lures in producer support services (e.g., extension and pla nting materia l multip lication). It is clear that any strategy to increase agricu ltural productivity will require that farmers have access to improved germplasm adapted to short fallow conditions and acid soi ls that characterize most of the Congo basin. Policies should encourage farmer organ izations and NGOs to propagate improved varieties of cassava, plantains, cocoyams, open-pol linated maize va ri eties, and grain legumes. NARS in the basin need to support these efforts through the timely provision of foundation planting materials.Addressing t he fert il ity and weed constra ints of these systems requires more research on appropriate combinations of improved biomass management (of either natural fal low or improved planted fallow with leguminous species), crop sequencing, and purchased inputs such as fertilizers and herbicides. To some degree. the abundant and underutilized wood ash generated by kitchens , food processi ng, and brick kilns can substitute for p urchases of lime and potass i um ferti lizer. Fertilizer policy options need to be developed to support the intens ification of food crop productio n on already deforested land, given the social costs associated with expanding agricultural production through further deforestation (i.e., biodivers ity loss and global warming). Integrated pest management strategies need to be further de¥eloped against pests and diseases.Farmers have quickly adopted intensive short fallow or con tinu o usly cropped monocrop fi eld systems for strict ly commercial pu rposes whe n they have access to inputs and markets. Examples include high-va lue horticultural, green maize , and cassava monocrops commo nl y observed arou nd t he urban peripheries of fo rest zone ci ties such as Yaounde, Lagos, Kumasi, Freetown , Ibadan, and Kinshasa. These speciality fi eld systems, frequently integrated into cropping ro tat ion with stap le food crops, help to restore dep leted soil nu trients in the farmi ng system. Th e crops grown in t hese systems are often t he on ly crops for which farmers find fertilizer appl ication sufficiently profitable. However the susta inabil ity of pest manageme nt practices in these intensive systems is under question and poses serio us health risks to both consumers (pesticid e residues) and producers. One of t he major researchable constraints is t he build-up of pests and d iseases that occurs with continuous cropping. In general , practices need to be developed for mo re economical use of extern al inputs adapted to different croppi ng sequences and management practices .Tree crop exports from the humid forest zo ne are of paramount importance for ma ny West and Central African econom ies, and it is expected t hat Africa's comparative advantage will be mainta ined for ma ny years to come (Deaton 1999). Most households in t he hum id forest zone pursue diversified production strategies including a broad range o f tree crops for both domestic demand and export, Perenn ial cropping systems such as the biologica lly comp lex cocoa agrofo rest o f so uthern Cameroon and smallholder oi l palm are ge nerally acknowledged to be agronomical ly more suited to the frag ile acid soil s of t he zone t han annual crops. In the past, co mmo n p ra ct ice was to convert moist tropical forest, however the high environmental costs of further conversions in West and Ce ntral Africa warrant alternative app roaches if Africa is to maintai n both its compa rati ve advan tage and environment.One potential win-win so lution is to reforest degraded fall ow lands through the establi shment o f permanent tree-based systems, Such la nd conversion can potential ly inc rease farming system susta in ab ility andi ncome whi le enhancing enviro nm enta l services. part icul arly carbon sequestrati on. and biodiversity conservation. There are. however. many potential agro nomic. pest and d isease. and socioecono mic const rain ts to such a st rategy. On the agronom ic si de are issues o f soil fertility.changes in so il micro fauna. and excessive weed compet ition during t he establishment phase. A ma jor socioeconomic constraint in mu ch of t his area is t he land ownership stru ct ure and its li nk to t ree p lant ing.Labor invest ed in t ree crops is one way in which households can increase t heir productive resou rces and l ift themse lves o ut of poverty. However. resource -poo r ho usehol ds are often impeded by land shortages. which. when combin ed with im med iate needs. can limit t hei r pa rti cipation as th ey are unable to wait out t he lag between t ree pla nting and produ ct ion. To ensure t he ir pa rt ici pati on. profitab le an d agrono mica lly feas ib le associations of food crops wi th peren ni al crops are needed du ring t he estab lish ment phase. On t he po licy fro nt. di scuss ions on small holder part ici pation in carbon t rading under t he Clea n Developmen t Mechanism of th e Kyoto Pro tocol are ongoi ng and may even t uall y provi de a pol icy mechan ism fo r rewa rding sma llholders wi ll ing to und ertake such la nd conversions.In t he hu mid fores t zone criti ca l agricultura l deve lopmen t issues. det erm ini ng t he current resea rch needs. may be summarized as follows:~ establis hi ng mechan isms to solve agriculture-conservat io n confl icts~ improving soi l ferti lity and ca rb on management With effective research t he agricultural sit uat ion in t he hum id forest zone by 20 10 is li kely to be characterized as follows: reduced deforestation and biod iversity loss; stabilized forest-cultivation mosa ics;im proved food process ing to meet increased demand; increased periurba n agricultural production ; int egrated livestock-home ga rden systems; increased role of t ree crops ; in tens ifi ed and diversified fi eld crop syst ems; increased use of external inputs and improved varieties; farme r-friend ly pol icies implemented and improved market syste ms esta blished; and em powered farm er groups.The m idalti tude zone covers a total of 356 mil lion hectares, 24% of sub-Saharan Afri ca, and is mostly located in east ern and so uthern Africa. The zone is defi ned between 800 and 1500 meters above sea level. Unlike the humid forest or sava nna zo nes, it is highly heterogeneous wi t h wide va riations in rainfall, soil types, and topography. Its ma in feat ure is a relatively cool cli mate wit h adeq uate rainfa ll in a la rge part of t he zone, creating conditions for good crop growt h. Th e vo lcan ic ash soils are very fertile and support very dive rse fa rm in g syst ems, although in t he higher rainfall areas soil s tend to be aci dic. Soil erosion is a major problem due to the sloping natu re of t he terrain. The m ida lt it ude region has been particul arl y prone to extreme and adve rse climatic effects. Agricu ltural strategies for this zone therefore need to take into accou nt not only the ma jor soci oeconomic factors that are changing t he agricultu ral system in t he region, b ut also provide for mi tiga t ion strategies against adverse cond it ions. in the last three decades, agricultural growt h has resu lted rath er fro m expansion in cultivated areas t han from increased product ivity pe r unit area. In most co un t ries, intens ified lan d press ure, refl ecting rapid population growt h, has led to red uctions in fal low pe riods, great er util ization of ma rgina l lands, and smaller farm sizes. However, la rge-scale mechanized fa rmin g is importa nt in some coun tri es such as Sout h Africa an d Zimbabwe. Even t hough popul ati on densities are high , there is labor sho rtage in rura l areas because of rura l migration t o urban areas an d the AIDS pandemic, wh ich has affected t he most productive segment of the society .The ma jor food and cas h crops are m aize, bananas, beans, cowpea , cassava , rice, soybea n, sorghu m , mill et s, wheat, an d vegetab les, whi l e t he m ajor expo rt crop s are co ffe e, t ea, t o bacco, pyret hru m , and si sal. Yie lds are seve rely affecte d by wee d s, an d pest s and di seases ca use signi fi ca nt pre-and post harvest losses. Li vestock, in cludi ng large an d small ru m i nan t s, are we ll in t egrated in to t he fa rm i ng syste m s an d t heir manu re is used t o maintain so il fertili ty i n th e ban ana and co ffee farm i ng syste m s Wild life, fo rest prod ucts, and fis h process in g also co ntribute co nSi derab ly to the loca l eco nom ies.The problems related to agricultural development are comparable to those in t he other two zones and incl ude lack of trained manpower,inappropria te poli ci es, decli ning so i l fe rtility, soil erosion and deg radation, li m ited market access and lack of market inform ation, lack of adequate processing and storage fac ili ties, inadequate crop protection systems, lack of credit facilities, weak extension systems and poorly deve loped sys tems for reg iona l germp lasm exchange, and declini ng export trade.Due to the heteroge neity of t he mida lti t ud e zo ne and the strong emphasis in t he ASARECA st rategic plan on income generation, a different approach has been used to identify t he agricultura l resea rch needs fo r this zone. The following groupings have been used: (i) defining ma rket opportunities and needs; (ii) susta in ab le p rod uct ion systems; and(iii) diversification of income-generating activities.Di fferent households use varying strategies to assu re access to available food. Households which rely heavily o n earn ing income to purchase food have more stable cons umption patterns throughout t he year than t hose which derive most of their food and income from t heir own cropping. In most cases farmers grow smal l amounts of several crops with in a mixed farming syst em. Whilst t his may maximize food security, the small -sca le cultivation of each crop does not lend itse lf to ga ining effi ciencies in crop production as reflected in t he poor qua lity and high prices of agricultu ral commod ities.Strategies which enab le farmers to adapt their vario us food security patterns towards more market-driven opt ions are req ui red. The re is need t herefore for techn ical and institutio nal inn ovations wh ich wil l increase effici ency, and imp rove coordin ation of the entire set of actors and institutions involved in in put supply, farming , processing, and distribution of ag ricultural products . Investigating market opportunit ies is an importan t starti ng po int in developing st rategies, whi ch can assist farmers to improve their lot within a rapidly cha nging market framework. A food systems ana lysis is essent ial in developing equitab le strategies to gai n access to low-cost food with key issues revolving around who is food insecure, what t hey eat , how they secure access to food, and how changes in technologies, instit utions, and pol icy will affect t hei r food en ti tle ments.Participation of sta ke holders in ide ntifyi ng st rengths and weaknesses with in the market sectors wi ll be a critical change in the resea rch approach, whi ch can have significan t effects on the dynam ics of the researc h agenda. If t he research agenda is drive n by ma rket cond itions, then technical, i nstitu ti onal, soc ioeconomic, and pol icy improvements are likely to have t he highest pay-off. This i n turn will strengthen exist ing domestic and reg io nal ma rkets as a basis fo r indu st rial or export growth.Rural poverty is assoc iated with low productivity, which is intrinsica lly linked to how farmers presently manage and invest towards improvement of t hei r natural resources. The current unsustainable production practices, exacerbated by increasing population pressure on land, have led to a decline of the natura l resource base and the cu ltivation of food crops under very marginal conditions. Resource-poor farmers need to employ improved techniques to produce for viable markets, a process that will invo lve greater reliance on input and output delivery systems and integration with other sectors of t he domestic, regional, and international economies.In order to achieve the goal of sustainable production , urgent attent ion needs to be paid to improving the current crop and livestock farming systems and soi l (fertility, carbon sequestration, acidity, erosion)and water management practices within the midaltitude's agroecological mosaic. Intens ified use of organic and inorganic fertilizer and other external inputs will increa se productivity on a sustainable basis, although the increased costs associated with t hese changes will have to be met through the parallel development of enhanced marketing opportunities. Generation of very productive target varieties for different end uses and markets with better crop husbandry practices provide the opportunity for improved production and value-added processing.Household requirements fo r fuel and building materials are increasingly being supplemented through growing trees on farms to replace the diminishing forests and woodlands. There is an important potential for integrating d iverse fruits and high-value trees into the farming syste ms of the zone. Farm-level postharvest activities must be addressed, including improved storage for home consumption and more efficient market channels. Appropriate and effective government policies are required to draw the full benefit of t hese new technologies.Pests and diseases are likely to become increasingly important with the anticipated intensified production systems. The agroeco logical zone has been plagued by maior pest epidemics, which have led to regi onal initiatives to mitigate their effects and restrict their spread. Efforts to tackle these problems must be geared towards combining integrated pest management with soil fert ility management. The predominantly subsistence pest management strategies invo lvi ng limited use of pesticides for crops and drugs/dips/vaccines for livestock, have provided an environmentally friendly non-pesticide-based pest control app roach.Bio logical control has been successful ly used in the past and wil l be an iss ues related to their use need to be addressed. Co nt roll in g weeds will requi re effect ive and less labor-i nte nsive management practices including herb icide app licat ion.Most food crops are produced through subsiste nce farmi ng with its cha racte ristic use of low-i np ut, rudimentary tec hn ology, large postharvest losses, and minimal processing. Assoc ia ted with these are problems o f un re l iab le supp ly of prima ry prod uce, uneven quality of prod ucts, and low producer prices, whic h affect their use for agricultural transformation.The increased demand for food and industrial needs poses a challenge fo r in creas ing production and improving access to good quality products. Understanding market opportunities t hrough commod ity price surveys, evaluat ing market efficiencies, and in fo rm ation dissem ination is essent ial in develop in g profi table techno log ies for enterp ri se deve lop ment. A market-driven app roach should systemat ica lly identify opport unities and const ra in ts to success full y address food security and nutritiona l needs of subsistence farmers and low-income consumers.In stitu tional and policy measures rela ted to crop harvesting, t ransportat ion , storage, process ing, and market ing shou ld be identifi ed, and linked to product ion iss ues such as development of appropriate germplasm, pro tection, and production packages.Most crops are either so ld o r co nsum ed fres h and often remain underutilized. Processing i nto higher va lu e food, feed, and i nd ustrial products opens new markets which create increased in come and provide fa rme rs with incentives to i ntensify prod uction and avoid seasonal pri ce fl uctuations. Improvi ng product qua lity and developing new products are essent ial facto rs in market expa nsion and in creased demand. Developing rural ag roe nterprises t hat enh ance market opport un ities wi ll impact signi ficantly o n the economic an d social benefits of the rural pop ul atio n.Ap prop riate equ ipment to carry out postharvest operat ions to m inim ize crop losses and i mprove la bor productiv ity and prod uct qual ity will ens ure efficient ut i li za ti on of food crops. IITA ha s des igned and fabricated improved man ual and powered eq ui pme nt such as graters, dewaterin g devices , si ft ers, stoves, chippi ng mach ines, and grinders, which need to be t ested and dissem inated wit hi n the ecology A number of o th er types of specia li zed process i ng equipment are availab le worldwide but are in l imited use within the zo ne, either due to th eir high cost or th ei r lack of sui tabil ity for use by sma ll -scale processors. Traini ng of manufacturers will be req ui red to evaluate , adapt, and promote equ ipm ent that meets the needs o f sma ll-to med ium -s ize processi ng enterprises.In the midaltitude zone critical agricultural development issues by 20 I 0, determining the current research needs, may be summarized as fOllows: With effective research the agricultural situation in t he midal t itude zone by 20 lO is likely to be characterized as fOllows: highly diverse fa rming system s; major food crops grown: banana , cassava, maize, soybean, yam, grain legu mes, and coffee; increased li vestock production; farm productivity substantially enhanced; t he conflict between agriculture and conserva tion exacerbated with increasing population growth; increase in the number of agroindustries; increased availability and use of externa l inputs and improved va rieties; in tegrated pest management methods more widely used; farmer-friendly policies imp lemented ; and improved market systems established.A number of development challenges and resea rch need s are o f relevance to all agroecological zones.The benchmark approach was devel oped within the framework of the plemented by pilot sites, which are located outside the benchmark area but fal l with i n t he same ecoregion. They serve to test and adapt technologies that were developed in the be nchmark areas and to cove r specific environments that are not featu red there.There is currently limited knowledge on the impact of farmer decisions and biophysical interactions on scales beyond the p lot or household level. Understand ing t he interactions between cropping practices, pest populations, disease epidemio logy, and soil erosion at various scales from field to landscape/watershed will lead to more successful interventions. Effective instit utional arrangements fo r co llect ive action, land tenure, and property rights are al l key for effecting positive change.For insta nce, the farmer's choice of field position in a landscape has an influence both on pest status and on the efficacy and adoptability of a control option. As an examp le, the temporal continuum of inland va lley upland maize cropping stabilizes the habitat for stembore rs and their natural enemies. Increased pressure on agricultural land and concom itant changes in t he vegetation may change pest and d isease equ ilibria , Field location in the landscape and its temporal dimension can also have major ramification s on erosion rates and downstream aquatic resou rces (e ,g\" siltation of mangrove estuaries). In addition, the use of nitrogen fertilizer or introduction of legumes may enhance pest pressu re in adjacent fields. On the other hand, some contro l options require a community effort to work, e,g., control of cocoa blackpod disease, eradication of downy mi ldew, and destruction of crop residues ,Achi eving sustainabl e productivity gains and main taini ng t he fun ct ionality of t he resource base wi ll not be achieved wit hout an appropriate and supportive pol icy environmen t. Most studies show the important role of women in food crop prod uction and postharvest activities, with very little access to and cont rol over t he productive resources and benefits. Gender-related iss ues will therefore influence problem identificati on and characteristics of new technologies. There is a need to initiate, test, deve lop, and bu ild on participatory research and t rai ning methods, which create partnership in adapting component technologies whilst ensuring that new technologies generated are techn ica lly, socia lly, legally, economically, and environmenta lly acceptable.Dynamic and innovative public and private sector partnerships will be req uired to imp rove inst itut ional capacities for effecti ve pa rticipatory approaches in pla nni ng, technology development and dissem ination, monitoring adoption, and impact assessment.Monitoring and impact assessment are perceived as an integra l part of the research and development agenda since t hey provide feedback, which enables modification and refinement of ongoin g research, evaluat ion of successes and fa ilures, and provision of lessons for future p la nning and investment in research.There is a grow ing need in all zones to intensify t he identifica ti on and exploitation of market opportu nities for both existing and novel value-added products. This will requ ire th e optimization of crop mixtures (traditional food and cash crops) by fa rmers in the di fferent zones together with the use of appropri ate postharvest and marketing technologies to enhance th e income-generating capacity o f both farmers and small-to medium-scale entrepreneurs. A production-to-consumption strategy using a combination of market analysis, appropriate selection of crops, plus innovative postharvest technologies and food safety measu res wi ll be applied. This should lead towards sustai nab le syste ms of integrated product ion, based on demand-driven market oppo rtunit ies t ha t address poverty alleviat ion through increasing t he share of added value going to smal l-and med ium-scale producers and agroindustrialists and through en hanced employment op portunities. The end re su lt needs to be com-merCial ly viabl e farm and linked agroindustrial en terprises. Pa rticular emphasis needs to be placed on meeting th e needs of women within the target groups, smal l-to med ium -scale farmers, farmer associations, processors, and marketers , and t o analyze t he changing roles of women and chi ldren in such enterprises.Crop improvement C rop Improvement Division (CID) scientists will collaborate with scientists in other divisions in addressing t he ma jor constraints and opportunities in the major agroecological zones as highlighted below, and will focus on areas prioritized by the institute's research on problems faced in real-life agricultural systems. Crop improvemen t objectives will i nclude storability and suitability for processing.Increased demand and production of livestock will also promote the integration of l ivestock with crop production, and in such systems t he role of crop residues as fodder will be emphasized. Incorporating fodder characteristics into breeding and selection programs will be part of the strategy to iden tify improved crop varieties suitable for these systems.Excellent progress has already been made in recent years through joint research between ILRI, lITA, and national partners.There is need to further collect, characterize, conserve, and document germplasm, using conventional and molecular tools, to assess diversity, potential use , remove duplicates, and select core collections of I1TA's mandate crops (especially cowpea, yams, African cassava, and banana and plantain) and selected African crops. Cryopreservation technologies for long-term conservation of vegetatively propagated crops need to be developed to reduce costs.IITA will integrate biotechnology in its breeding programs, where it will make greater advances than conventional methods. Molecular markers will be developed and applied for more efficient selection of desired traits. New methods will be used to introduce traits with potential maj or impact on productivity and quality into crops when use of conventional methods have I ittle or no chance of success. Cell ular biotechnology will continue to be employed for micropropagation, disease clean-up, conservation, and distribution of germ plasm of vegetatively propagated crops. Following the need to explore as much as possible the comparative advantages of potential partners, IITA has established various collaborative arrangements.IITA's role in research-for-development for agrobiotechnology in sub-Saharan Africa includes: (i) fostering of the international sharing of knowledge and skills in biotechno logy tools important to agriculture improvement in the continent; (ii) he lping African national partners to negotiate acceptable terms on i ntellectual, genetic, and other proprietary biotechnology assets needed for crop breeding; and (iii) la unch ing creative and in novative approaches such as molecular breeding of crops relevant to African agriculture.IITA will consider the ut ilization of both functional genomics and t ransgenics fo r overcoming barriers to alelle transfer and for an appro- Pa rtnerships with NARS co ll eagues will be rein fo rced th rough fu rt her group and i nd ivid ua l tra ining Part ici pants will forrn invalu able li nks betwee n IlTA scientist s and t he nationa l syst ems in join t resea rch and t he va lidation of technologies, as we ll as in providing feedback.The list be low gives t he major areas of work t hat wi ll be addressed by ClD to fulfi ll t he institute's mandate. These were developed aft er a thorough analys is of t he main cha ract eri stics and critica l development issues of each of t he ma jor agroecozones. For example, varieti es will be developed to fi t into diverse cropping syste ms of the dry savanna with high grain and fodder yield; another example is t he breeding o f maize for res istance to the paras it ic pl ant St riga fl ermontflica.Major areas o f work that wi l l be add ressed by CID are tems. RCM D's work wi ll revolve around t he development and tes tin g of new syste ms to determ ine th ei r economi c and social feasi bil ity, and t he interactions of t he ir co mponents wit hi n existin g farm ing systems to det ermi ne t heir li ke ly biological, socia l. and economic sustai nabil ity.Grea ter emphasis will be given to analyzing whole farm ing syst ems by examining t he full pot enti al range of agro nomic management interven-t ions, incl uding st rategies to pro mot e t he sust ai nable integration of crop-livestock systems . Furthermore, increased effort s wil l be made to faci litate impact by be ing more open and respons ive to techno logical adapt at io ns feeding back from furt her down the resea rch and development con t inu um t hro ugh efficient t echnology transfer path ways.In contrast, less emphas is will be placed on basic process res earch, wit h two pri ncipa l excepti ons. RCMD wil l (a) intensify efforts to fin d solu tions fo r chroni c weed problems, including Impera ta and Striga, and (b) mainta i n efforts t o overcome the lack of understanding of how nutrien t use efficien cy can be i mp roved usi ng bot h organic, i norgan ic, and com bi ned so urces o f NPK, and how thi s ca n stimu lat e i nterventi ons which can fu rther improve productivity, profitabi l ity, and sust aina bil ity. RCM D will also place hi gh prio rity on t he analys is o f pol icy opti o ns which seek to encourage th e adopt ion of im proved pre-and postharvest t echnolog ies as well as the conservation of natural resources. More emphasis wil l be on int erventions that are able to gene rate both im mediate and long-term benefits for t he poor, with posi tive imp lications on equity and gender. Taken toget her this twin strat egy should reduce poverty and improve overa l l ru ral livel ihoods by he lping to ensure th e mai ntenance and enha ncement of soil fe rtil ity, improved labor use efficiency, reduced drudgery, conSistently greater product ivity and profitabil ity, better environment services, and improved overall willingness and capabilit ies of fa rm ers to adopt new technologies and to the n sha re th ese with t he ir neighbors.A tea m-based research app roach will be employed , with pa rtners so ught wherever ta lent s exist. t hat can be use full y brought t o bea r in solvin g problems. Th ese part ners will incl ude NARS in t heir broadest definition (farm ers an d farmer orga niza tions; national policy makers;pri vate sect or suppl iers, man ufact urers and market ing agent s; local and in ternational NGOs; the mass media; uni versiti es, govern ment mi ni stries). internati onal adva nced research institutions and commercia l organizations, and our nat ural allies in th e ot her research divisions of lITA and t he other CGIAR ce nte rs.Th e d ivis ion wi ll mai nta in a fu l l com ple ment of di scip l ines across t he full spectrum o f nat ural and socioeconomic sciences , and seek in most i nsta nces to defi ne and so lve th e problems it con fronts in an inte rdisciplinary, syst ematic manner. As a res ult o f o ur demand-driven approach to resea rch, most of th e resea rch wi ll contin ue t o be ca rried out i n t he existi ng benchma rk areas, t o address critical deve lopment issues of hi gh priority fo r each agroecologica l zone in the pe riod 2000-2005, with sca li ng up an d impact gen erati on activiti es beyon d the benchma rks becomi ng i ncreasi ngly im portant i n th e lat t er half of the decade. The Plant Health Management Division (PHMD) will continue to use itsstrong capacity in areas such as population dynamics, functional management biodiversity, biological control, host plant resistance, and habitat management to develop environmentally friendly and sustainable plant health management practices . This will be based on the use of proactive preventive pest control methods, instead of heavy reliance on curative chemical methods. The impact of plant health management will result in a reduction of pre-and postharvest losses, both qualitative and quantitative. [t is best achieved by applying integrated pest management tools . These include different forms of biological control, resistant varieties including transgenics, development and application of botanicals and microbial pesticides (some produced locally). and habitat management and other agronomic practices. This approach to plant health management not only increases income, but also ensures reduction of negative impact on health and improves overall well-being through safeguarding the environment in conserving biodiversity.PHMD makes use of its comparative advantages in plant health issues in collaborating with all stakeholders in agricultural research and extension. Its priorities are based on problems identified in the course of the institute's on -farm research.","tokenCount":"13660"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fbcf74c84f67d155310ff13a9118e9e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6dd57770-f880-4e0f-b881-befed9041e64/retrieve","id":"659342124"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e42ed685-ff65-46c8-97c3-82932d8d324a","pagecount":"48","content":"TRENDS 4 | Blended finance funds impact African agriculture ENTREPRENEURSHIP 8 | Demand grows for plant-based products 9 | Chilli exports challenge Rwanda's post-harvest losses SMART-TECH & INNOVATION 10 | Cycling for organic cocoa in Côte d'Ivoire 11 | Renewable technology confronts food waste CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE 12 | Conservation yields economic rewards 13 | Forest reserves restore Burundian livelihoods INTERVIEWS 14 | Michael Hailu: digitalisation -a game changer for smallholder agriculture 16 | Enock Chikava: agricultural digitalisation will leapfrog challenges women farmers face N°193 MARKET OPPORTUNITIES 30 | The Solomon Islands rediscover the taste of honey 31 | Zimbabwe commercialises its indigenous crops AGRI-FOOD SYSTEMS 32 | Congo-Brazzaville grows mushrooms year-round 33 | A zonal approach stimulates Madagascar's organic sector 34 | FINANCE & INSURANCE Reducing risk in agricultural supply chains 36 | TRADE & MARKETING Fairtrade: a sweet deal for women farmers? 38 | BUSINESS LEADERS Redoubling efforts to address food insecurity 40 | PUBLICATIONSFrom drones to Internet-of-Things, blockchain and AI, the proliferation of accessible digital technologies are opening tremendous opportunities to transform smallholder agriculture into profitable, sustainable and inclusive businesses.Africa's growing youth workforce also presents enormous potential for agricultural transformation but, to capitalise on this promising resource, the sector must become a more attractive employment option for the continent's young people. There is a pressing need to build the capacity of Africa's youth, not just in terms of modern farming skills, but critically in digital skills and business acumen in order to foster agricultural prosperity and economic growth.The speed at which digitalisation for agriculture (D4Ag) is developing, particularly in Africa, provides exciting opportunities. In 2013, when CTA organised the first international conference on 'ICT4Ag' in Rwanda, there had been little previous activity in the sector. But, in the last 5-6 years, there has been a huge increase in new digital solutions coming into the market, as well as interest from major donors and governments to leverage digitalisation to transform smallholder agriculture. CTA has been a pioneer in this area, and it is pleasing to see big players coming into the space.A key event for CTA this year is the publication of a landmark report, in collaboration with Dalberg Global Development Advisors. The report will highlight the current state of digitalisation solutions for improving farmer productivity and incomes, as those may present the most attractive business cases and impact potential. We hope that the report will inspire investors by identifying opportunities in the sector.The report is also a first in mapping the D4Ag landscape and making projections for Africa in order to provide a baseline on which to build upon, and track changes and developments in the future. We are looking forward to sharing this report in Rome at the FAO Ministerial Conference in June 2019 and at other key events, including the forthcoming African Green Revolution Forum, to be held in in Accra, Ghana, with the theme 'Grow digital: Leveraging digital transformation to drive sustainable food systems in Africa. ' Across the continent, evidence exists of farmers embracing smart farming by applying digital technologies. The digital era offers many new innovations that will help us to more efficiently and sustainably unlock the full potential of smallholder farmers and agribusinesses. Digitalisation can be a real game changer in transforming smallholder agriculture, but it now has to be given due importance in terms of policy and investment.A digital revolution for smallholder agriculture I nvestments in African agriculture are rising faster than ever before, with a new wave of blended finance impact investment funds leading the way. But, while these are helping to harness private sector capital -including from African commercial banks and corporates -the bulk of initial donor and government money comes from overseas. Still, the impact of such funds on the lives of smallholder farmers is increasingly well documented and demonstrates that investing in African agriculture can be profitable for private sector players, as long as the right projects are financed and risk is well managed.Development agencies and private sector investors are seeking to plug a stubborn agrifinance gap in Africa by investing in agricultural investment funds, whose number and size have grown rapidly since the start of the decade, according to a 2018 FAO report, Agricultural Investment Funds for Development. Food shortages and rising food prices have simultaneously pushed agricultural investment up governments' and development agencies' priorities and made the sector a more profitable proposition for private sector investors.Many funds use a blended finance structure. This can be a catalytic tool for encouraging more capital into agriculture, explains Jerry Parkes, managing principal at Injaro Investments, an Africa-focused investment managerImpact investment funds are fast becoming the vehicle of choice for governments and donors looking to invest in African agriculture and encourage private sector investors to do the same.Helen CastellBlended finance impact investment funds combine public and private sector money to achieve a specific social or environmental impact, as well as a financial return. The idea is that public investors shoulder more of the fund's total risk for no or low returns so private investors are encouraged to fund an area where high risks mean they would usually have to be rewarded with high profits.Funds can be divided into two or more 'tranches' or portions. One tranchesometimes referred to as 'catalytic capital' because it helps the fund pull in other investments -is filled with money that is either donated or invested as long-term equity by philanthropic organisations, governments or development banks. This can play a 'first loss' role, meaning that if the value of the overall fund falls, an initial proportion of any losses will be absorbed by this pile of money, before other investors take a loss on their investments. It can also be used to pay for technical assistance which, in agriculture, could involve training farmers to improve yields to reduce the risk that beneficiaries will not repay debt or prove a profitable investment. Money from private sector investors is typically put into a separate tranche, often referred to as 'senior capital', which earns a higher interest rate or equity return. However, the reduced risk -due to the technical assistance or 'first loss' tranche -means that investors are happy to accept lower interest rates than they would usually demand.SPORE 193 | 5 launched in 2009. With its €43.8 million closed-ended equity investment fund, Injaro Agricultural Capital Holdings Ltd (IACHL) has so far deployed €30.4 million -providing capital, business advice and capacity building to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in West Africa, Parkes says. Impact investment funds' expertise in targeting and measuring impact directly raises the likelihood that capital will reach intended beneficiaries and higher-risk agricultural value chains, emphasises Parkes. IACHL is on track to meet and possibly exceed its impact target to reach 1.125 million beneficiaries by 2023, having so far benefited around 900,000 smallholder farmers and people on low incomes. For example, Injaro funding helped Ghanaian animal feed brand, Agricare, implement a pilot outgrower scheme in 2016 to increase the proportion of maize it sourced from local smallholders. From 210 farmers with 250 ha under cultivation at its launch, by the end of 2017 the scheme had scaled up more than tenfold, directly benefiting around 1,200 smallholders with over 2,580 ha.Impact investment funds are ideal for targeting the 'missing middle' -agribusinesses that are too big for microfinance, but need capital injections of €20,000 to €1 million. Achieving the 8-12% financial returns private sector investors typically seek -while factoring in credit, foreign currency and other risks associated with agriculture -would require regular funds to lend at interest rates as high as 50%, notes Florian Kemmerich, managing partner of Bamboo Capital Partners. However, by protecting private sector investments with money from donors that prioritise capital preservation over financial returns, private sector players are prepared to take a lower financial return because their risks are reduced.Together with Injaro, Bamboo is manager of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Agri-Business Capital (ABC) Fund, which launched in February 2019 to provide loans and eventually equity investments for rural SMEs, farmer organisations, agricultural entrepreneurs and rural financial institutions globally. The open-ended fund, also supported by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa, the EU, the ACP Group of States, and Luxembourg's government, will seek to attract €200 million from investors over the next 10 years. It so far has €50 million committed in the 'first loss' tranche, and aims within the next 3-6 months to secure another €50 million, before reaching out to private investors, states Kemmerich. The involvement of IFADwhich has historically only made grants but, in February 2019, voted in a new resolution permitting it to make private sector investments -reflects a shift in the kind of investors becoming attracted to blended finance impact funds, says Parkes.The EU-funded AgriFI facility also announced its long-awaited debut investment in April 2019, agreeing to inject up to €5 million of long-term equity in Incofin Investment Management's Fairtrade Access Fund (FAF), which supports smallholder farmers, agri-SMEs and agri-focused financial institutions with finance and technical assistance. Since its 2012 inception, FAF has disbursed over €164.5 million, impacting the lives remain under-served by impact funds in Africa. Finding a way to plug this gap will be challenging, but could present a good opportunity for the employment of African capital, De Cannière says. Like many funds, FAF focuses on export value chains, in which produce is priced in hard currencies like the US dollar or Euro.Domestic investment is an important source of capital for agriculture, with African donors, lenders and corporates helping African money flow along agricultural value chains. But, while impact investment funds say funding of local banks for on-lending to agribusinesses will improve such lenders' understanding of agriculture and encourage them to lend more in the long term, the vast majority of money pumped into such funds still comes from outside the continent.Low financial inclusion, with many rural Africans having no bank account, means a relatively small portion of money passing through African economies reaches banks, notes Carlijn Nouwen, partner at Dalberg Global Development Advisors. Banks are therefore under-capitalised compared with European or North American institutions, leaving less money available for lending to agriculture.Local commercial banks also face external hurdles in lending more to agriculture. While farmers often complain about unrealistic collateral requirements, these are imposed on banks by regulators charged with maintaining financial system stability, Nouwen notes. The high interest rates charged for agricultural loans also reflect banks' own high operating costs, while agriculture must compete for bank capital with lower-risk, higher-return sectors.Small agribusinesses across Africa therefore remain mostly informally funded, either from entrepreneurs' own pockets or through loans from friends and family, she says. Larger corporates and wealthy individuals in Africa also invest in agriculture, either as joint ventures with the entrepreneur or through equity investments, but transactions are not always publicised so are harder to track, notes Miller.There are signs of progress though. Uganda's aBI Finance, a funding vehicle that offers local lenders governmentand donor-backed guarantees for 50% of their agricultural portfolio, has been instrumental in encouraging banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs) to lend more to the sector, says De Cannière. aBI's guarantees have, for example, helped the country's Finance Trust Bank build a credit portfolio that is nearly 30% comprised of agricultural loans. This is funded by nearly €35.8 million of deposits from local Ugandan savers.A common characteristic of solutions that are successful at getting both African and overseas money flowing to agriculture is that the funder and borrower are 'joined at the hip', with closely aligned interests, says Nouwen. Input providers, for example, increasingly provide credit to farmers by not requiring payment for fertiliser or seed until they have sold their harvest. Although not a formal flow, she explains that it is a vital source of 'funding in kind' that farmers have come to rely on. While agriculture has to compete with other sectors for bank capital, such input providers are reliant on farmers for custom so have no option but to continue providing 'credit' to farmers even following defaults and disaster years.Similarly, the success of Nigeria's Babban Gona -an investor-owned social enterprise that says it has disbursed 16,000 profitable loans so far among its membership of over 1 million farmers -is inextricably intertwined with that of its members. Babban Gona works closely with farmers to design and implement a package of inputs, training, offtake agreements, marketing services and incentives that benefit them and the company, Nouwen notes. \"It's not one lever that changes agriculture -it's a whole range of things › \"It's not one lever that changes agriculture -it's a whole range of things and you need to lean on all of them.\"and you need to lean on all of them,\" she says. Governments and donors should direct more of their resources towards initiatives like these, which will continue lending to agriculture once funding and guarantees expire, she advises. Indeed, in March 2019, AgriFI approved a planned €5 million investment in Babban Gona.MFIs and microfinance banks also tend to be well aligned with farmers' needs while their licenses often allow them to be flexible with collateral. However, many are barred from taking deposits, leaving them under-capitalised and prone to collapse, Nouwen notes. For the sake of financial system stability, she cautions that central banks must ensure that agriculture does not become overly reliant on non-bank lenders like MFIs, input providers or other corporates.There are promising signs that African governments are starting to see the potential of impact funds. For instance, in March 2019 the government of Togo decided to provide seed funding to Bamboo's blended finance BLOC Fund, which invests in companies using technology to solve social and environmental challenges, says Kemmerich. At a time when technological advances like blockchain and renewable energy are creating opportunities for African SMEs to build businesses and connect to markets, governments are keen to play a catalytic role in reducing poverty by attracting private capital to sectors like agriculture, he says.Impact funds are a welcome addition to the limited array of funding vehicles available for agriculture, acknowledges Nouwen. But, while 'first loss' tranches and subsidised money have a good track record of attracting private sector investors to the table and encouraging local banks and MFIs to lend, such funders too often withdraw from riskier value chains once incentives are removed. This, she argues, must be front of mind for donors and governments before they make any investment. Only through the funding of crops and projects that can earn sustainable profits for private sector players will 'catalytic capital' truly live up to its name, she concludes. ■James Karuga F ood and cosmetic products derived from plants, herbs and fruits found in Saint Kitts and Nevis are all made by Sugar Town Organics, an agri-processing company founded by Anastasha Elliot in 2010. She decided to focus on the use of locally grown, botanical plants and fruits after learning of certain healing properties from her grandparents. Guava fruit, for instance, which is used in Elliot's salad dressing has anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties, and the passion fruit used in her hot sauce, contains vitamins A and C.Before establishing the business, Elliot undertook a diploma and advanced diploma in organic hair and skin care formulation to supplement her knowledge, as well as a degree in culinary arts to learn how to formulate food-based products. Sugar Town now processes 30 products in its food portfolio, including jams, dips, wines and liqueurs, under the brand name Flauriel. The company's cosmetic range, called Yaphene, processes 63 products including soaps, toothpastes, aftershaves, shampoos, skin care creams, and hair and spa products. All products are made from organically produced indigenous herbs, fruits and plants, including anise, fennel, jasmine, orchids, pink roses, soursop and tarragon.Product prices range from €1.8 to €33.79 and, as demand spiked from 2017 to 2018, Sugar Town's sales increased by 150%. \"Many spas are directly searching for more locally-produced goods to offer to their clientele,\" says Elliot, explaining that this helps to cut down on the costs of importing similar products. The Tourism and Foreign Affairs Department, Park Hyatt and Marriott hotels, and other local gifting agencies, also buy Sugar Town's products, stocking them as gifts to those visiting Saint Kitts and Nevis. Depending on the time of the year and the number of events, through these markets alone, the company generates monthly revenues of between €880 and €2,200. Twahirwa graduated as an agronomist in 2012 and initially worked for a refined pyrethrum producer. In 2014, he left the company to venture into farming. \"I decided to take this difficult decision to quit my job since working with the company helped me learn about agricultural practices, and I found my new passion -being on the farm,\" he says.After trying his hand at tomato production, Twahirwa experienced significant losses without a ready market and decided the crop was too perishable. During his transition to chilli, he also experienced post-harvest problems and resorted to drying the produce to increase its shelf life. \"Dry chilli can last for up to 6 months,\" he explains. \"Encouraging local farmers to grow chilli as a unique crop -with both local and global markets -was key to boosting quantity and quality along the value chain.\" The company now harvests about 10 t of dried chilli every 6 months with each kilo being sold for €1.8, generating €18,000 per ha.Twahirwa is also looking to expand his value-added product line with the production of pulp and chilli powder, and was a finalist for the Young Entrepreneur Awards at the 2018 World Forum for Export Development. \"My plan is to take chilli farming to another level. I have already teamed up with a British agronomist and I plan to introduce other modern scientific breeds of chilli into the market,\" he concludes. ■The company purchases up to 90 kg of raw produce each month from about 20 farmers, and uses small machines, like dehydrators and commercial blenders, to process the products. In the immediate future, Elliot plans on building a factory to increase production and create employment opportunities beyond her staff of four. \"We plan to increase our social impact by targeting skilled youth who are released from jail and face social stigma,\" she explains. In the next 5 years, Elliot aims to increase the reach of Sugar Town's products within the Caribbean, and to target the European market.Also selling predominantly plantbased products in the Caribbean is Tanisha Thompson, who started Natural Fusion Partners (NFP) in 2015. With an initial capital of €10,500, raised from personal savings, Thompson created NFP to promote the consumption of healthy, low sugar and calorie beverages in Jamaica. NFP works with four local farmers to source the produce for her guava iced tea and aloe vera-flavoured water, targeting diabetics and health-conscious consumers.Since its inception, NFP has sold over 850,000 l of the two beverages to local supermarkets, pharmacies and at trade fairs. The drinks are sold in 340 ml bottles for J$2 (€1.78) per bottle. Annually, NFP generates nearly €21,000 and employs five local youths between 18 and 30-years-old, who are involved in processing, marketing and promotion of the beverages.Venturing into new markets has been a challenge for Thompson as the brand is currently only sold in two Jamaican parishes and is relatively unknown. However, participation at agricultural exhibitions, accreditation of product safety by the Bureau of Standards in Jamaica and validation by the Ministry of Health, are helping to increase company awareness and consumer confidence in NFP products.\"Agropreneurship can be challenging in Jamaica when you have scarce financing to fund various aspects of your business. As a result of the challenges, I am now more patient and persistent. I have received a lot of 'no's' but I have learnt that this doesn't have to be the final answer,\" says Thompson. ■ I n Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, cocoa beans are being processed using a 'grinding bicycle' to produce about 400 kg of chocolate each month. At Mon Choco, a raw chocolate factory, carefully sorted cocoa beans are poured through a funnel fixed to the bike, and transformed into a paste by a grinder activated through human-powered pedalling. After 2-3 days of grinding, a sleek chocolate paste is formed, which is then chilled in moulds.Mon Choco produces organic and environmentally-friendly chocolate bars, which is a rarity for Côte d'Ivoire where very little finished chocolate is produced. \"We are the first cocoa-producing country in the world and we do not produce chocolate,\" says Dana Mroueh, owner of the factory. \"I wanted Ivorians to discover Côte d'Ivoire chocolate with local products such as chilli, ginger and cashew nuts. It was also a way for me to value the work of planters who are often forgotten,\" Mroueh continues.Unlike normal chocolate, there is also no cooking of the raw cocoa beans at Mon Choco, resulting in a much richer, almost fruity taste. \"We are artisanal chocolatiers, so our process is manual, from the cocoa pods to the final process of packaging the chocolate tablets. One of our trademarks is that we do not roast the cocoa pods, we use raw chocolate. This enables the cocoa pods to retain its flavours and nutritional values. It's also richer in protein, it's richer in anti-oxidants, and the taste is really different,\" says Mroueh, who buys the cocoa beans straight from the farmer and then dries them on the roof of her factory in Abidjan, or in her tumble dryer. \"We really want to have a minimal impact on the environment by using as little electricity as possible… We use recycled paper when we can, glass jars rather than plastic jars, and we use a bike that allows us to save electrical energy,\" she explains.Organic cocoa beans are difficult to find in Côte d'Ivoire, where the overwhelming majority of farmers use chemicals and insecticides. As a result, the organic bars are expensive to produce, and with premium prices of around €2.30 per bar the factory caters primarily to the European market. \"A craft product like ours is more expensive on average than an industrial product… but we try to have a product that can be accessible to the majority of people,\" says Mroueh. \"In the future, we aim to export our products to other African countries, as well as to Europe and Asia.\"In order to help strengthen cocoa productivity and enhance climate resilience in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, a data platform known as 'CocoaCloud' is being scaled-up. The platform generates, translates and disseminates critical information -such as weather forecasts and location-specific agricultural advice -that facilitates 'climate-smart' decisions for agriculture. CocoaCloud is already supporting 7,500 cocoa farmers, extension advisors and community members in the West African region with training and localised weather forecasting services, and aims to reach 1 million cocoa farmers in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana by 2024.Partners behind the platform -the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and Opus Insights B.V. -called upon the private sector and donors to support the agri-tech initiative at the UN Africa Climate Week in Accra, Ghana, in March 2019. \"CocoaCloud demonstrates our commitment to transforming food systems in key regions using innovative, climate-smart solutions. We now call for many other organisations to join and benefit from CocoaCloud,\" said Peter Bakker, WBCSD's president and CEO. ■ Justus Wanzala S olar-powered cold storage units are being used by over 2,000 fruit and vegetable farmers in eastern Kenya to reduce post-harvest losses and gain better access to local markets. Set up in 2016, agri-tech company Solar Freeze has established easily accessible, mobile cold rooms, located in rural areas for farmers to store their produce before being transported to market. Farmers are thus able to harvest their crops at a convenient time, and seek suitable markets, whilst their produce is preserved. According to company director, Dysmus Kisilu, the green energy innovation has seen a 40-60% reduction in post-harvest losses among its users.Farmers pay KSh 10-30 (€0.09-0.26) per crate stored in the cold units, depending of the type of produce delivered, which tends to include avocado, carrot, garlic, mango, onion, passion fruit, peas, pepper, potato and spinach. The company tries to ensure as many farmers as possible can access the units when required, with each being able to store up to 4 t of produce. Solar Freeze uses a platform to inform farmers of any available space in the units and how the unit is functioning. \"It works by using a sensor installed in the cold rooms. The information includes updates about the temperature level of a particular cold room,\" says Kisilu. Using this system, Solar Freeze is also able to calculate when and how much farmers need to pay.Working with local mobile phone companies Safaricom and Airtel, Solar Freeze has created a free app for farmers to connect with buyers, transport services and agricultural extension experts. Buyers and transporters, for instance, receive details on the quantity of produce that is available in the cold units and ready for delivery to markets. In addition, farmers can access an 'Uber'style pick-up service to deliver their goods -either from the units or directly from their farms -to markets. Farmers enter their name and location into the Solar Freeze app and, depending on the produce amount, the service costs between €0.45 and €1.8 per transfer.According to Kisilu, farmers using the refrigerated units are moving away from diesel-powered generators for cold storage, hence reducing environmental impacts. \"Food waste is an economic issue as well as an issue for climate change, as it is a big contributor to greenhouse gas emissions globally, which we're mitigating through utilising solar,\" he says. ■A NEW ONLINE INTERACTIVE TOOL is helping to identify where and for which staple crops biofortification can make the greatest impact on micronutrient deficiencies. The Biofortification Priority Index (BPI) was developed by HarvestPlus to guide strategic decisions for investment, policy, and practice, pertaining to the introduction and scaling of biofortified staples. The BPI ranks 128 countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America according to their potential for biofortification in eight crop-micronutrient combinations, such as 'zinc rice' and 'iron beans'. Niger, for example, is the top country for development and delivery of iron pearl millet -the first variety of which was released in 2018.A PORTABLE, mechanised, multi-crop thresher (MCT) that works 90 times faster than manual methods is being used by more than 2.5 million cereal crop producers in Tanzania. Imara Tech is the agricultural equipment manufacturer that produces the MCT and also provides hire purchase and training in its use. Tanzanian farmers spend 1.35 billion hours threshing each year, which the MCT can cut by days, or weeks, allowing farmers to spend more time running other businesses or taking care of their homes. In addition, the MCT can be used by entrepreneurs to sell threshing services to other smallholder farmers and increase their incomes to over €12 an hour. Use of the thresher provides grain uncontaminated by rocks and dirt, and has been found to cut post-harvest losses to 2%.Mobile solar-powered refrigerated units are allowing farmers to preserve their produce at a convenient time and place.Solar Freeze mobile cold storage units are reducing post-harvest loses among users by 40-60%farmers in Kenya use solar-powered cold storage units to preserve their produceTo overcome the issues of drought and extreme poverty in Zambia, smallholders are being rewarded for taking up climate-smart, conservation practices to increase productivity and protect their environment.mallholders in Zambia are receiving training in climate-smart production practices and technologies to achieve food security and access to guaranteed markets, while conserving natural resources. Through a Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) model for rural development, 179,000 farmers across eastern Zambia -52% of whom are women -have benefited from access to affordable farming inputs and formal training in low-tillage farming, mulching and composting.COMACO's premise is that with the right training and incentives, smallholders will favour sustainable agriculture practices over more destructive methods, such as monoculture and deforestation, and move away from elephant and rhino poaching. The scheme offers above-market prices for goods that are produced in compliance with conservation agriculture practices, and access to inputs when using these methods.Before the programme was introduced in 2003, farmers in the area were earning around €17 per harvest; this has since risen by at least €170. \"Most families in the Luangwa Valley experience 3-5 months of chronic food insecurity. With few options available to support their families, residents may turn to logging, illegal hunting, and slash-and-burn agriculture. But, since these incentives were introduced to the area, these trends have reduced and farmers involved in the programme have enough food,\" says chief Nsefu, a traditional leader in the area.The promoted practices also include beekeeping, gardening in the dry season and poultry husbandry. Diversified production has enhanced productivity for smallholders and reduced the need for inorganic fertilisers, thereby decreasing nitrous oxide emissions. \"Teaching how to compost may not be appreciated [by farmers] the first time but, as time has gone by, we have come to value the training. Our soils are looking healthier and even the crop yield has improved. We have enough food in our homes and income in our pockets,\" says Zitandala Sakala, a smallholder farmer in Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia.The uptake of beekeeping has also dissuaded farmers from cutting down their trees. \"It has been hard work, but now hundreds of farmers are realising the value of keeping and protecting trees. I have felt such pride in the producers for the way they have changed their practices and it makes me so happy to see them make a better living from conservation,\" says Julius Kamanga, a beekeeper from Mfuwe.Mulching has also become an integral practice among farmers in the area as a result of the project training. Smallholder Nelly Zimba feels the technique is a necessary ingredient to successful farming and provides the key to long-term maintenance of strong, biologically active soils. \"If you see my field today, it is full of maize stalks; I have reserved this for mulching at an opportune time,\" she says. \"We raise over 35 different types of fruits and vegetables with about 2 ha under production. We have 4 ha suitable for vegetable production, so we rotate the other 2 with cover crops.\"Zambia faces frequent flooding and drought, and Luangwa Valley is one of the most affected areas in the country. To help mitigate the impacts of drought, the programme has facilitated the planting of over 10 million cassava cuttings to serve as a drought-resistant food reserve. Cassava crops can also help increase water storage in the soil profile and reduce the risk of rainfall run-off. \"[The farmers] have learned the importance of diversification and now grow cassava. Before COMACO, a lot of farmers just grew maize and the yields have always been depressing,\" says Nsefu. ■ © DOREEN CHILUMBUIn eastern Zambia, smallholder Nelly Zimba picks grass to use for mulching to improve her soil fertility SPORE 193 | 13 I n Burundi, 9,600 households -nearly half of them female-headed -have started cultivating shade-grown coffee. The climate-smart approach mixes coffee with various trees and plants, such as banana, beans and maize, which protect the coffee from harsh sunlight or strong wind, and provide alternative sources of income. Beans fix nitrogen in the soil, improving soil fertility, while bananas are capable of remaining hydrated under drought stress, reducing water competition during drought.As part of a Sustainable Coffee Landscapes Project, which is financed by the Global Environment Facility and implemented by Burundi's Ministry of Environment, Agriculture and Livestock, avocado, mandarin, orange and Japanese plum trees have also been planted, diversifying incomes in the Bubanza, Bururi and Muyinga provinces. Since 2013, these agroforestry practices have been adopted by more than 18,700 farmers, boosting the productivity of 2 million existing coffee trees across 4,400 ha.Burundi's coffee industry is vital for local communities, supporting half of local livelihoods and accounting for 90% of the country's foreign exchange. But severe land degradation costs the country 4% of its GDP annually. Agencies working on coffee certification, park management, and regulation in the sector have come together through the project to improve training opportunities for farmers.A manual and booklet for cultivating profitable shade-grown coffee has been translated into French and the local Kirundi language, and community-based agritourism in the Bururi Forest Reserve in Southern Burundi has enabled the local Batwa people to purchase their own land for the first time. Batwa community member Odette Nkurikiye, says, \"We were enemies of the forest reserve of Bururi, but now, we are its best protectors. We now have jobs and have even bought land. We want to tap into the opportunities offered by our restored landscapes and stay out of poverty.\"Building on this success, a World Bank €26.6 million Landscape Restoration and Resilience project, starting in early 2019, is expected to restore a further 90,000 ha of land, supporting sustainable management of the Bururi Forest Reserve and the Kibira and Ruvubu National Parks. The project is expected to benefit 80,000 households, increasing land productivity in targeted landscapes by 20%. ■Through a Sustainable Coffee Landscapes Project in Burundi, agroforestry practices have been adopted across 4,400 ha of land While Burundi's agriculture is threatened by changing climatic patterns, a sustainable coffee project is helping farmers to restore landscapes and manage their own assets.GHANAIAN SMALLHOLDERS have been introduced to a pigeonpea-yam cropping system to help overcome the challenge of finding fertile soil to produce high yields. The planting system, which is being implemented by the Crops Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research from 2018 to 2020, has been identified by the Institute as sustainable in the face of climate change and depleting soil fertility. With the technology, yams are planted between ridges of pigeonpeas, which are cut and used as stakes. The pigeonpeas conserve moisture and fix atmospheric nitrogen, increasing sustainability, efficiency and yields. The leaves, which are cut and spread before land preparation, also add to soil carbon and nutrient levels for sustaining soil fertility.IN EASTERN AFRICA, a combination of mobile and satellite systems are being used to track smallholder crop and livestock production, and offer tailored insurance products to protect against unpredictable weather conditions. Developed by the Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise (ACRE) Africa, which works in Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania, the insurance products are index-based, which means automatic payouts are determined by comparisons to historical, regional rainfall patterns. By 2018, more than 1,700,000 smallholders were insured for over €160 million against various weather risks. ACRE's latest insurance scheme in Kenya, Bima Pima, can be purchased from agrovet and agridealer shops -a first for smallholders in the country.CTA has been active in this space for many years as one of the forefront organisations working to mainstream digitalisation, especially for smallholder agriculture. One area is to identify exciting digital innovations that are emerging and test them, pilot them and see how they can be integrated into smallholder agricultural value chains. Take drones, for example -which are fairly new within the agricultural sector. We have been working with suppliers of drone technologies and young entrepreneurs in ACP regions to see how this technology can help provide realtime information for farmers to improve productivity and, at the same time, create opportunities for young people. Another example is blockchain; we have recently launched a project supporting young entrepreneurs to develop the application of blockchain to address specific value chain challenges, for example, improve traceability of agricultural products to fetch higher prices for farmers.We have also been supporting young innovators with coaching and mentoring having identified the most promising ones through 'Pitch AgriHack' competitions, which we run across the ACP. Many of the winners and runners-up already have a start-up business, so we try to help them develop the businesses further; and some are just starting, so we try to help them conceptualise their business model. Through this programme, CTA has reached out to more than 800 young innovators across the ACP and many of them have become successful, running effective businesses and reaching tens of thousands of smallholder producers through their services.What is most exciting is the speed at which digitalisation in agriculture is developing, particularly in Africa. In 2013, when CTA organised a big international conference on 'ICT4Ag' in Rwanda, there was really very little activity happening. But in the last 5 to 6 years, as you will see in our digitalisation report, there has been a huge increase in new digital solutions coming into the market, as well as interest from major donors and governments to really leverage digitalisation to transform smallholder agriculture. So, we feel that CTA has been a pioneer in this area and now big players are coming together and mainstreaming digitalisation into the agricultural sector.Although CTA is small, it is playing a key catalytic role as a knowledge hub, facilitating exchange of lessons and \"Digitalisation: a game changer for smallholder agriculture\"As CTA launch a landmark report on digitalisation in agriculture in Africa, Michael Hailu, Director of CTA, highlights his hopes that the report will inform other actors and inspire investors by identifying impact opportunities in this critical sector.experiences and thereby making these innovations more accessible to entrepreneurs and farmers. We do a lot of work identifying emerging technologies, sharing lessons, publishing information around these innovations, and we have also supported many young entrepreneurs, through which we have been able to leverage our limited investment. CTA has been playing a key role as a promoter of digital innovations for smallholder agriculture but, of course, we have also made our own investment and, given that the overall market size is rather small, our own investment has been quite reasonable. Of course, as the market grows, our share becomes smaller, but I think more than anything, CTA's role is creating visibility, sharing experience and keeping track of what is happening, which I think no other organisation is doing at the moment.First of all, this is probably the first time that anyone has really looked at the space closely: what does the ecosystem look like; who are the key players; what is the reach of the various solutions; how many farmers or smallholders are actually using these services; what is the growth prospect and so on. Nobody has done this kind of examination of the current situation and then presented recommendations for different stakeholders, including the private sector, government and donors. We have come up with some interesting insights and we feel this report provides a baseline on which we can build upon, and track changes and developments in the future.One of the key findings is that, across five cases (advisory services, market linkages, financial services, supply chain management services, and macro agricultural intelligence services), there are almost 33 million farmers that have been registered, but only 40% of registered farmers are making regular use of these services. That is quite an interesting insight that, in the future, we should be focusing a lot more attention on use as opposed to just increasing registration.The other insight, which may not be surprising in terms of digital divides, is that women still only constitute about 25% of users, whereas youth account for 65% of the users. We, of course, know that women are not making as much use of technology as they should, and they constitute about 45% of the agricultural labour force. That is not surprising, as such, and confirms our belief that women are not well represented in technology use and the young, of course, will find farming more attractive with the application of these technologies.You have the big challenge of digital infrastructure in rural areas and about how these services can be more easily deployed. There is the whole issue of engaging farmers in value chains; we see that most of the active users are in what you call 'tight' value chains, where there is very clear linkage from producers to processors to markets. Some of the challenges have to do with enabling policies in different countries. For example, in Kenya you have a lot of private sector-led solutions and activities because the policy environment has been quite encouraging for this kind of investment. So, there are a number of factors, including infrastructure and policy, which would promote more use of digital innovations in agriculture.I would say the key message is that digitalisation can be a real game changer in transforming smallholder agriculture in Africa, but it has to be given due importance in terms of policy and investment. Governments should take this as another key area which could make a huge difference in transforming agriculture, improving productivity, building resilience and creating opportunities for youth and women. So, my message would be that governments should take a serious look into leveraging digitalisation as part of their strategies to transform agriculture. ■Today, smallholder agriculture has many challenges; farmers are disaggregated into small units, dispersed and disconnected from functioning market systems. This is a result of poor infrastructure, like roads, water, power, and, also because some farmers have low levels of literacy, and information, services and products do not reach them effectively and in time. As a result, no one deeply understands how smallholder farmers transact. Owing to this lack of transparency of what they do, smallholder farmers are excluded from all formal market systems and services.At the Gates Foundation, we are excited about the promise of digital innovations with the cost of tools and data going down. We work to bring about transformative innovations in digital technologies and infrastructure that can help smallholder farmers to be connected at scale, making them more equal in accessing market information, inputs for output markets, and advisory services, which are much needed in a time of climate change. Farmers need to be up to speed with climate-smart innovations in terms of improved seeds and animal breeds, and digital technologies could help in this regard.It starts with having a vision; we are seeing many governments in Africa and India with a vision and strategy around the economy and digital agriculture. Once you have the vision, there is the need for infrastructure. You cannot get into digital agriculture if the infrastructure will not allow connectivity, so we need regulations and policies to attract private sector investment. So, the starting point is the government having that vision and knowing the power of digital innovation in making sure smallholder farmers are connected to the input and output markets, advisory services and to each other for collective action.The CTA report is going to provide the landscape of what is going on -and where -at the small-scale level, and highlight the benefits of digitalisation, which will enable us to engage with governments, the private sector and donors around specific projects.At the Gates Foundation, we hope the report will dive deeper into some of the ways digital innovations can be deployed. We know that the technology works based on the environment in the developed world, but we need to continually test the robustness and resilience of these business models against challenges in developing countries. So, we are looking to understand small-scale pilots, but we need to use countries and even regions as scaling-units, rather than a proliferation of village-level pilots.It is good to get people excited and to realise that digitalisation is perhaps the best way to leapfrog many of the challenges we face. However, we need to understand regulations because, as you begin to collect farmers' data, there are issues of data security, ownership and sharing. If the data already collected, standardised and analysed remains in the hands and control of the few, it defeats the whole purpose of digitalisation. It is only when the data is widely shared that newcomers do not have to spend the same amount of time and effort collecting the same kind of data. To deploy this technology at the national level, there must be some key role for governments within the system. In most cases, governments do not often work in partnership with the private sector, so we need to find better mechanisms for them to work together. ■ igration is not a new phenomenon; people have moved between geographical locations throughout the course of human history. Globally, however, rural-urban migration has accelerated in recent decades. But, contrary to popular perception, the vast majority of this migration occurs within countries, rather than between countries or continents. Among the myriad causes of increased levels of migration -from climate disasters and severe weather, to natural resource degradation and conflict -the growing 'youth bulge' in Africa is fast becoming the primary driver of migration on the continent.Currently, half of sub-Saharan Africa's population is under 25-years-old and almost 20 million young people enter the job market in Africa each year -12 million of whom are rural youths. In fact, according to FAO research, 65-75% of African migrants are youth, mostly in search of employment opportunities. As Africa's largest employer, agriculture offers the greatest opportunity to boost economic growth and create jobs for young people on the continent. To capitalise on the as yet untapped potential of African youth, agriculture must become a more attractive and viable employment option for young people. Stakeholders from both the public and private sectors have a critical role to play in incentivising and facilitating more young people to find decent work in agricultural value chains.The World Bank predicts that African agriculture and agribusiness will grow to be an €890 billion industry by 2030. This presents significant rewards for young people who tap into the industry as farmers and entrepreneurs. \"The rising population in Africa, and the entire world, creates an opportunity for farmers to produce more and increase our income. We have most of the necessary resources, like land and fertile soil, which we can utilise to take up market opportunities in the global food industry,\" says Kisseka Samson, 22-year-old co-founder and managing director of Hello Mushrooms U Ltd in Uganda.Hello Mushrooms supplies inputs and offers free training to mushroom farmers in exchange for their produce, which is sold on to 20 commercial wholesalers and retailers, as well as ›Agriculture's potential to mitigate youth migrationAs waves of young people leave their rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa in search of better work, can the agricultural sector provide the employment opportunities that they're looking for? In Mali, young people with little formal education have been trained and supported in the creation of micro-enterprises. Financed by USAID's Out-of-School Youth Project (OSYP), an initiative -known in Mali as PAJE-Nièta (Projet D'appui Aux Jeunes Entrepreneurs)has helped over 8,070 young Malian's to create their own agribusinesses through the provision of technical training courses, since it was launched in 2011. After attending a bakery course provided by PAJE-Nieta, as well as national language and French lessons, 30-year-old Amadou Dao started his own bakery business. With the baking equipment provided by the project, he is able to produce and sell enough bread to feed the 20 members of his family in the village of Yorosso in the south of Mali. \"Now, I earn between 300,000 and 350,000 CFA francs a month (€460-500). Thanks to my bakery, I have [been able to buy] three plots of residential land, a house and motorbikes.\" To meet the high demand for his products, Dao uses more than 50 kg of flour every day, and he employs three members of staff. PAJE-Nièta has trained and recruited 309 volunteers, who have worked in 220 villages to assist more than 14,000 young people and supported over 220 youth associations with basic education programmes (reading, writing and maths in the national language). The beneficiaries also received French lessons, entrepreneurial training, support and guidance in choosing an income-generating activity, and training in how to create savings and loan groups. PAJE-Nièta has helped \"Young people to be economically productive and to feel confident about their future at the heart of their communities,\" says Adwoa Atta-Krah, director of the Education Development Center in Mali. In the village of Kinian, 60 km from Yorosso, Sidi Sanou, a 32-year-old vegetable grower, now supplies the small village with vegetables. Sanou received entrepreneurial training and lessons in vegetable growing techniques, along with courses in vegetable cutting care and the use of fertilisers. The vegetable grower estimates his monthly revenue at 10,000 CFA francs (€15), thanks to the sale of vegetables such as okra, lettuce and tomatoes, as opposed to 2,000 or 3,000 CFA francs (€3 or €4) before PAJE-Nièta's intervention. Director general of the UN Industrial Development Organization, Li Yong, agrees that growing local and regional demand for food presents vast potential for the integration of youth in the agricultural sector. However, \"This will require the transformation of food systems and the adoption of innovative technologies,\" Yong notes. The rapid development of agricultural technologies in recent years has already demonstrated the exciting new employment opportunities opening up for youth in the sector.A group of young Zambian entrepreneurs have developed a digital platform that uses machine learning to forecast weather conditions and the probability of pest invasions or disease outbreaks. AgriPredict provides its users -who range from smallholders to commercial farmers, extension service providers, NGOs and government or environmental institutions -with the necessary information to take preventative action to mitigate these risks. Farmers simply take a photo of their crop and send it to AgriPredict, via social media channels or WhatsApp, and the system immediately provides a diagnosis, options for treatment (if needed) and locations of the nearest suitable agro-dealers.Elsewhere, in Rwanda, a group of young engineers has designed a technology system that allows farmers to remotely manage their fields. Using sensors that gather real-time data, STES Group's web and mobile platform enables farmers to keep track of weather forecasts, as well as soil fertility and moisture. The company's automated irrigation system can be turned on or off by farmers via their mobile phones, depending on the information received from the sensors. Both AgriPredict and STES Group demonstrate how youth can harness the transformative potential and economic rewards presented by agriculture's digitalisation. These innovations have not only provided jobs for the young people who founded the companies, but also helped to reduce the risks and improve the efficiency of farming -making it a more attractive livelihood option for rural young people. However, without the skills to develop, operate and maintain such technologies, African youth cannot make the most of the opportunities offered by agriculture's digitalisation.There is a pressing demand to build the capacity of Africa's rural youth, not just in terms of technical or digital skills, but also in terms of agricultural best practices and business know-how, in order to foster economic growth and promote youth employment. Fortunately, a number of promising initiatives intended to create jobs and support young entrepreneurs to establish viable agribusinesses have begun to emerge across the continent (see Good farming practices help turn the tide on youth migration in this edition). In Kenya, capacity development facility, USTADI, focuses on improving the technical skills and business knowledge of young people, with the aim of promoting the establishment of sustainable rural enterprises.In Busia county, Kenya, USTADI set up a demonstration poultry farm and provided 22 young women farmers with both practical agricultural training -such as optimum feeding and disease management practicesand business skills. As a result, these women tripled their productivity, transforming young people's perceptions of agriculture as a subsistence activity into a sector that offers opportunities to establish professional and profitable businesses in the local area. Similarly, the Green Innovation Center (CIVA), launched in 2016 by AfricaRice targets rural youth with agricultural extension training to help create jobs, as well as improve farm productivity and incomes.CIVA has developed over 30 online courses -available to students and graduates of 10 agricultural colleges in Benin -to prepare participants to work with farmers as extension advisors. After completing their training, the young agricultural instructors visit villages in Benin to promote the System of Rice Intensification, which provides set principles for sustainably increasing rice yields, including planting young seedlings (8-12 days old) with wider spacing. By 2022, the project aims to create 1,000 new jobs for young people and increase 50,000 smallholder farmers' incomes by 33%.Beyond training young people in agricultural best practices, a wave of incubators have emerged to support young entrepreneurs to transform their innovative ideas into sustainable agribusinesses. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture's (IITA) Youth Agripreneur initiative has developed an 18-month entrepreneurship programme for unemployed graduates. With incubation centres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia, young graduates across Africa are coached and mentored on business opportunities in the production and value addition of agricultural commodities, such as soybean, fish and livestock.The Youth Agripreneurs programme aims to change young people's mindset to help them realise the business potential in African agriculture by teaching them the best technologies to improve yields or process products, as well as effective marketing strategies to maximise profits. At the end of the programme, participants develop bankable business plans to enable them to access loans from commercial banks and establish independent agribusinesses. In December 2018, Youth Agripreneur alumni, Edmond Ng'walago, won the 2018 Young Graduate Entrepreneurship award for his business selling value-added rabbit products. With the TSh 5 million (€1,916) prize, Ng'walago intends to expand his business, Ng'wilago Youth Transcend, to make his rabbit urine biopesticide and rabbit fur sandals available in stores across Tanzania.As young people begin to realise the profitable alternatives to migration, which lie in establishing their own agribusinesses, it is critical that they have access to the necessary capital to get their enterprises off the ground. For this reason, in October 2018, the Mastercard Foundation launched a new fund to support alumni of the Mastercard Foundation Scholars Program, who have viable, sustainable and scalable business ideas. The €1.8 million fund will be used to provide seed money to the most promising students from the Scholars Program, which provides education and leadership development for over 35,000 young Africans committed to changing the lives of their communities. \"The Mastercard Foundation's new fund will initiate a wave of community transformation across Africa by kickstarting hundreds of social ventures pioneered by young African leaders themselves,\" says Kayiza Isma, Mastercard Foundation scholar and co-founder of Sparky Social Enterprise.The YPARD Ghana has more than 750 members from farmer organisations and the government to representatives of the private sector. In recent years, the platform has proposed a number of policy reforms that directly respond to the need to create job opportunities for youth in Ghana. In May 2018, YPARD Ghana signed a letter of cooperation with the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa for the data population and local management of the eCapacities™ platform. The platform will foster engagement with African organisations on agribusiness, investment, human capital and production data to promote informed policies, targeted investments and enhanced monitoring and evaluation of growth in the agricultural sector.As Sithembile Ndema Mwamakamba of the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network says in her interview with Spore in this edition, \"Young people are eager to participate in agriculture policy processes, but they need to be equipped with the right skills to convey their messages well.\" Through platforms like RYAF and YPARD, youth in agriculture can influence the policy environment in response to their needs and help to make agriculture a more attractive employment option for rural young people.As well as connecting young agribusiness leaders and farmers with policymakers and strengthening farmers' organisations, CTA has been working with AgriCord, the Pan African Farmers Organisation and the European Council of Young Farmers, to link up young farmers in Africa and the EU. As a result, young farmers on both continents have been able to exchange lessons from their different experiences of modernising agriculture and take these learnings back to their communities. Giving young Africans in the agricultural sector a voice on the global stage helps to increase the visibility of successful entrepreneurs and agribusiness leaders, as well as raise the profile of young farmers to ensure that their relevance in the world's future food security is universally acknowledged. Such platforms thereby provide inspiration for other rural African youth in search of a viable alternative to migration. ■ The opportunity is in technology. For a long time, African agriculture has been considered rather backwards, whereas the rest of the world has moved on so much. But the approach needs to change because the training that young people receive -either at technical college or university -has been designed to train people how to work for somebody and not themselves.We also need to look at opportunities that exist within current challenges. For instance, within climate change, there are opportunities like carbon credits and carbon trading, which have spaces that young people can get into. In addition, we need creative and innovative financing packages that are designed for young people who want to set up their own businesses.We have been working together for the past 2 years to develop a policy guide for young people that demystifies the notion that policy development is just for government people or for adults, so to speak. The challenges that we are facing here in Africa do not discriminate, the old and the young are affected equally. By working with the Mastercard Foundation, we have recognised that young people are eager to participate in agriculture policy processes, but they need to be equipped with the right skills to convey their messages well.Digitalisation is frequently seen as the answer to attract more youth to agriculture, but is it really the silver-bullet that the sector needs?I personally believe that ensuring that young people engage in technology and innovation should be a priority for most governments. The world is advancing at a speed that I do not think we have ever seen before. We need to be able to harness technology and innovation properly in agriculture if we are going to chart a new development pathway for Africa, and young people are sitting right at the centre of all that innovation. So, I think there is a special need for our leaders to give credence to this view of getting young people further involved in the digital space and creating an enabling environment for them to do that. I think there is recognition of this by African leaders, because science, technology and innovation are key pillars of the African Union's Agenda 2063.I believe young people learn by doing, and opportunities like the Pitch AgriHack competition challenge them to think innovatively. From what I understand, it is a competition that comes with training and mentorship as well, so it means that young people will be supported with actually starting their businesses.Ultimately, it is about making sure that there is sustainability. So, there is a need to transfer knowledge from the old to the new. Climate-smart agriculture is being championed by FAO, CTA and FANRPAN, among others. This approach does not contain new information because it promotes practices like conservation agriculture and zero-tillage, which are techniques that farmers have been practising for years. But now, they have been researched further and there is a better understanding and appreciation of their value, so this knowledge needs to be transferred to our future farmers.To cope with rising youth unemployment in Africa, Mwamakamba calls for better efforts to support young people's engagement with technology, entrepreneurship and policymaking.Training Manual was launched in 2018 and provides a good resource for young people who want to be more involved in policy decisionmaking: https:// tinyurl.com/y6l33jtw I n Kenya, as in other African countries, young people often do not possess the collateral or adequate financial knowledge needed to venture into agricultural enterprises, deterring them from seeking and acquiring financial support for the development of agribusinesses. Further issues regarding the storage, transportation and market access of farm produce, and the resulting food loss and wastage in the country, can also deter youth from engaging in the sector.To change the perception of agriculture in the country, TV programme Shamba Shape Up (SSU) has been running for the past 5 years to share young farmers' success stories and promote agriculture as a business opportunity. The show aims to give farmers and audiences the tools they need to improve their farms (shambas). The series tackles issues such as soil infertility, poor crop and livestock health, as well as dietary diversity and how to maximise the nutritional value of vegetables consumed.So far, SSU has produced nine series, reaching an estimated 5 million people in Kenya, with broadcasts recently being extended to Tanzania. Each episode focuses on one farmer and their farm with the SSU team, including a film crew and experts such as veterinarians and crop specialists, visiting a different farm each week. Typically, the film crew spends 4 days with each farmer, allowing time to get experts' opinions and build any necessary improvement structures.Gabriel Ingubu, a 28-year-old farmer in Kenya's Bungoma County, is now practising horticulture after watching the programme on TV. \"I did notAgricultural TV shows that provide information on how to start an agribusiness are encouraging youths in Kenya and Tanzania to consider farming as a lucrative career choicehave any knowledge on tomato farming, but after watching how they handled the farming -from selecting the seeds, soil preparation and disease control to harvesting -I am now an expert farmer,\" he enthuses. On 0.2 ha of land, Ingubu plants tomatoes, kale and other leafy green vegetables, earning him around KSh 10,000 (€88) a week, which is enough to meet his family needs. He is also saving money to start a greenhouse project in order to increase production to supply hotels and restaurants around Bungoma town.Focusing on young farmers is important for Kenya's food security says Patricia Gichinga, head of productions at The Mediae Company, which produces the programme. Many farmers have been able to get feedback to any questions that arise whilst watching the show through a mobile phone-based agricultural information service called ishamba, also developed by The Mediae Company. In conjunction with SSU, the advice provided by the ishamba service helps farmers improve production and thus increase their incomes and livelihoods. ishamba has been running since 2015 and employs 12 young agricultural experts from Jomo Kenyatta University, who have been trained to write up agricultural information for mobile support. The premium service, which costs KSh 800 (€7) per year, currently has 270,000 subscribers -44% of whom are women.To further engage youths in farming activities, the SSU production team launched a new reality TV show called Don't Lose the Plot in March 2017. Funded by USAID's Feed the Future programme, and working with Africa Lead, the show aimed to encourage youth to consider farming as a lucrative career choice, and provide information on how to start an agribusiness and share useful agronomic information. As part of the programme, which was aired in Kenya and Tanzania between May and July 2017, four young farmers from the two countries were provided with 0.4 ha of land to turn it into successful and profitable farms within 9 months. The winner would receive a prize of €8,960 to be used for their own farming operations back home.Winrose Kaya from Tanzania emerged as the winner after working side-by-side with the show's experts to divide her farm into different sections. She planted quick maturing crops, including onions, potatoes, coriander, cabbage and spinach, and reared 500 broiler chicks. On returning home after completion of the competition, her parents offered her 0.5 ha of land, recognising their daughter's agricultural skills and ability to make a profit. The show was watched by 4.1 million youth in Kenya and Tanzania.Whilst airing Don't Lose the Plot, The Mediae Company also created Budget Mkononi, an interactive web-based tool to help young farmers calculate the input costs of a chosen crop, as well as how much profit they could make over a short period of time. Nearly 25,000 youths are currently using the Budget Mkononi tool to start up farming projects in, for example, onions, potatoes and poultry to achieve maximum profit. \"At first, I didn't realise that I could change the prices to suit my situation. But now that I know, I think the tool is useful and will help me to plan my spending,\" says Janet Oloo, one of the young beneficiaries from Kenya. Gregory Mutisya, also from Kenya, says the free budget service has greatly helped him in planning and making informed decisions, and has enabled him to attain the projected profit from his vegetable farm. ■are making more informed agronomic decisions to increase their production by watching agricultural TV showsGood farming practices help turn the tide on youth migrationA cereal production and marketing programme is substantially boosting smallholders' incomes, making the agricultural sector much more attractive to young people. As a consequence, youth migration has decreased. \"We aim to ensure that farmers will earn a decent income so that they can support the development of their villages rather than emigrating to cities or abroad -to the detriment of rural areas,\" says Benoit Thierry, head of the IFAD Western Africa Hub. \"We help create jobs by providing farmers with access to agricultural equipment, certified seeds, fertiliser and then to markets, thus enabling them to sell their quality produce and gain a decent income.\"Based on the resounding success of the first phase of the project, which culminated in 2014, PAFA has been extended to 2022. The project's five value chains (millet, cowpea, roselle, sesame and maize) have generated striking results; over 37,700 farmers have been able to significantly ratchet up their cereal production from 3,131 t in 2011 to 33,687 t in 2016, which is sufficient to cover the food needs of around 158,250 people. Based on the high quality of the millet produced, a contract was signed with the food giant Nestlé for the export of 3,000 t of the cereal to Côte d'Ivoire between 2014 and 2019 to be processed into Cerelac instant cereals for infants.PAFA's key objective is to help Senegalese farmers achieve food self-sufficiency in relatively infertile regions and make agriculture a sustainable option. To help achieve this, the initiative draws on the drive and vitality of local farmers' organisations by training their members in good agricultural practices and providing organisational capacity building. This helps members to generate higher incomes and makes the agriculture sector more attractive to the youth, who otherwise seek job opportunities in cities or migrate overseas.In the town of Niahrar, in the heartland of the Senegalese groundnut basin 144 km from Dakar, a local association perfectly exemplifies this knowledge transfer strategy. Created in 1989, the Jamm Bugum (meaning 'I want peace') sports and cultural association was initially a football team consisting of youths before becoming an agricultural organisation. \"In 1998, we thought we needed to be more useful to society,\" says its president Mame Biram Sène. \"We decided to invest in the development of our community. Our first initiative was to replant trees in public places in order to provide shade.\"In 2012, PAFA gave them practical training on equipment options, which inputs and seeds to use to enhance cereal production performance, how to organise a profitable market with the surplus production, and how to make nutritious dishes with cereals and juice drinks from fruits. Thirty-year old Ndèye Ndong was one of the beneficiaries, \"I didn't use to apply fertiliser in my field,\" she says. \"Here the soils are very poor and crop yields are variable. The training taught me how to organise fertiliser spreading, and when to pour on urea to get bushier plants and stronger cereal heads.\" She now manages to produce 1.5 t/ha of millet on her 2 ha field, compared to 500 kg before the initiative was launched, and can readily feed her family during the lean months. She also produces surplus from her field that she sells at the market, and has saved time spent on the field through the application of more efficient practices. \"This gives me time for other activities such as small-scale trading and managing my children's healthcare.\"Téning Ngom, 22, was also fully aware of the benefits of freeing up time spent on the farm for other income-generating activities. After the rainy season, using the money earned, she began selling prepared breakfasts to students and workers passing by her house every morning. \"I was also able to buy a television, radio and fridge in which I chill the juices I sell,\" she says. She has also been participating in a revolving credit group over the last 4 years to boost her income. This village savings and credit system includes 25 members who each put money into a common fund which, in turn, is used to finance members' purchases. The interest generated is then shared among the other members. \"This system enabled me to buy 10 sheep and 10 goats,\" says Ngom. \"I  hope this will eventually help me turn my breakfast business into a real restaurant. I want to stop working in the field to replace my pitchfork with a dinner fork!\" Half of the 1,005 members of the Jamm Bugum association are men. As is often the case in poor villages, it is generally the men who go to cities or abroad to find a more profitable activity than unfertile lands in Senegal have to offer. Outmigration candidates abound, including 23-year old farmer Sheikh Diouf, who says: \"I had planned to go to Spain to find work before PAFA was launched in 2012. Like my friends, I wanted to be able to send my family money back from Europe to tide them over during dry periods. This initiative managed to convince me to stay and farm the family land -and now we live well.\" Some young students have even decided to return to Niarhar after graduating with the aim of convincing other young people to stay. Twenty-eight year old Pierre Diouf is a Master's student in biology in Dakar. He was able to continue his studies with the earnings generated by the project. \"Once I graduate, I'll go back to the village to help other young people,\" he says. \"I'll prove to those who want to emigrate that they can earn more from local agriculture than they could from a dangerous trip to Europe.\"In the 1980-90s, most adult men left for Dakar as part of a seasonal migration trend during the dry season. Jacques Diou left Niarhar at the age of 18, but he only managed to become a poor dock worker in the capital. \"In town, all we were offered was hand-to-mouth work, so I went back to the village.\" Back home, his crop production increased by applying the good agricultural practices he had learnt from PAFA. The supplementary income enabled him to set up a market garden where he grows cassava, dates, lemons, mangoes, oranges and soursop to help his family get through the lean months. He has even set up a pigsty and a henhouse.\"Subsistence agriculture had long prevailed in Senegal,\" explains Aliou Diouf, a young teacher in Niahrar and Jamm Bugum member. \"PAFA has changed our mindset. We have gone from a threatening famine situation to food marketing. Farmers are now talking about yields and striving to develop their business.\" The association will be opening a bakery in May, selling bread made from local cereals -this is a first, and emblematic of the incredible change that has taken place. This entrepreneurship has earned Jamm Bugum two IFAD 'Golden Sheaf' awards for its innovations in the agricultural sector. In 2016, Mame Mbaye Niang, Senegalese Minister in charge of Youth, Employment and Citizen Building, praised the association. \"It is experiencing emergence,\" he said, placing the association's success within the context of President Macky Sall's Plan for an Emerging Senegal (PES).In addition to Jamm Bugum, PAFA supports 44 other youth associations across the country. Their overall positive results enabled 82% of beneficiaries to overcome hunger during the lean season, with malnutrition among children under 5 years old decreasing from 30% to 22% between 2011 and 2016. ■In 2014, Senegal launched a Priority Action Plan under the Programme to Accelerate the Pace of Senegalese Agriculture (PRACAS). This component of the government's PES aims to promote the growth of this vital sector so that it can become a catalyst for the country's economic transformation, in turn reducing the poverty that is forcing thousands of Senegalese young people to emigrate. Agricultural production in Senegal is insufficient, thus placing the most vulnerable segments of the population (47% of Senegalese people are poor) in a food insecurity dilemma. The per capita gross national income is €932, with a life expectancy of 63 years. These indicators place Senegal 162nd out of 187 countries in the 2016 Human Development Index rankings of the United Nations Development Programme. As a result of this underdevelopment, Senegal was ranked 10th by the European Parliament in terms of the number of illegal migrants entering Europe by sea in 2018. According to a paper published in the African Studies Review, from the 1980s onwards, economic liberalisation was a major reason for the deteriorating livelihoods of Senegalese people and a driving force behind outmigration (https://tinyurl.com/y4lmcsk6). Youth migration from rural areas has led to de-structuring and weakening of the agricultural sector. PRACAS and PAFA are currently striving to redress this situation by modernising farms to enhance nutrition security. One aim is to create synergies between family farming -the dominant form of agriculture in Senegal -and agribusiness, while preserving the environment. According to a recent study by the Migrations between Africa and Europe Project, nearly half of Senegalese migrants in Europe send money to their families back in their villages.To compensate for the low incomes generated by the families who stayed in their village, agriculture must be organised in structured commercial value chains and become more productive. PRACAS intends to provide farm jobs, technical training and equipment to more young people and women to offset foreign currency remittances and develop profitable local agriculture.\"I'll prove to those who want to emigrate that they can earn more from local agriculture than they could from a trip to Europe.\"The Solomon Islands rediscover the taste of honey Zimbabwe commercialises its indigenous cropsA zonal approach stimulates Madagascar's organic sectorFairtrade: a sweet deal for women farmers?\"Redoubling efforts to address food insecurity\"The Solomon Islands rediscover the taste of honeyFollowing destruction of the entire bee population by parasites in the 2000s, the Solomon Islands has now restarted its honey production, and has its sights set on the export market. In the 2000s, the Solomon Islands were producing enough honey to consider exporting a portion, thanks to the hard work of 2,000 beekeepers with over 400,000 hives. However, the introduction of Asian bees carrying the varroa parasite brought the sector to its knees.Almost 15 years later, \"Most of the producers sell their honey to an intermediary who then conditions it for selling on to wholesalers in cities,\" explains Rodney Suibea, a SISBEC member. As the primary intermediary in the sector, SISBEC guarantees an outlet for small-scale producers by purchasing their honey for between SI$40-50 (€4.40-€5.50) per 350 ml. \"At the moment, honey production is around 4-5 t per year and this cannot meet local demand,\" adds Suibea. Despite this, SISBEC is projecting production of 10-15 t by 2020/22. \"The honey could then be exported. We have tested the New Zealand market and have confirmed that there is a market for Solomon Islands honey there.\" According to Suibea, the honey is also appreciated in Japan. \"SISBEC will soon be signing up all of the apiarists to the Australia New Zealand Bank GoMoney programme (an online bank managed through an app), which will allow SISBEC to purchase honey from producers through their GoMoney account. SISBEC will also be creating buying centres for producers who do not currently have access to local shops [to sell their produce],\" confirms Gabriel Hiele, manager of the RDP agricultural section.The most spectacular progress has been made by the Gizo Women in Business Organisation, also supported by SISBEC, which brings together more than 300 producers from Gizo Island. One such member, Janet Beri, currently earns SI$42,800-48,150 (€4,700-€5,300) a year through the sale of her honey. \"My husband and I are villagers who work on our little plot in order to survive,\" says Beri, who has 10 hives. \"Now we are able to sell honey and make ends meet. We can easily cover the school fees at the start of each semester and send our other son, who left school a long time ago, on a business course in a professional training centre.\" ■ O ver 4,000 small-scale farmers living in arid areas of Zimbabwe are earning incomes from selling various underutilised indigenous plants. Through the harvesting, processing and packing of 15 edible and non-edible plant species, local farmers -mostly women -are finding employment opportunities with nonprofit research hub, Bio-Innovation Zimbabwe (BIZ). The organisation buys the wild-harvested crops from the farmers to process into various food and cosmetic products, such as conserves and moisturising oils, for sale at local and international markets.Zimbabwe has many adaptable and drought-resistant plant species that require minimal or no agri-inputs at all and have significant commercial potential. Baobab, for instance, is a hardy tree that grows in very dry areas of the country and is used in BIZ's flagship products, such as baobab powder, marmalade and hair oil. Although, traditionally, baobab fruits have been eaten, the tree was never previously considered a cash crop by local farmers, but is now contributing to livelihood security. \"In 2012, 1 year after I started harvesting baobab, I managed to buy a water pump, which I use in my garden to water maize, beans and other vegetables to sell to the community. The market gardening earns me an extra income of RTGS$300 (€50) per month,\" says Marcia Matsika from Manicaland province.\"At the moment, we are processing between 12 and 15 different species. We started with 40 plants which we whittled down so that farmers can harvest and sell on a predictable and regular basis, but not necessarily cultivate them, as most are available as wild plants,\" says Gus Le Breton, BIZ CEO. \"Through our separate company, B'Ayoba, we have trained, contracted and organically certified 4,500 baobab producers… and, if you consider that an average household in Zimbabwe is five people, that is 20,000 people, and this is just one plant,\" he adds. Other indigenous plants processed at BIZ include, Bambara nut, marula tree, mongongo nut or mankelli tree, the resurrection plant, rosella, sausage tree or kigelia, the wild melon tree and ximenia.The harvesters earn around €90 each season from the sale of the baobab fruit, according to Le Breton: \"It is not a lot of money, but it is still the biggest source of cash in poor arid areas, where there are not many economic opportunities. Out of the 4,000 harvesters, 150 that we directly employ to work at our processing centres earn between US$500 (€445) and US$1000 (€890) [per season], and that's good money,\" he says.BIZ sells most of its products to American and European markets, with baobab powder selling for around €10 per kg and moisturising seed oils for around €25 per kg, but local sales have been slow because of a negative misconception of indigenous resources. \"The biggest obstacle to developing this industry locally is the lack of market, but internationally the market is going to grow,\" says Le Breton. \"We are growing local awareness based on the demand from the diaspora and export market.\" ■A specialised research organisation in Zimbabwe is identifying and developing locally available and underutilised plant species into marketable products.© PHYTOTRADE AFRICA Indigenous and underutilised plant species in Zimbabwe, such as the baobab tree, are being harvested and processed into marketable food and cosmetic productsIn response to high national demand for mushrooms, an agribusiness company in the Congo has developed easy-to-use, affordable production kits.Marien Nzikou-Massala I n the Republic of the Congo, it is now possible to grow and eat mushrooms all year round. Bio-Tech Congo, founded in 2015 by engineer Tsengué-Tsengué, produces and markets incubated growing kits capable of producing up to 3 kg of fresh oyster mushrooms in 3 months. Commonly known as mayebo in Lingala, much-loved oyster mushrooms were previously only available for a few months during the rainy season.Each kit is made up of lightweight mesh bags that contain compost made of wood shavings collected from local carpentry workshops. The shavings are then ground down and mixed with wheat bran and ground maize. The substrate sachets are pasteurised to destroy any micro-organisms that could prevent the mushrooms from growing. Finally, the sachets are sown with mushroom seeds produced at the company's small factory in Brazzaville. The incubated growing kits only require water and shade to avoid drying up, and it takes just 3-4 weeks for the first oyster mushrooms to germinate. \"It costs us less than 5,000 CFA francs (€7.60) to produce a kit,\" explains Tsengué-Tsengué, who sells the cultivated mushrooms to major supermarkets and grocery stores in the Congolese cities of Brazzaville, Makoua, Owando and Pointe-Noire. Private individuals can buy incubated growing kits from Bio-tech Congo for 9,000 CFA francs (€13.70); and the company employs five full-time staff to produce around 30 kits a day. A total of 10,800 kits were produced in 2018.Demand is high confirms regular customer, Anna Dyemo, \"I was surprised to find these mushrooms [out of season] at the Casino supermarket. My husband loves them, so I went to Bio-Tech Congo's head office to buy a kit to produce them myself.\" Dyemo explains that the next steps were very easy -she hung the kit in her outhouse, in the shade, so that the mushrooms and the substrate would not dry out in the sun and watered them two to three times a day. Dyemo says she soon had her first mushroom crop, which she ate with fish, meat or moambé, a sauce made from palm nut. She says purchasing a new kit just once every 3 months has saved money on buying mushrooms from the supermarket. Not only that, but the oyster mushroom is a very good source of vitamin B (particularly vitamins B1, B2, B3, B6 and B9).The mushroom kits are also gaining traction in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with the company exporting more than 500 kits every month to the capital, Kinshasa, on the other side of the Congo River. To help supply the city of 12 million inhabitants, a partnership has been signed between Bio-Tech Congo and Kinshasa's Institut supérieur de techniques appliquées (Higher Institute of Applied Techniques) in order to train students in mushroom production.Tsengué-Tsengué is also planning to penetrate the market in neighbouring Gabon and, in March 2019, three students from the country began following a video conference course on mushroom growing, delivered by Tsengué-Tsengué at a cost of 300,000 CFA francs (€458). The goal is to make these much-loved mushrooms available to all consumers in West Africa. ■ aps of Madgascar's organic farmland are being used to identify zones where the practice could be expanded and supported with technical advice and assistance, supplies of organic seeds, and help for local farmers in obtaining certification. Once a zone is identified as organic, this serves as a starting point for intensifying and developing organic farming practices. The approach was developed by the Syndicat malgache de l'agriculture biologique (Symabio, Madagascar's organic farming syndicate), and is being adopted by local agricultural processing companies, including Lecofruit, the Melville palm oil processing plant, Jacarandas (spices and essential oils) and Sahanala (ginger, vanilla, cashew nut, etc.).Small-scale producers in Madagascar are increasingly converting to organic farming. For instance, while 36,000 ha were dedicated to the sustainable practice in 2011, this increased to 121,000 ha in 2018. Not only that, but exports of organic food products totalled €84 million in 2018, compared to €22 million in 2012. Organic farming is much more profitable for smallholders as production and distribution costs are lower, and sales prices are more attractive than conventional farming. \"I don't need to buy inputs or expensive chemical fertilisers any more; compost is enough. And the price of an organic product is much higher than that of a conventional product,\" explains Tendry Botomazava, an organic sugar cane grower in the east of the country.According to Gaëtan Etancelin, director of the Melville palm oil processing plant, which produces 1,000 t of organic oil a year, 85% of which is exported, \"There is less risk for farmers in organic farming. They have a contract, which guarantees them an outlet and the sales price. Also, as their land is not chemically treated, the soil will not become depleted over the medium or long term. On the contrary, natural treatment enriches the soil.\"However, one barrier to the development of organic farming in Madagascar is the exorbitant cost of certification: at least Ar 8 million (€2,000). Symabio is therefore trying to obtain certification on behalf of cooperatives. In addition, certain external factors complicate the adoption of organic farming practices. For example, the use of toxic products to combat the invasion of locusts in the south of the country is essential, even though this could contaminate millions of hectares of land.Symabio, which was created in 2011 and is made up of 40 organic-certified members (companies, farming cooperatives, farmers' organisations, etc.), has defined the national regulatory framework for organic farming with the Ministry of Agriculture, and is working with the government to create a strategic national phytosanitary plan incorporating the requirements of organic farming. While Madagascar is already a world leader in the organic vanilla, prawn and palm oil sectors, adoption of new legislation should allow scaling of the practice beyond the country's 35,000 organic producers. ■In Madagascar, the area of land dedicated to organic farming has more than trebled since 2011The development of zones dedicated to organic farming in Madagascar is increasing local adoption of the technique and generating higher incomes for small-scale farmers.mallholder farmers in remote, rural areas face a multitude of challenges in terms of getting their food to market safely and efficiently, and achieving a fair price for it. Erratic and expensive energy supplies, insufficient storage facilities, poor roads and unsuitable transportation methods mean perishable goods often lose some, or all, of their value before they reach processors or other buyers. Difficulties in tracking and recording the location, quality, volume and price of produce makes it easy for unscrupulous middlemen to cheat producers. These hurdles trap many farmers in a subsistence loop, which prevents them from increasing their profits and scaling up, and reduces lenders' confidence that any loans will be repaid.Even when commodities do reach buyers safely, the informal, cash-based nature of many trades means farmers often lack solid transaction records. Such records would not only help them to identify problems or opportunities to grow their business, but also demonstrate to lenders that they represent an acceptable risk.In just 1.5 years, agri-tech company, Savanna Circuit, has helped to overcome a number of challenges for over 800 small-scale dairy producers spread across six dairy cooperatives in Kenya. Through the company's MaziwaPlus solar-powered 'chilling-in-transit' system and associated app, the producers now enjoy increased profits and are able to keep proper transaction records. As a result, a number of dairy producers have been approved for loans, which they have used to expand their business or buy inputs such as feed, says Savanna Circuit's co-founder, Emmastella Gakuo. Under the MaziwaPlus system, milk is delivered from small producers to their local cooperatives by motorbike in specially designed aluminium tanks connected to solar panels. The tanks maintain the milk temperature at around 5°C until it reaches the cooperatives' cooling plant, where it is chilled to 3°C. The milk is also weighed and pH tested on collection, with this data fed automatically into the MaziwaPlus app. An electronic receipt is then sent to the producer's mobile phone with an agreed milk price from MaziwaPlus -minus a small commission that is shared between the producer and the cooperative -when the milk is sold on to processors. The e-system provides producers with daily income statements and production records, which lenders require for credit scoring and, in some cases, for collateral.Savanna Circuit has also added a second milk collection in the evening, allowing some dairy producers to almost double their income. Along with reduced losses from spillage and spoilage, resulting from using the well-sealed, refrigerated tanks, this additional collection has helped farmers increase their average incomes from around €71 per month in October 2017 to €134 per month today. By receiving milk partially chilled by the MaziwaPlus tanks, cooperatives have also reduced power costs by up to 18%.Savanna Circuit is now in the process of transitioning to using three-wheeler MaziwaPlus bikes to further reduce costs, and plans to apply MaziwaPlus technology to trucks with 10,000 l capacity within the next 3 years, says Gakuo.Launched in 2014, fast-growing business-to-business (B2B) logistics platform Twiga Foods is rapidly scaling up its work facilitating access to credit for farmers and food vendors in Kenya. The company currently connects more than 8,000 farmers in Kenya with food vendors by helping to manage everything from harvesting to centralised storageAs agri-tech innovators focus on protecting and tracking commodities, their services are helping to reduce risk associated with lending to farmers.in state-of-the art cooling and ripening facilities, and eventual delivery to retailers. Acting as a wholesaler and a logistics provider, the company offers farmers a guaranteed market for their produce, as well as transparent pricing and farming advice, while ensuring that produce reaches buyers in perfect condition. All transactions are recorded electronically, which enables lending partners to build a picture of a farmer or vendor's creditworthiness. Twiga Foods currently offers interest-free input loans to mid-size farmers and is looking to scale this service up by partnering with lenders, who would offer them low-interest commercial loans. The company is collaborating with the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and a commercial bank with a view to launching 18-month loans to cover some or all of the €45,000-62,000 cost of establishing mid-sized farms, which Twiga Foods would guarantee offtake from. The predictability of Twiga Food's daily demand, with the company willing to sign contracts to buy the farms' offtake at fixed prices for months and years ahead, means lenders can be confident they will be repaid, co-founder and executive director Grant Brooke says.On the vendor side, Twiga Foods partnered with IBM Research in 2018 to offer blockchain-based working capital loans to 220 food kiosk owners in Kenya, under an 8-week pilot. IBM used machine-learning algorithms to analyse purchase records from vendors' mobile devices and create a de facto credit score. Then, blockchain technology was used to safely accelerate the loan application and disbursement process. Twiga Foods says that recipients of the 4-8 day loans -which were typically for around €25-30 at an interest rate of 1-2%, and were used to buy stock -were able to increase their order sizes for produce by 30% and their profits by 6%, on average. The company aims to roll the pilot out further and is also on the brink of launching a 48-hour interest-free working capital product for vendors with another lender. In November 2018, Twiga Foods raised almost €9 million from investors led by IFC and now plans to expand across Eastern Africa.As new technologies like those employed by Twiga Foods and MaziwaPlus support the creation and analysis of more data about farmers' business transactions -while helping to access markets for their produce and reducing the risks it is exposed tosmallholders' access to agri-finance will continue to increase. ■ © EATRADEHUBAndrew Mwok, a dairy farmer in Kaptabuk, West Pokot County, credits MaziwaPlus transaction records for enabling him to obtain credit for the first time. He took a KSh 100,000 (€887) facility -now repaid -from his local cooperative in March 2018, and used the funds to purchase four dairy cows, doubling his herd size to eight. This was followed by a KSh 320,000 (€2,837) loan, which he received through a statesubsidised scheme in November 2018, paying interest rates of around 10%. Mwok used this second loan to set up a dairy unit, including the purchase of equipment and feed. He hopes, by mid-2019, to borrow a larger amount from a commercial bank to cover dairy operations and expand his production further. Mwok, who used to engage in dairy production as a subsistence activity with his mother, says that, since using MaziwaPlus, their daily milk deliveries have increased from 50 l to 170 l, and they now run the farm as a business.Blockchain technology is being used to accelerate loan applications for Kenyan food kiosk vendors F ollowing the global crash in cocoa prices, which dropped by a third during 2016/17, a typical farmer in West Africa receives just 6% of the value of final cocoa products and, according to the Fairtrade Foundation, lives on around €0.85 a day. The situation is even worse for women farmers, who carry out the lion's share of the labour, but rarely own the land they farm, have fewer rights than men, and therefore receive even less of the profits.The thriving coffee value chain is no better. A handful of European and US transnational food giants, for instance, capture 40% of the value from each cup, whilst 25 million coffee farming families receive just 12% between them. So, what is being done to provide cocoa and coffee producers with an improved living wage? And how are the rights of women farmers being addressed?Leading international Fairtrade company, Divine Chocolate, is 44% owned by the Kuapa Kokoo cocoa farmers' cooperative in Ghana. Of the 85,0000 Kuapa Kokoo members, more than a third are women. Divine invests 2% of its turnover into microfinance schemes to build capacity of women farmers in, for example, literacy and numeracy skills. As a result, women are better able to sign work contracts, negotiate prices and record transactions. \"It is particularly important to me that women members see the benefit of organising themselves and receive training in skills, as well as cocoa farming, so they can earn more income, and save and use it sensibly,\" says Fatima Ali, Kuapa Kokoo president.In September 2018, Divine launched a new range of high-quality dark chocolate bars across Scandinavia, using cocoa beans from São Tomé. The company is working with the CECAQ-11 cooperative on the island, which has 1,135 farmer members -393 of whom are womenwho receive the Fairtrade premium of €176 above the market price per tonne. The new deal will \"…help revitalise the cocoa industry by providing long-term relationships and access to market for cocoa farmers,\" says CECAQ-11 co-op director, Adalberto Luis. The premium has already been used by CECAQ-11 farmers to set up a primary school, and to improve the local electricity supply and road infrastructure.In Côte d'Ivoire, CAYAT -another Fairtrade-certified cocoa cooperativeis producing over 8,000 t of cocoa each year and selling to some of the biggest Fairtrade chocolate brands like KitKat. Under the leadership of female farmer, Awa Bamba, and using the Fairtrade premium, many women have been able to establish separate agribusinesses in fruit or vegetable farming to generate additional income. Bamba has also initiated diversification into poultry and egg production, through which women members are earning an additionalEstablished and start-up companies worldwide are adopting Fairtrade -or similar trading models -to deliver higher social standards and incomes for producers. But are women farmers benefiting? To ensure sustainable livelihoods for the coffee-growing communities of Kenya and Tanzania, Vava Angwenyi founded Vava Coffee in Nairobi, Kenya in 2009. Since its inception, the company has achieved global recognition for its premium coffees, as well as for its social impact.The 30,000 smallholders that provide the coffee beans to Vava are paid an above-market price for the specialty coffee, increasing their revenues from €222 to €338 each year. And, by directly linking smallholders to markets that are keen on ethically-sourced, traceable coffees, this model provides farmers with sustainable livelihoods. Vava Coffee exports to buyers in Europe and the US, but has recently developed a direct-to-consumer arm to the business, enabling the sale of smaller amounts of coffee. In 2018, Angwenyi launched the company's first line of Fairtradecertified coffee, owned by smallholder farmers from two women-centric cooperatives in the Rift Valley.In Uganda's Mpigi district, women coffee farmers are also achieving fair prices for their coffee beans. Elizabeth Nalugemwa founded her social enterprise, Kyaffe Farmers Coffee, in 2017 to help local women access new markets in the country. \"We purchase our coffee at Fairtrade prices from 50 cooperatives consisting of 1,500 farmers in two growing regions in our country,\" Nalugemwa explains. The company trains women to grow 100% high quality organic coffee that they process themselves into a finished branded product and sell directly to the final consumer through local trade fairs, events and markets. Meeting with buyers directly means farmers are able to increase their profit margins and avoid the involvement of middlemen and traders.The women farmers who supply Kyaffe are provided with training in fertiliser use and pest control methods to increase their production. According to Angwenyi, who also aims to empower women farmers, further education and agricultural training is essential so that smallholders can effectively utilise their resources and ensure improved, sustainable incomes in the long term. ■ A recognised young leader in Africa's agricultural sector, Olawale Rotimi has founded and co-founded numerous impactful initiatives and partnerships in his home country of Nigeria, and across the continent, with the goal of ending hunger and creating wealth in Africa. Here, he describes some of these initiatives, and speaks on the importance of business leaders stepping up to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).In the agriculture sector, there is a lot that technology can do. Young people are able to tap into social media, for instance, to market their products worldwide. Other platforms, such as USSD-enabled facilities, allow functionality beyond smartphones for young rural farmers to connect with buyers.Young people can therefore use digitalisation as an opportunity to solve critical challenges within the agricultural sector.The use of drones, for example, makes application of fertilisers and pesticides much quicker and less expensive. I think youths in Africa should intensify their innovative power to create more techdriven solutions to respond to challenges in the sector.ILO is doing a lot of work to create decent jobs for young people. The RuralOlawale Rotimi Opeyemi is the founder and CEO of JR Farms, an agribusiness working to transform Africa's agriculture by providing more jobs in the sector, and creating value addition for the continent's staple crops. We are also collaborating with the Lagos State Employment Trust Fund in the area of capacity building and job creation. Through this partnership, which has resulted in agriculture being added to the State government's area of focus for youth empowerment, JR Farms provides young people with an interest in agribusiness with training on agricultural production, and work opportunities at the company or affiliate organisations.The Rwandan government has provided us with a platform to work with over 4,000 coffee farmers, and to roast, package and export our product from Rwanda to Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Japan, Nigeria and the US, among other markets. We are the first African business to have this kind of partnership with the Rwandan government and it is one of the business's major breakthroughs, helping us to impact on farmers' livelihoods through the promotion of African products. The partnership has added credibility to what we do, demonstrating our dedication to Africa's development through agribusinesses.Over the years, we have been committed to the SDGs relating to food security, zero hunger and creating decent work opportunities for young people across the continent. One of our initiatives that demonstrates our contribution is the Inmates Farming Scheme with Nigeria Prisons, where we train prisoners in farming practices. This is a first -which I know of -for Nigerian prisons, whereby inmates are able to learn new skills and access healthy meals from what they produce.In addition, we produce a minimum of 35 t of cassava for the local market each month, which is helping to solve the food crisis on the continent. Across the cassava value chain, we empower farmers by buying their produce at very good rates, while employing young people to process the crop into garri. We have a similar initiative with coffee in Rwanda, and with cocoa in Côte d'Ivoire; hence, we are helping to solve problems, such as market access, post-harvest losses and poor living standards for farmers.I started seeing the reality of climate change in 2018 when the rains stopped really early in Nigeria. The rains that came were unpredictable and insufficient to support crop growth. Food is life, so it is important that we step up to solve food insecurity, particularly in Africa where so many live off less than a dollar per day, and cannot afford to lose their harvests.Food business leaders should help develop more food security initiatives and raise the required funding to bring projects to fruition. As business leaders, we are able to gather people together to lobby governments and influence policy to help access food at affordable rates, and promote greater climate change mitigation on the continent. ■Over the past years, the Global Report on Food Crises has consistently shown that more than 100 million people are suffering from acute hunger. Why do so many people still lack food on such a large scale?From media coverage each day, it is clear that food crises are not a novelty. Unfortunately, it still happens, and it happens due to a multitude of reasons. What is unprecedented is the complexity of the multiple drivers of fragility contributing to food crises; climate change is the major cause, but changing demographics, conflict, poverty, inequality, migration pressures, and rural-urban pressure points also play a role. Food crisis is just the tip of the iceberg and is the extreme manifestation of the vulnerability of populations due to complex and varying crises.This report is global, evidence-and consensus-based. We want to convey that prevention and response to food crises must be based on timely, reliable, complete and locally-owned information. The ambition now is to work and coordinate better together at global, regional, country and local level to tackle the root causes of food crisis through the Global Network against Food Crises (GNFC). The network has three dimensions: firstly data, information, and evidence-based analysis; secondly, strategic investments and programming for food and nutrition security, along the so-called humanitarian/development nexus; and thirdly, going beyond the food dimension of crises by having a fully integrated approach, thus including responses to other drivers of fragility, such as the peace and security dimension.We are hopeful because the world cannot continue with the business-as-usual approach. We should not have a systemic problem every time there is a disaster, especially when an extreme climate event hits, and this will happen more and more in the future, with catastrophic impacts that, if not addressed, will be even more problematic in years to come. The recent example, with the anomaly of two simultaneous cyclones -Idai and Kenneth -in Mozambique is a case in point.I think what we are seeing is rallied action of the key players from all angles of the nexus -from the humanitarian side, the development side and the peace side. The action should involve processes that locally-owned and state-driven, but also guarantee better coordination among the donor community, whereby GNFC can play a key role. All this requires a new way of thinking, and I think the momentum is there because there is important steer from us, as the EU, with our member states. We hosted the Global Event 'Food and agriculture in times of crises' on 2-3 April 2019 in Brussels. We tried to bring together individuals and organisations involved and interested in the GNFC to actually say, \"Look, this is what we achieved today and these are the gaps, let us work together so that we address these gaps and make food crises history.\"It is clear that the impact of natural and man-made climate shocks will vary by geographic location, but risk will be especially high across vulnerable areas, particularly certain parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The evidence shows that food systems are increasingly under stress and that large segments of populations remain highly vulnerable. So, new and innovative initiatives -such as the GNFC -that foster better coordination and efficiency are essential. You cannot tackle food crises with just a 'silo' approach; a food systems approach must also be territorially based to examine the interlinked drivers of fragility and complex dynamics, such as south-south migration, southnorth migration, rural-urban tensions and tensions around land-tenure issues and access to resources. If we do not try to systemically tackle these in a more holistic way, then we will still have future hotspots of food crises.Food crises are not a novelty and there are many examples of effective responses in the recent past. What is required is a more systemic approach in terms of forecasting, anticipation, prevention and building more resilient societies so that they can bounce back and recover quickly from any shock. Research can help to adapt food systems to climate change, take a more nutrition-based approach, target the most vulnerable, and look into land tenure systems, insurance schemes and forecasting. The challenge is a global one, but solutions need to be locally-owned and tailored to specific circumstances. Examples are plenty, including Ethiopia with its country-owned Productive Safety Net Programme, focusing on social protection of the vulnerable segments of the population.Several worrying trends point to the risk of unprecedented crises. However, solutions exist and should be pursued. The EU wants to be a leader of change, a leader of direction-giving and such a leader must place emphasis on the resources and efforts that need to be prioritised. We speak a lot about agriculture, food systems and nutrition, but we need to put food systems high on the political agenda. Agriculture and rural development are at the core of vast regions and have a key role to play to ensure the well-being and development of societies. We want to provide a human rights-based approach to policymaking by empowering women and young people through the creation of vibrant rural communities -that is why we are promoting private sector engagement in agriculture. It is only through a blend of public and private sector investment that we can create the right framework conditions for young people to construct prosperous livelihoods in rural areas. ■The 2019 Global Report on Food Crises: Joint Analysis for Better Decisions is a product of the GNFC. It is the result of a collaborative effort involving 15 leading global and regional institutions -including the EU, FAO and WFP -to share data, analyses, knowledge and expertise regarding people facing food crises. The report aims to provide evidence-based and consensual information on acute food insecurity to better inform decision-making by policymakers, and humanitarian and development organisations. Food crises are the extreme manifestation of complex crises often caused by interlinked drivers of vulnerability. The report identifies three lead causes of food insecurity: conflict and insecurity, attributed to 74 million cases of acute hunger; climate and natural disasters, attributed to 29 million; and economic shocks, attributed to 10.2 million. The number of people who need assistance to meet their daily food needs has been rising in recent years and, although humanitarian spending has significantly increased, from €16.4 billion in 2013 to €24.3 billion in 2017, the report points out that, too often, these resources are spent on tackling the effects of food insecurity, and not on addressing the underlying causes early enough. Nevertheless, according to the authors, humanitarian and development actors are now improving coordination mechanisms, including actors active in conflict prevention where appropriate in order to move away \"from delivering aid to ending need.\" This 'new way of working' is a response to a call for more innovative approaches to sustainably address food crises from the Agenda for Humanity at the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016. Since then, huge strides have been made from this renewed focus on agriculture, with countries seeing productivity and exports rise. In Côte d'Ivoire, cocoa and cotton production has doubled, and cashew nut production tripled. Not every country, however, can tell the same success story. Currency and counterparty risk probably top the fear factors for potential investors but, generally, the 'failures' tend to come down to due diligence issues. These include inadequate market analysis and an assumption that business models can simply be transplanted across markets. Ghana, for example, is no more like Mozambique than Singapore is like Indonesia.Any investment can incur considerable reputational and financial cost if it fails to undertake its own due diligence and be willing to commit to ongoing engagement with local stakeholders. A 2016 World Bank conference heard that 45% of land investments fail in Africa due to community conflicts. The investor has a responsibility, alongside the beneficiary country, to make their investments work; it is not enough to rely on government assurances. Companies need to substantiate their social licence to operate by applying their own risk assessment -such as Environmental & Social Impact Assessments -with a reputed third party.Meanwhile, farmers continue to face poor infrastructure and inadequate access to credit and markets. In processing and distribution, the challenges essentially boil down to the problem of preserving product quality. In Nigeria, even though groundnuts are a key crop, the country is unable to export them; the lack of warehousing means the groundnuts are left too long in fields, leading to the growth of aflatoxins, which prime export markets do not accept due to health risks. Agribusinesses like Olam can invest in storage, but ports -being highly congested, generally inefficient and costly -are a different matter.Addressing logistical issues would not only encourage trade, but help to reduce food waste. Some African governments are already making moves in the right direction, but more needs to be done before Africa becomes a serious player in the global productivity stakes. That said, this status should not belie the potential that the continent still holds for agricultural growth -if managed sustainably. With about half of the world's fertile, but as-yet-uncultivated land, it is estimated that agribusiness in Africa will grow to be a US$1 trillion (€880 billion) industry in Africa by 2030. Then there is Africa's demographic dividend, from having the fastest growing and most youthful population in the world (40% below 15 and 20% below 24), which if provided with adequate education and training, presents a huge opportunity in terms of labour force and consumer spending.For 3 decades, Olam has grown alongside Africa, investing US$2.8 billion (€2.47 billion) across 25 countries, and collaborating with NGOs and development finance institutions. From starting in Africa as an exporter of cash crops, the development of Olam's packaged foods, and rice and wheat milling operations for the domestic market, means we can truly say that we are doing business in Africa, for Africa.Considering that African agriculture is essentially built on the activity of more than 35 million smallholders, any investment that does not catalyse their productivity will not be sustainable. So, placing a strong focus on supporting the 2.8 million smallholder farmers that supply Olam with crops, ranging from coffee and cotton, to cashews and rice, makes business sense. Our ability to continue supplying our customers depends on lifting these farmers out of poverty and ensuring they can produce sustainable volumes in the face of any market or climate-related risks.Looking ahead, we see tremendous potential for economic development in Africa. For this reason, we will continue to prioritise the region as a globally competitive supply for our commodities, as well as maximise its strong underlying demand for growth through our domestic foods business. ■ Agriculture plays a key role in Africa's growth and economic development, employing about 60% of the workforce and accounting for a third of its GDP. Yet the continent remains the most food-insecure region in the world, with more than 232 million of its 1 billion people categorised as under-nourished. The continent also spends too much on food imports -US$35 billon (€28 billion) every year, and potentially US$110 billion (€98 billion) by 2025.Studies conducted by FAO show that additional investments in excess of US$80 billion (€71 billion) are required annually to meet targets for reducing poverty and the numbers of malnourished Africans. Despite the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme goals and Malabo Declaration commitment to increase agricultural spending to 10% of public expenditure, most African countries still spend much less. Against this background, foreign direct investment (FDI) will play a complementary role.Agricultural investments from domestic sources alone are simply inadequate to cover growing demand for food in Africa. FDI will therefore be important in supplementing domestic investment requirements, boosting productivity, and serving as a conduit for knowledge and technology transfer to African economies. Beyond this, FDI will provide the channels to integrate local businesses into national, regional and global value chains. Such investment provides room for agribusinesses to learn new business practices, management techniques and concepts that help them develop an ecosystem and access new markets.The last 3 years has seen a surge of interest in international investment in African agriculture, particularly in land, agribusinesses, and water entitlements. The drivers of this growth include the increasing demand for food and feed in major importing countries; the need to secure adequate food supplies internationally; the growing demand for biofuel feed-stock; and concerns about vulnerability to the volatile global food markets.Increasingly, skeptics are raising concerns about the possible adverse impacts of some new forms of FDI. They point to one growing phenomena: the acquisition of large-scale land by foreign players. As a result, smallholders are displaced, grazing land for pastoralists is diminished or totally lost, rural families and communities suffer loss of income and livelihoods, and natural resources and biodiversity degenerates.To mitigate these challenges, policymakers, development agencies and local communities need to maximise the benefits of foreign agricultural investment, while minimising the risks. This will, however, depend on several factors and variables, namely, transparency, good governance, appropriate linkages with smallholder farmers and agrarian communities, and the quality of institutions and institutional frameworks.Investment projects that combine the strengths of the investor (capital, management and marketing expertise, and technology) with those of local farmers (labour, land, local knowledge) are likely to be most successful. It is also important to establish a win-win framework; the business model must leave farmers in control of their land, provide incentives for all parties to invest in land improvements and favour sustainable development. ","tokenCount":"18959"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"587e563fc6165d59cfd9bb9438f36b4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/284a62e0-4f29-4aae-8504-04c1c834cd17/content","id":"1412310081"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d9c3777e-0e76-4fdb-9c65-e0ccef01bcda","pagecount":"35","content":"Key diseases in specific mega-environments  Durable resistance to diseases and pests Septoria leaf blight (ME2) Spot Blotch (ME5) Tan Spot (ME4) Fusarium -head scab and myco-toxins (ME2/4/5) Karnal bunt (ME1) Root rots and nematodes (ME4)Advanced lines grown as replicated yield trials at Cd. Obregon and as small plots at all three sites, & phenotyped for leaf rust, stem rust and stripe rust at Cd. Obregon, Njoro and Santa Catalina, respectively. Best lines retained.El Batan, Toluca, & Njoro Seed of International Nurseries Candidates multiplied at El Batan. Lines also grown at all sites and phenotyped for leaf rust, stripe rust, stem rust, Septoria tritici, Fusarium head blight, etc. Quality analysis conducted using Obregon grain. Cd. Obregon, Mexicali & Njoro 2nd year yield trials conducted in 5 environments at Obregon, seed multiplication for international distribution at Mexicali & phenotyped for stem rust resistance at Njoro.International Yield Trials and Screening Nurseries prepared and distributed.      • A majority of lines (>60%) distributed each year have high levels of APR.• Lines with APR & race-specific resistance have similar severities in field. • With the spread of aggressive races-infection in some areas initiates as early as tillering when APR genes still not fully functional• A simpler strategy is to utilize combinations of slow rusting APR genes with small/intermediate effect race-specific resistance genes that have enhanced expression due to additive effects• Field based selection can be done simultaneously with other traits that increases genetic gains for multiple traits","tokenCount":"242"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"22b7356589930af0d7d34b1858bccb43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b53a01c8-7d3f-45de-abac-668d84f0b720/retrieve","id":"1907022436"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"367dab47-1a14-47e8-973b-154853f4068b","pagecount":"11","content":"residues used as feed enable production of manure and animal based food products. In India, SCLIMS account for 64% of the area and support 67% of the population. Demand for animal products increasing with urbanization, provides opportunities for increasing smallholder-incomes. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), meat and milk production per animal has declined over the last 25 years due to decreased farm size and, land and water degradation. Water often limits crop and feed production. Water productivity refers to the ratio of agricultural production to water depleted rather than to efficiency measure of the ratio of agricultural production to the amount of water applied. Managing food-feed crops in a manner that reduces evapotranspiration losses can be expected to enhance water productivity and livestock and crop production.Much effort has gone to providing livestock drinking water in SSA and South Asia, but this has not been true of water for feed production. Research by IWMI on water productivity, ICRISAT on dryland crops and ILRI on livestock feeds/fodders suggests that under rainfed systems, enhanced water productivity is possible through improvements in water and soil fertility management, agronomic practices such as conservation tillage, and use of improved genotypes of food-feed crops. In most of the semi-arid tropics of Africa and Asia, the nexus of water and feed limitation is the primary constraint to effective livestock production.Information gaps exist on the water productivity options that offer best economic benefit to farmers. The overall project aims to address these gaps through integrated and participatory multidisciplinary research and to identify policies and technologies that can improve water productivity to benefit smallholder farmers. This document describes the framework for the full project, and particularly activities undertaken in the SLP-project to develop one/more proposals for that full project, actively engaging stakeholders in proposal development. To improve water productivity of food, feed and animal production under SCLIMS, in the face of water scarcity (including economic) by optimizing water use to sustainably alleviate poverty and enhance ecosystem health in rainfed SSA and India. This will be achieved through the short-term goal of development of proposal(s) for a full project, synthesizing expert and stakeholder opinion and, existing indigenous and scientific knowledge. The goals of the full proposal will include providing policies and technology tools that enable development and promotion of viable and sustainable options for improvements in fodder/feed and animal production in SCLIMS.1) Establish a multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder research consortia on enhancing water productivity in SCLIMS. 2) Generate, document and compile local and scientific knowledge on water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops and their impacts on SCLIMS sector in SSA and India. 3) Identify the main drivers of the SCLIMS as affected by bio-physical, social, micro and macro-economic factors, particularly the different roles and opportunities for women and minority groups. 4) Assess the institutional capacities for knowledge dissemination and adoption. 5) Identify gaps in knowledge, research capacity, and decision support tools and, plan wider scale R&D activities to better integrate water management for sustainable increases in crop and livestock production and testing identified institutional and technological options. (217 words)The project aims to generate and apply knowledge on water productivity of food and feed in SSA and India, focusing on dynamic crop-livestock mixed smallholder farming systems, faced with declining land and water resources (especially economic water scarcity). Historically, livestock have been mostly ignored in research and development involving agricultural water. The SLP is the primary mechanism to help integrate livestock into research conducted by non-livestock IARCs. This activity will promote the integration of livestock and water research in IWMI, ILRI, ICRISAT and the participating NARES.IWMI will provide expertise in water management, socio-economic, gender issues, and logistical support through its offices in Africa and Asia. ILRI will provide expertise in livestock, feed/fodders, and logistical support through its offices in Africa and South Asia, ICRISAT will provide expertise in dryland crops, soil fertility, and logistical support through use of their laboratories and offices in Africa and South Asia. JKUAT will provide local capacity and expertise in soil and water management, and geoinformatics. Other NARS and Networks will collaborate in research, stakeholder fora for dissemination and up-scaling of results. This will enable interactions and mutual feedback with the project being led by ILRI in the Nile Basin on 'Increasing Water use efficiency for food production through better livestock management' supported by the CP on Food and Water. The SLP supported project development is expected to increase recognition of the important potential role of livestock in the Challenge Program on Water for Food and to open up opportunities for funding in the next CP call for proposals. The main output of the SLP grant will be one or more fully realized and submitted proposal(s). In addition, this project will produce a short report on each of the five specific objectives of this project.In the full proposal, activities are planned to generate public goods, for stakeholders related to water productivity of food, feed and fodder crops, as well as for the wider international community. The outputs are for use by managers working with farmers in the crops, livestock and water sectors especially trainers, extension workers, researchers and policy makers. The outputs will be disseminated in both print and electronic media through workshops, reports, policy briefs, journal papers, newsletters, and public outreach media such as posters, pamphlets, radio, videos and articles. The planned outputs of that proposal include:(i) Existing scientific and local knowledge on water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops and their impact on SCLIMS compiled and documented. (ii) Main drivers of SCLIMS spanning the biophysical, macro and micro-economic, social including the gender dimensions, and institutional elements identified. (iii) Technologies and options to enhance water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops and associated constraints to livestock and crop production in SSA and India identified and documented. (iv) Policy and institutional capacities that impact on SCLIMS as regards water productivity of food, feed and fodder crops and in SSA and India identified. The SLP-project will identify knowledge gaps and initiate a process for the resolution of these gaps through research products that provide guidelines for appropriate actions, to improve water productivity of food, feed and fodder crops, and thus promote sustainable production of crops, livestock, livestock products and consequently poverty alleviation.This full project will help guide policy on crop-water-livestock management options that allow better choice of alternatives, and thus improved productivity of water for food/feed crops and fodder, thereby contributing to food security in the target areas and beyond through sharing this knowledge with the wider international community.SCLIMS is a major land use in areas that are prone to land degradation or are already degraded. This SLP-project will provide knowledge that enhances environmental conservation and guide decision making on better management of water, crop and livestock resources on these fragile lands. The networking and knowledge sharing between stakeholders will initiateopportunities to managers, researchers and policy makers to get access to information that enables them to plan water, crop and livestock management programmes that include good environmental management. (188 words)Research Activities in Relation to Outputs (Max. 300 words) SLP support will enable a full consultation with stakeholders and result in the major short term output: one or more proposals for a full project to improving water productivity of smallholder crop-livestock mixed systems in the semi-arid tropics. To achieve this, a range of activities needs to be initiated under the SLP-project, and these will gain full strengths during the full project.Document and collate information from publications, reports and records in public and private institutions, individuals and the internet. ii.Convene stakeholder meetings, discussions with leaders, key informants, land users and policy makers Activities for Output 4 i.Literature review, stakeholder consultations and expert workshops to assess exiting policies at community, national and international levels that influence decisions on water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops in SCLIMS. ii. Case studies for evaluation of institutional capacities at local, national, regional and international levels that are associated with SCLIMS and impact on water productivity of food/feed/fodder.i.Following on the results of outputs 1-3, knowledge gaps in indigenous and scientific knowledge, research capacity and decision support tools for water productivity of food, feed and fodder crops will be identified ii. Professionals, institutions and communities capable of addressing these gaps will be identified and a research consortium for the same established. iii. An experts workshop to write the proposal will be held Activities for Output 7 i.Participation of researchers from NARS in meetings and activities of the project ii.Access to web-based material, publications, conferences and seminars. In the short term, at least 150 stakeholders (farming communities, NAREs, policy makers and researchers) will benefit through knowledge gained from consultations and research findings. This will enable better focus on the strategies needed for improving water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops, for improved crop and livestock production under SCLIMS in the medium and long term. Reports and action plans from stakeholder meetings will demonstrate this impact, as also articles in print/electronic media. For the full proposal, in addition to the above we foresee:-New and expanded R&D initiatives targeting water productivity of food, feed and fodder crops in SSA and India.-New and extra resources committed to the development of SCLIMS internally and externally -Changes in policies at national and regional levels c) State what activities will be undertaken during the project's life to prove impact either ex-ante or ex-post.Ex-ante, the SLP-project will network with organizations dealing with food/feed cropslivestock-water-policy issues, and involve them as stakeholders during the implementation.Ex-post, the full project will set up institutional support , which will be locally based and owned to take the project activities ahead.(167 words)Dissemination and Uptake Pathways (Max. 150 words):a) Indicate what channels will be employed to ensure technology uptakeThe full project will develop animated videos, posters, pamphlets and presented to local communities. Workshops will be held with local stakeholders at various levels, to popularize outputs and enable uptake. Written and illustrated materials, maps, web-sites, and audio-video products will be produced for targeted audiences.b) Indicate what methods will be used to upscale the findings Policy briefs will be developed in the full project, and disseminated in policy roundtables, meetings and workshops, and through audio-video techniques, DVD, bulletins and internet.The eventual recommendation domain will be the smallholder crop-livestock mixed systems in rainfed areas of SSA and India with a possibility of region/country specific recommendations, in relation to socio-economic differences, cultures and level of development of the research sites. There will be special attention to the key roles of women in using water productively in these mixed systems.(128 words)Risks and Assumptions Associated with Output Achievement (Max. 200 words): It is possible that information available on water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops is scant, thereby limiting the scope of the documentation exercise. This project assumes that the outputs produced will be adoptable in the diverse socioeconomic spectrum of the SSA and South Asia.There is a certain level of uncertainty on policy and socio-economic data gathered from local communities, and its compatibility with bio-physical measurements.It is suspected that instrumentation for assessment of water productivity of food/feed and fodder crops is inadequate or non-existent in most countries, thereby affecting the quality of data available It is assumed that political, cultural and socio-economic stability will prevail and conditions will be conducive to the implementation of this study in all the target areas.It is assumed that the pilot project areas will be representative of the more general aspects of SCLIMS in SSA and South Asia despite the broad diversity of the target area. (160 words) Financial Summary (Funds Requested from SLP) Breakdown costs for the following line items: ","tokenCount":"1918"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70fbfbe6f4c752db25beea858cbd2d51","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ace12d98-8f68-410d-99eb-f742e6264800/retrieve","id":"-1753675404"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7643a2be-816b-43a6-bd44-f177f5626ca0","pagecount":"15","content":"Huge yield Gaps exist Phenotype is king but records have to be: but different environments • Unrealistic/ often complex systems• Too demanding on farmer/herders (far too many traits too much \"rigour\")• KISS= \"keep it simple & sustainable\"• Agree on few/key economically important traits, esp. at the start • Align recording to routine practices ( weaning, vaccination, sales• Memorable events (births, deaths)• Monthly milk records vs daily records Recommendations:(1) • Lack of automation• Recording and animal identification seen by farmers as entry point for the taxman to strike• Pastoral animals are difficult to recordCultural beliefs and literacy levels Poor and unsupportive policies• Proportionately too little national budgets to the agric/livestock sectors relative to their contribution to GDT• Contributes 20-50% of agric GDP, but gets < 5% of national budgets• No incentives/inadequate incentives for the youth to get into the livestock farming and profitable engagement in livestock value chains• Taxation considered to be high with no justification (e.g.local taxes charged on milk sold, but no support for milk recording)• Mandatory livestock identification & traceability (LITs) policies and formulated/enacted with little to no farmer participation (little links/consideration to real benefits to farmers)However! a problem.We can now have the following tools/technologies with which we can tackle most of the above challenges:• Smart use of ICT technology ","tokenCount":"212"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a926fe6ce9cc4d889f438fa5a4d9f8e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6fe89da8-3487-401f-b826-ad37f5970c26/retrieve","id":"-1789595816"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a415b6f5-1c0e-4a86-a161-cbcdf1219f63","pagecount":"40","content":". CGIAR Initiative on West and Central African Food Systems Transformation. 40p.Table 1. Climate variables in-between 1901 and 2020 for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, respectively . Table 2. Risk severity levels classification for soil loss (t/ha/y) ..           As a consequence of climate change, changes in land use, and land management-especially in densely populated areas-numerous natural disasters, such as floods, storms, heatwaves, landslides, and droughts, are becoming increasingly frequent, with severe impacts on living conditions. This is the case for Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). At the same time, intense farming practices (particularly on sloped land), deforestation activities, mining extraction operations, challenges in agriculture water management, and soil erosion all contribute to increased land vulnerability. The purpose of this study was to review how the risks of natural disasters related to flooding, landslides, and soil erosion are assessed, measured, managed, and mitigated in the central highlands of Africa, specifically in Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC. In this process, the risks and the current status of disaster risk management, early warning systems, soil and land conservation practices, and risk mapping were investigated for the three countries.The literature review revealed a high risk for landslides, flooding, and soil erosion in the region. Risk maps covered the potential risks and helped identify the vulnerable areas. Most of them vary in spatial data, methods, and classifications. They rely on input data on elevation, slope, rainfall, lithology, soil texture, land use, land cover, and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The use of heterogeneous data sets and geographical regions in these risk maps may lead to diverging interpretations of potential risks and 'hot spots' in spatial terms and the underlying drivers of those risks. None of the risk maps take into account existing population vulnerabilities such as social protection, income levels, or readiness to act in an emergency, such as hospital access in an emergency. Risk maps could be an effective tool for supporting disaster risk management policies and implementations if they are nationally based and built on comprehensive, comparable, and reliable data.With the rise of climate change-related risks, the need for expended risk mapping is expected to grow. Vegetation cover, deep-rooted vegetation, and soil management practices such as terraces, green barriers, drainage systems for overflows, or similar physical structures are useful land management practices that can reduce risks. Such practices, however, are not in place to the necessary extent in the region. In the case of disaster risk management, although strategies and action plans do exist, the study faced significant constraints in verifying their implementation and therefore, their effectiveness. This assessment is also valid for the prevailing obstacles related to accessing accurate and quality data in general. It is recommended that this desk study be supplemented with interviews and local data collection to address the identified information gaps.Keywords: Susceptibility of Natural Hazards, Sendai Framework for disaster risk reduction, disaster risk management, soil and land conservation, soil and water management, floods, flooding, soil erosion, landslides, African Eastern Highlands, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of As a consequence of climate change, changes in land use and land management-especially in densely populated areas-numerous natural disasters, such as floods, storms, heatwaves, landslides, and droughts are becoming more frequent (CRED 2022(CRED , 2023(CRED , 2024;;WMO 2023;UN et al. 2023). This situation affects today's ecosystems and livelihoods, and even leads to loss of life. It is also a contributing factor to the increased costs of disaster action, insurance, and reconstruction globally (WMO 2024b). Natural hazards result in the destruction of homes, loss of livelihoods, displacement of people, deterioration of soil and water quality, and, in the long-term, the loss of agricultural productivity (Vodacek 2021).In East Africa, floods, landslides, and droughts have been recorded over the last several years (Ritchie et al. 2024b The increasing risks of natural hazards necessitate a deeper understanding of these risks and the capacity to mitigate them. This can be achieved through various mechanisms, including local land management, enhanced knowledge of natural hazards, risk monitoring, early warning systems, and emergency assistance.The purpose of this study is to review how the risks of natural disasters are assessed, measured, managed, and mitigated, with a focus on land and water-related hazards, such as floods, landslides, and soil erosion in Africa's central highlands covering Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC, with a particular focus on the eastern parts.Three research questions were formulated as:1. What is the current evidence of risks of natural disasters in Africa's central highlands? 2. Which type of measures are in place for disaster risk management? 3. What measures are used across national to sub-national early warning systems?For this desk study, a qualitative literature review was conducted. Relevant scientific literature was identified by searching the Web of Science (WoS) and the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT).Additionally, information was collected from the UN system, in particular the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), as well as through governmental documents from individual countries. Lastly, Google Scholar was leveraged due to the relatively poor quality content of French-language publications in WoS.While the present report covers the three national entities selected as the Study Area, in certain instances, a particular focus may be applied either to a specific zone within a given country (e.g., eastern DRC) or a region extending beyond a given country (e.g., Africa's eastern highlands).Reviewing the literature on soil and landslide risks and flood risks in Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC, the following observations are raised:i) The three countries are in geographic proximity and share similar topographic and geological features. Their proximity to the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift Valley System, justifies a common study and examination. The landscape is characterized by highlands, sizeable lakes, and significant biodiversity, which add to the physical similarity of the terrain in the three countries. ii) By contrast, the three countries present significant differences with regard to their sizes, geopolitical security settings, level of stability and security, as well as the nature of their governance and political and bureaucratic systems. The disparity in data quality and availability makes the comparative analysis challenging and, in some cases, inconclusive.Additionally, the fact that Burundi and the DRC are French-speaking, while Rwanda is primarily English speaking creates an additional divide in the Study Area. iii) A regional approach that considers topographic and geological features beyond geopolitical boundaries may yield additional relevant findings for the study.Natural hazard risks proceed from a combination of elements: the incidence and exposure to the hazard, the ability to reduce the risk with accurate and timely warning systems, and the recovery process after being exposed. Three relevant concepts for researching the current risks are: (I) resilience, (II) disaster risk management, and (III) early warning systems.This chapter will present the three concepts and follow them with an outline of the internationally adopted disaster risk framework: the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. In addition, regarding measures applied either for disaster management or early warning systems, a distinction is commonly made between 'structural' and 'non-structural' measures. These will be addressed in this chapter under 2.5.Disasters such as floods, storms, heatwaves, and droughts have occurred and continue to occur around the world. In 2023, 399 disasters were recorded around the globe (EM-DAT 2023). These disasters are caused by climate change and unsustainable human actions. They impact today's livelihoods, ecosystems, and infrastructure. Resilience becomes relevant when facing the risks of such natural disasters.Defining resilience has gone through a series of stages. It may generally be defined as the dynamic capacity to continue despite disturbances and shocks (Tendall et al. 2015). Alternatively, the resilience concept describes the system's ability to cope with shocks and stresses, to re-organize, and to continue a set pathway of development. In the case of a disaster, resilience may mean either that the system absorbs the disaster while retaining its functions, adapts and goes back to its original state after the shock, or that it transforms into a new state (Douxchamps et al. 2017).Resilience is a crucial concept but remains challenging to measure (Cabell and Oelofse 2012;Douxchamps et al. 2017). Cumming et al. (2005) explains that resilience is complex to operationalize due to its multi-dimensional nature. The fact that a system is resilient today does not mean it will be tomorrow. Indeed, the broader dynamic system in which it is incorporated may change. Further study reveals that disaster occurrences are often an opportunity to shift a social-ecological system into a more resilient pathway (Folke 2006). Resilience may be seen as the opposite of vulnerability and defined as \"the ability to resist, bounce back, cope with, and recover quickly from the impacts of hazards\" (Graveline & Germain 2022).While resilience is the system's capacity to cope with risks and shocks, disaster risk management refers to the actions taken to increase resilience. Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is defined as, \"The organization, planning, and application of measures preparing for, responding to and recovering from disasters.\" (UNDRR 2017). DRM can be pursued as a prospective, corrective, or compensatory management strategy, alternatively or in combination. Furthermore, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) (2017) identifies actions taken by local communities as part of a community management strategy. The specific use of traditional, indigenous, and local knowledge and practices qualify as a local and indigenous peoples' approach to disaster risk management. Disaster risk management may be carried out at various levels, including multilateral, national or local.Unlike DRM, disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a preventive strategy. It consists of a set of approaches to reduce existing disaster risks while altogether preventing new risks from arising. As mentioned in the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNDRR) (2017) DRR measures to strengthen resilience. They are the policy objectives for DRM (Šakić Trogrlić et al. 2022).In the context of this report, disaster risk management includes disaster risk reduction as well. The reviewed literature qualifies all measures used to manage and reduce disaster risks under DRM. However, most, if not all, literature and documents reviewed in the context of this study address risk management rather than risk reduction. Moreover, both notions seem to be used interchangeably, with little or no focus on the difference between them in policies and scientific literature. Even the adopted global framework to guide disaster risk management actions is named Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. (See Chapter 2, Section 2.4 below.)Currently, there is no universal definition of an early warning system (EWS). This is due to the complexity of the measurements and the required conceptual adjustments to relevant and current Risks (Šakić Trogrlić et al. 2022). Although several definitions are available, the one selected by UNDRR will be used in this report. It defines EWS as:\"The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities, and organizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss\". (UNDRR 2017)These social-centered actions in an EWS range from local initiatives in rural villages to formal global United Nations (UN) actions working with governments (Kelman & Glantz 2014). A well-established and globally recognized checklist to map the components and main elements of an EWS has been established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNDRR (UNDRR 2007a; WMO 2017).The two organizations, in cooperation with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), have subsequently implemented the United Nations Early Warnings for All (EW4A) initiative with WMO. The Initiative aims to ensure that every person on Earth is covered by early warning services by 2027 (WMO 2023).Building on the Early Warning System, a more refined concept of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems has been developed to integrate the increasing complexity of multiple, inter-related hazard situations (UNDRR 2023).The Sendai agreement is a framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (Sendai Framework). It was established in 2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan. The Sendai Framework is considered the most comprehensive accord on risk reduction, guiding countries in disaster risk management policies and strategies. The Sendai Framework aims to: \"Guide the multi-hazard management of disaster risk in development at all levels as well as within and across all sectors.\" (UNDRR 2015).Understanding and accressing underlying risk factors, including socioeconomic, environmental, and cultural aspects, are central to the entire Sendai approach. The initiative recognizes the implementation of the Sendai Framework and DRR as a public responsibility of states and other stakeholders. It encourages the coordination of national and local frameworks.The Sendai Framework, as shown in figure 1 (UNDRR 2015) identifies four priority areas: (I) Understanding disaster risk, (II) Strengthening disaster risk governance, (III) Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and (IV) Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response. Structural measures refer to physical undertakings such as dams, drainage or flood levies. In contrast, non-structural measures refer to knowledge transfer, capacity strengthening and adopting and implementing regulatory measures to scale adoption of disaster management or early warning systems.According to UNDRR, structural measures are \"any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or the application of engineering techniques or technology to achieve hazard resistance and resilience in structures or systems\". As to non-structural measures; these are defined as \"measures not involving physical construction which use knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce disaster risks and impacts, in particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training, and education.\" (UNDRR 2007b).This study reflects the non-structural measures, as opposed to structural ones.This section discusses the background and the drivers behind the risks of natural disasters in the Study Area.Rwanda, Burundi, and eastern DRC are situated in the Great Lakes region of East Africa, an area characterized by diverse ecosystems, varied land use, and complex geographical features (topography), including steep slopes. The geography of the Study Area is defined in particular by high plateaus and significant differences in altitudes. In Rwanda, the minimum altitude is 835 m, and the highest is 4,334 m. In Burundi, the minimum altitude is 761, and the highest is 3,275 m. In DRC, the same conditions can be seen; the minimum altitude in the country is measured at 215 m and the maximum at 4,273 m. The steepest slopes are identified in the eastern region (Topographic maps 2024) as shown in Figure 2. The global average population density in 2024 is 62 people per km 2 . Among all countries globally larger than 10,000 km 2 , Rwanda was ranked as the second most densely populated country, with 584 people per km 2 , followed by Burundi in fifth place with 584. The DRC measured 46.6 people per km 2 on average (Ritchie et al. 2024a). Eastern DRC measured 137 people per km 2 in the Northern Kivu region respectively, and 109 people per km 2 in the Southern Kivu region (Geo-Ref 2020). The population density map of the region is shown in Figure 3. Land use changes in the area can be explained by major changes in farming activities, triggered by population growth, changes in agricultural systems such as terracing, and political and economic drivers.In the Study Area, agricultural land constitutes a significant share of the total land. In Burundi, 81,9 % of the total land is agricultural, compared to 81.3 % in Rwanda and 15 % in the DRC on average (World Bank 2021c). Figure 4 gives the land use in the three countries around the Albertine Rift. Land use in the Study Area is extensively cropland (ESA 2016). When assessing risks from natural hazards, two considerations are of special relevance. These are: (I) understanding the dynamic nature of land cover change and human settlements; and (II) recognizing that landslide susceptibility is an evolving phenomenon (Vodacek 2021).Since 2000, the use of land in the area has changed significantly. In-between 2000 and 2021, agricultural lands and croplands have increased in all three countries as a trend. In Rwanda and Burundi both the agricultural land and cropland have increased equally by 2.5 million ha. In the DRC, the same measure shows an increase of 10,000 ha for both agricultural land and cropland.Forest regions are reported to have remained stable in Rwanda during this time-period. In Burundi forest cover increased from 2020 to 2015 by 125,000 ha, which remained stable until 2021. In the DRC forest area decreased by 20 million ha in-between 2000 and 2021 (Our World in Data 2024).Major farming activities, including road and rail infrastructure development, accelerated the changes in the hydrology of the region. River patterns changed, bringing changes to the hillslope characteristics.Steep slope and proximity to the drainage and road networks have also been identified as one of the key geomorphological variables influencing landslide occurrences (Uwihirwe 2023).Prior to the twentieth century, most of the Albertine Rift was covered by forests. However, over time, the area experienced large-scale deforestation. Between 2001 and 2023, Rwanda lost 9.3%, DRC 9.9%, and Burundi 6.6% of their tree cover, respectively (Global Forest Watch 2023).Deforestation increases the risk of landslides. When the land, previously made up of forests, is left bare or converted into arable land, landslides pose an emerging hazard (Depicker et al. 2021). The increased expansion of agricultural practices remains the main driver of deforestation in the Study Area. Furthermore, armed conflicts, mining activities, and population growth have also led their populations to clear more hillside forests for subsistence farming (Vodacek 2021).All these changes and movements exacerbate the impact of floods and droughts. In the Study Area, heavy rainfalls-whether reflecting the average normal records, extreme precipitations, or flash floods-contribute to floods and droughts (World Bank 2024). Figure 5 presents the annual precipitation between 1991 and 2020, showing the rainfall distribution across the three countries. Table 1 summarizes the mean temperature and precipitation for the three countries.  While these figures represent averages, extreme precipitation can significantly exacerbate the occurance of floods. Increased greenhouse gas emissions have led to growing disparities in precipitation amounts, relative to seasons as well as in-between the rainfall occurrences. This trend is particularly evident in tropical regions and the northern high latitudes (IPCC 2023).In Rwanda, the frequency of extreme rainfall events has been increasing since 1960, and this pattern is expected to continue in the coming years. From 1960 to 2020, the eastern region has experienced frequent droughts, followed by heavy rainfalls that has resulted in excesses precipitation. In the northern and western provinces, the rainy seasons are getting shorter and more intense, increasing the risk of natural hazards. Extreme rainfalls have also increased the risk of erosion in the mountainous areas.(World Bank 2021b).In the DRC, rainfall varies significantly across the country's vast and diverse regions. Since the 1960, no major changes in the rainfall patterns have been identified. However, the annual precipitation amounts are predicted to increase in the coming years (World Bank 2021a).Burundi has also experienced increased variability in rainfall with increased occurrences of extreme rainy seasons, resulting in droughts as well as flooding (African Development Bank 2018).As is the case with floods and landslides, a major natural hazard risk illustrates the direct connection between heavy rainfall and episodes of extreme precipitation on the one hand, and the conditions discussed above in this section (topography, deforestation, population density, land use) on the other. Heavy rain is usually directly responsible for initiating landslides and mudslides (Uwihirwe 2023).Heavy rainfalls and excess precipitation effect the soil and, consequently, its mass movement. Uwihirwe (2023) states that in Rwanda, landslides occur during the wettest period when soil moisture is close to saturation and the groundwater levels are high. The infiltration rate depends not only on the amount of water to which soils are exposed to, but also on the type of soils themselves (Bizimana and Sonmez 2015) As rainfalls intensify, the ability of the soil to absorb water reaches its climax resulting in water stagnation and very high soil pressure. This in turn causes slope failure (Bizimana and Sonmez 2015).A thinner and weaker soil layer, as a result of soil erosion, might therefore be a trigger for slope failure (Walraven 2018) Because of tectonic uplift, mountain ranges have evolved in the Study Area, and it is now identified as a global hotspot of landslide risk (Depicker et al. 2021). Figure 6 shows a landslide inventory containing more than 8,000 occurrences. The following abreviations were used indicate different locations in the Study Area: VPP (Virunga Volcanic Province), SKVP (South Kivu Volcanic Province), NYAM (Nyamulagira volcano), NYIR (Nyiragongo volcano), BUJ (Bujumbura), BUK (Bukavu), GM (Goma), KAL (Kalehe), UV (Uvira), IK (Ikoma landslide), and FU (Funu landslide). Understanding when landslides occur and how they evolve is fundamental to predicting and mitigating the risks of such occurrences. The timing of landslides remains understudied mainly in most parts of the world (Jones et al. 2023). This is particularly the case for vulnerable regions, where information and communication infrastructures are \"weak or absent and where data scarcity is the norm\" (Dewitte et al. 2021).The individual experiences of the three countries in the Study Area differs depending on their historical trajectories. This fact should be taken into consideration while evaluating landslide evolution. Depicker et al (2021) demonstrate that the risk in eastern DRC is twice as high as in neighbouring Rwanda and Burundi. The DRC features a more hazardous terrain. One of the causes most likely causes relate to geopolitical and governance considerations, such as conflicts. In such contexts, little or no conservation actions may be implemented. Other activities, such as mining, hamper conservation efforts and accelerate vulnerability (Debroux et al. 2007;Hanson 2018;Depicker et al. 2021). Simultaneously, large-scale deforestation has exacerbated the landslide risk in eastern DRC.To better assess areas of risk, several efforts have been undertaken to map potential hazards. These maps help to raise awareness by highlighting the susceptibility to natural hazards. They are based either on statistical analyses or physical processes (Uwihirwe 2023).The quality of data has a significant impact on the availability and accuracy of maps. The methodology used in gathering and processing the relevant data, their temporal and spatial resolution, consistency, technological limitations, and other limitations affect the accuracy and relevance of such maps. It is because of these limitations that risk maps , especially for large larger spatial areas scale and entire countries, is rare for the study area (Jones et al. 2023).A difference between inventory and susceptibility maps should be noted. An inventory map presents current hazards, while a susceptibility map presents potential hazards. A 6-grade scale is used to classify susceptibility occurrences into different risk categories: very low, low, moderate, high, very high, and extremely high. This scale is applied across different variables, parameters, and units, impacting comparative analyses.The next chapter focuses on identifying and mapping areas of risks with reference to this classification. However, several studies have modified the classification slightly in different ways.The Government of Rwanda has mapped potential soil erosion risks, and generated an erosion risk map of Rwanda The following measurements were used to classify the soil erosion risks (Table 2). Using World View images from 2019, the Government of Rwanda developed detailed soil erosion maps, reporting that 45% of the total country's total land is at risk of soil erosion. Out of the total area at risk, 7% is estimated to be at extremely high risk, 1% very high risk, 28 % high risk, and 48% at moderate risk. The highest risk is faced in the Northern Province, followed by the Southern, and the capital, Kigali. The least susceptible region was the Eastern Province (Figure 7). Conversely another study (Karamage et al. 2016) also using USLE, indicated that 78% of total land was at risk of being potentially exposed to soil erosion. In contrast to the previous report, the study submits that 78% of the total land had soil erosion rates ranging from 0-100 t•ha −1 •a −1 . Using the same classification system as earlier, 78% of the total land in Rwanda is at a very low to very high risk of potential soil erosion. Further on, the study presents that 4% of the land had erosion ranging from 100 to 200 t•ha −1 •a −1 , 3% of the land area from 200 to 300 t•ha −1 •a −1 and 15% of the total national land was exposed to an estimated erosion rate of ≥300 t•ha −1 •a −1 . Presenting this data set in the risk classes, 22% of total land in Rwanda is exposed to extremely high risk.Regarding landslides, Nsengiyumva et al. (2018) used the Spatial Multi-Criteria Evaluation module in ILWIS-GIS, considering factors such as land cover, lithology, soil texture, soil depth, precipitation, slope, altitude, and distance to roads. The result is based on how susceptibility is distributed by the percentage area, by causal factor weighting through SMCE Modeling. The result indicated that 42.3% of the total land area is at risk of landslides (ranging from moderate to very high susceptibility). The highest risk was found in the Western Province, where 40% of the total land area was exposed to potential risk, followed by the Northern (23%), Southern (12%, Kigali (8%), and Eastern (0.9%), as per Figure 8. The study concluded a landslide high zone in the western part and a landslide stable zone the eastern part. , that 85% of the total land area was at risk of landslides (ranging from moderate to very high susceptibility). The highest risk was found in Northern Province, where 90% of the total region area was under risk, followed by the Western Province (86.8%), Southern Province (29.2%), Kigali (6.3%), and Eastern Province (0.38%), as depicted in Figure 9.  Based on this study, it can be concluded that the risk areas of flood, landslide, and soil erosion susceptibility are all located along the Kivu Rift in the southern, western, and northern parts of the country.The value of risk maps for droughts, floods, and landslides is clearly recognized in the National Global Risk Atlas of Rwanda (MIDIMAR 2015). This government publication highlights the usefulness of risk maps in planning for and implementing natural hazard mitigation measures. They assist local authorities to undertake necessary measures to coping with the hazard at hand. They also support decision makers in detecting the areas that may potentially be affected and in adapting their activities accordingly. However, no concrete implementation examples or measures were presented.In 2020, the government of Burundi, in collaboration with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), initiated a project to design a multi-hazard map covering five hazards in successive layers: heavy rains, floods, earthquakes, landslides, and storms. This multi-hazard map elaborated by the Burundian government enables a multi-risk analysis covering all 18 provinces and 119 communes. (RTNB 2021;BCG 2022;IOM 2023a).The fact that this multi-hazard map is accessible online, (Republique du Burundi n.d.) indicates an effort on the part of the government to reach out to stakeholders, to disseminate and facilitate risk information and assessment.A more detailed multi-hazard map for the most vulnerable areas in Burundi has also been created, however there is no data confirming its implementation. It should be noted that the layers are available as integrative maps and as static maps (République du Burundi 2024a; b).This study unable to access any data from the available maps on the online platform nor coule it identify any scientific publications with similar objectives, such as those related to the national action plan.No national initiative could be identified for the DRC to map their current risks. However, several publications addressing soil erosion and landslide susceptibility were found (Mushi et al. 2019;Depicker et al. 2020;Nacishali Nteranya 2021;Chuma et al. 2023;Cimusa Kulimushi et al. 2023;Maki Mateso et al. 2023).National risk assessment was the subject matter of only one of these studies. Cimusa Kulimushi et al. ( 2023) studied soil erosion susceptibility in the DRC-based on predictive machine learning algorithms (ML-ALs). In order to do so, 500 erosion sites were identified by the RUSLE model and Google Earth historical maps (Figure 11). The factors included were: Topographic factors (elevation, slope (°), slope aspect, drainage density, Terrain Ruggedness Index, Slope length and steepness, Sediment Transport Index, Topographic Wetness Index, profile curvature), climatic factor (rainfall), land cover factors (NDVI, LULC), and soil factors (soil type, soil texture, and lithology).The result showed that 77% of the total land was at potential risk of soil erosion (Figure 11), with 7.28% were categorized as very high risk, 9.76% as high risk, 55.37% as moderate risk, and 27.57% as low risk. Although Dewitte et al (2021) have elaborated on some inventory data, no map of the country's current hazards of the country is presented.Rwanda, Burundi, and eastern DRC share their proximity to the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift Valley system. The landscape is characterized by highlands, several large lakes and active land plate tectonics. The three countries face significant risks from natural hazards, stemming from various drivers. These include high population density, land use changes, moderate to high seismicity, high weathering and steep landscapes. Some drivers, such as rainfall intensities and high annual rainfall quantities, are specifically linked to climate change.Other drivers such as hydrology patterns and soil structure seem to have been overlooked in literature, in spite of their significant role as risk factors. These drivers are crucial to soil stability. To better understand landslides and flooding, there is a clear need for further studies of soil types, pore pressure, high saturation, and runoffs.Risk maps have been identified for the three countries. Most of these maps vary in spatial data, methods, risks covered and classifications. No implementation of these maps have been identified at national levels could be identified although, the Government of Rwanda has expressed the value and potential of such an undertaking.The second research question in this study concentrates on what type of measures are in place for disaster risk management. This chapter aims to investigate the current National Disaster Risk Management Response System and to better understand how today's systems are governed and systemized.The commitment to a national disaster risk management response system in Rwanda may be traced to 2010, when the Ministry of Disaster Management and Refugee Affairs (MIDIMAR, renamed the Ministry in Charge of Emergency Management-or MINEMA) was formed. A national platform for disaster management (NPDM) was created to exchange knowledge and information, and to review policies and plans.The NPDM involves government institutions, UN agencies, NGOs, the private sector, academia and CSOs (MINEMA 2024). Their work is carried out in line with the Sendai Framework, focusing on five strategic focus areas. These are (I) establishing a professional disaster risk management system; (II) Integrating risk reduction into national development policy and plans, (III) enhancing capacities of institutions and human resources, (IV) promoting knowledge and innovations for empowering communities at risk, and (V) expanding risk reduction programming through public and private investments.The implementation strategy in Rwanda is governed by the Disaster Management Law (IFRC 2015). This act determines the roles and responsibilities of government actors dealing with disaster management. The Law outlines procedures, roles, and responsibilities related to DRM, both within the country and in the regional context.Along with this document, Rwanda has established a National Contingency Plan (\"NCP\") and a National Disaster Risk Management Plan (\"NDRMP\"). MINEMA is responsible for the coordination of these policies' objectives (Republic of Rwanda 2023).In Burundi, the government has integrated its disaster risk management strategies and policies in its National Development Plan 2018-2027 (NDP) (République du Burundi 2018) and the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2018-2025 (NSFDRR) (ABP 2018). In line with the Sendai framework, the NSFDRR regulates risk prevention and disaster management to strengthen institutional and community resilience to disaster risks.In the NDP, a plan for contingency is presented, \"Plan National de Contingence 2020-2021\". It includes the planning and undertakings for increased preparedness for natural hazards. Preparedness for landslides is specifically mentioned. Although no copy of the plan was available for the purposes of this study, the literature review highlights the four observations: (I) Although the plan title covers 2020-2021 it entered into operation in Mars 2021 as stated in the report, (II)It is uncertain if the document has been updated or is currently being implemented, and (III)No governmental body such as a ministry, directorate, section or service has been so far appointed responsible for the execution of the plan (République du Burundi 2023).The IOM supports the government in preparing for, responding to, and reducing disaster risks through various programs, and initiatives. The recently published strategy \"Burundi Crisis Response Plan 2024-2026\" (IOM 2024a) is currently in force, and guides IOM actions.As a member of the Humanitarian Country Team and the United Nations Country Team, IOM coordinates the implementation of its activities with other UN agencies and partners. IOM has forged strong links with national and local authorities. Its initiatives are aligned with the needs of the government as outlined in the above-mentioned steering documents.The fact that IOM has established a Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) to track and monitor the displacement and population mobility (IOM 2024a) is of relevance. IOM's DTM products are disseminated to other agencies and partners, as well as to local authorities. DTM products serve to structure and provide evidence to inform appropriate humanitarian responses in the country. Their measures indicates among others, displacement of people due to natural hazards, among other things.One report from the IOM, (IOM 2023b), indicated a displacement of 9,818 people caused by natural disasters between January and May 2023. The highest displacement numbers were reported in the Northern Province. In total, 158,939 people were affected by natural hazards, with floods and torrential rain being the major ones. The highest vulnerability was indicated in the Western Province.Another important actor working for disaster risk reduction is the Burundian Red Cross. While it primerily focuses on emergency response, its activities also extend to data collection for humanitarian response, including response to natural hazards.In DRC, the main instrument for implementing the country's vision and objectives for disaster risk management is the Environment, water resources, forestry and environmental sanitation, are placed under the attributes of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development (MEDD). Under MEDD, the Directorate of Sustainable Development (DDD) promotes environmental services and green economy. It also coordinates and implements the actions related to the Rio Convention.The vulnerability assessment and associated measures are based on data collected from various national institutions; National Agency for Metreology and Remote Sensing (using satellite data), National Institute for Agronomic Studies and Research, the ministerial departments responsible for agriculture, energy, rural and urban development and regional planning as well as scientific research entities, NGOs, and the public and private sectors.The current national framework for vulnerability assessment reveals significant governance challenges.There appears to be no established protocol to facilitate and coordinate the relationship between the organisations responsible for collecting valuable data for public administrations and the central state institutions.In order to enable proper implementation of the plan, the roles and responsibilities in the NAP seem to require clearer definitions (UNDP 2021).A new disaster risk management plan is anticipated, building on the previously mentioned documents. However, the country has not conducted coherent risk and vulnerability assessments related to DRM (World Bank 2023; IOM 2024b). One reason for this shortcoming is the fragmented responsibility of disaster DRM among three ministries: the ministries of the Interior, Defense, and Environment. According to the World Bank (2023), another reason for the deficit is the cross-cutting challenges, including technical coordination and working protocols, data availability and ownership, and discrepancies in analytical models and reporting requirements.At the local community level, IOM collaborates with civil society organizations, local NGOs, and community groups, mainly through local dialogue and inclusive and participatory governance processes.In conclusion, Rwanda, Burundi, and DRC demonstrate gains in terms of understanding disaster risk and investing in disaster risk management at the national level. It is unclear how implementation is done at local and sub-national levels, through only a literature review. In assessing the literature for Disaster Risk Management, it appears that although strategies and action plans exist, results from their implementations could not be identified and evaluated. This situation may be explained by a lack of reporting on the actions taken, or by actual gaps in actions or implementation.It is important to note that the policy documents guiding these actions, particularly the Sendai Framework, are relatively recent, and may not have been fully assessed for their implementation results.Soil and water conservation can act together to stabilize soils on sloping agricultural land and hence is one important measure to contribute to disaster risk management (DRM) in the Study Area. A conservation management system serves to save a sustainable ecosystem that preserves biodiversity and its natural balance (Sale 2002). More specifically, soil and water conservation (\"SWC\") pertains to the practices for the sustainable use and conservation of soil and water (Bizoza 2014).Soil erosion, floods, and landslides pose significant challenges to the resilience of ecosystems and livelihoods in the Study Area. Several conservation management practices are being undertaken to mitigate the Risks and to strengthen resilience. The practices identified in this study are the following: (I) Reforestation, (II) Agroforestry, (III) Terracing, (IV) Soil conservation structures, and (V) Land rehabilitation. Risk mitigation and soil conservation should also consider soil types, hillslope hydrology and drainage structures to avoid flooding and excess runoff events. For instance, Ojara et al. (2021) writes:\"In light of the highly variable trends of extreme rainfall events, we recommend planning adaptation and mitigation measures that consider the occurrence of such high variability.Measures such as rainwater harvesting, storage, and use during needs, planned settlement, and improved drainage systems management supported by accurate climate and weather forecasts are highly advised.\" (Ojara et al. 2021) Albeit, the need for drainage as a measure to cope with the most frequent risk-flooding-is often overlooked in literature.There are several global initiatives contributing to the land, soil and forest conservation. One example is the \"Bonn Challenge\" aiming to restore forests across the globe. This initiative was launched in Bonn 2011 by the Government of Germany and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Today, the Bonn Challenge is a global goal supported by a large number of governments, private sector entities, and civil society organisations. By 2020, up to more than 210 million hectares were restored as a result of this initiative.Rwanda, Burundi and DRC are part of the Bonn Challenge (BMUV 2020).In Rwanda, the government has implemented various conservation measures to address agricultural production and sustainable soil and land management challenges, including terracing, agroforestry; and reforestation initiatives (Nahayo et al. 2017;IUCN & RWB 2022).Regarding soil erosion, the government (Rwanda Water Resources Portal 2022) has identified the abovementioned practices with the help of high-resolution images. Remotely sensed high-resolution data and high-quality World View images have become more accessible in Rwanda through a memorandum of understanding between the Government of Rwanda and Digital Globe facilitated by the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NSIR), and later extended to the Rwanda Water Board (RWB) (Rwanda Water Resources Portal 2022). With this data, generated and validated in 2018, the maps show that only 26% of the land is protected, while 74% is unprotected. Of the total of 282 352 hectares of protected area, 67% were covered by forest, 15% is used for terracing practices related to soil conservation and land rehabilitation, 15% consists of bamboo plantations, 4% is scrubland, and 3% is part of the Savannah.By contrast, another source indicates that in January 2023, the forest cover constituted 30.4% of the country (AFR100 2023c). Most of the soil erosion control measures currently in place by the Rwandan government, is located in the Northern Province, where 34% is protected per ha at risk, followed by the In DRC, the government has implemented conservation measures to mitigate the disaster risks, including reforestation; agroforestry; and land rehabilitation programs (République Democratique Du Congo 2002;République Democratique Du Congo 2018). Reforestation initiatives focus on restoring forest cover, rehabilitating degraded landscapes, and promoting sustainable land use practices (Megevand et al. 2013). Data from May 2023 indicates that DRC is 59% covered by forests (AFR100 2023b).Nonetheless, these reforestation and land rehabilitation programs are being disrupted by conflicts and political instability in the country.Institutional efforts are guided by the National Adaptation Plan (NAP). In the plan, several priority adaptation programs are outlined where land and forest conservation as well as water management measures are listed. These adaption programs are considered as priorities in the National Climate Change Policy, Strategy and Action Plan, nationally determined contributions. They are also included in two plans: Plan of action for integration climate change adaptation in the planning process, and the plan of action for integrating the adaptation priorities of indigenous people into the National Agricultural Investment Plan.No specific Ministry could be found responsible for the implementations of these two plans (UNDP 2021).The African Initiative (AFR100) is a multi-country landscape restoration initiative launched during COP21 in Paris in December 2015. It is a regionally initiated program within the Bonn Challenge. The target was to restore 100 million ha, but as it has been exceeded, the new commitment is to restore 108 million ha by 2030. The project indicated that Burundi committed to restore 72% of the country's area, DRC 3% and Rwanda 76%, as shown in Table 3. Some initiatives and efforts related to soil and land conservation were identified in the study.Reforestation programs seem to be the most widely adopted conservation initiatives in the Study Area.Other types of soil and land conservation management can help reduce risks. However, based on the findings, such practices are not sufficiently implemented. These practices include vegetation cover, deep-rooted vegetation, and soil management techniques such as terraces, green barriers, drainage systems for overflows, and other physical structures.This chapter discusses the current early warning systems (EWS) for natural hazards such as landslides, flooding and soil erosion, country-wise, within the Study Area.At COP27 in March 2022, the UN Secretary-General launched an Executive Action Plan (UN et al. 2023) in collaboration with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNDRR. The plan's purpose is to apply EWS to the entire world population by 2027, to reduce hazard risks and increase resilience. This plan states that 60% of Africa's population does not benefit from EWS. Africa, therefore, stands to gain significantly from the plan's action and implementation.It must be noted that no scientific publications could be found to support the study of current EWS structures and their functions in the three countries of interest. Additionally, in assessing the current EWS actions and implementation, only fragmented information could be gathered from non-peerreviewed sources such as websites and reports from multilateral organisations and NGO's.Consequently, the majority of the references in the following chapter originate from the above-stated sources, many of which are outdated.Rwanda has deployed concrete efforts in establishing EWS to mitigate the impact of natural hazards such as floods and landslides (Finnish Meteorological Institute 2023). Improving the EWS is one of the objectives of the National Contingency Plan (MINEMA 2018).Monitoring and forecasting weather-related hazards are an essential action in the national EWS. To this end, the Rwanda Meteorology Agency (Meteo Rwanda) relies on a network of 183 meteorological stations that record rainfall, temperature, evapotranspiration and relative humidity (Nyandwi et al. 2016). Along with these meteorological stations, radar systems and satellite imagery are also used to monitor weather patterns and issue timely warnings to at-risk communities (The Rwanda Meteorology Agency 2024).In the National Contingency Plan, MINEMA outlines the roles of each actor involved in the actions related to EWS. It states that the Ministry of Local Government is responsible for mitigation, response, and recovery. Each district, through the Ministry and Rwanda Red Cross, is responsible for raising community disaster awareness and for their EWS. As stated above, Meteo Rwanda, which reports to the Ministry of the Environment, oversees weather forecasts and EWS.In addition, community-based early warning systems are implemented to strengthen local community resilience. Local radio and television channels designed locally adapted EWS content along with regular weather station bulletins to provide timely information (Nahayo et al. 2017). In Rwanda, radio broadcasting has been identified as the most effective communication tool for disseminating information about EWS. The reason is that most communities have radio access and the information is delivered in the local language. And radio sets do not necessarily require electricity, which is often unavailable in rural areas, especially those areas experiencing natural disasters (Nahayo et al. 2017).In June 2023, an new initiative was launched under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), and the World Bank's Climate Risk Early Warning Systems (CREWS). It involves six countries, including Rwanda and Burundi (WMO 2024a). CREWS is a citizen science initiative, with participatory and communityfocused prediction and early warning system for floods, landslides, and other severe weather events. CREWS extends over 4 years from 2023 to 2027.The The IGEBU successfully delivers seasonal forecasts, although its actions are constrained by a lack of investment and resources.In addition, to centrally coordinated actions, community engagement is structured and coordinated at the local level. Effectively, WFP and the Burundi Red Cross seem to play key roles in preparatory actions for disasters (IFRC 2023; WFP 2023 a; b). In fact, the transmission of the relevant information to the communities is essentially secured by the Burundi Red Cross and WFP. This is due to these two actors' ability to reach to the population rapidly, relying on their collective, extensive networks. The knowledge collected and the experience accumulated from earlier situations are consigned in an Early Warning Protocol (EAP).Since 2020, WFP has supported the Burundi Red Cross and the IGEBU in developing an Anticipatory Action Plan for floods (WFP 2023a). Through their collaborative effort, a trigger-based data set was established in order to strengthen the EWS with anticipatory actions. The trigger data set is paired with the forecast data.Despite progress in developing EWS, Burundi continues to face challenges related to data availability, institutional capacity, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Strengthening partnerships among government agencies, NGOs, and communities, as well as investing in infrastructure and technology, are both essential measures for enhancing the resilience of Burundi's EWS.In the case of the DRC, particularly in eastern DRC, the lack of data and reporting hinders the ability to create a comprehensive picture of the country's situation. Despite the absence of an adequate EWS, however, there seems to be fragmented action put in place regarding risk preparedness.One of the reasons for the absence of an integrated and efficient EWS in the country is the lack of funding. It must be noted that at present, the country relies on only 13 operational hydrological monitoring stations for weather prediction. In 1995, there were 80 (ReliefWeb 2024).In addition to a lack of funding, DRC experiences a lack of communication technology and a solid institutional structure supporting a preparedness system. This problem is compounded by the absence of community involvement. These weaknesses justified the 2010 initiative that was led by UNICEF and Catholic Relief Services (CRS), to compensate for these failures. UNICEF and CRS first identified the challenges related to early preparedness and the circulation of information. They, together with the social service organisation Caritas, decided to implement an EWS in certain areas in the DRC (CRS 2015).The EWS they envisaged was built in different steps. The first step involved the trainings of community leaders. In the second step, the focus was on passing the information individually to communication tool equipped local parishes and Caritas contacts to share the information. The information was transmitted via cellphones and even by people on bicycles, who in turn passed it on to the regional hubs. This information was then taken to the Caritas' national offices, CRS and the UNICEF. Lastly, these three actors reported the information to the relevant United Nations clusters and government agencies.Other than the above information related to the design and planning of the 2010 UNICEF and CRS initiative for an EWS, no analysis could be found or gathered regarding this initiative. Another initiative documented in 2016, is a joint effort to develop an early response and a set of appropriate measures. This undertaking was led by the DRC Red Cross, with support from the French Red Cross. (Croix Rouge RD Congo 2016;Anticipation Hub 2024;Croix Rouge Francaise 2024). No reports on the follow-up or implementation of this undertaking were found.According to this review, the information on EWS implementation for Rwanda, Burundi, and DRC is sketchy. This appears to be due to a lack of capacity in national monitoring, such as observation of meteorology, as well as a lack of documents outlining official versus community and NGO roles and responsibilities in early warning systems. This study identified limitations in accessible and timely data, as well as in reporting on the current elements of the EWS available and their effectiveness.Based on this study it was shown that the government of Rwanda has deployed significant efforts in designing and incorporating EWS in policies. Monitoring and forecasting are essential undertakings is presented in their National Contingency Plan.Burundi has received major support from international partners in designing and establishing EWS for risk preparedness. The main activities centre on data collection and monitoring including weather forecasting. Actions are taken to transmit the forecasted information through radio and national TV.In DRC it was found that no adequate EWS is currently in place. The reasons observed were the Lack of funding, lack of tools and technologies combined with the lack of good institutional governance practices supporting a preparedness system.What was observed in all three countries was the lack of data and absence of measures regarding what is being implemented in times of crisis. No evaluation reports, nor scientific papers, could be identified in this review to analyse the success rate of implementing these strategy goals. This finding highlights the need for future research and support to data collection, particularly in the DRC.Rwanda, Burundi, and DRC face significant risks of natural hazards. These risks stem from various drivers, including geological, hydro-meteorological, socio-economic, and geo-political factors.Effective risk assessment, preparedness, and mitigation strategies are essential for enhancing resilience and reducing the impact of disasters on communities and ecosystems in these countries. In this context, the priorities set in the Sendai Framework prove valuable.Answering the research questions in this study led to the conclusion that the evolving threat of floods, soil erosion, and landslides is well recognized in the studied countries. However, capacity is nonetheless lacking with regard to data collection, effective information systems, and coordination between structural and non-structural measures.This study, which was carried out as a desk review, identified some national risk maps and national policies for risk mitigation, especially for EWS, that were recently put into place. The maps found cover the potential risks and serve to locate the vulnerabilities. Most of them vary in their spatial detail, methods, and classifications. They rely on input data on elevation, slope, rainfall, lithology, soil texture, land use, land cover, and the normalized difference vegetation index.These maps cover heterogeneous data sets and geographical regions. This may lead to varying interpretations of potential risks, spatial hot spots, and the underlying drivers of said risks. No risk maps consider existing population vulnerabilities, such as social protection and income levels, or readiness to respond, for example, in accessing emergency hospital services. In addition, they fail to consider soil type and hillslope hydrology which provides valuable insights for relevant interventions.Risk maps could be an effective tool to support disaster risk management policies and implementations if they were national-based and based on comprehensive, comparable, and reliable data.Vegetation cover, deep-rooted vegetation, and soil management techniques such as terraces, green barriers, and drainage systems for overflows are all valid land management practices. They can reduce risks. However, such practices-which are to be encouraged-are not in place to the required extent.It is difficult to study and evaluate the implementations of actions or possible structural and nonstructural measures in a literature review for countries with poor access to data. Therefore, it is recommended that deeper field research and investigation be conducted into existing national disaster risk management practices in these countries. Locally generated and implemented practices and solutions, particularly in the case of EWS, call for greater focus and more research on their effectiveness.Regarding disaster risk management, although strategies and action plans do exist, the study faced significant constraints in verifying their implementation, and therefore, their effectiveness. There is a pressing need to strengthen coordination and governance structures towards systematized national disaster risk management practices, including EWS. This assessment also applies to the existing obstacles hindering access to accurate and high-quality quality data.To complement national initiatives and provide a more comprehensive assessment of the risks under study in the three countries, it is recommended that this review be enriched with on-the-ground expert interviews to verify and supplement the literature reviewed, with the trifold objectives of (I) understanding the local EWS, (II) conducting further research on national risk maps, and (III) reviewing possibilities for bottom-up initiatives for disaster risk management and EWS.","tokenCount":"8761"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"919e3aaaa7148aecb56f64e3fc5ebd6c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27a0c752-0543-47b8-8221-ec5cc4c8ec39/retrieve","id":"-1184024984"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"649661d1-de63-4d84-a496-a2f82ddd851d","pagecount":"56","content":"Tháng Năm Ngày Thu nhập được nhận từ ai hoặc chi phí được trả cho ai Chi tiết về hàng hóa hoặc dịch vụ Thu nhập (đồng) Chi phí (đồng) Tổng trong tháng (tính toán vào cuối tháng) Lợi nhuận hoặc lỗ một tháng (= tổng thu nhập tháng -tổng chi phí tháng) Tháng Năm Ngày Thu nhập được nhận từ ai hoặc chi phí được trả cho ai Chi tiết về hàng hóa hoặc dịch vụ Thu nhập (đồng) Chi phí (đồng) Tổng trong tháng (tính toán vào cuối tháng) Lợi nhuận hoặc lỗ một tháng (= tổng thu nhập tháng -tổng chi phí tháng) Tháng Năm Ngày Thu nhập được nhận từ ai hoặc chi phí được trả cho ai Chi tiết về hàng hóa hoặc dịch vụ Thu nhập (đồng) Chi phí (đồng) Tổng trong tháng (tính toán vào cuối tháng) Lợi nhuận hoặc lỗ một tháng (= tổng thu nhập tháng -tổng chi phí tháng) Tháng Năm Ngày Thu nhập được nhận từ ai hoặc chi phí được trả cho ai Chi tiết về hàng hóa hoặc dịch vụ Thu nhập (đồng) Chi phí (đồng) Tổng trong tháng (tính toán vào cuối tháng) Lợi nhuận hoặc lỗ một tháng (= tổng thu nhập tháng -tổng chi phí tháng) Tháng Năm Ngày Thu nhập được nhận từ ai hoặc chi phí được trả cho ai Chi tiết về hàng hóa hoặc dịch vụ Thu nhập (đồng) Chi phí (đồng) Tổng trong tháng (tính toán vào cuối tháng) Lợi nhuận hoặc lỗ một tháng (= tổng thu nhập tháng -tổng chi phí tháng)CGIAR là đối tác nghiên cứu toàn cầu vì một tương lai an toàn thực phẩm thông qua việc chuyển đổi các hệ thống lương thực, đất đai và nước trong bối cảnh khủng hoảng khí hậu.","tokenCount":"301"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"11cf4a93c5a1d14d9f884dbdd81f8b0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e0f83a4a-f96d-4d8e-9a3a-c97c6374a262/retrieve","id":"-900143528"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9abc2e43-13a0-4f61-b9b9-e22b8ff8ec09","pagecount":"64","content":"\"Se eu pudesse deixar algum presente, deixaria o acesso ao sentimento de amor à vida dos seres humanos.A consciência de aprender tudo o que nos foi ensinado pelo tempo afora, lembraria dos erros que foram cometidos, com os sinais para que não mais se repetissem.  A todos que directamente ou indirectamente participaram na minha formação, vai um muito obrigado e que DEUS esteja convosco.A agricultura de sequeiro apresenta baixos níveis de produção agrícola em algumas regiões do País, devido a irregularidades das chuvas que são a principal fonte de água para as culturas, não podendo satisfazer as necessidades hídricas das culturas.No sentido de inverter esta situação, o presente trabalho com o objectivo de determinar o volume de água complementar à irrigação para a agricultura de sequeiro na região de Chókwè necessário para atingir níveis de rendimentos desejados, desenvolve uma técnica de balanço de água diário na zona radicular na região de Chókwè, de modo a identificar e simular através da mesma as condições de stress hídrico para a cultura do Milho, causadas pela falta de humidade do solo na zona radicular, os rendimentos relativos esperados, e por sua vez determinar o volume de água necessário para atingir níveis de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial da cultura do Milho.O presente trabalho conclui que, não há necessidade de adicionar água na Fase I-Fase inicial e Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento, sendo que deve-se adicionar água na Fase III-Fase Intermédia e Fase IV-Fase Final do ciclo de crescimento da cultura do Milho, e o volume máximo de água complementar a irrigação deve ser de 3756.5 m 3 .ha -1 , 3941.6 m 3 .ha -1 e 4121.4 m 3 .ha -1 para atingir níveis de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial respectivamente na região de Chókwè.Moçambique é um país africano que se situa na costa sudoeste do continente, entre os paralelos 10º27'S e 26º52'S e entre os meridianos 30º12'E e 40º51'E (INE, 2001). Com uma área de 799.380 km 2 e uma população estimada de 18.082.523 habitantes em 2002 (INE, 2002), Moçambique é um país rico em recursos naturais, em que a agricultura constitui a actividade económica mais importante, que absorve cerca de 76,7% da população economicamente activa e, que na sua maioria (cerca de 89,8%) encontra-se na zona rural (INE, 2001). A agricultura é a principal e muitas vezes a única fonte de alimentos e de rendimentos para mais de 70% da população e contribui com cerca de 40% do produto interno bruto (INE, 2002).Em Moçambique, o problema dos baixos níveis de produção agrícola prevalecentes em algumas zonas devem-se, em parte à irregularidade das chuvas que são a principal fonte de água para as culturas.Associados à irregularidade das chuvas que caem na região, as baixas quantidades de chuva e, a fraca distribuição desta, fazem com que haja défices hídricos no solo, não podendo satisfazer as necessidades hídricas das culturas, o que culmina com a obtenção de níveis de produção demasiado baixos, tornando deste modo a agricultura de sequeiro uma actividade de risco.Por vezes a zona radicular não apresenta humidade suficiente para satisfazer as necessidades hídricas da cultura, devido a forte degradação das terras associados as más técnicas de conservação do solo, resultando deste modo na carência de água na zona radicular, na qual afecta o crescimento e rendimento da cultura.O Milho tornou-se nos últimos tempos a cultura alimentar mais importante em África sendo cultivado tanto em pequena como em grande escala. A importância do Milho na segurança alimentar do sector familiar em Moçambique é sobejamente conhecida, e a sua escassez é muitas vezes sinónimo de fome. Embora o Milho seja uma das mais importantes culturas alimentares ao nível do sector familiar, o seu rendimento médio por hectare tem sido relativamente baixo.A escassez dos recursos hídricos, associados a distribuição não uniforme da precipitação em algumas regiões áridas e semi-áridas da região de Moçambique, e a crescente competição pela água entre os vários sectores de actividade, reduzem a disponibilidade da água, afectando o rendimento à agricultura de sequeiro. Ao mesmo tempo, o alcance de uma maior eficiência no uso de agua é um desafio primário para o futuro próximo, e inclui o emprego de técnicas e práticas mais precisas para a quantificação de volume de água complementar para colmatar o deficit hídrico das culturas, como estratégia para mitigar os baixos rendimentos existentes na agricultura de sequeiro.Porque a agricultura de sequeiro apresenta rendimentos muitos baixos e no sentido de inverter esta situação, é necessário desenvolver uma técnica de suporte de tomada de decisão que se identifique através de métodos simples, os períodos de deficit hídricos no ciclo de crescimento da cultura e através desta, poder predizer o volume de água necessário para adicionar de modo que os rendimentos sejam apropriados para a agricultura de sequeiro.Segundo Sediyama (1987), identifica que com a decisão de uma irrigação complementar de 60-80 mm pode dobrar, até triplicar os níveis de rendimento da cultura do Milho e Sorgo tradicional de 0.5-1 ton/ha para 1.5-2.5 ton/ha. Porém, é importante notar que tais efeitos benéficos devem ser acompanhados de uma boa administração de fertilidade da terra.O presente trabalho tem como objectivos:O objectivo geral do trabalho proposto é determinar o volume de água complementar a irrigação para agricultura de sequeiro na região de Chókwè.Determinar a Evapotranspiração da cultura do Milho em condições óptimas de fornecimento de água.Determinar a Evapotranspiração da cultura do Milho nas condições de sequeiro.Determinar as perdas de rendimentos, nas condições de sequeiro para a cultura de Milho.Quantificar o volume de água necessário para atingir 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial da cultura do Milho.Neste sub capitulo, será dada uma ideia dos factores determinantes para o aproveitamento da área estudada. Além dos recursos naturais, também será caracterizado o uso actual da terra.A região de Chókwè, está localizado no vale do Rio Limpopo na província de Gaza, em linha recta a noroeste da cidade de Xai-xai. A bacia hidrográfica de Limpopo tem uma superfície de 412 100 Km 2 e estende-se pelos territórios de Botswana, África de Sul, Zimbabué e Moçambique. Desta porção, Moçambique ocupa apenas 76 600 Km 2 e está localizado a jusante dos restantes países (DNA, 2000).O clima da área estudada classifica-se conforme a metodologia de Koppen como BSw (semi -árido, mega-térmico), isto é, um clima de estepe com um período seco no Inverno, (Touber L. 1985).Na Região, a precipitação média anual aumenta rapidamente, indo em direcção sudeste de 500 mm no interior seco da província de Gaza até 1000 mm na zona de Xai-xai. No Chókwè a precipitação média anual é de 623 mm e atinge o seu valor máximo de 140 mm em Fevereiro e o mínimo de 10 mm em Julho. A época chuvosa compreende os meses de Outubro a Março e a época seca compreende os meses de Abril a Setembro, (Touber L. 1985).As temperaturas médias mensais variam de 18,5ºC ( Julho) a 27ºC ( Dezembro a Fevereiro), com média anual de 23,6ºC. A velocidade do vento varia de 1,2 a 2,3 m.s -1 nos meses de Setembro e Dezembro respectivamente, com média anual de 1,8 m.s -1 . A humidade relativa varia de 54% no mês de Novembro até o valor máximo de 77% no mês de Maio. A Evapotranspiração de referência segundo Penman-Monteith, ultrapassa em todos os meses a precipitação média e o seu valor anual é de cerca de 1400 mm, para condições de agricultura em sequeiro, (Touber L. 1985).A área consiste duma bacia sedimentar com formações Cretáceas e Terciárias, seguidas por espessos depósitos marinhos do Pleistoceno, nos quais se desenvolveram os chamados \"manangas\".Os depósitos marinhos consistem de textura franco -argiloso -arenosos, com um alto teor de areia grosseira.Segundo Touber L. (1985), os solos no regadio são frequentemente salinos e sódicos por causa do regime marinho de sedimentação. A esta situação refere-se como salinização primária.No passado recente aconteceu um processo de salinização secundária devido à subida do lençol freático na zona do regadio.Nas zonas não irrigadas, no ambiente de depósitos marinhos, nos terrenos elevados, encontra-se uma vegetação de pequenos arbustos espalhados e uma fraca cobertura de gramíneas, em geral espécies anuais. Nas depressões extensas, mal drenadas, encontram-se pastagens de boa qualidade, uma densa cobertura de gramíneas, em geral espécies perenes. As árvores que bordeiam estas depressões são Acácia xantophlea. Nas bacias pantanosas de decantação existe um crescimento abundante de capim, assim como pastagens de qualidade excelente, embora com manchas de solo nu ou só com Salicornia sp., uma planta marinha como consequência da forte salinização secundária.Segundo Savenije (1980), a maior parte da bacia encontra-se na zona árida a semi-árida e grande parte desta bacia apresenta subsolos salgados particularmente a bacia do Rio Changane, apesar da sua contribuição ser de 11%. O Rio dos Elefantes é o seu maior alimentador, contribuindo com 35% de escoamento total no Chókwè. A barragem de Massingir, no Rio dos elefantes, contribui na regulação do caudal. Para o regadio, existe uma obra de derivação da água do Rio em Macarretane.A situação actual da distribuição de uso de terra sobre os sectores produtivos é bastante dinâmica. De um modo geral, pode-se dizer que a agricultura na zona é praticada em condições de regadio, na sua grande maioria em regime de rega por gravidade, através duma derivação de água do Rio Limpopo, utilizando a rede hidráulica do Chókwè. O maneio de água é um problema sério, entretanto, destacam-se os seguintes tipos de agricultores de acordo com a área que ocupam, mão-de-obra, produção e insumos.Pequeno agricultor, com áreas entre 1 à 3 ha, mão de obra familiar e sazonal, não dispõe de capital para obter factores de produção melhorados, trabalham manualmente, alguns usam a tracção animal, não usam adubos, não tem acesso ao credito e em situação de crise não tem acesso a água.Agricultor patronal, com áreas entre 4 a 10 ha, mão de obra familiar, sazonal e permanente, alguns usam a tracção animal e utilizam adubos, não tem acesso ao crédito e em situação de crise têm um acesso limitado a água.Médio agricultor, com áreas entre 11 a 20 ha, mão-de-obra sazonal e permanente, com alguns a apresentarem meios de produção como tractores, camião, moto-bomba e bois, com alta utilização de adubos, alguns tem acesso ao crédito e em situação de crise não tem problemas de acesso a água.Grande agricultor, com áreas superiores a 20 ha, mão de obra sazonal e permanente, não usam bois como meio de produção, mas sim tractores, moto-bombas, com alta utilização de adubos e créditos, e um excelente acesso a água em situação de crise.Em termos de infra-estruturas, do ponto de vista de comunicação, existe uma linha rodoviária assim como ferroviária que liga a Maputo, estradas alcatroadas para Massingir, Macarretane e Xai-xai. Existe também uma linha eléctrica de alta tensão entre Macia e Chókwè.Sobre a parte agrícola, existem algumas pistas de aviões de fumigação aérea, silos para armazenamento de produtos e estradas internas no regadio.Neste capitulo serão abordados, todos os aspectos necessários para a determinação profunda do volume de água complementar para atingir os níveis de rendimentos pré-definidos para a cultura do Milho, nas condições de sequeiro.Relação clima -solo -planta -água.O principal objectivo da irrigação é fornecer uma quantidade adequada de água às plantas para prevenir o stress hídrico que pode afectar, tanto em quantidade como em qualidade, a produção da cultura. A quantidade de água necessária em cada irrigação e o momento em que essa água é aplicada são parâmetros governados pelas condições climáticas do local, tipo de cultura e seu estágio de crescimento, profundidade efectiva do sistema radicular e humidade do solo. Sempre que a água proveniente da precipitação efectiva não for suficiente para atender a demanda hídrica das plantas e a disponibilidade de água do solo for esgotada à níveis que possam provocar uma redução significativa de rendimento, haverá necessidade de suprir as necessidades hídrica das culturas com a aplicação de água de irrigação, (Allen et al. 1998).Reichardt (1985), denomina a combinação de dois processos separados pelos quais a água é transferida da superfície para a atmosfera por um lado por evaporação das superfícies e por outro lado através da transpiração das plantas é chamada de Evapotranspiração (ET). A evaporação e transpiração ocorrem simultaneamente, não havendo portanto uma maneira fácil de distinguir entre os dois processos. Radiação solar -O processo de evaporação é determinado pela quantidade de energia disponível para a vaporização da água. A radiação solar é a maior fonte de energia capaz de transformar grandes quantidades de água líquida em vapor de água.Temperatura do ar -A radiação solar absorvida pela atmosfera e o calor emitido pela terra aumenta a temperatura do ar. O calor sensível do ar circundante na atmosfera, transfere energia para cultura e exerce como tal uma influencia no controlo da taxa de Evapotranspiração.Humidade relativa do ar -Enquanto a energia fornecida pelo sol e pelo ar circunvizinho é a principal força motriz para a vaporização da água, a diferença entre a pressão de vapor de água na superfície terrestre e o ar circundante é o factor determinante para a remoção do vapor.Velocidade do vento -O processo de remoção de vapor depende em grande medida do vento e da turbulência do ar que transporta grandes quantidades de ar sobre a superfície que se evapora.Segundo (e s -e a ) Défice da tensão de vapor em kPa; Δ Declive da curva de tensão de vapor em kPaºC -1 ; γ Constante psicrométrica em kPa ºC -1 ; 900 Coeficiente de resistência estomática em kJ -1 .kg.Ks.d -1 , 0.34 Coeficiente de resistência aerodinâmica em s.m -1 .Allen et al. ( 1998), define que a Evapotranspiração da cultura sob condições óptimas (ETc), é a Evapotranspiração de culturas livres de doenças, bem fertilizadas, crescendo em áreas extensas, sob condições óptimas de humidade do solo, e alcançando a produção máxima nas condições climáticas dadas, como mostra a Figura 2.Figura 2. A Evapotranspiração da cultura sob condições óptimas de maneio e sem restrições hídricas. ( Adaptado de FAO 56)   Segundo Doorembos e Pruitt (1977), afirmam que a Evapotranspiração da cultura pode ser calculada a partir de dados climáticos e integrando directamente os factores de albedo, da resistência da cultura, e da resistência aerodinâmica no coeficiente Kc segundo a aproximação de Penman-Monteith.(2) Onde:ETc-Evapotranspiração da cultura em mm/dia ETo-Evapotranspiração de referencia em mm/dia Kc-Coeficiente de culturaSegundo Doorembos e Pruitt (1977), o coeficiente da cultura, Kc, é basicamente a relação entre a Evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) e a Evapotranspiração de referência (ETo).Segundo Allen et al. (1998), identifica que o coeficiente da cultura integra o efeito das características que distinguem uma cultura de campo agrícola, de uma cultura de referência que tem uma aparência constante e cobre completamente o solo, e que os factores que afectam o coeficiente de cultura são: Tipo de cultura -Características tais como a altura da cultura, propriedades aerodinâmicas, propriedades das folhas e estomas entre a Evapotranspiração das culturas agrícolas bem abastecidas de água e crescendo activamente difere da Evapotranspiração da cultura de referência.O Clima -Os valores de coeficiente da cultura (Kc) disponíveis na literatura, são valores médios de Kc esperados em condições climáticas standard, que é definida como um clima sub-húmido, com humidade relativa mínima média diária de aproximadamente 45%, com vento calmo a moderado atingindo uma velocidade média de 2 m.s -1 , como mostra a tabela 1. Evaporação da superfície do solo -Diferenças na evaporação do solo e transpiração das culturas entre as culturas agrícolas e a cultura de referência estão integradas no coeficiente da cultura (Kc). O Kc das culturas com boa cobertura reflecte primeiramente as diferenças na transpiração visto que a contribuição da evaporação do solo é relativamente menor.Com o desenvolvimento da cultura, o solo é coberto, a altura e área foliar mudam.  , 1977).Durante a fase inicial do ciclo de crescimento a Evapotranspiração é feita predominantemente pela Evaporação do solo. Geralmente estima-se Kc inicial em função da frequência da Precipitação e da ETo como é apresentado na Tabela 2. Os valores assumidos são para solos de textura Franco-argiloso-arenoso.Tabela 2: Aproximação de valores de Kc inicial para eventos de Precipitação (10-40mm) e solos de Textura Franco-argiloso-arenoso.Intervalos de Precipitação 1-3 mm/dia 3-5 mm/dia 5-7 mm/dia > 7 mm/dia Menos de uma semana 1.2-0.8 1.1-0.6 1.0-0.4 0.9-0.     Segundo Allen et al. (1998), a humidade na zona radicular pode ser expressa através da depleção de água na zona radicular (Dr) isto é, défice de água relativo a Capacidade de campo.Quando a humidade do solo na zona radicular, estiver a capacidade de campo, não teremos défice de água na zona radicular, e portanto teremos a depleção na zona radicular igual a zero ( Dr=0).Se a depleção de água na zona radicular (Dr) exceder a água facilmente utilizável na zona radicular (AFU), a água não pode ser transportada tão rapidamente para as raízes para responder a demanda da transpiração da cultura e a cultura começa a entrar em stress hídrico (figura 4).  Onde:Dr, i-1 -Depleção da zona radicular no fim dia anterior, i-1 [mm],θ Cc -Humidade do solo a Capacidade de campo em (m 3 /m 3 ) θ i-1 é a humidade de solo médio na zona radicular em (m 3 /m 3 ).Zr-Profundidade radicular em (m)Para o nosso caso usamos a norma da sementeira na qual diz que, após uma precipitação de maior ou igual a 24mm ( P ≥ 24mm) assume-se que a humidade do solo na zona radicular está a capacidade de campo, ou seja, Dr, i-1 =0.A irrigação (I) e a precipitação (P) adicionam água à zona radicular. Uma parte de (I) e de (P) pode ser perdida por escoamento superficial (RO) e por percolação profunda (DP) que eventualmente irá aumentar o nível do lençol freático. Para efeitos de simplificação do modelo e porque a componente de escoamento superficial (RO) é difícil de se estimar e, tomando em consideração que as práticas agrícolas tentam eliminar esta componente, assume-se que o escoamento superficial é igual a zero ( RO=0).Normalmente pode-se assumir que ascensão capilar é igual a zero quando a altura de água a ser transportada para a zona radicular for mais de 1.0m ( Allen et al, 1998).Segundo  Segundo Doorembos e Kassam (1994), para a produção máxima uma cultura de grão de maturidade média requer entre 500 e 800 mm de água dependendo do clima.O factor de cultura (Kc) que relaciona as necessidades de água (ETc) a Evapotranspiração de referência (ETo) para os diferentes estágios de crescimento da cultura de Milho grão é de 0.3 a 0.5 para a fase inicial (15 a 30 dias), 1.05 a 1.2 para a Fase intermédia (30 a 45 dias), 0.45 a 0.9 durante a Fase final (10 a 30 dias).Segundo Quando as condições evaporativas correspondem a ETc de 5 a 6 mm/dia, a fracção de água disponível (AD) que pode ser extraída na zona radicular antes de ocorrer o stress hídrico é de (p=0.55), (Doorembos e Kassam,1994).Normalmente a profundidade máxima que a cultura pode alcançar é de 1 a 1.7 m de profundidade do solo (Zr = 1 a 1.7 m), (Doorembos e Kassam,1994).Sob irrigação um rendimento bom do grão comercial é 6 a 9 ton/ha (10 a 13 % de humidade). A eficiência de utilização de água para o rendimento colhido (Ey) para o grão varia entre 0.8 e 1.6 kg/m 3 , (Doorembos e Kassam,1994).Após os conceitos da revisão bibliográfica estarem bem clarificados no sentido de definir parâmetros, para fornecer a quantidade de água complementar a cultura do Milho nas condições de sequeiro para prevenir o stress hídrico, uma das questões em dúvida para a tomada de decisão era que metodologia utilizar para alcançar este objectivo.Para o estudo da causa principal, fez-se então a relação solo-planta-água e definiu-se como causa principal dos baixos rendimentos, anteriormente obtidos devia-se em parte a irregularidade das chuvas que são a principal fonte de água nas condições de sequeiro. Esta irregularidade das chuvas, associadas as baixas quantidades das chuvas e a fraca distribuição, fazem com que haja défices hídricos no solo.Deste modo, para predizer o volume de água complementar a planta e o momento em que a água é aplicada, de forma precisa e exacta, foi necessário desenvolver como suporte, um modelo de balanço de água diário na zona radicular.O modelo de balanço de água diário na zona radicular proposto, simula o balanço de água na zona radicular para a cultura do Milho e, constitui uma ferramenta fundamental por extrapolar resultados e conclusões de estudos de campo para condições não testadas, permitindo deste modo a programação do volume de água necessário para suprir o défice hídrico, sob diversas condições climáticas e de solo.O modelo de balanço hídrico na zona radicular, ora proposto é um modelo simples de balanço de água, que permite a simulação de condições de stress hídrico e a estimação da redução dos rendimentos relativos, para todas as fases do ciclo da cultura do Milho, baseado em metodologias bem estabelecidas para a determinação de Evapotranspiração da cultura, Evapotranspiração da cultura ajustado e prever o volume de água complementar para atingir níveis de rendimentos desejados da cultura do Milho.O modelo proposto tem o seguinte formato como mostra a tabela 6 abaixo: No corpo do modelo, a primeira coluna é referente ao mês na qual é iniciado a simulação do balanço de água. Para a maioria dos casos a simulação inicia no mês de Dezembro e termina nos meados de mês de Abril, cumprindo o ciclo da cultura do Milho de 125 dias.Mais adiante encontramos as colunas referentes, a Evapotranspiração de referência (ETo), Coeficiente da cultura (Kc), Profundidade radicular (Zr), Evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc), Água disponível (AD), fracção de água disponível (p), Água Facilmente utilizável (AFU), Precipitação (P), Depleção inicial (Dr inicial ), coeficiente de stress hídrico (Ks), Percolação profunda (DP), Depleção final (Dr final ), Evapotranspiração de cultura sob condições de stress hídrico (ETc ajustado ), coeficiente de sensibilidade hídrica da cultura (Ky) e, rendimentos relativos (Ya/Ym).Para a determinação da data de sementeira usou-se a norma da sementeira na qual diz que, após uma precipitação de maior ou igual ( P≥24mm), assume-se que a humidade de solo na zona radicular está próximo da capacidade de campo, ou seja Dr, i-1 =0 ( Jeevananda, 1986).Para cada determinado ano que vai de 1961 a 1992, escolheu-se uma data de sementeira apropriada no intervalo de mês de Dezembro, que varia de 01 de Dezembro até 31 de Dezembro, a seguir a uma precipitação igual ou superior a 24mm, sendo que nestas condições a humidade do solo na zona radicular está próximo da capacidade de Campo e o Dr, i-1 =0.ii) Determinação de Evapotranspiração de referência (ETo)Colectou-se e avaliou-se os dados disponíveis, referentes aos valores da Evapotranspiração de referencia (ETo) para os diferentes anos, na base de Dados do INAM ( Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia). Os valores disponíveis eram referentes aos anos de 1961 até 1992, dispostos em três décadas de cada mês. Os anos de 1963, 1964, 1968, 1978 e 1979 não foram apurados, por falta de dados. Sendo que os valores estavam dispostos por década, dividiuse cada década por 10, de modo a obter os valores da ETo diários em mm/dia.Para o cálculo do Coeficiente de Cultura (Kc), foi necessário agrupar uma série de informações tais como:Informações necessárias sobre a cultura de Milho:-Data de sementeira: No mês de Dezembro, na data logo após uma precipitação de maior ou igual a 24mm sendo que nestas condições a humidade do solo na zona radicular está próximo da capacidade de Campo e o Dr, i-1 =0.-Em relação as fases de crescimento para a cultura do Milho têm:  Apurados os valores do coeficiente de cultura (Kc) e da Evapotranspiração de referencia (ETo), calculou-se a Evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) do Milho com base na equação (2).Calculou-se a água disponível na zona radicular (AD), pela equação (4), na qual a sua magnitude depende do tipo de solo e da profundidade radicular da cultura do Milho. No nosso caso usou-se um solo Franco-Argiloso, com água disponível de 120mm/m.Utilizou-se a fracção de água disponível p tabela =0.55, e calculou-se o valor do p com base na equação ( 6), na qual p é em função da Evapotranspiração da cultura do Milho ( ETc).O cálculo da água facilmente disponível (AFU) é dada pela equação (5), tendo em conta que é necessário calcular antes a fracção de água disponível.Sendo que a precipitação é a quantidade de água adicionada na zona radicular num determinado dia, os valores foram obtidos através de dados da precipitação, na base de Dados do INAM ( Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia). Os valores disponíveis eram referentes aos anos de 1961 até 1992, dispostos diariamente de cada mês. Os anos de 1963, 1964, 1968, 1978 e 1979 não foram apurados, por falta de dados para um determinado dia de cada ano.ix) Determinação da Depleção inicial ( Dr inicial ) no primeiro dia.Para o cálculo da Dr, i-1 no primeiro dia do balanço de água diário na zona radicular, usou-se a norma da sementeira na qual diz que, após uma precipitação de maior ou igual a 24mm ( P ≥ 24mm) assume-se que a humidade do solo na zona radicular está a capacidade de campo, ou seja, Dr, i-1 =0.No segundo dia, a depleção inicial será igual a depleção final do dia anterior. Segue-se o mesmo procedimento, para os restantes dias, utilizando a seguinte fórmula: No ano de 1961, veja o anexo 1, o primeiro dia do balanço de água diário na zona radicular, após uma precipitação de maior ou igual ( P≥24mm), assume-se que a humidade de solo na zona radicular está próximo da capacidade de campo, ou seja Dr, i-1 =0 ( Jeevananda, 1986). O resultado da ET no mesmo dia, dá-nos um Dr final =2.47 mm, devido ao consumo de água pela cultura no primeiro dia.No segundo dia inicia-se a depleção de água na zona radicular com o valor de 2.47 mm devido ao consumo de água pela planta no dia anterior. Na ausência duma fonte de água, tal como a precipitação, a humidade do solo na zona radicular decresce, como resultado da ET no mesmo dia, elevando o Dr final =4.94 mm. Enquanto a ascensão da água pela cultura progride, sem nenhum evento de precipitação, a água remanescente na zona radicular diminui, aumentando o nível de depleção na zona radicular para valores elevados, e tornando-se mais difícil para a planta extrair a água, como no caso do 14º dia em que a Dr final =32.01 mm.Após o 15º dia da data de sementeira, há um evento de precipitação de 54.3 mm e regista-se um excesso de água na zona radicular, na qual o excesso de água é perdida por percolação profunda ( DP=21.14 mm). Após o solo drenar o excesso de água no solo, ela atinge a capacidade de campo, estabelecendo de novo o Dr final =0.A partir do 47º dia, a humidade do solo na zona radicular decresce abaixo dos níveis aceitáveis (Dr inicial > AFU) e a água no solo já não pode ser transportada tão rapidamente para as raízes das plantas para responder a demanda da transpiração e a cultura começa a entrar em stress hídrico (0 <Ks <1). O stress hídrico acontece sempre que a água é extraída pela ET, sendo que a depleção inicial aumenta, tornando o Dr inicial maior que o AFU.Aplicou-se o modelo da relação entre o défice hídrico sobre os rendimentos relativos, nas condições de sequeiro para a cultura de Milho, de acordo com a equação 11. Teve-se em conta que o modelo depende do Ky, de acordo com os valores da Tabela 5.Calculou-se primeiro as perdas de rendimento especifico (Ya/Ym) real para as 4 fases do ciclo de crescimento da cultura, Fase I-Fase Inicial, Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento, Fase III-Fase Intermédia e Fase IV-Fase final, segundo a seguinte formula:Calculadas as perdas de rendimento específicos para as 4 fases de ciclo de crescimento da cultura do Milho, fez-se o produto das 4 fases especificas, sendo o valor representativo a perda de rendimento geral da cultura do Milho para um determinado ano.Para o cálculo da quantidade de água complementar para atingir níveis de 80%, 85%, e 90% do rendimento potencial, teve-se como base a perda de rendimento real nas condições de sequeiro, utilizando os seguintes passos:1-Definiu-se as fases do ciclo da cultura que apresentava as perdas de rendimento mais critico, sendo para este caso a fase III-Fase intermédia e fase IV-Fase final.2-Definiu-se um rendimento esperado para a Fase III e Fase IV, na qual o produto das 4 fases atingia o rendimento desejado de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial. A quantidade de água complementar para todo o ciclo da cultura do Milho, é feita através do somatório da quantidade de água a adicionar para as quatro fases especificas do ciclo de crescimento da cultura do Milho, como queríamos demonstrar.Neste capítulo será feito um tratamento de todas as informações relevantes para os diferentes cálculos e interpretação dos resultados obtidos, utilizando o modelo de balanço de água diário na zona radicular.Os resultados obtidos segundo a metodologia proposta, foram apresentado em tabelas, processadas por computador no programa Microsoft Office-EXCEL, para os anos de 1961 até 1992, excluindo os anos de 1963, 1964, 1968, 1978 e 1979, que não foram apurados por falta de dados. No anexo 1 mostra-se os resultados apurados no modelo do balanço de água diário na zona radicular para o ano de 1961, da cultura do Milho na Região de Chókwè, como modelo de referência para os outros anos em causa. Os modelos dos anos restantes encontram-se arquivados na disquete com o nome de \"Simulação de TD modelo de Balanço hídrico diário na região de Chókwè de 1962-1992\".Segundo a tabela 8, referente as datas de sementeira para os diferentes anos em causa, podemos notar que o intervalo da data de sementeira é todo o período do mês de Dezembro, iniciando-se a sementeira no dia 02 de Dezembro para o ano de 1977, e a última data de sementeira foi no dia 06 de Janeiro para o ano de 1970, pois a data prolongou-se até ao mês seguinte do ano hidrológico em causa.Tabela 8: Datas de sementeira propostas para os anos de 1961de até 1992de . ANO 1961de 1962de 1965de 1967de 1969de 1970de 1971de 1972de 1973de 1974de 1975de 1976   ANO 1980ANO 1981ANO 1982ANO 1983ANO 1984ANO 1985ANO 1986ANO 1987ANO 1988ANO 1989ANO 1990ANO 1991  Figura 6: Ocorrência das datas de sementeira no mês de Dezembro.Em relação a profundidade radicular da cultura do milho, os valores foram introduzidos no modelo, partindo de valores retirados na figura 7 da curva da profundidade radicular da cultura do Milho. Inicialmente a profundidade radicular é 0.2m, ao longo do ciclo de crescimento da cultura, a profundidade radicular aumenta até atingir o seu valor máximo de 1.5m no final da Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento. O seu valor máximo de 1.5m permanece constante no início da Fase III-Fase intermédia até o final do seu ciclo de crescimento.  Neste sub capítulo serão abordados os resultados referentes a Evapotranspiração da cultura e a Evapotranspiração da cultura ajustado, desde 1961 até 1992. No anexo 2, encontramos o resumo da Evapotranspiração da cultura e a Evapotranspiração da cultura ajustado por fases dos anos em causa. Em cada ano é apresentado a Evapotranspiração referente as 4 fases do ciclo da cultura, sendo a Fase I-Fase inicial, Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento, Fase III-Fase Intermédia, Fase IV-Fase final da cultura, como queríamos demonstrar.Ao longo dos resultados encontramos duas etapas distintas no resultado de ETc cajustado /ETc.1-Quando a água disponível no solo para a cultura é suficiente, ou seja, ETc cajustado =ETc .2-Quando a água disponível no solo é limitada, ou seja, ETc cajustado <ETc 4.2.1.1. Quando a água disponível no solo para a cultura é suficiente, ou seja, ETc cajustado =ETc .Com os resultados obtidos, veja o anexo 2, nota-se que este facto acontece frequentemente na Fase I-Fase inicial, para todos os anos desde 1961 até 1992, na qual após um evento de precipitação, o solo retêm água na zona radicular, disponível para a absorção pelas raízes das plantas. Quando o solo é suficientemente húmido, o solo fornece água rapidamente para satisfazer a demanda atmosférica, sem nenhumas restrições hídricas, e deste modo a ETc cajustado =ETc.Com os resultados obtidos, veja anexo 2, este facto acontece frequentemente na Fase III-Fase Intermédia e em alguns anos acontece na Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento e Fase IV-Fase final, quando a humidade do solo na zona radicular decresce abaixo dos níveis aceitáveis, e já não pode ser transportada tão rapidamente para as raízes das plantas para responder a demanda da transpiração da cultura e começa a entrar em stress hídrico, resultante da difícil absorção de água no solo, sendo que o Dr inicial >AFU.Sendo que a ETc representa as necessidades hídricas da cultura sob condições óptimas de humidade e alcançando uma produção máxima nas condições climáticas dadas, nota-se que a ETc ajustado para os anos de 1961, 1962, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990 e 1991 é menor que a ETc na Fase II, Fase III e Fase IV, resultando deste modo numa perda de rendimento para a cultura nos anos em causa, e para os restantes anos a ETc cajustado =ETc, segundo mostra-nos a Figura 9.  1961 1962 1965 1966 1967 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Anos ETc/ETcajustado ETc ETcajustado Figura 9: Relação entre a ETc/ ETc ajustado do Milho nas condições de sequeiro na região de Chókwè nos anos de 1961 até 1992.Então pode-se afirmar que, quanto maior for a diferença entre a ETc e a ETc ajustado maior é a perda de rendimento que a cultura apresenta, pois a ETc ajustado representa a quantidade de água consumida pela cultura. Segundo os resultados na Figura 9, mostram que no ano de 1962 e 1965, tivemos a maior diferença entre a ETc e ETc ajustado , afectando drasticamente na perda de rendimento.O efeito generalizado e específico do deficit hídrico sobre o rendimento relativo da cultura do Milho é apresentado no Anexo 2, para os anos de 1961 até 1992 tanto para o período geral de crescimento, como para as fases específicas de crescimento, Fase I, Fase II, Fase II e Fase IV.Para os períodos específicos de crescimento, a queda de rendimento devido ao deficit hídrico foi de:Na Fase I -Fase inicial, o rendimento relativo da cultura, para todos os anos foi de Ya/Ym=1.0. Este facto deve-se porque as necessidades hídricas da cultura são atendidas plenamente, pelo que o suprimento de água disponível será de ETc cajustado =ETc, não havendo quebra de rendimento.Na Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento, a queda de rendimento para os anos em causa é pouco significativo, pois os níveis de rendimento que se deseja alcançar é satisfatório, veja anexo 2, sendo que 0 <Ya/Ym <1. Este facto deve-se porque o suprimento de água pela cultura atende as necessidades hídricas da cultura razoavelmente, pois a redução do rendimento nesta fase do ciclo de crescimento não compromete a redução do rendimento geral da cultura do Milho.Na Fase III-Fase intermédia do ciclo de crescimento da cultura, a queda de rendimento para a maioria dos anos em causa é drástica, veja anexo 2, afectando deste modo o rendimento relativo total da cultura. Este facto deve-se devido ao grau de sensibilidade que a cultura apresenta nesta fase ao deficit hídrico, quando a cultura não atende plenamente as necessidades hídricas. O baixo rendimento relativo obtido nesta fase afectou directamente o rendimento geral da cultura para os mesmos anos.Na Fase IV-Fase final, a redução dos rendimentos relativos é notório para a maioria dos anos, veja anexo 2, pois a humidade do solo na zona radicular não consegue satisfazer a demanda atmosférica da cultura em pleno.De acordo com a figura 10, os rendimentos relativos geral da cultura do Milho de 1961 até 1992, mostra-nos claramente que o efeito do deficit hídrico sobre o rendimento relativo da cultura do Milho nas condições de sequeiro é variável, pelo que nos anos em que a humidade do solo na zona radicular consegue satisfazer a demanda atmosférica, caso dos anos de 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1980, 1984  Na Fase I e Fase II, para todos os anos não houve necessidade de adicionar água à cultura para atingir níveis de rendimentos desejados, pois a humidade do solo mostrou-se apta para satisfazer a demanda atmosférica da cultura, de modo que não haja perda de rendimento.Em relação a Fase III, devido ao grau de sensibilidade que a cultura apresenta nesta fase ao deficit hídrico e, devido a drástica redução de rendimento que a cultura apresenta, foi necessário adicionar maior quantidade de água de modo a satisfazer as necessidades hídricas da cultura, veja anexo 2.Em relação a fase IV, também houve necessidade de adicionar água a cultura para atingir níveis de rendimento desejados, sendo que no ano de 1965 houve maior quantidade de água a aplicar a cultura, veja anexo 2, seguido do ano de 1991 para se atingir níveis de rendimento de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial.Segundo a tabela 9, pode-se notar que o ano de 1965 obteve a maior quantidade total de água a adicionar à cultura, estimando-se em 375.65mm, 394.16mm e 412.14mm para atingirNeste capítulo será apresentado duma forma resumida os resultados mais importantes deste estudo. A sequência da apresentação, não é segundo a prioridade que pode ser atribuída às conclusões e recomendações individual, mas sim para facilitar o aproveitamento das mesmas. -Na Fase II-Fase de desenvolvimento do ciclo de crescimento, a ETc ajustado apresenta uma redução pouco significativa em relação a ETc para alguns anos, pois a humidade do solo decresce um pouco e não pode ser transportada tão rapidamente para as raízes das plantas para responder a demanda da transpiração da cultura.-Pode-se concluir que na Fase III-Fase intermédia a ETc ajustado apresenta uma redução drástica e é muito inferior em relação as outras fases do ciclo de crescimento da cultura, devido ao grau de sensibilidade que a cultura apresenta nesta fase ao deficit hídrico, pois a humidade do solo na zona radicular decresce abaixo dos níveis aceitáveis e entra em stress hídrico.-Na Fase IV-Fase final do ciclo de crescimento a ETc ajustado é relativamente inferior a ETc, pois a humidade do solo na zona radicular não consegue satisfazer plenamente as necessidades hídricas da cultura. -Na Fase II-Fase de Desenvolvimento, a diminuição de rendimento é pouco significativo para todos os anos, pois é satisfatório para os níveis de rendimento que se deseja alcançar. Com este facto não há necessidade de suprimento de água adicional a cultura, sendo que o solo consegue satisfazer as necessidades hídricas da cultura, até níveis de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial.-Na Fase III-Fase intermédia, é a fase mais critica porque há uma redução drástica de rendimento, afectando deste modo o rendimento geral da cultura. Com este facto e devido ao grau de sensibilidade hídrica da cultura em relação ao deficit hídrico, há uma necessidade de maior suprimento de água adicional em relação as outras fases do ciclo de crescimento, para atingir níveis de rendimentos desejados.-Na Fase IV-Fase final, a queda de rendimento devido ao deficit hídrico neste estágio de crescimento é razoável, quando comparado com a Fase III-Fase intermédia. Deste modo a quantidade de água a adicionar será também inferior, comparado com a Fase III, até atingir níveis de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial.- -Deste modo, pode-se afirmar que os baixos rendimentos reais obtidos no ano de 1965 implica com que haja maior dispêndio de água a adicionar para a cultura de modo que se atinja níveis de rendimentos desejados.-Recomenda-se que se faça um estudo sobre a data de sementeira óptima da cultura do Milho nas condições de sequeiro na Região de Chókwè, de modo a se maximizar os rendimentos para níveis de rendimentos desejados.-Caso não haja uma data óptima de sementeira que maximize os rendimentos para a agricultura de sequeiro, recomenda-se que se use a norma da sementeira na qual diz que, após uma precipitação de maior ou igual a ( P ≥ AD), assume-se que a humidade do solo está a capacidade de campo, ou seja, Dr inicial =0.-Para o sucesso do balanço de água diário na zona radicular na região de Chókwè, recomendase que os dados a introduzir tais como os Dados meteorológicos e da Precipitação, sejam disponíveis pelas fontes, em valores diários, para que possamos ter resultados mais fiáveis.-Recomenda-se ao agricultor, se a data de sementeira for no período de Dezembro e para que se atinja um rendimento de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial para a cultura do Milho na região de Chókwè:• Não há necessidade de adicionar água a cultura do Milho na Fase I-Fase inicial eFase II-Fase de desenvolvimento do ciclo de crescimento da cultura do Milho.• Deve-se adicionar água a cultura do Milho na Fase III-Fase Intermédia e Fase IV-Fase Final do ciclo de crescimento.• O volume máximo de água complementar a irrigação deve ser de 3756.5 m 3 .ha -1 , 3941.6 m 3 .ha -1 e 4121.4 m 3 .ha -1 para atingir níveis de 80%, 85% e 90% do rendimento potencial respectivamente, de acordo com o volume de água complementar estabelecido na Tabela 12.-De modo a aumentar os níveis de rendimentos da cultura do Milho, as fontes de água alternativas podem ser tanques de água, ou represas dimensionados para suportar o volume de água necessário para evitar o stress hídrico e instalado no local.-Para finalizar é necessário ter em conta que o efeito da água sobre o rendimento não deve ser considerado de forma independente de outros factores agronómicos, pelo que deve-se dar ênfase também a outros factores tais como, aplicação de fertilizantes, densidades das plantas e protecção das culturas, porque este factores também determinam o sucesso da cultura.Determinação do volume de água complementar a irrigação para agricultura de sequeiro na região de Chókwè. ","tokenCount":"6930"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ecd656a79c93cfb8e6f94a14e850c63","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d8756f99-82f8-4b03-ae4c-b38c0d69d56f/retrieve","id":"280646903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"623fc995-e1fb-4705-a21f-959f91cc68ff","pagecount":"26","content":"Humidtropics is a CGIAR Research Program that seeks to transform the lives of rural poor in the humid lowlands, moist savannas, and tropical highlands in tropical Americas, Asia, and Africa. In West Africa, the humid tropics occupy an area of 206 million ha and are home to 145 million people. About 28% of the population lives on less than US$1.25/day and 58% of land area is estimated to be degraded. The Humidtropics West Africa Flagship Project has Action Sites in the humid and subhumid regions of Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.There are nine Local Government Areas (LGA) in Nigeria spread across two states Oyo and Osun. Oyo state has four target LGAs while Osun state has five.As a part of the integrated approach in solving the problems of rural livelihood, income, malnutrition and natural resource degradation ILRI undertook a feed assessment study in the nine LGAs as feed shortage is a major problem in most of the developing countries to augment livestock production and productivity.The purpose of the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) is to offer a systematic and rapid methodology for assessing feed resources at site level with a view to developing a site-specific strategy for improving feed supply and utilization through technical or organizational interventions. The tool is aimed at research and development practitioners who are working in the livestock sector and need a systematic means of assessing current feed-related strategies and developing new ones.FEAST differs from conventional feed assessment approaches that focus on the feeds, their nutritive value, and ways to improve them. FEAST broadens this assessment to account for the importance of livestock in local livelihoods, the relative importance of feed problems locally, and the local situation related to labour, input availability, credit, seasonality, and markets (Duncan et al., 2012).Outputs from the FEAST consists of a short report in a defined format along with some quantitative information on overall feed availability, quality and seasonality. The output from the FEAST studies is likely to result in better understanding of the current situation with regard to the issues of crop and livestock integration and the likely interventions that can be thought of in addressing the existing problems. The current report pertains to the four field sites of Oyo State: Iddo, Ibarapa East, Orire and Ogo Oluwa local government areas.The objective of the study was to identify the major livestock production challenges, opportunities and possible interventions on livestock feed and related aspects for the improvement of livestock production and productivity through the FEAST tool which provides an overview of the farming system and better understanding of the feed related problems in the target local government areas.Description of the study area -Oyo state is located in the south western parts of Nigeria covering a total land area of 28,454 km 2 . Agriculture remains the dominant economic activity in the State employing a large proportion of its population. Cocoa, kolanut, cashew nuts, citrus fruits, palms and rubber are the main tree crops cultivated in the forest zones in the southern parts of the State, yam and cassava represent the major root crops, while maize is the predominant cereal cultivated in the savannah areas of the State. Lumber is also a source of income for the State government. FEAST was carried out in four LGAs: Iddo, Ibarapa East, Orire and Ogo Oluwa wherein the farmers with diverse backgrounds are broadly classified as small, medium and large-scale farmers based on the land holdings. Farmers were selected to provide a representative group with the help of public extension agents as informants. The land categorization for classifying the farmers was kept constant across the different LGAs.FEAST was carried in two stages, the first stage involving participatory rural appraisal where the group of farmers provided an overview of the farming system and identified constraints and opportunities for improving livestock production in their respective LGAs. Subsequently key resource farmers were interviewed individually to provide quantitative data.The information collected included livestock holding, crops cultivated, contribution of various sources of income, feeds produced on farm/purchased, contribution of different feed resources and seasonality in availability of feeds to identify the flush and lean season for feed availability as per the FEAST manual.The farmers in all the four LGAs cultivate multiple crops which is a proven method of risk minimization and ensuring that diverse needs are met. The main crops cultivated at Iddo LGA are maize, cassava, cocoa and other minor crops included plantain and sweet orange. At Ibarapa EastLGA the main crops were cassava and maize besides yam and assorted vegetables as minor crops. Maize and cassava continued to be the major crops cultivated at Orire LGA with yam to a very limited extent. At Ogo Oluwa LGA, cocoa as a cash crop was the most prominent crop followed by cassava and maize with some cashew as a cash crop. The nature of crops decides the availability of crops and crop byproducts that could be potentially used as feed resources. In all the four LGAs the major crops were cocoa, cassava and maize of which only cassava and maize crops are important for livestock as feed resources as cocoa crop hardly contributes to the livestock feed. Graphs representing the cropping pattern and the average land for each house hold for the surveyed farmers in different LGAs are presented in Figures 2-5. Among the four LGAs, Orire had the greatest proportion (84%) of small farmers holding less than 5 hectares land while the Ibarapa East and Iddo LGAs had maximum farmers having medium land category (6-10 hectares) and Ogo Oluwa had largest proportion (50%) of large farmers holding more than 10 hectares.The household sizes in the areas were observed to be relatively high (figure 7). The farmers mainly depended on family labour for harvesting and processing of farm produce while the hired labourers were always engaged in tedious work like clearing, making of heaps, ridges, planting and weeding. The cost of labour sometimes depends on negotiation, the nature of the work and the work duration. Rural/urban migration was common especially in areas that are far away from the major cities. Migration was not common in Iddo and Orire as the LGAs are close to Ibadan and Ogbomosho respectively. Land is available either on lease or purchase. Land under lease system is widely prevalent in these areas and generally on tenure/lease system farmers plan for crops that have short term returns coinciding with the land tenure. Irrigation for cultivation is not commonly practiced in these areas. However, where swampy or water logged lands exist, people utilize it for dry season vegetable cultivation. This system of using harvested water for irrigation is called as Fadama. Labour availability is not a problem as labour is available all year round. Farming operations are influenced by a number of factors and the major ones include-irrigation, nature of crop, labour availability and wages. The month wise activities calendar for the entire year for all the four LGA was documented and summarized in tables 2 to 5. The major sources of income from different activities were surveyed amongst the farmers of theLGAs to place the contribution of livestock in context. Areas with major income from livestock are more likely to adopt or invest in interventions related to livestock. The major contributions from different sources is summarized in figure 8.Agriculture including livestock has been the major source of income accounting for over 70% of the total income in all the four LGAs surveyed. The role of livestock as an income generator was more pronounced in Ibrapa East (44%) and it was followed by Iddo and Ogo Oluwa where it was >20% and the least was observed in Orire LGA (10%). High proportion of income generation from livestock in Ibarapa East was due to the surveyed farmers having greater income from livestock as their crop land was small and dairying was one of the major sources of income. Two of the farmers in Iddo had only livestock and no agricultural land and the income from livestock was 90% and hence they were LGA not considered for arriving at the average. The majority of the respondents in all the four LGAs were crop farmers and crop income was the major source and income from livestock was secondary.The farmers were aware of credit facilities. They did not choose to borrow money for the operation of livestock production. Expansion of livestock production was essentially through the process of animal donation by relatives and friends to the farmers. Farmers act as 'care takers' and the profits are shared between the farmers and the donors. Personal and hired lands are abundant for cultivation of crops and rearing of animals but land was never established for the purpose of rearing livestock. Mostly the livestock production was secondary and was not taken up intensively. None of the farmers in the area have heard about AI except in Ibarapa East where a woman farmer was preparing for it.The main livestock species are sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits, snails, poultry, honeybees and cattle. Every household has one or more species or a combination of them. The predominant animals in the areas are goats, sheep and local chickens. Cattle rearing are limited to the Fulani, who rarely practice crop farming. Although there are pockets of intensive systems of management, especially for commercial poultry and pigs, the majority of livestock owners operate an extensive system of production where the animals are let loose and mainly depend on grazing. Housing is never provided; animals sleep in the corridor while birds live on trees where they are exposed to inclement weather. There are veterinarians or technicians that take care of the health of the animals. Farmers purposely provide supplementary feed in order to keep them close to the homestead. The feed supply includes peels of cassava, yam and plantain, corn gluten (waste from sieving of fermented corn), wheat offal, brewer's dried grain, palm kernel cake, orange pulp, cashew pulp, mango fruit wastes, cowpea husk, groundnut haulm, corn offal and sorghum chaff. Browse plants and shrubs are also gathered around homestead and farm area. Farmers in the area were reluctant to declare the number of animals they have per household. They rear animals for immediate income, for festival, ceremony, gift and house hold consumption.The livestock holding for different species and categories of livestock across the four LGAs was surveyed and the average livestock holdings are presented in the Figures 9-13. In Iddo LGA, the farmers with above average status (land holding) had a large proportion of large ruminants and all of them were local cattle mainly for the beef purpose, while the farmers with average and below average status had predominantly poultry (country birds), goats and sheep. The population of large ruminants was very large while the population of poultry, sheep and goat was small and the livestock holding in TLU (Tropical livestock units) per household for the surveyed farmers had only cattle with almost no sheep, goats and poultry. The number of cattle among the surveyed farmers was so large that it overshadowed the other species present in small numbers. At Ibarapa east LGA, poultry comprising of indigenous birds were found in good numbers followed by goats and sheep while the local cows were also common due to the good market for milk and dairying was coming up as a major economic activity. When expressed as average TLU per house hold it was found that local cattle were the largest followed by goat, sheep and poultry. At Orire LGA it was observed that numerically the commercial poultry was predominant followed by indigenous birds, pigs and goats with no presence of cattle among the surveyed farmers. However when expressed as TLU the pigs were found to be the most dominant species followed by goats, indigenous birds and commercial poultry. At Ogo Oluwa LGA indigenous birds were found to be the dominant species followed by the goats and sheep and there were no cattle. In terms of the TLU held per house hold across the surveyed farmers it was found that small ruminants -goats followed by sheep and finally the indigenous birds were important species reared by the surveyed farmers.LGAFrom the distribution of animals across the different LGAs it is evident that the numbers and species show wide variation and the numbers in terms of TLU irrespective of the species was found to be highest in Iddo (122.32TLU) while the other three LGAs namely Ibarapa East (17.2 TLU), Ogo Oluwa (1.47 TLU) and Orire (0.81 TLU) had a small number of animals. The implications of the TLU distribution per house hold in terms of the number show the intensity for the feed demand to maintain these animals while the species wise distribution is an indicator of the nature/type of feed resources (roughage versus concentrate needed).Land allocation for fodder production is an index to show the importance of livestock in a production system. Generally the area allocation is proportional to the revenue realized through livestock land being precious; the decision to allocate land for fodder cultivation is generally done when it makes economic sense to grow fodder for livestock instead of cultivating food/cash crop. Unlike cultivated fodder, naturally grown pastures is an indication of the surplus land availability or availability of lands that are not suitable for cultivation and are put to produce grass/fodder for livestock. Distribution of land for cultivated fodder and land under natural pastures was surveyed among all the farmers in the four LGA and the findings are presented in graphs below (Fig 14 -17). Iddo had a large area under naturally occurring pasture followed by maize fodder. In Ibarapa EastLGA, fodder cultivation was taken up with more diversified crops -legumes and non-legumes -stylo, Napier, maize and lablab besides the naturally occurring pasture. A legume and non-legume fodder is a good combination for enhancing the quality and biomass of the cultivated fodder. Under the Orire LGA, maize as fodder cultivation was taken up on a large scale and the pastures from natural resources was a minor component.Under the Ogo Oluwa LGA Napier was found to be the most widely cultivated fodder in terms of average land allocation followed by natural pasture. To a limited extent sorghum and lab lab was also cultivated as fodder in almost equal proportions. Amongst the LGAs, Iddo had the largest total area under fodder -cultivated and natural (13.2 ha per house hold) while the area for Ibarapa East (1.42 ha) and Orire (1.14 ha) were almost similar and Ogo Oluwa had the least area under fodder (0.38 ha).The quantity of feed purchased is an indicator of the balance between the home grown feeds and the demand by the livestock. Generally in intensive systems of production the amount of feed purchased higher while in extensive system the purchased quantities are limited. Further the species distribution also dictates the nature of feeds purchased -roughage versus concentrates with ruminants favoring roughage and mono-gastric favoring concentrate ingredients with the only exception being intensively fed dairy cattle/beef cattle and sheep/goat fattening where concentrate purchase for ruminants may be substantial. Variety of feeds purchased along with their proportions by the farmers in the four LGAs is presented in the following pie charts (figures 17-20). Under the Iddo LGA it was observed that maize stover represented the largest purchased resource followed by grass from the natural pastures, cowpea crop residue, cassava crop residue, and groundnut haulms. The roughages accounted for greater than 70% of the total feeds purchased indicating the large and small ruminant livestock population.Brewer's graindehydrated 2%Cassava (Manihot esculenta) -fresh peelings 4%Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) -seed meal 2%Maize (Zea mays)cracked grains 1%Maize (Zea mays) -gluten meal 4%Rice (Oryza sativa) -bran (with germs) 2%Soybean (Glycine max)meal 1%Wheat (Triticum aestivum) -bran 3%Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) -crop residue 7%Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) -crop residue 12%Cassava (Manihot esculenta) -crop residue 10%Maize (Zea mays) -crop residue 28%Naturally occuring pasture -green fodder (tropical) 21%Maize (Zea mays) -cobs ground 6%Quantity of feed purchased over a 12 month period In Ibarapa East, green fodder from the natural pasture accounted for 12% of purchased feed and was major roughage in addition to cassava crop residue and groundnut haulms that constituted 1% each of the total resources purchased. Concentrates constituted the remaining 86% of the total feed resources purchased. Rice (Oryza sativa) -bran (with germs) 10%Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) -seed meal 4%Rice (Oryza sativa)hulls 13%Fish Meal 2%Maize (Zea mays)cracked grains 7%Maize (Zea mays) -gluten with bran 15%Maize (Zea mays)gluten meal 22%Cassava (Manihot esculenta) -fresh peelings 15%Maize (Zea mays)cracked grains 11%Commerically mixed ration 52%The purchased ingredients under the Orire LGA was 100% concentrates and one unique feature was that commercial concentrate mixture was being sold/purchased in the area and this is in agreement with the livestock distribution where the pigs and commercial poultry are the major species and they almost depend on the concentrate for production. The proportion of concentrate to roughages purchased in the Ogo Oluwa LGA was 68:32 and interestingly maize grains and bran were missing in the purchased commodities.Apart from the proportion of the feed resources purchased as depicted in the Figures 17-20, the amount of purchase is an important parameter. Across the four LGAs the largest purchase was made in the Iddo LGA (12 tons) followed by Ibarapa East (6.7 tons), Orire (2.5 tons) and Ogo Oluwa (2.3 tons). Quantity of feed purchased is an indirect measure of level of intensification and the home grown feeds, former being positively related and latter negatively related to the quantity of feeds. Additionally with variation in the distribution of large ruminants versus the rest of species the quantity of feeds purchased would vary as large ruminants could require higher quantities of feed resources.Dietary composition of total diets in terms of the dry matter, crude protein and metabolizable energy from the major categories of the feed -grazing, cultivated fodder, natural fodder and purchased feeds across the four LGA is depicted in the pie charts below .  Fodder from naturally occurring and collected sources contributed most to the dry matter, protein and energy in Ogo Oluwa and Ibarapa East LGA. Quantitatively and qualitatively green fodder from grazing was the major source of feeds in Iddo while in Orire LGA fodder from the cultivated sources was the single largest contributor.Seasonal fluctuations in the monthly availability of feed resources and the contribution of different feed resources to the total feeds in a year was recorded in all four LGAs and the seasonal fluctuations are depicted in figures 26-29.   Across the LGA it was observed that the months starting from October-November to March-April (six months period) was critical for livestock due to the dry season where there is a decline in the availability of feed resources. The periods from May to September were the best season for livestock where the feed resource availability was better and this coincides with the wet season where the rains ensure adequate availability of greens. Grazing, green forage during the wet season and crop residues during the dry season were the major source of feeds in Iddo and Ibarapa LGA. Concentrate was the major source of feeds in Orire LGA and at any given time it was above 35% of the total feeds, this is related to the fact that pigs and commercial poultry are the major livestock species and they rely heavily on concentrates. In Ogo Oluwa LGA, crop residues were the predominant feed resource with very little greens from grazing resources.At the end of the participatory rural appraisal, farmers were asked to rank the list of the problems that they perceived and the possible solutions to address them from their perspective. The problems and the possible solutions at all the four surveyed LGA in Oyo state were tabulated and presented below.  ","tokenCount":"3265"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"657acb38862019b2ac7f3346e6677cb1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c66b57c-99c0-4782-bebb-3e54ff703ee7/retrieve","id":"-1779027274"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ff63205b-a1d7-4363-b447-5221f3904f7b","pagecount":"19","content":"Contents 5 Ethiopia 5.1 Introduction 5.2 SOFA 2023 hidden costs analysis 5.2.1 Main cost components and explanations of the results 5.2.2 Comparison of SPIQ data with national datasets 5.2.3 Recommendations for tailored country hidden costs analysis 5.3 Evolution of hidden costs by 2030 and 2050 5.3.1 FABLE Calculator for Ethiopia 5.3.2 Scenathon 2023 pathways assumptions 5.3.3 Results across the three pathways 5.3.4 What are the most influential factors to reduce the hidden costs by 2030 and 2050? 5.3.5 Impacts on the agrifood system's hidden costs 5.4 Entry points for action by type of actor of the agrifood system and foreseen implementation challenges 5.5 ReferencesEthiopia, a nation of 1.1 million km² in East Africa, supports a population of 110 million. Prior to the global pandemic and ongoing political instability after 2020, Ethiopia stood out as one of Africa's fastest-growing economies, boasting an average annual GDP growth rate approaching 10% between 2009 and 2019 (ESS, 2020). Agriculture is the cornerstone of the Ethiopian economy, with subsistence farming employing over 67% of the workforce and contributing 34% to GDP (Bank, 2018;WB, 2020). The sector forms the core of Ethiopia's agrifood system, which is undergoing transformations in response to recent economic growth (Diao et al., 2023). This report delves into the hidden costs associated with Ethiopia's agrifood system, employing the framework established by the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) 2023 SOFA report (FAO, 2023).AFS encompasses all interconnected actors involved in producing, consuming, and regulating food and agricultural products and jobs (Fanzo et al., 2020). By analyzing the contribution of each component -primary agriculture, agro-processing, trade and transport, food services, and input supplywe can characterize the structure and economic contribution of all agrifood system stages (Fanzo et al., 2020). Ethiopia's agrifood system reflects a typical low-income country structure, with a high contribution of primary agriculture (48% of GDP) and a low contribution of off-farm components (12.8% of GDP) (Diao et al., 2023). This heavy reliance on primary agriculture mirrors the vulnerabilities of Ethiopia's agrifood system, posing significant challenges to food security and nutrition. Value added per agricultural worker falls considerably short of other sectors, and major crop productivity remains low on a large portion of farm plots. Additionally, the sector's dependence on rainfed cultivation renders it highly susceptible to climate variability and extreme weather events (Bizikova et al., 2022;Reardon et al., 2019). Despite these limitations, the primary agriculture sector nourishes the vast Ethiopian population through a subsistencebased production system, minimizing reliance on commercial food imports (FDRE, 2021;Minten et al., 2018). However, this economic mainstay also faces scrutiny for its environmental impact, including deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Quantifying the true cost of these negative externalities on the Ethiopian economy presents a significant challenge due to their abstract nature. Hidden cost accounting offers a solution by incorporating these externalities into economic analyses. By estimating the net present value (NPV) of negative externalities like emissions, land use change, pollution, and social damage, hidden cost accounting offers valuable annual snapshots of the agrifood system.The objective of this chapter is to contextualize the 2023 FAO-SOFA hidden cost estimation for Ethiopia's agrifood system. We analyze the structure of Ethiopia's hidden costs, compare results and input datasets with national databases, and recommend strategies to reduce these costs. This analysis is based on an extensive literature review, stakeholder consultations (both in-person and through phone interviews), and FABLE based modeling results for analysis of evolution of hidden costs under three different scenarios (FABLE, 2024).The breakdown of average annual hidden costs associated with Ethiopia's agrifood system, categorized by major components is presented in Figure 5-1. The combined total from these three sources reaches a staggering 51 billion 2020 PPP dollars, an estimate which sparked debate during the stakeholder consultation. Some stakeholders questioned if it meant half the GDP was lost, or that agriculture produced net losses (considering its 35% GDP contribution). Clarification on the definition led to a consensus: the total cost might not reflect actual economic losses. Instead, stakeholders found unit cost indicators like AEIR, DPIR, and SDIR to be more accurate for assessing the true economic impact.Notably, the cost structure reveals a dominant burden on the social sector (S), followed by environmental (E) and health (H) components. This pattern aligns with the observed cost structure in many low-income countries, where the social sector often bears the brunt of hidden costs associated with food production Within the cost breakdown, poverty among agrifood workers emerges as the most significant contributor, accounting for 49% (approximately 24.3 billion 2020 PPP dollars per year) of total hidden costs. This reflects the high concentration of rural populations living below the poverty line in Ethiopia.World Bank data indicates that an estimated 83% of the country's total poor population are engaged in agriculture (WB, 2020), providing compelling support for the observed predominance of poverty costs within the agrifood system. Undernourishment, reflecting productivity losses arising from protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)-related disease burden, constitutes the second category of social hidden costs associated with agrifood system in Ethiopia, after poverty. However, its share of the total cost remains the smallest among all categories. Despite this, undernourishment stands as the most prevalent development challenge within the country's agricultural sector. Current estimates for its associated costs fail to adequately capture the complex and multifaceted impact of this problem on a national level. Stakeholders acknowledged the seemingly realistic trends in hidden costs over the past five years align with Ethiopia's recent political and climatic challenges. The rapid rise in undernourishment costs suggests a potential reversal of food security gains made before 2020, raising concerns about renewed deterioration after 2020.The FAO SOFA report calculated povertyrelated externalities using poverty headcount data from the World Bank. However, this data shows a discrepancy with Ethiopia's national poverty database.  The SPIQ-FS model operates on a unit-byunit basis, calculating the damage inflicted by one unit of an impact (e.g., one tonne of GHG emissions) on GDP. This damage is then expressed in standardized 2020 PPP dollars for global comparability.GHG costs: GHG costs were estimated using impact data from simulations conducted by the Interagency Working Group on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases (IWG-SCGHG).Unlike the usual approach of a general \"CO2 The objectives, scope and methodological approach of the FAO-SOFA report best aligned with external costs associated with Ethiopia's agrifood system, focusing on the crucial nexus between social, environmental, and health dimensions.The FAO-SOFA system, while valuable, overlooks crucial variations in Ethiopia. The use of unit costs and externalities generated based on the context of resource-intensive, large-scale farming system in high-income countries might bias cost assessments for Ethiopia's small-scale farmers, who dominate the landscape with average holdings of two hectares and annual production of 3 tonne per household. Tailored systems considering land use, resource intensity, and socioeconomic factors are needed for accurate cost assessments.The FAO-SOFA system further overlooks Ethiopia's substantial pastoralist and agro-pastoralist population (over 15%). Their distinct livelihoods require separate cost assessments due to differing marginal units and unit costs compared to crop-based systems.Beyond generic limitations, the FAO-SOFA system misses crucial Ethiopian costs like soil degradation and biodiversity loss. Ethiopia's severe soil loss (42 t ha-1 y-1) threatens future productivity, while agricultural expansion harms ecosystems and displaces species. Ignoring these critical dimensions underestimates the true cost of Ethiopian crop production and jeopardizes long-term sustainability. Furthermore, FAO-SOFA overlooks significant post-harvest losses (estimated at 30% of production volume). This hidden cost has a significant impact on the food system and overall economy and needs inclusion in future assessments.The FAO-SOFA system also misses the benefits of Ethiopia's diverse practices: agroforestry, intercropping, organic fertilizers, and conservation tillage. These practices improve soil health, suppress pests, reduce pollution, and control erosion. Additionally, the system ignores the positive externality of enset, a staple crop with high carbon sequestration potential (144.30 t CO2-eq/ha). Accounting for these positive externalities is crucial for a more accurate assessment.Reflections from the stakeholders also show that while the hidden cost accounting system's concept and its ability to reveal unseen aspects of the agrifood system were commended, concerns arose regarding the scope of its analysis. Specifically, concerns were raised regarding missing components related to soil loss and biodiversity degradation.Stakeholders also worried about capturing unforeseen events and temporal changes in the model. Ethiopia's ongoing political instability, they noted, can rapidly alter production, poverty, health, and undernourishment. They suggested mechanisms to handle these uncertainties. Climate extremes, like crop failures due to droughts, were also flagged as potential drivers of higher hidden costs, particularly undernourishment.Incorporating national data sources can significantly strengthen the comparability and relevance of hidden cost estimates to national policies and strategies. Utilizing population data from the official national database can facilitate direct comparisons between hidden cost estimates and population-based targets outlined in national plans. Similarly, leveraging data from the national GHG inventory could provide a robust foundation for evaluating the hidden environmental costs. Moreover, integrating headcount data on poverty and undernourishment from national sources would enhance the policy relevance of the hidden cost estimates by explicitly linking them to key social vulnerabilities within the country.The FABLE Calculator (Mosnier et al., 2020) was used to analyze the temporal dynamics of the food-land-biodiversity nexus in Ethiopia. The FABLE team adapted the calculator to the Ethiopian context by incorporating country-specific data on items and commodities missing from the original database. This included adding teff, a staple crop in Ethiopia, to the FABLE Calculator's commodity list using data from the CSA. Teff was previously categorized as \"other crops\" in FAOSTAT data and was absent from the original FABLE Calculator commodity lists. Additionally, scenario parameters were refined based on stakeholder consultations and document reviews, including the development of a country-specific dietary scenario aligned with Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) dietary guidelines. Afforestation and reforestation scenarios were further adjusted to reflect national decadal and mid-century targets. Model outputs were evaluated against development targets outlined in national government policies and strategies. Additionally, stakeholder consultation workshops were conducted to validate both the modeling process and its outputs. The assumption for Current Trends (CT) was drawn based on the business-as-usual trajectory, which assumed the continuation of current development trends without significant changes. This scenario was informed by a review of scientific literature and data documenting temporal trends in key development goals. Historical data on major indicators for the past decade, primarily from secondary sources and scientific reports, were used to establish a baseline and projected future trajectory. This approach assumes that past trends will continue, resulting in similar magnitudes, directions, and dimensions of change in key development indicators compared to those observed between 2010 and 2020.Projection of major development indicators under CT indicates population increase to 200 million by 2050. Dietary shifts are expected, with a slight decrease in cereal consumption and an increase in fruits, vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, milk, and poultry. Crop and livestock productivity are expected to increase by less than 10% and 50%, respectively. Food trade is anticipated to increase, with a higher import especially for wheat, milk, and corn. Regarding land, the CT scenario assumes free expansion of agricultural, with no establishment of new forest areas (no afforestation) beyond existing land. The no afforestation assumption is that the high deforestation rates will continue, and any natural and manmade forest gains will remain lower than forest loss.This pathway (NC) aligns with established government policies and strategies focusing on key development goals across food security, environmental sustainability, and economic growth. These policies aim to achieve sustainable development by the end of the decade and by the mid-century. Therefore, this scenario expects successful implementation of these development policies, leading to significant deviations from business-as-usual trends.This pathway (GS) adopts a green growth paradigm, assuming concerted efforts towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs In summary, while NC and GS scenarios offer a more sustainable development path compared to the current trend, they both emphasize population control, agricultural advancements, strategic food trade, and responsible land management for long-term food security and environmental health. On the other hand, all three pathways share a similar dietary scenario due to the current cereal-dominated diet with limited intake of diverse food groups. Consumption trends suggest an increase in animal-source foods and fruits/vegetables, aligning with national guidelines and SDG 2: Zero Hunger (balanced diets). We posit ongoing food system shifts will converge with national and global targets, justifying the uniform dietary scenario. Analysis of FABLE results based on the CT assumption indicates a projected increase in the production value of all commodities. By 2030 and 2050, total commodity value is expected to reach 66 billion 2020 PPP dollars and 91 billion 2020 PPP dollars, respectively. Corn, wheat, sorghum, teff, and barley will likely remain the most important food crops, with an average production volume increase of 18% and 45% by 2030 and 2050 compared to the baseline year (2020).Livestock production is also projected to rise substantially. Cattle herds are expected to reach 45.7 million TLU (tropical livestock unit) by 2020, with sheep and goats reaching 12.4 million TLU by 2030. These represent a 24.7% and 22.4% increase compared to the 2020 baseline.Based on the assumption of free agricultural land expansion without afforestation, cropland is projected to expand from 20 million hectares in 2020 to 24 million hectares in 2030 and 31 million hectares in 2050. This expansion, along with the absence of afforestation efforts, is expected to lead to a projected decrease in forest area which is projected to decline from 14 million hectares in 2020 to 13 million and 11 million hectares by 2030 and 2050, respectively. Pastureland is expected to remain relatively stable throughout the projection period. Compared to the CT scenario, both NC and GS pathways exhibit relatively lower rates of cropland expansion. By 2030 and 2050, the cropland area in the NC scenario is projected to reach 23 million and 29 million hectares, respectively, while the GS scenario projects 22.2 million and 26 million hectares, respectively. Decomposition analysis suggests that the primary driver for the lower expansion rates in both NC and GS pathways, compared to CT, is a combined effect of increased crop productivity and reduced post-harvest losses (Figure 5-6). These improvements enable the achievement of production targets without resorting to significant land use change, thus mitigating the need for cropland expansion. While both scenarios share the assumption of improved productivity and reduced losses, the GS pathway projects a lower cropland area requirement due to its lower population growth assumption compared to NC.In contrast to the CT scenario, both NC and GS pathways project a decline in pastureland. By 2030 and 2050, pastureland is projected to decrease from 20 million hectares in 2020 to 18 million and 17 million hectares, respectively. This trend coincides with a relatively higher net forest cover compared to the CT pathway, reaching 13 million hectares by 2030 (compared to 11 million hectares in CT). Decomposition analysis suggests that afforestation is the primary driver of this land use shift, with projections indicating a conversion of approximately 500,000 hectares of pastureland to forest every five years in both NC and GS scenarios. Furthermore, decomposition analysis reveals that the combined assumption of non-deforestation agricultural expansion and increased crop productivity is a key factor contributing to the rise in the forest area in NC and GS pathways compared to CT. Additionally, the lower population assumption in the GS pathway contributes to a higher projected forest area compared to the NC pathway.The most prominent distinction between the scenarios lies in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. NC projects a 21% decline by 2050, while the GS achieves a significantly steeper reduction (39%). Both pathways share common factors contributing to lower emissions compared to the CT scenario, including increased afforestation, enhanced crop productivity, reduced agricultural expansion (mitigating CO2-equivalent emissions), and improved livestock productivity (leading to reduced methane emissions). Notably, the GS pathway is projected to achieve a higher rate of CO2e and methane reduction than NC due to its lower population growth assumption.  Ethiopia's widespread poverty in agriculture is a major issue that leads to hidden costs. Stakeholders focus on reducing poverty and ensuring everyone has enough to eat as starting points. The stakeholders suggested that the upcoming FAO-SOFA report can inform policy decisions to address rural poverty and increase access to safe, nutritious food. This can be achieved by: Limited population growth: Decomposition analysis and projections of hidden costs reveal that a lower population growth rate in the GS (14% less than NC and CT assumptions) significantly reduces hidden costs of the agrifood system. By curbing population growth, GHG emissions and farmland expansion decrease, leading to lower environmental and social externalities.Consequently, controlling population growth emerges as a primary strategy for mitigating the hidden costs associated with agrifood systems.The high poverty rates among agrifood workers highlight the issue of income inequality and the need to break the cycle of poverty. A key strategy to achieve this is by increasing crop land productivity from its current very low average levels. This will empower farmers to raise their income and improve their livelihoods, while also reducing the negative externalities associated with low production. Boosting crop productivity aligns perfectly with the strategic development goals outlined by the government and relevant stakeholders.Diversifying livelihood options: The high poverty rates among agrifood workers are partly due to their continued reliance on lowproductivity farming system. To address this, a key solution is to encourage a significant shift in the labor force, enabling workers to transition from agriculture to higher-paying sectors like industry and services. This shift can offer a crucial pathway out of poverty.High malnutrition costs highlight Ethiopia's economic burden so shifting the focus beyond solely quantity to nutrition is crucial. This means promoting nutrient-rich crops, food fortification, and dietary education. Ethiopia has begun improvements to promote nutritious food production with the development of national food fortification standards. Examples include mandatory iodine fortification (2011) and voluntary fortification of edible oil with vitamin A and wheat flour with iron, zinc, and B vitamins (2018) (Rudolph and Aydos, 2021). These efforts, along with existing strategies to increase production of nutritious foods like potatoes and sweet potatoes (MoE, 2024), demonstrate a commitment to improving national food security and reducing malnutrition. Furthermore, encouraging farmers to cultivate a wider variety of crops aligns with the National Nutrition Sensitive Agriculture Strategy (MoANR and MoLF, 2017), as well as promoting food diversity, access, and consumption for better family nutrition and reduced reliance on purchased staples.Ethiopia's low rates of diet-related health externalities compared to the world suggest its traditional dietary practices, rich in cereals and plantbased foods, may offer valuable insights. Building upon this existing wisdom, rather than imposing complete dietary changes, could be a more effective approach to improving national food habits. This aligns with the country's national food policy, which prioritizes promoting indigenous food and dietary practices (FDRE, 1986). ","tokenCount":"3099"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9332e52a138ab8ba6c694992703f73c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95002eec-ef6e-457c-a480-e42364bff886/retrieve","id":"-824639138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"91a868bc-eddf-492b-a5a1-4a0ddab50f3c","pagecount":"15","content":"Soil organic carbon (SOC) content is the most widely used soil health indicator, but many soil functions are also influenced by the quality of SOC. Yet, standardized SOC quality parameters that can be used in soil health assessments in addition to SOC content are still in development. Here, we investigated the relationships between various SOC parameters (both quantity and quality) and soil functions.We collected 223 soil samples from arable fields in two contrasting Dutch soil types i.e., marine clay and sand. For each sample, we assessed three soil functions (i.e., biological population regulation, element cycling, and soil structure and water regulation) by measuring five indicators per function. We also analyzed SOC quality with four techniques (C:N-ratio, POX-C, Rock-Eval, POM-MAOM fractionation), resulting in 21 SOC quality parameters, and measured SOC content. We then determined for each soil type how much variation in each function indicator was explained by the SOC parameters and other measured intrinsic soil properties.We found that SOC parameters and intrinsic soil properties explained at most 30 ± 22% of the variation in soil function indicators. SOC content explained 9 ± 16% of the variation across functions and soil types. Including one single SOC quality parameter alongside SOC content never had significant added value in explaining soil functions. Only including multiple Rock-Eval parameters alongside SOC content significantly increased the explained variation compared to SOC content alone, as well as combining multiple parameters from the four different SOC quality techniques.We conclude that the relationships between the SOC quality parameters and soil functions are insufficiently straight-forward to add significant explanatory power to SOC content alone. We recommend that before including SOC quality parameters in soil health monitoring, more emphasis should be put on evaluating their relation to soil functions and their potential redundancy when used alongside SOC content.Soils play a key role in providing multiple ecosystem services to society, such as water regulation, carbon and nutrient cycling and the provision of food, fiber and fuel (Schulte et al., 2014;Bünemann et al., 2018). These ecosystem services are underpinned by soil functions, that can be defined as bundles of soil processes that arise from the interactions between physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil (Creamer et al., 2022). Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a key role in many of these soil functions, especially those that are related to soil structure, soil biota, and element cycling (Hoffland et al., 2020;Kopittke et al., 2022b). Some soil functions mostly result from the decomposition of SOM, whereas others derive more from the retention of SOM (Janzen, 2006). The decomposition of SOM provides energy and nutrients to soil organisms that are involved in at least 26 processes underlying soil functioning (Creamer et al., 2022;Zwetsloot et al., 2022). The retention of SOM improves habitat for plants and soil life, contributes to soil structure and water retention, enhances the reactive surface in soils and thus the capacity to hold nutrients and contaminants, and underlies soil carbon sequestration (Hoffland et al., 2020). Often, soil functions result from both the decomposition and the retention of SOM, since for example biota need both fuel and a favorable habitat (Hoffland et al., 2020). Trade-offs between different functions may also occur, for example management practices that inhibit microbial activity, such as no-tillage, may increase carbon sequestration but reduce nutrient provisioning to plants (Janzen, 2006;Vrebos et al., 2021;Zwetsloot et al., 2021). Optimizing all soil functions simultaneously is therefore difficult, if not impossible, and instead it has been recommended to target land management based on a selected set of prioritized soil functions (Vazquez et al., 2021;Zwetsloot et al., 2021). A higher content of SOM is generally assumed to indicate a higher potential to perform multiple soil functions and hence to improve overall soil health (Reeves, 1997;Deb et al., 2015;Herrick and Wander, 2018;Kopittke et al., 2022a). Yet, the role of SOM characteristics, or in other words the SOM quality, in determining individual soil functions is not well understood (Hoffland et al., 2020). This understanding can support developing land management practices that target specific soil functions. Moreover, parameters that represent labile SOM fractions may serve as early indicators to evaluate impacts of management practices on soil health, since they respond faster to changes in management and land use than total soil organic carbon (TOC) content (Lefroy et al., 1993;Marriott and Wander, 2006). The development of parameters that reflect the characteristics, or quality, of SOM and that can be included in soil health assessment has therefore received increasing attention in recent years (Duval et al., 2018;Bongiorno et al., 2019;Ramírez et al., 2020;Pulleman et al., 2021;Liptzin et al., 2022).The properties of SOM that are relevant to soil functioning are often related to biological degradation and therefore indirectly relate to the stability of SOM. Biological degradation depends on the chemical complexity, nutrient density and accessibility of SOM and prevailing environmental conditions, besides the metabolic characteristics and trophic interactions of the soil community (Schmidt et al., 2011;Raczka et al., 2021). Regarding SOM properties, the following considerations are relevant: 1) the chemical complexity of SOM influences the required energy and diversity of metabolic pathways that microbes employ to decompose SOM compounds, and the energy reward upon decomposition (Raczka et al., 2021), while this complexity can in case of pyrogenic carbon render biochemical stability (Six et al., 2002;Schmidt et al., 2011); 2) the nutrient density derives from the content and stoichiometric ratio of the main nutrients present in SOM, i.e.: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) (Tipping et al., 2016); and 3) the accessibility of SOM is influenced by the association of SOM with the soil mineral matrix into aggregates or organo-mineral complexes, providing physical and chemical stability, respectively (Six et al., 2002;Schmidt et al., 2011). The term \"soil organic carbon\", abbreviated as \"SOC\", is often used as synonym for SOM, which consists for 48-58% of carbon (Nelson and Sommers, 1983). In this study, we will focus on the carbon component, and we will therefore use the term \"SOC quality\" when referring to the three described properties of SOM that relate to soil functioning, i.e. the complexity, nutrient density, and accessibility of SOM. We will use \"SOC\" without further specification when referring to soil organic matter or carbon in general, and will use total SOC content (in g.kg − 1 ) as measure for the quantity of SOC. We will use \"SOC parameters\" when referring to the selected SOC quality and quantity parameters of this study.The techniques that are currently available to characterize SOC quality can be grouped into physical and chemical SOC fractionations, thermal analyses, and molecular characterizations (Hoffland et al., 2020). SOC fractionations aim at isolating SOC pools with contrasting turnover times, based on physical (i.e., size/density) or chemical (i.e., extraction, hydrolysis, oxidation, destruction of mineral phase) methodological principles (Haynes, 2005;Poeplau et al., 2018). Thermal analyses assess the energetic barriers experienced by the decomposer community by estimating the required activation energy to decompose SOC (related to thermal stability) and/or the energy release (Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)) upon SOC decomposition (Barré et al., 2016). Molecular characterizations encompass a wide variety of wet chemical, spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques that identify the molecular structure of SOC at varying levels of detail. Molecular features relevant for soil functioning include elemental ratio's that proxy the nutrient density of SOC for biota, or functional groups and properties that define the reactivity of SOC towards the mineral matrix and other soil compounds among which nutrients and contaminants. Most of these characterization techniques provide operationally defined parameters that mainly assess the stability of SOC or assess \"what sits where\", but these parameters do not necessarily directly relate to soil functioning (Hoffland et al., 2020). Moreover, it is not yet clear what is the added value of SOC quality beyond SOC content and soil intrinsic properties (e.g., texture, pH) that are commonly measured in soil health assessments.Unraveling what operational metrics for SOC quality relate to which soil functions can be highly useful to better support the assessment of, and advice for, farm practices that seek to strengthen specific soil functions by managing SOC quality. We therefore aimed to assess the relationship between SOC and soil functions related to SOC degradation and stabilization, i.e., 1) biological population regulation; 2) element cycling, 3) soil structure and water regulation. Soil functions cannot be measured directly and instead are assessed using indicators that are based on the mechanistic processes underlying soil functions (Bünemann et al., 2018). Therefore, we investigated how well those indicators for different soil functions were explained by SOC content and different SOC quality parameters in sandy and clay soils. We hypothesized that including SOC quality parameters in addition to SOC content is especially relevant for explaining soil functions that strongly depend on biotic processes, i.e. element cycling and biological population regulation.Soil samples were collected as described in (van Rijssel et al., 2022). In short, we collected soils from arable fields of organic farms that had been converted from conventional arable agriculture between 1 and years ago, and paired fields of neighboring conventional farms. All fields, irrespective whether they were conventionally or organically managed, had undergone inversion tillage at least once during the last years, were part of a wider crop rotation that included at least one tuber crop, and had a cereal, grass or legume crop at the moment of sampling. Fields were located on sandy and marine clay soils, classified in the Dutch soil system as Hn21/zEz21 and Mn25a/Mn35a, respectively. According to FAO World Reference Base WRB (WRB, 2022), sandy soils are classified as Anthrosols with ≤17.5% silt (<50 μm) and an A-horizon of at least 30 cm. Clay soils were Fluvisols that derive from clay deposition in an originally marine environment, and had a clay content between 10 and 31%. We sampled 48 arable fields (of which 50% organic farms) on clay and 26 fields (50% organic) on sand in July 2017. Three subsamples were taken per field, resulting in a total of 222 soil samples.At each sampling point, within an area of 1 × 1 m, we measured times penetration resistance and took two disturbed (one of ±1 kg, one of ±5 kg) and two undisturbed soil samples, and one bulk density ring (100 cm 3 ) from the 5-15 cm mineral top soil. We collected the undisturbed soil samples for the analysis of water stable aggregates with a spade by cutting a ±15 × 15 × 10 cm cube at 5-15 cm depth, removing the cutting edges and crumbling the insides carefully into a flowerpot to protect the soils from compaction during transport. Both field moist, disturbed soil samples were stored cool, and passed within a week through a 10 mm mesh to remove coarse elements from the sample. The ±1 kg disturbed soil sample was air-dried and subsequently sent to the commercial laboratory Eurofins-Agro for analysis of soil texture and cation exchange capacity. The ± 5 kg disturbed soil sample was stored at 4 • C, from which three subsamples were taken. A first subsample of 6 g was sieved over 4 mm, of which 1 g was stored in an Eppendorf tube at − 80 • C within a week, for soil microbial community characterization. A second subsample was used to measure pH-H 2 O and potential nitrogen mineralization within 2 months. A third subsample was used within 5 months as soil inoculum for a laboratory incubation in which the decomposition of three different substrates was measured. The undisturbed soil samples were pooled within a week and crumbled gently through a 10 mm sieve, air-dried (±25 • C), and stored dark at 4 • C. From the undisturbed soil samples, a subsample was taken for the isolation of water stable aggregates, and another sub-sample was sieved over 2 mm for carbon characterizations and oxalate extractions. For elemental C:N analysis, samples were ground with a ball-mill for 1 min with frequency 18.0 s − 1 . The 2-mm sieved soils and ground soils were stored dark at 4 • C in between analyses.For the purpose of this study, we focused on three soil functions that are expected to be directly or indirectly influenced by SOC degradation or stabilization (based on (Bünemann et al., 2018;Hoffland et al., 2020;Creamer et al., 2022;Zwetsloot et al., 2022) and that are important for arable farming: 1) \"biological population regulation\"; 2) \"element cycling\"; and 3) \"the regulation of soil structure and water\". We decided not to consider carbon sequestration as function, since we only measured SOC content at a single soil depth (i.e., 5-15 cm).We assessed soil functions with indicators that either measure the process itself (e.g., potential nitrogen mineralization), a characteristic of the actor(s) performing the process (e.g., fungal diversity), or the result of the process (e.g., water-stable aggregates). Some function indicators, especially those that represent actors, could represent processes that contribute to more than one of the selected soil functions. However, we wanted to have independent measures and an equal number of indicators (n = 5) for each soil function for statistical analyses. We therefore used each indicator only once for the most representative soil function, similar to (Li et al., 2023) (for an explanation of this classification: see Table 1).Disease suppression (DisS) was measured based on the number of cauliflower seedlings infected with the widespread soil-borne fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-1, known to cause severe yield losses (Domsch et al., 2007). Cauliflower was chosen as crop species to exclude soil legacy effects as much as possible (Philippot et al., 2013;Hannula et al., 2021), as most agricultural fields of our study did not include cabbage species in the rotation. We followed a method modified from (Postma et al., 2010): For each soil sample two 203 × 54 × 28 mm trays were filled with 150 g dry soil, totaling 444 trays. Sixteen pre-germinated cauliflower seedlings (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Flora Blanca) were transplanted into these trays. The seedlings were planted in two parallel 8-seedling rows with 2 cm space between seedlings and 2 cm space between rows. Trays were then placed in a greenhouse (21/16 • C day/night, no additional light provided) and watered every other day. After one week, half of the trays were inoculated with R. solani by placing two R. solani AG 2-1 infested agar-plugs 1 cm deep into the soil in contact with seedling roots at one end of the tray. The other half of the trays were not inoculated with R. solani, but instead had a sterile agar-plug placed on their roots as a control, resulting in 222 trays with cauliflower + R. solani and 222 trays with only cauliflower asOverview of the selected indicators for each soil function that includes firstly a short explanation of each function indicator, followed by a motivation for the selection of the indicator for the corresponding soil function. The decomposition of organic matter is a primary source of plant nutrients (Sokol et al., 2022), especially in organic farming where all nutrients derive from organic sources. The functional capacity to decompose substrates has been shown to differ between soil decomposer communities (Keiser et al., 2014), which drives variation in decomposition rate of the same organic substrate by different soil communities (Keiser et al., 2011;Veen et al., 2018) control. The disease suppression was quantified as the number of plants that were not damped-off after 21 days. In case both seedling rows had unequal disease spread, the lowest number was reported.The species richness of bacteria (RB) was measured with DNA sequencing as fully described in (van Rijssel et al., 2022). In short, bacterial community composition was determined by the V4-region of the16S rRNA gene using 515f and 806 rbc. The 16S rRNA gene amplicon reads were analyzed using the dada2 pipeline (version 1.18) (Callahan et al., 2016), and chimeric sequences were removed using the consensus method. The SILVA SSU database (version 138) was used to assign bacterial taxonomy to the sequences (Quast et al., 2012).The species richness of fungi (RF) was also measured with DNA sequencing according to (van Rijssel et al., 2022). In short, primers and the fungal community composition was determined by the ITS2-region using ITS4 (reverse) and fITS9 (forward) primers. The ITS sequences were analyzed using the PIPITS pipeline (version 2.4, standard settings) (Gweon et al., 2015), and chimeric sequences were removed by comparing UNITE with the UCHIME database (version 8.2) (Edgar et al., 2011). Fungal taxonomy was assigned by aligning sequences to the UNITE fungal database (Kõljalg et al., 2013;Nilsson et al., 2018).The species richness of protists (RP) was measured with DNA sequencing similar to bacteria and fungi, followed by determining richness of amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) (fully described in Van Rijssel, n.d.). In short, the V4 region of the 18S rDNA was amplified using the universal eukaryotic primers 3NDf and 1132rmod (Cavalier--Smith et al., 2009;Pawlowski et al., 2012;Geisen et al., 2018;Van Rijssel, n.d.). The 18S rRNA amplicon reads were analyzed using the dada2 pipeline (version 1.18) (Callahan et al., 2016) and chimeric sequences were removed with the consensus method. The PR2 database (version 4.12) was used to assign protist taxonomy to the sequences (Guillou et al., 2012).The relative abundance of non-pathogenic fungi (RANPF) in the community was determined based on information on identified pathogens in the Funguild database (Nguyen et al., 2016). The sum of the relative abundances of all non-pathogenic fungi was calculated per sample.The potential nitrogen mineralization (PNM) was assessed as the difference between the concentration of nitrate (NO 3 ) and exchangeable ammonium (NH 4 ) before and after aerobic incubation. The equivalent of 10 g of dry soil weight was incubated at 70% water holding capacity and a constant temperature of 21 • C during four weeks (Keeney and Nelson, 1982;Griffin et al., 1995). NH 4 and NO 3 were subsequently extracted by suspending the incubated soil in a 1:5 d/w 1M KCl solution, which was shaken in a reciprocal shaker for 2 h at 250 rpm at room temperature, left to settle for 15-30 min, centrifuged for 10 min at 10,000 rpm, after which NH 4 and NO 3 were measured with a Skalar continuous flow analyser according to NEN-EN-ISO 11732:1997 (Keeney andNelson, 1983).The decomposition of farmyard manure (DF), straw (DS) and cover crop residues (DCC) was measured in a laboratory incubation that assesses the functional capacity of microbial decomposer communities to decompose organic substrates of different quality, based on (Strickland et al., 2009a(Strickland et al., , 2009b;;Keiser et al., 2011). The different organic substrates were cut into pieces of 0.5-1 cm and were dried at 40 • C for at least 72 h. We then weighed 1 ± 0.1 g substrate in 50 mL plastic centrifuge tubes, and we sterilized the tubes in an autoclave at 120 • C for 20 min to kill microbes native to the substrate. We then added a 0.5g dry weight equivalent of field-moist soil to each tube, serving as inoculum of the soil microbial community. In this way, we incubated 222 soil samples per substrate type, resulting in total 666 different microcosms, at 20 • C at 60% water holding capacity for 64 days. At the end of the experiment, we determined the weight of the freeze-dried samples, from which the dry weights of the tubes and soil inocula were subtracted to obtain the weight loss of the substrates. We used this weight loss as measure for decomposition. The substrates differed in complexity with regards to lignin content (cover crop residues: 6.9%; straw: 8.8%; farmyard manure: 17.8%) and C:N ratio (cover crop residues: 13; straw: 86; farmyard manure: 12). C:N ratio was measured on a Flash EA elemental C:N analyser. Lignin content was determined by an extraction-hydrolysis procedure that aims to remove all organic compounds except lignin (Poorter, 1994): 0.25 g of dried substrate was extracted with 0.8 mL demineralized water, 2 mL of 99.9% methanol and 1 mL of to 99.8% chloroform, which was repeated for the residue after centrifugation for 10 min at 3800 rpm and discarding the supernatant. After this double extraction, the residue was hydrolyzed for 1 h in 6 mL of 3 M HCl in a hot water bath at 100 • C. After cooling down, the sample was centrifuged again for 10 min at 2500 g, the supernatant was discarded, and the residue was washed with 5 mL demineralized water and centrifuged for 10 min at 2500 g. The residue was extracted twice with the same procedure but without adding the 0.8 mL demineralized water, after which the remaining lignin was dried at 70 • C and measured on a Flash EA 1112 elemental C:N analyser.Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was measured via Near-Infrared Spectrometry (NIRS) by Agro-laboratory Eurofins-Agro as extensively described in (Reijneveld et al., 2022). In short, the NIRS-absorbance of 125 g soil was measured in a Q-interline FT-NIRS analyzer (http://www. q-interline.com (accessed on 28 November 2021)) in a climate-controlled room at 20 • . The spectral absorbance data were subsequently trimmed, to obtain wavelengths between 1000 and nm with a resolution of 16 cm − 1 . The trimmed spectra were then related to CEC measurements obtained by the reference method (ISO (2018) and NEN 6966 (2005)), using a calibration model that is based on > 16000 reference samples (R 2 = 0.97, RPD = 5.8) and that has been validated with >1900 soil samples (R 2 = 0.97, RPD = 6.0). The calibration was performed with statistical models based on a set of 4 filters Soil structure and water regulation sensitive to disturbance than bacteria (Six et al., 2006), and hence may serve as an earlier warning.much higher C:N-ratio (86) and a lower lignin content (8.8%) than the applied manure.enter the soil, defined here as the depth of the soil with a penetration resistance below 2 MPa (based on (Sinnett et al., 2008)).See explanation bacterial richness. Protists are more sensitive to disturbance than both fungi and bacteria and may therefore serve as an early warning (e.g. (Du et al., 2022;Zhao et al., 2019)).See explanation manure decomposition. Cover crop residues are a relatively simple substrate with a comparable C:N ratio (13.2) and lower lignin content (6.9%) as the applied manure.The depth till which plant roots can enter the soil, below a penetration resistance of 5 MPa. Only the more rigid plant roots will be able to reach this depth (Tracy et al., 2011).A higher relative abundance of nonpathogenic fungi indicates a higher proportion of fungal species that can suppress pathogens via competition, antibiosis, parasitism or predation (Hoitink and Boehm, 1999).CEC is a measure for the capacity of soils to retain and exchange cations (all essential plant nutrients except P, N & S).We measured the sandfree weight percentage of macro-aggregates of 0.25-10 mm that remain stable when wetted. Larger water stable aggregates consist of smaller aggregates and soil particles (Six et al., 2004), and reflect the capacity of the soil structure and pore network to resist slaking and compaction during drying-rewetting cycles.(AMX-S2000, 2018): The Savitzky-Golay method and the partial least squares method were used to transform spectra into a new latent space, and the nearest neighbor method was subsequently subjected to Gaussian processes to obtain the final CEC data (Reijneveld et al., 2022).Bulk density (BD) was calculated after oven-drying (105 • C) of the collected soil in the bulk density ring (100 cm 3 ) and can be considered as bulk density of fine earth as our soils hardly contained any gravel >2 mm.The water holding capacity (WHC) was determined by a method based on (Boekel, 1965;Sumner, 1999). Small amounts of water were gradually added to <2 mm, 25 g dry weight equivalent of field-moist soil in a plastic container, and the soil was mixed thoroughly to homogenize the soil water. The soil was then brought to one side of the container, and a line was drawn through the soil to the bottom surface using a spoon. The water content required for water to flow from the soil into the opening of the line was marked as the maximum WHC. Moisture content of field-moist soils was determined by drying the soil overnight at 105 • C in the oven. The WHC was calculated by dividing the total water content (i.e., sum of the initial and added water content) by the 105 • C soil dry weight.The penetration resistance was measured in the field with an electronic penetrologger of Eijkelkamp with a steel cone of 1.13 cm. We recorded the depth at which the penetration resistance reached 2 MPa, which is the maximum pressure at which plant roots can grow easily (D2) (Sinnett et al., 2008)), as well as the depth at which 5 MPa was reached, which is the maximum pressure at which more rigid plant roots can expand into the soil (D5) (Tracy et al., 2011). We averaged the 4 penetration measurements at each sampling point.Water stable aggregates (WSA) were determined with a wet sieving apparatus inspired by (Yoder, 1936;Beare and Bruce, 1993). In short, the apparatus consists of a metal arm with two metal frames with a stack of 3 sieves in each frame, from top to bottom: 2 mm, 0.25 mm and 0.053 mm. A subsample of 40 g (sandy soils) or 15 g (clay soils) of air-dried <1 cm undisturbed soil was placed on top of the submerged 2 mm sieve to slake for 5 min. Then, the stack of sieves was moved vertically up and down inside a basin of demineralized water to distribute the aggregates over the different sieves at a sieving frequency of 13 min − 1 and an amplitude of 100 mm for 8 min. The resulting fractions (2-10 mm, 0.25-2 mm, 0.053-0.25 mm, <0.053 mm) were rinsed into aluminum containers, dried at 105 • C overnight and subsequently weighed. We corrected for the sand that had the same size as the aggregate fraction for the 2-10 mm, 0.25-2 mm, 0.053-0.25 mm fractions according to (Six et al., 2000). We expressed water stable aggregate stability (WSA) as the weight percentage of sand-free 0.25-2 mm and 2-10 mm sized macro-aggregates relative to total soil weight (including sand), with the following equation:With FDW 2-10mm and FDW 0.25-2mm as the Fraction Dry Weights of the 2-10 mm and 0.25-2 mm fractions after sieving, respectively; SDW 2-10mm and SDW 0.25-2mm as the Sand Dry Weights of the 2-10 mm and 0.25-2 mm fractions after dispersion, respectively; and FDW rec = Sum of the recovered Fraction Dry Weights of all aggregate fractions (2-10 mm, 0.25-2 mm, 0.053-0.25 mm, <0.053 mm) after sieving, including sand, and all dry weights expressed in gram.We characterized SOC with four analytical techniques that have been included, or have been recommended to be included, in soil health monitoring programs (Soucémarianadin et al., 2018;Bongiorno et al., 2019;Lavallee et al., 2020;Cécillon et al., 2021;Radočaj et al., 2021;Liptzin et al., 2022): 1) Oxidation with dilute potassium permanganate (POXC), assumed to represent a labile (or biologically active) SOC fraction (Culman et al., 2012); 2) Elemental C:N analysis of bulk soil to obtain the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of SOC reflecting nitrogen dynamics (i.e., immobilization/mineralization); 3) Physical size fractionation into more labile (i.e., fast cycling) particulate organic matter (POM) and more stable (i.e., slow cycling) mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM) and subsequent analysis of organic carbon content and C:N ratio of the POM and MAOM fractions (Poeplau et al., 2018;Lavallee et al., 2020); and 4) Rock-Eval 6 (RE6) thermal analysis, resulting in thermograms from which thermal stability parameters were calculated as proxies for the activation energy of SOC (Barré et al., 2016;Cécillon et al., 2021). We also quantified the SOC released during RE6 pyrolysis, sometimes seen as a proxy for more labile SOM, and approximated the C:H and C:O ratios of SOC that reflect the degree of degradation since biogeochemically stable SOC is more oxidized and H-depleted (Barré et al., 2016;Poeplau et al., 2019;Cécillon et al., 2021). We furthermore applied the PARTY SOC v2.0 EU -model with the RE6 data to predict centennially stable and active SOC pools (Cécillon et al., 2021) and calculated the I and R index that have been suggested to represent immature and refractory SOC fractions, respectively (Sebag et al., 2016).All techniques except that for elemental C:N analysis of bulk soil provided multiple SOC quality parameters based on different operational principles. Together, the different SOC quality parameters can be grouped into for 4 types: Element ratio's (C:N, C:H, C:O), the size (g C kg − 1 soil) and proportion (g C g − 1 C) of different SOC fractions, and thermal stabilities ( • C). A summary with the description of the different SOC quality parameters, their classification into the different parameter types and their relationship with SOC stability is provided in Table 2. A full description of the indicators and the characterization techniques are provided in (Koorneef et al., submitted to Geoderma).We considered intrinsic soil properties as those soil properties that are mainly defined by the origin of the soil, and not by soil management. Soil pH was treated as an intrinsic property in this study since our marine clay soils have naturally a high pH (7-8) due to the presence of shell fragments, and because we could not find a correlation between the time since liming and pH (R 2 = 0.01, p < α, Fig. S1) in our sandy soils that are naturally low in pH.The pH was measured after shaking 10 g soils in 25 mL demineralized water for 2 h at 250 rpm.The content of nano-sized Fe (hydr)oxides and Al (hydr)oxides were measured in an ammonium oxalate extract (Hiemstra et al., 2010), derived from the NEN-5776 protocol (Borggaard, 1992;Schwertmann, 1964). In short, 1.5 g soil was shaken for 2 h in the dark at 180 rpm in mL 0.2 M ammonium oxalate at pH 3. Subsequently, the extracts were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min, whereafter Fe and Al were measured in the supernatant with ICP-OES (Thermo iCAP 6C500 DV).The silt and clay contents were assessed via Near-Infrared Spectrometry (NIRS) in a similar manner as described for CEC by Agrolaboratory Eurofins-Agro according to (Reijneveld et al., 2022). Sand and clay weight percentages were measured with NIRS and related to sand and clay measurements obtained by the reference method (NEN 5753 (2018)), using calibration models that were based on > reference samples in case of clay (R 2 = 0.96, RPD = 7) and >8000 reference samples in case of sand (R 2 = 0.98, RPD = 4.7). Clay models have been validated with >1900 soil samples (R 2 = 0.99, RPD = 8.5), and sand models with >1800 soil samples (R 2 = 0.97, RPD = 5.3). Silt content, expressed as weight percentage, was derived by subtracting the sand and clay weight percentages from 100%.We used multiple linear regression (forward stepwise selection) to determine how much of the variation in the indicator value for each soil function (Table 1) could be explained by the different SOC parameters (Table 2) and IP parameters (i.e., pH, silt content, clay content, Al (hydr) oxides content, Fe (hydr)oxides content).We performed the multiple regression separately for marine clay and sandy soils, because 1) all intrinsic soil property (IP) parameters, 10 out of 15 soil function indicators, and 19 out of 23 SOC parameters were significantly different between the soil types as determined by two-sided Welch Two Sample t-tests (p-value < Bonferroni-corrected α, Fig. S2, Fig. S3, Fig. S4); and 2) the number of observations was different per soil type (sand: n = 81, clay: n = 144).In case of our sandy soils, we combined the clay and silt content into one size fraction, because the clay content was always <3%, resulting in too little variation to perform linear regression. We also removed in total 15 outliers present in function indicators that highly skewed the normality and were highly significant with a two-sided Grubbs test (p ≤ 6.7e − 05 ). All outliers represented measurements of biological processes that can easily result in anomalous results (PNM, DM, DS, DCC), or biological measurements that can be highly influenced by the presence of infected crops during sampling (RANPF). We subsequently checked Pearson correlations among SOC parameters, and among IP parameters, and iteratively removed SOC and IP parameters until the correlation coefficients r among SOC and among IP parameters ranged between − 0.9 and 0.9. In the case of SOC parameters, total SOC content was correlated the most to other SOC parameters (Fig. S7, Fig. S8). Due to our study design that puts total SOC content central, we removed the SOC quality parameters that correlated too much (r > 0.9 or < − 0.9) with total SOC content instead, i.e., StableC_size, ActiveC_size, PyroC_size. This iterative autocorrelation test further led to the exclusion of R and I index (too highly correlated with each other and with T50_pyr_CH, Fig. S7, Fig. S8), and ActiveC_prop (too highly correlated with Sta-bleC_prop, Fig. S7, Fig. S8). For the IP parameters, the auto-correlationOverview of all soil organic carbon (SOC) quality parameters, and their theoretical relation (positive or negative) with SOC stability. Negative (− ) means that a higher value for the SOC quality parameter indicates lower SOC stability, positive (+) means that a higher value for the parameter indicates a higher SOC stability. Table S1 provides an explanation for these theoretical relations. The different quality parameters are grouped in 5 different types: ER: Element ratio; SF: Size of a SOC fraction; PF: Proportion of a SOC fraction; TS: Thermal stability; NA/TS: A typical Rock-Eval index that does not belong to the other 4 SOC quality parameter types, but that was so highly correlated with T50_pyr_CH (R 2 in clay: ≥0.74; sand: >0.94) that the parameter could be considered as a proxy for TS (Koorneef et al., submitted  The carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) of the bulk soil-ERThe hydrogen-index is a proxy for the atomic hydrogen to carbon (H:C) ratio of SOC (Espitalie et al., 1977).  The temperature at which 50% of SOC has converted to CH during pyrolysis.• C + TSThe temperature at which 50% of SOC has converted to CO 2 during pyrolysis• C + TSThe temperature at which 50% of SOC has converted to CO 2 during oxidation test resulted in the exclusion of an additional parameter that combines Al oxide content and Fe oxide content (in mol oxide/kg soil) in both soil types, and of an additional parameter that combines clay and sand content in marine clay soils. We also confirmed that indicators describing the same soil function were not strongly correlated with each other (all correlation coefficients were <0.55; Fig. S4). We z-scaled all selected variables.To investigate how much variation in indicator values for soil functions was explained by SOC parameters, we performed forward stepwise selection based on the AIC-criterium (Akaike, 1974). Five different sets of explanatory variables were explored, i.e. 1) All SOC parameters (i.e. SOC content and all SOC quality parameters), 2) all SOC quality parameters, but forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as the first explanatory parameter, 3) all IP parameters, 4) All IP parameters but forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as the first explanatory parameter, and 5) All SOC and IP parameters which was considered to benchmark the maximum explainable variation (MEV). We used the adjusted r-squared (R 2 adj ) as a measure for how much variation in each function indicator value was explained by each parameter set.We first explored the effect of the type (i.e., SOC and/or IP parameters) and number of explanatory variables on the explained variation in function indicator values with two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA). Different functions and soil types were considered separately. The number of explanatory variables consisted of 4 groups (i.e., 1, 2, 3 or > variables) in the ANOVA analysis, but some function indicators were explained by a maximum of 3 (or less) variables, because the AICcriterium could not be further lowered. We wanted to keep the number of observations equal for each group (i.e., number of explanatory variables) in the ANOVA. We therefore used the value for R 2 adj of the model with the maximum number of explanatory variables (e.g. a model with 2 explanatory variables) as a proxy for the R 2 adj to represent the model(s) that should have contained a larger number of explanatory variables (e.g the models with 3 and >3 explanatory variables), but were not calculated as the result of the AIC-criterium procedure. This approach thus resulted in similar R 2 adj -values for the models with 2, and > 3 variables, since in this example the function indicator was explained by at most 2 explanatory variables. Since increasing the number of explanatory variables did not significantly affect the explained variation in any of the cases (see Results, Fig. 1), we concluded that models with the maximum number of explanatory variables were not highly overfitted and could be used for further analysis.We then tested how the explained variation in soil function indicator values differed between soil functions and soil types, for different sets of explanatory variables, i.e., SOC content alone, or SOC in combination with the maximum number of SOC quality and/or IP parameters (sets 1, 2, 3, and 5). For each of these sets, we performed two-way ANOVAs with the explained variation (R 2 adj ) as response variable and soil type and soil function as explanatory variables.  S2).To explore the performance of the individual SOC quality parameters, we used Pearson correlations to explain soil function indicators by each SOC quality parameter and SOC content separately, per soil type. We then tested for each function separately whether the explained variation in indicator values differed between SOC parameters or soil types with two-way ANOVA, after combining the results of the regression outcomes of each soil type into one dataset.A comparable procedure was used to investigate the added value of measuring single SOC quality parameters in addition to SOC content. First, we explained variation in soil function indicators by SOC content in combination with each of the SOC quality parameters using Pearson correlations. Second, we calculated the effect size with the natural log response ratio as a measure for the added value via:With R 2 adj -OCQ as the adjusted R-squared of regression models explaining soil function indicators by SOC content in combination with one of the SOC quality indicators, and R 2 adj -TOC the adjusted R-squared of regression models explaining soil function indicators by SOC content only. To avoid taking a negative natural logarithm or dividing by 0, we changed all negative values for R 2 adj -OCQ and R 2 adj -TOC to zero values and subsequently added 0.001 to all values for R 2 adj -OCQ and R 2 adj -TOC. We then visually assessed whether the effect sizes of the different SOC quality parameters were significantly different from 0 using 95% confidence intervals of the mean. We also assessed for each function separately whether the effect sizes differed between SOC quality parameters or soil types with two-way ANOVA's.We further assessed the relationship between the added value of the different SOC quality parameters and their redundancy if SOC content has already been measured, for each soil type separately. We first performed Pearson correlations between SOC content and the individual SOC quality parameters per soil type and used the correlation strength (expressed in R 2 adj ) as measure for redundancy. We then assessed per soil function the relationship between the redundancy (i.e., correlation strength with SOC content) of each SOC quality parameter with its averaged added value for explaining variation in the soil function indicators (i.e., effect size), using Pearson correlations.Considering that performing SOC characterization with one technique often generates multiple SOC parameters, we also tested the explanatory power when all parameters obtained by the same SOC characterization technique were allowed to enter the models in addition to SOC content. We performed forward stepwise selection as before, to explain variation in each soil function indicator value by multiple SOC quality parameters belonging to the same SOC characterization technique after including SOC content as first explanatory variable. We performed the regressions separately per soil type and combined the results into one dataset to perform a three-way ANOVA with the explained variation (R 2 adj ) as response variable and SOC characterization technique, soil function, and soil type as explanatory variables.We checked for a normal distribution of the residuals of all models with quantile-quantile-plots and Shapiro Wilk tests, and we assessed the homogeneity of variance with residual plots and Scale-Location plots. We performed data transformations if necessary to meet the assumptions. We used the Bonferroni-correction to adjust significant level α, in case we performed multiple tests.We used the stats package for the ANOVA's and forward stepwise selection. Tukey's Honest Significant Difference test was done as a posthoc tests after ANOVA, calculated by the stats and multcompView packages. We used R version 4.2.1.We will first provide a general overview of the relation between soil functioning and SOC vs. IP parameters by presenting results averaged across all soil types and soil functions. This general overview contextualizes the more detailed relations for individual soil functions in each soil type separately, which we will present in the subsequent sections. We will then focus on SOC content only and will present the explanatory power of the different SOC quality parameters in addition to total SOC content, and the performance of the different SOC characterization techniques.The maximum variation in soil function indicators that could be explained by all IP and SOC (i.e., SOC content and SOC quality) parameters was 30 ± 22% (mean ± s.d.), averaged over all soil functions and soil types (Table 3). SOC content alone explained 9 ± 16%, and subsequently adding SOC quality parameters could explain up to 26 ± 21% variation, which was relatively 80 ± 25% of the maximum explainable variation (MEV). The high standard deviations indicate that the amount of variation that could be explained differed strongly between soil function indicators and/or soil type.In sandy soils, SOC parameters significantly explained more variation than IP parameters for biological population regulation and soil structure and water regulation (Fig. 1, two ANOVA's: F > 21.07, p < α Bonferroni Table S2). Also element cycling tended to be better explained by SOC parameters than IP parameters in sandy soils (Fig. 1, ANOVA: F = 3.5, p < 0.05 but p > α bonferoni , Table S2). In clay soils, only element cycling was significantly better explained by SOC than by IP parameters, but SOC and IP parameters together explained most variation (Fig. 1, ANOVA: F = 3.69, p < α Bonferroni , Table S2). Increasing the number of SOC and/or IP parameters in the regression models generally explained more variation in soil functioning (Fig. 1), but this was not significant for any of the soil functions (six ANOVA's: F < 3.27, p > α Bonferroni , Table S2).Focusing on the models with the maximum number of parameters, the absolute variation in function indicators that was explained by SOCThe absolute (row 1) and relative (row 2) variation explained in soil function indicators by different sets of explanatory variables, averaged over all soil functions (i.e. biological population regulation, element cycling and soil structure and water regulation) and soil types (i.e. clay and sand). The different sets of explanatory variables of the regression models are: SOC: Total soil organic carbon content. IP: Intrinsic soil properties. SOC content + IP: All IP parameters, while forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as first explanatory parameter. SOC content + SOC quality: SOC content and all SOC quality parameters, while forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as first explanatory parameter. MEV: all SOC and IP parameters, benchmarking the maximum explainable variation (MEV). The errors are represented by the standard deviation. content alone and in combination with SOC quality parameters did not significantly differ between clay and sand (Fig. 2a + b, ANOVA's: F < 1.43, p > 0.05, Table S3). Soil functions in sand tended to be less explained by only IP parameters compared to clay (Fig. 2c, ANOVA: F = 5.58, p < 0.05 and > α Bonferroni , Table S3), but this difference disappeared when additional SOC parameters were included in the regression models (Fig. 2d + e, ANOVA's: F < 1.59 and p > 0.05, Table S3). The explained variation did not significantly differ between soil functions for any of the sets of explanatory variables that included SOC parameters (four ANOVA's: F < 2.38, p > 0.05, Table S3). However, among the element cycling indicators, much more of the variation in CEC was explained by IP and SOC indicators than for the other indicators, in both sand and clay (outlier values with R adj 2 > 0.6 in Fig. 2 ae). When we repeated the ANOVA and Tukey HSD tests after excluding CEC, this revealed that the function soil structure and water regulation tended to be better explained by IP parameters and SOC content combined with SOC quality parameters than the other two soil functions (two ANOVA's: F > 4.86, p < 0.05 but p > α bonferoni , Table S3), but not by SOC content only, or by SOC parameters combined with IP parameters (three ANOVA's: F < 3.44, p > 0.05, Table S3). The variation explained by SOC and IP parameters relative to the maximum explainable variation did never differ between soil functions in the soil types, nor when CEC was removed (Fig. 2 f-h, six ANOVA's: F < 2.84, p > 0.05, Table S3).SOC parameters did not significantly differ in their capacity to explain indicators for element cycling and biological population regulation (two ANOVA's: F < 0.88, p > 0.05, Table S4). Total SOC content had a significantly higher explanatory power than MAOMC_prop in explaining function indicators for soil structure and water regulation according to the post-hoc Tukey HSD test after ANOVA (ANOVA: F = 2.60, p < α Bonferroni , Table S4), but the explanatory power of all other SOC parameters did neither differ from these SOC parameters, nor from each other.Regression models based on total SOC content in combination with one SOC quality parameter did not reveal significant differences in the added value (i.e., effect size) of the different SOC quality parameters to explain the indicators of any of the three soil functions (three ANOVA tests: F < 1.19; p > 0.05, Table S5). Moreover, all confidence intervals of the effect sizes overlapped with 0, except for 1 indicator in sand (i.e., POMC_size for soil structure and water regulation, Fig. S6) that could represent a type I error as 90 confidence intervals were tested. The effect size of the SOC quality parameters was neither significantly negatively influenced by their correlation strength with total SOC content (p > 0.05). Fig. 2. Absolute (a-e) and relative (f-h) explained variation in indicator values of soil functions by different types of parameters. Each soil function (i.e. biological population regulation, element cycling, and soil structure and water regulation) comprises 5 indicators that are visualized in the boxplots, with a different fill color per function. The different types of explanatory parameters are: SOC content: total soil organic carbon content (g.kg − 1 ). SOC content + quality: all SOC parameters, while forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as the first explanatory parameter. IP: intrinsic soil properties. SOC content + IP: All IP parameters, while forcing the regression models to always include SOC content as the first explanatory parameter. MEV: all SOC and IP parameters as a benchmark for the maximum explainable variation (MEV). The R 2 adj of the MEV was the denominator to calculate the percentages of the relative amount of explained variation in soil functions (graph f-h). The letters above the boxplots in plot c indicate nearly (p < 0.05 and > α Bonferroni ) significant differences between the explained variation among different soil types as assessed by a post-hoc Tukey test after ANOVA (Table S3).To assess the full potential explanatory power of the different SOC characterization techniques, function indicators were explained with regression models that were allowed to select from all SOQ quality parameters obtained by each technique separately as well as their combination, after including total SOC content as first explanatory variable. RE6 was the only characterization technique that produced SOQ quality parameters that together could significantly explain more variation than SOC content alone (Fig. 3+RE6, ANOVA: F = 6.21, p < α, Table S6).The exact type and number of added RE6 parameters differed per soil function indicator and per soil type (Table 4). Most variation in soil function indicator values was explained when SOC content was combined with multiple SOC quality parameters from different SOC characterization techniques (Fig. 3 +All, ANOVA: F = 6.21, p < α, Table S6).The explanatory power of the different SOC characterization techniques was not influenced by soil type or soil function, although the absolute amount of explained variation differed per soil function (ANOVA: F = 12.21, p < α, Table S6) and soil type (ANOVA: F = 5.25, p < α, Table S6).The aim of our study was to investigate to what extent soil organic carbon parameters (i.e., SOC content and different types of SOC quality parameters) can be used to explain soil functions in clay and sandy soils under arable farming. We found that across all functions and soil types, SOC parameters could explain 26 ± 21% of the variation in function indicator values, and additionally including IP parameters increased this percentage to 30 ± 22 %. The explained variation was hence rather low compared to previous studies (Bongiorno et al., 2019;Lucas and Weil, 2021) and varied strongly depending on the soil function indicator under consideration. In general, the function soil structure and water regulation tended to be better explained than element cycling and biological population regulation. Surprisingly, none of the SOC characterization techniques (i.e. POX-C, POM-MAOM, RE6 and C:N-analysis methods) yielded a single parameter that added significant value in explaining the soil functions as additional parameter alongside total SOC content as compared to SOC content alone. When adding multiple parameters generated by the same characterization technique, only RE6 parameters significantly explained more variation than SOC content alone. Combining SOC quality parameters obtained through different, complementary techniques explained most variation, irrespective of soil function and soil type. Below we discuss these unexpected findings in view of our objective and hypothesis provided in the introduction.Based on our findings we have to reject our hypothesis that including SOC quality parameters in addition to SOC content would be particularly relevant for element cycling and biological population regulation. In contrast, soil structure and water regulation tended to be the better explained by SOC parameters than element cycling and biological population regulation. SOC parameters explained more variation than intrinsic soil properties across all soil functions, especially in sand, highlighting the importance of SOC for all, and not only the primarily biota-driven, functions.The supposed relationship between soil life and bioavailable SOC as carbon food source has been a major reason to include a parameter for SOC quality that represents a labile SOC fraction in soil health assessments (e.g. (Stott, 2019;de Haan et al., 2021)). However, we did not find that parameters describing the size or proportion of a labile SOC fraction performed better than parameters based on other SOC properties (i.e., size/proportion of stable SOC fractions, thermal stability and element ratio's) in explaining element cycling and biological population regulation, as the individual SOC quality parameters did not significantly differ in explanatory power for these functions when considered separately or in addition to SOC content. Moreover, regression models for  S6): SOC content: total soil organic carbon content alone; +CN: SOC content and the additional parameter (i.e., bulk_CN) from Elemental C:N analysis; +POXC: SOC content and additional parameters from oxidation with potassium permanganate; + POM-MAOM: SOC content and additional parameters from size fractionation into particulate (POM) and mineral-associated (MAOM) organic matter; + RE6: SOC content and additional parameters from thermal analysis by Rock-Eval 6. + All: SOC content and additional parameters from all the different SOC characterization techniques. The regression analyses were performed separately for sand and clay, but the explanatory power of the different techniques is visualized in one plot as soil type did not influence the explanatory power (Table S6). element cycling and biological population regulation did not more often contain a size or proportion of a labile SOC fraction as the first or second SOC quality parameter after SOC content than models for soil structure and water (Table S7).Potentially, our selection of SOC quality parameters did not include sufficiently labile, fast cycling SOC fractions such as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) (Bongiorno et al., 2019) that more directly relate to microbial activity and corresponding functions, as microorganisms can only assimilate small and dissolved SOC compounds (Lehmann and Kleber, 2015). For instance, potential nitrogen mineralization (PNM), one of the applied soil function indicators in this study, is measured over a short time scale (i.e. 4 weeks) and may hence depend more on the SOC that is bioavailable within that time frame (e.g. DOC) than on the SOC that is relatively labile but is expected to decompose over a longer time, e.g. 7-15 years (Balesdent et al., 1998;Bol et al., 2009) in case of POM, or ca. 30 years in case of ActiveC (Cécillon et al., 2021;Kanari, 2022). Still, POXC has been suggested to represent the small portion of SOC that serves as easily available food source for soil microbes (Weil et al., 2003;Moebius-Clune et al., 2017;Stott, 2019), and has been found to show a small but significant positive correlation (R 2 = 0.35) with nitrogen mineralization in the study of (Lucas and Weil, 2021). The low explanatory power of POXC that we found for these biota-driven soil functions does not support this finding and is in line with several previous indications that POXC may not be as labile as often assumed (Culman et al., 2012;Morrow et al., 2016;Woodings and Margenot, 2023).Alternatively, a strong involvement of soil biota introduces multiple sources of variation that obscure the relationship between SOC and primarily biota-driven functions such as element cycling and biological population regulation in field context. The activity, diversity and abundance of soil organisms and their interactions are all influenced by various environmental (soil) conditions, of which SOC quality is only one aspect (Bardgett, 2002;Bokhorst et al., 2017;Raczka et al., 2021). Soil organisms also play an important role in the modification of SOC properties and the formation of aggregates (Six et al., 2004), the building blocks of soil structure, so that soil structure and water regulation can also be more driven by biota than we initially expected, and was therefore better explained by SOC parameters.Most published soil health assessments include only one SOC quality parameter besides total SOC content (Stott, 2019;de Haan et al., 2021). Considering that any additional measurement in soil health assessments increases costs and complexity, identifying one master SOC quality parameter would indeed be optimal. However, none of the SOC quality parameters of our study had significant added value in explaining soil functions if SOC content was already considered. Two SOC quality parameters of our study (i.e. the sizes of POXC and POMC fractions) have previously been found to significantly explain several function indicators ( (Bongiorno et al., 2019;Lucas and Weil, 2021). However, these SOC quality parameters were directly related to the function indicators and were not considered as additional measurements besides SOC content. Total SOC content alone was found to significantly, or marginally significantly (p < 0.05 and > α Bonferonni ), correlate with 7 out of 15 soil function indicators in our study (Table S8), with 3 out of 3 function indicators in (Lucas and Weil, 2021), and with 17 of 25 function indicators in (Bongiorno et al., 2019). Total SOC content was also highly correlated with all parameters representing sizes of SOC fractions in our study (correlation coefficient r in clay >0.82 and in sand >0. 70 Fig. S7, Fig. S8), with the sizes of especially the POXC and POMC fractions in (Bongiorno et al., 2019), and with the size of POXC fraction in (Lucas and Weil, 2021). Hence, relationships between SOC quality parameters and soil function indicators may be confounded with total SOC content, if these parameters correlate strongly with SOC content. Expressing the size of SOC fractions as proportion to total SOC content (hence converting the unit from g C kg − 1 soil to g C g − 1 C) would provide a more independent SOC quality parameter, also suggested by (Bongiorno et al., 2019). However, parameters that represented such proportions (i.e., g CThe complete regression models for explaining the 15 soil function indicators in clay and sand. The models were forced to always include total SOC content (SOC) as first parameter, and were then allowed to select freely from all Rock-Eval parameters. The first 5 function indicators belong to the function biological population regulation, the second 5 parameters to element cycling, and the last 5 parameters to soil structure and water regulation. P-values are marked bold if they were below Bonferoni-corrected significant level α = 0.002, and italic if p < 0.05 and > α Bonferroni . See Table 1 for the description of the abbreviations of the function indicators, and a Negative R 2 adj -value caused by penalty term for adding model parameters.g − 1 C), as well as the other more independent types of SOC quality parameters (i.e., thermal stability and element ratio parameters), did not have significantly larger added value in explaining function indicators than the absolute (g C kg − 1 soil) sizes of SOC fractions in our study. Moreover, the added value of the SOC quality parameters in explaining soil functions was not related with their correlation strength with SOC content. A low correlation between SOC content and a SOC quality parameter will therefore ensure a low redundancy of the respective SOC quality parameter, but may not necessarily increase its explanatory power for soil functions.We observed that the total SOC content (g C kg − 1 soil) was strongly positively correlated with the contents (i.e., \"sizes\", in g C kg − 1 soil) of both labile and stable SOC fractions (Fig. S7, Fig. S8), and that the latter (i.e., the sizes of MAOM-C and StableC) were not yet leveling off at higher total SOC contents (Fig. S9) as can be expected in temperate arable soils (Begill et al., 2023). However, where relative proportions (g C g − 1 C) of labile size fractions were positively correlated with total SOC content, the proportions of the stable size fractions correlated negatively (StableC) or did not correlate (MAOMC) to total SOC content (Fig. S7, Fig. S8). Hence, the sizes of the labile SOC fractions increased more strongly with increasing total SOC content than the sizes of the stable SOC fractions, so that relatively the overall stability of SOC was reduced. This relatively lower stability at higher SOC contents is supported by other observations in the literature. For instance, SOC content in longterm bare fallow sites has been shown to decline to a constant minimum after ±100 years, which implies that higher SOC contents at earlier time points derive from a larger size of the labile and not from the stable SOC fraction (Cécillon et al., 2018). Moreover, more steps are needed to transform fresh litter inputs to MAOM as compared to POM (Cotrufo and Lavallee, 2022), so that the size of the POM fraction tends to increase more rapidly with SOC content than the MAOM fraction (Cotrufo et al., 2019;Lugato et al., 2021). Where POM can simply increase by fragmentation of fresh litter, the build-up of MAOM requires its association to the soil mineral matrix which is influenced by multiple factors (e.g. mineralogy, pH, competing and synergistic ions (Kögel-Knabner et al., 2008)) and requires more intensive microbial processing with associated needs (e.g., a higher nitrogen input (De Ruiter et al., 1993;Cotrufo and Lavallee, 2022)).Interestingly, the C:N-ratio of the MAOM fractions correlated positively, and O:C ratio (i.e., OI) of the bulk SOM negatively, with increasing SOC content (Fig. S7, Fig. S8). These result indicate that SOC is relatively less microbially processed at higher SOC contents since microbial processing generally increases the oxygen and nitrogen content of SOM (Lehmann and Kleber, 2015;Barré et al., 2016;Lavallee et al., 2020;Begill et al., 2023). In our arable soils, increasing MAOM contents at higher SOC levels might therefore have been limited by microbial processing, as carbon saturation is unlikely (Begill et al., 2023). The positive correlation between the H:C ratio (i.e., HI) and the C:N ratio of our bulk soils and POM fractions with total SOC content (Fig. S7, Fig. S8), further suggests a relatively higher presence of plant-derived compounds (Sebag et al., 2016;Cotrufo and Lavallee, 2022;Zander et al., 2023), hence relatively lower stability of SOC, at higher SOC contents.The POXC fraction as expressed relatively to SOC content (i.e., POXC_prop) was the only supposedly labile SOC fraction that was not positively correlated to SOC content in our study (Fig. S7, Fig. S8). Besides the before-mentioned doubts about the lability of POXC (Culman et al., 2012;Morrow et al., 2016;Woodings and Margenot, 2023), the observed negative correlation can also be explained by an underestimation of POXC at higher levels as the rate of the oxidation with permanganate was found to depend on SOC content (Pulleman et al., 2021).Most RE6 thermal stability parameters were not correlated with SOC content, except for T50_ox_CO2 that negatively correlated with SOC content in sand, supporting a decreased stability at higher SOC contents (Fig. S7, Fig. S8). In clay soils, SOC content was negatively correlated with the immaturity index (i.e., I) and positively correlated to the refractory (i.e., R) index and T50_pyr_CH (Fig. S7, Fig. S8), which all would contradict our hypothesis that a higher SOC content indirectly indicates a decreased stability of SOC. However, T50_pyr_CH, I and R have previously been shown to correlate less strongly and less consistently with the biochemical stability of SOC than other RE6 thermal stability parameters (Cécillon et al., 2021;Delahaie et al., 2023).The direction of all observed relationships between the SOC quality parameters and total SOC content was similar for both soil types. The convincing majority of these relationships indicated that the stability of SOC decreases with total SOC content, which highlights the need to further investigate the relationship between SOC content and stability, and to assess to what extent the quality of SOC can be considered separately from its quantity.None of the SOC characterization techniques yielded a single parameter that had significant added value in explaining soil functions if total SOC content was already considered. Still, total SOC content only explained 9 ± 16% of the variation in all soil function indicators across both soil types, although some function indicators were very well explained by total SOC content only (e.g. R adj 2 CEC >0.6 in Fig. 2 a). The explanatory power of total SOC content was lower than expected, considering the central role of SOC in soil functioning (e.g (Reeves, 1997;Deb et al., 2015;Herrick and Wander, 2018;Hoffland et al., 2020;Kopittke et al., 2022a)) and that SOC or SOM content is the most frequently included parameter in soil health assessments (Bünemann et al., 2018). Including multiple SOC quality parameters from different characterization techniques besides total SOC content increased the explained variation up to 26 ± 21 %. The repeatedly rather low percentage may derive from our agricultural field context, where SOC parameters are just part of the multitude of factors influencing soil function indicators. The high standard deviation of the explained variation suggests that the relative importance of SOC quality depends on the specific function indicator and environmental context (e.g. soil type, weather conditions). All in all, these findings indicate that the different operational principles of the different SOC characterization techniques led to complementary parameters, and that careful selection of these SOC quality parameters can help in developing a further understanding of the mechanistic processes underlying soil functioning. For the implementation in soil health assessments, it is practical to use only one SOC characterization technique. Rock-Eval 6 (RE6) was the only SOC characterization technique that resulted in parameters that together explained significantly more variation in soil function indicators values than SOC content alone, although the difference in explanatory power compared to the other techniques was relatively small. The separate RE6 parameters did not differ in effect size compared to parameters from other SOC characterization techniques, so likely the RE6 parameters were more complementary to each other than the parameters derived from the other techniques. This complementarity is supported by the observation that RE6 was the only technique that provided in all types of SOC quality parameters (i.e. element ratio's, thermal stability, and the sizes and proportions of SOC fractions). RE6 also provided the highest number of SOC quality parameters, but after removing highly correlated parameters before multiple linear regression, this number was similar to the number of SOC quality parameters derived from POM-MAOM (n = 6). Moreover, using the Aikakecriterium for forward stepwise regression ensured that SOC quality parameters were only included in the regression models if they had sufficient explanatory power, as the Aikake-criterium includes a penalty term that limits the number of model parameters (Cavanaugh and Neath, 2019). We therefore believe that the diversity (i.e., spanning a range of different SOC properties) rather than the quantity of RE6 parameters underlies their greater explanatory power compared to models with multiple parameters obtained from the other SOC characterization techniques.We evaluated 22 promising SOC parameters, i.e., SOC content and 21 SOC quality parameters, for their capacity to explain different soil functions that are influenced by SOM degradation and that are relevant for arable farming. Soil structure and water regulation tended to be better explained than element cycling and biological population regulation. SOC content alone explained 9 ± 16% of the variation across soil functions and soil types, and all SOC and intrinsic soil property parameters together 30 ± 22%. We found no evidence that including one single SOC quality parameter in addition to SOC content had significant added value in explaining any of the three selected soil functions. However, the use of multiple SOC quality parameters obtained by Rock-Eval analysis in addition to total SOC content did add significant explanatory value, as well as combining multiple parameters from the four different characterization techniques.Our results suggest that the relationship between soil functions and SOC quality is not straightforward, and cannot be fully disentangled from SOC content. However, these findings do not dismiss the potential of SOC quality parameters to further identify underlying mechanisms that control soil functioning, which can subsequently be targeted to improve farm management practices. We recommend that in future evaluations of SOC quality parameters for soil health assessments, more emphasis should be put on their (either mechanistic or empirical) relation to soil functions and their potential redundancy when used in addition to total organic carbon content. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","tokenCount":"11120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8d3484cf32c21397a6429d70790ac4ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49b6194a-7cda-4022-bd58-ee34c768a203/retrieve","id":"-1973504808"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f2510535-eaa3-4a71-b794-459af3986941","pagecount":"94","content":"who have given me technical and moral support through-out the study. A special thank is also forwarded to Improving Productivity and Market Success for Ethiopian Farmers (IPMS) for covering tuition fee and research costs and also Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) financed the cost for this study. All round support rendered by the management and staff members of the Fogera woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, IPMS staff of Fogera and Bahir Dar Soil Laboratory Center, especially Abeba Birhanu for my field and laboratory works is highly appreciated. I would also like to express my appreciation and thanks to farmers in Fogera woreda especially, Ato Molla Belew and his family as a whole who expressed their willingness by providing their field for the research carried out. Lastly, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my wife, Abeba Wubetu and my daughter Beteliham for their understanding, encouragement and love during my stay away from home. viiiTABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR iv LIST OF ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS v BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xivThis experiment was carried out to assess botanical composition, DMY and chemical composition of Fogera upland natural pastureland under different application rates of N fertilizer and harvesting stages of natural pasture at smallholder farmers condition. The experiment was conducted using 3 x 4 factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications and the treatment consisted three stages of harvesting (60, 90 and 120 days) and four levels of N fertilizer application (0, 23, 46 and 69 kg N/ha) on the natural pasture land.The botanical composition of the natural pasture land that have been identified at the experimental site included thirteen grasses, seven annual legumes and seven other herbaceous species belonging to different families. The influence of stages of harvesting was significant (P<0.05) but application of N fertilizer was not significant on total DMY of the pasture. Natural pasture harvested at 120-days of harvesting and at a fertilizer application of 69 kg/ha results the highest DMY (9.97 t/ha) while the lowest level was (5.38 t/ha) from unfertilized plots at 120-days of harvesting. The effect of stage of harvesting and fertilizer level on DMY of legume components was highly significant (P<0.001) but for the grass components stage of harvesting had non-significant effect, where as fertilizer had a highly significant effect (P<0.001). The relative proportion of legumes in the pastureland reached highest at 90-days of harvesting at all levels of fertilizer application. The proportion of legumes varied from the highest mean of 56.18% to the lowest of 37.66% at 90 and 120-days of harvesting, respectively while that of grasses ranged from 58.09% to 40.24% at 120 and 90-days of harvesting, respectively. The relative proportion of grasses increased with increasing levels of N fertilizer and stage of harvesting up to 120-days. Significant effect of stage of harvesting (P<0.001) on CP, NDF, ADF, hemi-cellulose, cellulose, P and IVDMD were obtained at all levels of fertilizer application. At 60-days of harvesting, highest values of xvi 15.53%, 0.41% and 54.86% were obtained for CP, P and IVDMD, respectively. However, the lowest values 55. 63%, 37.32%, 17.55% and 32.02% were obtained for NDF, ADF, hemicellulose and cellulose, respectively at the same stage of harvesting. The CP content was significantly (P<0.001) lower (6.76%) at 120-days of harvesting compared with other stages of harvesting. At all levels of N-fertilizer, the mean CP content obtained were above the reported critical level for ruminant's microorganism's functioning (7% Livestock production is an integral part of the subsistence crop-livestock systems of the Ethiopian highlands. It is a source of draught power, manure and transport to support the crop sector. It is also a source of cash, nutrition and asset for the rural communities. Livestock is considered as a mobile bank that could be hired, shared, inherited and contracted by rural households. Although the contribution of livestock to facilitate the crop sector has been recognized all along, its productivity in Ethiopia is declining to a level that may affect the sustainability of synergism between the crop and livestock sectors. One of the major constraints to livestock productivity is lack of feed, both in quality and quantity (Tilahun, et al., 2005). Livestock feed in the country is based on natural pastures, fallow grazing, and stubble grazing and crop residues. Alemu and Lemma (1991) reported that more than 90 percent of the livestock feed in Ethiopia come from crop residues and natural pasture. This resource consists of a wide range of grasses, legumes and other herbaceous species.Natural pasture and crop residues are poor in quality and provide inadequate protein, energy, vitamins and minerals (Daniel, 1990). Thus, the existing feed resources do not meet the nutrient requirements for growth and reproduction of animals. Adane and Berhan (2005) reported that the herbage yield and nutritional quality of natural pasture is generally low. The herbage makes rapid growth of fair quality early in the rainy season but during the dry season only over-matured herbage of poor quality is available. This results in slow growth rates, poor fertility and high mortality rates, especially in young stock. In certain areas where improved forage crops have been introduced, farmers failed to utilize them at the optimum developmental stages, which would ensure an appropriate balance between quality and quantity to satisfy livestock requirements and support reasonable animal production (Taye, 2004). Forage resource improvement with emphasis on management practices that promote yield and nutritive value are, therefore, one of the important measures that have to be taken to reverse the prevailing scenario of poor animal productivity.In the Ethiopian highlands most pasturelands have suffered encroachment of crop production as a consequence of the growing human population. The increase in human population and the decline in land productivity demanded an expansion in arable land that led to a reduction in the amount of land available for natural pasture and browse (Alemayehu, 1997). Thus, the pastures are practically those available only on steep slopes, field margins and roadsides (Ali, 2004).Consequently, the livestock are forced to concentrate on very limited pastureland. This results in overgrazing, which in turn leads to invasion by unpalatable plant species and finally a decline in the quality and quantity of pasture. The latter become worse as the dry season advances. The overgrazing affects the botanical composition of the natural pasture which is the major factor affecting the potential of the pasture to sustain livestock productivity. The changes in botanical composition primarily brought about by animal activities that usually affect the nutritive value of natural pastures and in turn influence the productivity of animals. Appropriate grazing management must be practiced in order to maintain a favorable balance in the botanical composition of the available natural pasture.Although the natural grasslands constitute the major feed source of livestock in most developing countries, these resources have several limitations. They have a sub-optimal nutritive value for only a short period of the year and decline quickly on maturity (Zinash et al., 1995). Furthermore, prolonged harvesting time results in poor quality of the native hay (Gashaw et al., 1991;Teshome et al., 1994). Forage yield and nutritional qualities of pasture are influenced by numerous factors representing ecological conditions and management activities. Those factors include frequency of cutting, species composition, stage of maturity of plants, climatic conditions, soil fertility status and season of harvesting. As pasture gets mature it is characterized by high content of fiber with a higher grade of lignifications and low protein content. Changes of quality during the growing period of grasses are particularly high under tropical climatic conditions due to the physiological, biochemical and anatomical adaptation of the tropical grasses (Carbon 4 grasses) to utilize the high temperature and high solar radiation regime prevailing in the tropics (Nelson and Moser 1994).Generally, in the high-lands of the country which contains high livestock and human population, there is a severe shortage of grazing resource together with marked decline in the quality of the natural pasture (Adane, 2003). Evidently there is paucity of information on improved management and utilization of this resource at the smallholder farm level, including optimum stage and frequency of harvesting of the herbage, levels of fertilizer application as strategies for increasing pasture productivity.Within the Ethiopian highland system occurs the Fogera plain, on which this study is focused, is home to the well known Fogera cattle breed. The breed is large-framed and one of the best indigenous milk animals in the country. It is also known for its meat production and traction power. Unfortunately, cattle of this potential milk are suffering due to feed shortage both in quality and quantity. Even though the study area has high potential contribution to the smallholder's livestock production in that area, poor productivity of the grazing lands both in quality and quantity of the grazing resource poses a great problem in livestock farming. This problem inevitably calls for improving the productivity of the grazing lands in that area.One of the most viable and simple management interventions to avert the severe feed shortage is to improve the quality and quantity of the natural pasture through employing improved management and conservation practices. The management systems, particularly utilizing the pasture at early stages of growth with proper growing management might improve the productivity of pastures both quantitatively and qualitatively (Zinash etal., 1995). However, information on botanical composition and optimum stage of harvesting of forages of natural pasture as a strategy for increasing pasture productivity at smallholder farmers level in Fogera district with high livestock and human population density and declining land holding is very scanty. Thus, there is a need to determine botanical composition, DMY as well as optimum stage of harvesting as a strategy to intervene the prevailing traditional pasture management systems at smallholder farmers level.To determine the botanical composition, dry matter yield and chemical composition of the natural pasture under different nitrogen fertilizer application and stages of harvesting in Fogera district.Natural pastures are composed of grasses (Poaceae), legumes (Fabaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae), and other heterogenous plants in various families, which could be herbaceous or woody forms (McIllroy, 1972). The first two plant groups; grasses and legumes, make up the bulk of the herbage that are valuable as animal feed.Grass is a common word that generally describes a monocotyledonous green plant in the family Poaceae. It occupies a greater area of the world's surface than any other plant family, occurring in almost every terrestrial environment and provides a vital source of food for human and animals (Cheplick, 1998). Forage grasses can be either annuals or perennials with a wide spectrum of adaptation and diverse growth habits and thus they are distributed in all continents and climatic zones (Pamo and Piper, 2000). Both annual and perennial grasses are herbaceous (non-woody) plants, made up of a grouping of units called tillers. Perennial grasses often live for relatively a few or several seasons by succession of secondary tillers, which replace the original tillers. However, annual grasses flower and die without producing replacement tillers which will be the reason for the death of the whole plant (Wolfson and Tainton, 2000).According to Pamo and Piper (2000), at maturity, the grasses range in height from a few centimeters to 20 meter or more. Despite having common morphological characteristics, some grass species may show many modifications from the typical structure. The modifications allow species to adapt to specific environmental conditions and provide a means for identification.Legumes are classified under the family Fabaceae (Leguminoseae). The legume family contains about 18,000 species, which are valued for their ability to grow in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria, and for their drought resistance (McDonald et al., 2002). It is composed of threee sub-families: Caesalpiniodeae, Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae. The latter constitutes the majority of cultivated pasture legumes. Legumes are widely spread in both temperate and tropical climates with numerous herbaceous species which are grown on pasture or as fodder crops and are of considerable importance for natural grazing (Bogdan, 1977). Leguminous plants in general can be annuals, biennials or perennials. They have a narrower range of adaptation which requires a higher management level than that for grasses (Pamo and Piper, 2000). Nutritionally, the legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content such as calcium and phosphorus. The increase in animal production from use of legumes is therefore due to relatively high content of crude protein and the high digestibility of forage legumes and to the high intake by animals feeding on them (Whiteman, 1980).In most areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the major even the sole feed source available for large parts of the year in smallholder production systems are natural pastures (Smith, 1992;Gylswyk, 1995). However, natural pastures mostly suffer from seasonally spells of dry periods during which they drop in quality, which is characterized by high fiber content, low digestibility and very low protein and energy content (Ndlovu, 1992;Topps, 1995).In Ethiopia, it has been estimated that more than 90 percent of livestock feed requirement is provided by natural pastures, which consist of a wide range of grasses, legumes and other herbaceous species (Lulseged, 1985). The yield as well as quality of pasture is very low due to poor management and over stocking. Natural pastures would be adequate for live weight maintenance and weight gain during wet seasons, but would not support maintenance for the rest of the year (Zinash et al., 1995). The productivity from grazing land is insufficient in both quantity and quality for optimal livestock growth and production. Studies indicated that poor production of grazing lands and large herd size on small farmlands caused overgrazing of natural pasturelands resulting in serious land degradation. Consequently, soil fertility declines causing lowered dry matter yields from the natural pasturelands. Moreover, prolonged harvesting time impairs the quality of native hay (Varvikko, 1991;Gashaw, 1992).Botanical composition refers to the proportion of grass, legume and other forage species biomass in a given area. Natural pasture in the highland areas has relatively high proportion of grass and legume species, but the proportion of legumes declines with decreasing altitude (Alemayehu, 1985). Most legumes are often grown in mixtures with pasture grasses. Some of the N that is fixed by legumes becomes available in the soil and increases the production and quality of herbage (Bogdan, 1977). However, when a pure grass pasture is grown without a legume component, it eventually suffers a reduction in yield through N defoliation. On the other hand, a pure stand of legume pasture fixes N in excess of its requirement that attracts invading non-legume weeds and grasses. Legumes contain more crude protein, calcium and phosphorus, and often lower crude fiber values. They can improve the feeding value of grasses (Webster and Wilson, 1980). Hence, the quality of a pasture can be improved by the inclusion of forage legumes, which are not so bulky and maintain their high quality throughout the year (Tarawali et al., 1991).Pasture composition (irrespective of plant species) can be affected by the harvest date of first cut and frequency of harvesting which consequently reduces the nutritive value (Rinne and Nykannen, 2000). Hence, the main problem of legumes management in mixed pastures is that of ensuring their persistence and maintaining their proportion with respect to stage of maturity (Miller, 1984). Frequently, grazing can reduce the vigor of forage plants. Frequent grazing particularly at early maturity reduces serious weed invasion in perennial rye grass pastures.Furthermore, grazing reduces the ability of pastures to continue producing herbage while frequent cutting can lead to change in botanical composition (McKenziel, 1997).Stage of frequency of cutting significantly influence the yield and quality of herbage produced. A significant linear increase in the dry matter yield (DM) has been reported in the natural pasture with increasing stages of growth of grasses up to 90 days (Teshome, 1987;Zinash et al., 1995). The dry matter yield of both unfertilized and fertilized pastures increased with maturity. However, at the same stage of harvesting age, fertilizer application resulted in a significant increase in dry matter yield at 60 and 90 days of harvest, while no significant effect was observed at 30 days of harvesting (Adane, 2003;Teshome et al., 1994). Similarly, Daniel (1996) reported that highest DM yield was attained on average at the 69 th and 74 th days of growth with N application, respectively at 50 percent to 100 percent heading and seed setting, respectively with and with out nitrogen application. The frequency and severity at which pasture plants are defoliated have pronounced effects on the quality of available forage.Harvesting early to get better nutritive value will reduce the DM yield, so the harvest time should balance quality and yield (Tessema, 2003). In order to maximize production, the pasture should retain sufficient leaf to allow for rapid growth for as much of the growing season as possible. The more severely a plant is defoliated, the more slowly it will recover and the less severely it is defoliated, the more rapid will be its re-growth. Hence, the more frequently the pasture is severely defoliated the lower will be the overall dry matter yield (Bartholomew, 2000). Buxton (1996) reported that forage maturity stage at harvest is identified as the most important factor affecting the composition and nutritive value of pastures. Effects of stage of harvesting on forage digestibility are associated with increase in forage neutral detergent fiber content and its lignification's (Smith et al., 1972). Hence, increasing stage of maturity of forages results in an increase in the indigestible fraction of forage. Moreover, crude protein content and its rumen degradability decrease with increasing stage of maturity (Blade et al., 1993). The crude protein content varies widely among forage plants, but in all species, it declines with increasing age of forage plants (Sarwar et al., 1999). The aging of forage is frequently associated with a decrease in leafiness and an increase in stem to leaf ratio (Vansoest, 1982). The low nutritive value of native pastures cut at late maturity is identified by its low crude protein and mineral, and high lignin contents (Teshome, 1987). Hence, the decrease in the crude protein as grasses get matured is due to an increase in the proportion of stem, which has lower crude protein content than the leaf fraction (Laredo and Minson, 1973).The decrease in the content of crude protein in matured native pastures is also attributed to the decline of the proportion of legumes in the pasture. Harvesting at advanced stage of maturity caused a decrease in proportion of legumes in native pasture from 11 to 4 percent in dry matter. Hence, to maintain the required percentage of crude protein, having high proportion of legumes in the pasture is of paramount importance along with harvesting at optimum stage of maturity (Kidane, 1993).Tropical grasses are generally characterized by lower nutritive value even in their early stages of growth due to lower levels of easily digested materials in their cell wall due to rapid rate of achieving maturity (Minson, 1980). Harvesting stage of pasture forages is an important factor significantly affecting digestibility. The digestibility of all grasses decreases as they mature (Minson, 1977), with increasing age, the proportion of potentially digestible components comprising soluble carbohydrates, cellulose, hemi-cellulose and other indigestible fractions such as lignin, cuticle and silica increase, which result in lower digestibility leading to lower rates of disappearance from the gastro intestinal tract (Van Soest, 1982). According to Minson (1977), the dry matter digestibility in the plant parts also decreases with advancing plant growth. The declining dry matter digestibility of stems at advanced maturity is attributed to greater indigestible component, which increase with advancing stage of plant growth. The digestibility of tropical grasses is lower than that of temperate grasses. They have higher lingo-cellulose content and the digestibility of their cell wall material (fiber) is lower. This lower digestibility gets worse with increase in maturity and greater lignifications of plant species (Wilson, 1994).The proportion of forage legume in the pasture is affected by stage of maturity (Kidane, 1993) and this can also affect the digestibility of the pasture. The digestibility would probably increase as the proportion of forage legume increases because the legumes often have higher digestibility than grasses (Topps, 1995). Moreover, tropical and subtropical species have a lower leaf to stem ratio than temperate species. The relevance of this is that stem material is less digestible than leaf material, and its digestibility declines more rapidly than that of leaf material (Mannetje, 1984).Both quantity and quality of natural pasturelands can be improved by application of fertilizer.Hence, sufficient response to fertilizer application is one of the desirable characteristics expected of natural pasturelands. The high nitrogen requirement of pastures, coupled with their pervasive root system results in efficient absorption of nitrogen from the soil. Thus, in grass dominated pastures about 50 to 70 percent of applied fertilizer nitrogen is normally taken up, although this decreases at very high nitrogen levels (Miles and Minson, 2000) due to deficiencies of some micronutrients in the soil and displacement of phosphate concentrations at higher levels of nitrogen (Falade, 1975). Grasses can obtain their nitrogen in a number of ways, but the most important sources are from fertilizers and associated legumes. Legumes vary in their ability to produce nitrogen, and for the most responsive grasses no legumes can adequately supply the needs of grass. Hence, the simplest way to achieve maximum production from grass is to apply inorganic fertilizer with high nitrogen content (Skerman and Riveros, 1990).Adane (2003) reported that, the yield of the natural grasslands increases with increasing levels of fertilizer application up to 125 kg/ha regardless of decline in overall production due to frequent grazing and cuttings in one growing season. Moreover, fertilizers not only increase yield but also influence species composition of natural pastures. Therefore, according to Daniel (1987) application of phosphorus alone increases percentage of legumes while heavy nitrogen application encourages grasses by suppressing legumes.The effect of fertilization on the botanical composition is very marked where legumes make up a considerable part of the vegetation. In such areas, the amount of legumes and their phosphorus content increases sharply with phosphorus fertilization (Gilbert et al., 1992). On the other hand, nitrogen especially at higher level decreases the legumes even though phosphorus was applied (Crowder and Chheda, 1982;Daniel, 1987). Hence, strategically applying nitrogen to boost the grass component or phosphorus to boost the legume component can achieve a balance between grass and clover (Bartholomew, 2000).Application of nitrogen fertilizers to grass-legume pastures has dramatic effects on the legume component by altering botanical composition. Presence of high levels of nitrate or ammonium will inhibit nodulation and reduces rate of nitrogen fixation that leads to reduction in legume content (Whiteman, 1980). When legumes are growing with grasses, the grasses are stronger competitors for available nitrogen, and take up most of that applied. This will lead to an increased rate of growth, leaf expansion and tillering in the grasses, often leading to suppression of the legume owing to shading (Miles and Manson, 2000). In grass-legume pastures, when legumes supply insufficient nitrogen, additional nitrogen generally needs to be provided by strategic application of nitrogen fertilizer. This however, creates certain management difficulties, since additional nitrogen reduces fixation by the legumes while it improves the relative competitive ability of the associated grass. Hence, phosphorus fertilizer must be applied to deficient soils for establishment and long-term maintenance of legumes in the pasture (Miles and Manson, 2000).The application of fertilizers on natural pasture has been clearly shown to improve the herbage yields (Adane, 2003). When nitrogen is applied, there is usually an initial linear response. But, there is a phase of diminishing response and a point beyond which nitrogen has little or no effect on yield. The dry matter yield of fertilized plots of natural pasture has been shown to be 9.47 ton/ha as compared to unfertilized plots 5.67 ton/ ha at 90 days of harvest (Adane, 2003).Therefore, the amount of dry matter produced for each kilogram of nitrogen applied depends largely on the species under consideration, frequency of defoliation and growth condition (Miles and Manson, 2000). The importance of phosphorus for the survival and nitrogen fixation by legumes in a natural pasture has also been widely recognized.Phosphorus plays role in nodule development and in the activity of the associated Rhizobia (Crowder and Chheda, 1982). However, in the tropics, the soils are generally deficient in phosphorus. Hence, on well-managed legume enriched natural pastures, the application of phosphate fertilizer often provides an effective factor in increasing productivity (Pagot, 1992).Application of nitrogen to pasture usually results in marked increase in the level of crude protein content. However, the great variability in crude protein content due to nitrogen applied exists in early stages of growth. The crude protein content of most grass species is adequate to meet minimum nutritional requirements for livestock in early stages of harvesting but reaches levels below this requirement in later stages of harvesting. Hence, addition of nitrogen and phosphorus results in considerably higher crude protein content (Goetz, 1975).The increase in the crude protein content of grasses through fertilization depends on the availability of soil nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilizer application and growing legumes in association with grasses also increases the level of soil nitrogen. This has increased the crude protein percentage of the grass but has no consistent effect on dry matter digestibility (Minson, 1973). Fertilization at early stages of growth greatly influences the accumulation of non-structural and insoluble carbohydrate levels. Insoluble carbohydrate decreased with increasing nitrogen supply and soluble carbohydrate levels increase with increase in phosphorus supply (Miles and Manson, 2000). Nitrogen fertilizer also improves the concentrations of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) in early cut pennisetum purpureum. However, according to studies of the same author, nitrogen fertilizer could not reverse the adverse effects of maturity on the quality. Similarly, the lignin content of the grass of fertilizer application was higher at late cutting. Thus, the digestibility value is lower too (Sarwar et al., 1999).The study was conducted on a smallholder natural pastureland at Fogera district, SouthGondar Zone of the Amhara National Regional State. Geographically, the study site is situated at 13 0 19'N latitude and 37 0 36'E longitudes (Figure 1).Woreta is the capital of the district and is found 625 Km from Addis Ababa and 55 Km from the Regional capital, Bahirdar. The district was selected as the study area because it is the home to the well known Fogera breed of cattle, which is localized to the Fogera Plains.Livestock farming is an integral part of the agricultural activity in the district, which determines the well being of smallholder farmers in the area.The topography of the district comprises 76% flat land, 11% mountain and hills and 13%  According to the Woreda Office of Agriculture, the dominant (65%) soil type in the Fogera plains is black clay soil (Pellic Vertisol). However, the soil of the study site is Orthic luvisol. Natural pasture could be utilized as a grazing or green feed in the form of cut and carry system. It is the major feed resources in Fogera district. The resource occupies about 23% of the total land coverage. In the district, livestock production entirely depends on the use of natural pasturelands, fallow croplands and crop residues (Table 2). In the area, the annual DM yield of privately owned natural pasturelands was estimated to be 3.92-5.52 t/ha. However, due to seasonality of rainfall distribution and the high stocking rate, DM yields from communally owned natural pasturelands are highly reduced and cannot provide the nutritional requirements for more than half of the year Continuous grazing and stall-feeding of mostly oxen with crop residues are the common feeding systems in the highlands of Ethiopia. Free grazing, sometimes under the control of herders, is also practiced with natural pasturelands, fallows and stubble grazing. Zinash et al. (1995), Lemma (2002), andAlemayehu (2004) reported that livestock in the central highlands graze on communal, fallow and permanent pasturelands during cropping season and on croplands after harvest.The contribution of crop residues to the feed resource base is significant (Getachew, 2002;Solomon, 2004). Daniel (1988), Lemma (2002) reported that under the Ethiopian condition, crop residues provide 40 to 50% of the annual livestock feed requirement. In most central highlands of Ethiopia, crop residues account for 27% of the total annual feed supply during the dry periods (Gashaw, 1992). The quantities of different crop residues produced depend on the total area cultivated, the access of the season's rainfall, crop species as well as other inputs such as fertilizers (Daniel, 1988). Oxen are given priority for feeding crop residues mainly during the peak period of ploughing and followed by weak animals and lactating cows (Mohamed and Abate, 1995). Trees and shrubs play a significant role in livestock production in very limited places. The importance and availability of trees and shrubs in tropical Africa are influenced by the distribution, type and importance of livestock, their integration and role within the farming systems and availability of alternative sources of feed (Getachew, 2002). In the research district, the extent of improved forage crop cultivation by majority of smallholder farmers is very limited due to their limited knowledge on improved forages, scarcity of land for forage cultivation and traditional feeding practices.Like most parts of South Gondar Zone, the predominant form of farming practice in Fogera district is smallholder mixed crop livestock farming. Mixed farming systems are characterized by interdependency between crop and livestock activities (Ostergaard, 1995). It is the main system of production for smallholder farmers in many developing countries (Ostergaard, 1995;Blackburn, 1998). The largest share of the total milk and meat available in the country is produced by mixed farming systems (Ostergaard, 1995). The principal objective of farmers engaged in mixed farming is to gain complementary benefit from an optimum mixture of crop and livestock farming and spreading income and risks over both crop and livestock production (Lemma, 2002;Solomon, 2004). In the mixed crop livestock farming systems, livestock provide important inputs to crop cultivation, especially manure and traction. Livestock are often the major source of cash that farmers can use to buy agricultural inputs. In turn, crops provide livestock with feed in the form of residues and by-products from crop production, which are converted into valuable products like meat, milk, and traction (ILCA, 1992;BoRD, 2003).Livestock rearing for milk, draught power and meat is a major part of the overall agricultural activities in the research district. All types of livestock graze on the communal grazing land with a high stocking rate that characterize the traditional system of grazing management (Table 3). However, in recent years the natural pastureland is invaded by unwanted weed such as Hygrophila auriculata (Amekala), which is estimated to be 10,000 hectares of the Woreda grazing land is invaded by this weed species. The study was conducted using a 3 x 4 factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments for the study were three stages The vegetation from each treatment was sampled using a quadrat of 0.25 m 2 (0.5 m x 0.5 m) size during a predetermined sampling period. The material was harvested with a sickle at a height of 10 cm above ground. The quadrat was randomly thrown three times per plot and the average weight of the three harvests per plot was used for determination of pasture yield and quality. Following harvesting the forage samples from each plot were weighed, labeled and air dried under shade and kept in separate perforated bags for chemical analysis.A total of thirty-six representative oven-dried forage sub-samples were taken to ILRI nutrition laboratory for chemical analysis. The samples were dried in an oven at 65 -70 o C for 72 hours and ground using Willey mill to pass through 1 mm sieve. Ground samples were allowed to equilibrate at room temperature for 24 hr and stored until required for chemical analysis.For determination of species composition, forage samples were harvested at harvesting stages of 60, 90 and 120 days and samples were weighed immediately and hand-sorted into botanical components of grasses, legumes and others (weeds) and then each of these were weighed separately.The botanical composition with regard to relative proportion of the grasses, legumes and other herbages in the treatment plots on weight basis was determined by relating the weights of each group to the weight of the whole samples. The dry weight rank (DWR) procedure (Tothill et al., 1978) that involves cutting and sorting by hand was used to measure percentage proportion of each forage type.TDW of species = TFW of a species X SDW of a species Identification of species was undertaken in situ by using an illustrated field guide of Froman and Persson (1974) for grasses and Thulin (1972) for legumes.The pasture yield was determined on dry matter basis by harvesting forage samples from an area of 0.25 m 2 (0.5 m x 0.5 m) quadrat which was randomly thrown three times per plot. The average weight of the forage in the quadrat was used and extrapolated into dry matter yield per hectare (t/ha).Forage samples within the quadrat area were harvested by hand and weighed immediately.Sub-samples representing 10% of the whole forage samples harvested from the treatments were taken for DM determination. The effect of cutting frequency was investigated on plots which already harvested at 60 days stage of harvesting. Cutting was made three times, each at 30 days interval, and the sum of the yields of the 1 st and 2 nd cutting was compared with the yields of plots harvested once at 90 day. Similarly, the sum of the yields of the first, second and third harvests was compared with the yield of the single harvest at 120 days interval.The chemical analyses for determination of nutritional composition were carried out by the proximate analyses method. Nitrogen content was determined by taking sub-samples from an oven-dried forage sample employing the Kjeldhal method (AOAC, 1990). The protein content was calculated by multiplying the nitrogen content by 6.25. The total ash content was determined by igniting the forage samples in a muffle furnace at 550 o C for 5 hours (AOAC, 1990). The Van Soest method of forage analysis was applied to determine Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF). The amount of hemi-cellulose was determined as the difference between NDF and ADF, where as cellulose content was determined by subtracting Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) and Acid Detergent Fiber ash (ADF ash) from Acid detergent fiber (ADF). Phosphorus content was determined by auto-analyzer (Chemlab, 1978). The modified Tiller and Terry method was used for the determination of in-vitro dry matter digestibility of forage samples (Van Soest and Robertson, 1985).The forage samples were dried to a constant dry weight in an oven at 100 ± 5 o c for 24 hrs to determine percent dry weight before any analytical procedure. All the chemical analysis of the samples was performed in duplicate. Finally, all results were calculated on a dry matter basis.Soil samples were collected randomly from12 spots within the experimental site at a depth of 0-10 cm before broadcasting of nitrogen fertilizer. The collected soil samples were dried and thoroughly mixed (composited) and prepared for determination of pH, organic matter (OM), electrical conductivity of extracts (ECe),available phosphorus (P), total nitrogen (N) and texture. Total N and available P were estimated by the Kjeldahl procedure (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982) and Olsen method (Olsen, et al., 1954), respectively. The Walkley and Black (1954) method as described by Anderson and Ingram (1993) was used to determine OM. Organic matter percentage was obtained by multiplying organic carbon percentage with 1.724. The pH of the soil was measured potentiometrically using a digital pH meter in the supernatant suspension of 1: 2.5 liquid ratios where the liquid was water. Soil texture was determined by using the hydrometer method (Black et al., 1965). Determination of ECe of soil water was made by an indirect measurement of soil salinity. The soil analyses were undertaken at Haramaya University Soil Laboratory.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using the General Linear Model Procedure of SAS (SAS, 1998). Cutting frequency was analyzed by MSTATC (1989) Mean separations were made using the Least Significant Difference (LSD). The association between (60, 90, 120), (0, 23, 46, 69), DMY and quality parameters of natural pasturelands was determined by correlation analysis (SPSS, 1996).1. The model for the design is as follows:Where, Y ijk = Observation in the j th harvesting stage and i th fertilizer application (the response variable) µ = Overall mean F i = the i th fertilizer effect H j = the effect of j th harvesting stage R k = the effect of k th replication FH ij = the effect of ij th interaction between fertilizer and harvesting stage E ijkR = Random error (residuals)2. The model of cutting frequency is as follows:Where, Y ijk = Observation in the j th cutting frequency and i th fertilizer application (the response variable) µ = Overall mean F i = the i th fertilizer effect Cj = the effect of j th cutiing frequency R k = the effect of k th replication FC ij = the effect of ij th interaction between fertilizer and cutting frequency E ijkl = Random error (residuals)Analytical results of the composite surface soil indicated that the soil was clay loam in texture (34.52% clay), brown (when dry) and dark reddish brown (when moist) in color (Table 4). It was slightly acidic (pH 6.81), low in total N and organic carbon where as the available P was medium (Table 5). The C: N ratio (11.43:1).  1985) and Tekalign et al. (1991). In this study area soil sample result indicates that total salt content was < 0.15%, it is salt free soil and ECE value of 0.054 ms/cm (Table 5).The total N, available P, organic carbon and C: N ratio of the soil in the study area low, medium, low and medium, respectively.  , 1993;Adane, 2003;Tessema, 2003;Yihalem, 2004).The diversified species composition of the natural pastureland is a desirable attribute in terms of pasture quality, quantity and persistence. Hence, the presence of desirable perennial and annual grasses like Echnochloa, Cynodon, Digitaria, Pennisetum, Setaria, Chloris, Panicum, Andropogon and Sporobolus species in the study area would indicate the degree of persistenceof these species against the regours of drought, frost and high grazing pressure consistent with the harshness of the prevailing climatic biotic factors. The results showed that the legume botanical composition of natural pasture was highly influenced by stages of harvesting and fertilizer application (Table 7). The effect of nitrogen fertilizer and stages of harvesting was significant for legumes (P<0.001) and (P<0.01), respectively (Appendix Table 1). At 60 days of harvesting the overall mean percentage of legume and grass proportion was similar, which is 48.02% and 48.00% respectively (Table 7   and 8). Overall mean superscripts A-C in columns and x, y in rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% significant level.Legume proportion reached its maximum at 90 days of harvesting with mean of 56.18%.However, the proportion decreased to a mean of 37.66% at 120 days of harvest. This is logically due to the short life span of the majority of legume species as compared to the grass species, most of which are perennials (Table 6). Thus, as was observed physically, the annual legumes matured faster than grasses, aged and gave way to the dominance of the perennial grasses regardless of presence of grazing. This finding is in agreement with earlier reports of Adane (2003) andYihalem (2004). On the other hand, the effect of nitrogen fertilizer and stages of harvesting was significant for grasses (P<0.001) and (P<0.05), respectively (Appendix Table 2). Unlike a decrease in the proportion of legumes, the proportion of grasses increased from 40.24% at day 90 to 58.09% at day 120 (Table 8). Such Fertilizer causes a significant difference (P<0.05) in the proportion of forbs. As observed in the study nitrogen tends to favor grass dominance and with that suppressing the legumes. Other fertilizers like phosphorous and molybdenum tend to enhance legume growth and dominance in the sward. An increase in proportion of legumes influences the proportion of related grasses and apparently their nutritive value as reported by Shehu andAkinola (1995) andGebrehiwot et al. (1997). The authors indicated that the presence of legumes in association with grass-legume pasture produced forage of higher quality than the pure grass pastures. The proportion of legumes in non-fertilized plots was high when compared with fertilized plots at 60 and 90 days of harvesting. However, the dominance of grasses was observed in later days of harvesting at 120 days. At 60 days of harvesting, the legumes widely appeared in the field and maintained a highest proportion up to 90 days of harvest. The relative proportion of grasses in the pastureland reached the highest (77.14%) at 120 days of harvesting and the lowest (20.77%) at 90 days of harvesting. In fact, the higher relative proportion of grasses as compared with other species was due to reduction of legumes and forbs appeared and decrease at 60 and 90 days of harvesting due to the increase in the proportion of legumes and forbs (Fig 4).The relationship between stages of harvesting and dry matter yield (DMY) of legume component in the natural pasture was curvilinear.Grass Legumes 0 60 90 120As the age of the pasture advanced the mean DMY of the legume in unfertilized plot increased until it reached its peak (6.57 t/ha) at 90 days of harvesting (Table 10). Overall mean superscripts A and B in columns and x, y in rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% significant level.However, there was a subsequent drop in mean dry matter yield of legumes at 120 days of harvesting and at the control (1.68 t/ha). In contrast, the mean DMY of grass increased from 2.06 to 6.26 t/ha as the level of fertilizer increased from 0 to 69 kg/ha (Table 11).Due to the effect of nitrogen fertilizer the DMY of the grass component was increased by 204% as compared to the control and the highest fertilizer level (69 kg/ha).Moreover, natural pasture harvested at 120 days and at 69 kg /ha nitrogen fertilizer results higher DMY (7.85 t/ha) of grass .As a result there was over 190% DMY increment of grass component of the natural pasture between the control and the highest fertilizer application (69 kg N/ha) at 120 day of harvest.  The mean dry matter yield of other sward components (forbs) of the pasture declined from 0.38 t/ha at 90 day of harvesting to 0.35 t/ha at 120 days of harvesting. This result contradicts the reports on similar studies by Adane (2003) and Yihalem ( 2004) who stated that forbs proportion increased with increasing stages of harvesting of natural pasture. The increased forbs DMY that occurred at 90 days of harvesting might be due to the dominance of legumes invite to utilized excess nitrogen produced by rhizobium bacteria while at the later stage of the pasture, i.e. at 120 days of harvesting, it had suffered dominance by the grass species. The failure of the legume to support forbs is mainly due to aging and subsequent decline in the competitive ability of the legume at a later stage of mixed pasture development (Whiteman, 1980;Miller, 1984;Shehu and Akinola, 1995). On the other hand, nitrogen fertilizer did significantly (P<0.05) affect the forbs proportion of the pasture (Table 12).There was a significant effect (P<0.05) of stage of harvest on pasture DMY ( The comparison on mean yield attained from both unfertilized and fertilized plots at a certain stages of harvest showed that unfertilized plots had the lowest pasture yield of 5.38 t/ha at 120 days of harvesting due to the decline of legumes in the pasture whereas fertilized plots yield was as high as 8.77 t/ha. This trend was similar for yields obtained from plots with different fertilizer levels. On the other hand, comparison of stage of harvest under different fertilizer levels showed that the yield at 90 days of harvesting was consistently the highest because of at this stage of harvesting the proportion of legume was higher that contributes the of the overall DMY increment of the natural pasture.The pasture yield was lower at 120 day of harvesting at all levels of fertilizer except the highest level (69 kg N/ha), which was in sharp contrast to that at 90 days of harvesting. This could be mainly due to the drying and loss of lower leaf parts of forage materials as forage gets matured, and as well, the decline in the proportion of legumes in the pasture with increasing days of harvesting. This result is in agreement with that reported by Akinola and Whiteman (1985), who described a decline in the dry matter yield of natural pasture as harvesting day progressed mainly due to drying and an increase in the loss of lower leaf parts from plant. In order to maximize yield from legumes with higher CP content, the pasture should be harvested at mid (90 days) early October (Kidane, 1993).Natural pasture harvested at 120 days of harvesting and 69 kg N/ha fertilizer level results a DMY of 9.97 t/ha. This indicates a yield increment of 85.32% over the unfertilized plots, which are comparable with the results reported by Adane (2003) and Teshome (1987). At the unfertilized plots, there was an increased legume proportion, which contributed to a marked increase in DMY. On the other hand, application of nitrogen fertilizer resulted in increased grass proportion. As a consequence, it can be inferred that the increased productivity of natural pastures in terms of the amount of herbage obtained could be due to improved soil fertility from application of N-fertilizer since the analyzed soil sample of the site was low in total N.On the other hand, the decline in the proportion of legumes at 120 days of harvesting might have contributed to reduced total yield of the pastureland as it has been reported by Miller (1984), Adejumo (1992), Shehu andAkinola (1995) andGebrehiwot et al. (1997), who attributed the reduction in vegetative growth of legumes as a factor for decreased dry matter yield of the pasture with advanced maturity.The frequency of cutting had a significant effect (P<0.01) on total yield. A comparison of mean total yield at different cutting intervals shows that the total yield of the first cut at 90 days of harvesting was the highest (10.92 t/ha) and the least was (3.86 t/ha) on the first cut at 60 days harvesting. However, frequent cutting of the same plot with 30 days interval indicated a consecutive decline of the yield from the first to the third cut for all levels of fertilizer application. Overall mean superscripts A and B in columns and x-z in rows, mean superscripts a-d in rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% significant level.1 st =plots harvested at 60 days, 2 nd = plots harvested at 90 days and 3 rd = plots harvested at 120 days A significant effect (P<0.001) of fertilizer was observed on the total herbage yield obtained from repeated clipping and on the forage yield from plots harvested at different frequencies. When repeated cuttings were compared with harvesting once at 90 and 120 days of harvesting, there was a significant (P<0.01) increment on the dry matter yield of plots with frequent cuttings and increasing levels of fertilizer application. However, a total dry matter yield increment 10.50 and 14.01 t/ha was obtained in three cuttings at an interval of 30 days with N fertilized applications at the rate of 46 and 69 kg/ha, respectively (Table 15).A significant interaction effect (P<0.001) of cutting frequency and fertilizer application was obtained for the DM yield. Low total yield was obtained on repeated harvesting at unfertilized and fertilized plots with the level of 23 kg/ha. The interaction effect of fertilizer and cutting frequency resulted in the highest DM yield of 14.01 t/ha at an application of 69 kg/ha nitrogen, when pasture was harvested three times at an interval of 30 days. Findings of this study are in agreement with research results reported by Broatch (1970) and Hendy (1973), who suggested the maintenance of adequate intervals between consecutive cuttings in order to maximize yield from the natural pasturelands, so that the grasses can retain sufficient leaf material, which allow rapid growth for as much of the growing season as possible.The crude protein content of forage samples from the natural pastureland decreased (P<0.001) from mean value 14.04% at 60 days to 6.76% at 120 days of harvesting (Table 16). The analysis of variance showed a highly significant (P<0.001) effect of stages of harvesting and interaction within treatment means on CP content. Fertilizer application had no-significant (P>0.05) effect on CP content (Table 16). Overall mean superscript x-z in rows followed by the same letter is not significantly different at 5% significant levelThe results on nutritive value illustrated that the crude protein content of samples from the unfertilized as well as fertilized plots significantly decreased (P<0.001) as the age of the pasture advanced. The highest CP content of 15.53% was obtained at 60 days of harvesting (September) with unfertilized plots and the lowest crude protein content 6.11% was obtained from application of nitrogen fertilizer level at the rate of 23 kg/ha at 120 days of harvesting (November).The higher CP content from the unfertilized plots could be explained by the density of legume components in the pasture (Table 7) which was higher in the unfertilized plots than the fertilized plots. The reason for suppression of legumes in the fertilized plots is partly the indirect effect of nitrogen by inducing dominance of the grass component which tends to suppress the legume. Nitrogen may also influence legume growth through its inhibitory effect on Rhizobial nitrogen fixation. Therefore, the high CP content from unfertilized plots is most probably brought about by higher composition of legumes in the sward, and legumes generally have high content of CP. As has been observed in the study site and elsewhere in the northern part of Ethiopia, native clovers (Trifolium) tend to dominate the natural pasture in the fallows and crop borders. The higher CP content from pastures earlyharvested than late-harvested herbage is expectable in that CP content of pastures generally declines with maturity. The results obtained in this study were in agreement with those reported by Zinash et al. (1995), Adane (2003), Adane and Berhan (2005) and Yihalem ( 2004), who indicated that the decline in CP content of the pasture along with increasing stage of harvesting. This might be due to the dilution of the crude protein content by an increasing amount of structural carbohydrates in the late harvested forage materials (Hassan et al., 1990).The CP content of forage at 120 days of harvesting was significantly lower (P<0.001) than the other two stages of harvesting. On non-fertilized plots the CP content of forage decreased from the herbage harvested at 60 days to that harvesting at 120 days. Similarly, the differences in CP content among the rest of harvesting stages were all significant (P<0.001).Considering the CP content under different levels of nitrogen application, the means for the stages of harvesting on crude protein content indicated significant difference (P<0.001) among 60, 90 and 120 days of harvesting.On the other hand, considering similar stages of harvesting the pasture had considerably higher CP content at zero fertilizer level and subsequently there was no significance increase in crude protein content as the levels of fertilizer application increased. As explained above, the increased CP content at unfertilized plots might be due to increased proportion of legumes in the pasture, which generally contain high accumulation of nitrogen in the plant tissue. This is in line with the report of Shehu and Akinola (1995), whose findings proved the high contribution of legumes in maintaining the CP content of grass-legume mixed pastures and associated depression in crude protein content with advancing stages of growth, consistent with the reduction in the proportion of legumes in the pasture due to defoliation.In the late harvested herbages, the dominance of grasses over the legume species has been observed in natural pastures found elsewhere in the highlands (Kidane, 1993). Such a decrease in the legume composition associated with late harvesting is considered as one of the factors that reduce the crude protein content of pasturelands. In this study the mean CP content of the forage samples taken from the 120 days of harvesting was below 7%, which is minimum CP level required for rumen functioning.NDF content of the forage samples ranged between 55.63% at 60 days to 74.36% at 120 days of harvesting (Table 17). Stage of harvest had highly significant effect (P<0.001) on NDF content unlike levels of nitrogen fertilizer application (Appendix Table 10). Harvesting stage means averaged over the same level of fertilizer indicated a significant (P<0.001) difference among 60, 90 and 120 days of harvesting (Table 17). Overall mean superscript x-z in rows followed by the same letter is not significantly different at 5% significant levelIncreased NDF content with advanced age of pasture was also reported by (Kidane, 1993;Adane, 2003 andYihalem, 2004). In this study, at the same fertilizer levels, including zero fertilizer level, NDF significantly increased (P<0.001) with the advanced age of the pasture.However, at the same stage of harvest, the effect of fertilizer was non significant for NDF.The results of this study agree with that reported by Teshome (1987), Zinash et al. (1995), Adane (2003) and Adane and Berhan (2005), who reported an increase in the level of fertilizer application on natural pasture had no-significance role in maintaining the nutritive value of the pasture with regard to its effect on fiber fractions.The ADF content of forage samples varied from 37.9% to 52.15% on unfertilized plots at the 60 and 120 days of harvesting, respectively (Table18). The analysis of variance (Appendix Table 11) showed that the difference in ADF content of samples at different stages of harvesting was significant (P<0.001). The results obtained also showed a linear increase in ADF content with a corresponding increase in days of harvesting (Fig 5). However, no significant difference was observed among the forage samples taken from different fertilizer level treatments but with the same stages of harvesting. In this study, at the same fertilizer levels, including zero fertilizer level,  (2003), Yihalem (2004) and Kidunda et al. (1990).The cellulose content of the analysed forage samples varied significantly (P<0.001) consistent with the different stage of harvesting and interaction within level of fertilizer. Analysis of variance (Appendix Table13) showed a significant increase (P<0.001) in cellulose content of the pasture due to advances in stage of harvesting, ranges from 32.99% to 42.25% from 60 to 120 days of harvesting from unfertilized plots. The levels of fertilizer application on natural pasture had no-significant effect on cellulose content of the pasture (Table 20). The   The total ash content of the natural pasture increased ranged from 9.79% on unfertilized plot to 11.01% at 69 kg/ha fertilizer level at 60 days of harvesting. Analysis of variance (Appendix Table14) showed day of harvesting as having a highly significant (P<0.001) effect, and similarly, fertilizer application had significant (P<0.05) effect on total ash content of forage.On unfertilized plots, total ash content decreased as stage of harvesting increased up to 90 days. Similarly, on fertilized plots the effect of stage of harvesting on total ash content of forage samples revealed a significant effect (P<0.05) from 60 to 120 days of harvesting (Table 21).In this study, the effect of fertilizer at the same stage of harvesting on total ash content was significant (P<0.05). However, the result was not consistent at different levels of fertilizer application. On the other hand, the mean effect of stage of harvesting showed significantly decrease (P<0.001) in the total ash content from 60 to 120 days of harvesting. The trend observed in the present study indicated the ash content of the natural pasture declined with advancing stage of harvesting. These results are in line with those reported by (Teshome, 1987;McDonald et al., 1995;Zinash et al., 1995 andAdane, 2003). The authors indicated the decline in total ash content of forages from fertilized pasture which brings about earlier dilution and translocation of different minerals associated with vegetative portion of the plant (leaf portion) to roots at late stage of maturity as described by Maynard et al. (1981).Phosphorus content of forage samples declined from 0.41% to 0.24% and from 0.38% to 0.15% of DM in unfertilized and fertilized plots at 60 and 120 days of harvesting, respectively. The P content of forage samples from non fertilized plots was significantly higher (P<0.001) than that of fertilized plots and decreased with increasing fertilizer levels (Table 22). The results were appreciably comparable with the published P requirements for growing cattle which ranged between 0.11 to 0.34%t of pasture DM (ARC, 1980). However, the analysis of variance revealed significance difference (P<0.001) on P content of forages harvested at different stages of harvesting. Lower P content was observed with advancing days of harvesting and at higher levels of fertilizer reflecting the importance of early harvesting management for higher P content in the forage. The results of this study are in line with those reported by Teshome (1987), Kidane andVarvikko (1991) andAdane (2003). The decrease in phosphorus content as the age of the pasture advanced might be due to the translocation of P to seeds and root parts of herbage as described by different researchers (Minson, 1980 andCrowder andChheda, 1982). Moreover, Coates (1994) pointed out that the depression of P concentration with progressing plant maturity is due to rapid fluctuations in soil moisture and other factors affecting plant growth.Stage of harvesting and its interaction in the level of fertilizer caused a significant effect (P<0.001-P<0.01) on the in vitro dry matter digestibility, respectively (Table 23). The IVDMD decreased as the age of the forage advanced. The analysis of variance (Appendix Overall mean superscript x, y in rows followed by the same letter is not significantly different at 5% significant level Samples from fertilized and unfertilized plots at 60 days of harvesting had IVDMD value of 54.86% and 53.63% at zero and 69 kg/ha of nitrogen fertilizer levels, respectively. The comparison among the fertilizer levels also revealed that the IVDMD decreased with increasing levels of fertilizer application and advancing days of harvesting of the natural pasture. The results of this study showed that IVDMD was higher on harvesting at early stage of growth. This was in agreement with the findings of Zinash et al. (1995), Tessema (2003), Adane (2003) and Yihalem (2004) who reported depressed IVDMD of the grass species harvested at relatively advanced stages of maturity. This might be due to presence of certain substances notably lignin, which might have been deposited in the cell wall with increasing maturity (Vansoest, 1982) and the increasing proportion of stem at advanced maturity, which is less digestible than the leaf portion (McDonald et al., 1995). Different levels of nitrogen fertilizer applications had no significant effect on the CP and IVDMD and their means within the treatment declines as the stage of harvesting progresses.However, the interaction of stage of harvesting and different fertilizer levels resulting significant (P<0.01) effect as shown (Table 16 and 23) for CP and IVDMD, respectively.Moreover, natural pasture harvested at 90 days and 46 kg N/ha fertilizer levels results higher chemical composition of natural pasture (9.58 t/ha DMY, 11.89% CP, 1.08 t/ha CP yield, 49.91% IVDMD and 4.65 t/ha digestible DMY) (Table 24) .Steady decline in chemical composition with increasing growth for tropical grasses as generally been attributed an increase in structural components (cell walls) in the leaf to stem ratio (Kabuga and Darko, 1993). The correlation coefficient between the CP and cell wall contents such as NDF, ADF, hemicellulose and cellulose indicated negative values of -0.89, -0.91, -0.51 and -0.89, respectively.While other quality parameters such as IVDMD and P contents, the CP was correlated with correlation coefficient values of 0.82 and 0.79, respectively. The correlation coefficient obtained between CP and IVDMD in the present study was comparable with the reports of Barton et al. (1976) who reported high correlation coefficient value of r= 0.90 for tropical grasses. Similarly, the IVDMD was negatively correlated with correlation coefficient value of r= -0.81, -0.81,-0.47 and -0.79 for NDF, ADF, hemi-cellulose and cellulose, respectively.This indicated that with increasing maturity of forage the IVDMD declined due to an increase in structural carbohydrate fractions and their high degree of reinforcement with indigestible material specifically lignin as described by Van Soest, (1982) and McDonald et al. (1995). The study was conducted in Fogera district of South Gondar Zone of Amhara Regional Sate.In the area, insufficient supply and poor quality of feeds constitute the major technical constraint to livestock production. The objectives of this study were to determine the botanical composition, dry matter yield and chemical composition of the Fogera upland natural pasture under different application rates of nitrogen fertilizer and harvesting stages of natural pasture at smallholder farmer condition.A native pastureland reserved as a source of hay production and managed by a smallholder farmer was selected for the field experiment. Nitrogen fertilizer with varying rates was applied on the research plots as recommended by ILCA (1983) for the fertilization of pasturelands in central highlands of Ethiopia. Three stages of harvesting (60, 90 and 120 days) as practiced by smallholder farmers in other central highlands were chosen as harvesting time. The forage samples were harvested at the fixed stages of harvest, weighed in the field and dried in an oven to make it ready for chemical analysis at ILRI nutrition laboratory.The data recorded from weighing of the forage samples for the different stages of harvesting indicated that overall mean DMY of 7.54 and 8.79 t/ha were attained at 23 and 69 kg/ha of nitrogen fertilizer levels, respectively. The DMY attained from unfertilized plots was only 6.46 t/ha. On the other hand, natural pasture harvested at high fertilizer level (69 kg/ha) and stage of harvesting at 60 and 120 days resulted in a dry matter yield of 7.61 t/ha and 9.97 t/ha, respectively, with an overall mean DMY of 8.79 t/ha for fertilized plots.Fertilization of the pasture plots up to the level of 69 kg/ha improved the DMY to 36.07% over the non fertilized plot. The results of this study indicated reduced nutritive values of forages with advancing stage of harvesting of plants. Harvesting pasture forages at 60 days provided the highest feeding values as measured by feed quality parameters. The CP content of forages harvested from unfertilized plots was higher than fertilized plots, but decreased from 15.53% at 60 days of harvesting to 7.11% at 120 days. As the application of fertilizer","tokenCount":"10373"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"83183f06af08cdf04016e98b048d7fe5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/261c6c44-c058-4a93-9d48-95347e2634c1/retrieve","id":"1253604054"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a28d0f94-c369-4916-ac3a-4da89d377ab7","pagecount":"25","content":"Transforming Agrifood Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA) is a regional initiative that aims to build a more resilient, climate-smart, nutritious, gender equitable, and viable food production system through the development and scaling of novel and inclusive production and post-harvest technologies, participatory decision-making and planning, and informed governance systems. By focusing primarily on food and nutrition security and making agrifood systems more climate-adapted, the Initiative seeks to contribute to the five Impact Areas of the One CGIAR. Access to quality, nutrient-dense seed, climate-smart good agricultural practices (GAP), and reduced post-harvest losses will positively impact food, nutrition, and health security.Rwanda is a small, highly populated country with over 80% of the population engaged in the agricultural sector. The majority involved in agriculture are smallholder farmers with less than 0.5 hectares on average per farming household. Sweetpotato is a very popular staple in Rwanda, especially among the rural poor, with over 80 kgs produced per capita per year. In fact, in terms of metric tons produced, sweetpotato is the number one crop in the country. Farmers, however, do struggle to market their sweetpotato surplus, and gluts on the market can result in low prices. In addition, the dominant local varieties are white-fleshed, having no pro-vitamin A content.To address these issues, the International Potato Center (CIP) has been collaborating with the Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) for over 15 years to introduce and breed biofortified orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) varieties which are rich Vitamin A precursors and can significantly contribute to reducing vitamin A deficiency. Currently CIP and RAB are conducting yield trials in multiple locations to evaluate preferred varieties and promising clones to assess not only their yield under different agro-ecologies, but to assess organoleptic preferences of consumers and better understanding processing qualities for different products and processor preferences. Under TAFS-WCA, activities to boost sweetpotato value addition opportunities for small enterprises were also initiated through the introduction and testing of manually operated sweetpotato root chipping and puree making machines. Additionally, the business case for investment in orange-fleshed sweetpotato products such as puree, bakery items, and chips in Rwanda is being developed and refined. Products using the orange-fleshed types have an attractive golden color appreciated by consumers. This exploitation of value addition aims to transform sweetpotatoes from just being traditional staple crop consumed steamed or boiled into a versatile and appealing food ingredient, expanding the consumer base, increasing market demand, and creating new business opportunities along the value chain.The objective of this study is to assess which of the improved orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties are best suited for fries and crisps processing. This report will present the sensory assessment of different sweetpotato varieties into chips (fries) and crisps evaluated in two rounds during 2023 representing two agriculture seasons in Rwanda. Both local farmers and trained panelists from the University of Rwanda were engaged in the assessment.Sweetpotatoes can be cultivated in all three agricultural seasons in Rwanda, ensuring their availability for consumption and processing throughout the year. During season A (October to December), the International Potato Center (CIP), in collaboration with the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB), established multiple sites for yield trials involving five orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) varieties. Apart from collecting yield data, the suitability and utilization of these varieties for processing purposes were tested to identify the most suitable variety. To assess their processing potential, sweetpotato crisps, fries, and steamed roots were prepared and evaluated by both trained and untrained panelists. The detailed results of these sensory evaluations are outlined in Section I of this report.Sweetpotato roots harvested from three trial sites hosted by Pride Farms one day prior to preparation were washed thoroughly with clean water, cut into four approximately equal pieces, and steamed on the stove until well cooked (approximately 30min).Five varieties namely Kabode, Terimbere, Irene, Urukundo (55) and RW-130 were harvested from one Pride Farm trial site and were stored overnight in a dry and cool place. Roots of approximately same size (220-250 g) were selected, steam-blanched for 15 minutes and cut using the manual Cut-a Chip machine into equal size chips (approximately 7 cm long). Chips were then put in preheated sunflower oil for approximately 5 min under gas cooker and then removed, oil drained and put in clean plastic container.As per Ofori et al. (2021), a farmer participatory approach was used. Twenty-five (25) assessors (12 men, 13 women) were selected from the local community around the trial farms and were briefed in Kinyarwanda on how the sensory evaluation would be conducted and the meaning of the different parameters to be assessed explained.Steamed root samples from each variety were served to each panel member, who assessed them using a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 1 representing \"very poor\" and 5, \"very good\", for each of the following parameters: appearance, aroma, texture, flavor and overall liking.Root samples of each variety were served to seated assessors in a small plastic box containing 2 pieces (piece = quarter), labeled with a three-digit code. The assessors were asked to independently score the attributes on pre-designed form.Every assessor was served with approximately 20 g of sweetpotato chips of each variety, produced using the Cut-a-Chip machine, and they were asked to score them on the scale of 1 to 5 with 1 representing \"very poor\" and 5, \"very good\", on the following parameters, appearance, aroma, texture, flavor, and overall liking.Roots from two OFSP varieties, Kabode and Terimbere, were harvested from a trial farm managed by Wisdom School in Musanze. Before processing, the roots were stored overnight in a cool and dry location. Subsequently, the roots were transported to Hollanda Ltd, where they underwent washing, cutting, and frying in preheated sunflower oil at a temperature of 171°C for a duration of 151 seconds.The equipment at Hollanda Ltd is of industrial quality. The minimum requirement for processing using this equipment is 20 kg per batch. Unfortunately, only two of the five varieties had sufficient amounts of material to be included in the trial. More varieties were included in the second round of sensory assessment.The sensory panelists were selected from a group of food science students from the University of Rwanda (UR) who had completed a sensory evaluation course.In collaboration with a professor at the Food Science and Technology Department of UR, 16 students were selected to be including in a two-day training on sweetpotato sensory evaluation. They were objectively evaluated based on their performance during the training, and 12 students were chose to be on the trained panel to conduct a sensory evaluation of sweetpotato crisps.The training focused on basic taste characteristics, sample screening, threshold detection, different sensory analysis methods, and a sweetpotato sensory analysis scale. Key aspects covered are described in detail below.The human sense of taste can be broken down into five fundamental sensations: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory) (Keast & Breslin, 2003). These basic tastes are detected by specialized receptors on the tongue and palate, each responding to specific chemical compounds in food. Sweetness is associated with sugars like glucose, sourness with acids like citric acid, saltiness with sodium ions, bitterness with toxins or alkaloids, and umami with glutamates found in meat, cheese, and broth (Gravina et al., 2013).When it comes to assessing food, sensory attributes play a pivotal role in consumer acceptance. These attributes span across appearance, odor, flavor, and texture, among others each contributing significantly to our food experience.In food evaluation, appearance hinges on physical and psychological aspects. The physical factors involve geometrical attributes like size, shape, and intrinsic uniformity, as well as optical elements such as surface gloss, pigmentation, and light-scattering abilities. The goal is to transform the physical attributes into psychological perceptions (MacDougall, 2003).Odor, driven by volatile compounds, contributes substantially to our perception of food. Factors like serving temperature, surface properties affecting diffusion, and enzymatic reactions impact the olfactory experience (Lawless, 1991).Flavor is perceived during oral food processing with multiple simultaneous processes enhancing perception. Mastication releases volatile odor compounds that reach the nasal cavity via the nasopharyngeal passage, engaging the olfactory epithelium-a phenomenon known as retronasal olfaction. Simultaneously, tasting compounds in food dissolve in saliva, activating taste receptors in taste buds, eliciting perceptions of sweetness, sourness, bitterness, saltiness, or umami.Additionally, certain chemical compounds can stimulate nerve endings, causing sensations like astringency, metallic taste, spiciness, or cooling effects due to mucous membrane sensitivity in the mouth (Erasmus+, 2018).Evaluating texture relies on a person's ability to articulate their sensations. Human perception of food texture considers three aspects: visual, tactile, and auditory. Visual perception draws from past experiences with similar foods, while tactile perception encompasses both oral (mouthfeel) and manual texture assessment. Auditory cues, such as food sounds, also contribute. For instance, low-pitched sounds relate to crunchiness, while high-pitched sounds correlate with crispiness in terms of food texture (Rustagi, 2020).The absolute threshold is the quantifiable minimum energy level of a stimulus or concentration of a chemical that is perceivable (Lawless & Heymann, 2010). According to Macmillan & Creelman, (2005), threshold and sensitivity analysis are crucial aspects of consumer and sensory research. The concept of threshold, defining the minimum stimulus intensity that the sensory system can detect, is a longstanding pursuit in psychophysics. The threshold represents the boundary where the sensory system can perceive a stimulus, with intensities below it presumed to lack sufficient impact for perception. However, the actual threshold might not be a clear-cut boundary due to various psychological and physiological influences. These complexities make measuring and defining the threshold challenging, as the transition point between sensation and no sensation may fluctuate under different conditions despite the initial assumption of its independence (Bi, 2015).In contemporary threshold theory, the reaction to a stimulus, assessed through the accuracy of response, is seen as a variable that varies randomly. The threshold itself is described as the specific level of stimulus intensity that results in a predetermined likelihood of a correct response, determined by a dose-response model. These models, established statistical techniques, find extensive use across numerous domains, especially in biological assessment, toxicology, and pharmacology (Bi, 2015).Methods for sensory analysis can be divided into  (Carpenter et al., 2000;Erasmus+, 2018;Piggott et al., 1998).Throughout the training sessions, panelists had extensive practice on sensory evaluations, focusing on basic tastes such as sweet, bitter, sour, and salty. They also assessed various products with diverse textures, delving into the crispiness and crunchiness levels found in items like biscuits, cookies, and popcorn. The objective was to sharpen their abilities to discern textural disparities and their relationship with other sensory elements.Additionally, the panelists were introduced to evaluating crisps crafted from both potato and sweetpotato varieties. The training spanned three days, with two daily sessions dedicated to these sensory evaluations.Sixteen ( 16) panelists were trained to evaluate sweetpotato crisps through a focus group discussion where the lexicon for appearance, aroma, flavor, oiliness, and texture was developed. Data were collected during training to evaluate the consistency of the panelists to use the attributes to differentiate the varieties and they were subjected to an evaluation to select the 10 best performers to conduct sensory evaluation.To have consistency in the use of terminologies during sensory evaluation, the parameters were described as follows:Appearance: Visual appeal of the crisps. Positive evaluations indicate that the crisps have an attractive color, shape, and size. If the results show a high score for appearance, it suggests that the crisps are visually appealing.Aroma: Aroma evaluation focuses on the smell or fragrance of the crisps. A positive assessment suggests that the crisps have a pleasant and enticing typical aroma of fried sweetpotato crisps or slices.Flavor: Flavor evaluation assesses the taste of the crisps. Positive results indicate that the crisps have a desirable and enjoyable flavor profile. This could mean that the crisps have a well-balanced combination of savory, sweet, or spicy flavors, depending on the variety being evaluated.Crispness: Refers to the crisp texture, specifically their crunchiness. A high score for crispness suggests that the crisps have a satisfying and crisp texture.Oiliness: Presence or perception of oil on the surface of the crisps. provide insights into the texture and mouthfeel of the crisps. A positive assessment suggests that the crisps have no visible oil on their outer layer.The sensory analysis was conducted in the sensory evaluation laboratory of the University of Rwanda, School of Food Science and Technology.Samples of processed crisps were taken from Hollanda Fairfood Ltd processing factory and brought to the sensory evaluation in a dry container. A three-digit code was generated using excel and allocated to each sample. A serving size of 25g of crisps of each variety was put on white plate and served to each panelist.A method by Dery et al., (2021) was used to analyze 6 sensory parameters namely appearance, aroma, flavor, crispness, oiliness, and overall liking of the sweetpotato crisps. A 9 hedonic scale was used where liked extremely =9, liked much =8, liked moderately =7, liked slightly =6, neither liked/ nor disliked =5, disliked slightly =4; disliked moderately =3, disliked much =2 and disliked extremely =1Panelists evaluated two samples (varieties) per session, with each sample tasted two times on different days. All panelists were given potable water at room temperature to cleanse their palate between tasting samples.Data were collected using a pre-designed form and they were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with means separation conducted using Tukey test at 5% significant level for each sensory attribute. Twenty-five assessors participated in the assessment of chips and boiled roots. Among the assessors, 13 (52%) were female and 12 (48%) were male. They were desegregated into three age categories and 12% were below 20 years old, 32% were between 20 and 30 years old while 56% were above 30 years old. In terms of education level, 44% have at least attended primary school, 40% have reached secondary school while only 4% have attended university level (Table 2). For the steamed root evaluation, 12 students were trained and 10 (6 women, 4 men) were retained for sensory evaluation after their assessment.As shown in Figure 1, the steamed sweetpotato, Kabode (RGN-Kabode) from Rwamagana site was the most liked by the assessors followed by Irene from Rwamagana. Table 3 presents the mean score of each variety on 5 parameters analyzed during the sensory evaluation with local community members. The variety Kabode had the highest means score in all parameters with 4.28 for appearance, 4.04 for aroma, 4.08 for flavor 3.72 for crispness and 4.12 for overall liking. It was followed by the variety Terimbere, then the variety Urukundo (55).Variety RW-130 did not make good quality chips. Variety RW-130 had the lowest scores in all parameters scoring below 3 on every parameter. This could be linked to its inconsistency in color and size.There was a significant difference (P< 0.005) among the scores given to parameters for all five varieties as per Table 4.The score for crispness was relatively low compared to the scores of other parameters. This can be related to the high water content of OFSP roots affecting rapid moisture removal expected during frying. Hence the need to blanch the root for approximately 15 minutes before frying.  Table 5 presents the mean score for each variety for the six parameters analyzed during the sensory evaluation. The variety Kabode had the higher scores for appearance, aroma, flavor, crispness, and overall liking than Terimbere, while the latter had higher score for oiliness over Kabode. There was considerable variation in scores given by assessors for a given parameter. For appearance, the lowest score was for Terimbere variety with 5 (disliked slightly) while the highest score was 9 (liked extremely). For oiliness, the lowest score was observed for Kabode variety with the score of 3 (disliked much). The analysis of variance indicated that there was no significant difference (P >0.05) between the two varieties on the following parameters aroma, flavour, crispness, and oiliness (Table 6). However, there was a significant difference (P <0.05) between the two sweetpotato varieties on appearance and overall liking as per Table 6.The clear golden yellow crips produced with Kabode were preferred by the panelists, in contrast to the darker, yellow crisps made with Terimbere. These differences are due to the initial colour of the respective variety roots, the frying time, dry matter contents of the varieties. The variety Kabode normally has a higher dry matter content and lower frying time (151 Seconds) compared to variety Terimbere, with a frying time of 171 seconds. Such differences are also seen with the e color and sensory qualities of potato chips, which are influenced by factors, such the potato variety, storage conditions before processing, thickness of the slices, duration of frying, and frying temperature (Islam et al., 2022).Both varieties had relatively similar score on oiliness as varying between 6 (liked slightly) and 7 (liked moderately). Oiliness was readily evident by the visible residual oil observed on the surface of crisps for both varieties. The oil uptake of fried crips is has been reported to have a substantial and significant inverse correlation with the dry matter content (Kaur et al., 2008). Roots grown during the second season (season B), from February through June, were analysed using trained panelists. In this second round, the sensory properties of sweetpotato boiled roots, fries, and crisps from the same five OFSP varieties and one yellow variety locally known as Kwezikumwe were evaluated. Combined with the results of Round 1, the results can guide the growing food processing industry in Rwanda on the varieties that best fit the crisps and fries processing as well as for home consumption.Roots of the five OFSP varieties (Kabode, Terimbere, Irene, Urukundo, and RW-130) were harvested, five months from planting, from a multilocation trial farm on a farmer's field in Musanze District, Northern Province that was managed by the International Potato Center (CIP). The local, yellow-fleshed variety Kwezikumwe was harvested from a different farm on the same site on the same day and had also lasted five months after being planted.The same quantity and approximately the same size of roots of each variety harvested a day before processing were washed with clean water, cut into approximately equal pieces of 5 cm long, and steamed on the stove until well-cooked (around 30 minutes).Roots of approximately the same size were selected, washed, steam blanched for 15 minutes and cut into equal-sized chips of approximately 7 cm long using a manual Cut-a-Chip machine. Chips were then put in pre-heated sunflower oil at 180 o C for five minutes. They were then removed from the oil, dried with a paper towel, and put in a clean container for cooling.Crisps were processed by Hollanda Fairefoods Ltd, a local crisps processor. Sweetpotato roots of 20 kg of each variety, harvested a day before were manually washed, cut using an automatic cutter, and then fried in preheated oil at 171 o C for four minutes. They were then removed from the oil, allowed to cool for 30 minutes, and then packed with nitrogen into a multilayered polyethylene bag and sealed to preserve their quality.A refresher training session was held for the original sixteen ( 16) panelists who underwent training in April 2023. This refresher course centered on refining their evaluation skills for crisps, fries, and steamed products, while also revisiting the specific topics highlighted in the earlier section.During this session, a focus group discussion facilitated the development of an updated lexicon encompassing attributes such as appearance, aroma, flavor, oiliness, and crispness. Data were collected during the training aimed to assess the panelists' consistency in utilizing these attributes to differentiate between various varieties.Following an evaluation test, 13 panelists demonstrated proficiency and were selected to continue conducting sensory evaluations based on their successful performance during the test.The sensory analysis sessions took place at the University of Rwanda's School of Food Science and Technology, specifically within their dedicated sensory evaluation laboratory.Samples were transported in a dry container and assigned a unique three-digit code generated through Excel. Panelists engaged in three daily sessions of product evaluation across three consecutive days, dedicating each session to the analysis of a specific product. For crisps and fries, a standardized serving size of 25g was provided, while each panelist received a single serving of steamed root from every variety cut into 4 equal parts, all neatly arranged on individual plates for assessment.For crisps and fries, a method by Dery et al., (2021) was used to analyze 6 sensory parameters namely appearance, aroma, flavor, crispiness, oiliness, and overall liking of the sweetpotato crisps. A 9-hedonic scale was used where liked extremely =9, liked much =8, liked moderately =7, liked slightly =6, neither liked/ nor disliked =5, disliked slightly =4; disliked moderately =3, disliked much =2 and disliked extremely =1The same method was applied for steamed roots however with five assessment parameters namely appearance, aroma, flavor, texture, and overall liking of the products.Panelists evaluated all six samples (varieties) per session, and each sample was tasted three times on different days. Panelists were given potable water at room temperature to cleanse their palate before assessing the next sample.Data were collected using a pre-designed form and they were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The Tukey test was performed at a significance level of 5% to discern differences in means for each sensory attribute.A group of 13 panelists, consisting of students from the University of Rwanda, participated in evaluating the products. Among them, 53.85% were female, while 46.15% were male. All of them were between 20 and 30 years old.Kabode consistently exhibited the highest scores across all parameters, with Urukundo closely behind (Table 7). Kabode and Urukundo had the same mean scores for the aroma and oiliness attributes. Both varieties consistently outperformed the yellow-fleshed Kwezikumwe across all parameters. In contrast, Terimbere consistently scored the lowest across all attributes.In terms of appearance, Kabode led with a mean score of 7.88 (±1.033), followed closely by Urukundo at 7.73 (±0.874). Aroma ratings were equal between Kabode and Urukundo, both achieving a score of 7.12, while Kabode also excelled in flavor, scoring 7.15, followed by Urukundo at 7.00 and RW-130 at 6.96 (±0.916).Kabode demonstrated superior crispiness with a score of 7.73, followed by RW-130 and Irene, both at 7.54. Terimbere's low scores in crisp attributes correlated with its notably low dry matter content (21.0%) and high sugar content (20.37%) compared to Kabode's 24.0% dry matter and 15.6% sugar content. (Musembi et al., 2019)  It appears that panelists felt that the crispiness of sweetpotato fries across all varieties was not as high as they would like, with Kabode and Kwezikumwe obtaining the highest scores, and Terimbere and RW-130 receiving the lowest. Improved frying methods could be investigated to improve crispiness.Urukundo was preferred the most for fries by panelists, followed by Kabode, Irene, Kwezikumwe, Terimbere, and RW-130. For steamed roots, Urukundo and Kabode received the highest scores for appearance, with Urukundo leading at 8.00 (±0.913) and Kabode following closely at 7.92 (±1.115) (Table 9).Terimbere scored lower at 7.77 (±1.363) for appearance and 6.38 (±1.121) for texture, attributed to its lower dry matter content compared to other varieties.Urukundo was the most preferred variety for steamed roots, scoring 7.85 in overall preference, closely followed by Kabode at 7.77. For steamed roots, Irene and RW-130 had mean scores for all attributes above 7, indicating their acceptability to consumers.  Based on the outcomes from both rounds of sensory evaluation, the following recommendations emerge:• For Sweetpotato Crisps: Kabode and Urukundo OFSP varieties are highly recommended for sweetpotato crisps processing. They exhibited consistently high scores across all attributes studied, particularly excelling in crispiness and appearance. • Further Studies for Sweetpotato Fries: Additional investigations are advised for the preparation of fries from sweetpotato. This study did not definitively recommend any variety for fries, as all varieties obtained relatively lower scores, notably in critical attributes like crispiness and appearance. • Variety for Puree Processing: Terimbere variety can be considered for puree processing due to its low dry matter content. This characteristic adversely affected its scores for crisps and fries attributes in this evaluation. Irene is also recommended for puree as it has been well accepted in other countries for this use. • Need for More Studies on OFSP Products Using Puree: Further research is required to evaluate the sensory properties of OFSP products processed using puree. This additional investigation aims to better recommend suitable varieties for these specific products.","tokenCount":"4020"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36e71a415b9477ec62206409e2be78fb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb3f5edf-d4e9-4475-859c-3f5679c753c2/retrieve","id":"637667603"},"keywords":["rice map; leaf area index","Synthetic aperture radar","RIICE","Mali"],"sieverID":"be353ae7-77d1-4244-a2ad-8e4bb6d1f745","pagecount":"8","content":"Rice yield forecasting is a crucial task for management and planning. A rice yield estimation system (RIICE) was developed based on the crop growth model ORYZA and SAR derived key information such as start of season (SOS) and leaf area growth rate. Results from study sites in Sikasso and Segou regions suggest that incorporating remote sensing data, specifically Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), into a process-based crop model improves the spatial distribution of yield estimates. From the findings, it was evident that the RIICE tool adequately predicted rice yield in the rice growing environments in Mali and can be used by the Ministry of Agriculture and private sector to plan investment to achieve rice self-sufficiency. Nevertheless, continued enhancement of the processing chain, with a specific focus on optimizing output delivery, is essential.Mali's rice production is a significant component of its agricultural landscape, with key regions like the Niger Delta around Segou and the Sikasso region playing pivotal roles. The country's rice production practices include rainfed lowland, upland, irrigated, and submergence rice production. Irrigation, particularly along the Segou region, is crucial for sustaining rice cultivation. However, the agricultural sector, particularly the rice production system continues to face challenges such as flooding, and drought caused by climate change. Given the risk that farmers have, there is a need for a rice monitoring system that could provide detailed, timely, and accurate information on rice that would support the small-scale farmers and improving access to climate-informed agricultural advisory services that will help farmers and other value chain sectors to make better decisions and help policy makers to take the necessary decisions.The objectives of the study were to generate historical rice yield baseline maps and analysis of spatial and temporal rice yield variability.Around 42% of the total rice area of Mali is concentrated in the Niger Delta surrounding Segou/Mopti and the Sikasso region with about 26% from Segou and 16% from Sikasso. Due to large areas devoted to area, these two regions were chosen as pilot locations for implementing a digital platform for rice mapping with the aim to monitor production and enhance food security. The Sikasso region is characterized by rainfed lowland and upland rice cultivation, while the Segou/Mopti region primarily relies on irrigated and submergence rice production (Figure 1). Hence, the success of rice cultivation in these areas relies upon factors such as rainfall for Sikasso and irrigation availability along the Niger River for Segou and Mopti. In terms of processing, the rice mapping and yield estimation is interconnected since the final product of the former, particularly the SOS map and LAI is used in generating the input for crop yield model (CYM). This CYM input, in turn, becomes a crucial component within the Rice-Yield Estimation System (Rice-YES), in generating the yield estimates.Rice-YES captures the spatial variability of rice yield based on the inference of rice crop growth indicator in the form of Leaf Area Index (LAI) derived from SAR signature analysis during the early expansion stage of rice crop. The algorithm correlating SAR signature to LAI is embedded in MAPscape-RICE software. Rice-YES software serves as an interface that integrates the SAR-derived spatial information (LAI and start-ofseason date, output from the rice area processing) and the ORYZA crop growth model. ORYZA is a weatherdriven and process-based rice crop growth model that captures complex and dynamic interactions among weather, soil, varietal, and agronomic management practices affecting rice yield. The combined MAPscape-Rice and Rice-YES platform introduced an innovative spatial allocation approach to allow effective yield estimates mapping without requiring running yield simulation for every single SAR data input pixel (Setiyono et al., 2019). In order to do that, LAI values are first grouped based on specific intervals. Spatial allocations of these LAI groups are determined by also considering other spatially varying inputs, including weather and SoS data. The resulting combinations of LAI groups, SoS, and weather pixels are assigned to unique spatial IDs and the number of simulations runs for ORYZA is determined. After running the yield estimates in ORYZA through Rice-YES, the yield results are remapped based on the corresponding spatial IDs. With this approach, the rice yield outputs have the same resolution as the remote-sensing data inputs (20 m) while processing efficiency is maintained at a high level by eliminating redundant simulation runs with similar LAI inputs and identical SoS and weather information.Figure 2 illustrates the operational diagram of the yield estimation processing. The assimilation of SARderived LAI products begins after the rice crop reaches the early expansion stage (roughly 40 days after SoS for a 120-days cropping duration of rice). During this early part of the rice-growing cycle, leaf expansion parameters in ORYZA can be effectively calibrated against real ground conditions inferred from satellite observations. LAI values derived from SAR were used to recalibrate the early leaf growth parameters in ORYZA, in particular the relative leaf growth rate (RGRL) variable. The RGRL variable was an ideal target for calibration given the known sensitivity of biomass accumulation and yield output of ORYZA to changes in this coefficient (Tan et al. 2016). In addition, the processing of rice yield estimates also required non remote sensing information including:• Weather data (daily values of solar radiation, minimum and maximum temperature, wind speed, vapor pressure, and rainfall): these were obtained through the local weather station networks when available or Copernicus Climate Center.• Varietal characteristics (maturity duration and other growth parameters such as leaf death rate, fraction of stem reserves, and maximum grain weight): all were calibrated based on standard crop parameters of the variety IR72.• Soil data (soil physical and hydrological properties): soil samples were extracted from the IER experimental station and analyze in the lab.• Crop management information (crop establishment method, irrigation management, and amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied): information obtained from local partners was used to define a single crop management profile per region.Given that Rice-YES requires real-time local weather data, assimilating the available local weather information into gridded weather data is required every time yield is being processed. Details of the nonremote sensing information used in yield estimation were discussed in detail and can be found in Setiyono et al. (2018). Figure 3 presents the spatial distribution of estimated Leaf Area Index (LAI) at the early expansion stage in both irrigated and submergence ecosystems and the yield estimate maps in the Segou region. Given that the whole area has an ample supply of water, rice vegetation is showing a high and mostly uniform LAI value. The yield estimate map illustrates the spatial distribution of end-of-season yield estimates for both irrigated and submergence ecosystems in Segou during the wet season of 2022. The term \"end-of-season yield estimates\" typically refers to the anticipated agricultural output per hectare of land at the conclusion of the growing season. The yield values ranged from 2.8 to above 6.0 t/ha with mean average yield of 5.5 t/ha. The variability in yields across different locations suggests differences in agricultural performance or conditions within the region. The main reason for the high yield is the availability of good irrigation supply throughout the entire cropping season. Irrigation plays a crucial role in agriculture by providing a controlled and consistent water supply to crops, especially in regions where rainfall may be insufficient or unreliable. The consistent irrigation in these areas has likely contributed to optimal growing conditions, resulting in higher yields compared to regions that may have faced challenges related to water availability. Compared to Segou, the Sikasso region is rainfed. Figure 4 shows the LAI and the yield estimates, respectively for 2022 wet season in Sikasso Cercle. The yield range in Sikasso Cercle for the 2022 wet season is between 2.5 to 4.9 t/ha. This range indicates the variability in crop productivity across different areas within Sikasso during the wet season. The average yield for the whole Sikasso Cercle was recorded at 2.8 t/ha. During the dry season, only Segou Region has rice activity given its irrigated ecosystem. Crop monitoring was done, and yield estimates were generated. Figure 4 illustrates LAI maps and yield estimates for the 2023 dry season. The yield ranges from 3.1 t/ha to 6.0 t/ha. Note that the yield results are not validated due to lack of crop cut yield data or reliable secondary information to compare the yield estimates with.The historical data on rice area and production that were provided was at the national level. As part of historical yield mapping, satellite images for 5 years (2017 to 2021) has been processed and further analysis is in progress to map the spatio-temporal indicator of rice variability, and link with drivers including environmental, socio-economical, and climate data, to help identify historical impact of climate change on rice yield.Rice yield forecasting is a crucial task for management and planning. A rice yield estimation system (RIICE) was developed based on the crop growth model ORYZA and SAR derived key information such as start of season (SOS) and leaf area growth rate. Results from study sites in Sikasso and Segou regions suggest that incorporating remote sensing data, specifically Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), into a process-based crop model improves the spatial distribution of yield estimates. From the findings, it was evident that the RIICE tool adequately predicted rice yield in the rice growing environments in Mali and can be used by the Ministry of Agriculture and private sector to plan investment to achieve rice self-sufficiency. Nevertheless, continued enhancement of the processing chain, with a specific focus on optimizing output delivery, is essential.","tokenCount":"1568"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f089ba6bb6da7e053ed210283c0fe06","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3adf0a8c-5708-462b-999d-8ad082eb7bb9/content","id":"-51915112"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b69d9d94-17b2-4952-933e-65c5deca5839","pagecount":"30","content":"Understanding the function of genes within staple crops will accelerate crop improvement by allowing targeted breeding approaches. Despite their importance, a lack of genomic information and resources has hindered the functional characterisation of genes in major crops. The recent release of high-quality reference sequences for these crops underpins a suite of genetic and genomic resources that support basic research and breeding. For wheat, these include gene model annotations, expression atlases and gene networks that provide information about putative function. Sequenced mutant populations, improved transformation protocols and structured natural populations provide rapid methods to study gene function directly. We highlight a case study exemplifying how to integrate these resources. This review provides a helpful guide for plant scientists, especially those expanding into crop research, to capitalise on the discoveries made in Arabidopsis and other plants. This will accelerate the improvement of crops of vital importance for food and nutrition security.Research in Arabidopsis and other model species has uncovered mechanisms regulating important biological processes in plants. However, as research in these model species does not always translate directly into crop species such as wheat, understanding gene function in crop species themselves is critical for crop improvement. With the advent of functional genomics resources in wheat and other crops, discoveries from model species can rapidly be tested and functional genetic studies can now be performed for agronomically-important traits directly in the crops themselves (Borrill, 2020).The most common forms of domesticated wheat are tetraploid durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum L.) and hexaploid bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Polyploid wheat is derived from hybridisation events between different ancestral progenitor species reviewed in Matsuoka (2011), and thus each gene typically exists as two (tetraploid durum wheat) or three (hexaploid bread wheat) copies. These closely related copies, known as homoeologous genes, are on average >95% similar across their coding regions (Figure 1) and usually have a highly conserved gene structure. Tetraploid and hexaploid wheat have large genomes, 12 and 16 Gbp respectively, which consist mostly (>85%) of repetitive elements. The combination of these factors has, for a long time, hampered the development of genomics tools in wheat and other crops with large genomes, such as sugarcane (Garsmeur et al., 2018). Recent advances in sequencing technologies and bioinformatics tools has helped overcome these difficulties, and there are now a wide range of resources available for genomic analysis in wheat. The speed of wheat research has also been limited by its relatively long generation time, which ranges from four to six months depending on the requirement of cold periods (vernalisation) to induce flowering. Again, recent advances in the use of controlled growth conditions have radically changed these timeframes (Watson et al., 2018). Wheat has now become a tractable system for translational, comparative and functional genomics (Borrill et al., 2019).Here we describe some of the recent developments in wheat genomics, focussing on published and publicly available resources and tools, and lay out a roadmap for their use (Figure 2). We present available wheat genome assemblies and annotations and discuss a series of approaches to functionally characterise genes. We also outline strategies for growing, crossing and genotyping wheat using the latest available tools and techniques. Finally, we present a case study that encapsulates the above steps and highlights potential pitfalls. We focus mainly on the Ensembl Plants database, as it integrates many of the publicly available data on wheat. However, other databases such as URGI (https://wheat-urgi.versailles.inra.fr/; Alaux et al., 2018), the Wheat Information System (WheatIS; http://www.wheatis.org/), and GrainGenes (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG3/; Blake et al., 2019) also host and integrate similar, but complementary, genetic, genomic and phenomic data for wheat. We expect this review will be a helpful guide for plant scientists who already work on wheat or who are considering expanding their research into crops with large genomes such as wheat.A high-quality genome reference sequence is an essential resource for functional genetics and genomics in any species. Several hexaploid wheat genome assemblies have been released over the past eight years (Brenchley et al., 2012;Mayer et al., 2014;Chapman et al., 2015;Clavijo et al., 2017;Zimin et al., 2017). The most comprehensive assembly, called RefSeqv1.0, is a chromosome-level genome assembly annotated with high and low confidence gene models (The International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium (IWGSC) et al., 2018). Two tetraploid wheat genomes have also been sequenced, assembled, and annotated to the same standard as RefSeqv1.0 -the wild tetraploid progenitor of wheat, wild emmer (Avni et al., 2017), and a modern durum wheat variety (Maccaferri et al., 2019). Diploid ancestral progenitor species have also been assembled to varying levels of completeness (Luo et al., 2017;Zhao et al., 2017;Ling et al., 2018;Miki et al., 2019). We summarise the annotated assemblies for polyploid wheat in Table 1; in this review we will focus mainly on the RefSeqv1.0 assembly.RefSeqv1.0 is the most widely used assembly and annotation of hexaploid wheat (available on Ensembl Plants https://plants.ensembl.org/wheat). The information from previous assemblies and annotations (Chromosome Survey Sequence (CSS) and TGACv1) are also available in the Ensembl Plants archive (https://oct2017-plants.ensembl.org) or as tracks in the Ensembl Plants genome browser interface. Ensembl Plants enables access to additional information such as SNP variation, gene trees, homoeolog assignments, and TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) mutant information. Through this interface users can also combine knowledge from the bread, durum and wild emmer wheat genomes.Like most of the previous hexaploid assemblies, RefSeqv1.0 is derived from the wheat landrace 'Chinese Spring'. A combination of multiple Illumina and mate pair libraries were sequenced and assembled into scaffolds. Using a method of chromosome conformation capture called Hi-C, these Figure 1. Gene homology within polyploid wheat. Due to two separate hybridisation events, genes in polyploid wheat will be present in multiple copies called homoeologs, which usually have similar chromosome locations. In the example of hexaploid bread wheat illustrated here, Gene X has homoeologs on chromosomes 1A, 1B and 1D. Duplicated genes, called paralogs (e.g. two copies of Gene Y on chromosome 7A), have evolved either within wheat or in one of its ancestral species. Most paralogs arise from intra-chromosomal duplications, although interchromosomal duplications can also occur.Figure 2. The roadmap for gene characterisation in wheat. Overview of a proposed strategy to take a gene from any plant species, identify the correct wheat ortholog(s) using Ensembl Plants (https://plants.ensembl.org) and determine gene expression using expression browsers and gene networks. Suggestions for functional characterisation are provided including induced variation such as mutants, transgenics or Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGs). In addition, publicly available populations incorporating natural variation are available. Finally steps for growing, genotyping and crossing plants are outlined. Links to detailed tutorials and further information are provided and can be found on www.wheat-training.com. ( 1 The gene models for the RefSeqv1.0 assembly were annotated using two prediction pipelines, which were then consolidated into a single set of gene models (RefSeqv1.0 models). A subset of these (~2,000 gene models) were later re-annotated manually, resulting in the RefSeqv1.1 gene model set (Figure 3). Over half of high confidence protein coding genes are present as exactly three homoeologous copies (1:1:1 triads), while several other combinations exist (e.g. 2:1:1 whereby there are two paralogs on the A genome, and a single homoeolog each on the B and D genomes, e.g. Gene Y in Figure 1).The RefSeqv1.0 assembly and the RefSeqv1.1 gene models, as well as the durum and wild emmer assemblies and gene models, have been integrated into the publicly available Ensembl Plants genome browser (https://plants.ensembl.org) (Bolser et al., 2015;Howe et al., 2020). Existing variation data, both natural and induced, has been mapped to the RefSeqv1.0 hexaploid assembly and   HC) and low confidence (LC) genes which are defined based on multiple criteria outlined in the published papers. Care must be taken when interpreting their nomenclature (see Figure 3). † Chromosome arm assignment was derived from chromosome flow-sorting, while approximate intra-chromosomal ordering was established using synteny derived from grasses (GenomeZipper) and genetic mapping (POPSEQ) (Mascher et al., 2013;Mayer et al., 2014).deposited in Ensembl Plants databases for visualisation via the genome browser. Integrating resources into a common reference facilitates their use and in the following sections we will discuss how to best access and utilise these resources. (3) In the RefSeqv1.0 and v1.1 annotation, identifiers are progressive numbers in steps of 100 reflecting the relative position between gene models. For example, gene TraesCS5B02G236400 would be adjacent to gene TraesCS5B02G236500. However, it is important to note that the relative positions of genes may change in future genome releases as the assembly is improved, for example, if scaffolds are rearranged. In these cases, the gene order would no longer be retained. In the gene annotation for the tetraploid durum wheat cv. Svevo, the species name is TRITD (TRITicum Durum) and gene identifiers increase in steps of 10, rather than by steps of 100 as in the RefSeq hexaploid wheat annotation. Note that RefSeqv1.0 and v1.1 comprises High Confidence (HC) and Low Confidence (LC) gene models. Low Confidence gene models are flagged by the 'LC' at the end (not shown). HC and LC genes which otherwise display the same unique identifier are not the same locus and are not in sequential order. Hence, TraesCS5B02G236400 and TraesCS5B02G236400LC are both located on chromosome 5B, but are not the same gene nor are they physically adjacent. Similarly, genes from homoeologous chromosomes with the same subsequent numeric identifier are not necessarily homoeologous genes. For example, TraesCS5A02G236400, TraesCS5B02G236400 and TraesCS5D02G236400 are not homoeologous genes.Although DNA sequence homology does not equate to functional homology, it represents a good starting point for translational and/or comparative genomics. Correctly identifying orthologous genes in another plant species can be a difficult task however, especially between distantly related species like Arabidopsis and wheat. These two species are separated by ~200 million years of evolution and as a result both nucleotide and protein similarities are relatively low compared to more closely related species, for example, wheat and rice (Oryza sativa L.). Conveniently, all the data and tools necessary for identifying putative gene orthologs from different plant species are available through the Ensembl Plants website (https://plants.ensembl.org) (Bolser et al., 2015;Howe et al., 2020). The Plant Compara pipeline has been integrated into Ensembl Plants to create 'gene trees' that identify and clearly display the likely orthologs of any given gene for all of the species available on its website (Vilella et al., 2009;Herrero et al., 2016). This includes the RefSeqv1.1, Arabidopsis TAIR10 and rice IGRSP-1.0 gene models, amongst others. This represents a quick and reliable way to identify putative wheat orthologs of a given gene (Figure 2). Tutorials for using Ensembl Plants interactively or programmatically can be found on their website or at www.wheat-training.com.When performing a search for putative wheat orthologs via the Ensembl Plants pipeline, we would expect to find three orthologs in hexaploid wheat for most gene queries. These orthologs would normally be located on homoeologous chromosome groups, for example chromosomes 1A, 1B and 1D (Figure 1). A well-documented exception to this rule is the long arm of chromosome 4A (4AL), which has undergone translocation events with chromosome arms 5AL and 7BS (Devos et al., 1995;Ma et al., 2013). Therefore, orthologs within these translocated regions will be physically located on different chromosome groups, for example three homoeologous genes could be on chromosome arms 4AL, 5BL and 5DL. Furthermore, gene structure of wheat orthologs is often conserved with respect to rice and other closely related monocot species; this comparison can usually be done within Ensembl Plants. If this is not possible, wheat RNA-Seq data can be used to determine the gene structure. As an alternative to the Ensembl Plants Gene Trees, one can perform reciprocal protein BLAST searches to identify putative wheat orthologs. We exemplify the above-mentioned approaches, along with potential pitfalls, in more detail in the 'Case Study' section.Determining if, when, where, and to what level a gene is expressed often constitutes one of the first steps towards its functional characterisation. Gene expression information can also be used to prioritise candidate genes underlying a quantitative trait locus (QTL) or to predict those members of a large gene family most relevant to a trait of interest. Numerous RNA-Seq datasets for wheat and many other crops have been generated and published. Although the raw data are often publicly available (e.g. via the NCBI sequence read archive, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sra), they are not sufficiently curated for rapid access and their use in direct comparisons is complicated due to the diversity of tissues, treatments, and origins of the samples. Expression browsers aim to centralise these public datasets and analyse them together, ideally allowing retrieval of expression information for a list of genes under different conditions. For wheat, four expression browsers are currently available: expVIP (http://www.wheat-expression.com; Borrill et al., 2016), wheat eFP browser (http:// bar.utoronto.ca/efp_wheat/cgi-bin/efpWeb.cgi; Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al., 2018), EBI Gene Expression Atlas (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/gxa/experiments?species=triticum+aestivum), and WheatExp (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/WheatExp; Pearce et al., 2015). Here we will focus on the first two given that they include a larger and more diverse set of samples and use the RefSeqv1.0 and v1.1 gene models described in Table 1.Currently, expVIP includes expression data from 36 studies (1,016 RNA-Seq samples) across a diverse range of wheat tissues, developmental stages, cultivars, and environmental conditions including various abiotic and biotic stress treatments. It can display expression data for up to 250 genes at once, which can be particularly useful when working with a gene family, genes within a QTL interval, or genes involved in the same regulatory process. The expression values for each gene's homoeologs, based on the same homoeolog assignments as in Ensembl Plants, can also be displayed. The 'homoeolog expression patterns' of triads (genes that are present as exactly three homoeologous copies) can also be displayed as ternary plots and compared across tissues (Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al., 2018).To allow comparisons across studies, the 1,016 RNA-Seq samples in expVIP were classified according to four high-level categories based on variety, tissue, developmental stage, and stress. These high-level categories are themselves divided into more detailed subcategories. These categories can be used to customise visualisation displays and allow users to select data relevant to their experimental comparisons. Data can be displayed both as transcripts per million (TPM) or as raw counts and can be directly downloaded to carry out differential gene expression analyses. Although the default gene model reference is RefSeqv1.1, users can also choose the CSS, TGACv1 and RefSeqv1.0 transcriptome references for legacy reasons. Tutorials describing expVIP are available on https://github.com/Uauy-Lab/expvip-web/wiki and www.wheat-training.com. Recently, expVIP was implemented for berry fruit species (Thole et al., 2019).An additional resource is the electronic Fluorescent Pictograph (eFP) browser, which provides a simple visual assessment of expression data using pictures coloured according to a gene's relative expression level. The eFP expression browser is available for several crops (e.g. potato, soybean, barley) and most recently wheat (http://bar.utoronto.ca/efp_wheat/cgi-bin/efpWeb.cgi). The wheat interface includes 209 RNA-Seq samples (also in expVIP) representing 22 tissue types from grain, root, leaf, and spike samples across multiple time points from a single hexaploid spring wheat cultivar ('Azhurnaya').The available RNA-Seq data provides the opportunity to identify networks of co-expressed genes. Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al. ( 2018) constructed tissue and stress-specific co-expression networks in wheat to determine whether genes from the same triad showed variable spatiotemporal expression. In addition, a GENIE3 network was developed to predict transcription factor targets across the multiple RNA-Seq samples (Huynh-Thu et al., 2010;Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al., 2018). Together, these networks provide a powerful set of tools for hypothesis generation using wheat-specific datasets. We have recently validated the GENIE3 network using independent RNA-Seq data from tetraploid wheat (Harrington et al., 2019). Both co-expression and GENIE3 networks are incorporated into KnetMiner (https://knetminer.org/Triticum_aestivum/).KnetMiner is a web-application for searching and visualising genome-scale knowledge networks of, for example, Arabidopsis, wheat, and human diseases (Hassani-Pak et al., 2016). It aims to provide research leads for scientists who are investigating the molecular basis of complex traits. Knet-Miner accepts keywords in combination with a gene list and/or genomic regions as input and searches the underlying knowledge network to identify links between these user-provided genes and keywords. A network-based visualisation, named Network View, allows users to examine complex relationships between gene networks and traits. The networks contain nodes that represent different entities such as genes, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), publications, and traits (e.g. heat or drought tolerance) that are linked via different relation types (e.g. co-expression, GENIE3targets, protein-protein-interaction, published-in). Together, KnetMiner and the integrated gene networks provide a powerful resource for gene discovery and hypothesis generation in wheat (see Case Study below).With the availability of the wheat genome, increasing interest has turned towards the wheat epigenome, that is heritable modifications to the genome that do not affect the DNA sequence itself, such as histone and DNA methylation. The global DNA methylome of polyploid wheat has been explored in multiple studies (Gardiner et al., 2015;Gardiner et al., 2018;Li et al., 2019). The methylome of the reference cultivar Chinese Spring was initially captured at the seedling stage (Gardiner et al., 2015), with more recent work focussing on the variation present in the seedling methylome of the 104 landraces from the Watkins core collection (Table 2; Gardiner et al., 2018). Researchers have also examined the changes in DNA methylation status as a result of biotic stress in wheat seedlings (Geng et al., 2019). The raw bisulfite sequencing data from these experiments is available through public archives, however it is not immediately accessible on genome browsers.  More recently, new epigenomic data from Chinese Spring seedlings has been released which includes a wide variety of epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation, seven histone modifications, and chromatin accessibility (Li et al., 2019). This data has been made publicly available through a bespoke genome browser (http://bioinfo.sibs.ac.cn/cs_epigenome) and can be readily accessed by researchers to gain insight into the epigenomic landscape surrounding their genes of interest.After identifying a gene of interest there are now several options and resources available for functional characterisation and validation in wheat (Figure 2). These include resources based both on natural and induced variation and can involve both transgenic and non-transgenic approaches. It is important to remember that due to the polyploid nature of wheat, there is often functional redundancy between homoeologs (Borrill et al., 2015). This means that it may be necessary to manipulate all homoeologs and paralogs simultaneously to measure a strong phenotypic effect (see the 'Strategies for Use' section below for more information).Polyploid species, such as wheat, are well suited to mutational approaches as the functional redundancy in their genomes allows for the tolerance of a higher mutational load compared with diploid species (Tsai et al., 2013;Uauy et al., 2017). Bespoke mutant populations can be developed and screened for desired mutations in a gene of interest, though the screening process is arduous and time-consuming. To overcome this barrier, an in silico wheat TILLING resource has been developed (Krasileva et al., 2017). This resource consists of two ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS) mutagenised populations: 1,535 lines of the tetraploid durum wheat variety 'Kronos' and 1,200 lines of the hexaploid bread wheat variety 'Cadenza'. Exome capture and Illumina sequencing of these 2,735 mutant lines was then carried out. The raw data was originally aligned to the CSS reference, mutations were identified, and their effects predicted based on the CSS gene models (Krasileva et al., 2017).Alleles predicted in silico to be deleterious (e.g. premature stop codons, splice site mutations, nonsynonymous amino acid substitutions with SIFT score <0.05), were identified for ~90% of the captured wheat genes (Krasileva et al., 2017), thus making this a powerful resource for rapidly identifying mutations in a gene of interest (Figure 2). The raw data has now been aligned to the RefSeqv1.0 genome, allowing mutation identification and effect prediction based on the RefSeqv1.1 gene models. These updated data are publicly available on Ensembl Plants (see Case Study for details). For legacy purposes, the mutations called against the CSS reference remain available via www.wheat-tilling.com. However, caution should be exercised as the mutation effects here are predicted based on the CSS gene models, which are known to be less reliable than the RefSeq gene models (Brinton et al., 2018).There are several important considerations when selecting a mutant line for characterisation. First, it is essential to check the predicted effect of mutations in the context of a complete and experimentally validated gene model. Second, in most cases, crossing is necessary to combine mutations in homoeologous genes in order to generate a complete null individual. Third, mutant lines will contain a high level of background mutations: a typical mutant line has between 50 (tetraploid) and 110 (hexaploid) mutations predicted to result in a truncated protein. Depending on the phenotype of interest (i.e. qualitative vs. quantitative) several rounds of backcrossing may be required before the phenotype can be assessed (see 'Strategies for Use'). Lastly, if the gene of interest is missing or is already a null allele in Kronos or Cadenza (which can be determined using the full genome sequences of the two cultivars), mutant populations of other genotypes are available (e.g. Dong et al., 2009;Chen et al., 2012;Bovina et al., 2014;Sestili et al., 2015;Colasuonno et al., 2016), although these would need to be screened using conventional PCR-based approaches. Additional practical information about selecting mutant lines and downstream analyses can be found at www. wheat-training.com/functional-studies and in Uauy et al. (2017).Stable transformation of wheat is possible and can be performed using a variety of methods including both particle bombardment (Vasil et al., 1992;Sparks and Jones, 2009) and Agrobacteriummediated transformation (Cheng et al., 1997;Sparks et al., 2014). Generating stable transgenic lines in wheat most commonly involves transforming immature wheat embryos and subsequent callus regeneration (Harwood, 2012). Reports in the literature of Agrobacterium-mediated wheat transformation generally describe low transformation efficiencies with average efficiencies of around 5%. An efficient, but patented, transformation system is available through licence from Japan Tobacco (www.jti.co.jp). Transformation by overexpression of transcription factors such as maize Baby Boom and Wuschel2 has also yielded improved transformation efficiencies in monocots (Lowe et al., 2016), although there are no formal reports yet in wheat. Recently, an open-access wheat transformation system with transformation efficiencies of up to 25% was published (Hayta et al., 2019), albeit for a single cultivar.Using transgenic approaches, gene expression can be altered in a variety of ways such as overexpressing or ectopically expressing the gene of interest using either constitutive, tissue-specific or inducible promoters (Hensel et al., 2011). Similarly, RNA-interference (RNAi) has been used successfully in wheat to reduce gene expression with the added benefit that constructs can be designed to target all homoeologous genes simultaneously, thereby overcoming the potential drawback of functional redundancy among homoeologs (Fu et al., 2007). In addition to altering expression patterns, modified proteins can also be introduced (e.g. including tags) for downstream experiments such as ChIP-Seq (Deng et al., 2015) or localisation studies (Harwood et al., 2005). However, these are still not commonly employed in wheat research. As transformation methods have only been optimised for a limited number of wheat varieties (e.g. Richardson et al., 2014), it is important to understand whether the gene is expressed/functional in the chosen variety when defining transgenic strategies (see 'Strategies for Use').Recent developments in genome editing technologies provide new opportunities for manipulating genes in wheat. TALEN and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing has been successfully demonstrated in wheat both in transient expression systems (Shan et al., 2014) and stably transformed plants (Wang et al., 2014b;Luo et al., 2019), using a range of methods reviewed in Uauy et al. (2017). Currently, most studies have introduced specific point mutations or small deletions leading to subsequent protein disruption, although the technology holds the potential for complex applications such as allele swapping or gene insertion, as reviewed by Puchta (2017). Similar to RNAi, constructs for Cas9-mediated gene editing can be designed to target all homoeologs simultaneously (Zhang et al., 2016;Howells et al., 2018). Due to the current efficiency of genome editing however, the likelihood of obtaining mutations in all homoeologs in a single T 0 plant remains low (0.9%; Zhang et al., 2016) and subsequent crosses to combine multiple edited targets are likely to be required.A major limitation of using transgenic approaches to manipulate agronomically relevant traits is the associated legal and regulatory constraints. To overcome these, the nuclease transgene can be segregated away from the edited gene(s) in subsequent generations. However, in Europe, and in contrast to many other countries in the world, the resulting plants would be regulated as transgenics due to the 2018 ruling on genome editing by the European Court of Justice (ECJ). Some studies have documented CRISPR/Cas9-editing in wheat without transgene integration, for example, by delivering the CRISPR/Cas9 components as ribonucleoproteins (RNPs). As no foreign DNA is used in CRISPR/Cas9 RNP-mediated genome editing, the wheat mutants obtained are completely transgene free (Liang et al., 2017), although still not exempt from the ECJ regulation.Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) involves transient knock-down of expression of target genes followed by assessment of the resulting phenotype (Lee et al., 2012). The most widely used vectors for VIGS in wheat are those derived from barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV), a plant virus with a tripartite RNA genome that readily spreads throughout tissues following mechanical rub-inoculation onto the leaves. All three BSMV genomic RNAs, RNAa, RNAb and RNAg, are required to cause infection. RNAg has been modified to allow insertion of short (up to 350 bp) plant mRNA derived sequences. Infection of plants with the resulting recombinant virus induces a natural post-transcriptional gene silencing defence mechanism that targets the viral RNA, but also the endogenous plant mRNA having high level (>70%) nucleotide identity with the plant sequence inserted into RNAg, for degradation. A detailed protocol for VIGS is available at www.wheat-training.com (Figure 2).VIGS in wheat has been used primarily to investigate disease resistance in a range of varieties, and has been restricted to a few tissue types such as leaf (Lee et al., 2015), young seedlings (Zhang et al., 2017a) and spikes (Ma et al., 2012). However, in principle, BSMV-mediated VIGS can be applied to any wheat genotype and to almost any gene of interest. This functional genomics tool is particularly useful when analysing multiple candidate genes, for example in map-based cloning projects (i.e. when physical intervals contain several candidate genes), or from RNA-Seq differentially expressed datasets. VIGS is also useful in wheat genotypes that are difficult to transform and in those for which mutant/TILLING populations are unavailable. VIGS can be used for simultaneous silencing of all homoeologs or, in principle, entire small gene families without the need for further genetic crosses.Although using induced variation presents a clear route to understand the function of specific genes in wheat, the wealth of natural variation in wheat lines, and populations based on this variation, presents an alternative route to discover genes and correlate them with function. For example, populations differing for alleles of the gene of interest could be used to rapidly infer the role of the gene. In order to capture the diversity within wheat and create populations to test gene function, natural variation has been extensively documented. Most studies have focused on SNPs between varieties that can be quickly assayed through SNP arrays designed from gene coding sequences and untranslated regions (UTRs) (Wang et al., 2014a;Winfield et al., 2016;Allen et al., 2017), described in Borrill et al. (2015) and www.wheat-training.com. Thousands of varieties and landraces have been processed using these arrays and datasets are available through websites such as TCAP (https://triticeaetoolbox.org/wheat) (Blake et al., 2016) and CerealsDB (http://www.cerealsdb.uk. net/cerealgenomics/CerealsDB) (Wilkinson et al., 2016). Given that all SNPs from the latter have been incorporated into Ensembl Plants, this means that large in silico allelic series are readily available for many genes of interest.Beyond SNP variation, two recent studies (He et al., 2019;Pont et al., 2019) applied exome capture to diverse wheat lines to characterise the natural variation throughout the coding regions of wheat. These studies identified millions of SNPs within coding sequences in over 1,000 wheat lines, including hexaploid cultivars and landraces, and tetraploid and diploid relatives. The data (available at http://wheatgenomics.plantpath.ksu.edu/1000EC and https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr) will allow rapid characterisation of the extent of variation within genes of interest. These changes in coding sequences may have direct phenotypic consequences, however the impact of most of these variants remains unknown.Therefore, despite this wealth of data, the challenge remains to define the functional significance of this variation. Traditionally, mapping populations or association panels would need to be developed or assembled, and then genotyped, to assess how particular SNPs or haplotypes affect the trait of interest. In wheat, many of these resources are now publicly available (Figure 2), thus facilitating the functional characterisation of genes of interest. We describe some of these resources below and include links to access genotypes, sequences and seeds in Table 2. Further details are available at www.wheat-training.com.There is relatively low genetic variation in elite bread wheat varieties, especially on the D genome. This typically reflects adaptation and selection from landraces over a long time period, combined with the genetic bottleneck effects associated with the rare natural hybridisation events between the diploid and tetraploid ancestral wheat species that led to the evolution of hexaploid wheat. Wheat is related to several other grass species, many of which are wild and uncultivated. These wild relatives provide a vast and largely untapped reservoir of genetic variation for many agronomically important traits. A wealth of cytogenetic stocks for these wild relatives have been created over the last 100 years by researchers globally, reviewed by Mujeeb-Kazi et al. (2013). The recent genotyping and sequencing of some of these resources makes them especially suitable for gene functional characterisation (Table 2).Another approach to capture variation in wheat progenitors is via 're-synthesis', the process used to create synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW). SHWs are typically created by crossing tetraploid durum wheat with the diploid D-genome progenitor Aegilops tauschii. Approximately 400 SHWs were developed at CIMMYT in Mexico during the 1990s (Mujeeb-Kazi et al., 1996) and these have been extensively utilised in CIMMYT and international wheat breeding programmes (e.g. Gororo et al., 2002;Ogbonnaya et al., 2007). More recently, NIAB (UK) have developed a new SHW resource encompassing 50 SHWs along with pre-breeding derivatives. This germplasm, alongside marker data, is publicly available (Table 2).Numerous collections of wheat landraces, varieties and breeders' lines are available from research centres around the world. These panels represent valuable sources of potential genetic variation for targeted exploitation within wheat research and pre-breeding pipelines, especially when associated with existing genotypic and phenotypic datasets (Table 2). Further details are available at www. wheat-training.com.MAGIC populations have been developed for many crop species (Huang et al., 2015;Cockram and Mackay, 2018). The multiple generations of inter-crossing required to create MAGIC populations results in highly recombined chromosomes, which enables the use of approaches such as genome wide association scans (GWAS) and whole-genome average interval mapping (WGAIM; Verbyla et al., 2007) to define small genetic intervals for traits of interest as reviewed by Verbyla et al. (2014). Likewise, the use of multiple parents allows more allelic variation to be examined compared to typical bi-parental populations (Cockram and Mackay, 2018). In wheat, seven MAGIC populations are currently publicly available which are constructed from 4, 8 or 16 founders. Parent information and further details can be found in Table 2.To date, natural variation has largely been used for forward genetics approaches such as mapping genetic regions underlying a phenotypic trait of interest. However, there is now an opportunity to apply natural variation in wheat for reverse genetics studies to complement transgenic, gene editing and induced variation approaches. For example, the pre-harvest sprouting locus Phs-A1 was reported by two independent studies to be underpinned by different genes: in one case by a pair of tandem duplicated Plasma Membrane 19 (PM19-A1 and PM19-A2) genes (Barrero et al., 2015), and in the other by a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3 (TaMKK3-A) gene (Torada et al., 2016). Transgenic approaches seemed to validate the role of both PM19 and TaMKK3-A to influence pre-harvest sprouting. However, by using eleven bi-parental populations and a MAGIC population segregating for the Phs-A1 locus, it was possible to break the linkage with the polymorphism in PM19 and confirm that the causal gene in all populations was TaMKK3-A (Shorinola et al., 2017). This example illustrates the power of natural variation to validate the causal variants underpinning phenotypes in wheat.Populations exploiting natural variation can also be used to validate gene function. For example, TEOSINTE BRANCHED1 (TB1) was identified as a regulator of wheat spike architecture using a 4parent Australian MAGIC population, and this function was confirmed using induced variation (TILL-ING and transgenic overexpression) and natural variation in the 8-parent UK MAGIC population (Dixon et al., 2018). Interestingly, whilst TB1 was important in both MAGIC populations, different homoeologs underpinned the variation: TB1-D1 in the Australian population and TB1-B1 in the UK population. This study suggests that by using natural variation, we can start to understand the nuanced regulation of phenotypes in wheat elicited by individual homoeologs. Together, these examples show that researchers now have at their disposal a powerful toolkit to combine induced and natural variation to study gene function in wheat.Increases in DNA sequencing outputs and related technologies have allowed the assembly of chromosome scale assemblies for multiple cultivars in major crops such as maize (https://nam-genomes. org/), rice (Zhou et al., 2019) or oilseed rape (Song et al., 2020). For wheat, 16 hexaploid (eight with spring habit, and eight with winter habit), and three tetraploid varieties/accessions have been assembled, several to a similar standard as the reference Chinese Spring genome (Table 3). Annotation of most of these varieties is ongoing through the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project (http://www. 10wheatgenomes.com) and will provide information on the core (genes shared by all assembled varieties) and dispensable genes (genes shared among a few varieties). In addition, presence absence variation, copy number variation, structural rearrangements (inversions/translocations), and variation across non-coding regions are being quantified. Importantly, several of these genotypes are part of the resources outlined above, for example sequenced TILLING populations (Kronos and Cadenza). These assemblies will be integrated into Ensembl Plants and are available for download under Toronto Agreement (https://wheat.ipk-gatersleben.de/). † Varieties included within the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project can be accessed through the Earlham Grassroot Genomics portal (https://wheatis.tgac.ac.uk/ grassroots-portal/blast) and the 10+ Wheat Genomes project portal (http://webblast.ipk-gatersleben.de/wheat_ten_genomes) (subset of varieties in each).The 'Svevo' genome can be accessed through https://www.interomics.eu/durum-wheat-genome and Ensembl Plants. 'Synthetic W7984' and 'Zavitan' can be accessed through the Grassroot Genomics, and Ensembl Plants, respectively.Whilst resources are now available for the functional validation of target genes in wheat, practical knowledge is also required to maximise the value of these resources. Firstly, wheat varieties are adapted to different growing conditions (e.g. daylength and vernalisation requirements) making it important to consider the conditions under which functional validation will be conducted. If phenotyping will be undertaken in greenhouse or controlled environment conditions then most varieties will be suitable, although varieties without vernalisation requirements are faster to grow (details on wheat growth conditions at www.wheat-training.com). If field trials are required for phenotypic characterisation (e.g. yield-related traits), local adaptation is often necessary for correct interpretation of results given genotype x environment interactions. For example, the sequenced TILLING populations (Kronos and Cadenza) do not require vernalisation, facilitating greenhouse experiments, and originate from different regions of the world, allowing field trials under different environments (Kronos is a Californian variety adapted to warm dry weather whereas Cadenza is a UK variety adapted to cooler conditions).For CRISPR/Cas9 and other non-transient transgenic approaches several varieties may be used, although relatively few wheat varieties have been shown to display high enough transformation efficiencies to be practical. This means that traditionally most transgenic studies in wheat have been limited to a few varieties, such as 'Fielder', Cadenza, 'Bobwhite', 'Kenong 199' and Kronos (Li et al., 2012;Richardson et al., 2014;Liang et al., 2017;Hayta et al., 2019). This is now changing thanks to work by groups at NIAB (UK), CAAS (China) and CSIRO (Australia) who have successfully transformed 39 (Wallington, 2015), 15 (Wang et al., 2017) and six (Richardson et al., 2014) varieties, respectively. However, the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation efficiencies in all these studies still differ between varieties. Correct varietal selection for transformation is critical for functional studies, given that some varieties might not be suitable to study a particular phenotype (e.g. if the variety is resistant to a disease and hence cannot be used to test a candidate resistance gene). Similarly, it is important to assess whether the gene of interest is present/functional in the chosen variety, for example through PCR amplification and sequencing of the gene. For several varieties this can now be done quickly by direct examination of their genome sequence (Table 3).As we noted earlier, the polyploid nature of wheat means that it normally has multiple homoeologous copies of every gene. These copies typically have highly similar coding DNA sequence and may have redundant functions (Borrill et al., 2015). Therefore, to characterise the function of a gene in wheat it is often necessary to knock out all three homoeologs. This may be achieved by simultaneously targeting all three copies using either RNAi (e.g. Uauy et al., 2006) or CRISPR/Cas9 (e.g. Zhang et al., 2017b). A large number of transformants need to be screened to identify a null in all three genomes from a CRISPR construct (Zhang et al., 2017b;Howells et al., 2018). If the targets are more divergent it may not even be possible to use a single guide RNA to target all three homoeologs, in which case several guides may be used through multiplexing. Alternatively, separate knockouts for each homoeolog can be generated by CRISPR/Cas9 or identified in TILLING populations. The mutations in each homoeolog can be combined by crossing (for details see www.wheat-training. com), with two crosses necessary to combine knock-out mutations in each of the three homoeologs in hexaploid wheat (Figure 4). Tetraploid wheat, with only two homoeologs, can be used to accelerate functional characterisation as it requires just one cross to create complete knock-out mutants (Figure 4). After self-pollination of this F 1 , phenotyping of the trait of interest can be initiated in the F 2 generation by comparing homozygous double knock-out mutants to the sibling wild type plants.It is important to note that TILLING lines contain many background mutations and backcrossing may be required to overcome the confounding effects of background mutations on target phenotype. More details on these strategies are published in Uauy et al. (2017).The need to combine multiple mutations/alleles and carry out backcrossing to remove background mutations takes a considerable amount of time, with at least four months required per generation in a spring wheat genetic background. Recently, the 'speed breeding' technique has been implemented in wheat (and other crops such as barley, canola and chickpea), which uses extended day lengths of 22 hr and improved light quality to accelerate the generation time in wheat (Ghosh et al., 2018;Watson et al., 2018). Reduction of generation times to 8-10 weeks is achieved through an accelerated growth rate and harvesting of immature seeds 2-3 weeks post anthesis. The immature seeds are dried and then imbibed in the cold, resulting in nearly 100% germination. Incorporating speed breeding within crossing programmes can reduce the time required to produce and phenotype double mutants in tetraploid wheat to less than 7.5 months and triple mutants in hexaploid wheat to less than 10 months (Figure 4). In addition to reducing generation times, it has been shown that several traits of interest such as disease resistance, height and flowering time can be properly characterised under speed breeding conditions (Watson et al., 2018).To carry out the crossing schemes described above, it is essential to be able to select for the mutations of interest. In polyploid wheat it is necessary to track mutations in each homoeolog separately, which can be achieved using homoeolog-specific genetic markers. Primers can be designed to include a homoeolog-specific SNP at the 3' end of the primer. The primer will amplify the targeted homoeolog more efficiently than the non-targeted homoeolog(s) resulting in genome-specific amplification. Rapid design of homoeolog-specific primers can be achieved using the PolyMarker pipeline (Ramirez-Gonzalez et al., 2015) and webserver (http://www.polymarker.info/). Routinely, genotyping of SNPs is carried out using Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) markers which are relatively high throughput, inexpensive and can be used in individual lab settings equipped with PCR machines and widely available fluorescence plate readers (Allen et al., 2011). The SNP to be genotyped (e.g. between mutant and wild type) is located at the 3' end of the two alternative allele-specific primers used in the KASP reaction (one for the mutant and one for the wild type allele), whilst the homoeolog-specific SNP is located at the 3' end of the common primer. Amplification should thus be both homoeolog-specific and allele-specific. Further guidance on the design of genome-specific primers and KASP markers is available at www.wheat-training.com. In tetraploid wheat, mutations in the A and B genome homoeologs can be combined through a single cross. The F 1 plants are selfpollinated to produce a segregating F 2 population which contains homozygous double and single mutants, as well as wild type plants (screening using molecular markers required; only four genotypes shown). These F 2 progeny can be characterised for the phenotype of interest. The use of 'speed breeding' (Watson et al., 2018), reduces the time taken to reach this phenotyping stage from 12 (yellow) to 7.5 months (green). In hexaploid wheat, a second round of crossing is required to combine the mutant alleles from all three homoeologs. The F 2 progeny segregating for the three mutant alleles can be genotyped using molecular markers to select the required combination of mutant alleles (only five genotypes shown; all factorial combinations are possible). Speed breeding reduces the time taken to generate triple homozygous mutants for phenotyping to 10 months (green), compared to 16 months in conventional conditions (yellow). Self-pollination is represented by an X inside a circle. Combinations of wild type alleles from the A (AA), B (BB) and D (DD) genomes, as well as the mutant alleles from each genome (aa, bb and dd, respectively) are indicated.To put the previous resources into context, we present a case study for obtaining wheat mutants and expression data using a gene of interest from Arabidopsis thaliana. The heat shock factor-like transcription factor TBF1, also known as HsfB1, is a critical regulator of the plant growth-to-defence transition (Pajerowska-Mukhtar et al., 2012), and the response to heat stress (Guo et al., 2016). We therefore hypothesise that its wheat orthologs may have a similar role in regulating defence and/or abiotic stress responses (Ikeda et al., 2011). The first step to test this hypothesis is to identify wheat TBF1 orthologs, which can be done using the Ensembl Plants Gene Tree (Bolser et al., 2015), which displays predicted orthologs for all species included in Ensembl Plants. TBF1 is one of five HSFB orthologs, named HSFB1, 2A, 2B, 4, and 5, respectively. Examination of the Ensembl Plants Gene Tree shows a single wheat triad that falls within the HSFB1 clade, located on the group five chromosomes (Figure 5A). It is important to note that most gene models were annotated in an automated manner and hence gene structures are likely to contain some errors, pending manual curation. We would thus recommend that researchers manually inspect the annotation of their genes of interest before proceeding further with their analyses.To support the predicted Arabidopsis-wheat orthologs obtained from Ensembl Plants, we recommend carrying out comparisons between wheat and rice to establish orthology between these cereal species. Both the wheat homoeologs and the rice gene model Os09g0456800 have the same gene structure, consisting of two exons with a conserved intron/exon boundary position. To further support the relationship of the rice gene to the wheat homoeologs, the predicted rice protein can be (A). The Ensembl Plants Gene Tree illustrates the identification of the wheat triad (green bar) most closely related to AtHSFB1 (shown in purple). (B) Using Os09g0456800 (the rice ortholog of AtHSFB1) as a BLASTp query against wheat predicted proteins independently identifies the same wheat triad. (C) Examination of RNA expression data from www.wheat-expression.com shows that the wheat triad is most highly expressed in the spike, with differential expression in abiotic and disease stress conditions. The samples are identified by tissue of origin (spike, green; grain, purple; leaves/shoots, orange; roots, yellow) and stress (none, light blue; abiotic, green; disease, dark blue) as they are on the website. (D) After identification of suitable wheat TILLING mutants, A and B genome homoeologs are combined via this example crossing scheme, demonstrating the four crosses required between the two selected mutations in each homoeolog. Note that the functional validation proposed in (D) is carried out using the tetraploid mutant population.used as a query for BLASTp analysis of the wheat proteome in Ensembl Plants; the expected wheat orthologs are the top three hits for the A, B, and D genomes (Figure 5B).Having identified the wheat orthologs of Arabidopsis TBF1, we can examine and compare expression profiles using the expVIP browser (www.wheat-expression.com) (Borrill et al., 2016;Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al., 2018;Figure  5C). All three wheat homoeologs have similar expression profiles, with expression changes in the spike under disease and abiotic stress. This is consistent with the eFP browser data which shows high expression in the spikelet and awns of the non-stressed plants, as well as in more mature leaf tissues (Winter et al., 2007;Ramı ´rez-Gonza ´lez et al., 2018). The expression data suggests that the wheat TBF1 homoeologs are most strongly expressed in the spike and may have differential expression in response to biotic and abiotic stress. We can also explore the epigenetic environment of the three homoeologs using the bread wheat epigenomic map (http://bioinfo.sibs.ac.cn/cs_epigenome; Li et al., 2019). A large peak for the H3K9ac histone modification at the 5 0 end of the homoeologs is indicative of active transcription from the promoter, corresponding with the observed gene expression. In contrast, the A-homoeolog TraesCS5A02G237900 is flanked by two genes which have low expression at the seedling stage, and correspondingly low levels of H3K9ac modifications in their promoters. It is worth noting that the epigenomic browser uses RefSeqv1.0 gene models, rather than the RefSeqv1.1 gene models used on Ensembl Plants.Further investigation of these homoeologs can be performed using the KnetMiner knowledge network. For wheat TBF1 orthologs, this includes homology, co-expression data, and associated TILLING mutants, combined with other wheat-specific information such as GENIE3 networks, wheat related publications, gene-phenotype relations extracted from the literature, GWAS data and Arabidopsis protein-protein interactions. Here the wheat genes, referred to as HSFB1, are orthologous to the Arabidopsis gene TBF1 as demonstrated earlier, and the three wheat homoeologs fall into a module associated with responses to abiotic stresses (Figure 6). In addition, the HSFB1 B and D homoeologs are predicted in the GENIE3 network to target the LRK10 and PPD genes, which have known links to drought tolerance and sensitivity (Figure 6). The KnetMiner database also recapitulates the relationship between the wheat HSFB1 homoeologs and their rice and Arabidopsis orthologs, which regulate heat stress responses (Figure 6). Considered as a whole, these data support the hypothesis that the HSFB1 wheat genes are involved in the response to abiotic stress, perhaps specifically in drought response.After evaluating in silico expression levels, we can then characterise the phenotype of wheat TBF1 mutants using the exome-sequenced wheat TILLING mutant populations (Figure 2). We suggest to initially use the Kronos population, as it is based on a tetraploid line and thus contains only two copies of the gene (A and B homoeologs). This means that only two mutants need to be crossed to generate a full knockout. The hexaploid Cadenza TILLING population could also be used, but this would require an additional generation to combine mutant alleles across all three homoeologs (Figure 4).All TILLING mutations identified against the more recent RefSeqv1.0 genome can be accessed directly from Ensembl Plants in the 'Genetic Variation' section. Available mutations in the gene of interest can be visualised as a table or positioned along the gene using the 'Variant Image' or 'Variant Table' option. We can thus rapidly identify mutations that are predicted to lead to a premature termination codon (PTC). However, if no appropriate PTC mutations are available, splice-site mutations predicted to lead to downstream frameshifts, or missense mutations in highly conserved amino acid residues with low SIFT (Sorting Intolerant from Tolerant; Ng and Henikoff, 2003) scores are good alternatives. SIFT scores predict the effect of a mutation on protein function and are based on the physical properties of the alternative amino acid as well as sequence homology.For both the A and the B genome TBF1 homoeologs in Kronos, no PTC mutations are available. However, we identified missense mutations in highly conserved residues with SIFT scores of 0 suggesting that these mutations are likely to have a deleterious effect on protein function (Figure 5D). In addition to SIFT, we also recommend using the PSSM viewer (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Class/ Structure/pssm/pssm_viewer.cgi) to help predict the effect of specific missense mutations on conserved protein domains.TILLING lines from both populations can be ordered via the GRU (https://www.seedstor.ac.uk/ shopping-cart-tilling.php) in the UK or from the Dubcovsky lab (https://dubcovskylab.ucdavis.edu/ wheat-tilling) in the USA. To maximise the chance of having selected functionally important mutants, we recommend choosing two independent mutant lines for each homoeolog and carrying out crosses between each mutant in the A and B genomes (four crosses shown in Figure 5D). Detailed guides on growing wheat plants, genotyping TILLING mutants, and crossing mutants can be found on www.wheat-training.com.Seedlings are genotyped to confirm that the correct mutation is present and to select for homozygous individuals for crossing. To do this, we design genome-specific primers to use in a KASP assay as outlined above and on www.wheat-training.com. For most TILLING mutations genome-specific primers have been predesigned and are available in Ensembl Plants. If there are no suitable predesigned primers, online tools such as PolyMarker can be used (Ramirez-Gonzalez et al., 2015), or if needed, can be designed manually. After carrying out the initial cross, we grow the F 1 individuals under speed breeding conditions, and self-pollinate to obtain the F 2 seed. We then grow F 2 individuals and select via genetic markers individuals homozygous for one or both mutant alleles, as well as homozygous wild type control individuals (Figure 4). We can then carry out our first phenotypic evaluation on the F 2 plants using the homozygous wild type lines as controls without the need for backcrossing to Kronos. We can do this because the background mutations in the chosen lines will be segregating within both the mutant and the wild type lines, leading to an equivalent background mutation load between the sibling genotypes (Uauy et al., 2017). Backcrossing to Kronos can be started either with the single mutants while carrying out the initial cross and/or with the F 2 double mutant at a later stage. Backcrossing to remove background mutations is especially important when studying quantitative traits, such as yield components (Simmonds et al., 2016), and when plants are intended for field phenotyping. In the last few years there has been a dramatic expansion in the resources available to carry out functional genomics in wheat, largely based upon improvements in the available reference sequences. Within a few years a step-change has been achieved from a highly fragmented assembly with incomplete gene models to a full pseudomolecule reference sequence alongside a detailed gene model annotation. This reference sequence allows the physical anchoring of genes in complete chromosomal order and provides improved gene models facilitating the design of transgenic constructs and primers. Most resources described in this review are integrated with the recent bread wheat reference genome sequence including the expVIP and eFP expression browsers, TILLING mutants, and Ensembl Plants sequence analyses and display tools. As a result, it is now easier to use these resources as they are unified by a common reference genome and gene models. Furthermore, a pangenome of wheat is being produced which will provide high quality genome sequences for multiple varieties of wheat. These genomes will facilitate functional studies in a range of different genetic backgrounds and enhance the value of the populations containing natural variation captured from diverse wheat varieties.Whilst many major advances have been made in the last five years to lay the groundwork for gene discovery and functional characterisation in polyploid wheat, looking to the future several key challenges remain.i. Polyploidy is a common challenge amongst crop species. In wheat, we frequently assume that due to functional redundancy it will be necessary to knock out all three homoeologs of a gene to assess its phenotypic impact. Yet the extent of homoeolog functional redundancy is still unclear (Borrill et al., 2019). Transcriptomics and proteomics approaches will help generate hypotheses as to the extent of homoeolog redundancy in wheat and allow researchers to specifically target the most phenotypically relevant homoeolog for genetic manipulation. ii. Defining accessible (open) chromatin regions allows the identification of cis-regulatory sequences of potential functional significance. In animals and plants, genetic variants associated with quantitative traits are significantly enriched in these open chromatin sequences (Maurano et al., 2012;Rodgers-Melnick et al., 2016). In wheat, where over 98% of the genome is non-coding, it will be critical to identify open chromatin regions to more precisely define non-coding variation that may be of functional relevance. Work in tomato has elegantly shown how a wide range of phenotypic variation for quantitative traits can be engineered by genome editing of cis-regulatory regions of transcription factors (Rodrı ´guez- Leal et al., 2017). iii. To more readily test these hypotheses, increased transformation efficiency and reduced costs will also reshape the future of wheat research, perhaps one day becoming as accessible for wheat researchers as floral dip transformation is for Arabidopsis. It is becoming clear from research in wheat and other species that genetic background can have a strong influence on gene function. Therefore, it is essential to develop new protocols to transform multiple wheat varieties to account for these effects and to ensure that the potential of gene editing approaches is fulfilled. iv. Genomic databases have been powerful in integrating data from multiple studies and international efforts are now bringing together phenotypic data alongside genotypic data (e.g. Blake et al., 2016 andHowe et al., 2020). Challenges remain to standardise phenotype collection protocols and ontologies, which will realise the full power of this information (e. g. Papoutsoglou et al., 2020). Expanding these databases to include environmental conditions will allow assessments of interactions between genotypes, phenotypes and the environment.High quality genome sequences facilitate moving beyond gene-based analysis, revealing the effects of non-genic regions on phenotype. Whilst working in crops with complex genomes will remain challenging, the advance of genomic techniques has enabled the wheat community to leverage lessons learnt in model species. The approaches taken in wheat provide a framework to understand biologically important traits in other species with large genomes.","tokenCount":"9083"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"66096b36fb16086faa5a24472bd71da3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/624f44bb-02fe-4beb-b368-05c1eba36d32/content","id":"-1220141195"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d5e1ac87-bb21-44a4-a9e7-fbbcba71b64e","pagecount":"19","content":"The annual ICTforAg conference brings together global experts to address digital solutions for challenges in agri-food systems in low and middle-income countries. Along with the 2023 virtual event, titled \"Cultivating Inclusion\" a dedicated Latin America in-person chapter was held at the CIMMYT campus. Hosted by IICA, CGIAR Digital Innovation, and CGIAR AGRILAC, the event had 49 participants from 7 countries, representing diverse sectors such as agtechs, governments, local research institutes, and financial organizations. Three insightful panel discussions explored Responsible Digital Innovation, Digital Transformation in Agroindustry, and Digital Innovation in Agricultural Research, addressing adoption gaps, user perspectives, ethics, and inclusion. A significant outcome of the workshop was a dynamic discussion on collaborative opportunities, leading to three key initiatives: collaborative research on limiting factors for digital innovation in South America, a data-sharing platform in Central America, and a service value chain for farmers enabled by digital technologies in Colombia and Mexico.The ICTforAg+ Mexico satellite event, held from November 7 th -9 th , 2023, at CIMMYT HQ in Texcoco, Mexico, focused on fostering inclusive and responsible digital innovations for agri-food systems. The event was organized by the Interamerican Institute of Cooperation for Agriculture (IICA), the CGIAR regional initiative in Latin America AgriLAC Resiliente, and the CGIAR initiative on Digital Innovation (DI). It provided an equal opportunity for participants to interact with peers and connect with the global community, around Inspiration, Innovation, and Inclusion in digital ecosystems. A total of 49 participants, including 16 females and 33 males, gathered for this event, representing diverse backgrounds such as Agritech startups, NGOs, private sectors, government sectors, and national agricultural research centers (Refer to Annex 2 for participant details).ICTforAg is a leading global event held annually in multiple countries, attracting a diverse audience of global experts and enthusiasts dedicated to advancing digital solutions to address challenges in low-tomiddle-income countries. Since 2015, ICTforAg conferences have served as a platform for both established and emerging leaders in digital agri-food systems to exchange knowledge, share perspectives, and foster new partnerships. The ICTforAg+ LATAM event, held for the first time this year, was an in-person, regional meeting complementing the global ICTforAg, also taking place from November 7-9, 2023.The regional event in LATAM convened a diverse group of participants from various countries across Latin America including Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Chile and Peru who interacted through panel discussions, individual key notes and collaboration workshop sessions. The agenda is attached as Annex 1.The event was opened by Dr. Sieg Snapp Director of the Sustainable Agri-food Systems Program at CIMMYT, who welcomed the attendats and emphasized the significance of participation from diverse sectors-research organizations, agribusiness, agtech companies, and impact investors-acknowledging the value they bring to CIMMYT and CGIAR through the Digital Innovation Initiative. Anticipating in-depth discussions, Dr. Snapp highlighted the focus on exploring challenges and opportunities within the Latin American agri-food sector. Furthermore, she emphasized the workshop's role in bridging the Latin American digital innovation network with the global ICTforAg network. This connection aims to promote collaboration, facilitate experience exchange, and advance the development of inclusive and responsible approaches to data management, agronomic recommendations, and decision support systems in the region.After Dr. Snapp's opening remarks, Dr. Federico Bert, Digital Agriculture Coordinator at IICA, took the stage, and started by highlighting that the history of digital agriculture is still in its nascent stages. Dr. Bert inspired participants by assuring them that they are at the forefront of this evolving journey. He conveyed the belief at IICA that digitalization stands as the most transformative force that agri-food systems will encounter in the next two decades. Dr. Bert acknowledged both the benefits and challenges, including potential divides, exclusions, and conflicts associated with this transformative process. He stressed the urgency of forming a network to ensure rapid digitalization in Latin America while concurrently identifying and addressing associated risks and potential unintended consequences. Dr. Bert highlighted this shared vision as the driving force behind the collaborative efforts of IICA and CGIAR through the Digital Innovation Initiative for the foreseeable future.The event featured an opening panel discussion on Responsible Digital Innovation and strategies to cultivate inclusion, ethics, and awareness moderated by Mrs. Andrea Gardeazabal, MEL and ICTforAg Manager from CIMMYT. The panel included two young talented speakers who have been doing research in the region regarding limiting factors for digital agriculture adoption and associated risks. Mr. Jeremias Lachman, PhD Candidate from the University of Buenos Aires (UBA) and Dr. Franco Da Silveira, researcher from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) initially presented their views on the digital ecosystems in the region, main blockers for adoption and use.Key insights from the panel discussion include Mr. Lachman's findings regarding the efficacy of group strategies and community-based approaches in reducing exclusion and enhancing adoption of digital technologies in agriculture. Additionally, Dr. Da Silva underscored the significance of considering diversity and cultural differences in technological design to increase adoption while reducing exclusion. He also emphasized the need for public policies supporting equity in the private sector to ensure healthy and responsible environments for innovation, particularly crucial for startups seeking access to data, technologies, and farmers while competing with larger private organizations.After the panel discussion, the initial link to the global ICTforAg event was established, broadcasting the keynote by Dr. Jim Taylor from the University of KwaZuu Natal on \"Cultivating inclusion through citizen science in water management\". Dr. Taylor presented biomonitoring and digital innovations using case studies from southern Africa, highlighting that the strength of citizen science lies in the shared enthusiasm of both program leaders and contributors focused on common interest themes, such as water availability and management.Following the keynote, participants were able to engage individually selecting from de offered options in the lightning talks which included \"Improving Food Safety Capacity from Afar -How SPS Distance Learning Modules Can Help Advance Knowledge Across the Globe\" by Dr. Molly Gonzales from Texas A&M University; \"Developing gender-inclusive livestock insurance -with the help of digital goats!, by Mrs. Sophie Javers from Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Markets, Risk and Resilience; and \"Leveraging Land Rights Data for Agricultural Growth and Inclusion\" by Mr. Matt Sommerville from Tetra Tech.The subsequent series of activities included brief 10-minute presentations by participants, wherein they were tasked with spotlighting key challenges for responsible digital innovation and identifying collaboration opportunities. Mr. Hubert Pieri initiated the session with a presentation on The Farmer Box Mexico and how they co-create d, followed by Mr. Alberto Mazariegos from DISAGRO, who outlined their strategy as a major input provider in Central America for collaborating with smallholder farmers. Subsequently, Mr. Ramiro Carretero from AGROCONSULTAS, highlighted their challenges related to business continuity while offering free services for farmers and Mr. Leonardo Galan from AgrodataAI Chatbot shared their insights related to ethics in AI and reducing bias in trained bots. GENESIS, the leading microfinance institution in Central America, presented their strategy to uplift farmers out of poverty through tailored financial mechanisms based on segmentation with social, economic and cultural dimensions. These mechanisms include loans for house improvements, water filters, mobile phones, or agroinputs. Key highlights from these inclusive financial institutions include the fact that 50% of Latin American female farmers are considered non-economically active; the need for diverse financial products and individualized analysis to predict payment capacity; and the requirement for integrated services including health insurance, crop insurance, information access, extension services, etc.Agros Identi Peru introduced a currently operational digital identity solution that tackles fragmented data issues among individual farmers and various value chain actors, including financial institutions. This is made possible through an interoperability protocol allowing validation by third parties. Beyond digital identity, their vision encompasses information services, digital currency, service integration, interoperability, traceability, and precision agriculture. To realize these goals, they advocate for public policy support, including public digital infrastructure in Latin America, a sandbox for experimentation and innovation, and digital skills training for rural areas. A main takeaway from the conversation is the dual challenge faced by research institutes. On one hand, they are constructing a model of operation where the aim is to create secure environments for agricultural digital innovation to occur and increasingly reach farmers. Simultaneously, they are undergoing their own processes of digitalization. A significant outcome from the latter challenge is the potential creation of Digital Public Goods, comprising datasets from research projects, analytics, and valuable knowledge that could be integrated into the public knowledge on agriculture in Latin America. There is a noticeable reconfiguration of roles within these institutions. While they were pivotal actors in previous agricultural transformation dynamics, they are now in the process of determining their next role within the era of digitalization.On the morning of Day 3, as food for thought on the INSPIRATION day, a third panel discussion focused on investment funds for digital innovation in agriculture. Moderated by Dr. Federico Bert from IICA, the panelists, including Mrs. Elvia Gomez, Portfolio Manager for Latin America from ACUMEN, Mrs. Hana Pasic, Regional Director of Partnerships from SeedStars, and Mr. Brandon Day Chief Operating Officer at YieldLab Institute, engaged in a conversation around the major obstacles hindering finance mechanisms from reaching digital innovation in agriculture. All panelists emphasized the need for financial products to be flexible, employing blended finance strategies and complemented with technical assistance. This assistance should cover various aspects, including responsible business models, strategic planning, corporate governance, impact assessment, and scaling strategies. Collaboration across financial institutions and public-private models were also highlighted to ensure effectiveness and efficiency in the interventions as well as to strengthen the ecosystem. Furthermore, collaborative platforms were identified as valuable tools to facilitate connections among funders and financial institutions. These platforms can play a pivotal role in co-designing customized mechanisms, identifying opportunities for liquidity, and repurposing resources for new ventures.In the afternoon of Day 2 and Day 3, the collaboration workshop took place with participants gathering by subregion in Latin America -South, Andean, Central-to start ideating collaboration projects mainly to connect existing services or assets across diverse sectors and address one of the main gaps and challenges identifies in their morning and Day 1 presentations. Participants were able to strengthen relationships among the network during the previous sessions, and this allowed increasing trust among them and facilitating a very innovative co-creation environment.Three key collaboration opportunities emerged from this exercise:1) Collaborative research on limiting factors and associated risks for digital innovation 2)Collaborative platform for data sharing in Central America 3)Service value chain resulting from collaboration between organizations providing advisory, financial, research, and/or access to markets services.During the second afternoon on Day 3, the same groups gathered to refine their initial ideas, complete a Business Model canvas and agree on concrete next steps in each case. The Template included value proposition, key activities, required partnerships, and key required In the case of the collaborative research on limiting factors and associated risks for digital innovation in agriculture main questions proposed to be addressed by this research project include the following: a. How could we characterize producers who are permanent users of digital technologies compared to those who are not? b. What are the main internal characteristics of producers that influenced the adoption process? (e.g., size, geographic location, human capital, age of decision-makers, etc.) c. What learning spaces, access to information, and/or cooperation with other actors influenced the adoption process? (e.g., participation in public/private support programs and/or technical assistance, collaboration with other producers, membership in consortia/cooperatives, etc.) d. What role do sectoral STI (Science, Technology, and Innovation) institutions play in the diffusion process of the studied technologies (e.g., agricultural extension programs, living labs, etc.)? e. If specific technologies were selected, what were the main impacts generated from their adoption? (e.g., increases in physical productivity, cost reduction, product differentiation, entry into new international markets, environmental improvements, etc.)f. What obstacles could have hindered, either totally or partially, the adoption of new technologies in the studied value chains-or their abandonment after initial incorporation? (e.g., high costs, lack of financing, lack of operators with the necessary qualifications, market uncertainty, lack of necessary public infrastructure)Regarding the collaborative platform for data sharing in Central America, the initiative will be linked to the DataHub effort, in which the Digital Innovation (DI) Initiative has been collaborating with AgriLAC in Guatemala. The Open Data Initiative (ODI) has been conducting an analysis to map data flows with value to share among stakeholders and developing a roadmap to move forward toward building a national protocol to share two layers of data: weather data from stations and agronomic data from financial institutions, farmer organizations, startups, and government agencies. The team from this group will be attending workshops facilitated by ODI and DI in the next couple of months to continue evolving this idea, co-designing both aspects of a DataHub: the technical aspect as a decentralized architecture and the legal framework that needs to be in place.Finally, concerning the service value chain resulting from collaboration between organizations providing advisory, financial, research, and/or access to markets services, specific regions in Colombia (Boyaca and Narino) and Mexico (Chiapas and Oaxaca) were chosen. These regions were selected due to the overlap of services from stakeholders, allowing for the continued exploration of how to connect existing operational services primarily with smallholder farmers who are already accessing at least one service.The service value chain will initiate by providing Digital Identity by Agros Identi Peru. These farmers will become part of the innovation hubs created by INNOVAKIT, gaining access to finance provided by IncluiTech, and receiving advisories from AgroData AI.The 3-day event reached its culmination with an intensive action planning session centered around the three identified collaboration opportunities. Participants enthusiastically engaged in outlining concrete steps and strategies to further develop these initiatives. Additionally, a valuable round of feedback was gathered from each participant, providing essential insights for future endeavors. The main feedback underscored the need for more frequent and quality-time spaces akin to the ICTforAg+ LATAM event, where meaningful discussions and collaborations can thrive. There was a notable consensus on the importance of fostering collaboration instead of competition among various stakeholders, including private companies, governments, financial institutions, and research entities. Moreover, participants expressed an increased awareness of the necessity to identify unintended consequences stemming from digital innovation. There was a shared commitment to conducting research to better understand the unique intricacies and challenges of the region, ensuring that initiatives are tailored to its specific needs and contexts. The closing moments were marked by a sense of optimism and collective determination to carry forward the collaborative spirit forged during the event into tangible actions and positive impacts within the digital agriculture landscape in Latin America.","tokenCount":"2412"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"83209a73dd27e5d5f8cd74db54c76c2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/931586a6-87b7-4470-b626-4b15329ca149/retrieve","id":"-1223821295"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8dd7d858-295c-48c7-8bc7-2e784188ef39","pagecount":"13","content":"Wheat contributes one-fifth of the global food supply with an estimated 29% of global production in low and lower-middle income countries. As production expands across southern Asia, yields are often negatively impacted by outbreaks of fungal rust diseases. A wheat rust early warning and advisory system comprising surveillance, near real-time disease risk forecasts and advisory dissemination has been established in two target countries in South Asia, including Nepal and Bangladesh. However, as wheat rust spores can be aerially transmitted over long distances, near real-time estimates of disease incidence are required from sources of infection in neighbouring regions. To address this challenge, we developed and tested a novel algorithm to generate proxy observations of infection sources using online media reports in two neighbouring countries, India and Pakistan. Media sampling could provide an effective alternative where data from ground surveys are not readily available in near real-time. Our results show that west Nepal was exposed to a substantial inoculum pressure from aerially dispersed stripe rust spores originating from India and Pakistan. There were no outbreaks of stripe rust disease in Bangladesh with only very low levels of cross-border dispersion and generally unfavourable environmental conditions for infection. We further describe how proxy observations informed farmer decision-making in near realtime in Nepal and filled a knowledge gap in identifying early sources of infection for a major outbreak of stripe rust during 2020 in Nepal. Our results highlight the importance of international cooperation in mitigating transboundary plant pathogens.disease surveillance, early warning system, long-distance dispersal, media scraping, Nepal, wheat stripe rustThe security of global food supply is threatened by conflict, economic shocks, rising inequality, climate change and pandemics (Bentley et al., 2022). Almost half of the world's hungry are in South Asia (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2022), which is also one of the largest wheatproducing regions, accounting for 50.6 M ha, 23% of global wheat production in 2020 (FAOSTAT, 2023). Cultivation is concentrated along the Indo-Gangetic Plain, spanning northern regions of Pakistan and India to southern Nepal and Bangladesh. In this region wheat continues to be threatened by epidemics of airborne fungal pathogens, especially wheat rusts (Bhavani et al., 2022;Saari & Prescott, 1985), due to conducive climatic conditions (Afzal et al., 2009;Ali et al., 2009Ali et al., , 2014;;Kisana et al., 2003). Urediniospores of rust pathogens (hereafter called spores) are capable of dispersing over long distances, increasing the likelihood of transmission across international territories and disrupting ongoing national control programmes in neigbouring countries (Meyer, Cox, et al., 2017;Radici et al., 2022).Resistant varieties are routinely deployed to prevent infections from the dominant races of wheat rust species with many cases of long-term success. Epidemics still occur, however, when new races of the pathogen arise to which widely grown wheat varieties are not resistant (Bhavani et al., 2022;Singh et al., 2015). Effective control of the pathogen then depends upon predicting disease risk and early warning systems to enable farmers to apply fungicides in time to prevent yield loss.An Early Warning and Advisory System (EWAS), originally developed and implemented for wheat rusts in Ethiopia (Allen-Sader et al., 2019), has been adapted and deployed in Nepal and Bangladesh (Bhavani et al., 2022), within South Asia. The EWAS involves field surveillance by trained experts (to identify new sources of infection), weather-driven dynamic models (to predict sites at risk in the target countries from spore dispersal and environmental suitability for infection) and advisory reports (to communicate risk to growers) in near real-time. Early warnings are provided to farmers for the three most damaging wheat rusts: stripe, stem and leaf rust, caused, respectively, by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici and Puccinia triticina. The advisory reports on infection levels, risk and management options are disseminated via extension agents and phone alerts, giving farmers up to 3 weeks in which to apply fungicides to mitigate the risk of infection and subsequent crop loss.A major challenge in forecasting airborne plant pathogens is the limitation in obtaining timely surveillance data across the full area of influence (Carvajal-Yepes et al., 2019;Morris et al., 2022). The ability of wheat rust spores to disperse beyond international borders results in the potential for emerging epidemics to originate from neighbouring countries (Brown & Hovmøller, 2002), where near real-time surveillance may be unavailable. Focusing on Nepal and Bangladesh as target countries, a significant risk may arise from any occurrences of wheat rust to the west and south, in India and Pakistan. To the north, a barrier to transmission of viable spores is formed by the Himalayas. To the east, wheat production is relatively low.Local and regional news outlets routinely publicise reports of wheat rust online. Web scraping is an established approach to extract online data into a structured format for analysis (Diouf et al., 2019;Mitchell, 2015) that has been applied in many studies of human infectious disease surveillance (Jahanbin et al., 2019;Pilipiec et al., 2023), as well as environmental research (Ghermandi & Sinclair, 2019) including pest monitoring (Daume, 2016). However, online news reports have not yet been tested as a complement to expert surveillance of crop diseases.In the current study we undertake a media-scraping exercise using openly available software to generate proxy surveys of wheat rust infection in near real-time by web-scraping online news outlets for relevant reports beyond the target regions. Specifically, we compare two approaches (manual and automated scraping) to extract information from online news outlets covering India and Pakistan. Using historic weather data as driving variables and the Lagrangian spore dispersal models used in the EWAS, we calculate time series, source strengths and mapped densities of spore deposition over Nepal and Bangladesh from the scraped media sources. By comparing these with the corresponding outputs from sources identified by field surveys in Nepal, we show that there is strong evidence for the involvement of external sources in accounting for a Pst epidemic in Nepal in 2020 connected with the presence of multiple virulent pathotypes, including 238S119 previously seen in India but not in Nepal (Baidya et al., 2022). Finally, we present the results of operational forecasts of the EWAS that were conducted in near real-time from 2020 onwards to assess the benefit of accounting for external sources of infection to provide an effective early warning system for wheat rusts in Nepal and Bangladesh.DATA AND METHODSRoutine surveillance was conducted by trained pathologists throughout wheat-growing areas in Nepal and Bangladesh during 2020-2023. Surveyors monitored for all three species of wheat rust. The majority of surveys were conducted between January and March when the mainseason crop was maturing and was most vulnerable to infection. Taking a transect approach in predetermined districts being visited by car, sites were generally randomly selected along the roadside, approximately every 10 km. At each site, surveyors recorded the date, location coordinates, field area, wheat growth stage and wheat cultivar (if known), as well as disease type, severity (measure of disease level on wheat plants), incidence (fraction of surveyed field that appears infected) and host's reaction type (Ali & Hodson, 2017). Expert surveys are recorded electronically on an OpenDataKit (ODK, 2023) survey form, gathered in near real-time on an ODK database for automated provision to Early Warning and Advisory System forecast models and later uploaded to the global RustTracker repository (RustTracker, 2023).The levels of stripe rust disease varied amongst years with a potentially severe epidemic evident during 2020 in Nepal and comparatively low levels of disease in other years. There were no outbreaks of stripe rust disease in Bangladesh during the period of interest. An analysis of the effects of external inoculum sources estimated by media scraping was therefore carried out for the Nepal epidemic of stripe rust in 2020.To construct proxy surveys of wheat rust infection outside Nepal and Bangladesh from online media, we identified relevant news reports on rust disease and extracted information on observation date, location, area affected, crop growth stage, rust species, incidence and severity for each year from 2020 to 2022. Two methods of data collection were compared: one involving regular 'manual' searches and the other using automated computer searches of media reports. Data from each method were used to test the likely impact of wheat rust spores dispersed from these sources on the infection risk in Nepal and Bangladesh.Weekly internet web searches were conducted during the susceptible period of the main wheat season (January-March) in 2020 for news reports in India or Pakistan that included the terms 'wheat rust', 'wheat yellow rust', 'yellow rust' and 'leaf rust'. Early investigation indicated that a large number of the major newspaper outlets in Pakistan and India provided English translations that were accessible by the news search application programming interface (API), and therefore the coverage was considered sufficient. Surveillance data from the December 2019 newsletter of the Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research (Indian Council on Agricultural Research [ICAR]-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research [IIWBR], 2020b) were included in the manual search because these records preceded the period of susceptibility to wheat rust diseases in Nepal during 2020.Search results were filtered for relevance and key information was extracted manually (an example is provided in Figure S1). The location coordinates for reports for all three (stripe, stem or leaf) rusts were identified as precisely as possible, sometimes reaching village level, and collated to provide spatially and temporally resolved proxy rust surveys. Detailed information on the level of infection and area diseased was missing in almost all cases. Therefore, the following default values were assumed: 1 ha for affected crop area with medium disease incidence (20%-40%) and medium severity from which to calculate source strengths, in line with characterisations of field surveys used by Allen-Sader et al. ( 2019). The wheat growth stage was estimated from the report date (Table 1). We assumed F I G U R E 1 Workflow of the scraper tool for media reports of wheat rust infection (for more details, see text and Faisal [2023b]). EWAS, Early Warning and Advisory System. medium levels of incidence and severity since we anticipated low levels are more likely to remain unobserved, and high levels of disease may be observed earlier as medium levels. If a different disease level and observed area were assumed, because it would be applied to all proxy observations in the region, the impact on results would be spatially uniform (i.e., timing of influence is unaffected). Subsequent analyses focused on stripe rust during 2020 to assess the impact of external sources of inoculum on the epidemic in Nepal.Seeking a more efficient method for media scraping, we set up an automated identification system using Python (Figure 1; see Faisal [2023b] for more details). The process starts with scheduled searching of multiple web domains for local and regional news outlets using the Google Custom Search API. We used a primary search using the following English key words ('wheat rust attack India', 'yellow rust spotted India', 'wheat rust attack Pakistan' and 'yellow rust spotted Pakistan') followed by a secondary filter against a pre-populated list of keywords (Faisal, 2023b). Reports were then processed to extract available disease information, including report date, location names, affected site area and cultivar names. Location coordinates were obtained by cross-referencing location names with the GADM database of locations associated with each administrative district of Pakistan and India. The GADM database was used because of the low computational demand required.The processed infection reports were summarised on an online dashboard (Faisal, 2023a). The dashboard provided users with maps, time series and distributions of disease prevalence, affected varieties and affected administrative districts based upon media available in Pakistan and India.The infection reports were extracted from the dashboard via an API, and a manual quality check was conducted to discard any remaining irrelevant news reports; for example, reports that provided a general warning to farmers but did not describe a specific outbreak. Proxy surveys were compiled from the automatically extracted news reports with identical assumptions about source strength and crop growth stage as for manually extracted media reports.Spore dispersal simulations require the identification of source terms. For retrospective analysis of the 2020 main wheat season, three spore source terms were calculated: one based on known sites of wheat stripe rust infection from expert surveys for Nepal, one based on proxy surveys from manual-scraped media for Pakistan and India, and another based on proxy surveys from automated scraped media for Pakistan and India. Source terms were estimated using the method of Allen-Sader et al. ( 2019). The disease prevalence (incidence and severity) for each reported survey was scaled to give a spore emission per unit area per day (in the range 10 11 -10 13 spores⋅ha −1 ⋅day −1 ). The duration for which each survey was assumed to remain active (i.e., informing calculations of spore availability for passive release and dispersal) was based on the reported growth stage and the estimated days until senescence. The full set of surveys was clustered according to administrative districts. The source location was defined as the site with highest prevalence in the district. Daily spore production (also referred to as source strength) was calculated from the area-weighted average of all active surveyed areas and scaled up by the wheat area for a given district. MapSPAM2005 was used to apportion wheat production areas because of its comprehensive geographical coverage and similar resolution to the meteorological model (SPAM2005; International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI] and International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis [IIASA], 2015). The more recent MapSPAM2010 was not used because of expert knowledge identifying inaccuracies in the area being investigated.Wheat rust spore dispersal model:We simulated Pst spore dispersal from each of the three spore source terms in order to assess the impact of external sources identified by proxy surveys, with a focus on the epidemic of stripe rust in Nepal during 2020. The passive release, transport, spread, in-air viability and deposition of wheat rust spores were calculated with the NAME dispersion model (Jones et al., 2007) modified to simulate wheat rust spores (Meyer, Burgin, et al., 2017;Meyer, Cox, et al., 2017). All three spore dispersal simulations used the analysis meteorology dataset (i.e., the best estimate of the historical state of the atmosphere by assimilating available observations in a numerical weather prediction model) of the Unified Model with a resolution of 3 h and a spatial resolution of approximately 0.14 • longitude × 0.09 • latitude (roughly 14 km × 10 km over South Asia) (Met Office, 2013). The principal output variable of interest was the number of viable spores deposited per unit area per day.Wheat rust spore dispersal model:Near real-time forecasting of spore deposition based on expert and proxy surveys was performed daily from 6 February 2020 as part of the wheat rust Early Warning and Advisory System (EWAS) in Bangladesh and Nepal. Using the 7-day global forecast from the UK Met Office Numerical Weather Prediction model (Walters et al., 2019), spore deposition was forecast with a resolution of 3 h and a spatial resolution of approximately 0.14 • longitude × 0.09 • latitude. In 2020, manual-scraped media data were used to provide near real-time identification of out-of-country proxy surveys in the wheat rust forecast EWAS for Nepal and Bangladesh. From 2021 onwards, data from the automated approach were used. The operational EWAS did not use manual and automated approaches in parallel to avoid duplication of surveys. Automatically identified news reports were extracted from the media scraper dashboard via an API and compiled as proxy surveys automatically each week. Following a manual quality check, relevant proxy surveys were provided to the EWAS to advise on wheat rust disease risk in Bangladesh and Nepal. In this study, we investigate the impact of proxy survey information on near real-time forecasts of wheat rust risk.A total of 412 field surveys were conducted in Nepal between 1 February 2020 and 31 March 2020 across the main and summer season wheat-growing areas in 45 districts across the seven provinces of the country. In the central and eastern mid-hills (areas above 250 m altitude), stripe rust was observed in 66% of surveys during February (Figure 2a). Prevalence receded in March when only 34% of surveys in the central and eastern mid-hills recorded the presence of stripe rust (Figure 2b). Almost no stripe rust was observed in the lowlands (below 250 m)-terai-of central and eastern Nepal.A different infection pattern was observed in the west of Nepal. In March 2020, the most substantial outbreak of wheat stripe rust since 2005-2007 was recorded across the lowlands and mid-hills of west Nepal (Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [BGRI], 2020), when 60% of surveys at lowland sites and 89% of surveys at mid-hill sites reported stripe rust (Figure 2b). No stripe rust was observed in west Nepal in February 2020 (Figure 2a), although its presence in the western mid-hills was likely and cannot be ruled out. Pathotype analysis indicated the first appearance of a virulent Pst pathotype 238S119 in western areas of Nepal during the 2020 season (Baidya et al., 2022), which was also the dominant strain of the Pst pathogen in India at the time (Indian Council on Agricultural Research [ICAR]-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research [IIWBR], 2020a, 2021).In Bangladesh during the 2020 wheat growing season, more than 2800 surveys were conducted and there were no reports of stripe rust infection.Comparison of manual and automated scraped media reportsLocations of proxy surveys from scraped media reports Online news outlets reported the occurrence of stripe rust in wheat fields in Pakistan and northern India during the 2020 main season. The manual synthesis of media reports identified a total of 36 infection sites from 14 news reports spanning 14 January to 11 March 2020, whereas the automated search identified 43 infection sites from 15 news reports spanning 20 January to 31 March (and one additional site on 24 May). Of these findings, four news reports were found by both methods, and 26 of the manually identified infection sites corresponded to 28 of the automatically identified infection sites (for details, see Supporting Information). The number of matching news reports was affected negatively by some cases of multiple news sites reporting the same occurrence of yellow rust, where the two media scraper methods have the potential to have made alternative decisions to retain and discard duplicates. From the December 2019 newsletter of the IIWBR, the manual compilation of proxy surveys identified three sites between 19 December 2019 and 29 January 2020.Reported infection source locations were similar for both automated and manual methods at the national scale (within roughly 10 km of each other in most cases), albeit with the automated method retrieving a wider distribution of reports across the northern hilly areas of Pakistan (Figure 3) late in the season. By contrast, at a finer scale (<10 km), the reported site locations differed between the two methods, due to differences in identified news reports as well as differences in the methods to extract location names and position them, as described in Section 2.2.F I G U R E 3 Sites of stripe rust infection in January-March 2020 identified by manual and automated media scraping.Calculation of source strength and spore deposition from proxy surveysThe calculations of source strengths from scraped web media show substantial quantities of Pst spores available for release (Figure 4a). Daily source strengths based on expert surveys in Nepal alone indicate a maximum of ∼10 17 spores⋅day −1 . Sources in India and Pakistan were found to have at least 10 times more spores available for release per day. Differences in source strength between the expert surveys and scraped media methods primarily relate to the regional estimates of wheat production. Sources also appeared at least 23 days earlier from proxy surveys in India and Pakistan during 2020 than from sites based on expert surveys in Nepal (Figure 4a).Both the manual and automated methods resulted in a similar incremental increase in infection source strengths between January and February as new media reports of infection were published and incorporated (Figure 4a). However, the manual method identified larger source strengths, in part due to the additional inclusion of proxy surveys scraped from the IIWBR newsletter for December 2019. While most spores are deposited locally, calculations with historical meteorology show the impacts of dispersal from scraped media sources extending many hundreds of kilometres, as far as Nepal and Bangladesh (Figure 4b-d). This pattern is consistent with single-source dispersal calculations across 2003-2014by Meyer, Cox, et al. (2017). The spatial pattern of spore deposition is similar from both scraped media methods, with the highest levels of deposi-tion around central Pakistan and across the Indo-Gangetic plain and foothills south of the Himalayan mountain range.The time series for Pst spore deposition in west Nepal simulated by the spore dispersal model from sources within and beyond Nepal are shown in Figure 5 (see also Figure S2). There were no recorded sources of Pst in Bangladesh. Results for both the manual and automatic media scraping methods were similar (the Spearman rank correlation for spore deposition over Nepal's western lowlands is 0.94 and 0.96 for the western mid-hills. For further analysis, see Supporting Information), indicating that differences in the methods of media scraping are small relative to the impact of local meteorological conditions on long-distance dispersal into Nepal from different release sites. The external sources from India and Pakistan contributed an additional 16% (manual) and 22% (automatic) load of Pst spores in Nepal compared with in-country sources over the entire study period. The earlier occurrence of deposition in Nepal from out-of-country proxy surveys than from in-country expert surveys (Figure 5) reflects earlier infection of sites in India and Pakistan (Figure 4a).We recall that there were no reported cases of stripe rust in west Nepal prior to March 2020, when an outbreak occurred that included a virulent pathotype 238S119 previously unseen in Nepal (Baidya et al., 2022) but known to be present in India (Indian Council on Agricultural Research [ICAR]-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research [IIWBR], 2020a, 2021). Stripe rust was reported at low levels in central and eastern Nepal in February and subsided for the rest of the season (Figure 2b). However, dispersal calculations do not support transmis-sion of Pst from central and eastern Nepal to the west, as the average spore deposition in western areas originating from central and eastern areas did not exceed 5 spores⋅m −2 ⋅day −1 (Figure 5 purple lines). Stripe rust infections were reported in online news media in northern India and Pakistan between January and March 2020 (Figure 3). Model simulations indicate Pst spores were present in northern India and Pakistan at least 23 days before stripe rust was detected in Nepal (Figure 4a), from which our dispersal simulations indicate suitable meteorological conditions for frequent deposition of Pst spores in western Nepal between 22 January and 19 February 2020 (Figure 5). That is 3-7 weeks before the first infection reports in Nepal's western areas and long enough for infected fields to be detectable. Calculated deposition rates peaked at roughly 4 × 10 4 spores⋅m −2 ⋅day −1 on the western lowlands and 7 × 10 2 spores⋅m −2 ⋅day −1 on the western mid-hills (Figure 5 green lines) from outside Nepal with similar rates calculated locally in west Nepal after stripe rust became established (Figure 5 blue line). There was no evidence for the involvement of Bangladesh as a source of Pst infection for Nepal during the 2020 main wheat-growing season.Simulated Pst spore deposition over Bangladesh from reported infections in Nepal, India and Pakistan did not exceed 30 spores⋅m −2 ⋅day −1 (see Figure S2c), indicating the Pst dispersal connection was weak. The low Pst inoculum pressure in simulations is consistent with the lack of stripe rust reports from surveys in Bangladesh; however, environmental conditions are generally unsuitable for Pst in Bangladesh and therefore limit the chance of stripe rust infection.The above results used analysis (i.e., historic) weather data to enable a retrospective assessment of the role of alternative external sources of inoculum on the Nepal epidemic of Pst during 2020. We now assess the impact of external sources of inoculum on near real-time risk modelling using 7-day forecast weather data conducted for Nepal during the 2020 season when media reports were scraped manually.A series of the 7-day forecasts for Pst spore deposition in Nepal is shown in Figure 6 for spore dispersal data from sources in Nepal (Figure 6b,d,e) and from proxy sources in Pakistan and India (Figure 6a,c,e; see also Figure S3 and Videos S1 and S2). Forecasts indicated an early and persistent influence of Pst spores from beyond the borders of west Nepal (Figure 6a) and that infections recorded in central and eastern Nepal did not provide substantial inoculum pressure over west Nepal (Figure 6d). Allowance for sources of external inoculum derived from the scraped media analysis enabled early warnings and advice to be communicated to farmers through extension agencies in Nepal for farmers to apply fungicide to mitigate the risk of wheat stripe rust infection.Our primary aim was to assess how scraped media reports of wheat rust infection could be used as a novel proxy for field surveys in non-target countries. While manual and automated media scraping searches came up with different site locations within India and Pakistan, the exact location of the spore sources was less important for dispersal over long distances as their overall effects were similar on potential spore dispersal and risk of deposi-tion in Nepal and Bangladesh. Spore dispersal calculations show the connectivity of stripe rust occurrences in neighbouring countries with Nepal. Sources outside Nepal were calculated to account for an additional 16%-22% inoculum pressure within Nepal (for manual and automated methods of media scraping, respectively). Our result indicates the importance of allowing for potential sources of longdistance dispersal in wheat rust early warning systems, previously identified by Meyer, Cox et al. (2017).We investigated a possible precursor to the sudden outbreak of stripe rust in west Nepal during 2020 and found long-distance dispersal from stripe rust occurrences in India and Pakistan to be a possible contributor, in agreement with the first appearance of a virulent strain of Pst in west Nepal (Baidya et al., 2022). Dispersal calculations based on near real-time field surveillance by trained personnel in central and eastern Nepal suggested no causal connection with earlier infections of stripe rust in the rest of Nepal (prior to stripe rust arriving in west Nepal, simulations indicate the number of viable deposited spores originating from outside Nepal exceeded those from central and eastern Nepal by a factor of around 8400).The outbreak in west Nepal developed suddenly, indicating the potential emergence or incursion of a new virulent race (see, e.g., Chen, 2020) rather than carryover from earlier crops in the same area. Barberry is a documented functional alternate host for Pst (Jin et al., 2010), a potential source of early-season infections, and a source of new pathogen diversity through sexual reproduction (e.g., Mehmood et al., 2020). Several studies indicate a potential role for barberry in Nepal (Hovmøller et al., 2023;Khan et al., 2019), but conclusive evidence is lacking and further research is needed. A role for barberry in the 2020 main season Pst development cannot be ruled out; however, long-distance dispersal of spores from external sources, including a new virulent strain, appears to have also contributed to the outbreak. We note that disease control is not accounted for in the spore source calculations as reliable data about fungicide use are not available. As a result, simulations overestimate inoculum pressure and therefore represent a worst-case scenario.Complementing expert surveys with scraped web media has informed in-season advisories disseminated through extension services to farmers in Nepal and Bangladesh since February 2020 and, in particular, provided advance warning of the substantial stripe rust outbreak that occurred in Nepal during the 2020 main seasonARRCC, 2022). Cooperation of surveillance between neighbouring nations is key in managing transboundary plant pathogens (Jansen & de la Cruz Bekema, 2023;Radici et al., 2023;Thompson et al., 2016) and has been a noted success of many multi-national efforts (e.g., Bhavani et al., 2022;Global Rust Reference Centre, 2024). Near real-time field surveillance offers the most accurate view of disease status but is costly and depends on well-coordinated reporting systems that can ideally be integrated across national boundaries. Proxy surveys from scraped news media are a novel data source for plant disease monitoring. They have the potential for low-cost, high-coverage, rapid application in disease early warning systems.The validity of online news reports in India and Pakistan as a proxy for expert field-based surveillance observations was inferred by their attribution to the timing of observed disease in Nepal that could not have arisen from sources in Nepal because of prevailing wind conditions. A more rigorous test involving comparison of field surveillance with media-scraped data for the same region and season was not possible because of the unavailability of field-based surveillance data from the media-assessed countries in this study, but is indeed crucial for future assessment. Moreover, formal validation is further com-plicated in that media-sourced and field survey data are not necessarily independent. Detailed inspection of the media-scraped data confirms that media reports frequently cite field survey reports as supporting evidence (e.g., see Figure S1; for a full listing, see the data availability statement).It remains important that early warning systems consider different sources of information separately. Web scraping poses many of the same challenges as data gathered from social media, namely noise, bias and future availability (Ghermandi & Sinclair, 2019). In the case of this study, the representativeness of news reports is subject to the resources and interests of each media outlet. For instance, the news media are unlikely to report on the absence of rusts. Indeed, in the 2021-2023 main seasons, stripe rust was relatively limited in India and Pakistan, and the automated media scraper identified relatively few reports relating to wheat rust (5, 13 and 0 reports, respectively; the stripe rust forecasts for 2021 and 2022 are shown in Videos S3 and S4, respectively). News reports of wheat rust presence may be relatively more common in India and Pakistan than in many other countries since agriculture is a major part of the national economies (accounting for 16.8% and 22.7% of national GDP in 2021, respectively; World Bank, 2021) and national wheat institutes engage with news outlets (as demonstrated by the proportion of identified news reports of wheat rust occurrences that quote plant pathologists). Past studies provide a number of approaches to tackle the general challenges of scraped media, including noise, bias and future availability (Alomar et al., 2016;Daume, 2016;Ghermandi & Sinclair, 2019). Approaches that may enhance the novel integration with crop disease models presented in this paper include a direct comparison of proxy and expert surveys in the same region and season, multilingual functionality, fuzzy logic to improve location name identification and the use of a more open web search API.Our study has demonstrated a viable means of monitoring for wheat rust occurrence where near real-time surveillance is unavailable but public news outlets are engaged, offering a novel advance in applied epidemiological modelling to support plant health initiatives. Digital agriculture tools may continue to provide opportunities to share knowledge and enhance crop disease early warning systems to promote international cooperation in managing transboundary pathogens.We thank the collaborators of the ARRCC Early Warning and Advisory System project who have guided it to useful outcomes, including Moin Salam, Md. Washiq Faisal, Tamás Mona, Sarah Millington and George Gibson. We also thank the anonymous reviewers whose comments","tokenCount":"5206"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"22f957b67abcc274be3fee516fb822d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b5eb3493-bf0e-4556-9767-0ecc6f43435f/retrieve","id":"-1636937482"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cdc56452-e569-4324-b861-e6d14eaa1e4d","pagecount":"2","content":"For example in Kenya, Tanzania and South Sudan, the roast beef known as nyama choma roasted in butcheries and bars is a growing preference by both the indigenous and foreigners.In Uganda, vending of roadside roast beef known as muchomo is a growing trend on highway spots outside the capital city.Across the ECA region, the supermarkets and the three to five-star hotels offer hygienic, well packaged and graded beef and beef products targeted for the high, medium consumers as well as the health conscious consumers.To increase sales, actors should:• Explore more niche markets • Address the quality and safety issues that come up in the niche markets Regulators and policy perspectives Some of the regulations in the ECA region require livestock to be transported in specialized containers.Some require meat to be packed and transported in tins, boxes. Before meat is sold it has to be inspected by a qualified veterinary doctor who then rubber-stamps the meat. Across the ECA region, the regulations in existence are either not enforced or are poorly enforced, leading to many irregularities in the beef sector.The regulators need harmonized regulations for effective service provision to the beef sector. A comprehensive beef policy for the ECA region is lacking and it needs to be put in place. The annual per capita meat demand in Africa will reach 22kg by 2050. This exponential increase will necessitate a corresponding rise in demand for livestock. It suggests similar increases throughout the developing world.In Eastern and Central Africa (ECA), the growing demand for quality meat products is driving opportunities for value addition.The ECA countries need to put in place measures to exploit this opportunity. However, significant technical and institutional barriers continue to limit the small-scale meat producers and market agents from exploiting these opportunities.This brochure provides the beef producers, market agents, processors and retailers information on quality and safety perspectives of consumers, niche markets and, regulatory and policy institutions. The information could enhance the adoption of addition innovations in the meat sub-sectors in ECA.• Consumers in the upper-end markets and priority stores perceive packaging as an aspect of quality and safety and are less price sensitive • They are also willing to pay a premium for quality and safety.• Consumers rely a lot on the physical attributes of beef to determine the quality and safety. These attributes include the veterinary rubber stamp, colour, fat content of the meat and the cleanliness of the premise.• Consumer income is a major driver for the type of beef products one decides to buy.• The high income consumers buy value added beef more than the low income consumers.• The high income consumers buy beef from high-end markets like supermarkets and priority stores while the low income consumers buy from local butcheries.A hygienic private abattoir Beef in the supermarket in Ethiopia Quality and safety of small scale beef products in Eastern and Central Africa• Selling of roast beef is an increasing trend motivated by consumers' demand, especially the low and medium income consumers, for ready-to eat roast beef.The different ways in which the beef is roasted, dressed and sold varies by country. However, some consumers still question the safety and quality of beef as it goes through the processes of roasting, dressing and selling. If the quality and safety is assured, there will be demand from the high income consumers.To increase the sales of value added products, the actors should adhere to the regulations for quality and safety and understand consumers' preferences.Niche markets perspectives A niche market is a focused, targetable portion of a market that addresses a need for a product or service that is not being addressed by mainstream providers. In the ECA, there is a growing trend of niche markets running across the high, medium and low end markets.","tokenCount":"625"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"daa796dc95d31c9649f44386668a67c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4aa22b72-a1e8-4c4c-9453-4dd993b08b74/retrieve","id":"-644247904"},"keywords":["Low cost drip","Water productivity","Brassica napus","Fertigation","Water use efficiency Alluvial aquifer","Irrigated agriculture","Remote sensing","Limpopo basin Food security","Millennium development goals","Soil fertility","Soil-water conservation Dead level contours","Infiltration pits","Planting basins","Soil-water conservation Catchment management","Participatory management","Stakeholder participation","Water quality monitoring Dams","Flow duration curve","Flow modification","Low flows Conservation agriculture","Minimum tillage","Mulching","Planting basin","Semi-arid Rainfed agriculture","Rainwater harvesting system","Water productivity","Yield gap Alluvial aquifer, MODFLOW, Rainfall-runoff relation, Potential water supply INRM, IWRM, Green water, Blue water Environmental flows, Limpopo, Water quality monitoring Double ploughing, Planting, basins, Ripping, Soil water Climate change, Adaptive capacity, Coping strategies, Drought water policy, water law, history, basin management, livelihoods, poverty, gender, Olifants basin, South Africa Drought, Food insecurity, Social vulnerability, Risk Conflict resolution, Irrigation, River basin game, Water equity, Downstream user, Upstream user climate variability, climate change, discharge analysis, Pettitt test, rainfall analysis, water resources, Limpopo Basin, Zimbabwe, Southern Africa Rainfall-interception-evaporation-runoff relationships in a semi-arid mesocatchment, northern Limpopo Basin, Zimbabwe D. Love, S. Uhlenbrook, G. Corzo-Perez, S. Twomlow and P. van der Zaag HBV","Interception","Limpopo Basin","Semi-arid hydrology"],"sieverID":"894fa1a3-8f31-430c-92a0-9e799ae1a743","pagecount":"161","content":"delivered by WaterNet members and partners. A key aspect of this project for WaterNet was building solid partnerships outside the university sector: with CG centres, government departments and NGOs. Many of these partnerships have outlasted the project. Individual project members built up their own partnerships, especially universities with CG centres, government departments and NGOs. This has led to crossfertilisation and benefits to university curriculum, other research initiatives and so on. The methodology used by WaterNet as a network in developing the concept note and proposal, assembling the PN17 partnership and managing the project is serving as an excellent example as a way for us to facilitate our members to access international research programs. WaterNet is establishing other research projects in the same fashion.This paper is an output of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food Project ''Integrated Water Resource Management for Improved Rural Livelihoods: Managing risk, mitigating drought and improving water productivity in the water scarce Limpopo Basin'', led by WaterNet, with additional funding provided by the International Foundation for Science (Grants W4029-1 and S/4596-1), FSP Echel Eau, CGIAR System-wide Program on Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi), RELMA-in-ICRAF and matching (contributed) funds from the research partners. The opinions and results presented in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the donors or participating institutions. Secondary biophysical data (from outside the field study sites) were kindly provided by the governments of Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Project Partners:The Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) contributes to efforts of the international community to ensure global diversions of water to agriculture are maintained at the level of the year 2000. It is a multi-institutional research initiative that aims to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production. Through its broad partnerships, it conducts research that leads to impact on the poor and to policy change.The CPWF conducts action-oriented research in nine river basins in Africa, Asia and Latin America, focusing on crop water productivity, fisheries and aquatic ecosystems, community arrangements for sharing water, integrated river basin management, and institutions and policies for successful implementation of developments in the water-food-environment nexus.The Challenge of Integrated Water Resource Management for Improved Rural Livelihoods: Managing Risk, Mitigating Drought and Improving Water Productivity in the Water Scarce Limpopo Basin: Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a systems approach to water management, based on the principle of managing the full water cycle. It is required, not only to balance water for food and nature, but also to unlock paths to sustainable development. A global hotspot area in terms of water for food and improved livelihoods is in the poverty stricken rural areas of water scarce semi-arid tropics, such as in the Limpopo basin. The improvement in resilience that the IWRM approach can impart to rural livelihood systems has been shown by a series of case studies in the Limpopo Basin.Each report in the CPWF Project Report series is reviewed by an independent research supervisor and the CPWF Secretariat, under the oversight of the Associate Director. The views expressed in these reports are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. Before taking any action based on the information in this publication, readers are advised to seek expert professional, scientific and technical advice.    1.3.4 Mozambique.......................................................................................... 1.3.4    1.5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1.5.2 Methods ............................................................................................... 1.5.3 Results and discussion............................................................................ 1.5.4 Conclusions.........................................................................................  1.6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1.6.2 Methods ............................................................................................... 1.6.2.1 Context.......................................................................................... 1.6.2.2 Framework for the assessment of smallholder farming system risk ........ 1.6.3 Results and Discussions .......................................................................... 1.6.4 Policy implications.................................................................................. 1.6.5 Conclusions...........................................................................................  It is increasingly understood that integrated water resource management (IWRM) is required, not only to balance water for food and nature, but also to unlock paths to sustainable development. A global hotspot area in terms of water for food and improved livelihoods is in the poverty stricken rural areas of water scarce semi-arid tropics, such as in the Limpopo basin. Here, translating IWRM from concept to action still remains largely undone. Water policy and institutions are embedded in a conventional blue water framework, mainly concerned with (runoff-based) water supply for irrigation, domestic and industrial use. This water resource strategy has limitations. Blue water resources for irrigation are over-committed in the Limpopo basin, while the bulk of agricultural produce sustaining lives of resource poor farmers originates from green water flows in rainfed crop and livestock production.Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a systems approach to water management, based on the principle of managing the full water cycle (Twomlow et al., 2008b). Green water is the source of runoff and percolation -and thus of blue water.The fundamental principles of IWRM are: (i) water is a vulnerable and finite resource requiring sustainable management, (ii) water is a special economic good, (iii) water management requires a participatory approach and (iv) sustainable water management requires the promotion of gender equity (ICWE, 1992;Savenije, 2002). The improvement in resilience that the IWRM approach can impart to rural livelihood systems has been shown by a series of case studies in the Limpopo Basin. Community or catchment water resource assessments must become an essential precursor to food security interventions, due to the convergence of water scarcity and food scarcity, and the constraints that water resource availability impose on development initiatives in basins such as the Limpopo (Love et al., 2006b(Love et al., , 2010)).Access to green water in rainfed farming can be improved through a package of conservation agriculture techniques. Conservation tillage methods, such as planting basins, help to concentrate rainfall that falls in the field into the root zone of the crops and decreases runoff out of the field (Ncube et al., 2009). Best results are obtained when such methods are combined with fertility improvements such as manure, or microdosing with nitrogen fertilizer or with measures such as mulching that improve the use of water by crops and also decrease evaporation (Mupangwa, 2009). Yield improvements in rainfed farming translate very quickly into major improvements in green water productivity (Ncube et al., 2007;Rockström et al., 2007). The farming system's resilience is thus raised without industrial scale interventions.Supplementary irrigation, using micro-catchment or runoff farming incorporates smallscale utilization of blue water into rainfed farming. It thus represents a nexus between rainfed and irrigated farming and conjunctive use of green and blue water. Studies in the Limpopo Basin (Mwenge Kahinda et al., 2007;Magombeyi et al., 2008) have shown that there is a substantial yield gap which supplementary irrigation can bridge. This is particularly the case especially during years with dryspells during the growing season, when conventional rainfed agriculture may fail completely.A multi-stakeholder approach to decision-making, especially where gendered, builds resilience as negotiation processes between users result in new institutions, or new roles for existing institutions, such as school boards which take over borehole management. Such institutions often evolve and revolve around specific infrastructure (Mabiza et al. 2006). At the same time, these community-based institutions need linkage to formal water management structures (Dzingirai and Manzungu, 2009).It should be emphasized that, as a network, WaterNet itself is a partnership organization. The Trust oversees, the secretariat coordinates but most activities areThe main goal of the Challenge Program on Water and Food Project 17 (PN17) was to contribute to improved rural livelihoods of poor smallholder farmers in the Limpopo Basin. This goal was achieved through the development of an Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) framework for increased productive use of water flows and risk management for drought and dry-spell mitigation at all scales within the basin. The project also had a strong bias towards human capacity building which was fully integrated into all research activities. The research project was carried out in three pilot catchments using three approaches: Farmer Field Based Action Research (FFBAR) using technologies such as conservation farming and nutrient management to increase crop yields; Water Resources Research where rain, surface water and groundwater flow partitioning was characterized; and Institutional Research which developed appropriate institutional models for water governance and strengthened institutions and policies for water productivity and risk mitigation. The was implemented by 14 partners who were made up of two consultative groups of international agricultural research (CGIAR) centers, 10 national research centers (NARES), one agricultural research institute (ARI) and 1 non-governmental organization (NGO). The project covered three countries, South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The project was originally planned to be carried out over four years. However, a no cost extension was granted for an extra year to allow for project completion.Figure 1 shows the Limpopo basin and the location of the research sites where detailed studies were carried out. The basin covers mostly semi-arid regions with a mean annual rainfall of 530 mm (range 200 -1200 mm) (Harrington et al, 2004). Baseline data on water resources, agriculture and institutions was collected from some of the research sites using various methodologies. The main idea was to have background data for the main research studies. A few challenges were faced; hence some of the data was collected towards the end of the project. Agricultural production in the Limpopo Basin is hampered by poor soil fertility, poor access to water resources and low infrastructure development. Rainfall is unreliable making rain-fed farming very risky, and droughts are common during the crop growing season (Butterworth et al., 1999;Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000;Unganai and Mason, 2002).Access to water for agricultural production is poor due to unavailability of appropriate water sources, but at times the problem is that of unequal access to the resources, a case in point being large commercial farms having good access to water and infrastructure, while small holder farmers lack even drinking water.Maize is the dominant crop that is grown under rain fed conditions in the basin despite the dryness. Other crops include sorghum, millet and legumes such as groundnuts and bambara nuts. An example of common farming systems in South Africa and the challenges that are faced are indicated in Table 1. The major agricultural issues that were addressed within the basin included improving crop productivity using low input systems such as conservation agriculture, improving water availability to crops through rainwater harvesting and supplemental irrigation. Farmer-Field Based Action Research involved the valuation of conservation agriculture, rainwater harvesting and field-testing of different nutrient and soil salinity management regimes in order to identify successful innovations and improve household food security.3 Water Resources Management ChallengesRainfall is seasonal, falling mainly between October and March. Rainfall is lowest in the upper Limpopo, with mean annual rainfall of 250 mm per annum in Botswana and 500 mm per annum in southwestern Zimbabwe. Within Zimbabwe, mean annual rainfall per hydrological subzone ranges from 415 to 633 mm per annum and mean annual evaporation from 1836 to 2034 mm per annum. The rainfall pattern is characterised by very high inter-annual variability. Data is generally scarce on the Mozambican side of the Lower Limpopo. However, the rainfall generally decreases from the coastline towards the inland. In South Africa, mean annual rainfall ranges from 481mm to 1316 per annum (Figure 2). Rainfall is seasonal; as a result, greatest surface water flows occur between October and March. In the Mzingwane catchment, mean annual runoff is generally low (Figure 3), with high inter-annual variation. Most of the sub zones have low values of base flow index, less than 0.20, with almost all streams flowing during the wet season only. Figure 4 shows average annual runoff for Thuli River from 1959 to 2002. 5 9 / 6 0 6 1 / 6 2 6 3 / 6 4 6 5 / 6 6 6 7 / 6 8 6 9 / 7 0 7 1 / 7 2 7 3 / 7 4 7 5 / 7 6 7 7 / 7 8 7 9 / 8 0 8 1 / 8 2 8 3 / 8 4 8 5 / 8 6 8 7 / 8 8 8 9 / 9 0 9 1 / 9 2 9 3 / 9 4 9 5 / 9 6 9 7 / 9 8 9 9 / 0 0 0 1 / 0 2 The geology of the basin is dominated by the Limpopo Mobile Belt, a high grade metamorphic zone that lies in the collision zone between two Archean continental shield areas, the Zimbabwe craton to the north and the Kaapvaal craton to the south. Due to the metamorphism that resulted from the collision, these rocks have very limited primary porosity and permeability. Groundwater occurrence is largely restricted to secondary features such as fault zones, joints, lithological contact zones and regolith zones of deeper weathering that occur in favourable sites. Hence, limited groundwater supplies are available from these lithologies and no large scale development potential is anticipated.The craton areas consist of a variety of ancient pre-Cambrian lithologies, including sediments; felsic, mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. Most of these rocks have been metamorphosed to low grade metamorphic rocks. Groundwater occurrence in the craton areas is also restricted to secondary features as described for the Limpopo Mobile Belt rocks above, and yields are generally moderate. Occurrence in the individual rocks varies with rock type. In cases of mafic igneous rocks, the depth of the weathered regolith tends to be deeper, resulting in enhanced groundwater conditions. Meta-sediments and felsic igneous rocks, by contrast, generally have more limited chemical weathering, and the regolith tends to be thin and unproductive. However, particularly for the South Africa side of the basin, there are some limestone / dolomite sequences with the development of karst that can produce very high groundwater yields from sub-surface solution channels. In addition there are several brittle quartzite units within the sedimentary sequences that can provide a significant degree of secondary permeability and resultant high yields.Overlying the two cratons and the Limpopo mobile belt are limited outcrop areas of Phanerozoic sediments from the Karoo and Kalahari groups. These sediments tend to have primary porosity and may be useful aquifers, depending on permeability considerations. Recent alluvial channel fill also provides an attractive exploitable groundwater resource in these areas.To the east, the Mozambique part of the Limpopo basin consists almost entirely of younger sediments that have primary porosity and permeability. These include marine sequences, coastal dunes, as well as fluvial sands and argillites. The groundwater development potential of many of these units may be considered as high, although water quality issues have been reported in some cases, particularly high salinity.The overall mineralisation of groundwater resources is not extremely high, but the variability is high, especially in the mining areas of the basin. The water chemistry problems are similar (salinity, nitrates and metals) throughout the basin due to the fact that the countries have similar hydrogeological units and similar activities taking place. The water quality in most places is related to the geology and variety of water chemistry observed is caused by various factors such as the chemistry of the host rock aquifer and residence time, which are mainly controlled by lithology and geological structure. In most of the cases, the hydrochemistry of alluvial aquifers is very similar to that of the surface water flowing above.The main water quality problems in Zimbabwe and Botswana are natural salinity and localized fluoride, phosphorous from sewage and urban waste water and copper and cadmium from base metal mining. Mercury pollution from gold panning is a particular problem in Zimbabwe, although very localized. Mozambique shows major problems with salinity, as well as metal contamination in the lowland rivers. South Africa has similar problems to Botswana with natural salinity and localized fluoride, as well as major acid mine drainage (acid, metals and sulphate) in the coalfields. Elevated levels of cadmium in all four riparian countries are a cause for concern (Figure 5). Population data was collected from three catchments within the Limpopo Basin, namely the Mzingwane in Zimbabwe, Olifants in South Africa and Chokwe in Mozambique. This was in line with objective 1.2.4 of the project proposal that required that a population data base covering the three selected catchments be completed, in recognition of the importance of water and land use planning management, livelihoods, development programs and research projects being based on current demographic features. The database was developed as part of the general baseline data that was undertaken by the Centre for Applied, Social Sciences (CASS), University of Zimbabwe.At project formulation, there was a presumption that published population census and inter-census reports, among other secondary data sources would be used in order to fulfil the objective. It was also presumed that research partner institutions within PN 17 would work with the Centre for Applied Social Sciences in consolidating population data in the three catchments. Consolidating data from relevant partners proved to be a difficult task, more than was assumed at project formulation. Apart from Mzingwane Catchment data, it took unexpectedly more communication exchanges through electronic mail and telephone to gather relevant data, and when the data was finally made available it was not necessarily current data. The data was based on the 2001 census for the Olifants Catchment and the 2002 census for the Mzingwane Catchment.As a result the researchers used whatever was available to generate the population database report. Out of the three catchments, only Mzingwane had complete population data on comparable population variables namely total population, male and female population and sex ratio. In the Olifants and Chokwe Catchments population data for other wards was absent. Unlike Mzingwane and Olifants catchment, shape files for the least geographical boundaries corresponding to population variables were not in polygon format. Available data for Chokwe Catchments could best be presented as a density map. The report therefore simplified population data presented in the Geographical Information System (GIS) format as a project with shape files, created maps and tables of population variables relating to the three Catchments. Figure 6 shows total population data for the three catchments, Mzingwane, Olifants and Chokwe. Some variables could be compared between the Olifants and Mzingwane Catchments where more data was available. There were more females than males and the highest population fell within the 15-34 age categories in both catchments. Males constituted 48 % while 52 % were females. In the Mzingwane Catchment, 67 % of the wards had a sex ratio of less than 100 while 33% had a sex ratio of more than 100. Of the 2 763 375 people in the Olifants Catchment in 2001, 53 % were females while 47 % were males. 15 % of wards had a sex ratio of between 101 and 187 and while 85 % of the wards had a sex ratio ranging from 70 to 100.More information on the population database can be found in the WaterNet website http://www.waternetonline.ihe.nl/.A survey of socio-economics of smallholder farmers, complemented by secondary data that focused on an assessment of farming systems, land tenure and current agricultural water management practices, was undertaken in the quaternary catchment B72A of the Olifants basin. The study area incorporated the Maruleng local municipality in Mopani District Municipality, which is part of the Sekororo and Letsoalo tribal authorities. A large part of the catchment (80%) falls in the former Lebowa homeland. The area is estimated to have a total population of around 56 000 inhabitants, and is characterized by high population densities, poverty and unemployment. The main sources of income are state pensions and welfare grants. Small scale subsistence agriculture provides a small part of the food requirements.Household size in the study area varied between 3.8 and 4.96-16. People under the age of 15 accounted for 43% of the population. Females outnumbered males across all age groups. Head of households had an average age of 54.4 years. Female headed households accounted for 64% of the sample, and constituted 68-70% of the farming population. However female-headed households were found to experience more poverty.For example a household headed by a resident male had a 28% probability of being poor whereas a household with a female head had a 48% chance; with a household with a defacto female head having a 53% chance. The main factors that explained the dire situation of female-headed households were the general poverty the rural areas, unemployment, skewed wage differences, fewer assets and low formal education, high incidences of HIV/Aids, and poor skill base.Two socio-economic surveys were undertaken in the Lower Limpopo. The first survey was designed to identify the current agricultural and water management practices for food production used by smallholder farmers in Mabalane District and the Administrative Post of Combomune. The climate in the area is semi-arid with two distinct seasons: a rainy and hot season occurring from October to March; and a dry and cold season from April to September. The mean annual rainfall during the rainy and hot season varies from 360 to 470 mm. In the dry and cold season rainfall varies from 30 to 120 mm. Average temperatures ranges from 21-31 o C and 15-28 o C during the rainy and dry seasons, respectively. A total of thirty (30) families were randomly selected and interviewed. The survey covered issues such as farm characteristics, household characteristics, labour availability, main crops grown, agricultural practices, and water consumption patterns.The average water consumption in the study area was found to be about 160 litres per day for a family of eight ( 8) members. Sources of water were located at 7.7 km from the homesteads. Rural water supply and sanitation are also a deficient in the region. The average number of farms per household is three (3) and no improved inputs are used. The use of animal traction in farm activities is common although mechanization is generally a major limitation. The major crops that are grown are maize, cowpeas, groundnuts, cassava and are mostly cultivated under a mixed cropping system. Pest and disease management during production and post-harvesting represents a threat. Besides agriculture, charcoal production constitutes the major source of income for the local communities. Dry climate conditions, including rainfall variability, increases the risk of crop lost due to occurrence of long dry-spells during the growing season.The second survey had the same objectives as the first, namely to identify the current agricultural and water management practices for food production used by smallholder farmers in the Lower Limpopo. The study area covered the Administrative Posts of Chicumbane, Chonguene, and Mazivila. The climate is semi-arid with two distinct seasons. The rainy and hot season occurs from October to March while the dry and cold season is from April to September. The mean annual rainfall during the rainy and hot season varies from 650 to 760 mm. In the dry and cold season rainfall varies from 260 to 360 mm. Average temperatures ranges from 21-31 o C and 15-27 o C during the rainy and dry seasons, respectively. A total of thirty (30) families were randomly selected and interviewed (semi-structured interviews) according to their relative location in 13 areas of the Districts of Xai-Xai and Bilene. These families also matched the sub-areas high (i.e., sandy soils) and low (i.e., clay and organic soils \"machongo 1 \"). The survey covered issues such as farm characteristics, household characteristics, labour availability, main crops grown, agricultural practices, and water consumption patterns.The average water consumption in the study area was found to be about 21 litres per day. Sources of water were located 2.6 km from the homesteads. The average number of farms per household was three (3). No improved inputs were used. There is evidence of use of animal traction and mechanization is a problem. The major crops that are grown include maize, cowpeas, sweet potato, banana, sugar cane, cassava and are mostly cultivated under a mixed cropping system. Pest and disease management during production and post-harvesting is a threat. Besides agriculture, fishing and charcoal production also constitute the major livelihoods activities.A socio-economic survey was undertaken in Mangwe, Insiza, Mwenezi and Beitbridge districts. The sample consisted of 240 households. Data was collected through a questionnaire and PRA techniques. Most households were found to be involved in informal, petty trade. Low education levels were said to be a problem. The diverse cultural traditions as a result of the various ethnic groups present a set of challenge that has to be overcome. While women were found to participate in water and soil conservation measures and were better educated, they wielded little power in decision making.Livestock rearing was identified as an important activity in the area and is more popular than crop production because it is affected less by inter and intra-seasonal variability.Cattle ownership was low with the majority of the population claiming to own 2 herds of cattle. This was in part attributed to the 1991/2 drought, as well as lack of markets.Access to plots ranged from 0-5 hectares. Maize yields are low (2 300kg/tonne). Millet and sorghum are also grown. The popularity of these varied from district to district. In some areas farmers were not keen on growing drought tolerant sorghum and millet despite the low rainfall that characterized the area. Conservation agriculture (CA) was spearheaded by non-state actors such as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The CA message was very variable and was not an easy sale to farmers.The participation of various NGOs intervened in agricultural production, while welcome, had the net effect of taking over poorly funded public extension services. Consequently there is a need to ensure the coordination of the various institutions that were in the area. Major water uses in the area included small and large irrigation schemes, gold panning, stock watering, tourism, fishing, and boating.The sources of food in Table 2 show the different potential of agricultural products across the districts. The two districts where people produced their own food were wetter. In the Administrative Post of Chonguene these soils occupies a total area of about 4 500 ha.Across all the countries it was clear that agricultural production and water management were affected by a combination of physical and socio-economic factors. Generally low precipitation levels limited rainfed agriculture more than soil type. Low levels of developed water resources resulted in low areas under irrigation. Irrigation could have changed the potential of agricultural production. Socio-economic factors that affected agricultural production and water management included widespread poverty as reflected by a low asset base and poor incomes, among other factors.The feminization of agriculture also contributed to poor agricultural production because of the cultural limitations society placed upon the women. Against such a background agriculture was not the main livelihood option. In South Africa government provided the bulk of income which was not the case in weak economies of Mozambique and Zimbabwe. All the socioeconomic factors that were identified as limiting agricultural production and water use can be reduced to the absence of strong institutions. Generally there was poor coordination of institutions. In Zimbabwe lack of financial resources undermined public extension services, which contributed to Zimbabwe's smallholder agricultural revolution that was achieved in the first two decades of independence.The main objectives of the project were:1) Developing adoption and adaptation of water management practices among smallholder farmers that reduce risk, and which, together with integrated farm systems management (addressing particularly soil fertility and crop management) improve farm/household income and water productivity. 2) Development of appropriate catchment management strategies based on IWRM principles that incorporate sustainable use of green and blue water resources, which enables poor rural people to reduce risk of food deficits due to water scarcity, and to manage water for improved livelihoods. 3) Develop institutional models for water governance that aim at strengthening policies for water productivity and risk mitigation at catchment and basin scale. 4) Human capacity building among farmers, extension officers, water managers and researchers at local universities in the Limpopo Basin and in Southern Africa.The research thrust of the project was to build evidence that improving water management through the IWRM paradigm has the potential to improve rural livelihoods from the basin (trans-boundary) scale down to the field scale (farmers).1 Objective 1: Adoption and adaptation of water management practices among smallholder farmers that reduce risk, and which, together with integrated farm systems management (addressing particularly soil fertility and crop management) improve farm/household income and water productivity.Conservation agriculture (no till and reduced tillage) practices were studied as methods that simultaneously conserve soil and water resources, reduce farm energy usage and increase or stabilise crop production. In Zimbabwe the first conservation agriculture objective was to determine the interaction effect of tillage (single and double ploughing, ripping and planting basins) and nitrogen (0, 10 and 20 kg N ha -1 ) on crop yields and soil water balance on farmers' fields (Mupangwa, 2009). In the second objective an onstation experiment was established to assess the effect of conservation agriculture practices on crop yields and soil water balance. Three tillage techniques (single ploughing, ripping and planting basins) and seven mulching levels (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10 t ha -1 ) were combined factorially to assess their influence on maize, cowpea and sorghum yields, and soil water dynamics (Mupangwa et al., 2007;Mupangwa, 2009). The smallholder farmers also appraised the tillage systems at the end of the last growing season of the study. Lastly, the crop simulation model Agricultural Production SIMulator (APSIM) (Keating et al., 2003) was used to evaluate its capability in predicting effects of conventional, ripper and planting basin tillage techniques on soil water patterns; and to use the validated APSIM model to assess the long term (69 years) interaction effects of N fertilizer, and conventional and planting basin tillage systems on maize yields, surface runoff and deep drainage (Mupangwa et al., 2008).Results from the on-farm experimentation showed that the double conventional ploughing combined with nitrogen fertilizer outperformed the other three tillage systems regardless of the rainfall pattern experienced during the growing season. Nitrogen fertilizer increased maize yields and water productivity in each season across all four tillage systems tested. The planting basin system had higher maize crop establishment at most farms during the period of experimentation (Mupangwa, 2009). Surface runoff measurements indicated that planting basins gave the lowest seasonal runoff losses regardless of soil type and field slope (Figure 7). Despite the below average rainfall of 328-353 mm during the period of experimentation (2006/07 and 2007/08 seasons), planting basins consistently gave the highest soil water content particularly during the first half of the cropping period. However, the reduced surface runoff and higher initial soil water content was not translated into higher yields under the basin tillage system compared to the other tillage systems. There were no significant (P > 0.05) maize yield differences in the four tillage systems regardless of the different rainfall distribution each season (Mupangwa, 2009). The results from the study indicated that planting basins do have the potential to: i) promote infiltration of rainwater, ii) minimize soil, water and nutrient losses from the field, iii) reduce siltation and pollution (by agrochemicals) downstream of the fields, and iv) increase groundwater recharge as soil water is lost through deep drainage especially on sandy soils. However, during high rainfall seasons problems of water logging (depending on the soil type) might occur and affect yield. High surface runoff from each tillage system is likely during seasons with above-normal rainfall on the predominantly sandy soils of Gwanda and Insiza districts.The on-station experiment showed that mulching had a significant influence on maize grain production across the three tillage systems in seasons with below average rainfall (Figure 8). However, tillage had no significant (P>0.05) influence on maize production and soil water dynamics over the four seasons the experiment was run. Figure 9 shows a comparison of water dynamics for conventional ploughing and basins under different levels of mulching during the 2006/07 cropping season (Mupangwa, 2009). The evaluation of the tillage systems by smallholder farmers at the end of the study revealed that labour demand and crop yields are major factors considered by smallholder farmers when selecting a technology for adoption. The majority of the farmers achieved the highest crop yields from the double ploughing system; hence they ranked it as the most appropriate tillage system to use under their conditions (Mupangwa, 2009).The long term assessment of the basin system through simulation modeling using the Agricultural Production SIMulator (APSIM) model revealed that basins give only marginal maize yield benefits over the conventional system regardless of the nitrogen level used.The long term simulation also indicated that crop failures can be experienced in both conventional and basin systems due largely to uneven distribution of rain events during the growing season (Figure 10).Figure 10: Probability of getting maize grain yield under two tillage systems (conventional ploughing and planting basins) and four N application rates (0. 10, 20 and 52 kgNha -1 ) over a 69 year period on a sandy soil under semi-arid conditions The basin tillage system had higher chances of giving yield than the conventional system regardless of N level used. There was a 48 % chance of getting grain yield without N fertilizer in the basin system compared with 31% in the conventional system. At 10 kgNha -1 the chances of getting higher grain yield from the basin system than the conventional system increased to 52%. The predicted grain yield suggests that the use of 10 kgNha -1 in both the conventional and planting basin systems is a good entry point for improving productivity in the cereal dominated semi-arid cropping systems of Zimbabwe. This confirms earlier results from the wide scale promotion of inorganic fertilizer which was conducted in semi-arid districts of Zimbabwe (Twomlow et al., 2008a). The chances of getting similar maize yields from the conventional and basin tillage systems increase at N application levels greater than the microdosing rate (10 kgNha -1 ) (Mupangwa, 2009).The on-farm study demonstrated that double ploughing gives higher crop yield with similar soil fertility inputs than single conventional ploughing, ripper and basin tillage systems. The study clearly highlighted the fact that both soil water and fertility management are required at the same time in the smallholder cropping systems of southern Zimbabwe. The on-farm and on-station results indicated similar soil water dynamics in the tillage systems tested regardless of the soil type and mulching level applied. The planting basin system significantly reduced surface runoff water losses from cropped fields. Unfortunately the benefit of reduced surface runoff from the planting basin system was not translated into higher maize yield in the on-farm experimentation. Maize grain production was significantly influenced by mulching in growing seasons with below average rainfall. The farmer evaluation of the tillage systems promoted over three growing seasons in Gwanda and Insiza districts revealed that smallholder farmers considered labour demand and crop yields derived from the tillage systems. Smallholder farmers with draught animals were prepared to continue using the DP tillage system. The long term simulation of the promoted technologies suggested that a combination of planting basins and 10 kgNha -1 reduce production risk under semi-arid conditions of southern Zimbabwe.1.2.2.1 Methods Studies were carried out in three locations within the Chókwè District to assess maize and cowpea yields on Zai Pits (a variation of planting basins), in comparison with the same crops produced under farmers' practice (control), i.e. mixed cropping systems (maize intercropped with cowpea, cassava) using conventional tillage (Mamade, 2006).The dimensions of the Zai pits were about 0.6 m diameter and 0.3 m in depth. Four to eight seeds of maize or cowpea were sown in each pit. The planting density in the pits treatment was half that of the control.The maize grain yield was 14 and 111 kg ha -1 for the control and pits respectively. Although the yields were very low in both treatments, the pits increased yield 8-fold. Grain yield of cowpeas was 92 kg ha -1 and 131 kg ha -1 for the control and pits, respectively. The Zai pits tended to increase water availability in the root zone especially in loam-clay soils. On sandy soils, the technique had some limitations probably due to poor soil structure (low water holding capacity). The surprising result from these studies was that 21% of farmers (including those who were already implementing before these studies) in the study area have adopted the pits despite the need for further study (Mamade, 2006).Although the study showed a potential for increased rain water retention by Zai pits, effectiveness depends on rainfall patterns, soil type, crops and other agricultural practices like planting dates and density, and mulching. Further work is required to identify situations where the Zai pits are likely to be beneficial and associated crop management guidelines need to be developed.Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is broadly defined as the collection and concentration of runoff for productive purposes (crop, fodder, pasture or tree production, livestock and domestic water supply etc) (Ngigi, 2003) or the process of concentrating rainfall as runoff for use in a smaller target area (Botha et al., 2003). The rainfall harvested can either be in-field (tillage techniques, pits etc.) or off-field (micro-catchment or runoff farming and supplementary irrigation). Two studies were carried out to assess the potential of rainwater harvesting (RWH) technologies in the Limpopo Basin (Mwenge-Kahinda, 2007;Ncube et al. 2009).The first study analyzed the agro-hydrological functions of RWH and also assessed the impacts (at field scale) on the crop yield gap as well as the Transpirational Water Productivity (WPT). A survey was carried out in six districts of the semi-arid Zimbabwe to assess the types of RWH technologies practiced in the six districts. The Agricultural Production Simulator Model (APSIM) was then used to simulate seven different treatments on crop yield (Control, RWH, Manure, Manure + RWH, Inorganic Nitrogen and Inorganic Nitrogen + RWH) for 30 years on alfisol deep sand, assuming no fertiliser carry over effect from season to season.The survey results indicated that infield RWH is dominant in the six districts. The most common methods were infiltration pits, tied furrows, dead level contours, potholing and fanya juus. The combined use of inorganic fertiliser and RWH was the only treatment that closed the yield gap. Supplemental irrigation alone not only reduces the risks of complete crop failure (from 20% down to 7% on average) for all the treatments but also enhanced WPT (from 1.75 kg m−3 up to 2.3 kg m−3 on average) by mitigating ISDS.A synthesis of rainwater harvesting methodologies studied under PN17 was done by researchers who had carried out the studies (Ncube et al., 2009). The aim was to stimulate thinking on what the impacts of rainwater harvesting might be upstream and downstream of catchments. A methodology flow chart was proposed for systematically investigating the impacts of out-scaling in-field and ex-field rainwater harvesting techniques. The method proposed an analysis of levels of adoption to help identify optimum levels that will maximize land and water productivity while minimizing negative hydrological and ecological impacts at catchment or basin scales (Figure 11). The first study was conducted in four farms located in ward 17 of Gwanda district, southern Zimbabwe (Mupangwa, 2009). Two farms had dead level contours only while the other two had dead level contours and infiltration pits. In the 2006/07 growing season a single transect of access tubes was set up across the dead level contours and infiltration pits in conventionally ploughed fields which were under maize, sorghum, pearl millet and groundnut. In the 2007/08 growing season two transects of access tubes, one along a conventionally ploughed field and another along an unploughed field, were set up at each farm in order to separate the effect of tillage from that of contours on soil water measured at each distance from the dead level contour. The 15 mm PVC access tubes were installed at 2 and 7 m from the centre of the dead level contour with/without infiltration pit on the upslope side. On the downslope side of the dead level contour with/without infiltration pit access tubes were installed at 3, 8, 13 and 18 m from the centre of the contour. The access tubes were sunk to depths varying from 0.5 to 0.8 m across the four farms. Depth of access tubes was restricted by the presence of a stony layer in the profile at three of the four farms. At each farm access tubes were installed in October and maintained for the subsequent seasons. The dead level contours averaged 0.9-1.0 m wide and 0.3 m deep across the four farms. The infiltration pits averaged 1-1.5 m long, 0.5-1.0 m wide and 0.3-0.4 m deep across the two farms. During the two growing seasons volumetric soil water content was measured at 0.1m intervals fortnightly using a capacitance probe (MGPHR microgopher sensor, http://www.odysseydatarecording.com). Six to eight readings were taken from each access tube. Soil texture for each farm was determined using the hydrometer method (Anderson and Ingram, 1993). Soil water data were analyzed using the method of residual maximum likelihood (REML) in Genstat version 9 (ref). Data for each season was analysed separately because of differences in the rainfall patterns experienced during the 2006/07 and 2007/08 growing seasons.Another study in the same area (Gwanda District) explored the importance of biophysical factors on the performance of the dead level contours. A two pronged approach was used, one using a questionnaire survey of 55 practising farmer respondents identified following community meetings, and 14 key informant interviews (Munamati et al, 2009). The other approach involved detailed pedological investigations of soils in the fields of 14 randomly selected farmers who were a subset of the respondent farmers (Nyagumbo et al, 2009). The study therefore sought to explore biophysical conditions (soil type, depth, slope and topographic conditions) that characterize successful in-situ water harvesting using dead level contours based on the experiences of practicing farmers in the district. Data analysis involved compilations of responses on roles of soil properties such as soil texture, depth and slope which were juxtaposed to corresponding pedological soil investigations data.A third study is still in progress. The main objectives of the study are to compare the soil moisture benefits between the standard (graded) contour ridge design that was developed for soil erosion control, and the improved dead level contour design that retains water in the ridge (Mhizha 2009). The study is taking place in five farms in Zhulube (Insiza District). Two basic designs are implemented in each plot, one that prevents runoff water from leaving the field through a contour ridge constructed at a zero gradient and a second one that drains runoff water away from the field through contour ridges constructed at graded slope. There is also a third plot where there are no contours (control). Future studies aim to come up with the most beneficial design of the dead level contour using modelling approaches.In the first study the soil types at the four farms ranged from sand to loamy sand. The distance from the dead level contour had no significant (P>0.05) influence on profile water content recorded along transect during the 2006/07 growing season (Figure 12 and 13). The lowest profile water content was recorded at 7 m upslope of the dead level contour throughout the season particularly at farms with contours only (Figure 12). Soil water content recorded in the profile differed significantly (P<0.001) between the dates when soil water measurements were made indicating the occurrence of wetting and drying cycles during the growing season.   -7 -2During the 2007/08 growing season more profile soil water was gained downslope at farms with dead level contours and infiltration pits than at those farms with dead level contours only following a 60-70 mm rainfall event (Figure 14 and 15). This indicates that the dead level contours and infiltration pits at the farms farms captured more rainwater that moved laterally into the field than the dead level contours at the other two farms.The observations at the farms with dead level contours and infiltration pits were consistent with the findings of Mugabe (2004) that also indicated lateral soil water movement upslope and downslope of an infiltration pit measuring 7m long and 1m deep.  In the second study dead level contours were perceived as effective by 72% of key informants in Gwanda District, compared to standard graded contour ridges and other technologies (Figure 16). The dead level contour technology forms a significant part of the agricultural system in the study area. A significant linear relationship (r=0.84, p =0.000) was obtained between area under rainwater harvesting techniques (mainly dead level contours) and total arable area (Figure 17). Farmers with large arable areas also tended to put bigger proportions of their land to water harvesting thereby suggesting that farmers were now considering the technology an important component of their farming system. A further assessment of the types of farmers who had adopted the dead level contours showed that well resourced farmers were the majority of those who had adopted the technology. The majority of the key-informants (93%) alluded that the more labour resources at one's disposal, the higher their chances of success. This is so because rain water harvesting technologies are time-consuming and labour intensive. The study concluded that resource ownership could be a key factor in farmers' ability to scale out the dead level contour technologies. Performance was significantly linked to resource status and gender (correlation was significant, p=0.039). Women headed households were performing rather poorly suggesting the need for special attention to gender in the promotion of rain water harvesting technologies (Munamati et al, 2009), mainly dead level contours in this study.Preliminary results from the third study on contour ridges so far indicate that dead level contours store the largest amount of water when the data is presented using the soil water storage index (Figure 18). According to preliminary results the graded contour (GC) plot performed the worst in three out of five measured plots. This could be because draining water away from the field using graded contours is likely to result in reduced soil water availability in the field compared to either having no contours or constructing dead level contours. In all the five fields under study a plot with no contours had less soil moisture storage index compared to a plot with dead level contours. This indicates that dead level contours retain moisture in the field.From the first study it was shown that the upward side of the dead level contour with or without infiltration pit was drier than downslope on most occasions when soil water was measured, an expected result. The dead level contours with infiltration pits captured more rainwater following heavy rainfall events (60-70 mm). The soil layers that benefited most from the rainwater captured by the dead level contours with/without infiltration pit were in the middle (0.2-0.5 m) of the 0-0.6 m soil profile. Crops such as maize, sorghum, pearl millet and legumes commonly grown in semi-arid areas can access soil water from these soil layers. Results from the study suggest that the dead level contours have to be constructed at between 3-8 m spacing if they are to supply soil water to crops in the field. However, given the labour and time requirements for the construction of these structures and the limited soil water benefits observed so far, the study concludes it is not worthwhile investing in these rainwater harvesting structures using the current design in areas such as Gwanda district with a <1% slope and light textured soils. Contrasting results from the second study indicate that farmers believe in the dead level contour technology and they are convinced that dead level contours are beneficial (Munamati et al 2009;Nyagumbo et al., 2009). More conclusive results will probably come from further studies of the technology. The third study is therefore relevant as it would help improve the design of the dead level contours, hence give quantifiable benefits to the farmers, although other factors such as resource status are also important. Therefore, new designs of dead level contours and infiltration pits for different soil types and slopes could be explored as a way forward in the use of interfield rainwater harvesting structures.In South Africa in-field rainwater-harvesting techniques were also tested in the Olifants Catchment, Quaternary Catchment B72A (Raisuba, 2007;Magombeyi and Taigbenu, 2008). The studies assessed conventional ploughing; Chololo pits/planting basins and ridges (Magombeyi and Taigbenu, 2008). Figure 19 shows pictures of a conventionally ploughed field compared to the two tested technologies (planting basins and ridges respectively). The main objectives of the studies were to evaluate water use efficiency and crop water productivity under prevailing rainfall patterns and the three farming practices The specific objectives were therefore to 1) to evaluate water use efficiency and crop water productivity under prevailing rainfall patterns and the farming practices, 2) to assess the impact of rainfall variability on crop yield and production. Studies were carried out to investigate the relationships between crop yield, field water balance and soil water storage capacity, based on four sites. The study evaluated the farming practices using crop yield, evapotranspiration and other parameters in a water balance (Raisuba, 2007). Data collected on field included soil moisture, rainfall and runoff. Other information was collected from the nearest Letsitele weather station. Soil nutrient analysis was also done in the research sites. The Chololo pits resulted in highest yield in comparison to conventional ploughing and ridges (Table 3). The highest yield was a result of the rainfall capture by the basins that increased infiltration and provided water to the roots. Despite the higher yields it was however noted that the basins required the highest labour in the initial year, although the required labour decreases in subsequent years as the same pits from the previous season are used. The labour for the preparation of the planting basins can be spread over the dry period prior to planting season, thereby avoiding high labour demands when the rainy season commences. This has the advantage that the farmers sow at the right time as they avoid waiting or paying for draught power, increasing their chances of high yields. The study also found the importance of planting dates on yield in the catchment (Figure 20). The suitable dates were 15 December to 15 January. However, planting very late is not advisable as livestock that freely graze after 1st of June to the start of rainy season may destroy the crop before maturity.  Nutrients soil tests were used to evaluate fertility, measure the soil nutrients that are expected to become plant-available. To assess the soil nutrients status in the study area, some form of rating scale was adopted. The guidelines used in the soil nutrient management to interpret soil test results are shown in Table 4 (Marx et al., 1999).  Marx et al, (1999), suggesting that less than 50-75% (Hanlon, 2001) of the crop yield was expected regardless of the improvement of other important required parameters like water, and weeding. The Sofaya site nutrient levels increased from the 2005/6 season levels with an improvement in soil pH. For Enable and Worcester sites there was generally an increase in the nitrate and phosphorous levels, suggesting an improved soil nutrient status for improved crop yields.  (Marx et al, 1999).• Apart from meeting water requirements nutrients have to be improved for higher yields. • Crop failure -Moisture deficit was high at the moisture deficit sensitive stage of the maize crop. • Greatest decrease in grain yields is caused by water deficits during the flowering, tasselling, silking and pollination, due mainly to a reduction in grain number per cob. • Water deficits during the flowering period particularly at the time of silking and pollination may result in little or no grain yield due to silk drying (FAO, 2002). • Rainwater harvesting improves soil moisture available to crops, during the extended dry spell periods.In Mozambique the studies focused on using plastic material to harvest rainwater in the field. The approach comprised the use of polo vinyl chloride (PVC) plastic sheets in a gentle sloping (<2%) catchment area to increase the runoff to the cropping area (Figure 3.10). Under this technique the water is harvested in the plastic shields and directed to the root zone of the crop where it is stored and acts as a reservoir for the period that does not rain (Chilundo et al., 2008). As a result the mitigation of dry spells is much better due to the deeper rooting system and the larger water holding capacity of the soil. The method was evaluated through field trials carried out at the Chókwè Agricultural Station over two rainy seasons (2007/08 and 2008/09) (Chilundo et al., 2008). During the two cropping seasons the total rainfall was 392 mm and 471 mm respectively. The treatments comprised two ratios (i) ratio 2:1 (S160); and (ii) ratio 3:1 (S240). The treatments were tested against a control treatment (S80) representing the conventional furrow system that is commonly used by smallholder farmers. Maize (cultivar Matuba) was planted and the planting density was 41 666 plants ha -1 , 20 833 plants ha -1 and 13 888 plants ha -1 for S80, S160 and S240 respectively (Chilundo et al., 2008).Table 6 shows the yield results obtained over the two cropping seasons. Maize grain yield under plastic cover for the S160 treatment (season 2007/08) was about 20% higher than the control (S80) treatment. However, there were no statistical differences (p>0.05) between S80 and S160 treatments. Opposite results were observed during the season 2008/09, where the S80 yields were higher and statistically different compared to S160. In both seasons the S240 treatment gave the lowest yield. Rainfall distribution, diseases and pest were the major factors affecting the yields in both seasons, especially for the S160 and S240 where fungal attacks were observed. Results from this study are not conclusive therefore more work is planned for the future.Plastic material might prove to be very expensive for smallholder farmers, therefore, there is a need to identify and test alternative material. The manual soil compaction method (in place of plastic) has shown promising results and the method is being adopted by smallholder farmers in Mozambique in a different semi-arid region. Climate effects such as seasonal rainfall variability patterns and thus changes in sowing dates also need to be assessed. There is need to consider integrated pest and disease management and fertilizers to increase water productivity and yields.Supplemental irrigation involves the addition to essentially rain fed crops of small amounts of water during times when rainfall fails to provide sufficient moisture for normal plant growth, in order to improve and stabilize yields. Water is applied to rain fed crops, that would normally produce some yield without irrigation; since precipitation is the principal source of moisture for rain fed crops, supplemental irrigation is only applied when precipitation fails to provide essential moisture for improved and stabilized production and; the amount and timing of supplemental irrigation are not meant to provide moisture stress-free conditions rather to provide minimum water during the critical stages of crop growth to ensure optimal instead of maximum yield (http://www.ipcri.org/watconf/papers/mohammed.pdf). The first on-farm research on supplemental irrigation was carried out at Zhulube irrigation scheme. The aim was to determine how low cost drip irrigation technologies compared with conventional surface irrigation systems in terms of water and crop productivity (Maisiri et al., 2005). A total of nine farmers who were practicing surface irrigation were chosen to participate in the study. The vegetable English giant rape (Brassica napus) was grown under the two irrigation systems with three fertilizer treatments in each system: ordinary granular fertilizer, liquid fertilizer (fertigation) and the last treatment with no fertilizer. These trials were replicated three times in a randomized block design. Measurements included biometric parameters of leaf area index (LAI) and fresh weight of the produce, water use efficiency (WUE) which was used to compare the performance of the two irrigation systems. A water balance of the inflows and outflows was kept for analysis of WUE. The economic profitability and the operation maintenance and management requirements of the different systems were also evaluated.Results showed no significant differences in vegetable yield between the irrigation systems at 8.5 ton/ha for drip compared to 7.8 ton/ha in surface irrigation. There were significant increases in yields due to use of fertilizers. Drip irrigation used about 35% of the water used by the surface irrigation systems thus giving much higher water use efficiencies. The leaf area indices were comparable in both systems with the same fertilizer treatment ranging between 0.05 for surface without fertilizer to 6.8 for low cost drip with fertigation. Low cost drip systems did not reflect any labour saving especially when manually lifting the water into the drum compared to the use of siphons in surface irrigation system. The gross margin level for surface irrigation was lower than for low cost drip irrigation but the gross margin to total variable cost ratio was higher in surface irrigation systems, which meant that surface irrigation systems gave higher returns per variable costs incurred.It was concluded that low cost drip systems achieved water saving of more than 50'% compared to surface irrigation systems and that it was not the type of irrigation system that influenced the yield of vegetables significantly but instead it was the type of fertilizer application method that contributed to the increase in the yield of vegetables. It was recommended that low cost technologies should be used in conjunction with good water and nutrient management if higher water and crop productivity are to be realized than surface irrigation systems.The second study involved an assessment of the impacts and sustainability of the drip irrigation program that many nongovernmental organizations were implementing in Zimbabwe. The study involved interviewing representatives of the NGOs, local government, traditional leadership and agricultural extension officers in the Mzingwane Catchment (Gwanda and Beitbridge Districts). Focus group discussions with beneficiaries and other villagers were held at village level. A survey of 114 households was then conducted in the two districts, using a questionnaire developed from the output of the interviews and focus group discussions. The results from the study showed that the NGOs did not specifically target the distribution of the drip kits to poor members of the community. The main finding from the study was that low cost drip kit programs can only be a sustainable intervention if implemented as an integral part of a development program, not short-term relief programs and the programme should involve a broad range of stakeholders including donors, implementing NGOs and beneficiaries. A first step in any such program, especially in water scarce areas such as Gwanda and Beitbridge, would be a detailed analysis of the existing water resources to assess availability and potential conflicts, prior to distribution of drip kits. A protocol for the implementation of drip kit programs the semi-arid regions was developed (Moyo et al., 2006). Box 1 shows the protocol.Box 1: Protocol for drip irrigation kits distribution programs For the programme to be sustainable, it is important that the NGOs to take aboard relevant government organs right from the inception of the program to the end so that by the time the NGOs conclude their work the programme can be handed over to such government institutions 1. Distance of water source Objective: Ensure that the drip kit garden is close to the water source Drip kit garden should be within 50 m of the water source or Provide wheelbarrow or simple water cart to assist with transport of water for distances up to 250 mObjective: Ensure that the beneficiaries have a reliable water source Before a kit is given the NGOs in collaboration with relevant Government Departments should make an effort to determine the reliability of the potential water sources The potential water sources should be able to supply water for the kit all year roundObjective: Ensure that the beneficiaries get prompt technical advisory service on the use of kit During the year of inception the NGO should make high frequency follow-up visits to beneficiaries i.e. at least once every two weeks for the first crop, and then monthly During the second year follow-up visits should be made once every cropping season, and then once every year thereafter In South Africa controlled plot experiments were conducted in collaboration with three smallholder farmers with two replicates per farm to determine various parameters for the water balance model in Sekororo. The field layout for the experiment consisted of one hectare plots, with two equal smaller runoff plots of dimensions 4 m × 2 m. The farmers were initially taught on daily field data capturing. The seasons studied were 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008. In the irrigated plots, water was supplied by gravity-fed furrow irrigation system from a weir built across a seasonal stream. Irrigation scheduling was left at discretion of the farmers but measured by a 90 0 V-notch weir. The farmers scheduled irrigation by a combination of two methods i.e. by intuition (when the maize crop showed signs of moisture stress) and calendar days since the last rainfall or irrigation (Shock et al., 2007). All plots were planted on the same day and farmers agreed on the same farm management strategies. Fertilisation treatment of 14 kg-N ha -1 per season (based on affordability and potential maize yields above average (0.5 t ha -1 ) as recommended by ICRISAT (Kgonyane and Dimes 2007) from studies in the same area) was applied in all plots after the first weeding except for the 2006/2007 rainfed plot because of little rainfall. The first weeding was done 28 days after sowing. Soil moisture levels at 200 mm depth were measured on a daily basis during the growing season at 12 positions diagonally across the field using a hydrosense neutron probe (Campbell Scientific, Inc. 2001). Daily rainfall and runoff was also recorded from each field. The soil micronutrients were analysed towards the harvest in 2007/2008 season. The plots were harvested by hand and the grain yield recorded.Using data on precipitation, supplementary irrigation, soil moisture, and runoff a seasonal root zone soil water balance over a daily temporal scale for three cropping seasons (2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008) was constructed from Equation (1) (Walker and Ogindo 2003;Zhang et al. 2006).where D is the deep drainage beyond the 1 m (Ali et al. 2007) root zone (mm d -1 ), P is the daily precipitation (mm), I is the irrigation water to the plot (mm d -1 ), R is the runoff from the field (mm d -1 ), E c is the evapotranspiration (mm d -1 ) and ∆S is the change in soil-water content (soil moisture at harvest minus soil moisture at sowing) in the root zone (mm d -1 ). D was determined as a residual in Equation 1.The maize crop actual evapotranspiration was estimated by Equation (4) (Chow and Maidment, D. 1988;Allen et al. 1998;Moroizumi et al. 2009): 4)Where E c is the actual evapotranspiration (mm d -1 ), K s is the water stress condition, K c is the maize crop coefficient, and E 0 is the reference evapotranspiration (mm d -1 ). E 0 was calculated by the FAO Penman-Monteith equation (as a function of net radiation, air temperature, wind speed and vapour pressure). K c values from SAPWAT for maize were used according to the maize growth stages.SAPWAT is based on FAO, Penman-Monteith method (FAO 2002) developed to estimate crop water requirements (not a crop growth model) only for areas within South Africa (van Heerden and Crosby 2002). It uses local climate, irrigation systems and planting dates which represent the general production patterns found in the area. The K s value was evaluated by Equation ( 35) (Moroizumi et al. 2009): 6)Where θ fc is the field capacity water content (20.7% in this study). A value of p= 0.43 for maize was adopted based on Allen et al. (1998) (θ t = 15.9% in this study).Water use efficiency or productivity (W P ) was calculated from the ratio of yield (kg ha -1 ) to seasonal water evapotranspired (mm) (van Der Zel et al. 1993;Rockström et al. 1998;DFID 2003;Grove 2006;Zhang et al. 2006). Marginal supplementary irrigation water productivity (M SIWP ) was calculated from the ratio of change in yield to change in irrigation water applied (assuming no irrigation water loss to deep drainage), with other inputs held constant (Ali et al. 2007).Soil parameter analysis in 2007/2008 gave the following results: nitrate (12.3 ppm), phosphate (11.2 ppm), potassium (207 ppm), calcium (2 090 ppm), magnesium (311 ppm) and organic carbon (1.33 %). Compared to rating guidelines by Marx et al. (1999) of low nutrient levels (nitrate: < 10 ppm, phosphate: <20 ppm, potassium: < 150 ppm, calcium: < 1000 ppm and magnesium: < 60 ppm), phosphate levels in the study site are lower than recommended levels for maize. Hence, phosphate is the limiting nutrient in the soil. The 2007/2008 soil nutrient status showed an improvement from the 2005/2006 season.The seasonal rainfall during the three seasons for maize varied from 388 to 1422 mm (Table 7). The 2006The /2007The and 2007The /2008 seasons were very dry below the long-term average, while 2005/2006 season received above normal rainfall. The average evapotranspiration (E C ) under rainfed and supplementary irrigation for the three seasons was 344 mm and 431 mm respectively. The observed E C values are less than the general maximum (500 -800 mm) required by a medium maturity maize crop for maximum yields (FAO 2002). Water balance components, maize grain yield and water use efficiencies (kg dry matter grain per mm rainfall) for the areas studied are shown in Table 7.  The variation of grain yield with evapotranspiration (Figure 22) for rainfed and rainfed plus supplementary irrigation showed a strong correlation. Maximum grain yields in fields with supplementary irrigation ranged from 1.45 to 2t ha -1 , while yields in exclusive rainfed field ranged from 0.35 to1.2 tha -1 (Table 7). Similar results were reported by earlier researchers working on maize in South, East and West Africa (Rockström et al. 1998;Oweis and Hachum 2003). Maize yield was affected by seasonal rainfall (Figure 23) and its erratic distribution throughout the growing season depicted by soil moisture changes in rainfed plots (Figure 25a-c). A good correlation of yield reduction with rainfall during the crop-growing period (Figure 23) suggested that lack of soil water during critical crop growing stages reduced maize grain yield. Supplementary irrigation with added fertilisation of 14 kg-N/ha during dry spells increased yields on average by 196 %. Fox and Rockström (2000) reported similar result of 180 % yield increase in semi-arid Burkina Faso. During the dry seasons 2006/7 and 2007/8 the grain yield reduction without supplementary irrigation ranged from 206 % to 314 %, while for the wettest year (2005/2006) the yield reduction was 67 % indicating significant yield improvement with supplementary irrigation are realized during drier years. There was high potential maize yield due to more favourable high and evenly distributed rainfall in 2005/2006 season. Hence, the yield gap between rainfed and supplementary irrigation was smaller compared to drier seasons (2006/2007 and 2007/2008). Surface runoff and drainage (Figure 24) from the field soil profile showed a strong linear relationship with seasonal rainfall. These results indicate the great potential for surface runoff water harvesting and groundwater recharging at study site as the quantity of rainfall increases. Runoff generated was high as the rainfall events occurred in pockets of 2-4 consecutive days which allowed little time for infiltration. The field results indicate that there is a significant scope for improving water productivity in rainfed farming through supplemental irrigation from local runoff harvesting, especially when combined with soil fertility management as reported in other parts of Africa (Rockström 1999;Fox and Rockström 2000).Figures 25a -25c show the variation of soil moisture in the experimental sites for the three seasons from sowing to harvest. In some days the volumetric soil moisture content fell below the permanent wilting point of the sandy loam soil of 9.5 % volumetric soil water content (Mzirai et al. 2001), causing severe crop water stress. In addition, the sub-soil acidity (pH < 5) in the study area could have further restricted water uptake by the crop roots (Robertson et al. 2003)  Dry spells that were greater than 10 days resulted in volumetric soil moisture levels falling below 5 %. Soil moisture deficits adversely affected plant growth and yield attributes under rainfed plots due to increased total resistance in the soil-plant system resulting in reduced photosynthesis and growth (FAO 2002). In 2006/2007 the maize grain yield was drastically reduced to 350 kg ha -1 because the soil moisture stress experienced in the early growth stages (12-25 days after sowing) could have reduced the crop leaf area index and radiation use efficiency which have direct bearing on dry matter accumulation in plants (Rockström et al. 2002;Ali et al. 2007). The soil moisture levels could be used to determine the onset of crop water stress for the efficient utilisation of irrigation and precipitation (Abraha and Savage 2008). With improved timely and adequate supplementary irrigation coupled with good soil management, farmers could ensure minimum crop water stress to crops thereby enhancing families' food and income.The M SIWP is a good indicator for assessing the performance of supplementary irrigation management methods, to ascertain whether higher crop yields upset cost of supplying additional water (Rockström et al. 2002). The M SIWP ranged from 9.8 to 16.7 kg mm -1 ha -1 (average of 12.8 kg mm -1 ha -1 ) for 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 seasons respectively (Table 7). The results are higher than 2.5-7.6 kg mm -1 ha -1 reported in Burkina Faso (Rockström et al. 2002) but on the lower side on comparison with 15 to 62 kg mm -1 ha -1 of supplemental irrigation (Tingem et al. 2008). With the current (2008) price of maize grain at South Africa Rand (ZAR) 2.0 per kilogram, on average 1 m 3 of irrigation water applied timely can produce ZAR 2.56 equivalent to US$ 0.26 (using 2009 exchange rate of 10 ZAR = 1 US$) worth of maize. The monetary return per m 3 of supplementary irrigation is five-fold higher than the cost of 1 m 3 water under full irrigation of ZAR 0.5/m 3 . The values demonstrate the huge gains to be substantiated with timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge dry spells.Shifting from exclusive rainfed agriculture to supplementary irrigation agriculture in the study area increased average crop evapotranspiration (W P ) from 1.1 to 4.5 kg mm -1 ha -1 (or 309 % increase) (Table 7). The corresponding average yield increase was from 800 kg ha -1 to 1144 kg ha -1 . The results are comparable to average grain yield increases of 1.5 kg mm -1 ha -1 for rainfed to 3.5-10 kg mm -1 ha -1 for supplementary irrigation (Rockström et al. 2002). The yield improvement can be attributed to timely water application to crops to avoid severe water stress and availability of more soil water for the plant. Similar results from Burkina Faso reported tripling yields of 460 kg ha -1 to 1400 kg ha -1 by combining supplemental irrigation and fertiliser application (Rockström et al. 2002). On the other hand, for seasons with severe dry spells, e.g., 2006/2007 in Ga-Sekororo, the result was a complete crop failure for all treatments lacking dry spell mitigation such as supplementary irrigation. The results indicate that water harvesting for dry spell mitigation can play a critical role in mitigating the risk of crop failure during cropping seasons with severe dry spells.The daily soil moisture from the water balance can be used to estimate the impact of dry spells during the crop-growing season. Use of supplementary irrigation can help bridge the intra-seasonal dry spells in semi-arid tropics, thereby increasing crop yields. Huge benefits of supplementary irrigation are realised when rainfall is below average and unevenly distributed throughout the season. Ex-field rainwater harvesting from a river weir offers one way of realizing supplementary irrigation. More appropriate rainwater harvesting techniques should be employed to harness huge amounts of surface runoff generated in the study area. With the water productivity for rainfed agriculture lower than supplementary irrigation, the results demonstrate the great opportunities that exist for upgrading rainfed agriculture and ensuring food security in rural communities through timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge and manage dry spells. Furthermore, low soil nutrients that characterise the study area can be improved through better soil fertility management with the overall result of higher water productivity. Improvement of the limiting soil phosphate nutrient in the study site is required to enhance crop yield. There is need to investigate the levels of nutrients at which supplemental irrigation perform best and improve supplementary irrigation water application efficiency.The results have shown the importance of supplementary irrigation in bridging the intraseasonal dry spells. The supplementary made the most impact in poorly distributed and low rainfall seasons. The yield improved by about two-fold (186%) under supplementary irrigation. However, people should not completely move to full irrigation as this result in significant increases in agricultural water use in the catchment.Salinity studies were carried out in the Mozambican part of the Limpopo Basin, in the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme. The Irrigation Scheme faces serious salinity problems which have rendered large parts of the irrigation scheme almost impossible to cultivate productively. The studies were conducted in order to provide additional knowledge to improve long-term agricultural water productivity, as well as better water and nitrogen management strategies. The research aimed to answer the question: How to leach salts but conserve nitrogen on salt-affected soils of the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme (CIS)?Field trials were carried out in the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme (CIS) southern Mozambique, where the Limpopo River supplies water to irrigate about 23,000 ha of land. Three different salinity sites were selected to conduct the experiments. The non-saline experiment was conducted on-station at the Chókwè Research Station 2 (24 o 22'S, 33 o 00'E, 33 m asl) of the National Agricultural Research Institute. The other two sites, the moderately and saline ones were conducted on-farm, and thus, managed by farmers. The experiments were conducted during the dry and rainy seasons of 2007-08.Treatments comprised water (soil water deficit & calendarization) and nitrogen (100 kg ha -1 and 200 kg ha -1 ) application rates. Therefore, a 2x2 factorial design with three replications (RCBD) comprising twelve plots (maize PAN 67 cultivar) were established in each site to monitor nitrogen and salt leaching. A nitrogen treatment (control) was adopted in the on-station trial during the rainy season of 2007-08. Four Wetting Front Detectors (WFDs) were installed in each plot at depths of 20, 30 and 45 cm to collect the drained water to monitor nitrates and salt. A water-meter attached to a small motorized water pump was used to irrigate the plots under on-station trials. Under on-farm condition, flumes were used to monitor the irrigation water. Soil water contents measurements were taken daily and weekly using a time-domain reflectometer (TDR) and WinProbe. Yield, soil fertility, height of water table, salts and nitrate data were systematically collected. Climatological data was recorded in an AWS installed nearby the experimental sites. The analyses of variance were performed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software. Means were compared using the least significant differences (LSD) test at 5% probability level.Tables 8 and 9 provide the basic physical and chemical characteristics of the soils at the onset of the experiments. The soil texture differs in all the three experimental sites. The % of sand content is high in both saline and moderately saline sites compared to the non-saline site. However, the saturated hydraulic conductivity is higher under the nonsaline sites which favour the movement of water throughout the soil profile. Under moderate and saline sites, the presence of a shallow watertable (<1.5 m) can probably explain the observed low conductivity. In addition, the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) values presented in Table 9 are greater than the threshold value of 15% in the saline site.   From Table 9 it can be seen that the N content in the soils of CIS is very low, and therefore, the need to carefully manage this nutrient.Preliminary yield results after statistical analysis (ANOVA) show that yields tend to drop as one move from non-saline to saline soil conditions (Figures 26 and Figure 27). Yields of about 7 to 10 t ha -1 (no-saline), 3 to 7 t ha -1 (moderately saline) and 2-5 t ha -1 (saline) were recorded. Water treatments did not differ significantly (p>0.05), while the 200 kg ha -1 nitrogen application rate was statistically different from the 100 kg ha -1 in all the experiments.  challenge was to understand the dynamics of salts and nitrogen as affected by irrigation water including the presence of shallow water table under different soil salinity conditions (Figure 28). Generally the results so far indicate that nitrogen is crucial to boost maize production under saline conditions. Further work will include the modeling of the results to assess and identify the timing of application of nitrogen in order to reduce leaching of the nutrient.Simulation studies were done in B72A quaternary catchment in South Africa (Figure 29). This study ascertains the effect of climate-induced risks and input/output price fluctuations on farm gross margin and food security for five smallholder farming systems. The results offer useful support to smallholder farmers and extension officers on how to achieve food security and profitability through alternative farm enterprises and/or management strategies.1.6.2 MethodsThe risks of farmers to meeting food security under climate and market (maize grain, maize seed and fertiliser) shocks were evaluated using the framework shown in Figure 30. The rational is that the performance of the different smallholder farming systems is poorly understood. Furthermore, a clear understanding of the farming risk will help to adequately provide best bet improved farming practices and market solutions.Five farm typologies were identified in the area that served as an input into the Olymple model. The typologies were built from the socio-economic surveys carried in the area.Principal component analysis and cluster analysis were applied to the data in sequential.The resulting typologies were further refined and validated in consultation with farmers and extension farmers in the study area prior to being applied in the Olympe model. Using Parched-Thirst an assessment of different (conventional versus planting basins) maize production systems was done. Furthermore, the impacts of maize grain (the main crop in the study area) and inputs (maize seed and fertiliser) price variations were evaluated. The price variations were guided by the historic trend and OECD-FAO ( 2008) outlook.The lower and upper bound for maize high-price variations were selected from the lowest price under low-price variation (US$ 190 t -1 ) and twice the lowest price, respectively. The lower and upper bound for maize low-price variations were selected from the lowest historical price (US$ 91/tonne) and twice the lowest historical price, respectively. The high and low price variations were derived from Monte Carlo simulation (van der Sluijs et al., 2004) using Microsoft Excel (Wittwer, 2004) based on historical trends. Maize grain price-variation is defined in relation to the current price US$ 228/tonne (2008) paid for maize grain to farmers without an increase in its quality or quantity.1.6.2.2 Framework for the assessment of smallholder farming system risk From the five identified farming systems under the homestead, the farming systems apply different agricultural management practices and give rise to different crop yields.The different crops yields and the family food needs (dependent on number, composition) are compared. The excess crop yield, above family needs may be sold to get disposable cash for buying other services. In the case of food needs exceeding available yield, the farmer has to argument the family food supply from other sources of income at homestead. Depending on levels of food production, disposable income and new knowledge of the farmers, they can change crop management practices in the next season to increase chances of high crop yield and disposable income. The cyclic nature of the framework is presented in Figure 30.Figure 30: Framework for the assessment of smallholder farming system risk to climate and market shocksThe results of the farm typologies are presented in Table 10. As Table 10 shows, the bulk of the family income for farm Types A, B, C, D and E comes from employment (73%), crops (88%), pensions (52%), crops (67%) and employment (91%) respectively. Farm Type E is least vulnerable. This is expected since most of the family income comes from employment and a buffer from accumulated high levels of assets compared to other farm types (Table 10).From the survey, women constituted more than 60% of the farm household heads and were the most vulnerable households. Hence, programmes that uplift women will make greatest impact in the study area.The OLYMPE model, which is a decision support system (DSS), considers a representative farming system (livestock, crops, tree plantation, management options and environmental externalities) and makes long-term simulations adequate to support policy impact analysis, including the cyclic weather conditions such as droughts.Current crop management practices (labour costs of US$ 58ha -1 ) involve planting on level fields; while improved crop management includes planting basins (labour costs US$ 168 ha -1 , initially). The planting basins improved the yields more than fourfold in good rainfall years while in poor rainfall seasons maize yield stabilised to about 76% (Figure 31a) of long-term average yield. Scenario results on seed, fertilizer, cattle and combined input/output price variations are presented in Figs 32-37. The conventional and planting basins structures are shown in Section 3.2.1 (Figure 17). The farmers received well the planting basins for maize production due to their capability of storing water for the crop for longer periods compared to conventional ploughing. Hence, the farmers expanded the technology to vegetables.  The gross income and net income (Figure 33a) shows that types B and C farms are unsustainable. Types A and E are resilient. However, when other sources of income are considered, only type B is struggling to feed the family as show in Figure 33b.   Maize price increases, enhance the purchasing power and farm production of small farmers given favourable weather conditions (Koch and Rook, 2008). In the wake of global bio-fuel agenda maize prices jumped to above US$200/tonne in the last three years. Unlike some countries, South Africa has already restricted the use of certain food commodities, in particular maize, for bio-fuels production to enhance the food security for the poor (Koch and Rook, 2008).The study showed that the level of farm vulnerability and risk mitigation is strongly affected by farm resource endowment, in particular livestock units, crop management techniques, fraction of the area irrigated, farm area and labour availability per hectare.The main stabilizer of farm income is the introduction of livestock (cattle, goats, and sheep) into the farming systems.Based on the above results, it seems that the crop farming system is least resilient than the livestock and crop-livestock production systems. However, if externalities of the farming systems were evaluated the results could be different.The model presented above is useful to:• Supporting decisions by farmer on whether or not to shift from sole crop production into crop and livestock production, • Policy-makers seeking to consider mixed and crop diversified farming productions.Despite the technically feasible solutions derived from the model, policy-makers should take into consideration the costs to farmers and society of recommending or requiring uptake of the farming methods (i.e. economic efficiency).• Promote planting basins in suitable conditions (rainfall, slope and soil) as a means of in-field rainwater harvesting technique • Establish smallholder farmer water conservation committees with women as leaders • Raise smallholder crop diversification levels to mitigate risk of a single crop failure • Encourage mixed farm productions (crop and livestock) as a way of buffering livelihoods by livestock production in drought/flood years.However, the above policies have their limitations as the farmers need to save money to invest in livestock, need of sufficient pasture and access to markets to sell the livestock at good prices.Other farming improvement practices should entail the following:• Introduction of high value crops;• Improving extension and technical services;• Land tenure reforms.A farming simulation model for smallholder farmers is presented. The bio-economic simulation combined an agronomic model (PARCHED-THIRST) with a socio-economic model (OLYMPE), providing a realistic portrayal of agricultural reality. Farm risks evaluation through scenarios related to markets, crop management techniques and weather hazards on maize production were presented. The results demonstrate the great opportunities that exist to upgrading farming systems in the B72A quaternary catchment in Olifants, especially rainfed agriculture by use of Chololo planting basins to ensure food security and profitable farming in rural communities.All farming systems except Type E could not satisfy the recommended minimum food requirements for an average family size of five persons.• Consider various aspects of in-field water (basins) and soil (micro-dosing) management. • Impact of input-price shocks is comparatively less than output price shocks on farm income. The impact of input-price increase is negligible to risk-averse smallholder farmers because of little quantities used and elasticity of the demand. • Shocks of severe drought/flood and intra-seasonal dry-spells resulted in the highest reduction in farm returns, partly due to loss of production for family consumption.• OLYMPE simulation with farmer involvement helps farmers to assess the impacts of farm systems and to make right decisions.Field experimentation was conducted in the 2007/08 cropping season in Sekororo in which crop and stover yield and water use of maize, cowpea, and groundnut were measured. The observed results were used to evaluate the performance of the crop-soil model crop soil model APSIM in simulating the water balance, yield and water productivity of maize and legume crops in the Limpopo Province, RSA.APSIM was able to simulate very closely the observed range of crop yields in terms of both total biomass (3750 to 7000 kg ha-1) and grain yield (1250 to 2900 kg ha-1). It also simulated the observed differences in soil water content over time under the 3 crops, reflecting differences in crop water use due to planting date and crop duration and soil water distribution patterns. Using in-crop rainfall, the water productivity (WP) of the 128 day maize (fertilized) and groundnut crops was the same (6 kg mm-1 ha-1) whereas it was 3.8 kg mm-1 ha-1 for the 94 day cowpea. Using model outputs to fill measurement gaps at the start and end of the crop cycle, WP with respect to total water input (rainfall plus soil water depletion), was reduced to 5.5 and 3 kg mm-1 ha-1 for maize/groundnut and cowpea, respectively. Including the total seasonal rainfall, which was above average, in the total water input reduced WP to about 4 kg mm-1 ha-1 for maize and groundnut and to only 1.8 kg mm-1 ha-1 for the short duration cowpea crop.The model was able to provide estimates to fill measurement gaps in water balance components of the field experiments, thereby allowing more detailed and appropriate calculations for comparing the water productivity of the different crops.2 Objective 2: Development of appropriate catchment management strategies based on IWRM principles that incorporate sustainable use of green and blue water resources, which enables poor rural people to reduce risk of food deficits due to water scarcity, and to manage water for improved livelihoods.Water resources, refers to water in its various forms of liquid, vapour and solid, and in various locations (atmospheric, surface and subsurface), which have potential value to man (United Nations, 2006). Water is indispensable to life, society's well-being and to sustainable economic growth. Plants, animals, ecosystems and humans are sensitive to fluctuations in the storage, fluxes, and quality of available soil, surface and/or ground water. In turn, these storage, fluxes and quality are sensitive to climate change (e.g. manifested through rainfall variations). Hence, the second key research achievement of the Challenge Program on Water and Food Project, PN17 was the development of appropriate catchment management strategies, based on IWRM principles that incorporate sustainable use of green and blue water resources, which enables poor rural people to reduce risk of food deficits due to water scarcity, and to manage water for improved livelihoods. To achieve this objective, water resources modelling to quantify (conventional and non-conventional water resources) and reveal any trends or fluctuations in quality or quantity were instituted in various catchments in the Limpopo Basin (Figure 1).The Limpopo Basin is shared by Zimbabwe, Botswana (not part of this study), South Africa and Mozambique. Knowing potential water available and its quality in the basin helps to make informed decisions about water resources management such as rainwater harvesting systems, crop management practices and sustainable water allocation strategies to competing users, thereby enhancing livelihoods. This chapter gives an overview of various water resource studies carried out in the Limpopo Basin.The chapter is divided into three sections. The first section briefly presents decisionmaking tools for catchment management including rainfall variation analyses (dry spells, wet days), rainfall-runoff modelling, impacts of dams on flow regimes, floods, water allocation, non-conventional water sources. The second section presents alluvial aquifers as sources of water especially for small communities including the rural population. The third section deals with the water quality issues. In all the sections, methodology, main results and key messages are presented. The chapter concludes by highlighting the key findings in all the studies.This section briefly describes three case studies carried out in Zimbabwe and South Africa in relation to rainfall variation impacts.The first study characterised the changing regional and global trends in climate, such as global warming related declines in annual rainfall and discharge in Shashe and Mzingwane Rivers (Love et al., 2010). These trends are likely to have a strong influence on water resource availability, and increase livelihood risks. Comparisons of rainfall and runoff records at different locations within sub-basins were done. In addition, the Spearman rank test and the Pettitt test were used to analyse trends of temperature, rainfall and discharge from the northern portion of the Limpopo Basin in Zimbabwe.Statistical analyses of daily temperature, rainfall and runoff data from stations with a minimum of 30 years continuous data were carried out.The results showed notable decline in rainfall and discharge in the study area since 1980, both in terms of total annual water resources (declines in annual rainfall and annual unit runoff) and in terms of the temporal availability of water (declines in number of rainy days, increases in dry spells and days without flow). The declining rainfall trend was related to the increased incidence and severity of El Niño events and to changes associated with global warming. Discharge reduction was attributed to declining rainfall input and runoff generation in headwater catchments due to impoundments in small dams and increased irrigation water abstractions (Love et al., 2010). The study suggested that as rainfall continues to decline a multiplier effect will be felt on discharge due to non-linear processes involved in rainfall-runoff conversion. Increased food shortages are likely because of declining water resources availability and uneven distribution indicated by increased dry spells on rainfed and irrigated agriculture. In addition, declining water resource availability will further stress urban water supplies, notably those of Zimbabwe's second largest city of Bulawayo.There is a decline in water resource availability and uneven distribution, which has exerted pressure on urban, irrigated and rainfed agriculture. This has the potential to affect poverty reduction and sanitation provision.In a second study, Mupangwa et al. (2009) assessed changes in the start, end and length of growing season and the pattern of 14 and 21-day dry spells during the growing season in the Mzingwane catchment portion of Limpopo Basin in southern Zimbabwe.The study provides information for planning of land preparation and planting activities for smallholder agriculture, dependant on seasonal characteristics of rainfall.Daily rainfall data from five meteorological stations located in southern Zimbabwe was analysed. The study concluded that no significant changes in the start, end and subsequent length of growing season had occurred over the past 50-74 years along the Bulawayo to Beitbridge transect in southern Zimbabwe. In addition, the number of wet days per growing season had not changed significantly. However, high chances of 14 and 21-day dry spells during the peak rainfall months were noted, permitting scope of exploring rainwater management technologies to bridge dry spells in rainfed cropping systems.The findings from this study (Mupangwa, 2009) concurred with those of Tadross et al. (2007) who reported increased dry spell lengths and reductions in wet day frequencies in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe and in Sub-Saharan Africa in general (Usman and Reason, 2004). Furthermore, Magombeyi and Taigbenu (2008) reported return period of 2 years for droughts and 14-day intra-seasonal dry spells with a probability of 0.52 in the growing season, in the Olifants sub-basin in South Africa.A third study, assessed dry spell impacts on crop yields in South Africa (Magombeyi and Taigbenu, 2008). The study evaluated the vulnerability and risk to water resources and food security of smallholder farmers under exclusive rainfed and supplementary irrigation agriculture in the Olifants sub-basin. It was noted that soil-water deficit at critical growth stages may reduce yields by up to 62 %, depending on the length and severity of the moisture deficit. The study affirmed the need to invest in rain and soilwater management technologies to prolong the period of soil-water availability to crops in smallholder cropping systems if increased rainfed yields are to be attained in semi-arid areas (Mupangwa, 2009;Love et al., 2010).Crop production is threatened by increased incidence and severity of El Niño events and changes associated with global warming as they trigger high frequency of severe dry spells.Understanding historic changes, or projecting future changes in streamflow conditions will require evaluation of precipitation and temperature changes as well as the role of land-use change on streamflow. These issues further reinforce the importance of maintaining adequate nationwide and basin networks of precipitation and streamflow gauges for use in predicting changes in average streamflow and streamflow variability.The reported changes in regional and global trends in climate and discharge are likely to have a strong influence on water resource availability, agricultural practices, floods and increased food security risk. In the Limpopo River Basin, an increase in extreme precipitation events is considered likely as evidenced by floods experienced in 2000.In the next section, a study on flood forecasting and potential human and property impacts in Mozambique is presented.This section briefly describes a flood-forecasting tool developed and applied in data scarce areas in Mozambique. The tool is based on advances in integrated technologies including Geographic Information Systems (GIS).A study aimed at improving flood forecasting and management options of potential inundated areas with limited climatic data was carried out in the Olifants sub-basin of the Limpopo River Basin, which is under constant threat from floods (Vilanculos, 2008).The methodology employed the latest developments and advances in integrated technologies of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing and hydrological modelling. Geophysical properties (soil and topography) and time series data obtained from satellite images and historical records were used to parameterise the model. The spatial and temporal attributes were stored and analysed through GIS, which was linked to a Geo-spatial Stream Flow Model.The calibrated model performed well, with regression coefficients ranging between 94 % and 98 %. A flood wave was predicted to take two days to reach Chókwè, after leaving Massingir Dam. Furthermore, the study showed that flood prediction at Chókwè was possible three to five days prior. Thereby enable issuing of an early flood warning to downstream communities. At highest flood level, with water stages between 8.5-10.5 m, which were above historic levels, prior to 2000, the floods may affect up to 130,000 people, 27 primary schools, a secondary school and seven hospitals.The flood forecasting model produced reliable flood forecasts with up to 3-5 days lead time, comparable with superior methods that achieve up to 7 days (Markar et al., 2005).Flood risks are a function of many factors, including populations exposed to floods, the nature and extent of structures within river floodplains, the frequency and intensity of hydrologic events, and kinds of protection and warning available. Therefore, decision support tools that enable flood prediction in data limited areas can save lives and property, and reduce poverty.Owing to the large catchment scale and heterogeneity in topographic characteristics, more accurate geospatial data and distributed modelling are crucial for more accurate and reliable hydrologic predictions.The next section presents water generation and allocation modelling studies carried out in Mzingwane sub-basin of the Limpopo Basin.This section presents eight studies including rainfall-runoff and water allocation from dams and streams with their associated impacts on water management for improved livelihoods.In the first study, a dynamic, semi-distributed model HBVx was developed to analyse the rainfall-interception-evaporation-runoff relationships of a meso-catchment in the semiarid Zhulube catchment in the Zimbabwe portion of the Limpopo Basin (Love et al., in press). HBVx is an improvement of HBV (Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansmodell) (Seibert, 2002) with interception volume introduced and runs in parameterised and semi-distributed mode in two or more sub-basins. Understanding of the hydrological processes occurring in a catchment is essential in building resilience to water resource availability (Lange and Leibundgut, 2003) or developing trade-offs between food and ecosystem services (Falkenmark et al., 2007). Interception, one of the hydrological components is a major driver of the magnitude and speed of catchment response to rainfall, especially for semi-arid catchments with limited rainfall frequency and depth (Beven, 2002;De Groen and Savenije, 2006).Daily rainfall for each sub-catchment was computed by use of Thiessen polygons, from the 2005-2008, while daily reference evaporation was calculated by Hargreaves formula (Allen et al., 1998).The results showed that observed runoff events were disjointed, with short or no observable recession curves, probably caused by the shallow soils (graph/diagram). Floods showed longer recessions associated with higher antecedent precipitation. In the catchment water balance, interception accounted for 32 % of rainfall in the 2007-2008 season but increased to 56 % in the drier 2006-2007 season. After calibration, HBVx simulations satisfactorily showed the disjointed nature of the flows, as observed. The incorporation of interception into rainfall-runoff substantial improved the objective function values from Nash-Sutcliffe coefficients (C NS ) of 0.296 without interception to C NS of 0.556 for the model with interception, both in semi-distributed mode. The best HBVx simulation supported by field observations suggested that discharge in the Zhulube Catchment was driven mainly by flow from rapidly-draining shallow groundwater, with little or no overland flow. Nonetheless, the HBVx model was unable to address temporal variability in soil characteristics and storages that are more complex such as bank and wetland storage. The model suggests episodic groundwater recharge with annual recharge of 100 mm a -1 , which is comparable to another study reported in Zimbabwe (Larsen et al., 2002). Higher temporal resolution data such as rainfall and discharge at sub-hourly time-steps would give better model results.Interception quantification is important in catchment response to rainfall events, especially for semi-arid catchments. Discharge in the Zhulube Catchment was driven mainly by flow from rapidly-draining shallow groundwater.The last study dealt with model regionalisation in Zimbabwe. Love et al. (2009) regionalised HBVx, derived from the conceptual hydrological model HBV (Bergström, 1992;Seibert, 2002), in the heterogeneous semi-arid Mzingwane sub-basin, Limpopo Basin. Regionalisation process transfers small-scale (or meso-scale: scale of approximately 10 1 -10 3 km 2 (Blöschl and Sivapalan, 1995) measurements to a large scale (or basin or regional > 10 4 km 2 ) model, or from gauged catchments to ungauged catchments. Despite several past attempts, no single regionalisation procedure has been developed that yields universally acceptable results (Ramachandra Rao and Srinivas, 2003). The study presents opportunities for streamflow prediction in ungauged and data constrained catchments.Fifteen meso-catchments were considered, including three that were instrumented during the study. The parameter sets that performed best in the regionalisation are suggestive of slow infiltration with moderate/fast overland flow. These processes appeared more prevalent in degraded catchments, suggesting that benefits can be derived from soil-water conservation techniques that increase infiltration rate and runoff harvesting (in-field and ex-field). Faster, and possibly greater, sub-surface contribution to streamflow is expected from catchments underlain by granitic rocks. The study noted that calibration and regionalisation were more successful at the dekad (10 days) time step than when using daily or monthly data. Nevertheless, none of the parameter sets regionalised yielded (Nash-Sutcliffe Coefficient) C NS ≥ 0.3 for half of the catchments. In agreement with Ramachandra Rao and Srinivas (2003), the study concluded that without more reliable and longer rainfall and runoff data, regionalisation in semi-arid ephemeral catchments would remain a challenge.Regionalisation methods, though still under development, presents opportunities for streamflow prediction in ungauged and data constrained catchments. Time step and spatial heterogeneity play important roles when hydrological processes change from a small to large scale.In the third study, a spreadsheet-based WAFLEX (Savenije, 2005) model was applied to analyze upstream-downstream interactions, dam management options, water allocation and development options in the lower Mzingwane and Thuli River sub-basins of the Limpopo Basin, Zimbabwe (Love et al., 2008a).In lower Mzingwane, the WAFLEX model showed that management of water releases from Zhovhe Dam, which is currently underutilized, could satisfy an agro-industry, town of Beitbridge and irrigation water for smallholder farmers along the river, where soils are poor and rainfall is unreliable. For the Thuli River sub-basin, an inter-basin water transfer to satisfy water requirements to Bulawayo City in Zimbabwe was proposed from Mtshabezi Dam. Furthermore, the construction of Moswa and Elliot Dams is essential to satisfy Greater Thuli Irrigation Scheme water needs. WAFLEX model identified underutilized water resources and showed the feasibility of equitably sharing scarce water resources among several users and with minimal negative impacts.A fifth study evaluated the effects of upstream water demand scenarios on downstream users in the Thuli River sub-basin in south-western Zimbabwe (Khosa et al., 2008), since surface water resource availability is a constraint. Currently, the basin is more developed in its upper than lower reaches. Thuli River is a tributary basin to the Shashe River, which is a tributary of the Limpopo River (Khosa et al., 2008). Modelling water demand scenarios can be used to plan supply and demand for a particular water use (Shnaydman, 1993) or evaluate water policies (Gómez-Límon et al., 2002).WAFLEX, a flexible spreadsheet based model (Savenije, 1995) was applied to simulate the impacts of different water demand scenarios on downstream water availability. The water demand scenarios tested were based on government recommendations and future water resources development, drought risk mitigation, implementation of environmental water requirement and implementation of inter-basin transfer to Bulawayo City water supplies.WAFLEX model simulated well the observed flows in most of the years, with regression coefficient of 0.7 at p <0.05. The results showed that implementing inter-basin transfer increased downstream water shortages, whereas provision of environmental water requirements, implementation of water resources development plans by government and drought risk mitigation decreased downstream water shortages. The study emphasised the need for a holistic simulation approach (including up-and down-stream users, other stakeholders and potential water development options) by the Thuli River basin management institution in selecting sustainable water development and water allocation trade-offs.Dynamic reservoir operation rules will likely become more appropriate than traditional rule curves as complexity of water allocation increases due to competing uses and water scarcity. Depending on the state of the river system being managed, water supply impacts to competing users can be dampened by planned release regimes, increased water use efficiency and construction of new storage.The seventh study applied WAFLEX model for optimisation of water use and storage to provide for more equitable water allocation, in the lower Mzingwane aquifer (Love et al., 2009c). The aquifer is currently underutilised and recharged by managed releases from Zhovhe Dam (capacity 133 Mm 3 ). The study is important as Lower Mzingwane valley currently support commercial agro-businesses (1,750 ha irrigation) and four smallholder irrigation schemes (400 ha with provision for a further 1,200 ha).WAFLEX model was adapted to incorporate alluvial aquifers into the water balance, including recharge, baseflow and groundwater flows (Love et al., 2009c). WAFLEX modelling results suggest that there is surplus water available in the lower Mzingwane system, and thus water conflicts should not be there. Water resources were better shared through more frequent timing of releases from the dam and maintaining the alluvial aquifers permanently saturated. In addition, sand dams augmented the aquifer storage system and improved access to water. The alluvial aquifers upstream and downstream of Zhovhe Dam have an estimated average water storage capacity of 0.37 Mm 3 km -1 of which 0.35 Mm 3 km -1 is below evaporation extinction depth. Therefore, a 137 km length of aquifer could potentially store 50 Mm 3 of water, 38% of the capacity of Zhovhe Dam. This stored water would be sufficient to irrigate a belt 100 m to 180 m wide along each bank, with total area of 3,000 to 4,500 ha, depending on irrigation efficiency. Such a system would be decentralised; farmer or family owned to benefit a larger population than is currently served.Key messages WAFLEX is a simple and user-friendly model (Love et al., 2009c)   , 2007). Innovative ways to address water scarcity such as exploration of non-conventional water resources (sand dams) constitutes a huge potential for the protection of highly claimed aquifers.To further address water allocation, a fourth study dealt with the impacts of Zhovhe Dam on the lower Mzingwane River channel by comparing upstream and downstream flow regimes in a daily water balance (Love et al., 2008b). The construction and management regime of dams change the downstream natural flow regime of a river leading to either siltation or erosion of riparian zones (World Commission on Dams, 2000).Data collection involved geomorphology and vegetation surveys. Managed releases from the dam supplied commercial agro-business and Beitbridge town. Changes in channel morphology were observed, such as the decline in active riverbed width and abandoned portions of the river channel on either side, attributed to changes in flow regime, indicate that the extent of the alluvial aquifer is likely to decrease. The change in grain size from coarse sand (1995) to fine gravel ( 2008) could result in a lower specific yield that would negatively impacts the water storage capacity and supply potential of the Lower Mzingwane alluvial aquifer to current users including the environment.Dam construction alters the downstream flow regime; requiring planned releases to mitigate water allocation impacts to the environment and the downstream users.A sixth study compared river flows with instreamflow requirements downstream of dams in the Insiza catchment, in line with the new Zimbabwean and South African Water Acts that of recognises the environment as a user (Kileshye Onema et al., 2006). The three dams studied were Upper Insiza Dam, Insiza Dam and Silalabuhwa Dam. These dams account for 90% of the total storage capacity in the Insiza catchment. Silalabuhwa Dam was developed mainly for urban water supply to the City of Bulawayo.The study concluded that impacts of dam construction on exceedence of low flows should be studied as lack of flows during the dry season has considerable adverse effects on aquatic and non-aquatic ecosystems that depend on these flows.The design of dam operating rules and allocation of environmental flows should take into account possible changes in low flows in order to minimize adverse environmental effects and surprises.This section describes two catchment modelling studies consisting of hydrological and water allocation performed to improve water management in Olifants sub-basin, South Africa. The first study assessed the impacts of human-environment interactions on streamflow by application of a semi-distributed, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Arnold et al., 1998) model to the B72A, E, F, G and H quaternary catchments in the Olifants sub-basin in South Africa as demands on the water resources increases (Ncube and Taigbenu, 2008;Ncube, 2006).Rainfall data was obtained from a database by Lynch (2004) and other climatic data were obtained from the South African Weather Services. Department of Water and Forestry (DWAF) now Department of Water Affairs provided the daily streamflow data at four gauging stations (DWAF, 2006). A sensitivity analysis (incorporated in SWAT) based on the LH-OAT (Latin Hypercube -One-factor-At-a-Time) method was performed to identify the driving parameters for the hydrology.Results showed a correlation between land cover and the hydrologic response, as an increase in land cover corresponded to streamflow reduction. SWAT was able to adequately represent, characterise the relative effects of different land cover conditions and provide streamflow time series in the catchment. Highest streamflow reduction was observed under range grass, followed by forestry. While arid land resulted in highest streamflow increase. Best model parameter values for the B72E -H catchment from auto-calibration (van Griensven and Meixner, 2004) were applied to an ungauged B72A quaternary catchment, with similar biophysical properties to gauged catchments. A mean annual runoff of 68 mm was obtained in B72A catchment that is about 20% less than the virgin streamflows reported in Schulze (2003).Good land management practices are important in sustainable water resources management as they affect the catchment hydrology. Application of SWAT model to ungauged catchments is promising.The second study assessed future water demands and resources in the water-stressed Olifants sub-basin, South Africa (Arranz and McCartney, 2007;McCartney et al., 2005) using the Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) model (Yates et al., 2005;SEI, 2001) in conjunction with scenario analysis. The assessment is critical to decision-making, planning and implementation of development projects as different competing water users (i.e., rural, urban, mining, subsistence and commercial irrigated agriculture, commercial forestry, industry and power generation) are present in this sub-basin, which is considered \"closed\". The ongoing and future land distribution and water re-allocation, population growth, mining industry growth, implementation of environmental flows and the need to meet international flow requirements are going to exacerbate the complexity of future water resources management in this water-stressed sub-basin.Using scenario approach, impacts of possible water demands on the water resources of the Olifants sub-basin in 2025 were compared to 1995 values (taken as the baseline).Hydrological and water demand data came Water Resources 1990 study and Water Situation Assessment Model database, respectively.The model enabled analyses of unmet water demands, streamflows and water storage for each scenario. For the different scenarios considered in the study, the implementation of the Environmental Reserve (an instream requirement to guarantee the health of the riverine ecosystems) increased the deficits for other users. For instance, application of the Environmental Reserve to the 1995 baseline condition increased the average unmet demand by 65 %, up to 43.8 Mm 3 (i.e., 5.6% of the total demand). For the high growth scenario (total demand increased by 50% from 1995 baseline condition), the Environmental Reserve increased the average annual shortfall to 135 M m 3 (12.1% of the total demand) with irrigated agriculture sector most affected. There were water shortages in 1995 baseline condition in the Olifants sub-basin, which increased in all the 2025 scenarios. Construction of new water storage infrastructure in conjunction with the application of Water Conservation and Demand Management practices reduced the unmet demands and deficits to levels lower than, or similar to, those experienced in the 1995 baseline condition. However, these interventions were insufficient to satisfy fully the demands of all the users. Hence, the study recommended a tight control of future water demands, although this may be difficult in a rapidly developing country like South Africa.Assessment of catchment's ability to satisfy its future water demands is crucial in order to plan and make wise decisions. Olifants sub-basin cannot satisfy its future water demands even after construction of new infrastructure and implementation of water conservation and demand management. Application of the Environmental Reserve, intended to ensure the sustainability of the resource base, results in more water flowing in the rivers, but less water available to meet direct human demands.The Innovative Coupling of Hydrologic and Socio-Economic Aspects model (ICHSEA) couples SWAT (hydrology; Arnold and Foster, 2005;Neitsch et al., 2001a;2001b;Arnold et al., 1993), PARCHED-THIRST (agricultural water management; Young et al., 2002) and OLYMPE (socio-economics; Penot and Deheuvels, 2007) The sensitivity analysis results from ICHSEA indicated 13 ranked sensitive parameters in SWAT, with the first three most sensitive parameters in decreasing order being CN2 (SCS runoff curve number for moisture condition II), GWQMN (Threshold depth of water in the shallow aquifer (mm) required for return flow to occur), and ESCO (Soil evaporation compensation factor). The parameter rankings from sensitivity analysis were unchanged with and without observed streamflow, suggesting that SWAT sensitivity module is robust enough to be used to identify hydrological important parameters in ungauged catchments. Other ICHSEA sensitivity results are presented in Table 11. The former are depleted over a (supra-) annual time step and the latter over a dekad to month time step. Thus, HOWZIT runs at a dekad time step.In conclusion, a change in runoff generated by hydrological models can be linked to the landuse, catchment management practices (such as crop management practices) and ultimately food security. Using sensitivity analysis identified important hydrological parameters for runoff generation in SWAT model either with or without using observed streamflows, suggesting applicability of SWAT model to ungauged catchments. Much effort must be invested in obtaining good quality data of the sensitive parameters. The study noted that a decision support model should run at the time step of the system resilience.Coupled catchment models provide flexible and holistic impacts assessment tools to support management decisions and policy-making. However, sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of results need to be communicated to the decision-makers.In the next section, a synthesis of all the studies presented in the first part of this chapter is presented.This section describes a synthesis of the water quantity related studies.Different hydrological models and water allocation models were applied in South Africa and Zimbabwe portions of the Limpopo Basin. The main criteria used to choose the hydrological models were availability of input data at appropriate resolution and model support from the model experts and developers. In South Africa, data availability and quality is much better than in Zimbabwe. Hence, a more data intensive hydrological model, SWAT was selected for application in South Africa (Ncube and Taigbenu, 2008;Ncube, 2006), while a less data intensive spreadsheet based model, HBV and HBVx (an improvement of HBV) were applied in Zimbabwe (Love et al., in press). Despite the different models used in the different contexts, the studies from the two countries concluded that the models were able to give satisfactory results to inform water resources planning at catchment level. However, in ungauged catchments, distributed models or semi-distributed models such as SWAT would give better results.Water allocation and planning models to simulate of anthropogenic activities superimposed on the natural system used in the Limpopo Basin studies were WEAP in South Africa (Arranz and McCartney, 2007) and WAFLEX in Zimbabwe (Khosa, 2007;Love et al., 2008a;2009c). The models assisted in identifying equitable water sharing rules from underutilized and overstressed water resources in the catchments. Other augmentation solutions identified included demand management, use of alluvial aquifers, inter-basin transfers, construction of new infrastructure and use of non-conventional water sources such as the sand dams.Implementation of environmental water requirements intended to ensure the sustainability of the water resource base would ensure that more water flows in the rivers, but less water available and reduced assurance to meet direct human demands. However, the studies noted the need of a holistic approach, with stakeholder participation in assessment of water allocation and development options to avoid negative impacts. In an endeavour to address the need for holistic approaches, coupled models (HOWZIT and ICHSEA) were development to aid management and decisionmaking at catchment level.In the next section, alluvial aquifers are described as potential water sources in dry areas, especially for rural small communities.The temporal and spatial unreliability of rainfall and potential evaporation exceeding rainfall in semi-arid areas requires an intra-annual storage to secure water supplies for domestic and agricultural use. The water yield from developed surface water sources often falls short of the demand especially during droughts (Nyabeze, 2004). For this reason, relatively cheap groundwater in the form of alluvial aquifers is an attractive water source in the northern Limpopo Basin (Love et al., 2008c). An alluvial aquifer is an unconfined groundwater unit that is located in horizontally discontinuous layers of sand, silt and clay, deposited in a river channel, banks or flood plain (Love et al., 2009c). This section briefly presents four case studies on alluvial aquifers as potential sources of water supply to small communities and augments surface water supplies in the Mzingwane sub-basin, Zimbabwe.The first study assessed the potential water supply for the upper-Mnyabezi catchment in southern Zimbabwe under current conditions and after implementation of two storage capacity measures (de Hamer et al., 2008). These measures are heightening the spillway of the 'Mnyabezi 27' Dam and constructing a sand storage dam in the alluvial aquifer of the Mnyabezi River as water supply shortages exists.The potential water supply in the Mnyabezi catchment under current conditions ranges from 2107 m 3 (5.7 months) in a dry year to 3162 m 3 (8.7 months) in a wet year. The maximum period of water supply after implementation of the storage capacity measures in a dry year is 2776 m 3 (8.4 months) and in a wet year, the amount is 3617 m 3 (10.8 months). The reservoir stores water for approximately five weeks longer after heightening the spillway to a height of 1.0 m. The sand storage dam can only be used as an additional water resource, since the storage capacity of the alluvial aquifer is small. However, when an ephemeral river is underlain by a larger alluvial aquifer, a sand storage dam is a promising way of water supply to smallholder farmers in southern Zimbabwe.In a second study, surface water and groundwater resources water balance was applied to determine the potential for irrigation expansion and water allocation options along the water-stressed Mzingwane River in the Limpopo Basin, Zimbabwe (Love et al., 2009c). The data sources were limited and included a combination of existing data, field and laboratory investigations and remote sensing. A spreadsheet-based model, WAFLEX with module to compute water balance of alluvial aquifer was employed.A substantial water volume of 38 Mm 3 can be stored in the lower Mzingwane alluvial aquifers, suggesting tripling of current water usage without construction of new reservoirs. This potential water stored can supply an additional 4,883 ha, with few shortages (Figure 38). Most of the additional area is located along the riverbanks. This arrangement could cause downstream impacts, as nearly a third of inflows are not released to downstream uses.Alluvial aquifers in semi-arid areas in Africa provide access to shallow and relatively good quality groundwater from sand infiltration in an efficient way. The additional water available can be used in agriculture to enhance local livelihoods and contribute towards regional food security. The construction of sand dams or gabion weirs increases storage potential of alluvial aquifers. A third study employed a finite difference model, MODFLOW to model Mushawe mesoalluvial aquifer behaviour (Harbaugh, 2005). Data collection involved channel width and slope surveys. The depth of sand was determined by physical probing with a steel probe, while a global positioning system tool (GPS) was used to survey the riverbed surface. Composite samples of alluvial material were collected from various depths of the aquifer to determine grain size distribution. Water depths were determined by piezometers. Classifications of Mzingwane sub-basin alluvial aquifers based on seepage were performed from satellite imagery.Results showed that Mushawe River changes from a discharge water body in the dry season, to a recharge water body during the rainy season. The aquifer was fully saturated by December 2007 (5,425 m 3 ) but drops to 4,000 m 3 as the 2008 dry season begins. Alluvial aquifers hosted on older gneisses such as those in Beitbridge gneisses have higher levels of seepage, while those hosted on North Marginal Zone bedrock such as Chilimanzi granites are likely to have lower levels of seepage. Mushawe alluvial aquifer is suitable for small-scale domestic, livestock and small irrigation (gardens) water supply. Sand dams increased the storage capacity of alluvial aquifers by minimising downstream groundwater flow.The last study identified alluvial aquifers' distribution, properties, current usage and potential groundwater expansion from literature and LandSat TM imagery in sand filled channel rivers in Mzingwane catchment (Moyce et al., 2006). The aquifers are considered to have potential to support significant additional irrigation development.The alluvial aquifers form long ribbon shaped aquifers and are enhanced at lithological boundaries. Furthermore, the alluvial aquifers are more pronounced on gentler (1:500) slopes that allow for more sediment accumulation. These alluvial aquifers extend laterally outside the active channels, with areas ranging from 45-723 ha and 75-2196 ha in the channels and on the plains, respectively. The corresponding water resources potential in the channels and plains are 0.175-5.430 million m 3 and 0.08-6.92 million m 3 , respectively. Such a water resource potential, depending on crop type and irrigation efficiency can support irrigation areas ranging from 18-543 ha and 8-692 ha for channel and plain alluvial aquifers, respectively. The water quality of the aquifers in general is fairly good. However, water salinity, especially in water abstracted from wells on the alluvial plains was found to increase significantly in the end of the dry season and in drought years. Currently, the aquifers provide water for domestic use, livestock watering and dip tanks, commercial irrigation and market gardening. It was concluded that integrated water resource management is needed to monitor abstraction rates and water quality and to conjunctively utilise the plains and river channel aquifers to avoid salinity problems. In addition, the study suggested construction of artificial alluvial dams to increase the storage capacity of the aquifer and thereby store enough freshwater for the dry season.A simple bedrock classification based on seepage can assist in targeting favourable reaches for sand rivers for further evaluation and possible water supply development.Understanding of the aquifer's geology, including characteristics such as location of impermeable layers and the direction of water flow, is necessary in designing appropriate management options.Mzingwane sub-basin alluvial aquifer potential is underutilized. If fully exploited, for instance by construction of artificial alluvial dams to increase the storage capacity of the aquifer, could provide substantial irrigation water to smallholder farmers, thereby improving local food security.Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water to meet demand is only sustainable if the groundwater supplies are periodically recharged using surplus surface water.In the next section, water quality studies and associated ecosystem impacts in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique are presented.This section gives a brief overview of water quality case studies carried out in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique. Problems associated with water quality are also presented.Water quality reflects the chemical inputs from air and landscape and their biogeochemical transformation within the water (Murdoch, 2000). Atmospheric processes and movements of chemicals through various hydrologic flow-paths of water in the watershed influence the inputs. Furthermore, the chemical nature of the soils within the watershed also influences water quality. Water quality is also broadly defined to include indicators of ecological health such as sensitive species of fauna and flora.The lack of sufficient surface water quality is more pronounced in many arid and semiarid regions, necessitating groundwater augmentation. Poor quality water poses health risks to humans, livestock and crops as well as impairs aesthetic water values, thereby affecting livelihoods. This section reports water quality in two river catchments (Thuli and Mzingwane) that lie in the low rainfall areas of south-western part of Zimbabwe in the Limpopo Basin (Love et al. 2006).The first study enumerated water quality risks, and their possible impacts on livelihoods in the two catchments (Love et al. 2006). Thirty-six water samples were collected from rivers, dams and alluvial aquifers in the Mzingwane and Thuli River catchments. The samples were analysed for chemical and physical parameters including cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, arsenic, zinc, calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, nitrate, nitrite, chloride, phosphate, sulphate, alkalinity, total dissolved solids and pH.The results revealed varied catchments water quality, dependent on the catchments geology. Water quality parameters such as arsenic, calcium, chloride, copper, potassium, magnesium, sodium, nitrite, nitrate, nickel and sulphate in the sub-catchments did not pose risks to humans, livestock and crops. Human health risks were associated with cadmium, nitrates and manganese, while risks to livestock and crops were associated with chloride and iron. Furthermore, impairment of aesthetic values and taste were associated with manganese, iron, total hardness and total dissolved solids. The potential risks posed by nitrates, chloride, iron, total hardness and total dissolved solids were localised in the catchments, facilitating easy remediation whilst manganese and cadmium risks were observed throughout the catchments. Nitrate, chloride, total hardness and total dissolved solids risks were associated with groundwater whilst cadmium risks were associated with both surface and groundwater. Iron risks to crops were associated with groundwater water whereas iron aesthetic problems were associated with surface water and boreholes proximity to the riverbanks.The observed alluvial aquifers baseline chemistry has important implications for water supply development as these aquifers provide the main water source for rural communities in the study area (Nare et al., 2006). Communities and households in Mazunga Range area and the area around Bengu were identified as the most vulnerable to water quality threats.Local communities should protect both surface water and groundwater from pollution, due to their interconnectedness and interdependence. IWRM advocates recognise that groundwater is intrinsically linked to surface water; hence, it is important to couple surface and groundwater management within IWRM processes.Limpopo River is a transboundary river that passes through Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, and Mozambique thus it is imperative for the countries to have a common water quality guideline through joint efforts. However, it was noted that there are no common water quality guidelines for these basin countries.The authors recommended a follow-up study of cadmium in the catchment as well as mercury analysis, not analysed in this study but found in an adjacent Zhulube catchment by Tunhuma et al. (2007), presented in the next paragraph.A second study by Tunhuma et al. (2007) assessed the impacts of small-scale natural resource exploitation: gold panning in the Zhulube catchment in the portion of Limpopo Basin in Zimbabwe (Tunhuma 2006;Tunhuma, et al., 2007). Small-scale gold panning has become rampant as a drought shock coping strategy in the poverty-stricken rural areas of the catchment, where rainfed agriculture (Rockström et al., 2004), susceptible to droughts and dry spells is the main livelihood strategy. An estimated 2 million people (about 13 % of the Zimbabwean population) depend on small-scale mining located close to water sources (Figure 2.3) for their livelihoods (Maponga and Ngorima, 2003). Smallscale mining is located close to water sources due to large amounts of water requirements for mineral concentration, performed by gravity separation through a water medium (Babut et al, 2003;Hinton et al., 2003). Gold concentration and amalgamation are accomplished by use of cyanide and mercury, which are poisonous to humans, animals and aquatic life directly or indirectly through bioaccumulation in the food chains (Tunhuma, 2006). These environmentally unfriendly activities by the rural poor concurs with Cunningham et al. (2005) who depicted the poor as both the victims and agents of environmental degradation, forced to engage in unsustainable activities to meet short-term survival needs.Other livelihood strategies include irrigated market gardening, wildlife hunting, wood harvesting, wood sculpturing and mat making using tree bucks and reeds. These smallscale activities either gradually (as in forest harvesting) or rapidly (as in mining) change the native vegetation cover and the natural landscape affecting the catchment hydrology responses (Tunhuma, 2006;Hope et al., 2004).The methodology involved environmental impact assessment using the pressure-stateimpact-response approach. The state was evaluated based on the researcher observation; water quantity was estimated using rainfall and siltation was estimated using two weirs in the catchment together with suspended solids in river water. Chemical water quality analyses of samples collected from the rivers in the catchment was done. For quality control, 10% of the sample where collected in duplicates, two in the first campaign and three in the second (Tunhuma, 2006). Furthermore, a survey and informal interviews were carried out to assess the response.The results showed negative environmental impacts of water resources from uncontrolled small-scale gold panning, land clearance, erosion and sedimentation in Zhulube catchment (Figure 39). Gold panning contributed most, followed by agriculture to increased sediments entering water bodies. Furthermore, gold panning introduced sulphates and toxic metal, mercury into the aquatic environment. These extensive environmental impacts were attributed to limited enforcement and compliance with national laws at local level, poor resource use practices, lack of sense of ownership and alternative livelihoods among users. In addition, a number of institutions found at local level in Zhulube catchment to implement environmental protection and monitoring lacked work force, instrumentation and in some instances not well coordinated.Coordinated efforts by these institutions may increase resources and efficiency of operations.It was recommended that illegal forms of small-scale resource exploitation such as gold panning should be formalised and a wider stakeholder participation to include local communities in policy-making and environmental protection. The study also advocated for cleaner production techniques (Babut, et al., 2003;Ghose, 2003;Hinton et al., 2003) to be used in the purification of gold to reduce impacts on gold panners and environment. Furthermore, a continuous and systematic environmental (land use and water quality) monitoring system at catchment and basin scales should be set up to inform decision-makers.The limitations of the study were omission of biological indicators in water quality assessment and limited sampling time of half a season (Tunhuma, 2006). A longer sampling period of more than two rainy seasons would have been ideal. To further evaluate water quality and address these limitations, Chilundo et al. (2008a) embarked on a more extensive water quality assessment in Mozambique, presented in the next section.Figure 39: Stream morphology degradation due to gold panning. First picture shows holes dug in a stream and second picture shows processed sediment on the river (Tunhuma, 2006).An extensive water quality assessment study by Chilundo et al. (2008a), proposed a water quality monitoring network to characterise stream health for the portion of the Limpopo River Basin (LRB) in Mozambique (see Figure 40), a region prone to severe droughts. Chilundo et al. (2008a) argue that anthropogenic and natural driven processes, exacerbated by the increased water demand by the four riparian countries (Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique) are responsible for surface water degradation and impairment of water uses in the basin. The design and establishment of water quality programmes for the Limpopo River will contribute to improved management of water in Mozambique and in the region.The physico-chemical, biological and microbiological characteristics at 23 sites (in-stream and effluent point discharges) were assessed in November 2006 and January 2007. The physico-chemical and microbiological samples were analyzed according to American Public Health Association (APHA) standard methods, while the biological monitoring working party method (BMWP) was used for biological assessment. Site indices based on Lincoln Index (BMWP scores), Physico-chemical Index and Heavy metals Index were derived using the Mozambican standards for receiving waters and the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. The worst scenario approach, which assigns the worst class, indicated by one of the three indices was used for assigning the overall water quality index of a site (Chilundo et al., 2008a).Heavy metals water contamination at sites located at proximities to the border with upstream countries (Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe) were noted. These results confirmed earlier conclusions in the portion of the Limpopo Basin in Zimbabwe (Love et al., 2006a;Tunhuma, 2006;Tunhuma et al., 2008). Elephants sub-catchment had a relatively better water quality, while the Changane sub-catchment together with the effluent point discharges in the basin were polluted, indicated by the low dissolved oxygen and high total dissolved solids, sodium adsorption ratio and low benthic macroinvertebrates taxa. High counts of fecal coliforms (>2500 CFU/100 ml) contamination were associated with effluent discharges from urban areas. The study proposed monthly water quality monitoring because of the significant water quality differences (p < 0.05) found for some parameters when the concentrations recorded in November and January were compared.It was concluded that a systematic water quality (focusing on ambient, early warning, operational and effluents) monitoring network composed of 16 stations at an estimated total cost of US $56,000 per year would suit the conditions of the Limpopo River Basin. Additional research at a basin scale was recommended to identify the major sources of pollution, their transportation and impacts to the downstream ecosystem. The results show high levels of pollution. However, the results cannot be conclusive due to the limited number of observations.In another important study on transboundary water quality issues, cadmium a transition metal that occurs naturally at low concentrations (Love et al., 2009a) was evaluated. Dissolved cadmium is considered a human health risk at concentrations above 0.03 mg/L in drinking water. Furthermore, cadmium is a known teratogen, associated with birth defects, prostate and kidney cancer, and is a probable carcinogen. Smoking, ingestion of trace cadmium in foodstuffs or water, especially contaminated with phosphate fertilisers are the major routes for cadmium intake in humans.Two independent water chemistry studies were carried out led by WaterNet. These studies pointed to elevated cadmium levels in surface water and groundwater in many locations within the Limpopo Basin in Mozambique (Chόkwé, Sango, Limpopo National Park, Massangir) and Zimbabwe (Buvuma, Filabusi, Manama, Silalabuhwa, West Nicholson). Another recent study at the University of Johannesburg (not part of the project) showed similar problems from several locations within the Limpopo Basin in South Africa (Kruger National Park, Crook's Corner). Most of the results from the three studies were above the 0.03 mg/L, maximum safe level recommended by the WHO, signifying a potentially serious health risk to rural communities and ecosystems in the study areas. The residents may suffer from cumulative cadmium poisoning from their drinking water.Elevated levels of cadmium (> 0.3mg/l) are a serious potential health hazard to the local communities and ecosystem. Hence, corrective actions by basin countries to identify cadmium sources and remediation efforts are required immediately.Physico-chemical and biological parameters were assessed in the Mozambican side of the Limpopo Basin, while in Zimbabwe only physico-chemical parameters were assessed. All the studies reported in the Limpopo Basin depicted heterogeneous water quality results. However, most of the parameters where found to be above country and WHO water quality standards posing a health risk to humans, animals, aquatic life and crops.Runoff generated and the associated uncertainty in a catchment is a driver in planning water use and allocation in ungauged and gauged catchments as it indicates potential available water for allocation to different water users.More pressure on surface water supplies is likely to come from population shifts, land use practices and changes in water right allocations to accommodate environmental flows and water rights of former disadvantaged smallholder farmers and groups. This situation is likely to worsen due to long-term decreases in precipitation and increased frequency of dry spells (Mupangwa, 2009;Love et al., 2010) that will reduce water resources availability and possibly decrease recharge rates in some areas. Hence, climate change is likely to complicate and increase stress on water supply systems. This will compel exploration of non-conventional water resources (e.g. sand dams) as potential water supplies (Love et al., 2009b).Projecting future changes in streamflow conditions will require more evaluation of the complex role of changing precipitation and temperature patterns as well as the role of land-use change on streamflow.Aquatic and riparian ecosystems may be damaged under low precipitation, and increased dry spells (Mupangwa, 2009;Love et al., 2010) due to higher air temperatures and reduced summer flows. Furthermore, warmer, drier conditions promote mineralization of organic nitrogen thereby increasing chances of water pollution (Murdoch et al., 2000).Groundwater storage is affected by seasonality, volume, persistence of surface water inflows and discharges from groundwater to surface water. Groundwater-surface water interactions are poorly understood in most areas, hence the need for further study in Limpopo Basin.Concerning urban sanitation, treating urban pollution benefits health (saves lives), economy and ecosystems. For instance, reduced medical care expenditure, time and energy spent by women who care for the sick, all serve as economic incentives to treat and prevent water pollution and empower women. Locally and basin wide, corrective measures including monitoring efforts supported by basin wide institutions are therefore required to mitigate water quantity and quality impacts.There is need to improve or develop a new Flood Forecasting System as a key component of the new decision support system tools for Limpopo Basin to improve the reliability, accuracy and lead times of forecasting flood discharges and flood levels along the Limpopo River.Monitoring should be enhanced from a strategic perspective in order to integrate groundwater conditions, surface water quality, and biological factors in key habitats. Water quality changes that result from existing climatic variability, and the impacts of extreme events on ecosystems, need further evaluation.There is a need for flexible basin wide institutional arrangements to guide water policy decisions in adaptation to changing conditions in climate and multiple current water stresses. Currently there is no common legal framework for water rights in the basin countries (Chilundo et al., 2008;Tunhuma et al., 2008). Devising new legal water institutions through institutional models to introduce the necessary flexibility (to respond efficiently to changing socio-economic and environmental conditions) into water management is a significant challenge that is addressed as the third key research achievement under PN17 in section 3.• Encourage exploitation of non-conventional water sources to augment current water supplies • Encourage efficient use of green and blue water in catchments • Encourage soil-water techniques to prolong soil moisture residence time in order to bridge dry spells, especially for smallholder farmers • Encourage basin-wide joint dam operations to ensure floods and ecosystem are well managed • Establish basin-wide monitoring network for water quantity and quality • Establish basin-wide studies and water quality standards • Establish basin-wide agreements on instreamflow quantities based on joint basinwide studies.The third major research area of the Challenge Program on Water and Food Project 17 had the objective of developing institutional models for effective water governance 3 so as to strengthen policies for enhancing water productivity and risk mitigation at the catchment and basin scale. This was against a backdrop of new water management institutions, based on hydrological rather than administrative boundaries, having been or in the process of being created in all the four Limpopo basin countries (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe) in line with Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which was adopted as the founding water management framework in southern Africa under the auspices of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), a regional political and economic bloc to which all the southern African countries belong. The main instruments that were crafted and adopted were the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, the Regional Water Policy, the Regional Water Strategy, and the Regional Strategic Action Pan on Integrated Water Resources Development and Management (RSAP-IWRM) (Manzungu and Mpho, 2008). Individual countries crafted national laws and policies to operationalise IWRM.It was envisaged that good water governance was to be achieved through the creation of multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) to ensure the participation of all stakeholders in the way water resources are managed. The degree to which the IWRM-based institutions have succeeded in promoting effective stakeholder participation at a regional, basin, national and local level has not been fully investigated (Fatch et al, 2009;Manzungu, 2004). More importantly for this project, the degree to which the new institutions have/are affected/affecting the livelihoods of the rural population, which represents well over half of the total population, remains unknown and uninvestigated (Mabiza et al, 2006;Sithole, et al, 2009). In this section institutions are understood as 'rules of the game' that are interpreted and acted on differently by people, are dynamic and evolve and change over time (North, 1990). A related term is organization which refers to groups of people with shared goals and some formalized pattern of interaction often defined in terms of roles (Merrey et al, 2007). In this study the focus was more on the organizations, with a view to understand the relationships between and among the various actors. The idea was to go beyond a mere description the relationships as contained in policy and legal documents, but document and understand as things were on the ground. This is because there tends to be a difference between the 'rules of the game' and the 'state of the play' as people does not always act according to stated rules (Shah. et al, 2005). Consequently effort was made not to view institutions as things (rather than as relationships and processes) as this can result in unproductive engineering metaphors and approaches being ascribed to them, which does not shed light on how institutions work in practice (Merrey et al, 2007). It is, however, important to remember that water-related institutions are not the only institutions that are found at the local level nor are they the only ones that affect and influence rural livelihoods.Another point that needs to be highlighted is that institutions are embedded in the political, social and economic context in which they are found. As such it is important to highlight the different water reform trajectories that individual SADC countries have followed (Manzungu, 2004;van Koppen, 2008) before discussing the various specific3 Governance can be understood as comprising the traditions, institutions and processes through which power is exercised, citizens are given voice, and decisions are made on public issues (Warner et al, 2008). It is not clear whether the aim was to study the institutional modes that existed, help to establish institutions or both.All the same it is only in Zimbabwe where there was an attempt to engage stakeholders on possible institutional configurations as reported in later paragraphs.institutional arrangements. This is undertaken below with the exception of Botswana, which was not part of the study.During the Portuguese colonial period   Decree 26/91 of 14 November created the Regional Administration for Water (ARA) as a vehicle to decentralize water management to the regional and basin level. Under this arrangement water resource management is organised on the basis of river basin and regional boundaries (ARA), which are public institutions with a legal persona, and enjoy administrative and financial autonomy under National Directorate of Water.Consequently the country was a divided into the following regions:• ARA Sul, that covers the south border of the country to the Save river basin.• ARA Centro, that covers Save river basin to the basin of the Zambezi River;• ARA Zambezi that covers the basin of the Zambezi River basin;• ARA Centro Norte -that covers the region from the Zambezi river basin to Lurio river and • ARA Norte -that covers the Lúrio river basin to the northern border Regions are empowered to collect and maintain all hydrological data at river basin level. Decree 25/91 of 14 November established the CNA (National Commission for Water), a consultative body of council of ministries, which facilitates inter-ministerial coordination relating to policy and implementation aspects. In 2007 the Government put in place mechanisms to allow river basin water users to interact with water management unity through basin committees (see Box 2). Representatives of consumer associations or of other local consumer organizations may be invited to the Coordinating Forum by decision of the respective city councils.Inequalities in water and sanitation services, a consequence of apartheid policies, which disadvantaged the majority black population, led to the promulgation of the National Water Act of 1998 (RSA, 1998), and the Water Supply Services Act (RSA, 1997). The National Water Act enhanced the role of the state in water resources management, a role that is spearheaded by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) (now the Department of Water Affairs).The National Water Act in the first instance recognises water rights that pertain to basic human and ecological needs for water, termed the 'Reserve'. These enjoy priority in water allocation. All other uses are regulated through 'registration' and different types of 'authorizations'. The three types of water authorizations are Schedule One, General Authorizations and Water Use Licenses. Schedule One refers to permissible uses of water that do not require a license, and do not have to be registered because the water l quantities are small and do not have a big impact on the resource. General Authorizations allow slightly larger volumes of water use from less stressed sources, such as rivers and aquifers. People are allowed to use water without a license provided that the quantities are within the conditions stipulated in the General Authorizations. Schedule one water use and General Authorizations are used as strategies to cut down on unnecessary administrative efforts. It is important to note that there are no official definitive figures for these types of uses (Manzungu et al, 2009a). On the other hand water licenses are mechanisms for regulating water use that exceeds the limits outlined in Schedule One and General Authorizations. They also give existing and new water users formal authorization to use water for productive and beneficial purposes, and specify the conditions under which the water can be used. Licenses are issued by 'responsible authorities' namely, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) or Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs). Currently, the licensing procedure requires new and potential water users to apply for a license or to register their water use with the responsible authority namely, the Regional Office of DWAF. This regulatory function is envisaged to devolve to CMAs when they become fully operational.Another significant development was the requirement that all water users should participate in decision making. This was to be achieved by decentralizing water to catchment/basin based water management institutions in the form of Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) and Water User Associations (WUA). Accordingly the country was divided into 19 Water Management Areas (WMAS) largely on the basis of hydrological boundaries. It was provided that Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) would preside over water management areas (WMAs) and would replace state run regional offices which were organized on administrative boundaries. The Minister acts as the CMA where one has not been established. Where there are capacity constraints, an advisory committee may be appointed to develop the necessary capacity in the interim. WUAs were designated as the second tier water management institutions that are supposed to execute local management of water resources.A number of challenges have been encountered in the establishment of both CMAs and WUAs. As far as CMAs are concerned there has been a rethinking of the whole concept. For example, in an e-mail to the author on 22 July 2009, Eiman Karar suggested that the number of CMAs should be reduced to 9 CMAs, or one national CMA supported by three sub-CMA. There have been also suggestions to drop altogether hydrological-based institutions in favour of administrative ones. By the end of 2008, eight CMAs had been formally established, but only two Governing Boards and two Chief Executive Officers were appointed. The fact that each regional office was free to choose its desired process towards the establishment of CMAs was another problem.As far as WUas are concerned, more than 200 WUAs have been established to date with most of these being transformed white run Irrigation Boards. The state of play regarding the state of the new water management institutions shows a disappointing state of affairs: \"Following the standoff in the establishment of CMAs, the experience gained from the Inkomati CMA and the institutional realignment debate, there is a need for a collective wisdom to think about where we are at and where to from here with regards to the who will do management of water resources? We…have a collective responsibility to take a pause and share our thoughts at this point\". (Eiman Karar, email 22 July 2009) It is true to say that black local water users in South Africa to a large extent remain uninfluenced by the new water management institutions.In 1998 the Government of Zimbabwe promulgated the Water Act. According to the Act water use other primary water use (which refers to water used for domestic and other uses such as livestock watering, brick making as long as they are not labeled as commercial which is frequently a source of contention with the catchment councils which have the legal right to determine the amount of primary water) requires a water permit that stipulates the amount of water used over a given time. This replaced permanent water rights which had privileged white commercial farmers who had had applied for water first whose water security had been guaranteed under the perpetuity clause (Manzungu et al, 2009a;Manzungu and Machiridza, 2008).In addition the Act, among other things, replaced water management institutions that were based on administrative boundaries in favour of those based on hydrological boundaries (Zimbabwe, 1998a). Accordingly the country was divided into 7 catchment management areas based on the major river systems (Fig. 41). Catchment areas are presided over by catchment councils while sub-catchment councils have responsibility over sub-catchment areas. To safeguard public interest, a state agency, Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), retained a strong operational management and oversight role (Zimbabwe, 1998b). A small Department of Water Development (DWD) has the mandate over policy issues.The new water institutions were established six months after the promulgation of the Act, in the hope that the institutions would learn by doing (Manzungu, 2004). Since their establishment in 1999 the water management institutions have experienced conceptual and operational problems relating to:• Poor stakeholder identification especially among the rural black population, which resulted in continued marginalization of some stakeholders such as smallholder farmers and omission of others e.g. rainfed farmers; • Limited interest on the part of some sectors such as urban authorities, mining and tourism; • Domination of the process by powerful stakeholder groups such as white farmers early in the process, and later on by black elites who replaced the former, thanks to the fast track land reform programme; • Almost exclusive focus on water resource management rather than on water development which tended to alienate rural communities (where water infrastructure development is seen as an essential component of water management); • Financial constraints because of withdrawal of donor funds which had filled in the financial void left by state 's disengagement from the water sector; • Human capacity limitations due to staff exodus to neighbouring countries and even beyond;' • State agencies' lack of capacity to facilitate the process as reflected by poor institutional coordination, and failure to champion the cause of weak stakeholders; and • Failure to operationalise the subsidiarity principle as illustrated by institutions that did not strike a chord with local level water issues (Manzungu et al, 2009a;Manzungu, 2002;Manzungu and Kujinga, 2002) In Mozambique the study relied mainly on document review as a source of information.The main documents that were reviewed were legal documents, locally known as decrees and ministerial diplomas, as well as policy documents. This was complemented by interviews held with key informants that were conducted between July and September 2009. In South Africa the study drew insights from ongoing PhD research work in the Sekororo communal lands which are located in the Limpopo basin. A study was conducted in the four villages of Enable, Lorraine, Sofaya and Worcester (see Sithole et al, 2009;Manzungu et al, 2009b).In Zimbabwe the research was done in the Zimbabwean portion of the Limpopo basin, which is locally known as the Mzingwane Catchment area and is divided into four subcatchment areas (Fig. 42). The Mzingwane Catchment Council presides over the entire Mzingwane catchment area while sub-catchment councils preside over sub-catchment areas bearing the same names. In the first instance the research team identified problems that were encountered by the Mzingwane Catchment Council, which included a general lack of information and awareness on the objectives of the water reform and the operational modalities, lack of participation by some water users e.g. rainfed farmers, irrigators, domestic water users), and an unworkable two-tier water management system (that incorporated the catchment and sub-catchment level). Given the failure of the state-defined approach that had given rise to the hydrologicaly-based water management institutions an action research was undertaken to find out how local people understood the problems and the solutions they had. The specific questions that were posed were who were the water users, how could the water users best be organized, and how could water users/stakeholders best represented at all levels (local, sub-catchment, catchment and basin level)? Participatory workshops were held in March 2009 in the Shashe sub-catchment area to obtain answers to these questions. Three wards were chosen to represent the main water management situations in the catchment area, namely a) ward in which smallholder irrigators obtained from a state dam (Ward 8), b) ward where smallholder irrigators obtained irrigation water from a river (ward 14), and c) a ward where irrigators used water from locally-constructed dams without water permits (ward 6). At each ward people were divided into groups and assigned to discuss issues pertaining to local water sources, general water issues, pressing water problems, and water institutions respectively. Where the numbers allowed it the group on water issues was further divided into men and women. Each group made a presentation of its deliberations in a plenary session at which all the issues raised were discussed. The discussions at the local level were cross-checked with a catchment level meeting that was held in Bulawayo town in April 2009 in both plenary and group presentations that discussed the stakeholders involved in the water sector and how stakeholders could best be represented at the basin level. The results that are presented in this section (and the attendant discussion) differ in depth and coverage because of the specific activities that were undertaken in each country. Zimbabwe had much detail because of the type of research (action research) that was done there. In the concluding section an attempt is made to highlight the main differences and similarities.In accordance with water law 16/91 water management in the Limpopo basin falls under auspices of ARA Sul which covers the south border of the country to the Save river basin. ARA Sul replaced the Unity of Directorate for Hidraulic Use (UDAH). The most important legal tool that affected water management at the lower management level in ARa Sul is the Ministerial Diploma 21/2007 of 28 February, which approved the Gross Water Tariff. The objective was that water tariffs would enable ARA-Sul to operate and maintain existing infrastructure. However, at the moment ARA Sul is facing the problem of how to effectively collect the money from the water users. A related activity is the water user registration process, meant to determine the water users and the quantity of water they use. This only applies to private water use. • Management Unity of Sabie River Basin (UGBS) with an office in Xai-Xai that includes small river basins from Mandlakazi up to Vila Nova Mambone in Inhambane excluding Limpopo River Basin, the office is located in Maxixe and in the future will have a branch in Vilanculos.ARA-Sul also manages three major dams (Massingir, Corumana and Pequenos Libombos), a large weir at Macarretane on the Limpopo river basin, a number of smaller dams, dykes and other hydraulic structures, and a large hydrometric network. It executes all the activities in the Limpopo River Basin through UGBL (Unity of Limpopo Basin Management), which works under the auspices of a river basin committe. Rivers basin committees are also the advisory body for Management Unities Directors. Figure 43 shows the organization of UGBL. The river basin committee is one of the most important bodies in the UGBL, and collaborates with all sectors such as agriculture, industry and fisheries. It is a coordination entity that incorporates water users at river basin level, management unities of irrigation schemes, and other institutions related to water and land use under jurisdictional umbrella of UGBL. The Limpopo river basin committee has the following responsibilities:• Promote the annual plan for public water supply, agriculture, power generation and water for environment; • Monitor the water use and supply in order to guarantee the current use;• Promote the adoption of operational measures for better management in the irrigation schemes to optimise the water use, the soil and infrastructures; • Pronounce about the performance of Management river basin Unity, and giving advice when needed; • Look at the status of international agreements for water use between borders; and • Have a say about the taxes for gross water.In order to guarantee the representativeness of different water users and interested parties on water management, the Limpopo River basin committee is comprised by 12 members (Box 3). Positions in the committee are filled by a nomination process with names being formally communicated to the committee president. Members have a 3 year mandate which can be renewed, and are expected to attend all river basin committee meetings, submit issues of interest to be discussed, request river basin committee to call for extraordinary meetings, and vote as prescribed in the regulations.The committee is led by the Director of Limpopo River basin Management unity (UGBL). The committee meets two times a year. An extraordinary meeting is called by the president when needed 15 days before for the meeting which can only changed if special request arise. The river basin committee is formally represented if there are more than half (50%) of the members in the first call, and by any number of members in the second call. The secretariat for all committee meetings is the administrative chief of UGBL, supported by two other members chosen from committee members. At each meeting the committee will elaborate the statement that have to be distributed to all members 7 days after that have to be discussed in the next meeting. All decisions from the Limpopo River Basin Committee have to be done by agreement of the members. If not, the decision will be carried by a simple majority.Water management in the Limpopo river basin is managed subject to international agreements that the country is signatory to. These include resolution 31/2000 that ratified the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Protocol for Shared Water Courses, resolution 53/2004 of 1st December that create the Incomaputo, resolution 54/2004 of 31st December that created the Zambezi Commission (ZAMCOM), and resolution 67/2004 of 31st December that created the LIMCOM (Limpopo River Basin Commission). It remains to be seen how this will affect the livelihoods that are involved.In the Sekororo area the discourse around water management does not touch on CMAs and WUAs but was informed by local concerns about access to water for domestic and productive purposes (Manzungu et al, 2009b). The institutional arrangements varied depending whether the water source in question was communal/group, individual and NGO-run. In communal water sources, which largely came about because of public investments in domestic and productive water sources, villagers elected representatives to a management committee. In some case like in Worcester village, some members were nominated by the local traditional leader. For individually-financed water sources institutional arrangements were determined by the owners according to their social networks (that took account of family, kinship ties, good neighborliness, and in some cases commodity relations where water is sold). NGO-supported committees, which presided over NGO-financed schemes, tended to be ad hoc, and drew their legitimacy from 'beneficiaries' with material and financial support acted as important incentives for participation. Such committees tended to lose their vibrancy when the project ended State agencies also existed side by side with local institutions.As can be seem from Table 12 the institutions at the local level included those of a traditional, civic and public variety. There was, however, often no formal or even informal definition of the communication lines regarding how the various institutions should work with each other. This tended to be a disadvantage in relation to how water 'allocated' under Schedule one and General Authorizations could be accessed by local people. In the three wards that were studied that included domestic water sources (boreholes and wells) and productive water sources (irrigation schemes) there were efforts at introducing representative democracy as illustrated by the presence of water point committees for boreholes (the wells were not important enough to attract a committee) and irrigation management committees in the irrigation schemes. But as is true for such committees in the rest of the country the committees were, by the admission of the respondents, not effective for a number of reasons ranging from lack of adequate financial resources to lack of organisational capacity. These committees were also not concerned with water resource management and did not engage with the new water management institutions (catchment and subcatchment councils). It was for this reason that action research was undertaken (see above).Both local (ward) and catchment level meetings disagreed with the predetermined list of stakeholder representatives produced by the state as captured in the statutory instrument. The perception was that stakeholder groups should reflect the actual water use in the catchment. The list was also considered out of date in relation to the new socio-political structure of the country. On the contrary the list produced by local people was very much aligned to actual water use while the state categorized stakeholders to broad social groups (Table 13). Figure 44 shows the institutional arrangements in Mzingwane catchment Council as stipulated by the government. According to this depiction the lowest level is the subcatchment council. The structure, which is more or less the same throughout the country, did not provide for effective stakeholder representation at the local, catchment or basin level. The bottom up approach tried to address the issues in two main ways (Fig. 45). First, the lowest water management level was identified as the ward upon which a Ward Water Users Association would be constituted. The ward, presided over by a popularly elected Water Development Committee, is the second basic organizational unit of local government in Zimbabwe. It has become an important organizing principle because of its functionality in relation to social and political activities. Most development activities that include local and national elections, extension services, and relief programmes, tend to be organised around the ward.Participants recommended that at the ward level there would be one representative from primary water users, irrigators and miners, and any other group. Due to the large number of wards in the sub-catchment it was decided that a District Water Users Forum would provide a platform for electing three ward representatives to the sub-catchment council. Each district would contribute three ward representatives to the sub-catchment council. This means that representatives from the wards would take 12 slots out of the 15 that were available. The remainder would be taken up by other stakeholders such as local authorities, large scale mining and tourism. Although there were differences in the way women and men regarded water use (e.g. women identified more with domestic water sources while men more were interested in productive water use) there was no recommendation regarding gender-specific representation. Just as was the case with rainfed farmers it was felt that these would be captured during election of representatives of different water use categories. The present water point committees whose mandate is over specific water sources would be maintained. There was a strong feeling that the Chairman of the Mzingwane Catchment Council should attend the basin level meetings that took place under the auspices of the Limpopo Basin Permanent Technical Committee (LBPTC). Legally this was possible because of a provision that allowed member states to bring advisors. This recommendation stemmed from a feeling that there was no transparency and accountability regarding the discussions at the basin level. There was a lukewarm response to transboundary basin forum at which water users from the riparian countries would meet a model that is in use in the Okavango basin.To make the relationships between Subcatchment Councils and administrative authorities simpler, and also to allow residents to more readily understand which Subcatchment they fall under, small boundary deviations were proposed (figure 46). These would mean that (with only three exceptions) every administrative ward would fall under only one Subcatchment Council.  Before presenting the main conclusions across all the countries the main highlights for each country are given. The current institutional model in Mozambique does not provide a meaningful direct role to water users, which could be because of the country's centralization culture, a legacy which seems to persist. The degree to which these deficiencies affect local water uses and livelihoods remains to be determined. Another significant finding was the fact water management institutions were not defined according to hydrological boundaries but were based on a mixture of hydrological and administrative boundaries. Manzungu (2004) suggests that this could be because it was felt that there was no practical purpose that would be served by creating many hydrological-based institutions that would not only be expensive to run but would have relatively limited activities on account of limited development in some basins.As far as South Africa is concerned there are questions as to whether the adoption of IWRM in South Africa has made a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in a country where, during apartheid, the water rights of millions of black majority population were systematically expunged due to unjust legislation and underinvestment in water infrastructure, and to what extent has the new water law has become a resource that the black population could use to their advantage. The fact that IWRMbased institutions such as CMAs are still to be agreed and operationalised as the water management organizing principle has complicated issues with the slow pace of reforms. While the current water laws and policies may not be discriminatory their implementation has reinforced the status quo. This also applies to financial incentives (subsidies, loans) for development of infrastructure. The individual investments in water infrastructure and the attendant institutional arrangements point to the vibrancy of local initiatives. In this regard the institutional framework, which is supposed to guide and regulate social action and interaction of actors that spanned from traditional authority,local government, Department of Agriculture, and Department of Water, needs to be restructured so that it could be responsive to local needs.In Zimbabwe the state-defined institutional model designated the sub-catchment council as the lowest management level. This was found to be inappropriate since it did not provide for stakeholder representation at the local level where water was used or at national/basin level where policies were determined. The bottom up institutional model that local people suggested tried to address the issues by identifying the lowest water management level at the ward (at which a Ward Water Users Association would be formed), the second basic organizational unit of local government in Zimbabwe with a District Water Users Forum providing a platform for electing three ward representatives to the sub-catchment council with district representatives constituting part of the subcatchment and catchment council.In general we can say that in all the three countries IWRM-informed water laws and policies have resulted in efforts directed at ensuring participation in decision making processes as well as development activities, epitomised by policy of devolution of power and authority to sub-national institutions through a process of decentralization. While this was seen as critical to 'good water governance', it is the implementation of the approach that is important. One common legal instrument that could be used to improve the livelihoods of the people was the provision that local people could access reasonable quantities of water for domestic and other uses necessary for human sustenance. However the exact details differed from country to country as was the way decentralization was undertaken between countries. At the present time it does not appear that the new water management institutions in their present form affect local livelihoods. However this does not suggest that they are not relevant. What is important is to see how the institutions can be configured. In this vein the action research work that was done in Zimbabwe holds promise. Among other things, this work showed that 'hybrid' institutions that combined hydrological and administrative boundaries could be effective.Note: Full details and statistics of the capacity building outputs of this project can be found in the Final Report.In improving global food production, the problem is not always due to the physical scarcity of water, but rather the lack of integrated land-water management approaches and weak institutional arrangements (Falkenmark and Rockström, 2003;Jaspers, 2003;Love et al., 2006b;van der Zaag, 2005). An integrated approach to green and blue water management from the farmer's field to the river basin scale is required to promote and upscale smallholder rural livelihood improvements (Love et al., 2004). This cannot be achieved though the introduction of innovations alone, but requires the building of appropriate capacity in land and water management at all the scales at which interventions are implemented, or management decisions are taken.Too often capacity-building is seen as an add-on to research: a follow-up activity in which the main researchers are uninvolved or uninterested. As an alternative, WaterNet's approach is to integrate capacity building into the research activities from the planning stage onwards. This is show-cased through Challenge Program Number 17 (PN17), which from proposal stage has been integrated with WaterNet's capacity building programmes in Southern Africa.WaterNet's approach is to integrate capacity building into the research activities from the planning stage onwards. PN17 was conceptualized with 6 PhD fellows and 21 Masters Students. In implementation key research in PN17 has been undertaken by the seven Ph.D. fellows, registered at WaterNet member institutions and supervised by scientists from universities and CGIAR centers within PN17. Each Ph.D. fellow was linked to Masters Students (a total of 31) who undertook their dissertation projects within PN17. Many of these students came from the WaterNet regional masters programme in Integrated Water Resources Management at the Universities of Dar-es-Salaam and Zimbabwe, supported by four other regional universities. Others came from programmes at other WaterNet member institutions. They were supervised by Ph.D. fellows and scientists from universities and CG centers in PN17. The project also involved capacity building at community, extension officer and water manager level. This included participatory on-farm pilot experiments (involving farmers and extension officers) and participatory development of institutional and water resources models (involving water managers). Direct training and extension were also provided in key areas.Master students were funded primarily from WaterNet's Fellowship and Dissertation Funds, with some CPWF funding, whereas doctoral students were funded primarily from CPWF, with additional support from other agencies, including the WaterNet Staff Development Fund and Professional Training Fund.Part of the impact of capacity building within PN17 can be seen in the number (more than the target) and distribution (half of SADC countries) of the Masters students (Figures 47 and 48).  The capacity building component of the project has influenced the project's research output, with 22 students publishing papers, articles or both (Figure 46). Contributions have been made in all major areas of PN17 research: Farmer-field based action research (Maisiri et al., 2005;Dhliwayo et al., 2006;Moyo et al., 2006;Mwenge Kahinda et al, 2007), water resources research (Moyo, et al., 2005;Kileshye-Onema et al., 2006;Moyce et al., 2006;Ngwenya et al., 2006;Vilanculos et al., 2006;Tunhuma et al., 2007;McCartney and Arranz, 2008;Chilundo et al., 2008;De Hamer et al., 2008;Khosa et al., in press;Masvopo et al., 2008;Ncube and Taigbenu, 2007) and institutional research and development (Munamati et al., 2005;Nare et al., 2006;Svubure, 2007) as well as synthesis work such as where Basima Busane et al. (2005) integrated the research of four students who had been working on the same small reservoir.Published research results have an impact in the broader scientific community. van der Zaag (2007) showed that articles published in the journal Physics and Chemistry of the Earth following the annual WaterNet/WARFSA-GWP-SA symposia (where most PN17 results have been presented) achieved an impact factor of between 0.3 and 0.8, with the water and land theme having an impact factor of 1.03. By a participatory approach, PN17 has trained communities, extension officers and water managers in a variety of interventions (Table 14). A particular benefit of the project was the development of transdisciplinary scientific teams for the supervision of students and the guiding of community training. This was made possible by the broad nature of the PN17 partnership, backed up by the wider WaterNet membership (Figure 49). The involvement of scientists in the supervision of research and capacity building projects at different scales, from farmer's field to river basin, results in the development of a core capacity with an appreciation of the challenges and linkages at the different scales within the basin. Methodologies, research tools and results are shared through integrative scientific and stakeholder workshops. Students are also required to present papers at symposia and encouraged to publish in journals. Quality control is conducted from conceptualisation of research ideas to implementation, publication of papers and synthesis of research findings. Integrating research and capacity building was a win-win scenario. At WaterNet, the MSc programme benefited as researchers from PN17 were brought into teaching, and as new research ideas from PN17 were integrated into the Masters curriculum. The Masters programme thus provided students who were well-equipped to begin their research projects, some of which were on water and food. Beyond this, WaterNet aims at training a new generation of water managers. By the integration of PN17 and the Masters programme, the new ideas and philosophies of more crop per drop were passed on to the students, who, returning to their home countries and workplaces in southern Africa, hopefully, implemented the new knowledge see Figure 50). Note: in this section, frequent use is made of our project publication codes, eg A03, P78, D10. These codes refer to individual publications in the publications list (see section C5) and their file names on the publications DVD.1 Outcomes and Impacts Proforma Of the changes listed above, which have the greatest potential to be adopted and have impact? What might the potential be on the ultimate beneficiaries?• Adoption of conservation agriculture by farmers • Protocol for drip irrigation kit distribution influences effectiveness of very large relief programmes • Use of large alluvial aquifers if adopted by provincial government can benefit thousands of people • Changes to Zimbabwean water institutions and South African water laws should improve water management throughout those countries What still needs to be done to achieve this potential? Are measures in place (e.g., a new project, on-going commitments) to achieve this potential? Please describe what will happen when the project ends.Each row of the table above is an impact pathway describing how the project contributed to outcomes in a particular actor or actors.Which of these impact pathways were unexpected (compared to expectations at the beginning of the project?)Those not identified as \"planned outcomes\" Why were they unexpected? How was the project able to take advantage of them? Some of the outcomes were unexpected as the results were unexpected. In other cases, unanticipated users/stakeholders encountered the project's work.What would you do differently next time to better achieve outcomes (i.e. changes in stakeholder knowledge, attitudes, skills and practice)?Working to effect institutional change is the most complicated aspect and should start much earlier.Note: for a comprehensive account of project data, please see the completion report. The methodology used by WaterNet as a network in developing the concept note and proposal, assembling the PN17 partnership and managing the project is serving as an excellent example as a way for us to facilitate our members to access international research programs. WaterNet is establishing other research projects in the same fashion.Most of the international public goods produced are the result of partnership efforts: A particular benefit of the project is the development of transdisciplinary scientific teams for the supervision of students and the guiding of community training -see section B4.3.The new institutional model being developed and rolled out in the Mzingwane Catchment -essentially a model of hybrid administrative-hydrological boundary scales -is the result of an innovative partnership between the universities and the water management authority that continues beyond the end of the project.• Baselines developed should be made widely available for future use • Promote fertility amendments alongside conservation tillage -microdosing is best suited to farmers' risk management approach as higher dosage levels represent risky expenditure • Always consider the labour costs of any conservation agriculture intervention • Reconsider the promotion of dead level contours as a soil water intervention • Low cost technologies (such as drip) should be used in conjunction with good water and nutrient management if higher water and crop productivity are to be realized than surface irrigation systems • Drip kit distribution protocol should continue to be used • With the water productivity for rainfed agriculture lower than supplementary irrigation, the results demonstrate the great opportunities that exist for upgrading rainfed agriculture and ensuring food security in rural communities through timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge and manage dry spells • Rising frequency of mid-season dry spells suggests scope in exploring rainwater management technologies and short-season varieties to reduce the impact of dry spells in rainfed cropping systems • A follow-up study of cadmium in the Limpopo Basin is needed to determine the extent of the problem • Additional research at a basin scale was recommended to identify the major sources of pollution to Mozambique • Stress on water supply systems will compel exploration of non-conventional water resources (e.g. sand dams) as potential water supplies • Use (existing) geological mapping to predict suitable (low seepage) areas for exploration of alluvial aquifers • Illegal forms of small-scale resource exploitation such as gold panning should be formalised and a wider stakeholder participation to include local communities in policy-making and environmental protection • Establish smallholder farmer water conservation committees with women as leaders • Tight control of future water demands are needed in the Olifants Basin, which is closing• Upscaling of the institutional model within the Mzingwane Catchment and elsewhere in Zimbabwe sustainability problems with free chemical fertiliser due to transport costs and ancillary costs. Furthermore, recent studies in Zimbabwe and Mozambique show that significant increases in yield can only be obtained when soil fertility management is combined with good crop husbandry, e.g. timely planting and weeding. Ongoing replenishment of fertility would be dependent on a continued free or subsidised fertiliser supply, and transport system. Increasing access to irrigation will help, but is not the only solution and cannot reach even a majority of farmers. It has been determined that short dryspells are often the major cause of low yields in sub-Saharan Africa. Soil-water conservation approaches, e.g. winter weeding and conservation tillage, can reduce risk and increase yield.The following specific recommendations are made for urgent interventions to contribute sustainably to food security in southern Africa: (i) To increases access to fertiliser, consider development of strong input markets at end-user level. (ii) Intensification of technology transfer, focusing on capacity building for transfer of existing technologies and much closer collaboration between state and NGO sectors, agronomists and water engineers. (iii) Increasing the uptake of soil-water conservation methods, including conservation tillage and weeding, and supplementary irrigation to minimise adverse effects of dryspells, through investments in farmer training. (iv) Linking crop development strategies to livestock development practices and strategies. (v) Developing non-agro-based livelihood strategies in marginal lands. participation. A study was undertaken to determine the extent of stakeholder participation in water quality monitoring and surveillance at the operational level, and also to assess indigenous knowledge and practices in water quality monitoring. Two hundred and forty one questionnaires were administered in Mzingwane Catchment, the portion of the Limpopo Basin that falls within Zimbabwe. The focus was on small users in rural communities, whose experiences were captured using a questionnaire and focus group discussions. Extension workers, farmers and NGOs and relevant sector government ministries and departments were also interviewed and a number of workshops held.Results indicate that there is very limited stakeholder participation despite the presence of adequate supportive structures and organisations. For the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), stakeholders are the paying permit holders to whom feedback is given following analysis of samples. However, the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare generally only releases information to rural communities when it is deemed necessary for their welfare. There are no guidelines on how a dissatisfied member of the public can raise a complaint -although some stakeholders carry such complaints to Catchment Council meetings. With regard to water quality, the study revealed widespread use of indigenous knowledge and practice by communities. Such knowledge is based on smell, taste, colour and odour perceptions. Residents are generally more concerned about the physical parameters than the bacteriological quality of water. They are aware of what causes water pollution and the effects of pollution on human health, crops, animals and aquatic ecology. They have ways of preventing pollution and appropriate interventions to take when a source of water is polluted, such as boiling water for human consumption, laundry and bathing, or abandoning a water source in extreme cases. Stakeholder participation and ownership of resources needs to be encouraged through participatory planning, and integration between the three government departments (water, environment and health). Local knowledge systems could be integrated into the formal water quality monitoring systems, in order to complement the conventional monitoring networks. objectives of working towards the millennium development goals of improved food security and environmental sustainability, there exists a nexus between the constituencies of the two paradigms, particularly in terms of appreciating the lessons learned. In this paper lessons are drawn from past INRM research that may have particular relevance to IWRM scientists as they re-direct their focus from blue water issues to green water issues, and vice-versa. Case studies are drawn from the management of water quality for irrigation, green water productivity and a convergence of INRM and IWRM in the management of gold panning in southern Zimbabwe. One point that is abundantly clear from both constituencies is that 'onesize-fits-all' or silver bullet solutions that are generally applicable for the enhancement of blue water management/formal irrigation simply do not exist for the smallholder rainfed systems. the economic empowerment of the rural poor have the requisite skills to understand their current coping strategies and how adaptation can be facilitated. A new initiative led by Midlands State University and the Zambian Meteorological Office proposes that improving the ability of institutions that train the 'Future Change Agents', who will subsequently support smallholder communities in adapting their agricultural practices to current climate variability, is the first step in building adaptive capacity to cope with future climate change. The capacity of African scientists, regional organizations and decision-makers in dealing with the issues of climate change and adaptation will be enhanced on a continuing basis, and the impacts of their agricultural development programs improved. security and water resources availability in B72A quaternary catchment of the Olifants river basin in South Africa. This paper links maize crop yield risk and smallholder farmer vulnerability arising from droughts by applying a set of interdisciplinary indicators (physical and socio-economic) encompassing gender and institutional vulnerabilities. For the study area, the return period of droughts and dry spells was 2 years. The growing season for maize crop was 121 days on average. Soil water deficit during critical growth stages may reduce potential yields by up to 62%, depending on the length and severity of the moisture deficit. To minimize grain yield loss and avoid total crop failures from intra-seasonal dry spells, farmers applied supplementary irrigation either from river water or rainwater harvested into small reservoirs. Institutional vulnerability was evidenced by disjointed water management institutions with lack of comprehension of roles of higher level institutions by lower level ones. Women are most hit by droughts as they derived more than 90% of their family income from agriculture activities. An enhanced understanding of the vulnerability and risk exposure will assist in developing technologies and policies that conform to the current livelihood strategies of smallholder, resource-constrained farmers. Development of such knowledge base for a catchment opens avenues for computational modelling of the impacts of different types of disasters under different scenarios. laboratory investigations, remote sensing and existing data, the Lower Mzingwane valley was modelled successfully using the spreadsheet-based model WAFLEX, with a new module incorporated to compute the water balance of alluvial aquifer blocks. Results showed that the lower Mzingwane alluvial aquifers can store 38x10 6 m 3 of water, most of that storage being beyond the reach of evaporation. Current water usage can be more than tripled: the catchment could supply water for currently-planned irrigation schemes (an additional 1,250 ha), and the further irrigation of two strips of land along each bank of the Mzingwane river (an extra 3,630 ha) -without construction of any new reservoirs. The system of irrigating strips of land along each bank of the Mzingwane river would be decentralised, farmer or family owned and operated and the benefits would have the potential to reach a much larger proportion of the population than is currently served. However, there could be substantial downstream impact, with around nearly one third of inflows not being released to the Limpopo River. The approach developed in this paper can be applied to evaluate the potential of alluvial aquifers, which are widespread in many parts of semi-arid Africa, for providing distributed access to shallow groundwater in an efficient way. This can enhance local livelihoods and regional food security. ","tokenCount":"30581"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"516558a2ac5062f2c20673bd2a46ee00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/92836659-a19f-4902-bdfc-4e9d51e265d9/retrieve","id":"410216003"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b48e4163-d33f-431b-9034-da50d7313164","pagecount":"5","content":"Data-driven tools developed by WLE/IWMI are enabling private sector solar-powered irrigation companies in sub-Saharan Africa to determine and capitalize on the market potential for their irrigation equipment and services. By segmenting customer groups and assessing customers' creditworthiness in gender-sensitive ways, companies are better able to target a range of farmers, including women. This is helping to accelerate the adoption of solar-powered irrigation technologies in frontier markets while promoting women's equitable participation in irrigated agricultural value chains.• Multi-national Country(ies):• Mali Market segmentation studies and client assessment scorecards were developed and applied in Ethiopia, Ghana and Mali by private sector solar-powered irrigation companies and other public sector actors including ministries of agriculture and Bahir Dar University. These help the companies determine and capitalize on the market potential for their irrigation equipment and services. By segmenting customer groups and assessing customers' creditworthiness in gender-sensitive ways, companies are better able to target a range of farmers, including women (3,4).• 2814 -Data-driven tools for targeting irrigation products and services for Ethiopia, Ghana and Mali (https://tinyurl.com/2mja58a4)The benefits of solar energy for domestic and productive use have long been recognized in countries where there is limited or no access to the power grid (1,2). But getting the right solar technologies to the right customers is often complicated by underdeveloped supply chains, high costs and a poor understanding of local market needs (3).To address these issues, IWMI and WLE partnered with Pumptech in Ghana and Rensys in Ethiopia, both private sector distributors of solar-powered irrigation pumps. To determine the market potential for these pumps, WLE/IWMI conducted a market segmentation study in Northern Ghana. The study identified four segments among smallholders: resource-rich farmers, mobile farmers, resource-poor individual farmers, and farmer groups.Each segment is slightly different in terms of the amount of water needed, access to land, pump preferences and capacity to pay for the pump ( 4). Women farmers are especially likely to face difficulties accessing resources such as land, credit and information that would enable them to invest in irrigation ( 5).As a first step to making solar pumps more accessible, WLE/IWMI and its partners tested innovation bundles that combine pumps with pay-as-you-go financing models. In this model, the pump company provides farmers with a loan to buy a pump, with the pump itself serving as security. WLE/IWMI then refined the financing model to ensure business inclusivity. A review of the scorecard Rensys was using to assess a customer's creditworthiness showed that the criteria were biased toward farmers with greater resources. These insights guided the development of a credit scorecard that is more sensitive to attributes like clients' financial management skills and social capital through membership of associations (6). Rensys is now using this scorecard to target a range of farmers, including women, more accurately (7).The data-driven tools have enabled both companies to expand into new regions. In Ghana, Pumptech used market segmentation to increase pump sales by more than 80% in 2021, compared to 2020 (8). In Ethiopia, WLE/IWMI awarded a grant to four students at Bahir Dar University to develop an app-based credit scorecard for Rensys. The app, in which other private companies have expressed interest (9), will facilitate more effective and efficient collection and analysis of data (6). WLE/IWMI is now introducing similar tools in Mali, where an initial assessment of the potential for small-scale solar irrigation has already been conducted (10).","tokenCount":"557"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d968acbc8f175560c1ce9c0f10f33da3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_19127.pdf","id":"-445575609"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9d46cb39-0899-4bdf-970c-6536fd900252","pagecount":"80","content":"DURING THE LAST decade attempts have been made to enlist farmer participation in the operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems. Special programs were launched by the Irrigation Management Division (IMD), the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) and the Irrigation Department (ID) on farmer participation in O&M. This workshop intends to discuss the findings of the programs implemented with a holistic approach and to facilitate the smooth transferring of National Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (NIRP) schemes to farmer organizations (FOs) for O&M.In keeping with this mandate, the workshop seeks to achieve the following objectives: i. To discuss the salient features of the programs implemented in the recent past that can be translated to NIRP.ii. To document the experiences, findings and recommendations of such programs for dissemination.iii. To provide a forum for policymakers, technocrats and the researchers to deal with the subject in close collaboration/ interaction so that the recommendations can be widely acceptable and applicable.In order to assimilate and adopt the successful features of already implemented projects, papers were invited from those who have implemented studies or done research either individually or collectively and whose experiments could be applied to NIRP.The Workshop consisted of two sessions which were conducted in the morning and afternoon and two papers were presented at each session. The methodology used was the presentation of papers-cum-open discussions. The proceedings included the chairperson's address (by Mr. Jaliya Medagama, Secretary, Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Energy) and the keynote address by Dr. Jacob W. Kijne, Director for Research of the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI). Four invited papers were presented at the Workshop. It concluded with the declaration of Workshop recommendations in terms of beneficiary involvement in system management. In addition to these researchers, 25 participants were selected from relevant departments, statutory bodies, institutions and NGOs to participate in the Workshop. The organization of the workshop and the publication of the workshop proceedings were the responsibility of the International Irrigation Management Institute and the Irrigation Research Management Unit (IRMU) of the Irrigation Department. The Workshop was held on 25th May 1995 in the Irrigation Department committee room, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka.Beneficiary-Centered Management of Irrigation Systems: Retrospection of Recent Endeavors I AM PLEASED to participate at this Workshop which seeks to collate the knowledge and information on beneficiary involvement and management in irrigation. A review, as it were, of the local state of the art will enable to apply some lessons learnt in implementing the rest of the NIRP work. Lessons learnt are especially on those aspects of encouraging farmer contribution to system rehabilitation. Irrigation Systems Management Project (ISMP) experiences may be of some relevance here as would be those of Gal Oya and MIRP. While this could provide for fresh tactical approaches to be made to achieve project targets, it cannot compensate for the inherent design deficiencies in the conceptualization of project implementation strategies and for the planning assumptions on which implementation has been based.It is, therefore, very important that while the successful features of already implemented projects are being considered for assimilation and adoption where possible, the organization and institutional environments under which they were implemented should also be considered. These were projects that were implemented as part of an overall program, reinforcing the themes or key aspects the program was meant to cover.For example, Integrated Management of Major agricultural schemes (INMAS) should be examined in the overall context of the INMAS Program and organizational and implementation strategy of the IMD, rather than in isolation as a rehabilitation project with transferable experiences to NIRP. The reinforcing contributory factors to success or failure arise from the priority, focus and approach of the organization itself to the various constituent components and not merely to the project design.Sustainability of the rehabilitated systems and continuing farmer participation with a clear role definition of both parties, that is the state and the farmer organizations, will result only from the full acceptance of beneficiary involvement in irrigation management by the respective agency staff and \"internalization\" by the agency itself, reflected by the priorities and resources being allocated to support such acceptance. Otherwise, the danger exists that the attempts to involve the beneficiaries are seen as mere ploys .to somehow coerce the farmers to contribute to achieve project stipulations or to absorb a share of the responsibilities of the agency to enable the agency to maintain the status quo in the face of a diminished resource base.The last decade has seen considerable acceptance of the role of farmer participation and the resulting improvements to system management. Pressure from donors, researchers and research results with efforts of some committed individuals in the sector, has paid dividends and the policy of participatory management is now an accepted government policy. The legal reforms necessary to support the institutional changes are gradually falling into place and what is required is that all involved in irrigation support the changes necessary within the agencies and fully internalize the concepts so that this will be clearly reflected in the day-to-day operations including resource allocation.Otherwise, the danger exists that fora such as this remain merely platforms for rhetoric or mouthing fashionable platitudes to convey that the experiences in the field of irrigation management are in fact being considered and incorporated but the status quo remaining as before.One of the major drawbacks to successful implementation of such beneficiary involvement programs in the true sense has been the lack of a multidisciplinary approach. While there is no doubt that, with training, qualified technical staff do prove to be successful institutional staff, this is essentially tied to personal qualities but in instances with conflicts of interests with respect to irrigation, especially construction work, it is unlikely that true participation will result. This often leads to a lack of transparency, eventually culminating in a breakdown of confidence between agency staff and the participating beneficiaries who may feel that they are merely being used to achieve project or agency objectives.I note with some concern that even at this stage of implementation the department has yet been unable to attract other disciplines even at the recruitment grade level to support such programs. I believe not a single other discipline is reflected in the staffing of the IRMU so that the IlMl contribution is likely to be lost unless some quick action is taken. Such delays are for various good reasons no doubt, but the priority shows; and unless a concerted effort is made to really give effect to at least the basic requirements to function in the required mode, it is unlikely that other than some success due to certain individual efforts and interventions, these will not reflect as a mainstream activity of the agency.I also see that there could be greater interest in trying to mobilize resources that may support the institutional program from outside or even within the umbrella of the Ministry itself, for example, I feel the IMD which has a certain resource capability and institutional resource base can be opted in to support the NlRP program in a more effective manner. It would be naive to consider that all the requirements for mounting a successful institutional development program can be attained with \" converted\" technical staff doubling up on institutional duties as well. The conflicts of interests, opportunity costs of using such staff, for nontechnical functions, and the comparative advantage or disadvantage such staff have in relation to normal institutional staff have to be evaluated in setting goals and targets and for achieving success in a program.I wish to leave you with these thoughts for consideration in your deliberations, I would also recommend that the proceedings of the two workshops that were held earlier--one in May 1986 on Participatory Management in Sri Lanka's Irrigation Schemes and the other in February 1990 on Research Mobilization for Sustainable Management both held under the auspices of IIMI, be also considered, as there are many lessons to be learnt and aspects to be considered, in the context of the situation we are placed in 1995. As the intention is to take a holistic approach, I hope the outcome will result in a series of recommendations that will reinforce the performance of the NlRP in particular and the ID and the irrigation sector in general.Jacob Kijne'EXCEPT WHERE SUBSISTENCE is still very problematic, the most important performance objective farmers have for irrigated agriculture is the profitability of irrigated agriculture. The challenge for irrigated agriculture in developing countries, at present, is more one of.poverty alleviation than one of food security. However, the problem of food security could return as a more widespread issue in the longer term (by the year 2000) as projected population increases overtake existing levels of productivity and limits to sustainable resource use.The prior emphasis on increasing yield per unit of land is shifting in many places to an emphasis on increasing profit per unit of water andlor labor. This is especially true where obtaining access to water has a cost and rural economics are diversifying.With advancing population sizes and diversifying economics in developing countries, irrigation management is increasingly affected by competition over water between irrigation and other uses. This often occurs in a context where there are no clearly defined or recognized water rights.Environmental degradation is quickly rising in importance as both a constraint on sustainable irrigation management and as a consequence of \"unsustainable\" irrigation practices. In developing countries problems of salinization, waterlogging, declining water quality and siltation are advancing in the absence (or failure) of government regulation.The widespread shift from subsistence to commercial farming in developing countries, largely as a result of the green revolution, is making irrigated agriculture more diversified, costly and challenging for irrigation management,The widespread poor performance of government agencies in irrigation management and agricultural extension, the increasing commercial orientation of farmers and their rising capacity to organize at higher levels, are leading toward a need for (and in some cases the emergence of) new kinds of organizations important to irrigation management: a. Third-party management organizations which are accountable to farmer groups. b. Farmer-sponsored support service organizations. This is likely to become an important future trend to enable farmers to cope with problems of competition for water, environmental degradation, and enhanced profitability through economies of scale and greater leverage in markets.The notion of farmer participation, prevalent in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, emphasized the value of farmer resource mobilization and local knowledge. Since then, it is becoming increasingly clear that both kinds of local assets cannot be effectively employed in development unless control over decisions and resource rights are developed to user groups. Recognition of the insufficiency of mere farmer participation in government irrigation programs has led to the more complete concept of irrigation management transfer. Why Management Transfer Occurs:1. Introducing irrigation service fees. The government levies fees from water users who pay for part or all of the cost of O&M, and sometimes part of the capital investment costs. In many cases, such as large systems in Indonesia. the government continues to provide the O&M services.2. Fostering competition in service de/ivew. The government encourages private-sector organizations to provide irrigation services, in particular from groundwater sources. In Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nigeria, governments are actively encouraging private-sector development of locally managed tube well irrigation.Contracting. The government specifies the scope of work, terms and conditions and pays nongovernmental contractws or water users' associations to do the work. Examples were presented where this was being done by distributary channel organizations in Sri Lanka and in the \"stage one\" arrangement for turnover in the Philippines.Vending. The government produces a service upon request.Payment is by a nongovernmental entity. In some African countries, such as Sudan, the government provides inputs to individuals or groups upon request and payment. Another example is the Mohini Water Distribution Cooperative Society in India, where a local cooperative orders and \"' purchases water volumetrically (Datye and Patil 1987).5. franchises. The government awards rights to nongovernmental organizations to supply an irrigation service for a specified period of time. However, unlike service contracts, in this system services are paid for directly. An example is in Hunan, China, where local irrigation management organizations hold auctions and grant franchises to local groups to manage O&M for a specified period of time (Svendsen and Liu 1990).6. Grants/Subsidies. The government provides a payment or subsidy to either the water user or the service provider to reduce the local cost of providing the service. Grants may be provided in the form of payments, material or special loan privileges. Under the Village Subsidy Program in Indonesia, the government makes annual grants to villages and allows the villages to decide how to invest the funds (Hafid and Hayami 1979). Other examples are subsidies for energy costs of pumping water or for tube well parts such as is found in many States in India.Joint agency-user investment. In this case, the investment by the government in irrigation O&M or specified system improvement is contingent upon some corresponding level or proportion of local investment. An example is when the agency provides materials and technical guidance for maintenance if the water users' association agrees to provide the necessary labor such as is the case in many of the Chinese irrigation systems. Other arrangements are based on proportional equity investment, such as 50150 sharing of costs.8. Agency becomes financially autonomous. In this case the agency, which was funded by central government revenues, is converted into a semi-or fully autonomous agency which must become largely self-financing through payments for its own services. The example of the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) in the Philippines and the recent commercialization of the River Basin Development Authorities in Nigeria exemplify this approach. 9. Joint agency-user management. This includes the participation of farmers in an advisory or joint decision-making capacity in the planning of water allocations and delivery schedules, operations, maintenance and system improvement or rehabilitation. This system was presented in many of the Chinese papers.as well as in the papers from Mexico.Devolution of control. Governments turn over full management responsibility and authority to the water users or their representatives, although generally, the government retains some role in the irrigation sector such as regulation of the overall water sources, support services or ownership of the actual facilities. Governments may transfer management responsibility for subsections of large systems or entire small-scale systems. Examples of these approaches were discussed for the case of Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Mexico and Colombia.Withdrawal of functions. The government agency totally withdraws from an activity or sector, at all levels. An example is the withdrawal of the Government of Senegal from irrigation management.12.Pfivatizafion ofassets. This is the conversion of ownership of irrigation property from the government to nongovernment organizations or individuals. Such property may include irrigation infrastructure and/or water rights. Privatization may be implemented through sale of assets, sale of stock, or legal transfer of ownership. Examples are the sale of public tube wells in Bangladesh and Pakistan and the sale of all public irrigation systems to the water users' organizations in New Zealand.Given the diversity of types of transfer models, policymakers at the Wuhan Conference recognized that policy alternatives for management transfer should not be limited to any single model. Third party contracts and franchises, partial or full transfer, complete privatization including the disposal of all assets, formation of mutual companies, etc., are just some of the alternative approaches to management transfer that are being implemented. 5. Emphasis on profitability conflicts with system sustainability.The importance of strong leadership has been identified as one of the key determinants for success of management transfer. The nine reasons for failure listed in one of your documents, to be discussed at this workshop, includes disputes among farmers, shortcomings of the agencies, lack of perceived benefits for the farmers, political interventions, and the failure to honor farmers' requests for rehabilitation, All of these weaknesses can be compensated and prevented if there is strong leadership of the farmer organization. With strong leadership we do not mean that the chairman of a farmer organization should be dictatorial. On the contrary, strong leadership is characterized by the willingness to provide all information to the members of the organization, to be accountable to them for all actions including the financial affairs of the farmer organization entrusted to the chairman, clearly defined roles of those who are responsible within the farmer organizations, and probably most importantly, the personality that is prepared to put the common interest above one's personal interest.Finally, I would like to make clear that IlMl as a research organization does not propagate management transfer. We recognize that management transfer is happening in a large number of countries, and whether we personally like it or not is immaterial. IlMl studies the determinants of success and the effects of management transfer. One of the effects of management transfer is illustrated in the attached table where for a number of systems, the water fees charged before and after transfer are listed. From the values of the table, it is obvious that in some cases (for instance in New Zealand), after transfer, the system was r9n more economically than before and that water fees could be lowered. In other cases, the water fees were higher after transfer than before. The reasons why these changes occur and other effects of management transfer on the sustainability of irrigation systems are the topics that IlMl, is interested in and is studying in a number of countries. However, the period over which we have been studying these trends has been fairly short, so definitive answers cannot be provided as yet. Nevertheless, in my presentation today, I have given you some insights on what are the key determinants for success and for failure in management transfer processes.I hope I have succeeded also in conveying to you that there are government agencies in many countries struggling with these issues, and that the answers are not always easy to find. I wish you a successful discussion of these management transfer processes in the Sri Lankan environment.Table 1. Selected examples of changes in water fees: Before and after transfer. IN 1978, THE United States Agency for International Development (USAID) decided to assist the Government of Sri Lanka in improving the management of water in major irrigation projects in the dry zone. It was understood that this required building an adequate knowledge-base and new institutional capacities both of which take time but neither of which can be purchased 'off the shelf.' USAID and the Government of Sri Lanka recognized that a successful effort to improve water management could well take 20 years, but it would have to begin in a focused, concrete way, in a pioneering project that would begin to build up in-country knowledge and institutional capacity.In 1979, the government and USAID selected the Left Bank of the Gal Oya Irrigation System for rehabilitation. This planned change program was officially called the Gal Oya Rehabilitation and Water Management Project. The Irrigation Department (ID) was appointed by the government as the project implementing agency. Technical assistance was to be obtained from the PRC Engineering consultants Inc., a U.S. engineering firm. Through a Letter of Understanding, the ID was further assisted by the Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI), which dealt with the socioeconomic components of the project. ART1 was assisted in this regard by the Rural Development Committee of Cornell University, USA. The project initially spanned 44 months (August 1979(August to march 1984)). The project life was subsequently extended by 21 months, until December 31, 1985 as it needed more time to reach its assigned targets.With this policy objective, the Farmer Organization Program was included as one of the components of this major water management and rehabilitation project. The project assigned the establishment of farmer organizations (FOs) and the promotion of farmers' participation in these associations to ARTI.The main objective of this paper is to describe how these FOs evolved. The paper stresses that there was a cyclical trend of FO evolution. It describes how FOs began and flourished at the initial stage of the project and the socio-administrative-climate that provided a conducive environment to such growth. Then it examines the crises and dynamics of the program's decline during its latter The main source of information for this paper was derived from interviews with fifty (50) farmer leaders in Gal Oya. Most of these data are qualitative. Therefore, to strengthen the arguments, a large quantity of secondary information was gathered. Some of the most useful documents referred to for this purpose are Although the program implementors started with a learning process approach for organizational development in Gal Oya, they needed a tentative schedule to execute the program. They assumed that an Institutional Organizer's (catalyst) uninterrupted presence was necessary at the initial stages of FOs and that this presence could be incrementally reduced with the consolidation of the FOs. At the beginning, it was difficult for the program implementors to predict how long the 10s would take to organize farmers into FOs. However, as they gained field experience, program implementors identified three phases of FO development: (i) organizing phase ,(achieving effectiveness), (ii) consolidation phase (increasing efficiency), and (iii) maintenance phase (Uphoff 1983:3). These three phases were closely interrelated with each other (see figure 1). However, the following discussion will show that the FO program did not evolve according to this anticipated sequence.Farmer organizations did not emerge through farmers' spontaneous realization of the importance of having their own organizations. Rather, they began as a result of motivation and encouragement to farmers by 10s to form FOs as a means of participation in system management. Eighty percent of sample farmer leaders mentioned that they organized as groups because of the 10's requests.  (1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985). Further, most of them believed that the FO program showed significant progress and functioned efficiently until 1983. After that, they pointed out, the program took a downward direction (table 1). T o t a l 5 0 1 0 0When we reviewed the literature, the findings of several research studies (ARTI 1984;ISTI:1985;Ranasinghe Perera 1985) and records maintained by Institutional Organizers indicated that FOs made a significant contribution in most of the above aspects of system management of Gal Oya between 1981 and 1983.Ranasinghe Perera (1985) reports that FO attendance at FO meetings was fairly high. Farmers' attendance at FO meetings in the two initial areas (Uhana and Gonagolla) was between 67 percent and 80 percent during 1981 and 1982. Further, this study shows that compared with traditional kanna (seasonal) meetings, farmer attendance in FO meetings was substantially higher. Moreover, according to a preliminary survey of ARTI, the frequency of meetings of field-channel FOs at the initial stage was very high. Fifty two of the respondents of this survey mentioned that their FOs met several times a season to discuss and find solutions to their problems at the early phase of the program (ARTI 1986:41).The degree of farmer participation in field-level water distribution also indicates a considerable improvement during the period between 1981 and 1983, especially as it concerns the adoption of water users. At the initial stage of the program, farmers were encouraged to practice water rotations 3 through FOs. The mid-term impact assessment study of the program reports that the FOs adopting water rotations increased from 28 percent in the 1981 yala (dry season) to 78 percent in the 1983 yala (dry season) (ARTI 198453). Farmer participation4 in water rotations was average, about 75 percent (Ranasinghe Perera 198541).FO involvement in rehabilitation and maintenance of the system during the early years was also encouraging. At the beginning, FOs participated in rehabilitation in two ways: (i) participating in rehabilitation design meetings, and (ii) contributing free labor for earthwork at field-level construction.The aim of design meetings was to consult water users to incorporate their idiographic knowledge into the rehabilitation design plans so as to ensure the quality of design work at the field-channel level. The figures in table 3 show that farmer participation in these design meetings was remarkably high. The high rate of farmer participation in design meetings during the initial period of the program was attributed to two major reasons. First, prior to the FO program, there was no dialogue between farmers and system managers regarding system management activities. Therefore, this new system of contact created a great deal of interest among the farmers.Second, since farmers had already been convinced by the 10s that FOs could be a mechanism to get their participation in the ID'S physical rehabilitation activities, farmers were enthusiastic about the meetings.Channel cleaning is one of the major system maintenance activities. The State Irrigation Ordinance defines that the cleaning of field channels is the responsibility of farmers who get water directly from the field channels. As indicated earlier, the cleaning of field channels prior to the FO program was not done properly for several reasons, among which was the lack of both local institutions or effective leadership and cooperation and individualistic views among farmers. However, with the introduction of FOs, farmer involvement in channel cleaning improved significantly. Farmers were encouraged to participate in this kind of activity by the 10s through shramadana (collective voluntary labor). FOs were used as mechanisms for organizing farmers into such collective work. it was revealed that a large number o f ' shmmadanas had been undertaken by the FOs in Uhana and Gonagolla from 1981 through 1983. The total value of such activities amounts to Rs 96.286.40 (approximately $2,500.00).At the beginning of the FO program, a major emphasis was placed on improving the relationship between farmers and system managers ofthe ID. It seemed essential to undertake organizational activities. For this purpose, the 10s developed a system of regular meetings between the two groups. In these meetings, farmers discussed a system of regular meetings between the two groups. In these meetings, farmers discussed their problems with officials who, in turn, had a chance to explain the difficulties they were experiencing in solving those ,problems. These meetings greatly helped increase understanding of problems and limitations on both sides and reduce the mistrust which had prevailed for years (Ranasinghe Perera 198527). After some time, most farmers felt that system managers both acknowledged and cared about them. Table 3 illustrates this increased popularity of high level ID officials among farmers.  However, most farmers and farmer leaders interviewed for this study believed that the initial performance of the FO showed a decay towards the end of the program (see table 4). i aEven though it was difficult to make a complete objective assessment of FO performance during the last two years of the project due to lack of data, it was possible to see a downward trend in the FO involvement in system management toward the end of the program. Several research studies (ISTI 1985;ART1 1986;Uphoff 1987) of the FOs in the Gal Oya report the trend of declining frequency of field-channel FO meetings during the last two years of the project. When this is compared with the figures for the early phase where most farmers stated that they used to meet \"many times\" during a season (table 5), the decline in frequency is quite noticeable.  It was further noted that there was an impression among both systems mangers (ID) and farmers at the end of the program that less than half of the field-channel FOs had a chance of survival after the official completion of the project in 1985 (ISTI 198515).Farmers involvement in system rehabilitation and construction had also became less prominent during the final phase. Although such a claim cannot be proved without sufficient data, available records (ARTI) indicate that the once popular \"design meetings\" and \"walkingthroughs\" to incorporate farmer knowledge into ID rehabilitation designs were not practiced in the same way as they were in the initial period. However, there may be several explanations for the reluctance of FOs to participate in these endeavors. 'First, the ID did not emphasize farmer cooperation in rehabilitation design plan during the final stage because their major \" rehabilitation concern had shifted from field level to Distributaty Channel and main system level physical rehabilitation. Thus, the ID did not want to consult farmers to the same degree as it did earlier. Second, the trust and confidence among farmers in the advantages of these practices were damaged because they felt that their knowledge was not being incorporated into ID rehabilitation works. For example, 90 percent of the respondents to ARTl's final impact survey of the project mentioned that their suggestions were not incorporated in the ID rehabilitation plan and that they were not informed of the reasons (ARTI 1986:63).As far as farmer participation in field-level construction (earthwork) was concerned, there was a clear decrease in the number of earthwork assignments undertaken by FOs after 1983. This decrease was mainly due to farmers' unpleasant experiences in these activities during the early phase.It was noted that farmers were actively involved in water rotations during the early phase. But during the last two years of the program there was a significant decrease in the number of water rotations adopted by farmers. For example, in 1983 yala, 78 percent of the farmer members of WUAs adopted some water rotations. But this number decreased to 51 percent during the 1985 yala (ARTI 1984(ARTI & 1986)).It was shown previously that shramadana was one of the popular methods adopted by WUAs in channel cleaning. During the early phase, 10s encouraged farmers to practice such collective actions to clean channels, and farmers were also enthusiastic about participating in such activities. But, the available figures indicate that farmer involvement in channel cleaning through shramadana decreased toward the latter part of the project. For example, in 1983 about 73 percent of channel cleaning was done through shramadana. But, in 1985, the number of farmers involved in channel cleaning through this method was reduced to 20 percent and the majority of the farmers cleaned the channels individually (ARTI 1986). Table 6 further illustrates the decline of the number of shramadanas toward the end of the project. The relationship between water users and system managers (ID) exhibited the same negative trends on other aspects toward the end of the project. It is noted that in the early phase of the program, farmers and ID officers were closely associated to find solutions to irrigation problems, and farmers took part in system management decision making. But, this improvement did not last until the end of the program. Table 8 shows that the degree of frequency and close relationship between the two groups had reverted more or less to the preproject situation (see also table 7).Pre-Project During Project End of the Relationship (1979) (1981)(1982)(1983)(1984) Project  Strong support and Farmers in Gal Oya originally came from many different areas, So there was no cooperation among them. Some didn't even attend the funerals of their neighbors. When the 10s came they sacrificed a lot to bring us together. Some of them wen? even accused of being CIA agents. There was pressures to obstruct the 10's activity first from the mudalalis (merchants). But, the idea of farmer organization was accepted.Now (1986) there is a new generation, and some young people are not even aware that an 10 lives in the area (Gal Oya Left Bank). We need more training for everyone. About 80 percent of the field-channel organizations were not functioning by the middle of 1984.There are several reasons for this unfortunate situation. First is the Farmer Convention.Second, a few of the 10s were \"not g o o d (quality of work). Third, we were gathered here (the meeting where he presented this memorandum) on the request of 10s. Farmer representative cannot do this (farmers are dependent upon 10s for WUA activities). Fourth, some farmers tend to form direct links with officers at the expense of our farmer organizations.Farmer leaders who were interviewed for the study identified more or less similar reasons for the significant initial growth of the FO program and the sharp decline in its performance during the latter period (table 8). The main reasons they cited are: (i) degree and quality of catalyst ( 10) support for FO activities, (ii) political capacity of their FOs, (iii) degree of benefits offered by the program to farmers through FOs, and (iv) degree of cooperation of irrigation department officials with FO activities. When carefully examined, table 8 indicates that these factors affected to different degrees the rise of FO activities in the early phase and their decline in the latter phase of the program. For example, the strong support and guidance from 10s during the initial period greatly affected the rise of FO activities. But, political interference and the use of FOs for political gains by vested interest groups affected the decline of the FO program in the latter phase more intensely than the other factors.The farmer organization program which was implemented in the Gal Oya Left Bank during 1980-85, was one of the innovative efforts of participatory irrigation management in Sri Lanka. Clearly, the above analysis indicates that the FO program made significant growth in its initial three years and, thereafter, it began to decline. Such a trend was seen in at least in four FO activity areas: FO meetings; farmer participation in water-saving methods; group activities in system maintenance and relationship with farmers and officers.The discussion also revealed that there were four major reasons for such a cyclical evolution of farmer organizations. They were: degree of catalyst (10) support; bargaining capacity of FOs as independent organizations; degree of benefits offered through FOs; and support from Agency (ID) officials for FO activities. Based on the above analysis, this paper concludes that the FO program in Gal Oya could not maintain the initial growth speed until the end of the project. Non-farmer members of program implementors took significant efforts to make FOs sustainable after the project was completed in 1985. The rise and fall of FOs during a particular period of time from 1979 to 1985 is analyzed by using selected indicators such as (1) number of FO meetings, farmer participation in watersaving methods, group activities in maintenance and the relationship between farmers and officials.However, the appropriateness of such socioeconomic indicators needs to be examined in relation to the nature of the FO program which was implemented in Gal Oya. The need for collective activities such as shmmadana, farmer meetings, participation in water-saving methods and the relationship between farmers and officials became less significant with the systematic flow of activities which accompanied the growth of FOs.Since the data relate to a particular period of time it would be pertinent to examine the relevance of such data to the present FOs functioning under an entirely different socioeconomic context.1 0 support was a key factor which contributed to the success of the program. At the initial stage, due to the favorable administrative attitude particularly the commitment, guidance, and leadership of Institutional Organizers (10s) FO activities remained at a higher level. But poor guidance provided to 10s and the non-recruitment of 10s from the project areas contributed toward the decline of 1 0 support at the latter stage.The political interferences and the use of FOs for political gains have had a negative impact on the FOs functioning in the project area.The FOs in the Gal Oya Irrigation System were artificially raised small organizations forming into federations. A s a result, these organizations collapsed with the withdrawal of institutional support and exposure to the natural environment.Introduction SINCE ABOLISHING THE mjakaiya (work performed by the people to the King) system by the British in 1932, most irrigation systems went into disrepair necessitating premature rehabilitation. Though subsequent rehabilitations had positive features to improve productivity, the main constraints identified were weak planning, lack of management and resources. In 1966, the World Bank mission emphasized the need to increase productivity to justify investments.The 25 major irrigation water management programs that were subsequently initiated, increased the rice yields, introduced subsidiary food crops into the rice mono-culture and had many other positive factors. However, the programs failed to sustain due to inadequate institutional development and noninvolvement of farmers in the decision-making process. Farmers' involvement in this attempt was considered as another input in the production process.The first attempt by a technocrat to solicit farmer participation in water management was made under the Minipe Settlement Project in the Kandy District. The modus operandi selected was to employ community leaders, i e , the local priest, school teachers, etc., to organize farmers for better water management, An improved effort to organize user participation was attempted in the Gal Oya Water Management Project. Extensive system deterioration in Gal Oya was attributed to lack of user participation and initiative taken by the ID or any other agency to involve farmers in the decision-making process (Wijayaratna 1984). The strategy adopted in this case was to employ social science graduates as catalyst to solicit user participation. This approach was initiated by organizing farmers at field-channel level; these organizations were later federated at the distributary channel and system levels. Reasons for the success in this approach were, involving farmers right from the planning and design stage in the rehabilitation process, taking farmers into confidence in overall system management and These historical developments lead us to the question whether there had been a policy on participatory management and what the future policy should be. Though it was thought that village irrigation systems possessed all the characters of participatory management5 it was not the same with major irrigation schemes, mainly due to the size of the scheme, settlement patterns, beneficiary selections and other logistical facts. The main objectives of state intervention in major irrigation were sustainable settlements and economic and equity considerations. The state policy at this stage was heavily biased toward farmer dependency on the state for irrigation management. Thus the interest of the state was to minimize O&M costs and reduce farmer complaints in system management. However, due to the large number of small farmers and social welfare objectives, the state could not achieve both these objectives. Hence, the state decided to involve farmers in irrigation system management as the best available alternative to achieve the abovementioned objectives.While recognizing the importance of beneficiary participation in Irrigation Management, there were two different policy scenarios implemented by the government in 1984, with the common objective of improving O&M. One policy attempted to institutionalize the O&M fee collection which was given up in 1988 due to poor response from the farmers. The other was the participatory management concept where the users were considered as equal partners in system management. Since independence, the institutional arrangement for O&M in Sri Lanka had 'been characterized as \"centralized financial dependency\", where the O&M funds had been allocated from a government budget to the centralized irrigation agency (IMPSA Staff Working Paper 3.1 1991). However, the central dependency had to be changed subsequently due to pressures from donor agencies for' poor ex-post performance levels and due to budget austerity and serious foreign exchange shortages during the 1970s (ibid,). The post-I977 policies witnessed a dynamic growth in the national economy through the large-scale investment in irrigation infrastructure. This resulted in widening the gap between the actual O&M needs and O&M allocation, causing serious deterioration to irrigation systems that had been poorly maintained thus far. The situation was much aggravated due to the myopic policies of the Territorial Civil Engineers' Organization (TCEO) during 1971-78. The end result of these changes was the adoption of the irrigation service fee collection scheme by the government in 1984. Though this scheme was successful during the initial years, it almost totally collapsed by 1988 due mainly to political reasons combined with inadequacies in the law to apprehend defaulters. Therefore, it was 'inevitable that the policy on irrigation fee collection, which makes a farmer a fee payer and a service receiver contradicted with the participatory management model that was implemented through INMAS which warranted a sense of ownership and working as equal partners in irrigation system management.However, in 1988, the Cabinet approved the Participatory Irrigation Management Policy, Hence, the full responsibility of O&M and resource mobilization at FCs and DCs in major irrigation systems was to be turned over to farmer organizations. In return, farmers would be exempted from payment of an irrigation sewice fee. The government would retain responsibility for O&M of the head works and the main systems. The goals of the policy were, to improve the productivity of irrigation systems through farmer participation and increasing the share of O&M expenditure borne by farmers and relieve the pressure on the government budget by transferring a large portion of O&M responsibility to farmers' organization. The point in question is whether Sri Lanka followed this process in preparation for the turnover. The initial concept of establishing FOs in Sri Lanka had been to increase productivity per unit of land and water through better water management by the users. Once this objective was accomplished it was a case of strengthening FOs for sustainability. The issue of sustainability was viewed in the context of the ability to mobilize local resources and improve financial status of the FOs. The turnover as such was an offshoot of this development, necessitated as a result of government budgetary constraints and the ever-deteriorating physical condition of many irrigation systems. More so, the turnover in Sri Lanka was a condition laid down by many donor agencies to increase the accountability of users toward the system. Another reason that can be attributed to turnover is the failure of the O&M fee collection scheme.In Sri Lanka, there are two types of turnover processes: official turnover by virtue of an agreement signed between both parties, i.e., the FO and the ID, and unofficial turnover amounting to almost all O&M being handled by the FO but without any contractual agreement between the parties. In most turned-over cases there had been no systematic evaluation of the FO before turnover, while in the ISMP a clear set of guidelines are prepared for evaluating FOs prior to turnover. Turnover in this case refers to distributaries consisting many field channels. Early in the 199Os, statistical achievements in turnover were considered to be an indicator of progress by project managers. This invariably had a negative effect of having DCs turned over to FOs which were not fit for turnover where FOs were not capable of handling O&M in their distributaries and vice versa.The ability to convey water equitably in a distributary should be the prerequisite to turnover, However, in Sri Lanka many distributaries were turned over without a proper rehabilitation of the system. This was mainly due to inadequate O&M funds and continuous pressure from the donors. Under the concept of turnover, those distributaries turned over should essentially not receive government O&M funds. It is the duty of the FO to maintain the sub-system with its own funds. However, this system did not prevail in Sri Lanka as many DC FOs found it difficult to maintain the distributary without government O&M funds.Hence, one can identify influencing factors that help sustain turnover in Sri Lanka. These can be categorized as system physical condition, FO leadership and project management leadership, strength of FOs, household income, agency commitment and political influence.If these factors act favorably, then turnover can be a success and one could expect costeffective maintenance, effective operation of the turned-over system and minimal occurrence of conflicts among farmer beneficiaries. Thus, the effectiveness of turnover depends on the strengths and weaknesses of the influencing factors. The overall turned-over process is channeled through the FOs. In this case, DC FO acts as the functional unit of the turnover process. The FO responsible for sustaining the turned-over system attempts to improve the water availability within the system under its command (figure 1). The process explained thus far attempts to improve just one component, namely better availability of water in a cycle where many other components combine to give an improved farm income. The improved farm income would have a direct bearing on one's household income.In addition to direct contribution from farm income, the FOs in many systems have ventured into other income-generating activities that influence the household income. Also household income can be supplemented by other sources outside farming. However, these are few and insignificant compared to the farming income. Hence, what figure 1 indicates is the improvement of total household income of the farming community through a process, where turnover of irrigation systems has an impact on only one particular factor contributing to farm income. Figure 1 also tries to show that attempting to improve only \"better water availability\" through turnover would not improve farm income without the other supporting factors (credit, inputs, marketing, land tenure, crop diversification, etc.). If the total household income and individual farm income do not improve then one cannot expect the turnover to be taken in isolation and be sustainable.Hence, if turnover is to be sustainable, one has to consider the influential factors that affect the efficiency of turnover.The status of the physical system has become the most critical influencing factor that leads to a successful turnover In the past, much of the DCs turned over to the FOs were not rehabilitated prior to turnover. It is common knowledge that turning over of DCs under ISMP was done due to donor agency pressure. It is believed at the time of turnover, the agencies involved in the process had promised the FOs that, subsystems needing rehabilitation would be attended to.Incidentally, equitable water distribution in the system should be a prerequisite for turnover. However, at present there is evidence from Kaudulla and Minneriya that there FOs are requesting for \"reverse turnover\" due to operational difficulties emanating from physical system deterioration and the unmanageable size of some DCs. Worse situations have been reported from Muruthawela and Tabbowa where DCs have been turned over without rehabilitation and the FOs are unable to manage the water efficiently. The question is once a subsystem is turned over, is it the duty of the Irrigation Department to take it back, if FOs cannot manage it. If the DCs were turned over to FOs for \"better management,\" then would the ID accept them back when the FO cannot manage it? If so, the ID should have improved its management during the period the FOs were experimenting with the management. On the other hand, if the DCs were turned over as a cost-effective means to the state, then the ID cannot accept these DCs back without supplementary funds to manage what is given back.Ideally, once turned over, the O&M allocation should be withdrawn. This, in fact, was attempted under ISMP, but was resumed no sooner it was realized that FOs cannot maintain the turned over subsystem without O&M allocation. With decreasing O&M allocation given to the ID, it becomes increasingly impossible for the ID to maintain these DCs without FO participation. On the other hand, the FOs have got accustomed to the O&M allocation without which they could limit their cleaning only to the canal bed, just adequate to take minimum water. This could lead to faster deterioration. Hence, what appears best is a kind,of joint management with O&M allocation given to DC FOs after turning over.Getting accustomed to the O&M allocation was evident from Kaudulla. where some of the Field Channel Groups (FCGs) do not attempt to attend even to minor repairs in their FCs expecting the ID to give them the job on contract. This is a scenario where the FOs are becoming dependent on O&M allocation because they know that such allocation still exists. If the allocation is completely withdrawn, FOs would come to accept that they could not hope for the O&M allocation and, thus, would attend to their own work with FO funds. The question is how long the FOs would take to realize this and by that time what would happen to the canal system? Only time can answer this question.However, the question would be how farmers would fund O&M being in paddy farming. It is well known that the cost of production per acre of rice is ever-increasing and profits from rice production are either marginal or sometimes negative. According to a recently concluded study, the O&M cost per acre represents approximately 3-20 percent of farm income at present (including family labor) per season. At the present rate of returns, farmers will never be able to pay for O&M cost unless farm income increases substantially. One way of increasing farm income is to diversify into subsidiary crops during yala and engaging in small-scale agro-based industries. If the state is not going to subsidize the farmer further, from the current levels, many farmers, even in major irrigations would become subsistence farmers (evidence is emerging from Minneriya and Kaudulla). If rice subsidies are gradually withdrawn (to face the reality) or even maintained at current levels, farmers will decide the best course of action, first for survival and then for commercial farming.Many farmers have already adopted this strategy to survive in the farming sector. There was gherkin cultivation in places like Radagalpotha and Komarika Ela and chili, onion and tobacco cultivation in many major irrigation systems in yala.The few farmers who had ventured in OFC cultivation had done it through sheer necessity with minimum assistance from the state and the private sector. Thus, if the small farmer is to be competitive in the open market, pay for his own O&M, etc., the state and the private sector will have to play a major role in providing services to improve the standard of living of the small farmers.If turnover of irrigation subsystems is to be a success, the agencies involved in the process of turnover should be fully committed with an open mind to the cause. In the recent past, it had been evident that the ID had responded positively to FO requests for O&M in many major irrigation systems (Rajangana, Tabbowa, Muthukandiya. Kaudulla, Muruthawela, etc.). This could be considered as an ideal joint management between the system implementors and users. Incidentally, what should be expected from both parties prior to turnover is a period of joint management.Though we observe a change in the attitudes of ID personnel toward participatory management, still a large majority, especially field staff need to accept the concept of participatory management. If the government continues with the open economy policies, it is difficult to imagine that irrigation would continue to be subsidized. Therefore, the ID will have to accept that subsystem O&M have to be a joint operation or done solely by the beneficiaries. For that matter, the action taken by the Deputy Director, Polonnaruwa for the FO request to \"reverse hand over\" a DC (Raja Ela) in Minneriya is commendable. Once an FO had accepted a DC for O&M, the ID should not take it back when the FO feels that they cannot maintain.The FOs will have to realize their responsibility and also realize that the ID is not there for them to fall back on. This situation can be practical as long as the ID too realizes that their responsibility is not fully over with the turnover. Maintenance works (even excessive desilting) beyond the capacity of FOs have to be attended to by the ID. This, however, is being practiced to a limited extent due to constraints in funds.The catalyst agents or institutional staff should also realize that their responsibility is to form, strengthen and sustain FOs rather than attempting to achieve statistical targets in turnover.Though the responsibilities of other line agency staff cannot be mentioned individually, their efforts should be integrated to achieve the common goal of increased farm income.It is undisputed that leadership plays a major role in a strong organization. There are two types of leadership, FR leadership and PM leadership. Successktrength of most FOs can be attributed to a combination of these two types of leadership. The success stories at Kaudulla, Rajangana, Komarika Ela can be attributed to the above. When the leadership is weak (Muruthawela, Muthukandiya, Tabbowa, Ma Ela, Mediyawa, Murapola, etc.), the FOs too are weak. Thus, the function of the leadership is to strengthen the FO and prepare it for accepting turnover. However, the experience from most irrigation schemes (specially under INMAS) is that the effectiveness of the leadership had created a dependency among the FO membership.The most notable example for this would be Kaudulla. During the term of the former Project Manager, FOs functioned well and there were no complains on turned-over systems. Since the change of the Project Manager everything has gone wrong and the FRs at a Joint Management Committee meeting decided to \"reverse hand over' all the canals handed to them by the ID. Two reasons can be attributed to this situation: one, all farmers respected and obliged the former Project Manager and when he was out, farmers gave vent to their feelings.Two, most farmers in the FOs followed him as a leader, thus creating a dependency. What probably happened at Kaudulla is a combination of both.It is unfortunate that, while leadership is crucial for strengthening FOs. it also creates a dependency which becomes the order of the day. This situation had been particularly so where the leadership given by the Project Manager (Kaudulla. Rajangana, Kimbulwana. Komarika Ela) had become more bureaucratic than catalytic. Unfortunately, it is an unavoidable situation unless immense concentration is devoted to prevent the change from catalytic to bureaucratic.However, NlRP will have to be mindful of this change, specially when the Project Manager is a permanent ID official.Outside the condition of the physical system, FO strength can be the most important factor that governs the status of turnover. The FO strength is measured using indicators like structure, membership, leadership, funding, financial management, communication and the use of funds. Turnover, with respect to strength, refers to \"who does what\" in system OSM. Table 1.indicates that with increase in FO strength, FO O&M performance also increases (figure 2). This means the stronger the FO, the more it gets involved in O&M of the system. It is interesting to note that Rajangana under INMAS and Komarika Ela under MANIS get equal scores for FO strength. Though the former had received much institutional support, the latter had come to the same level through much dedication and hard work. Another important aspect is, with increased FO strength, nonirrigation activity performance has also increased. This implies that when an FO is strong in its essential characters, it can take the responsibility for system O&M. Once this primary task is taken care of, the FOs can venture out to other areas that basically strengthen their existence as a functional unit at village level. It is the nonirrigation activities that finally strengthens the household income, which in the final outcome, affects sustainability of FOs.When O&M responsibilities with regard to turnover are scored against FO strength, it is evident that there is a relationship between the two. The stronger the FO, the higher the O&M responsibilities taken over by the respective FOs. Table 1 indicates that Komarika Ela has the highest proportion for turnover of responsibilities mainly because the main canal is also maintained by the FOs. If O&M responsibilities can be maintained at P l Q l for a reasonable length (decided upon by FO and agency) of time, then the agency can decide to withdraw the O&M allocation, thus moving toward the least-cost line, BC.Even if all the preceding factors are perfectly conducive for turnover, without the political will it will not be a possibility in the long run. Ideally, politics should not be an influencing factor in this process, but that is not reality. If politicians view O&M as something that should be done by the state, and act in derogation to the whole effort then the process of turnover will not be a success.Thus, what is required by politicians is to understand the present government policy and act in support of the process that had been in operation for the pa.st decade in irrigation systems management. Hence, like the implementing agencies, politicians also need to take some hard decisions if they want to see the development of the irrigation sector in particular and the nation as a whole.NlRP has come a step forward in attaining a sustainable turnover due mainly to transferring the O&M responsibility after rehabilitation. However, \"all is not won\" until NlRP strengthens FOs to be viable and sustainable, have a firm agency commitment toward turnover and, thereafter, get the necessary leadership both from agency and FOs and the political will to continue the process. Thus, the sustainability of turned-over systems depend on the improvement of farm income and household income. Hence, NlRP needs to concentrate on the components given in figure 1 with an integrated approach to attain sustainable turned-over systems. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. To attain sustainable turnover NlRP should rehabilitate the systems prior to handing over and the rehabilitation should be in concurrence with the FOs.2. The turnover should not be in isolation. It should be an integrated approach to improve farmer household income. Only then can a sustainable turnover be achieved.3. The ID should not accept any type of \"reverse turnover,\" if the FOs demand so after a period of operation. This will discourage those FOs whose progress is good after turnover.It is acceptable to continue with the O&M allocation for a period of one year after turning over (Joint Management Phase). During this period the ID staff should make the FOS realize that O&M funds would be withdrawn and that FOs will have to bear full responsibility.5. NlRP project management should work closely with the FOs after turnover but should not make the FOs feel dependant on the Project Manager.6. After turnover the Project Manager's role should be one of a co-ordinator or facilitator than that of an implementor. It was centered on the problems identified, the need for an integrated approach and suggestions for future programs on irrigation management transfer.Prior to handing over the O&M to FOs a systematic evaluation has to be carried out to determine the ability of FOs to perform such responsibilities and to develop comprehensive guidelines for effective systems management.The turnover process should be viewed as an integrated approach that can be translated to NIRP. More emphasis needs to be paid to areas such as crop diversification, marketing of farm products, credit, and inputs which perform a significant role in increasing farmer income for the turnover to be sustainable.The turnover should not be limited to the transfer of O&M responsibilities to FOs; instead farmers should have the right to manage their own resources and take decisions where necessary as equal partners in system management. Hence, the specific roles and functions of the 3 parties, the FOs, the ID and the IMD involved in the turnover process should be clearly defined.The communication gaps existing between the FOs and the officials attached to various implementing agencies have to be bridged for smooth functioning of the turnover process.Despite the fact that political interference may have a negative impact under certain conditions efforts have to be made to achieve objectives within the existing conditions.Two types of leadership are emphasized: project management leadership and farmer organization leadership for sustainable turnover, Leadership qualities could be marketed in the open economy; hence there is a need to examine the incentives the farmer leader gets in performing his role.To evolve a national policy in relation to FOs based on the experiences gained in this area.* To explore the possibility of providing a support system until the FOs are strengthened to carry out the O&M of irrigation systems without outside assistance, A period of joint management between the system implementors and users prior to turn over is a prerequisite to sustain the turnover process. An important question arising from the present context is whether implementing agencies are willing to perform the role of a catalyst and transfer the resources, the decision-making power and funds to FOs for successful O&M.* Careful consideration has to be paid to examine whether small farmers would be able to survive with the additional responsibilities entrusted by FOs. A challenge faced by the implementing agencies is to promote the small farming sector as a viable private sector by exchanging the roles performed by both parties over a long period of time.Despite the fact that strong leadership is crucial for strengthening FOs, examples have revealed that effective and strong leadership may sometimes create a dependency among membership or be individual oriented. There is a need to determine the criteria for the selection of a suitable leader. It may be pertinent to bear in mind that since strong leadership is marketable it has to be rewarded for its capabilities to obtain satisfactory results. Financial benefits have to be maintained at a very high level at the initial phase of a project to sustain good leadership.The existing laws pertaining to land and water will need to be strengthened to protect the FOs keeping in line with the turnover process.ID and IMD should be rewarded based on their inputs especially for performing the role of a catalyst with regard to all activities related to irrigation management. The goal of the project is to expand food and agricultural production, increase rural employment opportunities, raise net farm income and thereby the standard of living of the farmers utilizing the small landholdings.The role of the staff of the Irrigation Department has been gradually changing from major construction to rehabilitation and management of the irrigation systems. So is the role of other line agencies such as the Department of Agrarian Services. The staff of the line agencies had to be motivated through training and by holding workshops with the participation of farmer representatives themselves. A free and unbiased dialogue amongst the farmer representatives and the officials was facilitated thereby allowing a free exchange of ideas. What the farmer representatives expected from the officials and vice versa were discussed and a general idea of what was expected by each other was gained and a program common to both was evolved at these workshops. Farmer representatives themselves were aware that these same officials would be working with them in effecting the improvements to the system and would also become trainers to train them (farmer representatives) in operation, maintenance and other activities connected to the functioning of the FOs.Institutional Organizers (10s) were also recruited at the same time and were given a training in the activities expected of them as \"change agents\" in this process. These 10s also attended the seminars held for the farmers and other officials. 10s were initially recruited on an island-wide basis after notification in the government gazette. All of them were graduates from the universities and most held the degree in social science. They were recruited on a contract basis and practically all of them left for better and permanent jobs. Termination of work on their (10s) part was expected to continue and the vacancies created by the departure of the graduate 10s were filled from the locality by reducing the educational qualifications of candidates to the General Certificate of Education (Ordinary level) and (Advanced Level) Examinations.These latter IOs, also appointed on a contract basis, were given a training on the work expected of them and they continued to function till the phasing out program commenced. Most of the phased out 10s obtained employment either in the MARD Project in Mahaweli System \"B\" or in the National Irrigation Rehabilitation Project.Subsequent to the training programs for the agency officials and the 10s most of them became effective trainers and motivators and were deployed as resource persons engaged in training.At the end of many training programs and workshops, the agency officials and farmer representatives were aware of what was expected of them to reach the objectives of the project.The major irrigation systems in this country contribute to more than 50 percent of rice production in this country. However, there have been concerns about the diminishing returns on the massive investment in this field. It was realized that the answer to the problem of low productivity in irrigation systems depends on the better management of the resources with the active participation of the farmers. Involvement of farmers in the planning and implementation of the programs designed to improve productivity and efficiency has been minimal in the past -: few decades, mainly because there were no organizations of farmers in these areas. To remedy this situation, the institutional building and the establishment of FOs were commenced Since the farmers were also expected to increase their earning capacity the organizations have been strengthened in the use of resources in their area of operation. They have also been trained on how to maintain proper accounts, on the preparation of the kanna calendar, timely use of agro-inputs such as fertilizer, chemicals, etc., and in better maintenance and operation. FOs are now being given contracts for O&M improvements, within their area of operation, up to Rs. 75,000 and most have performed well.Prior to the commencement of the introduction of the training programs both officials and FRs were given an awareness training of what is expected of them. Most of the officials and FRs were given this training at informal workshops where interaction and free dialogue between the two parties were facilitated. Since all farmers could not be accommodated at workshops only their representatives attended these workshops. Also as the message had to go to the entire farming community a half-day program was introduced at the FC level where a group of about 20 farmers participated. In most cases, either the Resident Project Manager (RPM) or the Institutional Development Officer (IDO) together with the area 1 0 and the FRs attended these meetings. At these meetings the concept of FOs and the objectives of the project were discussed. This way the entire farming community was made aware of both programs. To achieve the objectives under the ISM Project participatory management process training programs were developed, validated and implemented. Due to the educational standards of most of the FRs the most difficult to program to be conducted was that on Financial Management. However, this was overcome by co-opting younger members to the FO solely for the purpose of maintenance of books and accounts.However, in the preparation of the training programs, it was necessary to focus on methods which addressed the vital issues: * Ensuring that the participants wished to be able to do the job to set a standard at the end of training Clearly identifying what the job was and its standards * Information obtained from the participants themselves revealed that they themselves were not clear of the role they had to play in achieving the objectives of the ISM Project. It was, therefore, necessary to set a framework in which the courses could be run and to bring the new job roles directly into focus during the training courses. To motivate the participants and also to instil in them the feeling that the management considers them a vital human factor in attaining the objectives, a member from the management actively participated during the opening and closing of each training program. On almost every occasion after the preliminary day the trainees were taken to where the work was to be performed where actual jobs were used as a vehicle for training.There were many occasions where the trainees had to work long hours and in addition had to perform \"homework\" in the night for presentation the next day. In the training for 'FC groups where the participants comprised only farmers, the night assignments given to them were accomplished commendably which showed the enthusiasm displayed by these group leaders.The sequence of implementation which was adopted to enable the achievement of results at each stage was as follows: Water is issued by the Irrigation Department to the DC and with the assistance of the Staff of ID thejala palakas learnt the procedure of distribution of water into FCs even while rotational issues were on. After this phase was completed and the ID was satisfied with the capability of thejala palakas the evaluation process commenced. This was done through based on criteria prepared for the specific purpose.The list of responsibilities of the agencies and the list of rights and responsibilities of FOs were prepared in draft form and were taken up at a discussion between Agency Staff and the FRs when a final decision was arrived at. 2.5.Indicators Annex 111Responsibilities of the Irrigation Department TO ENSURE THE smooth turnover and operation of the canals under this agreement the ID shall be responsible for rehabilitation of the canals to a level which can provide adequate water delivery and control for each fanner and also for the following:1.4.6.0.10.11.12.13. Provide periodic expenditure in respect of O&M of the main system 1.7.9.10.12.* The SLFO shall have the right to nominate one of its members to attend the Mahaweli Water Panel on behalf of the Project if such a request is made by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri LankaThe SLFO shall have the right to obtain secretarial services from the Project Management Office * Roles and Functions of the System-Level FOIn the event of disputes amongst the signatories to the Memorandum of Understanding for turnover of tertiary systems the SLFO shall make every endeavor to settle such disputes. If settlement cannot be resolved then the SLFO shall proceed to the Project Management Committee requesting that the disputes be resolved.Be fair by each DC FO thus maintaining equity and balance in allocation of resources available to the SLFO.Settle any dispute pertaining to irrigated agriculture between DC FOs. It shall also resolve any disputes between FC groups which are referred to it by the respective DC FO.Improve the income of members of the farming community Assist the farmers in marketing, and cooperative storage of marketable products.Take the lead role in the timely and adequate supply of inputs required by the farmers.Play a major role along with the DC FO and FC groups in the O&M of tertiary systems.Assist the irrigation agencies in the O&M of the main system.Plan, implement and monitor the agricultural program for the project Collect data/information on agriculture, irrigation and tenurial status through DC FOS and FC groups.Identify training requirement of farmers, farmer representatives and filed-level officers; plan, implement and monitor such training programs.Effect necessary liaison and coordination with departments and agencies involved in irrigation and agricultural matters.Plan and implement a program for the protection of the irrigation system and take suitable action against the irrigation offenders.ii.iii. iv.V.vi. iii.i. Organizing socio-cultural activities such as Vap Magul and Aluth Sahal Mangalyaya, etc., with the help of the FC groups Participating in all other socio-cultural activities in the scheme to promote cordial links with the non-farming population and to develop community cohesiveness ii.ii.iii.IV.V.Establishing close links with the FC FO.Establishing close and cordial links with the officials. 2. Jalapalakas and/or FC representatives trained in O&M should have operated the system jointly with ID for at least one season. Both categories should submit records as required by the ID to the closest ID official, who is preferably a member of the Water Management Unit.3. Each FC group has elected its won leader for operations within the FC 4. The DC FO prepares and submits the seasonal cropping calendar on time to the System-Level FO.5. The FC group leaders submit weekly reports on farming activities (land preparation, crop growth stages) to the jalapalaka.Organization and Management 1. The DC FO service area is clearly defined and is based on hydrological boundaries.2.5.8.10.12.13.The DC FO has a duly ratified constitution, bylaws and is registered with the ID, the IMD and the Commissioner of Agrarian Services.The DC FO maintains an office with minimum furniture, a safety locker and a notice display board.The DC FO maintains an updated list of membershipAll farmer water users are eligible to be members of the DC FO regardless of tenurial status but in accordance with the constitution of the respective DC FO.Executive office-bearers (chairman, vice chairman, secretary, treasurer and possibly an auditor) meet every month.The DC FO Committee meets at least once every two months.The DC FO holds general meetings every crop season at which the annual maintenance plan, the financial statement and the budget are discussed.The DC FO keeps legal records, minutes of meetings, historical list of membership, books of accounts, records of membership fees/dues/collections, etc.Office-bearers and FC representatives, trained in financial management, maintain records.The DC FO members participate in voluntary (shramadana) work in clearing and desilting DCs and FCs.The DC FO deposits money of the organization in the bank and disburses or spends it in accordance with the manner approved, in the annual/seasonal budget or other expenditure approved by the committee.Notwithstanding item 12 above, the treasurer maintains accounts for the petty cash imprest allowed to him by the DC FO. As the government policy has already indicated empowering FOs for managing Agrarian Service Centers, the evaluation of irrigation systems should be considered as the joint responsibility of relevant institutions and FOs. Both parties should be held responsiblelaccountable for the work performed by them, thereby maintaining a kind of transparency.There is a need to explore the possibility of strengthening the FOs, so that they would be in a position to go against or withstand political interferences and seek legal justice. FOs were legally recognized under clauses 56 A and 56 B of the Agrarian Services Act, as they have been substituted for cultivation committees but strong legal protection is required for FOs to perform their duties satisfactorily.Attention has not been focused on developing a rationale for the farmers to take over O&M. It is recommended to analyze the development path followed by other countries and examine their experiences to provide guidance in this regard. strategies is an important question that should be raised at this stage.Until the mid-1980s very little emphasis was given for irrigation management as compared to the attention paid in achieving construction targets. However, emphasis has now moved from the construction phase to the management phase. Accordingly, since 1992, various models/ methodologies have been tested in the irrigation sector to improve irrigation management. The Integrated Management of Major Irrigation Systems (INMAS) an! MANIS are accepted management practices adopted in major and medium irrigation systems, respectively. Experiences gained in implementing INMAS and management of irrigation systems at Polonnaruwa are discussed in this paper.In the 1970s more emphasis was given for achieving construction targets, as the main objectives were to increase the rice acreage. However, increasing demand for land and water and the increase in population have restricted new development. It has also been proved that increasing the productivity of existing irrigation systems is more effective and economical than attempting to increase the irrigated area. A major constraint to the efficiency of irrigation systems is weakness at the planning stage and the subsequent lack of proper management and utilization of resources. The need for increasing the productivity of these systems has also been highlighted on several occasions by various aid missions.In the 1970s, O&M of all parts of irrigation systems were done by the ID except that of field channels. FCs were self-managed by the farmers with technical assistance extended from the ID. The velvidane (Irrigation Headman) of each yaya (tract) appointed by the DAS generally attended to all O&M works in FCs of the respective tracts. Operation was completely handled by the velvidane according to a schedule provided by the ID. A reasonable share of unhusked rice which was agreed at the cultivation committee meeting was given to him by the beneficiaries at the end of each kanna for his services. Maintenance of FCs was undertaken according to an agreed pangu (share) list which was prepared by the DAS with the concurrence As the necessity for a similar management system was felt for medium schemes as well, the ID implemented MANIS for such schemes. This also emphasized almost the same aspects as in INMAS but at a reduced scale.Since the mid-l980s, a large sum of money has been spent by various agencies such as the ADB, the World Bank, etc., to implement this new concept of irrigation management. This attracted many deciplines into the irrigation sector and they came out with various suggestions for implementing it in the field. Some of them were of the view that farmers would be able to hire technical personnel for O&M, once new management systems were in place. With this . . . objective, the subject of turnover of irrigation systems to FOs was broached and, accordingly, almost all DCs in the Polonnaruwa irrigation systems were turned over to FOs.At the beginning, FOs were very keen in taking over O&M of canalkhannel systems upto the headworks. However, many FOs are now reluctant to continue with O&M of DCs due to many reasons, especially their inability to mobilize adequate resources for O&M. Under the Irrigation Systems Management Project, DC FOs are expected to undertake 0&M of DCs on' a voluntary basis with their own resources. As this system was unsuccessful in irrigation systems at Polonnaruwa, OBM of DCs were awarded to DC FOs on a partly voluntary basis, where a part of the O&M costs were paid to the DC FOs by the ID. If this system of O&M is allowed to continue the irrigation systems in Polonnaruwa may very soon require another major rehabilitation.Generally, in irrigation systems, FCs are expected to be self-managed by the FOs. Although new strategies have been discussed in Colombo for institutional development for strengthening support to FOs, including bringing about attitudinal changes of the agency officials toward FOs, it is difficult to find genuine officials who are devoted to implementing such a difficult task in the field. There are many people who come out with unrealistic targets in irrigation management, However, when it comes to real implementation they tend to give undue priority to achieve their own targets than to the farmers well-being. Clearly, the above discussion indicates that the FOs are not yet capable of taking over the O&M of DCs of the irrigation systems. It is, therefore, recommended that instead of handing over DCs to the DC FOs, joint management of the systems by the ID and DC FOs should be adopted as a policy in the short term, which is expected to help improve O&M of the systems.","tokenCount":"12972"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"439f785c9d1a90b1e2e62da5b113081c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H032633.pdf","id":"1733398623"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"36ec0df1-00bb-4af8-8d34-ed5f10929cc8","pagecount":"17","content":"Water is an extremely complex resource. It is both a public and a private good; it has multiple uses; the hydrology requires that we examine potential productivity gains at both the farm and the basin levels; both quantity and quality are important; institutions and policies are typically flawed. For a given situation, economists often disagree on how to value water and on the best strategy for increasing water productivity. This fact notwithstanding, growing scarcity increases the need, if not the demand, for sound economic analyses.The purpose of this chapter is to lay down some of the concepts and complexities in economic analyses related to increasing water productivity, to provide some examples and to see what this implies regarding the potential for increasing water productivity. We hope that this will help set the stage for productive discussions and the identification of research needs.The chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section discusses the relationship between efficiency, productivity and sustainability, and emphasizes the confusion in definitions. The second section provides examples at plant, farm, system and basin levels, relating water productivity to both economic efficiency and sustainability. Closely related to this, in the third section we discuss the potentials for increases in water productivity and economic efficiency through incentives created by policy and institutional reforms.Failure to include the potential for recycling or reuse of water diverted for irrigation in the measurement of irrigation efficiency has led to the widely accepted view that public irrigation systems are poorly managed and that there is considerable scope for increasing water productivity. Water savings do not necessarily lead to higher water productivity and, similarly, higher water productivity does not lead to greater economic efficiency.A distinction can be made between those measures that increase water productivity by increasing crop yield for a given evapotranspiration (ET) or diversion as opposed to reducing the water-diversion requirements. Measures to increase crop yield for a given ET translate into water-productivity gains at the system and basin levels. However, the management of water to reduce water-diversion requirements is riddled with off-site effects and externalities. Thus, whether water-management practices or technologies designed to increase water productivity and economic efficiency at the farm level translate into water-productivity and economic-efficiency gains at the system or basin level needs to be determined. The basin is a hydrological unit as opposed to an administrative unit. It is only at this level that we can capture and include in our analysis the off-site effects (or, in economic jargon, internalize the externalities).The growing scarcity and rising value of water in a basin induce farmers to seek ways to increase water productivity and economic efficiency. Recycling or reuse of water is prominent among the prac-Water is an extremely complex resource. It is both a public and a private good; it has multiple uses; the hydrology and externalities require that we examine potential productivity gains at the farm, system and basin levels; both quantity and quality are important in measuring availability and scarcity; and the institutions and policies that govern the use of water are typically flawed.Given these complexities, it is small wonder that there is little agreement among scientists, practitioners and policy makers as to the most appropriate course of action to be taken to improve the management of water resources for the benefit of society. This fact notwithstanding, the growing scarcity of water increases the need and demand for sound economic analyses.The purpose of this chapter is to lay down some of the concepts and complexities in economic analyses related to increasing water productivity, to provide some examples and to see what this implies regarding the potential for increasing water productivity. We hope that this will help set the stage for productive discussions and the identification of research needs.This chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section discusses the relationship between efficiency, productivity and sustainability, emphasizing the confusion in definitions and distinguishing between engineering, biological and economic concepts.The second section provides examples -at the plant, farm, system and basin levelsrelating water productivity (WP) to economic efficiency (EE) and to sustainability. Closely related to this, in the third section we discuss the potentials for increases in WP and EE through policy and institutional reforms.In this section we begin with a discussion of definitions of water-use efficiency (WUE), irrigation-efficiency (IE) and WP. We then define EE and relate EE to IE and WP. We conclude with a brief discussion of WP, EE and sustainability.In general terms, we define IE as the ratio of water consumed to water supplied. WP is the ratio of crop output to water either diverted or consumed, the ratio being expressed in either physical or monetary terms or some combination of the two. There are four areas of confusion related to the concept of efficiency. First, WUE as used in the literature, including the economics literature (e.g. Dinar, 1993) and plant-science literature (e.g. Richards et al., 1993), most commonly refers to what we have defined above as WP: that is to say, it is defined as the ratio of crop output to water input. We believe that in these instances WP is the more appropriate term.Secondly, the conventional wisdom that irrigation systems in the developing world typically operate at a low level of efficiency 20 R. Barker et al. tices adopted to increase water productivity, and greater attention needs to be focused on managing surface water and groundwater for conjunctive use. We need a better understanding of biophysical and socio-economic changes in basins over time and improved measures of basin-level efficiencies before we can determine in a given situation the potential for increasing water productivity through policy and institutional reforms. Finally, as basins become closed, overexploitation of groundwater resources is accompanied by a serious decline in water quality and other problems of environmental degradation. Decisions on basin-level allocations among sectors cannot be based strictly on economic efficiency but they must involve value judgements as to how best to benefit society as a whole. This will include setting priorities in the management of water resources to meet objectives such as ensuring sustainability, meeting food-security needs and providing the poorer segments of society with access to water.(30-40%) is based on what Seckler et al. (Chapter 3,this volume) refer to as classical irrigation efficiency (IEc) or the water consumed divided by the water supplied. IEc is defined in terms of differences between the point of water diversion and the ultimate destination of the water in the root zone of the plant.IEc ϭ (crop ET Ϫ effective rainfall)/(vol. of water delivered Ϫ change in root-zone water storage)IEc at the project level is typically subdivided between conveyance efficiency (water distribution in the main and secondary canals) and field-application efficiency (water distribution to the fields being irrigated). The water diverted but not used for evapotranspiration (ET) includes seepage and percolation, spillover and land preparation, all of which are treated as losses. Classical efficiency decreases as one moves from the field towards the reservoir and conveyance losses are combined with field losses. A high level of IEc may not reflect good management but simply water scarcity. Some scholars prefer to use the term relative water supply (RWS), the inverse of IEc, to avoid the connotation associated with the word 'efficiency'.Much of the so-called 'losses' in IEc (seepage, percolation and spillovers) can be captured and recycled (for example, by use of tube wells) for use elsewhere in the system. Conversely, many of the so-called 'water savings' practices, such as those that reduce seepage and percolation (e.g. lining canals), are not saving water at all but simply redistributing the water -robbing Peter to pay Paul. The only real losses to the hydrological system are from bare soil and water evaporation (much of which can occur during land preparation) or from flows to the sea or to sinks.The concepts of neoclassical irrigation efficiency (IEn) or effective irrigation efficiency (Keller andKeller, 1995, 1996;Seckler et al., Chapter 3, this volume)  Taking into account return flows results in a higher estimate of IE, which leads to the conclusion that the scope for improving IE is much less than is normally assumed.Thirdly, we must distinguish between IE and WP at the farm and basin level. To understand this distinction, we need to turn to water-accounting procedures and include non-agricultural water uses (Molden and Sakthivadivel, 1999). This represents another significant step away from the concept of IEc. The operational terms used here (and there are many more) are beneficial depletion and nonbeneficial depletion. At the basin level, a potentially wide range of factors can deplete water. Beneficial depletion would include consumption (ET) by the crop being irrigated as well as, for example, beneficial consumption by trees. Non-beneficial depletion includes evaporation and flows to sinks such as the sea. A higher level of efficiency can be achieved by lowering non-beneficial depletion.Finally, a high efficiency, defined here as a large percentage of beneficial depletion, does not imply a high level of productivity or of economic return. The same degree of beneficial utilization may have substantially different values for the productivity of the water (Seckler et al.,Chapter 3,this volume). For example, the same amount of water depleted in the irrigation of cereal crops may have a much higher value in vegetables and fruits or in non-agricultural uses. Furthermore, as water flows through the basin, economists would want to know the benefits and costs associated with various alternatives for reducing diversions and for recycling water.Economic efficiency (EE) takes into account values of output, opportunity costs of inputs and externalities and is achieved when scarce resources are allocated and used such that the net value or net returns (returns minus costs) are maximized. Unlike IE, which is a ratio by definition, EE is a criterion that describes the conditions that must be satisfied to guarantee that resources are being used to generate the largest possible net benefit (Wichelns, 1999).EE is often consistent with IE. For example, as water becomes scarce and the value of water is high in semi-arid regions, a high IE (although not necessarily the result of improved irrigation management) is consistent with EE. Alternatively, when off-farm impacts can be ignored and water is abundant with low opportunity cost, EE can be achieved even at low IE.EE in a production setting involves technical and allocative components. A producer is technically efficient when producing the maximum amount of output with a given set of inputs. The producer is allocatively efficient if he/she produces at the point dictated by the prices of outputs and inputs that will maximize returns. A producer is said to be economically efficient if he/she is both technically and allocatively efficient.Of concern to many economists is the fact that the farm-level price or charge for irrigation water and power for pumping water do not typically reflect the true value of water and would appear to encourage waste. However, farmers and irrigation-system managers will make adjustments in response to water scarcity without price incentives. Furthermore, at the basin level, while analyses based on economic optimization may be useful to policy makers, allocations must take into account the fact that water is a public as well as a private good. Allocations among competing uses involve value judgements as to how to achieve the highest benefit for society as a whole.The term water productivity (WP) is also defined and used in a variety of ways. There is no single definition that suits all situations. As mentioned previously, in general terms, productivity is a ratio referring to the unit of output(s) per unit of input(s).The most encompassing measure of productivity used by economists is total factor productivity (TFP), which is defined as the value of all output divided by the value of all inputs. But the concept of partial factor productivity (PFP) is more widely used by economists and non-economists alike. Partial productivity is relatively easy to measure and is commonly used to measure the return to scarce or limited resources, such as land or labour. For example, in the early stages of economic development, agricultural labour is often in surplus and land is the scarce resource. (There are notable exceptions, including many parts of Africa.) Where land is the limiting resource, the greatest economic benefits are achieved by increasing output per unit of land. Therefore, emphasis is placed on technologies that increase yield per hectare (e.g. high-yielding varieties and fertilizer). The change in PFP measured in yield per hectare is a useful indicator of the economic performance of the agricultural sector.But, as an economy develops, the labour force in agriculture declines and more and more labour is pulled to the non-farm sector. When agricultural labour is in short supply the emphasis shifts to labour-saving technologies (e.g. tractors and mechanical threshers). PFP measured in output per worker is now a better indicator of the economic performance of the agricultural sector.Until recently, water was not considered a scarce resource. Now, with mounting water shortages and water-quality concerns, there is growing interest in measures to increase WP, which is a specific example in the general class of PFPs. WP is most commonly measured as crop output per cubic metre of water.Partial water productivity can be expressed in physical or economic terms as follows (Seckler et al.,Chapter 3,this volume):1. Pure physical productivity is defined as the quantity of the product divided by the quantity of the input. Examples include crop yield per hectare or per cubic metre of water either diverted or consumed by the plant. For example, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) sees as one of its primary objectives 'increasing the crop per drop'. 2. Productivity, combining both physical and economic properties, can be defined in terms of either the gross or the net present value of the product divided by the amount of the water diverted or consumed by the plant. 3. Economic productivity is the gross or net present value of the product divided by the value of the water either diverted or consumed by the plant, which can be defined in terms of the value or opportunity cost in the highest alternative use.Economic measures of WP (2 and 3 above) are difficult to estimate. While the net value is more satisfactory than the gross value of the product, the valuation of inputs must be treated in a uniform manner across sites. This can be difficult for land, labour and water (which are also usually the most important inputs). Valuing water is at best a difficult and unsatisfactory process, considering that the marginal value of water varies throughout the season, between seasons, by location, by type of use and by source of water.There is also the matter of scale or the area over which productivity is measured. Do measures to increase WP at the farm level translate into increases in WP at the system or basin level? Water-accounting procedures that take into account externalities resulting from a farm-level change in water-management practices can be used to measure WP at the system or basin level. Through this process we can determine whether an intervention leads to real water savings (taking into account all return flows, as in IEn). However, at this level, beneficial depletion includes benefits from water use other than for the crop being irrigated, such as water for the environment and other non-agricultural needs.A distinction can be made between those measures that increase WP by increasing crop yield for a given ET or diversion and those that reduce the water-diversion requirements. In the former case, savings at the plant and field level are realized at the system and basin level. In the latter case, whether increased WP at plant and field level translates into increased productivity at system and basin level needs to be determined. For example, although the water saved in one farming area may be reallocated to higher-value, non-agricultural uses, a reduction in seepage and percolation losses from this area may be at the expense of farmers elsewhere in the system.However, as the term 'partial' in PFP implies, it tells only part of the story. In gen-eral, functions relating output to input (e.g. water, fertilizer) are nearly always concave because the use of higher levels of input is eventually subject to diminishing returns. Under these circumstances, a high WP (or a high IE) in a system or basin may simply reflect a shortage of water rather than good management or EE. In fact, when such a function is purely concave, PFP is maximized by using as little of the input as possible, even when it results in large declines in output (because, as input use declines towards zero, productivity increases towards infinity). Thus, the appropriate goal should be to optimize WP, not maximize it.Despite the above arguments, many people view higher WP (or higher fertilizer productivity or higher yields) as an inherently good idea. But it is easy to see why measures that show an increase in PFP of water or any other input may provide a misleading result from the perspective of the farmer, as well as from that of the economy as a whole. A technology or management practice that increases water productivity may require the use of more labour and other inputs. For example, a reduction in water application in rice could increase the amount of weeding required. Also, a shift to drip irrigation saves water but also requires capital investment, which might not be cost-effective. Unfortunately, the concept of PFP gives very few guidelines regarding optimization. In fact, without considering the economic and social values of all inputs and outputs, it will be difficult to make progress on this issue. Thus, we now turn to a discussion of the concept of net returns.In this section we build on the concept of EE, distinguishing between net private returns and net social returns and relating net returns to WP. Net private returns are defined as the market value of all outputs minus the cost of all inputs, taking into account the opportunity cost of family labour, land and any other inputs that are not purchased on the market. If the net returns to a practice are positive, then it will be beneficial for farmers to adopt the practice. If net returns are negative, it will be disadvantageous for the farmer to adopt the practice and, no matter how large the increase in WP due to the practice, it is unlikely that the farmer will adopt it.Alternatives for improving net private returns can be categorized as follows (Wallace and Batchelor, 1997):• agronomic improvements (for example, improved crop husbandry, cropping strategies and crop varieties); • technical improvements (for example, improved and lower-cost technologies for extracting groundwater); • managerial improvements (for example, improvements in farm-level resource management or system operation and maintenance (O&M); • institutional improvements (for example, introduction of water pricing and improvement in water rights).The first two categories relate to innovations or new technologies that lower costs or increase output per unit of water. The third category, improved management, refers to an increase in technical efficiency or increased output per unit of input with existing levels of technology. The fourth category relates principally to allocative efficiencies encouraged by the creation of market incentives.Economic theory shows that if a new practice does not have any effects on third parties off the farm (known as technological externalities in the jargon of economics), then the adoption of this practice is advantageous for society as a whole, not just for the farmer. Unfortunately, water management is riddled with externalities, so this theory provides little guidance as to whether or not it is advantageous for society to encourage the adoption of a specific new water-management technology based only on the magnitude of net returns to farmers.In order to assess whether or not a new technology available to farmers is beneficial to society, one needs to calculate net social returns instead of net private returns. The two concepts are identical, except that net social returns value all inputs and outputs at social prices, not market prices. Social prices are identical to market prices when wellfunctioning markets exist. When well-functioning markets do not exist, as is almost always the case with water, then one must attach a social value to water, which is defined as the value of the water in the best alternative use (at the margin).While this opportunity cost is relatively easy to define, it is much harder to measure. For example, one could assign to water a societal value equal to its current value in industrial use. However, if one hypothetically begins to shift water from agriculture to industry, the marginal value of additional water in industry will eventually decline. Thus, in contemplating large transfers of water out of agriculture (as opposed to small, marginal transfers), it is not valid to assume that the per-unit value of the water transferred is equal to the current per-unit value of water in industrial uses.Furthermore, the concept of net social returns is silent on issues of equity, and most people would agree that equity is important in making decisions on the desirability of implementing policies or technologies that affect WP.Although it is difficult to measure the net social returns due to the implementation of a policy or technology, it is useful to keep this concept firmly in mind when making judgements about practices that improve WP. At a minimum, this concept reminds us of our ignorance and what specific missing information is desirable for an assessment of new technologies, institutions or policies. Although we shall use the term WP in subsequent discussions, it is always important to bear in mind how much it will cost to increase WP and that not all increases in WP are desirable.Irrigated agriculture not only competes for water but often contributes to the major degradation of water resources. Consider, for example, those regions of rapidly falling water tables due to groundwater mining or alternatively regions of rising water tables leading to waterlogging and salinity. In the latter case, the social cost may be in the form of environmental degradation or, if corrective measures are taken, the cost to some segments of society may be for appropriate disposal of drainage water. The net social benefit is the difference between returns to the farmer and the cost to society associated with drainage-water pollution (Dinar, 1993). Ultimately, we must address the issue of sustainability. Unfortunately, there are many definitions of sustainability and sustainable development, ranging from the very broad to the very narrow, which create a potential for misunderstanding (Dixon and Fallon, 1989). We define sustainability as the ability to continue extracting net positive social returns from a resource for an indefinite period of time. Notice that it is not inconsistent with some degree of environmental degradation, i.e. it is not always true for all ecosystems that the optimal rate of degradation is zero, just as it is not always true that the optimal rate of oil extraction from a particular deposit is zero.One viewpoint in the sustainability debate holds that high-industrial-input agricultural systems are inherently unsustainable (Lynam and Herdt, 1999). Proponents of this view have shifted the debate away from production and income distribution to environmental degradation and input use. The focus on ecosystems by environmentalists and on watersheds by hydrologists has carried the debate substantially above the commodity-based farm and farming-systems level to land, water and other highly valued natural and environmental resources. Lynam and Herdt (1999) argue that:sustainability of common resource systems necessarily incorporates value judgements on multiple criteria over how the community wishes to utilize resources; moreover sustainability of the system will depend more on social institutions controlling access and use than on production technologies. this volume) illustrate how various alternatives can be applied at the crop, farm, system and basin levels. At each of the first three levels, we provide an example illustrating the relationship between WP and EE. At the basin level, we emphasize the relationship between WP and sustainability.The concept of WP used by plant physiologists, molecular biologists and plant breeders refers to the crop output (either grain or biomass) per unit of transpiration by the plant.(This is typically referred to as WUE.) There has been steady improvement in grain yield per hectare through plant breeding in rainfed and, most particularly, in irrigated areas.The development of short-season varieties, reducing the growing time from 5 months to 3.5 to 4, has also been a major source of water savings (more crop per drop per day).The development of water-storage facilities and expansion of the irrigated area in the dry season have allowed these savings to be translated into increases in WP. Thus, there is no question that, over the past three decades, varietal improvement through plant breeding (aided by investments in irrigation and advances in fertilizer technology) has been the major source of increase in WP (Richards et al., 1993). However, the increase in grain productivity is in some ways deceptive (Richards et al., 1993). In almost all crops, the greater grain yield is not due to an increase in biomass but almost entirely to an improved ratio of grain to biomass (harvest index). As the potential ceiling value for the harvest index is rapidly approaching in many crops, the only way to maintain increases in yield will be to increase biomass (Richards et al., 1993). There appears to be considerable potential for increasing biomass by selecting cultivars for increased WP, defined in this case as the rate at which water lost in transpiration results in the photosynthetic assimilation of carbon in the plant. In many Middle Eastern countries, a very high level of WP has already been achieved. There is thus great hope that research in plant breeding and molecular biology will increase WP in other parts of the world. In other areas, gains in productivity may be achieved through varieties tolerant to saline soil and water conditions.One of the important features of varietal improvement is that it is relatively less sitespecific in terms of potential benefits than most management interventions. Much of the research is funded by international and national agencies. Numerous studies have emphasized the high returns to investment in varietal-improvement research in the past (Evenson et al., 1991;Alston et al., 1995) although in many instances the benefits ascribed to research may include contributions from irrigation and advances in fertilizer technology. In setting research priorities, a key issue is the size of the geographical area as well as the size of the population upon which the varietal improvement is likely to have an impact. This will determine the benefits of the research relative to its costs. As water scarcity becomes more acute, the potential benefits of this research will increase.In promoting the adoption of new technologies, researchers and extension agents often focus on the higher yield potential, ignoring the opportunity cost of family labour and the increased management requirements. This point is illustrated in a draft report on a study of the adoption of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) in Madagascar (Moser and Barrett, 2003). The paragraphs below are based on this report. SRI was developed in the early 1990s in Madagascar as a seemingly ideal lowexternal-input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) technology. The method requires almost no external cash inputs, such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides and seeds. The SRI method involves seeding on dry beds, transplanting younger than 20-day-old seedlings with one seedling per hill, spacing of at least 20 cm ϫ 20 cm, frequent weedings and controlling of the water level to allow aeration of roots during the growth period of the plant. However, the technology requires approximately 50% more labour. Using this method, farmers have repeatedly obtained yields two to three times higher than the 2-3 t ha Ϫ1 obtained using traditional practices. Owing not only to higher yields but also to the watersaving irrigation practices, the gains in water productivity at the field level could be very high, although water accounting would be required to determine the basin-level impacts of farm-level water savings.The study undertaken by Moser and Barrett (2003) surveyed 317 households in five villages. Approximately one-third of the farmers adopted SRI but most practised it on only a portion of their land. The adopters tended to have higher education, belong to farmer associations and have higher wealth and income. In contrast, the non-adopters were unskilled agricultural labourers, who, lacking the financial resources to carry them through the 'hungry season', depended on the agricultural wages they received daily. Thus, they cannot afford to spend the extra time required for adopting SRI on their own farms because they are busy working on other people's farms. More importantly, many of those who adopted SRI have since abandoned the technology, often after trying SRI for only one season (Table 2.1). Apparently, the significantly higher yields were not enough to offset the substantially higher labour costs and management requirements.We have observed that water savings per se may or may not lead to increases in WP. Likewise, an increase in WP may or may not result in higher economic or social benefits. Following the general concepts in our discussion of net returns at the system level, economists assess the merits of an investment by measuring the benefits and costs (B:C) ratio or the internal rate of return (IRR). These are measures of the performance of investments or the productivity of capital. These two terms are defined mathematically as follows:B:C ratio:The IRR is the discount rate i such that:For the B:C ratio, a social discount interest rate is chosen, typically 10%. If the B:C ratio exceeds 1, then the project has a positive social benefit. If the IRR is greater than the social discount rate (often assumed to be about 10%), then the project has a positive social benefit. While an assessment of environmental costs is now frequently included in the analyses, as with farm-level analyses, this is largely a commodity-oriented approach. Benefits of a given project are typically measured in terms of higher yield and net returns to the farmer for irrigating a specific set of crops.One of the most well-studied irrigation projects in Sri Lanka is the Gal Oya Water Management Project (Uphoff, 1992;Murray-Rust et al., 1999). A deteriorated irrigation system, the Gal Oya Left Bank Irrigation System, was rehabilitated in the period 1982-1985, using a combination of physical and institutional interventions.A time-series, impact-assessment model was used to describe the trends and impacts in the system as a whole, as well as in different parts of the system (Amarasinghe et al., 1998;Murray-Rust et al., 1999). The data from 1974 to 1992 covered the period both before and after the rehabilitation. Significant gains have been made in WP for the system as a whole. The tail-end farmers, even though they were less intensively organized, showed the best overall performance in terms of water use, crop production and WP.Did benefits exceed costs? The project completion report conducted in 1985 estimated an IRR of between 15 and 30% (Project Completion Report, 1985). A subsequent study by Aluwihare and Kikuchi (1991) reported an IRR of 26%. While investment in the construction of new systems in Sri Lanka is no longer profitable, among the major rehabilitation projects conducted in recent years, Gal Oya has had the highest IRR (Table 2.2).But there are two caveats. First, some of the gains made were at the expense of other water users (D.H. Murray-Rust, personal communication). Prior to rehabilitation, water in the drains was being used by farmers outside of the Left Bank Irrigation System. With this water no longer available, many farmers simply went out of business. We do not know to what degree these 'hidden' costs would lower the IRR. However, this example of offsite effects or externalities emphasizes the need to adopt a basin perspective.Secondly, although the area irrigated by groundwater is still small, the recent IRR estimates for largely private agro-well and Madagascar, 1993-1999(from Moser and Barrett, 2003). pump investments in Sri Lanka are much higher than for public investments in rehabilitation (Kikuchi et al., 2002). But changes in the management of surface water can have a major impact on the groundwater aquifer and overexploitation of groundwater can have negative consequences for both the supply and quality of groundwater. This raises the issue of how best to coordinate the development and management of surface water and groundwater.As the competition for water increases and river basins become closed for all or part of the year, WP and EE are typically increased by shifting to higher-valued crops, where feasible, and by reallocation of water to industry and domestic uses. Also, water scarcity and the rising value of water can bring forth a response in terms of the development and adoption of new technologies and institutions that can raise water productivity. In economics, these latter changes are explained by the theory of induced innovation (Hayami and Ruttan, 1985). For example, with refer-ence to the Green Revolution, the theory implies that the development of high-yielding, fertilizer-responsive cereal-grain varieties was a response to both rising food-grain and falling fertilizer prices, which made this technology highly profitable. Applying this theory, we see that situations of water shortage and the rising value of water are inducing new techniques, improved management practices and institutional reforms that will raise the productivity of water. The profitability, the feasibility and hence the order of these changes will vary from site to site, depending on local circumstances.Recent studies of the Gediz basin in Turkey (IWMI and General Directorate of Rural Services, Turkey, 2000), the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand (Molle, Chapter 17, this volume) and the Rio Lerma basin in Mexico (Scott et al., 2001) illustrate the endogenous adjustments that have occurred at both the farm and system levels in response to water shortages.In the case of the Gediz basin, the adjustments were in response to a prolonged drought from 1989 to 1994. A change was made in the way water was allocated, shifting from a demand-or crop-based system to a supply-based system, with water rationed b Years after the names of projects stand for the years when the projects were completed.from the reservoir downward. The result was a significant increase in basin-level irrigation efficiency. To adapt to the dramatically reduced length of the irrigation season, farmers, with the assistance of the government, developed groundwater resources.The shift in cropping pattern over the past decade away from cotton to grapes and orchards is partially explained by the drought, but the entry into the European Customs Union was the overriding factor.In the Chao Phraya basin, irrigation efficiency has been gradually raised by the use of grating drains, conjunctive use of groundwater, pumped water from ponds and lowlying areas and improved management of dams. Farmers have responded to water shortage and unreliable deliveries in the dry season by sinking tube wells and diversifying crop production and through a spectacular development of inland shrimp farming. This has occurred despite the fact that there are considerable technical constraints and risks in diversification. The centralized waterallocation system has handled the issue of allocation of water to non-agricultural uses relatively well. Basin-level efficiency is high and there appears to be relatively little scope for achieving further productivity gains.In the Rio Lerma-Chapala basin, watershortage problems gained prominence with precipitous declines in Lake Chapala (the main source of water for Guadalajara) in the 1980s. IWMI studies have shown the distribution and extent of aquifer depletion (2 m year Ϫ1 ) and growth in agricultural water demand. The Lerma-Chapala Consejo de Cuenca, established in 1993, is the oldest river-basin council in Mexico. It has responsibility for water allocation among users, improving water quality and WUE and conserving the basin ecosystem. However, agricultural, industrial and domestic demand has been rising rapidly, and there is simply not enough water to meet all demand without further overdraft of the aquifer. Water for Lake Chapala and Guadalahara has priority and 240 million m 3 of water formerly used for irrigated agriculture have been reallocated to Lake Chapala. Farmers are beginning to demand that Guadalahara pay for the 240 million m 3 . In summary, in all three basins there has been a response by farmers and irrigation organizations to water shortage that has raised WP and basin-level efficiency and there appears to be relatively little scope for further gains. The non-agricultural demand for water will continue to rise and declining water quality already presents a serious problem. But each of the three basins is at a different stage with respect to basin closure and chronic water shortage. The situation in Mexico is clearly unsustainable. The reduction in irrigated area and, where possible, the shift to high-valued crops on the remaining land can help alleviate the problem. Allan (1998) has coined the term 'trade in virtual water' to show how international trade can help alleviate water scarcity and increase WP. Mexico provides an interesting example of trade in virtual water (Barker et al., 2000). Over the past 30 years, both fruit and vegetable exports and cereal-grain imports have been increasing rapidly. Figure 2.1 shows that, over the 5 years from 1991 to 1996, the value of fruit and vegetable exports exceeded the value of grain imports by US$1.0-1.5 billion. At the same time, the water saved by the import of cereal grains was about six times the water used for fruit and vegetable production.There are those who argue that water in large, publicly managed, irrigation systems is being poorly managed and that policy and institutional reforms are needed to create the environment and incentives for saving water and increasing WP. Charges for water or for power for lifting water (if they exist at all) are rarely adequate to cover O&M expenses. As a result, irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating at a rapid rate and overexploitation of groundwater resources is leading to a decline in the water table and in the quality of water.Others argue that there is much less scope for increasing WP than is commonly believed. Traditional measures of irrigation efficiency are incorrect. Water scarcity, particularly the closing of a basin, creates its own incentive for reforms, leading to changes in water-management practices at the farm, system and basin level designed to sustain production. One such example is the spread of pumps and tube wells, largely through private investment, for exploiting groundwater and recycling water from drainage ditches.There is a strong element of truth on both sides of the argument. As suggested in the previous section, we need much more accu-rate information on the dynamics of change in water basins over time, noting in particular the changes that occur as water scarcity increases and a basin becomes closed for all or a portion of the year. As competition for water increases, decisions on basin-level allocations among sectors must involve value judgements as to how best to benefit society as a whole. This will include setting priori- ties in the management of water resources to meet objectives such as ensuring sustainability, meeting food-security needs and providing the poorer segments of society with access to water. These objectives can be incorporated as assumptions or constraints in economic-cum-hydrological optimization models (McKinney et al., 1999). Faced with growing water shortages, many national policy makers, backed by international experts, have called for improved management of canal irrigation systems. The steps required include: (i) reforms in pricing and charging users for water or water services; (ii) greater participation in the O&M of systems by local user groups; and (iii) the establishment of water rights. In this section, we discuss the first of the two most widely promoted reforms, water-pricing policy and irrigation-management transfer (IMT), and one less publicized area, management for conjunctive use, which appears to offer potential for gains in economic efficiency, equity and WP. We should emphasize that the appropriate policy and institutional reforms will vary depending on the biophysical and socio-economic environment at a given site.In developed as well as developing countries, there is disagreement regarding the appropriate means by which to price water and the appropriate level of water charges. The pricing of water may involve different objectives, such as cost recovery (who has benefited from the investment in irrigation and who should pay), financing the irrigation agency or reducing wastage of water. Politics also enters heavily into water-pricing decisions. Moreover, many countries lack the tradition, experience and appropriate institutions for pricing irrigation water.The World Bank has recently undertaken a comprehensive study, 'Guidelines for Pricing Irrigation Water Based on Efficiency, Implementation, and Equity Concerns.' As a part of that study, Johansson (2000) has conducted an exhaustive literature survey on pricing irrigation water. More concise treat-ment of the issues can be found in Tsur and Dinar (1997) and in Perry (2001). The authors emphasize the fact that water (particularly water used in irrigation) is a complicated natural resource, a complicated economic resource and a complicated political resource. Moreover, while water supplied is a proper measure of service in domestic and industrial uses, water consumed is the appropriate measure in irrigation, and this is particularly difficult to measure. Tsur and Dinar (1997) discuss several different pricing methods for irrigation water and their implementation costs. These include pricing based on area irrigated, volumetric pricing according to the water used or consumed, output or input pricing, fixedand variable-rate pricing and water markets. The necessary and sufficient conditions for markets to operate, especially defined and enforceable water rights, are, in most cases, not yet in place. Variable-rate pricing is often suggested in charging for electricity for pumps. Bos and Wolters (1990) investigated irrigation agencies representing 12.2 million ha of irrigated farms worldwide. They found that water authorities charged on a per-unit area basis in more than 60% of the cases, on a volumetric basis in about 25% of the cases and a combination of area and volumetric methods in 15% of the cases.Water-pricing methods are most pronounced through their effect on cropping pattern -more so than their effect on water demand for a given crop (Tsur and Dinar, 1997). The various methods differ in terms of amount and type of information and the administrative costs needed in their implementation. The most economically efficient method will depend on physical conditions, such as conveyance structures, water facilities and institutions. If the objective is allocation and not cost recovery, rationing (i.e. assigning water to specific uses) represents an alternative mechanism for coping with water shortages where demand exceeds supply (Perry, 2001).An example of volumetric-cum-area pricing is found in the Zhanghe irrigation system (ZIS) in Hubei, China (Dong et al., 2001). The province determines the price for water for different uses and water is rationed among sectors when supplies are short. The wateruser groups or villages pay the water fee to ZIS on a volumetric basis. The fee for the total volume paid by the group is then divided by the area, and individual farmers are charged according to their irrigated area. Even though farmers pay an area fee, they are well aware that, if they use less water as a group, their fees will be reduced. The savings in water use at the farm level through improved watermanagement practices, as well as through higher crop yields, have led to an increase over time in the productivity of water for irrigation (Hong et al., 2001). There is also an incentive to save water at the system level. Over the past three decades, water has been diverted to higher-valued, non-agricultural uses, greatly increasing the productivity of ZIS water resources. However, the decrease in water seepage and runoff resulting from water-saving practices (including the lining of canals) may have reduced the water available in downstream tanks within the Zhanghe Irrigation District but outside ZIS, and the negative impact of this is not known.In the area of institutional reform, the devolution of management and financial responsibility from irrigation-system managers to local user groups has gained prominence. The popular terms for this are participatory irrigation management (PIM) and IMT. These terms are defined as follows (Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000):• PIM usually refers to the level, mode and intensity of user-group participation that would increase farmer responsibility in the management process. • IMT is a more specialized term that refers to the process of shifting basic irrigationmanagement functions from a public agency or state government to a local or private-sector entity.The interest in transfer of responsibility to user groups rests, in large part, on the desire of many governments to reduce expendi-tures on irrigation. Among proponents, it is also argued that handing responsibility to local user groups will result in better O&M and increased productivity. PIM/IMT has become one of the cornerstones of the World Bank water-management policy (Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000). Recent experience in PIM and IMT seems to suggest that there has been considerably more success in transferring management responsibilities in more advanced countries, such as Turkey and Mexico, than in the developing countries of Asia (Samad, 2001). Where implementation has been successful, government expenditures and the number of agency staff have declined and maintenance has, in some cases, improved, but there is little evidence yet that PIM/IMT has led to an increase in the productivity of irrigation water.While, under IMT, government responsibility for water management in the lowest level of the irrigation system is being reduced, at the same time water scarcity requires increased government involvement at the highest level of management (Perry, 1999). For example, China has recently centralized control over water diversions from the Yellow River because upstream users were taking so much water that the river often ran dry before reaching the sea. This centralization seems to have increased stream flows in the river. Important areas of centralized management at the basin and sector levels include water allocation among sectors, flood control, drought planning, water-quality regulation and enforcement and groundwater depletion.Historically, the development of the technology of surface-water irrigation preceded that of tube wells, based on compact diesel and electrical power. In fact, the introduction of tube wells in the Indus basin and perhaps in the North China Plain was motivated by concern over the waterlogging and salinization that occurred when canal irrigation caused the water The rate of increase in new areas irrigated by surface water has levelled off. But the irrigated area served by the ever-cheaper tubewell technology has continued to expand to the point where, in India, over half of the area irrigated is from groundwater. The massive investment in tube wells has completely transformed the use of water resources in these regions and has raised problems of resource management that are beyond the grasp of existing irrigation bureaucracies. The overexploitation of groundwater, particularly in the semi-arid areas, is leading to declines in both quantity and quality of water, affecting not only agriculture but also domestic supplies and human health. Often, in many large-scale irrigation systems, tailend farmers have to supplement surfacewater supplies with lower-quality drain water or shallow groundwater (Murray-Rust and Vander Velde, 1994).One of the greatest potentials for increasing WP lies in the management of surfacewater and groundwater resources for conjunctive use, provided this leads to better distribution of water. For example, loss of yield due to salinity could be greatly reduced with improved conjunctive management of surface-water and groundwater resources, especially by better distribution of canal water to maintain optimum levels of water table and salt balances, even in the tail reaches of canal commands (Hussain et al.,Chapter 16,this volume). This requires close monitoring of any adverse effects on soil and water quality, as has occurred in irrigation management in the People's Victory Irrigation Canal in the Yellow River basin of China. It has been suggested (M. Wopereis, personal communication, 1998) that farmers in the Senegal River valley, an area with severe soil salinization (e.g. Raes et al., 1996), be equipped to monitor salinity levels them-selves. Cheap field conductivity meters can be used for this purpose and such equipment should be within the financial reach of farmers' cooperatives.Initially, we addressed the confusion in the definitions of IE, WUE and WP. IE is measured by the ratio of water consumed to water supplied, whereas WP is a ratio of crop output to water either diverted or consumed, measured in either physical or economic terms or some combination of the two. Then we discussed the relationship between WP and EE. Just as water saving does not necessarily result in higher WP, so also higher WP does not necessarily result in higher EE (e.g. the case of SRI).Measures to increase crop yield for a given ET translate into WP gains at system and basin levels (e.g. through varietal improvements). However, the management of water to reduce water-diversion requirements is riddled with off-site effects or externalities (e.g. the case of Gal Oya). Thus, whether water-management practices or technologies designed to increase WP and EE at farm level result in higher WP and EE at system or basin level needs to be determined. The basin is a hydrological, as opposed to an administrative, unit. It is only at this level that we can capture and include in our analysis the off-site effects (or, in economic jargon, internalize the externalities).The growing scarcity and rising value of water in a basin induces both farmers and irrigation organizations to seek various ways to increase WP, EE and net returns (e.g. the basin cases in Turkey, Thailand and Mexico). Recycling or reuse of water, particularly through the exploitation of groundwater, is prominent among the practices adopted to increase WP. Greater attention needs to be focused on managing water for conjunctive use.We need a better understanding of biophysical and socio-economic changes in basins over time and improved measures of basin-level efficiencies before we can determine, in a given situation, the potential for increasing WP through policy and institutional reforms and which reforms are most suitable. Finally, as basins become closed, measures to increase water productivity and exploit groundwater resources are leading to a serious decline in water quality and other problems of environmental degradation. Decisions on basin-level allocations among sectors must involve value judgements as to how best to benefit society as a whole. This will include setting priorities in the management of water resources to meet objectives such as ensuring sustainability, meeting food-security needs and providing the poorer segments of society with access to water.","tokenCount":"8315"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f5937e746ae611c44f243211b48640c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3413f06-0d08-42c1-976b-1be46cb9d29f/retrieve","id":"431140723"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2303771a-bec2-4a3b-b4d6-02233fc1f2e1","pagecount":"13","content":"CSA rapid assessment -rationale  • India • Farming systems vastly different across countries -eg farm size, manure use, livestock density, residue use. • Impacts and trade-offs did not only vary by technology, but also farming system. No one size fits all! Targeting is key, and rapid quantifications can help decision makers to prioritize • Small farms have lower overall productivity, but higher productivity per hectare • Small farms tend to have negative nutrient balances, thus less resilient.But also large farms with cash crops (=nutrient export) tend to have negative nutrient balances • If productivity is increased, often trade-off with nutrient mining.Intercropping alone is not likely to be enoughInsights, conclusions ","tokenCount":"109"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8d87e627fb105c0c5de6eceb876d4af3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/63b472cc-3e74-4df9-a9d2-a7bee552b150/content","id":"-1427477079"},"keywords":["Karnal bunt","Tilletia indica","host resistance","cultivar development","epidemiology","climate change"],"sieverID":"df363c09-b04a-4f9a-a4bb-458fa525da01","pagecount":"18","content":"Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop health assumes unprecedented significance in being the second most important staple crop of the world. It is host to an array of fungal pathogens attacking the plant at different developmental stages and accrues various degrees of yield losses owing to these. Tilletia indica that causes Karnal bunt (KB) disease in wheat is one such fungal pathogen of high quarantine importance restricting the free global trade of wheat besides the loss of grain yield as well as quality. With global climate change, the disease appears to be shifting from its traditional areas of occurrence with reports of increased vulnerabilities of new areas across the continents. This KB vulnerability of new geographies is of serious concern because once established, the disease is extremely difficult to eradicate and no known instance of its complete eradication using any management strategy has been reported yet. The host resistance to KB is the most successful as well as preferred strategy for its mitigation and control. However, breeding of KB resistant wheat cultivars has proven to be not so easy, and the low success rate owes to the scarcity of resistance sources, extremely laborious and regulated field screening protocols delaying identification/validation of putative resistance sources, and complex quantitative nature of resistance with multiple genes conferring only partial resistance. Moreover, given a lack of comprehensive understanding of the KB disease epidemiology, host-pathogen interaction, and pathogen evolution. Here, in this review, we attempt to summarize the progress made and efforts underway toward a holistic understanding of the disease itself with a specific focus on the host-pathogen interaction between T. indica and wheat as key elements in the development of resistant germplasm. In this context, we emphasize the tools and techniques being utilized in development of KB resistant germplasm by illuminating upon the genetics concerning the host responses to the KB pathogen including a future course. As such, this article could act as a one stop information primer on this economically important and re-emerging old foe threatening to cause devastating impacts on food security and well-being of communities that rely on wheat.Fungal pathogens are the leading biotic stresses of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Among these, the smut fungus Tilletia indica Mitra (syn. Neovossia indica (Mitra) Mundkur), causing Karnal bunt (KB), is an important and old disease of wheat with restricted occurrences in Asia, Africa, and North and South America (Emebiri et al., 2019a;Emebiri et al., 2019b;Gurjar et al., 2019;Singh J. et.al., 2020). The disease is seed, soil, and airborne and affects both the quality and quantity of the wheat grains. The presence of the pathogen in a region or country results in quarantine restrictions that prevents international trading of wheat grains from the affected regions (Carris et al., 2006;Figueroa et al., 2018;Pandey et al., 2019). Most wheat importing countries insist on an additional declaration from the exporting countries that the wheat consignment being traded is produced in a KB-free area (Gurjar et al., 2019). This makes KB a challenge to the grain industry as it constitutes a global non-tariff barrier to the wheat trade. Most wheat importing countries have zero-tolerance limit for the KB causal pathogen that is considered a biosecurity threat (Singh J. et al., 2020). Even if a country, due to some reason, allows wheat grain consignment from another country with a reported occurrence of the disease, such situation would inflict a significant extra cost on the importing country in the form of inspection, interception, quarantine, and disposal etc. making the importing country look for a KB-free exporter. This is evident from the fact that despite the existing regulations and restrictions, the Karnal bunt pathogen-T. indica is being regularly intercepted in the consignments to countries of the European Union (https://planthealthportal.defra.gov.uk/assets/ factsheets/karnal.pdf). At present, KB is considered to be a disease which is staging a resurgence in the north-western plain zone (NWPZ) of India (Singh et al., 2007;Gurjar et al., 2019;Singh J. et.al., 2020) with the eastern parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan being at a high risk of an outbreak (CIMMYT, 2011). The vulnerability of specific areas in Europe and Australia has been reported in previous studies (Wright et al., 2006;Riccioni et al., 2008). This agronomically minor but quarantine major disease is a major hindrance to wheat cultivation, production, and movement from the areas of its endemism. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that wheat breeding programs in the affected and vulnerable countries augment the efforts toward the identification and development of resistant sources (Singh S. et al., 2020). In spite of the high economic importance of KB, unfortunately, resistance breeding targeting KB has never been given much priority compared to other fungal diseases of wheat like rusts and Fusarium head blight possibly owing to geographical confinement of the disease to a few countries or low direct yield loss that mostly stands between 1% and only in rare cases up to 20% to 40% (Vocke et al., 2002). Compared to rusts and mildews, the identification, characterization, and cloning of the KB resistance genes have lagged much behind (Singh S. et al., 2020). The neglect of this disease is not justified given the quarantine consequences and its widespread occurrence in different countries spread across the continents of Asia, Africa, and North and South America. These countries are not only among the highest wheat producers of the world but also house a significant proportion of food and nutritionally insecure human population of the world. Further, information on pathogen evolution and race classification (transforming the geographic pathogen isolates into genetic ones), nature and durability of KB resistance (identification and introgression of \"KB-free\" trait), narrow range disease surveillance, and pathogen monitoring are sporadic and cannot be considered adequate. The major stakeholders in the international wheat trade have unsuccessfully proposed deregulation of KB from the quarantine obligations citing mostly negligible yield loss attributable to the disease (Vocke et al., 2002). Taking these aspects into consideration, in this review, we highlight the need to prioritize KB resistance in wheat breeding and cultivar development programs in order to avert existing quarantine restrictions that threaten to paralyze international trade in wheat and use of it as a major staple food crop. We also analyze the challenges leading to poor identification, quantification, and introgression of KB resistance into agronomically superior cultivars. We also explore how to circumvent these KB breeding pipeline stumbling blocks through application of next-generation sequencing tools, associated gene discovery, annotation, and the use of pathogen effectors based breeding in the absence of this overtly regulated pathogen (Singh S. et al., 2020).KB was first identified by Manoranjan Mitra in the year 1931 (Mitra, 1931), in an infested experimental field at Botanical Experimental Station at Karnal, India, the name which the disease came to be known after. Interestingly, Joshi et al. (1983) reported that even before Mitra (1931), Howard and Howard had described a similar bunt of wheat from Lyallpur, Pakistan in the year 1909, but due to a lack of a type specimen that would have been used to confirm if indeed it was KB, Mitra (1931) is decisively credited with its discovery. In literature, KB is referred to by three other names: stinking bunt, new bunt, and partial bunt (Mitra, 1931;Mitra, 1937;Bedi et al., 1949) with each of these three names signifying a specific characteristic of the KB disease itself. For example, unlike other bunts, the KB infection does not cover the whole wheat ear, rather it is restricted to a few kernels within a spike (Figure 1) and to a part of the grain and seldom the whole grain (Figure 2), thereby, the name partial bunt (Pandey et al., 2019). The infected spikes emit a fetid unpleasant odor of rotten fish or dead mice caused by trimethylamine, thus, giving it the name \"stinking bunt\" (Mitra, 1937). Lastly, since other bunts of wheat were already known by the time KB was discovered, Mitra first named it \"new bunt.\" The attributes associated with the first two names are the most prominent ones in the visual field diagnosis of the KB. These three KB characteristic based names gave way for \"Karnal bunt\" eventually and, currently, these are rarely used.The causal fungal pathogen of KB i.e. Tilletia indica (syn. Neovossia indica) belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota, sub phylum Ustilaginomycotina, and order Ustilaginales in the family Ustilaginaceae (Nagarajan et al., 1997), which is a family of smut fungi, containing 17 genera and 607 species in the genus Tilletia. The fungal pathogen causing KB has been a subject of persistent taxonomical controversies, particularly relating to its generic status as either Tilletia or Neovossia (Carris et al., 2006). Based on molecular analysis studies, Castlebury et al. (2005) concluded that the two were the same genera and the plant species assigned to them separately by Munjal (1975) had no molecular support. Since then, the genus Tilletia was adopted conclusively and, at present, Neovossia indica (Mitra) Mundkur is an accepted synonym of Tilletia indica Mitra.Since its discovery in the year 1931, KB remained a little-known wheat disease localized in North-West India, for four decades with almost no economic or quarantine importance realized (Duran and Cromarty, 1977;Warham, 1986). However, by the mid-seventies, the disease became of frequent occurrence in the entire northern India and, within a couple of decades, it was officially reported from other Asian countries including Afghanistan, Iraq, Nepal, Pakistan (Punjab and North-West Frontier Provinces) and Iran (Warham, 1986;Torabi et al., 1996) apart from Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, and Baja California Sur) (Duran, 1972), Brazil (Rio Grade do Sul) (Da Luz et al., 1993), the USA (New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and California) (Ykema et al., 1996) and, finally, from South Africa (Northern Cape Province) (Crous et al., 2001) in the present century (https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/36168). One of the reason for this rapid spread might be the sudden increase in the wheat seed movement during and post green revolution era from India to Mexico and then from Mexico to the other countries. In India, KB was an obscure disease prior to 1970s, with almost no importance given in the wheat research programs of that time. Then after the dawn of the green revolution around the mid-1960s, when the replacement of native Indian cultivars with the semi-dwarf varieties was taking place, KB incidences became unusually frequent in the North-West India. The North-West India was the cradle of the green revolution and the sudden shot up in the KB incidences could be immediately correlated with the replacement of native tall Indian wheat cultivars grown before 1960s with the Mexican semi-dwarf varieties (Joshi et al., 1983). Later studies, however, proved the crucial roles of intense irrigation and large-scale fertilizer application in the increase in intensity and number of KB incidences over entire Northern India. The green revolution mega cultivar \"Sonalika\" was the first one to fall prey to KB, only to be followed by the other popular varieties viz. \"HD2009,\" \"WL711,\" and \"UP262\" (Joshi et al., 1983;Singh and Gogoi, 2011;Saharan et al., 2016). The susceptibility of the green revolution varieties was traced to the lack of a morphological defense mechanism to KB, unlike the traditional Indian varieties, as they were formally not bred for resistance to the then economically insignificant KB disease (Warham, 1988). The importance of morpho-physical barriers such as glume pubescence in expression of field resistance to KB was recognized ever since the discovery of the disease (Fuentes-Davila and Rajaram, 1994). In addition, Munjal (1975) and Agarwal et al. (1976) independently observed that the cultivation of Mexican semi-dwarf wheat cultivars with uniform flowering and high nitrogen fertilizer application to exploit the N-responsiveness of these cultivars were responsible for such rapid spread of the KB.The regularity and severity of KB outbreaks between 1978 and 1979 could also be attributed to the complete replacement of the traditional Indian wheats with semi-dwarf susceptible cultivars and, consequently, the generation of high inoculum load every crop cycle. This geometric increase in KB inoculum stabilized; once the economic importance of the disease was understood and agronomic as well as host resistance measures were put in place. Although, the threat of KB becoming endemic to new geographies is still looming large. The weather simulation studies have shown that several provinces of Australia could provide a conducive climate for establishment of KB (Wright et al., 2006). The Europe has also been considered vulnerable in that according to Riccioni et al. (2008) the areas of the USA with  confirmed KB presence can collectively constitute a potential \"new trade pathway\" for the disease to get an entry into Europe. However, the climatic dissimilarity may work against the establishment of KB in Europe (Jones, 2007).With reports of as low as 0.01% to 1% annual yield loss, KB is categorized as a wheat fungal disease of intermediate economic significance (Warham, 1986;Wright et al., 2006;Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009;Saharan et al., 2016) as compared to other diseases like rusts. Basically, KB is a kernel bunt and, therefore, the reduced yield is mainly because of the loss of grain weight that is by about 0.25% (Wright et al., 2006). While this yield loss might appear insignificant, the economic loss manifested through international quarantine regulations imposed on wheat grains from areas infested with KB and even the wheat crop raised in a KB endemic area, could be immense running in millions of dollars. (National Information Management & Support System, 2007;United States Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 2018). Two ex-ante analyses have shown that the Australian wheat market would suffer a loss of 8% to 25% (AUD 490,900,000 per annum) if T. indica gets introduced in the country. The losses would mainly be attributed to the restriction from 77 wheat trading countries (Murray and Brennan, 1996;Stansbury and McKirdy, 2002;Bonde et al., 2004;Kashyap et al., 2019a). Many countries with KB endemism have suffered on economic front from these regulations and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) considers KB to be of minor importance given the low yield losses it causes and considers the phytosanitary and quarantine measures against KB to be unjustified. Therefore, it has advocated for the deregulation of T. indica as a quarantined pest. In the background of these efforts, five countries, namely Taiwan, Indonesia, Honduras, Vietnam, and Uruguay have acceded to the USDA request to deregulate the KB by lifting the quarantine regulations against it (National Information Management & Support System, 2007). Contrary to the efforts being done for deregulation of KB, a section of the European Union advocates rather stringent quarantine regime against the disease as most of the cultivars grown in European countries are considered to be susceptible to T. indica (Riccioni et al., 2008). Even early on, Nagarajan et al. (1997) have advocated the rationalization of the quarantine restrictions against KB which hamper the free market based on a detailed pest risk analysis with trade globalization. In our opinion, although, KB disease risk analysis reports have always considered T. indica a low risk pathogen, these analysis mainly focus on the yield losses that introduce a certain kind of bias in favor of KB. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to consider the economic effects of the quarantine restrictions that may arise from the introduction of the pathogen in such analysis. Further, the disease risk analysis must be based on details enough to consider climate change predictions, evolutionary potential (gene rearrangement potential which is quite high in case of T. indica) of the pathogen, especially its capability of virulence acquisition against available major resistance sources and, consequently, its epidemic potential in different wheat production systems in a truly globalized wheat trade scenario. Another mechanism by which KB causes significant losses is through the fungus's capability to deteriorate the grain quality and palatability. Although, the nutrient composition of KB affected grains do not differ much from the healthy grains (Bhat et al., 1980), the infected grains have been reported to be high in ash and phosphorus content while lower in thiamine and lysine content implying that KB causes deterioration of protein quality. Gopal and Sekhon (1988) concluded that KB lowers the flour recovery, besides changing the gluten quality, particularly when the infected grains range from 1% to 5%, leading to weak dough strength. Joshi et al. (1983) did not observe any toxic effects of trimethylamine in rats, chickens or monkeys fed on KB infected wheat.The KB infected grains are of low quality as they harbor an unacceptable smell, color, and taste and at as low as 1% infection the grains/flour becomes unpalatable (Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009;Kashyap et al., 2018). Consequently, any KB infected wheat grain lot mostly ends up relegated to animal feeds, ultimately, fetching a significantly lower price in the market and resulting in considerable financial losses to the growers (Pandey et al., 2019;Emebiri et al., 2019a). The economic damage pertaining to the quality aspects of grains can be addressed by estimating the adverse effects of KB infection on various price affecting quality parameters of the grains. The quality aspects of wheat, particularly the gluten quality has been much worked upon lately, but information on how KB affects the gluten concentration and quality are lacking in the available literature. In addition to this data, the comparative micronutrient analysis studies of healthy and KB infected grains and the physicochemical and rheological properties of flour are also not available. More information is also needed on the possible human health effects associated with the consumption of KB infected and trimethylamine contaminated wheat kernels. Such studies could stimulate further efforts in the investment in the research on management of KB and minimizing the economic losses to the growers.The KB causal pathogen Tilletia indica can be soil, seed or air-borne but the incidence and intensity depend heavily on the presence of conducive environmental conditions for fungal growth (Kashyap et al., 2011;Biswas et al., 2013). A relatively cold and humid climatic regime favors KB infection mediated by production of secondary sporidia called the teliospores. The teliospores are the actual infection-causing entity that manifest the disease in the pericarp of the developing wheat grain. The literature on spore viability has been reviewed by Carris et al. (2006) and it has been reported that fungal teliospores are very hardy with high survival potential and have high viability even under very adverse conditions. In various studies, the teliospores have been reported resistant to many poisonous gases, methyl bromide, chloropicrin, hydrogen peroxide, propionic acid, ozone, and even to the low pH gastric juices of the animal's digestive tract. Under natural conditions, the teliospores can survive in the extremities of desert and frosty climates for many years and under laboratory conditions, teliospore viability of five years under severe environmental stress conditions has been reported (Bonde et al., 2004;Carris et al., 2006). Additionally, the teliospores exhibit dormancy of one to six months before germination (Prescott, 1984), which confirms the earlier observation of Bansal et al. (1983) that germination is highest in the year-old teliospores. The dormancy of the teliospores is one potent trait which gives the T. indica an edge in survival. Once the period of dormancy is over and favorable conditions become available, the germination of the teliospores takes place on the surface of the soil which now are ready to infect the host wheat plant. The variability and genetic control of teliospore dormancy can potentially help in the development of a race designation system in T. indica, and this aspect warrants deeper investigation. A low but continuous precipitation or cloudy weather creates a high relative humidity with cold temperatures (8-20°C), and this constitutes the perfect condition for the germination and development of infection-causing teliospores (Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009). However, it is not completely understood as to why sometimes KB incidences fail to occur in spite of the presence of favorable climatic conditions as well as the required inoculum. Therefore, the incidences and intensities of KB outbreaks are difficult to predict over the years, making the disease forecasting and management exceptionally challenging. The fine dissection of the pathogen-environmental relationship is one frontier area that should be prioritized in KB research programs for accurate disease forecasting and preparedness.The life cycle of the T. indica starts when the mass of teliospores gets liberated from the infected spikes at the time of harvesting and gets spread primarily by the wind to cause the KB incidences in the next crop season. The teliospores dispersed in the soil, germinate to produce microsporidia which are also called primary sporidia, during the next crop cycle. The stubble burning has been cited to be a potent reason for long-distance teliospore travel where they have been observed at 3 km away from the site of burning (Bonde et al., 1987). This finding demands a special attention as far as wheat production system and stubble management is concerned. The teliospores have been reported to be transported by the winds over long distances and can even survive the digestive juices of the animals. However, historically, the disease has travelled across international borders or continents through infected seeds (Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009). Therefore, the production of copious amount of very small, hardy teliospores capable of dispersal through wind, infected seeds, contaminated containers and farm machinery, human, birds, and animals across infected and noninfected areas, renders KB to be a disease of very high spread potential across geographies.The germinated teliospores referred to as allantoid sporidia are the primary factor in epidemiology and riding on the wind or torrents of rain they arrive on the flag leaf just above the boot.Here they multiply and reach to the boot with rain-water or dew and starts the infection of spikelets (Dhaliwal et al., 1983;Kumar and Nagarajan, 1998;Carris et al., 2006). The longevity of the allantoid sporidia have been studied by many workers but the reports are contrasting to each other. The early reports by Aujla et al. (1985) and Nagarajan et al. (1997), mentioned them to be prone to desiccation and thus short-lived. On the contrary, a considerably longer viability of up to 60 days at 40% to 50% RH at 18°C temperature (Goates, 2005), and of over 46 days with temperatures above 40°C and relative humidity of 10% were reported by the later workers (Goates and Jackson, 2006;Carris et al., 2006). Subsequently, a study by Goates (2010) suggested that the sporidia have a very high potential to be dormant under the dry soil conditions with an inbuilt capability to regenerate rapidly under humid rainy conditions. If the later studies about sporidial longevity are to be considered, then it appears that germination have a little effect if any on the hardiness of these spores. However, the viability of the germinated secondary sporidia is adversely affected by reduction of the relative humidity below 76% and the rise of the temperature above 24°C (Biswas et al., 2013). T. indica infection starts from rachis and proceeds to glumes starting from the awn emerging stage and continuing through heading and other later stages of flowering and grain development. The seeds, which are still in the developing stage get their germinal end penetrated by the fungal hyphae (Riccioni et al., 2008). A successful infection is followed by teliospores formation in the mid layers of seed pericarp. Consequently, the endosperm contracts and these layers then split apart (Carris et al., 2006) and, eventually, replaced by the black fetid powder of teliospores. Except for some extreme susceptibility conditions, the embryo remains viable and thus germinability intact, although a significant part of the seed endosperm might be damaged (Fuentes-Davila et al., 1996). In case of significant damage to the embryo, the seed fails to germinate, and this can be considered another mechanism by which KB can cause economic losses to the growers. It may cause low plant germination and resultantly lower yield. The teliospores are set free during harvest and are thus dispersed in air as well as on the soil surface and, in the next season, give rise to fresh infection when environmental conditions become favorable (Kumar and Nagarajan, 1998).The major symptoms of KB are the presence of dark sori (black colored mass of teliospores) on the ears and the fetid smell emitted by the infected grains in field as well as in storage. However, detection of KB based on these symptoms is compromised because of their late onset, i.e. the life cycle of the pathogen is already complete when the crop is nearing harvest. Moreover, the presence of disease could be easily missed because the symptoms are not uniform and difficult to be observed in field as KB affects neither all spikes in a plant nor all the spikelets in a spike (Gill et al., 1993;Wright et al., 2006). It is the dough stage of developing wheat plant that the symptoms of KB become visible first. The infected seed parts are grey colored gradually turning black along the crease eventually destroying the scutellum and thus the grain is left with its pericarp and aleurone (Joshi et al., 1983). The symptoms and thus the infected part of the wheat kernel can be as small as a point on the germinal end to most of the kernel covered or modified into the black sori, the most typical morphologically unique characteristic of KB infections (Carris et al., 2006). And this conversion of seed into sori is in fact the visible attribute associated with the yield and quality loss of wheat produce. The precise disease scoring under screening experiment is a primary requisite for the identification of the resistant sources to KB and rating scale based on severity of symptoms devised by Aujla et al. (1989) and Bonde et al. (1996) is routinely used. The scale has four categories based on the percent bunted seed area i.e. 0= healthy (c. 5% seed bunted); 1= a point infection which is well developed (c. 25% seed bunted), 2= the crease having infection all along (c. 50% seed bunted), 3 = 3/4th of seed converted to sorus (c. 75% seed bunted), 4=sorus covers the entire seed area (c. 100% seed bunted). Riccioni et al. (2008) modified the scale by adding another category (0.1) representing inconspicuous point infection.Tilletia indica Mitra is a hemibiotrophic and partially systemic pathogen of wheat, durum wheat and triticale. It is a heterothallic (producing opposite mating types for sexual reproduction and characterized by presence of individual self-sterility) fungus with bipolar mating (governed by a single allelic mating locus) system (Duran and Cromarty, 1977) leading to large scale genetic recombination just before infection (Gurjar et al., 2017) making the pathogenesis mechanism complex to dissect and eventually the disease difficult to handle. The sexual recombination, when compatible allantoid sporidia (+ and -) come in contact prior to the infection, is responsible for the high pathogenic as well as genetic diversity in T. Indica (Gurjar et al., 2019;Singh J. et al., 2020). There is a significant difference in susceptibility among wheat cultivars as far as KB infection is concerned and some are highly susceptible, resulting in a significantly greater percentage of infected kernels per spike. Some reports have also indicated relatively greater virulence of some T. indica isolates than others. The race designation system unlike wheat rusts is absent in case of KB and it has been paradoxically attributed to the lack of required variability among the available isolates (Bonde et al., 1996;Datta et al., 2000). This calls for creation of a central repository of T. indica isolates collected from all over the globe with the aim of genetic analysis for development of a \"race system\" of classification. Fortunately, the genome analysis studies of T. indica are beginning to shed light on the molecular aspects of the pathogenicity. Gurjar et al. (2019) revealed that the genome of T. indica contained 97 effector linked genes, 25 virulence triggering genes, 63 loss of pathogenicity genes, and seven chemical resistance genes. Later, Pandey et al. (2019) developed proteome map of T. indica isolates differing in their virulence and mapped the expression of several pathogenicity factors in the highly virulent KB isolate. It was observed that the virulence proteins identified have their own functions in response to stress, host cell wall degradation and other processes crucial for a successful infection including contact, penetration, localization, establishment, signal transduction pathway activation and morphogenesis (Pandey et al., 2019). The mining of whole genome sequence and transcriptome data has been recently successfully used by Singh J. et al. (2020) for pathogenicity related genes in the T. indica and identified seven genes with potential roles in host penetration, infection and sporulation. This new genomic information on the pathogen will open more avenues in understanding and management of the pathogen. Nonetheless, how these genetic characteristics will relate with the changing climate is not well understood but could be critical in determining the direction of KB breeding in wheat improvement programs.In order to manage any disease, precise and early detection is critical. With T. indica quarantined in many countries, the effective diagnosis of KB becomes very important for free global trade of wheat (International Plant Protection Convention IPPC, 2016). The detection of KB, however, is not easy in field as well as in the stored grains. For this reason, the grains need to be removed from the spike and examined for presence of dark sori and typical fetid smell manually (Singh et al., 2016). This eye aided symptom detection may be confounded by the presence of common bunt among others which, however, affects the entire spike unlike KB (Wright et al., 2006). The laboratory diagnosis of KB is through microscopical analysis of the spores for unique morphological attributes (color and size of teliospores, cell wall structure and presence or absence of a pale sheath) which need to be confirmed through molecular techniques owing to a lesser precision of the former (Wright et al., 2006;Thirumalaisamy et al., 2011). For a successful and accurate diagnosis, the teliospores are given artificially created environmental conditions to germinate. This process is very sensitive to the conditions and viability of the teliospores is a must besides it being lengthy taking weeks together for the final report (Nguyen et al., 2019). Here, the advantage of the molecular diagnostics is that they could identify the pathogen before the formation of teliospores i.e. the inoculum for the next season and thus minimizing the risk. So far, there are four molecular diagnostic methods adopted and recommended (International Plant Protection Convention IPPC, 2016) and three of them require DNA from the germinated teliospores while one is based on multiplex real-time ITS-PCR (Frederick et al., 2000;Levy et al., 2001;Tan et al., 2009). The PCR based diagnostic methods involving the species-specific ITS primers from rDNA-ITS region have been developed, showing higher sensitivity, uniform amplification with single resolvable band compared to the mtDNA sequence-based primers (Tan et al., 2009;Thirumalaisamy et al., 2011). Although, recently reported LAMP (Loop Mediated Isothermal Amplification) assays by Gao et al. (2016) and Tan et al. (2016) also target unique sequences in the fungal mitochondrial DNA. Gurjar et al. (2017) have developed a diagnostic marker based for \"in soil\" detection of the teliospores. This, ideally should facilitate the agronomic management of the disease by regulating the irrigation and fertilization applications and even soil solarization of the infected fields before the wheat crop is sown. Tan et al. (2016) developed a LAMP assay based on genetic changes in T. indica mitochondrial genome compared to the nucleic genomes of T. indica and T. walker, which turned out to be highly sensitive, specific and cost effective. Although the genome sequence analysis of T. indica, T. walkeri, T. controversa, T. caries, and T. laevis identified putative genes and probes, these were validated in silico only. It remains unclear if they will work under laboratory conditions and on actual samples (Nguyen et al., 2019). Furthermore, Kashyap et al. (2019b) have devised the pathogenicity/virulence factors (hsp 60 and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase) based real time PCR assay for precise and rapid diagnosis of KB infection in wheat seedlings. Although under natural field conditions, the teliospores germinate and infect when the boot formation has taken place. Therefore, the relevance of this development needs to be checked under different developmental plant stages in the field.Tilletia indica is a unique fungal pathogen reported to infect several grass species under artificial infection conditions (Warham, 1986;Gill et al., 1993;Carris et al., 2006;Gurjar et al., 2019). However, under natural conditions, the infectious capability of the pathogen is restricted only to wheat, durum wheat and triticale. Moreover, under natural infestation, bread wheat is the most susceptible host to KB while durum wheat exhibits moderate susceptibility and triticale being the least susceptible (Mitra, 1931;Warham, 1986). Interestingly, this difference in relative susceptibility of these three species vanishes under artificial infection as all three-exhibit high susceptibility to the pathogen (Warham, 1988;Wright et al., 2006). This data implies that the resistance exhibited is merely because of the presence of some morphological barriers and once these barriers are made irrelevant under artificial infection where inoculum is delivered directly inside the boot, the relativity of resistance in all the three natural host species breaks down indicating a lack of genetic difference of resistance. The host range under artificial inoculation conditions widens dramatically for T. indica and this includes multiple species of the genera that include Triticum, Aegilops, Bromus, Lolium, Secale, and Oryzopsis (Warham, 1986;Gill et al., 1993;Carris et al., 2006;Gurjar et al., 2019). The reaction of the species belonging to the genus Aegilops (the D-genome donor of T. aestivum) to KB is most extensively studied and Ae. geniculate, Ae. sharonensis, Ae. peregrina, and T. scerrit have been reported to harbor T. indica (Aujla et al., 1985;Carris et al., 2006). Apart from this, the physiological susceptibility of emmer wheat (T. dicoccum) to T. indica has also been reported (Riccioni et al., 2006) and it is one more reason to intensify the KB research globally. Although, in conclusion, it can be held that at present, the KB host of economic importance with high susceptibility under natural infestation is bread wheat and, therefore, the research and management efforts should target it primarily.Bread wheat exhibits different degrees of susceptibility to T. indica depending upon the plant developmental stage and, therefore, there must be a direct relationship between these two. Despite having this understood long back, the most susceptible growth stage of wheat to a germinated teliospore is still contested. Some authors have described the heading stage to be the most susceptible (Mundkur, 1943;Bedi et al., 1949) while others proposed boot swelling to anthesis stage to be the most susceptible host growth phase. Bains (1994) compared the growth stage susceptibility of wheat plant to T. indica and concluded specifically that the boot emergence stage (S-2) was the most sensitive stage among all the studied ones. Kumar and Nagarajan (1998) reported stage 49 (first awns visible), to be most vulnerable to infection by secondary sporidia. The initiation of infection has largely been agreed to be from the boot stage but the last stage up to which the pathogen is capable of causing infection has been more of a range from boot to anthesis stages instead of one specific stage (Aujla et al., 1989;Kumar and Nagarajan, 1998;Pandey et al., 2019). Dhaliwal et al. (1983) found that the infection could take place as late as dough stage which was confirmed by Goates and Jackson (2006) who described that the airborne teliospores can infect wheat plant from the emergence of florets from boot stage up to soft dough developmental stage. The peak infection stage is just before anthesis when the spikes have completely emerged. The agronomic management involving foliar fungicidal sprays should coincide with this stage for an effective and comprehensive disease management. These reports have established that boot emergence or awn emergence stages are neither the most susceptible stages nor the exclusive stages for T. indica infection to take place. Not only this, they also asserted that the infection could take place even beyond the awn emergence stage although the airborne teliospores seem to be incapable of causing a successful infection at these later mentioned plant developmental stages. Further, morphological susceptibility tested through spray inoculation after ear emergence has been reported to be of high predictability value of the susceptibility under field conditions (Riccioni et al., 2008). This finding is of very high value in selection of a cultivar exhibiting KB resistance at physiologically most susceptible stage. The change in the weather variables from emergence of the flag leaf up to the mid-milk stage has a high correlation with the disease severity and an index named \"Humid Thermal Index\" has been developed based on the ratio of average afternoon relative humidity to the average daily maximum temperature pertaining to the stages mentioned (Jhorar et al., 1992).This index can be used to predict the incidences of KB based on the prevalent climatic conditions. The \"Humid Thermal Index\" was utilized to figure out the vulnerability of different regions to KB in Australia and Europe (Wright et al., 2006). Biswas et al. (2013) deployed various predictive regression models for predicting KB disease of wheat under Punjab (NWPZ) conditions in India and concluded that the daytime temperatures between 25°C and 30°C and night-time temperatures between 10°C and 15°C were associated with KB sporidial showering and helped in creating congenial environment for KB infection to wheat.The genetic resistance to KB manifests through morphological barriers as well as the physiological traits. For example, the higher degree of resistance expressed by triticale and durum wheat in comparison to bread wheat is attributed to the morphological defense barriers like pubescence rather than it being physiological (Warham, 1988). The difference in degree of genetic resistance harbored by durum wheat and triticale in comparison to wheat, needs a thorough investigation and the findings can potentially bear rich dividends as far as our understanding of KB resistance mechanism in different hosts is concerned. Kumar and Nagarajan (1998) have held it that the leaf attributes, particularly the posture of the flag leaf, should also be taken into consideration as this trait might have some role to play in KB epidemiology as the flag leaf is the landing ground for the germinated teliospores. In principle, a flag leaf at an acute angle with the boot should help the allantoid sporidia to be funneled into the boot and thereby making the genotype increasingly susceptible. Gogoi et al. (2002) observed that the KB susceptible wheat cultivar \"WL711\" possesses some unique morphological attributes when compared to the resistant lines \"HD29\" and \"DWL5023.\" The leaf sheath, flag leaf base, glumes and rachis had significantly higher number of stomata and glumes and rachis had a low hair count relative to the resistant lines. The lower hair count implies that there is no or a very weak barrier for fungal mycelium from germinating sporidia to penetrate and establish the infection. It was also reported that the resistant lines had highly compact as well as higher number of spikelets with shorter internodes. The glume opening distance was also noted to be relatively narrow compared to the KB susceptible lines. However, Aujla et al. (1990) declared the compact arrangement of spikelets as one of the morphological features associated with KB resistance, but Singh (1992) could not observe a significant role of spike compactness in KB resistance in his artificial inoculation-based experiment. It might be because the teliospores germinate directly inside the glume through boot injection and thus surpass the morphological barrier already, which is similar to how durum wheat and triticale lose their resistance when inoculated artificially. Therefore, it can be assumed that the compactness of the spike is helpful in escaping the KB infection in durum wheat. The susceptible genotypes of bread wheat, durum wheat and triticale have a greater number of days to anthesis and thus, the early anthesis might be an escape mechanism of the host to KB (Gogoi et al., 2002). The finding that relatively more resistant durum wheat and triticale have lower glume opening (Gill et al., 1993) was confirmed by Gogoi et al. (2002) who concluded that more time for infection process to sustain was available because of more glume opening and ear emergence period in the susceptible lines. All these findings concerning the morphological barriers could be helpful in selection of genotypes with the presence of these first line of defense against KB.As with other fungal diseases of wheat, chemical and cultural management measures have been developed and recommended for KB also. However, as the disease is of sporadic occurrence and the timing of infection and damage coincide with late host growth stages, therefore, the control of KB is relatively challenging compared to other systemic smuts (Riccioni et al., 2008). Moreover, because of the low infestation, usually not up to a level to cause any significant loss, the chemical measures are generally neither applied nor comprehensively effective. Apart from this, because of the complex infection mechanism, the management of KB is difficult using cultural practices and fungicide applications (Pandey et al., 2018;Kashyap et al., 2018;Gurjar et al., 2018;Emebiri et al., 2019a). Although, application of chemical fungicides like carbendazim, triadimefon, and propiconazole as foliar spray has been found to be effective to control the KB incidences in wheat (Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009). Nonetheless, the economic and environmental unsustainability of these fungicides overrides their effectiveness in control of KB. The efficacy of seed treatment with fungicides gets reduced significantly because the teliospores are lying down the protective covering of the pericarp of a bunted kernel. Chlorothalonil and carboxin + thiram treatment to seeds are common to control the seed borne infection of T. indica (National Information Management & Support System, 2007). The cultural practices including crop rotation can suppress disease development but cannot eliminate the disease because of the high survival rates of teliospores up to six years, in the soil. Mitra (1935) strongly advocated crop rotation to control the KB infestation from becoming epidemic. The rotating with non-host crops, lowering seeding rate and amount of nitrogen fertilizer, disinfecting the soil, altering irrigation and delayed planting in order to avoid humid conditions during awn emergence are recommended cultural practices to minimize KB incidences. Bedi et al. (1949) put forth two interesting findings which were the high KB incidence in irrigated fields and low KB incidences in the poorly fertilized ones. These finding demonstrated that irrigation and fertilizing the fields have a positive impact on the successful KB infestation and as such should be considered in the agronomic management of the disease. Surprisingly, experiments have indicated low incidence of KB under zero tillage as compared to conventional tillage (Saharan et al., 2016). The effectiveness of these cultural practices to minimize the disease incidence, however, is not very high. Because the pathogen is seed borne, therefore, use of disease-free seed is essential in its management. Soil mulching with polyethylene has also been proposed to be a method of reducing the teliospore viability mediated by generation of high temperature. However, in large scale commercial production of wheat and, particularly, in the developing countries, this remedy seems to be an unrealistic prospect. Kashyap et al. (2018) reported the application of plant defense activators as a promising disease management strategy. Nonetheless, till now, most effective, economical and ecofriendly recognized KB management strategy is the host plant resistance in the form of resistant wheat cultivars. In this context, the KB resistance breeding has come into the forefront of the strategies for not only disease management but also for the control of disease spread to the new areas (Fuentes-Davila, and Rajaram, 1994;Kumar et al., 2016;Brar et al., 2018). Therefore, genetic resistance to KB is not only necessary to reduce or eliminate the associated losses but also for free global trade in wheat given the quarantine regulations imposed against it, internationally (Kaur et al., 2016).Resistance Breeding Efforts at the CIMMYT Breeding for KB resistance at the CIMMYT, Mexico, began in the early 1980s and since 1984, the KB screening nursery (KBSN) has been regularly distributed to different international collaborators to introgress KB resistance in their national wheat breeding programs. The CIMMYT and the National Institute for Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research (INIFAP), Mexico has created artificial inoculated field screening facility at the Norman E. Borlaug Experiment Station (CENEB), Obregon, Mexico, where the disease was accidently introduced and is already established. The early extensive wheat germplasm screening efforts could identify wheat lines from India, China, Brazil and the synthetic hybrid wheats (SHWs) as four major sources of KB resistance (Fuentes-Davila et al., 1995). At present, CIMMYT is having an inventory of high yielding lines and advanced breeding lines with a good degree of KB resistance and the KB resistant material is shared on request.As both durum and bread wheat are susceptible to KB, therefore, initial search for genetic resistance included both. The bread wheat resistance sources, few of which have been released cultivars and other registered genetic stocks include \"KBRL10,\" \"KBRL13,\" \"KBRL22,\" \"HD29,\" \"HD30,\" \"W485,\" \"W1786,\" \"WL3093,\" \"WL3203,\" \"WL3526,\" \"WL3534,\" \"ISD227-5,\" \"HP1531,\" \"ML1194,\" of T. aestivum while \"D482,\" \"D873,\" \"D879,\" \"D895\" of T. durum which have been widely utilized for introgression of KB-free trait. The genetic resistance against KB has also been introgressed in the popular Indian wheat varieties \"PBW 343\" and \"WH 542\" through back crossing technique (Sharma et al., 2015). These varieties have been very popular historically in NWPZ of India covering a significant area. Currently, the KB resistant cultivars available globally include \"Arivechi M92,\" \"HD29,\" \"HD30,\" \"Navojoa M2007,\" \"INIFAP M97,\" \"Munal 1\" of bread wheat and \"Altar C84,\" \"Jupare C2001,\" \"Aconchi C89,\" \"Atil C2000,\" and \"Banamichi C2004\" of durum wheat (Duveiller and Mezzalama, 2009;Kumar et al., 2016). Although, the KB resistance breeding is difficult owing to limited variability explored for the trait, polygenic inheritance and the confounding effect of environment limiting the accuracy of field screening for identification of resistance (Dhaliwal et al., 1993;Dhaliwal and Singh, 1997;Chhuneja et al., 2008), collectively leading to limited success. The requirement of field screening of the germplasm for identification of resistance sources imposes a major constraint to the development of resistant cultivars. The field evaluation for KB has limitations pertaining to i) resource intensiveness of field screening methods in artificial creation of disease and hand inoculation of individual spikes, ii) quarantine regulations restricting the field evaluation barring few countries over the world, iii) screening against different isolates when well-defined KB isolates are unavailable leading to decreased precision and ambiguity in identification of resistance and susceptibility response iv) the field screening results are highly confounded by the effect of environment v) mechanism leading to host susceptibility is unknown and vi) quantitative inheritance of resistance complicating the segregation ratio based genetic analysis and selection (Singh et al., 2003;Brooks et al., 2006;Singh et al., 2007;Sirari et al., 2008;Kumar et al., 2016;Brar et al., 2018;Emebiri et al., 2019a). The dikaryotization of compatible mating types just before infection causes pathogen genetic recombination resulting into reduced disease incidence and high frequency of escapes even with artificial inoculation leading to confounded outcomes of the screening experiments (Dhaliwal and Singh, 1997). The selection in the early generations of a KB resistance breeding program is quite challenging because of the difficulty in establishment of a uniform disease pressure through artificial inoculation resulting into escapes and presence of incomplete resistance in populations resulting in inconsistent phenotypes (Singh et al., 1999). The screening results are highly variable, so multiple years of testing are needed to minimize the errors. Apart from the difficulties in identification of resistance sources, the incorporation of KB resistance in promising genotypes is also difficult because no single gene imparts complete KB resistance. Given the complexities and difficulties of field selection and transfer of resistance to elite cultivars through traditional breeding, the development of molecular markers closely linked to resistance QTL (Table 1) and eventual gene pyramiding can help in selection of resistant genotypes without screening in the field under artificial inoculation (Singh et al., 2007;Singh et al., 2012). Therefore, identifying and mapping genes conferring KB-resistance is of utmost importance for developing resistant wheat cultivars (Kaur et al., 2016). Although, many resistance sources have been identified lately, their utilization in the development of resistant cultivar has not been very successful due to a lack of genetic analysis of these sources (Brar et al., 2018). The mechanism of host-pathogen interaction remains complex making the cultivar development even more challenging. Therefore, the choice of KB resistant but high yielding wheat cultivars to the farmers is limited despite the availability of multiple KB resistance sources.The earlier reports of a lack of immunity in wheat germplasm against KB were confirmed by Warham (1988). Since then the KB resistance screening has come a long way and a variety of resistance sources including nearly immune ones have been identified. The identified resistance sources for KB spans all the three gene pools including the cultivated bread wheat, durum wheat and triticale (Warham, 1986;Fuentes-Davila and Rajaram, 1994;Dhaliwal and Singh, 1997;Sharma et al., 2005). The search for resistance sources in the post green revolution varieties started as soon as the economic importance of KB was realized mainly at CIMMYT and in India. Although, the origin of the resistant material can mostly be traced back to India, China and Brazil and the resistance in these materials has been reported to be conditioned by multiple minor genes (Chhuneja et al., 2008). The KB resistance breeding have historically involved screening of released varieties and pre-breeding involving already known resistant bread wheat lines or the wild relatives and agronomically superior lines against multiple isolates and multiple locations. In broad terms, the KB resistant germplasm can be classified in to released cultivars and genetic stocks, synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW) and the wheat wild relatives.The study by Fuentes-Davila and Rajaram (1994) early on, could confirm the susceptibility of the popular varieties \"PBW120\" and \"PBW65\" earlier reported to be KB resistant by Aujla et al. (1986) and the resistance of \"WL1786,\" \"HD29,\" and \"HD30\" in a different environment at Mexico, apart from identification of several new resistant lines (\"Aldan/IAS58,\" \"Shanghai-7,\" \"Roek//Maya/Nac,\" \"Star,\" \"Vee#7/Bow,\" and Weaver) originating from USA, Italy, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and China at the CIMMYT. Sharma et al. (2005) confirmed the KB resistance of many of these lines apart from reporting resistance in other genetic stocks (\"CMH77.308,\" \"H567.71/3*PAR,\" \"HP1531\" \"W485,\" \"CHRIS,\" \"Impeto,\" \"PREL/ L1O/JAR,\" \"RC7201/2*BR2,\" and \"PF7113\") as well. These stocks are by now well established and routinely utilized for introgression in hexaploid background. Recently, Bala et al. (2015) developed a KB resistant stock named \"KBRL57\" from a cross involving both (\"ALDAN'S\"/\"IAS 58\" and \"H567.7\") the KB resistant parents. The combining ability of these stocks is of particular importance as far as their utilization in the introgressive breeding is concerned. Compared to this, the identification of KB resistance in released cultivars such as \"Eltan (Peterson, 2009),\" \"DBW52,\" \"VL829,\" \"VL616,\" \"TL2942\"(I),\"HS375,\" \"HS13,\" \"DDW12,\" \"HPW251,\" \"RAJ3777,\" \"RAJ3765,\" \"HPW211,\" and \"HPW236\" (Kumar et al., 2014), Chakwal-50, Mahmood et al. (2013), Batavia, Pelsart and RAC-655 (bread wheat), Hyperno and Saintly (durum wheat) and Tuckerbox, Berkshire and Hawkeye (triticale) (Emebiri et al., 2019a) etc. is a more straightforward approach to tackle the biosecurity threat of KB.The synthetic hexaploid wheats (SHWs) have been historically developed for introgression of biotic as well as abiotic stress resistant traits in the commercial wheat cultivars. The SHWs show resistance as well as immunity to KB due to resistance genes received from either the durum or Ae. tauschii (Mujeeb-Kazi, 2001;Chhuneja et al., 2008). Villareal et al. (1996) registered four SHWs lines immune to KB while Mujeeb-Kazi (2006) developed a sub set of SHW based on phenological descriptors and additional trait evaluations with most desirable combinations i.e. spring growth habit, tall, late maturity, good agronomic type and non-free threshing with a high 1000 kernel weight representing source of genetic resistance to KB. Chhuneja et al. (2008) derived homozygous introgression lines in an Ae. tauschii (resistant) x T. durum (susceptible) cross and in these lines, the KB incidence was observed to be 0% to 1.2% which was significantly lower to that in the recipient parent (10.7%) and to the highly susceptible cultivar (30%). Therefore, development of homozygous introgression lines seems to be a promising strategy for transfer of KB-free trait in the susceptible cultivars.Due to scanty availability of KB resistance in the primary gene pool of wheat, the wild relatives become natural candidates for resistance gene exploration. Until now, many crop wild relative species in the genus Triticum have been identified to possess KB resistance. Few of them have been utilized successfully for incorporation of genetic resistance in commercial cultivars as mentioned above. Warham (1986) reported resistance in Ae. biuncialis, Ae. columnaris, Ae. crassa, Ae. juvenalis, Ae. ovata, Ae. speltoides, and Ae. tauschii. In this context, Ae. tauschii, seems to be a very interesting case. This species is in the parental constitution of the SHWs and express both resistance and susceptibility depending on the accession in question. This implies that KB resistance is under strict genetic control in Ae. tauschii and highly resistant Ae. tauschii accessions have been identified in various studies (Sehgal, 2006;Chhuneja et al., 2008). Unlike Ae. tauschii, T. urartu was found to be completely immune while the Sitopsis section of diploid Aegilops species was reported to be devoid of resistance to KB (Dhaliwal and Singh, 1997). The genetics of the immunity of T. urartu and the transfer process of this to T. aestivum and T. durum need to be worked out. The importance of morphological resistance against T. indica was established early on and Warham (1988) proposed rye (Secale cereale) to be a potential source of morphological resistance to KB because of the presence of pubescence and tightly adhering glumes. Later, KB resistance was reported in T. araraticum (Bijral and Sharma, 1995) and T. monococcum (Vasu et al., 2000). KB resistance from T. monococcum and T. boeoticum was successfully introgressed in to popular spring wheat line \"PBW343\" and \"WL711\" avoiding the linkage drag of undesired genes (Singh et al., 2008). Chauhan and Singh (1994) identified barley addition lines 4H and 7H possessing a good degree of KB resistance. The homologous pairing of la,1/3, 4S, and 4L barley chromosome arms with those of the corresponding wheat homologs was proposed. Moreover, T. aestivum cv. Chinese spring, T. dicoccoides, T. spelta album, T. spelta grey, T. tauschii, and amphidiploids of Chinese spring with Agropyron elongatum (2n = 56) and Ae. junceum (2n = 56) have been proposed to be potential sources of KB resistance by Singh and Rajaram (2002). These proposals need to be evaluated under natural and artificial epiphytotic conditions followed by their genetic analysis to ascertain their worth as \"KB-free\" trait donors.The Gene-for-gene Hypothesis for KB Although, Bonde et al. (1996) held that as physiological specialization in T. indica was absent and, therefore, the genefor-gene hypothesis should not hold good for KB resistance, however, the later studies (Datta et al., 1999;Singh et al., 1999) reported different resistance responses by different wheat genotypes to different T. indica isolates, indicating the presence of a possible gene-for-gene relationship. Varying number of genes operating for different KB isolates has also been reported supporting the gene for gene hypothesis for this disease. Singh et al. (1999) could differentiate the most resistant lines of durum wheat (PDW215), triticale (TL1210) and bread wheat (HD29) using different T. indica isolates again indicating the presence of specific gene for gene relationship among different genotypes and isolates. Singh et al. (1999) postulated that \"HD29,\" was having three major resistance genes against the isolate \"Ni7\" and two genes against \"Ni8,\" with one gene being common in both. Three resistance genes of \"HD29,\" were effective against the isolate \"Ni7,\" but only two were effective against \"Ni8\" indicating that isolate \"Ni8\" possesses virulence for at least one of the three resistance genes effective against \"Ni7.\" Although the KB isolates could not be distinguished in to distinct pathotypes and, in fact they are genetically heterogenous populations (Dhaliwal and Singh, 1997). Given this fact, the differential host response to different isolates can be explained by the difference of frequencies of virulence and avirulence alleles at different pathogenicity loci. The different number of genes providing resistance to KB against compatible monosporidial pair in different host populations is also indicative of host pathogen gene specificity and resistance against the pathogen population prevalent in a region can be screened by using a mix of pathogen isolates, particularly the ones which are exceedingly virulent (Sirari et al., 2008). This strategy involving a diverse mix of pathotypes can be helpful in breeding for durable horizontal KB resistance unless a specific extremely virulent strain of T. indica prompts the researchers to search for a specific gene imparting vertical resistance to a cultivar.The host resistance to KB is quantitatively inherited i.e. many small effect quantitative trait loci are believed to contribute additively to the resistance as the disease is progressive and scoring is on a continuous scale (Fuentes-Davila et al., 1995;Nelson et al., 1998;Singh et al., 2003;Singh et al., 2007). The epistatic variance is an inherent feature of the KB resistance genetics (Sharma et al., 1995) and makes the inheritance difficult to interpret in the conventional genetic analysis. Moreover, the importance of general combining ability and prevalence of additive and additive x additive gene action in KB resistance is also well documented (Morgunov et al., 1994;Tyagi et al., 2010;Kumar et al., 2016). The prevalence of additive and additive x additive gene effects means that the improvement of KB resistance in high yielding wheat cultivars should be predicted to manifest on an incremental landscape. It means that increased degree of KB resistance is expected with a unit increase in the number of favorable alleles in a cultivar. The kind of genetic interactions mentioned above to be present in inheritance of KB resistance trait also imply that the trait should ideally be highly responsive to selection. Also, the genotypes with a higher number of resistance genes should ideally be the better resistance source (Singh et al., 1995a) to utilize in a KB-free trait introgressive breeding program. Therefore, different wheat genotypes may harbor a different number of KB resistance genes and knowing their number is of very high importance to decide their inclusion/exclusion in a breeding program. Fuentes-Davila et al. (1995) observed higher resistance in lines from the cross \"Shanghai#8\" and \"CMH77.308\" possessing three genes with dominant/partially dominant relationship than those with two or with only one gene(s). On a similar note, Singh et al. (1995a) reported that digenic genotypes such as \"Luan,\" \"Attila,\" \"Vee 7/ Bow,\" \"Star,\" \"Weaver,\" \"Milan,\" \"Turacio,\" \"Opata,\" \"Picus,\" and \"Yaco\" had a higher level of resistance to KB compared with those with a single gene. These findings imply that pyramiding of multiple genes should lead to expression of KB-free trait and selection for resistance under low levels of disease in artificial epiphytotic conditions should ideally result into the accumulation of resistance genes (Singh et al., 1995a). Given this, the marker assisted selection (MAS) seems to be a technique of choice for accumulating resistance genes in a single cultivar for durable and multi-pathotype resistance not dependent upon creation of artificial epiphytotic conditions. The resistance to KB has been confirmed to be dominant to partially dominant over susceptibility (Singh et al., 1995b;Villareal et al., 1995), and multiple genes segregating with dominant, duplicate dominant and even complementary gene action have been reported by various researchers (Morgunov et al., 1994;Fuentes-Davila et al., 1995;Singh et al., 1999;Tyagi et al., 2010). However, as mentioned earlier, not only the number of genes conditioning the KB resistance are different in different genotypes but also their mutual interactions (dominant/ recessive) are different in different genotypes. Therefore, any KB breeding program must have a comprehensive pre-breeding component aimed at understanding the genetic composition of the genotypes to be utilized as parent/donor(s) and the mutual allelic relationship of the genes present in them.As far as number of genes conditioning KB resistance is considered, most of the genetic studies have reported one to six major genes (Morgunov et al., 1994;Fuentes-Davila et al., 1995;Singh et al., 1995a;Singh et al., 1995b;Singh et al., 1999;Swati and Goel, 2010). However, Sharma et al. (2005) reported that the number of loci conditioning the KB resistance may be up to nine in \"HD29,\" \"W485,\" \"ALDAN'S\"/\"IAS58,\" and \"H567.71/ 3 * PAR.\" It was concluded that genetic heterogeneity of parental genotypes had no contribution to the observed deviations. Earlier also, the presence of nine loci harboring non-allelic genes in four resistant parents was reported by Fuentes-Davila et al. (1995). KB resistance has been shown to be controlled by a single recessive gene (Bag et al., 1999), two or more genes with additive effects (Sirari et al., 2008) and two and three additive genes (Sehgal, 2006) in different genotypes. A total of three additive KB resistance genes has been reported in \"HD29\" (a resistant cultivar) (Singh et al., 1999;Singh et al., 2003) and in \"ALDAN'S\"/\"IAS58\" (Fuentes-Davila et al., 1995). Sharma et al. (2005) reported that two genes for KB resistance were present in \"HD 29,\" \"W485,\" and \"ALDAN'S\"/\"IAS 58\" while three genes were present in \"H567.71/3 * PAR.\" Virdi et al. (2016) reported that a single recessive gene-controlled KB resistance in segregating populations of \"W8627 x PBW343\" and concluded that being recessive and controlled by a single gene, the resistance should not be difficult to manipulate in segregating generations. Morgunov et al. (1994) reported that the varieties \"Weaver\" and \"W499\" were having two different dominant genes while the varieties \"K342\" and \"Cruz Alta\" had a different single allelic gene. Singh et al. (1995a) reported that in eight wheat cultivars (\"Attila,\" \"Luan,\" \"Milan,\" \"Sasia,\" \"Star,\" \"Taracio/Chil,\" \"Vee7/ Bow,\" and \"Weaver\"), the resistance was digenic while it was monogenic in six lines viz. \"Cettia,\" \"Irena,\" \"Turacio,\" \"Opata,\" \"Picus,\" and \"Yaco.\" Fuentes-Davila et al. (1995) apart from reporting of the presence of nine non-allelic genetic loci in four resistant parents also showed six resistant wheat genotypes carrying six different resistant genes. In \"Pigeon,\" KB resistance was conditioned by two partially recessive genes while in the other cultivars, four partially dominant genes conditioned the same. The lines \"PF71131,\" \"Chris,\" and \"Amsel\" were carrying only one gene while \"Shanghai#8\" and \"CMH77.308\" were carrying two genes each. Moreover, one gene was common to \"PF71131,\" \"CMH77.308,\" and \"Shanghai#8,\" and another to \"Chris\" and \"CMH77.308\" while different genes were carried by \"Chris,\" \"Amsel,\" and \"PF71131.\" Similar findings of SHWs \"Chen/T. tauschii\" with a single dominant KB resistance gene with a possibility of allelism and \"Altar 84/T. tauschii\" with two dominant genes and \"Duerg and T. tauschii\" with two dominant genes acting in complementary fashion were reported by Villareal et al. (1995).It means that there should be a minimum of three genes in the four SHWs. Few observations have been made in the introgressive breeding comprising of susceptible x resistant crossing regarding number of genes and the interactions among them. In one such study, the KB-free attribute has been reported to be conditioned by two independently segregating, dominant genes in the segregating progenies obtained by crossing resistant \"KBRL22\" and susceptible \"PBW343\" (Sharma et al., 2004). Later, this finding was reinforced by Swati and Goel (2010). Therefore, the importance of the prebreeding/genetic characterization component in KB resistance breeding cannot be over emphasized anymore.The importance of the high heritability estimates in funneling a trait to the filial generations stands well emphasized. The reported heritability estimates for KB resistance are high and thus are indicative of a high degree of genetic determination for this trait (Gupta et al., 2019). The findings also imply that KB resistance as a quantitative genetic trait should be highly amenable to the QTL mapping. The higher estimates of heritability have also been reported by many earlier studies also i.e. heritability values of 0.75 and 0.78 were reported in two populations of wheat by Brar et al. (2018) and 0.69 on entry mean basis by Emebiri et al. (2019b). Emebiri et al. (2019b), have attributed the high heritability estimates in KB genetic studies to the precise phenotypic screening methods developed by Fuentes-Davila et al. (1995). These protocols limit the effect of environment and thus the unexplained variations under field screening experiments and owing to this, the genetic component of inheritance could be precisely measured in high values. As per the high heritability estimates obtained and reported by various studies, it can be expected that the KB resistance is highly heritable in wheat and should be governed by a \"relatively simple\" genetics. Though, there is a constant need of validation of these reports through more well-structured genetic studies.The KB resistance QTL analysis studies based on both structured as well as unstructured families and subsequent marker assisted selection (MAS) could successfully overcome the bottleneck of extremely challenging field screening and could enhance the accuracy and success of resistance identification and transfer process (Kumar et al., 2016). As far as utilization of the identified QTL is concerned, the effectiveness of conventional plant breeding approaches has been highlighted as selection for a single minor KB resistant gene is difficult because of the incomplete resistance conditioned by it and also the additive nature of the gene action (Bala et al., 2016). The identification of the QTL conditioning KB resistance in wheat has been historically attempted employing the biparental populations mostly the recombinant inbred lines (RILs), however, shortly, a shift toward QTL identification in unstructured/unrelated germplasm panel employing the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) is expected, mainly in order to overcome the lengthy and complicated process of generation and maintenance of the biparental populations. The tightly linked markers can also be effectively identified employing functional genomics approaches and the ESTs.As far as KB resistance is concerned, the QTL with substantial effects have been rarely reported. The reason might be that the parental genotypes constituting the populations were lacking a large scale variability for KB resistance or that the studies have been conducted in extremely variable environments or the seasons and thus masking the genetic effects. Although, QTL with relatively large effects are the easiest to identify and analyze, however, average effect of QTL on complex traits is a rule (Mackay, 2001). Our current understanding of the genetics of the KB comes from a few major effects QTL and thus should be considered to be insufficient warranting more QTL analysis studies.The largest effect QTL explaining 25% of the total phenotypic variance identified and associated with the KB resistance till date is the one present on 4BS chromosome in the KB resistance stock \"HD29\" and associated with the SSR marker \"Xgwm538\" (Singh et al., 2003). It was later on converted to an SNP marker by Brooks et al. (2006) thus improving its gel-based resolution and amplification consistency. Another QTL named \"Qkb.ksu-5BL.1\" was found to be located on chromosome 5BL in \"Xgdm116-Xwmc235\" interval and explained 19% of phenotypic variance. While, the other one named Qkb.ksu-6BS.1 was mapped on 6BS chromosome in intervals \"Xwmc105-Xgwm88\" explaining 13% of phenotypic variance. A total of 18 genomic regions for KB resistance explaining phenotypic variation ranging from 5-20% and one consistent QTL on chromosome 2BL in a set of 339 wheat accessions from Afghanistan were identified by Gupta et al. (2019). The limitation with the major effect QTL can be that the percent phenotypic variation explained by it could be a mere overestimate because of the small sample sizes known to be \"Beavis effect\" (Beavis, 1994). A series of small effect QTL have been reported in these and other studies and are presented in Table 1. Here, it is very important to remove the bias for the detected KB QTL. It can be taken care of through comparison of the detected QTL to a distribution of expected values to know the number of missed loci (Miles and Wayne, 2008). The GWAS analysis is relatively an unexploited technique in wheat KB resistance identification and only a few studies have been published till now. Gupta et al. (2019) reported novel QTLs on chromosomes 1DL, 2DL, 4AL, 5AS, 6BL, 6BS, 7BS, and 7DL. Likewise, Emebiri et al. (2019b) detected two major clusters, one on chromosome 4B, that clustered with Qkb.ksu-4B, QKb.cimmyt-4BL, Qkb.cim-4BL, and another on chromosome 3B, that clustered with Qkb.cnl-3B, QKb.cimmyt-3BS, and Qkb.cim-3BS1.The validation and re-validation of the GWAS analysis is required because of the high possibility of the false positives being inadvertently reported mainly due to the small panel size. These studies could be most benefitted by utilization of the gene enrichment analysis and gene ontology tools shedding light on the major role of the identified regions/genes on KB resistance, thus making their manipulation and introgression easy. We have observed that most identified genes/regions are reported to have regulatory functions (Transcription factors/transduction proteins) rather than structural one's indicative of their potential role in the resistance mechanism.Wheat, with a complex hexaploid genome, presents another peculiarity as far as identification and inheritance of KB resistance is concerned. Although, KB resistance has been reported in the Ae. tauschii -the donor of D-genome-still the D-genome seems to be the least polymorphic in different wheat lines, compared to the B-genome which is most polymorphic. This data warrants a thorough scan of the D-genome by including the T. aestivum lines originating from diverse geographies in the panel to have an idea about the diversity and evolution of KB resistance. Recently, Singh S. et al. (2020) reported two candidate gene hits on chromosome 4D that substantiate the hypothesis that the wheat genome and particularly the D-genome has a high potentiality of harboring KB resistance genes. It can be assumed that the non-pleiotropic KB resistance genes had not been favored by natural selection, in the global genotypes, because of the absence of the pathogen.Therefore, the wheat germplasm originating from India-the country of origin of KB-assumes great significance and should be more thoroughly investigated upon.Another, important advance of KB research should be the improvement of the resolution of the locations of previously mapped QTL apart from making attempts to discover new ones. The utility of the small effect QTL might appear low but a comprehensive genetic model for KB resistance should include an understanding of the numbers, effect sizes, and interactions of small-effect QTL as proposed for quantitative traits by Lorenz and Cohen (2012).Just like other diseases, the occurrence of KB disease is a result of interaction between host, pathogen and environment (Chakraborty et al., 2000;Chakraborty and Newton, 2011). Therefore, changes in existing environmental conditions in areas where KB disease exists will affect its presence and severity. Some of the climatic changes predicted include increased temperature, change in precipitation, increased CO 2 and drought (Chakraborty et al., 2000). KB is known to occur in regions of arid and semi-arid climate with hot summers, mild cold winters with some rain. It has been proposed that an increase in temperature may increase infestations by rust on wheat (Coakley et al., 1999;Chakraborty et al., 2000). This may make wheat more susceptible to other fungal diseases including KB due to compromised effector based immune responses (Selin et al., 2016). Further, the increased temperature may limit teliospores survival in the soil and, therefore, reduce inoculum density. T. indica is a heterothallic fungal pathogen producing haploid secondary sporidia and compatible sporidia (+and −) that hybridize after contact to become infective (Fuentes-Davila and Duran, 1986). These recombination events may be affected by high temperature and, therefore, infection events due to a lack of infective propagules. In addition, this reduced recombination may bring in some level of stability in T. indica population which is always shifting, and this may stabilize evaluation and management practices. Currently, T. indica experiences large scale genetic recombination just before infection hence makes the pathogenesis mechanism and disease management difficult (Gurjar et al., 2017). Climate change will also come with changes in moisture and this can impact both wheat and T. indica in various ways. For instance, many climate changes models have predicted continuous as well as very heavy precipitation events and these can potentially be favorable for teliospore viability and germination. Initially, this may result in increased infection and disease development (Coakley et al., 1999). The increased moisture may prolong the growth period of wheat as well as annual recurrent infections mediated by the teliospores leading to higher yield losses. On the other hand, increased moisture may favor suicidal germination where teliospores may germinate in absence of host consequently reducing the inoculum density. An increase in CO 2 levels will enhance growth rates of leaves and stem resulting into relatively dense canopies having a high humidity favoring T. indica infection. More rains may expand the niche of T. indica to other non-wheat hosts that it cannot infect naturally (Warham, 1986;Gill et al., 1993;Carris et al., 2006;Gurjar et al., 2019) and this may result in more inoculum in the ecosystem and hence higher yield losses. Higher CO 2 may lower plant decomposition rates hence leading to increased crop residue which might result into enhanced inoculum loads at the start of crop season that may result in disease epidemics. Further elevated concentrations of CO 2 may result in increased production infection causing fungal spores which eventually would act as inoculum in the next season. On the contrary, the higher CO 2 levels can cause physiological changes in the host and thus can elicit host resistance mechanisms against the pathogen. The efficacy of the chemical fungicidal molecules might change with a change in the CO 2 concentrations, relative humidity and temperature as higher precipitation will reduce efficacy of the pesticides due to reduced uptake and washdown. The elevated levels of carbon dioxide and temperatures may contribute toward accelerating the evolutionary process of T. indica by rendering the microclimate within enlarged canopy more favorable. It will lead to a greater number of infection cycles due to enhanced pathogen fecundity, increased pathogen population and, eventually, rapid evolution of new pathotypes. For successful colonization and infection by fungi, they secrete virulence factors known as \"effectors\" in order to suppress host defense mechanism and induce changes in the physiology of the plant to help the pathogen invade and establish (Selin et al., 2016). It is unclear how the different climatic changes predicted will affect the gene-for-gene model (Flor, 1956) in the context of KB as it continually evolves to make novel effectors which can dodge the plant defense better.The Karnal bunt disease of wheat is of high current and potential economic importance due to its effects on quality and yield losses and the associated international quarantine restrictions levied against it. In the present era of global climate change, KB is a disease with a high potential of re-emergence in the areas where it is already endemic as well as its diffusion to new areas. This would have lasting consequences in the form of economic damages to wheat production and trade worldwide. The control of KB epidemics and not letting the disease to enter new geographies of the world constitute high priority of global wheat research and deployment of resistant cultivars is the most important step to this effect. The bottleneck in the development of KB resistant wheat varieties has have been historic, mainly because of a lack of easily combining resistance sources and their tedious identification owing chiefly to the confounding effects of the environment on the expression of quantitatively inherited KB resistance. However, these constraints can be overcome through identification, mapping of KB-resistance genes in primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools in wheat and their subsequent introgression into the elite cultivars of KB prone areas. The identification of novel sources of genetic resistance would require development of new marker system and thus novel/improvised MAS for KB resistance should be scaled up. The search for KB resistance must continue mainly on the unexplored or little explored aspects like host-pathogen interactions, pathogen race specification, gene mapping, annotation including identification of precise gene function and genomic selection in order to develop robust high yielding KB resistant wheat cultivars. There appears to be a meager possibility of de-regulating KB from international quarantine restrictions in the near future and even if it happens no country will desire to have such disease which is a permanent production and trade constraint for wheat, once established. The boom and bust cycles in KB remain by and large unreported and the effectiveness of broad spectrum resistance genes such as \"Lr34\" which encodes an ABC transporter and is effective against leaf rust, stripe rust and powdery mildew (Krattinger et al., 2016) need to be explored for KB as well. This strategy exploring the possibility of effectiveness of already known broad spectrum resistance genes if successful, can save important resources for a breeding program which would be required for carving a parallel trail for KB resistance breeding.","tokenCount":"12655"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"17fc9d443e5c03e2f825b9b38097e692","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/84084686-12b8-4ef1-a8f8-5aab54f513ae/content","id":"-2009304094"},"keywords":["water stress","maize","sub-Saharan Africa","QTL mapping","grain yield","genomic selection"],"sieverID":"e24c66ca-b597-4496-a9d4-cc023624bf3c","pagecount":"20","content":"Smallholder maize farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are vulnerable to drought-induced yield losses, which significantly impact food security and livelihoods within these communities. Mapping and characterizing genomic regions associated with water stress tolerance in tropical maize is essential for future breeding initiatives targeting this region. In this study, three biparental F 3 populations composed of 753 families were evaluated in Kenya and Zimbabwe and genotyped with high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Quantitative trait loci maping was performed on these genotypes to dissect the genetic architecture for grain yield (GY), plant height (PH), ear height (EH) and anthesis-silking interval (ASI) under well-watered (WW) and water-stressed (WS) conditions. Across the studied maize populations, mean GY exhibited a range of 4.55-8.55 t/ha under WW and 1.29-5.59 t/ha under WS, reflecting a 31-59% reduction range under WS conditions. Genotypic and genotype-by-environment (G × E) variances were significant for all traits except ASI. Overall broad sense heritabilities for GY were low to high (0.25-0.60). For GY, these genetic parameters were decreased under WS conditions. Linkage mapping revealed a significant difference in the number of QTLs detected, with 93 identified under WW conditions and 41 under WS conditions. These QTLs were distributed across all maize chromosomes. For GY, eight and two major effect QTLs (>10% phenotypic variation explained) were detected under WW and WS conditions, respectively. Under WS conditions, Joint Linkage Association Mapping (JLAM) identified several QTLs with minor effects for GY and revealed genomic region overlaps in the studied populations. Across the studied water regimes, five-fold cross-validation showed moderate to high prediction accuracies (−0.15-0.90) for GY and other agronomic traits. Our findings demonstrate the polygenic nature of WS tolerance and highlights the immense potential of using genomic selection in improving genetic gain in maize breeding.Across Africa, circa 40% of maize-growing areas are exposed to recurrent drought (Fisher et al., 2015), with a frequency of 10-20% (Tesfaye et al., 2016). These droughts are responsible for substantial grain yield losses exceeding 20% in smallholder farming systems. Previous studies have shown that with each additional degree day above 30°C, maize grain yield under water-stressed (WS) conditions is reduced by 1.7% (Lobell et al., 2011). These drought-induced yield losses can be attributed to several trait-related factors -including reduced kernel size, inhibited ear elongation (Wang et al., 2019) and delayed silking (Sah et al., 2020). Water stress can also have negative effects on the nutritional quality of maize grain (Barutcular et al., 2016;Sehgal et al., 2018), which is a concern for the already malnourished smallholder farmer communities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Over the past decades, the adverse effects of WS have been more pronounced in rainfed (Lunduka et al., 2019) maize-dependent smallholder farming systems in SSA. In this region, maize grain yield [range: 1-3 tonne ha −1 (Prasanna et al., 2020)] and quality losses are further compounded by other limiting factors such as heat stress (Chukwudi et al., 2021), low soil nitrogen stress (Ndlovu et al., 2022;Kimutai et al., 2023), insect pest infestations (Deutsch et al., 2018), disease incidences (Beyene et al., 2017) and limited access to quality seeds among smallholders (Breen et al., 2024).Despite the widely reported unpredictability of drought (Seleiman et al., 2021), farmers and researchers can adopt a range of strategies to curb yield losses (Muroyiwa et al., 2022). Such strategies include the development, release, and adoption of WS-tolerant maize varieties. On-farm trials conducted in SSA have shown that WS-tolerant varieties of maize can have a 5-40% grain yield advantage over traditional varieties under WS conditions (Tesfaye et al., 2016). Such yield advantage has been reported to generate extra income for maizedependent households [e.g., up to US$240/ha or > 9 months of food sufficiency in Zimbabwean households (Lunduka et al., 2019)]. Advancing genetic gains for WS-tolerant maize varieties is, therefore, an essential component of the basket of technology options for improving the resilience of smallholder maize farming systems (Habte et al., 2023) in SSA. However, breeding for WS-tolerant maize varieties presents several challenges due to the complex nature of WS and the need to advance genetic gain concurrently for a range of yieldrelated traits.Breeding for higher maize grain yields under WS has been limited by genotype-by-environment (G × E) effects and low heritability (Collins et al., 2008). As water stress tolerance is a multigenic trait, investigations of grain yield under WS also involve evaluating a range of secondary traits, including anthesis-silking interval (ASI) (Bolaños and Edmeades, 1996;Gopalakrishna K. et al., 2023), reduced water potential and root development (Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2014), ear height-to-plant height ratio (Zhao et al., 2019) and number of ears per plant (Badu-Apraku et al., 2019). Other studies have also measured high water-holding capacity, enhanced cell wall biosynthesis and stability of photosynthesis (Zhang et al., 2020). Most of these traits have higher heritabilities than grain yield and can be good secondary traits to enhance selection for drought tolerance in maize. Using conventional breeding to improve traits associated with WS tolerance presents a range of challenges, including its laborious and slow nature (Nikolić et al., 2013). However, there is significant potential to overcome some WS-tolerance breeding challenges by incorporating molecular breeding [e.g., quantitative-trait loci (QTL) mapping (Zhao et al., 2019;Hu et al., 2021;Sarkar et al., 2023), genome-wide association studies (GWAS) (Khan et al., 2022;Anilkumar et al., 2023;Chen et al., 2023) and genomic selection (GS) (Beyene et al., 2015;Cerrudo et al., 2018;He et al., 2019;Ndlovu et al., 2022Ndlovu et al., , 2024;;Zhang et al., 2022)] and phenomicsassisted breeding [i.e., high-throughput phenotyping (Wu et al., 2021)] approaches. To unravel the genetic architecture of WS tolerance in tropical maize, molecular breeding approaches have become crucial for improving this complex trait.A range of studies have identified genomic regions associated with the tolerance of maize lines to WS conditions. These studies have shown that WS tolerance is a complex trait governed by many minor QTLs (Choudhary et al., 2023). For instance, Osuman et al. (2022) identified 27 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), with four SNPs [SNP_138825271 (Chr.3), SNP_244895453 (Chr. 4), SNP_168561609 (Chr. 5), and SNP_62970998 (Chr. 6)] having pleiotropic effects on anthesis days, silking days and husk cover under terminal drought. Under both WS and well-watered (WW) conditions, Zaidi et al. (2016) identified 37 SNPs for grain yield and shoot biomass. Two of these SNPs (SNPs S1_211520521 and S2_20017716) were associated with shoot biomass and transpiration efficiency under WS. For plant height, 120 SNPs were identified by Wallace et al. (2016) from 15 tropical maize populations grown under WS in SSA. Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2014) identified SNPs associated with functional traits such as stomatal closure, root development, flowering, detoxification, and reduced water potential under drought stress, Yuan et al. (2019) identified 46 differentially expressed candidate genes under both WS and WW conditions. At the seedling stage, Chen et al. (2023) identified 15 candidate genes for water stress tolerance in maize.Combining QTL mapping with GWAS can enhance the identification of markers associated with various traits of interest (Chen et al., 2016;Zhou et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Ndlovu et al., 2022;Sallam et al., 2022). The identified markers can then be utilized in marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) for improving WS tolerance in tropical maize (Beyene et al., 2016). GS is also a promising tool for improving polygenic traits (like WS tolerance in maize). Unlike MARS, GS can capture the effects of many small-effect QTLs (Bentley et al., 2014;Cerrudo et al., 2018). Several studies also showed that incorporation of markers linked to major effect QTLs as a fixed effect in genomic prediction model can improve the prediction accuracy as observed for Striga resistance (Gowda et al., 2021) and maize lethal necrosis resistance in maize (Gowda et al., 2015). To understand the effectiveness of QTL mapping and GS in dissecting the genetic basis of WS tolerance, a set of tropical bi-parental maize populations evaluated in Kenya and Zimbabwe were used in this study. The study sought to (i) compare the quantitative genetic parameters (i.e., heritability, variance, and genetic correlation) of grain yield and secondary traits under WW and WS conditions; (ii) identify the genomic regions through linkage mapping and joint linkage association mapping for grain yield and other traits in three F 3 populations evaluated in multiple locations; and (iii) assess the potential of GS in improving grain yield and related traits under WW and WS conditions. Three biparental F 3 maize populations comprised of 753 families developed by the Global Maize Program of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) were evaluated under WW and managed WS conditions. Population 1 comprised 240 F 3 families from the cross CML543 × CML444, Population 2 comprised 255 F 3 families from the cross CML543 × LaPostaSeqC7-F71 and Population 3 comprised 258 F 3 families from the cross CKL5009 × LaPostaSeqC7-F71. CML444 and LaPostaSeqC7-F7 are known WS-tolerant lines; CML543, on the other hand, perform better under WW and is resistant to foliar diseases. CML444 from heterotic group B is extensively used as a drought tolerant donor line in SSA and is adapted to mid-altitude region. It is also known to be tolerant to low soil N stress and resistant to maize streak virus, ear rot, and northern corn leaf blight. CML543 is another promising elite line that was developed from a CML202xCML395 derived population known for being tolerant to foliar diseases like gray leaf spot, northern corn leaf blight and common rust. LapostaSeqC7-F71 and CKL5009 are the other parents used in population development. LapostaSeqC7-F71 was derived from the LapostaSequia germplasm, a known source for developing WS-tolerant elite donors. In addition to WS-tolerance, LapostaSeqC7-F71 also exhibits tolerance to ear rot. CKL5009, developed from Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization's germplasm, is known to be moderately tolerant to drought and tolerant to low soil N conditions. All 753 F 3 families from the three bi-parental populations were test-crossed to a single crosstester for phenotypic evaluation. The testcross progenies were evaluated across six sites in Kenya and one site in Zimbabwe (Table 1). Field trials in Kakamega and Kiboko were all evaluated over a two-year period.Trials of each test cross were planted in single row (4 m) plots with 2 replications at all locations. The field layout was an alpha (0,1) lattice design. Experiments were laid out in a 40 × 6, 51 × 5 and 43 × 6 alpha lattice design for F 3 pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. Four commercial checks (DKC8031, H513, WH504 and WH505) and two parents of each population were used so that the total of the experimental genotypes were 240, 255 and 258 for F 3 pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. Standard agronomic management practices were followed. All populations were planted in the same season in adjacent plots. The genotypes were subjected to WW and WS management conditions. In the WS trial, drought stress was imposed following the CIMMYT-established protocol (Bänziger et al., 2000). Trials for WS evaluations were irrigated once a week until 2 weeks prior to the expected flowering date in each population. Irrigation was withdrawn and the water stress condition was maintained till harvest. For WW trials, planting was done in the main rainy season and whenever needed, irrigation was provided to avoid any stress.A total of ten traits (i.e., grain yield (GY), anthesis date (AD), silking date (SD), anthesis-silking interval (ASI), plant height (PH), ear height (EH), ear rot (ER), ears per plant (EPP), ear position (EPO) and ear aspect (EA)) were measured for all bi-parental populations under WW and WS regimes. All ears harvested from each plot were shelled and weighed to determine total GY (in kg), then converted to t/ha by dividing the total GY per plot by the plot area. The grain moisture content (MOI) of the shelled grains at harvest was determined using a hand-held moisture meter and recorded in percentages. The ASI was calculated as the difference between SD and AD in days. SD was recorded as the number of days from sowing to at least 50% silk emergence in each plot, while AD was recorded as the number of days from sowing to when 50% of the plants per plot had shed pollen. PH was measured in centimetres (cm) from the base of the plant to the tip of the tassel. EH was measured in cm from the ground to the node bearing the highest ear. Five representative plants were measured at maturity in each plot for both PH and EH. EA was measured on a scale of 1-5, where 1 = nice and uniform cobs with the preferred texture; 5 = cobs with undesirable texture. EPO was calculated as the ratio of EH to PH.Analyses of variance for each bi-parental population at each and across environments (i.e., WW and WS regimes) were performed using ASREML-R (Gilmour et al., 2009) and META-R (Alvarado et al., 2020). The following statistical mixed model was used to estimate variance components:where Y ijko is the phenotypic performance of the ith genotype at the jth environment in the k th replication of the oth incomplete block, μ is an intercept term, G i is the genetic effect of the i th genotype, E j is the effect of the jth environment, (GE) ij is the interaction effect between genotype and environment, R(E) kj is the effect of the k th TABLE 1 Agro-climatic characteristics and management at seven field sites used for the evaluation of the bi-parental populations of tropical maize.Country Longitude Latitude Altitude (masl) Management replication at the j th environment, B(R.E) ojk is the effect of the o th incomplete block in the k th replication at the j th environment, and e ijko is the residual. The genotypic effect (G i ), genotype by environment interaction (GEI) and effect of incomplete blocks were treated as random effects to estimate their variances and residual error. Environments and replications were treated as fixed effects. Assuming fixed genotypic effects, a mixed linear model was fitted to obtain the best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs). Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) was estimated as the ratio of genotypic to phenotypic ratio from the variance components. META-R software (Alvarado et al., 2015) was used to obtain the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) for each genotype across environments. BLUEs and BLUPs across the population were also obtained with the mixed model through META-R software.All three bi-parental populations used in this study were also used in earlier QTL mapping studies for maize lethal necrosis (MLN) disease (Gowda et al., 2018). Detailed description of the molecular markers used and the linkage map construction are also described in our earlier study (Gowda et al., 2018). In brief, DNA of all lines of the bi-parental populations was extracted from seedlings at the 3-4 leaf stage and genotyped using the genotype-by-sequencing (GBS) platform at the Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA, using high density markers, as per the protocol described in (Elshire et al., 2011). For SNP calling, raw data in a FASTQ file together with the barcode information and Tags On Physical Map (TOPM) data, which had SNP position information was used. We used TOPM data from AllZeaGBSv2.7 downloaded from Panzea, 1 which contained information for 955,690 SNPs mapped with B73 AGPv2 coordinates. The TASSEL-GBS pipeline was used for calling SNPs (Glaubitz et al., 2014). TASSEL ver. 5.2 (Bradbury et al., 2007) was used to exclude SNPs with heterozygosity of >5%, minor allele frequency (MAF) of <0.05, and a minimum count of 90% by filtering from raw GBS SNP markers in all populations. The number of SNPs was further reduced by selecting homozygous and polymorphic markers between the parents in each population. SNPs were further filtered based on the minimum distance between the markers. We used the criteria of minimum distance between adjacent SNPs as ≥200 Kilo base pairs (Kbps) to ensure uniform distribution of markers throughout the genome. For joint linkage association mapping (JLAM), markers from all three bi-parental populations were combined, and markers with <1% missing value and > 5% MAF and Heterozygosity of <5% were retained. Finally, a set of 5,490 SNPs that are uniformly distributed across the genome were used for JLAM analyses.QTL IciMapping ver. 4.1 (Meng et al., 2015) was used to construct the linkage map based on data from all three biparental populations. QTL IciMapping was used to remove the highly correlated SNPs that do not provide any additional information by using an inbuilt tool BIN. This resulted in the retention of 560, 556 and 555 high-quality SNPs in populations 1, 2 and 3, respectively. These SNPs were used to construct linkage maps using the MAP function, by selecting the most significant markers using stepwise regression. A likelihood ratio test was used to calculate the logarithm of odds (LOD) for each marker at a score of >3 with a 30 cM maximum distance between two loci. The Kosambi mapping function (Kosambi, 1944) was used to transform the recombination frequencies between two linked loci. BLUPs across environments were used to detect QTLs based on Inclusive interval mapping (ICIM) for each population. The phenotypic variation explained by individual QTLs and the total variation explained by QTLs was estimated. QTL naming was done with the letter \"q\" indicating QTL, followed by an abbreviation of the trait name, the chromosome, and the marker position, respectively.For JLAM, high-quality and uniformly distributed 5,490 SNPs across three F 3 populations were selected. The SNPs were then used to construct a linkage map based on their physical positions. A biometric model (Würschum et al., 2012;Kibe t al., 2020) was used to perform JLAM, with BLUPs across environments and populations being applied for analysis. After testing several biometric models, one which performed well for association studies in multiple segregating biparental populations (Würschum et al., 2012) was used to conduct the JLAM. This model controls the differences in population means by incorporating population effect, and the genetic background by using cofactors and marker effects across populations. This model was explained in detail by Liu et al. (2011) and Würschum et al. (2012). With this model, first-step cofactors were selected based on the Schwarz Bayesian Criterion (Schwarz, 1978) by including a population effect and in the second step, p values were calculated for the F-test by using a full model (including SNP effect) versus a reduced model (without SNP effect). Cofactors were selected by using PROC GLM SELECT from SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc. 2015) and genome-wide scans for QTLs were applied in R (ver. 4.3.1) (R Core Team, 2023).Genome-wide prediction was applied for GY and all other traits within and across three F 3 populations with five-fold cross-validation. BLUEs across locations obtained under WW and WS management were used with a ridge-regression BLUP prediction model (Zhao et al., 2012;Sitonik et al., 2019). For genomic prediction, 4,000 common SNPs for each of the three populations which were distributed uniformly across the genome with no missing values were selected. To understand the effect of different training populations on accuracy, genomic prediction was carried out in three scenarios of crossvalidation within and across biparental populations. Scenario 1: both training and testing populations are drawn from within each segregating population. In Scenario 2, the training population is derived from across populations, and the testing population was drawn from within each population whereas, for Scenario 3, both the training and testing population was derived from across populations. For Scenarios 2 and 3, the estimation of marker effects was based on the genotypic variance of the total populations. For Scenario 1, the estimates of the genotypic variance and heritability within segregating populations were used in the rr-BLUP model. The prediction accuracy of GS was calculated as r GS = r MP /h, where h refers to the square root of heritability and r MP is the correlation between observed and predicted phenotypes (Dekkers, 2007). For each trait in each population and each scenario, 100 iterations were done for sampling the training and testing sets.The mean GY of the four parents CML543, CML444, LapostasequiaC7-F71 and CKL5009 (used to develop the studied bi-parental maize populations) were 6.97, 6.30, 6.31 and 5.87 t/ha under WW conditions, and 2.32, 2.68, 5.08 and 3.69 t/ha under managed WS conditions, respectively. Across the three bi-parental maize populations, significant variations were observed for GY, EH, PH and ASI in both WW and WS regimes (Figure 1; Tables 2, 3). Mean GY for pop 1 (CML543 × CML444), pop 2 (CML543 × LPSC7-F71) and pop 3 (CKL5009 × LPSC7-F71), and across populations were 6.38, 7.04, 6.04 and 6.41 t/ha under WW and 2.66, 3.72, 4.08 and 3.50 t/ha under WS management, respectively (Figure 1). Across the three bi-parental maize populations, mean GY ranged from 4.55 to 8.55 t/ha and 1.29 to 5.59 t/ha under WW and WS conditions, respectively. Overall analysis showed that under WS environments, GY reductions were 59, 48, and 31% in pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. The ranges of ASI values were wider under WS conditions than under WW conditions (Figure 1). Across all populations, we observed ASI, PH and EH means of 1.48 days, 241.65 cm, and 127.76 cm, respectively under WW conditions. Under WS conditions, the recorded means for ASI, PH and EH were 2.12 days, 210.71 cm, and 127.1 cm, respectively. Interestingly, mean ASI across the studied maize populations was 2.6 days longer under WS conditions than under WW conditions. The BLUEs and BLUPs for each and combined populations and markers used in this study are presented in Supplementary Table S1.Analyses of variance for 'within' and 'across' environments revealed significant genotypic and genotype by environment (G × E) variances for all traits except for ASI (under WW conditions) and EH (under WS conditions) in pop 1 (Table 2). For GY, we observed low to moderate heritability estimates of 0.60, 0.54, 0.25 and 0.65 under WW conditions and 0.30, 0.32, 0.58 and 0.54 under WS management for pop 1, pop 2, pop 3 and all combined, respectively (Table 2). It is important to highlight that the lowest broad sense heritabilities under WS conditions were greater than the lowest values achieved under WW conditions, yet they remained below the highest values achieved under WW conditions. For individual populations, broad sense heritabilities for ASI ranged from 0.43-0.53 and 0.18-0.50 under WW and WS conditions, respectively. For PH, heritability ranged from 0.68-0.79 (WW) and 0.43-0.65 (WS). The estimates of broad-sense heritability for EH ranged between 0.72-0.85 (WW) and 0.39-0.79 (WS). Under WW conditions and for all studied populations, the broad sense heritability of GY was highest (65%), followed by EH (51%), PH (45%) and ASI (35%). While, under WS environments, broad sense heritabilities were estimated at 54, 47, 23 and 17% for GY, EH, PH and ASI, respectively. Generally, the broad-sense heritability of all studied maize traits was low under WS compared to WW conditions (Table 2).Correlation analyses showed that GY was significantly and negatively correlated with Turcicum leaf blight (TLB) severity (−0.53), husk cover (−0.24), ear rot (−0.20), and ear aspect (−0.60) under WW conditions. GY was also shown to be positively and significantly correlated with PH (0.60), EH (0.41), anthesis date (0.28), silking date (0.22), and ears per plant (0.40) (Figure 2) under the same conditions. Under WS conditions, GY was significantly and negatively correlated with anthesis date (−0.69), silking date (−0.7), ASI (−0.27), ear rot (−0.4), ear aspect (−0.38) and ear position (−0.25). It was also significantly and positively correlated with ears per plant (0.71).The linkage map was constructed for F 3 pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3 using 560, 556 and 555 high-quality polymorphic SNPs, respectively. The mean distances between adjacent markers were recorded at 8.07, 7.50 and 8.04 cM for F 3 pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. The identified QTLs for GY, ASI, PH and EH at WW and WS conditions for each population are presented in Tables 3-6. Our QTL analyses identified totals of 93 and 41 QTLs for GY, ASI, PH and EH, under WW and WS conditions, respectively. For the studied four traits, 23, 39 and 31 QTLs (under WW conditions) and 8, 4, and 29 QTLs (under WS conditions) in pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3 were detected, respectively.In F 3 pop 1, QTL analysis revealed a total of 23 QTLs for GY (8), PH (9) and EH (6) under WW conditions and 8 QTLs for ASI (4), PH (3) and EH (1) under WS conditions (Supplementary Table S2). For this population, no QTLs were detected for GY under WS conditions (Table 3). In pop 2, QTL analysis revealed 39 QTLs for GY (8), ASI (5), PH (12) and EH ( 14) under WW conditions and four QTLs for GY (1), ASI (1), and PH (2) under WS conditions. In pop 3, 31 and 29 QTLs were detected for the four traits under WW and WS conditions, respectively. Interestingly, the highest number of QTLs detected in this population were for PH (13) and EH (13) under WS conditions. Furthermore, no QTLs were detected for ASI under WS conditions in this population (Tables 5, 6).The phenotypic variation explained (PVE) for all the detected QTLs ranged from 2.51 to 27.77%. Interestingly, these two extremes were observed in pop 3 for WS_PH (2.51%) and WW_GY (27.77%). Significant QTLs with major effects, explaining >10% of the PVE, were identified for GY (nine QTLs under WW and two QTLs under WS conditions). Noteworthy, a few significant major effect QTLs were also identified for ASI, PH and EH under both WW and WS conditions (Tables 4-6).JLAM QTL analysis across the three bi-parental populations identified 25 QTLs for GY under the WW conditions and 4 under the WS (Table 7). For this analysis, PVE ranged from 0.80-3.9% and 1.4-11.8% for WW and WS environments, respectively. For GY, most of the QTLs were identified in chromosomes 4 and 6 (5 QTLs each). For ASI, 16 and 15 QTLs were identified under WW and WS environments, respectively (Table 8). PVE for ASI ranged from 0.1-4.9% and 1.3-10.9% for WW and WS environments, respectively. Interestingly, most of the QTLs associated with ASI were identified in chromosomes 8 (n = 4) and 1 (n = 6) under WW and WS conditions, respectively. However, across the two water regimes, no QTLs were identified for ASI in chromosomes 4 and 10. We also identified 19 QTLs for PH under WW (12) and WS ( 7) environments (Table 9). Notably, chromosome 1 had no QTLs for PH under both WW and WS conditions. For EH, our analysis identified 20 QTLs under WW (6) and WS ( 14) environments.Unlike the other traits, chromosomes 9 and 10 had no QTLs for EH across the two studied management conditions. For GY, the QTL on chromosome 6 (qGY6_89) had the largest effect with 11.80% of PVE under WS condition and was found overlapping with QTL for WW_PH (qPH6_87) in F 3 pop 2 and with WW_EH (qEH6_90) in F 3 pop 1 (Tables 5-7). Another major effect was QTL identified for ASI (qASI1_107) which explained 10.9% of the PVE and did not overlap with any QTL detected in the individual population analyses.Five-fold cross-validation was used to assess the prediction accuracy for GY, ASI, PH and EH traits by combining data from three populations and within each population. Prediction accuracies for the training and testing within-within (WW scenario 1) populations were 0.67, 0.58 and 0.57 for GY under well-watered conditions and 0.38, −0.15 and 0.20 under water stress conditions for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively (Figure 3). For ASI, prediction accuracies for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3 were 0.55, 0.74 and 0.61 under WW conditions and 0.30, 0.31 and 0.41 under WS conditions, respectively. For PH, prediction accuracies of 0.75 and 0.67, 0.68 under WW conditions and 0.48, 0.30 and 0.62 under WS conditions were recorded for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. For EH, prediction accuracies of 0.38, 0.20 and 0.60 under WW management and 0.67, 0.58 and 0.60 under WS management were recorded for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively. For across-within scenario (AW scenario 2) where training population is derived by combining all three populations and testing population is derived from within single population, prediction accuracies for GY were higher under well-watered conditions with 0.56, 0.59 and 0.44 compared to WS conditions (0.25, −0.01 and 0.15) for pop 1, pop 2, and pop 3, respectively. For ASI, PH and EH, the prediction accuracies were varied from 0.58 to 0.70, 0.63 to 0.78 and 0.62 to 0.70 under wellwatered conditions, respectively. Whereas under water stress conditions prediction accuracies for ASI, PH and EH were ranged from 0.34 to 0.44, 0.31 to 0.72 and 0.35 to 0.61, respectively. The prediction accuracy across all populations combined showed high values for all traits in both well-watered (0.53-0.90) and water stress (0.41-0.89) conditions (Figure 3).Water stress is one of the most significant abiotic factors impacting GY and quality in maize-dependent farming systems of SSA. WS-tolerant maize varieties can offer an inexpensive solution to low-input farming systems in drought-prone regions. Improving WS tolerance in maize cultivars using advanced tools such as doubled haploid technology and marker-assisted selection necessitates a deeper knowledge of its genetic basis (Hu et al., 2021). Mapping of QTLs associated with WS tolerance, and its related secondary traits can facilitate the use of molecular markers for improving WS tolerance in tropical maize. In this study, three bi-parental populations were evaluated under WW and WS conditions in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The populations were mapped for QTL associated with GY, PH, EH and ASI. These related complex quantitative traits have been widely used for selection in the development of WS-tolerant maize lines and hybrids (Zhao et al., 2019).4.1 Well-watered and water-stressed conditions induced significant variations in phenotypic mean, variance, and heritability Our phenotypic analyses showed that GY, PH and EH were substantially decreased under WS conditions across the studied bi-parental populations. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Adebayo and Menkir, 2014;Wang et al., 2019; Balbaa  , 2022;Gopalakrishna K. et al., 2023;Huang et al., 2023), which demonstrated that WS has an impact on GY and its related traits in maize. In our study, the average GY was highest (4.55-8.55 t/ha) and lowest (1.29-5.59 t/ha) for WW and WS conditions, respectively. The observed discrepancy in GY between those for WW and WS conditions underscores the influence of WS on maize crop productivity in SSA. We also found that, across environments, WS-induced GY reductions were highest for pop 1 (59%) and lowest for pop 3 (31%). Our results indicate that under conditions of WS, all studied bi-parental populations experienced reductions in GY. Notably, among the three tested genotypes, Pop 3 exhibited a comparatively higher level of WS tolerance, as evidenced by its lower GY losses under WS and also the contribution of favourable alleles from known WS tolerant parent (LaPostaSequiaC7-F71).Like GY, ASI serves as one of the traits utilized in maize breeding initiatives (Silva et al., 2022) for selecting water stress tolerance. In our study, significantly wide ranges (2.6 days longer) were observed for ASI under WS compared to WW conditions across the studied genotypes. A wider ASI in maize under WS indicates an extended duration between the initiation of anthesis and silking -i.e., likely due to slowed reproductive development. This asynchrony can have adverse effects on pollination, potentially leading to low GY. Araus et al. (2012) alluded that maize plants exhibiting a wider ASI during WS conditions tend to either produce no seeds or yield only a limited number of grains per ear. The specific causes of the elongated ASI triggered by WS remain uncertain (Liu et al., 2021). Like GY response across genotypes, the mean values of PH and EH exhibited their lowest points under conditions of WS compared to WW conditions. These findings serve to highlight the adverse influence of WS on these GY-related traits and, by extension, maize crop performance in SSA. In this respect, further research into the mechanisms governing the observed GY and related trait variations can provide valuable insights for enhancing the resilience of smallholder maize systems in SSA.Earlier studies have reported that the slow rate of genetic gain in breeding for WS tolerance can be attributed to high GxE interaction and low heritability and the polygenic nature of this trait (Mathew et al., 2019;Sallam et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2022). Across the studied bi-parental populations and field conditions, broad-sense heritabilities were low (0.17) to high (0.85) for the studied traits. Most importantly, LOD, logarithm of odds; Add, additive effect; Dom, dominance effect; PVE, phenotypic variance explained; GY, grain yield; WW, well-watered; WS, water-stressed. The exact physical position of the SNP can be inferred from the marker's name, for example, S1_82702920: chromosome 1; 82,702,920 bp. Phenotypic correlations between grain yield and other agronomic traits evaluated under well-watered and water-stressed conditions. The correlation values <0.11 were interpreted as 'not significant' at p < 0.05. GY, grain yield; AD, days to anthesis; SD, days to silking; ASI, anthesis silking interval; PH, plant height; EH, ear height; EPO, ear position; EPP, number of ears per plant; HC, husk cover; TLB, Turcicum leaf blight; MOI, grain moisture content; EA, ear aspect; and ER, ear rot.  heritability estimates for GY and EH were low to high for both WW and WS conditions. High heritability estimates indicate the potential for traits to be improved through recurrent selection processes (Gowda et al., 2021;Ndlovu et al., 2022). High broad-sense heritability estimates hint at the possibility of even greater narrow-sense heritability, suggesting the feasibility of achieving substantial genetic advancement for these traits. We also found that the broad sense heritabilities of all studied maize traits at individual population levels decreased under WS conditions compared to WW conditions. This was consistent with studies by Chen et al. (2023) and Zhao et al. (2019), who also presented lower heritabilities for traits under WS conditions. For genotypic variance, statistical significance at p ≤ 0.05 was observed for all traits (Table 2). Genotypic variance decreased for GY and PH under WS. A study by Badu-Apraku et al. (2017) on early white maize in Nigeria also reported a decreased GY heritability and magnitude of genotypic variance under WS conditions. G × E interaction variance was also significant (p ≤ 0.05) for all traits in pop 1 and pop 2 indicating the substantial variation observed in terms of the performance of genotypes in different environments. We also observed significant negative correlations between GY and other yield-related traits in both WW and WS conditions (Figure 2). This suggests adopting a cautious approach when trying to improve multiple traits simultaneously under both WW and WS conditions.Linkage mapping in three bi-parental maize populations identified multiple QTLs for GY, PH, EH and ASI under WW (93) and WS (41) conditions. Previous studies have also found multiple QTLs for WS-related traits and GY in maize (Sanguineti et al., 1999;Li et al., 2016;Zhao et al., 2018;Abdelghany et al., 2019;Zhao et al., 2019;Hu et al., 2021;Sarkar et al., 2023). Although previous studies have identified QTLs and genes associated with improved GY and related traits, untapped maize populations probably harbour additional genetic variations. In our study, QTL analyses in individual bi-parental populations identified 22, 18, 49 and 45 QTLs for GY, ASI, PH and EH, respectively. The highest number of QTLs was identified in pop 3 (n = 60) and pop 2 (n = 43) under WW and WS conditions, respectively. Notably, four QTLs were identified for GY under WS (qGY4_70 (Chr. 4), qGY2_215, qGY2_185 (Chr. 2), and qGY1_195 (Chr. 1)). Under both WW and WS environments, GY-associated QTLs were distributed across all chromosomes except chr 6 and 7 (Table 3). Agrama et al. (1999) found genomic regions associated with WS tolerance on chromosomes 1, 3, 5, 6 and 8. Hu et al. (2021) reported QTLs on chromosomes 3, 5, 7 and 10 for yield-related traits under different water regimes. Comparison of QTL detected across populations revealed several common genomic regions across populations, like two QTLs, qGY1_199 in pop 1 and qGY1_195 on pop 3 were overlapped at 190-200 Mbp on chromosome 1 (Table 3). Another QTL for GY on chromosome 4 (qGY4_70) detected on pop 2 overlapped with QTL (qGY4_60) detected on pop 3. For ASI, one QTL (qASI4_175) was detected in both pop 2 and pop 3 under WW conditions (Table 4). For PH, one QTL (qPH8_130) detected under WS was located within the region of the QTL (qPH8_145) detected under WW management (Table 5). These genomic regions are most interesting to know their role in trait improvement and bring most of these favourable alleles into elite lines through marker-assisted selection. In the case of ASI, nine QTLs each were identified under WW and WS conditions. In both water regimes, chromosome 3 did not harbour any QTLs for ASI. Significant QTLs with major effects (explaining more than 10% of the phenotypic variance) were identified for GY (qGY6_89) and ASI (qASI1_107) under WS conditions.The absence of QTLs associated with GY and related traits on certain chromosomes in our analysis, compared to previous studies, highlights the complex interplay of genes and environmental pressures that significantly shape QTL identification in tropical maize. The observed disparities can be attributed to distinct maize populations and growing/management conditions employed (Ndlovu et al., 2024). This further emphasizes the need to consider these prevailing interactions when investigating genetic influences on maize traits under WS conditions.Linkage mapping uses variation within a population whereas JLAM is known to explore variations both within and across populations. This allows JLAM to detect new QTLs which are not detected through individual linkage mapping. In our study, among the 25 QTLs detected for GY under WW conditions, only two  QTLs (qGY3_208 and qGY4_70) overlapped with QTLs detected through linkage mapping. JLAM analyses revealed 25 and 4 QTLs under WW and WS conditions for GY, respectively, which were distributed across all chromosomes and individually explained 0.8-11.8% of the phenotypic variance (Table 7). JLAM results indicated that GY is controlled by many minor effect genes, as shown in low PVE for each QTL (Table 7). However, we found one major effect QTL on chromosome 6 (qGY6-89) which explained 11.8% of phenotypic variation and was found overlapping with the PH QTL (qPH6-87) on pop 2 (Tables 5, 7). Because of limited recombination events during population development, linkage mapping identifies the genomic region with 10-20 cM intervals. On the contrary, JLAM identifies the single marker which is closely linked to the causative gene for the trait of interest. Two QTLs (qGY3_208 and qGY4_70) detected through JLAM overlapped with the QTL detected in linkage mapping helped to reduce the confidence interval of the QTLs and may even be closer to the causal variant responsible for GY. On the other hand, a comparison of QTLs detected across WW and WS conditions revealed no common QTL for GY, PH and EH. On the contrary, we found four QTLs for ASI (qASI1_234, qASI8_22, qASI9_105 and qASI9_108) were consistently detected across WW and WS regimes. ASI is critical in hybrid breeding, specifically in commercial seed production and also in drought-prone regions for good seed setting. Therefore, these genomic regions are important to achieve synchrony in flowering time in diverse management.Genomic prediction demonstrated its usefulness in maize breeding by facilitating the rapid selection of superior genotypes. This was achieved by using molecular markers which help to capture maximum favourable alleles for various traits of interest. Breeding for drought tolerance is resource and time-intensive. Genomic prediction offers an alternative and complementary tool to achieve high selection efficiency with optimum resources (Beyene et al., 2015(Beyene et al., , 2019(Beyene et al., , 2021;;Atanda et al., 2021). Several studies reported that genomic-prediction-based models are effective in identifying betterperforming genotypes for GY and other agronomic and disease resistance traits (Crossa et al., 2017;Sitonik et al., 2019;Ertiro et al., 2020;Kibe et al., 2020a;Gowda et al., 2021;Ndlovu et al., 2022;Kimutai et al., 2023;Ndlovu et al., 2024). The effectiveness of GS compared to traditional phenotypic selection plays a significant role in determining its likelihood of adoption in breeding programs (Beyene et al., 2019;Kibe et al., 2020b). In our study, the moderate to high levels of prediction accuracy observed across the bi-parental populations hold the potential for enhancing breeding efforts to improve WS tolerance in tropical maize germplasm. The same trends were observed in previous studies which reported moderate to high accuracies for GY and related traits under WS (Dias et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2022). The moderate to high prediction accuracy we report here indicates that the methodology used is reliable in predicting the performance of GY and related traits in bi-parental maize populations under different water regimes. This reliability enhances the effectiveness of breeding for WS tolerance programs by enabling the selection of genotypes for desired traits more efficiently.Combining the three populations and forming the training set and testing set from the total populations resulted in substantial improvement in the prediction accuracy (Figure 3). This was due to the increase in the population size of the training set and the high relatedness between training and testing sets. Unlike other traits, GY exhibited a negative prediction accuracy for drought tolerance in population 2 under within-within and across-within prediction scenarios (Figure 3). Similar results were also reported for prediction among biparental populations of maize (Riedelsheimer and Melchinger, 2013;Sitonik et al., 2019) and sugar beet (Würschum et al., 2013). Mismatched alleles between markers linked with WS tolerance in pop 2 could explain the negative prediction accuracy. Moreover, low genotypic variation and heritability for GY response to WS conditions might have also contributed.Under WW management, the prediction accuracy for GY was 0.67, 0.58 and 0.57 in the within-within scenario for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively (Figure 3). In scenario 2, a training population combining individuals from three populations achieved prediction accuracies of 0.56, 0.59 and 0.44 for pop 1, pop 2 and pop 3, respectively (Figure 3). Though there is a reduction in accuracy for scenario 2, the recorded accuracies are still comparable to those of phenotypic selection. The recorded moderate to high prediction accuracies likely stems from the shared parentage between the studied maize populations. Breeding for WS tolerance remains a challenging task. While the reported prediction accuracies indicate some success in achieving this goal, they still fall short of those achievable through phenotypic selection. However, since it's possible to fit three maize cycles per agricultural calendar (Beyene et al., 2019)  which clearly supports the usefulness of GS in their improvement under both WW and WS conditions.The negative impact of drought on maize production has been profound, significantly impairing the livelihoods and food security of millions of people in SSA. Drought tolerance, an important trait, can play a vital role in mitigating the yield losses caused by drought in smallholder maize farming systems. Here, we investigated the genetic parameters (i.e., heritabilities and genetic-based variances), mapped QTLs for WS tolerance and assessed the potential of using GS in bi-parental maize populations evaluated under WW and WS conditions in Kenya and Zimbabwe. For these genotypes, broad sense heritabilities were low to high and genetic variances were significant for the studied traits. For GY, these parameters were decreased under WS. According to our QTL mapping results, WS tolerance in maize is controlled by multiple genes with small effects. Several QTLs identified in this study were found to be overlapping across different analyses and with earlier studies. The genomic regions consistently detected more than one population and/or traits that are promising and need to be prioritised for inclusion in marker-assisted recurrent selection. This is vital in our efforts to increase favourable alleles in selected elite maize germplasm. The specific genomic loci identified in this study can also be used in selecting for improved GY and related trait performances under WS conditions. Additionally, our results demonstrated that incorporating GS into maize breeding for WS ","tokenCount":"7266"}
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Quisiéramos agradecer a todos los financiadores que apoyaron esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/.La evidencia sobre conflictos alrededor del mundo, desde el cambio de siglo, indica una conclusión simple: los conflictos, los agravios y la inseguridad se ven cada vez más afectados por el cambio climático, la degradación ambiental, la inseguridad alimentaria y la lucha por el control un conjunto finito de recursos naturales.Este informe tiene como objetivo comprender los vínculos entre clima, conflicto, agricultura y migración en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano y ofrecer una hoja de ruta para la región, al tiempo que enfatiza el papel de la investigación y el desarrollo. Con este fin, primero necesitamos aclarar qué significa seguridad climática y cómo se relaciona con el riesgo y la resiliencia (introducción). Después exponemos las rutas causales para describir cómo el clima exacerba las causas raíz de los conflictos y la inseguridad (Sección 1). Posteriormente se realiza un análisis de redes sociales y de coherencia política para explicar cómo las personas perciben los vínculos entre clima y conflicto (Sección 2), y cómo se representan en las políticas públicas (Sección 3). También se realiza una descripción de los vínculos entre clima y seguridad para Honduras, El Salvador y Guatemala (Sección 4). Así mismo, se expone un resumen general de los indicadores que resumen el estado de seguridad climática en América Central y el Corredor Seco, así como una discusión sobre las limitaciones de dichos indicadores (Sección 5). Después se presentan las investigaciones ya existentes para los esfuerzos de desarrollo y se discute su capacidad para contribuir a la seguridad climática, mitigando sus causas raíz (Sección 6). Se ofrecen puntos de entrada para mejorar la seguridad climática en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano (Sección 7). Y, finalmente, la Sección 8 propone puntos de entrada para incorporar dimensiones de seguridad climática en el desarrollo rural, las agendas políticas de seguridad nacional y los esfuerzos de investigación regionales y nacionales.El informe muestra que la crisis climática, de seguridad y migratoria se están manejando como situaciones separadas en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano, a pesar de estar interconectadas. A través de un apoyo bien dirigido que complemente las soluciones humanitarias, políticas, sociales y de seguridad, el desarrollo y las investigaciones agrícolas pueden ayudar a las poblaciones rurales a adaptarse y mitigar los impactos del cambio climático, estabilizar los medios de vida basados en la agricultura y aumentar la paz y la seguridad.Un análisis espacial de las causas raíz del conflicto demuestra claramente que el clima tiene el potencial de exacerbar conflictos, la inseguridad y la migración. Sin embargo, los análisis de redes sociales y de coherencia de las políticas, muestran discursos desconectados de clima y seguridad, tanto en el discurso público como en las políticas. El análisis de los indicadores de riesgo climático, de paz y de seguridad compara a los países del Corredor Seco Centroamericano con otros países a nivel global y revela la desconexión entre los indicadores en términos de seguridad climática, bienestar humano y paz. En este contexto fragmentado, se argumenta que invertir en desarrollo e investigaciones agrícolas, enfocadas en aumentar la resiliencia de la producción agrícola y los medios de vida rurales en respuesta a los impactos del cambio climático, puede contribuir a reducir los conflictos y la emigración.Los puntos clave para incorporar las dimensiones de seguridad climática en el desarrollo rural, las agendas de investigación y las políticas de seguridad regionales y nacionales son: Fomentar el diálogo interministerial e intersectorial para disminuir las perspectivas compartimentadas, desarrollar una comprensión compartida de los problemas y generar acciones coordinadas y conjuntas.Aprovechar los esfuerzos existentes para juntar una variedad de socios, con el fin de cuantificar de manera integral los desafíos sociales, económicos y ambientales, así como los casos comerciales, para orientar las inversiones del sector público y privado, incluyendo los esfuerzos de investigación.Utilizar las redes regionales y las plataformas existentes de transferencia de conocimientos para repensar y rediseñar enfoques basados en las comunidades, que puedan servir eficazmente a una variedad de objetivos interrelacionados, incluidos los aspectos de desarrollo de capacidades.Figura 1. Mapeo de las interacciones de la seguridad climática y las rutas causales emergentes Figura 2. Mapeo de palabras clave sobre (a) cambio climático y producción agrícola y (b) migración e inestabilidad política en los boletines de los periódicos mexicanos . Figura 3. Mapeo de los debates en las redes sociales sobre (a) cambio climático y (b) conflicto. Figura 4. Resultados del análisis de los documentos de políticas nacionales Figura 5. Resultados del análisis de los documentos políticos regionales Figura 6. Los mapas muestran a) la distribución geográfica de los grupos de conflicto de Guatemala, b) los puntos críticos de desnutrición, c) los puntos críticos de desigualdad, d) los puntos críticosde acceso a recursos valiosos, y e) los puntos críticos de baja productividad.Figura 7. Los mapas muestran a) la distribución geográfica de los grupos de conflicto de Honduras, b) los puntos críticos de desnutrición, c) los puntos críticos de desigualdad, d) los puntos críticos de acceso a recursos valiosos, y e) los puntos críticos de baja productividad. Figura 8. Los mapas muestran a) la distribución geográfica de los grupos de conflicto de El Salvador, b) los puntos críticos de desnutrición, c) los puntos críticos de desigualdad, d) los puntos críticos de acceso a recursos valiosos, y e) los puntos críticos de baja productividad.Figura 9. Causas raíz de las rutas causales del nexo clima-seguridad alimentariaconflicto abordados en cada caso de estudio Figura 10. Causas raíz de conflicto abordadas en la revisión de portafolio y en la revisión de literatura.Tabla 1. Indicadores de paz, riesgos naturales, vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas, riesgos de seguridad y capacidades de adaptación de los países del Corredor Seco y América Latina y el Caribe.El cambio climático está teniendo graves impactos negativos en los medios de vida de los países en desarrollo. Una razón clave es que la mayoría de las oportunidades económicas y laborales dependen del sector agrícola, el cual se ve cada vez más afectado por a creciente vulnerabilidad climática en las áreas ecuatoriales del mundo (Beg et al. 2002;Campbell et al. 2016;Vermeulen et al. 2012). Algunas regiones son especialmente propensas a fenómenos climáticos extremos, entre ellos el Corredor Seco Centroamericano (CSC) (FAO 2017). Por esta razón,se calcula que Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua se ven afectados con mayor frecuencia por la variabilidad extrema de precipitaciones y sequías intensas (Stocker et al. 2013).Las sequías e inundaciones que ocurren con mayor frecuencia en el CSC representan una amenaza creciente para la seguridad alimentaria de cada Estado (Imbach et al. 2017). En palabras del secretario general de la ONU, \"Las consecuencias del asalto a nuestro planeta\" [por ejemplo, el aumento de los impactos climáticos] \"están obstaculizando nuestros esfuerzos para eliminar la pobreza y poniendo en peligro la seguridad alimentaria\" (Naciones Unidas 2020b). La creciente inseguridad alimentaria amenaza la paz. Sin paz, no hay fin para el hambre. Y, sin acciones precisas sensibles al clima, transversales para la paz y la seguridad, ninguno de estos esfuerzos tendrá éxito. Los riesgos de seguridad relacionados con el clima se manifiestan cuando los impactos del cambio climáticoexacerban las causas raíz de la inseguridad y los conflictos violentos (Brauch y Scheffran 2012).Para desglosar las relaciones no lineares entre clima y seguridad, se parte de la premisa de que el cambio climático se reconoce cada vez más como una \"amenaza\" o un \"multiplicador de amenazas\", con el potencial de exacerbar los efectos de las tensiones e inseguridades existentes (Rüttinger et al. 2015). Esto puede ser particularmente relevante para contextos caracterizados por la fragilidad, es decir, \"períodos de inestabilidad\" que \"emergen cuando los estados o las instituciones carecen de capacidad, auditoría o legitimidad\" para mitigar los riesgos de violencia (Banco Mundial 2011) En otras palabras, \"la combinación de exposición al riesgo y la capacidad de adaptacióninsuficiente del estado, el sistema y/o las comunidades para gestionar, absorber y mitigar esos riesgos\" (Desai y Forsberg 2020).Aunque existe un auge de literatura académica que examina el nexo de seguridad climática, no existe un consenso sobre una definición holística de seguridad climática. Este texto se basa en los conocimientos existentes para presentar un marco conceptual integral de seguridad climática que pueda ser útil para una amplia audiencia, incluidos investigadores, responsables políticos, profesionales del desarrollo, funcionarios gubernamentales y actores humanitarios.La idea de seguridad se ha enmarcado de múltiples maneras y en múltiples escalas, incluida la seguridad nacional e internacional, la seguridad humana y la seguridad ambiental. El marco de seguridad climática de este texto sebasa principalmente en el marco de la seguridad humana, la cual se centra en las personas, en lugar de los estados como actores clave. En lugar de centrarse en la comprensión tradicional de seguridad ligada al territorio y construida en torno al estado-nación, el enfoque de seguridad humana reconoce la necesidad de integrar la \"libertad de vivir sin miedo\" con la \"libertad para vivir sin miseria\" y legitima las preocupaciones de seguridad de las personas comunes, que enfrentan amenazas de enfermedades, hambre, desempleo, represión política, amenazas ambientales y abuso de los derechos humanos (Liotta y Owen 2006). El conflicto violento puede ser una de las formas en que la inseguridad se manifiesta, en situaciones caracterizadas por la inestabilidad y la fragilidad.Los riesgos de seguridad relacionados con el clima pueden verse como riesgos sistémicos que surgen a través de interacciones entre las dimensiones ecológica, social y económica-política. Las interacciones son \"impulsadas por uno o más factores climáticos que impactan directa y/o indirectamente la seguridad humana y que desafían la paz y la estabilidad de los estados y las sociedades\" (Weathering Risk, 2020). Los componentes clave e integrales de un marco de seguridad climática son: 1) factores de estrés climático y sus impactos en los sistemas (perspectiva climática); 2) causas raíz y actores que informan dela estabilidad económica, social y política, así como la inseguridad, en contextos específicos (perspectiva de conflicto); 3) interacciones, en contextos específicos, entre los impactos climáticos y los riesgos para la paz y la seguridad (rutas causales); y 4) factores estructurales, específicos del contexto, que moldean las vulnerabilidades y la resiliencia climáticas, incluyendo la desigualdad de género y la estratificación social (temas transversales). El informe, 'A New Climate for Peace', identifica siete riesgos de fragilidad climática (Rüttinger et al. 2015). Estos riesgos de fragilidad climática describen las vías potenciales por las cuales los impactos climáticos pueden interactuar con la inseguridad local para producir resultados de conflictivos:Competencia por recursos locales: cuando aumenta la presión sobre los recursos naturales, la competencia puede generar inestabilidad, e incluso conflictos violentos, en ausencia de mecanismos efectivos de resolución de disputas o reparto de recursos.. Los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos y las catástrofes naturales agravan los problemas de fragilidad y pueden aumentar la vulnerabilidad y los agravios de la población. La subida del nivel del mar y la degradación de las costas amenazan la viabilidad de las zonas bajas, lo que puede provocar perturbaciones sociales, desplazamientos y migraciones. Gestión transfronteriza del agua: Es una frecuente fuente de tensiones. A medida que crece la demanda y los impactos climáticos afectan a la calidad y la cantidad, la competencia por el agua aumentará la presión sobre las estructuras de gobernanza existentes. Efectos imprevistos de las políticas climáticas: A medida que se generaliza la aplicación de políticas de adaptación al cambio climático, aumenta el riesgo de que se produzcan efectos secundarios negativos y no deseados, sobre todo en contextos de conflicto. Precios y suministro de alimentos volátiles: Es probable que el cambio climático altere la producción de alimentos en muchas regiones, lo incrementaría los precios y la volatilidad de los mercados, aumentando así el riesgo de protestas, disturbios, etc. Inseguridad de los medios de vida y migración: El cambio climático puede aumentar la inseguridad de las personas que dependen de los recursos naturales para sus medios de vida, lo que puede llevarlos a emigrar o a recurrir a fuentes ilegales de ingresos.A través de estas rutas causales, los impactos climáticos no solo ponen en peligro la seguridad alimentaria, sino que también pueden desencadenar conflictos, al agravar fuentes preexistentes de inseguridad como la pobreza, la desigualdad y la fragilidad sociopolítica en general (Koren y Bagozzi 2016). En el CSC, los continuos fenómenos meteorológicos extremos y los desastres naturales, así como la degradación a largo plazo, han dado lugar a riesgos de fragilidad relacionados con la inseguridad de los medios de viday la consiguiente migración, la competencia por los recursos locales dada la falta de mecanismos de reparto de recursos y resolución de conflictos, así como la volatilidad de los precios de los alimentos y la inseguridad alimentaria. Estos riesgos agravados han contribuido a conflictos localese internos, como el crimen organizado, los homicidios, los robos y la creciente participación en el reclutamiento de grupos armados, que ponen en peligro la seguridad humana (Fogelbach 2011;Tellman et al. 2014). Las principales causas raíz subyacentes son la inestabilidad económica y la falta de oportunidades de empleo, la pérdida de tierras agrícolas y la falta de financiación para la educación. Esto último afecta especialmente a los jóvenes locales, aumentando la probabilidad de verse atraídos por grupos ilegales y actividades violentas (Olate, Salas-Wright y Vaughn 2012; Williams y Castellanos 2020).Las interacciones de los efectos sociales, económicos y políticos de la creciente variabilidad climática afectan tanto a la naturaleza como a la tasa de movilidad humana. La migración relacionada con el clima es producto de la toma de decisiones a nivel individual y familiar, así como de la dinámica de grupos más amplios (McLeman 2018). El punto de inflexión en el que se produce la migración -y el punto en el que las tasas de migración se vuelven no lineales-se sitúan bajo una serie de otros umbrales críticos; aquellos que los individuos, los hogares y las comunidades cruzan a medida que se ajustan a las condiciones climáticas cambiantes (Adger et al. 2009). En primer lugar, los cambios climáticos crean un punto de inflexión en el que es necesaria una respuesta adaptativa, la cual no se necesitaba anteriormente. Un segundo umbral se produce cuando tales medidas adaptativas dejan de tener efectos beneficiosos. Por último, se produce un tercer umbral cuando la naturaleza modificada por la relación humano-ecología exige cambios sustanciales en el uso de la tierra y/o en las estrategias de medios de vida (Adger et al, 2009). McLeman (2018) identifica otros umbrales específicamente relacionados con la migración: el primero se produce cuando la adaptación in situ ya no es posible y la migración es la única opción de adaptación válida. La variabilidad climática puede dar lugar a un menor acceso a tierras de cultivo, escasez de agua, disminución de los rendimientos agrícolas y una pérdida asociada de ingresos y nutrición, lo que socava fundamentalmente la viabilidad de los medios (rurales) de vida. Esto puede empujar a las personas sobre un umbral de decisión. Este es producto de las interacciones entre los impactos climáticos y los procesos sociales, políticos, económicos y culturales. Aunque las amenazas medioambientales pueden ser la principal causa de migración, por ejemplo, la emigración causada por catástrofes medioambientales (Naik 2009), lo más habitual es que las personas citen factores sociales y económicos como razones para emigrar. Las amenazas climáticas o medioambientales rara vez aparecen como la principal causa raíz (Black et al. 2011;Null y Risi 2016). Los impactos climáticos pueden combinarse con las vulnerabilidades del mercado, por ejemplo, para socavar la viabilidad de los medios de vida y causar desempleo, lo que a su vez da lugar a un umbral migratorio.El segundo punto de inflexión (McLeman 2018), se produce cuando las propias tasas de migración se vuelven no lineales. Esto es más evidente a escala local y está estrechamente relacionado con el tipo de impactos climáticos que experimenta una comunidad. Por ejemplo, es probable que un fenómeno climático de evolución rápida provoque un aumento no lineal inmediato de los desplazamientos: Mientras que los impactos de evolución lenta presentan desfases temporales significativos, antes de que las tasas de migración se vuelvan no lineales. Esto hace que la influencia del clima sea más difícil de verificar empíricamente, pero no significa que esté ausente. Un tercer umbral se produce cuando las tasas de migración dejan de ser no lineales, ya que la dinámica de los grupos migratorios acaba por hacer que las tasas disminuyan.Es probable que la migración producida como resultado de factores climáticos alimente los sistemas de migración preexistentes, al tiempo que puede crear otros nuevos (Ide 2020). En el Corredor Seco Centroamericano, los impactos climáticos acelerarían las tendencias socioeconómicas ya existentes, como la urbanización permanente y la migración circular del campo a la ciudad. Esto tiene el potencial de sobrecargar sistemas de gobernanza urbana ya sobrecargados: la demanda de infraestructura y servicios en las zonas urbanas supera la provisión, exacerbando así las deficiencias de servicios preexistentes y la escasez de vivienda (Rüttinger et al. 2015). Las poblaciones migrantes a menudo ven afectada su seguridad personal, ya que se ven obligadas a aceptar empleos en sectores informales no regulados. El estancamiento de las condiciones económicas y sociales también puede dar lugar a diversas formas de malestar social.Adoptar una comprensión basada en los riesgos invita a considerar cómo los sistemas pueden hacerse más resilientes a los riesgos de la fragilidad climática. En su forma más simple, la resiliencia es la capacidad de un sistema para \"recuperarse\" y volver a un estado estable luego de una perturbación externa (Chesterman, Neely y Gosling, 2020). Sin embargo, el uso de esta conceptualización limitada puede socavar las capacidades propias que las actividades de fomento de resiliencia tratan de crear. Operacionalizar el concepto de resiliencia requiere responder a preguntas como ¿la resiliencia de quién?, ¿la resiliencia a qué? y ¿en qué contexto? y ¿\"quién decide, basando en qué sistema de valores\"? (Cote y Nightingale 2012;Leach 2008).Existe una amplia tipología de conceptualizaciones de la resiliencia, definidas de forma diferente en función de los actores implicados, la escala a la que se entiende el desarrollo de la resiliencia y las modalidades bajo las que se lleva a cabo. Este trabajo aplica la siguiente taxonomía (Ferguson 2019; Methmann y Oels 2015): Capacidad de absorción: Es la capacidad de un sistema para recuperarse a un estado de estabilidad previa, cuando está sujeto al impacto de una perturbación exógena. En el contexto de desarrollo de resiliencia a los cambios climáticos, esto puede incluir realizar cosechas tempranas para reducir la inseguridad alimentaria. Capacidad de adaptación: La capacidad de un sistema para ajustarse, modificarse o cambiarse a sí mismo para mitigar amenazas futuras. En términos de clima, esto puede incluir, por ejemplo, la introducción de semillas resistentes a la sequía. Capacidad de transformación: Un sistema crea un sistema fundamentalmente nuevo que no es susceptible, o menos susceptible, a los impactos del cambio climático, al reorganizarse a un nivel fundamental para reducir la exposición, la vulnerabilidad y la susceptibilidad.La resiliencia es esencial para entender cómo los riesgos de fragilidad climática, en condiciones específicas, influyen sobre el nexo clima-fragilidad-conflicto, y también para comprender cómo los riesgos pueden relacionarse con un posible nexo climaresiliencia-paz. Este marco de riesgo-resiliencia integra tanto un ciclo negativo, que va de la fragilidad a la vulnerabilidad, la inseguridad humana y la posibilidad de conflictos violentos, como un ciclo positivo, o virtuoso, en el que unas instituciones estables e inclusivas pueden mejorar la resiliencia de una sociedad para generar vías hacia la seguridad humana y la paz. Para hacer realidad y poner en práctica el doble dividendo de la resiliencia en términos de cambio climático y paz, es necesario tener en cuenta las complejidades específicas del contexto y las dinámicas socioeconómicas, superar las barreras institucionales y políticas y comunicarse a través de núcleos temáticos regionales. Los esfuerzos de adaptación serían entonces los de una paz positiva y las iniciativas de desarrollo y consolidación de la paz serían sensibles al clima (Vivekananda, Schilling y Smith, 2014).Esto requiere que cualquier actividad planificada articule el tipo de resiliencia que pretende infundir, y de qué manera ese tipo de resiliencia actúa para mitigar los riesgos de conflicto, inmediato o a largo plazo. Dado que los motores de una paz resiliente al clima (sostenibilidad y resiliencia) son también los que apuntalan a una paz positiva (como instituciones inclusivas y responsables), integrar una perspectiva sensible a la seguridad climática en las intervenciones del CGIAR no sólo ayudaría a garantizar que dichas intervenciones no causen daño, sino que también podría contribuir a la transformación más amplia, a nivel de todo el sistema, necesaria para construir resiliencia climática y contribuir a una paz resiliente al clima. Esto nos lleva de nuevo a las preguntas \"¿resiliencia de qué tipo y para quién?\" y \"¿quién decide, sobre la base de qué sistema de valores?\" (Cote y Nightingale 2012;Leach 2008). ¿Puede la investigación agrícola para el desarrollo (AR4D), cuyo objetivo es ayudar a las poblaciones rurales a adaptarse y mitigar los efectos del cambio climático, aportar perspectivas, conocimientos y soluciones a la comunidad académica y a los responsables políticos en materia de paz y seguridad? ¿Cómo podrían estas soluciones convertirse en componentes complementarios de las soluciones humanitarias, políticas, sociales y de seguridad? En los últimos años, los académicos han estado debatiendo la relación entre clima y conflicto, confirmando que con sequías y una mayor variabilidad en las precipitaciones, así como un historial de guerras civiles, las comunidades son más susceptibles a actos de violencia (O'Loughlin et al. 2012;Raleigh, Choi y Kniveton 2015). Estas condiciones han estado presentes en el CSC, aunque las investigaciones que se centran específicamente en el nexo clima -seguridad alimentaria -conflicto en esta zona geográfica siguen siendo escasas (Adams et al. 2018). Muchos estudios se han basado en la seguridad alimentaria como uno de los principales impulsores del conflicto, (Fjelde y von Uexkull 2012; Hendrix y Brinkman 2013; Martin-Shields y Stojetz 2019; Nordkvelle, Rustad, y Salmivalli 2017;Raleigh, Choi, y Kniveton 2015), dejando sin respuesta la pregunta sobre el vínculo entre la inseguridad alimentaria inducida por el clima y el conflicto.Existe una gran oportunidad para combinar las perspectivas de la literatura sobre el cambio climático y los estudios sobre seguridad alimentaria y demostrar su relación con el nexo de seguridad climática. Pero, la mayoría de los actores, instituciones y grupos de interés del CSC no consideran que el clima y la seguridad estén vinculados de forma crítica, por lo que se tratan como fenómenos separados, aunque complejos. Este documento muestra que existen importantes vínculos entre los sistemas alimentarios, el clima, la seguridad y la migración en el CSC, identifica puntos de entrada para políticas y programas que alineen los objetivos climáticos, de sistemas alimentarios y de paz, y explica el papel de la investigación y el desarrollo agrícola para promover la paz y la seguridad.Las rutas causales de seguridad climática se basan en los riesgos de fragilidad climática descritos en la introducción. Estas rutas causales visualizan y mapean las interacciones de variables y condiciones clave por las que es probable que surja y se desarrolle un riesgo potencial de fragilidad climática en la región del CSC. Operando dentro de un marco basado en el riesgo, las rutas causales demuestran cómo estas variables, condiciones y características interactúan, a través de una gama de dimensiones y escalas del sistema (social), y pueden aumentar la aparición de resultados de inestabilidad, inseguridad y y conflicto.Centroamérica es muy vulnerable a los impactos de la variabilidad climática debido a su ubicación geográfica, el tipo de suelo, la dinámica de la atmósfera y el terreno (Pachauri et al. 2007). La región se ve fuertemente afectada por el aumento de las temperaturas, las sequías extremas y las tormentas tropicales destructivas. Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua se encuentran entre los 50 países que han demostrado verse más afectados por los riesgos climáticos entre 1999 y 2018 (Eckstein et al. 2019). Se prevé que estas dinámicas climáticas sigan socavando el acceso a recursos naturales clave, así como su disponibilidad y productividad, lo que contribuiría a la competencia local -y potencialmente a la violencia-por el acceso y el uso (Detges et al. 2020). Esto es especialmente significativo en el contexto del CSC, debido al grado en el que la economía regional depende de la agricultura a pequeña escala: En Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua, más de dos tercios de la población dependen de la agricultura, cuya viabilidad está íntimamente ligada a ecosistemas cada vez más amenazados por la variabilidad climática (Bouroncle et al. 2017;Baca et al. 2014). Al mismo tiempo, se espera que aumente la demanda de productos alimenticios, ya que, por ejemplo, Guatemala yHonduras se encuentran entre los tres países que experimentaron el crecimiento demográfico más rápido de América Latina y el Caribe entre 2009 y 2019 (OIM 2020).La competencia local aumentaría en un contexto de entorno social e institucional frágil caracterizado por una historia de exclusión y marginalización social, económica y política. Los conflictos pasados en Centroamérica, como la guerra civil salvadoreña (1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992) y la guerra civil guatemalteca , destruyeron la cohesión social y la confianza entre sectores de la población. En El Salvador, casi 80.000 personas fueron asesinadas durante la guerra civil, 550.000 fueron desplazadas y 500.000 se convirtieron en refugiados en otros países (Manz 2008). Durante los 36 años de guerra civil en Guatemala, más de 200.000 personas murieron o desaparecieron y 1,5 millones más fueron desplazadas. Gran parte de la violencia se dirigió contra las comunidades indígenas que protestaban por la desigualdad y la marginalización económica, social y política (HMH 2020). La falta de confianza institucional sigue presente entre muchas comunidades indígenas hasta el día de hoy, en parte debido a la ausencia de justicia restaurativa para las comunidades y personas afectadas. Por lo tanto, los impactos climáticos pueden aumentar la presión en contextos ya caracterizados por una baja confianza social, una baja capacidad institucional y altos grados de marginalización socioeconómica, reduciendo así las perspectivas de que la competencia inducida por el clima se resuelva de forma equitativa y pacífica (Detges et al. 2020). Estas condiciones también hacen que Centroamérica sea vulnerable a las crisis agrícolas, las fluctuaciones en los precios de los alimentos y la inseguridad alimentaria. Las estimaciones muestran que más de 5,2 millones de personas sufrieron inseguridad alimentaria grave entre 2016 y 2018 (FAO et al. 2019). Hay pruebas sólidas que sugieren que el rápido aumento de los precios de los alimentos y la inseguridad alimentaria pueden combinarse con otras presiones y agravios que generarían protestas, disturbios políticos y violencia (Lagi, Bertrand y Bar-Yam 2011;Sternberg 2012).La variabilidad climática también puede afectar a la estabilidad social, la paz y la seguridad a través de otras rutas causales. El aumento de la presión sobre los medios de vida rurales repercute negativamente en la seguridad alimentaria y en la disponibilidad y rentabilidad de las oportunidades de empleo, dentro y fuera de las explotaciones agrícolas, reforzando así las tendencias de movilidad humana existentes, sobre todo la migración interna del campo a la ciudad. La relación entre los cambios climáticos (de evolución lenta) y la migración es intrínsecamente compleja. Es probable que los efectos del clima se manifiesten a través de canales intermedios y actúen como impulsores de la migración solo en combinación con otros factores, a menudo exacerbando la gravedad de otros incentivos migratorios, quizás más primarios (Black et al. 2011). Además, la migración -aunque en muchos casos sirve como estrategia de adaptación viable (Bosetti, Cattaneo y Peri 2020)-no es una estrategia al alcance de todos. La decisión de migrar se ve atenuada por los obstáculos y facilitadores que intervienen, como el coste del traslado, factores contextuales como la presencia de conflictos, y los marcos institucionales y jurídicos que pueden limitar o permitir el movimiento. Del mismo modo, la naturaleza exacta de los movimientos migratorios (en caso de que se tome la decisión de migrar), vendrá determinada, tanto por las características del hogar, como por factores contextuales más amplios. Los movimientos migratorios pueden, por ejemplo, producirse a distancias y escalas temporales más largas o más cortas, y pueden ser de naturaleza circular o estacional. Además, como señalan Fréguin-Gresh et al. ( 2019), el papel que desempeña la migración en la generación de ingresos familiares y el acceso a fuentes de alimentos debe considerarse dentro de un sistema de actividad con ubicaciones múltiples, en el que la norma es la dispersión de los miembros del hogar a través de diferentes estrategias de generación de ingresos (Fréguin-Gresh et al. 2019). Estas estrategias de ingresos se despliegan a través de diferentes escalas y unidades, incluyendo actividades agrícolas y actividades no agrícolas a nivel local. Por lo tanto, el riesgo se diversifica a través de múltiples fuentes de ingresos, y es probable que las remesas contribuyan de forma significativa a los ingresos totales de muchos hogares. Sin embargo, a medida que las estrategias in situ de gestión de riesgos o de adaptación al clima se vean cada vez más limitadas por las presiones climáticas (causantes, por ejemplo, de la falta de insumos agrícolas y la reducción de los rendimientos), es probable que aumente la importancia relativa de los ingresos migratorios. Otras personas, sin capacidad para desplazarse en tiempos de crisis, pueden acabar \"atrapadas\" en zonas vulnerables al clima (Milan y Ruano 2014;Freeman 2017), o atrapadas en espacios de detención y tránsito como los refugios para migrantes, como sucedió durante la pandemia (Vega Villaseñor y Camus Bergareche 2021). Además, la reciente deportación masiva de migrantes centroamericanos por parte del gobierno estadounidense no sólo amplificó el riesgo de contagio del COVID-19, sino que también provocó graves inseguridades relacionadas con la alimentación y la salud a las que se enfrentan los migrantes (Hanlon y Nolin 2021).una fuente de ingresos, como una cubierta para la expansión de las actividades relacionadas con las drogas. Los migrantes, objeto de tráfico ilícito, suelen ser víctimas de prácticas depredadoras y, en ocasiones, de violencia (OIM 2020). Tal y como se describe con más detalle en la siguiente sección, la mayor parte de la migración transfronteriza desde el Corredor Seco se ha dirigido hacia el norte. Muchos de estos migrantes, si no la mayoría, pretenden llegar a Estados Unidos en busca de medios de vida, acceso a bienes y servicios y, sobre todo, seguridad y protección. Es difícil determinar el grado exacto en que los cambios climáticos han contribuido a estos movimientos. Sin embargo, las investigaciones sobre la relación entre la tasa de migración mexicana a Estados Unidos y la variabilidad climática revelaron que el número de migrantes aumentaba durante los periodos de sequía (Feng, Krueger y Oppenheimer, 2010). Esto sugiere que es probable que el clima desempeñe al menos un papel aditivo a la hora de incentivar los movimientos migratorios. El grado en que un número comparativamente pequeño de migrantes ha alimentado la agitación política en Estados Unidos es una prueba más de cómo el impacto difuso e indirecto del clima puede contribuir a crear nuevas tensiones o a exacerbar las ya existentes. Figura 1. Mapa de las interacciones de la seguridad climática y las rutas causales emergentesEn 2020, había alrededor de 580.000 refugiados y solicitantes de asilo procedentes de la región norte de Centroamérica, debido al empeoramiento de la delincuencia y la violencia en el país, junto con la fragilidad de las instituciones y el aumento de las desigualdades (ACNUR 2021).Los huracanes Eta y Iota afectaron aproximadamente a 7,3 millones de personas en Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua y causaron estragos en la producción de alimentos básicos justo antes de la época de cosecha (UNICEF 2021). Los desastres naturales como las sequías, los huracanes y los incendios dejan a las personas sin medios de vida, y especialmente aquellas que ya eran vulnerables.Las desigualdades sociales y el cambio climático están estrechamente relacionados. La relación triangular entre pobreza-migración-cambio climático en el CSC es un reto cada vez más apremiante y creciente. Sin embargo, pareciera que la opinión pública no entiende esta relación de la misma manera, a pesar de que la inflación de la canasta familiar y el malestar social se han emparejado claramente con conflictos (Granados Martínez 2017). Se analiza, como estudio de caso, 30 boletines recientes de los medios de comunicación de seis periódicos importantes de México, seleccionados mediante la búsqueda de las palabras clave cambio climático y producción agrícola, y migración e inestabilidad política. Se utilizaron recuentos de palabras recurrentes para generar nubes de palabras para ambasbúsquedas. Éstas demuestran claramente la falta de coincidencia entre las narrativas sobre migración y cambio climático. Los periodistas y lectores sí relacionaron el cambio climático con la biodiversidad y la conservación de los recursos naturales, la agricultura, los suelos, las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y la seguridad alimentaria. Pero, incluso cuando el COVID-19 se incorporó a los debates sobre la productividad agrícola en relación con el cambio climático, sólo se hizo una mínima referencia a las cuestiones en torno al desplazamiento, la migración y la vulnerabilidad de las personas y la pobreza. Las cuestiones de desarrollo y las referencias políticas al comercio mundial fueron algo más frecuentes (Figura 2a,b). Los debates en los medios de comunicación sobre la migración y la inestabilidad política muestran pautas similares de desconexión. La problemática migratoria estuvo inequívocamente presente en todo el CSC, como demuestra el elevado número de menciones recurrentes a todos los países relevantes. Las cuestiones migratorias giraron principalmente en torno a la violencia de género y el crimen organizado. Especialmente en este contexto, fue sorprendente encontrar una ausencia total de la narrativa de la seguridad alimentaria: las dificultades económicas y los problemas relacionados con los ingresos, así como las perturbaciones debidas a la pandemia, sólo aparecieron en un segundo plano. Esta ausencia puede explicarse, en parte, por la gran preocupación por los feminicidios en México y el estilo periodístico (por ejemplo, prensa sensacionalista) de los reportajes (Figura 2).La conclusión general es clara: en los principales medios de comunicación, el nexo entre clima y seguridad rara vez se identifica como tal, y rara vez se considera una causa raíz de la inestabilidad socioeconómica. Se realizó un ejercicio más exhaustivo investigando las publicaciones en las redes sociales (Twitter), para ver si los responsables políticos establecen en sus comunicaciones una conexión entre clima y conflicto. Se utilizó un análisis de redes para identificar palabras clave y términos que aparecen en proximidad y se visualizó la fuerza de su relación. Las palabras clave, relacionadas a clima, conflicto e impactos socioeconómicos se seleccionaron con base a los términos de referencia de las rutas causales . En este caso, los nodos de la red estaban compuestos por palabras presentes en el corpus de tuits (Jacomy et al. 2014). Se ejecutó este análisis para una selección de ministerios nacionales y los gobiernos centrales de Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua.La Figura 3a,b presenta visualizaciones de redes de términos relacionados con clima (izquierda) y términos relacionados con conflictos (derecha) para los países del CSC. En general, las palabras clave de cada tema aparecen en los bordes de las redes, como \"clima\", \"delincuencia\" o \"violencia\". Los términos situados en el centro de las redes son los que se ha detectado que aparecen en proximidad a las palabras clave dentro de los tuits. Nuestros resultados muestran que los temas centrales de los tuits relacionados con el clima, el agua y la lluvia, se asociaron frecuentemente con la productividad agrícola, la pobreza, la seguridad alimentaria y la migración. Palabras relacionadas con conflictos como \"seguridad\" y \"bandas\" sí aparecen en la red climática, lo que sugiere que algunos responsables políticos son conscientes de los vínculos entre el clima y las inseguridades sociopolíticas. ¿Qué importancia tiene el vínculo percibido? El gráfico de conflicto (Figura 3b) está dominado por la seguridad como tema central. Existe una clara conexión entre la violencia y la seguridad de las comunidades, como muestra el grupo verde. También encontramos pruebas de que algunas de las causas raíz de la seguridad climática, representados por la palabra \"producción\", están a veces vinculados al discurso en torno a la seguridad nacional. Por otro lado, en la figura 3a, se observa que las conexiones más fuertes para \"seguridad\" son \"alimentos\", lo que significa que la palabra aparece en la red climática sobre todo relacionada con la \"seguridad alimentaria\", más que con la seguridad relacionada con conflictos. Esto sugiere que la concienciación de los actores gubernamentales sobre la implicación de los impactos climáticos en los conflictos y la seguridad no es notablemente alta. La crisis climática exige que los responsables políticos comprendan claramente cuándo, dónde y cómo los impactos climáticos pueden traducirse en inseguridades. Deben examinar más de cerca las políticas que abordan las inseguridades existentes y cómo éstas interactúan con la crisis climática. Algunas políticas tendrán que rediseñarse desde la óptica de la seguridad climática, mientras que otras tendrán que desarrollarse de nuevo.Por lo tanto, es pertinente preguntarse: ¿Hasta qué punto se han diseñado e implementado políticas climáticas y de seguridad nacional con una perspectiva de seguridad climática? Para responder a esta pregunta, se analizaron documentos políticos a nivel nacional y regional. A nivel nacional, se analizaron 28 documentos de políticas de ocho países de la región: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Nicaragua y Panamá, que abarcan todo el Corredor Seco Centroamericano e incluyen Colombia y México. También se analizaron cuatro documentos de políticas del Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA) para el ámbito regional.Los documentos de políticas nacionales corresponden a los actuales planes de desarrollo, políticas migratorias, políticas de seguridad nacional y políticas de gestión de riesgos de desastres. A nivel regional, se buscaron políticas similares en las mismas categorías. Se recompilaron los datos mediante una búsqueda de documentos en Internet, principalmente en los sitios web oficiales de los gobiernos.Para llevar a cabo la investigación, se utilizó el análisis de textos y de datos para obtener una base de datos de palabras a partir de los documentos procesados (Silge y Robinson 2016;Statsoft 2020). Para generar patrones, métricas de tendencias, etc., se aplicaron procesos de limpieza de datos no estructurados como: eliminación de palabras reservadas (preposiciones, artículos, etc.), símbolos y números, entre otros elementos de los documentos que no forman parte del análisis narrativo. Por último, se cuantificó la frecuencia de las palabras en los textos analizados.Para integrar la perspectiva de seguridad climática en el análisis, se buscaron palabras clave relacionadas con el clima, la seguridad y los factores socioeconómicos en cada tipo de documento político. Las palabras clave utilizadas para el análisis fueron: Clima: Cambio climático, variabilidad climática, temperatura, lluvia, sequía, enfermedad, inundación, deforestación, degradación, escasez, adaptación, recursos naturales, gestión del riesgo de catástrofes, pérdidas. Factores socioeconómicos: Tenencia de la tierra, pobreza, seguridad alimentaria, nutrición, migración, desplazamiento, agricultura, rural, malnutrición, comunidad, alimentos. Conflictos: Conflicto, drogas, cártel, manifestación, protesta, narcotráfico, homicidio, pandilla, crimen, violencia, seguridad.Se midió la importancia de cada palabra clave por su presencia o ausencia en los textos. Se calculó el nivel de uso de estas palabras en los textos procesados en forma de tasa (%). Los resultados se resumen en la Figura 4 para los documentos de políticas nacionales y en la Figura 5 para los de políticas regionales.Los planes nacionales de desarrollo integran ampliamente el cambio climático, la seguridad y los factores socioeconómicas. Sin embargo, las causas raíz socioeconómicas tienen mayor intensidad en los documentos, seguidos del cambio climático y los conflictos. Sorprendentemente, algunos hallazgos corresponden a la falta de integración de los temas climáticos en México y los temas de conflicto en Colombia y Panamá.Las políticas de gestión del riesgo de desastres integran ampliamente los factores climáticos; sin embargo, existe un vacío con respecto a los factores socioeconómicos y de conflicto. Los países que más incorporan el cambio climático son Panamá, Honduras y Costa Rica, en contraste con México, que integra el clima en menor medida. Esto último puede deberse a que las cuestiones relativas a la gestión del riesgo de catástrofes entran dentro de la ley general de protección civil, que aborda cuestiones más amplias.políticas migratorias responden esencialmente a factores socioeconómicos; sin embargo, integran escasamente el cambio climático y las cuestiones relativas a los conflictos. Panamá, Guatemala y Costa Rica integran las categorías de cambio climático y conflicto en mayor medida que los demás; sin embargo, su presencia no es fuerte.Las políticas de seguridad nacional integran ampliamente los factores de conflicto y socioeconómicos; sin embargo, no consideran los temas climáticos. Los temas climáticos están presentes en mayor medida en países como Nicaragua y Guatemala.(1) responden principalmente a cuestiones socioeconómicas y de cambio climático. Las políticas regionales con mayor inclusión del cambio climático son la Política Centroamericana para la Gestión Integral de Riesgo de Desastres (PCGIR) y la Política Agropecuaria de la Región SICA (PAR). La PCGIR tiene el mayor nivel de inclusión, esto se refleja en la naturaleza de la política ya que está vinculada principalmente a los riesgos generados por el clima. La PAR integra en gran medida el tema del cambio climático ya que es crucial no ignorar que la actividad agrícola es altamente vulnerable a los cambios del clima. A pesar de lo anterior, los temas de conflicto sólo aparecen levemente en la Política Social Integral Regional (PSIR) del SICA, lo que sugiere posibles vacíos en cuanto a los temas de conflicto en las políticas, especialmente en aquellas que combinan e integran fuertemente los temas socioeconómicos y de cambio climático.En general, es evidente que las categorías de clima, conflicto y socioeconomía están desconectadas entre sí en la mayoría de los documentos. Sin embargo, la crisis climática es una realidad. Cada día impacta más severamente a los países de la región, por lo que las autoridades nacionales y regionales deben comenzar a reconocer que estos impactos negativos pueden traducirse en inseguridades, exacerbando los desafíos que actualmente enfrentan en materia socioeconómica y de conflictos.(1) Las políticas regionales incluidas en el estudio son: La Política Centroamericana de la Gestión Integral del Riesgo de Desastres (PCGIR), la Política Social Integral Regional del SICA (PSIR) 2020-2040, la Estrategia Centroamericana de Desarrollo Rural (ECADERT), la Política Agrícola para la Región del SICA (PAR) 2019-2030. Figura 5. Resultados del análisis de los documentos políticos regionales. Fuente: Autores, utilizando programación R y varios paquetes de visualización de análisis de textos.Sobre la base de los resultados del análisis de rutas causales de seguridad climática, esta sección mapea los puntos críticos de seguridad climática y sus causas subyacentes para informar las políticas y su programación.Se analizaron tres países, Guatemala, Honduras y El Salvador, durante el período para el cual había datos disponibles (2018-2020) en la base de datos de ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project) (ACLED s.f.). Distinguimos entre la intensidad del conflicto, medida por el número total de eventos, y la diversidad, medida por el número de conflictos de distinto tipo. Encontramos que la intensidad de los conflictos es generalmente mayor en Honduras, seguido por Guatemala y luego El Salvador. En estos países, las pandillas y los grupos armados no estatales son, por mucho, los principales actores violentos, ya que son responsables de prácticamente todas las \"batallas\" (enfrentamientos armados), y de la violencia contra civiles (principalmente atentados).La caracterización espacial del nexo entre clima y seguridad pretende identificar las localidades en las que coexisten inseguridades climáticas, conflictos y otras inseguridades. El enfoque utilizado en este análisis reconoce la variabilidad espacial del clima, los conflictos, la inseguridad alimentaria y los demás factores, pero intenta sintetizar esta variabilidad en un conjunto manejable de grupos o clases por dimensión de interés (por ejemplo, clima, inseguridad alimentaria, recursos naturales) que pueden utilizarse para identificar puntos críticos. La información sobre estas localidades puede utilizarse para establecer prioridades C A U S A S R A Í Z geoespaciales y orientar las intervenciones. Para ello, identificamos puntos críticos de clima y conflicto. Y, a continuación, superpusimos otras inseguridades existentes como, por ejemplo, los recursos naturales y agrícolas y la vulnerabilidad socioeconómica. Las siguientes secciones exploran la variación espacial de los conflictos, el clima, la inseguridad alimentaria y otras causas raíz (Figuras 6-8).En Guatemala, predominan los climas con un corto periodo canicular (MSD, por sus siglas en inglés), pero varían ampliamente en intensidad en todo el país y dentro de los grupos de conflicto. Los grupos de conflicto extremo y alto están dominados por climas con periodos caniculares cortos, pero con sequía extrema (100% y 82% de los municipios, respectivamente). En el grupo de conflicto moderado, por el contrario, estas condiciones de periodo canicular corto y sequía extrema se dan sólo en el 5% de los municipios, pero los periodos caniculares cortos, con sequía leve o insignificante son más dominantes (32,5% en cada caso). El grupo de conflicto limitado, por otro lado, muestra un 39% de municipios en el clima de periodo canicular corto con sequía extrema, seguido de un periodo canicular corto con sequía leve (27%).Los departamentos de Baja Verapaz, Huehuetenango y Quiché muestran los mayores problemas de inseguridad nutricional. En muchas de las zonas en las que se identifican puntos críticos de desnutrición, la desigualdad también es un problema. Se debe prestar especial atención al oeste de Guatemala debido a la importante presencia de brechas de género.Los puntos críticos de baja productividad se concentran principalmente en las zonas de agricultura de subsistencia, al sur de Quiché, Huehuetenango y los departamentos de Chimaltenango, Totonicapán, Sololá y Quetzaltenango, y en menor medida en el sur.Las áreas de alta conflictividad se asocian a una alta accesibilidad de concesiones mineras, y en menor medida, a la combinación de minería y cultivos comerciales, y a la combinación de éstos con áreas de deforestación. En las zonas de conflicto moderado, observamos una mayor prevalencia de puntos de acceso a la deforestación (departamento de Petén) y presencia de cultivos comerciales (sur).En conclusión, se debe prestar especial atención a las áreas rurales y periurbanas alrededor de la Ciudad de Guatemala, que muestran una alta ocurrencia de conflictos y al mismo tiempo son socialmente vulnerables. También se destacan las zonas con agricultura de subsistencia en Huehuetenango, Quiché y Baja Verapaz, donde la vulnerabilidad social es alta y las condiciones climáticas pueden exacerbar esta vulnerabilidad. Aunque estas zonas están clasificadas como de conflictividad limitada, los conflictos siguen siendo frecuentes. Figura 6. Los mapas muestran a) la distribución geográfica de los grupos de conflicto en Guatemala, b) los puntos críticos de desnutrición, c) los puntos críticos de desigualdad, d) los puntos críticos de acceso a recursos valiosos, y e) los puntos críticos de baja productividad.En Honduras, las condiciones de canículas largas y extremadamente secas dominan en todos los grupos de conflicto, pero especialmente en el grupo de alta diversidad -alta intensidad (75% de los municipios). A medida que se reduce la intensidad del conflicto y la diversidad del conflicto, también lo hace el predominio de este tipo de clima, con un 43,3% de municipios con periodo canicular largo y extremadamente seco en el grupo de diversidad de conflicto moderado -grupo de conflicto de baja intensidad, y un 27,7% de municipios en el grupo de diversidad de conflicto bajogrupo de conflicto de baja intensidad.Una alta inseguridad nutricional se encuentra en el oeste, en los departamentos de Copán, Intibucá, Lempira y Ocotepeque. La desnutrición también es un problema importante en zonas específicas del departamento de Madre de Dios (este de Honduras). En muchas de las zonas en las que se han identificado puntos críticos de desnutrición, la desigualdad también es un problema. Debe prestarse especial atención al occidente de Honduras debido a la importante presencia de brechas de género.Los puntos críticos se dan hacia el sur (Golfo de Fonseca), pero también en el oeste, donde la desnutrición y la desigualdad son problemáticas. Del mismo modo, tanto en Guatemala como en Honduras, la alta conflictividad y la conflictividad moderada coexisten con áreas de densidad minera y/o minera-cultivos comerciales.En conclusión, las zonas del sur de Honduras (departamento de Choluteca) muestran una vulnerabilidad social y biofísica significativa, a la vez que una conflictividad de moderada a alta. En estas zonas encontramos sistemas de cultivos básicos de baja productividad, combinados con alta accesibilidad a concesiones mineras y cierta presencia de cultivos comerciales (algodón, café). También se destacan las zonas del occidente de Honduras (Copán, Intibucá, Lempira), donde la inseguridad nutricional es alta, pero la conflictividad tiene baja intensidad y diversidad. El Salvador muestra las condiciones climáticas más favorables de los tres países. A través de los grupos de conflicto, la canícula corta con sequía leve ocurre en el 95% de los municipios con diversidad de conflicto moderada, en el 86% de los municipios con diversidad de conflicto alta y en el 62% de los municipios con diversidad de conflicto baja.Los problemas de inseguridad nutricional se concentran hacia las fronteras con Honduras y Guatemala, lo que sugiere una probable relación con la migración. En muchas de las zonas en las que se identifican puntos críticos de desnutrición, la desigualdad también es un problema. Debe prestarse especial atención al suroeste de El Salvador debido a las importantes brechas de género.La baja productividad se concentra hacia el oeste del país, en la frontera con Guatemala. Los conflictos de alta diversidad tienden a producirse cerca de las zonas de deforestación, mientras que los conflictos moderados son más probables en las zonas de cultivos comerciales.En conclusión, los puntos críticos de vulnerabilidad tienden a cubrir las zonas fronterizas (tanto con Honduras como con Guatemala). Aunque estas zonas no presentan una alta conflictividad, sí muestran una alta prevalencia de retraso en el crecimiento. Las zonas de alta conflictividad de El Salvador tienden a asociarse con el acceso a los recursos forestales, mientras que el grupo de conflictividad moderada muestra una baja productividad agrícola de los cultivos básicos, una alta densidad de cultivos comerciales y, en menor medida, acceso a los recursos forestales.Figura 8. Los mapas muestran a) la distribución geográfica de los grupos de conflicto en El Salvador, b) los puntos críticos de desnutrición, c) los puntos críticos de desigualdad, d) los puntos críticos de acceso a recursos valiosos, y e) los puntos críticos de baja productividad.Las evaluaciones e indicadores convencionales, que miden el alcance y la calidad de la paz y la seguridad, no suelen reconocer el papel que el clima puede desempeñar en la inseguridad y los conflictos. Como ya se ha mencionado, el clima tiene el potencial de amenazar la estabilidad de los Estados y las sociedades al exacerbar los riesgos, las vulnerabilidades y las inseguridades socioeconómicas y políticas, así como la inseguridad alimentaria, la pobreza, las migraciones forzosas, los desplazamientos y la desigualdad, que son, en última instancia, las causas raíz de la inestabilidad, las tensiones y los conflictos. A pesar del creciente reconocimiento del papel del clima como \"multiplicador de amenazas\", los actuales indicadores de paz y seguridad no cuantifican con precisión los impactos del cambio climático o la variabilidad climática sobre los riesgos, vulnerabilidades e inseguridades existentes que pueden aumentar el riesgo de conflicto. Esto es especialmente importante en muchos países en desarrollo, incluidos los de la región del CSC, que están muy expuestos y son muy vulnerables a los fenómenos y amenazas climáticas. Incluso muchos países pacíficos de la región del CSC están expuestos regularmente a riesgos diversificados que tienen un potencial desestabilizador notablemente alto a nivel nacional, regional y local. Sin embargo, los indicadores de seguridad y paz no miden adecuadamente este riesgo o, en el mejor de los casos, lo hacen de forma marginal.Del mismo modo, los profesionales, donantes, inversores y responsables políticos nacionales e internacionales de los sectores del clima y la seguridad han trabajado hasta ahora de forma aislada, sin ser plenamente conscientes de las complejas ypolifacéticas interrelaciones entre estas dos dimensiones. Y, por tanto, ignorando las implicaciones del clima para la seguridad y viceversa. Por un lado, los programas de adaptación y resiliencia climáticas no suelen tener en cuenta los conflictos, lo que puede acarrear consecuencias imprevistas, como el refuerzo de las causas raíz estructurales y contextuales de los conflictos. Existen varios ejemplos de medidas de adaptación insensibles al conflicto que han aumentado el potencial de conflicto al dañar las perspectivas económicas, socavar la estabilidad política y amplificar las desigualdades sociales y los agravios (Krampe, Smith y Hamidi 2021; Baysal y Uluç Karakaş 2017). Este es, por ejemplo, el caso de la presa de Salma en Afganistán que, a pesar de haber sido construida como un esfuerzo para aumentar la producción de energía renovable, reducir las emisiones de GEI y mejorar los sistemas de riego, afectó negativamente a la paz de las comunidades río abajo. La deficiente gestión de la presa, que ignoró las necesidades de algunos de los agricultores, incrementó los agravios sobre el acceso al agua y aumentó el nivel de inestabilidad y conflicto locales (Krampe, Smith y Hamidi, 2021; Baysal y Karakaş, 2017).Por otro lado, los enfoques tradicionales de consolidación de la paz tienden a no considerar al clima, no tienen en cuenta las complejas conexiones entre clima y conflicto y, por lo tanto, están mal equipados para responder al entorno de seguridad cada vez más complejo en el que operan (Krampe 2019). Por lo tanto, esta sección aboga por el desarrollo de indicadores y mediciones mejorados que consideren, tanto al clima como al conflicto. Tal esfuerzo ayudará a los profesionales, donantes, inversores y responsables políticos a comprender mejor cómo se desarrollan las dinámicas climáticas y de conflicto en contextos específicos, identificando las áreas y los grupos más vulnerables a las inseguridades generadas por el clima. Y, posteriormente, a implementar estrategias adecuadas sensibles a la seguridad climática que integren los vínculos entre clima, conflicto, agricultura y migración.Los indicadores son herramientas útiles para facilitar el análisis, el estudio y la comparación de realidades complejas mediante la creación de una representación numérica y visual de dicha realidad. El principal reto es la definición de los conceptos, dada la falta de consenso sobre la conceptualización de paz y seguridad. Aun así, los indicadores de paz y seguridad siguen siendo una herramienta valiosa para informar a académicos, profesionales, donantes, inversores y responsables políticos nacionales e internacionales sobre una realidad complicada y heterogénea. Para ilustrar el contexto de paz y seguridad de los países de la región del CSC, este análisis utilizará dos indicadores que permiten compararlos con los riesgos naturales y socioeconómicos existentes en dichos Estados.El Instituto para la Economía y la Paz (IEP) realizó una útil contribución en este campo al desarrollar el Índice de Paz Global (IPG) y el Índice de Paz Positiva (IPP), dos de los indicadores de paz y seguridad más relevantes. El IPG es una estimación anual de la paz negativa -definida por Galtung (1996), como la ausencia de violencia (Galtung 1996)-que clasifica una lista de 163 estados y territorios según su grado de paz. Utiliza 23 indicadores y tres criterios principales: conflictos nacionales e internacionales en curso, seguridad de la sociedad, y militarización. Para su sistema de puntuación, el IPG utiliza datos cualitativos y cuantitativos proporcionados por algunas de las instituciones más reconocidas en el ámbito de los conflictos y la seguridad, como el Programa de Datos sobre Conflictos de Uppsala (UCDP), el Instituto Internacional de Estocolmo para la Investigación de la Paz (SIPRI), la Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito (ONUDD), la Comisión de Contribuciones de las Naciones Unidas, la Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) y el World Prison Brief, entre otros (Institute for Econonomics & Peace, 2020a).El IPP es una medida anual de la paz positiva que se define como \"las actitudes, instituciones y estructuras que crean y sostienen sociedades pacíficas\" (Institute for Economics & Peace 2020b). Se basa en ocho pilares principales, entre ellos un gobierno que funcione bien, un entorno empresarial sólido, la aceptación de los derechos de los demás, la libre circulación de información, altos niveles de capital humano, bajo nivel de corrupción, redistribución equitativa de los recursos y buenas relaciones con los vecinos. El IEP considera la paz positiva como un indicador indirecto del nivel de resiliencia socioeconómica de un país. En otras palabras, se considera un baluarte que puede ayudar a neutralizar o mitigar los riesgos o amenazas potenciales para mantener la paz. Para su sistema de puntuación, el PPI utiliza datos cualitativos y cuantitativos proporcionados por fuentes muy respetadas, entre ellas el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), la Organización Mundial del Turismo (OMT), la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT), la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), la UNESCO, el Banco Mundial, Freedom House y el Foro Económico Mundial (Institute for Economics & Peace, 2020b).El Índice de Riesgo de INFORM es una medida del riesgo que corren los Estados de sufrir crisis humanitarias y catástrofes que podrían desbordar la capacidad de respuesta nacional. Fue desarrollado por una asociación de agencias de la ONU, ONGs, donantes e institutos de investigación y ya se ha incorporado a los procesos internos de toma de decisiones de varias agencias de la ONU (por ejemplo, el Programa Mundial de Alimentos y UNICEF), así como de agencias donantes, entre ellas USAID y FCDO. El Índice de Riesgo de INFORM combina un total de 54 indicadores en tres dimensiones de riesgo: amenazas y exposición a las mismas; vulnerabilidad; y falta de capacidad de adaptación (Marin-Ferrer, Vernaccini y Poljansek 2017). Para este análisis, solo se seleccionaron unas pocas variables para mostrar diferentes riesgos naturales y socioeconómicos, así como las capacidades de adaptación existentes. Las variables seleccionadas ayudan a ilustrar cómo la mayoría de los países de la región de América Latina y el Caribe (ALC) -incluso algunos de los más pacíficos-carecen de fuertes capacidades de adaptación mientras se enfrentan a diferentes amenazas naturales. Esto podría actuar como un multiplicador de amenazas, impactando las vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas existentes y potencialmente llevando a la inseguridad o, incluso, al conflicto. Sin embargo, esta realidad no se mide adecuadamente con los indicadores de paz y seguridad existentes, que deberían ser más sensibles al clima e incorporar los riesgos que plantea la crisis climática para medir adecuadamente la paz y la seguridad.Tabla 1. Indicadores de paz, amenazas naturales, vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas, riesgos de seguridad y capacidades de adaptación de los países del CSC y ALC. Fuentes: el GPI ( 2020), el PPI (2020) y el INFORM Risk (2020) En la Tabla 1 se presentan los países de la región del CSC y de toda ALC, en relación con las amenazas naturales, las vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas, los riesgos de seguridad y las capacidades de adaptación. Los valores del IPG y del IPP que aparecen en la tabla son la clasificación de los países en los dos indicadores. Se destacan en la tabla según el estado de paz de los países, definido por el IEP (2020a, 2020b), y que van de \"muy bajo\" a \"muy alto\" en función de su puntuación. Para facilitar la visualización, la tabla fusiona las categorías \"muy alto\" y \"alto\" en una sola --resaltada en rojo oscuro --, y la categoría \"muy bajo\" y \"bajo\" en otra -resaltada en rojo claro. El resto de las variables, extraídas del Índice de Riesgo de INFORM, ilustran valores que estiman diferentes riesgos que van de 0 a 10. En concreto, los valores de 0 a 3,5 se consideran bajos, los valores de 3,5 a 5 se consideran medios --resaltados en rojo claro--y los valores de 5 a 10 se consideran altos --resaltados en rojo oscuro (Marin-Ferrer, Vernaccini y Poljansek 2017).Esta tabla muestra que la mayoría de los países del CSC enfrentan numerosas amenazas relacionadas con el clima que podrían exacerbar los riesgos y vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas existentes. Ejemplos de ello son la pobreza, la desigualdad y la violencia, entre otros, que son en última instancia las causas raíz de la inestabilidad, la inseguridad y los conflictos. Esto es particularmente preocupante, puesto que, a pesar de verse gravemente afectados por los desastres naturales, la mayoría de los países muestran un bajo nivel de resiliencia, medido por su capacidad de adaptación limitada. Este es un indicador que estima el nivel de recursos disponibles para mitigar el impacto de las amenazas y vulnerabilidades, basándose en la infraestructura física existente, las comunicaciones, la gobernabilidad, el acceso a un sistema de salud y la implementación de programas de Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres. A excepción de Costa Rica, todos los países del CSC muestran un bajo nivel de capacidad de adaptación. Esto es especialmente alarmante porque los países más vulnerables a las amenazas naturales, también son los más afectados por conflictos y violencia. Sin embargo, incluso algunos de los países más pacíficos de la región de América Latina y el Caribe tienen un bajo nivel de resiliencia, a pesar de enfrentar una serie de riesgos relacionados con el clima. Específicamente, Uruguay y Chile son los únicos dos países con un alto nivel de capacidad de adaptación. Esto muestra cómo incluso los países más pacíficos no están completamente seguros en medio de una crisis climática, la cual ya está afectando a todos.En cuanto a los riesgos naturales, el riesgo de inundaciones es una característica común en ambos grupos de países: El Salvador y Trinidad y Tobago son los únicos estados del CSC y de América Latina y el Caribe (LAC) con un bajo nivel de riesgo de inundaciones. Este fenómeno es especialmente alarmante en Nicaragua, Honduras y Guatemala, con puntuaciones de 7.2, 6.7 y 6 respectivamente, donde miles de personas, incluyendo al menos 70 muertes, fueron afectadas por inundaciones el año pasado. La degradación ambiental y la sequía son otros riesgos graves relacionados con el clima, especialmente en el CSC, donde cinco países enfrentan un riesgo alto y, los otros tres, enfrentan un riesgo medio. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua experimentan niveles alarmantes de sequía que, junto con la COVID-19 y otras amenazas naturales, han cuadruplicado el hambre y han llevado a miles de personas a migrar (Noticias ONU 2021) .En cuanto a los riesgos humanos, el riesgo de conflicto (2) es comparativamente menor que el riesgo de violencia (3) en ambos grupos de países. La mayoría de los países del segundo grupo tienen un bajo nivel de riesgo de conflicto, pero todos ellos enfrentan un riesgo alto o medio de violencia, según se estima utilizando la tasa de homicidios intencionales y el número de homicidios intencionales de la Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito (Marin-Ferrer, Vernaccini y Poljansek 2017). Así mismo, dos de los estados del CSC tienen un alto riesgo de conflicto, mientras que cuatro enfrentan un riesgo alto de violencia: Panamá, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua y El Salvador. Estos datos demuestran que, a pesar de no tener conflictos armados abiertos en ninguno de los países, el riesgo de violencia es un problema central en la región. En relación a las vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas, que estiman la capacidad (o incapacidad), de las personas para acceder a medios de vida seguros y resilientes, así como al bienestar, Costa Rica es el único país del CSC que muestra un bajo nivel de exposición, mientras que el resto, especialmente Guatemala y Honduras, muestran niveles altos o medios de exposición.Utilizando el Índice de riesgo de privación del desarrollo, que estima las capacidades socioeconómicas y la privación mediante la combinación del Índice de Desarrollo Humano y el Índice de Pobreza Multidimensional, cuatro países del CSC muestran altos niveles de riesgo: El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala y Nicaragua. El índice de riesgo de dependencia, que mide la sostenibilidad en el crecimiento del desarrollo en relación con la inestabilidad económica y la crisis humanitaria, mediante la combinación de las estimaciones de ayuda pública per cápita y la asistencia oficial al desarrollo neta recibida como porcentaje del ingreso nacional bruto, también es muy alto en cuatro países del CSC y siete de toda la región de América Latina y el Caribe. Además, la desigualdad es uno de los riesgos más comunes y alarmantes, puesto que América Latina es la región más desigual del mundo. Un total de once países de la región de América Latina y el Caribe y cinco de los estados del CSC tienen un alto riesgo de desigualdad. De hecho, solo dos países muestran un bajo nivel de desigualdad: Cuba y Trinidad y Tobago. La desigualdad es un riesgo preocupante, ya que puede conducir a un crecimiento económico más lento y a una reducción limitada de la pobreza, a una movilidad ascendente limitada, a la desconfianza en las instituciones y a un crecimiento del malestar social (Naciones Unidas 2020a) .Es probable que los riesgos se vean exacerbados por las amenazas naturales presentes en todos los países, caracterizados por la variabilidad climática y los fenómenos climáticos extremos. En este contexto, el efecto multiplicador de la amenaza del cambio climático intensificará las vulnerabilidades existentes, como la(2) El riesgo de conflicto se estima utilizando los indicadores de conflictos de poder nacional y de conflictos de poder subnacional del Barómetro de Conflictos del Instituto Heidelberg para la Investigación de Conflictos Internacionales (HIIK), así como el indicador de probabilidad de conflicto violento y de conflicto altamente violento desarrollado por el Índice de Riesgo de Conflicto Global (GCRI).(3) El riesgo de violencia se estima utilizando la tasa de homicidios intencionados y los indicadores de recuento de homicidios intencionados de la Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito. violencia y la desigualdad. Este potencial negativo de la variabilidad climática y los fenómenos climáticos extremos es particularmente preocupante, debido al nivel general bajo de resiliencia climática.En conclusión, la combinación de una alta exposición a los riesgos relacionados con el clima, una baja resiliencia ante los desastres naturales y una capacidad de adaptación limitada, implica que incluso los países más pacíficos del CSC y la región de América Latina y el Caribe no están completamente seguros en medio de una crisis climática que ya está afectando a todos los Estados. A pesar de que algunos de estos países son comparativamente menos vulnerables y tienen niveles más bajos de riesgo en algunas variables, aún se enfrentan a la amenaza de la variabilidad climática y diversos riesgos naturales que pueden agravar las vulnerabilidades socioeconómicas y políticas existentes. Esto, a su vez, podría llevar a estos países a la inestabilidad social o, incluso, al conflicto violento.Los indicadores de paz y seguridad como el IPG (Índice de Paz Global) y el IPP (Índice de Paz Positiva) por sí solos no miden con precisión el impacto potencial del cambio climático, la variabilidad en los riesgos socioeconómicos y las inseguridades que pueden aumentar el riesgo de conflicto. Deben desarrollarse indicadores y mediciones de paz y seguridad mejorados que sean sensibles al clima, con el fin de ayudar a los profesionales, donantes, inversionistas y responsables políticos a comprender adecuadamente cómo se desarrollan las complejas dinámicas del clima y el conflicto en contextos específicos, y a identificar estrategias apropiadas que integren la adaptación al clima y las actividades de construcción de paz en la programación ambiental.Esta sección presenta tres casos de estudio sobre cómo los procesos comunitarios y participativos para afrontar el cambio climático y la variabilidad contribuyen a abordar las principales causas raíz de las rutas causales del nexo clima-seguridad alimentaria-conflicto. La Figura 9 muestra qué causas raíz abordan, directa o indirectamente, los Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima (TeSAC o CSV, por sus siglas en inglés), las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (MTA) y las Iniciativas Integradas de Sistemas Agroalimentarios en América Latina, descritos a continuación. Para cada caso, se explica el concepto y las causas raíz abordadas en el contexto de los desafíos de migración y seguridad que enfrentan los agricultores, rurales además de los impactos del cambio climático. La Figura muestra las principales causas raíz de las rutas causales del nexo clima-seguridad alimentariaconflicto, abordados en cada estudio de caso. Los círculos verdes en la figura corresponden al enfoque de los TeSAC, los rojos al enfoque de las MTA y los azules a las Iniciativas Integradas de Sistemas Agroalimentarios, en México y Colombia. Las líneas sólidas en la figura se refieren a una relación directa de los estudios de caso con cada causa raíz señalada, y las líneas punteadas a una relación indirecta.Figura 9. Causas Raíz de las rutas causales del nexo clima-seguridad alimentariaconflicto abordados en cada caso de estudio.Desde 2011, el Programa de Investigación del CGIAR sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS (4), por sus siglas en inglés), ha liderado el enfoque de Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima (TeSAC) (5). Desde 2015, CCAFS ha implementado el enfoque de TeSAC en cuatro países de América Latina: Colombia, Honduras, Guatemala y Nicaragua.Los TeSAC son laboratorios vivientes que generan evidencia sobre cómo, en un territorio determinado, diferentes actores (agricultores, investigadores, gobierno, sector privado, sociedad civil) pueden co-desarrollar, probar, adaptar y evaluar de manera más efectiva portafolios de opciones integradas e innovadoras que promueven la Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (o CSA, por las siglas en inglés de Climate-Smart Agriculture) y mejoran los medios de vida de la población rural en un contexto de variabilidad y cambio climático. El enfoque de TeSAC aborda las principales rutas causales, a través de las cuales la variabilidad climática puede afectar la paz y la seguridad de las poblaciones rurales dedicadas a la agricultura (seguridad alimentaria y nutricional) y los servicios ecosistémicos.Los TeSAC contribuyen a diferentes rutas causales del nexo clima-seguridad alimentaria-conflicto. A través de la comprensión y el uso de información agroclimática, los agricultores en los TeSAC están mejor preparados para enfrentar la variabilidad climática. El uso de información agroclimática les permite estar informados y preparados para las próximas temporadas de cultivo y reduce la posibilidad de pérdida de cultivos, reducción en los ingresos o inseguridad alimentaria. La implementación de prácticas de CSA puede incrementar la productividad agrícola y reducir la escasez de recursos naturales.(6) (Almentero et al. 2019a;2019b;2019c ). El enfoque de los TeSAC tiene como objetivo mejorar la resiliencia adaptativa y transformadora.La resiliencia adaptativa de las instituciones locales, las comunidades rurales y los agricultores en las los TeSAC se mejora mediante el fortalecimiento de sus conocimientos y habilidades en prácticas y tecnologías de CSA. La capacitación y el intercambio de conocimientos son fundamentales para aumentar el capital social y la cohesión, lo que garantizará beneficios a largo plazo y sostenibilidad en los territorios, al tiempo que se amplía el enfoque a más agricultores y comunidades de pequeños productores.Mejorar la resiliencia climática de los agricultores tiene un impacto positivo en la estabilidad de sus ingresos y medios de vida, año tras año. Además, los agricultores se sienten más vinculados con su tierra y motivados a cambiar y mejorar su (4) Acerca de CCAFS: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/ (5) Acerca de TeSAC a nivel internacional: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/climate-smart-villages#.W3bjss70mMo (6) Las prácticas de TeSAC incluyen la diversificación de cultivos, los cultivos intercalados, los fertilizantes orgánicos, las semillas resistentes a la sequía, la captación de agua (cisternas, tanques, depósitos), los huertos domésticos climáticamente inteligentes (que incluyen sistemas de captación de agua, riego por goteo y fertilizantes orgánicos), entre otros.producción agrícola y de medios de vida, lo cual fortalece las raíces en su territorio.Por lo tanto, los agricultores tienen menos incentivos para migrar y es menos probable que se involucren en actividades ilícitas como la producción y procesamiento de cultivos ilegales (por ejemplo, coca y marihuana).En el Cauca, Colombia, por ejemplo, cultivar drogas ilegales a menudo es la única posibilidad para que los jóvenes en zonas rurales ganen dinero. Las comunidades de los TeSAC están constantemente expuestas a estas actividades debido a su ubicación geográfica, donde las condiciones climáticas y biofísicas son propicias para el desarrollo de estos cultivos. Además, es uno de los corredores por los cuales se movilizan drogas ilícitas para su venta en otras regiones del país y en el extranjero. Los agricultores a menudo son contactados por grupos ilegales para permitirles el transporte de productos ilícitos y arrendar sus tierras para el cultivo de coca. Sin embargo, a pesar de las presiones ilícitas y climáticas, los agricultores han resistido gracias a su valentía, aumento del capital social y empoderamiento, así como la mejora de sus medios de vida e ingresos como resultado de la implementación de los TeSAC (Martinez-Barón, n.d.;Sarruf Romero 2020;Ortega and Martínez-Barón 2018) .El enfoque de las MTA busca facilitar el diálogo entre diversos actores locales para comprender y discutir los pronósticos del tiempo y el clima, así como los informes sobre la respuesta probable de los cultivos al clima en condiciones específicas de tiempo y espacio (Loboguerrero et al. 2018) . A través de modelos de cultivo y del conocimiento, tanto de los agricultores locales como de los expertos, se discuten las opciones de elección y manejo de cultivos, y una vez que se llega a un consenso, se incluyen en el Boletín Agroclimático Local para ser compartido en las redes de los participantes de las MTA y llegar a un gran número de agricultores. La discusión no se centra únicamente en el clima, sino también en los mercados para los productos y la disponibilidad de insumos.Desde 2015, cuando el enfoque fue desarrollado por CCAFS y sus socios en Colombia, las MTA se han expandido rápidamente en toda América Latina y ahora involucran a unas 350 instituciones (7). Actualmente, se estima que unos 250,000 agricultores reciben información agroclimática adaptada a través de 50 MTA en 11 países de América Latina (Giraldo-Mendez D et al., 2021: 5), incorporándola en sus procesos de toma de decisiones (Ramírez Villegas et al. 2020) . Estos agricultores han documentado cambios en sus prácticas de gestión. Algunos cambios comunes observados en las fincas incluyen cambios en las fechas de siembra, para aprovechar mejor las buenas condiciones climáticas o evitar pérdidas, y el uso de variedades más adecuadas para las condiciones climáticas esperadas. El enfoque de las MTA también se ha centrado en fortalecer las capacidades para co-producir, traducir, transferir y utilizar información climática para la agricultura en más de 300 instituciones en América Latina (8).Las MTA mitigan diferentes rutas causales de impacto del nexo clima -seguridad alimentaria -conflicto. Reducen las pérdidas de cultivos al proporcionar información climática y agroclimática de mayor confianza y calidad, permitiendo su incorporación en la toma de decisiones y planificación agrícola, y mitigando así la variabilidad climática impredecible. Las MTA democratizan el conocimiento agroclimático al hacer que la información sea conocida, comprensible y conectada. También aumentan el conocimiento sobre prácticas de CSA. Conocer los patrones climáticos futuros apoya la implementación de una producción sostenible adaptada al clima, evitando o reduciendo las pérdidas de producción y aumentando la seguridad alimentaria. Por último, las MTA aumentan la capacidad adaptativa de las instituciones, influyendo de manera significativa en los cambios de políticas nacionales e institucionales y fomentando alianzas interinstitucionales para enfrentar los riesgos climáticos. En general, las MTA aumentan significativamente las capacidades de resiliencia adaptativa y transformadora (Hiles, Navarro-Racines, and Giraldo Mendez 2020).El enfoque de las MTA es hoy en día un excelente ejemplo de la exitosa implementación de servicios climáticos en el Sistema de Integración Centroamericana (SICA). Ha permitido a los países avanzar hacia una agricultura más resiliente frente a los desafíos climáticos. Motivado por el éxito y el progreso del enfoque, el Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) ha destacado fuertemente la Estrategia de CSA para la región del SICA, que incluye un componente de \"Gestión Integral de Riesgos y Adaptación al Cambio Climático\" (Martínez-Barón et al. 2021) .Además, el Comité Regional de Recursos Hídricos (CRRH) y el CAC están trabajando conjuntamente para establecer una mesa técnica agroclimática regional. Los sectores financieros y de seguros también participan en las MTA, lo que ofrece una importante oportunidad para informar el diseño e implementación de instrumentos financieros y programas de seguros que consideren la información agroclimática.Las respuestas más integradas, y basadas en la investigación, por parte de políticas públicas, cadenas de valor agrícolas y finanzas a menudo se ven limitadas por el cortoplacismo y la lógica de suma cero. En contraste, Maíz para México y Maíz para Colombia representan esfuerzos estructurados para construir coaliciones interdisciplinarias que utilizan herramientas como, por ejemplo, predicciones y escenarios modelados, para sincronizar la acción pública y privada a nivel nacional (8) Por ejemplo, el CCAFS ha trabajado con organizaciones asociadas en Colombia, Honduras y Guatemala para evaluar las capacidades de modelización de las previsiones estacionales y para desarrollar y crear capacidades en el uso de nuevas herramientas de predicción climática y de cultivos para mejorar la calidad de las previsiones estacionales y adaptar la información de las previsiones a la toma de decisiones agrícolas.hacia sistemas agroalimentarios sostenibles e inclusivos (Govaerts et al. 2021) . El potencial transformador de la construcción de resiliencia reside en el enfoque replicable de la participación de las partes interesadas a lo largo del tiempo. Maíz para México (Govaerts et al. 2019) , es un esfuerzo institucional conjunto con más de 70 actores diferentes, mientras que Maíz para Colombia involucra a más de 30 actores diferentes. Las dos Iniciativas Integradas de Sistemas Agroalimentarios (9) (IASI, por sus siglas en inglés) comenzaron con una evaluación de la situación actual, en la que la alta incertidumbre y la baja coordinación impedían inversiones transformadoras. Utilizando una perspectiva de sistemas, la metodología de las IASI desarrolla escenarios basados en modelos y datos disponibles para involucrar a diversos actores en un proceso de diseño.Maíz para México se basa en el programa de 10 años MasAgro, para ampliar aún más las prácticas agrícolas sostenibles y las condiciones propicias. MasAgro se había centrado en mejorar las cadenas de valor (por ejemplo, los agricultores aprovecharon oportunidades competitivas para participar en los mercados locales) y validar prácticas agrícolas sostenibles y sus rutas causales de adopción e impacto. Las demandas, intereses y preocupaciones de los agricultores se incorporaron en un modelo de innovación, a través de la interacción de organizaciones de productores agrícolas, instituciones educativas, creadores de tecnología y agentes de cambio.Las cinco líneas estratégicas de acción de Maíz para México promueven la productividad, una mejor gestión del riesgo en las cadenas de valor y la representación de los intereses de los agricultores a través de: 1) la adopción de mejores variedades de semillas; 2) sistemas de agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima; 3) centros de asistencia técnica para la innovación; 4) acceso a los mercados; y 5) un espacio de colaboración con seguimiento participativo del progreso. Los esfuerzos de implementación dependen de que todos los actores de la cadena de valor tengan acceso a información clave que facilite la toma de decisiones en cada etapa. Se está estableciendo un sistema de apoyo a la toma de decisiones para pequeños y medianos productores de maíz, trigo, frijoles y otros cultivos. Un marco de acción y seguimiento para las asociaciones público-privadas incorporará la inclusividad (pequeños y medianos agricultores) y las innovaciones mencionadas anteriormente a las cadenas de valor.Cultivos para México (del cual Maíz para México es parte) responde a los objetivos establecidos en el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2019-2024 y se centra en la autosuficiencia alimentaria y el desarrollo rural. Está estrechamente relacionado a programas sociales gubernamentales, como Producción para el Bienestar, Precios de Garantía a Productos Alimentarios Básicos y Seguridad Alimentaria Mexicana, entre otros. Las iniciativas gubernamentales abordan varios desafíos relevantes para la seguridad climática (Granados Martinez 2017) , siendo el hambre una de las urgencias más apremiantes, con tres de cada diez habitantes rurales sin suficiente comida (Gobierno de México 2012) . Mirando a mediano plazo, hasta 2050, los impactos derivados del aumento de la temperatura promedio en la región podrían incrementar la inseguridad alimentaria y la desnutrición infantil (Inter-Agency Standing Committee 2009) .Las inversiones en innovación de sistemas agroalimentarios empoderan a las personas para satisfacer sus propias necesidades, mientras participan en la economía más amplia, lo que permite comunidades estables y pacíficas. Sin embargo, el Secretario de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural de México advirtió en diciembre de 2020 que \"por primera vez en muchos años, desde que Borlaug venció el hambre en el sudeste asiático, millones de personas corren el riesgo de morir de hambre en África, Asia y América Latina\" (Curiel 2020). El Gobierno de México, junto con el Centro Nobel de la Paz y el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), emitió un llamado conjunto para superar los principales desafíos del desarrollo humano bajo presiones de conflicto, crimen organizado, migración forzada y cambio climático: #AgricultureForPeace. El país anfitrión de CIMMYT ha dado los siguientes pasos con el proyecto Cultivos para México, basado en la experiencia de 10 años de MasAgro (2011-2021), y cuyo modelo ha sido reconocido por varias organizaciones internacionales de desarrollo, agencias de financiamiento y gobiernos. La autosuficiencia de maíz en Colombia es solo del 26%. Para 2030, podría deteriorarse hasta una brecha de producción de hasta 6.2 millones de toneladas. La Unidad de Planificación Rural Agropecuaria de Colombia (UPRA), inició este proceso de Iniciativas Integradas de Sistemas Agroalimentarios (IASI, por sus siglas en inglés) en junio de 2019. Involucra una interacción en dos fases con actores clave de la cadena de valor del maíz, que resulta en: Primero, una guía de políticas y un plan de acción, basado en un análisis exhaustivo de la situación de la cadena de valor; y, en segundo lugar, la validación participativa de los análisis, resultados y un borrador del Plan de Ordenamiento Productivo para la Cadena de Maíz (2022Maíz ( -2041)). El proceso liderado por UPRA fue guiado por la metodología y herramientas de IASI/Maíz para Colombia, para abordar desafíos relevantes para la seguridad climática. Existe una alta probabilidad de tener, a futuro, demasiada o muy poca agua para la agricultura (escenarios de aumento de la tasa de precipitación anual para las regiones andinas y del Pacífico, mientras que disminuye la precipitación en la región de la Orinoquia y la Amazonía) (Galeano et al. 2019). Y, se espera que para 2030, las zonas de producción de maíz hayan dejado de ser aptas, en gran parte debido al aumento de las temperaturas, y no de las precipitaciones (10).La metodología de IASI, aplicada en México y Colombia, ha demostrado su efectividad para superar barreras típicas y avanzar en múltiples objetivos simultáneamente (por ejemplo, mejora en el rendimiento y calidad de los cultivos, medios de vida de los agricultores, protección del medio ambiente). El progreso realizado a través de un enfoque de \"red de redes\" crea conectividad y estabilidad en cada paso. La acción hacia la seguridad climática y alimentaria en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano puede beneficiarse de una planificación participativa y redes de centros de innovación similares a las IASI.Este documento forma parte de un proyecto más amplio para articular el papel y el valor de la Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo de Sistemas Alimentarios (AR4D, por sus siglas en inglés) antes, durante y después de los conflictos: ¿Cómo pueden las partes interesadas lograr beneficiarse de los dividendos de la paz en las etapas preventiva, reactiva y de reconstrucción? ¿Puede la Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo contribuir con perspectivas, conocimiento y soluciones a la investigación y formulación de políticas de seguridad nacional? ¿Cómo pueden esas soluciones convertirse en componentes complementarios de las soluciones humanitarias, políticas, sociales y de seguridad para sostener los medios de vida rurales?Por ejemplo, el CGIAR, en su nueva Estrategia One CGIAR, aborda los principales Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) del nexo entre seguridad y clima, como lo son, el ODS 2 de lograr Hambre Cero, el ODS 13 de Acción por el Clima y el ODS 16 de Paz, Justicia e Instituciones Sólidas. El CGIAR cree que la Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo de sistemas terrestres, hídricos y alimentarios puede contribuir de manera significativa a la paz y la seguridad. Una intervención de desarrollo bien coordinada lograría establecer una gobernanza inclusiva, desde el nivel nacional hasta el municipal, una mejora sustancial en la seguridad, programas sociales funcionales y enfoques efectivos de resolución de conflictos. También fomentaría soluciones de energía renovable y programas que mejoran las habilidades de los jóvenes. Pero, ¿qué pasa con el conocimiento y el saber-hacer necesarios para vivirde manera sostenible de y con la tierra en medio del cambio climático, para seguir contribuyendo a la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional? Agregar esta perspectiva es lo que implica la seguridad climática integral.Los Centros de CGIAR llevaron a cabo investigaciones y lograron resultados que también proporcionaron beneficios de paz y seguridad, o efectos colaterales, antes de que se acuñara el término seguridad climática. Ejemplos incluyen un estudio de 2013 sobre las áreas vulnerables de Sudán (Calderone, Maystadt, and You 2013) , con características biofísicas particulares y poblaciones vulnerables; la multiplicación de semillas de emergencia en Etiopía (CIMMYT 2016) , y la investigación sobre cómo los conflictos armados afectan la biomasa forestal (Castro-Nunez et al. 2017) .CGIAR FOCUS Climate Security ha realizado una revisión bibliográfica sobre seguridad climática para establecer una visión general de las causas raíz y las rutas causales del conflicto, que sirve como base para mapear la investigación del CGIAR y sus socios en el contexto de la seguridad climática, a través de una revisión de portafolio (CGIAR FOCUS Climate Security n.d.) . Las rutas causales de conflicto, incluyendo las causas raíz relacionadas con los sistemas alimentarios, como los resultados agrícolas, los medios de vida rurales, la pobreza y la inseguridad alimentaria, así como la migración, el desplazamiento y la gobernabilidad débil, fueron algunos de las causas raízde conflicto más estudiadas y encontradas en la literatura. Estas causas raíz también son las más estudiadas por el CGIAR y se abordan mediante la transmisión de conocimientos y herramientas sobre la reducción del riesgo de desastres, la adaptación al cambio climático y la resiliencia de los medios de vida, entre otros (Figura 10) (Liebig et al. 2021) .Figura 10. Causas raíz de conflicto abordadas en la revisión de portafolio y en la revisión de literatura.Para identificar puntos de entrada sensibles, es útil adoptar la perspectiva de los expertos en seguridad nacional (CNA, 2007), sobre los impactos desestabilizadores del cambio climático. Ellos observan la reducción del acceso al agua dulce, la afectación en la producción de alimentos, las catástrofes sanitarias y la pérdida de tierras e inundaciones asociadas con el desplazamiento de grandes poblaciones. Los expertos señalan las siguientes consecuencias de seguridad: mayor potencial de Estados fallidos (y terrorismo), migración masiva que agrega tensiones globales y la posible escalada de conflictos por recursos. Esta definición de seguridad climática, desde la perspectiva de la seguridad nacional, concuerda bien con la perspectiva de la AR4D: comprender las causas raíz detrás de las consecuencias de seguridad humana para las comunidades rurales, basadas en la agricultura, que enfrentan cambios climáticos y degradación ambiental que afectan la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, así como su capacidad para gestionar un conjunto limitado de recursos naturales (Maru et al. 2018;Olarinde et al. 2013). La gobernanza inclusiva, los programas sociales funcionales, los enfoques efectivos de resolución de conflictos y jóvenes altamente capacitados son recursos fundamentales, pero no son suficientes, para mantener la seguridad climática. Es igualmente importante comprender cómo utilizar la tierra y sus recursos de manera sostenible, incluso ante el creciente estrés climático.En este documento se ha demostrado que las crisis interconectadas de clima, seguridad y migración se están gestionando como desafíos separados en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano. A través de un apoyo bien dirigido que complemente soluciones humanitarias, políticas, sociales y de seguridad, la investigación agrícola para el desarrollo puede ayudar a las poblaciones rurales a adaptarse y mitigar los impactos del cambio climático, estabilizar los medios de vida basados en la agricultura y aumentar la paz y la seguridad.Un análisis espacial de las causas raíz del conflicto ha demostrado claramente que el clima tiene el potencial de exacerbar el conflicto, la inseguridad y la migración. Sin embargo, un análisis de las redes sociales y de la coherencia de las políticas muestra los discursos desconectados sobre el clima y la seguridad, tanto en el discurso público como en las políticas. El análisis de indicadores de paz, seguridad y riesgo climático sitúa a los países del Corredor Seco Centroamericano, en relación con otros países a nivel global, y revela la falta de conexión entre los indicadores en términos de seguridad climática, bienestar humano y paz. En este contexto fragmentado, se ha argumentado que invertir en investigación agrícola para el desarrollo puede contribuir a reducir el conflicto y la emigración, al centrarse en mejorar la resiliencia de la producción agrícola y los medios de vida rurales, en respuesta a los impactos del cambio climático.Por lo tanto, se proponen los siguientes puntos de entrada para incorporar las dimensiones de seguridad climática en las políticas de desarrollo rural y en las agendas de investigación y desarrollo de políticas de seguridad, regional y nacional:1.Fomentar el diálogo interministerial e intersectorial para superar las perspectivas actualmente fragmentadas, desarrollar una comprensión compartida de los problemas y acordar acciones coordinadas y conjuntas.En muchos casos, el diálogo interministerial sigue siendo superficial (por ejemplo, se prioriza el intercambio de conocimientos, en lugar de aprendizajes y acciones conjuntas), los presupuestos no están coordinados y las instituciones de seguridad nacional continúan actuando por separado, unas de otras y de los proveedores de investigación. Un punto de partida apropiado es vincular los planes nacionales de mitigación y adaptación, así como los planes de seguridad, con las oportunidades rurales identificadas por la Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo de Sistemas Alimentarios, estableciendo qué ha funcionado y documentando enfoques exitosos para la transferencia de tecnología y conocimientos procesuales de otros países o regiones. Este documento ha mostrado que, en los países del Corredor Seco, actualmente no se están llevando a cabo tales discusiones. La mayoría de los actores, instituciones y grupos interesados no consideran el clima y la seguridad como puntos vInculados y los tratan como desafíos separados.2. Aprovechar los esfuerzos existentes para reunir a diversos socios y cuantificar de manera integral los desafíos sociales, económicos y ambientales interrelacionados, así como los casos de negocio para orientar las inversiones del sector público y privado, incluida la investigación.Se deben evaluar los costos de oportunidad, las externalidades y el potencial de desarrollo rural en términos de seguridad climática, y construir casos de negocio inclusivos basados en la contabilidad económica de los recursos naturales o medioambientales. En este documento, se han proporcionado ejemplos de externalidades en las esferas ambiental, social y económica que están interrelacionadas (degradación de recursos e inseguridad alimentaria que llevan a la migración y los conflictos).3. Aprovechar las redes regionales y las plataformas de transferencia de conocimientos ya existentes, con el fin de repensar y rediseñar enfoques basados en las comunidades que puedan servir, de manera efectiva, a una variedad de objetivos interrelacionados, incluido el desarrollo de capacidades (como, por ejemplo, el marco de las Iniciativas Integradas de Sistemas Agroalimentarios).Al adoptar una visión multisectorial e intergeneracional, se observa mucha fragmentación entre los esfuerzos de educación rural. En el ámbito agrícola, la educación y capacitación rural a menudo se basan en proyectos (es decir, no se institucionalizan a largo plazo), brindando transferencias específicas de tecnologías, y a menudo fragmentadas (por ejemplo, variedades de semillas mejoradas, pero no prácticas agrícolas relevantes). Sin embargo, la sostenibilidad de las soluciones de seguridad climática depende de la capacidad para gestionar enfoques de capacitación a largo plazo (por ejemplo, programas de agentes de extensión certificados), construir diferentes modelos de negocio (por ejemplo, para servicios ecosistémicos, proveedores de servicios, cooperativas), gestionar redes comunitarias y llevar a cabo defensa y diálogo político (por ejemplo, para mejorar las condiciones propicias). Dichos programas de educación a largo plazo podrían ir de la mano, en el futuro, con programas de Una Sola Salud y la capacitación en resolución/mediación de conflictos, que actualmente no se encuentras relacionadas. Este documento ha presentado varios enfoques de este tipo, incluidas las MTA, los TeSAC y los centros de innovación como MasAgro, que ofrecen promesas en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano.","tokenCount":"15120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"68eea5a9f0ce0fc1b5a7fe5eb67f4ee0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b5aa69b-5d71-4371-86eb-7751b5734f71/retrieve","id":"-730725541"},"keywords":["f•. l., l'.i 11'","11 • ,,. I• :'J.' i lit",", t or• \"•'•\"':-:","¡ ' 1, u . r . F rl ,1 • • , J. •> l ! , ng L1 •'• F,-. ••gu Fr,q, H.i. ﾷ ｲ ｬ ｴ Ｇ Ｎ ｟ ﾡ ｾ Ｇ Ｎ ｜ ＠ ｾ ＠ ﾷ Ｍ ｲ ﾷ ｜ ｮ Ｌ ｾ ＠ Ｚ Ｎ Ｍ ｜ ｾ ＠ •-l nr •p-'):.,1 t1<\"'l"],"sieverID":"deafe3b6-b91b-4aba-84a6-5aab2665bd77","pagecount":"17","content":"l'PFilll l.eader t•••qur•qt\"\"'d a ｾ ｦ Ｇ ＾ Ｑ ･ ｴ ﾷ ｴ ＠ grm:p of inrliyj,iu:.:lls i n\\ otvPd r,•j t.h bean l.'t->senrch and f'XlPtJ!-'inn to OI.P't l\"ifl\"'t\" 1n '1 hrnin..,tor,• ;Jt f\\ uttcl.'3. í'o ll C' gt> on ,_, and 11) .\\pril l!i9ü . Over tbP tl.Jnfor gc•tting th c nP-eciPd informalion.This n\"¡:nrt JS a lil.erar•y summa r•y ni' th] s mPet. ing 1../l th t h'-• intellt.ion nf rnl\\'Jditlg a s mootl-, narn-t!.Í\\f' o f lhe pro hlem r athPJ t h a n m j n u t '::' !>:\\ d' t h n m ･ ｾ ｾ ＠ L i n g . T t i ｾ ＠ he p P d L h i ::. 1.; i l l. pro v i. de a n n rehj 1 i ty and int• . ,.,.nt.io n of thP fac]lit.H t n r t o ｰ ｲ ﾷ ｯ ｶ ｩ ､ ｲ ｾ ＠ •_¡n ｆ Ａ Ｎ Ｎ Ｇ ｾ ｵ ｲ ｡ ｴ Ｎ ･ ＠ ac count. of th•:-lltP.Pttng'!-' dj :\"cuss1•.1ns , ｦ ｲ ｦ ｾ ｦ ＾ ＠ of any ｰ ｾ ｣ Ａ ｲ ｳ ｯ ｮ ｡ ｬ ＠ bi!-lses, but \\Jitr• S IJ})}>lemP.nt.al 1n f nr•maljon that ma,v ｨ ｬ Ｚ ｬ ｜ Ｇ Ｈ ｾ ＠ cnme lu his attentjm¡ :-;ubHf-!qne!d :\" the ffir'eti n g or• 1vouJd ｡ Ｚ ［ Ｍ ［ ｾ ｩ ｳ ｴ Ｚ ＠in j l)ustrating thf\"' COIICP.I.'OS exrrP8.Secl, l.lllrJ ot h ,_,. r infnt•mHt•inn 1 ' lr->n t•l y derived frorn thl'discussicns.Intercroppr;r!__J .. n to the !'1ain i-la i:ze The r ¡•op t!:-'> planted <•:•u•l y tn t. he r•ropp jng t ' r'l)p, l,tlf'll compar.'l.:ll(lt\"'.('' \\lot•H tinn, or in<.; t-•vl d a m'1gt'•.l ' Y ' H.1llt: \\ inn, ÍJtli .1 hi-'('HUSC Íl 1 s ｾ ＠ r < H..r n \"' s ,:. ' • n t i ,., l i , \\• , 1 ... ｾ ＠ a p u r ! • :-: t :11 1 ci e• r• r:: f' , ' : 1' 1 ,¡¡a ' i..l ｲ ･ ｾ ＠ é'd u r• L n g t Ｎ ｴ ｈ Ｇ ｾ ＠ • P. l ' l y :! r ｾ ＠ ..:. \"\"a:-' : r 11 \\ ' l : ｾ ｾ ＠ n t' l lf ' r • t:lh, • dry Ｌ Ｌ ｾ ＠ .. :.,..n r: h t•co m<\" 1-1ppa1•,•nt. :hf' SI ..l'h i.s c 1•op 'lt\"nds to be mnrE• uf Winter D i mba Beans :highly local irrigélti on fr•om i nt.e r•mi 1 len t s t r ea m<: -. . of Sa l i ma RDP. that Hhi c h is marl< e t.ed t .e _, dQ. to be !llar k e t e-d mo re th rough Lh e p 1•1 v n t e l rad ers , 1:hc:' a r• e o f f P. r i 11 g ｭ ｯ ｲ ｾ Ｂ ＠ favorRbl P ｰ ｲ ｩ ｣ ｾ ｳ Ｌ ＠ t han AO\"lAFte.The ma r•kt>Li n g t hrou gh pcivat-.e • wnrk e rs .s u b seque n t l y.dt sC l JSSPd, in t h ei. r ord e r of i.mpo rt.An CP-, a r P:1 .Rumphí No t•i.., M?. i. mba RD P L)f Mz u :-: u t\\J) Il , 5 .no l< :'1 ｾ ｖ ＠ ｅ ｾ ＠ S t R ) ¡.; < : r h a S ll n g; 11 .'\\ n D 1 l37 : .:..(lul h \\L: t ruba ｾ Ｇ ｊ ｬ ｐ ＠ ,-q• , \"L' :.J :'. '' l1DD, the \\.omn(odily '\"c arn ｾ Ｚ ｵ ﾷ ﾷ ｴ Ｚ ＠ a!-l o\\:asnl..;,,; ll fH' P. ¡ ¡.. r Le • 9. r u \\, 111 .t :.;. 1 u L' t • ...; D f o J l r e r \"' t 1 t '-a r• i e t. i ¡; ｾ ﾷ ＾ ＠ r a t. h ｲ ｾ ＠ r t h a n p u re va r• i . .. r i '\"-.  Bean P r odu ct i on Needs for Malaui S e lf-Suffi cien c.ycons umplion o f only 4 kg per year.The increase in pro duc tion towards self sufficiency could best be accompliAhed by ｩ ｮ ｣ ｲ ･ ｡ ｾ ｩ ｮ ｧ ＠ the yield per hectare. For smallholder pro duction thia would in t urn imply ir1creasing the yield of the intercropped beans, as this is the greatest acreage grown. The other alternati v e for increasing product i o n is toIncreasina Yields Per HectareThe need to increase yield per hectare is associated with determining the differences between research yields and farmer yields, and then determining to what extent the difference is a result of the d 1 fferent resource base3 on which the farmer and researcher are operating, or to what extent it is a technoloay problem. Witb the limited seed supply there appears a need to look at varieties that will provide relatively high yields when planted at low density. This might imply looking at longer maturing varieties with morestages. Other a.lternatives would be to try and increas' the use of r e lay c ropping with mid-season plantina. This may .mply looking at the newly released early maturing compoaite maize varieties for their potential f o r allowina an earlierAl so, i t . may require ooncentratina ｯ ｾ ＠ early maturing varieties that will mature befare the dry seaaon ; 'ecomes too advanced.The two suggestions abov? appear t o ｢ ｾ ＠ contradictory in that one advocates l ,mger mat. uring varieties ,..,hile the second early maturity. What may real ly be needed is sorne survey work to get a better understa rling on the bean management practic as of the farlllers with ld,•a of developíng sorne research strategies to indicate how to prooeed and determine if more than one strategy is needed. Gi v : m the need for similar seed to be a va i 1 able for the different ｾ ｾ ｡ ｮ ＠ production systems, jt may be necessary to have a single c umpromise strategy tha t rna x imize s none of the ayatems but. opt . mizes productlen i.• , . .._ ;;, ｾ Ｎ Ｎ ［ Ｎ Ｎ Ｚ Ｎ ＠ ... ,.al.ems. Included in a survey of farme: •a needs should be some i ndex of p ercen t recommended varietiel , like Nasaka, that are pa rt. of the farmers seed mixture.The other (,l ternatives would be to Pxpand the area grown to beans. Such expansion ma.y have to be concentrated in the estate sector. The mo Ft serlously considered possibility wa s the flucured tobacco eftates. They operate on a consolidated management rather than ｴ ･ ｮ ｬ ｾ ｴ ＠ manaaement as with burley tobacco. Also, the flu-cured ｴ ｯ ｢ ｡ ｣ Ｇ Ｎ ｾ ＠ is harvested wi th the s talks removed from the fields in time . . ｾ ｊ ｲ ＠ the mid-season planting.In addition estate managerspror.:kci. ng hPans, mosL of lhe production may not enter ｾ ｨ ｾ ＠ market . . Jt would, ｨ ｯ ｷ ･ ｶ ｾ ｲ Ｌ ＠ relieve pressure on the demnnd.The mai n problem t..rrlul d he t he conf l i e t. wi th t.he tobacco \\Wrk .in ｴ ｨ ｾ ＠ s heds.T hf.' managers may not be willing to divert Lahour away frnm assur=ng the b e s t qual.ity of tobacco to bean prnduction .Another possib i lity would be wintPr planting into the s ugarcane ratoons.For the crop that i s cur during ｴ ｨ ｩ ｾ ＠ period thi s would again be possible.There is n orma lJy ｬ ｾ ｮ ＠ or three months before the ratoon crop reaches canopy t•Jos ure.Th P re are other areas in the world where beanRseaso n legume arP regularly intercropped with sugarcane.As with ｴ ｨ ｾ ＠ tobacco estates the sugar estates have a vested interasted in bean production as a saving in what t .hey havp t.o peovi.de their workers. Again working with beans intercropped i nto sugarcane, particularly at harvest cou ld be fairly labuurintlS and managers may have more productivP work for laborers.A third po!sibil ity for increusing the area grown to beans is as a winter ｾ ｲ ｯ ｰ ＠ in t he rice irrigation schemes.the land under the 1rganized irrigation schemPs is hi ghly li mited totaling around 3000 hectares nati onwide.rn additi o n there ls sorne potential areas in the self -help irrigatinn schemes. The irrigation schen es are srnallholder ope r ations flnd beans would be as a cash c rop 'or smallholder s . The schPmes are designed for twu crops of irriga -.ed rice eac h yea1• . Bea ne are u cro p that ran physically be grown during this pcriod. However, ｴ Ｎ ｨ ｦ Ｎ ｾ ｲ ･ ＠ are nther commodities looki ng a t wi n t \" r croppi ng j n the ir :d ga t i.on sehe mes.Thus ｴ ｨ ｦ ｾ ｲ ｐ ﾭ could be sorne C • ' nf l ict of in te res t in wld eh t he farme r' s wi lJ op1 forqui t e possibJe for sevf:ral ero} s to be produced in. thf' winter season depend:ing on local econom es, a8 ｾ Ｂ ･ ｬ ｬ Ｎ ＠ tts }JU SJLJ ,ill 1..¡ .1 t.hi n the .irrigation scheme associat• d with water avai l ability .Finally, u .ere cotlld be sornE posübility ofbeing grown in th e arPas already producing beans.This \\./ol' l d implyOne concern in doinr this would be understanding wha l c rops, if any,\" 0 e ds, is th is subst itutlon desirabl e .a 1-:eJ.I a c c• ept e d prob 1 e m , bu t n o t. ｾ Ｌ Ｎ ［ ･ ＠ 1.1 i dP.n t i. f i Pd and \\v i , hou t a n.v r+>a 1 1\\no\\.: l e dgP of the spP c i f .í cs .There At. the farn: iev c l, i t is susp P. c tArl tha t far•m ers ｡ ｲ ｦ ｾ ＠ selli ng a la rge p ercen t o f th e ir beans s hn rt i:y a f t e r harv est in orrler t.o mc et imme d i ate c ash n e .... d \"\" ; , ¡ .. :i tlt t.h e hope t.h at fund t=: frum o t.h er so urces w i11 be availab l P r.o hu y seed when t.i mC' f o r n ex t p J a n tl n g a r r i ves .S h o t' t r a n g e Pe ｵ ｮ ｾ ＾ ＠ mi e s o f t h i s nat.ure i s c ommon in s ma .l lhnl. d er• !'armi. n g c o mmu n i t:ies . Hü \\-'-evPr, if must. me mbP.rs o f the commu n i l y dl'l:wh e n plant i ng r.omes can bP c rit i cnJ l y Ahor t.. . 3.or th e !-'.eed mix tures thP farmE>r s u se, i.   Í!li (' r'\"' .,.: L ed t n pr-u duc í ngTh n   a n d SPPd muJtipJiralion.T h f>rP a re sJme major di ff erPrtCPS bP I. I-JPP n wha t.e h o o s r-t o g r en.: a n d. r o n s u m e .T h e fa i 1 u r P l o • . ' n n s 1 d e r fa t.' rn e r s 'e o n t. r í bu t es t o t h •:-l o \\ J a 0 e e p t a n e P n f ｲ ･ ｾ ＠ 11 l t 1 n ｾ ＠ vA r i e t. i ･ ｾ ＠ .T h e b ean varietyl . YiPld p0lnnlial,   n . n i g e s t i. b i 1 j t y , 7 . Di seas e a nd pest.st r e s s to both ｷ ｾ ｴ ＠ and ｾ ｲ ｹ ＠ ron dition s .I n additíon to thes e characteri!:> U r. s associa t ed .... it h produc ti o n and g r ain qua 1 ír v The diff0rences in the two lists is impor t a nt in i nd ica t i ng the n eed to have sorn e farmer review incorpora.led into th P varie t.y de ve l opme n t process .As thetheir potential lines to 1 5 -20 e n tr i es used in t h e Nat.innal Be an Va. riet.y Tria ! , f a rmers o r• prefP.ra bly fa r mer 's'\" i ves pre fe re n ce e val ua ti o n s h o u ld be co nducted.T h i s c oul d b e a r e ]a t.ively si m¡:.Je study of ha\\•i n g a gr•o up of farmP.rs o r 1-Ji ves conk and sampl t di ffere n t li n e s 1\\ nd render t h ei r opi.n i ons .There is p -o babJy a need to cont i nue to conduct surveys tha t inc lude qu es ti on s o n farmers ' p r efe r ences for boans as there colJld b e some va ri at i on i n prefP.re n c es between d i ffere n t r egio n s o f t h P c ountry.r esearchers have acce s s toa broad f! r range o r m:tteria J s par ' • i c ulllrly co n c er 1ing suc h t hings as pest.t han t he fa rme rs and thus ca n p rcw i d e t. he fa. rme r s w i t.h a wide r• e h o i ce u p o n ¡,¡h ich to selec t p o t Pn t ial v ar l cL i e s.in Techno logy Deve lopmentAs wi th t r::! n eed fo r farme rs t o be .i n vcd v ed a t so:n e pol n t i r1 va ri ety devel opnen t , fa rmers should. alsn be invo lve d i n other aspe ct s o f b e an l ec hn u l vg) .l-=: . • • .J\" .. . ... to suit t h eir c irr. umsta 1c es.FarmersTh f' f 8 r mer may a.l.so h ave s o rn e ope rali o n a l con stra int s l h aL h i n ci e r ｣ ｯ ｭ ｰ ｬ ｾ Ｎ ｾ ｴ ･ ＠ ndop t lon . Labour s hor lages co u ld i nt.P.r f e r e w)th t.im\"' of pla u ting , a nct li mit e d seed supply may ｲ ･ ､ ｵ ｣ ｾ ･ ＠ t h e n umhe r q f st l'\\ t ion s nr Sl-!ed used pe r s tati o n. SustainabilityR.s wi Lh ol h \"' l' lPgllm*\"\"'S i s l.hP.ir a hj Jit:y to fix Ftlmosph0ric n i t rog en and 1hus proYi.de a mor e su stainable a gr icuJtura lfi xing p ot ential by inc orpo rR tlng Ｑ Ｑ Ｑ ｾ ＠ crop residues ra1h er than h11r n ing them as i s t he rommon  Hnrl t.he-<J se of Acac: i a Albida 1-dthi.n the system .It does not appPa r tha t.. beans U X' (-> ｾ ､ Ｎ ＠ v e rsP ly s f Ce e t.ed by :\\ r-;..•w i a •\\ 1 h ida as grnundnuts are.whaL eve r 1-c Jrk o n s u si:ainab j.liLy th al. wi. ll I Hc: rl. o n e wi l.l ｴ ｡ ｬ ｵ ｾ ＠ a n ex tt:• nsi\\' t\" anct c<1mp lex fie.ld tri .<tl prn gramme ｴ Ｚ ｨ ｾ ｩ ＠ t;ouJrl 1 at lPast i n i tia] ly, ha.ve t o be conrentratPd o n exper-im1:  tjs t s , t h e cnrnmndj t .\\ tt:>l'lm has r h P p•\"l.r1 timt'•Al.so , a s frt The ARTsｔ ｨ ｾ Ａ ＠ -\\f T,; ' -. J Orking thr-o ug h the .1\\DDs in q]1 i t s v . 1 mos t i mport ant : ask of t he Bean P •r r ﾷ ｾ ＠ q u i r r-' a m a ,j o r• s o e l a l s e i e nc. • P. i n -> • t hc prohl. e m and ､ ｐ ｜ Ｂ ｦ Ｇ ｾ ｬ ｯ ｰ ＠ alte y This wi l J. j t •s 1 l o d<-:!i jn e the nature ofTheT h e> real n eed is to add a eomp< J rten l• n f' farmP.r Pv r-o Al so , a t. t h e t i m e ti n e s a e e e o n s i   ","tokenCount":"2969"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"61960031af8033d186a5f5914a45a863","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/93fdd1a0-7cc8-4cbe-9ec3-5a542c836d7b/retrieve","id":"101247110"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"690563bb-baac-45f4-a11a-8f5b9599cda2","pagecount":"8","content":"Indian states and union territories (UTs) are grouped into 3 categories: low-income states (LIS), middleincome states (MIS) and high-income states (HIS), based on their level of gross value added (GVA) per capita. The per capita GVA for LIS is below US$1450. States with a GVA per capita between US$1450 and 3500 are MIS, while those with a GVA per capita higher than US$3500 are HIS. The LIS include Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.Bihar is also an LIS and its calculations are shown separately. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Nagaland, Puducherry, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, and Uttarakhand are the MIS. HIS are small states and UTs, namely, Chandigarh, Delhi, Goa, and Sikkim.  Source: Authors' calculations using the 2017/18 India state-level SAM.Note: GVA = gross value added; Ag-GVA = agricultural GVA.Source: Authors' calculations using the 2017/18 India state-level SAM.Note: Ag-GVA = agricultural gross value added; USD = United States dollar; ha = hectares.  Primary agriculture (A) or on-farm activity is the first component of an agrifood system and includes the supply, demand, and trade of all agricultural products. These are often grouped as crops, livestock, fishing, and forestry. Agro-processing (B) includes only those manufacturing subsectors associated with processed food and other agriculture-related non-food products such as yarn and timber. Input supply (E) is the portion of intermediate inputs used directly in agricultural production and agro-processing (e.g., fertilizers and financial services). Inputs that are produced by farmers and processors themselves are excluded from this measure, since they are captured in components A and B. Trade and transport services (C) considers the portion of services associated with transporting, wholesaling, and retailing of agrifood products between farms, firms, and final points of sale (that is, either the domestic or foreign markets). Food services (D) are services provided in both food production and consumption, plus a portion of the hotels and accommodation sector. Producers of food services (that is, meals prepared outside the home) run standalone operations (e.g., restaurants or stalls), whereas hotels often operate restaurants in addition to providing accommodations and other services. Components B, C, D, and E together represent off-farm economic activities. In summary, an agrifood system is essentially the sum of all the relevant on-farm and off-farm economic activities and products across all the agricultural value chains within a country.    A world free of hunger and malnutrition","tokenCount":"409"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80de41f2b0e2c814b86773e2ee3d2a0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f4341178-8e26-48f0-81aa-2181ad3fdf52/retrieve","id":"524853310"},"keywords":["Coastal Bangladesh","communication","coordination","sequential threshold public good","water management"],"sieverID":"5e0c4d8b-03f1-4538-9550-d43fd8f4da7f","pagecount":"25","content":"Canal siltation is a pervasive problem in coastal Bangladesh causing water-logging and losses in crop yield. Although timely maintenance of canals through regular contributions from the community can solve this problem, it often breaks down because of the free riding issue, a common feature in the provision of public goods. Previous literature on experimental games has shown how different communication strategies or leadership can help to achieve coordination. We conducted experimental games with the aims to: (i) determine the effectiveness of these different strategies in the specific problem of maintenance of canal; and (ii) compare the relative effectiveness of different communication mechanisms or leadership. Playing these games was also a part of a participatory action research approach with the idea that community members would have a clearer understanding of the incentives and constraints of contribution for canal maintenance. The basic insight from our study is that any institution that enables more information sharing about both the intended contribution and setting the group norm translates into better coordination among the users to increase the group income towards Pareto Optimum outcomes. The lessons from these games could potentially open up a forum of discussion and help the villagers in their future communications as a tool for understanding and testing different alternatives for community manage-Enhancing coordination in water management 775 ment of natural resources. The results are also of interest for development practitioners supporting community organisations for sustaining local public goods.Polders in the coastal zone of Bangladesh are low-lying areas surrounded by embankments. These embankments were constructed in the 1960s to avoid damages from floods and cyclones and intrusion of salinity. An elaborate network of canals and gates was constructed at the same time to regulate the inflow and outflow of water depending on irrigation and drainage requirements (Islam 2006;Brammer 2014). However, water management challenges in the polders stifle the potential of agricultural growth in the coastal region (Islam 2006;Dewan et al. 2014).Studies have shown that water-logging is a crucial problem in many parts of coastal Bangladesh resulting in damage of 'aman' rice during monsoon as well as delayed sowing of next dry-season crop (Moniruzzaman 2012;Awal 2014). The excessive water-logging is mainly due to siltation of canals and non-maintenance of the gates.The maintenance of these water-related infrastructures play out like a classic public goods game. Canals and gates being public goods means anybody can get the benefits without contributing for their maintenance. Without any maintenance, the situation of these infrastructures goes on worsening until it becomes so immensely expensive to repair that the local community can no longer repair them without external monetary help (government/donors). Regular maintenance and contributions (which can be in cash, kind or work) can be handled by the communities but currently, this requirement breaks down because of the free riding issue (Tuong et al. 2014).In this context, we designed a modified threshold public goods game, with the objective to identify how much communication and leadership can help in increasing community contributions and maintain the public good in the long term. To match to the real world issue of canal maintenance, we designed a dynamic threshold public goods game (described later) and different forms of communication and leadership were introduced as treatments. Played as part of participatory action research, the second objective of the experimental games was to give an overall perspective of the situation to community members and a tool to try out innovative institutional solutions and evaluate their practicability.The remainder of the article is organised as follows. The second section presents the design of the experimental game. In the third section, we discuss the theoretical equilibrium of the game. The fourth section presents and discusses the results for the indicators of interest. Section five presents further discussion about individual outcomes and learning effects. Finally, the sixth section concludes with the main learning from the experimental game.Various studies have focused on assessing the effect of communication in achieving coordination in public goods game. Crawford (1998) gives an overview of both theoretical and experimental findings regarding the implication of communication via \"cheap talk\" in which the communication has no direct implication on payoffs. In his meta-analysis of impact of communication on social dilemmas, Balliet (2009) finds a largely positive effect of communication on cooperation, with a stronger effect in case of face-to-face discussion and large group communication. More recently, Palfrey et al. (2017) found that communication structures with unrestricted but anonymous text chatting through computer panels has the highest efficiency gains.Compared to the numerous lab-based experiments studying the impact of communication, there is relatively little field-based evidence of the efficacy of communication in achieving coordination. Aflagah et al. (2015) used N-way (N=10, 20) structured pre-play communication in a field setting in Senegal where players state how much they will contribute. Their results highlight that communication increases coordination only in large groups but they do not find significant results to indicate that communication has a stronger effect in case of a higher threshold or of uncertain and low outcome.Along with communication, leadership can also play a key role in achieving coordination in public goods game. 'Leader' is here defined as the player who is the first mover i.e. the one who contributes first; while other players are the 'followers'. There has been a growing literature in experimental economics looking at different ways in which leadership can affect outcome in public goods games through information signalling (Potters et al. 2007), leader's ability to exclude followers (Guth et al. 2007) or leader's social status (Kumru and Vesterlund 2010). Even in the simplest case of leadership without any asymmetric information or additional powers, there is evidence of positive influence of leadership on overall contribution (Moxnes and Heijden 2003;Duffy et al. 2007;Jack and Recalde 2015). The 'leader' contributes more to set a good example and trigger reciprocity from other players. In such cases, the first contributor \"leads by example\". However the literature also points to a tendency in which the followers try to undercut the leader's contribution and free ride, which in turn may dampen the leader's willingness to set a good example by committing first to contribute more (Haigner and Wakolbinger 2010;Rivas and Sutter 2011). The methods used to select the leader have also been studied and the results suggest that average group contributions are higher when leaders are chosen endogenously from the group rather than when the leader is imposed (Haigner and Wakolbinger 2010;Rivas and Sutter 2011). The literature on threshold public goods games also suggests that sequential contribution achieves greater success rates compared to simultaneous contribution (Erev and Rapoport 1990;Coats et al. 2009).In this context, it becomes interesting to compare leadership vis-à-vis communication in achieving better coordination in threshold public goods games. Here leadership is considered in its limited sense of setting a good example by the first mover and we will only be using an endogenous leadership design. Therefore, in this paper, we compare different communication and leadership treatments in achieving coordination in a dynamic threshold public goods game. In the threshold public goods game a group of players must contribute from their endowments into some public fund. If the total contribution reaches a pre-determined threshold then all players receive a high payoff, otherwise everybody gets a low payoff. The literature has focused on a range of issues such as the effect of incomplete information (Marks and Croson 1999), the heterogeneity of the players (Bagnoli and McKee 1991;Mysker et al. 1996), the effect of costs and benefits on voluntary provision of the public goods (Cadsby et al. 2008), and the effect of communication on contributions (Tavoni et al. 2011). In their meta-analysis of threshold public goods games, Croson and Marks (2000) revealed that in larger groups it is more difficult to coordinate; while coordination is easier with continuous contribution than with dichotomous choice (all or nothing).We designed a dynamic version of the standard threshold public goods game, by having two stages of the standard game. The aim of the design was to reflect the dynamic nature of canal maintenance. Anderies et al. (2013) have similarly used dynamically deteriorating irrigation canals in order to understand the nature of public provisioning of physical infrastructure in the face of asymmetric players and outcome uncertainty. We discuss our specific design in the section below.In our baseline game, each participant was given e 1 (10) tokens in each of two envelopes coloured blue and green. At the beginning of first stage, players needed to contribute simultaneously in a public pool from 10 tokens from their blue envelope. Let c i1 be contribution of ith member in stage 1. If total contribution from 10 members was greater than or equal to T 1 (55) tokens, then each member received G h1 (20) tokens; otherwise if contributions fell short of T 1 tokens then each member got G l1 (10) tokens.In the next stage players again had to contribute simultaneously in a common pool from e 2 (10) tokens from the green envelope. If the total contribution from 10 members was greater than or equal to T 2 tokens, then each member received G h2 (20) tokens, otherwise if contributions felt short of T 2 tokens they got G l2 tokens each. In this second stage, the values of T 2 and G l2 were dependent on whether cooperation was achieved in the first stage or not. If coordination was achieved and the threshold was crossed in the first stage, then T 2 =55 tokens and G l2 =10 (i.e. same as first stage). However, if cooperation was not achieved in the first stage, then T 2 =75 tokens and G l2 =5. Here, the design aimed to reproduce the vicious cycle of maintenance with an increasing cost of reparation over time. The players were fully informed about these parameter values at the beginning of the first stage.Therefore, the payoff function of this two stage threshold public goods game for player i is given bywhere e i1 =e i2 =10 ∀i; c it is the contribution of player i in stage t;Our payoff function differs from the standard version in two major ways. Firstly, we have two stages and the parameters in the second stage are a function of whether or not the threshold was crossed in the first stage. If in the first stage the group fails to reach the threshold then in second stage the threshold becomes higher and the loss in not making the threshold in the second stage also becomes larger. Secondly, we modify the payoff function to incorporate that if threshold is not met then players get a lower payoff and not zero. We designed the game in this way to reflect the reality of canal maintenance, where if maintenance is not done in initial years then in subsequent years it becomes very costly to renovate the canal. Also, the losses in agricultural outputs are likely to become higher when canals are not renovated and consequently irrigation as well as drainage become impossible. Moreover, in reality, even if coordination is not achieved farmers will still receive a positive payoff from using the canals and not a null payoff.In our design, if a player does not contribute in the first round he is guaranteed to get 20 tokens. Instead, if he contributes 1 token he can get maximum 29 tokens in the first round. This incentive might seem low but the players' contribution also affects the threshold level and the penalty in the second round. So irrespective of how much a player contributes, he is assured of 35 tokens in total (20 in first and 15 in second round). However, if everybody contributes then on average a player can expect to get 49 tokens (5.5 tokens contributed in each round) and maximally he can get 58 tokens (with only 1 token contributed in each round). This design aims to capture the dynamic nature of players' incentives.We acknowledge that in real world situations, people differ according to their wealth, which may influence their ability and willingness to contribute. In addition, the benefit of a public good, like well-functioning canal, could be different for different people. However, for simplicity in the game we assumed homogenous players in terms of endowment and benefit function.Along with this baseline control game, we played four other treatments that are described below. The choice of our treatments were based on preliminary qualitative field work on issues related to canal maintenance, governance and institutions as well as on literature review.The role of leaders, commonly called influential people who can be large farmers, shrimp farmers, local government representatives or religious leaders is essential in the context of coastal Bangladesh. Their informal influence and behaviour can potentially have important impacts on the community members. As discussed before, there are many different reasons why one can expect leadership to foster better cooperation. However, in our design, we only consider leadership as the role of the first mover who sets good example. With the leadership treatment, we want to test the null hypothesis that initial contribution by a leader would positively motivate others to contribute and set up a norm for the group, which might help in achieving greater coordination.In this treatment, one player was chosen endogenously to contribute first, whose contribution was announced to the other nine players before they contributed themselves. Then the rest of the group contributed simultaneously as in the other treatments. All other parameters remained similar to the baseline treatment.The chosen player contributed first in both stages of the game. All the players knew who the leader was, how he was selected (randomly and/or endogenously) and how much s/he contributed. However, they did not know who else expressed interest to become leader and they did not know the contributions of the other nine players. However, except in one round out of 27 rounds of the leadership treatment, the leader was chosen endogenously. In four rounds, only one player wanted to be the first contributor and was therefore directly selected. In the rest more than one player expressed interest and the leader was randomly selected from them.Three other treatments included different degrees of communication amongst the players. The contribution of players in the public goods game that we have used crucially depends on their beliefs about how much the other players will contribute. Allowing communication serves two purposes. Firstly, through communication the players can negotiate among themselves and reach a consensus to set up a group norm. Secondly, communication refines the players' beliefs about the possible contribution from others and helps in increasing the group income.These three communication treatments differ from the situation observed in most of the villages where communication on public issues is rarely institutionalised. Even where a Water Users' Group has been formed, regular meetings and open discussions among its members are often very limited. As a result, direct communication between the users of the canals about its maintenance and use is often non-existent. This makes it extremely difficult for the community to coordinate in collecting contributions from users for regular maintenance of canals.Our assumption is that if communication is introduced, the risks associated with contribution can be reduced and coordination can be achieved. The three different communication treatments used are described below.In the case of structured communication, at the beginning of each stage for each round players indicated their intended contribution by writing on a piece of paper. This information was then announced publicly but anonymously in a random order. The total amount of the intended contribution was also announced. Next, the players made actual contributions simultaneously and the parameters remained similar to the baseline game. In addition, the intended contribution was not binding i.e. the players were free to contribute as much as they want, independently of what they announced.The idea of establishing the rules for communication before contributing was to reduce uncertainty about other players' decisions and to help in establishing the norm of the group. In the real world, people do not interact through this kind of communication but the reason for studying it was to isolate the effect of basic informational content about intended contribution versus other forms of communication with more scope of detailed discussion and persuasion.In the case of unstructured communication in large group, at the beginning of each stage for each round all 10 players had a face-to-face open discussion. The communication was completely unstructured and the only rule established by the facilitators was not to threaten anyone. The communication happened in front of the experimenters to ensure that no individual targeting and pressuring happened. After this discussion, the game was played with the same parameters as in the baseline game. To allow the players to have a free and open discussion, records were not taken. One point to note here is that the communication that happened was informal and there was no binding agreement amongst players. The actual contributions were still anonymous and simultaneously decided as in the baseline game. So nobody could know what other players have actually contributed.By introducing this unstructured communication treatment, we expected to trigger non-pecuniary effects on players' decisions. There are two primary differences between structured communication and unstructured communication. First, in structured communication, the focus was entirely on the intended contribution with no scope for discussion, whereas in unstructured communication players had the ability to convince others, to explain and discuss. The second difference is that in structured communication the intended contributions were anonymous while in unstructured communication there was a scope for people to know who intended to contribute how much.Unstructured communication in small group is exactly the same as that in large group as described above, the only difference being that during communication, the players were divided into groups of five people each and the two groups did not communicate amongst themselves. However, the threshold amount that needed to be crossed still depended on the total contribution of all 10 players. Similar to the large group treatment here also, the communication was completely unstructured and all other parameters of the game remained the same. With this treatment, the idea was to compare small group communication vis-à-vis large group communication. One assumption is that if in large groups a consensus is difficult to reach, it might become easier in smaller groups. However, in smaller groups there is also less information received by each player.The primary objective of looking at unstructured communication both in large and small groups was to compare the real world situation where everybody is involved in the communication versus the situation where communication only happens in smaller groups without any communication ever happening between these different groups. Large groups are for example akin to Water Management Associations with farmers from different villages, while smaller groups are akin to Water Management Groups with farmers from one village or even with plots neighbouring one sluice gate.The experimental games were conducted in five villages from high and intermediate levels of salinity zones from Satkhira and Khulna districts in coastal Bangladesh. The villages were selected based on secondary data and preliminary field visits. In all five selected villages canal siltation has been reported as one of the main problems even if the degree of siltation, the consequences and the role of the communities differ.In each village, we played with two groups of 10 players each. We had World Fish as our research partner in Bangladesh who were working in these villages for a long time. We asked them to select a more or less representative sample from farmers in each village. Some of the players were from groups involved in participatory action research for improved livelihoods and others were from the rest of the village community. In addition, we ensured the representation of women in the groups and villagers with different economic and social background as well to have a representative sample of players. However all our participants were from agricultural households and hence dependent on canals for irrigation and drainage purposes.The games started with a short introduction and then a detailed description. Four treatments were played with each group and the explanation of each treatment was given sequentially before playing that treatment. 1 Adequate time was spent after the explanations to answer the questions of the participants so that everybody understood the rules and objective of the game. After completion of the games, we conducted a short survey to collect basic information about the demographic characteristics, wealth and social capital of the players.The games were conducted in a neutral language for research purposes and were not linked to the actual problem of canal maintenance. This differs from field experiments usually conducted in which the game is clearly contextualised and in which players' actions might be dictated by what ought to be done. Our players were actual farmers from the community where these infrastructure maintenance issues are very real. This is a unique feature of our game. However, after the games were played, open discussion sessions were conducted with all the players to contextualise the games, get feedback from the players and identify potential lessons in achieving coordination for improved management of their water infrastructures.Combining the baseline and the treatments previously described, we had five different treatments which can be denoted as follows:1 The detailed instructions given to the players are available upon request.• Baseline/Control game (A)We played with 10 groups and a total of 100 players. Each group played four treatments only (including the baseline game) and each treatment was repeated three times. Thus, for each group, 12 repetitions were played. While designing the combination of treatments we decided that since treatment D and treatment E are very similar they would not be played by the same group. We therefore had two combinations either ABCD or ABCE. To achieve a relatively balanced sample for each of our treatments, these two combinations were equally divided among our 10 groups, i.e. each combination was played by 5 groups.After finalising the combination of treatments, it was ensured that the order in which the treatments are played be different in each group. The purpose of doing this was to ensure that the learning effect does not bias the effect of a particular treatment. Indeed, the player's decisions may be dependent on which round the treatment is being played, as the player learns through repeated playing so it becomes important to change the sequence of treatments for different groups. Ultimately, we had two groups starting with game A, two groups starting with game B and so on. Given this restriction, a particular sequence of treatment for the group was chosen randomly. Table 1 gives our final sample.All the games were done in complete information and common knowledge framework i.e. the entire game was explained openly at the beginning of the game with all parameters being announced. The players also knew beforehand that there would be three rounds for each of the treatments. They were also informed that real payments will be made at the end of the game and that after the three rounds of each treatment, one repetition out of the three will be randomly selected for deciding the value of the actual payments. The total contribution was reported In one village due to some logistical reasons, we had only 3 treatments, with baseline played 4 times.after each stage of the game but the individual value of the contribution remained anonymous.Each participant was paid BDT 2 30 as showup fee. Any additional income depended on the outcome of the games. The total income earned by the players was BDT 163 on average, with the maximum and minimum incomes being BDT 210 and BDT 100, respectively. Given that the players were engaged for three hours approximately, the average earning of the players was commensurate with average daily agricultural rate for men in the month of November, which was BDT 270 (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 2013).Before analysing the results of our experiments, it is necessary to discuss the possible equilibria of our game, as it is against this benchmark that we interpret results. Croson and Marks (2000) analysed the one stage threshold public goods game with no refund and homogenous players. It has two sets of equilibria -first is the inefficient Nash equilibrium in which nobody contributes and the minimum threshold amount or \"cost of the public good\" is not met, and second is the set of efficient Nash equilibrium where the total contribution exactly equals the minimum threshold amount. Our baseline game differs from this one stage threshold public goods game in two ways: firstly there are two stages of threshold public goods game with no refund and secondly the parameters in the second stage are dependent on the outcomes of the first stage. So it becomes necessary to study the sub-game perfect Nash equilibrium of this two stage threshold public goods game. We restrict our analysis to pure strategy equilibria.In order to discuss the sub-game perfect Nash equilibrium of our game, we start with the second stage of baseline game. In the second stage, the baseline game is exactly the same as the one stage threshold public goods game with no refund. So as discussed before it has two Nash equilibrium solutions: either nobody contributes or else total contribution exactly equals the minimum threshold amount or \"cost\". Indeed, if nobody contributes then no individual player has the incentive or ability to supplement the pool and reach the threshold amount. Alternatively, if total contribution is exactly equal to the minimum threshold amount then, however unequal the individual contributions are, no player has incentive to reduce his contribution; indeed, such action would not increase his private income by more than what he loses in income from public good provision. One point to note is that given the parameters in our games (threshold amount either 55 or 75 and 10 players), this set of Pareto efficient equilibria is an asymmetric pure strategy Nash equilibrium, with unequal contribution from players. There exists no symmetric pure strategy equilibrium, in this set of Pareto efficient equilibrium.There is no other equilibrium. If total contribution exceeds minimum threshold then at least one player can increase his private consumption without affecting public good provision. If total contribution is less than threshold amount, then either some player has both the ability and incentive to increase contribution in public pool or there is at least one player who does not have ability to supplement the public pool and hence has incentive to reduce his contribution to zero. These two sets of equilibria in the second stage is irrespective of which node the game is at, i.e. threshold is 55 or 75.In first stage of the game, players have threshold 55, but their contribution decides what will be threshold at next stage. Here also there are two Nash equilibria: either nobody contributes or else total contribution exactly equals the minimum threshold of 55 tokens. The reasons are the same as before.So, in our baseline game, the sub-game perfect Nash equilibrium alternatives are (i) no contribution in both first stage and in second stage (ii) no contribution in first stage and total contribution exactly equals 75 tokens in second stage, (iii) in first stage total contribution exactly equals 55 tokens and in second stage total contribution is zero (iv) contribution exactly equals 55 tokens in the first stage and 55 tokens in the second stage.Let us consider the leadership game in its second stage with threshold set at T (55 or 75) tokens. Let us consider the leader has contributed L (0<=L<=10) tokens. For the nine players who are followers they contribute simultaneously. For them the threshold is T-L. This game is the same as our original baseline game. So possible Nash equilibrium are that all nine players contribute zero (T-L>e=10) or total contribution of nine players is exactly equal to T-L. The reasoning is the same as before.For each possible contribution by leader L (0-10), i.e. for each of the final nodes of the sequential game, there are multiple equilibria. Choosing any particular strategy profile for the nine followers or choosing one Nash equilibrium in each of these final sub-games, we have to find the leader's optimum action. The leader's optimum contribution is the minimum L say L 0 , at which the Nash equilibrium is T-L 0 rather than zero. If at all nodes, Nash equilibrium is zero contribution by all nine players then leader will also contribute zero. This is one sub-game perfect Nash equilibrium. If at L 0 , Nash equilibrium of nine followers is T-L 0 and for all L<L 0 , Nash equilibrium is zero contribution from all nine players, then leader's optimum is L 0 . This is SPNE. So even in this leadership game, all possible sub-game perfect Nash equilibria are reached i.e. the leader contributes zero, and all nine followers contribute zero; or leader contributes L 0 and all nine followers contribute together (T-L 0 ), where 0<=L 0 <=10.In structured communication treatment and unstructured communication treatment (with both large group and small group), the parameters remain the same as in baseline game. The only difference is that in each stage of the game, players communicate amongst themselves in a non-binding way. This does not affect the equilibrium in any way and the Nash equilibrium of our game does not differ from the baseline game.The set of pure strategy Nash equilibria in each of the treatments is similar to the one from the baseline game. Our interest is to find out to what extent groups can achieve the Pareto efficient set of Nash equilibria under different treatments.We look at three group variables to measure the effectiveness of any treatment in achieving coordination: the success rate in crossing the threshold and ensuring public good provision; the average contribution of players; and finally how much the group income falls short of the maximum income that they could have earned, i.e. deviation from the optimum income. Since our public goods game has two stages with varying thresholds, we analyse stage 1 and stage 2 separately along with looking at the two stages together. Moreover, in stage 2, the threshold level could be either 55 tokens or 75 tokens, depending on the success in the first stage; therefore, in our analysis we differentiate between these two cases in stage 2. As robustness checks, we finally analyse the individual income and test the impact of the learning effect.First, we consider the provision of the public good or the success rate across the treatments in stage 1 and 2 (Figure 1). The rate of success in crossing the threshold of 55 tokens in stage 1 is the lowest in the baseline games (61%) and the highest in large groups with unstructured communication (87%). If the leadership treatment is ignored, then we note that the rate of success gradually increases with communication. This first result confirms our assumption. Interestingly the leadership treatment is also extremely successful in achieving public good provision in spite of its limited scope of communication, since 85% of the rounds played with this treatment crossed the threshold and delivered the public good in stage 1. Pairwise t-tests of different treatments vis-à-vis baseline confirms that in stage 1, apart from the small group communication treatment, all the three other treatments reach a significantly (at less than 1%) higher success rate than the baseline game.If public good was provided in stage 1, the success rate of stage 2 is very high, above 80% across all treatments. However, pairwise t-tests identify no significant differences between the different treatments and the baseline game. This overall high success rate, irrespective of the level of communication between the players, means that if in stage 1 the group successfully reaches the threshold then they do not change their contribution in stage 2. This result highlights that when a group experiences success in the delivery of a public good, members keep reproducing the same behaviour to receive the same benefits again. This initial success sets the norm and initiates a virtuous circle. This point will also be clear when we explore the pattern of individual contribution.On the contrary, if the public good was not provided in stage 1, and threshold has increased to 75 tokens then we observe a dramatic decrease in the success rate in stage 2. On average, considering all the treatments, the average success rate in stage 2 when stage 1 failed, is 18%. This is the opposite scenario; the inability of the group to succeed in the first stage makes the success in the second stage very unlikely. This situation is akin to a vicious circle and reproduces the actual maintenance issue, when the repeated lack of maintenance makes community engagement to solve the issue less and less likely. This situation arises because of the cost, which gets more and more expensive over time due to deferred maintenance.Only the treatments with small group unstructured communication and large group unstructured communication achieve slightly higher success rate in stage 2 when the stage 1 was not successful, respectively 40% and 50%; for these two treatments the success rates is also significantly higher than in baseline games. In leadership treatments, none of the games was successful and in structured communication treatments, only 20% of the games reached the required threshold. We can therefore consider that open communication, and especially in larger groups can be an effective tool to move out of the vicious circle of the deferred maintenance and to achieve successful coordination of the community again; even if the probability of success remains far lower than the one achieved in groups not experiencing failure. However, in this situation when the mistrust is established among the group members, the structured communication is not effective; indeed the players do not believe that the contributions announced by others will effectively be pooled. Similarly, the role of a leader is unavailing under this scenario; none of them has been able to re-establish trust and cooperation.Next, we analyse the average contribution of the players across different treatments. As shown in Table 2, in stage 1, the average contribution is above 5.5 tokens for all the treatments. 3 T-tests establish that there is no significant difference across the treatments and between the treatment and baseline game in the first stage. The same holds true with the contributions of the second stage if the public good was provided in stage 1. The level of contributions between stage 1 and stage 2 when the stage one was successful are also very similar.However, if the public good was not provided in stage 1, then in the second stage, the threshold level was 75 and we note a sharp increase in the individual contribution in that case. In Table 2 comparing the cases where public good was provided in stage 1 vis-à-vis the case where public good was not provided in stage 1, we note that for all the treatments the average contribution in stage 2 is significantly higher when the public good was not provided in the first stage. This is confirmed by analysing how the contributions evolve from stage 1 to stage 2. In Table 3, the change in contribution is defined as the difference between individual contribution in stage 2 and the individual contribution in stage 3 Since the threshold is 55 tokens and we had a group of 10 players, we consider that on average, each player had to contribute a minimum of 5.5 tokens (5 or 6) to cross the threshold. 1 (c 2 -c 1 ). When the public good was provided in the first stage, on average players do not change their level of contribution in the second stage and the null hypothesis that c 2 -c 1 =0 cannot be rejected. This confirms the virtuous circle established in case of success, the willingness of the players to maintain their contributions to achieve the success again and the fact that communication tools are not essential under those conditions. On the contrary, when they failed to reach the threshold in stage 1, players increase their contribution significantly in the second stage. The difference between the contribution in stage 1 and 2 is highly significant for all the treatments. This is in the case of treatments with unstructured communication that the difference is the largest; in those cases, the players allocate 2 to 3 tokens more to the pool than they did in the first stage. These results mean that players take into consideration the challenge of reaching a higher threshold and increase their individual contribution to make the game successful. Yet, in spite of the increase in the level of contribution from stage 1 to stage 2 when the stage 1 failed, we previously saw that this is not enough to make most of these games successful and to reach the required threshold. Indeed, except for large group unstructured communication treatment, the average of individual contribution is lower than 7.5 tokens 4 (Table 2). In this case, with unstructured communication in large group treatment, the average individual contribution is significantly higher than in the baseline games (Table 2).Results revealed that the unstructured communication among the entire group of players is the only treatment that has been able to re-establish coordination in the groups who experienced failure.Similar patterns are observed when we analyse the percentage of players who contributed in each stage of the game more than 5.5 or 7.5 tokens depending on whether the threshold is 55 tokens or 75 tokens respectively (Table 4). If the public good was not provided in stage 1 then in stage 2, most of the players step back and decide not to allocate to the pool the minimal number of tokens that would be required from each player for the group to reach the threshold. In those cases, the players do not think that they will get any returns from the group; they therefore decide to prefer their individual interest against the uncertain social interest. It is only with unstructured communication treatments that the majority of players allocate the minimum level of contribution which gives a chance to the group to succeed. For example, in stage 2 when stage 1 failed and with unstructured communication in large group, 65% of the players contributed 7.5 or more tokens while they were only 40% likely to do so in baseline and leadership treatments.The percentage is also higher in stage 2 with no provision of the public good in stage 1 (65%) than in stage 1 (62%) or in stage 2 with provision of the public good (58%). This result confirms that when the challenge is important and the risk to fail in the vicious circle of deferred maintenance is high, only communication with all the stakeholders has a chance to achieve the delivery of the public good.Finally, we look at the income earned by the group under various treatments. Mann-Whitney tests of these group level parameters across different treatments (adjusted for multiple comparisons) showed that the group income is significantly higher only in the case of unstructured communication in large group as compared to the control game.In Figure 2, we analyse the percentage of deviation between the actual income reached by the group and the optimum group income, i.e. the maximum income that could have been earned by the group as a whole for each game.With this design of the game, the step return function is greater than 1, the group always gets back more than what it invests at the threshold amount; but investing more than the threshold amount will not increase the return to the group. Therefore, the optimum income for the group is when the group contribution is exactly at the threshold level. The optimum group income in any stage of our game is calculated as: I opt =200+(100 -threshold). Consequently, in stage 1, the optimum group income is 245 tokens. As the group contributes 55 tokens, it is left with 45 tokens and it gets back 200 tokens (20×10), making the total 245 tokens. In stage 2, if the threshold level is 55, then optimum income is 245 tokens and if the threshold is 75, then the optimum income is 225. If we combine stage 1 and stage 2, then the optimum income is achieved when public contribution in both stages is exactly equal to 55 tokens, which makes the total maximum group income as 490 tokens.In stage 2 across all the five treatments, we find that the deviation from the optimum income increases hugely compared to stage 1 if the public good was not provided in stage 1. Indeed the deviation is, respectively, at 5% and 52% in stage 2 when the stage 1 was successful and not successful. In this case, the threshold increases to 75 tokens and as a result, people increase their contribution but coordination become very difficult to achieve. This results in an important deviation from the optimum income. Yet with unstructured communication (both in large group and small group), this deviation is the lowest. For example, with unstructured communication in large group, the group loses 36% of the maximum income, which could have been earned whereas it was as high as 64% in the case of the leadership treatment.In addition, the deviation from the optimum income is lower in stage 2 when the public good was provided in stage 1 as compared to stage 1. On average in stage 1, the group income is 11% less than the optimal income, but in the second stage with provision of the public good in stage 1 it is 5%. This result reinforces the idea of the virtuous circle previously mentioned. Not only are the players easily able to reproduce a success and to deliver the public good again if they already experienced it, but in addition they increase their income as a group to come closer to the optimum social benefit. It should be noted that in stage 1 or in stage 2 with success in stage 1, there are no significant differences in the level of deviation from the optimum income across the different treatments. This means that improved communication through specific tools is not necessarily needed in a group who already coordinated successfully in the past, and in that case individual simultaneous decisions without communication will not perform worse than with communication.Finally, combining all the cases together, we identify a gradient in the deviation from the optimum income that matches with the degree of communication. With unstructured communication in large groups before deciding the individual level of contribution, the actual income earned is 9% lower than the optimum income whereas it is more than 21% when contributions are decided without any preceding communication among the players. Overall, this highlights the essential role of communication to reach higher benefits both from individual and social perspectives.Analysing the group level parameters, we demonstrate the role of a vicious or virtuous circle in the provision of public goods in a dynamic threshold design and the positive impact of unstructured communication as compared to the other treatments in the achievement of coordination. However, with group level parameters, we have only 115 observations for comparing five treatments. With this limited sample size, power may be insufficient to detect additional differences between the treatments. We therefore analyse the total income for each individual (Table 5).We find that leadership, structured communication, and unstructured communication in large group are all significantly different from control game at 1%. This confirms the results established from the analysis of the group parameters. However, we could not find significant difference amongst these four treatments. We also ran a simple regression model with individual income as the dependent variable and different treatments as dummy variables to capture how individual incomes differ under different treatments. An Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression with variances clustered at the group level is presented in Table 6. 5  All four treatments have a positive impact on the individual income as compared to the control game, which is omitted variable here. In coherence with the previous results, the highest coefficient is for unstructured communication in large groups (significant at less than 5%), followed by structured communication and unstructured communication which are both significant at 10%.In our design, to ensure that learning effects do not bias our results we randomised the sequence in which the treatments were played. To test that this is actually not the case, in Table 7 Col 1, Spearman rank correlation coefficients are presented between player's contribution and the round in which it is played (from 1 to 12). In column 2, the correlation is given between players' contribution and the game sequence in which it was played (from 1 to 4 -this is the sequence of a particular treatment amongst the 4 treatments that each group played). No significant correlations are identified and the correlation coefficients are close to zero. This confirms that the game design selected avoids the contamination of results with learning effects bias.At the end of the day, facilitators invited all the players from the village to discuss their experience/learnings from the games and to think about the similarities and implications this could have in their water related issues. The relationship 5 The individual income being censored within range of 10-60 tokens, so we also ran the same regression using a Tobit model. The results are consistent and available upon request. of this game with the canal maintenance issue was discussed. Most players said that playing the game and then thinking and discussing about it later they have understood better why community contributions for canal maintenance often fails and how open communication can help in achieving coordination. Many players were clear on the main results and mentioned that institutions should be set up to facilitate regular and open communication among community members and beneficiaries of the water infrastructures. They consider that this type of institution does not exist so far. They also recognised that although communication with all the stakeholders is the most effective tool, in a context of important socio-economic heterogeneity, it is unlikely that community members can endogenously organise themselves and start such an initiative. Players mentioned that a third party, who can, for example, be local government actors, should initiate the process and bring the people together.In this paper, we have used a sequential version of the threshold public goods game, where there are two stages of the game and action in the first stage determines the threshold level in the second stage. This game was designed to stylise the public good problem faced every day by the people of coastal Bangladesh in managing the water infrastructures in the polders. Water infrastructures in the village require regular maintenance. If this maintenance is not done regularly then over the years, the situation worsens and the small damage becomes bigger and costlier until the repairs become beyond the capacity of community members. In that case, external help is required but livelihoods are damaged in the meantime. To avoid this situation, communities need to organise themselves and initiate coordination to contribute for regular maintenance. However, in reality, this coordination is rare and in this paper, we have tried to examine how different mechanisms can help in achieving improved coordination. Along with the basic game defined in the baseline, we played four other variations: a leadership treatment in which one of the players contributes first and his contribution is known to all, a treatment with structured communication in which players indicated anonymously and without binding how much they would like to contribute before actual contribution, a treatment with unstructured communication in which players openly talk among themselves before their actual contribution in small (five) or large groups (ten).As already described in the literature, the analysis from the games confirms that in the first stage of the game when the degree of communication increases, the success rate of coordination (crossing the threshold) increases. In the literature, all of these treatments show a positive effect on the coordination but we make a relative comparison amongst them and show that unstructured or open communication has the largest positive impact on achieving coordination and higher income. Beyond this, the novelty of the results concerns the dynamic nature of our design of the threshold public goods game played in a field setting outside the lab. We establish that if in stage 1 success is achieved, then in stage 2 players do not change their contribution and there is almost no difference across treatments. However, the crucial importance of communication comes out in stage 2 if in stage 1 the public good was not provided; in this case, the threshold is higher and coordination is even more difficult. Players increase their average contribution but it is not enough to cross the threshold. Under this scenario, open communication among all the members performs the best in achieving coordination and increasing group income.Another positive result from this game is that when communities experience success and receive the benefits from public good provision, a virtuous circle is started and there are good chances that the positive behaviours will be reproduced in the subsequent periods. This means that there is no perpetual trap and that communities can initiate sustainable and responsible practices for regular maintenance of their water infrastructures.The results from this experimental game compared to the reality of the canal maintenance issue provide arguments for establishing institutions able to initiate open communication in large groups of stakeholders with the support of external actors.Finally, a number of important questions remain which need to be further analysed to tie more closely the theory and the uptake of the research. We noted that larger groups reach higher success rates in the delivery of the public good but we wonder if a turning point exists and if communication becomes inefficient in very large groups. Also, we showed a virtuous circle when the players experience success in the first stage of the game. What the results would be in games with more than two periods is unknown.Aflagah, F. K. D., B. Tanguy, and A. Viceisza. 2015. Communication and Coordination: Experimental Evidence from Farmer Groups in Senegal. In","tokenCount":"8319"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3beae3073049a300ff4619fccc74c686","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f549ccf5-7420-467b-8041-bb348a039755/retrieve","id":"-1901835852"},"keywords":["Foresight","scenarios","anticipatory governance","climate policy","climate","futures","sustainability transformations"],"sieverID":"c9a1f080-6fe7-40d9-9c60-e575f77f3e46","pagecount":"35","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Anticipating the possible impacts of climate change has become a key global focus. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has drawn up a set of influential climate and socio-economic scenarios. Many governments, researchers and practitioners are developing scenarios at regional and national levels to imagine and experiment with possible global climate futures. Games are used to experience alternative futures. The futures that are imagined in these processes give shape to actions in the present. But how can the benefits and challenges of these processes of anticipation be better understood as governance interventions, particularly in the regions vulnerable to climate change?The RE-IMAGINE project is co-led by Dr. Joost Vervoort (UU) and Prof. Aarti Gupta (WUR). It investigates how anticipating diverse climate futures is linked to realizing appropriate and effective modes of climate governance in the world's most vulnerable regions. The project analyses various influential processes of anticipation in diverse sustainability contexts across the globe to achieve more reflexive and inclusive climate governance. In doing so, RE-IMAGINE bridges research on foresight processes that envision climate futures with climate governance research. RE-IMAGINE builds on climate foresight expertise of the CGIAR Scenarios Project under the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Program, global climate policy and governance expertise from Wageningen University & Research and the University of Oxford, and foresight and climate governance expertise within Utrecht University. It also works with regional governmental organizations in four global regions that are highly vulnerable to climate change: Central America, West Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. In these regions RE-IMAGINE collaborates closely with the CCAFS network and regional partners UCI, ICRISAT, GIZ and ICCCAD. In addition, a Scientific Advisory Committee consisting of leading foresight and governance researchers provides advice throughout the project. RE-IMAGINE has been made possible by the BNP Paribas Foundation's Climate Action Call, which aims to strengthen anticipation of climate change processes, and further our understanding of impacts on our environment and local populations around the world. The project started in October 2018 and runs until December 2022.Many methods and tools are used today to imagine climate futures and develop strategies for realizing new futures. These include, for example, more formal foresight tools such as participatory scenario analysis (Kok et al., 2007;Vervoort et al., 2014) and modelling (Mason-D 'Croz et al., 2016;Sampson et al., 2016), but also visioning and back casting (Quist et al., 2011;Robinson et al., 2011) cost-benefit analysis (Atkinson, 2015), experiential methods (Candy & Dunagan, 2017;Candy & Potter, 2019), gaming (Baena, 2017;Vervoort, 2019) and critical research methods (Hajer & Versteeg, 2019;Späth & Rohracher, 2012) can be used with a future-orientation. With the proliferation of these processes in sustainabilityrelated research and planning contexts, scrutiny of their role in steering decision-making becomes increasingly important (Vervoort and Gupta, 2018).A growing body of scholars in the social sciences and sustainability sciences have used the notion of anticipatory governance to examine these processes of anticipation, including in environmental governance, public planning, responsible research and innovation, science and technology studies and transition management. We understand the concept most broadly as governing uncertain futures in the present (Vervoort & Gupta, 2018). Research into anticipatory climate governance processes in the Global South has remained very limited, while these regions are most vulnerable to climate change. This report therefore examines processes of anticipation in one of the climate vulnerable regions of the Global South.The research question we answer is: 'through what approaches are diverse processes of anticipation used to govern climate change in diverse Southeast Asian contexts?'.In order to answer this question, our inquiry follows several steps. We first examine what  This report presents the RE-IMAGINE research findings in one of its four regions: Southeast Asia. Section 2 describes our methodological approach. Section 3 examines the methods and tools of anticipation and their links to decision-making. Section 4 analyzes the conceptions of the future, implications for the present and ultimate aims of three processes based on the analytical framework. Section 5 examines perspectives on the opportunities and challenges for anticipatory governance in practice.This section describes how we selected (Section 2.1.) and analyzed (Section 2.2.) our units of analysis.This Southeast Asia regional report looks specifically at how anticipatory processes have been employed for policy making in Southeast Asia over the last 10 years. Out of the 10 countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 5 countries were selected with the lowest incomes in the region yet high state level of adaptation legislation.We then searched for policy documents, literature and process reports (grey literature) of anticipatory processes and climate policies in these five countries. We first searched for literature on Scopus using the key words [country] AND anticipation AND policy AND climate AND change AND future. This search had few results. We then broadened our scope and searched for literature on Scopus using the key words [country] AND development AND policy AND climate AND change AND future. We then found mainly papers on country climate vulnerabilities. Finally, we pursued our strategy through a traditional legislative stocktaking by reviewing policies, plans, laws, and regulations endorsed in the last 10 years.The principal researcher requested the relevant parliamentary working committees for print versions of the certified translations of policy documents which were primarily available in hard copy.From 2010 to 2018 were 67 national policies or regulations passed that addressed climate change risks, adaptation, and mitigation in the 5 selected countries. Of these 67, 18 policies referred to processes of anticipation, such as climate modeling or scenarios. We set the limit to 5 policies per country and selected those that were most considered most influential for climate change related decision-making. This was based on the regional experience of the principal investigator as well as other regional climate governance experts who were asked to help identify the most relevant policies. Table 1 below lists the policies included for each country, as well as the year by which they were passed and if they were executive or legislative. Taking these policies as a starting point, we then complemented our search by looking for reports that discuss the processes of anticipation that had been used. We examined the links between 18 anticipatory processes and climate adaptation policies in Vietnam, the Philippines, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Laos, before analyzing three anticipatory climate governance processes in detail.As a next step, we selected three examples for further scrutiny of the approaches to anticipatory governance. Examples were included that are diverse in the methods and tools that had been used as well as the scales that had been examined. We searched for additional reports on the anticipation processes (e.g. workshop reports) and also held 11 semi-structured interviews with stakeholders on both sides of the anticipation-policy interface. We interviewed at least three key stakeholders involved in each process: one informant who took part in the facilitation of the practice; one intermediary informant who connected the anticipation practice with policy making; and one informant from the policy side.As a final step, we held 2 regional focus groups with diverse stakeholders to share our findings and discuss if and why certain approaches are valued over others to understand why certain approaches may dominate (see the picture below).Picture 1. One of the focus group discussionsOur case study analysis relied on qualitative research methods to understand, analyze, and describe the approaches through which anticipation informs decision-making. First, the policies were analyzed on the types of methods and tools used and how they informed the decision-making process.Then, the three cases were examined on the approaches to anticipatory governance with help of the analytical framework by Muiderman et al. ( 2020) based on the policy documents, process reports and interviews. This triangulation of data helped to verify and contrast findings.Finally, to answer our final research question, we organized two workshops to discuss the research findings and perspectives on what anticipatory governance should do. We discussed what processes of anticipation were used, the challenges that exist in each country to practice anticipatory climate governance and the opportunities to strengthen capacities in this field.This section presents the findings from reviewing the use of anticipation processes for climate change decision-making.Climate change is a global concern and of special relevance to Southeast Asia, a region that is both rated as one of the most vulnerable regions of the world to the impacts of climate There is a strong will to govern climate futures and with it comes an increasing appreciation for anticipation processes. The Philippines and Vietnam are generally seen as \"adaptation pioneers \", Cambodia and Indonesia as the \"emerging champions\" and Laos still as the \"waitand-see country\". Climate foresight modelling and scenario development are increasingly being used for planning and decision-making in the agriculture sector in Asia (FAO 2018).Scenarios offer a way to address uncertainty about futures by creating \"coherent, internally consistent storylines that explore plausible future states of the world or alternate states of a system\" (adapted from IPCC 2013).This also shows from our analysis. Almost all national policies reviewed used some form of anticipation processes to guide climate change decision-making. Anticipation processes generally include climate projections and forecasts, scenario narratives and visioning processes. The policies are quite specific on how the anticipation process was used for decision-making. The level of participation varies, some are an expert-driven process, while others explicitly seek to develop a common future. There is an increasing concern for enhancing people's reflectivity about the future climate impacts of climate change and strategically working towards more resilient societies.  This section describes the findings from studying three processes in depth.The first process is the joint statement on Climate action for ASEAN Agriculture Resilient Societies 2020 is which was developed and adopted by the Ministers of Agriculture and The joint statement was drafted using a participatory exploratory scenarios approach that was initiated in a regional workshop in Bangkok, 2017. A diverse group of around 40 stakeholders from 10 different countries participated in a two-day workshop, including policymakers, scholars and people working for development organizations such as FAO, USAID, GIZ, GACSA, CIAT, CCAFS, WBCSD.Horizon mission methodology was used to create scenarios based on the official projections used in the country's NDCs. The starting point was that the future is not certain, but futures can be collectively created, and so participants were encouraged to share the desirable future they would like to see. Thereafter, participants worked in groups and determined potential strategies, policies, and technologies to achieve the visions. They also decided on a timeline for implementation and prioritized intervention against this timeframe. Several participants who were interviewed said they first felt that the future was envisioned as \"impossibly optimistic\" and even \"naïve\". However, after the scenario workshop discussed what steps would be needed to realize this future, they also said that the process did in fact provided interesting reflections on the current situation as well as a strategy for addressing the issues. The Lower Basin Mekong Scenarios were developed by the Mekong River Commission to provide direct input into The Basin Development Strategy 2016-2020. This is a regional policy  , 2015). The review emphasized the need to work with a wider variety of General Circulation Models and emission scenarios when defining regional climate change scenarios for the Lower Mekong Basin. In addition, the process was perceived too long and not sufficiently inclusive (\"Surface consultation\"). Therefore, the validity and legitimacy of the scenarios was considered limited. Rapid changes to the region also made that the scenarios outdated rapidly. It was thus perceived as a costly exercise for policy makers to discuss common policy assumptions. In all, the credibility of the scenarios was limited, and they were hardly used for other projects. robust. Also, stakeholders that had not been involved were happy with the scenarios content and its integration into the various legislative processes, which demonstrates that foresight can interact and influence a large variety of stakeholders despite their lack of involvement.Policymakers do not see scenarios development and use as optional but as one of the fundamental resources for developing and designing better policies and programs that are efficiently use national budget or investment. The government steers anticipation in a centralized way and ensures high policy integration. Interviewees considered this model to be robust and effective for national capacity building and inter-ministry coordination and commitment for addressing long-term climate change.One and a half year into the project, two sessions were held to present the first findings of the analysis and collect insights on challenges and opportunities for the anticipatory governance of transformative agriculture mitigation and adaptation. The main objective was to identify dominant perspectives on what anticipatory governance should do, in terms of the conditions for maximizing the use and impact.The first meeting was integrated into a two-day Regional FAO Workshop that took place in Foresight was considered useful in multiple ways for the formulation of climate policy.Generally, more than one scenario development process was used, and outcomes were scenarios for the policy formulation or review process or ensured policy appropriateness, budget allocation and strategic design of investments. Such foresight was seen to be advanced foresight integration and best practice.Here we provide a list of priorities actions based on our analysis to support practitioners and decision-makers who want to be more mindful of the ways in which foresight work can impact on present action towards more sustainable futures in the region.In order to meet the targets set as part of the Paris Agreement, all countries should strive towards progressive sustainability transformations, while taking into account common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities Anticipation methods and tools provide opportunities for visualizing and understanding long-term climate impacts of e.g. greenhouse gas emissions on developmentAnticipation can be used to assess probable (and improbable) future climate risks Testing policy against diverse plausible futures can help make plans more robust to various uncertain future developments More futures work is needed that focuses specifically on making climate futures more socially inclusive Also are critical approaches needed to think about the ways in which certain investments, groups and perspectives are prioritized while others might be left behind Anticipation and foresight should thus be part of any regional and national planning process that seeks to contribute to a more sustainable future.To this end, capacities are needed at the regional and national level, as well as structural financial mechanisms.","tokenCount":"2380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c880317cfc0eeeb4459f757a0e8539e0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b6917923-562f-405c-8bba-df301c3fefb5/content","id":"-1705080620"},"keywords":["Triticum aestivum","Oriza sativa","Cropping systems","Uttar Pradesh. AGRIS category codes: F01","F08. Dewey decimal classification: 631.582"],"sieverID":"5f41693c-c86c-4b5e-a0ad-c1c8e2edafbe","pagecount":"70","content":"CIMMYT is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center is engaged in a worldwide research program for maize, wheat, and triticale, with emphasis on improving the productivity of agricultural resources in developing countries. It is one of 16 nonprofit international agricultural research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), which is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAD) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of a combination of 40 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations.CIMMYT receives core support through the CGIAR from a number of sources, including the international aid agencies of Australia,The rice-wheat (R-W) cropping pattern is very important in eastern Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), India (Figure 1). Of the 18 Districts (three divisions) in this part of the State under the responsibility of the Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology (NDUAT), there are 2.944 million (m) hectares of rice and 1.983 m hectares of wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown. About 90% of the wheat is planted after rice (Oryza sativa L.) so, although statistics are not collected by cropping pattern, it would appear that there are approximately 1.80 m hectares of the R-W cropping pattern in this area.Participants, who were senior professors and researchers in agronomy, pathology, soils, production economics, entomology, agricultural engineering, and breeding (Appendix 1), were divided into four subgroups each day for field surveys and farmer interviews. Two groups started from the University campus at Kumarganj and surveyed the areas on both sides of the roads from Kumarganj to Faizabad, and from Kumarganj to Kurebhar and north to the Masodha Station (Figure 2). The other two groups left from Masodha and surveyed the areas from Faizabad to Kurebhar and from Faizabad to Akbarpur. Morning interviews with farmers were followed by structured discussions back at the Masodha Farm following lunch.As in past surveys, semi-structured guidelines rather than formal questionnaires were used to guide the discussions with farmers and other respondents. Using a sequential approach, these guidelines were redefined daily, in accord with the consensus of the whole group and after analysis of newly obtained information and identification of remaining data gaps. A running account of findings was maintained in order to ready a draft report immediately after each fieldwork period. Methods are further described in Tripp and Woolley (1989) and Fujisaka (1991). Respondents included small-and medium-scale farmers from the medium and lower-lying areas of the above described area.• Farmer classification of land types, soil types, and water regimes, and how these classifications are used by farmers when deciding which crops and cultivars to grow and where to grow them.• Reliability of irrigation and interactions with variability in annual rainfall.• Farm size and links to mechanization and crop management decisions.• Farmers' rice and wheat production practices and interactions between them.• Farmers' organic matter (OM) management, including use of crop residues and farm yard manure (FYM) and the interaction with farmers' fuel needs.• Seasonal labor scarcity and its effects on rice and wheat production problems.• The role of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) in the system and interactions with rice and wheat.• Mixed cropping of mustard with wheat.• Problems of crop production as perceived by farmers.• Longer-term sustainability problems.Wheat and R-W system problems were identified, prioritized, and then discussed in terms of interacting components of problem complexes. Where possible, these were diagrammed for easier assimilation. Research to address the priority problems was identified and further prioritized. A collaborative work plan was suggested.During the rice survey in September 1991, a severe drought was in progress. As can be seen in the section on Exploratory Survey Findings, considerable effort was made to ascertain the effects of this drought on crop management and system problems.   2). Kumarganj and Faizabad represent the north-south boundaries of the study area. The study area's western boundary is the western border of Faizabad District and a north-south line going through Akbarpur roughly represents the eastern boundary.The climate of the area is subtropical and semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of around 1200 mm (Chauhan and Singh 1990). There is some variation in rainfall in the study area from north to south, Le., Masodha Agricultural Farm near Faizabad averages 1208 mm/year and Kumarganj averages 1056 mm (Appendix IIA,B). Nearly 90% of the total rainfall is received from the southeast monsoon during the months of July to September (Figure 3). The maximum and minimum temperatures at Kumarganj range from 18.7-38.2°C and 7.8-27.5°C, respectively (Figure 3 and Appendix lIB). The temperatures begin to rise from February onwards until the summer maximums, often exceeding 40°C, are reached in the months of May and June. During these extremely hot months, desiccating winds blow from west to east and dust storms are frequently observed. With the onset of the southeast monsoon, temperatures tend to fall until monthly minimums are reached during December and January.Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) rises steeply with the rise in temperature and leads to a decline in relative humidity from February to June. Relative humidity rises during the monsoon period, which leads to low evaporative demand. Low temperatures during the winter also result in low PET. Figure 3 shows an annual water balance graph for Kumarganj, which depicts the total evaporative demand for this area as approximately 2900 mm compared to the total annual precipitation of about 1200 mm resulting in a net annual deficit of 1700 mm. Only in July and August is there no absolute moisture deficit for soil profile recharge.The soils of the survey area have developed from the deep alluvium deposited by the Ghaghra and Gomti Rivers and their tributaries. The alluvial material owes its origin to the soft dolomitic rocks of the Himalayas. The soils are Inceptisols (aquepts) and Alfisols (aqualfs and udalfs) with considerable variation depending upon the toposequence. They are basic in character and developed from mild or strongly calcareous parent material. The area has a slope gradient of about 1% from northwest to southeast.Based on toposequence, the area has three distinct land types-uplands, medium lands, and lowlands. Not all the villages surveyed had all three situations. However, farmers still refer to higher and lower situations in relative terms and have local terminology for identification of their different land types.Soils of this land type occupy about 15% of the total area surveyed. These are well drained, light textured soils (sandy loam) where R-W is not common, but can be grown if irrigation is available. In local parlance, they are termed as Bhitki, Dodh, Bhur, Dand, Dihawa, Dom, Som, Goper, Unchas, Dandwa, and Uparhar. The soils are alkaline (pH 8.5) and have very low organic carbon content «0.4%). They are very low in available N «150 kglha) and P 0 «15 kglha) and high in K 0 (>350 kg/ha). They are highly responsive to fertilizer Z ana 5 irrigation management. rn no part of the year does the water table depth rise to within 4 m from the surface.These occupy the largest proportion (>75%) of the cultivated land in the surveyed area and, hence, it is the major land type representative of the district in terms of area and importance for the R-W system. Different textural classes are met within this land .type-the major being loam, silty loam, sandy loam, silty clay loam, and clay loam depending upon location, topography, and hydrology. The local textural equivalents are Baluwar, Domat, and Matiyar for sandy loams, loams, and clay loams to clays, respectively.Local farmer names for the soils in the medium lands are:• Khet, a cultivated field and uniform, levelland.• Uparhar/ Dhand, well drained soils between upland and medium land.• Chauras / Samtal, well leveled land.• Dhanao, most suited to rice.• Hemwar, well leveled fertile soils.These soils are neutral to alkaline in reaction (pH>7.0-8.5) and have a comparatively higher content of organic carbon «0.7%) than uplands. The soils test low in available N «130 kg/ha) and P 05 «20 kg/ha) and high in K 2 0 (>350 kglh) and respond well to fertilizer application (Appendix III). Response to zinc application is commonly observed, particularly in the case of rice. The soils are fairly permeable and have 0.5-2.0% CaCO a . The water table fluctuates from between 1 and 7 m from the surface during the course of the year. Temporary flooding generally occurs in depressed pockets for a few days following heavy rains. The soils are heavier in lower toposequences, due to washing and deposition of finer material transported from nearby uplands. The physicochemical properties of medium land soil at three locations in the District are shown in Appendix III.Lowlands occupy nearly 8% of the total area surveyed, particularly in the villages along the Faizabad-Kumarganj, Kumarganj-Kurebhar, and Faizabad-Akbarpur (Gosaiganj area) roads. These soils are black and have a high content of organic carbon (>0.75%). They are heavy in texture and are locally called Matiyar. The use of this land for growing rice depends upon rainfall and depth and rate of flooding on them.The management of rice and wheat in this land type is different from that in the medium lands because of the heavier soil type and the slower drainage. The rice crop can be lost entirely in some years due to flooding and because farmers do not grow rice varieties adapted to these situations. The lowlands can be planted to wheat and pulses, like lentil, gram, and lathyrus, when moisture recedes making the soil suitable to start land preparation in November and December.Local farmer names for the soils in the lowlands are:• Khal/ Khala/ Khalar, higher lowlands where cropping is possible although they are susceptible to submergence.• Jhil / Tal / Jhilkat /Jhilar, soils with permanent water stagnation and where cropping is not possible.• Soti /Nala, soils along the seasonal natural drains that have light texture (sandy or sandy loam) and are not generally cropped.• Jarahania, lowlands most suited to wild and traditional species of rice.Water stagnation is due to poor drainage. Drainage has been affected by blockage of natural drainage systems through development and expansion of roads and infrastructure, seepage in canal command areas, shallow water tables, and natural depressions of the topography. So far, less attention has been given to improve the productivity of this land type in the area. These soils have potential for both rice and wheat if suitable technology and varieties can be developed. This may require land shaping to various degrees.The study area can conveniently be divided into two land types for technological recommendations for R-W:• Medium lands with better drained, loamy soils.• Medium to lower lands with heavier, clay-loam to clay soil and susceptible to occasional flooding.Another key factor for dividing the area into recommendation domains is the access to irrigation water-near canals or where tubewell water is not a constraint and land where water availability is a constraint.Within each land type, a further division might be made on farm size for some recommendations:• Small-scale farmers with few resources «1 ha).• Medium size farmers with more abundant resources (1-4 ha).More work is needed on the relative importance of land type, irrigation, farm size, and caste or domain identification.Appendix IV (Tables 1-7) summarizes the trends in various factors in Faizabad District over the past 10 years. The national census is presently being tabulated and analyzed for the 1981-91 period. The population growth from 1971 to 1981 was 2.36%/ year and rose from 1.93 to 2.38 million. Assuming a similar growth rate in the 1980s, the present population in the selected District is close to 2.95 million.The net cultivated area has dropped from 307,000 ha to 293,000 ha in the 10 years from 1977-78 to 1987-88 with a present 0.1 ha of cultivated land per person. The net irrigated area increased from 180,000 ha (59% of net cultivated area) to 206,000 ha (71 %) in the same period. Irrigation is by tubewell (74%) and canal (24%).Percentage of cropped area to rice and wheat increased during the 1978-88 period by 2.4 and 12.5%, respectively, while that for sugarcane dropped by 1.3% (Appendix IV, Table 4). Over the same 10-year period, yields of rice, wheat, and sugarcane increased by 80, 28, and 44%, respectively (Appendix IV, Table 5). This was partly associated with 57, 213, and 29% increases in N, P, K applications, respectively. Total nutrient use increased from 53 to 92 kg nutrientslha (Appendix IV, Table 6).Mechanization showed a marked increase from 1977 to 1987. Thresher numbers increased from 6306 to 27,425 (a 335% increase). Similar increases occurred for sprayers, seed drills, and tractors (Appendix IV, Table 7). Numbers of tractors per 1000 ha increased from 3 to 17.Rice and wheat are the major crops grown on the medium lands. Although, as indicated earlier, the area under sugarcane had dropped somewhat during the 1978-88 period, since 1988, the area under sugarcane has begun to grow, especially for the mediumand larger-scale farmers. Various vegetables, potatoes, peas, and oilseeds are replacing some wheat in the rabi (winter) season on lighter-textured soils. Mustard (Brassica alba) is another important rabi crop, but it is mostly grown mixed with wheat rather than as a pure crop. Farmers indicated this is because the mixed combination is less risky than a pure crop of mustard. Some farmers grow berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and gram for fodder and domestic use. A few farmers grow shortduration summer pulses after wheat and before rice. Where early maturing rice varieties are grown, lahi (Brassica campestris) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) are grown followed by very late-sown wheat. In the kharif (monsoon) season, rice and sugarcane are the major crops, but fodder crops (Sorghum-Sorghum bicolar (L.) Moench), pulses (pigeon pea-Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), and fiber crops (sunn hemp-Crotalariajuncea L.) are also found on better drained land. Two thirds of the medium lands are irrigated, but many crops only receive supplemental irrigation.On the lowlands, rice is the major kharif crop and can be followed by wheat if the water level recedes in time. Some puises like lentil, gram, and lathyrus may be grown instead of wheat. In deep water areas, no kharif crop is grown and wheat is planted after the water recedes. In some of the low lying river bed areas, sugarcane is one of the common crops. Farmers have specific varieties that tolerate flooding for this situation.Under rainfed conditions, pigeon pea mixed with sorghum or pulses is the common pattern in the uplands. In some areas, maize is an important crop on the uplands.Where irrigation is available, the crops grown on the uplands are similar to those on the medium land, but with more of the wheat replaced by potato, oilseed (lahi), or vegetables.R-W is the major pattern in the area with continuous R-W common on the medium land, especially for farmers with small land holdings. Sugarcane sometimes breaks the monotony of continuous R-W. A sugarcane crop and up to three ratoons (one ratoon is the most common practice) are harvested before growing R-W again. Some farmers reported a better yield of wheat after sugarcane, but did not specify the cause.The common rotations followed in this area are:• Continuous R-W (predominant).• Rice-wheat-sugarcane-ratoon-wheat or rice.• Early rice-Iahi-wheat-rice.• Early rice-lahi or potatoes-sugarcane-ratoon-wheat.• Rice-wheat-summer pulses-rice.The rotations with sugarcane cover a period of 4 to 5 years, depending on the number of ratoons. The others are 1-year rotations.Irrigation from low-lift diesel pump sets influences cropping patterns in the medium and uplands. More cash crops like vegetables, potato, and sugarcane could be grown if there was better availability and rational distribution of the available water resources.R-W is also common on the lowlands but, where flooding occurs, the rice crop can be lost and only wheat harvested. At times, pulses and linseed replace wheat.Calendar for Major Rotations End-June to mid-July Harvesting:Mid-September Direct seeding:End-June to early July Lahi/potato: Sowing: End-September to early-October Harvesting:End-December to early-January Sugarcane, ratoon, and wheat as above.• Rice-Iahi/potato-wheat-riceRice, fahi and potato as above.Wheat: Sowing: Early-January Harvesting:End-April to early-MayThis crop competes for land with R-W in the medium lands. Farmers with medium and large land holdings are more likely to grow sugarcane. Farmers with small holdings indicated problems with obtaining indents and getting the cane to the collection points or mills as the most common reasons for not growing the crop. Sugarcane markets in this part of UP are less developed compared to those in the western part of the state.As much as 60% of the land is under sugarcane in some villages close to the sugar mills. However, only from 5 to 10% of the District is grown to sugarcane according to official statistics. The main reasons given for its increase in popularity since 1988 are:• Good returns because of the present favorable market price and assured cash returns.• Sugarcane tops provide fodder for animals.• Labor profiles are more favorable than R-W.• Sugarcane mills provide good extension, and arrange for supply and services including sets and other inputs.• Increase in irrigation facilities.An increase in the number of sugar mills and small crusher units would likely stimulate an expansion in area for this crop. Farmers complain about the time required to get the crop registered at the mill or collection points.The most common mixed cropping combination, wheat and mustard, is practiced by almost 95% of the farmers in the area. This traditional practice provides the oil needs of the household in the form of a bonus crop.Most of the farmers sow the mustard by broadcasting it at the time of wheat sowing. Some farmers plant it in rows behind the plow after the main crop of wheat is broadcast-sown. The amount (5-10%) of mustard grown in the mixture is relatively low.The following reasons were presented for this practice:• Oil requirements-this helps farmers provide for their home oil needs.• Risk reduction-if farmers grow a sole crop of mustard and a severe aphid attack occurs because of favorable climatic conditions or late planting, then the whole crop can be lost. In mixed cropping, although aphids attack the mustard, there is still the wheat crop.• Fodder/vegetable----early in the season, some farmers remove the mustard as a fodder crop for their animals or as a vegetable for home consumption.Large-scale farmers are more likely to grow pure stands of mustard or wheat as they feel that there are chances of yield reduction in wheat when grown mixed and also because of the damage done to wheat during mustard harvest.Obviously, this topic needs to be discussed when developing a research agenda for the area.The survey found FYM availability to be increasing in some villages but decreasing in others. In villages where FYM is increasing, it is usually associated with increases in numbers of bullocks and milk cows kept by lower caste fanners. Decreases are associated with the higher caste farmers, who are shifting land preparation from animal to tractor power.FYM is said to be applied preferentially to sugarcane, potatoes, and other higher value cash crops and is commonly used on rice seedbeds. It may also be applied to rice or wheat, depending on availability. Less FYM is being used on crops than in earlier times. Before, fields would receive dung for every crop, but today fields receive dung on a rotational basis varying from 1 to 5 years. Its use is affected by decreasing availability, mainly due to decreasing numbers of cattle and bullocks and to increased fuel use. On average, 67% of the dung is being used as a fuel and 33% is being added to crops. In the 4 months of the monsoon season, dung is collected and composted. During the rest of the year, it is collected, dried, and made into \"dung cakes\" for cooking purposes. Trees are found around many villages in upland areas, but it is illegal to use live trees for fuel. This law is being enforced and reduces the availability of fuel wood.Many farmers indicated that livestock numbers, in general, are decreasing due to partial mechanization of land preparation and threshing. At present, 80% or more farmers use bullocks for land preparation and the rest use tractors. Farm families having smaller holdings «0.5 ha), especially the higher castes, often prefer to hire tractors rather than maintain a pair of bullocks. However, more than 50% of smallholders still have bullocks and, in some cases, try to keep at least one bullock so they can prepare their land by sharing with other one-bullock fanners. Some farmers have also sold off their bullocks because it has become difficult to find laborers willing to tend them. An interesting social problem is developing in the area-low caste laborers who used to herd and tend the animals in the village are now finding alternative job opportunities. Higher caste farmers cannot tend animals because of their social status in the village. Part of the decline in bullock numbers is offset by an upward trend in numbers of dairy animals, especially buffalo.Availability of suitable caste labor to transport FYM to the fields is also affecting its use. Because of this problem, fields closer to the homestead receive more FYM while those farther away from the house may not receive any. The increase in cropping intensity and the lack of access through planted fields for the bullock carts that carry most of the FYM to the fields are also affecting application distant from the homestead.Some farmers reported that a combination of FYM and chemical fertilizer is best for crop production and that the use of chemical fertilizers alone may have unfavorable effects on soil fertility over the long tenn. Several fanners also believed that yields of rice and wheat are going up because of increased inputs (fertilizer). The effects of reduction in FYM applications are being confounded by increased use of purchased inputs.Fuel sources are mostly dung, but other sources include pigeon pea and fiber crop sticks, sugarcane waste, and fuelwood. New sources might be biogas and kerosene, but at the moment these sources are rare.The majority of the rice is transplanted including all major improved varieties grown on medium lands. Direct seeding was mentioned by farmers and was seen in some fields.In the uplands, at most 10% of the rice is direct-seeded and in the lowlands, mostly in the lower khala areas, up to 30% of the area is direct-seeded to local varieties. This proportion varies from village to village. The decision to direct seed or not hinges on several factors:• Adaptability of the local variety to direct seeding.• Late rains may not allow enough time for seedbed preparation.• Light soils in the uplands do not allow puddling.• Local lowland varieties are adapted to direct seeding.Timing of seedbed land preparation and sowing varies from the end of May to mid-June, depending on water availability. Land preparation for the transplanted field usually occurs 1 month later (late June through July). However, in 1991, the monsoon rains were late and many fields were prepared 2 to 3 weeks later than normal and, in some villages, up to 50% of the rice fields were not prepared at all. Farmers tend to think of rice as a rainfed crop in the District and are reluctant to use irrigation to help prepare the fields. They assume it will soon rain. Even when irrigation is available, it is often not used to overcome the problem of late rains. As soon as the rains do fall, farmers know it is important to plow as soon as possible. Plowing before the rains start is not common. Dry or preparatory tillage refers to those operations done after the rains begin but prior to flooding the fields and puddling the soils.Tractors are increasing in use and are commonly used for dry tillage. Several farmers said they prefer tractors for the dry tillage, especially when fields are weedy and have heavier textured soils, because they are faster than animals. Animals are preferred for the puddling operations and tractors are only used for this operation if the owners have cage wheels. Farmers said that bullocks are better for puddling, but that tractors with cage wheels are faster. Plankings are also done mostly with animals.Tractor owners indicated they do more dry tillage than nonowners. Tillage operations seem to be influenced by machinery ownership as follows:• Tractor owners-Three or four dry plowings with tractor, flooding, and then one or two wet plowings by tractor if cage wheels are available or bullocks if not. Plankings occur after plowing and are usually done by bullocks.• Bullock owners, no tractor-Two or three dry plowings with the country plow, flooding, and then two plowings by bullock.• Hired tractors-Two cultivations with tractor, flooding, and then one plowing by bullock.The only tractor tillage implement available in the District is the tined cultivator and the \"plowings\" referred to above are actually cultivations. Some farmers have improved moldboard plows for their bullocks made locally out of old plowshares. Farmers indicated that these give better tillage than the traditional country plow.In many villages, tractors are available for rental plowing and the average rental rate is Rs (rupees) 350-400!ha (uS$13.58-15.52!ha)1 for two plowings and Rs400 (US$15.52)!ha for wet plowing or puddling. Bullock hiring rates are Rs300 (US$11.64)/ ha for both dry and wet plowing. This is equivalent to Rs60 (US$2.32)/pair per day, including labor. Labor was not mentioned as a constraint for land preparation and mechanization does not appear to affect labor markets.Direct seeding only covers 30% of the lowlands, 10% of the uplands, and practically none of the medium land. When practiced, direct seeding can be done in dry soil with early maturing local varieties or in puddled soil if sufficient moisture is available.During the 1991 drought year, some farmers dry seeded (usually on the uplands) and others direct-seeded on puddled soils because of the time delay due to the drought.Seed is usually soaked before being broadcast in both dry or puddled soil conditions. Seed rates for direct seeding range from 80 to 100 kglha. After dry seeding, the field is plowed, sometimes in both directions, and planked to cover and compact the seed.There tends to be more stand problems in direct-seeded rice and termites, birds and weeds are more of a problem as well.Seedbed sowing of medium-maturity varieties is usually earlier than for early maturing varieties. In transplanted rice, seedbed seed rates are around 40-60 kg/ha. Normally, 80% of the rice is transplanted in July. In 1991, however, transplanting was delayed on many fields because of the late monsoon, even up to the end of August.Farmers with assured irrigation transplant earlier; with canal irrigation a little later, depending on the release of canal water. Those depending on rainfall typically plant last, especially if the rains are late.Smallholders mostly use family labor for transplanting, but many largeholders use contract or daily wage labor for this operation. In contract transplanting, plant stands tend to be poorer because the laborers are paid on an area basis and tend to use wider spacing to speed up the operation. For this reason, contract arrangements are less common. There appears to be no gender differential in wages for transplanting. Wages range from Rs8-15 (US$0.31-0.58)/day with somewhere between 80-120 person-days (reported by farmers) required to transplant 1 ha. The contract system rates are Rs1000-1200 (US$38.81-46.57)!ha with 50-60 person-days to transplant 1 ha. This results in an implicit wage of around Rs20 (US$0.77)/day in the contract system.Labor is scarce at the time of rice transplanting. Some villages reported that, in a normal year, labor scarcity delays transplanting and reduces yields. In 1991, drought was an overriding factor in determining the transplanting date and compounded the labor problem even more since, when the rains finally came, everyone wanted to transplant at the same time. In the 1991 survey, scarcity of labor was found to delay rice transplanting by 15-20 days on 25-30% of the surveyed area (even more in some areas). Some lands were not transplanted at all in 1991 because of the drought and labor scarcity. Delayed transplanting was common in some villages and farms, even though irrigation was available. The high cost of diesel fuel, the unreliability of the electricity supply for tubewells, and uncertainties regarding the timing of water release from canals restricted the use of irrigation. Moreover, many farmers prefer to wait to see if rains will fall, rather than invest money in irrigation that may prove unnecessary and they do not want to start paying for irrigation that they would then have to continue until the onset of rains.Farmers usually transplant rice seedlings that are from 20 to 30 days old. In 1991, seedling age was older by 2 to 3 weeks, resulting in less tillering and reduced yields.Farmers like early varieties on the uplands (local, 90-day maturity) so that they can grow a crop of lahi (Brassica) between rice and wheat. In the uplands, rice varieties include:• Improved: NDU8, Saket-4, and Prasad.• Local: Kalkatia; Bagari, safed (white) and kali (black); Dehula; and Mutmuri; a variety called \"90-days\"; and Basahwa (a UO-day variety for special purposes).The local varieties can be direct-seeded.Varieties for medium land types include:• Improved: SaIju-52, Indrasan, Pant Dhan-4, Saket-4, Sita, IR36, Jaya, Mahsuri, Narendra-80, Kasturi, Pusa-2-21, and China-4.• Local quality rice: Bilaspuri.Most of these varieties except Saket-4 are medium in duration and harvested in midto late October. The varieties seen predominantly in the field are SaIju-52, Pant Dhan 4, Mahsuri, Indrasan, and Narendra-80.Lowland varieties include:• Improved: Mahsuri, China-4, SaIju-52, and Pant Dhan-4.• Local: Jarhan, Dularva, Lalmati, Kanakjeer, and Bilaspuri.Mahsuri is the most important lowland variety, but where deeper flooding occurs, local varieties are used. Some of the local varieties are also preferred for their aromatic quality.Farmers do not appear to match varieties for the R-W pattern and use mostly the medium-duration varieties. They reported using short-duration rice varieties when growing rice-potato or lahi-wheat patterns.Fertilizer rates reported by farmers in the survey are definitely high and reflect a maximum dose used by farmers rather than average doses. A more quantitative survey is needed to get a better picture on this issue. Fertilizer use is related to water availability with farmers having assured irrigation using higher rates than those with water constraints.Fertilizer use reported by farmers in middle land types is surprisingly high and well above recommendations. Rates of fertilizer for the main field were commonly reported as: 100-150 kg urealha basal (applied within 1 week of transplanting to avoid injury to laborers' feet as happens when fertilizer is applied before transplanting) plus 100-200 kg urealha as a topdress; 50-250 kg SSP as basal; rarely any potash use; 10-20 kg zinc sulfate according to need (10-20% of the farmers). If available, some farmers apply from 1 to 25 t FYMIha. In addition, 1 to 50 t FYM, 80-250 kg urea, and a little SSP are applied per hectare to the rice nurseries.It is not clear whether fertilizer application varies according to farm size, caste, or other factors. Definitely less fertilizer is used where irrigation is not reliable or not used. Farmers of all types gave fertilizer rates indicated above, although some resource-poor farmers indicated they use lower rates. Fertilizer prices increased in 1991 because of the reduction of the government subsidy. Urea increased from Rs115 to 165 (US$4.46-6.40)/50 kg; SSP increased from Rs48 to 55 (US$1.86-2.13)!kg, and zinc was Rs 16 (US$0.62)!kg. Some farmers reported a 25-30% reduction in fertilizer use because of price increases.Some farmers reported that when they applied zinc to affected fields there was no response. When they then applied sodium chloride they did get a response. This may indicate that potassium may be a limiting nutrient in some areas and this issue should be further explored.As already mentioned above, some farmers do not apply their fertilizer before transplanting because transplanting laborers complain about injury to their feet. Some laborers will even refuse to transplant fields where basal doses are used. As a result, farmers mostly reported that both Nand P are applied after transplanting.Most farmers considered yields higher now than 5 or 10 years ago because of higher fertilizer use and better varieties. Reduction in FYM applications is being masked by increased use of other inputs. However, some farmers reported that a combination of FYM and chemical fertilizer is best. They reported that the use of chemical fertilizers alone had unfavorable effects on soil fertility over the long term. Some other farmers also reported that fertilizer rates have to increase by 5-10% per year just to maintain rice yields.Farmers reported that Khaira, the local term for a brown leaf discoloration, is a common, widespread problem that, if not controlled, can cause severe rice losses every year. Most probably attributable to inadequate availability of zinc, the discoloration is observed in nurseries and main fields and in direct-seeded fields as well. Farmers are not always able to distinguish zinc deficiency symptoms from other leaf firing and leaf diseases and they use the term Khaira for all these rice leaf symptoms. Fortunately, farmers are aware of zinc deficiency and treat their fields with zinc sulfate as they see the problem develop. Some varieties like Saket-4 are more susceptible to zinc deficiency than others.Fertilizer rates for direct-seeded rice is lower than for transplanted rice. From 80 to 150 kg urea/ha and 100-200 kg SSP/ha were commonly reported.Statistics for the District show that 65% of the area has irrigation facilities. Irrigation is largely from diesel tubewells and shallow bores using mobile pumpsets. Canal irrigation and public and private electric tubewells are also available. The potential for more tubewells is high, but farmers are constrained by availability of loans and resources to invest in this technology. Electric tubewells are preferred because of the lower cost per unit of water, but electricity supply is unreliable, which restricts their use. Diesel is expensive and often scarce. Diesel tubewell operation costs about Rs360-440 (US$13.97-17.07)/ha per irrigation; electric tubewell costs only Rs150 (US$5.82)/ ha.The survey area can be most accurately described as a rainfed rice area with some supplemental irrigation. Depending on the village, rice area irrigated can vary from none to 50-90% of the total. Supplemental irrigation is more common than full irrigation. Irrigation was used more in 1991 because of the late rains, although many farmers with irrigation still waited for the rains. Some villages visited do have assured irrigation and these definitely can be defined as irrigated rice villages. Many of these villages also were at the head end of irrigation canals, but even so they often supplemented their canal water with tubewell water. Some reported and observed drainage problems are associated with obstruction of natural drains and seepage from canals. Usually, two thirds of the lowland is not planted because of excessive water. Because of the 1991 drought, up to 50% of the area may have been cropped.No farmers reported using any measures to control diseases on rice. However, the following diseases in the rice crop were either observed by or reported to survey participants. 2• Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani)-This fungal disease was observed under both irrigated and nonirrigated situations, being more severe in the latter. Blighting of sheaths is the first symptom, but infection can spread to the panicles. The disease is widespread and occurs every year. It causes severe damage under nonirrigated conditions and under irrigated conditions where high nitrogen doses are used and if lodging occurs.• Bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas campestris}--This disease is reported to be a problem in the area, but the survey was too early for observation in the field. Farmers reported losses of from 1 to 45%, especially when high doses of nitrogen are used and crop growth is luxuriant. It is more important under irrigated conditions. Its incidence and severity vary with varieties.• Brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzeae)-This disease was commonly observed on the variety Bagari in direct-seeded fields. Losses of from 1 to 25% have been recorded. Though the disease is widespread, yield losses are mostly found under late planted conditions. Very poor or high application of fertilizers increases incidence of the disease.• Sheath rot (Sarocladium oryzeae}--This fungal disease can cause losses from 1 to 10% and is aggravated by drought, heavy rains, or attack of sucking insect pests. Infection occurs on the upper leaf sheath at late booting with poor panicle exertion occurring in severe infections. Saket-4 and Jaya are particularly susceptible.• False smut (Ustilaginoidea virens}--This disease occurs more often when rice is given heavy nitrogen fertilizer doses. Usually, a few spikelets in the panicle are affected transforming the seed into a mass of yellow orange spores. Kalkatia and Pant Dhan 4 are susceptible.• Bacterial leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris}--Symptoms of this disease are on leaf blades where streaks are formed and bear an amber colored bacterial ooze. The bacteria enter the leaves through mechanical injuries or natural cell openings.Farmers reported the following insect pests in rice, although as with most of the diseases it was too early to observe damage in the field:• Armyworm (Mythimna separata)-These pests can appear in large numbers at the end of the season and reduce yields by defoliating the crop. It is a major problem later in the season, especially in the lowlands.• Rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius)-This insect feeds on the rice grains during the milk stages, reducing grain set and grain quality.Although farmers did not mention stemborer as a problem, it was observed in the fields during the survey.Farmers reported using Folidol (methyl parathion), BHC dust, and malathion for insect control. They are typically used after the damage occurs and with no protective safety measures.Most farmers reported rats to be problems in the field and in storage. Some use zinc phosphide baits for control, but this is not always effective and there are no communal rat control programs.Weeding for transplanted rice usually occurs in August to mid-September. Farmers do not consider labor scarcity to be a problem for weeding. Smallholders use their own labor and largeholders use hired labor costing &6-10 (US$0.23-0.39)/day plus food.There is no gender differential in weeding labor costs even though women do a substantial part of this task. Unfortunately, since many weeds are fed to animals, they are often removed after damage has already been done to the rice crop.Most farmers in the middle land types do not use herbicides. Only a couple of largeholders were found using Butachlor 2 to 3 days after transplanting.Weeding is usually started 15-20 days after transplanting and 20-30 days after direct seeding. There are more weeds in direct-seeded fields where control methods include \"Bushening\" or \"Bideni\", which involves bullock-plowing and planking up to 30 days after seeding, depending on rains, and hand weeding 10-15 days later.Weeds observed in the middle land types include a wide array of grasses, sedges, and broadleaf weeds. They are listed in the following by scientific name with local name when applicable in parentheses:• Grasses-Echinochloa colonum (Sanwai), Echinochloa crus-gali (Daura), Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Makra), Setaria glauca (Jhunsa), Cynodon dactylon (Dubegrass), and Eleusine indica (Kodo).• Sedges-Cyperus rotundus (Motha), Cyperus iria (Motha), Cyperus haspan (Motha), Fimbristylis littoralis / dichotoma, and Scirpus erectus.• Broadleaves-Eclipta alba (Bhangra), Ageratum conyzoides, Monochoria spp., Ammannia baccifera, Euphorbia hirta (Dudhi), Phyllanthus niruri (Hazardana), and Convolvulus arvensis (Hirankhuri).Rice harvest takes place from mid-September to mid-November. The early directseeded, local rice varieties are harvested first in September. This provides farm families with food during a time of scarcity. The medium-duration, improved varieties are harvested from mid-October on, depending on the transplanting date. In 1991, the harvest in many of these fields was delayed because of delayed transplanting. Mahsuri and the local photo-sensitive varieties grown in the medium and lowlands are harvested last, but usually not later than mid-November. Some largeholders stack their rice and delay threshing until after wheat tillage and planting are completed.The effect of this practice on yield losses needs to be assessed.A labor scarcity peak occurs at rice harvest and is reported to delay harvesting by around 15 days on about 25% of the area surveyed. This delay is independent of transplanting delays. Thus, late rice harvest is a factor for delayed wheat planting.Labor for harvesting and threshing commonly follows a sharing or contract system except for lower castes and smallholders, who use family labor. Typically, those who conduct harvesting and threshing receive 1/8 to 1/10 of the harvest. This includes hauling, cleaning, and bagging. Harvesting and threshing are paid at 1/16 of the harvest with additional grain in kind given for hauling from the field to the threshing floor and after cleaning and bagging from there to the house. The proportion of grain given in kind depends on the labor scarcity in a given season.Mechanical threshers are rarely used for several reasons including:• Farmers want the rice straw for their cattle.• There is no suitable thresher for rice and wheat threshers are unsuitable.• The contract system in the District includes the cost of threshing.Farmers reported rice yields to be around 4-5 tlha when irrigation is available and used with good management of inputs. Medium-duration rice varieties yield more than the early, improved varieties and much more than the local direct-seeded varieties.Yields in 1991 will be lower than normal where delayed planting of older seedlings occurred because of the drought. Also because of the drought, the area planted to rice in 1991 was 20-25% below average.See Appendix VA for the official recommendations of the State Government for growing rice.Farmers reported doing the first plowing just after the rice crop is harvested and removed. The number of plowings for this first operation varies by soil type and whether tractors or bullocks are used for this operation. With tractors, one cross plowing is usually done; with bullocks, two to four plowings are done. Some farmers then leave the field open for 7 to 15 days and some irrigate if moisture is not sufficient. (If moisture is sufficient or rains occur, this irrigation is not done.) After irrigation, when soil moisture is correct, two to four more plowings are done.The seed is then sown, typically by broadcasting, although a few respondents said they plant inlines behind the plow. After broadcasting, the field is plowed once or twice cross-wise and then planked.Planking, done mainly with bullock power, is used after the plowing that follows seeding to:• Help cover the seed.• Level the land to facilitate irrigation.• Cover the seed to avoid bird damage.• Conserve moisture.• Improve germination.Tractors are mainly used for preparatory tillage. Most farmers do subsequent plowings with bullocks. Power, in the form of tractors or bullocks, is not a serious constraint for land preparation. Tractor availability is on the increase and is substituting for declining bullock numbers. Some smaller farmers prefer to keep a pair of bullocks rather than look for a tractor during peak periods of farm operations, while others find it more convenient to hire a tractor than to look after a pair of bullocks, provide feed, and pay a person to tend them. At the time of the survey, tractor hire rates were Rs150-180 (US$5.82-6.98)/ha. (It takes about 3 hours to plow 1 ha.) The only implement used is the cultivator; there are no other implements for deeper tillage. Despite ready availability of draught power, turnaround time from rice to wheat is in the range of 20-45 days, depending on moisture conditions and soil types.Usually, lowlands have excess moisture and/or standing water that must drain away before land preparation can begin. In these situations, two to three plowings are given when moisture levels are favorable followed by seeding, plowing, and planking. No irrigation is necessary before seeding. Turnaround time depends on soil moisture status and the rate at which excess moisture recedes to allow tillage.Tractors are the preferred means of power for land preparation. Time is more of a factor in these areas and tractors can prepare these heavier soils much faster than can animals. Tractor tillage reduces turnaround time by 10 days compared to bullocks.Varieties used include UP262, HUW 234, HD2285, UP2003, Shekhar (K7410), and RR21. K68, an old quality variety with a premium price, is grown by a few farmers. In some villages, UP262 predominates while, in others, RR21 and others are more common. Farmers have no obvious selection criteria and appear to use whatever seed they have available. Varieties recommended for late planting are planted early and vice versa. Most use varieties that have the highest yield potential, regardless of maturity or planting date.Seed rates vary from 130-160 kgiha with more seed being used when planting is late. Some farmers use 70 kg/ha seed when they plant in lines and use newly bought seed. The general feeling is that the seed should be replaced at least once every 3-4 years because of declining productivity when seed is kept for longer periods. However, many farmers continue to use their own seed beyond this period due to cash shortage or low availability of new seed.Seeding date was observed to be variable in the study area. Dates given by farmers ranged from November through January. Researchers consider November to be timely.Early planting was associated mainly with soils of lighter texture and late planting with lower lying, heavier textured soils. The main reasons given by farmers for late wheat planting are:• Labor constraints that delay rice harvest.• Planting of lahi, potatoes, and other crops after rice harvest, but before wheat.• Late harvest of sugarcane.• Lack of irrigation water.• Late drainage of water from the lowlands.Farmers do not see a perceptible yield decline up to a 15 December planting. In some villages, the first week of December is, in fact, the preferred planting date. Farmers do perceive a yield loss (10-15%) after mid-December and a drastic yield 108s (50%) in January plantings. Lowlands have later plantings than medium lands. From 10-30% of the lowland is late planted (after 25 December).Farmers compensate for late planting by using more seed, fertilizer, and irrigation.Virtually all farmers use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogen. Most farmers also use phosphate, but few reported using potash. Fertilizer rates and combinations are variable, but two primary mixes can be discerned. DAP (diammonium phosphate) mixed with urea is frequently applied basally, with a subsequent urea topdressing. The second mixtur~inglesuper phosphate with urea, followed by a urea topdressing-is also common. When potash is used MOP (muriate of potash) is typically the source.Basal fertilizer rates, equivalent nutrient application rates, and rates of nutrients applied by topdressing are shown in Table 1. These estimates should be used with care as they are most likely somewhat high. Note that fertilizer offiake in the District for wheat is only 76-18-2 NPK, well below the fertilizer application rates indicated in Table 1.Potash use is not common. In one area farmers complained of poor grain filling, which might be due to potash deficiency. A few farmers reported plumper grains when potash was used. This issue warrants further study.Urea is typically topdressed at the first irrigation, rarely at the second, and occasionally at the third.A few farmers reported using zinc on wheat and in one village pyrites (iron sulfide) is used. Many farmers pointed out that a major constraint to zinc use is the poor availability of unadulterated supplies of nutrient. In addition, the price of zinc sulfate has been high in recent years.Manure use varies. Some farmers said they give rice preference to wheat while other indicated the reverse. All agreed that sugarcane and potatoes receive preference over wheat. Manure availability seems to be declining and this may be affecting yields. Inorganic fertilizers may not entirely compensate for reduced manure applicationindeed, it seems likely that a combination of FYM and inorganic fertilizers may be best. When FYM is used, fanners reported rates that varied from 1 to 10 tlha.In some areas visited, wheat is not irrigated-mainly in the lowlands where wheat production is dependent on residual moisture. In the medium lands, wheat is usually irrigated. From one to four irrigations are given, not counting the pre-sowing irrigation. Many fanners give a pre-sowing irrigation to provide good moisture for seed gennination. The average number of irrigations is two (three with pre-sowing) with the first given at 20-25 days and the second at 50-55 days or close to heading.Sources of irrigation water include canals, tubewells, low lift pumps, and other surface water sources like tanks. Canal irrigation is dependent on release of water at prearranged timings and is used for both rice and wheat cultivation. Tubewells and pumps may be either electric or diesel powered and have significantly increased in numbers over the past few years. The use of diesel pump sets in shallow bores with the pumps moved from bore to bore is rapidly increasing. The availability of low lift pumps is helping fanners become more flexible in their cropping and substituting potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables as cash crops for wheat. Power supply for pumps is a constraint due to a total lack of electricity (or its erratic supply) and the high cost of diesel fuel.The following diseases were observed during the surveyor were reported by researchers:• Foliar blight caused by Helminthosporium and Alternaria sp.-Farmers are not able to distinguish the cause of this disease and tend to include it in a group of foliar problems that result in yellowing and leaf firing. There is an increasing trend toward infection on most commonly grown varieties in the area like RR-21, UP-2003, and UP-262. During the survey, the crop was too mature to observe foliar blight.• Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica syn. Neovossia indica)-This is reported to be a serious problem in some pockets of the survey area in the Faizabad and Gosaiganj areas. Varieties found to be infected with Karnal bunt were mainly UP-262, UP2003, and Shekhar (K7410) with a high percentage and RR-21 with much less.• Loose smut (Ustiligo tritici)-Farmers reported incidence of loose smut to be increasing, but it was not found during the survey at more than 3% infection, even in the susceptible variety RR-21.• Leaf rust (Puccinia recondita)-This can be a problem in late-sown wheat, especially on varieties RR-21 and HD-1553.• Ear cockle (Anguina tritici)-In some pockets, farmers reported an increasing trend of this nematode gall in wheat grains.• Yellowing of wheat-This is known to be a major problem in the area, but farmers are not aware of its cause and bulk it together with general leaf firing and yellowing. Possible causes are deficiency of nitrogen, sulfur, or zinc; alkalinity or even a genetic expression of the variety. It is also commonly observed following the first irrigation. This problem needs further assessment in terms of yield loss, and work to identify the cause or causes.The following pests were observed during the survey:• Rats-A common problem in some of the areas surveyed, some farmers reported up to 30% damage by rats. Zinc phosphide is used for control, but without much success because the effort is not coordinated. There is a need for a community approach for effective rat control.• Termites-Farmers reported that this pest contributes to reduced germination in some areas surveyed, especially where soil is mainly saline, alkaline, sandy, or dry. Farmers use BHC (10%) dust and Aldrin (30 EC) for control.• Rice weevil and grain borer-A considerable portion of the wheat stored for seed and consumption in the area is damaged rice weevil and, to a lesser degree, the grain borer. Some farmers mix BHC dust with the seed and store the grain in the wheat straw. A few farmers have started using aluminum phosphide for the control of these pests in storage containers. Farmers in the area use various indigenous storage systems.Phalaris minor is the major weed reported in the survey area. Others are Avena falua (wild oats), Lalhyrus aphaca, and Chenopodium album. During the survey, there were more wild oats along the road between Kumarganj and Faizabad. A few farmers use herbicides for control of P. minor. Isoproturon and 2,4-D are the two most common herbicides mentioned, but sometimes farmers do not know what product they are using. Some farmers use sprayers, while others mix the herbicide with urea and topdress just after the first irrigation. According to farmers, control results are variable, but some say that herbicides are effective. Isoproturon costs Rs350 (US$13.58)!kg, but it is subsidized by 50% in the area to promote use.Some farmers hand weed their fields late, often to provide fodder for their animals. Another control method is to allow the weeds to germinate after the pre-sowing irrigation and then kill them with a tillage operation prior to planting.All harvesting is done by hand since there are no combines in the area. Smaller families use family labor to harvest, whereas medium and larger farms use hired labor. Labor scarcity is a major constraint in the area and is delaying harvest and exposing the crop to possible damage from the weather, birds, and rats. Payment for harvesting is usually in kind-1/20th of the crop is reported as the rate, but farmers complain that the labor bundle is always larger and, as such, 1/4 to 1/6th of the crop is often paid for harvesting. Other rates are 1/12 to 1/16th for cutting, bundling, and threshing.Threshing is mostly done by machines powered by electric motors, tractors, or diesel engines. The charges are Rs15, 60, and 35 (US$0.58, 2.32, and 1.36)!hour, respectively, for the three methods. Charges for threshing with diesel engines varies from Rs25-40 (US$0.97-1.55)!hour depending on engine size. From 150 to 250 kg of seed can be threshed per hour, depending on thresher size. In addition, there is a charge for the labor to operate the thresher. Some smaller farmers thresh their grain with bullocks.There does not appear to be a threshing constraint.Yields are variable, but average about 2-2.5 tlha. The lowlands have lower yields than the medium lands. Some of the late planted wheat does not yield well. Some fields observed during the survey had good stands, but grain filling was poor. This is due to lack of irrigation, lodging, and possibly potash deficiency in some observed fields.See Appendix VB for the official recommendations of the State Government for growing wheat.During the rice survey in September, two female scientists in the survey group interviewed women in the villages visited. The following is a brief summary of their findings.Women, who belong to upper castes on farms of either large-or smallholders, do not participate in any crop production activities in the field in order to maintain their social status. By contrast, women who belong to lower castes are involved in almost all •operations of wheat and rice production activities except land preparation.In rice production, all tasks are performed jointly by both men and women, however, the contribution of women to transplanting, weeding, harvesting, and threshing is always higher than men's contribution. Table 2 shows the relative contributions of men and women to various rice production activities. In animal production, women play an important role in the collection of fodder for the animals, making dung cakes for fuel, and tending the grazing animals in the fields.Because of the lack of fodder wi~hin the village, they have to go fairly long distances every day and thus spend most of their time with this task. Weeds become the most important source of animal fodder in September because of their availability in rice fields. The application of herbicides would reduce the availability of the weed component of the fodder and would force women to locate alternate fodder sources unless alternate fodder crops could be introduced into the system. Some women are paid less for weeding because they collect the weeds for their animals.Rice threshing, done by 80% women, is a manual activity that requires considerable energy. During peak periods, this activity has to be completed before the next crop of wheat, potato, or Lahi is planted. A light mechanical thresher, which could be operated by a group of women, would be very useful in the system.Because of the greater job opportunities outside of agriculture, many young men are migrating seasonally or even permanently from the villages. This is increasing even more the women's responsibilities for farm and household maintenance.Discussions held after the completion of the field visits on problems affecting R-W productivity were based on farmers' perceptions, but included some secondary data available at NDUAT (compilation of further data is needed). As in the Pantnagar survey (Hobbs et al. 1991), these problems are grouped into near-term ones that can be quickly assessed and long-term ones (sustainability issues) that will require more surveys and research to better define the problem and a much longer time frame for assessment.Problems were prioritized by using a simple scoring model. Group consensus scores were elicited (for each problem identified) for the extent of the problem (% of farms affected and productivity loss) (Table 3). Frequency of occurrence was not included in the table because all problems occurred every year. Hypothesized causes of major problems and interactions among problems are diagrammed; and research activities to address problems or problem complexes are suggested. Where similar problems exist for both rice and wheat, the causes are combined into one diagram. The following is a summary of the discussions held on rice and wheat problems.In Faizabad, the ranking of the causes of late planting is different from those outlined in the Pantnagar area (Hobbs et al. 1991), although many of the problems identified are the same. This is partly due to the lighter texture of the soils in Faizabad District in the higher levels of the medium land, which enable easier land preparation following rice harvest. In the lower lands and lower levels of the medium lands, soil texture is heavier (clay loams) and land preparation becomes more difficult and time consuming. This issue is a universal problem in the R-W rotation with a set of common causes. Farmers in the survey area perceive this as a problem, but differently than may be the case based on experimental data. Most data on planting date by yield in the region indicate that mid-November is the optimum date for planting wheat, although this shifts toward late November in warmer areas. Yields then decline linearly after these dates with a 1% loss per day a common yardstick for yield loss, based on research data from regional on-station date-of-planting studies. Farmers, however, only perceive a yield loss after the middle of December plantings (10-15%) and a drastic yield loss from January plantings (50%). Many prefer the first week of December for planting.In the lowlands, drainage of excess water and the availability of land at the proper moisture condition for land preparation are major determinants of the wheat planting date. There is probably very little that can be done to improve this situation at present and farmers must accept December and January planting dates as the norm for these situations. As such, yield potential, input efficiency, and profitability will be lower (Figure 4).In Faizabad, except in the lowlands, long turnaround from rice to wheat is less of a problem than found at Pantnagar. More important is the set of causes associated with the late harvest of a previous crop (Figure 4).Despite a high population density, this area of India suffers from peak labor shortages during key rice and wheat operations, evidenced by increased wages and delayed operations. The three major labor constraint periods are at the transplanting time of rice and at the times of rice and wheat harvests. Rice remains in the field long past maturity, and this not only delays land preparation for wheat, but also results in yield losses for rice (shattering and rats). Labor constraints at transplanting also result in delayed rice planting into August with subsequent late rice harvest in November. In the Pantnagar area, most rice is harvested by the end of October. The main reason for the labor shortage at Faizabad is the availability of alternative job opportunities, mostly not related to agricultural production. Farmers said that even available labor demands higher daily rates for transplanting and harvest than in previous years and this affects the profitability of wheat and rice.On some of the higher levels of the medium lands where irrigation is available, farmers grow a short-duration crop of rice and follow this with an additional crop of Lahi (Brassica campestris), potatoes, or vegetables before planting wheat. This is one of the major causes for January wheat planting. Farmers are obviously willing to sacrifice wheat for the more profitable crops sown after rice.Sugarcane is also becoming more prevalent, mainly because the seasonal labor demands are more uniformly distributed and present sugarcane prices are high. This is a relatively new area for sugarcane in India and the lower number of available crushing mills and mills giving late delivery indents to farmers to procure the cane result in late harvest and subsequent late planting of the next crop. However, much of the sugarcane is ratooned two or more times so the area of wheat affected by this problem is small.The lack of irrigation water, the second problem for wheat production and discussed in detail later, delays wheat planting since in the light textured soils of the area, preirrigation is a preferred practice before final land preparation and seeding.  Bullock populations are declining both as a result of more mechanization, but also because the low caste laborers that look after the animals of higher caste farmers now have alternative job opportunities. At the same time, tractor numbers are low and are often purchased for transport rather than agricultural management. These two factors can delay wheat planting, however, in time tractor numbers should increase (they have increased by 3 times from 1972-1982, Appendix IV, Table 7) and substitute for animal power.One last factor that delays wheat planting is the farmers' perception that, in order to obtain high yields, it is important to leave the soil open 7-15 days following the primary tillage for aeration before doing final land preparation.Suggested research issues include:• Obtaining a better quantification of the extent of the problem in the area through a formal survey.• Analyzing any research data pertaining to date of planting in the zone to allow evaluation of farmers' perceptions that yield decline is small if wheat is planted before 15 December and to quantify the optimum date of planting and yield loss per day beyond this date.• Tillage research to: a) Study the effect of primary tillage and leaving the soil open for aeration on soil physical and chemical properties.b) Investigate reduced and zero-tillage practices to: 1) determine the minimal land preparation requirement for wheat after rice.2) study different implements and seeding methods for improved establishment.3) look at the effect of land preparation and stubble management on carry over of pests and diseases.c) Make a comparison of different power sources--4-wheel versus 2-wheel tractors-to meet the needs of small farmers.d) Study the interaction of rice tillage intensity and methods on wheat establishment, especially on the heavier soils and the lowlands. In this connection, do more detailed work on direct seeding of rice by identifying varieties having greater establishment, initial growth vigor, better root penetration and proliferation, increased culm strength, medium tillering, increased nutrient uptake, and greater panicle weight.e) Study irrigation timing in rice as a way to provide good moisture conditions for wheat following rice harvest.The solution to the labor problem of late rice harvest is more a policy issue. One route to take is introducing mechanization for harvest either in the form of reapers or combines. The use of a small reaper, powered by a 2-wheel tractor, and part of a set of implements for this power source, may be a feasible solution for small-and mediumsize farmers.Drought was a major factor in 1991 for late transplanting of rice. The effect of irrigation problems is discussed next. Other causes of late transplanting are shown in Figure 5 and are related to labor scarcity.Suggested research issues include:  • Researching alternatives to transplanting and development of machinery for both direct and dry seeding, planting, and weeding.• Developing management practices that will minimize the losses due to late transplanting.• Reviewing weather data to assess whether droughts like the one in 1991 are a common occurrence.Lack of water at the proper time is a major factor that constrains increased productivity in this area. Where irrigation facilities are used, yields are as good as in western UP. However, irrigation water is not always used when available for many of the reasons outlined in Figure 6.Farmers perceive this problem as either insufficient water when needed or the lack of cash to pay for the diesel fuel or electricity to pump the water. This was a major problem in 1991 for the rice crop. The monsoon rains arrived very late and, because of drought, rice area was reduced by up to 75% in the uplands and 30-40% in the medium Early cessation of moneoon raine affects rice yield!! in some yeare.Key: Rectangles refer to \"probleme\", hexagone to \"primary cau15es\" and ova1l5 to \"secondary caUl5es\".Figure 6. Problems and primary and secondary causes of moisture stress (early-, mid•, and late-season) for rice and wheat.lands. In the lowlands, only about 1/3 of the land is typically cropped in the rice season because of excessive water. In 1991, the proportion of lowland planted to wheat may have increased to around 50% because of the drought. As mentioned earlier, farmers prefer to wait for rain rather than invest money in irrigation that may not be needed.Apart from the area reduction, the drought will also have an impact on rice production because farmers planted older seedlings later. If the monsoon rains finish early, this late-planted rice will also be affected by late season moisture stress.Figure 6 outlines the causes and interactions for this problem. Availability of canal water is influenced by the timing of water release by the authorities, conveyance losses through seepage in the canals and channels, and the distance from the canal. Tubewell water is influenced by the number of tubewells available, credit for farmers to purchase and install low lift pumps and cash to pay for diesel or electricity. Electric tubewells are also affected by the unreliable supply of power. However, farmers prefer the electric tubewells because they are cheaper per unit of land irrigated-Rs 150 (US$5.82)!ha for electric versus Rs400 (US$15.52)!ha for diesel tubewells. Conveyance losses from tubewell water would also be similar to that for canals, especially for the larger irrigation systems.The inadequate supply of water can have a direct effect on yield. Data from experiments show that from four to six irrigations are required on the medium lands for maximum wheat yield, whereas farmers are averaging only two. Inadequate water for land preparation can also delay planting and reduce yield potential as already discussed. This has a direct effect on yield when late planting coincides with late season moisture stress in years when the monsoon rains finish early. Medium-duration varieties presently available suffer severely if moisture stress occurs during flowering and grain filling. One response of the farmers to the drought will be to plant more Lahi on land not planted to rice.Many of the water supply issues have policy implications and require management decisions for solution. Other issues are related to soil physical and water management disciplines and so suggested research issues include:• Conducting a more formal survey to quantify farmer irrigation practices to help answer the question of whether the area is rainfed with some facilities for supplemental irrigation or fully irrigated.• Collecting technical information on the water balance statement for major land types in the area, which includes studies on: a) Moisture depletion and moisture recession. b) Water availability index for major soil types. c) Hydrological and groundwater mapping for the area and research soil profile characteristics. d) Atmospheric-evaporative demands and water requirements for wheat and rice.• Conducting tillage trials to look at optimum moisture conditions for tillage and tilth, changes in bulk density, compaction and clod formation and/or hard pan development and possible influences on root growth and rooting density.• Reviewing the literature and past research on the above topics to identify known information and determining research and knowledge gaps.• Reviewing secondary data on weather and climate to determine if drought similar to the one in 1991 is a frequent problem. Collect secondary data from irrigation departments on the status of irrigation in the District.Farmers consistently mention this problem in wheat and rice, but in rice nearly all farmers do at least one hand weeding. Weeds are more of a problem in direct-seeded rice than transplanted rice. Only a very few farmers use herbicides for control of weeds in either crop. Scarcity of labor for hand weeding in rice was not mentioned by farmers as a constraint, however, they did mention it for wheat.The major weed for wheat is Phalaris mirwr (a winter season grassy weed), which has been found proliferating in many of the regions' R-Wareas. Wild oats,Avenafatua, is the other grassy weed found in a few areas, particularly near Faizabad, on the Kumarganj Road. Many farmers believe the weed is spread by wheat seed contaminated with weed seed. Rice weeds (grasses, sedges and broadleaves) were listed earlier in the section on Management Practices for Rice.As shown in Figure 7, the causes of yield loss attributed to weeds vary by crop. In wheat, the major cause of the grassy weed problem is probably the ineffectiveness of the control measures farmers use. Hand weeding is difficult, particularly with P. minor, and as mentioned earlier, labor availability is a constraint. Herbicides can be effective, but they are management-sensitive, particularly the substituted urea herbicides such as Isoproturon, which require good soil moisture for activation. Knowledge on the proper use of these chemicals on the part of farmers and, in many instances, of extension staff as well is also deficient. Thus, success with herbicides is variable. Despite a 50% subsidy to help promote Isoproturon's use in some areas, the cost may still be too high for resource-poor farmers. This results in a dosage below that recommended or non-use of herbicides. Other factors such as availability of herbicides, adulteration of products, and lack of sprayers all contribute to the problem.P. minor and A. fatua are rabi season wheat weeds that only germinate when temperatures drop to critical levels in November. They germinate at the time wheat is planted. One effective control measure is to pre-irrigate, allow the weeds to germinate, and then destroy them through tillage. However, the benefit from this procedure has to be balanced against the losses incurred by late planting.In rice, levels of irrigation water are often inadequate to control weeds because of previously mentioned irrigation problems. Transplanted rice is mostly done in a random manner making it difficult to mechanize the operation, although suitable machinery is not available anyway. Many weeds are introduced into the soil with FYM. And as already mentioned, weeding in rice is often done late after the weeds have already done their yield-reducing damage. Continuous R-W also promotes the buildup of problem weeds.In addition to the direct effect of weed competition on yield, weeds also influence yields through lowering fertilizer efficiency and fostering pests and diseases (Figure 7).• Conducting a survey of the area at the correct time to assess the extent of the problem-what areas are affected, what species and populations are present, and what control measures farmers take to control the weed.• Studying the mechanisms responsible for spread and proliferation of P. minor in the R-W system. Look at the role of water, wind, FYM use, and contaminated seed on its spread.• Studying application methods, timings, and rates of herbicides used by farmers, and assessing in relation to control in the field and recommendations.• Monitoring selected fields to determine why some fields are infested and others clean and relating this to the management system of the farmer. Look at the dynamics of weed buildup in R-W rotations.• Looking at rotations as an alternative means for controlling weeds. In Pantnagar, sugarcane is used effectively for this purpose. More work on Grallsy wheat season weede difficult to remove by hand Key: Rectangle!l are \"probleID5\", hexagoOll are \"primary cause!l\" and ovau, are \"!lecondary caU!le!!\". developing viable options for farmers on crop sequences to break the R-W monotony, and for supplying supplementary income for the subsistence rice farmers of the area.• Conducting loss assessment studies to develop the threshold levels for economic control of weeds in relation to weed populations.• Studying alternative rice and wheat herbicides that are less managementsensitive and effective.• Using machinery for direct seeding rice in rows (e.g., drum seeder) and using improved implements for weeding.There is a large set of literature available on many of these topics that should be reviewed so that research can be focused on topics where knowledge is scanty. Where knowledge is available, it should be tested extensively in on-farm trials with the active participation of the farmer.This is an issue not commonly mentioned by wheat farmers, but is a concern of rice farmers, especially those that used contract labor for transplanting. Figures 8 and 9 outline the causes of this problem for wheat and rice, respectively. Rain after crueting eowing Exceellive tillage Key: Rectanglee refer to \"proble=\", hexagonll to \"primary caueee\" and ovale to \"eecondary caueee\". Many survey participants observed a stand problem in wheat fields. Poor germination and poor tillering are the main causes (Figure 8). Poor germination can result from poor seed quality (due to storage problems), soil crusting, low soil moisture, and pest and disease problems. Poor tillering, on the other hand, can be caused by late planting and moisture stress.Some scientists hypothesized that the broadcasting method of seeding causes poor plant stand because a) farmers do not broadcast seed uniformly and b) seed depth and emergence are variable. This needs further study, but may have to be an accepted constraint since alternative seeding methods are neither available nor economically competitive with broadcasting. Farmers do increase seed rates for broadcasting, which probably compensates for some seed not germinating.For rice, the major farmer complaint about stand is related to the inadequate plant spacing that results when contract labor is used for transplanting (Figure 9). As mentioned earlier, contract labor for transplanting is paid on an area basis and this promotes wide spacing between hills. Stands in transplanted fields are also affected by drought, which directly affects tillering and through its effect on delayed planting and the use of old seedlings.There are more stand problems in direct-seeded rice because farmers broadcast the seed. There are also more problems with termites,and birds. Weeds are also more competitive in direct-seeded rice and directly affect plant growth. Weeding methods used in direct-seeded rice like Bushening and Bideni also result in poorer plant stands.  7) scarcity Moisture stress Key: Rectanglee refer to \"problems\", hexagons to \"primary cau5e5\" and ovals to \"secondary causee\".Figure 9. ProbleDlB and primary and secondary causes of inadequate plant stand in rice.• Surveying the extent of the problem and relating it to farmer management practices.• Af3 mentioned under late planting problems, studying the effect of tillage systems, seeding methods, and soil properties on plant stand.• Determining if any soilborne pathogens/insects affect germination and, if so, assessing the importance. Various foot rots and fungi have been postulated to influence germination of wheat in other parts of South Af3ia.Farmers mention this problem widely, although it was too early for participants in the rice survey to observe rat problems in the field. The major cause (Figure 10) is obviously the lack of adequate control measures---especially at the community level.Other factors include the nearness of alternative habitats for rats (canals, bunds, sugarcane, woods) and a possible decline in the predator populations in the area. Rats are also responsible for considerable yield losses after the crop is harvested either before or after threshing. Many farmers stack their rice and prepare their land for wheat before rice threshing. These stacks of unthreshed grain are ideal habitats for rats. Storage losses can also be a factor because of inadequate farmer storage facilities.Apart from assessing the yield loss and damage in farmers' fields as related to nearby rat habitats, other research issues include:• Improving storage systems at the farm level.• Promoting community habitat management and synchronized poisoning.• Improving baits and finding alternative ones.  Although not specifically identified by the farmers, survey participants observed this problem in wheat fields. The rice survey was too early to observe this problem, but farmers said this was a problem due to labor problems at harvest (Figure 11). As mentioned earlier, labor scarcity in the area results from other job opportunities for agricultural labor. There is also competition at this wheat harvest time for sugarcanerelated labor, i.e., harvesting, cultivating, preparing land, and planting. There are no combines or reapers in the area to help with timely harvest of either rice or wheat.The climate at wheat harvest time is very changeable, i.e., strong winds, hail, and rain from pre-monsoon storms can cause considerable damage such as grain shattering. This is particularly critical with some of the shattering-susceptible varieties such as Shekhar. Delayed harvest also gives the rats and birds more time to do damage.In addition to the harvest delay, the labor shortage is causing an increase in harvesting and threshing costs, thus making wheat less profitable. This will be discussed later.Suggested research issues include:• Conducting a survey to measure the extent of late harvest and relate it to loss assessment in terms of shattering or rodent damage.  • Evaluating some form of mechanization suitable for small farm holdings in the area. Various equipment is available for cutting and binding wheat and rice in other parts of India. Combines are gaining popularity. The use of a cutter bar on a two-wheel tractor, however, may be more appropriate for the small field sizes in the area. This attachment should be evaluated along with other implements for the two-wheeled tractors.This was mentioned as a problem during the rice survey, but not the wheat survey. Figure 12 diagrams the various causes of this problem. The light textured, alkaline reaction soils of the District are known to be zinc deficient, especially where intensive cropping such as R-W is practiced and crop residues are not returned to the soil. Af5 mentioned earlier, FYM use is declining in the area.The other cause of zinc deficiency is the nonuse or late application of zinc, which is available locally as zinc sulfate. Many farmers mentioned they used zinc as part of their fertilizer package, but many fields were observed with this problem. It is difficult for farmers to observe and distinguish the symptoms of zinc deficiency from other foliar problems. Several farmers reported no response to applied zinc when they suspected this problem. They may have been looking at some other nutrient or disease problem or used an adulterated zinc product. Potash deficiency was hypothesized for some wheat fields and may be a problem in rice.• Characterizing zinc-deficient areas by soil type, moisture regime, and other soil chemical properties.Adulterated zinc of zinc fertilizer Foliar Zinc not alwaye applications not ueed; available or more zinc fIxation t --' ----• l ..,1-----\"'\"\"\"\"\"-1 farmere have low caeh when applied to eoil resources to buy  • Reviewing available information from other institutions in the District. A Hindi publication entitled \"Rice Production Program for Faizabad Division\" has maps of areas identified as having zinc deficiency in the District.It may be possible to reduce input levels and increase profits through more efficient management. Farmers reported using surprisingly high fertilizer rates. Pest management practices are also low in efficiency. Figure 13 diagrams these problems of inefficient input use. Many of the causes of this problem are ones that have been outlined earlier. Late planting dates, incidences of pests and inappropriate timing, and methods of input application all reduce efficiency. Possible micronutrient and other macronutrient deficiencies together with moisture constraints will also lower input efficiency.Although farmers did not refer to low profits as a problem, they did complain about the high costs of inputs for rice and wheat production. Cash is not readily available, especially to the resource-poor, smallholders of the area. Based on data obtained by the University economists, Appendix VI presents the costs and returns of recommended Key: Rectanglee repreeent \"proble=\", hexagone reprellent \"primary caullell\" and ovalll reprellent ueecondary caueee\".Figure 13. Problems and primary and secondary causes of inefficient use of fertilizer.technology for a 4-t/ha wheat crop (a good crop for which recommended levels of inputs are used). Similar data for rice and sugarcane, presented in Appendices VII and VIII, show income from rice-R.s1955 (US$75.95)/ha-to be less than wheat-R.s3257 (US$126.50)/ha-and income from sugarcane-R.s17,030 (US$66 1. l1)/ha-to be substantially more than wheat and rice.The average wheat yield for rainfed, partially irrigated, and fully irrigated crops combined in Faizabad District is 2.05 t/ha. This average also includes crops of those farmers who do not use recommended practices. The data in Appendix VI are for a wheat crop receiving five irrigations and the recommended inputs. Similar situations apply to the data for rice and sugarcane in Appendices VII and VIII, respectively. The high returns from sugarcane, at the present prices, will obviously influence farmer decisions on crop selection in the future.Obviously, the problem of inefficient use of inputs relates directly to crop profitability and as such the following research is suggested:• Reviewing and determining the need for further study of costs and returns to rice and wheat cultivation for different land types and farm sizes.• Researching the role of cost reducing technology to help improve profitability. Activities include: a) mechanization of harvest and threshing-more emphasis on small farm machinery to speed up these practices. b) reduced tillage to obtain timely planting. c) increased efficiency of applied fertilizers. d) identification of nutrient deficiencies, e.g., potash.• Organizing work on wheat-toria/mustard systems and on crop sequences involving other cash crops to break the R-W monotony and to supply supplementary income for subsistence farmers in the area.The survey was too early to see much insect damage on rice and so only farmers' opinions could be obtained. Figure 14 outlines the various interactions for pest problems in rice. Different insects are affected by different management situations, but farmers only referred to armyworm and rice bug as problems. Later in the 1991 rice growing season, armyworm was to be a problem in the lowlands, and in the medium lands as well. Improper use of broad spectrum insecticides could be shifting the balance of insects towards rice pests. Continuous R-W, staggered rice planting, and late planting all foster pest buildup.Suggested research issues include:• Studying the effect of the R-W system on insect buildup, e.g., population dynamics of armyworm.• Researching population shifts in insects in R-W systems through a system of monitoring surveys over time. The more complex issues of sustainability are not easily identified in this type of survey and are not identified as problems by fanners. Farmers when asked about production trends in wheat usually indicated that yields are increasing with time. Some farmers said that in order to maintain yields more fertilizer is needed. One farmer estimated the need for 10% more fertilizer per year just to maintain the same yields. However, it is difficult to separate the confounding effects of increased use of fertilizer, improved varieties, and irrigation from yield trends. One safe conclusion is that productivity (yield per unit of input) is declining over time. Fertilizer and nutrient use and the question of pest management are two topics related to sustainability ISSUes.Fertilizer use in the area has increased over the past 10 years (Appendix IV, Table 6) from 43 kg nutrientslha in 1979-80 to 96 kglha in 1989-90. Nitrogen use has more than doubled over this period and presently averages almost 80 kglha. Phosphorus use has also tripled, but rates per hectare are below the recommendation of 18 kg/ha. Potash use is low and has declined since 1979-80. All fertilizers are broadcast. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash are applied basally; nitrogen is also applied as a topdress.The Faizabad surveys indicate that all farmers use nitrogen, most use phosphorus, and a few use potash. Where potash is used, farmers reported a response in the form of larger grains. Potash deficiency is suspected in one location visited by the survey participants.Zinc use in rice is variable because of availability. More would be used if it were available in the market. There are also some questions raised about substitution of zinc sulfate with salt and other adulterations. Farmers are able to identify zinc problems in rice and apply zinc sulfate when the problem is observed. Farmers still use single super phosphate. The calcium sulfate in this product probably helps provide the sulfur needs of the two cereal crops. With a shift to urea and diammonium phosphate, this situation could change with sulfur becoming a deficient element. Sulfur has been reported as deficient in other parts of the region.Many farmers mentioned that organic manure for crop production was less available for rice and wheat production. Green manures are not important and farmers are not willing to sacrifice a crop or use irrigation for improving land quality. This seems to be common throughout the region. Much of the above ground crop residues are removed and used for animal fodder or fuel and not plowed into the soil.Since wheat and rice are exhaustive crops and remove considerable quantities of nutrients per year, long-term soil nutrient depletion on future productivity must be a central issue for the R-W work. Figure 16 diagrams all of these nutrient mining factors.Suggested research issues include:• Surveying or monitoring the extent of the problem and relating farmer management and input use to soil test data.• Compiling, computerizing, and analyzing the data from various long-term soil fertility trials to determine whether yield declines are observable.• Studying nutrient use efficiency rates, methods, sources, and organic and inorganic combinations and identifying deficiencies.• Studying rotational use of organic manures in conjunction with need based on inorganic fertilization and prioritization of crops in terms of crop requirements and long-term soil productivity and sustainability.• Identifying nutritional imbalances and monitoring new and emerging problems in this exhaustive cropping system.• Mapping of nutrient deficient areas.• Estimating long-term fertility status focusing on use of green manures, legume crops, crop residues, and other farm by-products.Like many areas of India, the study area is rich in relevant published information. This should be synthesized and used in research planning. The following are some suggested areas for initial concentration: 3• Statistics on trends over time (e.g., the last 10 to 15 years) in area, production, yields, input use, production technology.• Estimates of costs and returns for important crops.• Data from long-term experiments in the study area that can be analyzed for trends and/or identification of possible problems of sustainability.• Data from wheat and rice agronomy trials, especially data on date of planting, fertilizer response, and weed control. Data from on-farm trials would be especially useful.• Data from crop rotation or cropping pattern trials, or from trials that examine the management of crop residue or organic fertilizer.• Data on effects of rice puddling on wheat establishment and growth.• Information from field surveys of the incidence of pests, diseases, and weeds.• Data on soil nutrient problems, such as zinc or potash deficiencies.• Information on irrigation systems and farmers' irrigation practices.• Training in the use of computers for database management and statistical analysis would be useful.The following are some suggestions for in-depth studies put forth by the survey teams:This appears to be a major area for research for both rice and wheat. In rice, research is needed on the effect of soil puddling on the water needs of the rice crop, soil physical and chemical changes, root restricting soil layers, and problems with land preparation for wheat. Such research should take account of the different soil and land types in the District. In wheat, more research is needed on reduced tillage systems to allow earlier planting and reduced production costs. This research should include in-depth soil physical and soil chemical studies related to rice and wheat establishment and subsequent growth, including rooting.Another suggested research area is evaluating small farm equipment for land preparation, seeding, and harvesting and threshing. Comparisons are needed between 2-wheel and 4-wheel traction and between animal and mechanical power. Because of labor constraints at transplanting, practices to either accelerate transplanting or eliminate it (e.g., improved methods of direct seeding) are needed.Secondary data should be screened for relevance to the District and the study area. Less attention should be given to data from other districtB unless they are clearly pertinent.• Input supply and markets for purchased inputs, including labor and machinery markets.• Yield measurements.• Estimates of costs and returns, including total factor productivity.The development of the sampling frame for this monitoring study must be done carefully, given the long time associated with this type of research. Monitoring will require training of enumerators in data collection, editing, and analysis. Computer use will be an important aspect of this research because of the large amount of data to be handled. An upgrading of the computer skills of collaborating scientists may be necessary.Finally, additional work is needed on the conceptual framework, given the central importance of methods for measuring sustainability in the monitoring program. A regional workshop on this theme is expected to be held in the near future. Training in estimation of total factor productivity may be combined with training in computer use and the economic analysis of agronomic data (including data from long-term trials).For sandy soils: one third of the N plus all of the P 2 0 5 and one third of the K,O is applied at the time of sowing in the furrows below the seed. One third of the N and ~O is then applied after 20-25 days or at the first irrigation; the rest is applied at the second irrigation.For light and sandy soils, apply six irrigations at: 1) CRI-20-25 DAS.2) Tillering-40-45 DAS.3) Jointing-60-65 DAS. 4) Flowering~0-85 DAS. 5) Milking-100-105 DAS. 6) Dough stage-1l5-120 DAS.For Domat or heavy Domat (clay), apply four irrigations at: 1) CRI-20-25 DAS.2) 30 days after the first irrigation.3) 30 days after the second irrigation. 4) 20-25 days after the third irrigation.For control of Karnal bunt: apply 2.5 g thiram!kg seed and 2 g Captan (75%)!kg seed.For control of termites: before sowing apply to soil BHC 10% dust @ 30 kglha or Aldrin 5% dust@ 25 kglha or Heptachlor 5% dust @ 25 kglha.For control of Phalaris mirwr use any of the following: 1) Methabenzthiazuron (70% WP) at 1.5 kglha.2) Metoxuron (80% WP) at 1.0 kglha.3) Isoproturon (50% WP) at 1.5 kglha. 4) Isoproturon (75% WP) at 1.0 kg/ha.Spray with a flat tip nozzle any of the above herbicides mixed with 500-700 L of water after the first irrigation or between 30-35 days after seeding For control of Cherwpodium album: apply 2,4-D 80% sodium salt at 625 glha at 30-35 days after seeding.• After a late variety of rice, toria, potato, or sugarcane, wheat should be grown as follows 1) Select a late sown variety like HD2285 and RR-21.2) Increase the seed rate by 25%.3) Apply balanced fertilizer. 4) Soak seed in water overnight before sowing. 5) Give first irrigation 15 DAS; after that give a light irrigation every 15 to 20 days.Recommended: UP262, UP2003, HD2285, RR-21, Shekhar, and HD2329. For late planting: HD2285 and Shekhar. ","tokenCount":"15080"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9cc24cb46385bec944aa3261d19bb04b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/63f89bf2-6aee-4682-be04-040883c425fa/retrieve","id":"1878583835"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7588177-9048-4529-abf1-b585c6112646","pagecount":"88","content":"Vegetative material of legume species should go through intermediate or postentry quarantine and should be tested for absence of viruses.Legume seed should not be moved internationally in pods.Seed should be harvested at optimal time for the crop and care taken to ensure effective drying.Seed samples should be cleaned to eliminate all soil, plant debris, seeds of noxious weeds, and phanerogamic parasites.Unless specified otherwise, seeds should be surface-disinfected (with sodium hypochlorite or a similar product) before being given appropriate fungicide and insecticide treatments.Seedlots suspected to contain insects should be fumigated with an appropriate pesticide.Parcels containing seeds should be unpacked in a closed packing material. should be incinerated or autoclaved.Collecting, conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources and their global distribution are essential components of international crop improvement programmes.Inevitably, the movement of germplasm involves a risk of accidentally introducing plant quarantine pests along with the host plant material; in particular, pathogens that are often symptomless, such as viruses, pose a special risk. In order to minimize this risk, effective testing (indexing) procedures are required to ensure that distributed material is free of pests that are of quarantine concern.The ever increasing volume of germplasm exchanged internationally, coupled with recent, rapid advances in biotechnology, has created a pressing need for crop-specific overviews of the existing knowledge in all disciplines relating to the phytosanitary safety of germplasm transfer. This has prompted FAO and IBPGR to launch a collaborative programme for the safe and expeditious movement of germplasm reflecting the complementarity of their mandates with regard to the safe movement of germplasm. FAO has a long-standing mandate to assist its member governments to strengthen their Plant Quarantine Services, while IBPGR's mandate -inter alia -is to further the collecting, conservation and use of the genetic diversity of useful plants for the benefit of people throughout the world.The aim of the joint FAO/IBPGR programme is to generate a series of cropspecific technical guidelines that provide relevant information on disease indexing and other procedures that will help to ensure phytosanitary safety when germplasm is moved internationally.The technical guidelines are produced by meetings of panels of experts on the crop(s) concerned, who have been selected in consultation with the relevant specialized institutions and research centres. The experts contribute to the elaboration of the guidelines in their private capacities and do not represent the organizations to which they belong. FAO, IBPGR and the contributing experts cannot be held responsible for any failures resulting from the application of the present guidelines. By their nature they reflect the consensus of the crop specialists who attended the meeting, based on the best scientific knowledge available at the time of the meeting.The technical guidelines are written in a short, direct, sometimes 'telegraphic' style, in order to keep the volume of the document to a minimum and to facilitate updating. The guidelines are divided into two parts: The first part makes general recommendations on how best to move germplasm of the crop concerned and mentions available intermediate quarantine facilities when relevant. The second part covers the important pests and diseases of quarantine concern. The information given on a particular pest or disease does not pretend to be exhaustive but concentrates on those aspects that are most relevant to quarantine. In general, references are only given on the geographical distribution of the diseases and pests, their seed transmission and methods of indexing.It should be realized that the information on pest distribution is strongly influenced by the intensity of research carried out in a given country or region and should therefore be considered as relative.The naming of legume crops is often confusing. A lists the accepted Latin and vernacular names of major cultivated legume species is given in the Appendix.The present guidelines were developed at a meeting held in Arnhem, the Netherlands from 16 to 22 April 1989. The meeting was convened by the Research Institute for Plant Protection (IPO) and sponsored by the Directorate General for International Cooperation (DGIS) of the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs.All legume germplasm collections should be maintained free of known seedassociated pests (seed-borne or seed-transmitted in the case of fungi and bacteria; seed-transmitted in the case of viruses). Descriptor data should be obtained from pest-free germplasm.Only seedlots certified to be free of such pests should be distributed.In recipient countries, seedlots should be established and maintained for one generation under conditions of isolation (temporal and/or spatial) or containment, with periodic inspection, testing and roguing. conditions of isolation (with appropriate chemical protection) or with periodic inspection and roguing to eliminate seed-associated Legume seedlots to be exchanged among breeding programmes should be produced under containment, pests.Seedlots should be tested for seed-associated pests and certified by the appropriate regulatory agency before distribution.Commercial seedlots should continue to be subject to current regulatory procedures. Each new introduction should be grown under containment or isolation.Plants should be observed periodically. Plants suspected to be affected with seed-associated pests should be destroyed.All symptomless plants should be tested for latent infections by viruses known to occur in the place of origin of the material and in the country of maintenance (see Table 1 on pp. [50][51][52]. Ideally this testing should be carried out at this stage or, if not possible, it should be carried out before the germplasm is distributed (see International distribution of germplasm). Infected plants should be destroyed.Seed should be collected from healthy plants only.Seed should be sown under containment or isolation with appropriate chemical protection.Plants should be observed periodically. Plants affected by seed-associated pests should be removed and destroyed.Seed should be collected from healthy plants only.Germplasm accessions that have been introduced and multiplied according to the procedures described above can be certified and distributed internationally.Germplasm accessions which are not yet in a pest-free state should be handled according to the same procedures as described for new introductions.Movement of germplasm should comply with regulatory requirements of the importing country.In addition to the phytosanitary certificate, a 'germplasm health statement', indicating which tests have been performed to assess the health status of the material, should accompany the germplasm accession.Seeds used for the multiplication of breeding material should be pest-free.Breeding material under multiplication should be grown under containment or isolation with appropriate chemical protection.Plants should be inspected soon after emergence and periodically thereafter.Plants infected with seed-associated pests should be destroyed. For field grown plants, suitable precautions should be taken to prevent soil spread from infected plants and introduction of possible seed-associated pests from local sources of infection.Seeds should be harvested only from symptomless plants.Seed samples of appropriate size should be tested for seed-associated pests.When non-destructive seed health tests are available, all seeds should be tested accordingly.Movement of germplasm should comply with regulatory requirements of the importing country.In addition to the phytosanitary certificate, a germplasm health statement, indicating which tests have been performed to assess the health status of the material, should accompany the breeding material.Serology. Potyvirus group; flexuous particles c. 750 nm; transmitted in sap (Bos, 1970); various strains exist such as the bean mosaic, pea yellow mosaic and pea necrosis strains (Bos et al., 1974).Many legumes, including common bean, faba bean, pea, chickpea, cowpea, Crotalaria spectabilis, soybean and perennial legumes and some non-legumes such as squash, spinach, Freesia, Gladiolus and a number of bulb crops (Derks et al., 1980).Causes mosaics and necrosis in legumes depending upon host genotype and virus strain.By many aphid species in the non-persistent manner and via seed in some legume species such as faba bean (Quantz, 1954;0.l-2.4%: Kaiser, 1973;0.l-0.2%: Fiedorow, 1980), pea (Dickson, 1922), white sweet clover, and white and yellow lupin (3-6%: Zschau, 1962;6.2%: Corbett, 1958).Worldwide.Diagnostic hosts are selected cultivars of common bean, faba bean and pea ('Perfection' type peas are immune), and Chenopodium amaranticolor and C. quinoa. ELISA and immuno-specific electron microscopy are sensitive tests for detection and recognition.Potyvirus group; flexuous, filamentous particles, c. 750 nm; moderate concentration in cowpea plants; readily transmitted in sap (Purcifull & Gonsalves, 1985). The virus is closely related to cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (Purcifull & Gonsalves, 1985;Dijkstra et al., 1987), from which it differs in host range and serology (Taiwo et al., 1982) but perhaps not sufficiently to treat the latter as a distinct virus (Dijkstra et al., 1987).Occurs naturally in cowpea (Anderson, 1955;Lima et al., 1979), asparagus bean (V. unguiculata var. sesquipedalis) (Tsuchizaki et al., 1984), common bean, mungbean (Green, 1985), soybean (deviant strain, Dijkstra et al., 1987), and Crotalaria spectabilis (Anderson, 1955). Experimentally transmissible to various other leguminous crop species and several test plants of a number of families.Prominent mosaic, mottle, green vein-banding and distortion in susceptible genotypes. When occurring together with cucumber mosaic virus, severe stunting in cowpea (Pio-Ribeiro et al., 1978) and rugose mosaic in asparagus bean (Chang, 1983).By Aphis craccivora, Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Myzus persicae in a non-persistent manner (Anderson, 1955), and probably by many other aphid species. Transmitted up to 30.9% in seed of several cowpea genotypes (Anderson, 1957;Zettler and Evans, 1972), and in mungbean (0.6-2.5% in 7 out of 13 lines tested with a virus closely related to the virus and adzuki been mosaic virus (Green, 1985).Possibly wherever cowpea is grown.Serologically, in agar (SDS, pyrrolidine), but more reliably by ELISA.Malforming leaf mottle and mosaic, often masked at high temperature. Cyclical development of disease (Paul & Quantz, 1959).By weevils (Apion vorax and Sitona spp.) and via seed of faba bean (up to 17%: Blaszczak, 1970Blaszczak, ,1974;;Cockbain et al., 1976;Jones, 1978Jones, ,1980)).Europe and northwest Africa (Gibbs & Paul, 1970), and China (Ji, 1987). Found in South Australia in crops grown from imported seed, but no evidence of spread (Boswell & Gibbs, 1983).Diagnostic hosts are faba bean and pea, with C. amaranticolor and N. clevelandii as insusceptible hosts; ELISA.Potyvirus group; flexuous, filamentous particles, c 750 nm; moderate concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Bock & Conti, 1974). The virus is closely related to, if not identical with blackeye cowpea mosaic virus (Dijkstra et al., 1987); and probably also azuki bean mosaic virus, occurring in Vigna angularis in Japan (Hino, 1962).Occurs in cowpea. Experimentally transmissible to various other leguminous crop species and various test plants of the Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Lamiaceae and Solanaceae.Severe mosaic, mottle and distortion in susceptible genotypes. All degrees of susceptibility exist. A range of types (strains), widely differing in symptomatology in cowpea, have been identified (Bock, 1973;Purcifull & Gonsalves, 1985;Rossel and Thottappilly, unpublished).By various aphid species (Lovisolo & Conti, 1966;Bock, 1973) and at variable rates in seed of several cowpea genotypes (up to 40%; Kaiser & Mossahebi, 1975;Aboul Ata et al., 1982). Azuki bean mosaic virus was also found to be seed-transmitted (Tsuchizaki et al., 1970a;1970b).Possibly wherever cowpea is grownSerologically, in agar (SDS) but more reliably by ELISA. Various, biologically and/ or serologically distinct strains identified.Affiliation uncertain; formerly grouped under the Carlaviruses; filamentous, rather rigid particles, c. 650 nm; high concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Brunt & Kenten, 1974).Reported from cowpea (Brunt & Menten, 1973), bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea), soybean, winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) (Fauquet et al., 1979;Thouvenel et al., 1982), groundnut (Iizuka et al., 1984), mungbean (Mink & Keswani, 1987), and some leguminous weed species (Anno-Nyako, 1984). Commonly found in common bean, and lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) in Nigeria, in which it causes prominent disease symptoms (Rossel, unpublished). Also reported from tomato (Brunt & Phillips, 1981). Experimentally transmissible to other legume crop species and some test plant species including Nicotiana clevelandii and N. megalosiphon (Anno-Nyako, 1984).Mild mosaic, mottle in soybean and a few susceptible cowpea genotypes. Symptoms in soybean are generally mild. Prominent chlorosis, stunt and rugose symptoms in common bean. Certain strains cause bright yellow mosaic in soybean (Rossel and Thottappilly, unpublished).Transmitted by whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci). Seed transmission reported (up to nearly 100%) for cowpea, soybean and common bean (Brunt & Kenten, 1973) and for soybean (0.5%: Thouvenel et al., 1982). Seed transmission in soybean could not be confirmed in Nigeria (Rossel and Thottappilly, in preparation). Similar studies in India have shown low (0.5-2%) seed-borne infection rates (Reddy, in preparation). Virus also detected in mungbean seed obtained from Tanzania (Mink, pers. comm.)Probably worldwide in the tropics. Common in leguminous crop and weed species in Africa.Serologically by ELISA. Comovirus group; isometric particles, c. 25 nm; high concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap ( Van Kammen & De Jager, 1978). This virus was originally described as cowpea yellow mosaic virus (Chant, 1959;Swaans & van Kammen, 1973).Occurs in cowpea (Chant, 1959;Bock, 1971), also reported from groundnut and soybean in Japan, from Crotalaria juncea (Ladipo, 1988) and Cajanus cajan (Bock, 1971), sporadically found in soybean in Africa (Rossel and Thottappilly, unpublished). Experimentally transmissible to other leguminous crop species, and some test plants like Chenopodium spp. and Nicotiana benthamiana.Severe mosaic, mottle and distortion in susceptible genotypes. All degrees of susceptibility exist. Numerous cowpea genotypes have high levels of resistance (including hypersensitivity).By the chrysomelid beetles, Ootheca mutabilis and Paraluperodes quaternus, and by Nematocerus acerbus (Curculionidae) (Chant, 1959;Bock, 1971;Whitney & Gilmer, 1974). Other chrysomelid beetles also incriminated as vectors, and vectors may remain infective for l-2 to more than 8 days ( Van Kammen & De Jager, 1978)., Suspected seed transmission (l-5%: Gilmer et al., 1973) could not be confirmed (Thottappilly and Rossel, 1987).Occurs in the humid savanna and forest zones of West Africa. Also reported from some countries in East Africa: Kenya (Bock, 1971), Tanzania (Patel and Kuwite, 1982) and in Suriname, Cuba and the USA.Serologically, in agar or by ELISA.Possibly carmovirus group; spherical particles c. 27 nm; high concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Boswell & Gibbs, 1983).Occurs in cowpea and bambara groundnut (Vigna (=Voandzeia) subterranea) (Robertson, 1966;Rossel, 1977;Shoyinka et al., 1978). Experimentally transmissible to other leguminous crop species and some test plants like Chenopodium spp.Severe mosaic, mottle and distortion in susceptible genotypes. All degrees of susceptibility exist. Cowpea genotypes identified which possess high levels of resistance (Allen, 1980).By the chrysomelid beetle, Ootheca mutabilis. Seed transmission in all three cowpea cultivars tested (up to 10%: Shoyinka et al., 1978;Allen et al., 1982), in inoculated plants of common bean (Shoyinka et al., 1978) and in bambara groundnut (Robertson, 1966).Occurs throughout the humid savanna and forest zones of West Africa.Serologically in agar or by ELISA.Cucumovirus group: spherical particles c. 25-30 nm; low to medium concentration in cowpea; readily transmitted in sap (Phatak et al., 1976).Found naturally in cowpeas. Also found in lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) and winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) (Rossel, unpublished). Experimentally transmissible to other leguminous crop species and some non-legume species such as Chenopodium spp., Nicotiana glutinosa and N. benthamiana.Generally very mild and consisting of characteristic patchy chlorosis or mottle.Naturally by numerous aphid species in the non-persistent manner and through seed of cowpea (10-30%: Phatak, 1974;Phatak et al., 1976).Probably occurs wherever cowpeas are grown.By mechanical transmission to N. glutinosa and serologically by agar-gel double diffusion or ELISA. Comovirus group; isometric particles, c. 25 nm; high concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Swaans & van Kammen, 1973;De Jager, 1979).Occurs naturally in cowpea (Dale, 1949;Van Hoof, 1963;Agrawal, 1964); also found in common bean and other leguminous crops (Dale, 1949;Lin et al., 1982). Sporadically found in soybean (Thongmeearkom &Goodman, 1976). Experimentally transmissible only to other leguminous species.Severe mosaic, mottle and distortion in susceptible genotypes. All degrees of susceptibility exist. Resistance not commonly found among cowpea germplasm.By several leaf-feeding chrysomelid beetles, mainly Cerotoma ruficornis and C. trifurcata. Reportedly transmitted in seed of cowpea (up to 10%: Shepherd, 1964;Haque & Persad, 1975) and of asparagus bean (Vigna sesquipedalis) (8%: Dale, 1949).Occurs in cowpea and common bean in Latin America and the southern USA.Serologically in agar or by ELISA.Cryptovirus group; spherical particles c. 30 nm in diameter with segmented dsRNA of about 4 x 10 6 ; good immunogens but no mutual serological relationships (Boccardo et al., 1983;Natsuaki et al., 1986). The group includes: alfalfa cryptic virus (Boccardo et al., 1983), hop trefoil cryptic virus (Boccardo et al., 1983), red clover cryptic virus (Boccardo et al., 1983), Vicia cryptic virus (Kenten et al., 1980;Abou-Elnasr et al., 1985) and white clover cryptic virus (Boccardo et al., 1983).Single plant Symptoms species.None. Not known to be of any economic importance.Not mechanically or by grafting. No known vector. In high rates via seed (Boccardo et al., 1983) but most probably not of quarantine importance.Europe and Japan, probably worldwide. Rather common in cultivated legumes (Boccardo et al., 1983).Only after purification or by immunosorbent electron microscopy (Boccardo et al., 1983). No routine test available.Cucumovirus group; spherical particles c. 29 nm; concentration variable in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Francki et al., 1979). The seed-transmitted cowpea banding mosaic virus (Prakash & Joshi, 1980) is probably a legume strain of cucumber mosaic virus.Found naturally in many angiosperms, especially Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae. Also reported from many Leguminosae such as azuki bean, chickpea, cowpea, faba bean, groundnut, lentil, lucerne, lupins, Phaseolus bean, Pisum sativum and various clovers (Bos & Maat, 1974). Legume isolates are often weakly pathogenic to nonlegumes (Bos & Maat, 1974).Symptoms vary from none to mottling and mosaic on systemicleaves, sometimes with stunting and leaf malformation. In cowpea, severe stunting and in asparagus bean, rugose mosaic when in complex with blackeye cowpea mosaic virus (Pio Riberio et al ., 1978;Chang, 1983). In Phaseolus bean symptoms often confused with those of bean common mosaic virus (Bos & Maat, 1974;Meiners et al., 1977). Necrosis in some species, such as yellow lupin. Plants often recover.Naturally by numerous aphid species in the non-persistent manner. Artificially by mechanical inoculation. Through seed of common bean (Bos & Maat, 1974;Meiners et al., 1977), cowpea (Green, 1985), groundnut (Xu & Barnett, 1984), mung bean (Phatak, 1974;Purivirojkul et al., 1978;Iwaki, 1978), yellow and blue lupin (Golebniak, 1979;Jones, 1988).Worldwide.Test plants Chenopodium amaranticolor, C. quinoa, Cucumis sativus, Vigna unguiculata; ELISA.Potyvirus group; flexuous particles c. 760 nm; transmitted in sap (Hansen & Lesemann, 1978).None or mild green mottle. Plants recover.Non-persistently by aphids and via seed (up to 70% in commercial seed: Behncken, 1983).Found in seed from several continents. Occurs in Australia, India, Pakistan, USA.Nepovirus group; spherical particles c. 24-27 nm with angular profiles; low concentration in plants; transmitted by mechanical inoculation (Jones & Forster, 1980).Found in nature only in include Cajanus cajan, Cicer arietinum, Lupinus spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum spp., Trifolium spp. and Vigna unguiculata.Most susceptible host species were infected systemically without symptoms. White clover may display chlorotic line patterns seasonally.The virus spreads in nature in lucerne fields, but the mechanism is unknown. Seed transmission up to 8% in lucerne and to 9% in seed from inoculated Chenopodium quinoa plants (Blackstock, 1978). Pollen transmission to seed and progeny seedlings occurred in C. quinoa (Blackstock, 1978).Recorded only from Australia and New Zealand.Diagnostic species are Chenopodium amaranticolor, C. quinoa, Gomphrena globosa and Pisum sativum. Antisera react well in gel-diffusion tests. Isolates from lucerne and white clover and their homologous antisera showed little or no cross reaction in DAS-ELISA (Forster & Morris-Krsinich, 1985). Sobemovirus group; spherical particles c. 27-28 nm with angular profiles; low concentration in plants; transmitted by mechanical inoculation (Forster & Jones, 1980).Found in nature only in Medicago sativa. Experimental hosts infected systemically included Trifolium incarnatum plus several species of Lupinus and Medicago.Systemic vein clearing and chlorotic vein banding. Reduced dry matter yield of lucerne by 18% (Blackstock, 1978).Increasing incidence of infection with age of lucerne stands suggested that field spread occurred but the mechanism is unknown (Blackstock, 1978). All seedlings (> 200) grown from seed collected from infected plants were symptomless, but the distribution of infected plants in lucerne fields suggested that the virus could be seed-borne and it was detected serologically in 2.5% of seedlings of Melilotus albus (Paliwal, 1983).Recorded from Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Tobravirus group; straight tubular particles of two predominant lengths c. 105 and 215 x 21 nm; transmissible in sap (Harrison, 1973); broad bean yellow band virus (Russo et al., 1982) is a serotype (Robinson & Harrison, 1985).Causes disease in pea, common bean, faba bean (Bos & van der Want, 1963;Gibbs & Harrison, 1964;Lockhart & Fischer, '1976: Gerhardson & Ryden, 1979;Fiedorow, 1980, l983) and yellow lupin (Pospieszny & Frencel, 1985), and infects symptomlessly other legumes, including lucerne, and some non-legumes (Bos & van der Want, 1963).In pea irregular leaf, stem and pod necrosis; entire shoots may be killed; in some cultivars leaf mottling (Bos & van der Want, 1963). In common bean irregular leaf and stem necrosis with severe plant stunting (Gerhardson & Ryden, 1979;Bos & Huijberts, unpublished data). In faba bean infection is often symptomless (Fiedorow, 1980;Lockhart & Fischer, 1976), but plants may die prematurely if simultaneously infected by bean leafroll virus (Coskbain et al., 1983); yellow vein banding is caused by the broad bean yellow band serotype (Russo et al., 1982).In crops the disease occurs in patches and transmission is by trichodorid nematodes (Trichodurus spp.). Above-ground spread is by seed. Rate of transmission in pea is 1 1-2 % ( Harrison, 1973) or up to 37% ( Bos & van der Want, 1963) and up to 10% in faba bean (Fiedorow, 1983).Europe (Harrison, 1973;Kowalska, 1979;Fiedorow, 1983) and Morocco (Lockhart & Fischer, 1976).Inoculated leaves of Chenopodium amaranticolor, cucumber (cotyledons and foliage leaves, even when detached in petri dishes), and of common bean (primary leaves) react with characteristic local lesions in 3 -4 days (Bos & van der Want, 1963). ELISA for detection in seeds ( Van Vuurde & Maat, 1985).Potyvirus group; filamentous rods c. 12 x 770 nm; moderate concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Hampton & Mink, 1975;Khetarpal & Maury, 1987).Occurs naturally in Lens esculenta, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba and V. villosa. A few nonlegume species infected experimentally.Stunting, systemic vein clearing, leaf rolling, rosetting, flower distortion or abortion, small pods. Leafrolling is easily mistaken for physiological disorder. Some pea genotypes react with necrosis and premature plant death. In Yugoslavia a latent pea strain was described (Milicic & Plavsic, 1978). A lentil strain was non-pathogenic to most pea genotypes (Hampton, 1982), whereas another isolate was much more severe on peas and two other pathotypes differed on pea genotypes (Alconero et al., 1986).Naturally by aphids in the non-persistent manner. Artificially by mechanical inoculation. Seed-transmitted in pea (Mink et al., 1969;Alconero & Hoch, 1989) up to 95% depending on cultivar (Cockbain, 1988), in lentil up to 44% (Hampton & Muehlbauer, 1977), and in faba bean up to 3% (Musil, 1980). Infected seeds are erratically distributed in pods and on plants of pea (Musil, 1980).Asia (India, Japan, Taiwan), Australia, Europe, New Zealand, North Africa and North America.Test plants: Chenopodium amaranticolor, Pisum sativum (especially 'Perfection'-type cultivars immune to bean yellow mosaic virus). Efficiently in seeds with ELISA in group samples of up to 100 seeds (Maury et al., 1987).Infects naturally groundnut, chillies (Capsicum annuum), great millet (Sorghum arundinaceum). Experimentally transmissible to several dicots and monocots. High concentration in Nicotiana clevelandii, N. glutinosa, Phaseolus vulgaris 'Topcrop'.Groundnut plants are severely stunted and dark green; leaflets are smaller, not deformed; young leaflets show small chlorotic rings.Soil-borne by the fungus Polymyxa graminis. Seed transmitted 6-14% in groundnut (up to 20% in groundnut seeds collected from diseased plants: Thouvenel & Fauquet, 1981a). Also seed transmitted in cereal crops.Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, India, Niger, Senegal and South Africa.For Indian isolates: Phaseolus vulgaris 'Topcrop' produces necrotic lesions or veinal necrosis; Canavalia ensiformis produces necrotic or chlorotic patches or symptomless infection, depending on isolate. For West African isolates: Chenopodium amaranticolor produces concentric ring spots and line pattern extending along the veins. The virus occurs in several serologically distinct isolates. Five isolates have been reported for Indian PCV and two isolates for West African PCV. Thus serology may not be useful for detection unless antisera specific to each isolate could be obtained. However, complementary DNA probes prepared for one of the Indian isolates detected all five Indian isolates and one West African isolate. Potyvirus group: flexuous rod shaped particles c. 750 nm; high concentration in plants (Bock & Kuhn, 1975;Bock, 1983).Infects naturally groundnut, wild groundnut (Arachis chacoense), common bean, cowpea, lupins (Lupinus angustifolius and L. albus), mungbean (Vigna radiata), pea, soybean, and forage legumes such as subterranean clover and arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum). Twenty-seven legumes (among which are several important legume crops) and 4 non-legumes have been reported as experimental hosts.In groundnut mild mottle on youngest leaflets; older leaflets show upward curling of edges, interveinal depression and mild mottling. Some genotypes may not show upward curling of leaf edges. Can reduce yield of pods up to 40%.By aphids in the non-persistent manner; Aphis craccivora appears to be the principal vector. Seed transmission frequency: 0-8.5% (Adams & Kuhn, 1977) or 20% (Bock, 1973) to less than 1% in the majority of groundnut cultivars (Bharathan et al., 1984).Less than 1% found in one cowpea plant introduction (Demski et al., 1983a) and in Lupinus albus (Demski et al., 1983b). Low percentage in seeds of navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) (Behncken & McCarthy, 1973).Worldwide.Phaseolus vulgaris 'Topcrop' produces reddish-brown local lesions: non-systemic. ELISA (Bharatan et al., 1984). Seeds of groundnut can be non-destructively tested in ELISA on thin slices from apical ends of seeds (in groups of 25).Mosaic and mottle, of ten associated with leaf deformation.Transmitted by several species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) in a circulative manner.In North America, the bean and cowpea strains are transmitted by Cerotoma trifurcata and Epilachna varivestis; in Africa, the main vector is Ootheca mutabilis. Possibly transmission through contact. Seed-transmitted in cowpea (1-40%: Shepherd & Fulton, 1962;Lamptey & Hamilton, 1974;Givord, 1981;O'Hair et al., 1981) and common bean (l-30%: Jayasinghe, 1982;Morales & Castano, 1985);probably in seed coat only (McDonald & Hamilton, 1972). Seed transmission in cowpea is enhanced by simultaneous infection with cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (Kuhn & Dawson, 1973).Warm, temperate and tropical regions of the Americas, India and Africa. May occur in other regions as a consequence of importing infected seed.Phaseolus vulgaris 'Pinto' and 'Top Crop' and Vigna unguiculata 'Clay' are useful local lesion hosts for bean and cowpea isolates, respectively. The high concentration of virus in sap allows reliable detection using serological methods (immunodiffusion and ELISA).infection with the cowpea strain of southern bean mosaic virus. Plant Dis. Potyvirus group; flexuous, filamentous particles, c. 750 nm; moderate concentration in soybean; readily transmitted in sap (Bos, 1972;Irwin & Schultz, 1981).Occurs in soybean; recently found in Vicia faba in China (Xu et al., 1986) and in white lupin (Vroon et al., 1988). Experimentally transmissible to only a few other legume crop species and some other test species such as Chenopodium spp. Certain isolates are transmissible to Nicotiana benthamiana (Rossel, unpublished).Generally mild, and consisting of characteristic leaf rolling, mottle and rugose symptoms. Severe mosaic and distortion with some isolates. Only a few genotypes possess high levels of resistance and, in most cases, only to a number of isolates (Cho & Goodman, 1979).By several aphid species in the non-persistent manner. High rates of seed transmission observed in soybean greatly depending upon cultivar (Bowers & Goodman, 1979;Goodman et al., 1979;Goodman & Oard, 1980) and 1.2% in one experiment with white lupin (Vroon et al., 1988).Occurs wherever soybean is grown.Not visually, since seed-coat mottling, though stimulated by infection by the virus, is not directly correlated with the presence of the virus in particular seeds (e.g. Ross, 1970). Serologically, in agar (SDS), but more reliably by ELISA. For testing of soybean seeds in ELISA in groups of 30 or more and the avoidance of false positives due to seedcoat infection, see Maury et al. (1985Maury et al. ( ,1987)).Cucumovirus group; isometric particles c. 28-30 nm; moderate concentration in plants; readily transmitted in sap (Boswell & Gibbs, 1983).Found naturally only in soybean. Experimentally infectious to 14 legumes (including Cassia tora, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, C. occidentalis, Dolichos lablab, Lupinus chamissonis, Medicago sativa, Vicia faba, Vigna infected.Phaseolus angularis, P. aureus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, sesquipedalis and V. sinensis); 15 of 24 non-leguminous species wereSoybean plants exhibit mottle, leaf crinkle and stunt; some varieties exhibit veinnecrosis on the leaf apex or margin and top necrosis.Found in nature only in Trifolium glomeratum and T. subterraneum. Medicago truncatula was infected systemically in experimental tests. Host range studies on this virus have been very limited.Severe stunting with leaf mottling, reddening and distortion in subterranean clover. Barrel medic plants develop a mosaic and are stunted. Dry matter production is reduced by 60-100% following infection.The virus spreads in nature and an aerial vector is implicated but it has not been identified. The virus was found serologically to be present in up to 10% of seeds of commercial seedlots of subterranean clover and in up to 3% of seedlings obtained from such seed lots (Francki et al., 1988).Recorded in all southern states of Australia where subterranean clover is grown. Incidence in pastures sometimes exceeds 50%. The virus may be endemic to Australia (Francki et al., 1988). Ilarvirus group; isometric particles, 27-35 nm; readily transmitted by manual inoculation (Fulton, 1985).Affects soybean (Costa and Carvalho, 1961), cowpea (Kaiser et al., 1982) and common bean, in which it causes red node disease (Thomas & Zaumeyer, 1960;Greber, 1971). Also reported from pea (Patino & Zaumeyer, 1959) and some clovers. Causes disease in a wide range of 'non-legume crops.Bud blight on soybeans in Brazil and the USA. Early infection may lead to complete yield loss. Irregular chlorotic spots on leaves which later may be dwarfed in appearence.Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis and Thrips tabaci) have been reported as vectors. High rates of seed transmission reported for soybean (2.6-30% depending upon cultivar: Ghanekar & Schwenk, 1974;up to 90%: Kaiser et al., 1982), less than 1% in cowpea (Kaiser et al., 1982) and up to 26% in common bean (Thomas & Graham, 1951). Also transmitted in seed of Melilotus albus (Kaiser et al., 1982) and of several non-legumes.Australia, Europe, Japan, North and South America (Fagbenle & Ford, 1970) and New Zealand.Serologically in agar and by ELISA.   Most of the pathogens listed in Table 3 are carried internally and externally on the seed. They may also be carried with the seed in contaminated dust, crop debris or soil. The latter method is probably one of the means by which Pseudomonas solanacearum is disseminated, but the frequency of transmission is likely to be extremely low and its importance is uncertain. For the majority of the pathogens, seed-borne inoculum is of major importance to their survival and dissemination.of this, laboratory seed tests are Levels of bacterial infection in seed stocks are often low and range from < 0.01% to 1% (1% is considered a high level for a bacterial disease). The transmission from seed to seedling is also relatively inefficient (about 1 out of 10). It follows that very large amounts of seed would be necessary to detect infection by growing-on tests. Moreover, in the glasshouse, conditions may be unfavourable for disease expression and infected plants may remain symptomless. Because preferred. These methods involve extraction of bacteria from seed by soaking or macerating The bacteria are theneither isolated on agar medium, with or without selective agents, or detected by indirect serological methods; immunofluorescence (IF) or enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA). The agar isolation procedure has some advantages: it is potentially highly sensitive (10 2 bacterial cells per ml seed extract) and it may be linked to a variety of identification techniques such as cultural and biochemical tests, bacteriophage, serology (agglutination, gel diffusion, IF, ELISA) and host inoculation (leaves, pods, stems).Many of the detection methods have recently been assembled (Saettler et al., 1989) and general identification techniques suitable for all the pathogens mentioned are given by Lelliot & Stead (1987) and Schaad (1980). The currently available seed tests are particularly appropriate to the pathovars of Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas campestris. Serological methods may not distinguish between some of the pathovars, especially the pathovars of X. campestris. With considerable overlap in their host range there is some doubt as to their distinctness.Antibiotic seed treatments have shown some promise in reducing both internal and external seed infection (Taylor & Dudley, 1977;Taylor & Dye, 1976). However, disease control is not completely effective and antibiotics are not generally permitted on crops destined for food. Treatment of seeds with short soaks (l-5 mins) or dips in sodium hypochlorite (l-2% available chlorine) will reduce both surface infection and contamination by infected dust or debris. The disease affects all above-ground parts (stems, leaves, pods and tendrils). Lesions, at first water-soaked, become brown and necrotic. Infected seeds may be shrivelled or show olive green patches, they may also be symptomless.Widespread (Anonymous, 1971).Lathyrus spp., Pisum sativum. Isolates of the pathovar are categorised into at least 6 races on the basis of the reactions of a range of differential pea cultivars (Taylor et al., 1989).Seed transmitted externally or internally in Pisum sativum (Skoric, 1927;Sutton & Katznelson, 1953;Close, 1966;Watson & Dye, 1971).Systemic infection of the vascular system causes wilting as the main symptom, with or without browning of vascular tissues, bacterial exudate from cut vessels, stunting and chlorosis of plants.Widespread mainly within latitudes 40° N & S (Anonymous, 1977).Very wide host range mainly non-legumes but including important legumes such as hypogaea, Glycine max, Lablab purpureus, Medicago sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Vicia faba, Vigna radiata and V. unguiculata.Occasionally seed-borne in soybean (Muras, 1964) and in groundnut (Palm, 1922).Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Greece, Hungary, Mexico, Rumania, Tunisia, Turkey, USA, USSR, Yugoslavia. (Anonymous, 1987).Lablab purpureus, Phaseolus coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Vigna angularis, V. unguiculata, Zornia spp. (cover crops), and possibly in Glycine max (Bradbury, 1986). All members of the Leguminosae.Seed transmitted externally or internally in Phaseolus vulgaris and possibly in Glycine max (Leonard, 1924;Burkholder, 1926;Dunleavy, 1962). The pathogen can survive from 5-24 years in seed (Schuster & Coyne, 1974).Cause Septoria glycines Hemmi.Irregular dark-brown spots on leaves, stem, branches, petioles and pods. Leaves turn yellow and drop.Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, USSR and Yugoslavia.Not known.Infected seeds (mycelium in seed coat), leaves and plant debris are the sources of primary inoculum. The lesions produced on young plants act as secondary sources when the weather is warm and wet and the inoculum is distributed by wind and rain splashes. Dry weather is inhibitory (Sinclair & Backman, 1989).Although no standard testing method has been established, the fungus can be detected by plating seeds on wet blotters and incubating under light (12 hours daily) for 7 days.Cause Peronospora manshurica (Naum.) Syd.There are 32 known races (Sinclair & Backman, 1989).Pale green to pale yellow spots on the upper leaf surface, turning brown to dark brown with yellow margins. On lower surface grey to purple-coloured conidiophores in moist weather. Symptoms may not appear on pods, which may contain white mycelium on seeds. Infected seeds are small and encrusted with mycelium and oospores.Widespread (Anonymous, 1979).Not known.Systemically transmitted to seedlings (Novakova & Pfeiferova, 1964). Infected seeds and plant found on debris are seed, and the primary sources of inoculum. mycelium in the seed coat.Examination of seed washings (Hansen & Mathur, 1987). Seed treatment is only partly effective.evidence that peanut rust is seed transmitted. However, rust spores present on the seed surface or in packing material may become a source of primary infection if released during handling.Avoid movement of pods. Packing material should be carefully inspected for the presence of urediniospores upon arrival and a washing test performed (examination of seed washings).Seeds should be treated with appropriate fungicide (Varma & McDonald, 1984).","tokenCount":"5803"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fbf79ec8426097ec71248daf3d86b02b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9bbe5fa4-e323-4886-a71b-241c0cf05f5c/retrieve","id":"330010707"},"keywords":["Project planning","participatory M&E","community empowerment","scaling up","mainstreaming"],"sieverID":"f0639bd8-a7ed-44ee-855d-2703615ad64c","pagecount":"6","content":"While the monitoring structures of both the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) and the Local Government Units (LGUs) are formal and implemented by salaried government staff and officials, BPMET members are volunteers. They are identified at the beginning of a specific project, usually during a barangay meeting, when the concept of participatory M&E is introduced and discussed. Roles and functions are explained and those prepared to take on this responsibility take an oath in front of the community to faithfully carry out their responsibilities.Those involved are then introduced to contractors and workers during the pre-bid and pre-construction conference. Some barangays passed resolutions recognizing the BPMETs and this proved important when contractors and workers were not prepared to accept their involvement. While BPMETs were specifically organised to monitor CHARM projects, they were directly responsible to the community and peoples' organisations and not to the project.BPMET members were trained in project M&E systems and procedures. This included the steps for determining roles and functions during the different stages of a project; enumerating the steps involved in the M&E process of CHARM2 and related projects; understanding M&E reporting and feedback systems;M onitoring projects is one of the most difficult and sensitive aspects of development interventions. Especially in remote areas where access is difficult, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is sometimes taken for granted, leading to poor project implementation. This difficulty is often compounded by the limited manpower and financial resources of implementing agencies, and the fact that the deference of local cultures to those in authority can lead to passivity and acceptance.The Second Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resource Management Project (CHARM2) established different Barangay Participatory Monitory and Evaluation Teams (BPMETs) composed of groups of local community volunteers whose roles and responsibilities were recognised by the barangay itself. Their task was to monitor and evaluate CHARM's impact. The BPMETs were asked to monitor all project activities and provide the project administration and implementing units with information. This is particularly important because partner organisations and the Local Government Units (LGU) often lack the manpower to carry out these tasks, especially in far-flung areas. The BPMETs also showed how implementation problems could be recognised and reported as quickly as possible to the proper authorities, and thus encourage solutions.A participatory monitoring and evaluation process was successfully applied as part of the Second Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resource Management Project, CHARM2. This is a special project implemented by the Philippines Department of Agriculture and is the second phase of the 1998-2004 CHARM1 project. This case study explores the work of the Barangay Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation Teams (BPMETs) in the 35 administrative divisions or barangays covered by CHARM2 in the province of Benguet. It shows how the information generated by the BPMETs has had an impact on policy making processes, and how the support provided for community empowerment initiatives continues to have a positive effect.Cover Members of a BPMET are presented and their roles and responsibilities are explained to contractors of rural infrastructure projects in the field. This helps all stakeholders share their concerns about the project, and then minimise conflicts during the monitoring activities of the BPMET understanding the different project monitoring tools and techniques; practicing writing monitoring reports; getting hands-on experience in the M&E of an ongoing project and following up on agreed actions. Subsequently, continuous capacity building included conducting provincial and regional forums to share experiences and learn from other BPMETs.The unpublished guidebook, \"Participatory M&E: Experience from CHARM communities\", explains that the foremost role of the BPMETs is to monitor the implementation of a project. BPMETs do this as an independent body and as representatives of the community vis-à-vis the implementing, oversight and funding agencies. BPMET activities are not limited to the CHARM funded subprojects, but also involve other projects implemented in the barangays and funded by the local government units, the barangays themselves and other agencies. The BPMETs claim that it is part of their function, their right and responsibility to monitor projects implemented in the barangays as they themselves are also beneficiaries and end users.Monitoring schedules vary between teams. Some BPMETs have a fixed monitoring schedule, for example, in reforestation, agroforestry and livelihood projects, which are monitored four times per project cycle; while in infrastructure projects this has been limited to three times. Teams work before, during and after project implementation. Some visit implementation sites when materials such as aggregates used in construction projects are delivered. Others monitor ongoing projects daily, alternating members as necessary.The BPMETs must also regularly prepare and submit monitoring reports. In addition to verbal reports, written reports are prepared after every major activity. Their frequency depends on the urgency of the action required. Reports are prepared and submitted to the offices and agencies concerned, such as the Municipal Planning and Development Office, the Municipal Engineering Office and the CHARM2 office. BPMETs also prepare and deliver reports to the Municipal Management Group (MMG), which is the implementing and management arm of the project at a municipal level. Authorised officials and project staff validate the reports in the field. Recommendations need to be regularly monitored to see if they are being implemented. However, it appears that this particular function is not yet recognised by BPMETs as being a part of their activities.BPMET members can experience physical and financial problems when monitoring activities.Above right BPMET members have helped make their communities more aware of the projects' intentions and results only be reached by means of footpaths and this entails walking for many hours. The most difficult projects to monitor are communal irrigation and domestic water systems projects. These require BPMET members to visit water sources that are usually many kilometres away from the community.Monitoring also involves personal hazards. Personal safety was particularly at risk when BPMET services were required during the typhoon season. During the training sessions, each BPMET participant was provided with monitoring and measuring tools, flashlights, record books and pens. However, protective clothing such as raincoats and rain boots were not available. Female team members had difficulties with the heavy loads they had to carry when hiking to reforestation sites, for example, to count the number of trees. BPMET members also felt that LGUs should provide more information regarding the project being monitored.BPMETs have frequently had to deal with the negative reactions of infrastructure project contractors and workers to their M&E conclusions. In many cases, this led to misunderstandings and strained relationships within the community. Some members said they had been threatened for carrying out their duties. There were also cases of BPMETs having problems in carrying out their work because a contractor was related to an executive official. They recognise that it is important to be patient when explaining their roles and functions to contractors and workers, and observed that these become reasonable once things are explained to them. Also, meetings between different stakeholders conducted at the barangay or on site help to overcome differences, misunderstandings and confusions.BPMET members emphasised the need for an identity card (ID) which they can show when carrying out monitoring activities. Unfortunately, some BPMETs were not issued with IDs because there were not enough resources or time. In some cases, The lack of sufficient logistical support and the impact on their personal relations with the community and other stakeholders affected by the monitoring process is often difficult to deal with.Personal difficulties include the time spent away from their regular livelihood activities and the loss of income when they are monitoring activities or attending meetings, trainings and other activities organised by the project. No monetary compensation is provided by the project or the LGUs. When asked about their difficulties, BPMET members stressed the need for financial resources and, if possible, a sweldo (salary). Other issues identified by both male and female respondents included the difficulty in reaching remote project sites. Like all areas in the Cordillera Region, project areas in Benguet are characterised by steep and high mountains. Some communities canOne of the projects described in the final report was one from Banengbeng Sablan, involving a farm-tomarket infrastructure project in Sitio Oring, where the BPMET monitoring report showed that the quality of concrete mix being used was inappropriate for the situation. On the basis of this information, the LGU took immediate action and the situation was corrected.BPMETs have also been involved in the implementation of livelihood projects. In a swineraising project in Pacso, Kabayan, for example, the results of their monitoring work led to each member having a pig pen to raise pigs and that pig wastes were disposed properly. In other areas, BPMETs have ensured that reforestation areas were protected against burning and that replanting was strictly implemented.shirts with a simple \"BPMET\" logo were given out during trainings sessions and became a cheap identification substitute.Another concern has been that BPMET members who were directly involved in the implementation of a project could sometimes find themselves in conflict of interest situations. This has been seen in barangays where only a few households were able to implement sub-projects. BPMETs have solved this problem by working as a team to create specific policies and arrangements. One team, for example, excluded a BPMET member from monitoring a project in which she was directly involved. Some teams, however, felt that the involvement of direct beneficiaries could improve sub-project implementation. One of the most common examples cited was when BPMET members themselves worked as labourers on infrastructure projects and could ensure that the project was running according to plan.BPMET respondents identified the need for resources and support. These included awareness training courses for LGUs and government agencies, as well as communication and documentation equipment (such as cell phones, cameras with GPS capabilities and general office supplies). They also felt that provisions should be made to cover personal accidents and life insurance given the risks associated with their work. Further, they also suggested \"baon\" or food costs.One of the main achievement of the CHARM project has been the formation of BPMETs in the 170 target barangays, and their subsequent training in participatory M&E processes. In total, there have been 884 men and 582 women involved in these BPMETs. CHARM2's preliminary Project Completion Report recognises how BPMETs contribute to standardizing the implementation of sub-projects and increase the chances of sustainability. The report also highlights how BPMETs have been integrated into the formal monitoring team of the municipal LGU, not only for CHARM2 but also for other projects. The report shows that all sub-projects in the barangays (from infrastructure to agroforestry and reforestation) benefited from the BPMETs' work. The preliminary Functionality Assessment Index of Rural Infrastructure Projects on the physical and financial results of CHARM2 concluded that BPMETs involvement led to project outcomes that were better than expected, especially where sustainability was concerned.It is also said that barangay officials have become more active and that the unethical diversion of public funds is minimised. At the same time, rural infrastructure projects are being completed more quickly. A good example of this enhanced performance can be seen in the Benguet LGUs, where the 100% completion of 122 infrastructure sub-projects in the 35 barangays has been achieved. Of these 122 sub-projects, 35% were implemented on time and 17% were finished earlier than scheduled. Where delays occurred they were shorter than had previously been experienced.During the monitoring process, BPMETs also made their communities more aware of barangay activities and projects. They gave instructions about how projects should be maintained, and the fact that they were being monitored stimulated community members to improve implementation practices. More in-depth studies are need to establish the links between participatory M&E and the better implementation and sustainability of projects. The general conclusion, however, is that there is a very positive relation.One of the main achievements of the CHARM project has been the formation of BPMETs in the 170 target barangays, and their subsequent training in participatory M&E processes.Most of the BPMETs now monitor projects other than CHARM2. However, BPMET has still not been adopted in LGUs outside the CHARM2 area. Almost all respondents recommended that BPMET becomes a permanent structure in the barangay. This would ensure the transparent and continued monitoring of projects, as well as an effective and sustainable implementation. There would also be fewer \"shady deals\" between LGUs and contractors.The LGUs also recommend that BPMET becomes a permanent modality in the barangays. They acknowledge that LGUs do not have enough staff to conduct frequent monitoring activities. One LGU respondent recommended passing a municipal ordinance with provisions relating to the safety and insurance of BPMET members. Communities also see BPMET as representing them in the monitoring of projects being implemented in their barangays.Yet there are many challenges to mainstreaming BPMETs. One of them is the need to provide incentives. Volunteers have to invest considerable time and effort in these activities, and there are risks involved. Most LGUs do not have the budget to provide for incentives or honoraria for BPMETs. Establishing BPMETs in areas not covered by projects like CHARM2 -which has specific funds for establishing and training BPMETs -will be difficult for LGUs given budget shortages.LGUs also recognise the costs involved in the training.But an important facilitating factor is the strong encouragement and support for BPMET activities expressed by communities and LGUs themselves. Being based in the barangay is the best facilitating factor for mainstreaming. BPMETs consist of community members willing to volunteer and even provide the equipment and tools needed for monitoring activities themselves. Community members volunteer because they are committed to the development of their barangay and want to help ensure that all projects are well implemented. Opportunities for learning and personal development, becoming well-known and gaining a reputation in their communities, are also motives that sometimes stimulates volunteers.","tokenCount":"2269"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9bb10cf5878479ebd20be91d84f39f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6f5f251e-0e11-493a-9e50-1b5ee3095ab2/retrieve","id":"-43499428"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"078e5f2f-62bb-4276-8912-c24b361852d8","pagecount":"40","content":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is Ihe mas! important crop in Ihe hill farming system in Nepal. It plays an important role in the livelíhood of the people living in lbe Mis. The hilIy area of the Palpa, Gulmi, and Arghakhanchi districts eXlending lowards Pyuthan and further weSI has a unique geophysical environmenl, which is different from other maize-growing areas in Nepal. Farroers in Ihis area not only have poor aecess lo agricultural inputs, including improved genetic materials, bUI the improved varieties tested so far do not exactly match Ihe unique growing condilions .nd the needs of farmers in the area. Therefore, Ihe major proportion of maize in the Palpa, Gulmí, and Arghakhanchi districts is domínated by local variolies. Several f.cton; are responsible for low productívity and for other associated problems of maíz. production in Ihe area. lnitia!ly researchers perceived low yields assocíated with inferior local vanetíes as lhe main constrainl in maize produclion for lbe area. Based on pasl expenence and success in upgrading the productivity of local landraces through lbe introductíon of high-yielding varieties and subsequenl seed selechon, a breedíng program was formulaled in order lO address Ihe problem. The inít.al objective of the program was to increase fanners' access to new, improved genetic materials and provide them with trainíng on mass seleelion. However, a dífferenl seenario emerged during lhe site-selecrian survey and lhe process of settiog research goals. Farroers reported lhal maíze productíon in lhe area was aff.cled maínly by lodging problerns, Farmers in Ihe area have deveJoped and maínlaíned a variety called Thulo pínyalo Ihal produces good yields and a1so meets theirfodder requiremenls. However, the variety is prone lO severe lodgíng, resulting in yield losses of 15% lo 85%. Farrners lherefore strongly suggesled tha! ralher lban introducing new varieties, their local varieties be improved 10 address Ihe problem. In Ihis way, Ihe breeding program changed trom increasing grain yield to reducing lodging in Ihe target envíronrnenl. Thís paper discusses how farmers set their own breedíng goals and Ihe implícalions for methodological approaches ro participatory plan! breeding.Maize (Zea mays L.) is the second most importan! crop after rice in Nepal. It is grown largely on ban land (rainfed upland cornmonly associated with farm forestry) during summer and usually rotated with millet or beans. Maize is also grown as the sole crop at lower altitudes (below 1000 m) and at higher altitudes (above 1600 m). It is also grown in khet land (bunded land where at least one crop of puddled rice is cultivated) at altitudes below 1000 m during the spring season. Maize cultivation occupies nearly 0.8 million hectares (almost 30% of the total cultivated area), and 80% of this is under terraced hill fanning, producing over 1.3 millíon tones/annum (MoA 1995).The productivíty ofmaize is quite low (about 1.7 tonneslhectare), which is reflected by a high incidence offood-deficit households in the hills ofNepal. A number of factors appear to be involved in M, Subedi is a prograrnme officer (plant breeder), P.K. Shrestha is a programme officer (socioeconomist), S. Sunwar is an asst, plant the low productivity ofmaize in the middle hílls ofNepal. These ínclude raínfed farming with uncertain rainfall, poor access to chemical fertilizers and declining application of organic manure, and lack ofvarietal options and access to improved genetic malerials suitable lo local conditions.ln areas where improved maize varieties have been introduced, farmers tend lo grow the same seed for a number of years without replacing it or without practicing standard seed-selection procedures. As a result, these varieties generally deteriorate rapidly due to genetic contamination with poorer heterogeneous landraces aml/or due lo unconscious selection for negative traits, as farmers generally use either grain for seed or seleet harvested cob for the seed. Practice ofselecting standing plants for the seed is rarely seen among the farmers.From the point ofview ofvarietal improvement, the problem ofmaize production in the hilly areas ofNepal is therefore threefold. First, farmers' access to new, improved germplasm is highly limited; second, the recommended varieties do no! mee! the multiple varielal needs of local farmers; and third, varietal deterioration occurs over time in the farmers' fields. To address these problems, Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BlRO) is currently researching a farmer-Ied participatory plant-breeding (PPB) exercise in maize in the Gulmi district ofthe westem hills ofNepal.The maize-growing envirornnent of Gulmi has a unique geophysical envirornnent and represents the large hi1ly areas of the Palpa, GuImi, and Arghakhanchi districts extending towards Pyuthan and further west. The maize is grown in outward sloped terraces of bari land under raínfed conditions, with minimal external inputs (seeds, fertilizers, and plant-protection measures). Farmers in the area have poor access lO agricultural inpuIs, including improved genetic materials (Kadayat et al. 1998;Sthapit el al. 1997). Moreover, access 10 new sources of maize germplasm-thal closely matches farmer-preferred traits-in the traditional seed-supply system is limited. A survey ofpreferred trails carried out in 16 villages in the Gulmi district revealed that grain and fodder yield, aato (grit) recovery, taste in various cuisines, graín color, resistance to lodging, and time ofmaturity are the most cornmonly cited preferred traíts (Subedi and Shrestha, Unpublished; Kadayat et al. 1998). As a result, the major proportion of the maize area in the Palpa, Gulmi, and Arghakhanchi districts is planted to local varieties. The local varieties are the products of continuous seed selection carried out by farmers, consciously or unconsciously, over many generations and are well adapted to the local envirornnents and meet furmers' multiple needs. However, these varieties have a number of undesirable traits that require urgent attention in order lo ensure food security in the regíon.LI-BIRO carried out a study to analyze the situation in the Gulmi and Arghakhanchi districts lo develop a future strategy for agriculture. Maíze was the most important crop; however, average productivity was reported to be low: below 1.5 tfha in both districts (Kadayat et al. 1998;Sthapit et al. 1997). This may be partly due lO a low supply of inputs in these districts, as the improved seed sold by Ale during 1996/97 was 1.22 mt in Gulmi and 0.91 mI in Arghakhanchi (Kadayat et al. 1998;   Sthapit et al. 1997). Researchers concluded that the low maíze 'yields were due to poor access to new, improved genetic materials and deterioration offarmers' maintained variety because ofpoor seed-management practices (figure 1). In such a situation, providing farmers with improved maize varieties and seed-selection skills appeared to be a practical and sustainable solution. As a resuIl, helping farmers improve local maize varieties for yield-related traits became the goal of the programo However, A different scenario emerged duríng the selectíon survey for lhe research site and in research-planning discussions wilh farmers at lhe research sites. Farmers felt lhat poor production performañce was associated wilh the lodging of maize plants ralher than yield traits, lhemselves, in most commonly grown local maize varíeties.An extensive reconnaissance survey was conducted in large areas of the Palpa, Gulmí, and Arghakhanchi distrícts during the process of selecting research sites for the project A rapid survey of28 villages was done, and farmers were consulted to verify the research problems in maize production and determine lhe suítability of these villages for implementation ofthe research programo Potential sites were screened and narrowed down to síx villages. Particípatory rural appraisal (PRA) and field observations were done by a multidisciplinary team in lhese villages. Discussions were held in the farming cornmunities during the site-selection process in order to colleet information about lhe geophysical condition ofthe area, socioeconomíc situation ofthe farming cornmunities, and farmers' interest ín ｾ ＠ lhe proposed programo Problems were discussed with farmers in greater length during lhe survey. Preferred-trait analysis was done during the PRA to verify the researchable problems. Major traits of interest and problems associated with the preferred traits were identified in the process.Varietal performance for the trait of interest was díscussed wilh farmers duríng lhe site-selectíon survey in order to understand farmers' needs and varíetal strengths and weaknesses in relation to a particular trait. Thís exercise was important in order to develop a breeding program based on needs and problems. In this process, ínformatíon on lhe desirable and undesirable characteristics ofbolh local and reeornmended ímproved varietíes was colleeted.Farmers were found to grow a number ofvarietíes (viz. Thulo pinyalo, Thulo seto, Sano pinyalo, Sano seto, Amrikane, Kaude, Rato dhanthe, Thorgeli pinyalo) to suit their growing environment and to meet theír household needs. Thulo pinyalo is the mosl popular variety ofthe region and occupies as rnuch as 80% ofthe maize area in sorne villages. Farmers liked rnost ofits traits. This variety has good taste in all recipes, good grain and fodder yield, the biomass (both green and dried) is very rnuch líked by the livestock, and it is easy to sel! and barter because it has bold, fiint grain with an attractive grain color. However, farmers had lodging problems with this variety, leading to as much as 85% production 1055 in the worst season (table 1). Lodging problerns are equally high in other local varieties (viz. Thulo seto and Amrikane); however, the arca under these varieties is very low. It was reported that the low production of Thulo pinyalo has more significant implications for the food security ofthe region than any other variety. So, the lodging in Thulo pinyalo was considered a major problem.Resistance to lodging frorn thick stalks and strong, stout plants has been perceived by the farmers of the surveyed villages as the rnost desired characteristic in a recommended improved variety (table          2). The least desired characteristics were a relatively low grain and fodder yield compared to that of large local varieties, followed by inferior taste. Low fodder yields have been found to be associated with the low height of improved maize varieties, compared to local varieties. Farmers of Banjha reported lhat al! fue improved varieties under cultivation in the village were introduced nearly six years before, and now there is no difference between local and ímproved, due to heavy and récurren! cross-fertilization with local varieties.F armers of the surveyed villages reported that high-yield potential and resistant to lodging were the most preferred traits for maíze, followed by good taste and high stover yield (table 3). Farmers perceived that graín yield is closely associated wíth the extent of lodging; they felt that these two parameters are highly interrelated and essentially synonymous. Farmers ofDarbar-Devisthan reported that lodging problems are due to tall plant height, and therefore, they perceived relatively shorter plant height as one of the mos! preferred traits to be considered in the maize improvement programo Revisiting farmers 10 discuss maize-production problems in the targeted area and to verify research hypotheses with farmers revealed that causal relationships in poor maize performance were no! properly established. Earlíer, a new research hypothesis surfaced, which explained Ihat the poor               performance of maize in the area is not due to yield traits but to lodging tendencies, and this, in turno leads to poor production (figure 2).In light ofthe new research hypothesis that emerged during the site-selection survey, a one-day village workshop was organized with the farmers at each research site selected for the implementatíon of the program. Farmers at the research siles opined that the local variety Thulo pinyalo has good yield and meets their requirements. They strongly suggested improvíng Thulo pinyalo for lodging resístance rather than just introducing new varieties. The underlying causes of lodging in Thulo • The very tall plant stature ofthis variety is the main reason for lodging. Farmers reported it having as high as 27 ¡eaves in one plant. In field observations, the plant height of Thulo pinyalo was found to be as high as 5.1 meters. Ear height has been found lo be more than two meters under good growth conditions. The weight of the tassel and eob al such a height contributes to the extensive lodging of the thin-stalked Thulo pinyalo, even under mild wind pressure.• Thulo pinyalo artains luxurious grov.ih in fertile land, which is one ofthe reasons for lodging.• Disease and insects attack the stem.• The lodging is greater after prolonged rainfall foIlowed by winds. Aceording lo farmers, they faee substantíal yield reductíons even with mild winds, as very weak plants lodge under such conditions and fall on other, nonlodging plants. This phenomenon oecurs in cycles and can affeet large areas.• The plants are more prone lO lodging during the lasselíng stage because of Ihe increased weighl al the top of the plant.• Yield is inversely related lo lodging. Yield los ses due to lodgíng in this variety are as high as 85% in the worst season. Thulo pinyalo produces more grain than high-yielding varieties (HYV s) in a normal season and less if there is a Jot of rain and wind.• Lodging is greater in wet areas al lower e1evations than in flat areas at the lop of the hills.• Lodging does not QCcur every year. However, there is no distinct partero. High winds during tasseling contribute to severity of the problem.Several possible options were discussed with the farmers lO achieve the goal. The options that could be implemented within Ihe project framework and which farmers considered possible lo imple-ment, considering their resources (time), knowlcdge, and skills, were chosen by the farmers' group. There were mainly three types of activities: a mass-selection program, a crossing program, and a participatory variety selection (PVS) programoThe involvement of farmers in analysis of researchable problems helped change the researchers' perceptions ofthe problem (table 4) and redefine the goal oflhe maize-improvement programo The redefinirion ofthe breeding goals ofthe maize-improvement program provided guidelines for refining the research process !hat had been proposed initially. A multiple approach (mass selection, crossing, screening of improved/pipeline varieties, and PVS) was taken to address the problems, some of which had not been considered before, F armers liked the mass-selection technique because they perceived it as a simple method and as a possible option to improve specific traits, keeping the desirable traits ofthe variety intact. The crossing program was chosen in consideration ofthe slow genetíc gain in fue mass-selection method, partícularly in farmers' fields, Considering the long gestation period ofthe variety-improvement program, which may delay the delivery ofbenefits to the farmers, the variety-selection program was planned. This would provide farmers with access to new, improved genetic materials to test in ruverse farming situations,A farmers' research committee was formed at each site in order lo empower farmers and to ensure farmers' leadership in the project. It was decided that the committee would be equally responsible for the planning, implementation, and mO!litoring ofproject activities. The committee works as an interface between farmers and researchers. It is expected that involving farmers in the planning and  implementatíon process will help in capacity building and increase ¡he farmers' sense of ownership in the programo Farmers are very supportive and cooperative in the project area. However, in some technical matters farmers' had different perceptions and altitudes, which changed along with the time. For exampie, farmers perceived that plants with short height could not produce good yields, that detasseling leads to total sterility in maíze, etc. In the beginning, Ihis made it difficult for researchers to facilitate some oflhe field activities, such as crossíng, demonstrating short-statured varietíes, etc. Later, the farmers found thal their perceptions were not correct, and their faith in the researchers increased, leading to better understanding, cooperation, and collaboratíon. Some farmers who were no! positive about the program in the begirming are the strongest members ofthe team now.Involvement offarmers in the plarming process resulted in the development of more specific breeding objectives, which were more focused on the farmers' perceíved needs. It has helped to refine the context and process of the participatory plant-breedíng program and has gíven farmers a leading role in the decision-makíng process. In eastem India, rainfed rice represents a major component in thediet and income,of.millions of resource-poor people. In these harsh environments, the rate of adoption of modem rice varieties is Iow. Subsístence agriculture ís stilI quite important, although market integration is slowly progressing (Pingali 1997). In these transition systems, grain quality and taste strongly ínfluence the adoplion of modem vaneties. The maín source of vanation in grain qualíty ís the vanety, although envíronment and genotype-x-environment interactíons also affect grain quality. Different grain types, and therefore dífferent vaneties, are needed for self-consumptíon, market sale, and vanous preparatiollS or to pay wages in kínd. For plain rice, precooking practíces influence the vanetal choíces. Among the most common is parboíling, which is an age-old practíce in sorne regions of eastem India, where rice ís partly cooked before being air-dried and then sun-dried to improve íts nutritíonal, cookíng, and storage attributes, Preferences may vary across income levels, various social groups requiring vanous vaneties.Qualíty tests for breeding lines are routinely conducted by scientists in the laboratory. In the frame of a partícipatory plant-breeding project with methodologícal objectives started in ¡ 997 under the collaborative program wíth the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Internatíonal Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (Courtois et al. 1999), we developed a methodology to evaluate the grain quality ofrice vaneties in collaboration with fanners. To test the methodology, the Eva/tia/ion o{ Uplalld Rice Varieties-\"w\"'it!!.\".!-F:-\"'arcem\"'e;e:rs'--_______________ _ sensory evaluation of a set of upland rice varieties was organized in a village of eastem India. The objectives of this study were (l) lo document the process of rice preparation at the farm level for raw and parboiled rice, (2) to estimate the influence of the two modes of preparation on rice quality and identify the best varÍeties in each case, (3) to colleet informa1Íon about quality characteristics that determine varÍetal acceptability by female and male farmers, and (4) 10 relate the preferences with the physico-chemical properties of the varieties determined in laboratory.Fifieen modem upland rice varieties and a local check (Brown Gora, widely grown by upland farmers) were tested. The test was conducted in 1998 in the village ofthe Korahar dÍstrict ofHazaribagh, Bihar, India. These varieties had been prevÍously tested for their agronomic values in a participatory varietal tria! conducted in the same víllage (Courtois et al., submitted).Rawrice F or each variety, two kilos of sun-dried paddy of good quality were used. The paddy was dehulled and mílled using a dhenld, a big wooden bar moving up and down around an axis. The dhenld was operated by two women, one of them moving Ihe dhenld wÍIh her leg, the other shuffiíng the paddy grain afier every stroke of the dhenki. Al! Ihe varieties were dehulled and milled by Ihe same two persons under the same condítions. The times necessary for completion of dehulling and milling, and Ihe milling recovery (percentage of milled rice weight on rough rice weight) were recorded.The head rice recovery (unbroken grains) was not quantified but estimated visually (milled rice appearance ).Before cooking, one kilo of c1eaned rice was washed with water. Aluminum vessels called bhude/i were used to cook each variety separately. All bhude/i were ofthe same capacity. The women sug• gested using 3 liters of water to cook I kg of raw rice. The bhude/i wilh water was kept on the fire up to Ihe boiling point, when the washed rice was added. The cooking test was done by pressing the cooked rice between Ihumb and index finger. The same woman did the eooking test for all varie1Íes.The cooking time of each variety was recorded. The excess water was drained and Ihe cooked rice was displayed on a pattal (leaf mat) for sensory evaluation.As decided by the women, 2.5 kg of paddy were soaked in 3 liters of water in a tin container for 18 houis. A common belief is that the soaking of paddy should be done in the evening rather than during daytime, wilh the excess water drained in the moming, to avoid Ihe heat oflhe day. A temperature Ihat is too high would induce Ihe soaked paddy to ferment, leading to poor rice quality, high breakage, and bad odor (Bhattacharya 1985). The soaking ofpaddy in water startedat 4:00 p.m. and the water was drained al 10:00 am the next day. Afier decanting Ihe water, the soaked paddy was steamed on Ihe fire. During Ihe steamÍng process, the tin containing the soaked paddy was covered with a gunny bag to avoid loss ofheat. When Ihe husks of the paddy started cracking, Ihe container was taken off the fire. The steamed paddy was spread in the shade on a mud floor for drying. The paddy was dried in the shade for 48 hours wilh intermittent mixing. It was then exposed lo Ihe sun for complete drying. An indigenous technique was used to test the proper drying ofpaddy. Twenty lo 30 grains ofpaddy were dropped on a hard floor. The graíns were crushed underfoot by rotating Ihe heet If this removed Ihe grain husk, Ihe rice was considered to be well dried and ready for dehulling. For dehullíng and milling, 2 kg of c1eaned paddy were used and the same process as for raw rice was followed.More water is needed to cook parboiled rice than lo cook raw rice. The women suggested adding 7 liters ofwater to cook 1 kg ofparboiled rice. For the subsequent operations, the same process was followed as for raw rice.A protoco! for lhe practica! organization ofthe sensory evaluation was desígned following the recommendations of Arnerine, Pangborn, andRoessler (1965) andDel Mundo (1991) and adapting them to the realities of an eastern lndian village.Twenty-four farmers (12 women and 12 men) particípated in Ihe sensory evaluation, A hedonic scale was used. The farmers were asked lo indicate whetherthey líked (score 1) ordisliked(score O) the varieties for mílled grain appearance, cooked rice appearance, odor, color, texture (softlhard), stickiness, laste, and overall acceptability. The samples were numbered and randomized to límit the \"first-sample bias.\" The raw rice and parboiled rice were evaluated on different days to limil the teslers' fatigue.The tests were perforrned at the technology laboratory Gf the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, India, for raw rice and in N.D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Masodha, Faizabad, India, for parboiled rice, The parameters measured for raw rice were milling recovery, head rice recovery, grain length and width, alkali value, volurne-expansion ratio, kernel-elongation ratio, and amylase content. For parboiled rice, hulJing and milling recovery and grain shape were measured.Forrank comparison, Spearrnan's coefficient of correlatíon was used when only two rankings were compared. A Kendall coefficient of concordance was used, as described in Siegel (1956), when more than two rankers were involved. The mean comparisons were perforrned using a Student's t-test.No difference between the two modes ofpreparation was observed for mílling time (table 1). Raw rice took significantly less time to cook as compared to parboiled rice. Milling recoverywas significantly higher for parboíled rice in comparison to raw rice. There was no significant difference between farmers' practices and laboratory method for raw rice but recovery was higher with farrners' practices for parboiled rice. The lower coefficients of variation in the case of parboiled rice índicated a buffering effect ofparboiling across varieties for recovery, which explains why parboiling is considered an excellent means to recover poor-qualíty samples.The method of rice preparation had a great impact on the ranking ofthe rice varieties for aH traits, as shown by the nonsignificant and sometimes negative rank correlations between the two seis of Note: ** = signifieant at (be 1% leve1; ns ｾ ＠ flot significant seores (table 2). The preferred varieties in tenns of aeceptabilíty were RRI51-3, RR352-1, and RR354-1 for raw rice, and RR50-5, RR352-1, and RR354-1 for parboiled rice. For breeding purposes, it was interesting to identifY varieties that could perfonn well under both preparations. RR352-1 and RR354-1 scored quite well in this respect.The farmers were also asked to indicate the fOUT varieties they liked the mosl (high seore indiealed high preferenee) and the fOUT varieties they liked the least (this time high seores indicated high dislíke). By this means, only one variety, RR354-1 recorded a good seore for both raw and parboiled rice (table 3), being liked by 67% ofthe farmers as parboiled rice and 58% ofthe fanners as raw rice. RR151-3 and RR352-1 were apprecíated by the farmers as raw rice but not as parboíled rice.Inversely, RR2-6, RR I 66-645 , and RR265-1 were líked by the farmers as parboíled rice but not as raw rice.For raw riee as well as parboiled rice, the rank correlatíons among characteristícs scored by funners were very strong and posítive (table 4) except for stickiness, for which they were also positive but more seldom significant. This means that there is probably no need ID ask the fanners to seore aH these traits. The aeceptability or the choice of the three or four most preferred varieties should be enough to represent the group of traits. A simplification of the testing procedure an important in order to facilítate the integratíon of partícípatory approaches ín the fonual breeding system and tD sustaín fanners' participatíon. :.:. >:  Opinions of women and men fanners were similar, with significant to highly significant correlations between their rankings for milled rice appearance, cooked rice appearance, texture, color, and taste (table 5). The on1y traite for which their agreement was weaker was stickiness ami, to lower extent, odor. In terrns of overall acceptability, there was no difference in women and men farmers' opinions on the tested varieties nor in their final choices of the varieties they liked most and leasl.The ranks given by farmers for the various quality traits were compared with the ranks ofthe same varieties for the main chemical properties of raw rice measured in the laboratory: alkali value, volume expansion, amylase content, and eIongation ratio. Elongation ability was negatively correlated with stickiness r -0.55, significant at the 5% leve!) but that was the only significant case. In the samples tested, amylase conten! did not seem to have any link to farmers preferences for texture r = -0.14) or stiekiness r = 0.04).It is unexpected to see so few relationships between consumer preferences and measurable chemical properties, since these are standard parameters used by all chemistry laboratories. However, for the varieties inc1uded in the evaluation, the variability for sorne traits was limited and therefore consumers had difficulty assessing differences.There was little relationship between farmers' field ranking and grain quality for parboiled rice, as shown by the very low coefficients of correlation for rank and a negative one for the ranking based on yieJd (tabIe 6). The relationship was stronger and positive for raw rice. Thete was no particular reason why the rankings should be correlated, but a strong negative correlation would complicate the breeding work. These results confirm tha! participatory varietal selection should not stop afier harvest. Sinee a compromise might be necessary, at least for parboiled rice, the trade-offbetween eritena for agronomic performance and cooking quality applied by farmers has to be assessed.  Grain quality is an important selection criterion (Juliano and Villareal 1993), Sensory evaluation with farmers allows us to assess varietal preferences under conditions of food preparabon very close to that of the final consUmer. F or the set of varieties tested, men and women seemed to share the same opinions. The physico-chemical analysis <lid not indicate much power to predict the results of farmers' rankings, The methodology was satisfactory although quite costly in tenns of organizabon time. It is importan! to define whích of the two modes of preparation (raw rice or parboiling) is mos! prevalent in the target area, since they lead to different varietal cholees. A slmplification of the ranking system by reducing the number of ranked traits is possible,Maize is the firsl mos! important food crop in the hílls ofNepal in terms ofboth area and its eontribution to household food security. It occupies about 0.8 million hectares (about 35% ofthe total cultiva!ed area); 78% ofthis is in terraced hill fanning, which produces over 1.3 million lonnes per annurn (CBS 1999). The productivity of maize, however, is quite low (L 7 lonneslhectare) and, as a result, there lS high incidence offood-deficit households in the hills ofNepa!. One of the major contributing factors lo this low yield is the poor perfonnance of fanner-mamtained maíze varieties. Fanners' access to new seeds and varieties is extremely poor and, al the same time, a majority of farmers tend lO keep their own seed without replacing it for years. It ís estimated that nearly 90% of the total seed requirements for eereals and other food crops in the country is met by the traditional seed-supply system (Cromwell et al. 1993;Joshi 1995). Sinee maíze is an open-pollinated crop, even new varieties rapidly get contaminated with the undesired traits oflocal varieties. On the other hand, most of the new varieties developed so far neither fit well with local environments nor meet farmers' diverse needs. Therefore, it lS increasingly being realized that breeding must be carried out in the target envirournent with the full participation of farmers so that the users' perspective is well reflected in the new varieties developed. -The environments where maíze is produced in the hills ofNepal are very diverse in tenns oftopography, soil types, and use of production resources. There are also differences between fanners and fanning cornmunities in terrns of aecess to resources (Le., wealth) and food culture, whích is govemed largely by ethnicity. These dífferences exist no! only between wider agroecological zones bu! also between fanning famílies in the same víllage. F or these reasons, fanners require a large number of varietal options to fit into diverse production ni ches and to meet the varied consumption Various sources of ínformatíon have been used in lhe reporto These include focus-group discussions (FGDs) conducted during particípatory rural appraisals, particípatory gender analysis, and household baseline surveys undertaken at the Darwar Devísthan and Simichaur research sites at lhe inceptíon of the project. Separate FGD sessíons were held wilh different groups of furmers, categorized by gender, wealth, and ethnicity. Ihere were two categories under gender-male and female; three categories under wealth-rich, average, and poor; and three categories under ethnicíty-BrahminlChhetri/Jogi (BCJ), GurungIMagarlNewar (GMN), and KamiIDamai/Sarki (KDS). The categorízation of farming-household weallh was done by lhe farmers themselves, using their own perceptions and knowledge of wealth of lhese households. The ethnic categorization was done by researchers on the basis of sociocultural similarities.The participatory gender analysis involved lhe analysis of gender roles and decision-making pattems in lhe production and utilization system for maize. A sample of 30 selected households was facilítated in doing lheir own gender anaIysis by using a pictorial set of aman, woman, and child, and maize grains, to indicate their roles. Similarly, a detailed household baseline survey was conducted to colleet detailed and widely representative information, which al50 served as a major source of information for this reporto It involved a questionnaire survey of 100 households (40 at Darwar Devisthan and 60 at Simichaur) selected using a stratified random sampling technique.Users' perspectives in maize production and utilizationThe perspective of users in maize production and utilization was analyzed u5ing two socioeconomic variables: ethnicity and the weallh categories derived from participatory wealth ranking. The analysis of gender perspectives, on lhe other hand, utilized inforrnation from male-and female-headed sample households lhat were included in lhe household baseline survey. Ofthe total sample households surveyed, 19% were female headed. These are mostly de jacto household heads, Le., women have taken charge of managing the farm while men work off-farm away from home for several months, mostly in India.The characteristics of the heads of maize-growing households are presented in table l. The family members who make major farming deeisions are mature, with an average age of 50 yeara. Their literaey rate is much higher (81 %) compared to the nationalliteracy rate (39.6%). However, a majority ofthem (47%) are either barely literate or have a primary-Ievel school education. The family member making tbe main farming decisions is younger and more iIIiterate in the average and poor wealth eategories, in tbe KDS and GMN ethnie households, and in female-headed households.The charaeteristics of the maize-growing households are presented in table 1. The maize-farming families are relatively larger than nonfarming families, with an average of seven members per faroily. The family size is, however, relatively smaller in the average and poor wea1th categories and in tbe KDS and GMN ethnic households than in other households. Thi, implies that the family labor availabJe to these households is less than in other households. Though farming is the major oceuparion for tbe households of tbe two research sites, fami Iy members of72% ofthe farming households are engaged in off-farm activiries to earn additional cash ¡ncome for the family. The percentage distribution oftbese households across wealth categories and male-and female-headed households is similar. The percentage ofhouseholds with farnily members engaged in off-farm acrivities, however, is slightly higher in the GMN and KDS households than in the BC] households.Maize is the main livelihood crop fo. tbe farmera of the research sites. The maize production in the area is subsistence-oriented and production is largely for self-consumption. The self-produced food, however, is not adequate to mee! household food requirements. About 86% of tbe farming household experiences food deficits from less than one to 1I months of the year, and the average length of food self-sufficiency ís only about seven months. The degree of food deficiency varies among the different household categories. The average time of food self-sufficiency is lower in average and poor households, in BCJ and KDS ethnic households, and in female-headed households.Only a small proportion ofthe households (10.4%) sell maize. The proportion ofhouseholds selling maize is similar across households of different ethnic eategories but is lower in the average and poor households and in male-headed households. A high proportion of the households (61 %) purchase maize to offset theÍf food-grain deficit. The differences in the proportion of households purchasing maize is highJy significant (p < .0001) across'wealth categories but no! significant across ethnic categories and across male-and female-headed households. There is virtually no market influence on farmera' choice ofmaize varieties.In general, farmera are smallholders witb an average maize-growing harí land holding ofO.4 hectare, scattered over an average number of 2.3 parcels (table 1). (Bari represents rainfed upland where amaize-based cropping system is dominant.) The average holding size and tbe number of parcels of barí land decrease with the wealth ofthe farming household. The differences in barí land holdings are highJy significant across wealth categories (p < .0001). Simílarly, the variation in number of parcels of barí land per household is also significant (p < .05) across wealth categories. These differences in harí land holdings and the number of harí parcels per household are not statistically significant across either ethnic categories or male-and female-headed households.  Livestock fonns an important and integral part of the fanning system and, among other things, provides a major source of nutrients (Le., manure) for plants. Buffalo, cattle, goats, and chickens are the main kínds oflivestock in the area, wíth an average lívestock unít of2.8 per household. The average livestock unít ís highest among households in the rich and BeJ categories and lowest in poor and KDS households. This difference is significant across wealth (p < .0001) and ethnic (p < .01) categories. Simílarly, the female•headed households have lower livestock units per household than the male-headed households, but this dífference is not statistícaI1y significant. The resource analysis thus indícates that BeJ households have the most resources, followed by GMN households, while KDS households have the fewest resources. Similarly, female-headed households have comparatívely fewer resources than rnale-headed households.The access farmers have to improved maize varieties suitable to local environments and their own needs ís quite límited (table 1). Only 13% ofthe fanners reported growing improved varieties of maize; however, they know the value of changing theír old seeds. Ahout 39% ofthe households reported exchanging their seeds during last five years with other fanners. The users' and gender analysis showed that access to new maíze seeds is similar across al! wealth categories. However, GMN and KDS households have a complete lack of access to new maíze seeds, and a lower proportion of rnale-headed households reported cultívating improved varieties than díd female-headed households. The proportíon of households changing seeds over the last five years, however, ís greater in the poor wealth category, suggesting that farmers in t1ús category change seed more frequently than do the others. Since these households are also híghly food deficit, they may be consuming the seed and, therefore, bOITowing seeds from other farmers. The proportion ofhouseholds changing maize seeds ¡s, however, similar across ethnic categories and between male and female-headed households.Símilarly, fanners' access to teclurical services and inforrnation on technology is also poor. On1y about 3% of the maize-growing households reported participating in agriculture-related training, and on1y 6% participated in educational tours. Likewise, about 15% of the households reported receiving infonnation on improved technology for rnaize production. This reveals that externa! technica! support to farrners in their attempts to develop better maize varieties is quite limited. The proportion ofhouseholds particípatíng in agricultura! training and tours is lower in the average and poor households than in rich households. A chi-square analysis shows significant dífferences (p < .05) in access to infonnation on ímproved technology for maize production across wealth categories. Similarly, on1y BeJ households reported having participated in agricultural training and tours or receiving ínfonnation on improved maize production. The proportíon of ferna!e-headed households particípating in agricultural training and tours and receiving infonnation on improved maize production is lower than male-headed households.Farmers have been found to grow about eight dífferent types ofmaize varieties, which they broadly categorize into two maize types: one is a large type (Thulo makai) with taU plants, big cobs, large grains and long rnaturity, while the other is a srnall type (Sano makai) with short plants, small cobs and grains, and short maturity. A majority ofthe farmers grow large-type maize, and it covers about 87.7% of lhe total maíze area. Among the large varieties, Thulo pyanlo alone covers about 80% of the area planted to this type, which reflects that, although farmers grow a large numberofvarieties, a large portion ofthe maize-growing area is covered by a relatively small number ofvarietíes.A majority ofthe households grow one to two varieties ofmaize (46.5% to 45.5%, respectively) in a season (table 2). Onlyabout 8% ofthe total maize-growing households grow more than tbree varieties per season. The varietal diversity maintained at household level, therefore, is low (figure 1). The ANOVA result shows that the difference in the number of maize varieties grown at household level is significant (p < .05) across wealth categories but not significant across ethnic categories and between male-and female-headed households. A higher proportion of poor households grows one variety of rnaize, compared to rich and average households. This is contrary to !he currently held view that small farmers maintain significant amounts of crop genetic diversity (Jarvis et al. 1997) and agrees with the fmdings of other studies (Rana and Kadayat 1999). Similarly, though no! significant, a very high proportion ofKDS households (90%) grows only one variety of maize.' \" 100% 'tl 90%\"O 80%.c: ., 70%' \" Farmers who grow more tban one variety mentioned various reasons fur this (table2): to prepare different food items, to harvest at different times, to suit dífferent land types, to use as animal feed, and to meet fodder requirements. However, a majority ofthe farmers (67.9%) grow to suit dífferent types of land, and this is true across all wealfu and ethnic categories and between male-and fernale-headed households. Ihe ANOVA result suggests that fue number ofmaíze varieties grown at household leve! is not signifieantly related to the size of the hari land but is highly signifieantly related to the number ofparcels of bari land the farmer is planting to maize (p < .0001). This indicates tbat with the increase in the number of parcels of bari land, the number of maize varieties grown at household level also increases. This also confirms ¡he PRA finding that farmers in the area grow large-type maize on more fertile land while small-type maize is grown on less fertile soil. The number of bari pareels, therefore, appears to be the strongest determining factor in deciding the number of maíze varieties to be grown per season. It is, however, true tbat farmers use multiple eriteria to select maize varieties for their household production.The gender differences in the use of sorne eriteria to choose maize varieties are striking. A large proportion of fernale-headed households (more than tbree times !he number of male-headed households) mentioned growing more than one variety to meet fodder requirernents for their livestock.Ihis is also confirmed by the PRA findíngs. During the focus-group díscussions, women farmers 5.0 3,1 7,0 0.9 13,3Note; Elhnicity is represented as BCi = BrahminlChhelrilJogi; GMN = Gurung/MagarlNewar; KDS = KamiIDam.i!Sarki.strongly expressed their preference for tall varieties ofmaize Iike their local varieties because taller varielies produce more fodder than short varíeties. Women appear 10 be more concemed with this issue because managing livestock fodder is largely theír responsibility. Similarly, women fanners are very particular aboul Ihe suitability of maize varieties for inlercropping, especíally wíth legumes (cowpeas and beans), because these help them meel the vegetable and pulse requirements of their families. The latter sometimes leads to conflicts with their male counterparts because intercropping with cowpeas and beans makes maize plants vulnerable to lodging and can cause big 105ses in the maize yield.Maize is the staple food for fanning households in the study area. Different preparations of maize are made for household consumption, ofwhich steamed grit (makai ka bhat) i5 the mos! common preparation, reported by 77% oftotal production (table 2). Farmers, therefore, prefer maize varíeties thal have high grit recovery. They perceive that ye!low (colored) maize has higher grit recovery and, therefore, prefer colored varieties over the white ones. The food preparation ofmaize is similar across households of different wealth, elhnic, and gender categories, and a majority ofhouseholds use it in grit formo Users' and genderdifferences in the choice ofvariety, Iherefore, do not appear lo be influenced by differences in the use of maize.The analysis díscussed aboye indicates that fanners' choíces for maíze varíeties are not greatly influenced by theír differences in weallh, ethnicity, and gender, Le., different categories of fanners have preferences for similar types of maize varietíes. F anners across all wealth, ethnic, and gender categories grow only one or two maize varieties per household and, therefore, their varíetal needs are not very diverse. However, farmers use multíple criteria ín selectíng the varietíes they grow.They prefer to have as many traits oftheír preference as possíble ín one lo two maize varietíes. InIhis way, they are able to maintaín and manage the variety of their-preference fora long•duration. Since maize ís an open-pollinated crop, a large number of varieties is difficult lo maintain and manage. Thi5 analysis ís also confirmed by the findings of the PRA conducted al the project research siles. The participatory breeding program, therefore, should focus on developing fewer maize varíelies with multíple traits lhat reflect fanners' preferences. Priority should be given lo the maize varieties Ihat have higher grit recovery, grow welI under different land conditions, produce high biomass for use as fodder, and alIow good intercropping with legumes.The informalÍon on gender roles in maize production and utilization is based on a participatory gender analysis done with 30 maize-growing households selected for lhat purpose. The results show that there are distinct gender roles for men, women, and children in the production and utilizalÍon of maize in lhe hilIs ofNepaL Women supersede men in their involvement in all three major functions ofmaize production and utilization: namely, (1) production, (2) household utilization and marketing, and (3) seed managemen! (table 3). Their involvement is particularly high in the application of compost and farmyard manure lo the maize fie1d; seed processing, treatment, storage, and preparation for sowing in the next season; and intercroppíng of maize with beans, cowpeas, pumpkins, and other crops.The results ofthe gender analysis show lhat women are also the prime decision makers in the family and lheir contribution to decision making in actívities related to maize production and utilization is higher than that their male counterparts in the fumily (table 4). Their contribution to decisions is particularly high in the selection of crops fOT intercropping with maize, deciding on date and time of weeding and earthing-up in the maize fields, and in most ofthe activities relaled lo utilizatíon and marketing and seed management The gender analysis thus suggests that women have important roles and a stake in the varietal-improvement programs designed to develop farmers' preferred varieties. Their particípation in the whole process of variety development should be ensured and properly utilized.Particípatoryplant breeding seeks to use the knowledge and experiences farmers have accwnulated over generations. It al so creates an environment for mutual learning and sharing, which closes the knowledge gap and sets the stage for a working partnership between the farmers and researchers.al Users' and Gender Perspective in Farm Quantity 01 grilslflour lo be milled al a limeWhen lo carry maíze grains lo the mili (tor milling)Food ítems lo be cooked daily 5. Whelher lo sale maize or nol 6. Facilitating and supporting farmers in their plant-hreeding activities then becomes easy and smooth. Based on this understanding, farmers' breeding knowledge was assessed by surveying a sample of 113 households selected randomly. An analysis of the influence of gender, wealth, and ethnicity on the distribution of such knowledge was also done and ís presented in table 5.Ibe majority ofthe households (more than 90%) separate seed and graín in advance, but the seed selection is almost entírely done from the cobs, and generally righ! after the barvest Farmers virtually do no! practice seed selection on standing crops. Ibe majority of the households select big, good-Iooking cobs with big, bold grains for seed. Similarly, almos! all farmers follow tbe practice of discarding grains on the tips ofthe cob when the cobs are shelled for seed. Only about a quarter of the farmers are knowledgeable about the role ofseed replacement in maintaining varietal purity and vigor. Farmers' knowledge on the more technical side ofbreeding, such as identification ofmale Table 5. Distribution oC Breeding Knowledge by Gender, WeaIth and Ethnicity (% Households) ----------------. -------------------------1----Weallh .alellori ., On standing ClOp 0,1 10,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 0,0 No/e: Ethnicíty is represeoled as BeJ = BrahminlChhetri/Jogi; GMN = Guruog/Magar/Newar; KDS = Kami/DamaiISarki, lncorparation al Users' and Gender_FerspecthJe in Fan and femate plants and theír functions, was found te be very pOOL Similarly, a majority ofthe farmers also do not know the actual mechanism tha! causes new maize varieties to rapidly deteriorate, compared to other cereal crops like rice and wheat. The survey thus revealed that there is good scope and a need for sharing scientífic breedíng knowledge prior to the inception of a partícipatory plant breedíng program in order to enhance farmers' confidenee and thereby inerease theír ínterest and participation,The project on fanner-Ied participatory plant breeding of maize has just completed one season of work. A number of consíderations have be en made, as suggested by the analysis of the users' and genderperspeetive ofmaize produetion and utilization. These are briefly discussed below.The breeding objective has been redefined to ímprove the production performance of a widely grown maíze variety, Thulo pyanlo, rather than creating a large díversity of maize varieties in order to improve the productivity ofthe niche envíronment. This variety has all the traits preferred by the farmers except one, i.e., lodging resistance, Reducing lodging in this variety is now the maín objective of the breeding program. In addition, the selection of improved maize varieties to be used as one ofthe parents for crossing with Thulo pyanlo was done in a way that ensured that they met most ofthe farmers' preferences for different traits, These included relatively taller, stout plant varieties like Ganesh I and 2, Rampur composit, Rampur 1, Khumal yellow, and Pop 22. This would help to combine good traits from a large number of varieties into a few fanners' preferred maize varieties. At the same time, attention has also been gíven to meeting the specific needs of the niche environment through a participatory variety-selection program, which provides farmers with a choice from a large number of maize varieties.Farmers have fonned their own research cornmíttee at both the research sites to ensure their partieipation in and influence on the ｾ ･ ｳ ･ ｡ ｲ ｣ ｨ ＠ process, These research cornmittees are well represented by different categories offarmers and 41% ofits members are women, The Farmers' Research Committee. in consultation with the farmers at large, decide the breeding objectives and the research process. They also select research farmers to participate in the farmer-led maize breeding prograrns implemented at the research sites, Since farmers themselves select research farmers, it is envísaged that this wílllead to the development of maize varieties preferred by a large number of fanners. Similarly, under participalory variety-selection program, care is taken to distribute the seed of new maize varieties to different categories of frmners.Based on the findings ofthe survey on the distribution of maize-breeding knowledge among farmers, field-based training was provided lo the research farmers in order lo supplement farmers' knowledge with practical scientific breeding knowledge, Attentíon was given to representation of different categories of farmers, inc\\uding women. Forty-five percent of the total trainees were women. This consideration will also be made in future farmers' training programs.The initial survey indicated that farmers use multiple eritería for the selection of a particular maize variety. Farmers may give different weights to these eritería to suite their individual needs and resources. Wíth this in mind, the colleetion and analysis of users' and gender-differentiated data have been built into the research process to ensure Ihat users' and gender perspectives are incorporated into the partícipatory breedíng programo Data are collected in a form that allows users' and gender-differentiated data to be anaIyzed, which will facilitate the drawing of inferences about whether users' and gender differences make a significant difference in the process and product of participatory plant breeding in open-pollinated crops like maize.The users' and gender analysis indicates tha! the differences among maize-growing households in regard to wealth, ethnicity, and gender do not have any significant influence on their choices for dífferent maize varieties. Similarly, farmers across aH wealth, ethnic, and gender categories grow only one 10 two maize varieties per household; therefore, their varietal needs are not very diverse. This is contradictory to what has been found in the case of self-pollínated crops. This appears to be largely because a large number of varieties is díffieult to maintain and manage in open-pollinated crops like maize. Farmers, however, use multiple cnterí,a in selecting the maize varieties they grow and prefer to have as many traits oftheÍr preference as possible in one to two varieties. It is, therefore, important for the particípatory breeding program to focus on developing fewer maize varieties with tbe multiple traits that farmers prefer. Women farmers have strong preferences about the quantity and qualíty of the fodder by-products of maíze and the suitability of new maize varíeties for intercropping with legumes. The research process should allow farmers of different categoríes to use their eritería in developing and selecting new maize vaneties, Farmers of a!l categories generally lack adequate practical breeding knowledge, and they are specifieally poor in scientific reasoníng, regardless of whatever breedíng knowledge they have. Supplementing farmers' knowledge with practica! scientific breeding knowledge is, therefore, necessary to empower farmers to sustain theÍr breedíng ínítiatives.Rice is the principal crop grown during the wet season (June-October) and i5 the staple food in Madhya Pradesh, eastero India. In this regíon, rice is cultivated on 5.35 million hectares, wíth an annual production of 6.46 millíon tons. This state contributes 9% to the national production from 12.8% of ¡he national acreage. Eastem Madhya Pradesh, k:nown as Chhattisgarh 18 considered the rice bowl ofthe state. Ofthe total rice area, 80% is rainfed, and drought, which occurs every two years, i5 a major constraint ín íncreasing rice productívity in the regíon. The rice yield in the regíon ís low (abon! 2.3 tons per hectare) and ís below the national average. Because of the frequent droughts, the majority offarmers are not willing to risk investíng in farm inputs to inerease productívity. Sustainabílity and yield stabilíty are the most important considerations of farmers in the management of their farming systems. Rural poverty still persísts in this regíon, and about one-thírd of the total poor in Madhya Pradesh depend on rice production as the basic source of Iivelihood. Thel'efore, improving rice pl'oduction and productivity could directIy lead to a substantial reduction in the rural poverty in the regíon (Janiah et al. 20(0). F or the last four decades, a total of 512 modero rice varieties have been released in Indía. Howevel', hardly 10 to 20 ofthe released varieties are in the seed-productíon channel. For example, the average age of cultivars for which there i5 a demand fol' breeder seed is 11 years. The average age of cultivars in certified seed production ranges fiom 12 to 17 years in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan (Virk, Packwood, and Witcombe 1996). Only a few modero varieties have been successfu11y adopted in the irrigated ecosystem.RX. Sahu, V.N. Sahu, M.L. Sharma, T. Pati\" K. MeAlIister, R.K. Singh, and S. S.rkaruog are scientists from lndira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU), Raipur, Madhya Pradesh; !he IntemaMnal Rice Research InstItute (IRRl). Los Baños, Philippines; and Ihe IRRl-Delhi offic., New Delhi, lndi One of the main reasons for low adoption of released varieties in the rainfed environments is lhat farmers have inadequate exposure to new cultivars. If adoption rates are to be improved, farmers need to try a wide range of novel cultivars in their fields in partícipatory varietal-selection (PVS) programs. The cultívars should include prereleased cultivars, advanced hnes, and already released cultivars from other regíons or countries (Whitcombe et al. 1996). This would give farmers a 'basket of choices' of varied genetic material (Chambers 1989). Another reason for low adoption of modern varietíes is that the breeding process does not meet fanners' diverse needs. Released rice varieties are not suited to the complex and heterogeneous rainfed agroecologícal environment or to the diverse uses and needs of dífferent socioeconomíc groups of fanners. In Uttar Pradesh, India, Maurya et al. (1988) tested advanced Hnes of rice in villages and successfully identified superior material that was preferred by fanners. Understanding farmers' preferences and needs is crucial for successful adoption and dissemination of improved rice cultivars.In 1997, a fanner participatory breeding projecl was initiated at the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and conducted in castem India (Courtois et al. 2000). This is a collaborative project among plant breeders and social scientists from IRRI and six national agricultural research institutions located in eastern India. The Indira Oandhi Agricultural University (IOAU) in Raípur, Madhya Pradesh, is one of Ihe collaborating cenlers. The main objeclives for pursuing fanner participation in plant breeding are as follows:• lo test the hypothesis that farmer participation in raínfed rice breeding can help develop suílable varieties more efficiently• to identify stages along the breeding process where faImers' participation has the most impact and to develop and test a methodology for effectively involving fanners in the breedíng program• 10 improve understanding of male and female criteria for selecting specific rice varieties• to differentiate between the influence of fanner participation and decentralizatíon of the breedíng program• to develop rice varietíes suítable for heterogeneous rainfed environments and which meet fanners' preferences Thís paper focuses on methúdologies for improvíng our understanding of fanners' (including women farmers') criteria for seleeting specífic rice varieties and how these eriteria were considered in participatory breeding strategies for rainfed lowland conditions in Madhya Pradesh, eastem India.This study ís based on a sample survey of75 rice-fanning households in Ihree villages oflhe Raipur district, Madhya Pradesh. Surveys were conducted to characterize fanners' cropping/fanning systeros, rice varietal diversity, degree of market orientation, gender roles, as well as soeioeconomic differences, and lo relate these to farmers' rice varietal preferences. Farmers were interviewed in regard lo the positive and negative attributes of the traditional and improved varieties they grow and other seed-related information. A method of particípatory weighted ranking was uscd to elicit male and female farmers' eritena for selecting rice varielies accordíng to specific land elevations and information on how they trade offbetween traits. Basic informatíon (name, age, sex, caste, size oflandholding, elevation ofrice plots, etc.) was colIected from male and female heads ofseparate households who are actively involved in rice farming. Twenty cards that iIIustrate traits of rice cultivars were shown and explained to lhe farmers. Referring to a particular land elevation (upland, for example), each farmer was asked what traits he/she considered when selecting rice varieties for lha! elevatíon. The traits that the farmer did not consider important were discarded. Wilh lhe remaining cards representing the chosen traits, the farmer was lhen asked how much weight he/she gave to each trait out of 16 ana (16 ana= 100 paise, 100 paise = 1 Rs). F or this process, a total of 16 pieces of stone were provided to the respondent to assign the weights according to hislher choice. An average weight was then computed by getting the sum of all lhe values assigned per trait, divided by lhe number of respondents, afier which lhe proportion of each trait to all traits was calculated. This melhodology in eliciting farmers' perceptíons also provides room for trading off between traits (Sharma el aL 1998; Paris et aL 1999)F armer participatory approaches for lhe identification or breeding of improved crop cultivars can be usefully categorized into participatory varietal selection (PVS) and participatory plant breeding (PPB). PVS is a more rapid and cost-effective way ofidentifying farmer-preferred cultivars, if a suitable choice of cultivars exists. A successful PVS program has four phases: (1) a means ofidentifying farmers' needs in a cultivar, (2) a search for suitable material to test with farmers, (3) experimentatíon on its acceptability in farmers' fields, and (4) wider dissemination of farmer-preferred cultivars (Whitcombe et al. 1996). In all ofthese phases, understanding farmers' local knowledge, perceptions, and criteria for varietal selection ís important in ímprovíng rice varieties for rainfed ecosystems.Two approaches were used to strengthen farmers' involvement in the project: (1) farmers were invited to lhe research statiDn to view a broad range of genetic materials, and (2) farmers were asked to grow a set of diverse materials in their own fields using their own level of management and inputs. Two farmers in each village volunteered to evaluate 16 rice genotypes on lheir fields using lheir own labor and level of management. Two sets of medium-duration rice genotypes were planted in two farmers' fields in Tarpongi, which has comparatively lighter soils. One set each of late-duratíon varieties was planted in Saguni and Khairknt villages, which have heavy-textured soíls. The set of rice genotypes include prereleased genotypes (F7-F8), advanced lines from lhe Shuttle Breeding Project, and a local check. During specific phenotypic stages of rice production, farmers and plant breeders, using a visual melhod, evaluated and ranked the same set ofrice genotypes on lhe station and on farmers' fields. Kendall' s coefficient of agreement was used to measure the agreement among farmers, among plant breeders, and between farmers and breeders. Farmers recorded lhe reasons for their ranking in lheir diaries. This was done for consecutive years from 1997 to 1999. In 2000, lhe number ofrice genotypes was reduced to five choices (plant breeder, farmer, one common, and a local check). These genotypes will be evaluated before harvesting, bolh at lhe station and on farmers' fields by pIant breeders and farmers.Characteristics 01 the research sites and the larm households This research is being conducted in three villages in lhe Raipur district located on lhe Chhattisgarh plains ofMadhya Pradesh. On lhe Chhatisgarh plains, rice is grown mostly in the lowlands in a drought-prone ecosystem. Drought is a major climatic constraint for rice crops in lhis region. The general c1ímate of the region is dry sub-humíd, where annual potential evapotranspirationallossesCrileria fo,. Rice Varielies are higher than the annual raínfall, whích is about \\300 mm. Over 90% ofthe rainfall is reeeived during the period from June to October. The monsoon sets in by 15 June and withdraws around 15 September. Winter conditions set in by mid-November, when the average minimum temperature reaches around ¡5°C. Hence, the rice erop should mature before this time. Sometimes winter conditíons set in early-by the thírd week ofOetober--and thís results in íncreased sterilíty and, thereby, low productivity. Under such fragíle eondítions, the identificatíon of suitable genotypes should be based both on climatic and edaphíc eharacteristies (IRRI-IGAU 2000).The research sites are located in tbree villages: Tarpongi, Saguní, and Khairkut in the Raipur distriet. Tarpongi is 29 km in the north of Raipur; Saguni and Kharkut are 5 km to the west of Tarpongí. These villages are located within 50 km ofIGAU. There are 200 to 250 households in each village. More than 90% ofthe farming households in these villages belong to the other backward caste with small and margínallandholdings (owning less than a hectare), ofwhich the majority are Hindus. Male heads of households have an average of four years in school, while the majority of the women have lower levels of education and did not go to schooL AH ofthe farmers interviewed owned their own land. In eaeh village, 25 farmers were interviewed with regards to their fanníng and eropping systems, rice díversíty, and their eriteria for varietal selection. The survey was conducted in 1997 and 1998.The areas for rice production in these representatíve villages are heterogeneous. Farmers in these villages classify their land according to the topography/slope, such as upland, midland, and lowland. The light so¡ls in the uplands are cIassified by farmers as bhata (entisols), while the sandy loam in the midlands are referred to matasi (ínceptisols). The heavy-textured soils in the lowlands are referred to as kanhar (vertisols). Most of the drought-prone areas have light-textured soíls, whereas the more favorable arcas have heavy-structured soils. Tarpongí has líght-textured soils while the other two villages have heavy-structured soils. The length of the rice-growing season is primarily dependen! on moisture availabilíty, whích ís dependent on slope and soiJ type.Rice ís grown mainly in the rainy season (kharif) in a biasi system. Land preparatíon is done by bulJocks and rice is dry-seeded at the beginning ofthe rainy season in June. When enough rain has accumulated in the field, 25-to 30-day-old seedlin[s are wet-plowed, laddered, and redistributed. This traditional practice, ca1led beushening or biasi, is common in many rainfed areas of eastem India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh. Farmers continue tms practice with the beliefthat ít helps to control weeds and stímulate root growth (Fujísaka el aL 1993;Singh, Singh, and Singh 1994). Farmers grow purple-colored rice varieties as a strategy to identífy and eradicate wild rice (which is prevalent in this region) at an early stage of crop growth.F amily members provide the major source oflabor for rice cultivation. While maJe family members do most of the land preparatíon, rice broadeasting, and applícation of chemicals, females are predominantly responsible for weeding, applying farmyard manure, harvesting, threshing by band, winnowing, and managing seeds for storage. Seed selectíon ís done by both husband and wífe. Other post-harvest activities, such sun drying, dehusking, and parboiling are exclusively done by women. Caring for livestock and, consequently, daiJy collection of green fodder for the livestock is done mostly by women (Sharma et aL 1997). Thus, women's criteria for rice varietal choices may be influenced by their roles and responsibilíties in farming and their social and relígíous obligations, and may differ from those ofmen. The majority ofthe farmers obtain new seeds from their neighbors and from extension workers. Only 24% obtain new seeds from IGAU. This indicates a lack of awareness among farmers about the new technologies developed at the university. Weeds are prevalen! in farmers' fields, and roguing the rice fields to protect the purity of seeds is not cornmonly practiced ín these villages. Rice mixtures and weed seeds are commonly found in the seed stocked for the next season.The cropping intensity in these villages is low because ofthe lack of supplementary irrigation water during the rabi season. The cropping systems in the villages are rice-fallow, rice-lathyrus, or rice-chíckpea (table 1). The chickpea and lathyrus crops are grown as relay crops (locally called utera in rice).  A high díversity ofrice varíeties exists in these villages. The names of the varíeties grown by farmers in these villages are shown in table 2. Ofthe total area grown to rice in the lowlands ofTarpongi, 73% is grown with traditional varieties, while the rest (27%) has modem varíeties. Twenty years ago, there were about 20 traditional varíeties; however, this number has declined. In contrast, in the uplands of Saguni and Kharkut, the adoption of modem varíeties is slightly higher than thethe adoption of traditional ones. Traditional varíeties such as Safri-17 and Chepti gurmatia are popular in the lowlands. The main reason for adoption of traditional varieties in the lowlands with heavy soíls is because aH the traditional varíeties are tall and can sustain even late biasi operations.According to the rainfall pattem and soíl types of Chhattisgarh, farmers grow varieties according to the land elevation, hydrology, and soils. Rice varieties with a growth duration ofless than 110 days are grown on the upper (undulating) portion ofuplands with loamy to sandy Boíl bhata (entisols). Rice varíeties with a growth duratíon of 110 to 130 days are allocated mainly to the midland (gently undulating) sandy loam matasi (inceptisols). Varieties with a growth duration ofup to 140 days are best suited for light soils, such as those found in Tarpongi village. Late-maturing varíeties (140 to 155 days) are ideal for low-lying, heavy-textured dorasa andkanhar soil types, such as those found in Saguni and Khairkut. Crops are grown chronologically wífu fue lowland fields planted first and the upland helds planted last. Lowland fields are submergence-prone and need to be sown early so fuat seedlings are already establíshed before fue fields are flooded.Afier identifyíng the modern and traditional varieties fanners grew, questions were asked about positive and negative attributes. These questions were open-ended and no attempt was made to ¡mpose a priori categories of answers, Table 3 shows the list of positive traits of popular traditional varieties such as Safrí-17 (late duratíon) and Chepti gurmatia (medium duration). Alfuough fuese traditíonal varieties have !ower yields, fanners prefer fuem because of fueir combined positíve Swarna and Mahamaya are two modem varieties tha! have thepositive qualities present in the traditional varieties. Swarna is a high yielder, late maturing and semi-dwarf. Farmers perceive tha! these varieties can tolerate drought Mahamaya, similar to Chepti gurmatia, also has the purple leaf sheath and purple auricle, which help to distínguish it from wild rice. 1t has potentially higher yields !han the traditional varieties; however, the modern varieties are mOfe susceptible lo diseases (bacteria! blight and gall midge). Mahamaya is also susceptible to lodging because of íts short starure (table 4). Actually, Swarna was released in 1982 from Andhra Pradesh and was tested by ¡he plant breeders. However, it was not recommended to farmers before 1992. The adoption of Swama has been fast and it has replaeed local varieties such as Safri and Dubraj and improved varieties such as Mashuri. However, sine e 1992, not a single variety with these positive combined eharacteristícs eould be relcased by the local brceders in IGAU  .lI\"'q;::ua:::n.::I\"'IIy<-_____ -'-_Mahamaya was only released in 1997. Both Swarna and Mahamaya were released for irrigated rice ecosystems, but because oftheir perceived ability to tolerate drought and theÍr high market demand by traders, these two varieties have become ver)' popular, Millers and traders prefer Mahamaya for making beaten rice and puffed rice. Poor farmers and agriculturallabarers who are paid in terms af","tokenCount":"11220"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"985884e8415853eaecbc4430471c9bb1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1bfa054a-3349-418c-8741-0f4f1ba77673/retrieve","id":"201358384"},"keywords":["Andrade-Piedra, Jorge (CIP-Ecuador)","Barona, Darío (CIP-Perú)","Benítez, Jackeline (INIAP)","Chuquillanqui, Carlos (CIP-Perú)","García, Magali (CIP-Perú)","Kromann, Peter (CIP-Ecuador)","Mateus-Rodríguez, Julián (CORPOICA)","Montesdeoca, Fabián (INIAP)","Otazú, Victor (CIP-Perú)"],"sieverID":"17ad1025-cd63-425a-9056-b23a1f8e3f30","pagecount":"270","content":"La aeroponía es una técnica para producir minitubérculos de papa (correspondientes a la categoría de semilla prebásica) y se inscribe en los sistemas formales de semilla, es decir aquellos en los que el Estado regula la producción y distribución de semilla certificada. Como tal, es una tecnología que requiere ciertas condiciones institucionales, de infraestructura y de recursos humanos, que hacen que sea apta únicamente para productores de semilla altamente especializados.En un contexto más amplio, la aeroponía es parte de una propuesta integral del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) y de sus socios, para manejar la degeneración de la semilla de papa. La degeneración, es la pérdida de rendimiento o calidad debido a la acumulación de patógenos o plagas en la semilla, en ciclos sucesivos de propagación vegetativa. Justamente la degeneración es el problema central que ha originado que se destinen grandes inversiones para la producción y distribución de semilla certificada en todo el mundo. Dentro de esta nueva estrategia, la aeroponía es una tecnología que permite producir grandes cantidades de minitubérculos de alta calidad a bajo costo. Esto a su vez permite reducir el número de multiplicaciones en campo de la semilla de categorías iniciales, lo que genera que la semilla certificada, que se obtiene al final de estos ciclos de multiplicación, tenga mayor sanidad y esté disponible en menor tiempo y a menor costo.El CIP y sus socios -la Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) en Colombia y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) en Ecuadoresperan que este Manual resulte un apoyo valioso para quienes desean emprender la aplicación de la aeroponía.Este Manual puede considerarse una segunda edición del Manual de Producción de Semilla de Papa de Calidad usando Aeroponía 1 . Los cambios más importantes, con referencia a esa primera edición, son por un lado, que esta vez, el Manual fue elaborado por un equipo de investigadores que han trabajado en el tema y por otro, el que incorpora experiencias de más de diez años de trabajo en aeroponía en varios países de Latinoamérica y África. Además, en esta ocasión la información está más detallada, de manera que pueda servir de orientación efectiva para quienes estén interesados en el tema.Este material está destinado especialmente a los técnicos encargados de implementar la aeroponía. También ofrece información útil para las personas que decidirán si se aplica o no esta tecnología, y descripciones detalladas que pueden ser usadas por operarios que aplicarán la aeroponía en la práctica.Por el ámbito de acción desde el cual se aborda el tema, este Manual puede ser utilizado como material de consulta en Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y otros países de Latinoamérica. Su uso en países tropicales de África y Asia es posible, siempre que se adapte a las situaciones locales.Cada capítulo fue escrito por uno o más autores, especialistas en los temas tratados, y luego revisado por los editores. También fue mediado pedagógicamente para facilitar la lectura y la comprensión de los temas, de modo que resulte interesante y útil.Describir y analizar las condiciones necesarias para implementar la aeroponía, sus ventajas y desventajas como alternativa para la producción de minitubérculos de papa y el perfil de los potenciales usuarios de esta tecnología.Explicar cómo se puede implementar aeroponía desde nuestra experiencia, evitando posibles fracasos.Compartir las experiencias de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y varios países africanos en el uso de la aeroponía.Explicar la importancia de la semilla de calidad.Determinar los factores que definen la calidad de la semilla de papa.Explicar qué es la degeneración de la semilla y su manejo.Conocer qué es la aeroponía, sus usos, funcionamiento, origen y la razón por la que ha sido adaptada a las condiciones de países en desarrollo.La semilla -o mejor dicho el material de siembra, ya que la papa es un cultivo que se propaga a través de tallos subterráneos o tubérculos-es importante por varias razones: ¿Cuándo una semilla es de calidad?Cuando cumple estas condiciones: determina en gran medida el rendimiento del cultivo de papa; es el vehículo mediante el cual se diseminan y mantienen variedades mejoradas y nativas; constituye un insumo estratégico para conservar la soberanía alimentaria y la diversidad genética de un país.En la papa y en otros cultivos de propagación vegetativa -es decir aquellos que se multiplican asexualmente a partir de una de sus partes: raíz, tallo, etc.-los principales factores de calidad de las semillas son la sanidad y el estado fisiológico. La pureza física y la pureza genética son de menor importancia, ya que el tamaño de los tubérculos permite eliminar, de manera relativamente fácil, materiales inertes y mezclas de semilla de otras variedades o especies.¿En qué consiste la degeneración de la semilla?La degeneración de la semilla es la pérdida de rendimiento o calidad debido a la acumulación de patógenos o plagas en la semilla, en ciclos sucesivos de propagación vegetativa 2 . Uno de los factores que explica el poco rendimiento en el cultivo de papa es la baja sanidad de la semilla que se debe, en gran medida, al fenómeno conocido como degeneración.De hecho, si no ocurriera esa degeneración, se podría utilizar una determinada semilla en forma indefinida, ya que mantendría su sanidad.Los principales patógenos que causan degeneración a nivel mundial son los virus, pero en zonas altas de los Andes hay otros patógenos importantes para la degeneración, como: Rhizoctonia solani, Spongospora subterranea, Streptomyces scabies, Verticillium dahliae, Fusarium sp., Thecaphora solani, Phytophthora erythroseptica, Ralstonia solanacearum, Pectobacterium spp., Meloidogyne spp., Globodera spp., Naccobbus aberrans, entre otros 3 .En Ecuador y Perú los agricultores describen la degeneración de la semilla con la expresión \"la semilla está cansada\". ¿Cómo se maneja la degeneración de la semilla?Existen tres maneras o tácticas para manejar la degeneración de la semilla 4 :Manejo de degeneración de semilla Uso de variedades resistentes a los patógenos que causan degeneración (selección positiva,selección Manejo de semillas en finca negativa, etc.)Compra de semilla sana producida fuera de la finca (certificada)En la mayoría de los países de la zona templada, la degeneración de la semilla de papa se maneja principalmente mediante la compra de semilla sana, producida fuera de la finca, por lo general certificada. Esta semilla se produce y distribuye a través de lo que se conoce como sistema formal de semilla, regulado por el Estado.En contraste, en muchos países de la zona tropical, el uso de semilla certificada de papa es bajo (por ejemplo, 2% en Colombia; 7,6% en Ecuador; 0,5% en Perú 5 ). Casi todos los agricultores separan una parte de su cosecha, para destinarla como semilla en el próximo ciclo de cultivo. Realizan esta práctica por varios años y eventualmente adquieren semilla de otros agricultores o comerciantes. Este sistema se conoce como sistema informal de semilla, porque no está regulado por el Estado.Sin embargo, muchas veces el manejo de la semilla producida en el sistema informal no es bueno. Por lo regular los tubérculos seleccionados para semilla son los que no se pueden vender en el mercado o consumir en el hogar, porque son pequeños y tienen daños de plagas y enfermedades. Además se los almacena en sitios oscuros y en envases inadecuados, lo que origina que los brotes sean débiles y desiguales. Cuando se siembran estos tubérculos, se obtienen plantas débiles que emergen de manera desigual, afectando el rendimiento del cultivo.El paradigma dominante en la actualidad, propone que la degeneración de semilla se maneje casi exclusivamente, mediante la compra de semilla certificada. Sin embargo, en la mayoría de países de la zona tropical con cultivos de propagación vegetativa, como la papa, producidos por pequeños agricultores, el uso de semilla certificada permanece bajo, a pesar que se han hecho inversiones significativas a lo largo de muchos años.Para pequeños agricultores de países de la zona tropical, la nueva estrategia propuesta por el CIP y sus socios, para manejar la degeneración de semilla en cultivos de propagación vegetativa, considera la integración de las tres tácticas mencionadas, en ese orden de importancia:Uso de variedades resistentes, que implica un fuerte trabajo de evaluación de variedades existentes y de mejoramiento genético para producir variedades resistentes y diseminarlas.Manejo de semilla en finca, que implica reconocer y mejorar los sistemas informales de semilla, a través del fortalecimiento de las capacidades de los agricultores, para que puedan mantener la sanidad de su semilla por más tiempo, mediante técnicas como la selección positiva y el almacenamiento adecuado de la semilla 6 .Compra de semilla sana producida fuera de la finca, que implica mejorar los sistemas formales de semilla (por ejemplo, a través de una mayor participación del sector privado) para producir y distribuir semilla certificada de alta sanidad, en el momento, cantidad, precio y variedad adecuados.Todo lo que se dijo antes resulta útil para describir las características de la aeroponía. Ya se conoce: la importancia de la semilla en la producción de papa; cuándo una semilla es de calidad; qué es la degeneración; y qué propone la nueva estrategia para manejar la degeneración de la semilla de papa en los países en desarrollo.En ese contexto, la aeroponía es una tecnología de cultivo derivada de la hidroponía, es decir, es una tecnología de cultivo que no necesita suelo. Tiene dos usos principales: como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla a nivel comercial, como herramienta de investigación.Al disponer de grandes cantidades de minitubérculos de alta calidad y bajo costo, es posible reducir el número de multiplicaciones en campo, lo que genera que la semilla certificada, que se obtiene al final de estos ciclos de multiplicación, tenga mayor sanidad y esté disponible en menor tiempo y a menor costo.Como herramienta de investigación, la aeroponía permite modificar el ambiente en el que crecen las raíces y estudiar el efecto de estas modificaciones en varios procesos 8 . Facilita el estudio de su morfología, el desarrollo de patógenos, el efecto de concentraciones de gases y temperaturas, el efecto de nutrientes, etc. Por ejemplo, la aeroponía ha sido usada para estudiar el crecimiento de la raíz del arroz 9 .La aeroponía es una alternativa para complementar y eventualmente reemplazar a otras tecnologías para producción de minitubérculos, como la convencional o la semihidroponía 7 .Mediante la aeroponía es posible producir una gran cantidad de minitubérculos de papa (llamados también tuberculillos), correspondientes a la categoría de semilla prebásica, a un menor costo, con mayor sanidad y en mayores volúmenes.Como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla a nivel comercial, la aeroponía ayuda a manejar la degeneración de la semilla de papa, a través del fortalecimiento de los sistemas formales de semilla, es decir, de aquellos que producen y distribuyen semilla certificada.Ver Anexo 1. Además, parece ser una opción para viajes espaciales, ya que permite el crecimiento de plantas comestibles con poca agua 10 .Una característica interesante de la aeroponía es que se trata de una tecnología muy atractiva. En tal sentido, puede ser usada como herramienta de comunicación e incidencia política, para atraer recursos destinados a la producción e investigación de semilla de papa.Es usual recibir decenas de visitantes en los sitios en los que se la aplica, quienes, lamentablemente, pueden llegar a suponer que la aeroponía es la solución para todos los problemas de semilla de papa en los países en desarrollo. Esta suposición es equivocada y debe ser discutida y revisada sobre la base de los conceptos de manejo de degeneración de semilla.Sin embargo, la aeroponía llama la atención de donantes públicos y privados que pueden destinar fondos para la investigación y el desarrollo en temas de semilla de papa. Por ejemplo, es uno de los elementos centrales en proyectos de la Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID) en África 11 , del Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería, Acuacultura y Pesca del Ecuador (MAGAP) y del Plan Nacional de Semilla de Papa de CORPOICA e ICA (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario) financiado por el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (MADR) iniciado en Colombia en 2014.En la aeroponía 12 las raíces de las plantas crecen suspendidas en el aire, dentro de cajones cerrados (también llamados módulos) y son alimentadas mediante una solución nutritiva, que es nebulizada y que puede ser recirculada, es decir, se la puede volver a utilizar.No hay uso de sustratos sólidos para sostener las raíces, lo que permite mejorar su aireación y disminuir tanto el impacto ambiental como los costos de producción.Los cajones se ubican en invernaderos o casas de malla que pueden tener sistemas de control de temperatura, humedad y luz.En el caso de la papa, el material inicial son plantas in vitro o esquejes enraizados. Estas plantas se desarrollan y después de un manejo que incluye controles sanitarios, aporque, podas y tutorado, son cosechadas en varias ocasiones (entre 3 y 12 veces dependiendo de la variedad) con rendimientos que pueden superar los 3000 minitubérculos por m 2 , por ciclo de cultivo. Esquema simplificado de un sistema de aeroponía para papa.Del griego aερο (aero) = aire y Πόνος (ponos) = trabajo. 12 Los minitubérculos tienen pesos que varían entre 0,5 y 30 g, aunque ocasionalmente se pueden conseguir minitubérculos de hasta 60 g. Dependiendo de las condiciones, los minitubérculos más grandes son plantados directamente en el campo, mientras que los más pequeños se plantan en bandejas de germinación, para después ser trasplantados al campo, a macetas o a sistemas hidropónicos que utilizan sustratos sólidos. ¿Dónde se originó la aeroponía?Aparentemente, los primeros reportes de aeroponía son de 1922 con manzano 13 y 1942 con piña 14 en EEUU. En la década de los 90 se realizaron varios trabajos para adaptar esta tecnología al cultivo de papa en Corea del Sur 15 . A partir de entonces, se han realizado muchos estudios sobre aeroponía en papa 16 .¿Por qué se usa la aeroponía en los países en desarrollo?Principalmente porque es necesario mejorar la disponibilidad de la semilla certificada de papa, a través de una mayor producción de minitubérculos, una reducción de sus costos de producción y una mayor sanidad.En 2005, el CIP, en alianza con socios nacionales, inició la adaptación y diseminación de la aeroponía en países tropicales ubicados en los Andes, en África Subsahariana y en el Sudeste Asiático. En los Andes, los principales socios del CIP han sido CORPOICA en Colombia e INIAP en Ecuador.El objetivo del CIP y de sus socios fue adaptar la aeroponía a situaciones de limitados recursos, aprovechando las condiciones naturales de la zona tropical, para reducir costos de producción. Así, mientras en países de las zonas templadas los invernaderos de aeroponía necesitan sistemas costosos de control de temperatura y de luz, en países de la zona tropical, los invernaderos regularmente no necesitan de luz adicional y, si se los ubica en zonas altas (> 2600 metros sobre el nivel del mar) el manejo de la temperatura se puede hacer a través de sistemas sencillos, como ventanas, cortinas, etc. Además, en varias zonas tropicales altas se puede tener una producción continua a lo largo del año, lo cual permite reducir los costos de producción. Barker, 1922. Carter, 1942. Kang et al., 1996a, 1996b;Kim et al., 1997Kim et al., , 1999 23 La semilla es muy importante en la producción de papa, porque: uso de variedades resistentes; manejo de semilla; y compra de semilla certificada.La calidad de una semilla está determinada por su sanidad, estado fisiológico, pureza física y pureza genética. En cultivos como la papa, la sanidad y el estado fisiológico son los aspectos más importantes.La baja sanidad de la semilla de papa se explica en gran medida debido a la degeneración de la semilla. La degeneración es la pérdida de rendimiento o calidad debido a la acumulación de patógenos o plagas en la semilla, en ciclos sucesivos de propagación vegetativa.La degeneración de la semilla se maneja a través de 3 tácticas:El paradigma dominante propone que la degeneración de semilla se maneje casi exclusivamente mediante la compra de semilla certificada. La nueva estrategia considera la integración de las tres tácticas mencionadas, dando más importancia al uso de variedades resistentes y al manejo de semilla, especialmente con pequeños agricultores.La aeroponía es una tecnología de cultivo que usa soluciones nutritivas en lugar de suelo. Las raíces de las plantas crecen suspendidas en el aire, dentro de cajones cerrados y son alimentadas mediante una solución nutritiva, que es nebulizada y que puede ser recirculada.Como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla, la aeroponía permite producir una gran cantidad de minitubérculos de papa, a un menor costo, con mayor sanidad y en mayores volúmenes. De esta manera, contribuye a manejar la degeneración de la semilla, a través de una mayor y mejor producción de semilla certificada.Como herramienta de investigación, la aeroponía permite modificar el ambiente en el que crecen las raíces y estudiar el efecto de estas modificaciones en varios procesos.Como herramienta de comunicación e incidencia política, la aeroponía puede atraer recursos para producción e investigación de semilla de papa.define en gran medida el rendimiento del cultivo; permite diseminar y conservar variedades; y ayuda a sostener la soberanía alimentaria y la biodiversidad de un país.Víctor Otazú Jorge Andrade-Piedra CAPÍTULO 2 ANÁLISIS PREVIO A LA IMPLEMENTACIÓN COMERCIAL DE LA AEROPONÍAConocer los aspectos principales que deben tenerse en cuenta antes de la implementación de la aeroponía, para la producción comercial de semilla de papa:El mercado de minitubérculos y la normativa de la semilla.Los riesgos que pueden hacer fracasar la aeroponía.Las tecnologías para producir minitubérculos que puedan reemplazar o complementar la aeroponía.El perfil de las personas o instituciones que están en capacidad de implementar la aeroponía.Porque la aeroponía, si bien es una tecnología muy prometedora para la producción comercial de minitubérculos de papa, también presenta riesgos. No siempre se obtuvieron resultados exitosos por causa de factores limitantes, como: falta de un adecuado estudio de mercado, servicio eléctrico deficiente, fuente de agua contaminada, clima demasiado cálido, etc.La experiencia del CIP, CORPOICA e INIAP en la implementación de módulos de aeroponía durante los últimos diez años, en más de veinte lugares, ha brindado información útil para identificar los principales temas que deben ser analizados antes de implementar la aeroponía para producción comercial de minitubérculos.El mercado, para determinar la demanda de minitubérculos, y la normativa de semilla, para determinar si es posible la venta de minitubérculos desde un punto de vista legal.Los riesgos, para decidir si es conveniente -o no-establecer aeroponía en un lugar, evitando repetir errores cometidos en el pasado, y disminuyendo riesgos actuales.Las tecnologías para producir minitubérculos que puedan reemplazar o complementar la aeroponía. Esto es útil cuando el análisis de riesgos indica que la aeroponía no puede ser usada en un cierto lugar y se deben buscar otras tecnologías.El perfil de las personas o instituciones que están en capacidad de implementar la aeroponía.¿Con qué fin se quiere producir minitubérculos? ¿Existe demanda de minitubérculos de papa? ¿Se pueden vender los minitubérculos de papa? Antes de implementar la aeroponía de manera comercial, hay que plantear y responder algunas preguntas:Estas preguntas pueden parecer innecesarias, pero no lo son. Muchas veces se las omite, o se las formula muy tarde, cuando ya se ha implementado la aeroponía y hay que afrontar la falta de mercado o un vacío legal para vender minitubérculos. Ambas limitaciones pueden hacer colapsar todo el sistema de aeroponía.Para obtener semilla certificada, que servirá para reemplazar a la semilla de los agricultores que ha sufrido degeneración.Sin embargo, hay que recordar que el uso de semilla certificada en el cultivo de papa con agricultores de pequeña escala, ha sido muy bajo en países en desarrollo, a pesar de los grandes esfuerzos que se han realizado en el pasado.Por lo tanto, antes de iniciar la implementación de la aeroponía, es muy importante tener en cuenta que existen otras tácticas para manejar la degeneración de semilla, que pueden ser más eficientes y efectivas, sobre todo con agricultores de pequeña escala: ¿Existe demanda de minitubérculos de papa?Este dato puede obtenerse a través de un estudio de mercado y es crítico para el éxito de la aeroponía como tecnología para producir comercialmente minitubérculos de papa.En la práctica, el mercado de minitubérculos en Colombia, Ecuador y Perú es muy pequeño, ya que los productores de semilla usualmente no compran semilla de la categoría prebásica (minitubérculos), sino semilla de las categorías registrada en Ecuador, y básica y registrada en Perú y Colombia, para multiplicarlas en campo y producir semilla certificada destinada a productores de papa de consumo.La producción de minitubérculos mediante aeroponía para producir semilla certificada, es compleja y costosa. Por lo tanto, antes de iniciar su implementación, hay que preguntarse seriamente si no sería conveniente manejar la degeneración de la semilla de papa mediante otros métodos, como el uso de variedades resistentes -si la hay-y el manejo de semilla en finca.El uso de variedades resistentes a los patógenos que causan degeneración de semilla (como virus, hongos, bacterias) que implica un fuerte trabajo de evaluación de variedades existentes y de mejoramiento genético para generar estas variedades y diseminarlas.El manejo de semilla en finca, que consiste en labores sencillas como la selección positiva y un almacenamiento adecuado, que están al alcance de cualquier productor de semilla y de papa comercial.Las personas o empresas interesadas en producir minitubérculos mediante aeroponía, deben desarrollar el mercado para los minitubérculos, o multiplicarlos en campo hasta obtener semilla básica o registrada (para venta a productores de semilla) o certificada (para venta a productores de papa de consumo). En este caso, el estudio de mercado debe ser para semilla básica, registrada o certificada y no para los minitubérculos.posibles compradores, ubicación geográfica de los compradores, categorías de semilla demandada, volúmenes demandados, variedades de papa demandadas, estacionalidad de la demanda, calidad requerida: sanidad, estado fisiológico, pureza física, pureza genética, tamaño, precio que estaría dispuesto a pagar el comprador por cada categoría de semilla (y por cada tamaño en el caso de minitubérculos).Algunos puntos importantes que deben considerarse en el estudio de mercado son:Para elaborar este estudio se pueden contratar empresas consultoras especializadas.Un análisis de la normativa de la semilla de papa, que es específica para cada país (Colombia 17 , Ecuador 18 y Perú 19 ), permite conocer si se puede realizar la venta.En principio, si el interés es producir minitubérculos dentro del sistema formal, es decir, producir y vender semilla bajo las normas oficiales del Estado, las personas o empresas que quieran producir y vender minitubérculos de papa mediante aeroponía, deben registrarse con la autoridad encargada del control de la producción de semilla, en cada país. ICA, 2003. MAGAP, 2013. INIA, 2009.La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y Agricultura (FAO) publicó una guía 20 en la que se describe una metodología para identificar, medir, manejar y comunicar los riesgos biológicos que pueden ser peligrosos para la vida o la salud humana. En este caso se trata de organismos biológicos -o de sus productos-que pueden llegar a causar enfermedades o daños, tanto a los seres humanos como al medio ambiente.Esta metodología de la FAO para el análisis de riesgos biológicos fue adaptada por el CIP para evaluar los riesgos que pueden hacer fracasar una tecnología de producción como la aeroponía.En Perú, la normativa sí considera la comercialización de semilla prebásica. Sin embargo el alto precio y el tamaño pequeño de los minitubérculos son limitantes para su comercialización. El productor de semilla está acostumbrado a sembrar en campo tubérculos con pesos de 30 a 60 g, lo que generalmente no se consigue con aeroponía. Sensi et al., 2011. 20 Se podrían considerar otros factores, según el contexto local, como la falta de seguridad, especialmente en áreas remotas, aunque este factor puede estar incluido en el de logística y administración.Primer paso. Identificar los factores de riesgo más importantes para la zona de trabajo. Según la experiencia del CIP en África y en la zona andina, los principales factores en orden de importancia son: Fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego.Calidad y/o cantidad de agua inadecuadas.Material a sembrarse de baja calidad.Logística y administración inadecuadas.Identificar los factores de riesgo más importantes.Calificar el impacto de los factores de riesgo usando una escala.Estimar la probabilidad de ocurrencia de los factores de riesgo mediante una escala.Calcular el valor de cada factor de riesgo.Obtener el valor total de riesgo.Comparar el valor total de riesgo con valores predeterminados para obtener una recomendación. Para aplicar la metodología de análisis de riesgos para la aeroponía en una determinada zona, se siguen seis pasos:Tercer paso. Estimar la probabilidad de ocurrencia de cada factor de riesgo mediante una escala de 1 a 5: Estos valores pueden ser modificados de acuerdo con las condiciones de cada zona y con los criterios de las personas a cargo de realizar el análisis. Por ejemplo, bajo ciertas condiciones, una logística y una administración inadecuadas pueden recibir un valor de impacto de 5, es decir, igual al efecto que causan las fallas de electricidad.Según la experiencia del CIP, los valores de impacto de los factores de riesgo son los siguientes:Segundo paso. Calificar los factores de riesgo usando una escala (1 a 5) que estima el impacto que podrían causar en el sistema de producción: La probabilidad de ocurrencia varía de acuerdo con las condiciones donde se implemente la aeroponía.Fallas Cuarto paso. Calcular el valor de un factor de riesgo multiplicando el impacto por la probabilidad de ocurrencia:En el ejemplo sería:Como ejemplo se usará una situación hipotética con los siguientes valores y su respectiva interpretación:Fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego Fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego, a veces.Clima inadecuado, siempre.Calidad y/o cantidad de agua inadecuadas Calidad y/o cantidad de agua inadecuadas, a veces.Invernadero inadecuado, rara vez.Material de siembra de baja calidad Material a sembrarse de baja calidad, siempre.Personal poco capacitado Personal poco capacitado, rara vez.Logística y administración inadecuadas, nunca. Quinto paso. Sumar los valores de cada factor de riesgo para obtener un valor total que representa el riesgo de implementar aeroponía bajo ciertas condiciones.En el ejemplo el valor total de riesgo es: 74.Sexto paso. Finalmente, comparar el valor total de riesgo con los valores de la siguiente tabla, para obtener recomendaciones sobre la factibilidad -o no-de implementar aeroponía en determinadas condiciones:En el ejemplo el valor total de riesgo es 74 y la recomendación es hacer modificaciones importantes antes de implementar la aeroponía pues, bajo las condiciones actuales, el riesgo de fracaso es alto. Una segunda alternativa es usar otra técnica de multiplicación de semilla, como las que se describen más adelante.Como se puede ver en el cuadro anterior, los valores de riesgo para el caso de aeroponía, varían entre 24 y 120. Estos valores se explican de la siguiente manera:El valor de 24 se obtiene cuando la probabilidad de ocurrencia de todos los factores de riesgo es 1 = nunca, es decir las condiciones son óptimas para implementar aeroponía porque:se presentan fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego, se presenta clima inadecuado, la calidad y/o cantidad de agua son inadecuadas, el invernadero es inadecuado, el material de siembra es de baja calidad, hay personal poco capacitado, la logística y la administración son inadecuadas.De 24 a 33Es muy probable que la aeroponía fracase, a no ser que se hagan modificaciones importantes. Considerar seriamente el uso de otra técnica de multiplicación de semilla.Se puede implementar aeroponía sin mayores riesgos.De 34 a 43 Se puede implementar aeroponía, pero con cautela. Considerar el uso de otra técnica de multiplicación de semilla.De 44 a 120Por el contrario, el valor de 120 se obtiene cuando la probabilidad de ocurrencia de todos los factores de riesgo es 5 = siempre, es decir, cuando las condiciones son completamente inadecuadas para implementar aeroponía porque:Este es el mayor factor de riesgo en el proceso de producción en aeroponía. Por eso se le ha asignado el impacto con el valor máximo: 5 = muy importante.Podemos tener energía eléctrica en 29 de los 30 días del mes, pero bastará que una tarde de mucho calor se corte la energía o se dañe una bomba por 2 o 3 horas, para que se afecte severamente la producción de aeroponía.Hay instituciones que tienen generadores eléctricos confiables -que se prenden en forma automática cuando se corta la electricidad-así como bombas y otros elementos del sistema de riego de respaldo, que sirven para reemplazar inmediatamente al equipo averiado. Si este es el caso, debemos asignar un valor de 1 = nunca a la probabilidad de ocurrencia.En la mayoría de lugares donde se ha implementado aeroponía hay generadores eléctricos de emergencia, que son útiles cuando se corta la energía por pocas horas. Pero… si el corte es por periodos largos (varios días), estos generadores ya no sirven. En esos casos se deben asignar valores altos a la probabilidad de ocurrencia (4 = frecuentemente, o 5 = siempre).Fallas en el sistema eléctrico o de riego pueden llevar a pérdidas totales en los módulos de aeroponía. Esto es particularmente peligroso en días feriados, cuando el personal técnico y operarios no están presentes para hacer reparaciones de emergencia.Siempre… se presentan fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego, se presenta clima inadecuado, la calidad y/o cantidad de agua son inadecuadas, el invernadero es inadecuado, el material de siembra es de baja calidad, hay personal poco capacitado, la logística y la administración son inadecuadas.El abastecimiento continuo de electricidad y de riego es tan importante que aun cuando el resto de factores de riesgo tenga como probabilidad de ocurrencia 1 = nunca, el sistema estaría destinado al fracaso, si el servicio eléctrico es de baja calidad y no se dispone de un generador eléctrico de emergencia.Es otro factor importante, al cual se le ha asignado el valor de impacto 4 = importante.Aunque casi siempre el factor climático limitante es el calor en las zonas tropicales, en algunos sitios, como en las partes altas de los Andes y en otras zonas montañosas, el factor limitante es el frío intenso, por lo menos en una época del año.La papa requiere de climas relativamente fríos, en especial durante las noches. Un clima ideal para el desarrollo de las plantas en invernadero es de entre 18 y 25°C durante el día y de entre 8 y 15°C durante las noches.Si estas condiciones se dan en la mayor parte del año, las probabilidades de un clima inadecuado son mínimas. Si estas condiciones se dan sólo en una parte del año, se debe considerar un número mayor de probabilidades de ocurrencia.Temperaturas internas de invernadero mayores a 30°C por más de 4 horas, pueden causar problemas en el sistema radicular de las plantas, y generar condiciones propicias para el desarrollo de patógenos. De igual manera, temperaturas menores a 4°C pueden causar daños en las plantas.Para tener una idea más precisa sobre el clima de una región, es útil contar con información meteorológica de los últimos diez años. Para zonas tropicales altas, como los Andes, se puede estimar la temperatura interna de los invernaderos antes de su construcción, adicionando 5°C a la temperatura promedio ambiental.La zona andina con alturas de entre 2600 a 3500 msnm, presenta condiciones climáticas favorables para el establecimiento de aeroponía. En general, no es necesario enfriar o calentar los invernaderos como se hace en Europa o Norte América, lo que aumenta los costos.Si se dispone de invernaderos con control ambiental, hay que tener en cuenta que esto incidirá en un mayor costo de producción.El agua que proviene de pozos profundos tiene buena calidad microbiológica, aunque puede presentar problemas de dureza (altos contenidos de minerales).Pozos superficiales suelen contaminarse, especialmente cuando hay lluvias torrenciales.Las aguas provenientes de manantiales pueden verse bien, incluso suelen presentar indicadores óptimos después de los análisis respectivos, pero en la temporada lluviosa pueden contaminarse.Aguas provenientes del sistema de agua potable de un lugar urbano, pueden contener demasiado cloro.Aguas que provienen de lagunas y ríos no son seguras, pues pueden estar contaminadas con desechos químicos o biológicos. El patógeno más frecuente asociado con aguas contaminadas es Fusarium spp.La contaminación del sistema de riego por patógenos que afectan al sistema vascular o radicular de la planta, puede fácilmente, causar pérdida total de los módulos.En la mayoría de lugares donde se ha implementado aeroponía se observó que el agua era de buena calidad, tanto química como microbiológicamente, y que estaba disponible. Por lo tanto se ha asignado a este factor un valor de impacto intermedio: 3 = moderadamente importante.Se debe tener en cuenta que:Si existe la menor duda respecto de la calidad microbiológica del agua, se la debe filtrar antes de usarla en aeroponía. Otra opción es hervirla, aunque esto puede ser costoso. En el CIP-Huancayo (Perú) se probaron ambas opciones y se pudo comprobar que la mejor es el filtrado.Plantas de papa cultivadas en aeroponía con agua de riego filtrada (izquierda) y con agua hervida (derecha).Filtro para purificar el agua de riego en sistemas de aeroponía en el CIP-Huancayo.A este factor se le asigna un valor de impacto intermedio: 3 = moderadamente importante.Hay instituciones que han usado invernaderos para multiplicar semilla de papa y conocen el diseño que podría adaptarse mejor para aeroponía. También hay lugares donde nunca se han usado invernaderos y hasta es difícil conseguir albañiles que puedan construirlos. En estos casos es recomendable acudir a un técnico u otro personal con suficiente experiencia en este tipo de trabajo.Un invernadero con control ambiental deberá tener el mínimo valor de probabilidad de ocurrencia: 1 = nunca.Un invernadero con diseño adecuado a las características de la zona, con una buena orientación, con mallas sombreadoras para días soleados, tiene una baja probabilidad de ocurrencia: 2 = rara vez.Por el contrario un invernadero de techo bajo, con orientación deficiente y con mallas sombreadoras inadecuadas, deberá tener un valor alto (4 = frecuentemente o 5 = siempre) en la probabilidad de ocurrencia. Lo mismo para un invernadero que no está bien mantenido, con antecámara mal implementada y con orificios que permiten la entrada de insectos vectores.Nunca se deben usar minitubérculos provenientes de campo o de un sistema de producción convencional de invernadero (macetas o camas) porque, aunque luzcan limpios, pueden estar infectados con patógenos.A este factor se le ha asignado un valor de impacto intermedio: 3 = moderadamente importante.Para multiplicar semilla de papa por aeroponía es recomendable usar plántulas in vitro, vigorosas, sanas y en estado fisiológico óptimo.Si no se tienen plántulas in vitro se pueden usar esquejes o minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía o de hidroponía.A este factor se le ha asignado un valor de impacto intermedio: 3 = moderadamente importante.La aeroponía requiere de una capacitación especializada para el personal a cargo. Sólo así se podrán superar las dificultades que se presenten durante un ciclo de producción, minimizando los problemas que puedan aparecer.Ver Capítulo 6. Manejo: Acondicionamiento en bandejas con arena. 21 necesidad de cambiar una bomba averiada, compra de combustible para el generador eléctrico de emergencia, presencia inesperada de una plaga que debe ser controlada de inmediato, etc.Personal poco capacitado puede equivocarse en la dosificación de plaguicidas o de fertilizantes. Esto podría causar pérdidas totales en los módulos, por intoxicación de las plantas.Una baja capacidad logística y administrativa para responder a situaciones de emergencia, puede fácilmente causar pérdidas totales en los módulos aeropónicos.La capacitación debe estar dirigida a técnicos de implementación y a operarios 22 . El personal técnico y los operarios son quienes manejan el módulo de aeroponía todos los días, para lo cual deben estar bien capacitados y motivados.Es recomendable capacitar por lo menos a dos personas con estabilidad laboral. Suele ocurrir que cuando el técnico de implementación o el operario salen de vacaciones o se ausentan por enfermedad u otros motivos, se los reemplaza por personas que no tienen la capacitación adecuada, lo que puede causar serios inconvenientes.A este factor de riesgo también se le ha asignado un valor de impacto intermedio: 3 = moderadamente importante.Este factor se refiere al apoyo necesario para contratar personal, comprar insumos, implementar planes de comercialización, etc., que se requieren para llevar adelante la aeroponía. Este apoyo depende de quién la implementará: una persona, una empresa privada, una organización gubernamental (OG), una organización no gubernamental (ONG), o una empresa mixta.Cada una de ellas tiene aparatos logísticos y administrativos diferentes, y de ello depende que puedan responder a las exigencias que demanda la aeroponía. Esta capacidad de respuesta se manifiesta especialmente en casos de emergencias como:Ver Capítulo 3. Recursos Humanos.Las condiciones del CIP en Huancayo son óptimas para la implementación de la aeroponía, salvo en la calidad de agua que proviene de un pozo superficial y que en la época lluviosa es susceptible de contaminaciones. Para subsanar este problema se filtró el agua antes de preparar la solución nutritiva.En general las empresas privadas tienen aparatos logísticos y administrativos eficientes, pues de ello depende su permanencia en la actividad. Por el contrario, se ha observado que algunas instituciones públicas tienen aparatos logísticos y administrativos que pueden ser ineficientes.Material de siembra de baja calidad Personal poco capacitado Logística y administración inadecuadas en Lima, el limitante es el clima demasiado caluroso, entre diciembre y abril. Para superar esta situación, las siembras de aeroponía se las realiza a partir de mayo, en Quito, las principales limitantes son la calidad microbiológica del agua 23 y un invernadero que no brinda las condiciones óptimas para la aeroponía (techo muy bajo y ventilación deficiente). Para solucionar estos inconvenientes, se instaló un filtro microbiológico y se han hecho varias adecuaciones para mejorar la ventilación del invernadero 24 . el riesgo de corte eléctrico se reduce con generadores eléctricos de transferencia automática; el clima es frio seco de zona andina (2600 msnm) con baja probabilidad de heladas; y el agua es potable, sin riesgos de contaminación por agentes patógenos.Análisis de riesgos realizados por el CIP 25 en otras experiencias de aeroponía en los Andes y África, permiten sacar conclusiones más generales:Las condiciones del CIP en Lima y en Quito (en alianza con el INIAP) son adecuadas para implementar aeroponía, pero hay que hacerlo con cautela porque:Las condiciones de CORPOICA en la Sabana de Bogotá -Centro de investigación Tibaitatá-son óptimas para la técnica, debido a que: Los valores totales de riesgo en estas experiencias varían entre 30 y 57. Los valores más bajos corresponden a experiencias manejadas por empresas privadas y los valores más altos a experiencias manejadas por instituciones públicas. Esto indica que las experiencias que tienen mayor probabilidad de éxito son las manejadas por empresas privadas. Sin embargo, esto no quiere decir que no existan casos exitosos de instituciones públicas que implementan comercialmente la aeroponía, como es el caso de CORPOICA en Colombia.El análisis de riesgos ayuda a identificar factores críticos, que deben ser manejados por las personas o instituciones que quieran implementar la aeroponía:En un ciclo de producción existió contaminación por un patógeno radicular y se sospecha que las esporas entraron por el agua de riego. Ver Capítulo 4. Infraestructura. Se dispone de análisis similares de dos experiencias más en Perú (INIA en Huancayo y MINAG en Huancavelica), una experiencia en Ecuador (INIAP en Sangolquí) y siete experiencias en África: Burundi (Gisozi), Etiopía (Holetta), Mozambique (Lichinga), Kenia (Tigoni, Kisima y Molo) y Tanzania (Mbeya). Los análisis de riesgos de estas experiencias están disponibles bajo pedido a Víctor Otazú: viota68@gmail.comMediante el análisis de riesgos es posible identificar situaciones en las que la aeroponía tiene alta probabilidad de fracaso. En esos casos es necesario realizar modificaciones para superar los factores de riesgo o identificar otras tecnologías para producir minitubérculos de papa.Por ejemplo, si donde se quiere implementar la aeroponía existe un deficiente servicio eléctrico, hay que comprar un generador de electricidad de emergencia. Si no es posible, entonces hay que desechar la idea de implementar aeroponía y buscar otra tecnología que sea adecuada para las condiciones del lugar, es decir, que no requiera un abastecimiento constante de electricidad.Además de los criterios técnicos, es necesario considerar criterios económicos para seleccionar la tecnología que mejor se adapte a las condiciones locales. Indicadores como la rentabilidad deben ser tomados en cuenta.En el Anexo 1 se describen brevemente las ventajas y desventajas de la aeroponía y de tres tecnologías alternativas para la producción de minitubérculos de papa: convencional, semihidroponía y técnica de la lámina de nutrientes (NFT 26 ).El principal factor de riesgo para la aeroponía son las fallas en el sistema eléctrico. En lugares con servicio deficiente de energía eléctrica, la implementación de aeroponía no ha sido exitosa o se han conseguido cantidades muy bajas de semilla. El uso de generadores eléctricos de emergencia confiables es indispensable en esas condiciones, lo cual significa costos de adquisición y mantenimiento.Los factores de riesgo relacionados con el clima y la calidad de agua son difíciles y costosos de modificar, pues implican una fuerte inversión en sistemas de control ambiental del invernadero, así como uso de filtros, perforación de pozos, etc. Esto indica la necesidad de hacer una correcta selección del sitio para implementar el invernadero, tanto en términos de altitud (que en gran parte define la temperatura en el caso de la zona tropical) como de acceso a fuentes de agua de buena calidad con abastecimiento continuo.Los otros factores de riesgo, como la calidad del material de siembra, capacidad del personal, logística y administración, en teoría, pueden ser manejados para asegurar el éxito de la aeroponía. Sin embargo, en condiciones reales, muchas veces el ambiente institucional impide que se hagan cambios en estos factores.Nutrient film technique. 26Una de las principales desventajas de la aeroponía es el alto riesgo de pérdida total. Esto puede ser causado por una falla eléctrica o de algún elemento del sistema de riego; por la contaminación del sistema de riego por un patógeno; por una falla en la preparación de la solución nutritiva o en la aplicación de un plaguicida, etc.Al mismo tiempo, una parte significativa de la producción de aeroponía consiste en minitubérculos menores a 5 g, que no pueden ser multiplicados directamente en el campo, pero que pueden ser multiplicados en invernadero, mediante otras tecnologías.En tal sentido, para evitar el alto riesgo de pérdida total, así como para aprovechar los minitubérculos más pequeños, se puede evaluar la conveniencia de que la aeroponía sea parte de un sistema integrado de producción de minitubérculos en el que se combinen varias tecnologías. Un ejemplo de este sistema se encuentra en el Anexo 2.Capacidad empresarial. La aeroponía, desde un punto de vista comercial, es una tecnología para satisfacer las necesidades de un mercado y generar utilidades. En tal sentido, la persona o institución que desee implementarla debe tener una visión empresarial, para elaborar e implementar un plan de negocios de manera eficiente y efectiva.Capacidad económica. La aeroponía es una de las tecnologías más costosas y complejas para producir minitubérculos de papa. Por lo tanto, la persona o institución que desee implementarla, deberá contar con los fondos necesarios para construir o adaptar un invernadero y equiparlo, contratar y brindar estabilidad laboral a personal técnico y administrativo, y llevar adelante el proceso de producción y comercialización.No es suficiente contar con recursos económicos, es necesario que estos estén disponibles en el momento oportuno, porque la aeroponía tiene un alto riesgo de pérdida total por fallas en el sistema eléctrico, por ingreso de patógenos al sistema de riego, o por desbalances en la solución nutritiva, lo que obliga a responder rápidamente a situaciones de emergencia.La experiencia del CIP, INIAP y CORPOICA indica que el perfil requerido para las personas o instituciones que quieran implementar comercialmente la aeroponía, combina capacidades en cuatro áreas: empresarial, económica, administrativa y técnica, en ese orden de importancia.Es necesario que, previo a la implementación de la aeroponía, se haga una evaluación rigurosa para determinar si se dispone -o no-de las capacidades necesarias para implementarla. Si se define que falta alguna de estas capacidades, entonces se recomienda considerar el uso de tecnologías menos costosas y complejas, como la convencional o la semihidroponía.En la zona andina, la aeroponía está en la fase inicial de diseminación, por lo que es prematuro prever el tipo de instituciones que tendrán éxito en su implementación. Sin embargo, la experiencia del CIP en África, indica que los casos exitosos se dieron, en su mayoría, en el sector privado, especialmente en empresas con experiencia en producción bajo invernadero.La persona o institución que desee implementar la aeroponía deberá contar con la suficiente agilidad administrativa y logística para prever situaciones de emergencia y, de ser el caso, responder efectivamente, muchas veces en cuestión de horas.Capacidad técnica. La aeroponía requiere de personal calificado en construcción y manejo de invernaderos y sistemas de riego, nutrición vegetal, fisiología vegetal, control de plagas y enfermedades 27 . La persona o institución que desee implementar aeroponía deberá contar con el suficiente apoyo de especialistas para enfrentar los retos técnicos que se presenten, sobre todo en la fase inicial de validación a las condiciones locales.Ver Capítulo 3. Recursos Humanos. 27Antes de implementar la aeroponía es necesario realizar un análisis de cuatro temas: el mercado y la normativa de semillas, los riesgos, las tecnologías para producir minitubérculos que puedan reemplazar o complementar a la aeroponía, y el perfil de las personas o instituciones que están en capacidad de implementar la aeroponía. fallas de electricidad o del sistema de riego, clima inadecuado, calidad y/o cantidad de agua inadecuadas, invernadero inadecuado, material de siembra de baja calidad, personal poco capacitado, y logística y administración inadecuadas.El estudio de mercado y el análisis de la normativa de semillas sirven para definir con qué fin se van a producir minitubérculos, si existe demanda y si se los puede vender.El análisis de riesgos permite definir y calificar los riesgos que pueden hacer fracasar la aeroponía, mediante una escala numérica. Dentro de estos riesgos, los más importantes son: Si el análisis de riesgos identifica situaciones en las que la aeroponía tiene alta probabilidad de fracaso, entonces es necesario realizar modificaciones para superar los factores de riesgo o identificar otras tecnologías para producir minitubérculos de papa.Jorge Andrade-Piedra CAPÍTULO 3Describir las características del personal necesario para la implementación y manejo de la producción aeropónica.Explicar algunas experiencias relacionadas con los recursos humanos.Se necesitan dos tipos de técnicos: Son los responsables de liderar las fases de: construcción de la infraestructura, pruebas iniciales de la aeroponía y producción.Sus funciones específicas son: técnicos de implementación y técnicos especializados Gestionar y supervisar el diseño y la construcción del sistema de aeroponía (invernadero, módulos, sistema de riego, etc.) con técnicos y obreros especializados en construcción de invernaderos, instalación de equipos de riego, etc. Diseñar e implementar una fase inicial de pruebas y adaptación de la aeroponía a las condiciones locales (este proceso también se llama validación).Planificar y supervisar la producción:Elaborar e implementar un plan de comercialización de los minitubérculos y/o de la semilla que se produzca a partir de ellos.Elaborar e implementar un plan de producción, incluyendo plan de trasplante y cosecha, manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades y manejo de nutrición vegetal.Capacitar y supervisar a las y los operarios en las labores de instalación, mantenimiento, cosecha y poscosecha del cultivo.Gestionar el apoyo administrativo para el registro de costos de producción, comercialización, contratación de obreros especializados, compra de equipos e insumos, arreglos de emergencia, etc.Gestionar el apoyo de técnicos especializados (ingenieros civiles, fisiólogos vegetales, fitopatólogos, entomólogos, etc.) de acuerdo con los requerimientos que se presenten.Técnico de implementación, CIP-Lima.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Este técnico debería ir adquiriendo experiencia en el manejo de la aeroponía, dentro de un plan de sucesión de funciones. Es decir, podría ingresar como técnico junior y, después de un periodo de al menos dos ciclos de cultivo, acceder a la posición de técnico de implementación.Otra alternativa es que realice una pasantía de algunas semanas en un sistema de aeroponía que esté en marcha. Si no es posible, este Manual, puede ayudar al proceso de autoaprendizaje, aunque en este caso, se recomienda considerar, al menos el primer ciclo de cultivo, como un ciclo de capacitación.En países con industria de producción de flores para la exportación (como Colombia y Ecuador), es posible contratar personal capacitado en manejo de cultivos en invernaderos, que pueden actuar como técnicos de implementación de aeroponía. En la mayoría de los casos, estos técnicos no tendrán experiencia en el cultivo de papa, pero la pueden adquirir mediante el uso de este Manual y de bibliografía especializada en producción de papa.De preferencia, ser ingeniero/a agrónomo/a; o haber cursado una carrera afín como biólogo, ingeniero ambiental etc.; o bien ser egresado de un instituto técnico agropecuario.Por lo menos tres años de experiencia en manejo de invernaderos.Conocimientos básicos de fisiología y nutrición de plantas; identificación y control de plagas y enfermedades; electricidad y manejo de sistemas de riego.Capacidad para resolver problemas de manera autónoma, con fuerte sentido de responsabilidad y compromiso. Además, esta persona deberá prestar atención a los detalles, manifestar curiosidad y deseos de innovar.Disponibilidad para trabajar en días feriados y horas extras.Las y los operarios son personas clave en la implementación de la aeroponía, porque realizan las labores de manejo agronómico.Sus funciones específicas, bajo la supervisión del técnico de implementación, son: Son expertos en distintas áreas relevantes de la implementación de la aeroponía. Su función general es la de asesorar al técnico de implementación, según sus respectivas especialidades, cuando se requieran sus servicios.Prestar apoyo al técnico de implementación para el diseño y construcción del invernadero, del sistema de riego, de un plan de comercialización y de cualquier otro aspecto que lo requiera.Colaborar en la solución de problemas y cuando se presenten situaciones inesperadas (como toxicidad o deficiencia de nutrientes, ataque de una plaga o enfermedad, daño del sistema de riego, etc.). Para ello deberán estar disponibles y responder de manera rápida, muchas veces en un periodo de uno o dos días e incluso de horas.Este tipo de técnico tendrá formación por lo menos en una de las siguientes áreas: fisiología vegetal, fitopatología, entomología, biotecnología, instalación y manejo de equipos de riego e invernaderos, electricidad, electrónica, ingeniería civil, economía, etc.Tener estudios de tercer o cuarto nivel, con al menos tres años de experiencia en su campo.Mantener limpio el invernadero y sus alrededores.Realizar mantenimiento y reparaciones de emergencia de la infraestructura y los equipos.Acondicionar las plantas al ambiente del invernadero previo al trasplante (acondicionamiento).Trasplantar, aporcar, podar y tutorar las plantas.Operaria, CIP-Quito. Por lo menos estudios de segundo nivel.Capacidad para realizar labores manuales con prolijidad.Sentido de responsabilidad y compromiso, atención a los detalles, curiosidad, deseos de aprender.Disponibilidad para trabajar en feriados en turnos rotativos.Preparar mezclas de plaguicidas y aplicarlos siguiendo las normas de manejo seguro de plaguicidas.Preparar soluciones nutritivas.Cosechar y seleccionar los minitubérculos.Realizar el cambio de plástico, microaspersores, etc. de los módulos de aeroponía.Realizan las tareas correspondientes a su oficio: albañiles, gasfiteros, carpinteros, electricistas, etc.Es responsable de aplicar los procesos administrativos para facilitar el desarrollo del trabajo de los técnicos y de los operarios.Construir el invernadero y los módulos de aeroponía.Instalar el sistema de riego.Realizar reparaciones y mantenimiento de la infraestructura y los equipos, bajo supervisión de los técnicos especializados.De preferencia con estudios de nivel técnico.Al menos tres años de experiencia en su campo.Compromiso para entregar los trabajos en las fechas acordadas.Apoyar en la implementación del plan de comercialización de minitubérculos y/o de la semilla que se produzca a partir de ellos.Llevar la contabilidad y los costos de producción del sistema de aeroponía.Facilitar la contratación de obreros y técnicos de apoyo.Obtener cotizaciones y comprar equipos e insumos, como fertilizantes, plaguicidas, plantas in vitro, etc.Realizar el pago de sueldos y de horas extras.Manejar un fondo económico de acceso rápido, para cubrir situaciones de emergencia.Estudios de segundo o tercer nivel.Al menos dos años de experiencia en su campo.Capacidad de planificación y solución de problemas.Sin duda, el recurso humano es fundamental para el éxito de la aeroponía. Sin embargo, muchas veces se presentan problemas, como los siguientes: La aeroponía necesita de monitoreo constante, incluidos feriados, sobre todo durante la fase de pruebas iniciales y adaptación de la aeroponía a las condiciones locales (validación). No obstante, en empresas públicas, la gestión de horas extras y permisos, muchas veces es tan complicada en términos administrativos, que genera contratiempos e incluso pérdidas totales. Por ejemplo, si una bomba de riego falla un viernes por la noche y no se repara en las siguientes 12 horas, sino el lunes, es muy probable que las plantas hayan alcanzado el punto de marchitez permanente y mueran.Por lo tanto, la disponibilidad de personal para monitorear el sistema de aeroponía, sobre todo en la fase inicial de validación, debe ser permanente. Este es un punto a favor de las empresas privadas que ya están en el negocio de producción en invernadero (como la industria de floricultura en Colombia y en Ecuador) ya que disponen de mecanismos para mantener un monitoreo constante de sus invernaderos, a través de turnos de personal durante los feriados.La aeroponía necesita un eficiente apoyo administrativo en todas sus fases, desde la construcción de la infraestructura y la validación del sistema, hasta la implementación a nivel comercial. Sin embargo, esto no siempre se da y la responsabilidad de contratar personal, cotizar insumos, realizar compras, etc., recae en el técnico de implementación.Estas son algunas situaciones que se pueden presentar:No disponibilidad para trabajar los feriados.Falta de apoyo administrativo y dificultades de acceso a un fondo de emergencia.Rotación de personal.Trabajo con estudiantes.Falta de apoyo administrativo y dificultades de acceso a un fondo de emergencia Esto le genera una sobrecarga de trabajo, que afecta sus funciones propiamente técnicas. El problema se agrava si las compras de insumos o reparaciones de equipo no se pueden realizar de manera rápida, sobre todo en situaciones de emergencia.En algunas oportunidades ocurre que se capacita a determinado personal, pero después se lo destina a cumplir otras funciones, con lo cual se producen pérdidas importantes en términos de tiempo y de dinero.Por ejemplo, en Perú hubo un cambio de alcalde en un gobierno local que implementó invernaderos de aeroponía. Esto originó el despido del técnico que había sido previamente capacitado y en su reemplazo se contrató a otro técnico que no tenía experiencia en producción de papa. De manera similar, en Kenia una técnica entrenada en aeroponía, fue enviada a un curso de capacitación en otro tema y en su reemplazo se dejó a un operario sin experiencia en el tema. En ambos casos, la implementación de la aeroponía se vio seriamente afectada.Ya que la rotación de personal es difícil de evitar, se recomienda mantener un plan de sucesión de personal. Este plan tiene como fin asegurar que el personal capacitado, paulatinamente, capacite al personal nuevo, para que pueda actuar como su reemplazo.En la fase de validación de la aeroponía en Ecuador se trabajó con estudiantes de ingeniería agronómica, quienes realizaron esta tarea como parte de su tesis de grado. En efecto, la tecnología se validó y se publicaron tres tesis de grado 28 .Sin embargo, después de terminar cada tesis, el proceso de capacitación del siguiente estudiante se inició desde cero, con lo cual varias de las experiencias adquiridas se perdieron.Por eso es recomendable mantener siempre un técnico de implementación que monitoree a los estudiantes y, al mismo tiempo, capitalice las experiencias que se van generando, especialmente aquellas que no se reportan en las tesis de grado, pero que son importantes.Por eso la importancia de tener un eficiente apoyo administrativo y además un fondo económico de acceso rápido para cubrir situaciones de emergencia, sobre todo en el caso de empresas públicas, en las cuales los trámites pueden ser engorrosos. Este es otro punto a favor de las empresas privadas que regularmente disponen de mecanismos ágiles para realizar compras o reparaciones no planificadas.Para la implementación de aeroponía es muy importante el recurso humano. Se requiere: personal técnico (de implementación y especializados), operarios, obreros especializados y personal administrativo.La mayor responsabilidad recae en el técnico de implementación que está al frente de los procesos de construcción de infraestructura, de las pruebas iniciales de la aeroponía, de la supervisión de operarios y obreros especializados, y de la coordinación con el personal administrativo. Estos técnicos de implementación deberán estar suficientemente capacitados y motivados para desempeñar sus funciones en el invernadero.Los técnicos especializados -expertos en distintos aspectos relevantes para la aeroponía (construcción de invernaderos, instalación de sistemas de riego, fisiología vegetal, etc.)asesoran al técnico de implementación, según su especialidad.Los operarios realizan las labores de manejo agronómico bajo la capacitación y supervisión del técnico de implementación. Son las personas que están en contacto permanente con las plantas y por lo tanto son claves para la producción.Los obreros especializados desarrollan sus tareas de acuerdo con su oficio (albañiles, carpinteros, gasfiteros, etc.). Son especialmente importantes para construir, instalar y mantener la infraestructura, como el invernadero, los módulos de aeroponía y el sistema de riego.El personal administrativo cumple funciones de apoyo para facilitar el trabajo de los técnicos y operarios.CAPÍTULO 4Describir los detalles de la infraestructura necesarios para el funcionamiento de la aeroponía, de tal manera que el técnico de implementación pueda diseñar, contratar y supervisar su construcción y mantenimiento.Compartir los resultados y los aprendizajes que se produjeron en Ecuador, Colombia y Perú.Este tema requiere que se aborden los siguientes aspectos:Para obtener buenos resultados en aeroponía es importante elegir un sitio adecuado para instalar la infraestructura.Estos criterios pueden ser útiles:En la zona andina, el clima está muy influenciado por la altitud y en menor grado por la latitud. Se ha logrado una buena producción de papa mediante aeroponía en invernaderos instalados entre 2600 y 3500 msnm, sin sistemas sofisticados de control de ambiente. A estas altitudes es posible mantener dentro del invernadero, durante al menos 6 meses, una temperatura promedio diaria de entre 18 y 25ºC durante el día y de entre 8 y 15ºC durante la noche. La temperatura máxima dentro del invernadero no debe ser mayor a 30ºC 29 y la mínima no debe ser menor a 4°C.Es un factor fundamental de la aeroponía ya que es imprescindible para el funcionamiento del sistema de riego. Por esta razón se debe contar con una fuente segura de provisión de energía eléctrica y una fuente alterna en caso de emergencia (generador eléctrico).Debe haber agua de buena calidad, en la cantidad suficiente y de forma estable.Para evitar la acumulación de agua y masas de aire frío, que ocurre en las hondonadas.Para facilitar la construcción de la infraestructura, así como el ingreso y la salida de materiales y personal. Lejos de zonas polvorientas En lo posible, el sitio elegido debe estar lejos de zonas polvorientas, debido a que el polvo se deposita en los techos, disminuyendo el paso de luz al interior, además de contaminar las plantas.Donde pueda vivir el personal encargado para evitar largos traslados y, en caso de ser necesario, pueda responder rápidamente para solucionar cualquier problema que se presente en el cultivo o en alguno de los componentes de la infraestructura.Para que no dañen la infraestructura.Para poder aprovechar al máximo la luz solar.Para evitar el robo o el daño de las instalaciones.Para reducir el riesgo de transmisión de enfermedades y plagas al cultivo aeropónico.Para posibles planes de expansión en el futuro.La construcción e instalación de la infraestructura para implementar aeroponía requiere ayuda especializada. La supervisión es responsabilidad del técnico de implementación, mientras que la construcción e instalación en sí, estará a cargo de técnicos y obreros especializados.Dependiendo de la escala, la construcción del invernadero se podrá hacer con obreros especializados en construcción de invernaderos, o mediante la contratación de empresas especializadas.Para la construcción de la estructura de los módulos de aeroponía se requiere de un carpintero o de un cerrajero, según la estructura sea de madera o de metal. La colocación de las láminas de aislante y plástico no es compleja, por lo que la puede realizar el operario del invernadero.Para la instalación del sistema de riego es necesario contar con asesoramiento de un técnico y de obreros especializados (plomero y electricista).Un invernadero es una instalación cubierta con materiales transparentes, que dejan pasar los rayos solares para que se caliente el ambiente interior y se realice la fotosíntesis de las plantas.Además las protege de la acción de lluvias, heladas, granizo, pájaros, insectos plaga, etc.Dependiendo de su diseño, un invernadero permite cierto nivel de control de la temperatura, la luz y la humedad relativa, lo cual beneficia el desarrollo del cultivo.En los Andes y en otras zonas tropicales altas se puede producir papa en invernaderos sencillos, durante la mayor parte del año, sin costosos sistemas de control de ambiente. Por supuesto, se pueden construir invernaderos más sofisticados, pero sería un gasto innecesario debido a las condiciones climáticas adecuadas de la zona para este tipo de cultivo.El invernadero que se recomienda para aeroponía en la zona andina es una construcción relativamente sencilla, que está constituida por:De aquí en adelante se mencionarán recomendaciones generales para la construcción de una casa de malla. Especificaciones más detalladas se pueden encontrar en textos especializados para construcción de invernaderos.A este tipo de invernadero se lo conoce como casa de malla, porque las paredes son de malla en lugar de vidrio o de plástico, como en otros invernaderos.una estructura de soporte, cubierta y paredes de malla antiáfido.Casa de malla en el CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Byron Potosi.La orientación de la casa de malla, (norte-sur o este-oeste) es importante para tener condiciones ambientales apropiadas.En general, el factor más importante para orientar adecuadamente una casa de malla es la temperatura, definida por el movimiento del sol durante el día.El techo de las casas de malla ubicadas en países de la región andina, ofrece mayor superficie de calentamiento si está orientado de norte a sur, lo cual es recomendable para zonas frías. Por el contrario, para zonas cálidas, se recomienda una orientación de este a oeste para disminuir el calor, en especial, en las tardes de días soleados.Otros factores, como dirección del viento, presencia de obstáculos, etc., se pueden considerar también al momento de orientar una casa de malla.Esto depende del número de módulos de aeroponía que se vayan a construir, lo cual, a su vez, está definido por la cantidad de minitubérculos que se espera producir. En la zona andina algunas de las casas de malla usadas para aeroponía tienen un ancho que varía entre 5 y 20 m.De igual manera, el largo depende del número de módulos que se vayan a construir. En la zona andina, algunas de las casas de malla usadas para aeroponía tienen un largo que varía entre 15 y 40 m.Una casa de malla con techo alto ayuda al enfriamiento interno en horas de calor, por lo que se recomienda para zonas cálidas. Por el contrario, los invernaderos con techo bajo son más calientes, por lo que se recomiendan para zonas frías.Orientación de una casa de malla ubicada en la región andina, en zonas frías.Orientación de una casa de malla ubicada en la región andina, en zonas cálidas.La estructura es el armazón de la casa de malla constituida por cimientos, vigas, cables, etc., que soportan la cubierta y otros implementos.Debe reunir las siguientes condiciones:La estructura puede ser de dos tipos: metálica o de madera.Metálica, con vigas angulares de 5,08 cm x 10,16 cm (2\" x 4\") o de tubos redondos, galvanizados, recubiertos de zinc, para evitar la oxidación.Ser ligera y resistente.De material económico y de fácil conservación.De material que permita fijar la cubierta (techo).Altura recomendada de una casa de malla para aeroponía.Aunque se han realizado experiencias con casas de malla de 2,6 m de altura en su parte más baja, la recomendada para cultivar papa mediante aeroponía, es de 4,5 m para brindar el espacio y las condiciones ambientales adecuadas al desarrollo del cultivo, en especial con variedades del tipo andigena que tienden a desarrollar alturas cercanas a los 2 m en aeroponía.En casas de malla con estructura de tubos es necesario anclar las paredes exteriores al suelo mediante cables de acero galvanizado.Casa de malla con estructura metálica. Corpoica-Tibaitatá, Colombia.Foto: Julián Mateus-Rodríguez.Anclaje de invernadero con cables de acero galvanizado usado para invernadros de floricultura, Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Byron Potosí.De madera, con vigas de 10,16 cm x 10,16 cm (4\" x 4\"), o rollizos (madera cilíndrica de 10 a 15 cm de diámetro).Dependiendo de la calidad de la madera y de su tratamiento, las casas de malla con estructura de madera pueden ser de vida útil corta. Están recomendadas para sitios donde abunde la madera y su precio sea económico.Los elementos de madera que forman la estructura, precisan de ciertos cuidados para prolongar su duración y evitar que se pudran.Usar madera tratada y nunca recién cortada.A los rollizos hay que quitarles la corteza, de lo contrario duran menos y pueden propagar plagas.Se debe quemar la superficie del extremo del rollizo que se mete en los pozos de cimentación, y pintarlo con alquitrán, para impermeabilizarlo y evitar que se pudra.Foto: Víctor Otazú.Distribución de las columnas de madera ancladas en el cimiento en una casa de malla de 15 x 5 m y techo de policarbonato. CIP-Huancayo, Perú.Puede ser de: vidrio, policarbonato o polietileno.De vidrio: se usaba para los techos de invernadero porque deja pasar la luz solar e impide la salida del calor. Esta cualidad del vidrio es muy interesante, ya que en invernaderos con techo de vidrio, la pérdida de calor por las noches es menor que la que ocurre en los invernaderos con techos plásticos simples. Actualmente está siendo reemplazado por materiales plásticos avanzados.Respecto de la calidad de la madera:Debe estar libre de insectos, hongos, líquenes, etc.De preferencia hay que usar rollizos lo más rectos posibles, con pocos nudos.Los postes principales deben tener un diámetro superior a 12 cm.Los rollizos del techo deben tener un diámetro superior a 10 cm.En el techo, la madera serrada debe ser de 10 x 15 cm.La unión de vigas se hace con ángulos metálicos de diferentes diseños.Ángulos metálicos para unión de vigas.Antigoteo. Reduce la tensión superficial de las gotas que se condensan durante la noche, evitando el goteo sobre el cultivo, lo que disminuye el riesgo de provocar enfermedades en las plantas.Este tipo de plástico tiene la capacidad de filtrar e incluso bloquear la radiación ultravioleta (UV) del sol. Existen diferentes grados de filtración según la concentración y tipo de aditivos. Los plásticos con filtros que tienen capacidad para bloquear toda la radiación UV alteran el comportamiento de los insectos plaga y transmisores de virus, por lo que se denominan antivector o antivirus.Antipolvo. Es una película que en su capa superior tiene baja carga eléctrica y, por lo tanto, no atrae polvo que reduce la entrada de la luz solar al invernadero.Difusión de la luz. Esta característica hace que la luz se disperse dentro del invernadero de manera uniforme. Es importante para aumentar la eficiencia de la fotosíntesis.Radiación infrarroja . Permite la entrada de este tipo de radiación y evita que escape aquella que el follaje irradia durante la noche.En el caso de cualquier material es importante tener en cuenta su calidad -dado que existen diferentes calidades en el mercado-y sus años de vida útil.De polietileno (plástico): las láminas de polietileno que se utilizan como cobertura para invernaderos o casas de malla, están formadas por varias capas, generalmente tres. A este tipo de plástico se lo llama también coextruido.En la capa intermedia se combinan aditivos, o sea, sustancias que proporcionan a las láminas diferentes propiedades para mejorar las condiciones ambientales dentro del invernadero, así como la durabilidad y la resistencia del plástico.De policarbonato: es un material plástico que ha reemplazado al vidrio y en ciertos casos al polietileno por ser más económico. Se utiliza para cubrir los invernaderos, ya que tiene resistencia y durabilidad.La forma de la cubierta influye en la cantidad de luz que entra a la casa de malla. La redonda es la más efectiva. Sin embargo, la más difundida es la cubierta a dos aguas, por su fácil construcción.Es importante mantener aberturas en la parte superior del techo (aberturas cenitales) para permitir la salida de aire caliente.Las paredes en algunas casas de malla son construidas de ladrillo o bloque, con una altura de 80 cm a 1 m y se las conoce como antepecho. Sobre el antepecho se coloca una malla antiáfidos de 16 x 10 hilos por cm , con orificios de 0,4 x 0,8 mm.Casas de malla con cubierta redonda y a dos aguas.Tramado de 1 cm 2 de malla antiáfidos. La malla antiáfido va apoyada en una estructura de metal o de madera.Este diseño (antepecho y malla antiáfido) se utiliza en la parte frontal, lateral y posterior de la casa de malla, para aprovechar el viento que ayudará a disminuir la temperatura en días calurosos, además de evitar la entrada de insectos plaga.Es necesario agregar esponja o un material similar en las uniones del techo y paredes para impedir la entrada de insectos plaga. De igual manera, las aberturas cenitales en el techo deben estar cubiertas con malla antiáfido El piso puede ser de tierra, cubierto con grava, pomina 30 u otro material similar. Esto impide que el calzado del personal entre en contacto directo con la tierra, evitando el polvo. Además, la pomina retiene la humedad luego de ser regada y permite disminuir la temperatura. La desventaja de este tipo de piso es que no se lo puede limpiar.El piso también puede ser de cemento o concreto, lo cual permite limpiarlo. Sin embargo, su costo es alto.Casa de malla con paredes (antepecho) de 0,8 m de altura y malla antiáfido, CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Byron Potosí.O piedra pómez, muy común en la sierra de Ecuador. Es una roca ígnea volcánica, muy porosa, con baja densidad, de color blanco o gris. 30En lugares con presencia de heladas, se deben colocar cortinas de plástico para cubrir la malla antiáfidos en los cuatro lados de la casa de malla. Estas cortinas se cierran durante las noches en las que hay riesgo de helada, y se abren durante el día, para permitir la aireación.De esta manera, los ventiladores ayudan a empujar el aire caliente a lo largo de la casa de malla, bajando la temperatura y humedad sobre el follaje de las plantas.En casas de malla en las que no se disponga de aberturas cenitales, es posible colocar extractores eólicos para permitir la salida del aire caliente.Se pueden colocar aspersores sobre el techo de la casa de malla. Estos se deben encender automáticamente cuando la temperatura interna supere los 25°C.Se pueden instalar ventiladores con un diámetro de 60 a 90 cm (24\" a 36\"), a una altura aproximada de 3 m sobre el nivel del suelo, recubiertos de malla antiáfido y colocados en ambos extremos de la casa de malla (paredes frontal y posterior):En el interior de la casa de malla la temperatura puede ser controlada por:El ventilador ubicado en la parte frontal absorbe aire del exterior y lo introduce a la casa de malla.El ventilador ubicado en la parte posterior absorbe aire del interior de la casa de malla y lo saca al exterior.En las etapas iniciales del cultivo de papa en aeroponía (de 15 a 30 días después del trasplante), se requieren temperaturas de entre 15 y 20°C (para evitar la deshidratación de las plántulas) y baja radiación solar (para evitar quemaduras en el follaje).Una forma efectiva de mantener esta temperatura y disminuir la radiación es colocar una malla negra 31 sobre la cubierta que proporcione de 40 a 60% de sombra.Malla sombreadora negra (50% de sombra), cubriendo el techo de policarbonato en CIP-Huancayo, Perú.Mecanismos de control de temperatura colocados en el techo de la casa de malla de CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Byron Potosí.Foto: Víctor Otazú.Extractor eólicoTambién llamada sarán o polisombra. 31Otra alternativa es el uso de mallas Chromatinet ® . Son mallas de colores que controlan las características del crecimiento vegetativo estimulando la fotosíntesis por medio del manejo del espectro de luz. Por ejemplo, se puede usar una malla azul al 50%, aunque hace falta más investigación para realizar recomendaciones.Es posible reducir la temperatura dentro de la casa de malla regando el piso. De igual manera, es posible instalar sistemas automáticos de aspersión que se encienden cuando la temperatura interna supera los 25°C. En este último caso hay que evaluar la necesidad de realizar aplicaciones preventivas de fungicidas de contacto, para evitar daños causados por patógenos que son favorecidos por la alta humedad, como Phytophthora infestans.Es construido de polietileno transparente con agujeros en toda su extensión y colocado en la parte alta de la casa de malla. Uno de los extremos del ducto se conecta a un ventilador recubierto con malla antiáfido, el cual introduce aire a menor temperatura desde el exterior de la casa de malla. Este ventilador puede ser encendido mediante un sensor de temperatura o de manera manual en las horas de mayor calor.Malla sombreadora Chromatinet ® azul 50% en CIP-Lima, Perú.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.La antecámara es una pequeña construcción -con doble puerta-ubicada en la entrada de la casa de malla, cuya función es evitar el ingreso de insectos plaga y proporcionar un espacio para que las personas puedan desinfectar sus zapatos, manos, etc.En la antecámara se colocan dos recipientes para la limpieza de los zapatos de quienes van a ingresar a la casa de malla (pediluvios). En uno de ellos se coloca una solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 1% (una parte de cloro comercial al 5% en 4 partes de agua) 32 sobre una esponja y en el otro se coloca cal. Las personas deben colocar sus zapatos primero en el recipiente con cloro 33 , y luego en el recipiente con cal. También debe estar disponible un rociador con alcohol antiséptico (70%) para las manos.La antecámara puede ser de 2 x 3 m, ya que no se requiere mayor espacio.Ducto de ventilación en CORPOICA-Tibaitatá, Colombia.Antecámara con recipientes de desinfección de calzado y manos. CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Fotos: Julián Mateus-Rodríguez.Foto: Byron Potosí.Tener cuidado con la ropa pues el cloro la decolora. 33 Ver Anexo 3. Ejemplos de cómo preparar soluciones de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio. 32La bodega es el lugar donde se guardan los insumos y materiales de producción y donde se seleccionan y almacenan los minitubérculos cosechados, para que puedan verdearse y brotar, bajo condiciones adecuadas de temperatura, humedad y luz difusa.Es recomendable que la bodega esté junto a la casa de malla y a la casa de máquinas. Dependiendo de los requerimientos de almacenaje, las bodegas pueden tener distintas dimensiones. Deben contener gabinetes seguros para guardar materiales e insumos, como: fertilizantes, implementos de trabajo, ropa y botas de los operarios y técnicos.Además deben tener estantes en los que se pueda almacenar la semilla. Si la producción de minitubérculos es alta, se recomienda tener una bodega exclusiva para almacenar la semilla y evitar robos. La bodega debe tener temperatura que permita la brotación adecuada de los tubérculos (entre 12 y 18°C), humedad relativa de 90 a 95%, buena ventilación, luz difusa y aislada con malla antiáfido y protección contra roedores.Si se espera tener altos rendimientos de minitubérculos en cada ciclo de cultivo, es conveniente tener un cuarto frío para almacenarlos por un periodo corto (1 a 2 meses) para después ponerlos a brotar bajo las condiciones requeridas. Los minitubérculos son almacenados a una temperatura de 4 a 5°C, con una humedad de 90 a 95% y sin luz.Es un lugar cerrado y seguro con piso de cemento y techo opaco donde se instala el equipo de riego: las bombas, los tanques, el temporizador, los filtros, etc.Este lugar permite mantener la solución nutritiva a una temperatura de alrededor de 15°C. Además, permite aprovechar al máximo el espacio de la casa de malla, ya que todos los equipos se ubican en el interior de la casa de máquinas.Casa de máquinas adosada a la antecámara y a la casa de malla, CORPOICA-Tibaitatá, Colombia.Foto: Julián Mateus-Rodríguez.En la casa de máquinas también puede estar ubicado el generador eléctrico, aunque se recomienda guardarlo en una construcción especial, alejada de la casa de malla para evitar el ruido y los gases de escape que produce.Es necesario construir otras instalaciones como oficinas, baños y vestidores, para el técnico de implementación y los operarios.Estas instalaciones deben estar a poca distancia de la casa de malla, para garantizar el monitoreo permanente del cultivo y dar solución inmediata a los problemas que pudieran presentarse.Periódicamente, y en especial antes del inicio del ciclo de cultivo, se deben realizar las siguientes actividades de mantenimiento en la casa de malla:En el caso de la antecámara, es importante que una vez por semana, se realice una limpieza general con hipoclorito de sodio al 0,25%, que incluya piso, paredes y techo. También es necesario cambiar cada semana, el hipoclorito y la cal de los recipientes para desinfectar el calzado.En el caso del cuarto frío, es necesario realizar mantenimiento periódico del equipo de enfriamiento, siguiendo las recomendaciones del fabricante.Revisar que no existan orificios en la cubierta (goteras) ni en las paredes, malla y puerta por los que puedan ingresar insectos plaga.Lavar con agua la parte interna y externa de la cubierta, malla antiáfidos, cortinas y paredes para eliminar el polvo, y desinfectar con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 0,25% 34 .Usar SIEMPRE guantes para manipular el hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio.Ver Anexo 3. Ejemplos de cómo preparar soluciones de hopoclorito de sodio o de calcio. 34Son cajones rectangulares en los que se trasplanta el material de siembra (plántulas in vitro o esquejes enraizados). Pueden tener una estructura de madera o de metal, sobre la cual va colocada, en todos sus lados, una lámina aislante (conocida como espumaflex, tecnopor, icopor o plastoformo) de 4 o 5 cm de espesor.Los módulos cumplen la función de aislar las raíces de las plantas de las condiciones ambientales.Los materiales necesarios para la construcción de los módulos de aeroponía con estructura de madera son: Listones de madera de 7 x 4 cm Preservante para madera Tornillos de 7,62 cm (3\") Clavos de 7,62 cm (3\") Pintura para madera (esmalte) Láminas de aislante de 4 o 5 cm de espesor, 1 m de ancho y 2 m de largoPlástico negro de 0,1524 mm de espesor Plástico bicolor (blanco en una cara y negro en la cara contraria) para cubrir la tapa del módulo Cinta adhesiva para ductosMódulos de aeroponía de 5 m de largo recubierto en su interior con plástico negro. CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Interior del módulo.Los módulos deben tener las siguientes dimensiones:Manguera negra de 1,27 cm (0,5\") o 1,91 cm (0,75\") de diámetro Para realizar los orificios en las láminas de aislante:Altura: entre 80 cm y 1 m Ancho: entre 1 y 1,2 m Longitud: varía dependiendo de las dimensiones de la casa de malla. No se recomienda construir módulos de más de 15 m de largo, debido a que a mayor longitud se vuelve difícil su implementación y manejo, porque requieren una mayor inclinación en uno de sus extremos (para drenaje de la solución nutritiva), lo cual dificulta el manejo de la parte aérea de las plantas. Además, si se contamina un módulo es mayor la pérdida de plantas y tubérculos.Tubo galvanizado o varilla metálica de 1,27 o 1,91 cm en forma de cruz; o taladro.Sierra o cuchillo para cortar la manguera Objeto con punta para perforar ¿Cómo se construye un módulo de aeroponía?Dimensiones de un módulo de aeroponía.Para permitir el drenaje y retorno de la solución nutritiva al tanque, los módulos deben tener doble inclinación: longitudinal (3 a 4%) y transversal (2 a 3%). Una tubería de 5,08 mm de diámetro debe conectar el extremo más bajo del módulo con el tanque de la solución nutritiva.Si la estructura es metálica se utilizan ángulos galvanizados. Este tipo de estructura es más costosa pero proporciona una vida útil mucho más larga debido a que no necesita recibir mantenimiento cada 2 o 3 ciclos, como la estructura de madera, que se deteriora por la humedad.El armazón o estructura del módulo puede hacerse de madera o de metal. Para el primer caso, se utilizan listones de madera sujetados con tornillos y clavos.Para la construcción de los módulos de madera se utiliza madera resistente tanto al peso de las plantas como al deterioro causado por la humedad. Una vez terminada, la estructura de madera debe recibir un tratamiento con preservante para madera, que evite el desarrollo de plagas. Después, deberá ser pintada con esmalte para impermeabilizarla.Porcentajes de inclinación longitudinal y transversal de un módulo de aeroponía.Estructura de madera de un módulo aeropónico. CIP-Quito, Ecuador.En la parte superior de la estructura se colocan vigas verticales y transversales cada 1,25 m, que sirven para dar rigidez a la estructura y permitir la colocación de las láminas aislantes. Además, las vigas transversales sirven para sujetar las mangueras de riego. En el piso de la estructura también se colocan vigas transversales cada 62 cm.En la estructura del módulo (paredes laterales y piso) se colocan láminas aislantes de manera permanente, utilizando un cuchillo o estilete caliente para cortarlas, y silicona para asegurarlas a la estructura. En el extremo más bajo del piso del módulo es necesario abrir un orificio en la lámina de aislante, para que la solución nutritiva regrese al tanque a través de la tubería de drenaje.Los módulos deben tener ventanas laterales de 50 x 50 cm ubicadas a 80 cm de distancia entre sí, para permitir la cosecha de los minitubérculos. Estas ventanas se construyen cortando las láminas aislantes a las dimensiones requeridas.Ventanas laterales para realizar las cosechas en los módulos de aeroponía.Colocación de láminas de aislante de 5 cm de espesor en la estructura de madera. CIP-Quito, Ecuador.El siguiente paso es cubrir el interior de los módulos con plástico negro de 0,1525 mm de espesor utilizando cinta adhesiva para ductos. La función del plástico es evitar filtraciones de la solución nutritiva y la entrada de luz al sistema radicular. Si hay entrada de luz, los estolones tienden a convertirse en tallos aéreos, disminuyendo el rendimiento de los minitubérculos.En la parte interna de las ventanas se debe colocar doble cortina del mismo plástico. La cortina interna (de mayor tamaño) evita la salida de la solución nutritiva y la entrada de luz a los módulos.En la parte externa de las ventanas se coloca una cortina de plástico bicolor con una tira de madera en el extremo inferior, que se enrolla en el momento de realizar las cosechas. Esta cortina sirve para evitar que entre luz al módulo.Doble cortina de plástico en la ventana del módulo de aeroponía.Cortina externa de plástico bicolor: lado blanco hacia el exterior de la ventana. CIP-Quito, Ecuador. En el piso del módulo es necesario abrir un orificio en el plástico, para permitir el drenaje de la solución nutritiva.Las tapas superiores de los módulos se construyen con láminas aislantes, con agujeros de entre 1,27 a 1,91 cm (0,5 a 0,75\") de diámetro, en los que se introducirán las plántulas.El procedimiento para realizar los orificios y recubrirlos con manguera es el siguiente:Las tapas superiores se forran en todas sus caras con un plástico bicolor: el lado blanco se coloca en la parte externa para reflejar la luz y disminuir la temperatura en el interior del módulo, y el lado negro en la parte interna, para lograr oscuridad total dentro del módulo.Antes de realizar los orificios, tomar en cuenta la distribución de los microaspersores, para asegurar que todas las plantas reciban solución nutritiva.Marcar con lápiz o marcador la lámina aislante usando una regla, formando cuadrados para indicar dónde hacer los orificios, que servirán para sujetar las plantas, en función de la densidad requerida.Hacer orificios de entre 1,27 a 1,91 cm (0,5\" a 0,75\") de diámetro en la intersección de las líneas, con el tubo galvanizado en forma de cruz, calentado sobre un mechero. También se puede usar un taladro.Cortar la manguera en secciones de 6 a 7 cm de longitud.Introducir la manguera a presión en cada orificio. En estas mangueras se colocarán las plántulas en el momento del trasplante.Como alternativa a las mangueras, se puede usar una barra metálica caliente para perforar la lámina aislante y sellar con calor los lados de los orificios. Uso de tubo galvanizado en forma de cruz. CIP-Lima, Perú.Uso de taladro. CIP-Lima, Perú.Después del aporque-hundimiento (de 30 a 40 días desde el trasplante), entre la tapa y la estructura del módulo, se coloca un faldón de 20 a 40 cm de ancho, de plástico bicolor, con la ayuda de cinta adhesiva para ductos, con el propósito de evitar la entrada de luz.En el caso de que se utilice mallas para el tutorado de las plantas, es necesario instalar tubos metálicos o postes de madera de 5 cm de diámetro, cada 3 m y a cada lado del módulo, para sujetar las mallas de tutorado.Faldón de plástico bicolor que evita la entrada de luz en el módulo. CIP-Lima, Perú.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Tapa del módulo de aeroponía con orificios recubiertos por manguera donde se trasplantará las plántulas in vitro de papa.El mantenimiento de los módulos comprende actividades como:Antes del inicio del ciclo de cultivo, hacer un lavado general de las tuberías utilizando una solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 1%. Esta solución debe circular en el sistema durante 3 días. Después, se realiza un lavado con agua corriente durante otros 3 días. También es necesario desinfectar los módulos -por dentro y por fuera-con solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 1%.Cada semana, limpiar el polvo que se acumula sobre los módulos con una esponja húmeda con solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 1%.Cada ciclo de cultivo, cambiar el plástico bicolor que cubre las tapas.Cada 2 ciclos de cultivo, cambiar el plástico negro que cubre el interior de los módulos y las láminas aislantes de las tapas.Cada 3 ciclos de cultivo, realizar un mantenimiento de la madera aplicando preservante y pintura de esmalte, para evitar daños por humedad.Postes y malla para tutorado. También se observa faldones y cortinas externas en las ventanas para evitar la entrada de luz al interior de los módulos. CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Dependiendo de la disponibilidad de recursos, se recomienda tener al menos dos sistemas de riego independientes en cada casa de malla. De esta manera se reduce el riesgo de pérdida total por efecto de patógenos, que pueden ingresar al sistema de riego, o por intoxicación, debido a fallas en la preparación de la solución nutritiva.No es rentable tener sistemas de riego independientes para cada módulo, debido al alto costo de implementación. Este tipo de sistemas independientes se los usa para investigación, porque permite probar diferentes tratamientos (por ejemplo, diferentes densidades de siembra, soluciones nutritivas, variedades, etc.).Para un módulo de 5 a 10 m de longitud, se necesitan los siguientes materiales, aclarando que pueden ser adaptados a las condiciones propias de cada lugar:Está formado por varios componentes:Cada 4 o 5 ciclos de cultivo, cambiar las láminas de aislante de las paredes laterales y del piso de los módulos. El tanque de la solución nutritiva, la bomba hidroneumática, el tablero de control de bombas, el temporizador y los filtros microbiológicos se ubican en la casa de máquinas.El tanque está ubicado bajo el nivel del suelo para recibir por gravedad la solución nutritiva procedente de los módulos después de cada riego. Está recubierto por un tanque exterior de cemento que impide el contacto con la tierra, reduciendo el peligro de contaminación y manteniendo una temperatura adecuada de la solución nutritiva (15°C).La capacidad del tanque dependerá del tamaño de los módulos. Un tanque de 500 litros es adecuado para un área de producción efectiva de 20 m 2 (área del módulo).El tanque de la solución nutritiva y el tanque exterior de cemento deben permanecer cerrados para evitar la contaminación.La bomba está conectada con el tanque a través de una tubería que tiene en su parte inicial una válvula de pie. Junto a la bomba se instalan accesorios como tanque hidroneumático, interruptor de presión, manómetro, válvula uniflujo, válvula de aire, llave de paso, filtro de disco y válvula eléctrica con solenoide.Esquema simplificado de un sistema de aeroponía en papa.Tanque para la solución nutritivaTanque hidroneumáticoTanque de solución nutritiva y bomba con accesorios.Mangueras y microaspersores utilizados en los módulos aeropónicos.En la parte central superior de los módulos, deben colocarse dos líneas de manguera negra de 16 mm de diámetro con una separación de 30 cm entre sí, en las cuales se colocarán los microaspersores a 60 cm de distancia uno de otro. Las mangueras van apoyadas en las vigas transversales de los módulos.El agua que se va a usar para preparar la solución nutritiva se puede filtrar antes que entre al sistema aeropónico, sobre todo en zonas donde no se tenga certeza sobre su calidad. Esto se hace mediante filtros microbiológicos con carbón activado y lámpara UV, ubicados entre la fuente de agua y el sistema de aeroponía. De esta manera se eliminan los patógenos que se transmiten a través del agua.Está conformado por un tablero de encendido y apagado de las bombas. Para la automatización del riego se utiliza un temporizador (timer) que se calibra para que funcione de acuerdo con los requerimientos del cultivo. El temporizador se conecta a una válvula eléctrica con solenoide, que permite el paso de la solución nutritiva de acuerdo con la programación.La solución nutritiva que recircula también se debe filtrar:Mediante un filtro de discos en la tubería del sistema de riego, después de la llave de paso y antes de la válvula eléctrica. El filtro de discos sirve para retener las impurezas que están en la solución nutritiva, como pedazos de raíces.Idealmente se puede colocar un filtro microbiológico después del filtro de discos, para eliminar los patógenos que pueden afectar al cultivo por la solución que está recirculando.Entrada de filtro de agua Salida de filtro de aguaFiltro microbiológico usado en CIP-Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Miguel Almeida.Desinfectar el tanque de la solución con hipoclorito al 1% cada vez que se renueve la solución nutritiva.Revisar diariamente que no existan fugas en las tuberías, ya que producen bajas de presión en los microaspersores y, por consiguiente, una distribución desigual de la solución nutritiva a las raíces. Además ocasionan daños mecánicos en las bombas. Si se presenta una fuga se debe desarmar esa parte de la tubería, reemplazar las piezas de gasfitería y ajustar bien todas sus partes.Al mismo tiempo que se revisan las tuberías, revisar el funcionamiento de los microaspersores para limpiarlos o reemplazarlos de ser necesario.Realizar lavados semanales de los filtros de anillo. Esta práctica evita el taponamiento de los microaspersores. En el caso de los filtros microbiológicos, seguir las recomendaciones del fabricante para su mantenimiento.Monitorear los rangos de presión a los que deben funcionar las bombas: entre 20 y 40 psi o entre 15 y 35 psi 36 . Estos rangos de presión dependen del tiempo de uso de la bomba: cuando la bomba es nueva se alcanza el primer rango y cuando la bombaEn casos de cortes del flujo eléctrico se debe contar con un generador eléctrico todo el tiempo. Este generador puede ser portátil o estacionario y preferiblemente, debiera ser de transferencia automática, es decir que se encienda en caso de un corte de electricidad. La capacidad del generador eléctrico depende del número de bombas del sistema de riego.El sistema de riego se debe monitorear continuamente para asegurar su normal funcionamiento. Para ello es necesario:Una bomba y otros equipos de repuesto, como interruptor de presión, microaspersores, válvula eléctrica y piezas de gasfitería, son críticos para el funcionamiento del sistema de riego y deben estar siempre disponibles. Además, el técnico de implementación y al menos un operario deben estar capacitados para reemplazarlos en caso que se dañen.psi: libra-fuerza por pulgada cuadrada (pounds-force per square inch). 1 psi = 6,895 kPa 36Cada cierto número de ciclos de cultivo se deben reemplazar los materiales no degradables, como plástico (cada dos ciclos de cultivo) y láminas aislantes (cada 4 o 5 ciclos de cultivo). Estos residuos deben ser manejados siguiendo las regulaciones dispuestas por la legislación local.Idealmente, estos residuos se pueden usar con otros propósitos. Por ejemplo, el plástico de los módulos sirve para construir barreras plásticas para manejo de Premnotrypes vorax; en tanto que los láminas de aislante son útiles en cuartos fríos, para construir corrales para animales menores, etc.tiene uno o más ciclos de uso, trabaja dentro del segundo rango para garantizar un riego uniforme a las raíces. Si la presión no está en los rangos ideales, hay que instalar la bomba de repuesto y llevar la bomba dañada a mantenimiento. Usualmente, cuando la bomba presenta bajas de presión, se debe cambiar el sello mecánico que se desgasta por el uso.Realizar el mantenimiento del generador de emergencia, de las bombas y de otros equipos del sistema de riego siguiendo las recomendaciones del fabricante; después de cada ciclo de cultivo se debe hacer un mantenimiento a fondo.En el primer ciclo de aeroponía se construyeron: Para el control de la temperatura interna se hicieron algunas adecuaciones a la casa de malla, ya que originalmente se construyó con otros propósitos: Aprendizaje: Disponer de sistemas de riego independientes para cada módulo de aeroponía, permite evaluar y determinar los mejores tratamientos para cultivar papa mediante esta técnica. Por ejemplo, se probaron diferentes soluciones nutritivas 37 y rizobacterias promotoras de crecimiento vegetal 38 . Además, con la doble manguera de aspersión, se uniformizó la distribución de la solución nutritiva en las raíces y por consiguiente el crecimiento de las plantas en cada módulo.Aprendizaje: Es necesario construir una casa de malla que cumpla con todas las especificaciones técnicas para realizar aeroponía; de lo contrario hay que prever los posibles inconvenientes que se puedan presentar.A partir del segundo ciclo se construyeron:Cuatro módulos de 15 m de largo x 1 m de ancho. Un solo sistema de riego para los cuatro módulos. Cada módulo tenía una manguera de riego en la parte superior central.Ocho módulos más pequeños (5 x 1 m). Sistemas de riego independientes para cada módulo (8 en total). En cada módulo se instaló una doble línea de manguera en la parte superior.Se pintó el techo de vidrio de color blanco, pero esto redujo notablemente la entrada de luz. En su lugar se colocó una malla sombreadora sobre el techo, que sólo se usa en los momentos de altas temperaturas.Se colocaron 2 ventiladores en los extremos de la casa de malla para extraer el aire caliente.Se colocaron 4 extractores eólicos en la parte superior del techo.Cayambe, 2010. 37 Potosí, 2012 . 38 Sobre el tanque para la solución nutritiva Sobre la necesidad de un generador eléctrico Sobre uso de cobertores Sobre el sistema de enfriamiento de la solución nutritivaEn los tres primeros ciclos de cultivo, el tanque de la solución nutritiva estaba en contacto con el suelo de la casa de malla. Esto hacía que la solución nutritiva se calentara (>15°C) y además se expusiera al polvo, porque la tapa no era adecuada. En el cuarto ciclo se construyó un tanque con revestimiento de cemento y se mejoró el diseño de la tapa.Aprendizaje: El tanque de cemento sirve de protección al tanque plástico que contiene la solución nutritiva. Evita la entrada de polvo y mantiene la solución nutritiva a una temperatura adecuada (15°C).En los tres primeros ciclos de producción no se contó con un generador eléctrico de emergencia. Por lo tanto, cuando se presentaron cortes de fluido eléctrico, se corrió el riesgo de perder toda la producción.A partir del cuarto ciclo se compró un generador eléctrico portátil y en el quinto ciclo se instaló un generador eléctrico estacionario que abastece a toda la estación experimental.Aprendizaje: Para implementar aeroponía es imprescindible contar con un generador eléctrico portátil o estacionario.En la estación experimental del CIP-Lima, inicialmente se usó un cobertor con malla antiáfido en las paredes y techo. Sin embargo, en días con garúa se presentó goteo de agua con tierra sobre las plantas, lo que produjo enfermedades foliares. Luego se adaptó una casa de malla con techo de fibra de vidrio y paredes laterales cubiertas con malla antiáfido.Aprendizaje: Para producir semilla de calidad mediante aeroponía se requiere necesariamente una construcción con cubierta rígida, para proteger el cultivo de factores abióticos adversos.En zonas o épocas de clima cálido (como en Lima entre diciembre y abril), la temperatura de la solución nutritiva puede sobrepasar los 30°C, lo que causa estrés a las plantas e interfiere en la tuberización.Serpentín de cobre con sensor de temperatura.Unidad de control de temperatura.Serpentín dentro del tanque de la solución nutritiva.Para solucionar esta situación, se instaló un sistema de enfriamiento para la solución nutritiva, mediante un serpentín por el que circula gas frío conectado a una unidad de enfriamiento y a una unidad de control de temperatura. Esto permite mantener la temperatura alrededor de 15°C, óptima para la producción de tubérculos de papa.Aprendizaje: En aeroponía hay tres temperaturas importantes: la de la casa de malla (día: entre 18 y 25 o C; noche: entre 8 y 15 o C) la de la solución nutritiva (alrededor de 15 o C) y la del módulo aeropónico (entre 15 y 16 o C). Si se instala un sistema de aeroponía en zonas de clima cálido, es necesario instalar un sistema de enfriamiento de la solución nutritiva, lo que incrementa los costos de infraestructura y mantenimiento y añade un nivel más de complejidad al sistema aeropónico. Esto indica la importancia de elegir bien el sitio para ubicar la casa de malla.La infraestructura es uno de los factores más importantes para tener éxito en la implementación del sistema aeropónico, por lo que se deben tener muy en cuenta las especificaciones técnicas previas a su construcción.Los principales aspectos a tener en cuenta son:Selección del sitio. El lugar donde se va a construir el invernadero debe estar ubicado entre 2600 y 3500 msnm, con una temperatura promedio diaria de entre 18 y 25ºC durante el día y de entre 8 y 15ºC durante la noche. Debe disponer de suministro permanente de energía eléctrica, agua de riego de calidad y vías en buen estado para facilitar el acceso al invernadero. Así mismo, debe estar cerca de zonas habitadas, tener protección contra vientos fuertes y estar alejado de otros cultivos de papa comercial.LA Entender la fisiología de la papa y su relación con la productividad de tubérculos, con énfasis en los procesos y mecanismos determinantes de su crecimiento, rendimiento y calidad.Facilitar el manejo del cultivo aeropónico a través de conocer la fisiología de la planta relacionada con el ambiente (clima, acceso a nutrientes, etc.).La papa (Solanum spp.) es una planta que fue domesticada en el altiplano peruano-boliviano. Desarrolla un sistema radicular fibroso y muy ramificado, ya sea a partir de la radícula de una plántula proveniente de tubérculos-semilla, de plántulas in vitro, o de raíces adventicias en plántulas provenientes de brotes de tubérculos o esquejes enraizados, que podrían usarse en los módulos de aeroponía como material de partida 39 .En aeroponía, el cultivo de papa puede llegar a cubrir totalmente la superficie del módulo aeropónico en un lapso de 35 a 40 días después del trasplante. El crecimiento del follaje es el resultado de dos procesos combinados:Los tubérculos se forman a partir del engrosamiento de la médula y de la corteza de tallos subterráneos, llamados estolones. La formación de los tubérculos se inicia con el desarrollo de los estolones, seguido de la tuberización, es decir, el engrosamiento de la región subapical de los estolones. Estos procesos están afectados por factores ambientales como la temperatura y el fotoperiodo.Si el estolón recibe luz solar, forma un tallo aéreo con raíces en vez de tubérculos.ramificación, aparición y expansión de hojas.Planta de papa. INIAP-Quito, Ecuador.Foto: Peter Kromann. Burton, 1989;Cutter, 1992;Dean, 1994. 39Edad fisiológica Fotoperiodo y calidad de luz Humedad Nutrientes El desarrollo de los estolones es controlado por las condiciones que prevalecen en la parte basal del tallo: humedad y oscuridad, que inducen la producción de las hormonas vegetales -ácido giberélico, ácido abscísico y ácido indolacético-que estimulan el desarrollo de estolones y de tubérculos. Por otro lado, la presencia de una alta cantidad de nitrógeno, de luz y de calor inducen la producción de citoquininas, que estimulan el desarrollo de tallos aéreos y de hojas 40 .Los principales son:La formación de hojas en los estolones podría suceder en los módulos aeropónicos, si no estuvieran debidamente cerrados (y por lo tanto entrara luz) o por variaciones de temperatura.¡Importante! Cutter, 1992. 40 El factor genético, es decir, la variedad, define en gran medida la producción en campo y también en aeroponía. En los países andinos, el número de minitubérculos por m 2 que se obtuvo con aeroponía, ha variado entre 500 (Serranita) y 3200 (Canchán), lo cual indica la influencia del factor genético en el rendimiento.Las variedades difieren en su follaje, en la cantidad de estolones, en el patrón de la ramificación de los estolones secundarios y en la tuberización. Las de mayor influencia genética de la subespecie andigena, tienden a formar follaje más abundante, estolones más largos y un mayor número de tubérculos que las variedades con mayor influencia genética de la subespecie tuberosum. Al plantar material fisiológicamente viejo, se producen plantas más pequeñas y se promueve el inicio de la tuberización y de la senescencia 41 .La edad fisiológica del material de siembra tiene un efecto claro sobre el desarrollo de las plantas, al afectar los estolones y la formación de los tubérculos, principalmente en el tiempo de inicio de la tuberización.A medida que la edad fisiológica del material de siembra aumenta, la inducción de tuberización también aumenta, es decir que todos los procesos fisiológicos de la planta se aceleran y la planta induce la producción de tubérculos más rápido o en casos extremos la senescencia (madurez fisiológica) antes de la tuberización.En el caso de material de siembra para aeroponía, el uso de esquejes enraizados (material fisiológicamente viejo) disminuye el número de tubérculos, pero favorece el aumento en su peso total, produciendo mayor número de tubérculos con peso > 5 g, en comparación con el uso de plántulas in vitro (material fisiológicamente joven), que produce mayor número de tubérculos, pero de menor tamaño (peso < 5 g) .El inicio de la formación de tubérculos de las plantas de papa está muy influenciado por la duración del día.La inducción a tuberizar en las variedades de la región andina es promovida por el fotoperiodo corto, que en este caso es de alrededor de 12 horas de luz y 12 horas de oscuridad. Por esta razón, en el caso de aeroponía en la zona andina, no es necesario proveer luz adicional en las casas de malla.Por el contrario en latitudes mayores, las variedades de papa de estas zonas tuberizan en fotoperiodos largos durante el verano, con días de más de 16 horas de luz y noches cortas.Un incremento en la intensidad de radiación solar, por lo general, estaría relacionado con un incremento en el rendimiento final, pero en casos extremos, altos niveles de radiación están asociados también con altas temperaturas y excesiva transpiración (altos déficits de presión de vapor) que pueden ocasionar bajos rendimientos.Una vez que los minitubérculos hayan sido cosechados, es necesario considerar el efecto de la \"luz difusa\", -o sea la luz que no les llega en forma directa-durante el almacenamiento.La luz difusa produce los siguientes efectos en los minitubérculos almacenados:Verdeamiento. La piel y la pulpa de los minitubérculos toman una coloración verde, como resultado de la producción de clorofila y solanina, de sabor amargo, por lo que pueden llegar a ser tóxicos. El verdeamiento confiere cierta resistencia a la penetración de patógenos y al ataque de insectos y otros animales.Dentro de los módulos de aeroponía, la temperatura óptima para el inicio de la tuberización está entre 16 y 19ºC.Temperaturas internas de invernadero mayores a 30°C por más de 4 horas, pueden causar problemas en el sistema radicular de las plantas y generar condiciones propicias para el desarrollo de patógenos. De igual manera, temperaturas menores a 4°C pueden causar daños en las plantas.¡Importante! Temperatura el desarrollo del área foliar la inducción de la tuberización, y el número de tubérculos y su peso.Bajas temperaturas (menos de 2°C) ocasionan daños por congelamientos internos.Altas temperaturas (más de 25°C) causan una aceleración en la respiración y un mayor requerimiento de oxígeno y pueden decolorar el tejido interno del tubérculo como resultado de la asfixia que se presenta. La presencia de \"corazón hueco\" (daño que se produce en el interior de un tubérculo por la pudrición o disecación del tejido interno) es un síntoma que puede desarrollarse en tubérculos expuestos a altas temperaturas.La nutrición de la planta es un punto importante para el manejo adecuado de la aeroponía.Los nutrientes son adicionados al agua, a través de sales o fertilizantes, que son absorbidos por las raíces de las plantas.Con la nutrición se puede influir en:Los nutrientes se clasifican en macronutrientes y micronutrientes:Macronutientes: son aquellos que las plantas los usan en grandes cantidades y están presentes en sus tejidos en cantidades que llegan hasta el 4% de su peso seco. Los macronutientes son: nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, calcio, magnesio y azufre.Micronutrientes: son aquellos que se encuentran en los tejidos de las plantas en cantidades que no superan los 200 partes por millón. Los micronutrientes son: hierro, manganeso, cobre, zinc, boro, cloro y molibdeno.Una vez que los minitubérculos hayan sido cosechados, es necesario tener presente el efecto de la temperatura durante su almacenamiento. Los minitubérculos presentan daños cuando son expuestos a temperaturas muy altas o muy bajas:Altos niveles de nitrógeno pueden inhibir la formación del tubérculo.Funciones fisiológicas:Las plantas pueden absorber este nutriente en forma de ion de nitrato (NO 3 -) o de amonio (NH 4+ ). Pueden también absorber nitrógeno en forma orgánica (aminoácidos), tanto por las raíces como por la parte aérea.Forma parte de un gran número de compuestos orgánicos necesarios para el crecimiento y el desarrollo de las plantas como: aminoácidos, proteínas, coenzimas, ácidos nucleicos, clorofila, etc. Favorece el crecimiento vegetativo, el buen aspecto y el color verde de la planta.La deficiencia de nitrógeno se manifiesta con la aparición de hojas pálidas y la reducción tanto del crecimiento de la planta como del rendimiento de los tubérculos (tamaño y número).El exceso de nitrógeno causa:Retraso en el inicio de la tuberización. Alargue del ciclo de cultivo. Excesivo crecimiento foliar, lo que dificulta el manejo de las plantas y genera un microclima propicio para plagas y enfermedades.Corazón hueco y grietas en los tubérculos. Incremento de la susceptibilidad a plagas y enfermedades. Reducción de la gravedad específica de los tubérculos.Forma de absorción:Fósforo (P)Funciones fisiológicas:Las plantas absorben el fósforo en forma iónica, como fosfato (H 2 PO 4 -), aunque excepcionalmente pueden tomarlo en forma de anión fosfato ácido (HPO 4 2-).Al inicio de la tuberización, una adecuada disponibilidad de fósforo asegura que se forme un gran número de tubérculos. Después el fósforo es un componente esencial para la síntesis, transporte y almacenamiento de almidones.La deficiencia de fósforo conduce a reducir el vigor inicial, produce retraso en la madurez y reduce rendimientos. Los síntomas típicos son:Interferencia con otros elementos como el calcio y el zinc, provocando sus deficiencias.El potasio se absorbe en forma de ión K + .La papa requiere grandes cantidades de potasio, ya que es crucial para sus funciones metabólicas, tales como el movimiento de azúcares desde las hojas hacia los tubérculos y la transformación de azúcar en almidón de papa.La deficiencia de potasio retrasa la absorción de nitrógeno y el crecimiento de las plantas; además disminuye su rendimiento, calidad y resistencia a las enfermedades. Los síntomas típicos son:El exceso de fósforo causa:El exceso de potasio causa:Reducción de la gravedad específica de los tubérculos y de la absorción de calcio y de magnesio.Calcio (Ca) Funciones fisiológicas:El calcio se absorbe en forma de ión Ca 2+ .Participa como componente estructural de paredes y membranas celulares, lo que contribuye a la rigidez de la planta.La deficiencia de calcio interfiere en el desarrollo de las raíces, causa deformación en los brotes y podría llegar a reducir la calidad y el rendimiento. La deficiencia de calcio en los tubérculos de papa disminuye la capacidad de almacenamiento, debido a que el calcio es un componente principal de las paredes celulares. Los síntomas típicos son:El exceso de calcio causa: Reducción en la absorción de magnesio, por lo que se relaciona con síntomas de deficiencia de magnesio.Hojas nuevas superiores enrolladas y amarillas. Quemaduras en las puntas de las hojas.Síntomas de deficiencia: Forma de absorción:El exceso de magnesio causa:El magnesio se absorbe activamente en forma de ión Mg 2+ .Igual que el calcio, el magnesio tiene una gran importancia en el metabolismo energético.Disminuye la fotosíntesis porque el magnesio es el elemento clave de ese proceso; reduce la formación de tubérculos y baja su rendimiento. La deficiencia ade magnesio puede reducir -más del 15%-el rendimiento de la planta. Además ocasiona que se dañen los minitubérculos durante el almacenamiento. Los síntomas de deficiencia son:Hojas de color amarillo y marrón. Hojas que se marchitan y mueren. Retraso en el crecimiento de las plantas.Maduración temprana del cultivo. Piel de los tubérculos agrietada y desigual en color y textura.Reducción en la absorción de calcio, por lo que se relaciona con los síntomas de deficiencia de calcio.Funciones fisiológicas:Forma de absorción: En forma de anión sulfato (SO 4 2-).La función más importante del azufre se relaciona con su participación en la síntesis de las proteínas. Áreas intervenales cloróticas (pigmentación amarillenta entre las nervaduras de la hoja), las venas permanecen verdes. En los casos de deficiencia grave, toda la hoja es clorótica.Es esencial para la síntesis de la clorofila.Aparecen en las hojas más jóvenes y son: El cobre se absorbe como ión Cu 2+ .Interviene en los procesos de fotosíntesis y de respiración.Las hojas jóvenes se vuelven cloróticas (verde o amarillo claro), se estrechan, sus márgenes se enrollan hacia arriba y se queman sus puntas. Otros síntomas foliares son: venas verdes, apariencia erecta y presencia de manchas de tejido muerto.Es fundamental en la síntesis de auxinas y ácido indolacético (IAA). También participa en la activación de algunas enzimas.El zinc se absorbe de forma activa como ión Zn 2+ .La planta absorbe el boro en forma de ácido bórico.Hojas gruesas y enrolladas hacia arriba. El tejido de las hojas se oscurece y colapsa. Aparecen manchas necróticas marrones en los tubérculos y se forman manchas en el interior.El boro regula el transporte de azúcares a través de membranas y también juega un rol importante en la división y desarrollo celular, así como en el metabolismo de auxinas.Cloro (Cl) Síntomas de deficiencia: Caída de hojas. Enrollamiento de los foliolos. Bronceamiento y clorosis similares a la deficiencia de manganeso. Deficiencia severa, inhibe el crecimiento radicular.El cloro se absorbe activamente como ión Cl -.Su función se relaciona con el ciclo del oxígeno en el proceso de fotosíntesis. En poca cantidad es un micronutriente esencial para las plantas, en exceso puede resultar tóxico.Funciones fisiológicas:Forma de absorción:Punteado intervenal (presencia de puntos de tejido muerto entre las venas de las hojas.) Clorosis marginal de las hojas más viejas. Enrollamiento hacia arriba de los márgenes de las hojas.Al molibdeno lo absorbe la planta en forma activa, como anión molibdato (MoO 4 2-).El molibdeno es constituyente de las enzimas nitrato reductasa y nitrogenasa; la primera, indispensable en la reducción de los nitratos, la segunda, en la fijación biológica de nitrógeno.1. Reposo de la semilla (Dormancia)1. Reposo de la semilla (Dormancia) 2. Brotación 3. Emergencia 4. Desarrollo de tallos 5. Tuberización y floración 6. Desarrollo de los tubérculos El cultivo de la papa presenta seis fases de desarrollo, también llamadas etapas fenológicas, que es necesario conocer para manejar en forma adecuada el cultivo de papa en aeroponía.Las etapas fenológicas son:Es el período que transcurre entre la cosecha y la brotación. En este estado, las yemas de los tubérculos están inactivas, sin procesos de diferenciación de tejidos ni división celular, aun cuando el tubérculo esté en condiciones ambientales apropiadas para su desarrollo.Para el minitubérculo producido en aeroponía, esta etapa dura desde unos pocos días a 3 meses o más, dependiendo de la variedad. Las papas de las dos subespecies de Solanum tuberosum: ssp. tuberosum y ssp. andigena pasan por un período de relativa inactividad antes de emitir brotes; en cambio, las papas chauchas o criollas de la especie Solanum phureja, no presentan dormancia.La dormancia también depende de las condiciones de temperatura y de luz en las que se almacenen los minitubérculos. Temperaturas altas reducen la dormancia, en cambio bajas temperaturas, la alargan.Foto: Byron Potosí.El período de dormancia termina al iniciarse el crecimiento del primer brote.Ocurre cuando comienzan a aparecer los brotes de los tubérculos, luego de trascurrido el periodo de dormancia. Se diferencian tres estados:De hecho, para alargar la dormancia, se pueden desacelerar los procesos fisiológicos, colocando los minitubérculos en un cuarto frío a 4°C. Minitubérculos cosechados inmaduros y aquellos expuestos a la luz, tienen periodos de dormancia más largos.La dormancia puede ser rota o inducida por heridas o por alguna enfermedad en el minitubérculo; en estos casos la brotación ocurre en menos tiempo. También puede inducirse a través de tratamiento químico, sumergiendo los minitubérculos en una solución de ácido giberélico, en dosis de 1 a 5 partes por millón (ppm) por volumen de agua 44 .La duración del periodo de dormancia es el factor determinante para definir el momento más oportuno para la siembra. Por ejemplo, si una variedad tiene un periodo de dormancia de tres meses, la fecha de siembra será por lo menos tres meses después de la cosecha de sus minitubérculos.Estado de dominancia apical. Se presenta cuando aparece el primer brote en el ápice del tubérculo. El grado de dominancia apical depende de la variedad de papa y del manejo poscosecha de los minitubérculos (bajas temperaturas favorecen la dominancia apical).Foto: Byron Potosí.Una vez bien brotados los tubérculos están aptos para ser plantados. En el caso de minitubérculos cosechados en aeroponía, es ideal que tengan por lo menos tres brotes fuertes y cortos (de 1 a 2 cm) para ser sembrados en campo.Si los tubérculos presentan dominancia apical, hay que desbrotarlos y colocarlos en ambientes con temperaturas entre 15 y 20°C, con un 90 a 95% de humedad relativa, con luz difusa y buena ventilación, para estimular el desarrollo del resto de brotes. Minitubérculos con peso menor a 8 g no deben ser desbrotados pues pierden vigor.Estado de brotación múltiple. Se presenta cuando el tubérculo tiene varios brotes. Cuando los minitubérculos se almacenan con luz difusa y con temperaturas moderadas, se producen brotes cortos y fuertes, ideales para la siembra. Estado de senectud. Después del período de brotación múltiple, el tubérculo envejece. Se puede observar ramificación excesiva en los brotes, brotes largos, débiles y también tubérculos diminutos directamente en los brotes. Estos tubérculos no deben ser usados como material de siembra. Conocer la fisiología de la planta de papa es esencial para un buen manejo del cultivo aeropónico. Así pues, los factores que influyen en el desarrollo de la planta de papa y por lo tanto deben ser considerados en el manejo del cultivo son:Genético: las variedades con mayor influencia genética de la subespecie andigena tienden a formar follaje más abundante, estolones más largos y un mayor número de tubérculos, que las variedades con mayor influencia genética de la subespecie tuberosum.Edad fisiológica del material de siembra: tiene un efecto directo en el desarrollo de las plantas. Material fisiológicamente viejo (como esquejes enraizados) tienden a producir menos tubérculos, pero de mayor tamaño comparado con el uso de material fisiológicamente joven (plantas in vitro).Fotoperiodo: las variedades de la región andina tuberizan en fotoperiodos cortos (alrededor de 12 horas de luz y 12 horas de oscuridad). Por esta razón, en el caso de aeroponía en la zona andina, no es necesario proveer luz adicional en las casas de malla.Temperatura: el cultivo de papa se adapta a climas tropicales fríos, con temperaturas que pueden estar entre los 15 y 25°C durante el día y entre los 8 y 15°C durante las noches. Las temperaturas internas de invernadero, mayores a 30°C y menores a 4ºC, pueden afectar el cultivo.Magali García Peter Kromann Fabián Montesdeoca CAPÍTULO 6Explicar la importancia de las normas de higiene para el manejo de un cultivo aeropónico.Presentar los pasos para preparar la solución nutritiva. Porque es necesario disminuir el riesgo de contaminación. Hay que tener presente que la contaminación del sistema de riego por patógenos, que afectan al sistema vascular o radicular de la planta, puede causar pérdida total de los módulos. Esto hace que el manejo de la higiene en la casa de malla y en las otras instalaciones sea esencial para la producción de minitubérculos, mediante aeroponía.La producción de minitubérculos provenientes de plantas in vitro o de esquejes de alta calidad sanitaria, debe cumplir con los parámetros de control de calidad de la normativa vigente en cada país y es la base para la obtención de las demás categorías de la semilla de papa.Por lo tanto es necesario considerar algunos factores que pueden constituir un peligro para todo el sistema de producción de semilla de papa en aeroponía: el aire y el agua, personas, equipos e instrumentos.En la casa de malla, el ambiente no es cerrado y por lo tanto las corrientes de aire y las entradas de agua son fuentes de contaminación, ya que pueden traer consigo esporas de microorganismos, que pueden desarrollarse si las condiciones son adecuadas. De igual modo, cuando se abren las puertas de la casa de malla, entran corrientes de aire que pueden traer insectos, -en especial los que son vectores de virus-causando contaminación del material vegetal.Las personas son quienes, a menudo, causan contaminación en la casa de malla, ya sea directa o indirectamente, porque pueden transportar microorganismos e insectos en las manos, en la ropa y en especial en los zapatos. Los operarios que están en contacto con las plantas, los técnicos de implementación, los técnicos especializados que trabajan en el proceso de multiplicación de semilla y todas las otras personas que por algún motivo entran a la casa de malla, pueden contribuir a diseminar los agentes contaminantes.En la producción de minitubérculos, se utilizan varios equipos y herramientas como: bombas de mochila, pinzas, frascos, bisturís, etc., que al ser manipulados y transportados también pueden introducir insectos y microorganismos.Jacqueline Benítez CAPÍTULO 6: MANEJO DEL CULTIVO AEROPÓNICO DE PAPA ¿Cuáles son las normas de higiene para el manejo de la casa de malla?Restringir la entrada a la casa de malla de personal que no trabaje en el área. Los operarios no pueden entrar a la casa de malla si llegan desde el campo.Lavarse las manos con abundante agua y jabón antes de ingresar.Cualquier persona que ingrese a la casa de malla, en la antesala, debe colocarse un mandil y botas plásticas de uso exclusivo y no quitárselos mientras permanezca en el lugar. Mandiles y cubre-zapatos desechables son una buena opción para recibir visitantes.Mantener dos bandejas en la entrada de cada invernadero (pediluvios). Una con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio al 1% 46 , y la otra con cal agrícola, que deben ser pisadas por las personas -en ese orden-antes del ingreso al área de producción. La solución de cloro pierde eficacia con el tiempo y debe ser renovada después del paso de mucha gente o mínimo cada 7 días. Hay que tener cuidado con la ropa, pues el cloro la decolora.Colocarse en las manos una solución de alcohol antiséptico al 70%, especialmente si se van a manipular las plantas, como en el aporque, el tutorado, la toma de muestras, etc. También es posible usar guantes de látex descartables, con aplicaciones frecuentes de alcohol antiséptico (70%).En la antecámara mantener siempre una de las dobles puertas cerradas, para evitar el ingreso de corrientes de aire y con ellas el ingreso de insectos.Evitar que los equipos y las herramientas usadas para aeroponía salgan a otras áreas, especialmente al campo.Desinfectar previamente las herramientas que van a ser utilizadas para los aporques, las podas u otras labores, con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 1%.Después de hacer cortes en cada planta, desinfectar la hoja del bisturí con alcohol antiséptico (70%) y flamearlo sobre una llama, para evitar la propagación de patógenos.No fumar dentro de la casa de malla.Debido al uso de pesticidas, no es permitido comer ni beber en la casa de malla.No tocar las plantas si no es necesario.Ver Anexo 3. Ejemplos de cómo preparar soluciones de hipoclorito de sodio. 46No usar la casa de malla como sitio de almacenamiento de equipos, herramientas, etc.Limpiar con una solución de hipoclorito al 0,25% todas las superficies dentro de la casa de malla, en especial los módulos, para eliminar el polvo que se acumula y que podría contener esporas de patógenos adheridas a su superficie.Nuestra experiencia ha mostrado que las normas de higiene no son fáciles de implementar con personal que no está acostumbrado a este tipo de cuidados. Los técnicos de implementación necesitan conocer las normas para capacitar a los operarios, usarlas para dar ejemplo, y después hacer el seguimiento de su aplicación.Al ser la aeroponía una técnica muy llamativa, siempre hay interés en visitar los módulos aeropónicos. Esto debe ser evitado en la medida de lo posible. Idealmente, los visitantes deben observar la aeroponía desde afuera de la casa de malla, para evitar contaminaciones. Luego de una visita, se recomienda desinfectar los pisos de la casa de malla mediante una aspersión con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 0,25%.Mezclando compuestos, que contienen los nutrientes esenciales, disueltos en agua, para que las plantas los absorban a través de sus raíces y los aprovechen.Las plantas en aeroponía no necesitan recurrir al suelo para alimentarse; lo hacen por medio de una solución nutritiva, que se les provee en cantidades adecuadas para su desarrollo 47 .El técnico de implementación es el encargado de preparar las soluciones nutritivas, aunque también lo pueden hacer los operarios, siempre que se los capacite y trabajen bajo la supervisión del técnico.Los pasos para la preparación de la solución nutritiva son:Antes de iniciar la preparación de la solución nutritiva, hay que determinar la calidad del agua que se va a utilizar, para conocer su contenido de sales y de nutrientes. A partir de esos datos se pueden cubrir los requerimientos nutricionales de la planta, preparando una solución nutritiva.El análisis químico completo del agua, permite obtener los valores de macronutrientes, micronutrientes, conductividad eléctrica (CE), potencial hidrógeno (pH), dureza (cantidad de minerales, particularmente sales de magnesio y calcio), sólidos totales, cloruros, sulfuros y nitratos, que permitirán decidir cómo utilizar este tipo de agua.Después del análisis, se podrán identificar sus características y valorar si es prudente utilizarla. Si los resultados indican que estamos en presencia de un tipo de agua muy dura (mayor a 120 mg de carbonato de calcio, CaCO 3 , por litro), se pueden tener problemas de fijación de nutrientes. Por ejemplo, el fósforo que, al unirse con el magnesio o con el calcio, forma compuestos insolubles (fosfatos).Por el contrario, si el agua es blanda, posee mínimas cantidades de sales disueltas. En este caso puede haber problemas de estabilidad de pH, al no tener suficiente cantidad de sales (carbonatos) como amortiguador (buffer) de la solución nutritiva.El cuadro siguiente nos indica los principales criterios para evaluar el agua antes de utilizarla para preparar la solución nutritiva.1. Análisis químico del agua 2. Selección de la fórmula y de los fertilizantes para la solución nutritiva 3. Preparación de la solución nutritiva ¿CÓMO PREPARAR LA SOLUCIÓN NUTRITIVA?Revisar Capítulo 5: nutrientes. 47Lo ideal es tener valores en un grado de restricción de uso entre Ninguno y Moderado, ya que de tener valores en el grado de restricción Severo, se pueden presentar problemas, tanto con la estabilidad de la solución nutritiva, como con el taponamiento de los microaspersores.El hierro disponible en la fuente de agua, no debe ser tomado en cuenta porque se puede precipitar.De igual forma, el cobre y otros metales pueden ser inmovilizados en compuestos complejos, haciéndose escasamente disponibles para las plantas.También se debe considerar la fuente del agua. Si es agua de pozo o proveniente de acequias, podría tener microorganismos (hongos y/o bacterias) que pueden causar enfermedades en las plantas.Este tipo de agua debe tener un tratamiento para desinfectarla antes de la preparación de la solución nutritiva.* CE: conductividad eléctrica; TSD: total sólidos disueltos; pH: potencial hidrógeno La salinidad afecta la disponibilidad de agua para las plantas. La CE se reporta en términos de decisiemens por metro a 25°C (dS m -1 ) o en milimhos por centímetro (mmho cm -1 ). Ambas medidas son equivalentes, siendo la primera la unidad adoptada por el Sistema Internacional de Unidades. TSD equivale a total de sólidos en solución y se expresa en mg l -1 . Los nitratos (N-NO 3 ) se refieren al nitrógeno nítrico reportado en términos de nitrógeno elemental.Grado de restricción en el usoCE dS m -1 < 0,7 0,7 a 3 0,7 a 3 Por ejemplo, por medio de cloración: o sea, la aplicación de 2 a 5 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio, días antes de la preparación de la solución nutritiva, que da una concentración residual de cloro de 0,5 a 1 ppm. También se pueden ocupar filtros microbiológicos u otras formas de desinfección del agua 49 .Existen muchas formulaciones para la producción de semilla de papa por métodos hidropónicos, que se han probado alrededor del mundo. En el siguiente cuadro se exponen algunas fórmulas de soluciones nutritivas, que han sido probadas y utilizadas en diferentes sistemas en la zona andina, para la producción de papa en aeroponía.La solución original con la que se iniciaron los trabajos de aeroponía en CIP-Lima en el 2005, fue la solución desarrollada por la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) en Lima, Perú, para ser usada en varios cultivos 50 . Después esta solución fue ajustada por CIP, INIAP y CORPOICA, como parte de la validación de la aeroponía a condiciones locales.La inicial, que se mantiene desde el trasplante hasta el aporque, es decir los primeros 35 a 40 días.La final, que se utiliza después del aporque hasta finalizar el cultivo.En aeroponía se utilizan generalmente 2 soluciones nutritivas: En este periodo de prueba es recomendable tener el apoyo de técnicos en nutrición de plantas o de personas con experiencia en aeroponía.Por ejemplo, es probable que sea necesario realizar análisis de la concentración de nutrientes en hojas y otras partes de la planta. Estos análisis deben ser interpretados por especialistas en nutrición de plantas, quienes van a sugerir los correctivos necesarios en la solución nutritiva.No todos los fertilizantes usados en agricultura convencional son adecuados para la preparación de soluciones nutritivas para aeroponía.Se necesitan fertilizantes que sean de rápida y alta solubilidad en el agua y que contengan niveles de residuos insolubles, metales pesados contaminantes u otros componentes tóxicos para las plantas, por ejemplo, cloruros, menores a la tolerancia máxima de la normativa vigente en cada país.Algunos fertilizantes contribuyen -en mayor o menor grado-con la alcalinidad o acidez de la solución, por lo cual es conveniente contar con esta información.La selección de los fertilizantes también depende de su disponibilidad. En el siguiente cuadro se muestran los fertilizantes y ácidos más comunes utilizados en la preparación de soluciones nutritivas para aeroponía.Y entre los fertilizantes neutros están: Es recomendable iniciar la implementación de la aeroponía usando una solución conocida (por ejemplo, la solución de la UNALM), que deberá ser ajustada a las condiciones locales de producción en un periodo de prueba (o validación).fosfato de amonio sulfato de amonio urea nitrato de amonio cloruro de potasio nitrato de potasio sulfato de potasio Para los macronutrientes, se pueden usar el fosfato di amónico, fosfato mono amónico, nitrato de potasio, sulfato de potasio y otros que tienen un alto porcentaje de macronutrientes en su composición.Para los micronutrientes, se pueden utilizar fertilizantes compuestos o preparados, altamente solubles, que resultan suficientes para cubrir las necesidades nutricionales de las plantas. En la actualidad, existen empresas dedicadas a la comercialización de fertilizantes y soluciones nutritivas, con las que se pueden llegar a acuerdos para que ellos hagan las mezclas físicas de los fertilizantes simples, con lo que se facilita la preparación de la solución nutritiva.Por ejemplo, el CIP-Lima acordó con una empresa privada la preparación y venta de una mezcla física de varios fertilizantes solubles para ser usada en aeroponía. Esto facilitó el manejo nutricional de las plantas.Después de hacer el de la solución nutritiva (tanto para la solución como para la final), se identifican en el mercado los fertilizantes que se encuentran disponibles.En el siguiente cuadro, se describen las cantidades de fertilizantes que deben utilizarse para preparar 250 l de la solución UNALM inicial y final, que se indica en el cuadro anterior. Los fertilizantes a utilizarse son los que se encuentran normalmente en Perú, ya que éste ejemplo fue una experiencia realizada en CIP-Lima.Podemos tomar el siguiente ejemplo, para determinar la formulación requerida de una solución nutritiva (tanto inicial como final), que será preparada usando como referencia la solución UNALM, teniendo en cuenta las características del agua, cuyo análisis químico se conoce. El volumen requerido es de 250 l. Platos para pesar los fertilizantes. Se recomienda que sean plásticos para evitar que se oxiden y reaccionen con los fertilizantes.3 baldes plásticos de 10 litros.2 probetas de 25 ml.Vara u otra herramienta para agitar la solución, de preferencia plástica.pH-metro y conductímetro portátiles.Para la preparación de las soluciones nutritivas, se deben utilizar siempre guantes y mascarilla, evitando el contacto directo con los fertilizantes. a Fertilizante foliar comercial: 4,0% (Mn); 4,0% (Fe); 1,5% (Cu); 1,5% (Zn); 0,5% (B); 0,1% (Mo); 3,3% (MgO); 3,0% (S). Todos los micronutrientes metálicos se encuentran en forma quelatada EDTA. Los quelatos son complejos formados por la unión de un metal y un compuesto que contiene dos o más ligandos potenciales.Primero. Pesar (con la balanza) o medir (con la probeta) las cantidades requeridas de cada fertilizante.Segundo. Disolver, en forma separada, cada fertilizante, en recipientes que contengan medio litro de agua. Para disolver el sulfato de potasio se recomienda utilizar agua caliente.Tercero. Llenar con agua la mitad del tanque de 250 litros e incorporar los fertilizantes disueltos, uno por uno, agitando la solución con utensilios limpios y desinfectados.Cuarto. Llenar el tanque con agua hasta completar los 250 litros. Agitar la solución para que los nutrientes se distribuyan en forma homogénea. Mezclar y oxigenar la solución nutritiva.Revisar con el proveedor la información acerca de solubilidad y compatibilidad de los fertilizantes.Añadir los fertilizantes líquidos en el agua del tanque, antes de los fertilizantes sólidos.Agregar los fertilizantes lentamente, con agitación, para prevenir la formación de compuestos insolubles.Colocar el ácido en el agua y no el agua en el ácido.Cuando se agregue cloro, siempre añadir el cloro al agua y no el agua al cloro.Nunca mezclar un ácido o fertilizante ácido con cloro (se forma hipoclorito de sodio, que es un gas tóxico).No mezclar amonio anhidro (NH 3 ) ni agua amoniacal directamente con cualquier ácido. La reacción es violenta e inmediata.No mezclar soluciones concentradas de fertilizantes directamente con otras soluciones concentradas de fertilizantes.No mezclar compuestos que contienen sulfato con compuestos que contienen calcio (se forma yeso insoluble).No mezclar fertilizantes de reacción fuertemente ácida, con otros de reacción fuertemente alcalina.No mezclar fertilizantes fosfatados con fertilizantes que contienen calcio. Aguas extremadamente duras se combinarán con el fósforo o sulfatos formando sustancias insolubles.PRECAUCIONES PARA PREPARAR LA SOLUCIÓN NUTRITIVAEl almacenamiento de los fertilizantes debe hacerse en un lugar fresco, libre de humedad y teniendo en cuenta las indicaciones de manejo de fertilizantes que vienen en sus fichas técnicas y de seguridad. Nunca almacenar ácidos y cloro en el mismo sitio.¿Cómo manejar el potencial hidrógeno (pH) y la conductividad eléctrica (CE) de la solución?La adición de los nutrientes en la solución nutritiva afecta directamente el potencial osmótico y el potencial hidrógeno (pH).El potencial osmótico es la concentración de sales minerales en la solución nutritiva y se mide mediante la conductividad eléctrica (CE). Por lo tanto, hay una relación lineal entre el potencial osmótico y la CE. El potencial hidrógeno (pH) es una medida de acidez o alcalinidad de la solución nutritiva.El pH en el entorno de las raíces es importante, porque valores muy bajos son tóxicos para las plantas. Sin embargo, en la práctica, el pH es importante por sus efectos sobre la disponibilidad de muchos nutrientes, en especial los micronutrientes.Es recomendable todos los días, a primera hora, hacer la medición de pH y de CE, ya que son datos útiles para saber cómo se está comportando la solución nutritiva. Y de ser necesario, hacer alguna corrección.Para esta medición se necesitan instrumentos portátiles de medición: un pH-metro y un conductímetro. Es imprescindible el manejo cuidadoso y la limpieza de los instrumentos para un buen resultado en las mediciones, siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante.La CE ideal para un sistema aeropónico es de 1,5 a 2,5 dS.m -1 .Hay que tener cuidado con el manejo del pH de la solución nutritiva. Valores de pH elevados pueden conducir a deficiencias de micronutrientes, como el hierro. Con valores bajos de pH puede existir deficiencia de macronutrientes, como el fósforo.Valores altos de CE dificultan la absorción de nutrientes por el aumento de la presión osmótica, mientras que valores bajos de CE pueden afectar severamente el desarrollo de la planta y su rendimiento, debido a la deficiencia de nutrientes.Puede ser entre 7 y 15 días, ya que esta solución, al recircular, con el tiempo va cambiando el pH y la CE, debido a que los nutrientes son absorbidos por las plantas. De igual manera las raíces de las plantas liberan y adicionan diferentes tipos de sustancias orgánicas en la solución nutritiva, provocando problemas de inestabilidad de pH y de CE. Estas sustancias orgánicas en la solución nutritiva pueden -o no-ser perjudiciales para el desarrollo y la producción de las plantas en el sistema aeropónico.Además, al disminuir la concentración de nutrientes en la solución, existe la posibilidad que se presenten problemas de toxicidad o deficiencia en las plantas, y por ende, una disminución en los rendimientos.El cambio de la solución nutritiva depende también de la etapa de crecimiento en que se encuentren las plantas, ya que si están en una etapa temprana, con plantas pequeñas, el consumo de agua es muy bajo y los cambios podrían hacerse después de un tiempo más largo. Por el contrario, si las plantas se encuentran en pleno desarrollo y producción, el consumo de agua es alto por lo que se recvomienda hacer los cambios con más frecuencia.La decisión de cambiar la solución, depende también de las condiciones ambientales. Si existen altas temperaturas, habrá más consumo de las plantas y puede también existir evaporación de la solución nutritiva, lo que hace variar el pH y la CE. En estos casos se recomienda hacer los cambios en tiempos más cortos.El pH ideal para un sistema aeropónico es ligeramente ácido, entre 6,5 y 6,8.En relación al pH, las variaciones que se observan en una solución nutritiva, están en función de la diferencia, en magnitud, de absorción de nutrientes por las plantas, en términos del balance de aniones sobre cationes. Cuando los aniones son absorbidos en concentraciones más altas que los cationes, -por ejemplo en el caso del nitrato-, las plantas excretan OHo HCO -3 como aniones, para equilibrar las cargas eléctricas en el interior de la solución, produciéndose así el aumento en el valor de pH. Este proceso se denomina alcalinidad fisiológica.La regulación del pH se lleva a cabo normalmente mediante el uso de ácidos: nítrico, sulfúrico o fosfórico. Tales ácidos se pueden utilizar de forma individual o combinada. Si es necesario subir el pH, se recomienda el uso de hidróxidos, especialmente de potasio.La disminución de la absorción de agua, se correlaciona de forma lineal con la CE. Por lo tanto se recomienda mantener una CE promedio de 2,0 dS m -1 en el sistema aeropónico de producción de papa. La reducción de la CE se lleva a cabo mediante el suministro de agua pura a la solución nutritiva. Por el contrario, si se tiene valores de CE debajo de 1,5 dS m -1 se pueden adicionar fertilizantes a la solución nutritiva.Esta solución contiene nutrientes que pueden ser aprovechados por las plantas. Por lo tanto, se la puede usar en jardines o huertos caseros cercanos al sistema de aeroponía, preferiblemente en cultivos que no requieran un manejo agronómico intensivo y que no sean solanáceas para evitar una potencial diseminación de enfermedades.Si se desea usar esta solución nutritiva en cultivos intensivos, es conveniente realizar un análisis de los nutrientes remanentes. Si se observa que la concentración es baja, conviene aumentar fertilizantes como complemento. Sin embargo, se necesita mayor investigación sobre este tema.Sobre la reutilización de la solución sobranteEn el CIP-Quito, se implementó un invernadero para la producción de tomate con sistema de riego por goteo y fertirrigación, que es un ejemplo práctico de reutilización de la solución nutritiva. Pero, los resultados fueron muy pobres lo que corroboró la inconveniencia de usar la solución nutritiva con solanáceas o en cultivos intensivos como única fuente de fertilización.En el CIP-Huancayo y en la Estación de Tigoni (Kenia) con la solución sobrante se fertilizan las plantas ornamentales de las estaciones experimentales.Aunque se tomen los cuidados necesarios, es probable que haya casos de fitotoxicidad, por fallas en la preparación de la solución nutritiva, sobre todo en la fase de validación de la aeroponía.Es mejor cambiar toda la solución nutritiva de una vez, en lugar de adicionar agua y nutrientes. Al cambiarla, estamos evitando que patógenos -que puedan estar presentes en la solución-tengan tiempo para desarrollarse e infectar las plantas de los módulos aeropónicos.En el CIP-Lima se encontraron problemas de deficiencias, principalmente de calcio y manganeso, debido tal vez al agua utilizada para preparar la solución nutritiva, agua muy dura, que provocó que las plantas tengan niveles bajos de asimilación de nutrientes. Por lo tanto, es importante analizar el agua antes de preparar la solución nutritiva.En la Estación Experimental de Holetta se notó un crecimiento excepcional de follaje de las plantas, pero con pocos minitubérculos. Al hacer una revisión de los fertilizantes usados, se comprobó que eran compuestos puros de laboratorio y no fertilizantes de campo, que tienen nutrientes menos concentrados. Barona, 2012. 52Por recomendación de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (Lima, Perú), en el CIP-Lima, CIP-Quito y CORPOICA-Tibaitatá, se ha usado una concentración de 0,457 g de sulfato de magnesio por litro −más alta que la recomendada por Otazú (2010) de 0,247 g por litro−, con buenos resultados. En contraste en varios países africanos se usan dosis menores a la recomendada por Otazú (2010), 0,1 g por litro.La solución nutritiva es un factor importante en la aeroponía. La nutrición de las plantas depende exclusivamente de los fertilizantes que se usan, así como del manejo del pH y de la CE. Además, es una solución recirculante, es decir, que las concentraciones de nutrientes, pH y CE varían con el tiempo, desde cuando se la prepara, hasta cuando se la reemplaza, entre 7 y 15 días. Como se advierte, el manejo de la solución nutritiva es complejo.Es por eso que en la fase inicial de validación de la aeroponía es frecuente observar problemas de deficiencia, fitotoxicidad moderada y, en algunos casos, fitotoxicidad aguda que pueden causar pérdidas totales de los módulos.Sin embargo, una vez superada esta fase, es decir, después que se hayan determinado las fuentes de nutrientes, las concentraciones y el manejo óptimo para las condiciones locales, el manejo de la solución nutritiva se vuelve rutinario.Finalmente, se ha observado que usando una solución nutritiva estándar para hidroponía (como la solución de la UNALM), los rendimientos alcanzados son aceptables. Esto indica que, aun cuando la solución nutritiva es importante en la aeroponía, hay otros factores que afectan el rendimiento y que necesitan mayor atención: las condiciones ambientales (definidas por la ubicación de la casa de malla y la calidad de la infraestructura), la variedad y el manejo agronómico (calidad del material de trasplante y acondicionamiento, densidad, aporque-hundimiento, podas, tutorado y manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades).Para ello es necesario tener en cuenta las normas de higiene para manipular plantas, que deben cumplirse de manera estricta, pues la sanidad de los minitubérculos va a depender en gran medida de ello.También es necesario recordar que los minitubérculos serán sembrados en campo para obtener semilla básica, registrada y certificada. Por lo tanto, un minitubérculo contaminado tiene el riesgo de diseminar una plaga o enfermedad a muchos agricultores.Desinfectar las herramientas que van a ser utilizadas (pinzas, bisturís, etc.) con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio al 1%.Lavarse las manos con agua y jabón antes de manipular las plantas.Colocarse en las manos una solución de alcohol antiséptico al 70%. También es posible usar guantes de látex descartables con aplicaciones frecuentes de alcohol antiséptico (70%). Después de hacer cortes en cada planta, desinfectar la hoja del bisturí con alcohol antiséptico (70%) y flamearla sobre una llama para evitar la propagación de patógenos.Usar siempre un mandil limpio exclusivo para el trabajo en el invernadero.En caso de podas, recoger el material vegetal (hojas, tallos) en bolsas plásticas y desecharlo apropiadamente, por ejemplo, en una compostera alejada de la casa de malla.Una vez preparada la solución nutritiva se puede empezar a trabajar con las plántulas que servirán de material de siembra para la aeroponía.Porque es necesario adaptarlo a las condiciones de la casa de malla. Las plántulas destinadas a la aeroponía provienen, por lo general, del laboratorio (in vitro) o de esquejes que se obtienen de plantas madres. En ambos casos, es recomendable acondicionarlas.Sin duda, el ambiente del laboratorio es diferente al ambiente de la casa de malla, por lo cual el material para el trasplante necesita un proceso de adaptación, que consiste en proporcionar los factores ambientales óptimos para lograr una transición gradual del ambiente in vitro, al ambiente ex vitro.Cuando las plántulas in vitro llegan del laboratorio en tubos o magentas 53 se las acondiciona para que se adapten al ambiente de la casa de malla y para que desarrollen el sistema radicular y endurezcan sus tallos, antes del trasplante. Además en este momento se pueden seleccionar las plantas más vigorosas. Asegurarse que la arena provenga de una fuente no contaminada. La arena de los ríos está casi siempre contaminada con residuos químicos, por lo que debe ser lavada varias veces con agua potable antes de su desinfección. No se aconseja el uso de arena de relaves mineros o de mar.La arena debe ser de superficie irregular y angulosa, de 1 a 2 mm de tamaño, que es la que da mejores resultados como sustrato de enraizamiento. Si tiene más de 2 mm proporciona poco contacto con las raíces. Por el contrario, una arena demasiado fina retiene mucha humedad lo cual desplaza el oxígeno, inhibiendo la formación de raíces.Para la desinfección de la arena, se puede utilizar hipoclorito de sodio, agua hervida o calor húmedo.Distribuir, de manera uniforme, una solución de hipoclorito de sodio al 0,35% sobre la arena. Diez litros de esta solución sirven para 300 kg de arena.Remojar durante 10 minutos y luego lavar la arena 5 veces con agua potable, para eliminar el hipoclorito de sodio.Secar la arena a temperatura ambiente en un lugar limpio y protegido de la lluvia durante 4 a 5 días, para que se evapore el hipoclorito.Almacenar la arena en sacos limpios de 15 kg de peso, para facilitar su transporte.Hervir la arena con agua por 10 minutos o lavarla varias veces con agua hervida.Secar la arena a temperatura ambiente en un lugar limpio y protegido de la lluvia durante 1 o 2 días.Almacenar la arena en sacos limpios de 15 kg de peso para facilitar su transporte. Se lo puede hacer mediante el uso de equipos portátiles para producir vapor de agua, o mediante autoclaves. La temperatura que se necesita varía entre 70 y 82°C, por 30 minutos. Temperaturas sobre 85°C pueden ocasionar la liberación de manganeso o sales tóxicas (en el caso de suelo).El día del trasplante debe ser nublado y fresco, porque alta luminosidad y altas temperaturas son factores de estrés para las plántulas.De preferencia, el trasplante se debe realizar temprano por la mañana o al atardecer, siguiendo estos pasos:Hacer orificios en la base de la bandeja para permitir la salida del exceso de agua.Desinfectar las bandejas con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 0,25%.Colocar una malla antiáfido en la base de la bandeja para evitar que salga la arena, cuando se realice el riego.Colocar la arena desinfectada en las bandejas en una capa de más o menos 5 cm de profundidad.Preparación de bandejas con arena, CIP-Lima, Perú.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Tener en cuenta las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.MANUAL PARA LA PRODUCCIÓN DE SEMILLA DE PAPA USANDO AEROPONÍA Verificar que los tubos de ensayo o las magentas, estén correctamente identificadas, con el nombre de la variedad que se va a trasplantar.Preparar un recipiente con agua potable y una bandeja con papel toalla húmedo, sobre el cual se colocarán las plántulas antes del trasplante.Humedecer y compactar la arena.Hacer agujeros con los dedos o con un tubo de ensayo, a una distancia de 3 a 4 cm entre plantas y a una profundidad de 4 cm.  Extraer las plántulas in vitro de los tubos o magentas, con mucho cuidado, una a una, con la ayuda de una pinza, sin romper hojas ni raíces.Cambiarse los guantes por otro limpios antes de tocar las plántulas.Aplicar un riego ligero, sin remover la arena cerca de las plántulas. Los riegos deben ser ligeros y frecuentes según la temperatura y la evaporación. Regar la arena con la solución nutritiva inicial usada en aeroponía al 50%.Trasplantar las plántulas en los agujeros, asegurando un buen contacto de la plántula con la arena.Extracción de plántulas in vitro.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Conectar el compresor de aire al pequeño módulo a través de una manguera de 5 mm.Oxigenar la solución ajustando el temporizador, para que cada 4 horas se encienda la bomba, durante 15 minutos. Usar la solución nutritiva inicial para aeroponía al 50%.Dar sombra a las plántulas para prevenir la evapotranspiración excesiva y el marchitamiento, durante los primeros 2 o 3 días. Después, paulatinamente, someterlas a las condiciones de la casa de malla donde se realizará el trasplante definitivo.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Verificar la identidad y lavar las plántulas in vitro siguiendo las instrucciones dadas para el caso de acondicionamiento en bandejas con arena.Extraer las plántulas in vitro de los tubos o magentas y lavar sus raices con cuidado.Trasplantar las plántulas al pequeño módulo. Esperar de 12 a 15 días y trasplantar las plántulas enraizadas al módulo de aeroponía.Estructura para el acondicionamiento en bandejas de raíz flotante.Foto: Julián Mateus-Rodríguez.Construir una cámara húmeda en el interior de la casa de malla y cubrirla con la malla sombreadora. Dentro, colocar el recipiente tipo piscina sobre una mesa y conectarlo con el tanque de la solución nutritiva mediante una manguera.Instalar una bomba para recircular la solución nutritiva.Llenar el recipiente tipo piscina con la solución nutritiva inicial al 50% de concentración, evitando que se desborde.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Verificar la identidad y lavar las plántulas in vitro siguiendo las instrucciones dadas para el acondicionamiento en bandejas con arena.Colocar las plántulas en las bandejas de plástico, una planta por agujero. Colocar las bandejas con las plántulas en el recipiente tipo piscina, cuidando que la solución nutritiva entre por los agujeros a las bandejas y que las raíces queden sumergidas.Esperar de 10 a 12 días y trasplantar las plántulas al módulo de aeroponía.Los esquejes son una alternativa al uso de plantas in vitro como material para el trasplante. Entre los tipos de esquejes usados para aeroponía se encuentran los de tallo lateral, provenientes de plantas madre 54 , y recientemente esquejes de brote, provenientes de minitubérculos prebásicos, aunque sobre el uso de estos últimos es necesario más investigación.Métodos detallados de cómo obtener esquejes de papa, de diferentes partes de la planta, pueden ser encontrados en otras publicaciones 55 . Barona, 2012. 54 Por ejemplo, Hidalgo et al.,1999. 55 Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui. Recipientes para el cloro y el alcohol Substrato de enraizamiento: arena gruesa desinfectada o cuarzo de 1 a 2 mm de tamaño Hormona de enraizamiento (ácido indol-3-butírico al 0,1%) Una vez cosechados los esquejes, cubrirlos con papel toalla humedecido, y ponerlos bajo sombra, para prevenir su marchitez. Los esquejes pueden ser mantenidos por dos días en una refrigeradora con temperatura de 4 a 6 o C.Tocar ligeramente la base del esqueje con la hormona de enraizamiento. Con el uso de esta hormona, se obtiene el enraizamiento en un periodo más corto: de 2 a 3 días.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Preparar las bandejas con arena siguiendo las instrucciones dadas para el caso de plántulas in vitro.Trasplantar los esquejes en los agujeros, cuidando que el primer nudo quede encima de la superficie de la arena. Asegurar el buen contacto del esqueje con la arena.Hacer el trasplante en los módulos de aeroponía una vez que los esquejes hayan enraizado (alrededor de 15 días). Eliminar cualquier esqueje de tallo lateral que no haya enraizado en forma apropiada. Escoger solo los esquejes que tengan buena cantidad de raíces.Aplicar un riego ligero después de la siembra, sin remover la arena cerca de los esquejes. Si se usa hormona, hay que esperar por lo menos dos horas antes de regar, para permitir que los tejidos la absorban. Los riegos siguientes deben ser ligeros y frecuentes, según la temperatura y la evaporación. Usar los primeros 3 o 4 días agua pura y luego regar con la solución nutritiva inicial al 50%.Dar sombra a los esquejes trasplantados para prevenir la evapotranspiración excesiva y el marchitamiento.Cualquiera sea el método de acondicionamiento que se use, tanto las plántulas in vitro como los esquejes, deben estar en la casa de malla por un periodo de entre 10 y 21 días antes del trasplante definitivo, protegidos bajo sombra los primeros días, con una temperatura de 15 a 20 o C y una humedad relativa de 80 a 90% (se puede usar una carpa para mantener esta humedad).Unos días antes del trasplante definitivo, las plantas deben ser expuestas al ambiente de la casa de malla sin ninguna protección.Realizar los riegos con la solución nutritiva inicial usada en aeroponía al 50%, salvo en el caso de esquejes, en los que se realizan los riegos con agua pura por 3 o 4 días y luego se usa la solución inicial al 50%.Por el requerimiento de temperaturas bajas para el acondicionamiento y trasplante, es conveniente no hacer la labor de acondicionamiento durante las épocas más soleadas y calientes del año. Seleccionar esquejes que provengan de una planta madre fisiológicamente joven. Evitar el uso de esquejes muy maduros porque forman tubérculos demasiado pronto y su producción es baja.En caso de observar pudrición de esquejes causada por patógenos, mejorar el drenaje del sustrato y usar fungicidas en forma preventiva.El día del trasplante no debería tener mucha luminosidad ni elevadas temperaturas, ya que son factores de estrés para las plántulas. Lo mejor es realizar el trasplante en días nublados, con temperaturas de 16 a 18 o C y humedad relativa de 80%, preferiblemente temprano en la mañana o por la tarde.Antes del trasplante se debe definir la densidad de la siembra, que puede estar entre 15 y 30 plantas por m 2 . La densidad de trasplante debe estar en función de las características del crecimiento del follaje, de los estolones y de las raíces de la variedad de papa que se va a trasplantar.Ejemplos de densidad de trasplante: 2 baldes de 15 litros cada uno Brocha de 2,54 cm (1 pulgada)Láminas de esponja de 1 a 2 cm de grosor Bandejas Envase con agua potable Sorbetes para gaseosa de 15 a 25 cm de longitud, con un diámetro de 5 mm a 1 cm Objeto con punta para perforar el plástico de las tapas de los módulos Vasos de plástico trasparentes descartables de 150 ml o de 8 cm de alto Primero, asegurarse que la casa de malla disponga de sombra.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Retirar con cuidado las plántulas (provengan de in vitro o de esquejes) de las bandejas de acondicionamiento. Las pinzas grandes son de gran ayuda para este fin. Una brocha fina, sirve para limpiar las raíces que contienen arena. También se puede usar un atomizador manual para limpiar la arena sin causar daño a las raicillas.Una vez que se haya decidido usar una determinada densidad, hay que realizar orificios en las tapas superiores de los módulos 56 . Trasplante usando esponjas alrededor de las plántulas, CIP-Huancayo.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Desinfectar las raíces de las plántulas usando hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio al 0,1%. Luego lavarlas con agua potable. Para este procedimiento, se requiere contar con dos baldes de 15 litros cada uno: uno con agua potable y otro con la solución de hipoclorito de calcio o de sodio.Colocar las plántulas desinfectadas en una bandeja con papel toalla húmedo, mientras se realiza el trasplante.Hacer el trasplante al módulo de aeroponía, usando esponjas o sorbetes.Uso de esponja. Se usa para dar sostén inicial a las plántulas sobre la cubierta o tapa del módulo, dentro de la manguera. Se utiliza un trozo de esponja nuevo humedecido, que se envuelve alrededor del cuello en cada plántula.Antes de colocar las plantas en las mangueras es necesario hacer cortes, en forma de cruz (usando un estilete), sobre el plástico blanco y sobre cada orificio de manguera, para introducir las plántulas.Cuando se colocan las plántulas con las esponjas en los orificios, las raíces deben empujarse cuidadosamente dentro del módulo con un par de pinzas, dejando afuera el follaje.Después, levantando la tapa del módulo, se verifica que las raíces no estén enrolladas en la manguera. Los días posteriores al trasplante se puede humedecer la esponja, para dar humedad a la planta.Después, se los pone en un recipiente con agua potable hasta hacer el trasplante.Usar un objeto con punta para hacer un orificio en el plástico, sobre la manguera.Fotos: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Uso de sorbete. Los sorbetes son tubitos de plástico que pueden variar de 15 a 25 cm de longitud, con un diámetro de 5 mm a 1 cm. Lo más recomendable es usar los de 15 x 1 cm, porque es más fácil introducir la porción de raíces.Antes del trasplante se abre longitudinalmente el sorbete y se colocan dentro las raíces y una parte del tallo.Introducir el sorbete con la plántula en el orificio. Se colocan las raíces hacia el interior del módulo y finalmente se extrae el sorbete, con mucho cuidado, desde la parte interior del módulo. La plántula queda suspendida mediante la presión que ejerce el plástico.Colocar vasitos de plástico transparente o blanco sobre las plántulas recién trasplantadas, para evitar que transpiren en exceso y para mantener una humedad relativa de entre 80 y 90%. Programar el temporizador para que funcione el sistema de riego durante aproximadamente 15 segundos, cada 15 minutos las 24 horas del día, o de acuerdo con los requerimientos del cultivo. Durante noches frías y cuando las plántulas son pequeñas, el requerimiento de riego es menor con relación al que se necesita en días más cálidos y plantas grandes.Durante los primeros 3 días, las plantas deben ser nebulizadas con la solución nutritiva, a un 50% de concentración. Después, se debe usar la solución nutritiva a la dosis normal.Asegurarse que las raíces estén expuestas a la solución nebulizada y eliminar cualquier punto de entrada de luz al interior de los módulos.Evitar la exposición directa a la luz solar durante los primeros días después del trasplante. Usar la malla sombreadora en el techo de la casa de malla.A las dos semanas del trasplante, cuando las plántulas estén adaptadas y de buen tamaño, retirar los vasitos plásticos.El aporque-hundimiento consiste en el proceso de bajado de tallos. Se realiza con la finalidad de inducir el mayor número de estolones y por ende producir un mayor número de tubérculos. Es equivalente al aporque en el campo.Cuando aparecen estolones en la parte superior del sistema radicular. Entonces, se deben bajar inmediatamente las plantas, introduciendo una porción de tallo con las hojas inferiores removidas.En la mayoría de las variedades de papa, los estolones aparecen entre los 30 y 40 días después del trasplante. Plántulas provenientes de esquejes se desarrollan más rápido, por lo tanto el momento del aporque-hundimiento puede ocurrir en menos tiempo.Algunas variedades tienden a formar estolones superficiales que pueden estar dentro del tubo de manguera. Si no bajamos la esponja por debajo de la tapa pueden formarse uno o más minitubérculos dentro del tubo de manguera, apretando y estrangulando el tallo de la planta, llegando incluso a matarla. También hay que tener cuidado de no bajar demasiado la esponja para que no entre luz en el interior del módulo. Las plantas se pueden sostener por sí mismas de 3 a 4 semanas. Después de este tiempo y después del aporque-hundimiento, se desarrollan rápidamente y requieren soportes como: estacas de bambú, mallas de alambre, nylon o rafia agrícola, dependiendo del método que se va usar, de los recursos económicos y de los materiales existentes en la zona.Cortar 3 o 4 hojas inferiores de cada planta usando un bisturí.Introducir de 8 a 12 cm de tallo en el módulo, recordando las medidas de higiene.Dejar cicatrizar las heridas por 2 o 3 días.Para el tutorado usar materiales que no dañen a la planta ni que sean fuente de inóculo o albergue de plagas y enfermedades.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Alcohol antiséptico (70%) Estacas de bambú, malla de nylon o rafia agrícola Twists, pabilo o rafia Si se van a usar estacas de bambú, desinfectarlas previamente con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 1%.¿Qué vamos a necesitar? ¿Qué hay que hacer? (dependiendo del método que se use)Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Instalar unas líneas verticales de pabilo blanco sobre el módulo donde se están desarrollando las plantas, para dar soporte a las estacas de bambú.Colocar las estacas en forma vertical.Sujetar las plantas a las estacas de bambú con twists o pabilo, según su crecimiento.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Colocar la malla de nylon a 30 cm sombre el módulo aeropónico, sujetada a los postes para el tutorado.Foto: Denisse Rademacher.En el manejo de la producción de semillas de papa en aeroponía, se realizan dos tipos de podas para:Esta poda consiste en el corte de brotes apicales y se realiza al inicio de la tuberización. La poda reduce el tamaño de la planta -lo que facilita su manejo-sin disminuir significativamente la producción de minitubérculos 57 .Este procedimiento es recomendable para las variedades tipo andigena, pero no lo es para las variedades tipos andigena x tuberosum y spp. tuberosum, porque no desarrollan abundante follaje.A medida que las plantas crecen, se agregan más mallas hacia arriba, para direccionar su crecimiento. Esta poda consiste en el corte de brotes laterales y hojas enfermas. Se realiza en cualquier momento del crecimiento vegetativo, cuando es necesario eliminar hojas enfermas.Esta poda también se recomienda en variedades que desarrollan follaje abundante, para asegurar una buena ventilación entre la tapa del módulo y el follaje. En este caso, se deben remover los tallos laterales y las hojas inferiores.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Remover los tallos laterales inferiores y las hojas enfermas con el bisturí, en cualquier momento del ciclo vegetativo.Colocar las hojas podadas directamente en una bolsa plástica, para eliminarlas lejos de la casa de malla, evitando así que puedan volver a contaminar el cultivo aeropónico.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas.Usando un bisturí, cortar los brotes apicales después de la primera cosecha de minitubérculos, dejando las plantas con una altura promedio de 80 cm. El bisturí se coloca en ángulo recto para hacer un corte limpio y firme. Un soporte sólido, como papel toalla doblado, ayuda para obtener esta forma de corte. Hay que tener cuidado de no herirse los dedos. En el caso del CIP-Quito el acondicionamiento se llevó a cabo dejando de 2 a 4 días las plántulas en los tubos de ensayo -sin las tapas-bajo sombra, dentro de la casa de malla, para que se aclimaten. Después de este periodo, se realizó el trasplante al módulo, sin someter las plantas a otros procesos de acondicionamiento para el desarrollo de las raíces. Aunque el periodo de adaptación fue largo (más de 3 semanas), las plantas crecieron sin mayores dificultades.Sin embargo, es necesario comparar los procedimientos usados en Perú y Colombia (acondicionamiento en bandejas con arena, en pequeños módulos y en bandejas de raíz flotante) con el usado en Ecuador, para saber cuál de ellos es el más adecuado.En el CIP-Quito se modificaron los tiempos de riego dependiendo de las condiciones del cultivo con buenos resultados. Por ejemplo, se disminuyó el tiempo del riego de 15 a 10 segundos cada 15 minutos, desde el trasplante hasta el aporque. Además el sistema de riego se apagó durante las noches de 10 pm a 4 am, en razón de las bajas temperaturas.En CORPOICA, las plántulas han presentado una buena adaptación con el uso de la técnica de raíz flotante. Esto para todas las variedades probadas: Diacol Capiro, Parda Pastusa, Pastusa Suprema, Roja Nariño e ICA Única.En el sistema aeropónico del CIP-Lima se ha visto que los esquejes producen mayor peso total de tubérculos y número de tubérculos mayores a 5 g, mientras que las plántulas in vitro, producen mayor número total de tubérculos, pero la mayoría menores a 5 g. Sin embargo, esto depende de la variedad 58 . Por lo tanto, si se quiere utilizar esquejes en vez de plantas in vitro, hay que comparar ambos materiales de siembra, en la variedad de papa que interese.Para el manejo de enfermedades y plagas, se deben definir los agentes causales de las enfermedades y de los daños en el caso de plagas. También se debe descartar que los síntomas sean causados por desbalances nutricionales o condiciones ambientales adversas.Las normas de higiene y otras medidas de prevención, que reducen los factores predisponentes de las enfermedades y del desarrollo de poblaciones de plagas, son la base del manejo integrado.Las enfermedades y plagas producen síntomas que, por lo general, se pueden observar a simple vista. El reto es diagnosticar los agentes causales e identificar los patógenos y plagas que podrían entrar a la casa de malla.Lo siguiente es implementar las medidas apropiadas de manejo, como son: la modificación de las condiciones ambientales para retrasar la multiplicación de patógenos y plagas; uso de métodos físicos y biológicos de control; y la selección y el uso de pesticidas apropiados para el control de cada una de las plagas y enfermedades de la papa, en el sistema aeropónico.Para que se presente una enfermedad infecciosa (causada por un microorganismo, por ejemplo un hongo), tres factores tienen que estar presentes a la vez. Se los representa como el triángulo de la enfermedad:Peter KromannPatógeno agresivo ¿Un ejemplo?El tizón tardío de la papa se presenta en el cultivo aeropónico cuando: existen cultivos de papa infectados en los alrededores, se está cultivando una variedad de papa susceptible y, al mismo tiempo, hay agua que se condensa en las hojas de la planta.Patógeno agresivo: esporas de Phytophthora infestans que entraron a la casa de malla, transportadas por el viento, pasando a través de la malla antiáfido.Planta u hospedante susceptible: planta de papa de una variedad que se puede infectar con P. infestans.Medio ambiente favorable: agua en el follaje por un poco más de 1 hora -puede ser el rocío de la mañana-que permite la germinación de las esporas y la consiguiente infección de la planta.En el tizón tardío de la papa están presentes los tres factores de la enfermedad:Es el microorganismo causante de la enfermedad. Puede estar presente en el agua, en el suelo, en el polvo, en plantas contaminadas, en insectos vectores y otros medios de transmisión, como la ropa y el calzado de operarios o técnicos.Es la planta susceptible al patógeno. Por lo general, todas las variedades de papa son compatibles con los patógenos que las afectan, en diferentes niveles de susceptibilidad.Las condiciones óptimas del medio ambiente, que favorecen el desarrollo y la reproducción de los patógenos, varían. Para muchos patógenos, el calor y la humedad son condiciones excelentes para desarrollar su actividad y enfermar a la planta. El agua de la solución nutritiva también puede ser un medio propicio para la sobrevivencia y la difusión de los patógenos.Además de los tres factores del triángulo de la enfermedad, existe el factor \"persona\". Las personas que manejan el cultivo aeropónico, pueden tener mucha influencia sobre esos factores, por ejemplo cuando realizan tareas como: decidir sobre la densidad de trasplante, aplicar pesticidas, controlar la humedad y la temperatura en la casa de malla, entre otros. Si se actúa según lo indicado, se podría disminuir la probabilidad que una enfermedad se desarrolle.¿Cuáles son los patógenos y las plagas que pueden entrar a la casa de malla?Son patógenos y plagas que se agrupan en las siguientes categorías: el viento, que transporta esporas la lluvia, que mediante salpicaduras dispersa a los patógenos, por lo que hay que evitar goteras en la casa de malla el riego las plántulas contaminadas las personas, en sus botas, ropa, manos, etc.Enfermedades causadas por hongos y oomicetos Virus de la papa Insectos plaga de la papa La primera medida de manejo las enfermedades es evitar que los patógenos entren a la casa de malla, por ejemplo, a través de las actividades de las personas.Las formas de dispersión de bacterias y hongos, incluyen:Pierna Negra.Pudrición blanda.Foto: Fabián Montesdeoca.Pierna Negra y Pudrición Blanda (Erwinia o Pectobacterium spp.) La pierna negra puede aparecer en cualquier etapa del desarrollo de la planta. A menudo, lesiones necróticas van ascendiendo por el tallo, desde la base de la planta, la cual presenta una pudrición blanda. Los tubérculos jóvenes se pudren, a veces, en el extremo del estolón. Puede darse el marchitamiento y la muerte de la planta.Las bacterias causantes de la pudrición blanda, pueden infectar las lenticelas si la superficie de los tubérculos está húmeda, produciendo lesiones circulares cóncavas, desde donde la pudrición blanda se puede expandir rápidamente. La pudrición blanda, por lo general, tiene mal olor. Sarna Común (Streptomyces spp.) En los tubérculos se desarrollan varios tipos de lesiones que pueden ser superficiales o profundas, cóncavas, protuberantes o reticulares. En muchos casos la mayor parte de la superficie de los tubérculos resulta afectada. Las raíces fibrosas también pueden dañarse, pero el follaje no se afecta.Esto se puede verificar mediante la observación de un fluido filamentoso de color blanco lechoso, que emana de los haces vasculares, al cortar y sumergir un pedazo del tallo en agua limpia. La marchitez bacteriana es una enfermedad muy peligrosa -de cuarentena en la mayoría de los países-que se encuentra en Bolivia, Colombia y Perú, pero no se ha reportado en Ecuador.Los síntomas iniciales son amarillamiento leve, el cual se observa primero en un solo lado de la hoja o en una rama y no en la siguiente.Los síntomas avanzados son: marchitez severa. oscurecimiento de los haces vasculares y, exudación de un mucílago gris castaño, si se hace un corte transversal a un tallo o tubérculo (no se ve en los casos leves). Tizón tardío en foliolo.Tizón tardío en tallo.Bajo condiciones de alta humedad, podemos ver una pelusilla blanca, especialmente en el envés de las hojas. Muchas veces se forma un borde verde pálido alrededor de las lesiones de las hojas. Puede afectar los tallos y los tubérculos. Si se hace un corte transversal de los tubérculos afectados, se pueden ver tejidos necróticos pardos, poco diferenciados de las partes sanas.El tizón se diagnostica a través del método de \"caja húmeda\". Se coloca la parte de la planta con síntomas, en una caja cerrada, con humedad (envase plástico cerrado, con un pedazo de papel toalla humedecido en su interior). Si la infección es causada por P. infestans, a los 3 o 4 días se forma una pelusilla blanca, formada por el micelio y las esporas del patógeno.Si la casa de malla está en una zona de producción de papa, es casi seguro que la esporas de éste microorganismo entre a la casa de malla por el aire, desde los cultivos cercanos, en épocas húmedas y lluviosas.Las manchas necróticas se desarrollan en las plantas cuando el agua se condensa en su follaje, por más de 1 hora. Estas manchas empiezan en los bordes de los foliolos y en lugares donde se acumulan las gotas de agua.Tizón tardío (Phytophthora infestans) El tizón tardío es conocido como \"gota\" en Colombia, \"rancha\" en Perú y \"lancha\" en Ecuador. Los síntomas se presentan como lesiones de apariencia húmeda en el follaje, que, en pocos días, se vuelven necróticas, de color castaño cuando están secas o negras cuando están húmedas. Oidiosis (Erysiphe / Oidium spp.) Es una enfermedad típica de la papa en invernadero, bajo condiciones de altas temperaturas.Los principales síntomas se manifiestan en las hojas, que se cubren con una capa algodonosa de micelio gris blancuzco, que superficialmente parecen residuos de polvo o restos de alguna aspersión.La alternaria forma pequeñas manchas necróticas en las hojas, marcadas internamente por anillos concéntricos. Las lesiones grandes en las hojas rara vez son circulares porque son restringidas por las nervaduras principales.Si no se controla el tizón tardío, puede infectar todas las plantas en la casa de malla y causarles la muerte en 2 o 3 semanas, dependiendo de las condiciones ambientales.Foto: Byron Potosí.Marchitez por Verticillium spp. Se caracteriza por amarillamiento y marchitez de las hojas, que comienza en la base de la planta y se desarrolla, restringiendo los síntomas a un solo lado de la nervadura principal de las hojas, del tallo o de la planta. Estos síntomas son causados por un bloqueo del sistema vascular, en un lado de la hoja o planta.La marchitez por Verticillium es más grave cuando hay temperaturas altas y baja humedad en el aire.Usualmente no hay indicios de la roña en la parte aérea de la planta. Los primeros síntomas se manifiestan con la aparición de pequeñas ampollas, de color claro, en la superficie de los tubérculos.En una fase avanzada, estas ampollas se convierten en pústulas abiertas y oscuras, con un diámetro de 2 a 10 mm o más grandes inclusive, que contienen en su interior, una masa polvorienta de esporas de color castaño oscuro.Las raíces pueden formar agallas de hasta 15 mm. El color de las agallas, cuando son de formación reciente, es similar al de una raíz normal. A medida que las agallas se van desintegrando, el color se oscurece rápidamente. El patógeno se disemina con facilidad a través del agua de la solución nutritiva.Siempre es necesario observar cómo se desarrollan las plantas para identificar cualquier causa de desarrollo anormal, ya que hongos y bacterias patógenos, podrían entrar al sistema aeropónico.Foto: Fabián Montesdeoca.Síntomas: amarillamiento brillante en las nervaduras y en la lámina de las hojas. Forma de transmisión: por medio principalmente de la mosca blanca.Pulguilla (Epitrix spp.) El adulto es de color negro brillante y el largo de su cuerpo es de aproximadamente 3 mm. En las mañanas se ubica en la base de los foliolos y al alimentarse dejan un orificio redondo, que crece conforme se desarrolla la hoja.En casas de malla con aeroponía se encuentran únicamente los insectos adultos, debido a que la hembra, requiere de suelo para ovipositar y la larva no tiene oportunidad para desarrollarse. Por lo tanto la población observada será la que llega a la casa de malla desde el exterior.Amarillamiento de venas.Foto: Nancy Panchi.Foto: Álvaro Barragán.Los adultos de P. operculella tienen 5 mm de largo, sus alas anteriores contienen varios puntos de color obscuro distribuidos en toda su superficie. Las larvas de esta especie son de color crema, de forma alargada y se desarrollan en las hojas formando minas circulares. También barrenan el tallo.Adultos de polillas.Foto: Álvaro Barragán.En aeroponía debemos revisar el nivel de la población. Solamente se requieren medidas de control, como la aplicación de insecticidas, si existe más de un adulto por cada 5 plantas. Cuando las plantas están grandes -50 días después del transplante-el insecto perderá importancia.Los adultos de S. tangolias, son de color gris y presentan una mancha triangular en la parte anterior y marginal del primer par de alas. El largo de su cuerpo es de 1 cm. Las larvas muestran franjas de color verde alternadas con franjas de color rosado, a lo largo de su cuerpo. Barrenan los tallos que se marchitan. Para empupar, salen de la galería.La polilla guatemalteca (Tecia solanivora) no se considera plaga de la papa en el sistema aeropónico, porque los adultos no dañan a la planta de la papa y las larvas se alimentan sólo de los tubérculos. El adulto tiene una línea negra a lo largo de cada ala.Se supone que las larvas de estas polillas no tienen acceso a los tubérculos en los módulos aeropónicos.Barrenamiento de tallo causado por Symmetrischema tangolias.Minas causadas por larvas de Phthorimaea operculella.Foto: Fausto Yumisaca.Foto: Archivos CIP.Estos insectos raspan la superficie foliar, de donde brota la savia necesaria para su alimentación. La parte interna de las células, vaciadas por los trips, se oxida, dando lugar a manchas de color plateado. Los adultos son de color negro o café y son individuos migrantes que llegan desde el exterior de la casa de malla. Más tarde, darán origen a insectos inmaduros, que son de color crema o amarillo y no tienen alas.Mosca blanca (Trialeurodes vaporariorum y otras) El nombre común de \"mosca\" no es correcto, porque corresponde a un insecto de otro orden (Homoptera). Los adultos tienen 2 mm de largo. La hembra oviposita en la cara inferior de las hojas, que no recibe la radiación solar en forma directa. Los huevecillos son colocados perpendicularmente, en la superficie de la hoja y tienen forma de barril.Trips (Frankliniella spp.) Los trips son insectos pequeños, de 2 mm de largo, de forma alargada. Sus alas están formadas por un muñón central, del que salen flecos. Daños de polillas en tubérculos de papa.Foto: Fausto Yumisaca.Foto: Micaela Navarrete.Se presentan poblaciones aladas y sin alas. Los individuos alados tienen poca capacidad de desplazamiento propio a grandes distancias, por lo que aprovechan el viento para colonizar nuevos lugares. Los áfidos alados ingresan a la casa de malla a través de aberturas que pudiera haber en la infraestructura, o por medio de material infestado. Los lugares preferidos donde se encuentran los áfidos son: el envés de las hojas de abajo y los brotes tiernos.Son insectos con forma de globo, de consistencia suave y de un tamaño de 3 a 5 mm. Viven en colonias alrededor de una madre. En un momento, esas colonias se unen, dando la apariencia de una sola población. Son de color negro o verde, dependiendo de la especie.Pulgones.Foto: Heidy Gamarra. Foto: Israel Navarrete.La presencia de una población alta de mosca blanca, ocasiona la presencia de una sustancia azucarada, que se deposita en las hojas y foliolos jóvenes, donde se encuentra el insecto.Las larvas son un problema, en especial, para las plantas recién trasplantadas. Cuando las plantas están grandes, después de 50 días del trasplante, el daño que puede causar el insecto larva, pierde su importancia.Son insectos muy pequeños y casi microscópicos, de un tamaño de 0,15 mm. Con cierta dificultad son visibles a simple vista. Se encuentran casi siempre en el envés de las hojas jóvenes, en la parte alta del cultivo, por lo que en un cultivo aeropónico es necesario usar una escalera para poder observar el follaje de cerca.Mosquilla del brote (Prodiplosis spp.) Esta pequeña mosca es una de las principales plagas del cultivo del tomate, que también puede ser un problema en el cultivo de papa. En los países andinos es una plaga importante en zonas de altitudes menores a 2000 msnm, por ejemplo, en la costa peruana. Es un insecto diminuto de color blanco amarillento, con cabeza grande y oscura, ojos negros, patas y antenas largas y alas grandes. Los adultos son de un tamaño de alrededor de 2 mm. Las larvas de 0,5 a 2 mm, son blancas o amarillentas. Se encuentran típicamente en la base de los foliolos.Los áfidos y la mosca blanca son los principales transmisores de virus. Por lo tanto hay que extremar las medidas de prevención, para evitar el ingreso de estos insectos a la casa de malla.Adulto de Prodiplosis spp.Larvas en brotes de espárrago.Foto: Fernando Díaz.Foto: Norma Mujica.Las condiciones ambientales adversas pueden provocar alteraciones en los tejidos de las plantas e impedir su desarrollo normal. En la casa de malla pueden ser: heladas, olas de calor, cambios bruscos de la temperatura, exceso de humedad, falta de luz o quemaduras de sol.Las plantas jóvenes, recién trasplantadas, son muy susceptibles a quemaduras de sol y a cambios bruscos de temperatura, lo que puede provocar lesiones similares a las causadas por patógenos, por ejemplo, el tizón tardío.Las temperaturas altas pueden también causar excesiva transpiración y marchitez de las plantas jóvenes, recién trasplantadas.Para evitar daño en las plantas por condiciones ambientales adversas, es necesario protegerlas. Por ejemplo, con el uso de malla sombreadora, o con vasitos de plástico blanco sobre las plántulas recién trasplantadas, para protegerlas de la baja humedad del aire, del sol fuerte y de los cambios bruscos de temperatura.Por eso es importante controlar las temperaturas altas al medio día y en la tarde, y las temperaturas bajas en la madrugada.En los minitubérculos en ocasiones se puede observar que las lenticelas se hinchan y aparecen lesiones con forma de redecillas. Al parecer esto se debe a un exceso de humedad, falta de oxígeno y exceso de dióxido de carbono, y no por patógenos.Síntomas de ácaro hialino.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.Producen pequeñas manchas cloróticas de un color bronceado en las hojas y un enrollamiento de los foliolos en el ápice de la planta. Con una lupa se pueden observar los huevos, que son transparentes (hialinos) como el adulto y presentan un ligero granulado de figuras geométricas.Son un problema en zonas e invernaderos con condiciones secas y calurosas, como en la costa peruana.Los minitubérculos producidos mediante aeroponía, deben tener una \"tolerancia 0\" para enfermedades causadas por patógenos y daños causados por plagas. El manejo debería asegurar el criterio \"tolerancia 0\" y basarse en medidas preventivas que:¿Cómo evitar que las plagas y patógenos entren a la casa de malla?En cuanto al manejo de los insectos, es importante tomar precauciones sobre el grado de aislamiento que ofrece la casa de malla, con relación a su ingreso desde el exterior.Además, la entrada de la casa de malla debe tener doble puerta, y siempre una de ellas debe estar cerrada, para evitar el flujo directo del aire, que puede transportar los insectos.Algunas medidas para evitar el ingreso de plagas y enfermedades a la casa de malla:Prestar atención al diseño de la infraestructura, porque puede ayudar a combatir las plagas y enfermedades. Por ejemplo, la ubicación de la casa de malla y sus entradas, pueden evitar el ingreso de polvo y agua, que son medios de transmisión de patógenos.Eviten que las plagas y los patógenos entren a la casa de malla.Impidan que aquellos que ingresaron puedan desarrollarse.Lesiones en la piel de minitubérculos causadas por falta de oxígeno y exceso de dióxido de carbono.Foto: Willmer Pérez.La malla antiáfido es clave para proteger las plantas contra el ingreso de insectos. Es necesario revisarla periódicamente, para asegurarse que no tenga daños.Seguir todas las normas de higiene para evitar el ingreso de plagas y enfermedades a la casa de malla.Desinfectar la casa de malla y el sistema de riego 59 .Cubrir los pisos con cemento, pomina u otro material que evite el crecimiento de malezas y que no se produzca polvo al caminar. Estos pisos se deben desinfectar periódicamente (especialmente luego de recibir visitantes) mediante una aspersión con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 0,25%.Usar SIEMPRE guantes para manipular el hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio.Desinfectar el agua para la solución nutritiva.Usar aditivos antipatógenos, como el cloro o el alcohol isopropílico (menos tóxico que el hipoclorito de sodio) en la solución nutritiva. En el caso de cloro, se puede aplicar 0,5 a 2 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio.Trasplantar material vegetal sano que provenga de una fuente confiable, libre de virus y de otros patógenos y plagas.Mantener el espacio adyacente de la casa de malla libre de malezas y de cultivos que puedan ser hospederos de plagas y enfermedades de la papa. No debe haber cultivos de papa en las cercanías de la casa de malla, por lo menos a una distancia de 300 m.Recordar que las personas son quienes introducen patógenos y plagas dentro de la casa de malla, ya que pueden llevar microorganismos en las manos, y en especial en los zapatos, además de insectos en la ropa.Asegurar que todo el material que entra a la casa de malla esté limpio, sin patógenos ni plagas. Toda herramienta (bisturís, pinzas, etc.) se debe desinfectar con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio al 1%.Mezclar y oxigenar la solución nutritiva, con manos y utensilios limpios y desinfectados.Usar ropa y botas exclusivas en la casa de malla. Cada vez que se ingrese, las botas deberán ser desinfectadas en los recipientes que contienen cloro y cal, ubicados en la antecámara.Capítulo 4, páginas 87, 95 y 101. 59 ¿Cómo desinfectar el agua para la solución nutritiva?La fuente de agua puede estar contaminada con patógenos y con plagas de la papa.El agua de los pozos profundos, por lo general, no está contaminada. Pero es probable que el agua de los pozos superficiales, esté contaminada con bacterias, incluyendo Pectobacterium u hongos y oomicetos patógenos.El agua de fuentes sospechosas, debería tener un análisis microbiológico. Filtros y otros tratamientos pueden reducir al mínimo el riesgo de ingreso de patógenos por el agua de riego. El agua debe ser tratada antes de entrar en el tanque de la solución nutritiva.Cloración: consiste en la aplicación de cloro. Por ejemplo de 2 a 5 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio, que da una concentración residual de cloro de 0,5 a 1 ppm.Filtración: ya sea usando filtros físicos (por ejemplo de arena), o filtros biológicos (de microorganismos).Radiación ultravioleta: la radiación ultravioleta (UV-C) es una radiación electromagnética, de longitud de onda entre 100 y 400 nm, siendo la longitud de onda eficaz como germicida de 254 nm. Su acción desinfectante se debe a que provoca alteraciones en el ADN de los microorganismos, causando su muerte.Calor: consiste en hacer pasar el agua por un intercambiador de calor. En la práctica se recomienda llegar a 95°C durante 30 segundos, para garantizar la eliminación de patógenos.Limpiando. La limpieza es muy importante en el sistema aeropónico. Si no se limpia periódicamente -los módulos, mallas antiáfidos, paredes, cubierta, antecámara, pisos, etc. con agua y luego con hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 0,25%, y no se hacen las podas sanitarias-las plantas pueden resultar infectadas ya que las enfermedades y plagas se propagan con rapidez por todo el sistema. Esto puede causar pérdida completa del cultivo, debido a que en la casa de malla -un sistema cerrado-hay condiciones favorables para el desarrollo de las plagas y enfermedades.Usando sistemas de riego independientes. Hay que aislar los sistemas con tanques y sistemas de riego independientes, para minimizar el riesgo de pérdida total. Por ejemplo, se puede usar un sistema de riego independiente, por cada 40 m 2 de módulos de producción.De izquierda a derecha: trampa con feromona para polilla, para áfidos (amarillo) y para trips (azul), CIP-Quito.Foto: Peter Kromann.En el caso de las polillas de la papa se deben usar trampas con feromonas, para detectar las plagas (Phthorimaea operculella, Symmetrischema tangolias) y comprobar si la casa de malla no tiene aberturas. Se coloca una trampa, con una feromona, por cada especie.Recipientes de color amarillo con agua jabonosa, o trampas elaboradas con láminas de color amarillo con pegamento, funcionan como trampas para monitorear el ingreso de insectos, como los áfidos alados, mosca blanca, mosquilla del brote, y controlar sus poblaciones.Trampas elaboradas con láminas de color azul o blanco con pegamento, sirven para monitorear el ingreso de trips.Aplicando hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio directo a la solución nutritiva. 0,5 a 2 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio a la solución nutritiva. La concentración residual en la solución nutritiva no debe pasar de 1 ppm.Cambiando la solución nutritiva con frecuencia. Debe realizarse -mínimo-entre 7 y 15 días. La solución nutritiva puede desarrollar muy rápido una microflora (potencialmente con patógenos) a pesar que, en principio, debe estar libre de microrganismos.Eliminando los restos de plantas o partes enfermas. Para eso, se deben retirar del cultivo en bolsas plásticas y eliminarlos lejos de la casa de malla.Se coloca una trampa de cada tipo, más o menos cada 50 m 2 de invernadero, para el monitoreo. Si se quieren usar las trampas como herramientas de control, se necesita colocar un mayor número.Si se detecta la presencia de insectos plaga en las trampas en un número por encima del umbral de daño económico, se deben usar otros métodos físicos (por ejemplo el uso de trampas con luz), controladores biológicos (ácaros depredadores, avispas, hongos, etc.), insecticidas biológicos, por ejemplo Bacillus thuringiensis o neem, o en último caso insecticidas sintéticos, por ejemplo imidacloprid, u otros de baja toxicidad, tanto para humanos como para otros seres vivos.Por ello, es indispensable que el material de siembra esté libre de virus, que no haya plantas infectadas con virus en los alrededores de la casa de malla, e impedir el ingreso de insectos vectores.Es necesario regular la temperatura. El cultivo de papa se adapta a climas tropicales fríos, con temperaturas que pueden estar entre los 18 y 25°C durante el día y entre los 8 y 15°C durante las noches. Sin embargo, este rango es también óptimo para el desarrollo de muchas plagas y patógenos. En la medida en que la temperatura supera los 25°C, el crecimiento de la planta se ve afectado, mientras que el desarrollo de muchas plagas y patógenos se ve favorecido.Por lo tanto se debería mantener la temperatura del aire en el invernadero por debajo de los 25°C. Se puede bajar la temperatura usando paredes de malla antiáfido, aberturas cenitales, ventiladores eléctricos, aspersores en el techo, malla sombreadora, ducto de ventilación, entre otros métodos.Para monitorear infecciones latentes de virus, tenemos que hacer muestreos de foliolos, cuando las plantas estén en floración: una muestra por cada 1 a 5 m 2 de producción.La técnica más utilizada para el diagnóstico de los virus es DAS-ELISA. Sin embargo, hay algunos virus, como PYVV, que no se pueden detectar con DAS-ELISA y es necesario usar otras técnicas.La tolerancia de virus en las plantas de papa en el sistema aeropónico es \"0\". Si se verifican infecciones de virus hay que eliminar todas las plantas del módulo.La luz solar es indispensable para el crecimiento vegetal. Sin embargo, el crecimiento óptimo de la planta, requiere un equilibrio entre la temperatura, la HR y la luz. Si la luz solar aumenta, la planta crece mejor, pero… la entrada de mucha radiación solar, puede aumentar la temperatura y reducir la HR al interior de la casa de malla, lo que hace sufrir a las plantas y por lo tanto las puede predisponer al ataque de patógenos y plagas.Por esto necesario controlar la radiación solar mediante una correcta orientación de la casa de malla y el uso de mallas sombreadoras. El uso de estas mallas es particularmente importante al momento del trasplante, ya que las plántulas son susceptibles de sufrir quemaduras de sol.Existe una nueva generación de plásticos, que se denominan \"antivector\". Estos plásticos, tienen la capacidad de filtrar toda la radiación UV y, a través de esta propiedad, alteran el comportamiento de los insectos transmisores de virus.El filtro UV también inhibe la formación de esporas de ciertos hongos, por ejemplo de Alternaria.ventilar bien la casa de malla, disminuir la densidad del transplante, y eliminar el follaje excesivo, tallos laterales, hojas antiguas y bajeras.La alta humedad relativa del aire (HR) favorece el desarrollo de patógenos que atacan al follaje del cultivo de papa, especialmente Phytophthora y Oidium, que son dos patógenos muy comunes en el sistema aeropónico con papa.Se puede limitar el crecimiento de estos patógenos, manteniendo la HR en la casa de malla, por debajo de 70 a 80%. El exceso de HR puede reducirse mediante ventilación, aumento de la temperatura y también evitando el exceso de humedad en el piso.La HR en niveles bajos impide la condensación del agua (rocío) por disminución brusca de la temperatura, en horas de la noche y de la mañana.La condensación de agua o rocío en el follaje, crea condiciones óptimas para el desarrollo del tizón tardío y de otras enfermedades.Para dar aireación al cultivo y bajar la HR, se puede:Actualmente existe una gama de productos biológicos para control de enfermedades y plagas, bajo invernadero, que se amplía cada año. Uno de los agentes más usados como insecticida es la bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis.En algunos países existe ya en el mercado entomopatógenos como el hongo Verticillium lecanii para el control de pulgones, e insectos parasitoides como Encarsia formosa que se libera para el control de mosca blanca, o ácaros depredadores para el control de trips.En países con industria florícola y hortícola, el acceso a controladores biológicos ha avanzado.Por lo tanto se recomienda averiguar la disponibilidad local de controladores biológicos para mejorar el manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades.Si se han agotado las opciones de manejo descritas anteriormente y si las enfermedades y plagas han sobrepasado los umbrales económicos de daños (¡en aeroponía son bajos por el alto costo del cultivo!) entonces se debería considerar el uso de pesticidas.La aplicación de pesticidas se hace cuando el riesgo de daño por las plagas o enfermedades, ha subido a niveles críticos, identificados por medio de monitoreos o debido a circunstancias ambientales riesgosas (por ejemplo, formación de rocío en el caso de tizón tardío).En general, en aeroponía se recomienda manejar umbrales de daño bajos y una estrategia de prevención, debido a que el costo de producciónal es alto.Antes de elegir un pesticida se debe identificar:Usar siempre ingredientes activos de baja toxicidad para reducir los riesgos de intoxicación de los operarios, técnicos, visitantes y de otros seres vivos que pueden verse afectados.Si el problema es causado por un patógeno o plaga, y no por factores abióticos (por ejemplo condiciones ambientales adversas o desbalance nutricional).El agente causal.El ingrediente activo que controla ya sea el patógeno o la plaga identificada.Mezclar pesticidas puede ser un trabajo peligroso, sobre todo porque se está trabajando con el producto concentrado y no diluido. Existe un gran riesgo de salpicaduras, derrames e inhalaciones accidentales de partículas de polvo, rocío o vapores. La exposición a una cantidad -aunque sea muy pequeña-de pesticida no diluido, puede causar daños graves a la salud de los operarios.Se recomienda usar solamente pesticidas líquidos.Ejemplos de fungicidas de contacto, fungicidas sistémicos, insecticidas e información de apoyo para elección adecuada de pesticidas se encuentran en el Anexo 5.Preventivo o en el momento de detectar los síntomas iniciales.Se recomienda aplicar los pesticidas al final de la tarde, para evitar mucho sol y calor, que puedan quemar las plantas, y por seguridad para los operarios.Siempre hay que respetar el tiempo de reingreso a la casa de malla, después de una aspersión. Normalmente es de entre 12 y 24 horas. Por lo tanto es conveniente aplicar los pesticidas, al final del día y de preferencia un viernes, evitando el reingreso hasta el lunes siguiente.Asegurar que el equipo de aplicación esté en buenas condiciones.Usar dosis bajas para evitar efectos adversos en las plantas y por seguridad de los operarios. En el sistema aeropónico, el metabolismo de las plantas es rápido, debido a las condiciones óptimas para el crecimiento. La absorción y distribución de pesticidas sistémicos dentro de las plantas, es también rápida, por lo que se recomienda usar dosis bajas para evitar efectos adversos. Cuando las plantas están pequeñas y los ataques de las plagas no son severos, se puede usar del 50 al 75% de la dosis recomendada para uso en campo. Si las plantas son grandes se puede usar la dosis recomendada al 100%.Aplicar los pesticidas rociando el follaje. Si se quiere mezclar pesticidas con la solución nutritiva, hay que tener cuidado pues se corre el riesgo de intoxicar las plantas. Por lo tanto se recomienda hacer pruebas a pequeña escala. Pesticidas sistémicos protegen, además del follaje, al sistema radicular.Calcular la dosis del fungicida propineb, para 10 litros de agua destinados al control de tizón tardío y mancha de alternaria.Tener en cuenta que el uso indiscriminado de pesticidas puede ocasionar que aparezcan poblaciones de patógenos y plagas resistentes a ellos, como los casos de P. infestans con el fungicida metalaxil y el de mosca blanca con el insecticida imidacloprid. Para evitar esto, es importante alternar los ingredientes activos y tomar otras medidas preventivas, siguiendo recomendaciones de publicaciones especializadas 60 .En la etiqueta, el fabricante recomienda la siguiente dosis: 500 ml/200 l = 2,5 ml/l. La dosis recomendada para aeroponía es de 2 ml/l (75% de la dosis recomendada es igual a 1,9 ml/l que pueden ser aproximados a 2 ml/l).Entonces, para 10 l se necesitan: 10 x 2 ml/l = 20 ml del fungicida propineb comercial.Una buena mezcla se obtiene diluyendo los 20 ml en 2 litros de agua, hasta conseguir una suspensión homogénea en un balde o recipiente. Después se deposita esta premezcla en el tanque del equipo que se va a utilizar, con 8 litros de agua.El mejor lugar para preparar mezclas de pesticidas es al aire libre, sobre una superficie de concreto. Si hay que hacerlo en un lugar cerrado, debe tener buena ventilación y luz.Cuando es poca cantidad la que se va aplicar (2 o 3 bombas de mochila) se debe hacer la mezcla necesaria requerida para cada una de esas bombas. Se debe preparar una premezcla en un recipiente pequeño, batirla con un palo y luego agregarla a la bomba, a la que ya se le puso agua. Asegurarse que la preparación esté totalmente mezclada en la bomba.Siempre hay que verificar que la dosis esté calculada correctamente. Es preferible calcular el peso o volumen que se debe usar por litro de agua y después multiplicar por la cantidad de litros que se van a utilizar.Usar SIEMPRE equipo de protección personal cuando se mezclen y apliquen pesticidas y cumplir estrictamente con la normativa vigente de cada país para su uso.Por ejemplo, FRAG-UK, 2007. 60 ¿Qué nos dice la experiencia?A menudo se ven plántulas recién trasplantadas que tienen hojas o bordes quemados o necróticos. En la gran mayoría de estos casos, las quemaduras son causadas por cambios bruscos de la temperatura y pocas veces por patógenos.También se han visto raíces cloróticas o levemente quemadas. Casi siempre la causa ha sido por desbalances nutricionales (variación en la conductividad eléctrica, o en el potencial hidrógeno) y no por patógenos en la solución nutritiva.En el CIP-Quito se trabajaba con agua proveniente de un páramo cercano, que según los análisis microbiológicos iniciales era limpia. Por lo tanto se la desinfectaba únicamente con 1 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio, sin otro tratamiento.En ciclos iniciales de cultivo, Fusarium y Verticillum entraron al sistema y afectaron 2 plantas, que fueron eliminadas inmediatamente al observar los primeros síntomas. Luego fue posible evitar la infección de otras plantas, con cambios inmediatos de las soluciones nutritivas y el uso de fungicidas sistémicos (azoxystrobin y dimetomorf) aplicados al follaje.Sin embargo, en un ciclo de cultivo se observó Spongospora subterranea, que entró en los módulos aeropónicos y que no fue posible controlar cambiando la solución nutritiva, por lo cual los módulos contaminados debieron eliminarse. En el siguiente ciclo de cultivo se implementó el uso de un filtro microbiológico para descartar la contaminación desde la fuente de agua y así resolver el problema.No obstante, a pesar del filtro microbiológico se observó necrosis en raíces y estolones, posiblemente causada por exceso de humedad y falta de oxígeno. Para solucionar este problema se colocaron en la solución nutritiva, 5000 ppm de agua oxigenada (peróxido de hidrógeno al 3%), con lo cual se logró disminuir bastante la necrosis.Las experiencias han mostrado que con un buen aislamiento del ambiente interno de la casa de malla al ambiente exterior, principalmente con mallas antiáfidos, los problemas con insectos plagas en el CIP-Quito (3058 msnm) han sido mínimos.Uno de los socios que usa rutinariamente aeroponía en este país, usó una mezcla de los fungicidas carboxin y captan en la solución nutritiva, para controlar una enfermedad causada por Fusarium en el sistema radicular. El resultado fue una toxicidad aguda de las plantas que provocó la pérdida total del cultivo. Por lo tanto no se recomienda mezclar fungicidas con la solución nutritiva sin pruebas previas. Los minitubérculos, una vez que alcanzan el peso y tamaño apropiados (entre 8 a 10 g), deben ser cosechados y necesitan condiciones adecuadas de almacenamiento para promover el cambio fisiológico que permita usarlos como material de siembra.Las cosechas se realizan de manera secuencial, con intervalos de 1 a 2 semanas. El número de cosechas varía entre 3 y 10.Se recomienda revisar el Capítulo 5 para recordar el proceso de cambio fisiológico que sucede en el minitubérculo, desde que se lo cosecha hasta que brota, de modo que se lo pueda manejar en forma adecuada.Para la cosecha de minitubérculos en aeroponía, se necesita:Revisar las normas de higiene para manipular plantas y preparar los materiales para la cosecha.Identificar el momento óptimo para iniciar a cosecha: cuando los minitubérculos alcancen un peso de 8 a 10 g y un diámetro de 2 a 3 cm. Este peso y tamaño es el óptimo para usarlos como material de siembra en campo.Seguir las normas de higiene para manipular plantas. Cambiarse de guantes o aplicarse alcohol antiséptico al 70% en las manos cada vez que se va a cosechar un nuevo módulo aeropónico, para minimizar el riesgo de contaminaciones.Cosechar los minitubérculos por las ventanas laterales de los cajones aeropónicos con mucho cuidado, para evitar daños en las raíces y caída de otros minitubérculos pequeños de la misma planta o de plantas cercanas.Retirar de los módulos aeropónicos los minitubérculos que pueden haberse caído.Una vez cosechados, los minitubérculos se lavan con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio o de calcio al 1%. Luego se enjuagan tres o cuatro veces con agua limpia 61 . Finalmente se los seca a temperatura ambiente durante unas horas. En este momento los minitubérculos se clasifican de acuerdo a su peso y se eliminan los que presentan deformaciones o algún daño fisiológico. Después se los \"cura\", es decir, se los coloca en condiciones ambientales que permitan que su piel se endurezca y se cicatricen las heridas que pudieron ocurrir en la cosecha. Estas condiciones son: temperatura de 15 a 20°C, humedad relativa de 80 a 90%, bajo luz difusa, sobre bandejas limpias y secas, durante 7 a 10 días. En este momento también se aprovecha para eliminar los minitubérculos que presentan deformaciones o algún síntoma de daño fisiológico.Las siguientes cosechas se hacen de la misma forma, después de alrededor de 1 a 2 semanas, cuando haya minitubérculos del peso y tamaño apropiados.Variedad Canchán lista para la cosecha en CIP-Lima.Foto: Carlos Chuquillanqui.En algunas variedades la piel de los minitubérculos puede ser muy delgada, por lo que el hipoclorito la puede dañar. En esos casos, la desinfección de los minitubérculos se la puede hacer luego del curado.Después de cada cosecha, los minitubérculos se clasifican por su peso, para facilitar su manejo. Se dividen en las siguientes clases: Los minitubérculos tienen pesos que varían entre 0,5 y 30 g, aunque ocasionalmente se pueden conseguir minitubérculos de hasta 60 g. En muchas ocasiones, el mayor porcentaje de minitubérculos tiene pesos menores a 5 g, aunque esto depende de la variedad, de las condiciones ambientales y del manejo, como se puede observar en el cuadro siguiente con datos de cuatro ciclos de evaluación en el CIP-Quito.El tiempo óptimo entre cosechas, depende del desarrollo de los minitubérculos y por lo tanto, de la variedad de papa y de las condiciones ambientales.Peso (g) Una diferencia importante entre los minitubérculos producidos mediante tecnología convencional o semihidroponía (Anexo 1) y los que se obtienen mediante aeroponía, es que estos últimos tiene diferentes edades fisiológicas, debido a que han sido cosechados en diferentes fechas (en ocasiones más de 10). Los minitubérculos obtenidos mediante otras tecnologías tienen la misma edad fisiológica, pues se los cosecha al final del ciclo vegetativo de las plantas.En el caso de la aeroponía, esto ocasiona que al final del ciclo de cultivo, los primeros minitubérculos cosechados ya estén brotando, mientras que los últimos minitubérculos cosechados estén todavía sin brotes.Una forma de contrarrestar los efectos de las diferentes edades fisiológicas, es colocando los minitubérculos de las primeras cosechas en almacenes refrigerados o cuartos fríos. La otra forma es tratar los minitubérculos de las últimas cosechas con hormonas para acelerar el brotamiento 62 .En ambos casos lo que se busca es agrupar los minitubérculos de varias cosechas y uniformar su brotación. Sin embargo, a pesar de estos tratamientos es bastante probable que se obtengan minitubérculos con brotes bien desarrollados y otros con brotes que recién se están desarrollando. Esto genera que la emergencia en campo sea desigual, pero usualmente el tamaño de las plantas se uniformiza cuando alcanzan la floración.Para el almacenamiento de los minitubérculos se deben considerar los siguientes factores:Minitubérculos de la variedad Peruanita en Kishuara, Andahuaylas, Perú. Se distinguen dos tipos de infraestructura: Si se los necesita guardar por periodos relativamente largos (semanas o meses) o se quiere agrupar los minitubérculos de varias cosechas para uniformizar la brotación, entonces la temperatura de almacenamiento debe ser de 4 a 5°C, para lo cual se utilizan cuartos fríos, sin luz.Si los minitubérculos van a ser utilizados en el corto plazo, es decir, si se quiere permitir la brotación para que estén listos para la siembra, se los debe almacenar a temperatura ambiente (12 a 18°C). Si se quiere acelerar la brotación, es posible almacenar los minitubérculos en ambientes con temperaturas mayores. O sea, a mayor temperatura, mayor rapidez de la brotación 63 . En cualquier caso, el sitio de almacenamiento debe tener luz difusa, porque promueve el verdeamiento de la piel del minitubérculo, facilita el rompimiento de la dominancia apical y favorece la producción de brotes de buena calidad (cortos y fuertes) y la aparición de primordios radiculares.Humedad. Los minitubérculos son muy susceptibles a la deshidratación, pues su piel es delgada y la relación entre su superficie y su volumen es alta. Por lo tanto, es necesario mantener el lugar de almacenamiento con una humedad relativa de 90 a 95%. Humedades mayores pueden provocar condensación de agua sobre la superficie de los minitubérculos, lo cual favorece el desarrollo de patógenos.2 producidos por la respiración de los minitubérculos almacenados, deben extraerse permanentemente vía ventilación natural o forzada, para minimizar pérdidas y favorecer una óptima brotación. Un exceso de ventilación produce perdidas excesivas de agua y con esto los minitubérculos se deshidratan y se deteriora su calidad.Cuarto frío. Para almacenar los minitubérculos por un periodo corto (1 a 2 meses) y luego ponerlos a brotar bajo las condiciones requeridas. Los minitubérculos son almacenados a una temperatura de 4 a 5°C, una humedad de 90 a 95% y sin luz.Temperatura y luz. La temperatura y luz del sitio de almacenamiento depende de cuándo se van a utilizar los minitubérculos:Hay que evitar que la luz del sol incida directamente sobre los minitubérculos porque se produce deshidratación y muerte celular.Temperaturas excesivas causan una aceleración en la respiración y un mayor requerimiento de oxígeno. Esto puede decolorar el tejido interno del tubérculo, como resultado de la asfixia que se presenta.Para evitar pudriciones y la presencia de brotes largos y blanquecinos, los minitubérculos deben estar colocados en bandejas con un máximo de tres capas. Nunca se deben almacenar en sacos ni amontonarlos.En la bodega de brotación, es necesario remover los minitubérculos cada 2 o 3 semanas para asegurar que todos reciban luz difusa y conseguir una brotación uniforme.Segura, para evitar robos.Con estanterías donde se colocarán las bandejas que contienen los minitubérculos.Con una temperatura que permita la brotación adecuada de los tubérculos (entre 12 y 18°C). Si se quiere acelerar la brotación, las temperaturas deben ser mayores.Con humedad ambiental de 90 a 95%. Para ello se colocan en el piso recipientes con agua limpia, o humidificadores.Con malla antiáfido y protección contra roedores.Bodega. Para permitir la brotación de los minitubérculos, debe tener las siguientes características:Minitubérculos almacenados en cuarto frío. CORPOICA-Tibaitatá, Colombia.Foto: Julián Mateus-Rodríguez.Al finalizar las cosechas es necesario manejar una gran cantidad de material vegetal de desecho: tallos, hojas y raíces. Estos restos pueden ser usados para producir compost en un sitio alejado de la casa de malla. Al igual que en el caso de la solución nutritiva, es mejor no usar el compost en solanáceas para evitar una potencial diseminación de enfermedades.Si durante el almacenamiento los minitubérculos presentan dominancia apical, hay que desbrotarlos y colocarlos en ambientes con temperaturas de 15 a 20°C con un 90 a 95% de humedad relativa, con luz difusa y buena ventilación, para estimular el desarrollo del resto de brotes. Minitubérculos con peso menor a 8 g no deben ser desbrotados porque pierden vigor.Una alta densidad de trasplante puede dificultar la cosecha. La manipulación por los operarios durante las cosechas puede causar la caída de minitubérculos y daño de estolones.La producción de minitubérculos de papa en aeroponía depende de la variedad cultivada, de los factores ambientales y del manejo que se ha dado al cultivo: calidad del material de trasplante, aplicación de las normas de higiene, oportunidad y calidad del aporque-hundimiento, podas y tutorado, manejo de la solución nutritiva, manejo de plagas y enfermedades, cosecha y almacenamiento de los minitubérculos.En Ecuador, se sembraron diferentes variedades de papa para comprobar sus rendimientos: Superchola (Solanum tuberosum ssp. andigena), INIAP-Fripapa (tipo tuberosum x andigena, con características tuberosum), INIAP-Victoria (tipo tuberosum x andigena con características andigena), INIAP-Libertad (ssp. tuberosum) y chauchas: INIAP-Yana Shungo e INIAP-Puca Shungo (andigenum x phureja).La variedad, el manejo y las condiciones ambientales pueden establecer grandes diferencias en la producción de un ciclo a otro:El ciclo del cultivo en aeroponía se alarga en comparación con un ciclo de cultivo en campo. Se han tenido hasta 10 cosechas por ciclo.En la variedad Superchola se cosecharon de 23 a 193 minitubérculos por planta. Algunos, hasta 294 días después del transplante.En la variedad INIAP-Fripapa se cosecharon de 10 a 63 minitubérculos por planta, hasta 204 días después del transplante.Los tipos andigena (Superchola e INIAP-Victoria) siempre produjeron más minitubérculos que la variedad INIAP-Fripapa (tipo tuberosum), la mayoría con un peso menor a 5 g. Las chauchas (andigena x phureja), se comportaron más o menos como INIAP-Fripapa, produciendo la mayoría de los tubérculos con pesos mayores a 5 g. Así, en la variedad INIAP-Victoria, a pesar de haberse aplicado inicialmente 1 ppm de hipoclorito de sodio en la solución nutritiva, se observó pudriciones en estolones y tubérculos causadas por Phytophthora infestans. Es probable que estas pudriciones empezaran a partir de daños en los estolones ocasionados durante las cosechas.En la Estación del CIP-Huancayo se comprobó que la producción de minitubérculos por planta en verano (época lluviosa: enero a junio) es siempre mejor que en invierno (época seca: mayo a octubre):Por otra parte, las variedades tipo tuberosum desarrollan y producen menos que las variedades tipo andigena o las papas nativas.En un experimento en CIP-Huancayo se comprobó que la variedad holandesa Desiree mejoró sustancialmente su producción: de 3,2 minitubérculos por planta en promedio sin luz adicional, a 25,6 con 4 horas de luz adicional por día.En aeroponía, los minitubérculos se desarrollan colgados de las plantas a través de los estolones, lo que ocasiona que se alarguen, aparentemente por efecto de la gravedad. Este alargamiento es más notorio en algunas variedades y no afecta la calidad de los minitubérculos.Es importante renovar la solución nutritiva para reducir el riesgo de contaminación por patógenos y considerar que el hipoclorito de sodio aplicado a la solución nutritiva (0,5 a 2 ppm) se descompone con el tiempo.La caída de minitubérculos pequeños ha sido común en las variedades ssp. andigena, resultando en una producción alta de minitubérculos menores a 5 g. Durante la implementación y el manejo del cultivo aeropónico, las normas de higiene son fundamentales para mantener un cultivo sano y de calidad. Sin embargo, estas normas no son fáciles de implementar con personal que no está acostumbrado a este tipo de cuidados, por lo tanto se necesita especial atención y seguimiento para su implementación.Los pasos para la preparación de la solución nutritiva son: el análisis químico del agua, la selección de la fórmula para la solución nutritiva, la selección y cálculo de los fertilizantes y la preparación de la solución nutritiva.Se puede trabajar con diferentes fórmulas para la solución nutritiva, dependiendo de las fuentes de fertilizantes que estén disponibles. Hay que tener mucho cuidado con el manejo del pH y la conductividad eléctrica.El manejo del cultivo aeropónico requiere un monitoreo diario y continuo. Las labores para la implementación y el cuidado del cultivo incluyen: el acondicionamiento del material para el trasplante, el trasplante al módulo aeroponía, el aporque-hundimiento, las podas, el tutorado, el manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades, la cosecha, y el almacenamiento. Cada labor necesita un cuidado especial y siempre se las debe adaptar a las condiciones locales.Las experiencias muestran que el periodo del ciclo del cultivo de papa en aeroponía, se alarga en comparación con un ciclo de cultivo en campo.La producción de minitubérculos de papa en aeroponía varía de un ciclo a otro y depende de la variedad, de los factores ambientales, y del manejo que se ha dado al cultivo. Además existe un gran riesgo de perder módulos de producción enteros, debido principalmente a que la solución nutritiva recircula y, por lo tanto, cualquier error en la preparación de la solución nutritiva, o el ingreso de un patógeno, pueden causar grandes daños.No obstante, con un manejo adecuado la producción supera los 50 minitubérculos por planta en la mayoría de las variedades y ciclos de producción.Como en la aeroponía se realizan varias cosechas, se obtienen minitubérculos de diferentes edades fisiológicas que van a requerir almacenamiento diferenciado.Un almacenamiento adecuado es importante y consiste en guardar los minitubérculos en condiciones que permitan su cambio fisiológico (de dormancia a brotación múltiple) antes de la siembra. Una vez que los minitubérculos han sido cosechados y almacenados correctamente, -a temperaturas de entre 12 y 18°C, con 90 a 95% de humedad relativa, con luz difusa, buena ventilación y durante un tiempo que permita la brotación (desde unos pocos días hasta 3 meses o más, dependiendo de la variedad)-, entonces se los puede usar como material de siembra, ya sea en campo o en invernadero.El más adecuado es el estado fisiológico de brotación múltiple, es decir con al menos 3 brotes fuertes y cortos (de 1 a 2 cm).Los minitubérculos con brotación múltiple:Los minitubérculos que estén en los otros estados fisiológicos (dormancia, dominancia apical o senectud) no deben ser usados como semilla porque:aseguran una emergencia rápida y uniforme, y garantizan una producción abundante, ya que producen plantas vigorosas. De cada brote, se formará un tallo principal y de cada uno de ellos surgirán de 2 a 8 tubérculos, dependiendo de la variedad, del manejo y de las condiciones ambientales.en estado de dormancia, se alarga el período del cultivo, en estado de dominancia apical, se forman plantas con un solo tallo, por lo cual los rendimientos serán bajos, y en estado de senectud, la emergencia no es uniforme, por lo tanto el cultivo tampoco es uniforme, las plantas son débiles, susceptibles a plagas, y su producción es baja.Sembrar minitubérculos que no estén en su estado fisiológico apropiado (brotación múltiple), es un gran riesgo, puesto que las plantas pueden emerger en forma irregular y con un solo tallo. También los minitubérculos se pueden podrir o secar en el suelo antes de emerger, ocasionando con ello, el fracaso del cultivo.¿Cuál es el estado fisiológico óptimo de los minitubérculos para usarlos como material de siembra?Los minitubérculos que provienen de aeroponía presentan dos características importantes que influyen en su manejo en campo:Ya que en aeroponía hay varias cosechas, las edades fisiológicas de los minitubérculos son diferentes. Una forma de contrarrestar los efectos de estas diferencias es colocando los minitubérculos de las primeras cosechas en almacenes refrigerados o cuartos fríos. Otra forma es tratar los minitubérculos de las últimas cosechas, con hormonas para acelerar el brotamiento y uniformar el estado fisiológico del lote de semilla 64 .Pese a estos tratamientos, es muy probable que, al momento de la siembra, se tengan minitubérculos con brotes bien desarrollados y otros con brotes de menor tamaño.Por eso, al principio, en el campo, se observa poca uniformidad en la emergencia de las plantas, pero al final, su tamaño tiende a igualarse, tal como se ve en las siguientes imágenes de un campo de papa sembrado con minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía de la variedad Tigoni en la Hacienda Kisima (Kenia):Los minitubérculos que se producen en aeroponía tienen pesos que varían entre 0,5 y 30 g, y ocasionalmente pueden llegar a 60 g. Sin embargo, en muchas ocasiones, el mayor porcentaje de minitubérculos tiene pesos menores a 5 g 65 .1. Edad fisiológica 2. PesoFotos: Víctor Otazú.¿Cuáles son las características de los minitubérculos obtenidos mediante aeroponía que influyen para su manejo en campo?75 días después de la siembra. 30 días después de la siembra.Ver capítulo 6: Almacenamiento. Esto se presenta también en otros sistemas de producción (convencional o semihidroponía) cuando se usan plantas in vitro.El manejo en campo del minitubérculo proveniente de aeroponía depende de su clase (peso). Como regla general, minitubérculos con más peso, van a necesitar menor grado de especialización del productor de semilla y condiciones menos exigentes para su multiplicación, como se detalla en el siguiente cuadro: Veamos en detalle el significado de los términos usados en el cuadro: En general, los productores que multipliquen semilla proveniente de aeroponía, deberán estar registrados ante la autoridad competente.Productor medianamente especializado: es quien produce semilla de papa con un rendimiento dentro del promedio y su grado de confiabilidad es aceptable. Este tipo de productor de semilla está recomendado para multiplicar minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía con peso mayor a 5 g. Los minitubérculos producidos en aeroponía, deben ser multiplicados por productores de semilla especializados, con el fin de producir semilla básica. No se recomienda el uso de minitubérculos para producción de papa comercial, por su alto costo y por las condiciones especiales de manejo.Esto contrasta con la costumbre de los productores de semilla en los Andes, y en especial de los productores de papa comercial, quienes usan semilla de papa con pesos de 30 a 60 g. En general, los minitubérculos con un peso mayor a 5 g, no necesitan tratamiento de pre-emergencia, mientras que los minitubérculos con un peso igual o menor a 5 g, si lo necesitan.El tratamiento pre-emergencia consiste en sembrar los minitubérculos en bandejas de pre-germinación, usadas para producción hortícola con un sustrato desinfectado.Algunas recomendaciones son las siguientes:Si no se dispone de las condiciones para realizar un tratamiento de pre-emergencia, se pueden sembrar de 2 a 4 minitubérculos con pesos menores de 5 g en estado de brotación múltiple, por sitio de siembra, directamente en campo.Dependiendo de su peso, los minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía pueden ser usados en dos tipos de campos de cultivo:La profundidad de siembra debe ser 2 o 3 veces el diámetro del minitubérculo.Idealmente estas bandejas deben permanecer en un invernadero, pero también se las puede colocar en otros lugares protegidos de la lluvia.Los riegos deben ser ligeros para evitar pudriciones.Dependiendo del estado de brotación de los minitubérculos, las plántulas resultantes estarán listas para ser llevadas después de 2 a 4 semanas a:campo: aquellas plántulas provenientes de minitubérculos con peso mayor de 2 g (hasta 5 g), o invernadero (a sistemas convencionales, de semihidroponía o aeroponía 66 ): aquellas plántulas provenientes de minitubérculos con peso menor de 2 g. Estás plántulas también pueden ser trasplantadas en campo, dependiendo de su estado.Productor altamente especializado: es quien produce semilla de papa con un rendimiento superior al promedio y su grado de confiabilidad supera las expectativas. Este tipo de productor de semilla está recomendado para multiplicar minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía, con peso igual o menor a 5 g.Ver Anexo 2. 66 Los campos donde se siembren los minitubérculos deberán cumplir con la normativa vigente para producción de semilla básica, específica para cada país (Colombia 67 , Ecuador 68 y Perú 69 ).Campos con características promedio: es decir, campos que cumplen con la normativa vigente, pero que ocasionalmente presentan algún tipo de problema. Por ejemplo, falta de riego en algunos meses del año, presencia esporádica de heladas, etc. En este tipo de campo se recomienda usar los minitubérculos con peso mayor a 10 g, pues en caso de algún evento climático extremo (por ejemplo, una sequía o una helada), pueden ocasionalmente brotar nuevamente y recuperarse.Campos con características arriba del promedio: es decir, campos que cumplen con la normativa vigente, y que presentan características extraordinarias para la producción de semilla. En muchas ocasiones estos campos son usados para producción hortícola con alto valor de mercado. En este tipo de campo se recomienda usar los minitubérculos con pesos menores a 10 g, para evitar que sean afectados por eventos climáticos extremos.Estar aislado de cultivos de papa comercial.Estar ubicado a una cierta altitud o zona geográfica que reduzca la presencia de insectos vectores de virus, heladas, granizadas e inundaciones.Cumplir con los estándares de periodos de rotación y sanidad para patógenos de suelo.Tener vías de acceso para facilitar el transporte de personas, insumos y producción.Tener acceso a agua de riego.Contar con seguridad para evitar robos.Contar con un suelo óptimo para la producción de papa.  Los minitubérculos o las plántulas que se usen como material de siembra deben recibir un manejo agronómico cuidadoso.Preparación del suelo: una buena preparación del suelo ayudará a una rápida emergencia de los minitubérculos o a un rápido prendimiento de las plántulas. Hay que tener en cuenta buenas prácticas de manejo de suelo para evitar la erosión.Profundidad de siembra: en el caso de minitubérculos debe ser menor que cuando se siembran tubérculos grandes. Como guía, se puede usar una profundidad de 2 a 3 veces el diámetro del minitubérculo. En el caso de plántulas, el trasplante se lo hace enterrando las raíces hasta el cuello de la planta, teniendo cuidado de no maltratar las raíces y conservando la tierra que está adherida a ellas. Densidad de siembra: depende de la variedad (variedades de tipo andigena necesitan más espacio que variedades de tipo tuberosum), pero básicamente se deben usar los mismos distanciamientos como para producir semilla. El distanciamiento más usado es de 0,25 m entre plantas y 0,80 m entre surcos.Manejo de plagas y enfermedades: en la medida de lo posible, se debe tratar de hacer controles preventivos. Al menos dos veces durante el ciclo de cultivo se debe inspeccionar todo el campo y eliminar las plantas que sean de otra variedad, o que presenten síntomas de enfermedades que sean motivo de control por parte de la autoridad competente. Esta labor se conoce como desmezcle o roguing.Labores culturales: deshierbas, aporques, y riegos deben ser hechos de manera cuidadosa y oportuna.Cosecha: debe ser realizada cuando el tubérculo esté fisiológicamente maduro. Se puede eliminar el follaje (química o manualmente) para acelerar la maduración y evitar que los tubérculos crezcan demasiado. Sí, pruebas de campo realizadas en Ecuador y Perú muestran que los rendimientos de los minitubérculos producidos mediante aeroponía son similares a los rendimientos de minitubérculos producidos con tecnología convencional o semihidroponía 70 .Estas pruebas se hicieron con 6 variedades de papa. En Perú, se realizaron en el CIP-Huancayo a 3259 msnm y en el CIP-Lima a 250 msnm. En Ecuador, las pruebas fueron en Salcedo (provincia de Cotopaxi) a 3110 msnm: Algunos ensayos han mostrado que los minitubérculos mayores a 5 g son aptos para sembrarlos directamente en campo. El peso del minitubérculo no influyó sobre el número de tallos, o número o peso de tubérculos cosechados, aunque en ciertos casos influyó sobre el vigor de las plantas (con minitubérculos de mayor peso las plantas resultaron más vigorosas).En un campo de la Hacienda Kisima se usaron 2 tamaños de semilla (mayores a 10 g y menores a 5 g), notándose diferencias visibles en emergencia, desarrollo del follaje y rendimiento, a favor de la semilla más grande:La edad fisiológica, es decir el tiempo que los minitubérculos permanecen almacenados antes de ser sembrados, influyó negativamente sobre los rendimientos del cultivo en campo: a más edad fisiológica, menor rendimiento. Por lo tanto, en lugares donde se puede sembrar papa en el campo todo el año (como en algunas zonas del Ecuador), se recomienda sembrar minitubérculos en fechas sucesivas, tan pronto se encuentren en el estado de brotación múltiple. Esto en lugar de sembrar todos los minitubérculos en la misma fecha.Campo con 2 surcos (centro) sembrados con minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía con peso menor a 5 g. A los lados, surcos sembrados con minitubérculos con peso mayor a 10 g.Foto: Víctor Otazú.Una vez que los minitubérculos han sido cosechados y almacenados correctamente se los puede usar como material de siembra, ya sea en campo o en invernadero.El estado fisiológico óptimo de los minitubérculos, para usarlos como material de siembra es el de brotación múltiple. Con esto se asegura una emergencia rápida y uniforme, plantas vigorosas y buenos rendimientos.La edad fisiológica y el peso son las principales características que influyen en el manejo en campo de los minitubérculos provenientes de aeroponía:La edad fisiológica de los minitubérculos es variable, ya que en aeroponía hay cosechas secuenciales. Esto se puede manejar mediante cuartos fríos que retardan la brotación, u hormonas que inducen una brotación más rápida. Sin embargo, es usual observar falta de uniformidad en la emergencia de las plantas, pero al final su tamaño tiende a igualarse.El peso del minitubérculo proveniente de aeroponía define en gran medida su manejo en campo. Como regla general, minitubérculos con más peso van a necesitar menor grado de especialización del productor de semilla y condiciones menos exigentes para su multiplicación.El manejo en campo de minitubérculos obtenidos mediante aeroponía, debe ser cuidadoso y debe cumplir con la normativa vigente para producción de semilla básica.No se han encontrado diferencias significativas en el rendimiento de minitubérculos producidos con tecnología convencional o semihidroponía y aquellos producidos mediante aeroponía.En Ecuador se encontró que minitubérculos jóvenes (con menor edad fisiológica) producen más que los minitubérculos viejos (con mayor edad fisiológica).CAPÍTULO 7: MANEJO DE MINITUBÉRCULOS EN CAMPOExplicar cómo se estiman los costos de producción, los ingresos y la rentabilidad económica, en la producción de minitubérculos de papa, mediante aeroponía.La aeroponía, como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla a nivel comercial, satisface las necesidades de un mercado y genera utilidades. En tal sentido, la persona o institución que desee implementarla debe conocer, en detalle, cómo estimar los costos de producción, los ingresos y la rentabilidad económica 71 .Los costos de producción son los gastos necesarios para mantener el proyecto funcionando, en este caso: la producción de semilla prebásica mediante aeroponía. Y constituyen la mejor manera de respaldar un negocio productivo.Por eso es necesario llevar un registro de costos de producción en forma apropiada, lo que permitirá valorar adecuadamente el producto y lograr que la diferencia entre los ingresos y los costos, sea la mayor posible 72 .Algunos de los beneficios de contar con un registro de costos de producción, son:Determinar los costos fijos, variables y totales de la actividad para conocer el estado financiero.Determinar el costo real de los productos vendidos, para calcular utilidades o pérdidas de la actividad.Contar con una herramienta gerencial útil para la planificación y el control de los costos de producción.Servir como fuente de información para tomar decisiones de inversión de capitales, como reposición de maquinaria, fijación de precios, ampliación del volumen de producción, entre otras.como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla a nivel comercial, como herramienta de investigación.La aeroponía tiene dos usos principales:¿A qué se llama costos de producción?Ejemplos detallados y una discusión extensa sobre este tema se pueden encontrar en Mateus- Rodríguez et al., 2013. Mochón, 2000.Son los que se refieren al capital usado para la construcción de la infraestructura y para el equipamiento.Dentro de estos costos se incluyen:Cada una de estas inversiones tiene una determinada vida útil, usualmente estimada en años, y que sirve para calcular la depreciación, que es la reducción periódica del valor de un bien material o inmaterial. Esta depreciación puede derivarse de tres razones:Se en 73 : casa de malla, cuarto de máquinas, cuarto frío, bodega, módulos de aeroponía, sistema de riego, equipos para la medición de las condiciones ambientales y de la solución nutritiva, y materiales que pueden ser usados en varias campañas o ciclos de cultivo, como malla sombreadora para mitigar el efecto de altas temperaturas y alta luminosidad, baldes, mangueras, etc. Los costos unitarios son los que corresponden a cada unidad de producto obtenido, en este caso minitubérculos de papa. Se lo obtiene dividiendo el costo total de producción (CT) para el número de unidades producidas (Q).Los recursos financieros provenientes de la venta de bienes o de servicios producidos por las empresas. Se dividen en: ¿Cómo calcular la rentabilidad (R)?La rentabilidad (%) puede ser calculada dividiendo el ingreso neto (IN) por el costo total (CT) multiplicado por 100:Es el ingreso global obtenido de la venta del producto comercial. Se calcula multiplicando el precio de venta unitario (PV) por la cantidad vendida (Q).Es el ingreso bruto (IB) menos los costos totales (CT)Como ejemplo se presenta la experiencia que se llevó a cabo en una casa de malla (de 8 x 16 m y 4 m, en la parte más alta) construida con madera, cemento, malla antiáfidos y techo de policarbonato, ubicada en la estación Santa Ana (3259 msnm) del CIP en Huancayo, Perú. Los datos provienen de experimentos que se realizaron entre el 2008 y el 2010. El área efectiva de producción de los módulos de aeroponía fue de 42 m 2 . Los costos de producción fijos se presentan en el cuadro A, los costos variables en el cuadro B, y los costos totales, producción, costo unitario, precios de venta, ingresos y rentabilidad en el cuadro C. Los costos de la infraestructura, equipos e insumos que se presentan, varian dependiendo del lugar o del país.Los costos fijos representaron el 27% de los costos totales, y los variables el 73%. Dentro de los costos variables, los costos de personal fueron los más altos (53%), lo cual indica la importancia del recurso humano.La producción fue de 35 minitubérculos por planta, con una densidad de 16 plantas por m 2 . Este rendimiento es relativamente bajo, pues se han observado rendimientos sobre los 100 minitubérculos por planta. Hay que recordar que el rendimiento depende de la variedad, el manejo y el ambiente 74 .La rentabilidad fue de 40%, una cifra mucho menor que la presentada por Maldonado et al. (2007), quienes reportaron una rentabilidad de 545%. Estos autores consideraron un rendimiento de 45 minitubérculos por planta, con el doble de densidad de plantas por m 2 empleado en este ejemplo.La aeroponía estaba en fase de adaptación a las condiciones locales (validación), lo cual explica el rendimiento relativamente bajo y los costos altos. A medida que la técnica se adapta a esas condiciones y se mejoran los procesos de producción, es posible reducir los costos y aumentar el rendimiento.Cuadro C. Costos totales, producción, costo unitario, ingresos y rentabilidad para la producción de minitubérculos de papa mediante aeroponía, en CIP-Huancayo (Perú) en un área efectiva de producción de 42 m 2 . Como ya se dijo, hay varios riesgos que pueden causar la pérdida total de los módulos 75 , especialmente en los ciclos iniciales de adaptación de la aeroponía a las condiciones locales.Por lo tanto, la posibilidad de tener pérdidas totales o muy altas, en estos ciclos iniciales, debe ser tomada en cuenta en las proyecciones económicas que se realicen.El primer ciclo de cultivo, e incluso el segundo, se pueden considerar como pruebas, para adaptar la aeroponía a las condiciones locales (validación). En estos ciclos se deben prever rendimientos productivos y rentabilidades económicas bajas e incluso nulas.Por ejemplo: contaminación del sistema de riego por patógenos que afectan al sistema vascular o radicular de la planta, intoxicación de las plantas por inadecuada dosificación de plaguicidas o de fertilizantes, o una baja capacidad logística y administrativa para responder a situaciones de emergencia, como una avería en el sistema de riego.Si se usa la aeroponía para la multiplicación rápida de semilla a nivel comercial, es indispensable conocer cómo se deben estimar los costos de producción, los ingresos y la rentabilidad económica.Los costos de producción son los gastos necesarios para mantener el proyecto funcionando. Los tipos de costos son: fijos, variables, totales y unitarios.Los costos fijos se refieren al capital empleado para la construcción de la infraestructura y para el equipamiento; los costos variables son aquellos que intervienen de manera directa en la actividad productiva; los costos totales son la suma de los costos fijos y de los variables; y los costos unitarios son los costos de cada unidad de producto obtenido, en este caso minitubérculos de papa. contratar personal especializado, construir una infraestructura relativamente compleja, enfrentar de manera ágil situaciones inesperadas y desarrollar un negocio rentable, a través de la venta de minitubérculos y/o de semilla certificada.De acuerdo con los usos de la aeroponía -multiplicación rápida de semilla, investigación o comunicación e incidencia política-es posible proyectar algunas de las perspectivas que pueden presentarse en el futuro, respecto de esta tecnología.Considerando la aeroponía como tecnología de multiplicación rápida de semilla, dada su complejidad, el CIP, CORPOICA e INIAP prevén que será adoptada con fines comerciales, por empresas privadas, organizaciones gubernamentales (OGs) o no gubernamentales (ONGs), con la suficiente capacidad administrativa y financiera para:Experiencias realizadas en África y Asia indican que las empresas privadas son las que tienen las mejores posibilidades de éxito con aeroponía, como es el caso de empresas en Kenia e India. Por el contrario, el CIP ha observado fracasos en algunas OGs y ONGs, aunque no siempre es el caso, como lo demuestran varios casos exitosos de organizaciones gubernamentales en diferentes países.En todos los casos exitosos, ya sean empresas privadas, OGs u ONGs, la aeroponía se ha centrado en producir minitubérculos de pocas variedades de papa, con amplia demanda de mercado. Recientemente la aeroponía también ha sido usada por el CIP, en alianza con una empresa privada, para multiplicar clones élite de papa para distribución internacional.Hay que tener en cuenta que la aeroponía no parece ser adecuada para la multiplicación rápida de genotipos de papa, en fases iniciales de mejoramiento. Esto se debe a que existe una alta variabilidad en el comportamiento de estos genotipos, cuando son cultivados en aeroponía, y por lo tanto, se necesita un periodo de ajuste para determinar sus requerimientos (por ejemplo, densidad de siembra, solución nutritiva, etc.).Se prevé también que la aeroponía sea parte de un sistema integrado de producción de minitubérculos en el que se combinen varias tecnologías. Por ejemplo, se puede combinar el uso de plantas madre, esquejes, hidroponía en sustratos sólidos y aeroponía. Esto permitirá disminuir el riesgo de pérdidas y maximizar la producción aprovechando los aportes complementarios de las tecnologías, como lo demuestra la experiencia del INIAP en Ecuador.Ajuste de la solución nutritiva u otras medidas para acortar el ciclo vegetativo y disminuir el tamaño de las plantas, especialmente en variedades tipo andigena que en general tienden a desarrollar un follaje abundante. Efecto de soluciones nutritivas estresantes o de otras medidas para promover la tuberización.Efecto de los intervalos de cosecha sobre la producción de minitubérculos.Ajuste del riego según la variedad, la edad de las plantas y el ambiente. Control de hongos, oomycetes y bacterias mediante plaguicidas comerciales u otras sustancias aplicados en la solución nutritiva. Uso de energías alternativas para el suministro eléctrico de las bombas de riego. Uso de los desechos no degradables que se generan en aeroponía 76 o búsqueda de otros materiales que los reemplacen y que sean biodegradables. Uso de injertos de tomate en tallos de papa para la producción simultánea de ambos cultivos 77 . Arquitectura de raíces y desarrollo de tubérculos en variedades tolerantes a estrés abiótico.Efecto de organismos promotores de crecimiento. Efecto de elementos químicos en la nutrición de la planta.Selección de genotipos de papa por características de la raíz.A futuro y sobre la base de la experiencia del CIP, de CORPOICA y del INIAP, se proponen los siguientes temas que necesitan ser investigados para mejorar el desempeño de la aeroponía como tecnología para multiplicación rápida de semilla en zonas tropicales altas (> 2600 msnm): La aeroponía también puede ser considerada como una herramienta de investigación. En ese caso, algunos temas que pueden ser investigados utilizando a la aeroponía son:Tales como plástico que debe ser reemplazado cada 2 ciclos de cultivo, y láminas aislantes que deben ser reemplazadas cada 4 a 5 ciclos de cultivo. Experiencias preliminares en CIP-Lima muestran que esta puede ser una opción interesante, especialmente en sitios es los que el valor de la tierra sea muy alto y se necesite optimizar el uso del espacio de las casas de malla.Por ejemplo: ajustar la solución nutritiva para disminuir el tamaño de las plantas es un tema de investigación que ayudará a mejorar el manejo agronómico y por lo tanto la producción comercial con aeroponía. En contraste, estudiar la arquitectura de las raíces de variedades tolerantes a estrés abiótico, es un tema de investigación que usa la aeroponía como herramienta, sin implicaciones comerciales inmediatas.Finalmente, la aeroponía también es una herramienta de comunicación y de incidencia política. Como ya se mencionó, una de sus características importantes es que es una tecnología muy llamativa. Esto ha sido aprovechado para posicionar y promover al cultivo de papa, lo que ha permitido captar fondos para implementar acciones de investigación y desarrollo, alrededor del tema de semilla.Un ejemplo claro de este efecto se dio en Ecuador, donde el Ministerio de Agricultura decidió realizar una inversión importante en sistemas formales de semilla de papa en 2012, como resultado, en parte, de experimentos realizados con aeroponía en el CIP y en el INIAP.En ese sentido, la perspectiva será explorar, con mayor profundidad, el rol de la aeroponía como herramienta para comunicar las bondades de la papa. Módulos de aeroponía (con paredes transparentes, que permitan observar las raíces y los tubérculos) ubicados, además de en centros de investigación, en restaurantes, en ferias y en otros sitios públicos, podrían llegar a ser una opción interesante en el futuro.La diferencia entre los temas de investigación planteados es sutil y requiere una explicación adicional. Mientras por un lado se proponen temas de investigación necesarios para mejorar el desempeño de la aeroponía como técnica de multiplicación de semilla, por otro, se plantean temas que generan preguntas de investigación que usan a la aeroponía como una herramienta. Tecnologías alternativas a la aeroponía para la producción de minitubérculosSistema integrado de producción de minitubérculos de papa.Ejemplos de cómo preparar soluciones de hipoclorito de sodio o calcio.Infraestructura para aeroponía usada en Colombia, Ecuador y Perú.Ejemplos de fungicidas de contacto, fungicidas sistémicos e insecticidas.de papa.Minitubérculos cosechados de plantas madre (o de tecnología convencional) puede presentar patógenos que se multiplican en la materia orgánica del sustrato. Estos pueden crear serios problemas si se usan en aeroponía o semihidroponía.En general se recomienda que:Minitubérculos provenientes de un sistema convencional se pueden seguir multiplicando en otro sistema convencional.No usar minitubérculos provenientes de un sistema convencional en aeroponia o semihidroponía.El número de veces que se puede seguir multiplicando este material en el invernadero, dependerá si el material está o no contaminado. Las pruebas de calidad determinarán esto.El hipoclorito de sodio (NaClO) es un líquido que está disponible comercialmente con una concentración de cloro de 5 a 15%.El hipoclorito de calcio (Ca(ClO) 2 ) es más estable que el hipoclorito de sodio, y contiene una mayor concentración de cloro (30 a 75%). Está disponible de manera comercial como polvo o tabletas, por lo que primero se lo debe diluir a la concentración requerida. Por ejemplo, para preparar una solución de hipoclorito de calcio al 5%, se mezclan 77 g de hipoclorito de calcio (65%) en 1 litro de agua.* Hipoclorito de sodio o calcio al 5%. ** En la práctica se aproximan los decimales y se usa Aunque en este Manual se recomienda el uso de desinfectantes a base de cloro, es importante averiguar si existen desinfectantes menos tóxicos en el mercado local, para bajar el impacto ambiental, por ejemplo, alcohol isopropílico.","tokenCount":"39085"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ca87b16d5e7b679034568ffed0734aa9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ea9ad84b-70bb-49a9-be7a-332269e8404f/retrieve","id":"1321803134"},"keywords":["Good agricultural practices","adoption and impact","smallholder pig value chain"],"sieverID":"f623f8b7-6442-438f-b2fd-0265b22a1438","pagecount":"14","content":"This paper investigates the adoption of VietGAHP, a set of guidelines for best practices in pig production, and evaluates impacts using quantitative and qualitative indicators. It tackles the following specific research questions: 1) What is the extent of adoption of VietGAHP among smallholder pig producers? 2) Is there a difference in performance between VietGAHP adopters and non-adopters? Outcomes from adoption and compliance with VietGAHP are assessed using reduction in mortality as a metric for efficacy. Cost-benefit comparisons are also made to illustrate economic outcomes as a measure of effectiveness. We employ statistical t-tests for mean comparison of outcomes between VietGAHP adopters and non-adopters and across exposed and control sites. Our study shows productivity gains from practice and behavioral changes elicited from adoption and compliance with VietGAHP outweigh the costs of doing so, at least at the household level. The observed economic and market incentives could boost the adoption of VietGAHP if these incentives are sustained with appropriate institutions in place. Scalability could be facilitated by exposure via demonstration effects. Peer-to-peer learning is an effective strategy in enhancing capacity for uptake. With exposure being strongly linked to uptake, regardless of gender of respondents, training opportunities for non-exposed groups are worthwhile to pursue.Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) are historically a private-sector strategic response to increasing demand for food safety and quality. GAP certification with quality labels as signals has become a central component of modern consumer policy in developed agri-food market systems, and increasingly in developing country settings in recent years. Being GAPcertified could secure market share and capture price premium by providing competitive advantage to a supplier of a product with credible quality and food safety attributes (Reardon and Farina 2002). In developing country settings where informal markets are still the dominant and generally preferred outlets for food, establishing a credible GAP certification scheme poses institutional and policy challenges. Consequently, the preponderance of standards with dubious credibility erodes public confidence and lead to market failure and sub-optimal supply of safe food being sold at higher prices. Since certification systems mainly depend on trust, the certification and audit procedures need to improve to engender trust in the system and avoid opportunistic behavior. The underlying institutional structure can considerably influence the effectiveness and reliability of the whole certification system (Jahn et al. 2005).There are two types of GAP certification system: public and private. Government certification systems serve consumer protection purposes by providing quality labels to improve market transparency. Some disadvantages of public standards include loss of flexibility and innovation, lock-in-effects, and few incentives for over-compliance (McCluskey 2000). Private certification schemes tend to be significantly different depending on whether the certification is to be used for consumer marketing purposes or should meet the demands of institutional buyers. Many existing schemes in developed countries focus on the suppliers (EUROGAP, ISO); recently introduced schemes have shifted focus of labels on the consumers. There are also meat industry approaches comprising the whole value chain (e.g., the Dutch IKB-system or the German QS-system). Private certification schemes are likely to emerge in settings where there are weak or non-existent public certification systems (Lapar and Tiongco 2011). The main focus of private certification systems is management of food safety risk along the value chain in order to achieve a higher level of assurance in terms of regulatory compliance, and to capture price premiums and market share of the 'certified' product.Increased concerns about foodborne illness from fresh produce and the attendant economic loss from foodborne illness have motivated many growers to voluntarily adopt good agricultural practices (GAPs). Evidence from available empirical work on horticulture products, for example, show that GAPs help reduce microbial contamination on farms and improve food safety systems (Unnevehr 2015). However, GAPs won't necessarily increase consumer demand for fresh produce if buyers do not know that farmers adopted practices to improve food safety on farms. Consumers usually have no way to know whether or not fresh produce is grown with GAP practices. This is particularly true in developing country settings where certification systems are still in a nascent stage and third party certification a costly process.In the context of livestock value chains, there are potentially two important benefits from adoption and compliance with GAP. First is economic risk reduction, including the potential reduction in risk that an outbreak could be traced to the farm and thus avoiding large economic losses, and 'positive externality' from reduced risk of spreading foodborne illness from the farm and consequently lowering risk of an outbreak that affects the entire value chain. Second are the improved market access opportunities by enabling GAP-certified producers to sell to a more diverse range of market outlets for their products. On the other hand, the cost of adoption of GAP could include large capital investments or more moderate expenditures such as training workers to improve hygiene and upgrading record keeping technologies. These costs could potentially pose critical barriers to some potential adopters.The experience in the implementation of GAPs in developing country settings like Vietnam has shown mixed results, mainly in horticulture (Ha et al. 2014;UNCTAD 2007). For livestock, VietGAHP (Good Animal Husbandry Practices) was promulgated through Decision 1506 /QĐ-BNN-KHCN dated 15 May 2008. A revised set of guidelines based on the original VietGAHP but targeting household-based pig production was issued in 2011 (MARD 2011) and had been rolled out through a development project (LIFSAP). VietGAHP includes 29 practices on which compliance for VietGAHP certification is being evaluated. The list of 29 practices and requirements for compliance is presented in Annex --. The 29 practices are classified into eight categories as follows: Group 1: Pig housing, tools and equipment (6 practices); Group 2: Pig stock and management (3 practices); Group 3: Feeds and feed use (4 practices); Group 4: Water use (2 practices): Group 5: Veterinary hygiene (8 practices); Group 6: Marketing (3 practices); Group 7: Environment (2 practices); Group 8: Recording (1 practice). (Table 1).Are GAPs such as VietGAHP effective? Are there sufficient incentives to engender adoption and compliance? Are these transferable and scalable? These are important policy questions. This paper investigates the adoption of VietGAHP and evaluates impacts using quantitative and qualitative indicators. It tackles the following specific research questions: 1) What is the extent of adoption of VietGAHP among smallholder pig producers? 2) Is there a difference in performance between VietGAHP adopters and non-adopters? The findings could provide empirical evidence to guide appropriate strategies for uptake and scaling of best practices.We designed our study within an ongoing development project, LIFSAP (Livestock Competitiveness and Food Safety Project), which provided a natural setting to study adoption and compliance with VietGAHP and compare the outcomes of adoption and compliance across a number of performance indicators. We identified three groups of survey participants to recruit, namely, the VietGAHP adopters, the VietGAHP non-adopters, and a control. The VietGAHP adopters and non-adopters were recruited from the exposed sites, or where VietGAHP had been rolled out. The control group members were recruited from a nonexposed site, or where VietGAHP has not been introduced and where LIFSAP has not had nor any ongoing field activities. A total of 112 respondents were selected of which 42 are VietGAHP adopters, 40 non-adopters and 30 are control.A structured survey was implemented in Nghe An province, one of the project sites of LIFSAP. For purposes of this study, Dien Chau district was selected as the exposed site, for its proximity to Vinh City, the urban center of the province and thus enabling the capture of rural to urban patterns of pig and pork trade that may influence uptake of best practices for pig production. Hung Nguyen district, not having been exposed to VietGAHP, was identified as the control site. Focused group discussions (FGDs) of men and women pig raisers were undertaken to capture qualitative information about knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and gender issues.Outcomes from adoption and compliance with VietGAHP are assessed using reduction in mortality as a metric for efficacy. Cost-benefit comparisons are also made to illustrate economic outcomes as a measure of effectiveness. We employ statistical t-tests for mean comparison of outcomes between VietGAHP adopters and non-adopters and across exposed and control sites.Survey data was processed in Excel and data analysis was done using Stata. Descriptive statistical analysis was applied on a total sample size of 112 observation points from 37 VietGAHP adopters, 40 non-adopters, and 30 control respondents.Table 2 reports on the profile of respondents. The majority of respondents across the three groups are heads of households, and mainly responsible for pig raising. Gender balance is slightly tilted towards more women than men among respondents in the exposed site; a relatively higher proportion of men than women comprise the respondents in the control group. Income from pig production accounts for about a fifth to a fourth of total household income; VietGAHP adopters exhibit a higher proportion of household income from pigs vis-à-vis those in the other two groups.Compliance was evaluated among adopters at two levels, e.g., high compliance (at >65% compliance) and low compliance (at <50% compliance) for each practice. Level of compliance is measured as the proportion of criteria met/practices adopted to total number of criteria/practices. A household is classified has having high level of compliance if that household las met/adopted greater than 65% of criteria/practices. Otherwise, that household is classified as having low-level of compliance.Overall, there is relatively low level of compliance in 17 of the 29 VietGAHP practices, while a relatively high level of compliance was documented for 12 out of 29 practices among the identified adopters of VietGAHP. (Table 3)The extent of mortality during the period of reference used in the survey, i.e, the last pig production cycle, is relatively low as reported by respondents; i.e., three pigs on average died among adopters and non-adopters of VietGAHP (see Table 4). The incidence of mortality is higher among non-adopters (10 out of 45 respondents reported with dead pigs) than among adopters (2 out of 27 respondents reported with dead pigs). The incidence of morbidity or having sick pigs is also relatively lower among adopters (17 out of 37 households) than among non-adopters (26 out of 45 households). Non-adopters also reported as having more sick pigs than adopters, on average (see Table 4) Within exposed sites, we find that high compliance with the practice of feed hygiene (p=0.06) (Group3, 3.2-high, in Table 3) and keeping pig pens clean on a daily basis (p=0.03) (Group 5, 5.2-high, in Table 3) are strongly indicative of improved pig health with lower numbers of pigs dying among adopters vis-à-vis non-adopters. High compliance with keeping the pig pens free from leaking roofs and walls and secured from wind drafts is also making a difference in pig mortality outcomes between adopters and non-adopters, albeit the relatively weak statistical significance (p=0.10) (Group 1, 1.4-high, in Table 3).Strong statistical significance in mortality rates between adopters and non-adopters is also exhibited from low compliance with making complete records of pigs available during pig sales (p=0.05) (Group 6, 6.2-low, in Table 3), as well as in proper use of veterinary drugs and antibiotics including keeping records of veterinary drug us (Group 5, 5.6-low, in Table 3). Other practices where low levels of compliance appear to have influenced mortality outcomes include practices related to maintaining hygiene and sanitation of pig pens, tools and equipment; maintaining feed quality and safety; proper use of veterinary drugs; record keeping; and ensuring traceability. Does exposure make a difference? Comparing outcomes between non-VietGAHP adopter in exposed sites and the respondents in the control or non-exposed site could inform whether exposure to new practices could bring about improvements in performance. Statistically significant differences are observed between the mortality rates of pig producers who are not VietGAHP adopters but exposed to the practices and those who have not been exposed to VietGAHP (see Table 3). Specifically, higher mortality rates are observed among non-exposed pig producers when evaluated in terms of practices such as proper application of veterinary medicine (Group 5, 5.6-high, in Table 3) and keeping records of sale of pigs (Group 6, 6.2-high, in Table 3). It appears that exposure to best practices may likely engender improvements in the way pigs are raised by non-adopters when compared to those who have not been exposed at all. This could be facilitated by the demonstration effect; that is, seeing the effects of applying best practices first hand is likely to engender behavioral changes among those who have been exposed by taking up specific practices that are deemed relevant and feasible in their own particular case.Cost-benefit comparisons between adopters and non-adopter show some glaring differences in production parameters, input use, output levels, and sales (see Table 5). VietGAHP adoption and compliance appear to engender shorter production cycle (7% longer for non-adopters), higher productivity (13% higher liveweight per head among adopters), more pigs sold (89% higher per household among adopters), and heavier pigs sold (10% heavier/head pigs sold among adopters). These production metrics are consistent with the documented lower mortality rate (by half) among adopters vis-à-vis non-adopters. VietGAHP adopters also appear to receive higher selling price, e.g., 4% higher per unit liveweight compared to prices received by non-adopters on average. Estimates of total production costs show no significant difference between adopters and non-adopters, although there are differences in the cost share of inputs, notably different types of feed and use of veterinary and other services. Among adopters of VietGAHP, feeding has shifted to more nutrient-dense feed that translates to higher cost of concentrate feed use, at the same time cost of other types of feed such as raw feed and crop byproducts and residues declined. Cost of veterinary and other services are also slightly higher among adopters as compared to non-adopters. It does appear however that the value of productivity gains outweigh the cost of achieving these gains, thus resulting in net positive profits, on average (see Table 5).Our study findings suggest that adoption of best practices such as VietGAHP do engender positive economic benefits and thus promotion of wider uptake could potentially redound to broader and positive economic outcomes. Productivity gains from practice and behavioral changes elicited from adoption and compliance with VietGAHP outweigh the costs of doing so, at least at the household level. It is also noted that the cost of investment in VietGAHP include other costs not reflected in the farm level cost-benefit analysis. Nonetheless, the reduced mortality from healthier pigs that appear to have been rewarded with better prices in the market are generating productivity gains that translate to better profits from pig production. The observed economic and market incentives could boost the adoption of VietGAHP if these incentives are sustained with appropriate institutions in place. Scalability could be facilitated by exposure via demonstration effects. Peer-to-peer learning is an effective strategy in enhancing capacity for uptake. With exposure being strongly linked to uptake, regardless of gender of respondents, training opportunities for non-exposed groups are worthwhile to pursue. Uptake could potentially be facilitated by continued investments in capacity development of target users who could transition as trainors to other potential adopters in the scaling out process. While full compliance with all practices is the desired target of the LIFSAP project for VietGAHP certification, the health and safety outcomes from full vis-à-vis partial compliance is not strongly supported in the empirical evidence from our study. Validation of this finding in other settings and with a relatively larger sample size would be useful to pursue as a future research enquiry.Table 1 VietGAHP criteria, sub-criteria, guidelines on practices.Criteria/Guideline/Practices 1. Pig housing, tools and equipment used in the pigstyBe isolated from residential areas and from drinking water sourceHave fence to separate the pigsty site from living house and other animal housing systemsHave the entrance to pigsty with lockable doors Have an antiseptic system (footbath) in front of the entranceHave no standing waterDo not leak and avoid draftHave systems to collect and treat solid and liquid waste 1.6. Tools and equipmentHave clear origin and be fully recordedPig herds are fully vaccinatedKeep newly purchased pigs in quarantine and record information Do not keep pigs with other animals Keep different litters of pigs separateFeedstuff must be hygiene, not moldy Kitchen waste like leftover food must be cooked before feedingConcentrate feed must be mixed in accordance with instructions for pig species, ages Complete feed mixture must be marked with stampFeed must be stored on shelves to avoid mold To be packed in sealed bags to avoid spillage Have separate storing place, protect from insects, rodents ...Have enough water for pig production Use drinking water/treated waterDisinfect the entire pigsty 07 days before and after the sale Criteria/Guideline/Practices Notes:1. \"Group\" pertains to the criteria and numbered according to the order of criteria shown in Table --. 2. \"Practice\" refers to the sub-criteria or specific requirement/practice, numbered according to the order shown in Table -- ","tokenCount":"2781"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d1e0f4e469d89cfb97e8c0fdd138291f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f4399c0-289a-49b8-b28c-9c69db489f80/retrieve","id":"195031961"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca54e98e-f646-4601-b4b7-2a6e9779ec31","pagecount":"8","content":"This publication has been prepared as an output of the NSSID program and European Union's Supporting Horn of Africa Resilience (SHARE) I and II projects and has not been independently peer-reviewed. Responsibility for opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved.What is climate-smart agriculture?Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a set of farming methods that has three main objectives: use adaptation methods to respond to the effects of climate change on agriculture; increase agricultural productivity and ensure food security and reduction in poverty for a growing population; and attempt to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture (FAO 2013;Lipper et al. 2014;Zilberman et al. 2018). CSA practices are diverse and include shifts in suitable crop types or cultivars, crop rotation, diversification of crop varieties, intercropping, conservation and tillage practices, fertility management, soil and water conservation, forest management interventions, small-scale irrigation, maintaining mixed herds, sustainable grazing practices, etc. (FAO 2013;Ali et al. 2022;Negera et al. 2022). These practices are important to reverse the negative effects of climate change and to have positive impacts on the livelihoods of farmers (Ali et al. 2023;Negera et al. 2023). Adoption of CSA practices has the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and directly influence the well-being of households (Sang et al. 2024). CSA increases agricultural production, income and adaptability to climate change and reduces GHG emissions, thus promoting national food security and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Zhao et al. 2023).Putting research knowledge into actionWhile Ethiopia contributes only 0.53% to global greenhouse gas emissions (FDRE 2022), the effect of climate change on the livelihoods of Ethiopian smallholder farmers, who have weak adaptive capacity, is adverse. Ethiopia's climate projections show continued warming and unpredictable changes in rainfall patterns (Conway and Schipper 2011). The country is characterized by the frequency of droughts and other extreme events affecting agriculture, health and water (Simane et al. 2016)  2013). Government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been promoting CSA practices in Ethiopia, both at the household and community levels. However, their impact on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers is not well documented.CSA practices involve a range of stakeholders in Ethiopia, including policymakers and extension service providers from the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Irrigation and Lowlands, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission, the National Meteorology Agency, research and academic organizations and development organizations (i.e., NGOs). More specifically, Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia 1 have been active in promoting and implementing CSA programs in different parts of Ethiopia. While this diversity of stakeholders reflects the perceived importance of promoting CSA practices and the supporting policy context, it also highlights the need for a more targeted and coordinated approach.The results presented here build on two research projects conducted in collaboration with Arba Minch University and Addis Ababa University in the Central Rift Valley (CRV) and Bale Eco-Region (BER), with the support of Growth for the Future (G4F) and Supporting Horn of Africa Resilience (SHARE II) projects, respectively. For the first study, 4 out of 9 districts from CRV, 2 kebeles 2 from each district and 278 households were randomly selected. In the second study, sample districts from 3 agroecological zones in BER where CSA practices have been implemented and 404 farm households were randomly selected. Cross-sectional data for the 2020-2021 cropping season were collected in 2022 from the selected households using a structured and pretested survey questionnaire in CRV and Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing in BER.The main objectives of these studies and this brief are:• to document whether CSA practices are widespread at the household level in the selected sites, both of which are considered vulnerable to climate change and inhabited by hundreds of thousands of poor small-scale subsistence farmers (Kidane et al. 2022;Markos et al. 2023);• to assess the impact of CSA adoption on smallholders' livelihoods, food security and poverty;• to identify policy gaps affecting the diffusion and effectiveness of CSA practices; and• to draw conclusions and policy recommendations addressing these policy gaps.Heterogeneous adoption of CSA technologies Ali et al. (2022) show that integrated soil fertility management, conservation agriculture and crop diversification, soil and water conservation and small-scale irrigation are widely practiced household-level technologies in the CRV of Ethiopia (see Figure 1). Negera et al. (2022) also show that improved agronomic practices, soil and water conservation practices, planting drought-tolerant high-yielding crop varieties, small-scale irrigation, integrated disease, pest and weed management and integrated soil fertility management are practiced by smallscale farmers in BER, Ethiopia. The rate of adoption of these CSA practices in the two study sites is indicated in Figure 1.Negera et al. ( 2022) indicate that CSA practices have been more frequently adopted by small-scale farmers in lowland and midland agroecological zones as compared to those in highland agroecological zones. Farmers' adoption of multiple CSA practices, as well as their intensity of adoption, is significantly influenced by various socioeconomic factors such as education, frequency of contact with extension agents, awareness of climate change, receiving of regular climate information, farmer experiences with climatic shocks, land size, the value of total assets belonging to their household, and plot-level and household-level features. These results indicate that relevant policy measures and services, such as households' improved access to education, extension services, up-to-date climate information, and creating awareness of climate shocks, are important for the dissemination of these technologies. Statistical results also show that CSA practices are interdependent choices (Negera et al. 2022). This finding has critical implications for the choice of estimation technique to gauge the adoption of CSA practices and design scaling strategies.Using different food security indicators, a quantitative analysis shows that adopter households have, on average, a higher calorie intake, reach higher dietary diversity scores and record lower food insecurity experience scores as compared to non-adopter households. The results show that there are significantly positive potential gains in food security indicators and a decrease in perceptions of food insecurity for non-adopters in CRV if these households were to adopt CSA practices. Adopters of CSA practices have a lower incidence of actual multidimensional poverty (compared to non-adopters), and non-adopters will have a significantly lower incidence of potential multidimensional poverty should they adopt these practices (Ali et al. 2022). A further significant scientific finding of these studies is that small-scale farmers who adopted more diversified combinations of CSA packages were more resilient and less vulnerable to shocks than non-adopter households in CRV. Negera et al. (2023) report that all CSA practices enhance household resilience and all CSA practices (except improved agronomy) have significant and negative impacts on vulnerability of small farm households in BER. There are also significant potential gains in terms of enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerability for non-adopter farm households should they adopt CSA practices (Ali et al. 2023;Negera et al. 2023).However, the specific impacts of different CSA practices on resilience and vulnerability do vary. For example, integrated soil fertility management, and conservation agriculture and crop diversification practices have displayed higher performance in improving resilience, whereas conservation agriculture and crop diversification, and small-scale irrigation have shown higher performance in reducing the vulnerability of rural farm households in CRV (Ali et al. 2023).These results are significant not only because they fill important research gaps but also because they show the policy relevance of CSA practices in Ethiopia.One of the main conclusions emerging from the results of the studies is that CSA practices must be promoted as bundles rather than as single, unintegrated technologies, to enhance their effectiveness and impact. Furthermore, improved access to education, extension services, awareness creation on the effects of climate shocks and the provision of up-to-date information and incentives (e.g., promoting technologies that yield immediate productivity gains) are important policy measures for the wider diffusion of CSA practices in Ethiopia. This study also concludes that small-scale farmers' adoption of various CSA practices has positive actual and potential impacts on their calorie intake and dietary diversity while decreasing their perception of food insecurity. This emphasizes the need to integrate climate-smart agriculture into ongoing food system transformation efforts in Ethiopia. Small-scale farmers who have adopted various types of CSA practices also have greater capacity to reduce actual and potential impacts of multidimensional poverty. In a similar manner, the implementation of CSA practices reduces the actual and potential vulnerability of smallholders and enhances their resilience in mitigating the effects of climate change in Ethiopia. Since the marginal effects of these CSA practices on enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerability do vary, a careful and contextually specific promotion of CSA technologies is essential. The findings of the studies underscore the policy relevance of these interventions and the importance of promoting CSA practices that are suitable for the socioeconomic and physical context (geology, hydrology, etc.) in which they are scaled. Finally, a stronger assimilation of such promising practices will enable and expedite the achievement of global goals such as SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger) and 13 (Climate Action).Well-prepared land for efficient irrigation in Tigray Region, Ethiopia (photo: Amare Haileslassie).","tokenCount":"1484"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5b019c079268bc786fda5548c4501b9e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/region/sea/publications/download?dl=/LE00287-21.pdf&pubID=4912&li=9207","id":"-1600585668"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d9e66a7b-6192-403e-b22b-221568643bfb","pagecount":"2","content":"• Bảo vệ, nhân nuôi và thả thiên địch bằng cách trồng xen cây ngắn ngày (đậu xanh, đậu tương, lạc,…) hoặc cây xua đuổi côn trùng có hại. Ví dụ về các loài thiên địch tốt: bọ rùa, ong ký sinh, bọ ba khoang, chuồn chuồn cỏ, nhện lớn và nhện nhỏ bắt mồi, bọ ngựa, kiến vàng, v.v... • Sử dụng chế phẩm có nguồn gốc sinh học, thảo mộc như tỏi, ớt, gừng, rượu, hành tăm • Chỉ trồng ở nơi có điều kiện tự nhiên thích hợp cho cây cam;• Chăm sóc cây sinh trưởng tốt ngay từ những năm đầu.• Dùng phân hữu cơ và vô cơ cân đối, tránh lạm dụng phân bón vô cơ. Nơi có đất chua cần bón vôi để điều chỉnh độ chua (pH). • Quản lý cỏ dại: không sử dụng thuốc trừ cỏ hóa học.• Theo dõi dự báo thời tiết và khuyến cáo để có kế hoạch phòng trừ sâu bệnh. • Trồng xen thêm cây hàng năm, cây phân xanh giúp cải tạo đất (cây họ đậu, cỏ lạc,..) hoặc các loại cây thuốc và cây có tính xua đuổi sâu bệnh hại như sả, hành,..ở giữa các hàng cam để che phủ, giữ ẩm đất, hạn chế cỏ dại, chống rửa trôi đất và tăng thêm thu nhập.• Đối với đất dốc, ngoài việc trồng xen thì lưu ý thêm về cách trồng cây theo đường đồng mức và theo bậc thang. Ngoài cây ăn quả có thể trồng thêm băng cỏ hoặc dứa theo đường đồng mức để giảm xói mòn đất.• 400 -500 cây/ha (5m x 5m hoặc 5m x 4m) ","tokenCount":"278"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cf8ea5cb3aba2a2aa8166e91fcd9cb4b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f9a3f43-658f-4baa-9803-dd212a29cf0c/retrieve","id":"932545062"},"keywords":["Determinants","food systems","hunger","MDG1","poverty","undernutrition"],"sieverID":"03495b6e-30db-4157-b10e-bc974d88ab86","pagecount":"15","content":"Objective. To assess global progress on the hunger component of MDG1 and evaluate the success of interventions and country programs in reducing undernutrition.At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, the largest gathering of world leaders in history adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations to a bold global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and address a series of time-bound health and development targets [1]. Among these Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is a commitment to reduce the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half between 1990 and 2015 [2].In many settings, progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target has been elusive, and the challenge of global food security remains one of the most pressing issues of our time. Problems are most severe in the developing world, where the proportion of underweight children under 5 years of age declined only marginally from 31% to 26% between 1990 and 2008 based on a subset of 86 countries with trend data for the period 1990 and 2008, covering 89% of the developing world's population [3]. In 2010, 925 million people were hungry and 129 and 195 million children under 5 years of age were underweight and stunted, respectively, with 90% of these children living in just 36 countries [3][4][5]. To make matters worse, many of the reductions in hunger witnessed during the 1990s have recently been eroded by the global food price and economic crises [6], which have together added an estimated 105 million to the ranks of the hungry in 2009 [7].What these global figures hide is the diversity of experiences that exist within countries and regions of the world (fig. 1) [3]. While regional averages provide useful estimates, the situation of individual countries may vary significantly, particularly in Africa and Asia [6]. Furthermore, progress within countries may be linked to variations in geography, ethnicity, and religion, rural and urban settings, and socioeconomic strata [8]. In short, although challenges remain, the news is not all bad, and there is much that can be learned to re-energize programs and policies as we enter the final 5-year push to 2015.In this paper, we review the most up-to-date information on global progress toward the hunger component of the first MDG. Specifically, we profile developingcountry progress at the regional and country levels, present a typology for assessing policy and program strategies for addressing hunger, and summarize key lessons and future recommendations to accelerate progress toward the elimination of hunger.Information for this review was drawn from over 150 studies published between 2000 and 2009 on nutrition and hunger among children in resource-poor settings. The PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and Embase databases were searched using combinations of key words and Medical Subject Heading terms, including nutritional status, hunger, MDGs, dietary diversity, multisectoral approaches, diet quality, underweight, stunting, and wasting. Studies published in peerreviewed journals in English were examined. The gray literature, alongside a series of personal interviews with representatives of government and country-level programs, was also studied. In a second phase, snowballing was used to identify additional relevant studies from the bibliographies of all relevant papers identified in the initial search.Only studies and literature that reported the nutritional status of children under five as underweight, stunting, or wasting were included. The search was restricted geographically to studies from sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The review was also restricted to low-and middle-income countries with a certain degree of food insecurity, as measured by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) MDG1 target. Other indicators of hunger and food insecurity, such as the Global Hunger Index (GHI), were not used in this review.Regional and country-level progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target (panel 1) [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Progress in reducing the proportion of children who are underweightIn many low-and middle-income countries, progress toward reducing the proportion of children who are underweight has been encouraging. Of the 117 countries analyzed by UNICEF, more than half (63 in total) are on track to meet the target [3]. The greatest gains have been in Central and Eastern Europe-Commonwealth of Independent States, East Asia, and the Pacific [20]. Latin America and the Caribbean also made solid progress, with levels declining from 11% to 6% between 1990 and 2008, fueled by major improvements in Mexico [20]. The experience in Asia varies widely. In South Asia, the prevalence of underweight children declined just marginally from 54% to 48% between 1990 and 2008, but with such high prevalence levels, attaining the target will be very difficult. In India, progress has been slow, and the country has the highest number of children who are stunted worldwide [3]. India, Bangladesh, and Nepal are 3 of the 10 countries with the greatest proportion of underweight children worldwide. Conversely, in East Asia, countries such as China, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam are all on track to meet the MDG1 [3].In sub-Saharan Africa, underweight prevalence decreased from 32% to 26% from 1990 to 2008, a level of decline too slow to meet the MDG1 target. Of the 20 countries classified as making no progress at all, most are in Africa, with the highest underweight prevalence found in Burundi, Chad, Eritrea, Madagascar, and Niger [3]. Despite limited progress overall, many countries in the region are well on track, including Angola, Botswana, Congo, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Swaziland [20].Countries with the highest proportion of the population undernourished are in Asia and the Pacific as well as sub-Saharan Africa, mirroring trends for underweight prevalence [21]. The proportion of undernourished in developing countries decreased from 20% to 17% (a decrease in absolute numbers of 9 million) in the 1990s, but both the proportion and the absolute numbers have reversed course and increased in 2008 due to the food price crisis, which has severely impacted the sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania regions [6]. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion of undernourished, at 29%, followed by South Asia, including India, at 22% [6].Although a wide range of interventions to eliminate hunger and undernutrition have been established, a policy-practice gap exists in many countries, and fully integrating evidence-based interventions within effective delivery systems that can achieve high levels of coverage remains a major challenge [22,23]. The following typology is put forward to characterize policies and programs that address the MDG1 Hunger Target (fig. 2).A range of proven, cost-effective interventions for addressing child and maternal undernutrition have been well described [24]. The interventions listed in figure 3 were drawn from research in 36 countries that account for 90% of the global burden of child undernutrition [4,24]. In children, the period from prepregnancy to 2 years of age represents a critical \"window of opportunity\" as a period of rapid growth where damage done is potentially permanent. Reducing hunger and undernutrition during this period affects both child growth and cognitive development [25]. Estimates suggest that developing countries spend US$30 billion per year on premature illness and death felt to be the direct result of hunger [26].There are a number of examples of countries and programs where the bundling of various components of this package has been linked to substantial gains. Peru's Good Start to Life program has generated encouraging improvements in child growth and the reduction of iron and vitamin A deficiency by introducing a range of prevention interventions alongside a participatory problem-solving approach with communities and PANEL 1. Measuring hunger and undernutrition Hunger refers to insufficient food quantity, where the minimum caloric intake is not met [9]. Undernutrition refers to a diet of insufficient quality of nutrients required to improve birthweight, growth, cognitive development, and mortality [10][11][12][13][14].The underweight prevalence indicator is the proportion of children under 5 years of age falling below -2 SD (moderate and severe) from the median weight-for-age of the reference population. The reference population is the WHO Child Growth Standards, based on a cohort of 8,000 children from Brazil, Ghana, India, Norway, Oman, and the United States [15].Additional anthropometric indicators include stunting (height-for-age; a measure of chronic undernutrition) and wasting (weight-for-height; a measure of acute undernutrition). The underweight indicator was chosen as one of the MDG1 targets as a single composite measure, as it was felt to capture aspects of acute and chronic undernutrition combined. Recent recommendations advocate that countries report stunting as an indicator of endemic poverty [16] and as a measure that more accurately reflects nutritional deficiencies as well as sickness that occurred during a child's critical growth periods [3].The proportion undernourished indicator is a complex estimation of dietary energy consumption on a per-person basis as established and monitored by FAO. This indicator is estimated by the daily dietary energy supply per capita for a country derived from its food balance sheet averaged over 3 years. The variance is derived on the basis of food consumption or income data from household income and expenditure surveys. The proportion of undernourished in the total population is defined as that part of the population lying below a minimum energy requirement after taking into account a country's sex and age distribution, assuming the minimum acceptable body weight for given height for all sex-age groups and a light activity levels for adults [17,18]. These estimates are difficult to collect at the field level, and it remains questionable how accurate a picture these data capture [19].Progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target institutions (panel 2) [27]. There are also examples of successful treatment programs, such as the Community-Based Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) program in Malawi (panel 3) [28][29][30][31], which has demonstrated that treating severely malnourished children with ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTF) can be done even in the most rural landscapes. Many countries are scaling up CMAM, with 42 country-wide action plans in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East [3], and with efforts in Malawi, Ethiopia, and Niger demonstrating early signs of success [32][33][34]. Finally, programs such as the Baby-Friendly Community Initiative (BFCI), a village-based mother support group model designed to address infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices in Cambodia and the Gambia, have made significant impacts on breastfeeding practices in the countries [3,35]. Although these improvements cannot be attributed solely to BFCI, programs promoting improved IYCF practices that include these initiatives as part of a comprehensive communication effort show considerable promise [35].Conversely, experience from elsewhere has been more mixed. A recent evaluation of an Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) program in Bangladesh [36]  program plans. Furthermore, immediate and exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months of age was promoted more heavily in comparison areas than in the ACSD focus areas [37].Similarly, Bangladesh's Integrated Nutrition Project (BINP) was the first large-scale government initiative in nutrition [38]. With an investment of $65 million from World Bank credit [39], BINP expanded a community nutrition intervention originally done by the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) to reduce child malnutrition through growth monitoring and supplementary feeding among children aged 6 to 24 months, alongside supplementary feeding for pregnant women to increase pregnancy weight gain and reduce the incidence of low-birthweight babies. Early evaluations found that although nutrition-related knowledge and delivery and use of micronutrients, vitamin A, iron-folic acid, and iodized salt improved in the communities with BINP, evidence to support an impact on child nutritional status, weight gain during pregnancy, or birthweight has been limited [39]. Whether this was due to a true lack of impact on outcomes per se or to weaknesses in the evaluation designs and the data remains unclear [38].Although prevention and treatment programs that bundle proven interventions can be effectively implemented at a modest scale, translating these gains into national programs with high quality and coverage has proven more challenging. Sound policies, alongside fostering ongoing engagement of stakeholders and participants, seem to have equal bearing on success as the technical content of interventions and programs [40]. Innovative partnerships between governments, the private sector, and civil society are also needed to improve affordable access to nutritious products such as RUTF among vulnerable populations.Agriculture and food system approaches enhance food availability and diet quality through improved local production, better crop storage and enhanced market access, and efforts to further agricultural biodiversity. At least half of the world's food-insecure people are poor smallholder farmers living in low-income countries cultivating on marginal lands without access to productivity-enhancing technologies [41]. These farmers, most of them operating on less than 2 hectares of land, produce the food they need for their own survival [42]. Small farms provide over 90% of Africa's agricultural production [43], and women produce 60% to 80% of the food that is consumed locally in developing PANEL 3. Community-based management of acute malnutrition in the Peanut Butter Project in Malawi Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) affects 20 million children under 5 years of age each year and contributes to 1 million child deaths per year [28]. Moderate acute malnutrition contributes more to the overall burden of disease, as it affects many more children [29]. Community-Based Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) is an innovative, community-led public health model to address acute malnutrition in developing countries. Previously used in emergency settings [30], the approach sensitizes the community to detect signs of SAM and engage in active case finding, then providing home-based treatment for those without medical complications with ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTF) or other nutrient-dense foods [28]. If properly combined with clinical care for those malnourished children with medical complications and implemented on a large scale, CMAM could prevent the deaths of hundreds of thousands of children [28].The Peanut Butter Project works in a rural setting outside of Blantyre, Malawi, an area that lacks overall healthcare facilities. Village health aides are trained in screening, diagnosing, and basic treatment of acute malnutrition at the household level. Caretakers and children come to the rural center for assessment, and if the child is found to be malnourished after screening with measurement of mid-upper-arm circumference, a 2-week supply of RUTF is provided, continuing for 8 weeks if needed [31]. A project evaluation found that of 826 malnourished children enrolled, 775 (94%) recovered, 13 (1.8%) remained malnourished, 30 (3.6%) defaulted, and 8 (0.9%) died [31]. The project demonstrated that with minimal resources, treating children who suffer from SAM can be achieved with village health workers and therapeutic food. This approach will not work in all settings, particularly if a functional governmentsupported rural health worker program or locally made foods are not readily available. However, it does provide an example of how action can be taken even in resourceconstrained settings.Peru is currently on track to meet the Hunger Target of the MDG1. The proportion of the population who are undernourished has decreased from 28% to 15% since 1990, [21] and the prevalence of stunting remains high at 30% [20]. The Good Start to Life program was initiated in 2000 in four regions of Peru and covered approximately 75,000 children under 3 years of age and 35,000 pregnant and lactating women. The program consisted of a series of nutrition, hygiene, and health interventions, similar to those recommended in figure 3 [24]. The aims of the initiative were to promote growth and development of children, antenatal care, adequate diets for pregnant and lactating women, and exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months, alongside safe complementary feeding, early stimulation of the child, control of iron and vitamin A deficiency, iodated salt intake, and personal and family hygiene [24]. Participatory processes to problem solving and delivery were put into place to build capacity at both the individual and the institutional levels, mobilizing human, economic, and organizational resources. After 4 years, the program was associated with a decrease in the prevalence of stunting from 54.1% to 36.9%, a decrease in the prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia from 76.0% to 52.3%, and a decrease in the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency from 30.4% to 5.3% [27].Progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target countries [44]. Simple interventions long taken for granted in much of the world, such as improved seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural extension training, are unavailable to subsistence farmers in hardest-hit regions such as sub-Saharan Africa [9], despite their well-documented potential to triple crop yields [45].Enhancing the productivity of food systems tackles both the supply-side and the demand-side dimensions of hunger. On the supply side, farming diverse nonstaple crops with high nutritional value has the potential to make rich sources of micronutrients more widely available to entire communities [46]. On the demand side, raising smallholder agricultural productivity contributes to increasing household income, allowing families to purchase more and better-quality food. Furthermore, by extending the value chain toward local agrobioprocessing, these activities can increase the presence of high-quality nutritionally improved or fortified foods in the local markets. Interventions to improve food productivity and livelihoods in these settings have been well defined (fig. 4) [41,47].Agricultural and food system strategies often fall outside the traditional scope of clinical nutrition, and as such have a limited evidence base to support causal links between the introduction of programs and improvements in maternal or child health outcomes [48]. However, observational data from China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have suggested a strong relationship between land reform initiatives and enhanced food security [42,49]. In some developing countries, such as China, where major progress has been made in reaching the MDG1 Hunger Target, there has been a concerted effort to improve the productivity of smallholder farmers and promote a more equitable distribution of land [42]. Similarly, Malawi, once facing famine and reliant on food imports, has become a net exporter since the introduction of a national input subsidy program (fig. 5) [10] that dramatically expanded access to fertilizer (panel 4) [42,45]. Finally, community-level programs in South and Southeast Asia that enhance livestock production and crop diversity among rural homesteads (panel 5) [50,51]   provided encouraging evidence that such strategies can be effective vehicles for improving income, food security, and nutrition.A number of major global initiatives have recently emerged to expand the scope of agriculture-and foodbased approaches to addressing poverty and food security. The G8 nations, alongside leading international organizations, recently committed US$20 billion to help farmers in poor countries boost productivity and food security. With this initiative, the United Nations recently established the High-Level Hunger Task Force for Food Security to \"ensure a coherent system-wide response to both the causes of this crisis and its overwhelming adverse consequences among the world's most vulnerable populations\" [52]. The Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) global initiative is a framework [53] agreed on by many stakeholders to address undernutrition globally through direct nutrition-specific interventions focusing on pregnant women and children under 2 years of age, as well as a broader multisectoral approach that promotes agriculture and food security to improve the availability of, access to, and consumption of nutritious foods, by improving social protection and ensuring access to healthcare [54]. On the agriculture front, the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) was established in 2006 with the purpose of achieving a food-secure and prosperous Africa through the promotion of rapid, sustainable agricultural growth based on smallholder farmers [55]. Lastly, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is currently undergoing a major reform as a renewed effort to direct agricultural research that will ultimately contribute to poverty reduction, food and nutrition security, and economic development.Although such an ambitious agenda has many important merits, a comprehensive strategy to address undernutrition will also require countries to increase the availability and reduce the cost of nutritious food beyond just staple crops and cereals. Agrobiodiversity interventions that aim to increase the nutritional content of traditional foods, contribute to better livelihoods, and enhance the market value of these \"specialized foods\" are providing an important boost for rural farming communities [48], as demonstrated in Kenya (panel 6) [56,57]. Finally, enhancing food security among marginal groups who are not smallholder farmers, including pastoralists and fishing communities, the urban poor, and vulnerable households who rely primarily on purchased foods, is equally important [41,58].Communities and populations living on the fringes or those in areas susceptible to natural disasters, in conflict zones, or in war-torn countries often have needs that are unaddressed by conventional interventions. \"Safety nets\" are social protection interventions that are tailored to meet the needs of these vulnerable groups.There are a number of types of safety net interventions. Some provide a substitute for income and may include cash and in-kind transfer programs, subsidies, and labor-intensive public works programs. They may provide mechanisms to ensure access to essential public services, such as school scholarships and fee waivers for healthcare services [59]. Other safety nets PANEL 5. Homestead food production in South Asia South and Southeast Asia remain regions with some of the highest prevalence rates of underweight and stunting among children in the world [21]. To enhance food and nutritional security, Helen Keller International introduced its homestead food production program (HFP) in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, and the Philippines. The program integrates animal husbandry with home gardening with the aim of enhancing consumption of micronutrient-rich foods. Between 2003 and 2007, the HFP program was implemented in 30,000 households in these four countries where micronutrient malnutrition is a serious public health problem. A program evaluation documented significant improvements in dietary diversification and in animal-food consumption (an increase in consumption of protein-rich liver and egg) and reduction in the prevalence of childhood anemia [50]. The findings from Bangladesh and Cambodia showed significant improvements in household income from the sale of products from home gardens and animal husbandry. Women's participation in these programs translated to further gains in child health and education [51]. The HFP model has recently been enhanced to include interventions to improve child growth through improved breastfeeding and complementary feeding. Emphasis will also be placed on further adapting the model to urban areas, due to the rapidly growing urban populations of Asia and Africa.Production of maize, the main staple of the diet, by smallholder farmers in Malawi is not normally sufficient to meet annual consumption requirements. With droughts and crop failures, food insecurity can be devastating, and prior to 2005 Malawi was a net maize importer. In mid-2005, the Government of Malawi responded to severe hunger among its population with a national scheme to subsidize improved seed and fertilizer [45]. The scheme involved the distribution of fertilizer vouchers (not more than two per household) and maize seed vouchers that enabled most smallholder farmers to purchase fertilizer and seed at about one-quarter of the market cost. With the national subsidy scheme, food production has exceeded national demand for four consecutive years. In 2008, despite food price increases, Malawi was able to contain food prices because of the strong maize subsector. In 2007 and 2009, Malawi exported maize [42] (fig. 5) [21]. These data show promising results of a national-scale food security program put into place over several years, due to a willing and committed government dealing with massive food shortages. Nationally, the proportion of undernourished decreased from 45% in 1990 to 29% in 2006 [42].Progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target aim to enhance food access, for example by providing public works employment paid in food, by increasing purchasing power (through the provision of food stamps, coupons, or vouchers), or by providing foodassistance interventions (through the direct provision of food to households or individuals). Among the most common types of food-based safety net modalities are supplementary feeding, food vouchers or stamps, food for work or assets (panel 7) [60][61][62][63], and conditional cash transfers (panel 8) [64][65][66]. The MERET (Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions to More Sustainable Livelihoods) program in Ethiopia works with chronically food-insecure communities on projects to rehabilitate the natural environment and to create productive assets in exchange for food or cash. Not only are landscapes preserved or restored, but many households, as a result of the food or cash, have improved food security.There is evidence to suggest that food and cash transfers can improve the lives of those who are poor, particularly in households who suffer from a food security shock [39,67]. Cash transfer programs can be applied to households as a unit because they meet poverty or vulnerability criteria. Alternatively, they are provided in the presence of vulnerable groups within households such as children, girls, or fostered orphans. Cash transfers can be unconditional (given without obligations) or conditional (tied to obligations of recipients to participate in work, training, education, health, nutrition, or other services or activities). Although evidence for the impact of pure cash transfers on improvements in health is mixed [68], conditional cash transfers have been demonstrated to increase the likelihood that households will take their children for preventive health checkups [67,69], with well-designed evaluations also demonstrating improvements in nutritional outcomes [70], such as in Mexico (panel 8) [64][65][66].The achievement of food security depends upon three distinct but interrelated processes. The first is food PANEL 6. Leafy green vegetable promotion in Kenya Sub-Saharan Africa has an enormous variety of leafy vegetables, estimated to include between 800 and 1,000 species. However, few of these are commonly consumed [56]. In Kenya, for example, only about 10 of 210 species find their way to markets. Working with 300 resource-poor vegetable farmers on the outskirts of Nairobi in periurban areas, Bioversity has inventoried leafy vegetable species and identified the key issues hindering their cultivation, conservation, and marketing. Other activities include nutritional and agronomic studies, distribution of seeds to farmers, and dissemination of local recipes featuring leafy vegetables. With support and training from the project, farmers on the outskirts of Nairobi soon began growing leafy vegetables. The largest supermarket chain in Kenya agreed to sell the vegetables. The vegetables quickly became fashionable and shed their lower-class status; they are now the most consumed vegetables in the country. Produce delivery to market outlets increased from 31 to 400 tons/month during the 3-year phased project [57]. There was a 2-to 20-fold increase in incomes of the 300 monitored farmers [57].Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, with natural resource degradation being one of the most serious development challenges. MERET (Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions to More Sustainable Livelihoods) is a joint program between the Ethiopian Government and the World Food Programme aimed at addressing this challenge. It aims to build communities' resilience against shocks and improve the livelihoods of rural households, particularly those headed by women. Chronically food-insecure communities participate in projects to rehabilitate the natural environment and create productive assets. This involves participation in incomegenerating activities aimed at improving livelihoods while using local natural resources in a sustainable manner [60]. As a result of the MERET program, 300,000 hectares of land have been restored [61], with 1 million people benefiting annually, in 600 communities across Ethiopia. MERET has helped to improve food security because the soil and water conservation has facilitated diversification of agricultural production, including the cultivation of a wide variety of cash crops-especially fruits and vegetables, some of which were kept for consumption, but most of which were sold-and increased productivity and food availability. All of these households continued to produce teff, maize, and sweet potatoes as well. Some participants were double-and triple-cropping as a result of MERET, and some said they had increased use of high-yielding seeds [62]. In 2005, 41% of MERET households claimed that the number of months per year that they experienced a food deficit had declined by two or more as a result of the project [63].The Mexican Oportunidades program was one of the first conditional cash transfer programs in a developing country. It offers bimonthly direct cash transfers to women to improve the quality, quantity, and diversity of food in the household. In order to address undernutrition, Oportunidades offers nutritional supplements to infants between 6 and 23 months of age, undernourished children between 2 and 5 years of age, and breastfeeding and pregnant women. The supplement is a milk-based fortified food providing 20% of calorie requirements and 100% of micronutrient requirements, including zinc, iron, and vitamins A and C [64,65]. In order to address education and health, the program offers educational grants and incentives for remaining in and finishing school, as well as basic medical services and health education. By 2008, the program assisted 5 million families in 93,000 districts in all of the country's most marginalized municipalities [66]. Evaluations found that the program has had a positive effect on childhood growth, with an increase in mean growth of 16% or 1 cm per child per year in the critical period of 12 to 36 months [64,66]. availability, which refers to ensuring that food of sufficient quantity and diversity is available for consumption from the farm, the marketplace, or elsewhere. The second is food access, which refers to households having the physical and financial resources required to obtain these foods. The third is food utilization, which implies the capacity and resources necessary to use food appropriately to support healthy diets. This might include access to potable drinking water and adequate sanitation; knowledge of food storage, preparation, and the basic principles of good nutrition; proper child care; and illness management [71,72].A multisectoral approach brings together a coherent range of strategies with the aim of enhancing food and nutrition security. These necessarily include interventions in agriculture and business development, healthcare, clean water, hygiene and sanitation, basic infrastructure, gender equality, and education (fig. 6) [9,39,[72][73][74][75][76]. Such approaches highlight the interdependence of the MDGs and the bidirectional relationships that exist between hunger and nutrition and a host of other health development challenges.At the national level, there is substantial experience highlighting the potential importance of these comprehensive approaches to improving food security. Both Ghana and Vietnam have made substantial progress toward the MDG1 hunger goal in agricultural growth, diversification, and strong economic gains. The proportion of those undernourished has decreased from 34% to 9% since 1990 in Ghana, meeting the MDG1 target. Although progress has been made, stunting remains high at 28% [20]. In Vietnam, the proportion of those undernourished was reduced from 28% to 14% from 1990 to 2008, already achieving the MDG target of halving hunger [3,21]. Accelerated gains were attributable to success on a number of other fronts, FIG. 6. Multisectoral approach to improving food and nutrition security Progress toward the MDG1 Hunger Target including improvements in health and sanitation, land reforms, and policy initiatives with varying degrees of coordination and effectiveness. Conversely, India's stellar economic growth has not, on its own, translated into reduction in undernutrition in the face of pervasive gender inequalities and poor access to basic services (panel 9) [77][78][79].The design and evaluation of complex multisectoral interventions to improve child nutrition and health remain at an early stage of development. However, programs such as the Millennium Villages, an integrated rural development project, are beginning to have an impact on child stunting in poverty-stricken areas such as rural sub-Saharan Africa (panel 10) [80]. Better understanding of implementation challenges, the relative contribution of various components of multisectoral packages, how they might be locally tailored to diverse agroecologic zones and farming systems, issues of sustainability and scale, and how to maximize potential synergies through such approaches remain important questions for future operational research.As the 2015 horizon approaches, what can be learned from the case studies profiled in this review that might assist countries that are currently off-track in meeting the hunger component of the MDG1 target? Furthermore, based on the global experience of the past two decades, what are the critical implementation messages for rapidly accelerating progress toward eliminating hunger and undernutrition?The experiences of countries as diverse as Vietnam, Ghana, and Malawi all highlight the importance of a clear national policy direction. Nutrition policies either can be embedded centrally within the Poverty Reduction Strategy Policies (PRSPs) or can be stand-alone initiatives linked to the overall development vision for countries moving forward. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that in the absence of clear policy, rapid gains are much more limited. A review of PRSPs in 40 countries where malnutrition is high demonstrated that although most of the policies mentioned nutrition, very few made significant attempts to formally incorporate nutrition into the actual strategic priorities [39].Both nutrition and hunger fall within a broader mandate that necessarily includes agriculture, health, education, water and sanitation, and other departments. This poses clear challenges to leadership and PANEL 9. Multisectoral growth is reducing poverty, but nutrition remains stagnant in IndiaThe case of India is more complex and draws attention to the fact that economic growth alone is an insufficient catalyst for reducing hunger. Issues of equity, ensuring the status and rights of women, land tenure, employment diversification, and the concurrent development of public health programs and systems remain critical barriers to the achievement of better nutritional outcomes. As a complex, \"long-wave\" event, undernutrition will inevitably require an appropriate combination of quick wins and longer-term approaches. In the Indian context, this process must be founded on a solid policy platform that is mirrored by a commitment of resources. Such an approach would draw together quick wins to attain rapid gains with wider food security initiatives that include local production of fortified foods, land reform, and agricultural diversification [77]. Finally, for sustainable gains to be achieved, these objectives should be aligned with strategies to address wider vulnerabilities, such as social exclusion and the status of women, poor access to education, and expanding coverage with essential primary healthcare interventions [78,79].The aim of the Millennium Villages Project is to accelerate progress toward the MDG targets, including MDG1-to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. The Millennium Villages are situated in \"hunger hotspots, \" where at least 20% of children are malnourished and where severe poverty is endemic. The countries where Millennium Villages are located are Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, and Uganda. They were chosen to reflect a diversity of agroecologic zones, representing the farming systems found in over 90% of sub-Saharan Africa, and are demonstration and testing sites for the integrated delivery of science-based interventions in health, education, agriculture, and infrastructure [75]. Within the project, hunger and undernutrition are being addressed with an integrated food-and livelihood-based model that delivers a comprehensive package of health and development interventions [79]. The aim of the model is to demonstrate the elimination of undernutrition in a diverse range of sub-Saharan African contexts. The model draws together interventions at a number of levels, including prevention and treatment interventions directed at young children and pregnant and lactating mothers; education-and behavior change-based interventions to improve health, nutrition, school attendance, and learning outcomes among primary schoolchildren; and household-, community-, and livelihood-based interventions to increase agricultural production, foster dietary diversity, and enhance livelihood security to address longer-term nutritional needs. In the project's initial site in rural Kenya, the levels of underweight and stunting among children under 2 years of age decreased dramatically in just 3 years, from 26% to 3.9% and from 62% to 38%, respectively. Among children under five, the level of vitamin A deficiency dropped by half, from 70% to 33% [80]. coordination. Too often, no single entity or team takes primary responsibility for working at the nexus of research, policy, and program development [3]. Given these realities, one national plan, one budget, one framework, and one reporting mechanism should be in place for a harmonized, streamlined effort [81]. Even in decentralized systems, a chain of command must exist up to the national level where management and information systems should reside. International organizations should play an active role in supporting national governments by providing tools and technologies, capacity, and resources to address hunger and undernutrition in the context of a wider, locally owned development strategy.Accountability will be essential in the next 5 years; however, it will also be important to understand who should be held accountable and for what. Accountability comes from the bottom up but also from the top down. Communities and end users themselves should be held accountable, as they will be key partners. Local to national governments must also be accountable alongside those groups and organizations that are providing services, whether it is sanitation and hygiene or capacity-building. However, with the increased evidence and push for rapid scale-up of nutrition interventions across the developing world, there is a need to ensure that the governments themselves are held accountable. As the SUN Road Map of 2010 stated, \"Accountability for actions to improve nutrition rests with Governments, and is held jointly by three intergovernmental bodies-the Committee on World Food Security (CFS), the World Health Assembly (WHA) and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations General Assembly\" [53]. This will require more tightly regulated coordination, with performance-based allocation systems in place such as the Global Fund for AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria or the recent Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP) have established.Many governments underinvest in programs to reduce hunger and undernutrition and fail to provide the minimal investments in agriculture and health required for sustained growth [41,82]. In countries that cannot afford to provide these goods, international development assistance will remain a necessary, temporary bridge. Taking steps to redress gaps in budgetary allocations in line with locally relevant priority areas will be essential if gains in reducing hunger and undernutrition are to be achieved [26].This review highlights four distinct approaches to addressing hunger and undernutrition. Although the relative weight of any single approach may vary from country to country, all are important to consider in countries where progress toward the hunger component of MDG1 remains constrained. There is emerging consensus on what the minimum contents of the \"nutrition basket\" should be. However, local context and local processes remain all-important. Countries must determine contextually relevant priorities that integrate technical prevention and treatment interventions with wider efforts to enhance agricultural productivity, food security, and dietary diversity. Within many countries, coverage gaps will remain among vulnerable groups, and securing safety nets through the use of conditional cash transfers or food-or cash-for-work programs will be inevitable [26]. Poverty and hunger hotspots within countries should be a top priority, as should pregnant women, mothers, and children under 5 years of age, with a special emphasis on children under two.Finally, strengthening the systems required to extend coverage with essential interventions will require sufficient attention to the process side of the delivery equation. The case studies in this review suggest that this is often neglected yet plays a critical role underpinning program success. How communities are engaged and mobilized, how international partnerships and national stakeholders are coordinated, and how health and agricultural extension workers facilitate intervention delivery are as important to achieving rapid hunger and nutrition gains as the technical content of specific interventions.Although nutrition-specific interventions remain the backbone of an effective response to hunger, there is a need for a comprehensive response to be firmly embedded within the wider MDG agenda. Durable gains will hinge on concurrent steps to reduce poverty, improve access to education, empower women and girls, and facilitate access to basic infrastructure, including safe water and sanitation, energy, transport, and communication. High levels of undernutrition in India, which persist despite a strong economic engine, attest to the importance of applying this wider lens. Working on multiple fronts simultaneously has the potential to leverage synergies and catalyze gains that extend beyond those achieved through sector-specific programs working in isolation. Although multisectoral approaches may seem difficult and unwieldy, it is time for the global community to take on the challenge as we move forward toward 2015. Accurate and timely information on hunger, vulnerability, and nutrition is the cornerstone of a broad-based hunger and nutrition strategy. Regularly updated and well-collected data are crucial for identifying coverage gaps and generating information on how and where to intervene. It is imperative that partnerships be developed to support nationally led monitoring systems to measure, provide feedback to, and appropriately hone and refine program activities. Building this capacity should be the central goal of both national government-and donor-funded activities and should be done at the beginning of policy crafting and implementation. In high-risk countries, more frequent updates from nutrition surveys conducted every 3 to 5 years will be essential if the 2015 targets are to be achieved. This is especially important in high-risk settings, among vulnerable groups, or to assess the effectiveness of programmatic innovations. Utilizing simple, free, and open-source technologies such as SMS-based applications with mobile phones can revolutionize data collection systems in low-resource settings. Indicators such as mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) can also be measured for rapid, cost-effective detection of acute malnutrition. It is clear that the proportion of children under 5 years of age who are underweight and the proportion of the population who are undernourished may not be the best indicators to assess hunger and food security. Stunting provides a much better indicator of longer-term determinants of hunger, poor nutrition, and poverty and should be measured and reported routinely in program and national assessments.Although the evidence for what improves child and maternal undernutrition has been in the works for years among the scientific community, the global nutrition community only recently came to agreement on \"what works. \" The Lancet series was the kickstarter, with the Scaling Up Nutrition process following. Only in 2010 was a Framework for Scaling Up Nutrition presented and agreed upon by over 100 organizations. These key interventions are critical but not enough, and they are certainly not scaled at the national or international levels. Furthermore, how social safety nets and multisectoral approaches impact nutritional outcomes is not straightforward, as they have not been as widely researched and scaled. Why is this? The direct nutritional approaches, as shown in the Lancet series, involve one or two development sectors. The more multisectoral or social safety net \"nutritionsensitive\" approaches involve many sectors. A multisectoral approach requires integration with \"food security (including agriculture), social protection (including emergency relief) and health (including maternal and child health care, immunization and family planning), \" at a minimum [53]. There will need to be a major reshifting across sectors of government to include nutrition indicators and nutrition consequences in policies and processes across governments, donors, multi-and bilaterals, and interagencies.In summary, this review affirms that through energetic and engaged national leadership and with the support of robust international partnerships, rapid progress in reducing levels of hunger and undernutrition is attainable. Accelerating progress toward these targets is less about the development of novel innovations and new technologies and more about putting what is already known into practice. Success will hinge on linking clear policies with effective delivery systems for an evidence-based and contextually relevant package of interventions that can rapidly be taken to scale. Persistent hunger and undernutrition remain an inexcusable unfinished agenda, and successfully closing the few remaining gaps is a precondition for wider global progress toward achieving the MDGs.","tokenCount":"7042"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5fc32ce89724478beebd77b6f85d5b19","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c684986e-306f-4f14-91f0-5d4df1d95a7d/retrieve","id":"-1004078844"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"49df693e-9b46-4c7d-8aa4-9938cb713407","pagecount":"61","content":"and include reducing and reallocating consumption, changing economic systems, technology, and govern ance.The health of the planet and its people are at risk. The deterioration of the global commons-ie, the natural systems that support life on Earth-is exacerbating energy, food, and water insecurity, and increasing the risk of disease, disaster, displacement, and conflict. In this Commission, we quantify safe and just Earth-system boundaries (ESBs) and assess minimum access to natural resources required for human dignity and to enable escape from poverty. Collectively, these describe a safe and just corridor that is essential to ensuring sustainable and resilient human and planetary health and thriving in the Anthropocene. We then discuss the need for translation of ESBs across scales to inform science-based targets for action by key actors (and the challenges in doing so), and conclude by identifying the system transformations necessary to bring about a safe and just future.Our concept of the safe and just corridor advances research on planetary boundaries and the justice and Earth-system aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals. We define safe as ensuring the biophysical stability of the Earth system, and our justice principles include minimising harm, meeting minimum access needs, and redistributing resources and responsibilities to enhance human health and wellbeing. The ceiling of the safe and just corridor is defined by the more stringent of the safe and just ESBs to minimise significant harm and ensure Earth-system stability. The base of the corridor is defined by the impacts of minimum global access to food, water, energy, and infrastructure for the global population, in the domains of the variables for which we defined the ESBs. Living within the corridor is necessary, because exceeding the ESBs and not meeting basic needs threatens human health and life on Earth. However, simply stay ing within the corridor does not guarantee justice because within the corridor resources can also be inequitably distributed, aggravating human health and causing environmental damage. Procedural and substantive justice are necessary to ensure that the space within the corridor is justly shared.We define eight safe and just ESBs for five domainsthe biosphere (functional integrity and natural ecosystem area), climate, nutrient cycles (phosphorus and nitrogen), freshwater (surface and groundwater), and aerosols-to reduce the risk of degrading biophysical life-support systems and avoid tipping points. Seven of the ESBs have already been transgressed: functional integrity, natural ecosystem area, climate, phosphorus, nitrogen, surface water, and groundwater. The eighth ESB, air pollution, has been transgressed at the local level in many parts of the world. Although safe boundaries would ensure Earth-system stability and thus safeguard the overall biophysical conditions that have enabled humans to flourish, they do not necessarily safeguard everyone against harm or allow for minimum access to resources for all. We use the concept of Earth-system justice-which seeks to ensure wellbeing and reduce harm within and across generations, nations, and communities, and between humans and other species, through procedural and distributive justice-to assess safe boundaries. Earth-system justice recognises unequal responsibility for, and unequal exposure and vulnerability to, Earth-system changes, and also recognises unequal capacities to respond and unequal access to resources.We also assess the extent to which safe ESBs could minimise irreversible, existential, and other major harms to human health and wellbeing through a review of who is affected at each boundary. Not all safe ESBs are just, in that they do not minimise all significant harm (eg, that associated with the climate change, aerosol, or nitrogen ESBs). Billions of people globally do not have sufficient access to energy, clean water, food, and other resources. For climate change, for example, tens of millions of people are harmed at lower levels of warming than that defined in the safe ESB, and thus to avoid significant harm would require a more stringent ESB. In other domains, the safe ESBs align with the just ESBs, although some need to be modified, or complemented with local standards, to prevent significant harm (eg, the aerosols ESB).We examine the implications of achieving the social SDGs in 2018 through an impact modelling exercise, and quantify the minimum access to resources required for basic human dignity (level 1) as well as the minimum resources required to enable escape from poverty (level 2). We conclude that without social transformation and redistribution of natural resource use (eg, from top consumers of natural resources to those who currently do not have minimum access to these resources), meeting minimum-access levels for people living below the minimum level would increase pressures on the Earth system and the risks of further transgressions of the ESBs.We also estimate resource-access needs for human populations in 2050 and the associated Earth-system impacts these could have. We project that the safe and just climate ESB will be overshot by 2050, even if everybody in the world lives with only the minimum required access to resources (no more, no less), unless there are transformations of, for example, the energy and food systems. Thus, a safe and just corridor will only be possible with radical societal transformations and technological changes.Living within the safe and just corridor requires operationalisation of ESBs by key actors across all levels, which can be achieved via cross-scale translation (whereby resources and responsibilities for impact reductions are equitably shared among actors). We focus on cities and businesses because of the magnitude of their impacts on the Earth system, and their potential to take swift action and act as agents of change. We explore possible approaches for translating each ESB to cities and businesses via the sequential steps of transcription, allocation, and adjustment. We highlight how different elements of Earth-system justice can be reflected in the allocation and adjustment steps by choosing appropriate sharing approaches, informed by the governance context and broader enabling conditions.Finally we discuss system transformations that could move humanity into a safe and just corridor and reduce risks of instability, injustice, and harm to human health. These transformations aim to minimise harm and ensure access to essential resources, while addressing the drivers of Earth-system change and vulnerability and the institutional and social barriers to systemic transformations, Panel 1: Glossary ESBs: Quantitative (when possible) and qualitative descriptions of boundaries beyond which the stability and resilience of Earth-system processes is threatened and humans might be substantially harmed. ESBs go beyond planetary boundaries by combining elements from the local to global level with knowledge from biophysical and social science domains.Safe ESBs: ESBs that, if adhered to, would maintain and enhance the biophysical stability of the Earth system over time, thereby safeguarding the Earth system's functions and ability to support humans and all other living organisms. 10 Just ESBs: ESBs that, if adhered to, would ensure an Earthsystem state that minimises the risk of significant harm to present and future generations, countries, and communities. Just ESBs can be expanded to minimise risk to species and ecosystems.Earth-system justice: Building on epistemic justice and local-to-global justice scholarship, Earth-system justice includes procedural justice (access to information, decisionmaking, civic space, and courts) and substantive justice in terms of ensuring access to basic resources and services while ensuring no significant harm and allocation of the remaining resources, risks, and responsibilities. Achieving Earth-system justice involves multiple, systemic transformations that address drivers of Earth-system change and vulnerability, and includes addressing the barriers to, and responsibility for, such changes. It also requires addressing the mechanisms that govern the allocation of resources, as well as identifying who is responsible for Earth-system change, and how. 11 The scope of Earth-system justice is framed by three overarching criteria: interspecies justice, intergenerational justice, and intragenerational justice.Safe and just corridor: A clearly defined space in which pathways of future human development are both safe and just over time, and that acknowledges that the Earth's natural resources (including carbon, nutrients, water, and land) are finite and have to be justly shared between people and nature. 12 The ESBs 10 we have defined provide the ceiling of the corridor, and the total pressure on the Earth system if all people have minimum access to basic resources 13 is the base.The \"planet's natural resources-the ecosystems, biomes and processes that regulate the stability and resilience of the Earth system\". 14 The stability and resilience of the Earth system is vital to all and dependent upon the global commons. Local commons across the planet are fundamental building blocks of the global commons.Just minimum access: Minimum access refers to the level of essential necessary resources and services (eg, water, food, energy, infrastructure) that all people are entitled to. Two different levels have been quantified for each Earth-system domain. Level 1 (dignity) describes the minimum access needed to lead a basic dignified life beyond mere survival (including, for example, access to a toilet). Level 2 describes a higher level of minimum access to resources that would be needed to enable an escape from poverty.Planetary health is acutely under threat in the Anthropocene, with the causes and impacts of this threat inequitably distributed. 1 Roughly 9 million premature deaths annually are linked to exposure to air and water pollution, 3•2 billion people are affected by land degradation, and many millions are affected by zoonotic disease, rising temperatures, and extreme weather events. [2][3][4][5] People living in historically marginalised locations (eg, former colonies), especially people living in poverty, are particularly at risk. Economic growth trajectories (which dominate global economic policy) pose even greater risks through destabilisation of the global commons-ie, the biosphere, climate, and cryosphere, and nutrient and water cycles. 1,[6][7][8][9] Integration of socioeconomic concerns into Earth-system boundaries (ESBs)-limits that should be adhered to in order to maintain the stability of the planet and safety of humans 10 -will facilitate reaching a stable state of the Earth system and thereby promote human health and wellbeing (panel 1).This Commission reports on work from the Earth Commission, an international, transdisciplinary group of scholars that informs the creation of science-based targets and transformations to protect critical global commons. This work seeks to define safe and just ESBs intended to guide human development across eight dimensions for five Earth-system domainsclimate, biosphere (functional integrity and natural ecosystem area), freshwater (surface and ground), nutrient cycles (nitrogen and phosphorus), and aerosols. The ESBs are defined at the global scale, with some derived and aggregated from local-scale boundaries (eg, river basin scale), making them operational at subglobal levels (from regional to local). Our ESBs integrate Earth-system and social and health perspectives by using, for the first time, the same units of quantification for both.Identification of safe ESBs is essential for governing the local to the global commons and for protecting planetary health. Transgression of safe boundaries in the Amazon or Arctic regions, for example, could affect the ability of future generations to live healthy lives and prosper, 8,15,16 and of nations to achieve the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Although defin ing safe ESBs is intended to maintain Earth-system stability, remaining within these boundaries will not necessarily prevent harm to human health. A justice approach, by contrast, requires at least boundaries that minimise significant harm to human health and wellbeing and to other species (panel 2) while ensuring access to necessary resources and services. Current environmental pressures are highly unequal, with the richest 10% of the global population consuming as much energy as the poorest 80% 17 and being responsible for more emissions than the other 90%. 18 Between 23% and 62% of the global population does not have adequate access to resources to meet basic needs. 13 The inequalities are stark between the wealthiest regions (eg, North America, Europe, Australia) and the poorest regions (eg, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Central America). Meeting the critical material needs of people who currently do not have the minimum required access to resources without transformations and redistribution of resources would increase the pressure on the Earth system. 13 Thus, ensuring Earth-system stability and resilience requires addressing issues of social justice, underlying drivers and pressures, and distributional and technical aspects of how resources are produced, distributed, and consumed.In this Commission, we define a safe and just corridor (panel 1) with a ceiling defined by the more stringent of the safe and just ESBs (ie, the lower of the two ESBs). 10 The base of this corridor estimates the effects on Earthsystem domains of meeting minimum access levels to necessary resources and services (eg, water, food, energy, infrastructure) for all people, which allows consistent assessment of the corridor space within which justice, health, and wellbeing is possible for current and future generations (figure 1).Under current social and environmental conditions, all humans cannot live healthy lives within the safe and just corridor. 13 Systemic transformations of underlying drivers of Earth-system change and vulnerability is needed to reduce harm and to enable everyone to live within this corridor. An Earth-system justice approach (panel 1), which offers an analytical and evaluative tool consisting of just ends (targets) and just means (levers), could enable living within the ESBs. 11,19 Transformations would require mobilisation of societal actors who, informed by knowledge of their fair shares of ESBs through cross-scale translation, act to limit their resource Panel 2: Defining significant harm • Harm: negative effects (including on health) on humans, communities, and countries as a result of Earth-system changes due to human activities pushing the Earth system outside of the safe and just Earth-system boundaries. • Significant harm: existential or irreversible negative effects on people, communities, or countries, such as substantial loss of life, deterioration of health, chronic disease, injury, malnutrition, displacement, loss of livelihood or income, loss of access to nature's contributions to people, or loss of land. • No significant harm principle: states and other actors responsible for anthropogenic Earth-system change have a duty to refrain from causing significant harm; to prevent, reduce, and control the risk of causing significant harm; and to repair or compensate for significant harm already inflicted.use and broader impact on the planet. Cities and businesses are key actors driving anthropogenic pressures, but have received less attention in sustainability assessments than countries. The unique challenges associated with these actors need to be understood and resolved in translation methods, and approaches that reflect the specific environmental, social, and economic contexts of cities and businesses need to be developed. We discuss how ESBs can be translated across scales (ie, from individuals to cities, businesses, organisations, countries, and other administrative and political boundaries), aiming to assign ESB-aligned resource budgets and responsibilities equitably, with components of distributional justice addressed through the iterative process of allocation and adjustment. We also assess how Earth-system justice can be reflected in these allocations via sharing approaches, efficient governance, and enabling conditions for cities and businesses to implement cross-scale translation.Other frameworks on anthropogenic pressures include the Limits to Growth, 20,21 the 2001 Amsterdam Declaration on Earth Systems Science, 22 Planetary Boundaries, 7,9 the UN 2030 Agenda (and associated SDGs), 6 and Doughnut Economics 23,24 (developed in response to Planetary Boundaries). Whereas Planetary Boundaries only assess safe biophysical boundaries at the global scale, Doughnut Economics combines the nine Planetary Boundaries with 12 human and social foundations to create a safe and just space for humanity. Although Doughnut Economics' safe and just indicators 25 include justice elements, our work goes further by quantifying these elements in the same units as the safe ESBs and by operationalising and quantifying justice issues. 26,27 Consumption corridors 28,29 are a related concept, but the Earth Commission takes a more holistic Earth-system approach.We build upon SDGs 6 that aspire towards a fundamentally new direction of development for the benefit of all people and the planet. We further operationalise the SDGs by providing the scientific underpinning for identifying the safe and just corridor that needs to be achieved to avoid triggering events that have irreversible impacts on the biophysical systems in the Earth system and significant harm to people while assuring that all people have access to basic needs such as water, energy, and food. Our translation framework builds on existing approaches 30,31 to incorporate social and environmental impacts and the socioeconomic and ecological context, reflecting equity and justice principles. We build on transformation scholarship, [32][33][34] with an increased focus on drivers that push humanity outside the safe and just corridor. 35 The remainder of this Commission is organised into four parts (figure 1). In part 1, we describe our theoretical framework and methods. In part 2, we present the quantifications of safe and just ESBs with a spatially explicit approach that allow identification of where ESBs are transgressed and which people are most exposed to associated deleterious effects on health and other harms. We also quantify the base and ceiling of the safe and just corridor in the same units for today and 2050, with the base representing the impact on the Earth system if all people had equal access to a minimum level of resources and the ceiling defined by the safe and just ESBs. In part 3, we discuss challenges, approaches, and enabling conditions in translating the ESBs to cities and businesses, and in part 4 we identify fundamental transformations needed to keep humanity within the safe and just corridor. We quantified eight safe and just ESBs, indicating the maximum pressure that can be exerted on that domain that is both safe and just for people and the planet. These ESBs form the ceiling of a safe and just corridor, for which the base is the level of pressure that would be exerted on the Earth system to ensure universal provision of minimum access to food, water, energy, and infrastructure. ESB=Earth-system boundary. Safe ESBs define the conditions that would maintain a stable and resilient Earth system. During the Holocene, which began around 12 000 years ago, 36 Earth-system stability enabled the development of agriculture and complex human societies. 37 Human impacts on the Earth system, particularly in the past few hundred years, have accelerated as a result of land clearing, colonisation, and the Industrial Revolution, with its reliance on fossil fuels and increased trade. After 1950, increases in chemical use, production, and consumption further accelerated the pace of change in a so-called great acceleration identified with the Anthropocene epoch. 13,38 The Anthropocene is characterised by climate change, widespread pollution, and biodiversity loss, undermining human health and wellbeing by altering life-support systems. Only with Holocene-like climate stability can the Earth system reliably provide conditions that support the health and livelihoods of billions of people. 39 Other types of climate, such as a glacial ice age or the so-called hothouse Earth (which might be induced by unchecked emissions or by strong feedbacks and tipping dynamics), 40 would be less habitable. As temperature thresholds are crossed, elements of the Earth system could tip into unstable conditions that would threaten wellbeing and survival 7,9 -eg, the loss of boreal permafrost and the Greenland ice sheet would irreversibly change the Earth system, including the global hydrological cycle. 15 Exceeding tipping points in one part of the world could trigger changes in ecosystems and societies elsewhere, potentially reducing the provision of ecosystem services (ie, the benefits provided by healthy ecosystems to humans), disrupting supply chains, and compromising Earth-system stability. 41 Emerging Earth-system changes risk crossing tipping points and causing other declines in critical Earth-system functions. Use of a Holocene-like environment as a reference state for climate helps define safe conditions, but for changes in other Earth-system domains that affect humanity at a more local scale, alternative reference points are necessary-eg, for blue-water flows, for which there has been substantial spatiotemporal variability, including variations in tropical monsoons, 42 affected humans and aquatic ecosystems. 43 For such domains, prevention of the crossing of local tipping points that would negatively affect humans, such as local ecosystem collapse, provides a basis for defining what is safe (as well as just).Past and present actions commit humanity to future outcomes. Unless steep cuts are made in greenhouse gas emissions, global average temperatures will increase to 1•5°C above pre-industrial temperatures by the early 2030s. 3 Continued exceeding of safe boundaries in other domains will probably have critical, sometimes irreversible, effects on ecosystems and human health in the near term-eg, ongoing extraction of groundwater beyond replenishment can lead to land subsidence and damage that would affect health through multiple pathways.The significant and uneven harm (panel 2) that environmental degradation causes to human health and wellbeing means that an Earth-system justice approach is needed to identify fair solutions to the interrelated environmental crises. 11,19,44 Just ESBs are generally more stringent than safe ESBs and aim to prevent significant harm to the health and wellbeing of humans and natural systems (figure 2). Stringent ESBs that prevent environmental degradation and associated effects on human health via climate change and air and water pollution could also affect some people's access rights to land, water, and other resources, nature's services, decent livelihoods, and wellbeing, especially in low-income countries, 45 further exacerbating the injustice that billions of people do not have access to minimum required resources. These are also the very people who have caused the least environmental damage. However, improving access to basic resources and services would increase the pressure on, and contribute to crossing ESBs unless there are profound changes that reduce and redistribute excess consumption or otherwise reduce pressures (eg, appropriate technological and institutional innovations). 13 Such redistribution can only be addressed by just transformations that enable meeting the minimum needs of all, through sustainable technologies, respecting human rights, value changes, and governance, and by Figure 2: Current transgression of Earth-system boundaries and potential impact of future actions Earth-system boundaries have already been transgressed in many domains. Providing minimum access to food, water, energy, and infrastructure to people without access will further increase this pressure unless just transformations to enable living within the safe and just corridor are prioritised. The Lancet Planetary Health Commission redistributing resources to enable all to live equitably and healthily within the safe and just ESBs (figure 2). Our Earth-system justice framework 11 builds on diverse justice conceptualisations 46 from local to planetary levels 26,47 and from incremental reforms to systemic transformations. Incremental policies are unlikely to address systemic problems and their underlying drivers, and thus systemic and just transformations are needed. 48 We conceptualise Earth-system justice as incorporating local through to global justice because social-ecological interactions play out across scales. 49 We distinguish recognition justice 50 from epistemic 51-53 justice (figure 3). Recognition justice requires that the power structures and institutionalised norms that marginalise individuals and groups should be addressed, for example, by inclusion of the knowledge and views of marginalised people in decisions about safe and just boundaries and enabling their participation in processes of decision making. 54 Epistemic justice involves recognising and including multiple forms of knowledge, including that of Indigenous and local communities and the most marginalised and vulnerable people, in science and decision making. 55 Recognition and epistemic justice underpin our focus on the most marginalised and vulnerable peoples.Our scope of justice is framed by three overarching criteria: interspecies justice and Earth-system stability, intergenerational justice, and intragenerational justice. Interspecies justice and Earth-system stability 56 involves identifying how to prevent significant harm to species and to the stability of the Earth's systems that support them. Intergenerational justice refers to justice between past and present generations, and between present and future people-eg, earlier generations who used up carbon budgets or made species extinct should compensate those who experience loss and damage because of the resulting climate change or biodiversity loss. 57,58 Intragenerational justice refers to justice within generations, with emphasis on the most vulnerable people, 57 and seeks fairness between individuals, communities, and nations through meeting minimum needs or reducing suffering.Intragenerational justice can be further broken down into international, intercommunity, and individual justice. International justice comprises transboundary justice issues, such as limited territorial sovereignty, which allows countries to use their own resources but not to cause harm to other places, 59 and equitable sharing of transboundary resources, such as rivers. 60,61 It includes the common but differentiated responsibilities and respective-capabilities principle in climate change that requires countries that emitted more in the past, and those that are better resourced, to take greater responsibility for financing mitigation of emissions, funding adaptation to climate change, and compensating for losses and damages from climate impacts. 62 International justice also encompasses the access, benefit sharing, and differential national circumstances principles in protecting biodiversity. [63][64][65] Intercommunity justice refers to how different communities affect each other and share responsibility and resources, 66 while individual justice looks at how humans are affected by environmental degradation and the actions of others and the differences in individual responsibility, impacts, and responses. 67 We consider intergenerational and intragenerational justice through the lens of intersectional justice, which  The Lancet Planetary Health Commission acknowledges that poverty, vulnerability, and exposure to environmental impacts are associated with multiple identities and disadvantages, including lack of recognition, lack of representation (ie, the exclusion of specific groups from local and global discussion forums), and structural inequalities that make people vulnerable or lead to their exclusion. [68][69][70] Discrimination based on ethnocultural heritage, gender, age, and socioeconomic status can be collectively and multiply experienced by individuals and communities. 71 Our framework (figure 3) includes procedural justice (eg, access to information, decision making, civic space, and courts), and substantive justice regarding the principles, instruments and mechanisms, and organisations that are set up to address a problem. Recognition and intersectional justice might require additional support for marginalised people to enable their effective participation 72 and to address specific power relations. We analyse justice in terms of means and ends. Just means are the processes and transformations needed to keep everyone within safe and just ESBs. Just ends include ensuring that all humans have minimum access to resources and services to meet their basic needs to be able to live a basic, dignified life or to escape from poverty, and ensuring that people, communities, and countries can be protected from the irreversible and existential harm of environmental degradation. Both of these ends aim to protect the health of people.Our conceptual framing of Earth-system justice 11 defines a safe and just corridor, with the ESBs 10 as the ceiling and levels of minimum access 13 as the base. We first define the safe and just ESBs and analyse the spatial distribution of where they are transgressed, along with the populations exposed to those conditions and their vulnerability (using poverty as a proxy). We then use the framework and results of Rammelt and colleagues 13 to estimate the impact on the Earth system in 2050 of providing minimum access to resources to people who do not have access as of 2018.Methods for quantification of safe ESBs are based on syntheses of scientific literature, modelling, and globalscale analyses, and differ from domain to domain. 10 These boundaries are global aggregates, derived from bottom-up and top-down approaches, or build on uniformly applicable standards that enable the identification of critical places for Earth-system stability and human wellbeing (eg, key biomes that regulate the climate system, such as the Amazon rainforest). The domains that are derived from bottom-up approaches have sub-global ESBs where a boundary exists at finer scales and can be aggregated globally (eg, river-basin scale for surface water that is aggregated to a global ESB). Data sources for mapping are in the appendix (p 13); the derivation of the safe ESBs was described by Rockström and colleagues. 10 Just ESBs are boundaries that safeguard people from significant harm now and in the future. We define significant harm as widespread and severe, existential, or irreversible negative impacts on countries, communities, and people as a result of Earth-system change.Interspecies justice and Earth-system stability are operationalised by assessing each biophysical domain to determine how to enable stability, uphold resilience, and ensure that ecological functions remain conducive for all life forms. By adopting an ecoregional scale target for largely intact natural ecosystem areas and sub-global targets for water, we ensure the protection of most species worldwide. However, even within safe and just ESBs, because we focus on significant, irreversible harm, many species and ecosystems can still be harmed under certain conditions; the definition does not imply that we protect all species and ecosystems and thus does not fully capture the meaning of interspecies justice. 56 This method corresponds with that used to identify safe ESBs.We use the lens of intergenerational justice to assess whether an ESB (including those that reduce the risk of crossing tipping points) respects future generations, and acknowledge that past generations have already contributed to crossing critical boundaries. We also assess whether the safe ESBs meet the criteria for intragenerational justice, using three approaches. First, for each domain, we survey published literature that reports harmful effects to different places and vulnerable groups, See Online for appendix Figure 4: Conceptualisation of the different potential states of the safe and just corridor Both (A) and (B) are representations of the Earth system, divided into eight to represent the eight dimensions (across five domains) for which we calculated ESBs. The ceiling for each domain is represented by green lines at the outer edge, while the base is represented by the blue dashed lines. (A) A world without a safe and just corridor in some domains because ensuring minimum access level 2 (no more, no less) for everyone would lead to the base of the corridor exceeding the ESBs. The pressure on the Earth system, represented by the globes, can be inside or outside the corridor, depending on whether minimum access is provided to all people or not. (B) The desired state of the planet after systemic transformations that provide minimum level 2 for all people within the ESBs. These systemic transformations, represented by the blue arrows, enable the formation of a safe and just corridor, thereby reducing current pressure on the Earth system.Minimum access<ESB: safe and just corridor exists ESBsMinimum access>ESB: no safe or just corridorThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission and use expert elicitation within the Earth Commission. Rockström and colleagues found, for example, that for climate, the safe ESB of 1•5°C does not prevent widespread and significant harm to current generations, let alone future ones, and propose that the safe and just ESB should be 1°C. 10 Second, as appropriate, we complement the safe ESBs with international health standards for these domains that should be adhered to (eg, guidelines for drinking water quality) in order to avoid significant harm. Third, for each domain, we map the spatial distribution of the risk of harm, a function of the nature and degree of biophysical change (ie, hazard), the extent to which people are exposed to biophysical changes (ie, exposure), and vulnerability (ie, susceptibility and capacity to adapt). We map exposure to biophysical hazards based on population distributions to show where sub-global boundaries have already been transgressed (exposing people to harm) and the unequal distribution of exposure (appendix pp 11-12). We overlay poverty as a proxy for vulnerability to map the geography of injustice when exposed populations are also poor.Our justice approach has several limitations. First, although staying within just ESBs could avoid harm to substantial proportions of the human population, it does not guarantee just outcomes, as noted in our discussion of each domain. Second, the high levels of aggregation and the use of poverty to indicate vulnerability overlook more detailed analyses of distributional justice in terms of which social subgroups (and other species) are most harmed and under what scenarios, as well as more complex drivers of vulnerability or responsibility for exposure and vulnerability. Third, we have not explored future scenarios in which social conditions have changed or the risk that mitigation policies could increase exposure and vulnerability for some people. We try to avoid a trade-off between interspecies, intergenerational, and intragenerational justice by calling for transformations that ensure human health and wellbeing while staying within a safe and just corridor.Aligned with the SDGs of eradicating poverty, reducing inequality, and ensuring access to food, energy, water, and infrastructure for all people, we investigate the Earthsystem implications of providing access to resources to those who do not have access as of 2018. We use two levels of just minimum access to key resources and services for water, food, energy, and infrastructure: basic dignity (level 1), and escape from poverty (level 2). 13 Informed by proposals such as the Decent Living Standards 73 rather than monetary measures of poverty, the basic dignity level is rooted in human rights, [74][75][76][77][78] including the rights to clean water, energy, food, and housing, and enables a dignified life beyond mere survival. Level 2 describes increased access to resources to enable activities considered necessary to break out of poverty and other deprivations, 79 and to potentially empower people to make use of their resources to achieve certain capabilities and thus ensure broader wellbeing. 80 In this Commission, we go beyond previous work that quantified the impact of providing minimum access to resources for those without access in 2018 to estimate the impacts in 2050. The technical methods have been previously described. 13 Previous analyses have shown that seven of the eight globally defined safe and just ESBs have already been transgressed, 10 even though the minimum access to resources has not been met for billions of people. We conduct novel analyses to visualise a safe and just corridor in which the ceiling is the more stringent of the safe and just ESBs, and the base is defined as the impact on the Earth system if all humans consumed resources at level 2 of minimum access and no more (figure 4). These analyses involve the conversion of the safe and just ESBs to common units of impact on the Earth system (as per Rammelt and colleagues 13 ) to visualise the base and ceiling of the corridor.Our translation approach is based on literature reviews and expert elicitation. Key steps of translation include transcription, allocation, and adjustments underpinned by different sharing approaches and expressed with The Lancet Planetary Health Commission enacting metrics. 81 Our transformation narrative is based on an extensive literature review, expert elicitation, and our Earth-system justice framework. By expert elicitation, we mean the expert judgement of the Earth Commission and five working groups representing a wider community of social and natural scientists, including young scholars in the secretariat of the Earth Commissionmore than 100 scholars in total.In this section, we present eight safe and just ESBs for five domains (panel 3). We analyse the Earth-system implications of meeting the minimum access to resource needs of people in 2018 and in 2050 (with some assumptions about changes in technology and redistribution). We also introduce an outlook for safe and just ESBs for some novel entities (panel 4).The biosphere has multiple dimensions, including evolutionary processes and innumerable ecological functions 94 that underpin life on Earth and contribute to social, cultural, and economic aspects of wellbeing. 95,96 Loss of biodiversity affects the natural world and human wellbeing, notably through the loss of nature's contributions to people (NCP), including pollination, soil fertility, and pest and disease control, all of which affect human health, healthy food production, food security, and livelihoods. 97 More than 75% of important food crops rely on animal pollination, and pollinators are crucial for healthy and varied diets and for biofuels, fibres, and construction materials. 98 The biosphere is adaptive, serving as a stock and flow regulator for Earth-system processes such as carbon, water, and nutrient cycles. Changes in species' composition, distribution, and richness can affect local and global processes. 94 To ensure safe biosphere ESBs, it is necessary to secure largely intact natural ecosystems that assure Earth-system functions (eg, secure stocks and flows of carbon, water, and nutrients, and halt species extinction); to promote functional integrity of all landscapes and seascapes globally to secure local and global contributions to human wellbeing; and to ensure contributions to Earth-system functions through the provisioning of NCP, or meeting the requirements of interspecies justice. 99 The biosphere has different facets, 100 each with different boundaries that can vary based on the specific characteristics of the local ecosystem. We capture the main components by identifying safe boundaries for two complementary and synthetic measures of biodiversity: the area of largely intact natural ecosystems, and the functional integrity of ecosystems heavily modified by human pressures. 10,101 Use of both of these measures ensures a minimum level of functional composition, diversity, and richness of ecological communities crucial for regulating nutrient cycles, water flows, and carbon stocks and flows on a global scale, and for supporting the provision of NCP, which underpins the wellbeing of local people and their quality of life.For the area of natural ecosystems, we estimated the minimum global boundary based on experiments in conservation planning in the literature. 102,103 About 45-50% of the world's ice-free land surface is largely intact. 104,105 Our estimated safe ESB is that around 50-60% of global land surface should be in largely intact, natural condition to halt species extinction, secure biosphere contributions to climate regulation, and stabilise regional water cycles. 10 The amount of intact natural land as of 2018 was around We acknowledge that there are other domains for which we have not quantified Earth-system boundaries but which we would like to explore in the future. For example, evidence on the diverse risk potentials of novel entities (eg, emerging pollutants and contaminants, radioactive waste, heavy metals, antibiotics, microplastics) for people (eg, effects on fertility, health, and food security) is increasing. [82][83][84][85] Progress towards quantifications of the Earth-system boundaries for novel entities highlight the need for a differentiated approach to capture complexity and the absence of prehuman background levels. 82,[86][87][88] Tracking trends on the release and production of novel entities (eg, production, volume, and emission or release quantities of chemicals and plastics, as well as different impacts) and establishing control variables indicates that humanity has crossed the novel entity boundary. The long-term effects of many novel entities could continue to pose a threat even if actions to control production and release were taken today. 87 Knowledge gaps relating to the scale and scope of impacts of novel entities remain. Only a few thousand of the roughly 140 000 (and increasing) synthetic chemicals have been tested for toxic effects on other organisms, 84,87 and possible interactions across these entities are unknown.Novel entities can harm human health through uptake via various channels (eg, water, air, 89 food, food packaging, cosmetics, clothing). For example, microplastics have been detected worldwide 90 and in human blood. 91 Microplastics and nanoplastics can alter the intestinal flora, potentially leading to diabetes, obesity, and chronic liver disease. 92 Water in plastic bottles often has higher concentrations of microplastics than processed tap water. 92 Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria have been detected in more than a quarter of the studied rivers, reflecting the pharmaceutical fingerprint of nearby populations. 93 These issues are closely linked to justice and access concerns relating to technology choice and management capacity, and economic means and information.15% below this ESB, but could be increased through restoring degraded ecosystems or previously converted ecosystems, 102,103,106 with conservation efforts distributed across all ecoregions. Strassburg and colleagues 102 estimated that restoration of 15% of converted lands in priority areas could avoid 60% of expected extinctions and sequester 299 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide. Our estimate for the safe ESB is higher than a previous calculation of the minimum area needed for conservation, 107 in which it was estimated that 44% of the terrestrial surface would need to be intact to safeguard species ranges. However, that estimate is focused only on species diversity and not the important Earth-system functions and functional contributions of the biosphere. Furthermore, these conservation areas are concentrated in some regions, resulting in critical shortages of NCP in other regions.For the functional integrity of human-modified ecosystems, we systematically analysed six critical NCP at local scales to assess the minimum characteristics (area, quality, spatial configuration) required to avoid the loss of their contribution to human health and wellbeing (including pollination, pest and disease control, waterquality regulation, soil protection, natural hazards mitigation, and recreation). Our findings suggest that a safe boundary of at least 20-25% of natural or seminatural habitat per km² in human-modified lands (ie, urban and agro-ecosystems) is needed to support both Earth-system NCP and local NCP, in addition to the functions provided by largely intact lands. 101 Our estimates are consistent with other evidence proposing that more than 20% of natural or semi-natural habitat is needed per km² globally to maintain NCP, especially those related to food production. 101,[108][109][110] The exact area, quality, and spatial configuration required varies by contribution and location, and thus could not be estimated on a global scale, necessitating local translation, assessment of local context, demand for specific NCP, and application of best practices. The amounts of natural or semi-natural habitat needed could range from 6-15% in some landscapes (eg, riparian ecosystems, agricultural landscapes with high crop diversity) to 50% in others (eg, in sloping landscapes, or landscapes where erosion or natural hazards are frequent). 101 Many of the functional biological groups that provide local NCP are either non-mobile, or move very short distances (eg, pollinating insects and pest-regulating predators and parasitoids that move up to 2000 m), and thus NCP provisioning is driven by the spatial configuration of the habitat and its accessibility to beneficiaries. 101 Additionally, NCP are most used where humans are present, notably agricultural lands dependent on pollination and pest control, or urban ecosystems where recreational spaces support human physicial and mental health. We emphasise that the ESB of 20-25% natural or semi-natural habitats per km² is a boundary limit to ensure just NCP provision. 10% of natural or seminatural habitat per km² is a sharper threshold, below which evidence suggests that many NCP would almost no longer be provided. 101 Both biosphere boundaries are spatially defined and therefore require spatially differentiated responses (figure 5). Expansion of intact natural ecosystems could The map shows a proximate measure of the functional integrity of human-modified lands (agriculture, cities), indicating the proportion of natural land within 1 km² of each 10 m² pixel plotted. The lower the functional integrity, the lower the likelihood that nature's contribution to people (eg, pollination, pest and disease control, water-quality regulation, soil protection, natural hazards mitigation, and recreation) will be provided. The Earth-system boundary for functional integrity is 20-25%, a level at which many of nature's contributions to people are substantially diminished. Data source: Mohamed et al, 2024. 101 Areas in white were not assessed because of insufficient data, because of cloud coverage, or because of desert or ice cover. The Lancet Planetary Health Commission limit people's access to land for agriculture or other activities, but could simultaneously help people who are dependent on resources from natural areas. 111,112 Therefore, locations for restoration should be chosen within integrated land-use planning approaches to avoid trade-offs while optimising synergies. In human-modified lands, the functional integrity of ecosystems often determines peoples' access to locally constrained NCP.To identify where people have insufficient local access to NCP in human-modified ecosystems, we used spatially explicit estimates of the proportion of natural or seminatural habitat in human-modified landscapes at scales of 1 km² and global gridded population models to estimate the number of people with insufficient access to local NCP.Our Earth-system justice analysis of the safe boundary for natural ecosystem area suggests that adhering to it would reduce harm to other species and to future generations. However, distributional challenges would raise concerns from an intragenerational justice perspective. Protection and restoration of largely intact natural areas is often targeted at biodiversity-rich habitats located in low-income countries, 102 where vulnerable populations might reside with high dependence on biodiversity locally. More than 80% of global biodiversity is in the territories of Indigenous peoples. 113 Previous initiatives to reserve a certain proportion of the planet for nature were criticised for ignoring social issues and justice, notably the proposals to conserve half of the world's land and half of the oceans. 114,115 Scholars emphasise the potential risks associated with reserving a proportion of the world for non-human nature to human rights and food production, and the risk of increased land prices, land grabbing and displacement, 116 and related equity challenges 117 potentially affecting a billion people. 118 However, the continued loss of largely intact nature puts biodiversity and climate security at risk, with growing evidence that overconsumption of unhealthy diets is a greater risk to environmental security than lack of productive land is to food security. 119 More than 3•2 billion people are affected by degraded lands 120 and could benefit from the restoration of ecosys tem integrity. Billions of people rely on natural medicines, the availability of which is now threatened by biodiversity loss. 121 Biodiversity loss affects water quality, and loss of mangroves could expose hundreds of millions of people to floods and cyclones. 121 Such losses in combination with rising temperature increase human exposure to zoonotic pathogens 122,123 and increase the risk of new pandemics. Furthermore, decreases in the prevalence of infectious diseases globally could be slowed or reversed because of deforestation. 124,125 These risks underscore how biodiversity loss undermines progress towards many social Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 3 Adherence to our safe ESB requires that 50-60% of terrestrial area should be left largely intact as natural land but with the caveat that this should be done through just transformations that avoid negative impacts on livelihoods. This proposal would require the area of largely intact natural land (as of 2020) to be expanded by about 15% through restoration. How this expansion would affect countries, communities, and people depends on land rights, the implementation of the boundary, 126 and how natural area is defined. People should not be excluded from largely intact natural ecosystem areas when it is possible to live with nature without destroying it-eg, various Indigenous peoples have often sustainably maintained largely intact areas. 127,128 If, on average, 50-60% of the global land area should remain largely intact, to avoid an inequitable distribution of the responsibility, 10 the just boundary (ie, that which, if adhered to, would ensure no significant harm) needs to be at the upper end of this range, and the burden of action to restore largely intact land should be placed on those with the greatest responsibility for damaging biodiversity and the greatest capabilities, and based on inclusive conservation. 129 A 15% restoration is adequate if focused on the most biodiverse regions, where even a smaller percentage of restoration effort can yield substantial biodiversity benefits; however, these regions could have high opportunity costs because they might be valuable for other economic activities, such as agriculture or urban development. Therefore, restoration efforts are also needed in less biodiverse regions, where more restoration is necessary because such restoration is less efficient in terms of biodiversity benefits per unit of effort compared with the most biodiverse regions. Restoration efforts in less biodiverse regions will also ensure that wealthier regions contribute more to restoration efforts than poorer regions. Restoration areas need to be chosen carefully, and these decisions should account for the interests of the most vulnerable communities and densely populated areas where the risk of land conflict is high. 130 The safe boundary for functional integrity contributes to interspecies justice through the high value of small patches and landscape elements for species conservation, but its exact contribution is uncertain and context dependent. This boundary targets intragenerational justice by ensuring universal access to NCP within a 1 km² spatial scale. It also enhances intergenerational justice by supporting agro-ecosystems and the functioning of urban systems, and by increasing ecosystem resilience against the effects of climate change on future NCP provisioning. Adherence to this ESB would reduce local food shortages, deaths caused by flooding and landslides, and agricultural runoff, which would in turn have beneficial effects on water quality, human health, and infrastructure. However, adherence to the ESB could also put a heavy burden on the local people responsible forThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission executing this goal, because ensuring functional integrity involves navigating complex ecological interactions and managing the direct impact of these interactions on local communities, while also addressing long-term sustainability challenges and balancing multiple environmental objectives. We propose that the just boundary for functional integrity is aligned with the safe boundary, 10 but warn against increasing the burden of action on poor and marginalised people.There has been serious and accelerated loss of functional integrity across Europe, India, China, and the Americas over the past 50 years or so (figure 6A). Millions of people are exposed to this loss and associated impacts on NCP, such as pollination or watershed protection (figure 6B). In some cases, such losses are concentrated where poor people live (figure 6C). However, people far beyond the affected regions can also be harmed-for example, epidemics and loss of food security associated with loss of functional integrity in one region can exacerbate vulnerability in many other regions. 132 There will be significant trade-offs regarding the current use of land and water in areas with low functional integrity that will require substantial transformations. Although wealthier areas have higher capacity to tackle the problem, a degraded biosphere disproportionately affects vulnerable people with low adaptive capacity, 111 people who consume directly from local ecosystems, 133 Indigenous people, and people who depend on natural medicines. 120 About 1•2 billion people, or 30% of the population across tropical countries, directly depend on NCP. 111 In such areas, meeting these stringent ESBs could benefit many people, but could also create injustice if people's needs for basic food, fuel, and infrastructure are not taken into account. Strategies to protect or restore ecosystems should account for The Lancet Planetary Health Commission justice concerns and people's wellbeing to minimise trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and the fulfilment of basic human needs. 126Global warming threatens the stability of the Earth system and the lives and livelihoods of present and future generations. 3,134 Extreme temperatures cause millions of deaths every year, and heat-related mortality is rising. 135 Droughts and floods affect crop production and drinking water worldwide, and livelihoods and food security have been lost in coastal communities as a result of warming oceans and loss of coral reefs. Vector-borne and water-borne diseases, such as dengue fever, malaria, and cholera, are a particular risk for poor and marginalised people and those in places with weak health systems. 3 WHO estimates that climate change will cause 250 000 additional deaths every year between 2030 and 2050 134 due to malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea, and heat stress. These estimates might be underestimates. Springmann and colleagues project that there could be as many as 529 000 premature adult deaths by 2050 due to food shortages alone. 136 Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations could reduce the nutritional value of cereal crops and protein availability by 20% during the coming century. 137,138 Safe ESB Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases (predominantly carbon dioxide and methane) has caused global surface temperatures to increase by at least 1•1°C relative to pre-industrial global mean temperatures. 139 This increase is already having observable negative effects on people and ecosystems, with much more severe impacts likely to manifest with increases of 2°C or higher. 3 How much global warming and climate change affect current and future generations depends on choices made within the coming decades. 140 To avoid the potential negative impacts, the 2015 Paris Agreement set out to limit global warming to \"well below 2°C\", while aiming for warming of no more than 1•5°C. 141 However, current policies are projected to lead to warming of around 2•6°C by 2100, and even ambitious net-zero targets, if actually achieved, are likely to lead to around 1•9-2•0°C of warming by 2100. 142 Recent extreme weather, such as 2023's record-breaking temperatures across multiple regions, the South Asian heatwave of 2022, and the North American heatwaves in 2021, also call into question whether current limits are in fact safe. The Earth Commission set the safe climate ESB at 1•5°C (1-2°C) of warming but suggested that the just limit should be lower: 1°C. 10 The safe limit was drawn from an analysis 16 based primarily on the notion that the likelihood of passing multiple climate tipping points would become moderate with 1°C of warming and high with 1•5°C warming; the analysis also incorporated Earth-system impacts unrelated to tipping points that affect biosphere functioning (eg, some areas that absorb some human carbon dioxide emissionsnatural carbon sinks-absorb less when warming is higher than 1°C and are projected to start emitting carbon dioxide when warming increases beyond 1•5°C), [143][144][145][146][147][148] the average temperature range of the Holocene (with temperatures not increasing above 0•5-1°C relative to the pre-industrial period during the past 12 000 years or so), and the temperature range of previous interglacial periods (<1•5-2•1°C). [149][150][151][152][153] The safe ESB also aligns with the IPCC's reasons for concern-which include increasing risks to endangered species and unique systems, damages from extreme climate events, effects that fall most heavily on lowincome countries and the poor within countries, global aggregate impacts, and large-scale high-impact events-several of which become high risk or very high risk beyond 1•5°C. 140,154 By integrating this state-of-the art knowledge on climate tipping elements with the IPCC assessments and incorporating the role of the cryosphere in Earth-system stability, the resulting ESBs closely reflect previous assessments of climate risk, with a boundary of a 1•5°C increase purported to be substantially safer for the biosphere (eg, avoiding extinctions) than a 2°C increase, 143 and the range of 1°C-2°C reflecting climate limits proposed since 1990. 155 Figure 7 shows the spatial distribution of key climate tipping elements proposed by Armstrong McKay and colleagues. 16 Although some of the impacts of passing climate tipping points would be global (eg, rising sea levels resulting from the collapse of ice sheets, carbon release from forest dieback or permafrost thaw leading to amplified global warming), others would be felt primarily locally (eg, coral ecosystem collapse, extra-polar glacier loss reducing water supplies, loss of Amazon biocultural diversity).The climate system also has considerable inertia that varies among the subsystems, with the atmosphere exhibiting the least and the cryosphere the most. 156 This characteristic of the climate system means that the greenhouse gas emissions that are driving climate change will continue to drive changes in the future on long time scales, even if emissions are substantially reduced. 156 Adding further to the complexity is the strong spatial heterogeneity within these climate subsystems and their sub-components globally, which mean that global sums and averages of realised and committed changes can convey an exaggerated sense of security. For example, the planet does not warm uniformly, meaning that a global mean annual temperature increase of 1•5°C will result in larger temperature increases in polar regions and on land, with subsequent impacts on the biosphere. Committed change is of particular importance when considering climate tipping elements and their effective irreversibility. With  incorporating the latest data on regional and global land carbon sink saturation, 146,[157][158][159][160] we found that constraining carbon dioxide fertilisation rates to 2020 rates would lead to the global land turning from a carbon sink to a carbon source within the next 10-20 years, with substantial The Lancet Planetary Health Commission carbon release projected from almost the entire global land surface (figure 8). These projections underline the need for stringent ESBs that account for the increased risks to intergenerational equity resulting from committed changes (figures 8, 9). Passing climate tipping points will similarly lock in many negative impacts over long timescales, underlining the importance of the safe climate ESB.The proposed safe ESB for climate change of no more than 1•5°C of warming meets the criteria for intraspecies justice in that, if adhered to, it would prevent climate tipping points from being passed and avoid many committed changes that could affect many habitats and people, and could also minimise degradation and vulnerability of other domains (eg, biosphere exposure to droughts, and water-resource constraints), helping advance interspecies justice. However, many species have already been harmed in terms of habitat loss with less than 1°C of warming. 154 The safe 1•5°C ESB for climate does not address intergenerational justice. With a global temperature rise of 1•0°C, the committed rise in sea levels threatens places home to hundreds of millions of people, and 565 million people are exposed to at least 1 day a year with wet bulb temperatures (a measure of heat stress combining temperature and humidity) greater than 32°C (figure 9). The safe working time for outdoor activities declines substantially with wet bulb temperatures of greater than 32°C, 162 while 35°C represents a limit of human physiological adaptability (although this limit could be several degrees lower). 163,164 The risks posed by rising sea levels particularly affect populations living along low-lying coastal areas, island nations, coastal cities, and regions where poor people live in the lowest areas and might not receive storm warnings. Exposure within countries varies greatly, with low islands facing saltwater intrusion and storm damage, whereas Arctic Indigenous communities face existential risk to their lands, cultures and wellbeing from ice loss, permafrost melting, and rising sea levels. 3 Vulnerability to rising sea levels can be reduced through warning systems, social support, and appropriate infrastructure, but there are limits to adaptation.Adherence to the safe climate ESB would also not provide intragenerational justice: 100 million people are already exposed to heat stress with global warming of 1•2°C-largely as a result of increases in wet bulb temperatures, especially in large cities where urban heat islands amplify exposure, and for people who cannot afford cooling and shade, lack access to water, are elderly or ill, or work outside. 3,165 We thus set the just ESB at 1°C of warming or less, recognising that even at this level, hundreds of millions of people are negatively affected. 154 Additionally, the risk of several harm-related IPCC reasons for concern (eg, unique threatened systems including Arctic Indigenous communities,  The Lancet Planetary Health Commission extreme events, uneven impacts on vulnerable communities, aggregate economic impacts) coming to pass becomes moderate or high with global warming within the 1•0-1•5°C range. 140,154 We mapped the spatial distribution of harm by using rises in sea levels and extreme temperatures (both wet bulb temperatures and mean annual temperature [figures 10, 11]). Previous analyses made efforts to link future rises in sea levels to end-of-century temperature stabilisation targets, 153,161,166 inferring impacts on decadal to multi-centennial timescales by taking into account committed change. A consistent way to illustrate the impact on populations at these timescales is to quantify the number of people inhabiting land today that will be exposed to inundation in the future. If populations (as of 2010) were exposed to the impact of rising sea levels and its distribution across the most affected countries under a 2°C temperature stabilisation target in 2100, in absolute and relative terms, China, Bangladesh, India, and Viet Nam would have the highest number of people exposed to rising sea levels (figure 9), with coastal impacts having wider implications for economies. Figure 9B shows the projected distribution in 2100 of populations potentially affected by rising sea levels with global warming of 2°C. The Marshall Islands, the Maldives, Tuvalu, the Netherlands, and Guyana are  131 with poverty as a proxy of vulnerability. In (A), (B), (C), and (D), each colour break represents the intersection of both distributions using quartiles. (E) and (F) graph the countries with the highest total and relative population affected by high wet-bulb temperatures in a 1•2°C world, and (G) and (H) graph the countries with the highest total and relative population affected by high wet-bulb temperatures in a 2°C world.  The Lancet Planetary Health Commission five countries with much of their territory exposed to rising sea levels. Over the next 200-2000 years, high propor tions of the populations of the Bahamas, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Suriname will be affected (assuming the 2010 population). Many regions are already facing extreme temperatures. 3 Figure 10 shows maximum wet bulb temperatures for a scenario with 1•2°C and 2°C warming. The human climate niche 167 describes the relationship between mean annual temperature, which has varied little for thousands of years, and relative human population density. For most of human history, human population density has been greatest in a rather narrow part of the available climate space in which mean annual temperature is roughly between 11°C and 15°C. 167 Climate and demographic change can increasingly expose people to temperatures outside this human climate niche. The simplest way to quantify this increasing exposure to conditions outside of the niche is to assess who would be exposed to unprecedented mean annual temperatures higher than 29°C (figure 11). In absolute numbers, India will have the highest number of people exposed to mean annual temperatures higher than 29°C if global temperatures warm by 1•5°C. South Asia, southeast Asia, west Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula would have large areas of land with mean annual temperatures exceeding 29°C. Several western African countries (eg, Burkina Faso) could find most of their territory being pushed outside the human climate niche. 168 Carbon budget estimates published in 2020 suggested that the most industrialised countries are responsible for 92% of global carbon dioxide emissions whereas the least industrialised countries are responsible for a much smaller fraction. 169 These quantifications exemplify the unequal share of responsibility in terms of causing global warming-and, by extension responsibility for solving it-with implications for intergenerational and intragenerational justice.Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential macronutrients for plants-and thus for food production. Excess nutrient inputs and limited waste recycling result in substantial negative effects on the health of people and ecosystems. Many regions in Europe, North America, and Asia are well beyond proposed safe limits, while many regions in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) do not have sufficient fertiliser to ensure that food production meets people's needs.Nitrogen is essential for crop production. Excess input not taken up by crops (ie, nitrogen surplus) can pollute terrestrial ecosystems, freshwater, groundwater, and drinking water via eutrophication, leading to substantial environmental damage. [170][171][172][173][174] Agriculture is the primary source of freshwater nitrogen pollution (accounting for around 75%), followed by domestic sources including sewage (23%) and industrial sources (2%). 175 In the ocean, excess nitrogen has led to a more than nine-times increase in hypoxic coastal sites since 1950, with complex effects on fisheries. 176 To avoid significant harm to ecosystems and people, we set a global safe nitrogen ESB of 61 TgN per year of agricultural surplus from all sources (corresponding to total nitrogen inputs of 143 TgN per year at current nitrogen use efficiencies). 10 This safe ESB was based on an analysis published after the early planetary boundary quantifications, 7,9,177 in which regional environmental thresholds for two environmental systems (nitrogen runoff to surface water of around 2•5 mg nitrogen per L, and nitrogen emissions and deposition to terrestrial ecosystems of 5-20 kg nitrogen per hectare per year, depending on biome) were identified and associated critical losses, surpluses, and inputs were calculated regionally before aggregation to a global value. [172][173][174]   The Lancet Planetary Health CommissionThe safe ESB for nitrogen seeks to reduce environmental degradation and effects on human wellbeing as a result of loss of ecosystem services (eg, fisheries). Our justice analysis suggests that the adherence to the safe nitrogen ESB could contribute to achieving interspecies justice by limiting ecosystem degradation of surface water and terrestrial ecosystems. However, as well as avoiding future tipping points, intergenerational and intragenerational justice require active restoration of already degraded ecosystems caused by past nitrogen pollution.Nitrogen pollution also directly harms human health. Exposure to high concentrations of nitrates and nitrite in drinking water-which some of the world's most vulnerable populations have to deal with 178 -can cause infant methaemoglobinaemia, and is connected to adverse reproductive effects, colorectal cancer, and thyroid disease. 179 Excess agricultural nitrogen usage from manure and synthetic fertilisers leads to emissions of nitrogen oxides, and nitrogen dioxide pollution from all sources is linked with around 4 million new cases of paediatric asthma a year. 180 Fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2•5 µm (PM 2•5 ) of agricultural origin, largely derived from ammonia, contributes roughly 20% of the approximately 3•3 million deaths per year associated with PM 2•5 . 181 The safe ESB thus needs to be complemented with locally applicable health standards for nitrogen to set the just ESB. For water, we used the threshold from WHO's standards for drinking water quality of 50 mg nitrate per L (ie, equivalent to 11•3 mg nitrogen per L). 182 When applied to nitrate leaching to groundwater as a third environmental system threshold, this globally amounts to a safe surplus limit of 117 TgN per year, but in surface water it is less stringent than the safe threshold of roughly 2•5 mg nitrogen per L. [172][173][174] Incorporation of this standard for groundwater would reduce the subglobal critical nitrogen surplus in some regions (figure 12) and slightly lower the global safe and just ESB to 57 TgN per year (134 TgN per year in total inputs). 10,172 Local standards for nitrogen with regard to air quality are not directly included in our analysis of safe and just ESBs for nitrogen but are incorporated in the proposed just ESB for air pollution (discussed later in this Part), in which concentrations of PM 2•5 are used as a comprehensive indicator.Figure 12 shows the spatial variation in where estimated critical nitrogen surplus is exceeded on agricultural lands as of 2010. 172 We use these data as a proxy for the potential harm caused by nitrogen pollution, because, to our knowledge, global limits for the direct and indirect effects of nitrogen pollution on human health and wellbeing have not yet been sufficiently quantified. Excess nitrogen surplus is highest in China, south and west Asia, Europe, and North America, and mostly associated with intensive agriculture, whereas concentrations of nitrogen are below the critical limit across most of sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and southeast Asia (figure 12), where farmers tend to have insufficient access to fertilisers.Figure 13 depicts the distribution of nitrogen pollution impacts as of 2010 relative to population distribution and poverty (as a proxy for vulnerability to harm from exposure to nitrogen pollution). This figure shows exposure to local nitrogen pollution only. It does Nitrogen surplus is calculated with respect to nitrogen runoff to surface water, emissions, and deposition to terrestrial ecosystems, and nitrate leaching to groundwater. Nitrogen surplus is used as a proxy for potential harm caused by nitrogen pollution. Data for current nitrogen surplus on agricultural land (ie, arable and intensively managed grassland; measured in kg per Ha per year) are from the IMAGE model. 183 For each grid cell, the critical nitrogen surplus (from Schulte-Uebbing et al, 2022) 172 was subtracted from the current (2010) nitrogen surplus.<-100 −100 to <−50 −50 to <0 0 to <50 50 to <100 ≥100 Not applicableThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission not take into account how pollution also causes harm when transported downstream into shared lakes and oceans or downwind, and thus underestimates true vulnerability to nitrogen pollution. Neither does figure 13 take into account access to nitrogen fertilisers. Unsafe nitrogen surpluses coincide with high population exposure in China, South Asia, eastern USA, and Europe, and with increased poverty in South Asia, parts of China, and hotspots in central and west Asia. By contrast, areas where nitrogen concentrations are within safe limits and so where nitrogen fertiliser usage could increase include areas of poverty across much of sub-Saharan Africa, northern Latin America, and southeast Asia.Although fertiliser overuse causes interspecies, intragenerational, and intergenerational harm, the biggest challenge related to nutrients and human health is insufficient access to nutrients needed for food security in many regions. For example, much of sub-Saharan Africa does not have access to sufficient and affordable fertilisers to maximise potential agricultural output, contributing to a yield gap. 185,186 Intragenerational justice requires more equitable access to nutrients to close large yield gaps in LMICs and to avoid the offshoring of nutrient depletion or pollution from wealthier countries via trade. Production of ammonia for synthetic nitrogen fertilisers is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, and is responsible for roughly 2% of global greenhouse gas emissions. 187 Minimising the use of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser could therefore contribute to intergenerational justice by reducing longterm climate impacts.Minimising trade-offs while addressing justice issues will require better global nitrogen management 188 that builds on improved use and regenerative nutrientconserving practices, ensures equitable access, and recycles nutrients. Nutrient pollution is often transnational The Lancet Planetary Health Commission (eg, atmospheric ammonia deposition, eutrophication of shared rivers, coastal and open ocean hypoxia), and thus effective international governance will be needed.Phosphorus is also an essential element for agriculture. Similar to nitrogen, excess phosphorus results in pollution, but unlike nitrogen, surplus P can accumulate by sorbing to soil and sediment particles. 189,190 Sorbing can limit fertiliser effectiveness in phosphorus-limited soils (because the phosphorus is sorbed instead of reaching crops), meaning more fertiliser is required. 191,192 The fraction of surplus phosphorus entering freshwaters via runoff or soil erosion is a key driver of freshwater eutrophication (along with nitrogen), and phosphorus build-up in waterway sediments prevents recovery through long-term phosphorus leaching. 193,194 Although nitrogen has a greater role in coastal hypoxia, in the longer-term excess phosphorus concentrations could result in global ocean anoxia. 195 Restricted access to phosphorus fertilisers causes yield gaps in many regions.We suggest a global safe ESB for surplus soil phosphorus of 4•5-9•0 TgP per year (corresponding to 8-17 TgP per year of total input). 10 This ESB was based on literature 193,194,196,197 in which the phosphorus planetary boundary is quantified by directly calculating critical inputs, surpluses, and losses at a global scale (using generic phosphorus concentration thresholds in runoff to freshwater of 50-100 mg/m³, which we use as our subglobal safe boundaries for phosphorus).The safe ESB for phosphorus would meet the criteria for interspecies and intergenerational justice, although some species would be locally harmed by phosphorus pollution. However, global phosphorus use exceeds the safe ESB and so threatens intragenerational justice, with phosphate mining harming local communities. [198][199][200] Although phosphorus has few direct effects on human health, algal blooms caused by eutrophication can produce harmful toxins that pose risks especially to children and animals and that cause damage to fisheries, thereby undermining food security. 193,194 We therefore align the just ESB for phosphorus with the safe ESB in terms of phosphorus quantities, supplemented by local health standards for water quality where necessary.Figure 14 shows anthropogenic phosphorus concentration in surface water runoff as a proxy for potential harm from phosphorus pollution. Phosphorus pollution is concentrated in east and south Asia, Europe, and North America, with additional hotspots in southeast Asia, southern Africa, and South America. Domestic sources, especially sewage (ultimately derived from agricultural phosphorus inputs via food consumption) account for approximately 54% of freshwater phosphorus pollution globally, with the rest contributed by agriculture (~38%) and industrial sources (~8%). 194 However, these data mask substan tial spatial heterogeneity-eg, sewage contributes more than 70% of phosphorus pollution in the Ganges river basin, including parts of Bangladesh, China, India, and Nepal, and agriculture contributes only 17%, whereas in the Yangtze river basin in China, sewage accounts for only 18% of phosphorus pollution and agriculture for 80%.Figure 15 shows the relation between phosphorus concentrations in runoff, global population distribution, and poverty. Similar to the maps of nitrogen The Lancet Planetary Health Commission distribution (figure 13), this map does not account for how phosphorus pollution can cause harm when transported downstream into shared lakes and oceans and does not take into account access to phosphorus fertilisers. Unsafe phosphorus concentrations coincide with high populations in China, Europe, eastern USA, and south Asia, and areas of increased poverty in south Asia, parts of China, southern Africa, and hotspots in central and west Asia. Some poor regions (eg, much of sub-Saharan Africa, northern Latin America, southeast Asia) are well within safe limits partly because of low fertiliser access and availability. Tropical soils are often phosphorus depleted as a result of intense weathering and so require more fertiliser before phosphorus becomes available for crop growth. 191,192 As a result, when food is then exported from nutrientdepleted parts of LMICs, artificial nutrients are effectively imported by nutrient-rich countries and water pollution is offshored in return. 203,204 Another justice consideration is the limited availability of phosphorus deposits. Rock phosphate is a finite resource, and the availability of highquality reserves could peak this century. 198,205 Minimising use of phosphorus and improving use efficiency and recycling would help to maintain reserves for future generations. Further justice considerations include lack of access to affordable phosphorus fertilisers affecting access to food, and geopolitical issues arising from unevenly distributed rock phosphate resources. 198,205 Humans substantially influence the global hydrological cycle in the Anthropocene by altering surface water flows and draining groundwater reserves. 206 Most of these alterations are made to enable food production, with 70% of surface water withdrawals worldwide used for irrigation. 207 Water-supply dams, hydroelectric The Lancet Planetary Health Commission development, and groundwater extraction substantially disrupt natural patterns of ground and surface freshwater flows (ie, blue water), thereby displacing people 208,209 and threatening biodiversity 210 and ecosystem services (eg, inland and coastal fisheries that support the protein needs of billions of people). 211,212 Equally, land subsidence from excessive groundwater extraction causes infrastructural damage, and increases vulnerability to flooding, particularly in coastal regions that are already affected by rising sea levels. 213,214 Collectively, anthropogenic changes to the hydrological cycle are a barrier to the achievement of the SDGs, 215 which aim to meet the needs of the 30% of the world's population who do not have access to drinking water and the 60% who do not have sufficient access to sanitation. 216 Increasing water scarcity and declines in water quality are associated with 1•7 million deaths annually, 120 and increased rates of diarrhoeal diseases, which are the leading cause of infant mortality, 2 are responsible for approximately 7•7% of disability-adjusted life-years in children younger than 9 years. 217 Given that surface and groundwater flows cross national boundaries, the transformations necessary to meet the water-related SDGs and reverse these trends requires ESBs be translated to scales that are relevant for actors involved in the alteration of bluewater flows.Alterations of blue-water flows are leading to unsafe and harmful outcomes for the Earth and its people. The safe ESBs for blue water 10 integrate surface and groundwater flows in response to critiques of early planetary boundaries for freshwater, which included only the extent of surface-water consumption from river systems. 218 A separate planetary boundary for green water-the water in soil that is available to vegetation-was published in 2022; it incorporates the risks associated with largescale alterations to soil-moisture conditions and complements the safe ESBs for blue water. 219 The safe ESBs for surface water and groundwater aim to protect functioning and biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems, and to reduce the risk of crossing tipping points associated with environmental degradation. Generally, local-scale research is necessary to establish functional relationships between blue-water flows and important response variables (eg, biodiversity losses), which can then be used to define safe levels of change to blue water. 220,221 However, in the absence of such information, presumptive standards for safe levels of alteration form a necessary basis for global-scale boundaries. For the safe ESB for surface-water flows, we set as an areabased boundary (following Gleeson and colleagues 218 ) of no more than 20% alteration of monthly surface water flows for all rivers globally, with 80% of flows left unaltered for environmental needs. 10,[222][223][224] Several studies have shown that freshwater ecosystems can be sustained with low levels of flow alteration (ie, <20%) but that reductions in biodiversity become apparent when alterations exceed this level. 225,226 With modelled unaltered total global river discharge of approximately 38 150 km³ per year, the 20% alteration limit across all rivers corresponds to a maximum of 7630 km³ of alteration per year, assuming all flow alterations are due to withdrawal.For groundwater, we also set an area-based safe ESB: annual groundwater drawdown, from both natural and anthropogenic sources, should be no more than the average annual recharge for all groundwater reserves. Although this ESB is inherently on a local The Lancet Planetary Health Commission scale (because drawdown refers to local groundwater levels), it aggregates to approximately 16 000 km³ per year globally according to the satellite record (2002-16). 10 When average annual drawdown of groundwater exceeds the average recharge, declines in aquifer volume occur, leading to reductions in surface-water flows 221 and an increased risk of land subsidence. 227 Because the safe ESB is based on current drawdowns versus recharge, it does not address environmental issues associated with already depleted aquifers (which could be restored through managed aquifer recharge). However, adherence to the ESB would help to ensure that surface-water flows would not be further reduced by over-extraction and that existing groundwaterdependent ecosystems would be protected. For both blue-water ESBs, the application of the boundaries at river basin and aquifer scales is likely to have greater meaning for planetary health and justice than the global aggregates.To examine the spatial distribution of risks to the Earth system and planetary health, we analysed the output from a global-scale hydrological model and remotely sensed data on groundwater levels. These analyses identified regions where blue-water flows are substantially altered in an unsafe manner, especially in densely populated regions, with large areas of some river basins, such as the Ganges-Brahmaputra basins, showing unsafe changes in flow alteration for up to 12 months of the year (figure 16). These flow alterations are exacerbating threats to freshwater biodiversity and potential harms caused by declines in water security. 228,229 Many regions also exceed the safe boundary for groundwater, including parts of Brazil, southeast Asia, and the Upper Indus and Ganges-Brahmaputra basins (figure 17). Several of these regions (eg, central Thailand 230 ) also experience substantial land subsidence associated with unsustainable groundwater use and related declines in surface flows. 231 The justice implications for the safe ESBs for blue water are complex, with different contributions and challenges with respect to interspecies, intergenerational, and intragenerational justice. By setting aside an ecologically based volume of unaltered flows for the environment, and limiting annual groundwater drawdowns to the average recharge, the ESBs contribute to achieving interspecies justice and are consistent with many calls for the rights of the river. 232 However, the safe boundary for blue-water alterations raises concerns with respect to intergenerational and intragenerational justice, with particular challenges for transformation of our models of production and water management. 206 Figure 18 illustrates where the safe ESBs are already being exceeded and how present generations are affected by past excessive groundwater drawdowns and surfacewater alterations. Future generations will experience these and further unsafe conditions, thus compromising intergenerational equity. By setting the safe ESB for groundwater to recharge values, we do not correct for past excessive withdrawals and aquifer depletion. 233 In relation to intragenerational justice, figure 18 also shows transboundary river basins (ie, rivers that cross the boundaries of two or more countries) where  The Lancet Planetary Health Commission downstream countries experience altered surface flows partly as a result of actions of upstream countries, such as on the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam or the lower Rhine in Germany and the Netherlands, raising international justice concerns. 234 Another potential concern is that the safe ESBs do not account for water quality, which is critical for human health. Therefore, to ensure just outcomes in terms of human health, the safe ESBs need to be complemented with water-quality standards, such as those of WHO. 235,236 Billions of people worldwide are exposed to conditions resulting from the breaching of the safe ESBs for both surface water and groundwater (figure 18). Water flow is highly altered in many regions in high-income countries, with possible consequences for water supplies and ecosystems in other regions and neighbouring countries. 237 Water flow is also highly altered in many LMICs, including regions of Asia, many arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, and highly populated regions of South America (figure 18).In addition to the potential impacts on flow-dependent ecosystem services on which people rely, people in these regions are also at risk of exposure to declining water quality and the associated health outcomes. However, stringent adherence to safe ESBs for blue water could have implications for the billions of people living under conditions of water scarcity, 238 including for their livelihoods and food security. Water management and transformations in modes of production for farmers are crucial to avoid any potential trade-offs.Figure 19 shows the relations between areas not meeting the safe ESBs for blue water with global distribution of population and poverty. Parts of west and east Africa, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Middle East, and central Asia exceed the safe ESBs as of 2020 but are likely to have fewer resources to manage these issues (figure 19). Figure 19 also shows relative differences within countries, such as the relatively higher rate of poverty in the arid western USA The Lancet Planetary Health Commission compared with the rest of the country, highlighting that these problems cannot all be solved at the national level. Spatial mapping of water quality was not a part of our analysis, and therefore risks to vulnerable populations from declines in water quality and conditions when the safe ESBs have been breached might be underestimated.Although adhering to the safe ESBs will contribute to intergenerational justice, there are substantial trade-offs between the restrictions on surface water alteration and groundwater extraction and the ability to access the necessary water for household, agricultural, and broader economic development. Existing transboundary and inter-community water-sharing agreements and the shifts from water as a common or publicly provided resource to a private good are additional challenges to meeting the safe ESBs. In private or full-cost pricing systems, restriction of water use often pushes up the price beyond affordability for poor people, with consequences for health and livelihoods. For example, Indigenous peoples worldwide are increasingly being disenfranchised from their water resources, 239 and hoarding as well as direct and indirect purchase of water in LMICs by wealthy national and international populations is becoming more common. 240 As a result, calls for water justice increasingly focus on competition between different groups of people. 241 Many states worldwide are moving water into the public domain to enable better regulation of it. However, simultaneously they are issuing permits and signing contracts in which entitlements to water have the characteristics of a property and are thus creating quasi property rights through the law. 242,243 Such actions hamper the redistribution of water without compensation of the quasi rights The Lancet Planetary Health Commission holders for expropriation. At the transboundary level, hundreds of water-sharing agreements leave little water for nature and are contested because the available water is viewed as inadequate to meet the needs and aspirations of countries. 244 Adhering to the safe ESB for surface-water alteration in transboundary river basins could ensure downstream communities have access to greater quantities of water, but achieving this in the context of existing international agreements will not be easy. These potential trade-offs can be addressed by redesigning transboundary water agreements, rewriting permits and contracts to enable the state to recover the water in times of emergency or in the public interest, and engaging in massive demand-side water management, including substantial reuse of water, returning clean water to surface-water flows, and managed recharging of aquifers. A just allocation of water resources within the safe ESB needs to consider past institutions that have allocated water, re-examine development aspirations, redistribute such water equitably, and ensure multi-level distribution so all communities have sufficient access to water without contributing to crises for downstream communities.Aerosols affect the Earth system, the climate, and human health. They can also affect soil, air, and water quality, 245 and can cause acid rain, plant mortality, and glacier and ice melting. 3 Aerosols can alter local and regional climates and can cause cooling or warming, depending upon their size, type, and location. 3 Aerosols can also help or inhibit cloud formation and contribute to extreme weather (eg, thunderstorms). 246 Aerosols can be natural (eg, dust, sea salt) or anthropogenic (eg, sulphates from coal, black carbon from diesel) and are spatially and temporally heterogeneous. 247,248 Concentrations of aerosols vary depending on factors including anthropogenic emissions, weather, and climate change. [249][250][251] Aerosols are sub-micron size particles and they constitute one of the many components of air pollution. Gases such as ozone, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulfur, and oxides of nitrogen are the other components of air pollution. Here, we assess the safe and just ESB only for aerosols, though we recognise the need for other pollution-related ESBs (panel 4).Aerosol loading (ie, aerosol mass per unit volume of air) affects air quality, with justice implications. Air pollution is the fourth largest cause of ill health globally (after high blood pressure, dietary risks, and smoking). 252 PM 2•5 is the most relevant aerosol metric in terms of human health. Aerosols contribute to ambient air pollution, which accounts for 4•2 million deaths and indoor air pollution for 3•8 million deaths annually. 253 Long-term human exposure to air pollution, including PM 2.5 , increases the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. 254 Safe ESB Aerosols affect regional climate systems and potentially alter local conditions. For example, anthropogenic aerosols could have contributed to declines in Indian summer monsoon rainfall since the 1950s. 158,255 Sulphate aerosols injected into the stratosphere in the northern hemisphere could cause large deficits in Indian monsoon rainfall. [256][257][258] Natural aerosols injected into the stratosphere by major volcanic eruptions in the northern hemisphere have caused droughts in the Sahel, and eruptions in the southern hemisphere have been linked to greening of the Sahel region in Africa. 259 An additional interhemispheric difference in aerosol optical depth (AOD), a measure of the extinction of light by atmospheric aerosols, of 0•05 to 0•20 between the northern and southern hemispheres could lead to tipping of tropical monsoon patterns (ie, a shift towards a wet or dry Sahel) and is thus identified as a serious risk. 10 On the basis of the literature about the influence of aerosol loading on tropical monsoon systems, we set an interhemispheric AOD difference of less than 0•15 as the globally aggregated safe boundary for aerosols. Although understanding of the interaction between aerosols, clouds, and precipitation is improving, it is not well represented in climate models, which impedes better refined quantifications of the effects of aerosol on climate.Aerosols have a short lifetime, which means that they concentrate close to their sources. Therefore, regional and local thresholds are a high priority (figure 20). On the basis of the literature on the influence of aerosol loading on regional hydrological cycles, we set an AOD of 0•25 as the safe regional and local boundary for aerosols. 9,10Our analysis indicates that the globally aggregated safe ESB for air pollution based on interhemispheric AOD difference meets the criteria for interspecies, intergenerational, and intragenerational justice because it ensures the stability of tropical monsoons. Hence, we accept this ESB as safe and just. However, because interhemispheric AOD is an aggregate indicator for the emissions of aerosols and air pollution that cause substantial local-level harm, we complement the local and global safe ESBs with local air pollution standards for PM 2•5 , which is closely related to AOD. 260 The WHO guidelines 261 suggest an annual air-quality limit of 5 μg/m³ PM 2•5 for all regions, with several interim targets of 35, 25, 15, and 10 μg/m³. We propose an additional just sub-global ESB of 15 μg/m³ PM 2•5 annually. 10 AOD and PM 2•5 concentrations are closely linked and have a roughly linear relationship; 260,262 adherence to an annual PM 2•5 limit of 15 μg/m³ would result in local AODs lower than the sub-global safe ESB of 0•25. In Europe, where the annual mean AOD is 0•15, this relationship suggests that PM 2•5 concentrations are around 14 μg/m³, which is close to estimates from ground-basedThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission monitors. 263 For South Asia (AOD 0•35) and east China (AOD 0•4), the estimated annual mean PM 2•5 concentrations are 23•5 μg/m³ and 25•8 μg/m³, respectively-ie, the regional safe and just ESBs have already been crossed.Figure 20 shows part of the distributional challenge of the injustices of harm from air pollution in absolute terms per region. This map combines areas with high air pollution load (as a measure of air-pollution exposure) and poverty (as a measure of air-pollution susceptibility). Air pollution is most severe in south Asia, whereas poverty is highest in Africa (figure 20). Poverty limits people's ability to adapt in the face of air pollution-eg, to use air filters to reduce indoor air pollution or less polluting stoves and heating sources-and their access to health care. In several countries, the entire population live in areas where the ESB has been transgressed, with large numbers of people affected. However, figure 20 does not account for indoor air pollution 264 resulting from the use of unsafe fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting. Although ambient air pollution affects all countries to varying extents, indoor air pollution is highest in LMICs, especially in the Western Pacific and southeast Asia regions. In sub-Saharan Africa, only 15-17% of households use clean fuels and technologies for cooking. 265 Indoor air pollution is the leading risk factor for premature deaths in low-income countries, and disproportionately affects women and children. 266 Mapping where air-quality standards are exceeded and how this overlaps with the distribution of poverty allows for partial identification of the people most vulnerable to air pollution, and thus most at risk of harm. WHO estimates that around 99% of the global population lives in areas where the annual mean ambient The Lancet Planetary Health Commission PM 2•5 concentrations are higher than 5 μg/m³. 267 About 85% of people live in areas with annual PM 2•5 concentrations above the harm threshold that we defined, 15μg/m³. 268 Concentrations are highest in cities in Asia and Africa. 267 High concentrations in North Africa and Middle Eastern countries are due to natural dust sources, whereas in cities in south and east Asia low air quality results primarily from anthropogenic aerosol sources. 181,269,270 Urban populations in growing megacities, especially in south Asia and Africa, are heavily exposed to anthropogenically produced PM 2•5 , and annual increases in the population exposure to air pollution ranges from 1% to 18% between 2005 and 2018. 271,272 The impact of this exposure is skewed towards LMICs, where more than 90% of all deaths from air pollution occur. 273 Premature mortality due to air pollution is influenced by age distributions and other health and demographic factors, 274 and thus swift action is needed on air pollution in low-income and middle-income countries. Potentially controllable anthropogenic emissions contribute to a reduction of around 1•7 years of global average life expectancy, 1•1 years of which can be attributed to fossil fuel use. 275 Other justice issues relate to the large inequalities between who produces air pollution and who experiences the ill effects. 10,82In this section, we estimate the biophysical pressures on the Earth system associated with minimum access to basic goods and services, which first requires establishing what minimum levels entail. Table 1 presents the results of our literature review to quantify the two conceptual definitions of just minimum access to basic goods and services-ie, basic dignity (level 1) and escape from poverty (level 2). We operationalise the concepts of dignity and escape from poverty from a material rather than a monetary perspective. Our technical approach is based on the methods of Rammelt and colleagues 13 (summarised in the appendix [pp 2-8]).In this study we apply their methods 13 to calculate the environmental impact associated with provision of only minimum access to food, water, energy, and infrastructure for the safe and just corridor. We have not included access to all necessary minimum goods and services, such as education and health care. We acknowledge the limitations of this pragmatic analysis and anticipate that future research will be able to integrate more components of minimum access. However, we have addressed the limitations of our approach to some extent by including a sensitivity analysis and adding further energy requirements in line with a decent living energy framework, as we will discuss in more detail later.For water, our quantification of minimum access level 1 adopted WHO's definition of intermediate access (ie, 50 L per person per day for drinking, cooking, and hygiene), whereas for level 2 we adopted WHO's definition of optimal access (ie, 100 L per person per day, which meets optimal basic consumption and hygiene needs). 276 We excluded water use embedded in food and energy production, because such use is captured in the food and energy access impacts. 13 For minimum access to food, level 2 was represented by the EAT-Lancet Commission diet 119 (ie, 2500 kcal per person per day). For level 1, we used the same dietary composition, but reduced the caloric intake to the minimum that WHO judge necessary in emergency situations (ie, 2100 kcal per day). 277 The WHO diet represents an intake required for survival and modest physical activity. 13 For minimum access to energy, we focused only on direct electricity services at the household level, and used the following World Bank levels: 278 for level 1, we The Lancet Planetary Health Commission used access to 0•2 kWh per person per day, which implies electricity availability for at least 8 h per day (3 h per evening) for the use of medium-power appliances (eg, refrigerators, water pumps). For level 2 access, we used 0•7 kWh per person per day, which suggests electricity availability for a minimum of 16 h per day (4 h per evening) including some use of high-power appliances (eg, washing machines), with a maximum of 14 disruptions per week. Future analyses should also include non-electrical energy, firewood, or gas for cooking and heating; energy requirements for additional productive uses, such as health care and education; and energy consumed in the production of products and infrastructures (other than energy consumed for housing, which we have included). Minimum access to infrastructure was represented by minimum access to housing and transportation. The minimum access levels for housing were derived from policy documents detailing minimum usable floor area per person (which ranged from 7-13 m² in Taiwan 279 to 14-15 m² in Europe 280 ). In our analysis, we used 7 m² for level 1 and 15 m² for level 2, the latter of which includes space for sleeping, cooking, and bathing. For minimum access to transportation, little relevant academic literature or policy was available. We selected 3500 passenger-km per year for level 1 and 4500 passenger-km per year for level 2 to define decent access to mobility, which has been proposed as a reasonable range for the EU. 281 We calculated the biophysical pressure (in terms of consumption of energy, food, water, etc) associated with hypothetically meeting all of these minimum access needs (both level 1 and level 2) for all people in 2018. This calculation entails increasing consumption of those who live below the level and decreasing consumption for those who live above the level. For example, humanity would consume 581•0 TWh of electricity per year if everyone lived at access level 1 (table 1). We also extrapolated these pressures to 2050 by assuming a population of 9•7 billion people based on UN projections (ie, the pressure per person multiplied by projected population size; table 1). 282 The addition of further minimum access components that were not included, 13 such as industrial production, education, and health care, would increase the biophysical pressure of provid ing minimum access and further reduce the safe and just corridor, and thus would not alter our general conclusions.We now turn to estimating the additional biophysical impacts on ESBs that would occur if the consumption of people who live below minimum access levels was hypothetically increased to those levels and consumption of those above the minimum access level remained constant. To estimate these additional impacts (on top of current impacts), we used the global income distribution as a proxy for the distribution of the effect on the biophysical domains. 13 We identified the access gap as the number or proportion of people living below minimum access levels 1 and 2 to generate the total amount of additional impacts in 2018 and in 2050 (table 2). In extrapolating to 2050, we assumed that, apart from population growth, all other conditions remain constantsuch as inequality (apart from closing the minimum access gap), consumption levels, and economic and technological development. A sensitivity analysis is presented in the appendix (pp 8-10), showing that technological developments are unlikely to eliminate the urgent need for transformations to enable the global community to live within ESBs.Table 3 shows relative further impacts on top of existing pressures on the biophysical domains (eg, the proportion of additional climate impacts associated with ensuring that everyone on Earth has access to a minimum amount of food, water, energy, etc) and the number and proportion of people without minimum access (or more precisely, the number and proportion of people who do not yet generate the impacts, such as emissions, that are associated with the achievement of minimum access). Table 3 presents this information as ranges across the different biophysical domains-for example, the number of people with level 1 minimum access in 2018 is between 0•16 billion (the number associated with sulphur dioxide) and 3•02 billion (the number associated with climate). As mentioned previously, we used income distribution as a proxy for the distribution of the different biophysical impacts (eg, emissions) associated with gaining minimum access. We can therefore report only the number of people contributing less than the different biophysical impacts (eg, emissions) that are associated with having achieved minimum access-ie, we cannot report on the number of people lacking minimum access to food, or to energy, separately. Meeting minimum access will have the largest impact on the ESB for climate. Hypothetically, achieving minimum access for the 38•74% (for level 1) and 43•09% Further relative impacts refer to the additional impacts on the Earth system from achieving minimum access levels, meaning that everyone living below the minimum access levels achieves exactly those levels of access, while other consumption levels remain the same. The range shows the lowest and the highest impacts across the domains collectively in the analysis (with associated number and share of total population below access). Typically, the highest impacts are on the climate domain. The relative impacts of the individual domains are presented in the appendix (p 7). Level 1 describes the minimum access to resources needed to live a life of basic dignity, while level 2 describes the minimum access needed to enable escape from poverty. The Lancet Planetary Health Commission (for level 2) of the world's population who do not have this level of access would add between 14•78% (for level 1) and 26•47% (for level 2) further relative impact on top of the existing impact on the climate system. We have already transgressed several ESBs, 10 even though hundreds of millions of people do not meet the minimum access levels for all domains. 13 Meeting the minimum access needs of those below the two levels in 2018 would have a substantial impact on the climate, and somewhat lesser effects on other biophysical domains (if other drivers remain the same). This extra pressure could be reduced through transformations-eg, by reducing the impact of the top 7-15% emitters of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. 13 In the absence of such transformations, extrapolation of our findings to 2050 suggests a substantially increased risk of further transgressing the safe and just ESBs if minimum access is achieved for all people, with particular effects on climate, followed by nitrous oxide concentrations, water, nitrogen pollution, the amount of land required, phosphorus pollution, and sulphur dioxide (figure 21). Thus, adhering to ESBs requires a combination of redistribution of resources and responsibilities, new forms of economic systems that address production, consumption, and Provision of minimum access to all is compared with the business-as-usual scenario (in which distribution of both resources and technologies remains the same as in 2018). Our sensitivity analyses to assess the impact of our assumptions resulted in only minor changes to these findings (appendix pp 8-10). CO 2 e=carbon dioxide equivalents. Percentage increase (relative to business as usual)  The Lancet Planetary Health Commission investment patterns, and transformation of governance. 13,283,284 We conducted a sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of our assumptions. Adjustment of the minimum access levels by 10% or use of the upper and lower values of the 95% CI of UN population estimates for 2050 (appendix pp 8-10) had little effect on our results. However, our results changed substantially-with increased impact on biophysical domains (appendix pp 8-10) when we used wealth distribution rather than income distribution to estimate additional impacts on the Earth system. Nonetheless, we have confidence in our use of income distribution given that wealth is not necessarily the best proxy for consumption patterns. We also explored the potential effects of adding further energy uses that were not accounted for to our analysis. The Decent Living Energy framework includes health, education, and communication, which account for roughly 20% of the total recommended energy. 285 The addition of 20% more energy to our minimum energy levels per person did not substantially increase biophysical pressure for climate (eg, doing so would raise the additional climate impacts from those currently without minimum access to resources gaining access from 14•78% to 14•86% for level 1, and from 26•47% to 26•81% for level 2; these changes are expressed in relative terms in the appendix, pp 9-10). It is important to note that climate impacts extend beyond the energy dimension of minimum access, to include impacts from heating and transportation (accounted for in the infrastructure category) and impacts from food production, which has a proportionally greater climate impact than household energy consumption. Because access to food produces a much larger impact than access to energy, a 20% increase in our definition of minimum access to energy would not lead to a 20% increase in total impact. The adjustment had even less effect on water and land systems. It had a notable effect on air pollution onlyeg, the impact of nitrogen oxide would increase from 6•75% to 9•51% for access level 2.Our 2050 estimates do not take into account any changes in technology, efficiency, or energy provisioning. As a thought experiment, the results provide a call for transformations. Much uncertainty remains as to what might happen with regard to supply-side and demand-side changes, not only with regard to carbon, but also with regard to energy, material, land, and water resources. That said, we tested 20% cumulative technological efficiency gains until 2050 in a sensitivity analysis. Such gains would lower climate impacts to 11% for level 1 minimum access and to 17% for level 2 access (compared with our earlier estimates of 15% and 26% without technological development (appendix pp 6-7 for the full results). 13 The International Energy Agency suggests that the average global emissions intensity of final energy (ie, carbon dioxide per unit of final energy delivered) will fall by around 30% by 2050. 286 When we used this estimate instead of the 20% efficiency gain in a sensitivity analyses, the climate impacts are further lowered to 9% for level 1 and 16% for level 2.Having defined the ESBs and explored the global-scale exposure and vulnerability to conditions when the ESBs are transgressed, we established the base of the safe and just corridor based on per-person just minimum access level (ie, level 2, escape from poverty) for all people (table 3). In estimating the base, we did not focus on if minimum access were met for everyone without it (as per in our calculations in the previous section), but rather on if everyone only had the level 2 minimum access needs met and no more. Conversion of the impact of achieving such minimum access to a common biophysical unit allowed for comparisons with the safe and just ESBs and provided a basis for the corridor. However, some unit conversions were necessary to harmonise the safe and just ESBs with the minimum access levels for climate, blue water, the biosphere, nitrogen, and phosphorus (appendix pp 9-10).A potential corridor emerges between the safe and just ESB ceiling and the base-the lower biophysical boundary needed to justly meet minimum access level 2 (escape from poverty) for all people (figure 22). This corridor represents the excess of ecospace-that is, the environmental utilisation space available if the Earth's resources are to be sustained and reused 287 -when the just minimum access needs are deducted from the total ecospace. It delimits the space in which human development on Earth is feasible, but is not in itself just, because resources can still be unjustly allocated within this space. 288 After harmonising the units for the safe and just ESBs and the minimum access levels, our analysis showed that humanity is outside the safe and just corridor for most domains (figure 22A). We could not calculate minimum access levels for biosphere functional integrity, and hence this is not included in the calculations of the ecospace. The two blue-water boundaries are inside the corridor, meaning that humanity would be within both boundaries if everyone lived at the minimum access level, but only because this quantification is in volumetric terms at a global scale, whereas the effects of blue-water alteration and thus of adhering to the ESBs play out at local and regional scale, as is evident when analysed in spatial terms (figures 16, 17). In other words, globally there is enough water, but because it is not generally possible to reallocate large volumes of water from water-rich to water-scarce regions, there are large areas of the world where people are being exposed to significant harm due to blue-water shortages and conditions in which the ESBs have been transgressed. Thus, it is important to consider regional as well as global patterns.In addition to the world's position as at 2018 relative to the safe and just corridor, our analysis shows that the corridor is expected to shrink in coming decades (figure 22B) because of the additional effects on the Earth system of meeting minimum access needs of a growing population (in the absence of efforts to redistribute and transform technologies and the societal system). The effects are particularly pronounced for the climate: providing only minimum access level 1 for the global population by 2050 pushes expected global warming beyond the safe and just ESB, thereby making it impossible to identify a safe and just corridor for climate (figure 22B) in a business-as-usual scenario. Radical decarbonisation efforts in combination with redistribution will be needed to open up a safe and just corridor for climate in the future. Across all other domains, a safe and just corridor is possible in 2050, although the corridor for nitrogen inputs shrinks more rapidly than that for the other domains nearing 2050 (figure 22A-B). If everything else remains constant, the growing population alone is likely to push humanity far outside this shrinking corridor in several domains. Thus, living within ESBs while meeting the just minimum access needs of poor and marginalised populations will require additional transformations. Ensuring that the remaining ecospace is allocated in a way that environmental and social goals are achieved will necessitate further transformations in technology and governance systems. 289 In Part 3, we reflect on how to translate ESBs to policies for cities and businesses.For humanity to reside within the safe and just corridor, the safe and just ESBs that we have defined need to be translated into actionable terms for stakeholders and actors-at the supranational, national, city, household, industry, and business levels. Stakeholders and actors at different levels can play important, complementary roles in operationalising ESBs. The UN can set shared societal goals and coordinate global policy responses and international agreements, which national governments can then implement. 289 Individual and household choices influence resource consumption, environmental impacts, and business practices within the limits of structural constraints. 290 Nations, cities, and businesses, through their dominant modes of production, consumption, and In (A), the base of the corridor is calculated based on supplying minimum access needs at level 2 for all people on Earth as of 2018 (7•8 billion people). There is a safe and just corridor (green) for climate, natural ecosystem area, surface water, groundwater, phosphorus, and nitrogen. For aerosols and functional integrity, we have not been able to calculate the base, and so we have not been able to define a safe and just corridor. Humanity is outside the safe and just corridor for climate, natural ecosystem area, phosphorus, and nitrogen. In (B), we assumed a population of roughly 9•7 billion people in 2050. This increase in population raises the Earth-system pressure involved to provide minimum access level 2 to all, thereby shrinking the corridor in all domains. For climate, the minimum access levels exceed the Earth-system boundaries, therefore leading to an absence of the corridor. In both (A) and (B), the base is visualised at minimum access level 2 (dashed line), with minimum access level 1 additionally plotted for reference (dotted line). The grey shows domains without access quantification (aerosols and biosphere functional integrity). *Earth-system boundaries are not crossed when aggregated to volumetric budgets globally, but are crossed at local or regional scales. †The safe aerosol Earth-system boundary is not crossed globally, but both the safe and the just boundaries are transgressed at local or regional scales. The Lancet Planetary Health Commission trade and their decision-making power, can profoundly affect critical Earth systems. 291 Cross-scale translation can help all stakeholders and actors to identify their fair shares of ESB-aligned resources and responsibilities, which can then be mainstreamed into decision making and practices, within and across territories or value chains. Guided by ESBs and informed by their fair shares of resources and responsibilities, actors can plan and set targets individually and collectively across geographical and temporal scales, with progress against those targets monitored and assessed at regular intervals. [292][293][294] In this Commission, we focus on cities and business actors because both are responsible for large shares of environmental pressures across all ESBs. [295][296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303][304] They are thus key actors to mobilise to enable living within the safe and just corridor. Cities and businesses can reduce environmental impacts through enhanced efficiency in production and distribution processes, technological innovations, adoption of circular economy business models, and innovative management, policy, and planning schemes. 292,293,[305][306][307][308][309][310][311][312] They are nimble and flexible actors that can rapidly initiate changes compared with governments. However, few existing studies focus on cities and businesses in a cross-scale translation context-most tend to focus on particular countries or industries.Many cities and businesses are already proactive in terms of environmental sustainability. 309,[313][314][315][316][317][318][319] Many cities are setting climate and sustainability targets through local initiatives and networks, [320][321][322] and others are guided by regional or global targets, such as the SDGs and the New Urban Agenda. 323,324 Cities are also taking leadership roles in adopting urgent climate action, including through committing to working towards net-zero targets by 2050 (adopted by more than 1300 cities). 294,[325][326][327] Companies are supporting the SDGs 293 and integrating science-based targets into their risk-management strateto ensure long-term business sustainability. In response to investor and consumer demands, companies are measuring, monitoring, and disclosing some aspects of their environmental footprints, including carbon emissions, water use, waste management and carbon offsets, social contribution indicators, and future targets. Disclosure, however, can be patchy, and is often limited to jurisdictions where it is required and to profitable companies with the resources to develop sustainability reports. [328][329][330] Additionally, greenwashing has been identified in the reporting of environmental, social, and governance data by large firms. 331 Establishing scientifically robust and transparent methods of translation for the ESBs could help to narrow the scope for greenwashing and facilitate science-based target setting and subsequent actions to move society into a safe and just corridor. Science-based targets are measurable, actionable, and time-bound, 332,333 and should be dynamic, fair, and adjustable to reflect new scientific evidence. 332 Targets should also be ambitious enough to enable actors to move faster towards and remain within ESBs. 294 So far, the uptake of science-based targets in corporate reporting and strategies has been largely limited to carbon emissions. 294 Allocation procedures often start with downscaling to an individual unit and then upscaling the individual share to a higher level-eg, the nation level, an industrial sector, or the product level. 334 Both the downscaling and upscaling processes are underpinned by particular sharing approaches. Studies on translation of similar frameworks, including the planetary boundaries, 7,9 have adopted as many as 30 allocation approaches, informed by various justice principles. [335][336][337] We discuss examples of sharing approaches relevant for cities and businesses (appendix pp 18-19). Country and city translation is commonly undertaken based on the equality-sharing approach enacted as equal per-person allocation, enabled by the availability of globally harmonised population data. Translation to sectors and companies commonly applies the legacy-sharing (also called grandfathering) and economic-contribution-based-sharing approach facilitated by the availability of environmental impact estimates (eg, resource use, emission intensity) and economic data (eg, gross value added, final consumption expenditure, employment contribution).Cross-scale translation of planetary boundaries has mostly been applied at the national level 31,[338][339][340][341][342] and for supranational territories, such as the EU. 31,343,344 There are fewer instances of cross-scale translations to the city scale, although examples include translation of the Thriving Cities Initiative to Amsterdam 345 and downscaling of planetary boundaries to cities for 62 major cities of the Middle East and North Africa. 346 In these studies, an equal per-person allocation was used, although in some so-called hybrid approaches such as equality-sovereignty, 347 a range of shares based on multiple-sharing approaches (ie, capability, right to development, needs, and sovereignty) were used. 31 Cross-scale translation of planetary boundaries to sectors and companies is primarily applied in two ways. First, translation of a global budget goes through the country or supranational territory, from where the country's budget is further distributed to sectors within the territory and then to businesses within each sector. [348][349][350][351] Second, the global budget is assigned directly to the studied sector within a country in proportion to its global share of the relevant impact. 352,353 These studies on cross-scale translation to sectors and companies combine different sharing approaches, most commonly the equality-sharing approach with the legacy approach, 348,350,354 or the equality-sharing approach with economic contribution. 334,348,354,355 A range of shares resulting from application of different approaches is typically reported to show the sensitivity of the allocated budgets to the choice of sharing approaches and toThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission emphasise the need for methodological transparency. 354,355 For companies and cities, proper governance mechanisms around translation are crucial to avoid a situation in which actors take advantage of the lack of consensus on a universal fair sharing approach to engineer the easiest possible targets based on available sharing approaches (appendix pp 18-19).Together with the choice of sharing approaches, environmental impacts or footprints of cities and businesses inform allocation of fair shares. These impacts or footprints can be measured using consumption-based or production-based perspectives. 30 The former includes all impacts and resource use associated with consumption of locally produced and imported products, whereby the impacts can occur anywhere worldwide at all stages of production along the products' supply chains. The latter includes impacts and resources used in the production of goods that takes place within a geographically defined boundary. These two approaches differ regard ing the fundamental causes of environmental impacts, and in terms of with whom the final responsibility of such impacts lie-ie, the consumer or the producer. A consumption-based approach can help to allocate shares to countries, states, cities, and households, although this needs to be combined with productionbased approaches for cities with heavy industrial bases. For industrial sectors and companies, shares can be allocated based on their production impacts, whereby both direct impacts (ie, scope 1: impacts from business operations at own sites and facilities), indirect impacts (ie, scope 2: impacts associated with purchases of goods and electricity as factor inputs), and other broader indirect impacts (ie, scope 3: impacts from upstream and downstream of the company's value chains) should be considered.Although there is an urgent need to connect ESBs to cities and companies, there are also challenges. In the next sections, we articulate these challenges and suggest pathways to overcome them at sub-national scales to begin charting a path towards the safe and just corridor.Translation studies for cities are oriented towards population-based allocations and comparative environmental footprints arising from consumption and production. 30,346,349,356 However, the choice of resource allocation methods influences the translated results. A city with high per-person consumption but low concentration of production activities might have a high consumption footprint relative to its production footprint and vice versa. Reconciliation of these translation approaches is challenging, and thus it is desirable to calculate both production and consumption footprints.Adoption of various environmental and sustainability targets is a common practice in many cities. 319,[357][358][359] Despite cities often having limited institutional and financial capabilities, 360 there is a compelling economic case for them to act on issues such as climate change. 361 However, city-level targets (eg, net-zero carbon-emission targets) are likely to be voluntary, aspirational goals that do not add up towards absolute sustainability at planetary level. Many more cities globally need to adopt binding targets, with real material commitments that cover all ESB domains to enable life within the safe and just corridor. 294 Translation of ESBs for cities also needs to consider urban dynamics (ie, growth and shrinkage of cities), natural and ecological endowments and pressures (eg, climatic conditions, proximity to sensitive habitats, levels of water stress), the socioeconomic context, and existing challenges and capabilities (eg, adaptive capacity). Increases in economic activity, urban population 362 and resource use, 363 and municipal service levels can increase pressures on ESBs. Thus, allocation strategies should account for cities' ecological endowments and vulnerabilities, socioeconomic context in terms of human wellbeing and security, and institutional and governance capacity. To do so, adjustments are required to the initially allocated shares of resources and responsibilities to different cities, while ensuring the aggregated total still remains within the ESB (which is essential to meet the justice considerations we outlined). 81 Translation of ESBs to businesses presents challenges stemming from their highly heterogeneous and dynamic nature, their complex interrelationships with other businesses and policy makers across supply chains and geographic locations, and constraints surrounding corporate disclosure of essential information. Many businesses operate across multiple jurisdictions and have substantial environmental impacts beyond the countries where they operate. 302 Moreover, limited information exchange between scientific researchers and businesses has constrained definition of ESBs in actionable termseg, in relation to calculating and reporting a company's biodiversity footprint. 364 The business-specific information required for cross-scale translation is often available only for larger companies and fragmented in scope. This lack of comprehensive, consistent, and comparable business-specific data, coupled with complex supply chains, further complicates translation of ESBs to individual businesses. Finally, conceptualising the Earth-system impacts of a business in relation to consumers living in a specific area (such as a city) to avoid double counting is challenging. However, when allocating responsibilities, double counting is less problematic, given that most ESBs are already transgressed, and could help to accelerate reaching the safe and just corridor. 291 Many businesses are adopting science-based targets for climate change, 313 and there is an increasing call for companies to start setting science-based targets for freshwater. 365 These targets require companies to account for both their direct impacts and their impacts and dependencies across the value chain. 332 Many businesses are alsoThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission increasingly looking into addressing their scope 3 emissions. 366 Initiatives to align corporate actions with global goals, such as the Paris Agreement, rely primarily on voluntary engagements, 367 with each participating business setting its own targets (appendix pp 18-21), although the EU Emissions Trading System is a notable exception. Businesses are also assessing the material risks to their future financial performance posed by environmental change, triggered by initiatives such as the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures and the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures. Both of these taskforces have developed and produced recommendations for businesses to disclose information on climate-related and nature-related impacts, dependencies, risks and opportunities in consultation with representatives of financial institutions, large corporations, account ing and consultancy firms, and credit ratings agencies. 368,369 For decades, companies have reported their performance on their financial bottom lines and their environmental and social impacts and responsibilities as part of assessing and managing risks to profitability and sustainability. However, such voluntary initiatives often are insufficient to achieve global goals. 294,370 Organisations such as the World Business Council for Sustainable Development are developing practical tools and a data roadmap to enable companies to account for scope 3 emissions. 371,372 These tools could help to encourage wider engagement with company-specific impacts. Allocation of resource budgets and mitigation responsibilities can be undertaken using the environmental impacts (as measured via production footprints), with post-allocation adjustments that account for the socioeconomic contexts of the business. 81 Such an approach enables incorporation of the triple bottom lines (ie, financial, social, and environmental) into translation and the positioning of businesses within the wider socioecological-economic system.Allocation of responsibility for reducing environmental impacts could be effective, but could overlook actors with low direct impacts but substantial opportunities to shape the environmental behaviour of others-eg, financial institutions, which are not prominently featured in translation efforts focused on direct environmental impacts, but can enable or obstruct efforts by businesses to set and meet targets. 373 Many businesses require continued investment in green innovation to remain competitive. 374 To attract investment, businesses need to show solid financial performance, low environmental impacts, and social acceptability. Investors, banks, and other financial actors seeking to minimise their risk exposures to climate and ecosystem change 375 can facilitate divestments from fossil fuels or high-impact production to alternative, greener, low-impact production. 376 Although such divestment could create new vested interests, financial institutions have the potential to accelerate societal transformation towards a safe and just corridor.For cross-scale translation to be adopted, methods and strategies need to adhere to broadly acceptable common principles. Ten principles 81 for translation and subsequent target setting have been identified to facilitate best practices: translation approaches and applications should be scientifically rigorous, transparent, just, systemic, sufficiently safe, and context sensitive, and science-based targets (ie, based on the outcomes of translation) should be enabling, incentivising, dynamic and time bound, and synergetic. 81 For cross-scale translation to be scientifically rigorous, the methods should be consistent, reproducible, and transparent. Figure 23 shows key steps for translation of the ESBs to cities and businesses, and how translation is linked to the attribution of environmental pressures exerted by city inhabitants and businesses. Translation is a two-step sequential process of transcription, followed by allocation and adjustment.The first step is to transcribe the state indicators used to quantify the safe and just ESBs into units that can be linked to actors-ie, converting ESBs into flow or pressure indicators related to relevant causal chains (eg, conversion of the degrees of global warming to tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions, conversion of surface water flows to megalitres of water extracted). This conversion allows ESB state variables to be transcribed into resource budgets and abatement responsibilities, that is budgets of water, nutrients, land, carbon, and particulate matter that can be safely used or discharged to the environment. These budgets are expressed in the same units as the measured environmental footprints or pressures emanating from cities and businesses.The second step is to allocate the transcribed budgets to actors. Allocation involves the downscaling of either maximum available aggregated pressures associated with ESBs that have not yet been transgressed (ie, resource budgets), or, for transgressed boundaries (eg, climate change), minimum associated mitigation and abatement responsibilities to the target level territories and entities. 334 It could involve allocation to the smallest unit (eg, an individual person or land unit) appropriate for the ESB (figure 24), followed by aggregation per unit budget to target level. Countries and industrial sectors are intermediaries (or intermediate points) in the translation to businesses (figure 24; appendix pp 23-24).After cross-scale allocation comes adjustment, which seeks to redistribute these initial allocated shares between actors within the same scale (ie, between cities, countries, sectors in a country, and businesses within a sector; figure 24; appendix pp 22-23) to account for differences in their social, economic, and ecological contexts. Current and projected production and consumption footprints of cities and businesses could be an important ecological context to consider in these steps. Further adjustments might also be needed before The Lancet Planetary Health Commission connecting the ESB shares to policy targets, because resource capacities could change through metacoupling (ie, human-nature interactions within a place, between adjacent places, and between distant places in the world), 377 such as inter-basin water transfer 132,378 or technological means such as desalination of sea water or carbon capture and storage. [379][380][381] Allocation and adjustment are implemented according to sharing approaches, reflecting different aspects of justice, and are enacted according to a metric dataset that is harmonised at the appropriate scale. The appendix (pp 16-17) shows examples of commonly used sharing approaches and enacting metrics, including the relevance and potential of these metrics to address the Earth-system justice principles.For ESBs with a regional budget (based on global and sub-global ESBs), 10 translation could follow a global citizen approach-ie, sharing the global budget equally among the entire global population-or could follow a bioregional approach, whereby a regional budget is shared equitably within a region. 81 Application of a bioregional approach alone has several limitations, as a result of the increasingly intertwined, complex, and global production and consumption systems that mean that actions have impacts beyond specific regions, the mismatched distribution of resource endowment and population concentration, and the mismatched distribution of responsibilities and benefits. 81 Thus, bioregional approaches need to be benchmarked against a global citizen approach.The ESB for natural ecosystem areas recognises each ecoregion in terms of NCP. The pressures degrading the ecoregions are globally distributed throughEquity-related, socioeconomic, and ecological contexts influence the choice of sharing approaches used in the allocation step and iterative adjustments. The ESBs are translated into shares for actors, which are informed by the impact assessment, and can be used for informing city-level and business-level reporting, benchmarking, risk management, and science-based target setting. CO 2 e=carbon dioxide equivalents. ESBs=Earth-system boundaries. *Transcribed budgets and standards that are spatially specific and whose aggregation produces the global quantities. The Lancet Planetary Health Commission production and consumption systems. Halting further loss of nature and restoring degraded ecoregions is important locally and globally. This ESB could be translated via a global commons perspective, in which the natural ecosystem area target for all ecoregions and the costs of delivering the targets are shared by all actors worldwide (ie, shared responsibility of a global commons). Alternative approaches include a bioregionalism perspective, in which the target for the largely intact natural area of a specific ecoregion and the associated costs are allocated locally (local responsibility), or a consumption and production footprint perspective, whereby a natural ecosystem area target is allocated to actors responsible for exerting pressure on that ecoregion, irrespective of where they are located. For example, the ESB could be transcribed to manageable pressure indicators based on the agricultural land footprint of production and consumption activities, [382][383][384] given that the expansion of agricultural land is a key driver of biodiversity loss. 5 In the absence of a global governance body, the biosphere ESBs could be operationalised through local government or by actors incentivised to reduce their pressure in critical ecoregions to meet the expectations of consumers and investors. For example, cities and businesses could limit and redress their respective consumption and production footprints in critical ecoregions and report on this process.The safe ESB for functional integrity is a minimum of 20-25% natural or semi-natural habitat per km² of human-modified lands. This boundary can directly be used by local authorities to guide land zoning, restoration, prioritisation of investments on land and catchment to improve delivery of NCP to local communities, regulations on residual discharges, and strategic plantings and conservation areas on farms to support and deliver optimal biodiversity outcomes. Because this ESB is already expressed at a fine grid scale (1 km²), it does not need to be translated.As of 2023, the long-term global warming trend had passed 1•2°C (ie, the just climate ESB of 1°C has been exceeded), 385 and thus cumulative global carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions need to be curtailed. This target can be transcribed to an annual budget of gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 e). Currently, there is no established CO 2 e budget on a global scale that corresponds to the just ESB of 1•0°C. Thus, to exemplify the translation of the climate ESB, we use the existing CO 2 e budget associated with a global warming limit of 1•5°C.The IPCC's sixth assessment report 140 aligns a remain ing carbon budget of 500 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide from the beginning of 2020 onwards, with a 50% chance of limiting global warming to 1•5°C. Translation of this target implies allocating the budget to actors annually for a given time horizon. As the actor-specific allocated budget is less than the amount of current emissions, carbon abatement and mitigation will need to be undertaken, including through a so-called global carbon law reduction pathway of halving gross anthropogenic emissions every 10 years for all sectors and countries 386 or equal annual emissions reduction (ie, carbon emissions are reduced by a fixed amount each year). Allocation of a carbon budget is contentious, with different actors advocating for different sharing approaches, including those mediated by carbon markets. However, these annual budgets can be allocated on an equal per-person basis in the first instance to express the average global citizen emission share, which can provide a reference point for immediate actions.The global ESBs for nitrogen and phosphorus can be allocated per land unit (ie, per hectare of agricultural area, given that agriculture contributes roughly 90% of anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus inputs) or per person (because the main driver of surplus nitrogen and phosphorus is consumptive demands for food production). The sub-global ESBs for nitrogen and phosphorus are based on flow criteria and concentration limits, which can be allocated regionally (again by area or per person). Targets should ensure that local  334 and Suàrez-Eiroa et al, 2022, 349 and uses the equality principle as a starting point. Available budgets or responsibilities are first disaggregated to the smallest unit allocation (eg, an individual person for carbon dioxide equivalents and water use, a hectare of agricultural land for nitrogen and phosphorus), and then this per-unit budget is aggregated to higher-level entities or agents (eg, countries, cities, sectors, companies). The appendix (pp 23-24) includes corresponding generalised mathematical expressions for allocation of resource budget and responsibilities to cities and businesses, with countries and sectors as intermediate points in allocation to businesses. The monthly surface alteration budget of a given basin (ie, no more than 20% of prevailing natural flow patterns) can be allocated per person and aggregated to show boundaries at a city level, symbolising the maximum consumption of the average global citizen that should be adhered to stay within the ESB. The transcription of the basin-scale ESB requires an assessment of monthly flow alteration in surface waters. Where local-scale environmental flow requirements have been established by flow-ecology analyses, these targets should be used to define safe and just levels of flow alteration for a given watershed.The groundwater ESB is a regional boundary expressed such that annual extraction from a given aquifer should not exceed its annual replenishment rates. The global budget can be allocated equally per person to express the average global citizen share. For regional boundaries, extraction should be limited within the recharge level.Translation of water ESBs to cities and businesses should consider surface and groundwater together. Water budgets should then be allocated to competing uses: municipal, industrial, rural, and agricultural. It can be assumed that water demand is relatively constant for cities and businesses compared with the fluctuating demands in agricultural contexts, but all these actors share responsibility for the water flow system. The allocation process should consider the interlinkages between upstream and downstream water use and flow alteration, and how actions in hydrologically connected regions will collectively affect recharging of aquifers. For businesses, the water use for production can be established in relation to the water availability at the locations of withdrawal of surface and groundwater. The resulting water footprint can be used to identify regional hotspots of water overuse within production chains 387 and thus help to approach the water ESBs.To operationalise the aerosol ESB, the annual limit of 15 μg/m³ PM 2•5 needs to be converted into annual maximum allowable loads (by weight) based on information about flow rates. Data for PM 2•5 concentrations and flow rates can be obtained from end-of-pipe (for industrial sources) monitoring points and strategically placed sensors (eg, in urban areas). Given that PM 2•5 is highly place and source specific, 10 translation of this ESB involves allocation of spatially specific loads of PM 2•5 to industrial and non-industrial sources situated within the relevant areas. The final translated share has health implications locally and regionally, and thus health out comes should be embedded in the selection of sharing approaches alongside socioeconomic and ecological concerns. 388 Health professionals also need to be included as important stakeholders in the subsequent setting of science-based targets.Although translation scholarship discusses the link between sharing approaches and distributive justice, 30,334,335 this link is rarely made in the literature about translations to cities and businesses. Instead, researchers often invoke principles that relate to value creation of businesses, 336,337 without making explicit the link between allocation approaches, fairness norms, and health outcomes. Although urban translations often invoke the equality principle because it is considered objectively fair that everyone is equally entitled to Earth's resources, translation efforts that seek to address justice need to take further steps and account for the underlying complexities and differences in the environmental and socioeconomic contexts of actors across different scales.No translation method is perfect or without uncertainty, and no one method can address all the nuances of on-the-ground situations and justice. Likewise, no single sharing approach can address all aspects of distributional justice at once, and coverage varies between the five domains covered by the ESBs and whether justice involves reallocation of available resources or impact reduction responsibilities. For example, we argue that economic-contribution and legacy-sharing approaches can enable intragenerational justice in terms of allocating responsibilities for reducing environmental pressures but not for allocating available resources such as water (appendix pp 18-19). Sharing approaches based on meeting basic human needs could help to achieve intergenerational and intragenerational justice for both resource and responsibility allocations. As each sharing approach reflects a particular perspective of fairness, cross-scale translation often requires an iterative process of allocation and adjustment (figures 23, 24) to accommodate competing and complementary interpretations of distributive fairness.There are risks inherent in an approach that accommodates multiple interpretations of fairness. Powerful actors could use this flexibility to lobby for a translation approach that benefits them. Hence, translation approaches need to be embedded in rigorous governance systems with a focus on Earth-systems justice. Transparency is a crucial element of governance. To ensure transparency, cities and companies should disclose all their translation steps and justify all the choices made along the way, so that third parties can scrutinise these choices. Such a transparency requirement, although modest, is not in place for corporateThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission science-based targets for greenhouse gas emissions, thus hampering their effectiveness. 389 The methodological difficulties of translation are a challenge for operationalisation of ESBs for cities and businesses. Cities and businesses have enormous potential to contribute to moving within the safe and just corridor, but cannot act alone. Cities are embedded within broader socioeconomic, environmental, and institutional structures. 390 Businesses are intrinsically connected to, and influenced and constrained by, actors across their supply chains and throughout their product lifecycle. 294 Structural changes-eg, creation of national and international regulatory frameworks, incentive structures, and enabling policies-are essential. 391 Consumer choices and public opinion can also influence businesses, including the types of products made and how they are produced, and what technologies should or should not be invested upon. Change of norms, values, and world views are necessary for respecting Earth-system justice and the safe and just ESBs, and stronger adherence to justice principles is needed in cross-scale translation for intra-sectoral or cross-sectoral adjustments to be successful. The communications sectors, including traditional and social media and advertising companies, among others, are major cultural value creators. Although these actors often have relatively small footprints, the value they create and perpetuate can have large Earth-system impacts. Technological change could alter resource-use efficiency and the intensity of environmental impacts, which could in turn change the allocated shares across cities and businesses.To effectively mobilise cities and companies to respect their fair share of responsibilities will probably require nothing less than a broader societal transformation. Businesses and cities are just two of the important actors that can contribute to the systemic transformations needed to move within a safe and just corridor. In Part 4, we review the growing literature on the need for Earth-system transformation and identify major transformations in consumption, technology, economies, and governance.The speed and intensity of harmful Earth-system changes mean that conventional solutions are inadequate to live within the safe and just corridor. Fundamental systemwide transformations are needed to remain within the ESBs, ensure wellbeing, and provide equitable access and allocation of resources. 32,392 Transformations are more profound and comprehensive processes of change than transitions. 393 Transitions tend to focus on reducing direct pressures on the environment in key sectors (eg, energy, food)-and on incremental changes in behaviour, technologies, and policy. Transformations, by contrast, involve systemic, synergistic, structural, political, practical, and individual changes across scales to address fundamental drivers of Earth-system change. 32,392,[394][395][396] For example, environmental historians record key transformations that changed human impacts on the natural environment, including the domestication of plants and animals, European colonialism, and the industrial revolution. 397 Although agriculture and industrialisation improved health and wellbeing, they also led to biodiversity loss, land-use change, pollution, and the dispossession of Indigenous peoples. Thus, transformations can be both positive and negative. Colonialism, in particular, left a legacy of inequality through which many countries became a source of wealth and resources for European elites via slavery, mining, agricultural exports, and exploitation of land and workers. [398][399][400][401] These inequalities persist, with powerful countries and companies in Europe and North America continuing to control trade, finance flows, land, and labour and extracting value from poorer countries and peoples. 402 World War 2 brought rapid political, technological, and governance transformations after 1945, including expanded use of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, the Cold War, the development of nuclear power and nuclear weapons, a more globalised economic system, the formation of the UN, and growth in consumption and population, often termed the great acceleration. 403 From the 1970s, growing awareness of environmental degradation led to the environmental movement, UN environmental action, stronger non-governmental organisations, environmental education, and international health and environmental regulations. Important demographic transformations since 1950 include rapid global urbanisation (from 30% to 56% in 2020) 291,404 and a halving of fertility rates, slowing population growth. Justice-based transformations include the abolition of state-sanctioned slavery in many regions and of state-sponsored apartheid in South Africa, and a more widespread recognition of human rights, including those of women. 405 Transformations can be initiated by positive social tipping points that can result from the spread of new norms and behaviours, the rapid drop of prices for sustainable technologies, or profound shifts in governance regimes. [405][406][407][408][409][410][411][412][413][414][415] Scholars of sociotechnical 410 and socioecological systems 49,416 emphasise cross-scale and multiphase dynamics whereby changes in beliefs, technology, behaviour, or sustainability institutions expand in scale from niches through regime to landscapes. The transformations towards sustainability in energy, food, and urban systems that we outline later in this Part include several examples of such social or socioecological tipping points. 417,418 Systemic and structural transformations to move into the safe and just corridor need to address fundamental drivers of Earth-system degradation and vulnerability. 419 If transformations are to address these drivers, they should address who uses resources, how, why, where, and whenThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission they use them, and who has power to alter decisions and the environment. 420 Assessments that summarise fundamental or indirect drivers most often include population, consumption, technology, values, information, and economic development and contrast these drivers with direct or proximate drivers, such as land-use change, urbanisation, energy use, infrastructure extension, and agricultural expansion. 421 Frameworks conceptualising drivers include the Ehrlich-Holdren identity and the IPAT (ie, impact=population + affluence + technology) formulation, which assumes that population, affluence, and technology determine environmental impacts, 422,423 and the DPSIR (drivers, pressures, states, impacts, and responses) approach, which identifies, for example, population and economic development as drivers. 424,425 Integrated assessment models usually use some combination of population, technology, resource availability, environmental constraints, and economic development as drivers of scenarios 426 but pay inadequate attention to moral and social values, inequality, and alternative growth policies. 427,428 Critical scholars argue that capitalist political and economic systems are the drivers that need to be transformed to ensure a stable Earth system and social justice. They link these drivers to the exploitation of both people and nature, and argue that they create inequality and environmental degradation via a focus on profit and accumulation. [429][430][431][432] These scholars also argue that colonial political and economic processes dispossessed local and Indigenous peoples, changed land use and exacerbated global inequalities that persist under both democratic and autocratic governments. [433][434][435][436] Recent neoliberal processes of reduced government, free trade, and privatisation of the commons are blamed for undermining public services and environmental protection. [437][438][439] In both democracies and autocracies, powerful elites oppose transformative policies that redistribute wealth and protect the environment. 440,441 However, state authorities can intervene against elite interests in response to social protest and when environmental crises or health emergencies undermine profits. 442,443 Critical scholars highlight the risks of trade-offs, and of discourses that justify business as usual, assume consensus, ignore equity and human rights, shift the burden of action from those most responsible for degradation to less well-off countries that are not responsible for problems, and demand action from the individuals and groups most affected by yet who contributed least to environmental degradation. 437,444,445 Many barriers to transformations that lock in business as usual or limit the scale of change have been identified. For example, legal barriers include long-term and confidential contracts between governments and investors that guarantee access to resources such as energy, land, and water without attention to environmental protection. 446 Property rights can be used to challenge regulation and convert common lands to private ownership. 447 Legal remedies are few when people and nature are unable to obtain recognition in the form of legal standing in courts. 448 Political and institutional barriers include the fragilities of multilateralism, 449 the erosion of democracy, 450 and the loss of multiparty compromise. In many countries short-term political cycles and polarisation of social and environmental issues are slowing or reversing change. 451 In others the persistence of autocracy and powerful elites exclude many people from decision making, control elections, repress unions, and punish protest. 450 Institutional rules and cultures 71 also prevent fundamental change, and although it is possible for all forms of government, from representative democracies to dictatorships, to enact some change, not all do so in inclusive ways. 451 International environmental assessments increasingly call for just, systemic transformations and transitions. 48,120,121,140,452,453 Most of these assessments prioritise reducing poverty and inequality, and focus on transforming energy, food, health, and urban systems; reducing consumption by adjusting values, lifestyles, and perceptions of success; changing political and economic systems to be more inclusive; challenging powerful interests; and incentivising sustainability. 454,455 Proposals for just transitions call for expansion of decent, green, and just jobs (with fair wages and healthy working conditions in industries advancing sustainable resource use), social protections including health care and food security, circular economies, widespread access to and participation in decision making, and recognition of the rights of communities and Indigenous peoples. 456,457 Calls for transformations appear in multiple forms and terminologies, including calls for alternative pathways such as degrowth, inclusive development, buen vivir, ubuntu, and green new deals. [458][459][460][461] Calls for transformation are also grounded in improved health conditions. For example, the Alma-Ata Declaration asserts that health for all is a universal human right, achieved in part through universal access, equity, participation, and intersectoral action, as well as healthy environments. 462 Social barriers include poor availability of accessible, independent, or unbiased information and knowledge systems. 463 Marketing that promotes consumption; a distrust of science and public institutions; and cultures, social norms, values, and habits or beliefs that resist or take time to change are other barriers. [464][465][466] Economic, technological, and infrastructural barriers to transformation include assumptions about what constitutes progress (eg, gross domestic product metrics), 467 discounting the future, 468 devaluing poor or marginalised people, and ignoring environmental and health externalities in pricing goods. Other barriers include the problem of stranded resources, investments, and assets 469 including fossil fuel energy and unsustainable urban design, and technological and infrastructural lock-in and lack of investment to overcome it.The portfolio for transformations Our transformations portfolio looks to address the ends and means needed to live within the safe and just corridor (figure 25). The end goals are to reduce significant harm through reducing pressure on ESBs and to ensure minimum access to resources for those without adequate access. The means to enable these goals to be achieved include inclusive decision making, recognition of the people and regions most affected, and the redistribution of the remaining resources and responsibilities through equitable transformations of consumption, economic systems, technologies, and governance. The proposals we make are consistent with the spirit of the SDGs.Just transformations need to address multi-level injustices, corporate responsibility for pressures on the Earth system, and the deep vulnerabilities of poor and marginalised people. 470 Relative and absolute income and wealth inequality are increasing, 471,472 and environmental degradation is mostly caused by a small but affluent proportion of people, who mostly live in high-income countries. 18,473,474 Hickel, for example, argues that emission-reduction scenarios do not address the need for high-income countries to cut emissions steeply because of their historical responsibility, greater capacity, and higher incomes, and documents the inequities in other resource consumption reflecting colonial legacies. 400,[475][476][477] Disproportionate responsibility is also apparent among business actors, with 100 corporations emitting 71% of global carbon dioxide emissions. 478 Access to information is a cross-cutting priority in transformations. Science can be transformative through theory and practice that focuses on minimising Earthsystem risks and injustice, including through staying within safe and just ESBs. 10,294 Epistemic justice requires the use of different knowledge systems, processes, and indicators, including Indigenous and local knowledge, to enable transformations. 479 Transformations can be autonomous or deliberately initiated, implemented, spread, or resisted by different actors. 480 There is a continuum of interactions across individual, organisational, and system-wide transformations. 481 We propose four fundamental and interrelated transformations supported by system-wide changes in governance (figure 25), including reducing and reallocating consumption, transforming economic systems, and expanding access to sustainable technology. 451 Reductions in excess consumption and reallocation of consumption to people without adequate access to resources is needed to live within ESBs and is increasingly recognised as a transformation priority aligned with distributive justice. 140 Individual decision makers in households, companies, and governments have agency to change values, structures, and behaviour to reduce consumption. Consumption through everyday demand for products and services per person is a key driver of Earth-system change as fertility rates decline and population growth slows. 482 Overall population patterns contribute to pressures on Earth systems. Improvements in gender equality, education access, women's status, health care, urbanisation, education, and income levels have resulted in rapidly declining fertility, 483 which are projected to reverse population growth. Improving women's rights could reduce overall consumption and has already resulted in a social tipping point towards sustainability, while making women less vulnerable to climate change. 484 Average consumption per person has increased substantially since 1970 (energy consumption has increased by around 35%, and food consumption by around 25%). 485 Some increases are associated with declining poverty, but wealthy countries and individuals consume disproportionately more because social norms, The Lancet Planetary Health Commission media, and advertising promote consumption in terms of large homes, automobiles, and frequent air travel. 13,400,472,486 The lifestyles and consumption patterns of the elite, which are over-represented in media, influence the social norms and aspirations of the growing middle classes who sometimes then emulate upper-class consumption styles. 487,488 Transformations can be guided by sufficientarian principles, which ensure minimum access to resources and an upper limit to prevent excess consumption. 489 Changes in consumption have complex causes that are associated with both individual behaviour and structural forces. Increases in consumption are associated with rising income, falling costs, marketing, planned product obsolescence, dietary choices, and socio-psychological factors, 490 whereas decreases are linked with conservation values, rising costs, and government policies that reduce overconsumption or support sustainable choices. [491][492][493] Changes in values underpin changes in consumption behaviour of individuals, policy makers, and corporate leadership. Shifting social norms and cultural values can stimulate politicians to enact ambitious environmental policies. 494 Information and knowledge systems can drive transformations in consumption through education, public awareness, cultural visions, setting of targets, monitoring and reporting of environmental impacts and compliance, and genuine green marketing. [495][496][497] Information can overcome barriers including misperception and unwillingness to support policy changes or adopt new technologies. Communicating alternative worldviews and norms can trigger behavioural changes. 498 However, the media, especially when aligned with political parties or corporations, can bias, ignore, or promote information that influences the public. Affluent elites have the agency and ability to shape social norms and institutions. 499 Social norms are the basis of law. 500 Therefore, recognition of the immoral character of fossil fuels, for example, can lead to regulations restricting fossil fuel use and introducing advertising bans. 501 Limitarian justice principles suggest limits to wealth 489 and consumption of resources. 502,503 The disproportionate environmental impact of luxury and wasteful consumption 17,473,504 is addressed in post-growth and degrowth scholarship, which emphasises the need for a drastic shift to basic, necessary, sustainable, or satisfying consumption. [505][506][507][508] Consumption and travel that emphasises the quality of individual and collective lives is preferred to that which satisfies social norms or artificially created needs and desires that are continuously reinvented by advertising firms to push growth. 509 Limiting what is possible for some people allows the opening up of possibilities for others. 510 Research that links energy consumption with social provisioning suggests that wellbeing does not increase much above a modest level of energy consumption. Per-capita consumption is often lower in systems that prioritise public services, income equality, democracy, and public health. 511 Demand-side solutions in climate mitigation not only have the potential to reduce counterfactual sectoral emissions by 40-80% in end-use sectors, they also have largely positive effects on human wellbeing. 512 There are many accepted and effective mechanisms for reducing and reallocating the consumption of highincome consumers-eg, interventions such as provision of environmental information, peers sharing their sustainable actions, progressive and enforceable taxation, graduated resource pricing, land-use planning, green technologies, and subsidies for more sustainable options. 140 Innovations in public communication institutions and boundary organisations that connect science with communities can incorporate other knowledge and values (eg, local and Indigenous knowledge), enhance transformative capacities, reinforce positive feedbacks, and trigger sustainability learning. [513][514][515] Socio-technical transformations can be supported by standards, certificates, labels, bans on advertisements for harmful products, 516 and campaigns to change household behaviours. Information and pricing can reduce waste, air travel, and meat and dairy consumption. 486 Legal strategies can reallocate consumption and waste by using consumer, environmental, international, and constitutional law. 517 However, reducing and reallocating environmentally important consumption is challenged by growth-oriented political and economic systems and by the lack of affordable sustainable choices for consumers. 518 Unequal and excessive personal consumption is rooted in economic systems. Pollution costs are externalised in the cost of products and services. Trillions of dollars are invested in fossil fuels and mineral extraction, and shifts to lower-carbon energy systems are undermined by the risk of stranded assets and powerful interests. 519,520 Investments using accumulated wealth often involve land and resource grabs and protection of these investments against claims that they do not adhere to environment, social, and governance criteria or use of socially responsible investment tools. 521 The environmental impacts of economic growth and growing inequality can be addressed through policies that require external costs to be included in prices, that measure progress through alternative indicators, that mandate decent working conditions and pay, and that monitor and control investment, subsidies, and trade. The financial system can be transformed through reporting of environmental risks, scaling up of private and public finance for environmental protection, providing access to resources and credit for poor people and countries, and avoiding harmful subsidies and investment. Cancelling debt, limiting structural adjustment policies that cut public spending on health and environment, offering grants rather than loans, and ensuring low interest rates forThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission sustainable activities can enable transformation in lowincome countries and remedy historical inequalities associated with unequal exchange.Economic transformations could provide effective means to reduce pressures on the Earth system while ensuring just access. Taxation could help to reallocate wealth and profits and generate revenue for government action, but is inadequate or poorly enforced in both rich and poor countries. Tax justice refers to policies that address extreme inequality while generating the resources for states to provide public services, 522,523 and includes addressing tax havens, 524 tax evasion, 525 tax avoidance and other abuses of the tax system, 526 criminal activities, and financial secrecy. 527 Financial globalisation has enabled the rapid movement of money from one jurisdiction to another, and trade or currency exchange could be taxed to fund green policies. 528,529 A functioning tax system provides revenues to fund public services and the redistribution of wealth to curb inequalities. 522 Tax injustice reduces resources for states to finance much-needed public and merit goods (such as food credits) and environmental protection, and perpetuates inequalities. 527 A key problem is stranded resources and assets associated with prematurely retiring fossil-fuel facilities, which mean that elimination of fossil fuels is opposed by powerful interests. 530,531 The fossil-fuel sector is estimated to be worth up to US$295 trillion. 532 To ensure global warming of no more than 1•5°C, remaining coal, gas, and oil deposits have to be left underground. 533 Most fossil fuel reserves are in low-income and middle-income countries; and some of these countries are being shamed or persuaded by international agreements and nongovernmental organisations not to use these resources, while high-income governments and investors continue to invest in fossil fuels in these settings, raising multiple justice issues. 534,535 Many countries depend on the revenues from, and employment in, the fossil-fuel sector and have lobbies preventing phase out of fossil fuels despite growing social movements calling for a fossil fuel nonproliferation treaty. 501,534,536 Perverse fossil-fuel subsidies 537 and unsustainable food systems 538 could be replaced by time-limited subsidies or incentives for sustainable alternatives. 539 Efforts to internalise external production costs (such as pollution and waste) could be accelerated through the legal system, regulation, and corporate self-regulation but could be unjust if they result in increased prices, limits access for poor people, or undermines governments' abilities to guarantee low-cost basic services. Currently, the dominant economic mechanism for resource allocation is the free market, where prices might restrict or prevent access, non-market values are ignored, and the commodification of nature often fails to achieve social and environmental goals. 540 Although financial institutions can self-govern and self-regulate-via legal and managerial mechanisms including disclosure, benchmarking, divestment, engagement, and targeted investment 541 -these approaches often have limited effectiveness given the imperative to maximise returns on investments. 330 Many economic systems manage risk through insurance. Insurance services can offer participating actors protection against the environmental harm they cause and the harm that is caused to them. 542 Insurance actors could play a transformative and justice-oriented role in deciding who they insure, how, when, and why. However, insurance can also enable societies and governments to postpone difficult decisions or to shift the responsibility to people harmed and away from those driving harm (a type of maladaptation). 543 The projected damages from, for example, extreme climate events, could break the insurance markets, which are already unavailable or unaffordable to many poor people.The standard measure of economic success is growth measured as increase in gross domestic product or business profits, neither of which account for environmental impacts or broader human needs. Alternative measures focused on wellbeing can foster transformations of economic systems. [544][545][546] Another economic metric that can be a barrier to transformations is the use of discount rates, which discount the value of damage or benefits in the future at levels that undervalue intergenerational justice. 547 Technology is fundamentally implicated in the environmental impacts of production processes. 548 Grubler and colleagues 549 argue that greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced to enable adherence to limiting global warming to 1•5°C through feasible changes in energy intensity and demand. The IPCC 550 identified various technology transformations that could help to enable decarbonisation, sustainable development, and justiceincluding wider use of solar and wind energy, battery storage, electric vehicles, efficiency advances, building retrofits, and alternatives to cement. The unit costs of these technologies have fallen with innovation, increased consumer demand, and government support, which has allowed for more equitable, but still inadequate, access. 550 Some scenarios, such as those used by IPCC, assume investment and implementation of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, other methods of greenhouse gas removal, and solar radiation management. However, not all technologies are safe or just and could involve trade-offs. 551 For example, there is considerable controversy about the safety and cost of geoengineering and the environmental and human rights impacts of mining rare minerals used in some low-carbon options. 552,553 Technological transformations could enable sustainable agriculture that could protect nature and reduce emissions through efficiencies and alternatives, includ ing Indigenous practices that reduce use of land, pollutingThe Lancet Planetary Health Commission chemicals, and water. 480 Because nutrient use is crucial in agriculture, technological solutions include reduced synthetic fertiliser use via improvements in the efficiency of fertiliser use and soil-management practices, ensuring equitable fertiliser access, supporting regenerative nutrient-conserving practices, closing nutrient loops by improving recycling of waste and sewage, and supporting the emergence of enabling socioeconomic conditions. National and international efforts are required to overcome major barriers to reducing the use of cheap fossil fuel-derived synthetic fertilisers in high-income countries and providing access to fertilisers in lowincome countries.Technological and design transformation could also help to create sustainable, safer, and just buildings, cities, and infrastructure through promoting circular economy, 554 and decreasing vulnerabilities to Earth-system changes. 555 The precautionary principle-which emphasises caution and preventive action in the face of environmental risks and uncertainty-could minimise the introduction and use of new harmful technologies 556 and protect health. Subsidies for sustainable and adaptation technologies could help to make them affordable for all people.Improved governance is crucial to enable healthy living within the safe and just corridor, by enabling transformation in consumption, economics, and technology. Earth-system governance includes the formal and informal rules, rule-making systems, and actors that can prevent, mitigate, and adapt to Earth-system changes. It includes every level of government from local to global, as well as other political, economic, and social institutions, such as business and civil society. 557,558 Types of actors who can influence transformations include state and non-state actors, including business leaders, non-governmental organisations, and communities. 417 Counter-actors that work against a safe and just future can limit positive change. The UN Agenda 21 identifies nine major groups who are often active in environmental negotiations: women; children and youth; Indigenous peoples; non-governmental organisations; local authorities; workers and trade unions; business and industry; the scientific and technological community; and farmers. 559 Opportunities can be enabled and implemented by state and non-state actors, with coalitions of actors working together for environmental justice against fossil fuels, to set science-based targets for business, or engaging in activism to protect indigenous land. These efforts bring together non-state actors, including scientists, businesses, and religious, labour, humanitarian, and cultural coalitions. [560][561][562] Both state and non-state actors can prioritise just transformations, but can also promote the special interests of people in power and fail to recognise the needs of poor and marginalised people.The levers of governance for transformation include legal, economic, political, technological, cultural, and informational levers. Many of these levers are already deployed, but not at sufficient scale. 563,564 There are growing calls to radically reform the UN to be able to deliver on the transformations needed. These calls include recommendations to set up an Earth governance regulatory body and to modify the UN Security Council to address peacebuilding, climate security, and health security. 565 A global solidarity pact could build on the UN Secretary General's proposal for a climate solidarity pact 32,391 and a new global deal to deliver global public goods. Such an Earth governance body and pact need to articulate and quantify the minimum rights of access to resources worldwide, and should debate and develop the safe and just ESBs that we propose. The body could, following public debate, deliberate on and globally regulate the transformations of consumption, the economic sys tem, and technology. The adoption of the 2023 legally binding Treaty of the High Seas to protect ocean biodiversity and fight climate change shows that a multilateral system can move forwards, albeit slowly. 566 Within countries and communities, calls for just transformations emphasise democratic and inclusive processes, including fair and transparent elections, 567 reducing the power of money in politics, and recognition and representation of minorities. 48 Transformations to enable a safe and just future include re-establishing and protecting rights to the commons, sharing resources and services, making taxation more progressive, 568 investing in benign and accessible technology, public health, and transport, 569 reducing the risks of war, and decentralising decision making.Transformations of urban governance could make substantial contributions to reducing pressures on the Earth system, including via the building of networks of cities that share strategies and compete to be more sustainable and just. [570][571][572][573] Levers include building codes, regulation of sprawl, incentives and charges that shift transport from cars or that reduce waste, support for public parks and community gardens, subsidies for renewables and tree planting, penalties for polluters, and use of smart digital technology to manage resources such as water efficiently and equitably. 574 Governance is one of the main mechanisms to reduce inequality, 455,575 through initiatives to reduce debt and ensure tax justice 576 and by providing public health care, energy, and food security. Limiting consumption can be incentivised through governance levers that influence personal values or behaviours, through regulation, or through development of technologies that increase efficiency or have low environmental impact. These changes in values and behaviour can improve quality of life and health (eg, improved diet, cycling, reduced workload, enjoyment of nature) and restore Earth systems. The Lancet Planetary Health CommissionThe legal system offers many opportunities-preventive and restorative-for transformations and can overcome barriers that include confidential state-private contracts on public goods which lead to policy freezing, 577 inappropriate property rights regimes on water, 242 insecure property rights regimes on land, 578 and the commodification and privatisation of nature. International and national or state law can prioritise public over private law to protect the global commons, and incorporate much stronger recognition of human rights, 579 eliminate monopolies over critical common resources, require reporting and monitoring, and adopt stricter regulation of utilities, building codes, emissions, pollutants, and biodiversity protection.As already discussed, the law can also be used to implement political and value changes that redistribute wealth and resources. Although all actors can practise the precautionary principle and polluter pays principle, governments and businesses are best positioned to do so. Responsibility for harm can be addressed through liability law, extended producer responsibility, and reparations 580 in terms of compensation, mitigation, or injunction, and by making states accountable for the actions of their corporate or powerful residents within and beyond their borders. The law can be used to ban, limit, or fine polluters. Such transformations also require access to the courts and to information, recognition of standing, and the elimination of influence of powerful interests over court appointments and decisions. 120,581 Governance transformations also need to address health and health equity by improving access to effective health programmes and by accounting for the social, cultural, economic, and political context of policies that affect health, including those related to transportation, housing and urban planning, the environment, education, agriculture, finance, taxation, and economic development. 582 Transformations of health systems can protect wellbeing and equity from the direct and indirect consequences associated with crossing ESBs and from actions taken to manage the consequences of traversing these boundaries, thereby generating synergies and co-benefits across sectors. [583][584][585] The transformations outlined have concrete implications for how human activity asserts and resolves pressures on ESBs. The energy system and its reliance on fossil fuels is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions, changes in land use, and pollution (and associated harms). 586 Energy consumption is inequitably distributed, with millions of people lacking access to the energy that they need. Energy justice implies provision of clean electricity and other fuels to everyone to enable cooking, thermal comfort, light, economically productive use, and mobility, and also reduced reliance on fossil fuels (particularly among consumers of high amounts of energy). Even renewable energy sources rely on extractive industries 587 that are associated with effects on water resources, ecosystems, and pollution, and with injustice. Energy transitions are accelerated when energy pricing, investments, taxation, employment policies, and subsidies are restructured to reduce or eliminate fossil-fuel use, protect public health, and promote public services such as transportation, efficiency, and renewables. A just energy system is one in which job loss, workers' training, and job safety are accounted for, in which stranded resources and assets issue are dealt with equitably, and in which transformations do not lead to new lock-ins or unaffordable and unsafe energy. 536 Such a transition can be enabled by changes in values and governance, by innovative technologies, by reducing surplus consumption and accumulation and fossil-fuel subsidies, by regulating greenhouse gases, and by incentivising renewable energy and net-zero emission strategies.Agriculture and food systems have major effects on the Earth system, especially in terms of land use and farming intensity, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient use, soil degradation, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, water use, and pollution. 588 Greenhouse gas emissions from industrial agriculture include those from deforestation, mechanisation, livestock production, and waste. 589 Biospheric functional integrity and natural ecosystem areas are degraded by agricultural extensification, especially when large monoculture farms clear cut forests or convert grasslands. Irrigated agriculture uses the largest share of water globally. The inefficient use of nitrogen and phosphorus to increase crop yields and waste from the food system and intensive livestock production degrade water and air quality. The fundamental drivers of inefficient food systems include consumption, especially diets based on meat and dairy, food waste, unsustainable technologies such as polluting fertilisers and chemicals, trade, and speculation on agricultural land, which can involve unsustainable practices as land values increase. 590 Proposals for more sustainable and equitable food systems focus on transformations to agro-ecological and regenerative farming, restoration of degraded ecosystems in working landscapes, reduced use of polluting chemicals, elimination of food waste, local sourcing of food, carbon sequestration in soils, production of more on existing agricultural land, and reduced methane production through changes to agricultural practices and diet. 591 Given that our water-related ESBs will substantially restrict access to surface and groundwater, there will be trade-offs in many regions. Policy options include extensive demand-side management; redesigning property rights, permits, and contracts; climate-proofing water policies and transboundary water treaties; restoring depleted aquifers through managed aquifer recharge; and conjunctive management of surface and groundwater. 592 Transformations can be promoted through justicefocused and systemic changes in food preferences and values, the use of innovative and Indigenous technologies, government regulation and self-governance by food-system actors, the securing of property rights for small-scale farmers, food labelling (eg, to detail carbon content or that the product is forest friendly), and social support systems that provide access to food. 364,588,[593][594][595][596][597][598] Returning land to nature via changed agricultural practices could require international payment for land stewardship to compensate for lost earnings.Our translation proposals for cities include targets to influence energy use and transport options that can be met through urban design and policy. 599 Meanwhile, 30% of urban residents still need access to basic resources and services (with poor women especially vulnerable). 215 Proposals to reduce the environmental impacts of the built environment include denser urban development with accessible greenspace and community-level affordable renewable energy, electric vehicles, improved public transport, policies to support use of bicycles, building with recycled or renewable materials, introduction of shading and retrofitting to enable efficient cooling or heating, support for basic provision of drinking water and sanitation for all, public participation (eg, in decisions about the distribution of green spaces), and cultural and educational activities that encourage values of justice and sustainability. 600 A just, healthy, and safe planet is essential. Good health, including physical and mental wellbeing, is a basic human right, 601 and is at the core of the SDGs. Promoting a healthy planet for all requires an Earth-system justice approach to ensure that the critical functions of the Earth system are protected, human health and wellbeing are improved, and the minimum needs of all humans are fulfilled to enable them to prosper.In this Commission, we identified a safe and just corridor bounded by ESBs and minimum access to resources required for two levels of justice. This framework builds on the SDGs by suggesting specific boundaries that, if adhered to, will reduce harm to people and the planet. We also investigated the Earthsystem implications of providing access to required resources for wellbeing to all people. Additionally, we reviewed how ESBs can be translated for cities and business and suggest just transformations of socioeconomic systems, because growing evidence shows that it will be impossible to live within safe ESBs without addressing injustice.International agreements already aim to address many aspects of planetary health-through, for example, the SDGs and the Climate Treaty Regime. Here we go a step further to identify safe and just boundaries and minimum access levels using the same units as guides for improving global governance of the commons.In previous work, we identified eight safe and just ESBs for five biophysical domains. 10 At the global level, seven of these ESBs have already been crossed, and the eighth has been crossed at the local level in many parts of the world. In this Commission, we have gone a stage further than the previous global analysis to illustrate the spatial aspects of these safe and just boundaries. We show how the ESBs have been crossed in different parts of the world, leading to significant harm, especially to poor, marginalised people. However, adhering to just ESBs does not necessarily imply that they will be met through just transformations-the boundaries could be met through unjust and undemocratic processes. Therefore, we highlight the justice nuances of the boundaries and pathways to achieving them.The safe and just corridor is a conceptual space in which everyone can have their essential needs met without compromising the stability of Earth's essential systems. The ceiling of the safe and just corridor is defined by the ESBs, and the base is defined by the minimum access needs of everyone (calculated using the same units). We used targets consistent with international assessments to define two minimum levels of access to water, food, energy, and infrastructure. 13 This thought experiment showed that, in our unequal world (as of 2018), meeting the basic needs for those who lack it would lead to further crossing of all ESBs, and, by 2050, meeting minimum access needs for everyone would result in transgressing the boundaries even further. Our analysis suggested that, in the case of climate change, even if all people in the world have minimum access to resources and no more (ie, the base of the corridor), the climate ESB would still be crossed by 2050, in the absence of technological and societal transformations. These findings do not imply that people should be denied access to basic needs to stay within safe boundaries. Rather, we argue that living within the safe and just corridor requires fundamental transformations of production and consumption systems, via more sustainable technologies, as well as redistribution of resources.We showed how living within the safe and just corridor requires translations of the ESBs to major actors, such as cities and businesses. We identified commonly used sharing approaches in translation and assessed their alignments with an Earth-system justice framework. We discussed steps, considerations, context, and enablers of translating each ESB for cities and businesses, and showed the linkages between translated shares and impacts. We then identified four systemic transformations to enable living within the safe and just corridor: transformations in consumption, economic systems, technologies, and governance. These translations and transformations will not be easy. For example, the just ESB for climate of no more than 1°C of global warming, with millions of people without minimum access to resources and already harmed by global warming of 1•2°C, will be The Lancet Planetary Health Commission extremely difficult to adhere to even with rapid and deep transformations in governance, consumption, economies, and technologies. There are similar challenges with meeting the ESBs across the other domains, however, and we need to accept responsibility for significant harm already caused to other countries, communities, people, and species.The safe and just corridor that we defined does not yet account for interactions and trade-offs between different ESBs. Despite the advance that our ESBs represent, they do not account for how staying within the ESB in one domain affects the other domains. Additionally, the just minimum access levels that we defined did not account for non-material resources and services (eg, education, health care), or for how material resources and services are linked. Such associations are particularly important for domains that are very tightly linked through anthropogenic processes, such as agricultural production, energy, nutrients, water, and biosphere natural ecosystem area. Accounting for interactions between ESBs could reshape the safe and just corridor considerably. Neither does the corridor account for the many ways that human health is affected by multiple, intersectional vulnerabilities. Future research can expand the scientific work to other domains, such as oceans and novel entities, to further develop methods to define just boundaries and transformations, develop translation processes, explore the details of trade-offs and transformations, and quantify pathways towards the safe and just corridor.We present our results for public debate to ensure their legitimacy. What is now required is both scientific scrutiny and public debate about our numbers and framework to ensure that they are the best possible estimates. Actors worldwide need to mobilise and act on engaging with the broader systemic translations and transformations that we propose. This mobilisation is essential to protect the health and wellbeing of humans and other species, to ensure that everyone can live within the safe and just corridor, and to ensure that the responsibility for enabling this falls most heavily on those most responsible for current environmental degradation. Ultimately, the safe and just corridor provides a roadmap for a resilient and sustainable future.","tokenCount":"29174"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"77cc0df30271a932ef2ee15a3c9c5127","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ea8174d9-3e6b-4b94-9190-009a366726bd/retrieve","id":"-1579377270"},"keywords":["Cassava","contamination","gari","heavy metals","microbial","safety"],"sieverID":"c7560f36-cbbb-421e-b99e-6571e6903111","pagecount":"5","content":"Cassava is a staple mostly eaten in the form of gari, after rice in Liberia. The local method of gari processing often leads to product contamination, thus, a study was done to assess the heavy metals and microbial contamination of gari in eight counties of the country. A total of sixty-one gari samples were collected and packaged in an airtight polyethylene bag for analyses, using standard methods. Results depict that the mean of the heavy metals in the gari samples is iron (Fe) 43.87 ppm, copper (Cu) 0.94 ppm, zinc (Zn) 5.49 ppm and aluminum (Al) 257.45 ppm. Yellow gari had the highest Fe (64.90 ppm), Cu (1.25 ppm) and Zn (7.85 ppm) content, but with the least Al content (87.15 ppm). The Fe content was lower in groundnut-fortified gari (42.93 ppm), and the Cu (0.70 ppm) and Zn (3.50 ppm) content were lower in groundnut-moringafortified gari. The samples and counties have no significant statistical effect (p > .05) on the heavy metals composition of the products. No microbial growth was observed in groundnut-fortified and groundnut-moringa-fortified gari but with coconut-fortified gari having the highest total fungi count of 800 CFU/g. The major fungi identified in the gari samples are Penicillium and Aspergillus spps., but with their counts within the regulated level. Therefore, the gari consumed in Liberia are safe except for the high Fe and Al content, which needs to be addressed with the use of unpainted stainless steel materials as food contact surfaces.dewatered, and sieved into grits. The grits are then roasted to make the gari. Gari is a popular cassava food in Liberia and most parts of West Africa and some countries of Central Africa. It is commonly consumed directly or soaked in cold water with sugar, coconut, roasted peanut, or boiled cowpea as compliments, or as a stiff gel made with hot water and eaten with soup or stew. The acceptance and popularity of gari in urban and rural areas of West and Central Africa are attributed to its ability to store well, its convenience and ready-to-eat form (Flach, 1990). Most of the gari produced in Liberia is by low-level traditionally techniques due to a lack of modern processing equipment. The traditional cassava grater used is made of a flat iron sheet perforated with nails and fastened onto a wooden board (Coulibaly et al., 2014). The grating is done by rubbing the peeled roots against the sharp perforated surface of the iron sheet which grates the root into the mash.Bruising or injuries of the hands of the processor is common, leading to blood stains in the grated cassava. Stones and or tied woods are used to press out the excess moisture from the grated mash, however, pressers are used in some places. The roasting process is then done, using pans made from iron or earthen pots, and fire woods as a source of energy (Coulibaly et al., 2014). Additionally, partially roasted gari is completely dried in the sun without putting into consideration environmental pollution from moving vehicles. This common traditional method of processing cassava roots in Liberia could result in poor quality products that may be contaminated by foreign matter and disease-causing agents (Bolade, 2016). However, there is insufficient information on the safety of gari produced in Liberia. Therefore, this study is aimed at assessing the heavy metals and microbial contamination of gari produced and consumed in Liberia.Sixty-one gari samples (white gari-45, yellow gari-1, Coconut-fortified gari-4, Groundnut-fortified gari-10, and Groundnut-moringa-fortified gari-1) were collected from the processors and marketers in eight counties; Rivercess, Grand Bassa, Bomi, Margibi, Sinoe, Gbarpolu, Montserrado, and Grand Capemount, for assessment. The yellow gari and groundnut-moringa-fortified gari were collected from just a point in Montserrado County. Each of the gari samples collected is a representative of the sampling frame, thus, the unequal sampling size.Samples were packaged in hermetically sealed polyethylene bags for laboratory analyses. The processing methods for the different types of gari are described in Table 1.The iron, zinc, copper, and aluminum content of the samples were determined, using the method described by Jones, Benton, and Vernon (1990). The samples were ashed at 550°C. The ash was dissolved in 5 ml water and 15 ml HNO 3 /HCl (1:3) for heavy metal determination, using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck 205 model; Back Scientific, USA).Analysis of microbial contamination by total plate count of fungi was done following the method described by Amankwah, Barimah, Acheampong, Addai, and Nnaji (2009). Fungal isolates were identified and characterized under a light microscope (Leica Galen III) based on morphological and cultural features as described by Harrigan and McCance (1976).Analysis of variance (ANOVA), separation of the mean values (using Duncan's Multiple Range Test at p < .05), and frequency distributions were calculated, using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) software (version 21.0). Dix (1981) reported that human exposure to heavy metals causes serious adverse health effects, including reduced growth and development, cancer, organ damage, and in extreme cases-death. Nevertheless, iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) are also referred to as trace metals, which are naturally present in foodstuff and confer some nutritional benefits to human, but toxic when consumed in excess (Magomya, Yebpella, Udiba, Amos, & Latayo, 2013). The means of the heavy metal composition of the gari samples were 43.87 ppm, 0.94 ppm, 5.49 ppm and 257.45 ppm for Fe, Cu, Zn, and Al, respectively (Table 2).Although there were no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) in the heavy metal composition of the products ( Metals such as Fe, Cu, and Zn have been observed to be essential components of many alloys, wires, and vehicle tyres and, which are usually released into the roadside environment because of mechanical abrasion and normal wear and tear (Harrison, Laxen, & Wilson, 1981). This implied that yellow gari with the highest values of these metals might have been roasted closer to a roadside or a market where heavy vehicular movement exist. However, the values for Zn and Cu in the yellow gari were below the recommended maximum limit of 10 mg/100 g and 7.3 mg/100 g respectively, stipulated by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO),and World Health Organization (WHO), while the Fe content of the sample was higher than the FAO/WHO standard of 42.5 mg/100 g (FAO/WHO, 2001). Thus, it will be important for the processors in Margibi counties with the highest Fe contained gari, to replace the local graters and or roaster made with galvanized or mild steel with stainless steel machines to reduce Fe contamination. Additionally, gari roasting should be completed on the roasting pan and not further dried under the sun closer to heavy vehicular movement (Bolade, 2016). Furthermore, the higher Al content in relation to the lower Fe and Zn content in the gari samples may be attributed to contamination caused by the water used during processing or migration from the paints used on the food contact surfaces/processing machines (Nanda, Biswal, Acharya, Rao, & Pujari, 2014;Sato et al., 2014;Stahl et al., 2017). The Al content of the gari samples is very high compared to the stipulated provisional tolerable weekly intake of 7 mg/kg body weight reported by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) (JECFA, 1989). Thus, food contact surfaces/machines should not be painted with metallic polish to reduce Al contamination, as accumulation of Al has been reported to be potentially cytoand neurotoxic to humans (Austrian Department of Health, 2014).The total fungi count (TFC) of the gari samples revealed that no microbial growth was observed in groundnut-fortified and groundnutmoringa-fortified gari, but with coconut-fortified gari having the highest TFC of 800 CFU/g (Table 3). Additionally, gari from Bomi and Grand Cape mount counties have no fungi growth, but with gari from Rivercess county having the highest TFC (1500 CFU/g) (Table 3). The TFC of the gari samples in the present study is lower compared to the result of Obadina, Oyewole, and Odusami (2009) and Olopade, Oranusi, Ajala, and Olorunsola (2014). Obadina et al. (2009)  Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) stated that ready to eat foods with counts of ≤10 3 CFU/g are acceptable, counts of 10 4 -10 5 CFU/g are tolerable while counts ≥10 6 CFU/g are unacceptable (ICMSF, 1996). Thus, since the average TFC value of the gari samples is <10 3 CFU/g, they may be safe for consumption.Fungi such as Penicillium and Aspergillus spps. were found in white, yellow, and coconut-fortified gari, with Macrophomina sp. detected in only white gari (Table 3). Rhizopus spp. was found in gari from Grand Bassa county only. However, there is need to reduce the presence of Aspergillus and Penicillium spps. in the gari samples by following strictly good manufacturing and hygienic practices as these microorganisms are known to produce harmful mycotoxins (Kabak, Dobson, & Var, 2006;Oranusi, Wesley, & Oguoma, 2013). The products have no statistically significant effect (p > .05) on the TFC.The gari produced in Liberia may be safe for consumption since the zinc and copper content were below the recommended maximum limit stipulated by the FAO/WHO. However, there is a need for caution in the use of mild or galvanized steel instead of stainless steel materials as food contact surfaces, as well as painting of processing machine surfaces with metallic polish because of the high iron and aluminum content in the gari. Although the average total fungi count value of the gari samples is less than the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods levels, there is need to reduce the presence of Aspergillus and Penicillium spps. in the gari samples by following strictly good manufacturing/hygienic practices, as these microorganisms are known to produce harmful mycotoxins under favorable conditions.No conflict of interest.The gari analyses were done in the Food and T A B L E 3 Microbial counts and identification in gari products","tokenCount":"1623"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/2546605175.json b/data/part_5/2546605175.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..725817e857b4ce5f4493857f61e6d61e93297de0
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"759d4a30554ce4e1e8e4ea1f1fbadfd3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4d50a932-3ac9-46a9-8840-6efb0224887b/retrieve","id":"1440784201"},"keywords":["En Tanzanie","les rejets de bananiers sont souvent distribués par le biais des écoles (D. Mowbray","Baobab Productions) Réseau international pour l'amélioration Koen Dens","G. Matton et S. Coessens sont coopérants du VVOB à l'UNAN ; M. Vargas est responsable"],"sieverID":"e4932c0e-2f0a-4ff4-8778-9bd84aeb6dc2","pagecount":"92","content":"L'abonnement est gratuit pour les pays en développement. Les lecteurs sont invités à envoyer lettres et articles. La rédaction se réserve le droit d'abréger ou de reformuler les textes publiés pour des raisons de clarté et de concision. INFOMUSA ne peut s'engager à répondre à toutes les lettres reçues, mais s'efforcera de le faire dans un délai raisonnable. La reproduction de tout extrait du magazine est autorisée, à condition d'en spécifier l'origine. INFOMUSA est également publié en anglais et en espagnol.Variations saisonnières de Radopholus similis et Pratylenchus coffeae chez certains cultivars de bananierEffet de trois champignons mycorhiziens arbusculaires sur l'infection du bananier par Meloidogyne spp.Effets de la mycorhization sur des bananiers micropropagésDynamique du bore dans le sol d'une plantation de bananiers plantain en ColombieNouvelles méthodes de propagation in vitro de FHIA-20Modes de consommation et dépenses des consommateurs de bananes et de bananes plantain au NigeriaLivres etc.Effet de trois champignons mycorhiziens arbusculaires sur l'infection du bananier par Meloidogyne spp.Effets de la mycorhization sur des bananiers micropropagés Nouvelles de PROMUSA P. Mobambo Kitume Ngongo L e bananier plantain (Musa spp., groupe AAB) est une culture alimentaire de base dans de nombreux pays des tropiques humides. Son fruit est l'une des plus importantes sources d'hydrates de carbone dans le régime alimentaire des populations de ces régions. Les faibles besoins en main d'oeuvre nécessaires à sa culture et son rendement énergétique relativement élevé font du bananier plantain une culture adaptée aux régions où le manque de main d'oeuvre est généralement la contrainte majeure pour la production. Le bananier plantain est surtout cultivé par de petits paysans et c'est un composant essentiel de la plupart des systèmes agricoles d'Afrique occidentale et centrale, d'où provient environ 50 % de la production mondiale de banane plantain (Wilson 1987, FAO 1990).Malgré son importance pour les populations locales, le bananier plantain a été longtemps ignoré par les chercheurs en agriculture de la région, du fait qu'il n'a été confronté à aucun problème majeur de maladies jusque dans les années 1970, et qu'il était donc considéré en Afrique comme une culture exempte de maladies (Wilson 1987). Il y a 25 ans, cependant, le bananier plantain a été menacé par la cercosporiose noire (ou maladie des raies noires), une maladie foliaire transmise par voie aérienne causée par le champignon Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet. Cette maladie s'est propagée rapidement dans toutes les régions d'Afrique productrices de bananier plantain. La cercosporiose noire est la maladie foliaire la plus destructrice du bananier plantain, et elle s'étend inexorablement à toutes les régions de culture situées à basse altitude (Meredith et Lawrence 1970). Des pertes de rendement de 76 % dues à la cercosporiose noire ont été rapportées pendant le second cycle de production, tandis que les effets combinés de la maladie, des ravageurs et du déclin de fertilité du sol réduisait le rendement de 93 % (Mobambo et al. 1996a). Le bananier plantain est une plante amylacée pérenne et la maturation de son fruit nécessite une durée considérable, ce qui résulte en une exposition plus longue aux maladies et ravageurs, ainsi qu'en un épuisement des nutriments du sol.Le complexe sol-maladie-ravageurs peut être contrôlé par une combinaison d'engrais inorganiques, de fongicides et d'insecticides/nématicides. Cependant, en Afrique, les stratégies de lutte chimique ne sont pas valables en termes socioéconomiques et écologiques pour les petits producteurs à faible niveau de ressources. Les produits chimiques sont très coûteux et leur application peut être dangereuse pour la santé dans les exploitations familiales villageoises où la majeure partie des bananiers plantain est cultivée. Une gestion du sol appropriée, utilisant divers résidus de cultures appliqués sous forme de paillis afin d'améliorer le contenu du sol en matière organique et en nutriments, pourrait permettre, à moindres frais, de réduire les effets du complexe solmaladie-ravageurs sur le bananier plantain.L'objectif des recherches décrites dans cet article était de comparer les performances au champ et le rendement du bananier plantain pour différentes pratiques de gestion de la fertilité du sol et de lutte contre les maladies.Les recherches ont été conduites à Kinshasa (4°22' S, 15°21'E, Congo occidental), à 390 m au-dessus du niveau de la mer (Anonyme 1985). Le sol du site expérimental est un sol latéritique dérivé de sables sédimentés, bien drainé, mais pauvre en nutriments et très acide. La pluviométrie annuelle y est de 1800 mm et la température moyenne de 24,5 °C.Le matériel utilisé dans cet essai appartenait au cultivar Yumba (Musa AAB), répandu localement. La disponibilité en matériel de plantation constitue toujours une contrainte pour la culture du bananier plantain dans les zones rurales. Comme il est impossible d'obtenir très rapidement des rejets nombreux et homogènes, le programme de recherche a commencé par la multiplication végétative de matériel de plantation (technique décrite par Auboiron 1997) afin d'obtenir 625 plants pour l'essai : 5 traitements x 5 répétitions x 25 plants par traitement.Les souches de cormes de bananiers plantain ont été coupées en fragments de 50 g chacun et traitées à la cendre de bois. Elles ont été séchées à l'air pendant 24 h avant d'être plantées dans des sacs en plastique de 15 cm de diamètre, remplis avec de la terre de forêt. Les nouveaux rejets ont émergé 4 semaines après la date de plantation et l'on a obtenu jusqu'à 20 nouveaux plants par corme. Ils ont été transplantés au champ 3 mois plus tard, après avoir émis 3-4 feuilles bien développées.Quatre traitements différents visant à prévenir l'infection par les microorganismes, basés sur des pratiques culturales, ont été comparés : paillis de résidus de cultures (sciure de bois et balles de riz), plante de couverture (Vigna unguiculata) et engrais (NPK). Des plantes non traitées ont été utilisées comme témoins.Le dispositif expérimental était un bloc complètement randomisé avec des traitements de 5 parcelles et 5 répétitions. La taille des parcelles était de 15 x 10 m avec 25 plants espacés de 3 x 2 m, soit une densité de 1667 plants par hectare. Les données ont été enregistrées uniquement sur les 9 plantes centrales en compétition.Tous les 3 mois, des paillis de résidus de cultures ont été appliqués autour des pseudotroncs dans les parcelles paillées, à l'aide d'une bassine (10 kg). Dans les parcelles fertilisées, on a appliqué 300 kg d'azote, 60 kg de P 2 O et 550 kg de K 2 O par hectare et par an, répartis en six applications pendant la saison des pluies à raison de 65 g d'urée par plant et par application, de 20 g de phosphore par plant et par application, et de 89 g de muriate de potasse par plant et par application.Pour chaque traitement, des échantillons de sol ont été prélevés à un stade d'environ 50 % de floraison en utilisant une tarière à main jusqu'à environ 20 cm de profondeur, où se trouve la majorité des racines du bananier plantain (Swennen 1984, Purseglove 1988). Ces échantillons ont été séchés à l'air libre au laboratoire, broyés, passés à travers des tamis de 0,5 et 2 mm et analysés. jours entre l'apparition des symptômes du stade 1 du développement de la maladie (Fouré 1982), assimilé au stade b du cigare (Brun 1963) et l'apparition de taches au centre desséché (stade 6 de la maladie, Fouré 1982Fouré , 1987)). On a également noté le numéro de la plus jeune feuille tachée (feuille présentant au moins 10 lésions nécrotiques au centre desséché) (Meredith et Lawrence 1970, Fouré 1982, 1987) et la durée de vie de la feuille, définie par le nombre de jours entre le stade b du cigare et la mort de la feuille (100 % de surface foliaire nécrotique), due soit à la sénescence soit à la cercosporiose noire (Mobambo et al. 1994).La sévérité de la maladie a été évaluée toutes les 2 semaines, à partir de 2 mois après la plantation jusqu'à la floraison. Le pourcentage de surface foliaire présentant des symptômes a été noté en utilisant l'échelle de Stover et Dickson (1970) modifiée, telle que décrite par l'Institut international d'agriculture tropicale (Mobambo et al. 1993a).Les paramètres de croissance évalués incluent la hauteur du pseudotronc, la circonférence du pseudotronc, le nombre de feuilles visibles et la hauteur du rejet le plus haut. Ils ont été enregistrés sur chaque plant à partir de 2 mois après la plantation jusqu'à la floraison, suivant la description de Swennen et De Langhe (1985).Les paramètres de rendement évalués étaient le nombre de mains par régime, le nombre de fruits par régime et le poids des régimes.Les données collectées ont été analysées en utilisant les procédures ANOVA du système d'analyse statistique SAS (SAS 1988) pour des dispositifs en blocs complètement randomisés. Le test des champs multiples de Duncan (DMR) à un niveau de signification de 0,05 a été utilisé pour comparer la moyenne des traitements pour chaque paramètre.Les résultats des analyses de sol présentés dans le tableau 1 montrent des différences significatives dans les quantités de nutriments entre les paillis de résidus de cultures (sciure de bois et balles de riz) et les autres pratiques de gestion telles que plante de couverture (Vigna unguiculata) et engrais minéral (NPK). Des différences statistiques ont été trouvées entre la sciure de bois et les balles de riz : ces dernières sont plus efficaces pour augmenter la fertilité du sol. Selon les échelles de Black (1965) et Brady (1984), dans des parcelles paillées avec des résidus de cultures, le sol était généralement modérément acide avec une quantité très élevée de carbone organique, une quantité élevée d'azote total, une quantité modérée de calcium et de magnésium et un niveau élevé de potassium. En revanche, dans les parcelles non paillées, le sol était extrêmement acide, avec une faible concentration de carbone organique, une quantité modérée d'azote total, une quantité faible de calcium, et un niveau très bas de magnésium et de potassium.Ces résultats indiquent que les quantités de nutriments du sol sont plus élevés dans les parcelles paillées que dans les parcelles non paillées. Les paillis de résidus de cultures constituent de meilleures sources de nutriments et jouent ainsi un rôle d'engrais. Comme l'ont souligné Lal et Kang (1982), la matière organique constitue une composante clé de la fertilité du sol, en tant que réservoir de nutriments, principale source de capacité d'échange de cations, et promoteur majeur de la stabilité structurale des agrégats.Des différences significatives ont été trouvées entre les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures (sciure de bois et balles de riz) et ceux non paillés (témoins, plante de couverture et engrais) en ce qui concerne la durée d'évolution des symptômes, la plus jeune feuille tachée, le pourcentage de surface foliaire présentant des symptômes et la durée de vie des feuilles (tableau 2). La sévérité de la cercosporiose noire était beaucoup plus faible sur les plants paillés que sur ceux non paillés. Cependant, parmi les paillis de résidus de culture, ce sont les balles de riz qui sont statistiquement les plus efficaces pour ralentir le développement de la maladie.Le développement des symptômes de la cercosporiose noire chez les plants paillés était beaucoup plus lent que chez les plants non paillés. Chez les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures, il a fallu presque un mois de plus à la maladie pour atteindre le stade du dernier symptôme, par rapport aux témoins. Pour les plants ayant reçu de l'engrais et ceux ayant bénéficié d'une plante de couverture, les valeurs de la durée d'évolution des symptômes étaient respectivement de 40 et 36 jours, soit 2-3 semaines de moins que pour les plants paillés.En ce qui concerne la plus jeune feuille tachée (PJFT), les résultats montrent la même tendance que pour la durée d'évolution des symptômes (tableau 2). Il existe des différences significatives entre les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures et les plants non paillés. Chez les plants paillés, la PJFT était la feuille 11 avec les balles de riz et la feuille 9 avec la sciure de bois, alors que chez les plants ayant reçu de l'engrais et ceux ayant bénéficié d'une plante de couverture, la PJFT était la feuille 8. Les plantes non traitées (témoins) avaient la plus faible valeur de PJFT, soit 6.Ces résultats indiquent que, lorsque l'on utilise le paillis de balles de riz, les plantes émettent trois feuilles saines supplémentaires par rapport aux traitements engrais ou plante de couverture, et cinq feuilles saines supplémentaires par rapport au témoin. Donc, avec un temps d'émergence foliaire d'environ une feuille par semaine chez les bananiers plantain en général, la fertilité du sol (tableau 1) due au paillis de balles de riz retarde l'évolution des symptômes de 3 semaines par rapport aux parcelles ayant bénéficié d'engrais ou d'une plante de couverture, et de 5 semaines par rapport aux parcelles témoins. Dans une colonne, les moyennes suivies de la même lettre ne sont pas significativement différentes à un niveau de probabilité de 0,05, selon le test des distances multiples de Duncan.Tableau 2. Réponse des bananiers plantain en tant que plantes-hôtes de la cercosporiose noire selon différentes pratiques culturales à Kinshasa, Congo occidental, en 1998. Des différences prononcées ont également été obtenues entre les plants paillés et non paillés en ce qui concerne le pourcentage de surface foliaire présentant des symptômes (tableau 2). Alors que dans les parcelles ayant bénéficié d'engrais ou d'une plante de couverture, les plants présentaient respectivement 10,3 et 6,9 % de surface foliaire infectée par la cercosporiose noire, seulement 3,8 à 4,2 % de la surface foliaire des plants était infectée dans les parcelles traitées par des paillis de résidus de cultures. La dissémination plus lente de la maladie dans les parcelles paillées est facilitée par une surface foliaire fonctionnelle plus grande que chez les plants des parcelles non paillées.En ce qui concerne la durée de vie des feuilles, des différences significatives ont également été trouvées entre les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures et les plants non paillés (tableau 2). Le développement plus lent de la maladie chez les plants paillés prolongeait la durée de vie des feuilles. Chez les plants traités avec des balles de riz et de la sciure de bois, il a fallu à la cercosporiose noire respectivement presque 9, 7 et 4 semaines de plus pour détruire les feuilles par rapport aux témoins, aux plants avec plante de couverture et aux plants fertilisés. Les témoins étaient les plus affectés par la maladie. Comme cela a déjà été rapporté, tous les cultivars de bananier plantain (Musa spp., groupe AAB) dans le monde entier sont sensibles à la cercosporiose noire (Fouré 1987, Mobambo et al. 1996b).La différence dans la réponse des planteshôtes à la cercosporiose noire entre les bananiers plantain paillés avec des résidus de cultures et ceux non paillés est attribuée principalement à la différence de fertilité du sol. Plus la fertilité est élevée, plus la sévérité de la cercosporiose noire est faible. Sur des sols de meilleure qualité, cela se traduit par un développement plus lent des symptômes, des feuilles plus âgées présentant des taches sèches, une surface foliaire présentant des symptômes réduite et une durée de vie des feuilles plus longue (Mobambo et al. 1994).Les résultats présentés dans le tableau 3 montrent des différences significatives pour tous les paramètres étudiés : hauteur des plants (HP), circonférence des plants (CP), nombre de feuilles visibles (NFV), nombre de jours jusqu'à la floraison (NJF), nombre de jours pour le remplissage des fruits (NJRF), nombre de jours jusqu'à la récolte (NJR) et hauteur du plus haut rejet (HPHR).Pour tous les traitements (paillis de résidus de cultures, engrais ou plante de couverture), les plants avaient des hauteurs similaires, mais ils étaient plus petits que les plants témoins. Cependant, en ce qui concerne la circonférence des plants et le nombre de feuilles visibles, les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures avaient de meilleures performances que ceux non paillés. Une circonférence plus importante et un nombre de feuilles inférieur ont été obtenus chez les plants traités avec des balles de riz et de la sciure de bois par rapport aux plants non paillés. Les plants paillés avec des balles de riz fleurissaient nettement plus tôt et avaient une période de remplissage des fruits plus longue que ceux des autres traitements. Ils fleurissaient 5 mois plus tôt que les témoins et environ 1 à 2 mois plus tôt que les plants fertilisés et que ceux avec plante de couverture. L'effet combiné résultait en un cycle de production plus court pour les plants paillés avec des balles de riz, dont les régimes ont été récoltés respectivement 104 et 28 jours avant les témoins et les plants fertilisés. Les plants traités avec des balles de riz ont été récoltés 16 jours avant ceux traités avec la sciure de bois. Ils montraient également une meilleure production de rejets, le plus grand rejet -c'est à dire le rejet utilisé pour le cycle de production suivant -étant nettement plus grand que dans les autres traitements. Ceci devrait conduire à un cycle de repousse plus court pour les plants traités avec des balles de riz, par rapport aux autres traitements.Les composantes du rendement évaluées étaient le nombre de mains par régime, le nombre de fruits par régime et le poids du régime (tableau 4).Des différences significatives ont été observées entre les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures (sciure de bois et balles de riz) et les plants non paillés (témoin, plante de couverture et engrais) pour ce qui concerne le nombre de mains par régime et le nombre de fruits par régime (tableau 4). Les plants paillés avaient un plus grand nombre de mains et de fruits par régime que les plants non paillés.Le rendement par hectare a été calculé à partir du poids moyen des régimes multiplié par la densité des plants. Les rendements étaient significativement différents entre les plants traités avec des balles de riz et les autres traitements. Le rendement des plants les plus performants traités avec des balles de riz était supérieur de respectivement 46 %, 37 % et 26 % à celui des plants témoins, traités avec plante de couverture et fertilisés. Le rendement des plants traités avec des balles de riz était de 14 % supérieur à celui obtenu avec la sciure de bois.Ces résultats indiquent que les paillis de résidus de cultures confèrent des avantages importants pour la culture du bananier plantain : un rendement plus élevé, une maturité plus précoce ou un cycle de production plus court et une circonférence plus importante permettant de réduire les dégâts causés par le vent, qui sont une autre contrainte importante de la production de bananes plantain (Mobambo et al. 1996a).Les recherches décrites dans cet article comparent différentes pratiques culturales pour la production de bananes plantain. Les effets des paillis de résidus de cultures (sciure de bois et balles de riz) ont été comparés à ceux de l'application d'engrais et d'une plante de couverture sur la fertilité du sol, la sévérité de la cercosporiose noire et les paramètres de croissance et de production des bananiers plantain. Dans une colonne, les moyennes suivies de la même lettre ne sont pas significativement différentes à un niveau de probabilité de 0,05, selon le test des distances multiples de Duncan. Légende : HP : hauteur des plants, CP : circonférence des plants, NFV : nombre de feuilles visibles, NJF : nombre de jours jusqu'à la floraison, NJRF : nombre de jours pour le remplissage des fruits, NJR : nombre de jours jusqu'à la récolte, HPHR : hauteur du plus haut rejet.Tableau 4. Paramètres du rendement de bananiers plantain cultivés selon différentes pratiques culturales à Kinshasa, Congo occidental, en 1998. Pour tous les paramètres évalués, les plants paillés avec des résidus de cultures se sont mieux comportés que les plants non paillés. La fertilité du sol est le facteur critique responsable de la différence entre les paillis de résidus de cultures, la plante de couverture et les engrais. Du fait du niveau élevé de fertilité dû à l'application de paillis de résidus de cultures, les bananiers plantain ont été moins affectés par la cercosporiose noire et, en conséquence, ont eu une meilleure croissance que ceux non paillés. Parmi les paillis utilisés, les balles de riz se sont montrées statistiquement plus efficaces que la sciure de bois.Une gestion adéquate de la matière organique est donc essentielle pour la productivité durable du bananier plantain, permettant de minimiser la sévérité de la cercosporiose noire à moindres frais. En Afrique, le bananier plantain est cultivé principalement par des petits paysans, qui n'ont pas facilement accès aux engrais chimiques. Les possibilités des engrais organiques traditionnels tels que le compost, le fumier et les paillis de résidus de cultures doivent donc être mieux exploités. Une étude intégrant les ressources organiques et la faune du sol pourrait aider à comprendre les mécanismes régulant les processus biologiques pour l'amélioration de la fertilité du sol, en relation avec la durabilité de la production du bananier plantain et la sévérité des maladies et des attaques de ravageurs. D epuis le premier signalement de la cercosporiose noire ou maladie des raies noires (Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet) au Venezuela, une grande incertitude plane quant à l'avenir de la production de bananes et de bananes plantain. La nature complexe de l'agent pathogène lui confère un potentiel élevé d'adaptation à des conditions nouvelles de climat, de fongicides ou de génotypes de l'hôte (Ploetz 2000). Ceci est amplement démontré par la perte d'efficacité de certains produits utili-sés dans la lutte chimique tels que les benzimidazoles et les triazoles (Douglas et Ching 1992, Estévez 1992, Stover 1993, Guzmán et al. 2000, Romero 2000).Cette situation fait ressortir l'ampleur du problème posé par cette maladie et rend nécessaire la mise en place de mesures de lutte intégrée par l'emploi de clones résistants possédant un potentiel de production élevé (Rowe et Rosales 1993). L'existence d'une étroite relation entre certains facteurs climatiques (humidité relative, température et précipitations) et l'agent pathogène conditionnent l'incidence et la gravité de la maladie (Fouré 1994, Gauhl 1994). C'est ce qui nous a permis d'une part, de dresser la carte de la diffusion de la maladie Evolution de la cercosporiose noire au Venezuela : 1997-2000Dissémination de la cercosporiose noire à travers le pays et d'autre part, d'intervenir sur son incidence à moyen terme dans des zones où sa présence n'avait pas encore signalée, comme en 1997 et en 1998 (Martínez 1997, Martínez et al. 1998).Le travail présenté ici a pour but de faire connaître la situation actuelle de la cercosporiose noire au Venezuela, sa trajectoire de dissémination, ses relations avec les divers facteurs climatiques qui conditionnent son agressivité ainsi que les mesures prises pour son contrôle. On a effectué pour cela une expédition dans différents secteurs de la zone sud-est du Venezuela, recueilli des échantillons présentant les symptômes typiques de la maladie à fins d'identification, interrogé des producteurs et analysé les données climatologiques (humidité relative, précipitations et température).La cercosporiose noire a été détectée pour la première fois au Venezuela en 1991 dans l'Etat de Zulia, région occidentale (Haddad et al. 1992, Escobar et Ramírez 1995), puis elle s'est étendue à différentes zones et Etats (Martínez 1997, Martínez et al. 1998). Il est fait mention dans ce rapport de son arrivée dans l'Etat de Bolivar et, entre 1999 et 2000, dans les Etats de Delta Amacuro et Amazonas (extrêmes est et sud du pays, respectivement). En se basant sur leurs condi-tions de précipitations et d'humidité relative (Martínez 1997, Martínez et al. 1998), ces régions ont été déclarées à haut risque d'infection potentielle à court terme (figure 1).Elles sont caractérisées en effet par des précipitations supérieures à 1500 mm/an, une humidité relative supérieure à 79 % et une température moyenne située entre 25 et 28 ºC (figures 2 et 3), ce qui est significatif quant à la relation établie entre le climat, l'incidence et le développement de la maladie (Fouré 1994, Gauhl 1994, Mobambo 1995). Elles présentent de grandes différences avec la région de Maracay où les précipitations moyennes sont de 922 mm/an avec six mois de sécheresse. Cette situation a permis d'établir un modèle de comparaison entre deux états de conditions agroécologiques totalement différents auxquels sont corrélés les niveaux critiques de gravité atteints par la maladie. Ce modèle sert de référence pour mettre en place des mesures de lutte tenant compte des conditions climatiques et pour empêcher un possible développement dans les zones présentant des caractéristiques semblables (Martinez et al. 2000). Fouré (1994) fait état de relations existant entre les paramètres climatiques et le développement de la maladie, qui permettent une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique de l'épidémie dans les zones de production et de son potentiel d'initiation de futures infections. La libération d'ascospores est forte en temps de pluie du fait de la présence d'une pellicule d'eau résiduelle à la surface des feuilles, dont la face inférieure présente plus de nécroses. Les feuilles sèches qui restent collées à la plante représentent donc une excellente source d'inoculum (Gauhl 1994). En ce qui concerne la température, on estime que les ascospores de Mycosphaerella fijiensis germent entre 10 et 38 ºC, sachant que la température optimum de germination est de 27 ºC et que la vitesse relative de croissance des tubes germinatifs diminue fortement pour des températures inférieures à 20 ºC (Pérez et Mauri, cités par Pérez 1996). Pour ce qui est de l'effet du vent, on a observé que la concentration des conidies dans les plantations est plus élevée dans les couches d'air les plus basses que sur le feuillage alors que la concentration des ascospores dans l'air est la même : ceci confirme l'importance des ascospores dans le cycle de la maladie (Stover 1984, Gauhl 1994).Il reste à souligner la présence de quelques accidents topographiques dans des zones géographiques bien déterminées et qui sont apparemment corrélés à la variation des facteurs climatiques mentionnés cidessus. Ils conditionnent donc également le développement et le niveau de gravité de la maladie. Le premier signalement de la mala-AMAZONAS 1991 -1994 1994 -1996 1996 -1998 1998  die dans le pays porte sur la zone du lac de Maracaibo, où l'humidité relative élevée est peut-être due à la proximité du lac ainsi qu'à la topographie des paysages de la région. Ces conditions sont très semblables à celles régnant dans les environs du lac de Valencia (point d'entrée de la maladie dans l'Etat d'Aragua) et dans des secteurs proches des rives du fleuve Caroni, Hato Gil (Etat de Bolivar). De la même façon, la présence de la cordillère des Andes et de la chaîne montagneuse intérieure, qui constituent une barrière naturelle au passage des spores du champignon vers les régions adjacentes, aurait dû restreindre la diffusion de la maladie dans ces zones. Or, ce n'est pas le cas ; son apparition dans ces secteurs ne peut donc être due qu'au transport de matériel contaminé.Les enquêtes auprès des producteurs et les visites aux différentes zones du pays nous ont révélé que les plus grandes pertes sont survenues dans les parcelles où aucun contrôle des mauvaises herbes, des nématodes ou des insectes n'était effectué. Les feuilles sèches pendantes n'étaient pas éliminées et aucune fertilisation n'était pratiquée. A cela s'ajoutaient des problèmes d'arrosage et de drainage ainsi qu'une distribution inadéquate des plantes au champ. Les producteurs n'ont pas l'habitude d'éliminer les rejets ni d'utiliser des produits chimiques pour lutter contre les maladies.Ils manquent d'assistance technique et de ressources pour acheter des intrants et des équipements. Enfin, il n'y a pas d'organisations de producteurs. Avec un rendement limité et consacré à la subsistance du noyau familial, les alternatives du petit producteur sont la vente de la plantation, le changement de culture ou l'abandon pur et simple de l'exploitation (Martinez et al. 2000).Les producteurs de moyenne importance ont tendance à ajuster la superficie de leur plantation en fonction de l'augmentation des coûts de production, ce qui leur permet d'obtenir des rendements pondérés en accord avec l'investissement. Les gros producteurs réussissent à cohabiter avec la maladie comme on peut le constater au sud du lac de Maracaibo, où existent associations de producteurs et entreprises, qui améliorent la qualité du produit dans les plantations où il est destiné au marché international tandis que le rebut est écoulé sur le marché national et local, où il n'y a pas de contrôle de qualité (Martínez et al. 2000).La présence de la cercosporiose noire dans le pays a entraîné des changements radicaux dans la manière de conduire la culture des bananiers. Le point de vue traditionaliste qui consiste à gérer les plantations comme des cultures pérennes tend à être remplacé peu à peu par une gestion semi-pérenne, et dans certains cas annuelle de la culture, avec des densités de plantation élevées en association ou non avec d'autres cultures de cycle court, ce qui permet d'augmenter aussi bien les rendements que la diversité des produits obtenus. Ceci a pu être mis en place grâce aux travaux de recherche menés par l'INIA, mais aussi grâce à l'importance grandissante de l'organisation entre les producteurs.Au cours de tous les essais au champ, l'accent est mis sur une application efficace des pratiques culturales de base, telles que l'élimination des feuilles sèches pendantes et l'utilisation d'engrais, pratiques qui n'étaient pas effectuées couramment alors qu'il est démontré qu'elles contribuent à diminuer la quantité d'inoculum de l'agent pathogène sur la plantation et qu'elles mettent la plante en condition de moindre vulnérabilité face aux attaques du champignon (Gauhl 1994).Bien évidemment, il faut s'efforcer de réduire les applications de produits chimiques et tendre vers la meilleure cohabitation possible avec le pathogène. En outre, on peut utiliser comme solution alternative des clones résistants que l'on place soit en lignes intercalaires dans les plantations commerciales de clones exploités traditionnellement dans le pays (afin de réduire la quantité d'inoculum disponible), soit comme plantation alternative à part entière ainsi que l'on peut le voir dans le secteur d'Ocumare de la Costa, Etat d'Aragua. Là, on a choisi de cultiver le bananier plantain FHIA-21 dont le fruit possède une texture plus moelleuse que celle de \"Hartón gigante', et qui permet la fabrication de \"tostones\" (ou chips) d'excellente qualité, très bien acceptés par les consommateurs, ce qui a facilité son introduction sur le marché. De la même façon, il faut noter qu'il existe d'autres possibilités de production telles que les hybrides FHIA-01, FHIA-02 et FHIA-03 qui possèdent un excellent niveau de productivité et un très bon comportement face à la maladie.1. La vitesse de dissémination de l'agent pathogène dans le pays a subi une forte augmentation : son passage de la zone occidentale à la zone centrale a duré cinq ans alors que la dissémination de la zone centrale à la zone orientale et sud a demandé seulement un an. Il semble évident qu'une telle évolution a été favorisée par l'homme. Entraînant une augmentation de 40 à 45 % des coûts de production, la maladie a touché tout particulièrement les petits producteurs et mis en danger la survie de leur exploitation. L'avancée de la maladie sur le territoire national s'est poursuivie dans les états de Bolivar, Delta Amacuro et Amazonas et le bananier plantain, cultivés par les communautés indigènes, constituent les éléments essentiels de leur régime alimentaire. L'écosystème de la région est fragile et il y existe une diversité génétique et biologique complexe. C'est pourquoi il y est contre-indiqué d'utiliser des produits chimiques de lutte et plutôt préconisé d'introduire des clones résistants ne nécessitant aucune application de fongicides et ce, même si ces cultivars ne sont pas totalement acceptés par les consommateurs autochtones. 3. Il est évident aujourd'hui que la présence de la cercosporiose noire dans le pays a entraîné des changements radicaux dans le mode de gestion agronomique des plantations. L'usage efficace, dans le cadre de la lutte intégrée, de pratiques culturales de base permet en effet une cohabitation avec l'agent pathogène, comme il a été démontré au cours des nombreux travaux de recherche menés par l'INIA.C. Lorena Cardona -Sanchez et J. Castaño-Zapata L a banane plantain (Musa sp.) est une culture de subsistance en Colombie où elle est, dans bien des régions, la base de l'alimentation de la population, surtout rurale, avec une consommation nationale per capita estimée à 68,5 kg/an. En règle générale, le bananier plantain est cultivé avec un minimum de pratiques agrono-miques, ce qui a entraîné l'augmentation de l'intensité et de la dissémination de la cercosporiose noire (ou maladie des raies noires) et de la cercosporiose jaune (Merchán 1998), d'où une réduction de la production de près de 50 % (Burt et al. 1997).Environ 384 957 ha sont cultivés dans le pays dont 75 % en bananier plantain \"Hartón\" et \"Dominico hartón\". Cette dernière variété est largement représentée dans les bananeraies colombiennes car elle est très bien acceptée sur le marché local en raison de la taille de ses fruits et de leurs caractéristiques organoleptiques et ce, bien qu'elle soit extrêmement sensible aux cercosporioses noire et jaune dans la zone caféière marginale située à basse altitude (Merchán 1992).Ces deux maladies sont aujourd'hui en compétition au-dessus de 1000 m d'altitude. Selon certains rapports cependant, la cercosporiose noire provoquée par Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet affecte actuellement les bananiers plantain \"Dominico hartón\" dans la municipalité de Victoria (Caldas) située à 1100 m d'altitude, en se montrant plus agressive que la cercosporiose jaune provoquée par Mycosphaerella musicola Leach, à laquelle elle s'est substituée en moins de six mois (Merchán 1992). Un comportement identique a été rapporté dans la municipalité de Pueblo Rico (Risaralda), située elle à 1560 m d'altitude (Merchán 1992). D'après les derniers rapports, la cercosporiose noire peut affecter le bananier plantain du niveau de la mer jusqu'à 1940 m d'altitude (Belalcázar et al. 1994).Il est difficile de distinguer ces maladies au champ en observant seulement les symptômes externes. Ceux-ci ne permettent pas d'établir clairement quelle est celle qui a la plus forte incidence quand les deux coexistent (Aguirre et al. 1998b). Au microscope, M. fijiensis et M. musicola se distinguent principalement par les caractéristiques morphologiques différentes de leurs stades anamorphes, en particulier au niveau des conidiophores et des conidies. Paracercospora fijiensis possède sur ses conidiophores et ses conidies des cicatrices qui sont absentes chez Pseudocercospora musae (Aguirre et al. 1998b).On pourrait avoir recours aux produits chimiques pour contrôler ces maladies mais cette pratique est peu adaptée au système de culture traditionnel. Aussi est-on à la recherche de solutions de rechange plus économiques, comme l'utilisation de matériel végétal résistant aux deux maladies pour diminuer la sporulation des agents pathogènes.Le travail présenté ici a été entrepris dans le but de déterminer la fréquence du nombre de spores de P. fijiensis et de P. musae sur le bananier plantain \"Dominico hartón\", sensible à la cercosporiose noire et à la cercosporiose jaune.Les recherches ont été menées dans le département de Tolima, à 7 km de la municipalité de Fresno, sur la route de Manizales (Caldas) qui conduit à Mariquita (Tolima), au lieu-dit La Ceiba, sur la plantation Campoalegre, située à 1250 m d'altitude, où la température oscille entre 18 et 25 °C, l'humidité relative varie de 65 à 100 % et les précipitations annuelles atteignent 1800 mm.Le matériel végétal consistait en 1 600 plants du clone \"Dominico hartón\", issus de culture in vitro et multipliés au laboratoire de culture de tissus du Département de Phytotechnologie de la Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques de l'Université de Caldas. Ces plants ont été transplantés puis sevrés à la ferme Montelindo de l'Université.Les évaluations hebdomadaires ont été effectuées sur 53 clones choisis au hasard. Les données ont été enregistrées à partir du 13 septembre 1998, date de début de la floraison, jusqu'à la récolte, réalisée le 13 mars 1999. Chaque semaine, on a prélevé des empreintes des feuilles affectées par les cercosporioses afin de dénombrer la quantité de spores des stades anamorphes de M. fijiensis (figure 1) et de M. musicola (figure 2).On réalise une empreinte en utilisant des seringues remplies d'agar solidifié en forme du réservoir, fabriqué avec une seringue jetable de 5 cm 3 à laquelle on enlève l'extrémité antérieure pour former un cylindre de 1,26 cm de diamètre. Le réservoir est alors rempli d'agar cristal violet préparé en mélangeant 1 g d'agar bactériologique avec 15 ml de solution de cristal violet à 1 % et 100 ml d'eau distillée. Le mélange est autoclavé à 121°C durant 15 mn. On y ajoute ensuite 1 mg de bénomyl et deux antibiodisques de streptomycine de 10 mg (Aguirre et al. 1998b).Pour compter le nombre de conidies, on prend toutes les semaines une empreinte en pressant la surface de l'agar contre les lésions de stade 4 ou 5 de la plus jeune feuille nécrosée de chaque matériel évalué. Le cylindre d'agar cristal violet ainsi incrusté de conidies est placé sur une lame porte-objets que l'on dépose dans un bac dont le fond est tapissé de papier absorbant imbibé d'eau stérile. Les bacs sont recouverts de film plastique et déposés dans une boîte hermétique en polystyrène (\"icopor\").L'identification et le comptage du nombre de conidies par cm 2 de chacun des champignons sont réalisés au microscope composé Olympus au grossissement de x 40.Les variables analysées sont : le nombre au cm 2 de conidies de P. fijiensis et de P. musae, la température (maximum, moyenne et minimum), l'humidité relative et les précipitations.Pour chacune de ces variables on a procédé à une analyse de variance, aux descriptions des valeurs maximum, moyenne et minimum, à des régressions, à des corréla-   JAP que la production de conidies devient très faible bien qu'il y ait une augmentation des précipitations (192,5 mm), car le feuillage des plantes est alors sévèrement nécrosé: il n'y a plus de tissu sain à infecter.La température et l'humidité relative restent relativement stables : autour de 21,5°C (figure 3B) et de 81 % (figure 3C) en moyenne, conditions optimales pour la production de conidies. D'après Mouliom Pefoura et Mourichon (1990) et Tapia (1993), cités par Porras et Pérez (1997), des températures supérieures à 20°C favorisent le développement des conidies de P. fijiensis. Selon Stover (1965) un optimum à 26°C (Stover 1965). Une humidité relative proche des 100 % favorise la reproduction et la viabilité des spores, surtout lorsqu'il persiste un film d'eau sur la feuille (Jacome et Schuh 1992). La quantité de conidies de P. fijiensis reste toujours 2,3 fois supérieure au nombre de conidies de P. musae (tableau 2), ce qui permet d'affirmer que la cercosporiose noire tend à remplacer la cercosporiose jaune à cause de sa plus grande agressivité, conformément aux études réalisées par Aguirre et al. (1998a) dans la même zone et qui ont démontré que la cercosporiose noire y était plus agressive : à certaines périodes de l'année, la cercosporiose jaune en venait même à disparaître, déplacée par la noire. En règle générale, on note une corrélation directe très significative entre le nombre de conidies de P. fijiensis et de P. musae et le volume des précipitations, conformément aux études réalisées également par Aguirre et al. (1998a), qui ont constaté que la variation du nombre de conidies récoltées par semaine était fortement liée aux variations du volume des pluies.A l'époque de la floraison, correspondant au début de l'étude, l'écart-type est élevé et le reste jusqu'au 452 e JAP, date à laquelle la majeure partie du matériel a développé une popotte. Cet écart-type élevé est dû principalement à l'influence des précipitations sur la production de conidies, comme on l'a déjà noté pour les résultats du tableau 2 où P. fijiensis présente une fréquence plus élevée que celle de P. musae.Du 319 e au 347 e JAP, on note des précipitations cumulées de 242,5 mm correspondant à une fréquence élevée du nombre de conidies de chacun des deux champignons. Cependant, entre le 361 e et le 404 e JAP, les précipitations très importantes (378,6 mm) entraînent une diminution du nombre moyen des conidies de chaque pathogène. Il faut souligner qu'au 438 e JAP, on atteint la plus forte corrélation (r = 0,8575) entre le nombre de conidies et les précipitations (tableau 2).Entre le 411 e et le 452 e JAP, on commence à voir une grande partie du tissu foliaire nécrosé. Cette période correspond à 232 mm de précipitations et à une moyenne de 14 conidies/cm 2 /clone de P. fijiensis et de 4 conidies/cm 2 /clone de P. musae.A partir du 466 e JAP, en fin de cycle, les écarts-types sont faibles puisque la majorité des clones est alors très sévèrement affectée et qu'il n'y a plus de feuilles susceptibles de propager l'infection: d'où une population réduite de conidies de chacun des deux champignons et par conséquent un écarttype peu élevé. Au moment de la récolte, la quantité moyenne de conidies de P. fijiensis et de P. musae est respectivement de 4 et de 2 conidies/cm 2 /clone. La population de conidies de P. fijiensis reste toujours supérieure en nombre à celle de P. musae, mais les deux populations diminuent au fur et à mesure que le tissu sensible sain se fait de plus en plus rare (figure 4).Afin d'observer une éventuelle relation entre les deux pathogènes, on a effectué une régression entre le nombre de conidies par cm 2 de P. fijiensis et de P. musae sur tous les clones évalués. Le coefficient de corrélation très bas obtenu (r = 0,40656) (figure 5) indique que le nombre de conidies par cm 2 de P. musae ne dépend pas du comportement du nombre de conidies de P. fijiensis et vice-versa. La production de conidies chez chacun des clones dépend de la sensibilité du matériel végétal et des conditions climatiques, en particulier des précipitations. Et même si les conidies de P. fijiensis restent toujours supérieures en nombre, les conidies de P. musae ne suivent pas forcément leur comportement à la hausse ou à la baisse puisqu'il n'existe pas de relation étroite et directe entre les productions d'inoculum chez ces deux pathogènes.En général, les clones évalués portent au total un plus grand nombre de conidies de  a présence de la cercosporiose noire (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) à Cuba depuis 1990 a eu pour conséquence l'augmentation des coûts de production des bananes et des bananes plantain en raison de l'accélération de la fréquence des aspersions phytosanitaires aériennes et terrestres destinées à combattre l'agent pathogène. Il est donc urgent de trouver des solutions de rechange en utilisant des produits fabriqués sur place afin de diminuer les coûts du contrôle de la maladie.L'usage inconsidéré des produits chimiques entraîne des effets secondaires tels que l'induction de résistance aux fongicides de la part des agents pathogènes, la formation de souches plus virulentes que les souches locales, et une pollution environnementale (Rodríguez et Jiménez 1985, Fullerton et Olsen 1991, Mouliom Pefoura 1999).L'emploi de produits naturels obtenus à partir de microorganismes présente de grands avantages par rapport aux produits du commerce : leur production est beaucoup moins dommageable pour l'écosystème et leur biodégradation in situ donne des composés qui ne sont pas toxiques pour la microflore locale. La recherche de divers produits nouveaux, d'origine naturelle et non polluants, destinés à la lutte contre les ravageurs et les maladies, constitue une alternative importante pour l'agriculture durable.Le produit F20 est composé de deux antibiotiques: les streptothricines B et F. Ces antibiotiques sont, pour la plupart, produits par des microorganismes du genre Streptomyces. Ils possèdent un sucre aminé (glucosamine) auquel est liée une chaîne peptidique de ß-lysine. La distinction entre les différentes streptothricines (de F à A) dépend du nombre de radicaux de la ß-lysine sur la chaîne peptidique: de 1-ß-lysine pour la F à 6-ß-lysine pour la A.Les propriétés physicochimiques des streptothricines, leur spectre d'activité antimicrobienne et leur toxicité sont bien connus (Wienstein et Wagmans 1978).La littérature ne fournit pas d'exemples d'utilisation des streptothricines pour le contrôle des phytopathogènes et, en parti-culier, il n'existe pas d'étude portant sur l'utilisation d'un antibiotique produit par des microorganismes pour la lutte contre les maladies du bananier ou du bananier plantain.L'étude présentée ici montre la possibilité d'utiliser ces streptothricines dans le contrôle de la cercosporiose noire chez des clones de bananier (Musa AAB cv. \"CEMSA 3 /4') et de bananier plantain (Musa AAA cv. \"Parecido al Rey').La recherche s'est déroulée à l'Instituto de Investigaciones en Viandas Tropicales (INIVIT). Le produit F20, dont les principes actifs sont constitués principalement par les streptothricines B et F, a été obtenu par le Centro de Química Farmacéutica (CQF) en collaboration avec le Centro Nacional de Biotecnología de l'Université Nationale Autonome de Canto Blanco, Madrid, Espagne, par fermentation de souches de Streptomyces lavendofoliae var. 383 (productrice de streptothricine B) et de Streptomyces rochei var. f20 (productrice de streptothricine F) isolées de sols cubains. Le bouillon de fermentation une fois centrifugé, le surnageant a été chromatographié sur une résine échangeuse d'ions IRC-50 pour obtenir une solution saturée en acétate de sodium après élution à l'acide acétique.La solution antibiotique saturée en acétate de sodium a été dissoute dans une solution aqueuse additionnée de 0,2 g/L de détergent du commerce (émulsifiant) et de 60 ml d'huile minérale de façon à obtenir une concentration finale de 5 à 13 g de streptothricine par litre, soit une dose de 80 à 200 g d'antibiotique par hectare. Le produit ainsi obtenu est appliqué par aspersions foliaires de 12 L/ha à l'aide d'un pulvérisateur dorsal motorisé dont le bras asperseur a été modifié de manière à reproduire les conditions d'une aspersion aérienne. Les applications ont eu lieu les 8 e , 13 e , 17 e et 22 e semaines sur les bananiers et les 5 e , 11 e et 16 e semaines sur les bananiers plantain. Les feuilles atteintes par la maladie ont été éliminées tous les quinze jours pour tous les traitements et on a appliqué de l'huile minérale additionnée de 0,2 g/L du détergent commercial (émulsifiant) sur les plantes témoins afin de leur permettre de se maintenir tout au long du cycle biologique.Chaque clone (bananier plantain \"CEMSA 3 /4\" et bananier \"Parecido al Rey\") a été planté selon un dispositif expérimental en blocs aléatoires comprenant 6 plantes par parcelle, avec 4 répétitions.L'effet du produit F20 contre la cercosporiose noire a été comparé avec le témoin sans traitement phytosanitaire et avec les parcelles sous traitement chimique de propiconazol (Tilt 250 EC) appliqué aux doses de 400 ml/ha. Le F20 a été employé à des doses similaires à celles du propiconazol.L'effet des fongicides a été évalué toutes les semaines en observant le stade d'évolution (SE) de la maladie, la plus jeune feuille présentant des symptômes ou des rayures (PJFS) et la plus jeune feuille tachée (PJFT) (Fouré 1982, Pérez 1996, Orjeda 1998).Les aspersions de F20 et de propiconazol (Tilt) avec de l'huile minérale ont entraîné la diminution de l'indice SE par rapport aux parcelles des clones \"Parecido al Rey\" et \"CEMSA 3 /4\" n'ayant pas reçu de traitement (ST).Sur la figure 1, on peut observer les résultats des applications phytosanitaires chez les deux clones. Les graphiques A et B montrent un comportement similaire pour les applications de F20 ou de Tilt. Ces réactions sont illustrées par des valeurs de SE n'ayant pas de différences significatives entre elles (p > 0.05) alors que chaque clone présente individuellement des différences significatives par rapport au témoin (p < 0,01).L'effet de contrôle des produits appliqués se distingue en outre par la diminution du nombre d'oscillations des valeurs de SE sur les graphes et par l'amplitude de ces fluctuations pour chacun des clones. Par exemple, à la suite de l'application des produits à la 5 e semaine, les valeurs de SE diminuent régulièrement de 3000 à 50 pour le clone \"CEMSA 3 /4\" juqu'à la 10 e semaine, montrant que la vitesse de développement de la maladie est ralentie, alors que les valeurs de SE des plantes témoins oscillent pendant ce même laps de temps entre 1500 et 2500.L'analyse de la variable PJFS (figure 2) montre qu'il n'y a pas de différences significatives (p > 0,05) entre les traitements de F20 et de Tilt. Cependant, chez le clone \"Parecido al Rey\", l'action de F20 est remarquable : le symptôme le plus faible de la  Lutte contre la cercosporiose noire maladie (stade 1) est relevé sur la feuille 9 (Pérez 1996). La figure 3 montre qu'il est possible d'atteindre une valeur de la PJFT égale ou supérieure à 9 avant le début de la floraison, ce qui confirme qu'il n'y a pas de répercussions sur le poids ou sur la maturité précoce des fruits de chacun des deux clones. En effet, on a noté à Cuba une forte corrélation négative entre la surface foliaire affectée et la PJFT (Pérez et al. 1993, Pérez 1996).Les données analysées ci-dessus incitent donc à utiliser le produit naturel F20, en mélange avec de l'huile minérale et du détergent commercial comme émulsifiant, pour lutter contre la cercosporiose noire chez les bananiers et les bananiers plantain.   Le F20 est supérieur aux produits chimiques synthétiques sur le plan environnemental. Il faut enfin préciser que les deux clones ont un comportement différent car \"CEMSA 3 /4\" présente des valeurs d'infection plus élevées. Pourtant, et pour éviter une résistance possible de la part du champignon, il est important que ce produit soit inclus dans les programmes de lutte intégrée en association avec d'autres produits antifongiques (Pérez 1996, Romero 1997).• Le produit F20 ne présente pas de différences significatives par rapport au produit commercial Tilt pour ce qui est de l'efficacité du contrôle de la cercosporiose noire.   (Koshy et al. 1978, Rajendran et al. 1979). La distribution géographique du nématode du bananier R. similis couvre l'ensemble des zones de culture du bananier dans les régions tropicales et subtropicales du monde entier. En Inde, la première apparition de ce nématode a été rapportée au Kérala, dans le district de Palghat (Nair et al. 1966), causant des pertes de rendement atteignant jusqu'à 41 %. Par la suite, la présence de ce nématode a été signalée chez le bananier en Inde du sud (Koshy et al. 1978), au Gujarat (Sethi et al. 1981), au Maharashtra (Darekar et al. 1981), au Madhya Pradesh (Tiwari et al. 2000), à Goa (Koshy et Sosamma 1988), dans les îles Lakshadweep (Sundararaju 1990), à Manipur (Anandi et Dhanchand 1992), à Orissa (Mohanty et al. 1992), à Tripura (Mukherjee et al. 1994), au Bihar, dans l'Uttar Pradesh et au Nagaland (Khan 1999).Il a été rapporté que Pratylenchus coffeae, nématode des lésions racinaires, s'est répandu dans différentes régions de culture du bananier par l'intermédiaire de cormes infestés. En Inde, ce nématode a été trouvé chez les bananiers plantain (AAB) en Inde du sud, au Gujarat, à Orissa, au Bihar et à Assam (Sundararaju 1996). P. thornei, l'autre espèce importante, n'a été identifiée chez le bananier qu'à Assam (Choudhury et Phukan 1990).Chez les bananiers, les pertes de production causées par les nématodes sont très éle-vées, avec des baisses de rendement annuel de l'ordre de 20 % en moyenne au niveau mondial (Sasser et Freckman 1987). La température du sol à une profondeur de 30 cm n'influence pas la taille des populations (Jimenez 1972). Les populations fluctuent selon l'échantillon, la plante, le mois et l'année. Cependant, l'apparition de populations minimales et maximales se fait à des moments bien déterminés de l'année. Une étude détaillée réalisée par Sundararaju (1996) dans différentes régions de culture du bananier en Inde a révélé la présence de 17 genres de nématodes phytoparasites. Parmi eux, les nématodes des lésions, R. similis et P. coffeae sont les espèces prédominantes, présentes en quantités variables chez différents cultivars de bananiers. Dans les champs infestés par les nématodes du bananier, on observe un pourrissement important des racines, qui cause des pertes économiques importantes. Une baisse de rendement de 25 à 35 % a été observée dans un champ infesté par les nématodes, par comparaison avec des champs non infestés. Des pertes de production de 25,4 % dues au nématode des lésions racinaires P. coffeae ont été rapportées sur le cultivar de bananier Nendran (Sundararaju et al. 1999). Des études ont donc été entreprises pour déterminer les fluctuations saisonnières des populations de ces nématodes chez différents cultivars de bananier, en effectuant des prélèvements périodiques sur des bananiers infestés par les nématodes dans la ferme du National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB). L'objectif principal de cette étude était de déterminer les pics d'activité, c.-à-d. les valeurs maximales et minimales des populations de ces nématodes parasites dans la rhizosphère, de sorte que les résultats de ce travail puissent être pris en compte lors de la mise en place de programmes de gestion des cultures.Afin d'étudier les fluctuations des populations des nématodes des lésions, on a choisi les trois cultivars de bananier Kalyan bale (AB), Alukkal (ABB) et Kalibow (AAB), extrêmement sensibles à R. similis, et la variété Nendran (ABB), extrêmement sensible à P. coffeae, à la ferme du NRCB, Podhavur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu. Le champ infesté de nématodes a été sélectionné pour cette étude et les cultivars de bananier testés ont été cultivés dans ce champ, sur sol alluvial. Des échantillons de sol (250 cc) et de racines (10 g) ont été récoltés à la base des plantes-mères à intervalles d'un mois à partir du 5 e mois jusqu'au stade récolte en 1997-98. Des racines nourricières de couleur blanche à blanc-crème, présentant des lésions corticales brun-rougeâtre ont été récoltées à la base des plantes. On a pris soin de ne récolter que ce type de racines, qui sont celles abritant le plus grand nombre de nématodes. Pour effectuer l'extraction des nématodes, les échantillons de racines, soigneusement lavés et coupés en morceaux de 2 à 2,5 cm, puis en 8 fragments longitudinaux, ont été placés dans des boîtes de Pétri de 15 cm contenant 150 ml d'eau pendant 72 heures à 10-14 °C dans un réfrigérateur (Koshy et al. 1975). Pour l'estimation des populations de nématodes, les échantillons de sol ont été traités suivant la méthode de tamisage de Cobb, suivie par la méthode de l'entonnoir de Baermann modifiée. La température du sol à 15 cm de profondeur a été enregistrée au champ tous les jours à 7 heures. La température moyenne, l'humidité du sol et les données de précipitations cumulées ont été corrélées avec la densité des populations de nématodes dans les échantillons.La figure 1 montre une augmentation considérable de la population de R. similis chez les trois cultivars au cours des mois de novembre à avril, suivie par une diminution jusqu'à un niveau négligeable de mai à octobre. Ceci est en accord avec les résultats de Shafice et Mendez (1975). Il est intéressant d'observer que la population maximale de nématodes a été enregistrée en avril chez tous les cultivars, Kalayan bale (86/g de racines), Alukkal (78/g de racines) et Kalibow (68/g de racines), et la popula-   tion minimale en juillet chez le cultivar Kalyan bale (20/g de racines). L'analyse des échantillons de sol a également révélé la même tendance que dans le cas des échantillons de racines, la population maximale ayant été observée pendant les mois de novembre à avril, la pluviométrie et l'humidité du sol étant maximales pendant cette période. Dans le cas de P. coffeae chez la variété Nendran, la population maximale a été enregistrée d'octobre à décembre, et la population minimale de mai à août (figure 2). En ce qui concerne la population moyenne mensuelle, un maximum de 92 nématodes par gramme de racines a été enregistré en décembre, pour seulement 23 par gramme en juin. La population de nématodes des échantillons de sol a montré la même tendance que les échantillons de racines, avec une population maximale d'octobre à décembre et une population minimale de mai à août. Le pic de précipitations a eu lieu pendant la mousson du Nord-Est (septembre à décembre), avec une pluviométrie moyenne de 140 mm. La température du sol à 15 cm de profondeur a varié de 18 à 37,5 °C. L'analyse de la teneur en eau du sol a révélé qu'elle était maximale au cours des mois pendant lesquels les populations de nématodes les plus élevées étaient enregistrées (figure 3). La pluviométrie influence également la croissance des racines. Ainsi, avec l'augmentation de la disponibilité du système racinaire, on a noté une augmentation de l'activité de R. similis de novembre à avril et de celle de P. coffeae d'octobre à décembre.Les fluctuations des populations de Pratylenchus sp. sont corrélées avec la pluviométrie (Cooke et Draycott 1971). Le comportement de P. coffeae en relation avec la température du sol et la pluviométrie est semblable à celle de P. crenatus et P. penetrans chez le maïs (Miller et al. 1972). La faible humidité du sol, associée aux températures estivales élevées d'avril à août, s'est révélée défavorable à P. coffeae chez le palmier à huile (Sundararaju et Ratnakaran 2000). Ces résultats sont en accord avec ceux de Kumar (1984) qui a rapporté que des populations plus importantes de P. coffeae étaient enregistrées pendant les mois d'octobre à décembre, période de forte pluviométrie et d'activité racinaire maximale chez les caféiers.Des observations similaires ont été rapportées pour le nématode R. similis chez les agrumes (DuCharme et Suit 1967), le bananier (Vilardedo 1976), le cocotier et l'aréquier (Koshy et Sosamma 1978).La figure 1 montre que la population de R. similis fluctue selon le mois. Une augmentation régulière de la population de R. similis a été enregistrée pendant les mois de novembre à janvier, suivie d'une diminution progressive en février-mars, alors qu'une augmentation très forte de la population de nématodes était enregistrée en avril chez le cv. Kalyan bale (figure 1). Une tendance similaire a été observée chez les cvs. Alukkal et Kalibow (figure 1).Dans le cas de P. coffeae, une augmentation régulière de la population de nématodes a été enregistrée de septembre à décembre, suivie d'une diminution progressive de janvier à juin (figure 2).Ceci montre clairement que l'accroissement de la population de R. similis et P. coffeae varie fortement en fonction de la saison et d'autres conditions écologiques telles que la pluviométrie, la température du sol, l'humidité du sol et la disponibilité en racines sensibles, qui ont également un rôle dans l'augmentation de la population.Duong Thi Minh Nguyet, A. Elsen, Nguyen Thi Tuyet et D. De Waele L es nématodes parasites des plantes sont une contrainte majeure à la production bananière dans le monde entier (Gowen et Quénéhervé 1990). L'infection par les nématodes peut interférer avec l'absorption et le transport des nutriments et de l'eau, ce qui résulte en une croissance ralentie, un remplissage des fruits réduit et une sensibilité à la verse. Parmi les nématodes qui attaquent le bananier, Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne est considéré comme l'espèce la plus destructrice (Sarah et al. 1996).Les possibilités de contrôle des nématodes chez les bananiers sont limitées parce que les bananiers sont habituellement cultivés de manière continue par les petits agriculteurs et que des sources de résistance se sont avérées difficiles à trouver. La résistance à R. similis a été rapportée chez \"Pisang jari buaya\" (Musa AA -groupe Pisang jari buaya) et chez \"Yangambi Km5\" (Musa AAA -groupe Ibota) (Pinochet 1988, Viaen et al. 1998, Fogain et Gowen 1998, Stoffelen 2000). Le clone SH-3142, dérivé d'un génotype appartenant au groupe Pisang jari buaya, ainsi que le clone SH-1734 ont été identifiés comme très résistants à R. similis (Pinochet et Rowe 1979, Pinochet 1988). De plus, certains individus de Pisang jari buaya expriment des caractères agronomiques favorables, semblables à ceux des bananiers commerciaux.La banane Mysore (Musa AAB) est un dessert très apprécié et délicieux. On dispose de peu d'informations sur la résistance et/ou la tolérance des bananiers Mysore à R. similis. Au cours d'un test concernant 17 génotypes de Musa AAB, Fogain (1996) a rapporté qu'aucun des génotypes n'était exempt d'infection, y compris \"Pisang ceylan\", le seul cultivar appartenant au groupe Mysore. L'objectif de notre étude était de mieux comprendre la réponse des génotypes appartenant aux groupes Pisang jari buaya et Mysore, en tant que plantes-hôtes d'une population de R. similis du Costa Rica, afin de trouver des sources supplémentaires de résistance à ce nématode fouisseur.Tout au long de l'étude, nous avons utilisé la terminologie de Bos et Parlevliet (1995) concernant la résistance et la sensibilité des plantes-hôtes aux pathogènes, et la méthodologie d'évaluation de la résistance aux nématodes chez Musa décrite par Speijer et De Waele (1997).Treize génotypes de bananiers diploïdes (AA) appartenant au groupe Pisang jari buaya (essais 1 et 2, voir tableaux 1 et 2) et cinq génotypes triploïdes (AAB) du groupe Mysore (essai 3, voir tableau 3) ont été inclus dans cette étude. Deux bananiers triploïdes (Musa AAA), \"Grande naine\" et \"Yangambi Km5\", ont été inclus comme génotypes de référence en raison, respectivement, de leur sensibilité et de leur résistance élevées à R. similis. Les génotypes de Musa utilisés dans les essais ont été fournis par le Centre de transit de l'INIBAP (ITC), situé à l'Université catholique de Louvain. Après prolifération, régénération et enracinement (Banerjee et De Langhe 1985), chaque plant de bananier obtenu in vitro et muni de 3-4 feuilles et de 5-6 racines a été transplanté dans un pot en plastique d'un litre, de 12 cm de diamètre, contenant environ 1000 cm 3 d'un substrat autoclavé de tourbe et de quartz (2:1). Pour maintenir une humidité élevée, les pots ont été placés sous un couvercle en plastique, qui a été entrouvert au bout de 2 semaines et retiré au bout de 4 semaines. La serre était maintenue à 25-30 °C et 70-80 % d'humidité avec une photopériode de 12 h d'éclairement/12 h d'obscurité. Les pots étaient arrosés selon les besoins et de l'engrais fourni en solution hydroponique (Swennen et al. 1986) toutes les 3 semaines après l'inoculation avec les nématodes. Les plants ont été inoculés avec les nématodes, soit 4 semaines après la plantation pour le groupe Pisang jari buaya, soit 8 semaines après la plantation pour le groupe Mysore, le nombre de nématodes étant trop faible dans l'essai avec les génotypes \"Mysore\".La population de R. similis utilisée dans les essais a été obtenue à partir de racines du cultivar \"Valery\" (Musa AAA) à Talamanca au Costa Rica. Cette population a été élevée en conditions monoaxéniques sur des disques de carotte et incubée à 28°C à l'obscurité pendant plusieurs générations (Moody et al. 1973, Pinochet et al. 1995). Les disques de carotte ont été passés au mixeur deux fois pendant 10 s (avec un intervalle de 5 s) et passés à travers des tamis à mailles de 106 et 25 µm. Les tissus de carotte collectés sur le tamis à mailles de 106 µm ont été rejetés, et les nématodes ont été récoltés sur le tamis à mailles de 25 µm.Une suspension de 1000 nématodes vermiformes vivants a été introduite dans trois trous faits dans le substrat à la base de chaque plant. Les trous ont été rebouchés après inoculation.Huit semaines après l'inoculation, les plants ont été récoltés pour observer la réponse des différents génotypes de bananier à R. similis. Les données suivantes ont été enregistrées :La procédure suivie était celle décrite par Speijer et De Waele (1997). Cinq fragments de 10 cm de racines primaires fonctionnelles ont été récoltés et coupés longitudinalement. Le pourcentage de cortex racinaire montrant des nécroses a été noté pour chaque moitié de racine. Le maximum de nécrose par moitié de racine était de 20 %, soit une nécrose racinaire maximale de 100 % pour chaque groupe de cinq moitiés de racine.Le système racinaire entier, incluant les cinq segments de racines observés pour évaluer la nécrose, a été pesé et coupé en fragments de 2 cm. Quinze grammes de racines fraîches ont été prélevés au hasard et macérés trois fois 10 s avec des intervalles de 5 s. La mixture a été versée à travers une série de tamis à mailles de 250, 106 et 40 µm, puis les tamis ont été rincés à l'eau courante. Les nématodes restant sur le tamis à mailles de 40 µm ont été récoltés dans un bécher avec de l'eau distillée. Les nématodes ont été comptés sous la loupe binoculaire dans des aliquotes de 6 ml pour chaque échantillon.Trois essais ont été conduits, basés sur un dispositif complètement randomisé, avec soit huit répétitions par génotype (groupe Pisang jari buaya, essai 1, tableau 1 ; groupe Mysore, essai 3, tableau 3), soit neuf répétitions (groupe Pisang jari buaya, essai 2, tableau 2). Avant l'analyse statistique, le pourcentage de nécrose racinaire a été transformé par arcsin (x/100) et le nombre de nématodes converti en log 10 (x + 1). Toutes les données ont été soumises à une analyse de variance (ANOVA) et les moyennes des paramètres comparées en utilisant le test HSD de Tukey avec P ≤ 0.05. et \"Yangambi Km5\". Le pourcentage de nécrose racinaire de tous les génotypes de \"Pisang jari buaya\", de \"Yangambi Km5\" et de SH-3142 était significativement inférieur à celui de \"Grande naine\". Ces résultats montrent que tous les génotypes de \"Pisang jari buaya\" testés sont aussi sensible à R. similis que \"Grande naine\". Ils confirment un rapport antérieur (Wehunt et al. 1978) qui indiquait que \"Pisang jari buaya\", \"Gabah gabah\", \"Pisang sipulu\" et \"Pisang gigi buaya\" sont significativement moins sensibles aux dommages racinaires (exprimés en pourcentage de nécrose racinaire) que \"Grande naine\". De manière surprenante, \"Pisang jari buaya\", qui avait été confirmé auparavant comme résistant à R. similis (Pinochet 1988, Viaene et al. 1998, Fogain et Gowen 1998, Stoffelen 2000) n'est pas apparu résistant dans notre étude. De plus, \"Pisang sipulu\", qui est considéré comme un génotype de bananier prometteur du fait de sa moindre sensibilité à R. similis (Wehunt et al. 1978, Binks et Gowen 1996) n'a pas non plus montré de résistance à R. similis dans notre étude.Les résultats obtenus avec le groupe Mysore sont présentés dans le tableau 3. Le nombre de nématodes par système racinaire et par gramme de racines fraîches de \"Gorolo\" et \"Lady finger\" (South Johnstone) était significativement plus bas que chez \"Grande naine\", alors que ceux des autres génotypes \"Mysore\" n'étaient pas significativement différents du génotype de référence. Le pourcentage de nécrose observé chez \"Thap maeo\" et \"Gorolo\" était significativement plus bas que chez \"Grande naine\". En revanche, les pourcentages de nécrose racinaire de \"Pisang ceylan\", \"Lady finger\" (South Johnstone) et \"Lady finger\" (Nelson) n'étaient pas significativement différents de celui de \"Grande naine\".Selon Price (1994) et Price et Mc Laren (1995), les génotypes de Musa AAB sont sensibles à R. similis lorsqu'ils sont observés dans des essais en champ. Malheureusement, des génotypes du groupe Mysore n'étaient pas inclus dans leurs essais. Notre étude confirme des rapports antérieurs (Stanton 1994, Fogain et al. 1996) qui indiquaient que \"Lady finger\" (Nelson), \"Lady finger\" (South Johnson) et Pisang ceylan sont sensibles à R. similis.  (Pinochet et al. 1996).Chez les bananiers, les effets des CMA sur le développement des nématodes ont été assez peu étudiés. Des populations de Radopholus similis dans les racines et dans le sol ont été supprimées chez des plantes mycorhizées, par comparaison avec des plantes non mycorhizées (Umesh et al. 1988). En conditions in vitro, en utilisant des racines de Daucus carota transformées par de l'ADN-T Ri, une population de R. similis a été supprimée à 50 % en présence de CMA (Elsen et al. 2001). Pinochet et al. (1997)   (Koske et Gemma 1989), afin de déterminer la colonisation mycorhizienne. Les galles sur les racines ont été comptées sur un sous-échantillon de 5 g après coloration à la phloxine B (Hadisoeganda et Sasser 1982).Les CMA n'ont pas eu d'effet sur la croissance des plantes puisque le poids de la tige, le diamètre de la tige, la hauteur de la plante et le poids des racines n'étaient pas différents entre les traitements (résultats non présentés). En général, la mycorhization des plants de bananier a entraîné une meilleure croissance, par rapport aux plants non mycorhizés (Declerck et al. 1994(Declerck et al. , 1995)). Cependant, dans certains cas, on a observé que l'établissement de la symbiose était sans effet ou avait un effet négatif sur la croissance des plantes, tant que la colonisation mycorhizienne n'était pas bien développée (Jakobsen 1998). Ainsi, au moment de la récolte, la colonisation racinaire par les trois souches de Glomus testées était relativement faible. Ceci pourrait partiellement expliquer pourquoi, dans cet essai, aucun effet sur la croissance des plantes n'a été observé. De plus, il est important de noter les différences de colonisation obtenue selon les espèces de Glomus chez les plantes sans nématodes : la colonisation observée avec G. mosseae était supérieure à celle obtenue avec G. caledonium et G. macrocarpum. Ces différences ont aussi été rapportées dans la littérature (Declerck et al. 1994(Declerck et al. , 1995)). G. mosseae s'est avéré l'espèce la plus infectieuse sur Williams et d'autres cultivars, par comparaison avec G. macrocarpum (Declerck et al. 1995).G. caledonium et G. macrocarpum ont réduit de manière significative la production de galles sur les racines, alors que cet effet n'était pas significatif avec G. mosseae (tableau 1). Dans la littérature, les résultats sont contradictoires: selon Pinochet et al. (1997), G. intraradices ne réduit pas l'accumulation des nématodes et induit plus de galles racinaires que chez les racines non mycorhizées. En revanche, G. mosseae supprime la formation de galles sur les racines et l'accumulation du nématode Meloidogyne incognita (Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997).M. javanica fait baisser de manière significative le développement intraradiculaire de G. mosseae. Cet effet n'est pas observé avec G. macrocarpum et G. caledonium : la présence ou l'absence de nématodes à galle des racines n'a pas d'effet sur la colonisation interne des racines. Dans des essais similaires, des nématodes à galle des racines n'ont pas eu d'effet sur le pourcentage de colonisation racinaire chez des plantes mycorhizées (Pinochet et al. 1997, Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997).Les résultats des ces essais suggèrent un effet suppressif des trois souches de Glomus étudiées sur le nématode à galle des racines M. javanica. La connaissance des mécanismes impliqués dans la suppression des nématodes en est encore au stade des suppositions. Cependant, ils font probablement intervenir certains facteurs essen-tiels tels qu'une amélioration de l'état nutritionnel de la plante, des modifications biochimiques au niveau des tissus végétaux (augmentation des chitinases, des acides aminés, des peroxydases et des phytoalexines), des modifications anatomiques (augmentation de la lignification), une réduction des stress, une modification de la population microbienne de la rhizosphère et des modifications induites dans la morphologie des racines (augmentation de la ramification, augmentation de la proportion de racines d'ordre plus élevé) (Hooker et al. 1994)  (Pérez et al. 1984). La détermination de la pathogénicité des nématodes a généralement été établie en fonction de la densité de population de nématodes trouvés dans les racines. Toutefois, les résultats concernant la relation entre cette densité de population et les dégâts causés aux cultures sont contradictoires. Ces dernières années, on a effectivement observé des verses de bananiers et des racines nécrosées dans des sites où les populations de nématodes du sol étaient peu importantes.Les interactions racinaires entre R. similis et les espèces fongiques du genre Cylindrocladium et Acremonium contribuent à augmenter les dommages causés par les nématodes (Booth et Stover 1981, Loridat 1989, Sarah 1990). On rencontre ces associations dans la plupart des sols infestés de nématodes de quelques îles des Antilles. A Cuba, il n'y avait jusqu'à présent aucune étude destinée à rechercher et à quantifier ce type d'associations. Il faut quand même signaler qu'il n'existe pas toujours de corrélation tangible entre la présence des nématodes et les dommages observés au niveau des racines et du développement des plantes.L'objectif du travail présenté ici est de déterminer les différentes espèces de champignons rencontrées en association avec des nécroses racinaires chez les bananiers et les bananiers plantain appartenant à divers clones et plantations de Cuba.Les échantillonnages ont été pratiqués sur les plantations de la province de Pinar del Río, La Habana, Matanzas, Villa Clara, Ciego de Avila, Camagüey, Cienfuegos, Santiago de Cuba et Guantánamo.On a prélevé des fragments de racines nécrosées de pieds de \"Grande naine\" (AAA), \"Gros Michel\" (AAA), \"CEMSA 3 /4\" (AAB) et \"Burro CEMSA/Bluggoe\" (ABB), et, dans certains cas, de plantes étant tombées apparemment à la suite d'attaques de nématodes. On a échantillonné 10 plantes au hasard dans chaque champ. Pour effectuer les prélèvements, on a creusé des trous de 20 x 20 x 20 cm, à une distance de 10 cm du pseudotronc d'où l'on a retiré cinq racines infectées.Les racines lavées, on sélectionne des fragments nécrosés typiques des attaques de R. similis que l'on désinfecte à l'hypochlorite à 1 % pendant 2 mn et que l'on met en culture dans de l'eau gélosée additionnée de 50 µg/ml de streptomycine. Les croissances mycéliennes obtenues sont transférées sur un culot de PDA (potatoes dextrose agar) dans un tube à essai et mises à incuber jusqu'à ce que les espèces soient identifiables. L'identification a été réalisée en se référant pour les espèces de Fusarium à la clé de Booth (1981), et pour les espèces de Cylindrocarpon, aux clés du CMI publiées par le CAB.On a enregistré les espèces présentes dans chaque localité puis on a déterminé la fréquence relative de chacune par rapport à la totalité des isolats obtenus.Un total de 59 endophytes a été isolé à partir des tissus racinaires apparemment nécrosés par R. similis. Les espèces identifiées parmi ces isolats sont répertoriées dans le Tableau 1.Les Des bio-essais d'inoculation artificielle de C. musae, seul ou conjointement avec R. similis ont été effectués. Les résultats de ces recherches ont fourni des informations précieuses sur la pathogénicité de ces espèces par rapport à la nécrose racinaire du cultivar de prélèvement.Les espèces de Cylindrocladium ou de Zythia sp., signalées par Loridat (1989), Mourichon (1993) et Risède (1994)   Tableau 1. Espèces de champignons endophytes associés aux racines de bananiers et de bananiers plantain provenant de différentes plantations de Cuba. 'emploi de champignons donnant des mycorhizes à arbuscules (MA) dans les systèmes de production végétale devient une pratique de plus en plus envisageable, aussi les études consacrées à ce sujet se sont-elles considérablement multipliées ces dernières années.Le bananier (Musa AAA) présente durant les premières phases de son développement une bonne capacité mycotrophique et une dépendance modérée vis à vis de la mycorhization (40-50 %) (Jaizme-Vega et al. 1998). La mycorhization in vivo permet de quantifier l'amélioration de la croissance et de la nutrition chez cette espèce (Lin et Chang 1987, Rizzardi 1990, Declerk et al. 1995, Jaizme-Vega et Azcón 1995), y compris dans les conditions habituelles de fertilisation des pépinières commerciales (Tenoury 1996, Sosa Hernández 1997). On enregistre également une modification positive du comportement de la plante face à des pathogènes du sol tels que Meloidogyne incognita (Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997) C'est pourquoi la recherche présentée ici s'est donné pour objectif d'étudier de façon séquentielle les effets d'une mycorhization précoce sur la croissance de bananiers micropropagés, depuis les premières phases de leur développement jusqu'à neuf mois après leur transfert au champ en microparcelles.On a utilisé des bananiers micropropagés appartenant à deux des cultivars commerciaux les plus répandus : Musa acuminata Colla AAA, cvs \"Grande naine\" et \"Gruesa\" (sélection locale de \"Dwarf Cavendish').Inoculation des champignons MA La mycorhization a lieu pendant la phase d'endurcissement. L'inoculum est un mélange homogène de spores, de sol de la rhizosphère et de radicelles de la plante hôte.On inocule chaque cultivar par deux champignons MA, avec, dans les deux cas, 1 500 g d'inoculum par bac (capacité du bac : 24 kg) provenant d'isolats de : • Glomus intraradices Schenck et Smith, provenant de collection, multiplié sur sorgho, avec une colonisation de 68 % ; • Glomus manihotis Howeler, Sieverding et Schenck, provenant de collection, multiplié sur tomate, avec une colonisation de 70 %.Au moment de l'inoculation, les plantes ont une taille de 10 ± 2 cm, avec environ trois feuilles développées. L'inoculation se fait dans les bacs de polyéthylène (PE)(40 x 60 cm, H x L), à raison d'un bac par cultivar et par champignon. Il y a deux plateaux témoins de plantules n'ayant pas été inoculées (un plateau par cultivar). Au total, on a inoculé six bacs de 35 plantes chacun.Le substrat employé, stérilisé à la vapeur libre, est un mélange de sol, de sable volcanique et de tourbe enrichie (TKS1 ® , Instant, Floragard, GmbH) dans les proportions de 5/2/1. Cette phase dure six semaines en serre, sous ombrière. On arrose à l'eau distillée en fonction des besoins des plantes.A la fin de la période d'enracinement et avant le passage en godets individuels, dix plantes de chaque traitement et de chaque variété sont sélectionnées pour évaluer les effets de l'inoculation sur le développement de la plante, la dépendance à la mycorhization dans les conditions de fertilisation imposées et l'importance de la colonisation mycélienne MA.Les paramètres correspondants à la croissance générale de la plante évalués pour chaque phase de l'expérimentation sont : le poids frais des racines et de la partie aérienne (en g), le poids sec de la partie aérienne (en g), la longueur et le diamètre du pseudotronc (en cm), le nombre de feuilles et la surface foliaire (en cm 2 ). La surface foliaire est établie grâce à l'instrument de mesure de superficie Li-COR, Inc. Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. Mod. Li-3100.La dépendance relative à la mycorhization (DRM), définie par Gerdeman (1975) comme le degré de nécessité d'une plante à porter une mycorhization pour pouvoir atteindre une croissance maximum ou bien fournir un rendement donné en fonction d'un certain niveau de fertilité du sol, est calculée en appliquant la formule :  Koske et Gemma 1989). Le pourcentage de colonisation est déterminé à partir de 20 morceaux de 1 cm de racines teintées, montés sur lame et observés au microscope optique (d'après Brundett et al. 1985).Ces déterminations effectuées, 20 plantes de chaque traitement sont transplantées dans des sacs de PE de 2 L, sur un substrat stérilisé à la vapeur libre composé de sol, de sable volcanique et de tourbe enrichie (TKS1 ® ) à volumes égaux (1/1/1). Cette phase dure 14 semaines en serre, à une température comprise entre 27 et 32 ºC et une humidité relative de 70 à 80 %.La fertilisation a été planifiée comme dans une pépinière commerciale de bana-niers. Les plantes ont reçu, deux fois par semaine, alternativement, 100 cc de deux types de fertilisants : la première fois, (NO 3 ) 2 Ca (3 g/L) + NO 3 H (0,4 cc/L) ; la fois suivante, SO 4 K 2 (3 g/L) + PO 4 H 3 (0,2 cc/L). Les jours ne comportant pas de programme de fertilisation, on a arrosé les plantes à l'eau courante en fonction des besoins de la culture. On a administré une fois par semaine des micro-éléments en traitement foliaire avec du Wuxal ® Super AA 8-8-6 (Argos Shering, Agrevo, S.A. Valencia, Espagne) à 3 %.Au bout de trois mois et demi de croissance, les plantes sont de nouveau transplantées dans un conteneur d'une taille supérieure, et enterrées dans une parcelle appartenant à l'ICIA, située à 300 m d'altitude. Cet emplacement est considéré comme zone marginale pour ce type de culture du fait de son orientation et des conditions climatiques. Avant de finaliser cette étape, on évalue, comme on l'a fait au cours de la première transplantation, les effets des champignons MA, l'extension de l'infection due à la mycorhization des racines et la dépendance à la mycorhization sur dix plantes, par cultivar et par traitement.Pour cette dernière phase de l'expérimentation, on a choisi des pots de PE de 35 cm de diamètre et de 50 L de capacité, remplis d'un substrat non stérilisé composé des mêmes éléments et dans les mêmes proportions que précédemment (1/1/1), enrichi de 1,5 g/L d'engrais à libération lente (Osmocote 17/10/10, Scotts, O.M. Tarragona). Les plantes une fois en place dans leurs nouveaux récipients (10 par cultivar et traitement), on les dispose à l'intérieur d'un autre récipient de mêmes dimensions, préalablement enterré jusqu'à son bord supérieur dans la parcelle d'essai. On ajoute l'engrais dans l'eau de l'arrosage local, une fois par semaine, 1 L par plante, avec les deux combinaisons d'engrais déjà employées après la première transplantation. La fertilisation foliaire est appliquée tous les quinze jours. Les jours ne comportant pas de programme de fertilisation, on arrose les plantes en fonction de leurs besoins hydriques.Les plantes sont maintenues dans ces conditions pendant neuf mois. Ensuite, on démantèle l'essai pour évaluer les effets de la symbiose sur le développement des bananiers.Différentes variables expérimentales sont prises en compte : le poids frais des racines et de la partie aérienne, le nombre de rejets, le nombre de feuilles, la surface foliaire, la teneur en N, P et K ; en plus de la dépendance à la mycorhization et de la colonisation mycélienne.Pour réaliser les analyses foliaires, on place au préalable les échantillons dans une étuve à 70 °C pendant 24 heures, puis on évalue la teneur en azote, en phosphore et en potassium. Pour doser l'azote, on minéralise l'échantillon par \"voie humide\". Dans le cas du phosphore, on fait un dosage calorimétrique. Le potassium est mesuré par spectrophotométrie d'absorption atomique.Les moyennes sont comparées par la preuve de la plus petite différence significative de Fisher. Les données sont analysées par le programme statistique ANOVA (Systat version 5.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, EU).A la fin de la phase d'enracinement, les deux cultivars répondent positivement quel que soit le champignon MA inoculé (tableaux 1a et 2a). Pendant cette phase, la dépendance relative à la mycorhization (DRM) des deux cultivars par Glomus manihotis et Glomus intraradices atteint les valeurs les plus élevées jamais obtenues au cours de l'essai tout entier, soit environ 35 et 50 % respectivement. Dans cette première phase, les pourcentages de colonisation des deux champi-INFOMUSA -Vol 11, N°1 gnons MA inoculés sont semblables pour les deux cultivars. Après la transplantation, l'action bénéfique des champignons MA sur le développement des plantes se maintient de telle sorte que, trois mois et demi après la mycorhization, les variables expérimentales évaluées sur les plantes inoculées de chaque cultivar présentent pour la majorité d'entre elles des valeurs significativement différentes du point de vue statistique par rapport aux témoins (tableaux 1b et 2b). Les DRM évoluent de manière similaire pour les deux cultivars pour atteindre à la fin de cette période des moyennes de 40 % sur le cv. \"Grande naine\", et une moyenne de 30 % (Glomus manihotis) ou de 20 % (Glomus intraradices) sur le cv. \"Gruesa\" (tableaux 1b et 2b).La colonisation des racines des bananiers inoculés ne se déroule pas de la même façon chez les deux cultivars. Ainsi, les racines des plantes du cv. \"Grande naine\" inoculées avec G. manihotis voient leur taux d'infection doubler par rapport au début de l'étude tandis qu'il reste identique pour les racines colonisées par G. intraradices. En revanche, chez les plantes du cv. \"Gruesa\", on n'enregistre pas de changements de valeur des taux de colonisation obtenus à la première transplantation. Durant l'essai, à partir de la 14 e semaine, on constate que les racines des plantes témoins de chaque cultivar présentent des taux d'infection due à une contamination par des champignons MA d'environ 15 % (tableaux 1b et 2b) ; sans que cela ait une influence significative sur le développement des plantes. Ces endophytes peuvent provenir de l'eau d'arrosage ou d'une pollution non contrôlée de la pépinière où se trouvaient les plantes.Ces données confirment celles déjà publiées sur les avantages d'une mycorhization précoce des plantes au cours des premières phases de leur développement (Declerck et al. 1995, Tenoury 1996, Sosa-Hernández 1997, Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997, 1998).Les résultats de la deuxième période de l'essai, pendant laquelle on a étudié les effets des champignons MA sur des plantes inoculées in vivo, endurcies durant trois mois et transplantées sur un substrat non stérilisé, montrent que, après neuf mois de micro-parcelles et de fertilisation standard, en général les bananiers porteurs de G. intraradices et plus encore ceux du cv. \"Gruesa\" retirent un A la fin de cette phase, la colonisation racinaire des deux espèces de Glomus inoculées est relativement importante chez les deux cultivars (supérieure à 70 %). Il faut quand même noter le haut niveau de colonisation des racines des plantes témoins. Comme dans cette partie de l'expérimentation on a utilisé le substrat sans le stériliser, ceci, joint aux autres conditions de l'essai, explique ces résultats.Les conclusions de l'expérience en général et de cette dernière période du travail en particulier permettent de confirmer les avantages de la mycorhization pour des stades plus avancés de la culture du bananier et ouvrent des perspectives prometteuses quant aux conséquences que cette ressource biotechnologique peut entraîner pour l'amélioration de la production. Des graines d'Arachis pintoi cv. Amarillo en provenance du Costa Rica ont été inoculées par enrobage au moment du semis avec leur bactérie symbiotique Rhizobium sp. Ces graines ont été mises en culture dans des tubes de culture en PVC de 237 cm 3 emplis de terre stérile (stérilisation à la vapeur pendant 1 heure à 100 °C). Le substrat était de type andosol volcanique, de pH 6,2, avec 7,3 % de matière organique et une capacité d'échange cationique de 10,3 meq par 100 g de sol. L'expérimentation a été conduite en chambre climatique à raison de huit répétitions par objet avec une thermopériode jour/nuit de 27 °C/22 °C ± 1 °C, une photopériode éclairée de 14 h, un arrosage quotidien et l'application hebdomadaire d'une solution fertilisante de Hoagland. Quatre semaines après semis et développement de l'arachide, les cinq espèces de nématodes préalablement élevées au laboratoire (Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae, Hoplolaimus seinhorsti, Meloidogyne incognita et Meloidogyne mayaguensis) ont été inoculées individuellement à raison de 400 individus par plante. L'infestation du système racinaire a été vérifiée 45 jours plus tard après extraction des nématodes des racines par brumisation (Seinhorst 1950). Les densités de nématodes ont été exprimées en nombre de nématodes par système racinaire et par gramme de racine sèche (après passage à l'étuve a 60 °C pendant 24 heures).Les résultats de cette expérimentation (tableau 1) montrent qu'à 45 jours, seules trois espèces de nématodes se sont maintenues : R. similis, H. seinhorsti et P. coffeae. L'inoculation des différentes espèces de nématode est restée sans effet sur la croissance tant des parties aériennes que racinaires de l'arachide qui se révèle donc, sur cette courte période de temps, être tolérante aux attaques de ces nématodes.Arachis pintoi n'a pas été en mesure de maintenir et de multiplier les deux espèces de Meloidogyne, M. incognita et M. mayaguensis. Ce résultat confirme et complète vis-à-vis de M. mayaguensis les résultats précédents sur la capacité de cette arachide à ne pas être hôte des principales espèces de nématodes à galles, exception faite de M. hapla (Jonathan et al. 1999).L'Arachis pintoi est par contre hôte des trois autres espèces et, selon les critères appliqués aux adventices en bananeraies (Quénéhervé et al. 2002), on peut considérer qu'elle est mauvais hôte de R. similis mais très bon hôte de H. seinhorsti et de P. coffeae. La capacité d'hôte d'Arachis pintoi à R. similis déjà observée (Araya 1996) est donc confirmée mais aussi, ce qui est nouveau, sa forte susceptibilité à P. coffeae et à H. seinhorsti, deux espèces de nématodes dont la pathogénicité sur bananiers est démontrée pour l'un (P. coffeae) et probable pour l'autre.Ces résultats seront à comparer avec ceux relevés aux champs en conditions d'infestation naturelle. En effet, la production de racines chez Arachis pintoi est extrême-ment faible (ratio partie aérienne/partie racinaire de l'ordre de 7,5 dans notre expérimentation) et il serait intéressant de quantifier la réelle capacité \"réservoir\" de cette plante au champ vis-à-vis des nématodes comme effectué par Araya en 1996. Toutefois on peut d'ores et déjà réfléchir sur l'aspect \"non hôte\" vis-à-vis de Meloidogyne spp. et surtout de M. mayaguensis, et reconsidérer cette culture dans le cadre de jachère nettoyante (réhabilitation) et protectrice vis-àvis de ces nématodes avant une culture sensible annuelle ou pérenne.Depuis de nombreuses années, les agronomes recherchent des plantes utilisables en jachère (de courte, moyenne et longue durée) ou en plantes de couverture, susceptibles, entre autres résultats, de réduire la pression parasitaire (par exemple les nématodes) mais aussi de diminuer celle des mauvaises herbes, d'améliorer la fertilité du sol et de limiter l'érosion (Ternisien et Melin 1989). En zone Caraïbe, deux plantes ont été retenues vis-à-vis de leur activité contre les nématodes, avec leurs avantages et leurs inconvénients : la graminée fourragère Digitaria decumbens et la légumineuse fourragère Mucuna pruriens cv. utilis d'origine africaine.Chacune de ces plantes trouve son intérêt vis-à-vis d'un système de culture considéré. Digitaria decumbens rentre ainsi dans des systèmes de rotation à long terme intégrant l'élevage et le maraîchage de plein champ, comme sur les vertisols du sud de la Martinique. Mucuna pruriens, largement utilisé dans le sud-est des Etats-Unis ainsi qu'en Afrique peut également trouver sa place à la Martinique en tant que culture intercalaire courte ainsi que dans certains systèmes maraîchers intensifs afin de lutter contre les nématodes et particulièrement Meloidogyne spp. (Quénéhervé et al. 1998) Il prédomine dans les roches sédimentaires. Dans les roches ignées, c'est dans les granites qu'il est le plus abondant, sous la forme de silicates de bore. Son minéral le plus répandu est la tourmaline (3 à 4 % de bore). On le trouve dans le sol sous quatre états différents : a) en tant que partie intégrante de la structure cristalline des minéraux ; b) adsorbé ou retenu par les colloïdes du sol ; c) comme anion de la solution de sol ; ou d) associé à la matière organique du sol (Bonilla et al. 1994).La teneur en bore total du sol varie entre 2 et 200 ppm mais la majeure partie n'est pas assimilable par les plantes. Par rapport aux autres oligoéléments, le bore présente certaines spécificités comme celle d'être toujours combiné à l'oxygène dans la solution de sol et de se comporter en anion (borate) dans toutes les réactions. Le borate possède une grande mobilité ce qui explique qu'il soit facilement perdu par lixiviation. On peut considérer que le bore disponible dans le sol participe à un cycle dans lequel la majeure partie de cet élément provient de la matière organique et une petite quantité, de la tourmaline.La matière organique est décomposée par les micro-organismes qui libèrent du bore qui, disponible dans la solution de sol, est absorbé par les végétaux. Une partie peut être lessivée par les eaux d'infiltration et une petite fraction être fixée ou retenue par les argiles (Berger et Pratt, cités par Bonilla et al. 1994).Parmi les multiples fonctions assurées par le bore dans le métabolisme végétal, on constate entre autres qu'il influence les processus de floraison et de fructification, la germination des grains de pollen, la division cellulaire ainsi que le métabolisme de l'azote, des hydrates de carbone et des substances pectiques. En ce qui concerne ces dernières, Rajaratnam et Lowry (1974) rapportent que leur concentration peut augmenter chez les plantes carencées en bore.Le bore est impliqué également dans l'absorption de l'eau et des sels minéraux par le cytoplasme. On pense que son rôle principal est d'aider le passage des molécules de sucres fortement polarisées à travers la paroi cellulaire. Le bore constitue en effet un élément fixe de la membrane de sorte qu'une quelconque carence se traduit immédiatement par une altération du métabolisme des sucres destinés à s'accumuler dans les feuilles. Cet état de fait pourrait être à l'origine de presque toutes les autres fonctions qu'on lui attribue (Gómez et Leguizamón 1975). Malgré les avancées notables de l'étude de la nutrition minérale, le rôle du bore dans le métabolisme végétal suscite encore bien des questions.Actuellement, dans la région caféière centrale de Colombie, de nombreuses plantations de bananiers présentent les symptômes d'une carence en bore. D'après León et al., on avait recensé en 1985 dix cas de ce type dans tout le pays. L'étude présentée ici, destinée à récolter des données en nombre suffisant pour pouvoir éclaircir les interrogations mentionnées plus haut, a pour objectif de déterminer l'importance du bore dans la culture du bananier plantain (Musa AAB cv. \"Dominico hartón\") dans le département du Quindío et d'étudier sa dynamique pendant dix ans dans un sol fertilisé par les macroéléments.On a mené l'étude sur une parcelle située dans la station expérimentale El Agrado, municipalité de Montenegro, département du Quindío, Colombie. La station se trouve à 1320 m d'altitude, et est caractérisée par des précipitations annuelles moyennes de 2 000 mm, une température annuelle moyenne de 22 °C et une humidité relative de 76 %.D'après la classification de Holdridge, son écosystème correspond à la forêt humide de l'étage pré-montagnard (fh-PM). Les sols sont issus de cendres volcaniques (andisols), possèdent une fertilité naturelle moyenne, une texture de moyenne à grossière et une faible capacité de rétention d'eau, ce qui les rend lixiviables et sensibles à l'érosion.On a réalisé des analyses de sol du 2 mai 1990 jusqu'au 2 mars 2000. Les échantillons ont été prélevés tous les deux ans, avec cinq répétitions. On a analysé les enregistrements des précipitations reçues pendant la durée de l'étude.On a procédé sur les échantillons récoltés à la détermination du pH, de la teneur en matière organique, en calcium échangeable, en phosphore (P), en magnésium (Mg), en potassium (K) et en bore (B). Les méthodes d'analyse utilisées sont répertoriées dans le tableau 1. Les résultats obtenus ont fait l'objet d'une analyse de corrélation pour les couples bore-poids du régime (produit de cycle en cycle), borepotassium, bore-calcium, bore-pourcentage de matière organique et bore-pH. On a également analysé les relations pouvant exister entre les rapports Ca/Mg, Mg/K, Ca/K et (Ca+Mg)/K.A partir des données fournies par les analyses de sol, on a calculé les moyennes des cinq répétitions pour étudier leur évolution en fonction du temps comme indiqué dans le tableau 2.Comme le montrent les résultats des analyses chimiques de sol réalisées au cours des dix dernières années, la teneur en bore a fortement diminué, passant d'un taux convenant à la culture du bananier plantain de 0,4 ppm (selon Buriticá 1985) au taux de 0,01 ppm, valeur pour laquelle il y aurait carence. Cependant, il faut tenir compte du cycle édaphique de l'élément, qui détermine sa concentration dans la solution de sol et, par conséquent, sa disponibilité et sa capacité d'absorption par les plantes (Mengel 1980).Comme on peut le noter sur le tableau 3, la teneur en bore est étroitement et directement corrélée au pH car celui-ci se situe à un niveau optimal pour l'absorption du bore par les végétaux. En effet, la fixation de cet élément minéral par les hydroxydes de fer et d'alumine ainsi que par les argiles augmente avec le pH : elle est maximale pour un pH compris entre 8 et 9 et minimale pour un pH d'environ 5 (Lora 1994). Selon Domínguez (1988), une augmentation de pH diminue la disponibilité du bore mais cela n'apparaît qu'à partir d'un pH égal à 6 qui n'a jamais été atteint après le démarrage de cette expérimentation.D'après Marschner (1986), la disponibilité du bore pour les plantes décroît quand le pH du sol augmente ; c'est le cas dans les sols calcaires ou dans ceux présentant une forte teneur en argile, probablement en rai-son de la formation et de l'absorption de B(OH) 4 .Conformément aux analyses chimiques du sol étudié, la valeur du pH (5,1-6,08) oscille dans une fourchette favorable à l'exploitation éventuelle de l'élément par les végétaux. Cela explique que les symptômes de carence en bore se soient manifestés seulement au cours des dernières années. Les raisons pour lesquelles la teneur en bore est corrélée au pH sont fondées sur le fait que le pH : • influence profondément de nombreux processus biologiques ayant lieu dans le sol ; • affecte la disponibilité des oligoéléments ; • altère l'absorption d'un élément en raison de son action sur l'activité microbienne ; • génère des changements au niveau de la capacité des racines à absorber les ions ou à les transporter une fois absorbés ; • provoque des variations de la stabilité des complexes organiques solubles ou non ; • modifie la solubilité des ions antagonistes et altère les conditions de la rhizosphère.Les résultats obtenus montrent également une corrélation étroite et inverse entre le bore et le potassium (tableau 3). Cela peut s'expliquer par le fait que la teneur en K atteint au fil des ans des taux supérieurs à 0,30 meq/100g de sol, ce qui, selon Gómez et Leguizamón (1975), peut provoquer des carences en bore. L'interaction potassium-bore ne semble pas suivre une règle bien définie. Revé et Shive (1944), cités par Domínguez (1988), démontrent que, dans un milieu riche en bore, son absorption augmente avec l'enrichissement du sol en potassium ; mais, en revanche, en présence de taux faibles en bore dans le milieu, le déficit s'aggrave avec l'augmentation du potassium. Le sens de Tableau 2. Variation des propriétés chimiques du sol étudié (1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000). l'interaction K/B paraît dépendre de la richesse en bore de la solution de sol. La tendance suivie dans cette étude montre que les applications croissantes de potassium provoquent une légère réduction de la disponibilité du bore. Quand le bore interagit avec d'autres éléments, on doit tenir compte de l'éventualité de déséquilibres nutritionnels dans le sol, étant donné que cet élément aide à transporter des ions antagonistes, ce qui affecte directement la plante dès lors qu'un ou plusieurs éléments ne sont plus disponibles pour elle. C'est le cas du potassium qui est absorbé en moindres quantités quand la teneur en bore est très basse.Quant au calcium, ses taux augmentent quand le bore est en déficit. Dans le sol étudié, il n'y a pas une grande disponibilité en calcium, ce qui pourrait favoriser l'absorption du bore. Cependant, on a calculé l'interaction calcium-bore dans les concentrations du milieu de croissance et le rapport Ca/B dans la plante. Revé et Shive (1944), cités par Domínguez (1988), indiquent que des fortes concentrations de calcium aggravent les symptômes de carence en bore chez la tomate. D'autre part, la toxicité du bore dans un milieu qui en contient trop peut être diminuée en augmentant les quantités de calcium du milieu. Il est possible que, en raison de tout ce qui précède, les carences en bore des cultures de bananiers plantain étudiées ne soient apparues que ces dernières années (1999)(2000), même si on relève des faibles teneurs en bore depuis 1993.Le tableau 3 montre une corrélation inverse du phosphore par rapport au bore. D'après les études réalisées par Robertson et Lougman (1974), il est démontré qu'il se produit une diminution manifeste de l'absorption du phosphore chez les plantes carencées en bore. Ceci est en relation avec le rôle que joue le bore comme stimulant de l'utilisation du glucose 1-phosphate. Aussi, tant que les teneurs en bore seront basses, le phosphore qui se trouve dans le sol sera très lentement assimilé ce qui se traduira par son accumulation progressive dans le milieu.En considérant les relations établies entre les différents cations (tableau 4) et la com-paraison ultérieure avec leurs niveaux critiques, en aucun cas on n'a observé de carence en potassium, ce qui s'explique aisément en raison des grandes quantités d'engrais potassiques appliqués tout au long des années et aussi par le recyclage de cet élément à travers les résidus de récolte. Selon Belalcázar (1991), la culture du bananier plantain extrait du sol des pourcentages élevés d'éléments tels que le potassium (76,02 %) et le calcium (13,62 %), suivis par l'azote, le magnésium et le phosphore. L'élément le plus exporté est l'azote (25,55 %), suivi par le magnésium (20,09 %) et le phosphore (19,80 %), alors que ceux qui sont réincorporés ou recyclés en plus grande quantité sont le calcium (94,47 %) et le potassium (89,77 %).Parmi les causes probables de l'origine de la carence en magnésium du sol étudié, on constate des relations inappropriées avec les autres bases du sol, principalement le potassium (tableau 4).La relation Mg/K est déséquilibrée par un déficit en Mg : les niveaux élevés de K agissent de manière antagoniste avec le magnésium, ce qui conduit à une absorption faible de cet élément. Les pertes en magnésium des sols sont plus élevées quand on y ajoute des engrais potassiques. De nombreux auteurs considèrent qu'un sol est pauvre en magnésium lorsqu'il contient moins de 1,0 meq/100g, alors que pour d'autres il suffit que la teneur en Mg soit inférieure à 1,5 et même 2,0 meq/100 g (Suárez et Carrillo 1984).La fertilisation intensive et continue en potassium employée dans la zone a certainement contribué à cette carence en Mg, provoquant un déséquilibre du rapport Mg/K et, par conséquent, une inhibition de l'absorption du magnésium. Enfin, on notera que, dans la zone où s'est déroulée l'étude, il est fréquent de rencontrer des cultures manifestant des symptômes de carence en Mg. Conformément à Fried et Dean (1952), on peut remédier aux carences nutritionnelles engendrées par ces conditions de déséquilibre en appliquant un plan de fertilisation équilibré.Matière organique et bore dans le sol D'après les résultats de l'étude, il n'y a pas de corrélation entre la matière organique et le bore. Cependant, il faut souligner que divers auteurs (Gómez et Leguizamón 1975) affirment que dans les sols riches en matière organique on observe rarement de carence en bore puisque la matière organique du sol en est la principale source. C'est ainsi que Berger et Truog (1945), cités par Domínguez (1988), ont relevé une corrélation positive entre le bore assimilable (bore soluble dans l'eau) et la teneur en matière organique du sol. Un peu plus tard, Olson et Berger (1946), cités par Domínguez (1988), ont démontré que la minéralisation de la matière organique conduisait à la libération de bore assimilable.D'autre part, le bore adsorbé par les colloïdes organiques et inorganiques du sol constitue une réserve permettant de maintenir sa concentration dans la solution de sol afin de satisfaire les besoins de la culture et de réduire les pertes par lessivage. De plus, dans des sols contenant davantage de matière organique, la concentration de bore est plus élevée puisqu'une fraction importante du bore édaphique provient de la matière organique du sol.INFOMUSA -Vol 11, N°1 Tableau 4. Relations entre cations dans le sol de l'expérimentation (1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000). Ainsi, les faibles quantité et qualité de la production peuvent être provoquées par une carence précoce en bore qui entraîne un arrêt de la croissance des bourgeons et inhibe l'élongation des cellules (Lovatt et al. 1981, Robertson et Loughman 1974b) et leur division (Cohen et Lepper 1977, Kouchi 1977).Selon Leguizamón (1975), dans bien des cas, les bourgeons axillaires affectés n'arrivent pas au stade productif et, s'ils y arrivent, ils donnent des régimes petits et déformés.On peut conclure de ce qui précède que le bore est un nutriment essentiel à une bonne production, tant en qualité qu'en quantité.La teneur en bore tend à diminuer avec les précipitations élevées reçues par la région étudiée comme le montre la figure 2. Ce régime de précipitations, joint à la texture de type limon sableux du sol et au fait que l'anion borate possède une certaine mobilité, a permis une augmentation du taux de lixiviation du bore. C'est pourquoi il s'avère indispensable d'appliquer ce nutriment de manière plus fractionnée.Ces résultats concordent avec ceux de Marschner (1986), qui part du principe que, dans des conditions de fortes précipitations, le bore est lessivé sous forme de B(OH) 3 .Un aspect général du déficit en bore est le mauvais développement des tissus méristématiques, que ce soit aux extrémités des radicelles ou au niveau des bourgeons. En cas de carence, les difficultés de développement sont les premiers symptômes (Domínguez 1988). Ce ralentissement de la croissance des pointes des racines peut probablement contribuer à aggraver un des principaux problèmes de la culture du bananier : la verse. Primavessi (2000) affirme que l'addition de bore aide la croissance des racines et que, si ces dernières restent dans la couche organique et ne pénètrent pas plus profondément dans le sol, c'est parce qu'il ne s'y trouve pas suffisamment de bore.Les carences en bore des plantes ne sont pourtant pas très faciles à identifier sinon par des analyses foliaires ou de sol. Celles-ci sont particulièrement indiquées dans le cadre de la culture du bananier plantain car le bore joue, grâce à la transformation de complexes bore-sucres (Marschner 1986), un rôle essentiel dans le transport des sucres et donc dans le remplissage des fruits. Une carence en bore a donc une incidence directe sur la qualité et la quantité des bananes plantain récoltées.• Le bore est un nutriment fondamental pour l'obtention de rendements maximaux des bananiers plantain tant en quantité qu'en qualité. Ceci est confirmé par la corrélation de 1 entre le poids des régimes et la teneur en bore du sol étudié. es bananiers plantain représentent une source alimentaire importante pour les populations d'Amérique latine et de certains pays africains. Les bananiers plantain de type \"Horn\", traditionnellement les plus cultivés, ont été gravement affectés par la cercosporiose noire (Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet), ce qui a considérablement diminué l'offre de ce produit sur les marchés locaux et d'exportation. C'est la principale maladie qui menace la production de cette source alimentaire et de revenus (Jacome 1998). Le fait que la culture des bananiers plantain se pratique généralement dans de petites exploitations, quelquefois en zones montagneuses et très souvent en association avec d'autres plantes, rend la lutte chimique contre la maladie difficile. Les conséquences, non seulement sur le volume de production mais aussi sur la qualité du produit, font que les niveaux actuels de production ne répondent pas à la demande croissante de certains marchés locaux et d'exportation.Dans les années 90, les premiers hybrides de bananiers plantain résistants à la cercosporiose noire destinés à la commercialisation développés par la Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) ont donné l'espoir de pouvoir introduire de nouveaux clones dans la production commerciale et de retrouver des niveaux de production adéquats à moindre coût.Cependant, en raison de leur constitution génétique à laquelle ont participé certains clones de type \"French\" de haute stature, les nouveaux hybrides doivent être caractérisés sur le plan morphologique et étudiés au niveau agronomique avant d'être exploités commercialement.Le travail présenté ici montre les résultats de l'évaluation de divers caractères agronomiques des hybrides FHIA dans la région centrale de Cuba.Les études ont été réalisées sur des vitroplants issus de micropropagation d'après la méthode proposée par Orellana (1994), implantés sur la plantation de l'entreprise de cultures diversifiées \"La Cuba\", située dans la province de Ciego de Avila. A l'aide des résultats des évaluations du nombre de feuilles fonctionnelles présentant les lésions typiques de la cercosporiose noire, on a déterminé deux formules servant d'indicateurs de la réduction de la surface foliaire fonctionnelle : l'indice de réduction de feuilles fonctionnelles (IRFF) et l'indice relatif d'infection par la cercosporiose noire (IRI), reflétant les dégâts provoqués par la maladie. Ce dernier indice dépend du nombre de feuilles fonctionnelles présentant des lésions typiques en début de floraison et à la récolte du régime.Formules := NFFF x NFNR/ (NFFR) 2 Comme à Cuba on ne réalise en pratique qu'un cycle de production, les évaluations ont porté seulement sur le pied-mère.Les résultats montrent qu'à l'exception de \"FHIA-19\", dont le poids du régime est le plus faible, les autres hybrides ne diffèrent pas entre eux pour ce caractère. Pour l'ensemble des hybrides, la majeure partie du poids du régime est concentrée sur les quatre premières mains (59,71 % du poids total), \"FHIA-19\" atteignant le taux le plus élevé (71 %), ce qui est confirmé par l'observation de la longueur et de la grosseur des doigts de la première main (Tableau 1). La concentration de la majeure partie du poids sur les premières mains est une caractéristique des bananiers plantain. Cela justifie que l'on puisse éliminer les mains terminales des hybrides ayant développé plus de huit mains par régime, pour favoriser un plus grand développement des doigts en longueur et en diamètre. Ce dernier aspect est très important pour pouvoir prétendre rivaliser avec les bananiers plantain de type \"Horn\". On n'a pas observé de différences entre les hybrides pour les autres caractères du régime. Arcila et al. (2000) recommandent de laisser cinq mains et d'éliminer les autres 20 jours après le début de la floraison.Il est important de souligner que les hybrides dont l'intervalle de temps entre la récolte et la maturation est le plus grand dans les conditions naturelles sont \"FHIA-20\" et \"FHIA-22\" avec 11 jours tandis que pour \"FHIA-21\", cet intervalle n'est que de 8 jours. Ce comportement montre que les deux premiers présentent des avantages pour le commerce local et pour l'exportation sur de courtes distances.En ce qui concerne le comportement face à la cercosporiose noire, l'IRFF indique que \"FHIA-04\", arrivé à la récolte avec seulement 1,3 feuilles fonctionnelles (IRFF = 9,31), est l'hybride dont la surface foliaire a été la plus réduite durant le processus de remplissage des doigts, entraînant un remplissage insuffisant de ces derniers. Tous les autres hybrides présentent des valeurs d'indice inférieures et très voisines entre elles (tableau 2). Pour ces hybrides, le nombre de feuilles fonctionnelles au moment de la récolte n'est jamais inférieur à quatre, permettant un bon remplissage des doigts.Les résultats indiquent que l'hybride \"FHIA-04\" est aussi le plus touché par la cercosporiose noire, avec un IRI de 9,31 dû au fait que toutes ses feuilles fonctionnelles présentaient des nécroses typiques de la maladie, qui s'est rapidement développée après la floraison. Au moment de la récolte, \"FHIA-20\" et \"FHIA-22\", avec plus de deux feuilles fonctionnelles non affectées par l'agent pathogène, ont obtenu les plus petites valeurs d'IRI : 1,38 et 1,40 respectivement. \"FHIA-05\", \"FHIA-19\" et \"FHIA-21\", bien qu'avec des valeurs supérieures, se sont bien comportés face à la maladie même si toutes leurs feuilles fonctionnelles au   Jones (1994).Les résultats mettent en évidence la possibilité d'utiliser l'IRFF comme expression de la réduction de la surface foliaire pendant le processus de remplissage des doigts, et l'IRI comme expression du temps nécessaire au développement de la maladie en fonction de la surface foliaire affectée, donnée par le nombre de feuilles fonctionnelles et celui de feuilles nécrosées au moment de la récolte, relation qu'il a toujours été difficile de quantifier numériquement.D'après Ortiz et Vuylsteke (1994), cités par Craenen (1998), il faut au moins huit feuilles fonctionnelles pendant tout le cycle végétatif et un nombre égal de feuilles non nécrosées avant la floraison pour garantir un bon rendement.De ce point de vue, \"FHIA-20\" possède le cycle végétatif le plus court de la plantation à la récolte avec 481 jours, alors que chez les autres hybrides, celui-ci se situe dans une fourchette allant de 493 à 518 jours.• Les hybrides \"FHIA-20\" et \"FHIA-22\" présentent un bon potentiel de rendement en raison de la durée plus longue séparant la récolte de la maturation des fruits. \"FHIA-20\", en outre, a le cycle végétatif le plus court.  (Vasil 1994). Cette technique est à la base de la propagation en masse des bananiers et des bananiers plantain et constitue à l'heure actuelle, pour de nombreux pays, un moyen de multiplier et de distribuer commercialement à grande échelle des plantes exemptes de toute maladie (Afza et al. 1996).On sait que le génotype a une influence sur l'efficacité de la propagation in vitro et il est donc nécessaire, lorsque de nouvelles variétés ou des clones hybrides sont introduits dans les programmes de production, d'adapter les techniques de micropropagation. Banerjee et al. (1986) (cités par Afza et al. 1996) ont noté des différences considérables entre clones quant à la formation de bourgeons. Ceci semble être corrélé à la présence d'un ou deux génomes B.La propagation in vitro de l'hybride FHIA-20 (AAAB) s'est révélée difficile. On a observé le développement des apex en plantes durant la phase d'initiation ainsi que des bourgeons poussant en forme de rosette et présentant des structures bulbeuses de couleur blanche pendant la phase de multiplication. Ceci entraîne une réduction du coefficient de multiplication. Compte tenu de ces problèmes et de la nécessité de multiplier efficacement in vitro l'hybride FHIA-20, il s'avère nécessaire de mettre au point de nouveaux protocoles de manipulation des apex lors de la phase d'initiation, et des bourgeons axillaires lors de la phase de multiplication.On a choisi pour cette étude de jeunes plantes cultivées sous serre, d'une hauteur moyenne de 25,6 cm (figure 1). Les procédés d'introduction au laboratoire, qui comprennent la manipulation des plantes, la désinfection des cormes, les milieux de cultures d'initiation et de multiplication, et les conditions de culture sont ceux mis au point par Orellana (1994).Les cultures ont été placées en chambres de croissance en lumière naturelle et à une température de 27 ± 2 ºC. Dans tous les cas, on a placé la base des apex et des bourgeons vers le bas sur les milieux de culture.Cette étude avait pour but de définir les conditions de manipulation et de croissance des apex pendant la phase d'initiation. On a étudié les traitements suivants (figure 2) : 1. Apex de 0,5 cm 2 cultivés en milieu liquide (témoin) 2. Apex de 0,5 cm 2 cultivés sur milieu semisolide 3. Apex de 1,0 cm 2 coupés en deux et cultivés en milieu liquide 4. Apex de 1,0 cm 2 coupés en deux et cultivés sur milieu semi-solide. Au bout de 20 jours de culture, on a évalué les variables suivantes : • Pourcentage de régénération des apex • Pourcentage de contamination des apex • Pourcentage de mortalité des apex • Nombre de bourgeons par apex.On a effectué 20 répétitions par traitement et on a utilisé comme méthode statistique d'analyse des pourcentages la comparaison des proportions ANOVA. On a effectué sur la variable \"nombre de bourgeons par apex\" une simple analyse de variance, et pour la comparaison des moyennes le test de Tukey à P < 0,05 %.On a utilisé des tubes à essai de 14,5 x 2,0 cm contenant 10 ml de milieu de culture. Pour les milieux de culture liquides, on a employé un support en papier filtre formant un pont sur lequel on a disposé les apex. Dans le cas des milieux semi-solides, on a ajouté 2 mg.L -1 de gélifiant Gellan gum (Spectrum ®).Les plantes obtenues pendant la phase d'initiation ont été transférées, après avoir été individualisées et décapitées, sur des milieux de culture de multiplication. On a observé que la croissance des bourgeons se poursuivait pendant cette phase sous forme de petites rosettes et présentait des structures bulbeuses de couleur blanche. Ce comportement des bourgeons de FHIA-20 durant la phase de multiplication a entraîné la réduction des coefficients de multiplication (bourgeons obtenus/bourgeons initiaux).Dans le but de résoudre les problèmes rencontrés au cours de la croissance des bourgeons en phase de multiplication, on a étudié l'action d'une dose 2 mg.L -1 de 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), la dose de 4 mg.L -1 proposée par Orellana (1994) servant de contrôle. Chaque dose a été associée à deux types de manipulation des bourgeons.Manipulation 1. Les bourgeons sont individualisés, décapités à 0,5 cm de haut et coupés en deux.Manipulation 2. Les bourgeons n'atteignant pas 1 cm sont laissés par groupes de deux ou avec la plante mère si le cas se présente, et il n'y a pas de décapitation. Les bourgeons de plus de 1 cm sont individualisés, décapités à cette hauteur et coupés en deux quand le pseudotronc est formé de plus de trois feuilles.On obtient ainsi quatre traitements : 1. Milieu de multiplication à 4 mg.L -1 de BAP associé à la manipulation 1 (témoin) 2. Milieu de multiplication à 4 mg.L -1 de BAP associé à la manipulation 2 3. Milieu de multiplication à 2 mg.L -1 de BAP associé à la manipulation 1 4. Milieu de multiplication à 2 mg.L -1 de BAP associé à la manipulation 2. Les variables évaluées sont le nombre de bourgeons par explant initial et le pourcentage de bourgeons poussant en rosette. Les évaluations sont faites après trois subcul-tures effectuées à intervalles de 21 jours, en chambre de croissance en lumière naturelle et à une température de 27 ± 2 ºC.On a inoculé cinq explants par flacons de 250 ml contenant 30 ml de milieu de culture semi-solide (2 mg.L -1 de Gellan gum (Spectrum ®)). On a effectué 10 répétitions par traitement. Les données ont été analysées par analyse de variance multifactorielle et les moyennes comparées par le test de Tukey. Les résultats en pourcentages ont été analysés de la même façon que dans l'essai précédent.Influence de la dimension des apex et de l'état physique du milieu de culture pendant la phase d'initiation L'utilisation, pendant la phase d'initiation, d'apex de 1 cm 2 coupés en deux et placés sur un milieu de culture semi-solide conduit à un taux de régénération de 85 % après 20 jours de culture in vitro. On note sur chaque morceau d'apex la présence de bourgeons axillaires qui assureront la production d'un plus grand nombre d'explants durant la phase de multiplication ultérieure. Ces résultats sont significativement différents de ceux obtenus avec les autres traitements (tableau 1).La technique de décapitation du dôme apical s'avère nécessaire pour induire la formation de nouveaux bourgeons à partir des bourgeons axillaires, inhibés en temps normal par la dominance apicale (Ma et Shi (1972)  Dans cette étude, la mortalité n'a affecté que des apex coupés et cultivés en milieu liquide, ce qui pourrait être dû au fait que les coupes pratiquées donnent des fragments trop petits pour être cultivés en milieu liquide (tableau 1). D'après Orellana (1998), la croissance des tissus varie avec l'état physique du milieu de culture : son déroulement n'est pas le même quand on utilise des milieux de culture solides ou bien liquides.L'incidence des contaminations durant cette phase ne montre pas de différences significatives selon les traitements étudiés. Cependant, divers auteurs signalent l'influence de la dimension de l'explant initial sur l'incidence des contaminations et rapportent que plus les dimensions sont réduites et plus les tissus se rapprochent du méristème apical, plus les populations de microorganismes diminuent (García et Noa 1998, Leifert et al. 1994).En réduisant la dose de cytokinine dans les milieux de multiplication, la différenciation des bourgeons en plantules a pu démarrer tandis que disparaissait peu à peu la croissance en rosette (dans la mesure où les trois repiquages ont été faits à la dose de 2 mg.L -1 de BAP). Les manipulations ou les coupes réalisées durant cette phase, jointes à la réduction de la dose de cytokinine, ont favorisé la réponse biologique des plantes et ont entraîné l'apparition d'un plus grand nombre de bourgeons par explant initial pour le protocole 2 (tableau 2). Ces bourgeons, une fois transférés sur des milieux d'enracinement, n'ont pas eu de difficultés à poursuivre leur croissance et ont atteint la hauteur, la grosseur et le nombre de feuilles nécessaires à leur passage en phase d'acclimatation.En revanche, pour les traitements impliquant la dose de 4 mg.L -1 de BAP, on a continué à voir apparaître une croissance en rosette quelque soit le protocole de manipulation appliqué aux bourgeons, bien que le pourcentage le plus élevé de ce type de croissance corresponde au protocole classique (individualisation, décapitation à 0,5 cm et section en deux des bourgeons). Il semble que ce traitement accentue la présence de cette croissance particulière chez le clone FHIA-20 : en effet, la présence des rosettes tend à diminuer avec le protocole 2 (tableau 2).Pour obtenir un bon développement des cultures in vitro, le rapport entre les taux d'auxines et de cytokinines dans le milieu de culture doit être judicieusement choisi. Il faut également tenir compte des concentrations endogènes de ces hormones dans les différents types d'explants ou d'espèces (Jiménez 1998). Certaines espèces sont cultivées sans adjonction d'aucun régulateur externe, probablement parce qu'il existe une quantité endogène d'hormone suffisante.Les résultats obtenus au cours de ce travail rendent possible la propagation in vitro de l'hybride FHIA-20 avec une augmentation sensible de l'efficacité du processus de pro-pagation par organogenèse grâce à l'augmentation du nombre de bourgeons.Il faut pendant la phase d'initiation cultiver sur des milieux semi-solides des apex de 1 cm 2 coupés en deux. De cette façon, 85 % d'entre eux régénèrent des plantes au bout de 20 jours de culture. Pendant la phase de multiplication, il faut réduire la dose de cytokinine à 2 mg.L -1 dans les milieux de culture et individualiser les explants en bourgeons bien définis qui ne soient pas inférieurs à 1 cm de hauteur (ceux qui le sont seront maintenus en groupes de deux ou resteront unis à la plante-mère). Les bourgeons de 1,5 à 3,0 cm présentant plus de trois feuilles peuvent être décapités à une hauteur de 1,0 cm et coupés en deux. On réduit ainsi de 2 % la croissance en rosette et on obtient en moyenne 4,7 bour-geons par explant au cours de la phase de multiplication. ■ Références Afza R., M. Van Duren, R. Morpurgo & F.J. Novak. 1996  1.Apex de 0,5 cm 2 cultivés en milieu liquide (témoin).2. Apex de 0,5 cm 2 cultivés en milieu semi-solide.3.Apex de 1,0 cm 2 coupés en deux et cultivés en milieu liquide.4.Apex de 1,0 cm 2 coupés en deux et cultivés en milieu semi-solide.Tableau 2. Comportement de la croissance des bourgeons pendant la phase de multiplication. 1.Milieu de multiplication à 4,0 mg.L-1 de BAP + manipulation 1 (témoin).2.Milieu de multiplication à 4,0 mg.L-1 de BAP + manipulation 2.3.Milieu de multiplication à 2,0 mg.L-1 de BAP + manipulation 1.4.Milieu de multiplication à 2,0 mg.L-1 de BAP + manipulation 2.  Les superficies mises en culture, que l'on estime représenter environ 10 millions d'hectares, donnent une production de l'ordre de 88 millions de tonnes par an. Cette culture, dont les fruits font partie du régime alimentaire de plus de 400 millions de personnes, se situe au quatrième rang mondial dans la catégorie des produits alimentaires de première nécessité, après le riz, le blé et le lait (FAO 1999).Etant donné l'intérêt suscité par la culture du bananier, de gros efforts de recherche ont porté sur l'amélioration et le contrôle de sa propagation en masse par le biais de techniques biotechnologiques comme l'embryogenèse somatique, pour laquelle ont été décrits trois protocoles utilisant des tissus végétatifs tels que des fragments de corme et de bases foliaires (Novak et al. 1989, Ganapathi et al. 1999), des cultures de méristèmes proliférantes (Dhed'a et al. 1991, Dhed'a 1992, Schoofs 1997, Schoofs et al. 1998), et des fleurs mâles ou femelles immatures (Escalant et al. 1994, Grapin et al. 1996).La mise en place de suspensions cellulaires en embryogenèse somatique et la découverte des facteurs et des moments de synchronisation métabolique des cellules en suspension constituent deux aspects fondamentaux soit des processus d'application des méthodes d'immersion temporaire pour la micropropagation en masse de matériel végétal économiquement important (Escalant et al. 1994, Gómez-Kosky et al. 2000), soit de leur emploi dans les programmes d'amélioration génétique par induction de mutations, l'étude de sélections in vitro (par le biais de toxines de champignons ou d'extraits végétaux) et la transformation génétique par bombardement de particules. En dépit de toutes les recherches menées au niveau international dans divers laboratoires, on constate néanmoins qu'un maintien efficace des suspensions cellulaires reste encore difficile. La mise en place de cultures cellulaires de bananier qui soient exemptes de contaminations bactériennes, d'altérations dues à l'oxydation ou d'éventuelles attaques fongiques nécessite beaucoup de temps, et leur maintien s'avère donc difficile (Schoofs et al. 1999). Les objectifs du travail présenté ici ont été de déterminer, en utilisant des sources de carbone et des régulateurs de croissance, les conditions expérimentales optimales de la mise en place et de la multiplication d'une suspension cellulaire d'une part, et d'autre part, de la régénération d'embryons somatiques.Le matériel végétal utilisé pour initier les suspensions cellulaires consiste en des fleurs mâles immatures de Musa AAA cv. \"Grande naine\" déposées sur un milieu d'induction M1 [sels de Murashige & Skoog (1962)-MS, 1 mg/L de biotine, d'ANA et d'AIA, 4 mg/L de 2,4-D, 6 g/L d'agarose, 30g/L de saccharose, de pH 5,71] proposé par Grapin et al. (1998) pour la formation des cals. Le tissu embryogénique friable obtenu a été transféré dans un milieu de suspension cellulaire M2 [sels MS, 100 mg/L de gluta-mine et d'extrait de malt, 1 mg/L de 2,4-D, 45 g/L de saccharose, de pH 5,3], jusqu'à son établissement. Cette technique d'embryogenèse somatique a été initialement mise au point par Escalant et al. (1994) et elle est actuellement appliquée au Laboratoire de biotechnologie de CORBANA sur ce même clone (Acuña et Sandoval 2000).A partir de cette suspension initiale, on a réalisé pendant la phase de maintien en milieu M2 de nouvelles répétitions sur un milieu composé de 35 ml de milieu M2 frais et de 13 ml du milieu M2 précédent (dans lequel était maintenue la suspension lors du cycle antérieur), mélange dans lequel on a introduit 2 ml de cellules jusqu'à un volume total de 50 ml par erlenmeyer. Ces suspensions ont été soumises à quatre traitements : T0 = 45 g de saccharose, T1 = 45 g de saccharose + 100 mg/L de myo-inositol, T2 = 30 g de saccharose + 100 mg/L de myo-inositol, et T3 = 15 g de saccharose +100 mg/L de myo-inositol, avec 10 répétitions (figure 1).On a réalisé 4 subcultures qui ont incubé 14 jours chacune, comme proposé par Escalant et al. (1994). Le nombre de cellules et le pourcentage de viabilité des suspensions ont été évalués le 1 er , le 7 e et le 14 e jours de culture à l'aide d'un hémacytomètre. On a effectué 3 répétitions par traitement et 5 comptages pour chacune d'elles pour un total de 15 lectures par traitement. De plus, tous les 15 jours, on a mesuré l'augmentation du volume cellulaire par la méthode de sédimentation (SCV) proposé par Schoofs (1997) et le degré de compacité du volume cellulaire (PCV) employé par Reinert et Yeoman (1982). On a également fait 4 répétitions supplémentaires pour le contrôle du pH (2 en milieu inoculé et 2 en milieu non inoculé), les mesures ayant lieu au début et à la fin de chaque subculture.Afin d'évaluer l'effet des régulateurs de croissance sur la qualité de la suspension cellulaire dans le milieu M2, on a sélectionné le traitement qui présentait le taux le plus élevé de multiplication et de viabilité des cellules pendant les quatre premières subcultures de la phase de maintien. Pour cette étude, on a ajouté au milieu M2 sélectionné : A1 = 0.5 mg/L de 2,4-D, A2 = 1 mg/L de 2,4-D et A3 = 2 mg/L de 2,4-D. Le matériel a été manipulé de la même façon que pour les traitements portant sur les différentes concentrations de saccharose. Pour l'évaluation, on a considéré les mêmes paramètres que ceux retenus pour la phase de maintien des suspensions cellulaires, mentionnés plus haut. On a noté également la morphologie des cellules, en agrégats ou massives, et on a pris des photographies au microscope optique et électronique.On a évalué la viabilité du processus par l'observation des embryons obtenus sur le milieu de culture de Schenk et Hildebrandt (1972), dénommé M3 modifié [10 mg/L de biotine, 100 mg/L de glutamine et d'extrait de malt, 230 mg/L de proline, 1 mg/L d'ANA, de zéatine et de 2-IP, 10 g/L de lactose, 45 g/L de saccharose et de pH 5,3]. Une fois le milieu M3 réparti dans des boîtes de Pétri, on y a placé en surface du papier filtre stérile sur lequel on a inoculé des aliquotes de 1 ml de cellules des traitements correspondants aux différentes concentrations de régulateurs de croissance. On a déterminé le type de matériel végétal régénéré en pratiquant trois évaluations par boîte de Pétri des zones où la distribution de la suspension était la plus homogène. Toutes les cultures ont été maintenues dans des conditions contrôlées de température (27 °C), d'humidité relative (80 %) et de photopériode (12 heures).Les résultats obtenus, en phase de maintien des suspensions cellulaires et d'homogénéisation des cultures, des variations de pH, de volume cellulaire, de nombre de cellules et de pourcentage de viabilité, ont été analysés par un schéma de modélisation linéaire et soumis à analyse de variance en utilisant le programme SAS (1990). Les résultats présentant une hétérogénéité des variances ont été homogénéisés par la transformation de la racine carrée.Les résultats concernant l'augmentation du nombre de cellules, présentés sur la figure 2, indiquent que la dose de 30 g de saccharose fournit suffisamment de carbone à la suspension puisque son comportement ne diffère pas beaucoup de celui de la suspension maintenue avec 45 g de saccharose. En général, l'addition de myo-inositol (T1-T2) n'a pas non plus modifié le comportement des cellules et on constate une tendance à la stabilisation dans la subculture 4 (relation de T1 et de T2 avec T0).Il n'y a pas de différences significatives entre les pourcentages de viabilité des traitements avec ou sans myo-inositol, respectivement T1 et T0. On ne note pas non plus de différences entre les évaluations en fonction du temps (7 ou 14 jours), ni d'interaction entre les subcultures et les évaluations (P = 0,1574).En revanche, en ce qui concerne le comportement de ce même pourcentage de viabilité pour les traitements comportant du myo-inositol associé à différentes concentrations de saccharose (T1 et T2), on constate que les différences présentées par les quatre subcultures dépendent du traitement (P = 0,0040). Cette différence de comportement de lignées cellulaires distinctes d'un même clone peut être un caractère intrinsèque du matériel (Schoofs et al. 1999), ce qui ne peut qu'inciter à redoubler d'efforts pour améliorer ces méthodes.Le traitement T3 (15 g de saccharose + myo-inositol) a été éliminé car il présentait des diminutions progressives de 5,18 à 4,20 et 2,06 ml respectivement dans les subcultures 1, 2 et 3. Ce faible succès de la prolifération cellulaire peut être attribué à la faible disponibilité des sucres du milieu face à la demande des cellules en phase G1 du cycle cellulaire ou bien au choc osmotique dû au milieu. Quoiqu'il en soit, on sait bien que le saccharose en tant que source de carbone est un stabilisateur des milieux de culture (Takeuchi et Komamine 1982, Vardi et al. 1982, Smith et al. 1984).Les différences de volume cellulaire notées entre les traitements T0, T1 et T2 (P = 0,02602) ont été très atténuées dans les subcultures 1 et 2 (figure 3a  La différence entre les quatre subcultures est en moyenne de 0,23 ml en faveur du traitement T1. Le traitement qui a le mieux répondu est celui comportant 45 g de saccharose et 100 mg/L de myo-inositol. On peut également remarquer que le volume cellulaire de la subculture 1 est de 5,95 ml et de 7,59 ml dans la subculture 4, ce qui représente une augmentation moyenne de 0,65 ml pour chacune. Il y a une corrélation positive (figure 3e) entre le nombre de subcultures et leur volume cellulaire puisque ce dernier augmente à mesure que l'on multiplie le nombre de subcultures, pour enfin se stabiliser au quatrième repiquage. Une fois mélangés les 35 ml de milieu frais avec les 13 ml de milieu antérieur, le pH était de 4,74. Durant les 14 jours de culture, les milieux non inoculés se sont maintenus entre 4,1 et 4,2 et les milieux inoculés entre 4,4 et 4,6 (résultats non publiés). Dans les suspensions cellulaires, le pH a varié en fonction du temps, du traitement et de l'interaction temps/traitement (P = 0,0001) : des comportements similaires ont été observés par Skirvin et al. (1986). Ces mêmes auteurs émettent l'hypothèse que l'acidification du milieu pourrait être due aux échanges ioniques entre la cellule et le milieu de culture, conduisant à un pH optimal pour le fonctionnement normal de la paroi cellulaire.L'analyse des résultats obtenus par les variables : nombre de cellules et pourcentage de viabilité sur des milieux contenant des concentrations de 2,4-D différentes, ne font pas apparaître de différences marquées dans leur comportement. Les traitements A1, A2 et A3 des quatre subcultures ont un nombre de cellules moyen de 7,9 ; 6,0 et 7,0 assorti respectivement d'un pourcentage de viabilité de 59, 62 et 59 %.Quand on étudie le volume cellulaire obtenu sous des concentrations variables de 2,4-D (figure 4), on constate que le traitement A1 (1 mg/L de 2,4-D) est celui qui maintient le mieux la suspension cellulaire avec un volume moyen de 7,6 ml et un maximum de 8,8 ml dans la subculture 3. La dose de 2,4-D à 2 mg/L se trouve être la plus adaptée pour standardiser le volume cellulaire de plusieurs subcultures ; celui-ci est un paramètre utile pour réaliser des études du cycle ou du métabolisme cellulaires et d'autres phénomènes en relation avec des populations cellulaires synchronisées.Les résultats finaux de la subculture 4 mesurés par la méthode PVC montrent que tous les traitements ont augmenté progressivement le volume cellulaire sans fluctuations importantes pendant les 14 jours d'incubation et que ce dernier a doublé le sixième jour, lorsque les cellules entament une phase de division cellulaire active (figure 5). Ces résultats coïncident avec ceux obtenus par Bieberach (1995) sur divers types de clones de Musa.Quant à l'utilisation et aux doses de 2,4-D, les résultats exprimés ici complètent les informations concernant l'action de ce régulateur de croissance sur le processus embryogène et les doses requises par les différentes espèces végétales. Lazzeri et al. (1987) soulignent l'importance des auxines dans la régulation de l'embryogenèse somatique du soja et montrent qu'il y a une meilleure production d'embryons somatiques lorsque le 2,4-D est utilisé seul plutôt qu'en combinaison avec de l'acide a-naphtalène acétique.La morphologie des cellules en suspension a été observée en microscopie optique aux grossissements de 20 et de 40. Les préparations montrent des agrégats cellulaires et des cellules isolées (figures 6a et 6b), ce qui est conforme aux descriptions de Grapin (1996) qui rapporte que dans les suspensions de \"French Sombre\", on observe des agrégats pouvant atteindre 70 à 80 % du volume de la suspension, données très semblables à celles trouvées au cours de ce travail. Les agrégats sont formés par des cellules pré-embryogènes (figure 6c) possédant les cloisons ou plaques cellulaires typiques de la dernière étape de la mitose et par des cellules vides ou en cours de différenciation.Les cellules isolées sont arrondies, avec un cytoplasme dense et un noyau bien défini : on peut les considérer comme des proto- plastes, cellules initiales à paroi primaire caractéristique des cellules non différenciées et au cycle cellulaire actif. Ces observations sont partagées d'une part par Bieberach (1995) qui note dans les suspensions cellulaires des cultivars \"Dominico\", \"Grande naine\" et \"Gros Michel\" la présence de cellules aux caractéristiques morphologiques identiques et d'autre part par Sannasgala (1989) qui décrit des préembryons constitués par des corps protéiques et de l'amidon. Les caractères décrits ci-dessus sont un facteur indiquant la condition embryogénique de la suspension cellulaire (Williams et Maheswaran 1986).Certaines cellules isolées, au cytoplasme allongé où apparaissent des vides, sont des Traitements A1, A2 et A3 cellules non viables dans une suspension car elles ont déjà formé leur paroi secondaire. Au microscope électronique à balayage, on a observé des cellules arrondies de 50 à 80 µm de diamètre, aux parois rugueuses, aux ornementations irrégulières, entourées par un mucus polysaccharidique (figures 7a et 7b).Des mélanges d'échantillons cellulaires traités par des régulateurs de croissance ont été repiqués et maintenus 55 jours sur le milieu semi-solide M3 pour y développer les embryons. Au bout de 22 jours, on a commencé à observer leur croissance, sans traces d'oxydation. On a détecté la présence de petits agrégats de 1 cm 2 comportant des embryons globulaires en forme de coeur ou de torpille. Les embryons ont été triés en vue d'une régénération ultérieure (Figure 8a). Un total de 200 embryons de type torpille ont été transférés dans huit boîtes de Pétri à raison de 25 embryons par boîte. Au bout de 20 jours, on a obtenu 63 % de germination et après 41 jours, les plantes possédaient des caractéristiques morphologiques normales. Jusqu'alors, les pourcentages de germination d'embryons somatiques du genre Musa obtenus oscillaient entre 45 % et 80 % selon les génotypes et les milieux de culture (Bieberach 1995, Escalant et al. 1995, Côte et al. 1996, Schoofs 1997, Grapin et al. 1998). La Figure 8b illustre le potentiel de régénération d'embryons somatiques des suspensions cellulaires. Escalant et al. (1994) restent ceux qui ont obtenu les pourcentages de germination les plus élevés en utilisant les systèmes d'immersion temporaire sur d'autres cultivars de bananier.Ces expérimentations ont permis de standardiser un protocole d'obtention d'embryons de Musa AAA cv. \"Grande naine\" à partir de suspensions cellulaires et en utilisant des régulateurs de croissance. La suspension cellulaire initiale s'est maintenue avec 45 g de saccharose + 100 mg/L de myoinositol. Un pH initial de 4,74 et quatre subcultures de 14 jours chacune permettent de     Le bananier plantain (Musa cv. AAB) est le plus apprécié car c'est une culture de rente intéressante. Les variétés locales les plus courantes appartiennent au bananier plantain Faux corne qui ne possède que 25 doigts en moyenne. Le prix de la banane plantain sur le marché local est bien supérieur à celui des autres bananes (Gros Michel, Bluggoe, Silk) en raison de la taille très supérieure de ses doigts et de sa durée de conservation plus longue. Les Cavendish que l'on trouve sur le marché local sont les bananes dont la qualité est insuffisante pour l'exportation. Leur prix est encore plus bas que celui des Gros Michel. Au cours des cinq dernières années, le prix des bananes plantain a sans cesse augmenté, reflétant la forte demande et une offre insuffisante en bananes et bananes plantain dues à de mauvaises pratiques culturales, à la sécheresse et aux maladies et ravageurs.Les maladies et les ravageurs sont les problèmes les plus importants; la cercosporiose noire (Mourichon et al. 1997) et le matériel végétal contaminé par les charançons (Gold et Messiaen 2000) sont les principales contraintes affectant le petit producteur de plantain. Un autre problème important, particulièrement dans la région de Leon-Chinandega, est la répartition inégale des précipitations annuelles. En l'absence d'irrigation les rendements des bananiers sont réduits en raison de la longue saison sèche.L'objectif de l'intervention est de contribuer à la sécurité alimentaire et à la qualité de l'alimentation des paysans à faible revenus en soutenant la culture du bananier et du bananier plantain. L'insécurité alimentaire est très élevée au Nicaragua et le nombre de personnes sous-alimentées est passé de 1,2 million en 1991 à 1,4 million en 1998 (FAO 2001). Le projet se concentre sur la région de Leon-Chinandega (figure 1), où vivent les paysans les plus pauvres et où les bananiers et les bananiers plantain  Le projet a démarré à la mi-1996. Des plantules enracinées ont été envoyées par la KULeuven pour être sevrées dans la pépinière de la ferme de l'UNAN dans le Leon, située à quelques kilomètres du centre de la ville de Leon. Ces plantules ont été utilisées dans les premières parcelles d'essais à la ferme de l'Université.Le laboratoire de culture de tissus de l'UNAN a été construit en 1997. Les techniques de culture de tissus ont été transférées de la KULeuven à l'UNAN qui a produit des plantules afin d'étendre les essais expérimentaux à la ferme de l'Université. Des ateliers on été organisés dans six communautés de Chinandega en coopération avec le Centro de Enseñanza Técnica Agropecuaria (CETA).En 1998, cinq brochures de vulgarisation en bandes dessinées ont été produites et diffusées aux paysans participant au projet (figure 2). Une collection au champ comprenant à la fois les variétés introduites et celles cultivées localement (40 au total) a été établie à la ferme expérimentale de l'UNAN, et 2 parcelles de 36 plantes de chaque variété ont été évaluées (tableau 2).En 1999, deux techniciens nicaraguayens spécialisés du laboratoire de culture de tissus ont produit 6500 plants. Cent quarante nouvelles parcelles expérimentales ont été plantées dans le nord-ouest du pays, surtout dans le Chinandega en raison de la coopération avec le CETA et de l'activité agricole importante de cette région.En 2000, 20 000 plants ont été distribués à 370 nouveaux paysans, y compris des paysans de la région de Leon (figure 1). Dix mille plantules ont été importées de la KULeuven pour accélérer la diffusion des nouvelles variétés. OXFAM-Belgique a passé un contrat avec l'UNAN pour distribuer 25 000 plants de variétés supérieures à près de 1000 familles déplacées après l'ouragan Mitch en octobre 1998 et qui avaient un besoin urgent de nouveau matériel végétal. L'ombrière a donc été agrandie pour couvrir 700 m 2 .En 2001, quelques champs expérimentaux ont été plantés dans le Rivas, les régions du centre et de la côte Atlantique, où certains paysans ont reçu des vitroplants.Le nombre de plants produits et distribués par le laboratoire de culture de tissus de l'UNAN est passé de 2000 en 1998 à 15 000 en 2001. Le nombre de paysans participant au projet a, lui aussi, considérablement augmenté, passant de 40 au moment du démarrage du projet à un total de 820 ayant reçu des variétés améliorées et participé au projet en 2001. Au cours de l'année 2001, le Un contact étroit est maintenu avec les paysans qui cultivent les nouvelles variétés (figure 3) afin d'évaluer leurs réactions et d'améliorer l'efficacité de l'intervention. Des entretiens sont effectués afin de déterminer le taux d'acceptation des nouvelles variétés et d'en identifier les raisons sous-jacentes, telles que l'apparence, le goût, la destination de la culture (culture de rente et/ou alimentaire), etc. (tableau 4). La variété la plus populaire jusqu'ici est FHIA-03 en raison de sa résistance à la sécheresse et de ses gros régimes, comparables à ceux de la banane à cuire locale Bluggoe. Des séances de dégustation sont organisées régulièrement et les nouvelles variétés sont préparées selon les habitudes locales: bananes plantain frites, vertes et mûres, en chips, cuites vertes ou mûres, et bananes dessert. On demande aux consommateurs de comparer les nouveaux fruits avec les fruits locaux (plantain Faux corne, Bluggoe ou Silk). Les premiers résultats confirment l'acceptabilité de la plupart des variétés mais montrent aussi que les tests de palatabilité sont absolument nécessaires car les aspects visuels peuvent déterminer le choix des consommateurs (tableau 5).Actuellement le laboratoire a une capacité de production de 50 000 vitroplants par an. Il est prévu d'augmenter la capacité de production afin d'assurer la durabilité du laboratoire de culture de tissus grâce à la vente du matériel végétal. Les petits producteurs recevront le matériel végétal à des prix subventionnés tandis que les producteurs commerciaux devront les payer plus cher.Les variétés les mieux acceptées seront produites en grande quantité ainsi que d'autres plantes alimentaires pour lesquelles il existe une demande au Nicaragua.Le travail de diffusion et de vulgarisation sera coordonné de plus en plus par les organisations et les ONG locales. Dans cette     Nguyen Xuan Thu, Le Thi Lan Oanh et Ho Huu NhiLes variétés de bananiers et bananiers plantain descendent de deux espèces sauvages, Musa acuminata (AA) et Musa balbisiana (BB). On distingue plusieurs groupes de cultivars possédant différents niveaux de ploïdie, de diploïde (2n=2x=22) à tétraploïde (2n=4x=44), et des génomes différents. Jusqu'ici, la classification et l'identification traditionnelles reposaient sur la morphologie et sur les caractères quantitatifs, mais l'utilisation de marqueurs moléculaires (ADN, isoenzymes) pour étudier la diversité des plantes, des animaux et des microorganismes s'est développée récemment.La technique d'amplification aléatoire de l'ADN polymorphe (RAPD), qui utilise la réaction en chaîne par la polymérase (PCR) avec des amorces uniques ayant une séquence de nucléotides arbitraire a été mise au point par Williams et al. (1990) et Welsh et McClelland (1990). La technique RAPD s'est révélée utile pour la réalisation d'empreintes génétiques (Yang et Quiros 1993, Orozco-Castillo et al. 1994, Lanham et al. 1995). Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé les RAPD pour identifier et classifier quelques cultivars de bananier.Dans cette étude, six cultivars indigènes du Vietnam (tableau 1) ont été étudiés en utilisant les marqueurs RAPD fournis par l'Institut de génétique agronomique.L'ADN a été isolé à partir de feuilles de bananier en utilisant la méthode de Murray et Thompson (1980) avec certaines modifications. Quatre grammes de feuilles fraîches ont été broyés dans l'azote liquide en présence de sable de verre. La poudre obtenue à partir des tissus foliaires a été stockée à -20°C pendant 2 heures. Dix millilitres de tampon d'extraction [1,5% de bromure de cétyltriméthylammonium (CTAB), 100 mM de Tris-HCl (pH 8), 20 mM d'acide éthylènediaminetétraacétique (EDTA) (pH 8), 1,4 mM de NaCl, 0,2% de mercaptoéthanol] thermostaté à 65°C ont été ajoutés, et le mélange a été incubé à 65°C pendant 30 minutes. Le mélange a été agité doucement avec 1,5 fois le volume de chloroforme:isoamyle (24:1) pendant 20 minutes à température ambiante. Le sédiment a été enlevé par centrifugation à 3000 rpm pendant 20 minutes. L'ADN a été précipité en ajoutant 0,8 fois le volume de propanol glacial (ou bien 1,5 fois le volume d'éthanol à 96%). Le culot a été lavé 2-3 fois avec de l'éthanol à 70%. Pour finir, l'ADN a été redissous dans un volume minimal de TE (environ 200 µl).Douze amorces d'Operon Technologies, d'une longueur de 10 bases chacune, ont été utilisées pour amplifier l'ADN (tableau 2). La PCR a été effectuée dans des réactions de 25 µl contenant 20 ng de matrice (ADN génomique), 200 mM de chaque dNTP, 2,5 unités de Taq-polymérase, 15 ng d'amorces, 10 mM de Tris-HCl (pH 8,3), 50 mM de KCl, 1,5 mM de MgCl 2 , 0,001% (p/v) de gélatine et 20 ml d'huile minérale. Quarante-cinq cycles d'amplification ont été effectués, chacun comprenant une séquence de 30 s à 94°C, 1 min à 36°c et 2 min à 72°C. Les produits ont été analysés par électrophorèse sur gel d'agarose à 1,1% à 100 V pendant 3 heures, colorés avec 0,01% de bromure d'éthidium et photographiés sous lumière UV.Les coefficients de similarité entre les cultivars ont été calculés en utilisant la formule de Nei et Li (1979) :N i + N j où : N ij = nombre de bandes en commun entre les cultivars i et j, et N i et N j = nombre de bandes, respectivement pour les cultivars i et j.Le dendrogramme des cultivars a été produit par ordinateur en utilisant le programme Ntsyspc 2.0.Douze amorces ont été utilisées pour amplifier l'ADN génomique des bananiers. Neuf d'entre elles ont été amplifiées en donnant des produits d'amplification multiples par PCR (figure 1 : exemple avec l'amorce H08), et trois amorces (G6, Y14, Y15) n'ont pas donné de tels produits.Il y avait deux types de bandes : les bandes monomorphes, présentes dans tous les cultivars, et les bandes polymorphes, présentes ou absentes dans tous les cultivars de manière asynchrone. Neuf amorces ont été amplifiées en 79 bandes, dont 67 (84,81%) étaient polymorphes et 12 (15,19%) monomorphes. Il a été démontré que la proportion élevée de bandes polymorphes était due à l'origine très différente des cultivars. Deux amorces (D07, G14) n'ont produit que 5 bandes, alors que H07 en a produit 17. La taille des bandes variait de 360 à 3200 Kb.La formule de Nei et Li a permis de calculer les coefficients de similarité entre cultivars en se basant sur les données RAPD. Les coefficients de similarité reflétaient les relations entre cultivars. Les coefficients de similarité entre cultivars originaux de M. acuminata variaient entre 0,764 et 0,826, alors que pour les cultivars originaux de M. balbisiana ils étaient compris entre 0,696 et 0,835 (tableau 3). Les cultivars appartenant aux deux groupes avaient des coefficients de similarité faibles, compris entre 0,317 et 0,461.Les marqueurs RAPD spécifiques sont des bandes qui ne sont présentes que chez un seul cultivar. Dans cette étude, nous avons trouvé 12 marqueurs spécifiques pour 4 cultivars (tableau 4). Ces résultats indiquent que les RAPD peuvent être utilisés pour la sélection de lignées de bananier en agriculture.  a banane et la banane plantain ont toujours été des aliments de base traditionnels très importants au Nigeria, aussi bien pour les populations rurales qu'urbaines. Elles sont une source de revenus pour les petits agriculteurs qui les produisent sur des concessions, des fermes pratiquant la culture mixte ou la monoculture à petite échelle (Baiyeri 1996, Ajayi et Baiyeri 1999).La ville de Nsukka Urban est densément peuplée. Elle possède un grand marché central, qui fonctionne tous les jours. Les hommes, femmes et jeunes gens de Nsukka Urban et des communautés voisines convergent vers le marché pour vendre et acheter. On y trouve des produits agricoles tels que bananes, bananes plantain, légumes, piments, mangues et autres fruits, huile de palme, miel, igname, bétail, etc. Dans cette zone, les bananiers et les bananiers plantain sont cultivés dans des concessions, en mélange avec d'autres plantes. Chaque producteur de bananes et/ou bananes plantain dans la région possède moins de 50 pieds, et la majeure partie d'entre eux cultive plus de bananiers que de bananiers plantain (Baiyeri et Ajayi 2000). Cependant, le commerce de la banane et de la banane plantain est principalement le fait des femmes, particulièrement à Nsukka Urban, sur le campus de l'Université et dans les communautés environnantes. La vente des bananes et des bananes plantain procure des moyens de subsistance à de nombreux ménages dans la région.Compte tenu de l'importance de ces plantes pour le bien-être économique, la bonne santé et la nutrition des ménages ruraux et urbains au Nigeria, il est très important de s'efforcer en permanence d'améliorer leurs modes de consommation et de commercialisation. Pour planifier un programme national d'amélioration de la commercialisation et de la consommation des bananes et bananes plantain, il est nécessaire de disposer de données sur les modes de consommation et les modalités de dépenses des consommateurs de ces fruits dans les zones rurales et urbaines. La vulgarisation agricole joue un rôle très important dans la collecte des données, la planification, la réalisation, le suivi et l'évaluation d'un tel programme. C'est un méca-nisme fondamental à travers lequel les ménages peuvent apprendre les motifs conduisant au changement, la valeur du changement, les résultats qui peuvent être obtenus, les modalités du changement, et les incertitudes inhérentes au changement (Williams 1978).Au Nigeria, les modes de dépenses des ménages varient d'un endroit à l'autre. Outre les revenus des ménages, des facteurs tels que la préférence d'un membre de la famille pour un produit particulier, la qualité et la quantité du produit vendu, l'environnement dans lequel le produit a été transformé et vendu, ainsi que le prix relatif des produits influencent également les modes de dépenses des ménages (Anyanwu 1985).Les modes de consommation alimentaire, au sens large, ne couvrent pas seulement ce que les gens mangent ou consomment mais aussi les quantités et les formes sous lesquelles ces aliments sont consommés (Dury et al. 1999). Selon Olagoke (1989), les modes de consommation alimentaire varient d'un endroit à l'autre en fonction de facteurs tels que l'importance de la famille, le niveau d'éducation des membres de la famille, les prix relatifs des denrées, l'environnement dans lequel vivent les consommateurs, les valeurs sociales attachées à certaines denrées, la valeur nutritive des denrées, le type ou le statut des métiers des membres de la famille, les goûts et préférences du ménage, la saison ou la période de l'année, et la culture ou la religion des membres de la famille.L'étude présentée ici a été réalisée dans le but d'évaluer les modes de  Un programme de questionnaires structuré a été mis au point et utilisé pour recueillir les informations pertinentes auprès des consommateurs de bananes et de bananes plantain. Les données collectées ont été analysées en utilisant des graphiques de pourcentages de distribution et des histogrammes.Les modes de consommation et de dépenses pour les bananes et les bananes plantain chez les 60 ménages de Nsukka Urban enquêtés sont présentés dans les figures et tableaux ci-dessous.La figure 1 montre que la fréquence de consommation des bananes est plus élevée que celle des bananes plantain.La plupart des consommateurs dépendent du marché pour leur approvisionnement en bananes et bananes plantain. Une très faible proportion de consommateurs produit régulièrement ses fruits (figure 2).Il apparaît clairement que les gens préfèrent manger les bananes plantain (consommées bouillies, rôties ou frites) le matin et la nuit, et les bananes comme un 'snack' l'aprèsmidi (figure 3).Les personnes interrogées préfèrent les bananes plantain frites au petit-déjeuner. Pour le déjeuner, elles sont le plus fréquemment consommées écrasées ou rôties. Pour le dîner, on les préfère accompagnées de riz, de haricots ou d'ignames (tableau 1).Il faut noter que les bananes plantain sont plus chères que les bananes (12 N 1 ou 15 N par doigt de plantain et 5 N par doigt de banane). Cela pourrait expliquer pourquoi la majorité des consommateurs interrogés achètent plus régulièrement des bananes que des bananes plantain (figure 4).La plupart des personnes interrogées dépensent seulement 1% de leur revenu en bananes et des bananes plantain (figure 5). Les principaux facteurs qui déterminent le pourcentage du revenu mensuel affecté à l'achat de bananes et de bananes plantain sont la disponibilité d'argent, suivie de près par l'intérêt de la famille, et enfin le prix des fruits (figure 6 -NB : plus d'un facteur a été donné).La majorité des bananes sont achetées mûres, alors que les bananes plantain sont de préférence achetées vertes (figure 7).Le tableau 2 montre que la plupart des personnes interrogées ne modifient pas leurs habitudes d'achat quand le prix augmente, mais qu'ils achètent plus quand le prix baisse. Dans le cas des bananes plantain, plus de la moitié des personnes interrogées en  Tableau 1. Types de repas à base de bananes plantain chez les ménages.  Stockage 80%  L'évaluation de la puissance de la technique AFLP et de ses variantes AFLP-TE (trois-endonucléase), AFLP-ADNc et la technique de polymorphisme amplifié sensible à la méthylation (MSAP) pour la caractérisation et la détection précoces des types nain a été effectuée dans cette étude sur un ensemble de paires de bananiers nain-normal. Le  Généralement, les nématodes du bananier sont contrôlés par des nématicides. Ces produits sont non seulement très coûteux mais également extrêmement toxiques pour les organismes non-cibles, y compris les utilisateurs, et ils polluent l'environnement. Les champignons arbusculaires mycorrhiziens (CAM) sont des symbiotes obligatoires qui colonisent de manière biotrophique le cortex racinaire et développent un mycélium extramatriciel qui aide la plante à capter l'eau et les nutriments minéraux du sol, en échange du carbone comme source d'énergie. De plus, les CAM augmentent la capacité des plantes à contrôler la dissémination des pathogènes du sol. Chez Musa, l'association se produit naturellement quand les plantes sont transplantées au champ. L'association des CAM avec les nématodes parasites et l'effet bénéfique de la symbiose mycorrhizienne sur la croissance de la plante et la résistance/tolérance aux nématodes a conduit à des recherches sur le potentiel des CAM à limiter les pertes de rendement dues aux nématodes.Dans la première partie de notre étude, la dépendance mycorrhizienne relative (DMR) et l'interaction CAM-nématodes ont été étudiées sur quatre génotypes de Musa, 'Grande naine', 'Gros Michel', 'Pisang jari buaya' et 'Yangambi km5', sélectionnés pour leur réponse connue aux nématodes. La mycorrhization avec Glomus mosseae (CAM) a résulté en une croissance des plants significativement meilleure, même en présence de Radolphus similis et Pratylenchus coffeae. Aucune différence de DMR n'a été observée entre les quatre génotypes. Glomus mosseae a pu protéger 'Grande naine' et 'Pisang jari buaya' contre R. similis et P. coffeae puisque la reproduction des nématodes a été supprimée. Aucune suppression n'a été observée uniquement dans le cas de R. similis (population indoné-sienne à faible pathogénicité) sur 'Pisang jari buaya'. Cependant, lorsque la reproduction est déjà très faible (due à la faible valeur reproductive adaptative de la population de nématodes et/ou la réponse de résistance de la plante hôte du génotype testé), la présence de CAM n'a pas d'effet sur la reproduction des nématodes. Les CAM réduisent la nécrose racinaire causée par P. coffeae. Pour R. similis, aucune reproduction n'a été observée. Les nématodes réduisent la fréquence de mycorrhization sans réduire l'intensité de l'association mycorrhizienne.Dans la seconde partie, la DMR et l'interaction CAM-nématodes ont été étudiées sur des génotypes de Musa différant par leur morphologie racinaire. L'influence des CAM sur le système racinaire et l'influence de l'altération du système racinaire sur la reproduction des nématodes ont été examinées. La mycorrhization avec G. mosseae entraîne une meilleure croissance des plants, même en présence de P. coffeae. L'effet des CAM sur le système racinaire est reliée à la DMR du génotype. Les génotypes de Musa avec une DMR faible ne subissent pas de changement dans la ramification de leur système racinaire en réponse à la mycorrhization. Par contre, chez les génotypes avec une DMR élevée, le système racinaire sera plus ramifié. Nous avons montré que P. coffeae affecte également le système racinaire en réduisant la ramification. L'effet des CAM sur la reproduction des nématodes n'est pas très clair. La densité de population des nématodes tend à diminuer, mais sans effet significatif dans l'essai avec 'Obino l'ewai' Dans le système racinaire, il apparaît que la diminution de la ramification causée par les nématodes été contrebalancée par l'augmentation de la ramification causée par les CAM. L'application de CAM pourrait être utilisée comme une stratégie pour diminuer la susceptibilité aux nématodes.Dans la troisième partie de notre étude, les interactions CAM-nématodes ont été étudiées en conditions in vitro. Tout d'abord, des cultures aseptiques de nématodes ont été établies en utilisant des cals de luzerne comme tissu hôte. Jusqu'à présent, l'absence de systèmes de culture parfaite- Le projet sera réalisé en deux phases. La première phase inclut la multiplication de matériel de plantation d'au moins 10 variétés améliorées de Musa dans chaque pays et la distribution de ces plants aux fermiers pour évaluation à la ferme. Au moins 150 fermiers par pays participent aux essais. La seconde phase consistera en un appui financier sous la forme de prêts aux petits paysans pour leur permettre d'acheter du matériel de plantation et les intrants essentiels pour une production à plus grande échelle d'hybrides améliorés. Le projet comprendra aussi des études de marché sur les hybrides améliorés et la formation des agriculteurs aux techniques de production améliorées, en se concentrant sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs et maladies. Le principal résultat du projet sera la production accrue d'hybrides de Musa améliorés par les petits paysans. Ces variétés auront des rendements supérieurs et ne requerront pas de produits chimiques pour le contrôle des ravageurs et maladies. De plus, les paysans et les entrepreneurs seront aidés pour mettre en place des activités commerciales liées aux bananes (production de matériel de plantation pour la vente, etc.), contribuant ainsi à la génération de revenus supplémentaires pour les communautés rurales. Les principaux bénéficiaires seront les petits cultivateurs de bananiers.Cent dix scientifiques du monde entier ont participé au troisième Symposium sur la flé-trissure bactérienne et présenté plus de 100 communications, soit oralement soit sous forme de poster. Les aspects discutés incluaient : l'épidémiologie, la gestion des maladies, la sélection et la mise en place d'essais de résistance aux maladies, le développement des maladies et la réponse des plantes-hôtes, la génétique, la diversité et le diagnostic des pathogènes.La flétrissure bactérienne, causée par Ralstonia solanacearum, est citée comme étant l'une des contraintes majeures pour de nombreuses plantes cultivées telles que la pomme de terre, la tomate, l'arachide, la banane, le tabac et le gingembre. Dans de nombreux cas, la maladie cause des pertes de rendements très significatives.Il existe encore un grand fossé dans les progrès de la recherche entre pays développés et en développement. Dans les pays développés, les scientifiques sont généralement plus intéressés par les aspects moléculaires du pathogène, tels que la génétique des pathogènes, leur diversité et leur diagnostic. Excepté pour les diagnostics, les autres aspects étudiés ne sont pas directement liés au contrôle de la maladie. Les recherches réalisées sur le contrôle de la maladie par les scientifiques des pays en développement, dans lesquels la maladie est plus sérieuse et répandue, doivent donc être renforcées. Certains travaux sur l'amélioration et les tests de résistance à la maladie ont été menés et de bons résultats ont été obtenus pour l'arachide et la pomme de terre. Cependant, jusqu'à présent, très peu de choses ont été réalisées pour de nombreuses autres plantes telles que le bananier et le gingembre.Des progrès significatifs ont été réalisés dans l'étude du génome de R. solanacearum. Le pathogène a un chromosome de 3 716 413 paires de bases (pb) et un mégaplasmide de 2 094 509 pb, qui codent ensemble pour l'expression de plus de 5000 protéines. Le chromosome abrite tous les gènes essentiels, alors que le mégaplasmide est impliqué dans la biosynthèse de divers acides aminés, cofacteurs et dans l'adaptation aux environnements. Il y a environ 200 gènes candidats pour la pathogénicité, distribués à la fois sur le chromosome et le mégaplasmide. Ces informations sont essentielles pour comprendre la biodiversité chez R. solanacearum en relation avec la spécificité de l'hôte. Traditionnellement, les souches de R. solanacearum sont groupées en cinq races, basées sur la gamme d'hôtes et cinq biovars, basés sur l'oxydation de certaines sources de carbone.Un nouveau schéma de classification, basé sur les analyses moléculaires de R. solanacearum, a été proposé. Les souches de R. solanacearum sont classifiées en quatre phylotypes : le phylotype I «Asie» (incluant les biovars 3 et 4, les races 1, 4 et 5), le phylotype II «Amérique « (biovars 1 et 2, races 1, 2 et 3), le phylotype III «Afrique» (biovars 1 et 2) et le phylotype IV «Indonésie» (biovars 1, 2, Pseudomonas syzygii et bactérie de la maladie du sang -BDB). Ceci montre que les souches d'Indonésie, incluant P. syzygii, qui cause la maladie de Sumatra du giroflier, et la BDB sur le bananier, sont séparées des autres souches.Divers kits de diagnostic ont été développés, spécifiquement pour des utilisations en quarantaine et pour suivre l'évolution du pathogène dans des matériels végétaux infectés de manière symptomatique et latente, dans l'eau de surface, des eaux de lavage des légumes et des effluents de transformation. Les méthodes utilisées sont l'isolation sélective et l'enrichissement, les bioessais, l'immunofluorescence, la sérologie et la réaction en chaîne par polymérase (PCR). Pour l'utilisation dans les pays en développement, les méthodes sérologiques telles que l'ELISA sont plus appropriées car elles sont moins coûteuses.Le quatrième Symposium aura lieu en 2007, probablement en Grande Bretagne.La Société américaine de pathologie végétale publiera les communications présentées pendant le Symposium. Un rapport préliminaire sur le statut de Musa acuminata au Nord de Bornéo a été préparé récemment par Markku Häkkinen et Edmond De Langhe. Ce rapport est basé sur une étude des Musa au Sabah, à Sarawak et à Brunei, réalisée par le premier auteur en août 2001. Bien que le thème principal de l'étude ait été la section des Callimusa, un nombre élevé de photos de Musa acuminata a également été pris. Grâce à l'expertise d'Edmond De Langhe, un essai d'identification taxonomique des plantes a été réalisé.Les photos montrent que toutes les plantes présentent les caractéristiques de base de M. acuminata, avec le bourgeon mâle typique en toupie, l'inflorescence et le régime horizontaux à obliques, et des doigts plutôt minces. Les fleurs apparaissent blanches à blanc-crème, mais les détails n'étaient pas visibles sur les photos.Les spécimens en question entraient dans les quatre catégories ci-dessous : • Musa acuminata ssp. microcarpa ou truncata • M. acuminata de statut incertain • Diploïdes AA comestibles • Accessions non classifiées.Le résultat le plus important de la visite d'Häkkinen au Nord de Bornéo, une région précédemment peu explorée pour les bananiers sauvages, est la domination d'une population sauvage de M. acuminata avec une combinaison de caractéristiques typiques des sous-espèces microcarpa et truncata. L'observation de types de bourgeons mâles jaune-vert représente une première pour ce caractère chez ces sousespèces. Il est possible que les deux sous-espèces supposées forment en fait une large population commune, et des études complémentaires sur ce matériel dans une collection en champ sont nécessaires pour confirmer le statut des accessions dans ce groupe.Un certain nombre d'accessions étaient caractérisées par un bourgeon mâle modérément à fortement imbriqué et une tendance de la bractée à être rose/rouge/pourpre. Les bourgeons mâles avec des bractées visiblement imbriquées sont caractéristiques des sous-espèces siamea et burmannica, mais ne sont pas attendus chez des acuminata à Bornéo ou les îles indonésiennes, à l'exception de Java. Des études supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour confirmer si ces diploïdes comestibles sont effectivement des plantes sauvages.Un certain nombre de plantes sont enregistrées comme diploïdes AA comestibles. Parmi elles, il y a des plantes qu'on a trouvées peuplant de grandes zones au bord des routes, comme le font les véritables populations sauvages. Puisqu'il n'y avait pas de villages à proximité, elles pourraient correspondre à des reliques d'une population humaine ancienne.Les résultats présentés dans ce rapport sont de nature préliminaire et provisoire, étant basés uniquement sur l'étude de photos. Cependant, ils constituent une base pour des études plus poussées, que les auteurs espèrent avoir stimulées par la publication de ce document. Pratylenchus coffeae collectée sur des Musa au Nord Vietnam La reproduction de P. coffeae sur des disques de carotte en conditions in vitro a pu être décrite par l'équation de Gompertz : log (nem + 1) = 0.725 + 2.561 exp [-exp (1.742 (5.044 -temps))].A partir d'un essai en serre qui a été répété tous les mois sur une période d'un an, il a pu être observé que la température a un fort effet sur le taux de reproduction de P. coffeae chez le bananier. Pendant les mois d'hiver, la reproduction était très faible, alors que pendant les mois d'été, la population augmentait significativement. L'étendue des nécroses racinaires suivait plus ou moins le même modèle.Un essai en serre a été mis en place pour évaluer l'influence de l'irrigation sur la reproduction de P. coffeae. Un déficit en eau a eu un effet négatif très important sur la croissance des plants, alors que les nématodes pouvaient encore bien se reproduire. Une fourniture d'eau très élevée a réduit légèrement la croissance générale des plants, mais les nématodes pouvaient à peine se reproduire. Un volume d'eau intermédiaire a été le meilleur pour la croissance des plants, mais il était également favorable à la reproduction des nématodes.La reproduction d'une population de P. coffeae sur des plants de bananier au champ a été suivie pendant plus d'un an. Les résultats préliminaires indiquent que la température et la pluviométrie ont un effet sur le taux de reproduction des nématodes. 5. Evaluation de matériel génétique vietnamien de Musa pour la résistance à une population de Pratylenchus coffeae en serre Vingt-quatre génotypes de bananiers vietnamiens ont été évalués pour leur résistance à P. coffeae en serre. Les génotypes les plus prometteurs sont \"Tieu xanh\", \"Tieu mien nam\", \"Com chua\", \"Com lua\", \"Man\" et \"Ngu thoc\".de Musa pour la résistance à une population de Meloidogyne en serre Vingt-deux génotypes de bananiers vietnamiens ont été étudiés pour leur résistance à Meloidogyne en serre. Aucune source de résistance n'a été trouvée.de Musa pour la résistance à Meloidogyne spp. en champ Huit génotypes de bananiers vietnamiens, \"FHIA-01\", \"FHIA-02\" et \"Yangambi Km 5\" ont été évalués pour leur réponse comme plante-hôte de Meloidogyne spp. en conditions de champ. \"FHIA-01\", \"Ngu thoc\", \"Tay\" et \"Com lua\" se sont révélés moins susceptibles à Meloidogyne spp. \"FHIA-01\", \"Ben tre\" et \"Bom\" étaient moins sensibles à l'activité de formation de noeuds de Meloidogyne spp. Le nombre de juvéniles récupérés sur les racines était fortement influencé par les conditions climatiques. Pendant la saison froide et sèche, leur nombre chutait significativement. Le nombre de femelles pondant des oeufs dans les racines (FPO) était beaucoup moins influencé par les conditions de l'environnement : il y avait une stagnation pendant la saison froide et sèche mais pas de déclin. Meloidogyne spp. semble passer l'hiver sous forme d'oeufs groupés en masses. La formation de galles nodulaires et les FPO peuvent être utilisées facilement comme paramètres pour estimer l'infection des Musa avec Meloidogyne spp. Aucun effet des nématodes n'a été trouvé sur la croissance des plantes. Le nombre de nématodes dans les plantes semble être relié au stade physiologique des plantes. Les nombres de nématodes les plus élevés ont été trouvés pendant la floraison.Duong Thi Nguyet a initié un programme de recherche sur la présence de Radopholus similis au Vietnam et ses aspects morphologiques et biologiques. Deux études ont été réalisées à Tay Nguyen (hautes terres occidentales) pour évaluer la présence de R. similis sur le caféier, le durian, le bananier, etc. Une population de R. similis a été collectée sur des racines de durian ; elle est maintenue sur des disques de carotte en conditions in vitro. Puisque R. similis est toujours un pathogène de quarantaine au Vietnam, Duong Thi Minh Nguyet est allée en Belgique pour une période de trois mois pour étudier la population collectée. Elle a déterminé que la température optimale pour la reproduction de R. similis originaire du Vietnam sur des disques de carotte est 25 °C. Elle a également comparé la reproduction de cette population vietnamienne avec des populations d'Ouganda et d'Indonésie.Nguyen Thi Tuyet étudie la biodiversité de Pratylenchus coffeae au Vietnam. Elle collecte des populations de P. coffeae sur diverses plantes cultivées et à différents endroits au Vietnam pour étudier la diversité morphologique, biologique et génétique entre les différentes populations.La fusariose du bananier causée par Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense est l'une des menaces sérieuses sur la culture du bananier au Kerala. Les sols acides de cet état et la sensibilité des variétés commerciales majeures permettent une dispersion aisée de la maladie à travers la région, causant des pertes de rendement de 10 à 15 %.Les symptômes de la maladie apparaissent avec le jaunissement des feuilles les plus anciennes, qui s'étend rapidement des marges à la nervure centrale. Ces feuilles pendent, blanchies, autour du pseudotronc et l'infection s'étend à toutes les feuilles excepté celles du sommet, qui pendent. La feuille du coeur blanchit également au bout de 3-4 semaines. La plante montre des fentes longitudinales avec un gonflement et une élongation du pseudotronc. Quand le rhizome est tranché, la décoloration des faisceaux vasculaires peut être observée et la tige coupée sent le poisson pourri.Une étude réalisée par Estelitta et al. a révélé que la maladie est observée couramment dans tous les districts du Kerala, causant des dégâts sérieux aux cultures. Il a également été remarqué que \"Nendran\", la variété commerciale la plus importante de l'Etat, était sensible à la maladie de Panama alors que le groupe Cavendish, \"Palayankodan\", \"Karpooravally\" et des variétés à cuire telles que \"Monthan\", \"Kanchikela\", etc. ne sont apparemment pas affectées par la maladie.Plusieurs études ont été conduites à la Station de recherches sur le bananier de Kannara (Université agricole du Kerala) sur les pratiques de gestion intégrée pour lutter contre la maladie de Panama. Le pathogène a été trouvé dans le sol et son entrée dans la plante hôte s'effectuait par les racines. Puisque les conidies peuvent survivre dans le sol jusqu'à au moins sept ans, un ensemble de pratiques agronomiques sont recommandées, en se basant sur les résultats des études.La préparation du champ devrait être réalisée de façon systématique. Dans les zones affectées par la maladie, il est recommandé de laisser les trous se dégrader pendant une semaine ou plus et de brûler le sol avec des feuilles sèches. La sanitation du champ, particulièrement l'arrachage des mauvaises herbes est nécessaire, car elles deviennent des hôtes alternatifs importants.Dans les zones propices à la maladie, il est suggéré de cultiver des variétés tolérantes. Dans les autres cas, les rejets doivent être sélectionnés dans des zones exemptes de maladie. Le trempage des rejets après épluchage dans une solution de carbendazim à 0,2 % est apparu comme une mesure prophylactique efficace.Il a également été trouvé que l'application de chaux à raison d'1 kg par plant comme amendement du sol avant la mousson et un bon drainage aidaient à contrôler la maladie.De plus, les études ont montré que l'utilisation d'engrais organiques pour la culture du bananier pouvait permettre aux plantes de mieux résister à la maladie, probablement grâce à l'amélioration de la structure du sol par une meilleure aération.Dans le cas d'apparition de la maladie, l'arrachage et la destruction des plants malades sont recommandés pour contrôler sa dissémination plus large. L'application de chaux à raison de 0,5 -1 kg dans les trous des plantes malades et dans les cuvettes entourant les plantes a également donné des résultats encourageants pour contrôler une dissémination plus large de la maladie.Des essais réalisés avec différents produits chimiques pour lutter contre la maladie de Panama ont montré qu'injecter dans les cormes une solution à 2 % de carbendazim à raison de 3 ml/corme pendant les 5 e , 7 e et 9 e mois après la plantation pouvait aider à contrôler la maladie. Arroser le sol avec 0,2 % de carbendazim s'est également avéré efficace.Comme, au Kerala, les variétés commerciales sont souvent cultivées à grande échelle dans des zones humides, des études ont indiqué que la rotation des cultures, la jachère intermittente, l'inondation suivie d'une jachère sont aussi des moyens efficaces pour réduire la dissémination de la maladie.Des informations supplémentaires peuvent être obtenues auprès de S. Estelitta, Professeur associé, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Thrissur, Kerala, Inde.Avant de démarrer un programme d'hybridation pour l'amélioration du bananier, la compatibilité croisée des parents choisis doit être évaluée. Un tel travail est en cours aujourd'hui en Inde, à l'Université agricole du Tamil Nadu (TNAU). Dix-sept variétés, comprenant des triploïdes commerciaux, des diploïdes et des hybrides synthétiques produits par la TNAU ont été inclus dans l'étude (voir le tableau 1). Des anthères ont été récoltées sur les parents mâles juste avant la déhiscence et les grains de pollen extraits et étalés sur les stigmates des fleurs femelles des parents femelles le jour de leur ouverture, tôt le matin, entre 6 et 9 heures, quand la réceptivité du stigmate est bonne et assurée par une viscosité au toucher. Après la pollinisation, les fleurs ont été couvertes avec des sacs en papier perforés. Une fois mûrs, les doigts ont été coupés longitudinalement et les graines, lorsqu'elles étaient présentes, ont été extraites avec soin.Parmi les 74 combinaisons croisées testées, une compatibilité a été trouvée dans seulement huit combinaisons (tableau 2), indiquant ainsi l'existence d'une compatibilité entre clones. Les croisements réussis étaient entre diploïde x diploïde et triploïde x diploïde. Parmi les 10 parents mâles testés, \"Pisang lilin\" et \"Anaikomban\" étaient compatibles avec tous les parents femelles. \"Nendran\", qui avait été rapporté précédemment comme étant femelle stérile (Alexander 1970) a été confirmé femelle stérile dans cette étude. L'étude a indiqué qu'à l'exception de \"Karpooravalli\", les clones d'importance commerciale ont un pourcentage très bas de fertilité femelle, et que les diploïdes donnent les meilleurs clones femelles fertiles. Cependant, la formation des graines était bonne dans le croisement triploïde x triploïde Karpooravalli x Robusta, ce qui indique la possibilité d'une nouvelle voie dans l'amélioration du bananier, en amenant le génome \"Cavendish\" dans des nouveaux hybrides. H-201 (Pedigree : Bareli chinia x Pisang lilin x Robusta) est un bon parent femelle et a été hybridé avec des parents tant diploïdes que triploïdes (Robusta). Sathiamoorthy et Balamohan (1993)  Un cours de formation à l'utilisation du Système d'information sur le matériel génétique de Musa (MGIS) pour la gestion des informations concernant les ressources génétiques des Musa s'est tenu récemment pour les responsables de collections de matériel génétique de Musa en Afrique. L'objectif de ce cours de formation était de procurer à ces responsables une expertise et des outils pour mieux gérer les informations relatives aux accessions de leurs collections. L'utilisation du MGIS leur permettra également d'échanger des informations sur les ressources génétiques avec d'autres chercheurs et responsables de collections dans le monde entier. Ce cours de formation s'est tenu grâce au financement du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA).Le cours de formation a réuni 23 participants d'Afrique occidentale, centrale, orientale et australe (voir liste ci-dessous). Le cours a été délivré en français et en anglais, avec une traduction assurée par les formateurs. Tous les documents et le matériel de formation étaient fournis dans les deux langages.Le cours comprenait à la fois une formation au champ et sur ordinateur. Des exercices d'identification taxonomique et botanique de variétés ont été effectués au champ en utilisant la liste de descripteurs publiée par l'IPGRI, l'INIBAP et le CIRAD. L'importante collection de matériel génétique gérée par le CARBAP a offert une excellente ressource pour les exercices de terrain. Cette collection comprend plus de 400 accessions, qui représentent une très large gamme de variétés africaines, particulièrement de bananiers plantain, mais également certaines variétés de bananiers d'altitude d'Afrique de l'Est.En ce qui concerne la formation sur ordinateur, les participants ont appris à installer le logiciel MGIS sur leurs ordinateurs, créer des comptes, entrer de nouveaux enregistrements et effectuer des recherches d'infor-mations dans la base de données globale. Ils ont également été formés aux procédures d'échange de données avec la base de données globale.Musaid.win, un logiciel développé par le CIRAD pour aider à l'identification de variétés inconnues, a également été présenté par M. Xavier Perrier de l'Unité de biométrie du CIRAD. Ce logiciel a été fourni à tous les participants du cours.Les participants étaient unanimes sur le fait que la formation fournissait un outil utile pour la gestion d'informations sur les ressources génétiques et ont souligné l'importance de collecter et gérer ces informations en utilisant un format standard. L'atelier a également permis aux responsables de collections d'établir des contacts avec leurs collègues de la région dans son ensemble et d'identifier des personnes ressource à même de les aider dans leur travail futur.A la suite du cours de formation sur le MGIS, un atelier sur les \"noms et synonymes des bananiers plantain\" a eu lieu avec les participants d'Afrique occidentale et centrale. Kodjo Tomekpe a conduit l'atelier en utilisant des données et des photos provenant du MGIS. Une version préliminaire d'une liste de noms de variétés a été établie, qui devra être confirmée par des études ultérieures sur les variétés au champ.L'INIBAP remercie vivement le CTA et le CARBAP pour leur soutien efficace dans l'organisation de ce cours de formation.   Comme en Sierra Leone, pour relancer la production de bananes et de bananes plantain dans les régions du littoral et de la forêt en Guinée (Conakry), des pépinières ont été établies pour produire du matériel de plantation sain qui sera distribué aux fermiers. Parmi les variétés qui seront données aux paysans, figurent des hybrides de l'IITA et du CARBAP.Des études sont prévues en Côte d'Ivoire pour tenter d'expliquer l'observation selon laquelle Pratylenchus spp. semble remplacer Radopholus similis comme le principal nématode chez Musa. L'IITA est intéressé par les changements dans la composition des espèces et va examiner la possibilité de proposer une bourse de doctorat pour travailler sur ce sujet en collaboration avec la KULeuven. Il a été recommandé qu'une étude nématologique soit conduite dans tous les pays membres afin de déterminer si la diversité des nématodes et l'abondance relative des espèces restent les mêmes qu'auparavant.L'autre nouvelle activité en Côte d'Ivoire est la technologie de plantation à haute densité que les scientifiques ivoiriens sont en train de tester en station. Les essais de plantation à haute densité menés en Côte d'Ivoire ainsi qu'au Cameroun sont la conséquence d'une visite faite par dix scientifiques, fermiers et agents de vulgarisation d'Afrique occidentale et centrale en République Dominicaine et au Costa Rica pour étudier les technologies de production de plantain en plantation à haute densité qui sont utilisées dans ces pays. La délégation a été impressionnée par les augmentations de rendement (jusqu'à 60 %) qui ont été obtenues en Amérique latine et dans les Caraïbes par la gestion du plantain \"Faux corne\" comme une plante annuelle, à des densités de 2500 à 5000 plants à l'hectare.Le nouveau représentant du Ghana au comité de pilotage, Anno-Nyako, a informé les participants que l'amélioration des Musa a commencé au Ghana. Un laboratoire de biologie végétale avec une unité de culture de tissus a été établi au Gabon.Pour sa première participation à la réunion, le représentant togolais, le Dr S. Dogbe, a présenté une vue d'ensemble de la recherche sur les bananiers et les bananiers plantain dans son pays. Ceux-ci sont cultivés dans la zone de cacaoyer/caféier comme plantes d'ombrage pour ces cultures de rente. Le programme possède une collection en champ qui contient 32 accessions, dont un grand nombre est originaire du Ghana. Un problème majeur auquel est confrontée la production des plantes cultivées au Togo est le manque de matériel de plantation de bonne qualité.Les membres ont fait le point sur les deux projets régionaux, à savoir l'évaluation de matériel génétique de Musa et la production périurbaine de Musa.Les essais d'évaluation de matériel génétique ont été mis en place dans presque tous les pays du réseau, mais seule la Côte d'Ivoire a effectué la première récolte. Il a été rapporté que \"FHIA-23\" est la variété la plus productive parmi les variétés évaluées en Côte d'Ivoire (\"FHIA-18\", \"FHIA-01\" et \"SH-3460\"), mais elle a également le plus long cycle de production. La pression d'inoculum de la cercosporiose noire était si forte qu'à la récolte, \"Orishele\", la variété de plantain susceptible, n'avait virtuellement plus de feuilles fonctionnelles. En conséquence, le poids des régimes d'\"Orishele\" était bas en comparaison avec l'hybride résistant \"CRBP-39\", qui conservait six feuilles jusqu'à la récolte. Des tests pour déterminer l'acceptation des fruits par les consommateurs sont en cours, mais les résultats ne sont pas encore disponibles.Le projet de production périurbaine de Musa progresse de façon satisfaisante au Bénin avec les vitroplants fournis par le CARBAP. Parmi les hybrides établis au Bénin, on trouve \"FHIA-25\", \"FHIA-18\", \"FHIA-23\" et \"CRBP-39\". La survie des plants au champ a été très élevée, et il en est de même de l'enthousiasme de 40 fermiers participant à l'essai. La visite de certaines des fermes a généré énormément d'intérêt du fait que les plantes poussent très bien. Les chercheurs et les paysans ont échangé leurs vues sur les approches de recherche participatives. Ces discussions ont continué quand les scientifiques sont retournés le lendemain sur le lieu de la réunion. Une étude de la production périurbaine de Musa conduite au Bénin a révélé que 56 % des paysans producteurs de Musa cultivent des plantains sur des parcelles d'une taille moyenne de 0,8 hectares. Egalement au Bénin, la fourniture insuffisante de matériel de plantation est citée comme le goulot d'étranglement pour l'expansion de la production.Le projet périurbain n'a pas vraiment démarré au Ghana car l'institution nationale qui était supposée fournir le matériel de plantation ne l'a pas fait. Du matériel importé d'Afrique du Sud a été sevré et sera fourni aux paysans au début de la saison des pluies.Le CARBAP et l'IITA ont chacun envoyé une délégation de plusieurs scientifiques pour présenter les différents domaines de recherche sur Musa dans leurs centres. Le Dr Lutaladio, qui représentait la FAO, a parlé de la collaboration avec le réseau.Le CARBAP a présenté les avancées faites par ses programmes concernant l'amélioration des bananiers plantains, l'agronomie et les systèmes intégrés, la pathologie végétale et les ravageurs avec l'approche de gestion intégrée des ravageurs (maladies des taches foliaires, nématodes et charançon), les technologies après récolte et les aspects socioéconomiques. Les réalisations du centre incluent le développement et le transfert de techniques de multiplication in vivo pour produire un nombre élevé de matériel de plantation sain, et l'hybride \"CRBP-39\" de type plantain qui a été mis sur le marché et distribué au sein du réseau MUSACO ainsi qu'à plus de 40 pays dans le monde dans le cadre de la 3 e phase du Programme international d'évaluation des Musa coordonné par l'INIBAP. Des triploïdes secondaires avec une résistance aux maladies ont été créés par différentes voies d'amélioration et des bananiers plantain hybrides de taille réduite et avec une production précoce sont en cours d'évaluation. Des en-cas, des aliments infantiles et des farines à base de banane et de plantain ont été créés.Les présentations de l'IITA traitaient de la recherche participative, de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs, de l'amélioration de Musa et d'agronomie. Dans des évaluations participatives conduites avec des fermiers dans l'est du Nigeria, les paysans préféraient « PITA-14 », l'un des hybrides de type plantain de l'IITA par rapport à « Agbaba », la variété locale. « PITA-14 » permettait également des bénéfices plus élevés. Les participants ont été informés d'un projet pilote financé par l'USAID dans lequel des hybrides développés au CARBAP, à l'IITA et à la FHIA sont évalués chez des fermiers au Nigeria. On espère qu'après la phase pilote, le projet sera étendu à d'autres pays d'Afrique occidentale et centrale. L'IITA continue à développer des bananiers plantain hybrides avec une résistance supérieure ou une tolérance aux maladies, en utilisant une approche pratique physio-génétique et biotechnologique pour contrôler le virus de la mosaïque à tirets, et des caractéristiques agronomiques favorables telles que la précocité, la stature ramassée et un bon enracinement. La recherche en gestion intégrée des ravageurs a inclus le développement et l'essai de méthodes telles que l'utilisation d'eau chaude ou bouillante pour nettoyer les rejets contaminés par des ravageurs. Des études sont également en cours pour déterminer l'efficacité de plantes nématicides telles que Flemingia plantées en intercalaires dans les champs de plantains.Les quatre projets de l'INIBAP, à savoir la gestion du matériel génétique, l'amélioration du matériel génétique, l'information et la communication et les réseaux régionaux ont été brièvement décrits et les activités de chaque projet en Afrique ont été mentionnées. Les objectifs et le modus operandi de PROMUSA, le programme global d'amélioration des Musa, coordonné depuis le siège de l'INIBAP ont également été présentés.Le Dr Lutaladio, représentant de la FAO à la réunion, a retracé l'histoire de la collaboration entre son département et l'INIBAP. En 1999, l'AGPC/FAO et l'INIBAP ont discuté de collaborations sur la collecte et l'échange d'informations et le transfert de technologies. Un jeune cadre professionnel (YPO) a été recruté et mis en poste au secrétariat de l'INIBAP/MUSACO pour développer des outils pour la collecte et la compilation d'informations de base et pour incorporer les informations collectées dans HORTIVAR, une base de données sur les performances des cultivars de plantes horticoles en relation avec les conditions d'environnement et les pratiques culturales. Le YPO doit en plus intervenir dans le programme d'horticulture urbaine et péri-urbaine dans le cadre de l'aspect sécurité alimentaire et doit aider au développement de projets. Le Dr Lutaladio a informé l'assemblée que le YPO a préparé des rapports préliminaires sur les différentes tâches qui lui ont été assignées au début de son engagement.Dans le futur immédiat, la FAO va aider au moins deux pays membres de MUSACO à développer des projets pour l'amélioration de la production de bananes et de bananes plantain pour les petits planteurs au moyen de la mise en place de systèmes de multiplication efficaces et rentables pour la production de matériel de plantation sain. La FAO va collaborer avec MUSACO, le CARBAP et l'IITA pour collecter et caractériser du matériel génétique de Musa dans le bassin du Congo, pour améliorer les laboratoires de culture de tissus et les pépinières dans certains pays et pour former des chercheurs à la manipulation de vitroplants, l'indexation de virus et la production rapide de matériel de plantation. Enfin, la FAO va appuyer le développement d'un protocole de multiplication en masse et de distribution de matériel de plantation de qualité.Les délégués ont discuté des moyens d'améliorer la façon dont fonctionne le réseau. Dans un premier temps, il a été décidé que des groupes de travail basés sur les priorités de recherche identifiées devraient être créés. Ces groupes se réuniront aussi souvent que nécessaire selon les ressources disponibles. Des groupes de travail doivent être formés immédiatement sur 1) la multiplication rapide de matériel de plantation sain, 2) les systèmes de production de bananiers plantain rentables et 3) la recherche participative avec les paysans. Il a été demandé au secrétaire du réseau d'identifier des responsables pour chacun des trois groupes de travail. Les activités proposées par les groupes de travail seront approuvées et leur mise en oeuvre suivie par le comité de pilotage. Les mauvaises communications entre les membres et entre les membres et le secrétariat ont été attribués à un équipement insuffisant en matière de technologies de l'information dans beaucoup des stations de recherche dans lesquelles les programmes d'amélioration des Musa sont basés.L'assemblée a fait les recommandations suivantes : L'atelier s'est organisé autour de cinq thèmes principaux : 1) l'impact des cercosporioses du bananier ; 2) la biologie des populations et l'épidémiologie ; 3) les interactions hôte-pathogène ; 4) l'amélioration génétique pour la gestion d'une résistance durable et 5) la gestion intégrée de la maladie.Au cours de l'atelier, les participants ont pu être informés de la distribution et de l'impact des différentes cercosporioses dans plusieurs pays au niveau mondial. Les discussions organisées à la fin de chaque session ont permis d'identifier ou d'affiner, au niveau mondial, les priorités de recherche et les activités correspondantes dans le but de réduire significativement l'impact de ces maladies et de faire ainsi de Musa une culture durable. La pathogénicité et la distribution de la variabilité, les sources de résistance, l'épidémiologie et la structure des populations des espèces majeures (M. fijiensis, M. musicola et M. eumusae) au niveau national, régional et international ont été définies comme des informations fondamentales au succès du maintien de la production bananière. De telles études sont particulièrement nécessaires en Asie, qui est le centre de diversité des trois pathogènes et où très peu de recherches ont été conduites jusqu'à présent. L'étude de l'évolution des relations hôte-pathogène pour les trois pathogènes, incluant particulièrement des cultivars résistants, est très importante pour l'évaluation de la pression de sélection et l'identification des populations pathogènes qui pourraient contourner la résistance des plantes. Des outils moléculaires tels que les microsatellites ont été recommandés pour évaluer la variabilité génétique des populations pathogènes ; leur pathogénicité devrait être évaluée simultanément. Des études épidémiologiques incluant la dispersion de la maladie sont nécessaires pour mieux comprendre la distribution et la dissémination du pathogène et elles compléteront, avec les études sur la variabilité génétique et la pathogénicité, toutes les informations requises pour anticiper l'évolution des populations pathogènes et définir des stratégies de gestion de la résistance.Plusieurs cas de niveaux inattendus de susceptibilité à la cercosporiose noire ont été rapportés. Bien que différentes raisons aient été proposées pour expliquer ce phénomène (mauvaise nutrition, stress environnemental), le problème de l'érosion de la résistance ne peut être ignoré et nécessite une caractérisation précise de la population de pathogènes. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes impliqués dans les interactions plante-pathogène reste indispensable pour assurer le succès à long terme des programmes d'amélioration. Des études supplémentaires sont aussi nécessaires à la comparaison des processus d'infection de chacun des trois pathogènes (M. fijiensis, M. musicola et M. eumusae) sur les plantes-hôtes. D'autres pathosystèmes (tels que Magnaporthe grisea) ont montré la grande utilité d'une approche génétique pour identifier sans aucun a priori les facteurs de pathogénicité. Ces approches incluent l'étude de l'expression des gènes, la production de mutants pathogènes, la génomique comparative et la validation de fonction des gènes. En conséquence, il a été recommandé de développer, en collaboration avec les groupes de M. graminicola, des outils génétiques et moléculaires pour M. fijiensis et de lancer une initiative génomique permettant l'accès aux outils de la génomique pour la comparaison de M. fijiensis avec M. graminicola.Il est également recommandé d'étudier les différents mécanismes de résistance (partielle ou verticale). Les techniques d'induction de mutations ne devraient plus être vues comme une stratégie d'amélioration génétique indépendante, mais plus comme un outil qui peut contribuer à des programmes d'hybridation en augmentant la diversité génétique des lignées parentales. Les mutants pourraient aussi aider à comprendre les mécanismes de résistance (génomique fonctionnelle).Les stratégies de contrôle des cercosporioses jaune et noire peuvent, selon le pays et l'échelle de production, inclure non seulement des pratiques culturales et des traitements chimiques mais également l'utilisation en mélange de clones résistants et d'autres cultures. L'effet inhibiteur important de certaines substances naturelles dérivées de micro-organismes antagonistes des champignons a également été rapporté comme étant efficace pour réduire le développement de M. fijiensis in vitro.L'association de spécialistes de différentes disciplines a été recommandée pour faciliter le développement d'une approche possible de la lutte intégrée des maladies de la cercosporiose du bananier. Les participants à l'atelier ont aussi recommandé l'étude du potentiel des substances naturelles ou synthétiques pour induire ou activer la résistance systémique acquise dans son sens le plus large.Les actes de l'atelier seront publiés rapidement par l'INIBAP. Cette publication inclura les textes complets de toutes les présentations, un résumé des discussions et les recommandations. Les actes de la réunion devraient devenir un document de référence sur les cercosporioses pour les dix années à venir. Au cours des années 1987-1996, le Queensland Department of Primary Industries (QDPI) a été chargé de gérer le projet de l'ACIAR intitulé \"L'amélioration des bananiers dns le Pacifique Sud\". Pendant le projet, des variétés de bananiers du monde entier ont été collectées. Au total, 106 variétés sont présentées dans cette publication, ce qui représente un éventail important de ce qui est disponible pour l'évaluation. Sont inclus quelques hybrides de programmes d'amélioration conventionnelle, des sélections hors type issues de micropropagation, des cultivars existants et des espèces sauvages.Le rapport présente les informations agronomiques collectées ainsi que des photographies en couleur des régimes, ce qui permet une bonne appréciation de chaque variété. Beaucoup de lecteurs trouveront dans ces photos une aide à l'identification.Clean & green bananas -Where to from here?Information series Q101014 ISBN 0727-6273Actuellement, les ventes de bananes \"propres\" et biologiques sont très limitées en Australie. L'exportation de bananes biologiques est risquée et incertaine. Malgré tout, le marché s'engage dans cette direction et, à plus ou moins long terme, la 'niche' de la banane biologique atteindra sans doute un seuil de 10-15% du marché. Les plus grosses ventes de ces deux types de bananes seront possibles grâce à la participation des supermarchés et les prix actuels des produits biologiques existants devront baisser. Les capacités de production doivent être améliorées grâce à des recherches spécifiques sur des facteurs limitants tels que la gestion de la fertilité des sols, la lutte contre les maladies foliaires et un développement, une vulgarisation et une utilisation plus importante des technologies existantes. L'industrie bananière a fait des progrès importants dans la réduction de l'utilisation des pesticides mais il est aujourd'hui nécessaire de réunir l'ensemble des connaissances et de développer un système de type ECO-OK à mettre en place dans des plantations commerciales et qui puisse répondre à des standards vérifiables et au développement du marché afin que les producteurs aient en retour une reconnaissance de leurs efforts. Afin de répondre aux nouvelles problématiques de croissance et développement de l'industrie bananière, l'Association for the Improvement in Production and Utilization of Banana (AIPUB), Inde, avec l'appui de l'INIBAP, de l'organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agri-culture (FAO), du Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, du Gouvernement de l'Inde et de l'Indian Council of Agricultural Research, organise une conférence mondiale sur « La production bananière pour la sécurité en matière de nutrition et de moyens de subsistance ».Cette conférence a pour but : La réunion a commencé par une brève présentation de chaque participant sur sa capacité de recherche en termes de ressources humaines, infrastructures de recherche, projets en cours et futurs en relation avec les maladies foliaires causées par Mycosphaerella spp. Les participants se sont également exprimés sur leur participation à PROMUSA en définissant les domaines d'intérêt dans lesquels ils souhaiteraient développer des partenariats.Les participants ont identifié diverses priorités de recherche et défini les principales activités qui devraient être réalisées.L'étude de la distribution des différentes espèces requiert un large échantillonnage au niveau national des différentes zones agroécologiques dans lesquelles on trouve des Musa, et la caractérisation morphologique des espèces par l'observation du stade anamorphe (conidies), incluant la caractérisation moléculaire en utilisant des diagnostics PCR.Le groupe de travail de PROMUSA sur les cercosporioses a ratifié la recommandation faite pendant la \"deuxième réunion internationale sur les cercosporioses\" qui s'est tenue du 20 au 23 à San José, Costa Rica : \"La distribution exacte de M. eumusae doit être connue. Des études complémentaires en Asie du Sud et du Sud-est sont nécessaires pour déterminer les différentes locali-sations de M. musicola, M. fijiensis et M. eumusae.être fournis pour permettre de réaliser des diagnostics au niveau local.\"Le groupe de travail de PROMUSA sur les cercosporioses a ratifié la recommandation faite au cours de la \"2 ème réunion internationale sur les cercosporioses\" : un test rapide et fiable pour distinguer M. musicola, M. fijiensis, M. eumusae et d'autres éventuels agents pathogènes/saprophytes de Mycosphaerella doit être développé pour aider à l'identification. Des informations sur la manière de distinguer les trois agents pathogènes en utilisant des caractéristiques morphologiques doivent être produites et transmises aux chercheurs bananiers. Il a été demandé à l'INIBAP répondre à cette demande.\"La création d'une collection nationale des souches des différents agents pathogènes de Mycosphaerella concernant Musa est particulièrement pertinente pour comprendre la structure des populations. La collection doit être basée sur des cultures d'ascospores isolées avec une caractérisation in vitro du stade anamorphe (sporulation in vitro de conidies). Il a été recommandé de fournir aux participants un protocole de Le programme mondial pour l'amélioration des bananiers (PROMUSA) est un programme qui cherche à impliquer les principaux acteurs de l'amélioration des bananiers. Il est un moyen de relier le travail mené sur les problèmes des producteurs travaillant pour l'exportation et les initiatives dans le domaine de l'amélioration de la production d'autosubsistance et à petite échelle pour les marchés locaux. Le programme mondial est basé sur les acquis de la recherche et se construit sur les recherche en cours. PROMUSA est donc un mécanisme qui permet de maximiser les résultats et d'accélérer l'impact de l'effort mondial en matière d'amélioration des bananiers. Ce mécanisme novateur, qui permet de catalyser les recherches menées tant à l'intérieur qu'à l'extérieur du GCRAI, favorise la création de nouveaux partenariats entre les Systèmes nationaux de recherche agricole (SNRA) et les instituts de recherche dans les pays développés et dans les pays en voie de développement. La création de tels partenariats contribue aussi à renforcer la capacité des SNRA à conduire des recherches sur les bananiers. L'une des initiatives majeures de PROMUSA est le développement d'un large éventail de nouveaux hybrides de bananier correspondant aux différentes attentes des petits producteurs du monde entier. Le programme rassemble à la fois les acteurs de l'amélioration conventionnelle, basée sur les techniques d'hybridation et ceux travaillant sur des approches liées au génie génétique et aux biotechnologies. Cet effort en matière d'amélioration génétique s'appuie sur les recherches menées sur des ravageurs et des maladies spécifiques dans le cadre des différents groupes de travail de PROMUSA. Le mécanisme efficace mis en place pour évaluer les nouvelles variétés produites dans le cadre de PROMUSA est une autre composante essentielle du programme. L'étude de la structure génétique des Mycosphaerella causant des maladies foliaires est déjà en cours à l'échelon national, régional et international. Cependant, le groupe recommande d'augmenter le nombre de pays impliqués au niveau national, ce qui permettra d'affiner les études régionales et internationales. Afin d'améliorer la compréhension de la structure des différentes populations, des déterminations biologiques (morphologiques) et moléculaires ont été recommandées. Le protocole et la méthodologie de prélèvement devraient être standardisés et la reconnaissance des différentes espèces facilitée par le développement d'une fiche technique qui serait largement diffusée. L'INIBAP et le CIRAD ont décidé de travailler ensemble à la préparation de ces informations qui devraient comprendre plusieurs illustrations détaillées des différents agents pathogènes et de leurs stades anamorphes. Ces informations feront également partie des guides techniques de l'IMTP. Le développement de marqueurs supplémentaires de type SSR et CAPS devrait permettre d'affiner l'étude des différentes populations. La recommandation d'inclure des partenaires d'Asie du Sud et du Sud-est, faite au cours de la dernière réunion globale de PROMUSA à Bangkok, a été réitérée par les participants, qui ont fortement suggéré que le bureau régional de l'INIBAP pour l'Asie et le Pacifique renforce et facilite les échanges entre les partenaires asiatiques et le reste de la communauté de PROMUSA.La pathogénicité des différentes souches devrait être approchée en utilisant des systèmes d'inoculation in vitro ou in vivo. Cependant, il est recommandé de standardiser les méthodologies qui existent actuellement. La méthodologie d'inoculation in vitro sur fragments de feuilles développée par le CIRAD devrait être diffusée, en même temps que celle utilisée pour isoler, cultiver et produire un inoculum des différents agents pathogènes. Il a été demandé à l'INIBAP et au CIRAD de compiler en un seul document technique toutes les informations déjà publiées sur ces différentes méthodes.Le besoin en nouvelles sources de résistance aux cercosporioses a été identifié à plusieurs reprises dans le passé. Des missions de collecte en Indonésie, Inde du Nord et au Vietnam ont déjà eu lieu, mais seules des informations sur la caractérisation de la résistance des différents matériels collectés ont été fournies. Le groupe de travail de PROMUSA a recommandé que l'INIBAP aide à rassembler toute information disponible. Le groupe a également recommandé de stimuler la caractérisation des collections existantes dans lesquelles M. eumusae a déjà été signalée en même temps que d'autres espèces de Mycosphaerella, comme par exemple au MARDI en Malaisie. Afin de faciliter le criblage, le groupe a suggéré d'utiliser l'\"indice de sévérité\" comme unique paramètre pour détecter toute source de résistance. Ces informations devraient permettre de définir les différents clones de référence nécessaires à l'évaluation de la résistance à la maladie causée par M. eumusae.L'indice de sévérité sera également utilisé pour évaluer les populations ségrégeantes de PROMUSA maintenues à CORBANA.Musa : M. fijiensis, M. musicola et M. eumusae.Mycosphaerella.Des changements significatifs dans les niveaux de résistance à la cercosporiose noire et à la maladie de Sigatoka ont été signalés en Australie, en Inde et à Cuba. Cependant, il est possible qu'ils existent simplement du fait de doses d'inoculum élevées. Il est donc important de distinguer des changements dans les populations d'agents pathogènes d'effets épidémiologiques particuliers. Le groupe a donc recomman-dé d'étudier les changements dans les populations d'agents pathogènes en réponse à la pression de sélection imposée par les nouveaux génotypes de bananiers résistants aux cercosporioses. Il est essentiel de suivre les changements dans les populations pathogènes dans les zones où des nouveaux hybrides résistants sont cultivés à grande échelle. Une recommandation spéciale a été faite pour la mise en place d'essais spécifiques à Cuba. Deux aspects différents de la durabilité de la résistance doivent être abordés : la dérive génétique de la résistance aux agents pathogènes et l'effet de sélection au sein de la population d'agents pathogènes. Les participants de la réunion du groupe de travail de PROMUSA sur les cercosporioses ont recommandé :• La sélection de zones où des hybrides résistants ont été cultivés depuis de longues périodes (par exemple Cuba) et le suivi de l'évolution des populations pathogènes, l'isolation de souches de Mycosphaerella sur des cultivars ou hybrides sensibles et résistants, • Le développement de marqueurs moléculaires liés à la pathogénicité des souches de champignons (les marqueurs moléculaires donneront des informations sur la dérive génétique quand l'évaluation de la pathogénicité sera reliée à l'effet de sélection), • La quantification de la pression de sélection au cours du temps, et • L'étude de la destruction de la résistance par des tests in vitro.La dispersion de M. eumusae est pour l'instant limitée à la plus grande partie de l'Asie, bien qu'il semble y avoir des preuves que l'agent pathogène ait atteint l'Afrique. La dynamique de la maladie n'est pas aujourd'hui complètement comprise. Certaines projections indiquent que cette maladie va devenir plus importante que la cercosporiose noire. Afin de préparer des stratégies adéquates de contrôle de la maladie, il est urgent de posséder une connaissance détaillée de l'épidémiologie de cet agent pathogène. Pour aborder l'épidémiologie des différentes espèces des agents pathogènes de Mycosphaerella chez le bananier, le groupe a recommandé : La collecte de données sur le terrain et dans la littérature sur l'incidence de la maladie, Le développement de méthodologies pour comprendre les mécanismes de dissémination des spores et la survie des spores dans l'air en laboratoire, et La clarification des données de laboratoire au niveau de la plantation et l'évaluation du potentiel de dispersion anémophile (par opposition à une dispersion plus poussée par le transfert d'inoculum).L'approche génétique s'est révélée extrêmement puissante pour l'étude des interactions hôtepathogène chez certains pathosystèmes (telsque Magnaporthe grisea). Cette approche ne nécessite pas l'identification a priori de facteurs de pathogénicité et inclut l'étude de l'expression des gènes pendant l'infection (affichage differentiel (differential display), puces d'ADN, SSH, etc.), la production de mutants de pathogénicité, les techniques de génomique comparative et de validation de la fonction des gènes.Ici encore, le groupe de travail de PROMUSA sur les cercosporioses a ratifié la recommandation du \"2 ème atelier international sur les cercosporioses\" d'étudier : \"le développement d'outils de génétique et de biologie moléculaire pour M. fijiensis en collaboration avec les groupes travaillant sur M. graminicola ainsi que le lancement d'une initiative en génomique pour accéder aux outils de la génomique (collection d'EST, carte physique, séquence du génome) et l'établissement de la comparaison au niveau génomique entre M. fijiensis et M. graminicola\". Le groupe a également travaillé à la rédaction de différents pré-projets pour concrétiser les différentes recommandations faites.En introduction, Eldad Karamura, coordinateur régional de l'INIBAP pour l'Afrique orientale et australe, a présenté PROMUSA aux participants. Il a expliqué que PROMUSA a été créé lorsque l'on a réalisé que l'amélioration génétique est la stratégie la plus durable pour résoudre la majorité des contraintes liées à la production de bananes, particulièrement pour les petits paysans qui sont à l'origine de plus de 80% de la production globale. En conséquence, des groupes de travail par discipline ont été créés pour générer les informations complémentaires dont le groupe de travail sur l'amélioration génétique avait besoin. Il a été souligné que le fait de participer à l'agenda de recherche de PROMUSA n'empêchait pas d'autres activités de recherche sur les mêmes contraintes, comme le travail sur les phéromones chez les charançons.Les participants se sont mis d'accord sur les thèmes de discussion suivants: Quatre espèces de charançons ont été trouvées dans les zones de production de bananes et de bananes plantain du Cameroun : Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar), Polytus mellerborgi (Boheman), Metamasius hemipterus sericeus (Olivier) et M. hemipterus (L.). C. sordidus semble être le seul charançon d'importance économique dans les plantations de bananier et de bananier plantain (Fogain 1994, Ysebrandt et al. 2000). L'insecte est rencontré dans toutes les zones de production de bananiers et de bananiers plantain au Cameroun (Fogain 2001). Une étude réalisée dans l'ensemble des zones de production a montré que le pourcentage d'apparition de C. sordidus au Cameroun varie entre 50 et 90% et que 82,5% des paysans connaissent le problème et sont capables de reconnaître les dommages causés par le charançon (Ngamo et Fogain 1998). Les recherches sur la dynamique des populations de charançons dans deux des zones de production les plus importantes indiquent que des populations plus nombreuses sont observées entre août et septembre ; cependant, ce résultat demande confirmation.Dans les plantations commerciales de bananier, l'utilisation de matériel de plantation sain, du contrôle chimique et de la gestion de l'habitat des charançons sont les méthodes les plus répandues pour contrôler les populations de charançons. Le développement de mesures de contrôle alternatives et la gestion intégrée des ravageurs sont hautement recommandés pour les petits paysans aux ressources limitées, qui sont les principaux producteurs de bananes plantain.Au début des années 70, les populations de charançons étaient contrôlées de manière efficace grâce à la Kepone (Chlordecone) dans les plantations commerciales du Cameroun. La suppression de ce produit du marché a entraîné une augmentation significative des populations de charançons entre 1975 et 1983 à cause de l'utilisation du H.C.H. et d'autres insecticides moins efficaces comme le Dursban (chloropyrifos-éthyle) et le Primicide (pyrimiphos-éthyle) pour le contrôle des charançons (Kehe 1985). Le déclin de la production de bananes a été stoppé par l'arrivée sur le marché de la Curlone (Chlordecone) au début des années 90. Une ou deux applications par an permettaient de contrôler les populations de charançons de manière efficace. Ce produit a également été retiré du marché au début des années 90 à cause de sa dégradabilité limitée. Le Regent (fipronil) est arrivé plus tard sur le marché, permettant une lutte efficace contre les populations de charançons avec deux ou trois applications par an. Jusqu'à aujourd'hui, ce produit est le seul insecticide efficace utilisé dans les fermes commerciales au Cameroun. Malgré tout, l'application continue de ce produit risque d'entraîner, dans un avenir proche, le développement de populations de charançons résistants. Il est donc recommandé d'alterner avec des nématicides tels que le Counter (terbuphos) et le Furadan (carbofurane) qui ont une activité insecticide et qui peuvent être utilisés quand les populations sont relativement réduites. Les seuils de traitement dans les plantations industrielles dans le département de Moungo sont une attaque de 5% des plants (échantillonnage sur 20 plants par ha), en se basant sur la méthode d'évaluation proposée par Vilardebo (1973). D'autres insecticides ayant une activité intéressante sur les charançons sont : le tébupyrimphos, l'athiamethoxam, le cartap et l'imidaclopride. Le contrôle chimique, s'il est planifié au moment opportun, est un moyen efficace de détruire les populations de charançons adultes dans les fermes commerciales, mais il est trop coûteux pour la majorité des fermiers dont les ressources sont limitées, et il a des effets collatéraux défavorables sur les organismes bénéfiques non ciblés. Au cours d'une étude menée dans le Sud-ouest du Cameroun, 57% des paysans disaient ne pas utiliser de pesticides (Chantelot 1993). Quarantetrois pour-cent des paysans, principalement dans des plantations associant bananiers plantain et cacaoyer, traitaient les rejets avant la plantation et 87% d'entre eux utilisaient des insecticides généralement nommés \"gabaline\" par les fermiers, terme qui regroupe des insecticides utilisés pour les ravageurs des arbres ou du cacaoyer tels que le lindane (HCH), le Dursban (chloropyrifos-éthyle) ou le méthylparathion.Trois pour-cent des paysans qui traitent les rejets avant la plantation utilisent un nématicide ayant des propriétés insecticides comme le Mocap (Ethoprophos), et 10% utilisent d'autres produits (Chantelot 1993). Les résultats d'une autre étude dans l'Ouest, le Sud-ouest, le Centre et le Sud du Cameroun ont révélé que seulement 11% des petits propriétaires utilisent des pesticides, que 57% n'utilisent aucun produit et que 32% utilisent des cendres parce qu'ils croient à leur rôle bénéfique contre les charançons (Ngamo et Fogain 1998).Le CIRAD, Guadeloupe, a exprimé son désir de participer aux recherches en agronomie et biotechnologie et de coordonner les activités en Guadeloupe et à Montpellier.Les organisations espagnoles fourniront également un appui à ce groupe de travail.CORPOICA, Colombie, contribuera au criblage des cultivars pour la résistance aux charançons et aux nématodes du bananier. CORPOICA fournira un appui sur les méthodes de criblage et pourrait également mettre à disposition une personne travaillant sur la biotechnologie des charançons (Consuelo Castrillon).CORBANA, Costa Rica, apportera un appui sur les méthodes de criblage et l'évaluation du matériel génétique.L'EMBRAPA, Brésil, n'était pas représentée mais pourrait être intéressée par l'amélioration conventionnelle, la biotechnologie et le criblage pour les stress locaux ; il faudra la contacter.La FHIA, Honduras et l'EMBRAPA seront contactés afin de connaître leurs centres d'intérêt (Martine Fancelli).L'ISTC, Afrique du Sud, a proposé de cribler de nouvelles variétés, particulièrement de 'Cavendish' (Schalk Schoeman). L'Université de Pretoria supervisera des étudiants conduisant des recherches sur la biotechnologie du bananier.Le CARBAP réalisera le criblage de variétés contre les charançons, les nématodes et la cercosporiose noire (Roger Fogain) Il est important de planter, dans un champ non infesté, du matériel de plantation sain qui peut être obtenu à partir de plantations libres de charançons ou de plants provenant de culture de tissus. Quatre-vingt-quinze pour-cent des petits propriétaires pratiquent l'épluchage des rejets avant la plantation (Chantelot 1995) Au CARBAP, les recherches sur la lutte biologique avec le champignon entomogène Beauveria bassiana ont commencé en 1994 avec la découverte de souches locales au Cameroun (Fogain 1994). Depuis, des études ont été réalisées en conditions contrôlées pour tester l'efficacité des souches et la possibilité de leur production en masse pour des essais en champ.Trois souches de B. bassiana, isolées de charançons infectés, ont causé une mortalité de 92% après neuf jours en conditions de laboratoire. Des recherches sont en cours sur le maintien de la viabilité en relation avec des systèmes de distribution et de production en masse réalisables par des agriculteurs ou des agents économiques au Cameroun. Des nématodes entomopathogènes ont été isolés à partir d'échantillons de sol collectés au Cameroun en utilisant des larves de C. sordidus.Le trempage des rejets dans une solution de semences de neem (Azadirachta indica) à 20% à la plantation protège les jeunes rejets pendant plusieurs mois d'une attaque de charançons, mais une application sur la couronne de 100 g trois fois par an n'est pas efficace pour réduire les dommages causés par les charançons (Fogain et Ysenbrandt 1998). Ceci peut être expliqué par la réduction de l'oviposition à cause son effet répulsif sur les charançons adultes et par le blocage de la ponte des oeufs (Messiaen 1999).Le piégeage avec des pièges sur le pseudotronc ne réduit pas toujours les populations de charançons, ceci dépendant de plusieurs facteurs : système de culture, immigration des charançons depuis des lots voisins infestés, nombre de pièges et populations initiales. Le piégeage ne semble pas être une option de lutte viable dans les conditions des petits propriétaires au Cameroun, du fait de la trop grande quantité de pseudotroncs et de main d'oeuvre nécessaire ainsi que de l'immigration des charançons dans les parcelles des petits propriétaires depuis les parcelles adjacentes. L'essai d'un système de piégeage en masse avec des pièges en rampes appâtées à la sordidine, la phéromone d'agrégation produite par le mâle, a indiqué que les pièges ne sont pas suffisamment attractifs pour constituer une option de lutte valable pour les plantations industrielles de bananiers. Malgré tout, des recherches supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour évaluer si l'attrait peut être amélioré par d'autres types de pièges et des kairomones (par exemple, en ajoutant des morceaux de pseudotronc ou de corme). Dans les conditions des petits propriétaires, le système de piégeage en masse avec les phéromones ne semble pas une option viable pour contrôler les populations de charançons, du fait de problèmes de stockage et des coûts (Messiaen 2000a).Au CARBAP, le criblage pour la résistance au charançon du bananier a commencé en 1994, avec la découverte de la résistance au champ de 'Yangambi km5' et de la sensibilité élevée de clones du sous-groupe des plantains (Musa AAB) par comparaison avec les 'Cavendish' (Musa AAA) (Fogain et Price 1994) Actuellement, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) est le ravageur le plus important pour la culture du bananier plantain aux Canaries. Etant donné les résultats obtenus avec les traitements chimiques, il a été décidé de rechercher des alternatives à ce type de lutte. Pour cela, on a effectué un échantillonage de sols, cultivés ou non, de la province de Santa Cruz de Tenerife ainsi que des organismes parasités naturellement qu'ils contiennent. Parmi ces derniers, grâce à la technique des pièges dits \"Galleria mellonella\", on a plus particulièrement recherché des nématodes et des champignons entomopathogènes. La présence de nématodes entomopathogènes s'est révélée positive en deux points des relevés, où l'on a isolé Heterothabditis spp. et Steinernema spp. En ce qui concerne les champignons entomopathogènes, on a obtenu des isolats des genres suivants: Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae et Paecilomyces spp. Verticillium lecanii a été isolé à partir de mouches blanches collectées dans différentes localités. On a procédé à la caractérisation morphologique des champignons et étudié leur capacité de germination, de sporulation, de production de biomasse ainsi que leur comportement en fonction de différentes conditions naturelles d'humidité, de température et de pH. On a également étudié leur activité enzymatique: quitino, amylo, protéo, lipo et pectinolytique. Au cours de cette étude, on a réalisé des essais biologiques sur \"Galleria mellonella\" et, en se fondant sur les résultats obtenus, on a inoculé C. sordidus en utilisant deux méthodes différentes. Enfin, l'interaction éventuelle de ces isolats avec Fusarium oxysporum, principal agent pathogène de la culture, a été évaluée.L.V. Lopez-Llorca Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Alicante, Aptdo. Correos 99, 03080 Alicante, España Nous avons étudié dans notre laboratoire l'utilisation de restes végétaux de pépinières de plantes ornementales pour produire de l'inoculum de champignons antagonistes incluant des champignons entomopathogènes. Les graines de Phoenix dactylifera se sont avérées d'excellents supports pour la production de Beauveria bassiana. Lorsqu'on observe le substrat au microscope électronique à balayage, on constate qu'il est très poreux, ce qui permet le développement et la sporulation des champignons. La formulation à base de sol et de B. bassiana permet au champignon de sporuler et de vaincre la fongistase. Sur ce type de graines, B. bassiana survit et maintient son pouvoir pathogène dans le sol pendant une période minimum de trois mois. Au cours de bioessais, la formule a réussi à infecter un ravageur des palmiers (Carpophilus dimidiatus) similaire au charançon. De plus, B. bassiana peut coloniser les pétioles de P. dactylifera. Nous émettons l'hypothèse que le comportement endophytique des champignons entomopathogènes est une ressource utile dans la lutte contre des ravageurs tels que le charançon. Les génotypes suivants sont étudiés : 0304-02, 0337-02, 0323-03, 1318-01, 2803-01, 4223-03, 5012-02, 4215-02, 4279-13 et 4252-03. Ces matériels sont des hybrides diploïdes générés par le programme d'amélioration du bananier qui présentent pour la plupart une résistance à la cercosporiose noire. Des jeunes plants de ces génotypes sont placées au champ dans des trous de plantation grillagés et infestés par des charançons adultes en utilisant la méthodologie de Seshu-Reddy et Lubega (1993). Les plantes sans insectes sont placées dans les mêmes conditions afin d'obtenir des informations sur les dégâts causés par le ravageur. Le génotype 'Terra' est utilisé comme témoin de sensibilité. Les variables analysées sont les suivantes :coefficient d'infestation, nombre d'insectes présents dans les galeries, hauteur des plants, diamètre du pseudotronc, durée jusqu'à l'émission de l'inflorescence et la récolte, poids du régime, nombre de mains, diamètre des doigts et nombre de doigts par main. En conditions de laboratoire, le développement des insectes et la non-préférence pour l'alimentation et l'oviposition seront étudiées pour les mêmes génotypes afin d'identifier les types de résistance impliqués dans les interactions charançon/bananier. Les variables liées au développement de l'insecte seront la durée et la viabilité des phases larvaires et pupe, le poids des pupes après 24 heures et le nombre d'adultes avec des défauts. En ce qui concerne la nonpréférence, des tests d'attractivité et de consommation seront réalisés. Des analyses seront effectuées pour identifier la présence de substances attractives/répulsives, qui stimulent ou freinent l'alimentation. L'évaluation de la dureté du rhizome sera faite en utilisant un pénétromètre. Des outils de recherche ont été développés pour la caractérisation et l'amélioration du matériel génétique au travers des mutations induites, de la cryoconservation, de l'embryogenèse somatique, de la variation somaclonale et du génie génétique. Certains des cultivars existants ont été améliorés pour leur résistance aux maladies et pour des caractères agronomiques importants. Des collaborations entre les laboratoires participants ont été établies, comprenant l'échange de personnel, la formation et le transfert de technologies.Les détenteurs de contrats de recherche J. Lopez Torres (Cuba), Mak Chai (Malaisie), A. James (Mexique) et J. Dolezel (République tchèque) ont obtenu d'excellents résultats au cours de ce PRC. Nicolas Roux (FAO/IAEA) a joué un rôle clé dans la dissociation du chimérisme et le développement d'un protocole de cytométrie en flux.Plusieurs jeunes étudiants ont bénéficié de ce PRC en réalisant leurs programmes de Master ou de PhD en Israël, République tchèque et Belgique. Certains des participants ont présenté leurs résultats dans des conférences internationales. Un total de 51 articles de recherche ont été publiés dans des actes de conférence et des journaux à comité de lecture international.De nombreux stagiaires internationaux ont reçu une formation sur divers aspects de la culture de tissus de bananier, de la cytogénétique moléculaire et des marqueurs moléculaires à KULeuven et à la Faculté universitaire des sciences agronomiques (FUSAGx) de Gembloux, Belgique, à l'Institute of Experimental Botany (IEB), République tchèque et à l'Université de Francfort en Allemagne. Les stagiaires venaient de Chine, de Cuba, d'Egypte, du Mexique et du Rwanda. Le résultat de ces formations a été extrêmement positif. Par exemple, un stagiaire cubain a réussi à établir de nouvelles suspensions cellulaires embryogènes de bananier à partir de matériel végétal cubain. Il a également réussi à irradier le matériel végétal à Cuba. Au Sri Lanka, 20 paysans ont reçu une formation à la technologie de culture de tissus pour la production en masse de bananiers. Une formation de troisième cycle sur l'indexation des virus des bananiers a également été organisée.Une installation de cytométrie en flux a été établie à l'Institut international d'agriculture tropicale (IITA, Nigeria) et au Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology (MINT, Malaisie). Le transfert a impliqué la formation de personnel à l'IEB et des visites d'experts.1. Détection du polymorphisme de méthylation de l'ADN dans des plants de bananiers micropropagés au moyen du polymorphisme de longueur des fragments d'amplification (AFLP).2. Des cultures de suspensions cellulaires somatiques embryogènes (SCE) ont été développées pour plusieurs espèces de bananiers y compris des bananiers plantain (AAB). Trois techniques de cryoconservation ont été mises au point pour la conservation à long terme des méristèmes. Un guide technique de l'INIBAP sur la cryoconservation du bananier a été publié en anglais, français et espagnol.3. L'induction de mutations a généré une série de clones améliorés qui ont été étudiés pour différents caractères tels que la floraison précoce, la taille réduite, la grande taille des fruits et la tolérance à la fusariose.4. Les méthodes de transformation par Agrobacterium et par bombardement de particules ont été utilisées pour la transformation du bananier, et le taux de transformation s'est avéré cultivar-dépendant.5. Des procédures d'indexation de virus ont été transférées au Sri Lanka pour indexer les souches locales de virus du bananier.6. Une technique de dépistage précoce a été développée pour la fusariose en utilisant des plants dérivés de culture de tissus dans un système à double bac.7. Un système de sélection a été développé contre la cercosporiose noire en utilisant un extrait brut de Mycosphaerella fijiensis, une fraction semi-purifiée et une fraction purifiée (juglone).8. Des techniques de criblage pour la résistance aux nématodes ont été développées pour Musa en ombrières et en champ. Des cultures aseptiques de Radopholus similis et de Pratylenchus coffeae ont été établies en utilisant des cals de luzerne et leur pathogénicité a été confirmée après des tests en serre. 9. La cytométrie en flux de l'ADN a été utilisée pour détecter la polyploïdie, suivre la dissociation des chimères et l'analyse de la stabilité des SCE.10. La mutagenèse des transposons a été explorée pour le marquage de gènes en utilisant un élément Ac du maïs dans le génome du bananier. Un nombre substantiel de mutants distincts ont été générés et caractérisés.11. Un protocole d'hybridation in situ par fluorescence (FISH) a été développé pour Musa pour l'étude détaillée des caryotypes. Celui-ci permet des repères distincts sur les chromosomes, la localisation de gènes, l'analyse globale de la structure des chromosomes et le lien avec les cartes physiques et génétiques.12. Un total de 28 marqueurs de séquences simples répétées (SSR) spécifiques d'allèles ont été générés pour Musa et utilisés pour détecter des polymorphismes entre les génomes A et B, identifier des hybrides et retracer le génome B dans des hybrides. Ces marqueurs sont maintenant utilisés au sein du PRC et dans le monde entier. Un total de 24 marqueurs SSR locus-spécifiques hautement polymorphes ont également été produits pour Mycosphaerella fijiensis pour les discriminer d'autres espèces.A. James, S. Peraza-Echeverria, V. Herrera-Valencia et L. Peraza-Echeverria Unidad de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexique.Le niveau de polymorphisme de méthylation de l'ADN a été évalué dans des tissus foliaires de bananiers (Musa AAA cv. 'Grande naine') micropropagés, dérivés soit de l'apex végétatif d'un rejet ou de l'apex floral de l'inflorescence mâle en utilisant la technique du polymorphisme d'amplification sensible à la méthylation (MSAP), qui utilise la paire d'isoschizomères de restriction Msp I et Hpa II, dont la propriété de couper à la séquence 5'-CCGC-3' est affectée par l'état de méthylation des cytosines. En tout, 465 fragments, représentant chacun un site de reconnaissance coupé par l'un ou les deux isoschizomères ont été amplifiés en utilisant huit combinaisons d'amorces. Un total de 107 sites (23%) ont été trouvés méthylés au niveau de la cytosine dans le génome des plants micropropagés. Le nombre le plus élevé de polymorphismes de méthylation de l'ADN a été détecté dans les plants micropropagés issus de l'inflorescence mâle avec 14 (3%) et le plus bas dans les plants micropropagés issus des rejets avec 8 (1,7%) polymorphismes. Ces différences n'étaient pas statistiquement significatives. Dans les tissus foliaires de plants propagés de manière conventionnelle, aucun polymorphisme de méthylation de l'ADN n'a été détecté. Les plantes micropropagées étaient relativement hyperméthylées par rapport aux plantes propagées de manière conventionnelle, avec certaines bandes méthylées dans toutes les plantes micropropagées mais non-méthylées dans les plantes propagées de manière conventionnelle. Ces résultats démontrent l'utilité de la MSAP pour détecter les événements de méthylation de l'ADN chez des plants de bananier micropropagés et indiquent que des changements dans la méthylation de l'ADN sont associés à la micropropagation. Le développement de technologies de transformation et de régénération stables et reproductibles a ouvert de nouveaux horizons pour l'amélioration des bananiers et des bananiers plantain. Plusieurs stratégies de transformation ont été publiées au cours des cinq dernières années par différents biotechnologistes du bananier. La résistance aux maladies et l'amélioration de la qualité des fruits ont été les objectifs principaux de la plupart des sélectionneurs de bananiers. Cependant, malgré l'intérêt grandissant pour la biotechnologie du bananier, le pool de gènes de Musa dans les bases de données publiques est relativement restreint (sur les environ 300 accessions rentrées dans la base de données NCBI, moins de 25% sont des ADNc annotés). Notre laboratoire emploie à l'heure actuelle plusieurs approches pour identifier des gènes fonctionnels dans le génome de Musa. Ces approches incluent l'étiquetage par transposons, la mutation aléatoire à haut débit par clivage par des ribozymes des ARNm, l'hybridation soustractive suppressive (SSH) et l'annotation bioinformatique des EST agglomérés. Nous avons inséré l'élément transposable Ac du maïs dans le génome de Musa et suivi l'excision et l'insertion de cet élément dans de nombreuses lignées transgéniques. Le but était d'observer la fréquence de transposition et de distribution des insertions sur les chromosomes. Les constructions que nous avons utilisées incluent un élément Ac fusionné avec un gène GUS rapporteur avec le promoteur 35S. L'analyse par PCR d'une variété de mutants a révélé que la plupart présentaient un pattern chimérique en ce qui concerne l'expression des gènes étrangers. En conséquence, seules quelques lignées transgéniques (des lignées soeurs cultivées in vitro) ont montré des différences détectables dans le pattern des bandes en Southern blot. Des essais ont été faits pour stabiliser l'élément Ac après un nombre limité de transpositions, en provoquant l'extinction du gène codant pour la transposase après excision. Des gènes exprimés différentiellement, qui sont activés dans la phase post-climactérique de développement du fruit, ont été analysés dans la peau et la pulpe de bananes. En utilisant l'hybridation soustractive suppressive (SSH), nous avons isolé plus de 200 gènes codant pour des ADNc partiels qui sont exprimés pendant les étapes finales de développement du fruit (sénescence). Un criblage à haut débit par hybridation de membranes a été employé pour une sélection préliminaire des gènes candidats impliqués dans la régulation du démarrage de la sénescence. L'analyse de séquence et des similitudes dans les bases de données des banques de gènes ont révélé approximativement 80 clones non redondants, qui étaient surexprimés dans la phase post-climactérique. La plupart de ces gènes, mais pas tous, étaient surexprimés après exposition des fruits verts à 1000 ppm d'éthylène pendant 24 heures. Le pool d'ADNc surexprimés séquencés rentrent dans l'une des trois catégories majeures suivantes : Des gènes impliqués dans des processus métaboliques, principalement carbohydrates et composants lipidiques, Des gènes impliqués dans la régulation cellulaire (protéine kinases, facteurs de transcription, etc.), Des gènes impliqués dans la protection contre les pathogènes et les conditions de stress environnemental -protéines de type métallothionéine, superoxyde dismutase, protéines de type osmotine, protéines en liaison avec les pathogènes, etc. Un nombre significatif de séquences ne montraient pas d'homologie substantielle avec des gènes fonctionnels dans les banques de gènes. Ce projet est centré sur l'analyse du génome de Musa au niveau nucléaire et chromosomal, avec pour but de comprendre l'organisation globale des chromosomes de Musa et de caractériser les changements de structure des chromosomes au cours de la spéciation et de l'évolution des clones cultivés. Nous avons utilisé la cytométrie en flux pour déterminer les niveaux de ploïdie des accessions de Musa conservées au Centre de transit de l'INIBAP (KULeuven). La mesure de la ploïdie par cytométrie en flux incluait la préparation de suspensions de noyaux intacts à partir de faibles quantités de tissus foliaires et l'analyse de l'intensité de leur fluorescence après coloration au DAPI. Des globules rouges de poulet (GRP) ont été inclus dans chaque échantillon comme standard de référence interne (Figure 1). Sur les 890 accessions analysées jusqu'à maintenant, 8,4% ont été classifiées pour la première fois et 7,6% des accessions ont montré une ploïdie différente de celle rapportée précédemment. Des plantes de ploïdie mélangée ont été détectées dans 2% des accessions. La mise au point d'un système fiable et à haut débit d'analyse de la ploïdie de Musa est un résultat important de l'étude. L'utilisation des noyaux de GRP a permis une analyse à haute résolution et les résultats obtenus jusqu'à maintenant ont indiqué la pertinence de ce système pour la détection rapide de l'aneuploïdie. Les matériels pour analyse ayant été envoyés par courrier express, ce travail démontre qu'il est possible d'effectuer des analyses de ploïdie par cytométrie en flux dans des laboratoires distants l'un de l'autre.     Les techniques d'induction de mutations sont particulièrement importantes pour les bananiers et les bananiers plantain (espèces de Musa) chez lesquels la reproduction sexuée, qui pourrait générer de la variation génétique, base de la sélection, est limitée. Bien que des mutations spontanées aient contribué à la diversité génétique des Musa et aient significativement augmenté la variation utilisée pour améliorer Musa spp., leur fréquence d'apparition est trop basse. L'utilisation de la culture in vitro pour induire des mutations chez Musa spp. pourrait être une méthode de choix si plusieurs étapes du processus d'induction des mutations pouvaient être optimisées. Les aspects suivants ont été étudiés : la possibilité de détecter de l'instabilité génétique dans le contenu en ADN, la détermination d'une dose mutagène optimale, l'élimination du chimérisme et l'application d'un criblage de masse précoce pour la sélection de mutants utiles. Avec l'utilisation accrue des cultures embryogènes pour la micropropagation du bananier, une variation somaclonale se produit chez les plantules régénérées. Cette variation pourrait interférer avec les mutations qui pourraient être obtenues par les techniques de mutation. Bien que les causes de cette instabilité chromosomique soient mal comprises, on pense que l'instabilité elle-même est l'une des causes les plus communes de variation induite par la culture de tissus. Au moyen de la cytométrie en flux, des variations dans le nombre de chromosomes ont pu être détectées parmi les plantes régénérées en culture de tissus par embryogenèse somatique. Les résultats obtenus en cytométrie en flux ont été vérifiés par comptage chromosomique dans des cellules méristématiques de pointes racinaires. Après standardisation de la méthode, les résultats ont indiqué que la cytométrie en flux était suffisamment sensible pour détecter de l'aneuploïdie chez Musa avec une précision de ± 1 chromosome. Des anomalies dans le contenu en ADN ont pu être détectées à un stade précoce, pendant la culture in vitro. Pour la première fois, une suspension cellulaire embryogène (SCE) de bananier avec cinq chromosomes manquants a été décrite. Plusieurs études préliminaires ont été effectuées pour irradier les SCE. Les premiers tests de radiosensibilité des SCE de Musa ont été réalisés et on a trouvé que les suspensions cellulaires de Musa pouvaient tolérer jusqu'à 200 Gy. A 100 Gy, la courbe de croissance est affectée à 50% par rapport au témoin. Lors de l'irradiation des suspensions cellulaires, des populations importantes de cellules peuvent être manipulées dans des conditions contrôlées et, si les embryons ont une origine unicellulaire, ils surmontent le problème du chimérisme. Nous avons simulé cela en traitant des SCE à la colchicine et en déterminant la ploïdie des plantes régénérées par analyse en cytométrie en flux. Le traitement à la colchicine devrait induire de la polyploïdie et de la mixoploïdie (chimérisme) si les embryons ne sont pas d'origine unicellulaire. Jusqu'à présent, aucun mixoploïde n'a été détecté parmi les plantes régénérées après traitement à la colchicine. Une méthode de criblage précoce basée sur l'utilisation de la toxine juglone (5-hydroxy-1, 4naphthoquinone), principale toxine responsable de l'effet global du champignon Mycosphaerella fijiensis, a été utilisée pour chercher de la résistance à la cercosporiose noire. Le test a été appliqué quand les plantes acclimatées avaient atteint le stade six feuilles. Une dose de 25 ppm a permis de différencier la variété tolérante 'Fougamou' de la variété sensible 'Grande naine'. Jusqu'à présent, sur les 4000 plantes de 'Grande naine' irradiées étudiées, 8 mutants putatifs ont été sélectionnés pour leur tolérance à 25 ppm de juglone. Ces plantes sont maintenant en cours d'évaluation pour leur tolérance à l'inoculation avec le champignon.   La banane est le fruit le plus consommé au Sri Lanka, et c'est une culture fruitière attractive pour les petits paysans. Ceci est dû à sa valeur économique élevée tout au long de l'année. Ainsi, dans certaines régions, les rizières des basses terres sont converties à la culture du bananier. Parmi les cultivars locaux, 'Embul' (Mysore, AAB) est le plus demandé pour la culture. La production annuelle de bananes est d'environ 450 000 tonnes. Jusqu'à il y a peu, la culture du bananier était limitée à des petites parcelles mais des champs de grandes dimensions sont maintenant établis. De plus en plus de riziculteurs se mettent à cultiver le bananier car le bénéfice net est environ quatre fois supérieur que pour le riz et que les besoins en main d'oeuvre et autres intrants sont moindres. Au cours des six dernières années, 2 500 hectares ont été convertis à la culture du bananier (Anon. 2001(Anon. , 2002)). De plus, il a été noté que le niveau de nutrition dans les familles des paysans s'est amélioré grâce à une consommation accrue de fruits. Les fermiers n'utilisent généralement pas de pesticides pour la culture du bananier et ceci est bénéfique pour la santé humaine et l'environnement. Depuis 1990, les recherches sur la micropropagation du bananier par culture d'apex, les mutations induite par irradiation gamma, les suspensions cellulaires et l'embryogenèse somatique et les analyses de ploïdie pour la détection de variation ont été conduites par l'Université de Colombo. Depuis 1995, les cultivars 'Embul' et 'Cavendish' ont tous deux étés inclus dans le programme d'amélioration par mutation. Après irradiation d'apex in vitro avec 45 Gy, deux sélections ont été faites pour une taille réduite et une fructification précoce, six mois après la plantation (Hirimburegama et al. 1997). Des plantes de ces sélections micropropagées ont été testées pour la stabilité de ces caractères jusqu'à la seconde génération. La technologie a été optimisée et est en cours de transfert aux paysans (Laksiri et Hirimburegama 1999). La fructification et la récolte précoces des plants de bananier micropropagés fait gagner au moins un mois par rapport aux plants cultivés de manière traditionnelle qui demandent généralement huit mois pour fleurir. Le nombre de repousses passe ainsi à trois au lieu de deux habituellement, ce qui augmente les revenus des paysans de 25% (soit l'équivalent d'environ 350 $US par hectare et par an). La production de plants en masse est en cours. L'indexation/criblage des plantes pour la présence de virus, i.e. le virus de la mosaïque des bractées du bananier (BBrMV) et le virus des stries du bananier (BSV) est devenu essentiel puisque des plantes-mères exemptes de virus et indexées sont nécessaires pour la micropropagation. L'agent causal de la maladie de la mosaïque des bractées du bananier a été confirmé chez la variété locale 'Embul', largement cultivée au Sri Lanka par Thomas et al. (1996Thomas et al. ( , 1997)). Cette maladie est plus courante dans les plantations qui ne sont pas gérées de manière adéquate mais son impact sur le rendement apparaît significatif. Tous les symptômes de la maladie rapportés aujourd'hui ont été observés sur des plantes infectées au champ mais avec des degrés variés. Des marques pourpres en forme de flèche ou des rayures rouges sur le pseudotronc en plus de stries foncées en forme de flèche sur les bractées ont été les symptômes d'infection les plus communs. Les plants matures dont les inflorescences présentaient des stries noires ou rougeâtres sur la surface externe des bractées ouvertes avaient également des stries sur le pseudotronc. L'éclatement de la base des jeunes rejets pourrait également être dû à d'autres virus du bananier. Une étude a été menée dans l'objectif de développer un kit bon marché de détection par DAS-ELISA. Un anti-sérum pour le BBrMV (du Queensland Department of Primary Industries -QDPI, Australie) a été testé comme anticorps de revêtement pour remplacer le composant correspondant du kit commercial Agdia. Les résultats ont montré une efficacité relativement élevée de l'anticorps du QDPI. Des travaux sont également en cours pour remplacer avec l'anticorps conjugué à l'enzyme phosphatase alcaline celui du kit en cours de test. Une fois que l'antisérum local sera produit, il est attendu que kit de diagnostic local efficace et bon marché sera développé pour l'indexation en routine des plants de bananiers pour le BBrMV. La purification de l'extrait de virus (Thomas et al. 1997) est un facteur limitant pour obtenir l'antigène pour le processus de production de l'anticorps. Les bananes et les bananes plantain constituent une source importante de carbohydrates dans le régime des Cubains. Ceci est principalement dû à leurs habitudes alimentaires et à la production continue de bananes pendant l'année. Aujourd'hui, il devient urgent de développer de nouveaux cultivars de bananier, du fait des faibles rendements et des maladies (principalement la cercospiorose noire causée par le champignon Mycosphaerealla fijiensis). L'application à la fois des techniques biotechnologiques et nucléaires a permis de développer un système de régénération efficace et d'induire de la variabilité génétique pour la sélection précoce de mutants. Auparavant, des clones obtenus par irradiation d'apex aux rayons gamma à la dose induisant 50% de létalité, produits à Seibersdorf (Autriche) et au Centro de Estudios Aplicados al Desarrollo de la Energia Nuclear (Centre d'études appliquées au développement de l'énergie nucléaire, CEADEN) à Cuba avaient été testés en conditions de champ. Des cultures de suspensions cellulaires somatiques embryogènes ont été établies et la formation d'embryons somatiques est en cours de modification avec KULeuven pour améliorer encore le taux de régénération de plants, particulièrement pour les génotypes AAB. Des évaluations préliminaires ont été réalisées pour étudier l'action d'un extrait brut de M. fijiensis sur des suspensions cellulaires de la variété 'Navolean' sur milieu solide ZZ. Des disques de papier filtre ont été utilisés pour tester différentes concentrations de l'extrait brut sur la croissance des cellules pour sélectionner les cultures cellulaires tolérantes à la toxine. Des études de l'effet d'un extrait brut du champignon sur l'absorption d'oxygène ont été réalisées sur le clone 'CEMSA ?', ainsi que sur des vitroplants de différents cultivars utilisés dans l'IMTP pour les études sur la cercosporiose noire. Les feuilles des vitroplants ont été traitées avec différentes concentrations d'extrait brut en solution dans de l'acétate d'éthyle en les plaçant sur des disques de tailles différentes, en commençant avec des disques de 0,28 cm 2 . L'absorption d'oxygène a été mesurée au moyen de manomètres de Warburg. En se basant sur nos résultats, un mutant à stature ramassée ('Parecido al Rey' 6.44) a été obtenu. Quelques autres mutants ont été sélectionnés, qui étaient dans certains cas tolérants à la cercosporiose noire et avaient des rendements accrus (mutants 'Parecido al . Cependant, ces caractères étaient instables, probablement affectés par l'environnement ou les conditions de culture in vitro. Nous avons donc recherché d'autres alternatives pour améliorer les taux de mutations induites, telles que les cultures de suspensions cellulaires somatiques, et des cultures en masse de cellules embryogènes somatiques ont été établies par la suite. De chaque gramme de suspensions cellulaires embryogènes, 3250 à 6625 embryons ont été obtenus avec 20,7% de germination et 95% de survie des plants lors du passage en conditions ex vitro. Leur stabilité génétique est en cours d'observation en conditions de champ. L'action de l'extrait de M. fijiensis sur les suspensions cellulaires s'est traduit par un nombre élevé de cellules oxydées pour les concentrations d'extrait les plus élevées. Les cellules abîmées étaient caractérisées par un contenu cytoplasmique compact de couleur noire en son centre, laissant un espace entre le cytoplasme et la paroi cellulaire. Après quarante cinq jours d'incubation, plus de 60% des cellules se trouvaient dans l'état décrit précédemment à cause de la diffusion de la toxine depuis les disques. Les valves d'absorption d'oxygène étaient descendues de manière normale chez les témoins de tous les cultivars de l'IMTP, et la chute maximale par rapport aux plantes non traitées était de 38,7% chez 'Yangambi km5', de 27% chez 'Calcutta 4', de 13,7% chez 'Pisang berlin' et de 20,9% chez 'Pisang lilin', alors que l'absorption d'oxygène avait augmenté de 70% chez le clone 'CEMSA ?'. Les cultivars présentant une résistance plus élevée à la cercosporiose noire montraient une tendance à une diminution de l'absorption d'oxygène ; cela est probablement dû aux tissus endommagés, plutôt qu'à un effet de toxicité du traitement avec la toxine. Les premiers embryons somatiques obtenus à partir de suspensions cellulaires irradiées sont en phase de germination et l'embryogenèse somatique est en cours de développement pour les génotypes de l'IMTP. L'introduction de gènes étrangers dans le génome des plantes est une technique de base pour étudier l'expression des gènes et les processus physiologiques dans les plantes ainsi que pour les programmes d'amélioration. Il y a de fortes chances pour que l'amélioration de la valeur agronomique des espèces cultivées majeures implique l'introduction de gènes multiples dont beaucoup ne produiront pas des phénotypes que l'on pourra trier parmi les produits initiaux de transformation. Les restrictions majeures des techniques de transformation actuelles sont que seul un petit nombre de gènes peut être transféré en même temps et que des gènes marqueurs doivent être utilisés pour la sélection, ce qui conduit fréquemment à des plantes transgéniques contenant des gènes indésirables de résistance aux antibiotiques.L'objectif de cette étude était de déterminer l'efficacité de la cotransformation avec des gènes marqueurs mesurables visuellement en utilisant Agrobacterium tumefasciens et le bananier (Musa spp.). Des cultures de suspensions cellulaires de quatre cultivars ont été infectées avec deux souches différentes d'A. tumefasciens, portant chacune un ADN-T désarmé distinct contenant l'un de trois gènes rapporteurs [luciférase (LUC), ß-glucuronidase (GUS) ou protéine vert fluorescent (GFP)] ainsi que le gène marqueur sélectionnable neo. Des structures multicellulaires exprimant des gènes multiples ont été récupérées et les fréquences de cotransformation ont été mesurées. La fréquence de cotransformation était plus faible que la somme de la fréquence de chaque transformation individuelle. Une corrélation négative a été trouvée entre l'expression transitoire des deux gènes marqueurs visuels introduits ensemble par cotransformation. Des différences significatives dans la fréquence de (co)transformation ont été détectées entre les cultivars de bananiers testés. Nous prévoyons que l'utilisation simultanée de gènes rapporteurs multiples offrira une méthode pratique pour la détermination précise de la cotransformation et qu'elle contribuera à une stratégie pour la transformation multigénique.Session 5 Radopholus similis a été étudié dans une série d'essais. Il a été trouvé que les lectines marquées au FITC ou à l'or colloïdal de Canavalia ensiformis (ConA), du blé (WGA) et d'Helix pomatia (UPA) se liaient aux nématodes dans la région de la tête, au pore excréteur, aux pores du système reproducteur et à ceux des phasmides. La viabilité et la réponse chimiotactique vis à vis des racines des plantes après traitement des nématodes avec des lectines ont été examinées in vitro en analysant les traces des mouvements laissées sur l'agar dans les boîtes. L'essai comprenait six lectines végétales de cinq classes différentes et la protéine du bananier de type thaumatine. Une concentration d'1% d'agglutinine de Phaseolus vulgaris (PHA) a eu un effet toxique sur les femelles de R. similis : 68% n'ont montré aucun mouvement ou des mouvements très réduits après inoculation, par comparaison avec une moyenne de 30% pour les autres lectines et de 5% pour le traitement témoin. Une concentration de 0,05% de PHA a encore réduit la viabilité des femelles de R. similis de 75%. ConA et WGA n'a pas altéré la réponse chimiotactique vis à vis des racines des plantes, malgré la démonstration que ces deux lectines se liaient à R. similis. A l'inverse, l'agglutinine de Galanthus nivalis (GNA) a réduit le mouvement orienté des femelles vers les racines végétales. Enfin, les sécrétions de R. similis ont été colorées au bleu brillant de Coomassie. Ces sécrétions apparaissent aux amphides, au pore excréteur, à la vulve, aux spicules et aux phasmides. De plus, les nématodes traités avec la GNA produisaient des sécrétions moins abondantes. Le bananier (Musa spp.) est une culture fruitière d'importance majeure en Inde, qui est le plus grand producteur de bananes au monde. Cependant, des maladies et ravageurs tels que les maladies de la Sigatoka noire et de Panama, le virus du bunchy top ainsi que les nématodes demeurent des menaces majeures pour la production. Les manipulations génétiques en utilisant les suspensions cellulaires embryogènes (SCE) apparaissent comme une approche adéquate pour l'amélioration génétique intégrée. Des progrès ont été faits pour le développement de protocoles pour l'établissement de SCE, et des fleurs mâles immatures ainsi que des cultures proliférantes in vitro ont été principalement utilisées. En particulier, les méristèmes proliférants in vitro ('scalps') sont un matériel de départ idéal, parce qu'ils peuvent être générés pendant toute l'année chez presque tous les cultivars. La méthode utilisée comprend une préculture des méristèmes proliférants sur un milieu avec une concentration de cytokinines élevée qui induit la compétence embryogène. Plusieurs cultivars indiens importants [('Robusta' (AAA), 'Basrai' (AAA), 'Shrimanthi' (AAA), 'Karpoora valli' (ABB)] ont été employés dans cette étude pour l'induction de scalps de bonne qualité et de cals embryogènes. Parmi ces cultivars, la formation de cals embryogènes qui ont ensuite été employés pour l'établissement de SCE a été observée chez 'Robusta'. L'effet de cytokinines alternatives telles que la méta-topoline (MT, thidiazuron (TDZ) et la N-chloro-4pyridyl-N'-phénylurée (CPPU) a également été étudié sur des méristèmes isolés de 'Cachaco' (ABB), Williams (AAA) de même que sur des scalps de 'Robusta'. Sur les méristèmes isolés ('Williams', 'Cachaco'), la CPPU a seulement permis le développement de pousses et de racines uniques, alors que l'emploi de la MT a induit la formation de cal spongieux et la prolifération. Le TDZ a principalement induit un gonflement des explants. Le TDZ s'est avéré être une meilleure cytokinine que la MT pour l'induction et l'entretien de scalps de bonne qualité. Ces derniers sont en cours d'évaluation pour l'induction embryogène. Les SCE établies seront caractérisées et utilisées pour des essais de cryoconservation et de transformation génétique. Ce rapport résume les résultats de nos efforts pour évaluer l'utilité des techniques de marquage de l'ADN, telles que l'amplification aléatoire d'ADN polymorphe (RAPD), les microsatellites ou séquences simples répétées (SSR) et l'amplification du polymorphisme de longueur des fragments (AFLP) pour caractériser les altérations du génome chez des mutants de deux cultivars de bananiers philippins. Les mutants ont été induits chez deux des cultivars de bananiers comestibles les plus populaires des Philippines par irradiation de cultures in vitro d'apex aux rayons gamma et aux neutrons rapides. Les clones prometteurs ont été sélectionnés et évalués plus en détail en utilisant les marqueurs moléculaires. Chez le bananier, plusieurs techniques de marquage de l'ADN ont été utilisées pour étudier les relations génétiques entre accessions de Musa et pour déterminer les différences entre variants somaclonaux et mutants induits par irradiation. Dans cette étude, les techniques de RAPD, SSR et AFLP ont été utilisées avec succès dans les conditions locales et se sont révélées utiles pour caractériser les clones de bananiers irradiés et non irradiés. Les marqueurs RAPD, SSR et AFLP ont également révélé un polymorphisme suffisant pour différencier les deux cultivars utilisés. L'un des résultats les plus significatifs de ce projet CRP est le développement d'une technique de haute qualité et non radioactive de coloration à l'argent pour l'analyse des AFLP, qui peut facilement être adoptée dans les conditions de laboratoire des pays en développement. Les marqueurs AFLP ont montré à la fois une bonne reproductibilité et une capacité discriminante. Des marqueurs AFLP polymorphes ont été identifiés (Tableau 2) et ils se sont révélés utiles pour la production d'empreintes génétiques chez les bananiers et d'autres espèces de Musa. L'AFLP a été la seule technique de marquage testée qui ait été capable de détecter de la variation dans les profils d'ADN des clones de mutants induits, de leurs rejets de premier cycle et de clones témoins non irradiés (Figure 2), qu'on ne peut distinguer sur le plan morphologique. Les résultats indiquent que la technique AFLP est idéale et très utile à des fins de production d'empreintes par comparaison avec d'autres systèmes de marquage à cause de son rapport multiplex élevé, car plus de bandes (= loci) peuvent être observées. Bien que d'autres combinaisons d'amorces doivent être testées, ces résultats suggèrent que cette technique est potentiellement utile pour détecter des variations du génome entre cultivars et des altérations du génome chez les mutants de bananiers induits, y compris ceux montrant des phénotypes très semblables. La variation détectée entre les clones parents irradiés et les rejets suggère que le nombre de cycles de propagation végétative pour la tech-nique de culture d'apex utilisée (Novak et al. 1989) peut ne pas être suffisante pour complètement éliminer les chimères dans les populations mutées. Les résultats obtenus pourraient offrir des bases sûres pour rendre plus efficace l'application des techniques de mutation et de marquage moléculaire pour l'amélioration du bananier aux Philippines. Des plants transgéniques du bananier dessert 'Williams' contenant un gène codant pour le peptide antifongique Ace-AMP1 de l'oignon (Allium cepa) ont été produites par bombardement de particules pour augmenter leur tolérance aux attaques du champignon pathogène Mycosphaerella fijiensis. Des tests ELISA sur des extraits lyophilisés de pulpe de banane ont montré que la concentration du peptide Ace-AMP1 atteignait 0,0316% de la quantité totale de protéines solubles, soit six fois plus que le signal de base mesuré dans de la pulpe de bananes non transformées. Nous avons vérifié si ce niveau d'expression avait un effet sur des rats dont le régime alimentaire contenait de la pulpe de banane transgénique. Alors que le contenu énergétique était comparable dans la pulpe transgénique et témoin, la matière sèche et le contenu en protéines étaient respectivement plus bas et plus élevés dans la pulpe transgénique que dans la pulpe témoin. Vingt pour cent de nourriture lyophilisée de bananes témoins et transgéniques ont été incorporés dans la nourriture habituelle des rongeurs et administrés à des rats Wistar mâles et femelles. La fourniture d'aliments transgéniques pendant six semaines n'a causé aucune différence sur l'absorption de nourriture, le taux de croissance et le poids des organes internes par rapport à l'alimentation témoin. De plus, des analyses de sang complexes n'ont révélé aucun effet sur les rats consommant les aliments contenant de la banane transgénique.  (Lichtenthaler et al. 1986). Le cultivar 'Grande naine' était plus sensible que 'Fougamou' quel que soit l'essai pris en compte (induction de nécrose ou fluorescence de la chlorophylle). La dépendance à la lumière révélée par ces essais, l'effet précoce sur la fluorescence de la chlorophylle (Harelimana et al. 1997) et le gonflement des chloroplastes de 'Grande naine' après l'injection d'EaCE, sont des indications que les chloroplastes pourraient être une cible potentielle pour les toxines de M. fijiensis.Un protocole mécanique (Leegood et Malkin 1986) pour isoler des chloroplastes physiologiquement intacts à partir des feuilles de bananier a été développé. Un nouveau bioessai basé sur l'addition de juglone à des suspensions de chloroplastes de bananier a été utilisé pour analyser l'impact des métabolites de M. fijiensis. En réalisant la réaction de Hill (Allen et Holmes 1986) avec les suspensions ainsi traitées pour mesurer la capacité des chloroplastes de transférer des électrons, un effet inhibiteur direct de la juglone sur cette activité physiologique a été clairement démontré. De plus, cet effet était plus important avec des chloroplastes de 'Grande naine' que de 'Fougamou'. Puisque les chloroplastes constituent l'un des sites de production d'espèces actives de l'oxygène dans les plantes (Sutherland 1991, Foyer et al. 1997), leurs interactions directes avec la juglone ont conduit à une nouvelle hypothèse. Ainsi, les événements oxydatifs ont été soupçonnés d'être à l'origine de dégâts physiologiques dans les chloroplastes isolés. En fait, l'implication de métabolites de naphtoquinone fongique dans le processus oxydatif n'est pas rare (Medentsev et Akimento 1998). Leurs propriétés auto-oxydatives responsables de l'oxydation du NADH et du NADPH conduisent à la disparition de ces molécules du système de phopshorylation oxydative en tant que sources potentielles d'équivalents de réduction pour la chaîne respiratoire.Dans le cas de la MRN, la vérification de cette hypothèse a été réalisée en considérant les interactions possibles entre la juglone et les systèmes antioxydants du bananier. Nous avons observé que la juglone cause une oxydation in vitro de l'acide ascorbique, l'antioxydant le plus abondant chez les plantes (Smirnoff 2000). La présence de phénomènes oxydatifs induits par ce métabolite chez le bananier a été également suivi en analysant les patterns de la superoxyde dismutase (SOD) à plusieurs intervalles de temps après l'injection de juglone dans les feuilles des deux cultivars de référence. En fait, les superoxyde dismutases sont considérées comme jouant un rôle central dans la défense contre les stress oxydatifs (Beyer et al. 1991, Scandalias 1993) ","tokenCount":"41952"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f0b71501c3d9743adb642bbc7e2dd8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/FTA/Briefs/8539-FTABrief.pdf","id":"-468371860"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5c340674-ef6d-4669-9dd5-e20d6212483c","pagecount":"18","content":"FAO, in its Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA), defines primary forests as \"naturally regenerated forests of native tree species, where there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed\" (FAO 2018). Laumonier et al. (2022) applied this FAO definition using a consistent remote sensing methodology leading to identify areas referred to as \"intact forests\" and describe deforestation, degradation and fragmentation affecting primary forests in the Asia-Pacific region.Following up on the Third Asia-Pacific Forest Sector Outlook Study (APFSOS III: FAO, 2019), FAO and CIFOR, lead center of the CGIAR research program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), developed a roadmap for primary forest conservation in Asia and the Pacific. The geographical scope of the roadmap, referred to in this brief as the \"Asia-Pacific region\", comprises 49 countries and territories. To account for its huge diversity, the Asia-Pacific region is further divided into four sub-regions, as defined in APFSOS III (FAO 2019): East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Oceania. This roadmap has been developed through an inclusive and participative process involving 425 key regional stakeholders and technical experts from governments, intergovernmental organizations, the private sector, civil society organizations, academia, and research institutions, as well as selected students and young people involved in the forest sector in the Asia-Pacific region.This policy brief informs the process and key steps by which decision-makers and actors can evaluate the state of primary forests in the region, identify1. Explore innovative ways to improve monitoring and reporting on primary forests. 2. Improve the knowledge and understanding of the functioning and dynamics of primary forest ecosystems within broader landscapes to orient landuse planning, management and conservation efforts. 3. Build a compelling narrative for primary forest conservation and consolidate new coalitions of actors.4. Ensure policy coherence across sectors and scales and promote integrated landscape approaches for primary forest conservation. 5. Align sustainable land use, climate action and biodiversity objectives for the conservation of primary forests. 6. Strengthen regional and international cooperation for the conservation and management of primary forests.Key messages. Continued management, are needed to address these threats.A large part of the remaining intact forests falls outside protected areas and is used for multiple objectives. Hence, different mechanisms and tools, including other area-based conservation measures, integrated landscape approaches and communitybased management, need to be mobilized at different scales. These mechanisms and tools come in addition to and in support of legal protection, to allow effective protection and conservation of primary forests to cope with a broad range of threats in a variety of situations and to ensure socioecological sustainability.By construction, intact forest areas identified by remote sensing do not necessarily correspond exactly to the primary forest areas as reported to the FRA by each national government (as countries chose their own method and underlying data). This study used Landsat satellite data to assess historical changes, deforestation, degradation and fragmentation in natural forest cover in 2000, 2010 and 2020, with the view to subsequently identify the remaining intact forests. The pertinence of several remote sensing methods was tested to cover very diverse environments, from the Islamic Republic of Iran and Afghanistan to New-Zealand and the Pacific, with tropical and equatorial regions in between.Having first identified natural forest cover, degradation within these natural forests was assessed, leading to an estimation of so-called intact forests. By assessing the fragmentation of these intact forests, isolating large core areas and excluding forest edge zones, contiguous intact forest cover was identified, which is the best possible estimation through remote sensing techniques of what can be considered primary forests per the FAO definition. The results show that Asia-Pacific natural forest cover decreased from 667 million ha in 2000 to 609 million ha in 2020, with a 3% difference compared to the FRA 2020 assessment on average at the regional level. This work also allows to visualize the dynamics of deforestation and to identify hotspots of deforestation.In 2020, intact forests still covered 519 million ha in the Asia-Pacific region, of which an important 378 million ha of remaining contiguous intact forest cover, broader than the 140 million ha reported by countries to the FRA as primary forests according to FAO (2019) based on data from the FRA 2015.Remnant forest fragments, forest margins and edge effects are of importance. Degraded forest margins can still play a key role in primary forest conservation by acting as buffer zones to protect the core intact forest area against further degradation, while remaining forest fragments can act as stepping stones for ecological corridors contributing to ensuring or strengthening BRIEF connectivity among remaining forest fragments and intact contiguous forests.There is a considerable diversity of primary forests in Asia and the Pacific, depending on bioclimatic conditions, altitudinal zonation and soils characteristics.In line with existing classifications, 30 main forest formations have been identified across the region, from tropical mixed dipterocarp rainforests to tropical and subtropical seasonal forests, and temperate or boreal forest formations, including more specific forest types such as peat swamp forests or mangroves, and their variations observed along altitudinal gradients. All lowland forest types are situated in areas particularly threatened by deforestation and forest degradation, as are the high elevation formations of the Himalayas. Conservation strategies need to integrate this huge diversity as all and each specific forest type deserve to be preserved.There are considerable knowledge gaps regarding the eco-floristic variations observed within each forest type, and about the causes of this variability beyond elevation, soil and climate. For instance, very distinct tree species compositions can coexist under very similar climatic and edaphic conditions. A lot also remains to be discovered about species distribution, BRIEF population dynamics, and the conservation status of many important tree species, especially in the tropics.At the landscape level, vegetation types are the best surrogates to characterize ecosystems and the ecosystem services they provide. Large-scale ecological vegetation mapping and related socio-ecological surveys integrating altitudinal zonation, edaphic conditions, and including floristic information, also need to be developed and become a standard in the Asia-Pacific region.Open-access datasets of high-resolution satellite data, eventually complemented by drone surveys, offer huge opportunities for accurate and near-real-time monitoring and allow the production of large-scale detailed vegetation mapping over large areas, long periods of time, using consistent methodologies and at reasonable planted forest expansion, forest fires, invasive species and disease outbreaks. Many of these threats are increasingly exacerbated by climate change.According to the UN's medium-variant projection, the world's population is expected to grow from 7.7 billion in 2019 to 8.5 billion in 2030 (a 10% increase) and 9.7 billion in 2050 (a 26% increase). In the meantime, the population of the Asia-Pacific region is expected to grow, albeit at a slower pace, from 4.3 billion in 2019 to 4.6 billion in 2030 (a 7.5 % increase) and 4.9 in 2050 (a 13 % increase). Demand for food, feed and wood will grow significantly due to both population and economic growth, which will exert additional pressure on primary forests.Agriculture expansion, urbanization and infrastructure development exacerbate forest fragmentation and costs. Wall-to-wall on-screen visual interpretation of the vegetation made by experts will remain crucial to establishing such large to very large-scale ecological mapping. At the same time, it will be necessary to build capacity and enhance knowledge management at the country level to ensure wide ownership of outputs.Primary forests and natural landscapes in Asia and the Pacific are under increasing pressures and threats driven by population growth, migration, conflict, globalization and economic growth, urbanization, mining and infrastructure development, agriculture and . The fragmentation analysis of this study considered 100,000 ha, 50,000 ha, 30,000 ha and 10,000 ha as size thresholds for forest patches. In many countries, forest fragmentation has intensified, and not only intact forest cover has decreased over the past two decades, but the number of small patches, as well as their isolation, has increased. In some countries, forest patches larger than 100,000 ha are the exception. Source: Landsat 8 OLI (2020), rescaled to 100 m spatial resolution.generate soil, water and air pollution, which can further increase forest degradation. Over-logging and illegal logging are identified as major threats to biodiversity.Climate change induces a vicious circle, by accelerating forest degradation, which may in turn reduce the resilience, mitigation potential and adaptive capacities of forest ecosystems. Due to global warming, climatic zones are shifting poleward and upward in mountainous regions. This climatic shift might occur faster than the migration speed of many plant or animal species and particularly threatens mountain forests. Furthermore, climate change is likely to alter rainfall regimes and the availability of water resources, leading to increases in rainfall throughout much of the region, including greater Invasive species affect many natural ecosystems in the region and their impacts are exacerbated by climate change. Most of these species, especially tree species, have been introduced for economic reasons or through ill-conceived programmes of reforestation. Invasive insect pests are often associated with introduced tree species. Islands (including forest fragment \"islands\") are particularly sensitive to invasive species. Degradation and fragmentation increase the vulnerability of ecosystems to invasive species, while highly diverse ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests, seem to be more resilient than their temperate counterparts to such invasive species.Traditional knowledge and wisdom of Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs), including cultural and religious aspects, play a central role for the conservation of primary forests and for sustainable landscape management in Asia and the Pacific. Many biodiversity hotspots are located in Indigenous Peoples' territories and deforestation rates are significantly lower in forest areas under the stewardship of Indigenous Tensions and conflicts over natural resources (land, forests and water) can lead to armed conflicts and even war, further affecting biodiversity and forest ecosystems. The transfer of land is a major threat, especially land grabbing by large corporations in industries such as mining, oil palm and rubber.Many Asia-Pacific countries still lack the technological, financial and human capacities to monitor and sustainably manage their forest landscapes. Conflicting land uses and mandates, misaligned policies across sectors and scales, corruption, weak governance and weak law enforcement, particularly regarding land access and tenure rights, are also detrimental to primary forest conservation. In some countries, policies have a narrow focus on timber production only, overlooking the multiple non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and ecosystem services that forests can provide. Forest governance is shaped and influenced by a range of actors and institutions operating at different scales (from the local to the international levels), the actions of each group of actors influencing the actions of others.International agreements and instruments do not usually focus on primary forests as such. Instead, primary forest conservation is embedded in or aligned with more global objectives including: the Sustainable Development Goals; the climate targets set in the Paris Agreement; the Aichi biodiversity targets; and the forest landscape restoration global targets. Regional and sub-regional institutions and instruments provide a bridge between international policies and national actions.Regional cooperation is critical as some remarkable intact forest massifs cross national boundaries and as many issues related to primary forest conservation and sustainable forest management (SFM) are transboundary in nature. The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission can play an important role in stimulating regional cooperation.National rules and instruments for forest governance and primary forest conservation can include: national commitments that contribute to global objectives; legal protection frameworks; regulation of land tenure and access rights; regulation of logging concessions or even logging bans; prevention of illegal logging and illegal trade of forest products; land-use planning The dynamics at play between actors, including power asymmetries, are determinant for the decisions over land and forest use and tenure rights, and therefore for the preservation and sustainable management of a given forest, or for its designation as a Protected Area (PA).There is a need to build synergies across sectors, including agriculture, water management and land-use planning, and to adopt a more integrated landscape approach (ILA). National policies, rules and instruments frame and orient governance mechanisms at the local level. The active involvement of local actors, Indigenous Peoples and local communities in decision-making around primary forest conservation and SFM is critical because these actors not only heavily depend on forest resources for their subsistence and livelihoods, but also often hold the best knowledge of their specific ecosystem. Community-based forestry is a successful example of a participatory approach used in the region, for primary forest conservation and SFM. The recognition of customary tenure and traditional systems of governance is fundamental to encourage traditional practices that support forest conservation and the sustainable use of forest resources. Protected areas (PAs) are often seen as the main tool to ensure the protection of primary forests. However, PAs cannot be the only mechanism to ensure protection of primary forests against deforestation, degradation and fragmentation. Many intact forests and forest types are not covered by national parks and other legally protected conservation areas and PAs are often established in remote or inaccessible areas (e.g. mountains) with lower levels of threats and of competing demands on land. Moreover, PAs alone are often insufficient to protect the areas where they are established. Hence, while it may be possible in some places to increase the extent of PAs, a range of mechanisms and tools needs to be mobilized at different scales in addition to and in support of PAs.Various mechanisms and tools can be combined to address a diversity of threats and situations. Legal protection remains the main governance tool for primary forest conservation in the region, but existing protections are sometimes weakly enforced. Enhancing ecological connectivity between PAs and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), as opposed to increasing the size of a few isolated PAs, is of paramount importance for effective forest and biodiversity conservation, as this facilitates species flow, adaptation to climate change and the provision of ecosystem services. Certification and voluntary agreements can help address commercial agriculture expansion as well as wood over-harvesting, either legal or illegal, both of which have been identified as major threats to primary forest conservation in the region. Innovative technologies and the involvement of civil society and IPLCs can improve forest monitoring by providing accurate, real-time, transparent and accessible information about forest status and trends, threats and their drivers. In turn, such an improved monitoring allows more transparent, flexible and reactive governance, thus supporting primary forest conservation and SFM. Finally, adequate financial resources and innovative financial tools that connect large funds to small projects have been identified as an important condition for the effective conservation of primary forests.Primary forest conservation and protection require: (i) an improved knowledge of the different types of forests at finer scales, of their status, trends and functioning, including through large-scale ecological mapping and studies on species distribution and species population trends, and the various threats they face, driven by landuse, land cover and climate changes; (ii) a compelling narrative, i.e. a shared vision and clear picture of the various values of primary forests and challenges ahead, developing large-scale, multistakeholder, socio-ecological programmes in each country of the Asia-Pacific region;(iii) a clear understanding of land tenure and responsibilities; and, (iv) efficient mechanisms to connect large funds to small projects. This will allow: (i) the alignment of various sustainable development objectives; (ii) the adoption of crosssectoral, integrated approaches, particularly at the landscape level, where all of these objectives need to be balanced; (iii) the consolidation and involvement of large coalitions of actors, not only those living close to forests, but also distant actors that are somehow connected to forests; and (iv) the harnessing of the potential of innovative technologies to support improved monitoring and reporting, as well as inclusive and participatory governance and decision-making processes.Six areas for recommendations to enhance primary forest conservation in Asia and the Pacific have emerged from the collective process of elaboration of this roadmap: (i) explore innovative ways to improve monitoring and reporting on primary forests; (ii) improve the knowledge and understanding of the functioning and dynamics of primary forest ecosystems within broader landscapes to orient land-use planning, management and conservation efforts; (iii) build a compelling narrative for primary forest conservation and consolidate new coalitions of actors; (iv) ensure policy coherence across sectors and scales and promote integrated landscape approaches for primary forest conservation; (v) align sustainable land-use, climate action and biodiversity objectives for the conservation of primary forests; and (vi) strengthen regional and international cooperation for the conservation and management of primary forests.July 2022 Issue 9These six overarching recommendations provide an overall framework for defining the main areas of work for primary forest conservation in the region. Under these, 41 actionable options are suggested, to be applied, as appropriate, at different levels (regional, national, local) and in different contexts to support the implementation of the roadmap (Section 6.1). These 41 options can be prioritized by governments and other relevant actors depending on their own specific context, circumstances, needs and political priorities.Each option can then be further refined and adapted to this specific context. A four-step guideline is presented on how to facilitate the design, declination and implementation of an actionable roadmap at different scales and in different contexts (Figure 11, Section 6.2). activities that impact forest ecosystems, as well as to the broad public. 7. Identify the key knowledge and information gaps that need to be addressed to support land-use planning and conservation efforts, including:• Large-scale (minimum of 1:50,000 for all countries; 1:25,000 for small islands) ecological vegetation mapping including forest types and surrounding agricultural matrix to adapt conservation efforts to the specific circumstances of different landscape and ecosystems; • Coordinated studies on fragmentation, composition and configuration of landscapes (natural forests, remnant forests and other land uses, connectivity issues); • Better understanding of: tenure regimes;PA status of different areas; primary forest status outside PAs.1. Build a compelling narrative, highlighting the amazing contributions of forests, and in particular of primary forests, to sustainable development objectives (including climate change mitigation and adaptation, protection of biodiversity and poverty reduction). 2. Adopt a cross-cutting perspective and articulate this narrative consistently: over time (integrating short-and long-term); across sectors and actors (identifying synergies and mutual benefits and addressing trade-offs); and, across scales (from local to global). 3. Pay a specific attention to primary forest margins and forest borders, as the frontier of conservation, and as the thin line where most conflicts are concentrated. 4. Use this compelling narrative, as well as the related knowledge and information (maps, data, plans), to: improve transparency, raise awareness and encourage buy-in; build large coalitions of actors and strengthen ownership across actors and sectors; gain traction on the political agenda and enable policy coherence; attract funding and deliver true impact. 5. Encourage and incentivize landowners and private actors (including remote ones) to contribute to primary forest conservation, through regulation, standards and incentives.6. Strengthen ownership and encourage participation of less powerful actors, including women, youth, IPLCs, in forest governance and decision making processes, and make the forestry sector more attractive to them. 7. Secure the tenure, access and use rights of IPLCs dependent on primary forests for their subsistence and livelihoods.IV. Ensure policy coherence across sectors and scales and promote integrated landscape approaches for primary forest conservation 1. Enhance policy coherence over time, as well as between land-use policies (forest, agriculture, infrastructures) and other sectoral policies that impact forests (energy, water, mining), at all levels (local, national, regional), and especially at the landscape level, where all these policies interact. 2. Organize, as appropriate, dialogues at different scales, between foresters, conservationists, policy-makers and other relevant actors involved in the economic sectors that impact primary forest conservation, and encourage these actors to contribute to primary forest conservation by demonstrating their interest to do it. Contributions (NDCs), the vulnerability of primary forests, as well as their potential for climate action, both adaptation and mitigation. 4. Recognize, in the design and implementation of the NDCs, the specific biodiversity and conservation values of primary forests, in addition to their carbon sequestration potential. 5. Ensure consistency and maximize the synergies between NDCs and National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs). 6. Consider primary forest conservation objectives in international climate finance mechanisms to orient and prioritize funding.VI. Strengthen regional and international cooperation for the conservation and management of primary forests 1. Exchange knowledge and lessons learned across countries and categories of actors about defining, identifying and managing primary forests. 2. Transfer technologies, including for mapping and monitoring primary forests and supporting conservation efforts. 3. Track and prevent illegal logging and illegal collection of wood and non-wood forest products in primary forests (innovative technologies can help for wood species identification and tagging).4. Facilitate capacity-development through appropriate means at regional level (e.g. communities of practice, regional platforms). 5. Facilitate transboundary cooperation for conservation and management of primary forests, in particular for those forests whose importance crosses national borders (e.g. peace parks). 6. Promote international cooperation on deforestation-free commodities.Rolling out the roadmap has four steps, as illustrated in Figure 11: (i) carrying out an initial assessment, building upon a large-scale ecological mapping programme, of the current situation of primary forests;(ii) developing a strategy: defining priorities and means of implementation for primary forest conservation and protection; (iii) creating an enabling environment for primary forest conservation and protection; and (iv) acting collectively and individually.This four-step process could be implemented and articulated at different scales in a coordinated way: at the regional and national levels on the one hand, and at the local level on the other hand, in each specific forest landscape identified as a priority area for conservation. At the regional level, relevant process such as the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) could consider setting regional priority areas and priority actions for primary forest conservation. At national level, given the diversity of forest formations in the region, and of the threats they face, regional priorities could be adjusted to account for national circumstances. There is now a wealth of detailed information, relevant at national or even sub-national levels, that can help governments and other actors in the elaboration of national and subnational primary forest conservation strategies.Starting from the priorities identified at national level, the same exercise could be conducted by local authorities, in each primary forest massif identified as a priority area for conservation at the national level, in collaboration with all actors concerned at the local level.Local actors should be invited to discuss and build a shared and integrated landscape approach, embracing not only the primary forest area to be conserved but also the surrounding landscape and its dynamics (see recommendation IV.5). Such an approach should seek to properly articulate legal protection with the other instruments mentioned above, considering local circumstances.• Describe the diversity, status and trends of the different primary forest types, building upon available scientific evidence. • Identify and assess the threats faced by primary forests, as well as their drivers. Identify the actors involved or to be involved in primary forest conservation (e.g. public authorities, scientists, private forest companies, CSOs, IPLCs). • Assess the performance of existing instruments (regulations, standards, economic incentives) in supporting primary forest conservation and identify the gaps and needs.1. Initial assessment of the current situation of primary forests • Based on the initial assessment, identify priority areas for primary forest conservation, based on criteria including: size, level of importance, or level of threats. • Define a strategy and priority actions for primary forest conservation, including measures for primary forests outside PAs • Define the means of implementation to be deployed (legal protection, other regulations, voluntary standards, economic incentives and governance mechanisms) and adapt their articulation to the given context.Figure 11. Four-step practical way forward, to roll out a roadmap for primary forests conservation (Numbers between brackets in this figure refer to the above recommendations)","tokenCount":"3905"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa7fac486e9578a845f25d669683e099","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/894c4c3e-3db1-4f39-ab6b-315618d90b8e/retrieve","id":"849720521"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e672d8a4-7454-4ca8-8e44-e3607720345d","pagecount":"1","content":" Among the most prevalent constraint to increased productivity is limited forage quality and quantity throughout the year. Napier stunting disease, which suppresses forage production from Napier grass, the most prevalent cultivated forage in western Kenya, exacerbates this. To contribute to addressing the problem, we selected several hybrids/cultivars of Urochloa and Megathyrsus and grown by several farmer groups in Kakamega, Busia, Bungoma and Siaya counties in western Kenya. To rate the forages, we guided farmers to generating criteria by each group on parameters/attributes they consider ideal for a forage to possess. On a scale of 1-9, farmers scored on the way they perceive each criterion with the higher the score the more relevance it carries.• On forage types considering their popularity in ranking across the counties, we had Cayman, Xaraes, Cobra Piata and MG4 as the most highly scored by all farmers. across the counties thus considered as the most preferred by farmers. • These materials therefore, stand good adoption chance in the area. These forages can be either propagated through seeds or vegetative, and the farmers' production experience with other forages especially Napier grass, would equally benefit growing these forages. • The approach was found best for the identification of high yield, palatable, high biomass, pest and disease tolerance and adaptability to the environment 1 Ruth Odhiambo, 1 Solomon Mwendia, 2 David Mwangi, 3 Alfred Juma and 1 An Notenbaert ","tokenCount":"231"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1b68b261f90d922a0a37348d8bb5271c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da936c6e-58ee-4790-9dea-7aa7387219f7/retrieve","id":"1489661635"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd61c6f4-6204-4203-919d-441ab9973b62","pagecount":"11","content":"Objective: To strengthen the decision makíng capacity of rural communities and R&D organizations by better enabling them to obtain, generate, and share information and knowledge, with the aid of modern information and communications technologies (ICTs).Outputs:• Appropriate models for integrating JCTs into rural community development • Local information systems for rural agroenterpri se development • Local information systems to support agric ulture and natural resource management (NRM) • Tools fo r local assessment of risks and opportunities in crop production and NRM • A virtual network of conununity-based groups employing participatory R&D methods, linked with formal R&D organizations • Impact assessment and continuous leam ing Milestones• :2003 Training too! on community telecenter development, initial version of a local information system for rural agroenterprise development, and preliminary study of telecenter impacts completed in Colombia. 2004 New proj ects under way in southwestem Colombi a to scale up the community telecenter model in collaboratíon with various nati onal institutions and local partners. 2005 Proj ects under way in other Latin American countries to develop local information systems in support of agric ulture and NRM as well as risk-and opportunity-assessment tools and to build a virtual network of community-based groups using partic ipatory methods, linked with formal R&D organizations.Users: The immediate beneficiaries will be local organizations (particularly farmer groups, NGOs, and schools) that acquire new information management and communications skílls. To the extent that new ICTs are linked with conventional media (such as community radio) and informal communications networks, a much broader segment of the rural population--including groups, such as women, who often get less than their share of development benefits--wi ll gai n more equitable access to relevant information and knowledge.Collaborators: The project will seek alliances with other international centers in target subregions--e.g., CONDESAN/CIP in the Andean zone, CATIE in Central America, and ICRAF in eastern Africa. It will also identify developing country uni versities, research institutes, government programs (such as Comparte! in Colombia), and NGOs committed to improving the use of new ICTs in rema te rural areas. At the grassroots leve!, the project will ide ntify numerous local partners for developing project outputs. Finally, the project will build alliances with international organizations that ha ve strong expertise in information and comrnunications for development--e.g., Bellanet, the Assoc iation for Progressive Communications (APC), and the Intemational Institute for Communications and Developm ent (IICD).CIAT project linkages: Provides a ll Center projects with a new option for increasing research impact and obtaining feedback on their products from rural people. While focusing initially on tropical America, the project wi ll actively pursue opportunities to work in Africa and Asia. Nathan Russell, Communications Specialist and Project Manager (30% SN-4) Edith Hesse, Agricultura] Economist and Head, Library and Documentation U ni t (15% SN-4) Nancy Johnson, Agricultura] Economist (lO% SN-4)W ithin CIA T the project currently works closely with the Rural Agroenterprise Development (SN-1) and Impact Assessment (BP-1) Projects. It is also building ties, through joint project development, with the Participatory Research (SN-3) and Land Use (PE-4) Projects.Listed below are the local partners in InforCauca--SN-4' s first and so far only project--which supports community telecenters in Colombia's Cauca Department. In the sections that follow, we briefl y describe advances in the two rural telecenters supported by the project and in our efforts to evaluate and enhance their social and economic impact.The rural telecenter at T unía formed a clear vision of w hat it must doto attain econorrúc, institutional, and social sustainability, and it took important steps toward this end in 2002.A key factor shaping that vision is the Comparte! Program , a massive social telecommunications initiative implemented recently by Colombia's Ministry of Communications. Under thi s program 670 Internet access centers have been set up in small rural communities throughout the country, of which about 20 are located in Cauca. Each center has two computers with Internet access and is run as a small business, often within other businesses, such as pharmacies, hardware stores, and a national package deli very service.Though one such center is located in nearby Piendamó, it does not compete with or duplicate the work of the Tu nía telecenter in this extensive rural environment. On the contrary, as explained below, the Comparte! centers may represent a n important opportunity for the telecenter at Tunía to play a more ambitious role in fomenting the use of ICTs for sustainable development.In the meantime the telecenter continues to offer basic ICT services to local users and is promoting these heavily through programs in local rural schoois . It is also providing new services, such as the use of a Web-based program called NetM eeting for long-distance (including international) phone service at the price of a local call . S ince the telecenter computers ha ve Webcams as well as rrúcrophones and speakers, users can not on ly converse with others long distance but also see them, making it possible to engage in videoconferences.The telecenter has also c ultivated clase relationships with local organizations. In the process it was transferred early in the year from the comrnunity cultural center where it previously operated just around the block to the headquarters of Corpotunía. This local NGO has 15 years of experience in conducting integrated development projects in central Cauca, and it is patticularly adept at working with farmer groups to create small rural agroenterprises. As described later, Corpotunía is playing a key role in the development of a community-owned information system to support rural agroenterprises.In support of organizations like Corpotunía, the telecenter is developing an on-líne directory of funding sources for community-based projects. Also, the telecenter operators, having completed their own Web site (which can be accessed through the InforCauca site at www. inforcauca.org), are now helping develop sites for local organizations, including the municipal govemment of Piendamó.These experiences positioned the telecenter to seize a new and exciting opportunity that arase around midyear. In May the InforCauca team met with staff of the Centro Regional de Población (CRP), an organization in Bogotá that has been contracted by Comparte) to carry out a 1-year project aimed at linking the 670 Comparte! centers more closely to community organizations. During a visit to the telecenter at Tunía, Corpotunía, the telecenter's host organization, offered to implement the project in all of Cauca and neighboring Valle del Cauca Departments. This has involved organizing training and related activities for Comparte) center operators and representatives of local organizations in 42 small towns.In addition to providing Corpotunía with extra resources and valuable experience, the proj ect has pointed the way to a new role for the telecenter. Rather than eventually compete with the Comparte) centers in the basic services market, Corpotunía and its telecenter could specialize in training, local content generation, and project development, aimed at incorporating ICTs into the work of community-based organizations. In this way they could contribute continuously over the long term toa goal that the CRP project, though national in scope, is addressing only modestly through a 1-year effort.The telecenter operated by the Asociación de Cabildos Indígenas (\"goveming councils\") del Norte del Cauca (ACIN) at its headquarters in Santander de Quilichao functioned smoothly throughout the year and consolidated its role in support ofthe Association's various programs.Most of the telecenter' s users are leaders and staff of these programs as well as persons who travel to Santander on market days (Wednesdays and Saturdays) from the various indigenous reserves (resguardos) scattered across northern Cauca Department. The telecenter operators mainly help users search the Web for information pertinent to their work and assist them with email communications related to ACIN' s projects and to its relationships with national and intemational organizations. The Association's recently completed Web site (which can be accessed through the InforCauca site at www.inforcauca.org) should facilitate those contacts by projecting a strong image of ACIN and by providing detailed information about its various activities.Since the resguardos are generally quite remate from Santander, it is difficult for many members of these communities to access telecenter services directly. To overcome this obstacle, the telecenter has extended its reach by cultivating clase links with community radio programs operating in sorne of the resguardos.For example, building on an arrangement created last year, the te lecenter operators copy relevant information onto diskettes every day and send them via \"chivanet\" (chivas are rugged rural buses) to Toribío, where they are retrieved by the young operators of the community' s radio program. Among the materials sent are radio program scripts and \"alternative international news\" provided by Radipaz (Red Latinoamericana de Radios para una Cultural de Paz) as well as e-mail messages and articles from the Web si tes of development organizations and local newspapers.The telecenter has also established clase ties with a community radio program in Jambaló, where communication with ACIN headquarters is facilitated by the presence of a Comparte! center (see earlier description of Comparte!). In addition, the telecenter actively assists in the development of material to be broadcast via a new regional radio program run by ACIN that reaches all of the resguardos in northern Cauca.In addition, the telecenter continues to support maj ar gatherings organized by ACIN, such as the recent Encuentro lnterétnico. Attended by hundreds of people, the event was designed to promote stronger ti es between the region ' s indigenous, Afro-Colombian , and mestizo populations. The telecenter operators helped organize and publicize the event and prepare supporting information materials, muchas they did Jast year in connection with the March for Life, which was organized to protest gross human rights abuses against the Paez and other indigenous groups in Cauca.On the strength of these experiences, ACIN wants to expand its comrnunications network, with a view to better integrating the widely dispersed Paez comrnunities. Association leaders are also eager to incorporate ICTs more fully into their work on the mes other than human rights, such as health, gender, forestry, and agroenterprise development. For this purpose the govemors of ACIN' s 14 cabildos have said they are willing to support telecenter development and related activities with their own resources. But the Association also hopes to embark on a new project that would bring outside funding and expertise to bear on these tasks .The experience and accomplishments of the telecenters o ver the Jast year reinforced our belief that they ha ve strong potential to achieve sustainability and to generate considerable social and econornic impact in their respective communities. The InforCauca Project made good progress this year in implementing a strategy to gauge those impacts.During the first half of 2002, lnforCauca completed and analyzed a survey of rural households in Tunía and in the watershed of the Cabuya! Ri ver, which is Jocated in a neighboring municipality. Then, during the second half of the year, the proj ect completed and analyzed a survey of users of the telecenters.The main purposes of the telecenter users survey were to define their chief socioeconornic characteristics, identify instructive patterns in telecenter use, determine what information sources are most important for users, and gauge their perceptions of the quality of telecenter serví ces. A total of about 70 users were surveyed, with the surveys being adrninistered by the telecenter operators. Below we describe sorne of the most noteworthy results.Predictably, a sizable proportion oftelecenter users (about 37%) are well educated, having sorne technical or even university training. Overall, nearl y half possess a secondary school education, and about 13% ha ve completed orare in pri mary school. This underscores the importance of lin king the telecenter with other medi a, such as community radio, which reach less privileged audiences. It also underscores the need to integrate telecenter services ever more closely with the work of community-based organizations that cater to the needs of the poorest people. The telecenters already appear to be attracting many individuals, Iike teachers, technicians, and social workers, who are providing important community services.Nonetheless, only about 4% of users said they used telecenter services for comrnunity work. Most visited the telecenter in connection with their studies (about 38%) or work orto maintain contact with farnily or friends. The most common uses were Web searches and e-mail. Interestingly, about half of the users of the rural telecenters were women.A particularly noteworthy characteristic of telecenter users is their youth. Though users ranged in age from 9 to 60, the average was about 26. Clearly, the telecenters have significant potential for positively influencing young people, perhaps through e-learning approaches that usefully supplement formal education and permit continuing adult education.E ven in the absence of such programs, though, the vast majority of users said they were satisfied with telecenter services in terms of the computer programs available, speed of Internet connection, and so forth. And nearly all rated the orientation and informal training provided by the operators as excellent or good.Evidently, Internet use is starting to occupy an important place in these people's Iives, complementing the diverse means by which they obtain or share information. Most spend somewhat less per month on telecenter services than on telephone calls but more than on newspapers and magazines.Like the telecenter user survey, the comrnunity survey was designed to provide a socioeconomic profile of poten ti al project beneficiaries, to determine what other information sources are important for the local population, and to identify local perceptions of telecenter services.From this survey we hope to gain an overview of information needs in marginalized rural comrnunities as well as a better grasp of key indicators by which future impact can be gauged.Por example, information gathered about the natural resource base and social capital of these communities should give us a basis for detecüng any future links between improved information and communication services and increased collective action to improve natural resource management.Sorne 445 individuals from about 150 households in Tunía and the Cabuya! River watershed were surveyed; the surveys were administered by persons from the two comrnunities who had been trained for this purpose. The majority of people li ving in the Cabuya! River watershed depend on agriculture, while those in Tunía are mainly students, day laborers, and salaried workers.The rural communities in general, like telecenter users, depend on di verse mediato keep informed. They mainly use electronic media, especially radio, to leam about local, national, and international developments. But they do not rely much on these mediato obtain information about education and training, prices and marketing of agricultura! produce, agricultura! technology, employment opportunities, credit, health, and so forth. Most community members obtain this type of information from printed publications, such as leatlets and pamphlets.Use of the Internet is still quite low in these communities, though about half of the people surveyed in Tunía ha ve at \\east heard about the community telecenter. If the Internet is eventually to play an important role in helping rural communities build sustainable rural Iivelihoods, much more must be done to develop locally relevant Web content and practica! applícations that facilitate the individual and collective efforts of rural people to combat poverty and halt environmental degradation.In a step toward that end, the InforCauca Project is devising an approach for creating local information systems that foment and support rural agroenterprise development. Farmers in Cauca are unlikely to exit poverty as long as their livelihoods depend mainly on the sale of staple crops . at Iow prices. Their best hope for change probably lies in value-added processing and more adept marketing of di verse agricultura! products, including selected staples as well as more commercial crops.To help farmers ful fill this hope, CIA T supports the work of a community-based agroenterprise development committee in central Cauca. Based on market studies, the group has prioritized about a half dozen market chains--coffee, brown sugar, cassava, plantain, blackberry, rnilk products, and cut flowers--and is now devising integrated agroenteprise projects to ac hieve competitive, profitable production of these commodities. A key prerequisite for the success of this work is that rural people have access to reliable communications and information services, so they can make sound decisions in a timely manner.In search of an effecti ve way to meet that requirement, the InforCauca team has organized its work on local information systems around the seven priority products listed above. In this effort the team is working closely with Corpotunía, CIPASLA (the Spanish acronym for a local watershed management association), and various farmer groups. These organizations have chosen panela, or brown sugar, as the pilot case for initial development of the information system. Panela consists of blocks of dark-brown, unrefined sugar derived from sugarcane juice and used to prepare beverages, cakes, and cookies. Colombia is the world's largest producer of panel a and ranks first in consumption per capita.The information system will consist of two main components. The first is a Web-based product that deals with all aspects of panela processing and marketing as well as with agroenterprise management generally. Corportunía and CIPASLA are compiling and organizing the available information, which is widely scattered among various sources.In this work they are receiving valuable guidance from CCI (Corporación Colombia Internacional), an organization that specializes in gathering market intelligence and offers a wide range of information services via the World Wide Web and other channels. The InforCauca team is also consulting wi th Colnodo, a Colombian communications network that helps NGOs improve networking and information sharing with the aid of ICTs. One of Colnodo' s main contributions has been to provide advice on the use of tools like Action Applications (developed by APC, the Association for Progressive Communications), which permit broad partkipation in the development and maintenance of Web si tes. The information on panela should be on-line by December of this year, and fa rmers will be able to access it from the community telecenter at Tunía or any of the local Comparte! centers.The other main component of the information system consists of a communications network made up of representatives from severa! panela processing associations. Their main functions are to feed information from their own experience and experimentation into the Web-based product and to share the information it contains through community assemblies, church meetings, bulletin boards, and so forth .In forming the communications network, InforCauca staff are drawing on the ample experience of a Colombian project (funded by DFID, the UK's Department for International Development) that coordinares a national network of hundreds of NGOs. With assistance from this project, InforCauca has held two workshops with network members to present basic concepts on communications and community networking and to characterize the main channels of communication in rural Cauca. A next step is to develop communications strategies that support local agroenterprise development. Network members will also receive training in the development, management, and evaluation of agroenterprise projects.","tokenCount":"3090"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"abde1b157eb2ea41f9f3063d6fa2d858","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd5cf741-c700-4010-906c-2967d65ae2ac/retrieve","id":"844834283"},"keywords":["discrete choice experiment","smallholder farmer","innovation hub","data ownership","preferences","data privacy","extension services","Mexico"],"sieverID":"5e9d9712-2b3d-49b5-b1ae-6b1ed227a245","pagecount":"16","content":"Mobile phone apps can be a cost-effective way to provide decision support to farmers, and they can support the collection of agricultural data. The digitisation of agricultural systems, and the efforts to close the digital divide and to include smallholders, make data ownership and privacy issues more relevant than ever before. In Central and South American countries, smallholders' preferences regarding data licenses and sharing have largely been ignored, and little attention has been paid to the potential of nonfinancial incentives to increase the uptake of digital solutions and participation by farmers. To investigate incentives for smallholder farmers to potentially use an agricultural advisory app in which they share their data, a Discrete Choice Experiment was designed. Based on a survey of 392 farmers in Mexico, preferences for attributes related to its usage were revealed using a conditional logit (CL) model. To explore heterogeneity, groups and profiles were explored through a latent class (LC) model. The CL model results revealed, for example, farmers' positive preference to receive support at first use and access to training, while negative preference was found for sharing data with private actors. The LC identified three classes which differ in their preference for attributes such as the degree of data sharing. Furthermore, for example, a farmer's connectedness to an innovation hub was found to be one of the significant variables in the class membership function. The main contribution of the study is that it shows the importance of nonfinancial incentives and the influence of data sharing on farmer preferences.Mobile-phone-enabled agricultural information services are often considered a costeffective way for providing tailormade services to farmers (e.g., through agricultural advice helplines, SMS and apps, weather forecasts, market information, and mobile finance) while supporting the collection of more comprehensive and accurate statistics (e.g., crop yields and soil information) [1][2][3]. Thus far, the potential of information and communication technologies (ICT) for agricultural extension is not fully realised. Pushing certain technologies rather than responding to the particular communication challenges of end users is one important cause of that [4]. Therefore, further research for ICT and agricultural extension in the global south should rest on strong user-centredness and problem orientation [4]. Even if the collection and use of farm-level data can improve smallholder farmers' access to services, there are still concerns around the access, control, and use of data that could lead to smallholder exclusion from benefits [5].Recently, there has been growing interest in the study of the social implications of digital farming in general and in data ownership and sharing in particular [6]. The lack of trust between the farmers as data contributors and those third parties who collect, aggregate, and share their data was identified as a concern among smart farming and big data participants [7]. It is recognised as one of the main issues that needs to be considered when maximising the impact of ICT interventions in agriculture [8]. In this study, trust refers to the data sharing processes; in other words, trust in the sharing preferences of the data entered in the app by farmers. A recent study explored whether farmers are interested in joining a big data platform and, if so, what elements of the platform such as financial utilities would maximise their participation [9,10]. It was found that relatively small financial and nonfinancial benefits increased participation, even among farmers who stated strong privacy preferences [9]. Financial incentives refer to monetary benefits that are offered to farmers to encourage certain behaviour, changes, or actions. Partly covering data connection cost or payments for data sharing can act as financial incentive to stimulate famers' uptake or to remove barriers. A review of digital applications for agricultural purposes suggested that data privacy and incentives might be factors preventing farmers' participation [11]. However, knowledge is still limited about the incentives and benefits expected by farmers from mobile phone services [3,12]. Therefore, it is relevant to study farmers' preferences on who accesses their data and farmers' motivation to then explore feasible and fair nonfinancial benefits that might stimulate their uptake of digital solutions and participation.Discrete choice experiments (DCEs) are suitable methods to elicit preferences for product characteristics when a product is new or not yet commercially available [13]. DCEs are gaining interest in agricultural research and have been used recently, for example, to study preferences regarding interactions with markets with focus on certification or contracts [14][15][16] or preferences for crop characteristics [17][18][19] or farming practices such as the use of inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides, or the application of conservation measures [20][21][22][23][24] and also to investigate preferences regarding agricultural or environmental policies [25][26][27][28].Thus far, few studies have used choice experiments to study famers' preferences for ICT-based extension tools: Altobelli et al. [29,30] considered irrigation advisory services in Italy, Oyakhilomen et al. [31,32] studied ICT-enabled extension services, and Tesfaye et al. [33] studied climate services in Ethiopia. These studies, however, mostly focus on the preferred content rather than on the characteristics of the interaction with the ICT tool.Receiving agronomic advice, capacity building, and seed innovation have been reported as examples of most needed incentives [34]. Even if an app is technically feasible and provides tailor-made and timely advice, farmers in constraint-based regions might require nonfinancial incentives to use it [34]. Hence, advancing the knowledge on farmers' motivations and preferences for nonmonetary incentives could help to increase smallholder farmers' intention to use apps, especially in constraint-based contexts, where financial incentives are often not an option. This is particularly the case with apps being developed by research-for-development agencies or institutes working in understudied geographical areas such as Central and South America. The potential for agricultural apps is large in the study location because of its high mobile phone adoption rates (by 2025, at least 75% of the population in Mexico will adopt and use a smartphone [35]). Moreover, in Mexico, ICT innovations in the agricultural sector are gaining attention from government agencies supporting the development of mobile phone apps to connect farmers with buyers or to deliver advice on crop production to B-corporations with, for example, the \"Extensio platform\" (previously Esoko), which provides content to Mexican farmers through SMS, a call centre, and a smartphone app. Against this background, in an earlier study, the drivers of the intention to adopt agricultural advisory apps in general were investigated using a structural equation model [36]. The focus of the present study is on the use of a newly developed app called AgroTutor [37], which is developed for extension in Mexico. A DCE is applied to analyse farmers' preferences, as prospective users, for data sharing and nonfinancial incentives. The current study thus can provide insights to support developers of decision support apps as well as research-for-development practitioners and decision makers in the field of digitisation in agriculture. Specifically, this study looks at the importance of providing access to training and getting support during first-time use. It also considers whether farmers are open to share their farm data with other farmers, government and research institutes, and private companies. By applying a latent class (LC) model, heterogeneity within the farming population is also considered to support better targeting.Created in 2017 and currently in the second phase of development along with the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA-Austria), the AgroTutor mobile phone application is a pilot project of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) that is being tested in the state of Guanajuato in Central Mexico. The smartphone app provides farmers with access to best practices and geo-referenced, timely information about fields and crops, including benchmarking data for crop placement, agronomical recommendations (i.e., optimising use of fertilisers), potential yield and financial benchmarking information (i.e., prices and costs), historical and forecasted weather data, and other expert sources of agricultural information in the region [37]. Farmers can also provide their own information regarding soils, management, and yields for use in crop models and for generating improved recommendations [37].Discrete choice experiments allow the ex ante determination of preferences [38]; they present respondents with a choice between two or more alternatives described by preestablished attributes. In this case, attributes simulate different configurations which the AgroTutor app could take when launched. The method is in accordance with the theory of random utility and the Lancaster [39] attribute theory of value, which states that a good can be described as consisting of a bundle of characteristics at certain levels. It states that utility is not derived from the good as such, but rather from the specific attributes. The theory of random utility elucidates that when presented with two or more options, people decide in favour of the one option providing them with highest utility. Two models were applied and described in the following section.In a first step, a conditional logit was used to analyse the key attributes. Conditional logit analysis is the traditional model for the analysis of DCEs, explaining the preference of individuals based on the attributes in the choice cards and assuming homogeneous preferences among respondents [40]. Formally, as proposed by McFadden [41], the utility that each individual or respondent obtained from an alternative is the sum of utility from the individual characteristics:The probability of choosing one alternative over another depends on the value of the utility. When the utility of alternative i is greater than the utility assigned to other alternatives, the alternative i will be chosen:In a second step, we explored the heterogeneity between groups of respondents using an LC analysis. The LC model captures the heterogeneity of respondents by dividing respondents into different groups or classes [42]. The number of classes is determined endogenously. Respondents are assigned to an LC or group with homogeneous preferences, but the observations belonging to each group are not revealed to the analyst. In this paper, we used a standard LC model specification [43]. Thus, the utility function of each individual i that belongs to an LC c is:where the utility is a function of β parameter estimates and the attributes composing the alternative. For each class, class-specific parameters β c will be estimated, together with estimations for each individual a set of probabilities of belonging to a certain class. In each class, the choice probabilities are defined as:Presence in a determined class with specific preferences is probabilistic. The probabilities can be specified in the function of individual characteristics z i , such as economic and attitudinal characteristics of the respondents. Then, the class probabilities will be a function of class parameters θ c , in respect to a reference class:The unconditional probability that any randomly selected respondent chooses an alternative is obtained by combining the conditional probability in (4) with the class membership probability in (5), resulting in the following equation: (6) The optimal number of classes is determined based on the pseudo R 2 , Akaike Information Criterion, and the Bayesian Information Criterion [44,45]. The LC model provides evidence for systematic heterogeneity in the preference structure of farmers. To estimate this heterogeneity, the LC model was run several times with an increasing number of classes and different combinations of class membership variables.A standard set of stages were followed to design the DCE [38]. The first stage was to select relevant attributes for the usage of an app. The attributes were identified based on a literature review and consultation with CIMMYT experts, individual interviews with extension agents and farmers, and a participatory workshop with both extension agents and farmers in the region (Table 1). The attribute characteristics were related to the different requirements of farmers for using this app. The second stage aimed to assign key attribute levels. Even though there is no common agreement on the number of levels, levels should reflect a realistic and feasible scenario [13]. Six attributes were identified at this stage (Table 1). A detailed description and references used can be found in Appendix A. How often farmers are expected to enter or update information No requirement Once every 2 weeks Once every 2 months Once every production cycle If farmers perceive minimum required as easy to comply with, it may incentivise participation.Cost associated with the internet data spent on accessing and conducting basic tasks in the app (each time app is accessed).The 0 MNX level is an option to offer offline features too. The cost-benefit perceived by the farmers may be a factor or barrier to farmer participation or continuous usage.Special access to training and capacity building events in their region, in exchange for using the app. A nonfinancial incentive.Allows one to explore whether farmers will accept training and capacity building as compensation (nonfinancial utility) and whether this will motivate farmers' preference for the use of the mobile phone app.To which extent the data recorded in the app are accessible to others apart from the user farmer.Research institutes and government combined due to the nature of the case study in which the institute developing the app works closely with the government in the region.Whether the farmer prefers to keep (or not) the extension services visits.Important to examine whether the app might replace the visits.The third stage in the DCE methodology is designing the choice set. A choice set is a group of hypothetical alternatives constructed through experimental design. The design is a D-efficient design, assuming priors for the different attributes according to theoretical expectations from the literature, which generates a sample of the full design in such a way that the most important effects can be estimated [13,46]. While it is then recommended to run a pre-test of the choice experiment and use the first results as priors to improve the design, the planning of the data collection did not allow for this. The full factorial design consists of 2 3 4 2 3 1 (=384) alternatives. Representing all possible combinations of these scenarios would be unfeasible for respondents. Therefore, a statistically efficient choice design combining the attribute levels into alternatives and choice sets was constructed using Ngene [47]. The design was estimated using the expected signs of the attributes based on the literature and expert consultation as priors. Negative preference was assumed for more data input requirements, higher costs of the usage, and more widely sharing the data, while a positive preference was assumed for incentives such as special training, help during first-time use, and visits of the extension service. An efficient design consisting of 24 alternatives was obtained and arranged into 12 choice sets, where two alternatives were compared. These were then assigned into two blocks of six choice sets to avoid a survey that was too lengthy (Figure 1). Respondents were then randomly allocated to the two blocks. For each choice set, the respondents were asked to choose between one of the two profiles of app usage. The design also included an opt-out option so as not to force the respondents to choose one of the alternatives when those were not considered suitable. The opt-out was described as \"under these conditions I prefer none of the described alternatives\". A survey was used to investigate attitudes towards the use of the AgroTutor app and was conducted in the context of the CIMMYT innovation hub in Guanajuato, Mexico. The innovation hub model comprises research platforms, demonstration modules, and extension and impact areas [48]. In research platforms, local researchers adapt farming innovations to their specific conditions. The demonstration modules are on farmers' land and involve side-by-side comparisons of new technologies and conventional practices. Module outcomes often generate feedback to research platforms and allow for farmer-tofarmer interaction and sharing. Around this physical infrastructure of the hub, a network of actors in the value chain is built with the objective to drive adoption, local impacts, and the scaling of innovations.The survey had two main parts: a part collecting data on socio-economic and farmrelated characteristics, and secondly, the DCE. Different determinants of behavioural intention to adopt were measured and applied as grouping variables from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [49], and the orientation goal theory [1].A description of the constructs can be found in Molina Maturano et al. [36]. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews by a group of enumerators. To reduce the bias of the respondents, extensive training was provided to ensure that all enumerators conducted the survey in a similar way and to assure the respondents that their privacy would be kept. Given that the app was new to all respondents, a video describing the content and capabilities of the app was shown to all respondents before they answered the choice experiment. In this way, it was ensured that all respondents had similar A survey was used to investigate attitudes towards the use of the AgroTutor app and was conducted in the context of the CIMMYT innovation hub in Guanajuato, Mexico. The innovation hub model comprises research platforms, demonstration modules, and extension and impact areas [48]. In research platforms, local researchers adapt farming innovations to their specific conditions. The demonstration modules are on farmers' land and involve side-by-side comparisons of new technologies and conventional practices. Module outcomes often generate feedback to research platforms and allow for farmer-tofarmer interaction and sharing. Around this physical infrastructure of the hub, a network of actors in the value chain is built with the objective to drive adoption, local impacts, and the scaling of innovations.The survey had two main parts: a part collecting data on socio-economic and farmrelated characteristics, and secondly, the DCE. Different determinants of behavioural intention to adopt were measured and applied as grouping variables from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [49], and the orientation goal theory [1].A description of the constructs can be found in Molina Maturano et al. [36]. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews by a group of enumerators. To reduce the bias of the respondents, extensive training was provided to ensure that all enumerators conducted the survey in a similar way and to assure the respondents that their privacy would be kept. Given that the app was new to all respondents, a video describing the content and capabilities of the app was shown to all respondents before they answered the choice experiment. In this way, it was ensured that all respondents had similar information and knowledge of the app under consideration. We collected 392 valid surveys, both from respondents that were connected (204) and nonconnected (188) to the innovation hub. The sampling procedure is described in Molina Maturano et al. [36]. The socio-economic and farm characteristics were evaluated using descriptive statistics in SPSS. The models described were estimated using NLogit 5 software. To estimate heterogeneity, the LC model was run several times with increasing numbers of classes and different combinations of the above-mentioned class membership variables. Latent class models attempt to capture heterogeneity of the respondents depending not only on the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, but also on attitudes and values of the respondents. In this regard, preference formation might be affected by factors that are not directly observable, such as the intention to adopt an agricultural app.Three components obtained from a Structural Equation Model (SEM), which satisfied the criteria of significantly influencing the behavioural intention, were explored as membership and profiling variables: the performance expectancy (PE), facilitating conditions (FCs), and mastery approach goals (MAGs) [36]. A two-step estimation was used to include these constructs as latent variables. First, the SEM was estimated, and factors from the resulting model were retrieved. Once the model was estimated, categorical variables were created based on the obtained scores and used as explanatory variables of the LC model. In other words, the categorical variable separates participants in having higher or lower levels of PE, FCs, and MAGs. Such a use of psychometric indicators such as attitudes to construct LCs in choice models has recently gained popularity [50,51].The farmers' segments obtained through the LC modelling were further profiled using the abovementioned profiling variables. To gain an overview of the characteristics of the classes, post-estimation analyses were performed to test whether significant differences existed between the obtained classes. Means were compared through a one-way ANOVA analysis applied when necessary. Categorical variables were analysed using a chi-square association test, while noncategorical variables were analysed using an independent-samples Kruskal-Wallis test. For simplification purposes, noncategorical variables resulting nonsignificant were grouped based on the mean and converted to categorical variables. In a first step, farmers' classes were compared to test whether overall significant differences exist across the segments at a significance level of α = 0.05. If overall significant differences were found, pair-wise comparisons were performed to identify which consumer segments differed significantly based on the adjusted significance.The average age of the respondents was 55 years (Table 2). This is consistent with reported average farmers' ages of 54.6 years in Mexico [52] but is higher than in another DCE study on ICT-based advisory tools in Nigeria, in which the average age was 44 years [32]. Overall, crop production was identified as the main activity by the respondents. About 85% of the respondents were smallholders who own land, with 70% having an agricultural contract for production. One out of three respondents received advice from an extension agent every week, while 19% were not receiving any advice from extension agents (Table 2). This shows that the frequency of advice is not limited for at least one third of the sample; therefore, certain aversion to the replace extension services is expected. In total, 82% of the respondents owned a mobile phone (all types) and used the phone, on average, for 43 min a day. These habits provide insights on the communication channels currently being used by smallholders in the region that are not necessarily being applied extensively yet for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the farmers spent 170 MNX (8 EUR) per month on mobile phone credit, which can be used for calls, SMS, and internet, which provides a baseline for exploring further financial incentives, if available, to promote the actual usage of an app. Female respondents only represented 6% of the total sample. This is also consistent with the latest Agricultural National Survey, in which only 14% of producers and decision makers of the production unit, at a country level, were women [53]. Previous studies in rural Indian contexts have shown that women farmers value mobile-enabled services to increase their knowledge of climate-smart technologies and encourage their participation in decision making [54,55]. The limited sample size did not allow us to conduct further analysis based on gender, but it is suggested that further studies focus on gender-inclusive solutions and preferences.Across the sample, significant estimates of nonfinancial incentive(s) were found in the CL model for: support during first-time use, special access to training in the region, and data-usage cost (Table 3). Farmers showed a strong positive preference for both support at first use and special access to training. The first is likely to be related to the fact that only 46% own a smartphone or due to farmers' average age and subsequent lack of digital literacy. Therefore, feasible options to provide this type of support during the launch could be extension services or youth living with the farmers (end-users), since more than half of the respondents lived with youth members between 18 and 35 years old who might have better digital literacy. This could also be a pathway to engage youth in agricultural activities, as farmers' ageing and lack of generational relief is a current challenge in Mexico [52] and worldwide.Both positive preferences suggested that nonfinancial incentives related with capacity building might stimulate uptake of the AgriTutor app. For this, the extension services play a crucial role [56]. Because nearly half of the respondents are linked to an innovation hub that provides extension services (among other services), the preference found to keep extension services is not surprising. Moreover, it is in line with previous studies, where extension services have proven to be one of the most trusted sources for agricultural advice by smallholder farmers [57,58]. Similarly, the role of advisors in helping farmers to create more value out of smart agriculture tools has already been identified in the previous literature in developed regions [56]. The preferences of connected farmers towards extension services provision also suggest that replacing extension services completely with the mobile phone app might be contra productive.A negative preference for the cost of data usage was found, as expected, suggesting that if the cost paid for accessing basic app features increases, the usage would decrease. The average spent amount found among respondents (170 MXN/month) is comparable with the estimated cost to be paid for accessing basic app features (150 MNX/month). It means using the app daily for a month to conduct basic functions. Although this study does not cover a willingness to pay nor focuses on financial incentives, it provides insights of a cost baseline for further exploration of financial incentives. A significant negative preference was found for registering data minimum every two weeks (versus 'no requirement' of data needed to be registered), but only for the nonconnected farmers. For farmers connected to the innovation hub, a negative preference was found for data sharing with private companies, as compared to limiting access to farmers. These results place into question the notion of self-evident trust relationships within an innovation hub. This finding supports previous results about farmers' concerns of data privacy [59] and the importance of not assuming their acceptance, especially when external or private actors enter the scene. This is also highlighted by the World Bank [8]. Regardless of the connection of the farmer to the innovation hub, a preference was found for the data-usage cost (negative) and training (in exchange for using the app) (positive). The integration of these positive incentives during the app launch and scaling-up stage could incentivise the initial adoption and sustainable use of this type of apps. • versus no requirement of minimum data input needed to be entered by the use, + versus farmer only. ASC: alternative specific constant. † The alternative specific constant (ASC) is a dummy variable attached to the opt-out option in the choice cards. It is a dummy variable with the value 1 associated with the choice for the 3rd alternative (opt-out) and a 0 when alternatives 1 and 2 are chosen.The regression results (estimates) of the LC model with three classes resulted from a model with classes sizes representing at least 10% of respondents (Table 4). The segments (classes) were further profiled based on socio-economic characteristics, extension services, and mobile phone habits (Table 5). The class assignment coefficients reflect the effects of the following retained variables: being linked to an innovation hub, farmers' age, and mobile phone ownership, on the individual's class assignment with class 3 as a reference group. Therefore, statistically significant, positive coefficients for class assignment always indicate that a farmer is more (or less) likely to belong to the respective class than belonging to class 3. The opt-out alternative was chosen 14.7% of the time.The segment class 2, labelled as 'value mastery, cost-averse', represents 11% of the surveyed farmers with a stronger negative preference for the cost associated with the use of the app, as compared to class 1 and 3 farmers. These results are in line with Yigezu et al. [60], who argued that farmers view innovations as potential risks rather than opportunities in their study on the low and gradual adoption of costly practices by smallholders. However, field days, demonstration trials, and free access to equipment for first-time users increase the adoption [60]. Therefore, special access to training could help to engage this minority that is cost-averse.  The mastery approach goals (MAGs) and behavioural intention (BI) retained variables, obtained from the SEM, were also used as class membership parameters in the LC model (Table 4). MAGs refer to the intention to understand something new or to improve the level of competence [61] and were chosen due to the link with the DCE attributes of support for the first-time use and especial access to training. MAGs are also critical to be studied along with farmers' age, especially in this case, in which farmer mean age was 55 years (Table 2) and their openness to new technologies might have been less than younger farmers. The MAGs, studied as a dummy variable, suggested that individuals with mastery goal orientation are more likely to develop a higher sense of confidence [1,61]. Surprisingly, having higher mastery approach goals further increases the probability of belonging to this class, while lower behavioural intention to adopt the app decreases the probability of belonging to class 2. This finding seems to contradict the idea that mastery approach goal is a driver for the intention to adopt.One possible reason for this divergence could be explained by the class negative preference for the associated cost (Table 4). This means that even though farmers in this class are willing to learn and master an app, they are less likely to adopt the app because of affordability reasons. Another possible explanation is that because of their age, farmers prefer in-person training instead of completely relying on the app advice. This suggests that nonfinancial incentives such as training might be a way to promote the willingness to adopt the app in this group. This finding is also in line with the conclusion of Baumüller [12] about making mobile phone services to farmers more appealing if the complexity of services is handled by the service provider or intermediaries such as extension agents, among others.One more class assignment variable corresponded to belonging to the innovation hub, in which farmers are participants of new practices and innovations, especially around sustainable agriculture in the region. The LC model results demonstrate that farmers connected to the innovation hub are more likely to belong to class 1. Farmers in class 1 have land sizes of 15 ha on average, which is significantly larger than for farmers in the reference class (class 3). As for the mobile phone characteristics, 25% of the farmers owning a smartphone belong to class 1, and they have been using a mobile phone for more than 2 years. It also appears that farmers belonging to this class are more likely to have a higher phone usage (min per day) than class 3. This finding could explain why the farmers that are more likely to belong to this class do not have a negative preference towards the frequency of entering data in the app, nor do they have a strong preference for data sharing. The farmers segment (class 1) labelled as 'value extension services' represents 50% of all farmers and are shown to significantly prefer to keep extension services visits and have special access to training for using it. This finding is consistent with the profiling results (Table 5), showing that most of the farmers belonging to class 1 'value extension' frequently received advice. This finding is also in line with previous studies on the role of extension services and advisers for making sense of the obtained results or advice from digital tools [56,62]. Additionally, it is in line with the development, by public organisations, of training programs, including the support of initiatives such as farmer clubs [63] for the uptake, diffusion, and scaling of these innovations. These insights are of special interest whenever these applications are meant to be scaled and when private and external partners will be involved in the innovation system for effective adaptation from the diverse digital innovation practices of advisors [62].Farmers in class 3, labelled as 'value data privacy', represent 39% of the surveyed farmers. Contrary to farmers in the 'value extension services' class, these farmers have a negative preference for updating information in the app frequently (once every 2 weeks and 2 months) in comparison to 'no requirement' attribute for registering information. In addition, they also have a negative preference for sharing data with private companies (versus sharing only with themselves and their peers). These findings are in line with recent studies on the willingness of farmers to give and share data [9], which further shows that the organisation operating the platform, in this case the app, is particularly important: farmers are most willing to share their data with universities and researchers and least willing to share their data with the government.Despite its contributions regarding farmers' preferences to use the AgroTutor app that provide agricultural-related information about crops, this study has some limitations. First, the preferences might differ from location to location, so comparing farmers across different cultures both in developed and developing countries would be theoretically and practically useful to further validate the outcomes of this model. Our study does not claim to statistically represent farmers in the whole country (e.g., in terms of gender or location). Second, as the findings apply to a specific constraint-based context, care must be taken when interpreting the findings and aiming to generalise to other geographies with other ICT infrastructures. Further validation needs to be extended to other geographical regions within Mexico and Central and South America. Future willingness-to-pay studies could also verify whether the preferences are robust over time. From a methodological standpoint, further bias checks are recommended, such as a conventional attribute non-attendance model (conventional ANA) and a validation attribute nonattendance model (validation ANA) that implies non-compensatory decision-making behaviour of respondents [32]. This means a correction for farmers that may not make an expected trade-off between all attributes of the various alternatives.In an ex ante, discrete choice experiment, this article analysed the effect of data-sharing rules and nonfinancial incentives on the use of AgroTutor, an agricultural advisory app. For this, 392 Mexican farmers were surveyed. The results show that providing access to special trainings would clearly increase use of the app, while a configuration in which app-related data would be shared with private companies was negatively perceived by 44% of the respondents. In general, farmers, despite their age, seemed to support the use of ICT-based, site-specific extension services. These findings call for implementers to contribute to the responsible implementation of such apps, while considering smallholders' privacy and data ownership.Results from the LC model demonstrate differences in preferences when farmers' connectedness to the CIMMYT innovation hub and mastery approach goals variables are considered as a grouping variable. These variables have an effect on farmer preferences for data sharing. Three different farmer segments were distinguished; those connected to an innovation hub are most likely part of the group of 'value extension' farmers (45%). They are also currently receiving extension services more frequently and have less aversion against data sharing. The second segment comprises the 'value mastery, cost-averse' (11%) group; they had a lower behavioural intention to adopt and had a lower smart phone ownership, while the 'value data privacy' (44%) group finally had a clear negative preference to share their data with private companies. These farmers typically have smaller landholdings, receive less extension services, and are less likely to be connected to the innovation hub. App developers and implementers can use such information to close the digital divide in a targeted way by providing diverse incentives and tailoring ICT-based technologies. This is in line with the recommendations by the World Bank [8], where one of the lessons provided is that the focus should be on the demands and needs of the target population, which can be heterogeneous.Furthermore, the preferences of farmers connected to an innovation hub with regard to extension suggest that replacing completely extension services with the mobile phone app will not be perceived as ideal. Combinations with traditional forms of communication and knowledge sharing are also recommended by World Bank [8]. Our study shows that traditional extension services and training could even act as nonfinancial incentives to use the app. This suggests the importance of flexible extension systems that consider farmers' preferences of usage and their trust in the different actors involved in sharing data and information via a mobile phone app, and correctly inform farmers not only about technical risks of advice (yield and returns), but also on data ownership and privacy. stated preferences for the cost of a pest management decision support tool (Kragt and Llewellyn, 2014). The cost-benefit perceived by the farmers may be a factor or barrier to farmer participation or continuous usage. The cost was calculated along with the app developers from IIASA considering the cost of megabytes of internet used per time conducting basic actions in the app (register a plot, consult fertilisation advice, weather, and benchmark information). Around 5 megabytes are used per time (1 megabyte = 0.98 MXN); therefore, three levels were proposed: 0 MXN, 5 MXN, and 10 MXN. The 0 MNX level could be considered as an option under which the app will offer free offline features too.\"Access to training\" refers to a nonfinancial utility or compensation for the use of the mobile phone application as special access to trainings and capacity building events in their region. The access to face-to-face knowledge exchanges might be perceived as an incentive for farmers to keep on using an app or provide data entries. Hence, it aims to explore whether some farmers will accept training and capacity building as compensation (nonfinancial utility) and if it will motivate farmers' preference for the use of the mobile phone app.\"Data sharing\" refers to which actors the farmer prefers to have access to the information registered in the app. Data ownership is an important issue in the context of the current data revolution and big data applications (Wolfert et al., 2017). Choice experiments have been used before to examine privacy trade-offs in smartphone applications (Savage and Waldman, 2015) and also to estimate the value which app users gave to their friends' information (Pu and Grossklags, 2017). However, this aspect was only recently explored, with farmers looking at their willingness to join a big data platform (Turland and Slade, 2020). In our study, four levels are proposed: only me, everyone including peers, research institutions and government, and private companies. Research institutes and government are together due to the nature of the case study in which the institute developing the app works closely with the government in the region (Section 3.1).\"Replacing extension services visits\" considers the scenarios in which the extension agents keep visiting the farmers or not. The attribute is important to add to have control on the perception that the app might replace the visits. This was a concern raised by the farmers connected to the innovation hub during the preparatory interviews and field work as the extension advisers' visits are already being conducted in the study area. Two levels are proposed: extension services keep on visiting and no regular extension service visits.","tokenCount":"6378"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71c3bc28a32bd7dffa26235b71f4fbed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b60e02df-de16-4593-8e62-36a993676d7b/retrieve","id":"1173034359"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1fb502df-6584-4498-87d0-7f4d85aa0df2","pagecount":"61","content":"The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. 5. Positioning origin-linked products and demand side considerations 5.1. Origin-linked products and consumers perceptions and uses 5.2 The importance of effective market positioningThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Some agricultural and food products display specific characteristics which are inherent to the place where they are produced and that give the product a reputation. Tequila, Parmigiano-Reggiano, Darjeeling or Champagne are only a few examples of product names which acquired a reputation linked to their geographical origin and are familiar to most of us.There is a growing interest among consumers in developed and developing countries to purchase food or agro-processed products1 that have a \"story\" -are deeplyrooted in the various popular cultures or simply reputed for their specific place of origin. For producers and small and mediumsized companies, this new trend could imply new opportunities to differentiate product in the market and secure price premiums and/or increased sales. Originlinked products, especially those traditionally produced, have the potential to promote and preserve the natural environment of their production area. This potential is based upon their specific characteristics, the result of a unique combination of natural resources (climatic conditions, soil characteristics, local plant varieties, breeds, etc.), local skills and historical and cultural practices, as well as traditional knowledge in producing and processing the products. The first step for local actors is to be aware of this potential by identifying the links between product, its qualities, its reputation, and the geographical environment where it is produced.Strengthening the ties among local stakeholders, places and agricultural and food products is a major step towards sustainable rural development. These relations are based on local capacities to create value within a global market, while remaining anchored in a specific place. Origin-linked products described by geographical indications (GIs) are those that have specific quality attributes or reputation linked to the places where they are produced. These differentiated products may be able to access a specific and remunerative demand. A segment of consumers are increasingly concerned with the specific attributes of agricultural and food products, particularly in terms of their culture, identity and means of sustainable production. Moreover, within the vast diversity of origin linked products are many that contribute to biodiversity preservation, cultural heritage protection, and socio-cultural development. Particularly successful and renowned GIs produced in lessfavoured areas may also contribute to rural poverty reduction. Through the effective marketing of these products, rural activities can be maintained and even diversified, so as to promote related industries, such as tourism, and also to prevent outward migration. Indeed, specific local resources involved in the production system, i.e. unique plant varieties, animal breeds or traditional landscapes, food traditions and culture are valuable also for tourism and gastronomy.Regional product identities have a long history. In ancient Egypt, places of origin were used to identify products and to signal their quality. In the Middle Ages, European guilds gave their products certain names to assure consumers of consistent quality, assure market exclusivityThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. and protect producers legally (INAO, 2005). The history of some well-known cheeses can be traced back to this period: Parmigiano Reggiano in Italy, Stilton in the UK, and Comté in France. The process of establishing a regional reputation went parallel with the emergence of the concept of individual brands. In both cases, producers tried to enhance their products' value by associating consumers with a name: a single producer in the case of a brand, on a collective scale in the case of regional products.Several regional products identified in the marketplace by geographical names date from the 19th century, including Opperdoezer Ronde potatoes (Netherlands) and Washington apples (USA). While such regional indications remained important, their significance gradually shrank over time. National and international trade evolved, and technical grades and standards developed and became more important in trade. During the 20th century, internationalization expanded rapidly. The urge for economies of scale meant that certain regions began to specialize in producing a few products. Firms marketed their products over an ever-wider area. Product specialization also occurred: instead of producing a broad product assortment, companies specialized in a few, standard, products. This mass production resulted in the loss of many unique, specific regional products. In time, the globalization for business and markets increased further.Global brands are standard products that are marketed across the globe with the same brand name. It is sometimes said that these weaken cultural boundaries and make tastes and preferences converge. But consumers are also aware of the loss of regional and specialist products. This desire for variety and for maintaining local products has stimulated the marketing of traditional regional products and triggered the search for new regional products to sell. The increasing interest in regional specialties can be seen throughout the world. 'Darjeeling', 'Antigua', 'Parma', 'Gorgonzola', 'Bordeaux', 'Roquefort', 'Blue Mountain Coffee', 'Sea Island Cotton', 'Porto', 'Ceylon' and 'Havana' are well known examples of geographical names that are associated throughout the world with specific products. Their reputation derives from the special qualities that products from those places possess (O' Connor and  Company, 2005).The image of the region and regional names are often used to market products that may have a strong reputation associated with their place of production. As Bérard and  Marchenay (2005) point out, origin products do not just 'come from' a region; they 'are' from a region. This means that they convey values and culture -i.e., identity. In general, these products have, a greater or lesser extent, specific qualities based on human expertise and the natural environment where they are produced. The mix of these specific qualities and the regional image creates a unique identity for the product, so raising its value. 3 Regional products in a general sense -can be defined as local products based on a territorial identity and reputation, and/or typical products based on specific modes of production and whose quality, reputation or any other characteristics are attributable essentially to their geographical origin. The geographical origins can be provinces, states, departments, countries, but also cross-border areas that are culturally, naturally or climatically homogeneous.Traditional agricultural and food products represent an expression of culture and lifestyle resulting from the local climatic, agricultural and economic conditions that determine production and processing practices. As a consequence, the traditional nature of a product is based on a collective heritage and is linked to a specific territory although it is transmitted by the migration of individuals or populations. Rural areas can, therefore, offer a diversity of traditional regional agricultural and food products reflecting the human interaction with the environment over a long period of time. Tradition implies a skill or attribute that is handed down from one generation to the next. Traditional agricultural and food products present characteristics that distinguish them from similar and generic products, either in terms of composition (specific raw material and primary products -animal breed or plant variety -and their combination) or production and processing methods. As regards processed food products, these methods can give birth to specific culinary traditions 4 .The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.The form of protection must be in accordance with legal provisions applicable. At international level the most significant for the protection of names are the Paris Convention and TRIPS agreements within the WTO. These agreements have almost universal application, with the Paris Convention signed by 174 countries and TRIPS agreement by 159 countries. At the national level, names are protected by a variety of laws or instruments depending on the country. These can include: specific or sui generis laws protecting identified and defined GIs; trade mark laws; product labelling regimes; laws against unfair competition; consumer fraud protection laws such as those for truth in labelling; and occasionally specific laws or decrees that protect individual names for product of a specific origin.Generic names are commonly excluded from registration both in trade mark and GI law. However, in positive registration systems for GIs there are explicit definitions of the meaning of generic. Product names become generic when the link between the territory and the product is lost. For example, according to India´s recent GI Act generic is \"the name of a good which, although relating to the place or the region where the good was originally produced or manufactured, has lost its original meaning and has become the common name of such goods and serves as a designation for or indication of the kind, nature, type or other property or characteristic of the goods.\" Generic status is defined in similar terms in the Regulation EU No 1151/2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuff within the limits of the European Union.Marks are \"distinctive signs whose purpose is not to protect an invention but to distinguish products for consumers and vis-à-vis competitors\" protected by industrial property law. Article 15.1 of TRIPS gives a definition of the trade mark: \"Any sign, or any combination of signs, capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings, shall be capable of constituting a trade mark\". A trade mark providesThe feta cheese case.Several cases have produced jurisprudence relevant to defining the generic status of a product. Feta cheese from Greece exemplifies an indirect or traditional GI because it is not a geographical name but it conveys an origin to consumers. Cheese has been produced and marketed under the name \"Feta\" in other countries for decades. For many decades, Greece had regulated Feta production and marketing as a specific product: it recognized a GI (technically a \"protected designation of origin\") in 1994 and applied for EU registration the same year. Germany, France and Denmark opposed the application with the argument, inter alia, that it was a generic term. To assess whether or not the designation had become generic, an opinion survey of 12 800 EU nationals was carried out, which showed the importance given to consumer perception in assessing the generic status of product names. An expert committee evaluated diverse evidence and concluded that the name \"Feta\" was not generic for consumers in the Union, and the name is now protected. A phase out period for existing users of the name was granted and in October 2007, Feta indications in the EU ceased to be used by producers outside Greece. 1The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.its owner an exclusive right to designate products and services, or to authorize another entity to use it, usually but not always in return for payment. The length of the protection varies (approximately ten years), but a trade mark can be renewed indefinitely by means of additional taxes. To be considered as a lawful trade mark, a chosen sign must be, inter alia:-Distinctive: the sign must distinguish goods and services from other goods and services in the same category;-Non-deceptive: the sign must not be of a nature that can generate confusion among consumers, including confusion as to origin.There are three types of marks:Individual trade marks: they are owned by a single specified natural or legal person. The main difference with geographical indications is that they apply to particular firms or other single organisations, and as such, are more restrictive as they do not give rights to new producers within a geographic zone to use the registered name without the consent of the owner;Collective trade marks: they are owned by a public or private group of more than one legal entity (e.g.trade association) and commercial use of them is made via the members of the group. These trade marks are mainly used to guarantee some products characteristics such as geographical origin:Example: The Melinda collective mark is used by the 5200 members of the 16 apple producing cooperatives working in Valle di Non and Valle di Sole (Italy) who established the Melinda Consortium in 1989. 5Certification mark: they are the property of a group which does not trade in the relevant product itself. Certification marks indicate that products have been produced subject to given standards which may include a geographic region of production. A certification mark is the instrument that \"comes closest to the one established in Roman law countries regarding appellations of origin\" (OECD, 2000). 6 Example: The Woolmark symbol is the registered trade (certification) mark of the Woolmark Company.The Woolmark is a quality assurance symbol denoting that the products on which it is applied, are made from 100% new wool and comply with performance specifications set down by the Woolmark Company. It is registered in over 140 countries and is licensed to manufacturers who are able to meet these quality standards in 65 countries. 7 Trade marks are often used to project an image of GI products in the form of a logo or image. It is common for products for which names are registered as GIs to also have logos registered as trade marks -Café de Colombia, Darjeeling, Roquefort, Parmigiano Reggiano all project their image using figurative trade marks, while all these names are entered in the EU GI register as well. The figurative trade marks do not normally prevent other operators from using the names on non-originating product since only the full image with all components is protected. GI protection of the term (without figurative elements) therefore gives a stronger protection of the name. The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. The key strategy agreed by the stakeholder committee, under EIPO's leadership, was to achieve wider recognition of the distinctive qualities of Ethiopian regional coffees as brands and so position them strategically in the expanding specialty coffee market; while at the same time to protect Ethiopia's ownership of the names so as to prevent their misappropriation. This would lead to a greater share of the high retail price Ethiopian coffees demand going straight to rural producers. With trademarks secured now in 28 countries, Ethiopia is building a network of licensed distributors across the world. That is, Ethiopia is inviting coffee companies, large and small, who want to use these names in marketing these Ethiopia coffees, to sign a licensing agreement and to collaborate directly with Ethiopia on a long-term plan to ensure that the coffees are traded to everyone's benefit. This initiative aims to increase the prosperity and hope for all actors through the trading chain.The government of Ethiopia was concerned about the practicality and expense of using an IPR system to protect smallholder rights. It decided to protect its commercial origin through trade mark registration. This was seen as an effective route of protection because it would grant the government of Ethiopia the legal right to exploit, license and use the trade marked names in relation to coffee goods to the exclusion of all other traders. Unlike a GI, a trade mark registration does not require proof and certification that a specific coffee is produced in a specific region or has a particular quality in connection with that region. The trade mark registrations allowed for more flexibility and avoided imposing costs on the 4 million smallholders, many of whom are already living below the poverty line. The Stakeholder Committee therefore opted for a trade mark-based solution, with the Ethiopian government as the owner of these marks. This strategy gave the Ethiopian government greater and more effective control over the distribution of its product, which ultimately increases revenue by exporting more goods, enabling a rise in prices and benefits to farmers.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. The TRIPS Agreement (1994)The TRIPS Agreement, one of the WTO Agreements, is applicable to all WTO Members. It includes a section on the protection of trade marks in Section 2 and GIs in Section 3. Section 3 of the TRIPS Agreement sets forth a definition of a GI and contains a general obligation for WTO Members to provide the legal means for protection against misleading use of a GI and againstThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.use that constitutes an act of unfair competition. It also requires Members to refuse or invalidate registration of a trade mark that contains or consists of a GI with respect to goods not originating in the territory indicated, if use of the indication on the trade mark for such goods might mislead the public as to the true place of origin. In addition to that general obligation, Section 3 of the TRIPS Agreement requires WTO Members to provide legal means for protection against any use of GIs for wines and spirits and against registration as trade marks of those indications, even if such use or registration does not mislead the public as to the true origin of the goods.In addition to such international agreements, countries frequently pursue regional or bilateral trade agreement to facilitate protection or preferential market access for their products. Specific protection of GIs and origin names are now common components of many agreements. For example, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, Article 313) tri-laterally protects the United States' Tennessee and Bourbon whiskies, Canadian whisky and Mexican tequila. 17Once a potential trade mark is identified, there are several ways in which to register it in countries of export. The National Route allows the business to apply to the trade mark office of each country in which it is seeking protection by filing the corresponding application in the required language and paying the required fees. The Regional Route can be also used to apply for protection in countries which are members of a regional trade mark, in which case registration will have effect in the territories of all Member countries by filing an application at the relevant regional office. The regional trade mark offices include: The African Regional Industrial Property Office;The Benelux Trade mark Office; The Office for the Harmonization of the Internal Market of the European Union; The Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle. Finally registration can be made using an International Route: when the home country is a member of the Madrid system and the trade mark has been registered or applied for in or with effect in that country. In this case the Madrid system (administered by WIPO) allows trade mark registration in the more than 70 countries that are party to the system.The principal advantages of using the Madrid system are that the trade mark owner can register the trade mark in all the countries party to the system by filing: a single international application; in one language; subject to one set of fees and deadlines. Thereafter, the international registration can be maintained and renewed through a single procedure. 18 In 1992, the European Union approved two categories for the protection of GIs: Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). These intellectual property rights extend to agricultural products and foodstuffs with the exception of wine and spirits. It is important to understand that the level of protection for both these instruments is identical, and both are entered in the same, single register. So from the perspective of intellectual property protection there is no substantive legal difference whether the word or phrase protected as a GI in the EU is entered in the register as a PDO or as a PGI.From a marketing point of view however, the PDO indicates a closer link with the place of production than the PGI and as such has greater cachet in the market place.The definition of a PDO requires that all phases of the production process should be localized inside the production area and the quality of the product should be strictly related to a particular geographical environment by its inherent natural and human elements: having \"quality or characteristics which are essentially or exclusively due to a particular geographical environment with its inherent natural and human factors.\". \"Reputation\" alone does not provide a sufficient ground for classification as a PDO. The PGIThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.covers agricultural products and foodstuffs linked to a geographical area, where at least one of the stages of production, processing or preparation takes place within the given area: having \"a specific quality, reputation or other characteristics attributable to that geographical origin\". The production chain of a PDO is fully realized in a territory but in the case of a PGI it may involve external inputs and activities.Three types of trade marks may refer to a geographical name to indicate origin-designated goods: the word mark, or more usually the certification mark and the collective mark.A traditional specialty guaranteed (TSG) is a \"traditional agricultural product or foodstuff recognized (…) for its specific character\". 19 In its preamble, the TSG regulation recognizes that \"economic operators should be provided with instruments … to enhance the market value of their products while protecting consumers against improper practices and guaranteeing fair trade\" and that \"any references which may be made to the quality in trade are substantiated\". TSG registration applies to agricultural products and foodstuffs. 20 In order to register a TSG, the agricultural product or foodstuff \"shall either be produced using traditional raw materials or be characterized by a traditional composition or a mode of production and/or processing reflecting a traditional type of production and/or processing\". Thus, TSGs are not tied to a geographical place but to the particular practices that generate a product with a 'specific character'.The group registering the TSG may include members from more than one country and there is no explicit localization of the product or the producers. However, the product may be made from specific raw materials or make use of environmental conditions in production processes and include them in the product's description.Another tools exist to list and identify traditional products. The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. -GIs are another form of IP protection and one specifically designed for origin-related terms. The name must be protected in the country of origin and relate to a product defined by an enforced specification. The level of protection is generally superior to the other IP instruments, covering exclusive use for the name in the register for like product as well as translations and uses such as \"like\" \"type\" \"style\" etc. For wines and spirits, protection does not depend on misleading the consumer test and many jurisdictions apply this standard to other GI products. In addition, protection may extend in some jurisdictions to evocation of the GI (e.g. with imagery) and the GI may be registerable over a prior trade mark -leading to the situation that both coexist.-Geographic indications differ from trade marks. A trade mark is a sign used by an enterprise to distinguish its goods and services from those of other enterprises. It gives its owner the right to exclude others from using the trade mark. A geographical indication, on the other hand, tells consumers that a product is produced in a certain place and has certain characteristics or reputation that are due to that place of production (Table 2). All producers may use the geographical indication if the products share certain typical qualities, if they are made in the designated location, and if they according to procedures set out in the designated way (WIPO, 2005). 25 In the field of intellectual property, the rules have to deal with conflicts, and particularly where a name is already registered for another party. Under the \"first in time, first in right\" principle, producers of an originating product are prevented from seeking trade mark or GI registration if another party has already registered the name as a trade mark in good faith. In this case, producers have only two options: they can launch proceedings to obtain cancellation of the registered trade mark on the grounds that it lacks distinctiveness or is deceptive; or they can enter into negotiation with the owner of the trade mark in order to buy it. Both actions can be expensive. However, in countries that apply the \"coexistence\" principle, an application for a GI that is made after a trade mark has been registered can be approved -and then the GI and the trade mark will \"coexist\". In this case, the respective producers may be required to make clear the true origin of their respective products by a suitable label clarification. 26 The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.The The study also analyses the value premium of products bearing a GI, i.e. the premium that a GI can expect on the market, compared to similar non-GI products. In average GI products were estimated to be sold 2.23 times as high as compared to non-GI products.-Maintaining and/or increasing local revenues and local employment in the different stages of the production process (production, processing, distribution).-Allowing local people to stay and live in the production area.-Preserving the environment and biodiversity -Maintaining traditional farming with its potential positive contributions to the landscape, favorable habitats for biodiversity and soil preservation.-Maintaining traditional processing systems and recipes.-Keeping alive local traditions and local culture related to the product.A higher selling price is often one of the first aims of supporting a strategy for an origin-based product, but increased economic value also means better access to new or existing markets, thanks to the differentiation of the product.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.In other words, it should allow local producers to participate in markets where they can obtain a price that covers production costs despite the presence of more lower-priced products from outside the area.The table below shows the price premium attached to coffees marketed on the basis of origin compared with standard product. This illustrates the potential for using origin designations for accessing a higher price point. These names are not necessarily protected as trademarks or under GI systems (the Ethiopian names are protected as trade marks in the EU and US and café de Colombia is protected as a GI in the EU), but the origin identity of the products is maintained through the trading system and commodity exchanges.One of the cases presented in the box below is for Ethiopian coffees, where trade mark protection has had positive results in terms of increased income and improved living standards of the coffee producers.Prior to the IP protection initiative, Ethiopia was receiving 6 percent of the final retail price for its coffees. The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.The estimation of the economic importance of traditional foods in trade and labour provision can be partially assessed through the analysis of the economic information on GIs, which constitute a well-defined and legally recognized sub-category.Local employment provided by small food businesses contributes to maintaining economic activities and populations in rural areas, especially in less-favoured, remote zones. The specific qualities of traditional products are generally associated with an extensive system of production and handicraft processing.In areas where mechanization is difficult or costly, such as mountainous areas, traditional production methods may be the only way to maintain activities and some employment. Production and supply costs of traditional products are generally higher than those of competitive industrial products; that is why their specific quality should be recognized and the consumer should be informed about their characteristics. Information on quality needs to be correctly shared throughout the market (individual consumer's knowledge, official quality labels and regulations on claims). Traditional products can obtain a good added-value with little investment in promotion/marketing and there is no need to create new products, and promotion is generally collective. Finally, considering the different cost structures, traditional products may not be more expensive for consumers than innovative industrial products which require high research and development (R&D) and advertising investments to enter markets. 30A few examples of the impact of protection on employment exist for developing countries.Argane is an oil used for nutritional and cosmetic purposes that originates in south-west Morocco (the Souss-Massa Draâ and Essaouira regions). In addition to significantly increasing the exportation appeal, activities linked to the production of argane oil represent between 25% and 45% of the local population's income, determined by the area of production. 31 According to the figures presented by the High Commissioner for Waters and Forests and Against Desertification, the aggregated production of argane oil constitutes an equivalent of 7 million working days for families each year. 32 In 2006, about 100 female cooperatives existed, of which 93% were traditional. These cooperatives had more than 3000 members and reached an estimated average production of 125 litres per woman.In the case of coffee in Colombia, the differentiation and positioning on the market of coffee on the basis of its geographical origin has proven to be successful. The price paid to producers (in dollars) has increased over the past few years, from $0. The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.2008). Thus, 60% of the production is exported the rest of 40% is consumed domestically. South Africans` rooibos production area reached about 37'000 ha in 2005 and an increase in production is expected (USDA, 2006). 36Some origin-linked products have been produced for a long period in the same social and cultural environment. They incorporate know-how by producers regarding how to manage a sound production process and attain high specific quality within a particular local environment. The link between product, people and place often makes the origin-linked product an element of identity for local populations, transcending even its economic impact. As a consequence, the social dimension for certain products has many aspects:-The origin-linked product is related to the preservation of the natural and cultural heritage, traditions, know-how and lifestyle in marginal areas.-The collective dimension of the origin-linked product strengthens social linkages between local actors, not only through local organizations and greater equity in the production sector, but also externally, as all local stakeholders are involved (for example public actors, stakeholders of the tourism industry, schools, etc.).-As a basis for a territorial quality strategy, stakeholders are not limited to the supplychain operators but they cover a large network including other economic activities and cultural values (Tregear et al.,  2007). Coordination of smallscale actors (horizontal and vertical relations along the supply-chain) of a traditional product both strengthens the local organizations and allows local actors to compete with integrated firms, thus realizing another model of reduction of the transaction costs rather than the mere vertical integration, and opportunity for public-private sector collaboration.-Promotion of an origin-linked product increases self-esteem among local actors as their identity and related way of life, including the role of each actor (men and women, young and old people) is recognized and considered valuable. This is especially the case in remote areas, where the production system differs greatly from modern systems.-Traditional production, and processing of these products often involves work undertaken by women, thus giving positive social and economic recognition to their work and providing an opportunity for their involvement in the creation of added value on farms or in small-scale factories.-The sustainable management of various local resources used for food and agriculture contributes to food and livelihood security while the preservation of typical products offers consumers broader food diversity.Biodiversity conservation requires healthy ecosystems and diverse plant and animal communities and populations. The sustainable use of its components should offer economic alternatives that are sustainable (i.e. relatively stable, long-term and equitable). 37 Biodiversity is not a direct objective of GI protection 38 . However, preservation of the national and regional identity heritage, including the products themselves but also know-how, plant varieties and animal breeds, biotypes and landscapes is a potential outcome of establishing such protection.In biodiversity conservation, two subjects are dealt with separately: indirect contributions at the landscape and ecosystem level, and direct contributions to the sustainable use of biological and genetic resources 39 . Origin-linked products development can promote biodiversity conservation directly through the use of a specific natural resource. These directly derive from the fact that governance and market success contribute to the viability of rural livelihoods that depend on the sustainable use of specific biological and genetic resources.If the origin-linked products help the success of an economic activityThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.based on a biological resource, then the connection between them and resource conservation becomes evident. Thus, biological and genetic resource conservation is a direct consequence of the product value chain development.Indirect conservation benefits can be obtained through production and management practices that include landscape and ecosystem considerations. A well-managed biological resource that sustains an origin-linked production system should also promote diversity within the biological system for the benefit of those biodiversity components that are not used. 40 Where GI specifications lay down restrictions on the intensity of production, this is likely to impact positively on natural resource sustainability and on biodiversity conservation. In this way the GI can give rise to \"rational land use strategies\" 41 . The Rooibos industry in South Africa which is located in an environmentally sensitive area has, in designing its product specification, considered biodiversity concerns and has aligned its code of practices with existing biodiversity initiatives (Bienabe et al, 2009). Thus the design of a code of practice can account for biodiversity considerations as described in the product specification (Bramley, 2011) However, GIs and other origin-linked products do not automatically give rise to positive environmental dynamics such as biodiversity preservation and the impact is likely to vary from case to case. 42 Fournier and colleagues (2009) affirm that the impacts of GI protection on biodiversity conservation are more theoretical than empirically supported. 43 Especially in developing countries, the challenges are greater than in developed economies because the institutional context tends to be weaker with regard to fraud repression, intellectual property, and natural, biological and genetic resource management.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Successful marketing of any product that leads to a significant increase in demand could place pressure on fragile ecosystems. In order to avoid the detrimental impacts of this, GI product standards could include sustainable production provisions (Downes and Laird, 1999). GI differentiation can create a space for visibility of the sustainable use of wild biological resources and rare and endemic genetic resources in agriculture, both in public policy and in the minds of consumers. It is also an important collective governance space in which to promote and develop creative agreements and actions for the in situ conservation of biodiversity coordinated with ex situ (regional and national) conservation, characterization and breeding efforts. On the other hand, the potentially negative trends identified lie in the specialization of GIs in particular genetic resources (landraces or breeds) while excluding others; or the intention to promote the widespread use of selected clones homogenizing huge surfaces (e.g. sugar maple stands).In the former, using the name of a specific genetic resource or variety in the GI name will tend to marginalize other local varieties. In the latter case, productivity objectives emphasize the use of modern breeds or the homogenization of the resource base and thus become a threat -rather than an incentiveto diversity. In both cases, there is evidence that in developed countries either government or the governing bodies of the GIs are aware of theThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. GIs in comparison to other origin marketing tools have plusses and minuses. There are some potentially negative aspects associated with GIs, though these are largely the result of poor design or having inadequate governance structures. For example, badly managed GIs can be dominated by limited political interests or just a few enterprises.In some cases, GIs can exclude the poorest producers or even stimulate inappropriate outcomes such as the dissolution of traditional practices or the destruction of biodiversity. 54 GIs are not easy to establish. Success on a large scale is often measured over years and decades and requires patient application and sustained commitment. They can entail costs, not just for organizational and institutional structures but also for ongoing operational costs such as marketing and legal enforcement.GIs are not a viable option in many areas, particularly those whose output lacks distinguishing characteristics. Some researchers note that using GIs as a means of differentiation can benefit highquality producers but that lowquality or the poorest producers may not benefit. 55 The costs associated with GIs remain one of the biggest challenges to developing countries (CIRAD, 2009). In addition to costs related to the institutional framework, development of the production chain, promotion and enforcement costs, there is likely also to be costs linked to achieving and maintaining the unique qualities of the product. Literature review suggests that, for a GI to be successful, four components are essential:1. Strong organizational and institutional structures to maintain, market, and monitor the GI. The core processes of: (i) identifying and fairly demarcating a GI (ii) organizing existing practices and standards and (iii) establishing a plan to protect and market the GI all require building local institutions and management structures with a long-term commitment to participatory methods of cooperation.2. Equitable participation among the producers and enterprises in a GI region. Equitable is here defined as the participating residents of a GI region sharing reasonably in not only costs and benefits but also in the control and decisions regarding their public assets.3. Strong market partners committed to promote and commercialize over the long term. Many of the GI market successes are the result of mutually beneficial business relations via which consistent market positioning and effective commercialization have led to a long-term market presence.Effective legal protection including a strong domestic GI system. Carefully chosen protection options will permit effective monitoring and enforcement in relevant markets to reduce the likelihood of fraud that can compromise not only the GI's reputation but also its legal validity.While GIs do have some private characteristics, they are intrinsically a 'public good'. They broadly affect the people and the resources of a region so it is critical that GI governance and legal protection are both structured to serve the greatest number and avoid capture by a few elites. GIs can thus serve as useful frameworks to drive an integrated form of market-oriented rural development that can facilitate equitable participation among all of its stakeholders.Names: pros and cons.Generally speaking trade mark protection of regional agricultural products can have positive economic, social and environmental impacts comparable to the ones associated with GI adoption. As shown for example by the graph in the Box 2, coffee price premiums are significant both under GI and other protection systems, if only with different magnitudes. However, the appropriateness of one mode of protection or the other needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.A. Relative advantages of trade mark protection 56 Procedurally, the trade mark system has an advantage given its relative convenience and cost effectiveness of registration. Any natural or legal person can apply for a collectiveThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.trade mark registration. In the case of EU MSs, since the European Union's accession to the Madrid Protocol for the International Registration of Marks, based on a valid home registration, applicants can simply designate the TM system when applying for an international registration.Licensing allows the proprietor the freedom to choose who is to use the trade mark, how they are to use it and whether royalties will be paid. In contrast to the GI, trade marks are flexible in allowing the proprietor to also select the territories where the mark will be exploited. An individual TM may be licensed exclusively or non-exclusively for use in the whole, or one state, or a region. For example, in order to build consumer recognition of its coffees, the Ethiopian government, proprietor of CTMs for 'Sidamo', 'Harrar' and 'Yirgacheffe', chose to begin with a licensing strategy. Multinational corporations, such as Starbucks, that wish to market its coffees, are required to sign a non-exclusive, royalty-free licence. Because the licensor's power to grant licences is unrestricted, non-exclusive licensing allows Ethiopia to establish partnerships with coffee importing, roasting and distributing companies, thereby serving to increase control over marketing and supply. Lacking the financial means to fund a worldwide advertising campaign, Ethiopia is able to use non-exclusive licences to effectively subcontract the task and the cost of advertising to those in the supply chain that have the motivation and means to educate consumers.In comparison with GIs, which rely on the past experience of consumers, the advantage of the trade mark also lies in its ability to shape the perceptions of the consuming public. Indeed, the modern mark exists a means of communicating with consumers providing consumers with various kinds of information on the goods identified by them. In order to successfully enter a market, producers may first need to create a distinguishing sign, together with the reputation that accompanies it. In particular, in the case of origin products from developing countries, the trade mark may be a good way for producers to launch a marketing strategy based on geographical origin. Thus, the figurative mark, 'Café de Colombia', incorporating the archetypal coffee grower Juan Valdez, provides a means of communicating the quality and tradition-based qualities of the product. 57 The trade mark license offers producers considerably more flexibility in choosing the most appropriate means to distribute and sell their product. This freedom is particularly helpful at the start of a promotional campaign to raise consumer awareness of a specialty product.Clearly, each producer group needs to evaluate the product specification and the trade mark license as a potential vehicle for commercialization in light of the particular needs of their undertaking. On the one hand, the case of Parma Ham v Asda shows how producers can employ a well drawn specification to resist wholesalers and retailers driving down prices by returning the costs of processing to the 'farm gate'. On the other hand, Ethiopia chose trade mark licensing as the optimal means of taking control of the supply chain and relieving producers of promotional costs.GIs may be considered uniquely suitable in their potential to protect the names of product associated with traditional (including indigenous) knowledge. However, this geographical indications does not protect the underlying knowledge as such which -in the absence of other forms of protection -could be used by third parties without restrictions based on the existence of such indication. 58Even though collective and certification marks do not present the problem of a geographical name in order to acquire a distinctive character to be protected, a few problems are posed by these instruments in terms of breadth of protection, costs of protection and enforcement mechanisms, such as:-The specifications of the product (level of details and of requirements) are defined by the owner of the trade mark, without any involvement from the public authorities. US certification marks that are defined at state levels and that imply the participation of numerous farmers and processors makes the link between appellation and quality reputation uncertain (Marette & al., 2008).-They are costly in terms of registration. This registration formality must be renewed periodically (generally every ten years).The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.-The protection against misuse and usurpation is based on private actions. For each case of alleged violation of their rights, the owners must prove consumer confusion.The costs linked to the trial or, upstream, to the monitoring of compliance with the defined standards are covered entirely by the owners. For example, the FNC had experienced numerous examples of third parties using terms such as 'Colombian blend' or 'Colombian type' coffee. TM protection will not necessarily prevent third parties using such terms, without a showing of unfair advantage and damage to reputation.-There is no protection against copies that are named \"type\", \"style\" or translated names or many evocations of the registered name. 59 In order to take advantage of the broader protection and greater cost effectiveness, the FNC decided to also protect the name under the GI system. When 'Café de Colombia' was granted the status of PGI it obtained exclusive use of the name in relation to the advertising and marketing of its coffee beans in the EU. It is now clear that references to the registered PGI that imply an association with, or are evocative of the protected designation, are prohibited. 60In terms of comparative advantage, GI system seem offering the broader protection against direct competition, prohibiting unauthorized references to registered PGIs or PDOs, such as 'Feta-style' or 'Colombian blend', that are evocative of the protected designation. In contrast, while the trade mark system cannot offer geographical names the same breadth of protection, its chief advantage is lies in its flexibility as an instrument capable of accommodating variations in land use, climate, crop yields, the sourcing of raw materials and production outputs.While producer groups should take a case-by-case approach to the choice of the TMs or GI, a few considerations may be useful when considering the alternative use of the TM and GI systems. At the start of a marketing campaign, assuming that the link between the product and the place is relatively unknown to consumers, a trade mark-based strategy offers significant advantages in promoting awareness of the linkage among relevant consumers. On the other hand, where the link between the geographical name and the product relies on consumers' existing knowledge of agricultural or culinary traditions and thus is easy to demonstrate, then the GI system offers producer groups decided advantages, notably in the breadth of protection; and associated cost efficiencies in enforcing the intellectual property. Moreover, where the linkage with the place has become so tenuous that the geographical name is subject to claims that it is generic for the product, the GI system may be more appropriate in reclaiming the reputation associated with the product for the use of local producers. Nevertheless, in order to enjoy the advantages the GI system offers, the actual conditions of production must be congruent with the definitional requirements of national GI. The more territorially extensive, the less structured an agricultural enterprise, the more likely the TM will be the more appropriate form of protection. Equally, the advantages of GI system are contingent upon producers being able to sustain the costs of a product inspection or certification system. In short, some common problems faced by applicants for a GI, including the need to establish a link between product reputation and place of production, changes in methods or volumes of production, and difficulties establishing inspection structures, can be avoided by utilizing the greater flexibility of the TM system. Once the link between the reputation of the product and the place is established and the conditions of production stabilize, the agricultural undertaking is well placed to offset the reduced flexibility of the GI system against the breadth of protection it provides. It is then opportune to consider dual registration under CTM and GI systems.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. A GI registered under the Special Label programme may subsequently also be registered as a certification or collective mark. It appears that several producer groups choose to register their GI under both regimes. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture operates its own GI initiative, with the intention of emphasizing environmental protection and specific traditional agricultural production methods.In practice it happens for GIs to be protected under two of the three legal acts at the same time. If a GI meets the requirements of all the three legal acts and is registered respectively under the three legal frameworks it could even be protected under all of them at the same time. As the two main systems operate independently underThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.different governing legislation, the relationship between Special Labels and certification/collective marks is ambiguous, and sometimes there is little precedent to gauge how rules are to be interpreted.As far as India is concerned, although the country has had in its possession a considerable number of products that could qualify as geographical designators, the initiatives to exploit this potential began only recently when the country established a sui generis system of GI protection with the enactment of ' Rwanda launched a program to connect farmers to retail coffee market with the aim to develop a brand, which will be owned by farmers and will help them have 100% of the gross brand margin. This will be done through the establishment of a trust fund where companies will return 16% of profit to the farmers via the Trust Fund. 80The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.In the future, it is likely that the number of protected origin-linked product names, including as registered GIs, in ACP countries will increase. The ratification of EPAs by CARIFORUM and other countries, the increasing interest demonstrated at local and international level on the subject of GI and protection of traditional agricultural products as well as the recent MoU between ARIPO and EU are likely to result in increased interest in GIs registered in developing countries.The following names have been identified as origin linked product, and while few have been through the test of an examination system, they give an indication of the kinds of origin-linked product names that may be seen more in international commerce:-Zanzibar cloves from Tanzania The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.- The variety of products originating from ACP countries, together with studies showing evidence of consumer interest in origin marketing both in developed and developing countries' consumers 82 , demonstrate that the approach has the potential to become an opportunity for sustainable development in ACP countries.Local staple food GARI (cassava semolina) from Savalou (Bénin) 83 Gari is the favorite staple food all over Western Africa. It is made from toasted cassava semolina. In the village of Savalou (Benin, West Africa), a special type of Gari, called Gari missè, is produced and its fame is widespread throughout the country. Quality control is carried out at the processing and trading stages by a group of Savalou women processors. They only allow women whom they know and trust into their processing. The women processors themselves treat directly most of the products. Within the group, a social control is imposed to respect correct processing rules and marketing practices. A lack of respect for the rules entails the risk of being expelled from the group.The link with the physical environment PICO DUARTE COFFEE (Dominican Republic) 84 A In Guinea-Conakry (Western Africa), chili from Mamou, which cannot be obtained elsewhere, is famous throughout the entire nation because of its strong taste. Guineans who travel abroad always choose Mamou chili as a gift. It is also very popular and recognized among the Guinean communities abroad. This product enjoys a strong external network of faithful consumers abroad, who prefer this product and give it a high symbolic value. This wide diffusion through travellers and migrants is clearly a very important support for this local product.Rooibos is unique to the Cape floral kingdom, known locally as the fynbos and grows exclusively in the Northern and Western Cape province of South Africa. Rooibos herbal tea is endemic to a part of the country and considered as part of the South African patrimony. The main motivation of leading producers for developing a GI was to fight product usurpation, risk of delocalization of the activities and to address the rapid increase in demand. However,The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.defining a common strategy was not easy. Rooibos tea is competing on the world tea market with green teas as well as with herbal teas and benefits from the favourable trend for these products in developed countries. However, also some difficulties would have to be overcome before/with the introduction of a GI. A clear challenge would be to ensure better control over the rooibos quality and to combine the GI and the biodiversity conservation strategy, as rooibos is being produced in and attached to a highly biodiverse area (Biénabe et  al., 2007). As most rooibos producers are not smallholders, but are large scale producers and the processing sector is also highly concentrated, large players have a powerful market position as well as the financial means to make the investments needed to capture benefits from commercial rooibos markets (Gerz et al., 2006).The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.The realization of the potential benefits of GI label rest on the policy presumption that there is an increasing interest of consumers in qualitative aspects of foodstuffs 89 .The demand for credence attributes in food products has been increasing in recent years due to consumers' interest in food safety, health, and the environment 90 . Consumers are strong drivers of the change towards high quality and short supply chains. As people earn more, they consume a wider range of products: they are less concerned with quantity and more with quality (Malassis, 1996). And as the source of food becomes more distant both geographically and culturally, consumers tend to want guarantees that their food is genuine and safe. Livestock-disease scares, pesticide contamination and transgenic crops raise worries among consumers about what they eat. Regional products that are guaranteed to come from a specific area (this is known as 'traceability') and are made in a particular way are one way to restore trust among consumers. But reassurance is not just a matter of health or hygiene. More fundamentally, it is linked to the unique relation between people and food: food is the only consumer good that consumers literally 'incorporate'. For many consumers, food is life, and food is culture. This 'incorporation principle' (Fischler, 1990) explains why people are so sensitive to food scares. But also means that food can carry values and link producers with consumers -ties that simply do not exist with manufactured products such as shoes or soccer balls.  92 In theory, the information asymmetry between the producer and the consumer can be addressed through informative labelling, conveying significant information to consumers in a simple manner.Consumers show great awareness for origin but less for specific GI-related labels in EU According to a Eurobarometer poll from 1999 this is how European consumers perceive GIs (poll carried out between 29 October 1998 to 10 December 1998, in EU-15 of 16 214 people): 93 -37 percent think of GIs as a guarantee of origin -37 percent think of GIs as a guarantee of quality -56 percent think of GIs as a guarantee of place and method of production -17 percent associate GIs with tradition and European consumers' willingness to pay price premiums:-43% were willing to pay up to an extra 10% for GI products -8% were willing to pay up to an extra 20% for GI products -3% were willing to pay up to an extra 30% for GI productsThese results demonstrate that almost half of the European consumers claim to be willing to pay a price premium for being guaranteed the origin of the product. Furthermore, the results imply that Europeans to a great extent recognize origin labelling and associate it with a guarantee of a specific origin.Another Eurobarometer poll from 1998 (carried out in a similar manner to the one in 1999, described for above) showed only 6.3 percent of the consumers knew the three letters \"PDO\", and 13.5 percent the full denomination \"protected designation of origin\". Moreover, a third of the consumers knew that the PDO label implies that the product has a welldefined geographical origin, and a quarter could say that the main ingredients must all come from the production area. 94 More recently, Eurobarometer (February 2005) presented a study on Europeans' perception of the European agricultural policies (the CAP).72 The survey was conducted among 25 000 European citizens from all 25 member states. TheThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.poll did not address specific GI concerns, but it did reveal that issues such as food quality and origin of food products are of importance to European consumers. 73 It also showed that 45 percent of the EU consumers found that the CAP plays its role well in protecting the specificity and taste of European agricultural products. 95 Taking the polls together, one can conclude that quality and origin is of importance to the European consumers, which signals that they would be prepared to pay price premiums for products which guarantee origin and production methods. However, it is unclear how familiar the typical EU consumer is with the labelling used to designate origin within the Union (the PDO/PGI designations), and hence, it is also unclear if the PDO/PGI label in itself contributes to the existence of price premiums. 96 There is evidence of consumer preferences for regional products in developing countries, even though these are generally not labelled as such. A recent study showed urban consumers in Vietnam identify up to 265 'local specialty' food products that associate the place of production with the expectation of a higher quality (Tran, 2005). Market data on coffee in Costa Rica show that customers in supermarkets and small shops alike rank place of origin as the first criteria that determines coffee quality (Galland,  2005). A review of local foods and the expertise of preparing it in West Africa shows the relevance of these foods for women's employment and income generation, as well as their broad spread in urban diets, including in restaurants and street food vendors (ALISA, 2003).The results of the work on consumer perceptions of GI logos above, show how unlikely it is for consumers to be moved to buy a product because of the administrative and technical registration instrument the name is protected -any more than people will buy a brand of clothing because the brand name is or is not entered in the Madrid system of trade mark registration. Instead, other motivations, such as taste, origin, quality and perceived food safety The main result is that consumers' image of regional certification labels consists of a quality warranty and an economic support dimension. The quality warranty dimension means that consumers perceive these products as being of a higher quality which results in a positive willingness to buy (WTB) and willingness to pay (WTP). Additionally, a positive WTB and WTP can be a due to the economic support dimension, i.e. the belief to support the local economy by buying these products.The results highlight that the GI label without additional information has got no positive impact on perceived quality of the product while the GI label, if explained by the vendor with the story behind the product, influences the quality perception and purchase intention positively. It can be summarized that the empirical evidence so far suggests that the most important aspect for the success of a product registered as a GI is the perceived higher quality compared to nonprotected products. In this context it must be stressed that quality is a social construct and may vary for specific products and between individuals. Moreover, quality in relation to regionally denominated foods is closely related to other socially constructed concepts such as \"authenticity\", \"healthy\" and \"tradition\". This notion is important in that respect, that if regionally denominated products are perceived as being of a higher quality, this higher quality can comprise many different aspects. 97If the quality warranty aspect of GI labels is central to consumers, it is important for consumers to understand the meaning of such labels. However, the presence on the market of labels highlighting peculiar features of quality products does not seem to completely fill the information gap between consumers and producers and, thus, solve asymmetric information problems. Research shows that consumers tend to have a low perception of specific GI logos. In a study only 51 % of respondents stated correctly that the symbols signal that the product is produced in a specific area. About one fourth of the respondents erroneously believe that these symbols signal an environmentally friendly production. 98 The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Therefore, consumers \"acceptability of food labelling programs may depend on the level of available information on the market and on consumers\" awareness of the food characteristics guaranteed by such labels. 99 According to Lusk & Briggeman (2009), when people have little knowledge or experience on food product attributes, the corresponding measured preferences may be less stable. (See also Aprile  et al. 2009). A study 100 demonstrated that providing information on the meaning of food labels -i.e. the story behind the product -changed in an economically important way consumers' WTP for a certain product. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that consumers' valuation for European quality labels is directly linked to the level of knowledge about the meaning of these labels.Truthful, meaningful and educational labelling in itself contributes to the creation of a fair competition environment. Another positioning choice regards the role played by the logo or brand of individual producers. In some situations producers take advantage and give more emphasis to the firm brand (when the internal concurrence is strong and there is a need for differentiation, or when quality levels inside the GI system are very differentiated). In other situations, producers prefer to give more emphasis to the GI and collective logo. Another strategy for positioning the GI product is to associate the GI label with another differentiation label such as \"fair-trade\", or to participate in national or international food fairs in order to obtain formal recognition by professional peers. One essential element for positioning is to associate the GI product with specific values relevant for each consumer segment; for example, tradition, taste, environmental responsibility, social equity, fair distribution of revenues, and so on.In this regard, a logo or labelling referring to the specific quality of a certain GI (common to all products coming from the firms using such a GI) gives the consumer the possibility to recognize and position the related values (terroir, origin, etc.) of the products and prefer them; thus the importance of a collective organization to develop such a strategy. Moreover, different quality attributes do interact with each other, which can lead to possible conflicts 101 . One important aspect in this regard is the interaction of regional certification labels with brands.The packaging and labelling contributes to value creation. Labelling provides important information about product characteristics (composition, nutritional facts, description of how to use the product), about specificity related to the GI. In terms of quality and origin, when the GI logo is affixed to the product, the label guarantees the existence of a verification/certification system. Information can also be given that reinforces the image of the GI attributes; for example information, on the specificity of the production process and on natural resources used in it, the know-how, the link with the culture of the production area, etc. A label can also suggest possible utilization of the product in culinary preparations by \"nonexpert\" consumers; for example, providing traditional recipes, suggestions for conservation, and so on. This can facilitate usage by consumers and increase opportunities to buy and consume the product. By means of an appropriate design of the brand and proper packaging and labelling it is possible to create several product lines originating from the same GI product in order to address the consumer's needs for a more choices, especially in terms of \"services\" included with the product. 102 .Local and international markets involve two very different production and market scales. Origin-linked products and GI cases from developed countries showed that regional and national markets are the most important for traditional foods because the consumers are both physically and culturally closer to producers. Thus, it is useful to explicitly address the promotion of and access to regional and national markets, recognizing their economic and cultural specificities and the fact that they will be growing steadily over the next century, in developing countries 103 .The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Given such a varied and disparate global legal landscape, when it comes to deciding whether or not to promote a product based on its origin it is important to identify clearly the origin-linked attributes, the capacity of the producers, the availability of systems of designation and protection, and the commercial potential of the product. Origin marketing and labelling might successfully rest on traceability and transparency in the value chain for much product. Where product has good prospects of obtaining a geographical indication in the domestic and export markets, the producers can create and adhere to a specification for the product, and the costs of controls and certification can be supported, then registration a GI offers a good option. The decision to obtain a GI, or trade mark that endorses both the name and its origin link, often proves to be more tactical than strategic. Many producers use both instruments to protect and promote different attributes -a figurative trade mark is ideal form to project a designed image for a product, for example. Trade marks can be used as a way of protecting a product name and controlling a marketing campaign at the same time. 104Potential benefits of GIs 105 and origin-based marketing tools have been shown to include market access increase, price premium and value added retained in the region; local employment, empowerment of producers and preservation of cultural values and traditions. In addition, linking market development of a product to traditional and low-intensity farming practices may promote biodiversity conservation directly through the use of a specific genetic resource (an autochthonous breed or plant variety) or indirectly through production and management practices that include landscape and ecosystem considerations. Direct benefits in terms of sustainability in rural landscapes derive from the fact that governance and market success contribute to the viability of rural livelihoods which depend on the sustainable use of specific biological and genetic resources. Some potential problems of protection instrument include exclusion of actors, potential conflicts within the supply chain (monopoly in favour of the most powerful actor in the system or unfair exclusion of certain actors), need for external support, the role in the global regional strategy and the synergies with other regional products. These can translate into considerable challenges for developing countries are the lack of specific skills in the public institutions and support organisations, especially where a formal GI registration system is under consideration (e.g. delimitation of the region of origin,Slow Food is an international association operating since 1986 to safeguard the international oenogastronomic heritage through the enhancement of typical products and the promotion of agrifood quality and taste education of consumers. The Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity was born in 2003 with the objective to protect agricultural biodiversity and the folk as well as food traditions in the world. More specifically, the Foundation is active in the realization of the following projects:• the Ark of Taste, inventory of traditional quality agrifood products that are disappearing;• Slow Food Presidia, specific projects created to protect small producers and save plant species, animal breeds and quality folk products and;• The Earth Markets, focused on small-scale producers of origin-linked quality products, which offers an important commercial opening to local communities.Every two years Terra Madre allows producers from all over the world and operators of the sector (cooks, universities, journalists; 167,000 visitors in 2006) to meet and raise awareness of their food products and sample other food products during the Salone del Gusto.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.determination of core elements of the specificity to be put in the code of practices; and capacity of the farmers to adhere to a specification and quality standard, year-on-year, and irrespective of climate events and other natural variables.). These factors argue for close attention to feasibility in designing the specification and selecting the instrument.To achieve political goals regarding sustainable agriculture and rural development, there is a necessity to select tools that are fit for purpose and appropriate to the circumstances producers, administrations and traders actually face. In the alternative, it is pointed out that a comprehensive policy promoting tools like GIs can only be successful if combined with other support policies. 106 Origin marketing is intrinsically a collective undertaking and collective rights should apply to the instruments like GIs and other tools. The origin designation broadly affects a group of people and the resources of a region.In the specific case of GIs, without care and attention to these factors, protection can require capacity and resources, which are limited in developing countries and leastdeveloped countries. These countries need to ensure the mechanisms promoted to farmers match the legal and administrative resources available and the capacities of producers to apply and benefit from them. If the intellectual property route is chosen (essentially trade marks or GIs), capacity is needed for asset identification, protection, exploitation and management.It is important to make sure that stakeholders own the whole process.In At the same time alternative systems exist that can be used in combination with GIs or where some or all of the components above are not in place. The literature review and case studies show that a regional name can be trade marked even if it is not protect in the country of origin and that indications of source used in commodity markets can be successful ways of accessing price premia on international markets. These instruments place fewer burdens on producers and may not require specific production methods to be adhered to and certified. This has the disadvantage of reducing quality of the guarantee to the consumer, but as an intermediate step or as a marketing strategy in itself, these instruments deserve attention in the ACP context.In sum, origin is a valuable asset and one that every ACP product has. Different instruments are available for protection and to assist marketing of the intangible origin designation and should be used according to appropriateness. Taking a lesson from some of the world's leading originmarketed products, a combination of instruments is often the optimum: a GI to protect the name and figurative trade mark help combine to protect the valuable asset and convey the story behind the name to secure a price premium in the market.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Accreditation Independent third-party attestation by competent independent authorities that a certification body, a control body or a laboratory has provided formal demonstration of its competence to carry out specific conformity assessment tasks with a view to granting marks or certificates, or establishing relations, in a given field.\"The geographical name of a country, region or locality that serves to designate a product originating therein, the quality and characteristics of which are due exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including natural and human factors\" (Lisbon System). Appellation of origin was one of the earliest forms of GI recognition and protection (Paris Convention, 1883). Although mentioned in earlier treaties, the 26 contracting parties to the Lisbon System in 1958 first formally recognized the term \"appellation of origin\" as a form of GI by using a single registration procedure, effective for all the signatories.A procedure by which a third party, the official certification body, provides written assurance that an organization system, a process, a person, a product or a service is in conformity with requirements specified in a standard or other frame of reference. In the case of GIs, the certifying body certifies that the GI product is in conformity with the relative code of practice. Certification may, if appropriate, be based on a range of activities: onsite inspection, auditing of quality assurance systems, examination of finished products etc.A body responsible for providing certification, sometimes referred to as the \"certifier\", which may be public or private and is normally accredited and/or approved by a recognized authority.Any word, name, symbol or device that signals certification of the characteristics of a product, which may include geographical origin. It conforms to specifications laid down by the owner and may apply to the place of origin and/ or production methods. The mark requires some verification by a third party, which defines whether the attributes are present. Unlike trade marks, certification marks identify the nature and some type of quality of the goods and affirm that these goods have met certain standards. Certification marks also differ from trade marks in three ways: first, a certification mark is not used by its owner; second, any entity that meets the certifying standards set by the owner is entitled to use the certification mark; and, third, it applies only to the product or service for which it is registered.The rather descriptive term used in negotiations and proposals to restore GI rights in countries where they have been lost for various reasons. This most often references the EU's wish for certain original GIs to regain exclusive ownership of their names in other countries where existing trade marks or even claims of genericism have taken over their legal use.Document describing the specific attributes of the GI product in relation to its geographical origin through a description of the product and its manner of production, laying down requirements regarding not only modes of production but also those of processing, packaging, labelling etc., as applicable. Any party using the GI must meet the requirements laid down in the CoP, which is the outcome of a consensus among the stakeholders in the value chain concerned with the GI.Brings stakeholders together for common objectives that go beyond individual interests.A good that can be used simultaneously by several actors without any diminution of its attributes. Its use by an additional actor does not reduce that of the others (the principle of noncompetition) and no individual can be prevented from using this good (the principle of non-exclusion).As an intellectual property right, a geographical indication can be considered a collective or public good. However, misuse by individuals or groups of the reputation linked to a geographical name threatens the value of the collective resource.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.A mark used by the members of a cooperative, association or other group to identify their goods or services as having a connection to the collective mark and its standards. The collective mark may have a geographical identity and may advertise or promote goods produced by its members.Trade marks used by the members of a group to distinguish their product from that of non-members. A group that has the benefit of a registered \"protected designation of origin\" (PDO) or \"protected geographical indication\" (PGI) may also apply for a collective trade mark for the name or graphic representation of its GI product. The PDO/ PGI designation provides a protected indication of quality and relationship of origin that is separate from other intellectual property rights. Certain aspects of a PDO/ PGI can therefore subsequently be marketed under a collective trade mark, conferring additional protection via intellectual property rights. Conversely, a product or graphic representation that has been registered as a collective trade mark cannot subsequently be registered as a PDO or a PGI, inasmuch as a GI cannot in general override an existing trade mark.Occurring when individuals involved in commercial activities, for example small farmers, decide to form an organization to coordinate (and if necessary directly carry out) a number of marketing operations required to satisfy consumer demand. Local stakeholders can increase their income and efficiency by joining with other stakeholders to market their food products and benefit from collective action, for example to obtain a better bargaining position or a larger volume of sales. Collective marketing is commonly carried out by a collective organization (see definition of \"Organization\").Demonstration, through a systematic examination carried out by one party on the request of another, that specified requirements relating to a product, process, system, person or body are fulfilled. Such demonstration is based on a critical study of documents and other types of inspection or analysis, allowing verification that the specified requirements are being met.A specific, adaptable document that lays down how compliance with the various rules in the CoP is to be checked. It is a management tool identifying the control points constituting the critical stages in the production process and the means of verifying their conformity with CoP requirements.Voluntary development of a product or service offering unique attributes that are valued by consumers, who perceive them to be better than or different from competing products. A differentiation strategy is based on market segmentation and may be supported by a voluntary approach in order to obtain a specific certification or label (for example in connection with organic farming or traditional products).The legal term for protected GIs in many developing countries.GI notation for wine and spirits GIs in Europe (Denominazione di Origine Controllata in Italy). DOC is a quality assurance label in some regions that was the basic GI term for wine and food products produced within a specified region using defined methods and meeting defined quality standards. After 1992, DOC became compliant with Regulation 2081/92 that formalized PDO and PGI terms in the EU.Sub-regions of DOC that are subject to more rigorous controls and quality testing.Translation of PDO used as common abbreviation for French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese.Endemic: refers to a plant resource that is found only in a specified geographical zone.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.The process by which a norm, or legislation in general, comes into legal force and effect. The rules collectively established for the GI product (the CoP) must be enforced against those misappropriating the GI. The producers of the GI can enforce these rules through a court or may themselves be given official standing by national authorities.Expropriation occurs when the GI is registered outside the territory before the local legitimate stakeholders have been recognized as such and have obtained protection for their GI.A person or group that benefits from a good or service without paying for it. In the case of GI products, the geographical name of the GI product may be used by certain stakeholders hoping to gain a benefit (for example a higher price) without contributing to the reputation (see \"Reputation\") of the product or to any collective effort.Generalization occurs when an unprotected GI is used as a general term, thus also to designate products originating from outside the original area, as a result of the spread of reputation and specific characteristics of the original \"model\". Such geographical names are said to have become generic or synonymous terms.A term or sign is considered \"generic\" when it is so widely used that consumers see it as designating a class or category name for all goods or services of the same type, rather than as referring to a specific geographical origin.This term corresponds to the minimum quality a product must have in order to be placed on the market. It thus has a normative effect, inasmuch as governments must ensure the safety, health and information of consumers and the proper working of the market as part of their mission to protect the public good.The WTO 1994 Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) Agreement states: \"Geographical indications [...] identify a good as originating in the territory of a Member, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin\" (art. 22.1).All WTO member countries have to establish basic provisions for the protection of GIs. The term \"GI\" can be used to distinguish the identification of a product's origin and its link with particular characteristics and a reputation related to that origin. When GIs are legally registered they take such forms as AOs, PDOs and PGIs, depending on the categories defined in the various countries, and, as such, they become enforceable. The TRIPs Agreement does not provide any specific legal system of protection for GIs, leaving this task to member countries. If a member country has established a formal registration process to recognize GIs within its territory, then a product registered in this way can be referred to as a \"protected GI\". However, a GI may exist without protection or without seeking protection, unless the name or product is considered generic. In certain situations, a collective mark or certification mark is the most effective legal protection for a GI.A graphic symbol indicating a GI.Group of stakeholders directly concerned with the product, acting as a representative group for all the stakeholders who pooled their efforts in order to elaborate the quality of the end product: producers, processors and agents linked with distribution and trade.A system including all stakeholders and activities that contribute to the production of the GI product.A GI system thus includes the GI producers and the other stakeholders involved directly or indirectly in the value chain, including but not limited to public authorities, NGOs, research institutions, extension services and other institutions directly linked to the GI product (for example tourism activities in the production area).Good agricultural practices (GAP) are practices that ensure that farming is environmentally, economically and socially sustainable and produces healthy, good-quality food and non-food products.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.Concept referring to the complex systems covering mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which individuals and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations, and mediate their differences.The mechanisms existing or implemented in order to ensure the existence of certain attributes and the compliance with certain specifications as mentioned in the CoP (assessable criteria and critical points, control plan: what is to be controlled, when and by whom, and the type of sanction), documentation (attestation) and information.The precise identification of a terroir product and the local resources needed for its production is the first step in the process of activating a virtuous circle of origin-linked quality. This stage depends to a large extent on the local producers' increased awareness of the potential associated with specific local resources -which is what constitutes the basis for collective action to gain recognition for the value of a product. It depends therefore on identification of the specific quality of the product and the local resources involved, but also on the motivation of local stakeholders and the potential to devise a strategy for the optimization/preservation of the product.Various types of identifier can make up a GI:-a geographical name -alone, so that it becomes the name of the product (as with Roquefort), or in association with the common name of a product (as with Cotija cheese); -a name, symbol or words referring to a zone and its local inhabitants, but which is not a geographical name (e.g. Arriba cocoa);-associated supplementary characteristics that may also be considered geographical identifiers, such as pictures of famous places (mountains or monuments), flags, specific designs or folklore symbols;-the traditional form and appearance of the product, such as specific packaging or a common element on the labelTranslation of PGI, used as an abbreviation in French (Indication Géographique Protégée), Italian (Indicazione Geografica Protetta), Spanish, Romanian, and Portuguese.Any The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.An organization bringing together upstream and downstream partners from the same value chain with the purpose of regulating the market for the product, participating in the implementation of agricultural policy provisions, analysing the implications of various contractual arrangements, encouraging improvement in performance along the chain and defending its collective interests.The inventory is the most exhaustive list of agricultural and food products from a given zone for which at least one of the stages of preparation takes place in the zone (agricultural production or manufacture). The aims of carrying out the inventory must be defined and will guide the choice of data to be assembled on these products.Any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter, written, printed, stencilled, marked, embossed or impressed on, or attached to, a container of food.The organization, coordination, control and monitoring of activities, resources and people in order to reach defined objectives. This is achieved by defining policies and programmes that allocate resources and responsibilities to processes and people. In GI organizations, each member generally has managerial functions to carry out. In a GI system, appropriate management is a fundamental factor for the success of the GI process.A term used interchangeably to indicate trade marks, collective marks and certification marks. Depending on the context, \"mark\" can refer to a regular trade mark, a GI-related mark, a collective mark or a certification mark.The process of dividing the market into a number of homogeneous groups of consumers in order to implement targeted marketing strategies and actions.All the operations and tasks necessary to meet consumer demand. Marketing involves such operations as market research, handling, product quality and safety, packaging, branding, transport, and various decisions regarding sale itself (how, where and when). Differentiation labels, such as GI ones, can be an important part of marketing strategy. In GI organizations, marketing is carried out both by the organization itself (collective marketing) and by its individual members. It is therefore very important to decide how the collective marketing of the organization and the individual marketing operations of its members will be coordinated.A document describing the actions to be undertaken to achieve the marketing objectives according to the marketing strategy adopted. The marketing strategy is therefore put into practice with definition of the marketing leverages of product, price, placement and promotion.A market segment that addresses a need for a product or service not being met by mainstream suppliers. A niche market may be seen as a narrowly defined group of potential customers and usually develops when a potential demand for a product or service is not being met by any supply, or when a new demand arises as a result of changes in society, technology or the environment. Despite the fact that niche markets are of their nature very limited in volume as compared with the mainstream market (and hence do not have the benefit of an economy of scale), they may be very profitable, thanks to the advantages of specialization and of their focus on small and easily identified market segments.A product in which a specific quality is essentially attributable to its geographical origin, as a result of a combination of unique climatic conditions, soil characteristics, local plant varieties or breeds, local know-how, historical or cultural practices, and traditional knowledge concerning the production and processing of certain products. The interaction among these elementsThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.(which constitute what is known as the terroir) confers specific characteristics that allow the product to be differentiated from other products in the same category.A cooperative agreement or alliance between independent economic units sharing certain objectives, combining their resources and expertise to reach these objectives in the interests of each participant.In the sphere of GIs, a strategic partnership can be established between producers and processors to coordinate production and marketing. A partnership entails collective bargaining and some form of collective organization.According According to EC Regulation 510/2006, \"'geographical indication' means the name of a region, a specific place or, in exceptional cases, a country, used to describe an agricultural product or a foodstuff (a) originating in that region, specific place or country, (b) which possesses a specific quality, reputation or other characteristics attributable to that geographical origin, and (c) the production and/ or processing and/or preparation of which take place in the defined geographical area.\"\"The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs\" (International ISO standard 8402).A set of activities implemented in the context of a \"quality system\" with the aim of demonstrating effective management of quality, bearing in mind the critical points identified, in order to ensure that a good or service meets all quality requirements and to instill a certain level of confidence among both customers and managers.The term refers to the process by which society (consumers, citizens, government offices, other stakeholders in the value chain etc.) is in a position to recognize the value associated with a terroir product. This phase in the virtuous circle of origin-linked quality involves a precise description, enjoying unanimity among producers, of the characteristics of the zone, the production process and the quality attributes of the product.A registered right holder is the first to register that mark and enjoys exclusivity over any later users of the mark to ensure consumers are not confused by the two uses.Consists of adding an extra geographical qualifier referring to the origin zone (for example Normandy Camembert) to the name of a product of origin-linked quality that has become generic (a name that could be geographical, for example Camembert is a soft cheese that took its name from a village in Normandy in France), inasmuch as it has become common usage or is now used in different regions.Term referring to the recognition acquired by the GI product in the market and in society as the outcome of consumption history and traditions. In a general sense, \"reputation\" expresses what is commonly believed or stated about the abilities and/or qualities of a person or thing. In terms of trade,The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.reputation denotes the renown and/or recognizable character of an enterprise and/or a product produced by this enterprise. Economic theory stresses the role that reputation can play in solving certain problems arising from information asymmetry between producers and consumers in highend markets. In the case of originlinked products, reputation is a factor that can lead to a higher price based on the recognized excellence and tradition of the product. Such a reputation often requires the use of legal instruments to protect the product name.A trade mark term meaning the capacity of a sign to clearly distinguish the goods or services of one enterprise (including a collective group of producers) from those of another enterprise.A set of characteristics associated with a good or service that is recognized as distinct from mainstream products, either in terms of composition, production methods or marketing of the product in question. These characteristics thus allow the product to be differentiated in the market on the basis of a voluntary approach and specification of the product on the part of economic actors and to the extent that the prerequisites regarding generic quality (or basic quality with regard to consumer protection and respect for the rules of the market) are assured.In the value-creation process for origin-linked products, any person, group or organization with a direct or indirect stake in the outcome of the process, inasmuch as they can affect or be affected by its results. Local producers and their associations, companies involved in the value chain (processors, distributors, suppliers etc.), consumers, the government and any institution playing a part in the GI system are all key stakeholders.A document established by consensus that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, guaranteeing an optimum degree of order in a given context. Standards are set up by various types of organization to facilitate coordination among stakeholders and reduce uncertainty concerning the quality of a good or service. WTO defines a standard as a document approved by a recognized body, which provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods, with which compliance is not mandatory. It may also include or deal exclusively with terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labeling requirements as they apply toa product, a process or a production method. Standards drawn up by the international standardization community are based on consensus.Marketing that follows a strategy developed to reach consumers and hold its own against competitors. It entails a thorough analysis of consumers' needs and their typology (\"segmentation\" of the market) so that the product can be addressed to the most \"appropriate\" consumers (the \"target\" market).A Latin expression, literally meaning unique in its characteristics or of its own kind. In intellectual property law this expression is mainly used to identify a legal classification that exists independently of other categorizations due to its uniqueness or the specific creation of an entitlement or obligation.A term indicating an evolution that allows the preservation, maintenance and improvement of the quality of natural resources and the maintenance of environmental balance, with a view to managing them for the future. Sustainable development was defined in the Report of the Brundtland Commission (1987)  The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.indicating that resources should be used in such a way that the entire capital (including its option value) is not reduced and an unbroken stream of benefits can be obtained.The territorial strategy covers two aspects: the strategy (objectives and definition of resources) of the stakeholders in development in order to achieve local development (understood in the sense of economic and social development for all stakeholders in the zone on the basis of optimization of local resources); and the strategy devised for a specified administrative or political area, in this case by the competent political actors.A delimited geographical space in which a human community has built up a collective intellectual or tacit production know-how in the course of history, based on a system of interactions between a physical and biological environment and a set of human factors, in which the sociotechnical trajectories brought into play reveal an originality, confer a typicity and engender a reputation for a product that originates in that terroir.Typicity is an inheritance which has historical and geographical origins and which is anchored to a territory through a cultural identity and heritage.Defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as \"the ability to trace the history, application or location of that which is under consideration\". In the case of GI products, a traceability system has varying degrees of complexity (depending on the decisions taken by stakeholders and/or the normative framework) and allows clear identification of the various points in the origin and movement of the product and its raw materials all the way along the value chain until it reaches customers and consumers, including all the enterprises that have been involved in the production, processing and distribution process etc., to make sure that the CoP has been correctly applied and to intervene in the case of non-respect.In some countries, geographical indications can be protected as trade marks. Geographical terms or signs cannot be registered as trade marks if they are merely geographically descriptive or geographically misdescriptive. However, if a geographical sign is used\\ in such a way as to identify the source of the goods or services, and if consumers have over time come to recognize it as identifying a particular company, manufacturer or group of producers, it no longer describes only the place of origin, but also the \"source\" of the uniqueness of the goods or services. At this point, the sign has thus acquired a \"distinctive character\" or \"secondary meaning\" and can therefore be trade marked.The tradition surrounding a product is the body of knowledge and customs that make up the identity of the product for its historically affiliated community, its consumers and, more generally, people familiar with it.The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) Agreement overseen by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Under this agreement, the national intellectual property legislation of WTO members must establish the minimum level of protection for these rights as defined in the 73 articles of the agreement.A TSG in the EU means that a product must be traditional, or established by custom (for at least one generation or 25 years) and have characteristics that distinguish it clearly from other similar agri-food products. TSGs may have geographic affiliations but their production can take place anywhere in the world, subject to appropriate controls, so they are not treated as GIs here. Haggis, Mozzarella, Lambic, and Eiswein or Icewine are wellknown examples.The typicity of an agricultural or food product is a characteristic belonging to a category of products that can be recognized by experts or connoisseurs on the basis of the specific attributes common to such products. Typicity expresses the possibility of distinguishing an originlinked product from other similarThe Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system.or comparable products, and thus underlies the identity of the product. It includes a degree of internal variability within the category, but such variations do not compromise its identity. These properties of the category are described by a set of characteristics (technical, social, cultural) identified and defined by a human reference group, based on know-how distributed among the various stakeholders in the value chain: producers of raw materials, processors, regulators and consumers.A product has a unique character linked to its geographical origin if it cannot be replicated in another zone for objective reasons, whether these concern the physical characteristics of the natural environment or human factors (traditional know-how).A chain of activities through which a product (or a service) is produced and distributed to customers. A product goes through a series of processes and activities in the chain, at each stage gaining some value that is added to that from the previous steps.A term used to indicate activation of a \"quality virtuous circle\" based onrecognition of the values of an origin-linked product through the identification and development of its specific attributes. Four main stages in this virtuous circle have been identified: identification of resources (raising local awareness); product qualification; product remuneration; and the reproduction and enhancement of local resources.World Intellectual Property Organization is the United Nations organization for global intellectual property issues whose mandate is to facilitate discussion and learning on Intellectual Property (IP). WIPO has cooperation agreements with the World Trade Organization (WTO) and administers 24 international treaties including most of those relevant to GIs (in particular the Madrid and Lisbon Agreements).It also keeps the International Register of Appellations of Origin. See chapter 3 for more details.The virtuous circle of origin-linked quality and the associated strategy correspond to the process of promoting a product from the terroir (or a product of origin-linked quality). It allows a contribution to be made to sustainable local development through a series of steps (identification, qualification, remuneration, reproduction), which boost one another in a feedback loop.The zone or locality to which the link to the terroir refers is a specific geographical area, with physical limits separating it from neighbouring zones. The nature of the boundary of the zone depends on the element that determines its identity and may thus be political, cultural, physical, historical etc.The Geography of food: reconnecting with origin in the food system. ","tokenCount":"16294"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2f63b4a93689acd945a4723ba035b40d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5bee8824-0ff3-4cc5-b533-f2f2fa85095e/retrieve","id":"-732910084"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf033766-68ed-42ca-bc14-58573fc984b0","pagecount":"8","content":"A re ICTs in the fisheries sector benefiting ACP countries? Recent studies paint an ambiguous picture. While ICTs offer costeffective means to discover new fishing grounds, monitor environmental impacts and combat illegal fishing activities, they are also accelerating the decline of fish populations, in that they enable commercial fishing vessels to exploit stocks in areas once considered too difficult to fish. What's more, big fish eat little fishdeveloped countries clearly have an advantage over ACP nations in that they are applying ICTs in the fisheries sector, and are threatening the livelihoods of local fishermen.At the heart of the problem is the failure of policymakers to connect the dots between international and national regulations and their effects on regional and local fisheries. The lack of transparency has prevented collaborative efforts between different administrative levels to improve their fisheries management framework, and has frustrated attempts to take full advantage of ICTs. Yet, spurred by successful initiatives by scientists and NGOs, governing bodies are increasingly recognizing the value -even the necessity -of integrated, ICT-supported approaches to fisheries management. This issue of ICT Update highlights some recent initiatives that effectively address the interests of all stakeholders.The EU, under the new Common Fisheries Policy, is entering into fisheries partnership agreements with ACP countries, with targeted actions to support the implementation of monitoring, inspection and surveillance networks. In the South Pacific, the 17 island members of the Forum Fisheries Agency are collaborating in the operation of a satellite-based vessel monitoring system (VMS) to identify illegal fishing vessels. As Andrew Richards explains, the system is benefiting local fishermen and the region's tuna industry. From Guinea in West Africa, Peter Lowrey reports that local fishermen have formed community patrols and are working with coastguard services to deter illegal trawlers. Armed with GPS receivers, the fishermen can calculate the location of poachers, and radio the information to the nearest coastguard. The approach has proven so effective that it is now being adopted elsewhere in West Africa.ICTs are also being used in research initiatives aimed at improving the management of entire ecosystems. In South Africa's Great Fish River estuary, for example, acoustic telemetry is being used to monitor two fish species that are targeted by both subsistence and recreational fishermen. Margot Collett describes how the findings will be used in the design of conservation strategies to ensure the sustainability of the estuary's fisheries. Halfway across the continent, Dr William Kudoja reports on the EUfunded Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project, which is using sonar technology to assess the quantities of fish in the lake. With such data, the authorities can set catch quotas and, eventually, harmonize national measures for the equitable utilization of the lake's resources. Finally, Venu Pidachy explains how ICTs are being integrated into commercial post-harvest activities in Uganda, to ensure that exported fish products comply with the EU's food safety and quality regulations.It is clear that more comprehensive strategies to manage global fish resources are urgently needed. These initiatives demonstrate that ICTs can play a vital role both in informing policy and in implementing such strategies. T he EU currently has bilateral fishing agreements with 17 ACP countries, enabling European vessels to fish in ACP waters in exchange for financial compensation. Over the years, these agreements have evolved from simple 'pay, fish and go' contracts to broader fisheries partnership agreements (FPAs) containing 'targeted actions' that will contribute to the sustainability of fishing activities at the international level. The agreements are in line with EU commitments made at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, including the objective to 'maintain or restore stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield, with the aim of achieving these goals for depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible not later than 2015'.*Targeted actions now represent between 20 and 70% of the financial contributions paid by the EU under FPAs. These actions include supporting scientific assessments of fish stocks, controlling and monitoring fisheries activities, training, and the development of the local fisheries sector. The FPAs also stipulate that European vessels operating in foreign waters must not target species that are overfished or fully fished, or those exploited by artisanal fisheries. They must also comply with national fisheries policies of the third countries, respect conservation needs and follow regulations on, for example, mesh sizes and bycatch limitations. Furthermore, they are required to contribute to local economies such as by employing local seamen or observers on European vessels.In carrying out its targeted actions, the EU recognizes the role of ICTs, particularly communication technologies, in strengthening coordination between local and national authorities involved in fisheries surveillance. Crucially, the EU intends to step up the monitoring of European fishing vessels both in its own waters and in the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of ACP states. In order to ensure that these vessels comply with fleet capacity limits, since 2000 the EU has required all vessels to be equipped with a satellite-based vessel monitoring system (VMS). These systems can track the speed and course of fishing vessels and relay the information to local coastguards (see right). The EU has pledged financial support to ACP countries to establish regional VMS networks, and specific actions for their implementation are included in the FPAs. So far, such agreements have been signed with Angola, Madagascar, Mauritius, Senegal and the Seychelles, and more are likely to follow soon.These encouraging developments indicate that there is a growing consensus among EU Member States and ACP nations of the urgent need to turn the existing patchwork of monitoring, control and surveillance systems -involving many different authorities with many different priorities -into a coherent international management framework that will ensure the sustainability of ACP fisheries. * Communication from the Commission, On an Integrated Framework for Fisheries Partnership Agreements with Third Countries, COM(2002) 637 final.Gregor Kreuzhuber Gregor Kreuzhuber Gregor Kreuzhuber Gregor Kreuzhuber Gregor Kreuzhuber (gregor.kreuzhuber@cec.eu.int) is a spokesman for Franz Fischler, European Commissioner for Agriculture. For further information, visit http://europa.eu.int/ comm/fisheries/policy_en.htm A brand new device to keep dolphins clear of fishing nets is proving, quite literally, a resounding success. Developed by the Dutch company SaveWave, the Dolphin Saver is a sophisticated transmitter just 20 cm long that is attached to the nets. As soon as it touches water, the device emits harmless ultrasonic signals that interfere with the echo-location system used by the dolphins to navigate and find fish. Confused by the resulting ultrasonic jumble, the dolphins turn away, leaving a safe area around the nets. Not only does the device save the mammals from certain death as bycatch, it also prevents them stealing fish from the nets and damaging fishing gear, thus greatly improving catch levels and the overall productivity of fishing fleets. C onstable Hansen Kalran of the VanuatuPolice Maritime Wing has just logged on to the Internet and has downloaded a report that gives her cause for concern. Her monitor shows a satellite map of the entire exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of Vanuatu and the coordinates of all fishing vessels currently navigating its waters. All of the ships are following routes stipulated in their fishing agreements with the island state, save one: a foreign tuna fishing vessel that should be on its way home. Instead of directly leaving the EEZ from the port where it cleared customs, the vessel has stopped off en route, in all probability to catch extra fish illegally. Kalran wastes no time -she alerts her colleagues and within a few minutes a patrol boat is preparing to intercept and inspect the suspect ship.Dealing with incidents such as this is part of the daily routine of the Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) Division of the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA). The division has been successfully operating a satellite-based vessel monitoring system (VMS) for its member states in the western and central Pacific since 1999. The VMS is primarily used to ensure that foreign fishing vessels comply with regulations designed to promote the sustainable management and development of and thus to protect the livelihoods of local small-scale tuna fishermen. Enforcing compliance has become increasingly difficult, however. The Pacific tuna fisheries -which support an industry worth $1.8 billion per yearcurrently account for one-third of global tuna catches, and everyone wants a piece of the pie.To complicate matters, artisanal, subsistence and commercial tuna fishers are searching for four principal speciesskipjack, bigeye, yellowfin and albacoreas they migrate through the numerous national jurisdictions and areas of high seas. Approximately 50-60% of the total catch is taken within the EEZs of FFA members, which cover about 30 million km² of ocean. To stem the increase in illegal fishing vessels in this vast area, most FFA members have reserved their 12 nautical-mile exclusion zones for fishing by artisanal and subsistence fishermen, while other islands have put in place 40 nautical-mile exclusion zones that are offlimits to all foreign fishing vessels. Intruders, however, are always on the alert for fishing opportunities and, increasingly, can only be controlled with the help of ICT systems such as the FFA VMS.The FFA VMS uses satellite technology to pinpoint a vessel's position and then relays that information to an FFA member monitoring station. At the core of the system is an automatic location communicator (ALC), a sophisticated transponder that every fishing vessel operating in FFA territory is required to have onboard. This device, about the size of a car radio, consists of an integrated global positioning system unit and an Inmarsat transceiver, and monitors the vessel's position, speed and course. The information is beamed up from an inbuilt aerial to an Inmarsat satellite, which is fixed in geostationary orbit above the Pacific. The satellite transmits the data to a Land Earth Station in Australia, from where it is carried by telephone lines to the VMS hub computer at the FFA Secretariat in Honiara, in the Solomon Islands, for further processing. This computer identifies any vessels violating fishing regulations and generates alert reports. The reports are downloaded via an encrypted Internet connection by the FFA members in whose EEZ the vessels are operating. In January 2004, for example, FFA members were able to use the system to track the activities of 883 foreign fishing vessels.The FFA VMS has already proven to be a cost-effective means of providing support to the region's compliance and monitoring programme. According to recent statistics, reported cases of illegal fishing have remained at a consistently low level since its introduction in 1999. Its annual ongoing operating costs, estimated at $845 per vessel, are recovered from the participating tuna fishing vessels. The system also shows strong future potential -it could, for example, easily be applied to track other vessels, such as those that illegally transport live coral reef fish. The FFA VMS is thus paving the way in the development of a fully integrated fisheries management approach for the region. O nly a few years ago, when the subsistence fishermen of Bongolon sighted a trawler poaching in their fishing grounds, they looked on helplessly, sometimes firing submachine guns at it in frustration. The trawler would haul in its nets and leave without fear of penalty. Today, ICTs have come to the rescue of the members of this small community on Guinea's northern coast, in the form of global positioning system (GPS) technology. Upon sighting a poacher, the fishermen can now calculate its exact location using a hand-held GPS receiver, and radio the information to the nearest coastguard station. The coastguard then dispatches a patrol boat to intercept the intruder. Fishermen say that poachers now flee at the sight of them, now they know how quickly they can summon the authorities. A two-year experiment using the GPS and radio-assisted community patrols has proven so successful in Guinea that the approach is being adopted by other West African fishing nations.This development has come not a minute too soon -poaching is a problem that affects the entire West African coast, an important and highly sensitive fish breeding area. Experts predict that, if the poachers are not stopped, the region's coastal fisheries will be exhausted within 10 years. The situation has already reached crisis proportions in the coastal zone of Guinea, where 30,000 people depend on small-scale ocean fishing. Foreign industrial trawlers destroy the nets of local fishermen by dragging heavy steel trawl nets over them, and regularly collide with their wooden canoes at night, wrecking the boats and injuring or killing their crews. To help Guinea address this problem, in late 1999 the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) launched the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programme (SFLP), with funding from the UK's Department for International Development.Already, government figures confirm the success of the programme. In 2000, before community patrols began around Bongolon and two other fishing villages, industrial trawlers made 450 illegal incursions into the area, where they collided with several canoes, injuring 12 local fishermen. Since the GPS-equipped community patrol boats began operating, the number of poachers has fallen dramatically -only 56 incursions were recorded in the first six months of 2002.The key to the programme's effectiveness lies in the partnership between small-scale fishermen using their own motorized canoes and the Guinean coastguard, which lacks the equipment and resources needed to patrol 300 kilometres of coastline effectively.Although ICTs are playing a vital role in keeping the poachers at bay, the community patrol system now needs to be institutionalized, with an adequate budget for staff, equipment and training, to ensure that the technology is used to benefit the poor and protect the environment. As part of the programme's participatory approach, a National Coordinating Unit (NCU) has been set up to bring together technicians, government officers and members of key civil society organizations that represent the interests of fishing communities. The members of the NCU act as advocates within the fisheries sector on behalf of the community patrol concept.Mamadou Moussa Diallo, NCU member and socio-economist at the Boussoura National Centre for Fisheries Science, has carried out a study of the impact of the community surveillance project, which demonstrated its success. 'I think I am getting through to my colleagues about the system, the methodology and how it works. They are interested.'The coast of Guinea is guarded by the National Centre for Fisheries Surveillance and Protection, whose budget allows for only six or seven patrols per month. According to Mohamed Sidibé, the Centre's Assistant Director-General, community surveillance has been a great success. 'Now our boats can intervene when there is a call, and do not have to patrol at random', he says. 'In the beginning, patrol officers were sensitive about the project -they thought they might be replaced by the village patrolsbut now the spirit has changed. The system isn't perfect yet, but we can improve it.' 'The Centre doesn't have the means to expand the patrol network, but community surveillance has now been included in the government's poverty reduction strategy', he notes. 'The government will find the means to pay for its expansion.' One possible source of funding is the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative, a comprehensive approach to debt reduction initiated by the IMF and World Bank.Meanwhile, the SFLP community patrol system is being adapted for use in the Republic of the Congo, Gabon and Mauritania, and Cameroon has also expressed interest. Little by little, fishermen throughout West Africa are benefiting from the opportunities offered by ICTs to end the threat posed by foreign trawlers and to safeguard their livelihoods. Peter Lowrey describes how small-scale fishermen in Guinea have traded in their submachine guns for GPS devices to combat foreign trawlers poaching in their fishing grounds.SFLP: arming fishermen with GPS to combat poachers SFLP: arming fishermen with GPS to combat poachers SFLP: arming fishermen with GPS to combat poachers SFLP: arming fishermen with GPS to combat poachers SFLP: arming fishermen with GPS to combat poachers converts the sound signatures into highresolution spatial data indicating the position, and direction and speed of movement of each fish. Electronic tagging is an appropriate ICT tool for tracking migratory fish like the spotted grunter and dusky kob. In contrast with radio waves, for example, the acoustic (sound) signals are not hindered by the poor conductivity of the estuary's salty water. The information collected using this technique also allows the research team to collate fishery catch data with calculations of fish movement trends, in order to assess how vulnerable the species are to localized depletion. The team further hopes to explore the effectiveness of various conservation strategies to protect juveniles, such as creating protected areas within the estuary.The project's methods and findings could be applied far beyond the estuarythey may also assist in the development of sustainable fish exploitation strategies for various fishery sectors at national level. 'The techniques used in this initiative could also be applied to work we're doing at Kosi Bay [more than 700 km away], where the main recreational and subsistence fisheries target the same I n a boat in the Great Fish River estuary, in South Africa's Eastern Cape province, researchers gather around the screen of a laptop computer to watch a series of moving dots indicating the movements of fish beneath the water. Science fiction or science gone overboard? Neither -the researchers, from the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) and the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), are collaborating in a project using acoustic telemetry, or electronic tagging, to monitor the numbers and the behaviour of two species of fish -the spotted grunter and the dusky kob -as they migrate between the open sea and the estuary. The project's findings will be used to promote more sustainable fishing practices in order to protect the estuary's valuable resources.After being spawned at sea, spotted grunter (Pomadasys commersonnii) and dusky kob (Argyrosomus japonicus) enter the nutrient-rich waters of estuaries where they spend the first few years of their lives. Here, juveniles of the two species are heavily exploited, both by local subsistence communities for food, and recreational fishers, to the extent that the sustainability of these fisheries hangs in the balance. Better resource management, based on knowledge of the population biology, habitat and migratory behaviour of the species, is essential. The project team aims to describe the movements of the fish, how long they spend at sea and in the estuary, and the timing of their migration between the two habitats. Answers to these questions will be used to promote the sustainable development of the fisheries, and provide local and national authorities with the information they need to ensure an equitable distribution of the estuary's resources among the different user groups.The telemetry equipment consists of a battery-powered acoustic transmitter (fish tag) that is either attached externally or surgically implanted. Each transmitter emits unique coded signals on a fixed frequency and allows several individual fish to be tracked simultaneously. The transmitted signals are retrieved in either of two ways. Stationary hydrophones (underwater datalogging receivers), suspended from buoys positioned in the estuary, are used to monitor the presence or absence of fish within a fixed reception range. Alternatively, the researchers use a handheld hydrophone from a boat to track individual fish more closely. The signals are transferred to a laptop computer that Margot Collett (email: m.collett@ru.ac.za) is communications manager at SAIAB. The Great Fish River estuary project is funded by the South African/Norway Programme on Research Cooperation. For further information, visit www.saiab.ru.ac.za/story25.htm. species currently being studied on the Great Fish estuary', says Steven Weerts, research assistant at the University of Zululand. 'Institutional collaborations of this nature are invaluable as they assist in the transfer of knowledge and skills, and help build local capacity.'In future, the team plans to combine biological and physical data obtained from the fish tags with remote sensing data about, for instance, surface temperatures of the sea and the estuary. They will then be able to establish the relationship between movements and behaviour of the fish to oceanographic processes. This would constitute the final major advance necessary to understand the distribution of migratory fish in relation to their changing physical and biological environments on daily and seasonal time scales.Project members Amber Childs and Pinda Buthelezi lower a hand-held hydrophone from a boat to track individual fish. Photos: SAIAB, LotekMargot Collett explains how researchers in South Africa's Great Fish River project are using acoustic telemetry to help in the design of conservation strategies for the estuary's fisheries.Great Fish River project: promoting sound fishing practices Great Fish River project: promoting sound fishing practices Great Fish River project: promoting sound fishing practices Great Fish River project: promoting sound fishing practices Great Fish River project: promoting sound fishing practices T wice a year, at dusk, a fleet of research vessels begins combing the depths of Lake Victoria in East Africa. The crew members gaze intently at the water surface while their boats advance at a steady, methodical pace. Although the scene bears all the hallmarks of a well organized search party, there is not a single searchlight in sight. That's because instead of using a beam of light, the crew members are relying on beams of sound to find what they are looking for.The crew in question is a team of scientists working for the EU-funded Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP) of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization. They are investigating the fish stocks in the world's second largest freshwater lake. Assessing the amount of living matter, or biomass, in a body of water covering 68,800 km² may seem like a Herculean task, but the scientists are certainly up to the challenge. Their vessel is equipped with sound navigation ranging (sonar), a technology that was initially developed and used to find submarines at great depths under the ocean.The scientists are using sonar not only to determine the numbers of fish present in Lake Victoria, but also to identify the various species they find, and to pinpoint areas where fish stocks are concentrated or most heavily depleted.Here's how it works: onboard the research vessel is a small sonar system, at the heart of which is a transducer, a device that converts electrical energy from a transmitter into high-frequency sound Dr William Kudoja (email: kudoja@lvfo.org) is a senior scientist at the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization. For more information, visit www.inweh.unu.edu/lvfo/Default.htm.William Kudoja explains how sonar technology is being used to assess the quantities of fish in Lake Victoria and is helping the authorities to set reasonable catch quotas.waves, or sonar signals. The sonar signals travel through the water and form an 'acoustic beam'. When the beam hits a fish in the lake, it bounces back an echo, which is captured by the transducer. The transducer converts the echo back into electrical energy and relays it to a laptop computer. That's when things get interesting. Coupled with position data from the vessel's global positioning system (GPS), the computer converts the incoming echoes into a high-resolution echogram showing the exact number and location of targeted fish. What's more, each fish species emits an echo with a unique amplitude that is identified by the computer. By separating the echoes, the researchers can calculate the biomass of different fish species.Why go to all the trouble? The reason is that Lake Victoria's fish stocks are at risk of being over-exploited by the three nations bordering the lake -Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. With accurate data on the number of fish in the lake, the authorities can impose reasonable fishing quotas that will ensure the sustainability of the lake's fisheries. Accordingly, the LVFRP initiative is an important element of the larger fisheries management programme of the tri-state Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization, which aims to harmonize national measures for the equitable utilization of the lake's living resources.The project has so far carried out stock assessments for Lake Victoria's three most important commercial fish species: the Nile perch (Lates niloticus), the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and a sardine-like fish known locally as the dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea). The LVFRP team members have found that the stocks of Nile perch amount to 530,000-650,000 tonnes per square kilometre, while those of Nile tilapia and dagaa each amount to approximately 1.2 million tonnes/km 2 . From these biomass estimates, the scientists have calculated the indicative maximum sustainable yield (MSY), or the amount of fish that can be harvested each year without depleting the stocks. For the Nile perch, for example, the MSY is around 212,000 tonnes. If the region's fishery is to remain sustainable, the harvested amount should be below the MSY so that the fish are able to spawn.Most recently, data from the biannual acoustic surveys were combined with catch assessments and trawl surveys to indicate that Nile perch fishing activities had reached critical levels. The findings showed a significant decline in the number of fish reaching maturity, the presence of too many immature fish in catches, and low fecundity levels. In response to these worrying trends, the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization partner states have introduced measures to ban the harvesting and processing of Nile perch within the size range 50-85 mm throughout the lake. The measures are aimed at protecting both very young fish, so that they can breed at least once, and adult fish that are about to spawn. To ensure that fishermen catch fish of the permitted size, the use of gill nets with a minimum mesh size of 127 mm has been recommended for the Nile perch and Nile tilapia fisheries. For the dagaa, the recommended mesh size is just 10 mm, to be used in designated fishing grounds only.These and other measures directly related to the development of a long-term fisheries management plan for Lake Victoria have been welcomed by local fishing communities. The fishermen now catch bigger fish, get more money for their catch, and are assured of fish the next day. Thanks in large part to the ongoing efforts of LVFRP scientists, the sustainability of the lake's resources, and the future prospects for local fisheries, are improving steadily. Fishermen use their WAP-enabled mobile phones to get real-time information on the prices of their fish on local markets. The fishermen can master the technology within a few days, and are making full use of the service and the accurate price data it provides in their negotiations with middlemen. Manobi has developed a system that collects data in real time and makes use of Internet and mobile technologies to follow the daily price fluctuations and deliveries of fish to markets. This information is transferred to and stored in a central database, analyzed and transmitted to users via a unique 'multimodal' data platform. Manobi ) and email newsletter. Each issue focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural ) and email newsletter. Each issue focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural ) and email newsletter. Each issue focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural ) and email newsletter. Each issue focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web resources and projects. The next issue will be available on 3 May 2004. resources and projects. The next issue will be available on 3 May 2004. resources and projects. The next issue will be available on 3 May 2004. resources and projects. The next issue will be available on 3 May 2004. resources and projects. The next issue will be available on 3 May 2004. What is needed, then, is a control mechanism that takes in both these factors right through the entire fish processing supply chain, from the moment a fish is caught to the dispatch of the final product.Our fish processing plant in Uganda is one of the first in East Africa to implement such a comprehensive control mechanism. It has put into place a system of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) which is based on standard operating procedures and good manufacturing practices. HACCP dates back to the 1960s, when NASA needed a foolproof method to prevent potentially catastrophic diseaseproducing bacteria and toxins in food consumed on space missions. From the 1990s onwards, the food industry has adopted this method to comply with international food safety and hygiene regulations, chief among them European Council directives 91/493/EEC and 98/83/EEC, which lay down the requirements for handling and marketing fish products destined for the EU.HACCP is, essentially, a management tool that establishes control over the entire food preparation process. It aims to prevent food safety problems rather than identifying them after they have already occurred. Under this system, food inspections take place at every level of the fish supply chain -at the catch, landing, processing and marketing stages -and involve all main industry stakeholders, from small fishermen and processing plant workers to traders and regulatory authorities. When, for example, a parasite is found in a catch at the landing stage, it is stopped in its tracks and will never reach the processing plant, thus preventing mounting costs and the further spread of the organism. HACCP also imposes strict standards regarding the construction of buildings and equipment intended for holding fish prior to export. On-site laboratories, strict record keeping, and accurate traceability procedures are other requirements.The chain starts with the local fishermen, who are increasingly using ICTs in their daily activities. Mobile phones, for example, now allow fishing crews to communicate with staff on shore, to notify them of any preparations that need to be made or to alert them to any difficulties. Many larger fishing vessels are equipped with computers and software that allow their crews to weigh their catch immediately and store it at the right temperature. Also, in the near future, sophisticated GPS and sonar devices will provide an affordable means of accurately tracking and determining the size of fish stocks (see elsewhere in this issue).Once ashore, the fish are subjected to quality control inspections with the help of software that measures the catch against predefined standards, assessing everything from the freshness and shelf-life of the fish, to their texture and post-mortem skin colour. The results are entered into a database. Fish that pass the test are transported to the processing plant, where they are weighed by electronic scales and graded with the help of another software package. The next step involves plant workers filleting or descaling the fish, while computer programs calculate the speed at which this is carried out and continually regulate work environment temperatures. When the fish have been deskinned and trimmed, they are graded once more as workers input their new weight and quality parameters into a database. They are then quickly moved to a chilling/freezing area, where a computer monitors the temperature and total amount of time the fish are required to stay inside. The fish are subsequently packed in boxes or cartons and moved to a separate cold storage area, which is also computercontrolled, before being dispatched to the airport or port.Marine Products Ltd is currently working to perfect this HACCP-based and ICT-supported quality control system. HACCP not only allows us to comply with EU regulations, it also produces an efficient work environment that our employees find stimulating. Above all, the system -which is in place in several other Ugandan fish processing plants -has made it possible for us to stay competitive in the international export market and to secure the future of our national fisheries.Venu Pidachy (email: pvenu@ugandamarine.com) is a quality assurance manager at Uganda Marine Products, Kampala.Fish processing lines are becoming increasingly high-tech. This unit uses laser vision to trim, weigh, portion and grade fish. Photo: Marel","tokenCount":"5302"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9e6ed3e6153aa24d97de56854e5466f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1329bb5a-01e9-4df3-b1c6-32334752ded7/retrieve","id":"-1616308975"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3e00091a-1d46-45ce-989e-c519c861c4a7","pagecount":"4","content":" CCAFS has been pioneering management, partnership, and learning approaches for scaling CSA since its beginning. After ten years' implementation, lessons learnt of practitioners validate two concepts that CCAFS has used and developed for scaling CSA: The Three-Thirds Principle for effective sciencepolicy engagement (Dinesh et al. 2018) applies widely for scaling CSA, when adding the element of iterative learning. The LearningWheel with 11 cornerstones for effective research and development to improve livelihoods and the environment (Campbell et al. 2006) is a useful framework for managing not only R4D, but also scaling processes.CCAFS started in 2009 as a CGIAR Global Challenge Program. The original focus was on researching climatesmart agriculture (CSA) as a solution to the increasing threats of climate change to agriculture and food security. Increasingly, CCAFS invested in efforts for bringing the adoption of CSA to scale, with finally the aim of \"scaling CSA\" becoming integral part of CCAFS' Phase II strategy and philosophy since 2017. Measures to promote these objectives among CCAFS' and CGIAR's project implementers, partners and the wider international development community, were among others: Pioneering results-based management and the online platform MARLO (Managing Agricultural Research for Learning and Outcomes); Driving institutional change, e.g. by promoting the Three-Thirds Principle for investing a third of resources in each of engagement, evidence building and outreach activities (see figure 2), with a subsequent change in staff and project key performance indicators. Incentivizing innovative initiatives, e.g. with seed funding for prototyping, competitive calls and prizes; Establishing innovative partnerships and forms of cooperation; e.g. becoming a cornerstone investor of the Althelia Biodiversity Fund Brazil, to support new economic models that promote biodiversity; Providing unconventional spaces for learning and exchange, e.g. by coining the \"un-conference\" format.With CCAFS working across all different sectors and levels, and on a multitude of climate-smart technologies and practices, scaling pathways and lessons learnt can be quite context specific. However, when in 2019, more than 20 practitioners from CCAFS projects of 14 CGIAR centers and partners, shared their experiences at the occasion of a review of CCAFS scaling activities, some lessons could be distilled that widely apply for the \"art of scaling\". What is more, these lessons validate two concepts used and developed by CCAFS with the aim to maximize the development impacts of its research.The difficulty and richness of scaling CSA lies in its high diversity and context specificity. Rooted in the principles of agro-ecology, CSA technologies and practices can provide solutions to a large range of climate change-induced impacts, or threats of these for agriculture. However, what is climate-smart in one situation, might not be in another. Taking place in the wider context of transforming food systems, actors with leverage often do not focus directly on scaling CSA technologies and practices, but rather on providing tools and evidence, strengthening capacities and enabling the environments, so that wide take-up of CSA can happen. These efforts translate into a range of packaged solutions, designed for and with the partners, next users and farmers, always seeking to respond to the small holder farmers' needs.Farmers' uptake of CSA often does not depend on a single intervention, but is also influenced by a variety of factors in the food system, including economic, social and cultural diversity. Partners and next users come from the different sectors, and tackle different leverage points at the food systems, from local to national and global levels, and back (see figure 1). Different decision making mechanisms again require different incentives and approaches This set-up defies pre-defined and fixed scaling pathways. However, a set of principles and mechanisms exist, that apply widely and are validated by CCAFS participants and partners from practicing scaling CSA of the last 10 years.Not to re-invent the wheel! Many general lessons for scaling CSA fit into Three-Thirds Principle for sciencepolicy engagement (figure 2), which puts equal importance to engagement, evidence building and outreach activities:User-centric approaches will prioritize innovations with tangible benefits for the farmers, mitigating their risks, and responding to their needs and environments. Joint needs assessments with end users and partners are key for setting the priorities right. Albeit this will initially consume time and efforts, it will save time and money in the end.Engaging all stakeholders from the very beginning in all processes is crucial, but with different intensity at the different times from planning until evaluation. Empowering users and partners by co-designing, and sharing the budget and decision-making helps stakeholders own the approach and creates robust scaling mechanisms.Evidence is at the heart of all innovation and scaling processes! Different partners need different types and robustness of evidence at different stages, and for different purposes. Scientific credibility is key. For scaling, though, peer exchanges (e.g. \"farmer-to-farmer\" or \"farmer-topolicy maker\") can also be important sources of credibility.Although planning helps, opportunities often arise unexpectedly, beyond control. Serendipity means to be at the right place at the right time, and ready! Thus, integrate scaling efforts into existing systemsand keep them adaptable to quick priority changes. Tailor communication outputs to the different stakeholders, levels and intended purpose, and adapt to the language and vocabulary of the targeted audience. Sometimes, evidence will not lead to action. Try not to be descriptive. People determine on their own what is best for them and like to \"figure it out themselves\".Capacity building requires a system-level approach, especially when aiming at reducing the dependency from researchers, and therewith from external funding. Increasing the leverage of local skills for scaling is crucial, e.g. by designing university courses, as local scientists can accelerate and sustain the scaling processes.Perhaps what is not covered in the Three-Thirds Principle is the element of iterative learning, and how this can affect and improve daily work, approaches and management. As early as 2006, later CCAFS leaders identified eleven corner stones for navigating complexities in R4D, displayed in form of a LearningWheel, where each aspect systemically interacts with the others. Today's lessons show that these cornerstones are as relevant as ever:Increasingly, global focus shifts from scaling certain innovations, to achieving sustainable change at scale. Scaling is not a straight line, even single projects have to cover different areas. Scaling is rather a \"series of synergies and momentums\" towards achieving impact.Partners are best chosen for a shared vision, scaling mindset and their respective contributions. They also bring different necessities for the forms of cooperation. The potential of intermediaries and social movements is underresearched.Increased complexities require trans-disciplinary teams, with emphasis on social sciences, but also management skills for scaling. Good practices to empower the teams are regular reflections and encouraging entrepreneurship of (new and/or young) staff that enjoy going to the field.A lot of success today has roots in long-term trust-and relationship building (5-25 years). With new partners and networks, time and resources might be needed to invest in \"levelling or help levelling the playing field\". Champions of the different stakeholders' institutions can facilitate and speak the respective languages.When funding structures do not support scaling, good practice is to have a core project, and several smaller ones, e.g. to cover the gaps of seed funding/prototyping, feasibility studies, follow-up transaction costs and impact assessments. The varying maturity of science and the different operational modes of partners and stakeholders can lead to leapfrogging or delays in implementation.Holding on to the vision and objectives while allowing flexibility in the pathways and attached deliverables is crucial. Managing relationships includes to negotiate different interests. Change management in one's own and the respective champions' institutions can reduce pressure on individuals and open up non-traditional pathways.Evidence that an innovation's is scalable needs to prove a clear added value compared to existing or competing new solutions. Useful are e.g. cost benefit analyses and farmers/consumers' willingness to pay. Perfect scaling information further includes e.g. stakeholder mappings, process analyses, market studies, and social, economic and environmental scenarios.Learnings from previous projects include both success and failure stories. They need to be shared cross-regions and cross-topics, and applied in new projects. The difficult part in knowledge management is less the sharing, but maintaining participants' commitment. E.g. communities of Figure 3: The LearningWheel for effective research and development (Campbell et al. 2006) practice need a clear aim and direct benefit for partners to invest time and resources.Not only user-but stakeholder oriented: Finding the sweet spots of all stakeholders that have a major interest in that particular domain can create incentives and multiple-wins. A \"scaling mindset\" will move people away from the theoretical debate to actually trying out things. Once feeling the entrepreneurial dynamics, people tend to enjoy the energy and being part of \"something big\".Not everything needs to be scaled. Innovations can also have an optimum scale for delivering the wished benefits. Scaling also means scaling risks. How to assess the unknown? Partners can help to develop and apply \"do-noharm\" and responsible scaling approaches.Theories of change need to be based on systems analysis, involve stakeholders' networks, reflect the interconnectedness of factors, and enable iteration. Partner agreements can provide continuous M&E along the scaling process, including regular checks on assumptions, and should negotiate the value of contribution versus needs of attribution.","tokenCount":"1496"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7aa0553306218f30b26a3977d993a8e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ec73d139-c01a-4c97-81b5-849363b9032d/retrieve","id":"1370827567"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"95b47672-0d1f-4e63-818e-0ceeba3d997e","pagecount":"11","content":"This working paper has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AICCRA, donors, or partners.Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution -Non-commercial 4.0 International License.An introduction and an opening prayer marked the start of the gathering. Mr. Gariba (PPRSD) begun with a welcome message and the opening remarks. He mentioned that there are new outbreaks of pests and diseases and introduction of new species. During the implementation of the AICCRA project farmers highlighted the various issues they encounter with regards to pests, and there has been the support provided to manage pests' issues successfully and sustainably. The reason for the focus on Agric Extension officers and farmers is that they are the direct consumers of whatever is been sent, whiles the regulators focus on backstopping and providing recommendation to farmers and AEAs.• To review plant pest and disease status scouting, monitoring and surveillance approaches.• To review management options used by farmers to control pests.• To review risk reporting procedures towards the development of Ghana's early warning and rapid response system for pests  ✓ Demonstrations and discussions on the use of different pheromone traps.✓ Scouting or visual inspection of pests using the common scouting patterns; walking in a field on a planned W-shape, X-shape, and ladder-shape.After the scouting activities the two groups reported their observations Group 1 preferred the W-shape pattern for scouting, with the following reasons• It is easy to work with.• Requires less time.• Can be performed alongside other field activities.Group 2 preferred the X-shape pattern for scouting, with the following reasons• It is quite easy to work with.• Gives a good field representation.•","tokenCount":"280"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87372a80e8c2718dbd9eee5eb5a3e8e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c068aaf-d713-4fec-bb45-0904a893b978/retrieve","id":"-682654513"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b947367e-e8ac-49cd-bd0a-0a951234f7e3","pagecount":"6","content":"food when most other crops are still growing. The leaves and shoots, which are also edible, can be ready for harvest even earlier, and these are good sources of vitamins A, B, and C. The rest of the foliage can be used for livestock feed. In 2018, Kenya produced 871,010 metric tons of sweetpotatoes on an estimated 64,293 hectares.The International Potato Center (CIP), a research for development organization with a focus on potato and sweetpotato, promotes science-based solutions to increase food and nutrition security and economic growth. This work includes enhancing access to affordable nutritious food, catalyzing inclusive, sustainable business and employment opportunities, and boosting the climate resilience of root-and-tuber-based food systems. CIP has been active in Kenya for over three decades, working closely with national and county governments, the Kenya Agriculture & Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS), the private sector, and several development and humanitarian partners. Through these partnerships, CIP has developed, tested, and deployed technologies and training to improve harvests, incomes and nutrition.CIP has supported the breeding, evaluation, and release of more than 10 improved potato varieties and 15 improved Agriculture is a major driver of Kenya's economic growth, accounting for approximately 33% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and an additional 27% of GDP through links to other sectors such as manufacturing, distribution and services.More than 40% of the total population and about 70% of the rural population are employed in agriculture, and this sector plays an important role in the nation's vision for 2030 -to transform Kenya into a newly-industrializing, middle-income country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment. Moreover, agriculture is central to the Government of Kenya's Big 4 priority agenda for 2017-2022, which seeks food and nutrition security for all Kenyans.The potato plays a vital role in Kenya's food and nutrition security plan as a source of calories, potassium, vitamin C and iron for millions, and a cash crop that enables families to afford diverse diets. Approximately 800,000 smallholder farmers in Kenya and another three million people-transporters, distributors, processors, vendors, retailers, and exporters-depend on potatoes for income. The National Potato Council of Kenya (NPCK) estimates that the 2019 annual potato harvest was worth KES 50 billion.Sweetpotato is another nutritious crop that should be promoted more for intercropping in farming systems. Many varieties currently being planted in Kenya are ready to harvest within 3-4 months of planting and provideThere is growing demand for orange-fleshed sweetpotato in Kenya's processed food sector for use as an ingredient in breads, cookies, buns and other products. Smallholder farmers who supply processors earn more than those who sell sweetpotatoes in local markets, whereas the production of sweetpotato products has created income opportunities for women and young people. To facilitate the crop's use by the food industry, CIP and partners developed and promoted a method for producing © CIP sweetpotato varieties -six of them pro-vitamin-A, orange-fleshed varieties -and the development of seed systems to deliver these varieties to farmers. Much breeding work has also focused on biofortification -increasing the nutritional content of a crop through conventional breeding -which has produced pro-vitamin-A sweetpotatoes that are widely grown and consumed in Kenya, and iron-and zinc-biofortified potatoes that are under evaluation. Improved varieties have facilitated better pest and disease management, cultivation of these crops in areas that were once too dry for them, nutritional improvements, and the creation of new value chains. Targeted interventions have addressed major challenges such as a shortage of quality planting materials, sub-optimal farming practices, and poor marketing infrastructure. Such interventions have strengthened the capacity of local partners, including national and county government organizations, and enhanced farm productivity, sustainability, resilience, nutrition and food security.CIP contributes to Kenya's needs and priorities through research, innovations, and capacity strengthening. CIP works closely with KALRO and KEPHIS to develop and deliver the potato and sweetpotato varieties Kenyan farmers and markets need, and to foster agricultural diversification and rural development. CIP scientists also work along potato and sweetpotato value chains, strengthening seed systems, supporting good agronomic practices, and promoting technologies to reduce post-harvest losses.© CIP aseptic, shelf-stable, orange sweetpotato puree, which reduces postharvest loss and increases availability. The puree can be used to replace 45 percent of the wheat flour in bread, reducing production costs while resulting in a more nutritious product.Two Kenyan owned companies produce puree, enabling bakeries to sell nutritious sweetpotato bread and other products year-round. Every day, Kenyan bakeries and supermarkets sell thousands of loaves of sweetpotato buns and bread, two slices of which provide 10% of the daily vitamin A requirement of an adult. This innovation was made possible by support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foreign & Commonwealth Development Office, USAID and various partners.Over the last seven years, seven high-yielding, climate-resilient and disease-resistant CIP-bred potato varieties have been released in Kenya: Sherekea, Unica, Wanjiku, Chulu, Nyota, Konjo and Lenana, (Learn more about them on the NPCK websitehttps://npck.org/available-seed). They are helping farmers increase their food production and incomes.Pests and diseases spread by seed potatoes are a primary cause of low potato yields in Kenya. CIP has worked with KALRO and KEPHIS to ramp-up production of quality seed potatoes with technologies such as aeroponics and rooted apical cuttings, to supplement established methods. Planting disease-free certified seed, combined with good farming practices, can double or triple yields. Public and private seed producers and multipliers are now producing certified seed, and as the majority of trained seed multipliers seek certification from KEPHIS, certified seed will become more available. CIP also promotes the use of diffused light storage, a low-cost technology that can reduce losses and maintain seed potato quality.Under the Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) program, funded by Feed the Future-USAID, CIP worked with the governments of Meru, Elgeyo-Marakwet, Uasin Gishu, Nandi, Bungoma and Taita Taveta counties to provide over 70,000 potato farmers with new varieties, training in agricultural best practices, basic numeracy and business skills, enabling them to improve their productivity and profitability.With over 100,000 registered smallholders, Viazi Soko (Virtual potato market), is a one-stop digital platform for potato farmers and others providing information on certified seed, produce outlets, and market prices. CIP supported the development of, and upgrades to this platform.Farmers have joined together in producer organizations to aggregate and market their potatoes collectively. Under AVCD, CIP supported the establishment and strengthening of six farmer organizations in six major potato producing counties. Their committee members received training in good governance, leadership, cooperative management, and business skills. Each organization now has its own business plan. • To facilitate the sustainable diversification of agricultural systems;• To enhance access to affordable nutritious food, and;• To help generate inclusive income and employment opportunities.Funder: African Development Bank (2018 -2021) CIP manages the orange-fleshed sweetpotato compact of the Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) initiative. TAAT aims to boost productivity and make Africa self-sufficient in key agricultural commodities, focusing on nine priority value chains in more than 20 countries, including Kenya. CIP works with partners to scale up production, processing and marketing of orange sweetpotato, creating a diversified sector that delivers nutritious food to rural and urban populations, especially the poor. Specific objectives include: (1) increase productivity and production among smallholders and large farmers; (2) improve incomes from the sale of fresh sweetpotatoes and processed products, as well as promoting employment opportunities; and (3) improve incomes from the production and use of sweetpotato-based silage in small-to medium-scale livestock and dairy systems.TAAT seeks to extend the benefits of orange-fleshed sweetpotato to at least 1.5 million people in 12 African countries. At least 300,000 beneficiaries are already producing and consuming the nutritious crop. Advocacy efforts are leading to the integration of affordable and nutritious foods into national and regional policies, thereby setting the stage for further investment in nutrition-sensitive value chains and sustainable agri-food systems. Funder: FCDO (2018-22) CIP and partners seek to promote the benefits of pro-vitamin-A biofortified sweetpotato more widely and target vulnerable households and communities to ensure its nutritional benefits reach those most in need. This will be achieved through the development of new climate-resilient, nutritious varieties, and evidence generated through sustainable delivery models for taking them to scale.Through the Development and Delivery of Biofortified Crops at Scale (DDBIO) project, CIP is partnering with the United Nations Wood Food Programme (WFP) to promote the cultivation and consumption of nutritious, drought-resistant sweetpotato in arid and semi-arid lands in partnership with the governments in Baringo, Garissa, Isiolo, Samburu, Tana River and Wajir counties. In addition to getting pro-vitamin-A sweetpotato into local markets, the project will increase demand from 'institutional markets' such as WFP cash transfer programs and public procurement for schools and other institutions.Funder: CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers andBananas (2019 -2021) The overall goal of the project is to contribute to improved nutrition and incomes in Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda through profitable and vibrant orange-sweetpotato-based value chains. The project promotes the commercialization of purée products by creating demand and adding value in baked and fried food products. Specifically, it seeks to: increase the productivity and production of OFSP among smallholder farmers linked to processing activities; establish sweetpotato purée processing capacity in commercial enterprises in Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda; develop market chains for sweetpotato purée-based bakery products in the above countries; and pilot a long-life sweetpotato purée (shelf life of 12-24 months) for use in bakeries, coffee shops, hotels and restaurants, and for ready-to-eat food formulations in Kenya using thermal processing technology.CIP has collaborated with KEPHIS for more than 20 years and supported the institution's role as a Regional Centre of Excellence for Germplasm Management. Sweetpotato germplasm is acquired from breeders and scientists across sub-Saharan Africa for virus removal (by CIP), indexing and testing (by KEPHIS). CIP scientists collaborate with KEPHIS to backstop ISO 17025 accreditations for sweetpotato disease diagnostics, occasional training and provision of diagnostics tools and reagents. Novel sweetpotato seed production technologies, such as sandponics, which increases multiplication rates and reduces unit costs, have been validated with KEPHIS. CIP strengthened capacity at the KEPHIS Plant Quarantine and Biosecurity Station (PQBS) to implement a business plan and revolving fund for sustainable sweetpotato seed production. KEPHIS subsequently adopted this approach for other crops The \"100 best bet\" sweetpotato varieties for sub-Saharan Africa are conserved in a laboratory and screen houses at the KEPHIS PQBS, to enable rapid multiplication and distribution to national programmes. These are available through an online ordering platform. 1 CIP also collaborates on building capacity for novel disease diagnostics, and potential accreditation in three technologies: 1) LAMP for field-based diagnostics of sweetpotato viruses; 2) SiRNA training; and 3) Development of regulations and seed standards for sweetpotato. ","tokenCount":"1771"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cb6d8a8884c94dbd0d271fb575236477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67941e49-7dfd-440a-ac66-2cbc1c032578/retrieve","id":"-2049133029"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7e2d9093-3bc2-4abe-b11a-551462851f6d","pagecount":"7","content":"For the past ten years, IFPRI research -with support from PIM since 2012 -has informed the European Union debate on biofuels. The most recent piece of legislation on this topic is the 2018 Renewable Energy Directive, which will impact the USD 45 billion European biofuel market and is expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 13 million tons annually.Estimating the effect of indirect land use change requires complex modeling. An IFPRI team used a global computable general equilibrium model (the MIRAGE model) to estimate the impact of EU biofuel policies and provided technical support to the EU debates from 2010 to 2018. IFPRI results highlighting a far larger effect of biofuel mandates on greenhouse gas emissions than previously estimated ( [1], [2], [3], [4]] were used in the EU debate on biofuels in 2011 ( [5], [6]) and informed the so-called \"U-turn on biofuel policies\" in 2013-2014 [7], a revised EU legislation in 2015 [8], and more recently the 2018 Renewable Energy Directive [9]. IFPRI's reports on the topic received extensive media attention ( [5], [7]).Because the European Union is the world's top agricultural importer and its use of biofuels significantly affects global markets and production systems, the EU biofuel policy reform has tremendous environmental and economic implications at the global level and especially for developing countries. The new EU strategy, which covers the period 2020-2029, will significantly impact the USD 45 billion biofuel market in Europe and is expected to reduce CO2 emissions by 13 million tons annually. CGIAR's long-term policy support to EU processes contributed to this achievement.• https://www.ifpri.org/blog/political-stalemate-over-eu-biofuel-policy-continues • http://www.foodsecurityportal.org/eu-moves-one-step-closer-lower-biofuel-mandate • https://tinyurl.com/y85b4g2zPart II: CGIAR system level reporting In 2009, to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, the European Union adopted a Renewable Energy Directive that required member states to use renewable resources, including biofuels, for 10 percent of their transport fuel needs by 2020. Soon after this, concerns were raised about the environmental implications of biofuel mandates. When agricultural land is used to plant biofuel crops, new land is often converted to agriculture to make up for the land lost for food production. This \"indirect land use change\", which corresponds to clearing of forests, peatlands and wetlands rich in sequestered carbon, causes emissions of carbon dioxide -the hidden ripple effect of biofuels on the environment.Estimating the effect of indirect land use change requires complex modeling. An IFPRI team used a global computable general equilibrium model (the MIRAGE model) to estimate the impact of EU biofuel policies and provided technical support to the EU debates from 2010 to 2018. IFPRI results highlighting a far larger effect of biofuel mandates on greenhouse gas emissions than previously estimated ([1], [2], [3], [4]] were used in the EU debate on biofuels in 2011 ( [5], [6]) and informed the so-called \"U-turn on biofuel policies\" in 2013-2014 [7]. In April 2015, the EU Parliament voted in favor of amending the Renewable Energy Directive and related legislation to reduce the risk of indirect land use change, limiting member states' consumption of biofuels grown from local or foreign agricultural land to 7 percent of their total biofuel consumption. The new Directive, informed by IFPRI's research, also enhanced the reporting structure for indirect land-use changes. More recently, the 2018 recast Renewable Energy Directive [9] addressed the risk of indirect land use change by setting limits on biofuels that are related to high risks of indirect land use change.Because the European Union is the world's top agricultural importer and its use of biofuels significantly affects global markets and production systems, the EU biofuel policy reform has tremendous environmental and economic implications at the global level and especially for developing countries. The new EU strategy, which covers the period 2020-2029, will significantly impact the USD 45 billion biofuel market in Europe and is expected to reduce CO2 emissions by 13 million tons annually.","tokenCount":"636"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"67b8793a38185b9c365bcc65f78c0edf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1bc55414-e113-4ae0-8364-b5adc965ebb7/retrieve","id":"-121894100"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5d738b88-0c82-4a4d-adef-d156f6d904bc","pagecount":"8","content":"Digitalisation in its many forms is fast spreading across all aspects of agriculture in developing countries, transforming and disrupting the ways food is produced, traded and consumed. It is driving increased attention to data that underpin decisions; profiling that guides targeted precision services; mobile phones that deliver advice to farmers; drones that survey land, plants and soil; sensors that monitor behaviour of animal, crop and environmental systems; internet that connects platforms and value chains; digital wallets that power online payments and mobile banking; blockchains that build trust and transparency in transactions; computers that run farm management models; satellites that measure and forecast weather conditions; radio frequency identification that tags, tracks and traces farm products; smartphones and cameras that share information about outbreaks of diseases and pests; artificial intelligence that extends and replaces human interventions in many farm tasks; and social media that empower and engage us all -from food producers to consumers. Underlying all of these, digitalisation is changing the ways that people, business and government interconnect, engage and operate, disrupting and reinventing business processes from the ground up.Do innovative digital solutions improve the performance, competitiveness and profitability of farmer-oriented agribusinesses in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries?Thirty practitioners attending a recent CTA workshop zoomed in on real cases to test this question, assessing what works, how and why and drawing out insights and lessons -actionable knowledge -for wider application.Workshop participants identified five intersecting drivers that explain why farmer-oriented agribusinesses invest in digitalisation: to reduce risk, raise productivity, increase efficiency, improve decisions, and enhance access to markets. Participants argued that digital interventions all serve one or more of these, depending on specific local needs and situations. A critical factor underpinning success or failure in these areas is the sustainability of the business models used to deliver value and services.Companies see big opportunities to improve agribusiness performance and profitability through digitalisation and the data that power it. In Africa, the big opportunities are tempered by big challenges: how to make digitalisation work at scale for millions of smallholder producers and small-scale businesses facing uncertain markets and climate instability and often operating in short, undeveloped value chains. In the small island countries of the Caribbean and Pacific the big digitalisation opportunities are constrained by relatively small agrifood systems facing weather and climate shocks, tough competition for labour from other sectors, the need to conserve natural environments, and high food imports serving tourism. Everywhere, it is hoped that digitalisation will take some of the hard graft out of farming, put good food on tables, put money into growers' and entrepreneurs' pockets and offer attractive lives to the next generations.Notwithstanding these challenges, digitalisation applied in and through agribusiness is seen as a major opportunity to improve the performance and resilience of agri-food systems and the people who make them happen. Capitalising on these opportunities is held back in ACP countries by, among other things, insufficient knowledge of what actually works well in the different areas and what lessons new investments can use to increase their chances of success.The 16-18 October 2018 workshop convened by CTA brought together 30 digital agribusiness practitioners from CTA, its networks and partners to document and assess ways that 'digital solutions improve the performance, competitiveness and profitability of agribusinesses in ACP countries.' Drawing on experiences and cases shared by participants, the workshop zoomed in on real cases to draw out critical insights and lessons -actionable knowledge -that can be used more widely. This is one of several briefs, articles and opinion pieces produced by participants, each going into different aspects of the issue, sharing ideas, insights and innovations worth taking up. It gives an insight into the issues arising across the workshop.Participants identified five intersecting drivers that explain why farmer-oriented agribusinesses invest in digitalisation: to reduce risk, raise productivity, increase efficiency, improve decisions, and enhance access to market. They highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of the business models used to design and deliver products and services as critical to success or failure of the whole enterprise.Agriculture is a risky business. Entire crops, flocks and livelihoods can be quickly wiped out by natural disasters such as floods, drought or pests, while uninformed decisions on what to produce and when can lead to market supply-demand mismatches undermining basic family livelihoods. Insecure land ownership and tenure systems often hold farmers back from investing in their land, while business and marketoriented mindsets and innovations are often perceived to be more risky than traditional, customary systems, where assets like animals are accumulated, not invested.as ways to reduce one risk or another, or indeed to gain confidence to decide on a course of action. Whether you are an individual farmer, a farmer organisation or a business, knowing yourself, your assets, your customers and your competitors provides intelligence that can reduce risk. Partly, digital services just provide information on risks -climate change for example -and ways to mitigate their effects. Going digital offers wide potential reach so advice can be widely communicated. Risk in decisions -on what to grow or when to sell for example -can also be reduced through digital dissemination of immediate and predicted market and weather information. Community and individual risks from natural threats such as drought can be mitigated though schemes that integrate multiple digital data and knowledge sources with innovative digital insurance, credit and saving systems allied with social safety nets. These help move people towards potentially less risky digital assets (cash) instead of, for instance, animal or crop assets. Riskreducing interventions and models identified by participants included business-to-business risk-sharing arrangements, using geodata for drought insurance and the Igara Growers Tea Factory's farmer profiling for enhanced market access.To feed growing populations, reduce poverty and increase growth, developing countries in ACP and other regions seek to maximise the yield and value of their agricultural outputs while minimising the costs of inputs and ensuring that resources for future generations are not compromised. Approaches to improve productivity include developing higher-yielding crops and animals; improving access to inputs such as fertilisers, credit and water; investing in infrastructure such as roads, markets and telecommunications; and boosting farmer education and advisory services.Digitalisation in agribusiness addresses productivity challenges by enhancing access to accurate technical and market information, expanding access to finance, inputs and advisory services, improving supply chains, and facilitating delivery of well informed, precise and targeted guidance to value-chain actors. Indeed, most digital solutions aim to overcome information and asset gaps that hold back uptake of improved technical and institutional innovations. Such innovative digital solutions are also seen to be powerful ways to reach beyond the early adopters and larger-scale farmers to increase the productivity of smallholders, marginal groups and others whose productivity lags behind. Productivity-enhancing interventions and models identified by participants included profiling and farmer maps that provide information for optimal decisionmaking, wider and more targeted digitalsupported delivery of technical inputs and advice and enhanced market access.With increasing demands predicted for many agricultural products, and finite and sometimes contracting resources to produce these, gains in agricultural productivity and agribusiness efficiency are important for next-generation agriculture. For agribusiness, more efficient business processes and the application of data are particularly promising ways to put digitalisation to work. One, hopefully shortterm, challenge to ACP agriculture is the widespread use of paper-based systems that are no longer fit for purpose where farmers and organisations need to make rapid, intelligent and often risky business decisions.Digitising and automating business processes of companies and cooperatives and moving into digital business-to-business and customer-facing platforms is essential to scale transactions and deliver value for money to investors, customers and stakeholders. Beyond digitalisation itself, translating data into action via the insights and intelligence big data provides can open up opportunities in precision agriculture and technology, and sets businesses up to be self-sustaining. Efficiency-enhancing interventions and models identified by participants included business models that leverage collaboration with proxy organisations such as cooperatives or telecommunication companies; earning transaction and subscription fees from digital services to farmers and institutions; and farmer profiling to guide advice and market information services.Some people say that farming is essentially a process of decision-making: what and when to grow, harvest or sell; what to do about a pest, disease or other threat; which technology to choose and why, and so on. Such decisions are multifaceted and take place simultaneously, balancing trade-offs and objectives to maximise profit, productivity and efficiency, as well as perceived short-and long-term returns and risks. Such choices are also at the heart of farmer-oriented agribusinesses that use information on farmer, market, investor and organisational decisions to determine what they will actually offer in terms of products, service and value propositions, and the business models that will successfully deliver these. Improving decisions of farmers and organisations -through more and better data, insights and intelligence -is seen as one of the core benefits from digital agribusiness investments. Some of the challenges to overcome include providing affordable and easy-touse decision tools for farmers as well as agribusiness; overcoming farmer (digital) literacy limitations; ensuring access to good-quality data sources; standardising data tools; and matching data collected to data that is needed in decisions. A concern around the data-driven elements is that data of farmers or other customers are not misused to ultimately undermine their future livelihoods. Decision-enhancing interventions and models identified by participants included spatial databases and management information systems used to guide decisions by the Igara Growers Tea Factory in Uganda; business models that leverage farmer profiling to better target services that farmers need; business-tobusiness intelligence as a service; weather information delivered by mobile phone to guide farmer decisions; and market information platforms that support investment decisions.One of the key ways to improve agricultural production and productivity is to develop markets and enhance farmers' access to them. This helps stimulate efficient production, promotes a customer orientation and shifts mindsets away from subsistence to cash and profit incentives. As well as establishing markets, sharing market information and prices and providing market access support to smallholders, initiatives in this area typically encourage a more business-like approach to farming, with mechanisms to enhance farmers' access to finance, inputs, credit, extension and specialised support in areas such as entrepreneurship and farm management.A key dimension in ACP agriculture is for producers to join forces though associations, organisations or other mechanisms that allow them to aggregate demand and supply, negotiate better prices and leverage a collective voice in wider policy arenas. These collectives have themselves become critical actors in many value chains and have taken on explicit market development roles for and with their members.Digitalisation offers opportunities to ACP agribusiness in all these areas. Via platforms and phones, it helps meet the huge need for market price information, brokers and connects buyers and sellers, facilitates transport and supply chain logistics, and is used to track and assess the quality of products. Blockchain technology is starting to be used to strengthen digital trust and transparency in supply chains. Collectives are strengthening their roles in value chains by digitally profiling and representing the interests of their members, negotiating deals not just with buyers but also with financial services providers and input suppliers. Challenges encountered include issues such as limited or costly mobile coverage and low farmer literacy that limit uptake by farmers; low or erratic volumes of production that weaken online trading systems; limited availability of business leadership skills close to the ground; and, more generally, the time needed to shift farmer mindsets towards digital-enabled markets and collective action.Interventions and models that enhance market access identified by participants included catalysing collective aggregation models involving many producers; delivering market price information via text-and voicebased mobile phone services; bundling digital market information with other agronomic or financial services; facilitating digital businessto-business and market linkages; and using blockchain to build trust, certification and traceability.Devising sustainable business models is a recurring challenge affecting start-up digital enterprises as well as established operations seeking to move to financial sustainability. Some of the specific challenges encountered in business planning include how best to reach significant numbers of farmers with actionable information; overcoming topdown extension; demonstrating the value of digital solutions to sceptical users; making sure that solutions are owned by end users and continue after the life of a project; how to scale up and generate profit after a startup grant ends; balancing different types of income streams; and adjusting services to match customers' ability and willingness to pay. The absence of hard evidence of digital impact and benefits that can be used to make the case to invest in digitalisation was highlighted as a fundamental limitation. Specific questions that agribusiness entrepreneurs have to answer include:n How to design business models that can generate repeat sales of digital services to farmers, cooperatives and other customers.n How to find the right business models and, in particular, how to measure their true benefits, in terms of people, planet and profit.n How to identify viable business models that transform initial donor investments into self-sustaining businesses that can be scaled and have a wide impact on smallholders.n How best to make technology services such as drones affordable to smallholder farmers.A where low ICT literacy slows uptake; issues of scaling -how to upscale initiatives that work very well at smaller scale; ways to scale successes across different countries; how to identify and scale applications that can work for large numbers of farmers, including those not digitally advanced; and how to scale up digital agripreneurship itself. While data is seen as a game changer in the e-agribusiness space, barriers to using open data (such as technical readiness, legislation, data ownership issues and an unclear return on investment) need to be overcome and it is important to ensure that data benefit smallholders as well as agribusinesses and tech companies. Furthermore, public and other entities need to invest more in the basic data layers (weather, soil, vegetation, prices, etc.) that can be built on by agribusinesses to create value-adding services and applications. Finally, business leadership to drive digital changes is a necessary and often missing element, frequently linked to the more general issue of motivating behaviour change in key groups, so they step up to the digital environment.Participants identified a number of key insights. First, they noted that the challenges are indeed significant, but very difficult to measure. Data and evidence are needed to really quantify insights. Second, participants commented on the many and diverse digital solutions and ways to deliver them, noting there is room for many more. In particular, data-driven agribusiness and profiling seem to offer much potential across the sector. Third, business models that work and sustain digital solutions are hard to come by, are hard work to deliver, and examples of start-ups reaching breakeven are very scarce. It is particularly tough in the ACP agribusiness space to develop a business model that speaks to both farmers and investors.Looking to the near future, some developments likely to positively disrupt digital agribusinesses and their models include increasing airborne delivery of intelligence and services; massive drone uptake; remote sensing integrated with mobile and geolocation tools to apply some of the potential of big data; and the spread of artificial intelligence, machine learning and the Internet of Things, creating perhaps personal services like Amazon Alexa or Apple Siri for farmers, or even smart virtual farm managers. Mobile digital solutions will become widespread and rural communities will benefit from diverse digital financial/payment systems as well as blockchain technology that leads to greater transparency, efficiency and trust in value chains. A trend to look out for is an evolution in the roles and scope of mobile phone and telecommunications operators, moving into applications and services across their infrastructure. Finally, we need to be aware that the new digital opportunities will also spawn new challenges of inclusion, so it is important to ensure that no-one is left behind.","tokenCount":"2617"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7cf9f319eed6790aa7c9f6bf92ff061","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c996e0b-0944-4489-8ae0-1c16851173f8/retrieve","id":"-689566683"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"111cc3fc-eb0c-4afa-8219-f4524455cfc3","pagecount":"40","content":"CTA is promoting new approaches, such as participatory 3D modelling (P3DM), coupled with the use of video, Web 2.0 and social media. Students from Tonga's Tailulu College making the most of new high-speed broadband services at 2013 World Telecommunication and Information Society Day celebrations in the Tongan capital, Nuku'alofa.ICT4Ag -10 keys to a more productive agriculture 4The ICT4Ag conference discussed a wide range of policy issues. Some of the most important are described below. They address issues such as developing better partnerships to improve the impact of ICTs in agriculture, strengthening the role of young men and women in ICT initiatives, supporting ICT4Ag entrepreneurship and promoting adequate infrastructure for ICTs in rural areas.All too often, ICTs for agriculture initiatives are developed in isolation, with companies and individuals producing comparable applications (apps) for similar purposes in different countries.Those involved in ICT development should build partnerships and communities of practice that encourage greater collaboration. They should also build on existing models and approaches to develop solutions that have a real impact. Indeed, positive and measurable impact will be difficult to achieve without part nership and collaboration.CTA seeks to be a partner of choice with likeminded institutions and is initiating a number of activities that aim to take advantage of the convergence of ICT channels, such as mobile phones, radio, video, and the internet, for agricultural information delivery.ICTs have a vital role to play in getting information to farmers and vice versa. Extension and advisory services should take full advantage of the potential of new technologies. They need to focus on proven and innovative ICT tools which recognise the importance of two-way communication. ICTs should be used more innovatively to achieve the goals of extension, and efforts should be made to attract women and young people to work in extension and advisory services. CTA is exploring the opportunities for developing a 'living database' of ICT applications and a framework for assessing their effectiveness in support of extension and advisory services.Smallholder farmers need to benefit more from 'big data' -datasets which are large, complex and difficult to handle -and information derived from such data should be made available in a format they can readily use. The conference stressed the importance of good data visualisation, and the importance of providing real-time data via multiple channels to smallholders and others involved in value chains. There is an ur gent need to create a public information platform to reduce data duplication. CTA is promoting parti ci patory ICTs for adding value to traditional knowl edge in areas such as climate change adaptation, advocacy and policy processes.Developing farmers' trust in ICT services and the content they provide is important. They should never be bombarded with information that is unreliable, of poor quality or difficult to use. Indeed, the content -rather than the mode of deliveryshould always be the first consideration for those involved in disseminating information to farmers.The conference affirmed that what goes into the content box is more important than the technology; this is a signal for better linkage between research and extension.Many rural communities still have little or no access to ICTs. We need to ensure that they can take advantage of these technologies, in terms of cost, availability and usability. ProvidersThe conference affirmed that what goes into the content box is more important than the technology; this is a signal for better linkage between research and extension should focus on the household level and adapt information to the local context. They should also recognise the multidimensional needs of farmers and their families, and encourage grass roots community engagement in policy proces ses related to ICTs. CTA is promoting new approaches, such as participatory 3D modelling (P3DM), coupled with the use of video, Web 2.0 and social media. These are proving highly effective when it comes to empowering marginalised communities and helping them to document their spatial knowledge and interact with the authorities.All too often, women and young people are disadvantaged, in a variety of ways, in rural areas.ICTs have an important role to play in em powering young people and women. Women are the pillar of the family in terms of smallholder agricul ture and they should be provided with the resources and information they need to improve their productivity and gain access to markets. ICTs should also be used to attract young people to agriculture and ensure that they can develop their potential. CTA is fostering youth entrepreneurship and supporting the organisation of activities such as 'hackathons', which are encouraging young agri-entrepreneurs to develop ICT solutions to address farming prob lems. Policy makers and others working in the field of agriculture need to encourage smart entrepreneurship and ensure that those developing ICT applications develop sound business models.If they fail to do so, then their apps are unlikely to survive or be scaled up for wider use. Apps should be designed to help not just farmers, but all those involved in value chains, from field to fork. CTA has already taken a number of steps to support youth entrepreneurship and the development of sound ICT business models, and it will continue to encourage others to do the same.ICTs have a transformative influence on farming and food production in countries where governments and policy makers are committed to developing comprehensive e-agriculture strategies. In particular, the conference heard about the suc cesses in Côte d'Ivoire and Rwanda. These two countries are pioneering the development of e-agriculture strategies to support the efficiency and effectiveness of ICTs for agriculture. CTA is undertaking a variety of activities to encourage gov ernments and civil society to get more involved in developing viable e-agriculture strategies.Most of the policy pointers above are concerned with the software of ICT development. But the hardware -broadband infrastructure, mobile phone masts, energy provision -is just as important. Governments should be encouraged to provide access to energy, devices and infra-structure, especially in remote areas. This often works best when they act in tandem with the private sector. Local entrepreneurs also have a key role to play in achieving connectivity, but if they are to do so, they need to develop sound business models. Universal service and access funds (USAF), which are taxes collected from communication operators, have considerable potential.In addition to the above nine conference recommendations, this tenth recommendation emerged from the six-month follow-up survey that was conducted with the conference participants to validate the nine recommendations. Participants suggested the need to address issues arising from awareness-creation, information-gathering and capacity-building on ICT4Ag. They identified the need for more inclusive learning models that promote the existence of knowledge providers at grassroots level using the value chain model. CTA's project on strengthening methodologies, skills and tools for knowledge management aims to apply knowledge for improved understanding and involvement in ARD. nInformation and communication technologies (ICTs) could transform agricultural activities in many parts of the world. In some countries, ICTs are already helping farmers to increase yields and incomes, but much remains to be done. The Kigali conference -the largest of its kind ever held on the subject -looked at our progress to date, and where we should go next.In Trinidad and Tobago, farmers use ICTs to transform their agricultural activities.arming is still the most important economic activity in many developing countries. In Africa, for example, 65% of the labour force is employed in agriculture and the sector generates 32% of GDP. However, millions of farming families, pastoralists, forest dwellers and fishers remain trapped in poverty. Low productivity, high energy prices, lack of access to credit and poor or non-existent advisory services are among the many factors preventing them from fulfilling their true potential.Yet there are reasons to be optimistic. After years of neglect, governments and the private sector are increasing their investment in agriculture, and rising commodity prices are making farming and fishing more profitable. Farmers and fishers are also beginning to benefit from the digital re volu tion. Information and communication technolo gies (ICTs) -radio, video, the internet, geo graphic information systems, satellites and mobile technology -can help to transform small-scale re source-based livelihoods from a subsistence activity into a viable business.This was the focus of a major international conference, 'ICT4Ag: the digital springboard for inclusive agriculture', held in Kigali, Rwanda, in November 2013. \"We will be building on how the communications revolution could transform the lives of hundreds of millions of farmers in de veloping countries,\" said CTA director Michael A farmer using her mobile phone in Rwanda, where mobile phone penetration has increased from 6 to 60% in just five years.Hailu in his opening address. \"I believe this is one of the great opportunities of our times. That is why this conference is so important.\"Co-hosted by CTA, Rwanda's Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) and Rwanda's Ministry of Youth and ICTs (MYICT), the Kigali conference provided an opportunity for 475 delegates from over 60 countries to share their knowledge about ICTs, review research and development, exchange solutions, compare the impact of different technologies and foster new partnerships. \"Conferences this size are nearly always PowerPoint-led,\" said CTA's Giacomo Rambaldi, one of the organisers. \"But right from the outset, we decided that this one would be different -that interaction would be at the core of the conference.\" And that was exactly how it turned out.In 1980, there were just 11 million mobile phone subscriptions worldwide; now there are over However, there is still a considerable disparity in access to innovative ICTs between countries and between urban and rural areas. In 2010, 65% of people in Europe had access to the internet, com pared to 9.6% in Africa. In Mozambique, 67% of urban dwellers own mobile phones, compared to less than 30% in the rural areas. The equivalent figures for Ethiopia are 51% and 11%; for Ghana, it is 63% and 30%. There is also a significant gender imbalance, with men having greater access to ICTs than women, especially in developing countries.The conference brought together people who wouldn't traditionally spend much time to gether. As Rwanda's Minister of Agriculture, Hon. Agnes Kalibata, said at the closing ceremony, \"A very cool field -ICTs -has been married to a notso-cool field, agriculture.\" Private enterprises accounted for 19% of those present; ministries and public agencies 17%; regional, international and donor agencies 16%; civil society organisations 12%; research institutes 9%; media organisations 8%; academic organisations 8%; and farmer's organisations and cooperatives 6%. In other words, a wide variety of interests and insti tutions met under one roof for four days of intensive interaction.The organisers made an explicit attempt to involve as many young people and as many women as possible. Approximately 43% of delegates were under the age of 35, and 25% were women. \"For too long, youth in Africa has been seen as a problem that needs to be solved,\" said Catherine-Rose Barretto, a social media entrepreneur from Tanzania, during the opening ceremony. \"Instead, we need to look at youth as an asset.\" She pointed out that many successful mAgri innovations have been set up by people under the age of 30, citing the M-Farm app developed in Kenya by three young women.Rwanda's Minister of Youth and ICTs, Hon. Jean Philbert Nsengimana, made a similar point in his speech. \"Youth constitute an incredibly valuable asset that needs to be harvested,\" he said. It was an indication of his government's commitment to young people that responsibility for their affairs had been moved from the social cluster of minis tries to the economic cluster. \"Young people should be seen as part of the profit sector,\" he said.Rwanda is leading the way in using ICTs to stimu late agricultural transformation and economic growth. This made it the ideal venue for the ICT4Ag conference. \"Agriculture is one of the lowhanging fruits for poverty reduction, and ICTs are another low-hanging fruit,\" said Hon. Agnes Kalibata, one of five government ministers to attend the opening ceremony.The conference took place immediately after the Transform Africa 2013 Summit, which was also held in Kigali. This event set out a vision for how ICTs could stimulate economic growth on the continent. \"ICTs are not a luxury good, but an instrument for transformation,\" said Kenyan Pres ident Uhuru Kenyatta, capturing the mood of the times. The summit coincided with the launch of a new network that will provide highspeed broadband access to 95% of Rwanda's population within three years. This will help Rwanda to achieve the objectives of 'Vision 2020'. This maps out a development path that seeks to transform the country into a middle-income, knowledge-based economy.Before the official opening of the ICT4Ag conference, the majority of conference delegates attended 'Plug & Play Day'. This was an opportu nity to learn about a wide range of ICT applications for agriculture, many designed to help farmers, traders, extension officers, researchers and policy makers improve their productivity and incomes. During the following three days, there were three plenary sessions attended by all delegates, and 33 parallel sessions devoted to the three conference streams: emerging innovations in ICTs, capacity strengthening, and enabling environments.There were other interesting side events organised by institutions such as AfDB, AGRA, CTA, IFPRI, and UNDP on different issues within the general theme of the conference. At a separate venue, groups of young people competed in a 'hackathon', a competition to design mobile apps for farmers, fishers and others involved in the agri cultural sector. Peer-assist sessions were or ganised based on a number of innovative ideas to gain constructive critique from peers as a way to support the development of future apps for agri culture. Field trips at the end of the week provided delegates with the opportunity to visit a range of different ICT4Ag projects in and around Kigali.During the conference, \"making it happen\" emerged as a slogan. Making it happen hinged on high levels of interaction among participants. For example, each of the parallel sessions began with brief presentations from four to six speakers. Eight facilitators and knowledge man agement experts, aided by a team of local students, then steered the sessions into an in ter active mode, encouraging everyone to con tribute, to question and to debate. During the final plenary, the facilitators summarised the the matic discussions. This was a key event in formulating the recommendations that were later developed into the conference policy pointers. n On the first day of the conference, participants learnt about a wide range of ICTs that were developed to help farmers and fishers improve their livelihoods. 'Plug & Play Day' provided an ideal and fun, practical introduction to this complex and exciting topic.ver 300 people attended 'Plug & Play Day'. As a taster session to the main conference, the day began with a brief introduc tory session. Didier Nkurikiyimfura, Director General of Rwanda's Ministry of Youth and ICTs (MYICT), acted as master of cere mo nies. \"Today is all about interaction, having fun and learning about innovations in the use of ICTs,\" he said. The Ministry's permanent secretary, Rosemary Mbabazi, provided a brief explanation of how ICTs were helping to transform Rwanda into a knowledgebased economy. \"If we can improve the lives of farmers, we will improve the lives of 80% of the population,\" she said. If that is going to happen, farmers need information to improve their productivity and provide better access to mar kets. \"They want quick solutions, and that means the quick delivery of information,\" explai ned Ernest Ruzindaza, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Re sources (MINAGRI).Benjamin Kwasi Addom, the CTA programme officer who coordinated the day, encouraged both the innovators and the audience to \"learn and share\", and he gave the assurance that the needs and expectations of each participant would be met at the end of 'Plug & Play Day'. Du ring the course of the day there were six parallel sessions, each with eight presentations. The pre sentations were followed by up to 15 minutes of inter action between presenters -frequently the designers of mobile apps -and delegates, with the latter being given the opportunity to test drive the apps on display. Here is a summary of some of the ICTs featured during 'Plug & Play Day'.One of the most eyecatching mobile phone apps was iCow, developed by Green Dreams Tech in Kenya. Its services include a cow calendar for use by smallscale dairy farmers. Farmers register their cows by gestation date and SMS alerts them when to use artificial insemination (AI). Another iCow service provides farmers with a list of AI providers. Since it was set up, around 128,000 Kenyan dairy farmers have benefited, with the iCow apps helping to increase milk production by 2-3 litres a day and incomes by the equivalent of US$30 a month.Fishing communities are also benefiting from the use of smart ICTs. For example, mFisheries, a suite of mobile and web applications developed at the University of the West Indies, is improving the efficiency and welfare of smallscale fishers. Using a smart phone, fishers can access weather reports, navigational tools and training tips on first aid and emergency boat repairs. \"They can also use one of the apps to find out fish prices in different mar kets,\" explained software developer Daryl Samlal. Onshore buyers using mFisheries can get in touch with suppliers to make a transaction. Launched and tested in Trinidad, these apps could soon prove useful in other parts of the world.Counterfeit agricultural inputs, such as fertilisers, livestock medicines and pesticides, can have a dev astating impact on the productivity and welfare of smallscale farmers. In Uganda, for example, it is thought that the probability of a farmer buying Both innovators and the audience were encouraged to \"learn and share\" during the 'Plug & Play Day' in Kigali.CHAPTER 1 / Meet the geeks counterfeit products is 50%, and one ministry es timates that fake agrochemicals account for 30% of the market. To tackle this problem, the Inter national Fertiliser Development Centre (IFDC) has developed a mobile application that can be used by farmers to assess whether the products they are buying are genuine or fake.Many of the apps on display during 'Plug & Play Day' were designed to improve communication between farmers and buyers. For example, Mobile Agribiz links some 400 farmers in the DRC with 100 buyers in the capital, Kinshasa. Farmers can get information about market prices and require ments, while buyers can find out where they can get the product they want. \"Better crops and bet ter prices means farmers make more money, and that means better education for their children and better health care,\" explained Narcisse Mbun zama, CEO of Mobile Agribiz.Some applications showcased at Plug & Play Day have been designed to help researchers. For example, the Open Data Kit tools developed by Google enable organisations such as the International Li vestock Research Institute (ILRI) to collect and manage data on smartphones. This system has many advantages over traditional paperbased data col lection. \"Open Data Kit is very versatile, works for all sorts of data, and makes it much easier to manage data,\" explained ILRI's Absolomon Kihara. It is easy to adapt questionnaires in midresearch, and scientists can do preanalysis of their data on their smartphones before coming back from the field.mFisheries is a set of mobile and web applications for fishermen.One of the other apps on display is helping to empower communities. \"Participatory mapping is all about communities putting themselves on a map, and influencing decisionmaking,\" explai ned Jon Corbett from the University of British Columbia. He and his colleagues developed GEOlive as a webbased mapping application for Canada's indigenous communities. Since then, this has proved useful to a wide range of organi sations, including universities in Australia and local farmer's groups in Canada. Multiple users can con tribute data simultaneously to a map, and GEOlive makes large amounts of data both manageable and meaningful.Delegates also had the opportunity to learn about more traditional methods of disseminating infor mation, such as video and radio. Farm Radio Inter national, for example, now works with over 400 broadcasters in 38 African countries. It provides training in scriptwriting and works with its part ners to develop programmes and campaigns, with a strong focus on helping smallscale farmers. As the vast majority of people in subSaharan Afri ca do not have access to the internet, radio will con tinue to play a vital role in the continent's agricultural development.At the end of 'Plug & Play Day', CTA's Senior Programme Coordinator Krishan Bheenick asked the participants to organise themselves into small groups and discuss and answer three questions: 'What did you discover? What are the comple mentarities we have seen today? What do you want to see more of ?' Participants were then in vited to share their views, most of which were positive. However, an Indian participant with 20 years of business experience said: \"This sounded like a nonprofit session. For me, business should come first, technology second.\" haCking for a Smarter future Several months before the conference, hacker's marathons, or 'hackathons' -events during which computer programmers develop an ICT applica tion to address a specific challenge -were held in six East African countries. The aim was to showcase new apps for agriculture. Nine teams of national hackathon winners were then invited to attend a regional hackathon during con ference week, hosted by KLab, a technical hub in Kigali.During the hackathon, participants received train ing from the judges and ICT experts, and from people involved in agroentrepreneurship. This included advice on business models, awa reness training on what investors want, exchanges with farmers, and the finetuning of the products they were developing. Rebecca Enonchong, hac kathon judge and CEO of App Tech, was ful some in her praise: \"I was so excited to see many women involved in creating new tech nologies.\" Ensibuuko, from Uganda, was declared the win ner for its web and mobile application, which enables cooperative societies of smallholder and rural farmers to mobilise savings, and receive and disburse loans. Second prize went to MAgric of Ethiopia for AgriVas, a resource centre for far mers that delivers information via radio, SMS and the internet. Third prize was awarded to the allwomen group, Agrinfo, which developed a webbased and mobile geographic information system platform for mapping farms. The teams received cash prizes. The three national hubs which nominated the teams, Outbox Hub in Uganda, IceAddis in Ethiopia and Buni Hub in Tanzania, received grants to undertake post competition incubation and business support for the winners. n Ensibuuko from Uganda was selected as the overall winner of the hackathon in Kigali.© CTA T he majority of parallel sessions and the first plenary -Why the hype for mAgriculture? -focused on emer ging innovations in ICTs. The parallel sessions covered a wide range of topics, including the use of ICTs for aqua culture and fisheries, livestock farming, market information systems, climatesmart agriculture and data collection. This chapter provides a brief overview of some of the key themes that emerged, specific to the policy pointers outlined at the be ginning of this booklet.pointer 1: Developing partnerShipS to enSure poSitive impaCtS of iCt4ag initiativeS \"One of the first things we identified, as early as 'Plug & Play Day', was the problem of duplica tion,\" says CTA's Benjamin K. Addom, coordina tor for the Emerging Innovations stream. \"Very similar applications have been designed in differ ent parts of the world, and there has been a serious lack of collaboration among developers.\" This needs to be urgently addressed, and so Benjamin and his colleagues at CTA decided to partner with app developers and other interested parties to create a 'living' database. This will serve as an open platform that can be updated as new innovations emerge, thus ensuring that ICT developers are not 'reinventing the wheel'.Experience suggests that multistakeholder part nerships can create the most successful and sus tainable ICTs. For example, the mFisheries app, developed by the University of the West Indies, benefited from the engagement of all those in volved in the value chain, including fisheries scientists, research agencies, fisher organisations and fish buyers. Likewise, during the development of a market price information system for inland fisheries in Kenya, a wide range of indi viduals and organisations were involved, including small scale fishing communities, local gov ern ments and ICT experts.Much time was devoted to exploring emerging innovations in ICTs. Speakers and participants described a wide range of different ICTs, although many people highlighted the problem of duplication. There was a strong focus on developing partnerships, making the best use of ICTs for agricultural extension, and supporting open data.   John Tull, the Global Director of Mobile Agri cul ture Innovation at Grameen Foundation, ex plained how measurement tools can increase trans parency for organisations in making invest ments or laun ching new services that benefit the poor. He high lighted the future importance of sensorbased data collection for agricultural deve lopment work. Others on the panel talked about the way realtime data recorded by farmers are being used to support the management of their enterprises. They also dis cussed other management tools that can lead to the wider availability of data, thereby narrowing the information gap between farmers and other stakeholders.The conclusion was that smallholder farmers need to benefit more from 'big data' -datasets which are large, complex and difficult to handle -and in formation derived from big data should be made available in a format they can readily use. Hence the need for good data visualisation, and the importance of providing realtime data via mul tiple channels to smallholders and others involved in value chains. n This chapter looks at the second of the three conference themes, strengthening capacity. High-quality information needs to be reliable and available. The people who matter most -the food producers -need to have access to ICTs, and the skills to use them. Delegates agreed that greater efforts needed to be made to involve young people and women in the use of ICTs.here are many examples of ICTs that seemed promising on paper, but failed to strengthen the skills and knowledge of the farming com munities where they were de ployed. This begs the question: 'What needs to be done in order to ensure that ICTs fulfil their poten tial?' This was at the heart of many of the dis cussions about capacity strengthening, both during plenary sessions and the eight parallel sessions de voted to the subject.The parallel sessions covered a broad range of to pics, including capacity development and young people, capacity development and women, capa city development for grassroots organisations, the impact of ICTs for agricultural development in terventions, and the use of social ICTs.Creating technologically smart solutions is not enough on its own; the content delivered to farmers, fishers, pastoralists and others in the value chain must be timely, relevant, accessible and accurate. Ensuring that the content is accurate will involve public sector organisations, such as agri cul tural mi n istries and research institutes, as well as the private sector, farmer's organisations and food processors.\"I'm a soil scientist, and I've seen a lot of lousy content,\" said Bashir Jama from the Alliance for the Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). He stressed the importance of engaging farmers in the development of content, which should be always checked by experts before being used.This point was forcibly made by Andrea Bohn, the programme manager of USAID's Modernising Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS), Uni versity of Illinois. She described a donor project where the managers had been committed to devel oping a cer tain ICT tool, but failed to under stand the needs and capabilities of their clients. \"They were putting the cart before the horse,\" she said, \"and they were filling the cart with content be fore they knew where the journey would take them.\" Project managers need to understand their clients' abilities and needs. They should never precommit to specific ICT ap plications. When defining mes sages, they should consider issues of gender and levels of literacy and education.Presenters and delegates repeatedly stressed the importance of trust. Projects and programmes using ICTs will fail if there is a lack of trust between all those involved. Indeed, that is why the multistake holder, participatory approach to the use of ICTs is so important; everyone needs to pull in the same direction, in harmony with their partners.Reflecting on the week's discussions, Saskia Harm sen, the organiser of the capacitystrength ening stream, highlighted the case of Catherine Molua Mojoko, President of Walana Wa Makwasi, a grassroots organisation in Cameroon. \"Take Cathe rine as an example,\" she said. \"She was an ex tension worker for 25 years and worked in the com munities that she is still serving today. These communities know her, trust her. She has the agri cultural knowledge, and her organisation is trusted because of that longstanding relationship.\" pointer 5: enSuring graSSrootS aCCeSS to iCt SolutionS Delegates stressed the importance of involving a wide range of organisations and individuals in activities that are designed to create a better en abling environment. Experience suggests that the most successful eagriculture programmes involve the public and private sector, as well as local com mu nities. Encouraging a multistakeholder ap proach frequently involves strengthening grass roots community engagement in policy processes. New ICT approaches, such as participatory 3D modelling (P3DM) coupled with video, Web 2.0 and social media, have proved an effective way of empowering marginalised communities and help ing them to document their spatial knowledge, and make use of it to influence policy.Farmers and farmer's organisations will only ben efit from more sophisticated ICTs, such as the internet and SMS messaging services, if they re ceive adequate training. The nature of the training will depend on knowing exactly what they require. As Saskia Harmsen put it when interviewed for the postconference issue of ICT4Ag magazine: \"It's really important that you become part of the com munities -visit the people on their plots, build oneonone relationships with them -and stop seeing them as a focus group with whom you will assess needs.\" In other words, capacity strengthe ning needs to be demandled.The session on ICTs and youth heard about a number of initiatives that were transforming the welfare of rural communities. There is plenty of evidence to show that the combination of youth and social media can do much to improve aware ness about the importance of agriculture as an enterprise. Furthermore, farming communities and young people's groups can benefit synergistically from using social media, for example to promote market specialities such as organic produce. How ever, young people need to recognise that govern ments cannot always provide financial backing. Ideally, young people should be involved in ICT initiatives from the outset.Many presenters were provided examples of ICTs that have led to greater empowerment, increased incomes and improved the welfare of rural com mu nities. To give just one example, Catherine Molua Mojoko, President of Walana Wa Makwa si, talked about her experience of working with ru ral women.As a result of Walana Wa Makwasi's training programmes, some 2,000 people in 15 rural com munities are now using their phones to receive information on production techniques and mar kets. Many women farmers with literacy issues can gain access to information, with help from their chil dren. The farmers have also formed closer ties with buyers, thus cutting out middlemen. As a result, mobile phone companies have been installing masts in new areas where the project operates.The main conclusion of the session on gender was that an inclusive familycentred approach is the best way of ensuring project success and improving female farmers' access to ICTs. Drawing on their experience in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon and Uganda, presenters highlighted some of the reasons why this approach works best. Men often need to be included in the training process so that they do not feel left out, and to ensure that they do not prevent their wives from participating. As ICTs, such as radios and mobile phones are often control led by men, gaining their trust and support is es sential. At a practical level, training programmes need to be held at a time that fits in with women's busy work schedules. nThis chapter is about an enabling environment for ICTs, and the conditions needed to ensure the greatest uptake of ICTs in the agricultural sector. Governments and the private sector should support and promote entrepreneurship and encourage the development of effective business models. Experience in countries such as Rwanda demonstrates the importance of strong political buy-in in creating the right conditions for success.ight parallel sessions and several presentations during the plenary sessions focused on various aspects of the enabling environments. This is a broad subject, covering policies and practices, as well as infrastructure and invest ment. The parallel sessions sought answers to a number of questions. 'What sort of policies and strategies can enable ICTs to be more effective for agriculture and rural development? What sorts of investments are needed, and who should the inves tors be? What are the skills citizens need to take advantage of ICTs? How can we create business plans that stimulate the interest of young people in rural areas, and encourage them to stay within the agricultural sector?' pointer 7: Supporting iCt4ag entrepreneurShip anD promiSing BuSineSS moDelS Over the course of the week, many speakers stressed the importance of having a good business plan. Addressing the 'Why the Hype?' plenary ses sion, Judy Payne, an ICT advisor for agriculture to the United States Agency for International Deve lopment (USAID), said there was plenty of good news about the use of ICTs in agriculture; but there was plenty of \"not good news\" too. Most of the ICT applications developed for farmers have proved unsustainable, not least because they have been donor funded. Few have been scaled up to reach hundreds of thousands or millions of users. Their impact is often poorly documented and most apps are designed by smart young entrepre neurs, who often lack strong business experience.Judy suggested that those involved in developing apps for agriculture would do well to learn from the experience, both good and bad, of ICTs in the Policy makers and others working in the field of agriculture need to encourage smart entrepreneurship and ensure that those developing ICT applications develop sound business models health sector. She also said that there was much to learn from the activities of mobile money provi ders, which were the subject of one of the parallel sessions. She said we need to consider honing mar ket segmentation and satisfying the specific demands of different types of farmers. All this requires good business planning.Philip Abrahams of CAB International (CABI) pointed out that the use of ICTs in agriculture should be considered from the perspective of both the mobile providers and the farmers who use mAgri services. \"As far as the mobile companies are concerned, it comes down to money. They are running a business, not an emotion,\" he said. \"As far as farmers are concerned, there are some very specific needs which must be satisfied. Informa tion must be made swiftly available, and it must be relevant to the farmers' location. Services must be accessible to a wide range of users, and they should be demanddriven, rather than supplierled.\" pointer 8: Supporting SounD StrategieS anD high-level politiCal Buy-inS for iCt4ag In many ACP countries, the agricultural sector has lagged behind sectors such as health, finance and education when it comes to tapping the potential of ICTs. However, several countries are in the process of developing successful ICT4Ag pol icies, and de legates heard about the experience in Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya and Rwanda, three leaders in the field. Côte d'Ivoire provides an excellent example of a country whose government has committed itself to developing a comprehensive eagriculture stra tegy. Its aim is to modernise the agricultural sec tor, improve productivity of export crops such as Rwanda's Minister of Youth & ICTs, Hon. Jean Philbert Nsengimana, stated that youth constitute an incredibly valuable asset that needs to be harvested. cocoa, and reduce imports of foodstuffs through the intelligent use of ICTs. Its strategy has in volved mod ernising infrastructure, creating the legal and in stitutional framework for the use of ICTs, training farmers and others along agri cultural value chains, and establishing market in formation systems.Delegates also heard about the progress made in Rwanda. Between 2000 and 2005, Rwanda estab lished a strategy for ICT development, focusing on creating a better enabling environment. Since then, the country has developed the infrastructure to speed up the use of ICTs, and it is currently de vel oping ICT policies for five sectors, includ ing agri culture. Rwanda was the second country in Africa, after Namibia, to introduce 4G high speed broad band. pointer 9: promoting aDequate infraStruCture anD energy for iCtS in rural areaS One of the presenters in a parallel session sug gested that many African countries have the re sources to expand ICT infrastructure and improve availability in rural areas, but lack the po litical will to do so. In Rwanda, President Paul Kagame's en thusiasm for ICTs has been an important factor in the creation of a comprehensive eagriculture strat egy. There are now over 100 rural telecentres, providing internet access and training to farmers and villagers, and within the next few years there will be many more: the land of a thousand hills will soon be the land of a thousand telecentres.Several discussions focused on the subject of invest ment. \"Governments have an important role to play in terms of creating broadband infrastructure, espe cially in remote areas,\" said Máximo Torero, Direc tor of Markets, Trade and Institutions at the Inter national Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). \"However, the private sector also has a key role to play, and deregulation creates efficient competition.\"The public sector will nearly always be responsible for major infrastructure work, such as the laying of cables. To give just one example, Côte d'Ivoire significantly improved its connections through the installation of three highcapacity submarine cables in 2011 and 2012, which were funded by the gov ernment. And governments, rather than the pri vate sector, will generally have responsi bi lity for the provision of electric power in rural areas.However, the private sector also has a role to play, especially when it comes to smallscale projects. The session on 'ICT Infrastructure Provision in Agricultural Development' noted that new tech nologies are helping to reduce costs, with mobile towers now being sold as kits to local entrepre neurs, and less expensive TV frequencies being used for connectivity.Drawing on case studies from West Africa, Kenya and India, presenters pointed out that there are both advantages and disadvantages to local own er ship of transmitters or solar power supply. Local entrepreneurs may provide the key to achieving lo cal connectivity, but they need to develop a sound business case if the current rate of failure -60% ac cording to Orange in Kenya -is to be reduced.Several sessions focused on the potential of public private partnerships. To give just one example, Governments should be encouraged to provide access to energy, devices and infrastructure, especially in remote areas 60% the current rate of failure for local connectivity in Kenya universal service and access funds (USAF), which are taxes collected from telecommunication opera tors by governments and reinvested in rural connec tivity, have considerable potential. According to one of the presenters, approximately 30% of the 60 countries, which have introduced USAF, have failed to spend the taxes received on developing rural ICT infrastructure. An estimated US$12 billion remains unspent worldwide. While several models for the management of USAF have been identified, it seems that the most successful funds are managed by independent regu latory agencies, that have a high degree of transparency and multistakeholder participation, rather than the national telecommu nication regulatory agencies.pointer 10: promoting SounD knowleDge management aCtivitieS One of the conference streams on 'Capacity Strengthening' called for discussion on gender mainstreaming through ICTs for effective and ef ficient agricultural activities; monitoring and as sessing the impact of ICTs for ARD projects and programmes: and capacity building models and approaches. Although not from a specific confe rence session, participants identified the need to collate various experiences and lessons learned from efforts to build knowledgemanagement capacity across ACP partners. This was substan tiated through the feedback survey conducted six months after the conference to validate the confe rence recommendations. It centred on the need to create an enabling environment for the adoption of knowledgemanagement practices and the im portance of indigenousknowledge assets as inputs to ARD strategies. Respondents highlighted chalMaintaining the solar panels which power Radio Douentza. This radio station was opened in 1993 and broadcasts in local languages. A case for the need to understand knowledge ma nagement as a social practice based on peopleto people interactions -where technology could be used to facilitate the way people already work, rather than be the means by which a new way of working is imposed -was made. If the motivation to share knowledge did not already exist, then ICTs become more ways of not managing knowledge. Referencing the diversity of capacitybuilding activities required for effective and sustainable use of ICT in agriculture, especially at institu tion al and grassroots level, conference partici pants believe the future of the sector depends on knowledge management. Capacity strengthening needs to be clearly understood in broader terms, not only as training interventions, but for coaching and mentoring, knowledgesharing, relationship building and networking with local ICT technical providers and resource persons.The capacity to design, develop, implement and maintain ICT solutions requires guidance and support through the business transformation pro cesses that take place when ICT tools are adopted for agricultural purposes, especially when ICT so lutions and the resulting altered processes/proce dures are to be scaled up beyond proofofconcept stage or use by small numbers of users. Knowledge management provides insight into taxonomies and linkages using structured data, the assignment of uniform resource identifiers (URIs) for authors, publications and data, implementation of applica tion programming interfaces (APIs) so others can reuse the information. To be able to share knowledge, it is important to have information and data in the right form. n Children practice their computer skills on new robust laptops. Rwanda is one of the first African countries to be part of the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project.\"There's no point in organising conferences like this if there isn't any significant follow-up.\" This was one of the key messages that emerged from the final sessions.Many delegates said they were preparing to take action when they returned to their home countries.Eight year old Piscace holds a guinea pig and listens to a radio outside his home in the DRC. His family breeds the animals and the income gained from this activity pays for his and his sibling's school fees.eflecting on the week's events, conference organisers Benjamin Addom and Giacomo Rambaldi wrote: \"The true extent of this conference's success can only be measured once it is clear how much positive change delegates will have managed to bring about as result of the conference's takeaways. Although it may be too early for a definitive verdict, there were alrea dy encouraging signs of delegates taking action during the conference -for example, innovators and investors sitting together and discussing their future plans. Indeed, people felt that it was the right conference, on the right topic, at the right mo ment, in a country that is at the forefront of ICT innovation in Africa.\"Opportunities were created right from day one for peertopeer collaboration, developer-investor part nerships and partnerships between techno logy and agricultural stakeholders. There was also a great deal of oneonone networking and that was a sign that action was likely to be taken after the conference. \"In my opinion, nothing will happen if the conference participants wait for the organisers to make it happen,\" said Benjamin Addom. \"We all have to take initiative. Having said that, as the lead organiser, CTA has invested a great deal in this conference and has plans of continuing the dialogue to make things happen.\"As the convener of the conference, CTA has learnt that ICTs are playing a critical role within the agri cultural and rural development sector in ACP countries. The technologies still offer great opportu nities for process management, networking and sha ring experiences and information on production, market and finance, among others. How ever, the speed at which the applications are being developed has led to a huge diversity of applications with little coherence, and vast areas of overlaps and gaps. This has led to the majority of the ICT4Ag initiatives ending at pilot stage after the removal of donor sup port, with expected uptake by millions of smallhol der farmers remaining at disappointing ly low levels.As an umbrella organisation spearheading the in tegration of ICTs into the agricultural and rural development sector in ACP countries and beyond, CTA will continue to partner with likeminded institutions to mobilise technical and financial re sources to accelerate the process of adoption, up take and upscaling of ICT solutions for extension and advisory services, valuechain development, ARD policy processes, climate change resilience and food and nutrition security. This, we believe, could be done through the following three steps:n Web 2.0 and social media training opportuni ties and institutionalising the use of Web 2.0 and social media for ARD and VCD among the stakehol ders.n Participatory geographic information systems (GIS) for empowering grassroots spatial in formation management; communication for empowering grassroots in climate change adap tation, advocacy and policy processes.n Strengthening capacities/capabilities of users and intended users of ICT4Ag solutions; breaking down the barriers to adoption for widespread use of applications for agricultural development.n Supporting sound eagricultural strategies through strategy development and implementation at natio nal and regional levels.n Bringing ICT4Ag practice into policy through convening that shows the potentials and the chal lenges to the growth of the sector.n Raising awareness on infrastructure and energy for ICTs through research and devel opment that reveal trends, challenges and opportunities.n Fostering sound ICTenabled innovation for agriculture by the youth to fill existing innova tion gaps.n Supporting ICT capacity of young agroentre preneurs to enable them to take advantage of the new technologies.n Supporting diverse models of ICT4Ag value added service provision for scaling and better impact.n Raising awareness and sharing knowledge and information on power and potentials of ICTs for agriculture and rural development.initiativeS By Some other partnerS As a democratic process to validate the outputs of the conference, the organisers shared the prelimi nary findings with the participants through an online survey, six months after the conference. As part of this survey, participants were asked to share some of their completed, ongoing, proposed initia tives as a result of their participation in the ICT4Ag conference. Below are a few initiatives selected from the survey results:• \"We are working with the Ministry of Agricul ture and Food Security to enhance the efficiency of the Farm Inputs Subsidy Programme using ICTs.We are replacing paper vouchers with electronic vouchers during the implementation of the Farm Inputs Subsidy Programme (Mphatso Dakamau, electronic voucher manager, African Institute of Corporate Citizenship, Malawi).\"• \"We are leveraging mobile technologies to improve access to finance for smallholder rural farmers. Ensibuuko is a mobile and web appli cation which enables saving and credit co ope ra tives (SACCOs) of smallholder rural farmers to mobilise savings, pay and disburse loans easi ly and quickly using mobile money and SMS. To achieve this, we have embarked on building a database and network of SACCOs that are the immediate source of finance for smallholder rural farmers (David Obwangamoi Opio, founder and CEO, Ensibuuko, Uganda).\"• \"We are pilot testing new telecommunications technologies that will make it costeffective for private networks to expand in rural areas. Addi tionally, we are looking at running minielec tric grids off cell towers (Eric White, managing associate, Integra Government Services Limited, USA).\"• \"We plan to use data mining approaches to man age data for smallholder farmers and use the data to build knowledge and provide decision support as an onfarm tool (Devotha Nyambo, student, Nelson Mandela Institute of Science and Technology, Tanzania).\"• \"We are currently testing mFisheries software with many applications to suit the needs of fish ers; we are encouraging the development of small business enterprises in the sector (Kim Mallalieu, senior lecturer and leader, communications sys tems, University of the West Indies).\"• \"We are brokering relationships between a fi nan cial institution, an MNO and agricultural con tent providers to develop bundled mobile ser vices (financial and agricultural ","tokenCount":"8063"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d582d956ea5073e084b1abab35852fb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/795d35f5-d9bc-4c81-843c-ef2e89c1f761/retrieve","id":"999585736"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"06d9b54a-6789-4e32-b11a-ff0adfa202b6","pagecount":"56","content":"Livestock feed includes fodder, forage, and compound feeds, and consists of roughages, concentrates, minerals, and vitamins. Commercial production or sale of manufactured feed products takes place in more than 120 countries and directly employs more than a quarter of a million people. There was a 2.57% growth in global feed production in 2017, up from the previous year, with dairy being one of the few sectors that saw growth across all regions; Africa's dairy feed production rose by 10%. Nearly half of the 36.13 million tons of feed produced in Africa was manufactured in South Africa and Egypt. Kenya is a country with the largest and the most dynamic animal feed industry in the East Africa region. The country produced less than a million metric tons (MT) of compound feeds in 2016, with an estimated compounded annualized growth rate (CAGR) of 4.7%. The demand for compound feeds in the country outstrips supply, even though the installed capacity to produce compound feeds could adequately meet the demand.In Kenya's 2018/19 financial budget, the country removed the value-added tax (VAT) from animal feed ingredients, with the objective being twofold -to make feeds affordable to farmers and to attract investment in the sector. Consequently, the availability of comparatively cheaper raw materials and the high cost of finished compound feeds by formal feed millers should motivate the importation, trade, and formulation of animal feeds by informal, small-medium businesses, including farmers. Information gathered from primary data collected for this study revealed that, apart from major millers, several small feed manufacturers with the capacity of at least half-ton feed mixers exist in the project counties, even though most of them operate below capacity due to marketing challenges. Commercial compound dairy feeds include dairy meal, dairy cubes, calf pellets, maize germ, maize bran, molasses, cotton seed cake, wheat pollard, and wheat bran. However, the most commonly used compound feed is dairy meal and calf pellets. Based on an index computed from the information gathered during focus group discussion (FGD) interviews, about 40% of the farmers in the Kenya Crops and Dairy Market System (KCDMS) target counties use dairy meal as a feed supplement for their milking herds. The index is much higher in some counties (e.g., Kisii, Kakamega, and Taita Taveta), and much lower in other counties (e.g., Kitui and Makueni).Fodder, on the other hand, is the backbone of the industry, largely because dairy cows are ruminants, making them highly dependent on forage for milk production. The development of a high-quality innovative forage sub-sector will minimize farmers' production costs and seasonal fluctuations in milk supply and improve operational profits since a significant proportion of livestock nutrition can be met using appropriate quality and quantity forages. Kenya suffers large deficits of livestock feeds, particularly forage for dairy cattle. With the demand for fodder and the inability of many farmers, owing to their small-scale enterprises, to establish and preserve enough fodder on-farm, a commercial fodder sector is emerging in Kenya. However, individual smallholder dairy farmers producing and selling surplus fodder to their neighbors and through the market is common. There are various fodder types grown in Kenya, but the most common and widespread are Napier grass, Boma Rhodes grass and natural pastures. Hay (from Boma Rhodes grass) and Lucerne are the most commonly traded, while Napier grass dominates localized sales between farmers within proximity.While compound feeds have a relatively similar value chain map across all the KCDMS project counties, the fodder value chain generally varies by region, fodder type, and the kind of fodder (i.e., whether green or dry matter, among other factors). For instance, Napier grass has the shortest value chain, as it is mostly sold directly from producer to consumer, while other fodder types, for instance, hay, mostly has a comparatively longer value chain with other actors such as transporters and traders. Our analysis reveals positive returns from growing fodder, demonstrating the extent to which commercial fodder production and seed production, aggregation, transportation and trade, are viable business opportunities which have not been fully exploited. Further, the study found that established compound feed millers (small-scale) had market margins ranging from 20%-44%, while livestock feed-ingredient traders' margins ranged between 26%-71%.This report discusses study findings from a field survey conducted in March --April 2018 and details some of the constraints faced by actors in the two value chains. Opportunities for interventions in the value chains are also discussed.7 USAID-KCDMS Feed and Fodder Value Chain Assessment Report-2018 1.0 STATUS OF THE VALUE CHAINAnimal feed is food given to domestic animals including fodder, forage, and compound feeds. Fodder refers to any agricultural foodstuff used to feed domesticated livestock; it refers to food given to animals, rather than the food animals forage for themselves. On the other hand, forage is food that animals take mainly via browsing or grazing. Fodder and forage can be either planted (planted fodder and pasture) or naturally growing. Conversely, compound feed is fodder that is blended from various raw materials (the main ingredients being feed grains, which include corn, soybeans, sorghum, oats, and barley) and additives (which may include premixes) and are formulated according to the specific requirements of the target animal. Premixes are composed of micro ingredients such as vitamins, minerals, chemical preservatives, antibiotics, fermentation products, and other essential ingredients. In general, livestock feeds consist of roughages, concentrates, minerals, and vitamins. Likewise, the raw materials for feed manufacturing originate from cereals, legumes, and oilseed cakes, and animal by-products from fish, meat, and bone meal.Compound feeds (sometimes also referred to as industrial or formulated feeds) may be produced in industrial feed mills or using simple on-farm mixers. Commercial production and/or sale of manufactured feed products takes place in more than 120 countries and directly employs more than a quarter of a million people (FAO and IFIF, 2010) 1 . Global production of compound feeds in the year 2016 was estimated at one billion tons (IFIF, 2017) 2 , with ten countries producing more than 60% of this total (Rogers Gilbert, undated). The 2016 Global Feed Survey conducted by Alltech reported that global animal feeds were worth US$450 billion and were 996 million tons in volume by 2015. Three countries -China, the United States, and Brazil combined --produce 43% of the total global manufactured feed, with China leading (18.3%) followed by the United States of America (USA) (17.6%). The Alltech Survey further reported that nearly half of the 36.13 million tons of feed produced in Africa was manufactured in South Africa (32%) and Egypt (17%). Furthermore, the 10 largest feed manufacturers in the world produce less than 65 million tons per year -less than 11%of global feed output --while approximately 3,800 feed mills manufacture more than 80% of the world's industrial feed (Roger Gilbert, undated).The Alltech Survey showed an increasing trend toward feeds for white meat, especially poultry. Poultry feeds account for the largest share of manufactured feeds, followed by pigs and cattle; cattle feed is mainly concentrates for dairy cows. In the year 2015, 47% of manufactured feeds were for poultry, followed by pigs at 26% and ruminants at 20% (Rogers Gilbert, undated). In terms of ingredients, feed manufacturers across 1311 FAO and IFIF. 2010. Good Practices for the Feed Industry -Implementing the Codex Alimentarius Code of Practice on Good Animal Feeding. FAO Animal Production and Health Manual No. 9. Rome, Italy.  2 IFIF 2017. International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF) Annual  Report. 2016/2017. http://annualreport.ifif.org/ 3 https://go.alltech.com/hubfs/GFS2018%20Brochure.pdf?hsCtaTracking= countries preferred maize (76%) and soybean meal (96%) as the main sources of carbohydrate and protein (Alltech, 2016in USAID-KAVES, 2017).According to Kilimo Trust (2017), in Eastern Africa, three East Africa Community (EAC) countries --Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania (countries with the largest livestock industry in the region) --had a demand for animal feeds amounting to six million MT against production of 1.7 million MT in 2014. This demand is expected to increase by 60% by 2020. The biggest demand is in Kenya, the country with the largest and the most dynamic animal feed industry in the region (Kilimo Trust, 2017). Collectively, these countries had a deficit of animal feed standing at eight and 5.3 MT in 2013 and 2014, respectively, against a backdrop of increasing demand in the same period (Kilimo Trust, 2017). Increasing demand of animal feed is driven by increasing demand for livestock and livestock products because of a growing population and urbanization in the region (see Thornton, 2010)4 . On average, the EAC imported 7,900 MT of maize bran and 766 MT of soya beans annually between 2011-2015, and Kenya took up 70% of the total (Kilimo Trust, 2017). While soya bean cake is imported from the Netherlands, USA, India, Malawi, and Zambia, maize bran is imported from the USA and India. Over the same period, the region exported 204,138MT of bran (70% wheat bran) and a5b7e25c-9ffc-49fa-9155-172c7eb289f7%7C0bb51f65-30c4-40e0-b48b-76a14eacf4d3  4 Thornton, P. K. (2010). Livestock Production: Recent Trends, Future  Prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365(1554),  2853-2867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0134  66,649 MT of oilseed cake (mainly sunflower seed cake) to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, India, Egypt, Italy and Pakistan (Kilimo Trust, 2017).The findings by Kilimo Trust (2017), in inter-regional trade landscape, Uganda and Tanzania dominates export of bran (maize and rice) and sunflower seed cake respectively and Kenya is the biggest importer. In 2013, Kenya sourced 25, 848 MT of maize and rice bran and 29,543 of sunflower and cotton seed cake from Uganda and Tanzania respectively. In 2015, there was reduced trade in cereals brans with Uganda taking the lead at 14, 210 MT while the opposite was for the case for oilseed cakes with Tanzania exporting 38, 114 to her regional partners. This shows the dynamics in availability and trade of raw materials in the region because of the weather variability (Kilimo Trust, 2017). It is important to note that poultry feeds constitute the highest proportion of animal feeds demanded in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania at 64%, 96% and 60% respectively, the difference is mainly contributed by dairy feeds as demand for others such as pig, dog and fish feeds though increasing are still negligible (Kilimo Trust, 2017).According to Kilimo Trust (2017), the animal feed processors in the EAC region are characterized by:• High levels of informality and poor coordination in the animal feed industry which contributes to poor quality assurance of raw material and finished products. For example, in Uganda, animal feeds have been found to have high level of aflatoxins; likewise, in Kenya, farmers are challenged with unverifiable nutrient composition, as well as the presence or absence of substances that may be harmful to human and animal health. • On average, the processors in the region utilize 44% and 45% of their production and storage capacity, respectively, because of raw materials quantity and quality supply constraints and low demand of feeds due to high cost. • Animal feeds processors in Uganda and Tanzania use more of the locally produced sunflower oilseed cake than Kenya, which utilizes more of maize and rice brans to produce animal feeds. This is relatively consistent with the production capacities of raw materials by these countries.Since 2015, the governments of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda gradually have removed taxation on both feed and raw materials used in their production to increase access to meat, milk, and eggs, as well as to boost the feed production industry in East Africa.It is estimated that feed and fodder account for 60% -70% of total cost in livestock production (see for example Wambugu, et al., 2011). Feed (referring to fodder and forage) scarcity -the inadequacy of feeds in terms of quantity as well as quality-has been a longstanding technical constraint for productivity improvement of livestock in smallholder mixed farming, as well as pastoral and agropastoral production systems in developing countries (Jabbar, 2008)  5 . The data on fodder production and utilization at the global level is scant, and varies widely by country, depending on the cropping pattern, climate, social-economic conditions, and type of livestock. Most available information is about manufactured feed rather than about fodder (Jabbar, 2008). Figure 1 shows the global share of land used for pastures in 2014.  Limited literature is available on the dairy feeds and fodder value chain in Kenya. A few studies (SNV, 2013;KMT, 2016;Gitonga, 2014;Githinji, et al., 2009;Omollo, 2017;USAID KAVES, 2017) analyzed various aspects of animal feed production, quality and quantity, and marketing without completely addressing the entire compound feeds and fodder value chain in the country. SNV conducted a few studies during the implementation of the Kenya Market-led Dairy Programme on compound feeds and fodder, particularly in traditional dairy areas of the country and pastoral arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of northern Kenya, but none in the pre-commercial dairy counties of western and lower eastern Kenya. Moreover, while these studies address the policy and regulation concerns of manufactured feeds, and the production and marketing of fodder, other aspects of the value chain are scantily addressed. Some of these studies lumped compound animal feeds (dairy, poultry and others) together, making it difficult to isolate and understand the trends in production of dairy supplements and marketing in the country (KMT, 2016;Gitonga, 2014;Githinji, et al., 2009;USAID-KAVES, 2017). Except for the USAID-funded Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (USAID-KAVES) project ( 2017), which used a value chain approach to study the fodder value chain in Kenya, most available information is about compound feeds rather than fodder. However, using a value chain approach to analyze compound dairy feeds and various fodder types in one single study is rather complex because it involves several value chains.In Kenya, white maize and its by-products constitute roughly 50-60% of the rations in manufactured animal feed. This has exerted tremendous pressure on domestic resources and supplies, resulting in price escalations in a period of significant deficits due to drought or crop damage (USAID-KAVES 2017). USAID-KAVES (2017) used information from Alltech Surveys and the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), to estimate Kenya's feed production between 2009 and 2016 (Table 1). The country produced about 0.85 million metric tons (MMT) of manufactured animal feed in 2016 according Alltech Survey which is significantly different from that of KNBS official records approximating production at 0.555 MMT in the same period. The variance is associated with the large informal segment of the industry which could not be accurately accounted for by the official statistics (USAID KAVES, 2017). The county's annualized growth rate (CAGR) is estimated at 4.7% (projecting growth of up to 1.02 MMT) according to Alltech Surveys and 8% according to the KNBS (projecting growth of up to 0.76 MMT).  , 2017). Although the value of manufactured cattle feeds increased in the twotime periods, the proportion to total value of animal feeds remain constant at 18.4% (Table 2). Other studies (Gitonga, 2014;Githinji et al., 2009) report that the demand for compound feeds outstrips the supply, even though the installed capacity to produce the compound feed could adequately meet the demand. Registered feed manufacturers account for about 60% of the demand, while unregistered small-scale manufacturers, home/communitybased formulators, and importers account for the balance (Gitonga, 2014).In Kenya, the milling installed capacity utilized is at 69% (KMT, 2016), a significant increase from 45% in 2008, as reported by Githinji in2009. This implies that the potential monthly production is above 90,000 MT (or about 1,126,656 MT annually). As observed from primary data collected in this study (and observed by Gitonga in 2014, as well as Kenya Market Trust (KMT) in 2016), the actual capacity utilization is constrained by an inadequate and erratic supply of raw materials, irregular (seasonal) and unreliable demand, and marketing challenges, among other factors. For example, the average production of most small feed manufacturers is about 500MT per month (KMT, 2016; primary data from this study). Of the estimated manufactured products, poultry feeds formed the largest proportion (41%), with dairy feeds (39%) following closely (KMT, 2016), implying that dairy concentrates supply is slightly more than 0.3 million MT annually.The high cost of some of the ingredients, such as oilseed cakes and meals, finer mineral elements, fish meal, and aminoacids, has also affected the quality and quantity of production. First, the country imports over 70% of the raw materials needed for manufacturing compound animal feeds, the bulk of which consists of grain and oilseed cake by-products (SNV, 2013). Furthermore, the inability to fully use the installed capacity means there is an underutilization or overinvestment, with unnecessary overhead costs, possibly contributing to final cost of feed (KMT, 2016). In addition, the large number of small-scale producers possibly suffers higher costs from poor \"economies of scale.\" In Kenya's 2018/19 financial budget, the country removed the value-added tax (VAT) from animal feeds ingredients, with the objective being twofold -to make feeds affordable to farmers and to attract investment in the sector. 6In Kenya, commercial dairy feeds include dairy meal, dairy cubes, calf pellets, maize germ, maize bran, molasses, cotton seed cake, wheat pollard, and wheat bran, with the main sources of energy used being maize combined with other nutrient sources including high protein ingredients, such as sunflower and cotton seed cakes and premixes (USAID KAVES, 2017). The current number of compound dairy feed operators in the country is not known due to the dynamic nature of the businesses and a policy environment which encourages small and medium feeds formulators. Some of these formulators are informal, including farmers who formulate, feed, and sell surplus. The growing demand due to an increasing dairy population, especially in non-traditional dairy production areas, is also another factor contributing to the increasing number of operators.  Gitonga (2014), which did not cover the whole country. According to Gitonga, there were about 100 registered livestock feed manufacturers in 2008, which had increased to about 150 by 2013. Of these, 20 were also large grain millers and eight were oilseed manufacturers. There were also nearly 50 registered raw material importers and six suppliers of feed premixes (minerals, vitamins, and other mineral elements). In addition, there were hundreds of home/communitybased formulators whose growth was driven by farmers' desires to contain spiraling production costs. In 2016, KMT estimated the population of animal feed operators at 305, while the following year, Kilimo Trust estimated it at 307. Of those 305, 115 were manufacturers, 96 were raw materials suppliers (or ingredients), and 94 were both producing raw materials and manufacturing feeds. This resulted in a total of about 210 feed millers, more than twice the number established in a 2008 survey by the Ministry of Livestock Development (KMT, 2016). This study's field survey, conducted in March-April 2018, observed several small-medium feed operators taking advantage of the government policy on duty free raw material imported into the country, especially from neighboring Uganda and Tanzania. The availability of comparatively cheaper raw materials and the high cost of finished animal feeds by formal feed millers motivated the importation, trade, and formulation of animal feeds by informal small-medium business, including farmers. Therefore, the current population of animal feed operators could be much higher than estimated previously. Given this scenario, the accurate estimation of current production (supply) and demand of compounded feeds becomes rather complex.6 https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/analysis/columnists/Removal-of- VAT-from-animal-feeds-timely/4259356-4654562-r0j9kbz/ 2.1 Fodder The cost of dairy feeding constitutes between 60% -80% of the overall cost of production in smallholder farms in Kenya, and efficient feeding could significantly increase farmers' profit margins (Auma et al., 2016;USAID KAVES, 2014;SNV, 2013). Most important, allyear-round access to quality feed and fodder determines the competitiveness of the dairy sector (SNV, 2013). Fodder is the backbone of the industry, largely because dairy cows are ruminants, making them highly dependent on forage for milk production (SNV, 2013). Development of a high-quality, innovative forage sub-sector will minimize farmers' production costs and seasonal fluctuations in milk supply, as well as improve operational profits (SNV 2013).Experience from practicing farmers show that a significant proportion of nutrition is met while using appropriate quality and quantity forages, rather than the more expensive compound feeds: a dairy cow could produce up to 20 litres of milk a day on a balanced forage feed with no compound feeds (SNV, 2013). Studies show that smallholder farmers' exposure and awareness of different fodder crops in Kenya is high, but only 55% grow at least one fodder type on their farms (SNV, 2013). More recently, frequent droughts, resulting from climate change and variability as well as poor land use practices, have significantly contributed to degradations and loss of natural pastures, (Omollo, 2017) further complicating the situation. This was particularly noted in ASAL areas.Challenges in animal feeding and the growing demand for fodder motivated government initiatives (e.g. KALRO) in collaboration with development agencies to support fodder establishment, production, and marketing (Omollo, 2017). One such initiative was the introduction of several natural fodder improvement technologies in the drylands to increase feed availability during the dry periods and diversify income through the sale of hay and grass seed among communities living in the ASALs (Mnene et al., 1999;Dolan et al., 2004;Munyeki et al., 2015;Lugusa et al., 2016in Omollo, 2017). These initiatives, coupled with a demand for fodder and the inability of many farmers to establish and preserve enough fodder on-farm, created the emergence of a commercial fodder sector in Kenya (SNV 2013). Three business models emerged: i) large-scale commercial fodder producers supplying farmers and dairy societies; ii) dairy societies' out-grower model, whereby dairy societies are producing fodder through their own members, supported technically under a buy-back arrangement; and iii) dairy societies establishing their own large-scale fodder production (SNV, 2013).In addition, primary data collected for this study observed that individual smallholder dairy farmers are producing and selling surplus fodder to their neighbors and through markets and the trend is increasing. There are various fodder types grown in Kenya, but the most common and widespread are Napier grass, Boma Rhodes grass, and natural pastures. Hay (from Boma Rhodes grass) and Lucerne are the most commonly traded, while Napier grass dominates localized sales between farmers within proximity. Hay from five species of Brachiaria introduced by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and partners is also picking up in western Kenya. Hay production from natural pastures has become an important source of income and livelihood for farmers and farmer groups in Makueni, Kitui, and Taita Taveta counties, to the extent the county government and other developmental partners subsidize production and harvesting through construction of hay bans and mowing. In Makueni, mowing tractors are in very high demand, especially in Kibwezi East and West during the end of the season (Field Survey, 2018). Moreover, commercial production of maize silage and trading is emerging in some parts of the country (SNV, 2013).Estimating national pastures and fodder demand is difficult due to the dynamics of the various livestock production systems and inaccurate information on livestock populations and acreages under fodder production and conservation. A recent study suggests that Kenya suffers large deficits of livestock feeds particularly forage for dairy cattle. The deficit is over 3.6 billion bales of hay annually worth USD nine billion (USAID-KAVES, 2017). The demand is expected to increase in view of the emerging fodder demand by neighboring countries (MoALF, 2017). Production of these quantities of fodder would require an additional 15 million acres of land under fodder crops and pasture which could be realized by shifting to utilization of the arid and semi-arid areas (MoALF, 2017). Using primary data collected for this study, gross margin analysis shows pasture and fodder farming is profitable and there is effective demand. This observation is also evident in the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF 2017).The KCDMS program's target counties include Kisii, Migori, Homa Bay, Kisumu, Siaya, Kakamega, Bungoma and Busia counties in Western Kenya, and Kitui, Makueni and Taita Taveta in the lower eastern part of the country. These are typically emerging dairy areas, as opposed to the traditional dairy areas of the Central, North and South Rift Provinces, where dairy production is relatively advanced.In any dairy production system, whether in commercial or in emerging dairy areas, compound feeds are crucial in raising productivity and are largely composed of dairy meals and raw material used in formulating dairy meal (ingredients), mineral salts, and calf pellets. The field survey revealed that several farmers are formulating their onfarm rations using available raw material (ingredients) for making dairy meal. Some farmers feed these ingredients (e.g., sunflower and cotton seed cakes, maize/wheat/rice brans, and molasses) directly to dairy cows, especially in western Kenya. Formulation of on-farm rations is motivated by a number factors including:• high cost of manufactured feeds;• low cost of main ingredients used in formulating dairy meal because of the government's duty-free policy on imported raw materials compared to tax levied on finished products; • the ease of accessibility of the main raw materials from neighboring countries (Uganda and Tanzania); and • promotion of on-farm feed formulation by public livestock extension departments, particularly through IFADfunded Smallholder Dairy Commercialization Programme (SDCP), which supports farmers and farmer groups in western Kenya with feed milling equipment.It would be important to note that the policy environment has motivated business around the main raw materials used in feed formulation in the local markets where traders import maize/wheat germ/bran, cotton and sunflower seed cakes, and mix in the open-air markets according to the farmers' recommendations.This scenario is gaining momentum in western Kenya, where in some places it is already challenging major feed miller's products. Taxation of finished products and not raw materials is pushing millers away from formulating animal feeds through milling by-products. In turn, these millers dispose the raw material in the market because of the high demand. A case in point is the Kisumu United Millers Company.14 USAID-KCDMS Feed and Fodder Value Chain Assessment Report-2018Information gathered from the primary data collected for this study revealed that, apart from major millers, a few small feed manufacturers with capacity of at least a half-ton feed mixer exists in the project counties, even though most of them operate below capacity due to marketing challenges. In lower eastern region, USAID-KAVES supported dairy cooperatives to establish an animal feeds manufacturing unit in Machakos town which is producing and supplying dairy meal (among other animal feeds) competitively to farmers through member cooperatives. Among the counties surveyed, it is only in Migori and Taita Taveta where active feed millers were not found to be present (see Annex for details). While it not clear when the miller in Migori stopped operating, one in Taita Taveta was operational until 2016. In addition to larger millers like Kisumu United Millers (raw material) and Kisumu Lake Feeds Company, Kisumu hosts several smaller feed millers. These include Sakina Feeds -located in Nyando sub-county with two distribution outlets (Kisumu and Ahero); Rusinga Feeds (Migosi); and Victoria Feeds (Riat Airport).Kisii County hosts three feed millers -Nyangusu, Angaza, and Santana. In Bungoma, there is Eden Feeds and Sashishi Feeds in Kakamega. In Taita Taveta and Makueni, Mombasa millers established a depot at Voi and Kibwezi. Finally, Kitui Ginners, located in Kitui County, produces cotton seed cake.As mentioned earlier in this report, commercial dairy feeds include dairy meal, dairy cubes, calf pellets, maize germ, maize bran, molasses, cotton seed cake, wheat pollard, and wheat bran. However, the most commonly used compound feed is dairy meal and calf pellets. These are commonly fed to cattle alongside mineral salts. Through focus group discussions (FGDs), the study attempted to approximate the proportion of farmers that feed their animals on dairy meal, mineral salts, and calf pellets -the results of which are presented in Table 3. Based on the index computed from the information gathered during FGDs, on average, about 40% of farmers (32/80) in all the KCDMS counties use dairy meal as a feed supplement for their milking herds. The index is much higher (60%) in Kisii County and about 50% in Kakamega and Taita Taveta, irrespective of the sources (including on-farm formulated), quality and feeding regime (whether tailored to the recommended feeding regime). In Migori, Kisumu, and Bungoma counties, about 40% of the farmers use dairy meal to feed their milking herds. The percentage of farmers feeding their milking herds on dairy meal is much lower (about 20%) in Kitui and Makueni. These results roughly reflect the relative level of dairy concentration as Kisii, Kakamega, and Taita Taveta are the counties with the highest levels. As evident from the results presented in Table 3, the proportion of farmers feeding mineral salts are much higher than dairy meal since several farmers with indigenous breeds supplement their cattle with mineral salts but not dairy meal. Despite the difference in percentages reported, these results are quite consistent with those of Auma et al., (2016;2018). Auma et al., (2016;2018) reported 14% and 31% of the farmers, respectively, feeding dairy meal in nine of the project counties. Variations were noted across counties and year.The field survey was meant to try and establish the status of fodder production and utilization by farmers through the County Livestock Production Extension Officers and other stakeholders during FGDs. This was the first point of entry to understand the types of fodder grown by cattle keepers and the extent of fodder use in the respective sub-counties. Bio vision's Infonet website (https://www.infonet-biovision.org/AnimalHealth/Fodder-production) gives a detailed synthesis of fodder crops grown in Kenya. These include fodder grasses (e.g., Napier, Brachiaria, Boma Rhodes, Guatemala, and cultivated or naturally growing common grasses); fodder legumes (e.g., Desmodium, Centroma, Lablab, and Mucuna); and crops grown purely as livestock feed or residues used as fodder (e.g., maize, sorghum, oats, and other emerging crop residues such as sweet potato vines and sugarcane tops).The extent of fodder production and utilization together with crop residues, fodder trees, and shrubs were ranked for each sub-county and an average estimated for the entire county (Table 4). Further, the utilization index (which is the sum of the rank for all the counties visited) was computed for a general comparison of various fodder types. Napier grass was found to be the most widespread improved fodder grown and used by cattle keepers in the KCDMS project counties. The estimated overall utilization index is 52/80, though there are variations across the counties (Table 4).From the FGDs, it was estimated that at least more than 60% of farmers grow and/or feed cattle on Napier grass in western Kenya, compared to about 40% in lower Eastern Province, where climatic conditions are not very favorable for growing Napier grass and other fodder species that are not drought tolerant. Cattle keepers in lower Eastern counties largely depend on natural pastures. With an overall ranking index of 51/80 in the eight counties surveyed, natural pastures are a significant source of fodder/forage for many cattle keepers, not only in lower Eastern, but in all the KCDMS counties. Kisii and Bungoma are the only counties with the lowest percentage (50% or five out of 10, as reported in Table 4) of farmers relying on natural pastures, probably due to limited pasture land owing to small land sizes per household.  2016) and ( 2018) reported that 83 and 63% of the cattle keepers in the nine project counties were growing Napier grass in 2016 and 2017, respectively. The study also reported that about 5-6%of farmers grew Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) (in 2016 and 2017), and 13% planted Brachiaria grass in 2017. The average area under Napier grass according to the studies ranged between 0.5-0.6 acres, Rhodes grass between 2-37 acres and Brachiaria grass at 0.22 acres reflecting the commercial nature of Rhodes grass.Crop residues and other by-products contribute a significant proportion of dairy feeds, especially maize stovers, with a utilization index of 64/80 (Table 4), implying that approximately 80% of the farmers across the KCDMS program counties utilized maize stovers as fodder. Sweet potato vines are also common across the counties, though with a comparatively low utilization index (26/80). Farmers in all the counties (except in Makueni and Taita Taveta) were found to be using sweet potato vines as fodder. Feeding crop residues and crop by-products with low nutritional value, such as sugarcane tops, bananas stems, legumes and rice straw during dry season, were found to be an emerging trend as a dry season feeding strategy. Sugarcane tops and rice straws, which farmers previously collected freely and used as fodder during dry periods, are presently being traded and offer a business opportunity for the youth in Migori, Kisumu, Kakamega, and Bungoma, where farmers use them for feeding during dry seasons. This was observed during the field survey in March-April 2018 and reported by fodder traders at Luanda market (Vihiga), Ahero (Kisumu), and Khayega (Kakamega).Moreover, it became apparent that the sale of green fodder is on the increase in the last three to five years with sugarcane tops among the traded products. Previously, farmers used to dispose of the sugarcane tops by burning. Having found their way into the fodder market, they are presently being sold along the major roads or at market centers. The survey team came across several youth selling the green fodder (Napier grass, sugarcane tops, ordinary/common grasses, and rice straws. This result is consistent with previous findings (Auma et al., 2017;2018), which reported over 95% of farmers using crop residues for feeding in 2017 and 2018, with maize stovers being the most utilized among crop residues (94%).7 These exclude Kisii, Bungoma, and Kakamega counties.18 USAID-KCDMS Feed and Fodder Value Chain Assessment Report-2018 In a FGD in Migori County, participants were asked whether the county is self-sufficient in fodder production. Mrs. Jaqueline Magero, the County Director of Livestock Production, responded amazingly, saying… \"that the question should be asked directly to the cows as they have a better answer in terms of productivity and body conditions…\" which emphasized serious deficits of fodder and feeds in general in the county, since productivity of the cows is evidently low (see Auma et al., 2018 ).19 USAID-KCDMS Feed and Fodder Value Chain Assessment Report-2018Value chain mapping Since there are different kinds of compound dairy feeds utilized as cattle feed and different types of fodder grown and traded in the project counties, the value chains in this study are divided between compound feeds and fodder value chains. Further, to simplify the two value chains for ease of analysis, the study lumped crop residues together with fodders in the fodder value chain and focused on dairy meal in the compound feeds value chain, since dairy meal is the predominant kind of compound feed.In general, there are five value chain actors from production to marketing nodes of the dairy meal value chain, i.e., before it reaches the consumer node --the farmer. The dairy meal value chain actors include raw material (ingredients) suppliers, manufacturers (feed mixers/formulators), distributors/wholesalers, retailers, transporters at various nodes of the value chain and consumers (farmers). Table 5 presents a summary of the status of dairy meal actors in eight of the 12 counties. In Kenya, these are mainly maize and wheat millers, cotton ginners, and edible oil and fats producing companies located in major towns. Other sources include small scale rice millers in market centers within rice producing areas, that sell rice milling by-products to feed manufacturers. The cost of the raw materials from local millers is higher compared to millers in Uganda and Tanzania. Therefore, the non-miller, small-scale feed processors tend to import ingredients (Field Survey, 2018). Majority of these small-scale traders mix ingredients manually according to the farmers' needs, especially in Western Kenya.Milling human food and use by-products to formulated animal feeds. Small feed manufacturers import raw material from Uganda and Tanzania. Formulating feeds and pack in branded bags. Distribution of animal feeds through own depots or through agrovets.Transport feeds to distribution outlets and agrovets.Most of the large feed manufacturers are also maize and wheat millers and hence use milling by-products to formulate animal feeds. The large milling companies are found in major towns and have established distribution depots in urban centers or use major agrovet stockists as the main distribution outlets/wholesale. The small-scale feed manufacturers import raw materials, mainly from Uganda and Tanzania, where maize and wheat bran, maize germ, wheat pollard, cotton and sunflower cake are comparatively cheaper. Some import on their own while others rely on traders. Small scale feed producers own smallscale feed mixers with a capacity of 0.5-2.5 tons per hour. Therefore, their feed production capacities and sale turnovers are less than 30 tons per month. Most small-scale feed producers own at least one vehicle which they use to transport feed ingredients and compounded feed to distribution outlets and customers. Some local farmers who are around and within market catchment of these producers buy feeds from the factory directly. There is a significant variation in prices between smaller and larger millers. However, prices among millers of the same scale (large or small millers) do not differ. Feed distributors/ Feed wholesalers Distribution outlets owned by manufacturers. Wholesale and retail transportation Some large feed manufacturers, such as Mombasa Millers, own distribution outlets and deliver feeds to clients directly from the factory. Major agrovet stockists act as distribution outlets of large manufacturers. They sell to other smaller agro-vets at wholesale price and to farmers at retail price. Distributors are appointed to deal with a specific brand of feeds and cannot wholesale/retail another brand of feeds from a competing company. Distributors transport dairy meal to retail agrovet stockists and give feedback from the farmers on the performance of the feed to the manufacturers. Transport of raw material to feed formulators and deliver dairy meal to agrovetsMost of transportation of raw materials to dairy meal formulators is through hired transport, but delivery of dairy meal to distribution outlets, wholesale, and retail markets is mainly through companies' own transport. End users/farmers Mixing About 14-31% of farmers use dairy meal (Auma, et al., 2016-18). This includes farmers feeding dairy cows only for a few weeks before and after calving, and not entirely throughout lactation period as recommended by research. Majority of farmers buy branded products from agrovet stockists. However, farmers are increasingly formulating their own feeds at home. Some farmers also instruct feed ingredient traders in open air markets to formulate feeds according to farmers' preference.From this study's findings, the dairy meal value chain map was found to be rather similar across all the KCDMS program counties (Figure 4), with slight variations in cases where feed millers are located within the county, particularly smallscale millers who sell directly to consumers and are not using distributors or wholesalers. Animal feed millers are concentrated in Nairobi and Central Province (KMT, 2016). This study also found that most large millers serving western and lower eastern Kenya are in Nakuru, Nairobi, and Central Province, respectively. The fodder value chain generally varies by region, fodder type, and the kind of fodder, i.e., whether green or dry, among other factors. Napier grass has the shortest value chain, as it is generally sold directly from producer (fodder surplus from dairy farmer or commercial fodder farmer) to the consumer (fodder-deficit dairy farmers or dairy farmers who do not produce their own fodder). However, there are a few instances where trading in Napier grass was observed in Luanda and Khayega markets in Vihiga and Kakamega counties, respectively. The hay value chain in western Kenya is less developed than in lower eastern region. This could be due to longer dry periods in lower eastern region which encourages commercial fodder production. In addition, the harvesting of hay and seeds from natural pastures, produced by range reseeding and the fencing of natural pastures for regeneration, are common practices in lower eastern but not western Kenya (Omollo, 2017). Figures 5 to 7 illustrate the fodder value chain maps for selected fodder types and in different regions (lower eastern vs western Kenya counties) of the KCDMS program counties. Table 6 gives a general synthesis of the fodder value chain actors. This includes descriptions of their characteristics and roles. Baling and selling of natural grass is common in lower Eastern but not in Western Kenya, where it's harvested and sold green in the urban and peri-urban area.Conservation and the sale of crop residues is increasingly becoming important due to increased frequency of long-dry-spells. Baling is mainly manual, using a box baler. Some farmers/farmers' groups have hay bans previously supported by donor-funded programs and projects. Most of these hay bans are empty due to a low volume of hay produced and/or a high demand, leaving nothing for storage. County governments, in lower eastern, supports farmers and farmers' groups with tractor balers and mowing and baling of hay is mechanized. A few individual farmers have mechanized baling equipment which are hired by other farmers when county government equipment is not operational or fully occupied. Fodder tradersThe most traded fodder is grass hay, mostly by agrovet stockists; informal traders; farmer's cooperatives societies (particularly those offering inputs, check-off systems to members); and hay producers-vertical integrations. Rhodes grass is the most traded type of hay, even though Brachiaria is also picking up in some parts of the counties where it has been promoted in the last two years. Green fodder (Napier grass and natural pastures) is also traded by youth in peri-urban areas. They buy from farmers' harvest, aggregate and transport to strategic locations along the road or market centers. They also sell crop residues including maize stovers, sugarcane tops, and rice straws when feed is scarce after prolonged dry periods. Transporters Aggregation, transportation, and sellingThe modes of transportation for fodder and crop residues range from use of lorries and pick-ups to motorcycles and bicycles, depending on distance and the volume and type of fodder/crop residues being transported. Some fodder transporters combine transport function with trade in fodder; however, in most cases, transporters are hired by traders and farmers (consumers) for their services.Harvesting, storage, and processing of fodder/residue using pulverizes before feeding End users of fodder are smallholder farmers keeping 1 -4 dairy cattle of improved breeds (cross and pure) (Auma et al., 2018). Fodder conservation and storage is common in lower eastern and but not in western Kenya. Farmers depend on their own grown fodder, except those in peri-urban areas who rely on the market but supplement with purchased fodder during prolonged dry periods. A few dairy farmers use pulverizers to process fodder and crop residues before feeding.To analyze the performance of the dairy feeds (compound and fodder) value chains in KCDMS counties, the results of this study are presented in this section, mostly in the form of case study scenarios. The results are presented, first focusing on compound feeds, then followed by fodder.The major animal feed millers in Kenya rely on their own milling by-products for the main raw material used in animal feed production, while small-scale millers rely on import from Uganda and Tanzania. According to the information provided by the small-scale millers interviewed in the KCDMS project counties, the raw material from these countries are cheaper than locally available material, coupled with the government's duty-free policy on animal feeds on raw material implemented after the Association of Kenya Feeds Manufacturers (AKEFEMA) lobbied the government. Table 7 presents prices of various raw materials reported by millers, indicating, in most cases, the source of the raw materials.From the table, United Millers' prices are higher than reported by Eden Millers (Uganda and Tanzania), except for the price of wheat bran, which is apparently the same. Eden Millers reported a price of KES 18 per kilo for wheat bran from Mombasa Millers and United Millers while data collected from United Millers shows the highest price of wheat bran produced by is KES 14 per kilo. Consequently, there is a possibility that either United Millers reduced their prices especially for wheat bran due to competition and/or Eden Millers may not have been aware of the prevailing local prices now that it relied on imports. The price of wheat pollard from United Millers is nearly double that imported from Uganda, and maize germ is slightly cheaper than whole maize from Uganda. Cotton seed cake from Makueni Ginnery is cheaper (KES 25,000/MT) than that sourced from Tanzania (KES 38,000/MT). Further analysis of the retail prices (Sweetex Feed ingredient trader in Bungoma) of wheat bran, wheat pollard, and sunflower and cotton seed cake indicated a margin of 43%, 39%, 60%, and 34%, respectively when compared with prices of imports reported by Eden Millers (Table 7). These high margins (which included transport and other marketing costs incurred by the trader) could explain the surge in raw material importation and trade, especially in western Kenya which is competing against established millers' products.The accessibility of ingredients in the open-air market also encourages on-farm formulation to manage the high cost associated with supplementary feeding and milk production. The availability of raw materials and the high cost of processed feeds creates a business opportunity for small-scale feed formulation, especially for youth and women, if quality and standardization challenges can be addressed.The study listed all the feed millers/formulators operational in the eight counties surveyed, and profiled information on installed mixer capacity, estimated annual capacity, and actual production of dairy supplements, as well as the cost of production and consumer price per ton (Table 8). The study estimated the market margins by subtracting the cost of production from the price consumers pay per ton. Established millers (small-scale) had market margins ranging from 20%-44% compared to animal feed ingredient traders ranging between 26%-71%. Considering that established millers had the cost of distribution and marketing included in the margins, while traders sell directly to consumers without marketing costs, the market margins are a good approximations of profit margins because feed ingredient traders formulate dairy supplement without overhead costs such as licenses and tax fees.26 USAID-KCDMS Feed and Fodder Value Chain Assessment Report-2018 In this section, case studies on Napier grass, Boma Rhodes grass, Brachiaria grass, natural pastures/common grasses and pulverized maize stovers are presented. We estimated the gross margins of various fodder types and crop residue --Brachiaria, Boma Rhodes, Napier grass, natural pastures (range reseeding) and total mixed ration (TMR) of maize stover (Tables 9 to 15). Natural pastures had the highest gross margin per acre (KES 165,100), mainly because of the huge local and international market for seeds (Field Survey; Omollo, 2017). FAO Somali, FAO Kenya, German Agro Action, and World Vision are some of the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) buying large quantities of grass seeds under various projects supporting farmers in Somaliland, Southern Sudan and Rwanda (Field Survey, 2018). Local markets include Kitui, Makueni, Taita Taveta, Meru, Mandera, coastal region, as well as NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs) working in pastoral and agro-pastoral parts of Kenya. The newly promoted Brachiaria grass has the best gross margins per acre per year when the sale of Boma Rhodes seeds is not considered due to high yields (300 bales) per cutting comparatively. Our gross margin estimates for Rhodes grass-based hay (Table 10), derived on the primary data gathered for this study through FGDs, is compared with that of Egerton University's \"Seed of Gold\" column in the Saturday Nation newspaper, May 5 th , 2018 (Table 11). The Egerton estimates include the value of seeds, which overestimates the margins. Moreover, the cost of production estimates in the Egerton study did not use current labor prices of harvesting, further overestimating profit margins. Source: Author's estimations from primary data  Several coping strategies are used to feed dairy cattle during dry periods when acute feed shortages are experienced, and which are becoming more frequent. Similarly, the high cost of dairy concentrates encourages farmers to use locally available feeds efficiently. The study analyzed one such scenario in Rongo, Migori County, where a farmer with a pulverizer uses maize stovers, Boma Rhodes, Desmodium, and other legume residues to make a total mix ratio (TMR) for his own use and sells excess to his neighbor (Table 13). The gross margin approximated is at 40% of the cost of production.   These case studies demonstrate the extent to which commercial fodder production offers viable business opportunities which have not been fully exploited, particularly in western Kenya where land could be limiting. In lower eastern Kenya, large tracts of land are not under crop cultivation because of low precipitation, even though they are adequate for natural pasture production.Farmers and groups interviewed in Kitui, Makueni, and Taita Taveta confirmed that a huge market exists for natural pasture seeds and hay, but producers need to be better organized to exploit the market (Omollo, 2017). The KCDMS counties are net importers of hay from the Rift Valley, especially Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Kitale, and Eldoret (Field Survey, 2018). This creates business opportunities in commercial fodder and seed production, aggregation, transportation and trade, especially for the youth and women. The biggest challenges to seed production and trade opportunities are the stringent regulations on seed certification by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS), which have denied farmers lucrative markets outside the county.4.0 PRODUCTION AND SUPPLYCompound dairy feeds Production and Supply: Since farmers in KCDMS counties depend largely on dairy meal manufactured and supplied from outside the counties, analysis of the local supply situation might be misleading unless the study restricts itself to the milling capacity in these counties (see Table 8). Overall, the size of the animal feed industry in Kenya has been steadily increasing in the last ten years, mainly due to the growth of the livestock sub-sector (Gitonga, 2014). In 2008, there were about 100 registered livestock feed manufacturers. By 2013, that number had increased to about 150 (Gitonga, 2014). Of these, twenty were also large grain millers and eight were oilseed manufacturers. There were also nearly fifty registered raw material importers and six suppliers of feed premixes (mineral, vitamin, and other mineral elements) (Gitonga, 2014). By 2016, the number of millers and operators reached 305 (307 from other sources), of which 115 were manufacturers, 96 were raw material suppliers (or ingredients), and 94 were both producing raw materials and manufacturing feeds (KMT, 2016). This excludes hundreds of home/community-based formulators and open market traders of feed ingredients whose growth is driven by farmers' desires to contain spiraling production costs (Gitonga, 2014;KCDMS Feeds Survey, 2018).The study estimated fodder production and productivity, assuming several factors due to the technicalities involved. These are further complicated by the fact that most farmers growing fodder feed directly from the farm, and commercial fodder production is still limited, since only 18%of what is produced is traded or sold to other farmers in the project counties (KCDMS Draft Baseline Survey Report, 2018). Several farmers (29%-35%) growing fodder have not set aside land for fodder, and instead use hedges, farm boundaries, road sides, and soil conservation structures to grow fodder. Unfortunately, these areas could not be estimated (Auma et al., 2016;2018). All the same, the study estimated fodder production using bales of hay equivalent based on average yield per acre. This is because hay bales are measurable and the most traded fodder. According to the KCDMS Draft Baseline Survey Report (2018), the yield of Napier in the KCDMS counties is near optimum (38 tons/ha), but all other fodders grown attained yields below the potential and or national averages: Boma Rhodes (6.7 tons/ha), Brachiaria sp (8.6 tons/ha), Desmodium (5.4 tons/ha) and sweet potato vine (20.2 tons/ha). Nguku, (2015) reported dry matter yields of Napier at 5430 kg /ha and Brachiaria Piata sp. at 8,867kg/ha which were the highest among Brachiaria species established for trial. Sita, (2017) reported biomass potential of up to 30 tons/ha for Brachiaria species. Table 16 presents snapshots of types of fodder grown in nine of the 12 KCDMS counties and the average area for each fodder (Auma et al., 2016;2018).Supply: To estimate fodder supply, the study used the AVCD Baseline and Annual Monitoring Survey data. This data captured the area under improved fodder by fodder type (or the proportion of household landholding under improved fodder) and the area set aside for grazing (proportion of household landholding under natural pastures) (Auma et al., 2016;2018). Data for non-AVCD counties were obtained from other sources (RoK, 2014). Using household averages for area under improved fodder and natural pastures, the study estimated the total area separately under improved fodder and under natural pastures for each county by extrapolating sample averages to county population (households), weighted by the proportion of farmers keeping cattle, growing improved fodder, and/or setting aside land for grazing (natural pastures) -Table 17. It is important to note that this approach could significantly underestimate the quantity of fodder produced because farmers growing improved fodder on farm boundaries, hedges, roadsides. and soil conservation structures (strips) are not included. Similarly, farmers grazing cattle on communal land, by the roadside, and other farmers' parcels of land are not included, as it's difficult to determine the area available for grazing.Based on several assumptions (see Annex 4), about 1.14 million hectares (468,000 and 676,000 under improved fodder and natural pastures respectively) is estimated to be under fodder and forages in the 12 KCDMS counties in 2017/18. This has the potential to produce close to 1.1billion bales of hay equivalent a year assuming an average productivity of 450 and 300 bales for grass and legume per acre (0.4ha) per year respectively. It is important to note that fodder production estimates in this case include those for local and improved cattle. With intensification of improved dairy in these counties, the demand for high quality fodder and forages will increase, attracting higher benefits than leaving the land for open grazing or fallow. There is an opportunity to convert some grazing land for high quality fodder production in some of the counties. Brachiaria, which is a high yielding, high quality fodder with a high protein content, is suitable for farmers and commercial fodder production since it could be fed directly, baled into hay, and used for making silage. Among other opportunities detailed in the table which follows is the opportunity to adopt varieties of high yielding improved fodder species availed by research and suitable for humid, midland, and semi-arid lands by smallholder farmers. One such example would be Brachiaria. The grass has high biomass and can be used for hay and silage. Bringing some land under natural pastures to growing improved fodder will increase land productivity and increase biomass for dairy feeding. The low yield of fodder per unit area is because of planting of unsuitable species and poor fodder management due to low commercialization. Reseeding rangeland with suitable natural pastures species will rehabilitate degraded rangeland, as well as double benefits to the smallholder farmers-feeds and environmental protection.Opportunities for Intervention Fodder production and utilization• High demand of fodder amidst reducing land sizes in some counties and competing farm enterprises• Knowledge gap -information on fodder production and good feeding practices• Certification process for grass seeds as outlined by KEPHIS regulations is a challenge to smallholder seed producers 1. Adopt varieties of high yielding improved fodder species availed by research in suitable areas 2. Testing and implementing viable commercial seed/splits production models 3. Testing and implementing viable commercial fodder production models 4. Extension and training on production and feeding 5. Support farmers' groups to develop effective feeds plan and put it into use -planning to ensure adequate supply of fodder at the time of scarcity Compound feed production 1. High prices of finished products (compound feeds) 2. Quality in terms of nutrient values and food safety 1. Training farmers and small-scale feed formulators on on-farm compound feed formulation 2. Certification and standardization of small-scale compound feed formulators 3. Supporting production of local milling and mixing machinery through transfer of knowledge and skills 4. Supporting research, development, and policy for local production of raw materials for feed manufacturing 5. Capacity building on feed quality, use of available feeds and ingredients, proper storage, stock management transporting and handling of feed like pest management and affects animal production and productivity (KMT ,2017).The study estimated potential demand for dairy concentrates (meal) based on the proportion of lactating dairy cows producing eight litres and above assuming one kg of dairy supplement for every two litres produced over and above eight litres per cow per day (Table 19). Currently, potential demand for dairy meal is at 46,000MT in the KCDMS counties and projected to increase by more than 3000 MT to 48,000 MT in 2022 due to an increasing dairy cattle population (1.3% annually). These figures are a close estimate of the actual demand for dairy meal according to previous studies which reported 14%-34% of farmers feeding dairy meal in the nine of the 12 KCDMS counties (Auma et al., 2016;2018). Farmers producing high volumes of milk per cow are likely to reap higher benefits from high milk prices (KES 60 per litre) and recover the cost of production plus gain a wide profit margin. This creates business opportunities in milling and distribution of dairy concentrates with market value of between KES 1.2-18 billion in 2018 to 1.3-2.0 billion in 2022, depending on current consumer price per kg ranging between KES 27 and 40. Intensification of dairy production could further expand the demand and market for dairy concentrates. Demand for Fodder and Forages in KCDMS Counties Based on the projected population of improved dairy cattle (ILRI Database, 2018), the study estimated daily and annual dry matter intake (DMI) for the KCDMS counties (Table 20) based on several assumptions (see Annexes). The total fodder consumption for improved dairy cattle (potential demand) is approximately 182 million bales per year (average weight per bale estimated at 15 kg) for the dairy cattle population approximated at 628,000 in the 12 counties. This requires about 485,000 hectares of land to produce. These figures seem realistic in comparison to the most recent study by USAID-KAVES, (2017) which estimated the potential demand of hay at 1.96 billion bales per year for 7.2 million improved dairy cattle which require approximately two million hectares of land to produce. These estimations were based on a daily DMI of between nine-14 kg or 3% of the animal's body weight, assuming average body weight of 300 Kg, to factor different reproductive cycles of the cattle, breeds, etc.Assuming four months of a dry period in a year in which fodder is scarce and farmers rely on the market or buy from neighbors, potential demand for hay is approximately 60 million bales per a year for improved dairy cattle only (Table 19). This is projected to increase due to an increasing improved cattle population (1.3% annually), the frequency of severe dry spell, and effects of climate change overall. This creates a business opportunity for commercial fodder production.Previous studies estimated between 30%-37%of farmers purchase various fodder types from other farmers (neighbors) and markets to supplement their own production during fodder-scarce dry periods of the year (Auma, et. al., 2016;2018). Assuming a producer price of KES 200 per bale for a 15 kg bale of hay, the study estimates the market value of hay at KES 12 billion during the four months dry period in the 12 KCDMS counties. This creates commercial fodder production as a business opportunity within and between the counties. The projected demand (potential) for hay (equivalent) will increase from 182 to 192 million bales based on a dairy cattle population increase alone (Table 21). This will expand the potential hay market by about KES 800 million in the 12 KCDMS counties at current prices of KES 200 per bale. Similarly, without intensification, additional projected acreage of production will be required and will increase to 510,000 hectares, assuming an average production of 450 bales of grass and 300 bales of legumes per acre per year (see USAID-KAVES, 2017 and Annex 4). There are five marketing channels of compounded feeds including dairy meal (KMT, 2016):• Manufacturers (source) + Distributor + Wholesaler + Retailer + Consumer (37.1%);• Manufacturers (source) + Distributor + Retailer + Consumer (37.1%);• Manufacturers (source) + Distributor + Others + Wholesaler + Retailer + Consumer (11.4%);• Manufacturers (source)+ Distributor + Consumer (8.6%); and• Manufacturer (source)+ Consumer (5.6%).The predominance of any channels varies depending on the size of the feed manufacturer (source), other market functions undertaken by the producer (such as transportation), distribution, and the quantity demanded by the farmer. Most farmers buy dairy meal from the local agrovet stockist, while others buy from major distributors (agrovets) directly. Some farmers buy dairy meal from feed manufacturers directly, especially where manufacturers operate at a small scale and/or buy in large quantities. Mombasa Millers established distribution outlets in Voi and Kibwezi and on market days, retail the inputs directly to farmers. This is a case of vertical integration which is not common with largescale feed manufacturers. The most predominant fodder marketing channel is the Producer + Consumer. Except for hay, most farmers buy fodder from producers directly using their own means of transport. The second most important channel, particularly for hay, is the Producer + Retailer + Consumer, where retailers includes agrovets stockists and traders selling animal feed ingredients (Field Survey, 2018).Local/Regional/International Demand In 1995, FAO reported concentrates utilization in developed countries comprised 40% of total feeds, but only 12% in developing countries. Cereals constituted half to three-quarters of this concentrate, with most of the remainder provided by cereal milling residues and oil meals (FAO, 1995). As has been mentioned earlier, among the East Africa Community (EAC) states, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania have the largest livestock industry with demand for animal feeds amounting to six million MT, against production of 1.7 million MT by 2014 (Kilimo Trust, 2017). This demand is expected to increase by 60%by 2020 (Kilimo Trust, 2017). Kenya contributes the biggest share of the demand because it has the largest and most dynamic animal feed industry in the region (Kilimo Trust, 2017). According to Gitonga (2014), the demand for animal feeds increased from about 400,000 MT in 2004 to about 650,000MT 2013 (Figure 8). Githinji, et al., (2009) estimated production and millers installed capacity by region between 2003 and 2008 (Table 21). These estimates exclude feeds formulated at the farm and, therefore, underestimate production and utilization. Dairy concentrates account for about 39% of the animal feeds produced/utilized according to KMT, (2016), Gitonga, (2014) and Githinji et al., (2009), even though USAID-KAVES (2017) reported 60%accounted for poultry and only 20%account for cattle. Based on these estimates (and as has been discussed elsewhere in this report), the average installed milling capacity utilized was at 69%in 2016, up from 44%in 2008 (KMT, 2016;Githinji et al., 2009) and supporting increasing production trends as reported by other studies.The National State Department of Livestock and County Livestock Production Department are responsible for public livestock extension support and information services. This is because donor-funded livestock projects and programs and other non-state actors working in the livestock sub-sector are implemented through public extension. Extension and information services are provided by County Livestock Production and Veterinary Officers; the former on general animal husbandry and the latter on disease control, specifically. They train and advise farmers during farm visits, demonstrations, and other training sessions. Agrovet dealers are also important private extension agents providing information to farmers through services offered at the farm and at the shop. This has been made possible by government regulations which require agrovet dealers to employ technical personnel with a background in animal health. Likewise, it's also since the majority of agrovet stockists are owned and managed by people with backgrounds in animal production and health (Auma et. al., 2017). Past and present donor-funded projects and programs supported public extension by training farmers. The Smallholder Dairy Commercialization Programme (IFAD), Community Driven Development and Flood Mitigation Programme (World Bank), Programme for Agriculture and Livelihoods in Western Communities (PALWECO, funded by Finland) are just some of the projects and programs supporting public extension and information in western Kenya. Furthermore, ICIPE, GIZ, and ILRI are some of the international organizations working through partners and local nonstate actors providing extension and information. K-Sales, USAID-KAVES, East Africa Agricultural Productivity Project (EAAP-World Bank), the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), and the Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority (TARDA) also provide extension and information on compound feeds and fodder. Private companies dealing in dairy concentrates provide information when promoting and launching new products. KALRO, ICIPE, and ILRI, together with partners, provide information on fodder species and collection of pasture seeds. According to FGDs during the field survey, public extension staff reported that they emphasized on-farm feed formulation to smallholder dairy farmers to reduce the cost of production and fodder conservation as a feeding strategy in dry periods.As observed from the primary data collected for the study, and indicated by KMT (2016), the most common ingredients of compound dairy feeds are maize, wheat, and their by-products, and cotton and sunflower seed cake. The bulk of cotton and sunflower seed cake is sourced from East African countries, particularly Tanzania and Uganda. Finer mineral elements and additives are mainly obtained from South Africa and China (KMT, 2016). The importation of essential feed ingredients means that the eventual cost of procuring feed is high, and these costs are passed down to the farmers. The government removed taxes on raw materials to lower the cost of production but introduced the VAT (16%) on finished products, which is also passed down to the farmers.The Kenya Seed Company produces and sells grass seeds through agrovet dealers and a few farmers in the project counties collect and sells grass seeds, particularly Boma Rhodes and natural pastures. ILRI, ICIPE, KALRO, and national and county governments support smallholder farmers with planting materials, training, and introducing new or improved species of grasses in KCDMS target counties. In western Kenya, ICIPE introduced Mulato (one of the Brachiaria grass varieties) and Desmodium.Likewise, KALRO developed Napier grass and the most recent species, Ouma II, and South Africa. Finally, ILRI introduced Brachiaria just to give a few examples. Government and donor-funded projects purchase and distribute planting materials to smallholder farmers to take up commercial fodder production and or on-farm cattle feeding after trainings and demonstrations.Financial Services Apart from several loan products available with commercial banks for many other businesses, one specific microfinance institution targets agrovet businesses in Kenya. The Kenya Livestock Finance Trust (K-LIFT) is a microfinance institution giving short and long-term secured loans to agrovet businesses on the condition that such agrovets are owned by veterinary professionals and must be stocking livestock and crop protection products only (http://www.klift.org/index.php/sales-distribution-ofagrovet-products ). Long-term loans can be used for financing working capital required or the purchase of assets. It can also be used for off season re-stocking with agrovet products. It attracts an interest rate of 18% per annum with a repayment period of 12-18 months. Short-term seasonal loans are for re-stocking agrovets with products during the high-season periods (during long and short rains and planting season). It attracts an interest rate of 2.5% per month with a repayment period of three months. The first-time borrowers using agrovet stock for security, the maximum loan available would be KES 100,000 and if securing through a title deed, the maximum would be KES 200,000. After successful repayment of the first loan, the ceiling for a second loan would be KES 200,000 to 1.2 million, depending on the applicant's risk profile. Any amount above KES 200,000 must be fully secured.Transport Services Transport services are critical in compounded feeds and fodder value chain due to bulk and distance between the point of production (milled) to distributors and consumers. Trailers and semi-trailers, lorries of varying capacities, pickups, public passenger vehicles and motorcycles are the main mode of transport services depending on the node of the value chain and the quantity involved. The field survey found various transport arrangements between the suppliers and consumers, and dependent on the value chain node, the size or volume involved, the distance to point of delivery, among others. Since most raw materials used in formulating compounded feeds are imported, transport arrangement and cost are met by the feed miller in most cases. Raw material sourced within the country (United Millers of Kisumu, for example) is delivered to feed millers but this kind of arrangement is not widespread since majority of millers of human products are also milling animal feeds. Finished feed products are transported to the distributors, wholesalers and in some cases to retailers by the feed manufacturers themselves factoring in transport costs. Among the small-scale millers, consumers collect feeds directly from the mill but when quantity purchased is substantial, the miller delivers without charging additional cost within 25Kms radius. In these kinds of scenarios, determining cost of transportation per unit weight is difficult but it is reflected in the price of the feeds purchased by the consumer since prices varied by distance to the point of wholesale of same feed brand. A miller (SAKINA Feeds, Kisumu) reported spending KES 3000 per ton of raw material sourced from Uganda (KES 90,000/ trip of 30,000 tons). SWEETEX animal feeds (Bungoma) hires a trailer at between KES 20,000-30,000 per trip of 15 tons of raw material sourced from Uganda monthly.Apart from hay, the most traded fodder, there are no elaborate transport services in fodder except during fodder-scarce periods, when farmers and traders hire transport from source to consumer or to market destination. A hay trader in Bungoma (SWEETEX Animal Feeds) hires a lorry on a return journey from Kitale at KES 1500 for 200 bales implying part of transport cost is charged to other users. A transporter at Kabati Market (Kitui) has been in business of fodder transport for the last 19 years and vertically integrated into fodder trade sourcing for hay and maize stovers from farmers in Embu and selling at Kabati market and to local farmers in Kitui. On transport services, his profit margin is KES 4000 per trip when transporting fodder locally. This increased to KES 13000 per trip when transporting from farmers in Embu, a return distance close to 300 Km.Marketing Services Some farmers and traders with pulverizers crush hay and crop residues, especially maize stovers, for other farmers at a fee. This costs KES 50 for a bale of hay crushed. Storage, handling and de-bulking are some of the market services in the feed value chain.Other VC Services The quality control service is under the management of the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) which is responsible for feed testing. Since the KEBS lab is only in Nairobi, feed processors that are closest to the institution (about 3% of feed processors) take samples to KEBS for analysis (KMT, 2016). Small-scale manufacturers find it expensive to take samples for analysis as one sample test on average costs KES 4,000 (KMT, 2016;Field Survey, 2018). Internal quality control is done by resident feed formulation and a quality assurance specialist (KMT, 2016).About 28% of manufacturers carry out their own feed analyses and the rest source from commercial service providers, KEBS, and private consultants, including universities. Regrettably, there is a certain unreliability of results. For example, there can be inconsistency in reports from service providers or samples from the same feed batches give different results. Some providers also reported using \"outdated machines … which sometimes break down or can only do certain tests.\" All these examples are illustrative of some of the challenges faced by millers that are dependent on external quality testing (KMT, 2016). Compound feeds 1. High transport cost for raw materials 2. VAT passed on to farmers raises the cost of finished products 3. High costs and barrier to accessing credit 1. Support alternative models of farmers accessing feeds at reduced prices through bulk sourcing by farmer groups 2. Support alternative models of encouraging liquidity-constrained farmers to access feeds through alternative financial inclusion systems, for instance, check-off system Fodder Cess fees charged at the border of every county increasing cost of marketing and which traders pass to the farmers.Sensitive the county government on the negative impacts of these levies on smallholder farmersSensitive the county assembles to pass enforceable legislations on standard weight of bales.7.1 Formal and Informal Key legislation regulating animal feeds includes some old acts of Parliament: The Fertilizers and Animal Food Stuff Act Cap 345 (1967); The Standards Act Cap 496; The Animal Disease Act Cap 364; and The Animal Feedstuff Bill, 2016, which has been under review and aims to repeal the Fertilizers and Animal Foodstuffs Act, Cap 345, by bridging several gaps (KMT, 2016). The Animal Feedstuff Bill, 2016 has no legal framework that facilitates engagement between the Ministry and the industry players and does not provide a framework for governing and controlling the substandard or counterfeited manufacture of animal feedstuff (KMT, 2017). Enforcing agencies include the State Department of Livestock (particularly the Directorates of Veterinary Services and Livestock Resources); the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) for laboratory testing of feeds; and the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services (KEPHIS) which is responsible for fodder planting materials, including production and trade on seeds. The certification process for grass seeds as outlined by KEPHIS regulations is a challenge to smallholder seed producers, particularly natural pasture seeds with huge demand within and outside the country (Field Survey, 2018).The Livestock Production Department has raised concern on the Animal Feedstuff Bill 2016 leading to a delay in approval of this bill. In the Bill, the Director of Veterinary Services is responsible for animal feed inspection and testing, but the Livestock Production Department believes that this is not the mandate of Veterinary Services, as they have no capacity or training to undertake this kind of assignment. During the FGDs with staff from the directorates of livestock production, it became apparent that they were not adequately informed of the rules and regulations regarding fodder production and trade but were somehow aware of the role of KEBS on manufactured feeds and the contested Animal Feedstuff Bill 2016.In most of the counties visited, the County Executive Committee Member (CECM) and Chief Officers responsible for Agriculture and Livestock are considered the most influential leaders in the dairy sub-sector as they are acting on behalf of the Governor, the custodian of resources necessary to develop the sector. Therefore, they are the champions of change at the county level, as is the Cabinet Secretary at the national level.The study used both a qualitative and quantitative approach to data gathering, and both primary and secondary data collection techniques. Various sources of secondary information were retrieved, reviewed and analyzed. Amongst them were secondary data from the ILRI database, the AVCD baseline and annual survey data, the KNBS statistical abstract, and many other previous publications on animal feeds. To bridge the gap in the secondary information available, primary data was collected using qualitative data collection tools designed to gather information from various value chain actors and support. Primary data collection was conducted between mid-March and April 2018 in eight of the 12 KCDMS counties: Migori, Kisii, Kisumu, Bungoma, Kakamega, Kitui, Makueni, and Taita Taveta.Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KII) were conducted for various value chain actors identified by each County's Livestock Production extension staff and other stakeholders in compound dairy feeds and fodder sub-sectors. These actors include: compound animal feed raw material suppliers and traders; animal feed millers/operators or feed formulators; large (wholesalers) and small agrovet dealers (retailers); fodder producers; transporters; and traders (see Annexes or details). A total of eight FGDs of public livestock production extension service providers were conducted, one in each county, as the entry point of identification of the value actors and value chain map. Seventeen animal feed operators including millers, raw material suppliers, and traders were interviewed, with an emphasis on source of raw materials, cost of production, distribution channels and the trend in business expansion among other factors. Three out 17 animal feed operators were informal traders in raw materials, formulating feeds without any mixer directly to farmers based on farmers' demands and preferences.Two operators-Kisumu United Millers and Kitui Cotton Ginners -were the only formal institutions producing raw materials for feed formulation. A total of eighteen agrovet dealers were interviewed using a checklist of questions to elicit information on the type of dairy feeds stocked, where sourced, and trends in volume sold to farmers in the past five years, among other information related to support systems. Out of the 18 agrovet dealers interviewed, half were doing both wholesale and retail business at the same time, distributing products of selected companies to other agrovets, while the other half were only retail agrovet shops dealing primarily with farmers. On fodder and pasture production and trade, 21 groups/cooperatives and individuals were interviewed using a checklist of questions guiding the discussions. Information on the cost of production, harvesting, storage and marketing was collected for purposes of estimation of the gross margins. ","tokenCount":"12683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"349c2c6b31c53c7ae4a0018bce136b3c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fdd073e0-a198-41b5-87f1-819c435d7498/retrieve","id":"-1220156342"},"keywords":["timber concessions","forest communities","non-timber forest products","resource rights"],"sieverID":"94e6c1bc-2615-4840-b897-18290567742e","pagecount":"14","content":"Extensive areas of the Congo Basin forest are allocated to timber concessionaires. These forests also harbour and support village populations, including indigenous Baka people, who depend on forest foods obtained directly from trees (fruits, oils and caterpillars). Most food-producing tree species are harvested by concessionaires for timber. We documented the availability and abundance of three food tree species around four villages and in two neighboring timber concessions in Cameroon. Data was used to determine the importance of timber concessions as sources of food for local people to provide a foundation for governance arrangements that consider local needs for foods from timber trees. Discussions with concessionaires revealed that some of them have voluntarily refrained from extracting timber species of interest to villagers for their nontimber products. This is either to avoid conflict with villagers, or because regulations have been promulgated to safeguard these resources. The interplay between internal village dynamics, regulations and their implementation by forest guards, and the actions of timber concessions create a complex arena for addressing rights to forest resources. This paper provides information on the accessibility and availability of multiple use timber species as a foundation for negotiations and governance arrangements between concessionaires and local communities.Au-delà du bois: équilibrer les demandes de ressources arboricoles entre concessionnaires et villageois J.C. TIEGUHONG, L. SNOOK, H. TAEDOUMG, P. MAUKONEN, M. TCHATAT, J. LOO, O. TCHINGSABÉ, R. NOUTCHEU, D.M. IPONGA, J.M. KAHINDO, R. MUVATSI, C.M. YOBO, S. TUTU et A. NGOYE De larges zones du Bassin du Congo sont allouées aux concessionnaires du bois. Ces forêts sont également résidence et sources de revenus pour des populations villageoises, ce qui inclut les Bakas, qui dépendent d'aliments forestiers provenant directement des arbres (fruits, huiles et chenilles). Le gros de ces espèces d'arbres particulières sont récoltées par les concessionnaires du bois. Nous avons documenté la disponibilité et l'abondance de trois espèces d'arbres produisant des aliments aux alentours de trois villages et dans deux concessions de coupe de bois avoisinantes au Cameroun. Les données ont été utilisées pour déterminer l'importance des concessions en tant que source alimentaire pour les populations locales et pour fournir une fondation pour des arrangements de gestion reconnaissant les besoins locaux d'aliments provenant d'arbres à coupe. Des dialogues avec les concessionnaires ont révélé que certains d'entre eux ont volontairement freiné l'extraction des espèces importantes pour les villageois, du fait de leurs produits autres que le bois. Cela s'est produit soit pour éviter un conflit avec les villageois, soit parce que des règlements ont été promulgués pour protéger ces ressources. Les échanges entre les dynamiques internes aux villages, les règlements et leur mise en pratique par les gardes forestiers, et les actions des concessions de bois créent une scène complexe où les droits aux ressources forestières peuvent être adressés. Par conséquent, ce papier fournit des informations importantes sur la disponibilité et l'accessibilité des espèces d'arbres à usages multiples, offrant ainsi une fondation pour aller vers des négociations et des arrangements de gestion satisfaisants entre concessionnaires et communautés locales.Más allá de la madera: cómo equilibrar las demandas por recursos arbóreos entre concesionarios y comunidades 2011, Sunderland 2011, García-Fernández et al. 2008, Foley et al. 2007).The data required to better understand how to avoid this disruption is either partially available or completely lacking in most forest concession areas in the region. Data on the availability of important tree resources in forest concessions and surrounding village communities as well as their accessibility to the dependent populations is rare (but see Noutcheu et al. 2016, Maukonen et al. in press). This study sought to answer two key questions: what is the availability of these priority tree species in forest concessions and around villages? And how is the availability of these priority tree species affected by logging? Generating information about these patterns could guide policy makers in formulating policies and strategies to protect the tree resources that are beneficial to the forest-dependent populations (Rist et al. 2011, Endamana et al. 2010, Veloso de Freitas 2008, Assembe 2006, Garcia et al. 2001). The results presented in this paper try to fill this information gap for two forest concession areas in Cameroon, within the framework of a multi-partner project funded by the Congo Basin Forest Fund (CBFF) and the CGIAR Research Programme on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA).The central point discussed in this paper is how arrangements on access to forest foods from timber trees can be fairly articulated based on sound data on abundance, accessibility and availability around village communities and in neighbouring forest concessions. According to Wiersum et al. (2014), the rules, decision-making processes, institutional arrangements and measures that govern access to resources and markets are captured in the concept of governance. In the forestry sector, forest governance goes beyond specific products and services (e.g. timber, NTFPs, carbon) to address the multitude of institutional factors (across levels) that affect management of forest resources. However, with respect to this paper on the availability and accessibility of multiple use tree species, one can easily discern two inter-related governance concepts related to timber and non-timber forest J.C. TIEGUHONG, L. SNOOK, H. TAEDOUMG, P. MAUKONEN, M. TCHATAT, J. LOO, O. TCHINGSABÉ, R. NOUTCHEU, D.M. IPONGA, J.M. KAHINDO, P. MUVATSI, C.M. YOBO, S. TUTU y A. NGOYEIn recent years, there has been an increased recognition of the impact of industrial logging activities on tropical forests and tree resources that are also of great importance to the livelihoods of forest-dependent populations (Rist et al. 2011, Yosi et al. 2011, Guariguata et al. 2010, 2008, Tieguhong and Ndoye 2007, Karsenty and Gourlet-Fleury 2006, Ndoye and Tieguhong 2004, Menton 2003, Laird 1995). This holds true for the forests of the Congo Basin forest, the second largest rainforest block in the world after the Amazonian forests. About 40 percent of the more than 200 million hectares of the Congo Basin forest are already allocated to commercial logging companies under concession arrangements (Gatti et al. 2015, Duveiller et al. 2008). The Congo Basin forest is a significant source of timber (Cerutti et al. 2008, Hall et al. 2003) and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as vegetables, fruits, oils, caterpillars, medicinal barks and bush meat (Lescuyer et al. 2012, Ingram and Schure, 2010, Tieguhong and Ndoye 2007, Ndoye and Tieguhong 2004). However, increasing pressures from logging, agriculture, population growth and mining are accelerating land-use change and forest degradation (Gatti et al. 2014, Maesano et al. 2013, Bayol et al. 2012), and threatening the livelihoods of over 50 million people whose shelter and well-being depend on these forests (Nasi et al. 2011). Given the large number of forest-dependent people living in or near the forests, the management of these forests by the logging companies has a direct impact on livelihoods (Arnold et al. 2012, Cronkleton et al. 2012, Rist et al., 2012). Not only do forests provide food to the local populations (Fungo et al. 2015, Tieguhong et al. 2013, Debroux 2008) but they also act as buffers against environmental degradation due to disastrous weather changes (Chidumayo et al. 2011) and hunger in lean seasons and in times of crisis (Levang et al. 2015, Lescuyer et al. 2012, Tieguhong and Nkamgnia 2012, Tieguhong et al. 2009). Disruption of the supply of these products may have immediate and/or lasting consequences on the wellbeing of people (Duchelle et al. 2011, Laird et al. 2011, Nasi et al. products (NTFP) respectively. Forest governance is defined as the multilevel and multi-stakeholder process of decisionmaking on, and the implementation of policies for, effective forest use and management (Arts and Visseren-Hamakers 2012). The purposes for which forests are managed and the conditions under which different stakeholders have access to decision-making and implementation processes are mostly linked to timber (Wiersum et al. 2014, Agrawal et al. 2008). Analogous to forest governance, NTFP governance is defined as the multi-stakeholder and multilevel process of interactive decision-making and creation of institutional frameworks for the allocation, use and trade of NTFPs (Ros-Tonen and Kusters 2011, Wiersum and Endalamaw 2013). By this definition, NTFP governance has some peculiarities because it is characterized by highly dispersed and seasonal products as well as community-wide involvement, featuring fewer barriers to entry and smaller or no capital investments. This may lead to more institutional complexity at the local level because of prevailing customary rules of access in addition to the statutory laws and institutions that typically prevail with regards to governing access to timber resources (Tieguhong et al. 2015, Wiersum et al. 2014, Ingram 2012, Colfer et al. 2011, Ros-Tonen and Kusters 2011). In this paper, the governance discourse is linked to the issues of accessibility and availability of multiple use trees that provide both NTFPs to local communities and timber to concessionaires. The information generated in our research and provided in this paper could form a foundation for negotiations between forest concessionaires and forest communities on the sustainability of access to multiple use tree species to ensure the fulfillment of corporate social responsibilities.The results presented in this paper are from two study sites in Cameroon. The study sites are forest concession areas and adjoining village communities. The selection of the sites was based on a number of criteria including the existence of trees with timber and food values, easy access to sites for research teams, willingness of the concessionaire to collaborate in the study, existence of baseline information and management plans, and presence of human settlements (if possible of different ethnic groups) in the immediate environment of the concession. In addition, an attempt was made to select one concession that was managed by a national company and another that was managed by an international company. Using these criteria, all project partners participated in a workshop to select two forest concessions (SCTB and FIPCAM) in Cameroon (Figure 1). The main characteristics of the concessions and villages around them are as indicated in Table 1. In 2004 the population around the SCTB concession in the East Region numbered about 25,783 people who lived in 41 villages and hamlets and were mainly of the Kako, Pol, and Maka (Bantu) and Baka (pygmy) ethnic groups (Medinof 2004). The population around the FIPCAM concession in the South Region in 2009 was estimated at 79,353, living in 29 villages and hamlets (Enviro Consulting 2009 in Levang et al. 2015), nearly all of them Bulu (Bantu) ethnic group. Population density around the concessions is low, with 7.1 inhabitants km -2 in the East and 13.4 inhabitantskm -2 in the South (Levang et al. 2015). Sample villages were chosen based on several criteria: compact layout, proximity to the concession and their selection for parallel socioeconomic studies. Around SCTB concession, Nkolbikon (Nk) village is inhabited by Baka pygmies, who are highly dependent on forest resources although they are increasingly being accustomed to sedentary agricultural practices (Tieguhong andNdoye 2007, Levang et al. 2015). The village is located inside a formally established community forest (APOBA) that is located less than 5 km from the concession's annual cutting area of 2012. Another sample village, Ndembo (Nd), inhabited by Kako and Pol people (Bantu), is located about 15 km from the concession. The other two sample villages near FIPCAM concession were Ngone (Ng) and Meyos (Me), inhabited by Bulu people of Bantu origin. Their principal activities are agriculture, hunting and informal timber production (Noumbissi 2012) (Figure 1).The next activity was to select the focal timber tree species, which was done based on five criteria: the species is present in the selected concessions areas; has a nutritional non-timber forest product value to people in adjoining forest communities (these were included in parallel nutrition studies); has a significant timber value; and molecular markers are available, allowing for cost-effective parallel genetic studies regarding the effects of logging on the viability of populations and regeneration. Following these criteria, the selected tree species were moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) and sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum). Moabi was selected because it produces edible fruits and oil-bearing seeds; tali and sapelli because they host edible caterpillars. All three important timber species were studied in Cameroon.Data was gathered and analyzed on the accessibility (physical proximity) and availability (abundance) of selected foodproviding timber tree species in two forest concessions and around four villages adjoining those concessions.To answer the question, 'How is the availability of the selected food-providing tree species affected by logging?' two studies were carried out: one based on harvest inventories and one based on field sampling. In some areas, logging has taken place over a very long period, under the auspices of several different companies. It cannot be assumed that the conditions in most concessions represent an \"unlogged\" condition; we can only compare the current status of the forest before and after current logging. Field work was carried out from January to May 2013 in Cameroon by a team of researchers including experts from Bioversity International, national research institutes and university students. In each South, East and West) of the 2012 cutting area, five of the 25 ha inventory plots were selected at random. Within each randomly selected inventory plot, a subplot of 100 m by 500 m (5 ha) was established to give a 0.5% sample area. All individuals of priority tree species (moabi, tali and sapelli) ≥ 20 cm dbh within the sample plot were identified and their diameters at breast height (dbh) measured. When trees had buttress es, diameters were measured at 50 cm above the buttresses in addition, recent stumps were identified and measured (Noutcheu et al. 2016).forest concession, plot-based sampling was conducted in a recently exploited forest unit. Twenty 5-ha plots were established in the 2012 cutting area in each concession to quantify the density of trees of moabi, tali and sapelli remaining after harvest, including those below exploitable size. Exploitation inventory maps were provided by the concessionaires. These maps were used to identify the 2012 cutting area and the 25 ha inventory plots (logging units) by their numbers. In Cameroon, annual cutting units totaled about 5000 ha, 200 inventory plots of 25 ha. In each of the four quadrants (North,  In order to quantify the availability of food trees at different distances from the village, sample plots were stratified by distance from the village towards the concession. The sample area was a half circle surrounding the villages, an area of 157 km 2 (15,700 ha). To achieve a 0.5% sampling intensity, 21 plots of 5 ha were established around each of four villages. Plots were laid out along three transects outward from the village centre toward the forest concession to a maximum distance of 10 km. The central transect (\"B\") was oriented toward the forest concession and transects \"A\" and \"C\" were laid out on bearings 45 degrees on each side of it. Transects were laid out using compasses and GPS (to measure distance) and cleared by machetes to facilitate access. Sample plots were located within four different distance bands from the village along the transects. Numbers of plots per distance band were proportional to the area sampled in each band, which increased with distance from the village (Noutcheu et al. 2016). Sample plots were 5 ha in size, 100 m along transects and 500 m extending to one side or the other (alternating) of the directional transect. Within each plot, all individuals ≥ 20 cm diameter of tali, sapelli and moabi were identified and their diameters measured. All stumps were also identified and measured; stumps of moabi, tali or sapelli were measured based on the diameter of the circular stem within any buttresses.In order to determine where local populations obtained priority tree products, a participatory mapping exercise with GPS was carried out in two villages associated with each of the two selected timber concessions in Cameroon, a total of four villages. Villages were selected based on their accessibility and proximity to the concessions. Only spatially contiguous villages were selected, not those that consisted of multiple hamlets. Data from recent socioeconomic and nutrition studies were also used in selecting the villages (Noumbissi 2012). Male and female collectors of moabi fruits/seeds and caterpillars that use sapelli and tali trees were interviewed and accompanied by a researcher (female when the informant was female; male where the informant was male) to the trees where they collected these resources. Each team was also accompanied by a local guide to translate and clear footpaths, when necessary. The male and female researchers accompanied different informants each day for a period of 5 days, making a total sample size of 5 women and 5 men from each village. Each informant showed the researcher the moabi, sapelli and tali trees from which he/she collected either fruits or caterpillars and answered a questionnaire about the availability and collection of the resource. Each team was equipped with a Garmin Dakota 20 GPS device, a diameter measuring tape, field data sheets, a questionnaire and lunch. Trees from which resources were collected were mapped by the researcher using GPS coordinates (Maukonen et al. in press). A map of the collection trees of the priority species was developed for each village.Primary statistics were used to analyze the abundance, densities and diameter distributions of priority tree species around villages and in concessions. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to understand whether the densities of the priority species varied significantly among villages and concessions and Games Howell post hoc analysis was employed to better show the dispersion of the distribution of size classes of selected trees around villages.Three levels of analysis were carried out to determine the abundance of priority tree species in sampled areas within concessions and around four village communities surrounding those concessions.The availability of priority trees around villages varied significantly (Moabi p=5.517e-06; Sapelli p=4.771e-07; Tali p=0.00258) among the four villages (abbreviated Me=Meyos, Nd=Ndembo, Ng=Ngone and Nk=Nkolbikon). Trees measured included individuals with diameters up to 300 cm; on average they measured 77.8 cm (STD= 51.2 cm). Moabi trees reached 300 cm, with a mean of 52.4 cm (STD=58.7 cm); sapelli reached 282 cm with a mean of 65.0 cm (STD=52.4 cm) and tali reached 263 cm with a mean of 98.2 cm (STD=37.1.0 cm). On the 420 ha of sample plots around the four villages, a total of 537 trees of the three priority tree species were counted, equivalent to approximately 128 on 100 ha (density of 1.28 trees/ha), with tali dominating in absolute numbers (Table 2). Overall there were larger trees of tali than the other two priority species, which could reflect different logging histories and pressures on the three species. Densities of trees around the different villages varied greatly (p=0.0476), with many more moabi trees around Me than around the other villages. Nd and Nk had a higher density of sapelli trees and Nk had the highest density of tali trees (Figure 2). There were fewer maobi trees than the other two species in all diameter classes. Stumps of the selected species were observed in the sampled forest areas around the villages (Noutcheu et al. 2016), and about 30% of the priority trees were larger than the 100 cm minimum exploitable diameter for moabi and sapelli or 50 cm for tali (Figure 3). Moabi and sapelli trees were most abundant in the smallest diameter class (20-39.9 cm), although their density would only translate to about 1 in every 5 ha.On the 200 ha of sample plots inventoried in the two forest concessions, a total of 275 trees ≥ 20 cm of the three priority species were counted: 6.5% were moabi, 39.3% were sapelli and 54.2% were tali; of these 5.8% were stumps of sapelli (1.4%) or tali (4.4%). There were no moabi stumps in either of the concession areas sampled. The two concessions did not have the same densities of the three targeted tree species: 69% of the individuals were found in one concession (Table 3).The availability and diameter distribution of priority tree species varied by species (p=0.00002) and by concession (Table 3, Figure 4). Moabi trees occurred at very low abundances in both forest concessions. The densities of moabi were 0.09 trees/ha for both SCTB and FIPCAM, 0.23 for sapelli in FIPCAM and 0.85 in SCTB, and 0.53 trees/ha for tali in FIPCAM and 0.96 in SCTB. On the FIPCAM concession, diameters reached 180.5 cm with a mean of 76.8 cm (STD=41.8 cm). On the SCTB concession, trees reached a similar maximum, 182.4 cm dbh, with a mean of 66.0 cm (STD=37.4 cm). DBH varied among the species, with tali reaching the largest diameters (Figure 4). More than 61% of the 275 priority trees sampled were less than 80 cm in diameter; only 22% were greater than 100 cm. Only two moabi trees out of 18 were above 60 cm in diameter (Figure 4). On the FIPCAM concession, all moabi trees sampled were <40 cm dbh. Sapelli trees were most frequent in the lowest diameter class (20 cm -39.9 cm), although their density would translate to only about 1 in every 3ha.The accessibility of the priority trees to local people was assessed not only from their distribution around the villages but also using participatory mapping with GPS to document the distances local people traveled to collect these food resources from trees. Interviews revealed the diameter classes at which priority trees produced food products of interest.The minimum and maximum diameters of moabi trees described as sources of fruits and seeds for the production of oil were 62.8 cm and 355 cm, respectively, with an average of 139.7 cm (STD=58 cm). Caterpillars were gathered from sapelli of 51.2 cm dbh to 340.6 cm, with an average of 178.9 cm (STD=65.2 cm); caterpillars were collected from tali trees of a minimum of 53.5 cm and a maximum of 230 cm dbh, with an average of 114.1 cm dbh (STD=35.6 cm). Among the four study villages, a total of 65 moabi trees, 89 sapelli trees and 188 tali trees were described as sources for the collection of these food products.The spatial distribution of these trees was ascertained and paths to reach them mapped for the four villages. Overlaying these maps on the concession maps revealed that in only two cases out of the four were villagers penetrating concession areas to collect fruits from moabi trees and caterpillars from sapelli and tali trees during one-day collection trips (Figure 5).Out of the 342 trees to which sampled informants from the four villages led researchers, food products were collected from 86% of moabi trees, 65% of sapelli trees and only 18% of tali trees. This reflected fluctuations in yields from year to year of both moabi fruits and caterpillars. The analysis of the distances to collect either moabi fruits or caterpillars from the priority trees showed significant variation among villages, but than about 6.5 km to do so. Some groups also make overnight trips to collect resources further away, but these trips were not documented. Given that their average collection radius is < 4 km, it seems that villagers in the sampled villagers most often collect these products within the forests around their villages, not far into the concessions. However, two villages did obtain resources from nearby forest concessions. It will be important to calculate the distances between villages and concessions to determine what proportion of villages use concession forests to obtain their resources, and what proportion of their resources they obtain there.Interviews revealed that there is competition among village residents between those who focus on timber and those who prioritize other production values. A community forest known as APOBA covering 4900 ha had been legally established in the vicinity of six villages including one of our sample villages (Nkolbikon), occupied by Baka people who depend on hunting and gathering, but their rights to obtain NTFPs have been superceded by the Bantu villagers' rights to harvest timber. The Baka, who prefer gathering the fruits of moabi trees and caterpillars from tali and sapelli trees find themselves in conflict with the Bantu villagers interested in the timber from the same trees to furnish increasing demand for wood by merchants from the northern parts of Cameroon and beyond. Several authors have noted that the way the forests and their products are governed can have far reaching resource -related outcomes (e.g. perpetuating rural poverty, enriching a few members of the community, degrading the not among the products collected. For instance, the average distances travelled to collect moabi fruits or caterpillars from sapelli and tali trees were 2.5 km (STD=1.3 km), 3.0 km (STD=1.6 km) and 3.0 km (STD=1.3 km), respectively. The maximum distance never exceeded 6.5 km while the minimum was less than one third of a kilometer.The density of trees of interest on 100 ha of sample plots was compared among the four villages and the two concessions (Table 4). The variation among villages was high (p=0.0476), particularly with regards to the density of moabi; but on the lands around three of the villages, the total (interpolated) abundance of moabi trees on 100 ha of sample plots was almost three times higher than the density of moabi trees on 100 ha of sample plots on concession lands. Differences in abundances of sapelli and tali trees on 100 ha of sample plots in concessions and villages seems to reflect internal differences between concessions or among villages rather than differences between concession forests and forests around villages. However, these preliminary observations seem to reveal that three out of four sampled villages have chosen to protect and retain moabi trees, presumably because of their importance as food and a source of oil.It is noteworthy that villagers collecting food resources from forest trees during day-long forays typically do not go further resource base) on the sustainability of livelihoods in the short and long terms, depending on who governs, why, and the rights and rules in place (Ingram 2014, Laird et al. 2009, Mayers and Vermeulen 2002). This phenomenon was anticipated by Karsenty et al. (1997) with the conclusion that the privatisation of some portion of forests through the establishment of community forests might be more harmful for indigenous people (Baka pygmies in this case) than the industrial concessions. Many studies have shown that the benefits from exploiting trees for timber in community forests mostly go to individuals or specific groups rather than the whole community (Ezzine de Blas et al. 2011, Ofoulhast-Othamot 2014).Even when trees are near the village, outside a concession or a community forest, there may be conflicts among villagers as to the best use of the tree, whether to sell it as timber, often the preference of men, or to retain it for its yield of NTFPs, as typically preferred by women (Snook et al. 2015, Noutcheu et al. 2016). The losses experienced by the Baka are shared by both Bantu and Baka women that are also primarily interested in the NTFPs (e.g. moabi seeds from the moabi tree for concessionaires harvested trees of commercial size, they would leave trees of sufficient size to produce caterpillars (though clearly, their harvests would reduce the numbers of trees overall). Moreover, the production of caterpillars by sapelli trees has been shown to increase with tree diameters (Paluku et al. in prep.). To sustain trees in these size classes, it is important for both villagers and timber concessionaires to protect trees in smaller size classes that will grow into those size classes.In the 90s and the 2000s, conflicts between villagers and companies regarding moabi trees were raised in the international arena by Friends of the Earth. A lot of attention from concessionaires resulted from these campaigns, especially those companies that are owned by Europeans (WRM 2001, Les Amis de la Terre 2005). Nowadays, sampled timber companies seemed to respect the priority species defined in their annual production plans as described in their management plans (MINFOF 2012). For example, no moabi stumps were found in the 2012 annual cutting area on either of the two concessions sampled. This reflects an agreement by those concessionaires not to fell moabi trees because of their value to local villagers. Discussions with concessionaires revealed that some of them (SCTB, FIPCAM, CEB) have voluntarily refrained from extracting timber species of interest to villagers for their non-timber products, notably moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), the source of an edible fruit with seeds used to produce edible oil. This is either to avoid conflict with villagers (Les Amis de la Terre, 2005) as was observed with the SCTB concession, or because the concessionaires aspire to become certified, as was observed with the 'Congolese Industrielle du Bois' (CIB) concession in the northern Republic of Congo, where all caterpillar-supporting trees were marked by communities and left behind during logging operations for the benefits of indigenous Mbendjele pygmies (Hopkin 2007). This is logical because according to Hopkin (2007), a single sapelli tree might yield five 50 kg bags (sacks) of caterpillars per year, potentially fetching US$ 500 at the local market, but the timber from the same tree could bring in a one-time profit of US$ 1500 to the logging company. This holds true for a moabi tree of one meter in diameter that if logged will produce about 9 m 3 of timber worth 1350 Euros to the company but if left standing can support the production of 150 litres of oil worth 270 Euros every three years, equivalent to the timber value in just 15 years for a tree that can live for up to 600 years (Schneemann 1995). Of course, not felling the trees involves a tradeoff from the logging company's point of view but they have still pledged not to cut down trees deemed by the Mbendjele pygmies to be of value and they are able to respect those trees without harming their profit margins (Hopkins 2007). According to Capron (2010), this is a pertinent aspect of respecting social responsibilities with local communities. Moreover, concessionaires could leave useful trees to local communities because regulations have been promulgated to safeguard these resources, as was the case in Gabon with a decree that banned the logging of five oil) for income and household food items (Snook et al. 2015).According to the Baka, logging the trees that provide NTFPs meant that they had to go further than previously to obtain non-timber forest products. Similarly, some villagers complained that forest guards working for the Ministry of Forestry sometimes confiscated the products they had gathered, if the quantities were large enough to sell, on the grounds that the rights of villagers to harvest non-timber forest products for subsistence excluded their harvesting more than they could consume (Foundjem-Tita et al. 2013, 2012, Wiersum et al. 2014).Logging operations in the Congo Basin are governed by selective harvesting norms (Bayol et al. 2012, Cerruti et al. 2008) with defined minimum cutting diameters ranging from 30-100 cm depending on the species and the country; and logging cycles of 25-30 years, depending on the country (Gatti et al. 2014, Maesano et al. 2013). Minimum diameters related to the production of fruit or caterpillars are typically lower than minimum cutting diameters (Noutcheu et al. 2016, Paluku et al. in prep). There is no conflict over the uses of precommercial sizes of timber trees, meaning that options for sharing resources between concessionaires and villagers could be negotiated. During the participatory GPS mapping exercise, villagers indicated that they collected these resources from trees with the following minimum diameters: 63 cm for moabi, 51 cm for sapelli and 54 cm for tali (Maukonen et al., in press). Smaller diameter trees were not of interest to villagers. According to MINFOF (2010), timber concessionaires cut only those individuals that are larger than the minimum cutting diameter defined by law (100 cm for moabi, 100 cm for sapelli and 50 cm for tali). For concessionaires, trees in the pre-commercial classes are also considered important as potential future sources of timber. Only in the case of tali is there a complete overlap in size classes between individuals that produce caterpillars and those that can be legally harvested for timber. In the case of moabi and sapelli, even if the A number of studies have pointed out that managing forests for multiple uses and for multiple stakeholders is a potential way of increasing the monetary value that local communities, managers and owners may obtain from the forest resource (Lescuyer et al. 2015, Sabogal et al. 2013, Clawson 1974).Logging activities and the collection of NTFPs influence forest conservation and management in the Congo Basin (Rist et al. 2012). The results presented in this paper are preliminary and the sample villages and concessions in Cameroon only represent about 1/3 of the concessions and villages where this study was conducted in the Congo Basin. Local people in these villages depend on a number of food products gathered from the wild. However, our observations reveal that our initial hypothesis that timber harvesting by concessionaires was reducing the access by communities to food resources from those species may be a simplification of a more complex and nuanced set of interactions.Resource accessibility and availability in concessions and village communities is defined by both legal (de jure) and customary practices (de facto), as well as by the interpretation and implementation of the laws and regulations by the Ministry of Forestry. Other factors such as attitudes and logging histories around the villages and in the concessions that were not addressed by this study may also affect the accessibility and availability of resources to villagers. Aside from the strict interpretation of rights, concessionaires also respond to other management and social considerations such as avoiding conflicts by deliberately leaving certain trees identified to be of nutritional importance to local populations (Karsenty 2010, Capron 2010). Multiple additional factors influence the availability of these products to villagers, including distance between the concession and the village, the interests of different groups of villagers in forest resources in the vicinity of the village, and the diameter classes of different species that are important for timber production or production of foods. This implies that there are grounds for negotiation, both within villages and between villagers and concessionaires that can safeguard people's present and future access to important food resources. For instance, some concessionaires such as CIB in northern Congo go a long way to recognise and map out village management areas ('terroir' in French), in some cases areas overlapping with concession boundaries, to facilitate access to potentially disputed forest resources (Karsenty and Assembe-Mvondo 2011). This is now used as a precedent by other concessionaires seeking certification of their forests.Studies have shown that some multiple use tree species, such as the Moabi, are more valuable for oil in the long term to local communities than the short-term profit gained by logging the same tree for its timber. According to Snook et al. (2015) and Noutcheu et al. (2016) the production of timber and NTFPs can be sustained from the same concessions, for different stakeholders, with appropriate practices and arrangements (concessionaires and populations discuss and reach agreements).Generally, where non-timber products are obtained outside concessions or from trees that are below commercial size, or where commercial sized trees are not felled, there is no conflict between industrial timber harvesting and gathering of NTFPs. Collaborative arrangements that consider the uses of NTFPs from timber species by resident villagers can also forestall conflicts, either through agreements not to harvest those species (as agreed voluntarily by the concessionaires in Cameroon with regards to moabi and mapping out of trees used by communities as in northern Republic of Congo), or by regulation (as imposed by the government of Gabon with regards to five aforementioned multiple use tree species). However, over the long term, the availability of these resources, both timber and NTFPs, will depend on successful regeneration with management practices taking into account the genetic aspects of sustainability (Snook et al. 2015, Karsenty andGourlet-Fleury 2006). The issues of: who has the access and the rights to benefit from the trees in the short or long term? What are the trade-offs? Who are the appropriate mediators for dialogue and negotiations? Who or what mechanism provides the level playing field? are pertinent questions that deserve special attention for the Congo Basin forests that are managed for timber production from dozens of species with over 60% of them also producing important NTFPs to local communities. ","tokenCount":"5999"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9c9386068aafdf4b722ceea3fabf7577","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0098567f-4276-4b26-bd7e-fa0156d33241/content","id":"466403517"},"keywords":["intrarural migration","rural development","rural-rural migration","rural transformation","smallholder agriculture O12","O15","Q12","R23"],"sieverID":"c0acd1de-f88d-4068-91b1-f1c32b30092f","pagecount":"14","content":"While a considerable body of literature has developed in recent years around the drivers and consequences of rural out-migration in sub-Saharan Africa, relatively little work has been done to understand the impacts of migration into rural areas. We use nationally representative household survey data from Zambia to explore the relationship between rural in-migration and agricultural productivity outcomes in receiving communities. We document high levels of rural in-migration throughout Zambia-12% of rural household heads having moved from elsewhere within the previous 10 years-with two-thirds of rural in-migrants originating from other rural areas. Migrants are, on average, better endowed with capital resources than their nonmigrant neighbors and are more engaged with input and output markets. After controlling for other factors, we find that higher rates of rural in-migration are associated with greater agricultural productivity outcomes in receiving communities. These positive associations are particularly pronounced in more remote rural areas, and where in-migration originates from other rural areas. Taken together, our results suggest that rural in-migrants play an important role in the rural transformation processes underway in Zambia.the economic returns to migration for those who move and to sending households (e.g., Beegle, De Weerdt, & Dercon, 2011;de Brauw et al., 2014;de Brauw, Mueller, & Woldehanna, 2017;FAO, 2018;Garlick, Leibbrandt, & Levinsohn, 2016;Wineman & Jayne, 2016). Yet there has been relatively little recent empirical evidence on the impacts of migration into rural areas, whether from other rural areas or from urban areas. The limited evidence that does exist has often focused on particular geographical contexts and outcomes of interest (e.g., land cover change from forest frontier migration: Jones et al., 2018;Salerno, Mwalyoyo, Caro, Fitzherbert, & Mulder, 2017) or the contribution of population inflows to resource conflicts (e.g., Mwesigye & Matsumoto, 2016). However, whether (and how) rural in-migrants contribute to agricultural productivity growth and rural economic development is a question that has not yet been directly addressed. 2  This paper addresses that question with a case study from rural Zambia.A priori we have reason to believe that rural in-migration may be an important shaper of rural economies. Rural land and labor markets are developing rapidly in the region (Chamberlin & Ricker-Gilbert, 2016;Jayne, Chamberlin, & Benfica, 2018;Yeboah & Jayne, 2018). Nontrivial movement of people between rural areas in many parts of the region indicates that labor (and possibly capital) resources are being reallocated in response to spatially differing returns to those resources.In this study, we present descriptive and econometric evidence which suggests that rural in-migration is an important mechanism through which rural transformation is taking place in Zambia. Our analysis indicates that rural-in migration confers benefits on receiving communities in terms of stimulating agricultural productivity gains through a variety of channels, even after other observable measures of rural economic vibrancy are controlled for.The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a brief review of relevant literature and frames the contribution of this study. Section 3 describes our conceptual approach. Section 4 describes our data and how we define key variables. We discuss our empirical strategy in Section 5. Section 6 summarizes our key results, and Section 7 concludes with a discussion of our findings and their policy implications.Although there is general acknowledgment that rural-rural migration is the dominant category of internal migration flows in sub-Saharan Africa (Lucas, 2015;Tacoli, 2009), quantitative assessments of such flows have only recently become available for many countries (FAO, 2018). 3  Garlick et al. (2016) documented nationally representative migration flows for black South Africans, finding that two-thirds of the moves from rural areas during this period were to other rural destinations. de Brauw et al. (2014) found that as much as twothirds of employment-seeking internal migration in Ethiopia may be rural-rural. Lewin, Fisher, and Weber (2012) show that most labor flows in Malawi are between rural areas. Wineman and Jayne (2016) report that 68% of the Tanzanian rural out-migrants in their sample move to other rural destinations. Young (2013) examined migration flows between urban and rural destinations using Demographic and Health Survey data from 65 countries. Using the subset of these data for sub-Saharan Africa, which comprise 18 countries, we find that almost 60% all movement is into rural areas, and that three-fourths of this movement is comprised of rural-to-rural moves.Given the magnitude of rural in-migration in sub-Saharan Africa, what can we say about who moves, why, and with what consequences? A long-standing motivation is the relative availability for agricultural land (Byerlee, 1972;Mwesigye & Matsumoto, 2016;Wineman & Liverpool-Tasie, 2018;Potts, 2006) or more favorable production environments (Lewin et al., 2012). The subsistence narrative of land-seeking rural migration (e.g., the stylized facts offered by Carr, 2009) suggests that such movement is characterized by poor agricultural land-seekers, who are often responding to environmental and other push factors (for recent case studies conforming to this narrative, see, e.g., Hartter et al., 2015;Jones et al., 2018;Salerno et al., 2017). However, there is also mounting evidence that farmland acquisitions in many areas are associated with capitalized investors from outside the community, for example, the phenomenon of emergent farmers (Jayne et al., 2016;Sitko & Chamberlin, 2016, Sitko & Jayne, 2014). In a study of rural-rural movement in Tanzania, Wineman and Liverpool-Tasie (2018) find that rural in-migration is associated with the functioning of land markets.Employment opportunities are another key driver. Seasonal migration for work has a long history in many parts of Africa (Byerlee, 1972). The expansion of rural nonfarm economic activities in the region suggests that such rural wage opportunities are increasing in some areas (Yeboah & Jayne, 2018). Wineman and Jayne's (2016) examination of rural migration patterns in Tanzania finds that most rural out-migration is to other rural areas, with higher-density areas being particularly important destinations, and welfare returns to migration generally coming from wage-employment outcomes.The importance of land and labor market opportunities notwithstanding, decisions about migration destinations are likely often the result of integrating across multiple criteria simultaneously. Lewin et al. (2012) show that rural-rural ses of internal migration flows, for example, Potts (2010) and Wineman and Jayne (2016). movement in Malawi is driven by climatic variability as well as land access and rural labor market opportunities. Marriage frequently involves rural-rural movement, although such decisions are often also linked with land availability (Kudo, 2015). While migration narratives often distinguish between push and pull factors, it may be more useful to think of migration decisions as responding to spatial differentials in opportunities (Lucas, 2015).The economic benefits of migration have often been framed in terms of exiting rural areas for urban destinations and leaving agriculture for nonagricultural employment (e.g., Christiaensen, De Weerdt, Ingelaere, & Kanbur, 2018;de Brauw et al., 2014). Christiaensen and Todo (2014) have usefully advocated for breaking down the rural-urban conceptual dichotomy and have provided evidence that movement from rural areas to secondary towns has generated larger welfare improvements, in aggregate, than movement to major urban centers. Nonetheless, there is strong evidence that moving from rural areas to any destination-including other rural areas-is beneficial to the mover (e.g., Beegle et al., 2011;de Brauw et al., 2017;Garlick et al., 2016). More recently, Wineman and Jayne (2016) find evidence of economic returns to rural-rural movement in Tanzania, mostly accruing through increased off-farm and nonfarm income.An underinvestigated empirical question is what effects such rural inflows are having on receiving rural communities. Given the magnitude of rural inflows in sub-Saharan Africa, this is an important question. If rural in-migrants are characterized by relatively high levels of human, financial, and other capital assets, then it would be reasonable to assume that some kinds of positive spillover effects would ensue within local rural economies. The frequent empirical finding that rural out-migrants have better capital endowments than nonmigrants suggests that this may be the case (e.g., de Brauw et al., 2014;Hirvonen & Lilleør, 2015). Even if one of the primary attractors of rural inflows is the availability of nonfarm employment opportunities, we might also expect positive spillovers on agricultural production in rural destination areas, if wage-seeking migrants also participate in farming activities and use wage income for agricultural investments. On the other hand, we might expect limited positive impacts if rural-rural migrants are, on average, relatively undercapitalized subsistence farmers, as suggested by some of the literature on migration into forest frontier areas (e.g., Carr, 2009), or if such inflows engender conflict over land which has negative productivity impacts (Mwesigye & Matsumoto, 2016). Furthermore, even relatively well-capitalized migrants may have limited impacts if they face constrained access to land in receiving communities, are primarily engaged in nonagricultural activities and/or are more likely to remit income rather than invest locally.To date, there has been very limited empirical study in sub-Saharan Africa on the role that rural in-migrants play in shaping rural economic development outcomes in receiving communities. Mwesigye and Matsumoto (2016) and Mwesigye, Matsumoto, and Otsuka (2017) evaluated the impacts of rural-rural migration on land conflict and the evolution of land institutions (and, in turn, the productivity implications of tenure security outcomes) but did not examine broader agricultural development impacts on receiving communities. To address this gap, we contribute a case study from Zambia, using two rounds of nationally representative household panel survey data to describe the patterns of rural in-migration and its association with a variety of agricultural development outcomes in receiving communities. Zambia is a worthwhile case study because, while not typical of the region in some ways (e.g., relatively low rural population densities, historical patterns of interregional movement which were driven by mining opportunities in the Copperbelt Region), there are nonetheless many commonalities with other countries in the region, including high levels of spatial heterogeneity in market access; variable spatial impact of climate change on agronomic suitability, creating spatial push and pull factors; and recent growth of secondary towns creating spatially diffuse pull destinations for wage seekers and agro-entrepreneurs. Fairly rapid changes have been documented in recent years in terms of farm structure (Sitko & Jayne, 2014), which have been linked with changes in output marketing channels (Sitko, Burke, & Jayne, 2018) and evolving land institutions (Sitko & Chamberlin, 2015, 2016). The role of rural in-migration in Zambia's rural transformations has not been closely examined to date, although is likely of relevance not only for Zambia but to broader patterns of change in sub-Saharan Africa (Jayne et al., 2018). Byerlee (1972), focusing on educational differentials of migrants relative to nonmigrants, framed migration as a net transfer of capital. We posit that such transfers may be characterized by a broader set of characteristics with the potential to generate positive spillovers. Our core hypothesis is that if rural in-migrants are, ceteris paribus, (a) better endowed with human and financial capital assets, (b) more engaged with input and output markets, and (c) more likely to utilize new production technologies, then they represent virtuous injections into local rural economies, and are likely to trigger positive spillover impacts on the productivity of nonmigrant neighbors in receiving communities, after controlling for other factors.We posit that there are several major potential pathways by which in-migrants may generate positive spillover benefits to neighboring nonmigrants. First, if in-migrants are more highly capitalized and linked with input markets, they may help to attract input suppliers to an area and improve upstream linkages for neighboring smallholders. Second, if in-migrants are more commercially oriented in output (i.e., sell a higher share of their production) and market in larger volumes, they may attract more competition in downstream marketing channels (e.g., buyers and transporters), including larger buyers who may pay more favorable and well-defined prices. There is some evidence that larger farms (not necessarily those of inmigrants) are driving such output marketing changes in Zambia (Sitko et al., 2018). Third, if in-migrants have higher farm and/or nonfarm productivity and incomes, then there may be relatively high expenditures on local goods and servicesthat is, the classical multiplier effects of Johnston and Mellor (1961)-even if the marginal propensities for such expenditures are decreasing in income. Recent anecdotal evidence from Tanzania suggests that in-migration by medium-scale farmers has been a major contributor of cash expenditures in the local nonfarm economy (Poulton, 2018). Fourth, there may be direct economic engagements between in-migrants and nonmigrants, for example, if better capitalized in-migrant farms hire in labor or hire out traction or transportation services, equipment rentals, and so forth to neighboring smallholders. Fifth, there may be important peer effects playing out through learning by observation or augmented social networks, that is, in-migrants may serve as conduits of technical, marketing, or other information into rural areas (Foster & Rosenzweig, 1995). This may be particularly likely if in-migrants are better educated, more mobile, and/or have more nonlocal social connections. Finally, if in-migration contributes to localized changes in land-labor ratios, there may be an impact on induced innovation arising from changing factor endowments (Ruttan & Hayami, 1984).We conceptualize rural in-migration as responding to spatially distributed opportunity sets, which we may generally refer to in terms of rural economic vibrancy. In responding to these opportunities, they also further stimulate them. For example, by moving into an area where land is available through local (informal and/or formal) markets, in-migrants may stimulate further development of such markets through their participation. The aggregate impacts of such market stimulation are likely to be diffuse. For example, more active land markets may enable commercially oriented agricultural investments, which in turn attract upstream and downstream service providers as knock on effects accruing over time. In addition to these indirect effects, however, in-migration may have direct impacts on neighboring nonmigrants, through such mechanisms as hiring in/out of labor, services, equipment, and so forth, as well as through peer network effects.Descriptive statistics can tell us about associations between rural in-migration and observable measures of rural economic vibrancy. In addition, to the extent that we are able to control for observable dimensions of rural economic vibrancy, we may tentatively identify peer effects as the residual effects of in-migration on farm-level outcomes.Data for this study are drawn primarily from two panel rounds of the nationally representative Rural Agricultural Livelihood Surveys of 2012 and 2015, conducted by Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute in collaboration with the Zambian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock and the Central Statistical Office. The survey collected data on agriculture and nonagricultural activities from 7,254 smallholder rural households across the country in both 2012 and 2015. 5  In this study, we identify a household as a migrant household 4 using a set of nested definitions: (a) if the head grew up elsewhere; (b) if the head grew up elsewhere and arrived at age 18+; and (c) if the head grew up elsewhere and arrived at age 18+ within 10 years of the first survey wave. 5 We also have data on the location from which the head moved, that is, urban or rural areas, and the districts they came from-which allow us to distinguish between urban-rural and rural-rural flows. The resulting in-migration rates are shown in Table 1. We find that 37% of households meet our broadest definition of migrant, dropping to 29% and 12% for our more conservative definitions. In all cases, the majority of rural inmigrants come from other rural areas: two-thirds of heads who grew up elsewhere came from other rural areas, with nearly three-quarters of recent in-migrants coming from rural areas. These broad patterns confirm the magnitude of intrarural movements in Zambia in recent years.In our analysis, we assemble a number of community-level variables-such as the community in-migration rate-at the enumeration area (EA) level, which corresponds to one or several neighboring villages and generally has 20 household observations in our survey data. 6 In order to describe the structural patterns of migration across space, we stratified our sample into quartiles of market access, as defined by travel time to the nearest town of 50,000 or more inhabitants. This gradient of accessibility/remoteness turns out to be a powerful way to capture much of the observable variation in land and labor market conditions, as key measures of economic vibrancy (Table 2). More accessible areas are characterized by higher rural densities, more active land markets (reflected by higher incidence of land rental/sales), more active labor markets (reflected by higher wage income participation rates) and higher average shares of income from nonfarm sources. More remote places, in contrast, are characterized by lower population densities (labor/land ratios), lower operated shares of farmland (reflecting higher fallowing rates), higher rates of respondents indicating that there was unallocated farmland available from traditional authorities. All of this is in keeping with the stylized facts on economic remoteness in sub-Saharan Africa (Chamberlin & Jayne, 2013).While an important part of our contribution consists of new descriptive evidence on rural in-migrants, we complement this analysis by defining and estimating a model of the determinants of farm productivity, in which the in-migration of neighbors is the key covariate of interest, after controlling for observable factors which may influence both in-migration and the household-level outcomes of interest. In order to disentangle the influence of a household's migrant status and the in-migration rate of the community in which the household resides, we employ a spatially lagged measure of inmigration: is interpretationally equivalent to the community level in-migration rate, and we label it as such in our results for ease of reference, but note that our community-level measure defined for any particular households does not include that household's own migration status. The coefficient \uD835\uDF19 is a measure of the impact that in-migration has on our outcome of interest, conditional on other controls. To address endogeneity concerns arising from household-level unobserved characteristics, we include the Mundlak-Chamberlin (M-C) device, that is, the time-averages of all time-varying household and village-level covariates. 7 Under the assumption of correlation between the time-averages and unobserved time-invariant heterogeneity, we are able to control for bias arising from that channel. A key advantage of the M-C device is that we obtain coefficient estimates for the time-varying model covariates which are asymptotically equivalent to those of a fixed effects estimator, without the time-invariant model components dropping out. In our case, since the vast majority of our sample has the same migrant status in both waves (only changing in case of some household head changes), we need to take such an approach in order to obtain an estimate of \uD835\uDF19 while still addressing bias arising from unobserved time-invariant heterogeneity.To address the concern that factors which drive inmigration (such as local market characteristics) may also drive outcomes of interest, we include a rich set of geospatial controls (travel time to market, rural population density, rainfall and rainfall variability), as well as a number of more explicit indicators of economic vibrancy: the EA-level share of households participating in land markets (defined as the number of households acquiring one or more plots via rental or sales transactions); share of households with wage income; and the average household nonfarm income share. We also include the EA share of households receiving land via inheritance, as an additional proxy for land scarcity. These precautions notwithstanding, as with any observational study, our results cannot be treated as fully causal.In the following results and related discussion, we use our most conservative definition of migrant, that is, those who grew up elsewhere and came to the current area as an adult within the decade prior to the first survey wave (Definition 3 in Table 1). 8Figure 1 shows in-migration rates by a number of alternative measures of economic remoteness and vibrancy: (a) travel time to the nearest town of 50,000 or more inhabitants; (b) the EA share of households which acquired land through rental or sales markets, (c) the EA share of households with wage income, and (d) the EA average household nonfarm income share. In all cases, more \"vibrant\" and accessible places having the highest overall in-migration rates. Notably, in the case of land market activity, in migration rates in the lowest quantile show an uptick from the third quartile; this may be reflective of relative land abundance in areas without much market activity. In terms of composition, rural-rural migrants dominate everywhere, although the relative share of in-migrants from urban origins increases slightly with accessibility and market vibrancy. 9The spatial patterns of in-migration would appear to indicate that the availability of services, and wage labor, and land market conditions are dominant drivers of movement 8 We also ran versions of all models with the other more inclusive definitions of migrant. While there are some differences in estimation results, overall results are very consistent with those reported here. These estimation results are available upon request. 9 Interestingly, out-migration rates appear to follow similar spatial patterns (see Appendix Table A1). In our data, we observe household membership changes between panel waves, and have both the reason for leaving as well as some information about their destination. We find that out-migration rates are highest in the least remote areas (58%) and lowest in the most remote areas (48%). Out-migration intensity shows similar patterns (0.21 as compared with 0.14). However, when we compare destinations of migrants leaving areas of differing remoteness (Panel b), we find that while rural destinations are more prevalent than urban destinations everywhere, migrants from high access areas are relatively more likely to go to urban areas than those who leave more remote areas. This is consistent with the notion that urban destinations require greater resources to move to other rural areas. For example, Henry etal. (2004) found that individuals with better educational attainments were more likely to migrate to urban destinations than rural destinations in Burkina Faso. This is also consistent with the idea of \"stepping stone\" migration (Cross, 2006;Ingelaere, Christiaensen, De Weerdt, & Kanbur, 2017), although more data would be needed to confirm this for Zambia.  Note. Migrant households are defined as households with heads who grew up elsewhere and moved to the community as an adult (aged 18+), first arriving within 10 years of the first survey wave. Sample divided into quartiles of (a) travel time to the nearest town of 50,000 or more inhabitants, (b) EA share of households who acquired land through rental or sales markets, (c) EA share of households with wage income, (d) EA average household nonfarm income share.(consistent with Lewin et al., 2012 finding for neighboring Malawi). However, when asked what their primary motivation was in moving to this area, migrant responses are considerably varied (see Appendix Figure A1). Although migrants into high-access areas are more likely to identify work or land availability as primary motives, compared with migrants to less accessible areas, family reasons and clan ties, in aggregate, are the most common response in all locations. But it is important to recognize that stated reasons very likely mask multiple objectives. For example, \"clan ties\" in the context of Zambia can be understood in part as easier access to land from traditional authorities. Interestingly, while urbanorigin and rural-origin migrants are about equally likely to indicate land or farming as the primary motive in higher access areas, rural-origin migrants are much more likely than urban-origin migrants to indicate farming in more remote areas.  (Sitko, 2010). Land productivity and maize yields are much higher for migrants than nonmigrants: migrants have about 12% higher levels of land productivity, and 8% higher maize yields. Aligned with this are the higher levels of inorganic fertilizer and other purchased inputs. This provides prima facie evidence that the majority of rural in-migrants are neither poor environmental refugees, nor speculative land investors (cf. Sitko & Jayne, 2014 on the characteristics of mediumscale farmers in Zambia). With respect to the latter, there is also no evidence that migrants, on average, are utilizing the farmland they control at lower rates than their neighborsin fact, migrants have higher average operated shares of farmland.10 Migrant heads of household are also less likely to be female, although this is unlikely to be an accurate representation of female migration rates. In order to address that, we would need migrant status for all individuals within the household. Migrants tend to hire in more labor for farm activities, as well as animal and mechanical traction services, providing descriptive evidence for cash injections into the local services economy. They are also more likely to own means of transportation, and to have a cell phone, which suggests greater potential to facilitate virtuous spillover effects on neighbors' market access-either directly, for example, providing transportation services, or indirectly, for example, by sharing market information.The descriptive statistics presented above suggest that migrants are more likely to inject capital resources into local economies, engage with promoted practices (e.g., fertilizer and modern seed varieties), and participate in markets. It is, therefore, reasonable to anticipate some positive spillovers on neighboring nonmigrant farmers. To test this, we specify a number of linear regression models (corresponding to Equation 1) in which the dependent variable is the log value of crop production per hectare, measured in real 2015 Zambian kwacha.The primary covariate of interest is the neighborhood inmigration rate, defined at the EA level. Coefficient estimates from alternative model specifications are shown in Table 4 (with full results provided in Appendix Table A2). All specifications shown include controls for household head (gender, age, and years of education), household (cultivated area, value of productive assets prior to the growing season, and maximum educational attainment in the household), dummies for survey year and the 74 districts covered by our sample, as well as the M-C device to control for unobserved timeinvariant heterogeneity at the household level. Recall that our main endogeneity concern is unobserved factors which influence both in-migration and productivity outcomes of local farmers. Our primary strategy for addressing this relies on the inclusion of a comprehensive set of controls. All models include controls for local measures of market access (hours to nearest town of 50,000 or more inhabitants), rural population density, seasonal rainfall mean and variability, and an indicator of government-sponsored resettlement schemes in the EA, in addition to district-level fixed effects. We also specify models with additional controls for local economic vibrancy-the EA share of households participating in land markets and wage labor markets, and the average EA household nonfarm income share-as well as the share of EA households receiving land via inheritance, as an additional proxy for land scarcity (columns (2), (3), ( 5), and ( 6)). Specifications 1, 2, 4, and 5 include the full sample (migrant and nonmigrant households); as an additional precaution against bias arising from a household's own migrant status (which may be correlated with unobserved factors that also affect farm management and productivity outcomes) we estimate models for only the nonmigrant portion of the sample (columns (3) and ( 6)). Recall, however, that our use of the M-C device is already controlling for such unobserved time-constant factors.In the first three specifications, we include the EA inmigration rate for all in-migrants (i.e., not differentiating between rural and urban origins): the coefficient estimate for this term is significant in all specifications. Specification 1 shows that the estimated impact of a 10% increase in the in-migration rate is associated with a 5% increase in value of production per hectare. After adding additional economic vibrancy proxy variables (column (2)), the coefficient estimate increases slightly to .526. The household's own migrant status is not a significant factor in either of these models (nor in any of the vast majority of the specifications we tested, many of which are shown in the Appendix). This is not surprising, given that we are controlling separately for many of the endowments that should affect a household's own produc-tivity outcomes (e.g., capital, land, and other endowments). When we restrict the sample to only nonmigrant households (column (3)), we find only a minor adjustment to this estimate.Specifications in columns ( 4)-( 6) partition the in-migration rate into urban-rural and rural-rural components, using our information about the urban or rural origin of migrants to the area. Here, we find that in-migration from rural originsbut not from urban origins-is associated with increased farm productivity outcomes, even after adding economic vibrancy controls (column (5)) and restricting the sample to nonmigrants (column (6)), although these estimates are only significant at the 10% confidence level. This is possibly a reflection of the greater likelihood of such migrants to have wage-employment orientations and be less intensely engaged in agriculture.To see whether or not such apparent impacts may be differentiated across space, we also estimated models in which the in-migration rate is interacted with a remoteness indicator (Table 5). In this case, remoteness is defined as all areas further than 6.7 hr from a town of 50,000 or more people (the sample median). We find fairly strong evidence that the productivity correlations with in-migration are larger and more significant in the more remote locations of our sample. 11 Here again, this is particularly true for the rural-rural migration flows. 12  In order to clarify what channels these apparent impacts on productivity may be taking, we estimate simple linear regression models for a number of alternative outcomes: inorganic fertilizer application rate (kg/ha), using improved maize seed (0/1), the share of value of production in high-value crops (i.e., horticulture and nonstaple cash crops); using pesticide (0/1); the marketed share of value of crop production; and the marketing more than half of the value of crop production (0/1). 13 Coefficient estimates for the in-migration rates in these models are shown in Table 6 (with full results shown in the Appendix). Panel A shows results from specifications using the migration rate for all migrants (of any origin), while Panel B shows estimates from comparable specifications for migration rates calculated separately for urban-origin and rural-origin migrants. While we do not see any significant associations of in-migration with use of fertilizer or improved seeds or with the share of production in high-value crops, we do see evidence of positive associations of in-migration with pesticide use and output market orientation. The specifications in Panel B, which decompose the in-migration rate into urban-rural and rural-rural components, indicate that these associations are primarily associated with ruralrural migrants, consistent with our results for agricultural productivity.Motivated by important changes taking place within Africa's population distributions, farm structure, land access, and agricultural productivity, the goal of this paper has been to better describe the patterns of rural in-migration-including both urban-rural and rural-rural movement-using recent household survey data from Zambia. We are particularly interested in the rural-rural components of such flows, that is, lateral migration, as this remains an underexamined aspect of internal migration in Africa. We find that rural in-migration is very prevalent across Zambia, with 12% of household heads in our nationally representative sample of rural households having grown up elsewhere and moved to their current locations as an adult within the prior decade. When we expand our definition to include all those who grew up elsewhere (moving at any age and at any time in the past) the percentage of household heads identified as migrants grows to 37%. Across all definitions of migrant, at least two-thirds of rural in-migration is constituted by those coming from other rural areas.We find that rural in-migration has a pronounced spatial structure, with in-migration rates being highest in more accessible areas characterized by higher rates of participation in land and labor markets. We are unable to say whether inmigration to such areas may be responding to or stimulating such market activity, but descriptive statistics indicate that migrants are active land and labor market participants.Descriptive evidence suggests that rural in-migration constitutes a virtuous phenomenon. In-migrants in all areas are generally more productive and more market-oriented than their nonmigrant neighbors, in terms of farming. Migrants use more purchased inputs and are more likely to hire in labor and traction services. If we assume that migrant Complementing these descriptive findings, we find tentative econometric support for positive influence of rural inmigrants on a range of agricultural outcomes. After controlling for observable factors which may attract migrants to the area, EA level in-migration rates are positively associ-ated with farm productivity outcomes. These associations are particularly pronounced in more remote areas. Furthermore, when we disaggregate in-migration into its urban-rural and rural-rural components, we find that most of the positive associations are related to rural-rural flows. This may be reflective of the overall higher rural-rural migration rates (giving more power to such estimates), but is also likely a reflection of the relatively greater agricultural orientation of rural-rural migrants-especially in more remote areas.While it is beyond the scope of this paper to carefully unpack the channels through which these influences may operate, we do find evidence indicating that migrants-particularly rural-rural migrants-are influencing input usage, portfolio choice (in terms of high-value crops), and output market participation. There are several possible ways in which these influences may play out. First, it may be that migrant's higher levels of expenditures on local labor and services (as suggested by our descriptive statistics) injects more liquidity into local economies, which in turn enables more productive investments by neighboring nonmigrants. Second, it may be that the greater input-and output-market orientation of migrants effectively lowers the costs of market participation by their neighbors, perhaps by attracting more upstream and downstream service providers (e.g., agrodealers and traders). Third, migrants may simply be acting as conduits for technological and market information, thus stimulating similar farm management decisions through peer effects.While our results indicate the likelihood of positive economic impacts of rural in-migration, a few words of caution are in order. First, we employ a household-level migration definition, based on the status of the household head. This may imperfectly map onto the collective migration history of individuals in the household. Second, our sampling frame may not be fully observing all migrant households in rural communities. It is possible, for example, that very poor households that encroach illegally on underutilized land are not entered into local authorities' lists of residents, upon which survey sampling is based. Likewise, very large holdings by urban-based nonlocal investors may be systematically missed from our sample if such households are less likely to be contactable by survey enumerators.Another set of caveats has to do with our tentative conclusions about the influences in-migrants have on agricultural outcomes. Even if one rejects a causal interpretation of our results-for example, because unobserved factors which attract migrants are also influencing outcomes of interestthe significant associations we find between in-migration and positive agricultural outcomes still suggest a virtuous situa-tion. If in-migration responds to rural economic vibrancy in ways that further strengthen such vibrancy-for example, if by participating in land rental markets, such markets develop further-then positive benefits to nonmigrant neighbors are likely to accrue indirectly and over longer periods of time.Our analysis suggests that rural migration may play a more nuanced role in the rural transformation process than typical conceived. Instead of contributing to transformation through the movement of labor out of agriculture and into nonfarm sectors through rural-urban labor flows, intrarural migration may also be an integral part of how rural economies transform, by enabling human, capital and other resources to flow into rural areas which benefit directly or indirectly from such influxes. This suggests that overall rural development trajectories may be stimulated by lowering the barriers to rural labor mobility. Policy options for lowering the barriers to further intrarural migration may include clarifying customary tenure transfer rights to further facilitate land rental market development, promotion of labor-intensive economic investments in rural areas, and targeted rural infrastructure investments. To be sure, there would be costs associated with increasing ruralrural mobility, for example, greater rates of cropland expansion and associated environmental externalities, as well as potential conflict over resources, for example, as documented by Mwesigye and Matsumoto (2016) in Uganda. Further study should aim to clarify the institutional and investment mechanisms for lowering the barriers to rural mobility, as well as the costs and benefits of doing so.","tokenCount":"5912"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c5f4dd2d860d78080acda466c62e393c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d3d4274-d8fb-48c1-af69-3da78609b493/retrieve","id":"-2146402037"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bd0af548-7006-4da2-84ef-cab10cf33944","pagecount":"5","content":"The training was attended by 16 officers (5 men and 11 women).The training covered diverse topics, among them behavioral change in bean production and marketing, bean varieties and seed systems, good agronomy for beans, pest and disease management, farming beans as a business, gender and inclusion, digital tools for technology dissemination (animations), approaches to extension, among others.While addressing the team, Dr. Patrick Ketiem, the Institute Director, Agricultural Mechanization Research Institute, Katumani, noted that a strong and responsive extension system is critical for an effective and equitable last mile delivery of agricultural services, technologies, and innovations for increased agricultural production. He noted that counties remain the major drivers of agricultural transformations. However, due to the sector's declining human resources and low funding, the desired extension services remain weak and largely inaccessible to most farmers. This has led to decreased agricultural production and increased food and nutrition insecurity risk. Therefore, there is a need to strengthen the capacity of the extension staff and other last-mile agricultural service providers to address the emerging agricultural challenges.Hon. Wilson Maringa, Chief Officer of Agriculture, Livestock and Aquaculture, Nyeri County, noted that the Kenya Kwanza Government's Agriculture Strategy objective is increasing food production. To deliver the government strategy, the County has reserved a budget for resilient crops, beans, being on of them. Beans were selected for their nutritional value -protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and micronutrients, mainly iron and zinc.Laikipia and Nyeri counties lie within the Central Rift Valley and Central Kenya. The counties have a huge potential for bean production, although this has not been fully tapped to benefit the farmers and the rural economies. The main challenges to bean production in these counties are inadequate seeds, low adoption of certified seeds, mixes of beans, low prices, delayed payment, and the changing climate resulting in high pests and disease infestation. Issues of gender have not been adequately integrated into their bean value chain planning and implementation.Madam Elizabeth Mwangi, Chief Officer of Agriculture and Irrigation, Laikipia County, highlighted the importance of developing a successful bean production and marketing model that can be scaled to other parts of the county. She acknowledged that beans mean business as they can be grown in two seasons, are inclusive and can improve farmers' livelihood.For the corridor approach to work, we need a mindset change in producing and marketing beans, observed David Karanja, Grain Legume and Bean Leader at KALRO. He further noted there is a need to understand which varieties are demanded to determine those in subsistence and those in commercial farming, translating to a co-development of an effective delivery model for seed at planting and grain at harvesting, moving from individual to collective marketing. This calls for all county players to come on board to make the corridor work.There has been a growth in interest in bean production in Nyeri and Laikipia County following promotion efforts by KALRO and County extension officers. Farmers growing Nyota bean, one of the micronutrient rich drought tolerant bean varieties have reported yields of up to 8 bags per acre in Naromoru-Kiamathaga ward in Kieni East, Nyeri County. School feeding is also an entry point for disseminating bean production and marketing information to farmers in these counties. Ten schools in Kieni East, Nyeri County are supported to grow and consume beans.In a changing climate, there is a need to build resilience of the farming systems by adopting climate smart agriculture at all levels of the bean value chain, noted Boaz Waswa, Soil Fertility Expert at ABC. The participants were trained in identification and management of major pests and diseases of beans. The county extension can help farmers access the right technologies and seasonal climate information to guide production operations.As we work on a structured market for beans, we need to understand the cost of bean production and pricing, especially as farmers are linked to markets, noted Paul Aseete, Business Expert at the Seed Equal Initiative.Using bean production data from the counties, the participants were trained on how to carry out cost-benefit analysis of the bean enterprises. The tool enabled the participants to simulate various scenarios and explore the effect of changes in cost of inputs, market prices of grain and prices, on overall profitability of the bean production. The different scenarios enable better decision making in farming beans as a business.Eileen Nchanji, Gender Expert, The Alliance. The Gender Equality Initiative has developed a framework for monitoring gender. Using such a lens ensures that none of the actors is disadvantaged and that all included, benefit and are empowered. Examples are the seed revolving fund in Kenya, gender-friendly technologies in Kenya and gender-responsive nutrition training in Uganda.In a technologically changing world, there is a need to adopt innovative extension approaches that take advantage of the digital solutions and which are more visual and interactive. The animations can complement the traditional approaches such as face-to-face, train and visit approaches, brochures, field days and demonstrations. The participants were introduced to Bean Animations developed by the Pan Africa Bean Research Alliance. The animations cover diverse topics on beans such as land preparation, choice of seed, growing beans, post-harvest management, nutrition and school feeding. The animations are available in English, Kiswahili and French. They can be accessed via YouTube, downloaded, and played on the phone. A short survey on the appropriateness and usability of the animations will inform continuous improvement of this knowledge and information dissemination approach.Dr Boaz Waswa welcomed the strong collaboration between KALRO, The Alliance-PABRA and the counties in addressing the extension gaps. This will provide a great opportunity for scaling research technologies and increased bean production. He called for partnerships with more counties and stakeholders to scale inclusive and innovative climate smart technologies and innovations for enhanced food security of the nation. Going forward, the partners committed to strengthening the partnership to scale out micronutrient rich beans production and consumption in Nyeri and Laikipia Counties.","tokenCount":"975"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"38276487f019c6d1f7dda1ce28e7bfb2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ece2425-2777-4c06-9116-48468905fa15/retrieve","id":"1614828683"},"keywords":["Panicum","Recurrent selection","genotypeenvironment interaction Panicum","Seleccion recurrente","interacción genotipoambiente"],"sieverID":"1dfcb404-203f-4f1e-b41a-49fcbde2b7a6","pagecount":"9","content":"The optimization of livestock systems in developing countries has been associated with the replacement of native pastures with exotic species from Africa and their genetic improvement. Megathyrsus maximus has high productive potential and has the capacity to contribute to climate change mitigation by means of biological carbon fixation and biological inhibition nitrification. To start M. maximus breeding scheme is necessary to identify an appropriate apomictic \"tester\". This report summarizes the first step in multi-trait and multi-environment North Carolina II design analysis conducted with the aim to identify an appropriate apomictic tester to implement the breeding scheme of M. maximus. A selected population of hybrids obtained from cross of 9 male genotypes and 24 female genotypes was subjected to field evaluation in three environments (Llanos, Palmira, and Quilichao). In this report, we present only the multi-environment analysis conducted on plant height using factor analytic mixed models. In all environments, plant height showed low variability values (CV% < 0.17) and high broad sense heritability values (h2) except for llanos4, quili3, and quili4. The high magnitude of the phenotypic variation was composed of high genotypic variation and low environmental variation. The analysis of variance showed significant differences in the genotypeenvironment interaction. The factor analytic analysis biplot revealed that two factors explain 56.1% of the genetic variance and that 83% of the environments were clustered in the first factor indicating that Llanos differed strongly from Palmira and Quilichao. It is noteworthy that some hybrids expressed a better performance than genotypes used as checks.The optimization of livestock systems in developing countries has been associated with the replacement of native pastures with exotic species from Africa and their genetic improvement. In the neotropical ecozone, wide areas of pastureland are made up of a few apomictic cultivars, mainly Urochloa. This extensive monoculture is genetically vulnerable to the possible emergence of new pests and diseases.Therefore, diversifying livestock production systems is crucial. In addition, in the context of the ongoing climate change, is necessary the incorporation of grasses with the capacity to adapt and mitigate their effects.Guinea grass, Megathyrsus maximus (Jacq.) B.K. Simon & S.W.L. Jacobs (syn. Panicum maximun Jacq;Simón & S.W.L. Jacobs, 2003), has high productive potential due to its high nutritional value, height (reaching up to 1.5 m at maturity), and basal diameter (up to 40 cm), which allows it to have greater biomass production compared with other forage grasses. Additionally, M. maximus has the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation in two ways. First, by means of biological carbon fixation (Morgan et al. 1980) due to the C4 photosynthetic pathway in the species, which is more efficient in carbon fixation (Malaviya et al. 2020) due to higher photosynthetic rates (Ehleringer et al. 1993).Second, by means of biological inhibition nitrification, a phenomenon that allows a drastic reduction of nitrification through the root exudation of biological nitrifications inhibitors (Villegas et al. 2020).Megathyrsus breeding program was started in 2016 with the formation of the first synthetic tetraploid sexual population from a genetic cross between a sexual genotype (pollen receptor) and 90 apomictic genotypes (pollen donor) maintained in the Alliance Bioversity-CIAT genebank. The next step is to implement an appropriate breeding scheme that allows higher rates of genetic gain. An ideal scheme for the genetic breeding of M. maximus is the recurrent selection based on specific combining ability, RS-SCA, (Miles 2007). The breeding cycle for RS-SCA consists of a three-step process. Firstly, genotypes from a recurrent selection population of sexual females are crossed to a genetically distant \"male tester\" genotype selected according to its combining ability. Secondly, superior parental females are chosen based on the performance of their testcross progeny. Thirdly, the selected parental females are recombined with the aim to form genotypes for the next cycle of selection (Worthington and Miles, 2015;Hull, 1945). Selected apomictic hybrids in Yr2 will be candidates for cultivar release. Thus, to start this breeding scheme some previous developments are required: i) to obtain a synthetic sexual breeding population (females); and ii) to identify an appropriate apomictic \"tester\". For the second point, it is necessary to quantify heterosis and general and specific combining ability of genotypes candidates to be used as testers.Therefore, once obtained synthetic tetraploid sexual population, the next fundamental step is to identify an apomictic tester, which, when crossed with sexual genotypes, can produce hybrids that show high performance. In other words, it is necessary to identify an apomictic progenitor genetically distant from sexual genotypes with high general combinatorial ability in order to increase the probability of producing hybrids with better performance (Cox andMurphy 1990, Diers et al.1996).This report summarizes the first step in multi-trait and multi-environment North Carolina II design analysis conducted with the aim to identify an appropriate apomictic tester to implement the breeding scheme of M. maximus.During 2019 and 2020, we formed the population of full-sibs following a North Carolina II design cross with 24 putative sexual genotypes (mothers) and a group of 9 apomictic genotypes (pollen donors; ♂♂ CIAT/6893, CIAT/6986, CIAT/26936, Naturalized, Agrosavia Sabanera, CIAT/16031 (c.v. Tanzania1), CIAT/6890, CIAT/6962 (c.v. Mombasa), CIAT/6799) and 24 sexual genotypes (pollen receptors; ♀♀). To achieve this, vegetative propagules of each sexual genotype were planted in a field plot alternated with clones of the apomictic genotype to be evaluated as male tester, with the purpose that the pollen from all the putative-tester's clones could fertilize each and every sexual genotype.Each cross-block was isolated in order to avoid pollen contamination. Seed was hand harvested on the sexual genotypes. Seeds obtained from each sexual genotypes constitute an independent family with full siblings. Reproductive behavior was identified in full-sib population using the molecular marker p779/p780 (Hernández et al. 2021), as a result, 1995 genotypes were identified as apomictic.Apomictic hybrids and their parents were evaluated in three environments (Llanos [4.298703, -72.418377], Quilichao [3.087534,and Palmira [3.505732,). Genotypes were planted in Federer's augmented block design (Federer, 1955) with 26 blocks, 2028 treatments (1995 hybrids + 24 sexual, and + 9 apomictic genotypes), and three checks (Mombasa, Tanzania1, and Tanzania2), at the spacing of 1.5 meters between rows and columns. Five evaluations were conducted in each location; the first 65 days after planting; The remaining four evaluations were carried out at 35 days of regrowth, two in the season of maximum precipitation and two in the minimum precipitation. Agronomic characteristics such as growth habit, visual biomass, flowering, height, greeness, and plant cover area were evaluated. The growth habit will be evaluated visually only in the first evaluation on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 being a totally creeping plant and 5 a fully erect plant. The visual biomass will be estimated according to the amount of green matter production in a range of 1 to 9, where 1 is a plant with lower biomass and 9 is a plant with the highest biomass. The height (cm) shall be quantified by measuring the distance from the basal part of the plant to the maximum height. The coverage area (cm2) will be estimated by analyzing images captured with drone.In this report, we present only the analysis conducted on plant height trait. Multienvironmet analysis was made using MrBean (Aparicio 2022) a R-Shiny web-app that combines the analytical robustness and speed of ASReml and SpATS. For this, we calculated the components of phenotypic variation, broad sense heritability, coefficient of variation, phenotypic correlation among environments, and finally, we determined genotype-by-environment interaction using factor analytic models.Statistical description of each environment is presented in table 1. In all environments the r2 was significant (p < 0.01) (Table 1). In all environments, plant height showed low variability values (CV% < 0.17  Significant phenotypic correlations were found between environments (P < 0.01) for plant height and varied between 0.3 and 0.76. Evaluations carried up in the same environment showed higher correlations than the evaluations carried out between environments. This means that in a certain environment are produced small phenotypic variations in plant height between seasons, so small changes in the phenotypic averages are expected over time. In contrast and considering the low correlations between environments, changes in the order of genotypes across environments are expected. This suggests the existence of genotype-environment interaction.The analysis of variance showed significant differences in the GxE interaction. The factor analytic analysis biplot revealed that two factors explain 56.1% of the genetic variance and that 83% of the environments were clustered in the first factor (Figure 2A  ","tokenCount":"1383"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87e28fc59fc8fc3a2930a347cfa74650","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d6a8eac8-6acd-449e-aba8-a95425d69af2/retrieve","id":"-1514515043"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6fec5c21-a1b5-486f-8e5b-05c46ad9b511","pagecount":"1","content":"With the constant development of transgenic technology for a wide variety of major and minor crops, there is a need for comprehensive, easily accessible baseline information to evaluate the potential of gene flow and introgression between crops and their wild relatives, particularly in centres of crop origin and diversity. Thanks for financial support:Comprehensive baseline information to assist the evaluation of the gene flow and introgression potential of 20 crops and their sexually compatible crop wild relatives (e.g., Fig. 1 and 2)World maps per crop, identifying \"hot-spots\" for gene flow between the crop and its wild relatives to assist the decision on further risk assessment by analyzing other determinant factors (e.g., Fig. 3 and 4)Knowledge and research gaps that need to be addressed for adequate risk assessment Publication in form of a book, consisting of an introductory chapter (overview of hybridization, gene flow, introgression, ecological impact, risk assessment etc.) and 20 crop-specific chapters (relevant factors for assessing the risk of gene flow and its ecological implications and impact), including coloured world maps to identify at a first glance regions with high, moderate and low gene flow potential. ","tokenCount":"186"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ade87852773eb219dc5648cf77edd5ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a4a65ddf-a03a-4d87-b5db-520c3c230201/retrieve","id":"-1116505887"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8827a26d-ae21-4560-8e85-fea07dda5bb7","pagecount":"9","content":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVS8rTlA NsM&feature=youtu.be • PV provides for clearer understanding of the challenges the world's rural poor (men and women) are facing. • Adapt development strategies and policies to local needs, knowledge and wants. • Inclusive Summary of projects • Financed by CIAT, CCAFS, Humidtropics and ILRI • First pilot conducted in Somotillo, Nicaragua on young farmers' perspectives on agriculture & climate change. • Second project in Estelí, Nicaragua, with young rural women. • Currently, working on e-course, whiteboard animation and information brochure on the use of PV for inclusive research across the CGIAR. T • Current project phase is funded by the Capacity Development team of Humidtropics/ILRI, led by Iddo Dror.• Allows to present assessment of their own words (Traber & Lee 1989: 1). • Support process of empowerment (Kindon, 2003).• Create narratives through which can communicate what really want to communicate, in a way they think is appropriate • Participants gain understanding of their situation, as well as the confidence and ability to change that situation (Servaes, 2007) • Reduce gap between researchers and reality (Kane, 1995).• PV provides for awareness-building of the PV-makers ","tokenCount":"184"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c9fcfb1a0af2c7dd6ade3e1c0ee0f595","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f882019a-5c2f-4426-ace1-06a2f2d1ffce/retrieve","id":"1635975044"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"83c09c6f-49e2-4bdd-a6b5-83e59df946e4","pagecount":"13","content":"America and Eastern and Southern Africa, often under unfavorable conditions and with minimal inputs (Beebe et al., 2008). It is estimated that 60% of bean cultivation is at risk of either intermittent or terminal drought (White and Singh, 1991;Thung and Rao, 1999). The effects of drought on common bean are dependent on the intensity, type (e.g., early, intermittent, and terminal drought), and duration of the stress (White and Izquierdo, 1991;  Terán and Singh, 2002a, b;Muñoz-Perea et al., 2006). In Africa as much as 300,000 tonnes of beans are lost to drought annually (Wortmann et al., 1998). Bean producing areas where drought is endemic include highland Mexico, Central America, Northeast Brazil, as well as much of Eastern and Southern Africa. Development of drought adapted common bean cultivars is an important strategy to minimize crop failure and increase food security in the face of climate change. Identification of key plant traits and mechanisms that contribute to improved drought adaptation (e.g., root length, root depth, canopy biomass, pod partitioning index, and pod harvest index) can increase the efficiency of breeding programs through the selection of superior genotypes.The following protocol allows for the identification of phenotypic differences in drought resistance under greenhouse conditions through the quantification of root development (total length, distribution across the soil profile, diameter, volume, and biomass, and depth), vigor (shoot biomass and leaf area), plant water status (stomatal conductance), and nutrient content. Plants are grown in transparent soil tubes, allowing for the monitoring of root development. The soil-sand mixture is poured into plastic, transparent tubes that are 80 cm in length and 7.5 cm in diameter with a small hole at the bottom for water drainage. The soil-sand mixture is added until reaching the 75 cm mark of the tube. The 5 cylinders are then weighed and the empty weight of the plastic tube is subtracted to determine the average weight of the soil-sand mixture in each tube. This weight will depend on the bulk density of the soil-sand mixture and may range from 4 to 6 kg.Next, water is added to the same 5 tubes until it drains from the bottom. Once draining stops, the tubes are weighed and the average is taken to determine the amount of water held by the soil at field capacity.The tubes are then placed within PVC pipes.Seeds are sterilized by soaking them in a solution of calcium hypochlorite at 5% for 5 minutes. They are then dried under ambient conditions. After they have dried, they are placed on germination paper. After 48 hours, the seedlings should have developed small roots.One seedling is then planted in the center of each cylinder.Trials are kept under greenhouse conditions and are planted as a randomized complete block design with two levels of water supply and three replications. For the first 10 days after planting, both plots are watered so that their soil moisture levels are maintained at 80% field capacity. After 10 days, one plot is weighed and watered every two days to maintain 80% field capacity, while the other plot receives no irrigation to simulate terminal drought conditions. Cylinders under terminal drought conditions are weighed every 2 days until harvesting to monitor the decrease in soil moisture content.At the same time that the cylinders are weighed for soil moisture monitoring (see above), the depth of the deepest roots should be estimated with a ruler.Using a non-destructive, hand-held chlorophyll meter (e.g., SPAD-502 Chlorophyll Meter), SPAD is measured once a week on a fully-expanded young leaf of a plant from each replication.All plants are cut at the soil surface and are separated into leaves (without petiole), stems, and the remaining plant parts (pods and reproductive structures).If a leaf area meter is available (e.g., LICOR model LI-3000), the leaf area can be determined.To determine shoot nutrient (N, P, K, Ca and Mg), ash, and TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrates) content, dried plant samples are ground using a mill or other device. The ground samples are packed in glass tubes and sent to the laboratory for analysis. Concentration of TNC is determined using NaOH as an extraction medium and anthrone as a reagent. Absorbance of the solution is measured with a spectrophotometer at 620 nm and TNC concentration is determined by comparison with glucose standard (Adapted from Kand and Brink, 1995). Analysis of variance is calculated by using statistical analysis software (e.g., SAS/STAT Software). A probability level of 0.05 is considered statistically significant.Plant parts are put in separate paper bags for oven drying at 60 o C for 2 days.Total dry matter production and dry matter distribution into different plant parts (leaf biomass, stem biomass, pods biomass, total shoot biomass) is recorded.Roots are put in a paper bag for oven drying at 60 o C for 2 days and their dry weight is determined.Bean Drought Resistance: Field Evaluation Roots are scanned. Root length and root diameter are determined by an image analysis system (WinRHIZO).","tokenCount":"813"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"67b54a8437cf49ab46a5308a55654263","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/92252f77-ade6-4c27-9690-8b7b43f38f08/content","id":"-1246416812"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11de2815-cb61-4f62-a72d-3af26ab4fbc7","pagecount":"68","content":"The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is the global leader in publicly-funded maize and wheat research and related farming systems. Headquartered near Mexico City, CIMMYT works with hundreds of partners throughout the developing world to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat cropping systems, thus improving global food security and reducing poverty. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on MAIZE and WHEAT. The Center receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.This set of training modules focuses on ensuring that mechanics are able to make repairs to bed planter efficiently and correctly. It builds on other books in this series, and is designed so that anybody who uses these materials can easily conduct training -even those with a limited background in and understanding of agricultural engineering or machinery. By the conclusion of the training module (which can be completed in a single day of intensive training or in a multi-day, multi-session format), participant mechanics will be well equipped to repair bed planter as part of their ongoing agricultural machinery servicing business. However, users of this book should carefully read all the instructions on how to implement the training effectively in order to ensure the best learning experience possible for the participants. A key aspect of this is ensuring that the training is experiential and interactive, as discussed in the next section.This training uses an experiential and hands-on modular format. It is based on a foundation of experiential and hands-on work, combined with discussion and reflection among participants. This means that although the facilitator is instructed on how to carry out the training and how to present materials, the format in which this is done should be horizontal and participatory, with room for adaptation and modification. We also underscore that farmers and agricultural machinery service providers -who are the target of this training -are experts in their own fields. They work daily on farms and have considerably more experience than most university educated technicians, researchers or extension agents. Attentively listening to their opinions and working with them to respond to their needs and experiences will facilitate improved learning and enhance the quality of any given training session. In this sense, it is the responsibility of the training facilitator to elicit the participants' input, opinions and ideas, and to use these interactively to shape discussion and learning. Each facilitator therefore should think of him or herself as a guide whose goal is to elicit insight and ideas from the trainees, in order to enhance their learning process. The technical materials included in this document should therefore be seen as a guide to supplement the in-depth knowledge that the trainee farmers and agricultural machinery service providers already have.The training format presented in these modules is loosely based on the experiential learning cycle described by Kolb (1984)  1 , who posited that adults learn differently from children, with learning based on cycles involving concrete experience, learners reflecting on this experience, conceptualizing their experiences, and then doing experimentation. After this, the learning cycle is repeated. He further hypothesized that there are generally four types of adult learners and learning styles which should be accommodated. In the production of this manual, we have tried to account for these types of learners, including those who learn by taking part in demonstration activities and critically thinking about them (whom Kolb called divergers), those who learn by thinking, reading and watching (assimilators), those who learn by hands-on thinking and doing (convergers), and those who learn by doing (accommodators).Well-designed training should accommodate each participant's individual learning style by providing a mixture of lectures and discussions, reading or visual material, hands-on experiential and experimental opportunities, and opportunities to watch demonstrations and to learn. The challenge thus given to training facilitators when using these modules is to accommodate different types of learners in an active learning process. Kolb's theories have been widely researched and validated in a number of contexts, and provide a solid foundation for educational programs aimed at experienced farmers and agricultural service providers, as well as farmer field, school-oriented and action learning. In this training, we loosely attempt to Kolb's (1986)  For example, rather than ask \"What are the financial advantages to farmers using a bed planter?\", ask \"How can a bed planter help farmers to sow more crops from the same plot of land within one year?\" Participants may require some additional encouragement to discuss this question, but gently push them towards realizing the answer.For example, rather than asking training participants \"What happens if water gets into the bearing?\", ask \"If water gets into the bearing, what are the implications for water leakage from the bed planter, and how might this cause reduced profits for farmers and service providers?\"4. Pick a particular participant to give an answer.Rotate among students, picking different ones and asking them individually or as a group to answer a question. It may take time for them to answer, but allow them to work through the process of reflection and come up with a response. Engage with them and discuss their response, and ask others for their thoughts on the response. However, if a particular participant is naturally quiet or reserved, avoid asking him/her too many questions. The goal is to encourage an active learning atmosphere, but not to make participants feel uncomfortable.the training materials. This seems like a simple point, but it is important to stay on topic and make sure that participants are equipped to respond to questions. The field is the best classroom for farmers and service providersTraining sessions are to be held primarily outside and in the field, where participants are encouraged to learn with their own hands how to operate the bed planter safely and effectively. It is only by setting up the bed planters safely and operating them that trainees can learn how to benefit from them. To facilitate this, the flipchart material provided in this book can be printed on large paper and taken out into farmers' fields, where electricity for PowerPoint presentations or other learning formats may not be available (downloaded https://bit.ly/2T7xcGj).Emphasis should be given to these participatory activities throughout the training. Last but not least, training and education does not end at the conclusion of the day. Participants should be encouraged to experiment with, learn from, modify and adapt the techniques they learn for using bed planter on their own farm, emulating the cycle of continual learning articulated by Kolb, as discussed above. For this reason, training facilitators should share their contact information with participants so they can backstop and assist with technical matters when needed over time. Similarly, trainers may wish to supply contact information of experienced extension agents with knowledge of bed planter. Flipchart materials are provided to guide the technical content of each of these presentations. Facilitators should simply follow the flipcharts and use the materials presented to initiate discussion and ensure that all technical points are covered. Care should be taken to allow all participants to speak, and to make space for under-represented participants, specifically women, to speak and ask questions.The pages of this book can be printed out on large poster-sized paper and used as flipcharts. The same flipcharts are also intended to be printed on normalsized paper, stapled together and provided as handouts and reference material for participants. In many countries, training facilitators may also choose to use the flipcharts as projected PowerPoint slides, which is encouraged here as long as a reliable electricity source can be supplied, and participants are able to easily view the slides. Some trainers even prefer to use the flipchart materials as a base for PowerPoint slides, modifying them and adding relevant material as they see fit. We fully encourage this approach.Lastly, training begins with a pre-training evaluation of participants' knowledge, and ends with a posttraining evaluation of their knowledge at the end of the day. The change in participants' scores provides an indication of their progress in learning. Ready-made pre-and post-training test questionnaires and their answers are provided in Annex 1. Simply print them on regular sized paper for use. Some training facilitators also like to conduct post-training evaluations a second time, a week or more after the training, to gauge how much information participants have retained over time. We also encourage this, as it can be instructive for training facilitators to learn how to improve and emphasize particular parts of the training that some participants may forget as time passes.The aims of this training are to (1) increase participants' knowledge of the common causes of bed planter failure and breakdown experienced by farmers and service providers, and (2) improve their skills in repairing the machine effectively and efficiently.By the end of the training, participants should be able to:• identify the major mechanical parts of the bed planter and understand their functions;• identify the causes of major failures and breakdown associated with bed planters and find solutions to fix them;• select appropriate spare parts and tools/ workshop facilities required to make repairs to the bed planter;• demonstrate awareness of where to purchase spare parts; and• demonstrate that they can repair a bed planter effectively and efficiently.This training is designed for mechanics (1) preferably with experience repairing bed planters, but also twowheeled tractors, or (2) who are already running a business and have an interest in repairing agricultural machinery. Gender balance should be maintained when selecting the participants -the ideal is to have an equal mix of women and men.Key considerations for planning, preparing and organizing are given below. The facilitator(s) should prepare well in advance, reading each section carefully to make sure the training is implemented effectively and efficiently. The information presented here can be generalized for each training day in this series of books. More specific information pertaining to individual training days is also presented at the beginning of each module; be sure that you also review this material.The number of participants per batch should be around 6-8. They should be mechanics who have experience (or who are interested in) providing mechanical repair services for the users of bed planters. Contact participants well ahead of the training date (at least one week) to allow them time to prepare.Select the training venue carefully. It should be next to a mechanic's workshop, preferably with an open shady place, for example, under a tree. No seating arrangement is required, either for participants or for the facilitator(s), as the majority of this training is hands-on and practical -so participants should be active! There should also be accessible restroom/toilet facilities nearby.At least one month before the training is due to start, please review the detailed list of training aids on the next page and make sure you get together all the materials needed well before the training starts.An experienced local mechanic with the competence to train others should be selected to facilitate the training. However, if help is not available locally, the facilitator should arrange support from other research or extension institutes, or from machinery manufacturers. Allow enough time to arrange this in advance. If resource people such as these are not available, the facilitator(s) should carefully study all the points in this book and make sure they can repair a bed planter easily, without having to refer to printed instructions. The key point is that the person who facilitates the training should be well-versed in both how to lead an effective interactive and experiential learning-based training, as well as being a knowledgeable mechanic themselves.Well ahead of the training start date, the facilitator(s) should go through each module and its respective topics, and practice the implementation techniques as per the allocated time. Each session contains different topics, implementation techniques and time allocation. Facilitators therefore need to read each module minutely and practice their delivery following the PowerPoint presentation/flipcharts to ensure a lively presentation that keeps to schedule.The date of the training should be decided following discussion and agreement with trainees to ensure their participation. It should preferably be during their weekly day off to avoid any financial loss to their business.Participants should reach the training venue on time.On arrival, each participant should register their name; registration should be completed before training begins, after which no new participant can be allowed to join.The training approach should be participatory, with an emphasis on hands-on and experiential learning, and actual operation of the bed planter. This is why it is important to limit participant numbers relative to how many bed planters are available, as each participant should get the opportunity to have handson experience operating the machine. The facilitator should have been trained in these methods, and utilize techniques that aim to motivate participants to get involved in the training, for example, question and answer sessions, experience sharing, group exercises, group discussions, and group presentations. This guide explains how to do that.The training should be facilitated in such a way that participants understand the key messages and information clearly, and find it useful and valuable, rather than a waste of their time. To achieve this, the facilitator should work to ensure that the training is enjoyable (using fun games, quizzes, sing-along sessions, or other techniques to get trainees motivated and involved). One-way lecture formats are not acceptable and are discouraged -hands-on training is always more effective. The facilitator should arrange a short break (about two minutes) after each ten minutes of presentation, discussion and exercise, during which they should ask questions to check whether participants are understanding the training well, and if necessary, adapt their teaching style.Use of mobile phones causes distraction and reduces the effectiveness of the learning experience. All participants, including the facilitator(s), should keep their mobile phones switched off during the training session. If they receive an urgent call, they should excuse themselves from the group to answer it.A pre-training evaluation questionnaire at the start of the training and post-training evaluation at the end are important and necessary to judge whether and to what degree the learning has been effective. These questionnaires are provided in Annex 1.This course is designed for one day's training of approximately 7.45 hours of instruction, comprising about 2.20 hours of discussion and review plus 5.25 hours of demonstration and practical exercises. This excludes lunch and breaks. This is an intensive course; sessions are held in the field and not in a classroom. The facilitator(s) can decide the best time to take tea and lunch breaks (these times are not included in the estimates below and so should be accounted for when planning the training). It is important to keep times flexible, depending on the needs of the participantssome sessions may be faster than allowed for, others may be slower.The content is divided into an introductory session plus five instructional sessions, as follows:before the start of the training (detailed below in different sessions), so advanced preparation of several weeks is required. In addition to the items listed there, prepare for the training by considering the following:Provide space with adequate cover for a maximum of eight participants plus the facilitator(s). The venue should be easily accessible and safe for any vulnerable or non-able-bodied participants. Bathroom facilities with appropriate privacy (particularly for women participants) should be provided. Please review the \"Key considerations for training\" section at the front of this book. Note that you may wish to establish demonstration learning field plots Session 1At the end of this session, participants should be able to:• state the names of the trainer(s) and other participants • understand and state the course contents and objectives of the training• understand the training guidelines about learning and cooperation, including the participatory approach and their expected contribution• assess their pre-existing knowledge level in terms of the content of the training Key messages to convey to participants during this session 1. The training day is composed of an introductory session plus four instructional sessions and will take about 7.55 hours excluding lunch, tea and other breaks. Get ready to learn plenty of new things -and please be patient: there is a lot of material to complete.2. This training is participatory and fun -trainers and trainees will learn from each other.The training is mostly hands-on: participants should learn by working with the bed planters, rather than just listening. Active participation works best. For this session, you will need the following resources and materials:• the participant registration form • the flipchart Session 1: Introduction, training   objectives and pre-training evaluation• A4 printed copies of the flipchart for each participant • a notebook and pen for each participant • a copy of the pre-training evaluation questionnaire for each participant (see Annex 1)• several sheets of blank poster paper or a whiteboard, whiteboard stand and dry marker/ whiteboard pensStep 1 -Form groups (15 minutes)Most adults learn best when they can work in groups.Participants in a small group can interact and share ideas with each other, which allows peer-to-peer learning, and can stimulate more entertaining and rich learning experiences.An ideal size is a total of six to eight participants, divided into two groups of three or four.Divide the participants into groups of three by asking them to number themselves 1, 2, 3 (or 4) and asking those with the same number to rearrange their seats and sit together (all the 1s together in one group, 2s in another and so on). This splits up participants who are sitting with people they already know.Next, ask each group to select a leader and choose a fun name for their group. It is helpful if the group leader can read and write, which is something the training facilitator can assess during the registration period of the training.Ask each group to find five things they have in common with every other person in the group, and that have nothing to do with work. Please, no body parts, as we all have legs and arms! Also, no clothing, as we all wear clothes. Focus on more interesting commonalities; examples may include having worked as a mechanic for more than three years, working to repair engines for motorcycles or tractors, or interest in sports like cricket. This activity helps the group explore shared interests more broadly -it should be fun and anything of relevance can be included! Ask the group leaders to take notes and be ready to read their list to the whole group at the end of the session. This should generate discussion, and a lot of laughter and fun, while encouraging each group to think more like a team.Step 2 -What are the participants' expectations? (10 minutes)This is one of the most effective tools for breaking the ice and enabling a new group of trainees to get to know each other. Each group member is an important source of knowledge. Each participant also has his or her own style of thinking and learning. This means that for effective learning it is important for the trainers to understand each participant's expectations of the training. It will also help the facilitator(s) be better equipped to deliver a successful learning experience throughout the training.Use an icebreaker approach, during which participants can state what their learning expectations are at the beginning of the day. This will provide feedback from each participant about what they expect -and wantto get out of the training.During the introduction to the training, when it is time for participants to introduce themselves following group formation, the facilitator should explain that participants' expectations are very important, and that understanding them will be crucial for ensuring quality outcomes from the training. These expectations can later be compared with the module outline, and modifications and changes can be made where necessary.Ask participants to:• introduce themselves individually • share their expectations of the training course (which should be summarized and presented by the group leader after 2-3 minutes of discussion)Here is an example:\"Hi, my name is Sudhanshu. Our group wants to know how to solve major problems with bed planters and how we can make money providing a bed planter repair service to farmers. Will we learn how to do that?\" At the end of this session, review the list of expectations that the groups made. Discuss any points not covered in the course and explain whether their expectations will be met, and if not, why.Step 3 -Introducing the training (10 minutes) Step 4 -Pre-training evaluation questionnaire (25 minutes)Distribute the \"Pre-training evaluation questionnaire\" (see Annex 1) to each participant and allow 20 minutes or so to complete it. If necessary, helpless literate participants to understand and answer the questions. The questionnaire can also be printed and put up on flipchart paper. Collect the answers; they will be compared with the post-test evaluation answers at the conclusion of the training. They should be corrected before the end of the day, prior to the closing session, during which the evaluation scores will be given to all participants.At the end of this introductory session, participants should be able to:• identify the main parts of the bed planter • understand and state the functions of each partFor this session, you will need the following resources and materials:• the flipchart Session 2: Main parts of the bed planter and their functions• A4 printed copies of the flipchart for each participant • several sheets of blank poster paper or a whiteboard, whiteboard stand and dry marker/ whiteboard pens• spare bed planter partsStep 1 -Raise participant awareness and generate discussion (20 minutes)Show the participants some used or old bed planters. Then initiate the session, warming up participants through an ice-breaking question-and-answer session.Ask: Can anyone name the main parts of the bed planter? What are their functions? Encourage one or two participants to answer the questions. Listen carefully and list the parts they mention on blank poster paper or the whiteboard.Step 2 -Generate discussion and learning (10 minutes)Lead a discussion on the bed planter, using the flipchart Session 2: Main parts of the bed planter and their functions to ensure that participants can identify and state the functions of the main parts as follows:Session 2Main parts of the bed planter and their functions Common causes of bed planter failure and breakdown -practical solutionsAt the end of the session, participants should be able to:• understand and state the common causes of failure and breakdown in a bed planter• repair and adjust a range of failures and breakdowns efficientlyFor this session, you will need the following resources and materials:• flipchart Session 3: Common causes of bed planter failure or breakdown -possible solutions• A4 printed copies of the flipcharts as a handout for each participant• several sheets of blank poster paper/whiteboard, flipchart stand, whiteboard stand, dry markers/ whiteboard pens• faulty/broken bed planter parts (if available)• spare parts (if available)• blank poster paper/whiteboard, whiteboard stand, white board pensStep 1 -Raise participant awareness and generate discussion (20 minutes)Show the participants a used or old bed planter. Then initiate the session, warming up participants by using an ice-breaking question-and-answer session.Ask: What are the common causes of failure and breakdown in a bed planter? What type of failure and breakdown do service providers and farmers usually complain about to you?Encourage one or two participants to answer the questions. Listen carefully and list the causes of failure and breakdown on the whiteboard or flipchart. Rank the problems based on the consensus of the trainees, focusing on participants who are hesitant to speak up or appear non-confident about providing a solution to the problems.Next, encourage participants to contribute their experience solving each of the problems. Check whether the solution to each problem is on the flipchart. If not, make a note of it and return to this topic to discuss it with the group during the next session. Finally, check whether any common cause of failure or breakdown listed on the flipchart has not been encountered by any of the participants. If prompted, a participant may recall and be able to talk about it. If not, be prepared to talk about it yourself.Step 2 -Demonstration by a skilled mechanic (30 minutes)Next, if available, an experienced mechanic talks about (1) the faulty parts of the bed planter and how to repair or replace them, and (2) the maintenance and storage of the machines. If a mechanic is not available, an experienced service provider should be engaged; if this is not possible, the facilitator should complete this part of the training.At the end of Session 3, bring participants together in their groups. Ask each group five to ten questions, encouraging each participant to answer 1 or 2 questions based on the information shared during this session. If a participant is unable to answer a question, invite other members of their group to answer. If no one in that group can answer, pass the question on to the next group.Bed planters for service mechanics | 13At the end of the session, participants should:• be equipped to carry out repairs and be aware of essential safety measures• be able to put together and dismantle the main parts of the bed planter (those which most commonly fail/breakdown)• be able to resolve common failures/breakdowns by repairing the relevant parts or replacing them efficientlyFor this session, you will need the following resources and materials:• 1 used bed planter • faulty/broken bed planter parts (if available)• spare bed planter parts (if available)• blank poster paper/whiteboard, flipchart stand, whiteboard stand, dry markers/whiteboard pens• the assistance of an experienced mechanic Please note: there are no flipcharts for this session.Step 1 -Demonstration by a skilled mechanic (or if not available, an appropriate expert) (75 minutes)The skilled mechanic demonstrates (1) all the parts (putting together and dismantling) of the bed planter, and (2) the common issues as ranked below, along with ways to fix them:1. Poor meshing of the gear pinion on the metering shaft.2. The hitching gears do not work.3. The seed on-off clutch does not work.4. The rotavator chain and bearing break.5. The bearings of the bed former jam and/or develop a fault.6. The cone (the conical part of the bed former) becomes displaced.7. The seed metering plate does not rotate or meter the seed.Step 2 -Information sharing about spare parts and where to get them (15 minutes)Next, present information about the prices of the different spare bed planter parts and where to get them. If possible, use actual spare parts to illustrate the discussion.Step 1 -Consolidation of learning (150 minutes)Encourage each participant to demonstrate his/her ability to identify solutions to each of the problems listed on the whiteboard, and that he/she can address each of the points below for each problem.Step 1: Identify the most significant problem and state its cause(s).Step 2: Dismantle the relevant part and inspect it to find the cause of the failure.Step 3: Identify the appropriate spare part(s) needed or repair the faulty part.Step 4: Replace the repaired/new part on the machine appropriately.Repeat the above steps with the second and third most significant problem, and so on.Common causes of bed planter failure or breakdown -possible solutionsFor this session, you will need the following resources and materials:• flipchart Session 5: Review of key messages,• A4 printed copies of the flipcharts as a handout for each participant• several sheets of blank poster paper/whiteboard, flipchart stand, whiteboard stand, dry markers/ whiteboard pens• a copy of the post-evaluation questionnaire for each participant (see Annex 1)• handouts or other materials (e.g., leaflets, brochures, if available) for participantsStep 1: Generate discussion to recap and reflect on the key questions of the day (30 minutes)Review each of the day's sessions by asking the participants the questions listed on the Session 5 flipchart. This will provide a good indication of whether all the participants have learned from the training, and to what extent.Use the following questions to stimulate discussion and to make sure that everyone understands the essential messages:• What are main parts of a bed planter? What are their functions?• What are major causes of failure and breakdown of a bed planter?• What should you do if the seeder on-off clutch does not work?• Where can you get a new bed former?• How would you address an issue with the hitching gears?• What should you do if the seed metering plate stops working?Next, ask participants directly if there is anything that needs further clarification. If the facilitator has been successful in making the day's training really participatory, trainees should have the confidence to speak up if they think some aspect was not covered during the day. As throughout the day, encourage any reticent trainee to speak (without making him/her feel awkward or self-conscious). Note down any issue that was not covered in the training -this will enhance the next training day for a new batch of trainees.Step 2: Participants complete the post-training evaluation questionnaire (10 minutes)Distribute the post-training evaluation questionnaire to participants and allow them 10 minutes to complete it. Be ready to answer questions and assist anyone who may need it. In particular, look out for any less confident participant who might need more help or who lacks the confidence to ask for it.Step 3: Distribution of handouts, tool bags and any additional materials (5 minutes)Distribute handouts, leaflets, brochures and other materials to participants.Step 4: Acknowledgments and close of training (5 minutes)Thank the participants and any guests, and close the training with concluding remarks. Inform participants that there are other training sessions for mechanics which they may find useful, such as the training on self-propelled multi-crop reapers, the power tiller operated seeder and the axial and mixed flow pumps. Make sure participants know whom to contact with any follow-up queries, and how to do so.Review of key messages, post-training evaluation and close of training ♦ Choose someone from each group to speak for the group.♦ Take notes. ♦ Learn by discussing each topic with your group.♦ Speak up when the facilitator asks questionsand ask questions yourself. This way we can learn from each other.  Session 2Main parts of the bed planter and their functions (1)The bed former Functions: (1) makes beds of a specific shape and size (55-60 cm wide, 12-15 cm high);(2) covers seeds in the furrows (made by the furrow opener) with soil, then levels and compacts the soil.The scraper Function: cleans the soil/mud from the bed former with a scraping action.Session 2 • Main parts of the bed planter and their functionsThe bed formerThe scraperMain parts of the bed planter and their functions (4)Seed-fertilizer boxes: seeds and fertilizers are kept in these boxes during the bed planting process.Seed-fertilizer on-off clutch/lever: used to switch on and off the flow of seed and fertilizer to the seed and fertilizer tubes, respectively.Main parts of the bed planter and their functions (5)Seed metering/ bevel gear shaft Function: transmits power from the front wheel spindle to the seed metering device with the help of a chain.Power transmission chain Function: transmits power to the bevel gear shaft from the front wheel spindle. Symptoms:(1) metering plate does not rotate properly;(2) there is an unusual gap between the gear and the pinion Causes:(1) jam in the metering system;(2) long-term usepoor or no seeding Solution:(1) clean the metering system using diesel and apply lubricant as required;( Three-jaw puller: Useful for removing components such as a gears, pulleys or bearings from a shaft.Rachet: Used to turn the head of a bolt in one direction but not the other. It makes it easy to tighten or loosen bolts without having to take off the tool each time (as with pliers or wrenches).Files (flat and round): Used to grind or file different metal parts to the shape required. They can be useful in difficult repair jobs.Allen key (hex key) wrench set: Used to tighten or loosen bolts that have an 8-sided hex shape at the head of the bolt.Common tools used to repair bed planters (3)Notes:This set of training modules focuses on ensuring that mechanics are able to make repairs to the bed planter efficiently and correctly. This booklet is designed so that anybody who uses these materials can easily conduct training -even those with a limited background in and understanding of agricultural engineering or machinery. This training uses an experiential and hands-on modular format. It is based on a foundation of experiential and hands-on work, combined with discussion and reflection among participants.This means that although the facilitator is instructed on how to carry out the training and how to present materials, the format in which this is done should be horizontal and participatory, with room for adaptation and modification. The technical materials included in this document should therefore be seen as a guide to supplement the already in-depth knowledge of the trainee mechanics. By the conclusion of the training module, participant mechanics will be well-equipped to repair bed planters as part of their ongoing agricultural machinery serviceproviding business. Nonetheless, users of this booklet should carefully read all the instructions on how to implement the training effectively in order to ensure the best learning experience possible for participants.Funded by","tokenCount":"5463"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f3a11c3600c5cd3f083f75f6d3e8fa6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f13cef0f-b831-4a74-bb42-8b7667d46697/retrieve","id":"-503194915"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"25b929f2-080a-4078-8198-3ec75d48669b","pagecount":"17","content":"The 13 th meeting of the CGIAR System Council approved the 2022 -2024 CGIAR Investment Prospectus. With this approval came the request of a CGIAR-authored Companion Document 1 (CD) that would detail the approach used to build a coherent and cohesive group of Initiatives to advance the 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy. System Council requested the Independent Science for Development Council (ISDC) to assess the CD concurrently during the ISDC external review of the initial 19 Initiative proposals (September 30 to November 18). System Council tasked ISDC to review the CD based on the four criteria of external coherence, internal coherence, interdependencies, and management of funding uncertainties. In addition, ISDC included a question in each proposal review that asked Does the Initiative align with the cohesion of the portfolio as described in the CD? The assessment of the CD includes sections on CD strengths, overall considerations, detailed responses to each criterion, and the responses for each proposal review question (for the latter see Appendix A).ISDC is aware of the enormous challenges that the new management and leadership teams of One CGIAR are experiencing and the limited time they had to establish a new modus operandi. The CD provides strong evidence that the new structure is now operational and that it has a high chance of delivering the new mission. ISDC hopes the review will accelerate the transition towards a sciencebased innovation culture across One CGIAR.The CD is a well-considered and an important complementary resource to the 2022 -2024 CGIAR Investment Prospectus that outlines the context and framework used in Initiative codesign. The CD addresses the four criteria requested by System Council and focuses on the operational aspects of the Initiative development process. The CD further outlines the mechanisms that will be used to adaptively manage the portfolio. ISDC acknowledges that the more than two-year consultation process for the Prospectus was given high priority during considerable timing pressure and in a COVID-affected environment.ISDC appreciates and compliments the Executive Management Team and colleagues for establishing a nested Theories of Change (ToCs) approach that logically links the overarching CGIAR-level ToCs, which cascade to the three Action Areas and ultimately to the individual Initiatives and their work packages. The long-term 2030 vision for each Initiative, alongside the three-year work packages, facilitates alignment of the Initiatives with the 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy. Although evidence of such alignment is missing from the CD, this may be provided in more detail within the 32 Initiative proposals. 2 The coherence and cohesion in Initiative delivery demonstrates the new One CGIAR governance structure in action. This is instrumental for stakeholders not closely involved in the reform process to provide evidence of new management of complex problems. A coherent and cohesive portfolio helps to build confidence that the new structure will be able to better deliver on the CGIAR mission.Overall, the financial planning at one-and three-year time scales are sensible. The principle of each Initiative being considered for at least some inception funding to explore the potential is practical and should be supported. The ISDC endorsement of this principle is based on the assumption that the portfolio of Initiatives was constructed to ensure One CGIAR's delivery on all key strategic objectives and that each of the 32 Initiatives makes important co-contributions to others and are therefore essential for their success (i.e., the issue of interdependencies). The goal should be to ensure that outputs and outcomes contribute to a cohesive One CGIAR portfolio with a balance between short-and long-term investments. ISDC supports the idea of seed funding based on the stated goal and assumption. However, after the seed stage, ISDC urges a curated portfolio approach; this means to avoid funding distribution simply to achieve parity across the 32 Initiatives.The reasoning behind Regional Integrated Initiatives (RIIs) is well articulated and highlights the need for co-ownership, positioning CGIAR as innovation brokers-not always the originator of innovations-and \"demand creation and solution feedback loops.\" Using prototyping with a focus on planetary boundaries is a real strength.The CD includes important processes and principles that will drive the engagement with external partners. Although much of this is still aspirational and a work in progress, ISDC appreciates its inclusion. Thoughtful and inclusive preparation of a Partnerships Engagement Framework deserves strong support and will be an essential deliverable during the inception phase of Initiatives. This will require sustained efforts and investments.The following includes overarching considerations grouped by comparative advantage, partnerships, priority setting and funding, coordination and management, and innovation in the CD across the four assessment criteria.While the emphasis on process is appropriate, the CD misses the more visionary aspects of the portfolio and a narrative explaining why CGIAR is uniquely positioned to lead these 32 Initiatives. A clearly stated response to why CGIAR is ideally suited to deliver on the aspirations of the 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy would have been helpful in framing a clear and evidence-based statement of CGIAR comparative advantage. ISDC underscores an urgent need to develop a systemwide, methodological approach to the identification and articulation of comparative advantage.The need for a better understanding of comparative advantage is evident from the CD and the individual Initiative proposals. The CD does not articulate how One CGIAR will ensure that the Initiatives proposed speak to the comparative advantage of CGIAR vis-a-vis other country, regional, and global players. Part of the 2022 ISDC workplan is to advise System Council and other stakeholders on a systemwide approach to define CGIAR's comparative advantage.A comparative advantage systemwide approach is particularly important in new areas of research where CGIAR might not yet have a comparative advantage, but decides for legitimate, strategic reasons to invest and engage. A statement, answering \"Why CGIAR?\" is imperative for each Initiative, and especially for new CGIAR research topics where potentially unfamiliar partnerships must be explored and developed.Without having the Partnerships Engagement Framework in place, assessment of how partnerships are transparently identified, defined, and managed is challenging. The CD does not elaborate on how partnerships will be initiated, monitored, or evaluated. Without adequate relationship mapping across all 32 Initiatives, a comprehensive consideration of overlaps, synergies, and co-dependencies is absent. Further elaboration on partnership mechanisms for interaction and codelivery of outputs, outcomes, and impacts would be helpful. To achieve the 2030 collective global targets in the Results Framework Table, scaling partners will be vital. Additional explanation of how scaling partners will be engaged, and the approaches needed to build their capacity is desirable.The CD emphasizes that \"purposeful partnership\" building and stewardship will be instrumental to active, adaptive management of external coherence across the CGIAR portfolio of research and investment. An important consideration is inclusive and functional partnerships to address the Impact Areas and unreachable populations. This includes partnerships that consider gender, diversity, and inclusion (GDI), early-career scientists, and farmers. Partnership elaboration at all levels is warranted.The Advisory Services Shared Secretariat external evaluation CRP reports and Synthesis emphasized partnership recommendations and learning that should be incorporated across the portfolio and strategic planning. The CD lacks details on how private-sector agents will be engaged as partners and how these engagements will be legitimately managed. 3 One recommendation from the Synthesis that should be emphasized is: \"The CRPs have focused primarily on government, community, and ARI partnerships, but engaging the private sector will be critical for scaling innovations. Where CRPs did work with the private sector to extend innovations, there was no evidence of a private sector engagement strategy or analysis of the effectiveness and lessons learned from these efforts.\" 4 The CD does not outline how this recommendation will be strategically implemented. Partnership development requires relationship management and CGIAR staff will need capacity development to ensure private-sector partnership success.The criteria for priority setting are outlined in item 19 but lack specificity that would allow quantitative and qualitative priority assessments. The CD also lacks a contingency plan for uncertainties that would allow CGIAR to be flexible, employ more novel strategic approaches, and work closely with existing and potential funders. Worth noting is this CD review only includes insight of the initial 19 Initiative proposals. While Figure 3 (p. 6) seeks to illustrate the interlinkages across the 19 Initiatives, without an interpretation these linkages appear random. Further, any interlinkages with the remaining 13 Initiatives that have not yet been reviewed are missing. The network analysis provided in Figure 4 (\"Initiative Partner Network\" p. 13) and Figure 8 (\"Indicative Scaling Readiness metrics including shared Innovation Package plan\" p. 21) only make sense if and when the entire portfolio is included. Hence, ISDC strongly recommends mapping the substantive priorities for shortand long-term research across all 32 Initiatives, with a clear process for priority setting and review.The CD presents the need for revision of some Initiatives depending on funders' preference and ISDC feedback. Except for inception funding for the Initiatives to start in 2022, the process for revisions is not detailed (especially the how, when, and where). Notably, will revisions be written during Initiative startup and how will these modifications be shared publicly?Except for item 73, the CD is silent on how pooled-funded Initiatives will be effectively integrated with activities funded from other sources. While details are limited, section 4.1 outlines the Integrated Results Framework and suggests a potential solution to integrate pooled and non-pooled funded activities into a comprehensive portfolio. Crop-by-region combination priority must include climate adaptation and mitigation and environmental health and biodiversity. This is in addition to the mentioned entries and alignment with recommendations from the Crops to End Hunger Initiative. The efforts cited are a useful and necessary start. ISDC recommends a dramatic expansion and/or clear record of the thought processes surrounding strategic cohesion across all CGIAR work, no matter the funding source.The Impact Area Platforms will have a fundamental role, providing the imperative cross-cutting collaboration and communication across the portfolio. Their purpose is clearly outlined: they are there to support Initiatives rather than to compete. While the Platforms fill a need, staffing requirements and skillsets are unclear: how will these Platforms achieve their mandate and how will they work with Science Groups, Regional Directors, and the portfolio performance management team? Does CGIAR have the necessary social scientists that will be needed for these Impact Area Platforms to succeed? Innovation \"Innovation\" is a common theme throughout the CD and, in fact, all CGIAR documents. In many instances, innovation is used synonymously with terms such as \"technology\" or \"research outputs.\" The liberal use of the term degrades its meaning and while CGIAR has defined what innovation means to the System, 5 more clarity on what really constitutes innovation and what an innovation culture entails is urgently needed. A better understanding of the mix of incremental, breakthrough, and transformational innovations that are envisaged within and across Initiatives would provide clarity and help with portfolio risk management (see ISDC's Innovation Brief prepared for the 14 th meeting of System Council for associated recommendations on the topic).Item 22 addresses the bundling of innovations by linking the technical aspects to policies, while item 30a explicitly states the need for creating space for new research without degrading areas of existing strength. Both, bundling and balancing strength with novelty, are important mechanisms to ensure that innovations lead to impact. This also links with the concept of a \"transfer marketplace\" for priority assets (golden eggs; item 46), which is an innovative institutional mechanism that should be developed further.This section provides detailed responses to the Systems Council assessment criteria of external coherence, internal coherence, interdependencies, and management of funding uncertainties.Recommendation: Map CGIAR's comparative advantage with country, regional, and global players that may be partners or competitors. Elaborate on how the proposed Initiatives will seek complementarity with efforts of other research institutions, or how One CGIAR seeks to harmonize efforts by a range of global players.One CGIAR's Initiatives were informed by several well-coordinated and timely inputs from a range of consultations with the Investment Advisory Groups (IAGs) and Transition Advisory Groups (TAGs). Extensive regional, national, and stakeholder consultations helped gauge demand for research proposed and identified research, demand, and scaling partnerships. Further, the principle of triangulation (use of global evidence base, stakeholder demands, and investor preferences), to arrive at proposed Initiatives and partnerships appears robust. However, the CD does not elaborate on how external coherence will be ensured across geographies and what the balance of these efforts would be across the RIIs, nor how to manage external coherence on an ongoing basis. The coordination mechanisms in place-the Regional Directors, Science Directors, and Impact Area Platforms-generally appear sound for ensuring regional and thematic external coherence.While the CD articulates key mechanisms in place to identify innovation, demand, and scaling partners, it does not outline how One CGIAR will ensure that the Initiatives speak to the comparative advantage of the CGIAR vis-a-vis other country, regional, and global players. The CD does not elaborate on how the proposed Initiatives will seek complementarity with efforts of other research institutions, or how One CGIAR seeks to harmonize efforts across a range of global players, especially in new research areas for CGIAR. There is no clearly articulated strategy that outlines an approach to partnerships to achieve external coherence. There is also little reference to any desirable engagements with the external academic world. Considering how One CGIAR might influence global research efforts and how such efforts in turn could benefit the One CGIAR mission are still lacking.The current articulation of partnerships presumes, for the most part, that One CGIAR has all the needed scientific and academic competencies and that partnerships are needed to ensure demand and scaling of the \"innovations\" identified. While this might be the case in some instances where CGIAR has evidenced comparative advantages, it is rarely true in new areas of research that form a key plank of the new 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy and in which CGIAR is not the lead actor. This should be acknowledged and inform the emerging strategy for recruitment and capacity building.The CD does not outline how the Initiatives might act as global convenors, enablers, and facilitators of science to practice. It is possible that the Partnerships Engagement Framework (yet to be launched) will address the key issue of One CGIAR's positionality, comparative advantage, and its role in fostering global science for development. Hopefully this would move beyond a narrow, transactional perspective that views such engagement purely as a means towards achieving CGIAR's objectives, which is necessary but not sufficient.Further, what mechanism(s) will be established to ensure external coherence? Will these be Impact Area Platforms, which are networks to facilitate exchange with CGIAR? Will the Platforms' role be expanded to assurance of external coherence and its monitoring? The CD does not expand on monitoring and evaluating partnerships, although several Initiatives include some aspects. These details will presumably be included in the Partnerships Engagement Framework.among the portfolio's constituent parts? Is there evidence of a clear focus on coordinated management of various partnerships that facilitate connectivity between Initiatives, themes, and regions? Is this aligned with the CGIAR's Performance and Results Management Framework and underpinned by a unified Theory of Change?Recommendation: Explore opportunities to detail how leadership and teams among the Science Groups, Regional Directors, and Impact Areas will work together and where the authority lies to avoid unnecessary transaction costs associated with complex management structures. Responsibilities and authority need to be well aligned and lines of authority and responsibility should be clarified.The detailed engagement among key players and their extensive discussions was designed to deliver an agreed, aligned, and prioritized portfolio of activities that address the five Impact Areas. Such engagement is intended to avoid duplication, resolve boundary issues, and prevent silos. The process and outcomes of the extensive consultations resulted in a logical and well-designed highlevel framework with nested ToCs that clearly indicate how the Initiatives should interact at various levels of the portfolio. The ToCs also are aligned with the Performance and Results Management Framework with three types of results (outputs, outcomes, and impacts) and acknowledgement that CGIAR has direct control only for outputs.Figure 3 (p. 6) attempts to show the linkages between the first 19 Initiatives. Some of the Initiatives are designed to be cross-cutting and -thematic (e.g., Harnessing Digital Technologies for Timely Decision-Making across Food, Land, and Water Systems). However, without an interpretation the linkages appear unintentional. Figure 3 does not contribute to a better understanding of internal coherence. The linkages are more easily seen and understood from the individual Initiative ToCs. The overall cohesion/coherence of the portfolio will need further assessment after the second set of Initiatives have been reviewed. Management mechanisms are described for the operational oversight of developing and maintaining internal coherence as well as avoiding duplication or overlap. These mechanisms involve Science Group staff and their communication with Regional Directors and the portfolio performance management team. The Initiatives will be managed operationally through the various management teams to \"build in\" cohesion, with the three Science Group Directors expected to play a key role in oversight working closely together. Impact Area Platforms are the main mechanism to drive internal coherence. Membership of the Impact Area Platforms and the portfolio performance management team will be critical but these details and how they will work with Science Groups and Regional Directors are missing. The CD simply states that the Impact Area Platforms members will be drawn from all divisions as appropriate and will form \"networks within the system, rather than stand-alone dimensions of a matrix structure.\"Clarity also is lacking on how the various directors (Science Groups, Regional Directors, and Impact Areas) will work together and where the authority lies. Clarification of these details would be useful. For example, a diagram showing organizational structure and reporting lines, including management and communication among the groups, would be beneficial. This complex management structure may generate a lot of additional transaction costs (large numbers of meetings, negotiations, etc.) and may, therefore, cause delays and impact the effectiveness of the planned research over the three-year cycle. Balancing operational imperatives with issues of probity and effectiveness will be an ongoing challenge for all leadership teams. Hence, it will be paramount to align responsibilities for delivery with the necessary authorities for decision-making. Many science-based organizations suffer from an uneven distribution of responsibility and authority, with some sections having responsibility without authority, while others having authority without responsibility. Such an uneven distribution inhibits the development of an innovation culture.A critical area identified to benefit from the internal cohesion generated through Initiatives and Platforms is capacity development. However, the CD is silent on the type of approaches needed to develop and retain capacity within CGIAR. Capacity development is simply presented as something that will happen rather than identifying how Initiatives and Platforms could proactively create opportunities for capacity development. In fact, several of the Initiative reviews recommended improvements on the Quality of Research for Development criterion 14 (\"Capacity building within project teams, partners, and stakeholders captured in capacity development plan\").There are some positive examples that will foster internal coherence while lowering transaction costs. For instance, it is encouraging to read that Genebanks (item 17) might be approved on a continuous basis. Another highlight is that mechanisms are in place to carry forward \"golden egg\" assets from the CRPs that will help to maintain effectiveness over the next three years.Does the CD articulate a conceptionally rational and effective approach to manage interdependencies between the Initiatives? Are there any significant areas of overlap or duplication of effort? How will these be identified, managed, or resolved? Recommendation: Carefully review the six RII proposals and the CD to ensure no duplication exists with the Global Thematic Initiatives. This review should include a strategy on how country offices will work with RIIs.The vision of interconnected thematic and regionally integrated Initiatives is generally sound. Impact Area Platforms and RIIs provide mechanisms to address interdependencies: for capturing complementarities among Initiatives, minimizing unnecessary duplication of effort, identifying, and closing key gaps in the portfolio, and helping with effective data and partnership stewardship. While the vision articulated in the CD is generally thorough, correspondence with the RII proposals is somewhat wanting, perhaps because the CD was developed in parallel to the first two of the RII proposals. Little detail is provided beyond a partial page (section 3.2) in the CD on the operationalization of the Impact Area Platforms.As reflected in Figure 5 (p. 14), RIIs are central to CGIAR delivery of research for development. The RIIs seem natural hubs for both trade-offs and foresight analyses at country and regional scale, for leading partnership management and data stewardship with stakeholders within the regions. The two RII proposals received thus far (for South Asia and East and Southern Africa) seem uneven in their fidelity to the vision articulated in the CD. At least one seems to propose considerable fieldand landscape-scale research apart from the Global Thematic Initiatives. That seems likely to invite duplication of efforts and internal competition that could prove wasteful. Country and regional offices are the natural locus for convening stakeholders to identify sociotechnical innovation bundles appropriate to the policy, institutional, and agri-environmental contexts. The CD is largely silent about this role. RIIs and country offices seem best conceptualized as platforms (and the continuous development of better platforms) for the assembly of innovations developed by the Global Thematic Initiatives and external partners to achieve impacts, rather than as the originators of new research work packages themselves. ISDC sees this vision in the CD, but not entirely in the two RII proposals reviewed so far, so some further coordination work seems necessary.The CD is also silent on how country offices will work with RIIs. This gap needs attention. The subsidiarity principle raised in item 57 might guide the division of labor among RIIs and country offices. CGIAR must recognize that this principle entails not just devolving authority to those closest to partners, but also to the lowest spatial scale for relevant external entities to become internal. Also unclear is how the RIIs will coordinate around global challenges (e.g., climate change, inclusion of historically underrepresented groups, and interregional migration) with which most or all must grapple.The details of how the Impact Area Platforms will implement this vision is largely absent. Impact Area Platforms \"will be networks within the system,\" following the communities of practice model that CGIAR has used with some success already. These seem like coordinating networks. But where gaps or overlaps emerge through dialogue within the Impact Area Platforms network, who resolves those issues? Lines of authority and responsibility need clearer definition. It seems natural for the Foresight Global Thematic Initiative to play a key role in informing Impact Area Platforms, but that is not raised in the CD. The need to continuously assess trade-offs across Impact Areas should be addressed.The Partnerships Engagement Framework is not yet available. The principle of subsidiarity should apply to partner and data management. In many countries, national statistical offices have rapidly expanding capacity and generate extensive, reasonably high-quality data (e.g., nationally representative household surveys, many of them longitudinal, and streams of high-resolution Earth Observation data from remote sensing platforms) that CGIAR must be alert to and then leverage effectively.Integration and coordination will be an ongoing process. The Impact Area Platforms and RIIs have the potential to be efficient, effective devices for enhancing interconnectedness and avoiding wasteful duplication. Getting the details of these mechanisms right will require ongoing work.The CD also lacks vision and information on how CGIAR will invest in obtaining causal evidence on specific targets, mentioned in item 80. Research designs and data collection to obtain such credible, causal evidence will need to be built in from the start. Items 85b and c state that CGIAR, at the portfolio level, will make investments in:• large data collection to measure the reach and impact of CGIAR innovations; and• independent evaluation and impact assessment designed as integral part of research to causally test impacts. However, no information is provided on where and how this will be operationalized. Furthermore, the CD remains silent on what resources will be allocated and how CGIAR will assure that this work will use frontier research methods to meet the required standards of rigor (a real concern given the long-time erosion of social science research capacity in many parts of CGIAR).Does the CD clearly explain the approach to prioritization? How will funding be allocated? Does the Executive Management Team have a risk management approach in place to allocate limited funds without risking the coherence of the overall portfolio should some Initiatives not get funded?Recommendation: The CD needs to map the CGIAR's substantive priorities for short-and long-term research, with a clear process for priority setting and review that is evidence based.The CD broadly explains how Initiatives will be prioritized based on overall delivery of the 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy. The CD acknowledges that some Initiatives will receive more and others less priority and requests that Initiative proposals be developed in accordance. The CD states that new and more explorative Initiatives will be allocated smaller initial inceptions. The request for all Initiatives to receive at least some seed funding seems reasonable, if the Initiatives meet or exceed the minimum quality standards.The CD, however, does not detail the approach to prioritization nor is there an articulation of risk management procedures or a plan to fill gaps. The CD states that the Executive Management Team's risk management approach will detail and ensure that a coherent portfolio will be maintained even if some Initiatives will not get funded. The CD is silent on details of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unforeseen events or emerging risks.While there is a recognition that financial resources may be insufficient to accommodate all requirements, there are no alternative strategies identified and the CD lacks risk management and scenario planning. Since the Initiatives are not alike, the risk management approach and plan must be tailored to the scope and complexity of individual Initiatives. The CD also lacks a contingency plan for the more difficult uncertainties to allow CGIAR to work more flexibly, employ more novel strategic approaches, and work more closely with existing and potential funders.ISDC recommends mapping CGIAR's substantive priorities for short-and long-term research, with a clear process for priority setting and review that is evidence based. This will be essential for CGIAR to secure a solid base of funding for a coherent program of research for development. A clear articulation of how this will be achieved is still lacking.An implicit priority is to address impacts of climate change on agricultural production, aligned with CGIAR's mission statement that focuses on systems in a climate crisis. Some Initiative proposals are more closely aligned with this goal than others. However, agreeing on any single goal as a priority seems to be difficult when considering diverging priorities in the regional and country contexts and within current CGIAR governance processes. A prioritization approach that accommodates multiple strategic goals, including climate impacts, may be a more appropriate prioritization architecture. Furthermore, without a solid base of funding, any coherence is likely to disintegrate, and centers and researchers will be left to chase bilateral support and resources, including people.The stated focus on faster replacement rates and varietal turnover and adoption of new varieties is not necessarily aligned with the GI aim of addressing the challenge of the limited and decreasing biodiversity underpinning our crop and food systems, nor does it appear to sufficiently recognize the importance of context-specificity and indigenous knowledge. Diversity is an important element of resilience and how Genebanks, the GI Action Area, and One CGIAR will support messaging and action around the importance of diversity in fields and diets is not clear. The focus in the current text on just a few very specific traits in a limited range of crops appears contradictory to this.The crucial role of co-created new partnership models is flagged in the CD but does not permeate sufficiently through the continuum of the six GI Initiatives to be integral within Genebanks. What important partnership-and behavior-related outcome changes can Genebanks influence, and how?The Genebanks proposal does not provide sufficient granularity on activity details to enable meaningful Monitoring, Evaluation, Learning (MEL). That in turn prevents understanding of planned methods or opportunities for cohesion between proposals, and thus thwarts MEL of the cohesion of the portfolio. The details are necessary and important. Currently, the only Genebanks indicator listed in the Results Framework Table (CD's Annex 1) is GIi 1.1 Number of accessions data used at various levels of the breeding pipeline (level of use: used in crosses, backcrosses, incorporated in elite germplasm. More attention to improved processes and efficiencies, and to partnership and capacity-related metrics would be beneficial.Pursuant with principles in the CD, EiA builds on existing research expertise with a strong presence in high priority geographies. EiA proposes strong linkages with scaling partners that have a comparative advantage in working with farmers and rigorous procedures for establishing new collaborations. Significant collaborations with CGIAR's global, system, and regional Initiatives are proposed, as are modalities for these collaborations. EiA plans to use standard protocols for data management and Monitoring, Evaluation, Learning (MEL) activities to facilitate these collaborations. Connections with Impact Area Platforms need greater elaboration. Funding uncertainty was identified as a risk but plans for addressing it are inadequate.Internal coherence: The efforts to align LCSR with the portfolio are good: the narrative is fairly clear, and some aspects are a definite step forward from previous practices. The Initiative's ToC aligns well with the Resilient Agricultural Food Systems ToC. Do projected benefits in LCSR contribute sufficiently to overall CGIAR targets? For example, projected 2030 benefits in the Poverty Impact Area of LCSR are 2.96 million people out of an overall CGIAR target in the CD of 500 million people.Research questions and methods as described in the work packages provide confidence in the science quality proposed but it is difficult to put this in the context of the overall CD because it uses more rudimentary indicators such as numbers of peer-reviewed papers and altimetric scores. External coherence: Country prioritization is logically argued and is consistent with the approaches set out in the CD. Partnerships to achieve impact are a key element in the CD but this area is a little vague in the LCSR proposal. This is in part due to proposal word limit but approaches to scaling through national commitment could be more clearly articulated.The Initiative certainly aligns with the portfolio as it aims to ensure that improved varieties contribute to productivity gains, but also generate a well-balanced portfolio of impacts across all five Impact Areas. It also aligns with the rigorous use of Monitoring, Evaluation, Learning and Impact Assessment (MELIA) for similar impacts. In addition, the leadership plans are sound and in keeping with the aim of identifying bottlenecks, designing a scaling strategy, and monitoring change for use of innovations. It is important to recognize that change is hard.External coherence (country, regional, global levels): This is covered reasonably well, although some reviewers questioned the choice of and criteria used to select the seven countries in MITIGATE+ (Table 1, Initiative proposal).Internal coherence including Impact Area Platforms: The proposal has good documentation of the expected amount of CO2-e averted and the number of people benefitting from climate resilient innovations. While the descriptions of the work packages are clearly laid out, the linkages between the research plan and main proposed scientific methods are not evident: this leads to a lack of continuity between the research plan, scientific methods, and outputs. This could be simply improved with consistent titles and subtitles for example.Interdependencies between other thematic/regional Initiatives: These are well mapped (linkage with ClimBeR, NEXUS Gains, SAPLING, LCSR, EiA, SHiFT, etc.) although additional detail on how constituent parts of MITIGATE+ depend on other Initiatives is required. Improved clarity regarding the linkages between work packages, methods and End-of-Initiative outcomes are also required.Management of funding uncertainties: This seems to be completely absent from the proposal. Aside from total budgets in section 10.1, no other information on the budget is apparent and appears to be a shortcoming in the proposal template design. More detail of intended management (including metrics) is required.Integrated results framework at Initiative, Action Area, and CGIAR Levels: In general, this is well covered.Measurement and reporting at multiple levels and timeframes: The management plan and Gannt table in section 7.2 contains annual \"pause and reflect\" workshops, but how this reflection will be subsequently acted upon is unclear. Ex-post impact assessments of the work packages are well covered in the proposal, but ex-post assessments of the monitoring and evaluation (and how this assessment will be used to refine management going forwards) could be more transparent. The linkage of management to the work packages could be better detailed (metrics, aim, achievability and timing). With its strong focus on national-level policies and strategies, NPS has a critical role in the CGIAR portfolio. The proposal does a good job of identifying the main Initiatives and offices (RII) with which it will need to coordinate. What is less clear-from both the NPS proposal and the CD-is how the country-level interdependencies will be managed, practically. For example:In its six focus countries, will NPS take the lead on coordinating ALL national policy and strategy work for Initiatives with a policy element? For example, on p. 11, NPS highlights opportunities to examine the experiences with safety net programs in Egypt and Kenya.Although micronutrient/dietary diversity is not a focus of NPS, presumably another Initiative will tackle this. How would the work of (potentially) multiple Initiatives targeting safety net programs be coordinated at the country level?1. NPS focuses on national policies and strategies but will have a specific policy focus in several pre-defined areas (Table 1, p. 10.) NPS will analyze trade-offs among policy options within those specific areas. But at country level, how/who will support governments in undertaking a wider-lens meta-analysis to show costs, benefits, trade-offs among investments across multiple sectors (per the charge of UNFSS, and to inform national ag transformation strategies)? And how would those results be reflected in NPS and other Initiatives? This seems like a step that must be taken before countries can decide on the policy priorities implied by NPS (and other \"targeted\" policy Initiatives).The Initiative aligns well with the cohesion of the portfolio, as exemplified by the following (among the 92 items of the CD):The Initiative builds on a clear consultation process, including regional advisory forums and structured regional consultation in Initiative design. The codesign process is very well described, there's a participatory design process to gather input from various stakeholders (including NARES breeding platforms).The Initiative is fitting with the CGIAR's Research and Innovation Strategy and is a high priority area aligned with funders priorities.Through the implementation of novel methods to accelerate the improvement of crops, N4ETTSS has explicit connections with other Genetic Innovation Initiatives, such as Market intelligence and product profiling, Genebanks, and ABI. Thus, N4ETTSS impacts will initially occur through ABI, with ABI's success influenced by Market Intelligence and Product Profiling, Genebanks, and SeEdQUAL.From a comparative advantage, CGIAR has a presence in and knowledge of the many countries where it works and has institutional links, combined with a solid scientific reputation. These solid and trusted relationships will be leveraged to promote the adoption of tools, technologies, and shared services by NARES.Although the timeframe for Initiatives is three years, N4ETTSS has built its ToC that identifies plausible pathways to generate impact over a 10-year period. This recognizes the longer timeframes needed for achieving meaningful impact. The problem statement aligns effectively with the System Transformation Action Area priorities in the CGIAR Investment Prospectus, specifically as a \"broader, integrating effort to tackle climate change, NRM, and nutrition/health,\" to \"identify place-based programs in priority agroecologies,\" and to \"address contextual food-land-water challenges.\" These trace through convincingly to impact on Action Areas. However, a clear mechanism to make an effective regional impact is not clear, regional inter-country governance is almost unmentioned.The problem statement aligns effectively with the System Transformation Action Area priorities in the CGIAR Investment Prospectus, specifically as a \"broader, integrating effort to tackle climate change, NRM, and nutrition/health,\" to \"identify place-based programs in priority agroecologies,\" and to \"address contextual food-land-water challenges.\" These trace through convincingly to impact on Action Areas. However, a clear mechanism to make an effective regional impact is not clear, regional inter-country governance is almost unmentioned.Cohesion of the CRP portfolio was an important aspiration during Phase II. However, the level of cohesion was limited due to lack of alignment among individual CRP priorities. Lessons must be learned from this to inform One CGIAR. CD's Figure 3 (p. 6) shows how the planned Initiatives will link together for cohesion. Plant Health and Rapid Response to Protect Food Security and Livelihoods Initiative has close links with Genebanks, SeEdQual, ABI, EiA and Market Intelligence and Product Profiling but does not appear to be linked to One Health (for mycotoxins) and MITIGATE+ (IDPM strategies). As priorities in different Initiatives will be decided by different teams how will cohesion be achieved? (Note: while there is no mention of mycotoxins in One Health, yet this was an important part of A4NH).A related concern is the multitude of links with the RIIs for scaling innovations. There will be considerable transaction costs and competition among all Initiatives. How will priorities be decided and what will happen to the lower priority innovations? The management structure detailed in the CD is very complex and most importantly, lacks clear hierarchy or lines of authority which could lead to delays in making decisions. There is a need for clear prioritization principles and guidelines as well as designated independent arbiter to make final decisions. Portfolio integration is a high priority for One CGIAR.This Initiative clearly aligns with the cohesion of the portfolio as part of the Resilient Agrifood Systems Action Area. Linkages to other projects in livestock production, markets, gender, and peri-urban agriculture are noted in the connections diagram in the CD. This Initiative will clearly contribute to collective global targets in health and food security and to all the Action Area outcomes (both shared and specific) for Resilient Agrifood Systems. Vertical cohesion: The Initiative is structured based on the ToC framework and hence it aligns well with the CGIAR result framework (cf. CD's Figure 6 and Annex 1), which is basically an application of the classical ToC. However, this model works well when Initiatives are top-down and/or unidirectional, moving from activities, to outputs, outcomes, and impacts, assuming causalities between these steps and an if-then logic. This model is, however, not always applicable-almost never to co-innovation approaches in agroecology, which are emic, bottom up, co-constructed, adaptive, emergent, and where the role of researchers and development agents is to facilitate, to broker knowledge, to create a dialogue of wisdoms to support self-investment, a sense of ownership and a risk-taking attitude by local actors, motivated by their active participation in a co-innovation process. Problems are addressed as they emerge, and solutions are developed through trial and error, experimenting together between different actors of a platform. There is no participant in such platforms that poses itself above the others, setting the agenda, deciding on the problems to be addressed or their priority. The Initiative evaluated here still speaks of \"delivering CGIAR innovations\" or \"agroecology interventions,\" which shows that the authors have no experience on how innovations emerge in the realm of agroecology.Lateral cohesion: This Initiative is part of the overarching results framework that comprises the 32 Initiatives that will be deployed by the CGIAR as from January 2022. Many (or most) of the scientists participating in this Initiative will also participate in other CGIAR Initiatives, and several Initiatives will be implemented in exactly the same target regions (and likely with the same households and communities). However, the messages conveyed by these different Initiatives are often contradictory. This will create confusion among the partners and beneficiaries on the ground. If the CGIAR wants to take up agroecology as its main approach to ag innovation and rural development, then the entire portfolio of 32 Initiatives should follow an agroecological approach. If the motivation of the CGIAR is to take up agroecology because the funders push for this, then a major transformation is needed across CGIAR, including capacity development and engagement with new types of social actors. Alternatively, CGIAR authorities could explain to funders that their core business is ecological or sustainable intensification, and not agroecology. Agroecology is a different paradigm for which the CGIAR has not been designed for or properly equipped.The Initiative should enhance the cohesion of the portfolio and demonstrate measurable and verifiable outputs, outcomes, and impacts in line with CGIAR results framework. This shortcoming is especially visible in work packages 4 and 5. Connection of the research to policy is especially weak. This shortcoming could be overcome by providing justification through robust institutional analyses that shows how TAFSSA can produce verifiable outcomes and impact for programs and policy. Greater clarity is needed on \"open-access system\" that TAFSSA proposes to demonstrate the potential of the Initiative to support co-production of knowledge and monitoring and learning on issues of data interoperability and gender disaggregated data analysis.","tokenCount":"6812"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e2a1e9756dbb79b7179ba358dc360e5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/cab20e03-31fa-43d7-aa32-2134680947a1/content","id":"-1163936065"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"99e7a4e8-321e-46ff-aa76-5bd0f7d593dd","pagecount":"38","content":"El control natural tiene factores bióticos y abióticosFactores físicos: Humedad y temperatura Factores químicos: i.e., características químicas del suelo Un gran número de bracónidos atacan larvas de Lepidoptera, pero la mayoría de los holometábolos pueden ser atacados, (Diptera, Coleoptera e Hymenoptera).Con más de 60,000 especies descritas en el mundo Es la familia más numerosa de Hymenoptera.Pueden ser endo o ectoparasitoides, normalmente solitarios. Larvas depredan sobre afidos, escamas y piojos harinosos Leucopis spp.Es la familia de Diptera de mayor importancia en lo que a control biológico se refiere.Distribucion cosmopolita.Todas las especies son endoparasíticas, y algunas de ellas depositan larvas vivas (larvipositan).La mayoría de los inmaduros son depredadores en ambientes terrestres y acuáticos. La resistencia varietal es el método más amigable para el medio ambiente, más fácil de usar para los productores y forma parte de la columna vertebral de cualquier esquema de MIP Susceptible; Pavon F76","tokenCount":"145"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bdbfa3098b957fb2af4632bc17b4cafa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f40986ae-64ec-4669-8c4b-be730c54f6c2/retrieve","id":"116269478"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"766cef66-eb4b-4f27-9359-cbdd29f6ace1","pagecount":"1","content":"Farming operations on smallholder farms in Ethiopia are predominantly performed by human muscle power leading to high drudgery. The animal-drawn maresha is a symbol of agriculture in Ethiopia. However, the system is labour intensive especially at land preparation stage when the soil is tilled 3-4 times before planting. Precision in planting and fertilization, irrigation of high value crops, harvesting and post-harvest processing is low on smallholder farms. The two wheel tractor (2 WT) based technologies offer an opportunity to tackle some of these challenges faced on smallholder farms in Ethiopia.▪ In-class and on-field training of service providers (SPs) and agri officials. ▪ Paired plot on-farm demonstrations as learning and data generation centres. ▪ Awareness/demand creation events on small mechanization. ▪ SP for scaling technologies, income generation and employment. ▪ Government and private sector engagement throughout project implementation. ▪ Surveyassessing effectiveness of SP models. ","tokenCount":"143"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/2723438564.json b/data/part_5/2723438564.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0749f5e264483179458b7f120379d94a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8777b272-9459-4973-922d-4fb1aa94787f/retrieve","id":"909059314"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec3659dd-5875-4840-a971-e3ec7b77d829","pagecount":"5","content":"Three-quarters of emerging human infectious disease outbreaks are \"zoonotic,\" meaning they originate from viruses and other pathogens infecting animals that then \"jump\" species to infect people. This \"species jump\" by pathogens is not new -it has occurred throughout pre-and recorded history. But in the last half of the last century, with the widespread use of antibiotics and vaccines, many had begun to believe that the era of infectious disease was ending. The story of epidemics, however, is always evolving. As we see clearly now with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which is believed to have originated from virus-infected meat or live animals sold in a traditional \"wet\" food market in Wuhan, China, our hopes for the end of infectious disease were badly misplaced. Over the last 100 years, in fact, there has been growing evidence of not less but more frequent emergence and greater spread of zoonotic pathogens in humans and animals. In recent decades, most of these zoonotic pathogens were reported in Europe and the United States. More recently still, Asia, Africa, and South America appear to be growing in importance as origins of zoonotic pathogens.For centuries, East and Southeast Asia have been the hotspots of influenza and other emerging zoonotic diseases with pandemic potential, but in this century the region has also been the origin of novel coronaviruses causing both the 2002-2003 epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the 2019 coronavirus disease dubbed COVID-19. A major cause of the emergence of new influenzas is the increasing densities of people and their domestic animals. Greater human populations are also increasing human interactions with wild animals, which is speeding the acquisition of disease infections among people.Africa is now catching up to Asia as an infectious disease hotspot. Africa now has the fastest-growing and youngest human population of any region in the world. In 1900, Africa south of the Sahara had around 100 million inhabitants; the population now stands at 1 billion and by 2100 is projected to grow to around 4 billion people. With increasing human populations and increasing demand for milk, meat, and eggs due to rising urbanization and incomes, the densities of humans and domestic animals are also increasing -particularly in coastal West Africa and North Africa and the highlands of East Africa. Figure 1 compares the current human, poultry, pig, and ruminant populations across Africa and Asia. Some regions of Africa are now approaching the high density levels seen in Asia.In past centuries in Africa, animal pathogens jumping to humans almost always caused limited outbreaks -reflecting the comparatively low densities of people and animals and their relative isolation. However, this pattern is changing, with increases in both frequency of emergence and expanded spread in human populations. Here, we highlight key changes in human, animal, and environmental health drivers contributing to more frequent emergence and greater spread of emerging zoonoses in Africa, now and in the future. Understanding these changes is critical in developing preventive and rapid response strategies and capacities to mitigate the increasing risk of epidemics of emerging diseases in Africa.While there are commonalities, each outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic has its own unique features.Tracing pathogen emergence from one host species to another has been greatly aided by the advent of genomic tools and improved but still limited sampling of the host species. These methods have helped us better understand the movement of pathogens from primates (HIV-AIDS), bats (Ebola), and rats (Lassa fever) to humans. Zoonotic pathogens can directly jump from an animal species to infect humans (HIV-AIDS from primates) or through other animal species that either act as an intermediate connector host or bridge (SARS-coronavirus and SARS-coronavirus 2 that causes COVID-19, from bats through other wildlife species then to humans) or as amplifier hosts of pathogens transmitted to humans (Nipah virus from bats, multiplied in pigs; influenza viruses mixing between human, pig, and poultry populations in East and Southeast Asia). While many new diseases originate in wildlife, for some of the most serious, livestock have been a connector or amplifier host.Prevention or, failing that, rapid initial containment before an exponential growth of cases is the health goal. Low population density and stable societies serve as natural preventive measures. In Africa in  the Future oF PandemIcS and Food SyStemS past centuries, infectious pathogens jumping from animals to humans almost always caused limited outbreaks or \"burned out.\" For example, simian immunodeficiency viruses have likely been transmitted from primates to humans from prehistoric times, but did not cause serious epidemics until the late 20th century. But the dramatic social, demographic, and health changes that began in late 19th century Africa helped to transform these occasional pathogenic wildlife-human spillovers into pandemics of human-to-human disease transmission, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).This new pattern of disease emergence is unfortunately likely to become increasingly common, given the dramatic rise in Africa's human population. This zoonotic pathogen and human disease pattern continues to evolve and change. Infectious zoonoses producing severe clinical illness and high mortality, such as Ebola and HIV-AIDS, are the most highly visible signs of emerging zoonoses in Africa. As in Asia, increasing changes in land use, including the expansion of human settlements and agricultural lands, are increasing contacts between humans and wild animal host species. That human disease outbreaks of yellow fever and other hemorrhagic fevers are associated with exposure to new pathogens through human incursions into forests has been well known for two centuries. But the routine exploitation of forests for mining and other resource extraction purposes in recent decades has created new opportunities for viral transmission.Rising human populations in parts of Africa are accelerating the use of forests for hunting bushmeat for consumption and use in traditional medicines and trade. As in China, wet markets for bushmeat are also found in Africa and there is also considerable illegal international trade.Closer interfaces between dense human settlements and forests continue to expand. Many wildlife species -most worryingly, from a pathogen emergence perspective, bats -are increasingly adapting to peri-urban living. Accra, the capital of Ghana, is home to more than a million fruit bats and hunting and sales are important economic activities. One critical question is whether bat pathogens, including a range of bat coronaviruses, are also evolving to become more adapted to multiple animal hosts, including humans. Analyses of bat coronaviruses, including SARS-Cov-2, indicate that they may more easily mutate to infect humans than in the past.For some emerging zoonoses, the spread of infections in domestic animal species is the key factor.For both Nipah and MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome, caused by a coronavirus), the spread from bats to intermediate domestic animal hosts was important in the subsequent emergence of the disease in humans. These zoonoses are among those that continue to exist and could \"re-emerge\" at higher rates in humans with increasing human densities and poor management and hygiene of their main amplifier species -pigs for Nipah and camels for MERS.Influenza viruses have been responsible for many epidemics over the past centuries, including the flu pandemic of 1918-19 that killed more people than any other documented pandemic -one-third of the world was infected and around 50 million people died. Interestingly, in the H5N1 (avian flu) epidemic of 2006-2011 that raised global animal and human health concerns, H5N1 infections became endemic in Indonesia but were relatively quickly eliminated following their introduction in West Africa, perhaps because Indonesia at that time had much greater poultry densities than West Africa. But West African poultry density is now catching up to Asia's.Increasing human populations, urbanization, and rising incomes are changing Africa in fundamental ways. One major change is a dramatic increase in air travel between Africa and the rest of the world. While traditionally most African travel connections have been through Europe or the Middle East, in the past decade the number of African connections to Asia has been rising. The first \"African\" case of COVID-19 was diagnosed in Nigeria in a traveler coming from Italy.As in other developing regions, Africa's health and social support systems to serve the growing and more mobile human populations have lagged. This emerged as a critical issue in the AIDS epidemic in Africa. With regard to COVID-19, Marius Gilbert and colleagues combined data on Chinese air travel connections with available indices on health preparedness and infectious disease vulnerability indices to rank country risk. As noted above, Ebola outbreaks in Africa have usually been contained locally; the 2015 West Africa Ebola epidemic spread through countries with very weak health systems.In 2019, an Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo persisted as it occurred in a conflict zone. The combination of Africa's weak health systems, the expanding health needs of its growing populations, and its ongoing conflicts are a great concern for the continent's emerging zoonoses preparedness and response.The rising risk of emergence and spread of zoonoses in Africa has significant consequences for the continent and the rest of the world. Epidemics in recent decades have varied in both their causes and effects and there are no common guidelines for the prevention or early control of zoonotic diseases.To increase Africa's resilience to the threat of emerging zoonoses, regional and global cooperation are essential. The continent's disease control capacity and preparedness programs should be increased and scarce resources should be transferred to where they are needed most. These require strengthening regional human (WHO regional office for Africa) and animal health (African Union-InterAfrican Bureau for Animal Resources) bodies. Governments and organizations should also adopt a coordinated One Health response across human, animal, and environmental health. Bringing these three disciplines together is essential to respond to the increasing threat of emerging zoonoses in Africa.The record thus far on COVID-19 and on past disease outbreaks shows that early, effective, and sustained response is essential to winning the battle over these diseases. Innovative use of information and communication tools and platforms and engagement of local communities are crucial to improved disease surveillance and effective response. Building these systems requires demand from the public and commitment from policymakers and investors. COVID-19 is a game-changer. It has shocked the world and continues to disrupt the daily lives of billions of people. Its eventual impacts on Africa are not yet fully apparent but may be enormous. But it will also provide important lessons in disease prevention and early response, the kind of lessons routinely ignored in the past, and point the way to combining effective disease-fighting practices linking human, animal, and environmental health.","tokenCount":"1730"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c95b6998b30b6284119327fafb8e0ab3","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/Digital/S_599.3_L3_V.1_Land_in_Tropical_America_la_Tierra_en_America_tropical.pdf","id":"-1491242513"},"keywords":["ECO ; QN","::-,: \\\\\\5=: 1 O :::: RIC:-","r V O 1","1"],"sieverID":"88b1f647-aa4b-4bc6-93d5-b6d3ded31400","pagecount":"152","content":"Suelos -América /ropica/. 2. América tropical -Clima. 3. Tierras -Amél1~a tropical. 4. Cultivos y suelos -América rropical. 5. Suelos -Amazonas (Región). 6. Suelos -Brasil -Cerrados. 7. Orinoco (R{o) -Cuen ca. l.Larin Americ3, particuJarly Soulh America, is known as (he region of (he world with the mQst abundant land resources in relation to its population base. Al presenl lhe region has the lowest population density per hectare of arable land, as well as (he lowest percentage of arable land under cultivar ion. Comparisons of potenlially arable land in Latín America wilh lhat under tillage show that anly 18 lo 35 percenl is presently utilized for agriculture. 'fhese ligures are considerably lower Ihan eslimates for ot her regions of rhe world; however, there is a fairly wide range in figures as a result of variations in (he informalion base utilized and the criteria used for the dirferenl sludies.Within (he prese nt land use pallern. extensive areas offand are underulilized or left fallow as most of the agricultural production lakes place in Ihe more ferlile areas close 10 urban markets, where large mechanized farms coexist with a sizable small farm sector. In order lo design an agricultural growlh slralegy Ihat would utilize land, labor and capital reso urces efficiently. Ihe countries in the region need to assess the foJlowiog comple menlary development strategies and their frade-offs: lo Intensify produclion by large farmers \",ho control thc more fertile arcas, primarily through mechanization and grealer use of inpuls.Intensify small-scale production through (he use 01' improved germplasm, combined with appropriate use of inputs, lO achieve higher, more stable yields. 3. Expand crop and livestock production onto the less fertile fronti er lands through the use ofadapted germplasm and appropriate use of ¡npuIs. As a first step toward pro\\'iding the necessary informalion to design such a strategy, C1AT and EMBRAPA have collaboraled in Ihe systematization of existing information on the centrallowlands of tropical Soulh America, which constitute Ihe major frontier area of the contineot. Although thcre is abundan! information 00 the area. much of il is conlained in unpublished technical reports from dh'erse sources•and is nol necessarily compatible. An attempl has been made to syslematize all Ihis information in Ihis report, complementing il where necessary wilh primary data, wilhin Ihe framework of a \" , Iand systems approach.\" where information on c1imate, sOils, lopography and vegetar ion is reporlcd systemalically for purposes of comparison. rhe data base has been comput: rired lo facilitate information retrieval and analyses of aggregales. The dala are presenled he re in th e form of maps and rabies. with texl in English. Spanish and Portuguese, lO permit broad access by individ!Jals from resea rch or rural developmenl progra ms who mighl not have computer facilities available lo Ihem.CIA T and EM HHAPA are pleased lO make available to the scientilic community and rural devdopmeot planners the results or more than three years' collaborali\\-'c errorls in the hopc thal (he information conlained herein, although far from perfcct, wil! facilitate agricultural researeh. as wel! as the design of agricultural growth stra legies that lake inlo consideration Ihe agricultural porential ol' these regions, Ihereby contributing to improved productiol1 and productivity .As the re ort is based on data a vailable al Ihe time ofthe study, wc would welcome new inrormation to update the computerized liJes.America Launa . en panicular América del Sur. se conoce como la región del mundo con mayor abun dancia de recursos de fierros en re lación con su población. 1:-' 11 la oC/l/aNdad América del Sur posee la más baja dens/Clad de población por heuárea de fie rra cU/fl vable. así como el po rccmaje más bajo de lierra cultivab le bajo explotación. Comparaciones enlre estimolivos de la superJkie arable en America Latina con la supeljiúe aClIio/men fe bajo cultivo muesnan que solamente 1m /8 a 35 por ciento se utiliza auualmente en agricultura. {SIO S ('(/i-as se consideran ;,~/ 'erio re s a los es rim alivos para Ol ras region es del mundo: sin emb argo, hay un amplio rango en los eSl imalivos como resullOdo de las variacion es en la base de ÍI~/ormaciólI /Jlili zada y en los criterios empleados en los diferentes estudios.Denr 1\"0 del palrón aC llial de uso de lIerra, hay grandes ex tensiones de tierras SUbUl ilizada:) o ine;'(plotadas ya que la mayal\" pone de la producción agl'icolo liene lugar en los zonas más firtiles próximas a 105 mercados urban os. donde generalmenfe coexiste un seCl or de.fincoJ grandes y mecanizadas con un amplio seClor dejillcas pequeñas. Co n el.fin de diseñar estrategias de desarrollo agrico la qu e utilicen de manera ejiciel7le los recurSOS de ¡ierra. de mano de obra y de capilal, los paises de la región deben considerar es/rO/egias a/lern ativas de desarrol/o, s us vemajas re/Oli vas. y su co mplementariedad potencial.' el7lreellas: l . Il7I ensijicación de la producción en el seCl or de /incas grandes que gene ralm ente comrola las zonas más féniles. principalmente por medio de la mecanización y mayor empleo de insumos.InJensUicación de la producción en e/sector deji'ncas pequeñas medianle el uso de gennoplasma mejorado, j unlo con empleo adeeuado de insumas, pa ra lograr rendimief1los mayoresy más estables.t\"xpansión de la producción agrícola y ganadera en la s lierras m enosférfiles de/ron/era m ediante el uso de germoplasma adaptado y uso adecuado de insumas. Co mo un primer paso en la ob¡ención de la información necesaria para disena r es /ralegias de desarro llo que incluyan eS las regIOnes de ji•ontera. CIAT y fA113I<APA colabo raron en la lÚtemalización de la información existellfe acer ca de las tierras bajas centrales en Am érica del Sur tropica!, las cuales consliluyen el mayor territ orio defronlera en el continente. Aunque hay abundante información so bre el área. en su mayor pone ésta se enc uentra en in/armes técnicos de diversas fu entes no publicados y que contienen información no necesariameflle co mpatible. t:n el presente I(ab ajo se hizo un esfuerzo por sistematizar 101 inform ación . complementándola dondejiJera necesa rio con da los primarios. Se utilizó un enfoque de •• sislemas de tierra \" en el cual la información sobre clima. suelos. lopog ra.fJa y vege tación Se presel1la enforma sistema tizada a]in de hacer posibles las comparacionel•.La base de datos ha sido compu/a,.izada para facilitar la recupera ción de la información y el análisis de agregados con objetivos específicos. En e51a publicación los da lOS se presentan en forma de mapas y cuadros. con 'textos en inglés, español y porlugués para hacerla amp/iameme accesible a usuarios en programa s de invesliga ción y desa rrollo rural que no lengan acceso a computador. CI A T y EA1BI<APA se complacen en poner a disposición de la co muhidad científica y de los planificadores del desa rrollo rural/os resultados de tres años de esfuerzos conjuntos. Se espera que la información resultante. aunque diste de se r perfeoa. facili te la in ves tigació n agrícola y el diseño de est ralegias de desarrollo agrícola que tomen en consideración el pOlencial agrícola de esas regiones, comribuyendo así a una mayor producción y producti vidad.Como el ffabajo es tá basado en dat os disp onibles en el mom ento en que se rea lizó el es/u dio. amb as in stituciones acogerán con beneplácito nueva información que permita aC lUalizar sus archivos computarizados.Es/pes el primero de Ire.'i volú mel7es que cOI1l;enellla descripción y 105 mapas de las tierras bajas cemmles de América del Sur Iropical según sus diversos aspectos: clima. vegetación y paisaje. lop ogrnjla v/aClores ed~/lc()s.El Volumen I preSel1lfl 111/0 descripción de lo.'i objeli\\los del proyecto, su mel od%gía y procedimienro.~, y proporciona orientaciones y paufas para la l ra.~rerencio de ,eeno/agío agrieo/a local. basada en el uso de semi/la mejorada, utiliza ndo el m apa y la i,!!o rm ación sobre sistemas de litITo.E/ Volu men 2 incluye el Ma pa d e Sistemas de Tierra (en dos secciones). a uno escala de 1:5,OOO,Oor; y la Leyenda pa ra el Ma pa, que ofrece un r esum ell conciso de los limi l an fes del suelo en cada sisfema de (ierra. Ta mbién se incluye unfolleto de mapaJ de lonas indi viduales. a U/la escalo de /: 2.000.000.El Volumen J es /111 resumen m ás completo de los sis temas de tierro e in cluye impresos de compu tador con información generalizada sobre la tierra. descrip ciones espec([icas de las (aceras de fie rra y de laforma de la lierra y dal os de la estación meteorológica: asimismo ofrece de scripciones de perfile.} de suelos de varios sislemas de lierra.Los sislemas de tierra que aparecen a cOlll inua ción 11 0 eSlón incluidos en el Mapa, en la Leye nd a /l ; ene/ Resume n de Co mput ador: 90-9 / . //5, //8-200. 23/-249.3/2.3/ 4,386-387. 487-600. 655-800. L os si:nemos de tierra fueron designados por nlÍmeros ulilizadoJ para su idel1/~ficaciólI du ranle el Irallscurso del es/Udio y po r ello no se observa necesariamente una cOJ1linuidad numérica o geogrdjl'ca .No exislen resúmenes de computador pa ra los s(~uiel1les sis femas de tierra codificados e inc/uídosen e/ Ma pa y en /a Leyend a : A b 383, A b 384. Aa 421, F b 422. Be 486, y Fa 855. Lo ¡/~(ormación paro eSlos sistemas de fierro no fue lo sufic iel/femenle co mpleta para compufa rizar/a. El es /u dio en el cual se basó elu'abajo se rom pleló con la colaboración de m uchas pe rsonas y organizaciones, duran/ e un período de cua tro años (/977-1981) Los dolos pa ra el eSludiofueron recolectados de los archivos de va rios países. hlcluyendo Bolivia. Brasil, Colombia , Ecuador, Perú y Ve nezuela. y de varios estudios a pequdia y gra n escala. En la Bibliografia del Volumen l se citan Im'personas y do cumentos quefueron de ayuda para este proyeclo.Agrodecem os especia/men /e a/ persono/ de EM S RA PA-CPA C yde/ CI A T por Sil dedicació n a la tarea de compilar, sistema /izar y cartografiar la información : a YUI/;za Baro na quien mecanograji'ó el manuscrilO : a Ligia Gorda, Conrado Gal/ego y Camilo Oliveros, quienes delinearon)' dibL~jaron varios de los mapas individuales y completaron el A1apa de Si,flemas de Tierra: a Alvaro Cl/él/ar quien se encargó de la s fotog rafías, a Esperan za Caslaiieda y Alexandra Walter q/lienes hicieron la edición y traducción, A lodos ellos ya las demás personas m uy numerosas para m encionar oqul, que colaboraron en este proyecto. expresamos nues/ros sinceros af{radecim ienlos, In recenl years there has been a slowdown in th e pace of the Green Revolution . Met z and Brady ( 1980) • stated :The Gree n Rev olu tion has (aired to fulfill expectali ons in mos t area s ofthe world. Yield s a nd produ clion levels are o nly a (racti o n oC th ose pred icled when Lhe oew high ~ yielding varieties were fírs\\ relea se d in Ihe [960's . There is a growing recognition Ihal e nvironm ental fa ctors are largely respon sible fo r thi s fa il ure of oew erap varieties lo live up [O expectat ions.In other words, many high-yielding cultivars of crops that performed we.JI in Qne tropical climate-soil environmenl have often given disappointing results in another. •Part of [he reason for this is that I in the not too di stant past, plant breeders were looking for \"super eultivars\" of c rops that would so lve food production problems in the tropies , as if lhe word \"tropies\" was a sufficient definition of environment. Unfo rtunately this is not so. Consequently, there is now an increasing awareness of the need to deve lop new c rop cultivars compatible with the many cJimate-soil en vironments of the tropics,.and an urgent need to define these environ-mentS more precisely .CIAT began land-resource survey work in mid-1977 10 meet the growing coneern wilh deviation from the expected performances of so-called \"improved\" varie ti es of tropical crops when they were grown in locations differen t from where they were developed. From the outset, this work was designed to help with the devel o pment offood-p roduction technologies based on superior seeds and vegetative propagating material. Its objective was 10 provide a geographical and agroecological base to guide selection and breeding priorities for a given cro p and te assist in choosing representative field sites for testing potentially higher yielding or disease-resistant crop c ulti vars. A further objective was to identify analogous areas whe re gcrmplasm-based ag rotechnology specific to, o r advantageous in, a ¡ocalion with given c lima te, landscape, and soi] co ndili ons might successfully be transferred .The work started in a modest way as a survey of the \"acid-infertile\" savanna regi o ns of tropical America (CI A T , 1978b, 1979;Cochrane, 1979b) to gain a better unders tanding of their climate and soi ls and to select representa tive locali ties for testing promising grass and legume accessions. In 1979the survey was broadened to ¡nelude the forested regions and to serve as a base for a betler understanding of environments for CIAT's other commodity crops, including cassava, beans, and rice , an•d for tropical cro ps generally (ClAT, 1980 ;Cochrane, I980b). By 19 81 the study cove red a large part of tropical sbuth America and was extended to the Gulf Coas! of Mexico, a total area of over 1000 million ha. The survey was colJaborative work, carried out in conjunction with th e Ministries of Agriculture of Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Perú , and especially the Centro de Pesquisa Agropec uária dos Cerrados (CPAC), Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA). Bra zi t.The geographic extent ofthe present study was limited lO one of the least known areas of the tropical world-th e lowlands of Soulh America east of (he Andes, as outlined in ,.•1ti016il'017 Note   The methodology for the study was modeled on the landsystems approaeh developed by Christian and Stewart (1953) in assessing land resources ofthe Ka therine-Darwin regioo of northern Australia . It reduces land-resource information toa carnmon base by defining a land system as Han area Or group of areas throughout which {here is a recurring pattern of climate, landscape and soi ls,\" This definitian, while concep-lUally similar lo the Australian approach , differs in that it introduces clima te as a direet parameter roc land-system definüion . Thus, ¡nherent in the delineation of land syslems is the trealment of environmental parameters in the foJlowing categorica l arder 10 form a true land c1assification:1. Climale a .b. Temperalure c.d.Water balance e.Other climatic faclors 2. Landscape r.g.h.i.Soil physical characleristics j.Land systems are delinealed di recll y onto sateHite and sidelooking radar imagery after clima tic analyses have been performed.Although the work has mainly been an exercise in collating existing info rmati on available in the literature , a strategic amou nt offield work was carried out lo help fil! in knowledge gaps. A sma l! airplane was flown by the senior aUlhor to reach hinterland arcas. Following the collection, revision, and mappin g of climate, landscape, and soil informalion , the data were coded and recorded on magnetic tape as a computerized dala base to both facilitate speedy analysis and retrieval of information and rnap making. The rnechanisms of computerization are undergoing constant improvements as new innovali ons become available.The c1imatic work was inilialIy subcont racled to Utah State University (Hancoek et a l., 1979). Long-term meteorological data for over 1000 stations throughout tropical America were assembled and recorded on compute r tape. However, there are sorne large areas, particularly in the Amazon, withoul stations and whe re distances are too great to permit highly reliable extrapolations. Fortunately, il was possible 10 establish a r~lationship between physiognomic vegeta ti on classes and climaric parameters, which enabled this problem 10 be overcome (Cochrane and Jones, 1981). Recently, the preliminary clima tic data base was considerably expanded by CIA T's rneteorologist so lhat it now co ntains summaries Hargreaves' (1972, 1977a) equation ba,.d on solar radiation and temperature wa s used tocalculate potential evapolranspiration (POT ET) to assess the water balance and provide an approximation of the amount of energy available for plant growth . In addition, his monthly water balance methodology was adopted to determine the water balance and growing seasons. To define a wet rnonlh , Hargreaves' Moislure Availability Index (MAl) eoncept was used ; in this coneept , POT ET is equated with the 75% probability level of precipitation occureence (DEP PREC) 10 determine th e amount of rainfall that will be equalled in 3 out of 4 years. Therefore , MAl ~ DEP PREC ;. POT El. A wet month has an MAl greater than 0.33.Hargreaves (1975) quotes several sources illustrating good correlations between moisture availability index and crop production , when soil rnoisture is adequate for a week or more, and recommends the level \"Iess Ihan 0.34\" to define a dry month . In this context, it should be emphasized that the use of a standard climatic para meter for defining a dry month (o r conversely a wet month) must always be interpreted in light ofthe ability of a soil to reta in and supply moisture. The level needs lO be adjusted according to the moisture-holding capacity of that soil. On the other hand, the use of the MAl provides a measure of the ciimatic potential to supply and extract soil moisture at a gi ven Iocality during a given period of lime; in the case of these studies. al monthly intervals.Using the MA I ror clima tic estimation (detailed in Chapter 3) is innovative in that jt lakes an agricuhurally acceptable rainfall probabitity estimation ¡oro account.Afler cl imatic analysis , the land scape was subdivided into land systems, which were delineated on 1: 1 ,000,000 sateH ite irnagery and, for sorne areas, on side-Iooking radar im agery. Although satellite imagery is superior to radar imagery for delincating land systems, it was nal possible 10 oblain cloudfree imagery for many high -rainfall areas; in thosecircurnstances, side-Iookíng radar imagery provided a sufficiently accurat e topographical base.Land systems were mapped 10 ¡Ilustrate analogous areas of ¡and, insofar as practical farrning is concerned. These land systems are physiographic units, based on repetitive patterns of topography, vegetation, and 50i1s, within a given clima tic ci rcumstance.Native vegetation classes were idenlified foHowing the physiognomic eriteria of Eyre (1968) for tropical rorests and Eiten (1972) for tropical savan nas.The mapping of land sys lems provided a common base for bringing existing land resource informalÍon together. After delineation, maps were collated and drawn al the scate oC 1: 1 ,000,000 and numbered according to the Intemational Chart of the World at the MiHionth Scale index (Kers tenetzky, 1972), see Figure l . They were then computerized in 5-X 4-minute units (approximately 6800 ha at the equator) to serve as the basis for (hematíe map production. The field work was carried out lO provide on-the-ground control, to help sta ndardize descriptive cri teria , and to study lhe varialion of landscape features within the land syslems . These v were described as \"'and facets,\" and the proportion of each Ia nd facet within th e land systems was estimated from a study of the imagery. In this way, selected landscape featurcs and sOLI descriptions and properties were computed on ¡he basis of the land-facet subdivision .Figure 2, which shows a part of land system No. 46, illustrates how land systems were subdivided into land facets. It should be noted (hal , beca use the smallesl mapping unit was the land system, thematic mapping (or one feature map) for a given characteristic in this volume, unless otherwise slaled, rcpresents the rating of the majar land facet.The subdivision ofland systems in lo land facet s was particular-Iy useful 10 bridge Ihe gap between land systems and soil units.Clearly, land faceIs will cantal n soils with a variatíon in properties~ bul sorne level of generalizar ion must be made in making an inventory of land resources. In fact , all but the most detailed of soil maps picture sol! units that always co nta;n a proportion of soils different from those of the majority of soils depicted by that unit.The most extensive soils ín each land facet were firsI elassified as far as the Great Group category of lhe Soil Taxonomy system (Soil Survey Staff, 1975); the soils were then described in terms o( Iheir maLn physical and chemica! propertics. This was beca use Soil Taxonomy does nOl provide for the grouping of soils \"having simila r physicaJ and chemical properlies that reflect their response to management and manipulation for use\" until lhe soil Family category is reached. The amount of soil survey work needed to classify soils to Ihe Family level throughout the regio n according lO that system was far too great.In addition lO classifyingsoi ls according ro Soil Taxonomy, the soils were classified according te the F AO-Unesco legend (FAO-Unesco, 1974).Apart from describing the soil properties iohere nt in soil cJassification {Eswaran, 1977), many physical and chemica l properties o[ the topsoils (defined as the 0-to 20-cm depth) and s ubsoils (2 1-to 50-cm depth) ofthe individua lland facets were recorded, tabulated, and coded, when lhe informarion was avaitable.Soil physical properties coded inelude slope, texture, prese nce of coarse material, depth, ¡nitial infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, drainage, moisture-holding capacity, temperatu re regime, moisture regime, and presence of expanding e1ays .Soil chemical properties coded ¡nelude pH; pe rcentag e of Al saturation; exchangeable Al , Ca, Mg, K, Na; total exchangcable bases (TEB); effective catio n-<: xc hange capacity (ECEC); organic malter (O M); available so il P [available P data using the Olsen (Olsen et al., 1954), Truog (Jackson, 1958), and Brazilian (Vettori, 1969) methods, approximated to assume values derived by the Bray II method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945)]; P fixation; available soil Mn , S, Zn, Fe, Cu, B, a nd Mo; free carbonates; salinity; percentage ofNa satu ration ; presence of cat clays; X-ray amorphism; and elements of -r ~, 3 Fig. 2 Land system No. 46, sI:Jbdivided into land facets 1 and 2.were summarized separately and also computer coded according to the Fertility Capability Soil Classification System (FCC), devised by Buol et al. (1975), but in a slightly modified formo rt should be emp hasized that the quantity and quality ofthe data varied considerably from regio n to regio n, that minor and trace element ¡nformation was seldom available, and that there were often large distances between sampling sites, a1l of which compounded lhe problerns of generalizing data. A sOlall-scale \"reliability\" map has been printed alongside the Land Systems Map to ill.ustrate the variability in the quality o f the base data.Science starts with systematization . Because of th e quantity and complexity of data available for the study, and in view of likely interaction within these data and with other agronomic inforOlalion, it was decided from I the outset to code all ¡nformalion on computer-compatible formats. These, together with the detailed methodology, have already been described by Cochrane et al. (1979 b). As the data base grew, it was computer input to facilitate diverse analyses and decision making.InitiaJly, the methodology fo'r this aspect of the work followed that developed by the Statistical Anal ys is System (SAS) (Barr et al., 1976), which contains procedures for statistical analyses and data reporüng . Thus storage, analysis. and retrieval of ¡nformation was greatly facilitated and the informarion immediately Olade available to interested in sti tutions on computer tape . Computerization also facilita tes revision and updating of data.The information sumrnary, or \"data base,\" of the land systems oflropical America is surnmarized in Pans I and 20r Descriplions ollhe Land Syslems. Technically speaking, the storage, retricv a l, and analysis of da ta and ma p reproduction by computers is no longer a novelty; this ca n be achieved in many ways. In facI, the new programs a nd innovations that are constan ti y coming on the market en SUFe the speedy obsolescence of previous systems. Whal should nol beco me obsolete are the base data per se .The geogra phical subdivision o f the region int o land systems provided a minimal unit for map mak.ing; funher (l l\"41f loro lVll ... IIII\" \"'~f'\" ¿07 '~0 0 M\"'S.\"'l TIf UI'E 1l0ú \"H. ' .. '/'S I OC. ~ ... ,.,q( U\"'I f ... ' \" mio.subdivision of {he land systems into land facet s provided the building bl ocks for dcscri bing and comparing topogra ph y, vegctatio n, and soils. Co nsequ ently, much ofthe information was summarized as data se Is that refer l O units or units wilhin unit s, which facilitated programm er access lO data and the revi sion of speci fi c parts of the dala base as additional information was received.The land•system information is currently o rgani ze d in four computer files including SAS file s (Ban et al., 1976) , schematically represented in Figure 3_ Three of (hese files, clim a te , land syste m . and lano facet o will be explained in this seclion , with refere nce lO Pa rt , 1 of Volume 3, which is made up of printouts of the dat a reco rded for individual land system s. a nd Parl 2 ~ which contains a selec tion of the meteoro logical data sc ts. The fourth file , map. will be ex plained in terms of its function in maki ng maps from the clima te. landscape, and soi l data . A s an exa mple , Figure 4 rep lic a~es a printout ofthe base data of land system No . l .Climate file. The c1imate file, also incorpo rated as pa rt of CIAT's SAMMDATA (So uth American Monthly Meteo rologica l Data) file, is mad e up of data for individual meteorological statiQns. These are indexed by geographical coordina tes, a ltitudes, and refere nce oumbers to facilitate assig nment to land systems and facets wilhin systems. The paramelers recorded were describcd 00 a monthly basis and are de tailed in Chapter 3. The file allows easy programmer                              access to the data, which can be updated to incorporate better estimares of the clima tic parameters as additional information beco mes available. A mini mal number of data set prinlouts appear in Part 2 of'lhe Computer Summary to describe the c1imate, of the land'systems of the ,tudy region . (An example is also included in Table 3-1 in Chapter 3.) On the printouts ofthe individualland•systelJ1 descriptions ofthe study (see Figure 4), the subheading CLIMA TE indexes Ihe number and na me of a metcorological data set [hat approximates the cliróatic factors ofthe major part ofthe land system , Land-system . file. The land,system file record, generalized landscape characterlstics ofthe land systems and the subdivision of the land systems ¡nto land facets,The data in the land-system file, which is largely reproduced in Figure 4 Map file. The Land Systems Map unils were inde~ed by geographical coordinates in a map file, Grid~ subdividing the 1: 1 ,000,000 land-systems maps into 5-minute latitude by 4-minute longitude areas were placed over the J 10 1,000,000 land-systems maps. Each 5-X 4'-minute area was identifled by the coordina les oflts Dorthwcst extremity. The Land Systems Map used the Lambert Conical Projections ofthe World Map at the Millionth .scale (Wernstedt , 1972)'as a geographical base; each of lhese projections covers an area of 6 0 longitud' e by 4 0 latitude . Al the ecfuator, an aTea of 5 minutes of latitude by 4 minutes of longitude covers about 6800 ha . Each one of these areas was identified as be1o.nging to a given land system on the basis of the land 'system occupying the greatest part of that arca.Once the 5-X 4-minute áreas had .been coded, they were computerized and recorded as separate files covcring the same areas as the World Map at the Millionth Scale ando identified using the same terms, Figure5 illustrates a computer printout of one of the sectors of the Land Systerns Map. Map SC-22.Clearly, the system ofindexing lhe maps facilitates thematic and single-factor mapping a s computer printouls, Figure 6 is a computer-produced single-factor or thematic map of the 5 percentage of Al saturation of topsoil s over the same arca as Figure 5; it wa s made by assigning , [he percentage of aluminum saturation in the topsoils of the predominant land facets ro the land s-ystems. This beca me the basic procedure in making such maps . The system also facilita tes the drawing of maps according to various map projections and scales and is COn venient f or revising d ifferent segments as fu rther information comes lO h~nd.The computerized data base descriptors for the study are described in the glossary 10 coding in Part I ofthe Computa Summary -and Soil Projile Descriptions. This section also details Ihe cri'teria,used to synthesize and code the data input and explains how agronomists without access to computers might also use the study . Basic output ¡neludes printouts of the land-resource information for individualland systems, as recordcd in Part 1: meteorolpgical data ofthe type recorded in Part 2 and described in Chapter 3: and map conslruction, including thematic and single-factor maps. However. t'he true value of compute~ization li es in (he speed and nexibility of analyses te help define climate-soil' limitations and advantages for the growth of crops and fo define analogous geographical arcas for the more effective transfef\" of cultivars growing well in any given environment.As already noted , Part I of th e Compuler Summary is made up of printouts with virtually complete surnmaries of the landscape anel soils ofoll the land systems id entified on th e Land Systems Map . These sumrnaries provide a ready reference 10 the'landscapes 'and soils of the region . Par't 2 presents a selection o[.prin ~outs of monthly meteorological' data sets to describe the climates of the, land systems identified on the Land Systems Map. This is onl)' a small fraction of the number of data sets available in the climate file .The criteria used to describe the da'ta summarized in the Computer Summary are explained more fully in the text.Additionally, use is made of the thematic and single-factor map-making .capabilities of the map file to help illustrate overall constraints and advantages to develo ping germplasmbased agrotechnology throughout the study region . Further information relevant 10 the computerization of the study has bee n re<orded by. Cochrane et al. (1979). The entire study is available from CIAT or EMBRAPA-CPAC on computer tape, by s pecial rcquest . along with specific details of its o rga'nization a nd programs used in the rctrleval and analysis of informatio n and map makíng, Because many agronoinists contribu,ting lo thedevelopment of secd-based agrotechnology live in tural areas and do not have acceS5 to computer facilities, care has been taken to ¡nelude comprehensive data-base sum'maries and other pertinenl information as appertdiccs, Part , } in Volume 3 contains surnmaries of the landscape and soil ¡nformation foc all the land systern s ' mapped and their facets; Paf't 2 is a selection of meteorological data sets that may be used 10 approximate elimatic condition$' in 'any given land systern. Part 3 reco rds a ranQe of tvnical soil nTC) file~ to nrov.idi' a netler puide of so;1 I2\"S Fig. 5 Acomputerprintoutof the land system covering International Chart Map No. SC -22 (Tocantins. Goias. Brazil)   from the map file. While the survey and re sullin g Land Syslems Map we re oriented to tbe pro bJ em of developing germplasm-based agrotechno log y, they do have a significa nt inte ract io n with a grotechnological deveJopment in general. Fig ure 7 ptovides a pi ct ure or the ove rall scope and implicat ions o r lhis system to ag ricult ural develo pme nt. Land systems define areas of similar landscape where the same lype of fl:trming might succe~d . Consequently, their ca rerul description is fundamental lo land planning and transfer of agrotechnology.The following text presents a methodology o f c1assifying ¡and systems and 3n understanding of how they might be interpret\"'d by agronomisls in Tropical America. The case study induded in this chapler emphasizes how land-systems mapping contributed lo rcsearch within CIA T's Tropi cal Pastures ProgramoAfter the discovery of the new world, it waS nol long befare explorers with illusions of the quest for \"El Dorado\" penetrated the inner recesses ofthe So uth American subcontinenl. Missionaries followed; they helped stabilize settlements of indigenous peoples , stimulated agricultural production, and were mainly responsible for introducing ta ttle on t'he native sa vannas, Mining for gold and precious stones , and especially the rubber boom ofthe Amazon toward the end of the 19th cenlUry , attracled fortune seekers and res ulted in furth er settlement. However, it wasn't until the effects of the build , up of populatio n pre ssure in the Andea n highlands a nd in the coastal strip of Brazil beca me felt in the 1940s that serious effoTts wcre made to encourage colo nization and agricultural devel o pment.Colonizati o n and bringing new land inlO production ha ve proceedcd apace during the past two deca des , Wilh varying success, Many new agricultu re-based communities have flourished . On [he othe r hand , a general failure to unde rs tand the nature oftropical c1imates and soils and a la ck o fgermplasm adapled lo [he various ecosystems have often led lo unnecessary hardship. The success in transfo rming the wo rld's ultima te reserve of und eveioped land resources into productive agricultura Ila nd s will depend to a considerable ex te nl on renewed efforts to undersland th e nature ofthe land resources.The FAO-Unesco Soil Map of the World (1971World ( , 1974) ) indicates that there are ex tensive areas of very poor and possibly fragile soils, mainly Ferra lsols (Ox is ols) and Acrisols (U ltiso ls) , suppo rting the lowland savannas and Amazonian forests of tropi cal So ulh Ameri ca. This suggests the need fo r und erstanding (he mllure of these land resou rces.There a re many , orten connicting, opinio ns a s lO the nature o f the se two regions. ln the case of the savannas. their very existence is a n enigma that has provoked co nsiderable controversy (G oodland , 1970). Nevertheless , Eiten's (1972) review of the savannas of Central Brazil, locally called \"Cerrados\" (see Photo Plate 22) , and many more recent studies published in the proceedings of the fo unh a nd fifth symp os ium s on the Cerrad o< ( F erri, 1977 ;Marchetti and Dantas Machado , 1980) ind icate that these lands are now much better understood.Many a uthorities consider the Amazon forest soils (see Photo Pla te 4) incapable of sustaining agriculture or livestock production a fter the primary vegetation is removed (Gouru , 1961;Seltze r, 1967;Reis, 1972;T osi , 1974 ;G oodland and Irwin, 1975 ;Budowski, 1976;Schubart, 1977;Irio n, 1978 ;G ood land e t al. , 1978). Yet there is ample evidence to <how that agriculture and li vestock production o n weli-drained land s is not only possi ble but also profitable (Falesi, 1972(Falesi, , 1976 ; ;Al vim, 1978Al vim, , 1979 ; ;Sánchez, 1977, 1979: Serrao et al. , 1979 ;Toled o and Mora les, 1979;Cochrane and Sánchez, 1982).The amount of soil-surve y and land•resource inventor y informati o n available for tr o pi cal South America has increased rapidly during the past J 5 years. An attempt ha s been made to incorporate this work inro the CIA T study . Principal so urces have been refercnced in the bibliograhy, which is by no means exh a ustive , however. As no ted by McQuigg( 1980):There is a n aSlOnishing a mount of info rmati o n avaiJable in most countries on clima te, soils, a nd other faclors im ponant lO agricultural success. Bul thi s info rmation has o nJ y mode sl value to farmers and planners until it is organized, usuall y with a co mpuler, in to a system which offers ca pabilities for simu la ting, predicling results and beuer managing rarm producti o n. CIA T's methodol ogy for land-resource appraisal was designed to fac ilitate the speedy appraisal and syste matization of (he large amount of information avai lable in tro¡:>ical America.A Case Study: Using the Land Systems Map to Define Agroecosystems for Tropical PasturesThe work on a Land Systems Map for the region, presented in this book, WítS originally commissioned as a study of the a, cid-i nferti le savanna regioos with Ihe express purpose of seleeting representative localities ror testing promising grass and legume accessions (CIAT, 1978b). lt is lherefore filling lo providc an overview of how the region as a whole was subdivided into agroecozones ror CTA T's Tropical Pastures Program and, speeifically, lo surnmarize the findings from the Land Systems Map about the major 50il constraints within those ecozoncs (CIAT, 1981).Arter following the procedures oUllined in Jaler chapters, fiv e agroecozones were selected to define and subdivide the humid lowlands of central tropical South America . These are shown in Map 1 (sce Map Plates), which is based on compu ler printouts of land-syslem groupings integrating the broad clima tic. topographic, and natural vegetatíon classes (defined in ¡aler chaplers). lt is a first approximation lO pUl gross climate and landscapedifferences into perspective. Table 1-1 summarizes lhe fíve agroecozones in terms of their majar vegetation, c1imatic, and lopographic characteristics . (The very poorly drained forested areas indicated on the map were included within the forest subdivisions according to their climalic rcgime.)The basis for the subdivision of the lowlands of tropical South America ¡nlO climatic subregions is summarized in Chapter 3. The c10se relationship of the wet-season potemial evapolranspiration (WSPE) lO the natural vegetation growing on wel\\-drained soils (Cochrane and Jones, 1981) indicales that gross natural vegetation characteristics are a function of the amount of energy plants can use, as accorded by annllal water-bala nce paneros. This fínding wa s used as a firsl broad criterion for subdividing Ihe region into agroccozones for perennial pasture production. The second criterion was soil drainage . ln poor1y drained land\" for inSlance, lhe ability of plants tú withscand waterlogging is of primary importance. Consequently , the poorly drained savannas, including the picturesquely descrjbed Pantanal of Brazil, which are found throughout the climatie subregions b to e (dcfined in Table 3-4, Chapler 3), were grouped together as 8n I'agroeeozonc l ' for pasture production becallse thcy are lands affccted by a common problem of prolonged periods of annual waterlogging . The first subdivision of the region, however, was only possible through the second-grouping the vegetation classes of [he well-drained soils of the land systems . Further. ir is obviously necessary to sludy climatic charaeteristics in much grealer deplh.It wa s axiomatic that the soil phys ical and chemical conditions within lhe agroecozones would have to be defined more carefully for (1) choosing representa ti ve sites f or test i ng promising high-yieldíng pasture plant accessions and ( 2) developing reasonable criteria for hoth preliminary screcning and advanced field testíng of germplasm . By computerizing lhe la nd-resource study, an in -d epth analysi s of soil physical and ehemical constratnts within [he agroecozones wa s facilitaled o This resulted in a summary of the soils found on the main1y well-drained, nol lOO Sleep slopes (Iess than 30%) with in the predominantly well-drained agroecozones (Table 1-2, Sections ato 1).The many factors relevant lO soil physical and chemical conditions summarized on Ihe computer formats for the land facets of the land syslems, and described in detail by Cochrane et al. ( 1979) , were examined separately within the Percentage of total area 26% 46% ]q% '% a. WSPE '-total wel-season potentia l evapOlranspiration.   Rank order of importanceC   Soil mineral deficienci es . principally P, K, and Ca , are of primary importance; pasture plants ca pable of pro du ci ng sa tis fact a ril y in sails with low levels o f these elements s hould be sought. The ability of plants to tolerate high Jevels of AJ and low Mg is of impo rtance a yer about 30% of the area. Further, th e percentage of Al saturation in th e su bsoil does not tend io be as hi gh as in the topsoil. Phospho ru s fixation is likeJy to be a problem in 30% o f the soi ls. In short. the geographical extent o f soils with po tential Al to xicit y and P-fix a tion problems is not as large as might be inferred from small-sca le, generalized soil maps.T ab le 1-2, Sections d. e, and f. indicate that in isolhermic, as in isohyperthcrmic, savannas, low soil moisture-hold ing capacity is a seri ous problem. Over 70% of the soils. virtually all of them Oxisols, have low moisturc-holding ca pacities. This probJem is demonstrated by the exaggerated effeet the veranicos (erratically occurring periods with Httl e rainfall during the '''wet season\" in Central Brazil) have on crop growth and, to a lesser extent, 'Ün pasture production . Pasture plants for this ecozone must be adapted. not only te s urvivea prolonged dry seaso n of 4 to 6 months but also te resist lesser periods of moisture st ress during the wet season . Perhaps the best wa y te ens ure this is to find plants that will grow deep roots under the poor chemical conditions of these soils, coupled with more emcient sOLI amendments and fertilizers to promote deeper rooting.In the iso thermic savannas, in contrast to the iso hype rthermic savannas, both soi l deficiency and toxicity problems are of primary co ncern. Pas ture plants should be selected to give sati sfaetor y yields in soils wilh high levels of the percentage of Al sa turatio n .and low le veis of P, K, and Ca . Phosphorus fixation also appears to be a potential and widespread problem, so emphasis s hould be pul on choosingThe Al saturalion percentage levels tend lO d iminish with depth; this is very important insofar as roOI penet rati o n is concerned. It also means that the correction of Al toxicities through mini mal lime a pplications, as calcuJated by th e improved liming equation of Coehrane et al. (1980). would provide an alte rnative, relatively low-cost way o f overcoming a se rious problcm throughout this agroecozone.The analytical data of soi l samples , taken mainly from soil profiles desc ribing soils under native vegelation, wo uld suggest that poten ti al P, K. and Ca defiei eneies couJd be widespread problems, and that soil Allevels are often high in the tro pical semi-evergrcen seasonal fores! areas (Table 1-2 , Seetions g. h, i). However, as illustraled by the work of Falesi ( 1972Falesi ( . 1976) and Serrao et al. (1979), soils under fo rest vegetation may be changed completely ir the vegctation is burned an d Ihe resulting ash returned to the soil. In olher words, th e potential fertility of soils in this ecozone under forest cover is a function nOI only of [he soil's fertility but al so ofthe ferlility \" stored \" in the biomass . Analytical figures can o nly provide a salisfactory guide to fertility ifthe vegetation is eompletely removed by clearing lands by bulldozers. After an adequate burning o fvegetation , the fertility of these soils may be restored . If foll o wed up by eareful management using deep-rooted pastures, this restored fertilily might be mainta ined for many years.The phenomeno n of \"fertility\" being sto red in biomass would indicate thal, provided adequate management techniques are used, pastures not so well adapted to very low soil-fertility conditions for the semi-evergreen seasonaJ forest agroeeozone mjght be cultivated. On the o ther hand , there is cJearlya lot more to be understood about past ure management in these areas, and the search fo r pastures better adapted to the ecosystem should continue.Owing lo the inherent difficulty ofburning forests in very wet arcas, the analytical figures indicaling chemical constraints for the tropical rain fo res t agroecozone (Table 1-2 , Sections j , k, 1) probably se rve as a more useful guide for selection criteria for pasture plants than is the case for the se mievergreen seasonal fo re sts. The percentage of Al satu ration levels are often high, and K levels are almost universally low. The p . Ca. and Mg figures appear, on the average. to be slightJy higher than those of the other agroeeozones. but th ey cl ea rly reflect the higher proportion of inherently mOre fertile soils, especia ll y the Ince ptisols, A lfisols, and Entisols. These three soils alone account for about 25% of the well -drained soiIs of the region; th ei r presence indica tes that the development of pasture germpJasm speeifieally adapted to aeid. ¡nfertile soils for thi s eCOZOne is not so high a priority as in the other ecosystems.These summaries ofthe major soil constraints in the agroeco- It is Ihus possible Ihat germplas m lolera nt to low S levels or toxie Mn levels rnay be req uired fo r sorne regions.The picture that has emerged from this land-sys tem eva luati o n ofthe major soil constraints, and, by ¡nference, the priorities for desired genetic traits in tropica l pastures for th e acid so ils of tropical Arnerica's hinte rlands, is co nsiderably different fro m wh a l was previo usly inferred from generalized srnall-scale rnaps.A first maj o r finding is that P fi xa ti o n is not a pote nlia! problern ayer mueh of the a rea, but is mainly co nfin ed la the isothermic agroeeo zone. This ealls for a di ffe rent em phasis-on work designed to tack le P proble ms. Ph osphate rock seems an attractive, !o w-eosl so !uti on for correct ing P deficiencies for pasture produc tio n over much of the re gion . We still need to lea rn aboul the behavi o r of ro ck phosphate in th e context of ove rall c ro p growlh , however. There is als o a need for more study on the ability of P and ot he r minerals to rn ove down the soil profile and stimulate deeper rootin g and, consequenlly, tap more extensive water an d mineral supplies. There is evidence, for instanee, that sin gle superph os phate does this task more effectively than triple superphos phate (E. Wagner , C PAC, pers. eomm .). Nevertheless , al this point, il is ce rtain that paslure plants should be se le cted for tolerance lo soils with low P leve !s. This is parti cul a rly important in lhe case of plants for (he is othermic savannas.The second major findin g is that potential Al toxicity is nol as widespread as previo usly thought; howeve r, it is a n important co nsidera tion in the isothermic sava nna agroecozone . F o rtunately, in lhis ecozone, the percentagc of Al saturation in ma ny soils diminishes with de pth, and, thu s, lhe strategic use of min imallime applications will provide a lowcosl So lulion to ma ny toxicity problems. Pasture plants tole ra nt to hi gh Al saturation in soils are still hi ghl y desira ble fo r the isot hermic savanna agroecozone, although this to lerance nee d not be as great as previou sly thought. Pasture germplasm need not all be screened fo r tole ran ce 10 very hi gh soil-solutio n Allevels , as has been the practice in the past.The third majo r findin g is that soil Ca and K levels are low on a very high pro port io n ofthe so ils . Low M g levels are also common . This would suggest that a desirable \"trait\" in paSlure plant germplasm would be tolerance lO low avai lable K, Ca, and Mg. (Clea rl y, defi cie ncy problems of Ca and Mg can be overco me by modest applicati o ns of d o lomitic limeslone; howe ver, (he cost ofsuc h is a function of distance from suilable and co mmercia lly exploited depos its.)A fo urth finding is that th e su bsta nt ial fertility reserv es in arboreal bi o mass infers that care must be la ken in interpretin g the relative importanee of soi l chemica J constraints ror rhe semi -evergree n seasonal foresl agroecozone. I t is ev iden t th a t b y burning the forest cover man y of lhese soi ls will undergo majo r change s in lh ei r nutrient properlies. Further, the re slored fertility can be ma in tained for man y years und er adequate pasture management. This would involve only a mini mal input of chemical fertili ze rs. As a co nse qu ence, the search for germplasm adapted lO extremely poor soil-fertilily conditions need not necessa rily be a priority for th e semievergreen seasona l fores t regions . In the tropical ra in forest ecosyst em , also, the high proport ion of inherently fertile soi ls suggests that the search fo r pasture germplasm adapted to low soil fertilit y ne ed nol be a to p priority.A fifth finding co nce rns soi l chemical restrainls over t he entire area. Alth o ugh ge rmplasm te sting si te s ca n now be more ca refuJly 10cated 10 take advantage of the known soi l const raints, these tri als should be moni to red for Ihe complete gamut of potent ia l nutrient problems. A careful monit oring of nutr ie nt problems usi ng foliar analytical techniques could lead to a wealth of knowledge a bout po tential soi l proble ms over (he a rea . If o nly o ne trace elemen! problem is identified in an a rea, its solution could lead 10 si gnificant soeioeconomic benefits.F inall y, it was fo und that varyi ng moisture-holding ca pacilies in many of the savanna sails emphasizes th e need 10 maintain perspective in testing pasture pla nt aecessions ad apted to the acid soil hinterlands . Cli mate , especially in Ihe sense o f the a nnual energy a va il a ble fo r plant g ro wlh as accorded by the soil moisture regimes, is of great importan ce in determining the adaptability of germplasm lO an y agroecozone , always pro . . . . iding that soil phys ical conditions are take n inl o account and that the ge rmpl asm is adapted to acidinfertile soi ls. It is therefo re necessa ry that germplasm be tested in representative soi l siles within th e majar ag roecozones, and over a period of several yea rs, 10 aceuratel y assess the inOuences of climate a nd soi! moisture eonditions.Chapter 2.Land systems were the smallest geographically defined uni ts of th is survey. An individual land system represents an area or group of areas th roughou l which there is a recurring pa Uern of c\\i ma te, landscape a nd soils. It is a uni! ofland, ide nlifi able both on the ground an d rrom satellite imagery, with in which the same type of rarming is likely 10 succeed . CleaTiy, the dclineation of lhese land uni ts is fundame ntal 10 developing practica l agricultural technologie s. Further, such deli neation provides a mechanism ror computerizing and compa ring land in a geographica l context and a means or su mmari zing land in form ati on within a camman base .This chapter descri bes th e steps taken 10 produce the Land Systems Map in Vo lume 2 a nd explains th e cod es used o n il.  a nd McClelland , 1977;Lintz and Simo nett , 1977). and adv•ances in this field con tinue steadil y (Barney et al., 1977;Jo ha nnsen, 1977).With the exception ofwe lter areas, most ofthe delineation of land systems was ca rr ied out by sa tellite irnagery using black and white photographic prints. Spectral band 5, the • A,U CO\", fed bV '''', IOllow ing 1!ud i .. :(1 ) PAOJeTO AAOAM8AA.SIL. Vol\"mu 4 . 5.6 . 7 . 8. 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 1 3 . 14 , 15. 16 , 17 .nd   environs of Concci~ao do Araguaia, on the southeastern fringe of Amazonia. Satellite imagery has one major drawback . Due to the relatively short period of time the LANDSAT satellites had been transmitting when the study started , and beca use orbits were des igned to pass o ver the same area a t relati vely infrequent intervals (originall y 20 times ayear, but now more frequent ly with LANDSAT-2 in operation), it was not surprising to find that , for the wetter areas, it was difficult to .get cloud-free imagery.The largest area affe cted by the cloud problem was Amazonia. Fortunately , side-Iooking radar imagery, which is not affected by the presence of clouds , was available for most of Brazil's Amazonia (available from Projeto Radambrasil, Ministério das Minas e Energía), and this was used as a geographical base for the delinea tion of land systems throughout that region. Side-looking radar ¡magery produces an excellent to o ra hical ¡cture of lhe landsca e, bUl it is not nearl y as effective as satellite irnagery in helping lO identify vegelative cover and soil drainage characteristics. Figure 2-2 shows land system mapping on radar imagery along th e Amazon river 350 km west of Manaus.For sorne areas , including (he wet eastern piedmont of Bolivia , aerial photography was used for interpreting the landscape picture.After c1imatic analyses and literature research were completed, land-system boundaries were drawn provisionally on the satellite and side-Iooking radar imagery.The principal soilsurvey references•used are summarized in Figure 2-3. A guide to the reliability of the major soil-mapping coverage is given on the appended Land Systems Map.A1though the work was mainly an exercise in condensing existin information to a common identifiable base, wherever possible and when little or no information was available in the Iiterature, a Iimited amount of field work was done to check the photo-interpretati on and to standardize descriptive criteria . A small Piper PA-18, STOL (s ho rt-take-off-Ianding) airplane \\\\las Oown by the first author to cover hinterland area s~ every effort was made to examine the principal landscape facet s within a given land syste m. During the course of the field work, land system bounda ries were fixed.The land syste ms were com piled by drafting boundaries direc tly from the imagery . The y were completed on a segment-by-segment basis, aecording to th e index used by the i: I ,000,000 [nternatio nal C hart ofthe World at the Millionth Sca le (see Figure 1, after Kerstenetzky, 1972).The system originally adopted for the computer storage and reproduction ofthe maps \\Vas to subdivide the llO 1,000,000 maps into 4-minute longitude by 5-minute latitude segments (approximately .1.100 ha at th e equator), and then to assign a land-system code on the ba sis of that land system occupying the greatest proportionate area in any one segment. Once these codes were reeorded. iI was a straightfo rward exercise to reproduce maps at desired sea les and projections and produce thematic or single-factor maps. Thema tic maps were computer-produced by assigning a rating o f any of the coded and recorded land-system features tO the land-system codes. In the case ofland syslems with more than o ne la nd facet, unless otherwise statec, this fenture represents a characteristic of lhe major land facel of Ihe land system . The computeriZ3lion of the land systems maps 15 di scussed in greater detail in Chapter 3.The printed Land Systems Map of the Central Lowlands of Tropica l South America (Volume 2) is a composition based on, and reduced from, the original J to 1,000,000 sheets. lt was produced to provide a geographical overview of the region , always within th e preeisional imitatio n of map reproduc tion at a scale of approximately 1 :5,000,000. This map provides a guide lo the loea ti on of individual land systems; it identifies the predom inant land systems in any region ofspecLal ¡me re st; and it draws a pieture ofthe major advantages and constra ints for Jand use, particularly germplasm suitability or adaptability, for that region. The land systems have been •assigned numbers for ease of reference. Apart from depicting land sys tems, the printed map synthesizes information on cJimate¡ topography , vegetation. and soils .Codes used on th e map are described as follows.Physiography. The capital-Ietter code preceding the land system number identifies the Jand system as belongirig lO one ofnine, readily appreeiated¡ broad physio raphic re ions  10 Ihe Land Syslems Map. for classifying the soils of th e land fa cets ofeach land system, is a l50 enclosed in Volume 20fthis book. The cod ing key used is illust ra ted in Figure 2-4 . This is explained in more detail in Vo lume 2.Soils we re c lassifie d lO the Great Group category of Soil T axono my (Soil Survey Staff, 1975), accord ing 10 the FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World Legend (1974), and by their tex(ures a nd fertilit y constraints as rat ed in the Fertility Capabilily Classificalion (FCC) sys tem of Bu o l et al. ( 1975).Great Group so il classes, according to Soil T axono my (Soil Survey Slaff,197 5)      The eoding used lo identify soils from lhe Soil Legend was lhe same as thal used by F AO-Unesco. Tabl e 2-5 liSlS lhe soi ls identificd in the region and their codeso Table 2-6 surnmarizes th e codes used lo identi fy 50il s aeeording to lhe Ferlility Ca pabilily Classifíeal ion (FFC) . Sorne of the definitions used in this work to define fertility constraints or, to use FCC terminology, \"cond ition modificrs,\" differ from th ose used by 8uol el a l. ( 1975): These ¡nelude (he definitions of Al toxicit y, acidit y, and K deficiency; however, lhe variation iTi definitions is relatively minoro The FCC eoding and definilions are detailed in Chapters 5 and 6.Apart from land-resource informati on, the Land Systems Map eontains geograpbieal informatio n to identify the approximate location of major rivers, cities, and to wn s.The Land Systems Map was prepared to provide a geographie referen ce base ofth e land systems and a pictorial representatio n of their main features in terms of climate , landscape (includ ing natura l vegetalion), and soi ls. It is hoped that the innate co mplexity of agricultural land resources is thu s emphasized, beca use lhese factors do vary from area to area. Fortunalely , in our technologically advancing age, the detailed description and co mparison ofthe ma ny properties of the land sys lems and t heir faeets ean be handled by eoding and computerization. In this sludy, the printed map ca n besl be read and app reeiated in the light of the eomputerized data The region denoted in the Land Syste ms Map extends from a Iittle north of the Tropic of Cap ric orn to the approxima te position of , the \"meteorological equator\" a t looN. It thus cncompasses tWQ disrinct clima tic regimes-the equatorial (wit h little chonge in seasons ) and the tropical (with stronger variations). The te rm\"tropi cal\" in th is ca se refers to the areas [ound both nortb and so uth of lhe cent ral equatorial regioos and is preferred ror preciseness Qver th e loose term, the \"tro pies,\" which is gene rally used te rerer la both regimes. This chapter brief1 y describes the majar [actors determining the clima te of these regioos; presents a general analysis in lerms o f saine of the better kn own c lim alie classifications; and then proceeds .to a m ore detailed description of the estimation of growing-potential as used in lhe Land Systems Map.The majar clima tic determinants of both the equatorial and tr o pica l regimes are Ihe South Atlantie amicycJone and the equatorial trough sinee the Andes effeetively isolate the region from strong effecls of the Pacifie anticycJone . As do Snow (1976) and Riehl (1979) , we prefer the term \"equatorial tr ough\" to Intertropica l Convergence Zone (ITCZ), because, while the low-pressu re trough may be readily distinguished, the aetl:lal zone, or Iones, of convergence are ephe meral and lhe position may only be fixed by averaging over time. Thus, the ITeZ may be co nsidered an active part of (he equatorial trough.The pos ition of the equatorial tr ough follows the seasonal march oC the sun, bu t lags behind by abo ut 2 months. The range of movement from north to sou th is ve ry limited, when compa red with q ther continental si lUations . The equa to rial lro ugh is ce ntered at 5 to lO o N du ring ils mOSl northerly advance in August/September and alOto 5 0 S in Feb ruary/ Ma rch (Figure 3-1). During the soulhern sum mer, a co ntinental heat low develops over nonhern Argentina, Paragua y, and Bolivia . Frére et al. ( 1975) point out th at sorne au th o rs attribute lhis low lo an extension of the equatoria l tr ough , whereas olhe rs maintain tha t il is a separa te phen omenon. In either case, the resu lt is the sa me : an extended a rea of high insta bility and he avy rain in rhe western portion of Ihe study a rea during the southern summ er. In vasio ns of the cold polar air mass are common during Ihe southern winter a nd can produce marked and rapid drops in temperature a s the cold fronl passes northward. The air mas s ten ds 10 be cha nn eled between the Andean highl a nds and the central Brazilian s hiel d, frequently reachi ng che uppe r Amazon and occasio na lly spilling over the Orinoco basin inlo the Caribbean. The cool c hange , known in Brazil asfriagem a nd in Bolivia as surazo. may last fo r 3 to 5 days o r, in excepti ona l cases, up to 15 d ays . The nort herly exte nt of a typical cold front is shown in Figure 3-1 (Ra t isbo na, 1976).Rainfall pattern s follow the movement of the equatoria l trough and th e development o f th e continental heat low . They are further modified by interact ion wilh the maritime air masses. Thus, the western eq uato ri a l lone has no distinct d ry sea son, bUl a bimodalilY may be discerned in lhe rainfa ll rigures. As one pr oceeds ea stwa rd in the equatorial zo ne , the dry sea son beco mes more marked and (he bimodality less so. The bimodalily remains in the southeastern section o f lhe eq ua to rial zone as the veran;co, a sho rt d ry spell th at may occur in the middle of lhe we t summe r.On e ilher side of the equatorial lone, typical tropical panerns of su mmer rainfa ll s and dry winter periods are noticed. Rain in the south easte rn po rti on of the st ud y area (Ma to Grosso and Goias) appears to bedue t o winds from th e upper Ama zon . rn thi s, the upp er Ama zon behaves more like a maritime I on e than a conti nental one. Indeed, as is pointed out by RalÍsbona (1976), the potential evapo ration of the equa to ria l fo rest, greate r than 1300 mm /year throughoul the region, is actually higher than that from an ocean surface, du e to its lower albedo (pe rcen lage rene ctio n of radiation). The d ryl ands of northeast Brazil (including the Caatingas) are the resu lt of i nsuffic ie nt penetra ti on o f e it her (he mari time o r the moisl uppe r Amazo n (equatorial continental) air masses lo this intermediate region .Many schemes have been devised to classify th e elimates of the wo rld, bU! pe rh aps the most widely known is that of CARfBBEAN SEA':'::.: . . .C IUDAD SO LlVAR• TDF TMF ,: :.\\ .. \\.~//: .. :.:.,.: .. : Koppen (see Stringer, 1972). Figure 3 The Holdridge (1967) life lOne classifícation (Figu re 3-3) is a simpli stic scheme. taking into accounr on ly the total annual precipita tíon and the mean annual biotemperature , which, a l all points within the Land Systems Map area, is equal to the annual mean temperalure. It is clear from Figure 3-3 that the life-zone classifica tion fails 10 differentiate c1imates by seaso nal variation . and, due lO difficulties of nomenclature , fail s to account for the tropical rain forest in the upper Amazon .A sys tem much more closely related to the agricultural potential of a regi on is that ofThornthwaite (1948) (F igure 3-4). Climate is defined in terms of a moist ure index (l m) and thermal efficiency (TlF¡, which is equa l to the potentia l evapotranspiralion ( e). Seasona l va ri ations in water s upply and temperature (not shown on  are also used as class ifying factors . Thus , 60d)where e is the potential evapotranspiration, s is the water surplus, and d is the deficit after allowing for rainfall and stored soil water. And, e = 1.6(101/ l)awhere I is monthly temperature (OC), 1 is the heat index, a is a cubic function of the heat index, and e is the evapotranspiration in cm per month. The sum 12 1 = ¿ (//5) 1.514 j=1 defines the heat index (l), where I is the mean temperature of month j.The Thornthwaite method suffers from the fact that evapot ran spiration is estimated from temperatured a ta and is nol necessarily universally reliable, but it doe s allow an estimate in many situalions where more accurate formu las cannot be applied. Using this system, the majority of the region in Ihe Land Systems Map is classified as megathermal Bra zilian shield falling into the mesothcrmal ( < 1150 mm) c la ss. The moisture index was calculated assuming a 150 mm so il water-holding capacity. The perhumid regi o n, with a mo is lUre index aboye 100, quite closely follows the actual exte nl ofthe tropical rain fores t in the upper Ama zo n. Due to lower eyapolranspiration rates in Ihe ralher cooler region lo Ihe so uth ofthe Amazon and east ofManaus, however, Ih e re appears 10 be a second perhumid region , which does nOI correlate with rain foresl. Because no attempt was made to follow IOpography in the sketch map, the extent and shape of thi s area are not necessarily realistic depictions. The subhumid areas in Venezuela, the Peruvian foothills, the area around Boa Vista in norlhern Brazil , and the Brazilian shield are well delineated using this melhod, however.From (he aboye examples, it can be see n lhal il is possible 10 c lassify [he c1imates of the area in seve ral ways , all s imilar in some res pects and yet diffe renl in others. Each of Ihese s ystems fai ls, in sorne way o r Olher. 10 account for obse rved patterns of vegetarion and/or agricultu ral pOlential of Ihe area. For the Land Systems Map , then , it was decided to concentrate on recording characteristics of [he environment that would best reOect [he range of variation in growingseason potential within the region. Thi s is intended as a description of the region; iI is not ¡ntended as an alternative cl imatic classification for general use.Throughout the tropics, the major determinant of growing sea son is soil moisture. Normally , long-term mean rainfall is used to determine moislUre ayailability, bul this does nol take seasonal variation in rainfall into account. The expected seasonal variation within [he area on the Land Systems Map ranges from a 10-15% average departure from normal in the Amazon basin and northern regions of the aTea lo a 25-30% deparlure in the drier eastern Brazilian regions ( Biel, qUOled b y Riehl, 1979). Clearly an estimate ofwater supply must take Ihis range ioto account. Therefo re, an estima te of dependable precipitation and [he bes! available esti mate of potenlial evapotranspiration were chosen as lhe sta rting point for clima tic determination for the Land SystemsMap.Long-term (more than 20-years) d a ta records from over 1100 meteorological stations (Figure [3][4][5] were initially gathered, and meteo ro logical data sets were compiled as an integral par! of lhe land-resource dala base ,b Table 3-1, prepared from the computer printout of the clima ti c data for Luziania (Hancock e t al., 1979), located in 75°   , .118 . 1 1 q .O.0.00 a.In order, rere r to mean lempe r a l ure, mean rad iation. p r ec ip itation , potent i.J1 e vapot ran spi ration , precipitat ion de ric; l. dependable pr ec:ipi tat ion, mois ture ava il abili ty indexo b.,\\4ay to Sep tember = d r y season.DEF PRE e : PREel P -PO T El.d.OEP PREe = 75 ' probabilily leve l of p r eci pita li on occurre nce. -Mean precipitalion, in mil limete rs.-Potential evapotranspi rati on, in mtlllme ters. -Precipita tion defici t, in millimeters.-Dependable precipitatio n, in millimeters. -Moislure a vail abili ty in dex. , Fo r so me sta li o ns, Ihe relalive humidi ly wa s a lso es timated a nd appears o n lh e prinloul as MEAN R.H .; fo r o lhers, mea n maxlmum a nd minimum temperatures are a lso recorded .Wh e n lempe!a lure dala (M EAN TEMP) were nOI avai lab le for a $(a li on, a n es tima te was made based on dala from sta tions close ly re lated geogra phically and by takin g ¡nto account Ihe relatio ns hip be twee n eleva tion a nd temperalUre . Temperature decreases by an a mount of aboul 0.0055 times ¡h e elevation in meters, Or 5.5°C for every IODO mete rs of ¡ncrease in elevatio n.' \" h< n sola r radialio n dala (MEAN RA D .) were nOl ava il able developed by LOrl el a l. ( 1966), o r were com pul ed from a multiple-regression equa li o n usi ng such va lues as longitude. latitude , a nd precipitation . The soJar rad iation (RS) , in Langleys per da y, wa s co n verted to equiva len! mill imeters of evapo ra tion per mo nth (RSM) by correcti ng for lhe num ber of days in Ih e mo nlh (DM) a nd lhe la lenl heal of vapo ri zalion of wa ler (L) as:The ave rage L valu e for a mo nth was calcul ated fro m the mean monthly air temperature in degrees celsius (TMC) by lhe equation:1, = 595 .9 -0.55 x TMCPOle nl ial eva potra ns piralion (POT ET) was ca lcul a led lO determine (he water balance and g rowing seaso ns. It is usually referred to as (h e wa te r consump tio n o f an exte nded surface o f8-to 15-cm tall, green g rass cove r chal iS' ac tively growing and co m plelel y shading soil we ll s uppli ed wi lh wa ler. However . MOnLeith (1973) notes that \"experience o n experimen tal siles ra nging fro m field pl o ts 10 large ca tchments has show n ¡ha t lhe res tri ction to s hort g reen cove r is unnecessary.\" A n accurate estimate of POT ET is a mosl useful climatic paramcter in helping to judge the agr icu hu ral pO le nt ial o f an area , es pecially in compari ng similarilies a nd dirferences in clima tic regimes and predicting irr igarion a nd drainage ne eds .F rom ph ysica l considera ti o ns, ir is we ll re cognized that air tcmpe ralure, rad ialio n balance, humi dity, ano wind s peed are all necessary facl o rs in est im at ing evapo ra rton from a s urfacc (Penman, 1963). M a ny workers have s how n lh a l empirica l Tile preeipitati o n defieit (DEF PREC) is simply the differenee betwee n the mean precipitation (PRECIP) and the POT ET.Dependable precipitati o n (DEP PREC), at the 75 % pro bability of precipitatíon occurrence, is the am o unt ofprecipitation that wilJ be equaled or exceeded in 3 out of 4 yea rs. The probabilitydistribution ofmonthly rainfall amoun ts is known lo be skewed markedly IOward the lower values. For this reason, so rne workers, for example Frére el al. (1975), have used a lag normal distribution to estimate the dependability of rainfall. A beller approximation is the gamma distributio n; although it is rather more trouble to calcula te, the gamma distribution can now be done readil y with the aid of a highspced compu ter. Hancac k and hi s collegues at Utah State Universi ty have produced gamma-distribution esti mates of dependa ble precipitatioo for many sta tions in the area shown io the Land Systems Map. H o wever, in orde r lO be able to nt the di s tribution , a large numbe r of years of record mus! be available. Unfortunately , many statians in lhe area have an insufficicnt period of record . The coefficients a and b were estimated by the Utah group from the existing gamma distributions. These es timates a re s hown , by region, in T a ble 3-2; the regi o ns themselves are indicated in Fig ure 3-5 .The linea r relatianship was used 10 estimate dependable precipitation for all s tali o ns in (he study area using as a base lhe mean rainfal. data given in Wernstedt ( 1972).The moislure availabi lit y index (MA l) is a moistu re adequacy index at the 75% probability level of precipitation occ urrence. It is defIned as:An M Al vatue of 1.00 means that dependable precipitation equals potential evapotranspiration.The M Al concept was introdueed by Harg reaves in 1972 to deveiop a classifica tion (ha 1 ineludes soil-m oist u re adequacies. He proposed that MAl be adopted as a standa rd index ro r measuring water deficiencies and excesses and suggested the fa llowing classifica lions: Hargreaves showed that there is a goad relalionship betweenfl 8 8 t i .:. .. :¡-\". . ,  a week or more and recommended a level\"'ess lhan 0.34\" lo define a dry mon th. A wet month , th en. wa s defined as one with an MAl greaterthan 0.33, bearing in mind that this level may be to o low for soils with very low rnoisture-holding ca pacüies.Intcrestingly, the MAl , if qualifíed by the coroll ary \"whe n soil moisture is adequate for a week ,\" would describe soilmoisture availability in term s ofthe elimatic potential to both s upply a nd extract soil moi sture al a given loeation during a given period of time, as well as imply the ability of a soi l lo store and sup ply water. In thi s sense, lhe criterion would be more se nsitive for a given so il during periods ofhigh potential evapotranspirati on than during periods wit h lower potential evapotranspiralion; further , it wo uld be more c riti ca l for soils with lo w moisture-holding capacities. Therefore , the need to take sod moisture-holding capacities into accoun! in relation to the wate r balance a t a given ti me of the yea r must be emphasized . Soil moisture-holding capaci ti es a re defined in Chapter 6.Pan 2 ofthe Computer Summary (Vo lume 3) contai ns a range of meteorological ' data sets representative of those for the land systems in the Land Systems Map. These were o riginally compiled by Hargreaves and his coworkers fo r the landsystems study (Hancock et al., 1979). The CIAT SA MM-DATA (South America Meteorological Data) computer fi le currently in cludes over 4000 data se ts from sta li ons throughout tropieal America , many of which were adapted from Hargrea ves' data fil e. These stations a re in d exed by names and geo, graphical coordina les to help delinea te and describe land systerns.In spite of the large number of meteorological data sets, a problem arose for the Amazo nian region and parts of Central Brazil in th at the distances between meteorological statio ns with long-term data were often too great to ena ble acceplab le extrapolations.In an auempt to overcome the proble m of extrapolating cJirnatic patterns bet wee n meteoro logica l statio ns separated by la rge distan ces, it was decided to in vestiga te the dependency of th e natural vege ta ti on on cJimate (Cochrane a nd Iones, 1981).Physiognomic •vegetat ion classes, as de fin ed in Chapter 4, were used to describe the vege tation of the land facets of th e land sys tems. Map 2 (sce Map Plates) provides a picture oftlle major vegetatio n classes throughout [he region. lt was made by assigning the vegetation c1ass of the major la nd face ts to A 37 vegetation classes ¡nclude poorly drained savannas, welldrained savannas, tropical rain fores t, tropical semi-evergreen seasona! forest , tropical deciduous forest, caatinga, and others (including subtropi ca l and submontane forests, swamp forests, and othe r vegetation classes) . These are brieny described in Chapter 4. The term \"well-drained savannas\" coverS those vegetation types referred to in Brazi l as \"Cerrados ,\" described in detail by Eiten (1972). The definitions of forest typcs follow the descriptions by Eyre (1968).A vegetation c1ass wa s assig ned 10 each of251 meteorological data sets, from stations spaced as evenly as possible throughout the reg¡on, on the basis of the native vegetation growing on the well-drained soils in their vicinities. Sixty-one meteorological stations were loca ted throug hout the savannas, 38 in tropical se mi-evergreen seasonal forests, 49 in tro pi ca l raín forests , 84 in deciduous forests, 8 in subtropical se mievergreen forests. and tI in subtropical evergree n fo res ts. Man y combi nations of different cl ima tic pararneters fro m the d ata sets, including the num ber of wet months. wet-season mean monthly temperatures (WS MT), wel-season radiation . wct-season potential evapotranspiration (WSP E), and dryseason moisture availability (DSMA) (an index of the severit y of lhe dry season, in contrast merely 10 its length), were then examined through discriminant analyses, both parametri c and no nparametric, to see if t he y followed the vege lation c1asses .Figure 3-6 sum ma ri zes the investigatíon ofthe dependency of the vege lati on c1asses on WSPE (wet-season mean potential eva p otranspi ra ti on) and WSMT (wet-seaso n mean monthly tempera tu res). The observations were computer plotted in the WSPE X WSMT space, and clustering of the vegetat io n classes can readily be see n. To delineate th e classes, the lines of equiprobability of assignmcn t were manually plotted between the various populations, by graphicall y finding the intersects of successive confidence elipsoids.The posterior probability of correct assig nment for the vegetalio n classes was estimated as:Computer cluster codes (fro m Figure 3 Th e poorly drained savannas (C) could not be included in thi s analysis beca use there were records from o nl y tw o si tes. Us in g th e no npa ramelric te ch nique of nearest neighbor classification described by Cover a nd Ha rt (1967) as implemented by Barr et al. (1976), the data set was d ivided into two randomly se lected halves and each subse t used both as a \" ,... , combined lO form estima tes of the probability of correct c1ass ifieation. These were A = .77; B = .73 ; D =.41; and E = .88 . F and G contained no correct c1a ss ificat.ions due lO the small sample size.To check the possible variation of WSPE between we lldrained savacnas with difrereot wet-season lengths, the 61 meleorological data sets from the stations ¡oca led in the savannas were su bdivided inlo three groups wi th 6, 7, and 8 months of wel season, respectivel y, and the total wet-season POT ET values and the wet-sea so n average monthly POT ET values of the groups were compared. Table 3-3 sho ws tha t there is no significa nt difference between the lota 1 wet-seaso n POT ET values for savannas having a 6-, 7-, or 8-month wet season (P > .2). On the other hand , it shows that the monthly average wet-season POT ET values are signincantl y differem (P < .001). The monthly average wet-seasOn POT ET val ue s decrease with ao ¡ncrease in the length of the wet season .lt is clear that the WSPE throughout the well-drai ned savanna regioos is virtually constant. In Figure 3-6, the group of well-drained savannas (cluster code B) falls in a compact band right across t he cen ter of the cluster diagra m, indicaling that they can be difrerentia ted on WSPE alone . lndeed, the range of WSPE experienced is remarkably small in spite of considerable difference nol only in wet-season length, but a lso in wet-season tempera tures.Fo r any given month , providing that MAl is high enough to allow relatively unreslricted wa ter avaílability, the actual evapo tra nsp iration wo uld closely follow the POT ET under the nalural vegetation co ver. Therefore, Ihe WSPE approx imales the a nnual consumptive water use ofthe vegetation. As s uch , the WSPE is a proxy es timate of the a mount of annual energy th e sa vanna vegetatían can use for growth in t he a bsence of ¡rrigalion. It follows, th erefore, thal (he savannas o ecupy a well -defined habi tat del imited by the ciimatic pOlential far growth ; t his pOlential is greater [han that of deciduous forests but less than that of evergreen and semievergreen forests. Subtropica l vegetaríon classes, although dependent on WSPE, appear to be further differentiated, as expected, b y growing-season temperalUre. The group o f decidu o us forests (cluster code A) is a composite group. Caatingas, [he thoro scrub of norlheasl Bra zil, may be differentiated from this group using the dr y-season mo isture availabil ity index ( DSMA) , as shown by Figure 3-7. The DMAI indicates the intensity of the dry season, as opposed merel y 10 i l S length . It is Ihe mean monthly moislu re availability index of the dry-season months (t hose with an MAl < 0.34), corrected to run fro m ze ro to 1, where 1 = an average dr y seaso n monthl y MAl of 0.33; thus \"zero\" is the mOs t severe rating.Furthe r work needs lO be ca rried out lo exa mine the climate-vegetatí o n interrelationshi ps more thoroughly ; nevertheless , the finding th at WSPE regimes follow major vegetation c1asses provides for a belter understanding of th ese interrela tionships . In the context of tropical South America, with its rapidl y expanding agricultural fro nt iers , where as often as not little or no recorded climatic dat a are available, it is evident that the natural vegetat io n growing 00 well-drained soils can be used a s a guide 10 ex trapolatingclimatic patteros.The WSPE re gi mes within Ihe maj o r vege tation zones were consequentl y used to help defi ne eli matic subregions (Map 3). T ogether with the length of the wet SeaSOn and the WSMTs, th ey provide a convenient subdivision oft he region into [¡ve main a nd [wo less-defined cli mat ic subregions, summari zed in Table 3-4 . WSPE approximates the to tal annual energy available for plant grow th , a ss uming tha t th e soils hold suffic ie nt moisture to enable nons tress growlh for at leas! a week under the prevailing POT ET re gimes . Further, only th e natural rainfall at the 75% probability level is co nside red, without sup plemental irrigation. \"20    Other vege tation on predominate ly poorly drained or seasonally flooded lands.i f¡ Table 3-5 . Climatic (jata sclS o f sites loca led in eac h af {he major cllmiltic subregions o f (he cen tral lowland s of I r(l~icil' SO\\ ¡l h Ame,-i :,,!. POT [T   118 .108 . 117 .,f] .12 11 , 120 .124. 13 5.119. -1 6 0 .-1 70 .-1&11 .-58 ..\". 131. 111.   \\5 .-11.-86.-HO . -1 )).-1)1 .-26 .138. H' 9 . 15 2. 9B .-¡ 3.-5 1.-95.\". \".PCT S UN 59 .52 .'1.76. \".' 5.lB.59 .\".7J.\". 57. 7). '1 . 8). Bl . 87 . 76. Approximately 27% of the region faU s into the tropical rain forest sub regio n, (cJimatic code a) mainly in the westerh half of the Amazon basin. The semi-evergreen seasonal forests, (clima tic eode b) eharaeterized by the narrow range of an 8-to 9-month wet season, occupy 38% of the area, mast of it in Brazil cast ofManaus. The isohyperthermic savannas (climatic eode e) , 16% of the region, are well-drained native grassla nd s surrounded by forest vegetatian . The y ¡n elude parts of the Brazilian Cerrados , the northern and western Bolivian pampas, {he easte rn Llanos ofColomb ia , a la rge part ofthe central Llanos ofVenezuela , and parts ofthe Rupununi plains and the Boa Vista and Amapa Cerrados of Amazonia . Climatic subregiotl d, the isothermic savannas, comprises mainly the central plateau areas of the Cerrados of Brazil ; these differ from the Llanos in terms ofa cooler temperature regime. They oeeupy 5% oft he region. Climatie subregion e is comprised of areas covered with deciduou5 vegetation.The characterization of cl ima tic subregions d oes not take into account the differences between well-drained and poorly drained 5avannas. Thi5 fundamental difference betwee n savannas has led 10 a 101 of confusion in the past concerning the nature of sa vannas; poorly drained savannas are found in climatic subregions with 2 to 6 months of dry season, and a wide range of WSPEs, as the edaphie eiroomstanee of waterlogging overrides the elimatie effeeL Tabl e 3-5 shows a meteorological data set from a si te in each of the climatic subregions.In considering the relati onship between WSPE and vegetation, it has been •noted that soil-mois tu re stress is deseribed in terms ofthe climatie potential to supply and extraet soil moisture al a given locatio n du ring a given period oftime, an d the abílity of well-drained, medium-textured soíls to store and supply water. In soils that ha ve less than the medium capacity lo slo re plant-available water, such as sa ndy Spodosols and many Oxisols, vegetation can quíckly suffer moisture slress.Such situations occur bOlh in the Amazon basin and in the Brazilian Cerrados. In Amazonia, Alvim and Silva (1980) note that areas of campinarana vegetatíon (a type of low, open forest) are prevalent on sand y soils with very low moistureholding capacitíes, su rrou nded by soils with higher moistureholding capacities covered in semi-evergeen seasonal forests.(It may be noted that many of these campinarana areas also suffer from a wet-scason hydromorphic condition.)The veranit os are erratie, but often prolonged (10-to 20day) periods with no rai nfall eommonly oeeurring during the 41 \"wet-season\" monlhs of January and February in the Cerrados (well-drained savannas) ofCentral Brazil . They are often cited as the cause of considerable yield reductions in shallow rooting annual crops .Veranicos can usually be identified from lhe monthly meteorological data se ls as comparative d ifferences between the MAr va lues ofthe peak wet-season months of December tO March . For example, a meteorological data set for Lu ziania (see Table 3- A Fresh Approach to Climatic ZoningAlthough the authors of this study do not intend to put forward a universal climatic classification on (he basis oftheir analyses , the wet-season potential evapotranspiration (WSPE) concept has provided a fresh approach for zoning climalic subregions throughout lowland tropical America for no nirrigated, perennial crop production. (t is leading to a better understanding of the regi on and has provided CrAT a basis for. defining broadly comparable c1imalic eondilions for the selecti ng, lesting, and transferring of new pasture plant aeeessions (CrA T , 1980b). This is deseribed in Chapter L The eo ncep t is compatible with the re cen tl y developed theory of unifying principies for water movemenlS in biological tissues, ineluding plants (Coeh rane 1983(Coeh rane , 1984)). Studies , inc1uding those reeently published by Ranzani (1978), will he1p to define more preejsely the ability of the different soils to supply soil moisture and improve the water-balanceestimates for s pecific agricultural syslems.With these photographs, you may take a trip through the various and distinct regions in the central lowlands of tropical South America. You can readily note the differences in topography, vegetation, clima te, and soils and see some of the traditionalland-use systems.  ------------~----~~  , 1977). This chapler describes Ihe topography and vegetation classes used as the bases for delineating land facets in the Land Systems Map.The Brazilian shield, visible as the plateaus of central Brazil and the higher lands of eastern Bolivia, and its more northern equivalent , the Guyana shield, seen mainly in southerp Venezuela, date 10 the Precambrian era. They support the oldest land surfaces in South America . Nevertheless, in sorne places, outcrops of hard granitie rock give these regions a more broken lopography Ihan that often associaled with old surfaces. The landscapes of the two shields are separated by themuch youngerTertiary, Quaternary, and Recent sediments of the Amazon basin. Continental drift theory suggests that these shields were once a part of tlle African continent.The Brazilian shield extends at a relatively shallow depth from the northern plains of eastem Bolivia <at a depth of about 600 m at Trinidad) to the sub-Andean piedmonts. According to Schlatter and Nederlof (1966), Bolivia can be divided into a teclonically higher northern half and a deeper southern half. separated by a tecto níc belt or «fault line\" extending [rom Arica, Chile, on the Pacific coast, to the \"elbow\" of lhe Andes in the environs of the village of Buena Vista about 80 km to the north of the city ofSanta Cruz, and Chapter 4. LANDSCAPES continuing eastward across !he continent. This phenomenon, considered in relation 10 the tremendous centrifugal forces caused by the spinning of the world around its axis over the eons , might provide a possible explanation for the directiona,l change in the lie of the Andes. North of Buena Vista, Ihe Andes swing from a northwest to southwest directíon, resulting in a considerable effecl on climate .Schlatter and Nederlof consider thal the Andean uplift started in mid-Tertiarian times. Movements were spirogenic, and two major Neogene depositional basins were formed : the Altiplano Trough, sandwiched between the Andes, and the Eastern Foredeep. Both received sedirnents mainly from the Andes.At the end of the Pliocene or possibly the slart of the Pleistocene era, the main Andean uplift created Ihe high Andean Cordilleras. These are the result of largely vertical uplift with block faulting (a Germanotype style) and asyrnmetric folds. They are in a stage of active erosiono Erosion is particularly noticeabJe in the sub-Andean foothills, which in many place s show evidence of very recent uplifting. Erosio n, partieularly in parts o[Peru and Bolivia, is taking place in spite ofi the forest cover; , it is dramatic where soft sandstones and conglomera tes are found in the foothill region.The Orinoco , Amazon, and Paraná river systems drain most of the region; they provide walerways for transpon and fishing and are an immense resource for power generation. The Amazon river system is navigable for large, seagoing ships as faJ inland as Manaus, and for quite large vessels as far inland as Porto Velho, the capital of Rondllni. Sta te in weslem Brazil, and to ¡quitos and bcyond in PerlÍ. Small riverboats penetra te much further.h is unforlunate for Bolivia that rapids (rocks belonging lo the Brazilian shield formalion) make the principal Amazonian tributaries, the lower Beni and Madeira rivers, impassable to river craft. To overcome this problem , a railway was built during the height of the rubber boom to link the cities of Guajará Mirim and Porto Velho; this was abandoned in 1966 but is now being rebuilt beca use road transpon has not proven economic in this part of our energy-short world. A hydroelectric power station was recently constructed near Paranaiba on the Paraná river, and immense power reserves exist al Jgua,u, the site of the world's largest power complex under construction on the lower Paraná river(see Photo Plate Major hydro logieal disasters eould well lake place in Ihe coming yea rs over parts ofthe watersheds ofthe Orinoco and. especially , lhe Ama zon rivers, unless the present tendency to encaurage colonization in unstable foothill regions is discontinued. The so-called carretera marginal de la selva (marginal jungle road), presenlly proj eeted to follow along Ihe Andean foolhills, should be rel oealed well into the plains to help avoid [he derores tation of erodable land s by colonists.Map 4 (see Map Plales) summarizes Ihe majo r maerophysiographie regions identified on the Land Systems Map, Ihe diffe rences among which may be appreciated rrom lhe phol ographs in the Plates.This is the lowland regi on of Amazonia between (he sub-. Andean foothills and the Brazilian and Guyanian shields.(  Guyana Shíeld  (Denevan, 1964) has presenled an enigma to areheologislS.The senior author believes that pre-Columbian peoples cultivated their fo od crops on these ¡-aised beds simply 10 raise thern aboye the high , wet-season water tables ofthe regían . lt is interesting to speculate that their majar grain crop was pro bably Job's tears (Coix lacryma Jobi), as this erop is Slill cuhivated by so me of the indigenous peoples in the region.This is the lowland drainage basin of the Orinoco river and its Iributaries. (See Photo Plales 39-45.) [t is largely covered by savannas on bOlh poorly and well-drained lands, bul inel\"des sorne forests, particularly those abutting the western edge of Ihe Guyana shield and in the northeast.This is an area in western Brazil mainly aloog its border with Bolivia . As the name suggests, it ís a lower, poorly drained savanna region. Nevertheless, landscape differences and grades of seasonal inundation exist.This region includes a large part of Ihe watershed for Ihe Paraná river found in soulhern Brazi!. (See Pholo Plates 51-55.) lt is largel y made up ofsavanna and sorne deeiduous forest covering dissected plain surfaces. There are extensive areas of sandy soils in the western portion of Ihese plains.Within the physiog raphie regions, physiographie units were identified to separate distinctive landscapes, using locally recognizable names. As the land systems werc delineated , thcy were assigned numbers identifying them with these physiographic units. These are liSled by country in the glossary lO Part I of Ihe Computer Summary (Vo lume 3). Land Systems, Land Facets, and Mapping ScalesThe descript io n and coding of th e landscape features have been deseribed in ehapter 2. The subdivision of Ihe land systems into land facets emphasizes that landscape is nOl constant, bUl continually varying. As practical fa rmi ng has to cope with a varia tion in land surfaces and 50il5, thedescription of th e land [acets within a land system is clearly important.It should be rem embered that there may be lesser yariatio n5 in topography, yegetation, and soils within a land [acet ; however. ~ome level nf p~npr~li7~tion mllst hl' : \",C':C':~ntNi in making an inventory of land resources. This is ¡nherent in all bUI Ihe mosl d elailed large-seale maps. sueh as individual farm maps. Thereforc, th e gencralization made in classifying the soi ls of the land facets according te their predominant soils is no mOre serious than (h ose c urrently accepted in soil mapping. In fact , the emphasis given la describing land sys tems in terms offacels adds lo the usefulness and precision of Ihis sludy.For very small-scale maps, further generalizations are quite About 79% (649 million ha) of the region is reaso nably well drained . The major part ofth is area , 508 million ha, is eovered by forest, and the remaining 14 1 million ha is covered by savannas . Approximately 77% of the weU-drained lands (497 million ha) has slopes less than 8%, and 23% ( 152 million ha ) has slopes greater than 8%. The relativel y nat lands are often elosely disseeted by smaU streams . In faet , over 86% of the entire arca has perennial Streams al lcss than 10 km intervals and 39% less than 5 km apart (see Photo Plate 43) . There is a signifieantly higher proportion of poorly drained lands in subregion A, the tr opical rain fores ts. Even so, 70% of these areas are well drained  a.Other veg etali on on predominantly poorly drained or seasonally flooded lands.b.Nonclassified. or submontane or subt r opical forest.33,34). Belwee n lhe Andean fOOlh ills a nd the Precam bria n shi eld much of Ihe landsca pe is uniform and ge nlly undulaliog. although il j!; often in terspe rsed with extcnsive areas of poorly drained la nds. By far the largesl area of well-dra ined lands is found in su bregio n B. the tropical semi-evergreen seasonal foresls (see PhOlO Plales 3,5,14). In central , eaSlern, and so ulhern Amazonia . Ihese fores ls are largely intacl, allhough si zeable areas, es pecially in Rondonia statc of Brazil's southern Ama zonia, ha ve beco cut do wn in recent yea rs (se e Photo Pl a le 12).AboUl 73% (189 mili ion ha) of ,h e well-drained lands of subrcgio n B are re lali ve ly nal, wilh ~Iopes les ~ Ihan 8%. The landscape lends lo be less variab le than in o lher subregions. Nevertheless. there are major physiographic differences; a large part is closely dissected by lhe man y tr ib ut aries o f lh e Amazon river.Subregio n C is largely dcfi ned by lhe well-drained isohyperthcrrnic sava nn a lands. Sorne ex tensive areas of nat lands a re found, such as lhe attiJ/anura plains along lhe south bank of the Meta river (l-4 X 10' ha) in Colom bia 's easlern plains (see PhOlO Pla tes 41-43), bUl large tracts of lhese lands are slrongl y disseeted.Subregion D is comprised of lhe isothermic sava nnas , ma inl y eonfined to lhe higher (greal er than 900 m) plateau lands of Cenlral Brazil , and lhe cooler SOllt hern li mils of Brazil's \"Ce rra dos,\" which contain ex tensive tracts of fl at I.nds di sseeted by small valleys (see Photo Plates 16,17,18 ,21,23,26,27).Subregion E eovers a wide range o f topographies.The Land Systems Mapand Figure 3-6 (Chapter 3) su mmarize the distribulion of the nalural. physiognomie vegetation c1asses over the region. The use of physiognomic lerms does nOI imply any preconceived ecological o r climalic condi li ons; lhe desc ripl ion of lhe S3 vanna and foresl classes .used lhroughout Ih e study strictly follow those qua nlila lively defined lerms used by Eilen ( 1968Eilen ( , 1972) ) for lropieal we lldra ined sava nnas and Caatinga and by Eyre (1968) fo r lropieal ro rests. Only the c1assifícation \"seasonally inundaled pa mpas'! has nOl been defincd in a physiognomic sc n se~ th csc pampas refer lO any lowland tropical savanna o r grassland with soils that suffer from prolonged periods o r waterlogging.Aeeording 10 Bernal Diaz( 1975 ), \"savanna\" is a Carib Ind ia n word signi fyi ng \"treeless plain.\" In modern usage, its meaning has been exte nded . Ei te n notes that \"The range in stru ctural forms in cerrad o is completely contilluous in the sense that stands ca n be fo und in any region which ma y be ranged in a se ries from arboreal , tbro ugh all grades ofscrub and st ructural savan ll a, 10 (usuall y) pure grassland or lhe cerrado type.\" This continuil y was recognized by many early travelers and particularly emphasi zed by Smith (1885) . The elassi fiealions used by Eiten for savannas, or Cerrados, are summarized as fo llows.Campo limpo. The rollowing descriplions brieny ide nt iry lh e tropica l fo rest e1assifi cations (see Pla tes), as used by Ey re.Tropical rain foresto MoS! lrees a re eve rgreen in habit, casti ng their lea ves and growing new ones continuously a nd simultaneous ly (see Photo Plales 8-10). Some may shed a Ulheir lea ves for a sho rl period al irregular intervals. La rge lrees may devel o p plank bumesses, alt hough lhese are more eommon in areas with impeded drainagc. The trunk.s of cerlain trees, especiaily \"Iower story\" trees. such as cacao, may bear nowers and fruiL This phenomenon is termed \"caulinory,\" and the bar k of sueh tre es is usua ll y very lh in . Pál ms may be prese nt , but not in the great numbers found in poorly drained areas.A tropical ra in forest is usually well over 30 m in hcight. StatisticaJ ap praisal would in dicate that it has a three-tiered Slruclure. Under theorten-open uppercano py ma y be found a layer of s maller trecs. and , in tu rn, below th is, a lower \"story.\" Trees in the different layers a re frequently specifical-Iy adapted 10 particular nic hes within the microclimatic an d structural com plex of lhe ro rest, and are nol necessarily si mpl y ímmature forcs t giants. Thu ~, trees in the lower forest layers largely consist o f speeies adapled lo reduced' lighl conditions.Usually a large number O r Iree species exists in any one area . These co mmonly belon~ to the Rosaceac . Compositae. and Leguminosae ramilies. Lianes iind epiphytes are comman.Thc shrllb layer is poorly developed (oftenjust a few ferns a nd seedlings), and, for this reason , it is usually quile easy la walk through a tropical rain rorese.These foreSlS generally ha ve a two-Iayered structure, may reach heights of 25 rn or considerably more when growing on inherenlly ferlile soils, and possibly 20 lo 30% of lhe upper canopy trces lose lheir Icaves in lhe dry season. Apparently, many of Lhe cvcrgreen species of lhe upper ¡ayer 3fe facultalively decidu ous. In other words, lhey ha ve the ability to lose their Icaves in an extreme dry season. A high proportian o f (he lowcr story (rces are evergreen.This type of foresl differs from the tropical rain foresl in othcr respec ts. Fewcr trces are buttressed . In lhe early winler season, many spccies produce nowers, especially Lhe lower layer trees that tend la be small-Ieaved.This fore st (see Photo Plate 19) has two strata. The upper at about 15 m is predominantly deciduous . Evergreen trees are common in the lower layer at 4 to 10 m .Tree spccies differ eonsiderably from (hose found in semievergreen seasonal foresls . They have more gnarled trunks (as opposed lo [he straight trunks of the semi-evergreen seasonal foresls); they branch quite near the ground and have umbrellashaped canopies , or eanopies with distinct horizontal strata, as compared with the compact, conical, or rounded crowns of the weBer forest. Bottle trees, Acacia species, and giant cacti are usually presenl. The b ottIe lree nowers about la le April to May with the late rains, fruits, lhen sheds its lea ves. Sorne palrns that appcar to with,stand drought may also be prese nt. A high proporlion ofthe trees are rnicrophyllous. The forest tends to be poor in lianes.Herbaccous plants, espeeially grasses, are scantil y represenled on the forest noor, although spiny plants, part¡eularly Bromcliaceae speeies, rnay be very cornrnon.These forest elasses correspond to those growing on welldrained soils. The various sub-seres (modifiealion). ecolone eharacleristic (gradations between two groups), and features worthy of special note of any one type of vegetation are not renected in the vegetation eoding. When very different subseres due tú natural pheno rnena were found, e.g. hydroseres (vegctation adapted to wet soil conditions), they were classi-fied with the \"Other\" vegetation classes. Whcn eeotones were founo. they were assigned lo Ihe c10sest vegetation class. Submontane forests. Submontane forests are found al altitudes between about 1000 and 2000 m . The classifications of Eyre were used and noted on the original eoding sheels. These may be surnrnarizeu ¡n the follow¡ng way.• Sub-monlone e~'ergreen foresl. This rorest has a twotiered st ructure with an open canopy of trees reaching to heights of 15 to 20 m . Ferns are eomrnon in the shrub layer. Most of the Iree spccies are either eve rgreen or only shed their lcaves for short periods at irregular intervals.• Sub-m onlane semi-evergreenforesl. This foresl is sirnila r in slructure lO the sub-rnontane evergreen forest in thal il has a doublestraturn oftrecsand an open cai1opy. but is gene rally lower (13 to 16 m) . A notieeable proporlion oftrees shed their lea ves during the June to August periodo Leaf shed in sorne spee¡es ¡s preceded by nowering about April, followed by fruiting.• Sub-monrane detiduous seasonalforesl. This foresl usual-Iy hasa single layer oflrees and lends to be open . Heights vary from about 8 lo 12 m . Thorny scrub and cacti are common in the shrub layer. Almosl the ent¡re forest sheds its leaves for 3 to 5 months of the year.    Lopes and Cox (1972) reported a soil fertilit y sequence fo llowing the relative arboreal biomass conlenlS of a limiled area of the well-drained savannas. Ho wever, as shown in Table 4-2, sueh a sequence was not eonflrmed by this study, with the exeeption of Mg, the signifleance of whieh may require furlher investigation, although it is possibly just a coincidence . There is no doubt that the613 milli on ha ofwell-drained lands in the regioo with slopes ofless than 30%, from aclimate and landscape point of view, represent one of lhe worJd' s majar reserves fo rcrop, past ure, and agroforestry produclion under ra infed conditions. It follows, therefore, tha, their soil conditions should be carefully examined.Well-Drained Isohyperthermic Savannas    • < 3ppm  The soils of the land faeels were fírst elassified as fa r as the Great Group ea[egory of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey S[aff, 1975 ) Th e Land Systems Map and its Legend (Volume 2) delails the soil c1assifíea[ion of the land faeet s within the la nd syslems lO lhe Greal Group level. T able 2-4 (Chapler 2) summa rizes the Grea! Group elasses identified. A summary o f the land facet soil c1assification l O the Grea t Oroup level , logether with equivalents aeeording to the FAO legend , is also ree orded in Part J of Vo lume 3, the Computer Summary and Soil Pro/ile Descriptions. Maps 6 , 7, and 8 (see Map Plates) are small-5cale maps based on cOmpuler printouts illustrating the eXlent of the soil Orders, Subo rders. and Greal Groups.For the convenience o f readers accustomed lo using (h e FAO-Uneseo soil legend , [his soil elassi fí ca ti o n syslem (FAO-Uneseo, 1974) was also used and has been reeorded for [he land facets within the land systems on lhe soi l c1assification legend aceo mpanying lhe Land Systems Map. This has also been eoded to fa:ilila[e map making. Table 2-5 (Chapter 2) su mmar izes th e major soil classes identified by th is system . SoLl cli mate parameters are nOl ¡nheren! in application oft he FAO legend. Maps 9 and 10 are small-scale maps ofthe region using [he FAO legend .Brazilian soil c1assifíeation syslem (Ca margo et al., 1975) with Soil Taxono my and [he FAO-Uneseo soi llegend.So il dassificarion terminol ogy is rega rded by many agronomi sts as so mueh gobbledygook, rc se rved for the special precincl of communication between soi l surveyors. Yet, as ill ustrated by Eswaran (1977), a lo[ of info rmatio n coneeming so il fertilit y is available from soil na mes , particularly in lhe case of soils classified according lO Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Slafr. 1975). T able 5-1 li sls the main soil names used , Mois. Sal. gyps . Alk.Ty pe cha ro x '\" ...See Table 2-   Require s high leve ls ofP fertilizcr. Sources and mcthod s o f P fertilizer appli calion should be carefully cOll sidered. k: K-d efi cienl. Lo w ability 10 s upply K. In Tire Lond 87 fo r Ihi s mo difier has been redu ced 10 0 . 15. n: natrie. Highlevelsof sodi um . Requiresspecial soil-management praet ices for a lkaline soi ls. s: salinit y. Pre se nce o f so luble sa ll s. Requires s pecial soilmanagement practices . v: vert iso l. C la ye y-textured lo psoi!. Tillage is diffieult when soil is 10 0 mo is t (o r, co nversel y, 10 0 dr y), bul soil scan be highly producti ve . x: x-ra y amorpho us. O ften high P-fi xati o n capacity.Many of these conditions nawrally occur together in the cenlrallowlands of Iropical America (Map 11).The FCC indexes the common information a soil fertility specialisl examines when sludying soit analytica l data for po tential limitations. lt provides a convenient checklist of potential constraints and is a very handy supplement to the compuferized soil chemical data .Soil survey reports co nta in a wealth o f soi l profi le analyses; most nat ional soillaborato ries furnish guidelines for interpreting these analyses . A lot of informa tion can be obtained from such dala, bUI Ihey mUSI be intcrpreled in Ihe lighl of crap requirements.In the land-syslems study, an innovation was introduced te provide a guide te soi l-nutrient levels: le veis were detai led in terms of crop requ irements. For example, P levels aredescribed as low (inadequate for most crops ex cepl those toleran! 10 low levels), medium (inadequale for crops requiring high levels of Ihe nUlrienl), and high (adequate for mOSI crops). This approach should provide a c1earer idea ofsoi1 nutrient levels , parlicula rly for Ihe ferlilily s pecial is l faced wilh choosing bas ic field trial treatments and developing fertili zer recommendations for new genelic materials, especially th ose purported to have partial tolerance 10 toxi c elements, s uch as Al and Mn , or to prü<.' uce satis faclorily with low levels of soil nutrienls such a s P .The distribution , by area, .of soils of fhe regio n is shown in Table 5-3 al Ihe Order, Suborder, and Greal Group levels. (This lable is considered lentalive and subj ec l 10 change as more delailed surveys beco me available.) AII 10 soil Orders are represented in the region ; ho wever, because o f their lim ited extent , H is toso ls and Vertisols are no t s hown in Maps 6 , 7, and 8.The majorilY of Ihe soi ls are classified as Oxisols and Ullisols, which logelher aecounl for 66% of Ihe region . F o llowing in extensiveness are the En tisols with abou t 19% , m os l o f which are o f alluvial origin found along [he river network . The remaining orders co ver relatively small areas , bUI Ihey are locally imponanl: Alfisols cover 6.7%; Incepliso is, 6.3%; and Spodosols, Mollisols,Aridisols, Verlisols, and HislOsals, wilh less Ihan 1% alllOgelher. Table 5-3 also shows Ihal 48% of Ihe regi o n is included in five Greal Groups: Haplo rlhox (18%), Tro pudults (10% ), Acro rlhox (8%), Fluva-  (Sánchez and Buol , 1974). A soi l Order that attraets atte ntion is the Spodosols, also known as Podzols, Ground Wa te r Podzols, and Giant Tropical Podzols, including their deeper variants as Psam ments. These soils are derived from coarse sandy materials and a re found in elea rly definable spots in parts of the Amazon away from the flood plains. Native forest ve getat ion is often different from that found on Oxisols and Ultisols. It is ealled campinaranas in Brazil. The Projeto Radambrasil reeentl y ident ified large a reas of Spodosols along the headwaters ofthe Ri o Negro, whieh largely aeeount fo r the color of this river; wa te r passing through Spodosols characteristically carries suspended organic matter. Table 5-4 sho ws one example near the Ducke Forest near Man aus. Because of this extreme in fe rtility and suscepti bil ity to eros io n, it would be better to leave the Spodosols jn th ei r natural slate. Unfortunately, they have received more scientific attention than they deserve in terms oftheir areal extent ( 1.4% of the region) . Therefore, the resea rch on tropical Spodosols in the internationa l literature (Klin ge, 197 1, 1975 ;Stark, 1978;Sombroek, 1966Sombroek, , 1979) ) should be kept in perspeetive ; furth er, under no circumstances should results be extrapoJated to the dominant Oxisols and Ultiso ls.Well-drained fertile soils. Unfortunately only about 5.2% of the region has well-drained soils high in native fert ili ty. These a re classified mainly as Tropudalfs and Paleustalfs (Terra Roxa Estruturada), Eutropepts (Eutrie Cambisols), Tropofl uvents (well-drained Alluvials), Argiudolls (C hernozems), Eutrustox and Eutror tho x (Te rra Roxa Legítima), and Chromuderts (Vert isols). Nevertheless, they represent a total of 42 million ha, and, where they occur, permanent agricu lture has a better chance of success.The Terra Roxa soil s combi ne high native fert ilit y with exeellent physical properties; Table 5- Laterite or plinthite hazard. The area ofsoils with plinthite in the subsoil (Plinthaquox, Plinthaqu ults, Plinthudults) is limited . They total about 46 million ha, or 5.6% oft he regio n. This point deserves em phasis, given the broad general-¡zation that many tropical soils, if brought into prod ucti on, will be irreversibly tra nsformed int o hardened plinthite or laterite . The5e three Great Groups are the only soils where this phenomenon ca n occur. However, as th e soft plinthite is in th e subsoil. th e lopsoi l has 10 be fi rst removed by erosion and th e remaining soU dried out before irrevers ible hardening lo laterite can take place. Since th ese 50ils occur mainly on nat and often poorly drained landsca pes, eros ion is not likely to be extensive.lt should be noted that many poorly dra ined subsoils of oth er soil Great Groups ha ve mottled co lors resembling phinthite, but are, in fa ct , mixtures of 1: J and 2: I clay minerals (Tyler et al., 1978). The subject of hardened plinthite ; eSoil profiJe analyses of some typical 50il5 found throughout the central lowlands of tropic(il1 South America.   . ' Tro(?:ical rain fores! b = Semi -evergree n sea 50nal ro resl , \"     Afler lhe soils of lhe land faeels were elassified, they we re described in terms of their ph ys ical and chemica l properties. This chapter summarizes these properties. The c1assification of soils on the basis of physica l properlies is designed to evaluate their suitability ror erep production fro m a physieal slandpoinl: in lhe words of F. Hardy (sludenl notes), to study (he \" roOl room\" of a soil , or its physica l charac teristics as a growth environment ror roOlS, tubers, and underground Slems and ti ssues oCall kind s, including nodules for sy mbiotic ni lrogen fixation. The classification conlains lhe fael o rs neeessar y 10 a pply lhe leeh nique developed by Mansfield (1977) for assessi ng land ea pabilily fo r erops based on sod ph ys ícallimitations. It also contains the information necessary lo use th e soi1 Fertility Capability Classification (FCC) method of Buol el al. (1975).Allhough there are important physica llimitations, such as poor drainage, in 21 % of the region, severe erasi on hazard in 8%, and va rying degrees o f droughl stress a ll over , th e physieal properties of the soi! in lhe La nd Syslem s Map can be generally considered favo rable.Ma p 12 (see Map Plales) is a eomputer-based map of soil texture to the 50 cm depth according to the FCC crite ria . Table 6-1 shows the labular dala by elimalic a nd topogra phie subdivisio n. The most extensive textures are loamy (L) (18-35% el ay) and loamy over a e1aye y subsoil (LC). These L and LC cla sses lOgether account for 550/, of th e soil s. Unifo rm ly elayey (C) pro fil es aeeounl for 26% o flhe area , the remainder being divid ed by shall ow soils over rock and oth er te xtural combinati ons. Table 6-1 shows that there is a physica l barrier 10 roo t development al 50 cm or less in 15.8 millio n ha (2% of lhe region) . Sandy lopsoi l 'extures a re also imp onant. Chapter 6.T a ble 6-I also provides a sy nthesis of lhe slope e1asses of the region. Flat, poorly drained lands eover 2 I % o flhe region. Of lhe weJl -drained land s, aboul61% have level lo genlle slopes (O lo 8% , Iopes). T o pography is roJling (8 lO 30% slopes) in 14% of the region , and sleep (more than 30% slopes) in the remaining 4% . The prese nce of a textural change within 50 cm of lhe soil surfaee, su eh as LC, SL, and SC, makes lhe soils susceptible to erosion, parti cularly on steep slopes. Table 6-1 also sho'ws Ihal 64.8 mili ion ha (8 % of the regi on ) have soil s with a s harp lexlural (SC, LC) ehange on slopes grealer lhan 8% , or have shall ow soils (LR and CR) . The deep soils wilh textural changes, mostly classified as Ultisols or Alfiso ls, are generally qu ite susceptible to erosioo unless protected by a plant canopy during peri ods of heavy rajns.Indiscriminam fores t clearing , es pecially in hiHy regi ons, often leads lo serious so il erosion and also in creases the rate of flow of water (a loog with lopsoil) away from catchment areas. This, in turo. provo kes flooding from ri vers. often man y miles downstream . 1t is a particul arly serious problem in parts of th e sub-Andean foothills where \"col onization\" is proceeding apace. For example, in Bolivia , th e greater frequency and intensity ofnooding in recent years, al Trinidad, a city located near th e Mamore river in the middle oC the Mojos Pampas , can be associat ed with [he unco ntrolled and excess ive fores! clea ring by seu!ers in the Chapare district , a major sub-Andean ealehmenl regi o n of lhal rive r (Cochrane, 1973 ). Such probJ ems can onl y be avo ided by ensuring that co lonizers have as littl e access as poss ible into th e sub-Andean footh ills: i.e .. that major road syste ms are loca led well inlo the plains areas .The definiti on of sod Grear Groups and theirextent (shown in Table 6-1) permit s a calculatíon ofthe relati ve importance of soil -moislure regim es in the region , as defined in Soil Ta xo no my (Soil Survey Slaff, J 975). About 61 % oflhe region has an udic or perudic soi l-m o isture regi me . indicating that lhe subsoil is moist during 9 or more months per year. Approxim alely 21% of the area ha s an aquí c reg ime , indicati ng lhe presence of wate rlogged conditions in sorne parts of th e solum during th e yea r. The remaining 18% has an uSlic regim e. which indicates that [he subsoi l is dry for more than 90 bUl less lhan 180 eonseeu tive days during the yea r.The moistur e situatí o n is nol as clear as these figures_' '-e 10 g 'j Q '\"suggest beca use su bregi on B, wh ic h CQvers a large expanse of the Amazon , ¡neludes both udie and ustic soil~mo i s ture regimes in well-drained soils as presenll y defined ( Ra nza ni. 1978) in delailed soil-waler balance slUdies done near lhe edge ofsubregion B (Marabá , Pará), which are c1assified as welldrained soils in ustic suborders. Cochrane el al. ( 198 1) ha ve compared lhe c lassifiealion of the ma in so ils in the regio n al the Greal Group level with mo isture-regime c1asses and tOla l wet~sea s o n eva po transpiralion regi mes ( WSPE) (Table 6-2). There is a n approximale relatio nship , presumably beca use the definitian of moisturc regimes provi des for a bread se para tia n of the Great Groups . Howe ver , lhere is lhe implicalion lhallhe definilion o f WSPE reg imes, or an equivalent a pprox imation o f\" usa ble energy\" regimes as accorded by annual water balance patterns, co uld Icad to a n irnproved classification of soi ls in the tropics. The definitions of soil-rnoisture regirnes according 10 Soil Taxonorny, incidentally. are c urrentl y un de rgoing review beca use of ce rlain doubts as la the ap plicability of the present criteria to tropical circums lanees ( A . van Wa mbeke, pers. co rnm. , 1980).Classification conside rations aside, it is releva nt. to poi nt out that mast soils in sub re gio n 8 suffe r from temporary moist ure stresses during 3 t04 mon ths ofthe yea r; thisaffects planl growlh. The c1early defined dry season in lhe sava nna s makes th is situa tion mo re obvio us, especially in [he welldrained soils of su bregio n C and D . Eve n in lhe c1Carl y udie soil-mo isture regim e of subregi on A, temporary soil moisture st res s occu rs sporadica lly and severe ly affects crops like upland rice a nd com ( Band y, 1977). Thu s il a ppears lhal sha ll ow-rooted annual pla nts growing 00 most well-d rained soi ls in the reg ion ca n suffer from lack of water during so rne par! of lhe year.Map 13 illustrales lhe 50i l moiSlure-holding ea paeilies of soils lh rougho ul lhe regio n. Mo re delailed or e ro p-specifie studies must take su eh capacities ioto grea ter account.It is pertineot to note [hat th e physieal properlies of most Amazon forest and many sava nn a soi ls are generally quite good . The d o minance of eoarse gravelly l opsoi ls underlain by pl inthite in much of West Africa ' s equivale nt to su bregio n B poses major limitatio ns to the deve lo pment of permanent agricullure in lhal vaSl regi o n (La l el a l., 1975). As nOled in C hapter 5, this situation is virlua Hy nonexiste nt in tro pical South Ameriea. Hardened plinthite or la ter ite o utero ps do occu r, but in geomorphicCJlly pred ictable pos itions in the landsea pe , such as o n edges of peneplains or plateaus that have been dissec led by streams and rive rs . Th ese are co mmon in t he Guyanian and Bra zilian shield s, a nd in the Tertiary surfaces of the Amazon and Orinoeo basins . Laterite outcrops occur in the high Llanos o f eas tern Colo mbia near Cari magua (see Ph OIO Plale 44), an ICA (Institu lo Colombiano Agro pecuario) National Agricu ltural Research Center where ICA and CIAT work coo peralively in crop , paSlure, and short-term resea rc h . These o utc ro ps provide excellent lo w-cos t road-building materia ls and, consequenlly, reduce the cost of opening up man y hinterland arcas. In fa et, the lack of la le rite in many areas is a definite constrain t to roadSoil chemical properties ror bOlh the topsoil (0-20 cm) and s ubsoi l (21-50 cm) were coded and summa rized as detailed in the glossary to Part 1 or Volume 3. Sorne aspects or this coding and definition merit additional comment.pH (p H in wa te r, 1: 1 soil to waler ratio). A pH less lhan 5.3 was considered a realisti c level to sepa rate sails wi.th a polenlial Al 10xici lY problem. Above pH 5.4 , Al is virtuall y insoluble and nOl reund either in the exchan ge co mplex or in lhe soil Solulion; below a boul pH 5.31he amounl or Al in soil solution may be significant. Therefore, pH 5.3 gives a erude criticallevel for identifying th ose soils for which the equation devel oped by Cochrane el al. (1980) ror eSlimaling lhe liming requirements o f acid mineral soils might profitably be use d . The lelter \"h\" was used 10 code soils wilh a pH less lhan 5 .3; lhis is lhe same le!ter used by lhe FCC syslem (Buol el al, 1975), and lhederinilion approxima les lhe philosophy o rlhe FCC definilion or soi l acidilY.Exchangeable Al (Al exlra cted by IN KCI). The lev els used afe considered tentative and mainly applicable to soils with a low effective cation-exchange capa city.This is a first attempt to equate soil-nmrient levels with crop needs in lhe sense:adequale for mosl cro ps ina dequa te for crops requiring high ¡e veis of the nutrient inadequale fo r mOSl crops excepllhose tolerant to low levels of (he nutrient.Exchangeable K (1 N NH, CI exlraclion). In pracliee, there does nol appear to be much dirrerence belween lhe K levels eXlraeled wilh NH,C1 and NH,OAc. The tentative c1ass iricalion o r exchangeable K also qualifies lhe pOlash levels according to the FCC criteria. This stipulates a s an allernative derinition or low K lha llhe soil has less lhan 10% weatherable minerals in the si h and sand fraction within 50 cm or lhe soil surrace, or that K levels a re less than 2% o r lhe sum o r lhe bases, ir the sum or lhe bases is less lhan 10 meq/IOO g soíl.Total exchangeable bases (TEB). This is lhe sum or lhe exhangeable Ca, Mg , K, and Na . In•some acid mineral soils , Mn and even Fe levels obtai ned by ext raction with IN KCl may be high and conlrib ule to lhe TEB. Zinc and Cu levels could al so be included, but in practice are generally so low as lo be ¡nsignificant.Cation-exchange capacity (CEC). This rerers lO lhe erreclive calion-exchange oapaeily (ECEC) cal cu laled by lhe sum or lhe T EB plus Al ( 1 N KCI eXlraelion). The level, less tha n 4 meq/IOO g soil, would correspond approximately lO less lhan 7 meq / IOO g soi l, ir lhe CEC is delermined by lhe sum or the ca lio ns at pH 7.0 , and less than 10 when delermined by lhe sum ortheeations al pH 8.2 (Buol et al.. 1975).Compa ri son ( in perc en lage of t o tal area) o f the well-dra ined Crea l Croup soil c la sses by WSPE-and moi Slu re regime classes .Wet month s WSPE (mm) (no .l t Crea't -Groupb > 1300 1061-1300 900-1060 <900    Olse-n \"Ava ilable p\"The class ifi ca tion of TEB and CEC in terms of high, medium, and low clearly has no direct significance with respect to plant nutrient needs. Nevertheless, ihey are considered convenient groupings lO he lp with {he interpretati on of the so il's abiJity la supply nutrients . When considered logether with o rganic matter cantent and clay mineralogy, they provide an idea ofthe ability ora soil to retain nutrients and its stale of leaching.The percentage of OM is determined by multiplying the organic carbon by 1.7.Bray 11 method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945). In very approximate terms. Table 6-3 gives a compa rison of P leve ls extracted by the Bray 11 method, Ihe T ruog me thod (Jackson, 1958), and the \"available P\" method of Vettori (1969) . Manganese . The levels refer to M n extracted with IN KCI, defined as low, sa ti sfactory, and toxico The definition of Mn toxici ty as g realcr than 35 ppm ar greater lhan 1% saturation of ECEC is provisional, as plants va ry widely in their abitity tO with'tand high levels of M n in the soil so lu tion.Furthermore , Mn Icvel s le nd to bu ild up, so metimes for relatively short periods, unfler reducing condi lions (Collins and Buo1 , 1969). Salinity. This is the sa linit y of the sa turated extract at 24'C of a soi l samp le taken to a depth of J m. The levels are based on the general values deve loped by the U .S . So il Sal in ity Laboratory Staff(l954) that purport to ident ify those soils wil h sufficie nt salinily lo present prob lems for mosl crops. JI should be nOled, however, tha l sorne crops are susceptible lo a significantly lowcr level of so il salinjty. The 4 mmhos level approximates a 1:2.5 so il-t o-water exlract conductivity reading o f 400 )lmhos .idenlify problern soi ls. Sodium affects clay dispersiory anct moisture availability. The levels refer to readings for soi l samples taken to a depth of 50 cm a nd are th ose limits se t by the U.S. Soil Sali nity Lab o rat o ry ( 1954).Cat clay. T hi s identir,es the presence of acid sulphate soils ( Moorman, 1963). It is identir,ed by the c riterion of pH in 1; I soil-to-water extracts les s than 3.5 after drying or jarosite mottles wi th hues 2.5Y or yellower and ehromas 6 or more with in a dept h of60 cm. Tt is used with this definitio n as an FCC modi r, er: \"c\" = cat e1ay.X-ray amorphous. Oreater than 35% c lay and pH other indir ec t eviden ces oC allophane in lhe clay fraclion of the surfaee 20 cm ofthe soil. This crilerion , the definilion of the FCC modifier \"x,\" purporls lO idenlify soils wilh allophane-dominated minera logy; these often have high Pfixing capacity and low rates of minera lization .Elemenls 01 imporlance mainly lo animal nulrition. T his evalua lion is bas~d purely on specific knowledge aboul deficie nc ies and toxi cities oeeurring in a given area. For exa mple, certain soil areas are associaled wilh iodine deficieney in animals .Whcn examining soil chemical data, it is good praclice lo ide nlify po te ntial soi l toxicity factors firs t. Ihen examine potent ia l defieiencics in Ihe light o f what is likely to occur, once corrective me(t ~ure s have been postulated to overcome Ihe soi l loxicity problem (see Append ix 2). Such an examinatio n mus t be preeonditioned by the appreciation of c1imati c and physica l conditions.Histo rically, Cochrane (1962) examined Minislry of Agriculturefiles dating to Ihe late 18005 in the Caribbean Island of S!. Vince nt and found he was ab le lO detect a hilherto unsuspected relationship between the fertil izer response of cotton varieties and their genetic adaptati o n to acid, infertile so ils . For years it has been assumed that lhe \"best\" var ieties we re lhose that gave the greater responses to the higher fertilize r treatments.Append ix es 3 and 4 provide agronomists faced with the task ofi nvestigatingsoil fertility problems for speci fic crops a more detailed guide as lO wha t may be deduced from exis ting soi l su rvey an d fertilit y evaluation slUdies and how agron omic work might be speeded up to provide field-proven answers for farming practi ce . They use the Llanos Orientales of Colomb ia (the eastern lowland , well -drained plains) a s a case study . Chapter 9 also di scusses thi s topi e.Clearly, any interpretation o fsoil chemica l data (a nd cenain physical dala) mUSI lak e the lole rances of different cro ps and va rieties or cultivars of those c ro ps into account. It may be noted that several Bra zilian wheat varieties have a mu c h greater tolerance lO soil Allhan those developed .in Canada .  as are deficiences of these elements in others . Tra ce element deficiencies, including B, Zn , and Cu , are co mm o nly seen (Cochrane and Sánchez, 1982), and Mo deficiency has been identir,ed in the Bra zilian Cerrados (CIA T, 1980a). Table 6-4 shows (he extent of many of these fertili ty limitalions in lhe regi o n. Table 6-5 disaggrogates Ihe topsoil data according 10 c limatic su bregions and lopographical positi ons. Table 6-6 interprets th ese data in terms of FCC unils.In examining these tables, however. il must be remembered that the figures are large ly based on soil-survey information taken under natural vege ta tion conditions. As shown by Falesi ( 1976), in lhe semi-evergreen forest circumslance with a large biomass conte nt, burni ng in Silu ca n result in returning !O Ihe soil very large quanlit ies ofbases, including K and Ca , thu s completely ch anging the chemical characteristics of the lo psoi!. T he su bsoil condilions ma y also be affected as nutrients leac h from the lopsoil. Soil acidily. T ables 6-4 and 6-5 show Ihal 75% oflhe region has soil pH values lower than 5.3, indicaling n Ol only an ac íd reaction but a lso the presence of pote ntia ll y toxic levels of exchangeable Al for many crops. The proponion of acid soi ls is less in l he Oat , poorly drained lop ographies (52%). Map 14 is a computer printout composition map of topsoil (0-20) pH levels ove r Ihe region . Soil acidily is indicated by the \"h\" modifier in Table 6-6 .Aluminum toxi ci ty in plants is th e main co nsequence of extreme soi l acidily. Plant species and cu ltiva rs within a s pecies differ in their to lerance to A l; this isexpressed in term s of the peree ntage of Al sa turation of th ei r effective ca tionexchange capacity (ECEC). Sorne planls se nsitive to Al suffer al level s as low as 100/0 A l saturation, In general, however, when there is 700/ 0 Al sa tu ra tion or more with in th e lOp 50 cm, the soil is considered Allo xic . Such soils have been assigned Ihe \"a\" modifier ofthe FCC syslem.  shows Ihat 358 million ha, or44%, ofthe soils in the region are poten li ally Al to xic in lhei r natura l state. Map 15 is a compu ter printout composition ma~ of lopsoil (0-20 cm) Al sa turalion levels over the regio n. Map 16 shows a computer map ofthe Al sa luration levels in th e su bsoils (2 1-50 c Ol)of Ihe region . It ma y be nOl ed tha t there are si gnificant c hanges in the distributi o n of lhe subsoil levels as co mpared wilh the lopsoil levels . Table 6-   qu irements, along with the use of crop cultiva rs with a certain tolerance to high soil Al levels, are important agrotechnologies for the agricu ltura l development of lhe region . Consequently, the estímation of a mini mal \" liming need\" can lead lO the more effective USe oflime and considerable savings in food production .Phosphorus deficiency.  indicates that 86% of th e region's soils have topsoi l available P levels lower than 7 ppm, according to the Bray Il method. Map 17 (see also Chapter 7) shows the distribution of available P levels in the topso ils over the region, and Map 18 (see Chapter 7) shows the distribution of subsoi l P levels. Since the generatly recognized adequacy level of Ihis method for annual crops in Ihe vast majority of soils in the area are deficient in P fo r most annua l crops. Fortunately, this widespread P deficiency is nOI accompanied by a widespread high P fixation capacilY (see Map 19).  show that an estim .. ed lOO million ha , just 12% of the region, have soils Wilh a hig h P-fi xation capacity, as defined by lhe \"¡\" modifier o f FCC. Only thos e lopsoils wi lh more than 35% clay conlents and wilh a high pro portio n of iron oxides prese nl are conside red high P fixers (SAnchez and Uehara, 1980;SAnchez et al., 1980). This situation is largely Jimited lo clayey Oxisols and Ultisols, and, among them, only those having lhe \"Ci\" nOlalion in the FCC system. Phosph orus-sorpti on isothe rm s. conducted with soil samples of Ultisols from Peru and Brazi l by Norlh Carolina Low potassium reserves. Table 6-5 s ho ws Ihal aboul58% oflhe region (477 mili ion ha) has soils wilh low K availabilily. Table 6-6 indica les a lower figure, as soils wilh \"g\" (gley) o r \"d\" (dry) modifiers are nOllaken inlo accoun!.Ih is effecllends lo be short-lived, unless rapid recycling lakes place . In sava nna regions , seasonal burn s do liHle lO ¡ncrease Ihe invariably low IeveJs of Ihe soils. Consequenlly, Ihis is an important economic constraint in the region . Map 20 illus-Ira les levels of pOlash in Ihe lopsoil Ihroughoul Ihe region .Low calcium and magnesium levels.  shows Ihal 39% of Ihe region (315 mili ion ha ) has soils wilh low Ca levels and 29% (236 million ha) low Mg levels. Burning ECEC is an important soil constraint beca use of lhe susce plibilily of K lo leaching from Ihe so il profile and Ihe danger of creating serious nutrient imbalances amoog catioos such as K, Ca, and Mg. Tables 6-4 and 6-5 show Ihal approximalely 242 million ha (30% of Ihe region) have Ihis condilion in Ihe lopsoil, and 414 million ha l50%) have il in Ihe subsoil. Low ECEC is more prevalenl in subregions B and C and occurs mainly in Oxisols, sandy-Iexlured Ullisols , and all Spodosols.Rapid leaching losses and serious K-Mg imbalances have been recorded in Ullisols io Peru (Villachica, 1978: Villa chica andSánchez, 1980).Sulphur deliciency. McClung (1959) found severe sulphur deficiencies in a greenhouse trial with soi ls from the sta te of Goiás, Brazil, in soils described as Humic Latosols (Acruslox) and io a sandy Terra Roxa Mixlurada lRhoduslalf) in Sao Paulo. The common occurrence ofS deficiency in Ihe soils of Cenlral Brazil has been confirmed by several consequent studies, including the recent greenhouse trials on Ihe Oxisols ofPlanallina reporled by CJA T l 1980a). Although few rield-trial results seem to have been recorded , S deficiency is probably a major constraint in many savanna soils where sulphur is losl Ihrough burning. Sulphur deficiencies have also been reporled by Wang el al. (1976) in riee in várzeas (nood plains) along the Jarí river io eastern Amazonia .Deliciencies 01 other nutrients. The regio n is a heaven for scientisls interested in nutrient deficiencies. In the Ultisols of Yurimaguas , for example, deficiencies of all essential nutrienl elements except for Fe and CI have been recorded in annual crops (Villachica and Sánchez, 1980). In addition to N, P, and K deficiencies, the most widespread o nes seem lo be Mg, S , and Zn. The limiled dala base for Ihese parameters impedes a geographic appraisal ofwhere specific deficiencies occur and their relationship to soi1 properties.Constraints occurring together.  shows how several of these constraints occur together on th e same land units, as defined by the various FCC modifier combinalions. Only aboul 42 mili ion ha (5% of Ihe area) showed' no majar fertility limitations. The rest showed various combinalions of Al loxicily la), acid bUI nOI All oxic (h), low ECEC (e), low K reserves (k), high P fixalion (i), poor drainage (g), and dry season droughl slress (d). The mOSI frequenl combinations in\"olved Al toxicity, low K rese rve. low ECEC. and high P fixalion. Clearly Ihe FCCsyslem does nOllake low or insufficiency levels of phosphorus into accounl , only pmenlial P fixation. Low levels of Pare virtually universal in the Oxiso ls and Ultisols of the region.Because of the basic importance of P for crop production throughout the region, recent advances and means or ways of correcting these deficiencies are described in Chapter 7. Table 6-5. Aereal extent (mi\\\\ion ha) of sorne topsoil (0-20 cm) and subsoil (20-50 cm) chemical properties within the topographic subdivisions of the climatic subregions of central lowland tropical 50uth America.b = Semi-evergreen e = {Semi-)deciduous a ::; Tropical rain farest seasonal farest c = I sohypertherm ic sav.anna Chapter 7.Phosphorus is undoubtedly one of the mosl severely limiling elernents in the acid, infertile soils of tropical Latin America, as shown by Ma ps 17 and 18 (see Map Pla les). Total P ranges from on ly about 200 10 600 ppm and available P (Bray lJ) fram I [O 7 ppm. It is obvious that, toefficiently ¡ncrease crap produetion , phosphate fertilizer must be added to these soils and plan[ species that are efficient P users must be selected. Because of (he acid reaetían of most sails in lhe region (p H 4.0-5.5), sorne soils, especially in the central savanna area, are high in free Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides whieh lend 10 ra pidl y fix large amounts of P (Map 19). This is espeeially so when it is applied in soluble fOTms 5uch as monoa rnmonium phosphate (MAP), diammonium phosphate (DAP), single superphosphate (SSP), o r triple su perphosphate (TSP) (Fenster and León, 1979).To develop a sound , economic P-rnanagement stralegy for pastures and craps grown on the acíd, infertile sails of tropical Latin America, several strategies might be taken into considerallan. These ¡nelude bUl are nol necessa ril y limited lO: (1) use of eheaper, less-so lu ble forms ofP sueh as phosphate rock (PR) or panially aeidulated PR ; (2) use of soil amendments to enhanee the availability of soil-applied P; (3) determining o ptimal place ment and rates of P fertilizer LO increase jts effieieney. bOlh initially and residually; a nd (4) seleetion of plant species that will tolerate relatively low levels ofavaiJable soil P.The use of phosphate roek (PR) as a P souree for erop praduction appea rs both economically and agranomically attractive for much of the region . NOl only is [he unir cost of the P much lower-one-third to one-fifth that ofTSPor SSP (lFDC , 1979)-bul also the residual value of the produet is ¡ikely to be equal to or greater Ihan that of the more soluble P ~.. -~'-' \"' i . ~~;\" :\",: ,. .'Based on agronomic evaluation or phosphate rock rrom 18 .'Paulina.Olinde separa te deposits around the world , il can be generaJized that rocks with citrate-soluble P greater than 17% or the total P can be ranked as havinga high potcntial for diree! application.Those with 12-17% citrate-soluble P would be considered in the medium range. while rocks with less than 12% or the total P beingcitrate soluble wo uJd be expected 10 perform relatively poorly when compared to the initial crop re sponse possible with water-soluble P fertilizers or the highly reactive phosphate rocks. Figure 7-2 iHustrates these differences with res ults from a short-term greenhouse experiment with P supplied by a number of rocks from South America. While sorne rocks performed nearly as we!! a s TSP, a large range in effectiveness can be observed. Depending on soil properties, crop type , and management , finely ground rock with high, medium , and low citra te solubilities generall y has effectiveness ra nge s of 80-1 OO. 50--80, and 30--60%, respectively, when compared to the initial crop re sponses to TSP. Recent sludies on residual value o f phosphate sources show that. even for the low-reaclivity rocks in sorne soil-crop combinations, lhe ¡n¡lial differences between sources diminish with time. Table 7-1 . in fae!, shows tha! there has been significant response lO P but no difference between sources in total yield of Brachiaria decumbens rollowing 4 years or production, despite the ract that yields d uring the first cUlling rollowed the levels predicted by citra te solubility_ Research has also shown lhat dustiness, one of the main objectionabte properties of phosphate rock, can be eliminated without 1055 or errectiveness when granula ted or \"minigranuJated.\" as it is called, to a size range of 50 lO 150 mes h (TyJer screens). These minigranules are consistently equal to or nearly as effective as powdered rack . In contrast, conventional granulalion (6-to 16-mes h (TylerJ granules) substantially reduces the agronomic effectiveness of the rack_In sorne situations there is a need for a phosphate fertilizer inlermediate in water solubility between directly applied, finely ground rock and conventional, fully acidulated ferlilizers. This need is most apparent where the reactivity of available phos phate rock is too low to provide the P requirements of plants for rapid establishment or for crops with a short growing seaso n, Parliall y acidulated phosphate In recent studies it has been observed that phosphoric acid (H,PO,) is highly errective in increasing the initial Pavailability or low-reactivity phosphate rock s, using only 10-20% or the amount necessary to make triple superphosphate (Hammond et al. , 1980)      One of (he problems encountered with so rne of che p. deficient, acid, infertile soils of tropical Latin America is their high p-rixation capacity (see Map 19). To decrease this fixation capacity, soil amendments , such as lime or Ca silicates , a re sometimes applied. It is important here te note that the concept of adding lime to ¡ncrease production through util ization of the native P in the so il is probably erroneous in the acid, P-deficient soils of tropica l Latin America si nce the total amoun! of P in these soi ls is so low. The concept of adding time to ¡ncrease or maintain the ava ilability ofap plied P, however, has merit.For exam ple, a greenhouse experiment wa s conducted using a Carimagua Oxiso l, in which varying rates of P were applied with combinations of Ca silicate, lime, and Mg oxide (CIA T , 1977). In al! cases , the addition of one or more of the ,,. ... 1. ; ... The main problem encountered with many of the Pamendme nt expe rim ents is determining if ¡he lime or Ca si licate is enhancing the availability of the a pplied P or whether there is an additionallime and/o r nutrienl response. On these acid so ils, Ca, and Mg defici encies a re common , so (he additio ns of amendment s ma y very well be resp o nses lO lhese cal ions. Resea rch by Smyth ( )976) in Brazil would indicate, however, that there is definitel y an amendmenl effect of decrea sing P fixation from both th e lime and Ca silicale (Table 7-2).Placement 01 phosphorus. In lropica l Lal in America, P fertili 'lat ion of pastures has generally followed the classical approach of broadcasting and in co rporating basic slag or superphosphale during establishmenl, followed by h , been conducted lo ascenain lhe effecl of P placement on establishmenl of paslure and annual erops (León and Fenster, 1979).Preliminary results from a continuing experimenl al the Quilichao experiment slation near Cal i, Colombia ( Fenster and Leó n, 1979) indieate that broadeasting P is superior to banding in growing Pan;cum maximum and Andropogon gayanus pastures (Figure 7-3). Neverlheless, in this same experimen t, broadeast plus band applieation of P gave the highest yields . This would suggesl that banding is important in establishing these pastures, but broadcast trea tments are necessary for mainlenance.It is also probable in ve ry low P-5upply ing so il s, Ihat when only banded P is applied, root growth is restrieted lo the band area; thus the plant s are susceptible 10 drought , even during short periods when it does not rain . Shorl periods of drought are cammon in many Oxisols and Ultisols because oftheir low water-ho lding eapaeity.In another experiment initiated by León and Fenster (1979) with Brachiaria d.cumbens a l Quiliehao, Ihe highest yields were realized with 100 kg P,O,/ ha of TSP broadeasl and incorpo rated . ln this ca se, broadcast and in corporation ofthe TSP was superior to Olher methods of applieation . When a basal Ireatment of 100 kg P,O,/ ha as phosphate roek was •broadcast and inco rporated , however, there was no difference in yield due 10 method of appliea lion of TSP. Nevertheless, yield ine reases due 10 P levels were evide n\\. For the establis hment of Brachiar;a decumbens, it apparently is n01 necessary tO apply more th an 50 kg P,O,/ha as TSP. Long-term experiments by Yosl et al. (NCSU, 1973. 1974, 1975) wilh corn al the Cerrado Center Station near Planaltina in Centra l Brazil indieate that a eombina tion of broadcast plus bandplaeed P is Ihe most promising strategy.beeo conducted with a number of crops to determine the P rates necessary to maximize production , bUI only one is discu ssed in th is section . Hammond and León (CIAT, 1977) established an experiment o n a Carimagua Oxisol in Colombia (Iand system No. 201) with Brachiaria decumbens using rates of25, 50 , lOO, and 400 kg P, O,/ha as TSP . Figure 7-4 shows the response of this grass 10 different le vels of phosphorus. This experiment is showing good residua l effeet of th e soluble phosphorus applied inilially. Fertilization after the ¡¡rst year , with the same P Icvels as a maintenance applicatioo¡ would appea r reasonable only for th e 25 kg P,O,/ ha treatment, where the yield ¡ncrease W3S more than 4 ton/ ha . lt is not considered neeessary to use annual appl ieations of 50 kg P, O,/ha or more, beca use yield increases due to these treatments are only of the order of 2 ton/ ha.Although the P-fi xation eapaeity of these Oxisols is appreciable, il is not as high, for example, as in the case of the Andepts and some Oxisols from Brazi!. This in part explains wh y th e forage grasses yielded so well at lower P rates than d id forage yie ld s from experiments carried out in the Cerrado Center, Brazil (Fenster and León, 1979).There is a good initial plant response to so lu ble form s of added phosphorus in man y Oxisols. The resid ual cffeet , however, depcnds upon both the mineral ogiea l and ehem iea l charac teristics of a soU as well as the test c rop ilself. Aeeording 10 several researehers (Ozanne et al., 1969;IRRI , 1972;Salinas and Sánehez, 1976;CIAT, 1978aCIAT, , 1980a)), species or varieties that are tolerant lo low levels ofP produce maximum yiel ds al lower leve ls of app lied P ¡han do the sensitive species or varieties. Salinas and Sánchez (1976) present a literatore review on differences among s pecies and variecies in relation t.o (ow levels oC avai lable P in lhe soi l. There is evidence of appreciable difference amo ng species with respect to the external and internal critica l leve ls of P. The most tolerant annual craps and tropical pastures to low leve ls ofP are rice, cassava, sweet pa taloes, corn , S'ylosanrhes humi/is. 5 lylosan fh es guianensis, Slylosanfhes capilata. Centrosema pubescens, a nd Andropogon gayanus. F our me chanisms are cited by Salinas and Sánchez Ca explain these differences : fool extension, rool exudation, inOuence of rnycorrhiza [ungi, and the differences in P absorp ti on and transl ocat ion ra tes in relation lO growth rat es.There is sorne li m ited evidence s uggesting that tolerance to high Al sat uratL on and low P may occur together in sorne species in acid soils. A faster translocation rate of P in the roo ts to th e top and Ca translocation seem to be th e majn factors account ing for these differences.(ncrease in food product ion du e l O correction of? defic iency in the acid tropical soils of Latin America can be ach ieved Ihrough a number of approaches. The chemislry offertilizer reacli oos in these soils is no t unique and, rhereforc, co nventi onal fe rtilizatio n prac tices can be ex pected to be satisfactory from a n ag ro nomic p o int of view. In the region describ ed in this book , however, majar limitations to standard a pproaches are frequently encountered d ue to the sca rcit y or high cost of soluble phosph a te fe rtil ize rs. In those cond itions , sign ifi cant yield ¡ncreases can be a chi eved with substa ntiall y re duced cost through (he use of low-cost fertilizer sou rces, suc h as fine ly ground phospha te roc k; Ihe use ofadequate placemen l and rates of P fertilize rs together; and, whe re practical , the selection of plant species tolerant l O low ? levels, While it is gene raHy accepted (ha t P is the most ¡imiting planl nutrient in the regi on , full benefit fro m investment in phos phate fertil izer, regardless of source , can only he s ustained with a complete fertilizer ma nagement strategy . Once t he rat e of plant growth is in creased by relieving (he phos pho ru s ' imitation, the inc rea sed uptake ofN, K, Ca, Mg , S, a nd micrOf'lutrients must also be compensated. Leac hing in sai ls is sometimes referred lO as \"chem ica l erosion,\" Ir may be defined as the movement of nutrienls in soil solution away from the rhizosphere, the region of soil in which plant roots are found. T o fully appreciate the susceplibility of a soil to leac h if used for a specific purpose, the interaetions of climate, vegetation, soi l bjotic factors, and mineralogical status must be considered. While climate, vegetation, and soi l biot ic factors are universally acee pted as variables, it is nol so well recognized that the soil mineralogical status is also a variable. The clay fractions of man y soils have both positively and negatively charged surfaces; these charges, measured in terms of their effective ca tion-exehange capacities, are pH-dependent.As shown by Cochrane et al. (1981), many ofthe soils ofthe region classiry as variable charged (Map 23). A proporti on of lhese soils may in fact have a subsoil horizon that is negatively charged according to the deha p H test. pH H ~O. pH KCI. (lf nega tive, soils are negat ively charged; if posi live, soils are positively charged.) It is assumed th at such horizons ha ve a greater capaeity lO reta in anions tha n calions. F ortu na tely, as shown by Map 24, the comparative exlension of these soils is not great. Nevertheless, lhey serve to emphasize that the charge charact eris tics of many soi ls of the region are a variable. This picture contrasts with man y temperate regions of the world where soil parent materials are often relatively yo ung and the principie clay minerals are the 2: I types. These have virtually a permanent negative charge, or at least one which is not great ly affected bv variations in oH. innic slrenght, or the dielectric constant of the soil solution.The variable-charge exchange-capacity o f man y tropical so ils has been studied by many authors including van Raij and Peech (1972), Gillman (1974), Keng and Uehara (1974), El• Swaify and Sayeth ( 19 75), Gallez et al. (1976) , Gillman and Bell ( 1976), Morais et al. (1976), and Cochrane and Sousa ( 1984) for Brazilian soils. The latter workers have developed a simple methodology fo r mea suring cation-and anion-exchange capacities and both exchangeable calions and anions in a cid mineral soils that provides a new approach ror approximating so11 surfaee variable-charge exchange-capac-¡lY analyses to field conditions. Tropica l soils have by and Jarge been formed from old weathered materials and are usually ri eh in residual materials, principally kaolinitic type c1ays and iron and aluminium oxides. As empha sized by Gillman (1979) the surface charge oftheir clays are dependent on pH, io nic st rength , dielectric constant, a nd even the counterion valency of the soil solution.Leaching anions. Because of the variable•charge exchange-capacity nature of many of the soils in the region . they have both a cation-exchange ca pacity and an anionex change capacity; the forme r is responsible for retain ing nutrient bases, principally Ca++, Mg++, K+, Na+, Mn++, AI+++, and the latter anions including NO, ' , SO,--, HCO,', and el. In lhe soil solutions , th e main anions are NO J -and SO;', with lesser amounts of C¡-and HCO, ' , although the amounts of free bicarbonate tons that can exist in acidic solutions, ex cept just on the acid si de of neutrality, are extremely small (Nye and Greenland, 1965).If nitrates. sulphates. o r chlorides are added to the soil so lution , sorne will be absorbed, depending on the anion ca paci ty o f a soil. However, most will remain in the soil solUlion where they must always be balanced by cations. The main calions that balan ce these anions in soi l solution are Ca++, Mg++ , K+, and H,O+, with AI +++ becoming important in soils with pH lower than 5.3. Conversely, if cat ionsare added to thesoil, sorne will be absorbed on the soil surfaces , but the remainder will sla y in soJution , where they must be balanced by anions. In other words, for any soil, th e tolal concentralion of cations in the soi l solution depends o n the total concentration of anions, and vice -versa~ they must balance.Changing charge characteristics. T o compli. cate matters, the addi tion of significant quantities of nutrient lime, can produce a change in th e charge characteristics of many of these soils; this will modify the abi lit y of a soil to restrain the loss of nutrients through leaching. Unforlunately , studies of the erfeet of soil amendments on the surface charge of the soils are still virtually at Ihe \"identification of a potentiaJ problem\" stage. and much work needs to be done before the full implieations of the phenomenon can be translated into practical [arming terms.Other ways exist to mOdify the cation-exchange capacity of a soil; the inco rpo ration of organic malter is an example. There are many practical farrning experiences of successful soil management through draconian measures invo lving the incorporation of organic matter , bUl there are examples of successful management with minimal input, such as the uSe of single superphosphate in Planaltina, Brazil. What is evident is that it is diffieult to get so mething for nothing, and that it is easy to lose inputs if too mueh of the wro ng type is applied .Leaehing cannot oeeur unless water pereolates through soiJ. The amount of pereolation will depend on the physieal properties of soil that enable them to hold and otherwise restrain water movements away from them , the elimatie water balance, and the type of vegetative eovering and it s stage of growth.Soil moisture-ho lding eapacities vary eonsiderably. Although clay soils generally hold more mois ture than sandy soils, many elayey Oxisols have soil moisture-holding eapaeities approach ing th ose of light-textured soils. In fae t , the low moisture-holding capacities of Oxiso ls in Ihe isothermic savannas of Central Brazil exaggerate the impact of the socalled veranicos, or Indian summers, the irregular periods of drought occurri ng during the wet season.C lima tic water-balance patterns, as already emphasized in Chapter 3, vary from ecosystem to ecosystem; c1early In the eontext of perco lation , these must be qualified by the soil moisture-holding capacifies.The type orvegetation or crop covering, its stage of growth,and th e rate a t wh ich i t tra nspires (or, to pu t it crudely, h ow it pumps water out of a soil) will ha ve a si gnificant eITeet on the rate of soil-moisture percolation . Transpiration will obviously proceed apace dur ing periods of high potential evapotranspiration, and vice-versa, always providing thal soil moisture is not ¡imiting. The \"rool-room\" of a soi l, or the suitability of the soil for root development in both a physieal and chemieal sense, wiU affeet percolation and consequently leaehing losses, particularly if roots can penetrate deeply . A good vegelative cover is obviously a prerequisi te lo ameliorate water percolation and consequen t loss of nutrients.Nitrogen flushes were first desc ribed by H ~rdy (1946). These occur in tropical soils with a marked dry season. They often follow a panern of gradual nitra te build-up in the dry season, a rapid bul shOrl-lived ¡ncrease at Ihe start ofthe wel season , and a rapid tapering off as the dry season progresses . FlushesIt is probable that the rapid build-up of microbial activity, particularly nit rifying bacteria a t the sta rt of the wet season, is associated with N mineralization (Birch. 1958): lhis proceeds fasler at the lower C :N ratios resulting from a dry-seaso n periodo More recently, Semb and Robinso n (1969) have proven that nitrification can take pla ce at the very low soilmoisture tensions (below 15 bars) fo und in su bsoils during the dry seaSOn. Wild (1972) showed that ni tr a tes move upward from the subsoil lo the tops o il during the dry season . Conversely, Scmb and Robinson (1969) found NO,-movements 10 the subsoil after the initial \"flush\" al the start of che wet season ; as the excess of nitra tes must be balanced by nutrient ca lions, the phenomenon could result in considerable soilleaehing (Ioss es of cations as well as valuable N) , unless plant roots can absorb soil moisture and so avoid a permanent loss ofmJtrients from the plant rhiz os phere. lnterestingly, Kinjo and Pratt (1971) indicate that nitrate leaching ma y be reduced if the subsoil has a degree of anion-exc han ge capacity.Although few studies have been recorded in tropical America , there is evidence that nitra tes wil1 move with percolating soil moisture, beyond the main aClively growing rhizosphere, soon after Ihe start of (he wel season , in savanna condi tj ons (J. Salinas, CIAT, pers . eomm.). It is probable th at this phenomenon aggravates the very leached, acid condition very commo nl y found in these regions. The nitrates and aceompanying cations percolate down the soil profiJe faster than the main body ofroots grows, Or faster Ihan those whi ch survive the dry seaso n can absorb soil moislurc. Once grass roots are well established , los ses ar e considerably reduced ; however, by that ti me t he mai n effect of the \"flush\" of nitrates is over.In eontrast to savannas, Nye and Greenland ( 1960) report that there are man y studies on forest soils which indicate a minimum of leaching beyond (he rhizosphere. The rcasons for this are threefo ld . First , the main body of (rce root5 does not die back in th' e dry season, as is common with grasses; therefore, they afford a more efficient mechanism to abso rb percolating water. Second, much moisture, at least that from light rainfalls , is held on the lea ves of trees and absorbed direetly, or is absorbed by the lear liller; eonsequent ly, the amOuot of water physicallyentering the soil is reduced. Third, with the exception of a proportía n of the semi-evergreen seasonal rorests, the dry season is generally nót so severe under fore st as under savanna conditions, and thus there is a lesser build-up of nitra tes in the topsoil. It is evident, therefore, that forest vegetation provides a very efficient system of nutrient re-eycJing, which largely avoids a nel leaehing of plant nutrients .1t should also be noted chat not only are forests much more effeetive in reeycling nutrients than savannas , but al so they provide a much greater storehouse for nutrients . In a eertain sense, they ma y be deseribed as being able to \"Ieaeh\" so il s: th ey have a maximum ability to withdraw nutrients from a soil and use them lO produce biomass. Recycl ing nutrients via leaf fall and tree aging and deeay is probably only a casual phenomenon. Conseque ntl y, under their native vegetation , many rorest soils are as chemicallv poor as their savanna counterparts derived [rom similar parent materials.Comparative figures of nulrients stored in forests versus sa vanna vegetation are nol available for the regi o n, but data from the Afriean eontinent (Vine, 1968) would indieate that forests may sto re up to 10 lim es th e amounts of nutrients sto red by savannas. This, however, varies between forests and according to the arboreal content of savannas; Vine record s figures to show that savannas with a high arboreal content have a greater reservoir of plant nutrients than do th e open grassland types .h is good sense to ensure that nutrien ls stored in biomass are returned to soils by burning and producing ash, iflands are lO be cleared oftheir original vegetati o n and used for agriculture . This sim ple stratagem has been used by tr opica l bush farmers fo r Ihousands o f years. Th is is particularly imp ortant in the case of forests , but may also be of significance in savannas with a considerable arboreal biomass content , s uch as the Cerrad~o.Nevertheless, for most savannas, which do not have a significa nt biomass, improvement of their soils, if these are wearhered and leach ed, must largely rel y on correct ing toxicit y probJems an d fertilizatio n. Care must be take n in fertilizatíon and the applicalion of amendments to avo id significant los ses ofthe o riginal costly ¡npuls. Further, excess liming has often been responsible for inducing nutrient defieieneies, espeeially of Zn (Spain, 1976).The \"nit rogen Oush\" effect is particularly se vere in savanna reg ion s; fertilizatíon and soil-amendmen t practices such as liming are best designed to take this phenomenon into account. Crops a nd pastures should be selected and managed, ¡nsofar as it is possible , to help av oid excess nitrate lea ch!ng at th e start of the dry season. Nitrogen fertilizer treatments for many erops may best be delayed until after the effeet of the initial nitrogen flush has passed. Conversely, in liming practices 10 ameliorate high soi l Al levels for those crops sensitive 10 Al Or to overCOme Mn to xicity problems , advantage may be taken o fthe nitroge n flush to help with the inco rporati o n of Ca deeper io to the soil profile. In suc h cases, 113 lime should be inco rporated al the sta rt o fthe wet seaso n or, if fe asible, before the start of the wet season. Wo rk to improve management practices through a beHer understanding of lhe nitrogen flush and ani o n leaehing generally eould lead lo highe r, more stable production in the sa vannas .In contrast with man y savanna soils, weathered, leached forest soils can us uallY be sig nifi eantl y improved by the incorp o ratio n o f nutrients slored in their bi o mass thro ugh burning. Expe ri ences io the clearing of foresls has been detailed in Coehrane and Sán ehez (1982). One of the most spectacular demonstra tions of the effect of burniog after c utting in situ has been reeorded by Falesi (1976). Table 8-1 record s data from Fales i's work (Serrao et al., 1978) in whieh semi-evergreeo seaso nal fo re s! growing 0 0 an Oxisol near Paragominas, along the Belém-Brasilia highway, was cut, burned, aod transformed int o pastu re . The marked improvement in topso il chemical prope rties is evident; burning and th e in co rpo ration of ash completely c hanged nutrieot pro pert ¡es.What is o f even more interest is that these changes persist for many years uoder grass cultivar io n, with the exceptioo o f P levels. Probably soil N is largely ti ed up by the grass , and linle leaching takes place. The climalic regi me in this circumstance would also help avoid the excess ive nitrogenflush effect o f the sava nn as.NOI a ll resu lt s related to burning forests a nd the subsequent manageme nt o f improved so il fe rtilit y are as promising as th ose indicated from Falesi's work, as dem o nst rated by Coehrane and Sánehez (1 982). It is probable that tropical rain forests present a mo re difficult si tuation , partly due to the problems of burning the se forests io their mo re humid clima te . Nor is it implied that cuning and burning even semievergreen seasooal forests will solve soil fertility pr ob lems for all e rops. As ind ieated by Morá n (1977), eutting a nd burning fo rests growing on soils with a higher fertility status due 10 belter parent materials, specifically the Alflso ls of Altamira alo ng the rransamazooic highwa y of Brazil, results in mu ch better c rops than cutting and burn iog fo rests o n intriosi ca lly less fertile lands. T he fundamental fertility of a soil will have a very signi fi cant effect on crop produc tion, and the sel ection of superior soi ls in both sa vanna and forest circu msla nces will facilitate farming succes s. The comparison of land sys tems is a useful start ing point for t he transfer of seed-based agroteehnology throughout the region . Their environmental descriptors also provide a basis for the more S,elective introduction of promising cultivars from other parts of the tropical world , with known cJimate and soil conditions. Unfortunately, the presence of biolic faclors, including pests and diseases, against which an olherwise promising cultivar may have little or no resistance, is not always known; such may exclude lhe use of (hose cultivars in a given land sys lem or even more an entire conlinent , as is the case of cassava variet ies with no resistance to African mosaic disease.Wilhin ce rlain lim its, il may be possibJe lO develop agronomic practices for local cJimate-soil environment to take advantage of promising cultivars adapted lo apparen tl y different environmenls elsewhere. Clima tes must be considered in relation to the type of erop being grown. For perennial crops, Ihe annual cJimatie patterns should coincide. On the other hand , for short-term annual crops, th e seasonal and monthly characteristics are paramount. Consequently, an nual cropsare often rown successfull in re ions with ver SOME GUIDELlNES different overall clima tic panerns . What is important is lO lry lO match the water-balance, energy regimes, day lengths, and so on, lO ensure tha! lhe local clima tic conditions during the life cyc1e ofthe promising cultivars are compatible with those in whieh they were originally developed.Of the nonbiotic faetors affecting the successful introduction of promising cultivars, perhaps the most trieky to assess is the ability of local soils to meel cheir nutrient needs without the use of uneconomic applications of soil amendmen ts. This is particularly true in the underdeveloped, acid-infenile soi l circumstances, where the specific traits desired in a cultivar may be tolerance to excessive a lum inium (see Appendix 2) and low phosphate availab¡¡ity.It might be empha si zed that alt hough much informalion can be dedueed fram small-seale maps, ineluding the land systems maps, these maps are scale limited ; consequently, in lhe absence of detailed soil studi es, it will often be neeessary for agrono mi sts to enhance [he soil information for any particular area of interest.The careful evaluation of soil survey data can help the agronomist \"zone-in\" on what are likely to be probable so11 nutrjent problems. Visual crap deficiency symptoms seen in any area also help. In fact, the presence or absence of the minor and trace element constraints recorded in the landsystems priotouts in Volume 3 were often confirmed by observing visual symptoms on erops. In his study of the tropicallowlands of Bolivia, Coehrane (1973) paid particular attention to the identificatioo of visual deficieney symptoms on Dwarf Cavendish bananas (see Photo Plate 32).For many undeveloped areas, especially where soil fenility has beeo httle affected by the incorporation of soi l amendments, the value of a soil survey can be enormously enhanced , with a minimum of effa n, if a number of soil profiles, or even topsoil samples, can be deseribed and sampled. This will permit the statistical comparison of soil nutrient levels over a given soil uniL Coehrane (1969) has shown that J2 to 18 lopsoil samples, spaced over a relatively constant soil unit , will provide an adequate population in a statistical sense, lo calcula te means, standa rd deviations, and correlations between soil chemical properties; these are meaningful for helping lo understand soil fertility . By lhis pracedure, outlined io Appendix 3. unnecessarily repetitive soi l sampling is avoided. and soil analytical time can be protitably spent in carr in out a com le e a t f n Most routine soil survey sample analyses are restricred lo describing the more \"permancnl\" soil properties . The case of total mineral analyses occasionally excepted, they rarely pro vide complete major, minor, and trace elernent analyses as now commonly carried out for soil fertility investigations. In faet, the Jack of minor and trace clement analytical data throughout the regioo surveyed wa s particularly disappointing , Part ofthe rcaso n for this is historical. In (he past, minor and especially traeeelemeot analyses were difficull and costly. The advent of alo mic abso rpti on spectrometry in (he 19605 changed this situation. Unfortunately, old habits die hard.The methodology developed was te sted in the context ofthe present work on land system No . 20 1, in whieh the JCA (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario)-CJ A T Carimagua agricu ltur al slation is ¡ocaled , and results are recorded in Appendix 3. The resullS of identifying soil toxicity problems, probable nutrient deficiency problems. an d possible nutrient problems compare well with the actual f1ndings from CI A T's experimental work over the past 12 years. Th e approach advocates a breakaway from normal dogma concerning the coUeetion ofsoil samples for fertility analysis, whieh invo lve making artificial eomposite samples from 12 to 20 subsamples.Although soi! information ean be eonsiderably enhanced by a relalively minar amo-unt of work, field trials musl still be carried out lO quantify the nUlrient nceds of promising crop eultivars. Unfortunately, io maoy lesserdeveloped circumslances, progress is often slow and reeommendati ons incomplete.In su pplying fertilizer recommendations for (he new generatioos of erop and pasture plant cultivars with a degree of tolerance lO soi1 toxicities and low nutrient levels, it is necessary to use proven, comprehensive, but time-saving methods to establish recommendations, ln many tropical lands, in addition to soil toxicities and major nu trie nt deficiencies, limi ting factors may ¡nelude minor Or traceelem ent deficiencies Or ¡nbalances; eonsequently, the methodology adopted musl provide a means of idenlifying Ihese problems as quiekly as possible. In thi s respeet. Cochrane (1979) has shown that within a time spa n ofless than 2 years, he was able to identify both min or and trace elements in field-proven conditions in Santa Cruz, Bolivia.Th is methodology, whieh involves the monitoring of f1eld trials through 'comparative ti ss ue analyses, has been recorded in Appendix 4 . The phiJosophy of the approaeh aims at starting field lrials as soon as possible and maximi zing info rma rion by subjccti ng tissuc analysis data takcn on a plOl by plot basis, al a predetermined stage of crop growth lo the sa me stalistical analysis as yield data.The land-systems data base provides a geographical and lechnical base to guide the successful transfer of seed-based agroteehno logy both throughout the region and from other part s of the tropies. Nevertheless, technologies developcd elsewhere must be proven in the local eireumstance. The technique suggcsted for enhanciog the soil fertility information to hel p with the select ion of treatmenls in field trials and the comparative li ss ue analysis methodology suggested for maximizing information from such trials are bOlh particularly relevant to tropical arcas wi th limited research facilities.The use of the land-system data base and complementary agronomic teehniques should ¡cad to the seleclion of highyielding crop var ieties wilh farm -effective fertilizer recommendations for a given ecosyste m, more speedily and much more cheaply than has been the norm in the past. Jt shou ld also contribute to the more successful conse rvalion and use of the soi l resources in tropical South America , Epilogue. The land-systems data base is al ready being put to good use in developing and lransferring new pas ture-plant and foodcrop cuItiva rs over tropi cal America, and is proving a novel way to investigate baslc climate/landscape/vegetation/soil rel atio nships per se. However, experience shows that crop cultivars ofte n do jusI as well in conti nents away from theír centers of development, always providing c\\imate and soil circumstances are comparable (Purseglove, 1974). It is ínterestíng to reflect, therefore, that tremendous mutual benefits lie in S10 re for all countries if similar surveys and analyses could be extended IhroughoUl the tropi cs in general.With a tropic-wide land-systems base , crop varieties and agrotechnologies successfu!ly developed in one tropical ecosystem could then be transferred LO olher environmentally compatible arcas with a much greater degree of potential success than is currently possible . This is nOI tú suggest lhat production difficulties will nol arise. Every continent has specific biological problems (pests, diseases, weeds, a nd soil microorganisms) that could affect the successful transfer of technologies. Nevenheless, co nsiderable time and effor! will be saved by ensuring compatible matches between seed-based agrotechnologies and cl imate-soil env ironments, rather [han usi ng the \"hit or miss\" methods still largely in vogue loday.There would be many additional benefits arising from such a global information system. Not the least would be the progressíve build-up ofinformation On c ultivars well -adapted to the many climate-soil environments of the lropics. enhancing the ability of nations to better plan and manage production prohlems in environmentally. socia ll y. or economically fragile regions. Jn sho rt, a tropic-wide land-sys tems data base would be an invaluable resou rce for individual nalions now striving to meel the escalating need for food in an ever-changing world.The numbers in parentheses refer to the fo ll owing citations: In reeem years, S pain (1976), Rhue and Grogan (1977). and Salinas (1978) have shown that eonsistent differences in Al tolerance are found amoog plant species and cultivars within species. Ir is evident, therefore, that crap tolerance to Al should be taken into account in estimating the amounts of lime needed to correct Al toxicity. Another problem with (he aboye equation is that it is based solely on the amount of exehangeable Al in the soil; it does not take the levels of exehangeable Ca, Mg, and K airead y in the soil into aceoun!. The level of these exehangeable eations is important in delermining Jimiog requirements. Virtuall y no exehangeable Al or soil solution Al is found in mineral soils (eontaining !ess than 7% organie malter) with a pH higher tha n 5.4 , as noted by M eCart and Kamprath (1965) and Pratl and Alvahydo (1966). Therefore , the term \" acid mineral \" soil is used in lhe context of a soil having a pH les s than 5.5 and an organie matler content less lhan 7%,In aeid mineral so ils , soil solution Al and pereentage Al saturation are rela ted, as shown by Evans and Kampralh (1970) and Breenes and Pearson (1973). Furthermore, Nye et al. (1961) ha ve shown that the amount of Al in soil solution is low until an Al saturation of about 60% is reaehed , Severa! investigators, including Evans and Kamprath (1970), Abruña et al. (1975), andSanain andKamprath (1975), have shown a close relalionship between Al saturation and plant response. Evans and Kamprath (1970) noted that mai zc lolerated up to 70% Al saturation eompared with 30% for soya bean. Upland rice, eassava, cowpea, groundnut , and man y pasture species are tolerant to quite high rates oC Al saturation, as shown bySpain ( 1976). Recently, Salinas (1978) has identificd varietal tolerances to Al toxicity in wheal. maize, sorghum, rice, and beans as part of a low~input strategy to manage Brazilian Oxisols. By using equalion [2]. each occurre nce of Al,. in equalion [3] can be replaced by Cax. Then, so lving 'Ihe result in g equat io n for Cax. gives: Ca x = AI-RAS (A l' Ca ' M g) j 100 [4) Since not a llthe Al replaced by liming is exc hangea ble, as emphasized by Kamp ral h (1970) , the righl side of the equalion should be mult ip lied by a fa clOr o f 1.5 when modera te levels or Al sa turation are requ ired, and bya fact or of 2 when very low levels a re needed . Equa t ion [4] th e n beco mes:meq Ca l 100 g soil . d f l\" = 1.5 [AI-RAS (A l ' Ca , M g) j 100) [5] reqUlre or Immg where Ihe factor 1.5 is replaced by 2 when Iheesti mated limin g requirement using the factor J. 5 is greater (han th e chemica l lime eq ui vale nt oflhe exchangeable Al. Th is criterion follows from Ihe ca!culaled dala. It is clear lhal Ihe hig hes l lime req uirement es timated by the equation 15 twice lhe chem ica l lim e equivalenl of lhe exc hangeable Al.Equ a li on [5] was used for estima t ing f1 eld lime requiremenl, as given by eq ualion [1]. It a ss umes lhal a soil has an apparenl specific gravily of 1.2; Ihat I h ec tar~ ofsoil to lhe 20-cm deplh wou ld weigh 2.4 milt io n kg. Cochrane et al. (1980) tesled lhe equalion using data from ot her autho rs ' field and incubati on studies Qver a vari ety of soils ra nging fro m North Ca rolin a sla te in lhe Uniled Slates to Sao Paul o state in so uthern Brazil. This in c luded Kampralh's (1970) incubali o n dala for four North Carolina Ulti so ls; L.A. Leo n 's (CIAT. pe rs . comm .) inc ubalio n data from Colombian Oxisol s and Ult iso ls; field da la from a Cenl ra l Bra zilia n Acru slox (Salinas,19 78) positive correlation between P and Cu leve. ls should be bome in mind. In this respect, the type of P ferlilizer lo be applied musl be eonsidered in the lighl of ils abilily lo supply olher nutrienls (such as S and Ca in Ihe case of single superphosphale), apart from Ihe effeel of Ihe fertilizer componenls on leaching, Thus, il is elear Ihal ferlilizer Irials should be designed 10 take liming, P, K, and Mg trealments ioto aceDunl and, if possible, Mn , Zn, B, and possibly S and even Cu, The soils should be well drained and nOI used for wetland crops lo avoid Fe loxieily problems,The recornmendations [rom the statistical procedure compare well wilh aelual fíndings from CIA T's experimenlal work over lhe past 12 years: Alloxieity and low le veIs ofP and bases (K, Ca, and Mg) were found lo be lhe major limiling factors for many arable crops (Spain, 1976), Fe loxicity was reponed for nooded rice (H oweler, 1973), Ngongi el al. (1977)         samples for fenility analysis. wh ich usually recornmends the making of an artificial composite sam ple from 12 to 20 subsamples in the field . Such a technique is useful for monitoring fertilit y characteristic s oC indi vidual plots in a field trial, bUI is nol so useru l fo r obtaining a preliminary judgment to select lfeatments.Once the treatments are chosen . field trials should be kept as si mple as possible; replicated plot designs are often adequate. However, {he size and number of plots are impor ~ tant considerations. Pl ots should be large enough lo facili tate \"splitting\" of treatments . Additionally, nontreated plots shou ld be laid down alongside the tria l for furlhe r wo r k, whereve r possible.Once the lreatments and design of a trial are chosen. a program for monitoring the tr ial through soi l and, especially, tissue anal ysis on a plot by plOI basis is essential. Composite samples for both soils and tissue sa mples shou ld be used to fairly rep resent the plot by plot t reatments. Tissue anal ysis should be as complete as possible. Most la boratories, even in lesser developed countries, have a capacity or could easily extend their capacity to do this work . Consequently, the fertility specialist has a reading o n all elemen ls necessary for plant nutrition .By taking plot by plot com posile tis sue samples, Cochrane (1979a) has shown that the need for a prior know led ge concern ing tissue analytical figures is o bviated. He illustrated that the analy ti cal data fo r the samples ca n be trea ted and ana lY7.ed sta ti stically in the same way as yield data. to determine an y significant differences. This is a considerable break fro m existing practices, which ce nter a round [he tim econsuming a nd costly procedures prev iously advocated for es tablishing \"cri ti cal\" le ve ls for tissue anal yt ical data . Obvio usly, the use of ti ss ue analyses will be enhanced if previous work is available to oblain an idea as to possi ble deficiency levels.Cochrane has emphasized that in a rder 10 take meaningful tissue sa mples, the trial musl be monitored for me/eora/agica / condilions, especially moislUre stress. Tissue sa mp les are thus best collected after a suitable period of nonclima tic-i nduced co nd itions.In the case of the plot by plot com posite soi l samples, these sho uld be taken to reneCl changes in soil brought abou t by fertili z.er treatment s. It is nol su fficient to take \"be fare\" and \"after\" sa mples; they should be taken to fair ly monitor the effeet of fe ni lizer on soil eonditions such as pH and, idealIy. the transpon of nutrients down th e soil profile. Ce rta inly both \"topsoil\" (perhaps 0-20 cm ) and subsoil (21-50 cm) sam ples should be taken .Once lhe trial has been laid down and monitoring ha s star ted, any results o fthe monitori ng thal suggest ¡he need for fu rther in-Cie ld Irial treatments should be implemented as soon as possible. Co mpara tive tissue monitoring ensures that appropriate acrion can be taken time iy e nough to investiga te problems nol obvious fr om the origina l soil analytical data . For exam ple, Table A4-1, ada pted from one of Cochrane's trial result s, shows how the Mn concentrations in the lea ves of sugarcane altered with inc reasing ap pl ications of ( NH 4)2S04 This was deteeted soon after the trial started and led lO the speedy la yi ng down of a sup plem entary trial to confi rm tha t Mn was indeed deficient. In another trial re ported in the same pa per (Coch ra ne, 1979a), the levels of ln looked suspiciously lo w; again, speedy a ction by spli tting the t rial for ln led to the finding that ln wa s, in fact, deficient. The net resuit of th is work was that fertilit y problems were id en tified and fertilizer praclices fo rmulated Wilh a min imum of delay.","tokenCount":"31740"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d7bc72e165f36fd11f7de7bf8ae809af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e0b84351-5d68-4018-8b01-d74c5cd277ca/retrieve","id":"-153534432"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca67739f-d43e-4091-ae55-3a7afe08db1e","pagecount":"26","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).The objective of this study is to develop a farming household typology in the woreda of Lemo, Ethiopia (Figure 1). By creating this typology, it is hoped that a more nuanced understanding of the different farming systems will be established. This will help in the targeting of farming households for rural development projects related to sustainable intensification. It will also provide insight into which sustainable intensification technologies and innovations are already used by different farming household types, and which of these may help further farming intensification initiatives in the future.Materials and methods Two hundred and forty-eight farming households were surveyed using the Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS -https://www.rhomis.org/). RHoMIS is a structured questionnaire conducted using tablets or mobile phones with the Open Data Kit (ODK) software adapted to Android-based mobile phones or tablets (https://opendatakit.org/). The survey comprises questions related to household demographics, agricultural and livestock production and management, nutrition, poverty, and off-farm activities. Raw data from the survey is used to calculate indicators that characterise and facilitate the analysis of farming systems and the vulnerability of rural households. Households were randomly selected from a list of households from the woreda and were interviewed in May and June 2022.The main RHoMIS indicators were reviewed to identify and remove any outliers based on the use of histograms and expert estimates of achievable maximum responses. As such, two rural households from the Lemo dataset were removed leaving a total of 246 useable data-points. A between class principal component analysis (PCA) and the Ward method of hierarchical clustering were used to create a farming household typology based on a set of RHoMIS indicator variables assessing household assets (household size, livestock herd size, and land cultivated), farm and off-farm income streams (income from crops, livestock and off-farm activities) and market orientation (proportion of farm production sold to market).To further explore the differences among farming household types, linear regressions and least significant difference tests were used assess differences among groups for variables used to create the typology and other farm and household variables not included in the typology development. Differences among groups for the latter variables help further characterise the farming household types and provide further insights into the differences in farming and livelihood approaches. A more detailed assessment of the crop and livestock production activities was also conducted of the different farming household types focusing in on the top crop and livestock production streams. Means and standard deviations are presented for these data. Finally, logistic regressions combined with least significant difference tests were applied to the data to assess differences in the probability of use of different innovations promoted by Africa Rising among the different farming household types. Figure 2 presents the between class PCA and the results of the Ward method of hierarchical clustering, grouping farming households surveyed by similarities displayed in the selected indicator variables (Table 1). The Dendrogram for the hierarchical clustering is presented in Annex 1 and indicates that the optimal number of clusters for the typology was three. PC1 accounted for 28% of variability, while PC2 accounted for 20% of variability. Specifically, livestock income, market orientation, and off-farm income differentiated between household types along the horizontal axis, correlating most strongly with Diversified farming households. Land cultivated, livestock herd size, and household size tended to differentiate among groups along the vertical axis, correlating most closely with Large subsistence farming households and distinguishing these farming households from Small subsistence households. The variable of crop income influenced the spread of households in the PCA between both the horizontal and vertical axes, falling between both the Large subsistence households and the Diversified households (Figure XX). The means and least significant differences tests applied to the variables used to create the farming household typology reveal that the Small subsistence farming households have the lowest means for all variables (assets, income, and market orientation) (Table 2). Large subsistence farming households on the other hand were larger, cultivated more land, and owned more livestock compared to the other two household types. Diversified farming households generated more income from livestock and off-farm activities, and were also more market oriented than the two other farming household types. No differences at the 5% level of probability were found for crop income, although it is notable that Diversified and Large subsistence farming household types generated more than double the income of Small subsistence farming households. A description of the farming households is outlined in Table 3. These households generate the most income from livestock (4219 Ksh year -1 ) and off-farm activities (659 Ksh year -1 ). They are also the most market-oriented selling around 45% of farm production to market. They own more livestock (4 TLUs) than subsistence farms but fewer than crop-oriented farms; and they cultivate more land (1.4 ha) than subsistence farms but less than crop-oriented farms. They are the second largest household type comprising around 5 members.Large subsistence farms (\"Large subsistence\")These households cultivate the most amount of land (nearly 2 ha), they also generate the most income from crop production, although this difference is not significant at the 5% level of probability and the income still remains low (around 212 Ksh year -1 ). While these households own a lot of livestock (over 5 TLUs -more than other households), this is not for income production. Livestock products are therefore either used for home consumption or as draught power. In total, large subsistence farming households sell around 10% of their farm production to market. These households generate virtually no off-farm income and are the largest households comprising of around six members.Small subsistence farms (\"Small subsistence\") 106 (43%) These households are characterised as generating little on-or off-farm income and selling very few farm products to market (less than 10 %). These farming household have few farm assets (typically cultivating less than 1 ha of land and owning less than 3 TLUs of livestock). They are comparatively small households, with around 4.5 members per household.When assessing indicator variables that were not included in the development of the typology, Diversified farming households displayed highest total income (offand on-farm); and joint highest with Large subsistence farming households for livestock value production (which includes livestock production sales and livestock production consumed) and income from the sale of tree products (Figure 3). On the other hand, Large subsistence farming households displayed highest value crop production and household dietary diversity. Small subsistence households displayed the lowest levels for of total income, value livestock production and tree product income. The most commonly cultivated crops were broadly similar across the three farming household types (Figure 4). Wheat bread, teff, maize, faba beans, and enset were the five most commonly cultivated crops. Other crops that were commonly cultivated included coffee by Diversified farming households, food barley by Large subsistence farming households, and avocados and vegetables. Most land was dedicated to the production of teff and bread wheat across the three farming household types with around 30-45% of land from all farming households dedicated to these crops. Less land was dedicated to enset, faba beans and maize (Figure 5). There were no statistical differences in the amount of land dedicated to the different crops across farming households except for bread wheat, where Large subsistence households dedicated more land to this crop than Small subsistence households.  4). Faba beans, bread wheat and teff were sold more to market, but still only around 10-25% of total production was sold to market suggesting that crop production remains an important source of food for home consumption. Bread wheat was grown on more land by Diversified (0.7 ha) and Large subsistence (0.9 ha) farming households compared to Small subsistence farming households (0.3 ha). This also correlates with slightly higher proportions of bread wheat sold by these farming household types (26 and 19% respectively). This, along with the fact that bread wheat generated the most income of all crops for all farming household types, may suggest that bread wheat is viewed as the most commercial crop in the woreda. A similar pattern of ownership of different livestock species was observed for all farming household types (Figure 6). Cattle were owned by between 90-100% of farming households. Donkeys and chicken were also commonly owned by around 70-80% and 50-70% respectively. Between 30-40% of households owned goats. Few households owned sheep (<20%). Bee keeping was more popular in Diversified and Large subsistence households (over 20%) compared to Small subsistence farming households. farming households generated significantly more income than either of the two farming household types (Table 2). Cattle were the main livestock species in the herd that generated income for all farming households. However, Diversified farming households generated the greatest amount of income from cattle (25077 ETB Br year -1 ) compared to less than 3000 ETB Br year -1 for Large subsistence and less than 800 ETB Br year -1 for Small subsistence farming households (Table 5).Chicken generated the second highest income stream (from the sale of meat and eggs) in each of the farming household types. Diversified farming households sold more livestock (cattle, sheep, and goats) than either of the other two farming household types (more than one head a year compared to 0.5 heads a year or less). Cattle were the most populous large livestock species owned by all farming households indicating their importance for the farming systems in Lemo. While donkeys were commonly owned, they did not generate income, suggesting that they were used as draught power. Diversified and Large subsistence farming households used more technologies promoted by Africa rising (around 5.5 and 5.0 respectively) compared to Small subsistence farming households (just over 3 technologies) (Figure 7). The four main crop technologies used in Lemo were the use of improved seeds for bread wheat, faba beans and potato, and the cultivation of avocado trees (Figure 8). Diversified and Large subsistence farming households used these innovations more than Small subsistence types. The use of improved bread wheat seeds was most widespread, being used by around 70-80% of Diversified and Large subsistence households, and by around 40% of Small subsistence households. Other technologies used to a lesser extent include chickpea, enset food barley, and malt barley. As for the other seed technologies, Diversified and Large subsistence households tended to use these more than Small subsistence households. Potato and faba bean seed production for sale were additional innovations promoted by Africa Rising that were used by a small proportion of Diversified and Large subsistence farming households (10-20% of households). The cultivation of desho grass and tree lucerne as improved forages were the only livestock technologies that were relatively commonly used (Figure 9). Diversified farming households tended to use tree lucerne the most (around 25% of households), while Diversified and Large subsistence farming households cultivated desho slightly more (around 60% of households) than Small subsistence farming households (just over half). Observations about the site as a wholeGenerally, according to the results of the current analysis, the farming systems found in Lemo remain largely similar in a number of respects. Despite different levels of income, farm assets, market orientation, and engagement in off-farm activities, farms throughout the woreda tended to cultivate similar crops (maize, teff, bread wheat, faba beans and enset) and reared similar livestock (mostly cattle and chicken, with a few sheep and goats and a donkey for draught power). Crop production sales were mainly focused on bread wheat and to a lesser extent teff. The other crops were almost entirely consumed by the households themselves. Overall, crop sales represented a smaller income stream than livestock production. Livestock production focused primarily on cattle and milk production, with most livestock income being generated by cattle and little from the other livestock (a little income was also generated from the sale of chickens and their eggs). While donkeys were commonly owned, they were used for draught power.Despite these similarities, there were also some very clear differences among farming households in Lemo. As described in the Results, Diversified farming household types were much more market orientated, and generated more onand off-farm income than the other two farming households. Large subsistence farming households on the other hand were usually bigger, owned more livestock, cultivated most land and harvested most than even the wealthy Diversified farming households. However, these households barely generated any farm income, often only slightly more than the Small subsistence farming households, and generated virtually no off-farm income. Small subsistence farming households were the least resource endowed, rearing the fewest livestock and cultivating the smallest area of land. Without off-farm income and with very little farm income, these households were the poorest of all households.It is particularly noteworthy that Large subsistence farming households, despite not generating much income, displayed the highest crop value production levels. This is likely a result of the fact that they cultivated more land. Notwithstanding their higher crop value production, for most crops assessed, yields were often lower than Diversified (and even Small subsistence) households. This suggests that there is an important potential to increase yields in these farming households. It may also suggest that Large subsistence farming households either prioritise home consumption over the sale to market or experience important barriers to market access.Another notable finding was that Large subsistence farming households also displayed the highest levels of household dietary diversity. This is probably as a result of access to more land and the consumption of own-farm production. This contrasts with Diversified, which despite being wealthier, displayed similar levels of household dietary diversity as Small subsistence households. This finding is important as it may indicate an important trade-off with food security that may be experienced in the case that Large subsistence farming households sell more of their produce to market. It will be important to consider such trade-offs in case rural development projects aim to stimulate market access and agricultural intensification in the woreda.In a similar vein as for crop production, while Large subsistence farming households rear the largest herd of livestock, they tend not to generate much value from it compared to Diversified farming households. Moreover, milk yields of Large subsistence farming households appear to be nearly half that of Diversified farming households, despite larger cattle herd sizes. Again, this suggests that there may be significant potential to intensify livestock production and improve access to market for Large subsistence farming households.These starkly contrasting characteristics indicate important differences in livelihood outcomes, as well as different challenges, opportunities, barriers, and risks to more sustainable rural development.Table 7 presents a summary of the main challenges, opportunities, structural barriers, and risks to sustainable rural development by farming household type. Farm intensification, both crop and livestock production, present clear opportunities to enhance the resilience and welfare of farming households in Lemo. Out of the three farming household types identified in this research, it is evident that Diversified farming households already generate more income and are more resilient than the other two household types. Moreover, according to the analysis, these households are likely able to more easily integrate new innovations and technologies into their farming systems as they already enjoy access to more resources and assets potentially enabling them to risk more on these novel investments.Nevertheless, these households only account for 11% of the population surveyed (Table 3). Large and small subsistence household types on the other hand account for 46% and 43% of the population respectively. Facilitating a pathway to more intensified farm production in these farming households may therefore provide the potential for larger scale impacts for rural development projects. However, these farming household types are faced with more structural barriers to such changes compared to Diversified farming households; and these barriers also differ between Large and Small subsistence households.In particular, Small subsistence farming households are the least resource endowed households of the three farming household types. They cultivate the least amount of land, have the smallest livestock herds, the least access to labour (smaller household sizes), and generate the least amount of income. These structural barriers to farm intensification present important constraints to these farming households. On the other hand, Large subsistence farming households already cultivate the largest area of land and own the largest livestock herds, while crop and livestock yields remain low making the potential of farm intensification an important pathway to enhance their livelihoods.It would therefore appear that out of the three farming household types studied, Large subsistence households present the most important opportunity to impact the largest proportion of the population with the highest potential for improved livelihood and welfare outcomes. This is not to say that the transition of these farming households to more intensified forms of farming is without risks or important barriers. For example, the current analyses also indicate that for Large subsistence farming households access to financial resources, market, and inputs may present limitations to the ability of these farming households to intensify their farm production activities. Moreover, these households enjoy the highest levels of dietary diversity, probably as a result of the consumption of their own farm production. As such, any potential changes to their farming systems that may lead to more sales to market as opposed to self-consumption, may erode these higher levels of dietary diversity threatening food security. It is therefore important that these potential trade-offs are thoroughly explored and understood before implementing any rural development project aimed at stimulating farm intensification measures.Considering the current context in terms of crop and livestock production and the assessment of which technologies are currently used by farming households in Lemo a list of recommended innovations promoted by Africa Rising is presented in Table 6. ","tokenCount":"3016"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"166c502c8a79b4f77fe997aa55d3f3b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/316b0e8a-9db2-4387-bdb3-6821d70ae2f2/retrieve","id":"-168698711"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9d065d8c-bdf4-4b99-89f1-d6bae7334b7e","pagecount":"2","content":"The Emergency potato and sweetpotato seed support enabled farmers in the Southern Nations Nationalities and People's Region (SNNPR) to restore the varieties they lost to a severe drought in 2015/2016, improving their household food and nutrition security. In one year, 9,779 farmers got sweetpotato cuttings and 23,594 were trained on sweetpotato agronomy and nutrition. Partners: In 2015, Ethiopia experienced the worst drought in more than five decades, exacerbated by the phenomenon of El Niño. It caused significant crop and livestock losses, negatively affecting food security and nutrition conditions across the country. Nationwide, it left an estimated 15 million Ethiopians requiring food assistance during 2016. The SNNPR was one of the regions worst affected by the drought. Farmers lost their crops, including the most preferred potato and sweetpotato varieties and communities' access to nutritious food was reduced. The region is already facing deeply entrenched malnutrition, with 44% of children under two years of age chronically malnourished. To restore the lost varieties and improve food and nutrition security of communities, the USAID's Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) supported CIP to assist drought-affected farmers in SNNPR with sweetpotato and potato seed.The overall goal of the project is to contribute to improving food and nutrition security of droughtaffected farm households through providing immediate access to seed potato and sweetpotato planting material of productive and locally adapted varieties. The project began in June  Where are we working?The project is being implemented in the SNNPR in six potato growing and seven sweetpotato growing woredas (districts) encompassing 98 kebeles (villages), of which 65 are potato and 33 are sweetpotato kebeles.We seek to achieve the goal and objective of the project through emergency seed supply of potato and sweetpotato, and farmer training and awareness creation by working very closely with the key partner, Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources Development (RBoANRD), SNNPR. The roles of the partner include:• Training of woreda agricultural experts and development agents on potato and sweetpotato agronomy, seed management, integrated pest management (IPM) and postharvest technologies using a training of trainers' approach (Fig. 1).• Participation in the training of woreda health experts (WhE), rural women extension (RWE) experts, and health extension workers (hEW) on nutrition.• Assignment of regional and woreda level focal persons to ensure timely implementation of activities• Cascading of knowledge acquired by experts to beneficiary farmers and provide technical backstoppingWe also collaborated with the Bureau of health and hawassa University on nutrition training and Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) for quality starter planting material.A total of 9,779 farmers received quality planting material of Kulfo (OFSP) and Awassa-83 (white-fleshed) varieties.They restored what they had lost and got high root yields. Foundation seed of Kulfo was given to two cooperatives with a membership of 29 farmers to renew their planting material and sell vines to the communities going forward. Sixty-one agricultural experts (55 M; 6 F) and 12,270 farmers (8,750 M; 3,520 F) were trained on sweetpotato agronomy and post-harvest handling. Similarly, 102 experts (30 M; 72 F) were trained on OFSP nutrition (Fig. 2). Nutrition education including preparation of OFSP roots and leaves either alone or in mixture with traditional foods, was given to 11,324 farmers (1,362 M and 9,962 F). Most of these farmers have started eating sweetpotato leaves for the first time, contributing to improved food security. Farmers add OFSP roots to their traditional foods and claim that the food has become more attractive to adults and children alike because of the orange color. Initially, farmers did not want to plant OFSP on fertile parts of their plots, but after seeing the benefits, they started growing it under irrigation and near homesteads.One of the major achievements has been using OFSP leaves as a vegetable; this will be promoted together with consumption of roots. In project kebeles, drought is a major constraint so emphasis will be given to multiplying sweetpotato vines using irrigation and conserving planting material from season to season using the Triple S method (Fig. 3). Efforts of the EU project in developing high dry matter OFSP varieties will be supported.","tokenCount":"674"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"75e257faaeaebf458797adc6ca2fb57a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de825e7c-b610-400c-9d34-df1d3a1477ca/retrieve","id":"1743857204"},"keywords":["D. praehensilis","quantitative traits","MGIDI index","trait profiling","multi-trait selection"],"sieverID":"e51ce3fb-80b1-4c20-bf81-99dbe099f2fb","pagecount":"16","content":"Dioscorea praehensilis Benth. is a semi-wild yam species and a valuable source of resistance trait genes. To access the agronomic and tuber quality performance, eleven quantitative phenotypic traits were used to discriminate and identify promising accessions among 162 accessions of D. praehensilis collected in Ghana. Significant and high genetic variability (p < 0.001) for all eleven quantitative traits was found among the evaluated accessions. Moderate broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) (30-60%) was observed for all the evaluated quantitative traits except the response to YMV and tuber hardness. The accessions were clustered into three groups; each cluster displayed genotypes with good potentiality for the different traits evaluated. Path coefficient analysis revealed positive contributions (p < 0.01) of the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, tuber width, stem internode length, number of internodes, and tuber flesh hardness to the total tuber weight per plant. Through the multi-trait genotype-ideotype distance index (MGIDI), 24 accessions were identified from the 162 evaluated accessions as top-ranking and could be used as progenitors for trait introgression. The results of this study provide insight for future yam breeding and improvement programs in West Africa.Yam (Dioscorea species) is a popular tropical and subtropical food crop. It is widely grown in West Africa, contributing significantly to food security and poverty reduction [1,2]. West Africa accounts for more than 95% of global yam production, with Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Benin as the leading producers [3].D. praehensilis is an edible semi-cultivated wild yam species used chiefly to ease food insecurity among local farmers in forest zones of West African nations such as Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo during lean seasons [4,5]. D. praehensilis has a high yield potential, pest and disease tolerance, in-soil storage ability, and the capacity to blossom and fruit profusely, making it ideal for hybridization in breeding programs [5].Despite these significances, the economic values of D. praehensilis have not been fully realized due to the oxidative browning and hardening of tuber flesh a few days after harvesting, resulting in poor utilization and under-exploitation of its potential [5]. The germplasm collection and the estimation of morphological divergence in D. praehensilis, compared to widely cultivated and utilized yam species such as D. rotundata and D. alata, are partial and not comprehensive, especially in Ghana. These factors have resulted in rapid genetic erosion and the risk of extinction of this valuable yam species [5]. The information Agronomy 2023, 13, 682 2 of 16 on tuber culinary quality traits, yield performance in a natural environment, and disease resistance of D. praehensilis is highly deficient and not fully documented. Identifying accessions with high-yielding attributes, tolerance to yam mosaic virus (YMV), and good post-harvest tuber qualities that farmers and consumers prefer will contribute to unlocking the genetic potential of bush yam.Several studies have been carried out on yam using morphological descriptors [6][7][8][9]. Many authors [10][11][12][13] have reported the effectiveness of morphological markers in assessing genetic diversity in D. alata. In Guinea yams (D. rotundata and D. cayenensis), morphological traits have been successfully employed in evaluating genetic variability [14,15]. The application of morphological descriptors has also been used in D. bulbifera [16]. In addition, the genetic diversity among 140 accessions of D. trifida was successfully determined in the municipality of Caapiranga, in the central Amazon region of Brazil, using 64 morphological descriptors [17]. The genetic diversity in D. praehensilis germplasm in Ghana has been less explored, and there is also uncertainty about the applicability of morphological traits to evaluate the genetic diversity in the crop. Hence, a comprehensive analysis of the phenotypic diversity of D. praehensilis germplasm indigenous to Ghana may be critical for identifying and developing cultivars with economically valuable traits and for the conservation and sustainable utilization of the species.In any crop improvement initiative, breeders often keep in mind a combination of attributes that, when combined into a genotype, would result in excellent performance; this genotype is referred to as an ideotype [18]. The goal of ideotype design is to improve crop performance by selecting genotypes based on many attributes at the same time [19]. The Smith-Hazel (SH) index is a linear selection index frequently used by breeders for multi-trait selection [20,21]. However, in the case of the SH index, the presence of multicollinearity and the difficulties in assigning economic weightage to the qualities under evaluation can have an impact on genetic gain [19]. To address these shortcomings, a multivariate selection index, the multi-trait genotype-ideotype distance index (MGIDI), has been created [19]. This index accounts for multi-collinearity and favorably selects all variables under consideration, resulting in significant genetic gain [19]. The application of MGIDI as a multi-trait selection index has been reported for white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) [22], but limited information is available on D. praehensilis.The objectives of the present study were: (i) to quantify the agronomic and tuber quality trait performance of D. praehensilis accessions in Ghana, and (ii) to identify D. praehensilis accessions with higher agronomic and yield-related traits for future genetic improvement initiatives.The study was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of the School of Agriculture, the University of Cape Coast, Ghana (5 • 07 7.6\" N, 1 • 17 18.9\" W; 15 m above sea level). This farm is located in the Central region with semi-deciduous forests and coastal savannah ecozones. The trial was conducted under field conditions during the 2020 and 2021 growing seasons. The annual rainfalls for the experiment period were 1246.2 mm for 2020 and 1170.2 mm for 2021; the average maximum and minimum temperatures for 2020 were 27.9 and 26.9 • C, while those for 2021 were 28.6 and 25 • C, respectively. The average relative humidity for 2020 was 75.7%, and it was 81.2% for 2021. The soil on this experimental site is sandy loam with a pH of 6.72, 1.31% organic carbon, 754.6 µg/g of available phosphorus, and potassium content estimated at 0.081 cmol/kg.A total of 162 D. praehensilis accessions were used, of which 71 were collected from the Central region, 25 from the Eastern region, and 66 from the Western North region of Ghana (Figure S1 and Table S1). These accessions were collected from farmers during the 2019 harvest season. The details, including the accession codes and regions of the collection, are presented in Table S1. The experiment was laid out in a 15-by-11 simple lattice design with two replicates. Each plot size consisted of 3 m long ridges containing three plants at 1 m intra-and inter-row spacing. The field layout was generated using Agricolae package [23]. The recommended cultural practices, such as ridging, weeding, staking, etc., were implemented during the growing seasons.Data were collected for 11 quantitative traits (Table S2) according to the standard operating protocol for yam performance evaluation trials [24] and the yam trait ontology available at YamBase (www.yambase.org, accessed on 7 January 2023). The area under the disease progression curve (AUDPC) for YMV severity, dry matter content, tuber flesh oxidation intensity, and tuber flesh hardness were evaluated as described below.The AUDPC, a valuable quantitative summary of disease intensity or severity for YMV over time, was estimated using the trapezoidal method [25]. This method discretizes the time variable and calculates the average disease intensity or severity between each pair of adjacent time points:where N is the number of observations, y i is the disease severity at the ith observation, and t i is the time at the ith observation. The dry matter content was determined by chopping 100 g of fresh tuber flesh into small pieces and then oven-drying it at 105 • C for 24 h until a constant weight was achieved. The percentage of dry matter content was then estimated as follows: % dry matter content (DMC) = Dry tuber flesh weight (g) Wet tuber flesh weight (g) × 100(2)The intensity of tuber flesh oxidation (color change or browning of cut tuber flesh) was assessed 60 min after cutting using a Chroma (colorimeter) meter (CR-400, Konica Minolta, Japan). The lightness (L*), red/green coordinate (a*), and yellow/blue coordinate (b*) values were recorded. A reference of white and black porcelain tiles was used to calibrate the Chroma meter before each reading. The delta (color difference) (∆E*) among all three coordinates was calculated using the following formula:where F∆E* is the final delta and I∆E* is the initial delta. Tuber flesh hardness was assessed with a 6.00 mm probe digital penetrometer. Tuber samples of 1 cm thickness and ~5 cm diameter were prepared from each genotype/accession, and the probe was pressed into the tuber. The force necessary for its penetration into the tuber was considered an indicator of the hardness of the tuber. Three measurements were taken per accession, the average was calculated, and the data were expressed in Newtons.Lme4 [23], an R package, was used to perform the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a mixed linear model (MLM) fitted across cropping seasons, as shown below.where Y ijk is the value of the observed quantitative trait; µ is the population mean; G h is the effect of the hth accession; S i is the effect of the ith growing season; (G h * S i ) is the accessions and season interaction associated with accession h and season i; R ij is the effect of the jth replicate (superblock) in the season ith; B k is the effect of the kth incomplete block within the jth replicate; and ε hijk is the experimental error. Accessions were considered fixed effects, while growing seasons, replicates, and blocks were considered random effects. The means between growing seasons were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a p-value threshold of 0.05. Variations in the quantitative traits among D. praehensilis accessions were assessed using descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values, and coefficients of variation. Pearson's correlation coefficients (phenotypic and genotypic) among the quantitative traits were estimated using the Corrplot R package [26]. FactoMineR [27] and Factoextra [28] in R were used to evaluate the contributions of the quantitative traits using principal component analysis (PCA). Path coefficient analysis was conducted using lavaan and semPlot in the R package [23], considering the tuber weight per plant and dry matter content as response variables. A path diagram was constructed to depict the direct effect of key agronomic and tuber quality traits on the tuber yield and dry matter content to determine which traits can be adopted for indirect selection. A cluster dendrogram for estimating the genetic relationship among the 162 D. prehensilis was visualized using the dendextend [29] and circlize [30] packages. The variance components for each quantitative trait were estimated from the expected mean square (EMS) in the analysis of variance. The broad-sense heritability and genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation were calculated based on the estimated variance components as follows:Phenotypic coefficient of varianceGenotypic coefficient of variancewhere δ 2 g is the genotypic variance and δ 2 p is the phenotypic variance. Shabanimofrad et al. [31] categorized the estimated values of PCV and GCV as low for 0-10%, intermediate for 10-20%, and high for greater than or equal to 20%. Broad-sense heritability (h 2 ) was categorized as low for 0-29%, intermediate for 30-60%, and high for greater than 60%. The multi-trait genotype-ideotype distance index (MGIDI) index theory is based on four key steps: (i) rescaling the traits so that they all have a 0-100 range, (ii) using factor analysis to account for the correlation structure and data dimensionality reduction, (iii) planning an ideotype based on known/desired trait values, and (iv) computing the distance between each genotype and the planned ideotype.i. The following formula was used to rescale traits:where η nj and ϕ nj are the new maximum and minimum values for trait j after rescaling, respectively; ϕ oj and ϕ oj are the original maximum and minimum values for trait j, respectively, and hij is the original value for the jth trait of the ith genotype/treatment. The values for η nj and ϕ nj were chosen as follows. For the traits in which negative gains are desired, η nj = 0 and ϕ nj = 100 should be used. For the traits in which positive gains are desired, η nj = 100 and ϕ nj = 0 [32,33]. In the rescaled two-way table (rX ij ), each column has a 0-100 range that considers the desired sense of selection (increase or decrease) and maintains the correlation structure of the original set of variables.The factor analysis and ideotype design index (MGIDI) were calculated for ranking the genotypes based on multiple traits free from multi-collinearity [34]. The radar chart was generated using the radar chart function of the fmsb package [35]. The predicted genetic gain SG (%), was computed using the MGIDI index for each trait considering the α% selection intensity, as follows:where s is the mean of the selected genotypes, o is the mean of the original population, and h 2 is the heritability.The interactions among seasons and accessions were significant (p < 0.05) for only the tuber flesh hardness. Significant differences (p < 0.001) among the accessions were observed across all evaluated quantitative traits. The season main effect was significant (p < 0.05) for the tuber length and tuber flesh hardness. The overall mean, range, and coefficients of variation of the evaluated traits are presented in Table 1. The responses to YMV severity based on the AUDPC score varied from 135.00 to 320.00, with an average of 149.44. The average dry matter content was 34.01%, ranging from 17.84 to 50.49%. The tuber flesh oxidation varied from −46.71 to 7.77, with an average of −13.34. The tuber flesh hardness ranged from 48.43 to 55.26 N, averaging 50.86 N. The coefficients of variation varied from 2.39% for the tuber flesh hardness to 76.70% for the tuber flesh oxidation. High genotypic coefficients of variation (GCV) (≥20%) were observed for most of the evaluated traits. The stem diameter and stem internode length had moderate GCV (10-20%), while the dry matter contents and tuber flesh hardness had low GCV (0-10%) (Table 1). High phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) (≥20%) were recorded in all the evaluated quantitative traits except in the dry matter content and flesh tuber hardness, where low PCV (0-10%) were observed (Table 1). Moderate broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) (30-60%) was observed for all the evaluated quantitative traits, whereas the response to YMV and the tuber flesh hardness had high H 2 (>60%) (Table 1).The first three principal components (PCs) accounted for ~55% of the total variation (Table 2; Figure 1 (left)). PC1 explained ~23% of the total variation, with traits such as the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, and tuber width having larger contributions to the explained variation by the PC. PC2 contributed 16.55% of the total variation, with traits such as the stem diameter, shoot internode, and dry matter content having larger contributions to the explained variation by this PC. Approximately 15% of the total variation was detected in PC3, with the number of internodes to the first branch, tuber oxidation, and tuber hardness having larger contributions to the explained variation by this PC (Table 2). The influence of the traits on the principal components and the levels of correlation among them are presented in Figure 1 (right). The PCA biplot indicates higher and positive correlations between the tuber weight per plant and the number of tubers per plant and between the dry matter content and the tuber flesh oxidation, but negative correlations between the tuber flesh hardness and the dry matter content and between the response to YMV severity and the dry matter content.The results of the phenotypic and genotypic relationships among the quantitative traits are presented in Figure 2. Significant correlation coefficients (genotypic and phenotypic) were observed between the tuber weight per plant and the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, tuber width, stem diameter, and stem internode length (p < 0.001). The dry matter content was positively correlated with the tuber flesh oxidation (p < 0.05), the number of tuber per plant (p <0.01), tuber length (p < 0.001), and the number of internodes to the first branching (p < 0.01), but significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p < 0.01), and stem diameter and stem internode length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh oxidation was significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p <0.01), and tuber length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh hardness revealed significant and positive correlations with the response to YMV severity (p < 0.001) and tuber length (p <0.01) (Figure 2).  The results of the phenotypic and genotypic relationships among the quantitative traits are presented in Figure 2. Significant correlation coefficients (genotypic and phenotypic) were observed between the tuber weight per plant and the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, tuber width, stem diameter, and stem internode length (p < 0.001). The dry matter content was positively correlated with the tuber flesh oxidation (p < 0.05), the number of tuber per plant (p <0.01), tuber length (p < 0.001), and the number of internodes to the first branching (p < 0.01), but significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p < 0.01), and stem diameter and stem internode length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh oxidation was significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p <0.01), and tuber length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh hardness revealed significant and positive correlations with the response to YMV severity (p < 0.001) and tuber length (p <0.01) (Figure 2).  The results of the phenotypic and genotypic relationships among the quantitative traits are presented in Figure 2. Significant correlation coefficients (genotypic and phenotypic) were observed between the tuber weight per plant and the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, tuber width, stem diameter, and stem internode length (p < 0.001). The dry matter content was positively correlated with the tuber flesh oxidation (p < 0.05), the number of tuber per plant (p <0.01), tuber length (p < 0.001), and the number of internodes to the first branching (p < 0.01), but significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p < 0.01), and stem diameter and stem internode length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh oxidation was significantly and negatively correlated with the tuber flesh hardness (p < 0.001), the response to YMV severity (p <0.01), and tuber length (p < 0.001). Tuber flesh hardness revealed significant and positive correlations with the response to YMV severity (p < 0.001) and tuber length (p <0.01) (Figure 2). TWPL: tuber weight per plant; NTP: number of tubers per plant; TBL: tuber length; TBW: tuber width; SDMP: stem diameter per plant; NIFB: number of internodes before first branching; SINL: stem internode length; YMV: yam mosaic virus; DMC: dry matter content; TBOXI: tuber flesh oxidation; TBHard: tuber flesh hardness.Direct path coefficient analysis revealed that the tuber weight per plant gained significant positive contributions from the number of tubers per plant (r = 0.26; p ≤ 0.05), tuber length (r = 0.05; p ≤ 0.05), and tuber width (r = 0.03; p ≤ 0.05), while the dry matter content gained significant positive contributions from the number of tubers per plant (r = 0.80; p ≤ 0.05) and tuber flesh oxidation (r = 0.08; p ≤ 0.05) (Figure 3). Direct path coefficient analysis revealed that the tuber weight per plant gained significant positive contributions from the number of tubers per plant (r = 0.26; p ≤ 0.05), tuber length (r = 0.05; p ≤ 0.05), and tuber width (r = 0.03; p ≤ 0.05), while the dry matter content gained significant positive contributions from the number of tubers per plant (r = 0.80; p ≤ 0.05) and tuber flesh oxidation (r = 0.08; p ≤ 0.05) (Figure 3). Figure 3. Path coefficient analysis among evaluated 11 quantitative traits using tuber weight per plant and dry matter contents as dependent variables. TWPL: tuber weight per plant; NTP: number of tubers per plant; TBL: tuber length; TBW: tuber width; SDMP: stem diameter per plant; NIFB: number of internodes before first branching; SINL: stem internode length; YMV: yam mosaic virus; DMC: dry matter content; TBOXI: tuber flesh oxidation; TBHard: tuber flesh hardness.Hierarchical clustering based on the Gower dissimilarity matrix grouped the 162 D. praehensilis accessions into three clusters, accounting for 51, 69, and 42 accessions for clusters 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Figure 4). Cluster 1 was characterized by accessions with increased tolerance and resistance to the YMV severity, high dry matter content, and moderately low tuber flesh oxidation and hardness but low tuber weight per plant and a low number of tubers per plant (Table 3). Cluster 2 consisted of accessions that were characterized by a significantly high yield (tuber weight per plant, long, and many tubers), resistance to YMV severity, high dry matter content, moderately low tuber flesh oxidation, and low tuber flesh hardness (Table 3). The accessions in Cluster 3 were associated with high tuber yield component attributes (tuber weight per plant, tuber length, and width) and low tuber flesh oxidation. . Path coefficient analysis among evaluated 11 quantitative traits using tuber weight per plant and dry matter contents as dependent variables. TWPL: tuber weight per plant; NTP: number of tubers per plant; TBL: tuber length; TBW: tuber width; SDMP: stem diameter per plant; NIFB: number of internodes before first branching; SINL: stem internode length; YMV: yam mosaic virus; DMC: dry matter content; TBOXI: tuber flesh oxidation; TBHard: tuber flesh hardness.Hierarchical clustering based on the Gower dissimilarity matrix grouped the 162 D. praehensilis accessions into three clusters, accounting for 51, 69, and 42 accessions for clusters 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Figure 4). Cluster 1 was characterized by accessions with increased tolerance and resistance to the YMV severity, high dry matter content, and moderately low tuber flesh oxidation and hardness but low tuber weight per plant and a low number of tubers per plant (Table 3). Cluster 2 consisted of accessions that were characterized by a significantly high yield (tuber weight per plant, long, and many tubers), resistance to YMV severity, high dry matter content, moderately low tuber flesh oxidation, and low tuber flesh hardness (Table 3). The accessions in Cluster 3 were associated with high tuber yield component attributes (tuber weight per plant, tuber length, and width) and low tuber flesh oxidation.The MGIDI index identified three factors based on the eleven quantitative traits. Factor analysis 1 was associated with the tuber weight per plant, the number of tubers per plant, and tuber length and width. Factor analysis 2 was correlated with the dry matter content, tuber flesh oxidation, and tuber flesh hardness, while Factor analysis 3 was associated with the stem diameter per plant, number of internodes, and stem internode length (Table 4). The average communality and uniqueness accounted for 55% and 46% of all the genetic variability in the dataset, respectively ( .57 TWPL: tuber weight per plant; NTP: number of tubers per plant; TBL: tuber length; TBW: tuber width; SDMP: stem diameter per plant; NIFB: number of internodes before first branching; SINL: stem internode length; YMV: yam mosaic virus; DMC: dry matter content; TBOXI: tuber flesh oxidation; TBHard: tuber flesh hardness.    Of the 11 traits evaluated, nine had desired genetic gains using the MGIDI index (Table 4). The traits with undesired selection gain using the MGIDI index were the response to YMV severity (1.92%) and tuber flesh oxidation. The MGIDI index provided a total genetic gain of 12.04% for the assessed multi-traits for which increases are desired and 3.69% for those for which decreases are desired (Table 4).Of the 162 D. praehensilis accessions evaluated, the MGIDI identified 24 accessions as high-performing accessions for multiple traits (Figure 5, Table S3). These accessions show the greatest potential for the simultaneous improvement of the measured traits in a yam breeding program.Accessions associated with FA1 (WNDpr13, WNDpr18, WNDpr4, WNDpr46, WNDpr84, WNDpr88, Asamankese002, CDpr1, CDpr28, CDpr29, CDpr4, CDpr68, and CDpr72) showed strength for traits such as the dry matter content, yam mosaic virus severity, tuber flesh hardness, and stem internode length (Figure 6; Table 5). Accessions related to FA2 (WNDpr63, WNDpr76, Asamankese009, CDpr24, and CDpr8) had strength for the tuber weight per plant, the number of tubers per plant, tuber length, and the number of internodes to the first branching (Figure 6; Table 5), while accessions associated with FA3 (WNDpr71, CDpr46, CDpr48, CDpr57, EDpr23, and PGR002) revealed strength for traits such as the tuber width, tuber flesh oxidation, and stem diameter.   The strengths and weaknesses of the selected clones Figure 6. The strengths and weaknesses of the selected genotypes are shown as the proportion of each factor on the computed multi-trait genotype-ideotype index (MGIDI). The smaller the proportion explained by a factor (closer to the external edge), the closer the traits within that factor are to the ideotype. The black broken circle at the center shows the theoretical value if all the factors contributed equally. A002: Asamankese002; A009: Asamankese009.In this study, we employed 11 quantitative traits to assess the variations among 162 accessions of bush yam collected from three different regions of Ghana. The results show significant variations among the accessions of D. praehensilis in all the evaluated traits, indicating a high level of diversity among the D. praehensilis accessions studied. The high coefficients of variation (CV > 20) that were observed in some of the quantitative traits, especially the yield component traits, indicate huge and readily available genetic differentiation in D. praehensilis. Kouam et al. [16] reported high coefficients of variation for tuber yield components in a study conducted on D. bulbifera accessions. Similar observations of high genetic variability using quantitative traits have been reported in other yam species such as D. alata [20], D. rotundata [24], and D. dumetorum [36,37]. These high variations in quantitative traits are an indication that these traits could be used as the basis for the selection of accessions with high genetic merit. The knowledge of existing variability and the degrees of association among quantitative traits are paramount for selecting superior accessions for breeding programs.The degree of genetic variability and heritability determines the response to selection in any crop improvement initiative [38]. The high GCV (>20%) and moderate broad-sense heritability (30-60%) observed for all the yield-related traits suggest high selection pressure, which could be enforced on these traits for future breeding activities. The GCV coupled with heritability estimates offers the best information about the extent of progress that can be expected from selection [39]. In contrast, the low GCVs recorded for the dry matter content and YMV severity response imply that these traits can only be improved using selection methods that are not under the influence of environmental factors. Norman et al. [40] and Asfaw et al. [41] have reported high GCVs and PCVs for tuber yield-related traits and low GCVs and PCVs for the dry matter content in studies conducted on advanced and early-generation breeding populations of D. rotundata, respectively. Padhan et al. [42] also reported high GCVs and PCVs for tuber yield in a study conducted on India's wild and cultivated yam species. High H 2 observed in the YMV severity response is an indication that this trait could be improved through natural selection for superior accessions. The results from this study corroborate the findings by Agre et al. [43], who reported high H 2 in the YMV severity response in their study conducted on elite populations of D. rotundata.The correlation analysis in this study revealed that improvement in yield and superior tuber quality traits is possible through the selection of attributing traits, such as an increased size of tubers and resistance and tolerance to YMV. The positive relationships observed among yield-related traits in this study imply that indirect selection could be adopted for significantly correlated traits. Positive correlations observed among yield-related traits have been reported by Asfaw et al. [41] and Padhan et al. [42]. The significant positive correlation observed in this study between the dry matter and the number of tubers per plant agrees with the findings of Satie et al. [44] in a study on eight white yam landraces.The cluster analysis showed that Cluster 2 was the most promising group for superior tuber yield attributes, high resistance to YMV severity, high dry matter content, and low tuber flesh hardness. Cluster 1 had some promising accessions for resistance to YMV severity and Cluster 3 had accessions with potential for high tuber yield attributes and low tuber flesh oxidation. Hybridization within each cluster may result in less genetic gain due to the close relatedness of the accessions within each cluster [45]. Similarly, hybridization between accessions belonging to different clusters will result in the generation of different breeding materials.Breeders frequently attempt to blend numerous desirable features into a new genotype in order to create high performance. It is frequently difficult to choose a genotype from the ideotype when assessing many attributes. The MGIDI was used to rank the D. praehensilis accessions based on the data from the multiple traits that were measured. The MGIDI index selected accessions (Asamankese 002, Asamankese 009, CDpr1, CDpr24, CDpr28, CDpr29, CDpr4, CDpr46, CDpr48, CDpr57, CDpr68, CDpr72, CDpr8, EDpr23, PGR002, WNDpr13, WNDpr18, WNDpr4, WNDpr46, WNDpr63, WNDpr71, WNDpr76, WNDpr84, and WNDpr88) as promising D. praehensilis accessions for a yam improvement program. The MGIDI model has also been used to assess ideal yield and yield-related variables in white Guinea yam genotypes [22], wheat genotypes [46], and eggplant genotypes [47]. Multiple trait selection using the MGIDI was found to be beneficial in identifying highperforming bush yam accessions and estimating the expected genetic gains of the selected accessions for the qualities studied. This supports the notion that the MGIDI is a potentially useful strategy for simultaneously improving many attributes using projected genetic influences [35].The MGIDI index's strengths and weaknesses determined that the proportion of each factor is a useful tool for identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the evaluated accessions. WNDpr13, WNDpr18, WNDpr4, WNDpr46, WNDpr84, WNDpr88, Asamankese002, CDpr1, CDpr28, CDpr29, CDpr4, CDpr68, and CDpr72 were selected for low tuber flesh hardness and resistance to YMV; WNDpr63, WNDpr76, Asamankese009, CDpr24, and CDpr8 were selected for the tuber weight per plant, the number of tubers, and tuber length; and WNDpr71, CDpr46, CDpr48, CDpr57, EDpr23, and PGR002 were selected for tuber flesh oxidation and tuber width. The knowledge of contributions by these accessions helps in the selection of prospective putative progenitors for future breeding in D. praehensilis. The initiation of a hybridization program among the promising accessions of D. praehensilis could help develop varieties that meet the preference criteria of farmers and consumers for better post-harvest tuber quality traits, such as low tuber flesh oxidation, low tuber flesh hardness, and high yield.This study explored the potential of 11 morphological traits to reveal the degree of genetic diversity among 162 accessions of D. praehensilis. The results show that improving bush yam for yield-related traits and post-harvest tuber quality can be achieved by exploring the genetic diversity among quantitative traits. The MGIDI index identified some promising D. praehensilis accessions that could be explored as progenitors for a bush yam improvement initiative targeting good agronomic and tuber quality traits for end users. Further assessment of these bush yam accessions with high throughput molecular markers is necessary to confirm the results of this study.The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy13030682/s1, Figure S1. Map showing the locations of collection of D. praehensilis accessions; Table S1. List of samples with their sources; Table S2. Description of quantitative traits evaluated; Table S3. Factorial loadings, multi-trait genotypeideotype indexes, and selection status of the 162 D. praehensilis. Funding: This work was supported by the African Trans-Regional Cooperation through Academic Mobility (ACADEMY) project, reference number 2017-3052/001-001, funded by the European Union Commission and African Union within the framework of the \"Intra-Africa Mobility Scheme\" that granted a Ph.D. scholarship to the first author to study at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. Additional funding was provided by the International Foundation for Science under grant agreement I-3-C-6624-1 and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF/PP1052998).","tokenCount":"5340"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"863e62c42a26901c59be0872e7ca17c9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0c88243-b666-4962-b557-bf53cc661ba0/retrieve","id":"830562184"},"keywords":["MOABI / Maro Haas","Art direction and layout Zoo","designers graphiques","Figures design Jacqueline Gensollen-Bloch","Figures Yuka Estrada","SPM figures IPBES secretariat","Bonn","Germany. 49 pages"],"sieverID":"6c7b2512-c158-4185-aee3-51bdc39bb6a8","pagecount":"52","content":"This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The IPBES secretariat would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the IPBES secretariat. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the IPBES secretariat. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity or advertising is not permitted.The Regional Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services for Africa produced by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) provides a critical analysis of the state of knowledge regarding the importance, status, and trends of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people. The assessment analyses the direct and underlying causes for the observed changes in biodiversity and in nature's contributions to people, and the impact that these changes have on the quality of life of people. The assessment, finally, identifies a mix of governance options, policies and management practices that are currently available to reduce the loss of biodiversity and of nature's contributions to people in that region. The assessment addresses terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal biodiversity and covers current status and trends, going back in time several decades, and future projections, with a focus on the 2020-2050 period.The present document, the Summary for Policymakers of the Assessment Report, was approved by the sixth session of the Plenary of IPBES (Medellín, Colombia, 18-24 March 2018). It is based on a set of chapters which were accepted at this same Plenary session. The chapters are available as document IPBES/6/INF/3/Rev.1 (www.ipbes.net).T he objective of the Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services is to provide Governments, the private sector, and civil society with scientifically credible and independent up-to-date assessments of available knowledge to make informed decisions at the local, regional and international levels. This regional and subregional assessment of biodiversity and ecosystem services for Africa has been carried out by 127 selected experts, including 7 early career fellows, assisted by 23 contributing authors, primarily from Africa, who have analyzed a large body of knowledge, including about 2,400 scientific publications. The Report represents the state of knowledge on the Africa region and subregions. Its chapters and their executive summaries were accepted, and its summary for policymakers was approved, by the Member States of IPBES at the sixth session of the IPBES Plenary (18 to 24 March 2018, Medellín, Colombia).This Report provides a critical assessment of the full range of issues facing decision-makers, including the importance, status, trends and threats to biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, as well as policy and management response options. Establishing the underlying causes of the loss of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people provides policymakers with the information needed to develop appropriate response options, technologies, policies, financial incentives and behavioral changes.The Assessment concludes that biodiversity and nature's contributions in Africa are economically, socially and culturally important, essential in providing the continent's food, water, energy, health and secure livelihood, and represent a strategic asset for sustainable development and achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. However, the Assessment also notes that the current loss and decline of biodiversity, which is due to human activities, is reducing nature's contributions to people, and undermining human well-being. Unregulated land cover change, i.e., habitat change and over-exploitation, has been the primary cause of biodiversity loss to date, but given Africa's extreme vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, climate change is likely to be a dominant driver of change in the future. The likely doubling of Africa's population by 2050, coupled with rapid urbanization, will place tremendous additional pressure on the continent's biodiversity and nature's contributions to people.The Assessment notes that many African countries are implementing their national biodiversity strategies and action plans and are making some progress in meeting the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, but that progress in many of these actions is insufficient. For example, there has been some degree of recovery of threatened species through the establishment of effective management of terrestrial and marine protected areas. Africa is also progressively addressing both direct and indirect underlying threats to biodiversity and nature's contributions to people through a range of existing policies, strategies, plans and programmes at the national, subregional and regional levels. The Assessment identifies a range of possible options for more effective multi-stakeholder and multi-level adaptive governance, recognizing the value of local and indigenous knowledge.While much is known about Africa's biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, there are still significant scientific uncertainties that need to be addressed through national and regional research programmes.We would like to recognize the excellent and dedicated work of the co-chairs, Dr. Emma Archer (South Africa), Dr. Luthando Dziba (South Africa) and Prof. Kalemani Jo Mulongoy (Democratic Republic of the Congo), as well as of the coordinating lead authors, lead authors, review editors, fellows, contributing authors and reviewers, and warmly thank them for their commitment. We would also like to thank Michele Walters and Anicia Malebajoa Maoela, from the technical support unit located at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa, as well as Felice van der Plaat, coordinator of the implementation of the regional assessments, because without their dedication this Report would not have been possible. We would also like to thank the Government of South Africa for their generous support. This Regional Assessment Report provides invaluable information for African policymakers to make informed decisions regarding the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, the promotion of access to genetic resources, as well as the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use. It also provides valuable information for the ongoing IPBES global assessment, to be released in May 2019 and is expected to inform discussions regarding the post-2020 global biodiversity framework under the Convention on Biological Diversity, as well as to inform action on implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals.The Sustainable Development Goals aim to \"leave no one behind\". If we don't protect and value biodiversity, we will never achieve this goal. When we erode biodiversity, we impact food, water, forests and livelihoods. But to tackle any challenge head on, we need to get the science right and this is why UN Environment is proud to support this series of assessments. Investing in the science of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge, means investing in people and the future we want.Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Biodiversity is the living fabric of our planet -the source of our present and our future. It is essential to helping us all adapt to the changes we face over the coming years. UNESCO, both as a UN partner of IPBES and as the host of the IPBES Technical Support Unit on Indigenous and Local Knowledge, has always been committed to supporting harmony between people and nature through its programmes and networks. These four regional reports are critical to understanding the role of human activities in biodiversity loss and its conservation, and our capacity to collectively implementing solutions to address the challenges ahead.Director-General, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)The regional assessments demonstrate once again that biodiversity is among the earth's most important resources. Biodiversity is also key to food security and nutrition. The maintenance of biological diversity is important for food production and for the conservation of the ecological foundations on which rural livelihoods depend. Biodiversity is under serious threat in many regions of the world and it is time for policymakers to take action at national, regional and global levels.Director-General, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Tools like these four regional assessments provide scientific evidence for better decision making and a path we can take forward to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and harness nature's power for our collective sustainable future. The world has lost over 130 million hectares of rainforests since 1990 and we lose dozens of species every day, pushing the Earth's ecological system to its limit. Biodiversity and the ecosystem services it supports are not only the foundation for our life on Earth, but critical to the livelihoods and well-being of people everywhere.Administrator, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) THE REGIONAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES FOR AFRICA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A s the Co-Chairs of The IPBES Regional Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services for Africa, it is a great privilege to have worked with our expert group and Technical Support Unit in the development of this, the most recent Assessment of biodiversity and ecosystem services for the continent of Africa. It is our hope that the Assessment will find use and value by decision-makers and policymakers, and we, as co-chairs and as an expert group, are committed to supporting that process as our way forward.We sincerely thank our experts, especially the Coordinating Lead Authors, Lead Authors and Contributing Authors, as well as their nominating governments and organizations who supported them. These authors were generous with their time and effort in this significant and demanding process and this is greatly appreciated. We thank Sebsebe Demissew, Chimère Diaw, Otieno Oguge, Alfred Oteng-Yeboah and Laura Pereira for joining the co-chairs to finalize the Summary for Policymakers (SPM) in late November in Pretoria. We also thank graphic designers Maro Haas and Yuka Estrada for producing excellent graphics that significantly improved data visualization and for the design and layout of the SPM. We further thank external reviewers and Review Editors whose comments helped to improve the quality of the Assessment Report and the SPM.Thanks as well to all publishers who granted us permission to reprint various illustrations free of charge. We would also like to acknowledge the invaluable support of many colleagues and data holders who provided the most up-to-date biodiversity data and information in Africa at sub-regional level.We would like to express our gratitude for the support of the Chair of IPBES, Sir Bob Watson; Anne Larigauderie, IPBES Executive Secretary, as well as all members of the IPBES Multidisciplinary Expert Panel (MEP) and Bureau. We would particularly like to thank our management committee for their unwavering support and oversight role during the whole Assessment process -namely, Sebsebe Demissew, Fundisile Mketeni, Jean Bruno Mikissa, and Alfred Oteng-Yeboah.We would also like to thank Felice van der Plaat for her support and her coordinating role in the multi-year development of this Assessment, which ensured learning across the Regional Assessments.We also express sincere thanks to the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for hosting the Technical Support Unit (TSU) in Pretoria, South Africa. We also thank Michele Walters and Anicia Malebajoa Maoela for co-leading the TSU. Their unstinting efforts and commitment have been central to the production of the Assessment. We thank Thokozani Mntungwa for providing excellent administrative support to the TSU and for organizing all the meetings so smoothly. We also thank the leadership of the CSIR Natural Resources and the Environment Unit for their unwavering support. We would further like to thank the interns who worked with the TSU at various times during the Assessment -namely, Monana Dhliwayo, Lebo Matlakala, Malebo Morole, Paleka Naidoo, Tshidi Ramabu, and Francinah Ratsoma. In addition, we thank the Department of Environmental Affairs in South Africa for their kind support for the intern positions, as well as their overall support to the IPBES Assessment for Africa. We also thank the South African National Parks and the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute for generously hosting meetings of experts during the Assessment.The Capacity Building TSU are to be sincerely thanked for their continual support, including, but not limited to, the Fellows programme, our additional workshops (including our writing workshop at Golden Gate and the SPM workshop in Oslo). We thank the Fellows for their commendable contribution to the IPBES Assessment for Africa. The sciencepolicy dialogue with National Focal Points held in Ethiopia in early August 2017, which was funded by the Capacity Building TSU, prepared the government representatives to comment on the latter stages of the Assessment and for engagement with the SPM in Colombia in March, 2018.We finally express sincere thanks to the whole of the IPBES secretariat for their support throughout the process of developing the Assessment. A. AFRICA'S NATURAL ASSETS ARE UNIQUE A1 Africa's extraordinary richness in biodiversity and ecosystem services, and wealth of indigenous and local knowledge, comprises a strategic asset for sustainable development in the region. Africa is the last place on Earth with a significant assemblage of large mammals. Africa has significant regional, subregional and national variations in biodiversity that reflect climatic and physical differences, as well as the continent's long and varied history of human interactions with the environment. This natural richness, accumulated over millions of years, coupled with the wealth of indigenous and local knowledge on the continent, is central to, and constitutes a strategic asset for, the pursuit of sustainable development in the region. A2 Africa's rich and diverse ecosystems generate flows of goods and services that are essential in providing for the continent's food, water, energy, health and secure livelihood needs. More than 62 per cent of the population depend directly on these services in rural areas, while the urban and peri-urban population supplement their incomes, as well as their energy, medicine and other essentials, from ecosystembased resources. Tangible and intangible assets such as food, water, medicinal plants, sacred rituals, as well as religious and cultural spaces, underpin nature's contributions to the economy and are central to a multitude of other livelihood strategies. Nature's contributions to people are generally of immense benefit to the inhabitants of the continent and others across the globe, although their impact may occasionally be detrimental, as in cases of diseases, and where there is conflict over their uses.The full story of Africa's endowment by nature is yet to be told and, as a result, the true value of biodiversity's contributions to human well-being is underappreciated in decision-making processes. This is because the study of nature's contributions to people is still in its infancy. In particular, the number of published studies on the valuation of ecosystem services in Africa is relatively low. The majority of these studies were conducted in Southern Africa (22 per cent), East Africa and adjacent islands (37 per cent), as well as in marine and coastal ecosystems (23 per cent), inland waters and forests (20 per cent). Existing and forthcoming studies of this nature can provide the evidence to help African policymakers in establishing priorities in the use and conservation of biodiversity and related contributions to people, and in identifying the best trade-offs among different biodiversity components and their services for different uses.A4 Africa has opportunities to fully realize the benefits of having such rich biodiversity and to explore ways of using it in a sustainable way to contribute to its economic and technological development. Existing indigenous and local knowledge on management of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people appears to be declining in parts of the continent. Africa has the advantage of low ecological and carbon footprints compared with other parts of the world, but is still likely to face challenges associated with balancing increasing economic growth, rising population and population densities with the need to protect, conserve and enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services. It is important that the people of Africa do not lose both the rich natural resources and the indigenous and local knowledge to manage these resources, especially at a time when knowledge is increasingly recognized as vital to the development of a low-carbon, ecological, knowledge-based economy.A5 Certain ecosystems found in Africa are of great ecological, biological and cultural importance at regional and global levels. As a strategic measure to protect them, and also the species, knowledge and genetic resources that they harbour, countries have declared 14 per cent of the continent's land mass and 2.6 per cent of the seas as protected areas, while some sites have been designated as wetlands of international importance; important bird and biodiversity areas; Alliance for Zero Extinction sites, where endangered or critically endangered species occur; ecologically and biologically significant marine areas; community conserved areas; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites; and Biosphere reserves.Africa has important genetic diversity that reflects its unique and varied biological and cultural heritages, and is the product of interactions with, and adaptation to, an ever-changing environment, and of exchanges with other cultures. This diversity strengthens the resilience of African food systems and communities. It can be seen in the livestock breeds and crop varieties, which were essentially bred from their wild relatives. Africa is home to many subsistence farmers, small-scale livestock herders and pastoralists who maintain a range of plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture, which tends to mitigate the consequences of drought, pests and changing environmental conditions. Many food crops originate in Africa, including species of wheat, barley, millet and sorghum; teff (Eragrostis tef); coffee (Coffea arabica); rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis); cowpea (Vigna unguiculata); and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).underpins the way nature benefits people. It is at the forefront of biodiversity conservation and is critical to the African vision for a good quality of life. It deserves more attention from Governments and society. Successful natural resource management often relies on the improved knowledge gained from communities' insights into the ecology and biology of resources and ecosystems. Indigenous and local knowledge holders can complement the lack of sufficient scientific information on species and environments and help in the management of natural resources. Biodiversity conservation in any cultural landscape requires an understanding of the cultural fabric of societies. There is also growing recognition of the need to protect cultural diversity and to document and value the use of, and meanings bestowed on, nature in endangered cultural landscapes. Indigenous and local knowledge is a key asset in the African research and development agenda, for instance in terms of genetic resources and the synergies that can be made with advanced technologies to bring about the innovations and transformations needed on the African continent.The decline and loss of biodiversity is reducing nature's contributions to people in Africa, affecting daily lives and hampering the sustainable social and economic development targeted by African countries. The number of microorganisms, plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals threatened by a range of human-induced drivers such as climate change, habitat conversion, over-harvesting, poaching and illegal wildlife trade, pollution and invasive alien species, as well as natural drivers such as diseases, pests and natural disasters, has increased over the last two decades. These drivers enhance climate-related risks, land degradation, loss of habitat for migratory and other species, and loss of soil fertility, productivity and economic opportunities, further threatening food, water, energy and health security with serious negative impacts on livelihoods. All the plausible future scenarios analysed in the Africa assessment highlight that these drivers will increase overall, with associated negative impacts on biodiversity, nature's contributions to people and human well-being. B2 Indirect drivers, including rapid population growth and urbanization, inappropriate economic policies and technologies, poaching and illegal wildlife trade as well as socio-political and cultural pressures have accelerated the loss of biodiversity and the loss of nature's contributions to people. A failure to address these underlying causes of biodiversity loss will continue to threaten or undermine efforts to protect biodiversity and improve the quality of life of the people of Africa through conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits from natural resources. Other factors that cause biodiversity loss and a decline in nature's contributions to people include the unregulated development of infrastructure and human settlements; overharvesting of biological resources; introduction of invasive alien species; and air, water and soil pollution. Climate change, manifested by a rise in temperature and sea-level rise, and changes in rainfall pattern, distribution and quantity, exacerbates all the other direct drivers of biodiversity loss. B3 Africa's current population of 1.25 billion is likely to double by 2050, putting severe pressure on the continent's biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, unless appropriate policies and strategies are adopted and effectively implemented. Africa is also one of the most rapidly urbanizing continents. Rapid and unplanned urbanization puts immense pressure on urban infrastructure and demand for services, including water supply, food supply, pollution control and waste management, as well as energy supply for households and industrial development. Urban communities produce large quantities of solid and other wastes that lead to environmental pollution. There is a need for policies that encourage sustainable and equitable development by, for example, directing development opportunities to rural areas and redirecting planned urban expansion to economic development zones in rural settings, in particular those that have adequate water and renewable energy supply.Africa is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Temperatures in all African countries are rising faster than the global rate, and in some areas, at double the global rate of warming. Since the 1970s, droughts have been more frequent and more severe, thereby driving land degradation. Future rainfall variability is projected to increase over most areas, with most models suggesting fewer, but higher-intensity rainfall events. Rainfall distribution, pattern and intensity is affected by climate change, with severe consequences for smallholder farmers and poor communities. The latter are also likely to be affected more severely by flooding. Climate change is likely to result in significant losses of many African plant species, some animal species, and a decline in the productivity of fisheries in inland waters of Africa during the twenty-first century. Future disease trends and climate change will have substantial effects on the livestock sector in Africa by impacting the distribution of disease vectors and water availability. The conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems enhances adaptive capacity, strengthens resilience and reduces vulnerability to climate change, thus contributing to sustainable development.B5 Unregulated land cover change is detrimental to biodiversity, which in turn is detrimental to Africa's long-term sustainable development. Further, this unregulated conversion of forest, rangelands and other natural areas, such as wetlands, for food production and urban development is happening at a fast pace following the rapid transformation of African societies. Such conversion leads to habitat loss and fragmentation, degradation of water catchments, and soil erosion leading to loss of biodiversity and livelihoods. The fragmentation that results from these land uses contributes to biodiversity loss, since many wildlife species are migratory, and conservation areas do not provide sufficient habitat or corridors for their migration. The erosion of indigenous knowledge exacerbates this, as communities change their cultural use of space and resources. Land, considered as Africa's most valued asset, faces competing development needs for urban development, mining and agricultural expansion. Sustainable land-use planning could ensure that critical ecosystems such as freshwater streams, wetlands, indigenous forests, or endemic ecosystems that are key reservoirs of biodiversity, are sufficiently protected.Marine and coastal environments are of significant ecological and socio-economic importance to the African continent and are under immense threat from human activities. Biodiversity and ecosystems in marine and coastal areas are diverse and provide significant economic, social and cultural contributions to the people of Africa. In some regions, they contribute more than 35 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP). These environments are, however, under threat owing to a number of human-induced factors such as climate change, infrastructural development (e.g., ports), urbanization, tourism, mining and overharvesting of marine and coastal resources leading to loss of biodiversity and extensive damage to key ecosystems including coral reefs, estuaries and mangroves. Damage to coral reef systems, mostly due to pollution and climate change, has far-reaching implications for fisheries, food security, tourism and overall marine biodiversity. Moreover, with overexploitation, habitat degradation and loss, acidification, pollution from landbased sources, alien invasive species and sea-level rise, highly valuable ecosystem services are under severe threat.C1 Africa's unique and abundant biodiversity is an asset for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and can be sustainably and equitably used to reduce inequality and poverty on the continent. The value of biodiversity and ecosystem services is critical to achieving Sustainable Development Goals 14 and 15, which are focused on conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources in the context of contributions to human well-being (e.g., Goals 1, 2, 3, 6 and 7). Further, biodiversity may benefit from the achievement of Goals 11 and 13, which offer nature-based solutions. Unfavourable conditions, such as limited financial and institutional capacity to make effective and efficient use of natural resources, may undermine development. Favourable conditions for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals include abundant arable land and water resources, and highly diverse ecosystems. The close alignment between the strategic priorities of African Governments and the Sustainable Development Goals, such as the protection, restoration, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, will also improve the chance of achieving the Goals.The alignment of Agenda 2063 goals, Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets, linked to the conservation of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people that enhance human well-being in Africa, facilitates the development of interventions that can achieve multiple positive outcomes. African Union member states have committed themselves to fully implementing key multilateral environmental agreements. Harnessing synergies in these multilateral environmental agreements with Sustainable Development Goals and other related regional and national initiatives can foster the effective implementation of policies and strategies at different levels and scales, helping to ensure resource efficiency. Using existing opportunities, such as regional economic communities, national, bilateral and international funding instruments such as the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the Land Degradation Neutrality Fund and other environment finance initiatives, to leverage synergies, can be particularly effective for policy implementation at the regional and national levels. Countries may take advantage of opportunities presented by regional economic communities, technical agencies, as well as national, bilateral and international funding sources to include support for the implementation of biodiversity-related policies at the regional and national levels in broader environmental projects. Governance options, such as ecosystem-based adaptation, that deliver multiple benefits can help to address equity and contribute to poverty alleviation.Effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people will contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change to keep global temperature increase in this century below the 2-degree centigrade mark, and to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. Taking into account some of the climate change impacts currently experienced and projected to increase, Africa has the opportunity to manage its biodiversity so as to contribute to international efforts to mitigate observed and projected climate change impacts, including the frequency and intensity of extreme events, through improved efforts in afforestation, restoration of degraded ecosystems, encouraging appropriate agriculture systems and commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The expansion and effective management of terrestrial and marine protected areas and the provision of a network of corridors that connect protected environments are also critical for efforts in mitigating and adapting to climate change.African countries are implementing their respective national biodiversity strategies and action plans and are making some progress in meeting commitments in the global Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, but progress in many of these actions remains insufficient. Many African countries have developed their national biodiversity strategies and action plans in conformity with the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets. There are opportunities for African countries to enhance biodiversity conservation targets through the appropriate revision and implementation of these national biodiversity strategies and action plans. Notwithstanding the efforts made by African countries, enhanced implementation requires additional funding and capacity-building that can benefit from international cooperation, partnerships and biodiversity-related financing mechanisms, including from national sources. Addressing the obstacles that are hindering progress, such as financial and capacity constraints, may enhance the sustainable use and the equitable sharing of benefits arising from biological resources.D1 Africa has a range of possible options for the governance of its biodiversity for the benefit of its people. The selection of appropriate options is critical to delivering benefits to its people through the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and the promotion of access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization. Furthermore, the value of local and indigenous knowledge, innovations and practice should be acknowledged and promoted in support of human well-being. Decision-making in Africa takes place against an array of continent-specific challenges, including the need for industrialization; fast population growth; food, water and energy insecurity; extensive urbanization; climate change; land degradation; ineffective governance; and unsustainable historical development decisions. Africa now has the opportunity to undertake transformational development pathways. Overall improvements in human well-being are expected under most scenarios, but these improvements typically come at the expense of the environment. Consequently, a range of targets aimed at facilitating transformative changes that achieve both human well-being and environmental sustainability outcomes have been adopted in Africa and globally. To achieve such positive outcomes, African countries could concentrate their development (including urban human settlements, mining, agriculture and other forms of development) with a view to balancing priority development needs with progressive and proactive conservation of the continent's natural and cultural heritage. The identification of feasible options could be supported by considering a range of plausible futures through scenario development and by providing an enabling environment (supportive policy and governance options) for short-term and long-term planning. D2 Africa's existing policies, strategies, plans and programmes at the national, subregional and regional levels are progressively addressing both direct and indirect underlying threats to biodiversity and nature's contributions to people. Where these mechanisms encourage inclusive development and a transition to green 2 and blue 3 economies in the context of sustainable development, they support good quality of life. These policies, strategies, plans and programmes are among the tools for the implementation of multilateral environmental agreements and a range of regional treaties on the environment. The goals and targets from these regional and global agreements shape the international and continental policy context for the governance of Africa's biodiversity and its contributions to people. For their achievement, actions could take into account social, political, environmental and economic conditions, bearing in mind ongoing changes at all levels.to protect biodiversity and nature's contributions to people have contributed to some degree of recovery of threatened species, especially in key biodiversity areas, and these efforts could be enhanced. Such measures include the establishment and effective management of terrestrial and marine protected areas, including community and privately conserved areas; the restoration of degraded ecosystems; and the sustainable use of indigenous cereals, coffee, tea and other ornamental plants. Other efforts in the control of invasive alien species and reintroduction of wild animals are also yielding positive results in enhancing biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, especially in improving forage for wild and domestic animal species, providing ecotourism income and employment. D4 Scenarios are underused in decision-making processes in Africa. The majority of the identified scenario studies were exploratory (80 per cent) and 2. As defined in the UNEP 2011 study, Towards a Green Economy:Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication -A Synthesis for Policy Makers, available from www.unep.org/ greeneconomy, a green economy is one that results in \"improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities\". In its simplest expression, a green economy is low-carbon, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive. In a green economy, growth in income and employment are driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.3. As described by the Economic Commission for Africa in its 2016 publication, Africa's Blue Economy: A policy handbook, available from, www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/blue-ecopolicy-handbook_eng_1nov.pdf, the Blue Economy concept includes recognition that the productivity of healthy freshwater and ocean ecosystems is a pathway for aquatic and maritime based economies and can ensure that islands and other coastal countries, and also landlocked States, benefit from their resources. It also requires an integrated, holistic and participatory approach that includes sustainable use and management. The Blue Economy promotes the conservation of aquatic and marine ecosystems and sustainable use and management of associated resources and builds on principles of equity, low carbon development, resource efficiency and social inclusion.relied mainly on climate change as a single driver of biodiversity change. Concerted effort is needed to build the capacity of African researchers, policymakers and institutions to understand, carry out and make beneficial use of scenario analyses for intervention planning and informed decisionmaking. The selected scenario archetypes (range of plausible futures) provide an overview of how interactions between nature and society or between current environmental and developmental conditions, existing driving forces, and optional management interventions could shape possible future trajectories of change across Africa in the coming decades, as well as the potential implications for nature and nature's contributions to people. There is also, generally, a dearth of accessible peer-reviewed and grey literature to support a comprehensive assessment of policy and governance options for Africa. Such a limitation creates challenges when identifying policy options, but presents an opportunity for more frequent and comprehensive ecosystem assessments. It further presents an opportunity for the development of case studies and pilot projects that explore the different policy options and instruments that are specifically relevant in the African context. Data collected from such efforts will help strengthen scenarios and models about plausible futures for Africa.Achieving the African Union's vision of an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa by 2063 and associated Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets is problematic under the type of plausible future 4 that prioritizes national sovereignty, self-reliance and security. Those plausible futures that balance strong economic growth with minimizing environmental consequences are also unlikely to fully meet the aforementioned vision, given their higher propensity to undermine the natural resource-base in the long term. The plausible futures characterized by heightened environmental caution, social equity and human welfare, however, provide the most likely options for achieving multiple goals. Transformative outcomes will be fully attained if concerted efforts are taken to mobilize financial resources and build the capacity of African researchers, policymakers and institutions to understand, carry out and use scenario analyses as guidance mechanisms for decision-making, bearing in mind that Africa is increasingly interconnected with the rest of the world, especially through global markets and trade.4. Our assessment clustered African scenario studies into five archetypes emphasizing market forces, policy reform, security (fortress world), regional sustainability and local sustainability. These scenario archetypes provide an overview of how interactions between nature and society, or between current environmental and developmental conditions; existing driving forces; and optional management interventions could shape possible future trajectories of change across Africa in the coming decades, and the potential implications for nature and nature's contributions to people. An overall description of the scenario archetypes used to categorize the scenarios of relevance to Africa is given in Table SPM.4 and Box SPM.1.E1 Africa can move towards achieving its development aspirations, while at the same time improving the conservation of its valuable natural assets and meetings its biodiversity commitments and targets through multi-stakeholder and multilevel adaptive governance, as well as improved integration of indigenous and local knowledge through recognition of traditional institutions (hereafter referred to as polycentric governance). Such a polycentric governance approach bridges sectors and operates at multiple levels and scales, over different time frames and also offers an alternative to top-down approaches that are less sensitive to local constraints and to bottom-up approaches that are sometimes inadequate for dealing with issues at higher levels. Mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services into policies and actions at different levels is vital to, and also consistent with, traditional polycentric governance approaches on the continent, by bringing together stakeholders (both public and private) with different perspectives and supported by enhanced international cooperation and multilevel partnerships, and through the provision and mobilization of sustainable, predictable and adequate means of implementation. These approaches can be resource-intensive in the short term, but can provide agility in responding to changing drivers, thereby reducing conflict. They may also help with achieving balance between conservation and use of biodiversity and ecosystem services when supported by appropriate legal, regulatory, economic and financial instruments.E2 Governance options that harness synergies and deliver multiple benefits, supported by an enabling environment, can help to balance patterns of access and allocation of ecosystem services in Africa. Policy coherence may also contribute towards poverty reduction and help to build resilience. Harnessing synergies in multilateral agreements, protocols, Sustainable Development Goals, Agenda 2063 aspirations and related targets and initiatives can foster effective implementation of policies and strategies at different governance levels and temporal and spatial scales and help to ensure efficient and sustainable resource use. Using existing entry points and mechanisms that draw on a mixture of policy instruments can help to leverage synergies, by facilitating the implementation of policy at regional and national levels. Africa's radical transformation towards sustainability in line with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2063 will depend on targeting multi-stakeholder, multilevel adaptive governance and requisite resource investment in transformative programmes.BACKGROUND T he Africa regional Assessment is the first of its kind for the continent and constitutes one of four Regional Assessments conducted under IPBES. This Assessment is a synthesis of the state of knowledge on biodiversity and nature's contributions to people. To achieve its objectives and address the central themes, this Assessment involved the development of credible, robust and inclusive evidence from a range of knowledge systems, including peer-reviewed literature, grey literature, and indigenous and local knowledge. The Assessment aims to provide the foundation for a meaningful dialogue across the full range of stakeholders involved in African development.A number of key thematic challenges are considered by the Africa Assessment, including the food-energy-waterlivelihood nexus; climate-related risks; land degradation; invasive alien species; sustainable use; and technological innovations. The Assessment pays attention to questions of equity, poverty reduction, rights, social relationships, economic contributions, spirituality and cultural heritage in its investigation of biodiversity, ecosystem functions and nature's contributions to people. The Africa Assessment further considers the impacts of trade and investment, along with the contribution of low-carbon, ecological and social transformations of the economy. Finally, the Assessment seeks to understand policy options for decision-makers to manage biodiversity and nature's contributions to people under different future scenarios. By focusing on biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, this Regional Assessment is critical to African policymakers, all constituents of African communities, civil society, the private sector, and other stakeholders involved in environmentally sensitive investments and landuse decisions.A. Africa's natural assets are unique A1 Africa is very rich in biodiversity and is the last place on Earth with a significant assemblage of large mammals. The continent has significant regional, subregional and national variations in biodiversity that reflect climatic and physical differences, together with its long and varied history of human interactions with the environment. Africa's natural richness, coupled with the wealth of indigenous and local knowledge on the continent, is central to, and constitutes a strategic asset for, the pursuit of sustainable development (well established). Overall, 23 per cent of Africa's land area consists of forests and woodlands and 27 per cent is arable land, of which about one fifth is under cultivation. The rest consists of savannah, grasslands, arid zones and deserts (Figure SPM.1). Africa has diverse wetlands, inland surface waters and water bodies rivers, lakes and estuaries scattered throughout the continent, with the Nile, Congo, Zambezi and Niger rivers, and lakes Tanganyika and Victoria, featuring among the largest freshwater bodies in the world. Wetlands in Africa, including Sudd and Okavango, which are among the world's biggest, constitute 1 per cent of Africa's total land surface area and comprise natural and constructed freshwater marshes, river floodplains, swamps, peat lands, mangroves, estuaries and coastal lagoons. Africa is surrounded by six large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, the Somali Current, the Benguela Current, the Canary Current, the Guinea Current, and the Mediterranean. Three of these six large marine ecosystems rank within the four most productive large marine ecosystems in the world. {1.3.4.1.1, 1.3.4.1.2, 3.3.2, 3.4}. A2 Africa's rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems generate a flow of goods and services that are essential in supplying food, water, energy, health and secure livelihoods for the continent. These tangible and intangible assets underpin Africa's economy and constitute strategic capital for the pursuit of sustainable development in the region (well established). Whether material, non-material or regulating in form, they constitute nature's contributions to human well-being. Coupled with the wealth of indigenous and local knowledge accumulated over thousands of years, they are generally of immense benefit to the inhabitants of the continent but can occasionally be detrimental because of impacts such as disease or of conflicts over their uses. More than on any other continent, many people in rural Africa remain closely dependent on wild nature and its services to survive. Africa is also endowed with many rivers, lakes, wetlands and groundwater reservoirs. Water abundance offers significant potential for energy production through hydropower in certain areas, with a potential estimated at 1.5 million GWh per year. Yet Africa is currently experiencing an increasing incidence of water stress. Many sites in Africa have either been classified as protected, heritage or sacred sites that contribute to human well-being. Regulating contributions include, for example, services provided by nesting, feeding and mating sites for birds and mammals, e.g., the important bird and key biodiversity areas; services provided by insect pollinators such as bees and butterflies; regulation of air quality, climate, ocean acidification, freshwater and coastal water quality; and protection and decontamination of soils and sediments {1.1.4, 1.3.4.3, 1.3.7.1, 1.3.8.1.2, 1.3.9, 2.2.1.2, 2.4.1.1, 3.3.2.1, 3.3.3.1, 4.2.1.3, 4.2.2.4, 4.5.1.1} A3 The true value of biodiversity and nature's contributions to human well-being tend to be under-appreciated in decision-making processes in Africa, in particular for non-material and regulating contributions. Existing studies on the valuation of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people in Africa are few and limited in both geographical scope and the types of ecosystems covered (established but incomplete). Valuation of biodiversity and its contributions to people is a tool used in decision-making and in communicating their importance to humanity, thus serving as support for their conservation and sustainable use as well as the sharing of benefits from the use of biological resources. Knowing the value of biodiversity components and their contributions to people can thus encourage investments for their management through the most appropriate methods, and assist in assessing the trade-offs between different policy options and also the cost and benefits of biodiversity conservation     Teff (Eragrostis tef) is one of many crops that have been neglected and are currently underused. It has now gained recognition at the national, regional and global levels for its nutritional value, as an important source of income in the local and also regional markets, and for its signifi cant contribution to food security.   considered as Africa's most valued asset for all aspects of life and development, is facing increasing challenges of competing development needs for urban and infrastructure development, extractive industries and agricultural expansion. Some 20 per cent of Africa's land surface (6.6 million km 2 ) is estimated to be degraded because of soil erosion, salinization, pollution and loss of vegetation or soil fertility. This is a result of a combination of factors (such as deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, overgrazing, uncontrolled mining activities, invasive alien species and climate change). Agricultural expansion is the dominant driver of biodiversity loss, in particular the conversion of natural habitat to cultivated land. There has been an expansion of cash crops, much of this exacerbated by the growing land-grab phenomenon where foreign investors are being allocated large pieces of land for bioenergy and food production, with significant impacts on the resources of indigenous and local populations, their knowledge and well-being. The total area cultivated is strongly associated with loss of indigenous plant abundance and indirectly results in loss of mammals and birds. The fragmentation that results from various land uses contributes to local extinctions of sedentary and non-sedentary species, since many wildlife species are migratory and conservation areas do not provide sufficient habitat and corridors for their dispersal or migration. Such limitation leads to loss of biodiversity, in particular of vulnerable species, as their natural habitat is lost or degraded. The erosion of indigenous knowledge exacerbates this process, as communities change their cultural use of space and resources {1.  This table shows the summary of an assessment (Section 5.7) that seeks to understand the likelihood of achieving aligned Agenda 2063 aspirations (1 st column), Aichi Biodiversity targets (2 nd column) and Sustainable Development Goals (3 rd column) in Africa under fi ve different scenario archetypes namely: one fortress world scenario (FW), two business as usual scenarios, market forces (MF) and policy reform (PR); and two managed transformation scenarios, local sustainability (LS) and regional sustainability (RS). These scenario archetypes follow a similar classifi cation to those outlined by Hunt et al. (2012) and align with well-known scenario assessments that have been done for the continent (see section 5.3, Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 for more information). The colour of the cell indicates a synthesis of the overall trends found in the assessment under different scenario options where green indicates an overall increase in the likelihood of achieving the desired policies (Agenda 2063 aspirations, Aichi biodiversity targets and SDGs), purple indicates contradictory trends found (i.e., some reports in the assessment mentioned an increase in the likelihood of achieving certain outcomes, while others reported a decrease), and orange indicates an overall decrease in the likelihood of achieving the policy outcomes. No colour in the cells represents that there was a lack of robust information on these issues in the reports/studies. This table highlights that while there are many trade-offs to consider under each possible future scenario, there are multiple synergies and policy alignments where more desirable options for sustainable and equitable development are feasible. This table also highlights that conditions and policies under a Fortress world (see Box SPM.1 for underlying assumptions) are the least likely to achieve multiple goals and targets and ultimately the inability to deliver on the aspirations of Agenda 2063 for a future we want in Africa. Business as usual approaches through reliance on the market (MF) and policy interventions (PR) offer some options for achieving multiple policy goals, but fail adequately to conserve biodiversity, and resulting contributions of nature to human well-being. Conditions under a more Managed transformation type of future, through policies and practices aligned with Regional sustainability and to a lesser extent Local sustainability, are shown here to offer a greater likelihood of achieving multiple sustainable and equitable development goals, targets and aspirations. An important message from this table is that while there are more desirable pathways for decision makers, there is no one scenario option that will achieve all goals, targets and aspirations. Here, efforts to co-develop a combination of proactive policies, inclusive and responsible economic tools with a focus on a well-being economy routed in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, ecosystems and their contributions to people are key, Section 6.7 and Tables 6.2, ) is an ambitious action plan for driving the change, development, and transformation that Africa needs to achieve significant poverty reduction and enhance human well-being. The transformation needed to achieve development may lead to increased agricultural production and productivity, industrialization, expansion and creation of large cities, bridging the infrastructure and technology gaps including for energy production, value-added manufacturing, transport and regional economic integration. Such transformation requires significant resources, together with effective institutions and good governance. Africa now has the opportunity to embark on such transformational development pathways. To achieve this, African countries need to reconcile priority development needs (including urban human settlements, mining, agriculture and other forms of development) with the progressive and proactive conservation of the continent's natural heritage. Such a balanced approach will ensure that critical ecosystems such as inland waters, forests or endemic ecosystems that are reservoirs of high biodiversity, are sustainably used and protected. Africa's regional economic communities have a significant role to play in coordinating the development of Africa's subregions in a way that is compatible with regional development and conservation objectives. Existing regional conventions such as the Benguela Commission, Abidjan Convention, Nairobi Convention, and Commission for Lakes, together with instruments such as transboundary conservation areas, peace parks and other transboundary catchment management frameworks, offer opportunities for enhancing access to, and sharing of, benefits from nature's contributions to people. Governance options that deliver multiple benefits can help to balance patterns of access and The fi gure paints a mixed picture with progress towards some targets substantially outperforming that of others. For example, there are worrying trends where more than 50 per cent of countries are not on course to meet Targets (e.g., Targets 3, 4, 6, 12 and 20 show no countries on track). Of particular concern is target 5, where more than 25 per cent of countries are moving away from the target, while targets 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 show no signifi cant change for more than 25 per cent of countries. Overall, progress is being made, but at an insuffi cient rate by more than 50 per cent of countries towards C4 By implementing their respective updated national biodiversity strategies and action plans, African countries are making some progress towards the achievement of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted as part of the global Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. The vision of this Strategic Plan and its targets is to value, conserve, restore and wisely use biodiversity, maintain ecosystem services, and thus sustain a healthy planet, while delivering benefits essential for all people. The contributions of African countries to the achievement of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets will be insufficient, partly as a consequence of many national targets being significantly lower than those adopted for the globe (well established). In adopting the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010 (Appendix 4), the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity invited parties to establish their own national targets while updating their national biodiversity strategies and action plans. African countries took into account their respective national needs and priorities, while bearing in mind their commitments under various multilateral environmental agreements and regional and subregional agreements.Harnessing synergies in multilateral environmental agreements and other related regional initiatives fosters the effective implementation of policies and strategies at different levels and scales, helping to ensure resource efficiency.Existing opportunities, such as partnerships relating to terrestrial and marine transboundary ecosystems, regional economic communities as well as national, bilateral and international funding instruments, such as the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the Land Degradation Neutrality Fund and other environment financing instruments, can be used to mobilize resources for capacity building in order to improve policy implementation at the regional and national levels. Furthermore, it is important to stress that sustainable, predictable and adequate means of implementation, in particular finance and capacity-building, would be a cornerstone for ensuring the effective implementation of policies. As of September 2017, 50 out of 54 African countries had submitted their fifth national reports and 49 had submitted their revised national biodiversity strategies and action plans. About 16 per cent of all the targets adopted by African countries were commensurate with, or exceeded, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, while about 50 per cent of the adopted targets were similar to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets but at lower or significantly lower levels (i.e., did not cover all elements), owing to national considerations. The remaining targets adopted by African countries were not relevant to the global Aichi Biodiversity Targets {6.3.3} (Figure SPM.8).D1 Africa has a range of possible governance options for addressing the threats to biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, including the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and its contributions to people, to mitigate impacts of the challenges that the continent is facing (see section B above). The identification and selection of feasible options needs to be facilitated by considering a range of plausible futures using scenarios and by providing an enabling environment for long-term planning (established, but incomplete). Various policy instruments and measures can help decision-makers to integrate biodiversity and ecosystem services into development planning and implementation. Furthermore, enacting proactive legal and regulatory instruments for access and benefit sharing legislation is of vital importance for preserving the rights to local knowledge, genetic resources and sustainable utilization of biodiversity (Table SPM.3). African policy options for conserving and using biodiversity, sustainably adapting to and mitigating climate change, and sustainably managing genetic resources, have global impacts. Subregional policies are equally necessary and significant, considering the transboundary nature of Africa's freshwater and marine systems, fisheries and migration-dependent ecosystems, including transhumant systems. Progress in achieving the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change and Agenda 2063, will be shaped by the governance and policy choices made, alongside steps taken towards their practical implementation. However favourable this policymaking environment may be, the implementation of governance options is constrained by the legacy of historical policies. The challenges of population growth, food insecurity, urbanization, climate change, land degradation, weak governance and path-dependent (often unsustainable) historical development decisions mean that achieving governance that works for both nature and society is not straightforward. Articulating clear processes that allow the environment to contribute to food security through Africa's agricultural biodiversity, supporting ecosystem services (e.g., pollination, pest control, soil carbon), land restoration and increased resilience to climate change, are critical to inform the decision-making process. Placing justice and fairness concerns at the centre of the continent's governance priorities can help to improve both the environment and human well-being, while also achieving key international biodiversity and development targets {5.4, 5.7, 5.9, 6.3}.Africa's existing biodiversity policies, strategies, plans and programmes at the national, subregional and regional levels, are progressively addressing both direct and indirect threats to biodiversity and nature's contributions to people, and by ensuring inclusive development and a transition to green 11 and blue 12 economies in the context of sustainable development that are supportive of a good quality of life (established, but incomplete). These policies, strategies, plans and programmes, together with a range of regional treaties addressing and related to the environment, are among the tools for the implementation of multilateral environmental agreements. The goals and targets from these agreements shape Africa's policy context for the governance of biodiversity and its contributions to people. In order to achieve the targets set in these agreements, it is necessary to take into account both current and future social, political, environmental and economic conditions, bearing in mind ongoing changes at the global, regional, subregional and national levels. East Africa and adjacent islands is due to a relatively long history of investment in biodiversity research. The same pattern was observed for valuation studies of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people. In addition to human capacity-building, there is a need to generate information, in particular quantitative data, needed for the development of scenarios and to take into account the specific contexts and diversity of the subregions, groups of people and related differences in culture, and in ecological, social and economic conditions. There is also generally limited accessible peer-reviewed and grey literature to support a comprehensive assessment of policy and governance options for Africa. This creates challenges when identifying policy options but presents an opportunity for more frequent and comprehensive ecosystem assessments. It also presents an opportunity for the development of case studies and pilot projects that explore the different policy options and instruments that are specifically relevant in the African context. Data collected from such efforts will help strengthen scenarios and models about plausible futures for Africa {5.1.1, 5.2.1, 5.2.2}.  18 ; WWF-AfDB (2015) 19 .The Market Forces archetype emphasises the role of markets to deliver economic, social and environmental benefits through free trade and the commoditization of nature. In cases such as forests, the [re-]valuation of ecosystems as economic amenities slows habitat loss and environmental degradation. However, demand for resources such as water increases as a consequence of both more people overall, and a greater demand for water for agricultural, industrial, urban and domestic uses. The commercial exploitation of natural resources comes at the expense of local livelihoods, as well as indigenous and local knowledge, as communities are increasingly marginalised, fuelling tensions as resources degrade or become inaccessible. In many cases, exploitation of natural resources to satisfy trade demand leads to over-harvesting and habitat fragmentation, which is exacerbated by weak centralised governance, poor environmental enforcement, and illegal/unsustainable harvesting from protected areas in the absence of alternative livelihood options.Policy Reform balances strong economic growth with minimising environmental consequences through a holistic approach to governance. Owing to low levels of population growth overall globally, habitat loss is moderate and protected areas expand due to increased social and political recognition of the value of healthy ecosystems. However, beyond these 'conservation islands', biodiversity declines. Agricultural intensification prioritises the green economy, which benefits marine systems as extraction eases. This is to the detriment of artisanal fishers as their local scales of operation prevent their participation in the marine economy that remains. Export-driven growth constrains economic diversification, and dependency on environmental resources associated with agriculture and extractive commodities exacerbates environmental degradation in the long-term.The Fortress World archetype prioritises national sovereignty, self-reliance and security over other values, fragmenting international action around environmental issues. Expansive agriculture drives habitat loss, soil erosion and water pollution, and crop yields are slow to improve. Fortress World predicts the largest relative habitat loss by 2050, undermining provisioning services, and water stress increases dramatically, with Africa being especially vulnerable. The intrinsic vulnerabilities of already fragmented habitats are worsened through increasing poverty levels and the overexploitation of ecosystems. A Fortress World future raises significant challenges for both mitigation and adaptation to climate change. In the Regional Sustainability archetype, environmental consciousness is heightened, with technological innovation driving global and regional solutions to sustainability issues. Sustainable land management and strong incentives for low impact agriculture, combined with increased crop yields, leads to less habitat transformation. More effective governance allows for more effective environmental regulation, increasing protected area function and coverage, and allowing for improved transboundary environmental cooperation. Conservation efforts are directed at sustainable use and maintenance of ecosystem services, rather than species protection. Although the rate of land-cover change remains high with agriculture and climate change significant drivers of species loss the broader trend is towards land-use changes that 'green' the landscape.The Local Sustainability archetype prioritises environmental protection, social equality and human welfare, but action towards sustainability is largely taken only at local levels. Local agriculture operates through participatory-decision making and cooperative schemes, which, when combined with low population growth, and the eventual adoption of sustainable practices, drives lower rates of habitat loss. While local sustainable agriculture ensures 'sustainability brightspots', beyond these areas, degradation continues and habitats are fragmented as the uncoordinated nature of local agricultural choices undermine regional ecological integrity in the longer-term. This archetype has the highest likelihood for retention of ILK as a result of its particular focus on local scales.five archetypes emphasizing market forces, and policy reform, which represent in some ways a business-as-usual situation, and also fortress world, regional sustainability and local sustainability. The selected scenario archetypes provide an overview of how interactions between nature and society, or between current environmental and developmental conditions, existing driving forces, and optional management interventions, could shape possible future trajectories of change across Africa in the coming decades. Achieving the African Union's vision of an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa by 2063, and related Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets, is problematic under a fortress world scenario, which prioritizes national sovereignty, self-reliance and security. The policy reform and market forces scenario trajectories are also unlikely to fully meet the aforementioned vision, given their significant propensity to undermine the natural resource base in the long term (Box SPM.1). Regional sustainability and local sustainability scenarios, however, provide the most likely options for achieving multiple goals linked to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and Africa's development in both the short and long term (Table SPM.4, Box SPM.1). Regardless of the scenario trajectory assessed, future trade-offs between certain nature's contributions to people and how they contribute to human well-being, are inevitable (established but incomplete). Trade-offs within the foodwater-energy-livelihood nexus are apparent, and reduced biodiversity and ecological functioning are anticipated under all the five archetypes assessed. The severity of the trade-offs may, however, be mitigated by timely, progressive and proactive policy interventions and environmental safeguards, which aim to build social-ecological resilience through ecosystem-based activities. This could be complemented with improved access to ecological Table SPM 4 Trends in the drivers of biodiversity loss, biodiversity, nature's contributions to the people and human well-being under each of the archetypes used to categorize the scenarios surveyed in Africa, with response options that could help to minimize some of the negative drivers towards achieving targets.This table summarizes the results of an assessment of different drivers (Table 5.3), biodiversity and nature's contributions to people (Table 5.4), as well as dimensions of human well-being trajectories (Table 5.5) under different scenario archetypes for Africa (Box SPM.1). Drivers that were assessed include population, urbanization, consumption and natural resource use, regional and global resource demand and climate change. Elements of biodiversity and nature's contributions to people that were assessed include: terrestrial and freshwater habitat loss, marine habitat loss, species range shifts, food and feed production, energy production, freshwater regulation, climate and natural hazard regulation and pollination. Dimensions of human well-being that were assessed include: material well-being, poverty reduction, equity, health, security and social relations, freedom and choice. Five different scenarios archetypes were used for this assessment namely: business-as-usual scenarios (market forces (MF) and policy reform (PR)); one fortress-based scenario (fortress world (FW)), and managed transformation scenarios (regional sustainability (RS) and local sustainability (LS)). The arrows indicate an increase (up arrow), decrease (down arrow), or no change (horizontal arrow) under each of the different categories for each scenario type into the future. The colour of the cell indicates the overall impact of the results across the reports, where green indicates overall positive impact, orange indicates overall negative impact, purple indicates contradictory trends, and no colour indicates no overall change/impact. The table shows that the impact of all drivers are expected to increase under all scenarios, except for mixed results linked to regional and global resource demand under local sustainability. The final column outlines potential governance responses based on Table 6.2 that could help to navigate towards improving biodiversity, nature's contributions to people and human well-being by addressing particular negative drivers in each of the scenario archetypes. The responses are not exhaustive, but showcase examples of how scenario exercises can help to elucidate policy options for achieving desirable outcomes. This results in the largest relative habitat loss by 2050, undermining provisioning services, and water stress increases dramatically • Ecosystem services will be reduced in significant proportion and hence nature's contributions to people will be at its lowest level • The intrinsic vulnerabilities of already fragmented habitat are worsened through increasing poverty levels and the over-exploitation of ecosystems all of which compromise human well-being • Industrialization leads to increasing disparity between the poor and the rich The negative consequences of these trade-offs may be mitigated to a degree by governance systems that recognize the value of biodiversity and its contributions to people, and take measures, based on spatial planning and environmental offsets, for the conservation and sustainable use and management of natural assets, or support policy processes, such as environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment, under the regional and local sustainability archetypes {5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7}.   Achieving a desirable and equitable future for Africa is based on an existing set of regional and global goals and targets. By using scenarios as a tool to think about how futures could play out, an enabling policy environment can be co-created to maximize synergies and coherence between actions and minimize trade-offs. This fi gure starts with a set of existing targets and objectives (Agenda 2063 of the African Union, the Sustainable Development Goals, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and other globally agreed goals) that the majority of African nations have agreed to and that are necessary to achieve in order for the continent to reach a desirable future; some of these are cross-cutting because they aim to achieve institutional reform (e.g., Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2, 3, 18, 19 and 20 and Sustainable Development Goals 16 and 17) (See Table SPM.2). Recognition of the cross-cutting institutional targets is critical as they focus on what needs to be done within and between institutions if a more desirable future is to be achieved. They not only map onto one cluster of targets e.g., around water or energy, but are necessary to achieve them all. To aid thinking about how to reach this agenda, there are a set of scenario archetypes that help us to conceptualize potential futures that could arise under different conditions and the trade-offs between each of these (See Box SPM.1). None of these scenarios offer the desired future that we want; some of them get us closer to a desirable future than others, but the future is uncertain and a complex articulation of aspects of all these potential scenarios. In this light, scenarios are useful tools to help us think about the type of enabling environment necessary for achieving certain goals (Table SPM.4). Looking at the targets through the lens of the scenario archetypes enables decision-makers to make more informed decisions about what policy instruments could be employed (See Table SPM.4) explicitly highlighting trade-offs and directing attention to specifi c synergies and coherence. The fi gure summarizes how agenda-setting should be accompanied by effective decision-making that recognizes future uncertainties in order to employ relevant policy instruments to achieve a desirable future.and also consistent with, traditional polycentric governance approaches on the continent, which bring together stakeholders (public, private and local communities) with different perspectives, bridge sectors, and operate at multiple levels and scales, over different time frames. Polycentric approaches offer an alternative to top-down approaches that are less sensitive to local constraints, and to bottom-up approaches that are sometimes inadequate for dealing with issues at higher decision-making levels.When supported by appropriate legal, regulatory, economic and financial instruments, these approaches can harness consensus and co-learning through dialogue and knowledge co-production, while enacting principles of equity, transparency, accountability and participation.Although resource-intensive in the short-term because they demand significant time for dialogue and consultation, polycentric approaches offer agility in responding to change, reduce conflict, balance conservation and development objectives, and yield positive results in the medium to long term. A polycentric governance system is thus critical for enabling Africa's diverse natural assets to deliver equitable benefits to people. Practiced for many years in Africa for managing diverse interests in resources, polycentric governance is grounded in the processes of accountability through stakeholder engagement, and addresses trade-offs. ","tokenCount":"11104"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7825fa1798f4d70f957bb35fe904f477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/84942e09-f220-4798-a6b0-e01a051c7a4c/content","id":"-1294340652"},"keywords":["tan spot","genome wide association study","seedling resistance","Ptr race 1","greenhouse screening"],"sieverID":"55ea770a-3f74-4599-835a-b8ea564e709d","pagecount":"9","content":"Tan spot caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Ptr) is an important disease of wheat in many wheat producing areas of the world. A genome wide association study (GWAS) was conducted using 11,401 SNP markers of the Illumina Infinium 15K Bead Chip with whole genome coverage to identify genomic regions associated with resistance to tan spot in a diverse panel of 184 wheat genotypes originating from South Asia and CIMMYT. The GWAS panel was phenotyped for seedling resistance to tan spot with Ptr race 1 in two greenhouse experiments. Besides CIMMYT germplasm, several lines from South Asia (India, Bangladesh and Nepal) showed good degree of resistance to tan spot. Association mapping was conducted separately for individual experiments and for pooled data using mixed linear model (MLM) and Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU) model; no significant MTAs were recorded through the MLM model, whereas FarmCPU model reported nine significant MTAs located on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 5A, 5B, 6A, and 7D. The long arms of chromosomes 5A and 5B were consistent across both environments, in which the Vrn-A1 locus was found in identified region of chromosome 5A, and MTA at IACX9261 on 5BL appears to represent the resistance gene tsn 1. MTAs observed on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 6A, and 7D have not been reported previously and are likely novel.Wheat is a widely grown cereal crop around the world, and it is considered as staple source of nutrition for nearly 40% of the world's population and supplies 20% of dietary protein and food calories (Giraldo et al., 2019). The forecast for global wheat utilization has been raised by 1.5 million tonnes for year 2019/20 than in 2018/19, which is mainly due to 3.5% rise in feed use demand (FAO et al., 2019). The present global wheat production is 766 million tonnes and is expected to rise to about 840 million tonnes by 2050; this demand excluded the requirement of animal feed and the adverse impact of global climate change on wheat production (Sharma et al., 2015). Hence, it is necessary to increase the wheat production to meet its increasing demand. However, changing climatic conditions and onset of severe plant disease epidemics significantly curtail the wheat grain yield and quality (Gurung et al., 2014). About 5-14% of global wheat yield is lost each year due to diseases (Oerke, 2006). A major disease of wheat is tan spot (synonym yellow spot or yellow leaf spot) which occurs in both temperate and warmer wheat growing areas in the world (Duveiller et al., 1998). This disease is caused by the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) Dreches [anamorph Dreschslera triticirepentis (Died.) Shoemaker]. The tan spot fungus was first described in 1823 (Hosford, 1982), and subsequently the disease was reported from Europe, USA, and Japan in early 1900, being considered as a saprophyte causing minor to severe spotting in wheat (Wegulo, 2011). Tan spot epidemics were first reported in the 1970s from Canada, USA, Australia, and Southern Africa (Hosford, 1971;Tekauz, 1976;Rees and Platz, 1992), and it further spread to the entire Central Asia. Tan spot pathogen infects the whole plant but is generally most prominent on leaves followed by stem and head tissues. This infection leads to reduction in photosynthetic area and eventually leads to yield reduction and quality deterioration. In severe cases, the yield losses can be beyond 50% (Wegulo, 2011). In recent years this necrotrophic disease is causing increased wheat yield losses globally, which is associated with reduced tillage practices as necrotrophic pathogens overwinters in wheat stubble (Cotuna et al., 2015) The fungus can produce at least three host selective toxins (HSTs) known as PtrToxA, PtrToxB, and PtrToxC causing chlorotic or necrotic symptoms. The toxins produced are genetically distinct on different host genotypes, based on which the tan spot isolates can be divided into eight races. The HSTs produced by the pathogen interact with the corresponding host sensitivity genes and result in compatible interaction called as effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS) which is described as an inverse gene-for-gene model or toxin model (Friesen et al., 2007). However, identification of non-race-specific resistance QTL clearly indicates that the inverse gene-for-gene model does not fully explain all interactions that occur in the tan spot pathosystem (Faris and Friesen, 2005;Faris et al., 2012). Resistance to tan spot is qualitatively or quantitatively inherited (Faris and Friesen, 2005;Chu et al., 2008;Singh et al., 2009;Chu et al., 2010;Liu et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2019;Hu et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2020), as single dominant gene tsn 1 on chromosome 5BL (Faris et al., 2010) confers host sensitivity to Ptr ToxA. The host Ptr ToxC sensitivity gene, Tsc1 was mapped to the short arm of chromosome 1A (Effertz et al., 2002).Although biparental mapping was used effectively for identification of genomic regions for tan spot resistance, the limited recombination events in biparental mapping lead to limitation of identification of closely linked markers useful for MAS due to long linkage block (Riedelsheimer et al., 2012). The GWAS approach provides better resolution for identification of closely linked markers; also, it circumvents the need to develop specific mapping populations using contrasting parents, which requires long time. GWAS has previously been used for the identification of genomic regions' resistance to tan spot in spring wheat accessions by Gurung et al. (2014), and resistance QTLs were mapped to chromosomes 2B, 4B, and 7A. Patel et al. (2013) identified 11 QTLs located on chromosomes 1A, 1D, 2B, 2D, 6A, and 7A, and Singh et al. (2016) identified QTLs on short arm of chromosomes 1A, 1B, and 6B and long arm of chromosomes 4A, 6A, 2B, 3B, 5B, and 7B; however, all three studies used General Linear Model (GLM) procedure for association analysis, which is regarded as less stringent. The present GWAS study used a diverse panel of germplasm based on collection from CIMMYT, India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. The objective of the study was to identify genomic regions associated with seedling resistance to tan spot using 184 diverse spring wheat genotypes in controlled environmental condition using mixed-linear model (MLM) and Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU) model to identify common genomic regions.A panel of 184 spring wheat genotypes originating from CIMMYT-Mexico (CIM-1 to CIM-97), India (IND-1 to IND-40), Bangladesh (BGD-1 to BGD-19), and Nepal (NPL-1 to NPL-28) was used in the present study (Supplementary Table 1). These genotypes represent the modern elite varieties and breeding lines in the respective organization or countries. Two experiments were conducted in a greenhouse for disease assessment at seedling stage. Each experiment was conducted in completely randomized design with three replications. The experimental unit consisted of four plants per entry and four checks Erik (resistant), Glenlea (susceptible), 6B-365 (moderately susceptible), and 6B-662 (moderately resistant).For tan spot disease screening, the isolate MexPtr1 (race 1) that produces Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxC (Singh et al., 2009) was used. The inoculation was done as described by Singh et al. (2011), and the inoculum concentration was adjusted to 4,000 conidia/ml. The seedlings were grown under controlled environmental condition in a greenhouse with the maintenance of air temperature of 20-22/16-18°C (day/night) with 16 h photoperiod. At two leaf stage or two weeks after sowing, the seedlings were inoculated with conidial suspension of the MexPtr1 isolate until runoff using a hand sprayer. After inoculation, the seedlings were incubated for 24 h under continuous leaf wetness in a mist chamber and were then returned to the greenhouse. Seedling response was evaluated seven days of post inoculation by following the 1-5 lesion rating scale developed by Lamari and Bernier (1989).The GWAS panel was genotyped with Illumina Infinium 15 K Bead Chip by Trait Genetics GmbH, Germany. Markers with missing data points more than 10% (222 markers), or minor allele frequency less than 5% (2,707 markers), or unknown position (1,695 markers) were filtered, resulting into 11,401 markers for GWAS analysis.The linkage disequilibrium parameters R 2 among the SNP markers were calculated using Tassel 5 (http://www.maizegenetics. net), and the LD estimates as the allele frequency correlation (R 2 ) between SNP markers were plotted against the physical distances. A kinship matrix and clusters among individual genotypes were calculated using all 11,401 SNP markers; the heat map was generated using classical equation from Van Randen (2008) in R program. PCA analysis was performed using SNP markers, and PC1 was plotted against PC2.The numeric transformation of genotypic data was done using XLSTAT (2010) as per required format of the Structure 2.3.4 software (Pritchard et al., 2000). The admixture model was adjusted with burn in period length for the 100,000 followed by 500,000 markers chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) replications. The subpopulation test range was kept from K1 to K10, each with five interactions (runs). The D K approach was used to access the actual subpopulations (Earl, 2012). D K was confirmed by the Evanno et al. (2005) method using the STRUCTUREHARVERSTER program (Earl, 2012). Average logarithm of the probability of the observed likelihood [LnP(D)] was calculated along with the standard deviation from the output summary. LnP(D) for each step of the MCMC was calculated for each class (K= 1 to 10) by computing the log likelihood for the data.The combined analysis of variance was carried out for the two experiments; three variance components genotypic variance s 2 g , experimental variance s 2 e and interaction of genotype and experiment variance s 2 g * e , were estimated for tan spot using restricted maximum likelihood (Patterson and Thompson, 1971) estimation procedure of GenStat software, 17 th edition (VSN, International, Hemel Hempstead, UK). Broad-sense-heritability was estimated using the formula:Where s 2 g presents the genetic variance, s 2 ϵ represents the error variance, and nreps represents the number of replications.Bartlet test was used to assess the homogeneity of error variance prior to pooling the two-experiment data for GWAS analysis. Marker-trait association (MTA) was performed using mixed-linear model (MLM) and fixed and random model circulating probability unification (FarmCPU). For GWAS analysis using MLM model, a Q + K model that considers both Kinship (K matrix) and population structure was adopted in Tassel (http://www.maizegenetics.net), whereas the FarmCPU model was performed using the R software package GAPIT v. 3.5. GWAS study was conducted for the two experiments separately as well as for the pooled experimental data. The markers were declared to be significant using Bonferroni correction with significant cutoff (p-values, 4.4 E-06) calculated at the alpha level of 0.05 using 11,401 markers to reduce false discovery rate in both MLM and FarmCPU models.The coefficient of correlation between the two experiments was high, with r = 0.73 at p ≤ 0.001. The broad-sense-heritability estimate based on seedling tan spot data was 85% for experiment 1, 78% for experiment 2, and 84% for across two environments. Analysis of variance showed that variances due to genotypes s 2 g , experiment s 2 e and their interaction s 2 g * e were all highly significant (Table 1). The average tan spot scores were 1.8 and 2.0 in experiments 1 and 2. The checks Erik, 6B-662, 6B-365, and Glenlea had average tan spot scores 1.0, 2.3, 2.6, and 4.6, respectively over experiments, which confirms disease induction by P. tritici-repentis race 1. In pooled analysis two genotypes, HD 2733 from India and BL 4407 from Nepal, were found to be highly resistant and stood above the resistant check Erik. Another 141 genotypes were found to be moderately resistant with disease scores lower than the moderately resistant check 3B-662. Twenty-one genotypes were found to In total 11,401 SNP markers were selected for GWAS, of which 58.5% were from the A genome, 33.9% from the B genome, and only 7.5% from the D genome. Among the 21 chromosomes, a maximum number of markers were located on chromosome 2A(1,274 markers) followed by chromosome 1A (1,119 markers), whereas the lowest number of markers was located on chromosome 4D (63 markers). Population structure analysis based on Bayesian clustering approach reveals the presence of two subpopulation (Figures 1A-C) and the Kinship analysis (Figure 2) and PCA analysis (Figure 1D) also divided the population into two major groups. The two sub-populations were designated as Subpop 1 and Subpop 2, which comprised 140 and 44 genotypes respectively. Subpop 1 was mainly composed of genotypes originated from CIMMYT (93 accessions), Indian breeding programs ( 27 A clear clustering of CIMMYT and non-CIMMYT lines was also observed using Kinship analysis (Figure 2) and PCA analysis (Figure 1D). Broadly, three different groups were observed. A small group of non-CIMMYT lines includes genotypes from India, while the other two large groups which included CIMMYT and CIMMYT derived lines from India such as The LD decay plots (Figure 3) were plotted using physical distances in mega base pairs (Mb) against marker R2 across the chromosomes. The average extent of LD, considered as physical distance taken for decay of R2 to a critical value of 0.10 across the genome, was approximately 25 Mb.An MLM model, a Q + K model that considers both Kinship (K matrix) and population structure, reported no significant MTAs at LOD 4.75, whereas MTAs reported at LOD 3 for MLM model were depicted in Supplementary Figure 1.   significant markers range from 2.0 to 11.3%. The highest R 2 (11.3) was explained by SNP (IACX9261) on chromosome 5B. Comparison of significant MTAs identified from individual environment and pooled analysis showed that genomic regions on the long arm of chromosome 5A and 5B are most stable. The effects of resistant and susceptible alleles for MTAs on chromosomes 5A and 5B were shown with box plot in Figure 5.The presence and absence of resistant alleles for total nine identified MTAs from both the models were examine in all 184 wheat genotypes (Supplementary Table 2). Almost all highly resistant genotypes in this panel showed the presence of resistance alleles for MTA on chromosome 5B (IACX9261); also lines with susceptible alleles for this MTA showed highly susceptible reaction as observed in genotypes IND-31, CIM-89, and CIM-16. Other MTA on 5A chromosome (TA001138-0446) was also found to be useful for differentiation of resistant and susceptible genotypes. Whereas other MTAs on chromosome 2B (AX-94880001), 4A (wsnp_Ex_c12450_19850925), 6A (RAC875_c103443_475), and on 7D (Kukri_c15768_1383) were observed to be less prominent in differentiation of resistant and susceptible genotypes.In the present study, 184 diverse spring wheat genotypes were screened for seedling tan spot resistance in a greenhouse for the identification of significant MTAs. Field screening of large number of genotypes for tan spot is considered challenging due to the often-natural incidence of other foliar diseases that mimic tan spot symptoms; in addition, limitation of required light and humidity for inoculum growth in field condition precludes pathogen growth (Singh et al., 2009). Moreover, high level of positive correlation between greenhouse and field experiments for tan spot was observed by Evans et al. (1999), implying that MTAs from seedling experiments could be found in field experiments as well. The present study identified broad genetic base of resistance for tan spot, which includes genotypes from CIMMYT-Mexico, as well as from the three South Asian countries. The high resistance of CIMMYT germplasm was previously reported by Singh et al. (2016) and Ali et al. (2008); however, the present study adds more information using diverse genotypes other than germplasm set, which include stable  breeding lines form CIMMYT international nurseries viz., 40IBWSN, 28 ESWYT, and 18 HRWSN along with South Asian wheat genotypes and observed broad genetic base for resistance. The lines HD 2733 and BL 4407, newly found as highly resistant genotypes, can be used in breeding to incorporate tan spot resistance.Prior to GWAS analysis, information about population structure is very important because the presence of population structure in the GWAS panel may cause spurious association results (Oraguzie et al., 2007). The presence of a subpopulation in a large population can be justified by selection and genetic drift (Buckler and Thornsberry, 2002). Population structure, kinship matrix, cluster analysis, and PCA analysis revealed there was moderate population structure, which has resulted from lines with common parents and two to three sibs in the pedigree.In the present study, association analysis using MLM and FarmCPU model was adopted; the MLM model has limitation of false negative due to confounding between population structure, Kinship, and quantitative trait nucleotides; however, this limitation was overcome by using FarmCPU model as it performed marker test using associated markers as covariates in fixed effect and followed optimization with associated covariate markers in random effect, which enables to remove confounding and also control false positive (Liu et al., 2016), which is also proven from the results of quantile-quantile (QQ) plots (Supplementary Figure 2) which showed FarmCPU model fitted data well compared to the MLM model. Genomic regions identified for tan spot are categorized into two groups as stable and unstable. Unstable genomic regions are those which are expressed only in one experiment, whereas stable genomic regions for tan spot include the chromosomal regions which are constantly expressed across both individual experiments and pooled analysis or common either in one environment or in pooled analysis. Therefore, the genomic region on the long arm of chromosomes 5B and 5A is designated as stable and is explained here. GWAS results showed major role of tsn 1 gene on chromosome 5B in resistance to Ptr race 1, as the MTA at IACX9261 that is close to tsn 1 was stably significant across both experiments. Previous mapping studies also identified major roles of  (Lu et al., 2006;Faris et al., 2010). But from now on, the SNP IACX9261 found in the present study could also be used since it can be transformed to high throughput markers like KASP.In addition to 5BL, another genomic region on chromosome 5AL appeared to be stable for tan spot resistance. The identified 5AL chromosome region in Chinese Spring RefSeq v. 1.0, harbors or overlaps with QTL identified in previous studies. QTs-Fcu-5AL flanked by markers barc1061 and cfd2185 by Chu et al. (2008), QYls.lrc-5A closely linked by gdm132 (Zwart et al., 2010), and for QTs.zhl-5A mapped between markers iwa7025 and iwa5173 (Kariyawasam et al., 2016) were previously identified on the same genomic region. Interestingly, MTAs on chromosome 5AL (TA001138-0446 and BS00022071_51) showed tight linkage with Vrn-A1, which matches with our previous results (Hu et al., 2019). The Vrn-A1 locus was reported to contribute to disease escape via its effects in alteration of flowering date in Fusarium head blight (He et al., 2016), spot blotch (Singh et al., 2018), and Septoria tritici blotch (Dreisigacker et al., 2015) in field condition. However, association of Vrn-A1 with seedling resistance to tan spot and its association with spot blotch resistance even after excluding the effect of days to flowering (Singh et al., 2018) implies its possible linkage with an unknown disease resistance gene or its pleiotropic role in resistance to tan spot (Hu et al., 2019). In CIMMYT spring wheat genotypes, the vrn-A1 allele for late flowering and tan spot resistance is almost fixed (Dreisigacker et al., 2016), which is supportive of tan spot resistance and may have contributed to a good level of tan spot resistance in CIMMYT germplasm.Two resistance genes, tsn 2 controlling resistance to necrosis caused by Ptr race 3 (Singh et al., 2006) and tsn 5 controlling resistance to Ptr race 5 were reported previously in a marker interval of gwm 285 and wmc 366 on chromosome 3B. In the present study, we observed one significant MTA from experiment 2 on chromosome 3B, but this MTA does not match the interval between gwm 285 and wmc 366. Hence it appears that this MTA does not represent tsn 2 or tsn 5 genes, which is in agreement with the fact that the Ptr isolate used in this study was for race 1 only. The significant MTAs identified on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 6A, and 7D do not match with previously identified QTL, and hence these might be novel genomic regions for resistance to Ptr race 1, for which further validation is needed. The single MAT on 5B (IACX9261) will be the first choice for the selection of resistant genotypes for tan spot, and in novel identified genomic regions, single MTA on chromosome 1B (BobWhite_c28635_785) will be a priority for validation as it showed better differentiation for resistant and susceptible genotypes. Overall, in this study, along with CIMMYT germplasm, diverse sources of resistant genotypes against Ptr race 1 were identified which can be used to develop broad genetic resistance to tan spot of wheat. Association mapping identified both known and novel QTLs for tan spot resistance along with novel markers potentially useful for marker-assisted selection. Together the identified novel resistant genotypes and genomic regions could be useful for developing cultivars with durable resistance to tan spot in wheat.","tokenCount":"3430"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7af91e5b08a90f586619832cb9d7dbde","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/47752b0b-0904-46a0-848c-3279b9bb5410/content","id":"1741290775"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5db4b72c-2ef5-4c75-988a-e7e955035ca7","pagecount":"52","content":"El CIMMYT es una organización internacional pionera en el mundo, sin fines de lucro, dedicada a resolver hoy los problemas del mañana. Se encarga de promover mejoras en la cantidad, calidad y fiabilidad de los sistemas de producción y de los cereales básicos como el maíz, trigo, triticale, sorgo, mijo y cultivos asociados mediante la ciencia agrícola aplicada, especialmente en el sur global, a través de la creación de colaboraciones sólidas. Esta combinación mejora el desempeño de los medios de subsistencia y la resiliencia de millones de agricultores de escasos recursos, y trabaja por un sistema agroalimentario más productivo, incluyente y resiliente dentro de los límites globales.El CIMMYT es uno de los principales centros de investigación del GCIAR, una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria dedicada a reducir la pobreza, aumentar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y mejorar los recursos naturales.Memoria del Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023 \"Fortaleciendo la Agricultura ante el Cambio Climático\" Resumen de actividades cargo de Bram Govaerts, director general del CIM-MYT. Steve Fonte de la Universidad de Colorado impartió la ponencia magistral \"Cuidando la Salud del Suelo para apoyar Agroecosistemas Productivos y Resilientes\", en la que compartió los resultados de una investigación basada en suelos de todo el continente, sobre los beneficios de los sistemas de producción que cuidan la salud del suelo. Como siguiente punto en el orden del día, cuatro colaboradores de México presentaron los resultados de sus plataformas: Fermín Martínez presentó la plataforma de San Miguel Tlacamama, Oaxaca; Ana Rosa García presentó la plataforma de Cajeme I, Sonora; Raúl Olvera presentó la plataforma de Huichapan, Hidalgo, y Rocío Toledo presentó la plataforma de Iguala, Guerrero. Después de las presentaciones, los participantes formaron grupos regionales para participar en el taller sobre opciones para adaptar sus sistemas de producción locales al cambio climático.Después del taller el grupo se trasladó a una explanada donde se expusieron los carteles, donde todos los participantes podían presentar su investigación y aprender sobre la investigación de otros participantes. Posteriomente se realizaron más presentaciones de resultados de plataformas, por los colaboradores Paul García, de la plataforma de Pénjamo, Guanajuato; Mateo Pérez de la plataforma de Larrainzár, Chiapas; Guadalupe Itza Kantun, presentó resultados de investigación sobre aplicación de biol en Peto, Yucatán, y David Ramírez quien presentó alcances sobre el uso de e-Agrology para diagnosticar los sistemas de producción de papa en La Libertad, Perú. El simposio terminó con la presentación de Simon Fonteyne sobre los avances de la red de plataformas en los últimos años. Se reconoció a Roció Toledo como ganadora del premio a la mejor presentación y a Mateo Pérez como ganador del premio del mejor cartel. El evento concluyó con el anuncio hecho por Nele Verhulst, del establecimiento oficial de la Red de Investigación Agronómica para América Latina.El Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023 \"Fortaleciendo la Agricultura ante el Cambio Climático\" se organizó para promover el intercambio de experiencias, ideas y resultados de investigación entre los colaboradores del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), que trabajan en la investigación agronómica aplicada. Se juntaron colaboradores de varios proyectos como las iniciativas CGIAR Excellence in Agronomy y AgriLAC Resiliente, Cultivando un México Mejor (Heineken), Agriba Sustentable (por Trimex y Pepsico) y Maíz por México (Nestle). Los participantes llegaron desde todos los hubs en México y también de otros países donde existe colaboración con el CIMMYT: Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, Perú y Estados Unidos.El evento inició con un día de capacitaciones sobre temas que los participantes habían indicado como prioritarios. La primera capacitación se enfocó en la salud del suelo. Empezó con un curso impartido por Nele Verhulst sobre la teoría de la salud del suelo. Fue seguido por una sesión práctica en campo dirigida por Abel Saldivia y Jessica González sobre las mediciones que se pueden hacer en campo para cuantificar y diagnosticar la salud del suelo. La sesión terminó con una presentación de Francisco Buenrostro sobre el manejo integrado de la fertilidad del suelo. Por la tarde, los participantes podían elegir entre varios talleres: Comunicación y divulgación efectiva, impartido por Georgina Mena y el equipo de divulgación del CIMMYT; Diseño experimental, análisis estadístico y artículos científicos, dirigido por Mariel Guera y Simon Fonteyne; y Manejo Agroecológico de Plagas, presentado por Rodolfo Vilchis y Abel Saldivia. Finalmente, se regresó a la plenaria para participar en el taller sobre los temas relacionados con perspectiva de género y la investigación agronómica, impartido por Jessica González y Odette Gutiérrez.El segundo día se destinó a la presentación de resultados. La inauguración y bienvenida estuvieron aEn el marco del Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023, se llevó a cabo el taller \"Inclusión de género en la investigación agrícola\" impartido por Odette Gutiérrez y Jessica González, pertenecientes al Programa Sistemas Agroalimentarios Sustentables del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT). El taller se desarrolló en dos etapas dentro de la misma sesión, la primera con una presentación teórica de los conceptos clave relacionados a género e inclusión, así como su relación en la agronomía. La segunda etapa consistió en una reflexión por parte de los participantes sobre actividades y prácticas de intervención con enfoque sensible a género aplicada a sus regiones de trabajo.Durante la presentación teórica se expusieron y analizaron, en conjunto con los participantes, conceptos clave del marco contextual sobre la participación de las mujeres en el sector agrícola y métodos para la implementación de soluciones agronómicas para las mujeres agricultoras en pequeña escala.• Definición de género y por qué es importante en agronomía • Diferencia entre sexo y género • Roles de género • Relaciones de poder y toma de decisiones • Centralidad del poder en las relaciones de género • Igualdad de género vs equidad • Acceso y control sobre recursos productivos • Niveles de desigualdad de género El marco contextual sobre las mujeres en América Latina en el medio rural incluyo información sobre:• La participación laboral en el sector agrícola • Ingresos entre hombres y mujeres • El tiempo de trabajo no remunerado • La propiedad de la tierra, otros recursos y la toma de decisiones • Ocupaciones extralaborales Enfoques y métodos para la implementación de soluciones agronómicas para las mujeres agricultoras • Diagnóstico para el análisis social y de género • Tipos de prestación de servicios e innovaciones con perspectiva de género Después de la presentación teórica se realizaron actividades de reflexión, incluyendo una discusión sobre el género en la agricultura local, y el desarrollo de actividades y prácticas como acciones de intervención. Los equipos de trabajo se dividieron en cinco regiones; un grupo para Centro América y cuatro grupos para México, los cuales se conformaron por las regiones de: 1) bajío, 2) centro, 3) norte y 4) sur.La discusión en equipos se guio con los siguientes cuestionamientos:1. ¿Cómo llegan-acceden las agricultoras a sus proyectos de investigación, validación y transferencia de tecnologías? 2. ¿Qué tan inclusivo es este método para llegar a las pequeñas agricultoras? ¿Cómo se ven reflejadas estas actividades?Las acciones de intervención se guiaron con la siguiente información:1. Enlistar acciones -actividades y prácticaspara una intervención en la investigación y extensión con enfoque de género.Los resultados de los equipos fueron los siguientes:Región Centro 1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras comerciales y agricultoras de autoconsumo. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• En la agricultura comercial los métodos para llegar a las agricultoras no son inclusivos.Por ejemplo, las convocatorias de invitación a eventos son abiertas, es decir, no dirigidas a hombres o mujeres, entonces los hombres atienden las actividades y no las mujeres. • En la agricultura de pequeña escala para el autoconsumo, la inclusión de las mujeres es más orgánica debido a las dinámicas sociodemográficas, por ejemplo, la falta de oportunidades laborales para los hombres estimula la migración, por lo tanto, las mujeres quedan como jefas de las unidades de producción y toman las decisiones de las actividades en la agricultura.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Diagnosticar áreas de interés agrícola con énfasis en la agricultura donde las mujeres tienen un rol importante en el sistema de producción para focalizar las acciones de género. • Contribuir en el fortalecimiento de los roles de género. • Sensibilizar que las actividades del sistema son integrales donde se visibilice el papel de las mujeres en la agricultura. Por ejemplo, en la agricultura comercial las mujeres son administradoras y no necesariamente están realizando el manejo agronómico de los cultivos, entonces la inclusión se enfocaría en desarrollar temas de investigación y capacitación más especializados, por ejemplo, administración, cultivos alternativos para la diversificación y poscosecha. Además de ser cuidadosos con el lenguaje y trato.Figura 1.Ing. Francisco López Olguín en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo centro de México.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras comerciales de San Luis Potosí, Jalisco, Sinaloa y Sonora. 2. San Luis Potosí y Jalisco tienen mayor participación de mujeres en la agricultura y menor en Sinaloa y Sonora. En Sonora no hay muchas mujeres con propiedad de la tierra y tampoco participan en las actividades agrícolas. Hay muchas mujeres en la actividad académica, investigación, administrativa y de servicios.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Invitaciones inclusivas.• Promover infraestructura sanitaria tanto en el lugar de los eventos como en los transportes. • Horarios adecuados.• Campaña de mujer a mujer que motive una participación más directa. • Vinculación con mujeres y grupos de mujeres que influyen en la agricultura.Figura 2.Ing. Eliud Pérez Medel en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo norte de México.Figura 3.Ing. Alejandrina Garcia Dávila en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo sur de México.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras de autoconsumo. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Las acciones que realizan son inclusivas porque promueven alta participación de las mujeres por las siguientes razones: • Proyectos exclusivos para la participación de las mujeres, por ejemplo, en Chiapas hay un proyecto de mujeres y maíz. • Es importante en las comunidades indígenas respetar los usos y costumbres, y en lo posible, llevar los mensajes en lengua indígena. • Éxodo rural donde las dinámicas de migración no empoderan a las mujeres, en estos casos los hombres por teléfono siguen dando instrucciones y toman las decisiones más importantes del sistema de producción.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Flexibilidad de horarios. Eventos de relación participativa de maíces nativos en horarios favorables a las mujeres. • Equipos mixtos para facilitar las sesiones.• Preguntas dirigidas a mujeres para motivar la participación y escuchar sus intereses. • Descarga y equilibrio del trabajo en casa para lograr mayor participación de las mujeres. • Hacer énfasis en investigación y extensión relacionada a la diversificación de cultivos por ser de mayor interés para las mujeres. • Apoyo de innovación tecnológica en la mecanización poscosecha -desgranadora, para bajar la carga de trabajo en las temporadas de poscosecha.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Productoras de agricultura comercial, líderes de organizaciones y empresarias. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Las agricultoras normalmente tienden a adaptarse a los roles de los hombres en la agricultura y para esto cada una desarrolla su estrategia para involucrarse en la dinámica agrícola, por ejemplo, algunas delegan responsabilidad a sus trabajadores hombres para vincularse y negociar con los proveedores de insumos. • Las actividades en la región para llegar a las agricultoras es a través de invitaciones, por la iniciativa de las propias mujeres y por las características del proyecto.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Realizar diagnóstico regional para conocer las características y necesidades de la población de mujeres en la agricultura. • Enfocar las acciones en investigar y extender las tecnologías y prácticas de interés para las mujeres. • Propiciar espacios físicos apropiados para capacitaciones a mujeres.Figura 4.Ing. Amador Tranquilino Aguillón Aguillón en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo bajío de México.Figura 5.Ing. Herlindo Morales en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo Centro América.Región Centro América 1. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Hacer invitación a la familia.• Hacer invitación directamente a las mujeres y hay mejor respuesta de convocatoria que los hombres. • Hacer invitación a mujeres y jóvenes.• Políticas locales.• En la región Chorti llegan más mujeres que hombres, pero no toman decisiones. • Tener como facilitador a una mujer en todos los equipos. • Considerar horarios.• Priorizar a las mujeres en la proveeduría de los insumos y recursos necesarios para sus parcelas. • Hacer invitaciones personalizadas.• Tener personal técnico femenino.• Fomentar la participación en directivas.• Escoger horarios accesibles.• Promover políticas que incentiven la participación de las mujeres. • Establecer en los proyectos de las iniciativas un porcentaje de mujeres y jóvenes.Se consultó a mujeres participantes sobre sus reflexiones relacionadas con sus expectativas e impresiones antes y después de tomar el taller de género y compartieron lo siguiente:\"Mi expectativa era que al finalizar el taller pudiera identificar las causas que no permiten la inclusión de las mujeres en el proceso productivo y estrategias de capacitación en las plataformas. El taller me permitió identificar las áreas de oportunidad que existen en la inclusión de las mujeres en las actividades productivas agrícolas y se evidencio la necesidad de promover acciones que permitan una mayor inclusión, debido a que las responsabilidades de las mujeres no permiten que las mujeres sean más participativas. El contenido del taller fue adecuado para el cumplimiento de los objetivos pues permitió recabar información valiosa para establecer estrategias de identificación de acciones y de participación. Identifiqué que muchas veces el involucramiento de las mujeres en las actividades agrícolas y de capacitación deben responder a la elección personal de las propias mujeres, y visualizar su involucramiento como una decisión personal\".\"Al inicio me tomó por sorpresa este taller, al menos en mi experiencia nunca había asistido a uno referente a este tema. Sin embargo, me pareció muy interesante e importante que lo hayan puesto como uno de los temas a tratar en el simposio, ya que es necesario que más hombres conozcan y sean conscientes que, el trabajo de la mujer en el ámbito agrícola también es importante y que debe ser igualitario ante lo que ellos realizan, tanto en obligaciones como beneficios. El contenido me pareció bueno y estuvo claro cómo fueron abordando los puntos a tratar, en la actividad que se realizó por región nos dimos cuenta de que en todas las zonas del país se tienen problemas similares que impiden la inclusión de más mujeres en el ámbito agrícola\".\"El tema de género e inclusión creo que debe abordarse desde la óptica que hombres y mujeres podemos hacer cualquier actividad, romper con los estereotipos de género en que la sociedad ha encasillado a cada persona por su sexo. En este sentido, y cómo lo mencioné en la presentación, algunas actividades del campo pueden ser o no pueden ser del agrado de las mujeres, entonces poder identificar en qué actividades quieren participar las mujeres ayudará mucho al éxito de que ellas participen en los talleres. Es un tema muy adecuado para estos tiempos y se agradece mucho que se aborde desde instituciones que pueden proporcionar el cambio. Las estadísticas de las mujeres en ruralidad son adecuadas, pero no esperemos que esas cifras sean 50-50, porque es acorde a los gustos de cada persona, y en algunas otras porque no hubo otra opción. Creo sinceramente, que se debe invitar a alguien experta en el tema para la parte introductoria, para que la información no se mal interprete y se tenga certeza en la definición de los conceptos. También considero que debe haber un momento de reflexión para con nosotros mismos, si se fomenta la inclusión de las mujeres, si mi lenguaje es apropiado para referirme a ellas, si valoro su participación, si soy imparcial con la participación de hombres y mujeres\".\"Realmente no estaba predispuesta antes del curso, lo que pensaba era que sería redúndante como decir que tiene que haber mayor participación de las mujeres, pero no fue de esa manera, me llamó la atención el curso que inició la parte más conceptual y los términos porque desde ahí ya empiezas a entender la diferencia entre una cosa y otra cosa, y te permite comprender mejor cómo funciona esto. Me llamó también la atención, la participación de las personas que estaban presentes a pesar de que la mayoría eran hombres, noté esa sensibilización por su parte y algo que tal vez me hubiese gustado más es un ejercicio que concretice los temas en los que se pueda aplicar los conceptos que permita reflexionar y entenderlo. También me gustó que en el ejercicio que se hizo posterior -de la teoría-el repensar cómo estamos trabajando y me gustó en la parte en la que se incluyen acciones concretas porque creo que esto hace falta. Un poco distinto me gustó la participación y los comentarios\".\"Adquirí herramientas para realizar las invitaciones con inclusión de género y de jóvenes para los eventos de capacitación. Es un tema muy complejo, siento que el curso requiere de más tiempo de aná-lisis o profundidad, ya que para empezar la mayoría de las plataformas están compuesta de hombres, entonces hacer más inclusión desde las parcelas de investigación, también falta un diagnóstico de las creencias o de por qué no hay inclusión de género o jóvenes.\"\"Considero que fue bueno ese primer acercamiento. Me parece que los conceptos fueron abordados muy bien entendiendo que hay gente que, si no es la primera vez, si ha sido difícil para ellos que hayan retomado antes este tema. La segunda parte fue larga por el tiempo y considero que es buena la información, ojalá que se comparta a los demás colaboradores y esto requiere más tiempo de análisis, y tener la información por región también daría más luces. Siempre conocer las dificultades que tienen las plataformas para llegar a mujeres es importante, entonces considero que podría hacerse un esfuerzo posterior para saber realmente estas tecnologías a quién están llegando. Quizá brindar resultados específicos de alguna plataforma de como lo ha abordado con éxito y en algunos otros casos sin tener el éxito esperado y con resultados diferentes. Particularmente para mí, el tema es sumamente importante porque debemos retomar en colaboraciones e investigación porque aquí se puede incidir bastante bien el punto de vista de las señoras y que a veces los señores solo son portavoz.\"El cambio climático es un fenómeno que afecta a todos los productores de maíz y trigo en América Latina. Dadas las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que ya se han emitido, son inevitables los cambios en el clima. Por eso, es necesario adaptar los sistemas de producción a las nuevas condiciones. Para generar conciencia sobre las posibles opciones de adaptación al cambio climático, se organizó un taller en donde en grupos regionales se reflexionó sobre la factibilidad de posibles opciones de adaptación.Las discusiones en el taller giraron en torno al centro del Bajío ubicado en el centro de México, con un enfoque particular en el estado de Guanajuato. Los participantes utilizaron la plataforma CAPTain, para analizar datos agrícolas de la temporada de cosecha 2021. El análisis de datos tuvo como objetivo estimar factores cruciales como el área de cultivo, el rendimiento y el valor del cultivo por tonelada para ocho cultivos diferentes, proporcionando información sobre la importancia económica relativa de cada cultivo.Además de analizar datos pasados, el equipo también examinó posibles eventos relacionados con el clima que podrían afectar la producción de cultivos en la próxima década. Evaluaron el porcentaje de superficie afectada y las consecuencias negativas en cada cultivo. Para abordar los desafíos planteados por el cambio climático, el equipo identificó diez tecnologías y prácticas que podrían ayudar a adaptar la producción de cultivos al clima cambiante. Estas prácticas abarcaban diversos aspectos como el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo, el uso eficiente del agua, la agricultura de precisión y el mejoramiento genético. Sin embargo, el equipo observó que los actuales servicios de extensión estaban mal equipados para aplicar eficazmente esas prácticas.Durante el taller, se consideró que el gobierno apoya para promover la mayoría de las prácticas sugeridas. Sin embargo, la incorporación de estas prácticas en las políticas públicas puede requerir un plazo considerable. Si bien las prácticas sugeridas se consideraron inclusivas para las mujeres, plantearon problemas de accesibilidad para los grupos marginados debido a limitaciones geográficas y de recursos.Los agricultores reconocen la importancia de la producción sostenible y la necesidad de adoptar estas prácticas para mitigar el impacto del cambio climático. Sin embargo, la viabilidad de la aplicación de estas prácticas no es claro. Entre las prácticas sugeridas, la mejora genética es considerada relativamente más fácil de adoptar en comparación con otras prácticas que se consideraron más intensivas en mano de obra y exigentes.El equipo hizo hincapié en la importancia de adoptar prácticas sostenibles en la producción agrícola. Destacaron la urgencia de que los agricultores adopten estas prácticas para minimizar los efectos perjudiciales del cambio climático en sus medios de vida y la seguridad alimentaria general de la región. Además, destacaron la importancia de proporcionar apoyo y recursos adecuados para garantizar la implementación exitosa de estas prácticas. El compromiso del gobierno de promover estas prácticas se consideró un paso positivo, aunque se reconoció que podría tomar varios años para que se integraran plenamente en las políticas públicas.En conclusión, el taller en el hub del Bajío proporcionó una plataforma para discusiones en profundidad sobre el análisis de datos agrícolas y la identificación de tecnologías y prácticas para adaptar la producción de cultivos al cambio climático. Si bien el gobierno apoya estas prácticas, se destacaron desafíos como la accesibilidad para los grupos marginados y la limitada capacidad de implementación de los servicios de extensión. Los participantes en el taller subrayaron la importancia de la producción sostenible e instaron a los agricultores a adoptar estas prácticas para mitigar el impacto del cambio climático. La implementación exitosa de estas prácticas requerirá apoyo continuo, recursos e integración en las políticas públicas a lo largo del tiempo.El taller reunió al equipo de investigación de la red de plataformas en el hub Valles Altos, que incluye los estados de Puebla, Tlaxcala, Hidalgo, Estado de México y Guerrero. El grupo discutió los patrones climáticos que afectan a los principales cultivos de la región, los desafíos asociados y las opciones disponibles para adaptar la agricultura al cambio climático en el corto y mediano plazo. Se utilizó la herramienta CAPTain para obtener un diagnóstico basado en los resultados.Los participantes identificaron siete cultivos a considerar, maíz, cebada, trigo, frijoles, avena, alfalfa y sorgo, como los más importantes en términos de área cultivada y valor de ingresos en los dos ciclos de producción en la región. La discusión y evaluación en la herramienta CAPTain se centró en estos cultivos. Se analizaron diversos aspectos como el rendimiento promedio, el valor de producción y la rentabilidad para estimar la importancia económica relativa de cada cultivo. La estandarización del análisis entre las zonas de temporal y de riego, así como entre las variedades nativas y mejoradas, resultó ser una tarea compleja.El taller también abordó las amenazas agroclimáticas más importantes de la región, incluida la escasez de agua, las altas y bajas temperaturas, las tormentas que provocan el alojamiento de cultivos, las sequías prolongadas y los daños causados por granizo. Los cuatro sistemas de cultivo más importantes identificados para el análisis en relación con eventos clave inducidos por el clima fueron el sorgo, la alfalfa, la avena y el maíz durante el ciclo primavera-verano, según el umbral sugerido por la herramienta CAPTain de una puntuación superior al 5%.Se identificaron y analizaron las opciones y prácticas tecnológicas para la adaptación al cambio climático en la agricultura para determinar su viabilidad. Sin embargo, errores en la herramienta CAPTain impidieron la presentación de resultados y la separación de cultivos por ciclos de producción. Se discutieron los desafíos asociados con cada práctica y tecnología de adaptación, aunque se mostró información incompleta en la herramienta.Los participantes en el taller hicieron hincapié en la necesidad de identificar prácticas que pueden implementarse para adaptar la producción de cultivos al cambio climático. Se consideraron prácticas como el uso de variedades tempranas y tolerantes, el manejo de la paja, la labranza mínima, las aplicaciones de pronóstico del tiempo y la diversificación de cultivos. Se evaluaron factores como el impacto potencial en la productividad, la evidencia científica, el tiempo requerido para observar un impacto, las tasas de conciencia y adopción entre los agricultores, la percepción de la comunidad, el apoyo gubernamental y la preparación de los servicios de extensión para cada práctica.En general, el taller en el Centro de Valles Altos brindó una oportunidad para que los investigadores discutieran el cambio climático y sus implicaciones para la agricultura. La identificación de cultivos clave, el análisis de las amenazas agroclimáticas, la exploración de opciones de adaptación y el examen de los desafíos y la viabilidad, subrayaron la importancia de las medidas proactivas para garantizar la resiliencia y la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agrícolas frente al cambio climático.La Región Norte de México, que abarca los estados de Sonora, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí y Jalisco, fue examinada con fines diagnósticos. El análisis se centró en dos regiones, el Hub Pacífico Norte y el Hub Intermedio. Los principales cultivos identificados en la Región Norte fueron maíz, trigo, sorgo y frijol. El maíz tuvo la mayor importancia debido a su gran área de cultivo, mayores rendimientos y precio de venta promedio relativamente estable. La importancia económica del maíz fue consistente a lo largo de ambas estaciones, según lo determinado por los participantes y respaldado por la herramienta CAPTain.Los eventos agroclimáticos más significativos que plantearon riesgos para la producción de cultivos en la Región Norte se relacionaron con la disponibilidad de agua y los cambios de temperatura. Estos incluyeron distribución de lluvias, horas frías y heladas. La gravedad y el impacto potencial variaron para cada cultivo y temporada. Por ejemplo, las heladas presentaron el mayor desafío para el cultivo de frijol, mientras que la distribución de la lluvia fue la principal preocupación para el sorgo en la temporada primavera-verano. Las sequías, la distribución de las lluvias y las horas frías fueron los eventos más desafiantes para los cultivos de maíz y trigo. Los aportes de los participantes y la herramienta CAPTain proporcionaron información sobre la priorización de los desafíos climáticos.Entre los cultivos identificados, el maíz enfrentó los mayores riesgos, dado su extensivo cultivo y rentabilidad. Los frijoles fueron el segundo cultivo más vulnerable, particularmente susceptible a las sequías y las heladas, ya que eran predominantemente de temporal. El trigo y el sorgo tuvieron porcentajes de riesgo más bajos, probablemente debido a sus áreas de cultivo más pequeñas y la siembra de una sola temporada.Para abordar los desafíos planteados por el cambio climático, los participantes propusieron varias prácticas de adaptación y tecnologías agronómicas adecuadas para la producción de granos en la Región Norte de México. Estas prácticas incluyeron la agricultura de conservación, que demostró mejoras en la salud del suelo, la eficiencia del agua, los rendimientos de los cultivos y la reducción de costos. Sin embargo, su adopción siguió siendo limitada debido a factores como la complejidad y la falta de participación del gobierno.Otra práctica recomendada fue la mejora tecnológica de los sistemas de riego. El riego tecnificado permitió un uso eficiente del agua y tuvo un impacto positivo en los rendimientos. Sin embargo, su implementación enfrentó barreras debido a los altos costos iniciales.Se determinó que el uso de variedades de cultivos apropiadas era una práctica de adaptación fácilmente alcanzable y ampliamente promovida. El desarrollo de variedades adaptadas a las condi-ciones regionales mejoró la producción de cultivos y fue respaldado por evidencia científica. Además, la rotación de cultivos con semillas oleaginosas fue reconocida como una práctica sostenible, reduciendo el uso de agroquímicos y rompiendo los ciclos de malezas, plagas y enfermedades.El acceso a los datos de las estaciones meteorológicas se consideró un instrumento valioso para reducir los daños causados por fenómenos naturales inesperados y optimizar las actividades agrícolas. Sin embargo, su utilización entre los agricultores siguió siendo baja, a pesar del apoyo del gobierno para instalar estaciones meteorológicas y compartir información en línea.Los participantes reconocieron que estas prácticas eran generalmente inclusivas para las mujeres, ya que no había restricciones en su acceso a la información o participación en programas relacionados. En cuanto a los grupos marginados, con la excepción del riego tecnificado, las prácticas de adaptación enumeradas se consideraron neutrales o positivamente inclusivas.En conclusión, la Región Norte de México enfrenta desafíos relacionados con la disponibilidad de agua y los cambios de temperatura. El cultivo de maíz tiene la mayor importancia económica y es más vulnerable a los riesgos climáticos. Para adaptarse a estos desafíos, se recomendaron prácticas como la agricultura de conservación, el riego tecnificado, el uso de variedades de cultivos apropiadas, la rotación de cultivos y el acceso a datos meteorológicos. Si bien existen algunas barreras para la implementación, estas prácticas tienen el potencial de mejorar la resiliencia agrícola de la región al cambio climático.Este informe ofrece una visión general de los resultados del diagnóstico de cambio climático realizado para el estado de Oaxaca. La información presentada se basa en dos fuentes principales: el taller de diagnóstico del cambio climático y los datos de cierre agrícola 2021 del Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera (SIAP). El análisis de esta información, junto con el uso de la herramienta CAPTain, ofrece información sobre los efectos del cambio climático en la agricultura en Oaxaca y las opciones de adaptación disponibles.Los impactos del cambio climático en la agricultura son cada vez más notables, y a pesar de los esfuerzos de mitigación, no hay indicios de que esta tendencia se revierta pronto. Las acciones de mitigación se centran en abordar las causas del cambio climático, pero deben ir acompañadas de medidas de adaptación que aborden los impactos, como los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos cada vez más frecuentes e intensos. Estos eventos deben identificarse en cada región y considerarse al proponer prácticas de adaptación para aumentar la productividad, la resiliencia y la sostenibilidad. Por lo tanto, este diagnóstico climático se realizó para identificar los principales eventos agroclimáticos adversos en el estado de Oaxaca y prácticas viables de adaptación. El diagnóstico comprendió dos etapas: identificación de posibles eventos climáticos y prácticas de adaptación para los próximos 10 años, y análisis de la información utilizando la herramienta CAPTain.Entre los principales cultivos agrícolas en Oaxaca, el maíz es de mayor importancia económica tanto en la temporada de primavera-verano como de otoño-invierno. Entre los cultivos perennes, la caña de azúcar tiene la mayor importancia económica.Varios eventos afectan la producción agrícola en el estado de Oaxaca, principalmente derivados de las variaciones de temperatura y precipitación. Es evidente que la agricultura de Oaxaca es más vulnerable al aumento de las temperaturas (calor, plagas) y al déficit hídrico (sequía prolongada) que a las bajas temperaturas (heladas) y al exceso de agua (lluvias torrenciales). Las sequías prolongadas, los huracanes, las heladas y las plagas tendrán un impacto significativo en los rendimientos de los cultivos.Todas las prácticas de adaptación al cambio climático pueden proporcionar una producción más sostenible y pueden extenderse a través del sistema de extensión. Están respaldados por evidencia científica que indica que pueden mejorar la productividad de los cultivos. La mayoría de estas prácticas son promovidas por el gobierno y no son difíciles de adoptar para los agricultores. A excepción de la labranza, todas las prácticas seleccionadas pueden incorpo-rarse a las políticas públicas en aproximadamente 2 años, con impactos notables dentro de los primeros 5 años. Sin embargo, todas estas prácticas son neutrales en cuanto a la inclusión de mujeres y grupos marginados, destacando la necesidad de asociarse. La mayoría de los agricultores desconocen estas prácticas, y las tasas de adopción son aún más bajas entre los productores que las conocen. Esta baja adopción puede atribuirse a la falta de orientación y apoyo proporcionado a los agricultores.maron que el área afectada podría oscilar entre el 30% y el 40%, con un impacto severo (reduciendo la producción en un 25% a 70%) en el caso de las heladas, mientras que se estimó que las heladas y los vientos huracanados afectarían entre el 5% y el 10% del área cultivada, lo que resultó en un impacto del 0% al 25% en el rendimiento de los cultivos.Los participantes creen que la producción podría adaptarse al cambio climático a través de la implementación de prácticas como la agricultura de conservación, las fechas óptimas de siembra, el uso de variedades de cultivos adecuadas, cultivos alternativos, tecnología de riego, recolección y conservación de agua, así como los sistemas agroforestales. En general, se considera que estas prácticas mejoran en gran medida los sistemas de producción y su adaptación al cambio climático, sobre la base de pruebas científicas sólidas que respaldan su implementación y el tiempo relativamente corto requerido para observar sus efectos (de seis meses a dos años en la mayoría de los casos). Sin embargo, una limitación identificada es que estas prácticas no son ampliamente conocidas entre los agricultores, ya que se estima que menos del 15% del público objetivo está familiarizado con estas prácticas, y menos del 5% las aplica actualmente.El enfoque de implementación de estas prácticas no considera la perspectiva de género y no es inclusivo para los grupos vulnerables. Sin embargo, la opinión del público objetivo es mayormente positiva con respecto a estas prácticas, y algunas de ellas incluso son promovidas por los gobiernos locales y federales, como el uso de variedades de cultivos adecuadas, que se ha convertido en política pública. Otras prácticas como la agricultura de conservación y la agrosilvicultura han sido promovidas por los gobiernos pero aún no han pasado a formar parte de las políticas públicas, y no se espera que sea así en el corto plazo, aunque existen programas federales que han promovido su uso.Al taller asistieron representantes de la Península de Yucatán, México, Guatemala y Honduras, quienes identificaron los efectos del cambio climático en la región. Los principales cultivos alimentarios son el maíz y los frijoles, mientras que el café y los plátanos son económicamente importantes. La información proporcionada por los participantes sobre los rendimientos y los precios de venta no fue representativa debido a la enorme variabilidad regional.La canícula, una sequía intraestival, es el evento climático más dañino, causando una disminución del rendimiento de hasta el 75% e incluso pérdidas del 100% en regiones con escasas precipitaciones. Otros eventos como los huracanes y la disminución de las precipitaciones también afectan negativamente los rendimientos. Las altas temperaturas y los fuertes vientos tienen un impacto menor, reduciendo los rendimientos en un 25%.en Perú son papa, maíz, quinua, trigo y tarwi, mientras que el maíz y los frijoles son prominentes en Colombia. Se identificaron dos ciclos de cultivo en la región, con fechas variables de siembra y cosecha.Los eventos climáticos más significativos en la región son las heladas, las sequías y las inundaciones, con tormentas de granizo y plagas emergentes que también representan riesgos para los cultivos, particularmente el trigo, el tarwi y la quinua. Se considera que estos eventos tienen impactos catastróficos en general, aunque se estima una disminución en el rendimiento del trigo de 0 a 25%. El área cultivada potencialmente afectada varía de 75% a 100%, excepto por las heladas que afectan solo al 50% del área de papa.Se propusieron varias medidas para adaptar la producción al cambio climático, incluida la implementación de plataformas de manejo agroclimático, el uso de nuevas variedades, la recolección de agua, la agrosilvicultura y la planificación de cultivos. Se cree que estas tecnologías tienen un alto impacto potencial en la productividad. Existe un fuerte apoyo científico para las nuevas variedades y un apoyo moderado para las plataformas de manejo agroclimático en la mayoría de los cultivos, aunque el apoyo para el tarwi es bajo. Se espera que estas tecnologías tengan impactos dentro de 2 a 5 años, excepto para tarwi, que puede requerir de 5 a 10 años para mostrar resultados. Aunque el conocimiento sobre estas tecnologías es alto (entre el 70% y el 90%), su adopción es baja (entre el 5% y el 15%) debido al acceso limitado. Las comunidades tienen una actitud positiva hacia estas prácticas, mientras que los gobiernos prefieren su implementación pero no las promueven activamente. Se estima que tomaría más de 2 años convertir estas prácticas en políticas públicas, aunque el sistema de extensión agrícola está listo para promoverlas.Estas tecnologías se consideran fáciles de adoptar y mejorarían la sostenibilidad de la producción. Se consideran inclusivos para las mujeres y neutrales hacia los grupos marginados.En resumen, promover la implementación de tecnologías de adaptación al cambio climático en la región andina es crucial. Esto implica mejorar el acceso a estas tecnologías, fomentar la adopción a través de servicios de extensión agrícola y transformarlas en políticas públicas. Además, es esencial abordar la vulnerabilidad de los grupos marginados y promover la participación de las mujeres en estas iniciativas. Las familias milperas de la Península de Yucatán obtienen los alimentos básicos en la agricultura tradicional bajo roza, tumba y quema. Actualmente, varios factores afectan el buen funcionamiento de la milpa, por eso es importante evaluar opciones para mejorar su productividad y sostenibilidad.Los factores evaluados han presentado resultados similares (p>0.05) en el rendimiento de grano de maíz, excepto en el ciclo 2018 cuando se registró mayor (p<0.05) rendimiento en el arreglo topológico de 1.0 * 0.5 m y en el ciclo 2021 en el factor quemar. La media general del rendimiento de grano de maíz fue 1537 kg/ha en el primer ciclo, en el segundo y el tercer año, 2016 y 2434 kg/ha, en el cuarto y quinto ciclo se aprecia un sensible descenso con 1406 y 1271 kg/ha, respectivamente. Debido a que las prácticas de AC se manifiestan en el mediano y largo plazo, se sugiere continuar con las investigaciones en la plataforma Peto YUC.Dr. José Bernardino Castillo Caamal e-mail: jose.castillo@correo.uady.mx Móvil: 9992427854  Castillo CJB 1 , Itzá KGM 1 , Vilchis R 2 ., Escalante EJF 11: Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán 2: Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de maíz y TrigoPor la reducción del tiempo de barbecho la agricultura milpera de Yucatán se ha convertido en un sistema de uso continuo del suelo para la producción. Lo que ocasiona la pérdida de fertilidad de los suelos, que repercute en la caída de los rendimientos. Por tanto, es necesario evaluar prácticas sostenibles de manejo.El rendimiento del grano fue similar entre estiércol y DAP, ambos fueron superiores (p<0.05) al control y Mucuna. El rendimiento de grano de maíz fue superior (p<0.05) con la aplicación del biol de microorganismos de monte en una concentración de 200 mL L -1 .Figura 1. Cosecha de maíz en plataforma Yaxcabá, Yucatán (21/11/2022).Figura 2. Efecto del manejo del tipo de fertilización y el uso de biol (200 mL L -1 ) en el rendimiento de maíz en la Plataforma Yaxcabá, Yucatán.El experimento fue establecido en Kancabdzonot, Yaxcabá, Yucatán, altitud aprox. de 20 msnm, precipitación pluvial anual de 800 a 1000 mm, en un Cambisol representativo de la región (INEGI, 2009).Todas las labores de cultivo fueron manuales. Se utilizó maíz Nalxoy amarillo. El arreglo de siembra fue 1 m x 0.5 m con 2 semillas por golpe, fue utilizado estiércol de ovino descompuesto (4000 kg/ha -1 ), DAP (100 kg/ha -1 ) y Mucuna como cultivo de cobertura. Se realizó la aplicación foliar de biol de microorganismos de monte (200 mL L -1 ) por las mañanas, a partir de la segunda semana de la siembra, por cuatro ocasiones con una frecuencia semanal. El proceso de elaboración del biol fue artesanal (captura, propagación y activación), el líquido resultante fue diluido a una concentración de 200 mL L -1 para su aplicación en el cultivo, se hicieron 4 aplicaciones de 24 L ha -1 del biol diluido.El diseño fue de bloques al azar con arreglo de parcelas divididas, fueron evaluados dos factores de manejo consistentes en el tipo de fertilización (parcela principal) y la aplicación de biol de microorganismos de monte (subparcela). Se estableció en el ciclo 2013/14 y se evalúan diferentes prácticas agronómicas dentro de un sistema de producción de trigo en condiciones de riego, atendiendo las necesidades de los productores del Valle del Yaqui y Mayo. Los factores que incluye son prácticas de labranza, manejo de rastrojo, número de riegos de auxilio, rotación de cultivo y número de hileras del cultivo de trigo.Los mayores rendimientos de trigo (promedio de 9.2 t/ha) fueron obtenidos después de cártamo, sea en rotación anual o en primer año después de cártamo en rotación de tres años (TC, CP, Dej y TTC, CP, Dej).Los arreglos topológicos de 2 o 3 hileras en camas permanentes resultaron con rendimientos similares. El rendimiento en TT, CP, Dej, 2H fue de 7.5 t/ha y el obtenido con 3 hileras fue de 7.6 t/ha (TT, CP, Dej).Con cuatro riegos de auxilio el rendimiento de monocultivo de trigo en labranza convencional (TT, CC, Dej) fue de 7.3 t/ha, mientras que, en camas permanentes aumentó 0.3 t/ha (7.6 t/ha; TT, CP, Dej).Con tres riegos de auxilio, la práctica del agricultor con labranza convencional (TT, CC, Dej, 3R) tuvo el rendimiento más bajo (6.7 t/ha). Mientras que, al convertir a camas permanentes el rendimiento fue de (7.1 t/ha; TT, CP, Dej, 3R). Abreviaciones: T=trigo, C=cártamo; Práctica de labranza: CC=camas con labranza convencional, CP= camas permanentes; Manejo de rastrojo: Dej= dejar todo el rastrojo, Rem= remover todo el rastrojo; 3R= 3 riegos de auxilio, 2H= Siembra a 2 hileras y GS= Sensor GreenSeeker.Para cártamo el rendimiento fue mayor (2.0 t/ha; CTT, CP, Dej) cuando fue sembrado después de dos ciclos de trigo en comparación con rotación anual (CT, CP, Dej; 1.6 t/ha), misma tendencia que se ha venido observando en varios ciclos. Juan Francisco Buenrostro y Andres Mandujano Bueno En 2012, CIMMYT e INIFAP validaron la tecnología del sensor óptico GreenSeeker en el cultivo del maíz para El Bajío, tecnología que ayuda a la aplicación racional de nitrógeno a los cultivos. Los componentes de la tecnología son: establecimiento de una franja rica en nitrógeno (FRN) en parcela, medición de la FRN y resto de parcela, uso del algoritmo para determinar la dosis de N que el cultivo requiere. Actualmente, INIFAP generó un nuevo algoritmo que permite la determinación de la dosis de N que el cultivo requiere, sin el uso de la FRN. El objetivo de la investigación fue validar el nuevo algoritmo en las condiciones de El Bajío.En el ensayo y módulos, no se observaron diferencias significativas (P≤0.05) para rendimiento. Sin embargo, en el ensayo se observó una diferencia de 60 kg N ha -1 entre NA y tratamiento de sobredosificación (Figura 1) y en módulos fue de 48 kg N ha -1 entre NA y manejo convencional (Figura 2) (equivalentes a $1,252.00 y $1,001.00 MN, respectivamente), Estos resultados indican que la recomendación generada por el NA contribuye ha evitar la sobre fertilización, mejorar rentabilidad del cultivo y contribuir a la producción sustentable.amandujanob@gmail.com Las láminas horarias de cada bloque se establecieron de acuerdo con un balance de humedad considerando las variables del clima de la estación agroclimática de Fundación Guanajuato Produce \" Distrito de Riego 011, la etapa fenológica del cultivo y los intervalos de riego registrados en la bitácora.Para evaluar el coeficiente de uniformidad de cada tratamiento se midió la presión de las cintillas de riego al inicio y al final de la misma con un manómetro, definiendo una presión inicial de 7.5 y final de 7.0 PSI como la ideal para esta investigación.Coordinador del uso eficiente del agua en Hub Bajío.La plataforma de investigación Irapuato I, cuenta con 2 sistemas de riego, goteo y superficial. En el ciclo OI 22-23 el riego superficial se realizó de forma convencional durante todo el ciclo, aplicando 1 riego de nacencia y 3 de auxilio. Para el manejo de riego por goteo se evaluaron metodologías para conocer el comportamiento del agua dentro del sistema y poder realizar mejoras con el fin de incrementar las eficiencias de aplicación. Se consideraron láminas de requerimiento que fueron calculadas con apoyo de herramientas digitales para conocer la evapotranspiración del cultivo y determinar la demanda hídrica al momento de regar. También se midieron los metros cúbicos requeridos dentro del sistema híbrido y camas permanentes.El volumen de agua aplicado al cultivo de trigo durante el ciclo OI 22-23 fue menor en el sistema de camas permanentes anchas (CPA) en donde se aplicarón 5,456.87 m³/ha mientras que en sistema híbrido fueron 5,873.54 m³/ha, diferencia que representa ahorro del 7.09% al utilizar riego por goteo y camas permanentes anchas.El uso de riego por goteo y CPA permitió ahorrar 12.63% de agua en comparación con el uso de riego superficial.Implementar láminas de riego, monitorear las condiciones del clima y considerar las etapas fenológicas del cultivo son actividades de suma importancia para generar riegos con eficiencias de más de 90%.Ing. Daniel Sandoval Hernández Correo: sandovalh.daniel@gmail.com  La Agricultura de Conservación es un sistema de manejo de cultivo construido sobre tres principios: Labranza mínima del suelo, uso de coberturas del cultivo anterior y diversificación de cultivos. En búsqueda de complementar la Estrategia de Diversificación bajo los principios de Cultivos de Servicio en sistemas de producción de maíz y trigo en el Bajío Guanajuatense, en la Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I durante el ciclo OI 22-23 se estableció un ensayo para evaluar el efecto del uso de Vicia sativa y diferentes dosis de nitrógeno sobre el cultivo de trigo.Los valores NDVI y SPAD fueron mayores en los tratamientos de trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa en comparación con solamente trigo.Con cero dosis de nitrógeno y siembra de V. sativa intercalada se registró mayor verdor y mayor índice de referencia de concentración de clorofila en el trigo, este resultado puede ser indicador del beneficio del cultivo de servicio sobre el cultivo principal.Ing. Luis Ángel Meléndez Martínez.Cel : 412100 3996Correo: luisangelagricultura@Outlook.com Figura 1. Trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa, ciclo OI 22-23, Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I.Figura 2. Valor NDVI de trigo con y sin intercalación de Vicia sativa y diferentes dosis de nitrógeno a los 49 días después de la siembra. Ciclo OI 22-23, Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I.Se sembró trigo variedad Faisán S2016 bajo un diseño de parcelas divididas con arreglo de bloques completos al azar, en las cuales se establecieron parcelas de trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa y parcelas de trigo sin V. sativa. A estas parcelas se aplicaron diferentes dosis de nitrógeno, se establecieron 3 repeticiones de cada tratamiento.Con el aparato GreenSeeker se midieron los valores NDVI de cada tratamiento a los 49 días después de la siembra.La referencia de la concentración de clorofila en las plantas de cada tratamiento se obtuvo a través del valor SPAD a los 56 días después de la siembra. Ambos parámetros se relacionan con el verdor de la planta. Se utilizaron 6 especies de plantas, para conocer la adaptabilidad al sistema de producción. Se establecieron en dos cultivos bajo la estrategia de cultivos de servicio, en maíz en 3 fechas, Siembra, 30 dds, y R1, en Trigo en la siembra, 30 dds . Para el caso de maíz se estableció en al voleo mientras que para trigo interlineado con trigo. Ambos cultivos principales baso dos sistemas de agricultura; agricultura de conservación y agricultura convencionalLos sistemas intensivos de producción tienen como característica el uso de monocultivos, grandes extensiones, redes comerciales muy especificas. Uno de los retos mas importantes para estos sistemas es lograr la diversificación de cultivos. En la Plataforma de Investigación de Pénjamo se aborda esta problemática desde 2019 y se han desarrollado estrategias de diversificación bajo los principios de cultivos de servicio.La estrategia de diversificación con base en el enfoque de cultivos de servicio para sistemas intensivos de producción, es económica y agronómicamente viable. La técnica de interlineado en cultivo trigo (Figura 1) ofrece la posibilidad de incrementar el rendimiento en el maíz, mientras que la técnica de relevo en maíz (Figura 2), ofrece la posibilidad de incrementar el rendimiento en trigo. El valor NDVI fue mayor en los tratamientos con fuentes de fertilización comunes.Al fraccionar el nitrógeno el 70% a la siembra y 30% en la segunda fertilización, utilizando fuentes comunes de fertilización se mantuvo el mayor valor NDVI en las tres fechas de medición.Figura 1. Cultivo de cebada con diferentes fuentes de fertilización y fraccionamiento de nitrógeno. Ciclo OI 22-23La sobre fertilización del cultivo de cebada es una de las problemáticas actúales en la producción de este grano en la región Bajío de Guanajuato, mientras que las empresas cerveceras recomiendan 220 kg.ha −1 , la mayoría de productores aplican 260-280 kg.ha −1 , lo que ocasiona una baja calidad maltera por el alto contenido de proteína que lleva el grano. Por otro lado el adecuado fraccionamiento de nitrógeno es importante para un buen desarrollo del cultivo, por lo rápido del ciclo de la cebada.Se sembró cebada de la línea SC11126 en sistema de Agricultura de Conservación y con en el análisis de suelo y los requerimientos de la cebada se calculó la fórmula de fertilización para todo el ciclo. La fertilización se realizo en dos momentos, a la siembra y a los 38 días después de la siembra. Se eligieron dos tipos de fertilizantes y la aplicación de nitrógeno se realizo en distintos porcentajes. Se midió el valor NDVI en cada tratamiento con el aparato GreenSeeker a los 37, 51 y 66 días después de la siembra. Se realizó la preparación del suelo con arado de disco y rastra. La siembra (16/07) fue manual, la fertilización enterrada con ``macana'', 50 kg de P2O5 (DAP) y 20 kg de N (urea), para todos los cultivos, y para maíz y girasol se realizó una segunda aplicación de 50 kg de N (urea) a los 30 días, los deshierbes (5) fueron manuales. Los conejos afectaron a los cultivos de garbanzo, veza y grass pea.Isac Carlos Rivas Jacobo, nay,riv,jac@gmail.com Luis Arturo Solís Gordillo, larturo_solis@hotmail.com Sergio Espinosa Velasco, sergioev30@hotmail.com Jorge Márquez Juárez, mmarquezj@hotmail.comEl sistema de producción agrícola de la región meseta Comiteca de Chiapas se desarrolla en condiciones de temporal, los cultivos principales son maíz y frijol que se establecen bajo la modalidad de unicultivo o intercalados, cuyos esquilmos, ya sea total o parcialmente se queman, remueven de la parcela o sirve de alimento para ganado, lo que influye en la disminución de contenido de la materia orgánica del suelo y a largo plazo repercute en la disminución de la fertilidad y por ende en la productividad.Las condiciones de precipitación que se presentaron en la región en el ciclo PV 2021, afectaron negativamente el crecimiento y desarrollo de las plantas, lo que se manifestó en bajos rendimientos de grano y de biomasa. Uno de los cultivos que sobresalió en producción de biomasa seca bajo las condiciones prevalecientes fue dólicos.Isac Carlos Rivas Jacobo, 9637105967 nay.riv.jav@gmail.com Larráinzar, Chiapas, se ubica dentro de la región socioeconómica V Altos Tzotzil Tzeltal del estado de Chiapas. El clima es templado húmedo con abundantes lluvias en verano, la precipitación promedio es de 1,200 milímetros anuales. Los principales cultivos son maíz y frijol, calabaza bajo el régimen de temporal. El sistema se caracteriza por la producción de autoconsumo en laderas en su mayoría de las parcelas.Para generar alternativas sustentables al manejo convencional se instaló la plataforma de investigación Larráinzar, CHP en el ciclo PV 2018, donde se evalúa la respuesta de sistemas de producción con base en prácticas de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) y el sistema MIAF (Milpa Intercalada con Árboles Frutales), ensayo para obtener incremento a la productividad e ingresos económicos para pequeñas unidades de producción de autoconsumo.El sistema de producción MIAF con principios de agricultura de conservación (AC) a través de ensayos: densidades de siembra, arreglo topológico, ajustes a la nutrición de acuerdo a un análisis de suelo, la microrotación en franjas de doble hilera distribuida en 4 tratamientos han dado una respuesta cuál es la mejor opción para adoptar sistemas de producción que garanticen productividad e ingresos económicos en pequeñas unidades de producción quienes la adopten.Mateo Pérez Sántiz e-mail. mperezbio@hotmail.com Telcel: 9671025651Figura 1. Cosecha de frutos de durazno establecidos en sistema MIAF, 24 de Junio de 2022. Ver tabla de tratamientos. Ante la perspectiva de generar nuevos sistemas alternativos de producción que ayuden a los agricultores a mejorar la productividad de sus cultivos de manera rentable y sustentable, se estableció en la Plataforma un experimento para evaluar la respuesta del maíz a tres dosis de nitrógeno en tres sistemas de producción establecidos con leguminosas, bajo el manejo de Agricultura de Conservación vs el sistema convencional.Tabla 1. Descripción de tratamientos evaluados en la plataforma de investigación Villa Corzo, Chiapas. Ciclo P-V 2021.El ensayo se inicio en el ciclo agrícola Primavera-Verano 2016.Han sido evaluados cuatro sistemas de producción: Maíz-Frijol, Maíz-Canavalia, Maíz-Dolichos, Maíz unicultivo, y tres dosis de nitrógeno: 18, 90 y 180 kg/ha (Figura 1), dando como resultado 12 tratamientos (Tabla 1). El manejo ha sido bajo el sistema de cero labranza, dejando de cobertura el 50% de rastrojo (parcial) vs el sistema convencional (dos pasos de rastra, sin rastrojo). La fecha de siembra del maíz fue el 30 de julio y la de los cultivos de frijol, dolichos y canavalia, el 4 de septiembre, bajo el sistema de relevo al maíz. La fertilización del maíz, se realizo de manera superficial.En la Figura 2, se observa la respuesta del rendimiento del cultivo de maíz (ciclo 2021) a la siembra de las leguminosas en relevo, y tres dosis de nitrógeno (180, 90 y 18 unidades de N). Los mejores rendimientos fueron obtenidos con los sistemas donde se sembró canavalia y dolichos, los cuales obtuvieron en promedio rendimientos de 6,373 y 6,210 kg/ha, superando ampliamente al sistema convencional con la siembra en unicultivo de maíz, que obtuvo 2,865 kg/ha. Esa mejor respuesta se infiere, que ambos cultivos han tenido una mayor fijación de nitrógeno atmosférico y han aportado mayor cantidad de biomasa al suelo, lo cual ha permitido conservar y mejorar la fertilidad del suelo. Al analizar la respuesta de dosis de nitrógeno aplicadas por sistema; los mayores rendimientos fueron obtenidos con 180 kgN/ha. Sin embargo, cabe señalar; que la dosis de 90 kgN/ha, aplicada en los sistemas sembrados con leguminosas superaron en rendimiento al sistema convencional; fertilizado con 180 kg N/ha. Así mismo; es muy importante destacar, que la dosis de 18 kg N/ha aplicada en los sistemas Maíz-Canavalia y Maíz-Dolichos, tuvo muy buena respuesta; con rendimientos de 4,891 y 4,929 kg/ha de granos, superando el rendimiento alcanzado por el sistema Maíz unicultivo con 180 kg N/ha, quien obtuvo 4,104 kg/ha. Estos resultados, representan una alternativa rentable y sustentable que permite bajar la dosis de 180 kg N/ha aplicada por el productor, a 90 kg N/ha e inclusive 18 kg N/ha, sembrando Canavalia y Dolichos.Figura 2. Rendimiento de maíz al 14% hum. (kg/ha) de cuatro sistemas de producción y tres dosis de nitrógeno. Plataforma de Investigación Villa Corzo, Chiapas. P-V 2021.Responsable: Rubén de la Piedra Constantino.Correo electrónico: delapiedra78@hotmail.com  -Considerando los resultados de los cinco años de haberse establecido los sistemas: a partir del segundo año; los mayores rendimientos de maíz han sido obtenidos por los sistemas sembrados con canavalia y dolichos. -La dosis; 90 kg/ha de nitrógeno aplicada en los sistemas Maíz-Canavalia y Maíz-Dolichos, a partir del 2do. año han superado el rendimiento del Maíz unicultivo fertilizado con 180 kg N/ha. -Destaca la dosis; 18 kgN/ha aplicada en Maíz-Canavalia, a partir del 3er. año, ha superado el rendimiento alcanzado por Maíz unicultivo con dosis de 180 kg N/ha.Ocotlán, Jalisco, PV 2022.La plataforma tiene una superficie de 1.8 ha, se siembra trigo en O-I y maíz en P-V. En el P-V 2022, se implementó un experimento donde se evaluaron dos dosis de fertilización nitrogenada (100 y 75%), con y sin la aplicación de inoculantes microbianos (Glomus + Azospirillum) en un sistema de agricultura de conservación, y otro tratamiento con manejo convencional (labranza) con el 100% de la fertilización. Se sembró otro tratamiento con girasol como cultivo prometedor por su rusticidad, sus bajos costos de producción y como alternativa de rotación para el manejo plantas no deseadas.En 2017, en Ocotlán, en la Ciénega del lago de Chapala, la zona granera de Jalisco, se estableció una plataforma de investigación para aportar en la generación de soluciones a las limitantes de producción de la región. El clima es semicálido, con un promedio de precipitación de 800 a 900 mm anuales. Se trata de una zona productiva, sin embargo, la rentabilidad de los granos ha venido disminuyendo debido a los efectos del encarecimiento de los insumos agrícolas, a los bajos precios de los granos y a los del cambio climático, aunados a una creciente presión en los años recientes por el desplazamiento que ejercen cultivos como el agave y la caña de azúcar. Por ello, en la plataforma de Ocotlán, se han implementado diversos tratamientos orientados a diseñar recomendaciones que permitan a los productores, hacer un manejo agroecológico y más rentable de los agroecosistemas locales; sirviendo también, como un lugar de encuentro entre productores, de transferencia de tecnologías y de escalamiento de las mismas.• El uso de IM incrementa la eficiencia en el aprovechamiento del fertilizante, permitiendo reducir las dosis empleadas usualmente, manteniendo un rendimiento superior y similar en los tratamientos donde se utilizan IM. • No se obtuvo un beneficio significativo en los tratamientos Con LC en los tratamientos, se obtuvieron rendimientos similares, tendiendo un mayor costo de producción debido al requerimiento de maquinaria, de forma que se confirma que la Agricultura de Conservación, es un sistema rentable que permite reducir los costos de producción y mantener altos rendimientos, sobre todo con las variación en los temporales de lluvia que se han presentado en los últimos años.Correo: gabrielescobedo650@gmail.com Teléfono: 3921078382 Ubicación: Ocotlán, JaliscoEvaluación e intercambio de experiencias en la plataforma de maíz, girasol y abonos verdes en el ciclo P-V T, trigo, M, maíz AC, agricultura de Conservación, LC, labranza convencional, IM, Inoculante Microbiano, G, girasol, CPA, camas permanentes anchas Recorrido de compa con productoras y productores en el ciclo O -i• El cultivo de girasol, al ser un. cultivo de ciclo corto, tiene buena respuesta aun en temporales con menor precipitación, teniendo una mayor adaptación que los granos básicos. Los rendimientos obtenidos están sobre la media nacional, por lo que es un cultivo rentable que favorece la rotación de cultivos teniendo bajos costos de producción Ing. Fernando Antonio Urías Preciado.Jefe del Campo Experimental \"Miguel Leyson Pérez\". Asociación de Agricultores del Rio Sinaloa Poniente. AARSP Email. Fernando_campoexp@aarsp.com La plataforma esta ubicada en el municipio de Guasave, Carretera la brecha km 1.5; y tiene 12 años manejando la AC, en este tiempo se han reducido entre un 15% a un 25% los costos de producción. La diferencia en rendimiento entre el sistema convencional y AC es casi de 1 toneladas / ha. Donde a su vez se esta avanzando en la implementación de 4 y 3 riegos de auxilio donde también hay diferencia cercana a 1 ton/ha. Se Tuvo bajas temperaturas en la etapa de floración entre el 9 al 11 de Marzo del año 2022.El gran retos en los altos costos de producción y el gran riesgo de escases de agua; es en la implementación de la agricultura de conservación (AC) y además seguir trabajando en ver la afectación en la reducción de un riego al cultivo de maíz producido en Sinaloa.Ing. Fernando Antonio Urías Preciado.Tel. ( 687) 87 1 8421. Cel. (687) 107 3243. Email. Fernando_campoexp@aarsp.com Imagen 1 y 2 en el momento de la trilla de la Plataforma Guasave.Figura 2. Los costos de producción en que segmentos han aumentado en ambos sistemas de labranza y numero de riegos.  Se evaluaron los rendimientos de maíz grano de siete tratamientos, cinco de ellos basados en Agricultura de Conservación con maíz nativo e híbrido y dos niveles de rastrojo dejado sobre el suelo (50 y 100%) y dos tratamientos testigo bajo labranza convencional sin rastrojo para cada variedad respectivamente. La comparación se realizó a partir del año dos de agricultura de conservación a fin de tener un ciclo previo de rastrojo dejado sobre el suelo, así como un ciclo de rotación de cultivo. El mayor rendimiento observado durante el ciclo de cultivo PV 2022 se obtuvo bajo el sistema de Siembra directa en Camas Anchas con maíz Híbrido después de un ciclo de rotación con triticale + ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima con subsuelo y rastra (figura 2) incorporando el 50% de rastrojo de maíz de manera previa a la siembra del cultivo de rotación. Se realizó una comparación con otros ciclos de cultivo mostrándose una tendencia similar (figura 3) seguido por el sistema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) con maíz Híbrido dejando el 100% de rastrojo de este cultivo.Olvera-García, Raúl 1,* 1 Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Huichapan, División de Ingeniería en Innovación Agrícola Sustentable, Huichapan Hidalgo C.P. 42411. * Responsable de Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan, Hgo. rolvera@iteshu.edu.mxLa Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan se ubica el occidente del estado de Hidalgo, a una altitud de 2,157 m.s.n.m., su régimen de humedad es de temporal con una precipitación media anual de 518 mm. Su objetivo es evaluar la producción de maíz nativo e híbrido bajo sistemas de cultivo basados en Agricultura de Conservación vs Agricultura Convencional a fin de recomendar los sistemas más adecuados a los productores del área de influencia de la plataforma.• El sistema de siembra directa de maíz híbrido en rotación con triticale y ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima e incorporando el 50% de rastrojo de maíz es una buena alternativa para producir grano y forraje manteniendo rendimientos sostenibles. Se recomienda implementarlo haciendo roturación vertical del suelo, apegándose al principio del movimiento mínimo de este.• El sistema de Agricultura de Conservación se recomienda implementar dejando el 100% de rastrojo para obtener los mejores resultados. Dejando el 50% se han obtenido resultados similares a los del sistema convencional para el caso particular de esta plataforma.Ing. Raúl Olvera García Responsable de Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan, Hgo. Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Huichapan Teléfono: 773 105 6130 Correo: rolvera@iteshu.edu.mx, olvera38@gmail.com Figura 1. Cultivo de maíz híbrido bajo agricultura de conservación (izquierda); cultivo de triticale+ebo como rotación después de maíz (derecha).Figura 2. Resultados de rendimiento en maíz, ciclo PV 2022. Los tratamientos con las mismas letras representan rendimientos estadísticamente iguales, las barras de error representan la desviación estándar.Figura 3. Rendimientos de maíz obtenidos en cuatro ciclos agrícolas. Se observa una tendencia a obtener mayores rendimientos en el sistema de siembra directa con maíz híbrido después de un ciclo de rotación con triticale + ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima incorporando 50% de rastrojo de maíz, así como en el sistema de Agricultura de Conservación con maíz híbrido dejando 100% de rastrojo de este cultivo sobre el suelo. La plataforma de investigación tiene cinco años trabajando con AC y forma parte del nodo de innovación Pacífico Centro, y cuyo objetivo es evaluar el efecto de tipos de labranza y manejo de rastrojo sobre el suelo en el rendimiento y rentabilidad del maíz de temporal en rotación con crotalaria y soya.Las propuestas de producción en agricultura de conservación ofrecen alternativas viables y sustentables en el cultivo de maíz y soya, con mejor rentabilidad.toledo.rocio@inifap.gob.mx; rociotoag@Gmail.com.mx No se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas para grano de maíz y soya; en la prueba de comparación de medias (Tukey, 0.05) tampoco se observó agrupaciones, pero si hubo diferencias numéricas, en maíz, los tratamientos 3 y 7 mostraron los rendimientos más altos con 7.87 y 7.74 t•ha -1 (Figura 1), el primero ofrece rotación de maíz con soya, y en el segundo se integraron todas las prácticas de AC, rotación maíz-soya, dejar rastrojo en el suelo, y mínimo movimiento; así como siembra de crotalaria en OI. En la práctica del productor se obtuvo el menor rendimiento de grano de maíz. En el rendimiento de grano de soya, se observó mejor rendimiento en este ciclo, en la rotación con maíz con 4.4 t•ha -1 , en AC se obtuvo 4.3 t•ha -1 . Sin embargo, en la rentabilidad, se obtuvieron mejores resultados con las propuestas de AC (Figura 2).Figura 1. Rendimiento de grano de maíz y soya en plataforma experimental de AC en Iguala, Guerrero, PV 2022. T2: La siembra de maíz se realizará en PV y en OI, intercalado con frijol gandul de ciclo largo a hilera sencilla. T3: El maíz se siembra a doble hilera intercalado con frijol gandul de ciclo corto de igual manera a doble hilera, en PV y OI. T4: La siembra del maíz y frijol dolichos será en PV y OI rotando los cultivos entre las parcelas aguas arriba y aguas abajo. Los tratamientos 2, 3 y 4, no se queman se deja el 100% de rastrojo.Nombres y datos de autores José Moisés Rodríguez Castellanos.La región de Ocosingo juega un papel importante para el estado de Chiapas y en general para el sur de México, cuenta con la reserva ecológica de selva alta perennifolia conocida como Reserva de la biosfera de Montes Azules, pulmón para la producción de oxígeno más importante de la rivera Maya, en esta región habitan diferentes grupos de la etnia Lacandón, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Chol y Tojolabal principalmente. Sus características agroecológicas propias, facilita la producción de maíz en los ciclo P-V y O-I. El sistema de producción para la producción de alimentos es la milpa, el cual se basa en la roza, tumba y quema. El 90% de los terrenos se ubican en laderas con pendientes mayor a 20%; ocasionando erosión por las fuertes lluvias, dejando suelos con baja fertilidad el cual ocasiona que se obtengan bajos rendimientos que no son suficiente alimento para las familias.Por lo anterior la plataforma de investigación que se estableció en el rancho San José que pertenece a la comunidad San Miguel El Grande, municipio de Ocosingo, Chiapas; busca generar alternativas para fortalecer el sistema milpa; y tiene como objetivo \"Evaluar la respuesta de los sistemas de producción a través de prácticas de Agricultura de Conservación (MIAF, asociación maíz-frijol, rotación de cultivos) para incrementar la sustentabilidad y contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria\". La plataforma se diseñó con el enfoque de la milpa biodiversificada, bajo el esquema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC), y la Milpa Intercalada con árboles Frutales (MIAF) con tres bloques y cuatro tratamientos completamente al azar, cada tratamiento tiene tres repeticionesLos sistemas de producción como la AC y el MIAF, pueden ser una buena alternativa para fortalecer el sistema milpa, sobre todo para las familias de escasos recursos económicos.Los ensayos que se están evaluando nos indican que es posible mejorar la producción de alimentos, beneficiar la biodiversidad tanto en la superficial como en el subsuelo, generar ingresos, capturar de carbono y sobre todo practicar una agricultura amigable al medio ambiente general José Moisés Rodríguez Castellanos, Cel: 9632139809, correo: can.chixsc@gmail.com Milpa Biodiversificada con, maíz, cítricos, titonia Estimación de Rendimiento de maíz en la Plataforma Ocosingo, 4 años de intervención. Rendimiento de maíz en la plataforma de investigación Ocosingo, Chiapas, México. La Plataforma de Investigación es un espacio para evaluar sistemas de labranza y validar los beneficios de la agricultura de conservación como sistema resiliente a los retos del cambio climático.El sistema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) es una alternativa viable para mejorar la gestión de las arvenses en el trópico húmedo. La AC mejora los rendimientos de manera sustancial y por lo tanto la rentabilidad del cultivo del maíz.Cultivo de canavalia como alternativa de rotación Arvenses por metro cuadrado, a los 56 días después de la siembra, en diferente sistema de labranza.Rendimiento de maíz al 14% de humedad, plataforma San Juan Cotzocón, PV 2022. Las actividades de manejo fueron manuales (siembra-cosecha), se aplicó una dosis de fertilización 91-60-40-15Ca-3Mg-4Zn-1.3B, el control de arvenses fue químico y mecánico, para el manejo de plagas se realiza con un enfoque agroecológico. El híbrido empleado es SKW 510. El diseño experimental es bloques al azar con tres repeticiones, la unidad experimental es de 57.6 m².Jonatán Villa Alcántara Correo electrónico: upapc080430kw6@hotmail.com; jonatan1000@hotmail.com Celular: 287 105 0249 La investigación se realizó en la parcela ejidal de Miguel Hidalgo municipio de Venustiano Carranza, en las coordenadas 16°20´43.54´´ LN, 92°36´13.36´´ LW a 597 msnm. El área de investigación consistió en 7 tratamientos distribuidos en bloques completos al azar, la siembra se realizó el 19 de agosto del 2022 con el genotipo hibrido amarillo Impacto, en los tratamientos 1 y 2 la siembra fue de forma manual con una densidad de 62,500 semillas por hectárea, para los tratamientos del 3 al 7 la siembra se realizó de forma mecanizada con una densidad de 70,000 semillas por ha. Los datos a colectar fueron: fecha de emergencia, fecha de floración, fecha de madurez fisiológica, rendimiento de grano y de biomasa, altura de la planta, peso de 200 granos y densidad de plantas con mazorca.Autor; Ing. Juan Diego López Durante lopez.durante73@gmail.com Tel celular 961 357 0882El cultivo del maíz en la región centro del estado de Chiapas, es de importancia económica y social. En el pasado 2019 los precios de garantía que ofreció SEGALMEX, permitió que muchos productores se interesarán en retomar las siembras de maíz, pero es necesario retomar el tema de una producción rentable con tecnologías sustentables.Ing. Juan Diego López Durante. lopez.durante73@gmail.com Teléfono celular 961 357 0882Figura 1. Visita del Dr. Simón Fonteyne a la Plataforma Venustiano Carranza.En el ciclo PV 2022 había diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos para la variable rendimiento, con un nivel de significancia del 0.05 % realizado con la prueba media de Tukey, el mejor resultado fue MM,LC,D,F2 con 5.05 ton/ha, con respecto a los demás que tienen la media de rendimiento de 3 ton una media general de 3.8 y un coeficiente de variación de 0.15%, como se observa en la figura 2, el tratamiento con menor rendimiento fue el testigo MM,LC,R,F1 con 3.02 ton/ha, pero este rendimiento es mayor a la media reportada para el municipio de Venustiano Carranza que es de 2.9 ton/ha, según el SIAP 2021. Los tratamientos con el mejor rendimiento y rentabilidad fueron aquellos que tienen en común el sistema de cero labranza y cultivando sobre el rastrojo del cultivo anterior, independientemente de la Rotación de cultivo. En este ciclo de evaluación, se confirma lo que se ha observado a través del tiempo: que el sistema de labranza mínima (testigo de referencia del productor) es el tratamiento que registra la menor rentabilidad económica para el cultivo de maíz.Plataforma de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) en Zacatepec, Morelos.La Plataforma tecnológica INIFAP-MasAgro está ubicada en la región agroecológica de trópico seco del estado de Morelos, a una altitud de 917 m, dentro del INIFAP-Campo Experimental \"Zacatepec\". En esta zona, bajo condiciones de temporal, se cultiva una superficie de 18000 ha de maíz, con rendimiento medio de 3.2 ton/ha y 25000 ha de sorgo con rendimiento medio de 4.2 ton/ha. Esta Plataforma de investigación tiene la finalidad de determinar la mejor interacción entre Sistemas de Labranza, Manejos de rastrojo y Rotación entre cultivos de Maíz, Sorgo y Amaranto (antes Cacahuate), mediante la evaluación del rendimiento y rentabilidad de los tratamientos (interacciones).El sistema de Rotación de cultivos Maíz-Maíz, Maíz-Sorgo y Maíz-Cacahuate (Amaranto) se realizó año con año hasta el ciclo 2019 (año-8). En los últimos tres años se han evaluado las interacciones que se muestran en el cuadro de tratamientos; es decir, monocultivos. Las diferencias en rendimiento de maíz, observadas en este ciclo 2022 (año-11), son debido al sistema de labranza, manejo de rastrojo y al \"efecto residual\" de las anteriores rotaciones. Con los tratamientos 2, 6 y 10 se obtuvo el mayor rendimiento y rentabilidad, rebasando las 7 ton/ha y una Relación Beneficio/Costo de 1.75, en promedio; estos tratamientos involucran cultivar con el sistema de cero labranza y sobre rastrojo del cultivo anterior. Considerando solo el manejo de rastrojo, dentro del sistema de cero labranza, el mayor rendimiento y rentabilidad se obtuvo al Dejar el rastrojo, en comparación con Removerlo, con valores de 7.099 ton/ha y Rel. B/C de 1.72. Los tratamientos testigo de referencia del productor, que implican el sistema de labranza mínima, presentaron la menor Relación beneficio/Costo (rentabilidad).Plataforma de Investigación de Agricultura Sustentable. Ahome, Sinaloa. Ciclo OI 21-22.Los ensayos evaluados fueron los siguientes: Labranza conservación vs. Labranza convencional, Programa de riego en tiempo real (Irrimodel en base a GDD, etapa, textura de suelo), Liberación de Controladores Biológicos de Plagas (Trichogramma pretiosum, Crisoperla carnea y Coleomegilla maculata), Fertilización nitrogenada (franja rica), comparada (monitoreo óptico con Green Seeker), fertilización (Análisis de suelo).La Plataforma a través de varios ciclos agrícolas ha demostrado las ventajas del manejo sustentable en el cultivo de maíz, a través de la agricultura de conservación y la reducción de costos sin sacrificar productividad, aplicando un manejo eficiente y racional de insumos y tecnologías que además buscan cuidar el medio ambiente.Ing. Diego de Jesús Herrera Eguino. AARFS A.C. Responsable Plataforma de Investigación Celular: (668)1 11 77 79 Correo: investigación1@aarfs.org  La Plataforma de Investigación de Ahome, tiene diez años trabajando en colaboración con CIMMYT, teniendo como objetivo el desarrollar, validar y promover sistemas sustentables con base en Agricultura de Conservación, con la finalidad de mejorar la productividad, sustentabilidad y rentabilidad a través de un buen manejo del suelo, agua y de los recursos naturales. En el comparativo por tipo de labranza se obtuvo un rendimiento de 18.49 ton/ha en labranza convencional y 18.01 ton /ha en labranza de conservación, marcando una diferencia de 480 kg/ha a favor de la primera.Aunque se observa una mayor producción en la labranza convencional, la mayor rentabilidad la obtenemos en la labranza de conservación, por el ahorro en costos en la preparación del suelo principalmente y un rendimiento muy similar. Fig. 1.En el tratamiento de agricultura de conservación dicho costo ascendió a $42,927 pesos/ha., en comparación al costo del tratamiento en agricultura convencional que fue de $46,370 pesos/ha, lo que significa una diferencia de 3,443 pesos/ha. Fig. 2. Tratamiento 2.-Todos los residuos se dejan sobre la superficie y descansa la parcela hasta que se vuelve a sembrar maíz en el ciclo PV. Las arvenses crecen en el otoño-invierno (OI), dejándolas florear pero desvarando o aplicando herbicida para que no incremente el banco de semillas. Este es un tratamiento con monocultivo de maíz, sobre camas permanentes y con residuos sobre la superficie (MM + CP + Con Res.). Tratamiento 3.-Antes de la siembra del ciclo PV realizamos la labranza (barbecho, rastreo y surcado), antes de que haya lluvias, para minimizar erosión del suelo, por lo que lo consideramos una \"labranza inteligente\". Este tratamiento no tiene rotación de cultivo (MM), sí una labranza Inteligente (Lab. Intel.) y se dejan los residuos del maíz sobre la superficie desde la cosecha hasta antes de iniciar el ciclo PV, (MM + Lab. Intel. + Con Res.). Tratamiento 4.-En este tratamiento consideramos que la mezcla de cultivos y arvenses naturales dan una rotación al cultivo de maíz. Ya cuando la mezcla de cultivos y las arvenses logran crecer y producir flores procedemos a controlarlas para que no semillen por lo que son \"chaponeadas = desvaradas\" y sus residuos incorporados junto con los residuos del maíz. Antes del nuevo cultivo de maíz y antes de la lluvia procedemos realizar una labranza mínima para evitar erosión del suelo (Barbecho, rastreo y surcado). Este tratamiento es expresado como: (Rot. + Lab. Intel. + Con Res.). En este 2022 se sembró maíz en una mitad del tratamiento y para el próximo rotaremos con Dolichus. Tratamiento 5.-El valor agroecológico de esta mezcla de cultivos y arvenses naturales ayudan a el sistema. Cuando llega nuevamente el ciclo PV se siembra directamente el maíz sobre la misma cama reformada. Aquí en este tratamiento tenemos una rotación Intensiva (Rot.) de maíz y mezcla de cultivos. La siembra tanto del maíz y la mezcla de cultivos se realizan sin labranza, sobre la misma cama (CP) y los residuos se dejan sobre la superficie (Con Res.). Su manejo se resume en: (Rot. +CP+ Con Res). En este 2022 se sembró maíz en una mitad del tratamiento y para el próximo 2023 rotaremos con Dolichus que se sembró en la otra mitad.La plataforma se ubica en el Campo experimental del CIMMYT en Tlaltizapán, Morelos y lleva 12 años derivando enseñanzas sobre maíz bajo temporal y tratamientos de labranza para tomar decisiones que ayuden aumentar el rendimiento y mejorar la utilidad de los sistemas en la zona. Esta información esta disponible para los agricultores, investigadores, autoridades gubernamentales, universidades y todos los interesados a través de seminarios en plataformas digitales del estado de Morelos y con visitas a la plataforma. En el ciclo PV 2022 la canícula fue más pronunciada que otros años y hubo exceso de humedad después de la sequía, además se padeció el incremento de fertilizantes por lo que la implementación de prácticas de agricultura de conservación y siembra de dolichos son una alternativa evaluada para incrementar el rendimiento y mejorar la utilidad de los sistemas de producción.1.-Las camas permanentes (tratamientos 2 y 5) respondieron muy bien ante la sequía durante la etapa de crecimiento del cultivo respecto a los tratamientos de labranza. En este ciclo, que fue quizá el de mayor sequía, las camas permanentes rindieron casi el doble respecto a los tratamientos de labranza en rendimiento de grano (muy similar en biomasa). La relación beneficio costo fue de 1.4 en ambos tratamientos de camas permanentes (2 y 5) y donde hubo labranza (1,3 y 4) no se alcanza a recuperar la inversión siendo de 0.74, 0.63 y 0.56 respectivamente.2.-El ataque a la raíz por plagas como el gusano alambre fue mucho mayor en los tratamientos de labranza que en los de camas permanentes afectando más el rendimiento en los tratamientos de labranza. En cuanto a pudrición de mazorca no hubo diferencia significativa entre tratamientos.3.-Tenemos en Tlaltizapán, Morelos dos barreras que determinan los rendimientos, uno es la sequía y el otro es el exceso de humedad en parte de agosto y todo el mes de septiembre. Con AC (camas permanentes y residuos) podemos hacer frente a la sequía pero requerimos estrategias adicionales para hacer frente al exceso de humedad.Oscar Bañuelos O.banuelos@cgiar.org Jessica González, J.GONZALEZ@cgiar.org Simon Fonteyne S.FONTEYNE@cgiar.org; Maíz de temporal en labranza mínima (lado izquierdo) y camas permanentes angostas (lado derecho) en ciclo PV 2022 en Tlaltizapán, Morelos.Rendimiento de grano al 14% de humedad de los diferentes tratamientos de la plataforma de CIMMYT-Tlaltizapán, Morelos, ciclo PV 2022 en Tlaltizapán, Morelos. Distribución de lluvias un mes antes de la siembra y después de la siembra en periodos de 10 días en PV 2020 Las tipologías identificadas resaltan los siguientes aspectos que deberían abordarse en el futuro: i) Implementación de un sistema de asesoramiento climático para la optimización de las fechas de siembra (para las tipologías I y III) y/o reducción del efecto de las heladas (para la tipología II); ii) Mayor acceso a la información de mercado para orientar la producción de patatas en función de la demanda (para las tipologías I y II); iii) Mejorar los sistemas de semillas para permitir el acceso a una mayor diversidad de variedades de patatas utilizando semillas limpias (para las tipologías I y II).  • Campaña principal (octubre-febrero), • Parcelas medianas (entre 0.5-1ha) y grandes (>1ha),• Basado en condiciones climáticas • Variedades communes (Peruanita, \"Embrosada\"),• Semillas propias.• Campaña secundaria (mayo-agosto),• Parcelas pequeñas (0.5 ha), • Basado en demanda del mercado • Variedades communes (Peruanita, \"Embrosada\"),• Semillas propias.En los Andes, la agricultura familiar es de gran importancia para el suministro local de alimentos y la seguridad y soberanía alimentaria. Caracterizar la diversidad de estos pequeños agricultores es clave para priorizar intervenciones, estrategias y políticas de desarrollo. La agricultura en el Valle del Mezquital es una actividad preponderante y se basa en la agricultura convencional donde se utiliza una cantidad excesiva de maquinaria debido a la escasez de mano de obra en la región, lo que ha provocado la compactación de los suelos y el incremento en sus costos de producción por hectárea cultivada. El riego es por inundación con utilización de aguas residuales provenientes del Valle de México por lo que se unen efectos adversos asociados a un manejo inadecuado de los recursos naturales, por tal motivo es necesario incorporar tecnologías derivadas de la investigación que permita generar una agricultura sustentable: mantener o incrementar el rendimiento, generar el bienestar en la región y conservar los recursos naturales.La plataforma está conformada por 6 tratamientos con dos replicas distribuidas al azar y un área de componentes donde se evalúa el efecto de la rotación de los cultivos, la práctica de labranza y el manejo del rastrojo (Tabla 1),. Para la toma de las variables de rendimiento y biomasa, se utiliza como referencia el manual dedeterminación de rendimiento del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT, 2012).Nellybeth Rodríguez Martínez Julio Cesar Nieto Aquino Universidad Politécnica de Francisco I. MaderoLa implementación de la labranza de conservación es una práctica agrícola que permite incrementar y mantener el rendimiento del maíz. Dejar los cultivos de cobertura sobre el suelo permite que año con año el rendimiento se mantenga Nellybeth Rodríguez Martínez1Correo: nrodriguez@upfim.edu.mxCorreo: jnieto@upfim.edu.mx El municipio de Molcaxac, Puebla se caracteriza por practicar la agricultura convencional bajo condiciones preponderantemente de temporal en suelos calcáreos, someros y con alto índice de degradación, obteniendo bajos rendimientos así como la constante degradación del suelo; por lo que es necesario promover sistemas de producción sustentables y resilientes que ayuden a revertir este proceso.La Plataforma de Investigación se ubica en el CBTA No. 305 Molcaxac, Puebla en 18°43´33.17\" N y 97°55´40.22\" W a 1838 msnm. El experimento se desarrolló bajo condiciones de temporal durante el ciclo PV 2021 con los tratamientos indicados en la figura 2. Las densidades de siembra fueron: en maíz 55 plantas ha -1 utilizando una variedad nativa y el híbrido MX305, en frijol 60,000 plantas ha -1 con la variedad criollo negro y en avena/evo 150 Kg de semilla ha -1 en una proporción 75:25 respectivamente. La fertilización química se aplicó con la fórmula 69-00-00 y la orgánica mediante la incorporación de 1,500 Kg ha -1 de estiércol caprino. Se utilizó un diseño experimental de bloques completamente al azar con dos repeticiones y se aplicó la prueba de comparación de medias de Tukey con α ≤ 0.05.Raúl Torres Flores, CBTA No. 305. Arturo Nieves Navarro, CBTA No. 305.Las tecnologías de la agricultura de conservación permiten mejorar los rendimientos y hacer frente a los efectos del cambio climático en la producción de maíz.Cel: 2241030744 Email: maiztorres@hotmail.com A pesar de las condiciones climáticas adversas, los tratamientos bajo agricultura de conservación mostraron los mejores resultados pero el T4 bajo agricultura de conservación, cobertura del suelo con rastrojo y rotación con frijol mostró el rendimiento de maíz más alto en comparación con el T6 bajo labranza convencional en monocultivo. Cultivo de trigo en cero labranza rotación maíz, con retención de rastrojo en superficie.","tokenCount":"13726"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d17b1d5b843ba26c630ab3e2b8e94fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f81047a-c5e1-41b4-9039-ebf77ee1d094/retrieve","id":"-1743747704"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6bc3abf3-b9b4-4092-b2f7-9a6bfd7f6a1f","pagecount":"2","content":"Description of the innovation: The Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), in collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), have already developed and promoted five Sub1 rice varieties, BRRI dhan51, BRRI dhan52, BRRI dhan79, BINA Dhan 11, and BINA Dhan 12, which are suitable for farming in the Aman season (July-November). The main attribute of Sub1 rice varieties is that they can survive at least 7-14 days under water. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds) Stage of innovation: Stage 4: uptake by next user (USE) Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: 1 Country(ies): • Bangladesh Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: This study examines the adoption of submergence-tolerant (Sub1)rice varieties, grown in the Aman season in northwest Bangladesh, using data obtained from more than 1,100 farm households. The predicted probability of adopting Sub1 varieties is about 0.40, implying that 40% of the sampled farm households adopted Sub1 rice varieties.","tokenCount":"166"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5ad9ee381bd90fb257fb10cbeb03e979","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6f1b9435-d98f-477c-ba12-db23924b0dcd/content","id":"-810586394"},"keywords":["Jean-Marcel Ribaut","Generation Challenge Programme","Mexico multi-environment trials","augmented experimental designs","genotype × environment interaction","quantitative trait loci (QTL)"],"sieverID":"f9e59e7c-c05f-4e1f-9903-d435380ee16d","pagecount":"8","content":"Crop breeding programs using conventional approaches, as well as new biotechnological tools, rely heavily on data resulting from the evaluation of genotypes in different environmental conditions (agronomic practices, locations, and years). Statistical methods used for designing field and laboratory trials and for analyzing the data originating from those trials need to be accurate and efficient. The statistical analysis of multi-environment trails (MET) is useful for assessing genotype × environment interaction (GEI), mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs), and studying QTL × environment interaction (QEI). Large populations are required for scientific study of QEI, and for determining the association between molecular markers and quantitative trait variability. Therefore, appropriate control of local variability through efficient experimental design is of key importance. In this chapter we present and explain several classes of augmented designs useful for achieving control of variability and assessing genotype effects in a practical and efficient manner. A popular procedure for unreplicated designs is the one known as \"systematically spaced checks.\" Augmented designs contain \"c\" check or standard treatments replicated \"r \" times, and \"n\" new treatments or genotypes included once (usually) in the experiment.Conventional breeding will continue to make significant contributions to efforts to maintain the rate of crop improvement for food production and nutrition in order to meet the increase in human population growth. However, biotechnological methods, such as linkage analysis for detecting quantitative trait loci (QTLs), marker-assisted selection (MAS), association mapping, genomic selection, etc., will also be required. It is of paramount importance that the statistical methods used for designing field and laboratory trials and for analysing the data originating from those trials be accurate and efficient.Crop breeding programs using conventional approaches, as well as new biotechnological tools, rely heavily on data resulting from the evaluation of genotypes in different environmental conditions (agronomic practices, locations, and years). The incidence of genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI) is a consequence of QTL-by-environment interaction (QEI) and marker effect-byenvironment interaction, and this affects conventional breeding as well as MAS and genomic selection breeding strategies. The series of field trials known as multi-environment trials (METs) are vital for: (i) studying the incidence of GEI and assessing the stability of quantitative traits; (ii) mapping QTL and QEI; and (iii) finding associations among molecular markers and quantitative trait variation based on linkage disequilibrium analysis. To detect and quantify the presence of QEI is of vital importance for understanding the genetic architecture of quantitative traits.All biotechnological methods are based on molecular marker data and phenotypic data. Phenotypic data are vitally important for assessment of the within-environment error structure for each of the trials that will be used later in the MET analysis. The MET statistical analysis is useful for assessing GEI, mapping QTLs, and studying QEI. Large populations are required for scientific study of QEI, and for determining the association between molecular markers and quantitative trait variability. Therefore, appropriate control of local variability through efficient experimental design is of key importance.Spatial variability in the field is a universal phenomenon that affects the detection of differences among treatments in agricultural experiments by inflating the estimated experimental error variance. Researchers wishing to conduct field trials are faced with this dilemma. They tackle the problem by using an appropriate statistical design and layout for the experiment, and by using suitable methods for statistical analysis. A priori control of local variability in each testing environment is usually determined from the experimental design used to accommodate the genotypes to the experimental units. However, a posteriori control of the residual effect based on a model that provides a good fit to the data can effectively complement the control of local variability provided by the experimental design (see e.g., Federer, 2003a). Recently, efficient experimental designs (both unreplicated and replicated) have been developed, assuming that observations are not independent in that contiguous plots in the field may be spatially correlated (Martin et al., 2004;Cullis et al., 2006).Commonly, field trials used for linkage analyses or association mapping analyses are of 200 or more genotypes in size. These may consist of individuals from segregating F 2 and F 3 populations, recombined inbred lines (RILs), accessions from a genebank, advanced breeding cultivars, or individuals from any segregating population. Usually, QTL mapping is done on large numbers (500 or more) in as many locations or conditions as possible, for estimating QEI and examining the stable or unstable part of the chromosome that influences the trait under study. Thus, seed availability and land and labor costs are crucial factors to be considered when establishing METs for QTL and QEI analyses, and association mapping.The class of augmented designs is especially useful for achieving control of variability and assessing genotype effects in a practical and efficient manner. In the early stages of a breeding program, a plant breeder is faced with evaluating the performance of large numbers of genotypes. Frequently, the seed supply is limited, but even if it is not, the large number of genotypes can necessitate using a single experimental unit per genotype.A popular procedure for unreplicated designs is the one known as \"systematically spaced checks.\" In this procedure, a standard check genotype is systematically spaced every certain number of experimental units. Several statistical procedures have been devised over the years to compare the yield of a new genotype with the standard variety. This procedure can require an inordinate amount of space, labor, and other resources devoted to check plots of a single standard genotype. Yates (1936) has shown that the number of check plots should be of the order of the square root of the number of (new genotype) test plots. In conducting METs, Sprague and Federer (1951) have shown that a cost-efficient procedure for maximizing genetic advancement involves using two replicates at each location for single crosses of maize, three replicates for top crosses, and four replicates for double crosses.A third class of procedure used in the screening of genotypes for yield and other characteristics is that of \"augmented experimental designs.\" These designs contain c check or standard treatments replicated r times, and n new treatments or genotypes included once (usually) in the experiment. Some of the c checks could be promising new genotypes (treatments) in the final stages of testing. Any standard experimental design may be used for the check treatments and then the block sizes or the number of rows and columns are increased to accommodate the new treatments. This class of design has several desirable qualities, including the following:1. The number of checks can be any kind and number c. 2. The number of new entries can be any number n. 3. The new treatments can be considered as random or as fixed effects. 4. Survivors in the final stages of screening may be used as checks along with some standard checks. The dual use of these genotypes as checks and as their final evaluation is an efficient use of resources. 5. Some of the designs in this class allow for screening when other factors are present, thereby revealing genotype-by-factor interactions.6. Non-contenders can be discarded prior to harvest, since they do not affect computation of blocking effects and variances.Various augmented experimental designs are discussed in the following sections. These are augmented block (Federer, 1956(Federer, , 1961)), augmented row-column (Federer and Raghavarao, 1975;Federer et al., 1975), augmented resolvable row-column (Federer, 2002), augmented split plot (Federer, 2005b), and augmented split block (Federer, 2005a).When the field layout is in a row-column formation, either for the entire experiment or within each complete block, an experimental design can be developed that controls variability in two directions for any number of genotypes and replicates. The rowcolumn experimental designs have two block components, i.e., blocks in rows and blocks in columns. When the entire experiment is laid out in a row-column arrangement, the \"latinised\" designs assure that entries do not occur more than once in a row or a column of the experiment. Also, neighbor restricted designs restrict randomization of entries in such a way that certain groups of entries do not occur together, so that genotypic interference due to different maturity or plant height can be avoided.Analysis of designed, spatially laid out experiments needs to take account of the design restrictions encountered. The actual spatial variation that occurs during the course of conducting field experiments may not be taken into account in the experimental design or in the standard statistical analysis selected before the experiment was conducted. Hence, to achieve appropriate statistical analysis for the data obtained from the experiment, it is necessary to determine the type and nature of the spatial variation present in the experiment. This often means selecting from a family of plausible statistical analyses. Federer (2003a) presented a number of methods useful for \"exploratory model selection,\" to account for the variation that is present in the results of an experiment rather than what the variation pattern was expected to be. He used various forms of trend analysis on a variety of examples to determine the model that explained the variation present in each experiment. Several publications have been written using various forms of trend analysis for a variety of situations (Wolfinger et al., 1997;Federer, 2002Federer, , 2003a,b;,b;Federer and Wolfinger, 2003).Augmented block experimental designs fall into two categories, complete blocks and incomplete blocks for the check genotypes or treatments. A randomized complete block design (RCBD), with r replicates or blocks, is used for the c check genotypes to start the construction of an augmented randomized block. Then, the r blocks are expanded to include the c checks plus n/r new genotypes in each block. If n is not a multiple of r, then fewer or more new genotypes would appear in some of the blocks. The c checks and n/r new genotypes are randomly allotted to the experimental units (plots) in each block. Genotype numbers are randomly assigned to the new genotypes, but this is not necessary in the early stages of screening since each new genotype is a random event in itself.To illustrate an augmented RCBD, let c = 3 checks, r = 4 blocks, and n = 13 new genotypes. A plan is:A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for this design is:Total 25Correction for mean 1Block, B 3Genotype 15Check 2 New 12Check versus new 1In the first stage of screening, there may be a very large number of new genotypes with n of 8,000, 30,000, or even over 100,000. In these cases, the block size may become larger than is considered necessary to retain relative homogeneity within each block. The class of experimental designs known as an \"incomplete block design\" (ICBD) can then be used. The incomplete blocks of an ICBD may be in complete blocks, resolvable, or they may not. An appropriate ICBD for c checks, r replicates of the checks, incomplete blocks of size k, s incomplete blocks within a complete block, and b incomplete blocks is selected for the check genotypes. Then the b incomplete block sizes are increased to include n/b new genotypes in each incomplete block. To illustrate, let c = 15 checks arranged in r = 5 replicates and b = rs = 25 incomplete blocks of size k = 3. Let n = 300 new genotypes, and then n/b = 300/25 = 12. By enlarging the 25 incomplete blocks from k = 3 to k = 15 to accommodate 3 + 12 = 15 experimental units, the 300 new genotypes can be put into these 25 incomplete blocks. The 12 new genotypes and the three checks are randomly allotted to the 15 experimental units in each of the 25 incomplete blocks. The blocks of genotypes are randomly allotted to the incomplete blocks in the field layout. The 15 check genotypes may, for example, be two standard genotypes and 13 promising and surviving new genotypes from previous screening cycles.A randomized form of an ICBD may be obtained from a software toolkit such as Gendex (2009). Using the parameters k = c + n/b = 15, v = c + n/r = 75, and r = 5, a randomized form of an ICBD is obtained. Then the n/r numbers for v that appear in an incomplete block are replaced by genotype numbers to accommodate the n = 300 new genotypes, but retaining k of the check treatments in each incomplete block according to the plan for checks only.A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an ANOVA table for the above example is: When the new genotypes are unreplicated, they do not contribute to the estimation of the block and error variances and the estimation of the block effects (Federer and Raghavarao, 1975). Only the replicated check treatments do this. Computer codes for analysing the results from augmented block designs have been given by Wolfinger et al. (1997) andFederer (2003a).A typical QTL experiment in maize consists of F 2 plants obtained from the cross of two maize inbred lines referred to as parent 1 (P 1 ) and parent 2 (P 2 ). Subsequently, the F 2 plants can be selfed to produce, say, 900 independent F 5 lines. These 900 new entries (RILs) will be genotyped with molecular markers and genetic data, and the respective phenotypic data will be used for QTL and QEI mapping. These lines may be crossed to an inbred tester from an opposite heterotic group to obtain testcross seeds. The check entries may include the parents P 1 and P 2 , the F 1 from the cross P 1 × P 2 and two other checks (check 1 and check 2 ) the breeder wishes to include. One possible augmented complete block design (CBD) may consist of 20 blocks of size 45 augmented by P 1 , P 2 , F 1 , and check 1 and check 2 . Thus, the block size comprises a total of 50 entries (45 new entries comprising testcross F 5 lines and five other entries that will be repeated in every block). The same or a different group of test lines in the incomplete block can be used in all the sites where the experiment is planted, but with different randomization of the incomplete blocks. In this case, the augmented RCBD has c = 5 checks (P 1 , P 2 , F 1 check 1 and check 2 ), r = 20 blocks, and n = 900 new genotypes. A possible plan is: The distribution of the repeated checks in the field should avoid, as much as possible, appearance of the same replicated check more than once in the same row or column. This latinised augmented CBD may help to reduce bias due to unexpected soil trends running across columns or rows.A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an ANOVA table for this design in each site is: This example supposes that 200 diverse bread wheat accessions from a genebank are to be used for an association mapping study. The accessions will be used to examine the possible relationship between various phenotypic traits (such as grain yield, resistance to leaf and yellow rust, bread making quality, protein content, etc.) and the molecular markers located along the seven chromosomes of the three genomes of wheat (A, B, and D). Ten sites with contrasting environmental conditions would be used to allow good discrimination of the 200 accessions. Differential environmental conditions must be used in order to obtain a good discrimination for resistance to different potential rust pathogens as well as for the other traits.It The ANOVA table of the combined analysis across ten environments is: A randomization plan would be obtained for the Latin square and then the 11 entries in each row-column intersection would be randomly allotted to the 11 experimental units in each intersection. The new genotypes are randomly assigned to the numbers 1-250. A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an ANOVA table is: An alternative row-column plan would be to set up a 25 row by 15 column rectangle as shown below.If the variation in rows and in columns can be explained by linear, quadratic, and perhaps cubic tends and their interactions, then two checks would have been sufficient to obtain row and column solutions to adjust the new treatments, and 325 new treatments could have been included. An equal number of rows and columns results in the minimum number of check genotypes. For example, using a 20 × 20 square, 40 plots could be allocated to two check genotypes and 360 to new genotypes. There still would be more than 20 degrees of freedom associated with the error mean square. Another scenario supposes that one standard check genotype and four promising new genotypes in the final stage of evaluation are used. Utilizing new genotypes in their final stage of testing allows dual use of the results and efficient experimentation, eliminating the inclusion of too many check plots.A randomization plan would involve randomly allocating the rows and columns in the above plan to the rows and columns in the experimental area, randomly assigning the letters A-E to the checks, and randomly allotting the numbers 1-250 to the new genotypes. A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an ANOVA  Federer et al. (1975) discuss a number of other arrangements including one used by Dr. A. Mangelsdorf. The Mangelsdorf design has a nice balanced property and was used for METs.The first plan given above within this section is rowcolumn-check connected in that solutions are obtainable for all effects. The plan immediately above is row-check connected and column-check connected but is not row-column-check connected. This means that functions of the column effects, such as linear, quadratic, cubic, etc., regressions are used in the analysis of such designs. In order to have a plan that is row-column-check connected, two of the transversals of the square or rectangle need to be adjacent to each other, a feature that an experimenter may consider as undesirable. Computer codes illustrating this type of analysis are given by Federer (2003b), Federer and Wolfinger (2003), and Wolfinger et al. (1997).Experimental designs such as a lattice square or a lattice rectangle may be used to construct augmented lattice square and augmented lattice rectangle plans (Federer, 2002(Federer, , 2003b)). For such plans, row blocking and column blocking are included in each complete block, thus making the design resolvable. Since the proportion of experimental units in relation to the number of checks is less in an augmented lattice square, this is the plan that will be illustrated. There are k × k experimental units in each complete block, and 2k, 3k, etc., check genotypes may be used. To construct such a plan, a lattice square plan is obtained first for v = k 2 treatments. The complete blocks where treatments 1 to k and k + 1 to 2k appear together in a row or in a column are deleted. For 2k check genotypes, treatments 2k + 1, 2k + 2, . . ., k 2 are deleted in each of the r blocks. The rk (k -2) new treatments are inserted into the deleted treatment spaces of the lattice square. To illustrate, with k = 7 and r = 7, a plan would be as shown at the bottom of the page. The symbol × indicates where one of the rk (k -2) = 245 new genotypes would be entered. Row linear and quadratic effects and column linear and quadratic effects can be estimated (Federer, 2002). Checks 1-7 appear once with checks 8-14 in rows and in columns, but do not appear with each other. The diagonal elements need not be adjacent, as illustrated below.A partitioning of the degrees of freedom in an ANOVA is:Total 343Correction for the mean 1Genotype 258Check 13New 244Check versus new 1Check × block 78Row linear within block 7Column linear within block 7Row linear × column linear within block 7Row quadratic within block 7Column quadratic within block 7Row quadratic × column quadratic within block 7Row cubic within block 7Column cubic within block 7To screen 30,000 new genotypes, k would be 33 and k = r = 33 replicates would be required. As stated earlier, the 2k = 66 checks could consist of two standard checks plus 64 new genotypes in their final stage of testing.As an alternative design in this class, the checks could be in a lattice square experimental design. Then, each of the row-column intersections within each complete block could be enlarged to include the desired number of new genotypes.In order to compare the effect of environments and management procedures on new genotypes, the class of augmented split plot experimental designs has been proposed by Federer (2005b). The effects of factors such as tillage, fertilizers, insecticides, irrigation, planting density, date of planting, etc on new genotypes could be assessed. The effect of the date of planting is often confused with site-to-site effects. The new genotypes to be assessed may appear in split plot treatments or in whole plot treatments. New genotypes can be tested for several factors at a time by using split split plot, split split split plot, etc augmented designs. These designs allow for genotype-by-factor interactions and GEI, and are useful, especially in the final stages of screening genotypes. A schematic plan of a design is shown below for four whole plots, such as tillage practices, three checks (20, 21, and 22), and 19 new genotypes such as the 7 or 8 split plot treatments, and r = 4 blocks or replicates of check genotypes.There are seven split plot treatments in Block 4 and eight in the other three blocks. The checks are given the highest numbers because SAS software subtracts the highest numbered effect from all the others for the estimated effects, and gives a standard error of a difference between an estimated effect of a genotype and the highest numbered one, rather than a standard error of an effect as indicated. It is usually more desirable to compare all new genotypes with a check, rather than compare all entries with a new genotype. The usual randomization procedure for a split plot experimental design would be used.Replicate 2 Replicate 3 Replicate 4Replicate 5 Replicate 6 Replicate 7 Codes for analysing data for this design and others in this class are given by Federer (2005b). In the early stages of a plant breeding program, expected genetic gains may be increased by screening a large number of genotypes in contrast to having more precise comparisons of a fewer number of genotypes. This makes it necessary to evaluate many entries where there may not be sufficient seed to replicate each. For this reason Federer proposed augmented designs where a set of check entries are replicated an equal (or unequal) number of times in a specified field design and an additional set of new test entries are included in the experiment only once. In this review we show different type of augmented complete and ICBD for the check treatments with the test entries being added or \"augmented\" to the blocks. This approach provides a very efficient means of screening test entries and has a considerable amount of flexibility. Augmented ICBD might be preferred over augmented CBD when the number of repeated checks is large. When soil variability runs in two directions augmented row-column designs should be a good alternative, and when the experiment is \"latinized\" so that entries do not occur more than once in a row or column, then the efficiency of increasing precision increases. The augmented incomplete block or/and the row-column designs can be used for association mapping and/or genomic selection where a large number of entries (usually more than 1000) are needed but cannot be planted in all possible environments. The advantages of using these augmented designs is when the soil heterogeneity increases due to limiting factors as low water, and nitrogen availability in the field.There are many variations of split plot and split block experimental designs. Federer and King (2007) discuss several of these variations as well as combinations of the designs. Experimenters may find some of these variations suitable for augmenting with new genotypes that will fit the conditions for their experiment. Such designs as given in the last two sections above allow the experimenter to obtain interactions of new genotypes with a variety of factors. Instead of a single factor, a factorial combination of several factors could be used. For example, instead of date only, a factorial arrangement of date, fertilizer level, and insecticide could be used. Considerable flexibility is possible through the use of augmented experimental designs.When it is advisable to use an augmented design, it may be used at several sites. For example, the Manglesdorf design presented by Federer et al. (1975) was used at several sites in Brazil. Methods for combining results over sites have been described by Federer et al. (2001), and they even allow for different designs at the different sites.","tokenCount":"4120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe3b226fcf5aa4c29b0e355ab0a34380","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f6800e1e-775a-4abc-8898-082626539b46/retrieve","id":"-284059278"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"42438183-2973-4d3e-a254-b75ef1aa8487","pagecount":"9","content":"Swee/-Po/ato Variety Selee/ion in Garu/, West Java, indonesia Pipombi (WO 1 098) was chosen with eight flags because the size is uniform, il has smooth skin color, and it can be sold fresh. Farmer Eneek will be responsible for multiplying Ihis sweet pOlato as a souree of planting material.The importance of agroecological dornams can be found in earlier work on defining and delineating . recornrnendation dornains (RDs), whích is c10sely associated with the farrning systerns research of the late 1970s (Wotowiec, Poats, and Hildebrand 1986). Initial work on RDs concentrated on a few relatively easily identifiable factors (bíological variables), such as land and soil types, agro ecological zones, and erop types and rnanagernent (Harrington and Tripp 1985). The exercise on RD was híghly complex sinee the process was to identify farrning households, based on the sirnilarity in their practiees, rather than farrns. But the delineation of agroecological domains was rnueh less eumbersorne with rice because rice is very sensitive to changes in agroecological conditions and its adaptation is Iirnited, as compared lo sorne other crops such as maíze. Moreover, rice is the rnost important cereal crop in the regíon, so farrners have an in-depth knowledge ofrice-growing environrnents and varieties suitable to different agroecological dornains.The current endeavor on refining the definition of agroecological dornaíns for rice in parts ofNepal is the case of\"sharpening the focus\" fur better targeting of participatory plant breeding (PPB) work, including diversity deployrnent, eonservation of landraees in different dornains, and planning strategic erop rnanagement research. The methodology adopted is quite simple and can be replícated in other areas for wider use by the researchers and deve10pment workers. Field exercises for delineating agroecological domains have largely been influenced by the methodologies on RDs advocated by Collinson (1980), Franzel (1985), and Vaidya and Floyd (1997).Ihey emphasized the use of secondary sources of information, followed by preliminary surveys supplemented later by a formal survey lo refine the domains. However, later views on the subject hold lha! the refining process should take place only after researchers have a clear understanding of the variabílity inherent in the local farming systems (Cornick and Alberti 1985). The current study embodies the thoughts from both the methodologies for delineating domains and associated rice landraces/varieties.In the process of delineating agroecological domains, two group meetings were organized in the Kachorwa and Begnas eco-sítes. The first meeting was held with field-based staff; the second, with farmers from the project area. Ihis was followed by a transect walk by researchers and farmer representatives lo jointly validate farmers' statements. Ihe exercise took about two days, including field visits in each site.Sínce field-based staff are stationed in villages, it was expected !hat they would have a fairly good understanding of the agroecological domains and the farming systems of their respective eco-siles.Hence, the first level of group discussions was organized in field offices, with the field officer, technical assistants, and motivators part.icipating.Afier discussions, the participants were able to come up with four major agroecological domains, mainly defined on the basís of water regímes. They also broadly classified the soíl type and fertility status of soils from each domaín, based on scientific knowledge of soil classification and characterization. Participanls were also asked to estímate the size of each domain and place different landraces/varieties in their right domains. Estimating tbe relative size of each domain was straíghtforward because tbe pok:harilman occupied only a limited area within the eco-site. But placing each landrace/variety in its right domain proved more difficult. The team could place tbe majority of landraces/varieties in their domains, but the number of landraces/varielies per eco-síte was too large for them to rernember aH the names and tbeir right enviromnents. The process was also complicated by the fact lhal sorne of the landraces/varieties are grown in more than one domain.The whole process was reviewed by the participants, and once they were satisfied with the sleps and outputs, the field officer was asked lo facilitate tbe same process for tbe farmers' group discussion.A group discussion was held with farmers witb the specific objective of delineating agroecological domains. Fíeld officers/sile coordinators facilitated the discussion and tbe whole exercise was repeated witb farmers' groups. Both female and male farmers participated in the discussion and put forward tbeir opinions.Farmers identified four agroecological domains within the eco-site (ucha, samta/, nichaJkhalar, and pokharllman), based on the major criteria of moisture regime and fertility status/gradient (tables 1 and 2). They could easily identifY the relative size of each domain, but there were disagreements among about soil c1assification. Perhaps this reflected the variability of the soíl types and soil fertility slatus in each domain. Placing landraces/variety in the domains initiated a lively  debate among the members. However, they were able lO agree upon the major domains for each landrace/variety. They also reported that sorne oflhe landraceslvarieties were grown in more than one domain but Ihe cases were limited.In Kachorwa, of Ihe four domains identified by the farmers, two--ucha and pokharí/man-were extreme cases (dry land and rainfed; wet-Iand conditions, respectively). No modem varieties were grown in Ihese areas. Only landraces were found growing under such conditions, and the number of landraces (cultivars) was relatively small compared to other domains. Samtal and nícha represented better growing environments, wilh a grea!er number of landraces and modem varieties growing Ihere. Samtal represented Ihe major domain in terms of area. There was considerable area under uccha bu! no! much area was under nicha and pokahri. Severallandraces and modem varieties (MVs) were common lo both samtal and nicha. These two domains were more productive in terms of crop production as well.Similar results were found when Ihe exercise was repeated in Ihe Begnas eco-site under mid-hill conditions. However, Ihe domain delineation was less c1ear-cut Ihan ít was in Kachorwa because several of Ihe landraces and MV s were found in more than one dornain. Here again, landraceslvarieties were no! repeated in more than two dornains, and lha! in adjacent domains only. Jumping of domains by certain landraces/varieties was not observed in eilher of Ihe exercises. Allhough several ofthe landraces and MV s were found in two domains, Iheir performance was judged as best only in one domain. Based on Ihe information generated from Ihe discussion wilh farmers, it could be deduced that a landrace/variety fits best only in one domain. It exists in olher domains because Ihere ls no competitive variety to replace it.Having achieved a high degree of agreement between farmers and researchers in Ihe defmition of agroecological domains, it was decided to field-verif)' the definitions through a transect walk and to look for consistency in Ihe field implementation. A representative group offarmers made a transect walk of Ihe eco-site along wilh researchers. They identified domains and located landraces/varieties on different farms. The exercise helped in relating different agroecological domains and Iheir characteristics with Ihé landraceslvarieties being grown Ihere. Thus, Ihis exercise needs to be conducted when the rice crop ls mature or when Ihe crop is standing in Ihe field.Based on the analysis oflhe characteristics of different agroecological domains and Ihe distribution oflandraces/varieties within domains, an attempt lo develop a conceptual model of agroecological domains for rice was made (figure 1). In Ihe following subsections, Ihe characteristíc features of the domains have been explained. Nevertheless, Ihe model needs verification in a larger context and further refinement for wider applicability.Local farmers can provide very reliable inforrnation on Ihe agroecological domains for rice. Similarly, farmers can provide detailed features of each domain in terms of soíl type, drainage, fertility status, production potential, cropping patterns, and so on.The size of agroecological domains varies, with more extreme environments (domains) being relatively smaller as compared to more favorable ones. This follows normal distribution curve. How- Doma!n 4 ever, depending upon fue geographic location (high-potential production systems or marginal growing envíronrnents), the size of each domain will vary. For instance, in marginal environrnents for rice, fue extreme domain will be relatively larger as compared to ofuer domains; whereas, in favorable environrnents, the míddle domains will be relatively larger.Until fue distribution oflandráces/varieties across domains, the features of domains, and fue traits of cultivars are analyzed, one cannot appreciate fue complexity of farroers' strategies to manage plant genetic resourees to meet fueir multiple needs. From the analysis, it is apparent that one landrace/variety is best suited or most competitive in only one domain, though farroers might grow the same cultivar in more fuan one domain. This implies that fue cultivar competes wifu ofuer cultivars trom within the domain, and that there is less competition between cultivars across domains, except when fuere is an overlap of cultivars. Overlap signifies the presence of transitional zones between dornains, which explains fue presence of landraceslvarieties in two different but adjacent dornains. Within dornajns, fue area and number of households growing different landraceslvarieties is explained by rnarket forces, farrocrs' socioeconomic status, cultural factors, preferences for specific traits, and ofuer abiotic and biotjc factors.Alfuough landrsces/varieties rnay overlap in adjacent dornains, no case was registered where a landrsce/variety was found in more fuan two dornajns. This suggests fuat landraces/varietíes have very specific adaptatíons. In ofuer words, it reinforces fue idea that a cultivar is most cornpetítive in only one dornaín.Landraceslvanetíes falling wíthin the sarue domaín are more likely to be similar in their genetic cornposition as cornpared to landraces/varietíes frorn dissimilar dornains. The logic behind is that they have been put under similar managernent condítions have been selected over time fo! adaptation. However, this hypolhesis needs lo be proved from laboratory analysis of sorne of the saruples frorn each domaín. If it proves tme, then there ís a strong case, from a conservation point ofview, for disaggregating genetic materials across agroecologícal domains. Nevertheless, this process still holds true where diversity deployrnent is the prime objective of the project.The distribution oflandraces/vaneties in different domains is the result of farmers' experimentation with those landraces/vaneties over years. In other words, they are the \"best fit\" under farmers' rnanagement conditions. Therefore, researchers definítely need to know the characteristics of each dornain, as well as the specific traits of the landraces/vaneties in each domain and their distribution across dornains in order to make any intervention in the present system. The anaIysis of agroecological domains is worth the money and time invested in collecting and analyzing the information.Planning conservation strategies for landraces ldentifYing landraees that are grown in small areas by a limited number of farrners and devising ways and rneans of conserving them might seem to be a straightforward task for conserving endangered landraces. Sornetirnes, weighted diversity, as well, might be computed for facilitating Ihe decision-makíng process in choosing which landraces to focus on for conservation when there are numerous landraces falling in the endangered category. However, all these processes and steps consider the diversity oflandraces at the aggregatedllandscape (cornmuníty) level and thus ignore the influence of agroecological domains in deterrniníng the position oflandraees in different dornains.The need for micro-Ievel analysis emerges from the faet that landraces are conditioned over years by their continued growth and selection over time in specific dornains. As a result, Ihey have developed adaptive traits, wruch are uníque 10 landraces falling in that domain. Therefore, analysis of landrace diversity at the aggregated level fails 10 appreciate the position oflandraces in specifie dornains, which in faet might be harboring genes of irnportanl traits. Selecting landraces frorn an aggregated list rnight exclude, certaÍn strategically important landraces from conservation.PPB has been used as one rneans 10 conserve useful genes in landraces through crossing with modem vaneties. However, there could be number of landraces withín a domain that might require sorne forrn of conservation (through breeding and nonbreeding means). Understanding Ihe features of domains and the distribution oflandraces in them will facilitate decision rnakíng about selecting landraces for conservation. Failing to do this could result in selecting landraces with similar genetic traits for conservation (vía PPB) from jusI one or two domaÍns. This would lead lo the neglect of sorne and overrepresentation of olhers.Diversity deployrnenl in simple terrn means \"províding farmers wilh options of genetie materials 10 choose frorn.\" The introduction ofnew genetic material results in temporal disequilibrium because of competition between existing and new genetic material. The competition is for space in farmers' fields, for farm labor, for capital inputs, and so on. As time elapses, Ihe new entrant finds its rightful","tokenCount":"2038"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26d8777280a7b15c2052b2fb0d3b35a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a87a48ee-1a44-4e5d-8223-ec2b41af075d/retrieve","id":"2040635423"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28f3b6a2-add4-452a-8064-5c8b04eb052e","pagecount":"2","content":"Supplying decision makers with the information they need to plan for climate change mitigationAlmost every aspect of trying to reduce climate change involves weighing alternatives and then setting priorities. For example, you could plant trees to store carbon, but that might reduce the amount of foodyou can grow on the same land. Or you could add fertilizers to boost food production, but that might need more energy and could increase emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Decision makers planning for climate change need to steer an optimal course that balances reducing emissions with sustaining future food production and protecting environmental health. Yet the information needed to plot that course is usually unavailable, especially in low-income countries, because models require huge amounts of data and hours of computer time. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is working to make information about the impacts of various mitigation measures available, so that policy makers can reach better-informed decisions.An overarching question is where efforts should be concentrated. In coming years emissions will grow rapidly in most developing countries, yet these are also the places where food insecurity and vulnerability will be highest as a result of climate change. At the moment, policy discussions around agriculture and mitigation generally do not consider the differences among countries or among types of farmers, but to set priorities requires us to understand where mitigation is likely to have the greatest impact and be most feasible. Would mitigation by many resource-poor farmers have more impact than by fewer larger-scale farmers? If mitigation by resource-poor farmers is essential to meet climate targets, what are the most important things they could do, and where would they have the highest impact? Brazil, China and India are the biggest emitters of GHGs, but are not currently obliged to reduce their emissions under the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Yet these countries have both the capacity to invest in technological change and the infrastructure to support the extension services that farmers need. Would it be logical to target mitigation in the rapidly developing BRIC countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China?To answer such questions CCAFS is working with the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Austria and other partners to improve models that can map pathways to low-emissions agriculture. The ultimate users of the information will be policy makers at global, regional and national levels, and the goal is to make it easier for them to explore alternatives, so the project will also develop simplified tools to allow policy makers to manipulate the data and see the impact of their different choices.IIASA plans to assess the impact of mitigation by different groups, for example BRICs and developed countries versus non-BRIC countries. Studies of large farms versus small farms in developed and developing countries will indicate whether resourcepoor smallholders do need to participate in mitigation. The models will consider factors like fertilizer use and changes in land use, as well as shifts in diet and changes in farm practices, such as an increase in agroforestry. They also will examine nitrogen and phosphorus levels on farms and how that might influence changes in land use and biodiversity. For example, more efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers should help reduce emissions of nitrous oxide, while at the same time increasing the productivity of the land in ways that reduce the pressure to clear forests.IIASA will then look around the globe at the most important sources of emissions and places with mitigation potential that are consistent with meeting food security needs. This work will focus on specific future scenarios and include an economic analysis of the different mitigation options, the goal being a global map of mitigation hotspots, organized by different mitigation activities. The final step will be to developPhoto: N. Palmer (CIAT)Writing, design and layout: Green Ink (www.greenink.co.uk) a tool with regional stakeholders to improve the relevance of the model for that region and to give national decision makers access to the key information produced by the model.Other partners are providing additional information for decision makers. Perhaps the biggest challenge is to identify places where mitigation can be compatible with practices that also allow farmers to adapt to climate change. Coffee, an important cash crop for many resource-poor farmers, offers an interesting example. Coffee is very sensitive to temperature, so as average temperatures increase with climate change the most suitable zones for coffee will move to higher altitudes. Those higher areas are often forested and therefore are areas that store carbon. If farmers adapt to climate change by moving to higher elevations, large amounts of carbon will probably be released back to the atmosphere and other amenities from the forest will be lost. What is the overall impact on climate change of replacing forests with coffee? And might there be opportunities for growing coffee and trees together?The need for answers is urgent, because coffee is a perennial that takes some years to become productive and remains so for many more. Planning adaptation strategies is thus essential. To provide data to inform those strategies, CCAFS scientists from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), along with several local and international research partners, have started looking in detail at coffee and cocoa systems in East and West Africa (see Box).So far, CCAFS research to quantify trade-offs has been focused largely on identifying the questions that, when answered, will enable more accurate models to predict the consequences of various strategic options. Gathering the answers is well under way, and the expectation is that by early 2016 policy makers will have at their disposal decision-support tools that will allow them to ask -and answer -the much more difficult \"what if\" questions.To find out more, please visit http://ccafs.cgiar.org/ trade-off-tools About CCAFS Coffee brings in 20-30% of Uganda's foreign earnings and delivers smallholder farmers a cash bonanza once or twice a year. Banana is the most important staple and offers a steady year-round food supply with occasional sales. The two grow in similar conditions, but while some Ugandan farmers grow their coffee and their bananas on separate plots, others grow them together, planting coffee beneath the shade of the bananas. Is one a better choice than the other? CCAFS scientists have been looking at the trade-offs, including the effects on climate change and mitigation. Preliminary results suggest that intercropping is better. It does not affect the coffee yield, and results in more food for the farm family and for sale. The bananas shelter the coffee bushes from the physical effects of extreme weather events, such as more violent storms, and help to prevent soil erosion. Better soil and shade decrease the coffee's susceptibility to drought. On the negative side, the combination of bananas and coffee requires more soil nutrients, which need to be replaced, and a mixed system requires more capital and labour, especially at the start. Effects on emissions are still being measured. CCAFS is working to make information about the impacts of various mitigation measures available, so that policy makers can make better-informed decisions to reduce emissions while supporting food security and climate change adaptation.","tokenCount":"1192"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/2857747203.json b/data/part_5/2857747203.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..1ebb12d75a5aeb1e0c62a07b4d5379670911b62c
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d7136f19368189e75c29ce3660430c3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/584382f0-4ef8-462a-9023-0173593338ab/retrieve","id":"-424799748"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b70ab951-4cf8-478b-aabc-3e1df3b06a07","pagecount":"21","content":"This working paper has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AICCRA, donors, or partners.Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution -Non-commercial 4.0 International License.The overall objective of the training of trainers workshop was to increase awareness and scale adoption/integration of the module on Indigenous and local trees-based agroforestry systems across the RUFORUM Network and other non-AICCRA countries. Specifically, the Tot was held to:1. Increase awareness on the module on Indigenous and local trees-based agroforestry systems among academic leaders and lecturers in RUFORUM member universities; From figure 1, 66% of the participants who attended the training were male while the female were 34%. This could be attributed to the current gender imbalance in number of male and female university staff in African universities. According to UNESCO, the current proportion of male and female staff in African universities is 75% to 25% respectively. The participants rated highly the suitability of training materials, facilitators in terms of their suitability and preparedness, change in participants' knowledge about the subject matter of the module, workshop programme, time management, workshop organisation and with mean scores above 4 indicating \"very good\" in terms of level of agreement with the different attributes. On the other hand, participants rated \"good\" the duration of the training, level of involvement of participants with mean scores and general enabling environment such as internet connectivity with mean scores of above 3.1. This is could be attributed to the mode of online delivery that limits concentration of participants if sessions are designed be too long and challenge with strength of bandwidth in some countries. Participants were requested to indicate their intention to deliver the module in their universities. Majority of the participants who completed the survey (91%) indicated their intention to deliver the module or part of it in their universities (figure 1).  • The emphasis of the module should be on practices applicable in the field by the local farmer• More time should be allocated to cover for practical sessions• Support with data bundles is needed for online trainingsThe participants indicated good satisfaction with the training of trainers on Indigenous and local trees-based agroforestry systems. As a way forward to strengthen awareness creation, it is recommended that:1. There is a need to strengthen the pedagogy of the training module for example using case studies of successful CSA/CIS innovations generated under AICCRA.2. Consider physical trainings in selected universities to deepen awareness.","tokenCount":"413"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/2862071077.json b/data/part_5/2862071077.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7d70c9b8a791a51d20e61f513212b8384dd1f0b8
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ed923eba37968db6efd84004170741df","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2ec5e381-e1ae-4cd7-9b52-bdf66d1e204d/retrieve","id":"504280645"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b88169e1-2203-44e3-8ba0-9b195ef0b234","pagecount":"13","content":"Se presenta un deterioro de los recursos naturales pocos incentivos u oportunidades para implementar un manejo sostenible. La globalización exige que el pequeño productor rural (PPR) sea más competitivo y que se inserte a mercados en crecimiento para ésto, es importante la integración vertical y el establecimiento de alianzas dentro de la cadena, también es conveniente que el PPR forme parte de organizaciones con orientación empresarial, el PPR debe aprovechar la explosión en disponibilidad de información generada por el Internet.El consumidor está demandando productos más fáciles de usar y de mayor calidad (valor agregado)  Diseñar prototipos para nuevos servicios de apoyo propuestos:El primer paso en una estrategia para generar un mercado para nuevos servicios es el de hacer una propuesta sobre contenido y transferencia, lo cual podemos llamar el prototipo del servicio.Proponer una estrategia para generar oferta y demanda para nuevos servicios:Aquí se debe proponer un esquema que permita crear un mercado para los nuevos servicios locales de apoyo. Inicialmente, estos esquemas pueden incluir subsidios en forma de capacitación para oferentes de nuevos servicios y efectivo para compra de servicios. ","tokenCount":"180"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/2872256093.json b/data/part_5/2872256093.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..0f2e081d9ff7f6c5a4dcde161a8c4883d6c2b38c
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"186d22d904482a119f465101a0e73c1a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/54b58370-c0be-4d71-84f4-2915ab69cf9e/retrieve","id":"701000651"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"12d3a831-e0e6-4a75-be2e-e8a93bf30a67","pagecount":"30","content":"Climate Information Services (CIS) may help smallholder-farming households adapt to increasingly erratic climactic patterns. CIS may be especially important for women farmers, given that information can empower women to have more of a say in household farming decisions. However, quantifying the welfare benefits of CIS is empirically challenging, given that farmers' agricultural investment may increase or decrease depending on the forecast content and their risk aversion levels, and we generally do not observe intrahousehold decision-making processes. To understand how CIS provision affects agricultural investment decisions, welfare, and intrahousehold bargaining outcomes, we conduct a framed lab-inthe-field experiment with 224 participants from 112 married couples in the Eastern Province of Zambia. Participants made a series of simulated, incentivized agricultural investment decisions over which we vary the CIS provided. We find that farmers use weather forecasts, and to a lesser extent investment advice, to improve their welfare. Moreover, we find that providing forecasts may help spouses to agree on agricultural investment decisions.Climate change has become one of the most pressing global issues of our time (Busby et al. 2013;East-West 2021;FAO 2021). The past eight years have been the warmest period on record (WMO 2023), which has increased the risk of droughts and wildfires (Cook 2019). On the other extreme, several countries are witnessing a sharp rise in heavy rainfall and flood risks (Union of Concerned Scientists 2018). These changes form a threat to agricultural production worldwide (Carter et al. 2018;Kawasaki et al. 2016) and are especially worrying for farming households in developing countries. There, extreme weather events are already wreaking havoc on food security, livelihoods, and economic growth through lower crop yields and higher food prices, threatening child nutrition among farming households (Dimitrova 2021;Phalkey et al. 2015). These effects continue to be disproportionately felt in Africa, where resources available to cover adaptation costs are limited compared to other parts of the world (Mekonnen 2014). Rain-fed agriculture supports livelihoods for most African households; 95 percent of agricultural activity in sub-Saharan Africa is rain-fed (Abrams 2018), making them more vulnerable to negative effects of climate change.One way to reduce the adverse impact of climate change on farming output is through climate information services (CIS). CIS provide information about climate change and early warnings about extreme weather events that help with risk management and decision-making, such as weather forecasts and advice . For example, accurate weather information can help farmers take advantage of favorable weather conditions. Careful consideration of end users' needs during programme design makes a difference for uptake. Creating advisories for specific areas and crops, for example, has proven to be a successful approach (Carr et al. 2020). Technology (such as cell phones and computer programmes) is now being used not only to deliver weather forecasts but also to influence agricultural practices (Tjernström et al. 2021). However, it helpful to communicate weather information in an understandable language and offer training and support through trusted local structures (Yegbemey et al. 2023). Climate-smart strategies like water conservation and crop rotation, which enhance output, are influenced by CIS because farmers rely on forecasts to make decisions about their agricultural practices (McKune et al. 2018). Weather information has helped farmers select what crop varieties to plant, what inputs to purchase, and even how to plant drought-tolerant crops (Maggio et al. 2018).Using a framed field experiment, this study analyses the effects of climate information services on agricultural investments and intra-household bargaining dynamics. Women play an important role in agriculture, but their productivity levels are lower than men's, and they have access to fewer resources and support services (Croppenstedt et al. 2013;Kilic et al. 2015). However, reducing uncertainty on weather conditions that influence agricultural decision-making, and providing information on how they can best adapt to changing weather patterns or respond to weather forecasts might help to bridge this gap. Indeed, research shows that agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa is higher in households where both men and women receive agricultural advisory and extension services than in households where only men receive these services (Azzarri et al. 2022), and that they have the potential to increase agricultural productivity (Azzarri and Nico 2022). Moreover, by providing women with information, CIS might empower women, and giving them a stronger voice in agricultural decision-making (Gumucio et al. 2020;Mittal 2016).Nonetheless, gender-specific constraints that restrict women's access to information may also inhibit them from receiving climate information (Huyer et al. 2020). Previous research has shown that husbands may not share climate information with their wives (Asfaw et al. 2018;Bernier Q. et al. 2015). As a result, introducing CIS to farming communities may reinforce rather than reverse gender productivity gaps. Previous work indeed documents gender disparities usually favouring men in the frequency (Carr et al. 2018;Twyman J. et al. 2014) and type (Coulibaly J.Y. et al. 2017) of climate information accessed . Costs and benefits of CIS may also depend on an individual's ability to act on the information provided. Hence the benefits of CIS for women may be overstated if they lack bargaining power within their household, barring them from successfully negotiating with their husbands to apply the recommendations provided through CIS. To get a more realistic picture of the actual benefits they obtain, we must consider these household bargaining relationships (Kramer et al. 2023).We use a framed field experiment with 224 respondents from 112 married couples in Zambia's Eastern province to test how CIS influences men and women smallholder farmers' investment decisions. Over a series of simulated agricultural seasons, participants are tasked with allocating a fixed seasonal endowment between risk-free savings and purchases of seeds that vary in the gains and losses associated with weather-dependent production risk. Seasons vary in the probability of favorable weather conditions, and we vary, using a withinsubject design, whether participants are provided with weather forecasts, and if so, whether the forecast is accompanied by an investment advisory. To study bargaining dynamics, we also vary whether choices are made individually or together with someone's spouse, and during individual rounds, we vary who within the household receives a CIS advisory to inform later joint decisions: neither husband nor wife, husbands only, wives only, or both husbands and wives.We find that respondents' investment decisions are influenced strongly by weather forecasts. As the forecasted probability of favorable weather increases, both men and women farmers, as well as couples, invest in riskier technologies. As a result, forecasts increase expected incomes and the variance of income. We find that forecasts also allow respondents to invest more closely to how they would have chosen to invest under certainty, thus saving instead of investing under scenarios where it will not rain and investing in a high-risk technology in scenarios where it will rain. According to a capabilities-based approach to development (Robeyns 2005;Sen 1997), this makes participants better off, as it allows them to act closer to how they would have chosen to do so in the absence of any weather uncertainty. Respondents also incorporate investment advisories on how to respond to a given forecast, but these effects are small and less robust. As a result, advisories do not increase expected income, although they do reduce the variance of income and allow respondents to invest more closely to how they would have invested under certainty. Advisories, therefore, do have positive welfare effects that could have been missed if looking only at changes in income.We observe no strong gender differences in investments or in effects of forecasts and advisories. However, forecasts do have important implications for bargaining dynamics. On average, in the absence of a forecast, a wife's individual investment decision, compared to her husband's investments, is further away from the decisions they make as a couple. This suggests that husbands may have more bargaining power and have a stronger say in how the couple invests, resulting in investment patterns that are closer to their individual preferences. However, when provided with a forecast, couples' savings become closer to both husbands' and wives' behavior, suggesting that forecasts might help husbands and wives agree on the extent to which they should save, and reflecting preferences of both husbands and wives. Advice given to an individual before the couple makes an investment decision affects investments only if given to the husband alone, not to the wife or both husband and wife.These findings contribute to our understanding of gender differences in the benefits of CIS. Previous research has linked gender differences in the uptake of CIS to unequal access to information. Women aren't always able to take advantage of CIS services if their mobility is limited, their time is constrained, or they can't access the technology needed. Farm cooperatives that control most agricultural information are dominated by men and tend to exclude women in their dissemination arrangements (Doss 2001). With the emergence of smartphone technology to access CIS, women are also disadvantaged as their ability to own or use smartphones is restricted (Becker, 2020). In addition to unequal access, past studies indicate that men and women may have unique reasons for not relying on CIS based on their understanding of the factors driving climate change and previous experiences with the climate information (Ngigi et al. 2022). According to a Senegalese survey, more women than men distrust CIS due to religious convictions. Men's mistrust of CIS was driven by seasonal shifts and previous unreliable forecasts (Diouf et al. 2019).The findings in this paper also provide insights on what types of costs and benefits of CIS to measure. We are becoming more aware of how to quantify the fixed and variable costs (List et al. 2022), but researchers are still learning to measure CIS's gender-related effects. Conventional cost-benefit analysis methods tend to focus on monetary outcomes and do not always consider the non-monetary benefits of CIS, especially for women. The non-monetary benefits of CIS include its potential to empower women by giving them information that makes their bargaining position stronger or by offering time-saving alternatives that make their current workloads lighter (Timu et al. 2022). CIS could also convey gender-transformative messages that encourage changes in social norms. The findings presented in this study show how important it is to measure such non-monetary benefits, given that forecasts improve men's and women's capacity to align their investments under risk with their preferred allocations in the absence of risk. Moreover, the findings illustrate non-monetary benefits in terms of improved bargaining dynamics, as forecasts bring couples' allocations closer to husbands' and wives' preferences revealed during their individual allocation tasks. Given the evidence of gender differences in risk preferences, we further investigated variation in benefits when including the component of risk (Akter et al. 2016;Eckel et al. 2002;Filippin et al. 2016;Sarin et al. 2016).The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. In the next section, we provide an overview of the context in which the experiment was conducted, including a discussion of climate change in Zambia and the linkages between gender, policy, and climate services in the country. Section 3 provides a description of the experimental methods used to evaluate how farmers respond to climate information, and how we analyze bargaining dynamics. The next section provides an overview of our results, followed by a concluding section that summarizes our main findings and provides an outlook for future research.Zambians have witnessed the harsh effects of climate change on the agriculture and energy sectors, and this trend is expected to continue (Ngoma et al. 2023;World Bank 2021). Droughts and heavy rainfall have become more frequent and intense, resulting in water scarcity, crop damage, and lower crop yields (Food Agriculture Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Earth System Governance Project 2017). A reliance on maize as a staple crop increases the population's vulnerability because maize is sensitive to variations in temperature and moisture levels (Kanyanga et al. 2013;Ngoma H. et al. 2021). Numerous groups, including government (Ministry of Agriculture 2022), are working to minimize the negative effects of climate change on smallholder farmers. Recent initiatives have involved advocating for climate-smart farming practices, expanding crop diversity (Arslan et al. 2018), and instituting unconditional cash transfer programs (Lawlor et al. 2019). Despite this commitment to improving the policy and regulatory environment, extreme weather events have been especially damaging to Zambian smallholder farmers who rely heavily on rainfed agriculture (Ministry of Finance and National Planning 2022)Gender inequalities in household bargaining power constrain the ability of Zambian women in farming communities to make financial decisions (Barr et al. 2023). Women who deviate from the norm that spouses should not save in secret may risk of violence if discovered by their husbands. It remains to be seen if the same power dynamics affect farming investment choices. Programs and extension services can contribute to household empowerment but have traditionally been gender blind. Recent legislative changes are more gender-specific although co-ordination across government agencies might be necessary. Zambia's Climate Change Gender Action Plan (Ministry of Gender for the Republic of Zambia 2018) outlines strategies to increase capacity for a more gender-responsive approach to climate management. The just-released Zambian National Adaptation Plan (Ministry of Green Economy and Environment 2023) is preparing guidelines for including a gender perspective in climate change planning and budgeting procedures. Our findings may help to shape of these guidelines.To understand how husbands and wives respond to climate information when making agricultural investment decisions, we recruited married couples within farming communities in the Nyimba district of Zambia's Eastern province, a region frequently affected by climate-related shocks, for a framed field experiment. With a population of 136,000 (Zambia Statistics Agency 2022), Nyimba is a predominantly rural district in the southern section of the Eastern province. The study's participants were asked to make simulated, incentivized agricultural investment decisions over a series of \"agricultural seasons,\" which they completed on a tablet application. In each round (or \"season\"), participants could use a fixed endowment to purchase maize seed. The probability of favorable weather conditions varied between seasons, with crop yields dependent on the amount of rainfall. We varied whether participants received forecasts, whether investment advisories accompanied the forecasts, whether their investment decisions were made individually or jointly by husbands and wives, and whether either husbands or wives received advisories during individual rounds that could potentially inform the best course of action during joint rounds.Table 1 provides an overview of the experimental design. Participants completed 12 rounds of investment decisions, each corresponding to a different agricultural season, including seven rounds in which each spouse made decisions individually, and five rounds in which couples made joint decisions. We refer to the 12 different experimental conditions in Table 1 as \"levels.\" To mitigate any order effects, husbands and wives played the first 7 levels in Table 1 individually and in a randomized order. Afterwards, they played the next 5 levels as a couple, again in a randomized order (for instance, an individual could play level 4 as their round 1, and a couple could play level 8 as their round 12). To avoid a bias from wealth effects whilst incentivizing behavior in each round, we informed participants before starting their individual rounds that one round would be randomly selected for payout.Levels vary in terms of the availability of forecast information and advice. In control rounds (levels 4 and 9), farmers were asked to invest without any forecast information or advisories. In other rounds, we provided a weather forecast, with variation across levels in the likelihood of favorable weather conditions, which we characterize within the game as having substantial rainfall. We either provided a forecast only (levels 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12) or a forecast plus advice on what to do with this forecast (levels 2, 7, and 8). This included one round in which participants received a risk-free weather forecast (level 1); we varied randomly between respondents whether it would certainly rain (100%), or that it would for sure not rain (0%).In rounds with advice, we provided two types of advice: one for profit-maximizing individuals and one for riskaverse individuals. Respondents could choose to follow either depending on how they perceived their own risk preferences. The profit-maximizing advice recommended the investment that would maximize expected payouts given the forecasted rainfall probability. The risk-averse advice was the investment that would maximize utility for a risk-averse individual. 1 Each piece of advice was a single recommendation, which could either be: do not plant, plant the low-risk variety, plant the medium-risk variety, or plant the high-risk variety. Sometimes the risk averse and profit-maximizing advice was the same.Forecast Forecast rainfall probability Advice PlayerIt is important to note that the advice provided to individuals in the round with a forecast rainfall probability of 40% (level 8) may influence decisions in the corresponding round with a 40% rainfall forecast during which couples were asked to make joint decisions (level 12). In another round with individual decision-making, where the rainfall probability was 80% and participants could receive advice (level 7), we varied randomly between couples who would receive the advice: neither the husband nor the wife, only the husband, only the wife, or both. This advice could inform later decisions in rounds with joint decisions, and in particular, the joint round with an 80% forecast of rain (level 11). We will explore this variation in the analyses to shed further insights into bargaining dynamics between husbands and wives.At the beginning of each round, the farmer received an initial endowment of 100 Zambian kwacha that they could use to invest in maize seeds to be planted on up to 10 fields of their farm. We focused on farmers purchasing only one input, maize seeds, for simplicity. We selected maize because it is a cash crop and a staple food for most Zambian households. In addition, it is sensitive to shifts in temperature and moisture levels (Kanyanga et al. 2013;Ngoma Hambulo et al. 2021). Participants were given an identical endowment at the beginning of each season, regardless of the earnings in the previous season. Accumulated earnings from previous seasons could not be re-invested in the following seasons. For each field, the farmer had the option to invest in one of three varieties of maize seed (low, medium, or high risk) or not to plant anything. Each variety had an associated price and associated yield amounts in both the substantial rainfall condition and lack of substantial rainfall condition. Any funds not spent on seeds were kept as zero-interest savings.Figure 1 provides an overview of cost of seeds and yields for the three varieties. The low-risk variety had the lowest price and provided both the lowest average income and the lowest variation in yield outcomes across the two rainfall scenarios. The medium-risk variety cost slightly more, but offered a slightly better yield under favorable rainfall, while the late-maturing variety was the most expensive but had the highest yield potential.In the event where there was no substantial rainfall, all three varieties would yield less revenue than the cost of the seeds, making investment in all three varieties riskier than saving the money. We conceptualized these risks to participants as differences in maturity, with the low-risk variety being early maturing, the medium-risk variety being of standard maturity, and the high-risk variety being late maturing. We helped participants recall the distinction between the varieties by using the same symbols as a local input provider to describe different maturity period lengths: zebra for early-maturing, lion for medium-maturing, and elephant for late-maturing maize varieties.At the end of each season, income was determined by two factors: a) the funds saved after purchasing maize seeds and b) the farm's productivity, which depended on the planting decisions and rainfall outcome. Given the costs and productivity associated with investments in each variety, income for individual \uD835\uDC56 from couple \uD835\uDC50 in round \uD835\uDC5F was calculated as:Figure 2 provides an overview of expected payouts for each rainfall probability. Without forecast, risk-averse individuals will want to set money aside in the risk-free savings option, or in the low-risk variety, given that its return varies the least across potential rainfall probabilities. When given a forecast, participants' behavior will depend on the rainfall probability. For low rainfall probabilities, profit-maximizers will want to invest in the low- As the rainfall probability increases, investments can shift to the medium-risk variety, and once the rainfall probability is at least 80%, the high-risk variety maximizes profits. However, risk-averse individuals may want to invest relatively more of their endowment in the low-risk and medium-risk variety even when the probability of rainfall is high. In risk-free scenarios, both risk-averse and profit-maximizing individuals should either save their full endowment (0% chance of rainfall) or invest their full endowment in the high-risk variety (100% chance of rainfall).Expected profits for experimental varietiesWe are interested both in how climate information influences agricultural investment decisions and welfarerelated outcomes, as well as how forecasts and advisories influence bargaining in the household.To made by the husband alone); Prob × Forecast \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F is a vector of dummy variables for each possible rainfall probability (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%), equal to one if a forecast was shown with that rainfall probability (with no forecast serving as the omitted category); 2 ProbA \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F is a vector of three dummy variables (for rainfall probabilities of 20%, 40% and 80%) indicating whether in addition to a forecast of that rainfall probability, an investment advisory was provided; \uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F is a round order effect (with ordering of levels from Table 1 randomized across rounds at the player level), and \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F is a residual clustered at the couple level. We test the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: \uD835\uDEFD 1 ≠ 0 for savings and all three varieties. This hypothesis tests whether wives make different investments on average than their husbands. We expect that compared to their husbands, wives allocate more of their initial endowment to savings and the low-risk variety, whilst allocating less to the medium-and high-risk variety. In many settings, women have been found to make more risk-averse agricultural decisions than men (Kebede 2022).Hypothesis 2: \uD835\uDEFD 2 = 0 for all outcome variables. This hypothesis implies that couples' savings, as well as investments in the three varieties, do not significantly differ from those made by husbands. If we find that husbands' and wives' decisions are different from one another, then this would imply that husbands have a larger say in household-decision-making, and that a couple's decisions are primarily influenced by-and thus reflect-a husband's preferences.Hypothesis 3: \uD835\uDEFE 1 ≠ 0 for savings and investments in the three varieties. We hypothesize that forecasts increase the amount allocated to savings and the low-risk variety (to the medium-and high-risk variety) when the probability of rainfall is low (high). For more risk averse decision-makers, providing a forecast could lead to less risk-averse investments than in the scenario without forecast, and reduce the amount saved compared to that scenario even when the probability of rainfall is 40%.Hypothesis 4: \uD835\uDEFE 2 ≠ 0 for all outcome variables. That is, we assume that advisories influence investments, but do not hypothesize in which direction they affect investments, given that decision-makers' response to advisories will depend on their risk aversion and the way in which an advisory for a respondent's self-perceived level of risk aversion differs from investments based on forecasts only.We also estimate Equation (1) with interactions for whether a decision was made by the wife alone or the couple together, vis-à-vis the type of climate information provided. Specifically, if we define a vector CIS \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F = Prob × Forecast \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F ⊕ Prob × Advice \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F , combining the dummy variables for the two types of information (forecast and advisories) included in Equation ( 1), then we estimate:Hypothesis 5: θ 1 ≠ 0 (θ 2 ≠ 0). Wives (couples) respond to climate information services -forecast and/or advisories -in a different way than husbands playing individually.This final hypothesis considers the effect of CIS on preferences and intrahousehold bargaining outcomes based on the capabilities approach. We assume that decisions made in individual rounds reflect an individual's preferences, but that decisions made in joint rounds will reflect the outcomes of a bargaining process, and that household members with more bargaining power will exert a greater influence on joint decisions. If this is the case, providing forecast information could shift investment decisions to align more closely with the preferences of the person who receives the information, and introducing couples to climate information may positively impact women's bargaining power.We are also interested in welfare effects. We estimate effects on welfare using two approaches. First, defining \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F as the probability of rain, we estimate the following equation for three outcome variables (expected income, the variance of income, and expected utility): 3Hypothesis 1 above would imply that women make more risk-averse investments. This would result in lower incomes and a lower variance of income (\uD835\uDEFD 1 ≠ 0). Hypothesis 2 indicates that couples are not expected to make different decisions from husbands, meaning that we would not expect differences in expected income or the variance of income either (thus we will test \uD835\uDEFD 2 ≠ 0). Hypothesis 3 implies that respondents act on forecasts by reducing investments in riskier high-return assets when the probability of rainfall is low, whilst increasing investments in these assets when it will rain with a higher probability. This will increase not only income, but also the variance of income (\uD835\uDEFE 1 ≠ 0). To estimate the net welfare effect, we also estimate effects on expected utility. Finally, the effect of advisories on expected income, its variance, and expected utility will depend on how the advice differs from decisions when provided with a forecast. Seeing advice on how to maximize profits may encourage risk-averse respondents to take riskier actions, which will increase their expected income, and its variance. Likewise, exposure to risk-averse advice might lead a respondent who tends to take risks to make decisions that decrease both expected income and its variance. Thus, advisories may have a positive or negative effect (\uD835\uDEFE 2 ≠ 0).We also estimate Equation ( 3) with interactions for the type of CIS provided, and the type of player (wife or couple), so that the coefficients on the main effects of CIS, \uD835\uDEFE = \uD835\uDEFE 1 ⊕ \uD835\uDEFE 2 , provide an estimate of effects for husbands, and coefficients on the interaction terms, \uD835\uDF03 1 and \uD835\uDF03 2 , can be used to determine the additional effects for wives and couples, respectively: A second approach to analyze welfare effects is by looking for evidence of utilitarian welfare improvements without making assumptions on the functional form of participants' utility functions. For this, we compare decisions taken (1) when an individual was facing drought with certainty (a 0% rain forecast) versus rounds with risk (a 20%, 40%, 60% or 80% rain forecast) during which it did not rain; and (2) when it would rain with certainty (a 100% rain forecast) versus rounds with risk during which it did rain (but under the scenarios with risk, a respondent would not know yet whether or not it was going to rain). For each round with risk, we calculate the absolute difference between investments made in that round and those made in the one round with certainty. This variable indicates the extent to which respondents, conditional on a given outcome (rain or no rain), do what they would have preferred to do under certainty, if they had known beforehand whether or not it would rain, which (assuming the participant is not risk loving) would have to give them a weakly positive utility increase. For this outcome variable, we expect similar effects, and estimate similar models as Equations ( 3) and ( 4), but not including controls for the probability of rainfall or round effects, since these are controlled for in the construction of the dependent variable. A final analysis explores whether forecasts influence the way in which couples make their decisions. For this, we interpret an individual's decision as their preferred allocation, and our dependent variable is the absolute difference between a couple's allocation versus one's individual allocation under similar scenarios, which were repeated for individuals and couples: no forecast, a forecast with a 40% probability of rain, and a forecast with a 60% rainfall probability. We are unable to look at the effects of advisories in this way since there were no individual and couple rounds with advisories for forecasts with similar rainfall probabilities. 4 Our estimating equation for this variable is:Finally, to analyze the effects of advisories on spouses' bargaining power, we use the randomization of couples into one of 4 experimental conditions in the individual round with an 80% rainfall forecast (level 7): neither spouse receives advice; the wife only receives advice; the husband only receives advice; or both spouses receive advice. We analyze effects of these treatments on behavior in a later round with the same 80% forecast probability but no advice, when the couple plays jointly (level 11). To test whether having received additional information provides a spouse with bargaining power in a later decision, we estimate:where dependent variables are savings, spending on the low-, medium-, and high-risk varieties, and income.The experiment was implemented in one camp (a camp is the smallest administrative division that precedes a village and consists of 29 villages, on average) of the Nyimba district. We purposefully identified a camp that was not participating the Strengthening Climate Resilience and Alternative Livelihoods in Agro-Ecological Regions I and II in Zambia (SCRALA) initiative. The camp was also chosen because it straddled two of the country's three agro-ecological regions. It reflected the Eastern province in terms of crop production, availability of climate information, and climatic risk. We collaborated with a local camp officer and a camp agricultural committee to raise awareness about the project, which was presented as a workshop on 20 th September 2023.For each of the eight zones within the camp, we randomly selected two villages to conduct the experiment (the two villages in the first zone were used to pilot the experiment. The data from the pilot was used to finalize the research tool and not for the main data analysis. Participants from these two villages registered voluntarily with the camp agricultural committee to participate in the study. Eight couples were then chosen randomly from a list of volunteers, plus an additional couple from each village as a contingency should one of the couples fail to show up. In most sessions, all nine couples attended the workshop on the scheduled date. The extra pair was paid a show-up fee but did not attend the workshops.Each workshop began with introductions, followed by a group explanation of the investment task, including the design of the planting activity and the concept of rainfall probability. To explain probability, a bag was filled with white and blue balls, and volunteers from the group were asked to select a ball from the bag while blindfolded. Blue balls symbolized high rainfall, while white balls represented low rainfall, and if the bag was filled with a larger number of blue balls, then this meant a greater probability of high rainfall. During the experimental task itself, participants used a tablet application designed specifically to simulate planting crops during an agricultural season. Before starting the first round, the tablet took participants through several practice rounds where they could ask the fieldworkers questions. Echoing the group demonstration, in rounds with forecasts, the app presented rainfall probabilities as five rain clouds that could be shaded blue, or unshaded. More blue clouds suggested a greater chance of high rainfall, while more white clouds represented a higher chance of low rainfall. If advice was also provided in a round, it was on the same screen as the forecast clouds. Participants were made aware that they were not required to follow any recommendations. We also reminded participants that there was no guarantee of rainfall. The seasonal rainfall was only revealed after all investment decisions had been made.Each couple was assigned to one fieldworker. Couples decided amongst themselves who would start. This person would complete their 7 rounds individually, in the absence of their spouse, who was seated in a separate area. Next, the spouse would complete their 7 individual rounds, again in private, with the other spouse seated elsewhere. After both husband and wife had played individually, the couple was given the tablet to play together to complete their 5 joint rounds. In this joint part of the experiment, a couple could only provide one decision per task. No discussions were allowed among couples waiting for their turn. Fieldworkers facilitated this by determining seating arrangements for participants, including where individuals waiting for their turn would sit, before beginning the workshop in a community. We used identity badges with anonymous session IDs to help fieldworkers correctly pair participants with their spouses, and to enter the correct ID in the tablet application where decisions were recorded.We chose to implement a framed field experiment to observe behavior under various rainfall probabilities, as well as compare similar decisions made individuals and couples, which may be infeasible in real life. However, there is always the concern that participants may act differently in an artificially constructed setting than they would in real life. To offset this limitation and encourage participants to think seriously about their decisions, we introduced monetary incentives that resembled payments that farmers would receive from maize sales.After completing individual and joint rounds of the experiment, couples rolled a 12-sided die, with the 12 sides corresponding to the 12 rounds of the experiment. The number on which the dice would roll determined for which round participants would be paid their earned income (revenues from maize seeds planted plus savings).If the dice landed on the numbers 1 through 7 (individual rounds), the participants were each notified separately of the amount they would be paid from their respective rounds. If the dice landed on 8 to 12 (the joint rounds), they would both receive the same sum and be notified at the same time (and hence the couple would receive two times that income in total). Critically, levels with various treatment conditions were presented in a randomized order even between husbands and wives, so individual rounds for which participants received payouts may have been different. This gives some \"plausible deniability\" about earnings, such that a wife may be able to lie to her husband about her individual earnings. In this way, we aimed to give players similar incentives, and reveal individual preferences during the individual rounds, despite any norms which might dictate that wives should surrender any earnings to their husbands.After the couples' rounds were completed, we also administered individual surveys to each participant, which was completed by 224 of the 228 individuals who participated in the experiment. The survey covered demographics, access to and use of CIS, income sources and household assets, household decision-making, and anticipated seed choice decisions. At the end of the workshop, before earnings were paid out, two feedback sessions (one for men and one for women) were held. We asked participants what they liked and disliked about the experiments, whether they would have benefited from more information before completing the experimental tasks, how the forecasts in the experiment compared to those encountered in real life, and what they would change to make the experiment more realistic.To provide information on the population targeted by the experiment, Table 2 describes the composition of married couples within our sample. Households in our sample are highly engaged in agriculture, with production or sale of produced goods being the main source of livelihood for 75 percent of participants. Despite 25 percent of the sample having another main source of livelihood, all households grew white maize in the last season, and the vast majority also grew additional crops, such as groundnut or soya bean. A little over half of agricultural households receive input subsidies through Zambia's Farmer Input Support Program (FISP), and the average household owns about 10 acres of land. Literacy in this population is quite low, given that only 41 percent of respondents have at least a primary school education (grades 1-7). Moreover, around 18 percent of respondents have no schooling at all. Despite this, a relatively high 75 percent of respondents own a smartphone. Additionally, respondents in this context are familiar with CIS. In fact, 89 percent report accessing at least some type of climate information. Among those who do access CIS, 69 percent say their most important source of information is the radio, followed by extension agents for 14 percent. We first discuss findings on how individuals' and couples' investment decisions change when they are provided with forecasts and advice, and thereby test our five hypotheses provided in Section 3.2. As a first indication, a summary of husbands' wives, and couples' investment decisions are displayed in Figure 3. Each stacked bar shows the average percentage of the seasonal endowment that is saved and invested in each seed variety, without controlling for any additional variables. A critical thing to note when looking at the results is that given experimental session length limitations, we opted not to include levels with forecasts only, and forecasts plus advice, for all possible probabilities for both individuals and couples. This is why investment decisions are not observed for every rainfall probability in the presence of advice, and in decisions taken jointly by both husband and wife. This figure further shows that both individuals and couples respond to the rainfall probability that is communicated through the forecast, with relatively lower amounts allocated to savings and higher amounts allocated to the high-risk variety as the probability of rainfall increases.In Table 3, we estimate Equations 1 (odd number columns) and 2 (even number columns, for our four different investment choice indicators: savings and investment in low-, medium-, and high-risk seeds. The table also indicates when a specific effect is only being identified from variation in individual decisions or couple decisions. First, based on Hypotheses 1 and 2, we would expect to observe differences in investments made by wives and husbands, but not in investments made by couples and husbands. Instead, we see visually in Figure 3 as well as in our coefficient estimates that on average, neither wives nor couples save or invest differently than husbands do, which is consistent only with Hypothesis 2. The only notable exception is that when wives are making investment decisions without any forecast information, they spend about 1.8 more kwacha (1.8% of their original endowment) on seeds of the low-risk variety. This effect is reversed by receiving a forecast with a positive chance of rain, as demonstrated by the negative coefficients on the interaction between wife and forecasts. Hence, forecasts may help wives overcome risk-averse behavior associated with not knowing the probability of rain.Second, consistent with Hypothesis 3, we see that forecasts have a consistently significant impact on investment decisions. Specifically, as is visually evident in Figure 3, the higher the probability of rain forecasted, the more participants invest in the medium-and high-risk varieties, and the less they invest in the low-risk variety and savings. For example, when participants receive a forecast with a 20% chance of substantial rainfall, they spend about 4% more of their original endowment on the low-risk variety, and 5% less on the high-risk variety, compared to when they do not have a forecast. Likewise, when participants receive a forecast with an 80% chance of rain, they save 23% less of their initial endowment, and spend 22% more on the high-risk variety.In contrast to Hypothesis 5, we do not see evidence of couples or wives differentially responding to forecast receipt (except for forecasts mitigating wives' overinvestment in the low-risk variety discussed above).Third, consistent with Hypothesis 4, we see additional changes in investments when the forecasts are accompanied with advice on how to invest given that forecast. When respondents receive advice along with a forecast of either 20% or 40%, they spend an additional 3-5% of their budget on savings, and 2-5% less on the high-risk variety. They hence respond to the advice for 20% forecasts, which instructed farmers not to plant or to plant the low-risk variety depending on their risk tolerance, and to some extent to the advice for 40% forecasts, which instructed farmers to plant the low-risk variety. The effects of advice for the 20% forecast may be slightly muted given that rounds were presented in a random order, allowing for the possibility that during the round with a 20% forecast and no advice, the participant may have already seen the advice for the 20% forecast. However, when individuals get a forecast of 80% rain (in which the recommendation is to plant the high-risk variety), they do not seem to respond to this. If anything, they plant a bit more of the low-risk variety, and a bit less of the medium-risk variety, than if they did not have this advisory. We do not detect any difference in how wives respond to advice compared to husbands, again in contrast to Hypothesis 5.There are two additional caveats worth noting in interpreting these results. First, while most of the coefficients are identified from within-respondent variation in behavior between rounds, there is one key exception. The effect of receiving advice for the 80% forecast is identified using between-respondent variation, because we randomized across couples whether the husband, wife, both, or neither received advice (see level 7 in Table 1 and the description in Section 3.1). Second, each respondent played a risk-free round with either a 0% chance or a 100% chance of rain (see level 1 in Table 1), so the variation for each of those coefficients is only being identified using a (randomly selected) subset of the sample.Given that individuals changed their investments in response to forecast information, the key question is whether this change indeed made participants better off. We explore this question in Table 4, where we estimate Equations 3 (odd number columns) and 4 (even number columns) for various welfare outcomes. For all welfare measures, we generally do not detect a differential effect of forecasts or advice on wives or couples as opposed to husbands. However, it is possible that we are underpowered to detect such effects. Thus, we mostly focus on the odd numbered columns for the sake of interpretation.Receiving a forecast increases participants' income by 12.5 kwacha on average (column 1), which is about 10% of the average income earned by participants across all rounds, but also increases the variance of this income, by about 66% of the mean income variance in the sample (column 3). Without forecast, participants may not have a good sense of the distribution of rainfall outcomes, and hence may feel uncomfortable taking risks.When provided with forecasts, participants at least know the level of risk, which may encourage them to take at least some risk. Receiving advice in addition to this forecast does not further increase average income, whilst mitigating the effects of receiving a forecast on the variance of income by approximately 13 percent. This is likely because the advice given to respondents causes to invest more in the low-risk variety regardless of the forecast probability (see Table 3 and Section 4.2).Assuming a log utility function, we find that forecasts increase participants' expected utility, and this effect is stronger for participants who also receive advice (column 5). This suggests that both forecasts and advice make participants better off, though the marginal utility increase from also receiving advice is only around 33% of the effect of receiving a forecast. Moreover, these effects are both relatively small; the effect of receiving a forecast is about 1.3% of the mean value of expected utility, and adding advice as well only gets this up to about 1.7% of mean utility. Additionally, column 6 suggests that receiving forecasts might be slightly less utilityenhancing for couples than for husbands. 5While choosing a utility function makes the issue of looking at changes in utility more tractable, our results may be sensitive to choices of functional form. Hence, we perform an additional test, which requires fewer assumptions about the utility function, whereby we ask whether individuals can act more closely to how they optimally would have acted if they were certain that it would (not) rain given that it did (not) rain. Assuming that individuals are risk neutral or risk averse, and that their preferences are locally smooth, getting closer to this \"ideal\" behavior under certainty must constitute a welfare improvement. To test whether individuals can act more closely to their preferences without risk, we again estimate Equations ( 3) and ( 4), but now restricting observations to include rounds with rainfall risk only and using as outcome variable the absolute difference between investments made in that round, and those made in the one round with certainty. We only use individually made decisions, given that we do not observe couples' decisions in the risk-free scenarios.Table 5 presents the results for this outcome variable. Controlling for the forecasted probability of rain, both forecasts and additional advice provided along these forecasts allow participants to invest more similarly to how they would have invested without risk, suggesting that they likely experience welfare improvements from both forecasts and the additional advice. Notably, it was important to elicit individuals' behavior in risk-free rounds, since even in these rounds, respondents do not always make profit-maximizing decisions. Indeed, only 52% of players plant nothing when they know it will not rain, and only 29% of players invest their entire budget in the high-risk variety when they know it will rain for sure. Focus group discussions suggest that this may reflect other preferences, such as a preference to always grow something (even if they know they will get a poor harvest) or the preference to have food ready at different times in the season (even though the incentives of the experiment were not designed to promote such behavior). Focus groups also suggest that players may not fully believe the forecasts of 0% and 100% because they do not believe that weather can be known with certainty (even in the context of our experiment). Although this could challenge our interpretation, we see a strong response to the different types of forecasts, lending credence to the idea that households use them to update their beliefs closer to what is suggested by the forecast.Next, we analyze how intrahousehold dynamics may come into play when interpreting forecasts and advice.Using similar logic to the previous argument about utility improvements, forecasts and advice may help individuals become better off by helping reduce any differences between joint decisions made as a couple and decisions that each spouse would have preferred and made on their own (when they did not have to bargain with someone else). We therefore construct an outcome variable that takes the absolute difference between decisions made as an individual and decisions made as a couple using the rounds without forecast, with a 40% forecast, and a 60% forecast. These are matching forecast probabilities that were used in both individual and couple rounds without advice. Results could be sensitive to the rainfall probabilities used, but having no forecast, a 40% forecast and a 60% forecast does cover a wide range of possible outcomes.In Table 6, odd-numbered columns estimate a basic model for this outcome variable with couple fixed effects and a dummy variable indicating observations for which the individual decision was made by the wife (with observations for which the individual decision was made by the husband as the omitted category). In evennumbers, we extend this model by estimating Equation 4. Odd-numbered columns document the important finding that relative to husbands' decisions, wives' individual decisions are, on average, further away from how spouses invest as a couple. Compared to the mean deviation in the sample, wives have 24% larger gaps in savings behavior, and 21%, 6%, and 34% larger gaps in spending on the low-, medium-, and high-risk varieties, respectively. This suggests that wives have less bargaining power on average, and that decisions taken jointly as a couple reflect husbands' preferred allocations.Even-numbered columns show that receiving a forecast can help reduce this gap for both husbands and wives, at least with respect to savings. Over 50% of the 14 Kwacha gap between an individual's savings and couples' savings is mitigated by the couple receiving a forecast. We observe no significant coefficient on the interaction term in column (2), meaning that receiving a forecast reduces gaps between a couple's decisions and decisions made individually for both husbands and wives. This suggests that receiving forecasts helps both spouses agree more on preferred investments. Notably, additional findings (available upon request) show that the average couple takes about 1 minute and 23 seconds to play a round, which is longer than the average individual, who takes about 1 minute and 15 seconds to play a round. Perhaps couples deliberate to some extent before taking a decision, though notably not for that much longer than individuals decide themselves. This difference is also mainly driven by husbands, who take only 1 minute and ten seconds on average to play an individual round, as opposed to wives, who take one minute and 19 seconds on average.Given the potential of information to increase bargaining power, we also ask whether the effects of giving advice (instead of only a forecast) on joint decisions depend on the recipient of that advice. Specifically, we ask whether advice given to wives only, husbands only, or both spouses earlier in the game might influence couples' decisions in later rounds. We explore this question by estimating Equation 5 in Table 7, focusing on the joint round with an 80% probability forecast. During the individual round with an 80% probability of rain, we randomized who within the couple (if any) would see the advice to invest in the high-risk variety. Given small sample sizes, we may be underpowered to detect effects here. However, we find couples spend about 10% less of their budget on savings and 11% more on the high-risk investment, when only the husband gets advice, compared to when neither spouse gets advice. While the same qualitative pattern follows when wives only get advice or couples both get advice, the magnitudes of the effects are much smaller, and hence the coefficients are insignificant. This suggests that husbands are most effective at wielding additional external information to influence decisions made as a couple.Our experiment adds to the growing evidence about the potential for climate information to improve farmers' capacity to respond to climate change. We find evidence that farmers change their investment strategies in response to forecasts. Providing investment advisories alongside a forecast further influences investments, albeit to a lesser extent. This showcases the sheer power of providing farmers with additional information; even without providing farmers with advice, simply informing farmers of the likelihood of different weather outcomes allows them to adjust their investments in order to increase their incomes and overall utility. In this sense, forecast information can empower farmers to make the most informed decisions possible, and use their agency to improve their own livelihoods. Critically, providing climate information at scale is likely less \"heavy touch\" and much cheaper than other common interventions aimed at changing smallholder farmers' behavior, such as input subsidies, insurance provision, and extensive trainings. Additionally, our study presents some suggestive evidence that providing couples with forecast information might help them agree upon investment decisions. Critically, without forecast information, spouses may each have different underlying beliefs about the probability of favorable weather conditions. Forecasts can help individuals each update their beliefs toward a common value, and which may help them start bargaining from a place of shared understanding.Critically, traditional cost-benefit analyses of climate information services may miss some of the benefits that we are able to quantify using our experimental approach. Notably, our experimental design allows us to control for variation in the underlying probability of different weather conditions, which can very clearly highlight differences in income from accessing different types of climate information. But beyond, our approach shows how climate information services can help behave in ways that are more similar to how they would have liked to invest, would they have known the ex-post weather realization ex ante. This constitutes key welfare improvements that may not always correspond to an increase in income. Moreover, our approach highlights the possibility of climate information services to help couples align on preferred investment decisions, especially in an environment where women seem to have little intrahousehold bargaining power.However, at the same time, our results must be interpreted carefully. In addition to the design-related caveat mentioned above that couples and individuals did not receive all combinations of forecasts and advice at every rainfall probability, it is also important to reflect on the external validity. There are many ways in which decisions in our lab-style setting differ from the types of investment decisions farming households must make in real life. For one, real-world production decisions are more complex than the experimental choice of which seed to plant, as farmers optimize their usage of a portfolio of different incomes that may have complementary relationships. Additionally, while forecasts provided in our game were always \"correct\" in the sense that the probabilities implied by forecasts were the actual probabilities that specific weather conditions would occur, this is often not the case in real life. The underlying \"data generating process\" of how weather conditions are determined cannot be known, making all forecasts potentially inaccurate. Moreover, farmers may receive climate reports from many sources, of varying degrees of trustworthiness and complexity. Such information may be challenging to evaluate, especially in populations with low literacy levels.Considering this, a potentially promising avenue for climate information service provision may be through \"edutainment\" programs, which provide forecast information and advice to farmers in an entertaining and less complex way. For example, the television program \"Shamba Shape Up\" in Kenya regularly broadcasts simple weather forecasts to farmers, with clear implementable suggestions for how to respond to this weather forecast in terms of farm investment decisions and practices. A similar program called \"Munda Make Over\" has recently launched in Zambia, and may have a similar potential to provide simple, consistent, and reliable forecasts and advice to farmers. One impediment to this avenue may be low television ownership; only 12.5% of respondents report owning a TV, and of those who access climate information services, only 6.5% report getting any CIS through television. However, as mobile phone proliferation expands throughout Zambia and sub-Saharan Africa, policymakers have the opportunity to harness the increased capacity for information sharing to empower farmers in improving their own livelihoods.Forecast: 80% rain -22.69 *** -27.02 *** -3.37 ","tokenCount":"9038"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7817d7a15660c1566909c76fcb0b4cae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cde156d8-d780-4e64-9ca4-eb27113848bf/retrieve","id":"1528928519"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e5dee840-2a57-4c1f-b96f-16e06c6a4d2c","pagecount":"1","content":"El CIAT lidera la biofortificación Pioneros en SIG 2006 Vinculación de los productores con los mercados 2009 Restauración de suelos africanos 2014 ElLa Alianza Panafricana de Investigación en Fríjol (PABRA) incluye instituciones gubernamentales de investigación, universidades y centros internacionales de investigación. Trabaja con agricultores, comunidades rurales, ONG y otras organizaciones del sector privado para incrementar el acceso de los grupos interesados a variedades de fríjol mejoradas y comerciables, nuevas tecnologías de manejo del cultivo e información sobre la cadena de mercado. Desde 1996, PABRA ha liberado más de 550 nuevas variedades de fríjol en toda África, muchas de las cuales han logrado que el fríjol pase de ser un cultivo de subsistencia a un cultivo comercial -lo cual marca el enfoque del CIAT en el aumento de los ingresos de los pequeños agricultores.Bajo el auspicio del Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (TIRFGAA), firmado dos años antes, el CIAT envía su primer cargamento de semillas a la Bóveda Mundial de Semillas de Svalbard en el norte de Noruega. Enterrada en el permahielo cerca al Polo Norte, la denominada \"Bóveda del Fin del Mundo\" tiene por objeto salvaguardar colecciones de semilla de seguridad de los bancos de germoplasma del planeta. En caso de conflicto o desastre natural, las semillas serían repatriadas a los países para ayudarlos a reestablecer la producción de cultivos.En mayo de 1971, 18 países y cuatro organizaciones, convencidas de que la ciencia agrícola es una herramienta poderosa para combatir el hambre, se reúnen como el Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (actualmente CGIAR). Originalmente con sede principal en Washington, DC, CGIAR comienza como una asociación informal de países, organizaciones internacionales y regionales y fundaciones privadas para apoyar la investigación agrícola. El CIAT, IRRI, CIMMYT y el IITA son respaldados como los centros originales de CGIAR. Durante cuatro décadas, el número de centros de CGIAR crece de cuatro a quince.Se realizan esfuerzos para ubicar personal en África y Asia, en particular para trabajar en yuca en Indonesia y Tailandia, y en fríjol en Burundi, Ruanda y Zaire (actualmente la República Democrática del Congo). En este momento, el plan de largo alcance del CIAT requiere significativos aumentos en el personal por fuera de la sede principal y un énfasis en la descentralización mediante la colaboración y las redes mundiales. El CIAT ve el acceso a información precisa y oportuna como un bien público, esencial para los esfuerzos mundiales de combatir el hambre y la pobreza. En 2013, centros de CGIAR se comprometen oficialmente para lograr que todos sus resultados de investigación sean de Acceso Abierto hacia 2018. Abrir la investigación, incluidas las publicaciones, productos y datos sin depurar, asegura que más personas puedan leer y aplicar los hallazgos de las investigaciones del CIAT.La meta final de la Plataforma de CGIAR para Inteligencia de Datos en la Agricultura (2017-2022), que colideran el CIAT e IFPRI, es aprovechar las capacidades de la inteligencia de datos para acelerar y elevar el impacto de la investigación agrícola internacional, proporcionando liderazgo global en la organización de datos abiertos, convocando socios para desarrollar ideas innovadoras y demostrando el poder de la analítica de datos complejos mediante proyectos inspiradores.El CIAT respalda los nuevos Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas, los ambiciosos sucesores de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. Seis de los 17 objetivos refuerzan la importancia global de la misión del CIAT para buscar el desarrollo sostenible desde múltiples frentes: reducción de la pobreza, seguridad alimentaria, salud y bienestar universal, trabajo decente y crecimiento económico, acción por el cambio climático y la protección de la vida terrestre. En conjunto con la Cumbre de la Tierra de 1992 realizada por las Naciones Unidas en Río de Janeiro, y en respuesta al reconocimiento cada vez mayor de que la investigación dirigida a aumentar la producción alimentaria debe además contribuir a la conservación de los recursos naturales, la reducción de la pobreza y la promoción de la igualdad, el CIAT pone en marcha su División de Investigación en Gestión de Recursos. Realiza una clara inversión tanto en desarrollo sostenible como en equidad de género.El CIAT es creado formalmente el 17 de octubre de 1967. Si bien fue conformado en cooperación con el Gobierno de Colombia, el CIAT funcionaría de manera autónoma, regido por una junta directiva internacional. El Dr. Ulysses J. Grant, fitomejorador y Director Regional del Programa Agrícola de la Fundación Rockefeller en Colombia, es designado Director Interino. Grant, un hombre de visión y acción, es elogiado como negociador jefe, promotor y ejecutor detrás de la creación del CIAT. ","tokenCount":"760"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b1233865a598fea54995f003e252ea6a","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.ecosan.at/ssp/selected-contributions-from-the-1st-waterbiotech-conference-9-11-oct-2012-cairo-egypt/SSP-14_Jan2013.pdf","id":"-653477941"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11b27d53-9a9d-4565-93d0-b5b4dbb9ecbf","pagecount":"64","content":"The content of the articles does not necessarily reflect the views of EcoSan Club or the editors and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional advice. EcoSan Club and the editors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication.In order to achieve its main objective of presenting efficient and cost effective biotechnological techniques for wastewater treatment, WATERBIOTECH investigated the African water sector based on several influent and tightly linked factors, mainly: climate change, agriculture and food security, and the economic issues.Water availability and quality, climate, and food security are elements ineluctably linked and with respective influences, hindering human health everywhere and are exceptionally critical in Africa. Africa's water resources are limited, mainly depending on climate factors, essentially rainfalls and weather (temperature, humidity, etc).Even the existing and available quantities of water, are generally subject of low quality hindering people's health and negatively impacting on agriculture. This is of nature to accentuate the environment, health and food stability, in a continent where's registered the highest growth rates of population. In fact, water distribution in major parts of Africa, tightly depends on the climate variable and consequently is characterized by complex patterns and opposite models changing from quasi important rainfalls over the equatorial zone to an extreme aridity in the Sahara. Western Africa and central Africa have significantly greater precipitation than northern Africa, the Horn of Africa and southern Africa. Africa's extreme variability of rainfall is reflected in an uneven distribution of surface and groundwater resources, from areas of severe aridity with limited freshwater resources like the Sahara and Kalahari deserts in the northern and southern parts, to the tropical belt of mid-Africa with abundant freshwater resources. Northern Africa is the most waterstressed sub-region, with less than 1 percent of the renewable water resources of the continent for an area equivalent to 19 percent of Africa. Freshwater availability will become an even more important issue in the coming decades, for the western Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) where climate change scenarios predict a rise in temperature of between 2° and 4°C this century, accompanied by a reduction in rainfall of up to 20 per cent and increased evapo-transpiration. The driest country is Egypt with 51 mm/year on average, followed closely by Libya (56 mm/year) and Algeria (89 mm/year). The rainfalls are also impacting on the groundwater quantities, from which many African countries are tightly depending. Africa is considering as having the lowest total water supply coverage of any region in the world, with only 62% of the population having access to improved water supply. Indeed, compared to the other continents, Africa's share of global freshwater resources is only about 9%, unequally distributed across the whole continent. These freshwater resources are distributed unevenly across Africa, with western Africa and central Africa having significantly greater precipitation than northern Africa, the Horn of Africa and southern Africa. Most areas receive either too much rain or too little. In parts of the west coast, for example, annual rainfall averages more than 250 cm. The rainfalls are also impacting on the groundwater quantities, from which a lot of African countries are tightly depending. Actually, Africa's freshwater resources average 4050 km 3 /year, providing in the year 2000 an average of about 5000 m 3 per capita/year, is significantly less than the world average of 7000 m 3 per capita/year (according to UNEP). At least 13 countries suffered water stress or scarcity in 1990 and the number is projected to double by 2025. The spatial distribution of both surface water and groundwater is uneven, while groundwater is a major source of water in the region, accounting for 15 percent of Africa's total resources. Groundwater is used for domestic and agricultural consumption in many areas, particularly in arid sub-regions where surface water resources are limited. However, areas heavily dependent on groundwater reserves are also at risk of water shortages, as water is extracted far more rapidly than it is recharged. This is the case for Algeria and Libya respectively depending at 60 and 95 percent on groundwater as first source of fresh water.The productivity of agricultural, forestry and fisheries systems depends significantly on the availability of freshwater resources for irrigation and fresh water supply. By seriously affecting crop productivity and food production, in addition to being a necessity in food preparation processes, water plays a critical crucial role in food security. Currently, huge losses due to crop failures arising from droughts are being experienced more frequently than ever before in Africa where one billion people are still undernourished (according to FAO). In sub-Saharan Africa, one of three people -or 236 million (according to FAO) -are chronically hungry, the highest proportion of undernourished people in the total world population. Socio-economic pressures over the next several decades will lead to increased competition between irrigation needs and demand from non-agricultural sectors, potentially reducing the availability and quality of water resources for food. At the same time, during this century, climate change may further reduce water availability for global food production, as a result of projected mean changes in temperature and precipitation regimes, as well as due to projected increases in the frequency of extreme events, such as droughts and flooding. Indeed, the recent IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001) indicates that climate change will have significant impact on crop production and water management systems in coming decades, seriously hindering the irrigated agriculture, which represents the bulk of the demand for water in these countries, and which is also usually the first sector affected by water shortage and increased scarcity, inducing a decreased capacity to maintain per capita food production while meeting water needs for domestic, industrial and environmental purposes. In order to sustain their needs, these countries need to focus on the efficient use and management of all water sources.The availability and access to freshwater is an important determinant of patterns of economic growth and social development. Freshwater is a necessary input for industry and mining, hydropower generation, tourism, subsistence and commercial agriculture, fisheries and livestock production, and tourism. In Africa, most people live in rural areas and are heavily dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. The economy is also the major stressor of the environment; for instance, production in the industrial and agricultural sectors contributes to pollution of the air and water and the generation of solid and hazardous wastes. Consumption activities lead to the production of solid waste and create demand for wastewater treatment services. In Africa, the economic development and the water situation are critically linked and both reversely impacted. Most of industries in Africa are polluting without treatment options, mainly because of a lack in financial resources or awareness of availability of affordable technical solutions. The focus in these countries is mainly on building industries and enhancing the economy, while ignoring at a large extent the environmental and ecologic aspect. In the very recent few years, African governments, especially in the northern countries, started begging attention to the water issue; however, no significant actions are taken yet, mainly due to the expensive technologies and knowledge transfer in the water treatment sector.Issue 14/2013 7Biotechnology applied in the treatment of polluted water resources can play an important role in addressing the challenge of water scarcity in developing countries. Biotechnological wastewater treatment methods are governed by aerobic and/or anaerobic micro-organisms or plants which can detoxify dissolved contaminants in water. This allows society to reclaim their resource value. However, many applications of biotechnology have not yet delivered practical solutions or are not widely used due mainly to the lack of information about the potentials and benefits of these technologies as well as the lack of dissemination of solutions adapted to local conditions. WATERBIOTECH is an initiative that will contribute to cope with water scarcity in Africa by providing access to relevant stakeholders in Western, Eastern and Northern Africa to knowhow in biotechnologies, good practices and management solutions adapted to their local conditions for the sustainable management of polluted water resources. The targeted countries of the present Coordination Action will be Algeria, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ghana, Libya, Morocco, Senegal, and Tunisia. The idea is to disseminate best practices jointly with all the requirements and the strategy necessary for the implementation of selected biotechnologies specifically assigned to local regions within the targeted countries, getting inspired from time to time, from former projects carried on the field. Relevant actors that will benefit from this action will be farmers, providers of sewage treatment services, authorities and decision makers, specialized scientific community, local communities, and general public who live in water stressed areas. The integrated approach of WATERBIOTECH takes into consideration that different aspects influence the availability to water resources and only a holistic vision can provide effective solutions to enhance water management in African countries. Environmental and health concerns, as well as socio-economic aspects such as households income, water consume patterns, irrigation methods or interests in water resources of different stakeholders must be taken into account in the proposal of solutions. For that reason, WATERBIOTECH will provide solutions based on a deep analysis of the current situation in the targeted countries, and cost-benefit analyses developed during the project considering the specific requirements of local regions. WATERBIOTECH outputs will enhance the decision making process by providing guidelines and materials that support stakeholders to implement costeffective and sustainable solutions adapted to the reality in their regions. These outputs will:• Provide recommended biotechnologies adapted to specific local conditions • Make available an investment decision tool based on cost-benefit analyses of biotechnological best practices • Facilitate the exchange of information between biotechnology providers and end users in order to enhance market opportunities in biotechnology and their operation services • Train relevant stakeholders in technical and non-technical aspects required for the implementation of recommended biotechnologies • Raise awareness on the necessity of sustainable and environmentally sound technologies for development • Show examples of good practices in demonstrative activities of implemented technologies.The project is structured in a way that all partners contribute promptly based on their knowledge and expertise within a particular task. All efforts are conjugated to ensure a complete partnership with a specific knowledge transfer via innovative schemes and methodologies. The exchange of expertise between European and Arab-African countries (partners) is of nature to promote the development and uptake of innovative and adapted methods, highlighting and focusing on the role of biotechnology in water treatment.The exchange of experiences and know-how will be very fruitful for WATERBIOTECH.The project approach is not only technical oriented, but is widely based on training, knowledge transfer, awareness and involvement rising of the whole addressed community members, which is of nature to enhance the process of water resources management. More precisely, the project conceive a research co-ordination platform formed by an expert network to define, organize and manage common initiatives and to co-ordinate, assess and guide suitable research activities, of biotechnological methods adapted to the socio-economic and environmental conditions of the targeted developing countries for the treatment of polluted water before use, for agricultural, industrial and domestic activities. The contribution of each of the parties will be integral to the enforcement of the project, with a process of external consulting and participation through panel discussions and workshops with all relevant interested, will be thereby developed. Locally, regular consultations with different sectors and participatory processes in training the local interest groups will be held during the last half of the project period through national and international workshops.WATERBIOTECH's was launched in August 2011 and its activities effectively started after the kick off meeting held in Tunis, Tunisia in September 2011. Actually, the project already went through its first half period time marked by the organization of the WATERBIOTECH first international conference held in October 2012 in Cairo, Egypt. The midterm stated on the steady progress towards the project objectives for which all fixed milestones have been reached on time with no hindering delays. In fact, the project subdivided into several work packages,Issue 14/2013 8 Biotechnology for Africa's sustainable water supply presents a clear overview of the activities performed and the other still to be. The activities were initiated by WP1 within which a geographic segmentation of Africa based on the regional water availability as key differentiator factor have been completed. This led to a classification of the targeted countries within homogeneous regions in order to provide adapted solutions in subsequent work packages. Each region has been assigned with a regional representative within the consortium. These targeted regions have been then characterized with regards to legal and institutional, socio-environmental and economical aspects. Moreover, the work package team assessed the general obstacles potentially hindering any innovative technological implementation in the targeted regions, taking into account technological and non technological obstacles. These activities have been followed by the activities of WP2 where an evaluation of existing water treatment biotechnological practices within the targeted countries has been performed. This evaluation from both a socioeconomic and an environmental perspective has been based on questionnaires applied across the targeted countries by the respective national African partners. As a result of the evaluation, best practices within the targeted countries have been identified. In parallel with this task, technical and non-technical requirements for the implementation of innovative water treatment biotechnologies in the specific targeted regions identified in WP1 have been defined. Cost-benefit analyses of the investments to implement selected best practices have been as well developed under this work package in order to assess costs of implementing biotechnological practices previously selected against the total expected benefits.The work at this stage (Month 15 of the project's period) is enhanced with the third work package already started with an identification and assessment of potential innovative biotechnologies for the sustainable water management in the targeted countries. Taking into account the most applicable innovative biotechnologies as well as the best existing practices identified, this work package team will assign to each of the targeted regions identified in WP1 suitable practices and biotechnologies adapted to their characteristics. The cost-benefit analyses developed under WP2 will be extended to the biotechnologies selected in WP3.A database of biotechnology suppliers for WW treatment has been elaborated identifying the regional suppliers, who can allow the concrete implementation of water treatment biotechnologies. This database will be part of the guideline for the implementation's process of the biotechnologies for water treatment to be developed. The dissemination activities are accompanying all project's steps and phases. Demonstration and training workshops to be organized at month 24, 26 and 29, respectively corresponding to July, September and December 2013, will be the main outcomes of the technology transfer work package (WP4) followed by the final WATERBIOTECH's international conference to be held in Marrakech, Morocco in January 2014.The technical part of the project will focus on promoting the role of biotechnology in water treatment practices in Africa. A deep assessment on water treatment biotechnologies and their adaptability to the African situation will be performed during the project. Innovative water treatment biotechnologies such as activated sludge systems including membrane bioreactors and sequencing batch reactors, trickling filter systems, rotating contactors or constructed wetlands as well as conventional methods such as stabilization ponds will be evaluated in order to provide adapted solutions to specific selected regions based on previous analyses of the socio-economic an environmental situation of the targeted countries. Special attention is paid -apart from purification performance -to decentralised installations considering energy efficiency and energy supply by renewable energy sources. The regional approach of WATERBIOTECH intends to cover the lack of know how in regions that face water scarcity consequences, but also to guide latest research achievements in biotechnology to solve local problems. Innovation is a key source of competitive advantages, a multiplier of economic activity, employment and development. Investments in human capital cannot only foster the creation of innovation but also, and most importantly in rural areas, the assimilation of innovation that is often produced elsewhere. For that reason, capacity building on biotechnology is an essential factor in WATERBIOTECH initiative. Strengthening local capacities will be on focus during the project workshops, in which guidelines and recommendations developed under the project activities will be presented to decision makers and other relevant stakeholders. The achievement of the project results will contribute to a better understanding of the African requirements for promoting research and innovation and how these aspects can boost the economical situation of the continent and therefore improve the living conditions of their inhabitants.Morocco, located in the Northwest of Africa, has an area of 710,850 km² with two long coastlines of 3,500 km of which over 500 km of the Mediterranean and about 3,000 km over the Atlantic. Morocco has approximately a population of about 30 million inhabitants, and its climate is marked by sharp contrast in temperatures between the Mediterranean climate and desert. Like many countries in the world, Morocco is faced with the problem of the development and sustainable management of its water resources. These scarce resources, marked by wide geographical disparities and highly sensitive to vagaries of the weather, come under heavy pressure due to demand resulting from population growth, improved living conditions and the implications of economic development. To support this trend, there is a need for sustained development of water resources in quantity and quality in order to ensure widespread access to drinking water and reduce inequality between regions, notably between urban and rural areas (ADB, 2006). Insufficient rain and droughts are fairly frequent. In 1982, Morocco received less than 60% of the longterm mean rainfall. In 1994, on the other hand, 6 of 11 hydrological basins in Morocco had more than 50% deficit in their water balance (Doukkali, 2005). The average annual precipitation in Morocco is 150 billion m³, varying year by year between 50 billion m³ and 400 billion m³. Annual evaporation is, on average, 121 billion m³. Of the remaining 29 billion m³, about 22 billion m³ of water are technically and economically exploitable (Benbiba, 2010).The Moroccan exploitable resources are comprised of 18 billion m³ of surface water and 4 billion m³ ofIssue 14/2013 10 groundwater (Benbiba, 2010). In Morocco, the volume of water available per inhabitant per year, an indicator of a country's wealth in terms of water, is about 1000 m³/capita/year (Figure 1). Scarcity is often defined as starting from this point. At present, the available water varies between 180 m³ per capita per year for the areas known to be poor in terms of water resources (Souss-Massa, Atlas South, and Sahara) and 1800 m³ per capita per year for areas of the basin of Loukkos, Tangier and Mediterranean Coast, known to be relatively rich (ADB, 2006). It is probable that the water resources per inhabitant will reach around 700 m³ per capita per year towards 2020 (Figure 2). At this time, about 14 million inhabitants, i.e. almost 35% of the total population of the Kingdom will have less than 500 m³ per capita per year at their disposal. Water scarcity is thus becoming a permanent situation that can no longer be ignored when drawing up strategies and policies concerning water resources management in Morocco. The water resource mobilization for the different social and economic uses is grossly done according to the following distribution (Figure 3).Underground waters contribute for meadows of 32% to satisfy needs in drinkable water and about 31% for the agricultural needs. We have to mention that agriculture mobilizes the great part of water resources. It is a choice and strategy that Morocco took since the years 60 and concretely there was the construction of a great number of dams from this date. The vision was ensuring the food security and reducing the dependence with foreign countries.The main producer of drinkable water in Morocco is the national office of drinkable water (ONEP) that was created in 1972. The production increases and the capacity of current production exceed 55 m³/s. This organism practices equally the distribution in the cities. For big cities, There are offices that do the distribution and some ones were privatized (Lydec in Casablanca, Amendis in Tangier, Redal in Rabat). The service rate in urban area exceeds currently 95%. In rural area, it exceeds now 91% while it was only about 14% in 1992 (Makhokh and Bourziza, 2011). For irrigation water and concerning the big hydraulic (irrigation from big dams), there are agricultural offices that sell water to the farmers. The big irrigated perimeters (Haouz, Biotechnologies application in Morocco Biotechnologies application in Morocco Tadla, Gharb...) have fixed water allocations according to master plans and according to hydraulic state in dams. The other industrial uses of water concern mainly the industry food processing, sweets and the oilseeds. Regarding superficial waters mobilization, a sustained effort regarding construction of dams was undertaken since 1967 until our days. Up till now, the kingdom counts 128 large dams with a capacity of nearly 17 billion m³. The dam's edification continues currently with a rhythm of a 1 dam/year. From 1984 and considering the dry years that succeeded on the kingdom, a construction policy of hill dams (small dams) was adopted (Benbiba, 2010). Several infrastructures were realized to satisfy the local population's needs. Concerning balances between areas, 13 water transfer systems with a total length surpassing 1000 km were set up. The total mobilized flow is about 200 m³/s. For underground waters, a sustained effort about increasing resources is undertaken since a linear of 100 km/years including wells and drillings is realized. The park of well and drilling allows having 2.87 billion m³/ year.Morocco is characterized by limited rainfall and strong geographical inequality of the rainfall. To address this situation a New National Water Strategy was launched in 2009 covering the period from 2010 to 2030.This policy is based on the main following strategic objectives (Benbiba, 2010) In 1982, the organizational aspect was marked by the establishment of the regional directions of hydraulic (DRH). The foundation of such act is the management and the water planning within watersheds. In fact, and before this date, prevailed the vision of a planning water resources by project. This date coincided with a drought cycle (1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)) that incited the authorities to review the old institutional aspect.In 1995, and after the economic and social development of Morocco, the DRH structure and some old texts showed their limits and became not adapted to the general Moroccan context. It is the 10/95 law that entered in force and this with a new approach and concepts.The federal principles of this law are as follows (Royaume du Maroc, 1995):• The public domain of water: all water availability is part of the public domain of the state. • The unity of water resources management: the domain and scale of study is the watershed. • The recognition of the economic value of water: adoption of the principles operator payer and polluter payer. • The creation of the basins agencies: spaces consultation between the different actors and water users. They are autonomous organisms taking care of the water management within the watershed. • National and regional solidarity: among the objectives of basins agencies creation, the instauration of mechanisms of solidarities and notably about water transfers between basins.The new structures coming from the 10/95 law are as follows:• The higher water consul: for the elaboration of the general orientations regarding management and planning water at the national scale. • The river basins agencies: for a rational and collective use of water integrating the different actors. • The water provincial commissions: spaces consultation grouping together the local groups, the different provincial services and the professional associations.The application Decree (No 2-97-875, dated February 4, 1998), acting as Water Law 10-95 related to the use of wastewaters, stipulates that no wastewater can be used if it has not been recognized as treated wastewater. The use of raw wastewaters is thus prohibited and banished. The Norms and Standards Committee (NSC) that comes under the National Environment Council is setting objectives for the quality of receptor medium (quality norms). The NSC is made up of representatives from all relevant ministerial departments. Among the suggested norms, there is a project relating to quality standards of wastewaters designed for irrigation, which specifies the bacteriologic, parasitic, and physical-chemical parameters. These Standards for the reuse of wastewater apply to all types of irrigation water, including treated wastewaters. The aim of the standards is to protect environment and health.The institutional organization of water domain in Morocco is based on 3 levels, including the major stakeholders involved in the water domain (Figure 4).Issue 14/2013 12 Biotechnologies application in Morocco Among the inherent problems to the water management in Morocco, is the multiplicity of the stakeholders:• River Basins Agencies: they are 9 throughout the country for managing the main hydraulic basins of the kingdom. • ONEP (national office of drinkable water):principal producer of drinkable water in Morocco, it is equally distributor in small and average cities. The experience of the past showed that a lot of contentious situations in some areas occurred because of the insufficiency coordination between the different actors. In order to endow the country with a national strategy in water domain, the higher water consul was created in 1989 by his majesty the king Hassan II. This institution aims to coordinate the different departments intervening in the water sector. Thus, the big orientations concerning water policy are studied in this council. The studies of master plans are equally approved within this institution which is presided effectively by the King of Morocco (Mandi, 2012). At a regional scale and in accordance with the 10/95 law promulgated in 1995, it is the river basin agency that plays the role motor since the water management is done in a collective way with the different actors and partners within this institution.The actual total volume of sewage discharged in Morocco is estimated at about 750 million m³ (Figure 5); 48% of these waters are discharged into the rivers or applied to land; the rest is discharged into the sea without any treatment. The pollutant load from wastewater is estimated at around 131,715 tons of organic load, 42,131 tons of nitrogen and 6,230 tons of phosphorus. Most of the wastewater produced by inland towns is reused, mainly as raw or insufficiently treated wastewater, to irrigate about 7500 hectares. The lack of wastewater treatment before reuse in inland cities was translated into the exposure of the local population to waterborne diseases and the degradation of superficial and ground water resources.There is a considerable delay regarding liquid and solid sanitation in the construction of purification stations and recovery of treated wastewaters. In urban area, the global rate of connection to the sewer system is about 70% which means that about 4, 5 millions of urban populations are not connected to the network and are using autonomous purification systems (ADB, 2006). For the purification systems, Morocco has 100, of which more than half are not functional for many reasons: technical, financial and human (Mandi, 2012). Such situation shows not only delay that the country combined in this domain, but also contamination risks about receiver environment in general and water resources in particular. Therefore, to protect water resources and reduce the pollution, a national sanitation and sewage program is developed to improve sewerage collection, the treatment of both industrial and domestic wastewater, and increase the reuse.In 2005, the National Sanitation Program was approved that aims at treating 60% of collected wastewater and connecting 80% of urban households to sewers by 2020 (Royaume du Maroc,2008). The main objectives of this program are:• Achieve a rate of 80% as connection to sewerage. Since 1950s, Morocco has introduced Biotechnologies for urban wastewater treatment in some medium and small centres; these biotechnologies were: activated sludge, trickling filter and biodisc. Activated sludge plants were not operated regularly due to lack of maintenance and the high energy costs needed for continuous operation. The need to allocate necessary funds to sustain the operation of these plants was not properly understood by local governmental boards. Most of the new plants built in the 1990s employ extensive technologies, such as stabilization ponds or natural lagoons, high rate algal ponds and sand filter. Until 1993, there were 55 wastewater treatment plants serving small centres and medium-sized cities. Only 18 of them were operating normally while 31 plants were out of service and the remaining six were not connected to the sewerage network since pumping stations could not be financed for various reasons: inadequacy of the treatment system to local conditions, design defect structures, lack of maintenance, management issues (lack of budget, lack of competent technical staff), lack of planning short and long term (Mandi, 2000). The treatment of sewage through natural stabilization ponds was recommended in early 2000 by the National Sanitation Master Plan (SDNAL), particularly because of its low investment and operating costs. However, other treatment techniques such as activated sludge have been chosen for larger cities (Marrakech, Fez,) due to the large areas that would be required for using stabilization ponds. Actually Morocco has more than 100 wastewater treatment plants with more than 77% are natural lagoons (Figure 6).The biotechnologies that are most known by the key actors acting in the field of sanitation in Morocco are natural lagoons (Figure 7). This biotechnology is considered as the most appropriate biotechnology to treat the increasing flows of domestic wastewater in Morocco. The natural lagoons or stabilization ponds have in general 1-4 m deep (sealed with plastic film) slowly traversed by sewage. Most installations consist of a chain of consecutive basins. Given that the total residence time of sewage in such a facility is several weeks, these systems required a relatively high surface area. The longterm retention of wastewater disposal promotes the effective inactivation of pathogens excreted with faeces. The mortality process is promoted by UV radiation and a net increase in pH caused by algae during active photosynthetic periods.Over the past 20 years, the WSP systems have emerged and have proven their effectiveness as economic treatment process requiring little maintenance, especially in hot climates for both small as for large municipalities and cities (Ouazzani et al, 1995). This technology was developed by the ONEP in small and medium centres since 1970 and it represents now more than 80% of the biotechnologies used in Morocco (Picture 1). The ONEP have recommended the choice of Waste stabilization ponds in the majority of the directory schemes of sanitation realized for lot of small and medium cities in Morocco. In Morocco, combined pond system that integrate aerated lagoons and storage reservoir have been successfully applied in Oujda city (Picture 2) and produces a high quality effluent meets the non-restricted irrigation WHO guidelines. The first important water reuse project in Morocco was implemented in 1997 in Ben Slimane city (Picture 3), where 5600 m³/day of wastewater is treated by anaerobic, aerated lagoons, facultative, and maturation ponds consecutively. The disinfected effluent (0 helminth eggs/l, <20 CF/100 ml) is used for golf course irrigation during the summer (for an average volume of reused water of 1000 m³/day).The new Marrakesh wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), which started treating wastewater in 2011 (Picture 4), is considered as the first WWTP in North Africa to integrate wastewater treatment, biogas recovery from sludge, electricity &heat cogeneration, air treatment and water reuse. In this plant, about 120,000 m³/d of wastewater are treated in four stages: 1) pre-treatment 2) primary treatment in sedimentation tank 3) secondary treatment that employs activated sludge (i.e. aerobic sludge treatment) 4) tertiary treatment, which consists of microfiltration by sand filter and disinfection by ultraviolet lamp units. This last process raises the effluent quality of the wastewater before it is reused for irrigation of golf courses. The electricity consumed by the plant is around 30 GWh/year while the electricity generated by four cogeneration units with a power of 862 kW is in total about 10.5 GWh/year. About more than 70% of the treated water coming from this WWTP are re-used recreational purposes (golf course, palm grove, etc.). The treatment and re-use of Marrakech's wastewater is a milestone in sustainable development, which made significant progress towards attaining Morocco's national target of 60% effluent treatment by 2020.In spite of the progress achieved by Morocco in term of wastewater treatment, the majority of the biotechnologies for domestic wastewater treatment implemented in several small and medium communities still not functional for the following reasons (Mandi, 2012):• Expensive cost of electricity.• Absence of equipment and maintenance.• Lack of an adequate budget for plant maintenance and operation. • Lack of coordination between different contributors in the management of the plants. • The cost of further steps of treatment such as disinfection in order to have an effluent that meet the irrigation water standards. • The need of additional cost for sludge treatment technologies in parallel to water treatment plants.• Some plants have been built on the limits of some cities which threaten the future of these plants because of extension of housing and the nuisance of odours.• The sewage treatment plants do not operate satisfactorily and, in most cases, treated wastewater discharges exceed the legal and/or hygienically acceptable maxima. This is attributed to the lack of adequately trained staff with the technical skills to operate these plants. • Trained operators are a prerequisite for the control and monitoring of all treatment and reuse operations.• In several cases, the outflow of wastewater treatment systems does not meet specified quality standards, either because standard operating procedures are not followed or because technically qualified personnel to control and monitor plant operations is unavailable. • Wastewater authorities are unable to monitor continuously operational parameters in the treatment plant.Morocco is situated in arid area and has been faced to several water management problems. In addition of the aridity of climate, the heterogeneity of water resources distribution, repetition of drought related to climate change reduce the potential of water resources.In addition, the discharge of urban and industrial wastewater increases the threat of water pollution and reduces of the availability of water resources.In spite of big effort on water availability and water supply for the growing population in Morocco, and even though legislative, organizational upgrading of the management of water sector, a big delay has to be catch up in the sanitation and wastewater treatment.The high costs of conventional treatment processes have lead national authorities to search for creative, efficient and environmentally sound ways to control water pollution. The development of simple and cost effective water treatment biotechnologies such as Stabilization ponds and aerated lagoons is particularly interesting for Morocco. These processes that use relatively more land and are lower in energy and operational costs are becoming attractive alternatives for many wastewater treatment applications especially in Moroccan small communities. In the case of inland large cities where the land becomes extremely expensive and/or not available, the use of sophisticated biotechnologies such as activated sludge is recommended. Biotechnologies could be considered as useful tool to manage wastewater economically and effectively in Morocco as well as in other African countries. Moreover, the big challenge is to overcome all the socio-economic and institutional barriers that hindering their development.Egypt is an arid country, which covers an area of about 1,001,450 km 2 of which only 4% is occupied by its population.The population has tripled during the last 50 years from 19 million in 1947 to about 83.5 million in 2012 of whom about 99% are concentrated in the Nile Valley and Delta.The population is estimated to be about 100 million by the year 2025 (Abdel-Lateef et al., 2011). One of the important issues in the future is to redistribute the population over a larger area. To reach this objective, it is essential to reclaim new lands in order to provide the required food for the new communities. The agriculture requirements exceed 80% of the total demand for water (Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002). In view of the expected increase in water demand from other sectors, such as municipal and industrial water supply, the development of Egypt's economy strongly depends on its ability to conserve and manage its water resources.Meanwhile, water demand is continually increasing due to population growth, industrial development, and the increase of living standards. The per capita share of water has dropped dramatically to less than 1000 m 3 / capita, which is classified as \"Water poverty limit\". It is projected that the value decreases to 500 m 3 /capita in the year 2025 (Abdel-Wahaab, 2003) (Figure 1).Most cultivated lands are located close to the Nile banks, its main branches and canals. Currently, the inhabited area is about 5.3 million ha and the cultivated agricultural land is about 3.3 million ha.The per capita crop area declined from 0.17 ha in 1960, 0.08 ha in 1996 to about 0.04 ha in 2012 (World Bank, 2007, Abdel-Shafy andAly, 2002). The sharp decline of the per capita of both cultivated land and crop area resultedIssue 14/2013 18 Overview on water reuse in Egypt in the decrease of the per capita crop production. This affects directly the food security at individual, family, community and country levels (World Bank, 2009).Water resources in Egypt are limited to the following resources:• Nile River • Rainfall • Groundwater in the deserts and Sinai and • Desalination of sea water Each resource has its limitation on use, whether these limitations are related to quantity, quality, space, time, or use cost. The following is a description of each resource.Nile water budget is 55.5 x 109 m 3 /yr to Egypt and 18.5 x109 m 3 /yr to Sudan according the agreement between both countries in 1959 (Dijkman, 1993). The Nile River inside Egypt is completely controlled by Aswan dam in addition to series of seven barrages between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea. Egypt relies on the available water storage of Lake Nasser to sustain its annual share of water. Nile water comprises about 91.5% of the total fresh water supply and the 97% of renewable water supplies in Egypt (Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2007). Water supplies and demands in Egypt are given in Table 1.Rainfall in Egypt is very scarce, with an annual average of 12 mm (Abdel-Shafy et al. 2010). The mean annual rainfall ranges from 0 mm/year in the desert to 200 mm/year in the north coastal region (Figure 2). Rain falls only in the winter season in the form of scattered showers (Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002). Rainwater is concentrated on the northern part of the country. It is between 150 -200 mm, and decreases gradually to the south reaching around 24 mm.The maximum total amount of rain does not exceed 1.8 billion m 3 (BCM) per year. At present, the average annual amount of rainwater that is effectively utilized for agricultural purposes is about 1 BCM per year (Abdel-Shafy et al. 2010). In the western desert, groundwater is non-renewable fossil origin and occurs in the geological layers of the Nobian limestone. It supplies the New Valley's Oasis. It has been estimated that about 200,000 BCM of fresh water are stored in this aquifer. The water is at the depth of 60-100 m around the area of East-Oweinat (NWRP, 2005).In Sinai groundwater is mainly encountered in three different water-bearing formations: i) the shallow aquifers in northern Sinai, ii) the valley aquifers, and iii) the deep aquifers. The shallow aquifers in the northern part of Sinai are composed of sand dunes that hold the seasonal rainfall (heavy storms), which helps to fix these dunes. The annual rainfall on Sinai varies from 40 mm to 200 mm/year. Although most of the shallow aquifers are renewable, only 10 to 20% of the deep aquifers are renewable by rainfall and flash floods. The aquifers in the coastal area are subject to salt-water intrusion. The total dissolved solids in this water range from 2,000 to 9,000 ppm which can be treated to reach a suitable salinity level to be used for irrigating certain crops (Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002).The total groundwater abstraction in the western desert is 0.5 BCM/year and in Delta, Sinai and New Valley is estimated to be 5.1 BCM/year .Desalination of seawater in Egypt has been given low priority. The reason is due to the cost of treating seawater which is high compared with other sources, even the unconventional sources such as drainage reuse (El-Kad and El-Shibini, 2001;Abou Rayan et al. 2004). The future use of such resource for other purposes (agriculture and industry) will largely depend on the rate of improvement in the technologies used for desalination and the cost of power. The amount of desalinated water in Egypt now is in the order of 0.03 BCM/year.Non-conventional water resources include:• the renewable groundwater aquifer in the Nile basin and Delta • the reuse of treated sewage water • the reuse of treated agricultural drainage water These recycled waters cannot be added to Egypt's fresh water resources. The renewable Groundwater Aquifer in the Nile Valley and Delta was estimated at about 500 BCM but the maximum renewable amount (the aquifer safe yield) is only 7.5 BCM. The existing rate of abstraction in regions is about 4.5 BCM/year, which is still below the potential safe yield of the aquifer (WHO, 2005).Existing situation Sanitation services in Egypt are less developed than water supply services. At present, there are more than 323 wastewater treatment plants in the country. The capacity of wastewater treatment plants has increased by 10 times in the last two decades. The existing capacity is 12 million m 3 /day. Length of wastewater collection networks / sanitation pipelines increased from 28,000 km in 2005 to 34,000 km in 2010 (Abdel-Kader and Abdel-Rassoul, 2010). Urban coverage with improved sanitation gradually increased from 45% in 1993 to 56% in 2004, reaching 100% in urban and 40% in rural areas by the end of 2012. The low coverage in rural sanitation results in serious problems of water pollution and health conditions due to the discharge raw domestic wastewater directly into the waterways (MWRI/USAID, 2000).Wastewater treatment aims at the removal of biodegradable organic compounds, suspended and floatable material, nutrients and pathogens. However, the criteria for wastewater treatment intended for reuse in irrigation differ considerably. While it is intended that pathogens are removed to the maximum possible extent, some of the biodegradable organic matter and most of the nutrients available in the raw wastewater need to be maintained.The main criteria affecting selection of the technology are:• Availability of land Recent studies indicated that it may not be possible, due to economic reasons, to provide sewerage facilities for all residents of rural and peri-urban areas, either now or in the near future. Therefore, the decentralized wastewater treatment facilities are the best solution (MWRI/USAID, 2000; Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2007; MED WWR WG, 2007).Compared to freshwater in water-stressed regions, treated wastewater (TWW) reuse is considered a beneficial and attractive option for several reasons:• Prevent surface water pollution, if the wastewaters were discharged into rivers or lakes • Postpone potentially more costly water supply approaches (storage, transfer, or desalination schemes). • Eliminate the need for costly and complicated wastewater treatment processes. In particular the removal of nutrients (i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus) is unnecessary • The quantity of TWW generated will rise with population and increased industrial activity. • Potential non-agricultural uses for TWW include industrial cooling; landscapes irrigation; fire fighting and toilets flushing in non-residential buildings. • For agriculture, TWW can be mixed with fresh water, and can be used to grow non-food crops in the desert areas, where it would otherwise serve no useful purpose (i.e. it enables horizontal expansion with little or no cost, at least with respect to two key inputs -land and water). • The nutrients in TWW reduce the need for applying chemical fertilizers, thereby reducing costs and environmental problems associated with run-off of such chemicals. • Where well planned, TWW can serve as an environmentally superior alternative to disposing of wastewater in the desert, the sea, or other water bodies. • Soil Aquifer Treatment provides the potential to recharge TWW to groundwater, thereby supplementing fresh water supplies for irrigation and other purposes, while storing water without evaporation losses or the risks associated with dams. Meanwhile, many contaminants in the effluent, including suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms are reduced or removed through an inexpensive process.However, there are risks, which refer to the quality of TWW which can be summarized as follows: The increasing demands for domestic water due to population growth, improvement in living standards and the growing industrial sector will increase the total amount of wastewater available for reuse as an important source. The major issues include public health and environmental hazards as well as technical, institutional, socio-cultural and sustainability aspects.The future policy for using sewage water can be summarized as follows:• Sewage Water Currently, Egypt produces an estimated 5.5-6.  2002;Abdel-Wahaab, 2003). This practice has been accelerated since 1980 as tremendous potential importance to Egypt.The amount of water that returns to drains from irrigated lands is relatively high (about 25 to 30%). This drainage flow comes from three sources; tail end and seepage losses from canals; surface runoff from irrigated fields; and deep percolation from irrigated fields (partially required for leaching salt). None of these sources is independent of the Nile River. The first two sources of drainage water are considered to be fresh water with relatively good quality.The agricultural drainage of the southern part of Egypt returns directly to the Nile River where it is mixed automatically with Nile fresh water which can be used for different purpose downstream. The total amount of such direct reuse is estimated to be about 4.07 BCM/year in 1995/96. In addition, it is estimated that 0.65 BCM/ year of drainage water is pumped to the El-Ibrahimia and Bahr Youssef canals for further reuse (Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2007). Another 0.235 BCM/year of drainage water is reused in Fayoum while about 0.65 BCM/year of Fayoum is drained to Lake Qarun. Moreover, drainage pumping stations lift about 0.60 BCM/year of Giza drainage from drains to the Rossita Branch just downstream of the delta barrages for further downstream reuse.Drainage water in the Delta region (Figure 3) is then emptied to the sea and the northern lakes via drainage pump stations. The amount of drainage water pumped to the sea was estimated to be 12.41 BCM in 1995/96. This decreased and will continue to decrease in the future according to the development of the reuse of agricultural drainage water.The regulation includes the following measures:• Increasing the reuse of drainage water from about 5.5 BCM/year to 7.0 BCM/year by year 2014 and to 9.6 BCW/year by year 2017 with average salinity of 1170 ppm (Abdel-Lateef et al., 2011). This could be achieved through implementing several projects to expand the reuse capacity at different areas.Main future projects include El-Salam canal project (Figure 4), El-Omoom and El-Batts drainage. • Improving the quality of drainage water especially in the main drains. • Separating sewage and industrial wastewater collection systems. • Draining 50% of the total generated drainage water in the delta into the sea to prevent seawater intrusion, and to maintain the salt balance of the system.Issue 14/2013 22 Overview on water reuse in Egypt• Updating and implementing an integrated information system for water quality monitoring in drains.• Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the environmental impacts due to the implementation of drainage water reuse policy especially on soil characteristics, cultivated crops, and health conditions.Irrespective of the treatment level the Egyptian Code prohibits use of TWW for the production of vegetables eaten raw or cooked, export-oriented crops (i.e. cotton, rice, onions, potatoes, and medicinal and aromatic plants) as well as citrus fruit trees, and irrigating school gardens, respectively (EEAA, 2000).Plants and crops irrigated with treated wastewater are classified into three agricultural groups that correspond to three different levels of wastewater treatment. The Code further stipulates conditions and restrictions for type of crops, irrigation methods and health protection measures for farm workers, consumers, and those living on neighbouring farms.The Code classifies wastewater into three grades (designated A, B, and C), depending on the level of treatment it has received (Table 2) and specifies the maximum concentrations of specific contaminants consistent with each grade, and the crops that can,   In 14 governorates and 2 districts, with more than 30,000 ha of marginal desert land allocated, 63 forests are growing thanks to the irrigation with the effluents of WWTPs, whose designed daily discharge is about 1.9 million m 3 /day (Abdel-Shafy et al., 2003). The cultivated area is about 5,000 ha (FAO, 2005) and the fallow land area is about 25,000 ha. An overview is presented in Figure 5.The main constraints facing use of treated wastewater are:• Financial constraints (related to high treatment costs and sewerage networks) • Health impacts and environmental safety linked to soil structure deterioration, increased salinity and excess of nitrogen 1. The use of treated wastewater should be considered an integral component in country's national water strategic plan. 2. Wastewater management should change from the regional sewerage systems to decentralized wastewater treatment facilities. 3. Decentralized systems will increase the opportunities for localized reclamation/reuse of treated wastewater. 4. Separation of industrial effluent disposal systems, provision of adequate treatment facilities to those communities connected to sewer systems. 5. Search for simple cost-effective treatment technology, horizontal expansion based on reuse of treated sewage. This will increases the coverage of sanitation systems. 6. Awareness of the health risks involved with direct or indirect contact with the water.  The coverage with improved sanitation in the different target countries is presented in Table 1. In the 3 Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal), sanitation coverage ranges between 34 and 72 % for combined improved sanitation and shared/public toilets. This contrasts significantly with the situation in North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia) where levels are noticeably higher (70-100 %), with limited use of shared facilities. The other side of sanitation is to ensure a proper disposal of the wastewater (including faecal sludge) being generated.One objective of WATERBIOTECH project has been to evaluate the existing technologies for wastewater treatment in the target countries, looking at the types of processes implemented, their efficiency, compared with the standards values, and the current outcomes of the treated water.On the course of this activity, three different questionnaires were prepared (in English, French and Arabic). This paper focusses on the data obtained through interviews in 2012 of key stakeholders, with Questionnaires 2 and 3. Q2 aimed at collecting information on the functionalityIssue 14/2013 27 of water treatments units. It was mainly addressed to wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) managers and other specialists working on the ground, within the sanitation sector. Q3 aimed at gathering information on the reuse of the treated wastewater. It was addressed to users of treated or untreated wastewater.The identification of key stakeholders per country was done by the national partners. In many cases, the operators/technicians in charge of the O&M of WWTPs were not fully aware of the specificities of the technologies, leading to incomplete data collection. On the other hand, given the high number of TPs in some countries, only selected WWTPs were investigated in detail.Wastewater treatment plants Amount of wastewater Total amounts of wastewater treated in each target country are presented in Table 2. As a general observation, a sewer system provides the core of the wastewater inflow to WWTPs. Additional septage transport by trucks is also present, especially in some SSA cases. In the 3 SSA countries, less than 5 L/d/person of wastewater are treated. The situation is significantly different in North Africa where ratio reaches 63 L/d/person in Tunisia. The sewerage network is also quite well developed, with e.g. over 80% of households connected to sewer in Algeria and Tunisia. On the other hand, given the relatively low per capita water consumption, all plant types deal with high organics and nutrient concentrations, compared to WWTPs in developed countries. The specific flow rates of wastewater being treated in one WWTP are also highly variable over the continent. While there are below 200 m 3 /h per WWTP in SSA (except for one WWTP in Dakar having 1,200 m 3 /h of hydraulic flow rate), many WWTPs have some 3,000 to 5,000 m 3 /h of hydraulic flow rate in North Africa.Treatment processes in use Table 3 presents an overview of the most used technologies. Activated sludge (AS) and stabilization ponds (either aerated or not) are the most used technologies in Africa (Figures 1-4). In all target countries, both technologies represented 68-100% of all implemented units still in operation. In Ghana, AS systems are applied mostly by private entities (industry, hotels) while ponds are preferred by public entities. But, as shown in Figure 5, a wide range of treatment processes are also being operated. Trickling filters were popular some years ago while ponds have now the preference. Many WWTPs are also in disrepair (Figure 6). In Burkina Faso, only ponds are used. However, the remaining five countries show a wider application range at large scale of AS or ponds (Figures 2,4). Combinations of treatment systems for polishing and tertiary treatment rarely exist. It is to be noted that many of the described plants are aged.Wastewater treatment practices in Africa 1 The value in italic is the coverage with improved sanitation (i.e. toilet facility). Between parentheses is given the share of shared/public toilets; between brackets the percentage of households connected to the public sewer (when reported) is given, (JMP, 2012).The values reported in Table 1 do not necessarily: 1) mean that the systems reported are operational; 2) imply proper treatment and disposal of the wastewater produced. Statistics do not reflect the real situation (which is expected to be much worse) (UN, 2006). Anaerobic digestion for wastewater and/or sludge treatment allows biogas production and electricity generation. But this is very rarely found although the potential might be high. A lack of understanding of the requirements in AS plants for biogas production might be a reason. AS plants with energy generation have been reported from North Africa (Figure 2) and Senegal while 3 cases of anaerobic digestion of liquid waste exist in Ghana. However, willingness to produce biogas is low in countries with significant energy resources such as Algeria.1.     4). Among technical challenges, insufficient capacity to cope with increasing wastewater load (e.g. because of population increase) is a commonly reported problem. In case of strong deviation between wastewater collection and treatment capacity, a substantial part of sewage is released untreated (e.g. for Camberene WWTP, Senegal). Another key challenge WWTPs in Africa have to cope with is the pollution load variation, caused by uncontrolled discharges into the sewage network (e.g. from industrial discharge), a result of non-enforced regulations. Power cuts are a severe issue where processes with energy demand take place. Poor O&M, leading to inappropriate sludge disposal and odour generation and lack of re-investments are also reported.Financial problem arises in all countries, negatively affecting the O&M, the construction (e.g. unfinished WWTPs in Morocco) or the upgrading of WWTPs. High energy costs are also cited as key constraint in all countries. In terms of management, differences can be observed, depending on the nature (public, private) of the operators. In the public sector, many WWTPs suffer from heavy administrative procedure for O&M and lack of short-term maintenance planning. Workers in charge of treatment plants often lack the full capacity to maintain them and are not motivated/encouraged to maintain treatment plants.As a result, WWTPs often deliver insufficient effluent quality, causing complaints from stakeholders. Release of insufficiently treated wastewater into the environment is also observed where treatment plants are dysfunctional or temporarily disconnected (common in Ghana).Table 5 presents selected quality requirements for WWTPs in Africa. These values are compared with their European counterpart found in the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive of the European Union. This table reveals that regulations on treatment standards and effluent requirements differ over the case study countries. In the 3 SSA countries, the standards to be achieved by treated effluents mostly rely on the WHO guidelines. But it is essential to emphasize the fact that regulation is not always enforced on a regular basis. Upstream enforcement of regulation (e.g. for the industries connected to the sewerage) is almost inexistent in all 3   In North Africa, strict emission thresholds can be found, especially regarding COD (all countries, except Morocco) and phosphorus (Tunisia). For these parameters and countries, the national standards are even stricter than for the European Union (UWWTD, 1991). Such situation should result in the need of implementing highly effective WWTPs in order to match the regulation, which therefore would reveal expensive to operate. On the other hand, it is important to highlight that limitations of nutrient levels in treated effluents to be reused in agriculture, can be contra-productive. In some countries, some specific standards have been adopted for treated water to be reused in agriculture (e.g. Tunisia).For all countries but Morocco, thresholds for hygienic parameter for treated domestic effluents are fixed, whether expressed in terms of faecal coliforms (FC), total coliforms (TC) or E. Coli (EC). However, such limitation could only be justified when the treated water is reused or discharged to sensitive receiving areas (e.g. with nearby DW resources). Likewise, this requirement only implies further treatment costs but does not support environmental conservation.The situation of water reuse in Africa is highly variable. In some locations, water reuse is been practiced without much legal control. This is the case of Accra (Ghana) where water from drains is reused for growing a wide range of vegetables, even when it undergoes no proper treatment. In Burkina Faso, the government has agreed with the reuse of wastewater and has therefore developed areas for market gardening using this resource under some restrictions (only for selected vegetables). But in Senegal, water reuse is not always practiced even if a potential exist for that (current uses include gardening or livestock watering) for reasons including unsuitable location of the WWTP which causes the treated water not to be accessible to potential users.The most important challenges with reuse acceptability in agriculture are observed in the case study countries of North Africa. While, on the one hand, Morocco significantly limits this practice for agriculture, Egypt on the other hand encourages it for selected farming activities. In practice, 45 % of the treated water in Morocco (25% of the wastewater undergoes any form of treatment) is reused, mainly for lawn irrigation, groundwater recharge and by industries. In Tunisia, it is used for golf courses and other green spaces' irrigation. In Algeria, the main uses include town road cleaning and for cooling fire engines. In all these 3 countries, the use in agriculture is limited. In Egypt, the permitted use of treated water depends on its quality.Table 6 presents a summary of the challenges that water reuse faces in the target countries. Several reasons can justify the limited success of water reuse in agriculture for the concerned areas. Firstly, it shall be observed that water reuse is promoted in areas where access to water is scarce and no other water source (surface or groundwater) available at low cost (e.g. in SSA and Egypt). When there is competition with other water sources, treated water reuse is not successful. Under these circumstances, willingness to pay the water is also low, and it contributes to generating unfavourable conditions for water reuse. Low tariffs on fresh water (in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) also limit the possibility to sell treated water for irrigation and to generate significant income for WWTP operation. In general, cost recovery from reuse (if existent) is too low to cover even the operating costs of the added irrigation components, leading to dependency on foreign aid and governmental support. Exceptions can be treatment systems generating energy (Evans et al., 2012). Other socio-economic or political factors such as a lack of awareness, on both governance and user (e.g. farmers) sides, also impact willingness to pay. Indeed, water reuse often suffers from bad perception from farmers (detrimental effect on soils and plants) and consumers.Insufficient infrastructure and unsuitable treated water quality (high pathogen and salinity levels) are other factors that inhibit reuse. Specifically, insufficient pathogen removal in reuse water poses risks to health, especially if alternative risk reduction options are not in place, as advocated e.g. by WHO (2006).This paper aimed at analysing the current experiences of 7 African countries in terms of wastewater management. It informed on some challenges and drivers for the current situation and confirmed the gap between North Africa and Sub-Saharan African countries. The study revealed that activated sludge and ponds systems are currently the top 2 technologies applied for wastewater treatment and overall represent over 70% of treatment units in the Region. But many WWTPs are subject to transition, especially in the fast growing urban centres of Africa. In addition, in most countries, not all wastewater is collected (e.g. through sewer systems) and not all collected wastewater is treated. This situation gives room for further diversification on existing systems as well as creating opportunities for new developments. Currently, in SSA, WWTPs are mostly expected to treat low flow rates effluents (< 200 m 3 /h), but large systems with up to 5,000 m 3 /h of flow rate, are also encountered in North Africa. The national standards in many African countries will benefit revisions to include achievable targets for essential parameters. Indeed, most entities in Africa cannot afford the high energy prices and Sustainable Sanitation Practice Issue 14/2013 34 Wastewater treatment practices in Africa operation costs of the systems, which require a trained and qualified staff as well, needed to be implemented in order to meet the current standards.It is established that reuse of treated water, e.g. in agriculture, can help in reducing stress on valuable fresh water resources in two ways; avoiding their pollution and reducing their consumption, especially in urban and peri-urban areas. The lack of adequate infrastructure for water collection or treatment also causes the bulk of domestic and/or industrial wastewater to be discharged without any treatment, with damages health and environment. In principle, wastewater reuse provides a mean for income generation. However, in some countries, low quality of treated wastewater or restrictive legislation does not allow WWTPs and users to benefit from the reuse. Anyway, the complexity of the problem requires adapted approaches considering technical, organizational and governance aspects, like promoted by WHO (2006).The survey conducted within the WATERBIOTECH project (www.waterbiotech.eu) showed that numerous technical and non-technical aspects can influence the success of system operation. The results also showed that there is a rather small number of different water biotechnologies applied in the partner countries involved in the project. Whereas the water supply side mainly relies only on physic-chemical methods, wastewater treatment seems to be dominated by the biological treatment methods of activated sludge systems (AS) and pond systems (PS). Despite some exceptions, the type of technology presentIssue 14/2013 36 could not directly be blamed for the failures -it is more the combination of the type of selected technology with the non-technical conditions present that do not work out. Given many problems with external infrastructure (energy, materials and supplies), practice reflects that extensive/simple systems seem to have a higher probability of long term operation than intensive (technical) systems. But even for pond systems, the development of the associated catchment leads to significant problems. The background of the investigated regions shows different infrastructure conditions with significantly lower sanitation and wastewater coverage in the Sub-Saharan countries. On the other hand water reuse is a more pressing issue in North African countries given that wastewater is often the most reliable water source in dry climates. More details on the survey results and the methodology applied in the survey are described in Nikiema et al. (2013).The objective of this paper is to summarize the most important requirements for local adaptation that have been extracted from the surveys and to discuss some issues that are linked to them.Many of the technical requirements given below should be common knowledge for planning engineers and also necessary aside the target regions of the project. Anyway, the summarized points below are directly tackled by the challenges reported in the survey and therefore worth to be repeated. Besides the bullet points of the requirements itself, some critical discussion points have been added to show the relevance of non-technical aspects that impact technology implementation and complicate engineer's life.The treatment capacity has to comply with regulations and has to ensure that no harm is posed to humans and the receiving environment (aquatic systems and water resources):• Legal compliance specific to each country and area. • Low toxicity of remaining pollutants on fish; e.g. low levels of ammonia. • Low levels of N and P to avoid eutrophication.Numerous problems arise with the issue of legal compliance. A legal framework should cover the risk management of wastewater treatment, disposal and reuse for the conditions where it is applied. Under this assumption, the durable compliance of a system keeps health risks and environmental risks at an exactable level. As basis, the thresholds given for the effluent has to be achievable by a system. In many cases, developing countries copy requirements from others (developed countries) or even worse: They set more stringent thresholds. It is not to be forgotten that, in developed countries, the current legal framework reflects the status of a (costly) system development and upgrade over decades. This development followed a stepwise improvement -from mechanical treatment, carbon removal up to tertiary treatment (where necessary).For example, economically and technically feasible technologies cannot meet the stringent P requirements given in Tunisia (P levels below 0.1 mg/L!). Also, since many projects are funded externally and national and international tender procedures apply, intensive (technical) systems get favoured over extensive ones as a consequence. The dependence on foreign technology import is prolonged when the offered solutions have to comply with strict effluent requirements.As second aspect, compliance requires the knowledge on system performance and its control. As first part of this, the operator has to be able to measure something and, as a consequence, to react according to the results. This implies costs on analytical materials and equipment but also sufficiently trained personnel. Both efforts are dependent on the number and nature of parameters to be covered. Secondly, regulators have to be aware of the operation results and have to verify them externally. Again, time and resources are needed. Practice shows that capacities on both sides do not meet these requirements in many cases.In case of water reuse, the effluent quality has to prevent adverse impacts on humans, the receiving environment and agricultural production (but to keep beneficial nutrients for plant uptake):• No further contamination of groundwater, e.g. with pathogens. • Low salinity.• Possibly high nutrient (N and P) levels.• Low pathogen contamination.• Low suspended solids (to avoid sedimentation in the irrigation devices).Legal compliance issues apply in the same way for reuse purposes as stated earlier. Since reuse of treated water may be an input to the food chain, this is even more important. But frameworks have to consider the nature of the reuse envisaged. This means that nutrients shall not be removed since they are needed. Hence, treatment costs can be reduced and the market position of the reuse water strengthened. In some North African countries, water subsidies for irrigation water (from public water supply) counteract water reuse fromRequirements for water biotechnologies in Africa Sustainable Sanitation PracticeIssue 14/2013 37 wastewater treatment by reducing its market value. Considering the important aspect of hygienic risks, wastewater treatment is only one step in the reuse chain. Selection of crops, transport, irrigation system and other aspects contribute to a successful reuse system (see WHO guidelines;WHO, 2006). Studies revealed that even the handling of the crops during transport and market are more relevant for hygienic contamination than the treatment of the used wastewater itself (Ensink, 2010). Discussing safety issues and having in mind that at many places of the investigated regions informal use of (untreated) wastewater is in place, practicable solutions for reuse are urgently needed. Figure 1 shows the effluent of a pond system for agricultural reuse.Here, farmers reduced the use since adverse impacts on crops have been observed (and not because some parameter thresholds where not met). The plant suffers from adverse industrial impacts (see also next chapter and Nikiema et al., 2013).The system size has to be designed to cope with the amount of current connection load including a certain (estimated) future increase.• Selection of technology according to level of centralisation needed. • System must be able to cope with anticipated changes of settlement structure (urbanization). • Size must take into account the estimated future increase of inhabitants.Currently, many systems suffer from overload conditions with the consequence that wastewater can only be partly treated. One reason is that the treatment capacities have not been planned accordingly or been increased in parallel to the collection systems or that a significant input comes from informal connections. As population is rapidly increasing in many peri-urban and urban areas in Africa, the systems have to cope with increased loadings as well with changed wastewater quality (impact of industry and businesses, see below).A transition of infrastructure with increasing level of centralisation has to be considered. Decentralized systems might be appropriate for a certain time period, and then sewer connection might be necessary to cover increased settlement density. Hence, the suitability of technologies might change with such considerations.The management and O&M requirements related to the plant size shall be in line with local capacities.• Complexity has to be appropriate for expertise available.• Capacity building to increase and regularly adapt human resources shall be possible.Generally, small systems with responsibilities of the end-user for operation require low complexity. For larger scale and technical systems, the operator is a key element. Often the resources for personnel are limited or redirected from their designation to finance other community issues. This leads to failure in many cases. Also the lack of internal and external monitoring contributes to a low awareness on capacity building within operating institutions (see also section on O&M).Requirements for water biotechnologies in Africa  Issue 14/2013The applied technology shall ensure the required performance at a minimal aerial footprint in cases where land availability is low (and land is expensive). Further, the technology selected shall consider other topographical limitations (e.g. steep hills, mountainous regions) and shall be appropriate for the local soil properties. If the location enables the application of sanitation by-products (e.g. compost), this should be considered in the technology selection. Extensive systems like ponds and wetlands generally require relatively large space for implementation whereas the high temperatures in African regions lead to reduction of the required area due to the higher microbial activity compared to temperate climates. Technical systems concentrate the biological turnover on smaller footprint but that leads automatically to higher complexity of the system. Figure 3 shows the impressive surface area of a pond system.The biological treatment system has to be adaptable to cope with pollution characteristics (composition, toxic content) originating from industrial discharges.• The WWTP shall be able to treat wastewater generated by local industries to a certain extend (depending on the type of industries). • Technology shall allow flexible control of the process, in case of a variation in the industrial waste composition.As already mentioned, settlement development and economic growth is often way faster than the infrastructure development in the investigated areas leading to significant impact on public treatment facilities. System failures are reported from simple overload condition due to (often informal) industrial input but also from direct system inhibition from toxic industrial wastes. Biological treatment systems can only cope with industrial inputs to a certain extend. Buffer volumes may help but, in case of strong toxic impacts, the microorganisms allowing pollution removal in the treating system are simply killed and the facility loses its whole capacity. In that case, a strict diversion of the toxic wastewater is the only way to go. Industries achieve the capacity to operate special treatment for their wastes easier than communities where technical capacities are normally limited (it is also easer to treat small amounts of strong toxic wastewater than large amounts of diluted toxic effluents). Even 'high tech' systems like MBR are not insensitive to industrial impacts. The potentially higher sludge age allows the adaptation of the biomass to hardly biodegradable matter to some extent but not to toxic constituents. Figure 4 shows a plant that suffers from seasonal impact of the olive oil production wastewaters -a problem that is encountered in many Mediterranean countries.The second requirement for flexible control to cope with changing conditions will remain a wish -especially in the target regions. Even in Europe this poses a problem to AS plants which are connected to industries. Inflow monitoring connected to forecast for the indolent biological community are a matter of ongoing research and far from practical implementation.Further, diurnal variations have to be considered:• WWTPs must be insensitive to usual daily load variations. • WWTPs must be insensitive to normal seasonal load variations.Proper system design normally accounts for inflow variations by the introduction of safety factors (e.g. the German DWA A 131 guidelines for activated sludgeRequirements for water biotechnologies in Africa  Issue 14/2013 39 systems). However, critical operation conditions (and load peaks) have to be defined as input for system design. Influent equalization using buffer volumes helps in most cases to achieve a more or less constant effluent quality. This is especially important for small systems where the diurnal variations are pronounced. Since domestic water use is relatively low in the concerned regions, the pollutant concentrations are relatively high which also has to be considered in the system selection and design.Where the effluent shall be reused, evaporation shall not significantly impact the effluent discharge volume. Temperatures have to be a variable input parameter for system design to ensure optimal lay out for the local climate conditions. In general, biological systems are positively impacted by the higher temperatures in dry and tropical climates -an advantage that can be utilised in reducing the plant dimensions accordingly (to reduce costs).The wastewater treatment selection has to consider the amount of excess sludge produced and the connected de-sludging frequency that is needed. It has to include a sufficiently dimensioned sludge treatment and disposal mechanism that prevents any severe nuisance or adverse impact on the surrounding environment. Sludge treatment shall provide a sufficient quality for further use, with adequate chemical composition and low pathogen levels. In case no further use of bio solids is foreseen, the volume of produced excess sludge shall be kept as low as possible.The quality of available sanitation by products (compost, struvite etc.), if available, must allow safe handling and prevent adverse effects on health and environment from agricultural application.• Good chemical and bacteriological properties of composts and other by-products. Not only the generation of water for reuse but also the recovery of nutrients and organics opens the gate to the invisible benefits of the sanitation chain. The latter term 'chain' is the key to resource orientation since the production and application of e.g. composts and struvite needs the establishment of a service chain from collection over processing to marketing. This approach is subject of numerous projects especially in sub-Saharan Africa and has been already implemented at larger scale (Figure 5). Here economical feasibility strongly depends on the market generation. Besides the dry sanitation systems that are known as resource oriented, also the recovery of nutrients and the use of bio solids from wet systems is resource orientation. Wet and dry systems can be also combined to achieve resource efficiency (Masi, 2009).As central issue of wastewater treatment and sanitation, the survey revealed many challenges that are related to the O&M issues with the frequent statement that somebody is (officially) in charge but does not (or cannot or does not want to) do her or his job.• Under limited local capacities extensive treatment systems with low O&M efforts shall be used. • In case of complex systems under limited capacities, automation in combination with contractor's support shall provide proper operation. • Consideration of locally available supplies shall be as high as possible.In most cases reported, the lack of O&M is somehow related to the financial capacities. This starts with the lack of money for costly equipment replacements (mainly pumps), to the low motivation of personnel due to low remuneration and finally to the shutdown of important plant parts or whole plants because of their electricity consumption. Hence, in any case (also for large AS systems) it is demanded that the operation and maintenance efforts shall be as low as possible.The suggested use of automated control for operation is a future option for domestic systems and limited to industrial facilities at the time being. It remains toRequirements for water biotechnologies in Africa Issue 14/2013 40 stress again that from experience the extensive systems can be trusted to achieve at least a certain degree of performance at limited O&M efforts (but not without O&M). On project level, O&M has to be incorporated as a long term component including external monitoring and backstopping for technical systems.Energy demand is an issue repeatedly stated in the survey and in most cases related to costs or the impacts of an unstable public power supply on the system performance. Where pumping cannot be avoided, the selection of the technology has a clear impact on power consumption.• Treatment process and control shall be as independent from powers supply as possible. • If control systems require permanent power, uninterruptable (self sufficient) supply has to be provided. • For systems with permanent power demand for processing the wastewater, energy production shall be available to cover as much as possible of the demand.Low power demand allows the introduction of e.g. solar powered operation, an option for smaller systems and low hydraulic volumes to be pumped. The electricity generation from anaerobic treatment is sparsely introduced despite the huge potential for large systems.The high temperature conditions support the efficient operation of digesters in Africa -even for smaller scale units than applied in Europe. On the other hand anaerobic digestion increases the plant complexity and also safety issues have to be considered.The insight in the experiences of the investigated countries has shown that there is the need to simplify some aspects for the scale up of wastewater treatment biotechnologies. The legal framework plays a fundamental role to enable the potential of the full range of water biotechnologies that is often hindered by over regulation. This would allow stepwise infrastructure development at reduced costs and foster local businesses in this sector. The results showed that the industrial wastewater burden cannot be laid on technologies alone, this also needs an enforced regulatory framework.The summarized requirements have to be considered during a sound system selection and design. The planning process itself therefore remains crucial. It has to consider costs and benefits, future developments and long term operation and maintenance. Therefore, knowledge on the various options of biological wastewater treatment has to be transported in a practicable form to the local engineer. Simplified tools for practical application are needed where the pool of technologies is the backbone.The results also showed that water reuse and resource orientation are of increasing importance. The question is if these needs will enable sustainable wastewater treatment in future. As a question of economics, only a reasonable value of the marketable product will provide the necessary resources to do it as long as sufficient public subsidies are missing.Agriculture is considered as the biggest consumer of water in Tunisia as it uses up to 80% of the available freshwater.Groundwater, which represents an important source of available water in Tunisia, is overexploited at a rate that exceeds 103% of it's natural recharge. The use of different kinds of fertilizers has additionally damaged qualitatively and quantitatively the groundwater (El Ayni et al., 2012a;Kouzana et al., 2009) causing a decrease in piezometric levels, seawater intrusion (El Ayni et al., 2012b) and rising levels of contaminants like nitrates and other various salts.Simultaneously, this high salinity groundwater is drilled to be used for irrigation therefore increasing agricultural land salinity and reducing land productivity. It sometimes turns up to complete loss of usefulness of the irrigated land (Gaaloul et al., 2003). On the other hand, the use of salty waters for animal drinking purposes may be hazardous for animals and may render milk or meat unfit for consumption. These waters need to be studied for their quality and suitability before being used in agriculture (El Ayni et al., 2011).Issue 14/2013 42The situation is worsened when the phenomenon of bad groundwater quality is added to water scarcity as it is the case in many regions of the world including the Mediterranean countries. Tunisia is located in an arid/semi-arid region of the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. This is why this country searches for alternative water resources in order to fulfil its water needs, especially for agricultural utilization. The reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) has been applied in the last few decades in Tunisia to direct irrigation of authorized crops like greenspaces and golf courses. The interest is now focused on the reuse of TWW to recharge the aquifers, meanwhile solving several health, environmental, agricultural and economical issue. Many projects have been conducted elsewhere for the recharge of aquifers by TWW and have shown positive impacts on the aquifer e.g. in 1985 at El Paso (Texas, USA) where wastewater was treated by tertiary treatment serving dual purposes of the reuse of the wastewater and the restoration of groundwater (Sheng, 2005). In Dan region (Israel) tertiary treated wastewater was used for the recharge of an aquifer during a 300 days experiment, the resulting water met irrigation standards with non restrictive use as no bacteriological contamination was found in the aquifer (Idelovitch, 1978). On the other side, irrigation with waters from wells refilled by TWW can decrease fertilization use and costs due to the nutrients that it contains (Haruvy et al., 1999). Thus the reuse of TWW by recharging aquifer would help not only to struggle against water scarcity but also against marine intrusion in coastal areas. It is also a mean for groundwater remediation when using infiltration basin systems for recharging qualitatively deteriorated aquifer. The aim of the present paper is to investigate the impact of recharging a deteriorate aquifer by tertiary treated wastewater in a semi-arid climate in Tunisia (Korba) especially by monitoring the groundwater salinity remediation. The results would allow us to evaluate the effect of TWW on this aquifer in order to suggest adequate solution to water scarcity and destruction of the regional aquifer as well as solving the problem of TWW safe elimination. quality. This is especially important for small systems where the diurnal variations are pronounced. Since domestic water use is relatively low in the concerned regions, the pollutant concentrations are relatively high which also has to be considered in the system selection and design.The studied area is located in Korba, a coastal region in the North-eastern Tunisia (Africa). Geologically, the region (Pliocene-quaternary) is mainly composed by sandstones, conglomerates and clay. The dominant economic activity is agriculture with some agroindustries, textile industries and tourism. The principal cultivations are strawberry (270 Hectares), potatoes (1010 Hectares), tomatoes (3000 Hectares), pepper (3000 Hectares) and other vegetables (1200 Hectares). The population of this region is about 100,000 inhabitants and the region is situated in a zone of moderate rainfall with an annual average between 450 and 500 mm/year. In order to respond to the increased water demand in this region, the aquifer has been highly exploited since the seventies what conducted to a decrease in the piezometric level of the aquifer and generated a degradation of the groundwater quality essentially due to seawater intrusion (Paniconi et al., 2001). The aquifer of the Eastern coast saw a net drawdown of the piezometric level and an alarming increase in salinity that followed the intensification of the local exploitations. This bad situation is related to the digging and the deepening of wells in order to increase the pumped water volumes in addition to the electrification of several wells. The piezometric level of the plio-quaternary aquifer has particularly felt as the piezometric level has seen a 10 m decrease between 1977 and 2004 near the Korba coast (Kerrou et al., 2010;El Ayni et al., 2012b). This situation resulted in marine intrusion, depriving the plio-quaternary aquifer of any contribution of subsoil water. The lowering of the piezometric level of the aquifer in this area is related to the still local increasing exploitation in addition to the low thickness of the saturated zone.Reclaimed water used to feed the project is provided by the plant close to the infiltration basins which has begun to work in July 2002. This treatment plant is a low-load activated sludge treatment plant combined with finishing lagoons (Figure 1). It is dimensioned for 7500 m 3 of wastewater per day and actually receives about 5000 m 3 per day. It can provide 1500 m 3 /day to the recharge site.The aquifer recharge by using infiltration basin consists of water penetration in the soils. This water is generally biologically treated wastewater which goes through the unsaturated zone until it reaches the saturated zone of the aquifer by slow vertical percolation. The unsaturated zone acts indeed as a natural reactive filter that can reduce or remove microbial and organic/ inorganic contaminants through biogeochemical processes enhancing mass transfer between soil phases. This process targets the geochemical reactivity and dynamics of the soil in order to improve water quality while maintaining environmental quality and protecting other resources. Thus, the infiltration basins serve as a tertiary treatment of the TWW. The retained site for Korba aquifer recharge project implantation is situated immediately close to the local treated wastewater plant. The initial feasibility study suggested the chosen implantation according to the geological specifications of the site and constructed in order to receive 1500m 3 / day of treated wastewater according to the parameters shown below.The characteristics of the recharge basins are (Figure 2):1. TWW collecting reservoir: 300 m 3 2. Infiltration capacity 0.5m/day 3. Three infiltration basins 1500 m 2 each (Figure 3). 4. Capacity of the infiltration basins: up to 1500 m 3 /day 5. Estimated annual recharge: 0.5 million m 3 /year 6. Pipe diameter for basins feeding is 400 mmThe durability of the infiltration process calls for an alternation in the use of the infiltration basins to allow the aeration of the non-saturated zone and also the ponds cleaning in order to restore their infiltration capacity (CRDA, 2008). The advantage for the infiltration ponds technique is the possibility of using the soil as an additional treatment of the wastewater. The disadvantages are the utilization of a large area and the high maintenance costs to avoid clogging that can be a barrier against infiltration process often occurring when treated wastewater is used for aquifer recharge.In order to assess the impact of the recharge of the aquifer by TWW, three significant parameters were analysed from groundwater before and after three years of recharge, as well as in TWW during this period of time. They were salinity, nitrates and total coliform. The analysis were performed in the laboratory of the International Center of Environmental Technologies of Tunis (CITET) that is accredited ISO 17025 since 2001 and followed the ISO (International Organization for Standardization), NF (French standard) and EN (European Norm) procedures as described in Table 1.Twenty three groundwater samples were collected from different locations by using local piezometers and surface wells (see location points on Figure 4). A GPS is used to identify the exact location of each sampling points. They were first collected in 2008, before the beginning of the operation of recharge by TWW and three years after recharge, in 2011. As for the TWW used for the recharge, they are directly sampled from the outlet of the treatment plant by using an autosampler from 2008 to 2011.Aquifer recharge by treated wastewater in Tunisia The results of the analysis are represented on charts drawn with ARcview/GIS software. It uses the colour system adopted by the SEQ-groundwater (quality evaluation system for groundwater) that is one of the reference used for groundwater quality and its suitability for various uses, as there is no threshold value for these waters unlike for wastewaters (Agences de l 'eau, 2003). The colours ordered as blue, green, yellow, orange and red, indicate in decreasing order the capacity of the analysed water to be used for irrigation purposes, in relation to the concentration of the studied parameters like here for salinity, nitrate and total coliforms occurence.Salinity is one of the main parameter for characterizing the quality of a groundwater. Two charts were drawn concerning the salinity distribution in the study region. The first represents the salinity of the groundwater before starting the recharge (Figure 5) and the second after three years of the aquifer recharge (Figure 6).Referring to the distribution of salinity prior to recharge (Figure 5), it can be noted that the Northern and Southwestern part of the site is strongly salted: the recorded concentrations exceed 2.5 g/L and reach 7.0 g/L in the extreme North. The South-eastern part shows a relatively good quality since salinity varies between 0.5 Aquifer recharge by treated wastewater in Tunisia  and 2.5 g/L. The initial quality of the aquifer in this area is low regarding salinity. More than 50% of water of the study region is of bad quality in terms of salinity. These high levels of salts are ascribable to several origins. They are mainly due to the progression of salted bevel of the sea due to the multiplication of well pumping and the reduction of the refill of the aquifer by rainfall or surface waters (Ben Alaya et al., 2009). The high evaporation during irrigation with pumped water exacerbated by the hot meteorological conditions can also concentrate the salt in the waters before they infiltrate through the soil towards the aquifer.The analysis of the TWW during the recharge period show salt concentrations ranging from 1.8 to 5.4 g/L. After three years of aquifer recharge by these TWW, changes in salinity levels had occurred in almost all points close to the recharge plant (Figure 6). There is a clear lowering of groundwater salinity near the recharge site and all the South-eastern area. The area with lower salt concentrations (between 0.5 and 1.5 g/L) extended towards the North.The two charts representing the nitrate concentrations before and after three years of recharge are drawn respectively in Figure 7 and Figure 8.Initially and before the recharge, more than 90% of the area show high nitrate concentrations (Figure 7), exceeding 50 mg/L, that is the trigger value set by the European Groundwater Directive (EC, 2006) for a good Aquifer recharge by treated wastewater in Tunisia Issue 14/2013 46 chemical status of a groundwater. The most polluted area was identified in the Western side of the study area where nitrate contents exceed 100 mg/L and reach values as high as 300 mg/L. As this region is known to be mostly agricultural, these high values could be primarily due to the frequent use of artificial fertilizers in the intensive agriculture of Korba mainly vegetable crops with excessive water demand and nitrate fertilizers use. Even if the excessive use of fertilizers is considered the principal source of diffuse nitric pollution of groundwater by leaching, other point sources of nitrates like septic tanks can be accused. Furthermore, the high concentration of nitrates recorded in the groundwater near the wastewater treatment plant could be due to the infiltration of wastewater from maturation basins high in nitrogen pollution towards the aquifer.The nitrate concentration of the TWW used to feed the aquifer is less than 5 mg/L. After three years of recharge with this TWW (Figure 8), it can be seen that there is a displacement in the nitrate contaminated area. The low nitrate concentration spot in the central area of the study region has disappeared and show now a higher nitrate concentration whereas the south-western area show new spots of low nitrate levels. There is also a slight improvement of the quality regarding nitrate near the recharge site.The microbial quality of water can be evaluated by the presence of indicators of contamination like the total coliform level. Their occurrence in the waters is a proof Aquifer recharge by treated wastewater in Tunisia   9) indicates that, except for one point (point 20), all the groundwater of the study area is contaminated with more than 50 per 100mL total coliform, and cannot be used for drinking purposes. Half of the entire area has more than 5,000 total coliform per 100mL, making these waters unsuitable for animal drinking purposes and for irrigating leafy vegetables (El Ayni et al., 2012c). The origins of these contaminations are probably infiltrations from local cesspit and from the wastewater treatment plant itself.After three years of recharge (Figure 10) with TWW having from 9,300 to 240,000 total coliform per 100 mL, the South-eastern part show a deterioration of its groundwater quality concerning bacteriological contamination from average quality (500 -5,000 total coliform per 100 mL) to bad water quality (more than 5,000 total coliform per 100 mL). There is an improvement in bacteriological quality in the Northern area of study. These changes can be regarded as a displacement of the highly contaminated water towards eastern-south, reaching the area of recharge and the coast.The comparison of the quality of the groundwater before (2008) and after three years of recharge (2011) resulting from the mixing of groundwater and infiltrated TWW showed the effectiveness of the project to cure high salinity which exceeded 1,5 g/L. The site thus played the role of a hydraulic barrier to mitigate the problem of marine intrusion and to limit its geographical extension. This evolution reveals the advantages of the project not only for limiting the intrusion of salted bevel but also for mobilizing a non conventional water resource and avoiding the residual impacts related to the rejection in the environment. Nevertheless, contamination by nitrate and bacteria remain a major problem of the aquifer and allowed the use of this water presently only for agricultural purposes. There is no net change in the distribution else than displacement of the polluted region. The pursuance of the monitoring for the future years will probably show a clearer tendency in changes of the distribution of these parameters helped by a future modelling study of the recharge operations and their evolution in terms of groundwater quality.Water is the most strategically important resource on Earth, which is essential for urban, industrial and agricultural needs. With the ever-increasing urban population and economic activities, water usage and demand are continuously increasing (Lu et al, 2010). There are many water shortage problems currently in the world, some of which are more serious than others. Rich and poor countries have quite different concerns over their water supply (Howell, 2004). The Mediterranean Region is an arid or semi-arid area, with typical rainfall ranging from 100 to 400 mm per year and 3000 h or more of sun per year (Bolzonella et al, 2010). In Africa, where large areas of the continent are already suffering water scarcity, there is a lack of simple access to drinking water at a nearby location and also a lack of any kind of sanitation for large segments of the population (Howell, 2004). To improve water availability, researchers have proposed the reclamation and reuse of municipal wastewater.The activated sludge process is the most widely used biological treatment process for both domestic and industrial wastewaters in the world. This process Sustainable Sanitation Practice Issue 14/2013 50 consists of biodegradation of the pre-treated influent by microorganisms in a continuous tank where oxygen supply is controlled. Following the bioreactions, the water / biomass mixture is passed to a settling tank to ensure the separation of the treated water from the biomass by gravitational setting (Wei et al, 2003;Wisniewski, 2007). The treatment efficiency is usually limited by the difficulties in separating suspended solids (Xing et al, 2000). A membrane bioreactor (MBR) is a biological wastewater treatment process in which the conventional gravity separators are replaced by microfiltration or ultrafiltration membrane modules. MBRs have become a popular biological wastewater treatment technology because they offers numerous advantages over the conventional activated sludge process, such as excellent effluent quality, a compact footprint, a more concentrated biomass, and a reduced sludge yield (Alain et al, 2008). Because membranes are an absolute barrier for bacteria, and in the case of UF also for viruses, the MBR process provides a considerable or complete level of physical disinfection (Melin et al, 2006).This research aims to study the performance of the most widely commercialised MBR technology, that of Kubota, applied to domestic wastewater treatment in Tunisia.Chemical oxygen demand (COD) was determined according to standard method as described by Knechtel. Total suspended solids (TSS) and volatile suspended solids (VSS) were determined according to the standard methods (APHA, 1992). Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was determined according to the standard method (Kjeldahl, 1883). Total organic carbon (TOC) was measured with a Dohrmann (DC 190) analyzer.Total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS), total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal Streptococci (FS) were estimated according to ISO 4832 (1991) and AFNOR (NF T90-411, 1989) water standard methods. Most probable number (MPN) determination of Salmonella (S) was carried out by modified method of Yanko et al. (1995). Helminth eggs and protozoan cysts were extracted from wastewater by sedimentation-flotation techniques.The MBR pilot plant was placed in situ at the municipal wastewater treatment plant of South Sfax (WWTP) and treated the same influent coming to the full sized plant. The system tested was a single tank submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) (Figures 1 and 2). The average operational volume of the MBR was 1.38 m 3 . The membranes used were Kubota microfiltration membranes with a pore size of 0.4 µm, made from chlorinated polyethylene, and with an operating membrane area of 5.6 m 2 . Filtration was continuous and the hydraulic head above the membranes was used to drive filtration, which was regulated by an automatic valve and a flow meter on the permeate line. Air was supplied to the filtration tank as coarse bubbles, for both membrane scouring and biomass maintenance. The gassing rate was 4.2 Issue 14/2013 51 New approach to the operation of membrane bioreactors in Tunisia m 3 .h -1 , which corresponds to the recommended value for Kubota membranes of 10 litres of air/membrane panel/ minute. The solids retention time (SRT) was 30 days, the average hydraulic retention time (HRT) was 1.01 days, and the average membrane flux was 12 l.m -2 .h -1 .The raw wastewater is pre-treated (with oil/fat, sand/grit removal and fine screening) urban wastewater of South Sfax municipal wastewater treatment plant. The physical and chemical characteristics of the influent are given in Table 1, along with the two national Tunisia standards for water discharge in the public domain, e.g. parkland irrigation or river discharge (NT 106.02), or reuse for unrestricted irrigation (NT106.03).As pointed out in Table 1 the influent presented an inconstant composition. The COD and BOD5 concentrations are higher than the Tunisian standards NT 106.02 and NT 106.03 for hydraulic public domain and wastewater reuse in irrigation respectively. Heavy metals concentrations exceeded the required standard values for plumb (Pb), chrome (Cr) and nickel (Ni). At start up the system was operated with sludge age of 15 days, which resulted in a MLSS concentration of 4.5 g/l (data not shown). After that the sludge age was adjusted to 30 days and the biomass concentration increased progressively a mean value of 9.5 g/l (Figure 3).To maintain a biomass concentration around 9.5 g/l a regular manual sludge withdrawal was performed, which maintained the SRT at 30 days. Sudden increases or decreases in the biomass concentration in Figure 3 may be due to the time of taking a sample (immediately after biomass removal or after a shutdown of the reactor), or due to large fluctuations in the feed wastewater COD (see Figure 4).COD removal efficiency COD is the most important parameters studied to assess the efficiency of a wastewater treatment process. Influent and permeate COD was monitored and illustrated in Figure 4. The average effluent COD was < 90 mg/l, but it should be noted that this limit was exceeded occasionally. This can be justified by an abnormal operation of the system (eg a short term flux increase, the entry of an industrial effluent...). Influent COD oscillated from 215 mg/l to 1135 g/l. Low feed COD values were due to dilution caused by rain and high values can be explained by the illegal discharge of industrial wastewater into the sewer system. Using this SMBR treatment process the COD removal efficiency averaged 96 % which is in agreement with the results of several investigators, who reported COD removal efficiencies of more than 95 % (Ogochi et al, 2000;Gander et al, 2000;Al-Malack, 2007). The permeate quality meets the standards related to reuse in unrestricted irrigation in terms of COD concentration.The average effluent COD was < 90 mg/l, but it should be noted that this limit was exceeded occasionally. This can be justified by an abnormal operation of the system (eg a short term flux increase, the entry of an industrial effluent...). Influent COD oscillated from 215 mg/l to 1135 g/l. Low feed COD values were due to dilution caused by rain and high values can be explained by the illegal discharge of industrial wastewater into the sewer system. Using this SMBR treatment process the COD removal efficiency averaged 96 % which is in agreement with the results of several investigators, who reported COD removal efficiencies of more than 95 % (Ogochi et al, 2000;Gander et al, 2000;Al-Malack, 2007). The permeate quality meets the standards related to reuse in unrestricted irrigation in terms of COD concentration.The pathogen removal efficiency of the MBR process was assessed. Several target bacteria species were used as markers of the presence of faecal contaminants or food poisoning organisms. A wide range of microorganisms were present in the raw wastewater and analysis of the permeate showed that the microfiltration membrane succeeded in retaining the selected target micro-  Issue 14/2013 53 New approach to the operation of membrane bioreactors in Tunisia organisms -see Table 2. The permeate is pathogen free, and hence meets the requirements for unrestricted irrigation.This study has confirmed that the biological treatment of urban wastewater by membrane bioreactor has a satisfactory performance because it gives good removal of COD and a complete retention of pathogens. The high quality of the permeate, proved by its pathogenfree character and low COD concentration, confirms its appropriateness for unrestricted irrigation of ground based human crops. The MBR system outperformed the full sized activated sludge plant, treating the same municipal wastewater, in respect of treated water quality and the opportunity for reuse.Table 2: Feed wastewater and permeate (treated water) microbial analysis.Influent waste water Treated water (average) Aerobic mesophilic bacteria (CFU/ml)* 54 x 10 7 to 90 x 10 7 40** Total coliforms (CFU/ml) 10 x 10 5 to 53 x 10 5 0Faecal coliforms (CFU/ml) or (MPN/ml) 34 x 10 4 to 11 x 10 5 0Faecal Streptococci (MPN/ml) 25 x 10 5 to 25 x 10 6 0 Staphylococcus (CFU/ml) 7 x 10 2 to 13 x 10 3 0 Pseudomonas (CFU/ml) 6 x 10 1 to 6 x 10 2 0Helminth eggs (ova/l) 160 to 250 0Protozoan cysts (cysts/l) 620 to 1100 0 * CFU -colony forming units ** this value is suspected as a result of recontamination of permeate as the significant majority of permeate samples did not contain any bacteria.Constructed wetlands (CWs) are engineered water treatment systems that optimize the treatment processes found in natural environments. CWs efficiently treat different kinds of polluted water (e.g. Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Compared to conventional systems CWs are large and extensive systems which require only low efforts in operation and maintenance. This makes CWs suitable solutions for treatments of waters in remote areas (e.g.; Headley and Nivala, 2012).CWs have been applied in a numbers of countries with hot and dry climates (e.g. Mandi et al., 1998;Masi and Martinuzzi, 2007;Masi et al., 2010;Auborn et al., 2012).For applications in hot and dry climates usually reuse of water plays an important role and thus water loss should be minimised. This can be achieved through (Headley and Nivala, 2012):• Selection of plants with a high water use efficiency to minimise evapotranspiration losses, andIssue 14/2013 56• Technology selection to optimise areal treatment efficiency and reduce evaporation from exposed water surfaces.CWs can be subdivided into two main types, surface flow and subsurface flow CWs. In subsurface flow (SSF) CWs, in contrary to surface flow or free water surface CWs no free water level is visible. SSF CWs are subdivided into horizontal flow (HF) and vertical flow (VF) systems depending on the direction of water flow through the porous medium (sand or gravel). To prevent clogging of the porous filter material, the use of traditional SSF CWs is limited to mechanically pre-treated wastewater, which contains a low content of particulates (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009).When treated wastewater should be reused the treated water quality should be in line with the requirements for irrigation, e.g. nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus would be required in the irrigation water.However, experience shows that this is often not in line with standards for wastewater treatment that require nutrient removal. Therefore there would be need for realistic standards that are related to the desired reuse.In the paper the author's experiences with constructed wetland in Egypt Palestine and Morocco are presented.The SEKEM farm wastewater and reuse work was designed to implement a constructed application of a simple, low cost, low energy and sustainable technology for the treatment and reuse of municipal wastewater through the MEDAWater European Program Support Action (Table 1, Figure 1). The treated wastewater is used for irrigation of forest trees: the irrigated land is originally desert sandy soil that is deprived from any kind Design of CWs in dry countries The design aimed to strongly reduce BOD and bacterial concentrations with the minimal HRT, reducing the total area and the evapotranspiration rate. Issue 14/2013 57 of nutrient elements and lack of any organic matters. The sludge is dewatered over sludge drying beds of another constructed wetland. The CW, implemented in 2007, is a horizontal subsurface flow system with a total surface of 200 m². Due to the special type of agriculture at SEKEM, organic vegetables and medicine plants grown under anthroposophic rules, wastewater will not be used on the main farm crops. It will be reused on timber plantations for packaging of the SEKEM products, which is economically very interesting.The SEKEM farm is producing natural drugs by growing various herbs and extracting the active substances from them by an industrial cycle that ends up in the final products. It's a community, a few hundred people are living and working there and there's also a school for about 500 students.The target area for the pilot project comprises the school of the farm, a few buildings, the campus kitchen and a laundry room. The wastewater is composed of 100 % domestic wastewater; the daily flow was calculated once from the water demand and secondly according to the number of people connected: 500 students at 20 l/day, plus 100 persons at the offices at 20 l/day, laundry plus residential houses leading to a total 15 m³/day. The SEKEM administration is going to extent the school and boarding school which would lead to a flow of approximately 20m³/day. The design data regarding pollutant concentrations are higher than inlet monitoring data that seems to indicate a lower number of person equivalents (PE) or a higher flow (and consequently a lower HRT). However, the performance of the HF beds is good and the system permits to reach the limits of Egyptian law (Table 2).    2); 4 small CWs for wastewater treatment and reuse at household level are realized in the Gaza Strip (see design data in Table 4).Other two interesting projects are carried on in the village of Sarra (Nablus) and Hajja (Al Qalqilya). The project \"Making wastewater an asset: increasing agricultural production introducing irrigation by non-conventional water sources\" is managed by the NGOs GVC, PHG and UAWC and is financed by the EU (Contract number DCI-FOOD/2010/254-819). The final aim of the WWTPs realisation, over the obvious strong reduction of health risks linked to the presence of untreated wastewater in the villages, is to create a new source of water for irrigating the olive trees and increase the productivity and the related local economy. The approach using natural treatments such as CWs is still quite new in Palestine and mainly tested before on small scale applications or pilot plants; there are also some failed experiences Design of CWs in dry countries ","tokenCount":"18034"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c91058ebdf02275b0e65120d597ecb6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7999d868-c9cd-42e5-8083-549352997dd2/retrieve","id":"784112946"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"12cabf03-1979-47d8-8f3b-8d772c2a9c10","pagecount":"2","content":"Article 4.19 as read with Article 2.1(c), Article 4.1 and 4.4 of the Paris Agreement and decision 1/CP.21 paragraph 35, invites countries to formulate and communicate to the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC) Secretariat their respective \"Mid-century long-term low GHG emissions climate resilient development strategies (Economy-wide LTS) by 2020\". Such a long-term strategy will set out a visionary agenda -providing political certainty for bold, concrete actions while helping to inform near-and long-term investments that spur sustainable economic and social transformation. A country's LTS has a great potential to guide it on a path to a climate resilient development pathway. This also contributes to the collective global response of limiting warming to 1.5 -2 ºC by the end of the century through low-carbon green growth in critical sectors. The COP26 through its Glasgow Climate Pact recognized the importance of developing and aligning NDCs with the long term low emissions and climate resilient development strategies (LTS) and reaching net zero emissions by around mid-century. ","tokenCount":"164"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8c7d4364327d4481da8eb0e2e30be881","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fed17a9f-91bb-4b68-ac41-72c28d2777b5/retrieve","id":"-917097035"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8bd46532-5129-4407-9198-d90736f83aee","pagecount":"30","content":"Las publicaciones del CIP contribuyen con información importante sobre el desarrollo para el dominio público. Los lectores están autorizados a citar o reproducir este material en sus propias publicaciones. Se solicita respetar los derechos de autor del CIP y enviar una copia de la publicación donde se realizó la cita o publicó el material al Departamento de Comunicaciones, a la dirección que se indica abajo.El presente estudio se ha centrado en el análisis de los sistemas agroalimentarios saludables en la ciudad de Lima, específicamente los sistemas urbanos y periurbanos. El objetivo principal del estudio fue entender la dinámica y los principales actores que influyen en los sistemas agroalimentarios saludables en Lima.Se utilizó una metodología de tres pasos que incluye: (1) el mapeo de actores, (2) la identificación de los componentes en el sistema agroalimentario saludable dentro de un contexto socio económico y ambiental, y (3) el análisis de las dinámicas de sistemas agroalimentarios para obtener un entendimiento detallado del sistema y las sinergias y obstáculos entre los medios de vida de los productores urbanos y su contexto socioeconómico y ambiental. La información fue colectada a través de grupos focales con los actores que participan directa o indirectamente en las Agroferias Campesinas y Bioferias. Estos espacios tienen diferencias en términos de variedad de productos, fuentes de productos, y características de los consumidores.El análisis de los sistemas agroalimentarios urbanos y periurbanos reveló varios retos. Estos incluyen los impactos ambientales y el equilibrio territorial que afectan la producción agroalimentaria, la falta de apoyo institucional, la competencia por el agua, y los problemas fitosanitarios. Además, se identificó la falta de sensibilidad hacia los beneficios de los productos agroecológicos y la inestabilidad en los espacios para la venta de estos productos. Los sistemas agroalimentarios en Lima también enfrentan desafíos en la comercialización, incluyendo la falta de diferencia en los precios de productos orgánicos y convencionales, y la escasa asociatividad entre productores orgánicos.El estudio subraya la importancia de comprender los sistemas agroalimentarios saludables para identificar oportunidades de transformación y mejorar la resiliencia de estos sistemas en un contexto urbano en constante cambio. Se destacó la necesidad de proteger los espacios de producción y de comercialización, así como la necesidad de generar insumos productivos para reducir el uso de químicos y hacer los productos más accesibles para todas las clases sociales. Aunque hay desafíos significativos, también existen oportunidades para mejorar la salud y la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agroalimentarios en Lima.Los procesos de urbanización de la mayoría de las ciudades en el mundo se han ido incrementando y según las Naciones Unidas, para el 2050, dos tercios de la población vivirá en las ciudades y con el subsecuente incremento de la demanda de los alimentos que serán consumidos en las ciudades con un incremento de la demanda per cápita de productos hortícolas y animales (McCullough et al., 2008, de Bruin et al., 2021). Esto crea un desafío en las ciudades para poder brindar servicios básicos de calidad a sus habitantes, más aún si las ciudades no crecen en forma planificada, pero también para los productores agrícolas tanto rurales como urbanos, donde ese exceso de demanda no se ve reflejado en el precio y donde las cadenas de valor post cosecha se llevan la mayor parte del beneficio (Reardon et al. 2014) y muchos pequeños productores no pueden si quiera beneficiarse de esas oportunidades por falta de acceso a insumos, tecnologías, financiamiento, infraestructura apropiada, para satisfacer los requerimientos de los mercados urbanos e incluso sus pequeñas áreas agrícolas no permiten generar ingresos adecuados y se ven obligados a diversificar sus ingresos con fuentes no agrícolas tanto productores rurales como los urbanos y pueden verso obligados a abandonar la agricultura (Devaux et al., 2016;Hazell, 2018). En las zonas urbanas, adicionalmente, se presentan otros problemas, porque la agricultura compite por recursos -sobre todo terreno y agua -e interactúan, no siempre en forma positiva y causa como por ejemplo contaminación de aguas en ambas direcciones pudiendo causar problemas de salud pública (Thapa et al, 2021). Estos problemas que son generados por el crecimiento y consumo urbano impacta tanto en la adopción de nuevas tecnologías, protección de los espacios agrícolas como en los ingresos de los productores urbanos y periurbanos, los cuales a su vez se enfrentaran a los desafíos del cambio climático en sus negocios agrícolas (Sakketa, 2022;Satterthwaite et al., 2010).La producción ecológica (Kiley-Worthington, 1981) permite que se reduzcan las fricciones entre el campo y la ciudad produciendo alimentos que benefician a la salud y el medio ambiente y a su vez, los consumidores pagan un precio adicional para compensar a los productores por procesos productivos más demandantes en mano de obra y menores rendimientos propios de la producción orgánica. Sin embargo, existe mucha confusión por parte de los consumidores entre los diferentes \"marketing\" de los diferentes productos saludables que hacen que aumente la falta de confianza entre los consumidores sobre los productos que están recibiendo (Higuchi, 2015).Entre las confusiones que existen en las definiciones tenemos: convencional natural, convencional saludable, convencional funcional, orgánico, ecológico y orgánico puro, los cuales cuentan con diferentes contenidos aceptables de químicos sintéticos, certificaciones, y algunos como los funcionales, tienen relación con las características propias del producto, más que con el sistema de producción.Este es el caso de la ciudad de Lima, con más de 11 millones de habitantes en un desierto costero y sin planificación urbanística, se vuelve un gran desafío para brindar servicios de vivienda, salud, educación, empleo y alimentación con agricultores presionados por el crecimiento urbanístico y falta de políticas que protejan las zonas agrícolas y dar apoyo técnico para mejorar producción y comercialización.La ciudad de Lima tiene tres valles bien definidos: El vale del rio Chillón en el norte, el valle del rio Rímac en el Centro y el valle del rio Lurín en el sur. Esos valles que eran las zonas agrícolas de la ciudad por excelencia, ahora se halla en un proceso de urbanización que amenazan las pocas zonas agrícolas y áreas verdes que le quedan a en dichos valles.En una mirada a las cifras de producción agrícola en los distritos de Lima Metropolitana, las principales zonas de producción agrícola corresponden a los valles del rio Chillón, el valle del rio Lurín, y el valle del rio Rímac. Debido a los procesos de urbanización, el valle del rio Rímac perdió la mayor cantidad del área agrícola n los últimos años, a pesar de que en trabajos de capacitación a través de, por ejemplo, escuelas de campo, mostraron beneficios tanto en la producción de alimentos sanos como en la comercialización de dichos productos ecológicos en mercados diferenciados en hortalizas principalmente en las zonas de Carapongo, Huachipa, Ñaña y Nievería (CIP, 2006). Complementario a los procesos de urbanización, la calidad del agua también es un problema por el alto contenido de coliformes fecales, y contaminación por residuos químicos de fábricas y domestico detectado en los ríos de los valles de Lima, principalmente en el del rio Rímac (Arce, 2008;Vargas, 2008). Los aspectos positivos en la producción agrícola en los valles de Lima se dan por la alta calidad de los suelos, especialmente el valle del rio Chillón que conecta los distritos de Canta y Carabayllo, siendo considerado los mejores suelos de entre todos los valles costeros del Perú (Olarte, 2007) Según el CENAGRO (2012) Los distritos de Lima metropolitana con mayor área agrícola son: Carabayllo con 11,072.64 hectáreas de cultivos y 1,857 unidades agropecuarias 1 ; Pachacamac, con 5,977.13 has y 1,126 unidades agropecuarias, y Lurín con 1,419.19 has. de cultivos y 2,079 unidades agropecuarias. El 61% de las unidades agropecuarias en Carabayllo son manejados por hombres y 39% por mujeres, y el 48% de dichas unidades tienen menos de 0.5 hectáreas, y el 76% tienen menos de 2 has, y un área promedio de 5.96 has/productor, solamente 3 productores tenían más de 2,500 has. El 70% de las unidades agropecuarias en Pachacamac son manejado por hombres y 30% por mujeres y el 41% de dichas unidades tienen menos de 0.5 hectáreas y el 79% tienen menos de 2 has, teniendo un área promedio de 5.31 has/productor, debido a que 5 productores tenían más de 1,000 has. El 65% de las unidades agropecuarias en Lurín son manejado por hombres y 35% por mujeres y el 56% de dichas unidades tienen menos de 0.5 hectáreas y el 86% tienen menos de 2 has, teniendo un área promedio de 0.68 has/productor, donde un solo productor tenía más de 3,000 has/productor. En Carabayllo, los principales cultivos son maíz amiláceo (16% del área), chirimoyo (14%), pastos (14%), vid (10%), mango (10%), espárragos (7%), frijol (6%), y papa blanca (5%). Las hortalizas en su conjunto son cultivadas en Carabayllo en el 10% del área agrícola. En el caso de Pachacamac, también el maíz amiláceo es el principal cultivo (30% del área cultivada), seguido de yuca (15%), esparrago (13%), palto (10%), y vergel frutícola (7%). Las hortalizas en su conjunto son cultivadas en Pachacamac en el 10% del área agrícola. Finalmente, en Lurín, el principal cultivo es cebolla (21%), seguido de maíz chala (17%), camote (14%), y mandarina (6%). Las hortalizas en su conjunto son cultivadas en Lurín en el 29% del área agrícola. Entre las tres zonas se cultiva más de 2,000 has. de cultivos hortícolas.En el Perú, según el censo agropecuario del 2012, (INEI, 2012) existen 4016 productores orgánicos, y la mayor proporción de cultivos orgánicos se encuentran en cultivos como café, cacao, quinua y banano. En lima existen 199 productores orgánicos, principalmente en cultivos de consumo interno como papa blanca, maíz amarillo, lechuga, fresa, y esparrago. Si nos centramos únicamente en Lima Metropolitana, al 2012, solo existían 25 productores con certificación orgánica, principalmente hortalizas (9 en Lurigancho, 5 en Pachacamac, 5 en Lurín, 3 en Carabayllo, y 1 en Cieneguilla, Ate, y Pucusana).Otros valles cercanos a la capital también aportan productos agroecológicos como son los valles de Canete, Huarochiri, Huaura y Huaral 2 donde sus productos van a suministrar los mercados agroecológicos de la cápita, sin embargo, los volúmenes son bajos en relación a la producción convencional. La baja cantidad de productores certificados en Lima no permite tener una oferta importante de productos orgánicos a precios accesibles.Adicionalmente, el crecimiento poblacional repercute negativamente en el área agrícola en las zonas periurbanas lo que influencia no solo en el espacio físico para producción, pero también en la calidad del aire, suelo y agua por el crecimiento desordenado de la ciudad. En un trabajo de la autoridad nacional del agua se visualizó el crecimiento poblacional de la ciudad de Lima entre 1986 y 2016, y como las zonas de crecimiento impactaban las áreas agrícolas de dichos valles (Figura 1).Figura 1. Crecimiento urbano y el cambio en la ocupación del suelo en los últimos 30 años en la ciudad de Lima Metropolitana (1986-2016) Fuente: http://observatoriochirilu.ana.gob.pe/factores-de-presi%C3%B3n/crecimiento-urbano/expansi%C3%B3n-urbana Respecto a la demanda de alimentos en la ciudad de Lima, según los resultados del Censo Nacional de Mercados de Abastos 2016 (INEI, 2017), existen 1232 mercados de abastos en Lima Metropolitana. El 91.40% de los mercados de abastos son de tipo minorista y el 1,62% de tipo mayorista. Un 6.98% es de tipo mixto, es decir, son establecimientos cuyos productos se comercializan tanto al por mayor como al por menor. En la Figura 2 se muestra los tres tipos de mercados de abasto donde se muestra el tamaño del mercado con respecto al número de puestos.De cada 100 puestos en funcionamiento en los mercados de abastos de Lima metropolitana, aproximadamente 58 se desenvuelven en actividades de negocio tradicionales. Entre los más frecuentes se encuentran la venta de verduras (9.52%), venta de frutas (6.82%), Carnes, Aves y pescado (14.40%), abarrotes (11.67%), expendio de comidas (12.79%), artículos de limpieza (2.56%) y otros (42.26%), que en conjunto representan a 98.221 puestos.Figura 2. Mercado de abastos en Lima Metropolitana donde se muestra el tamaño del mercado con respecto al número de puestos.De esta cantidad de mercados, muy pocos reciben la categoría de mercados orgánicos, o saludables (Higuchi, 2015). El crecimiento del PBI per cápita en la ciudad de Lima guarda relación con el crecimiento de mercados orgánicos (Higuchi, 2015) y según un estudio de Herforth et al., (2020), menos de la cuarta parte de la población peruana puede pagar por una dieta saludable. La primera bioferia con productos certificados que se estableció en Lima fue la bioferia de Miraflores (Wu, 2008), la cual sigue en funcionamiento hasta la fecha todos los sábados durante unas seis horas, y se ofertan productos como hortalizas, tubérculos, frutos, cereales, menestras, y productos lácteos. Esta bioferia, permite un espacio de integración entre productores agroecológicos y consumidores (Gomez y Morales, 2012). A pesar del éxito de esta bioferia, la realidad es que existen pocos espacios en la ciudad de Lima para promover esta interacción entre productores y consumidores, entre ellos tenemos una diversidad de mercados, ferias, productores-comercializadores, tiendas, reparto a domicilio y hasta supermercados (Higuchi, 2015). Esta autora identificó en el marco de la comercialización de productos orgánicos para la ciudad de Lima y hasta el 2015, la apertura de 9 mercados y ferias, 4 productores comercializadores, 41 tiendas, 5 comercializadores con reparto a domicilio, y un supermercado, coincidiendo con el incremento del PBI per cápita en la ciudad de Lima.En el contexto de los mercados saludables de Lima Metropolitana, se programó levantar un \"mapeo de actores\" de las Agroferias Campesinas y Bioferias como parte de la información básica que permita la identificación de los actores del sistema agroalimentario saludable de Lima, el mismo que refleje las conexiones entre los distintos actores involucrados, permita analizar su importancia e influencia sobre dicho el sistema, y posteriormente la información recopilada contribuya a plantear una estrategia de intervención orientada al fortalecimiento de la cadena de valor de los productos saludables y de las ferias.Objetivo General: Identificar el conjunto de actores y analizar la dinámica de estos actores como parte del sistema agroalimentario saludable de la ciudad de Lima.• Identificar los actores en función a su nivel de participación, sectores y nivel de poder• Calificar las relaciones que se dan entre los actores• Identificar las dinámicas de sistema agroalimentario saludable urbano y peri-urbano de Lima para entender los desafíos y oportunidades 3 MetodologíaLa metodología usada para el mapeo de actores sigo los lineamientos de cuatro pasos descritos por Ortiz et al. (2016). Los cuatro pasos que los autores sugieren para el mapeo de actores son:1. Clarificar el/los objetivo(s) del mapeo.2. Definir las variables a considerar, y diseñar el esquema metodológico o mapeo gráfico dinámico correspondiente.3. Recabar la información.El ejercicio de mapeo de actores permitió una rica discusión de los asistentes del taller (Anexo 1) sobre la dinámica de las agroferias campesinas y las bioferias que comercializan productos saludables ecológicos y orgánicos (Anexo 2) en Lima Metropolitana, para ello se formó dos grupos de trabajo que recogió la dinámica de las agroferias por un lado, y de las bioferias por otro. El ejercicio culminó con la representación gráfica de los actores que actualmente participan en estas ferias y la interpretación por parte de un delegado de cada grupo.(Anexo 3) Se emplearon 4 variables que contribuyeron a caracterizar a los actores en función al sector al que pertenecen, su nivel de participación, las relaciones entre actores, y el nivel de poder (Figura 3).• Sectorial: Participación de sectores: público, académico, sociedad civil,• Participación / posicionamiento: Nivel de cercanía -apoyo/ oposición (fuerte, medio, débil)• Relacional: Tipos y niveles de relación entre los actores (alianza, influencia, constante, esporádico y conflicto Un sistema alimentario reúne todos los elementos (medio ambiente, personas, insumos, procesos, infraestructuras, instituciones, etc.) y actividades que se relacionan con la producción, procesamiento, distribución, preparación y consumo de alimentos, y los resultados de estas actividades, incluidos los resultados socioeconómicos y ambientales (HLPE, 2017). Los sistemas agroalimentarios ponen énfasis en el rol de las dietas como vinculo de los sistemas agrícolas con la nutrición y salud, así como señalan el ambiente agroalimentario para facilitar el consumo sostenible y consideran los impactos de la agricultura y el consumo en la economía, sociedad y el ambiente.La dinámica del sistema agroalimentario permite desarmar un problema y volver a ensamblarlo para comprender sus componentes y relaciones causales (Haraldsson, 2004), así como explicar una cadena lógica de hechos interconectados que crea un relato sobre una situación compleja y que incluso muestra fallas sistémicas (Del Rio et al., 2022).La visión de sistemas considera la complejidad debido a (Sterman 2001): (1) está en constante cambio, (2) está fuertemente interconectado entre el mundo físico y el social, (3) está gobernado por la retroalimentación de nuestra acciones, (4) no es linear, (5) dependiente de la historia, (6) se autoorganiza, pero (7) se adapta, ( 8) es contraintuitivo debido a que las causas y efectos se dan en momentos distintos, y (9) es resistente a las políticas porque las políticas tienden a no considerar la complejidad del sistema.Un sistema se puede caracterizar como un grupo de múltiples componentes que interactúan entre sí. Los problemas sociales que afectan a las personas y la sociedad suelen implicar sistemas complejos compuestos por varios componentes e interacciones. Por lo tanto, responder preguntas sobre políticas generalmente involucra a un equipo de investigadores interdisciplinarios que observan y discuten los impulsores que rodean un determinado problema social. En estos sistemas complejos, \"la causa y el efecto suelen estar distantes en el tiempo y el espacio, y las consecuencias tardías y distantes de las acciones son diferentes y menos destacadas que sus efectos próximos, o simplemente se desconocen\" (Sterman 2001). Estos componentes e interacciones se pueden mapear visualmente utilizando un paradigma metodológico o un \"lenguaje\" para comprender la naturaleza dinámica e interconectada de nuestro mundo, conocido como Diagramas de Ciclos Causales (DCC)El mapeo para hacer Diagramas de Ciclos Causales (DCC) comprende dos características básicas. Primero, los Diagramas se componen de variables y enlaces direccionales (es decir, flechas) que representan interacciones causales. Los enlaces direccionales ilustran una relación de \"causa y efecto\" tal que la variable de origen afectará a otra variable (es decir, causa → efecto). Segundo, los vínculos causales tienen dos polaridades: positiva (misma dirección) y negativa (dirección opuesta) (Cavana y Mares 2004). Un vínculo causal positivo indica que dos variables vinculadas aumentarán o disminuirán juntas (misma dirección). Una polaridad negativa entre dos variables implica una relación inversa u opuesta (dirección opuesta); un aumento en una variable provoca una disminución en la otra variable vinculada y viceversa.Una vez que se define el problema, el siguiente paso es identificar las variables relevantes que afectan el problema. Posteriormente, el objetivo es identificar las variables en los sistemas adyacentes que afectan a las \"variables primarias\". Desde un punto de vista gráfico, se pueden ver todas las variables en un Diagrama de Ciclos Causales como \"nodos\" y los enlaces como \"bordes\". Después de mapear todas las variables (nodos) y enlaces, los ciclos de retroalimentación', o ciclos cerrados de variables, se vuelven más evidentes. Se crea una narrativa coherente y holística sobre un problema particular al conectar los nodos y enlaces de varios ciclos (Kim 1992).Los ciclos de retroalimentación se clasifican a continuación en dos categorías: refuerzo y equilibrio. En la literatura, los bucles de retroalimentación de refuerzo y equilibrio a veces se denominan ciclos de retroalimentación positiva y negativa, respectivamente.El DCC se analiza visualmente constantemente para identificar las variables clave y el rango de bucles de equilibrio y refuerzo que contiene. Una característica clave de este proceso es también simplificar el diagrama conceptual para que los conocimientos resultantes puedan usarse como base para desarrollar e implementar políticas (Cavana y Mares 2004). Según la definición de bucles de retroalimentación, los investigadores deberían poder comprender ciertos mecanismos de un sistema que están estudiando. Además, para que haya un sistema que sea estable, en otras palabras, que se corrija a sí mismo o que busque el equilibrio, debe haber un ciclo de equilibrio que exista en alguna combinación con un ciclo de refuerzo.En resumen, los pasos de la metodología consisten en:1. Definir los límites del sistema, y la pregunta a responder con el Diagrama Bucle Causal). Por ejemplo entender los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible que tienen en la zona de análisis para entender como el sistema permitiría alcanzarlos.2. Definir las variables que son relevantes para el sistema, comenzando solo con algunas muy importantes (basadas en el conocimiento sobre el sistema, por ejemplo, a través de un análisis inicial del sistema).Las preguntas iniciales para cada grupo en el taller son:3. Presentar su entendimiento de los cambios en la región pasado y futuro sobre componentes sociales/institucionales, económicos y ambientales 4. Dinámicas del sistema social-económico-ecológico que identifica en la regiónLa metodología usada para la colección de información fue a través de un grupo focal entre actores claves del sistema agroalimentario saludable en Lima Metropolitana, incluyendo: Asociación de Mercados, El Consejo del Sistema Alimentario de Lima Metropolitana (CONSIAL), Red de Acción en Agricultura Alternativa (RAAA), representante de las Agroferias campesina, la incubadora de innovaciones de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (Incuba Agraria), la empresa de Productos Ecológicos \"Vacas Felices\", la finca de producción agroecológica \"Bioagricultura Casablanca\", el Instituto de Investigaciones Nutricionales (IIN) y la ONG Consorcio por la Salud, Ambiente y Desarrollo (ECOSAD). El taller se llevó a cabo el 7 de diciembre en el auditorio del Centro Internacional de la Papa en la ciudad de Lima.Las Agroferias Campesinas, cumplen una década de funcionamiento bajo el concepto de cadena corta de comercialización de alimentos, con la venta directa de productores de la agricultura familiar a los consumidores, se ubican en espacios públicos previa autorización de la autoridad municipal y únicamente los fines de semana.Actualmente en Lima existen 4 agro ferias, la más antigua, desde el 2013, en Magdalena; años después surgieron en San Borja, Jesús María y La Punta.\"El Gran Mercado\", un espacio asignando a los productores de la reconocida Feria Gastronómica MISTURA (2009-2017), constituye el primer hito para el establecimiento de las Agroferias campesinas en Lima, al impulsar la comercialización de cadena corta, del productor al consumidor, durante 10 días de duración de dicha feria.MISTURA la feria organizada anualmente en la ciudad de Lima por la Asociación Peruana de Gastronomía (APEGA) tuvo un concepto enfocado a congregar a los restaurantes y a los productores agrícolas para difundir la comida peruana y la biodiversidad de alimentos producidos en diversas zonas del país. A consecuencia de ello, los canales abiertos para los pequeños productores se consolidan en el 2013 como \"Ferias AgropecuariasMistura\" (FAM), impulsadas por el proyecto \"Cadenas agroalimentarias gastronómicas inclusivas\" de APEGA, ferias han dado un soporte valioso al sistema de comercialización directa entre pequeños productores organizados de todo el país y consumidores de Lima, siendo éste un espacio de difusión de los productores agroecológicos, que provienen de todo el país, funciona a la vez como un vehículo de educación e información al consumidor. (Alvarado et. al. 2015).La administración de estas ferias está a cargo de la asamblea de socios fundadores y el consejo directivo APEDFEPA, (Asociación Peruana de Ferias De Productores Agropecuarios) tiene a cargo la administración, funcionamiento, y promoción de la feria; cuenta con un equipo remunerado de profesionales que, junto con los productores agroecológicos aseguran la continuidad de mejoras e innovaciones a través de la capacitación en temas de gestión, calidad de servicio, sanidad, mercadeo, procesos y modelos que permiten mejorar su productividad y calidad (Gonzáles et al., 2019, citado por Alva et. al. 2021). Actualmente, la Agroferias de Magdalena congrega a pequeños productores de 21 regiones del Perú y ofrecen 150 productos agropecuarios.La mayoría de los productores no cuenta con certificación orgánica por la alta inversión económica (2500 a 3000 dólares anuales); a razón de ello la ANPE con un conjunto de actores institucionales ha incidido para la creación y uso del sello SGP (Sistema de Garantía Participativo) a fin de garantizar la producción ecológica de numerosos cultivos. (Alva et. al. 2021). Atraen la atención de más de 5.500 visitantes cada domingo, tan solo en su sede de Magdalena, donde demuestran la calidad de sus productos bajo estándares de buenas prácticas de manipulación de alimentos y atención al cliente. (El Comercio, 2019) Las Agroferias campesinas en los 10 años de trayectoria han ganado una amplia clientela y el prestigio en el público limeño en base a la acertada gestión de la APEDFEPA orientada en la organización de la oferta de la agricultura familiar, al expendio de productos de buena calidad, y buena atención al público; sin embargo, su permanencia en un espacio determinado está supeditado a la voluntad política del gobierno de turno; Vanesa Ramos (ONG Rikolto), afirma que hace falta una normativa que regule el uso del espacio público, específicamente para ferias de productores u agricultores familiares, de lo contrario, las organizaciones invertirán recursos extraordinarios para lidiar con la burocracia, renovando permisos o renegociando condiciones de manera constante. Sobre el mimo tema, el gerente actual de las Agroferias Carlos Lazo, comenta que desde hace 9 años vienen coordinando con autoridades e instituciones para mejorar las condiciones de comercialización para más de 70 productores de 22 regiones del país. (Rikolto, 2022). Al respecto este año 2023 la Agroferias de Magdalena, fue removido del Puericultorio Perez Araníbar, a la Av. Brasil, sede que ocupó los primeros años. (El Comercio, 2023). El Consejo del Sistema Alimentario de Lima Metropolitana (CONSIAL) ha empezado el 2022 a trabajar en una propuesta de ordenanza metropolitana sobre el uso del espacio público para ferias de alimentos, que aprende de casos como el de Agroferias y sus retos.Las Bioferias, espacios de comercialización directa de los pequeños productores orgánicos y ecológicos a los consumidores, toman vida los días sábado o domingo en los parques, calles y plazas de diferentes distritos de Lima; deben contar con la autorización del gobierno local. El concepto de las Bioferias surge a finales de los 90's en el Centro IDEAS, un aglutinador de voces concordantes con la necesidad de articular esfuerzos para la comercialización ecológica local en una época en que no se hablaba de un mercado ecológico, cuyo propósito fue: brindar una alternativa estable de oferta para los productores ecológicos de pequeña escala y, con ello, mejorar su calidad de vida, evitar la venta de sus campos de cultivo, y además asegurar un abastecimiento de productos ecológicos. También por esos años surge el Grupo Ecológica Perú, formado por 10 miembros, 3 representantes de asociaciones de productores, 4 productores individuales y 3 ONGs (Centro IDEAS, IDMA e Instituto Huayuná), con el objetivo de coordinar y promover la producción, comercialización y consumo de productos ecológicos garantizados y certificados en el ámbito nacional. En este contexto, la Bioferias de Miraflores fue la primera en establecerse, en 1999, promovida por la gestión de la Red Agroecológica (RAE), ECO Lógica-Perú y la municipalidad de Miraflores (Wú Guin et al. 2002). Dicha Bioferias sirvió de piloto para la implementación de otras ferias similares en Huancayo, Chiclayo, Huánuco y otras regiones. (Wú Guin y Alvarado.En los últimos años este movimiento se ha visto enriquecido por iniciativas orientadas a desarrollar el comercio justo también en el mercado local, a través de la implementación de tiendas solidarias y de ferias artesanales.En 2004, se conforma la Red Peruana de Comercio Justo y Consumo Ético (RPCJyCE), siendo sus socias fundadoras la RAE Perú; cuyo plan estratégico de enfoca a 4 ejes de acción i) incidencia política, ii) desarrollo de mercado, iii) acreditación / certificación y iv) organización interna. La RPCJyCE contribuyó al fortalecimiento de las Bioferias, y tuvo la oportunidad de poner en marcha Bioferias organizadas directamente por sus asociados con una participación amplia en la comercialización (Wú Guin, 2021).Los años siguientes continuaron las iniciativas para lograr la consolidación de las Bioferias; en septiembre de La oferta ecológica en las Bioferias ha crecido exponencialmente, en sus inicios, hace más de 2 décadas, se ofertaban menos de 100 tipos de productos, a la actualidad (2020) se ofertan más de mil tipos de productos, i) vegetales: hortalizas en general, frutas, hierbas, libres de fertilizantes químico-sintéticos, plaguicidas, herbicidas;ii). Derivados de crianza: huevos, carnes, lácteos, miel, que respetan la etología de los animales; iii) procesados: aceites de primera prensa en frío, cereales, derivados de la oliva, derivados de granos andinos, frutas deshidratadas. Iv) no alimentarios: cuidado personal, prendas de algodón ecológico (Wú Guin, 2020).Wu Guín (2020), en base a su amplia experiencia con las Bioferias, afirma que la sostenibilidad de las ferias ecológicas está basada en 4 pilares: productores, consumidores, promotores y el gobierno local; a continuación una pequeña síntesis. i) Los productores deben cumplir con una oferta de productos ecológicos y estar garantizada por certificación de tercera parte o del Sistema de Garantía Participativo (SGP); los productos procesados, deben tener registro sanitario. los biogastronómicos, deben usar ingredientes ecológicos, y tanto en procesados como en biogastronómicos está prohibido el uso insumos refinados (azúcar blanca o rubia, harina blanca, margarinas, aceites comerciales) y transgénicos. Por lo general no se aceptan \"vendedores\", a lo sumo \"intermediarios solidarios\". ii) El equipo promotor, cuenta con un reglamento interno, está constituido por personas con más de 10 años de experiencia; acompaña permanente a productores; convoca a reuniones de feriantes, organiza talleres, charlas y minicursos en diversos temas dirigidos a consumidores, además es interlocutor con la municipalidad. Iii) Los consumidores, brindan sostenibilidad a las Bioferias. En noviembre de 2002 se conformó el Comité de Consumidores Ecológicos (CCE); organizaron charlas semanales en la Bioferia de Miraflores, y cinco Encuentros Nacionales de Consumidores Ecológicos, dos de los cuales incluyeron Encuentros internacionales (Ecuador, Colombia y Bolivia). El CCE ha sido un catalizador para dar a conocer las diferencias y ventajas de una nutrición saludable con productos ecológicos; iv) El gobierno local, cuyo apoyo es imprescindible para la puesta en marcha las Bioferias, tiene diferentes formas de participación, horizontal, (\"Dejar hacer, dejar pasar\"), vertical (autorizan con actitud rígida y sin compromiso), mixto (apoyo incondicional con restricción).Afirma también que la vulnerabilidad de las Bioferias se evidencia cada cuatro años por estar supeditadas a la voluntad política de las municipalidades. Al respecto, el 2020 a unos meses de iniciada la pandemia COVID-19 fue cerrada la Bioferia de La Molina por las autoridades municipales, hace 3 años que no ha sido reabierta. Y recientemente fue cerrada la Bioferia de Surco por el nuevo gobierno municipal.Para las Agroferias Campesinas, los actores del taller reconocieron la participación de un total de 24 actores.Dos son los actores que tienen una fuerte participación en las Agroferias, y forman parte de la sociedad civil: la Asociación Peruana de Ferias de Productores Agropecuarios -APEFEPA, que tiene a cargo la administración, funcionamiento, y promoción de la feria, y el conjunto de productores agroecológicos, que comercializan directamente los diversos productos cultivados en sus propias fincas y de sus familiares, por lo tanto su origen es conocido como también la calidad del producto es garantizada (Figura 3).s, los que contribuyen al fortalecimiento y promoción de dichas ferias con diferentes niveles de participación y compromisos: 8 actores de la sociedad civil, 6 actores del sector privado, 5 actores del sector público, y 2 actores de la academia.Seis son los actores con un nivel medio de participación; en primer lugar, dado su alto nivel de poder, el sector público, con las municipalidades distritales de Lima, cuya influencia y respaldo es considerado indispensable para mantener las ferias en un espacio público autorizado, su relación con la APEFEPA es poco constante, y el cambio de autoridades en el próximo año es visto con incertidumbre, podría obligarlos a buscar otro lugar para la feria. Se suma la Municipalidad Provincial de Lima con un nivel de poder medio, pero con una importante labor en la consolidación del Consejo del Sistema Alimentario de Lima Metropolitana -CONSIAL, que ha emitido ordenanzas importantes sobre la producción y el mercado de alimentos saludables; y 3 actores de la sociedad civil: la Asociación Vecinal y las ONGs Rikolto y TRIAS; el primero mantiene una relación poco constante con la feria, pero su apoyo es importante por su acertada injerencia para la permanencia de la feria en la zona; mientras que las ONGs han formado una alianza con la APEFEPA para mejorar las condiciones de comercialización en base a proyectos de desarrollo y mantienen una relación constante. En este mismo nivel de participación, se consideran dos actores del sector privado: restaurantes (2) y bio bodegas (varias), los cuales constituyen canales para el comercio de los excedentes de la feria en temporadas de sobre oferta de productos, con dichos actores también tienen una relación constante y están considerados con un nivel de poder medio (Figura 3).Ha sido reconocidos 8 actores con una participan débil, y con un poder o mediana influencia : 3 del sector privado: los medios de prensa, por lo general escrita, dada su contribución con la difusión de notas sobre la contribución de las Bioferias en la salud de la población, e hicieron incidencia a nivel de las municipalidades para la continuidad de la feria en los espacios públicos; los mercados de abasto y supermercados, que demandan productos orgánicos y ecológicos, pero aún no se ha concretado un contrato dado el poco volumen de la oferta actual de la feria; 3 actores de la academia: la Universidad Agraria, la Pontificia Universidad la Católica, el Instituto de Cocina Le Cordon Bleu, participan con estudios para tesis de pregrado y de maestría; y 2 actores de la sociedad civil: las Ollas Comunes, y los Comedores Populares, en ciertas ocasiones las productores de la feria contribuyen con donaciones de los excedentes. Fueron también considerados otros actores que actualmente no tienen participación en las agroferias campesinas: los Ministerios PRODUCE, MIDAGRI y MINEDU, son considerados con un nivel de poder alto, por su injerencia en la promoción de los productos orgánicos y ecológicos, el fortalecimiento de los productores agroecológicos de los valles de Lima, y de los espacios que ocupan las Agroferias campesinas (Figura 4).Por otro lado, se identificaron actores que forman parte de la sociedad civil cuyo nivel de participación es opuesto a las Agroferias campesinas, por un lado, se trata de la Asociación de Vecinos con nivel de poder mediano dada influencia que ejercen en las municipalidades distritales; son los vecinos más cercanos al local de la feria que se incomodan por la congestión vehicular de las calles contiguas a la feria. Por otro lado, losComerciantes que suplantan a los productores ecológicos en algunas de las 20 ferias de productores que funcionan en Lima, dichos comerciantes, expenden hortalizas y otros productos con origen desconocido, y de dudosa calidad. En tal sentido se han generado una relación de conflicto de la APRFEPA con dichos actores (Figura 4) Figura 4. Mapa de Actores de las Agroferias Campesinas -LimaLa información del mapeo de actores se basa en la experiencia del Valle de Pachacamac, a partir del trabajo del Fundo Casablanca, y de otros espacios históricos de las bioferias. Fueron reconocidas la participación de un total 25 actores, de las cuales 11 son integrantes de la sociedad civil, 10 del sector público, 3 del sector privado, y uno de la academia (Figura 5).De este grupo, destacan por su activa participación, muy cercana a las bioferias y con fuerte poder en la toma de decisiones y alta influencia 3 actores de la sociedad civil: la Red de Acción en Agricultura Alternativa -RAAA, de la Red de Agricultura Ecológica -RAE, Ecológica Perú; cuyo objetivo principal es coordinar y promover la producción, comercialización y consumo de productos ecológicos. En este mismo nivel de participación se suman, 2 actores de la sociedad civil y uno del sector privado, cuyo nivel de poder es medio: se trata de las Asociaciones de Productores Ecológicos y Orgánicos que expenden sus productos en las bioferias; el Instituto de Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente-IDMA, que brinda un respaldo institucional y acompañamiento técnico en la difusión y fortalecimiento de la agricultura ecológica; y la Asociación de Propietarios de la Parcelación Casa Blanca, en el rol de abastecedor de productos agroecológicos y de vincular a los productores con los consumidores a través de la sensibilización sobre la agricultura ecológica y la buena nutrición.Los actores con participación media en las bioferias y con un fuerte poder de decisión son 2 del sector público, la Municipalidad de Carabayllo y la Municipalidad de Lima Metropolitana, desde la Subgerencia de Desarrollo;dichas entidades autorizan el funcionamiento de las bioferias en un espacio público, y cumplen el rol de acompañamiento en el fortalecimiento de dichas ferias. También con una mediana participación, y un poder medio, se reconocen a 10 actores: 5 de la sociedad civil: las ONGs CARE Perú, Liga Agraria, ECOSAD y RIKOLTO; y el Consorcio Agroecológico Peruano-CAP, dichas instituciones realizan acciones ligadas a la promoción y fortalecimiento de capacidades en agricultura ecológica en los valles de Lurín, Chillón y Pachacamac; 4 del sector público: la Subgerencia Agraria de la Municipalidad de Miraflores, las Agencias Agrarias de Lurín, Carabayllo, y Pachacámac, organismos descentralizados del Programa de Gobierno Regional, de Lima Metropolitana; cuyo equipo técnico realiza acciones para el fortalecimiento de capacidades de los productores ecológicos; y uno de la academia, la Universidad Nacional Agraria -La Molina participan en el fortalecimiento de capacidades de los productores agroecológicos en los valles de Lurín y Chillón, también realizan investigaciones. Y con un nivel de poder bajo, pero con interesante aporte, participa, la Sociedad Nacional de Industrias, actor del sector privado, brinda apoyo al CAP en el proceso de reconversión de productores enfocado a las buenas prácticas agroecológicas en el valle del Chillón.Los actores que tienen una participación aún débil, y un nivel de poder bajo son dos del sector público: las Municipalidades de Lurín y Pachacamac; uno de la sociedad Civil: la ONG Veterinarios Sin Fronteras en el valle del Chillón; y uno del sector privado: el Restaurante La Leña, un punto de venta que conecta a los productores de Pachacamac con el público, éste se mantuvo poco tiempo por la intervención de SENASA que exigía una certificación de tercera parte para la venta de sus productos ecológicos. Por otro lado, se han presentado en la bioferias casos de relaciones opuestas con dos actores del sector público, la Municipalidad de La Molina con una oposición de nivel fuerte, debido al cierre de la Bioferia desde marzo 2020 al iniciarse la pandemia del COVI-19, generándose una situación de conflicto con alrededor de 100 productores ecológicos que expendían su productos en la Bioferia-La Molina; también El otro caso, ha sido el SENASA con una oposición con los productores de Pachacamac, por la falta de una certificación de tercera parte, para comercializar los productos orgánicos y ecológicos en alianza con los restaurantes.Cabe mencionar que, la certificación de tercera parte es otorgada por una empresa certificadora de carácter privado, y tiene un costo elevado para los pequeños y medianos productores; al respecto, la Ley N°29196 de promoción de la producción orgánica o ecológica, considera el Sistema de Garantía Participativo -SGP como medio de certificación de los productos orgánicos de los pequeños productores destinados al mercado interno; cuyo reglamento ha sido aprobado recientemente por el SENASA.https://www.senasa.gob.pe/senasacontigo/incorporan-sistema-de-garantia-participativo-para-certificacionde-productos-organicos/Los sistemas agroalimentarios locales saludables en la ciudad de Lima tienen una serie de retos que no permiten del todo poder tener una cadena de abastecimiento corta para la totalidad de productos consumidos en la ciudad, además que los negocios saludables tienen diferentes desafíos para el funcionamiento de la cadena.Como se puede ver en la figura 6, el sistema agroalimentario saludable enfrenta retos desde la producción hasta el consumo.Figura 6. Identificación de componentes y dinámicas del Sistema agroalimentario saludable en Lima. Fuente: Elaboración propia, en base al taller de grupos focales.Los principales problemas identificados a nivel de producción tienen que ver con los impactos ambientales, y sobre el equilibrio territorial, como son los desafíos que se tienen para conservar el espacio agrícola en zonas urbanas, hay una la falta de gobernanza municipal, también los desafíos de competir con el agua para consumo humano, la aparición de plagas y la falta de apoyo institucional para consolidar y difundir innovaciones que permitan un mejor uso del agua, cosecha de agua en zonas desérticas como el uso de mallas para atrapar niebla, el uso de tecnologías de manejo orgánico de cultivos, entre otros. Asimismo, relacionado con el impacto en la seguridad alimentaria, se ve la necesidad de adaptación del sistema de garantías participativas (SGP) a pequeños productores, que brinde garantías a los consumidores por una producción ecológica, al cual se suma un débil apoyo institucional como los Ministerios y sus organismos descentralizados. Los impactos sobre el equilibrio territorial y socioeconómicos son relevantes, dado que la pérdida de suelo agrícola es severa, las municipalidades cambian los usos de suelo, de agrícola a urbano sin un criterio técnico ni consensuado con la sociedad civil, se enfocan más en criterios económicos de corto plazo basado en un costo por m2. alto. Hay también una falta de sensibilidad por los beneficios de los productos agroecológicos, por lo que su demanda es aún limitada.Existen varios problemas productivos en la producción ecológica en la ciudad de Lima, falta de capacitación y asistencia técnicas en problemas fitosanitarios que complica en la producción agroecológica, como la mosca de la fruta en frutales. El problema es a nivel nacional, pero para la producción agroecológica no hay facilidad para acceder a feromonas para las polillas y la mosca de la fruta. Incubagraria, la incubadora de empresas de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, que fomenta el desarrollo del emprendimiento y la innovación en los estudiantes, docentes y su entorno, ha desarrollado un plaguicida en base a feromonas y ha iniciado la comercialización, aunque falta investigación para saber con qué tipo de insectos funciona.Una solución a los problemas de la producción saludable de productos locales puede dar a través del sistema de garantías participativas o SGP, el cual es un sistema organizado comunalmente con un sistema de certificación entre pares para productos orgánicos que promueve la participación de productores con acceso limitado a los sistemas de certificación por terceros, bajando los costos de participación y permite la soberanía alimentaria, la inclusión y el empoderamiento entre sus participantes, aunque existan tensiones y contradicciones dentro del SGP (Montefrio y Jonhson, 2019) Para el 2020, más de un millón de agricultores participan en SGP, y más de 220 iniciativas de SPG en 77 países, y donde diversos países tienen esquemas de reconocimiento estatal, en los cinco continentes, incluyendo a Perú y Bolivia, aunque en algunos países las políticas sobre SGP afectan los principios y características originales del sistema y no hay evidencias de sostenibilidad del SGP (Jacobi et al., 2023;Lemeilleur y Sermage, 2020). Este SGP al final permite generar garantías a los consumidores y los productores tienen incentivos de innovar otras soluciones agroecológicas, y los productores agroecológicos puedan producir sus propios insumos (como ejemplo: bocachi, macerados de rocoto, trampas amarillas), y para otros problemas fitosanitarios, las alternativas siguen siendo los plaguicidas, faltando el tema de capacitación para incrementar las opciones de soluciones ecológicas.Los problemas para la comercialización también están asociados a la inestabilidad de espacios para la venta de productos orgánicos, la baja capacidad de gestión de las bioferias, y la falta de sensibilidad de los beneficios de los productos orgánicos, que sumados al riesgo moral inherente a las bioferias por vender productos que podrían no tener las cualidades de productos orgánicos, por adulteración con productos convencionales hacen que los intermediarios no diferencien los precios de los productos orgánicos y convencionales y los consumidores consideren que los precios de los productos ecológicos estén sobrevalorados, incluso los mismos productores consideran que los productos orgánicos podrían venderse a un precio menor bajo las condiciones actuales y evidencia de eso es que en varios mercados de las periferias de la ciudad, las bioferias tienen los precios de muchos de sus productos al mismo precio del mercado de abastos (con la salvedad que reciben apoyo de varias instituciones para el transporte de los productos a las bioferias entre otros apoyos).Una solución para lograr tener precios diferentes para productos orgánico podría ser a través de asociaciones de productores orgánicos. Sin embargo, la asociatividad entre los productores orgánico es muy baja. La producción de vegetales fresco en la zona urbana y periurbana permite tener un mayor control en la calidad de alimentos consumidos en la ciudad, incrementar el vínculo productor-consumidor, así como generar una educación ambiental en espacios urbanos.Las bioferias se diferencian a los mercados tradicionales porque es de una cadena corta donde se eliminan intermediarios y los productores reducen la diferencia de precio entre la chacra y consumidor. A pesar de ese incremento de los beneficios comparado con productos frescos de cadena larga, los productores ecológicos no sacan el costo de la producción y muchas veces trabajan a perdida, y a esto se suma que falta un plan de producción para sostener las bio ferias, la inestabilidad de los espacios urbanos para bio ferias y falta el tema de la gestión de las ferias y de sus residuos. Esto hace que algunos vendedores agroecológicos para aumentar las ganancias hacen \"trampas\" en las ferias ecológicas, compran de la parada, lo que en el mediano plazo produce un alto riesgo moral en las bio ferias.La falta de organizaciones de productores orgánicos no ayuda a formar grupos de opinión para proteger los espacios de producción y comercialización, así como a fomentar las innovaciones en las producciones ecológicas.Esta falta de organización, también se traduce en un desconocimiento del productor individual en conocer sus costos de producción para mejorar la eficiencia productiva y mejora de las negociaciones con intermediarios y consumidores. Entre las oportunidades identificadas está el crecimiento poblacional donde hay más consumidores, y aunque la pandemia del COVID-19 fue pésimo para la producción agroecológica, existe una oportunidad para la clase media emergente, siendo el reto sensibilizar a la clase media.El diagrama de bucles causales (Figura 7), se muestran cómo es la dinámica del sistema agroalimentario saludable en Lima metropolitana Figura 7. Diagrama de bucles causales del sistema agroalimentario saludable de Lima Metropolitana. Fuente: Elaboración propia, en base al taller de grupos focales.La Figura 7, muestra como las principales dinámicas del sistema tienen los componentes de producción y comercialización como puntos claves en el funcionamiento de los sistemas orgánicos donde la falta de disponibilidad de productos certificados aceptados por los diferentes actores, así como la falta de confianza y conocimiento de los beneficios de productos orgánicos, así como la elevada diferencia de precio entre los productos convencionales y orgánicos, afectan al crecimiento del sector (Stolz et al., 2011). La Figura 7 muestra los diferentes ciclos de refuerzo que tienen el sistema agroalimentario saludable como los ciclos de balanceo impuesto por el cambio climático en la producción agrícola saludable (R1), el ciclo de refuerzo de la gobernanza de los terrenos agrícolas por los gobiernos locales (R2), pero otro ciclo de refuerzo son los espacios agrícolas donde se comercializan (R3), específicamente ferias y mercados, lo cual da continuidad y genera confianza entre los consumidores, y finalmente el ciclo de refuerzo de la desconfianza entre los consumidores sobre los productos expuestos en los espacios de comercialización a través del riesgo moral y la indiferencia de los intermediarios (R4) por lo que es necesario realizar acciones para fortalecer esa confianza, especialmente entre productores y consumidores.Las agroferias campesinas y las bioferias han tenido un desarrollo importante en las últimas décadas debido a varios factores económicos, sociales, y ambientales como el crecimiento económico durante gran parte del siglo XXI, así como el posicionamiento del Perú como centro gastronómico mundial y una parte del sector privado que impulsó el desarrollo de dicho posicionamiento valorando el comercio justo, las cadenas cortas, con especial énfasis en juntar productores con consumidores y cuidado del ambiente en la producción y el proceso de transformación y comercialización. Eventos como Mixtura fueron parte fundamental en dicho posicionamiento, al igual que diferentes ONGs y sociedad civil que continuaron dicho impulso cuando el crecimiento económico e inestabilidad política afectaron la capacidad de compra de los consumidores urbanos, así como de permitir la continuidad de los espacios públicos urbanos destinados a estos propósitos.Existen diferencias entre estos dos espacios de comercialización de productos de cadena corta que afectan el futuro, principalmente respecto a los actores que facilitan o limitan las actividades de ellos. Por un lado, las agroferias campesinas reciben un fuerte apoyo tanto del gobierno nacional como del gobierno local, así como de diferentes actores privados como restaurantes y bodegas agroecológicas, así como de diferentes grupos de productores, aunque son afectados por los mercados de abasto, así como por quejas de los vecinos a dichos mercados. Por otro lado, las bioferias, siendo apoyadas principalmente por ONGs, la sociedad civil que trabaja temas de agricultura ecológica, así como productores agroecológicos que ven las bioferias como un espacio para ventas a precios más justos de sus productos se ven afectados por los intereses políticos de los gobiernos locales de turno para brindar espacios públicos, así como restricciones de los organismos encargados de la certificación.Las dinámicas de los sistemas agroalimentarios de dichos espacios indican que los productores tanto de las ferias campesinas como productores agroecológicos tienen problemas de abastecimiento de agua e incremento de plagas y enfermedades, que dificultan producir tanto cuantitativa como cualitativamente. Esto es especialmente importante en la producción agroecológica, debido a los problemas de tener productos aceptados para controlar ecológicamente dichas plagas. El uso de las diferentes prácticas para el manejo ecológico de los cultivos es un tema de conflicto entre los actores de la cadena por los vacíos en la regulación por parte del SENASA en el cual el Certificado de Garantías Participativas no es reconocido, y los costos de Certificaciones Orgánicas de Terceros hacen prohibitivo su aplicación a productores de la agricultura familiar de pequeña escala. Esta falta de claridad en el reconocimiento de productos agroecológicos sumado a la falta de sensibilización de la producción ecológica, sus beneficios y el costo de producirlas, afectan la rentabilidad de la producción y la sostenibilidad de los productores agroecológicas.Los espacios de producción y de venta, identificados tanto por el mapeo de actores como en la metodología de diagrama de bucles causales, es un problema que siendo de índole de planificación territorial que corresponde tanto a los gobiernos locales como de forma indirecta a los ministerios de agricultura y vivienda; no permite el destino de recursos para innovar a través de la mejora de la calidad, cantidad y diversidad de la producción, porque por el lado productivo hay competencia por los recursos de suelo y agua, incluyendo la calidad del agua; y por el lado de comercialización, no hay garantías de espacios para acercar productores y consumidores en zonas urbanas con los beneficios que este tipo de comercio implica.A medida que la agricultura urbana y peri urbana, depende más de las mujeres, quienes están teniendo un rol más importante en la agricultora urbana según los datos de los últimos censos poblacionales (Goicochea, 2020), el cuidado de este tipo de producción, no solo permite tener reducir la pobreza y brindar crecimiento económico a productores agroecológicos, sino que permite cumplir con diversos objetivos de desarrollo sostenible como igualdad de género, ciudades sostenibles, mejora de la salud, entre otros.El entendimiento de los sistemas agroalimentarios saludables es fundamental para entender las alternativas de transformación y las capacidades necesarias para dicha transición para que los sistemas ecológicos que afectan los sistemas urbanos sean resilientes en un contexto de cambios rápidos y constantes del área urbana. Dentro de la complejidad de los sistemas agroalimentarios saludables, se pueden encontrar espacios donde se pueden intervenir de forma que el sistema pueda funcionar de una forma más eficiente.La competencia por los espacios agrícolas urbanos es un tema importante, y debido a los limitados mercados de productos orgánicos, la proporción de producción orgánica es todavia baja, pero a medida que aumentan los consumidores consientes en la salud y el medio ambiente, se pueden generar los incentivos para poder tener un sistema agroalimentario más resiliente en Lima.Adicionalmente, Lima es capaz de satisfacer la actual demanda de ciertas categorías de alimentos como hortalizas orgánicas y raíces como camote, así como alimentos de origen animal como huevos y gallinas y en menor medida los cuyes, pero el incremento de la demanda pondría presión en la producción de cadena corta. Tener cadenas intermedias que permitan reducir la huella de carbono de los productos requerirá de la negociación con productores de zonas con producción agroecológica.Existen una diversidad de actores dentro del sistema agroalimentario saludable con presencia de actores del sector público, privado y de la sociedad civil, pero existe una desconexión entre actores y aunque en el discurso, existe la voluntad a nivel de gobierno de fomentar la producción saludable, en la práctica, el gobierno no tiene acciones coherentes como adaptar las certificaciones participativas a pequeños productores orgánicos o proteger los espacios tanto de producción como de comercialización de productos saludables.Adicionalmente, trabajos en la generación de insumos para reducir o eliminar el uso de insumos químicos a costos manejables, pueden servir para tener precios de productos saludables no solo para los estratos medios-altos de la sociedad limeña, pero también poder brindar opciones saludables a poblaciones de menores recursos de forma sostenible tanto ambientalmente como financieramente. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dfb833702a857daa83f3a9b1e2006a12","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96afb967-1cdb-4c9b-8271-f5c18b03c980/retrieve","id":"-630353191"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ce4523f4-eb4c-4a6c-91be-524a647c50e4","pagecount":"6","content":"The approach and focus have evolved as we have learned to carry out evidencebased advocacy. In this blog we want to share some of this learning, and also introduce the new exciting phase which takes ILRI and livestock advocacy in LMICs in exciting new directions.While livestock are often seen to be at the epicentre of some of the world's biggest challenges-unhealthy diets, climate change, pandemic threats, biodiversity losses, environmental damage-in LMICs, livestock systems are seen in much more positive ways, providing a wide range of development outcomes such as better nutrition for women and children, better incomes for smallholders, job opportunities for youth, greater empowerment for women, and resilience and adaptation to climate change. Nevertheless, it is clear they must be included-and constructively debated-in discussions to create a fairer and more sustainable future.Feeding and informing these debates to bring evidence and balance has been at the heart of the GLAD project. As we look forward to 2025, this current phase (2023-2025) targets robust evidence, compelling communication, stakeholder brokerage and policy engagement to inform global discourses around livestock, contribute to positive policy environments and help to grow financial investments in sustainable livestock solutions that deliver food security, climate adaptation, livelihoods and nutrition outcomes in LMICs.Many scientists find public advocacy and engagement work to be uneasy bedfellows. They worry about evidence cited by the news media, or informing policy and investment processes, being manipulated or taken out of context. Accordingly, they tend to lay their knowledge out there (often in very technical language) and let policymakers decide what to do with itdrawing a firm line between 'science' and 'policy'. The GLAD project and scientific teams have worked together in a step-bystep learning process about what works and what doesn't in using scientific evidence to advocate for sustainable livestock systems and engage in development processes beyond the livestock sector. The project is learning that while scientists may be cautious about some types of advocacy, they cannot afford to remain silent as global narratives and agendas find their way into national and local-level policy initiatives edging out local knowledge and realities.In the first phase, we focused on synthesizing evidence of the many contributions developing-country livestock livelihoods and systems make to meeting the United Nations' 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and mapping key targets and processes to engage with. We learned early on that to be effective in this influencing work, we needed to supply credible evidence that livestock matter to the interests and issues of development investment institutions. From a large body of high-quality scientific literature, we distilled pro-poor livestock facts, messages and case studies for the Why Livestock Matter website. It showcases a wealth of evidence about the manifold benefits livestock generate for lower-income peoples and countries. In addition, it helps to unite academic and activist communities with 'actionable intelligence' and 'agenda-setting' livestock-related information.In addition, the project engaged media with stories, started to form a community of partners, measured perceptions of livestock by different development actors, and began to engage in global conversations at the United Nations and in processes such as the World Economic Forum, the EAT-Lancet dietary guidelines and the Global Landscapes Forum.In GLAD's second phase, we expanded this evidence base and began testing ways to better target and engage national and global decision-makers and shapers. We developed an engagement framework combining four approaches (see diagram above). The first approach provided the foundation of evidence around key themes. Second, the evidence was re-packaged to suit the needs of key stakeholder groups. In this phase, time was spent segmenting and understanding different audiences. The third approach sought to inform and influence global and national events and processes that could profit most from our engagement, evidence, communications and partnerships. The final approach centred on a network of allies championing sustainable livestock development.In this phase, we learned to work more strategically. We reduced the number of topics we were tackling, adopted more proactive than reactive work, and became more intentional in our engagements and influencing work. Second, we learned to better link global and national processes around priority topics. Third, we focused more on building partnerships with actors beyond ILRI's traditional circles in the livestock sector so we could influence, for example, global nutritional agendas. In this work, we realised the importance of engaging influential individuals who, while not considering themselves 'livestock champions', are aware of livestock's positive contributions to the development and can help bridge sectoral silos. Some highlights from this phase included: This year, in GLAD's third phase, the project seeks to demonstrate the ways that sustainable and inclusive livestock systems can help the world achieve its sustainable development goals, particularly meeting the development needs of the world's poorer populations without compromising future well-being.Specifically, our aim is for investment agencies, governments and other entities to increase the share of their portfolios allocated to sustainable livestock systems and solutions to fully realise the contributions of livestock systems to achieve the sustainable development goals.This phase is built around the following elements:1. Four critical issues: (i) providing a more nuanced and contextualised understanding of the diversity of livestock peoples, systems and solutions, (ii) ensuring that livestock-derived foods become safe and nutritious components of healthy diets in developing countries, (iii) supporting the central roles livestock play in climate adaptation and resilience, and (iv) enhancing the roles livestock systems can play in sustainable land use and biodiversity protection. We aim to anchor our interventions more deeply in specific issues and themes where evidence and balance are most needed. 2. Four intervention approaches: Continuing from before and joining with partners, we pursue four intervention approachesevidence, communication, brokerage and influencing. 'Evidence' will be assembled and synthesised based on the needs of the specific topic. 'Communication' will build on previous work where we tested different products and ways to engage. A significant change is our ambition to move from engagement to more intentional 'brokering' of solutions. The emphasis on 'influencing' will continue to be on more comprehensive and targeted 'beyond livestock' processes so they take proper account of the potentials of livestock systems. 3. Building engagement in a few countries to link 'Livestock Master Plans' and related national agendas to global processes and negotiations. For instance, GLAD is working with partners to provide national negotiators and government partners with evidence on livestock systems to inform their discussions at national and global levels. 4. Showcasing sustainable livestock solutions and linking them to investors and decision-makers. This is a change from Phase 2 as the project learned that beyond providing evidence, we also need to show sustainable livestock solutions that can drive investments. 5. Leveraging a network of 'livestock champions' working for sustainable development to recycle and share compelling evidence and materials in their own engagements and advocacy work. 6. Building a stronger and more cohesive alliance of livestock organisations and partners that can work together to broaden and deepen pro-poor livestock narratives and engagements.• Contribute to evidence, messages, and thought leadership to be made available on the Why Livestock Matter website. • Offer solutions for consideration in our planned 'solutions exchange' events.• Help shape an emerging narrative around livestock and climate being developed by more than 15 livestock organisations. • Support coordinated engagement around global events and processes.• Information on all of these is shared in our Livestock Champions network and discussion group. • Catch up with our reports and other materials.","tokenCount":"1221"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7d9412da936fe303195fdee138c7e683","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/727e517d-d260-47c2-abf2-201f3cfb4cf9/retrieve","id":"1951849295"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"77b96dff-f39f-4a67-a115-650c88d5e25e","pagecount":"8","content":"• Genotypes with greater root vigor at early stages show better adaptation to shortterm drought as shown by reduced leaf senescence and greater forage yieldThe trial was carried out in a greenhouse at CIAT headquarters, Palmira, Colombia (latitude 3 ° 29 'N; longitude 76 ° 21 'W; altitude 965 m). During the course of the experiment, atmospheric conditions were recorded at a weather station (WatchDog 2475 Plant Growth Station, Spectrum Technologies Inc., USA) and run at an average temperature of 30/21 ° C (day / night), a relative humidity of 48/72% (day / night) and a maximum photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) of 1000 µmol m 2 s -1 (average daily value of PAR of 710 µmol m 2 s -1 ). The soil used in this study was a Mollisol collected at CIAT facilities at 0-0.20 m from the soil surface. The soil was sieved to pass a 2 mm mesh. The plant material used in this study consisted of vegetative propagules of 27 hybrids of Urochloa humidicola (plus four checks, CIAT 679, CIAT 6133, CIAT 16888 and CIAT 16886 that were grown in pots filled with 4 kg of fertilized soil (milligrams of nutrient added per kilogram of soil: N 21, P 26, K 52, Ca 56, Mg 15, S 10, Zn 1.0, Cu 1.0, B 0.05 and Mo 0.05) and well irrigated conditions. Plant materials were developed and obtained from the U. humidicola hybrid program of CIAT (now the Alliance of Bioversity-CIAT). Each propagule was visually selected for its homogeneity (0.04-0.10 m in length). The propagules were then replanted in a 2: 1 (weight / weight) mixture of soil and river sand that was previously fertilized (milligrams of added nutrient per kilogram of soil mix: N 40, P 50, K 100, Ca 101, Mg 28, S20, Zn 2.0, Cu 2.0, B 1.0 and Mo 1.0) This fertilization rate represents the recommended fertility level for the establishment of crops and pastures (Rao et al. 1992). After fertilization, the soil mixture was allowed to air dry for a couple of days. The soil mixture presented an apparent density (ρ soil) of 1.5g cm 3 , 6% organic matter and a pH of 7.5. After air drying the soil, 1.5 kg of soil mixture was inserted into plastic pots (1.2 liters). The soil mixture was then saturated with water and allowed to drain for a couple of hours. After that, field capacity of soil was determined for each soil cylinder. After that, a propagule ∼0.01 m below the soil surface was planted in each pot and watered daily to maintain field capacity under greenhouse conditions for 14 days.Subsequently, a factorial combination of 27 hybrids (plus four checks) was established by two conditions of water supply (well-watered and progressive drying of the soil) in a randomized complete block of four repetitions. The experiment was carried out for 14 days. After that, dry mass were determined (independently for culms, green leaves, dead leaves and roots) after samples were oven dried at 60 ° C for 96 hours. The proportion of green leaves to total leaves (Green leaf proportion = green/ green + dead leaves * 100), leaves to shoot (shoot = culm + leaves) ratio and root to shoot ratio were also calculated.A half-strength Hoagland nutrient solution bubbled with air was used. Propagules as those previously described were used and placed into nutrient solution for one week (five replicates per genotype). The number and length of roots for each plant was recorded after one growth in nutrient solution.Analyses of variance and least significant difference (LSD at α 0.05) were performed for each trait under the two watering treatments. T tests were performed to compare the effect of treatments upon traits for each genotype.Water-limitation resulted in smaller plants with increased leaf senescence in most hybrids (Table 1).Larger hybrids (i.e., greater shoot dry mass) under well-watered conditions also showed greater shoot dry mas under water-limiting conditions (Figure 1).Variation in shoot dry mass among hybrids under water-limited could be explained to great extent by the variation of their root systems. In general, hybrids with greater root dry mass roots showed greater green leaf biomass production (Figure 2).Hybrids that showed a greater root vigor in early stages (more and larger roots, as shown by the nutrient solution experiment, Table 2) were those that showed greater green leaf biomass production under both watering conditions (Figures 3 and 4)     • Further testing of the evaluated hybrids needs to be performed under field conditions combined with measurements of shoot traits relevant to water-limited conditions (control of water loss) and more intensive phenotyping of root traits at early stages.","tokenCount":"768"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0dc41def1dc88cae5e102bdb9a19d874","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dc8a754-8bca-4562-a77d-63b1724c7cd2/retrieve","id":"-1490209564"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f9034467-7518-47c6-ae8a-73da72f68b53","pagecount":"12","content":"T he need for electricity is a recurring theme in ICT Update. A mobile phone is useless if it cannot be recharged, and an expensive satellite system will not connect to the internet if it does not have a power supply. But people living in the rural areas of many ACP countries still cannot make use of communication technology because their towns and villages are not connected to the main electricity grid. Energy companies and governments complain that they don't have the money to invest in an electricity supply for rural areas where the population density is low and where they will get little return for their investment. However, it is those areas -the main centres of food production -that need a dependable power supply the most.Recent advances in renewable energy technology, however, mean that rural communities no longer have to wait for a connection to the grid. They can set up stand-alone utilities to serve anywhere from a few hundred to several thousand households. The village of Kibae in north-eastern Kenya is an excellent example of how rural communities can develop an electricity supply independent of the main power grid. Working with the country's Ministry of Energy, the people of Kibae have set up a community power centre (CPC) as part of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization's (UNIDO) rural energy initiative.The CPC uses solar and hydro energy to power an industrial centre in the village where farmers process agricultural products without having to transport them to the main urban centres. Kibae farmers use the electricity to produce fruit juice and mill maize to make flour. These new products provide extra income for the small-scale farmers in the area and help to cover the maintenance costs of the power supply service.This electricity also powers a new community centre, which provides internet access and satellite television to the village. A mobile phone recharging service ensures that farmers can stay in touch with buyers and get current market information.Solar power also provides income generating opportunities to people in rural areas of Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania. Since it was established in 2006, the organization SolarAid has trained hundreds of entrepreneurs to build and sell solar power generating equipment. The products range from small solar panels that can power a radio, removing the need for the ongoing expense of environmentally damaging batteries, to systems big enough to power schools, businesses and community centres.According to the Renewable Status Report of 2007, renewable energy sources from solar and wind power have been growing at a rate of 50-60% per year for the past ten years. It is the fastest growing technology sector in the world. Another growing market, and one that is especially important to agriculture but is often controversial, is the production of bioenergy.Earlier in 2008, many analysts blamed the increase in food prices on the increasing amount of land now used to produce bioenergy rather than traditional crops. However, research by the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) has shown that non-food plants can be grown in areas where the land is not suitable for other crops, and their material or oil used in biomass generators. Hardy, drought-resistant species, such as jatropha, could provide an alternate crop for farmers, give an extra source of income and help to regenerate the land in desert and semi-arid regions.A few ACP countries, including Senegal and Mali, are investing in projects to research the long-term potential of bioenergy. With a local supply of renewable energy, these countries could reduce their reliance on expensive oil imports and start to invest in electrification projects as rural areas become an important energy supply source. ■The development of renewable energy sources is the fastest growing technology sector in the world http://ictupdate.cta.intThis license applies only to the text portion of this publication.ICT Update issue 46, December 2008. ICT Update is a bimonthly printed bulletin with an accompanying web magazine (http://ictupdate.cta.int) and email newsletter. Each issue of ICT Update focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web resources and projects.The next issue will be available in February and will cover the theme of market information systems. Suggestions for contributions to this issue can be sent to ictupdate@cta.int A lthough estimates vary greatly, from as few as five to as much as 100 years, the fact remains that fossil fuel resources are finite and will steadily decline before they run out sometime in the near future. However, that does not mean there is not enough energy available on the planet to meet our growing demands. There are many ways to meet our demand for energy using renewable sources such as the sun, wind and water. One important step forward would be to make some major behavioural changes in order reduce our everyday reliance on electricity.The African continent is especially suited to harnessing power from the sun as it receives so much solar radiation throughout most of the year. Wind power, depending on the location, could also provide large amounts of energy, while only about 5% of Africa's hydropower generating potential has so far been exploited. But only a few nations have taken concrete steps to invest in renewable energy technologies or develop clear energy policies.There have been a few initiatives, but these were often set up to meet donor demands as much as local concerns. There are also several organizations promoting projects to provide light from renewable sources, and while these are extremely useful, I feel the main priority for any new energy system has to be focused on the agricultural sector.At the moment, because so few rural areas have sufficient energy supplies, almost all the food grown by farmers is processed in urban areas. By shifting priorities to supply electricity to farming communities it should be possible to increase overall productivity, raise incomes in rural areas and take Then I visited a project in Bangalore, where some people pay for their electricity by taking cow dung to the biogas electricity generation facility. Energy supply companies will have to think beyond their current practices, such as handing out monthly bills to people who have no monthly income.The obvious advantage of expanding electricity services to rural areas is that more farmers will then have access to communications technologies -to use the internet and mobile phones, listen to radio and watch TV programmes. ICTs can help to increase productivity and raise revenue for the people living in farming communities, especially if more energy projects give priority to supplying electricity to those areas.I am confident that electricity supplies to rural areas will improve rapidly and dramatically in the coming years, but we have to think big, and we have to move fast to develop new energy policies. The problem is that time is not on our side, so that the ideas we put on paper now have to be implemented as soon as possible. In the past, many major energy supply projects have taken more than 30 or 40 years to put into action -think of the large hydropower schemes especially.The way forward would be to create small facilities in rural areas. Such stand-alone supply systems can be developed in two or three years. Once these decentralized facilities become established and stabilized they can then be linked to bigger networks, with countries working together to build regional networks. By progressing in this way, we would give priority to providing electricity supplies to rural areas, and develop systems that are adapted to local resources and which meet the community's needs. ■ Dr Youba Sokona (youba.sokona@oss.org.tn) is executive secretary of the Sahara and Sahel Observatory (www.oss-online.org) the pressure off the already overcrowded urban centres.It is encouraging to see that in recent years increasing attention has been given to the development of bioenergy systems. There are already several projects in countries around the Sahel looking into growing species such as jatropha. Farmers can grow the plant to regenerate degraded land on which they can later grow food crops, but jatropha also has the added benefit that its oil can be used as a fuel [see page 10].It is important that these plants are primarily used to recover land for future crop production, rather than as an energy source. We have to avoid the possibility that an increase in the production of these non-edible plants could lead to a shortage of food supplies.The cost of renewable energy technology has fallen considerably in recent years, making energy projects much more affordable and easier to maintain. The cost is likely to come down even further but it will take some innovation and an injection of new ideas into our old systems and institutions to bring reliable electricity supplies to rural communities.From my own experience, I remember thinking that it would be virtually impossible to develop biogas technology in West Africa. Cattle herders there do not confine their livestock to small areas, which would make it easy to collect the dung for biogas production.T he village of Kibae is located 150 km north of Nairobi, on the slopes of Mount Kenya. The fertile land here allows the small-scale farmers in the area to grow a wide range of fruit and vegetables, mostly bananas, plus tea and coffee. But, like most people in rural Kenya, those living around Kibae have no access to electricity from the main grid (the Kenyan government estimates that 63% of the rural population does not have access to the grid).In 2004, the community decided to use another of its local natural resources, a 12 metre high waterfall, to produce electricity. They constructed a building to house the generator next to a nearby stream, and a weir to control the flow of water, and then approached the Ministry of Energy to see if they could supply a hydro turbine unit. The Ministry contacted the local offices of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and, together with the community, they came up with a plan to solve Kibae's energy problem.UNIDO, a UN agency that specializes in developing production processes that do not harm the environment or place a burden on limited energy resources, had recently started work on a community power centre (CPC) project. The centres, also known as energy kiosks, supply electricity from renewable sources ensuring that they emit no, or very little, gases that could harm the environment. It is also important that the CPC provides a variety of income-generating opportunities for the community.In many rural areas of Kenya the The type of energy sources used and the services the centre delivers depends on a number of factors, including the location, the number of people in the area, the types of services required, and the energy demands of the community. But a typical CPC serves 400 households, or about 2000 people, and earns its money from the sale of energy and the services it can offer as a result of having a steady supply of electricity.The types of activities a CPC supports, and can earn money from, include providing ICT services such as computer training, internet access and telephone kiosks, while another part of the centre might offer light industrial processing such as flour milling, metal welding, carpentry workshops, hair clipping, beauty salons and cold storage facilities. As the centre becomes more established within the community it can also become a local trading centre offering mobile banking and market information services for farmers and buyers.In Kibae, the new community power centre has two sources of energy. Water from the nearby stream and its waterfall drives two small hydro turbines to produce 2 kilowatts of energy, and a solar unit generates 500 watts, giving a total of 2.5 kW of electricity for the community. Both systems charge a bank of batteries from where the supply is converted from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) by an inverter device. The inverter then provides a stable 240 volts of electricity on which most electrical equipment can operate.All of the energy-generating equipment is housed in a single building, known as the power house. From there it goes to two main points in the village, the industrial centre and the community centre. Small businesses in the industrial centre use the electricity to mill maize, to heat incubators in a small poultry hatchery, to produce juice from locally grown fruit, and even to make liquid soap. These products provide extra income for farmers and other community members, who are then able to pay for the electricity from their profits.In the first month alone, the proceeds from the sale of juice, flour and soap produced in the centre amounted to more than KSh 11,000 (US$ 140), well beyond initial expectations and significantly above the projected amount needed to maintain investment in the electricity supply system.The third part of the project, the community centre, also provides opportunities for local entrepreneurs to start up their own businesses. The centre in Kibae serves many households that are not connected directly to the electricity grid, and use car batteries to run small household appliances. There are also approximately 200 mobile phones inUsing hydro and solar energy, a village in Kenya now boasts the first hybrid zero emission power supply in the country. The community power centre provides a stable electricity supply and brings internet and mobile phone access to local farmers.Paul Njuguna (jobbome@gmail.com) is an expert in renewable energy who works with UNIDO in Kenya (www.unido.org/index.php?id=6552) use in the community. All of these batteries have to be charged regularly, so some local entrepreneurs are renting space in the centre and offering recharging services. The businesses pay only for the electricity they use based on readings taken from meters at each business premises.It costs KSh 10 (US$ 0.13) to recharge a mobile phone, and since most phones need recharging twice a week, the businesses take in around KSh 16,000 (US$ 200) per month. Other community members have invested in computers and are providing training courses and internet services. Farmers can use the centre to access market information and to search for methods to improve crop production. The centre also has a satellite TV and DVD viewing facility where people can pay to watch popular sports events, or organizations can hire to show information videos.Another major income generator, and an important objective of the UNIDO project, is the supply of alternative light sources. At the moment, most people in Kibae use kerosene lamps for lighting. A typical household has three kerosene lamps -one for the kitchen, one for the sitting room and the other for the room where the children study. An average family will use the lamps for fours hours each evening, burning approximately half a litre of kerosene per day. This adds up to more than KSh 1200 (US$ 15) per month, not including the initial cost of the lamp or replacement wicks. But the lamps are also a fire hazard and the fumes from burning kerosene lead to air pollution in the home, and have been linked with a variety of respiratory and ophthalmic problems.LED (light-emitting diode) lamps, on the other hand, remove the pollution and fire risks, and provide better quality, steady light rather than the flickering light of a kerosene lamp. There is also no need to keep on buying kerosene as the LED lamps operate on a battery, but this has to be recharged every week or so, if used every evening. It costs KSh 20 (US$ 0.25) for a single charge, which amounts to KSh 240 (US$ 3) per month for a family with three lamps. This is significantly less than the amount they paid for kerosene each month (see table ).Although the LED lamps work out cheaper, resulting in a saving of more than KSh 11,000 (US$ 140) per year, the initial purchase price of KSh 4500 (US$ 57.50) is often beyond the means of many families. Instead, local businesses offer the lamps at KSh 500 (US$ 6.40) each and give families the chance to pay the rest in instalments of KSh 300 (US$ 3.80) per lamp over a period of eight months. During this time the household saves enough on kerosene to pay the monthly instalments. The local primary school is also distributing LED lamps to children to take home for a week so that their families can try them out first.The community power centre at Kibae runs on hydro and solar energy, but the energy kiosk model can be adapted to use whatever source of energy is  In the case of the community centre at Kibae, providing recharging services, computer and internet access and processing agricultural produce generate more than KSh 90,000 per month (US$ 1150). The facility, therefore, brings in enough money to ensure its continued operation and offers extra income generation opportunities for farmers and local businesses. A stable and reliable electricity supply also means that the community has access to communication technology -small growers can use access agricultural information via the internet and can contact buyers and transport companies using mobile phones.Mobile phone facilities in Kibae will increase further in future, with new businesses selling airtime and mobile banking services to people who do notown their own mobile phone. The centre will also expand to serve a further 200 households, and more businesses will open in the community centre to provide photocopying and printing services, and even a beauty salon.The community power centre at Kibae, along with the other facilities supported by UNIDO's rural energy initiative, have proven to be successful and viable projects capable of supplying reliable and cost-effective electricity to areas off the main grid. In fact, the organization is so convinced by the success of these projects, and their ability to be replicated in other areas around the world, that it is now looking for communities with no alternative electricity supply to submit proposals for similar initiatives. By expanding the scheme, UNIDO hopes to bring affordable renewable energy supplies to rural communities in many more ACP countries. ■ available. Power for the centre could come from a single renewable source or, as in the case of Kibae, from a combination of sources, in a hybrid system.Wind turbines, for example, might be more appropriate for villages that do not have a perennial stream or waterfall nearby. Other alternatives could be to use photovoltaic (solar) systems on their own, or biomass generators that burn waste material from crops such as maize, sugar cane and sorghum. Biomass generators can also use livestock waste gathered from around the village. Another option is to use vegetable oil for fuel (also known as straight vegetable oil or SVO), which could also be produced from locally grown crops.A CPC can also run on grid electricity if there is access to the grid in the area. Such an arrangement might seem unnecessary, but UNIDO has found that in rural areas that are served by the main grid, only about 20% of households can afford a connection and to make regular payments for the service. The community power centre, however, makes its services available to everyone in the community who only pay for the electricity they use, without the need for minimum monthly payments. From its various activities and services the CPC should make enough money to cover running costs, repairs and make a profit. This is the only way the CPC model can be viable and replicable throughout Kenya and convince other countries to replicate the initiative.The cost of setting up a CPC ranges from US$ 5000 -100,000 depending on the size of the centre and the type of electricity generating technology it uses. A typical centre would serve a InpeTTo T he uncontrolled growth of certain bush species has led to a sharp decline in land productivity in Namibia over the last 50 years. The spread of unwanted shrubs onto land used for grazing livestock has prevented the growth of useful grass and plant species and has reduced the volume of water flowing into underground aquifers, a vital resource in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. Bush encroachment, as it is known, has contributed to the loss of huge areas of grazing land in both communal and commercial farming areas, and to a subsequent drop in the number of livestock, from 2.5 million in 1958 to only 800,000 in 2001.Against this background, the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN), in collaboration with the Namibian Agricultural Union (NAU) and the Namibia National Farmers' Union (NNFU), has started a project that will use the invading bush species to generate electricity. The intention is to establish a 0.5 MW generator that will turn the unwanted plant material into combustible gases for use in a gas-fired power station. The generator, Namibia's first biomass independent power producer (IPP), will then feed electricity into the national grid.The project, known as CBEND (combating bush encroachment for Namibia's development), is currently in the early stages, with researchers conducting tests and feasibility studies to show that the concept really works. So far, the results have been encouraging and it looks like Namibia's bush encroachment problem could become a new economic opportunity for the agricultural sector. It could also create much-needed jobs in rural areas where the unemployment rate often exceeds 50%.Although the project team has not yet decided on an exact site for the biomass plant, it is likely to be built in one of the areas already badly affected by invader bush species, as this will reduce the costs of transporting the harvested material. The team is currently considering the area around the towns of Tsumeb, Grootfontein and Otavi, in the north of the country, where many farms have been seriously affected. Several power lines already pass through this part of the country, which would make it easy to feed electricity from the power station into the national grid.Farmers in this area are already cutting back the invading bush on a small scale to burn and sell as charcoal, giving them an important extra source of income. The project team hopes to involve these farmers, and to provide training courses explaining how they can develop their businesses around the power station. The project will also compile information on how to manage the extra farmland that will become available when the unwanted bush vegetation is removed.The new opportunities will see commercial and communal farmers, and others from the rural communities, become 'energy farmers' . The CBEND team hopes that those involved in the scheme will start up their own small enterprises to supply biomass to this first power station. As they develop their harvesting and supply methods, these new businesses could go on to demonstrate that there are enough resources to supply more small-scale power plants in rural areas.The farmers will work in harvesting teams to dig out the unwanted vegetation. The amount of biomass Growing energy on the farm that can be harvested per hectare will depend on the method applied. Farmers can remove it mechanically, using earth-moving equipment, but this may also remove useful plant species. Alternatively, they could do it manually using axes and chainsaws, which may be more species and size specific, but would be more labour intensive and time consuming.The idea, however, is not to eradicate all of the invader bush species but to thin it out. The farmers have to leave enough behind so that the plants can grow back and continue to produce enough material for the generator. Initial studies have shown that one hectare of bush can generate between 0.5 MW and 2.5 MW of electricity, which is roughly the amount used by one household in a year. The aim is to clear 1.5 million hectares of bush each year adding a significant quantity of extra energy to the national supply system. Technology built into the power station will ensure that it will produce virtually no carbon dioxide.The CBEND project is a potentially huge vehicle for land rehabilitation and income diversification in rural Namibia. The scheme has already attracted considerable attention from commercial companies that are interested in replicating the system elsewhere. The project team hopes that bush-to-electricity power stations, and the accompanying technological and agricultural expertise, will not only provide a renewable energy supply, but will also become a Namibian export product in the not too distant future. ■ unwanted plant species have taken over huge areas of namibian farmland. rather than being a problem, the encroaching bush is now seen as a potential source of energy for a small-scale power station.Claus-Peter hager (claus.hager@drfn.org.na) is the land desk coordinator at the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (www.drfn.org.na).John Keane (john@solar-aid.org) is head of programmes at SolarAid (www.solar-aid.org).J ohari lives in the Iringa region of Tanzania. She used to work as a manual labourer, breaking rocks and selling the stones for building material. But now, after a short training course, Johari is assembling and selling small solar panels that can be used to power radios and recharge batteries for lamps and mobile phones.Johari is one of several hundred people already trained by SolarAid, a charity set up in 2006 to fight climate change and global poverty. The organization is currently focusing its efforts in Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania, and promotes economic development by encouraging entrepreneurs to set up their own businesses building and selling solar products. The businesses provide new sources of income for the trainees, who can supply solar equipment at affordable prices, giving even the poorest people access to clean, renewable energy.The market for inexpensive solar power is considerable. Using Tanzania as an example, only 2% of rural communities are served by the main electricity grid, forcing those without to burn kerosene, diesel and candles for light in the evening. All of these sources emit carbon dioxide, cause accidental fires and, in the case of kerosene and diesel, can lead to respiratory disease. Many people also rely on cheap but poor qualityThe introduction of solar power systems to rural communities in east Africa is providing new business opportunities, as well as affordable and safe electricity supplies.disposable batteries for their radios, which they have to replace regularly. The used batteries are rarely disposed of safely, and are often left to decompose on the ground, poisoning the land and posing a danger to livestock and small children.The good news is that solar power is a viable and realistic energy alternative. In much of Africa there is plenty of free sunlight year-round that can be converted to electricity. There are, however, three significant obstacles preventing greater access to solar power: • financial barriers -solar power is traditionally seen as too expensive for the majority of people; • access to the market -it is difficult for many solar companies, often based in large towns, to reach customers living in rural areas, and of course for potential customers to contact them; • education and awareness -many people do not understand how solar power works, what it can do, or how to choose a system and maintain it. Many systems fail due to poor maintenance, misuse and incorrect sizing, affecting consumer confidence and the reputation of solar power. SolarAid is tackling the above problems through what it calls microsolar and macrosolar projects.Microsolar projects provide opportunities for enterprising people to set up businesses selling solar power equipment. These entrepreneurs market low-cost solar systems tailor-made to meet the local demand for affordable electricity. The projects provide business management, technical and marketing training to enable individuals and community groups to establish and operate successful businesses. For instance, part of the income generated by the project participants is reinvested to ensure the long-term continuation of their businesses.Microsolar projects attempt to overcome financial barriers through the promotion of small solar panels and products that, because of their size, are less expensive than the more usual, larger solar systems. Of course their small size also means that microsolar products only generate small amounts of power (typically less than 2 watts), but even 0.3 watts of power is enough to play a radio all day long for years on end, or to power long-life or energy-efficient LED (light-emitting diode) light bulbs. Rural communities benefit by being able to recharge their mobile phones using a reliable and low-cost energy source. Farmers are then able to communicate with buyers to find the best prices for their produce, giving them increased access to new markets and removing the need to deal with local middlemen.Microsolar products are also small enough that travelling salesmen can easily transport them to rural areas that are not connected to the grid, and display them in village markets where there is a high demand for solar products. Households that start using microsolar products no longer need to buy as much kerosene or as many batteries, and can use the money for other necessities.Macrosolar projects are designed to enable institutions in rural areas not connected to the electricity grid, including schools, clinics and community centres, to benefit from electricity-generating solar installations (typically 100-500 watts). All the projects are designed to improve community services and generate an income by including a business component such as a phone recharging service.In Mumbwa district in Zambia, for example, one solar installation provides lighting for a community centre, which houses a small library and an area where local women's groups meet in the evening to make clothes. The centre also uses the system to earn money by recharging mobile phone batteries. A vocational training centre in Malawi, meanwhile, it also using its solar system to provide lighting and power for a television. The centre generates extra income by charging community members who want to watch sports events on TV or video.While the ways in which each system is used may vary considerably, the themes common to all of these projects are community use and income generation. If a system cannot generate funds, it is likely that it will fall into disrepair. SolarAid works to ensure that every system installed includes a component that can be used to generate an income, and will enable the community to save part of the proceeds and reinvest it in the system.The larger solar power systems are often too expensive for many individuals or communities to purchase outright, but SolarAid does not provide them for free. Around the world, too many solar projects have failed as a result of poor planning and the lack of local participation, as community members feel they have no vested interest in the system. To avoid this, SolarAid provides users with details of how much the components cost, how long they are likely to last and, based on this, works out the minimum income targets that the community needs to meet per month and per year.SolarAid's projects give low-income rural communities access to an electricity supply that serves local needs and can generate an income by selling solar-powered services. To apply for a system, community SolArAID Johari demonstrates a solar powered product members first need to put together a sound business plan detailing the benefits for end users, how the system will be used to generate an income, and how it will be managed. They have to commit themselves both financially and physically, meaning that they also have to contribute through some form of work, such as helping to install the system or teaching other community members about solar power. End users also have to attend training courses prior to installation. This helps to ensure that the users know how to operate the system correctly and how to monitor it and carry out repairs should part of it fail.SolarAid is currently carrying out research into using solar systems to power water pumps in Malawi that can be used to irrigate farmland. Irrigation has been shown elsewhere to dramatically increase crop yield which in turn can lead to increased incomes for the farmers. They are also developing a pilot project in Tanzania with NoPc, an organization working to bring the internet to schools in rural areas.SolarAid sees its microsolar and macrosolar projects as just the beginning of its work in Africa and elsewhere. Countries with high levels of solar insolation (radiation from the sun) all year-round can certainly look to solar power not only as an off-grid solution, but also as power source that can contribute towards the expansion of the main electricity grid.Ultimately, SolarAid wants to help governments understand the benefits of solar energy so that they are more likely to adopt solar solutions in the future rather than relying on carbonemitting fossil fuels. ■ without causing environmental damage or undermining food supplies for growing populations.Tapping into this potential could help decrease the dependency on imported oil for many countries, and contribute to meeting the energy demands of the agricultural sector and rural electrification. There is, however, a challenge to using food crops for energy. Many food importing African countries are already experiencing food supply problems, partly as a result of using of cereals, such as maize, soya and wheat, to produce biofuels in other parts of the world. But the real potential may lie in making use of non-food crops such as jatropha, or the vast agricultural and forest reserves, to generate energy.Jatropha curcas, also known as the Barbados nut or pourghère, is currently receiving a lot of attention. Traditionally used to make protective hedges or mark out agricultural land, jatropha, is widely available throughout Africa. It can grow on very poor soil and is extremely droughtresistant, making it ideally suited to conditions in several parts of Africa, including the dry regions in the west. In fact, there are already programmes operating in Mali and Senegal that focus on the development of jatropha as a modern form of bioenergy.In Senegal, a national biofuels programme that began in 2006 seeks to plant more than 300,000 hectares of jatropha, at a rate of 1,000 ha per ruralFor many ACp countries, increasing agricultural productivity also requires more energy from expensive fuel sources. But several projects in West Africa show that bioenergy could help solve the problem.E nergy is an essential component of agricultural production. It is necessary for running agricultural machinery, such as tractors and harvesters, and for operating irrigation systems and pumps using electricity, diesel or other fuel sources. Energy is also required in the processing and conserving of agricultural products, and for the transportation and storage of goods.In the current context of fluctuating oil prices, however, the oil importing bills of several African countries amount to 50% of export earnings, and many nations are struggling to meet their current energy demands. At the same time, expanding access to energy in rural Africa is a critical part of modernization and future agricultural development, making energy supply both a problem and a part of the solution. The energy crisis that these countries face is not only a problem in itself, but it also presents a hurdle in addressing food security in Africa.But although the agricultural sector is emerging as a significant energy consumer, it is also as a potential source of energy generation. The production of energy from agriculture is at the centre of the present boom in bioenergy. Indeed, most biofuels produced today originate from the agricultural sector.There are a wide range of crops produced in Africa that are source of bioenergy. Sugarcane, sugar beet, maize, sorghum and cassava are all suitable for ethanol production, while peanuts, jatropha and palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel. Agricultural and forestry products also have great potential. According to estimates published by the Copernicus Institute, Africa has the potential to produce about 317 exajoules of bioenergy on surplus agricultural land by 2050. That is roughly equivalent to 142 million barrels of oil per day. And this is the amount that can be produced under optimal conditions, meaning moustapha Kamal Gueye (gkamal@ictsd.ch) is a senior programme manager with the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) (www.ictsd.org) community. This would produce over 3 million tonnes of seeds per year by 2012, resulting in more than one thousand million litres of refined jatropha oil that could be used as biodiesel. In Mali, too, several experiments that have been conducted over the past few years have revealed the possibility of using jatropha oil for agricultural production and rural electrification, while also availing of this plant's positive environmental and social impacts.There are now several initiatives that generate bioenergy from agriculture and then use it to meet the energy requirements of agricultural production. Some projects, for example, use bioenergy to drive water pumping systems for irrigation, to provide lighting or run generators to supply electricity for anything from refrigeration to machinery for grinding and processing cereals.If bioenergy could be developed in ways that do not undermine the already fragile agricultural system, but rather carefully integrate energy and food crops, then it could help to meet the energy challenge of increasing agricultural productivity. To achieve this, African countries would need to formulate clear strategies and policies that take into account the various socio-economic and environmental implications of integrating energy and food production. Taking these factors into consideration will be just one important aspect in the range of actions needed to ensure a sustainable development of agriculture in Africa. ■For organizations and individuals with access to a relatively reliable energy source it is still advisable to reduce electricity consumption. Computers, printers and even mobile phones consume a significant percentage of the electricity used in homes and offices. Efficient use of such appliances can lead to significant savings in fuel bills, or make a generator or battery system last that little bit longer. Turn off computers, monitors, printers and photocopiers when you are not using them, for example.If you must leave your computer on, use the power management feature built in to your operating system. For Windows users, click 'start', 'control panel', 'performance' . Select 'maintenance', then 'power options' (in XP Pro: control panel, power options). For Mac users, go to 'system preferences' and select 'energy saver' .Configure your monitor to turn off after 20 minutes of inactivity, your hard drive to turn off after 30 minutes of inactivity, and your desktop computer or laptop to go into a standby or sleep mode after 90 minutes of inactivity.Laptops are more energy efficient than desktops. A typical desktop computer consumes around 150 watts of energy per hour, although some can use more than twice that amount. A laptop uses only 30 watts. Most of the major computer manufacturers are now producing models that use even less power. Many people think that shutting down a computer is bad for the hard drive. This was the case with older computers (before 2000), but for some years now manufacturers have been designing hardware to better cope with being repeatedly switched on and off.Most computers can now deal with being rebooted more than 40,000 times in their lifespan, which is significantly more than you are ever likely to do even if you have the computer for 10 years. In fact, switching off your computer overnight reduces heat stress and wear on the system and can actually extend the life of your computer.The energy required to start up a computer is the equivalent of about three minutes' use of the machine. Even if your computer takes a long time to start up you should still try to save energy by switching it off in the evening.Monitors can account for more than twothirds of your computer's total energy use. You should turn off your monitor when you leave your desk for more than a few minutes. This applies equally to the old style cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors and the newer, large flat screen liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors. Note that screen savers are not energy savers. Screen savers only help to save the monitor's pixels from burning out, but so will turning off the monitor.Printers are often left running for long periods of time, even overnight, but are used for only a few minutes each day. The result is a lot of wasted energy, with laser printers consuming the most. Many printers now come with 'sleep mode' features that can cut energy use by up to half.Unplug battery chargers for laptops, mobile phones and digital cameras when the devices are fully charged or not in use. Many chargers continue to use energy even when not connected to a device. If the charger feels warm to touch, then it is still using energy. ■ onlIne BIlDAgenTur / hh More ideas for saving energy at home, in the office and in the car. ➜ www.blackle.com/tips Why do so many rural communities in ACP countries still have such poor, or even no, electricity supplies? ➜ It costs more than US$ 10,000 per km to bring electricity cables to rural villages. In developed countries most people live in cities, so the tax revenues raised from the 90% of the population living in urban areas cover the cost of delivering electricity to the 10% living in rural areas. In most developing countries it is the other way around. The 25% of the population who live in cities do not generate enough tax revenue to electrify the rural areas where the other 75% live. A further problem is that many ACP countries do not have enough power in their grids to distribute energy to rural areas.Is the prospect of a stable source of grid electricity still a long way off for many rural areas? ➜ Many ACP countries have made progress with rural electrification. In South Africa, for example, the national electrifi-to renewables are generators, lead-acid batteries and fuels such as kerosene. In some situations generators will be the best solution, while in others centrally recharged lead-acid batteries are preferred. In Kenya, for example, lead-acid batteries are the main source of electricity for more than a million people, and can be carried back and forth to grid charging stations. But renewable energy supplies are often the best choice where loads are small and where fuel delivery is expensive.How will rural communities benefit from reliable electricity supplies to power computers and phones? ➜ The primary benefit of communication services in rural areas is access to markets and cash income. Mobile phones provide connections with family members, businesses and banking services. Other benefits of phone and computer access include education, entertainment, news, health and even agricultural services. Rural people quickly make themselves aware of the ways that technology can improve their lives.➜ Biofuels are rapidly gaining in importance as petroleum prices rise. They will undoubtedly be part of the solution to future energy supply. Biofuels will be a cash crop, like many others. however, ACP farmers should be protected by their governments against fluctuations in prices that will undoubtedly occur. Small farmers who planting their entire farm with biofuel crops are putting their future at risk, in the same way coffee and tea farmers do in years when the prices of those crops crash.The increasing use of land to grow biofuel crops has been blamed for rising food prices and food scarcity in some areas. Is this likely to be a real longterm problem? ➜ This is a complicated problem, and it really depends on the crop and the location. The use of maize to produce ethanol has been blamed for price rises for that crop in the US, for example. Still, in my view, there needs to be some accommodation of biofuel crops and I think the problem has been overblown. If people were so worried about the use of land for biofuels perhaps they should also pay attention to 'wasted' fertile land that is used for growing sugar, tea, cocoa and coffee. Fuels for transport and luxury sweets and beverages are increasingly in conflict with the world's food requirements. ■ cation rate went from 35% to 75% in 10 years, due to a concerted and well funded government initiative launched by President Nelson Mandela. Asian nations have also made progress. however, the poorest countries have trouble keeping electrification on a par with population growth rates. There is some hope, though. For basic lighting and communication there are inexpensive solutions that do not require connection to the grid. LED lighting is one example. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) Lighting Africa project is promoting such low-cost technologies. Governments need to redefine rural electrification and help poor people gain access to these technologies, in the same way mobile phone companies helped bypass the need for fixed telephone landlines.Many people find renewable energy sources -wind, water and solar, for example -difficult and expensive to install. Are there cheaper and easier alternatives? ➜ In many developing countries, renewables have a bad reputation. This is often due to poor planning or installing the wrong size of system. If people are not properly trained to use and maintain a technology, whether it is a car or a solar lighting system, it will fail. however, renewables do work and they are often the lowest-cost solution for people living in areas outside the reach of grid electricity. In off-grid areas, the primary alternatives Q&A mark hankins (mhankins@africaonline.co.ke) is a consultant specializing in renewable and rural energy based in Nairobi, KenyaAlex WeBB / mAgnum phoToS / hh","tokenCount":"7501"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e6f84bc1c680416b3983e5161a8ebf54","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/219598d5-1786-4248-8670-7e72b18a56e0/retrieve","id":"-818333152"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7c591a0-afac-4eac-b180-13450ca3e29c","pagecount":"14","content":"This report presents the methodology and results of the activities carried out with innovation platforms in Ghana. The authors would like to thank the institutions that contributed financially to these activities. Special thanks to the CGIAR donors. We are also grateful to the IRC-CSRI and all its teams who conducted these meetings with NPs. We express our gratitude to the communities and leaders who have made this work possible.A training was organized for women and youth in Lafia, Nassarawa state Nigeria by AfricaRice in partnership with National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI) on business planning, marketing and soft skills acquisitions under the project \"TRANSFORMING AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS IN WEST AND CENCTRAL AFRICA\" -work package 4 from 4 th -6 th March 2024 at the Nasarawa Agricultural Developmental Project (NADP) training hall. Participants (10 women and 15 Youth) were made up of Innovation Platform members, students, value chain actors and NADP staff.The training program was structured into 5 modules each focusing on the different aspects of business development and presented by three resource persons these include Entrepreneurship, Business Plan, Partnership, financial plan, Skills for a successful business environment. The training method was participatory; these involved lectures, case studies, presentations, hands on exercises and discussions.Participants were divided into six (6) groups and were asked to develop a business and financial plan based on a chosen business which was presented to the entire group. Corrections and observation were affected and discussed respectively at the end of the presentations.At the end of the training participants were equipped with a good knowledge of what entrepreneurship is all about, how to write a business plan, how to effectively set up and manage their own business efficiently, how to plan financially and skills to run a successful business. Participants were also given an opportunity to interact and network with potential business partners present at the training as well as empowered to grow confident in starting their own business through interactions and presentations during the training.   Africa (TAFS-WCA). It is funded by the CGIAR to strengthen the ownership of agricultural innovations by actors in agricultural production and value chains and to improve their livelihoods.Through its set of 4 activities, this programme focuses on the fight against social inequalities. The empowerment of women and youth in agricultural production and value chains is also clearly stated as a priority objective.The main aim of the approach is to develop the necessary conditions for the consolidation of Innovation Platforms (IP) in the agricultural sector. These are schemes that integrate key players in value chains to improve opportunities and business models. The benefits of having platforms are twofold: to strengthen partnerships and collaborative learning between actors (public and private) and to scale up improved agricultural technologies with communities.Under the TAFS-WCA initiative, the integration of youth and women with other key actors in the agricultural value chain, especially rice (producers, millers, transporters, policymakers, etc.) is the strategy promoted to improve the performance of actors and the efficiency of markets in the agricultural sector. This is being implemented in Nigeria by AfricaRice in partnership with National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI) in Nigeria. It helped strengthen the agricultural entrepreneurship capacities of several leaders and members of agricultural IP organizations.In response to the growing need for food security and the widening gap of unemployment among participants to be attentive and to gain fully from the training.The training program adopted a participatory approach of lectures, group work, presentations, discussions, case studies and hands-on exercises. For a vibrant and lively interaction these modules were shared among three experienced facilitators who engaged participants in the training.The expected results were that:▪ Participants were able to acquire a deeper knowledge and understanding of whatEntrepreneurship is all about. How to be a good Entrepreneur, a deeper understanding of how to plan their business, marketing strategies, management techniques and skills. Most importantly the ability to write a business plan as a business venture on its own and as a way of equipping them to start and grow their own businesses.▪ Through interactive discussions-presentations, group work, practical exercises, participants were able to grow confident in their entrepreneurial abilities and are empowered to start their own enterprises.  The training program was structured into 5 modules each focusing on the different aspects of business development and presented by three resource persons:Participants were introduced to the term Entrepreneurship-its meaning and what it entails to be anEntrepreneur; what a business is and the differences between a businessman and an Entrepreneur, the advantages of owning your own business and the characteristics of a good Entrepreneur. (see appendix 2)The trainer (Ugalahi B. Uduma (PhD)) discussed extensively and with explicit examples and demonstrations on what a business plan is, the advantages and importance of having a business plan before setting up an enterprise or a business. The components and format of a business plan exempting finance (which was discussed as a separate module) were discussed these include Business model, market study, Marketing plan, competition, management operations, personnel, technical study and the executive summary. All these components of a business plan were addressed one after the other with examples, and case studies as applicable (see appendix 2).This module covered the area of building a sustainable partnership including the merits and demerits of partnership. The forms and components of partnership in agricultural farming were discussed. Also discussed was the legal framework of Agricultural partnership. Participants were asked to share their experiences on the various forms of partnership they participated in while undertaking various business ventures. Also the processes and steps undergone while trying to form contracts with other business colleagues were shared. Example was a transport business and farming agreement (see appendix 2).Participants were guided by Benjamin A O (PhD) on what financial records to keep, how to keep them, how to calculate the gains and losses in their enterprise. The specific example of the ASSI thresher was used as a case study in some of these estimations. The facilitator took them through the recording and calculations (as applicable) of the following: operation account, cash flow statement, balance sheet and how to determine a project worth (see appendix 3).To operate and cultivate a successful business environment, trainees were taken through the process of how to maintain a good business by Olaniyan B. O. (PhD). For a manager to be successful he/she must possess the following skills: the ability to manage his input, production and marketing effectively and efficiently. Also discussed were management function skills which include; diagnosis, planning, organizing, leading, controlling, evaluating and integrating competencies. Another key skill for good management discussed was conflict resolution in the business environment. Participants where giving some hypothetical seniors of conflict in the workplace and were asked how they would resolve such differences as a manager. Very brilliant suggestions were presented by participants which include: defining roles and responsibilities, promoting team building activities, fostering a transparent communication culture amongst other suggestions (See appendix 4).At the end of the training participants were divided into six groups and were instructed to come up with a business plan and a financial plan based on a chosen business they were mandated to make a presentation to the entire group (see appendix 5&6). Participants made their observations and corrections after each group presentation. The template for the group exercises termed \"do it yourself\" as attached.TAFS-WCA report 2024 12The training of women and youth on entrepreneurship, agribusiness, market access and soft skills was a success. The participants were equipped and empowered with skills, knowledge, and confidence to write a business plan, start and manage their own business successfully thereby paving way for food security and economic growth in Nigeria.","tokenCount":"1263"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b47c1690e1c8862f1dbf4a300980ec3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cfc84a20-5974-4fa9-9b99-462b8bdccf57/retrieve","id":"-311518564"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0b00cae-e50d-492e-b4b1-3b803beeb790","pagecount":"8","content":"The MAIZE preproposal is very well written and makes the case convincingly for further investment in maize research, to tackle major challenges for increasing maize productivity in developing countries. The pre-proposal argues for going beyond being a commodity program and reorganizing its research towards a \"farm livelihood approach\" to be further strengthened by integrating several sites from the Humidtropics CRP. However, there was not enough evidence in the text, that lessons have been learnt from the systems CRPs or that the current CRP preproposal embraces effectively an agri-food-system integrated approach, different from its previous research, particularly when its flagships are still defined by disciplinary boundaries. MAIZE as a CRP could offer more value to the CGIAR portfolio if it followed fully an agri-food systems approach,The MAIZE comparative advantage was validated in general by the recent IEA evaluation (2015); the CRP was also asked to review its priorities in areas where it has less comparative advantage and to consider reducing efforts in areas where the private sector is stronger. The overall Theory of Change is plausible and aligned with the SRF; there is overall good prioritization in MAIZE flagships, although not systematically based on strategic foresight. MAIZE provides a detailed plan as to how it will operationalise gender and youth in the maize research agenda. However, it does not have a research strategy or clear concept for what and how to tackle youth-related issues in the CRP. Similarly the preproposal seems to be lacking an overall strategy for capacity development. It will be desirable to articulate clearly the MAIZE vision for strengthening NARS institutional capacity. Further work on the partnership strategy is also needed in the full proposal.The ISPC considers this preproposal Satisfactory with adjustment, and recommends inviting the proponents to submit a full proposal which takes account of the following substantive issues (elaborated upon in the subsequent commentary) or provides a justification for lack of change: As MAIZE intends to use an agri-food systems approach and integrate research hubs of the Humidtropics CRP, it has to clearly spell out the lessons learnt from system CRPs and demonstrate how it plans to implement a MAIZE agri-food system strategy, and indicate what parts and components of Humidtropics will be incorporated in MAIZE. MAIZE should fully justify the rationale for its comparative advantage, and give more strategic consideration to the dynamics in demand and use of maize products (food, feed, fuel) and research supply (private sector, ARIs, NARS) in the CRP target areas. Much more attention is needed by MAIZE to strengthen its gender strategy, and how it will address the problems facing youth in the maize agri-food system and target regions. A comprehensive MAIZE partnership strategy will be needed. Four MAIZE flagships (FP1, FP4, FP5 and FP6) need some adjustment as per the detailed commentaries included below for each specific flagship.[Overall pre-proposal Score: B]Maize is a multi-purpose crop, cultivated on 184 million ha globally, with an annual production of 1016 million t, and 64% of the total maize production comes from low-and middle-income countries. The global importance of maize for food security and other uses for the benefits of the poor is convincingly described in the pre-proposal. MAIZE's expected contributions to the SRF-SLO targets for 2030, based on the estimates of relative importance of maize for poor producers and consumers (Table 3 and annexes) are significant, although some of these estimates (e.g. number of people lifted out of poverty or with improved food and nutrition security) seem to be aspirational targets that need to be refined and validated by objective ex-ante analysis rooted in a solid impact assessment strategy. MAIZE has a large area of influence, and the case for further research on maize through the support of the CGIAR is compelling.  extension (2014). However, the linkages are still not defined in impact pathway schematics. This must be addressed by the full proposal when it will be clearer which linkages can be supported by W1/2 funding.The MAIZE pre-proposal claims to go beyond being a commodity program and its research takes a \"farm livelihood approach\" and will further benefit by integrating several sites from the on-going Humidtropics CRP. However, there was not a compelling argument or enough evidence in the text, that this CRP embraces an agri-food-system integrated approach 1 , different from its previous research, particularly when its flagships are still defined through a disciplinary boundary: socio-economics, genetics, breeding, agronomy/farming systems, processing/marketing, and delivery. If following a systems approach, rather than being the sum of its flagships, MAIZE as a CRP can offer more value to the CGIAR portfolio.The pre-proposal shows scientific rigor and credibility and when appropriate, literature is cited to support its arguments. Specific scientific arguments included in FPs are discussed below under each flagship. Some of the lessons learned (e.g. on double haploids) are well stated, and major lessons learned are also noted when developing the FPs. The pre-proposal considers partially some recommendations given by external reviews (ISPC, IEA), but it is not clear what lessons are being learnt from the previous phase and particularly from interaction with national programs in the main target areas.Maize plan for site integration builds from the on-going MAIZE CRP (Annex 9) and the existing cross-center collaborations through multi-center W3/bilateral projects, particularly in Africa and Asia. MAIZE intends to take into account the experiences from the system CRPs, especially Humidtropics, to develop a more detailed and relevant site selection and integration plan, but the CRP has to clearly spell out the lessons learnt from system CRPs and Humidtropics in particular.The MAIZE preproposal has seriously considered the recommendations by the ISPC to develop a coherent program-level product delivery strategy better aligned to the SLOs; complete the definition of impacts through the identification of IDO targets and indicators; and explain the incorporation of the assumptions about the impact pathway. Appendix 1 consolidates diagrammatically the MAIZE impact pathway and ToC, showing how MAIZE contributes to seven of the SDGs, which are closely aligned with CGIAR SLOs. Appendix 1 also shows how the MAIZE's impact pathway is composed of several nested theories of change at the FP level that together contribute to various sub-IDOs and associated IDOs. The overall ToC is plausible and consistent with the SRF. The impact pathways are feasible and aligned with SRF IDOs and sub-IDOs. The impact pathway structure will help MAIZE to develop a strategy for impact assessment that sets clear priorities for focusing such assessments, provides an analytical framework and elaborates on the use of impact pathways in planning and documenting scaling up of results and impact.There is overall good prioritization in MAIZE FPs, although not systematically based on strategic foresight. For instance, it is not clear how the CRP will focus its future work on improving the traits necessary for climate change adaptation, carbon sequestration, or aflatoxin. Table 2 describes the main MAIZE target product profiles for the various subregions. Although it is commendable that MLN is given high importance, there is limited focus and prioritization given to Striga management, given its threat to food security. The performance indicator matrix is presented (Annex 6), but the pre-proposal text does not elaborate further on, or reveal if, prioritization at the CRP level was taken into account.The pre-proposal dedicates a section to dealing mostly with gender issues, but also referring to youth. MAIZE aspires to mobilize resources that will bring its annual budget to an average of US$ 130 (of which about ⅓ is expected from W1 and W2) in its second year, totaling nearly a billion dollar investment during the entire phase II. The annual budget is more than 30% up from the stated 2016 budget of the on-going Phase I and the integration of work from Humidtropics that will fall in its Phase II. This significant increase may not to be feasible, though the proposal justifies the need for such extra-funding in each flagship, and to address various areas highlighted by the IEA evaluation. MAIZE budget gives \"priority\" (as determined by the allocation amount) to breeding (FP3), agronomy (FP4) germplasm and genetic gains (FP2) and the scaling up and out (FP6). Genetic enhancement per se (FPs 2 and 3 together that include 15 out of 50 expected MAIZE outcomes) accounts for about 45% of the total proposed budget while scaling (9 expected outputs) takes another 25% of it (mostly from bilateral sources), which may be regarded as unbalanced unless the proposers provide detailed costing towards delivering each flagship's outcome. At least 30% of the overall budget may be allocated to non-CGIAR partners, as indicated in the pre-proposal.MAIZE Value for Money is being justified in the proposal based on the importance of maize for poor producers and consumers in the developing world, and the estimated potential contributions to the SRF 2030 targets. As stated in the pre-proposal, it is important that methodologies for forecasting such impacts are aligned across CRPs.The proposers claim that MAIZE follows management principles defined in the CGIAR SRF and the standard performance contract of the CGIAR Consortium. The MAIZE Management Committee (MMC) proposed includes 2 CIMMYT staff (including the CRP Director) and 1 IITA staff plus 4 tier-1 partners: 3 OECD (SAGARPA, SFSA and WUR) and 1 non-OECD (KALRO). The MC should keep a balance both among CGIAR Centers (i.e., 1 from each) and at least 50% from non-OECD partners. The non-CGIAR members should serve for a fixed non-renewable term to allow other tier-1 partners to participate. Gender representation should be also enforced in the MMC.The technical competences of the leadership team and of selected partners are described per flagship, showing their relevant track record (Annex 13). MAIZE includes a broad range of 350 public and private partners to ensure impacts on the livelihoods of producers and consumers depending on maize agri-food systems. Their competitive advantage and indicative purpose of collaboration are given in Annex 12.MAIZE partnership seems to be largely focused on institutions in the North. While some potentially key partners (e.g. AGRA) are hardly mentioned, some ARIs (e.g. Wageningen University) are disproportionately featured in almost all FPs and certainly more significantly than in the previous phase. Several governments in sub-Saharan Africa have established priorities and strategies for boosting productivity of staples like maize for food security/nutrition and yet no priority alignment or consultations with governments were done.While the pre-proposal clearly names the institutions in the North, no such attempt was done when it comes to the national programs, beyond a blanket mention of 'NARS'. There are now some strong national programs and universities that deserve to be taken as partners in actual research and discovery. While it is clear that the involvement of regional partners has been strengthened as recommended by the ISPC, all of this does not amount to a partnership strategy or an understanding of the engagement and commitment of partners to MAIZE. Further work on the partnership strategy is needed in the full proposal.The ToC of this flagship describes 10 outcomes which contribute to 4 sub-IDOs: a) increased value capture by producers, b) increased capacity of partner organizations, c) improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making and d) increased capacity of beneficiaries to adopt research outputs. By providing horizontal guidance to MAIZE and its outcomes-to-impact, it also contributes to the full range of sub-IDOs generated by the other FPs. The ToC is plausible and is aligned with the SRF sub-IDOs and IDOs and the impact pathways are feasible. However, it is confusing that the impact pathway diagrams include reference to WHEAT and to ICARDA (p. 64), which does not participate in this CRP. Are both CRPs following the same generic flagship impact pathway?This FP was reorganized by considering organizational learning and bringing more strategic focus. Its multi-disciplinary research strengthens foresight and targeting, with the aim of having greatest impact. Its activity clusters will be providing knowledge on the supplydemand nexus of agricultural innovations in maize-food systems within its temporal, spatial and social dimensions. The track records of the leadership team involved in this FP are described but without specifying what they achieved in the previous CRP portfolio.The partners and their key contributions will assist in enhancing the probability of impact. But the pre-proposal does not elaborate on whether it aligns the question or problem being addressed by this FP and expected outputs with national and regional priorities and initiatives. For instance, many governments in Africa see that as the middle class grows, consumers will switch to rice consumption and demand for rice will continuously grow as opposed to maize, cassava or other staples. Some of these governments also have good capacity for strategic foresight. Identifying those governments and closely working with them in addition to the partners identified will further improve this FP.Gender and youth issues were considered when developing this FP, which includes a CoA dealing with enhancing gender and social inclusiveness to ensure that disadvantaged groups benefit in maize agri-food systems. Capacity development is included in each of the four CoAs of this FP that acknowledges the importance of an enabling environment.About 9.5% of the proposed budget goes to this FP whose priority (if matching the resource allocation) is to increase the capacity of beneficiaries to adopt research outputs. The budget seems to be appropriate.The ToC underlying this flagship shows how outputs contribute to 3 sub-IDOs, namely: enhanced genetic gains, increased conservation and use of genetic resources, and enhanced capacity to deal with climatic risks and extremes (through FP 3, which will be the first user of FP 2 outputs). The ToC is plausible and is aligned with the SRF sub-IDOs and IDOs and the impact pathways are feasible. But the text does not acknowledge the need for research to account for potential unintended consequences on SLOs that are not the primary focus of the research; neither does it show evidence for the alignment of expected outputs with national and regional priorities and initiatives. It is also not clear why the companion text to the linear impact pathway diagram refers to including metadata development for IWIN -the International Wheat Improvement Network (p. 70).Research in this FP includes cutting-edge science such as informatics tools to integrate complex and large data sets into decision support tools in the frame of the integrated breeding platform (with other AFS CRPs), novel biometric analysis methods -particularly for genomic estimated breeding values, developing a tropical maize reference genome, a peer-reviewed haplotype advancement strategy that leads to a rigorous and unbiased scrutiny of scientific results supporting deployment decisions, use of molecular effectors to accelerate host plant resistance breeding, and genome editing to generate de novo variation for the breeding pipeline, among others. The FP text notes lessons learned in Phase I that refer mostly to the shortcomings found in the use of some tools and methods, which should be overcome by relevant CoAs in Phase II. This is supported by recommendations from the IEA evaluation.This FP depends on ARI partnerships and with leading service providers, some of which are noted in the pre-proposal. Important to note the engagement of this FP with the Genomics and Open source Breeding and Informatics Initiative (GOBII) that involves other agri-food system CRPs such as DCLAS, GRiSP and WHEAT.Gender preferences and implications of target traits are considered in conjunction to focus research upon them. Capacity development is very important for this FP, which will engage in both group and degree training, and host postdocs and visiting scientists in various relevant topics.Most (60%) of the proposed budget in this FP goes to increasing genetic gain rates in maize breeding, while 30% was given to conservation of maize genetic resources and the remaining 10% to enhance institutional capacity of partner research organizations. The budget seems to be on the high side, for the undertakings described in this flagship.This flagship aligns with CGIAR SRF and its expected outcomes contribute to various sub-IDOs, namely a) more efficient use of inputs, b) reduced pre-and post-harvest losses, c) increased availability of diverse nutrient rich foods, d) enhanced capacity to deal with climatic risks and extremes, e) technologies that reduce women' labour and energy expenditure, and f) enhanced institutional capacity of partner research organizations. The preproposal, however, does not elaborate on how the problem or question to be addressed by this FP and its expected outputs align with national and regional priorities and initiatives. Its impact pathway diagram includes at the bottom the box \"MAIZE and WHEAT FP3 Theories of Change\"; are both CRPs sharing the same structure and theory of change?Improved data management, crop modelling, precision phenotyping, mechanization/ automation of breeding operations, and multidisciplinary synergies will be pursued in this FP to ensure high standards. Lessons learned were taken into account by this FP to design and implement innovative approaches for achieving impact. CIMMYT and IITA have established successful partnerships with the public and private sectors, thus adding to, inter alia, discovery research, validation/proof of concept, and deployment/scaling-up. One particular concern in S.S. Africa is the question of how genetically diverse are the CIMMYT parental lines, and the potential risks this might have for sensitivity to new diseases and pests. The research on biotic constraints in Africa has focused much more on MLN, but less on Striga and other constraints, which are devastating to maize production. MAIZE partners, through their decentralized tropical maize breeding and testing networks in the target population of environments, address specific adaptation and enable a strong product pipeline. Partnerships are also sought to capture the complementarity of germplasm, broaden the genetic diversity and access intellectual property for public use.This FP will engage women farmers, youth and the socially disadvantaged in participatory evaluation of improved stress resilient and nutritious maize cultivars in target populations of environment, and to gain more insight into their distinct needs to breed gender-responsive products. It also acknowledges that an enabling environment facilitates the uptake of bredgermplasm. Capacity development is an integral component of this FP.This flagship has the largest (≈ 28%) proposed budget allocation of MAIZE, which should be appropriate for delivering key outcomes related to bred-germplasm and pathogen/pest surveillance -particularly in S.S. Africa.FP4's primary outcomes are aligned with three CGIAR SRF sub-IDOs: a) more efficient use of inputs; b) yield gaps closed through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices; and c) agricultural systems diversified and intensified in ways that protect soils and water. Sustainable intensification of maize-based systems may also simultaneously address a number of development objectives, thus addressing national and regional priorities and initiatives. The diagram illustrating the ToC for this FP and its companion notes along with the target and beneficiary table indicate the feasibility of its impact pathways as well as its expected impact in 2022. Importantly, this FP also proposes indicators and metrics for a sustainable intensification monitoring framework.Unfortunately, no specific examples of science contribution were described under this flagship. The FP lists the main lessons from previous research, including that smallholder farming systems and communities are diverse and 'one-size-fits-all' or silver bullet solutions do not exist; and guidelines are needed for complex knowledge sharing and dissemination.CoA 1 describes an overarching methodological and farming systems analysis framework that will guide the targeting of technical interventions. The agro-ecological spatial framework from the Global Yield Gap Atlas underpins this farming systems framework to effectively delineate extrapolation domains and for impact assessment. \"Big data\" and meta-analysis are also included. This FP builds on knowledge generated by IITA, CIMMYT and their partners in relevant fields -particularly agronomy and farming systems. It leverages further by partnering with ARIs to tackle challenging methodological and research issues related to sustainable intensification. However the FP still needs to articulate the specific scientific hypotheses to be tested in relation to the ToC and impact pathway.Gender, youth and social inclusion issues were considered for developing this FP, which also acknowledges the importance of the enabling environment. Its commitment to capacity development is clearly stated by fostering joint work and facilitation of linkages with ARIs, for degree and course training, distance learning, and sharing of science infrastructures.About 18% of the proposed budget is allocated to this FP, which targets 9 expected outcomes important for the enhanced capacity for an increased adoption of combinations of sustainable intensification strategies and products.Maize is a multi-purpose crop used as food, feed and fuel, which add further value in agrifood systems. This FP aligns with SRF sub-IDOs and IDOs, and shows feasible impact pathways. Target countries using a 2-tier system are noted with a rationale for prioritization in the pre-proposal for this FP.FP5 will use several innovative multidisciplinary and inter-institutional approaches and tools, whose partial list was included in the pre-proposal. Lessons learned are not explicitly identified and indicated only for building one activity in respective cluster. The track record of the FP5 leadership team is presented in their CVs, but often lack information on what they achieved in the previous CRP portfolio. The comparative advantage of the proponents in processing or \"developing innovative and affordable animal feed formulations\" needs further justification. The CRP will work together with Wageningen University due to its experience in developing and adapting processing technologies, and seek partners in ARIs leading research on nutrition, food product development, postharvest storage, and consumer preferences. Perhaps there is also a need to further enhance partnership and linkages with other private sector and feed resources players, which may allow strengthening an agri-food systems focus for this CRP. FP5 gives priority to working with two other CRPs: DCLAS and Livestock because maize, grain legumes and livestock are the backbone of many farming systems in MAIZE target areas.FP5 has the smallest allocation (about 4%) of the proposed MAIZE budget, which seems to be the minimum to start working on developing diverse novel and nutritious maize-based products, improving technology and knowledge for small-to medium scale processors, pursuing livelihood opportunities through maize and maize by-products for animal feed, and reducing post-harvest losses through improved storage technologies. About 50% of this FP proposed budget will deliver outcomes related to the sub-IDO on diversified enterprise opportunities.Flagship 6 -Scaling-up and Scaling-out [Score: B] This FP includes 3 impact pathways: one for CoA1 on maize seeds systems, another on adoption of appropriate sustainable intensification and value chain options together with FP4 ToC, and the last on enhancing local, national and regional capacities. This FP links its outcomes to 8 target SRF sub-IDOs; the ToC is plausible and aligned with the SRF sub-IDOs and IDOs and the impact pathways are feasible. However this flagship leans mostly towards development rather than undertaking research per se. Seed quality issues are critical for implementing this FP; e.g., some seed companies especially in Africa are selling seeds with the wrong varietal names and causing substantial production losses. Methods for quick varietal identification need to be made available and incorporated in this FP. A stronger research emphasis on seed systems, availability and access will be needed.Lessons learned will allow this FP to address critical issues such as seed value chains, access of women farmers and the disadvantaged to agricultural inputs, improved coordination to scale out technologies, and strengthen the capacity of innovation. This FP builds on MAIZE Phase I and benefits from established partnerships with seed SMEs. FP6 will also bring partners from the public sector, MNCs, private processing enterprises, agro-dealers, NGOs, trade associations, universities and philanthropy, and envisages partnering with financial service providers.This FP has the second largest allocation of the proposed MAIZE budget (25%), which seems to be on the high side. The largest investments within FP6 are for delivering outcomes related to adoption by smallholder farmers on stress-resilient bred-germplasm, or gender-preferred nutritional/end-use quality.","tokenCount":"3895"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"66a0d72d8e497403f4fba43f223136fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5da3fab-fdf5-472c-ac4b-386201d7a83b/retrieve","id":"-900657814"},"keywords":["1","2","8 1","2","9 1","2","10 1","2","11 1","2","12 1","2","13 1","2","14 1","2","15 1","2","16 1","2","17 1","2","18 1","2","19 1","2","19 1","2","20 1","2","21"],"sieverID":"061667c6-8f36-47a5-aefe-8a2af891c92c","pagecount":"329","content":"The Challeoge: The Project's approach to the challenges involved in increasing agricultura! productivity, with probably less water and soil, and agricultura! competitiveness in tropical developing countries, is based in the application of modem biotechnology to enhance our ability to develop improved strategies for the characterization and sustainable utilization of genetic diversity in crop improvement and conservation. Common bean, cassava and rice are vital to food security and human welfare and along with tropical forages, are grown in developing countries. Our research on the mandated crops expands to other crops of current or potential economic importance in Latín America Objective: To employ modem biotechnology to identify and use genetic diversity for broadening the genetic base and increasing the productivity of mandated and selected nonrnandated crops.Outputs: lmproved characterization of the gene tic diversity of wild and cultivated species and associated organisms. Genes and gene combinations used to broaden the genetic base. Collaboration with public-and private-sector partners enhanced.Milestooes: Cassava cryopreservation implemented. Screening with microarray technology initiated. Gene transfer used to broaden the genetic base and enhance germplasm of rice, cassava, and the forage grass Brachiaria. Marker-assisted selection implemented with cassava and beans. Marker-assisted selection implemented for rice, beans, cassava, and Brachiaria. ESTs generated for cassava starch and CBB. Efficient transformation system devolved for beans. Transgenic cassava tested for resistance to stemborer. Bioreactor technology implemented for cassava and rice. Collaboration with public and private partners strengthened. lntegration of genotype x environrnent GIS system with molecular characterization. High throughput screening of germplasm bank and breeding materials implemented, using microarray technology. Marker-assisted selection for ACMV and whitefly resistance initiated. Transgenic rice resistant to a spectrum of fungal diseases.Users: CIAT and NARS partners (public and private) involved in crop genetic improvement and agrobiodiversity conservation; AROs from DCs and LDCs, using CIA T technologies. Collaborators: lARCs (IPGRI through the Systemwide Genetic Resources Program, CIP, and liTA through root and tuber crop research); NARS (CORPOICA, ICA, EMBRAPA, INIAs); AROs of DCs and LDCs; biodiversity institutions (A. von Humboldt, INBIO, SINCHI, Smithsonian); and corporations and private organizations. CGIAR system linkages: Saving Biodiversity (30%); Enhancement & Breeding (60%); Training (1 0%).CIAT project linkages: Inputs to SB-2: Germplasm accessions from the gene bank project. Segregating populations from crop productivity projects. Characterized insect and pathogen strains and populations from crop protection projects. GIS services from the Land Use project. Outputs from SB-2: Genetic and molecular techniques for the gene bank, crop productivity, and Soils (microbial) projects. Identified genes and gene combinations for crop productivity and protection projects. Methods and techniques fo r propagation and conservation for gene bank and productivity projects. Interspecific hybrids and transgenic stocks for crop productivity and IPM projects.• The number of sequences available in the common bean Genebank public database was increased at minimum a 600% by adding over 3,000 microsatellite sequences.• Microsatellite markers developed for soybean and cowpeas were screened to adapt microsatellite available for other Phaseolus legume crops to bean.• Bean T y 1-copia group retrotransposon L TR sequen ces and 24 d ifferent sequen ces corresponding to RNAse-polypurine tract-long terminal repeat were isolated and characterized.• The implementation of novel microarray based technology Oiversity Arra y Technology (DarT) was initiated on bean and cassava.• New set of 85 microsatellites were located on the cassava genome map. The integration analysis of another new set of 157 SSR on the current cassava map is in progress.• Analysis using cONA-AFLP technique allowed the identification of putative molecular markers linked to CBB resistance in cassava.• The construction of a molecular Brachiaria map using grasses RFLP, RAPO, SCAR, AFLP and SSR was achieved.• Two major QTLs for spittlebug resistance in Brachiaria were identified.• Scaling up genetic transformation of cassava was accomplished by broadening from one to four the cultivars used.• Transgenic cassava lines containing Crylab insect resistance genes were established in the biosafety greenhouse.• Two fie1d trials with transgenic rice resistance to RHBV were evaluated. Transgenic rice with the highest level of resistan ce to RHBV were identified.• A selection system for generating transgenic rice based on the use of mannose isomerase selection gene was developed. The system will aid the generation of transgenic plants nondependant on antibiotic resistance selection marker genes.• A cONA library to clone key genes involved in linging biosynthesis in Brachiaria was accomplished.• Lines of Friable Emrbyogenic Callus (FEC) from various cassava commercial cultivars were established.• Novel backcross methodology for producing fertile common x tepary beans hybrids from otherwise incompatible genotypes was developed.• Excellent agronomy and phenology perfonnance in the field of 3-year-old soursop clones propagated in vitro, validated the in vitro micrografting as a altemative for multiplying pathogen free materials.• A large scale test ofthe cryo-preservation cassava protocol was implemented. About 43% of the core collection was tested, and 82% ofthe accessions showed > 30% recovery rates after freezing.• The cryo-preservation protocol has been extended to cassava wild relatives including Manihot esculenta subsp flabellifo/ia, subsp. Peruviana and subsp. Carthaginensis.• FEC from two cassava cultivars were recovered after freezing allowing long tenn storage of suitable material for genetic transfonnation.• Plants from the tropical fruit tree tomato were recovered after freezing.• Propagation methods for cassava commercial clones and doubled haploid generation from rice anther culture were optimized using RITA bioreactors.• In vitro cassava plants propagated by small farmers are under field testing and new clones selected by the farmers were included in a new cycle of propagation.• A methodology for the reproducible plant regeneration ofnaranjilla fruit (i.e. lulo) was developed.• Characterization of key genes involved in carotene biosynthesis pathway was initiated.• Genotypes of cassava core collection with higher levels ofFe, Zn, and pro-vitamin. A were identified for improving cassava quality through breeding.• The genetic variation of carotene content in lea ves and roots of 682 cassava accesions was detennined. Carotenes concentrate much more on leaves suggesting a higher nutritive value of cassava leaves.• Two classess of secondary metabolites, hydroxyconmarins and flavan 3-ols, were -identified as antioxidants and antimicrobials for the control of post-harvest deterioration in cassava.Output 3• CIA T obtained approval of a project from BMZ, to integrate approach for genetic improvement of aluminum resistance of crops on low-fertility acid soils.• During period Oct 2000-2001 more than 70 people (researchers, joumalists, visitors and others) received training with SB-2 Project Staff.• In collaboration with two scientists from the Biotechnology Centers ofRutgers University, a training course was held at CIA T to upgrade knowledge of SB-2 staff on molecular approaches for disease resistance, and modulating gene expression in transgenic plants.• A course on the use of microarray and Diversity Array Technology (DarT) was conducted at CIA T by CAMBIA (Australia) for 30 assistants from SB-2.• A second workshop on Biotechnology and GMOs biosafety was given by CIA T to Colombian journalist.• An updated version ofFloramap was released in 2001. Sorne 200 registered users from several countries obtained a copy.• Data base for bean microsatellites was established• The cassava Biotechnology Network was re-established for Latin America with funding from DGIS and IDRC.• The first Planning Workshop to develop a biofortification proposal at the CG level was organized and conducted at CIA T .• In the period Oct 2000-Sept 200 l, SB-2 members published 40 Scientific Papers in refereed journals and books, abstracts and posters in proceedings.• In the same period, 5 new projects were approved and 11 proposal were submitted.• A total of24 donors contributed funding projects in SB-2 ix Otttput l. Genomes ofwild and cultivated species of mandated and non mandated crops, and associated organisms characterized Activity 1.1 Characterization of genetic diversity• A core collection of Phaseolus coccineus and Phaseolus polyanthus was evaluated with AFLP markers, demonstrating that very little gene pool structure exists in these two species, although Mexican and Guatemalan accessions of P. coccineus separate slightly, and an ecotype of P. polyanthus exists in South America.• Diversity in the CIA T collection of tepary beans (Phaseolus acutifolius) was analyzed with AFLP and microsatellites to distinguish taxonomic relationships with P. parvifolius as well as within the species between P. a. var. acutifolius and P. a. var. tenuifolius.• Genetic diversity of microsatellite alleles was determined for two parental surveys of comrnon bean that provide the basis for\" mapping and genetic tagging for a range of important traits; including biotic and abiotic stress resistance 1 tolerance, micronutrient accumulation. This information was incorporated into a new molecular genetics database constructed for microsatellite parental surveys and the Bean genes database.• The study of cassava land races using microsatellites was extended to assessing genetic diversity and differentiation of cassava land races from 5 countries in South America, 2 in Central America, and 2 in Africa, and to African cassava genotypes resistant to the Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD). The analysis showed a substantial amount of genetic diversity in CMD resistance germplasm appropriate for the genetic improvement of CMD resistance as well as of other traits, particuJarly yield.• A set of microsatellite markers were identified detecting polymorphism between transgenic rice, other rice varieties, wild Oryza species and red rice. This tool is being used to monitor gene flow from transgenic rice into rice varieties and into wild/weedy relatives. With this project we initiated studies on environmental biosafety jointly with the generation of transgenic plants to set guidelines for their safe use in agriculture.• The assessment of the origin and the genetic diversity of the Xam was extended to cassava populations within and between ecological zones in Togo. The cluster analysis revealed the existence of 7 groups at 70% similarity. No correlation between the geographical origin of the strains and DNA polymorphism was observed.• The Genetic diversity of the multipurpose shrub legumes Flemingia macrophylla and Cratylia argentea was initiated using AFLPs. The molecular data will be integrated with morphological and agronomical data to improve the use and management, including conservation, of the collections.• As a collaboration with the Humboldt Institute, the analysis of the genetic structure of Colombian endangered palm species was carried using microsatellite isolated at CIA T.In a project financed by the Belgian government to explore the pote ntial of P. coccineus (PC) and P. polyanthus (PP), a core collection was formed as reported in past years. No previous study ofthe genetic structure of these two species had been performed, to determine if they display gene pools comparable to other species of the genus such as P. vulgaris. Therefore the core was studied with molecular markers to determine if gene pools exist within these species.A total of 178 accessions of P. coccineus and P. polyanthus were studied, including the PC-PP core collection and others that had been designated as promising for specific traits, such as resistance to BGYMV or bean fly. The PC accessions included 66 cultivated types, 40 wild accessions, 1 intermediate and 1 hybrid (possibly with PP). Geographically, accessions originated in Mexico (57), Guatemala (30), Colombia (5), Yugoslavia (3), Rumania, Rwanda, and Turkey (2 each), Costa Rica, Germany, United Kingdom, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Holland and Portugal ( 1 each). The PP accessions included 59 cultivated, 7 wild types, and 3 hybrids. These originated in Mexico (26), Guatemala (29), Colombia ( 1 O), Costa Rica (2), and Venezuela (1 ). An accession of P. vulgaris (cv. 'ICA Pijao') and of P. costarricensis were included for comparison. The technique of AFLP was applied to the PC-PP core collection, using two primer combinations, selected from among 38 combinations of primers tested from a kit obtained from GIBCO BRL ™. Bands were read as present or absent and were analyzed by Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) and by Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Averages (UPGMA). Initially the analysis was performed with only accessions produced under controlled pollination (type 1 and type 2 seed), and subsequently accessions with open-pollinated seed were added to the analysis.The four species separated widely from each other in the analyses by UPGMA and by MCA, confirming the independent status of P. po/yanthus as a species apart from P. coccineus (Figure 1).  When wild and cultivated PC were analyzed together by MCA, the first dimension separated wild from cultivated (Figure 2). There was no unambiguous overlap between wild and cultivated groups to suggest that a certain wild population might have participated in a unique domestication event.Rather, only two wild accessions from Guatemala occupied an area on the margin of the cultivated.The second dimension showed a geographical gradient, whereby the wild PC from o Wlld • Guawmala ! ., Guatemala and Mexico separated from each other (Figure 3). However, the wild accessions in general did not result in discrete groups, and the Mexican accessions in particular occupied a very dispersed space.However, in the second dimension, the position of the cultivated was even more ambiguous. lt fell in between the wilds from Guatemala and Mexico, being similar to the Guatemalan wilds on the first dimension and similar to the Mexican wilds on the second dimension. These results suggest that the cultivated PC might not have a direct relationship with any single wild population. lt is possible that the allogarnous nature of the species has resulted in cultivated PC that represents introgression from multiple wild populations, hence its intermediate position between wild populations from Mexico and Guatemala.In the case of P. polyanthus, the first dimension of the MCA (Figure 3) again separated wild from cultivated accessions. Wild PP was surprisingly diverse, considering that all seven accessions of wild PP come from a restricted geographical area of Guatemala. Neither did these present any apparent structure. Among cultivated accessions, it was noted that those that graphed most distantly from the wild beans were those from South America (Figure 4). When these were viewed on the second dimension (Figure S), their differentiation from all other accessions was even clearer. Last year we noted that these occupy an ecological niche that is very different from other PP. Molecular analysis confinns that there is a subtle difference of these accessions compared to others, although the genetic distance compared to other cultivated PP is in fact quite small.When accessions with open-pollinated seed were included in the analysis, no significant changes occurred in the structure of the dendrogram, although the absence of a clear gene pool structure made it more difficult to analyze this effect and to estímate the effect of open-pollination on the genetic structure of the species. However, the allele frequencies of contro\\led vs, open-po\\linated accessions were compared, resulting in a correlation of r=0.965 for PC and r=0.975 for PP.Therefore, the open-pollination technique has not changed allele frequencies and may not have altered the genetic structure as much as we might have feared.Heterogeneity of different populations was compared (Table 1). In neither species were the wild accessions more diverse than the cultivated accessions. Therefore there does not appear to a serious founder effect in these two species. Neither was one country or region inherently more diverse than any other.The foregoing results probably reflect the allogamous nature of the two species. Outcrossing has probably erased any possible tendency for the fonnation of gene pools by creating a relatively homogenous intennating population. Similarly, the allogamous nature has overcome any possible founder effect.Given the ambiguity of results with nuclear DNA in our attempts to relate wild populations of PC to cultivated accessions, an additional study was undertaken with chloroplast DNA. Chloroplastspecific primers were used to amplify products from 30 wild and 10 cultivated accessions of PC. However, results continued to be ambiguous. Wilds from both Guatemala and Mexico grouped with cultivated PC. Surprisingly, PC presented very diverse chloroplast DNA, with sorne wild PC being identical with P. costaricensis, others grouping close to P. vulgaris, and others fonning groups that were quite divergent among themselves. Neither did parsimony analysis reveal clear tendencies. In contrast to PC, a similar attempt with PP failed to find any polymorphism at all in chloroplast DNA.Figure 3. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) of controlled pollination accessions of P. coccineus (excluding P. vulgaris and P. costarricensis), showing in the second dimension, separation of accessions by geograpbic origin.   Tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A.Gray) is in the tertiary gene pool of common beans (P. vulgaris L.) and as such represents a potential but difficult to use genetic resource for the improvement of common beans. The two species have been crossed, despite high embryo abortion, using congruity or recurrent backcrossing and these interspecific hybridizations have been used to incorporate common bacteria) blight resistance into common bean. Notwithstanding their utility for the improvement of other species, tepary beans are a useful and interesting crop in their own right, especially for dryland agricultura) systems. They are known to have high drought and salinity tolerance, good nutritional quality and a tradition of cultivation in Mexico, South westem United States and Central A.merica, that goes back 5000 years. What is needed is to create improved varieties as none exist. For this it is critica) to have a baseline data on the diversity that exists within tepary beans. Previous authors (Scinkel andGepts, 1988, 1989;Garvin and Weeden, 1994) have suggested that tepary beans seem to be less diverse than common bean or lima beans. They are thought to have had a single center of origin and to have been distributed from a few original sites across the present distribution. The objective of this research was to study the pattems of diversity within the species and its placement relative to other Phaseolus species that were used as an outgroup, using two types of molecular markers : 1) AFLPs which tend to be evolutionarily conserved markers and serve to reference different species relative to each other and 2) microsatellites which are by nature hypervariable loci that can distinguish between varieties.Additional objectives of the study were to determine if P. acutifolius and P. parvifolius merit being separate species and if molecular markers can distinguish between the botanical varieties var. acutifolius and var. teniufo/ius within the species P. acutifo/ius. AFLP markers have been applied before to study wild species of Phaseolus (Tohme et al., 1996) and lima bean, P. lunatus, accessions and their close relatives (Caicedo et al., 1999). We have developed new microsatellites that are beginning to be used in characterization studies. This is the first application of both marker systems to study tepary bean diversity.Genotypes and DNA extrae/ion: A total of 127 genotypes from the Genetic Resources Unit of CIA T were analyzed in the experiments. The outgroup consisted in 1 O genotype from the Phaseolus genus including 4 P. vulgaris (common bean); 4 P. lunatus (lima bean); 1 P. coccineus (scarlet runner bean); and 1 P. glabellus genotype. For both common and lima beans a wild anda cultivated representative from both the Andean and Mesoamerican genepools was included in the analysis. For the other species only a single representative was analyzed. A total of 117 tepary beans and their close relatives were analyzed, consisting in 49 cultivated P. acutifolius var. acutifolius; 44 wild P. acutifolius var. acutifolius; 12 P. acutifolius var. tenuif olius; and 12 P. parvifo/ius accessions. The genotypes were grown in the greenhouse and total genomic DNA was extracted from 2 g of fresh Jeaf tissue with a large preparation method (CIA T protocols ).AFLP analysis: Amplicon-template preparation, pre-amplification, and selective amplification were as described for the protocol of the Gibe o BRL AFLP analysis system 1 kit for small genomes. In a previous study, we determined which were the best primer combinations based on the EcoRI (E) -Msei (M) adapters and primers with 3 selective nucleotides each. One combination, based on E-AAG and M-CTT primers was analyzed for this study PCR products were run on 4% silverstained polyacrylamide gels for 1, 1.5 and 2 hours to resol ve as many fragments as possible. Bands were sized by comparison to a SObp ladder molecular weight size standard. All the polymorphic AFLP bands between 1 00 and 400 bp were scored for presence or absence among the lines and used to calculate the similarity matrix. Larger or smaller bands were not considered.Microsatellite analysis: A total of 1 O microsatellites were amplified for the study; of which six were cONA based (BMdl, BMd7, BMdlO, BMdlS, BMyl and BMy6) and four were genomic (BMdll, BMdl2, BMd36 and BM114) (Table 1). PCR product were run on 4% silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and the alleles sized by comparison with 1 O and 25 bp molecular weight Jadders. Alleles were considered separate taxonomic units for the purposes of calculating shared bands and similarity.Data analysis: Genetic similarities between genotypes was determined with the Dice coefficient using the software packages SAS (SAS Institute, 1989) and NTSYS 2.02 (Rohlf, 1993).The AFLP combination used in this study had a good polymorphism rate, clear amplification profile and well-distributed range in PCR product sizes. The AFLP combination produced a total of 167 bands. Of these 99.5% of the bands were polymorphic across all species although there was substantial monomorphism within the cultivated P. acutifolius.Both monomorphic and polymorphic band were used to determine the genetic similarity between genotypes. Figure 1 a shows the dendrogram created for the AFLP bands. The structure of the dendrogram agrees with known taxonomic relationships for the six species represented in the study. P. /unatus was the most distant group, followed by P. glabellus and P. coccineus. P. vulgaris was the closest to the P. acutifolius-parvifolius clade. The level of similarity was around 35% between the five groups. Within both P. vulgaris and P. lunatus the distinction between Andean and Mesomerican genepools was clear. The level of similarity between genepools was higher in P. vulgaris (68%) than in P. /unatus (62%).Within the P. acutifolius-parvifolius clade, all the accessions shared up to 54% similarity. Five groups could be distinguished within the clade: 1) cultivated P. acutifolius from Central and North America 2) cultivated P. acutifo/ius from North America (mainly Sonora and Sinaloa), 3) wild P. acutifo/ius var. acutifolius 4) wild P. acutifolius var acutifolius and tenuif olius; and 45) P. parvifo/ius. These five groups could be organized hierarchically into two supergroups, consisting of groups 1, 2 and 3 together and groups 4 and 5 together. The frrst supergrouping contained all the cultivated P. acutifolius, while the second supergrouping contained all the P. acutif olius var. tenuifo/ius and P. parvifolius accessions. The wild P. acutifolius accessions were distributed among the two supergroupings, with sorne more allied to the cultivated accesssions of the same species and others allied to the P. parvifolius group. Within the first supergroup, the two cultivated groups ( 1 and 2) were related at 80% simi1arity and these were related to the wild accessions (group 3) within that supergroup at 68% similarity. Within the second supergroup, the P. parvifolius and P. acutifolius (both var. acutifolius and tenuifolius) were related at 64% similarity. The supergroups were distinguishable at 54% similarity.A multiple correspondance analysis confirrned the groupings observed in the dendrogram, where five clusters could be found in the P. acutif oliusprvifolius clade, corresponding to the groupings described above .Microsatellite Analysis: The ten microsatellites detected a total of 75 alleles which were scored as bands (present and absent) to determine genetic similarity between genotypes. The average number per locus of alleles produced across the range of genotypes was as high for the cDNA (7.8 alleles) as for the genomic (7 alleles) microsatellites. Figure 1 b shows the dendrogram created for the microsatellites. Genetic similarities were much lower on average than with AFLP data. The structure of the dendrogram agrees with that of the AFLP results, however their were severa! important differences. In agreement, the microsatellite inforrnation predicted that P. lunatus, followed by P. vulgaris were the most distant groups from P. acutifolius, with low similarities of 9 and 15% similarity, respectively. Within both P. vulgaris and P. lunatus the distinction between Andean and Mesomerican genepools was clear as described above, and these group shared only 55% similarity. In contrast to the AFLP data, the P. parvifolius and P. acutifolius cluster were separate and shared only 32% similarity. Two P. acutifolius var. tenuifolius accessions were found within the P. parvifolius cluster, while the others were found mixed with the wi1d accessions of P. acutifolius var. acutifolius. Surprisingly, P. coccineus was found between the P. parvifolius and the P. acutifolius clusters. All the cultivated P. acutifolius formed a group with the highest genetic similarity of around 85%. One group of cultivars ha ve similarity of 100% and are all accessions from Sinaloa. Despite the differences in scale and detail, correlation between the matrices generated for AFLP and microsatellite datasets was high (r=0.703) and significant as indicated by the approximate Mantel test (t= 12.15, P=.O 198)   • Discussion and Future Plans Microsatellites detected much greater differences than AFLPs, probably because they were less conserved than AFLPs. The use of two marker systems to samp1e different part of the geno me that evolve at different rates hopefully gave us a more accurate picture of the relationships within and between species.The high similarity among all the cultivated tepary beans, even with the microsatellites, seems to indicate that the crop may have arisen from a single domestication event that led to a genetic bottleneck which limits diversity within the cultivars. From this study, there is very little evidence for introgression from wild relatives into the cultivated genepool after the initial domestication event. Tepary beans are known to have a very low crossing rate that limits the creation of new diversity within the crop. The lack of diversity within the cultivated tepary bean is a serious limitation for improvement of the crop. The lack of diversity within the cultivated tepary bean belies sorne ofthe variability found for disease and insect resistance within the species. These are also fast evolving characteristics so could be expected to have been generated by mutation even without a lot of initial diversity or inter-crossing. However, that lack of diversity in other characteristics such as plant morphology, adaptation range has serious implications for improving the species agronomically and using the species in inter-specific hybridization.The relationships within the P. acutifolius -parvifolius clade has been controversia!. The AFLP data presented here suggest that the P. acutifolius and P. parvifolius probably do not deserve to be different species, but could qualify as possible subspecies or varieties within the species. The microsatellite data meanwhile show that wild P. acutifolius accessions and the P. parvif olius accessions are the extremes of a continuum, with all of the P. a. var. tenuifolius accessions as intermediates between these two clusters. The high amounts of diversity found in the wild P. acutifolius and P. parvifolius accessions are an interesting resource for breeding tepary bean cultivars.   Microsatellites markers are based on short segments of ONA in which a specific simple sequence motif of 1-6 bases is repeated in tandem, multiple times. Oue to the innate variability at microsatellite loci, these markers have been ideal for characterizing genetic diversity in crop species at the inter-specific, inter-subspecific, inter-varietal and even intra-varietal levels. Microsatellites have been found to vary in the polymorphism they detect depending on the length and sequence of the repeat motif they contain and their location along the chromosomes, specifically whether they reside in gene-coding or non-coding segments of the genome. The objective of this study was to evaluate all new Phaseolus microsatellite markers developed at CIA T and elsewhere for their allelic variability on two panels of 18 common bean genotypes representing diverse germplasm, both cultivated and wild, Mesoamerican and Andean, which have been used as parents in the bean breeding program.The genotypes consisted in 30 common bean genotypes arranged in two panels; The previous panel of 18 was described in last year's annual report (SB-02 report 2000). This year a new panel was instituted with 14 individuals, including two Andeans, nine mesoamericans and one tepary bean (Table 1) which are the parents of six mapping populations being studied at CIAT for the inheritance of disease resistance (common bacteria! blight (CBB), bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV), angular leaf spot and anthracnose), insect resistance (Apion) and abiotic stress tolerance (low phosphorous adaptation, drought tolerance and adventitious rooting). Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was carried out simultaneously with the parental survey for the disease and insect resistance mapping populations for CBB, BGMV and Apion. The parents of an additional mapping population (BAT93 x Jalo EEP558) were included because this population has been the basis for creating an integrated genetic map for the bean genome (Freyre et al., 1999). The populations included three intra-genepool Mesoamerican x Mesoamerican crosses and two intergenepool Mesoamerican x Andean populations (Table 2). The genotypes were evaluated with a total of 131 microsatellite markers ( of which 65 were derived from genomic libraries and 66 were derived from cONA or gene sequences). The markers were amplified at different annealing temperatures according to the estimated melting temperatures of the primers. The PCR products were resolved on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and microsatellite alleles were sized by comparison to the 10 and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega).Genomic microsatellites detected more polymorphism than cONA microsatellites in the intragenepool crosses but were about equally effective in uncovering polymorphism in the inter-genepoo1 and interspecific crosses. The rate of polymorphism was much higher (77.9%) in the interspecific crosses than in the intra-specific crosses (37.5%). The average po1ymorphism rate between the parents of the inter-genepool crosses (44.3%) was higher than that of the intragenepool crosses (33.1%). Among the Mesoamerican x Mesoamerican crosses, the intra-racial cross Jll7 (race Jalisco) x Jamapa (race Mesoamerica) was more polymorphic (43.5%) than the other crosses OOR476 x SELl309 and VAX6 x MARI which were within race Mesoamerica.Among the inter-genepool crosses BAT93 x Jalo EEP558 was more polymorphic than 02333 x G 19839. The genomic microsatellites were more polymorphic markers than the cONA derived microsatellites. Overall the average polymorphism rate for the genomic microsatellites was 51 .5 % versus 37.2% for the cONA microsatellites.Significantly fewer average alleles per locus were found for microsatellites from genes (3.3 alleles) than for microsatellites from non-coding sequences ( 4.5 alleles). The gene-derived microsatellites frequently were bi-or tri-allelic and distinguished the difference between Andean and Mesoamerican genepools and the difference between Phaseolus vulgaris and P. acutifolius. Meanwhile the genomic microsatellites detected more alleles and were thus able to resolve sorne within-genepool variation. The polymorphism information content (PIC) of the gene-derived microsatellites was lower (0.402) than for the genomic microsatellites (0.553). The PIC values were positively correlated with the number of alleles produced at the locus. Null alleles were uncommon in both types of microsatellites. The allele size range was generally a good predictor of the number of alleles present for a locus. The allele range was 67% wider for the genomic microsatellites (28.8 bp) compared to the gene-derived microsatellites ( 17.3 bp). However there were severa! microsatellites with large size ranges but few alleles.The differences in allelic variability observed at specific bean microsatellite loci are probably due to the differences in the mutation rate inherent for each locus. Microsatellites mutate when they add or subtract a small number of perfect repeats or undergo changes in the flanking regions of the SSR. These changes can occur due to polymerase slippage, unequal crossing-over and/or insertiondeletion events. Although microsatellites are believed to have sorne of the highest mutation rates observed at any type of molecúlar loci, sorne microsatellites will evidently be more stable than others. In this study as in others before, microsatellite variability seems to be influenced by the structure, motif, SSR length and genomic context ofthe locus.The more polymorphic genomic microsatellites may well become the mainstay of mapping studies since they will be useful even in narrow intra-genepool crosses. They will also be very useful for to analyzing recent changes in population structure and selection history in closely-related germplasm from a given area or from a specific commercial class. Meanwhile the more conserved and stable cDNA-derived microsatellites may find their greatest utility in mapping in wide intergenepool or inter-specific crosses and in the phylogenetic analysis ofthe genus Phaseolus.We planto continue testing all new Phaseolus microsatellites on the existing panel and ifthe need arises, will create another panel of varieties to survey for polymorphisms in the parents of additional populations. In the future it will be very useful to genotype many ofthe common parents and genetic sources used at CIA T, as this will allow us to implement whole-genome marker assisted selection that is specific to the genetic crosses made in our bean breeding program. Crop varieties must successfully fulfill the criteria of newness, distinctness, uniformity, and stability, in order to be registered at nationaJ or international leve) under any PBR regime.Traditionally, morphological data have been used to define the parameters of certification. However, morphological characters whose expression is affected by environment and wich exhibit continuous distribution are notoriously poor taxonomic descriptors. Therefore, there is growing interest in using biochemical and DNA-based tests to provide sharply defined and reproducible genotypic descriptions. On the other hand, the F AO-CGIAR agreement states that no designated germplasm can be protected under any PBR or patent. We are comparing a patented bean variety with 21 bean genotypes in order to check the condition of newness, using seed proteins (phaseolin) and 16 isoenzymes (with 21 monomorphic and 9 polymorphic loci). Our selection work was facilitated by existing prior art about yellow bean varieties selected in Mexico from Peruvian germplasm (Lépiz & Navarro 1983;Voysest 1983).The biochemical data (enzyme bands) were interpreted as dominant markers and were compiled in a data matrix on the basis of presence (1) or absence (O) of selected bands. A pair-wise similarity matrix was calculated using the simple matching coefficient. This similarity matrix was employed to construct a dendrogram by the Unweighted pair group group method with arithmetical averages (UPGMA), using the SAHN-clustering and TREE program from the NTSYS-pc, version 2.02i package. The dendrogram obtained from the isoenzyme profile analysis (Figure 3) shows at the 0.87 similarity level six groups. The first and largest group was formed by 12 varieties, which in eludes En ola, while the other 1 O varieties are separated from the main gro u p. These results will help to selecta group of designated germplasm for microsatellite analysis. Dendrogram derived from a UPGMA cluster analysis, using the Dice similarity index based on isozyme banding pattems. Six clusters were resolved at the 0.87 similarity level.The study of cassava land races from two Southem Tanzanian districts reported last year was extended to assessing genetic diversity and differentiation of cassava land races from 5 countries in South America, 2 in Central America, and 2 in Africa. A number of elite lines developed at CIA T and liTA were íncluded in the analysis to evaluate the effect of breeding on genetic diversity. SSR marker variation at 67 loci was assessed in 314 accessions of cassava land races from Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Argentina, Guatemala, Mexico, Tanzania, and Nigeria. Accessions from the Neo Tropics were from the CIA T germplasm collections and those from Tanzania were the same field collection made in 1999 in a key introduction point of cassava into Africa (South Westem Tanzania) and described in the annual report last year. The Nigerian Land races were from a collectíon held at liT A, Ibadan.The main reason for the assessment of genetic diversity and differentiation found in cassava land races is to delineate heterotic pools for a more rational approach to choosing parents for cassava improvement and the exploitation of combining ability via reccurent reciprocal selection (Keeratinijakal and Lamkey 1993). The heterotic pattems found in maize populations at the tum of the century is the basis of a very successful maize hybrid industry and has raised maize yields 500% since 1928 (Shull 1952, Tomes 1998), a high level of genetic differentiation , as revealed by molecular markers, were later found between these populations (Melchinger et. al. 1990).Plant materials, DNA isolation, and SSR marker analysis have been described elsewhere (CIA T 2000;Fregene et. al. 200 1 ). Genetic diversity within and among accessions was estimated by the software package GEN-SURVEY (Vekemans and Lefebvre 1997) using the following statistics: percentage of polymorphic loci, mean number of alleles per polymorphic loci, average observed heterozygosity, Ho, and the average gene diversity, He (Nei 1978). For all loci and for all accessions the total heterozygosity, (HT) and the proportion of among accession differentiation (GsT) were estimated according to Nei (1978). Standard deviations for the above parameters were estimated over loci and samples by Jackknife (Quenoille 1956;Efron 1982). Given the small evolutionary divergence times for the accessions, the infmite alleles model (IAM) (Goldstein et. al. 1995) was assumed for all calculations.Genetic differentiation was quantified by the F statistics estimator FsT (theta) (Wright 1951) as described by Weir and Cockerham (1984) using FSTAT 2.9 (Goudet 1998). GsT gives the same estímate of genetic differentiation as FsT but takes into account variation in sample sizes, as is the case in this study. Confidence intervals were calculated per locus over samples, and over loci by Jacknife, and by bootstrapping over loci. Pairwise values ofFsT between samples (land race group) was also estimated and the pairwise matrix analyzed by cluster analysis, using Ward's hierachical clustering of JMP (SAS Institute 1995).To assess if random genetic recombination created by fanner selection from spontaneous seedlings have played a part in the evolution of genetic diversity, parent-offspring relations were sought in the SSR data from the Southern Tanzanian collection using the computer program CERVUS (Marshall et. al. 1998). CERVUS simulates a maternal and a paternal genotype from allele frequencies observed in the study population, and derives an offspring genotype by Mendelian sampling of the parental alleles. The simulation also alters the genotypic data to reflect the existen ce of un-sampled males, missing loci and incorrectly typed loci, according to the values ofthe simulation parameters. Each candidate parent is considered in turnas the alleged father, and LOD scores are calculated for all males for whom genetic data exists. Once all males have been considered, the most likely and second most likely males are identified and the Delta score (difference in LOD scores) calculated.The final stage of the simulation is to find critica) values of Delta so that the significance of Delta values found in paternity inference in the study population can be tested.The large number of unlinked SSR loci employed in this study enabled a rigorous estimation of genetic differentiation and diversity structure of cassava land races from the primary and secondary center of diversity not previously carried out for cassava. The reliability of estimates for genetic variation, such as He, Ho, FsT and genetic distances, depend more on number ofloci than the number of individuals sampled (Baverstock and Moritz 1996). Estimates of genetic differentiation ranged widely from loci to loci, underscoring the danger of assessing SSR diversity using a small set of SSR markers. The genetic diversity of maize as a sub-set of diversity found in its teosinte progenitors vary from 25% to 75% based upon what location of the genome the diversity analysis was based on (Eyre-Walker et. al. 1998).Principal findings of the study is genetic diversity, as assessed by the average gene diversity, He, was high in all countries with an average heterozygosity of 0.5358±0.1184. (Table 1 ). Highest genetic diversity was found in Brazil and Colombian, although genetic diversity between Latín American and African land races is comparable. No unique alleles with a frequency of more than 25% was found within country samples with an exception of Guatemala and Nigeria. The genetic differentiation estimator FsT (theta), revealed a low leve) of differentiation (Fsr=0.091±005) between country samples compared to the average for crop species -FsT =0.34 (Hammrick and Godt 1997). Nonetheless pair-wise FsT data between countries reveals high genetic differentiation (FsT =0.26) between accessions from Nigeria and Guatemala, anda moderate to high differentiation between country accessions of the primary and a secondary center of diversity (Table 2 and  Figure!).A total of 51 parent-offspring relationships were found in the 96 accessions collected from Southern Tanzania using a delta threshold leve) of 1.0 (Fregene et. al. 2001, Appendix2). Analysis ofparentoffspring are confounded by closely related offspring, the statistic delta calculated by CERVUS compares LOD scores of the two best putative parents to reduce the confounding effects of full-or half-sibs. Results of the parent-offspring relationship successfully identified a known parent of TMS 30572, an improved line from liTA, which was included as an interna) control. The genotype 58308 from the Moor plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria, breeding program ofthe 1950s, served as a parent source of cassava mosaic disease resistance (CMD) for TMS30572.The overall low leve) of genetic differentiation in cassava is comparable with that found in perennial forest trees, 0.084 on an average (Harnrick and Godt 1996;Le Corre et. al. 1997). Forest trees have experienced many foundation events after the expansion from a few Southern refuges 15,000 years ago after the last glacial period (Huntley 1990). Austerlitz et. al. (2000) demonstrated that the unexpected low differentiation and high genetic of trees events can be explained by high gene flow, both seed and pollen flow, and the length of their juvenile phase. Cassava was likely domesticated from populations of Mesculenta sub spp jlabellifolia along the Southem rim of the Amazonían basín wíthín the last 10,000 years ago (Oisen et. al. 1999). Its expansion ínto other regions of Latín America, Africa and Asia would have led to founders effect of reduced diversíty andan increase in genetic dífferentiation . The unexpected low level of genetic differentiatíon and the high genetic diversity of cassava land races in all countries may therefore be due to high genetic diversity of original populations, extensive movement of germplasm and spontaneous genetic recombination. The common practice of using volunteer plants and the circulation of woody planting material, often to replace varieties destroyed by herbivores, biotic and abiotic stresses would have lead to highly heterogenous cassava fields after domestication. Diversity found in a single fanner's field has also been shown to be equal to the core-of-the core collection of 38 accessions representative of the world cassava collection at CIA T (Elias et. al. 2000).Future Plans• A larger sample set of land races from Nigeria and Guatemala regions will be analyzed to confirm results obtained here. • Genetic crosses between and within Guatamalan land races and Nigerian land races to test correlation between differentiation and heterosis.   The cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD) is considered the most devastating disease of cassava in Africa causing severe yield losses ranging from 20-95% (Thresh et al., 1994). It is caused by the cassava mosaic begmoviruses, which are transmitted by the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn) and spread through propagation of infected vegetative propagules. lt is estimated that total crop yield losses due to CMD cost the African continent about $2 billion per annum (liT A, 1997). The most effective means of controlling CMD is by host plant resistance and resistance was first identified in third back cross derivatives between cassava and its wild relative Manihot glaziovii Muller von Argau (Nicholas, 1947). Despite the progress made in resistance breeding, there still is the need to increase the levels of resistance, particularly against aggressive recombinant strains that can spontaneously occur (Zhou et. al., 1997). Recently a novel source of resistance controlled by a single dominant gene was found in sorne Nigerian land races (Mignouna and Dixon 1996) and this has lead to a more systematic evaluation of African land races.To facilitate choice of parents for breeding more durable CMD resistance while maintaining a good leve! of genetic diversity, 18 SSR markers were used to evaluate genetic diversity within a collection of 78 African cassava accessions resistant and susceptible to cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD). The accessions include 5 improved accessions, 68 resistant and 10 susceptible land races A total of 18 SSR markers were employed to determine genetic relationships. The second objectives of this study was to predict possible novel sources of resistance to CMD based upon SSR marker clustering which can then serve as a basis for further genetic studies.The cassava accessions and their source used in this study are shown in Table l. The land races had previously been evaluated in severa! location and years for their reaction to CMD based on their phenotypic expression of symptom severity using the standard five point scoring scale system for CMD (liTA, 1990). DNA isolation was from 1-3 g ofyoung leaves per accession after Dellaporta et al., (1983). Thirty-six SSR markers, two each from 18 linkage groups of the cassava genetic map (Fregene et. al 1997;Mba et. al. 2000) (Table 2), were employed in the initial SSR analysis. SSR analysis was as described in Mba et al. (2000). Individual accessions were scored as diplotypic data \"O 1 02\" and as haplotypic data \"1\" presence of a band, and \"O\" absence of a band for the SSR data. individually and the different alleles were recorded for each sample screened.The haplotypic data was used to calculate genetic distances between pairs of cassava accessions, using the Dice algorithm, and to draw a dendogram using the Unweighted pair-group mean average (UPGMA) cluster method ofNei's genetic distances (Sneath and Sokal 1973). The genetic distances and dendogram were computed with the NTSYS-PC computer programrne, ver. 2.02 (Rohlf 1997). The diplotypic data was employed to calculate estimates of genetic diversity estimates: percentage of polymorphic loci, mean number of alleles per polymorphic loci, average observed heterozygosity, Ha, and the average gene diversity, lL, (Nei 1978), using the computer program Gen-Survey (V ekemans and Lefebvre, 1997).Confidence intervals, at the 95% leve!, were obtained through 200 bootstraps over loci for the means of the above parameters.The overall leve! of polymorphism, 92%, is better than that found a previous AFLP study of CMD resistance and susceptible land races, 69%, (Fregene et al., 2000) confirming the superiority of SSR markers for genetic diversity studies. A dendogram of genetic distances grouped the 78 accessions into 5 groups at coefficient of similarity of 0.4. The first group has nine members including the line 58308, the principal parental line for the Mglaziovii source of CMD resistance, and its top progeny TMS 30572, the improved accession 91 /02324, four resistant and one susceptible land race (see Table 1 for accession groupings). The next group, which was the largest, was made up of two improved accessions M94/0583 and 29 land races, including one susceptible accession. All the resistant land races from the Republic of Benin and the majority of resistant land races from Nigeria and the Togo were in this group. The group also included a resistant land race from Angola and one from Ghana. The third group consists of the improved accession TMS3000 1, 17 resistant and one susceptible land races. Group four was made up of seven susceptible and five resistant land races, and group five, made up of the improved accession M94/012land eight other resistant land races. Duplicates were detected between sorne of the Nigerian land races such as TME581 and TME12,TME5 and TME3,TME62,TME6 and tME4,between TME242 and TME240,TME435 and TME288,TME479 and TME470 and between TME480 and TME225. The clustering pattem of the land races and the leve! of duplication is in agreement with the AFLP study of Fregene et al., (2000).Overall genetic diversity ofthe land races was high, 0.512, comparable to that described for a larger set of land races from 7 African, South and Central American countries, although the large difference in number of markers makes this comparison inadequate (M. Fregene et. al. 2001, CIA T 2001, this report). Gene diversity was highest among the land races and accessions in cluster group 3 followed by those in group 4 then group 2 and the lowest was detected in cluster group 1 (Table2). Of the total genetic diversity, 0.47 was dueto within cluster diversity and genetic differentiation between cluster was low (Gst = 0.096). The amount of genetic differentiation which has been reported for cassava, (Gsr=0.43, Fregene et al., 2000) is higher than that found in this study. Discrepancies in gene diversity estimates have been attributed to nature of markers systems (Djé, et al, 2000), but it may also be due to the smaJl set of African land races and an inclusion of Latín American Iand races in the Fregene et. al. (2000) study.Results of this study reveal a substantial amount of genetic diversity in CMD resistance gerrnplasms appropriate for genetic improvement of CMD resistance as well as other traits, particularly yield. It also suggest that there maybe other sources of resistance to CMD other than the known ones based on the clustering pattem of the resistant accessions. The Nigerian land races that have the novel source of resistant cluster together away from land races from other African nations and from the older source of resistance, 58308. This result suggests that resistance to CMD may have arisen independently several times in the past. This result will be conftrmed by genetic analysis of crosses between resistant and susceptible land races from clusters other than those with land races bearíng currently known sources o resistance.Marker-assisted genetic analysis of crosses between resistant and susceptible land races from clusters other than those with land races bearing curren ti y known sources of resistance.   Figure 1. Dendrogram ot geneuc OIStance snowmg tne assocJauon oetween tne 111 cassava accessaons oasea on ~~R using UPGMA cluster analysis.Peru is consídered one of severa( countries with enonnous amounts of biodiversity and it is a center of diversity for numerous cultivated crop, including cassava. The National Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Program (PRONIRGEB, its Spanish Acronym) of the National lnstitute for Research (INIA, its Spanish acronym) has as its principal objectives the conservation of native gennplasm for use by the scientific community and local fanners. PRONIRGEB has two cassava gennplasm banks located in Donoso, Lima, with 240 accessions, and El Porvenir, Tarapoto, forest agroecology, having 260 accessions. These accessions are kept as field collections, with a significant portian as tissue culture collections, and they have been characterized morphologically.Under the project \"Models of diversity and genetic erosion of traditional cultivars in Peru: rapid assessment and early detection of risks using GIS tools\" funded by the BMZ and executed by IPGRI and INIA, genetic diversity is being assessed using molecular tools combined with GIS methods to provide indicators of genetic erosion. In the first phase of this project a national laboratory for characterizing genetic resources has been set up and training of personnel, in the area of molecular markers for genetic diversity assessment, is being implemented to run the laboratories. The objective of this study was to train a national scientist from INIA in simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis in cassava, one of crops addressed under the BMZ project.One hundred accessions from the PRONIRGEB-INIA cassava gennplasm collection was used in this study. The accessions were selected based upon the place collected: coastal, Andean or forest, to provide a representative sample of cassava grown in Peru (Table 1 ). About 1 OOmg of young leaf tissue obtained from field grown plants was used to isolate DNA using a mini CT AB preparation (CIP 1997). Eighteen SSR markers, one from each linkage group, and selected for to their high heterozygosity in a previous SSR study of cassava land races (Fregene et. al. 2001, CIAT 2001, this report) were used for SSR analysis as described by Mba et al. (2000). Gel analysis of PCR arnplification product ís also as described by Mba et. al. (2000).Raw SSR data was scored as \"1\" and \"O\" for presence and absence of DNA bands respectively or haplotype data. The bands were then numbered and the data transfonned by Excel to \"O 1 02\" or diplotype data.. The haplotype data was used to calculate genetic distances between pairs of cassava accessions, using the Dice algorithm, and to derive principal components (PC) (Sneath and Sokal 1973). The f1rst and second components were presented in a graphical fonn using Excel. The genetic distances were computed with the NTSYS-PC computer programme, ver. 2.02 (Rohlf 1997), while the PC analysis was done using SAS (SAS lnstitute). The diplotype data was employed to calculate estimates of genetic diversity estimates: percentage of polymorphic loci, mean number of alleles per polymorphic Ioci, average observed heterozygosity, Ho, and the average gene diversity, He (Nei 1978), using the computer program Gen-Survey (Vekemans and Lefebvre, 1997). Confidence intervals, at the 95% level, was obtained through 200 bootstraps o ver loci for the means of the abo ve pararneters.Average genetic diversity was very high 0.68, and there was no significant difference between diversity found in the three regions (Tablel). Genetic differentiation as estimated by Gst was very low (0.0074) and confirms the same pattem found in the study of cassava land races from 7 countries (CIA T200 1, this report) although the large difference in markers makes this comparison ineffective. PCA of land races from the coastal, Andean and forest region also did not reveal any distinct clustering pattem among the land races with the exception that a single accession from Brazil included in the analysis was separated from the Peruvian accessions (Figure !).The present study reveals an unexpected low level of genetic differentiation and high genetic diversity of cassava land races in regions as diverse as the Andean, coastal and forest region of Peru. lt strongly supports the hypothesis of extensive movement of germplasm between regions, the high genetic diversity of original populations, as well as the wide adaptation of cassava.Future Plans  As a major staple food crop across the tropics, cassava can serve as a cheap means of deploying adequate protein requirement amongst the poor and for feeding animals. But cassava's starchy roots are very low in protein compared to other crops; less than 2% dry matter of protein in cassava compared to 9.1% in potato, there is therefore a need to in crease the pro te in content in roots of cassava. Cassava is also an important source of starch, 70-90% of cassava dry root matter is starch, the rest being fibers . Raw or unmodified cassava starches are increasingly important raw materials in textile, alcohol, animal and human food industries world-wide and this is expected to grow (Henry 1995). An in crease therefore in starch dry matter content ( equivalent to starch content) translates into higher income per unit land, per unit labor (investment) for farmers growing cassava.Severa) wild relatives of cassava are known to possess up to 15% protein and more than 50% dry matter in their roots. These gennplasm resources are a useful source of genes for the improvement of protein in cassava. Reports of crosses between cassava and M tristis revealed root protein content of more •than 8% in F 1 hybrids (Bolhuis 1953;Asiedu et. al. 1992).Unfortunately the high protein content was lost during back crossíng to recover the desired characteristics and high root yield of cassava (Asiedu 1992). For severa) years now, it has been shown that the \"tremendous genetic potential locked up in gennplasm banks can be released by shifting the paradigm from searching for phenotypes to searching for superior genes using molecular genetic maps and an advanced back cross mapping scheme (Tanksley and McCouch, 1997). An evaluation of protein and dry matter content, amylose/amylopectin ratio and white fly resistance was therefore conducted on gennplasm resources of 7 wild Manihot species held at CIA T genetic resources unit (GRU).More than 800 sexual seeds representing accessions of M esculenta sub spp jlabelifolia, M esculenta sub spp peruviana, M tristis., Mcarthaginensis, M walkerae, Mbrachyloba and Mjomentosa were planted in seedling trays at CIA T . Of these number, 695 accessions were transplanted to the field at the Centro Experimental de la Universidad Nacional, Palmira (CEUNP). From six month after planting, sequential evaluation of white fly resistance was conducted on all genotypes. At 8 months after planting 3 roots were milked from 678 accessions and evaluated for protein content, dry matter percentage, amylose/amylopectin ratio, and storage root size according to standard procedures established at CIA T.Another set of 400 sexual seeds of inter-specific hybrids between cassava and M esculenta sub spp jlabelifolia, M esculenta sub spp peruviana, M tristis., Mcarthaginensis, M chlorosticta and M pseudo glaziovii were genninated. A total of 322 were successfully transplanted to the field and 3 roots evaluated at 8 months after planting for the above traits. To confinn results obtained in the frrst year, 6 woody stakes were obtained from wild species accessions and interspecific hybrids high in protein, dry matter, white fly resistance or low in amylose/amylopectin ratio, and planted in single row clonal observation plots at CIA T. At the same time 6-1 O stakes of a selected sub set of these genotypes were planted in a hybridization block to initiate the advanced back cross QTL marker scheme to introgress favorable genes for the above traits into cassava. Due to the poor gennination of sorne accessions, stakes were planted in the green house befare transfer to the field.The first year evaluation of more than 1000 genotypes of 7 wild Manihot species and interspecific hybrids revealed a moderate to very high levels for protein and dry matter content, waxy starches (low level of amylose), and white fly resistance. Table 1 shows the data for genotypes with the highest protein content. The best genotypes for white fly resistance were found in interspecific hybrids with M ch/orosticta. (Table 2). A second year evaluation of six plants from the top genotypes will be conducted, but at the same time selections have been made from the top genotypes for genetic crosses. A selection index program developed by the cassava breeding unit (ClA T annual report 2000) was used to select the best 12 genotypes for protein content, dry matter content, and white fly resistance and the best 4 genotypes Jow arnylose content (Table 3).    Aithough only 4 genotypes from each group will be used for crosses a larger number was selected to accommodate variation that may occur due to the environment. Evaluation for the above traits will therefore be conducted befo re crosses are made to cassava. ). At least 100 seeds are expected for each of the 48 families (cross combination). The cassava parents for crosses are the elite parents of the 4 agro-eco1ogica1 genepools (Table 4). Sorne of these lines are high carotene lines eg. SM 1433-4, and willlead toa combinatíon of high carotene with high protein content.The advanced back cross QTL identification and introgression scheme to be followed is briefly described. The F 1 families obtained from above will be evaluated twice at the seedling and clona! observation tria! stage. The best 1 O inter-specific hybrids, 3 for protein, dry matter content, white fly resistance, and one for low amylose, will be selected for each agro-ecology and backcrossed to their respective recurrent parent. At least 200 BC 1 seeds will be generated per family, ora total of 6000 seeds from 30 families. The BC 1 will be evaluated twice as above and marker genotypíng will be for the best BC 1 families from each agro-ecology for each trait for QTL analyisis. BC 1 lines for the different agro-ecologies bearing favorable QTLs will be inter-crossed with one another,. Genotypes from the BC 1 F 1 will be planted and evaluated in six-plant rows as described above. Lines found to have high protein and dry matter content will be selected and introduced into the normal breeding program at CIA T. More crosses will be made from the best families identified and sexual seeds will be shared with the lntemational lnstitute for Tropical Agriculture (liT A), lbadan and NARs collaborators in Latín America and Asia. Venezuela and in most African countries. RFLP has been extensively used to evaluate Xam populations using different probes (Verdier et al., 1993;Restrepo and Verdier, 1997;and Restrepo et al., 1999). Based on previous work, it has been suggested that African strains originated from South Ameríca (V erdier et al., 1993 ). 23 5 strains collected in 14 JocaJities representing the different ecological zones in Togo (West Africa) were analyzed using RFLPs with different probes: pthB (a probe containing a pathogenicity gene), pBSS and pBS6 (two genomic and repetitive probes).This study aimed to assess the origin and the genetic diversity of the Xam population within and between ecological zones in Togo.Bacteria! isolation from infected le aves.Strain isolation was performed as described by Verdier et al. (1998). Briefly angular spots were cut out from lea ves and resuspended into eppendorf tu bes containing sterile water, then incubated at 4°C for 30min. lOOJ.d were spread in agar plates and incubated at 30°C for 48h. Single colonies were purified and stored at -80°C into a 20% glycerol solution.AAnalysis with different probes. DNA purification, restriction and hybridization conditíons were done as descríbed by Restrepo and Verdier ( 1997).Banding patterns of hybridization obtained with the RFLP/pthB were used to compare the re1atedness of each strain. Each band showing different electrophoretic mobility was assigned a position number after its size was detennined in base pairs. The presence (coded 1) and absence (coded O) of each fragment was recorded for each DNA sample. Similarity among strains was estimated by using NTSYSpc 2.01 program (Rohlf 1994).The díversity of Xam strains from each locality and from the entire collection was calculated bywhere X¡ is the proportion of the ith distinct pthB haplotype within a group and n is the number of strains in each group (Nei and Tajima, 1981). The percentage of total variance due to differences within and among localities was calcu1ated using Arlequín 2.0 program (Schneider and Excoffier 2000).For the 218 Xam strains analyzed, 17 bands were observed using pthB fragment as a probe. The molecular weight ranged from 4.6 to 14 kb. Nine different haplotypes (Ht) were defined Ofthese groups, one included only one strain while two others are represented by 49 and 31 strains respectively (Table 1). Genetic diversities (H) varied from O (localities C and F) to 1 (locality 1). The total diversity for Toga was 0.66. The cluster analysis revealed the existence of 7 groups at 70% similarity (data not shown).Clusters grouped strains collected from different localities, except cluster 2 that grouped strains from Craf-Kpalime and clusters with only one strain. In general, no correlation between the geographical origin ofthe strains and DNA polymorphism was observed.No polymorphism among strains was obtained with pBS6 and pBS8 with all strains showing a unique haplotype with each probe.Percentage of total variation was determined among and within populations (localities). We observed that there was more variability within population, 63.6%, that among them, 36.4% (Table 2). Diversity is distributed in a microgeographical scale at the locality leve!. • To test the pathogenicíty of al! the strains and characterize the pathotypes of representative strains. • To recommend a set of strains representative of the genetic diversity to be used for breeding assays.This work was done with the support of the European project on Cassava bacteria! blight in Africa that will be finished at the end of 200 l .   Microsatellites markers have become the markers of choice for a wide spectrum of genetic, population, and evolutionary studies (Jame andLagoda 1996, Powell et al. 1996). Microsatellite markers are highly infonnative and they can be rapidly and reliably visualized using silver staining. Although they are expensive to develop, once primers are available, they are technically easy and inexpensive to use . .In rice, microsatellites markers are distributed relatively unifonnly throughout the genome and detect a high level of allelic diversity in cultivated varieties and distantly related species. The objective of this study is to initiate the establishment of a sub set of microsatellite primers that can be used to differentiate rice genotypes for selection of parentals in breeding programs.We selected 120 accessions as follows: 93 Indica, 24 Japonica and 3 of the Surinam type (Table 1 ). Most of the accessions are used Genetic Base of lrrigated Rice in Latín America and the Caribbean 1971 to 1989 for breeding programs . They were characterized on the basis of parentage coefficient (Cuevas et al 1992) and using RAPOs technique (Escobar 1994). We used 12 microstellite primer pairs (Tab1e 2) to characterize accessions.DNA extractions were carried out according to Dellaporta's modified method . PCR reactions were run according to BRU's methods and gels stained using silver staining. Data were collected in two ways: 1) reading presence ( 1) or absence (O) of alle1es to obtain a binary matrix, or 2) using the concept of \"pattem\" for each primer pair, which finally constitutes a genotype. The statistica1 analysis was done using SAS, according to the criteria ofTessier et al. 1999. The tree (not shown) was developed using NTSYS .Polymorphism of microsatellites may be analyzed with two parameters: 10 ]] 13 14The Polymorphism Infonnation Content (PIC), where each band corresponds to one allele. PIC is equivalent to H (heterozygosity) and equals = 1-L[¡ 2 • The average PIC may be calculated as the average of all bands analyzed for all microsatellites.The parameter O (Oiscrimination capacity), which is actually derived from PIC. O estimates the discrimination power of primer pairs, by estimating the probability that two randomly chosen individuals have different band patterns. O may also be used for comparisons between different markers (Tessier et. al. 1999).A total of 89 different bands, or alleles, were found using the 12 primer pairs. The number of different bands par primer pair ranged from 4 in RM7 to 10 in RMII, RM202 and RM225. The estimated average H, using PICas estimator, was 16.7% for all 120 accessions. Within Indica, the average H was 14.3%, while for Japonica and Surínam it was 15.6% and 15.7% respectively. The results support a low variability within rice gennoplasm used for breeding program in Latín Ameríca.The most discriminatory band was number 51, corresponding to primers RM19, which showed 8 alleles. With the analysis of O we can conclude that most primers have a good discrimination capacity (Figure 1), except primers RM7 y RM167 which had low O (30 and 32% respectively). These primers have already already been used for genetic diversity studies among Cuban traditional varieties that are useful for the breeding program in Cuba (Ceaden-CIA T ,2001 ; data not shown).• lncreasing the number of microsatellites in the sub set • Establishment of a database for eventual selection of parental fines based on molecular diversity    e RM-167 Hybridization between crops and their wild relatives sometimes brings genes into wild populatíons, occasionally resulting in the evolution of aggressive weeds and/ or endangerrnent of rare species. Transgenic crops may result in similar outcomes. The likelihood of crop-to-wild hybridization depends on the out-cross rate, and on distance and direction between wild and crop populations. Cultivated rice, O. sativa L., is an autogamous plant, with a low outcrossing rate of 0-1%. In wild relatives of rice, rates as high as 56% ha ve been reported (Roberts et al. 1961 ).Hybridization can be expected within the genomic group that includes O. sativa, viz., the AA group. The wild re1atives of AA genome which are found in Central and South America and may hybridize with the rice crop include O. rufipogon (AA, hybrid seed set 19% without and 73% with embryo rescue), and O. glumaepatula (AA, hybrid seed set 39% without embryo rescue) (Oka and Chang, 196l;Vaughan and Tomooka, 1999). Gene transfer from O. sativa to O. rufipogon under field conditions has been documented in Asia and is not restricted by reproductive barriers. Spontaneous interrnediates between cultivated rice species and their wild relatives occur frequently in and near rice fields when wild taxa are present. Natural rates of hybridization can be sometimes substantial, and the hybrids usually demonstrate heterosis (hybrid vigor) (EIIstrand et al., 1999). Red rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) is a weedy rice with a red pericarp and dark-colored grains. The seeds shatter readily and possess dorrnancy characteristics~ the plants typically are tall, late maturing, and have pubescent leaves and hulls. In contrast to Asia where manual transplanting is still predominant, in tropical America direct seeding of red ricecontaminated seed source is common for a high proportion of rice farmers in Latín America, ensuring field re-infestations and making it one of the most serious weed problems in this region.There are indications that genes placed in cultivated varieties of rice have transferred quickly into red rice. The natural rates of hybridization can range from 1% (with early season variety, flowering at 72-76 days) to 52% (with late season variety, flowering at 82-96 days) ( Langevin et al. 1990;Clegg et al. 1993 ). Thus, cultivated varieties that flower and mature late, like those mainly grown in Latín America, may enable hybridization with red rice to occur throughout severa! generations. This work is part of a project directed to analyze the gene flow from nontransgenic or transgenic beans and rice into wild/weedy relatives in the Neotropics, and its effect(s) on the population genetic structure of the recipient species. The research will provide guidelines for evaluating the potential risks of using transgenic plants in the tropics, and describe potential areas of gene(s) flow. The inforrnation will contribute to improve the risk assessment procedures in the region, in particular for the partner countries Colombia and Costa Rica, which both rank among the countries with the highest biodiversity in the world. The current report summarizes the progress attained during the initiation of the project, towards setting up the tools to assess gene flow from transgenic and non-transgenic rice into wild Oryza species and red rice under experimental plots or narura1 field conditions.A preliminary set of 50 microsatellite markers (at least 4 per each chromosome) were selected.Their selection was based on their location on the chromosome (McCouch et al., 1997). At least two markers located distal from the centromere per each chromosome arm were chosen to increase the likelihood of finding recombination between the experimental genotypes. The genotypes includes 9 rice commercial varieties (Cica 8, Cimarrón, Fedearroz 50, Fedearroz 2000, Fedearroz Victoria 1, Iniap 12, Oryzica 1, Oryzica Llanos 5, and Palmar). Sixteen homozygous transgenic Cica 8 rice lines carrying the RHBV -N transgene for rice hoja blanca virus resistance. Four hand made crosses each between one transgenic Cica 8 line and non-transgenic Cica 8, Iniap 12, Fedearroz 50 or Oryzica 1, respectively. One hand made cross each between non-transgenic Cica 8 and Iniap 12, Fedearroz 50 or Oryzica 1, respectively (controls). One hundred and sixty accessions of red rice collected from commercial rice fields in Saldaña, Tolima (Colombia). One accession each of O. rufipogon, O. barthii O. glaberrima. All these genotypes were included in order to select the microsatellites detecting the highest leve! of polymorfisms among genotypes, and the most polymorphic pairs from each class to conduct the gene flow study from transgenic Cica 8 under experimental conditions, and the corresponding gene flow analysis from commercial varieties under commercial rice field conditions. The markers were amplified at different annealing temperatures according to the estimated melting temperatures ofthe primers. The PCR products were resolved on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and microsatellite alleles were sized by comparison to the 10 and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega).Microsatellite analysis is still in progress. Here is presented the preliminary results with a sub-set of the population using 23 microsatellite loci . The ftrst data analysis was design to identify macrosatellites allowing to detect polymorphism generated by potential gene flow from transgenic Cica 8 lines into rice varieties, wild species and red rice. The average rate of polymorphism between Cica 8 and the different varieties ranged from 30% with the variety Fedearroz 50 to 87% with the variety Palmar (Table 1). Between 74% and 83 % of the microsatellite markers analyzed were polymorphic between Cica 8 and O. rufipogon, O.galberrima, and O. barthii, respectively (Table 1 ). O. barthii and O. glaberrima were al so inc1uded in this study to generate information that may be useful for Asia and Africa. The red rice accession analyzed showed a polymorhism of 56% respect to Cica 8. Only one entry of red rice has been analyzed so far because it was the only one fully characterized morpholog_ically at the initiation of the work. The analysis of the other 159 accessions collected from Tolima (Colombia) is in progress. As expected, results indicate that no polimorphism is detected between non-transgenic Cica 8 variety and transgenic Cica 8 lines (Table 1). Results indicate that the transgenic lines are true-type Cica 8 with the exception ofthe transgenes introgress in the rice genome. Results also suggest that the change incorporated by transgenesis is so small that it is not resolved by microsatellite analysis. In order to detect gene flow from transgenic Cica 8 into non-transgenic Cica 8 will be by tracing the transgenes. In contrast, polymorfism from 30% to 39% is detected in hand made crosses between Cica 8 and the selected varieties (Table 1 ). One interpretation ofthese results is that more genetic changes are introduce by conventional crossing within O. sativa, and even more with wild species, than by transgenesis itself. Studies to define the red rice/ rice wild relatives complex in the crop contact zone is important to design biosafety guidelines for the Neotropical region. The spatial distribution of alleles will be used to study local gene flow, including polleo dispersa! distances. Microsatellite will be used to trace crop-to wild/red rice gene flow and red rice/wild-to-crop hybridization rate under confined experimental settings as well as under natural conditions. Similar analyses will be conducted to assess transgenic-to non-transgenic variety gene flow. In arder to select the red rice genotypes to use for the gene flow studies, a detailed phenology analysis of the 160 red rice accessions is underway to determine those genotypes more prompt to hybridize with cultivated rice. An accession of O. glumaepatu/a was just received from Costa Rica. Future analysis will also include individuals from this species.The work of CIA T on shrub legumes emphasizes the development of materials to be utilized as feed supplement during extended dry seasons. Tropical shrub legumes of high quality for better soils are readily available, but germplasm with similar characteristics adapted to acid, infertile soils is scarce. Flemingia macrophylla and Cratylia argentea have shown promising results in such environments and hence work on these genera is part of the overall germplasm strategy of the CIA T Forages team. C. argentea is increasingly adopted and utilized, particularly in the seasonally dry hillsides of Central America. However, research and development are based on only few accessions and hence activities to acquire and test novel germplasm of C. argentea is of high priority. F. macrophyl/a is also a highly promising shrub legume with excellent adaptation to infertile soils. In contrast to C. argentea, whose adaptation is limited toan altitude below 1200 m as!, F. macrophylla can successfully be grown up to altitudes of 2000 m asl. However, the potential utilization ofF. macrophylla is so far limited by the poor quality and acceptability of few evaluated accessions. The project aims to investigate the genetic diversity ofF. macrophylla and C. argentea with three maln objectives. Firstly, to identífy new, superior forage genotypes based on conventional germplasm characterization/evaluation procedures (morphological and agronomic traits, forage quality parameters, including IVDMD and tannin contents). Secondly, to optimize the use and management, including conservation, of the collections. For this, different approaches to identify core collections for each species will be tested and compared based on, respectively: (a) genetic diversity assessment by agronomic characterizatíon/ evaluation; (b) germplasm origin information; and (e) molecular markers (AFLPs). Thirdly, to create a planning basis for future germplasm collections with respect to methodology, geographical focus and genetic erosion hazards.Agronomic characterization and eva/uation: Space-planted, single-row plots in RCB-design with three replications were established in Quilichao in March 1999 (Cratylia argentea, 39 accessions) and March 2000 for (Flemingia macrophyl/a, 73 accessions). Additionally two replications were sown for seed production and morphological observations. The following parameters will be measured in the trials: vigor, height and diameter, regrowth, incidence of diseases, pests and mineral deficiencies, dry matter yield during wet and dry seasons. For the morphological evaluation qualitative and quantitative parameters are measured, such as days to frrst flower, days to first seed, flower color, flowers per inflorescence, flowering intensity, pod pubescence, seeds per pod, seed color, branching capacity, leaf length and width, ratio, peduncle 1ength, etc. For the analysis of nutritive value, crude protein content and in vitro dry-matter digestibilíty (IVDMD) of the entire collections will be analyzed.For F. macrophylla, a more detailed analysis will be conducted of a representative subset which will include high nutritive value accessions (high crude protein content, high IVDMD) as well as intermediate and low nutrítive value accessions. The subsequent analysis wiH comprise fiber (NDF, ADF), condensed tannin and hydrolysable tannin contents, tannin purification, calcium, phosphate, ash and organic matter contents.Based on data referring to the morphological, agronomic and feed quality variation of all accessions a core collection will be created, using multivariate statistic tools (Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis).Analysis o[ available origin information: Based on ecogeographical inforrnation of accession origins, a core collection will be created, hypothesizing that geographic distances and environmental differences are related to genetic diversity. The analysis will be conducted with FloraMap™, a GIS too! developed by CIA T, which allows the production of climate probability models using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysís.The genetic analysis is conducted using AFLP molecular marker technique (Vos et al, YEAR). Based on the results a core collection will be created, using multivariate statistic tools (PCA and Cluster Analysis).Data analysis and zynthesis: Individual and combined data analyses of all generated inforrnation will be perforrned, including the use of GIS tools and multivariate statistics. In the analysis of each of the different approaches (agronomic characterization, origin inforrnation, molecular marker analysis), PCA and Cluster Analysis is utilized to create core collections. Eventual correlation between the different approaches and clusters obtained is evaluated. The resulting concept is expected to help deciding which of the three methods or which combination is most appropriate (time and cost efficient) to crea te a core collection, depending on availability of time and fmancial resources. E.g., if an agronomic evaluation is not feasible because of time constraints, a core collection may be created using origin inforrnation and/or molecular marker analysis.Based on molecular marker similarities and the GIS analysis, suggestions will be provided for focussing future collections on areas with particularly high diversity, and for collection (= sampling) strategy improvements (e.g., regarding sampling frequency; roadside collections). Accession duplicates in the world collections will be identified.The project is expected to last two growing seasons and to be terrninated at the end of2003.Agronomic characterization and evaluation: Preliminary data of one evaluation cut in the dry season and one in the rainy season show considerable phenotypic and agronomic variation for Craty/ia argentea (Table l) and Flemingia macrophylla (Table 2).For Cratylia argentea IVDMD varied between 61 and 67% and crude protein content between 18 and 21%. Mean dry matter production of Cratylia argentea was 45 glplant in the wet and 60 glplant in the dry season. According to these initial results the accessions 18674, 22375, 22406, 22408 and 22409 had the highest dry matter yields with between 68 and 100 glplant. Productivity of these accessions were substantially higher than yields of the material advanced for cultivar release in Costa Rica -an accession mix of 18516/ 18668. The tria! is on-going and quality analyses are pending but preliminary results indicate the potential to identify materials of superior performance to accessions 18516/ 18668. Principal component analysis perforrned with the agronomic data of 39 accessions of Cratylia argentea revealed high correlations between total dry matter production, diameter, rebrotes and vigour (>70%). Cluster analysis (UPGMA) resulted in 9 clusters. 5 ofthe clusters contained only one accession, among them three of the most productive accessions ( 18674, 22406 and 22408) (Table 3).For Flemingia macrophylla IVDMD varied between 31 and 51 % and crude protein content between 16 and 24%. Mean dry matter production of Flemingia macrophylla was 60 glplant in the wet and 42 glplant in the dry season. The most productive accessions were C 104890, 21090, 21241,21529 and 21580 with a total dry matter production > 100 glplant.Principal component analysis performed with the agronomic data of 73 accessions of Flemingia macrophy/la revealed high correlations between total dry matter production, hight, diameter and vigour (>70%). Cluster analysis (UPGMA) resulted in 7 clusters. Two of the clusters contained only one accession, among them one of the most productive accessions (21 090) (Table 4). Based on these preliminary feed quality results the following subset has been chosen for subsequent analysis of NDF, ADF, condensed tannin and hydrolysable tannin contents, tannin purification, calcium, phosphate, ash and organic matter contents: 17403 , 17407, 18437, 18438, 19457,20065, 20616,20621,20622, 20744,20975,20976,21083,21087,21090,21092,21249, 21529, 21580, 21982, 21990, 21992, 22082, JOO 1 (total of 24 accessions; 9 erect, 11 semierect, 4 prostrate ).Analysis o[ available origin in{ormation: Cluster analysis (UPGMA) was performed with FloraMap™ on the data of 37 accessions of Cratylia argentea and 62 accessions of Flemingia macrophy/la (Figure 1). A first comparison with the clustering according to agronomic data at the leve) of9 (Cratylia argentea), resp. 7 clusters (Flemingia macrophylla) showed no correlation.Genetic analysis by molecular markers (AFLPs): Samples of 5 g ofyoung leaves have been taken of all Craty/ia argentea and Flemingia macrophylla accessions and the DNA has been extracted and . quantified (Table 5). To identify efficient primers for the AFLP analysis, 2 supposedly genetically contrasting accessions of each F. macrophy/la and C. argentea (21990, 21529 and 18672 and 18516 respectively) have been tested with different primer combinations and the resulting polymorphic bands have been counted (Table 6).  There are approximately 200 genera and 1500 species ofpalms in the wor1d. The palm genera are endemic to major continental areas, none of them being pantropical. In the Americas 67 genera and 550 species occur naturally (Henderson et al., 1995). A broad spectrum of uses have been described, ranging from foods and nutritional beverages, sugar and starch to construction materials, oil, fuels, fibers, rattan and omamentals.  ( 1984) as promising economically because of their high oil content. Most of its habitat has been converted into coffee plantations, and the species is endangered (Berna!, 1989).In collaboration with the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Bogotá and the Instituto Alexander von Humboldt we started a project to generate microsatellites makers for palms and to study the diversity of these three species.Construction of an enriched microsatellite library of C. alpinum, C. sasaimae andA. amygdalina.Enriched microsatellite libraries for all three species were constructed as described by Edwards et al. ( 1996). This in volved the digestion of 200 ng of genomic DNA with Rsa l. An Mlul adaptar was ligated to the digested fragments. Filter-immobilized oligonucleotides representing the CT 20 and GT 2 o SSR marker classes were used to select for the genomic fragments containing SSRs. Enriched fragments were amplified by PCR, using the 21-mer adaptor primer. The enriched DNA was then digested with Mlul and ligated into a modified pUC 19 vector, pN 1 containing a BssHI site (K.J. Edwards, unpublished). Plasmids were transformed into DHSa. Genomic libraries were screened with a mixture of radio-labeled oligonucleotides (CT 20 and GT 20 ).Putative positive colonies were •cultured, and plasmid DNA was isolated from the culture wíth a QIAGEN plasmid purification kit. Sequencing of the purified plasmid DNA fragments was done on the Applied Biosystems' ABI 377 sequencer model. This was from the M13 primer sites, using a BigDye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems), according to the manufacturer's instructions. Each sequence was aligned against all the others, using the SEQUENCHER program in arder to eliminate redundant clones. Primers were then designed for the unique clones using the PRIMER3 .0 software program (available at http:/ /waldo. wi .mit.edu/cgi-binlprimer/primer3 ).Microsatellite primer characterization. The SSRs were first amplified from plasmid DNA and the source genotype to standardíze the PCR conditions. The PCR reaction was carried out in a 20-~l final volume containing 20 ng of genomic DNA, 0.1 J.lM of each of the forward .and reverse primers, 10 mM Tris-HCI (pH 7.2), 50 mM KCI, 1.5-2.5 mM MgCh (depending on the primer combination), 250 mM of total dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase. The temperature cycling profile involved an initial 2-min denaturation step at 94°C. This was then followed by 35 cycles, each of which consisted of denaturation at 94°C for 15 s, an annealing phase of 48-65°C (depending on the annealing temperature for the given primer pair) for 15 s, andan extension at 72°C for 15 s. The PCR products run on 6% denaturing polyacrylamide ge1s (19 :1 acrylamide: bis-acrylamide) contained 5 M urea and 0.5 XTBE. Electrophoresis was at 100-W constant power for 2-2.5 h. PCR amplifications were visualized by silver staining according to the manufacturer's guide.C. a/pinum library. Of the 1152 clones screened with oligonucleotide probes CT 20 and GT 20 , a total of 198 putative positive colonies (17.2%) were isolated, 30 of which were sequenced. Of these, only 17 were suitable for designing primers. We found 50% for both CA and GA. On average, dinucleotide motifs had a maximum number of repeats (30). A total of 27 primer pairs including sorne primer pairs from the C. sasaimae library are suitable for amplification with 123 individuals. Currently, 10 ofthem have been amplified in a whole population, but only 3 ofthem show polymorphism.C. sasaimae library. Ofthe 1152 clones screened with oligonucleotide probes CT 20 and GT 20 , a total of 99 putative positive colonies (8.5%) were isolated, and 27 were sequenced. Of these, only 11 were suitable for designing primers. We found 50% for both CA and GA. On average, dinucleotide motifs hada maximum number of repeats (38). Ten primer pairs were suitable for PCR amplification. A total of 99 genotypes of a C. sasaimae population from Sasaima (Cundinamarca) were amplified with these 1 O primer pairs and another 1 O from the C. alpinum library. Four primer pairs were monomorphic for this population, and 17 were polymorphic (from 2-7 alleles), with a total of 56 alleles in a whole population.A. amygda/ina library. Ofthe 1152 clones screened with oligonucleotide probes CT 20 and GT 20 , 290 putative positive colonies (25%) were isolated. Of the 29 sequenced, 23 were suitable for designing primers. We found 50% for both CA and GA. On average, dinucleotide motífs hada maximum number of perfect repeats (30). We have started the evaluation of a set of 123 individuals.• Continue evaluating the. rest of the primer set in 123 individuals of C. a/pinum • Evaluate a set of23 primer pairs obtained from A. amygdalina on 123 individuals • Establish a database for the molecular data to be linked with ecological informationSoursop is the most tropical of the 60 species of the genus Annona (Morton, 1987). It has a horticultura] value comparable to those of \"chirimoya\" (Annona cherimola), \"anón\" (A. squamosa), \"papauca\" (A. diversifolia) and \"atemoya\" (A. squamosa x A. cherimola) (Escobar y Sánchez, 1992). It's origin is northem South America, possibly Colombia or Brazil (León, 1968). This is why Colombia may have the world's greatest genetic diversity of soursop, which has not being used in breeding programs to improve agronomic traits. As a matter of fact in Colombia there is only one commercially available clone, fairly characterized (Ríos Castaño et al., 1996). C.l. Corpoica -Palmira has the only one Colombian annonas germplasm bank with 36 soursop accessions and 7 annonaceus species accessions, which have not been characterized at all. This project is the first attempt to study the genetic diversity of annonaceus species from Colombia. The objective is to know the genetic variability of the germplasm bank by applying DNA molecular marker technology (AFLP). We would like to know if this variability is representative of Colombian diversity. The genetic variability analysis will identify possible duplicates an<i/or misidentified accessions. Corporación Biotec, Corpoica and CIA T (SBII project) are in charge of the molecular characterization. Corpoica-Palmira will carry out the agro-morphological characterization.We planned a careful sampling throughout the most important annonas growing zones in Colombia and germplasm bank. We will evaluate 60 soursop samples and 45 samples of other annonaceus species. Farmers selected 26 soursop clones based on their productivity and fruit quality. We used three soursop clones and three accessions from \"anon amazónico\" (Rollinia spp.) for standardization of DNA extraction and AFLP fingerprinting. We applied a rice DNA extraction protocol (McCouch et al., 1988), using PVP 1 g r 1 in the extraction buffer and a chloroform 1 isoamylalcohol (24/1) cleaning step before a second precipitation. For DNA fingerprinting, we used AFLP Analysis System I (Gibco BRL), according to Vos et al. 1995, protocols.We standardized a DNA extraction protocol for the recovery of high-quality DNA for AFLP fingerprinting (Figure 1). Four out of fifteen selective primers evaluated (primers E, F, G, H, Figure 1) showed clear polymorphism between soursop groups (samples 4, S and 6, Figure 1) and \"anon amazónico\" group (samples 1, 2 and 3, Figure 1). Preliminary results showed that primers E, F, G and H displayed 44, 48, 52 and SO polyrnorphic bands between both groups, respectively. Primer E showed 12 polymorphic bands between anones amazónicos, and three polyrnorphic bands between soursop samples. Primer H showed 11 and 6 polymorphic bands, respectively, for the same groups. Primer F showed the largest number ofpolymorphic bands (13) between anones amazónicos.A DNA extraction methodology for obtaining high-quality DNA from annonaceus species for fingerprinting was establsihed. Four AFLP primer pairs were selected for the genetic variability evaluation of our target population. lt is necessary to evaluate more selective primers to get ones that display polymorphism between soursop accessions.Evaluate 20 new selective primer pairs. Evaluate the reproducibility of selected primers. Evaluate genetic variability of soursop and other annona species trough genetic distance dendrograms (NTSYS and SAS statistics programs)• Yield data was carried out on a population of a Mesoamerican cultivar x a Mexican wild bean, with the possible identification of lines with yield higher than the recurrent paren t.• The high iron trait was transferred from a wild bean through backcrosses to a cultivated background, although wild traits were still observed. QTLs were found for iron and zinc content. The most significant QTLs explained up to 12% of the variance in mineral content. In sorne cases the QTLs for both minerals occurred jointly at the same marker, in other cases there were QTLs specific for each mineral. Positive QTLs for both iron and zinc were found on chromosomes BS, B6, BS, B9 and B 1 O for the Andean population and on chromosomes B6, B8 and B 1 O for the Mesoamerican population.• The discovery of a qualitative and high leve! of resistance to the devastating cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and molecular markers linked to it have made conceivable marker-assisted breeding for CMD resistance at CIAT. Progress made this year includes the establishment of a sexual hybridization scheme between resistant donar lines received last year from liT A and CIA T elite parents. A marker-assisted selection (MAS) scheme has also been initiated at for the rapid verification of CMD resistant selections in resistan ce breeding to contain and prevent the spread of the epidemic.• Progress is being made on the identification of candidate genes that may mediate the molecular basis of CMD resistance.• Results obtained through the use of the advanced backcross -QTLs analysis in two interspecific populations, Caiapo/O.ru.fipogon and Bg90-2/0. ru.fipogon provided increasing evidence that Oryza ru.fipogon possesses traits -enhancing QTLs that can be used for the genetic improvement of cultivated rice. Wild relatives of severa! crops have been investigated as sources of QTL for complex traits including yield. Wild P. vulgaris has been demonstrated to have much broader genetic variability than cultivated bean and feasibly could serve as a source of useful variability for broadening the base of the cultivated bean.Severa! populatíons involving wild bean have been explored using the advanced backcross or backcross selfing method, whereby a large number of lines are generated by backcrossing a wild x cultivated hybrid twice to the cultivated parent. Yield and mineral analyses were initiated in the advanced backcross population of DOR 390 and G 10022. DOR 390 is a widely used Mesoamerican, small black-seeded cultivar resistant to BGYMV, and 010022 is a wild bean from México that presents Mesoamerican DNA pattems and high iron concentration in seed.Yield trials were established in the field in Santander de Quilichao under moderate fertility stress in the spring of2001. A population of 144 lines was planted in a lattice of 12 x 12.In the field no line presented a statistically significant yield advantage over DOR 390. However, three lines presented iron levels above the rest of the population {Table 5), and one of these had iron almost at the leve! of the wild parent (98 mglkg) which is about 78% above the average for common bean varieties. Unfortunately, this line did not recover all of the desirable traits of the cultivated parent, although its yield was only slightly below that of DOR 390. Thus, it was possible to transfer the high iron trait from the wild bean to a much more acceptable genetic background for future use in the breeding program. Although we did not achieve a line that had all of the desirable traits of the cultivated DOR 390 with high iron, we confirmed in this population that the high iron trait can be transferred from the wild bean. Line NH 21153-67-1-1 ought to be a useful parent for additional crosses to increase iron concentration of graín. Gíven the fact that mineral content was not correlated with yield, it ought to be possíble to recover l)ígh iron and hígh yield.The genetic diversity of cultivated P. vulgaris is thought to be larger than that of wíld common bean due to a genetic bottleneck that occurred during domestication. Yield increasing alleles may still reside untapped in the wild accessions that could be exploited to improve cultivated beans. The advanced backcross method has been shown to be a useful method for incorporating wild germplasm into cultivar breeding programs for tomato and rice. Although wild beans have been used before to transfer resistan ce to diseases and insects, as in the noted case of the Arcelin gene that provides resistance to bruchids, the studies presented here are among the first to attempt to obtain a higher yield potential from wild beans. The objectíve of this research was to conduct a molecular analysís of an Andean advanced backcross population to find quantitative trait locí from a wild bean that could be useful in the improvement of cultivated beans.The population that was analyzed was derived from derived from the Mexican wild accession G24404 and the Colombían, large red-seeded, \"Radical\" type variety, ICA Cerinza and represented the BC2F3 generatíon. The population consisted of 95 selected lines that were evaluated in three environments and an 62 lines that were evaluated in one of the locations. The population Cerinza /2/ G24404 had a total of 157 lines. The experiment was grown in two seasons in Popayán and one season in Darien. Three repetitions in a lattice design were used for each of the experiments. A total of 65 microsatellite markers were used to evaluate the introgression leve! in the full set of lines. lndividuals with unexpected alleles were eliminated from the population for the sake ofthe quantitative analysis. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified through single-point regression of the phenotypic data onto the marker genotypes using the software program qGENE, assuming the BC2S 1 model. Marker order was inferred for the 50 markers with known locations on other genetic maps of beans. Linkage analysis was used to estímate the genetic distan ce between markers and to place 1 O urunapped markers that were linked at 1 OcM or less from a mapped marker.In the BC2F 1 generation, 25% of plants are expected to contain an introgressed allele for a given locus, but all of these plants are expected to be heterozygous. U pon self-pollination, the loci are expected to segregate in a Mendelian ratio whereby in each generation heterozgosity is lost and the loci are fixed to homozygosity. In this study we analyzed B2F3 derived families, in which the total amount of introgression for a given locus is expected to be 15.675% of which, 9.375% should be homozygous and 6.25% heterozygous for the introgression.The microsatellites were ideal for this study beca use they had the advantage of being co-dominant and single copy and therefore could diagnose the families derived from heterozygous genotypes and differentiate them from those derived from homozygous individuals. Introgression could be scored for families that were derived from both genotypes. The results showed that the selected lines had a significantly lower introgression rate over all loci than the additional lines indicating that selection had eliminated sorne amount of introgression. However together the selected and additional lines had rates of introgression over all loci that were not significantly different from those expected. For example the chi-square test for the average number of introgressed individuals across all loci was not significantly different than expected. However, segregation distortion was variable depending on the region of the genome that was assayed as indicated by significant chi-square tests showing deviation of the observed ratio from the expected ratio as described above. The chi-square tests, showed that for the chromosomes that were mapped, selection was most intense in the middle of B2 and on one arm each of B4 and BIO. Mild segregation distortion occurred on chromosome BS and on one arm ofB3 and B9. Selection was always against the wild allele and always led to a predominance of the cultivated aJlele. Since selection was made for return to recurrent parent plant architecture and seed type this was presumed to be due to selection against genes in these regions that had a negative phenotypic effect on these traits. Alternatively the wild alleles could encode oth. er domestication traits (nonshattering, large seed size, etc.) as outlined by Gepts (2000), that would be undesirable in the advanced backcross lines. Lack of any introgressions on chromosome B 1 could have been a result of fewer microsatellites being screened for this chromosome or that introgressions for this chromosome were eliminated due to linkage drag with the Fin and Ppd genes. Wild alleles at these loci would condition indeterminate growth habit and photoperiod sensitivity. Both of these traits would be agronomically negative factors that were selected against in this cross, since the desired plant type was a early-flowering, bush bean like the recurrent parent, Cerinza.The microsatellites allowed unexpected alleles to be diagnosed and individuals carrying these alleles to be eliminated from the study. A total of 113 individuals were used in the QTL analysis. Significant QTLs for yield were found on chromosome B4 and atan unmapped locus during the seasons in 1999B Darien and 1998B Popayan, however in these cases the significant positive loci were associated with the recurrent parent Cerinza allele and the wild alleles were negative in their effect. This indicates that there were still a large number of the alleles transmitted from the wild parent that had negative effects on yield and that remained to be eliminated from the progeny. One QTL for yield in 1999A Popayan was found on chromosome B3 associated with the wild allele. This QTL was not detected with yield data from any other season, indicating that there is a significant QTL x environment interaction for this trait as would be expected. Several QTLs from the wild parent were found associated with unmapped markers in all three seasons. Both Darien and Popayan are good growing environments for the Cerinza variety and therefore were appropriate testing sites for advanced backcross progeny derived from Cerinza. The yield QTLs were not associated with later maturity and flowering or reduced seed size, since independent QTLs were located for these traits. Days to maturity and days to flowering as well as number of pods per plant and number of seed per plant were correlated. QTLs for these component traits were less variable across seasons. The results presented here, suggest that wild beans can be a source of genes for higher yield in cultivated beans and that advanced backcross strategies can be successful at transferring these genes into commercial seed -types.We will compare the location of QTLs found for this population with other advanced backcross populations that are being studied.Legumes provide essential micronutrients that are found only in low amounts in the cereals or root crops. An ongoing project, has shown that bean seeds are variable in the amount of minerals (iron, zinc and other elements), vitamins and sulfur amino acids that they contain and that these traits are likely to be inherited quantitatively. The objective of our most recent studies has been to tag sorne ofthe quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling mineral content in beans.Two populations, representing an Andean x Andean cross (G 21657 x G 21078); and a Mesoamerican x Mesoamerican cross (G 145 19 x G4825) were selected for genetic mapping. Each population contained 95 recombinant inbred lines in the F5:7 generation. Miniprep DNA was extracted from all the lines in both populations and all the individuals were genotyped for RAPOs and microsatellites. The marker infonnation was used to construct separate genetic maps for each of the populations, using the software program MAPMAKER. The phenotypic data was obtained by analyzing both the parents and the recombinant inbred lines for iron and zinc content by ICP (Inductive coupling plasma). Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses were conducted by regressing the phenotypic data for micronutrient content onto marker genotypes with the software program qGENE.In general the rate of polymorphism was low in these crosses sin ce they were from within a single genepool, however both RAPO and microsatellite markers detected sufficient polymorphism to allow us to proceed. RAPO primers were used to generate a large number of markers, while microsatellites were used because they have severa! advantages including occupying unique mapped positions in the genome and a somewhat higher rate of polymorphism. The two genetic maps were constructed based on 119 markers in the Andean cross and 98 markers in the Mesoamerican cross. Fewer microsatellites were polymorphic and could be mapped in the Mesoamerican population (13) than in the Andean population (28). The number ofmicrosatellites per chromosome varied from O to 5 across both populations. However, the single Jocus nature of microsatellite markers made it especially useful for anchoring the RAPO markers to known chromosomes. RAPO bands were also cross-referenced between populations and with the main mapping population at CIA T, to provide additional markers for comparative mapping. For both populations, 1 O out of the 11 chromosomes of common bean could be identified based on the microsatellites or homologous RAPO bands that they contained. The order of markers along each chromosome was generally the same across all three populations. Unlinked markers were evident for both populations (16 for Mesoamerican and 5 for Andean). One additionallinkage group was found for each population, that could not be tied to a chromosome because they Jacked a microsatellite ora cross-referenced RAPO.QTLs were found for iron and zinc content in both populations. The positive markers varied in their leve! of significance and the proportion of variance in mineral content that they explained (R-squared value). The most significant QTLs explained up to 12% of the variance in mineral content. In sorne cases the QTLs for both minerals occurred jointly at the same marker, in other cases there were QTLs specific for each mineral. Positive QTLs for both iron and zinc were found on chromosomes B5, 86, B8, B9 and B 1 O for the Andean population and on chromosomes 86, B8 and 81 O for the Mesoamerican population. The QTLs were generally found in similar locations of the same chromosomes in both populations. A QTL specific for iron was found on chromosome B 11 in the Andean population, while one that was specific for zinc was found on chromosome 87 for the Mesoamerican population.The majority of the positive QTLs are associated with alleles from the high mineral parent. lt can be concluded that sorne of the QTLs for the accumulation of both minerals may be genetically Iinked or pleiotropic, controlling both traits at once. If the same QTLs contribute simultaneously to both iron and zinc co~tent, it may be easy to select for these traits jointly. It also appears that high mineral content parents provide most of the genes for high mineral content to their progeny, while low mineral parents provide only a few additional genes for mineral content.Future Plans W e ha ve made progress in detecting QTLs for micronutrient accumu1ation and linking the two maps derived from both populations using microsatellites and homologous RAPO bands. . The present work will hopefully permit us to focus on certain parts of the genome to determine if desirable alleles for higher mineral content are located at the same loci in additional populations developed specifically for this purpose. Future analysis will also include the detection of QTLs for the amount of sulfur containing amino acids (SAA), as well as for the amount of the other minerals analyzed in the ICP study, which include Mn, Ca, Mg, K, P and S. The QTL analysis will help us to consider the possibility of genetically increasing SAA (methionine or cysteine) or Lysine as uptake promoters of iron or decreasing antinutritional factor such as tannins or lectins that reduce the uptake of iron. We also planto integrate the information about the map locations of QTLs for micronutrients with those for other agronomic traits that we ha ve been studying, so that we can select for the best recombinants from crosses between high micronutrient lines and the best varieties using marker assisted selection. The common bean genes involved in getting iron and zinc from the root zone to the grain have not been studied. Severa! genes from other legumes or from the model species, peas and Arabidopsis, or Medicago, could qualify as candidate genes for the control of micronutrient accurnulation and storage in the bean seed. Among the most likely is phytoferritin which is the major storage form of iron in all tissues including seeds. lron in phytoferritin is generally thought to be of low bioavailability, however definitive studies with radioactively labeled protein would need to be done for bean seed ferritin, since sorne recent results contradict this assumption for (pers. comm, Ross Welch, Comell University). Other candidate genes that we considered were involved in the production and processing of Nicotianamine, a polyamine that is known to function in scavenging iron from the root zone in grasses and may be involved in other iron related functions in plants more generally, including possibly the transport of iron. The enzymes, nicotianamine synthase and nicotianamine amino transferase are involved in making this substrate and are possible candidate genes for this study. The other candidate genes being considered are ones for an iron responsive element (IRE) binding protein, an iron-deficiency specific clone and a putative zinc transporter from soybean. The objective of this research is to analyze whether these genes are involved in mineral uptake, transport and seed-loading.The parents of the populations used for micronutrient mapping were prepared for both protein and DNA assays. Protein was extracted from scarified seed that was dehydrated on silica gel at 45 C for one hour by standard methods used for Phaseolin analysis. The samples were run on SDSpolyacrylamide gels (at concentrations of5, 6, 8, 10 and 12% polyacrylamide) with a 4% stacking gel separation for approximately 2 hours each. Gels were stained for 24 hours with Coomassie blue in water, methanol and acetic acid. DNA was extracted by a large-scale phenol-chloroform extraction protocol for standard RFLP analysis. A total of 16 soybean cONA probes were obtained from Incyte Genomics Inc. for the candidate gene evaluation. These had been sequenced from the 5'end by the National Science Foundation sponsored EST project. At CIAT, we obtained full length sequence for the clones to identify the full coding region. Primers were designed in the conserved exons of the ferritin gene which had homologues from both common bean and soybean.Prole in results: The 5 and 6% po1yacry1amide gels gave the best reso1ution of the high molecular weight ferritin proteins. Figure 1 shows the protein extracts from the four parents as well as purified apo-ferritin used as a control that were stained with Coomassie blue. Three bands could be observed in both control and sample lanes and corresponded to approximately the same size as ferritin ( 450kD) and had a similar pattem of staining observed for ferritin in a previous study (Van der Mark, 1985). In that study, ferritin was identified by staining with potassium ferrous cyanide however this solution did not work with the gels analyzed here. None of the putative ferritin bands identified with Coomassie blue presented any polymorphisms and therefore were not able to be mapped genetically. The 8, 10 and 12% polyacrylamide gels gave the best resolution for detecting phaseolin bands. The high molecular weight proteins, such as ferritin were not evident in these higher concentration gels. The phaseolins detected ranged in size from 43kD to 54kD. Phaseolin bands were monomorphic for both the Andean parents (021242 and 021 078), which both had \"T' type phaseolin and the Mesoamerican parents (O 14159 and 04825), which both had \"S\" type phaseolin.DNA results: The primers developed for ferritin amplified severa! bands indicating that this is likely to be a gene family. Nene of the primer pairs amplified consistently but one band was mapped as a sequence tagged site in the populations described in the micronutrient QTL analysis.The results for other genes are still pending.Sequencing of soybean ESTs: Full-length sequence was obtained for all 16 soybean clones to confirm gene identification. Use of the clones and sequen ce information to obtain common bean homologues is pending.We will continue to analyze ferritin and the other candidate genes in an attempt to define the underlying factors responsible for micronutrient QTLs. The possibility of detecting and quantifying bean seed phytoferritin with commercially available ferritin immuno-detection systems will be explored. Proteomic analysis of other seed proteins varying between high and low mineral varieties might also reveal which genes are influencing overall mineral content. For the other candidate genes, degenerate primers will be made for the conserved domains identified in soybean and used to amplify the homologues from common bean . Alternatively, the soybean genes will be used as probes to isolate their homologues from root and leaf cDNA libraries made for common bean. Once isolated, the common bean genes will be sequenced. Specific primers will be designed to the common bean genes to map them as sequence tagged sites. If the primers fail to detect polymorphisms, the candidate genes will be mapped as restriction fragment length (RFLP) probes. We may try to sequence the promoters ofthe candidate genes to see ifvariabi1ity in these regions explains the accumulation of mineral content.5% polyacrylamide gel 10% polyacrylamide gel The bean pod weevil (Apion goodmani Wagner) damage beans grown in Mexico and Central America by laying its eggs in the pods, from which larvae develop and attack the seeds, reducing their quantity, quality and viability. Yield loss caused by the insect is variable depending on the climatic conditions of the previous year but can be as high as 90%. Sources of resistance to the pest have been identified in Mexican germplasm and include Amarillo154, Amarillo155, Amarillo169; APN18, APN83, Mexico332, Pinto168, Puebla36, Tlaxcaca76 as well as others.Resistance is thought to be conditioned by two epistatic genes, Agm and Agr, both of which are needed for high levels of resistance (Garza et al., 1996). One mechanism of resistance to the pod weevil is a hypersensitive response in the pod wall that affects the tissue around the oviposition site and effectively encapsulates the insects' recently laid eggs. The objective of this research was to locate the genes controlling resistance in the recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from Jamapa x J 117.The Jamapa x J 117 population, consisting in 50 F5 derived lines was evaluated over four seasons (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997) ata field site in Texoco, Mexico. The lines were evaluated for leve) of infestation and percent seed damage in every year. ONA was extracted for all of the lines with standard protocols from plants in the F5: 1 O generation. Susceptible and resistant bulks were made with four lines each based on the phenotypic data. The bulks and the parents were compared for RAPO and microsatellite marker polymorphisms. A total of 132 RAPO primers and 131 microsatellite markers were evaluated. In addition the SCAR that was developed for Apion resistance was used in the screening. The RAPO primers were ones reported previously to produce bands that were linked to insect resistance genes in other crops. The microsatellites are a set developed at CIA T for common beans. PCR conditions for RAPOs and microsatellites were as described in standard CIAT protocols. The SCAR was amplified with 35 cycles of 1 minute denaturation at 94 C, 2 minutes annealing at 65 C and 2 minutes extension at 72C. RAPO products were run on 1.5% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide, while microsatellites were run on 4% polyacrylamide gels and stained with silver nitrate. All markers detecting a difference between the parents and the same difference with the bulks were run on all the individuals in the population and the segregation information was analyzed to construct a genetic map using the software program MAPMAKER. RAPO markers had the following designation based on the primer that amplified the band, the size in nucleotides of the band and the parental source ofthe band (either from the resistant (R) or susceptible (S) parent). Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified through single-point regression analysis of the phenotypic data onto the marker genotypes using the software program qGENE.A total of 20 RAPO and 9 microsatellite markers were polymorphic for the bulks and parents of the population and were run on the entire population. Figure 1 shows the bulk segregant analysis for a significant and a non-significant microsatellite. These were mapped and for the most part were linked to each other in three tight linkage groups with four or more markers each. The single locus microsatellites were especially useful for anchoring these linkage groups to known chromosomes and the three linkage groups could be identified as being part of chromosomes B 1, B8 and B 11. All three of these linkage groups were associated with important QTLs that were consistent across all four seasons of evaluation. The microsatellites BMy4 and BM189 were the most important markers on chromosome B 1 and B8, respectively, explaining 20 and 24% of the variance respectively. The QTL on chromosome B11 was tagged with the SCAR K16 as well as two highly significant RAPO markers, F13.850S and Z4.800R/Z4.850S, both ofwhich explained 40% of the variance in resistance. Of these two RAPO markers, the second was interesting beca use it consisted in a co~dominant pair of bands. Theis highly significant QTL was al so tagged with the mmicrosatellite BMd22. Another important QTL was identified with two markers on chromosome B7. For all the positive markers, the resistant parent Jll7 provided the resistant allele. Additional single markers on chromosomes B3 , B4 and BS were significant for one or two seasons only and were not considered to be important given their low R-square values. Three unliked RAPO clusters were also detected that also were less significant and only important in a few seasons. The inheritance of resistance appeared to be fairly simple, which is in agreement with the hypothesis that two genes condition the best resistance. From the QTL studies, we could postulate severa! additional modifier genes that provide resistance, but the hypothesis of two major genes is sound.Additional microsatellites will need to be mapped on the three positive chromosomes to pinpoint the location ofthe QTLs found in the present study. Once we have more complete maps for the regions, two~way interaction tests will be done to confirm epistasis between the genes. We will also try to fine map the genes with additional markers. For that we will need to increase the size of the segregating population that is being studied. Plans are to implement marker assisted selection for Apion resistance at CIA T. For this we will need to test the validity of using the microsatellite markers. Another possibility is to develop SCAR marker from sorne of the positive RAPO markers. A good candidate for SCAR development would be the pair of co-dominant RAPO bands located on chromosome B 11 .BMdlO 144 141.138Bulked segregaot analysis of tbe cross Jamapa x J117, showing the microsatellites BMd22 and BMdlO that tagged unlinked QTLs for Apion resistance on chromosomes Bll aod Bl, respectively. Molecular weight aod size standard are sbown, as well as alleles for the DOR364 x G19833 mapping population.The breeding scheme utilized for cassava breeding has changed in the last three years (Figure 1 ). As a result of these modifications the project has been able to identify sorne key traits that are relevant for cassava productivity and which are expected to be ideal targets for molecular marker identification. The modifications introduced in the breeding project are not described in detail in this report but are described in detail in the annual report of project IP3 . However, the most important modifications relevant for this activity are described in methods.The first evaluation in the target environment is carried out with several plants per genotype (not only one plant, as before). This is important because a drastic selection process that reduced the number of segregating progenies from 4000 to less than 700 genotypes is now based on more representative samples. lt happen to be also relevant because having several plants per progeny allowed for the identification of new key traits that can significantly improve our breeding capacity.Data is taken and recorded for every plot, not only on those that have been selected. This modification implies that more balance data sets are produced, particularly at early stages of the selection process. This, in tum, means that estimates of general combining ability ( closély related to additive genetic effects) can be obtained.In addition to shortening the length of each breeding cycle by almost a year, it is also very important that the segregating populations reach at the second year of evaluation the replicated trial status. The previous selection scheme required three years of single-replication evaluation. In other words, from the original 4000 genotypes the selection narrowed down the number of progenies to about 160 materials based on single replication observations. The current system allows that the second year of evaluation is already using replicated trials.This situation meant that seed (produced from only three plants) was limited and, as a result, the following evaluation stage could not be made with replicates. This year, for the first time, the procedure for conducting the Clonal Evaluation Trial was modified considerably. First, the number of plants representing each clone was increased to eight. Of these eight plants, two were harvested in March, mainly to measure dry matter content during the optimal time for taking this measure. When the rains arrive, the cassava plant reinitiates its growth, thus extracting energy that had been accumulated in the roots. As a consequence, dry matter content drops to the extent that starch and chip-drying industries usually either reject the roots or pay low prices for them.The remaining six plants stayed in the field until the rains arrived and were finally harvested in mid-May, at which time root yield and dry matter content were measured again. Despite the duplication of work, the advantages of this procedure are great:Six plants are available as seed source, making available sufficient seed for the following evaluation to be conducted with three replicates.Genotypes whose dry matter content does not diminish drastically upon the arrival of the rains can be identified. This has enormous impact for areas with bimodal rainfall distribution.Since data is taken and recorded on all genotypes (not only selected ones) it is possible to estímate general combining ability effects.Table 1 summarizes the results of the Clonal Evaluation Trial at Santo Tomás. For yield, data from the March (two plants) and May (six plants) harvests were combined. Plant type was classified on a visual scale where 1 = plant with outstanding traits and 5 = highly undesirable plant. Yield of dry matter content, averaged across the experiment (1350 clones), was 5.77 tlha, and across the selected fraction (215 genotypes) was 9. 76 tlha. To compare, the average dry matter yield of eight checks (including the best clone for the area, MT Al 8) was 7.29 tlha. The best check yielded a maximum of 11.02 tlha, while the best of the selected clones produced 18. 15 tlha.The final section of Table 1 presents the results of the best 1 O clones across the three strata. As mentioned above, clones located in intermediate areas presented a markedly lower performance than those of the upper and lower areas. The last clone listed in Table 1 carne from intermediate areas of the plot, thus showing a poorer performance. Sorne materials with relatively low dry matter content were selected because they could meet certain needs of the fresh market, which usually requires intermediate levels of dry matter content.The new procedure, for the Clona! Evaluation Tria! permitted the measuring of dry matter content in each clone on two occasions: during the dry season (March) and after the rains arrive (May). Figure 2. illustrates the relationship between dry matter content in March and that in May for the 1350 genotypes evaluated.From the information provided in Figure 2, one concludes that a clase re1ationship exists between the two sets of dry matter contents, corroborated by a correlation coefficient of 0.689. However, observations made in March do not allow us to efficiently predict those materials that -will present high dry matter content in May. For example, clone \"A\" in Figure 2 had high dry matter content in March (>40%), but very low content in May (<25%). In contrast, clone \"B\" showed a mediocre performance in March (<35%), but it was outstanding (about 37.5%) after the rains arrived.Because the crop needs to maintain high dry matter content after the rains arrive to supply the industrial sector of the North Coast, we proceeded to selecta group of materia1s that stood out for this trait. Many were already among the 215 genotypes selected by their good general performance, but others were characterized on1y for their high dry matter content, even after the rains arrived (Table 2). The average dry matter content across all clones evaluated was 32.41% and 26.74% for March and May, respective1y, thus indicating the significant progress expected for this trait.The group of selected clones will be evaluated again for their dry matter content in march and may 2002. ln the mean time the plants brought back to headquarters will be used to generate progenies for further genetic analysis along with their agronomic performance. Another significant result obtained from the Clona! Evaluation Tria! was the capacity of sorne genotypes to retain leaves for longer periods during plant growth. Data were obtained during 25-27 October, when the crop was 5~ months old and a differential capacity to retain leaves was already obvious. Although in most materials (1225 or 90.7%), leaf abscission had already occurred in the lower 2/3 ofthe plant, the remaining 125 (or 9.3%) clones had still retained their lea ves. M ay 6.95Table 1 presents the averages of different traits for the 1225 clones that did not retain their leaves and for the 125 that did. The notable difference observed between the performance of the two groups suggested that the capacity to reta in lea ves at 5 months of age (o ver a period when no marked water stress has yet occurred in the region) has, indeed, a profound effect on overall performance. The materials that retained leaves yielded, on the average, 26% more fresh roots (24.96 versus 19.75 t/ha), which represents an addition of about 2 t/ha of produced dry matter. Furthermore, leaf retention was also observed to associate with higher dry matter content (between 1% and 2% more, depending on when it was measured) and with a higher harvest index (by about 10%). These results are significant in that a trait has been identified that is most likely to be of high heritability (i.e., easy to find a closely linked molecular marker and therefore more amenable for marker assisted selection) and has a profound effect on the agronomic performance of cassava in this region. This trait will be monitored again this season particularly in the diallel crosses, and not only for the North Coast but also for the other two environments where these experiments are currently underway.Identifica/ion of relevant traits and development of segregating progenies for further molecular marker analysis: leaf retention during plant growth in the absence ofwater stress.Table 2 shows the most relevant results from the Clona) Evaluation Tria) in the Orinoquía Region, for which 1525 clones were planted, each represented by seven plants. Because of the prevalence of foliar diseases such as cassava bacteria! blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis) and superelongation (induced by the fungus Sphaceloma manihoticola), evaluations must be carried out to ensure optimal pressure from these diseases to eliminate as early as possible in the improvement process those genotypes susceptible to these diseases. Thus, in the Clona) Evaluation Tria!, the furrows were located, one behind each other, in a single band and separated by plants that served as spreaders of these diseases. Figure 4 shows an observation field and surroundings at about 1 Yl months after planting. These spreader plants permitted not only high pressure, but also ensured uniform distribution of the diseases. Planting material for spreader plants were stakes chosen from plants that had been discarded, precisely for being susceptible to these diseases, during the previous cycle.Good development of leaf diseases could be observed early, together with a wide range of variation for both cassava bacteria) blight and superelongation. The fraction selected, as a result, reacted well to leaf diseases (average of 2.61 ), compared with the average for the whole Leaf dtseases and plant type were class1fied v1sually on a scale where 1 excellent and 5 very poor. A score of3 represents a perfonnance similar to the average ofthe population being evaluated.Table 3 illustrates the concept of the general combining ability, mentioned above. A group of families is chosen (\"SM\" with only one progenitor in common, \"CM\" with two progenitors in common) in terms of the number of clones that constitute each family and of each family's contrasting responses to variables of agronomic importance. Of the 1525 clones evaluated, 240 were selected, that is, about 16%. Any family presenting an index higher than 0.16 of selected clones probably performed better than the overall population. As a result, the progenitor that identifies them hada better performance (in terms of its progeny) than did the average progenitor.Those families with a higher proportion of selected clones were CM 9459 (i.e., CM 63 70-2 x CM 4574-7), CM 9460 (CM 6740-7 x CM 4574-7), CM 9461 (CM 692 1-3 x CM 4574-7), and SM 2786 . Note that among the parents is clone CM 6740-7, recently released as 'CORPOICA Reina'. These parents tend to produce progeny superior to that of the other progenitors in the same evaluation. Precisely this information led to the inclusion of aJI these materials (except clone CM 6370-2) as parents for crossings to be carried out during the current agricultura! year. Likewise, those clones whose progeny did not stand out (SM 1210-1 O, CM 8275-2, SM 1282-2, SM 673-1 , SM 737-38, and CM 3997-1 were excluded. MPER 183 was included as progenitor because of the good culinary quality of its roots. Such a trait may have good industrial potential.This type of analysis can give rise to additional information. For example, with regard to reaction to Jeafdiseases, the progenies ofMPER 183, SM 1282-2, SM 1210-10, and SM 1411-5 (a clone adapted to coastal conditions, where disease pressure is not as heavy as in the Acid Soil Savannas) were clearly more susceptible than the overall population. Contrasting progenies were those of SM 1565-15 and CM 6438-14-the Jatter is to be released soon and will be precisely characterized for its tolerance of diseases per se). Similar comparisons can be done for other variables, such as dry matter yield or dry matter con ten t. A fundamental advantage of identifying parents with good general combining ability for disease resistance is the higher likelihood that they will posses higher levels of horizontal (polygenic, non race-specific) resistance. This would be particularly relevant for the case of the bacteria! blight due to the large genetic variation demonstrated for the causal agent.Similar data has been obtained for other relevant trait in cassava research: resistance to white flies . In a similar Clona! Evaluation Tria! for the mid-altitude valleys, data was taken on all the progenies regarding their reaction to white flies . Although cassava has been found to posses the only recorded source of resistance (antibiosis) to this pest from a cultivated crop, CIA T is interested in expanding the altematives available to deal with this formidable problem. As in the case ofbacterial blight we are hopeful that sorne genotypes will prove to produce better progenies (regarding reaction the flies) but based on mechanism(s) different from antibiosis. increase what is known in physiology as the 'sink strength'. Briefly, this concept defines a plant's productívity in terms of ( 1) its capacity to photosynthetize at the source (i.e., leaves) of photosynthates, and ( 2) the demand for photosynthates by storage organs (e.g., ears, spikes, and roots). In many cases, limited crop productivity has been demonstrated to reside, not in its capacity to produce photosynthates, but in the ability of storage organs to absorb them.Many factors affect the bulking capacity in cassava, even when proper canopy has developed (i.e. absence of foliar diseases and pests, or environmental stresses such as drought). Frog skin disease is known to restrict the flow of photosynthesis products to the root system. Also, sorne plants in segregating progenies have been observed to lack the bulking capacity required for economic yields in cassava. These plants are the subject of the current interest.• Identify progenies with large number of individual genotypes in which a few show lack ofbulking capacity. • Recover stakes from each member of such family and plant them again to confrrm preliminary observations. • • Ultimately, if segregation of bulking capacity is confirmed, develop populations for molecular markers.The practica! usefulness of this study is the possibility that it offers for identifying, through molecular markers, the gene (or genes) responsible for defining sink strength in roots (or bulking capacity) so they accumulate starch. Although this allows the elimination of plants that do not have the molecular marker(s) that identify them as having sufficient sink strength. More interesting is the possibility of inserting multiple copies of the gene(s) within an individual with the expectation that this will result in increased sink strength.Currently, segregating families have been selected from Clona) Evaluation Trials harvested in the first semester of 2001, and planted again. After repeating observations in the current planting for the incapacity to accumulate starch in roots, we will initiate crossings for the respective genetic studies.1.2.9 Improving the experimental error in the measurements of post harvest physiological deterioration.G. Zapata 2 ; H. Ceballos 1 -2 ; T. Sánchez On one hand, a collaborative project with the University of Bath (UK) is elucidating the biochemical pathways involved in PPD, on the other recent studies were conducted in search of molecular markers that can be associated with tolerance to PPD. However, no proper research can be conducted until the experimental errors associated with the measurements of PPD are reduced to a reasonable leve l. Part of the problem is that for PPD reaction, the roots are left under shade in open-air conditions. Since envi(onmental conditions vary (particularly in relation to temperature and relative humidity) they are likely to have a profound effect on the readings ofPPD.Determine the effects oftemperature and gas characteristics ofthe atmosphere on PPD. Oevelop a chamber that will allow, under controlled environmental conditions, a better determination of the reaction to PPD of different cassava genotypes.Two contrasting varieties were evaluated for their reaction to PPD: MPER 183 (tolerant) and CM 523-7 (susceptible). The methodology used permitted the (1) evaluation of increase-in shelf life of cassava roots when stored under low temperatures, and ( 2) design, on an experimental scale, a chamber for controlled atmospheres to evaluate PPD incidence under three distinct mixtures of gases with compositions low in 0 2 and high in C0 2 . The trials were carried out in paired observations so that one treatment comprised controlled storage (positive control) and another was the check, with storage under environmental conditions (negative control). When storage times for both treatments were completed, each were analyzed and evaluated according to three variables: percentage of dry matter in roots on the day of harvest, PPD, and percentage of dry matter on the day of evaluation.The evaluations showed that roots stored at temperatures between 8°C and 1 0°C, with a relative humidity at 80%, had delayed appearance of PPD, increasing shelf Iife from 2-4 days to at least 14 days_ The controlled atmosphere treatments, with gas mixtures in compositions different from that of air, established two mixtures that delayed the appearance of PPD symptoms for 96 h. These mixtures were 5% 0 2 , 5% C02, and the balance in N 2 ; and 2.5% 0 2 , 5% C0 2 , and the balance in N 2 • The knowledge generated by this may reduce costs of raw material to the precooked and frozen croquette industry by 30% to 40%. This work constitutes a Thesis research proposal by Gloria Zapata Otalvaro, who recently obtained her degree with distinction.1.2.10 Progress Towards a PCR-Marker Based Map of Cassava and its in Cassava Breeding Introduction Gene mapping projects in cassava at CIA T have proliferated in the past 2 years from a single mapping population to about 5 at the moment. Genotyping these mapping population in a realistic manner, with respect to time and costs, require molecular markers other than RFLPs, currently the most predominant marker on the cassava map. The need for a PCR-based map of cassava is all the more urgent considering that an advanced back cross QTL (ABC-QTL) mapping project has been initiated to introgress higher protein and dry matter content from wild Manihot species into cassava. The success of any ABC-QTL relies heavily on a reliable framework map amongst other criteria.A concerted effort to develop SSR markers was initiated 3 years ago and has yielded more than 500 markers at the moment. Mba et. al described the development of 186 SSR markers from genomic libraries and another 132 SSR markers were obtained from a cassava root and leaf cONA (Mba et. al. 2000 unpublished data). A third set of 158 SSR markers was also generated from the previous genomic library by another round of screening (CIA T 2000, Fregene et. al. 2001 unpublished data). We describe here the genetic mapping of 58 SSR markers from the third set of 158 markers polymporphic in the parents ofthe F 1 mapping progeny. In addition we report on the progress in converting mapped RFLP markers to sequence tagged sites.The development of the enriched SSR library, screening, sequencing of SSR containing clones, and primer design for the third set of SSR markers have been described elsewhere (CIA T 2000).The 158 primers were screened in the parents, TMS 30572, and CM2177-2, of the mapping progeny using standard methods for cassava (Mba et. al. 2000). Polymorphic markers were then ana1yzed in the entire progeny of 147 individua1s. The source ofplant tissue for DNA isolation of the mapping progeny was exclusively from a set of in vitro cultures obtained from the CIA T genetic resources unit ora copy kept in the green house. Linkage analysis of the SSR markers will be with the MAPMAKER computer software as described by Fregene et. al. (1997).Due to cost considerations, particularly the cost of sequencing kits at CIA T, the sequencing of RFLP clones for the development of STSs clones was contracted out to the Washington University Genome Sequencing Center. Bacteria clones of RFLP probes were cultured ovemight in LB media in special culture plates (COSTAR Inc, California USA) with the appropriate antibiotic. Culture plates were sealed and shipped on dry ice to the Washington University Genome Sequencing for sequencing.A total of 58 SSR markers were found to be polymorphic between the parents of the mapping progeny. At the moment 33 SSR markerss have been scored in the F 1 mapping progeny of 147 individuals. The gel images of the SSR analysis was captured and stored as JPG files for onward transfer to the cassava genome data base in the ACDB format. The raw SSR data was entered in microsoft excel text files in preparation for chi square analysis of segregation ratios and eventual linkage analysis using MAPMAKER. Results from sequencing of the RFLP clones, contracted out to the Washington University Genome Sequencing Center, is being expected. Once received primers will be designed and synthesized from el ose to the 3' and 5' ends. Genetic mapping of the STSs will be by straight-forward PCR amplification, cleaved amplified product polymorphisms (CAPs) and single sequence conformation polymorphism (SSCP).Linkage analysis of single dose SSR markers scored in the mapping population; complete sequencing of mapped RFLP markers; implement a single sequence conformation polymorphism (SSCP) protocol for the mapping of sequence tagged sites (RFLP markers) and cDNAs in cassava.In arder to protect cassava production in Latín Arnerica and Asia from an accidental introduction of the Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), and to continue to provide improved cassava germplasm for gene pool enhancement in Sub-Saharan Africa, a marker-assisted CMD resistance breeding project was initiated two years ago at CIA T. There are two sources of resistance to CMD, the currently deployed source from Mglaziovii and a novel source controlled by a single dominant gene, CMD2, found in Nigerian cassava land races. The older source is already available at CIA T, having been introduced more than a decade ago, while pro gen y bearing the new source were introduced last year from IIIT A. In addition, last year, an SSR and RFLP marker were identified that flank CMD2 at 8 and 9cM respectively (Akano et. al. 2001, CIA T2000). Efforts have continued to seek for additional SSR markers from two newly available sets of SSR markers and also to begin generating breeding populations forMAS.The two principal tools for marker-assisted breeding of CMD resistance are a reliable source of the trait and easily assayed markers tightly associated with genes controlling the traits. Both are now available therefore setting the stage for MAS for CMD resistance at CIA T. Particular emphasis has been placed on combining CMD resistance with high carotene content (yellow cassava) for shipment to collaborators in liT A and India.Twenty CMD resistance cassava lines from an F ¡ mapping population derived from TME3, one of the land races with the new source of CMD resistance, were shipped to CIA T from liT A as in vitro plantlets with permission from the Colombian plant quarantine authorities. The plantlets were sub-cloned and tested for the presence of virus by PCR, using gemini virus specific primers and ELISA (CIA T 2000). All tests were negative for the presence of virus. With the permission of the plant quarantine authorities, the plants were transplanted to the screen house, and after inspection by the plant quarantine officials, they were transferred to the field for genetic crosses.Discovery of an SSR marker, from a set ofl86 SSR markers developed at CIA T (Mba et. al 2000), linked to CMD2 have been described earlier (Akano et al. 2001, CIA T 2000). A second set of 132 SSR markers, obtained from a cassava root and leaf cONA (Mba et. al. 2000 unpublished data), and a third .set of 154 SSR markers, generated from the previous genomic library by another round of screening (Fregene et. al. 2001 unpublished data) have become available recently. Bulk segregant analysis, using the CMD susceptible and resistant parents, and two pools of 40 susceptible and 40 resistant genotypes from the mapping progeny, was conducted with the two new sets of markers. PCR amplification and gel analysis were as described by Mba et. al. (2000).More than 50 plants representing 20 pro gen y of TME3 introduced from liT A have been established in the CIA T hybridization block in preparation for genetic crosses. The CMD resistant lines will be crossed to elite parents of the respective genepools from 3 agro-ecologies and high carotene lines (Table 1). Genetic crosses are expected to begin the early -Part of next year and seeds will be ready by the middle of next year. Seeds harvested from inter-population improvement of the ACMD populations will be shared with liT A and Indian collaborators and the rest will be planted in germination trays and transferred to the field. Marker genotyping will be carried out on these plants and only those with the marker alleled tightly Iinked to CMD2 will be transferred to the regular CIA T selection scheme.BSA with the two new sets of SSR markers identified two markers NS 158, from the enriched genomic library, and SSRY339, from the cONA library, associated with CMD resistance. The two markers were analyzed in the 80 individuals of the resistant and susceptible bulks and 1 recombinant was found for NS 158 and 1 O for SSRY339. Although these results are preliminary and need to be confirmed in a large size progeny, they suggest that N$158 is much closer to CMD2 than SSRY28, the closest marker identified to date. The precise distance of NS158 is being determined in a large progeny of about 2500 genotypes, developed at liT A for comparison between marker assisted selection and conventional breeding of CMD resistance. Genetic crosses between CMD donor \\in es from liT A and CIA T elite parental lines as well as high carotene lines Marker genotyping of populations with the SSR marker NS 158 and selection of lines carrying the resistant allele for introduction into the regular cassava breeding program Sharing of seeds with liT A, particularly those from crosses with high caro ten e con ten t.There are at Jeast three geminivirus species that are causal agents of CMD in Africa and one in India: the African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV), the East African mosaic virus (EACMV), and the South African cassava mosaic virus (SACMV), and the Indian cassava mosaic virus (ICMV) in the Indian sub-continent. In addition sorne strains of EACMV are recombinant like the one associated with the Ugandan epidemic; which consists ofthe EACMV containing the coat protein of ACMV (Zhou et. al. 1997). This is the virus, the Ugandan variant, (UgV) causing the current epidemic that swept through Uganda and is now spreading into the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda.The new source of CMD resistan ce controlled by a single dominant gene, CMD2, has been shown to confer high levels of resistance to ACMV and EACMV (Akano et. al. 2001, Ogbe 2000, personal communication). The necessity to evaluate the new resistance of CMD against more strains, particularly the aggressive Ugandan variant (UgV) before deployment in African and Latín American genepools Jed to the shipment of in vitro plants of 3 CMD mapping populations to Uganda. The mapping populations have been evaluated for CMD resistance over a period of one year in the field.Three CMD resistance mapping populations, including two with the novel source of resistance, were multiplied in vitro and shipped to liT A Eastem regional center sub-station at the NARO station in Namulonge in early 2000, at least 3 plantlets were shipped per genotype. The plantlets were hardened and transferred to the field in June 2000. CMD resistance evaluation was carried out at 3 and 6 months after planting by staff of liT A East and South A frica regional center, and jointly with Lee Calvert and Martin Fregene at 12 months after planting in June 200 l. Disease pressure is very high in Namulonge and susceptible genotypes are easily noticed by to their stunted growth and general deforrnation. The severe symptom is usually attributed to the Ugandan variant (UgV variant).To confirrn that CMD2 gene also confers resistance against UgV, SSR analysis was conducted on Jeaf tissue harvested from 40 resistant and 40 susceptible progeny of the C population (TME3 X TMS30555) in the field. DNA isolation was by a miniprep version of Dellaporta et. al. (1983) using about 200mg of Jeaf tissue. DNA isolation was conducted at the Medica! Biotech Laboratories, Kampala, Uganda and shipped to CIA T. The SSR markers, SSRY28, and NS 158 were analyzed in the 80 genotypes as described by Akano et. al. 200 l.Variation in CMD resistance in the B and C mapping population was qualitative, i.e. all plants of resistant genotypes showed no visible symptom, even on regrowth, while a11 plants of susceptible genotypes were heavily infected. The chi square of the ratio of resistant to susceptible plants gave a value of 1.1. This is not significantly different from a 1: 1 ratio at a probability level of 0.05. This fits the expected segregation ratio for a single dominant gene heterozygous in the CMD-resistance parent, as was observed from earlier evaluations in Nigeria. SSR marker analysis revealed an a11ele of SSRY28 was present in the resistant progeny but absent in the susceptible progeny. (Figure 1) as found earlier for SSR analysis of evaluations done in Nigeria.Analysis with NS 158 again showed similar results with the exception that no recombinant was found, with SSRY28 one recombinant was observed among the resistant genotypes.The discovery that CMD2 confers resistance to UgV is of strategic importance in efforts to contain the Ugandan epidemic that has now spread to the Democratic republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania and other regions around the great lakes of East Africa. A concerted effort should be made to deploy CMD2 in local germplasm from these and surrounding areas. llT A is currently distributing seeds to NARs in the region obtained from crossing TME 3, and other donor parents, to local cultivars, this process can be made more efficient by adding a marker pre-screening step of the germinated seeds to ensure that only CMD resistant lines are introduced into the breeding scheme and subsequent multiplication exercises. This is particularly important in adjacent countries with low disease pressure where the UgV has not made its debut but may arrive in the near future.• Work with liTA to deploy CMD2 in cassava gene pools around the great lakes of East A frica under the auspices if the RF CMD project. • Eva1uate TME3 and its pro gen y in India against the ICMV.  Most characteristics of agronomic importance such as yield and related characters as well as quality traits are inherited quantitatively. The number of genes and their interactive effects controlling expression of quantitative traits are poorly understood. The observed phenotypes of these traits are also influenced by the environment. Mapping genes controlling quantitative characters may elucidate the genetics of these traits and help design rationale breeding schemes.Studies on mapping quantitative trait loci (QTL) have been conducted in a number of crop species and have helped to dissect the inheritance of complex traits (Paterson et al. 1988;Stuber et al. 1992).Cassava breeding strategies can be made more efficient if the inheritance of complex yield and yield related traits are known, particularly in the choice of parents for this long growth cycle crop.An F 1 population intra-specific cross from non-inbred parents that has been analyzed with more than 400 RFLP, SSR, and RAPO markers was evaluated in replicated multi-locational trials for yield, yield related, and quality traits over a period of two years in two environments. We describe he re the final results of QTL analysis of these traits and discuss insights gained from the study.Twelve agronomically important traits were evaluated in the F 1 mapping population (CM7857) of 144 progeny at the CIAT research station in Palmira and Quilichao in 1998 and 1999. Traits evaluated include fresh root yield (FRY), dry root yield (DRY) and starch yield (STY). Yield related characters evaluated were dry matter percentage (DMC), fresh shoot weight (FSW), harvest index (HI) number of storage roots (NSR), starch content (STC), and leaf area index (LAI). Quality traits such as culinary quality (CQ), amylose content (AML) and post harvest physiological deterioration (PHD) were also scored. The experimental design in both locations was a partially balanced triple lattice design, with three replicates of twelve blocks each, and twelve plots per block ( 12 by 12), with 144 individuals of the F 1 population. The plot size of 20 m 2 , comprising of twenty plants, was arranged in five rows of four plants each, resulting in fourteen border plants and six central plants. The trials were planted on ridges in 1 x 1 m arrangement for a population density of 10,000 plants ha-1 • Field experiments were not fertilized, but were kept free of weeds and insects as much as possible. Phenotypic evaluation of the 11 traits is as described in Okogbenin and Fregene (200 1 ). These traits were measured on six central plants in a plot and values were taken per plot, with means calculated over replications. All evaluations were at eleven months after planting ( 11 MAP), in both locations.Nine genotypes in the F 1 mapping population provided insufficient amount of good quality stem cuttings due to the poor plant vigor of the mother plants from which planting stakes were made and resu1ted in missing data. Our data were therefore analyzed as RCB experiment (Cochran, 1957). Combined analysis of variance across trials in the two environments and years was calculated on phenotypic data ofthe F 1 progeny. The analysis was done considering all variables as random. V ariation in the traits measured in two years, were partitioned into sources attributable to genotype, location, year, replications, interactions and error by analysis of variance (ANOVA), according to the model: Where J..l is the population mean; y; is the effect of the ith year; Ej is the effect of the jth environment; YEü is the effect associated with the interaction of the ith year and jth environment; r(yE)ijk is the effect of the kth replication within the interaction of the ith year and jth environment; g 1 is the effect of the lth genotype; yg; 1 is the effect of the interaction of the ith year and lth genotype; Egj 1 is the effect associated with the interaction of the jth environment and lth genotype; ygEu 1 is the effect of the interaction between the ith year, lth genotype and jth environment; and E;jkl is the error associated with measuring the phenotype, Y, ofthe genotype lth genotype grown in the kth replication of the jth location in the ith year; i = 1, 2; j = 1, 2; k = 1, 2, 3; 1 = 1,2 3, .. .... 144. Tests of significance of F-ratios were obtained using SAS procedures GLM (SAS lnstitute, 1996). Type lii sums of squares were used in these analyses because our data was unbalanced. Traits evaluated in one year (CQ, NR, STY, STC LAI and AML) were analyzed in a combined analysis using a similar model above excluding year as a variable.Genetic variances were calculated by solving the expected mean squares from ANOV A, and then used in estimating heritabi1ity according to the fonnula of Fehr (1987, p. 257). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for each trait/environment combination.QTL analyses were perfonned on untransfonned data. Nonnalizing data through transfonnation may misrepresent differences between individuals by pulling skewed tails toward the center of the distribution. For QTL analysis, we used two framework linkage maps that were derived from the segregation of gametes in the female and maJe parents of 150 individuals. The female derived map (1208.3 cM) is based on the segregation of 143 molecular markers in the gametes of the female parent, while the maJe derived map spanning 1475 cM in 1ength is based on the segregation of 135 markers in the male gametes (Fregene et. al. 1997). Association between markers and trait was detennined by a simple linear regression of phenotypic data on marker genotype marker class means (single point analysis) using the computer package Q-GENE 2.30B (Nelson, 1997) running on a G3 Power Mcintosh. The amount of phenotypic variance explained by each marker was considered significant if the probability of observing an R 2 value was Jess than 0.005 (Lander and Bostein, 1989). This stringent threshold was adopted in arder to reduce Type 1 errors (Dudley, 1993). We also re-analyzed our data using the PGRI compüter package based on the t-test conditioning analysis (Liu, 1995) to identify more potential Joci associated with evaluated traits. Where three or more línked makers were found significantly associated to a trait, such markers were subjected to further analysis in a mu1tiple regression model according to the equation:Where Y;j is the trait value of phenotype j with marker score i, J..l is the overall mean for the trait, A;+ B; + C; + .... and Z; represent the linked markers associated with the trait loci and Eij is the random error. Using multilocus model can reduce collinearity among markers.Mean phenotypic values, standard errors and ranges for the 11 traits are shown in Table l . • Q = Quilichao, P = Palmira, 98 = 1998. ns Distribution is not significantly different from normal; • Distribution is significantly different from normal Analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the genotypes for all traits with the exception of PHD (Table 2) .. Significant year by environment interaction was observed for five (FRY, DRY, ID, DMC and FSY) of the six traits evaluated in two years (Table 2). All six traits (STY, S'P/o, NR, LAI, AML and CQ) which were evaluated only in one season showed significant genotype by environment interaction. Broad sense heritability estimates were 87% for HI, 71% for FSW, 70% for AML, 62% for DMC, 60% for DRY, 50% for FRY, 36% for NR, 44% fot STY, 30% for ST% and 7% for PHD. A low heritability estímate for PHD suggests high non-genetic influence in the expression of PHD in the population, which is in agreement with our observation of non-significant variation between the genotypes for PHD. Heritability was not estimated for culinary quality because it was qualitatively scored.  A positive and significantly high correlation was found between dry root yield and fresh root yield (r = 0.91 to r = 0.97). Fresh root yield was positively correlated with fresh shoot yield (r = 0.51 to r = 0.67). This positive correlation is in agreement with findings that top growth is critica! for yield production (EI-Sharkawy and Cock,). Negative correlation was found between fresh shoot yield and harvest index (r = -0.45 to -0.58) indicating that, the shoot system is a maj or sink which could strongly compete with storage roots for available carbohydrate in the plant. Higher number of storage roots resulted in higher dry root yield (r = 0.76 to r = 0.84) in agreement with previous findings that root yield is associated with number of roots (Pelliet and EI-Sharkawy, 1994). Number of roots was also positively and significantly corre1ated with dry matter percentage (r = 0.50 to r = 0.53), dry root yield (r = 0.74 to r = 0.79) and fresh shoot weight (r = 0.41 to r = 0.49). Starch yield was highly correlated as expected with dry root yield (r = 0.99).Starch is the major component ofyield and constitutes about 70% to 85% (on dry weight basis) of root yield (liTA, 1994;Rickard et al., 1991 ). Starch yield was negatively and significantly correlated with culinary quality. High culinary quality (given as low scores in the evaluation scale) was associated with increase in starch. Thus, it should be possible to increase starch yield and improve culinary attributes of cassava simu1taneously. Culinary quality declined with increase in post harvest deterioration resulting in a negative correlation (r = -0.24 to r = -0.44).Post harvest deterioration was found to be positively correlated with dry matter percentage (r= 0.40 to r = 0.50). This suggests that while high dry matter percentage (increase in starch) is important to improvement in culinary quality, it is undesirable for post harvest deterioration.Leaf area index was significantly and positive1y correlated with DMP (r = 0.32), DRY (r = 0.38), FRY (r = 0.41), FSW (r = 0.33) and NSR (0.40). The growth, development and final yield ofthe cassava plant, is dominated and determined by, the relation of LAI to total biomass produced and its distribution (Cock and El-Sharkawy, 1988 Because all the traits, with the exception of PI-ID, exhibited highly significant genotype by environment interaction or genotype by location by year interaction, QTL analysis was done separately for each tria!. Putative QTLs for each trait are listed in Table 3. A total of eíghty-one QTLs were found for the twelve traits analyzed. QTLs detected in this study were found distributed in all but two linkage groups (B and Q). Between four and eleven QTLs were detected per trait, with each explaining between 6 and 19 % of the observed phenotypic variances. The number of QTLs detected should be taken as the mínimum. The stringent threshold chosen (p < 0.005) while reducing the chance of Type-I errors (false positives), would have also led to the possibility of Type-II errors (not detecting valid QTLs) (Dudley, 1993). Though QTLmarker linkages have been found to remain reproducible across environments specific QTLs are often expressed under particular environmental conditions (Patterson et al, 1988). Our results showed that majority of the QTLs associated with traits were found in one tria!. This could be due to the very significant genotype x environment interaction observed in our experiment across si tes and years for most of the traits evaluated.Thirteen QTLs (16%) were found in common for with yield and related traits that were correlated (Table 4). The observed congruence of sorne of the QTLs, in classical quantitative genetics, is assumed to be due to pleiotropy or clase linkage. Zhuang et al ( 1997) explained that if pleotropism is the majar reason for the coincidence of the QTLs, for related traits, the directions of their phenotypic effects could be expected. However, if clase linkage was the majar reason, the direction of the effects of the QTLs may be different, although the coincidence of the locations of the QTLs can still be expected. A general coincidence of the locations and directions of the effects of the QTLs for related traits were observed in this study suggesting that pleiotropism rather than close iinkage of the QTLs might be the reason for the correlation of related traits. The distinction between linkage and pleiotropy is important for breeding purposes as well as for scientific reasons.QTLs analysís of important agronomic traits pro vides an insight into the inheritance of these traits that can guide breeding decísíons. However the usefulness of this information depends on how good the QTLS study was and what percentage and magnitude of key QTLs were successfully detected The mating design and method of analysis becomes important here. Single marker analysis used in our study could ínflate the phenotypic effects of the QTLS if the genes are very closely linked to the markers, or could underestimate the effects if these QTLs lie far away from the marker locusassociated them. The approach does not define the likely position of a QTL, and cannot distinguish between tight linkage to a QTL with small effect and loose linkage to a QTL with large effect. Further activities ha ve been initiated to improve QTL mapping studies of these traits in cassava. The activities include the use of F 2 populations and adding more highly polymorphic markers to the genetic map to increase saturation. Markers such a simple sequence repeats (SSR) are particularly useful because oftheir high levels ofpolymorphisms.  Plant architecture is an important agronomic feature in cassava production particularly under particular farming systems and cultural practices such as in intercropping. This is most evident in sub-Saharan Africa where monoculture is rarely practiced due to the security and efficient use of space and resources crop diversification provides small-scale holder farmers. Plant architecture has implications for yield and weed control through canopy information, incident light absorption by leaves, and branching habit (Nweke et al., 1994). A strong association has also been found between length of stem with leaves and dry matter yield in certain genotypes (Ceballos 2001, personal communication).The use of the linkage map of cassava to study the inheritance of morphological traits of cassava, such as plant height, branching height and levels, leaf morphology (shape and size), and length of stem with attached leaves is described here. A number of these traits have been observed to possess high broad sense heritability and sorne are thought to be controlled by single genes.Finding molecular markers tightly associated with genes controlling these traits will permit marker-assisted negative selection at the seedling stage to \"weed\" out undesirable morphologies and make the selection at consequent stages more cost-effective and efficient. Negative selection at the seedling stage to eliminafe inferior genotypes, combined with indirect selection for yield, using harvest index, is most the efficient breeding scheme for yield in cassava (Kawano et. al. 1998).The 144 individuals ofthe mapping progeny were evaluated for morphological traits in a partially balanced triple lattice design in CIA T headquarters at Palmira and at another CIA T station in Satander de Quilichao. The study was conducted o ver a period of two years, 1998 and 1999. The F 1 population was planted on ridges, in plot sizes of 20 m 2 (of 5 rows x 4 columns), by this arrangement, each plot had fourteen border plants and six central plants. The six central plants in each plot were evaluated for plant height (PH), length of stem with attached leaves (LSL), and Leaf shape (LS, a ratio of leaf length LL to leaf width L W). Other traits include first branching height (BH), branching levels (BL), leaf area index (LAI) and the derived trait, branching index (BI) expressed as the ratio of BH to PH.Separate analyses of variance for progeny data were conducted, for all traits evaluated. The final data were analyzed as in RCB experiment due to missing data in a random effects model. Combined analysis of variance (SAS ANOVA procedure) was as described earlier for yield and yield related traits (CIA T 2001, this report). H 2 , on entry mean basis, was estimated for each trait using the variance components of the expected mean squares (Fehr, 1987, p. 257) from our analysis of variance of the F 1 population. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated for each trait/location combination based on progeny data. Phenotypic data were subjected to QTL analysis using untransformed data based on markers from the male-and female-derived maps of the F 1 mapping population as described earlier. A significant association between the traits and the marker (p < 0.005) was considered an evidence of a QTL in the region of the marker.With the exception of leaf shape, where a bimodal distribution pattern was observed, all other traits analyzed exhibited continuous distribution in the F 1 population, typical of quantitative traits. The correlation between the two environments for the traits ranged from 0.38 in 1998 and 0.57 in 1999 for length of stem with lea ves to 0.97 for leaf shape in 1998 (Table 1 ). Analysis of variance detected significant differences between the genotypes for each trait (Table 2). Analysis of variance showed that, of the four traits evaluated in two years (PH, BH, BL and LSL), only LSL was not significant for genotype by location by year interaction (Table 4). lt would suggest that PH, BH, and BL are much more variable traits compared with LSL across locations and or years.Broad sense heritabilty estimates based on plot entry means were 91% for plant height, 83% for branching levels, 94% for branching height, 80% for leaf length, 90% for leaf width and 27% for length of stems with leaves.Leaf shape was meas u red only in 1998 and a marker locus, GY99, explained phenotypic variation of61% for LS suggesting it to be a major gene. This result was confirmed in a BC 1 cross derived from the mapping population. (Okogbenin and Fregene 200 l ). Earlier reports have described leaf shape as being controlled by a single gene with broad leaf shape recessive gene to narrrow leaf shape effect at this locus (Graner 1942). With the female derived map, no significant effect was found for leaf shape at this locus, but with mal e derived map, this locus explained 61% of the observed phenotypic variance for leaf shape. This observation underscores the need to analyze both mal e-and female-derived maps QTL mapping experiments in F 1 progeny from non-inbred parents to capture the effects of dominant genes. QTLs found for the other morphological traits are summarized in Table 3.Results of QTL analyses show that these morphological traits, with the exception of LS, are mainly under quantitative genetic control as expected. The small QTL effects found for most of the traits, particularly for stem with leaves (STL), a trait with a suggested simple mode of inheritance, disagrees with the high broad sense heritabilities and suggests the CM6857 mapping pro gen y may not be the most appropriate cross for QTL mapping of these traits or the population structure is inadequate. Another factor that could confound QTL analysis is the low leve! of polymorphism between genomes of the parents, major QTLs in a monomorphic region of the genome will fail to be detected. These factors will be addressed in subsequent studies.      • Probability of the association between a QTL and marker. When a QTL -marker association is significant at more than one trial the most significant P value is declared and corresponding PVE and phenotypic effects of QTLs are given.Development of new crosses with CM6754-8, SM1068-10, and SM1257-7, three genotypes that show a simple mode of inheritance for stem with leaves (STL) in previous crosses.Analysis of sorne of these traits in inter-specific crosses with a higher level of genome level polymorphism. The QTL mapping early bulking at ClA T has identified a number of major QTLs for this important trait (Okogbenin and Fregene 2001;ClA T 2000). Comportment and inheritance of tentative markers identified to be associated with QTLs for early bulking would need to examined in advanced breeding populations and different genetic backgounds to propase a model of genetic control and estímate genetic interactions. This will lead to better exploitation of existing variability and fine mapping of earlier mapped QTLs. To validate the authenticity, magnitude and action of these QTLs a new F 2 mapping population was developed from F 1 individuals bearing positive alleles of the identified QTLs. This population is being genotyped with SSR toward the development of a frame work genetic map for QTL analysis. A field tria! to evaluate early bulking in the F 2 population has also been set up.Based on asymptotic theory, the type of progeny developed in an experiment will affect the power to identify QTL using marker trait methods (Beavis, 1998).An F 2 population has increased power for QTL mapp-ing of traits as well as elucidating genetic action and interactions of genes involved. In addition, the development of F 2 population is a step further at improving QTL mapping through use of more advanced statistical tools such as interval mapping and composite interval mapping in detecting the precise locations of QTLs, and their genetic effects actions and effects.To confirm putative QTLs for early bulking and to determine gene actions involved in the control of this trait, 3 F 2 populations were developed by selfing three profusely flowering genotypes in the F 1 population in the last quarter of 1999. The individuals selected for -self-pollination, were CM 7857-68, CM 7857-145 and CM 7857-150 resulting in 396, 725 and 519 seeds respectively. Seeds from CM 7857-145 were established from embryo axes as described earlier (ClAT 2000). Seeds from CM 7857-68 and CM7857-150 were however planted in gennination trays in the screen house to reduce cost associated with in vitro culture. A total of 473 plantlets were obtained for CM 7857-145. Of the 396 seeds for CM 7857-68, 245 or 62% germinated, while 72% (or 372 seeds) ofthe total519 seeds for CM 7857-150 genninated. Resulting seedlings were then transferred to the field for planting after two months in the screen house. Results from a preliminary evaluation of traits related to early bulking indicate that CM 7857-150 showed high wide variability for these traits and therefore only F2 progeny from this individual were selected for further marker analysis and phenotypic evaluation.For SSR marker analysis, total genomic DNA was isolated according toa miniprep version ofthe Dellaporta (1983) extraction procedure. Total DNA was extracted from fully expanded young leaves of green house-or field grown plants of a total of 268 genotypes of the F 2 population produced by selfing CM 7857-150. Leaf samples of 0.15-2.0g was powdered in liquid nitrogen using a mortar and pestle. The powder was transferred to a frozen 1.5ml eppendorf tu bes using a frozen spatula. The powder was resuspended in 800 ¡..ti of extraction buffer (100mM Tris-HCI, 50mM EOTA and 500mM Nacl) and 50 J.il of 20% SOS. The ground tissue was shaken vigorously in the buffer and then vortexed intermittently for 1 S m in at 65°C. To this solution, 250 J.il of ice-cold 5M potassium acetate was added and homogenised by gently inverting 5-6 times. The mixture was incubated in ice for 20 minutes and then centrifuged at 12000rpm for 1 O m in. The aqueous so1ution was transferred to a new 1.5ml eppendorf tube and the nucleic acids was precipitated by adding one vo1ume of ice-cold isopropanol (approximately 700J.Ll), and then mixed by gently inverting 8-1 O times before incubating at -80°C for one hour, followed by centrifugation at 12000rpm for 1 O m in. The resulting supernatant was poured off and the pellet resuspended in 500J.il of 50mM Tris-HCV10Mm EOTA. The precipitation process is then repeated for a second time to eliminate salts in the ONA Electrophoresis and fluorometry were used in determining ONA quality and ONA concentration respectively.The development of 186 SSR markers for cassava have been described by Mba et. al. 2000. Another 132 SSR markers were obtained from a cassava root and leaf cONA (Mba et. al. 2000 unpublished data). A third set of 154 SSR markers were also generated from the previous genomic library by another round of screening (Fregene et. al. 2001 unpublished data). A total of more than 500 SSR markers now exist for cassava and were the source of markers for genotyping the F 2 population. SSR Markers were first of all screened in the parents of the F 1 mapping progeny and 3 F 1 progenies -parents of the F 2 families, if this information was not a1ready available from previous studies. PCR amplification and PAGE gel analysis were as described by Mba et. al. (2000) A field tria! of the selected F 2 populations was established at Santa Elena on 18 May 2001, in an RCB design of single row plots of 6 plants each and two replications. Of the 268 genotypes of the F2 population, only 207 genotypes had sufficient stem cuttings (12 stakes) could be planted. Germination percentage ranged from 16 -100% amongst the genotypes. The tria1 will be harvested at 7 MAP (Oecember 200 1) and evaluated for early bulking by measuring dry matter yield, dry weight of foilage, harvest index and number of roots.Of the 500 SSR marker results reveal that 200 are heterozygous in CM7857-150 and will segregate in the F 2 population. One hundred markers have so far been screened in the F 2 population. Seventy three markers (73%) segregated as single dose markers and have yielded segregation data in the F 2 progeny. Eight markers (8%), which were polymorphic in the F 1 parents and K150, did not segregate in the F 2 progeny, revealing these markers as double dose markers. Results also revealed two markers, which though were heterozygous in K 150, segregated into two genotypic classes only such markers are not useful in the construction of a F 2 framework map. Nine other markers, which though were polymophic in the F 1 parents and K 150, selectively amplified only few individuals in the F 2 progeny. Such markers are being repeated with changes in MgCh concentrations and annealing temperatures to enhance ONA amplification in the F 2 progeny. Only markers with goodness of fit to the expectation of 1 :2: 1 will be utilized for map construction using the computer package MAPMAKER. Marker genotyping of the F 2 population continues and a target of 180 markers ha ve been set. The phenotypic evaluation of the cross later in the year will provide the other component required for QTL analysis.•Plans for Next Year The food safety of cassava is compromised by the presence of cyanogenic glucosides that break down on mechanical damage of cassava tissues and results in the release of a poison, hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Cassava varieties vary in their potentials to produce HCN, a fact that could be exploited to control its leve( through breeding. The cyanogenic potential (CNP) of a cassava genotype is assessed at the end of its growth cycle and it is affected by the environment. lmprovement of CNP will therefore benefit from marker assisted selection via a reduction in the time for breeding and an increase in the selection efficiency. The goal of this project is to develop markers for marker assisted breeding for reduced cyanogenic glucoside content in cassava.CNP is a quantitative trait and many genes are expected to control the biosynthesis, transport and storage of cyanogenic glucosides. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) mapping will be therefore be used to identify markers associated with key genes controlling CNP as has been described for casssava (Okogbenin andFregene 2001, CIAT2001, this report). A high CNP cassava line Gomani from Malawi was crossed as pollen parent to a low CNP line Mbundumali as staminate parent and about 100 F 1 1ines were generated. After SSR marker analysis to confirm true hybrid nature of progeny, 3 F 1 lines were selfed to obtain about 200seeds each. Seeds were tested for viability by soaking in water. After the viability test, embyro culture was carried out for 600 seeds in the 17N culture medium (1 /3 medium, supplemented with 0.01 mg r 1 NAA, 0.01 mg r 1 GA 3 ,1.0 mg rt thiamine-HCL, 100 mg r 1 inositol, 2% sucrose, 0.7% agar (Sigma Co.) and 25 mg 1 -t of a commercial fertilizer containing: N 10, P 52, K 10, pH 5.7-5.8. Culture of embryo axes are as described by Fregene et. al. (1998). The embryo cultures were incubated in darkness for three days to promote radicle growth and then transferred to growth chambers with a 12hr photoperiod. A total of240 progeny were hardened and established in the field.Three F2 populations segregating were obtained by selfing 3 F 1 progenies obtained from a cross between high and low CNP lines. About 200 seeds were obtained from each cross and embryo axes from each seed cultured in vitro. The seeds were cultured in the Med Biotech Laboratories, Kampala, and will be transferred to the green house at NARO, Namulonge after 1 month They will the be taken to the field in a low pressure si te in U ganda for the production of woody stakes.The following year the F 2 populations will be evaluated for CNP in a replicated fashion. At the same time an SSR marker survey of the Mbundumali and Gomani grand parents, and F 1 parents, using all 500 avaílable SSR markers will be conducted at CIAT. Polymorphic markers from the parental survey will be used to genotype an F 2 population selected based upon the highest number of heterozygous markers in the F 1 parent. Single marker and interval marker analysis will be conducted to identify markers associated with genes controlling CNP using the computer software packages Q-gene and PRGL Molecular markers found associated with CNP will be tested in a marker-fidelity study to evaluate its usefulness for cassava breeding.• Clone the F 2 family and establish a replicated CNP tria! in the field • Produce a map with 120 genome-wide markers selected from the cassava genetic map available at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIA T).Whiteflies, as direct feeding pests and virus vectors, are one of the most important agricultura! pests in the world. They cause major damage in cassava-based agroecosystems in the Americas, Africa and to a lesser extent in Asia. In cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), in the Americas, the whitefly species, Aleurotrachelus socia/is, has caused crop losses greater •than 70%. Stable host plant resistance (HPR) offers a practical, low cost, long-term solution fo r maintaining reduced whitefly populations.HPR studies initiated at CIA T > 15 years ago has identified severa! sources of resistance to A.  socialis (CIA T, 1999). The clone MEcu 72 has consistently expressed the highest levels of resistance. A. socialis feeding on resistant clones had less oviposition, longer development periods, reduced size and higher mortality than those feeding on susceptible ones. Whiteflyresistant clones, in field trials, showed no significant differences in yield between insecticidetreated and non-treated plots (Bellotti et. al. 1999).Whitefly resistance in agricultura! crops is rare; therefore, given the importance of these pests, there is a need to understand the genomics of the resistance that we are observing in MEcu 72 and other resistant clones. lt would be especially advantageous to map whitefly resistance genes and understand their segregation in F 1 progeny. Crosses were, therefore, made between MEcu 72 and a susceptible genotype to map resistance genes by using molecular markers. This will aid in a more rapid selection of resistant germplasm and also isolate those genes in volved in resistance.A cross was made between the resistant genotype, MEcu 72 and the susceptible genotype MCol 2246. The latter cultivar was selected because of its high leve! of susceptibility toA. socialis, but also having tolerance to mites and thrips, two additional important pests of cassava. In addition MCol 2246 has good floration, an advantage in obtaining the high numbers of progeny necessary for genetic studies. This cross produced 282 F 1 individuals.The sexual seeds produced in the cross were grown in sterile soil, in 67 plastic trays, and held in the screen house for 6 to 8 weeks (Temp. ± 30°C). Seedlings were subsequently planted in the field for multiplication.Greenhouse evaluations were done by in vitro multiplication consisted of cutting plant species, removing to the laboratory, and disinfecting by washing in deionized sterile water, then 70% alcohol, then 0.25% hypochlorite and finally three additional washings in deionized sterile water (Escobar, 1991). The apices were planted in 4E media (Roca, 1984), in 16mm test_ tubes. The growth period was 60-80 days and a second propagation in 4E media resulted in 5 tubes per clone. Later, apices of each clone were cut and planted in 17N media (Roca, 1984) to obtain root growth; a period of 30-40 days. The plants were then ready for removal to the greenhouse for evaluation.The afore-mentioned methodology permits maintaining plants in optimal sanitary conditions, in addition to having sufficient material available on need in a reduced area or space. Greenhouse eva1uations were done with the parents MEcu 72 and MCol 2246, and the progeny using the leaf snap-cages and infected with A. socia/is adults from the CIA T colony.Field trials were carried out at two sties, CIA T, Palmira, and in Nataima, El Espinal, Tolima. The parents and progeny were planted 1 x 1 meter in the field and exposed to natural whitefly infestations.Cassava microsatellite (Simple Sequences Repeat, SSR) were used. DNA visualization was done by the tincture of sil ver ni trate technique to observe allelic segregation of the markers.In  (Mba et. al., submitted). Approximately 60% of the microsatellites were polymorphic (Table 1); thereby obtaining 180 polymorphic microsatellites from the two parents. With the extraction of DNA from the 282 individuals progeny, polymorphic microsatellites were run (Figure 1). .... ' \"' ,.... .    , 1996) using molecular mapping techniques represent an alternative to reduce the genetic background from wild species parentals and to rapidly discover and transfer valuable alleles from the wild species into elite rice varieties. Even though wild an~ unadapted germplasm have phenotypically less desirable than modern varieties in their overall appearance and performance, breeders have long recognized the intrinsic value of wild species for the improvement of simple inherited traits (Xiao et al. 1998).The possibility of selectively introgressing useful genes from O. rufipogon to elite rice cultivars suggests a way for improving the performance of O. sativa while simultaneously broadening the genetic base of cultivated rice (Moneada, P. et al. 2001). For this reason, advanced backcross QTLs analysis is proposed as a method to discover and transfer valuable QTL alleles from wild species into established elite inbred lines. BC2 or BC3 populations are used along with negative selection of undesirable characters to reduce the frequency of deleterious alleles present in the donar parental. QTL-NILs can be derived from advanced backcross populations in one or two additional generations and used to verify QTL activity. These same QTL-NILs also represent potential commercial inbreeds improved for one or more quantitative traits. If successfully employed, advanced backcross QTL analysis can open the door to exploiting unadapted and exotic germplasm for the quantitative trait improvement of a number of crop plants (Tanksley, S. D. and Nelson, J. C. 1996).This report focuses on progress made in identifying quantitative traits loci (QTLs) associated wíth yield íncrease in populations derived from crosses with Oryza rufipogon, O. barthii and O.glaberrima, and the introgression oftrait-enhancing QTLs in near-isogenic lines (NILs).Experiments to identify segregating alleles in advanced backcrossed populations were set up in the field, greenhouse and the CIAT Biotechnology laboratory.Deve/opment ofNILsfrom a BC2F2 popu/ation derivedfrom the cross BG90-2 x Oryza rufipogon . A total of 70 BC3Fl plants in each family was planted in the green house for molecular characterization. Leaf discs (5 mm in diameter) were collected from each plant (25-30 day-old seedlings) for DNA extraction using the Alkali method (Klimyuk et al. 1993). So far 11 SSRs have been analyzed in a total of 100 PCR assays done with 63 out of 75 families to verify which of the O. rufipogon alleles has been introgressed in this population (Figure 1 ). Afterwards plants were transplanted in the field to gather agronomic data .... lt was reported earlier that the BC3F2 population derived from the cross Lemont x O. barthii had been evaluated with 85 SSRs. This year we completed 126 SSRs markers in this population. Currently, we are selecting the appropriate statistical analysis method to generate the QTL map. Anthers from BC3Fl plants were harvested and run through anther culture (Ann. Report 2000).The response was very good and 695 doubled-haploid plants were obtained. Based on agronomic data 312 OH lines were selected for molecular characterization along with the parentallines. Five plants from each family were planted in the greenhouse for tissue collection and DNA extraction to be used in the development of molecular pro bes and the posterior QTL map for yield and yield components.Based on the screening of 280 SSRs in the parents ( Caiapo and O. glaberrima ) following the method described by Temnykh et al. 2000, the PCR assay protocols for 120 SSRs of them were standardized for use in the screening of the 312BC3Fl DH lines (Figure 2). DNA of young leaves from the parental genotypes and segregating population was extracted using the Dellaporta Method (McCouch et al. 1988) and modified for the PCR assay by the CIA T Biotechnology Research Unit.There are several factors that could explain the 45% inaccuracy observed in this study due to experimental errors of various nature, namely field and laboratory conditions. There are severa) steps where mistakes can occur under greenhouse/field conditions such as errors in plant identification for crossing, selfing, poli en contamination, etc. In tenns of the laboratory protocols for DNA extraction and stability, PCR conditions, silver staining procedures, etc could produce unclear signals difficult to read. Several quality control measures are being implemented to reduce the experimental error.Another ímportant factor has to do with the genetíc distance between the putative QTL and the SSR marker. The greater the distance between them the higher the probability of getting a crossover which could give rise to individuals with non-expected genotypes. Ajusted observed values, without missing data 1 : Instead of unknown genotypes of the parents, the segregation is compared with the three expected genotypes of the F,ssible parents.: Maximum level of tolerance: 5%, respect to the expected genotype according to the parent. • Complete the molecular analysis in BC3-NIL population derived of BG90-2 x O.rufipogon. • Follow up introgression of QTLs in BC4-NILs families derived from crosses between BC3-NILs families and Bg90-2.• Complete the statistical analysis of BC3F2 Lemont x O. barthii population.• Map F2 populations derived from BG90-2 x O. rufipogon and Lemont x O. barthii crosses.• Initiate the characterization of agronomic and molecular data, and QTL analysis to determine the number of QTLs associated with yield and yield components for Caiapo x O. glaberrima cross.Genetic variability is an essential requirement to make progress in plant improvement prograrns.Traditionally, plant breeders make use of diverse genetic resources to come up with improved varieties. Most of the time, rice-breeding prograrns are under high pressure to deliver superior varieties to meet demands coming from diverse users. Crosses using good and well-known progenitors have better probabilities of producing the kind of breeding populations from where superior genotypes could be selected. Unfortunately, not very many good donors are available and the continued use of them lead to reshuffling of genes reducing at the sarne time the genetic variability.It has been estimated that around 25% of the total genetic variation available in rice are actually used by rice improvement programs. The use of un-improved gene pools, like wild rice species, represents a difficult task to conventional breeding prograrns; however, this kind of research is more appropriate to programs more strategic in its scope like the ClA T Rice Project.Therefore, activities described in this section deal with the introgression of alleles from wild rice species into the Latin America gene pool using conventional breeding methods. The main objective is to develop potential parents to be used by national rice prograrns.A backcross scheme to diverse improved breeding lines or varieties is used. Starting in the F 2 generation single plant selections are made for further evaluation in pedigree rows. Around 250 crosses were made of which 189 were evaluated under upland conditions in Villavicencio. Many populations (119) were discarded because of high sterility and/or poor plant type, low yield potential, and susceptibility to major diseases. Only 476 plant selections for evaluation as F 3 lines were made. Two populations (Caiapo/0. glaberrima and Progresso/0. barthii) were evaluated under upland savanna conditions in Villavicencio, in collaboration with the CIRAD-CIAT program. Caiapo/ O.glabe\"ima showed better performance in terms of adaptation to acid soils. Besides, doubled haploid lines were obtained, which will be used to identify and characterize alleles derived from O. glaberrima that are associated with traits of agronomic importance.In addition, 2704 F 4 lines from a collaborative project between CIA T and Peru were evaluated for resistance to rice hoja blanca virus in Palmira and tolerance to major diseases in Santa Rosa, Villavicencio. In spite of the high disease; pressure 1097 single plant selections were made for further evaluation as F s pedigree rows. The impact of modero agriculture in improving the life and well being of billion of people around the world is impressive. The prospect of mass starvation was avoided due to increased food production through the Oreen Revolution's push for food security. However, little thought was given to nutritional value and human health, and almost none to the concentration of iron and other micronutrients in the new cereal varieties bred (Welch and Graham, 2000). Research at IRRI has shown genetic variation for iron and zinc concentration in brown rice; improved cultivars contain about 12 mg of iron and 25 mg of zinc per kilogram, while sorne traditional cultivars ha ve doubled these amounts (Gregorio et al, 2000). Results from W ARDA ( 1998) indicates that inter-specific crosses with O. glaberrima gave rise to progenies with higher protein content, good eating quality, and high nutritive values.As mention earlier, we at CIA T are looking at wild rice species as potential sources of new alleles associated with traits of agronomic importance. Emphasis was given to alleles associated with grain yield and its components. In this section, we are dealing with the nutritional and grain quality aspects.Seed of the advanced lines CT14938-30-5-M-3 and CT14938-36-1-M-1 derived from the cross Lemont/0. barthii was harvested, dried and milled. Samples were taken to the quality lab for evaluation. Remnant seed was bulked up and milled and 2-kg samples were given to 64 people for cooking and eating evaluations. People were advised to cook the rice sample the same way they used at borne and to compare its behavior with that of the rice they usually buy and eat.Eleven rice cultivars (Tablel) including O. barthii, O. glaberrima andO. rufipogon were choosen to determine its iron and zinc content. Brown and milled rice samples were obtained from field plots grown at CIA T and 5 gram each were sent to the lab for chemical analysis using the method proposed by Isaac and Kerber, 1971 . The experiment was replicated three times.Data from the quality 1ab showed that both lines had long and slender translucent grains (0.2 white center), with amylose content around 26-29 %, and excellent milling recovery (60% head rice). Data from the cooking!eating tests are presented in Figures l. Forty-seven (75%) people reported that the rice sample was dry and fluffy after cooking whilst 96% of people said that the grain appearance was good before cooking; 4% reported that the appearance was fair (Figure 1). Only 4% found the rice sample to be sticky. It is important to keep in mind that the ratio rice/water used by people was different (it ranged from 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 to 1/ 1 ).Figure 2 shows that 34% of people detected sorne kind of aroma after cooking and a different taste compared to the rice they usually consume. Besides 51 % of surveyed people reported that the sample given produced more cooked rice than the one they usually consume whilst 41% was willing to paya little bit more for that kind of rice( data not shown).Results suggest that O. barthii did not affect in a negative way the eating and cooking quality of rice; on the contrary, sorne people detected special features in the quality of the rice derived from an inter-specific cross. Data also confirm differences in people's preference in terms of grain quality opening up opportunities for the development of special types of rice. Data are presented in Table l. Duncan's multiple test was used to determine statistical differences at the 1% level of significance. There were significant differences among cultivars with regard to iron and zinc content in both brown and milled rice, as well as in the effect dueto milling.As expected, brown rice contained higher amount of both iron and zinc than milled rice. O. glabe\"ima had the highest content of iron with regard to brown rice followed by Fedearroz 50 and Oryzica 1, whilst O. barthii had the highest content of zinc, followed by Fedearroz 50 and three accessions of O. g/abe\"ima.The effect of milling in reducing the contents of both iron and zinc is seen in Table 8. Milling reduced by 59 and 26%, respectively the content of iron and zinc. However, there were genotype differences. O. glaberrima lost 88% of its iron followed by the breeding line CT 13956-29-29-M (Bg90/ 0 . g/aberrima), IG 1 O (an acc. O.glaberrima), and the line P 1274-6-8-M-1-M. It is encouraging to see that CG 14 ( different acc. O. g/abe\"ima ), O. rufipogon and Oryzica 1 had the highest content of iron after milling, suggesting its potential use as parents in a breeding program to increase the content of iron in commercial rice varieties. In terms of zinc, O. barthii, CG14, IG lO andO, glabe\"ima had the highest content after milling.Results suggest that wíld rice species can contribute to improve the nutritional quality of commercial rice varieties. lt is noteworthy to mention that Oryzica 1 and Fedearroz 50 are good examples of improved varieties developed in Colombia out of the CIA T/FEDEARROZ breeding programs and no breeding effort was made to improve its nutritional value. However, given the fact that these varieties posses a good level of iron and zinc suggest that it should not be difficult to develop improve varieties with a better nutritional value. This is supported by the fact that the correlation coefficient to breed simultaneously for iron and zinc was 0.53. These results are in agreement with data from IRRI (Gregario et al 2000) and W ARDA.l998. In October 2000, F 1 plants derived from multiple crosses (BGMV 222 to BGMV 268) were planted at Santander de Quilichao (Cauca, Colombia). These plants were screened for the presence of the bgm-1 marker (DOR21 ). A number of 1191 plants out of 2971 were found to have the marker and were then selected for generating new crosses and generation advancing.From January to August 2001, three separate plantings were done. In January five nurseries were screened for the presence of the bgm-1 marker. The first was a group of 12 F 1 multiple crosses (BGMV 269 to BGMV 280), in which 536 plants out of 904 had the marker and were used to generate new crosses.The rest of the nurseries were screened in order to evaluate the segregation of this DNA fragment.The main purpose was to introduce the bgm-1 gene in those bean varieties that are widely planted in Central America. Then eight plants per row of each F4 backcrosses with DOR 364, DOR 390, DOR 500, ICT A OS TUA or ASO 1 were sampled individually. Families that had a high proportion of the bgm-1 marker were harvested and advanced to the next generation. Al so 14 F 3 populations including the variety MD-2324 (Bribri) were evaluated. This time four individual plants of each population were screened with the bgm-1 marker. Only the two that were positive (marker present) were harvested.A wide number of F 5 families bred for Central America were also selected with the BGMV marker. Small red (168) and small black lines (166) were sampled for DNA amplification. Four plants per line were sampled as a bulk, and DNA was extracted using the alkali method with s light modifications in the amount of solutions used. The volumes of 0.25M NaOH and 0.25M HCI were increased from 40 to 60 ¡ .. d, and 30 }11 of 0.5M Tris-HCl (pH 8) was used instead of 20 }11. The rest of the protocol remained the same. After PCR, 94 small red families and 41 small black families having the bgm-1 marker were se lected. In addition, 84 F4 families of G 22041 (Garbancillo Zarco) were selected among a group of 157.In March another nursery ofF 1 multiple-cross hybrids was planted. High-throughput M.A.S. was improved with the evaluation of the BGMV SCAR in a nursery of 7085 plants. A total of 3253 (46%) plants were found to have the bgm-1 marker and selected for drought evaluation in the next generation.A total of28.7 days was spent in screening the marker in this nursery (7085 plants) {Table 1) in order to compare the efficiency of screening twice the usual number of plants at one time. Given that a different number of people are involved in each trial, we defined person-days (p-d) as the amount oftime (days) that one person would spend while carrying out each activity (no. ofpeople times no. of days). The screening of a set of 7000 plants took 55.2 p-d (or 23.7 p-d for 3000 plants). Thus, in comparíson to a previous tria! of 3000 plants that required 30.7 p-d, the p-d required to evaluate the BGMV SCAR was reduced significantly (Table 1). Thís was accomplished through the utilization ofhigh-technology equipment that accelerated alllaboratory processes such as electronic pipettes (Finnpipette Biocontrol) and the Hydra 96 micro-dispenser (Robbins Scientific) often u sed for large-scale genomics and high-throughput screening.  (Nobuyuki et al., 2000) was tried in Brachiaria, common beans and rice. It did not work for the first two crops; however, good results were obtained for rice. In a preliminary assay, no differences were found when comparing PCR products of the alkali DNA extraction, the Nobuyuki method and pure DNA. Then the protocol was modified as follows so that it could be utilized in microtiter plates for M.A.S purposes. Briefly, rice leaves were cut(6-mm diameter disks), placed into microtiter plate wells and stored at -20°C. The DNA was extracted by adding 60 fll ofTE buffer (IOmM Tris-HCl, lmM EDTA, pH 8) to each sample and then boiling for 10 min. in a water bath. Then 120 fll of 10 mM Tris-HCI with 0.1m M EDTA (pH 8) were added. The extracts were stored at -20°C until their utilization. Five fll were used to amplify microsatellite markers, and stability of the DNA extraction was evaluated. No differences were found between the amplification of fresh extracts and DNA stored for one and two months (Figure 1). Therefore, as the DNA extracted proved to be stable for at least two months and no DNA dilution was needed, the method is suitable for M.A.S.Fresh DNA DNA stored two months Main Achievements• The dissection and sequence analysis of a cluster of resistance gene analogs associated with resistance to angular leaf spot in common bean was achieved opening the way to clone the gene cluster. The isolation of full-length Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) was initiated• Microsatellite repeats in common bean were isolated and characterized o ver a wide range of wild and cultivated common bean and wild and cultivated accession from P. acutifolius, P. coccineus, P. polyanthus and P. lunatus.• Four new Iibraries were screened for mircosatellites. Over 3000 sequences were collected, representing at mínimum a 600% increase in the number of sequences available for common bean in the Gene bank public database. We have also screened a large number of microsatellite markers that were developed for soybean and cowpeas to try to adapt the microsatellites available for other Phase.oleae legume crops to common bean.• Phaseolus vulgaris Ty1-Copia group retrotransposon L TR sequences were isolated and characterized. 24 different sequences corresponding to RNAse-PPT -L TR (ribonuclease-polypurine tract-long terminal repeat) sections of Ty 1 -copia retrotransposons were isolated. A study using primers derived from LTR sections also initiated. Primers were also identified for Sequence-Specific Amplification Polymorphisms (SSAPs) and Inter-Retrotransposon Amplified Polymorphisms (IRAPs) on accessions G 19833 and OOR364. .• The irnplemetation of a novel microarray based technology Oiversity array Technology (OarT) was initiated for bean and cassava. OarT, which is not reliant on ONA sequence information, has severa! potential applications including germplasm characterization, genetic marker-assisted breeding and tracking genome methylation changes• A new set of Cassava microsatellites was developed from a cassava root and leaf cONA Iibrary and whole genomic Iibraries. From the latter, 85 have been located on the cassava genome. A new set of 157 SSR-containing cONA fragrnents was characterized and the integration of the new set with the current cassava map was initiated.• The Annotation of SAGE tags (Transcripts) differentially expressed in CMD resistant an_ d susceptible genotypes was pursued. So far tag annotation has identified genes known to be involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) response to disease in plants. They include a WRKY transcription factor, catalases, a pectin-esterase and reductases. Other genes were also found implicated in plant response to disease but are part of the cell mechanism known to aid virus replication including elongation factor alpha-1.• A MAS project for CMD resistance was initiated with liT A to enable the testing of CMD markers developed at CIAT.• The cONA-AFLP technique was implemented to identify differentially expressed bands between two different cassava cultivars, one resistant and one susceptible to CBB. The cONA-AFLP ana1ysis at different times post inoculation with a Xam strain allowed the identification of putative molecular markers linked to disease resistance genes• The construction of a molecular genetic map of Brachiaria using grasses RFLP RAPO, SCAR, AFLP and microsatellites was achieved. QTL analysis of spittlebug resistance revealed two major QTLs explaining up to 37% and 15% ofthe variance 1.3.1 Dissection and sequence analysis of a cluster of resistance gene analogs associated with resistan ce to angular leaf spot in common bean I.F. Acosta and J. TohmeIn trod uctionWe have followed a candidate gene approach using PCR with degenerate primers to identify loci associated with resistance to diverse pathogens in common bean (BRU, Annual Report 1998, 1999). This approach takes advantage of the fact that the coding sequences of cloned plant disease resistance genes (R-genes) contain conserved structural motifs (Hammond-Kosack and Jones, 1997). The majority of R-genes encode a nucleotide-binding site (NBS) and leucine rich repeats (LRRs). Thus, it is possible to hypothesize that disease resistance in common bean follows this trend. We characterized a set of NBS-type sequences (RGAs, Resistance Gene Analogs) from common bean. Genetic mapping and QTL analysis showed that they are part of loci containing resistance specificítíes to angular leaf spot (ALS), anthracnose and Bean Golden Yellow Mosaic Virus (BGYMV) (BRU, Annual Report, 1999;López et. Al., manuscript in preparation). One of these sequences, RGA7, was particularly attractive as it explained 69% of resistance to two strains of the ALS pathogen in the parentalline G 19833. RGA 7 is also part of a multigene family, a common f~ature of R-genes. There is a good probability that one or severa! members of the RGA 7 family is an effective R-gene in common bean. Now, our goal is to detennine the complete sequence of the members in the RGA7 family. This will be useful to clone R-genes that benefit breeding programs and eventually may be used to generate transgenic lines. Additionally, it will contribute to the increasing amount if infonnation about the evolution of R-gene clusters that, may lead to the engineering of new dísease resistance specificities.The common bean BAC library has an average insert size of 90 Kb (Genome size: 635 Mb) covering 3-5 genome equivalents. lt was constructed by S. MacKenzie using a cv Sprite snap derived (Fr restored CMS Sprite) and contains 33,792 clones (88 plates). The library was screened by hybridization in high-density BAC filters using RGA 7 as a pro be and the. protocol From Clemson University {http://www.genome.clemson.edu/groupslbac/protocols/protocols2 new.html). Identified BAC clones were subjected to Southern hybridization and BAC End Sequencing to confinn their overlaps using the protocols reported befare (BRU, Annual Report, 2000).BAC clone 57-M14 is being sequenced by a transposon insertion strategy using a kit from Epicentre that randomly inserts an EZ::Tn <K.AN-2> Transposon, containing a selectable marker (kanamycin resistance) and sequencing primer binding sites, into BAC DNA. In vitro reaction conditions have been optimized to maximize transposon insertion efficiency while minimizing multiple insertion events. In brief, about 200 ng of BAC DNA were subjected to transposition with the EZ::Tn <K.AN-2> Transposon as recommended by the manufacturer, and 0.5 J.ll of the reaction were used to electroporate 20 J.ll of DH10B E.coli competent cells. After recovery, aliquots of the cells were grown on plates containing chloramphenicol (Cm, 12,5 J.lg/ml) and kanamycin (Km, 50 J.lg/ml) to select for transposon insertion BAC clones. These were grown in LB broth with Km and Cm for BAC DNA isolation using the same protocol as befare (BRU, Annual Report, 2000). BAC DNA was used for sequencing employing primers annealing the EZ::Tn <KAN-2> transposon. Sequencher (Gene Cedes, Ann Arbor, MI).) is used to edit sequences and assemble contigs. Database searches are performed with the BLASTX and BLASTN algorithms (Aitschul et al., 1997).Molecular geneticists have seen multi-copy probes as disadvantageous molecular markers; however, as they may constitute complex gene families, their importance has been vindicated because they are more abundant than expected (M. Delseny, seminar at CIA T). This is the case for severa! of the common bean RGAs. Assuming that the multiple genes containing RGA 7 are physically linked, we used it as a unique probe to screen the common bean BAC library expecting the identification of overlapping clones. Seventeen clones were identified and subjected to fingerprinting with EcoRI, southem hybridization with RGA 7 and BAC End Sequencing. Two contigs were assembled using data from these procedures. One of the contigs included 11 out of the 17 BAC clones and 7 members ofthe RGA7 family (Figure 1). BAC clone 57-M14 contains four of these members and was selected for complete sequencing by the transposition insertion approach. Complete sequence of the BAC is important to unveil the structural organization of the cluster. As shown by BLASTX homologies of BAC End sequences, the genomic region containing the RGA 7 family is especially rich in retroelement-type sequences. Association between transposable elements and a cluster of R-genes, the Xa21 from rice, has already been reported and evidence for the involvement oftransposition in the evolution ofthe cluster provided (Song et al., 1997). We have successfully sequenced 179 different transposed BAC clones either by one or both ends with an average reading of 400 bp per sequencing reaction, that account for 47.5 Kb of total sequence achieved. Nineteen contigs ha ve been assembled. The majority of the sequen ces are part of retroelements as indicated by BLAST searches. Another portion corresponds to sequen ces with no significant homologies. Finally, four contigs of 5.3, 3.5, 1.1 and 1.1 kb encode for R-genes. Interestingly, the R-gene contig of 5.3 kb contains a retroelement-type sequence in the middle of the coding sequence. About a half of the BAC remains to be sequenced. This work is currently under way.• Finishing and annotation of complete sequence of BAC clone 57-Ml4.• Identification and comparison of the complete sequen ce of the four RGA 7 members contained in BAC clone 57-Ml4. Oesign of primers to isolate by Jong-range PCR the remaining members ofthe family contained in other BAC clones. • Isolation of members of the RGA 7 family from parental line 619833 which contains resistance specificities in this family.Our set of Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) from common bean has provento be usefullanding markers of resistance Joci (BRU, Annual Report, 1999;López et al., manuscript in preparation).As RGAs may correspond to a truly functional Resistance Gene (R-gene), we are interested in obtain the fuii-Iength coding sequence of as many RGAs as possible. Screening of a cONA library with RGAs is not only a way to obtain their fuii-Iength sequences but also to establish if an RGA is actually expressed in the plant. We present the results of screening a custom-made cONA library ofbean (GffiCO-BRL) using RNA from young leaves.Last year, attempts were made to screen the custom-made cONA library of common bean (BRU, Annual Report, 2000). However, tested approaches were not apparently efficient to isolate fulllength clones. This year, 55296 clones were picked to 384 plates and arrayed on high-density filters (M. Muñoz and M. Blair). A set of these filters was kindly provided to our group by M.Blair and we screened them with three multiplexes of our set of 15 RGAs as hybridization probes using the same protocols to screen BAC library high-density filters (BRU, Annual Report, 2000). A total of 14 clones were identified. Their 5' and 3' sequences were obtained and compared to the GenBank database. Seven clones were considered as false positives because they were homologous to sequences other than R-genes. The remaining 7 clones corresponded to ROAs. Figure 1 depicts the expected structure of a cONA clone corresponding to a typical R-gene from the NBS-LRR class. 5' and 3'sequences of our cONA clones have been located according to their sizes and homologies in this scheme. As shown, none of the 7 clones corresponds to a full-length cONA. The same observation was made last year using different screening protocols. Therefore, we can conclude that the presence oftruncated cONA clones is a characteristic ofthis library. An R-gene as the one shown in Figure 1 may be 4 kB long. Thus, obtaining a full-length cONA is a complicated task and high-quality procedures must be done.• Surprisingly, all 7 clones corresponded to only two out of the 15 ROA probes used for the screening: ROA 1 and ROA2. Creusot et al. ( 1999) al so isolated members of this family in their cONA screenings. These ROAs probably constitute a large family of sequences in common bean that expressed at higher levels if compared to other R-genes. Indeed, R-genes are probably expressed at low levels (Scott Hulbert, pers. comm.). This may explain why it was not possible to isolate cONA clones for every ROA u sed as pro be. Screenings in the order of 1 0,000-1 00,000 clones are far of representation for rare transcripts.We are currently designing a strategy to isolate full-length cONA clones corresponding to R-gene homologues using rapid amplification of cONA ends (RACE, Frohman, 1988). This method does not require the construction and screening of libraries and is based on PCR amplification procedures. Abbreviations in the R-gene scheme are as follows : 5' UTR, 5' untranslated regions; TIR, toll and interleukine-1 receptor domain; CC, coiled-coil motifs; NBS, nucleotide-binding site; LRR, leucine rich repeats; 3' UTR, 3' untranslated region. Phaseolus beans are distributed worldwide and are cultivated in the tropics, sub_tropics, and temperate zones. However, while more than 30 Phaseolus species have been described, only four are cultivated for human consumption. Of these, the common bean, P. vulgaris, is the most widely grown, the remaining four being the runner bean (P. coccineus), year-long bean (P.polyanthus) lima bean (P. /unatus) and tepary bean (P. acutifolius). In the present study we evaluated 68 primers pairs on a 21 P. vu/garis genotypes. In addition to these, 9 accessions of P. acutifo/ius, P. coccineus, P. polyanthus P. /unatus were also analyzed to check cross-specific amplification, .Microsatellite primer characterization A total of 21 P. vu/garis genotypes were chosen for the evaluation of the primer pairs. This was made up of 14 wild accessions from CIAT's wild core collection and 7 cultivated accessions from the Mesoamerican and Andean pools. In addition to these, 3 and 2 accessions each of wild and cultivated P. acutifo/ius and P. coccineus, respectively, were also evaluated. Also, two genotypes of wild and cultivated P. polyanthus and two wild genotypes from P. /unatus were also analyzed to check cross-specific amplification, bringing the total number of bean accessions use in the study to 30. : : -The PCR reaction was carried out in a 20¡.!1 final volume containing 20ng of genomic ONA, 0.1 ).1M of each of the forward and reverse primers, 1 O mM Tris-HCL (pH 7 .2), 50 mM KCL, 1.5mM to 2.5mM MgCL2 depending on the primer combination, 250mM of total dNTP and 1 Unit of Taq ONA Polymerase. Temperature cycling pro file involved an initial denaturation step of 2 min duration at 94°C. This was then followed by 35 cycles with each cycle made up of denaturation at 94°C for 15 sec, an annealing phase ofbetween 48°C and 65°C (depending on the annealing temperature for the given primer pair) for 15 sec and extension at 72°C for 15 sec. A volume of 6).11 fonnamide containing 0.4% w/v bromophenol blue and 0.25% w/v xylene cyanol FF were added to each reaction, denatured and then 4)llloaded on 6% denaturing polyacrylamide gels (19: 1 acrylamide: bis-acrylamide), contained SM urea and O.SXTBE. Electrophoresis was at 100-W constant power for between 2 and 2.5 hours. PCR amplifications were visualized by silver staining according to the Manufacturer's guide (Promega Inc., USA) with sorne modifications.Gels containing PCR amplifications were scored for the presence or absence of alleles generated by each pair of primers for all 30 individuals.In this study, we used the Discriminating Power, (O) to compare the efficiency of the microsatellites to differentiate between genotypes . \"O\" value represents the probability that two randomly chosen individuals show with the microsatellite locus different allelic pattems, and thus are distinguishable from one another. If Pi is the proportion ofthe population carrying th banding pattem, and calculated for each microsatellite locus (Tessier, et al, 1999), then D=1-1:p/. This is an extension of the Polymorphism Infonnation Content or PIC (Anderson ET. Al., 1993) available from the frequencies of the different banding pattems (or genotypes) generated by a primer.Sixty-eight primers were used to investigate the polymorphism detected among 21 iñdividuals of P. vu/garis. Fourteen loci were monomorphic in the materials tested. A total of 584 alleles were detected at the 68 microsatellite loci. The number of alleles per microsatellite locus ranged from 1 to 14 with an average of 6.3 alleles per primer pair. Also, 1-19 different banding pattems were generated. We used the data from the microsatellite loci and their corresponding alleles and pattems per loci to calculate the Discrimination Power (O) in arder to examine the extent of infonnation on diversity that these markers can provide for P. vulgaris. The O va1ue in the present study ranged from 0.09 to 0.94, with an average of0.73 for loci with more than 1 banding pattem. We observed that 73% ofthe loci had more than 50% probability discriminating between two individuals. As reported by Tessier, et. al., 1999, we found that the analysis of discrimination power (O) revealed that the efficiency of a given primer does not depend only on the number of pattems it generated. For example, primers BM170 and BM140 produced the same number of pattems and alleles, but they also had different discriminating powers. On the contrary, primers BM153 and BM164 with quite a different number ofpattems (7 and 11, respectively) had similar discrimination powers. Primers BM 188, GA TS 91 and BM 143 ha ve D val u es higher than 0.90, which means that they would be very useful for genotyping P. vulgaris gennplasm accessions.The high Discriminating power values ex.hibited by microsatellites make them the markers of choice to saturate ttie bean map.The conservation of these 68 loci in Phaseo/us was examined by evaluating them with P. coccineus, P. polyanthys, P. acutifolius and P. lunatus . The first two species are more closely related to P. vulgaris as they, belong to the same lineage than to P. lunatus, which is more distant and belongs toa different lineage (Fofana, et. al., 1999). Primers BM16, BM 138 and BM195 fai led to amp1ify any non-source; GATS11B, BM150, BM167, BM188, BM195, BM199 and BM 200 amplified in almost all species, just 50% or less of the total of individuals.Thirty three microsatellite markers produced amplification products in all samples with sorne of them showing length variability between species. This indicares that a considerable leve! of sequence conservation exists within the primer regions flanking the microsatellite 1oci. Eighteen microsatellite loci produced non-specific amp1ification products in P. lunatus. This occurred mainly with primers BM16, GATS11B, BM16?, BM195, BM138, BM25, BM150 and BM200 that failed to amplify in 50% or less of the tested species. Nevertheless, the uti1ity of the bean primers in producing PCR-amplified products across the genus has been demonstrated. It must be noted however thatjust as has been pointed out in other studies on SSR loci conservation in plant species, a decline of amp1ification success was observed with increase of genetic distance (White andPowell, 1997, Roa, 2000).Microsatellites based on simple sequence repeats have been developed for a wide range of plant species. V arious techniques exist for discovering new microsatellite markers from anonymous genomic sequence. AH of these techniques rely on the availability of DNA libraries. It is best if these libraries consist of small-insert clones (< 1 kb) because they are easier to screen for microsatellites and to sequence if they are shown to be positive. V arious enrichment procedures have been used to increase the prevalence of simple sequence repeats in genomic 1ibraries. One method relies on the selective capture of small fragments with oligonucleotides on hybond membranes (Edwards et al., 1996). An enrichment method has been used at CIA T to develop two GAn and CAn microsatellite-containing libraries for common beans (CIA T Annual Report 1999-2000). In this study, we were interested in screening non-enriched libraries with simple sequence repeat motifs that have not been screened in the enriched libraries. The screening of non-enriched random genomic libraries will aUow us to investigate the normal frequency with which different microsatellite motifs occur in common bean and to develop a new set of genomic microsatellites for mapping and tagging projects in common bean.Libraries: Four libraries were screened for microsatellites. The largest library was a leaf cONA library (pCMV Sport 6.0 vector) consisting of 64,128 clones. In addition, three small-insert genomic libraries were screened. These are named after the restriction enzyme that was used to generate them. They were: (1) Rsai library (19,584 clones) 2) Alui library (18,432 clones); and 3) Haeiii library (19,968 clones). These libraries were made with frequently cutting restriction enzymes as described in more detail in the 2000 Annual Report. All three small insert libraries were made with DNA from the genotype DOR364 that was digested with the appropriate restriction enzyme and size selected to the range of 0.4-1.2 kb. The small-insert libraries for A fui and Haem were made with the standard pBiuescript II KS+ vector while the Rsal library was made with pGEMt-easy vector. The clones for each library were picked by a Q-bót robot and spotted onto gridded Hybond N+ membrane filters with six fields each with a 96 position doublereplicate 4 x 4 pattem. Each of the small insert libraries was contained on a single filter while the cONA library was spread over a set of four filters. AH the clones were stored in 384-well plate format glycerol stocks that were copied twice into working and master copies ofthe library.Filter hybridization and library screening: Six simple sequence repeat motif oligonucleotide probes were used to screen the cONA and small-insert library filters . The probes included two that targeted dinucleotides repeat motifs, namely (CAho and (GA) 20 ; and four that targeted trinucleotide repeat motifs, namely (AA n 14; (CAG) 1 4; (CAA) 14 ; and (ACG) 14 , where the sequence within the parenthesis indicates the repeat and the number outside the parenthesis indicates the number of copies of that repeat. Hybridization consisted in end labeling the simple sequence repeat motif pro bes with T 4 DNA Kinase and hybridizing this pro be to the DNA contained on the filters with standard protocols (Edwards et al., 1996). Briefly the filters were pre-hybridized in 1 00 mL of hybridization buffer for 4 -6 hours at 60°C. Meanwhile, 1 O pmoles ofprobe was end labeled with 1 ul ofT4 polynucleotide kinase and S ul ofyP 32 -ATP in a total reactíon volume of 20 ul that was incubated at 3 7°C for 80 minutes and stopped at 65°C for 20 minutes.The labeled oligonucleotide was ádded directly to the pre-hybridizing filters and incubated at 60°C for 12 hours. After the hybridization step, the filters were washed twice at 60°C with 6X SSC 1 0.1 % SOS for 5 minutes each. Longer washes were used when signa! was intense (> 100,000 cpm). The filters were blotted dry, covered with saran-wrap and arranged face-up in cassettes along with three sheets of X-ray film. The films were taped to each other so that they would not shift during the Oto 8 day exposure in a -80°C freezer. Films were removed at three exposure intervals: after 2 hours, after 1 day and after 1 week to identify high, medium and low signal positive clones, respectively. Filters were re-used for sequential screening of different oligonucleotide repeats by stripping them between each use. Stripping consisted in washing the filters at room temperature in 1 OOmM NaOH, 1 OmM EDT A, 0. 1% SOS twice, followed by a 5X SSPE rinse for 1 O m in.Clone identification: Positive clones were identified by which filter they were on; which field within the filter they were in, and what address they had within the field. Each filter contained six fields and each field contained the equivalent of eight 3 84-well pi ates worth of clones, for a total of 48 plates per filter. Clones could be identified by their position in the double-replicate 4 x 4 pattem found at each grid axis in the address system. Only double-spotted clones were selected. Any spots for which the replicate did not hybridize were considered false positives and were not selected. Putative simple sequence repeat-containing clones were picked from their appropriate position in the 384-well plate format glycerol stocks Clone sequencing: The positive clones were sequenced initially from one end of the insert. In the case of the cONA library, the 5'side of the clone was sequenced using either Sp6 or Ml3 Reverse primer, while in the case of the small insert libraries the clones were sequenced with either T7 or TI high temperature primers. The sequences were searched for vector segments to check for insert integrity and were screened for simple sequence repeats with the program Sequencher. Any cDNA clone that did not contain an SSR in the 5'end was sequenced again from the opposite end with the T7 or Ml3 Forward primers.We were interested in calculating the overall frequency of di-and tri-nucleotide repeats in coding versus non-coding DNA and in the frequency of GA versus CA repeats in common beans . Therefore our hybridization strategy was the following: the small insert library -filters were hybridized with each dinucleotide probe separately, the cDNA filters were hybridized with a mix of both dinucleotides probes; and the trinucleotides probes were hybridized simultaneously in both libraries. We limited the comparison between the di-nucleotide probes to the small~insert genomic libraries rather than the cONA library, because we reasoned that di-nucleotide repeats occur with greater frequency in non-coding DNA than in coding regions.This screening technique allowed us to calculate the frequencies of di-and tri-nucleotide motifs in each library. Table 1 shows the number of positive clones found in each hybridization experiment with each of the libraries and with each set of oligonucleotide probes. The total number of clones screened in the three small insert libraries was 57,984, while the total number of clones in the cDNA library was 64,128. Surprisingly the CA probe hybridized to more clones (190) than the GA probe (24) in the two libraries that were evaluated for this purpose, Alui and Haeiii . These two libraries were chosen because they would be contrasting, given that the Haem library represents the GC rich fragment of the genome due to its restriction enzyme recognition site, while the Alui library does not. The results indicate that either GA motif is more common than CA motif in the bean genome or that the hybridization worked better for this probe. Neither hypothesis is satisfactory, since the first possibility contradicts the higher frequency found for GA motifs in many other plant species, while the second possibility is unusual giveñ that both oligonucleotides have the same melting temperature. The frequency of the tri-nucleotide positive clones was as high as that of the di-nucleotide positive clones, except in the Rsai library and in the cONA library, were trinucleotide positive clones were more frequent than di-nucleotíde positive clones. These results may indicate that trinucleotide repeat are more common in coding sequences than across the entire genome.Sequencing results confirmed whether the hybridizing clones from each library were false positives or not and the number of repetitions that each positive clone contained. The rate of false posítives was higher for clones selected by placing the hybridized filters on film for one week of exposure versus those that were on film for two hours .(Figure 1 ). Meanwhile, the sequencing confirmed that as might be expected, the clones with the highest intensity signa! had a larger number of repeats. The sequencing results showed that dinucleotide clones were more common than trinucleotide clones in the small insert libraries and about equal in the cONA library (Figure 2), contradicting the earlier results based solely on hybridization. Among the 264 dinucleotide repeat containing clones identified so far, the CA motifs were 50% more common than the GA repeat in the small insert library, but only 30% as common as the GA rei>eat in the cONA library (Figure 3). The AT motifs were more frequent in the small insert library than in the cONA library. When AT microsatellites did occurr in the cONAs they were more likely to be found in the 3' end than in the 5'end ofthe clones. This was in contrast to the GA and CA microsatellites which were three times more frequent in the 5'end than in the 3'end ofthe cONA. The cONA library hada higher proportion oftetra-and penta-nucleotide simple sequence repeats than the small insert libraries, although these motifs had not been screened for specifically in the hybridization experiments. We believe that the screening of the small insert libraries has given us an accurate picture of the relative frequency of different SSR motifs in the bean geno me based on the fact that these libraries each represent a total of 1 O Mb of ONA. Considering that the genome of common bean is 650 Mb in size, each library is equivalent to 0.015 X genome equivalents and taken together the three libraries contain approximately 30 Mb of bean DNA which should be equivalent to 5 % of the total bean genome. An estímate of the relative abundance of microsatellites on an absolute scale per kb of genomic sequence could therefore be obtained.Similarily these results give us a good idea of which motifs are common in cONA se_ quences and where these are located. The large majority of the repeats occurred in the S'untranslated region (UTR) upstream of the start codon for the open reading frame (ORF) where these could be identified. Another proportion of the SSRs occurred in the 3' UTR, while fewer were found within the ORF. The total percentage of ESTs that might be expected to contain SSRs based on this study is approximately 0.7 %. Non-SSR containing cONA sequences are a useful resource ín their own right since they add to the body of ESTs available for the crop.The present work brings to a total of approximately 2000 the nurnber of ESTs for beans generated by this project. The sequen ces represent both 5' and 3' ESTs, sin ce they come from a directionally cloned cONA library. The sequences have been BLAST searched against each other to check for sequence redundancy (redundant clones consist in 90% identity over half the nucleotides in a sequence) and the vast majority of the sequences were unique. The sequences were also compared to the Swissprot database and to all the soybean proteins downloadable from Genbank. This collection of new gene sequences for common bean represents many more individual sequences than are currently in the Genbank public database for all Phaseolus species together.    We are sequencing all positive SSR containing clones to design microsatellite primers for the development of new markers and hope to recover a large number of polymorphic markers for the crop. The sequenced cONA clones represent the first substantial number of EST sequences in beans. Ultimately many of these cONA sequences can be genetically mapped as RFLPs or SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) based assays, especially as simple procedure such as dense chips, become available.A large number of microsatellite markers have been developed for soybean by the USOA (Cregan et al., 1999) and at companies such as Oupont (Peakall et al., 1998). Relatively fewer microsatellites ha ve been developed for other tropical legume crops. However at liT A an effort is underway to develop cowpea microsatellites (C. Fatokun, pers. Comm.), and an initial set of peanut microsatellites is also available (Hopkins et al., 1999). The large number of common bean microsatellites made at CIA T recently would also be useful for mapping in other species of legumes. Our objective in this study was to try to adapt the microsatellites available for other Phaseoleae legume crops ( especially soybean and cowpea) to common bean and to test common bean microsatellites in a panel ofthese other legumes.The microsatellites tested included 423 from Gly cine max (408 with ATin motif, 3 with GAn motif and 12 from coding sequences) and 118 from Vigna (mixture of GA, CA, AT and compound motif, genomic microsatellites and two cONA based markers). An additional four cowpea microsatellites were designed from sequences in Genbank (Table 1 ). The markers were tested against a panel of nine legumes, that included the soybean, Mesomerican and Andean common bean genotypes (Williams, OOR364 and G 19833, respectively) that were the sources of microsatellite libraries made for these crops. For the other legume species we used genotypes that were representative of varieties grown in the Andean region. Primer amplification was tested with a range of conditions. The soybean microsatellites were tested initially with lax amplification conditions using 45 to 47°C for annealing temperature and 2.0 to 2.5 mM final concentrations of MgCI2. The cowpea microsatellites were amplified with 52°C annealing temperature and 2.5 MgCI2. Both sets of markers were analyzed on 2. 0% agarose gels with ethidium bromide staining. The microsatellites with single amplification products were analyzed on 6% polyacrylamide gels with silver staining.Soybean and common bean appeared to be especially divergent in regard to their microsatellite loci. The soybean genomic A ITn microsatellites generally did not amplify well in cornmon bean.The cONA based microsatellites were also poorly conserved. Table 2 shows the nine most transferable microsatellites and the molecular weight of the amplified products. Most other microsats amplified multiple bands from common bean, tepary bean, lima bean, cowpea or mung bean DNA that were completely different in size compared to the soybean allele. The likelihood that these represent homoelogous microsatellite loci was deemed low and these microsatellites were not investigated further. The total rate of transferability to the six species was between 2 and 0.5%. Therefore, it seems that soybean primers may be less useful in comrnon bean than we thought because of the evolutionary distance separating these species. This is in marked contract to studied with animals where microsatellites have been successfully transferred among related species such as birds, tortoises, primates (eg. gorillas/apes), ungulates (eg. horses/cattle) and rodents (eg. rats/mice). Ultimately it is the genetic distance between species and genera that determines the ability of SSR primers to amplify in different genomes and the ability to transfer microsatellites between species must be determined empirically. And it seems that in plants, unlike animals, microsatellite loci are not well conserved over large genetic distance between species. Cowpea genomic microsatellites were slightly more useful than the soybean genomic microsatellies for amplification in Phaseolus species. The transferability rates were between 7.6 and 11 .0 %. The gene-derived microsatellites were more conserved than the microsatellites from non-coding sequences, and four out of six primer pairs from Table 1 amplified well across the subtribe. For example one cowpea microsatellite, VM21 , amplified well in a range of legumes and represented a gene from Vigna radiata for ACC oxidase that contained an A Tn repeat in the 3' untranslated region. These results suggest that the close phylogenetic relationship between cowpea and cornmon bean allowed us to exchange sorne of the genomic microsatellites and most of the cONA based microsatellites. Based on these promising results, we tried the reciproca! experiment of amplifying the cONA based microsatellites we have developed for common bean in cowpeas other species. In these experiments, we found that transferability was much high especially within the Phaseolus genus as expected, but also across into Vigna, G/ycine and Cajanus. In summary, we found that the pattern of amplification of legume microsatellites from soybean, cowpea and common bean, agreed well with the tribe, subtribe and genus designations of the legumes being tested. Why sorne related lineages maintain intact microsatellites over evolutionary time or why microsatellites in certain location such as upstream of genes are more conserved is not known. However, we can postulate that mutation rates for microsatellites are constrained around genes as compared to non-coding regions, just as they are for other forms of sequence variation.A set of common microsatellites that amplify across a range of tropical legumes, would be useful to study the synteny between species. Many legume genera are thought to have a conserved gene order, however this has been less well studied than in the grass family. Soybean, common bean and mung bean ha ve been shown to ha ve regions of macrosynteny across m u eh of their geno mes, however there has been no analysis of microsynteny or sequence conservation at homoelogous loci in the genomes of these related legumes.Cregan PB, Jarvik T, Bush AL, Shoemaker RC, Lark KG, Kahler AL, Kaya N, Vantoai, TI, Lohnes DG, Chung J, Specht JE ( 1999) Crop Sci. 39: 1464-1490.Hopkins MS, Casa AM, Wang It would be tremendously useful to have a genetic map for common bean consisting entirely of microsatellites. These secondgeneration markers would be easy to assay and would enable a large number of segregating individuals to be analyzed in gene and QTL tagging studies. For now, we have implemented a set of over one hundred and fifty microsatellite markers in genetic mapping studies for common bean at CIA T. These microsatellites come from genomic sequences, gene or cDNA sequences and database searches mostly of common beans but also of other legumes as described in other sections ofthis annual report.The parents ofthe DOR364 x Gl9833 RIL population were surveyed for polymorphism with 153 microsatellites. The markers belonged to several different classes as shown in Table l. BM microsatellites are genomic, while BMy and BMc microsatellites are based on cDNA. The BMd and Clone microsatellites are based on both genomic and cDNA sequences. The microsatellites are in varying stages of development. Clone microsatellites will be given a new designation under the BM naming system once they ha ve been further tested. The polymorphic microsatellites were used to amplify DNA from the 87 recombinant inbred line progeny and the parents of the population. PCR product were run on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and scored for the parental allele that they represented. Segregation data was used to place the microsatellites on a genetic map constructed with RFLP, RAPD, AFLP and SCAR markers (CIA T annual Report, 1998) using the software application Mapmaker.A total of 81 microsatellites (52.9% of those tested) were polymorphic for the parents of the DOR364 x G 19833 population and could be located on the genetic map of common bean. An additional 5 microsatellites from Yu et al (1999) could be placed by comparative mapping between the DOR364 x G19833 and BAT93 x JaloEEP58 (Freyre et al., 1998) maps. Each chromosome was tagged with at least three microsatellites (Table 1). Two chromosomes, B02D and B04B had a relatively greater number of microsatellites, 14 and 12 markers respectively, placed on them. The average number of markers per chromosome was 7.4 microsatellites each.Considering that the total genetic distance of the entire map was 2453 cM, the average distance between microsatellites was 30.3 cM. However many larger gaps remain and these will need to be filled with additional microsatellites. Other AFLP, RAPO and RFLP markers are available between the microsatellites, Since the entire map consists of 434 genetic markers, the average distance between markers was 5.7 cM. The markers BMy-11, BMd-28 and BM205 consistently amplified two po1ymorphic bands per reaction, which are suspected to represent duplicate loci. In another mapping population, the two BMy-11 loci co-segregate and are presumed to be very tightly linked (under 1 cM). Severa! microsatellites designed for related phytohemagglutinin and lectin gene sequences amplified single bands but were found to co-segregate, indicating that this gene family clusters at a single location in the genome. The microsatellites mapped during the course of this research will be invaluable for marker assisted selection beca use they are simple to analyze, specific for single genes of interest and diagnostic in most crosses due to their high level of polymorphism.Future PlansWe will be studying the potential of specific microsatellites to be used in MAS selection for specific genes with which they are linked. The mapped microsatellites will provide a good set from which to chose markers for diversity studies and future QTL analysis. We planto develop a set of fluorescent microsatellites for accurate allele calling and high-throughput mapping. A full set of anchor markers for the bean genome will probably require 300 or more working microsatellites, therefore the work of developing and mapping new microsatellites will continue.Of the 153 microsatellites evaluated, a total of 43 were monomorphic (28.1 %) and 29 did not amplify well. We will try to recover these microsatellites by amplifying with variable PCR conditions and by mapping the monomorphic markers in well-integrated populations such as BAT93 x Jalo EEP558 or in populations where polymorphism is high, such as wild x cultivated crosses across genepools. Tyl-copia retrotransposons are mobile genetic elements that seem to be ubiquitous in higher plants (Flavell et al., 1992;Voytas et al., 1992). They a1so show high insertional polymorphism (Fiavell et al., 1992;Hirochika et al., 1992;Pearce et al., 1996) and preference for euchromatic regions (Hirochika et al., 1996;Flavell et al., 1998;Garber et al., 1999). In the last few years :there has been a growing interest in exploding retroelements for molecular marker-based studies (Waugh et al., 1997;Ellis et al., 1998;Flavell et al., 1998;Kalendar et al., 1999;Pearce et al., 2000), however, most research in the field of transposable elements is aimed at diversity, expression or structural analysis because isolation and characterization of retrotransposons for marker studies imply a long process. High levels of polymorphism, necessary for developing different techniques, are usually encountered in long tenninal repeats (LTRs), which cannot be amplified directly as they are specific for each retrotransposon.The technique developed by Pearce et al. (1999) makes it possible to isolate RNAse-PPT-LTR (ribonuclease-polypurine tract-long tenninal repeat) sequen ces from Ty 1-copia retroelements for molecular marker-based studies such as Sequence-Specific Amplification Polymorphisms (SSAPs), Retrotransposon-Based Insertional Polymorphisms (RBIPs), Inter-Retrotransposon Amplified Polymorphisms (IRAPs) or Retrotransposon-Microsatellite Amplified Polymorphisms (REMAPs). We used this technique to isolate the aforementioned fragments using Phaseolus vulgaris DNA from CIAT accession 019833 .Previously extracted genomic DNA from CIA T accession G 19833 was used to isolate RNAse-L TR sequen ces by the method of Pearce et al. ( 1999) with several modifications. Sequen ce analysis was carried out using the programs Sequencher 3.0, Blast x 2.0, Clustal W 1.8 and Clustal X 1.62.•From a library of 1152 clones, 45 were selected for sequencing. Ofthese, 24 were homologous to previously isolated sections of retrotranscriptase, ribonuclease or polyproteins when entered into Blast X using an E value of 1 O.Alignment of isolated sections of ribonuclease using Clustal W showed conserved aminoacids (Figure 1 ), which ha ve been previously reported by Pearce et al. ( 1999). High conservation might be important for enzymatic function, confmning ribonuclease's central role for reverse transcription and reintegration. In addition to the RNAse sequence, representative se(!tions for the polypurine tract and a fraction of the long tenninal repeat were detennined for each sequence (sorne sequences are shown in Figure 2). Variability seems to be low at ribonuclease, but the PPTs and LTR sections show high plasticity due to mutations created by retroe1ement enzymes on nonessential transposon regions (Biusch et al., 1997).A dendrogram constructed by Clustal X using neighbor-joining and bootstrap analyses helped detennine the relationships among the RNAse sequen ces (Figure 3 ). Five different groupings, supported by bootstrap and high percentages of sequence identity between its members were defmed, providing support for the existence of severa! Tyl-copia retrotransposon families. Sequences were also compared to homologous retrotransposon sections from other legume species, indicating a highly heterogeneous population of retroelements in legume species, but smaller differences between Phaseolus vulgaris RNAses (result not shown).  Long terminal repeats (L TRs) are a distinguishing feature of Ty 1-copia retrotransposons. Short sequences in the LTR act as promoters and enhancers of transcription, and the majority of such sequences are in the U3 region. Activity of the different motifs has been well documented through transient reporter gene assays (Casacuberta and Grandbastien, 1993;Suonemi et al., 1996;Takeda et al., 1999). However, as functionality lies only through small stretches, the rest of the L TR is subjected to the high mutation rates of retroelements (Gojobori et al., 1990, cited in Flavell et al., 1992), generating polymorphisms at high levels. Differences in LTR length and sequence can be used to study the evolution of specific retrotransposon families in individuals or in different species; furthermore insertional polymorphism of retroelements can be easily assessed when information about LTRs is available.In other research ( see \"lsolation and Characterization of Ty 1-Copia Group Retrotransposon L TR Sequences in Phaseo/us vulgaris,\" pp. xx of this report) we used the technique developed by Pearce et al. (1999) to isolate 24 different sequences corresponding to RNAse-PPT-LTR (ribonuclease-polypurine tract-long terminal repeat) sections ofTy l-copia retrotransposons. Here we performed an analysis of sequences derived from amplifications using polypurine tract primers (desígned from the afo¡ementioned isolated sequences) and Msel primers. We also initiated a study using primers derived from L TR sections. Primers were also useful in tests for Sequence-Specific Amplification Polymorphisms (SSAPs) and lnter-Retrotransposon Amplified Polymorphisms (IRAPs) on accessions G 19833 and DOR364. Both varieties possess many agronomíc traits of interest.A modification of the technique developed by Pearce et al. ( 1999) was developed to isolate polypurine-tract downstream sections using seven primers designed from polypuríne tracts and their flanking regions. RNAse-PPT -L TR sections necessary for the primer design were previously isolated and characterized (Galindo, 2001 ).Sequence analysis was carried out using the programs Sequencher 3.0, Clustal W 1.8, Clustal X 1.62, Blast n 2.0, Blast x 2.0 and Matinspector 2.2.PCR products from amplifications using PPT and Msel primers were used for SSAP reactions with PPT primers and 9 Msel primers containing selective nucleotides. Amplification was canied out by a conventional AFLP touchdown protocol, modifying the annealing temperature according to primers. IRAP assays were modified from the methodology developed by Kalendar et al. (1 999).Of the seven PPT primers, only five provided enough colonies for library construction, with a total of 1920 clones. Of the 72 fragments eh osen for sequencing reactions, only 3 7 showed the expected pair of primers (PPT-Msel) and were used for further analysis with Blast, Clustal and Matinspector. SSAPs were carried out with all the seven primers, and IRAPs with two of them.BLAST search. Severa! sequerices downstream from the polypurine tracts (presumed LTRs) showed high similarity with previously isolated sequences in Phaseolus vulgaris. Analysis of the sequences led to the conclusion that these sections did not correspond to insertion sites of retroelements, but rather to upstream and downstream conserved regions of basal genome reading frames. Residual retrotransposon sections are a common feature of the flanking regions of normal plant genes (White et al., 1994) and play an important role in genome evolution, apparently conceming promoter regions.Clustal alignment. Matinspector analysis. Conserved regions required for transcription are usually found in L TRs. Isolated LTR sequence L814-90 presented high levels of similarity (3 out of 4 had 100% similarity) in all the basic motifs (CAA T and TATA boxes, polyadenilation signa!, polyadenilation downstream signal) when compared to the consensus sequences ofthe program's database. The rest of the sequences had only a few motifs with conservation. High conservation levels in transcription factor-binding sites have proved useful, but not definitive for retrotransposon transcriptional competen ce (Poteau et al., 1991, cited in Manninen & Schulman, 1993).Retrotransposon molecular markers. Preliminary SSAP tests with two PPT primers (PPT438 and PPT814) resulted in polymorphism of 22.56 and 12.56%, respectively, between accessions G 19833 and DOR364, confirming the utility of this molecular marker for mapping purposes.Polymorphic bands corresponded to both SSAP and AFLP markers as the retrotransposonspecific primers were not labeled.The IRAPs also showed differential patterns between accessions, g1vmg evidence to recent transpositional activity since the divergence of varieties (Kalendar et al., 1999).Standardization of a technique to use polymorphic bands as probes for microarray-based mapping. A modification of AFLP (Vos et al., 1995) is being used to evaluate the leve! of polymorphism between accessions G 19833 and DOR364. PCR reactions include a preamplification step with EcoRI and Msel primers, a selective amplification step with specific LTR primers and Msel primer, and a + 3 amplification step with L TR-specific primers and Msel primers with selective nucleotides.Polymorphic bands are eluted from gels, re-suspended in water and re-amplified. After band identity confirrnation in agarose gels, the PCR product is ligated toa PGEMT-easy vector and transforrned into Escherichia coli DH5a cells. Severa! clones corresponding to each eluted band are re-amplified and electrophoresed on acrylamide gels to select the exact clone corresponding to the original eluted band. Selected clones are sequenced to confirrn their retrotransposon origin and are used as probes for microarray tests.IRAPs are being tested with the protocol ofKalendar et al. (1999) with sorne modifications.The DNA microarray technology has been applied to severa! model organisms including Escherichi coli, yeast and D. melanogaster (Chu et al., 1998;Richmond et al., 1999;White et al., 1999). Currently, two complementary techniques are available: fragment-based DNA microarrays and oligonucleotide-based chips, also referred to as Affymetrix chips. Briefly, DNA microarrays allow the simultaneous hybridization oftwo fluorescent-labeled probes toan array of immobilized DNA fragments (usually PCR-amplified DNA sequences), each corresponding toa specific gene or genotype. After scanning the microarray with a laser scanner, the signal for each DNA fragment reflects the abundance of the corresponding messenger RNA in the sample. Recently a new methodology has been adapted using DNA microarrays: Diversity Array Technology (DarT) at Cambia-Australia (Jaccoud et al, 2001). DarT, which is not reliant on DNA sequence information, has severa! potential applications including germplasm characterization, genetic marker-assisted breeding and tracking genome methylation changes (Jaccoud et al., 2001).A project was initiated to obtain molecular markers using DarT methodology and \"demonstrate their potential as markers in germplasm characterization, mapping and tagging of resistance genes.Two different libraries were constructed to generate different representations: Diversity panels anda mapping panel for beans. The methodology used here followed Jaccoud et al. (2001).Generaling diversity panels. DNA from 8 accessions that included mapping parentals, wild and cultivated beans from Mesoamerican and Andean pools was used to generate diversity panels. One restriction endonuclease (EcoRI) was used to generate representations. About 6 ng of DNA from each genotype were bulked and digested with 2 units of EcoRI. After digestion, the EcoRI adapter was ligated to the fragments using T4 DNA ligase, diluted and amplified using a combination of 4 primers with 3 selective nucleotides in a final volume of 50 J.Ll. Amplicons from representation were ligated to the pGEM T-easy vector, and the competentE. co/i strain DHSa was transformed by electrophoresis. White colonies were transferred onto a freezing medium and grown overnight at 37°C. Dilutions were made using 5 J.ll of bacteria! and 45 f .. Ll of water. A 5fll dilution was used to amplify by PCR reaction, using T7 and SP6 universal primers. After amplification, the PCR products were precipitated with 1 vol of isopropanol in ice. The DNA was re-suspended in lO fll of TE+glycerol at about 20 ng/¡ll. The purified fragments were arrayed with two replicates per fragment onto poly-lysine microscope slides (homemade) using the SPBio microarrayer from Hitachi After PCR amplifications, representations were column purified, and fluorescent dye (Cy3 or Cy5) was incorporated using a Megaprimer Labeling Kit from Amersham. Probes were purified before hybridization. Then 5 fll of Cy3-and Cy5-labeled representations were mixed with 2 fll of 20 J.lg/fll salmon sperm DNA dissolved in ExpressHyb hybridization solution (Clontech, USA) and denatured at 96°C for 3 min. The denatured probes were then mixed with 50 fll of ExpressHyb hybridization solution, pipetted directly onto the microarray surface, and covered with a glass cover slip. Slides were placed in a 60°C water bath in hybridization chambers (Clontech) and left overnight. After hybridization the cover slips were removed, and the slides were rinsed at room temperature. Slides were dried quickly by centrifugation at 1000 rpm in a slide rack for 1 min. Slides were scanned using a Virtek Chipreader. Spot signa! intensities were analyzed by ArrayPro.Generating a mapping panel. The mapping panel was generated using two mapping parentals: DOR 364 and G 19833. These two genotypes were digested using Msel to generate the representation. The remaining procedures were carried out as for the diversity panel methodology.Diversity panel. A total of250 clones were spotted onto poly-lysine slides. Eight DNA fragments were identified between DOR364 and G 19833 as being potentially polymorphic (with the red/green ratio >3.0, Figure 1). Severa! DNA fragments were identified among the other 6 accessions as being potentially polymorphic for diversity studies (red/green ratio >2.5). A total of 47 potentially polymorphic DNA fragment were identified.Mapping panel: A total of 2000 clones were spotted onto poly-lysine slides and hybridized with DOR364 and G 19833, labeled with Cy3 and CyS . Three hybridizations were made to reconfirm the polymorphic clones. A total of 180 polymorphic clones (ratio >3.0) were obtained. Ofthese 180 clones, only 30 of them are contrastive between both parentals. Progeny ha ve been processed for digestion/ligation, and they will be amplified to hybridize with contrastive clones. The RFLP-based molecular genetic framework map of cassava (Fregene et al., 1997)  Germplasm screening using these SSR markers is essentially by way of silver staining the amplification products on polyacrylamide gels or visualizing the PCR products on ethidium bromide stained agarose gels. While this will undoubtedly for a long time remain the marker of choice for these NARS on account of the ease of adoption it fails to address the need for high throughput.In furtherance of CIA T's commitment to the development of cheap and reliable molecular tools for use in high throughput genetic fingerprinting of cassava germplasm collections, genetic fine mapping, gene tagging and molecular marker assisted (MAS) breeding, our Unit has begun applying the Diversity Array Technology (DArT) to eliminate this identified inherent shortcoming of lack of throughput protocols in the use of SSR markers. DArT is one of several applications of the novel DNA microarray technology platform that employs the so lid state, open platform method for detecting DNA polymorphisms such as SNPs. In addition, this method is sequence-independent and requires only a minimal amount of DNA. The simplicity and low-cost of the technology strongly recommends it for use in tropical orphan crops like cassava where comprehensive genome sequences are definitely lacking and may not be available any time soon. The low-cost high-throughput technology of DArT, in addition to its obvious use in germplasm characterization, genetic mapping and gene tagging and MAS, can also be used in tracking genome methylation changes while the composite variant of the diversity panel permits the resolution of complex genomic samples into individual components. In our laboratory, we have employed the DArT technique to identify whole genomic DNA fragments that discriminare between cassava genotypes, including parents of each of our 2 mapping populations (that used for the framework map and for genetic mapping of cassava white fly resistan ce). This report describes a proof of concept pilot application of DArT to develop robes in the form of polymorphic DNA fragments for use in the development of dense maps, cassava germplasm characterization, MAS and in assessing genetic diversity germplasm accessions.Generation of panels Whole genomic DNA was extracted from the 4 parents of 2 mapping populations, NGA-2 or TMS 30572 and CM2177, for the F 1 mapping population; and ECU72 and MCOL2246, for the whitefly resistance gene mapping population, respectively. From this, 9ng of DNA from each of these 4 genotypes was bulked and digested with EcoRI. The digested bulk DNA was ligated, PCR amplified and purified using QIAGEN PCR cleaning kit. The cleaned PCR products were then used to transform competent bacteria! cells. The transformed bacteria! cells were incubated and plated out on LB+agar. Positively transformed cells (white colored colonies) were picked and cultured overnight in 384-well plates containing freezing media. These were then PCR amplified and the extension products alcohol precipitated, completely dried down and re-suspended in water. Equal volumes of each of these and spotting buffer (TE 20% glycerol) were introduced into fresh 384-well plates. These were then arrayed in duplicates onto 3 glass slides for each array using MiraiBio's spotter, SPBIO and the slides processed following Jacoud et al., 200 l.In each case, purified cloned amplicons of 2 representations i.e. the 2 parents of the respective mapping populations that had been bulked to generate the panel were labeled with Cy3 and Cy5 dyes, respective\\y, fol\\owing usual procedures. The two \\abeling reactions were subsequently bulked and cleaned using a QIAGEN PCR purification kit.The Cy3 and Cy5 labeled probes were hybridized onto the Diversity Panel overnight in Corning Hybridization chambers using Expresshyb hybridization solution from CLONTECH. These slides were post processed by serially washing in SSC and SOS followed by washes in decreasing concentrations of SSC. The slides were gotten ready for scanning by spin-drying in a tabletop SOIRV ALL centrifuge at room temperatureProcessed slides were scanned using the Cy3 and Cy5 channels of ChipReader (VIRTEK, Canada) and the images analyzed using ArrayPro4 from Cybernetics, USA. Positive clones, i.e. those with significant Cy3 or Cy5 fluorescence based on the ratio of their median intensities were identified. These values were obtained after normalization ofthe signals. Figure 1 shows a sample sean image with the Cy3 and Cy5 dyes having the green and red pseudo-colors, respectively. The yellow color represents a situation where both dyes hybridize positively to a clone. Clones were considered positive for Cy3 and Cy5 if they had Cy3/Cy5 ratios of more than 2.0 and less than 0.5, respectively.A total of 350 putative polymorphic fragments ha ve been identified as discriminating between the 2 parents ofthe Cassava F 1 mapping population. As a confirmation, a few ofthese would be used as probes to screen the 2 parents. An expected positive result would then lead to usíng these as probes on the 150 progenies that make up the mapping population.• Confinnation of the polymorphism of the isolated fragments • Producing panels made up of the mapping population and screening these with the identified fragments as probes. • Repeating same for the whitefly resistance mapping population • Using the data for placing the fragments on the map • Use ofthe probes for germplasm characterization • Sharing of the information Introduction There has been a concerted effort at the Biotechnology Research Unit (BRU) of CIA T to develop and disseminate molecular genetic tools that would make the development of new cassava varieties and germplasm characterization easier, cheaper and adoptable for cassava scientists especially in the National Agricultura! Research Systems (NARS) where most of the cassava improvement work is concentrated. The first step in this direction was the RFLP based molecular genetic framework map of cassava (Fregene et al., 1997). Recognizing the inherent bottlenecks in the use of RFLP as molecular markers, especially by the NARS, a major thrust of the efforts has been directed towards saturating this map with PCR-based molecular genetic markers. RFLP based techniques are expensive, require the use of hazardous radioactive probes that are not available to many resource-poor developing country research programs, and these probes must be physically transferred from one site to another under strict safety protocols. In contrast, PCRbased markers are robust, inexpensive to assay, easily shared among researchers and readily accessible in public and prívate domains, making this a much more appropriate approach in these countries. With access to a simple text file containing the sequences of the oligonucleotide primers for the PCR-based markers of interest, a breeder can rapidly and efficiently evaluate the germplasm under study.In this regard, our Unit has developed and made publicly available over 500 simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers (Chavarriaga et al., 19998;Mba et al., 2001;Mba et al., unpublished data;Fregene et al., unpublished data). Of these, a total of 157 were sourced from a cassava root and leaf cONA library while the rest were from whole genomic libraries. From the latter, 85 have been located on the cassava genome. The present report describes the characterization and initial efforts at the mapping of the 157 SSR-containing cONA fragments.Development of SSR 's from a cassava cDNA library A cassava cONA library was constructed commercially by Life Technologies, MD, USA from RNA extracted from leaves and roots tissue (see SB-2 Annual Report, 2000). The sequencing and initial primer designs were also as described for the whole genomic SSR clones using Perkin Elmer's ABI Prism 377 automated sequencer (Mba et al., 2001 ).Each of the SSR primer pairs were used to amplify the relevant Joci of the cassava genome in the two parents of the F1 mapping population, TMS 30572(female) and CM2177 (maJe), respectively. Those that had at least one unique allele in at least one of the parents were used to screen the !50 members ofthe F1 mapping progeny.SSR markers that had a unique allele in either or both parents of the mapping population were used to screen the 150 progenies making up the F 1 mapping population. The segregation data of the markers that fitted the expected ratio of 1: 1, presence: absence of the unique parental allele were used to place the markers on the framework map using the linkage analysis computer package MAPMAKER 2.0. (Lander et al., 1987). The data analyses followed the same procedures as described for the mapping ofthe initial36 SSR markers (Mba et al., 2001).From the approximately 400 putative SSR-containing cONA clones sequenced, a total of 157 clones contained SSR Joci in good enough positions for primer design. Less than 1 0% redundancy has been observed. Many of these clones contained more than one repeat motif_ at times in different loci. However, a great majority of the repeat loci were the CT/GA repeat which accounted for over 81% of the SSR-containing clones for PCR primer design. A breakdown of the loci type is given in the table below. temperatures, 55•c and 45•c respectively. In all, about 45 % of all SSR markers tested in the parents, revealed a unique allele in at least one of the parents while less than 20% showed a unique allele for both parents. A pattem of SSR polymorphism between the two parental loci is shown in Figure below.Figure 2 shows the map positions of 92 SSR loci from the SSR markers analyzed to date on the mate-and female-derived molecular genetic map. The segregation data on the 150 members of the F 1 mapping population of another 47 SSR markers sourced from the cONA library are currently being placed on the cassava map. Linkage group nomenclature is as described for the molecular genetic map of cassava by Fregene et a/.(1997) except for groups L, O, and P that have now been merged with other groups. The SSR markers reveal a complete spread over the cassava genome -at least one marker being placed on all but one of the eighteen linkage groups. The existence of markers with unique alleles in both of the parents or \"allelic bridges\" (Ritter et al. 1991) will assist in the construction of a consensus map of analogous mal e-and female-derived linkage groups for the cassava genome.Completion ofthe mapping ofthe rest ofthe SSR markers from the cONA library. Further dissemination of the SSR marker technology to intemational and national programs and other collaborators. The use of the microarray Diversity Array Technology (DArT) to develop polymorphic DNA fragments to further saturate the map and for use in high throughput cassava genome characterization. 1.3.12  The objective of the serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) of CMD resistan ce in cassava is to identify candidate genes that are expressed in the CMD2mediated response to the cassava mosaic virus (CMV). These candidate genes may be the novel dominant gene or genes expressed down stream that maybe the molecular basis of resistance. SAGE of CMD resistant and susceptible progeny from an F 1 mapping progeny yielded 12,700 15bp tags (representing expressed genes), divided into 5733 and 7053 tags for the resistant and susceptible genotypes respectively (CIA T 2000;Fregene et. al. 2001 in preparation). One hundred and seventy ti ve transcripts were expressed 3 to 12 times more in the resistant bulk compared 94 transcripts found 3-5 times in the susceptible bulk.The next step of the SAGE experiment is to identify the transcripts represented by the 15bp tags, a task complicated by the scanty EST data available for cassava. A PCR approach was therefore employed to amplify longer fragments using the 15bp tags as primers and a cONA library from resistant genotypes as template. At the same time an EST project was initiated in collaboration with the Iwate Biotech Research Center, Kitakami, Japan.A cONA library had earlier been constructed in pYES (Invitrogen Inc.) using mRNA from the CMD resistant bulk (Fregene and Terauchi 2000 unpublished data). The 13 or 15 bp SAGE tags served as forward primers and p YES vector sequen ces as reverse primer in PCR of a dilution of the cONA library. PCR primers were synthesized for 28 tags expressed four times or more in the resistant bulk compared to the susceptible. PCR reaction conditions was 1 O mM Tris-HCI, 50 mM KCI, 2.5mM Mgch. 200~M each dNTPs,10pmol ofthe forward and reverse primer, and 2.5U of\"hot star\" Taq polymerase (Qiagen Gmbh) in a 50~1 volume. DNA template was 1~1 ofa lOX dilutions ofthe cONA library from the CMO resistant bulk. Therrnal cycling conditions were 35 cycles of 95°C 4min, 94°C 30sec, 45°C 1m in, 70°C 1m in, and a final extension cycle of 70°C for Smin. PCR product was cloned into the PGEMT vector (Promega Inc.) transforrned into E.Coli by electroporation and sequencing was off the purified plasmid template using the T7 forward pnmer.To identify associations between differentially expressed genes and the dominant CMD resistance gene, cloned fragments from the tag PCR amplification were screened as RFLP probes in Southem blots ofONA ofthe parents and bulks ofthe CMD mapping progeny using 4 restriction enzymes namely: EcoRI, EcoRV, Hindlll, and Haelll. ONA isolation, filter preparation and Southem hybridization were as described by Fregene et. al. ( 1997). Transcripts found to be polymorphic in the parental survey were analyzed in the 80 individuals of the resistant and susceptible bulks and if found polymorphic, will be analyzed in a Jarge mapping progeny of about 2500 individuals to identify the precise position relative to the CMD resistance gene.For EST generation, 2ul ofthe cONA library was electroporated into 40ul of E.Coli HBIOI cells (Gibco BRL) and plated on LB agar plates + ampicillin ( 1 OOug/ml). A total of 5,000 colonies were picked into 70ul ofLB media+ ampicillin (IOOug/ml) in 384 well plates. Plasmid isolation was using the MONTAGE 96-well plate system (Millipore Inc), 4 96-well plates or 384 clones were processed at a time. PCR sequence reaction was with the 3' end primer designed from pYES (lnvitrogen Inc.) and the big dye terminator kit (Applied Biosystems) on a 9600 Perkin Elmer Machine or an MJ Research DNA engine (Tetrad). The sequence reaction was cleaned using the multi screen 96-well plate format (Millipore lnc.) and analyzed on a Shimadzu RISA 384-capillary sequencing machine. A target of3000 ESTs have been set for tag annotation.Of the 28 tag PCR, 24 gave good PCR products that could be cloned and sequenced, and 18 of these gave good and long enough sequence for BLAST (Atschul 1990) sequence similarity searches. Most of the tags were about 150-300bp long and the tag primer was found for 16 of the 18 sequenced tags, about 40bp from the 5' end. The putative identities of these transcripts and their tag primers are shown in Table l. Parental and bulk filters were screened with all 24 tag PCR products. Results revealed polymorphism in 2 of the tags, 25 and 11. Tag 25 is a transcript showing homology to WPKY transcription factor, while tag 11 shows similarity to a bHLH transcription factor GBOF-1. These tags are being analyzed further in a larger population.So far tag annotation has identi.fied genes known to be involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) response to disease in plants. They include a WRKY transcription factor, catalases, a pectin-esterase and reductases. Other genes were also found implicated in plant response to disease but are part of the cell mechanism known to aid virus replication including elongation factor alpha-1. Elongation factor 1-alpha (EF 1 alpha), is an essential component of the translation machinery that delivers aminoacyl-tRNA to ribosomes. Virus proteins such as lllV -1 Gag polyprotein that play key functions at almost all stages of the viral and the conserved 3'-terminal stem-loop (3' SL) of the West Nile virus can bind to EFlalpha and incorporate it into the virus replication machinery (Biackwell and Brinton 1997;Cimarelli and Luban J 1999).The 3' end sequencing of cONA clones is ongoing and is expected to provide 3000 ESTs for tag annotation. Homology with known genes and proteins deposited in public data bases are being sought for as sequences are produced. Preliminary results reveal that that transcripts known to be abundant in cells such as ribosomal and chloroplast sequences constitute only about 10% of all sequences suggesting the cONA library provides a good representation of genes expressed. Sequence data generated will be also be submitted to the Gene Bank.• Annotate many more tags using 3' end ESTs • Determine the function of sorne differentially expressed genes by over-expressing them in susceptible cassava plants and challenging them with infectious ACMV clones.  The principal objective of the project \"Molecular Mapping of Genes Conferring Resistance to the Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) in African Cassava Germplasm\" funded by the Rockefeller foundation is to identify markers tightly linked to different sources of CMD resistance for efficient and cost-effective deployment of resistan ce genes. Molecular markers linked to a novel and high leve! of resistance, designated CMD2 (Akano et. al. 200 1 ), have been identified. The effectiveness of CMD2 against a wide spectrum of strains of the virus in sub Saharan Africa, including the aggressive Ugandan variant (UgV) (see section 1.4, this report), makes its deployment very appealing in protecting cassava production against the ravages of CMD both in Africa and Latín America. Of urgent importance is containing the rapidly advancing front of UgV that has now reached the Democratic Republic ofCongo, Kenya, and Tanzania.Conventional breeding for CMD resistance involves at least 4 cycles of selection for resistance at the seedling, clona! and preliminary and advanced yield tria! stages. Disease pressure, which may vary from year to year, may lead to escapes that are carried along, in certain cases, up to the third cycle. Genetic markers for CMD resistance enables the elimination of susceptible genotypes at the seedling stage and reduces significantly, 50% in the case of CMD2, the materials to be evaluated in the field at the crucial single row (clona!) tria! stage, where more than 95% of genotypes are eliminated. Markers are even more important when two or more genes/traits are involved, the reduction in progenies to be evaluated becomes even higher. In many cassava production scenarios, CMD resistance has to go hand-in-hand with cassava bacteria! blight (CBB) resistan ce.A MAS project for CMD resistance was therefore initiated with liT A to enable us to test the fidelity of CMD markers developed at CIA T, a very convenient approach considering that phenotypic and molecular data can be obtained at the same time and compared. The MAS project is also necessary to work out the details for routinely using these markers in cassava breeding.The original group of CMD resistant Iand races for the study consists of TME3, TME4, TME28, and TME9. TME28 was dropped out dueto very poor flowering, while seeds obtained from crosses with TME4 are not considered here dueto its very close genetic similarity with TME3. Only crosses to TME3 and TME9, crossed to elite liTA parentallines, TMS30572, TMS91934, and TME 117, a land race favored for his good cooking roots, are reported here. TMS30572 is moderately resistant to CMD, while the other two are susceptible. TMS91934 has a very high leve! ofresistance to the all known strains ofCBB (Verdier 1999, pers communication) and can serve as a so urce of CBB resistan ce in progenies of the highly CBB susceptible land races TME3 and TME9. The seedling nursery and field establishment were at the liTA sub-station in Mokwa Iocated in the Guinea Savannah agro-ecology of Nigeria. This si te is characterized by low CMD disease pressure and ideal for the multiplication of cuttings from CMD susceptible lines.Before transplanting, 2 young leaves were harvested from each genotypes for DNA isolation and SSR analysis. The leaves were bagged in small plastic sample bags and carried on ice to liTA head quarters, Ibadan for DNA isolation. DNA isolation was by a miniprep isolation procedure of the Dellaporta et. al. (1983) protocol using 1 00-200mg of fresh leaf tissue and a twenty fold reduction in volumes of the isolation buffers and reagents. DNA isolated was shipped to CIA T head quarters for SSR marker analysis. DNA was not quantified for marker analysis, Sul of a 1 OX dilution was used in PCR reactions. All the genotypes were analyzed with SSR markers tightly linked to CMD2, SSR118 and NS158. SSR marker analysis were as described by Akano et. al. (2001).Sexual seeds obtained from crosses to the CMD resistant land races and plantlets, transplanted to the field are summarized in Tablel, a total of 2490 genotypes are currently growing in the field. Harvesting of two young lea ves from plantlets just befo re transplanting was initially thought to be stressful to the young plants, however more than 99% of transplanted genotypes survived and only 2 were lost. This is an important observation as it suggests that molecular assisted selection can be done even while the plants are in the seedling nursery.DNA was successfully isolated from all 2488 genotypes and the parentallines. The SSR markers, SSRY28 and NS 158 have been analyzed in close to half of the genotypes and marker analysis is still ongoing. The large number of plants obtained from crosses from both TME3 and TME9 makes them ideal not only for making comparisons between MAS and conventional selection, and for marker-fidelity studies; but also for fine mapping markers linked to CMD resistance. Great care was therefore exercised in relating plants in the field to raw SSR data, a special template was set up in microsoft excel for this purpose.Once molecular marker data becomes available for all genotypes, those with marker alleles linked to CMD2 will be selected and five 20cm long woody stakes harvested for field establishment in a high CMD pressure location, in this case, liT A Ibadan. CMD resistance will be eva)uated at 3 and 6 months after planting to confirrn the results of marker analysis and for comparison with an unselected population of all genotypes also to be established at liT A, Ibadan.• Evaluate all 2490 genotypes for CMD resistance under heavy disease pressure.The objectives of the study are to implement the cDNA-AFLP technique to identify differentially expressea bands between two different cassava cultivars, one resistant and one susceptible to CBB (MBRA 685 and MCOL 1522, respectively). We analyzed the pattem of cDNA-AFLP at different times post inoculation with a Xam strain and identified putative molecular disease resistance markers.We compared a resistant (MBRA 685) anda susceptible (MCOL 1522) variety for differential gene expressions o ver time after inoculation with Xam isolate CIO 151. Y oung plants were inoculated by stem puncture. Stem tissues were collected at 24 and 72 hours post inoculation (pi), 7, 15 and 30 days pi. The controls were healthy non-inoculated plants and plants inoculated with sterile water. The tissue was grounded in liquid nitrogen and total RNA was isolated using the Proteinase K method (Hall et al., in Rocha, 1995). Poly (A) RNA was isolated using aligo (dT) coupled to DynaDeads (DYNAL). cONA was synthesized using aligo (dT) primer and SuperScript 11 reverse transcriptase (GIDCO BRL) from 400-500 ng of mRNA, as starting material.The template for cDNA-AFLP was prepared according to Bachem el al. (1996) using EcoRI and Msel restriction enzymes and adapters. Preamplification was carried out with one EcoRI and one Msel single chain adaptar with no (O) or one ( 1) selective bases. This product was checked on agarose gels and a 1130 dilution• was used for subsequent amplifications. These were done with a pair of primers with 2 or 3 selective bases (GIDCO primers and Plant AFLP Kit, GIDCO, respectively). Selective amplification products were separated on a 6% polyacrylamide gel run at 1 OOW, 50°C for 2 and a half hours. lt was then processed with the silver staining technique (Promega)..Bands of interest were marked, cut and eluted in ddHO. AFLP fragments were reamplified by PCR, ligated to pGEM®-Teasy (Promega) and sequenced using the automated sequencer (ABI Prism 377). The sequences were edited using Sequencher 3.0 (Gene Codes Corporation) and compared with the GenBank databases using BLASTx and BLASTn.The cDNA-AFLP technique was successfully implemented using RNA isolated from stem tissue from cassava plants. We evaluated 32 and 40 combinations of AFLP primers with two (2) and three (3) selective bases, respectively. cDNA-AFLP profiles showed 40 to 70 bands per primer combination, ranging between 100 and 1500 base pair (bp), with -3600 fragments screened (Figure 1). Differential expression was observed for 353 fragments putatively induced by the pathogen in the resistant variety, with an average of -5 bands per combination. These fragments ranged between 130 to 650 bp. The more informative primer combinations were E-AAIM-AG, E-ANM-CT, E-ACG/M-CTT and E-ACT/M-CTT with 11 , 10, 14 and 16 differential bands, respectively.We sequenced 201 bands and compared their homology with GenBank databases. Significant homologies with known genes or putative genes ha ve been found for 149 sequences. 3 7 of these showed homology with plant resistance or defense related proteins or other type of plant proteins (Table 1). Sequences similar to the resistance genes Cf-2 and 12 from tomato were found, and others with homology to putative resistance proteins. These fragments are expressed at 24 hpi in the resistant variety, indicating that they are induced by the pathogen or that their expression increased in the presence of the bacteria. This is in contrast with the hypothesis that resistance genes are constitutively expressed in plant cells (Hammond-Kosack & Jones, 1996, Staskawicz el al., 1995, Lamb, 1994, Keen, 1990, Gabriel & Rolfe, 1990). Sorne of these sequences showed expression in the susceptible variety al so, but Jater after the infection ( 15 dpi, bands E6, E 18 and E45, Table 1), suggesting that these putative genes are present in both genotypes but expressed early in the resistant variety.  Fragments E6 and E45 showed significant homology with Jeucine rich repeats (LRR) from Cf2 and 12 genes (type LRR and NBS-LRR, respectively). The LRR motif in resistance genes is involved in protein-protein interactions and acts in the specific recognition of avirulence genes from pathogens (Staskawicz et al., 1995). The Cf gene family recognizes the fungus Cladosporium fulvum and activates the defense response in severa! tomato species (Dixon el al., 1996). The 12 gene family confers resistance to severa! species of Fusarium sp._ and shares structural characteristics with NBS-LRR resistance genes (Ori el al. , 1997).The fragment El8 showed homology with a putative resistance protein in lettuce. This putative gene has structural elements characteristic from NBS (kinase V motive and P-loop) and LRR (Shen et al., 1998). Other fragments showed similarity with Serineffhreonine or receptor protein kinases that belong to a different type of resistance genes that modulate the phosphorylation of other proteins. They are involved in the signa! transduction cascarles that actívate defense responses in plants. These results indicate that through the cDNA-AFLP technique we have isolated resistance and defense related fragments induced by Xam, corresponding to three different types of resistance genes in plants.We also found significant homology with transcription factors that act in the last part ofthe signa! transduction pathway that leads to the activation of defense related genes (Dixon el al., 1994). Severa! fragments showed homology to senescence, apoptosis and dormancy associated proteins suggesting that they might be involved in the programmed cell death mechanism included on the hypersensitive response. This defense reaction, very common in plants, creates a toxic media for the establishment and expansion of the invading pathogen (Hammond-Kosack & Jones, 1996,  Staskawicz et al., 1995).Another 52 fragments did not show significant homology to known sequences in the databases. These were differentially expressed since 24 hpi indicating that were also induced by the pathogen, and might represent novel sequences in cassava putatively associated with resistance to Xam.We are focusing our attentíon on those fragments that showed significant homology with known genes and those that are strongly induced to confmn their differential expression by Northem blot analysis.These fragments will be used as probes to hybridize a cONA library to isolate full-length clones. This information can be used to develop markers associated to resistance.Lopez, C.E., Mosquera, G., Restrepo, S., Tohme, J., and Verdier, V. SB-2 ProjectSystematic profiling of genes that are specifically expressed by a pathogenic bacterium in its host plant would assist in understanding basic virulence mechanisms (Okinaka et al., 2001 ). Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis is a plant pathogenic bacterium, causal agent of cassava bacteria! blight. A plasmidic sequence containing a pathogenicity gene, pthB, has been described previously (Verdier et al., 1996). However, others sequences should be involved into the pathogenesis process. By now, no new sequences have been reported. The elucidation of those bacteria! expressed genes in infection process is a hard task when the entire genome sequence is not available.Recent advances in functional genomic technologies such as DNA microarrays have provided a unique way to monitor gene expression on a genomic scale and under different conditions. The majority of microarrays have been constructed from organisms for which the whole genome sequence is known or from organism that have an important collection ofESTs.We are constructing a Xam microarray based on the AFLP amplification of the Xam genome in order to identify genes implicated in pathogenesis and to study the global changes in gene expression associated with the process of infection of Xam during its interaction with cassava plants.AFLP was carried out as described previously (Restrepo et al., 1999), using 250ng of Xam genomic DNA from strain Cio-46. The PCR was performed using the EcoRI + C and Msel + A primer combination and the PCR product was cloned into pGEMT-Easy. Another library using AFLP adaptors as primers for the PCR amplification was constructed but only the fragments above 300 bp were eluted from the acrylamide gel and reamplified. The reamplified products were cloned. Plasmids obtained from the two libraries were introduced to E. coli by electroporation. Bacteria were grown overnight in freezing medium and 5J.1l of a 1: 1 O dilution was used for the insert amplification using T7 and SP6 primers.PCR products were precipitated with isopropanol and resuspended in TE ( 1 O mM Tris; 1 mM EDTA) and 50% DMSO. An aliquot of 2J.1l was used to confirm the amplification in a 1% agarose gel. Twenty ¡.ti ofthe PCR resuspended in the TE-DMSO mix were transferred into 384well plates for slide printing.In another experiment, Xam strain Cio-46 was used to inoculate the susceptible cassava variety MCOL 1522. Inoculations were performed as previously described (Restrepo et al., 1997) by stem puncture with one bacterial colony. Stems (2 cm around the inoculation site) were collected 24, 48 hours and 5, 7 and 15 days after inoculation. Tissue was cut into small slices and resulting fragments were placed in DEPC-treated water. Sample was vigorously vortexed, supernatant was recovered and centrifuged for 5 m in at 8000g. Bacteria} pellet was resuspended in RL T buffer and RNA was extracted using the RNeasy plant mini kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). cDNA synthesis was performed using random primers and AFLP was conducted using the AFLP analysis system fro microorganisms (GIBCO). cDNA was also synthesized from ARN extracted from bacteria grown in-vitro in liquid medium. Nine primer combinatíons were assayed for the second AFLP amplification.After the second AFLP amplification, the product was separated in a polyacrylamide gel (6%). Differential bands present in the inoculated bacteria and absent in the bacteria grown in-vitro were eluted from the gel, re-amplified and cloned as described above. A total of 118 clones were sequenced using the automated sequencer (ABI Prism 377). The sequences were edited using Sequencher 3.0 (Gene Codes Corporation) and compared with the GenBank databases using BLASTx and BLASTn.Each DNA fragment was arrayed (arrayer SPBIO ver1.54, MiraiBIO, Inc) with four replicates onto glass slides coated with aminopropyltriethoxisilane (Sigma). The spacing between spots was 0.3mm. S lides were placed on a dessicant chamber wrapped into aluminum foil until use.A set of control genes was printed in the slide. Controls were cassava housekeeping genes, Xam ribosomal genes, pthB, a Xam pathogenicity gene, N 52, an interna! sequen ce of the pthB gene and a repetitive sequence present in the Xam chromosome. Two days after arraying, slides were processed. S lides were baked at 96C on hot plate for 1 min. They were then crosslinked using a UV stratalinker at 650Jll. Slides were treated with amine blocking solution (1.5g of succinic anhydre in 250ml 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone and 250m! of 0.2M boric acid pH8) for 15 min, gently shaking at room temperature. Then, slides were placed in boiling distilled water for 2 m in to denature DNA, soaked in 100% ethanol and dried by centrifugation (1 min at lOOOrpm).From the AFLP-derived librarles, 768 clones were obtained (384 clones from each library). These clones were all printed in the array.From the cDNA-AFLP-derived library, fragments varied in size from 50 to 800bp. For each primer combination, 20 to 80 bands were obtained. From 6 to 1 O clones were pic~ed for each differential band eluted from the gel. A total of 118 clones were sequenced, most of them showed homology to ribosomal genes. The 17 remaining (not showing a homology to ribosomal genes) did not presented an homoloy when compared with sequences in the Genbank We selected all clones from these 17 sequences to be arrayed in the Xam microarray.To hybridize Xam microarrays with ARN or cDNA obtained from Xam collected at different time points after inoculation and ARN from bacteria grown in-vitro.The clones showing differential expression will be sequenced to identify genes involved in pathogenesis.The clones, identified and sequenced, will be used as probes against northern blots to confirm their differential expression.The factors controlling the outcome of host-pathogen interactions where there is no obvious hypersensitive response are yet not well understood. This is the case for cassava bacteria! blight, caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam). Xam is a foliar and a vascular pathogen. No mechanism has been observed to limit the multiplication and development of the bacteria in the mesophyll of resistant cultivars during the foliar phase and intercellular multiplication in the mesophyll (Boher and Verdier, 1995). However defense mechanisms against the pathogen have been shown in the vascular system of infected cassava plants (Kpémoua el al.,  1996).In order to establish which genes are involved in the expression of resistance of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) to Xam infection, we used DNA microarrays containing 3872 Arabidopsis thaliana stress-related ESTs.Plant inoculations, RNA isolation and cDNA synthesis Four weeks old plants (variety MBRA 685) were inoculated by stem puncture with Xam isolate CIO 151. Stem tissues were collected at 24 and 72 hours post inoculation (pi), 7, 15 and 30 days pi. The controls were healthy non-inoculated plants. Tissue was grounded in liquid nitrogen and total RNA was isolated using the Proteinase K method (Hall et al., in Rocha, 1995). Poly (A) RNA was isolated using oligo (dT) coupled to DynaDeads (DYNAL). cDNA was synthesized using oligo (dT) primer and SuperScript 11 reverse transcriptase (GIBCO BRL) from 400-500 ng of mRNA, as starting material.Fluorescence-labeled probes were prepared from cDNA. Each feaction (6~1) consisted of 2-3~g of cDNA, 3~g Random primers, 2mM each of dATP, dCTP, and dGTP, 0.65 mM dTTP, 2nmol of either Cy3-dUTP or Cy5-dUTP, and IOU of Klenow fragment in IX reaction buffer. cDNA from healthy plants was labeled with Cy3 and a pool of cONA from all time points after inoculation was labeled with Cy5. The labeling reaction proceeded for 1 hour at 37°C. After incubation, reactions of the two samples were combined and purified using the Qiaquick kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). The sample was then dried until 5~1 were left and resuspended in 26~1 of CLONTECH ExpressHyb buffer (with 40ng of salmon sperm DNA). The probe was denatured at 95°C for 5 min and applied to the microarray.Hybridizations were performed overnight at 60°C in humidified chambers. The slides were sequentially washed in the following solutions: 1 X SSC and 0.1% SDS for 1 O m in, 1 X SSC twice for lmin, 0.2X SSC twice for 2 min and 0.02 X SSC for 5 to lO sec. Slides were dried by centrifugation.After hybridization and washing, microarrays were scanned with Virtek chipreader®. Spots representing the arrayed genes were identified, and distinguished and analyzed using the Spotfinder and Arrayviewer softwares from TIGR (The Institute for Genomic Research). The average (integral) fluorescence intensity for each fluor and each gene was determined and background fluorescence was calculated as the median fluorescence signa! of non-target pixels around each gene spot. Missing spots, spots with low signal intensity, and spots in high background areas were flagged •and excluded from the analysis. Normalization between the Cy3 and Cy5 fluorescent dye emission channels was performed using the total intensity for each channel, based on the assumption that under the conditions being tested, most genes will not change in expression. In this experiment, we defined induction or repression of a gene as a mínimum 2.5-fold change in its transcript level.Microarrays were used to study gene expression quantitatively after infection of cassava stems withXam. Figure 1 shows an image ofthe microarray after hybridization.Figure 1: Results of gene expression experiments using Arabidopsis microarrays and cDNA obtained from cassava stems, healthy (Cy3) and inoculated (Cy5) as probes.Analysis of data revealed that 20 spots were not flagged as bad spots by the Spotfinder software and of these, 15 ESTs on the microarray showed significant differential expression in response to the infection of cassava stems with Xam. Identification of the ESTs showing a significant induction or repression pattern during the incompatible reaction between cassava and Xam.Confirrn the differential expression of the genes identified with new Arabidopsis microarray hybridizations and through northern blots analysis.Develop microarrays containing cassava genes obtained from compatible and incompatible cassava-Xam interactions.We are rnaking progress towards cloning a blast resistance gene using positional cloning. Tightly linked rnarkers are required for rnarker-assisted breeding to ensure higher selection accuracy and efficiency. Our strategy for using positional cloning is based on:The genorne size of the rice is the srnallest among the rnajor crops ( 400 Mb ), The physicallength of the genetic distan ce per unit is srnall, ca 200 Kb cM; Rice has the rnost reliable transfonnation systern among the rnonocots; There are abundant restriction fragment length polymorphisrn (RFLP) markers and genetic infonnation about rice blast resistance (Kawasaki et al 1996).A large set of rnicrosatellites distributed along the en tire chrornosorne set, sorne of thern linked to RFLPs next to Pi genes. YACs and BACs contigs that contain Pi genes (Ciernson University-USA and Rice Genorne Program-Japan). Updated ESTs database ( Wang et al2001).We have started fine mapping a region of chrornosome 6 that contains genes Pi2, Pil3, and Pi9 for rice blast resistan ce, using as a so urce of resistan ce the variety lrat 13.For mapping we used parental Fanny and Irat13, susceptible and resistant respectively for Pyricularia grisea isolates SRL-1 to SRL-6. The linkage rnap was constructed based on phenotypic segregation data frorn 104 doubled-haploid individuals. Plants were inoculated with blast SRL-1 isolates cica9-31-4 and cica9-6. MapMaker, with LOO 4,0, was used to analyze linkage of RFLP, RAPO, SCAR's, RGA, AFLP's and Microsatellites. For fine mapping, we selected a 6-7 cM interval between markers SCAR's B10 and microsatellite RM3 (easy to evaluate by PCR) in chromosorne 6, which rnay involve the centromere. To-search for recornbinants within this interval, a 1500-2000 individuals, F2 population is being grown in the greenhouse. Evaluations with cica9-31-4 and cica9-6 isolates will be carried out with the F3.The centromere is being rnapped using probe N36 (donation of Dr. Q. We obtained flanking markers for major resistance genes on chromosome 6 (figure 1) involved in resistance or susceptibi1ity to SRL-1 isolates cica9-31-4 and cica9-6 in a 104, doub1ed-hap1oid population derived from the cross Fanny x Irat13 .Fifteen markers ( 1 SCAR's, 6 RAPO, 3 RFLP's, 2 AFLP's, 2 Microsatellites and 1 RGA), closely linked to resistance are within a 6-7 cM interval. This region may involve sorne Pi-2, Pi-13 or Pi-9 genes, possibly located in the centromere or within the pericentromeric region. Two PCRbased, flanking markers have been selected for fine mapping (B10 2+/-3cM y RM3 3.5+/-4.0 cM; (Figure 1).Of the 15 restriction enzymes tested to search for polymorphisms for centromere mapping, Clal and Kpnl were selected in the parentals. Mapping the centromere and probes closely linked to it, will allow us to precisely define this region. For this purpose, we can use probes from other rice maps tightly linked to the centro mere that map next to or within the interval B 1 O-RM3.Twenty nine RFLP-cONA probes from the Japanese map, located within the centromeric region , were tested in parenta1s with Xbal, Oral, EcoRI, EcoRV and Hindill. No polymorphism was detected. The same probes are being tested with 15 more enzymes for future mapping to saturate the region.SCAR's B 1 O developed at CIA t is a good starting point for fine mapping. lt has shown perfect co-segregation with Pi-2 when tested in an Isolinea1 x Iso1inea6 segregating population.(Fernando Correa, pers comm).Chromosome 6Pil1(1)::~7 ;g~  Ongoing ActivitiesFine mapping of chromosome 6 centromeric interval described above in an F2 population of 1500-2000 individuals to map tightly linked (0, 1 cM) pro bes to genes of interest. Evaluation of linked markers on rice BAC libraries.Possible construction of a cosmid library from Irat13 to ensure markers c1osely linked to resistance in this parental genotype. Analysis of cONA libraries from Iratl3 using microarrays.Rice Blast, caused by Pyricularia grisea Sacc (Teleomorph Magnaporthe grisea BaiT), is one of the most widespread and destructive diseases of rice (Ou 1985). Two varieties, Oryzica llanos 5 and Iratl3 , have shown resistance to isolates be1onging to lineage SRL1 and SRL6 (Fernando Correa, pers. comm.). Dissecting and isolating resistance genes from these two varieties is crucial for breeding programs to produce durable resistance to blast. Linkage maps of Fanny x Irat13 , and Fanny x O. Llanos 5, are available with different molecular markers. Fine mapping is being conducted in Fanny x lrat13, around genes Pi2, Pi13 y Pi9 next to the centromeric region of chromosome 6,. We have constructed a cONA expression library for Iratl3 and O. Llanos5 to speed up a Microarray-based search for genes expressed during blast infection.To obtain representative amounts of mRNA of Oryzica llanos 5 and Iratl3 , plants were inoculated 20-25 days after planting in the greenhouse with strains cica 9-31-4 and cica 9-6, which belong to SRL1 (molecular markers linked to resistance to these two isolates have been previously isolated). Leaves were collected in liquid Nitrogen after 6, 12 and 24 hours post-inoculation.Tissues were stored at -80 oc until needed.To extract total RNA we made bulks of tissues collected at different times (100 mg from the bulk). Tissues were macerated in liquid Nitrogen, and RNA extracted using Rneasy\"> Plant Mini Kit protocol of QUIAGEN. mRNA ¡urification involved severa! RNA mini-extractions, which were then run through Oynabeads Oligo(dt)25 from Oynal. Once mRNA was ready, we proceeded to cONA synthesis with the Kit Super Script Plasmid System® for cONA Synthesis and Plasmid Cloning of GIBCO-BRL.To fraction cONA, we used columns from GIBCO-BRL and collected fractions 7,8 and 9 for cloning. Libraries were screened for insert size by endonuclease digestion and PCR amplification. The two libraries showed an average size insert of 1,8 Kb, ranging from 0,5 to 2,0 Kb, which is optimum for cONA Microarray (Xiang et al, 2000). The cONA library of O.Lianos 5 was stored as ligations, at -80°C, for posterior electroporation into bacteria. Irat13 library was used to spot 13824 clones in 384-well plates, by duplicate, and stored at -80°C. Different clones from different plates were PCR-amplified directly from bacteria which guaranteed the presence of inserts in 90-95% ofanalyzed clones (Figure 1) .Both cONA libraries are expression libraries since inserts are directionally cloned respective to the transcriptional polarity of the mRNAs they derive from. Oirectional cloning thus facilitates the construction of subtraction libraries to search for diffrentially expressed genes.• Screening expression libraries with markers mapped and closely linked to blast resistance genes. The identification of differential gene expression between two organisms or cells types is a frequent goal in modern bio\\ogical research. The possibility to determine mRNA expression differences between apomictic and sexual genotypes using the novel tools of functional genomics is a powerful too) to access the gene expression involve in this.Severa) recent and rapid PCR-based method, including Subtractive Suppression H_ybridization (SSH) and Representational Differences Analysis {RDA) have been for the cloning of genes that are differentially expressed between genotypes. Recently, cONA microarrays have been developed and used to quantitative differential gene expression by hybridization a complex mRNA -derived pro ve onto an arra y of PCR products. Microarrays allow thousands of genes to be monitored simultaneously for expression leve) and compared between tissues.Here we show the advancement in the merging of cONA subtraction technique with microarray analysis as a potential method for detection of unique differential expressed genes related to apomixes in Brachiaria.Based in the most common protocols for cONA microarray different consensus protocols were tested in the implementation of this technique for the gene expression study with Brachiaria at CIAT.The plasmids of 1920 selected cONA clones were collected from the cONA subtraction library, which was obtained from the subtractive suppressive hybridization• (SSH) between the cONA of B. decumbes, which contains specific transcrips and the reference cONA of B . ruzziciensis. The inserts of the cONAs were amplified by PCR in 96-well plate format using T7 and SP6 primers pair specifics for the pGEMT-easy vector. PCR reaction of 50¡.d with 5¡.¡.1 of a dilution 1:20 directly from the grow bacteria! as template. The PCR products were precipitated both by adding 50¡.¡.1 of ethanol and 5¡.¡.1 of 3M sodium acetate or 50¡.¡.1 of isopropanol. The precipitated samples were centrifuged at 3000rpm at 4°C for 30 minutes and washed with ethanol 70%. After dry down the samples it were resuspended in 10¡.¡.1 different spotting buffers (TE+glycerol 50%, SSC 3X, SSC 3X + SOS 0.1 %, and TE+OMSO 50%). The yield and qual ity of the PCR products were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis.The PCR samples were arrayed in duplicates from 384-well plates onto home made slides coated with poly-L-Lys as well as onto SigmaScreen n.t coated slides. After spotting both types of slides were processed to avoid non-specific hybridization.Two different were used for preparation of the labeled probe in the hybridization. In the first method we label cONA directly by incorporating fluorescently labeled nucleotides during oligo-dT primed reverse transcription and in the second method the cONA was prepared by a normal cONA synthesis reaction and it was used as template for a random primer labeling reaction with exonuclease free klenow (USB). Following the hybridization the slides were submerged in the washing solutions and the fluorescent image was acquired for both fluorescent dyes used by scanning the slides with the Hita,chi Genetic Systems.Experiments using cONA microarrays, can encounter technical problems at any step. Oifferent points, which are critica! in the cONA microarray implementation, has been salve, at least on the gene expression experiments with Brachiaria. The possibility provided by the microarray format, to include numerous interna) controls facilitate the recognition and correction of many kinds of problems.The different combination among the cleaning method of the PCR product, the spotting buffer, the type of slide and the probe labeling system allow us to establish a putative protocol for the gene expression analysis in Brachiaria with cONA microarrays. We establish that the precipitation of the PCR product with isopropanol work better than the Ethanol and sodium acetate combination. Using isopropanol the amounts of PCR product recover is higher than with ethanol, and the steps in the precipitation and cleaning process is less time consuming. About the spotting buffers and the type of slide, the combinations between poly-L-Lysine home made slides and TFJGlycerol or TFJDMSO 50% give stronger signa! than any other spotting buffer. Beside that poly-L-Lysine have more ONA affinity the background signal was also higher than when SigmaScreen s1ides were used. When the different spotting buffers were tested on SigmaScreen slides the only one which gives high affinity for the slide surface and regular spot form was TFJDMSO 50%, follow by 3x SSC, the rest of the spotting buffers spread the cONA all over the slide joining each spot to the neighbors.The hybridization results both incorporating fluorescently labeled nucleotides during o1igo-dT primed reverse transcription of the total RNA or random primer labeling reaction with exonuclease free klenow (USB) using cONA already synthesized give almost the same results without significant differences.The cloning of resistance genes in different species is providing a wealth of information about the structure, expression and function such genes. Recent genetic studies reporting that the Mi gene for resistance in tomato to the root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita is the same gene for resistance to specific isolates of the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Rossi et al., 1998). Mi was the frrst example of a plant Resistance Gene (Rgene) active against two such distantly related organisms. M oreo ver, it was the first isolate-specific insect resistance gene to be cloned. The gene belongs to the nucleotidebinding (NBS), leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family which includes the majority of cloned R-genes.Sequence similarity between cloned disease R-genes, especially those from the NBS class, allowed us to use degenerate primers in rice, cassava and common bean to isolate NBS-containing sequences that are potentially part of R-genes and are called Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) (BRU Annual Report, 1998, 1999). RGAs have proved to be useful as \"candidate genes\" to map resistance loci, mainly in common bean (BRU Annual Report, 2000, 2001 ).Spittlebug is the most harmful pest of Brachiaria in America. Different methods must be integrated to achieve effective control of this pest. An efficient method is the use of cultivars that are naturally resistant. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying resistance are not fully understood. The objective of this study is to initiate a candidate gene approach using degenerate primers to isolate RGAs the NBS-LRR class from Brachiaria.Sequence similarity between cloned disease R-genes, especially those from the NBS class, allowed us the use of PCR with degenerate primers in rice, cassava and common bean to isolate NBS-containing sequences that are potentially part of R-genes. and are called Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) (BRU Annual Report, 1998, 1999). RGAs have proved to be useful as \"candidate genes\" to map resistance loci, mainly in common bean (BRU Annual Report, 2000, 2001).Spittlebug is the most harmful pest of Brachiaria in America. Different methods must be integrated to achieve effective control of this pest. A low cost method is the use of cultivars that are naturally resistant. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying resistance are not fully understood which does not really allows to take advantage of it. The objective of this study is to initiate a candidate gene approach degenerate primers to isolate RGAs the NBS-LRR class from Brachiaria.DNA templates were used from B. brizantha CIA T 6294 and B. ruziziensis BR4x44-02, which are resistant and susceptible to the spittlebug, respectively. A mapping population of 215 individuals has been derived from the interspecific cross of these species.Degenerate primers based on the Nucleotide Binding Site (NBS) which is conserved in R-genes have been used successfully in rice, cassava and common bean to isolate RGAs of the NBS type (BRU Annual Report, 1998, 1999). For Brachiaria, we assayed degenerate primers designed by Leister et al. ( 1996Leister et al. ( , 1998)), Lopez and A costa (BRU Annual Report, 1999) and Silvia Peñuela (unpublished results). Amplifications were obtained for the primers indicated in Table l . Primers targeting the TIR dornain of R-genes or the TIR-type NBS were also tested but, as expected, no amplification was obtained because monocotyledonous does not have this type ofR-genes (BRU, Annual Report, 1999;Meyers et al., 1999).PCR products from B. brizantha CIA T 6294 were separated and bands of the expected size were purified, cloned and transformed into E.co/i electrocompetent cells. A total of 144 clones (36 of each combination) were obtained and grouped by their restriction pattems with the 4-bp cutter enzyme Alul. Twenty two groups were identified and one clone of each group was sequenced using the Oye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit and the Applied Biosystems Prism 377 DNA sequencer (Perkin-Elmer). Sequences of 19 clones corresponded to RGAs and were classified in 7 classes according to their similarity: BRGA 1 to BRGA 7.The next step is locate these RGAs in the genetic map that is currently being constructed at the BRU (Oiga X. Giraldo and Jaime Vargas, BRU, Annual Report, 2001) using the mapping population ofthe interspecific cross between B. brizantha CIAT 6294 and B. ruziziensis BR4x44-02. RGAs are usually mapped as RFLPs and we have already obtained good polymorphic band between the parental DNA. Screening of the mapping population will be conducted next year. We have also designed primers that specifically amplify each BRGA class to convert them in PCR-based markers that are easier to evaluate. BRGAs will be amplified from each parental and cut with A/ul. Digestion products will be separated on acrylamide gels and polymorphic bands between parents will be used for mapping. Resistance to one species of spittlebug has been evaluated quantitatively in each individual of the progeny. After location of BRGAs in the map, QTL analysis will be performed hoping to find one BRGA explaining sorne leve! of resistance to spíttlebug.   The genus Brachiaria Griseb. belongs to the tri be Paniceae, comprises aproximately 100 species, mostly of African orígin. Sorne of these have found commercial use as forage in tropical America, with approximately fourty million hectares of Brachiaria pastures in Brazil alone (Valle and Miles 1992). The commercial species of B. brizantha and B. decumbens are tetraploid apomitic (Valle 1986), The Construction of a Brachiaria molecular map was initiated (BRU annual report pp [123][124][125][126][127]2000), using a population of215 F1 individuals derived from a cross between an autotetraploid spittlebug susceptible individual B. ruziziensis and a tetraploid spittlebug resistant individual B. brizantha. The objective of the study is to increase the saturation of the map using SCARs and SSRs developed at CIA T, AFLPs, RFLPs probes from other grases species and tag the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling spittlebug resistance in Brachiaria.Plant Material: A sexual tetraploid B. ruziziensis (Swenne et al., 1981 ), susceptible to spittlebug (Clone 44-3), was used as a female parent in a cross with natural and apomitic tetraploid genotype B. brizantha resistant to spittlebug (accession CIA T-6294).DNA Extraction: DNA was extracted using the protocol described by Carlos Colombo (personal communication) with sorne modifications. 1g of tissue was dried at 48 oc for 20 hours and ground to fine power; 15 mi ofextraction buffer (0. 1M Tris-Hcl pH8.0, 0.05M EDTA pH8.0, 0.7 M NaCI, 4% CTAB and 1% BMe) was added and incubated at 65 °C for 10 min; 15 ml of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24: 1) was added and centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 30 min. The aqueous phase was transferred toa new tube and 8 mi of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol was added and centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 30 min, repeated twice. A volume of cold isopropanol was added to the supernatant and incubated over night at -20 °C. The isopropanol mixture was centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 30 min at 4 °C. The DNA pellet was washed with cold 75% ethanol and dried at room temperature, and then resuspended in 300 ul of TE. Pancreatic RNAse was added to a final concentraction of 20 ug/ml. DNA was quantified on a DYNA QUANT 200 fluorometer (Hoffer Scientific Instruments, San Farancisco CA).Microsatellites:The isolation of the microsatellites and the methodology for PCR amplification and evaluation of polymorphism have been described previously (BRU annual report pp 123-127, 2000). An additional set of 26 new SSRs was evaluated this year.AFLP, RFLP RAPO: All 215 individuals were evaluated using the combination (E-ACG/M-CTA), The screening methodology was described in (BRU annual report pp [123][124][125][126][127]2000). Protocols for RFLP and RAPD, markers in Brachiaria were described previously (BRU Annual report pp 105-11 O 1997).Linkage Analysis: Segregation of markers as single dose restriction fragrnent (SDRF) markers according to the genetic model was determined by departure from the hypothesized 1: 1 ratio by the Chi-square test. The data matrixes obtained for presence or absence of bands were analyzed with MAPMAKER v 3.0b for PC (Lander et al. 1987), using LOD score of 6.0 and recombination fraction 0.3. Recombination was translated to genetic distances using the Kosambi map function.Phenotypic screening: The Tropical Forage Entomology section screened the population of the average damage of individual hybrid plant (C. Cardona et al., 1999). The results indicate that approximately 74.5% ofthe population can be classified as resistant or susceptible individuals to the spittlebug damage (table 1). The average damage values cover a continuous range from 1 to 5 suggesting a quantitative trait. Three different ranges were derived allowing the classification of the population as resistant, intermediate or susceptible individuals.The Genetic Linkage Map: Sixty-eight SSRs, 5 combinations AFLPs (116 markers), and 35 RFLPs segregating in the male parent (CIAT-6294), were tested for linkage using MAPMAKER V.3 .0b. Polymorphisms were scored for presence (H), and absence (A), and analyzed for dosage among Fl progeny using Chi-square tests (P<O,Ol). 45 SSRs, 67 AFLPs and 16 RFLPs markers, were found to define 22 linkage groups spanning 1079.031 cM, with an average marker density of 1 marker every 8.43 cM (Figure 1), map distance in centimorgans was calculated using the Kosambi mapping function. Linkage groups were organized according the number of markers presents in each group. The most densely populated linkage group 9 spanned 99.0 cM with 21 markers, followed by the linkage group 5 with 9 markers, spanned 92.306 cM, the groups 2 and 12 with 8 markers spanned 74.404 and 77.275 cM each one, while the least populated group was the linkage group 20 with 3 markers. The markers were grouped using a LOD = 6 and a recombination fraction of 0.3. Only the markers from linkage group 9 were grouped using a LOD=34 and recombination fraction of0.3 (Figure 1). ( 3.4 %) ( 6.5 %) ( 6.0 %) ( 7.8 %) ( 9.9 %) 10.0 -3.9 &Y 3.9 ::::=  The average damage values from each F 1 genotype were analyzed with QTL Cartographer software using the map generated by Mapmaker. First, a search test was conducted, to find the association of segregant markers and the trait of interest, through lineal regression for each marker in relation to the quantitative trait and using the Cornposite Interval rnapping Method (CIM). Statistical significance levels of 0.01% were obtained by evaluation ofF test in 6 markers of linkage group 2 (GM36D, 42b, 6d, 2d, 17e, 26a), and 3 markers of linkage group 16 ( 1 b, 16a, 15a). These significance levels indicate a strong genetic linkage. Using the Composite Interval Mapping method, two major QTLs were found on linkage groups 2 and 16 with a LOO of 21 and 8 respectively (Figure 2a, 2 b) suggesting a strong evidence for the presence of QTLs for resistance to spitt1ebug. The most significant QTLs explained up to 37% and 15% ofthe variance for QTL 1 and QTL2 respectively.More markers will be placed on the Brachiaria map as they become available. The QTLs data will be integrated with the work on the isolation of Brachiaria resistance gene analogs (RGAs). We plan to saturate the region of the different QTLs with additional markers using AFLP and Dart to fine map the region of QTLI and QTL2. Such markers could eventually be used for a marker assisted selection program. However we will need to confirm the QTLI and QTL2 in a different background.  o..._ o..._o..._ 0.,.. -0 -0.,.. -0.,.. 0.,..o..._ o.r.._ \"--\"--Av . . . --\"--\"--   •- In trod uctionThe peach palm Bactris gasipaes is the only palm domesticated in the Americas (Ciement, 1992).It is very important economically because it yields two food crops with commercial potential: the fruit and the heart of the palm. Many peach palm popuJations ha ve completely disappeared, and many more-both wild and cultivated-are in peril (Mora-Urpí et al., 1997). Knowledge of the genetic structure and diversity of populations, as well as characterization of B. gasipaes germplasm banks, is of great importance for conserving this species. Microsatellite loci are short tandem repeats, usually consisting of 2-6 nucleotides. These loci are very use fui beca use they can be easily distributed between species and between individuals and populations within a species, providing a popular tool for leaming about population structure (Chambers & MacA voy, 2000). Moreover, in comparison with other markers utilized for germplasm analysis, microsatellites have the highest expected heterozygosity (Powell et al., 1996), which is very important for evaluating germplasm banks.Construction of an enriched microsatellite library of Bactris gasipaes. An enriched microsatellite library was constructed as described by Edwards et al. ( 1996). This involved the digestion of 200 ng of genomic DNA with Rsa l. An Mlul adaptar (consisting of a 21-mer anda 25-mer primer) was ligated to the digested fragments. Filter-immobilized oligonucleotides representing the CT 20 and GT 20 SSR marker classes were used to select for the genomic fragments containing SSRs. Enriched fragments were amplified by PCR, using the 21-mer adaptar primer. PCR products were ligated in pGEM-T Easy vector (Promega). Clean Iigation products were transformed into competent Escherichia coli DH5a cells and plated ovemight on selective media (LB+ampicillin).Positive colonies were sequenced to characterize microsatellite Ioci using purified DNA template, T7 primer and Big-Dye terminator fluorescent chemistry of ABI-PRISM. Each sequence was aligned against all the other sequences, using the SEQUENCHER program in order to eliminate redundant clones. Primers were then designed for the unique clones using the PRIMER3 .0 software program (available at http://waldo.wi .mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer/primer3).Microsatellite primer characterization. DNA samples obtained from 14 peach palms m CORPOICA's germplasm bank (Caquetá, Colombia) were used to evaluate the primer pairs. In addition, 6 different species of Bactris (B. glandulosa, B. setulosa, B. maraja, B. major, B. guineensis and B. gasipaes var. Chichagui), the wild relatives of the peach paJm, were analyzed to check cross-specific amplification, bringing the total number of common bean accessions used in the study to 20. PCR reaction (20 J.LL) consisted of 0.1 or 0.3 ~ of each primer, 2.5 or 3.0 mM MgCh, 20 ng DNA, buffer 1x, 0.25 mM dNTPs, and 1 ll Taq polymerase. The initial denaturation was performed at 94°C for 3 min prior to 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 15 s, annealing at 48-52°C for 15 s, and an extension at 72°C for 15 s, followed by a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. PCR products were resolved by electrophoresis on a standard 6% denaturing acrylamide sequencing gel and visualized by silver staining according to the manufacturer's guide (Promega, 1995). Alleles were sized relative to a 1 0-bp ladder, using the image analysis software ID Kodak Digital Science™.Gels containing PCR amplifications were scored for the presence or absence of alleles generated by each pair of primers for all 20 individuals. In this study the Oiscriminating Power (O) was used to compare the efficiency ofthe microsatellites in differentfating between genotypes. The O value represents the probability that two randomly chosen individuals show different allelic pattems with the microsatellite locus, thereby being distinguishable from one another. If Pi is the proportion of the population carrying 1-úr banding pattem and is calculated for each microsatellite locus (Tessier et al., 1999), then 0=1-Lp/. This is an extension ofthe Polymorphism Inforrnation Content or PIC (Anderson et al., 1993), available from the frequencies of the different banding pattems (or genotypes) generated by a primer.An enriched genomic library for B. gasipaes constructed and 18 polymorphic microsatellites markers developed. An average of 7 alleles per locus was found on the sample of the 14 individuals collected in a germplasm bank. Cross-species amplification was evaluated in 6 different species of Bactris. A total of 1920 resultant colonies were screened for (GA)n (CA)n repeats, using an oligonucleotide labeled with [y 32 P]-dATP. A total of 62 (3 .23%) were positive, and 39 of these clones had microsatellites; but locus-specific primer pairs were designed for only 27. Primers were synthesized by OPERON Technologies, Inc. Ofthese loci, only 89% appeared to be inforrnative, with O values greater than O = 0.75, which make them very useful in population studies and gerrnplas. m characterization.The 18 loci in Bactris evaluated in 6 different species of Bactris (Bactris glandulosa, B. setulosa, B. maraja, B. major, B. guineensis and B. gasipaes var. Chichagui), the wild relatives of the peach palm. Fifteen microsatellites markers produced amplification products in at least one species,. with varying length between them. Bg 17 was the only locus that had an amplification product in all species. In contrast, Bg 1 and Bg21 had no amplification in the other Bactris spp., indicating that the flanking regions of these loci are not conserved in the Bactris genus. These results showed that markers identified in one species could be used for genetic analysis in related species.Output 2 Genes and genes combinations made available for broadening the base of mandated and non mandated crops Activity 2.1 Transfer of gene and gene combinations using cellular and molecular techniques• Four lines oftransgenic cassava plants, containing genes of interest for insect resistance, have been established in the biosafety greenhouse.• • Scaling up of transforrnation experiments with cassava has been achieved, using Agrobacterium and/or biolistics, by doing 2-3 transforrnations per month with at least four cultivars (TMS60444, SMI219-9, CM2306-4, MCol2215), for which FEC has been developed, with two genetic constructs containing genes of interest.• The generation of transgenic rice with highest levels of resistan ce to RHBV (score 1) in the field, derived from a rustic •variety Cica 8 grown by small fanners in Central and Northem South America, along being a good parental donor for rice breeding. Conferring protection to RHBV at 1 O days after planting under high disease pressure, whereas the most common breeding resistance so urce is active after 20 days of planting.• The development of a selection system for generating transgenic rice based on the use of mannose isomarase selection gene. The methodology allows the recovery of a high percentage of transgenic plants as indicated by Southem Analysis, although the plant regeneration frequency still needs to be increased. This system will allow moving away from using antibiotic resistance gene as a selection system for generating transgenic rice, in compliance with current food biosafety recommendations.• The generation of a cDNA library from Brachiaria was accomplished and is being used to clone key genes involved in lignin biosynthesis for future modifications of the forage digestibility.Compared to direct gene transfer methodologies (particle bombardment, electroporation, etc.), Agrobacterium mediated transfonnation offers different advantages such as the possibility to transfer only one or few copies of DNA fragments carrying the genes of interest, and the transfer of very large DNA fragments of a size as large as 150kb. The most important advantage however is the possibility of producing transgenic plants with fragments of foreign DNA of the desired size, and free of marker genes. This has and will continue to have, enonnous implications with regards to approval by regulatory agencies, public acceptance and marketability of transgenic crops.Transgenic common bean plants have been produced only through particle bombardment of meristematic ce lis of mature seeds (Russell et al., 1993;Aragao et al. 1996 and1998). However, this technology is still far away from routine application, possibly because of its low efficiency and high labor costs. Plants produced by this way also seem to have problems in transgene expression, as was the case with _ the plants generated by Russell et al. ( 1993;Azzam et al., 199?). Up to date, no transgenic common bean cultivars with genetically engineered agronomic traits have been developed .Agrobacterium mediated transfonnation of a Phaseolus bean was first reported by Dillen et al. ( 1997). These authors reported the production of a single transgenic plant from a wild tepary bean (P. acutifolius G.) genotype NI576, after inoculating green nodular callus derived from pedicel explants. Between 1999 and 2000, we at CIA T in conjunction with our collaborators at the University of Hannover, developed a different transfonnation methodology through the direct inoculation of mature seed derived embryo explants with hypervirulent Agrobacterium strains. We tested this methodology in severa! genotypes and hybrids of tepary beans and severa! wild and cultivated genotypes of common bean. Transgenic hygromycin resistant GUS expressing tissues and two transgenic plants were obtained only from tepary bean hybrids irLvolving the genotype NI576 as maJe parent: G40022 x NI576 and G40065 x NI576. Attempts to generate transgenic plants from the female parents of these crosses, G40022 and G40065 did not produce any transgenic tissues or plants. This would suggest that nuclear gene(s) of the genotype NI576 could be responsible for its competence to Agrobacterium transfonnation using the genetic transfonnation methodology developed.In 2000, we started an interspecific common x tepary bean crossing program in order to transfer the gene(s) responsible for the Agrobacterium transfonnation competence from genotype NI576 to common bean. This crossing program continued through 200 l. Fertile hybrid populations involving the genotype NI576 as parent has been produced, and these are currently being tested for competence to Agrobacterium mediated transfonnation.Mature but not dry pods were used as sources of sterile explants (whole mature seeds without one cotyledon) for transfonnation experiments. Agrobacterium transfonnation was carried out with the hypervirulent strain LBA4404 pTOK233 (Hiei et al., 1994) following the protocols described in last year's (2000) annual report. As positive controls for the transfonnation conditicrns, leaf tissues of tobacco cv Xanthi were used, from which transgenic tissues were routinely obtained. Meristematic callus inductíon and plant regeneration were perfonned as described earlier (Mejía- Jiménez et al., 1998). The crossing methodology for producing interspecific hybrids involving genotype NI576 was also described in the annual report of2000 (Mejía Jiménez et al., 2000)   ResultsThe CIA T -University of Hannover jointly developed pro toco! for genetic transfonnation of tepary beans through Agrobacterium called Agrobacterium mediated mature seed meristem transfonnation (AMMSM-transfonnation) consists of the following sequential steps:( 1) Sonication of the explants for wounding;(2) inoculation with hypervirulent Agrobacterium strains;(3) ce-culture at 22°C for 3 days;( 4) induction of a meristematic callus for 1 month;(5) selection oftransfonned meristematic callus tissue in a culture medium with hygromycin;(6) induction of bud differentiation of the selected calli; and (7) whole plant regeneration through micrografting.In order to aid the discussion of the experiments, and justify the crossing program initiated, the results ofthe experiments carried out in the year 2000 are shown again (table 1).From all the genotypes tested in this experiment, only the hybrids which involved the tepary bean NI576, 040022 x NI576 and 040065 x NI576 yielded transgenic callus clones and plants (table 1). However most of the hygromycin resistant, putatively transgenic calli that were obtained from these hybrids after selection died between the selection and plant regeneration stages. This may have been caused by the very small size reached by this calli after selection (between 0.5 and 2 mm in diameter), which made in vitro culture and regeneration difficult. This suggests that the transfonnation efficiency of the competent genotypes can be increased if the in vitro culture steps during transfonnation are optimized for obtaining larger resistant and easier to cultivate calli after selection.For this purpose severa! modifications of the in vitro culture process of the transfonl!ed explants are being investigated, includíng the injection of 5000 ppm of C0 2 into the culture vessels to in crease the efficiency of transfonnation.Adaptation of the Agrobacterium mediated transfonnation methodology developed in tepary bean hybrids to common bean wild and cultivated genotypes The AMMSM transfonnation methodology used to produce transgenic tepary bean plants of the hybrids 040022 x NI576 and 040065 x NI576 was applied to severa! common bean wild and cultivated genotypes (table 2).Most of the genotypes tested showed low or no transient expression of the OUS-gene (fast histological method for the verification of the gene transfer process from the bacterium to the plant cell) after inoculation, in the tissues from which the transgenic buds develop (cotyledonary nodes and apical meristems). This indicates that low, or in most ofthe cases no gene transfer from Agrobacterium strain to these tissues occurred during coculture. After transformation and applying selective conditions in vitro (30 mg/1 hygromycin), no transgenic plant or tissue could be obtained even from the genotypes that showed sorne levels of transient OUS expression (table 2).Thus, not only is the gene transfer from Agrobacterium to the cells with regeneration competence necessary for the development of transgenic plants through the AMMSM transfonnation methodology, but additional cellular processes are needed after the gene transfer has occurred. May be an additional cellular rearrangement capacity not found in the common bean genotypes tested is needed for allowing the production of a whole stable transfonned meristem from a single transfonned meristematic ce!!. All are cultivated tepary bean genotypes with the exception ofNI576.After three days of co-culture three explants were scored for GUS expression. A+ ora-score was given for each of the explants expressing or not GUS in the regenerable regions of the explant, i.e. the cotyledonary nodes or apical meristem.After a mínimum of a six-weeks culture in the presence of 30 mg/1 hygromycin Development of novel strategies for interspecific common x tepary bean crossing to transfer transgenes or genes involved in conferring competence to Agrobacterium transfonnation from tepary to common bean As shown before, many attempts to adapt the AMMSM transfonnation methodology to common bean genotypes have failed. There are two altematives for developing common bean cultivars or breeding lines through Agrobacterium:By first transforming competent tepary bean genotypes and then transferring the transgenes to common bean through interspecific crosses By transferring the genes responsible for AMMSM transformation competence, present in genotype NI576 of tepary bean to common bean or common x tepary beans hybrids and then using the de developed AMMSM competent genotypes to transfer the transgenes to common bean cultivars via intraspecific crosses.Obtaining interspecific crosses between common and tepary beans and hence gene introgression have been difficult to achieve. However, we have been able to transfer many morphological, biochemical and even disease resistant genes from tepary to common bean using recurrent and congruity backcrosses (Mejía -Jiménez et al. 1994;Singh and Muñoz , 1999). given for each ofthe explants expressing or not OUS in the regenerable regions ofthe explant, i.e. the cotyledonary nodes or apical meristem.The possibility of transferring transgenes from genetically modified tepary bean plants to common bean has already been demonstrated last year, with the production of GUS positive hybrids with the cytoplasm of common bean after a series of crosses with the GUS postttve transgenic plant of tepary bean (see annual report 2000). At least three crosses to intermediate • bridging hybrids are however needed in order to transfer a transgene to a common bean fertile plant. The successful transfer of a transgene will depend on the site of its insertion in the tepary genome, and a risk will always exist that it is linked to undesired characteristics of the tepary bean.An easier and faster transfer of a transgene to a common bean cultivar, and fewer risks of this linkage to undesirable traits are expected if the second altemative is eh osen, and a common bean genotype is developed which is competent to Agrobacterium transformation.The crossing of common bean genotypes to the wild tepary bean genotype NI576, and the production of fertile progeny from the hybrids, has been especially difficult. However, the application of a novel crossing strategy (Mejia et al. , 2000), has led to the production of sorne populations of fertile hybrids. These populations were tested for competence to Agrobacterium transformation, but up to date no competent line to Agrobacterium transformation has been identified (data not shown).With the advancement in this progressive crossing program, more and more fertile populations involving the genotype NI576 in its pedigree are being developed and with less difficulty. Thus for the year 2002, severa! hybrid populations will be available to be screened for competence to Agrobacterium transformation, and transgenic plant production.Biolistics, that is the genetic transfonnation methodology that uses the particle gun to introduce the DNA into the plant cells, has been the only transformation methodology that has led to the recovery of transgenic common bean plants (Russell et al., 1993;Aragao et al. 1996 and1998). This methodology has been applied in bean transformation since 9 years in sorne labs (Smith et al., 1992), but up to date no transgenic cultivars with engineered agronomic traits ha ve been developed this way. One possible explanation for this failure could be the low efficiency of recovery of transgenic plants achieved. From the produced transgenic populations, the plants expressing the transgenes in the desired way have to be selected. High numbers of transgenic plants should be produced more efficiently in order to apply this technology to common bean breeding programs.One way for increasing the efficiency of biolistic transformation could be the induction of meristematic calli (Mejía-Jiménez et al., 1998) after particle bombardment of the meristems found in mature seeds. These regenerable callus masses that can be maintained in in vitro culture for severa! months could allow for a better selection of the transgenic cells and meristems after transformation. In the current year 2001, we attempted using this protocol of transformation followed by induction of meristematic calli to transform the common bean cultivar Bayo Madero, the best-known common bean genotype for developing meristematic calli. From these experiments we have not been able to select transgenic tissues expressing the transgenes. It seems therefore that biolistic transformation of plant meristems is not such a genotype-independent transformation methodology as has been proposed before.In the coming year 2002, experiments will be carried out in biolistic transformation of different common bean cultivars, followed by meristematic callus induction. Cultivars that have yielded transgenic tissues or plants in experiments made before will be included.It seems that we would be able to solve the the \"genetic transformation problem\" of common bean by transferring the genes conferring competence to AMMSM-transformation from tepary beans via interspecific crosses. Also, the production of tepary x common bean hybrids (tepary bean cytoplasm) competent to AMMSM-transformation would be useful for a fast transfer of transgenes to common bean cultivars through sexual crosses.To optimize the process of genetic transformation of competent genotypes to Agrobacterium. The objective is to increase the growth of the meristematic calli induced after transformation, in order to increase the survival rate of antibiotic resistant calli after selectionTo further generate progenies of interspecific common and tepary beans involving the competent genotype of tepary bean to Agrobacterium transformation To further screen common x tepary bean hybrid progenies which involve the genotype NI576 of tepary bean, for competen ce to Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of mature seed meristemsTo initiate co-transformation experiments with binary Agrobacterium strains carrying marker genes and agronomic important genes in different plasmids, in order to produce marker gene free transgenic plantsThe control of Lepidopteran pests using transgenic plants that express cry genes is a reality for cash crops like maize, cotton and soybean (James 2000). Cassava also has pests of economic importance that belong to this •ramily, the most important in Colombia being the stem borer Chilomima c/arkei. Varietal resistance for the stem borer has not yet been identified. The rapid expansion of the stem imposes the pace to obtain resistant varieties. We are trying to deploy genetic resistance to C. c/arkei by introducing a cyr1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis () into commercial varieties. Two cassava cultivars of commercial interest (MCol 2215 or Venezolana, and CM-3306-4 or ICA Negrita),and one model cultivar (TMS60444) are the targets for transgenesis mediated by Agrobacterium and the particle gun. We describe here the latest advances in the production of transgenic cassava plants.Three cultivars are being used for transformation: TMS60444 (control), MCol2215 (Venezolana) and CM2177-3 (lea Negrita). We are testing two plasmids containing the gene -of interest, cry1Ab, the gus-intron gene for scoring early transformation events, and selectable marker genes. Plasmids are described in Annual Report 2000, Project SB-02. One plasmid (pSGManCry) contains the pmi gene (phospho mannose isomearse) for selection on media with mannose instead of sucrose. A second plasmid (pBIGCry) contains the nptii gene for selection on antibioticcontaining media. Both plasmids are being used with Agrobacterium and the Particle Gun for insertion into Friable Embryogenic Callus (FEC) of the three varieties. FEC is usually pretreated on medium with high sucrose concentration before shooting. lt is desired to increase transformation efficiency.Stable transformation, mediated by Agrobacterium, has been achieved with TMS60444. There are four plant lines in vitro andlor the greenhouse, each one representing independent transformation events (Table 1; Figure 1 ). Molecular confinnation of the transgenic status of all four lines is currently done through PCR and RT-PCR for cry gene insertion and expression. Plants are still young for DNA extraction for Southem and Northem analysis. PCR has shown bands of the expected size for the cry gene. However, most probably due to the high GC content of primers, non-specific, amplified bands appeared in non-transgenic cassava lines as well. The identity of non-specific bands is being confmned by Southem hybridization ofPCR products. Further standardization ofPCR conditions to amplify cry is required to report accurate data.Transient expression of plasmid pBIGCry has been observed severa! times in MCol2215 after transfonnation with Agrobacterium strain C58Cl. However, it has not been possibl~ to recover FEC expressing gus (stable FEC transformants) on media with antibiotics as it was reported in the previous Annual Report (2000). We have found that besides the sensitivity to Agrobacterium infection, FEC from MCol2215 grows much slower than that of TMS60444 on non-selective media (Figure 2). This may partially explain the lack of success with the former cultivar. Rapid growth helps the cells to recover fast and survive on selective media after transfonnation. We are therefore intensifying our efforts with non-antibiotic, selectable markers like pmi for transfonnation with Agrobacterium and the particle gun. Although the gun may not be the most desirable method for transfonnation dueto multiple and incomplete insertion events (which may speed up gene silencing), cells are less stressed after transfonnation, and do not undergo long treatments with antibiotics to eliminate supervirulent Agrobacterium strains.The results with the gun show that pre-treating cells with high sucrose concentration before shooting them increases transient or stable expression of the gus gene after 2 to 6 weeks on selection with antibiotics or mannose. The expression of the gus gene from plasmid pBIGCry is usually stronger than that from pSGManCry, so more blue spots are observed with the former.After shooting, cells from all three cultivars resume growth easily in liquid medium, maintaining their yellow color, indicating that shooting is notas stressful as infection with Agrobacterium.   1974) medium (GD2). Note that the doubling time for the former is less than 14 days, while for the latter it takes more than 21 days. (AS = asparagine; CH = ca.~eine hvrlrnlv7.ate) Transformation of cassava cultivar TMS60444 using Agrobacterium has been achieved at BRU. Full transgenic plants, growing in the greenhouse and expressing inserted genes, can now be obtained in about 11 months. TMS60444 becomes then a model to fast-test genes of interest in cassava. We will perform molecular tests to confmn transgenesis ofTMS lines and the expression of the cry gene.These transgenic plants may now be used for bioassays to test if they can control Lepidopteran insect pests of cassava like the stem borer (C. clarkei).Transformation experiments will continue using Agrobacterium and the gun with emphasis on commercial cultivars for which FEC has been established (i.e., for Mcol221 S, CM3306-4 and SM 1219-9). We will al so emphasize on the use of non-antibotic markers ( i.e., p mi) for selection of transgenic lines.Following the discovery of a single dominant gene(CMD2) that controls the novel form of resistance to CMD and efforts to identify candidate genes by the serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), the stage is set for gene function analysis of CMD2. However genetic complementation of gene function is severely hampered by a lack of routine and robust transformation and regeneration .methods for Latín American cultivars, the target group of CMD susceptible cultivars. A series of experiment was therefore set up in collaboration with the Danforth center to examine and refine the different steps for cassava regeneration and transformation The first step in the development of tissue for transformation and regeneration experiments is the induction of embryogenesis.Cassava varieties are known to respond differently to embryogenesis. There is _ therefore a need to first screen for responsive lines and to identify optimal conditions for embryogenesis. A set of elite materials from CIA T were selected for the experiments based on their success with farmers and as parents for cassava breeding.A list of the seven CIA T cassava elite lines used in this study can be seen in Table l. The lines were multiplied in-vitro in MS2 (Murashige and Skoog's basal medium supplemented with 2%sucrose) medium to generate large quantities of plantlets. This was to facilitate production of young leaf lobes for explanting to perform primary embryogenesis experiment. Unopened young leaf lobes were excised from these plantlets at 4weeks old and placed on Murashige and Skoog's media supplemented with 2% sucrose and 50Mm Picloram(MS2,50P). Alongside this work, explants from 4 week-old plantlets from model cultivar for cassava embryogenesis, TME 60444 were cultured on MS2, SOP and placed at different light intensity. This was to identify the optimal condition for embryogenesis, since light is known to be a crucial factor. Three light levels were tested-dark, low light (0.42 Jlmol m\" 2 s\" 2 ) and high light (7.2 Jlmol m\" 2 s\" 2 ) . Globular embryogenic structures from model cultivar 60444 and the 4 responsive lines from CIA T were excised and placed on Gresshorf and Doy (1974) medium, supplemented with 2% sucrose, 50Mm Picloram. These cultures were in culture rooms and at 3-4 weeks, the new globular embryogenic structures produced were transferred to fresh GD2, SOP medium.The result of the embryogenesis experiment in the CIA T lines are summarized in Table l. Three CIAT lines, CM523-7, CM6740, CM2177-2 had a conversion rate to embryogenic structures from explant comparable to the control cultivar TMS60444. Pretreating in vitro plants in different light regimes did not have a significant influence on the induction of embryogenic tissues. However, when young unopened Jeaf lobes were explanted onto Murashige and Skoog basal media supplemented with 2% w/v sucrose and 50 J..LM picloram, low light was found to be significantly superior no light and high light treatments. Low light lead to an increase in the fonnation of embryogenic structures by a factor of two.After two cycles FECs were produced in the model cultivar. These were then multiplied to generate more target tissues for transfonnation experiment. After 3 cycles FECs were generated in 3 out of the 4 lines from CIA T. Work is on going to increase the conversion rate among the CIA T lines and al so produce more OES from explants in order to increase the generation of FEC Future Plan Conduct transformation and regeneration efficiency experiments, with FEC from model cassava cultivar TME 60444 as target tissues, to compare particle gun bombardment and Agrobacterium mediated transformation Translate the findings from above to elite lines from CIA T from which FEC have been generated to achieve a transgenic lines with genes of interest. Rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV) is a major virus disease of economic importance affecting rice in northern South America, Central America and the Caribbean. Rice transformed with the RHBV nucleocapsid protein (N) gene had a significant reduction in disease development. Reactions to inoculation with RHBV ranged from susceptible to completely resistant plants (immunity). The most frequent reaction was characterized by local necrotic lesions (hypersensitive reaction) followed by the production of new leaves without symptoms. Other plants developed chlorotic lesions in the inoculated leaves, but recovered producing tillers free of virus (recovery phenotype). These transgenic RHBV resistant rice lines expressed the N gene RNA at low levels that could be detected using RT-PRC but not by Northern blots analysis. The nucleocapsid protein could not be detected in any of the transgenic plants either by Western or ELISA tests. These results suggest that resistance conferred by the N gene is RNA mediated. Earlier reports indicated that besides the resistant phenotype when challenged with RHBV, the resistant transgenic lines showed significant increased performance for important agronomic traits including number of tillers, number of grains per plant, and yield as compared to the susceptible control. Upon inoculation sorne ofthe resistant transgenic plants showed agronomic traits similar to the uninoculated non-transgenic Cica 8 control. Using both agronomic traits and disease severity as criteria, severa! of the most resistant lines were followed through the R4 generation in the greenhouse and demonstrated that the N gene and RHBV resistance was ínherited in a stable manner. Last year, results also suggested that the resistance conferred by the N transgene towards RHBV disease is expressed independently of the genotype background. The transgenic resistance could be used to complement the natural resistance source to the virus, when crossing selected transgenic lines with diverse genotypes carrying the breeding resistance gene(s). Results showed that the non-transgenic F 1 s control plants were susceptible, whereas the transgenic F 1 s were resistant even when inoculated at 1 0-day-old. These results suggested that the protection conferred by the RHBV -N transgene is inherited and expresses independently of the genotype background, and that the transgene could be used to complement the natural resistance source. This year report includes the characterization of mode expression of the transgenic resistance conferred by RHBV -N. The evaluation in the field for two semesters of transgenic lines representing various generations, and F 2 populations derived from crosses with Fedearroz 50, Oryzyca 1, Iniap 12, and Cica 8. Planting was coducted at CIA T headquarters u pon approval from the Colombian Biosafety Committee on September 2000. lt is also reported the progress generating transgenic rice containing the RHBV non-structural 4 (NS 4 ) gene from the RNA 4.For the greenhouse experiments, in order to characterize the RHBV -N resistance according to the plant age plants of 15 or 28 days old were inoculated with RHBV using four 2nd or 3rd instar T.orizicolus nymphs per plant, from a colony of 80% virulence. lnsects fed on the test plants for 5 days when insecticide is applied. Controls consisted of transgenic plants of Cica 8 carrying only the hygromycin resistance (hpt)gene, which was used as the selectable marker to generate the RHBV-N transgenic plants, or non-transgenic plants of Cica 8. Plants were scored for the development of RHBV disease symptoms every 3 days for 25 days and then evaluated once a week for 5 weeks. Plants were scored for the date of the first appearance of symptoms, and the percentage of leaf affected by RHBV was determined.For the field evaluations, 280 transgenic lines and F 2 plants derived from crosses between resistant transgenic plants with Fedearroz 50, Oryzyca l, Iniap 12, and Cica 8 were planted in November 2000, and 486 transgenic lines and F 3 plants derived from the same crosses described above were planted in July 200 l. Lines were planted in a randomized plot design with 3 or 4 replications in the field, for years 2000 and 200 l respectively. Plants were inoculated at 15 days of age with two insects per plant from a colony of 80% virulence. Insects were feeding on the plants for 15 days in the first season, and for lO days in the second season, upon when insecticide was applied as a biosafety control measurement. Plants were evaluated for the development of disease symptoms every two weeks until ' 45 days of age. Disease evaluations were conducted using an scale from Oto 9, were O refers tono disease symptoms, and 9 indicates more than 90% leaf area is affected by the RHBV disease. Plants with rating from l to 3 = resistant, score 5 = intermediate, and 7-9 =susceptible.Comparative Leve/ of RHBV-N Resistance in Transgenic Rice in the Greenhouse Respect to the Field.Last year we showed that line A3-49-60-l2-3-3 showed the highest leve! of resistance throughout the whole life cycle. Between 74% to 81% of the plants did not show any disease syrnptoms when inoculated either at 15 days or 28 days of age, and only a 22% of the plants showed more than 25% of the leaf area affected when inoculated at 15day-old (Table l ). In contrast, Cica 8 control showed l 00% of the plants with severe disease symptoms at 15-day-old (Table l ). Line A3-49-60-4-5-8 showed intermediate leve! of resistan ce at 14-day-old (Table l) and 71% of the plants without symptoms at 28-day-old .About 70% of the plants of line A3-49-60-l9 had less than 25% of leaf area affected at 15-day-old (Table 1 ). Sister !in es A3-49-60-12-3-1 (susceptible) y A3-49-60-12-3-3 (resistant) showed different disease reaction indicating that the resistant phenotype was still segregating at the T 4 generation or gene silencing was affecting the expression of the RHBV-N gene in sorne of the plants. This year results indicated that there is a high correlation between leve! of resistan ce seen in the greenhouse with that in the field (Table l ).Advanced generations of transgenic lines with stable RHBV resistance were selected first in the greenhouse until permit for the field test was granted by the Colombian Biosafety Comrnittee on September 2000. Field was first planted on November 2000 to conduct evaluations for RHBV resistance and agronomic traits following International as well as the Colombian environmental biosafety regulations at the biosafety rice field located in CIA T experimental station Palmira. Replicated trials were conducted as described in materials and methods. Disease evaluations were conducted using an scale from Oto 9, were O refers tono disease symptoms, and 9 indicates more than 90% leaf area is affected by the RHBV disease. Plants with rating from 1 to 3 = resistant, score 5 = interrnediate, and 7-9 = susceptible. Besides the non-transgenic variety Cica 8, the transgenic Cica 8 line A3-49-78) carrying only the hygromycin resistance (hpt)gene, used as the selectable marker to generate the RHBV -N transgenic plants, and which does not contain the RHBV -N transgene , wasused herein as controls. Other 12 varieties were used as reference for differential disease reaction pattem. This variety differential included: Caribe 8, Capirona, Cimarrón, Colombia 1, Fedearroz 50, Fedearroz 2000, Fedearroz Victoria 1, Fundarroz PN1 , Iniap 12, Linea 2, Oryzica 1, Oryzica Llanos 5, and Palmar.Field evaluations corroborated results obtained previously in the greenhouse. Forty five entries derived from line AJ-49-60-12-3-3 were highly resistant showing scores 1 to 3. A subset ofthese lines are shown in Table l. Resistance in advanced transgenic Iines (T 6 and T1) was inherited stably (95% of derived progeny plants were reproducibly resistant) indicating that the RHBV-N transgene seems to be fixed in each of these transgenic lines (Table 1) . The most resistant lines were  (Figure 1 ). These lines were more resistant than Fedearroz 2000 in average over the two field evaluations (Figure 1).0ther transgenic lines were interrnediate giving ratings between 3 to 5, but several transgenic lines were as resistant as Fedearroz Victoria (Figure 1 ). Large number of lines were more resistant than commercial varieties, and the resistance genetic gain from Cica 8 to the transgenic lines was a reaction score change from 7-9 (Cica 8) to 1-3 (best transgenic lines) (Figure 1). Transgenic line A3-49-78 which only carries the hygromycin resistant gene and does not contain the RHBV-N gene was as susceptible as Cica 8 (Table 2) indicating that the resistance noted in the RHBV-N transgenic lines is due to the RHBV N viral gene. Fedearroz 50 , the main variety currently commercially grown in Colombia, was susceptible to the virus (score 7) and more susceptible than Fundarroz PNl (score 5.5) which reacted as interrnediate (Figure l ). Similar progress towards resistance was noted in the crosses between the highest resistant transgenic lines and the varieties. Crosses between non-transgenic Cica 8 and Fedearroz 50, Oryzica 1, and Iniap 12 gave an average of disease reaction of 8.0, 7.0, and 8.5 respectively corresponding to susceptible phenotype, in contrast the corresponding crosses generated with the transgenic resistant plants and the same varieties showed an average disease reaction of 4.5, 4.0, and 4.0 respectively . The crosses are at F 3 generation, thus the RHBV-N gene is still segregating in those lines. Resistant plants (score 2-3) within those segregating F 3 lines had been identified. These field results corroborate earlier findings indicating that the protection conferred by the RHBV -N transgene is inherited and expresses independently of the genotype background, and that the transgene could betransferred to breeding populations by standar crossing. Sister lines of the resistant transgenic lines and transgenic crosses evaluated last season indicated that sorne ofthe plants showed a yield potential similar to varieties as Fedearroz 50, Fedearroz Victoria 1, and Oryzica l. Currently progeny plants derived frorn resistant plants selected in the first field evaluation are currently being selected for yield potential and other agronomic traits.  The genome of RHBV consists of four species of ssRNA designated RNA 1, 2, 3 and 4. The RNA 4 consists of 1991 nucleotides with two open reading frames (ORFs). The most important ORFs is located in the 5' proximal region ofthe viral RNA 4. The RNA 4 encodes a major nonstructural protein (NS 4 ) , which accumulates in the tissues ofthe infected plants with the RHBV. NS• protein is clearly distinguishable from the nucleoprotein (N) by specific antiserum. Another difference between NS 4 protein and N protein, is that the fonner only is expressed in the plant whereas the latter expresses both in the plant and the insect vector. It is inferred from the differential expression of these proteins that the major NS 4 protein may has a function that is needed in the plant but not in the plant-hopper. The differential plant-insect NS4 expression, and the similarity of NS 4 sequen ce with well characterized helper proteins described for other insect transmitted viruses, suggest that NS 4 might be involved in the RHBV transmission from the plant to the plant-hopper, or in the virus movement from cell to cell. The main goal for the expression of the RNA 4 in transgenic rice is to determine the function of the major NS 4 protein and study the potential for a novel and different method of producing viral resistant plants.Mature embryos derived calli from indica varieties CICA 8, Palmar, Cimarrón and Fundarroz PN1 , where used as targets. We used Agrobacterium Agl1 strain mediated transformation to introduce the NS 4 gene. Constructs p!C002 and p/C004 contain the RHBV NS4 gene in sense and anti-sense orientations respectively, driven by the 35S CaMV promoter using as backbone the plasmid pCAMBIA 1301 which carries the gus-intron and hygromycin resistance genes. Constructs,PIC007and p/C009 contain the NS 4 sense gen, and p/COOB the NS-1 anti-sense gene driven by the ubiquitin or 35 S CaMV promoter. These genes were cloned into pWBVec8 plasmid (from Peter Waterhouse's laboratory at CSIRO, Australia), which carries the hygromycin-cat 1 intron gene as selectable marker. Plants were regenerated after stepwise selection on 30 mgll and 50 mgll hygromycin, followed by 50 mgll hygromycin throughout plant differentiation. Plants were grown to maturity in the biosafety glasshouse.Southern Analysis.15 J.Lg DNA genomic were digested with Eco RI, fractionated in 1.0% (WN) agarose gels, and transferred to nylon membranes (N+ Amersham). The hybridization probe was a radioactively labeled 850 pb PCR fragment amplified using primers RHBV 4 forward and reverse. DNA probes were random primer labeled and hybridization was carried out ovemight at 55°C.RT-PCR and Northern Analysis.Total RNA was extracted from 100 mg of fresh material using the RNAeasy ™ plant total RNA kit (Quiagen, Dorking, UK). The cDNA synthesis was done with the SUPERSCRIPT™ One Step RT-PCR system. Following the manufacturer's instructions and using primers RHBV4 forward and reverse. Northem analysis was carried out wjth 15 J.Lg of total RNA per lane, using denature RNA gels with formaldehyde and forrnamide (Sambrook et al., 1989).Characterization of Sequence of NS 4 Gene. Nucleotide sequence of the gene NS4 in four To generation transformed plants was carried out using the ABI PRISM. Dye terminator kit (Perkin-Elmer) with primers RHBV4 forward and reverse. These products of PCR were applied to Biosystems Prism 377 DNA sequencer (Perkin-Elmer) and edited with Sequencher (Genecodes, Ann Arbor, MI). The sequences were analyzed using the BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al., 1997).RHBV resistance assays. lnoculations and evaluations were conducted in the greenhouse following the same procedure as described above for the RHBV N transgenic plants.Last year we reported the generation of 1 O different constructs canying the NS 4 gene in sense and anti-sense orientations. A total of 21 transgenic plants canying the NS 4 sen se orientation, and 70 plants canying NS 4 anti-sense orientation were produced (Table 1). The plant regeneration effciency varied according to the genotype from 2% to 44%. Southem blot analyses using Bam Hl or Eco R1 which excise the complete NS4 gene in sense or antisense orientation, or using Sal! which does not cut the gene cassette within the right and left borders indicated that between 50% to 1 00% of the regenerated plants analyzed contained the NS 4 gene (Table 1 ), and most cases the NS 4 gene is integrated as a single non-rearranged copy. The NS 4 gene was also amplified by PCR generating the expected gene size. The PCR product was sequenced, and in all cases the sequence corresponded to the entire NS 4 gene indicating that the transgene did not have rearrangements. PCR analysis for the gus-intron, hpt, and NS4transgene; and Southem blot, RT-PCR and Northern analyses for the NS 4 of T 1 plants derived from T 0 identified as transgenic by Southern blot, indicated that not all T 1 plants iñherited the three transgenes (i.e gus-intron, hpt and NSo~ )(Table 2). Variation in the level of gus expression was also noted, and the expression of either gus or NS 4 was not always detected although plants contained the corresponding gene. These results suggestthe presence of gene silencing (Table 2). Most plants showed low levels of RNA expression from either the NS 4 sense or anti-sense genes. In these plants the RNA was detected by RT-PCR. NS 4 gene expression was detected by regular Northern in only one plant so far (Table 2). (+++ ) high. 2 PCR analysis to detect the transgenes: gus ;hpt, hygromycin; NS 4 . 3 S = + Positive to Southern blot analysis. ND= Not determined. T 1 plants derived from the same T 0 plant are sister lines. NT = Not transgenic T 1 plants derived from self cross of eight T 0 plants, originally identified as transgenic based on Southem analysis, were selected to conduct the RHBV resistance evaluations in the greenhouse. Each T 0 !in e was represented by 13 T 1 plants and were inoculated at 18 days after germination with four insect vectors per plant derived from a colony with 80% virulence. Paralelly, 25 T1 sister plants were used to determine the leve! of GUS expression. Results indicate that most T 1 plants from line 4 transformed with plasmid piC004 showed the expected GUS expression indicating inheritance of the gus-intron gene. In this line, the number of plants with no o minor disease symptoms ( < l 0% leaf area affected) was double respect to the non-transgenic control (Table 3). No difference in disease reaction were noted for the other transgenic lines and the corresponding control (Table 3). However, for these lines there is indication that the transgene inheritance is significantly deviating from a Mendelian segregation and in 5 out of the 8 lines evaluated showed less than 25% T 1 plants with the transgene respect to the 75% expected. Beca use of this skewed segregation, commonly found in early generation of transgenic plants, it is necessary to advanced to the T 2 generation from those T 1 transgenic plants carrying and expressing the corresponding transgenes. Following, T 2 plants that inherited and expressed the NS 4 gene need to be dentified by molecular analyses, and challenged thern with RHBV. Eigbteen plants were evaluated per eacb T 1 line. 1 25 plants per T 1 line were tested for GUS expression.The fungal Rhizoctonia solani (sheath blight), Helmithosporium, Rhincosporium, and Sarocladium is already causing important rice yield losses in the Southem con e of South Arnerica and increasing spreads had been reported in Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela. All rice varieties are susceptible and there are not known sources of stable genetic resistance for these diseases in rice. In the case of sheath blight, IRRI had placed a major effort in developing biological control strategies for this disease without success either. At present, the control of this complex mainly depends on use of fungicides (Dr. Fernando Correa, CIA T Rice Pathologist, Cali, Colombia, personal communication). Recently, FLAR suggested CIA T (Dr. Peter Jennings, personal communication), to develop molecular strategies for incorporating resistance to this fungal complex. However, very little is known about the interaction between the rice and these pathogens in order to designspecific resistance strategies for each of these fungi. Of the four, the plant-pathogen interaction with Rhizoctonia solani is the better known.Work conducted by another principal investigator of this project (Dr. Nilgun Tumer, Biotechnology Center at Rutgers University, USA) showed that a pokeweed antiviral protein (PAP), a 29-kDa protein isolated from Phytolacca americana (a weed naturally found from USA to Argentina), has a ribosome-inactivating ability. Mutated versions of PAP gene has potent antifungal activity (Zoubenko et al., 1997). Homozygous progeny of transgenic tobacco plants expressing these P AP genes displayed resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani.Transgenic PAP potato showed prótection against Phytophtora infestans, and transgenic PAP turfgrass are resistant to various fungal pathogens. These results suggest the possibility of designing molecular strategies for incorporating fungal resistan ce by introgression of mutant P AP gene(s) in transgenic rice plants. Here we report the progress made during the second year ofthis project.Last year we reported the gerieration of eight new PAP mutations directed to change the aminoacids composition in the PAP protein. These new mutated genes were placed into yeast vectors, and transformed into yeast to check for no toxicity. The non-toxic mutated genes are being transformed into tobacco frrst to check the gene expression and toxicity before using them for rice transformation. Two mutated versions of PAP (1 deleted and 11) already tested for no toxicity in turfgrass (another monocot species) were used as the first approach to transform rice. These genes driven by the ubiquitin promoter were placed in the plasmid vectors p WBVec8, pWB10a, and pBGXiHGFP kindly supplied by Dr. Peter Waterhouse (CSIRO, Australia). These plasmids had been used successfulJy by Waterhouse to transform rice via Agrobacterium. They contain a hpt gene with a CA T -1 intron for increased expression of hygromycin resistan ce and selection in rice, a gus-intron-gene, ora gfp (green fish fluorescent) gene, respectively, to aid the recovery of transgenic plants. A total of 35 independent transgenic events carryin_g the PAPI deletion mutant gene, and 50 independent transgenic events carrying the P APll gene were generated Iast year. A first set of plant tissue was sent to Rutgers this summer for analysis and plants with PAP gene expression were identified based on Western analysis. This year a new version of PAP gene (PAPY123) which include a deletion of3 nucleotides was used to generate another set transgenic plants.Mature embryos derived callus of indica varieties CICA 8, Palmar, Cimarrón and Fundarroz PN 1, were used as targets. Palmar and Cimarrón showed high and moderate tolerance to sheath blight, whereas Fundarroz PN 1 and Cica 8 are highly susceptible to sheath blight. The transformation experiments were conducted using Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain Agll (Wang et al.,l997) carrying one of the following plasmids, NT305, NT306 and NT446. Maize ubiquitin or 35SCaMV promoter drives these plasmids, which carry various mutant versions ofthe PAP gene (PAPI, PAPII and PAPY123). The hygromycin resistance conferred by the hpt-cat intron gene was used as the selective marker. Plants were regenerated after stepwise selection on 30 mgll and 50 mg/1, followed by other 30 mg/1 selection throughout plant differentiation. Plants were grown to maturity in biosafety glasshouses.Southern Blot and PCR analyses were used to detect the presence of the PAP and hygromycin genes. For this purpose, 15 ~g of DNA were digested with different enzymes. The gels were denatured and neutralized by standard procedures. The DNA was transferred to nylon membranes (Hybond-N, Amersham). The filters were hybridized at 60°C. The presence ofthe kanamycin gen was determined throughout PCR.A total of 59 transgenic plants carrying the PAPY123 gene were generated and confirmed by Southern blot {Table 1 ). More than 92% of the regenerated plants had integrated the PAPY 123 gene in the genome as determined by Southern blot (Table 1). A similar total number of plants were generated for each of the P AP genes.This year to confirm the integration of the P AP gene, 63 plants of the varieties Palmar and Cica 8 transformed with the plasmids NT 446 were evaluated by Southern Blot and PCR methods. The genomic DNA was digested with different enzymes ( Bam HI!EcoRI and Hind III) which excises the P AP gene. The results indicate the integration of at least one copy of the P AP gene in the rice genome. Moreover, a better analysis on the patterns of integration was obtained with the enzymes BamHIIEcoRI that split by half the PAPY123 gene into two fragrnents (Figure 1). This study showed that 67% of the plants analyzed revealed only one copy of the gene without rearrangements (Figure 1 ). The PCR analysis of sorne plants confrrmed the presence of the PAPY 123 gen. At present, the integration of the P APY 123 of varieties Palmar y Cica 8 varieties has been confirmed. The Southern blot analysis also revealed the presence of the hpt and nptll genes. Western analysis indicated that about 50% ofthe plants analyzed from PAPY123 showed gene expression of P AP protein, whereas 18% of the p\\ants tested are expressing either P API or PAPII genes. PAP expressing plants will be evaluated for sheath blight resistance under greenhouse conditions, while detailed molecular analyses will be conducted to determine the number of gene copy.Tabla l. Transformation efficiency of tbree indica varieties using tbe AgU (NT446) proteins to be identified, corresponding genes isolated and their expression manipulated in transgenic forage plants. A protocol for genetic transfoimation of Brachiaria will be particularly useful to further improve the quality traits associated with the nutritional value of the pasture. Earlier work at CIA T's included the establishment of tissue culture methods for plant regeneration (Lenis, 1992), and genetic transformation mediated biolistic (Galindo, 1997) of Brachiaria species. Last year we reported the optimization of RITA system for an automated mass production of embryogenic calli of Brachiaria and the effects of medium composition on calli induction and plant regeneration in the same species. This year we report the progress made in the establishment of a protocol for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of Brachiaria species and how the transformation is highly influenced by genotype. The GUS-Plus gene contains the intron from the castor bean catalase gene to ensure detection of plant-specific-GUS expression and the glycine-rich protein signa! peptide sequence. The protocol used was basically the same as reported by Florez and Lentini, 2000. An explant was considered GUS-positive when at least one blue spot was observed.Induction of embryogenic callus was highly dependant on the genotype (Table 1 ). Of the four B. brizantha accesions evaluated, accessions No. 16316 and No. 25665 showed the highest leve) of callus induction. B. decumbens accession 16497 showed the highest response of all the genotypes evaluated (Table 1). the monolignol pathway which converts cinnamoyl-CoA moieties into monolignols and lignin. All enzymes in the phenylpropanoid and monolignol pathways, except one, have been cloned, usually from multiple plant species. Lignin concentration and composition both control herbage digestibility. Therefore, transgenic technology can be used to increase digestibility of forage crops by down regulation on enzymes in the phenylpropanoid or monolignol pathways. Except for a few highly unusual transgenics, the biggest difference between plant transformation and natural variation may be that the novel-lignin phenotypes occur at higher frequency within transgenic lines, making them easier to identify than novel-lignin phenotypes that occur relatively infrequently in natural populations (Casler and Kaeppler, 2001).Relative small changes in quality of forage crops can lead to large changes in animal performance (Casler and Kaeppler, 2001). For these reason, CIAT jointly with the Plant Biotechnology Centre in Victoria, Australia are working to isolate genes from B. decumbens that are involved in lignin biosynthesís using Lolium perenne OMF-1, 4CL-2, CCR-1 and CAD-1 cONA clones as probes. OMF-1, 4CL-2, CCR-1 and CAD-1 are the key gene in the lignin biosynthetic pathway.Total RNA from roots and shoots of ten days old L. perenne (ryegrass) and B. decumbens seedlings was isolated using the protocol described by Chang et al 1993 . Fifteen to twenty ¡..tg of total RNA per lane was run. Ryegrass cONA clones OMF-1, 4CL-2, CCR-1 and CAD-1 were used as probes.cDNA Library Construction in ZA.P Total RNA was cleaned using the Quiagen RNEasy kit. To yield mRNA from total RNA, Oligotex mRNA kit (Qiagen Company) was used. The Stratagene cDNA Synthesis kit was used for the construction of directionally cloned cONA library. For the packing of the library, Stratagene GigaPack Gold III was chosen. For the screening of the library ryegrass cONA clones OMF-1, 4CL-2, CCR-1 and CAD-1 are being used as probes.The Northem hybridisation analysis was made to determine the homology between L. perenne and B. decumbens lignin biosynthetic genes. The results showed that OMF-1, 4CL-2 and CCR-1 transcripts are present in young roots and shoots of B. decumbens (Figure 1 ). These transcripts accumulate to higher levels in the roots than in the shoots. The presence of endogenous OMF, 4CL and CCR genes in B. decumbens is confirmed.To complete cONA library screening for key lignin biosynthesic genes of B. decumbens To isolate and characterize key lignin biosynthesic genes isolated from Brachiaria library To produce transgenic germplasm with manipulated lignin metabolism To obtain transgenic cultivars with enhanced forage quality Reference Casler, M.D. and Kaeppler, H.F. 200 l . Molecular breeding for herbage quality in forage crops. In Spangenberg G. (Ed). Developments in Plant Breeding-Molecular Breeding of Forage Crops, 176-188. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mili) is one of the most important crops in the fresh vegetable market as well as in the food processing industry (Rick and Yoder, 1988). Tomato is the major consumed vegetable crop in Colombia, with a planted area of 15,000 hectares yieldmg 450.000 tons per year (UNAL, 1997). In Colombia, this crop is highly affected by several pests and diseases, and abiotic stresses such as drought, high and low temperatures, and salinity. Since 1985, the vegetable breeding program at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Campus, has as main objective the development of varieties with resistance or tolerance to sorne ofthese traits. In 1997, this program released the tomato variety UNAPAL Arreboles, which has several traits attractive to tomato growers such as fruit firmness and good adaptability specially to the Valle del Cauca region. But this variety is susceptible to one of the major limitations to tomato production in this region: the budworm (Tuta absoluta), which affects the tomato buds and young leaves. It had been difficult to breed tomato resistant to this pest by standard breeding. The only sources of resistance genes is from wild tomato species which are incompatible with the cultivated tomato, and so far the attempts for an inter-specific breeding program has not been successful (Lourencao et al., 1985). The main objective of this work is to transform the tomato variety UNAPAL-Arreboles with the Bt gene cryiA(b), which had been used successfully to obtain resistance against Lepidoptera pests in various economical important crops (i.e. maize, cotton).In previous reports it was described the evaluation of three protocols commonly useci for tomato callus induction and plant regeneration (Fillatti et al., 1987, Narvaez, 1993, and Ultzen et al ., 1995). Results indicated that the highest response for callus induction and plant regeneration is noted on M3 medium sequence (Ultzen et al ., 1995). An increase in response of about 2-fold and 4-fold on callus induction and plant regeneration was noted on M3 media respect to the other media tested. The lowest response was obtained on M2 medium (Fillatti et al., 1987). This year it is reported the progress made on developing UNAP AL-Arreboles transgenic tomato containing the cryiA(b) gene.Two Agrobacterium mediated transformation protocols commonly used for tomato (McCormick et al., 1986;Fillatti et al., 1987), were tested using the tomato variety UNAPAL-Arreboles.Agrobacterium strains C58C 1, Agl1 and LBA4404 containing the pBIGCry construct (L.I.Mancilla at CIAT) were used. This gene construct contains the crylAb gene driven by the 35S CaMV promoter, the nptll gene for kanamycin resistance as selection markers, and the gus-intron as a reporter gene. Transgenic plants were identified by Southern blot analysis. Inheritance of gus expression and kanamyzin resistance was evaluated frorn TO to Tl generation. C1onallys propagated plants ofthe original To plants were evaluated fro agronomic traits in the greenhouse.Preliminary results indicated that the highest leve! of gus transient expression was attained with the Agrobacterium strain LBA4404. A total of four hundred tomato explants ( cotyledonary lea ves of7-10day-o1d plantlets) were infected with LBA4404/pBIGCry weekly. After co-cultivation for 48 hour, about 10% of the exp1ants were analyzed for gus transient expression. The rest of the explants from cultures showing transient expression were transferred to selection media containing kanamycin. After three weeks on selection media, regenerated plantlets were recovered. The number of regenerated plants recovered from kanarnycin containing medium varied among the different experiments. From zero to ten plants were recovered per experiment.A total of 51 putative transgenic plants were produced from 8 experiments ( 400 explants by experiment). This shows an efficiency of 1.6 % for recovering kanarnycin resistant plants from the initial agro-infected explant. Of these plants 15 were transferred successfully to the greenhouse and 6 plants had shown stable gus expression throughout the vegetative and reproductive life cycle.This year it was carried out the morphological and molecular characterization of kanarnycinresistant and gus-expression clones P28, P33 and P47 at the TO and TI generations. Self progeny derived from TO plants (TI clones) was evaluated for agronomic traits and resistance to kanamycin and Gus expression. No differences were noted neither between the TO and TI plants, nor between the transgenic plants and the tomato control plant for the various morphological traits evaluated (plant height, node lentgth, leaf type, presence of pubescence in stem, tlower color and shape, fruit color and shape). These results indicated that no somaclonal variation is apparent in the transgenic plants. Preliminary results on the molecular characterization of clones P28,P33 and P4 7 by PCR and Southern analyses suggested that both genes are inserted in the geno me of these plants. Molecular analysis for the patterns of insertions of the crylA(b) in these plants is in progress. For the three clones evaluated, a 3:1 segregation ratio for gus expression and kanamycin resistance was noted. Indicating the insertion of an active locus for each of these genes. Variation was noted on the co-segregation ofthe two genes. Clones P28 and P33 showed a 95% and 82% co-segregation ofboth genes from TO to TI , whereas P47 showed a cosegregation of 63%. Currently, inmunological and bioassays studies are being• carried out to detect the CrylAb gene expression on the transformed tomato clones and to determine if these plants are insect resistant.Wide spread of yellow leaf syndrome disease caused by Se YL V was introduced in Colombia in 1998 through the Brazilian variety SP 71-6163 (Victoria et al., 1999). The main so urce of the disease is the use of vegetative seeds from clona! propagated infected plants, and transmission by the aphid vector Melanaphis sacchari widely present in the sugar cane region ofthe country. The disease is associated with reduction in sucrose content and crop yield, although plants may be symptom-less. In Brazil, the variety SP 71-6163 infected with this virus showed yield losses of 60% to 80%. The molecular characterization and cloning of ScYL V was performed at Texas A&M (Mirkov et al., personal communication). Severa! constructs were generated, and one gene version containing part of the coat protein gene encoded high levels of protection in transformed sugar cane USA varieties. The main objective of this project is to transform sugar cane with the truncated version of Se YL V coat pro te in gene vi a biolistics, since transgenic sugar cane has already being generated in other laboratories using this gene transfer method.Genetic transformation of sugar can e was conducted using the PDS-1 000 He particle accelerator device. A construct (pSc YL V) containing the truncated version of the Se YL V coat protein gene driven by the ubiquitin promoter, and the nptli gene for genetycin resistance will be used. The protocol optimized at CIA T for rice transformation was tested and modifications introduced accordingly. In this regard, preliminary experiments were conducted using plasmids pGV1040, pCAMBIA 1201, and pCAMBIA 1301 all carrying the gus gene driven by the 35S CaMV promoter, to optimize bombardment conditions evaluating GUS transient expression.Simultaneously, callus induction and plant regeneration of the varieties CC 87-434, CC 85-63 , ce 85-92, ce 85-96 and ce 84-75 was tested to select the most responsive genotype and use as target. Callus was induced in the dark from apical meristems of in vitro plantlets cultured on MS salts supplemented with 3 mg/1 2,4-D, l 00 ~g/1 inositol, 18% coconut water, 3% sucrose, and 0.2% gelrite. Last year results indicated that the routine protocol used for clona) propagation of sugar in CENICAÑA although efficient for the generation of plants, it was not appropriate for the maintenance of embryogenic callus needed for bombardment since plant differentiation occurs as soon as callus induction is obtained. A modification of the standard tissue protocol was introduced by culturing the induced callus under dim light rather than direct light. This change in light culture conditions restrained callus differentiation by 85%, allowing the maintenance of embryogenic callus at a optimal for bombardment. Callus cultured under dim light conditions, showed about 80% of plant regeneration when transferred to direct light. These results suggest that changes of light conditions at early stages of callus induction, does not have deleterious effects on the plant differentiation process.Last year results indicated that 51.3 % ± 27.8% of bombarded tissue showed gus transient expression 48 hr after bombardment. After a complete stepwise selection at genetycin 30 mg/1 followed by genetycin 50 mg/1, a total of 68 petri plates with 20 to 25 explants each had been evaluated so far. About 50% ±_29% ofthe bombarded callus were resistant to genetycin 50 mg/1.Of these resistant callus, about 4% ± 5% regenerated plants. Seventy regenerated plants were recovered after selection in genetycin 50 mg/1. Eleven plants have been tested by Southern blot so far. Six out of eleven tested plants were positive showing a 0.45 kb signa) after digestion with Hind III indicating the excision of the complete truncated version of the Se YL V coat protein gene. Plants will be tested after digestion with Pst 1 and BamHI in order to determine number of copies and rearrangments present in transformed plants.Bt genes of the cry family ha ve been used to confer resistan ce to insects in different plants species (cotton, maize, canola, soybean). The toxic effect of the protein CRYI(A)b has been previously reported for severa! lepidopterans. To evaluate the toxic effect of this recombinant protein on cassava stem borer (Chilomima clarket) larvae, the cry I(A)b gene was cJoned into expression vectors and the protein purified. Different artificial diets were evaluated on larvae stages of stem borer from artificial colonies established at Nataima (Tolima) in an attempt to optimize conditions for toxicity tests.The  2). Induced bacteria! cultures were concentrated and CRY protein was purified using Pharmacia chromatography colurnn with Glutathione Sepharose 48 resine. After binding the fusion protein to Glutathion, the chromatography column was washed three times with PBS buffer before elution of proteins with reduced Glutathione 10mM pH 8.0. The concentration and molecular weight of purífied pro te in was evaluated by electrophoresis.Artificial diets were tested with stem borer larvae using different parts of the cassav plant. Flour made of lyophi1ized stems, leaves and rootw were ground and complemented with nutritive components like wheat gerrn, bacto-agar and beer yeast extract (Table 1).  Somatic embryogenesis has been the main regeneration method to obtain transgenic plants of cassava. However, the efficiency of embryo-to-plant conversion is still low with the few cultivars that have been transformed. We are investigating the efficiency of plant regeneration from FEC in three cultivars, two of which are of commercial importance in the Northem Coast of Colombia.Combinations of solid and liquid media (using temporary immersion in RITA~) are being tested to improving the rate of embryo-to-plant conversion. Improving this rate will have a positive impact on the efficiency of plant genetic transformation. It will also contribute towards developing synthetic seeds.Three cassava cultivars were used for the experiments: TMS60444, which is a model cultivar for regeneration and transformation, and Mcol2215 (Venezolana) and CM3306-4 (lea Negrita) which are preferred cultivars among small~to-medium scale farrners. Approximately O, 17 g of FEC from each cultivar was explanted for embryo maturation on petri plates containing solid MS2 medium (López 2000) plus either hormone NAA or BAP. From this initial step, differentiating embryos in early torpedo and cotyledonary stages of TMS60444 were tested for further development on treatments A to D (jirst test). Based on the best results, a second test was carried out with TMS60444 plus CM3306-4 and Mcol2215 to check treatment E only (Figure 1). The treatments were as follows :• liquid MS2 medium plus NAA, BAP and GA 3 in RITA~, with subsequent transfer to solid 4E propagation medium • solid MS2 medium plus activated charcoal, transfer to solid MS2 plus BAP, and transfer to solid 4E • liquid MS2 plus activated charcoal in RITA~. transfer to solid 4E • solid MS2 plus activated charcoal, transfer to liquid MS2 plus BAP, and transfer to solid 4E • like D, except that the liquid medium contained BAP plus GA 3For cultivar TMS60444 in the first test, embryos in the torpedo stage were observed eight days after the first maturation treatment on solid medium with NAA. Fourty days later we collected 160 embryos at the cotyledon stage (314 embryos per gram of tissue) from this initial treatment. They were equally split (60 each) among treatments Ato D. Overall, two embryo harvests were made (30 and 90 days) after treatments were initiated, which produced 21 (52.5%), 13 (30.2%), 17 (42.5%) y 23 (53.4%) elongated embryos (plantlets) for each treatment respectively. Based on the quality of embryos, we determined that treatment D was the best from the first test to obtain the largest number of vigorous, elongated embryos.The results reported here for the second test are partial since the experiment is still ongoing. So far the maturation on solid medium with BAP has produced larger amounts of mature embryos for CM3306-4 and Mcol2215, while medium with NAA seemed to be better for TMS60444 (Table 1). Embryos from MCol2215 were few, atypical and vitrified. Those from CM3306-4 were more normal-looking and vigorous (Figure 2). Currently embryos are being transferred to RITA with GA 3 as explained in Figure l . GA 3 was added to liquid medium to improve shoot elongation of germinating embryos which, in general, from test one, did not seem to have well defined apical shoots.   FEC is composed of severa! compact, embryogenic, cellular aggregates immersed in a liquid matrix of hyaline cells. FEC has been successfully obtained and used for genetic transformation of cassava with few cultivars of little-to-moderate commercial importance in Colombia. We report the production of FEC, and the establishment of cell lines, for cassava cultivars grown in different agro-ecological zones in Colombia.The following varieties were selected for induction ofFEC: MTAI 8. CM 3306-4, CM 523-7, CM 4574-7, CM 6740-7, MBRA 383, SM 909-25 y SM 1219-9. The selection was based on their importance as cultivars in cassava-growing regions in Colombia. Y oung, immature leaves and axillary buds were used to induce somatic embryos (SE) on media MS-4 (Roca et al 1984) from which FEC was later induced on medium GD2-50Pi (Lopez 2000). To proliferate FEC, we used altemate growing cycles on solid GD-50Pi and liquid SH6-50Pi media (Lopez 2000).We observed a differential response of cultivars during the induction of somatic embryos and FEC. Besides the intrinsic embryogenic potential of each cultivar, the type of explant used to induce SE influenced the response of each variety. In five out of eight cultivars, young leaves seemed to produce more embryos than axillary buds (Table 1). Similarly, in the production of FEC cultivars responded differently: in about 50% of them FEC was obtained, although proliferation and maintenance was achieved with two (Tablel). The time required to produce FEC also seemed to be variable among cultivars. Sorne showed FEC at 24 days after induction, while for others it took almost twice as much time. FEC appeared as groups of few clusters to ubiquitous masses of large cell aggregates. The regeneration of whole plants from FEC from the two cultivars re¡orted here is underway using combinations of growing cycles on solid or liquid media in RITA or Petri plates. Green, cotyledon-stage somatic embryos, with defined shoot and root poles are already germinating in both solid and liquid treatments for CM3306-4.Varieties that produce reasonable amounts of somatic embryos don't always produce detectable amounts of FEC.There are genotype differences between Colombian cassava varieties to produce FEC. FEC can be induced, although not always maintained as a cell line. lt depends on the variety.Future Activities lmplementation of the FEC system with more cultivars of commercial interest Improving methods to obtain FEC, and establish cell lines, for recalcitrant cultivars Improving conditions for regeneration of plants from FEC Introduce new FEC lines into the tranformation-regeneration scheme developed at CIA T The tepary beans (P. acutifolius A. Gray) possess severa! traits that are important for common bean improvement. Such incompatibility barriers as embryo abortion, hybrid lethality, hybrid weakness and hybrid sterility hinder crossing of common beans with tepary beans. Due to this, the tepary beans have been classified in the tertiary gene pool of the common bean (Debouck, 1991 ), the economically most important species of the genus.Conventional crossing methodologies (such as recurrent backcrosses) have been used to transfer bacteria! blight resistance from tepary to common beans (Mejía-Jiménez et al., 1994;Singh and Muñoz, 1999). This crossing strategy however has not been successful for transferring other important agronomic traits.Congruity backcrosses (CBC; the altemate backcross of the hybrids with genotypes of each species for severa! cycles; Haghighi and Ascher, 1988) promises to produce hybrids with higher genetic recombination and gene introgression rates. However CBC could only be applied to few facilitator genotypes ofboth species (Mejia-Jimenez et al., 1994, and unpublished results).As a result of the necessity to develop fertile common x tepary beans hybrids using the tepary bean genotype NI576 (genotype competent to Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation, see Mejía-Jiménez et al. in this annual report), which could not be crossed using conventional or congruity backcrosses, a novel backcross methodology called Double Congruity Backcross (DCBC; Mejía-Jiménez et al. in preparation) has been developed. The DCBC methodology has allowed the production of fertile common x tepary beans hybrids involving the above-mentioned genotype. This methodology seems also to be generally applicable for the production of fertile hybrids from otherwise \"incompatible\" tepary and common beans genotypes.In the year 2001, the DCBC-methodology was applied in crossing the common beans and tepary beans genotypes that have been also difficult to cross using recurrent or congruity backcrosses: G40023 and G40068 (drought), G40199 (bruchids, A. obtectus and Z. subfaciatus) and G40019 and G40036 (leaf hopper, Empoasca kraemeri).The use of cuttings of unknown phyto-sanitary conditions for cassava propagation reduces yield, farmer's income and seed quality and quantity for next crop cycle. An interdisciplinary group constituted by farmers, biotechnology researchers, and one NGO, sponsored by PRGA, modified and simplified in vitro propagation methods. Using a participatory scheme it was possible to establish a simple, low-cost cassava propagation system to produce certified, healthy and enough planting material (CIA T, BRU Annual Report 2000).A simple in vitro propagation system that minimized externa} inputs was implemented in a pilot experimental station located in Santa Ana, Cauca (Colombia). A representative person of the community (Mr. C. Hernandez), selected by the community itself, trained a group of eleven women in tissue culture.A propagation scheme was set up with MCol 1522 (Algodona), a traditional clone in the zone of which farmers say \"it's very good but it gets sick easily\".One hundred and thirty one different media have been tested during the last two years of the project. We selected three media with propagation rates (1:3-4) (BRU, Annual Report 2000) similar to that of conventional 4E medium (Roca 1984).Other varieties were incorporated into the propagation system (CM 523-7, MBra 383, CM 6740-7).We met with farmers to move in vitro plants to the field. Four blocks with 20 plants each were planted in Perico Negro, Puerto Tejada (Cauca, Colombia). One ofthe expected outcomes ofthis exercise is to help determine differences in root production between in vitro-and cutting-derived planting material. Furthermore, these plots could serve as the initial phase of a farmer's nursery system.As an extra income source, we provided them with horticulture seeds to plant in the communal garden and in individual farms (seeds were donated by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Palmira).Due to a long dry season in Cauca, and to contamination associated with animal feeding areas (swine and poultry) located too close to rural tissue culture labs, it was necessary to move plants back to CIA T's station and make adjustments to the rural plastic cabinets. Mr. Hernandez initiated a propagation se heme in CIA T to recover and in crease the number of in vitro plants before returning them to Santa Ana.We are currently testing options to replace MS medium. Explants (shoots and nodes) grown on media with Agrimins® show good response (root induction and growth). Tissue grown on media with Urea alone (46:0:0) died. A complete fertilizer (Coljap® desarrollo) induced callus proliferation with no root induction.We built a prototype of a low-cost, sterile transfer cabinet, that reduced the purchasing price 12 times, from 3,000 to 250 US dollars/chamber.CIA T maintains a pilot experimental area in its headquarters to optimize the system and in elude other crops to establish a farmer's seed platform. Multi-crop seed production systems could help farmers to establish a rural seed enterprise. Transplanting in vitro plants to the field was a success (99% recovery); it was the first time women from the farmers' group used in vitro-generated planting material. Low-cost transfer cabinets reduce costs, maintaining an efficient propagation activity. We replace all inputs for the conventional in vitro medium. This is an advantage if others farmer groups become interested in propagation activities.A propagation scheme needs to be established to integrate low-cost components with rapid propagation systems. This will help to initiate a cassava farm nursery system. A cost analysis is critica! for the process. Include other crops in the propagation scheme.A second phase to consolidate the propagation plan will be critica! for the process.The low multiplication rate of cassava has been listed as one of the most important constraints for cassava development. Severa! techniques have been developed for overcoming this problem, including fas ter tissue culture or the use of micro-stakes alternatives. Although the protocols ha ve been worked out, seldom these alternative multiplication rates have been applied at large scale. Therefore there is a need to scale up the process both to evaluate its viability when large volume of vegetative material is handled, and to estímate the costs of production. This information can be used by the private sector if the interest eventually develops for the creation• of commercial seed production endeavors.• To set up a facility for a large production ofvegetative material through the use ofmicrostakes. • To complete the system with an anti-white flies screenhouse.• To produce clean vegetative propagules of elite clones.• Estímate the costs of production.Severa! key elite clones were selected for multiplication using this system. Most of them are adapted to the mid-altitude valleys, where the common presence of white flies has resulted in a higher incidence of frog skin disease. The process starts with the indexation of \"mother plants\" to make sure they are free of frog skin and various virus that affect cassava.. The long stems obtained from these disease-free plants were cut into micro-stakes, about 5-cm long and with two buds, which were then put to sprout in moist chambers. Every two weeks the resulting shoots are \"harvested\" and put to produce roots in glass containers with plain water. Once they produce roots the plantlets are transferred to plastic bags with soil and eventually moved to the screenhouse. for hardening and further grow (about 1-2 months) before being transplanted to the field.The process has been used to multiply SM 909-25 (1355), SM 1219-9 (1213), SM 1460-1 (450), SM 1741-1 (272), CM 7514-7 (975), CM MBRA 383 (998). The number ofplants produced for each clone and already transplanted to the field is mentioned within parenthesis. These plants are certified to be disease free and constitute an important set of elite clones for this environment. lt should be pointed out that the multiplication process begun while the indexation took place (frog skin disease indexation requires a grafting with the highly susceptible 'secondina' clone, which may take up to three months for results). As the results from the indexation carne, severa! plants were found to be contaminated and, therefore, the plantlets obtained from them had to be discarded. Otherwise, the systern proved to be operational and able to produce consistently large number of vegetative material with few problems to be solved now and then.The system implemented allowed two people to produce about 10,000 plantlets in a period of three months. Costs have been estimated for a period of continuous production for two years (8 batches of 10,000 plants each). The total for infrastructure costs (mainly the rnoist chambers) was therefore divided by eight in the estímate of costs presented in Table 6. The cost of the special screen house was not included in this cost estimates because it is on1y necessary in areas where white flies are an important vector for cassava diseases. An important connection to of this activity for the SB2 project is that the later stages of the process described above apply equally to plantlets developed from tissue culture techniques. Particularly relevant in this case is the application that rapid temporary immersion systems could have in commercial multiplication of cassava propagules ..bioreactors.Cassava has been considered the most important altemative crop since it is the only crop that yields acceptably under marginal conditions, with mínimum inputs. Demand for cassava planting material is high and conventional methods of propagation don 't satisfy the needs (Buitrago 1999).We are adapting RITA~ to scale-up and produce enough cassava planting material of desired, indexed, commercial clones, using nodes as initial explants (Annual Report 2000).Different immersion periods and growth regulators were tested. TDZ at low concentrations, combined with short immersion periods, resulted in better propagation rates than those obtained with BAP. The method is being adjusted with 16 commercial clones. In the last month we initiated RITA with clones MPer 183, HMC 1, CM3306-19 and MCol 1522.We increased propagation rates up to 1 :6 to 1: 1 O (Table 1 ), depending u pon the genotype, which was higher ifcompared with rates (1:3-4) ofnormal propagation on 4E solid media (Roca 1984).Plants produced with this system were transferred to the screenhouse and compared with plants produced on solid media. No morphological differences were observed.Carbon dioxide was injected into RITA. Partial results indicate bud activation but not elongation. More time may be required for shoot elongation.We are adapting bioreactors at low cost. RITA vessels are being replaced with recyclable soda glasses, and silicone tubing by aquarium flexible pipes. Hydrophobic, 0,22J.i.m filters were substituted by hand-made, cotton filters. We are setting up plans to run a low-cost, pilot bioreactor system, that can be transferred to small-scale farrner systems. A member of the PBA regional committee (Mr. Eduardo Erazo) discussed with us the importance of including in our propagation schemes sorne regional varieties. Farrners from the Atlantic Coast gave us stakes of local clones \"Ramirana\", \"Yema de huevo\" and \"Por encima\". A GRU staff isolated meristems and treated them with thermotherapy. We are now running RITAs with these materials.We are also adapting RITAs to improve somatic embryo induction in Brachiaria and rice, and to improve rice anther culture. We are also using RITA for FEC regeneration to support cassava transformation activities (see transformation reports in this issue).Propagation rates were improved form 1:3 in conventional so lid mediato 1:6-11 in RITA system. Propagation rate is clone dependent. RITA could be adapted to reduce implementation costs. RITA could improve somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration in other crops.Test RITA with local varieties (Ramirana, Yema de Huevo and Por Encima) Transplant plants (80-1 00 each) of 1 O commercial clones propagated with RITA and compare to conventional stakes.A meeting with farrners, national programs and PBA-regional committee to exchange experiences.Adjust low cost systems.The encapsulation-dehydration technique allows the direct placing of cassava meristematic tissues into liquid nitrogen, avoiding thus the use of expensive equipment and opening the possibility for large-scale, long-term conservation at low cost (Escobar et al2000). We are testing reproducibility between replications and conservation time in liquid nitrogen as steps to determine logistical aspects in the management of an in vitro base gene bank.Methods have been previously described in Annual Report 2000, and Manrique 2000, and no modifications have been made since then.We have currently tested 280 (43,5%) genotypes of the entire core collection (640 total accessions). With data obtain this year (from 127 genotypes) we could establish three groups based on percentage of shoot recovery after freezing: a high-recovery group of 39 genotypes (up to 70%; Preliminary testing showed consistency among results (such as shoot recovery) in time (Table 2). We are planing to test the entire core for different conservation times in liquid nitrogen.We propose a Minimum Shoot Recovery Percentage (MSRP) of 30% as the lower limit for the establishment of an in vitro base gene bank. This means that any cultivar to be included in the bank needs to have at least 30% of shoot recovery. A 30% MSRP has been constant among different experimental years (1999)(2000) in experiments carried out so far. Of the clones tested, 82% comply with this mínimum MSRP requirement.To scale up cryopreservation of the collection, the limiting step is the initial tissue (shoots). It takes about 3-4 propagation cycles to increase the number of shoots to be frozen . As an average, one plant has one shoot and 3-4 nodes with buds. Nodes could also be used for cryopreservation.For this reason we checked axillary buds for cryopreservation. We found that in all clones it was possible to obtain shoots after freezing (Table 3). We plan to adopt buds as explants because it simplifies the work (reduces time, effort and propagation supplies).Conserve the entire core on cryotanks and establish a partía! monitoring evaluation protocol for different conservation times Optimized the use of buds as initial explants for cryopreservation Establish a logistical aspect involved in management of cryo-banks According to Velasquez ( 1995), wild species had different behavior in in vitro conditions. lt was necessary to adapt five propagation and conservation media (12A1, 12 A2, 12A3, WPMI and WPM2) according to wild-group (genotype or species) response. When we tested the response after freezing using 12A3 medium in the process of regrowth, no growth was observed. We are currently using 12A3 only in the propagation scheme. At the beginning of this project we observed that wild frozen shoots responded with callus fonnation and tried to fonn shoots, but the in vitro growth conditions were not optimal. It was then necessary to increase Kinetin content, test 4E medium (Roca 1984) and MS with activated charcoal to obtain shoots after freezing.The quality of cassava shoots is important for a good response after freezing (Escobar et al 2000).The morphology ofwild shoot was different prior to freezing. M carthaginensis showed no shoot growth on 4E medium before freezing (only differentiated leaves); M esculenla subs. peruviana and jlabellifolia showed stronger shoots after 3 days on 4E medium prior to freezing. Probably the lower response of M calhaginensis was influenced by the previous conditions of donor tissues (Table 1). Different pre-growth periods (3,4 y 5 days) and media could be helpful to improve shoot quality before freezing. We are introducing other wild species such as M orbicularis, M cecropiaefolia, /ongipeliolala to validate the method. We compared different desiccation periods on silica gel (16h vs. 24 h) before freezing. We found that with M carthaginensis 17f 417-001 it was possible to obtain plants after freezing (7.7%) with 16 h desiccation. With M esculenta subsp. jlabellifolia it was possible to obtain shoot formation in both conditions (Table 2). Preliminary results showed that plants from wild cassava species could be recovered after freezing wíth a 0-60% survival.In vitro shoot tips of wild material had different aspect compared to cassava. lt may be necessary to modify pre-and post-freezíng conditions.Simple MS with activated charcoal medium is a key factor to recover shoots after freezing. Different dehydration periods could improve recovery rates after freezing of wild material. M esculenta subsp. peruviana and jlabellifolia showed better response than M carthaginensis.The cryo-methodology needs to be validated with other wild material.Keep fine-tuning conditions to improve recovery rates of wild material after freezing. Compare cryopreservation method with conventional medium-term conservation (at 5°C or -20°C) helps to determine the best conservation alternatives.Plant in vitro culture using temporary immersion offers all the advantages of a liquid medium system (automation, large scale production, easy changes of medium, filter sterilization, easy cleaning) without any of its drawbacks (reduced gas exchange, vitrification ). The RITA device has the additional advantages of low cost and automation. And it is suitable for both industrial production and research use. This system has proved its efficiency for somatic embryogenesis of banana (Alvarat et al, 1993;Escalant et al, 1994), coffee (Berthouly et al, 1995;Etienne et al, 1997), citrus (Cabasson et al, 1997), oil palm and rubber plant (Etienne et al, 1997), and at CIA T for cassava (Escobar and Roca , 1999); for clona! propagation through micro-cuttings of coffee, and sugar cane (Lorenzo et al, 1998); for proliferation of meristems of banana, and pineapple; and for micro-tuberization of potato (Teisson & Alavarad, 1998). RITA system improves plant cell nutrition and gas exchange, and enhances the quantity and quality of micro-propagated tissue.Last year we reported the use of RITA for the induction of embryogenic callus derived rice mature zygotic embryos. Callus induction was noted 8 to 15 days earlier in the RITA system respect to petri plates. A larger number of embryos showed callus formation, and between 2 to 4 fold increase in the number of embryogenic callus was seen in the automated system. One of the major bottlenecks for generating doubled haploids from rice anther culture (AC) is that the response is highly dependant on the genotype. Japonica types are generally highly responsive in contrast to indica rice, which shows low response and severa! genotypes are recalcitrant. The low response of indicas restrain the use of AC in breeding for the tropics. Following is reported preliminary experiments directed to induce embryogenic callus and plant regeneration from rice AC using the automated RITA system.For preliminary experiments, a japonica genotype (CT 6241-4-1-15-1 ) and an indica variety (Palmar) were used. Plants were grown in the field, panicles harvested, and anthers cultured according to Lentini et al., 1995. Anthers were either culture in liquid medium contained in baby food jars (control) or in RITA vessels. Seven hundred and fifty anthers were culture per RITA vessel. Immersion system was set up for cycles of 6 hr immersion. Induced callus from each culture system, was then transfer onto solid plant regeneration medium according to Lentini et al. 1995.Callus induction was noted 5 days earlier in the RITA system respect to the control. A significant larger number of embryogenic callus was noted in RITA for both genotypes, and between 3 to 5 fo1d increase in the number of regenerated plants was seen in the automated system (Figure 1). Experiments are in progress to determine the reproducibility of these results with larger number of indica genotypes, and to optimize the system for recalcitrant genotypes important for the breeding program. Most selection systems commonly used for the generation of transgenic rice using either biolistic or Agrobacterium mediated transformation, relies on the use of the hpt gene conferring antibiotic resistance to hygromycin. Although the selection using hygromycin resistance gene has been highly efficient for the production of transgenic rice, and hpt gene has been de-regulated for generating transgenic food for human consumption, it has not yet been approved for animal. As a response to public perception concems, recent intemational food biosafety recommendations suggest to use non-antibiotic selection markers genes. From the year 2005 it is most likely that food or feed crop containing antibiotic resistance will not be approved for commercialization.Recent developments using selection systems different from either antibiotic or herbicide resistance suggest that the phosphomannose isomerase (pmi) is an efficient selection gene for production of transgenic plants from maize, sugar beet, and cassava (Wang, et al. 2000;Negrotto et al., 2000). When non-transgenic cell tissue are cultured on mannose, after uptake mannose is phosphorylated by a hexokinase, yielding mannose-6-phosphate which accumulates in plant cells and causes severe growth inhibition. Mannose isomerase gene converts mannose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, thus giving plant cells the capacity of metabolizing mannose as a carbon source. Last year we reported the optimization of a positive selection protocol using mannose containing medium, for callus induction from mature zygotic embryos Agroinfected with a construct containing the pmi gene. Callus showed a significant reduction in growth when cultured on mannose containing medium respect to sucrose. An inhibition of 59%, 64%, 95% and 98% were noted when callus were cultured on mannose 1%, 2%, 3%, and 6%, respectively. The leve! of this inhibition was even higher than that observed on medium without carbon source which shows a 87% of growth ínhíbitíon respect to 3% sucrose. The inhíbition of growth was due to the effect of mannose and not due to an increase of osmotic potential, since callus on 3% sucrose + 1.5% mannitol or 6% sucrose + 3% mannitol develop alike to those on 3% sucrose.Based on these results in the case of Cica 8 a concentration of 3% mannose is considered sub lethal, and 6% mannose a lethal dose. Following is described the progress made regenerating plants of rice from mannose resistant callus.Mature zygotic embryos of rice indica varieties Cica 8 and Palmar were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA 4404 containing a constuct containing the phosphomannose isomerase (pmi) gene and the uid-intron gene encoding the ¡3-glucoronidase for gus expression. After agroinfection , embryos were cultured on callus induction medium containing acetozyringone 1 OO¡.LM and cefotaxime 250 m gil for bacteria elimination. A stepwise selection for callus induction was conducted first on medium containing 3% mannose (261 mOsmollkg ), as the only carbon source, followed by a subcultured on índuced callus on medium with 6% mannose. Mannose resistant callus were then transferred onto plant regeneration solid medium containing 2% mannose as based line complemented with either 0.5 %, 1.0%, 1.5% or 2.0% sucrose.For Palmar variety, preliminary experiments indicated that although plant differentiation was noted on medium containing only mannose without sucrose, shoots did not elongate when mannose was used as the only carbon source (data not shown). Therefore, various concentrations of sucrose were added besides the mannose to aid the plant regeneration process. Initially, a total of 16 different combinations were tested which included mannose from 0.5% to 6% in combination with sucrose from 0% to 3%. Results suggested that in order to have only transgenic plant regeneration in Palmar, a mínimum of mannose 2% was needed in the plant regeneration medium (data not shown). Palmar showed about 50% plant regeneration on mannose 2% with either sucrose 1.5% or 2.0% (Table 1). All the regenerated plants showed gus expression (Table 1 ). In contrast, Cica 8 did not regenerate at all when mannose was included in the medium, although medium was complemented up to 3% sucrose (Table 1). About fifty percent plant regeneration was attained from Cica 8 mannose resistant callus only when 3% sucrose was used as the sol e carbon so urce, however of these plants only 5% showed gus expression. Southern blot analysis of these plants is in progress. Results obtained so far, suggest that all gus expressing plants had simple insertions of both pmi and iud-intron genes in the genome.  Putative transgenic callus derived on selection medium containing 3% mannose (sub-lethal) followed by 6% mannose (lethal)In the Northem Coast of Colombia, cassava has been considered the most important altemative crop since it is the only that yields acceptable under marginal conditions and with minimal inputs.There is an intemational starch industry, Com Products, that has a branch Iocated in Malambo (Barranquilla, Colombia), formerly known as Inyucal. It is considered one of the largest cassava consumers for industrial purposes in Colombia. However, Com Products has encountered a chronic problem in the supply of raw material, fresh cassava roots for milling.To continually operate the cassava milling plant, it would be desirable to provide up to 100 ton per day of fresh roots. Under the actual conditions, only 0.5 ton/day are ground, and in sorne days no material is available to take to the mili (M.C. Arzuza personal communication). In vitro propagation systems could be a quick and safe manner to put enough, healthy planting material in farmer's fields to support Com Products' demand. This project is the first initiative to set up cassava seed production programs aimed to satisfy industrial needs.Based on CIA T' s experiences on handling cassava in vitro (Roca 1984;Escobar et al 2000, 200 1;Annual Report 2000), we performed a feasibility analysis based on the final number of plants needed per hectare. This allowed the estimation of propagation rates, lab requirements, manpower, screenhouse facilities among other inputs to start the project. After establishing the scale and lab requirements, we trained staff from Com Products. During the initial steps we formed a discussion group to diagram the lab to be established in Malambo. The lab included four essential areas: sterilization, propagation, washing and growth areas. Additionally, a screenhouse was also established. CIA T supported the technical and logistical scheme, while Com Products provided financia) support. Com Products signed an MT A to access cassava germplasm MTai 8 and MVen 25. They received plants that were given to us later to initiate propagatiorr schemes at CIA T while they were building the laboratory facilities in Barranquilla.A 75,2 m 2 laboratory (including the four critica) areas and a small office), and a 72 m 2 screenhouse were built (Figure 1). We maintain communicatíon through e-mail, fax, phone and technical field visits to support ímprovements in staff skills and lab and screenhouse conditions in an attempt to keep losses below 3%. This will allow a more accurate planning of propagation schemes.Although Mven25 was one of the clones selected initially for propagation, its poor adaptation to soil conditions in the area, and the early stake sprouting makes it unattractive to keep it in the propagation scheme. For this reason Com Products is selecting other clones with better response and high dry matter content to propagate them. Future activities• Adjust screenhouse conditions to recover higher percentages of transplanted plants.• Design propagation plans to maintain back ups in vitro to feed production lines, improve propagation rates and reduce costs. • Introduce other clones into propagation schemes.A large number of fruits of Andean origin have great potential to become premium products for local and export markets with a high economic return for the farmers. Naranjilla (So/anum quitoense) is among these fruits. This species is native from Colombia and Ecuador, and it is normally cultivated between 700 and 2000 meters above sea leve!. Sorne of the main attributes of this fruit includes its high leve! of vitamin C, and the sub-shrubby perennial growth amenable for cultivation in hillsides and inter-cropping, aiding soil conservation practices. Recently in Colombia, naranjilla changed from being a fruit of local fresh consumption to become an important industrial fruit for juice and yogurt products, increasing its market value. A major constraint for the rapid adoption of naranjilla by the local farmers is the limited availability of elite germplasm free of pathogens. The high leve! of trait segregation restrains its multiplication through seeds. Rapid multiplication of quality planting materials is of paramount importan ce. One of the main objectives of this project is to develop a protocol for in vitro propagation of naranjilla with application for conservation and rapid multiplication of clones free of pathogens. The expected results include the mass multiplication of elite clones that then can be distributed to farmers. Since breeding for this species is almost non-existing, paralelly to the in vitro propagation effort, it will be important to develop plant regeneration and transformation systems to aid the development of germplasm. Last year it was reported preliminary results on developing a plant regeneration protocol. This year it is presented the advancement in establishing a system for maintenance of the in vitro germplasm collection, and the progress made identifying factors to increase the plant regeneration efficiency from elite naranjilla materials.High quality and elite clones provided by the Andean Fruit Center (Centro Frutícola Andino-CEF A) and Corpoica La Selva are used. This collection includes naranjilla with or without thorns commonly grown by farmers. Various media were tested for in vitro maintenance of the clones. Statistical experimental design was used to determine the optimal plant tissue and medium for an increase efficíency in plant regeneration. Regenerated plants were taken to the greenhouse and the field to evaluate plant growth and development to maturity. Plants initially grown in vitro and then in soit, were taken back to the in vitro system to establish a protocol for renewing the in vitro collection.In Vitro Propagation Last year it was reported that plant develops healthier and faster in vitro when cultured onto ~ MS medium supplemented with ANA 0.02 mg/1, BAP 0.04 mg/1, and GA 3 0.05 mgll, and agar 4.5 g/1, in contrast to the regular micro-propagation medium used by CEF A or Corpoica La Selva (SB2 Annual Report 2000). However, after 1 O months of sub-cu1turing naranjilla in vitro plants in this medium, most of the plants showed white stripes on leaves, thick stems, and slow development. Reason why other media were tested again. For this purpose, it was evaluated media commonly used for long term maintenance of in vitro germplasm of other Solaneace species. Of the medium tested, a medium contammg MS basal salts and vitamins, and supplemented with calcium pantothenic acid 2.5 mg/1 and gelrite 3.5 g/1 (Hussey and Stacey, 1981) used for potato, also showed to be the optimal for naranjilla (medium A). On this medium, in vitro shoots start showing root proliferation two weeks earlier respect to medium !h MS medium. Fully expanded new leaves were present at one month after subculture on medium A, whereas it took about 6 weeks on !h MS medium (Figure 1). Moreover, new Jeaves developed on medium A were completely green although the starting materials had leaves with white stripes. The number of leaves with white stripes increased as plants were sub-cultured on !h MS medium. By sub-culturing plants on medium A contained in jars rather than in test tubes, it is possible to obtain a large number of explants to conduct series of experiments for optimizing plant regeneration with various replicates every month.Medium A also seems to be a more appropriate for a long term in vitro maintenance of the germplasm collection since plants are healthier, develop faster, and differentiate normal green looking leaves. A randomized block design of four replicates each of 15 experimental units was used to determine the best medium composition and explant to induce a direct plant regeneration in naranjilla. A non-parametric chi-square analysis indicated that petioles from the first and second node showed 17 times and about four times more plant regeneration that the corresponding leaves from thomy and non-thomy clones respectively. (Figure 2 and 3). A significant higher response was also noted on medium originally develop for plant regeneration on tomato (Ultzen et al, 1995), consisting on MS salts, B5 vitamins, supplemented with sucrose 1 O g/1, glucose 1 O g/1, gelrite 1.5 g/1, zeatine 2 mg/1 and IAA 0.02 mg/1 (Figure 2A). On this medium petioles from thomy genotypes showed three fold increase in plant regeneration respect to a medium reported for naranjila ( Hendrix et al., 1987) composed by MS salts and vitamins and supplemented with sucrose 30 g/1, agar 7 g/1, IAA 0.01 mg/1, kinetin 5 mg/1, or with a modification consisting on gelrite 2 g/1 and BAP 2 mg/1 (modification suggessted by Dr Richard Litz, Univeristy of Florida, laboratory which Hendrix work was conducted)(Figure 2B). Non-thorny genotypes did not regenerated any plant on mediurn developed by Hendrix (Figure 2B).  Plant Evaluations in the Greenhouse and the Field A methodology was establish to transfer in vitro material (from the in vitro germplasm collection and regenerated plants) to the greenhouse and there after, to the field. The first regenerated plants evaluated shown a normal plant growth and development to maturity in the greenhouse and in the field. Fruit formation is being evaluated in the field only, since temperatures in the greenhouse at CIA T headquarters is to high for naranjilla fructification. The field selected is located at 1, 700 m.s.n.m. and with a mean temperature of 22 C, ideal for induction of fruit formation of naranjilla. The field plot is located in a farm (La Casona) at Dapa about 20 min from Cali, where there is a naranjilla production by farmers.Establish a cyclic culture from greenhouse to in vitro, to completely renew the existing germplasm in vitro collection and propagate it in medium A Evaluate other factors affecting plant regeneration response to increase it at about 50%Friable Embryonic Callus lines were established at CIA T for sorne commercial Latin American cassava cultivars (Lopez 2000). In vitro-maintained cell suspensions are genetically unstable, besides, keeping them is labor intensive and costly (Reinhoud et al 2000). Cryopreservation of FEC may provide a means of ensuring genetic stability of cell lines, and could be a source of \"fresh\" tissue useful for genetic transformation.To establish a cryopreservation protocol we are using cultivars MCol 2215, CM 3306-4, and keeping the cultivar TMS60444 as a control. Different cryopreservation methods were tested: Classic, vitrification, encapsulation-dehydration, encapsulation-vitrification, desiccation and desiccation-vitrification. Different temperatures of loading, PVS3 dilutions, and pretreatment of FEC were also tested. A programmed freezing protocols (1 °C/min) using a container with isopropanol was tested.Desiccation of FEC before freezing seemed to give tissues a good chance to recover. FEC grown on media with high agar content (6-9%) and growth regulators, desiccated during different times (10-30 days), are showing promising results after freezing. Frozen tissue was recovered on GD2-50Pi solid medium, grown under low light intensity and transferred to liquid medium (Figure 1). Fine tuning re-growth conditions (temperature, light intensity and humidity) will probably increase the recover of tissues. We are testing GRU's growth room conditions to compare with those we have at BRU. Initial observations indicate that there may be strong differences between both growth rooms, with the one from GRU giving better results.• Protocols involving vitrification did not seem to work well for the recovery of FEC after freezing. Toxic effects of cryo-protectant solutions like PVS2 (Sakay et al 2000) were observed even with no frozen tissues. PVS3, another vitrification solution showed better results than PVS2. We will however continue testing protocols that mix vitrification and dessication to find out which one gives better recovery rates. • lt is possible to recover cell growth after freezing ofFEC.• Modification of growth conditions could improve post-freezing response.• Desiccation and desiccation~vitrification could be used as potential cryopreservation methods. Media with high agar content could be used as a desiccation treatment. • PVS2 shows a detrimental effect on cassava cell suspensions. PVS3 has shown beneficia! effect on tissues.• Adjust conditions to improve cell recovery after freezing.• Test best conditions on other FEC lines from Latín-American cultivars.• Recover plants from frozen cells.Juan Jairo Ruiz The soursop (or guanábano in Spanish, Annona muricata L) is a fruit tree native to the tropical Americas. Its white pulp is used for the production of juices, yogurts, ice creams and desserts. One of the most important problems facing the soursop growers is the lack of disease-free planting materials from elite selections. Between 1997 and 1999, we developed a novel methodology for the in vitro clona! propagation of elite trees through micrografting (Royero et al., 1998). This methodology allows a rapid clonal multiplication of elite varieties and the production of disease-free planting materials. The ftrst trees derived through in vitro propagation were planted at CIA T and in farms belonging to experienced soursop growers located in Huila and Valle for field-testing betw~en January 1999 and January 2000.In 2001 ,our efforts were concentrated on the:Evaluation of the agronomic performance of the micropropagated trees in the field; Optimization of the propagation methodology; Adaptation ofthe developed in vitro propagation methodology to new promising soursop clones; Initiation of investigations on the use of rootstocks of different soursop selections or related annonaceus species; and lnitiation on investigations on the management ofthe micropropagated plants in the greenhouse.The in vitro propagation methodology of soursop through micrografting has been described in previous reports (Royero et al. 1998 and1999)Optimization and adaptation of the micrografting methodology to new selected genotypes The in vitro propagation methodology of soursop developed jointly by Corporación BIOTEC and CIA T, consists of the in vitro propagation of buds isolated from selected soursop trees or varieties, and their micrografting onto rootstocks produced from seedlings germinated in vitro.Buds for micrografting can be induced from in vitro cultured stem fragments, isolated from greenhouse growing plants or from other previously produced micrografts cultured in vitro ( cyclic micrografting). Overall efficiency of propagation depends on ( 1) the multiplication rate of buds in vitro, (2) the efficiency of seed germination in vitro, (3) the efficiency of scion/rootstock union, and (4) further development in vitro and in the greenhouse of the micrografted plants.Each of these steps is being optimized independently in order to improve the overall propagation efficiency.In general, the same methodology of propagation, developed initially with the commercial cultivar \"Eiita\" (Ríos Castaño and Reyes, 1996), could be adapted with few modifications to other three clones (named \"Cristina\", \"Rosa\" and \"Francia\") selected from large commercial plantations located in the Huila region ofColombia.High efficiencies of scion/rootstock union are already being achieved with the actual methodology (between 100 and 65% depending on genotype combinations and so urce of buds, figure 1 ). However with sorne combinations, further development of the micrografted bud is still low (between 33 and 74%). The improvement ofbud development in vitro can thus be identified as the most critica) step for increasing the overall efficiency of the propagation methodology of soursop through micrografting. The highest levels of bud development in vitro are being achieved when rootstocks of the genotype Cristina, and buds coming from previously produced micrografted plants, cultured in vitro, are used.Already new combinations of selected clones micrografted over different rootstocks have been planted at CIA T and sent to farms at Huila, for agronomic evaluation:  ....  Micrografting success (sdon-rootstock union) and furtber development In vitro of micrografted plants of dlfferent combinations of soursop selections (E-Elita, C= Cristina, R• Rosa, F\"' Francia) and rootstocks. The buds used for producing the micrografts in the combinations marked with \"tic\" or \"est\" were isolated from micrografted plants produced previously and cultured in vitro, or from axillary buds induced in vitro from isolated stem sections of greenhouse growing plants, respectively.Eva/uation of the agronomic performance of soursop p/ants propagated through in vitro micrografting.The soursop plants produced through the in vitro micrografting methodology are being tested in the field in order to assess the usefulness of the technique for the production of planting materials of this tropical fruit species.As a part of a M.Sc. thesis (Juan Ruiz, Universidad Nacional de Colombia), the agronomic performance of El ita/El ita micrografted plants is being evaluated in five different locations of the Valle and Huila states. Micrografted plants were planted in the field between January 1999 and January 2000, after 10 months of hardening in the greenhouse. In CIAT (where the highest growth rates are being achieved), the trees at 13 months after planting in the field had become vigorous and healthy with an average height of 2 m. Since the trees have to be pruned after reaching this height in order to initiate tree formation, other parameters in addition to tree height should be taken into account, in order to ha ve a reliable estímate of tree growth. Perimeter of the stem 1 O cm over micrografting point was measured in replacement (fig. 2). After 13 months in the field, an -average of 5 reproductive structures (flower buds, flowers and developing fruits) were counted in each tree. First fruits were harvested 17 months after planting at CIA T. This is a rather fast development, and a first confirmation of the usefulness of the in vitro micrografting technique as a method for producing healthy and vigorous growing soursop planting material.  Use of rootstocks of other Annona species for the production of more vigorous, disease resistant and widely adapted soursop trees.The use of rootstocks of different genotypes or species from that of the se ion for the production of vigorous, widely adapted or disease resistant plants is a common practice in fruit tree propagation. In soursop this avenue has been largely under-exploited.We are testing the compatibility and agronomic performance of combinations of scions of selected soursop clones Elita, Rosa and Cristina micrografted in vitro over rootstocks of A.   montana and A. glabra L., two annonaceous species originally from the Chocó rainforest of Colombia. These two species do not show symptoms of anthracnose infections, the most important disease of soursop, even under conditions favorable for the development of this disease (high temperatures and humidity). Grafting soursop over A. glabra or A. montana may also improve resistance to drought, high humidity or soils with bad drainage (Escobar and Sánchez, 1992).Compared to the A. muricata/A. muricata genotype combinations (for example, Elita/Cristina, fig.3), micrografted plants produced over A. montana as rootstocks showed similar efficiencies of scion/rootstock union. However, further development efficiencies in vitro and later in the greenhouse, were much lower (13% greenhouse development for Cristina/A. montana micrografted plants; fig. 3) for sorne combinations. lt is note worthy though that viable plants were obtained in all genotype combinations, indicating that the micrografted tissues of these two species are compatible. The próduced plants were planted at CIA T or sent to farms at Huila State for agronomic evaluation .  One important advantage of the in vitro propagated plants over plants propagated through traditional methods in nurseries, is the possibility to produce plants free of viral and other infectious diseases. This healthy state should be maíntained during the greenhouse stage in order to prevent the recontamination of the plants and the spread of diseases through the planting material.As a part of a M. Se. thesis (Silvio Cadena, Universidad Nacional de Palmira), the management of the micrografted plants under greenhouse conditions is being standardized. The effect of four substrate combinations (mixtures of \"cahaza\", \"carbonilla\" , both by-products of the sugar industry-Pinus bark chips and CIA T -soil), and three strains of mycorrhizal endosymbiontic fungi: Glomus deserticola, Gigaspora margarita and Gigaspora rosae on the development ofthe micrografted plants is being investigated.The in vitro micrografting propagation methodology developed initially with the clone \"Elita\" could be -applied to other different soursop clones. The plants produced by this way develop healthy and vigorous growing trees, which initiate flowering after 13 months in the field under CIA T conditions. Efficiency of development of micrografted plantlets in vitro should be improved in order to apply the technology to the massive propagation of soursop clones.To Based on our experience in cryopreservation of cassava (Escobar et al 1997(Escobar et al , 2000)), and keeping in mind that CIA T is adopting tropical fruits as part of its mandate crops, we selected Tree Tomato as a case study for cryopreservation. Our objective is design long-term conservation altematives, comparable or better than standard conservation rnethods, which can be transferred to National Programs in the region.Tree tornato is important for small-scale farmers of cold, tropical zones (average annual temperature: l6°C and 22°C; 1600-3000 m.a.s.l., and annual precipitation between 1300-1600 mm), representing an altemative incorne source.We collected ripen fruits of three materials (yellow, !amarillo and comun) available in local markets of Palrnira and Cali. They were selected on the basis of color, appearance, brightness, phytosanitary state arnong other characteristics. Seeds were extracted, disinfected and dried on open petri dishes in a flow charnber for one hour. Then seeds were cryopreserved at least for one hour and thawed by warming them at 37°C for one minute. Seeds were then grown on germination rnedium for 40-50 days, and shoots transferred to rooting media before taken to the greenhouse.We run five replicas with 20 seeds for each oftwo treatments (frozen and not frozen) . Treatments were then evaluated based on germination percentages.No significant differences were observed between frozen and non-frozen seeds for /amarillo and comun, while for yellow we found differences at 40-day evaluation (Table 1.) .   There are not significant differences in germination of frozen and non-frozen seeds for Tamarillo and Común.Amarillo showed germination differences between treatments seeds, possibly due to fast desiccation rather than loss of embryo viability.Test slow desiccation methods for Amarillo Compare cryopreservation with short-to-medium term conservation (5 to -20°C)Transfer to National Germplasm Conservation Systems• Characterizing genes of the carotene pathway in cassava was initiated using consensus sequences to amplify the genes -Lycopene Cyclase (BLyc), -Carotene desaturase (CDes), Phytoene synthase (PSyn) and Phytoene desaturase (PDes).• The genetic variation in minerals concentrations of 411 cassava genotypes was evaluated. A substantial genetic variation that can be exploited to improve cassava micronutrient density was determined. Genotypes with higher con~entrations of Fe, Zn and pro-vitamin A were identified• The genetic variation of carotene content in leaves and roots of 682 cassava accessions was determined. A significant correlation (0.84) was observed for carotene content and color intensity ofthe roots. Carotene concentration in roots ranged from 0.13 to 0.92 mg/1 00 g FW, with a mean of 0.23 and a standard deviation of 0.1 O. Carotenes concentrate much more in the leaves than in the roots, illustrating, once again, the excellent nutritive value of cassava leaves. There was no correlation (0.02) between carotene concentration in the leaves and roots.• The Identification of target points for the control of post-harvest physiological deterioration in cassava was pursued. Two classes of secondary metabolites, hydroxycoumarins and flavan-3-ols, were identified in deteriorated cassava root extracts. Those metabolites proved to be biologically active, as antioxidants and antimicrobials ( 4, 5). The dominant compounds were scopolin, scopoletin and (+)-gallocatechin.Vitamin A deficiency is an important public health problem, especially in tropical countries. Cassava is one of the most important sources of energy in tropical countries, although it lacks the carotene content necessary, in the roots, to supply mínima! carotene intake requirements. It would be desirable to breed cassava for increased caro ten e content in roots, taking advantage of the great genetic diversity that exists for this trait within cassava germplasm. One way to do it is by conventional breeding, which is the longest way. A second, faster approach is through genetic transformation, introducing and expressing genes to elevate carotene content in roots.Characterizing cassava genes of the -carotene pathway to understand their regulation in roots will help in the identification of root specific promoters that could be coupled to bacteria!-or plant-derived genes known to enhance carotene content in other species (Y e et. al., 2000). Thus, the main objective ofthis work is to characterize cassava genes ofthe carotene pathway.We used consensus sequences from GeneBank to design primers for PCR amplification of the genes -Lycopene Cyclase (BLyc), -Carotene desaturase (CDes), Phytoene synthase (PSyn) and Phytoene desaturase (PDes). Genomic DNA ofhigh (Mper297) and low (CM523-7) carotene content varieties was extracted and used for PCR amplification. Amplified bands were cloned into pGEM-T Easy vector. Insert sizes were confirmed with M13 primers. Additionally, RT-PCR was also made from mRNA of roots from both varieties.Consensus primers were successful at amplifying all targeted genes. With the exception of Psyn, it was impossible to obtain a unique band. The optimal annealing conditions for PCR amplification were 52 °C for genes BLyc, PDes, CDes and 50 °C for Psyn (Figures 1,2). PCR product sizes from DNA and mRNA agreed with expect sizes based on consensus sequences. mRNA samples from CM523-7 and MPer 297 genotypes were RT-PCR amplified . Severa! bands appeared. Genes BLyc, PDes and CDes showed expect size fragments. PSyn gene did not amplify. Bands were observed in both high and low carotene content genotypes. Different RT-PCR programs with other primer cornbinations, and annealing temperatures, will be performed for PSyn amplification.MPer297 CM523-7 Currently we have cloned 50 percent of the bands into pGEM-T vectors. Inserts from carotene clones ha ve been confirmed by PCR using M 13 and gene-specific primers. Results are shown in Figure 3.Cooclusioos aod oogoiog Work.Severa! fragments were amplified by PCR with primers designed from consensus sequences of carotenoid metabolism genes from cassava genomic DNA of two varieties having contrasting carotene levels in roots. Sorne of the arnplified fragments have been cloned into pGEM T easy vector for sequencing and data base comparisons. RT-PCR ofmRNA from roots ofthese cassava genotypes was also performed with successful amplification of bands. We will clone bands from RT-PCR into the same vector for sequencing. Additionally, genomic and cONA libraries will be constructed in GEMll and pSPORT-1 vectors, respectively, to fish out genomic and cONA clones.Deficiencies of vitamin A, iron and zinc are widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and in many tropical areas where the diets of poor human populations are mainly plant-based and the intake of animal-derived products are low. As cassava is a staple food in regions where there are severe micronutrient deficiencies, the crop could be used as a vehicle to deliver vitamins and minerals in higher concentrations.In the field of human and animal nutrition there is an increasing amount of evidence of a synergistic effect between vitamins and certain minerals. Prelimínary results suggest that Fe and Zn contents in the diet increase vitamin A absorption and vice versa. Thus in the study of micronutrient availability from cassava roots and leaves, it is also important to measure mineral contents.The overall objective of this project is to improve the nutritional status of people living in marginal environments of the tropics, by selecting and promoting cassava genotypes with high bioavailability of micronutrients and vitamins. The objective of this research was to evaluate the extent of genetic variation of mineral concentrations in 41 1 genotypes from the world cassava germplasm bank held at CIA T.Mineral concentration measurement. Leaves and roots were collected, dried, ground to powder and sent to the Analytical Laboratory of the University of Adelaide (sampling was the same as that for evaluating carotene content; see \"Evaluation of genetic diversity for total carotenes content in cassava leaves and roots\". There the samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Care was taken in the processing to avoid contamination from soil, which has higher mineral concentrations than those of plant tissues.Carotene concentration measurements. The extraction protocol for leaves and roots is described in \"Evaluation of genetic diversity for total carotenes content in cassava leaves and roots\".Postharvest Physiological Deterioration (PPD) measurements. PPD was measured 7 days after harvest on genotypes whose concentration of carotenes in roots was measured simultaneously (see \"Evaluation of genetic diversity for total carotenes content in cassava leaves and roots\".Trace mineral concentrations {mglkg) Roots averaged 14.88 ofFe, 8.15 ofZn and 803.11 ofCa on a dry matter basis (Table 1). Mineral concentrations in the leaves were much higher, averaging 281.61 of Fe, 47.53 of Zn and 13760 of Ca. These leaf concentration figures are much higher than those in most staple foods . Although the leaves, which can be eaten as a vegetable, have a high water content and• low mineral density, they supply high levels of minerals per calorie.      Fe C\"V' 1CXIg ~Correlations among minerals and carotene contents. There was a very weak relationship between total carotene content and Zn and Ca in the roots ( correlation coefficients of 0.005 and 0.1792, respectively). There was no correlation for Fe. With respect to the leaves, the correlations were significant for Mn (0.150), Na ( -0.148) and Ca (0.146). Correlation among minerals in roots and PPD. In general the correlations between PPD and mineral concentrations in the roots were low. The higher correlation coefficients found were negative for K ( -0.2936, Fíg. 1) and Fe ( -0. 1854, Fig. 2). Thus it would seem that there may be an inverse relationship between these minerals and the PPD process.Cluster analysis. In order to identifying elite genotypes for breeding programs, this analysis constructs groups ( clusters) that ha ve interesting characteristics in common. Of the 15 clusters that were determined, the genotypes that had the highest concentrations of minerals among them were M Bra 11 and CM 6068-3. SM 722-13 hada low K concentration anda high PPD. M Col 2436, M Col 2439, M Col 2459 and M Bra 206 hada low PPD anda higher carotene content. Table 2 summarizes these data.These results demonstrate that there is a substantial genetic variation that can be ~xploited to improve cassava micronutrient density. New varieties with higher concentrations of Fe, Zn and pro-vitamin A can be identified to exploit the synergy that may operate in absorption, interna! transport and function among these micronutrients.Search for a group of cassava cultivars with a higher micronutrient content to help in the breeding approach to improve their micronutrient content Evaluate the expression and stability of minerals in elite genotypes under different environmental conditions cassava cultivars with high available carotene content could significantly improve the health and nutritional status ofthe poor, especially women and children.Postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) is a constraint that limits the marketability of the fresh cassava roots and increases the costs of postharvest handling. Consequently, the roots must either be consumed or processed shortly after harvesting. In this study we evaluate the hypothesis that a high carotene content could help reduce PPD through its antioxidant capacity.The overall objective of this project is to improve the nutritional status of people living in marginal environments of the tropics, by selectíng and promoting cassava genotypes with high and good bioavailability of micronutrients and vítamíns.The specific objective of this research is to determine the extent of genetic variation of carotene content in 682 accessions from the cassava world germplasm bank held at CIA T .Harvesting and sampling. A selection was made of 682 cassava genotypes to represent the wide variability in carotene content and PPD susceptibility from the CIA T germplasm collection (6000 genotypes). Three plants per cultivar were harvested at 9-12 months of maturity.Carotene concentration measurements. The extraction procedure outlined by Safo-Katanga et al. (1984) was modified by extra\"cting root parenchyma with petroleum ether. The extraction protocol for leaves had to be modified due to the presence of tannins and chlorophylls. The modified protocol included several extractions with petroleum ether at 35-65°C and washing with methanol in order to minimize interference from the other pigments. A 5-g sample was taken from randomly selected root or lea ves, 10-11 months after planting. The quantification was done by ultraviolet spectrophotometry, using a Shimadzu UV-VIS l60A recording spectrophotometer.UV detection was done at 1 = 455 nm for root extracts and 1 = 490 nm for leaf extracts.PPD measurements. Five commercially sized roots (mínimum length 18 cm) were randomly chosen and analyzed using the method of Wheatley et al. (1985) with one modification: The prepared roots were stored under ambient conditions for 7 instead of 3 days. The proximal and distal root ends were cut off, and the distal end was covered with Clingfilm. After 7_ days, seven 2-cm thick transversal slices were cut along the root, starting from the proximal end. A score of 1-1 O was assigned to each si ice, corresponding to the percent of the cut surface showing discoloration ( l = 1 0%, 2=20%, etc). The mean PPD score for each root was calculated.Analysis of carotene content. Carotene concentration in leaf tissue ranged from 18.71 to 96.2 mg/100 g FW, with a mean of 50.32 mg/100 g FW anda standard deviation of 10.43 (Table 1). These values are similar to those found in a group of 500 accessions evaluated the previous year (CIA T, 2000). The carotene distribution showed a symmetrical tendency (skewness = 0.2). Carotene concentration in roots ranged from 0.13 to 0.92 mg/1 00 g FW, with a mean of 0.23 and a standard deviation of 0.10 (Table 1). This distribution showed a strong skewness with long right tails (skewness = 2.83). A significant correlation (0.84) was observed for carotene content and color intensity of the roots. Carotenes concentrate much more in the lea ves than in the roots, illustrating, once again, the excellent nutritive value of cassava leaves. There was no correlation (0.02) between carotene concentration in the leaves and roots. Correlations among vitamin content and PPD. The correlation between PPD and carotene content in cassava roots was -0.07 (Fig_ 1). This relationship is similar to the one reported previously (-0.13). Although a high correlation between carotene content and PPD was not observed, it was noted previously (Chávez el al., 2000) that at carotene concentrations >50 mg carotene/1 00 FW in the roots, the PPD did not exceed 20%, suggesting a threshold effect (Table 2). Nevertheless, the results illustrated in Figure 1 clearly contradict previous findings. lt has been founthat PPD studies are affected by large experimental errors arising from environmental variations at the time the evaluations are carried out. Because of logistical limitations, gennplasm bank accessions must be harvested gradually over time; therefore the PPD evaluations are carri. ed out at different times and environmental factors (particularly temperature ). Beca use of this situation CIA T built a large chamber where temperature and relative humidity can be controlled. In the future all PPD evaluations will be perfonned under unifonn environmental conditions.' ..   Expressed sequence tags (EST's) as candidate loci as quantitative traits, has been suggested as a way of increasing the accuracy of mapping complex traits. The EST's simplifies and directs genomics sequencing and isolation and cloning genes of agronomical interest genes. Nonnally the generation of EST's has been by sequencing of random cONA clones from libraries obtained from different tissues at various stages of development. Constructing cONA libraries from tissues and developmental stages are keys for study certain traits.Starch is certainly the principal carbohydrate storage fonn of CG mandate crops. Sorne of the key steps of the starch biosynthesis and deposition are well understood from the work in grain crops and root crop, such as cassava. A genome-wide gene expression approach will provide insights in the metabolism of starch in different crops. As one step to achieve this goal, a cONA library from high and low starch content cultivars has been constructed.Source of plant tissue for the construction of the cONA library were storage roots from plants 1 O months of age. MPer 183 (low starch contend) and CM523-7 (high starch contend) were the cassava cultivars used in this study. Fresh roots from each cultivars were harvested and immediately storage at -80°C. Root tissue was ground to fine powder using liquid nitrogen and 3 g used for RNA extraction with lithium chloride and cleaning steps with phenol:chloroform. Only total RNA samples with high purity (A260/A280 ratio 1.8 -2.0) and good concentration were selected for mRNA isolation using magnetic poly A DYNAbeads according to the manufacture. The cONA synthesis and clonini was done using the Stratagene cONA Synthesis Kit, ZAP-cDNA ~ Synthesis Kit and ZAP-cDNA Gigapack~ m Gold Cloning Kit according to the manufacture.Prior to cloning, low molecular weight (less than 500 bp) cDNA was removed by size fractionation and the remaining fraction of cONA was divided in two portions for each genotype, the frrs portion contained fragments between SOObp and 1500bp and a second portion with fragments longer than 1500bp. The cONA synthesis was primed with oligo (dt) primer which contaíns a Not 1 restriction site and an adaptor on the other site which contains the apropiate EcoR 1 site, allowing that the libraries were directionally cloned.Alllibraries were obtained with a mínimum titer of 10 8 pfulml. The amplified libraries have titer of 10 8 to 10 10 pfulml. This quantity is sufficient for severa! thousands screening. An insert size screening after cloning and the average obtained was 1 000 bp. Both cONA librarles were transferred to IRD (Francia) for the differential subtraction and sequencing the clones differentialty expressed, besides a copy of these libraries are still in CIA T for future activitiesThe cONA synthesis and cloning was done using the Stratagene cONA Synthesis Kit, ZAP~ cONA~ Synthesis Kit and ZAP~cDNA ~ Gigapack~ III Gold Cloning Kit according to the manufacture.Two directionally cloned cONA libraries in Lambda ZAP 11 were obtained: \"Early\" from pooled O, 3, 6 & 12 hour time points, and \"Late\", from 24, 48 & 96 hours.Based on size fractionation, low molecular weight (less than 500 bp) cONA was removed prior to cloning and the remaining fraction of cONA was divided in two portions according the fragment's size, the firs portian contained fragments between 500bp and 1500bp and a second portian with fragments longer than 1500bp. The two \"Early and Late\" original libraries were obtained with a ti ter of 10 8 pfu/ml. The amplified libraries ha ve ti ter of l. 7 x 10 9 and 7 x 10 8 pfulml respectively. This quantity is sufficient for severa! thousands screaning. Both cONA libraries were transferred to Dr. John Beeching's Laboratory in Bath University (United Kindong) for a specific gene screening and random clones sequencing A copy of these libraries are still in CIA T for future activities • Previous research showed that the key signalling events that trigger post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) in cassava occur during the earliest stages and that the lack of adequate wound repair in the detached root permits the spread of the deterioration response. The experimental work was to address these aspects.The 1ibraries were screened with PCR-generated subtraction probes enriched for PPO-related sequences. In addition we randomly se1ected clones from both librarles. The subtraction probes hybridised to 30 different clones, which were sequenced and characterised. Surprisingly 20 of these were for members of an extensin gene family, which fell into four classes. Extensins are proteins that are insolubilised in the plant cell wall by H 2 0 2 during normal development and in response to wounding; they play a role in cell wall strengthening. This predominance of extensins could reflect their PPO-specificity or be an artefact of the PCR method used to produce the subtraction probes. Nonetheless, these results do demonstrate the activity of a large gene family of extensins during the early stages of PPD. Approximately 70 random clones from both librarles were also sequenced and characterized. The total of 100 clones sequenced included members of the following classes: cell wall strengthening, signa! transduction, stres_ s responses, senescence, defence, metabolism, transcription, translation, and the frrst evidence of the activity of a Mutator-like transposable element in cassava.This and previous work had suggested that sorne aspects of wound repair ( cell wall strengthening) occurred during PPD. Therefore, we used immunological methods to detect extensin accumulation during PPD. These data confmned our supposition, showing an accumulation of extensin in the root, particularly associated with the vascular tissue; an accumulation that paralleled the development of PPO symptoms. However, the response occurred too late to heal the wound sites and thereby inhibit PPO. Future Activities cONA microarray spotting. 5,000 clones from each library will select after mass excision, PCR amplified and spotted onto replicate glass slides using the SPBIO spotting robot at CIA T. Interrogating of microarrays. Cy3 and Cy5 labeled cONA derived from poly(A)+ of time points of interest will be used as probe to hybridize cONA slides.As reported before, two classes of secondary metabolites, hydroxycoumarins and flavan-3-ols, were identified in deteriorated cassava root extracts. Those metabolites proved to be biologically active, as antioxidants and antimicrobials ( 4, 5). The dominant compounds were scopolin, scopoletin and (+)-gallocatechin. Scopolin and scopoletin accumulate two to three days after harvest, whilst (+)-gallocatechin accumulates after four to six days. Based on this accumulation time, it was assumed that the coumarins are related to PPD while th_ e flavan-3-ols are more related to microbial deterioration (3,5).The analysis of al! root extracts chromatographic profiles showed two peaks, in the area of the non -polar compounds, which occurs with the onset of PPD. The structure elucidation of those candidates for PPD markers has not been successful. Besides that, the more prominent peak was quantified in terms of scopoletin. Figure 1 shows a major accumulation of the PPD peak in the cultivars wjth high response towards PPD, which may suggest this metabolite a good candidate for biochemical marker. Enzyme activities in crease from the initial stage of the deterioration. Only POX presents a small decrease in activity by the end of the time course period, and the differences between cultivars with contrasting PPD responses are not as clear as with the other enzymes.Previously was mentioned that peroxidases, in cassava roots, catalyse a reaction between scopoletin and H 2 0 2 resulting in a black precipitate. The Iocalisation of POX activity around the vascular parenchyma suggests a correlation between PPD and oxidation of hydroxicoumarins. As well, the increase of scopoletin-peroxidase could clarify the decrease of scopoletin at the lasts time course days (Figure 2).The Family K was tested in detail for PPD damage. The entire population was grown, at the same time, in two different agro-ecological sites, Palmira and Quilichao, and during two following years, 1998 and 1999. Figure 3 shows the PPD response frequency for both planting locations and periods.Besides conclude PPD response is hereditable, is extensively affected by the environrnent. Even considerable differences in climate and soil factors exists between Palmira and Quilichao, it was not determined a specific environmeñtal factor that could explain the genotype by environment (GxE) interaction.The PPD scoring method used at CIA T, for more than 20 years, has been considered subjective and non reliable, therefore this project is looking for a biochemical analytical method which grants an objective and accurate measure of the PPD response. All tests are subject to large variability between roots ofthe same plant and between those of genetically identical plants. For that reason, it was assumed that the enormous variation, which indeed complicates the collection of statistically significant data, is more related to environmental factors than the specific analytical method used. While a rapid and economic biochemical assay can be developed, the traditional visual method should be used.   We are developing two databases to store the information about microsatellites tested on common beans. The frrst, uses Oracle (Develo~r 2000) software that we initially tested for storing, handling and presenting images within a relational database about RAPOs that we constructed last year (Annual report 2000). The software has a more user-friendly interface and the capacity to be loaded onto the web. As a relational database, Oracle has the advantage of being an efficient program for organizing and managing data that has multiple layers of relational structure and which is based on a series of data tables. Oracle is also the standard program for databasing the information from the breeding programs at CIA T. The second database we are using to store microsatellite data is Beangenes (http://beangenes.cws.ndsu.nodak.ed!!L), which is the AceDB genome database for beans which was established by the USDA -Plant Genome program to specialize in the genetic information relating to the crop. We hope that these databases will be the basis for collecting genotypic information on common bean and a dynamic analysis tool allowing researchers to ask such questions as: how many polymorphisms can 1 expect when comparing two varieties that might be potential parents? ; and which polymorphisms distinguish one variety from another?Results and Discussion principal database on genetic resources held in the CGIAR system and GRIN (http://www.arsgrin.gov/npgsD, a comparable germplasm database ofthe USDA. Se.rch:-1fi!ili::::J  FloraMap was used as an example for the Intellectual prop_ erty Audit. All together we exchanged almost 80 emails, many of them long and detailed. I leamed a lot and the report clarified many aspects of our software protection, copyright and licensing. I modified our copyright statements on the manual and software and included overlooked acknowledgements to ESRI and Borland for the use of their software in FloraMap development. The auditors offered, free of charge, to register the FloraMap logo drawing as a trademark as well as just the name, something I did not consider in the original application for trademark.We finished the release 1.01 of FloraMap incorporating sorne corrections and minor modifications and prepared a set of release notes. These are now available for download on the FloraMap web site. I have created the European MetGrid from files kindly provided by IWMI from their Land and Water Atlas ofthe World. These are 10 are minute climate grids and, as such are at the lower limit of resolution for FloraMap, but are useful to extend the coverage. 1 also constructed the 2.5 are minute grid for the Continental USA from data kindly made available by Dr. Chris Daly ofthe University o Oregon.In the tropics, almost all climates are seasonally defined by the rainfall record. The annual march of temperature being marginally important. As we approach the temperate regions rainfall variability becomes less important and the seasons become much more markedly defined by temperature. The original climate grids were rotated on rainfall alone. In the climate grids released to date this has not been a major problem, apart from sorne very limited areas of Mediterranean climates and deserts. 1 have now developed an altemative system using a weighted s = arctan IP -ti l p+tl rotation that favours rainfall seasonality in the tropics and temperature elsewhere. lt preved to be a tricky balance of weightings and required repeated mappings of various indicators until 1 found the right combination. This proved to be reassuringly simple once 1 had found it. 1 use the vector sum of the rainfall first frequency vector p in mm, with vector t, the first frequency temperature vector multiplied by 2 times the latitude. The resultant rotation vector r gives the rotation phase angle. An index of rotational stability was formed asThis was mapped for all available MetGrids and inspected carefully for areas of instability. Sorne areas in the tropics show the values of s approaching instability in sorne bimodal rainfall areas where the -first frequency vector amplitudes are low. However in all cases except three high altitude pixels in Colombia the rotation angle was stable. This aspect of bimodality now shows under the more sophisticated rotation algorithm and will need further work in the future before 1 implement high precision grids. However the present arrangement is adequate for the moment. It now grades evenly from one system to the other and will allow a unified approach throughout all climates.We also created a grid for Honduras at 30 are seconds and 5 are minute and 1 O are minute grids for Asia for users whose computers would not handle the excess load ofthe 2.5 are minute grids. All these new grids are now available for download from the web site.USA During 13th and 14th Nov we assisted with the course on FloraMap, DIVA and SID given by IPGRI and CIP representative Robert Hijmans to IPGRI regional office personnel. We gave a detailed demonstration of FloraMap and was present during the tutoría! session to answer questions, solve problems and give advice. William Diaz had distributed a feedback questionnaire for the participants and we got sorne useful comments.Although the exact number of copies actually in use is difficult to estímate, We believe that the number of active users is approaching 200 world wide. We would like to recognize the invaluable collaboration of my colleagues in IPGRI who have helped to widen the distribution and have given a remarkable service in putting on courses for training in FloraMap in many parts of the world. • Forty five transgenic lines derived from RHB V-N transgenic Cica 8 with leve! of resistan ce to RHBV between 1 and 3.• Seven lines RHBV-N transgenic Cica 8 lines more resistant than the highest commercial resistant variety Fedearroz 2000• Total of 21 NS4 sense and 70 NS4 anti-sense transgenic Cica 8, Palmar, Cimarrón, and Fundarroz PN 1 plants for novel RHBV resistance.• Total of 59 PAPY123 transgenic Cica 8, Palmar, Cimarrón, and Fundarroz PNl plants for novel RHBV resistance• Total of 7,542 lines were generated from rice anther cultured for the various breeding efforts stationed at CIA T. Two hundred and sixty R2 , R3, and somaclone lines were distributed this year to national program in Latin America ..• A cONA library from 1 0-day-old seedlings of Brachiaria decumbens was generated. The library is being used to clone key lignin biosynthetic genes from Brachiaria.• At least two transgenic plant lines of cassava cultivars TMS60444 expressing GUS from construct containing a Cry 1 Ab gene. • Delivery of transgenic rice cultivars to seed producers and farmers in tropical A.merica: Following-a multi-step approach involving biosafety assessment, nutritional testing and negotiations on intellectual property. The Rockefeller Foundation. Approved January 2001-2004 (Partnertship: CIA T and Univ. ofCosta Rica).• \"Candidate Genes for Tolerance of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation (SNF) to Phosphorus Deficiency in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)\". Approved by Plate-forme de recherches avancées Agropolis -2eme appel d 'o.ffre (2001Agropolis -2eme appel d 'o.ffre ( -2003)). • Genetic transforrnation of rice from fungal resistance. 1999-200 l . Centro Tecnológico Polar (Partnership Rutgers University, IDEA-Venezuela, and CIA T. ","tokenCount":"74977"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"304f0c5d3112fbf803d39a30a70d73a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c11b84ba-4618-4530-92fb-d7a457094bdd/retrieve","id":"1674185798"},"keywords":["Livelihoods","soil salinity","water management","water productivity"],"sieverID":"db956069-3089-4bb1-897a-04a410e6fd3a","pagecount":"1","content":"Worldwide, food production to feed the increasing population growth is still a big challenge, especially in arid and semi-arid areas of Africa where about 70% of the rural population depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Chemical and physical land degradation processes aggravate the declining crop production in these areas. Therefore, efficient use of water and nutrients is a priority to guarantee sustainable crop production and improve the livelihoods of poor rural farmers. This article will focus on understanding and assessing the supply-demand issues in relation to irrigation water as well as the management strategies under different soil salinity conditions in the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme (CIS) located in the Limpopo River Basin, Mozambique. In the CIS, crop yields are variable and declining, mainly due to soil salinization and other agronomic practices that include poor water management. This is aggravated by the semi-arid climatic conditions and climate change phenomena which affects the availability of water and increases the occurrence of floods and droughts in the region.The present study is intended to contribute to improving the livelihoods of poor rural farmers in the CIS through the provision of additional knowledge that will enable an improvement in the long-term agricultural water productivity.","tokenCount":"198"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ea36998fa8cf3beb41037db5a827e94b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/718b5610-ef62-41a1-8901-603cc0d97cc7/content","id":"2011745471"},"keywords":["Wheat seed","Production","Public-private Partnership","Food security","Pakistan"],"sieverID":"2d4d412a-9665-4ca6-a40b-abfc51702039","pagecount":"9","content":"Wheat accounts for 60% of the daily diet and 72% of the daily calorie intake in Pakistan. The average per hectare wheat yield in Pakistan is only 2.8 tons, which is far below potential yield of 6.8 tons/ha for wheat in Pakistan. In this study, we use time-series data from the previous 1.5 decades to analyze wheat seed supplies in four major wheat-growing provinces: Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh. The regression analysis indicates that the use of certified seed has a positive and significant impact on wheat production which is a key pillar of ensuring food security at the national level. Province-wise there exist some variation as results show that certified seed is available from public and private sources in Punjab to meet nearly a quarter of the province's requirements and also supply a significant portion of Sindh's wheat seed needs. However, available certified seed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan provinces constitutes only 10% or less of the wheat seed sown. Throughout Pakistan, early-generation improved wheat seed comes mostly from public sector institutions; the private sector is involved primarily in the sale of improved seed and does not take part in wheat research or development programs. Farmers' access to improved wheat seed can be enhanced through sustainable publicprivate partnerships, swift availability of pre-basic seed to well established private seed companies and introduction of legally-binding arrangements between public and private entities. This would not only help increase the wheat production but also bring improvement in the food security of rural households and country's economic growth.Agriculture contributes nearly 20% to Pakistan's GDP, employing 43% of the country's labor force and contributing to the growth of other sectors of the economy (Government of Pakistan, 2016). During 2015-16, agriculture sector showed a negative growth of 0.19% and crop output declined more than 6%, due in part to factors such as changing climatic conditions and lack of timely availability of key inputs, a chief one being the availability of quality seed (Government of Pakistan, 2016).Grown on some 9 million hectares nationwide, wheat occupies some 38% of Pakistan's cultivated area of nearly 22.8 million hectares. It is Pakistan's leading food grain, accounting for more than 80% of the cereal production and 60% of inhabitants' daily diets (average annual per capita consumption is 125 kilograms), contributing more than 12% to value added in agriculture and occupying a central position in the formulation of agricultural policies (Government of Pakistan, 2016).The major wheat-growing provinces of Pakistan are Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Punjab and Sindh. More than three-quarters of national wheat production comes from Punjab and the remainder from the other three provinces, despite their having larger wheat areas and cheaper labor (Government of Pakistan, 2012). The details about province wise area and production of wheat are presented in Appendix 1. Because Pakistan's food security depends heavily on the wheat crop, wheat production has expanded overall in recent years (Shah et al., 2010;Quddus and Mustafa, 2011;Nazli et al., 2014).In Pakistan, wheat is also a political crop and every government tries to have self-sufficiency in wheat for food security and stability. Average yield for wheat was 2.8 tons per hectare (t/ha) in 2014-15, which is significantly below the estimated yield potential of 6.8 t/ha for this crop in Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, 2016). Diverse challenges constrain wheat productivity in Pakistan, including changing climatic conditions like rising temperatures and erratic rainfalls, lack of timely availability and quality inputs, lack of credit, inadequate extension services and above all farmers' lack of access to quality seed of newly released high yielding wheat varieties (Iqbal et al. 2002;Javed et al. 2008;Javed et al., 2009).This paper is based on detailed review of the wheat seed sector using historical data. There is a first data based review to provide guidelines (expert opinion) to the policy makers for bringing needed intervention in the sector to improve quality seed supply for increased production. Additionally, the analysis presented covers wheat seed situation in all the four major provinces of the country and the time series based data set helped to draw some recommendations which could be helpful in policy formulations.We collected data from number of sources and details are presented as Appendix B to document the status of wheat seed sector in Pakistan. This is the first study in Pakistan that has focused both qualitatively and quantitatively on supply of improved wheat seed, including the composition of the wheat seed sector and the availability of certified seed in each province.The ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis was carried out to assess the effect of certified wheat seed on wheat production and area in Pakistan. In the regression analysis, the dependent variable is the certified seed overall quantity at Pakistan level and the independent variables included in the model are the production, area and yield. Similarly the province-wise analysis was carried out to estimate and compare the regional heterogeneity. The equation below describes the OLS modelWhere Y is the demand of certified seed and α is the constant term and Xi is the production variable included in the model and Xj is the area variable included in the model and Xl is the yield variable included in the model while β s are the coefficients.The results are based on the time series data set collected from a number of sources and the details of sources are given in Appendix B.The Pakistani seed industry used to be dominated by public sector seed corporations and Agricultural Research and Extension Departments; exclusive provider of wheat seed. However, following privatization policy and easing of government regulations, seed industry was declared as business in 1984 and 1996. Consequently private seed sector was encouraged to complement the efforts of public sector which was supplying not more than 9% certified wheat seed of the total requirement in the country. As a result there are at present approximately 729 functioning seed companies in Pakistan (Table 1). The listing includes small, intermediatesize and large companies that either multiply and market seed of wheat, rice, cotton, vegetables and fodder crops, or selling imported seed of those crops. Of this relatively large number of seed companies in Pakistan, a few market wheat seed, essentially because of low profits associated with wheat seed business and large quantities of seed. Majority of farmers are getting seed from the informal sources. Data from the past one and half decades regarding the availability of certified wheat seed show that only 20-25% of seed comes from formal sources while remainder comprises either farmers' saved seed or seed obtained from fellow farmers, middlemen, or village shops (Table 2) where information about the source of variety is in most cases unknown. The availability of certified seed did not improve much in the last 10 years, fluctuating between 20% and25%. The gap between the requirement and availability is continuously over 70%. The major share (14-17%) of certified seed comes from the private sector, with the exceptions of 2010-11 and 2011-12, when private sector contributions were 22 and 21%, respectively. pba = public sector availability; pra = private sector availability. Note: On X-axis the years are presented On Y-axis the seed availability and gap are presented in percentages Figure 1 shows the desegregated availability of certified seed from the public vs private sectors. Beside availability from public and private sectors, the gap between supply and demand of certified seed constantly exists over the years. During 2015-16 the gap between supply and demand of certified seed is between 65-70 %. The findings indicate that there is a need for greater public sector participation, with emphasis on increasing early-generation seed production for use by the private sector for further multiplication as basic and certified seed.In the regression analysis, the data was used from 1994-95 to 2014-15 (21 years) and results are presented in Table 3. The dependent variable is the availability of certified wheat seed and independent variables included in the model are production, area and yield of wheat in Pakistan. The R-square value is quite high i.e. 0.81 indicating that 81 % variation in dependent variable is due to independent variables included in the model. The production and yield coefficient are positive and significant while the area coefficient is though positive but nonsignificant. The figures 2 and 3 also show the certified seed availability impact on wheat production and area in Pakistan. The figures present a positive impact of certified wheat seed availability on wheat production.  The province wise analysis was also carried out and is presented in Table 4. The empirical results indicate that province wise there are some differences but all in all the seed availability has a positive impact on wheat production which is so important in ensuring rural household food security in Pakistan.  3.4 Analysis by province of certified seed supplies 3.4.1 Punjab Province. The availability of certified wheat seed in Punjab Province is 18-22% of all seed sown, with 4-5% coming from public seed sector and 18-19% supplied by private seed companies (Table 5). The Punjab Seed Corporation -currently the only public entity that supplies certified seed is facing diverse challenges including lack of research and development expertise, land litigation with tenants around its seed farms, stringent internal policies due to compliance to government rules and private sector competition. The contribution of public sector in wheat seed is from 1-3% of the total seed requirement of the province, while the contribution of the private seed sector is from 8 to 25%, over the last four years (Table 6). The private seed sector is aggressive and the availability of pre-basic seed was the main bottleneck for the production of basic and certified seed, which has now been addressed in the new seed legislation Act of 2015. Recently, the Sindh government established a seed production and development center at Sindh Agricultural University, Tandojam. The wheat seed situation in Sindh province is also not really encouraging and there is a huge scope for improvement on the part of all the stakeholders i.e. farmers, seed companies, provincial agricultural research and extension department as well as policy makers. Inherently the lack of professionals, rapid change of higher management and lack of consistency in policies resulted into low quality seed which gave set back to the credibility of Sindh Seed Corporation since its inception. In KP Province, formal seed suppliers, public and private, provide only 10% of wheat seed sown Table 7. The Province's former Agriculture Development Authority (ADA), which handled seed procurement and distribution through depots, but was abolished in May 2001 due to issues such as defaults on loans for inputs and poor management. A KP Agriculture Development Fund (ADF) created in the Agriculture Extension Department manages a $3.5 million revolving fund to provide certified seed to farming communities on competitive basis (Always less as compared to other provinces) and using state lands and seed processing facilities. Since it is not an independent seed organization its efficiency needs to be assessed. Responsibility for pre-basic seed is mainly restricted to research institutes which should now be open to the private sector. At present efforts are underway to establish an independent agency in the province in the public sector to fill the gap of seed availability and access to the farmers.However, lessons learnt from the previous ventures in the province must be considered and one viable option could be to develop a partnership with the private sector especially for the efficient utilization of government seed farms, making available sufficient quantity of pre-basic seed, provision of seed processing units on subsidized rates, capacity building in quality seed production and managerial skills in seed industry management. Popularization of new varieties through Agriculture Extension and electronic media is essentially required to motivate farmers for adoption of certified seed of new and agronomically superior varieties. efficiently used in terms of capacity and we suggest that private sector involvement could improve efficiency. In addition there is a poor link between the Agriculture Department and research systems which have access to prebasic seeds for multiplication as basic or certified seed at the state farms. Since 2001-02, the public sector has not produced more than 1% of the certified seed needed to meet the provincial seed requirement. The provincial government, through policy and administrative measures, should mobilize the Agriculture Department to use the government seed farms efficiently. The data suggest that public participation in supplying certified seed is declining;, for example, the ineffectiveness of the Sindh Seed Corporation over the past a few years despite restructuring. In KP and Balochistan, no independent seed production organizations, such as those of Punjab and Sindh seed corporations, are in operation; rather, their respective departments of agricultural research and extension were given the responsibility for seed multiplication and distribution. Also, private seed suppliers in KP and Balochistan until recently focused on producing and marketing maize and vegetable seed, but have now diversified their seed offerings, which include wheat seed.In contrast to private seed companies, marketing and promotion are not aggressively pursued by public entities. Moreover, the public sector lacks trained seed professionals and suffers financial constraints, particularly in Balochistan and Sindh, despite having access to state lands and seed processing facilities. Private seed companies are also capturing a slightly higher market share due to the limited number of varieties offered by public suppliers and the fact that there are more than 700 seed companies in competition with public suppliers. Seed obtained from the informal sector is often not of good quality and there is a need to educate farmers regarding the importance of using quality seed.The Seed (Amendment) Act 2015 ensures access of the private sector to pre-basic seed, which will help to improve the slow varieties replacement rate and is also expected to enhance the supply of quality of wheat seed. The slow varietal replacement rate also decreases the technical efficiency of wheat producers (Battese, 2014). Also the approved Plant breeders' right can further enhance the wheat breeding efficiency in the public sector if the act is properly implemented, as there will be financial incentives for both research institutes and plant breeders. Private seed companies invest in and actively pursue seed marketing, distribution and extension, bringing them closer to the farmers and enabling them to capture more of the market share.Our analysis revealed that the private sector market share in seed production is gradually increasing, which could be a signal for the government to streamline seed policies for more friendly seed business and the restructuring of the public sector entities.The data and these trends suggest that continuous public and private efforts and partnerships are needed to meet demand for wheat seed in Pakistan. One of the keys to success of such partnerships in the seed value chain is to establish a legally binding system where the public sector develops and releases varieties which are then contracted to a company for seed increase and marketing, as per approved plant breeder rights or mutually agreed arrangements.From the findings it can be concluded that there is large shortfall of certified wheat seed. Public and private seed suppliers currently account for 18-22% of the seed sown; the remainder comes from informal sources. To increase farmers' access to improved wheat seed the public and private partnership, electronic media, popularization of new varieties through seed exhibition, seed demonstration and distribution of small seed kits can help a lot. Currently, only one fourth of the farmers have access to wheat seed from formal sources, while the rest of the farmers either save their own seed or obtain it from fellow farmers. Normally seed from informal sources is not of good quality or of new improved variety which could be one of the major causes of a lower perhectare yield. The seed replacement is recommended after every 3-4 years to make sure the introduction of new improved high yielding disease resistant varieties. Through effective public and private collaboration, extension and marketing efforts, certified seed of promising wheat varieties can be promoted among farmers. Public and private collaboration under legally-binding arrangements can enhance the availability of the improved wheat seed for the farming community. This would not only help to increase the wheat production and yields but also bring improvement in the food security of rural households and country's economic growth. Finally, the following measures could improve wheat seed availability for increased production.• The participation of the informal seed sector, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community based organization (CBOs) should be activated by involving the local level seed production within the country seed law to produce high quality, cost effective seed for wide crop range including wheat.In particular, agricultural NGOs could play effective role in seed production and marketing, in areas where the formal seed sector lacks access or profit margins are not attractive enough. One example would be Rural Support Programs and their subsidiaries, which have broad geographical coverage and strong linkages with farm communities in Balochistan, Punjab, KP and Sindh. • Since the newly-approved Seed Act allows for the provision of pre-basic seed to private seed producers, interested companies and organizations needs to be equipped with prerequisite infrastructure, including seed processing and packaging units and storage facilities, along with staff trained in seed production and handling. The FSCRD under Seed (Amendment) Act 2015 has the provision for training and ensuring infrastructure availability in seed production technology for private seed companies which need to be implemented • Public seed corporations in Punjab and Sindh, whose operations are constrained by stringent internal policies on seed pricing, crop diversification and other issues and thereby are unable to compete effectively with private companies, should be restructured as more liberal and independent public limited seed corporations that could operate with minimal public sector involvement. The main reason of keeping these public sector seed corporations is to act as a price trend setter; otherwise farmers will have no option except to buy costly seed from private sector unless very strict government price control regulation is in place. • One approach would be to restructure the Punjab Seed Corporation as a public-private limited company to make it a more effective service provider. • To enhance seed value chains in Balochistan, a pilot project could be initiated to train relevant actors, including research and extension staff and seed company employees in the production and marketing of all categories of seed (pre-basic, basic, and certified). The project should also strengthen or establish processing and storage infrastructure using state owned lands, and foster agreements for seed distribution among NGOs, seed companies and seed dealers. • One option is to attract private investment and partners to revive the Sindh Seed Corporation and make it profitable and effective in fulfilling provincial seed requirements. • Areas of Pakistan like Federally and Provincially administered triable areas, Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Jummu and Kashmir (AJK) would require a special program to introduce improved disease resistant wheat varieties to replace currently gown old varieties to improve wheat production in the areas. • Provincial wheat breeding programs must be funded for establishing their own foundation seed cell with requisite infrastructure for seed production of pre basic and basic seed to make available to Agriculture extension and private sector.","tokenCount":"3171"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c7304fb133004536fc452d6aea64a78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c65052b2-772b-4107-b0e2-c3e430e0e338/retrieve","id":"1755064209"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c3000bb4-c5f8-49a7-b0e3-2f22d9918e69","pagecount":"32","content":"La yuca es uno de los cultivos alimenticios con mayor tolerancia a la acidez del suelo. Por 10 tanto es muy común la siembra de yuca en suelos muy ácidos y de baja fertilidad sin altas aplicaciones de abonos ó cal.A pesar de esta aparente tolerancia a sueloa de baja fertilidad, se ha encontrado que la yuca tiene un requerimiento muy alto de P, para producir rendimientos máximos. En ensayos de fertilización en Carimagua se observó que la yuca responde positivamente a aplicaciones hasta de 400 kg de p 2 0s/ha, mientras que el maiz y el arroz en el mismo suelo no respondieron sino hasta 00 kg de p 2 0S/ha. Se encontró que la yuca responde muy bien a las ap1icaciones de rocas fosfóricas. La a H 1i~ación de todo el &'lO' 1M-O.l0/H•~ IU\",\"\"\"\".:!.o . la siembra r.es.ult6-se a-meJor--~poc' a &¡>-14 e.ac.1.6n.fósforo al momento de La mejor combinación en Carimagua de P y K fue de ll,O kg de P 2 0S/ha (ó mas) ~h y 180 kg de K 2 0/ha. Esta combinación produjo no 8010 el máximo rendimiento sino el mayor ingreso neto. Bn--enotayos-de-f-E!'rtUi.zaci6n en La Zapata y en . .Jamund1 no se encontr6 una respuesta al P, excepto en combinaci6n con una al ta aplicaci6n de K.Para determinar la cantidad de P a apliclir en suelos con alta capacidad de fijaci6n, se esta determinando el \"rr'lll\"rimiento externo\" de ylle \" para P, y las isotermAS de adsorci6n de P de algunos suelos de interés.Una alternativa muy promisoria a la aplicaci ón ,le altas cantidades de P al suelo es la identificaci6n de variedades d,> yuca con capacidad de soportar nive les bajos de P. Tanto en el camp\" como en solucione s nutritivas se está evaluando el ma t erial gcnél.1co del banco de GI'!rmo pl\"s!M para su tolerancia a la deficiencia de \" y la to:dcid\"d de .H. jo estas condiciones la yuca produce poco, mientras mucho. otros cultivos no produce nada. En sistemas como la tumba y la quema, la )Iuca normalmente se siembra como el últf.mo cultivo de la rotación, antes de aball,lonar el terreno para un nuevo crecimiento del bosque. En este sistema los cultivos más exigentes como maíz, arroz y fri.101 se siemhran prl.me ro para a provechar la fertilidad inicial resultante d<!spués de la quema del bosque y cuando la fertil! dad esta casi agotada se siembra la yuca . Entonces, a la yuca se le reconoce una caoacidad para soportar condiciones de bala fertilidad. Pero por otra parte, también se reconoce que la yuca extrae cantidades grandes de K del .uelo y e s te elemento se \"\"ede agotar raoida\",<!nte con una oroducción continua de yuca. Por ejemplo con una cosecha de 25 toneladas de raices de yuca en una hectárea se está extrayendo del suelo aproximadamente l('le kg de K20 y solo 25 ¿Quiere decir esto que la yuca necesita unicamente una fertill.zación de K sin necesidad de aplicar P? No necesariamente . En un estudio en arena oon soluci!! na \" nutritivas Krochmal y Samuels ( 197 ~) obtuvieron el mayor aumento en prod uc ci ón de yuca con la aplicación de l' en comparación con N y ~: se consiguió un alime nto del 937. en la producción cuando se aumentó el P en la solución de 41 a 24\" ppm. También M alavolta et al. ( 1955) observaron que la eliminación del l'.. '~ de la soludón nut ri tiva produjo una mayor reducción en materia Seca que la , . .eli \"ti nnció n de N y K.. Esta reducc ión en producción de materia seca fue acom-:>ai'lada con una reducción en el contenido de almi dón de 32 a 257.. Esto indica que el P ,j uega un papel importante en la s tnte.is de l a tmidón. Se concluyó que posibl emente l a yuc a tiene un requerimiento de P excepcionalmente alto.Datos obtenidos an CIAT (CIAT, 1974) indIcan que tanto la eHminnción de P como la de N y K de la solución nutritiva, reduc~n la producción de materia seca a casi cero. Recientemente, Edwardv .~al. (1977) en Australia,observaron que la yuca requiere una concentración de P entre 511 y l27 jfmol/1itro pa.ra un crecimiento máximo, mientras el maíz requiere 3 y la soya no mas de tI.7. En realidad, esta concentración requerida pora ' una producción máxima de yuca es mas alta que la de cualquier otro cultivo reportado en la literatura (Asher y Loneragan 1967) , con la posible ex'Oepci\"\" de la papa. Este dato ~s extraordinario considerando que la yuca se produce gen ~ralmente en suelos deficientes en P. Sin embargo, el hecho de que la yuca requIere conc entraciones altas de P para una producción máxima, no implica necesariamente que no produce bien con poco P.Edwards et al (1977) también encontraron que al nivel más bajo de P en la solu---ción (O.'5!~mol/litro), el rendimiento rehUvo de la yuca fue 187., mientras el de maíz fue 2li. y el de soya 347.. Esto Indica que a un nivel bajo de P la yl1ca no se comporta en forma tan diferente al maíz y la soya. Por otra parte cuando se sembraron estos cultivos en un suelo con alta fijación de P, todos llegaron a su producción máxima con la misma cant,idad de P aplicado; en cambio,la concentración de P en el suelo fue ,\",fs alto en el caso de la yuca reSpecto a los demás cultivos. Esto indica que la yuca,por ejemplo a traves de  ¿Si la yuca extrae altas cantidades de K del sue lo y requier e una alta concentración de P para una buena producción, cuál e s la combinación óptima de estos elementos, no solo en cuanto a la producción m.-lxima, sino también en cuanto al ingreso neto máximo? Para estudiar esta cuestión se real i zó un experimento en el que se utilizó un diseflo sistemático con la variable P aume ntando en una dirección, la variable K en la otra dirección con incrementos iguales que corresponden r. on 14 niveles d~ cada elemento e n to da s . s us CaE binacione s. Cada planta fue un tratamiento. Para reducir l a. varia ~~l i d ad e ntre plantas s e tomo como el rendimiento de cada tratamiento, el rendimiento p r o m~ dio de l.a planta con este tratamiento y sus ocno vecinos. La fi gur a\" muestra lo s r en<iimientos obt e nidos. El rendimi e nto máx imo de 29 ton /ha se ob tuvo con 180 kg de K20/ha y 11,(1 kg de P2,/ha. Con niveles mas altos de P se e spera todavía algun aum\" nto en él rendimiento. La figura 10 muestra. la re s pue sta prome dio a P y ¡: . Se observa que la yuca respondió mucho más al P que al K.Con niveles s uperiores a 160-180 kg K 2 '/ha bajaron los rendimientos, probablenente por que se -induce una deficienc ia de Ca. El K fue aplicado como K2S 04, yno Se e sp era que una defici e ncia de S hubiera limitado la producción.Se calculó el ingreso neto de cada tratamiento con base en un precio d e -------$ 1.5!)/kg de yuca, y un costo de $ 23.2/kg de r20S y $ lS.5/kg de K 2 0 (incluyendo transporte). El ingreso neto varió de $12.0'0 hS$ta $3f>.OOOlha ; el mayor ingreso correspondió con el rendimIento ITOlS alto, obtenido con la aplicación de ISIl kg de K20 /ha y 148 kg de P2o:;!hn. Entonces una alta a •• p1icación de P y de K no solo produce los rendil1ientos máximos sino tnmbié n el ingreso neto máximo. Usando los dato s de rendlmiento de un ensayo similar para la interacción de N y K, se calcul.ó que la aplicaclón mas econ2 mica en los Llanos se obtiene con 130 kg de N/ha, tI.:1 (ó mas) kg de P 2 0S/ha, y 180 kg de K 2 0/ha.La tabla 1 mue s tra las características de los suelos en La Zapata ( a l. km de Palmira en la Cordillera Central) y en Jamundí. Amhos suelos son basta~ te ácidos, pero no tiene problemas de toxicidad de Al, principalmente por su alto contenido dc Ca. Tienen un alto contenido de materia orgánica (H.O.) y proba blemente alguna influencia de cenizas volcánicas. Los contenidos de P son muy bajos , cons iderando que el nivel 15 ppm de P soluble en Ilray 11 , e s el nivel crítico para la mayoría de los cultivos.Los resultado s de un ensayo con NPK en La Zapata se observan e n la fl.gu ra 11.A pe sar de que el suelo tuvo un bajo c ontell iio de P cxtraido con Br ay n , l a yuca no respondió si gn ificativament\" a la aplicación de P, s i no únicamen te a la aplicación d\" K. En un campo vecino el fríjol respon<l.ió drami ticamente a la aplic a ción de P. La figura 12 muestra los resultados de un ens ayo de NPK en Jamundí. De nue VO,a pesar de tener un bajo nivel de r e n el s uelo la yuca no respondió a P, pero sí respondió dramáticamente a l a a plic ac ión de K. Unicamente en la presencia de K hubo alguna respuesta a l a aplicación de P.Clarllmente, en estos uos suelos el K es el elemento más limita tivo pa ra la yuca, no tanto por el nivel bajo en el suelo ( en realidad es más alto que en el suelo de Carima::;ua), sino por los niveles altos de CtI y Hg que inhiben la absorción de K. Los contenidos de K en las hojas en Jamundí fueron ele 0.55% mientras en Carimagua fue ron de 0. 887., s In la aplica c ión de K (N gongi 1976). La falta de re spuesta a P no está tan clara todavía.Estos suelos con su alto contenido de H.O. contie ne n grandes cantidades de P orgánico, que no son extraidos con Bray 11 ( en un suelo parecido en CIAT-Santander, el 857. del P-total es P-or gánic:o). Normalment\" se consid e ra que la mayor parte del P or gánico no es directan'E' nt\" disponible para las plantas, pero posiblemente la yuca puede tener algún mecani~mo para ac\"l \" rar la mineralización del P orgánico. También, catos 9u,,10s fijan mucho P por su alto contenido de a1ófano, un silicato de Al poco cristalizado. También es posible que la yuca pueda absorver parte del P fijado mientras que e l fríjol no tiene esta capacidad.El \"requerimiento externo'! de PTradicionalmente, las recomendacione s de fertilización se basan en los análisis de s uelo. En el caso de P el análisis del suelo determina la cantidad de P extraido del suelo con una determinada solución (oray 11 se esta utilizando en CIAT) , que extrae aproximadamente e l P que es \"disponible\" pa r a la planta . El a nálisis de suelo puede indicar si e l suelo es alto, intermed i o o haj o , pero no dice nada sobre la cantidad de P a aplicar para obtener cierta produc ción en una determinada planta. Esta recomendación se basa más que nada en ensayos de fertiLización hechos para cada cultivo en cada tipo de s uelo.En el trópico mucho s suelos Oxisoles, Ultisol es e Inceptisole s (especialmente Los And cp t s ) tienen alta fijación de P y se deben aplicar cantidad es mas a lt a s de P para satisfacer el requerimiento de la planta respecto a 108 sue lo s de zonas templadas. Según Fox e t al (1976) la pr oducción de cada especi e depende lie la concentración de P que encuentran las raices en la solución del suelo y cada especie produce al máximo con una determinada concentración de . P en so lución. Es to eS 10 que Fox llama \"el requerimie.!! to externo de P\" del cultivo . Este requerin,iento es• una característica del cultivo indap endiente del suelo. Lo que si varia con el sue lo, i es la cantidad de P a aplicar para obtener cierta concentración de P en solución, porque ésto depende de la capacidad de fijación del suelo. Fox (1976) desarrol ló un método para determinar la capacidad de fijación del suelo en el laboratorio, a gitando cierta cantidad de su p. lo durante 6 dias con CaC12 con varias concentraciones de P. Después de e Gt e ti empo se determina el P que queda en l a so l ución y s e gra f ica la relación entre la cantidad de P adsorbido por el suelo y la cantidad de P que quedó en la solución . La figura 13 muestra estas \"isotermas de adsorción• de P\" para los suelos de Carimagua, P2 payán y CIAT-Santander (las características de los suelos aparecen en l a t abl a 1). Se puede ver que los suelos de Popayán y Santander tienen más alta capac! dad de fijación que el suelo de Carimagua,porque se debe agregar cantidaces mas altas de P para obtener la misma concentració n de P en la soluc i ón . Por ej emplo, para obtener una concentración de 11 . 2 ppm P e ll so lucIón, que es e l r equerimiento externo de muchos cultivos, s e debe a gregar en Carima gua 280 ppm de P ó 1401 kg de P20S/ha, en Santander 610 ppm de P ó 28 En Popayán, Se determinó el \"requerimiento externo\" del fríjol. La fi gura 14 muestra la relación entre el rendimiento relativo de fríjol y la concentración de P en solución que corresponde con la cantidad de P aplicada (determinada de la curva en la figura 13). Se puede observar que el fríjol alcanza el 95% de su producción máxima con la concentración de O.Q8 ppm de P, que es 10 que se define con su• ~'requerimiento externo\". En comparación, fax (197 6) obtuvo un requerimiento e::terno para el ntaíz de G.C6 ppm P en dos sue l os di s tintos de IlawaiL A pesar de que los r equerimi entos son pa r e cidos para estos cult.! vos se puede ver que el frí j ol es mucho más susceptible a la deficiencia de P que el maíz, nec esitando aproximadamente 0.04 ppm de P para l ograr un 50% de prod ucción máxima versus 0.0@4 ppm de P para el mismo rendimiento relat ivo de maíz. Para determinar el \"requerimiento externo\" de la yuca Se está sembrando un ensayo en Santander y uno en Carimagua. Si la yuca, ti e ne un muy alto reqne rimiento de P, como indican los trabajos de Edwards et al (1 977) , pero soporta suelos con po co P, se espera que la curva para yuca sea menos i ncl.! na da que la de maía, pero con un máximo más alto que la de fríjol. Una vez conocido e l requerimie nto externo del cultivo se puede determinar cua ntitat.!.var.lente la cantidad de P que se d be aplicar a l suelo para obtener una cierta ... producción, haciendo una curva de isotermas de fl.jación de P en el laboratorio. El método tambiém permite determinar exa c tan~nte el efecto r esidual de P aplicado anteriomente. Por el efect.o residual de npl1cac1ones anteriores, la cantidad de P a p.plicar para obten,!\" una cierta concentracl\" n en 5.2lución, va a ser menor que en un suelo virgen sin aplicaciones antertores ..Tolerancia genética a balas niveles de~_n.l tor. niveles de AlEn condiciones del trópico, donde la mayoría de l os a gricultores no están acostumbrados a aplicar abonos por su alt\" cost'l. difícIl d ls¡JOuibil1dad ó falta de recursos económicos, es muy importante buscar los cultivo\" y las variedades dentro de cada cultivo con mayor adaptnclón a las condiciones de s f avorables del suelo. As!, se han encontrado en el caso del arroz, variedades con alta resistencia a la tOKicidad del Al y Fe, a la salinidad y a niveles bajos de P y de Zn (lIoweler 1976, IRRI 1975). CrAT, con su valiosa colec ción de germoplasma de yuca, fríjol y pastos, tiene la oportunidad de hacer lo mismo para estos cultivos. En el caso de yuca se está evalu.ando todo el mater ial del banco de germoplasma para tolerancia a la t oxicidad de l Al y la defic i eE cia de P. En el campo se están sembrando las variedades en parcelas con cero y 6 ton/ha de cal, ó con cero )' 20& kg P 2 0 5 /ha para la toleranc ia a Al y P, respe ctivamente.La t a bla 2 mu estra las diez variedades de mejor tolerancia al bajo ni ve l de P, obt enidos en el primer \"screening de P\" de 100 variedades en Carimagua . Se ob s erva que en pres e ncia de P la variedad MCol 66~ no solo rind e a t on/ha más que la Llanera,sino que tamb ién ti ene un índice de tolerancia dos veces mayor que la Llanera. Entre las 64 variedades cosechadas , 55 tuvi er on una me j or to le rancia a P que la varie dad testigo, la Llanera, ge ne ralmen te bi en a daptada a las condi c iones del Llan9. En promedio, las variedades pr odu jeron s in P solo el 297. de la producción obtenida con la aplic ació n de lS<: I kg pZOS/ha.Desafortunadamente, en el campo, la yuc, puede ser atacada por Insectos, ó afectada por enfermedades ó por la sequía, factores que afectan los resultados del ensayo por la tolerancia diferencial del material genético a estas condiciones. Para evitar estos problemas, se está desarrolla ndo un sistema para evaluar simultáneamente en soluciones nutritivas la t olerancia de variedades de yuca a altos niveles de Al y bajos niveles de P.Para este fin se introducen plántulas enraizadas de cada variedad en t re s soluciones nutritivas:1.-El testigo óptimo-con bajo nivel de Al (3ppm) y alto nivel de P (4ppm)2.-El t estigo de Al-con alto nivel de Al (30ppm) y alto nivel de P (4ppm)3,-El testigo de P-con bajo nivel de Al (3ppm) y bajo nivel de P (1.5-1 ppm)A las tres Gemanas se compara la producción de materia seca obtenida en la solución No. 2 con • la de la solución No. 1 para obtener la tolerancia a l al to nivel de Al; y la producción obtenida en solución No. 3 con la No. 1 para la tolerancia al bajo nivel de P.Con este sistema se espera evaluar todo el banco de germoplasma en rela tivamente poco tiempo. Una vez identificadas las variedades de mayor res is tenc ia, se puede tra t ar de incorporar, a traves de cruzamient os , es to s fa c tores en los mejores híbridos del fitomejorador. Así se espera obtener var iedade s nu~ vas que no sólo tienen tolerancia a enfermedades y plagas, sino también a suelos ácidos o de baj a fertilidad, porque es allí donde la mayoría de . l a yuca se está produciendo.--...  . . . .,    . \" .     ","tokenCount":"3224"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"52db67055ee9c799b468a700eb02ac8a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9200007c-aeb5-4a23-bd08-174a942d227e/retrieve","id":"1765980351"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"03d9f9a9-2ff5-44e2-88b6-de62844dada3","pagecount":"31","content":"El ( lA T es una insti tuciÓn sin ánimo de lucro. dedicada al desarrollo agrícola y económicu de las zonas tropicales bajas. Su sede principal se encue nlra en un terreno de ~22 hectáreas. CNcano a Cali. Dicho terreno es propiedad del gobierno colombiano el cual, en su ca lid ad de anfitrión. brinda apoyo a las actividades del ClA T. Este dispone igualmente dedossubcslaciones propiedad de la Fund:.ci6n ¡¡ ara la Educación S uperior (FES). Quilichao. con una exu>nsi6n de 184 hectárr3s, r Popa)an , con 7J hectáreas, ambao¡-en el Ca uca: y una sube .. , ación cedida por la Fede raciÓn de Arroceros de Colombia (FEDEARROZ) . Santa Rosa. con un~ ex ' en~ión de 30 hectáreas. ubica da crre3 dr Villavicencio. JuniO con rl lOSliluto Colombiano Agropecu:Jrio (lCA). el C IAT admini s tr~ el Cenlro de In vest igaciones Agropecua ria s Carima¡;:ua. de 22.000 hectáreas. r o los Llanos Orientales 'f colabora con el mismo I CA en \\~rias de sus estaciones experimentales en Colombia. l: ~1 CIAT también 11('\\'01 a cabo investigaci ones en varias sedes de instilul'Íones ag ricola .. n;)cionales ('n otros paíS('s de América Latina , Varios: miemb ros del Grupo Consu lt i\\'o para la In v('stigación Agricola Internacional (CCIAR) financian los programa>; del e l A T. Durante 1983 tales donantes son: los gobiernos de Australia . Bélgica. Canada. España. Estados Unidos. Fr:lncia . Holanda , Italia . Japón, Noruega. el Reino Unido. la Republica Federal Contenido Introducción Contenido de Nutrimentos Variació n dentro de la planta Factores que influ ye n en el contenido de nutri mentos Nivel critico Método de Muestreo La toma de muest ras El lavad o de mu est ras El secado de mu es tras La pre paració n de mues tras An áli sis de Tejid o de Va ri os Cu lti vos y Especies Fo rrajeras Arroz F rij o l y Soya Mai z Pas tos y Forrajes Yuca Conclusio nes Referencias Bibliográficas Página 11 11 11 17 19 2 23 26 27 ¡ii Cuadro J.Concen traciones de va rios nutrimentos en las hojas más jó\\'enes completamente expandida s dt dos variedades dt yuca de 3• 1/ 2 mtses de edad y sembradas con diferentes tra tamientos de N. P Y K. en Ca rimagua. Colombia .En much os suelos el crecimiento de las plantas o la producción de un cultivo son limitados por' la falta de algún nutrimento , la cual ocasiona lo que se conoce como deficiencia de nutrimentos en la planta, o la concentració n excesiva de éstos, ocasionando una toxicidad . Para poder corregi r estos pro blemas nutricio nales es esencial primero diagnosticar correctamente cual eleme nto se encuentra en forma deficiente ,J tóxica .El diagnósti co del estado n utricional de una planta se pue de hace r con bas e en o bse rvacio nes visuales de sínto mas de difi ciencia o de toxicidad, con base en a ná lisis de suel os o con base en aná lisis del tejido vegetal. De los tres métod os a nteri o res, el análisis d el tejido vegetal tiene la ventaja de medir el contenid o to tal del nutrimento y no so lamente la fracción denominada \" di spon ibl e\" como sucede en los análisis de suelo, Po r otra parte , el aná li sis de suelos es más impreciso porque varía de acue rdo con la me todología utili zada, e,g. , el tipo de extractante, la pro po rción suelosolu ción , la temperatura, el tiempo d e la extracció n, etc. En el análisis d e tejido se determina el contenido to tal de cada elemento , el cua l es una ca ntidad constante para una determinada muestra. Por lo tan to, los datos que se obtienen son más exactos y hay menos desacuerdo entre aquellos obtenidos por diversos laboratorios. Sin emba rgo, el contenid o de elementos varía ba sta nte en tre los diferentes órganos de la planta (hojas, peciolos, granos , tall o, raíces), y con la edad del tejido (por ejempl o, hojas jóvenes o viejas) y la edad de la planta.Variación dentro de la planta El Cuad ro I muestra có mo varia n Jos con tenid os d e N , P. K Y Ca e ntre las dife ren tes partes de una misma planta de yuca; en el caso de es ta planta las lá min as foliares tienen más alto contenido de N y P pero los peciolos so n más a ltos e n K y Ca . El C ua dro 2 tambié n indi ca que el contenido de los nutrimentos e n un mis mo (ejido cambia Co n la edad de la pl an ta: los contenidos de N, P y K di sminuyeron y los contenidos de Ca y Mg aumenta ro n du rante e l ciclo de crecimiento de la yuca . Por lo tanto, es mu y impo rt a nt e es ta nda ri zar e l muestreo, y analizar únicamente el tejido indicado r que mejo r mues tre el estado nutriciona l de la planta , to mado de una pos ició n definida de la planta cuando és ta tien e una edad de terminada. Cua ndo se esta ndari za así el muestreo, se pueden comparar los da tos obteni dos con los ni ve les críticos determinados de la mi sma fo rma y publicados e n la literatura agrícola . Así se puede es tablecer si los niveles o btenidos son bajos, no rm a les, Ó mu y a lt os y dia gnosti ca r a lgú n problema nutri ciona L Cuadro 1.Concen traciones de nutriment os de diferentes láminas foliares. pedolos)' tallos de yuca (Cours et al., 1961).Porcentaje en materia S«'a Factores que influyen en el contenido de nutrimentos Los niveles criticas o los rangos publicados en la li teratura agrí cola para cada cult ivo son mu y importantes como una guía para interpretar los datos de los aná lisis foliares obten idos. Pero éstos datos so lamente deben utilizarse como una guía , porque los contenidos de nutrimentos varían con las variedades, con el esta do del tiempo (temperatura, lluvia , etc.) y con el suelo, El Cuad ro 3 muestra los contenidos de varios elementos pa ra un mi smo lej ido indicador de dos va ri edades de yuca sembradas en las mismas parcelas, con aplicaciones de NPK ; a mbas variedades tenían contenidos pa rec idos de P , pero la variedad M Col 638 tení a contenidos más altos de K, Ca y de Mg. El efec to de la tempera tura sobre el contenido de nutrimentos en las hojas de yuca se puede ap recia r en el Cuad ro 4, Es ta la bia mues tra (o s cont enidos de N, p, K,e n la variedad M Col 11 3,sembrada con los mismos trata mientos en Ires suel os parecidos, pero de alt itud es diferentes, Se puede obse rvar que a los cua tro meses las pla m as sembradas en Q uili chao, a menor a ltitud y por lo tanto con mayortemperatura , mostra ron un mejor crec imient o, pero con un menor contenido de N, P Y K, en comparación con las plantas se mbradas en Mondomito Ó Agua Blanca que tenía n menos vigor, pero más a ltos co ntenidos de N, P Y K. Por lo tan to, en plantas que crecen rápido debido a un clima fa vorable, los contenidos de nU lrimemos en ellas muchas veces so n más bajos por el \" efecto de d il ución \" es decir, que los nutriment os abso rbidos son distribuidos en mayo r cantidad de materia seca. re sultando en concentraciones más bajas, Por el co nt rario, si la pla nta crece lentamente debido a una tem peratura baja u o tras condicior:es adve rsas, los con tenidos de nutriment os en ella pueden ser muy a li aS. Es tos factore s se deben tener en cuenta en la interpretación de los anális is foliare s.Otro fa cto r que afecta los contenid os de los nutriment os es la interacció n entre ellos mi smos. Por ejemplo, es bien co nocid o que la aplicación de P di sminu ye el conte nido de Zn , o que la aplicación de K disminuye el contenido de Ca y Mg (tratamientos 9, 10, 11 e n el C uadro 3). Es te a ntago ni smo entre elementos también es muy notable en la absorción de Fe, C u , Mo y Zn . La Figura t muestra q ue a medid a que se aumentó la concent ración de Fe e n la solución nutriti va, se aumentó el contenido de Fe en las hojas mientras se disminuyeron no tab lemente los con tenid os de Mn, Zn y de C u. Por el Cont rari o, las al ta s aplicaciones de Zn, Mn y Cu eo las solu ciones di s minu yeron la abso rció n de Fe, causando sí nto mas de deficiencia de Fe e n la parte superior d e la planta . Existe también sinergismo, es decir, que la presencia de un elemento ayuda e n la abso rción de o tros e lement os. Por ejem plo , el Cuadro 3 muestra que en ausencia de P y K (tratami e nt o 1) e l contenido de N es más baj o que en su presencia ( tra tamie nto 2), mientras que los co ntenidos más alt os de N, P Y K se obtuvieron con las combinaciones más altas de estos tres elementos (tratamiento 12).El nivel critico d e defíciencia es el contenido de un element o en cierto tej id o indicador po r debajo del cual se es pera una respues ta significa ti va a la a plicación de es te elemento, ' :1 por encima del cua l no se es pera una respuesta . Igua lmente , el nivel crític o de toxicidad de te rm ina el contenido del eleme nto por encima del cual la planta sufre intoxicación por exceso de este elemento. Entonces , el rango no rmal para el mejor crecimiento d e la pla nt a está ent re el nivel critico de deficiencia y el ni vel crítico d e tox icidad , correspo ndiendo aproximadamente a la parte O y E de la curva en la Figura 2. Esto no quiere decir que el óptimo económico esté dentro de este rango. Podría ser a nti-eco nóm ico aplicar todo el abono requerido para au mentar e l contenid o de un elemento por e ncima del ni ve l crítico.Existen varias maneras d e determinar e l ni ve l críti co y es impo rta nte saber de que mé todo de determinació n se está ha blando. T odos los mé todos se ba sa n en gráficas de calibración que relacionan el rendimie nt o abso lu to o relati vo con el con tenido del elemento en cie rt o tejido indica~ d oro El tejid o indicado r más apropiad o y e l ti empo de muestreo varían entre cultivos y se indica n más adelante para va ri os cu lti vos. El re ndimiento puede ser de mate ria seca obtenida de plantas cultivadas en soluciones nutritivas o e n ma te ras con tierra en el invernadero ; tambié n puede ser de la cosecha final de grano, fruw o raíces obte nidas en ensayos de ca mpo. Los ni veles críticos de terminados en el ca mpo son más confiables que los o btenidos en el inver nade ro , pero su det e rminación requie re de si tios de experimentación d onde el cultivo responda significa-ti vamente a la ap li cación del nutrimento . N o es siempre p osible encontrar sue los donde los c ultivos respo ndan a cie rtos element os, d e manera que se hace una primera aprox imación a los ni veles c ríti cos en solu ciones nu tritivas con va rias co nce ntraciones del e lemenw bajo estud io. con el propósito de compararl os con los datos obtenidos posterio rmente en el cam po.   Los tres métodos más com un es para dete rminar el ni ve l crítico de deficiencia se pueden observar en la Figura J que muestra la relación entre el rendi mi entode yuca y el contenido de Mg en hojas superiores. El primer método define el nivel críti co (Ne.) como el contenido de nutrimentos que corresponde a l 90 Ó 95% del rend im ienlO máx imo. E n eSle caso el mélOdo consiste en dibujar o calcular la cur va q ue mejor se aj uste a los punlos que relaci onan el rendimiento con el contenido de nutrimentos; se determina el rendimiento maximo y se calcula el contenido correspondie nle al 90 Ó 95% del rendimiento máximo.El segundo mélOdo, llamado \"Cate-Nelson\", es un método gráfico que utili za un papel ó plásti co transpa rente con una cruz dibujada en é l y que divide el campo en cuat ro cuadrantes. Se mueve el papel transpa rente so bre la gráfica ha sta encontrar la pos ición con menor núm ero de pumos posib les en los cuadranles 1 y IIl , Y con mayor número de puntos en los cuad rantes 11 y IV . Se define el nivel crí lico como el conlenido indicado por el eie ve rti ca l en el papel Iransparenle, como se ve en la Figura 3 (NC,). Muchas veces los dos métodos dan ni ve les crí ti cos mu y parecidos, pew si los da tos son muy variables, la determinación del ni ve l criti co puede va riar bastante también por los dos métodos y por lo tanto es Jmportanle saber cual de ellos se utilizó. El tercer método define el nivel critico como el contenido de nutrimentos por debaj o del cual se producen síntomas de defi ciencia (NC,), o por encima del cual se producen sínlomas de toxicidad,como se ilustra en la Figura 3. Estos niveles criticas son más bajos, en el caso de deficiencia, y más altos, en el caso de toxicidad , que los obtenidos a través de los otros dos métodos a nterio re s.La toma de muestras En ge neral, para reducir contaminacio nes, el mejor mo me nto para [o rnar muestras es c uando las plantas se han secado des pués de la llu via. Las muestras menos contaminadas con polvo y más indicati vas del estado nu tricional so n las hojas más jóvenes que están completamente expandidas en la pa rte supe ri o r de la pl a nta. Pa ra algunos ele mentos de poca movilidad, como B y Ca, podría se r mejor mues trea r hojas medias ó inferio res.No se deben ut ili zar hojas dañadas por insectos, enfermedades, her bicidas, etc. Si se desea diagnosticar la causa de un mal crecimiento o de síntomas desconoc idos, se toman muestra s de plant as sanas y de plantas afectad as, siempre escogiendo tejidos d e desa rro ll o fi sio lógico co mparable. No se deben incluir hojas secas, con deformacio nes, o con ma nch as n ec ró ti cas. Para tomar muestras de parcelas en ensayos de cam po se toma material de toda la parcela excepto de plantas del borde o de áreas q ue no sean uniformes. La cantidad míni ma para hace r los a ná lisis de eleme ntos mayores y me nores es de 3-5 gramos de mate ria seca.En ge neral es necesario elimin ar contaminacio nes de suelo y polvo para hacer análisis de Fe, Mn , Si y Al , mientras que para la determinación de B, Cu, Mo y Zn es te tipo de cont a minación no afec ta mucho los res ultados. Si es necesa ri o, se lavan las muest ras fres cas y túrgidas en agua de io nizada o en una solución de I gram o de detergente (p refe riblem ente T ee pol u ot ro producto que no contenga mucho P) por cad a litro de ag ua, se enjuaga n con agua co rrien te y después con agua deionizada. Si al cultivo se han a plicado insecti cidas ó fun gicidas a base de C u, Z n, Mn o a lgu nos Olros, las muestras se deben la var antes de de terminar el contenido de estos eleme ntos. Se debe tener siempre en cuenta que con el lavado se pueden perder compuestos in orgánicos mu y solubles. Además, con el uso de detergentes se pueden co ntaminar las muestras con P . Por lo tanto , es important e reducir el lavad o hasta el mínimo necesa ri o para eliminar posibles co ntaminac iones. tI El secado de muestras ParCJ evitar que el proceso de respiraci ón continúe y por co nsiguiente cambie el contenido de materia seca, es importante secar las muestras en un horno tan pronto como sea posible a una temperatura de 60--80°C por 24~8 horas . Si no hay horno disponible, se pueden seca r las muestra s durante varios días al sol.Cuando las muestras estén secas, se muelen en un molino de laboratorio. Para análisis de Cu se debe utilizar mallas de acero inoxidable; para a ná lisis exactos de Fe es preferible usar un mortero de ágata. Es conveniente guardar la s muestras en frascos de plástico bien tapados; los envases de vidrio común son fabricad os a base de si licatos de boro y pueden contaminar las muestras con B. Algunas bolsas de papel tienen alto contenido de B y pueden causar contaminaciones, especialmente en muestras húmedas. Antes de analizar las muestras se deben seca r nuevamente durante varias horas a 90°C y me zclarse bien a nt es de tomar subrnuest ras para hacer el análisis.Cada especie es fisiológicamente diferente y por lo tanto la selección del tejido indicador y del mejor momento de muestreo es también diferente; además, la acumulación de nutrimentos y la distribución de ellos dentro de la planta varia. Por consiguiente, en la parte siguiente se especifica para cada cultivo el mejor método de muestreo, los niveles O ra ngos críticos y algunas observaciones sobre la interpretación de los resultados de los análi sis . Debido a los factores anteriormente mencionados, los datos que se encuent ran en la literatura agrícola varían bastante para las diversas fuentes de información. Por esta razón los datos se deben utilizar solamente como una guía en la interpretación de los resultados, teniendo en cuenta que los contenidos de nutrimentos pueden variar según la variedad . su ta sa de crecimiento y por la presencia O ausencia de otros elementos.El Cuadro S muestra en forma resumida el mejor método de muestreo y los niveles de nutrimentos correspondiente a un estado nutricional deficiente , normal, o de toxicidad para todos los cultivos bajo consideración, mientras que más adelante se encuentra esta información en más detalle para cada cultivo Cuadro 5.Concentraci6n en materia seca 2. El contenido de P alcanza el máxim o 45 días an tes de la floración . La absorción de K alcanza el máxim o más o menos al mismo tiempo (10 se manas después de la siembra). 3. El contenido de Ca y Mg es más o menos constante . 4. El contenido de la mayoría de los nutrimentos no es mu y variable entre diferentes partes de la planta hasta la iniciación del espiga miento. Después , hay translocación hacia las espigas. 5. Si se toman muestras después de la noración , las hojas \"bandera\" O las segundas hojas so n las más apropiadas. No se debe tomar muestras de hojas muertas. 6. Las hojas bandera son las de más alto conten ido de N y P mientras que las cuartas y quintas hojas son las de más alto contenido de K, Ca y Mg.En los cuadros 6, 7 Y 8 se describen las concentraciones y los niveles críticos de nutrimentos en varias panes de una planta de arroz, en varios estados de crecimiento. M g (% )0.4-1.)  Toda la parte aérea.Todas las hojas superiores miento, bien desarrolladas.Todas las hojas hasta el nudo hasta la form ación de la mazorca; se analiza de cabello. la mitad centra l de la hoja.  1. Existe mucha variación en el contenido de B en var ias parles d e la planta y en los diferentes es tados de crecimiento . El contenido d e B es más alto en hojas superio res que en hojas inferio res, y más bajo en el tallo; el coolenido disminuye durante el c recimien.t o in icia l, permanece conslanle has la la n o ración y disminuye después de la fo rm ación de cabello. 2. El co ntenido de C u es más alto en hojas inferiores que en hojas superiores y más bajo e n el tallo; el con tenido es más o menos co nstante durante el ciclo vegetativo. 3. El contenido de Mn es más alto en hojas inferiores que en hojas superiores, mientras que en los bordes de las hojas hay mayor concentración de Mn. El contenido disminuye durante el crecimiento. 4. El contenido de Zn es más a lto en las hojas superiores que en las hojas inferiores y disminu ye co n la madurez. S. Los granos tienen un conlen ido más bajo de N, K Y Ca pe ro más allo de P que las hojas.En el Cuadro 12 se d escr iben los ní ve les c rít icos de concentraciones de nutrimentos en la planta de maí z.C uadro 12. Conccn'racion~s de nutrimentos en la hoja debajo de la mazorca de maiz a la iniciación de la rormación de cabello, que corresponde a va ri os estados n ut ricionales de la planta (Jones. 1967).Estado Observaciones (Andre\", et al, 1969(Andre\", et al, y 1971 ; ;McNaught, 1970;Robinson y Jon.s, 1972):1. El contenido de N aumenta co n el a umento en el contenido de P en las leguminosas. 2. El con tenido de N disminu ye con el aumento en el contenido de Pen las gramíneas (si la planta está respo ndi e ndo a la aplicación de P).3. En la mayoría de las leguminosa s, el conte nido de K di sminu ye y el contenido de Mg aumenta con el aumento e n el contenido de P. 4 . El contenid o de Ca no es afectado por e l contenido de P. 5. Los con te nid os de P y S son mucho más a lt os en la semill a (0 .36 por ciento para ambos) que e n la s hojas maduras (0.02% P Y 0 . 10% S). 6. Los conte nid os de N, P Y S e n las raíces, hojas y tallos disminuyen rápidamente e n la é poca de Oorac ión y aumentan en la semilla. 7. Los contenidos de P y K son más bajos y de Ca y Mg 50 11 má s altos dur ante épocas secas en comparación con las llu viosas. 8. La relación N/S> 16 indica deficiencia de S, y N/P > 13 indica deficiencia de P. 9. Para leguminosas, el con tenido crí ti co de Cu es 4-5 ppm. 10. Aunque el contenido de Cu no varía mucho en tre especies, Sly/osan/hes es más susceptible y Desmodíum la más tolerante a deficiencias de Cu .En los cuadros 13 y 14 se describen los ni ve les criti cos de co ncen traciones de P, K Y Mn en algunas leguminosas y gra míneas Iro picales .Cuadro 1) . Nheles crilicos (co rrespondientes a a proximada menle 95% de rendimie nlo máximo) de deficie ncia de P y K Y de toxicidad de Mn en 1I1guna s l e~uminosas. y de P en a lgunas gramíneas lropica les (Andrew, 1969(Andrew, , 1971)). l . Losco ntenidos de N y P so n más altosen las lá minas fol iares que e n los peciolos o tallos, y son mas a lt os en la parte superior q ue e n la parte media O inferior de la planta.2. Los co nte n idos de K, Ca y Mg so n mas a lt os en los pecíolos y ta ll o que e n la lámina foliar; el con ten ido de K es más a lto e n la parte supe ri o r , mi entra s los co nten idos de Ca y Mg so n má s a lt os e n la parle media o infe ri o r de la planta. 3. El Sesa ltoen [as lám inas foliares, mu y bajoe n los pec ío lose intermedio en el tallo. 4. Los co nte nid os de N , P Y K disminu yen dura nte e l c ic lo de c recimie nt o, mientras los co ntenidos de Ca y Mg aume n tan o se ma ntie ne n cons ta nte s.5. El con tenido de Fe es más alto en la lámina fo liar qu e en los pecio los, mientras que el contenido de Mn es más alto e n los pecíolos, es pecialmente en la parte inferior de la planta . 6. El C u es mas alto en e l tallo , inte rmed io en las lá minas fo li a res y bajo en los peciolos . 7. Los con te nid os de B y Z n tienden a se r un poco más a hose n las lá minas fol iares que e n Jos peciolos y tall o.E n los cuad ros 15 y 16 se describen la. , •co nce ntracio nes y los nive les críti cos de nutrimen tos e n varias partes de la planta de yuca .Cllad ro 15 . Co ncentraciones d e nutrimento s en nojas (lámina s foliar es). peci olos r fa ll os de la parte ~upc r io r , medi a e inferior , y en las raíces de la planta de yuca. Los datos so n p ro medi os de mu es tra¡; dc las: vari edades M Co l 22 y M Me\" 59 . tomados ¡;¡ l o . ~ 2, 3 Y 4 nll¡'ses de siembra (Howe ler y Cadavid, 1983 Cuadro 16 ( once ntra cio nes de nu!rim e ntos e n las l á m¡n a~ (oli a res mas jó ven es comple tament e e:.-pa ndid :JS d e ~' u ca a los J.......j meses qu e (;o rre ~ponden a \\ a rios c s ' a d o~ nutric ional es de 1:1 plant a . El (:ln~Jisjs de tejido es una téc nica muy úttl para di agnost ica r problemas nutricionales en las plan tas tales como deficiencias,l oxicidades o desba lances de nutrimentos.A unque la determinación del contenido de nu tnmentos por el método del análisis del tej ido es general men te m uy exac to para la mayoría d e los elemen tos. la interpretación de los resultados puede ser d ificil porque 1m. conten idos varían segú n la especie, la variedad y el tej ido muestreado ; además, cambian dura nte el ciclo de crec im ien to. Po r lo tan to es muy importante es tandarizar e l tejido y la época pa ra mllest rear. a demás de la localización de este tejido dentro de la plan ta. Para poder int erpretar los análisis de tejidos se debe muestrear e l tej ido indica ti vo en la época indicada para cada cu! : ivo; de es la manera, se pued e n compa rar los datos obtenidos con los rangos o ni ve les críticos que se encuent ran e n las tablas prQporcionadas e n la litera tura agrí co la . Se d ebe tene r en cue nta qu e es tos ni veles pueden cambiar con las va ri acio nes en el clima , la tasa de crecim ie nto de la p la nta o con la presencia o ause nci a de otros e lemen tos. De e~la manera se puede estab lece r e l es tado nu tri c iona l de las pla ntas muestreadas y tomar las decisiones necesarias para op timizar la produ cción económica del c ulti vo.","tokenCount":"4844"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"236292badfd582ad86ed959bdde43951","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e0a5191-9220-4c7e-a33d-836772109d49/retrieve","id":"-1149968315"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bc0a0fa8-c353-4bc9-9e1b-2bf8f72ba12d","pagecount":"74","content":"Mean date (DOY) of sprouting of 11 landraces originating from GS (3 varieties), MS (4 varieties), and HF (4 varieties), grown in their respective ecology of origin and stored at sites in three agroecological zones (Abuja, Ibadan, and OnneYam (Dioscorea spp.) are monocotyledonous plants belonging to the family Dioscoreaceae and genus Dioscorea. Over 600 species are identified but only six are important in Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America. The economically important species are D. rotundata, D. alata, D. cayenensis, D. bulbifera, D. dumetorum, and D. esculenta  (Hahn 1995).Yam produce edible subterranean or aerial tubers that form the organ of economic importance. The tuber is important chiefly as a staple food, providing nourishment to people in the tropics and subtropics. It is particularly rich in carbohydrate, containing 50-80% starch/ dry weight. Other constituents of high nutritional values are vitamins C and B6, potassium, iron, manganese, and amino acids; contents of sodium and saturated fats are low. More than the daily adult requirement of vitamin C can be obtained from yam (even after losses from cooking have been subtracted) (Bell 1983). Also, the combination of high potassium and low sodium makes yam potentially important in protecting people against osteoporosis and heart-related diseases. Worldwide, as many as 5 million ha of land are put to yam cultivation and about 49 million t of the crop are produced with 94% of this value being grown in West and Central Africa (FAO 2005). In West Africa, consumption/capita/day ranges from 258 kcal (in Nigeria) to 364 kcal (in Bénin). Indeed, yam is so important that it has a place in festive occasions, rites, and taboos of the people. Agriculturally, the tuber is important as it is the source of planting material.Cultivation is mainly by vegetative propagation using the whole tuber or pieces of it (setts).Planting is done between late January and April in West Africa coinciding with the start of the rains, although early plantings in November-December are known (see Annex A).Irrespective of when planting is done, vine emergence occurs about the month of February and beyond,. Tubers are initiated from 30 days after vine emergence and these are formed underground in most species including D. rotundata. However, some species, such as D. alata, produce aerial tubers. Flowering occurs 40 to 90 days after vine emergence (Ile et al. 2006) depending on the planting date. In yam, therefore, growth is determinate but tuber development commences during early growth.Tubers become mature for harvest as early as 6 months after vine emergence, corresponding to about the month of August (see Annex A). Early harvested tubers have a very high moisture content and so are prone to deterioration from diseases. Also, they have a bland taste after being cooked.The main harvesting season falls between the months of November and January of the following year, coinciding with the onset of shoot senescence and the start of the dry season (see Annex A). These tubers are larger, morphologically more mature, have a higher dry matter content and lower moisture, a lower susceptibility to deterioration, and better cooking and nutritive qualities than those from an early harvest. After harvest and during storage, sprouting begins. Sprouting tends to occur at a definite period of the year, coinciding with the onset of the rains. Hence, the duration to sprouting varies from 30 to 150 days, depending on harvest date, species, and storage conditions.Tubers harvested early in the season spend a longer time in storage before sprouting occurs. Though the onset of sprouting is welcomed by the farmer who desires to commence planting, it marks the start of physiologically and pathologically induced deterioration and eventually the loss of food quality. The period during which yam tubers will not grow, even if put under ideal conditions for growth, is referred to as the dormant period and such tubers are said to be dormant.With an ever rapidly increasing population in the tropics and the attendant reduction in farmland, the demand for yam tubers is always higher than the supply, causing scarcity, particularly during the planting/growing season. Consequently, the price of tubers for food is often exorbitant and beyond the purchasing power of the masses. Furthermore, a high price of tubers leads to a high cost of planting material, which in turn leads to a high cost of production.Planting material alone accounts for half the cost of tuber production. This situation hinders production/productivity as poor farmers, who constitute the bulk of yam producers, can afford to cultivate only small pieces of land. The challenge for researchers is to come up with techniques that can increase the production and availability of healthy yam tubers as a source of food, particularly during the off-season, and of planting material without necessarily increasing crop land area. Research in crop physiology can contribute to achieving this goal.The development of technologies that temporarily separate the dual function of the tuber, while improving agronomic methods of production, would increase the availability of yam for food and reduce the cost of purchasing tubers for planting or seed tubers (those put aside only for planting). In line with this view, efforts have been made to increase the availability of planting material. These include the traditional \"double harvesting\" technique and the development of the \"miniset technology\". The minisett technology involves the setting aside of healthy tubers right after harvest to be cut into small portions (setts) of about 30-100 g for use during the planting season. The technology can help to improve the availability of planting material by increasing the tuber: planting material ratio from 1: 1-2 to about 1: 20-30 (Okoli et al. 1982;Asiedu et al. 1998). This technology, however, is poorly adopted by most farmers, and the few who accept it soon abandon it because of their inability to continue to retain healthy tubers for use as planting material when there is a high demand for the tubers for food and income (ANB-BIA 2003). Also, the technique is unattractive to farmers because the minisetts produce mini-tubers (50-200 g whole tubers) that can be used as seed tubers for ware tuber production only in the next season. The technique is also not attractive to breeders who wish to increase the pace of yam improvement because mini-tubers also express long dormancy. Thus, in spite of the potentials of these techniques, tubers are still scarce during the planting season, the cost of planting material is still high, and these facts together still constitute a major drawback to yam production (IITA 2004).This book shows that the primary key to increased tuber productivity and all-year-round availability of seed tubers rests in success at preventing the initiation of dormancy and/ or the ability to drastically break the long dormant period in whole tubers (and cause instantly the appearance of a sprout on the surface of the tuber). Shortening dormancy or preventing it would achieve the following:• Encourage two or more planting and harvesting times/year.• Increase the ability to manipulate planting time. The current inability to manipulate dormancy has meant that experiments requiring planting have to wait until the onset of natural sprouting. Also, the control of sprouting by artificial means would synchronize sprouting times among tubers of the same variety, which is at the moment highly variable. The timing of sprouting and the timing of vine emergence are important variables determining the uniformity of growth stages in growth analysis.• Reduce the loss of important genotypes to pests and diseases during the compulsory storage period. The storage of seed yam would be avoided, the availability of tubers for planting material would be improved, and consequently tuber production would be increased (IITA 1995(IITA , 1997)).• Increase the pace at which desired hybrids are bred and released. More than one generation/year would be attained in conventional yam breeding programs.In addition, this book is different from other books on yam for the following reasons.1. It brings together information that highlight the presence of confusing definitions of dormancy and some terms associated with the timing of the start, duration, and end of dormancy. It shows the influence of such confusion on the breeders' persistent inability to drastically shorten seed tuber dormancy and redefines some of these terms.2. It also provides some explanation for the minimal success achieved in the past at breaking whole tuber dormancy. To ensure a clear understanding of the content and facilitate follow-up studies, this material provides a glossary of terms and presents in some detail the experimental procedure and results of recent studies conducted by Ile (2004).3. It ensures that the identified gaps in our understanding of the mechanism of control of yam dormancy are bridged by providing a potential technique for preventing tuber dormancy and a framework (based on the effects of plant growth regulators [PGRs] on dormancy) for effectively studying dormancy in yam.This book would therefore be suitable for scientists,yam breeders, physiologists, and undergraduate/graduate students of agriculture and botany and related fields.xAcronyms and abbreviations Description of the yam tuber, definitions of dormancy, and implications of poorly defined terms on the understanding of yam tuber dormancyThis section describes the morphology of ware yam tubers, the definitions of dormancy in relation to yam, the anatomy of dormant tubers, the series of anatomical events that take place prior to the start of sprouting, and the morphology of sprouting tubers. This section also looks at the confusing definitions of terms associated with yam dormancy, e.g., tuber-head, primary nodal complex (PNC), and the consequences of such confusing definitions on the outcome of studies conducted to manipulate tuber dormancy in the past.The descriptions are based primarily on the work of Ile (2004) supported by other relevant published works (where necessary).Yam tubers are mostly almost cylindrical in shape with a brownish periderm and a firm, white flesh which consists of large ovoid and highly hydrated starch grains. They have no buds or \"eyes\" on the main body, no terminal buds on the proximal part of the tuber, no scale leaves on the tuber surface, and no root cap (Fig. 1).The tuber can be divided into three regions: head, middle, and tail, based on their physiological and biochemical differences (i.e., respiration, nutrient content, enzyme present/activity) during and at the release of dormancy. Attached to the head region is a corm-like structure (Okonkwo 1985, Degras 1993), also called the tuber-head (Wilson et al. 1998), and tubers that have their tuber-head attached are referred to as intact tubers. In some literature the tuber-head is also referred to as the degenerate rhizome (Burkill 1960), the sympodial rootstock, the tuberous hypocotyl, and the tubercle (Sharma 1974, 1976, 1980, Okonkwo 1985).An intact tuber is harvested by severing senescent vine(s) from the tuber-head (when harvesting is performed at the end of the growing season). Some tubers are devoid of tuber-heads as these have been detached in the course of harvesting; such tubers are referred to as headless tubers. Traditionally, the head region plus some part of the tuberhead is retained for use as planting material during the next planting season while the rest of the tuber is reserved for food. The head region, with or without the tuber-head or pieces of it, is always preferred because sprouting/germination occurs readily from the more proximal region. This phenomenon is termed proximal dominance (Onwueme 1984).Generally, dormancy is defined in one of the following ways:• a programmed inability to grow, i.e., -absence of a visible growth process in plant structures possessing a meristem, e.g., apical and lateral shoot buds, root apices, embryos, and cambia,• a state of rest -when metabolic activities are low, e.g., respiration, enzyme activity, starch and sugar metabolism, quantity/presence of endogenous growth inhibiting substances, etc.,• according to its regulating mechanism(s) -endo-dormancy; controlled by factor(s) within the specific organ -para-dormancy; controlled by factor(s) external to the organ but within the plant, and -eco-dormancy; controlled by factor(s) external to the plant (the external environment).Yam tuber dormancy, like dormancy in other tuber structures, can be defined in all of the ways above except for the absence of bud growth/ bud rest and para-dormancy.Bud dormancy ideally relates to the expression of the state of dormancy or the absence of growth in dormant shoot buds, e.g., bud dormancy in potato tubers, or lateral bud dormancy in some plant stems. Consequently, this definition does not adequately represent true tuber dormancy in yam because the tuber is devoid of buds during dormancy. Note, however, that this definition can be useful in defining dormancy that is induced after sprout emergence, such as when sprout growth is inhibited by temperature.Yam do not appear to exhibit para-dormancy. This is because dormant postharvest tubers are already detached from their vines. During growth also, there are no plant factors known to exclusively cause dormancy in developing tubers.The definition of yam tuber dormancy by its control mechanism is one aspect that has received little attention. Unfortunately, it is as crucial to the magnitude of success attainable in the manipulation of dormancy length as is the need to understand the mechanism(s) controlling the start and end of dormancy. Ile (2004) hypothesized that there are various phases of dormancy and that their control mechanisms vary. Resultsof extensive experimentation (field and laboratory studies) that verify the hypothesis are discussed in the relevant section. Prior to the work of Ile (2004), the duration of dormancy, which varied depending on the perceived start and end of dormancy, is simply considered to be under strong endogenous and/or environmental influences, suggesting that all the different developmental stages within any one definition of a dormant period are controlled by the same mechanism(s).Four major tissue regions are identifiable in dormant tubers (Fig. 2). These are (i) the protective region characterized by the presence of an outer layer of cork cells and an inner layer of radially arranged cork cells. The inner cork cells are associated with a cambial layer in D. alata and in mature tubers the outer cork cells are suberized, (ii) the cortex which is beneath the protective region contains cortical parenchyma cells, some tannin cells and idioblast cells, which contain raphide in D. alata, (iii) the meristematic region (mr) is 2-4 layers of small, flattened, and stretched out undifferentiated cells which lie beneath the cortex. In some species such as D. alata, there is no clear meristematic layer; rather there is an inner cortex made up of small differentiating cells (about five cells thick) and some idioblasts, which are found adjacent to the sclerenchyma band, and (iv) the storage parenchyma filled with starch grains and scattered vascular tissues.The anatomy of dormant tubers of other Dioscorea spp. has been reported for mature tubers that were harvested at or after vine senescence or during storage and observed until sprouting (Onwueme 1973;Mathurin 1977;Mathurin and Degras 1978;and Wickham et al. 1981). Although the reports were based on observations covering a small proportion of the entire dormant period, they are similar to the anatomy of the dormant D. rotundata tuber.The first signs of active cell division and differentiation occur in the meristematic region.This activity can lead to the formation of a localized mass of cells, called the primary thickening meristem (PTM) (Wickham et al. 1981) or the tuber germinating meristem (TGM). The cells of the PTM are small, either irregular or oblong in shape, and arranged in a horizontal array. It is, however, unclear how the site for renewed growth is determined.The TGM (Fig. 3), which is distinguished from the PTM by the particularly widespread nature of cell activity in the meristematic layer and the change in the shape of the cells from a horizontal to a more vertical array, is the first event leading to the formation of the shoot bud. The TGM is typically 10 to 40 cell layers thick, depending on the level of development and the area with the most activity (Wickham 1981).A developing apical (shoot) meristem (DAM) is seen as an organized group of cells at the apex of the TGM (Fig. 4). This event marks the progression into advanced stages of apical shoot bud formation, with the shoot apical meristem (SAM) developing tangentially to the TGM (Fig. 5). Foliar primordia (FP) are initiated from the peripheral cells of the SAM marking the development of complete apical shoot buds (Fig. 6). So far, all of these events occur within the tuber with no external indications.    Further development of the complete shoot bud leads to the appearance of the shoot bud on the surface of the tuber. The complete shoot bud develops a calyptra which protects it as it grows outwards through the tuber cortex and dense cork layers to the surface. This growth causes a bulge on the surface of the tuber which eventually cracks open, slightly exposing the internal shoot bud as a whitish tissue. The exposed portion of the tuber is referred to as the sprouting locus (Fig. 7). Although the presence of the sprouting locus is the first external visible mark of the release of dormancy, the locus is sometimes too small to be recognized and thus is often unnoticed. Eventually, the internal shoot bud emerges/appears on the surface of the tuber, and is then referred to as an external shoot bud or sprout (Fig. 8). This event is termed sprouting. Although there are other variants of the definition of sprouting, the definition here is the most common first visible mark of the end/release of dormancy and the start of vegetative growth. The events from active meristematic activity which lead to TGM formation to sprouting are collectively referred to as the yam sprouting process.The PNC is formed by the vascularization of the PNC meristem (Fig. 9), which is formed due to activity in the region of the first node of the calyptra and the TGM (Wickham et al 1981). The PNC is recognized externally by the thickening of the base of the sprout/external shoot bud (Wickham et al. 1981). Hence, the PNC will not be recognized at the microscopic level if observations are not made well after FP formation. It is for this reason that the studies of Onwueme (1973) and Ile (2004) did not observe the internal formation of the PNC. However, the manifestation of the  development of the PNC (Fig. 10) was recognized externally in the study of intact whole D. rotundata tubers by Ile (2004).The PNC functions as an organ that gives rise to the yam vine/stem and feeder roots (Fig. 11). It was first identified during seedling germination (Ferguson 1972;1973) and has subsequently been recognized during the sprouting of headless tubers (Onwueme 1973;Wickham et al. 1981) and intact tubers (Ile et al. 2004), during the sprouting of stem cuttings (Wickham et al. 1982) and bulbils (Sharma 1974(Sharma , 1980;;Wickham et al. 1982) of many Dioscorea species.In summary, it is clear that the resumption of active cell division that leads to TGM formation is the earliest mark of shoot bud genesis. The formation of the PTM leads to the formation of tuber-roots, which are seen on the tuber surface as thin, short-lived roots (Wickham et al. 1981, Wilson et al. 1998) but the formation of the PTM does not necessarily precede/herald shoot bud genesis. In the work of Ile (2004), similar tuberroots were observed to develop due to localized cell activity in the meristematic region (Fig. 12), and they were found to be present in sections taken from even highly dormant tubers. The presence of tuber-roots is not indicative of nearness to shoot bud genesis or of the depth of dormancy but it may precede shoot bud genesis in tubers that are    near their natural sprouting time. The development of tuber-roots may be encouraged by humidity. When tuber portions were stored in dark boxes containing moistened paper towels, tuber-roots were observed on the surface of the tuber. Wickham et al. (1981) also recognize the relationship between the development of tuber-roots and humidity.The PNC is formed after sprouting and may constitute the organ of renewed vegetative growth.Definitions of the tuber-head as \"the organ of renewed vegetative growth and as the PNC\", and implications of the interchangeable use of termsIn spite of the clear definitions of the tuber-head and PNC above, it is common and confusing to find the tuber-head being referred to as the organ of renewed vegetative growth and the PNC. Wilson et al. (1998), for example, suggested that in intact tubers, the tuber-head that surmounts the tuber is the source of roots, shoot, and tubers during renewed growth. In other instances it is defined as the PNC (Ferguson 1972;Onwueme 1984;Wilson 1998). These definitions do imply that the tuber-heads of dormant intact tubers have the capacity to function as the organ/bud during sprouting, differentiating directly into roots, vines, and tubers. It also implies that the terms tuber-head and PNC refer to the same structure.However, in view of the definitions of tuber-head and PNC in the sections above, it is apparent that they are different structures since: (1) the tuber-head is present and the PNC is absent during dormancy of intact tubers, (2) both structures are present during the renewed vegetative growth of intact tubers, and (3) the PNC is present during the renewed growth of headless tubers. Furthermore, the fact that the PNC (from which vines and feeder roots emerge) is always formed on the tuber surface of headless tubers or on the tuber-head of intact tubers indicates that vines and feeder roots are not differentiated directly from the tuber-head, and hence the tuber-head can neither be referred to as an \"organ\" nor can it function as the organ of renewed vegetative growth.Continuous reference to the tuber-head as the PNC can have serious practical implications on the nature of research conducted and the extent to which the duration of dormancy is shortened or prolonged. For example, the manipulation of the tuber-head by detaching or cutting it in various ways and treating cut surfaces with growth-inhibiting plant growth regulators, as found in the work of Tschannan et al. (2003), was conducted because the tuber-head is considered the PNC.In spite of the differences in the functions of the tuber-head and the PNC, it is possible that the fact that the PNC of a sprouting tuber eventually becomes the tuber-head of the tuber initiated during plant growth may have contributed also to the confusion of terms. During renewed vegetative growth, the PNC of the sprout/external shoot bud differentiates, giving rise to the feeder roots and shoot(s). In D. rotundata, where tubers are produced underground, they are developed from a programmed site within the PNC (see the review by Craufurd et al. (2001) for the process of tuber initiation). By harvest time, the mature tuber remains attached to the \"once-PNC\", which is now brownish in color, appears corky, and contains \"eyes\" that are indeed the points of attachment of feeder roots. In intact tubers, the tuber is harvested with the \"once-PNC\" still attached but it is detached in headless tubers. Thus the \"once-PNC\" becomes the tuber-head, the corm-like structure at the top of the tuber, the degenerate rhizome, etc. Therefore, Wilson et al. (1998) were in line to have stated that the tuber-head is formed de novo in headless tubers. However, since the PNC is also formed in the tuber-head of intact tubers and since the PNC eventually becomes the tuber-head of the harvested underground tuber, it is then necessary to add that the tuber-head is formed de novo also in intact tubers.To limit any further misconception it is recommended that the term PNC be considered as the organ of renewed vegetative growth and should be used in the anatomical description of the process of renewed vegetative growth. The terms sprout or external shoot bud should be useful in the morphological description of the process of renewed vegetative growth. On the other hand, the terms tuber-head, rhizome, and sympodial rootstock should be used to refer to the corm-like structure of intact dormant or sprouting tubers.Duration of yam tuber dormancy: paradigms on the start and end of dormancy and their implications for a successful manipulation of the duration of dormancyTwo broad paradigms on the start and end of dormancy can be identified. In paradigm A, dormancy commences late, by tuber maturity or by vine senescence/onset of the dry season and ends at sprouting (See Annex A). In contrast, in paradigm B, dormancy commences much earlier, such as during early tuber development, and ends with sprouting (See Annex A). This section discusses these paradigms and their effects on (1) the accuracy of and consistency in the duration of dormancy often presented, (2) the design of research conducted, (3) the timing of treatment application, and ( 4) the extent to which the length of the dormant period can be shortened. Also highlighted here are the effects of confused definitions of terms, such as those for tuber maturity, sprouting, and vine senescence, on the estimation of the duration of dormancy.Paradigm A (see Annex A) is consistent with the theory that dormancy is an adaptive mechanism developed for survival in adverse weather conditions, in this case, the dry season. Also in agreement with this paradigm are the results of published works that show that there is a slowing down of metabolic activities in tubers with the start of the dry season. For instance, tubers that are harvested at shoot senescence exhibit a reduced rate of respiration, and reduced starch and sugar metabolism. They contain high concentrations of growth-inhibiting substances, etc., with the reverse occurring at the end of dormancy/resumption of sprouting. It is important to note that in most of these studies, the experimental tubers were harvested at the attainment of tuber maturity or at best only a few days before this stage and the period covered is until the visible end of dormancy (sprouting). As such, the studies have provided information only on changes occurring from the defined time of harvest until sprouting.Based on the definition in paradigm A, therefore, the duration of dormancy can range from 50 to 150 days, even for the same variety, being largely inconsistent. Some reasons for such wide variation relate to the ambiguous nature of the terms tuber maturity, vine senescence, and sprouting, which consequently allows the use of varied dates of tuber harvest and varied signs of sprouting. Examples are discussed below of how these factors, as well as differences in species/varieties, and poorly stated/poor knowledge of environmental conditions in postharvest storage, can result in an inconsistent duration of dormancy.An important observation from early studies in Nigeria and in the Caribbean is that the relationship between the date of the tuber harvest and the duration of dormancy is negative and linear with the duration decreasing with later harvests. However, all tubers sprout at about the same time of the year. This relationship is true for D. rotundata, D.alata, and D. esculenta planted at the same time and stored under similar conditions.These indicate that (1) the duration of dormancy calculated using the harvest date as the reference start mark would always result in variations in duration to sprouting and that the dormant period referred to represents only a fraction of the true dormant period of a genotype, and ( 2) the ability to drastically shift the timing/date of sprouting is crucial to attaining the full benefits of shortening dormancy.Yam species differ in their duration of dormancy. Much of this difference among species has been associated with adaptation to the agroecology of origin (Coursey 1976, Passam 1982) with durations decreasing as the duration of the marked dry season decreases from the drier savanna to the humid forest ecology. This hypothesis also supposes that species originate and can be grouped in relation to their agroecology of adaptation. For example, D. elephantipes, grown/originating in the semi-desert area, exhibits dormancy that is as long as the long dry period (Coursey 1967). From a general view also, it appears that the species tend to maintain their inherent long or short durations of dormancy even with changes in growing conditions (cultural practices and environmental conditions). Also D. alata originating from Asia is believed to exhibit a dormancy that is longer than that of D. rotundata originating from the savanna zone of West Africa, and with the shortest duration being expressed mostly by D. cayenensis originating from the humid forest agroecological zone of West Africa, which exhibits the shortest dry season (Martin andSadik 1977, Passam 1982). Although this assertion can be assessed further, it appears from Table 1 that some varieties of D. rotundata, for example, exhibit dormancy that is at least as long as that of D. alata and variability within species is high.These bring to the fore two fundamental questions. ( 1) Why is the variation within species so large? (2) Would broader understanding of the role of the agroecology of origin on the duration of dormancy come from studies at the varietal level?Furthermore, because most of these studies do not provide enough information about the date of harvest, date of sprouting, date of planting, date of vine emergence, and  Passam (1982), Burkill (1985) 28 to 56 Hayward and Walker (1961) the environmental conditions experienced by the tubers during storage, it is difficult to explain why such differences in duration exist. The effect of storage environmental conditions on the duration of dormancy is discussed in a later section.In conclusion, species differences influence the duration of dormancy. Nonetheless, a more realistic estimate of the duration of dormancy may be obtainable from experimentation that eliminates the effects of storage environmental conditions and tuber harvest date. With the incorporation of these factors, structured physiological studies can be conducted also to assess whether species differences in the duration of dormancy is a result of ontogenetic/phenological plasticity or true physiological adaptation (amelioration or tolerance) to the ecology of origin. Such studies may also involve growing and storing tubers in their ecology of origin and in contrasting agroecologies that support the growth and development of yam.The duration of dormancy even within a yam species has long been known to vary. This difference in the date of sprouting/duration to sprouting can be as much as 45 days (Table 2) even when tubers are grown and stored under identical conditions. In spite of this difference, however, it is important to note that sprouting still occurs at a definite time of the year, which coincides with the season for planting yam in West Africa.Effect of agroecology of origin on duration of dormancy Ile (2004) determined whether the large variation in duration to sprouting /date of sprouting among varieties of D. rotundata (see Table 2 for a description of the landraces) is related to provenance or adaptation to the duration of the dry season at the respective ecology of origin. To achieve this, the provenances were grouped in one of the three distinct agroecologies within the yam-growing zone in Nigeria, the humid forest (HF), moist savanna or forest-savanna transition (MS), and Guinea savanna (GS).In the first year of the study, the landraces were grown at a site in their respective provenances. Table 3 shows the dates (in DOY) of planting at sites representing each provenance, such as Abuja for GS landraces, Ibadan for MS landraces, and Onne for HF landraces. At harvest, tubers of each landrace were grouped in three lots by random selection with each part consisting of 100 whole and healthy tubers. Tubers in one of the three lots were stored in a barn at a site in their supposed agroecologies. The other two parts were each stored at a site in the other two agroecological zones. See Table Table 2. Variation in sprouting day of year (DOY) of Dioscorea rotundata landraces that were grown and stored in their respective agroecology of origin.-Coordinates indicate locations, in Nigeria, where landraces were collected.-Landraces are known to be indigenous to the areas of collection.-MS = moist savanna transition agroecological zone; HF = humid forest agroecological zone; GS = Guinea savanna agoecological zone; DOY = day of year 3 for dates (in DOY) of harvesting and storing of harvested tubers at a location in their agroecology of origin and two other locations as described above.In the second year, only 11 of the 22 varieties were used in the study. At this time, the landraces were grown in their agroecology of origin as well as in the other two agroecological zones.Dates of planting, harvesting, and storing of tubers at the different locations are shown (Table 3).  Findings suggest that (1) few tubers sprout in December-January. Sprouting occurs mostly between mid-February and April. This observation was true across landraces and storage locations, and (2) the ecology of origin per se may not play a strong role in determining the date of sprouting (Table 4). If the start of the rainy season at these agroecologies was the cue stimulating the start of sprouting, then the mean date of sprouting for landraces from the HF, for example, should be much earlier than those from the GS but this was not the case. Indeed, landraces from the HF were found to sprout only 1 day earlier than those from the MS and 2 days earlier, i.e., by 57 DOY, than those from the GS (after the effect of storage location was removed). This conclusion remained the same even when more landraces (all 20 landraces) are included in the data analysis (Table 5). Provenance contributed about the least (F value = 18.3) to the variation in date of sprouting (Table 5). The high contribution of landraces within provenance (landrace(provenance)) to the variation indicate that it is a more important (F value = 64.4) factor affecting the date of sprouting than provenance per se. Also, the high variation in landrace(provenance) indicate that both early and late sprouting landraces are present within a provenance.In summary, the possibility of a role of adaptation to the agroecology of origin in determining the duration of dormancy/timing of sprouting in D. rotundata appears unlikely.Certainly, given that there are no known specialized internal structures in yam tubers for coping with the adverse dry season, and the internal structures of dormant tubers  originating from the different yam ecozones in Nigeria do not vary, there is no evidence to suggest the exhibition of amelioration; a response type indicative of physiological adaptation. Therefore, the association of dormancy with the slowing down of physiological activity during the dry season as well as the presence or absence of high or low quantities of biochemical element(s) may be correlative.Therefore, it is proposed that the varieties that are \"indigenous\" to the agroecologies studied may indeed be the result of the farmers' conscious selection for varieties that fit cultural preferences or for varieties with varying timing of sprouting (short and long durations to sprouting) to ensure the survival and availability of healthy tubers for different needs.The effect of storage agroecology on the date of sprouting and duration to sprouting was determined in a multi-factorial experiment. For details of the experimental design and procedures, see subsection on the effect of agroecology of origin on the duration of dormancy above, as well as Ile (2004).Observations show that the storage agroecology strongly affects the date of sprouting (< 20 days on average) with the effect being earlier and additive as the storage location moves from the GS (Abuja) to the HF (Onne). In the first year of the study, sprouting occurred by 53 DOY at Onne, 5 days later at Ibadan, and 10 days later at Abuja (see Table 4), indicating the additive nature of the effect of storage on the timing of sprouting at Onne. In the second year, sprouting occurred at 45 DOY at Onne (irrespective of growing agroecology), 8 days later at Ibadan, and 18 days later at Abuja. At Onne, the timing of sprouting varied in the two years by about 10 days, probably due to the significant additive effect of the inductive growing agroecology (i.e., at Onne). Thus, the effect may follow a predictable pattern (see the low F value for the interaction of storage location and landrace(provenance) in Table 4 as well as Fig. 14). The relationship is positive and linear with sprouting occurring later as storage location changed from the humid forest to the savanna. Thus, the effect of the storage environment must be strongly considered in dormancy studies.A previous storage agroecology (two generations away or storage year (1) has no effect on the date of sprouting in the subsequent year (storage year 2). This suggests that the effect of a previous storage condition is transient and no significant memory of the effect is transferred to the next generation. The practical implication of this knowledge lies in the fact that landraces can be transported to other agroecologies with little or no fear of the transfer of a memory of the effects of a previous storage condition.Note: only the effect of the storage environment just preceding growth is of consequence.Also, the effects of provenance are separated from the effects of the growing agroecology The effect of temperature on dormancy is suggested to relate to the effects of temperature on physiological activities, such as enzyme activity and respiration. It is, however, not clear whether the effects of temperature follow a simple count mechanism as it may appear. Generally, because in temperature-regulated plant processes, (1) the rate of progress of plant developmental events increases linearly with increasing temperature up to its optimum for the process, and (2) the expression of the effect of temperature in thermal time ( o Cd) provides an adequate physiological explanation for the effects of small fluctuations in temperature, investigations were carried out to determine the relationship between storage temperature (in o Cd) and the date of sprouting.The study was conducted in yam barns located at sites in Abuja (GS), Ibadan (MS), and Onne (HF), representing three of the agroecologies in Nigeria. Over the study period, the average temperature ranged from 25 to 27 o C across storage locations (Table 6) with the temperature at Onne (HF) being up to 2 o C higher than that at Abuja (GS). As with average temperature, average relative humidity followed the same trend.Whether tubers developed during growth in the GS, MS, or HF, they always accumulated the lowest thermal time if stored at Onne compared with storage at Abuja or Ibadan and they were the earliest to sprout (Table 7). In contrast, although tubers stored at Abuja were the latest to sprout, they accumulated the highest thermal time only if grown in the HF. Thus, in spite of the clear correlative relationship between the date of sprouting (from harvest at vine senescence to sprouting) and storage location, the date of sprouting could not be explained by a linear function of date of sprouting (DOY) and thermal time (Figure not presented). This indicates that the sprouting date at these locations may not be controlled by a simple count mechanism driven by the average temperature (average thermal time) during storage. It might, however, be important to investigate further whether the effect of temperature, under naturally fluctuating temperatures, is more related to the effects of night temperature.There is also a wider variability in night temperature than in day or average temperatures across locations. A preliminary analysis of the relation between night temperature at the storage locations (using temperature values for year I on Table 6) and sprouting dateshows that a linear negative relation exists between night temperature during storage and sprouting DOY (Fig. 14). Tubers produced at any of the three agroecological zones (GS, MS, or HF) respond to storage conditions in the same manner, with sprouting DOY delayed  The possible role of endogenous growth-inhibiting substances in the control of yam dormancy was also considered within the context of paradigm A. Because many plant growth inhibitions are influenced by the concentration of endogenous growth inhibitoryPGRs (Hemberg 1985), yam physiologists have sought to identify/isolate substances with growth inhibitory activities and determine their relationship with the maintenance of dormancy. Past studies have concentrated mainly on abscisic acid (ABA) and phenolic growth inhibitors, particularly batatasins. Batatasins belong to the phenolic class stillbenoids. They occur naturally in many plant species exhibiting dormancy.In Dioscorea, they have been isolated in D. alata, D. cayenensis, and D. opposita (Hashimoto et al. 1972;Ireland et al. 1981). They are more concentrated in the peel, (the region closest to the meristematic layer where sprouts originate) than in the pulp.Their growth inhibitory activity has also been reported in standard ABA bioassays such as the Avena and wheat coleoptile and lettuce hypocotyl extension tests (Ireland et al. 1981;Hashimoto and Tajima 1978). In Lino et al. (1978) they were also found to alter membrane properties in-vitro.By isolating these compounds over time, it was clear that the concentration of batatasins increased from 150 days after planting, attaining a maximum at tuber maturity when tubers are declared dormant (Ireland and Passam 1984), and then declined gradually until sprouting (Hashimoto et al. 1972, Ireland et al. 1981;Ireland and Passam 1984).Exogenous application of batatasins I, II, III, IV, and V have inhibited the growth of shoot buds in potato and other plants, delayed the appearance of shoot buds in some yam spp., i.e., D. alata, D. cayenensis, and D. esculenta by about 15 days (Hashimoto et al. 1974;Hashimoto and Tajima 1978;Ireland andPassam 1984, 1985;Asahina et al. 1974Asahina et al. ,1998;;Majumder and Pal 1992). Exogenous ABA has had no significant effect on the duration of dormancy in whole yam tubers.In conclusion, therefore, the role of PGRs with growth inhibiting characteristics on the dormancy of whole yam tubers is not clear. What is clear is that the PGRs can inhibit bud dormancy, re-induce dormancy in sprouting buds, and their effect is slight on the duration of whole yam tuber dormancy (< 20). Some questions need clarification. ( 1)Are batatasins present or absent in developing tubers at stages earlier than 150 days after planting? (2) Would a similar correlation be observed in D. rotundata? (3) Would an apparent correlation imply a specific effect on the tuber rather than bud dormancy?The role of endogenous and synthetic PGRs with growth-promoting properties has also been studied. Again, because of the wide acceptance of Paradigm A, virtually all studies aimed to manipulate the duration of dormancy using PGRs have begun at or after harvest at vine senescence. Recently, Craufurd et al. (2001) and Ile (2004) have extensively reviewed the effects of PGRs (ability to shorten or prolong dormancy) and degree of effects (number of days by which it was shortened or prolonged). See Annexes B-D.From the review it was clear that:• ethylene analogs were more likely to shorten dormancy and GA 3 was more likely to prolong it. Nonetheless, the effects of PGRs are inconsistent due to differences in tuber age at the time of PGR application,• the effects of 2-chloroethanol, thiourea (ethylene analogs), and their recommended combination, which are potent in potato and other Dioscorea spp., have not been tested in D. rotundata,• where studies are conducted, even much less success (0 to 10 days) is achievable in D. rotundata, the most important yam species,• the application of PGRs to plant leaves just before senescence or to whole tubers after harvest induced sprouting to occur only up to 50 days earlier than the control,• in many varieties, significant sprouting begins in February even when PGRs are applied just after harvest in November of the previous year,• the achievement of up to 50 days earlier sprouting or even the occurrence of sprouting in November is not good enough to double yam tuber availability as well as to fulfil the wish of yam breeders desiring to have more than one generation/year in the breeding program. A more drastic shortening effect is needed. To achieve this, sprouting needs to be induced to occur in August-September.From the above therefore, two major problems are clear: (1) the effects of PGRs on the duration of dormancy could not be explained adequately, and ( 2) the inability of PGRs to drastically shorten the duration of dormancy is a clear indication of poor understanding of the mechanism of dormancy. As discussed in Section II, these problems can be overcome by relating the effect of PGRs on dormancy to the progress in some anatomical events occurring during the release of dormancy.3. The growing and storage conditions/agroecologies are important factors affecting the duration of dormancy with the effects being as long as 20 days.4. Based on the effects of exogenous PGRs on the duration of whole tuber dormancy as well as the effects of physical and environmental factors, it is clear that whole tuber dormancy, in the context of paradigm A, can be shortened only by about 30 days.As early as the 1980s, some researchers hypothesized that tuber dormancy does not begin when tubers reach agronomic maturity or leaf/vine senescence but rather much earlier during early tuber development (see Annex A). This school of thought holds that dormancy begins some time during tuber development and ends at sprouting (Okoli 1980;Passam et al. 1982). A second group suggests that there is a 'true\" dormancy period that starts during tuber development and ends well before sprouting, being marked by the onset of activity in the meristematic region that leads to the formation of the internal shoot bud (Onwueme 1973;Ile 2004).Only a few studies have been carried out within the context of paradigm B. Although the reason for this is not clear, it is supposed that paradigm B has been unattractive, probably due to the fact that it implies that actively growing and developing tubers exhibit dormancy. Another reason may be because it implies that yam tuber dormancy (observed in whole harvested tubers) may not arise simply due to the effects of adaptation to a prevalent or impending adverse environmental condition (such as the advent of cold periods in temperate regions and the dry season in tropical regions.). The consequence of limited research in this area has meant that the factors that affect the initiation and duration of dormancy are not clearly understood and evidence that elucidates its control mechanism(s) is rare.The discussion in the subsections below therefore shows how the use of different dates for the start and end of dormancy can affect the consistency and accuracy of the duration of dormancy, the design of experiments, and the effect of using Paradigm B on the rate of success in shortening the duration of dormancy.The works of Okoli (1980) and Passam et al. (1982) were the first few to show the linear negative relationship between the date of the yam tuber harvest (in DAE or DAP) and the duration of dormancy. By harvesting tubers of four varieties of D. rotundata every seven days from as early as 98 DAP to 252 DAP and recording the date of sprouting, Okoli (1980) showed that the duration of dormancy was progressively shorter as the date of tuber harvest was delayed. Subsequent studies with D. rotundata and D. alata have also shown this relationship (Wickham et al. 1984;Swanell et al. 2003) One implication of dormancy commencing at tuber initiation or earlier during tuber development is that growing conditions during tuber initiation and development may affect the duration of dormancy. To investigate this, a field study was conducted involving the growth of 11 landraces in contrasting agroecological zones in Nigeria. For details about experimental design and procedure, see the subsection above on \"the effect of postharvest storage condition on duration of dormancy\" above as well as Ile (2004). To complement the field data, a controlled environment study was conducted to determine the effects on the duration of dormancy of the specific variables of a growing environment, such as soil fertility, air temperature, and photoperiod. The photoperiod regime imposed simulated a June planting at Abuja and Ibadan (Fig. 15). Day and night temperatures represented the average maximum and minimum temperatures at the two locations. Two levels of soil fertility were achieved by applying a slow release fertilizer, Osmocote Plus (15 N + 11 P 2 O 5 + 13 K 2 O + 2 MgO) at two levels (Table 8). Planting and tuber harvesting operationsPhotoperiod (h) From the field study, it is clear that date of sprouting is affected by growing agroecology (Table 9) and the effect is additive if both storage and subsequent growing operations are carried out in inductive agroecologies. On average, sprouting occurred at 47 DOY (i.e., in early February) if landraces were grown at Onne (HF) but growing the same landraces at Abuja (GS) led to sprouting 11 days later. The interaction between the growing agroecology and the subsequent storage environment indicates clearly that the HF environment (at Onne) is more suitable for stimulating early sprouting than conditions at Abuja (GS) or Ibadan (MS) with sprouting occurring earlier (in an additive manner) if both growing and storage operations were carried out at Onne (36 DOY) rather than either of the operations alone.Clearly, therefore, it is a unique finding that favorable conditions during growth and storage can shorten the timing of sprouting by about < 20 days and that their effect is additive where growing and storage operations are carried out consecutively under inductive agroecology (i.e., at Onne). It suggests that the duration of dormancy is a plastic response to the environmental conditions for growing and storage. The study showed that variations in photoperiod and soil fertility during growth do not significantly affect the duration of yam tuber dormancy (Table 10). One significant (P = 0.05) variable affecting the duration of dormancy is the night temperature, where a 5 o C higher night temperature resulted in earlier (by 6 days) sprouting compared with the control (22 o C night temperature). This effect is similar to that observed from field studies, i.e., 10 days in the growing agroecology study, and suggests that the effect of the growing agroecology on the duration of yam tuber dormancy relates to differences in the night temperature.Because temperature often affects many plant growth and developmental processes by affecting the rate of development (expressed in thermal time), data analysis was carried out to determine the relationship between thermal time accumulated during growth, tuber storage, or the total period from planting to sprouting, and the date of sprouting. From Table 10 it is clear that sprouting is earlier as the thermal time accumulated during the growth period (between planting and harvest) increases (r 2 = 0.82). Considering that the daytime temperature is constant for all treatments, the result suggests that the effect of temperature on tuber dormancy relates indeed to the effects of the nighttime temperature.It also confirms that the effect of the nighttime temperature follows a predictable count mechanism. Nonetheless, it is doubtful whether the results imply that temperature can be used to manipulate dormancy in such a way that it would be possible to prevent the initiation of dormancy or to break it drastically. This would be discussed further in Section IV.In a pilot study, the relationship was investigated between changes in free phenolic substances of the stillbenoid class and the start and end of tuber dormancy in D.rotundata. Samples were collected and analyzed on four dates: at 127 DAP (tubers harvested while plants were still green), 176 DAP (at vine senescence/tuber maturity),during tuber storage at 246 DAP, and 303 DAP (when sprouting had begun) with n = 7 tubers at each date. The samples were freeze-dried and total free phenolics were quantified from crude extract using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).The instrument used was a Watter 600 multi-solvent delivery system fitted with a Watter 994 photodiode array detector. The column was a Watter Bondapak Phenyl C18 of dimension 4 mm internal diameter (ID) × 30 cm. To separate compounds in extract, a reverse phase gradient program was used with UV detection at 264 and 272 nm and the diode array scan was over the range of 200 to 400 nm [see Ile (2004) for more details].The pattern of change of free phenolics over the study period suggests the following.1. Dormancy commences well before vine senescence in D. rotundata.2. There is little evidence to support the idea that phenolic growth substances regulate the start of yam dormancy or that dormancy begins at vine senescence (Table 11).Hence, the data contradict the hypothesis proposed by Ireland and Passam (1984) that dormancy is initiated at vine senescence or tuber maturity when a threshold concentration of batatasins is attained. This is because both the mean concentration of individual phenolic compounds [see Ile (2004) for table showing changes in concentration of individual compounds] and mean total free phenolics were higher (2.46 AU units/g dry wt) in tubers that were harvested before vine senescence than at or after vine senescence (< 1.79 AU units/g dry wt). The lower concentrations of batatasins observed by Ireland et al. (1981) during the early stages of tuber development than at tuber maturity may perhaps relate to lower dry matter content (Ketitu and Oyenuga 1973) and/or the presence of thin un-suberized skin, more consistent with the early stages of tuber development than at tuber maturity.3. The role of phenolics in the end or release of dormancy is not clear. The absence of a significant decline in total free phenolics between harvest at 176 DAP and sprouting at 303 DAP (see Table 8) suggests that free phenolics may not have a role in controlling the end of tuber dormancy in D. rotundata. However, the trend in two compounds suggested that they might be broken down to allow sprouting [data available in Ile (2004)]. More research is needed to verify the role of phenolics in the ending or release of dormancy. Effects of plant growth regulators on tuber development and the induction and duration of yam tuber dormancyBased on the conclusion in Section II, the study presented in this section is aimed at providing a better understanding of the effects of PGRs in the initiation of tubers and tuber dormancy. The hypothesis was that dormancy begins during tuber initiation and development and PGRs regulate the initiation of tubers and tuber dormancy.Plantlets were derived from apical shoot meristems of D rotundata var. TDr 131. The shoot meristems were cultured in a yam meristem medium, which was prepared as described by Ng (1984). Plantlets were multiplied by regular subculturing (every 40 to 46 days) in a yam regeneration medium and grown under uniform conditions (Ng 1984(Ng ,1986)). Plantlets were 44 to 58 days old by the start of the experiments. The species TDr 131 was chosen because the tubers exhibit prolonged dormancy.The PGRs tested were ABA, gibberellic acid (GA 3 ) 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (ethylene source) and their inhibitors fluridon (FLU), 2-chloroethyl-trimethylammonium chloride (CCC) and silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) (Table 12). Empirical evidence shows that these PGRs control, fairly consistently, the dormancy of mature underground tubers and bulbils. When applied just after harvest at agronomic maturity, GA 3 most often prolongs the dormancy of mature bulbils and underground tubers; ethylene analogs most likely shorten dormancy; and ABA most likely induces strong growth inhibitory responses.However, the effects of ABA in D. rotundata are scarcely known and ABA has had little or no effect in D. opposita bulbils (Hashimoto and Tamura 1969), D. alata and D. esculenta (Wickham et al. 1984), andD. composita (Gupta et al. 1979). The relative consistency of the effects of these PGRs makes them target PGRs in this study.This study was conducted in-vitro. The in-vitro system is recognized as a powerful tool in the study of the complex mechanisms of tuber dormancy, which are rather difficult to understand from studies carried out under field conditions (Suttle and Hultstrand 1994;Coleman et al. 2001). Another advantage of this system over field conditions rests in the fact that problems such as the uncertainty of the physiological age of tubers are removed since the date of tuber initiation can be recognized. More specifically,it is argued that it removes the inconclusiveness of results from exogenous PGR treatments, i.e., the possibility that test PGRS are not absorbed by the tubers or PGRS are absorbed in varying quantities and the possibility of differences in the mode of actions of synthetic and endogenous PGRs. It therefore provides a logical method for investigating the role of specific PGRs on dormancy, since the biosynthesis or action of such endogenous PGRs can be blocked with known antagonists when absorbed during plantlet growth. The micro-tubers produced under such conditions are deficient in the specific endogenous PGR. This provides a more conclusive system for manipulating endogenous levels of a PGR and evaluating the effect of its level or deficiency on dormancy (Suttle and Hulstrand 1994).The PGRs were tested at two concentrations (see Table 12). The choice of test concentrations was based on their effectiveness in previous studies at the whole tuber level as well as their effectiveness and nonphytotoxic effect in yam and potato tissue culture for rapid plantlet and micro-tuber production. Thus, there were 13 treatments; 12 PGR treatments, plus a control. Due to the large number of treatments involved in this study and the constraints of time and facility (space), it was impossible to include more,i.e,. reversal treatments consistent with studies involving growth inhibitors. However, this study supposes that the uptake of FLU leads to a decline in ABA levels in yam tissues and that this effect can be reversed by the application of ABA as reported consistently in potato and other crops (Hole et al. 1989; Le Page-Degivry and Garello1992; Suttle and Hulstrand1994). The study began with the culturing of nodal explants from young, actively growing vines of plantlets in 350 mL jars containing 50 mL yam tuberization medium (Ng 1988) (control) or yam tuberization medium plus a test PGR. A one-L yam tuberization medium was composed of 4.43 g Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium, 100 mg Myo-inositol (meso-inositol; I-inositol), 60 g sucrose, 0.5 mg Kinetin (6-furfurylaminopurine) dissolved in HCl, and 20 mg L-cysteine (C 3 H 7 NO 2 S) dissolved in NaOH. In this study, fairly solid media were used (i.e., 5 g/ L agar).In PGR treatments, compounds were added to the yam tuberization medium prior to autoclaving. However, because autoclaving conditions destroy the chemical integrity of CCC, ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid), and FLU (1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-3(trifluoromethyl)  Experiments commenced 5-6 March 2002. Micro-tuber initiation was marked by the emergence of a small mass of cells at the base of the main vine and/or from a node on a lateral branch (Fig. 16). A tuber was ready to be harvested when more than 60% of its surface had changed from whitish or greenish white to a reddish brown or brownish color. After harvest, the weight of the micro-tuber was recorded and observed for external signs of renewed growth, i.e., sprouting/appearance of the ASB. Thereafter, micro-tubers were rinsed in sterile distilled water, left to dry, and then put in labeled sterile test tubes (one micro-tuber/test tube). All micro-tubers were stored in a growth cabinet in the dark at day and night temperatures of 28 o C and 24 o C and 80% RH. During storage, microtubers were observed every 7 days for the presence of sprout(s) and the date of such an occurrence was recorded.The duration of dormancy was calculated as the difference, in days, from the date of micro-tuber initiation to the date of ASB. The effects of treatments on dormancy were analyzed using the non-parametric survival data analysis tool (Collet 2003) run on SAS v8 computer software. With treatment in FLU, stems/vines and feeder roots emerged from a callus and the stem and leaves were bleached but this bleaching effect wore off by the later stages of growth. In the controls and other PGR treatments, there were no bleached vines and leaves, and all the micro-tubers produced exhibited dormancy. Generally, a nodal explant developed into a plantlet with one main vine, and micro-tubers developed from a small whitish mass of cells at the base of the vine that also gave rise to feeder roots (see Fig. 16). In a few plantlets, however, more than one green vine was produced from a callus and micro-tubers were produced from the axils of lateral leaf nodes around the upper region of the stem.Micro-tubers emerged mostly from the first two nodes of a vine or the first two nodes of a branch emerging from the first two nodes (see Fig. 16). These micro-tubers are hereafter referred to as micro-tuber initiated from \"lower nodes\". The presence of numerous stems, branches, and feeder and tuber roots (roots emerging from the tuber) resulted in the formation of a dense cover of roots around the lower portion of plantlets making it difficult to observe the date of sprouting. A number of micro-tubers also formed in the upper nodes towards the shoot tip: these were developed late during growth and exhibited dormancy. All micro-tubers were similar to underground tubers. The relationship between the origin of micro-tubers and the state of dormancy expressed (non-dormant or dormant) is unclear. Although it is known that the nodes of Dioscorea spp. maintain the capacity to differentiate into a branch, flower, leaf, and/or tuber, the formation of micro-tubers from leaf axils is not common in D. rotundata. The formation of late, dormant upper node tubers may be related to a decline in FLU levels in the upper nodes (observed as the return of color in the leaves and stems).In the controls and most PGR treatments, sprouting was observed after February 2003, i.e., about 360 days after explant culture. In the FLU treatments, all micro-tubers emerging from lower nodes were already sprouting (with some possessing vine(s) and leaves) by August 2002 in both experiments, i.e., 120 to 180 days earlier than the control. The number of sprouting and non-sprouting micro-tubers observed at harvest and their location of origin on the plantlet are presented in Table 13. In 30 µM FLU, 85% of the micro-tubers were produced from the lower nodes in Experiment I and 100% in Experiment II. At a lower concentration of FLU, i.e., 10 µM FLU, 46% of microtubers were produced from the lower nodes in Experiment I and 69% in Experiment II. The few micro-tubers emerging from the base of the stem and leaf axils exhibited dormancy.The production of very small lower node micro-tubers (< 0.5 g) in FLU treatments compared with other PGR treatments and the control is suggested to relate to the fact that the micro-tubers sprouted soon after initiation with too little starch from which to draw. In addition, the long length of vines (up to 10 cm in some tubers) suggests that a considerable amount of stored energy in the tubers had been used for growth. Therefore, the possibility that FLU may have a direct, negative effect on tuber weight is doubtful.The role of ABA in yam dormancy and the mechanism of action of FLU on yam tuber dormancy are unclear and cannot be explained adequately because of insufficient data. However, it is clear that endogenous ABA content increases in yam tubers during development and attains a maximum at vine senescence, and that dormant tubers are high in ABA content. It is known also that FLU causes early sprouting in maize seeds (Hole et al. 1989), the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) embryo (Le Page-Degivry and Garello, 1992), potato micro-tubers (Suttle and Hultstrand 1994) and in the bulb of lily (Kim et al. 1994). Suttle and Hultstrand (1994) showed that 44% of potato tubers sprout 21 days after culture in 10 µM FLU, while sprouting occurred 63 days after culture in the control. Reversal studies have also shown that the effect of FLU can be reversed following the exogenous application of ABA (Hole et al. 1989; Le Page-Degivry and Garello 1992; Suttle and Hultstrand 1994;Yamazaki et al. 1999). Evidence from molecular studies also supports that FLU acts via the inhibition of ABA biosynthesis (Sanderman and Boger 1989;Sandmann and Mitchell 2001;Srivastava 2002;Liondgren et al. 2003).The possibility that ABA is directly produced from farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) via 1-deoxy-ABA pathway has been discredited by the work of Creelman and Zeevaart (1984) cf Srivasrava (2002). Another reason why FLU may be thought to act through a completely different pathway or at least that it induces significant adverse side-effects on plant performance arises from its bleaching effect on leaves and stems. Although there is a  dearth of information on this with regard to yam, there is ample evidence to support that FLU inhibits enzymes in the carotenoid pathway, such as the inhibition of the enzyme phytoene desaturase (PDS), which catalyzes the conversion of phytoene to carotenoids rather than the inhibition of the enzymes in the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway such as protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO). PPO catalyzes the conversion of protoporphyrinogen-IX to protoporphyrin-IX, a photo-sensitizer whose activity leads to the oxidative degradation of lipids in cell membranes, hence causing damage to cellular constituents, such as the chloroplast.Nevertheless, there is a need to confirm a lack of the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway of action of FLU in yam. One such research should involve the use of mutants of chlorophyll to test the effect of FLU on the ABA/carotenoid level (Mulwa and Nwanza 2006).In yam, therefore, there is the possibility that FLU prevents the initiation of dormancy through the inhibition of the biosynthesis of ABA, the dormancy-promoting endogenous PGR. Further work is required to validate this assertion. The efficiency of a potent dormancy-shortening PGR depends on the timing of application. Dormancy can be prevented if its initiation is inhibited during tuber initiation.The duration from culturing to micro-tuber initiation in the control was 176 days in Experiment I and 76 days in Experiment 2. This delay in tuber initiation reflects the observed slower growth rate in Experiment I. Despite this difference in growth between experiments, PGRs generally had very similar effects (to delay or hasten) on the time to initiation. AgNO 3 had no effect on the time of micro-tuber initiation in either experiment compared to the control, whereas 50 μM ABA and CCC delayed initiation by 23 to 45 days.GA 3 , however, caused very early initiation relative to the control in Experiment I (83 cf 176 days) but had no effect in Experiment II.ABA, CCC, and AgNO 3 had consistent, but only minimal effects on dormancy with sprouting occurring at about the same time of the year (Table 14). The effects of ethephon and GA 3 on dormancy are still not clear because ethephon does not appear to support shoot growth and hence tuberization (except for three plantlets in ethephon 100 mg L -1 in Experiment II which initiated three minute tubers) and GA 3 supports growth and tuberization too poorly. With GA 3 , micro-tubers were initiated very early compared with the control in Experiment I (83 cf 176 days) but had no effect in Experiment II and though the micro-tubers were apparently normal, they were very small and most of them shrivelled in storage. The inhibitory effects of ethephon on growth and tuber initiation have been shown in many studies with potato involving much lower concentrations of ethephon (< 2.0 µL/ L of ethylene gas and 0.5 to 50 M ethephon) (Rylski et al. 1974;Hussey and Stacey 1984). Similarly, the negative effect of GA 3 in potato shoot growth and tuberization are recognized at even lower concentrations (10 -7 to 5x10 -5 M and 0.1 to 1 mg/L) (Garcia  and Gomez-Campo 1973;Koda and Okazawa 1983;Hussey and Stacey 1984;Fondong et al. 1994). The average duration from micro-tuber initiation to sprouting, i. The study also shows that where the PGRs prolong the duration from culturing to tuber initiation of dormant tubers, they shorten the duration from tuber initiation to sprouting (Fig. 17) with the relationship being inverse and linear. Recall also that the data from field (growing and storage agroecology) and controlled environment studies also showed that there is an inverse relationship between the duration from planting to harvest and the duration from harvest to sprouting. Hence, it is proposed that, in tubers, the durations from culturing to tuber initiation and from tuber initiation to sprouting are always balanced out to allow sprouting to occur at a specific period of the year, which may be programmed at tuber initiation. studies already reported in this book. The bases for the methodology used in this work are briefly discussed below; however, details can be found in Ile (2004).In potato, the first signs of the release of bud dormancy are manifested at the cellular level (i.e., mitoses preceding cell division and elongation) and these are evident long before visible bud growth is observed. In yam tubers, buds are absent during dormancy and their appearance on the surface of the tuber is the most common (visible) indication of the release of dormancy. The genesis of shoot buds, observed at microscopic levels, occurs long before the buds emerge on the surface of the tuber. These early indications of the onset of vegetative growth are stronger indicators of the release of dormancy than the visible indicators, and hence, represent a good point from which to start studies into the control of the release of dormancy. Indeed, in potato the application of 2-chloroethanol resulted in cell division and elongation within 72 hours of application (Rappaport and Wolf 1969;Rylski et al. 1974). In yam, however, there is a dearth of information on the effect of PGRs on the genesis and development of shoot apical buds.To clearly explain the effects of PGRs (gibberellin, 2-chloroethanol, thiourea: each at two concentrations) on anatomical development and how this varied with the stage of development, the anatomical changes occurring in the tuber from dormancy through shoot bud formation were determined. The results also provide some explanation for the minimal effect of PGRs on the duration of whole tuber dormancy.development and therefore Odds Ratios could not be calculated to compare PGR treatments with the control. However, treatments with CLE clearly increased the probability (P < 0.001) of a SAM being present (0.67 in both treatments), compared with the control (0.00), GA 3 (0.11 to 0.22), or thiourea (0.33).With whole tubers, the effect of PGRs on the appearance of a shoot bud (ASB; external shoot bud) on the surface of the tuber was determined by soaking the whole tubers, for defined periods of time, in eight PGR treatments at four different dates (183,214,269,and 331 DAP). There were two controls, untreated control (i.e., tubers that received no water or PGR treatments) and treated control (sets of tubers soaked in water at each treatment date). The total duration from planting to 50% ASB was 331 days in the untreated control. Thus, prior to treatment at 331 DAP, all sprouts were removed.The effect of treatments on ASB is shown in Figure 18. Ethylene-related PGRs were more likely to lead to earlier ASB (by shortening the duration from treatment to ASB) and synchronized the timing of ASB; GA 3 tends to prolong ASB. The tendency for ethylenebased treatments to shorten the duration is higher if PGRs are applied early (at 183 or 214 DAP); they would be most likely to prolong the duration when applied later (at 269 and 331 DAP). The response to a low concentration of GA 3 is similar to those of ethylene-based PGRs when applied early. Furthermore, the degree to which PGRs either shortened or prolonged the duration to ASB was minimal. Ethephon, the most effective ethylene-related PGR in this study, shortened the duration to ASB by just over 20 days and 1000 mg L -1 GA 3 prolonged the duration to ASB by the same length of time.In addition, in all treatments and irrespective of tuber age at the time of treatment, 50%ASB occurred at about the same month of the year (i.e., from 26 March to 9 April) and within the usual sprouting band in Dioscorea spp. (from February to April).  Generally, ethylene-producing compounds have been reported to slightly hasten sprouting (i.e., to shorten the time to the emergence of the external shoot bud); GA 3 delays sprouting and re-imposes bud dormancy in sprouting tubers (summarized in Passam 1982;Degras 1993;Craufurd et al. 2001;Ile 2004). Gibberellin antagonists have also been reported to hasten sprouting (Shiwachi et al. 2003), suggesting an important role for GA 3 in the control of dormancy in yam. These effects of GA 3 are in marked contrast to those in potato and in dormant seeds, where GA 3 usually breaks dormancy (Suttle 1996). In general, exogenous applications of PGRs have hastened sprouting by only about 33 days (see Passam 1982 andIle 2004 for examples). Likewise, variability in storage environment causes sprouting to vary by only up to 30 days (Shiwachi et al. 2003). This lack of a major effect on duration to sprouting is interpreted to be caused by the inability of PGRs and environmental treatments to induce shoot apical development (i.e., TGM formation). In var TDr 131 in this study, the TGM appears about >75% of the way through the period from tuber initiation to sprouting, leaving a relatively small proportion of the remaining period to sprouting that can be shortened by PGRs and the storage environment.Phase I of dormancy and control: This phase begins at tuber initiation and ends with TGM formation. It is unaffected by many sprout-inhibiting and -promoting PGRs (Fig. 19). It appears to correspond to the deep dormancy, endo-dormancy, defined by Lang et al. (1987).This phase of yam tuber dormancy is proposed to be controlled by an intrinsic \"clock\", which is unaffected by changes in temperature and/or photoperiod as happens with dormancy in seeds of Mesembryanthemum spp. (Leopold 1996). It is therefore termed the endo-dormant/ true dormant phase of yam tuber dormancy. The assertion is based on the following: (1) 150 mg l-1 GA, ( 2) 1000 mg l-1 GA, (3) 40 ml l-1 2-chloroethanol (2-CLE), ( 4) 60 ml l-1 2-chloroethanol, ( 5) 20 g l-1 thiourea, ( 6) 60 ml l-1 2-chloroethanol + 5 g l-1 thiourea, ( 7) 60 ml l-1 2-chloroethanol + 20 g l-1 thiourea.  6. the supposition in potato that dormancy also begins early during tuber initiation rather than later (Burton et al. 1992), and that true dormancy ends well before the earliest signs of shoot bud differentiation are recognized (Jayakumar et al. 1993).This phase of dormancy begins at TGM and ends at the formation of the FP/shoot apical bud (Fig. 19). At this phase, PGRs can affect the progress towards sprouting. Because this phase occurs after the month of November in Nigeria, which coincides with the main tuber harvest and storage periods, and because most studies relating to the effects of changes in endogenous factors and environmental factors on the timing of sprouting fall within this phase, it is logical to infer that such effects are indeed effects on Phase II of dormancy rather than on the total dormant period.Hence, the fact that the TGM appears about 85% of the way through the period from tuber initiation to sprouting, leaving only a relatively small proportion of the total period (Fig. 19)that is affected by PGRs and environmental factors, etc., explains why only a small gain in the earliness is achieved when tubers are treated well after harvest at vine senescence.This phase of dormancy begins from FP to ASB. The manifestation of one or more complete shoot apical bud(s) (FP) is known to coincide with the appearance of sprouting loci on the surface of the tuber. This event therefore marks the start of another significant stage: from the development of shoot apical bud(s) within the tuber to emergence on the surface of the tuber as sprout(s)/external shoot bud(s). Although this phase should ideally not be referred to as a phase of dormancy (since the appearance of a sprouting locus marks the end of visible dormancy), it is defined as such for two reasons: (1) because the sprouting locus is often not easily recognized and so many of such tubers are still being considered as dormant, (2) sprouting is widely used to mark the end of dormancy in many studies (see Annex A), perhaps due to ease of recognition.During this phase, further growth and development of the sprout are affected greatly by the environmental factors with an impact on it, e.g., temperature and the direct effect of exogenous PGRs. Thus, like Phase II, Phase III of dormancy is controlled by exogenous PGRs, notably GA 3 , which can affect sprout development directly through the inhibition of sprout growth, and by environmental conditions, such as air temperature and RH. Hence, Phase III of yam tuber dormancy can be considered mainly as an eco-dormant phase.The duration of the three phases of dormancy below are defined based on results from both anatomical and whole tuber studies (Fig. 19).  (i.e.,. This is in agreement with the work of Onwueme (1973) where sprout formation/ASB occurred 7 days after the appearance of sprouting loci/ FP in D.rotundata and 10 days afterwards in D. alata varieties.Below are estimates of (1) duration of total crop cycle, (2) duration from planting to tuber initiation, and (3) duration from tuber initiation to sprouting. The estimates are average values derived from data presented in this book and other publications.The average duration from planting or culturing (single nodal explant tissue culture) to sprouting ranges from 274 to 353 days with an average of 314 ± 56 days (Fig. 19). The presence of large variability in duration represents differences in species/ varieties, environmental conditions for storage and growing, mark of sprouting (ASB or length of sprout), chemical/PGR treatments, etc. Values obtained in past field studies (Okoli 1980b, Swanell et al. 2003, Shiwachi et al. 2003, etc.) are within the range presented above.From planting to tuber initiation: In two in-vitro studies with varying temperature and photoperiod conditions (details of method in Section III), the durations from culturing to micro-tuber initiation were 68 and 76 days in the controls. In a glasshouse study, small whitish tubers weighing about 2 g and 10 g were observed by 76 days, indicating that the tubers must have been initiated earlier and are within the range observed for micro-tubers.Data from other published works show that the duration from planting to tuber initiation ranges from 53 to 74 days, irrespective of the differences in field conditions and the varieties of D. rotundata, (including TDr 131) grown (Njoku et al. 1973;Onwueme 1975;Trouslot 1978;Swanell et al. 2003). In these field studies, planting was done soon after sprouting or at about sprouting time. The average duration from planting to tuber initiation is estimated as 65 ± 9 days (see Fig. 19).From tuber initiation to ASB: On average, this duration is 258 ± 14 days (Fig. 19). This is derived from results of three in-vitro studies where the durations were 246, 275, and 254 days. At the moment, estimates of this duration under field conditions are scarce and difficult to assess.In summary, in spite of the fact that all tubers experienced close to uniform conditions, the duration of Phase II to Phase III varied by < 20 days and the difference between the first ASB and 50% ASB was 12 days. Results from other field experiments and controlled environment studies show that the total duration from planting to ASB could vary from 274 to 353 days with an average of 314 days. Values that fall within this range have also been reported by other workers (Okoli 1980b;Swanell et al. 2003;Shiwachi et al. (2003). It is estimated, therefore, that there will be a wider variation in the duration of Phases II and III under field conditions, up to 70 days, depending on the effects of factors controlling the progress of each of the two phases. Variations in the duration of the entire crop cycle (the most commonly measured variable) will range from 274 to 353 days with an average of 314 days due to differences in(1) the effects of factors that influence the duration from planting to tuber initiation (including the age/phase of dormancy of the plant material), ( 2) the chosen mark of the end of visible dormancy, such as the appearance of sprouting loci, ASB, a sprout of a defined length, etc.,(3) differences in species/varieties, and (4) the durations of Phases II and III of dormancy. In contrast, the duration of Phase I of dormancy is somewhat fixed, at about 200 days, being constitutively maintained and unaffected specifically by external factors.The identification of the phases of yam tuber dormancy and other growth stages, their durations, and potential control mechanisms provides a useful framework for effectively studying and manipulating dormancy in Dioscorea species.When the objective of a study is to enhance the synchrony of sprouting or to induce only a small shortening of dormancy without drastically altering the cropping cycle, the tubers may be harvested at the end of the main growing season and subjected to inductive conditions for sprout formation. Earlier applications are also recommended (at 189 and 214 DAP in particular) rather than later (at 269 or 331 DAP). It is important to note that the recommendation of an early PGR treatment does not imply that PGRs affect Phase I of dormancy (even though 189 and 214 DAP fall within Phase I of dormancy). Recall that (1) in the absence of a TGM, which is the situation during Phase I of dormancy, PGR applications do not lead to TGM formation, (2) anatomical observations of tuber sections taken about 30 days after treatment at 214 DAP (i.e., tubers treated with ethephon)showed no signs of TGM formation, (3) the presence of numerous bumps and extensive shrivelling in tubers treated with ethephon by 214 DAP did not imply the presence of a shoot apical meristem; sections revealed no TGM or SAM, and (4) PGRs are effective in altering the duration of Phases II and III. Hence the often greater effects of an early application of PGRs may be due to (1) better permeability of the skin of young whole tubers to PGRs compared with older tubers, and (2) the concentration of PGRs at target structures (for ethylene-based PGRs, a high concentration just before TGM formation appears to shorten dormancy and when applied after the formation of the FP it appears to prolong/re-induce dormancy. Although the permeability of the yam tuber periderm by PGRs has not been well investigated, the presence of a thin whitish periderm in young tubers rather than in older ones and the absence of waxy suberized cork cells suggest a higher potential for PGR absorption. Follow-up studies are recommended that verify the permeability of the tuber periderms and the concentrations of PGRs taken up over the various phases of dormancy. Also recommended are studies that determine whether PGRs maintain their nature during the waiting period in the tuber.With this framework, it is easy to see why the PGRs and other environmental factors tested in the past have only slightly shortened the duration to sprouting in whole yam dormancy. This lack of a major effect framework on the duration to sprouting is due to the inability of PGRs and environmental treatments to induce shoot apical development (i.e., TGM formation) during Phase I of dormancy.With the framework, it is now possible to estimate reasonably the degree to which the duration to sprouting is affected by any exogenous treatments. A treatment may be said to have broken dormancy (i.e., Phase 1 of dormancy) if it brings about ASB in the first 180-210 days after planting in February or vine emergence in February, or if treatment induces the occurrence of ASB 90 or more days earlier than the control.It would now be much easier to relate the effects of treatments on dormancy to specific physiological states (phases of dormancy). In the past, conclusions on the control of yam tuber dormancy were difficult because of the inability to relate the effects of PGRs, etc., to any physiological state.The findings reported in this book would stimulate the establishment of more in-depth explanations of the mechanism controlling tuber dormancy, e.g., the effects of PGRs on subcellular activities relating to the progress towards ASB.The framework can also form a base for effectively studying and analyzing dormancy in other yam species and other root and tuber crops exhibiting dormancy.It is interpreted that the inability of temperature, PGRs, etc., to shorten the dormant period by more than 50 days is not indicative of their inability to break Phase I of dormancy but rather that they act by influencing the duration of the pre-tuber growth period and the rate of progress towards ASB (i.e., Phases II and III of dormancy).Furthermore, the observed inverse relationship between the duration from culturing to micro-tuber initiation and the duration from micro-tuber initiation to sprouting suggests that the duration of the former is memorized and used to determine the duration of the latter so as to ensure that ASB occurs at about the same period of the year.The initiation of nondormant micro-tubers from lower whitish vine nodes suggests that they are initiated from nodes that are void of or low in carotenoids and as such, low in ABA, the dormancy-promoting PGR. Hence, ABA may regulate the initiation of dormancy at tuber initiation and development. Also, the formation of tubers at locations other than at the base of main stems may be a survival mechanism, which may bear little or no relationship to the state of dormancy. Yam have not been known to sprout in August-September, hence the occurrence of ASB at this time in FLU treatments has a huge potential significance in agriculture. This finding can serve as a springboard for (1) developing protocols that break endo-dormancy in underground tubers, (2) developing protocols of preventing dormancy in seed and clonal yam tubers, which will make planting time more flexible and hence help to increase the pace of breeding for improved yam varieties and indeed increase total annual yam production, and (3) the development of techniques for producing seed tubers from small sprouting micro-tubers. This would increase the supply of planting material and, in the long run, contribute to the doubling of tuber production and availability for food and planting material. One important question that needs to be addressed is the nature of the mode of action of FLU on yam tuber dormancy-is the effect temporary or permanent?   Shiwachi et al. (2003) ","tokenCount":"14227"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"149dde617dc6eba606ce5fa6ca666f33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dd65307-a34d-4591-a5a6-e0f75e3b147e/retrieve","id":"-1413854177"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b8a7727b-5b23-4297-87b5-e78b25d3ae12","pagecount":"19","content":"International Livestock Research Institute's (ILRI) Livestock and Irrigation Value chains for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) project has established woreda-based agricultural knowledge centres (AKCs) in Oromia, Tigray, Amhara and SNNP regions. With an aim of transforming these knowledge centres into Animal Health Knowledge Centres (AHKCs), the Health of Ethiopian Animals for Rural Development (HEARD) project conducted a quick phone-based assessment on the status of the centres. The project is jointly implemented by ILRI and the Ethiopian Veterinary Association (EVA).A preliminary phone-based assessment was made on all the AKCs in Amhara and Oromia. The assessment covered AKCs in South Wollo, West Gojam and North Gondar zones (3 woredas each) of Amhara region and East Shoa and Jimma (3 woredas each) and West Shoa (four woredas) zones of the Oromia region (see Table 1). According to the interviewed heads and experts of woreda and zonal livestock development offices, 40.0% of the centres reviewed are currently existing and functioning well, whereas 13.3% of the centres exist but are not providing full services. Lack of internet access due to failure to make subscription payments, poor internet connection in the woredas and in some cases the computers in the AKCs being used for other office works were mentioned as reasons for failure to providing full services.Nearly half of the centres (46.7%) for which responses were obtained no longer exist. The reasons vary across zones and woredas. Some woredas lacked budget for internet subscription and others preferred to turn the centres into offices because of shortage of office space. Agricultural bureaus recently underwent institutional changes, where they were split into agricultural and livestock bureaus. The knowledge centres remained with the agricultural bureau. Most of the facilities of the centres are either stored or are being used for other purposes. But there is hope of restoring the some of the centres can be restored according to the respondents. Field visits were arranged to woredas where promising responses were received from the phone-based surveys. The statuses and requirements for strengthening the centres are presented below.The knowledge centre in Tehuldere district is not functional due to space unavailability. The equipment is therefore stored in one room. From the discussions, there is a possibility of getting separate room for the KC in the coming few months upon completion of the construction of new office spaces.Available facilities/equipment include: 4 computers, 1 television, 1 printer, 10 chairs, 2 tables and internet connection which is assumed to be working once subscription payment is settled.Management is mentioned as the main challenge for reopening the KC. The centre was inherited by the agriculture bureau following the new office structure that split the livestock health and agriculture departments. This has left the livestock health department with no say in the knowledge centres. Agreement was reached with the two departments to agree on ways of using the facility together and start the reestablishment process of the knowledge centre.Support needed if the challenges are addressed include:• Monthly internet subscription payment The KC in Dessie surrounding district is partially functional. Due to shortage of space in the campus, there is no possibility of getting separate room for the KC.Facilities /equipment available include: 4 computers (on sight are 3 computers), 1 television, 10 chairs, 2 tables and a functional internet connection.Space is the main challenge raised as the KC is sharing space with the irrigation office.The new office structure which split the livestock health and agriculture departments has put the knowledge the centres under the later. This has left the livestock health department with no access to the knowledge centres.Agreement was reached with the two departments to agree on ways of using the facility together and start the re-establishment process.Support needed if the challenges are addressed include:• Shelfs • Chairs • Separate room for the knowledge centre The knowledge centre in Yilmana Densa district is functional. It has its own room with the equipment.Facilities/equipment available include: 4 computers (from LIVES project) and additional 2 computers (from Sasakawa), 1 printer, 1 television, 3 chairs, 3 tables and a working internet connection. The modems from the LIVES project were taken by the AGP project and distributed to all the offices during the separation of the livestock from the agriculture department. This has left the knowledge centres to have one modem for one computerthe other computers are left idle. The main challenge this district is facing is the aging of the building (causing leakages) and the distance of the knowledge centre from the livestock office.The support required include:• Stationary materials (such as paper, printing inks)• Toolkit for maintenance of computers and printers• Operation system (OS) software and• Training on computer and printer maintenance and networking Agreement was reached with the livestock health representative and the ICT personnel to discuss ways of setting up a convenient KC room. And to find out the cost for internet modem and installation. The knowledge centre in Gonder surrounding district is functional but it does not have its own room.Facilities/equipment available include: 2 computers (out of the 4 computers from the LIVES project -the rest was distributed for office use to the agriculture office), 1 printer, 1 television (in the store to be checked if it is functional), shelf with a few books, 3 chairs, few tables, ICT professional and a functional 2 MB internet connection that is shared with the AGP project. Currently the KC is using one cable for one computer.The main challenge for this district is not being able to use the centre as needed as it is sharing space with other offices.Agreement was reached with the agriculture department head to let the KC have own space by getting a new space for the other department.The support required include:• Chairs • Copy machine• Additional 1 MB connection to upgrade the existing capacity • Dividers, stationary materials (such as paper, printing inks)• Toolkit for maintenance of computers and printers • Operation system (OS) software.• Training on computer and printer maintenance and networking • Books and reading material for high school and college students given students are using the KC for research paper writing. ","tokenCount":"1005"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54241577ce41d59c5d5e117546321ff1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cdc96769-b5c0-46e7-ad5d-f1a7901f0c59/retrieve","id":"-1562352098"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ad8e681d-b6e0-4583-b26b-8bcd65ed7e8c","pagecount":"2","content":"Impact des variétés améliorées de haricot dans l'Ouest du Kenya L e haricot commun (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) est la plus importante légumineuse cultivée dans l'Ouest du Kenya ainsi que la seconde culture vivrière, après le maïs. L'agriculture de subsistance y prédomine, associant cultures, élevage et arboriculture. Les faibles rendements et la petite taille des exploitations ne permettent toutefois pas de parvenir à l'autosuffisance alimentaire, contraignant les agriculteurs à travailler à l'extérieur de l'exploitation, à dépendre de versements de fonds et d'emplois à l'étranger. Ainsi de nombreux foyers ruraux ont à leur tête une femme.À la fin des années 1980 et au début des années 1990, les districts de Kakamega et Vihiga, situés à l'ouest du Kenya, ont connu une incidence et une sévérité accrues du pourridié. Cette maladie a entraîné une série de mauvaises récoltes et conduit de nombreux agriculteurs à abandonner la culture des haricots. Elle était essentiellement due à un ensemble d'agents pathogènes fongiques endommageant un nombre croissant de haricots, en combinaison avec une évolution du système de production résultant de la pression démographique. La réduction des terres cultivées par famille a entraîné une utilisation intensive du sol, des cultures continues, une faible utilisation des intrants agricoles, un déclin de la fertilité des sols et l'apparition d'agents pathogènes transmis par les sols. Pour répondre à la crise du pourridié, le Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) de Kakamega, le Centre international d'agriculture tropicale (CIAT) et le Département de vulgarisation du ministère de l'Agriculture ont collaboré à un programme accéléré afin d'identifier des variétés de haricot résistantes à cette maladie.En 2001, une enquête officielle portant sur 225 familles a été réalisée et les données recueillies à l'aide de plusieurs méthodes, notamment l'évaluation rurale participative (ERP), les enquêtes officielles sur les ménages ruraux et les vendeurs de haricots, des discussions de groupe, des diagrammes logiques d'impacts (un outil participatif) et des questionnaires structurés. Des statistiques descriptives ont servi à évaluer les taux et l'ampleur des variables socio-économiques, tandis qu'une analyse partielle du budget fournissait une indication de la rentabilité, ainsi que de la part des nouvelles variétés dans les revenus des agriculteurs. Au niveau d'ensemble, le modèle de surplus économique a été adapté afin de réaliser une évaluation « ex post » des bénéfices nets  L'impact des nouvelles variétés s'est manifesté dans cinq domaines : la sécurité alimentaire, le revenu des ménages, la diversité variétale, l'utilisation du bois combustible et la commercialisation. À titre d'exemple, elles ont amélioré lasécurité alimentaire pour presque tous les agriculteurs participant à l'enquête, signifiant qu'un tiers des agriculteurs de l'ensemble des deux districts avaient davantage de haricots à consommer tout au long de l'année et que leur santé, tout comme leurs revenus, s'en trouvaient améliorés.Même si les variétés introduites sont appelées à prendre de plus en plus le pas sur les variétés locales sensibles au pourridié, de nombreux agriculteurs de l'enquête projettent de continuer à cultiver ces dernières. Ainsi, loin d'être érodée par l'introduction de variétés résistantes, la diversité variétale semble même être ainsi renforcée, offrant aux agriculteurs un plus grand choix variétal pour faire face à leurs contraintes et objectifs agricoles.Les modèles économiques ont tendance à retenir uniquement les bénéfices financiers et ignorer d'autres avantages essentiels (non monétaires), tels que l'allègement de la tâche de la recherche de nourriture, les économies de bois combustible, les améliorations en matière de santé et l'approfondissement des connaissances des agriculteurs. Ces profits ne peuvent pas être offerts sur le marché et échappent ainsi facilement à un modèle utilisant la notion de surplus économique.Le passage de la monoculture du maïs aux cultures associées maïs-haricots, utilisant la variété de haricot locale préférée Alulu a entraîné un taux de rendement marginal de 370 %. Dans le cas de la variété améliorée la plus largement adoptée (KK 22), ce taux était de 697 %. Ces résultats confirment le fait que la culture du maïs en association avec des haricots améliorés est extrêmement avantageuse comparée à la monoculture du maïs. L'étude des marchés locaux a montré que les agriculteurs commercialisaient la culture des variétés introduites, utilisant les revenus supplémentaires pour des achats de nourriture, d'articles ménagers et des dépenses scolaires. ","tokenCount":"686"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"95d4a9216ee2be98ae8ae3068d3a0852","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1ba3a2b-df10-4797-bfa5-dfe3e451b2d8/retrieve","id":"753637935"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ef2a206b-1bb8-465d-8080-46d4ad4bf498","pagecount":"14","content":"Here we are, at the start of the second week of COP. A theme I have heard through different sessions is related to how the operationalization of promising solutions faces barriers, including capacities, policies, innovations, investments, and incentives.Three challenges have come out strongly for me: (1) identification of early warning indicators and related intervention measures for climate disaster management, (2) development of models for payment for ecosystem services mainly when nature-based solutions are the way to go for climate adaptation and mitigation, and (3) integration of national determined contributions, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and national action plans.Development of solutions to these challenges will require systems thinking and involving multiple stakeholders.COP28 presents a unique opportunity for us at CGIAR to build partnerships for collaboration to develop sustainable solutions to the climate crisis in our area of work, which has been getting much attention throughout this COP. This week, it will be critical to initiate and firm up these strategic alliances for us to deliver on the high expectations of partner organizations and our stakeholders, in addition to continuing to share our experience and know-how.Representatives from governments, research institutes, non-profits, and the private sector took part in a panel discussion on the specific interventions each industry can take to achieve long-term food security without further burdening the environment through increased greenhouse gas emissions. More specifically, participants aimed to establish the link between finance and innovation in the agricultural context and share best practices in leveraging and implementing innovative financial mechanisms to successfully transform agriculture.Bjoern Ole Sander, the country representative for Thailand and a senior climate change scientist at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), discussed innovative agricultural strategies for results-based climate finance that benefits rural producers. \"There are two options that hold the potential for the biggest impact,\" he said. \"One is to focus on water management, which offers a straightforward solution: lessen water use to reduce greenhouse emissions. More importantly, water management is already part of national strategies, and has existing methodologies for incentivizing farmers through carbon payments. The second is [to implement] a transparent monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) system that can be used to understand how carbon payments are being made. Some tools offered by the MRV system are a greenhouse gas emissions calculator and remote sensing or satellite data that detects consistencies or changes in farmers' practices.\" Speaking of \"sustainable solutions for long-term food security\", Hanh Nguyen, head of Sustainability at OCI Global focused on decarbonizing the fertilizer sector. \"Fertilizers, when managed correctly, play in reducing greenhouse emissions for farmers,\" she noted. \"Soil health s hugely important; we must invest in practices that protect and restore soils globally\". On financing, she remarked that there is a need for \"new solutions\", particularly for emerging markets.Alzbeta Klein, CEO and director general of the International Finance Corporation's Climate Business, asked panelists what they hoped would be achieved at CoP28. Speakers highlighted three priorities: 1) ambitious global targets, 2) more support for smallholder farmers, and 3) supportive policies that can get finances to where they are most needed.• Interventions must be made with farmers in mind. This includes understanding the best ways to compensate them and including them in discussions about what carbon credits are fair for them. • It is important to support agricultural practices to deliver concrete climate mitigation outcomes while protecting farmer livelihoods. • Blended finance tools have the potential to support the agriculture sector's sustainable transition.Also, farmers will be reached more effectively with financial tools tailored to their unique challenges. • Fertilizers, when managed correctly, play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions for farmers. • A better matching of finance and agriculture programs is needed, beyond just carbon payments. Limiting global warming to 1.5°C above preindustrial levels and increasing resilience to climate impacts requires action by all people at all levels of society, from citizens to executive leadership, from children and young people to the elderly. However, people cannot contribute to solving a problem they do not know about and whose solutions are not well communicated.If the good reasons for climate action exist and even the channels to inform the public exist, why do we not see the political and social changes needed to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement? To realize those necessary changes, panelists from today's session concluded, we need to effectively communicate what is happening at CoP28 and other climate meetings for planet-and nature-positive public, private and personal decision-making. More and better communication equals a more significant impact.\"We must take a gender-accommodating approach to our science and research, which allows marginalized communities to access resources to enhance their climate resilience,\" Rahma Adam, a social inclusion and market scientist and the East and Southern Africa focal point for CGIAR research and development at WorldFish, told delegates. This session highlighted the urgent need for an adaptive approach to address the increasing frequency and intensity of floods and droughts in the context of climate change. The discussion delved into the critical role of integrating scientific knowledge, effective policies, international and local practices, and community engagement to enhance resilience.The spotlight was on investments in early warning systems and nature-based solutions. The event aimed to stress the imperative of scaling up financing, enabling policies, and leveraging science and technology for climate change adaptation, with a specific emphasis on bolstering resilience against floods and droughts. The session further showcased case studies on advancing flood and drought resilience, forecasting capabilities, and nature-based solutions.Dr. Aditi Mukherji Director, CGIAR Climate Impact Platform helped set the scene by listing the main findings on floods and droughts from the IPCC Report. She mentioned both the climatic and non-climatic drivers of floods and droughts and the need for ramping up effectiveness of adaptation actions in this space \"Climate change is experienced first and foremost through changes in the hydrological cycle, particularly in weather exposed sectors like agriculture. Agriculture is important as it makes use of 70% of available water, and hence also 60% of all adaptation happens in response to water related hazards like floods and droughts\" she said.• Achieving effective resilience to floods and droughts requires an integrated approach that combines scientific knowledge, effective policies, local and international best practices, and community engagement. • Cost effective and sustainable investments to enhance adaptive capacity and reduce vulnerability to extreme events require detailed planning, early warning systems, naturebased solutions, and infrastructure. • The establishment of the appropriate policy, institutional and regulatory enabling environment is essential for addressing long-term solutions for flood and drought risk management. • However, most of these investments including investments in adaptation becomes less effective at higher warming levels, so it is paramount to keep global warming within Paris Agreement accepted levels.When addressing food security, it is vital to understand the needs of individuals and communities. Panelists at this session Climate Action Innovation Zone session concluded that policymakers must support food innovation that aligns with consumer needs through the promotion of supportive policies and programmes that ensure nutritious, accessible and affordable food for all.This session brought together panelists to discuss the following questions: How can we promote sustainable and ethical consumption? How important are meat substitutes and lab-grown meats in future food systems? How can we develop sustainable food systems prioritising health?\"One vision that stands out is taking traditional and indigenous foods and using them part as the food systems toolkit,\" said Namukolo Covic, regional director for East and Southern Africa at CGIAR. \"In the past, we have neglected our indigenous foods even though they are often more resilient to climate change. Using them in our toolkit gives us the opportunity to diversify.\"Adele Jones, executive director at the Sustainable Food Trust, prompted attendees: \"How can we produce sustainable foods? And how can we align our diets to those production systems? We need to be more aware of the land around us. It's a consciousness shift that needs to happen, we need to start engaging people through popular culture like sport and music -how do we engage people who do not know much about these issues? The public is ready to respond, we just need to give them the tools and information to respond.\"Talking of the interconnectedness of the health and food systems, Afshan Khan, coordinator of the Scaling Up Nutrition movement, said, \"We need to look at sustainability, biodiversity, resilience and adaptability while preventing ballooning costs to the healthcare system. We need advocacy to call for a shift in healthy diets, and we need to link nutrition into primary healthcare.\"Adding to this conversation, Bruce Friedrich, president of the Good Food Trust, notes that antimicrobial resistance is a \"huge risk that needs addressing in the livestock industry\", informing the audience that \"70% of medically relevant antibiotics are spread to livestock, not human beings\".Climate Action Innovation Zone CGIAR Partcipant: Namukolo Covic• One of the biggest challenges facing the Global South is the lack of investment at the local level.• Another major challenge is changes in diets. For example, the influx of fast-food chains places new and different pressures on agri-food systems and leads to increases in obesity and other health issues.• Lifestyle changes such as reduced exercise are also a global health challenge across the Global South and Global North. • The dichotomy between foods being 'good' vs. 'bad' (such as meat vs. plant-sourced foods) is unhelpful and can be confusing. The conversation needs to be more nuanced, and account for the relative, context-specific sustainability of certain foods against a backdrop of incrementally increasing the effectiveness of food systems.This session explored the synergies, and possibly tradeoffs, between adaptation and mitigation. It is clear that ambitious mitigation is also critical to adaptation success. As noted by the AR6 IPCC Synthesis Report, \"The effectiveness of adaptation, including ecosystem-based and most water-related options, will decrease with increasing warming\".At the same time, some mitigation measures, deployed at certain scales, can have negative impacts on sustainable development and adaptation. For example, afforestation or production of biomass crops can have adverse socio-economic and environmental impacts, including on biodiversity, food and water security, local livelihoods and the rights of Indigenous Peoples, especially if implemented at large scales and where land tenure is insecure.Speaking on these measures, Aditi Mukherji, Director, CGIAR Climate Impact Platform noted that \"the science tells us that current adaptation measures will become less effective at reducing climate risks at higher levels of global warming, and hence, it is critically important to ramp up mitigation to keep adaptation effective\" Many gaps in knowledge remain about these synergies and trade-offs. The discourse highlighted system transitions, identified in AR6, that can help exploit synergies and avoid trade-off, and also try to identify critical areas for research to inform AR7.• There are knowledge gaps on effectiveness of adaptation, now and in the future and need for more robust studies that looks at causal links between adaptation intervention and climate risk reduction.• Need for more focus on the solutions space, and more integrated reports in the AR7 cycle of the IPCC, that looks at mitigation and adaptation and their tradeoffs and synergies in a holistic manner.\"the science tells us that current adaptation measures will become less effective at reducing climate risks at higher levels of global warming, and hence, it is critically important to ramp up mitigation to keep adaptation effective.\"COP 28 President Al Jaber commended the operationalization of the loss and damage fund on the first day, urging collective progress. Groups like the LMDCs, LDCs, and AILAC outlined key priorities, and civil society groups urged human rights, fossil fuel phase-out, and just transition.President Al Jaber closed, urging optimism, flexibility, and inclusivity.So far the fund has about $700 million including $100m from the hosts, $100m each from Germany, France, and Italy, and $17.5m from the US.Report of the Executive Committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts: The SBs adopted draft conclusions (FCCC/SB/2023/L.12), containing a draft decision for consideration by the COP and/or CMA, with a footnote pointing to pending Presidency consultations on the governance of the WIM. The EIG lamented the lack of progress on the issue of formal participation barriers facing some developing countries.The SBs adopted conclusions (FCCC/SB/2023/L.17), containing a draft decision for consideration by the COP and/or CMA, with a footnote pointing to pending Presidency consultations on the governance of the WIM. SWITZERLAND offered to host the physical location of the Network's Secretariat in Geneva or provide support for hosting the Secretariat in another location.December 6No consensus with a request to cofacilitators to compile all the submissions received and use that as a starting point for discussions. Some parties were willing to engage on text prepared by cofacilitators in the interest of time but in the end, there was no consensus. In week 2, the negotiations will be led by the COP presidency, and will have new co-facilitators of the process, most likely ministers from Australia and Chile, who were assigned to lead on adaptation by the COP presidency.There is a strong emphasis on creating an integrated approach between various working groups and high-level ministerial dialogues. This integration is seen as crucial for ensuring that technical expertise and ground-level discussions inform high-level policy decisions. The concept of a feedback loop, particularly involving the ad hoc Working Group and the work programme, is central to this approach, aiming to enhance coherence and effectiveness in policy-making. Other countries are sceptical that they will be able to engage in INFINFs these days. All countries express concern in reaching consensus: there is urgency but lack of alignment on the text. Namely, G77 express the need to have further informal consultation on the \"modalities\" part of the text. Countries asking co-chairs to ask ministers for more time. Today there will be further consultation on technical matters by the co-chair, and they will address substantial content tomorrow with parties.Dialogues: There is a significant focus on inclusivity, particularly the inclusion of observers from the Global South and representatives from least developed countries in technical dialogues. This reflects a commitment to ensuring that diverse perspectives are considered, and that the needs and concerns of all stakeholders, especially those most impacted by climate change, are addressed in the decision-making process.Financial Considerations and Participation Challenges: Financial aspects, both in terms of the cost of participation in the negotiation process and the broader context of climate finance, are a major concern. Discussions highlighted the need for financial strategies that do not exclude countries due to budget constraints, ensuring equitable participation. Additionally, there is a call for greater involvement of high-level financial representatives, including those from key financial institutions, to align financial mechanisms with climate goals.Global South: There is a pressing need for greater clarity and transparency regarding the sources of climate finance and the definition of climate finance. Burkina Faso emphasizes the necessity of including specific figures related to pledges made for adaptation funds. The Global South underscores that the goal of 1 billion dollars has not been achieved, lacking clear figures as evidence. Pacific countries emphasize that they receive less than 1% of climate funds. Moreover, Global South frequently highlights the disparities in climate finance allocation between adaptation and mitigation. They emphasize that developing countries are burdened with substantial debts for both aspects and argue that addressing these gaps should be viewed as a collective obligation rather than a discretionary favor. Furthermore, the Global South addresses issues with the quality of pledges within this framework and climate finance flows. They highlight that the majority of these pledges are simple \"loans,\" which exacerbate the burden on developing countries in their fight against climate change. The Arab group emphasizes the necessity of a stronger focus on ambition.Global North: Countries stress the importance of highlighting progress and express readiness to accept a placeholder for a definition of climate finance using language from the SCF agenda item, as done in the past. They are prepared to engage in addressing technological constraints, provided that it is fact-based. Switzerland underscores the need to reflect changes in numbers for cross-cutting finance and to avoid statements that could hinder investments. The Global North, in general, underlines the likelihood of achieving the 100 billion dollars goal in 2023. The EU emphasizes the need to refer to OECD's data in cases of transparency doubts from northern countries, as all methods are outlined on the website.AILAC countries stress the importance of not only using the language of the Paris Agreement when discussing adaptation finance but also focusing on developed countries when addressing \"enabling environments.\" They argue that creating an enabling environment for \"unlocking climate finance\" is essential for both developing and developed countries. Incentives should be placed on a systemic level, without overemphasizing attention on the enabling environment solely for developing countries. They propose that credit-rating agencies cooperate to unlock finance, trusting investments when there are sound and solid mitigation and adaptation plans, even in developing countries that typically face challenges with return on investment.• Co-chairs will bring these issues to the  Emphasis on a Unified Approach to Climate Finance Definitions: A key part of the discussions was centered around establishing a clear and universally accepted definition of climate finance. Different countries and blocs advocated for specific approaches, reflecting their own perspectives and interests. For example, some countries preferred a broad definition that includes various forms of financial support, while others sought a narrower definition, focusing primarily on public funds. This debate is crucial as it influences how climate finance is quantified and reported, impacting the overall effectiveness of climate action efforts.Debate over Article 2.1 C Implementation and Adaptation Finance: The implementation of Article 2.1 C of the Paris Agreement was a significant point of discussion. This article deals with aligning financial flows with low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient pathways. Different viewpoints were presented on how best to operationalize this article, with some countries expressing concerns over the developed countries' approach and emphasizing the need for positive discussions focusing on aiding the transition towards 1.5 degrees, enhancing adaptation, resilience, and addressing loss and damage. Additionally, the topic of adaptation finance was prominent, with various opinions on how to progress in this area, highlighting the complexity and differing priorities among nations.Calls for Extended Work and Inclusive Consultation: The discussions repeatedly highlighted the need for more work, in-depth analysis, and broader consultations on various aspects of climate action. This reflects the ongoing and evolving nature of international climate negotiations and the need for collaborative efforts to reach comprehensive solutions. The calls for further work and consultation indicate a recognition of the complexities involved and a commitment to continuing the dialogue to address these global challenges effectively.","tokenCount":"3083"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63bd34ebdbd302b8c63bf2e134b72772","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a5362e48-9564-4cdb-9407-4779b0d2dcd1/retrieve","id":"-425513453"},"keywords":["governance","groundwater","games","Ethiopia","irrigation","common-pool resource","experiential learning"],"sieverID":"7444920e-7cbe-4e2d-b26d-cf4b90ea01e6","pagecount":"39","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.The importance and effectiveness of self-governance and community-level institutions and collective action for the sustainability of natural resources is well known (Ostrom, 1990;Ostrom, 2000). Yet limited awareness of resource dynamics and lack of user cooperation, particularly when communities cannot perceive the interconnectedness of their actions and choices on the resource as a whole, contribute to resource overuse and degradation (Zhang et al., 2022). Understanding the biophysical and systems' characteristics of natural resources, the social dilemma in common-pool resources (CPR) management, and the need for shared solutions are important steps that allow communities to embark on forming institutions for regulating resource use and effectively addressing governance challenges.Groundwater is a key source of freshwater for drinking, domestic and productive uses while serving important ecological functions (Closas and Molle, 2016). The resource is under pressure from climate change and increased demand from human activities (Nagaraj et al., 1999). Groundwater has high subtractability (i.e. one person's use reduces available groundwater for others) and low excludability (i.e. it is difficult to establish boundaries and prevent others from using the resource). These characteristics, combined with low visibility of aquifers' response to extraction (as aquifer boundaries and depth are often not directly visible), mean that groundwater resources are particularly prone to over-extraction and depletion. As water resource users interact with and impose externalities on each other, institutions are needed to coordinate resource use and create trust and incentives for sustainable management (Meinzen-Dick, 2014). But effective governance of groundwater to prevent over-extraction is further compounded by the difficulty of coordinating among a large number of water users, many of whom often do not realize their interconnectedness or have limited understanding of the factors affecting water tables.Group dynamic games that simulate real-life resource use and multi-user interactions and connect social dilemmas to action situations have shown promise as an intervention tool for experiential learning about sustainable CRP management (Becu et al. 2017, den Haan & van der Voort, 2018;Ferrero et al., 2018). A growing body of literature explores the use of group games framed around natural resource management (NRM) to facilitate the engagement with communities to improve socio-ecological systems' understanding and stimulate discussions about the need and options to improve governance (see Falk et al. [Forthcoming] for a review). They are useful for identifying patterns in thinking and behavior, testing management options, as well as shaping \"mental models\" and understanding of relationships both among users and between users and the resource.In India, the piloting of an experiential learning game that simulated crop choices and impacts on aquifers has improved the understanding of groundwater conditions and need for coordination and adoption of rules for effective resource management by community members, thus aiding collective action and decision making (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2016 and2018). Communities who participated in the game were significantly more likely to adopt rules governing groundwater use, compared with control communities (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2018). While such games are not a silver bullet, they can complement other capacity support to shape \"mental models\" around groundwater resources and empower communities to strengthen local governance (Falk et al., 2023).Africa has seen a substantial increase in smallholder \"farmer-led\" irrigation in recent decades (Wiggins and Lankford. 2019). Small-scale groundwater irrigation, in particular, has been increasing in extent and importance in arid and semi-arid areas of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Giordano et al., 2012). However, most of the existing water institutions fail to integrate governance of groundwater sources (Lefore et al., 2019), creating the risk of not achieving the full potential of groundwater irrigation and leading to undesirable social and environmental consequences (de Fraiture and Giordano, 2014;Theis et al., 2018).In Ethiopia, groundwater irrigation development is still at an early stage (Bryan et al., 2020) despite the private and public support (Namara et al., 2013). Groundwater resources in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia are considered abundant to support irrigation expansion, if managed sustainably, with high potential to improve incomes, livelihoods, and food and nutrition security for millions of people (Xie et al., 2021). Small-scale irrigation in SNNPR has been rapidly expanding in recent years (FAO and IFC, 2015), increasing pressures on groundwater resources, which largely remain unregulated. Experiential learning interventions on groundwater governance thus present a unique opportunity to get ahead of the game and plant the seeds for collective action on groundwater management that can help prevent groundwater depletion in the future before reaching critical levels.This paper presents results from piloting an experiential learning intervention in SNNPR of Ethiopia in 2021. The rest of the paper is structured as the follows: We first present the intervention and research methods, followed by the results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses. We discuss findings of the experiential learnings and lessons learned before we conclude.The goal of this study is to assess the potential of game-based experiential learning in raising awareness and stimulating discussions about groundwater resource systems, the social dilemma in groundwater management, and the need for institutional arrangements (rules) governing this shared resource, as well as whether such awareness raising and community discussions lead to actual change in groundwater governance in the Ethiopia country context. While the long-term sustainability of the resource is the ultimate outcome that matters, it is challenging to attribute changes in groundwater levels to any particular intervention because of the complex hydrology of groundwater systems and the many environmental and human factors that affect it. This study therefore focuses on two levels of assessment: 1) the immediate learning effect of the game on participants through comparing before-with after-game individual mental models, and 2) the medium-term effects of the intervention (including game and community debriefing) on the communities. Specifically, we examine whether there has been any change at the community level regarding groundwater governance 6 months later at endline. This includes whether there have been changes in rules governing groundwater or procedures for developing rules, and whether the community perceives a need for rules as a result of the intervention. We account for the counterfactuals by comparing results from control and treatment groups, controlling for exogenous factors that operate at a larger scale and could affect both control and treatment communities.The study addresses two sets of research questions using the methodology described below.To what extent can the experiential learning opportunity created by the intervention change individual mental models and stimulate conversations among community members, and lead to real actions to improve groundwater governance in the communities?2) How do within-subject treatments (i.e., non-communication, communication, and group rulesetting) affect game decisions (crop choice) and outcome (groundwater consumption) ? What group characteristics help explain variations in crop choices and cooperative behavior in the game among groups? Are there differences between the male and female groups?We adapted a groundwater game from Meinzen-Dick et al. (2016 and2018), which was developed for and piloted in India, and fitted it to the local context in Ethiopia. The game simulated the connection between individual crop choices and groundwater levels which are shared by all community members, capturing the tradeoff between greater economic return from higher level of groundwater consumption (due to growing water demanding crops) in the short term and the depletion of the resource critical for not only productive use but also domestic needs in the long term. Individual players choose to irrigate either Crop A (referred to as \"water saving crop\" hereafter), a crop that requires low water input but also yields less income, or Crop B (referred to as \"water demanding crop\" hereafter), a water-intensive crop that yields higher income. These choices in turn lead to simulated changes in groundwater levels for the whole group. Crop A is set to use 1 kind 1 of water and yields 200 Birr in income, while Crop B is set to use 3 kind of water and yields 500 Birr in income. Through an earlier scoping study in the region, several relatively water saving and relatively water demanding crops commonly cultivated in the study area were identified and later used as choices in the game. That is, players decided Crop A to be either tomato or onion, and Crop B to be either cabbage or carrot.In each pilot site or village, two concurrent game sessions were held, one for men and one for women. The game consists of multiple rounds, each representing a year, with the water table changing over the years depending on players' choices. The group starts with 40 kind of water available. Each of the 5 players in the group makes their decisions individually and receives income according to their crop choice. In addition, 2 kind of water is deducted each round to account for domestic water use. The facilitator then shows the collective effect of players' choices on the groundwater level on a chart, adds a set annual recharge of 7 kind from rainfall, and announces the new water level in the aquifer available for use in the next round. If all players chose Crop A in a given round, the water would replenish back to the level it was at the beginning of the round, but if all players chose Crop B successively for 4 rounds, there will be no more water available for productive use, ending the game. The game ends either when the water level reaches a \"red zone\" at 0 kind after crop choice decisions where water can no longer be extracted for irrigation, or after 7 rounds if players manage to keep the aquifer above this level. Throughout the game, players make their decisions individually in private. In the first 7 rounds, players are not allowed to communicate. Another set of (up to 7) rounds is then played where players are allowed to communicate. Finally, in the third set of (up to 7) rounds, players are prompted to discuss and choose to set rules for the group and the group decides whether to elect rules and which rules. Facilitators refrained from making suggestions and groups were encouraged to discuss and implement their own strategies. This design was motivated by evidence that experiential learning is expected to be more effective when participants decide on rule election on their own (as opposed to the facilitators suggesting particular rules) and try them out in a low-risk environment (Falk et al., 2023). While choosing locally relevant crops, adjusting the units of land to local context, and other changes were necessary \"tweaks\" to fit the original game in Meinzen-Dick et al. (2016 and2018) to the local context, the last set of rounds on rules-setting by groups is a new within-subject treatment of the current study aimed at enhancing the learning experience. The number of rounds to be played in each of the three within-subject treatments or sets was not disclosed to avoid the end-round effect, though we do not rule out the possibility of participants making \"guesses\" about the duration of the set once they have played the first set.An important component of the intervention is the subsequent community debriefing held after the game.For this, all community members (including players and non-players) are invited to discuss lessons and insights from the game, how the game relates to their own experiences and challenges regarding groundwater, and what community actions are needed to ensure the sustainability of groundwater. A spillover of learning from game players to non-player community members is expected through this process of sharing and collective reflection on the game experience.The study area is located in the SNNP region near Butajira town south-east of Addis Ababa (Figure 1) and is within the Feed the Future program's zone of influence 2 . A scoping study, including two consecutive field visits in February and December, 2020, was undertaken to inform the design of the pilot intervention. We first consulted with a hydrologist to identify groundwater characteristics (including aquifer properties and groundwater recharge) in the Butajira-Enseno area. We then consulted with the Department of Agricultural and Natural Resource Development (DANRD) of the Gurage Zone to identify four woredas (or districts) in the south-east part of the Gurage Zone surrounding the Meki River catchment with greater groundwater irrigation potential: South Sodo, North Sodo, East Meskan, Meskan, and Mareko. In each selected woreda, the scoping study further collected information on the distribution of groundwater irrigation users, main crop types, size of irrigated land, and other socioeconomic information to gain more understanding of the context through interviewing woreda agricultural experts, extension workers, groundwater users, and local community leaders. To inform the construction of the sampling frame, further in-depth assessment identified kebeles (the lowest administrative structure in Ethiopia and are typically clusters of villages) in each woreda where there is widespread and increasing use of groundwater, especially in the dry season, and where aquifer sizes are relatively small such that actions taken by communities on groundwater governance would likely have an impact that can be felt by local users. Since such information is not available at the village level, the sampling was done at the kebele level. North Sodo was dropped as groundwater use was found in only 2 kebeles.Our sampling frame included 39 kebeles in 4 woredas, from which we drew a random proportional sample of kebeles from each woreda, resulting in 34 kebeles. We then randomly sorted the 34 kebeles into 17 treatment and 17 control kebeles. The last two kebeles in each group were reserved as replacements, and our main pilot sample consisted of 15 treatment and 15 control kebeles (Table 1). The final step was to select the pilot sites or villages from within the selected kebeles. We applied a practical criterion by selecting one village with the highest groundwater use for irrigation among all villages in a given kebele, with assistance from a local coordinator. Game participants, 5 women and 5 men in each pilot site or village, were randomly selected from community members who were available on the day of the intervention, and priority was given to those who had been identified by village leaders as groundwater irrigators. Baseline focus group discussions (FGDs) were held in all 30 kebeles. For the treatment group, FGDs were held concurrently with the game in each kebele 3 . With the assistance of extension workers and kebele administrators, we selected FGD participants with knowledge about the village from different segments of the kebele community including kebele administration, elders, youth, and women, making sure to include as many groundwater users as possible. For the selection of endline FGD participants, priority was given to those who participated in the baseline FGDs. Where baseline participants were unable to attend the endline FGDs, other members were selected using the same criteria as for selecting the baseline FGD participants.The intervention and baseline data collection took place in March 2021 (Table 2). First, in each of the control and treatment villages, we conducted an FGD to capture the baseline contextual information and perspectives regarding irrigation water sources, existing community institutions for governance of natural resources, specifically water-related institutions, and community-level mental models regarding groundwater resources. In the treatment villages, a game session was held concurrently with the FGD. The field team took thorough notes of the discussions that took place between players during the game, including any agreed upon rules, sanctions and violations and how they were handled by players during the game. A pre-and post-game survey of individual participants immediately before and immediately after the game was conducted to gather both qualitative and quantitative data on characteristics of the players, their households and farms including current irrigation practices, individual mental models regarding groundwater resources and their management, and perceptions about levels of trust and cooperation between community members. After the game, we additionally collected qualitative information from the community-wide debriefing discussion which aimed to reflect on the game experience and its relevance to water governance. Endline FGDs were held in both control and treatment sites in September 2021, following the same qualitative data collection approach. The FGDs and community debriefing discussions were audio recorded after receiving informed consent from participants and transcribed verbatim to capture all the discussion details in preparation for analysis. We adopt a mixed methods approach comprised of quantitative analysis of game data and pre-and postgame player surveys, and qualitative analysis of FGDs, community debriefings, and notes from game discussions. This approach allows us to quantitively assess how pro-social behavior in the game (i.e., choosing water save crop) are affected by group and village characteristics, different within-subject treatments, and gender. Insights from the qualitative analysis allowed us to first assess the context and factors that shape the community mental models on groundwater and resource governance, take a deeper dive into game behavior through analyzing in-game discussions, agreements, and violations, and finally curate the key lessons and new perceptions taken away by the whole community after the game experience.Qualitative data from FGDs, games, and community debriefings were transcribed and then analyzed through inductive thematic analysis and coding in Nvivo, with the aim of identifying frequencies of words and themes in the participants' contributions. We generate frequency tables and present selected representative quotes.We conducted associative regression analysis to explore the effects of within-subject treatments (i.e., noncommunication, communication, and group rule-setting) and group characteristics (averaged from individual participant crop choices and household characteristics) on water extraction in the game at the group level in each round. Specifically, we focus on two dependent variables: i) share of group members making water saving crop choices in the round, and ii) total amount of water consumed by irrigation by all players in the group in the round. Both variables were found to be normally distributed. For the dependent variable of total amount of water consumed by irrigation by all players in the group in the round, which is bounded data, we estimated pooled Tobit model as well as Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model for comparison and approximation, controlling for village-level fixed effects. For the dependent variable of share of group members making water saving crop choices in the round, we estimated Generalized linear model (GLM) as well as OLS. To explore possible gender differences, we ran the same models for male and female groups separately. A Levene's test for homogeneity of variance indicated that there is not a statistically significant difference in the variance in between female and male groups in either dependent variable. The explanatory variables used in the analysis include gender (in pooled models), age, education level, years lived in the village, household land ownership, indicators of trust and cooperation, household reliance on agriculture during the dry season, and household access to water pumps. Dichotomous variables for kebele were included to control for village-level fixed effects. A complete list of variables and summary statistics can be found in Table 4 in the Results section. Standard errors were robust to misspecification and intra-group correlations.Based on the baseline FGDs, control and treatment groups are similar in several key demographic and groundwater use indicators, including average farm size, role of rainfed farming, groundwater use, ethnic and religious heterogeneity score, and existing institutions for shared resources such as forest (Table 3, based on estimates provided by FGD participants). However, the two groups differ in average population, percentage of farmland rented out in dry season, and whether irrigated farming is the primary livelihood in the dry season. Additionally, compared to the control sites, treatment sites had, on average, higher percentages of irrigators and farmers who have access to groundwater. Yet there are large variations within control and treatment villages, with some villages having all farmers access groundwater and practice irrigation, and others with very few farmers having such access.While we do not believe there was systematic bias in the sample selection process that could have resulted in the imbalance between the two groups, it is possible that the information we collected from the woreda offices during scoping visits on the prevalence of existing groundwater irrigation in each kebele for the construction of sampling frame is not entirely accurate 4 . This is, however, difficult to validate because of the lack of alternative information sources. The presence of imbalance hinders our ability to use the control group as valid counterfactuals, thus endline results reported for control vs treatment sites are treated as anecdotal evidence. However, we are confident in the overall qualitative assessment of learning effect for the treatment sites, thanks to the multiple qualitative datasets collected which allow a multi-pronged angle to provide a comprehensive picture of the game effect. Baseline mental models of communities at both control and treatment sitesThe FGDs 6 and pre-game player survey gathered information on groundwater availability, accessibility, use and governance in study communities, and give an initial (and baseline) picture of community mental models with regard to understanding of groundwater resource dynamics and groundwater governance.Participants reported wide variations in groundwater availability and accessibility across communities. In some communities due to variable depth and volume of aquifers, groundwater was easily accessible while in others it was available but accessible only to those who owned motorized water pumps or had the financial capacity to dig deeper wells. Less than half the farmers surveyed mentioned having access to a motorized pump for irrigation. Some farmers in the community who do not have access to pumps and are not irrigators rent out their land during the dry season to outsider farmers who irrigate using their own motorized pumps.At the same time, many irrigators in treatment and control communities did not have motorized pumps for intensive irrigation but instead used buckets for irrigation. FGD participants further reported that oftentimes the groundwater table varied within the same community depending on the topography, and in particular, on the elevation. Reliance on surface water was predominant in some cases.When asked about any observed changes to the groundwater table in the last 10 years, most participants reported groundwater table declines and seasonal variability, attributing observed groundwater declines to seasonality and climate change. Significantly fewer participants attributed declines in water table to an increase in the number of users, or the arrival of outsiders/investors who developed larger irrigation systems. Yet it was widely acknowledged that wells \"need to be dug deeper year after year because the amount [of water] continues to decrease\". On the other hand, some participants in a few communities reported an increase in groundwater over the preceding 10 years due to terracing and soil and water conservation practices or due to increased precipitation.Most communities believed that digging deeper wells is the primary way to improve groundwater availability, suggesting that groundwater is seen as a question of accessibility rather than supply. Afforestation and soil conservation were among measures identified, mostly by men, that could improve groundwater availability, while some women mentioned cleaning wells from mud.At baseline, most communities did not have any water related rules or arrangements, for either surface water or groundwater. Rules did not exist for groundwater because it was perceived as private property, in particular wells on private land, in contrast to surface water, which was perceived as a common pool resource. Further, most communities (especially treatment communities) did not believe that such rules and governance strategies were necessary or relevant for the sustainability of the resource.Among those communities who mentioned existing rules regarding groundwater wells, most of the rules were not related to irrigation but to general safety and property rights, such as mandatory covering and fencing of wells to protect children and livestock from hazards and accidents, and the prevention of people digging wells outside of their own land. Community groundwater rules and regulations that are relevant to irrigation, water availability and management, and monitoring of individual wells were limited, and only mentioned by 4 treatment and 2 control communities at baseline. Those rules mostly related to maintaining a distance between wells and only allowing each household to dig one well on their land. On two occasions, participants mentioned institutions that govern group-shared irrigation water wells, where a group of farmers share the cost of digging a well collectively and then devise arrangements for irrigation turns.Groundwater institutions, regulations and committees were in place for communal water resources, such as shared springs and drinking water wells that are provided by the government for the community, but typically do not apply to privately dug wells on private land. Participants of one particular FDG commented that \"there are rules that govern how the community uses government-built facilities, such as [drinking] boreholes, since without them, people can get into arguments when drawing water from the well.\" Similarly, in another community, FGD participants mentioned that they have rules regarding surface water, as well as the groundwater \"used by all the community collectively. But this rule excludes the individual wells that are developed in their farming area or in their land.\"Surface water rules and community arrangements/institutions, though not widespread, were more prevalent than groundwater rules at baseline. In most cases, these rules prohibit farmers from blocking, rediverting or impeding the flow of rivers, including building small dams on streams. This was mentioned in 8 treatment and 3 control communities. FGD participants in 4 communities also mentioned having a rule to irrigate in turns when using streams and rivers. One community had a rule that obliges farmers to participate in canal cleaning and maintenance.In contrast to the perceptions of groundwater rules, communities considered surface water rules to be important because these resources were shared. In Kuno Kertefa, before the game was played, a woman participating in the FGD stated that \"no one can stop the river's natural flow because the river does not belong to a single family like the ground well does.\" More control communities seemed aware of the importance of rules to govern groundwater resources compared to treatment sites at baseline. Eight treatment and 5 control communities believed that having groundwater rules or restrictions on use of groundwater was not necessary, and in many of these cases opposed the idea of such rules. This was most often due to the belief that groundwater on one's land is private property and farmers thus have the right to this water, followed by a justification that groundwater is currently not yet scarce and thus there is no need for rules to govern groundwater use. Some also mentioned that they have not witnessed any conflicts around groundwater in the community, unlike for surface water, thus the latter should be governed by rules while the former need not be.Participants who suggested that rules for groundwater use are needed gave equity as the reason. For instance, limiting groundwater depth, retaining distances between wells, and limiting large investors' access were suggested rules that would help ensure equitable access of groundwater among neighbors and community members. Some participants (especially in control communities) believed that rules to govern groundwater use may be needed to control investors who rent land in the dry season. In Gola Chumena, participants noted that \"from our experiences these investors are using our groundwater very intensively and this has been drying out our wells. Since such unfair distributions can affect many farmers, rules which set how much groundwater may be used are very necessary.\"Both the pre-and post-game surveys and the debriefing discussion after the game indicate that the game had a direct effect on changing immediate mental models and beliefs regarding biophysical groundwater characteristics (such as its nature as a depletable common pool resource), users' roles in groundwater resource sustainability and governance, and the need for institutional arrangements for groundwater governance.Pre-and post-game player mental modelsPlayers were asked to agree or disagree with statements related to governance of water resources immediately before and immediately after the game (Figure 2). For most statements perceptions changed after the game. Following the game, more players agreed that current groundwater use would affect resource sustainability, there was a need for surface and groundwater rules, and there was a need to act collectively to govern groundwater. Further, participants perceived potential declines in groundwater availability on own farms linked to other farmers extracting groundwater. Statements linked to collective actions to establish and maintain community water structures did not change as a result of the game. Players were asked before and after the game what they believed should be done to improve groundwater availability. Figure 3 shows the aggregate changes in men and women players' answers to this openended question, highlighting gender differences.Following the game, fewer people mentioned that deeper wells should be dug as a solution to water shortages, although the number was still quite substantial, especially among women. Digging deeper wells was the main solution identified to improve groundwater availability. Following the intervention, this solution was proposed by fewer respondents, 25 (compared to 40) for women and 11 (compared to 22) for men.A second change following the game was the suggestion by participants to use crop rotation as well as collective action for groundwater management. As a female player reflected, \"I know now crop choice can affect saving water.\" Considering planting water saving crops was not mentioned and did not appear as relevant for improving groundwater availability pre-game and in baseline FGDs. The main reasons driving crop choice were household consumption and market price, followed by financial viability/farm capacity of crops; irrigation water availability was not a factor.Additionally, in the post-game survey, many men maintained the importance of afforestation as a solution for improving groundwater availability, unlike woman who did not propose the same suggestion. A similar trend was observed for soil and water management techniques, possibly as men are more exposed to government-led soil and water conservation programs, making men more aware of these solutions than women. By contrast, several women maintained that proper well maintenance and cleaning increases groundwater availability, an aspect not mentioned by men.  During the community-wide debriefing sessions, players reflected on and discussed the various learnings from the game. One of the most mentioned themes was realizing that groundwater is a depletable resource. This represents a stark and immediate shift in mental models. As a male player related \"we used to think that groundwater is something that will never dry, but now we know it can be depleted.\"This had some implications on the way community members see investors who rent their lands for the dry season. A man from another village points out: \"previously I didn't know the groundwater will fall, I thought the water level as it is. When the investor came for irrigation I thought they open the opportunity of employment for the community but now I understood their impact on our groundwater.\"To a lesser extent but also a common response was learning that groundwater is a shared resource.Understanding the shared character of groundwater can be challenging due to the invisibility of the resource. A female player said \"we learned that groundwater is a shared resource which we all can get from one aquifer. We used to think that we have our own independent groundwater source since we have independent wells.\" Similarly, a man from another village learned that \"groundwater is a shared resource, not personal or privately owned.\"Realizing the common and depletable nature of groundwater, players and community members identified crop rotation and collective action as ways to manage the resource more sustainably. A player mentioned \"after playing this game, we realized that one farmer's water consumption pattern has an effect on the entire system, and that we must make a collective decision and work together.\" The importance of collective action for groundwater governance was another lesson learned that was mentioned by most players in most of the treatment villages.Crop rotation between water saving and water consuming crops was seen as an important practice for balancing water consumption and economic returns for farmers. During the community-wide debriefing discussion in Geoogeti2, a male player said: \"The game taught us how to sustain the availability of groundwater by making a wise crop selection for cultivation individually as well as collectively.Searching for a higher return we may cultivate crops intensively which leads to the extraction of more groundwater resulting in exhaustion.\"In most community debriefings, the groups mentioned learning from the game that different crops have different water uses, and about which crops save water and which crops are water consumptive. It is worth noting that some groups took the crop water requirements and crop income returns literally, rather than as an illustration, which provides some lessons learned for future implementation of the game. For example, a player said: \"We learned that onion takes too much water (threefold of cabbage) and the financial return of producing onion is higher. However, from the game we got important lesson that cultivating cabbage would enable us to conserve water and sustain environments.\" Others understood the illustrative nature of the game, taking home a broader lesson: \"when we cultivate crops we must identify which crop use water intensively and which crops save water,\" said a woman player from another village.In most communities, discussants talked about coming to realize the importance of communication and rules for groundwater governance, reflecting that the progression between game treatments (with and without communication and rules) successfully gets the message across and contributes to changing the mental models of groundwater irrigators. For example, a player said \"I learned the importance of communication; without communication, we were hurting each other…when we were not communicating, we finished the groundwater so quickly since most of us were growing the water-intensive crop…[In game 2 and 3,] we managed to use our groundwater for more years without reaching the yellow level.\" A man from another village summed up the game takeaways: \"Irrigating in rotation with an open discussion and effective monitoring of rules helps to use the groundwater for more years.\" The post-game survey identified gendered trends in lessons learned from the game. Many players, particularly men, reported realizing the importance of collective action and communication, as well as the need for rules (Figure 4). Further, more men than women reported learning that groundwater is a shared resource. Both women and men reported learning how to manage the groundwater resource sustainably, which crops are water-intensive and which require less water, and the link between crop choice and groundwater levels, particularly that crop choices have an impact on groundwater availability. The latter was mentioned more often by women. Additionally, some players, more frequently men, mentioned the existing trade-off between crop returns and groundwater availability, as the crops that have higher monetary returns are also the ones requiring more water. A few participants, mostly men, mentioned gaining an understanding that water must be protected particularly for future generations. \"I have also learned our current consumption of water can affect future generations,\" said a male player.During the debriefing discussion, each community brainstormed ideas on how they could improve groundwater use and management in their community based on learnings from the game. The three suggestions mentioned the most by communities were to maintain a 'reasonable' distance between wells, set community rules, and share wells and groundwater rather than dig new individual wells. Yet communities admit they do not know what the appropriate distance between wells should be, suggesting the need for external input.Community members suggested sharing a well and its water would be a solution to depleting water, rather than digging more wells. One participant believed that \"As a community, we need to have a group and better to have fewer groundwater wells that serve all the community, rather than we all individually dig our own.\" Further, introducing shifts for groundwater irrigation, and practicing soil and water conservation activities were also commonly mentioned. In another village, a man asserted that \"Groundwater can be depleted due to an increase in arid climatic condition, so we need to plant indigenous plants to prevent aridity in our area.\" Other less frequently mentioned ideas for improving groundwater availability included community level discussions, practicing crop rotation, saving rainwater, standardizing well depths, and raising awareness around sustainability of groundwater resources.At the same time, a few communities highlighted the issue of equity in access to groundwater particularly when mechanized well-drilling and pumps are used compared to hand-digging, manual lifting and buckets. A participant noted: \"I suggest there must be some kind of group or association in the community. It won't be fair and right if one digs using machines while the other digs manually…big and deep wells should be built at kebele level from which all the community members can have fair and equal access to groundwater.\" Some communities also stressed that the government (or community elder) as the higher authority should set the rules \"based on research\", and that government interventions also assist farmers with expanding groundwater irrigation (to improve access to groundwater for those who cannot afford it), through subsidized pumps and solar power to reduce irrigation fuel costs.The endline FGDs which took place 6 months after the intervention showed some of the sustained medium-term effects on mental models related to groundwater resource characteristics, effects of users' choices on groundwater dynamics and availability, as well as the importance of institutions and collective action. The results show that following the game, communities realized the importance of communication and groundwater rules, a learning that was sustained 6 months later at the community level.While at baseline, 8 treatment and 5 control communities believed that having groundwater rules or restrictions on use of groundwater was not necessary nor desirable, at endline, only 3 treatment communities retained this view, while there was no change in control communities. At endline a participant commented that \"previously we had no rules but now I think we should make rules.\" In another village, at endline, a participant said \"Rules are required for the community because, even if we are not now facing a groundwater shortage, it will appear in the future unless we begin to use it appropriately by establishing a community rule that controls and guides groundwater use.\"In some treatment communities, some respondents' answers seem to be inspired by the game intervention.In one village, community members stated during the discussion at the endline, that there should be rules, specifically referring to the baseline and game intervention as having triggered change of thought. In another village, FGD participants said there should be community rules related to crop rotation balancing the planting of water intensive with water saving crops, to ensure equitable access to groundwater.Unexpectedly, increasing well depth was reported more frequently in the endline FGDs than in the baseline FGDs as a measure to increase groundwater availability, which may have to do with the change in focus group composition and/or the seasonality of the baseline vs. endline. Moreover, some gendered differences were evident. Increasing the depth of wells was mentioned much more often by women, while afforestation and soil conservation measures were mentioned more frequently by men in the endline. Additionally, well maintenance, mainly intended as removing mud from wells, was mentioned frequently by women. Nevertheless, the intervention led to a learning effect, which was clearly visible in the endline FGDs, where respondents mentioned that planting less water-intensive crops as well as to alternate them with more water-intensive crops as a measure to improve groundwater availability. This measure had not been identified in the baseline FGDs.As to the main drivers of crop choice, we found only minor changes between the baseline and the endline FGDs. Household consumption and market price were the main reasons for crop choice, followed by financial viability and favorable soil conditions for crops. However, \"crop rotation\" was also listed as a driver for crop choice during the endline FGDs, reflecting the learning that water-intensive crops can increase the pressure on groundwater resources.While respondents in treatment communities noted the importance of rules to groundwater management, this did not translate into rule adoption in most communities. This could be due to several reasons. First, the communities do not yet experience acute water scarcity, reducing the \"need\" for collective action.Second, the number of farmers using groundwater is still limited, though development is expanding. As such, collective action would only concern a small number of farmers. Most farmers are primarily interested in improving access to groundwater irrigation at this point. Third, the timing of the endline FGD, September, did not coincide with the dry season, which might have further reduced farmers' perception of water scarcity. Finally, participants mentioned in the endline FGD that they needed additional help to establish groundwater institutions, from government and 'experts'.At baseline, only one treatment and one control community mentioned having groundwater rules related to taking turns to irrigate for private wells. At endline, three communities mentioned having such a rule, indicating a slight increase in basic rules related to groundwater irrigation after the game and debriefing intervention. East Meskan was the only treatment community practicing turns in groundwater irrigation before the intervention. In Koshe Akababe and Dobena Bati treatment communities this seemed to have emerged following the intervention. There was no change in control groups.There is evidence that the game intervention had a sustained effect on communication on groundwater among community members, planting \"seeds\" of collective action for groundwater governance. In 8 treatment communities, participants mentioned during the endline FGDs that the game intervention had sparked community discussions on knowledge exchange from the game on irrigation, crop rotation, and other groundwater management topics. In one village, discussions about proper use of water started taking place with \"neighbors at coffee places or even our workplaces. We've also spoken about our experiences or what we've learned here with regard to planting a variety of vegetables.\" In another village, an FGD participant related that \"the majority of us discussed the game at various social settings, and others learned from us, implying that we should consider the water level when deciding which crops to produce…we used to focus solely on the market price before we began training, but now we recognize the importance of conserving water as well.\"The endline FGDs also show evidence of small-scale collective action, including small group agreements, taking shifts with the neighbors, and improved communication at the community level. Several participants expressed that they had learnt the importance of communication and rules through the game.In 2 communities, participants reported community collective action beyond groundwater, including appointing a guard for village forest protection, and collective investments in roads to improve access to the market.Group water consumption choices and group characteristics associated with group outcomesThe total amount of water consumed for irrigation declined as the rounds advanced in all three sets of the game (Figure 5). Female participants generally used slightly more water than their male counterparts, while the game treatment of group election of rules led to slightly less overall water consumption, particularly in female groups.Source: Game data Summary statistics for the variables used in the regression analysis are shown in Table 4.  Consistent with our expectation, there is significant learning with each round of the game that is played and allowing discussions among players (communication game) helped improve cooperation toward proenvironmental behaviour (i.e. increasing the selection of water saving crops and reducing water consumption), as compared to the non-communication game (Table 5). Specifically, players chose more (fewer) water-saving (water-intensive) crops in the rounds when communication was allowed, resulting in overall reduction of water used for irrigation. These results align with the findings from the community discussions where participants noted the importance of communication and rules for sustainable groundwater use. Compared to the non-communication game, players on average also chose more water saving crops and thus consumed less irrigation water in the rounds when groups were prompted to elect rules. Additional variables included in the models to better understand behavior dynamics within the game include the water level at the start of the round, a water consumption lag variable and game relatability. The amount of total groundwater use in the previous round is positively correlated with the selection of water saving crops and negatively correlated with water consumption in the current round, suggesting players are adapting more water conserving behaviors in response to higher water use in the previous round.The effects of sociodemographic characteristics of the group on the selection of water saving crops and the amount of water consumed for irrigation are mixed. Groups with older participants and with a higher mean education level chose more water saving crops and used less water for irrigation. Groups that on average owned more land, had lived in the village longer, and had a higher share of participants that belonged to water association chose fewer water saving crops and used more water.It appears that the strength of relationships among group members is positively correlated with proenvironmental behaviour. Groups that had a higher share of participants that got along with others in the group (an indicator of potential cooperation) choosing more water saving crops and used less water for irrigation. This is consistent with our expectation that groups whose members enjoy a better/closer relationship are more cooperative, resulting in reduced water extraction. Interestingly, groups with a greater share of participants that trusted almost everyone and felt that they could rely on neighbors for help with community activities chose fewer water saving crops and had increased levels of water consumption for irrigation. Another explanatory variable that had a significant but unexpected directionality is participants agreement that groundwater use now will affect future availability. Groups with a greater share of participants that agreed had decreased water conserving behaviors over the course of the game. This indicates a potential disassociation between current water use and the impact on future groundwater availability, perhaps owing to the fact that the water scarcity situation is not yet drastic. The gendered differences in resource consumption noted in the FGDs can also be seen in the quantitative results. Examining the dependent variables by gender (Table 6), we found that additional rounds of the game and communication had a significant effect only on female groups. The addition of group election of rules resulted in both female and male groups choosing more water saving crops and decreasing water consumed for irrigation. A higher water level at the start of the round significantly decreased the selection of water saving crops and increased water consumption among male groups while female groups adapted more water conserving behaviors in response to higher water consumption in the previous round. The relatability of the game decreased selection of water saving crops for male groups and was associated with increased water consumption for both groups. During the third game treatment that prompted players to discuss and elect rules, they discussed monitoring and the type and amount of sanctioning or punishment that would be appropriate for breaking the rules. All groups chose to monitor players' choices in this round.Out of the 30 groups, 10 men groups and 10 women groups chose to introduce a monetary fine as part of their agreed upon sanctions for violators. The fines ranged from as little as 10 Ethiopian Birr (equivalent to US$2.83 on Dec 31/2021) to as high as 1500 Birr, but 300-500 Birr were most common, which is within the range of a farmer's income from the harvest in the game (300 Birr for water saving crop, and 500 Birr for water consumptive crop). Some players commented that sanctions of less than 100 Birr were too small to affect a change. A female player reflected that \"there should be a big penalty for a rule violation. In our group we fixed the penalty to be 100 Birr, in my opinion, this did not hurt the rule violator.\" However, a few others thought that it was still significant no matter the amount: \"Although the penalty was very small, symbolically it's very important in our community, being caught violating the commonly agreed rule by itself means a lot in our community\" said a game participant from another village.Five groups introduced non-monetary sanctions for rule violators, including bans on cultivation or on water use, where the violator was not allowed to irrigate during the next round, social isolation, and on one occasion labor duty, such as doing well maintenance. A few groups introduced progressive sanctioning, starting with giving advice or warning to the violator, followed by a monetary or social sanction for second-time violators, or monetary sanctions that increase with the number of violations. In those discussions, some players were against fines that involved irrigation bans, which were seen as unfair as farming is vital to the livelihoods and survival of community members.Forgiving violators and opting for advice rather than sanctioning was a theme that emerged among players in some communities. In one community, for instance, both the men and women groups forgave violators who apologized for breaking the rule. In the debriefing discussion, a male community member stated \"in our culture, we do not immediately punish our members, first, we often give a warning and then if he/she does not change behavior we impose a penalty.\" In another community, the women's group also forgave players the first time, but eventually required paying a penalty after repeat violations. This is an explicit example of Ostrom's (1990) design principle of graduated sanctions.Interestingly, a few groups applied a sanction even if violators deviated from the agreement by saving more water. For example, if it was decided that everyone plants the water consumptive crop for a year, and one person decided to plant the water saving crop, they would still be considered in violation, and some of those players were fined. The rationale behind such sanctioning related to the disruption of agreed upon processes, and potential impacts of actions on market prices of crops and therefore the income of the group.During communication rounds, players discussed a range of things, including what to grow based on the available water, wise groundwater use, how to save water effectively, and the importance of crop rotation and group work. In Hobe JD, the men's group's discussion was \"mainly about balancing cultivation of water intensive crops with less water consuming crops.\"Communication rounds also improved group dynamics, and understanding between members. One women's group recalled that \"in the first game there was disagreement among us, but when we started communicating, we were able to resolve our disagreements.\" Similarly, in another group, a male player reflected that \"the second game with discussion has brought a change in our decision; we started to trust each other and work cooperatively...\" Communication further helped create awareness about groundwater depletion. In another village, a participant reflected on how \"communication was very important...it enabled us to see and share ideas about how the groundwater was decreasing.\" In games 2 and 3, patterns in player behavior included both cheating and complying with rules. Players observed that in many instances, group members cheated, which showed the importance of rules and sanctioning to prevent violation. A man said: \"rules are very important to manage differences and conflicting interests. The punishment was a must to control those who cultivate against the rule. It was needed because some may only want to maximize their own income by using the water intensively.\"During the community debriefing, players reflected on the effects of communication on behavior and outcomes during the game, noting that communication played a key role in water saving, improving cooperative behavior and understanding among players, creating awareness, and balancing income inequities. Through communication and making collective decisions, groups were able to use the groundwater for more time periods and to reduce water waste. Yet players also stressed that communication went hand in hand with rules, including rules for punishment of not following agreed strategies, and the latter is the real reason that enabled water saving. As a participant mentioned \"it is only through the penalty we were able to force all the members to save water\".Players, mostly women players, also mentioned that they found rules and sanctions to be important for equity reasons, in terms of water use and income gains. A woman player noted \"we agreed that we needed to have rules to ensure everyone got a fair share in the use of groundwater.\" Another woman in another village stated \"when we played with cooperation and communication as a team., cheaters got much money, but after we introduced rules, things changed and improved so that we got almost equal incomes and conserved much water.\"Players shared during 6 community debriefings that there was no violation, and all game players followed the rules. A man mentioned that \"as all members strictly followed the rules, it was not necessary to introduce sanctioning.\" Social networks and trust between community members (i.e. the fact that they knew each other) appears to affect this cooperation. A woman reports \"we did everything in agreement because we all know each other.\" Nevertheless, players agreed that sanctions are important to have, even where there was no violation in the game. A man thought that although \"sanctions were introduced they were not applicable, since we all played with mutual communication and understood each other. In general sanctions are important for the future.\"Most community debriefing participants saw that there were similarities in the game with real-life situations and behavior. One player related that \"when the groundwater dries up, we could not farm in our real-life too.\" It also seemed that players played the game in a life-like manner, considering water levels but also other factors, such as market prices, when making their individual and collective choices. In another village, a woman provided insights into her group's decisions: \"We said if we all cultivate cabbage or tomato the market price will be low. And we also have discussed to practice crop rotations; if two players cultivate cabbage and the other three players grow onions, the market price will be higher. But that may deplete the available groundwater.\"In the debriefing, some community members mentioned that many players acted out of self-interest, mimicking what usually happens in reality. Indeed, the game reflects game theory principals of maximizing self-interest, even at the expense of the group. This was particularly the case in the non-communication game, where the players \"were not talking and thus, we all were interested in our self-interest; getting more money.\". In another village, a player reflected on how \"some group members were advising others to grow the water-conserving crop while they themselves were growing the lucrative crop which was water intensive.\"Congruent with the findings of den Haan and van der Voort (2018), we found that the games resulted in different kinds of experiential learnings, including cognitive learning, normative learning and relational learning. Cognitive learnings in this context refer to the understanding of the linkage between individual choices (i.e., crop type choices) and payoff and joint outcomes for the group including both monetary and resource outcomes, and how these play out on a temporal scale (i.e., the tradeoff between higher earnings in the short term and resource depletion, and thus loss of income source, in the long term). Normative learnings included the recognition of the need for rules, while relational learning encompasses the recognition of the value of communication and the importance of collective action. As van Vugt et al. ( 2014) argue, people may not understand the impact of their actions unless they are clearly visible, heard or sensed. The sensory experience of the game is particularly beneficial in the case of groundwater resources that are typically 'invisible' to resource users, and viewed as private property, unlike surface water.Interest in the game is also key to the success of the intervention. Participants overwhelmingly reported that the game was fun, relatable, and educational. Most players agreed that the last game that allowed communication and the establishment of rules was the most interesting. This has a positive effect on learning, as the information is better retained when the experience is interesting and engaging for players (Falk et al. 2023). While individual experiential learning can be observed and can be useful for changing mental models, it is less likely to change norms or rules (Shelton et al., 2018). The games intervention, especially the debriefing, is designed for social learning to affect community-level action.The game intervention changed people's perceptions of groundwater management, stirring formal and informal community discussions related to collective action for groundwater conservation. Communitywide debriefing discussions were a vital part of this experiential learning process (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2018;Falk et al. 2023). It provided a chance for spillover learning effects to community members who did not experience the game first-hand, as well as brainstorming possible approaches for resource governance.However, from the analysis of these debriefing discussions in Ethiopia, we observed a notable difference in players' and non-players' mental models and lessons learned from the process. Facilitators noted that participants from the FGDs (who did not play the game) were mostly silent during the debriefing discussion. Though in some cases non-players seemed to be actively following the discussion, in other cases they did not seem to be following well. This is a crucial part of the dynamic to achieve learning on a larger community scale, as resources are often limited, allowing only a handful of people to experience playing the game first-hand in each treatment village. Encouraging available community members to silently observe the games in real-time can provide an opportunity for wider social learning effects. This has been attempted in India 7 , but may necessitate having more facilitators to manage any outside influence that can affect player choices in the game. Purposeful rather than random selection of players (e.g. choosing more influential community member/elders who are more likely to spread the word) may be another option to enhance spillover effects, though such selection process may be seen as unfair especially if some forms of compensation of participants is used and thus disenfranchising other community members from active participation in the subsequent debriefing discussion. Another potential pitfall of purposeful selection of players is the continued reinforcement of underrepresentation of traditionally marginalized groups, who may be seen as less influential community members and thus are less likely to be selected.Many game participants reflected on the particular crops used in the game and their different water requirements, yields and incomes-even six months after the intervention-instead of considering them as illustrative of the link between individual management practices that have implications for water use and groundwater tables. As an example, farmers reported learning that tomatoes consume more water than cabbage, and they thus planned to plant cabbage in the following season to save water. Such literal learning lessons have important implications for researchers and practitioners to consider in future implementations of game interventions, to ensure that the communities receive practical and correct advice that is most useful for their context and needs. Facilitators need to stress the illustrative nature of the game, crops, and relative water requirements and associated incomes. Further, embedding the games in a larger intervention package that includes technical assistance and follow up with local extension officers who can provide communities with up-to-date, accurate crop water requirements and other management options that have implications for water consumption can help communities to take evidence-based action for managing groundwater. In India, for instance, the games are implemented as part of a package of tools, including local aquifer mapping to improve understanding of water availability, and a Crop Water Budgeting tool (Android app) that computes the water consumption of different crop combinations, based on local conditions (FES, 2021).Recognizing the importance of having groundwater rules is not sufficient on its own for bringing about the establishment of rules. Endline FGD results suggest that one of the reasons communities did not develop groundwater-related rules is that they require assistance from experts on what rules would be suitable to sustain their groundwater. Embedding the games in a larger extension package can be beneficial in supporting community capacity to build institutions around groundwater governance that are more relevant to their local context. As an example, the national program that promotes engaging rural villages in soil and water conservation activities enhanced the understanding of farmers about the adverse effects of natural resource degradation on groundwater and surface water availability and the potential contributions of integrated watershed management (Haregeweyn et al., 2015). Most communities referred to soil and water conservation activities such as afforestation and planting certain types of trees as a way to improve groundwater availability before the game intervention. However, evidence on afforestation improving groundwater availability in the dry season is, at best, mixed, with the majority of studies finding a decline in overall water yield (Acreman et al., 2021). While this is beyond the scope of the current study, we stress two points. First, technical advice regarding natural resource management given to communities must be transparent, evidence-based with solid scientific backstopping. Otherwise, we risk losing communities' trust if the promised benefit is realized. Second, linking already existing proenvironment or pro-social initiatives with game interventions can help expedite and expand on community capacity for groundwater self-governance, provided that the rational and science behind these initiatives are transparent and clearly communicated to the communities. Wouters et al. (2013) find that multiple training sessions improved the outcome of participatory games. Some participants of endline FGDs seemed oblivious or did not recall the outcomes and purpose of the game six months later, particularly those who were present in the debriefing but did not play the game. A refresher might be helpful for maximizing benefits from the experiential learning particularly for medium-and long-term retention of messages. Endline FGD participants across treatment communities suggested that the game/intervention should be repeated, otherwise the lessons learned would be forgotten.This study contributes to the growing body of evidence that games offer a potentially valuable tool to improve governance of common pool resources (Falk et al. 2023). This is particularly important for groundwater, which is largely an invisible and fugitive resource (United Nations, 2022). The groundwater game experience had a clear effect on shifting mental models regarding the characteristics and use of groundwater resources. Before the game the majority of communities did not perceive groundwater as a shared or depletable resource, but rather as private property that was not affected by crop choices, and intensity of use. Following the game, farmers realized that groundwater is indeed a CPR and that their individual choices have an impact on availability for the whole village. Additionally, the participants recognized the value of communication and collective action in resource management, as well as the necessity of groundwater rules for better groundwater management. In most communities, most players expressed that sanctions, going hand-in-hand with set rules, were important to achieve desired outcomes.Exploring the factors that affected players' choices in the games, we see clear gender differences, with women more likely to choose the water-consumptive crops, although the optional rule selection helped to moderate women's resource use. We also see clear gender differences in the response options that men and women identify, with men more likely to suggest soil and water conservation practices, because of their greater exposure to such programs. Ensuring women's access to extension services and soil and water conservation programs may help to expand the number of options that women can identify.The relatability of the games enhanced their value for experiential learning; the collective nature of the games, particularly the rounds with communication and elective rules, created opportunities for social learning. This is consistent with the conceptual framework in Falk et al. (2023). While we do see a few examples of rules governing groundwater being implemented within six months in communities that played the game, the evidence also shows that the social learning aspect is more challenging, particularly for the experiential learning of those who played the game to influence the larger community. We also see some decay in memory of the lessons from the game over time. Having additional rounds of the games so that individuals can play them more than once, and more people can play the games, might help address this. Developing toolkits and simple facilitation tools to enable communities to do this themselves, rather than relying on outside facilitators, can help address this. The fact that those who experienced the games found them to be enjoyable is a promising sign that there could be receptivity to such an approach. Further research on the relative effects of the breadth (number of people exposed) and depth (repeated exposure) of the intervention would be valuable.Games are a valuable tool for improving users' knowledge of resources like groundwater, especially in the context of communities without extensive experience and long histories of groundwater extraction for irrigation. While the prior work in India has been done in contexts of overexploitation and clearly falling water tables, this study was conducted in areas where groundwater use is relatively new, without major over-exploitation. The question is whether it is possible to plant seeds of understanding of the limited and shared nature of groundwater at an inflection point, before resource depletion becomes critical. This requires walking a fine line between preventing overexploitation (and elite capture) without limiting the possibilities for using groundwater to increase agricultural production and incomes in Africa south of the Sahara.While the games are a promising tool, they are not a panacea. In particular, while there is a significant positive shift in mental models following the game, there were few instances of rule changes, and no solid community institutions have been established to govern groundwater. There was, however, evidence that the game intervention sparked community discussions as a first step toward collective action. It may also be that there has been no significant change in rules and institutions yet as groundwater scarcity is not yet a big issue in most of the sites.We also note that building community capacity takes time. While the games offer a promising first step, they need to be coupled with other interventions to provide communities with the information and technical skills to manage their groundwater resources effectively. We therefore recommend further studies of the effect of these combinations of interventions under different conditions, particularly different degrees of (ground)water scarcity.","tokenCount":"10990"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"955d8a607b1e6333dd16a3ef96e01ac9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/606445e8-33d6-4c81-92ae-c40557ca0a6e/retrieve","id":"573542500"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ed7856fc-0ae0-4460-a64a-1cef4b14c377","pagecount":"2","content":"•Outcome Impact Case Report:• 3523 -Market-ready innovation is selected for value chain orchestration targeting 17 million smallholders, influencing public-private development agendas, and providing a vehicle for hyperlocal risk control services (https://tinyurl.com/2an3g85t)• I1732 -agCelerant: world's first fully automated processing system providing concurrent detection of field-level agricultural events, monitoring of crop response, and production forecasts from combined field mobile, IoT and EO data streams (https://tinyurl.com/2kly73k6)• I1733 -Simple IoT rain gauges are positioned to be a gamechanger in helping farmers manage agricultural risk (https://tinyurl.com/2ed8loff)• Services piloted in 2017 are strengthened, scaled up, evaluated: agro-climatic information system in SEA, strengthened advisory services and public-private business models in WA, expanded communication channels for rural climate services in LAM.","tokenCount":"113"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"917553ce2ebcfa30476a731763333861","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/72c0621d-81f3-446a-8527-fe4bd78266e5/retrieve","id":"-565910789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"646e6e7b-e827-4c7b-9c82-d7622c13cc85","pagecount":"2","content":"• Retail prices of maize increased by 16 percent in March 2023.• ADMARC sales were reported in 9 out of 26 markets monitored by IFPRI.• No ADMARC purchases were reported in any of the markets monitored by IFPRI.• Retail prices of maize in Malawi were higher than in Kenya, Zambia, and South Africa.Unlike in recent years, the average price of maize continued to rise throughout March and only began to drop towards the end of the month as newly harvested maize started coming onto the market in the South and as transport links severed by cyclone Freddy were restored (Figure 2). In the last week of March, retail prices of maize averaged K733/kg. This is 16 percent higher than a month earlier (Table 1) and 283 percent higher than a year earlier (Figure 1).The highest weekly average retail price (K945/kg) was reported in Nsanje market in the third week of March. Mchinji and Chitipa markets reported the lowest price of K580/kg in the first week of the month, Bangula and Mzuzu markets recorded the highest increase in weekly average retail maize prices (36 percent) between the end of February 2023 and the end of March 2023. However, despite the overall increase in maize prices, Mulanje market registered a 1 percent decline thanks to the availability of newly harvested maize (Table 1)The average retail price of maize was highest in the South (K729/kg) in March, 9 percent and 14 percent more expensive than in the Center (K671/kg) and the North (K640/kg) respectively (Figures 2 and 3). The difference was amplified by the effects of cyclone Freddy, which brought heavy rains to the Southern region between 12 and 14 March, causing flash floods in the Shire Highlands and widespread inundation in the Lower Shire Valley. The resultant damage to homes, crops and transport infrastructure led to The Monthly Maize Market Report was developed by researchers at IFPRI Malawi to provide clear and accurate information on the variation of maize prices in selected markets throughout Malawi. All prices are reported in Malawi Kwacha (K), using current official exchange rates where appropriate. To learn more about our work, visit www.massp.ifpri.info or follow us on Twitter (@IFPRIMalawi).local shortages of maize third week of the month. This was followed by a smaller price spike in the central region in the following week resulting from an increased demand from the South. However, with most areas in the South beginning to harvest maize (14 out of the 15 markets monitored by IFPRI reported availability of newly harvested maize in the market), prices in the region declined sharply in the final week of March. On the contrary, in the last 3 days of March, there was an trend in maize prices in the North due to local scarcity of maizeAt regional level, the retail prices of maize in selected markets in Malawi were higher than in Kenya, Zambia, and South Africa (Figure 4). Relative scarcity and high prices in Malawi are attracting maize from abroad, with some traders in the South and the Center reporting receiving informal imports from Mozambique and Zambia.ADMARC sales were reported for at least one day in 9 out of the 26 markets monitored by IFPRI. Rumphi in the North, Bangula, Chikwawa, Chitipa, Liwonde, Luchenza, M'baluku, Ngabu and Nsanje in the South.IFPRI Malawi has been monitoring retail maize prices and ADMARC activities in selected markets since October 2016. Currently, data is collected from 26 markets across the country, with monitoring occurring six days per week, excluding Sundays. At least three monitors report data from each of these markets. Data is collected by means of phone calls to the monitors. Regional prices reported in Figure 4 are sourced from Food and Agriculture Organization's Global Information and Early Warning System (FAO-GIEWS), IFPRI Malawi, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), and the Kenya Agricultural Management Information System (KAMIS).   ","tokenCount":"639"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7847beb26682271795a86838e4d2c51a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c457702-affb-41a0-8cb0-cd34ba514b7b/retrieve","id":"47626148"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f1015d73-0af9-45ef-8339-a13dd87082c2","pagecount":"39","content":"En el año 2018, el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS por sus siglas en inglés) del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR por sus siglas en inglés) en el marco del proyecto \"Generando evidencia sobre la Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima con perspectiva de género para informar políticas en Centroamérica\" financiado por el Centro Internacional de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo (IDRC), realizó el monitoreo de prácticas ASAC implementadas en hogares del Territorio Sostenible Adaptado al Clima (TeSAC) de Olopa, departamento de Chiquimula en Guatemala. En total se encuestaron 279 agricultores, pertenecientes a 158 hogares de seis comunidades (Prensa -Centro y Arriba, Nochan, El Guayabo, Tituque, Tuticopote y Valle Nuevo).Los resultados muestran que la mayoría de los hogares (75% de 150 hogares) es encabezado por hombres. La mayor parte de la población indica no haber tenido acceso a la educación, siendo mayor el porcentaje en las mujeres que en los hombres (59% versus 39%).En el tema de seguridad alimentaria de los hogares se indagó por la principal fuente de alimentos consumidos en el hogar. Los resultados indican que el 79% de los hogares obtienen sus alimentos del mercado a pesar de que, en su mayoría, son propietarios de la tierra que cultivan (84%). Sólo el 20% reportó que su principal fuente de alimentos es la producción de la finca. Esto puede estar asociado a la poca disponibilidad de tierra disponible, la baja diversificación y la alta vulnerabilidad de la producción a los eventos climáticos.El principal tipo de información climática a la que acceden los agricultores encuestados son proyecciones a corto plazo (83%) y alertas tempranas (66%) y en mucho menor medida los pronósticos de lluvia para los próximos meses (44%); esto puede estar relacionada a la disponibilidad y canales de difusión existentes en la zona para este tipo de información. Es interesante resaltar que las mujeres de Olopa mencionaron acceso y capacidad de uso de esta información climática para la toma de decisiones ligeramente superior que los hombres.Con relación a los medios de vida se encontró que, el 95% de los 149 hogares encuestados indican que sus ingresos provienen principalmente de actividades agrícolas, dentro y fuera de su propia finca, siendo el trabajo agrícola fuera de la finca familiar la principal fuente de ingreso económico para la mayoría de los hogares (72%). Esto nos indica la gran dependencia que los hogares de productores siguen teniendo a las actividades agrícolas, y la importancia de disminuir su vulnerabilidad ante eventos climáticos.En cuanto a la capacidad de ahorro se encontró que el porcentaje de agricultores que indicaron tenerla es muy bajo (10% de 277 agricultores), pero se reportó un número alto de agricultores que realizaron inversiones en la finca (83%). Al evaluar la capacidad de inversión y la capacidad de ahorro a nivel de género se observa una relación de mayor capacidad de ahorro en la mujeres y mayor capacidad de inversión en los hombres. Pero la capacidad de inversión no necesariamente está relacionada con la capacidad de ahorro, ya que muchas de las inversiones pueden provenir de préstamos y créditos agrícolas.En promedio, un 25% de los agricultores encuestados reportaron haber tenido acceso a crédito agrícola (principalmente a corto plazo) siendo esta proporción mayor en hombres (33%) que en mujeres (18%). Cerca del 50% proviene de familiares o amigos, un 26% de bancos y un 24% de cooperativas o microcrédito y es usado en prioridad para compra de insumos agrícolas tanto por hombres (80%) como por mujeres (68%).Es interesante resaltar que el 41% y 49% de los agricultores reportaron que la intensión del crédito/préstamo y de la inversión en la finca, estaba asociada a la prevención o recuperación de impactos climáticos siendo la proporción mayor entre las mujeres que entre los hombres (57% vs 30% y 55% vs 41% respectivamente). De nuevo estos resultados nos indican la alta vulnerabilidad climática a la cual están sometidos los agricultores de Olopa.Las prácticas ASAC monitoreadas en Olopa fueron, huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua, huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua, tiego y variedades mejoradas de frijol. Según los resultados del monitoreo, las prácticas más implementadas en los hogares fueron: huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua (97 de los encuestados); riego (27); variedades mejoradas (25) y huertos con cosechas de agua ( 16). Sin embargo, en los hogares encabezados por mujeres, la segunda practica más implementada fue las variedades mejoradas de frijol negro y la menos frecuente el riego. La comunidad que presentó mayor adopción de prácticas fue la Prensa que es dónde las actividades CCAFS se concentraron durante el periodo abarcado por el monitoreo.En general, los hogares percibieron un efecto positivo de la implementación de las prácticas. Se evaluó el efecto de la practicas en aspectos como: seguridad alimentaria (acceso a alimentos), diversificación de la comida, cambio en la productividad, cambio en los ingresos y disminución en la vulnerabilidad climática. El principal resultado es el aumento en la producción, esta producción adicional fue destinada para el autoconsumo (i.e. mejoría en la seguridad alimentaria) y en algunos casos para la venta. A partir de la venta se obtuvieron ingresos adicionales que les permitió a los hogares aumentar su capacidad económica. Los ingresos adicionales fueron utilizados para la compra de alimentos (seguridad alimentaria), y en menor medida para la compra de insumos agrícolas y compra de insumos y bienes o servicios no agrícolas.A pesar de que uno de los principales efectos percibidos por los productores es el aumento de la producción, este efecto se relaciona directamente con la seguridad alimentaria de las familias, ya que el aumento en la producción les permitió contar mayor cantidad y variedad de productos obtenidos de su propia finca y aumentó su capacidad de compra de productos que no pueden producir o que no producen lo suficiente para el autoabastecimiento. Cuando se les cuestionó sobre su percepción sobre el efecto directo de la implementación de las prácticas en la seguridad alimentaria y diversificación de la dieta, los resultados son iguales, efecto positivo gracias a la implementación de las prácticas.En cuanto a la disminución de la vulnerabilidad climática, más del 50% de los agricultores que implementaron las practicas mencionan que ahora se sienten menos afectados o que tienen la capacidad de recuperarse más rápidamente.Tanto hombres como mujeres reportaron su participación en la decisión (mayoritariamente conjunta) de implementar las prácticas. Cabe resaltar que, entre las motivaciones de implementación de los productores, el aspecto de adaptación o respuesta a impactos climáticos se ve muy poco reflejado (representando del 3% a máximo 17% de las respuestas) lo cual refleja sus bajos niveles de conceptualización y concientización sobre el vínculo entre ASAC y manejo del riesgo climático. En cuanto a la participación en la implementación, las mujeres reportaron ser quienes hacían la mayoría del trabajo asociado a los huertos sin cosecha de agua y sólo ayudar en lo relacionado con el riego y la implementación de variedades mejoradas de frijol la cual es realizada principalmente por los hombres. Estos resultados tienen sentido ya que, culturalmente, los hombres se han encargado de ser los responsables de las actividades relacionadas con los cultivos de importancia económica y las mujeres con los cultivos y actividades para el hogar.  A pesar de la creciente priorización e implementación de opciones (prácticas y tecnologías) agrícolas sostenibles adaptadas al clima, los esfuerzos para realizar un monitoreo y evaluación detallados de los efectos de su implementación a nivel local siguen siendo escasos. Conocer las tendencias de adopción, las motivaciones, los factores limitantes, las diferencias de género y lecciones aprendidas asociadas son vitales para direccionar futuras inversiones y generar nuevos conocimientos basados en evidencia.En respuesta a esta necesidad, el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, por sus siglas en inglés) diseñó un marco integrado para monitorear la implementación de opciones de Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (ASAC) a lo largo de su red de Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima (TeSAC). A través de un conjunto de indicadores estándar (principales y descriptivos) y un instrumento de recolección de datos rápido y confiable (Geofarmer) basado en las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, este marco de Monitoreo busca abordar tres grandes preguntas: Este documento presenta algunos de los resultados del estudio realizado por CCAFS, en el Marco de monitoreo multinivel TeSAC, diseñado para respaldar la creación de evidencia global de prácticas y tecnologías agrícolas viables y climáticamente inteligentes. El objetivo del monitoreo fue evaluar el efecto que tiene la implementación de prácticas ASAC en los medios de vida de los hogares de agricultores. Para ello se recopiló información sobre las características socioeconómicas de 158 hogares, su percepción ante el efecto de eventos climáticos, la implementación de prácticas ASAC, entre otras. Uno de los principales objetivos es entender que es lo que motiva a los productores a realizar cambios en sus prácticas de manejo de los cultivos y cómo estos cambios se relacionan con su vulnerabilidad ante eventos de cambio climático. También se recopiló información acerca del uso de información climática para la toma de decisiones productivas de los hogares.Para la recopilación de la información se utilizó la aplicación Geofarmer 1 , en la cual se programó la encuesta con el fin de capturar los datos de manera digital, agilizando así el proceso de captura y la consolidación de la información.El presente estudio se realizó en seis comunidades del municipio de Olopa del departamento de Chiquimula, en Guatemala, país ubicado en Centroamérica y que limita al norte con México, al este con Belice y al sur con Honduras y el Salvador. Guatemala es considerado un país pluricultural, multiétnico y multilingüe, diversidad que lo convierte en un país con complejos desafíos.El departamento de Chiquimula está ubicado en la Región III (Nororiente) de Guatemala y cubre una superficie aproximada de 2,376 km² (MINECO, 2017). Según la información del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas para el año 2015, el departamento de Chiquimula tenía aproximadamente 406 mil habitantes, estimándose que un 74% de ellos habitaba en áreas rurales (MINECO 2017).El municipio de Olopa pertenece al departamento de Chiquimula y para el año 2010 contaba con 23 mil habitantes. En el año 2005, su Índice de Desarrollo Humano (IDH) fue estimado en 0.448, lo que, comparado con IDH nacional de (0.580), lo ubicaba por debajo de la media nacional. Al analizar los índices de salud y educación para el mismo año, se aprecia que ellos están por debajo del índice nacional (0.409 versus 0.807 para el índice de salud y 0.383 versus 0.452 para el índice de educación). Contrariamente, el índice de ingreso per cápita en Olopa de 0.5522, se ubicaba por encima del índice nacional de 0.534 (PNUD, 2011;PNUD 2012). En el municipio de Olopa se identificaron 62 comunidades, de las cuales fueron seleccionadas seis de las siete que fueron evaluadas en la línea base, para ser encuestadas en el monitoreo: El Guayabo Tercer Caserío, La Prensa, Nochan, Tituque, Tuticopote abajo Caserío El Bendito y Valle Nuevo.En total se encuestaron 279 agricultores pertenecientes a 158 hogares. Para el presente informe, no toda la información o registros fueron utilizados para estimar cada indicador dada la estructura de \"árbol de preguntas\", donde algunas de ellas daban lugar a diferentes \"rutas\" según las respuestas dadas por los agricultores. Esto explica las diferencias en el tamaño del n en las distintas secciones. Los cálculos realizados a nivel de hogar fueron obtenidos a partir de las respuestas del jefe del hogar. En la sección 4. Seguridad Alimentaria, se toman solo las respuestas de la mujer encuestada en cada hogar por ser ellas quienes tienen el conocimiento en este aspecto por su involucramiento directo en la preparación de comida. En consecuencia, hogares donde no se logró encuestar a una mujer, quedaron fuera del análisis. Además del nivel hogar, la información también es presentada a nivel individual (número de personas) y a nivel de género (hombres y mujeres).Para la implementación del monitoreo en el TeSAC Olopa, CATIE fue la institución encargada de coordinar todas las actividades necesarias para su cumplimiento. Las actividades realizadas fueron: limpieza de las bases de datos de familias a encuestar, la revisión y aportes a la herramienta digital diseñada para esta tarea, la identificación y el manejo administrativo de todas las contrataciones locales de supervisores y equipo encuestador, la coordinación local para la realización de los talleres de entrenamiento para el personal encuestador y supervisor, seguimiento de campo durante el levantamiento de datos y su envío a la plataforma digital de CCAFS, la preparación de un informe sobre la ejecución de la fase de campo, y la preparación de un blog sobre el desarrollo de esta experiencia para cada territorio.La capacitación de los facilitadores locales (7 de Guatemala y 7 de Honduras) se realizó del 3 al 6 de abril del 2018 en el municipio de Esquipulas (Guatemala), fue realizada por investigadores de CCAFS, quienes enseñaron en el uso de la aplicación Geofarmer para el monitoreo de las practicas ASAC. Una vez finalizada la capacitación, se procedió a dar inicio con el monitoreo, el cual se llevó a cabo del 06 al 29 de abril en siete comunidades del municipio de Olopa. En total se entrevistaron 158 hogares, aplicando entrevistas al jefe o jefa de hogar y su segunda persona del género opuesto. El tiempo promedio para cada una de las entrevistas fue de 45 a 50 minutos por hogar.La selección de los hogares a encuestar se realizó con base en la Identificación de i) la lista de hogares entrevistados en la linea base de CCAFS (2014) ademas de ii) la lista de hogares beneficiarios directos de las actividades de evaluación participativa de CCAFS/CATIE en el año 2017 en la comunidad de La Prensa. Una submuestra de 26 hogares beneficiarios, adoptantes de las prácticas priorizadas, fue determinada para evaluar el rendimiento en las tres dimensiones ASAC a nivel de finca. En estos hogares, las encuestas al jefe(a) de hogar incluyeron los módulos \"Calculadora ASAC\" de Geofarmer. Una vez la lista final de hogares fue establecida y confirmada se definió la estrategia de muestreo y se estimó el número de hogares a entrevistar por entrevistador y por día, con el fin de cumplir con las fechas propuestas para el levantamiento de la información.Es importante resalta que, antes de empezar el levantamiento de la información se realizaron las socializaciones necesarias con los líderes de cada comunidad para solicitar autorización, informar sobre el objetivo del trabajo y las actividades que se iban a llevar a cabo. Una vez realizada la socialización se procedió a iniciar la actividad de levantamiento de la información. Terminadas las actividades de recoleccion de la información, se procedió a enviar la información a la base de datos de CIAT, y se verificó que toda la información llegara correctamente.En el marco del plan de Monitoreo sobre la implementación de las prácticas ASAC desarrollado por CCAFS, se encuestaron 279 agricultores (155 mujeres y 124 hombres) pertenecientes a 158 hogares, distribuidos en 6 comunidades. De estos encuestados, 54 fueron jóvenes entre 13 y 30 años (31 mujeres y 23 hombres). En promedio encontramos 5.3 personas por hogar y la edad promedio de los encuestados es 44 años, (43 años en mujeres y 45 años para hombres).De los 279 agricultores encuestados, la mayoría pertenecen a la comunidad La Prensa (75 agricultores) donde se concentraron las actividades del programa en 2017, seguido por la comunidad Valle nuevo (51 agricultores). El resto de las comunidades registran cerca de 40 entrevistados. La comunidad con menos agricultores entrevistados fue El Guayabo Tercer Caserío, con 36 personas. En cuanto al número de agricultores por hogar, la mayor proporción de los hogares tienen entre tres y siete miembros; algunos hogares reportan estar conformados por un único miembro (tres hogares) y otros por más de once miembros (dos hogares).En general la proporción de hombres y mujeres encuestadas por comunidad fue similar (50-50%); siendo las comunidades La Prensa y Valle Nuevo, las que a diferencia de las otras tienen mayor proporción de hombres encuestados. De los 158 hogares entrevistados, 150 (75%) respondieron que tenían como jefe del hogar a un hombre y solo el 25% una mujer.Cuadro 1. Distribución de los agricultores encuestados por comunidad, género y categoría de edad.Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/DatosGeneralesDel total de 150 hogares entrevistados, el 84% afirmaron ser propietarios de la tierra siendo mayor la proporción cuando los hogares estaban liderados por una mujer (92%) que cuando lo estaban por un hombre (81%).Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/DatosGeneralesEn promedio el 50% de los agricultores entrevistados afirmó no haber tenido acceso a educación, siendo mayor el porcentaje de mujeres en comparación con los hombres (59% versus 39%). El 46% de los entrevistados afirmó tener educación primaria, siendo la mayoría hombres (58%). Solo el 3% de los entrevistados aseveró tener estudios de secundaria y el 1% estudios a nivel técnico. Solo el 1% de las mujeres aseveró tener estudios de educación superior.Figura 2. Nivel educativo de los agricultores encuestados en Olopa. Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/DatosGeneralesA título individual, el 73% de los hombres y el 62% de las mujeres encuestadas indican haber obtenido ingresos a partir de actividades agrícolas. Para los hogares entrevistados prácticamente no hay dependencia de remesas ni de trabajo no agrícola, puesto que estas fuentes solo constituyen la fuente principal de ingreso para el 2% y 3% de dichos hogares.En este estudio también se indagó si el año anterior, los hogares tuvieron fuentes adicionales de ingresos a las ya citadas. Se obtuvo que, de 149 hogares, el 60% no tuvo acceso a fuentes adicionales de ingreso, mientras que el 37% de los hogares recibió ingresos a través de subsidios. Solo el 1% de las familias indicó recibir ingresos de remesas.También se analizó si el año anterior al monitoreo el hogar se vio afectado por algún tipo de situación que causara la reducción de la producción o del ingreso agrícola proveniente de la propia finca, comprobándose que, el ingreso agrícola del 88% de 131 hogares fue afectado. Al evaluar a nivel de comunidades, se puede observar que el 100% de los hogares de las comunidades de Tituque y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito indican que fueron afectados por eventos que redujeron su producción o ingresos, seguido por la comunidad La prensa (91% de los hogares afectados), la comunidad El guayabo Tercer Caserío (86%), y por ultimo las comunidades que reportan menor porcentajes de hogares afectados son Valle Nuevo y Nochan (75% y 74% respectivamente).Al indagar acerca de la frecuencia con la que el ingreso agrícola se ve afectado por un evento de tipo climático, se conoció que, de 100 hogares el 67% reporta que durante el año anterior la producción o el ingreso se vio afectado por un evento climático. A nivel de comunidades, las comunidades que reportan mayor proporción de hogares afectados son: El Guayabo Tercer Caserío (95%), seguido de Tituque y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito (80% las dos comunidades), Nochan y La Prensa (63% y 60% respectivamente, y, por último, la comunidad con menor proporción de hogares afectados es Valle Nuevo (38%).El 25% de 276 agricultores utilizó algún tipo de préstamo o crédito para desarrollar sus actividades agrícolas. El porcentaje de uso de crédito agrícola es mayor en hombres (33%) que en mujeres (18%). Al revisar la información a nivel de comunidad, se observa que la comunidad Nochan es en la que mayor proporción de agricultores indican haber utilizado algún tipo de préstamos o crédito (38%), seguido de las comunidades Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito y El Guayabo Tercer Caserío (31% y 29% respectivamente). Siendo estas tres, comunidades con una proporción estimada superior a la proporción general (28%).En general, la principal fuente de acceso de la que obtuvieron préstamos o créditos los agricultores fue de familiares o amigos (49%), seguido de bancos (26%), y cooperativas o microcrédito (24%); en un menor porcentaje se identifican los prestamistas privados (1%). En cuanto a la relación género y fuente de acceso al crédito o préstamo, los hombres presentan una relación igual a la general; a diferencia de las mujeres quienes tienen mayor frecuencia de uso de fuentes como familiares o amigos (50%) y cooperativas o microcréditos (32%). El acceso a créditos o prestamos por medio de bancos es la tercera fuente más frecuente (18%) para las mujeres, y estas no mencionan los prestamistas privados como una de sus fuentes de crédito o préstamo.También se evaluó el tipo de crédito agrícola en función del tiempo, se definieron dos categorías. Crédito a corto plazo (por menos de un año) y crédito a mediano o largo plazo (más de un año). El tipo de crédito a corto plazo es el más frecuente (68%) entre los 68 agricultores que respondieron a la pregunta. En cuanto a la relación de tipo de crédito agrícola con el género, los hombres que utilizaron créditos prefieren los créditos de corto plazo (75%), y las mujeres tienen una preferencia similar a los dos tipos (mediano o largo plazo 43% y corto plazo 57%). Al observar la distribución de los tipos de créditos por municipio, únicamente en Nochan la relación de preferencia de tipo de crédito es diferente a la relación general; siendo el tipo de crédito a mediano o largo plazo el principal (57%).El uso de los créditos agrícolas por los hogares es principalmente destinado a la compra de insumos (75%). La tendencia de uso de los créditos es igual en cuanto a mujeres y hombres. En cuanto al uso del crédito en función del municipio es interesante observar que no todos los tipos de uso (cambio de cultivo, compra de insumos, infraestructura, pago de jornales y otros) están presentes en todos los municipios. Únicamente el municipio de Nochan tiene hogares que destinan el crédito agrícola a todos los usos, siendo siempre el principal uso la compra de insumos.El 41% de 68 agricultores indicaron haber utilizado el crédito o préstamo agrícola con la intención de ayudar a recuperarse o prevenir los efectos negativos de eventos climáticos. La proporción de mujeres que indicaron que utilizaron el crédito o préstamo con esta intención es mayor que la proporción de hombres (57% versus 30%). Al evaluar el uso de créditos o préstamos para ayudar a recuperarse o prevenir los efectos negativos de eventos climáticos a nivel de comunidad, cerca del 50% de los agricultores evaluados en la mayoría de las comunidades respondieron que sí; el menor porcentaje de respuestas afirmativas se obtuvo en las comunidades de Tituque y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito (38% y 8%, respectivamente).De 276 agricultores que respondieron a la pregunta \"El año pasado, ¿usted tuvo o compró algún seguro para cubrir pérdidas en la producción de cultivos o animales?\", solo el 1% respondió que sí. La obtención de seguros agrícolas únicamente se reportó en los municipios de Nochan (8% de los entrevistados tienen seguro agrícola) y El Guayabo Tercer Caserío (3%). En general el tipo de riesgo que cubría los seguros que tenían las familias era principalmente para otro tipo de riesgo (50%). De los agricultores que indicaron tener algún tipo de seguro agrícola, las mujeres obtienen el seguro para cubrir riesgos de pérdidas o daños en los cultivos (100%) y los hombres obtienen el seguro para cubrir principalmente otro tipo de riesgos (67%), seguido de coberturas por riesgo de crédito o de vida (33%).De los cuatro agricultores que mencionaron tener un seguro agrícola, el 25% indican que lo adquirieron a través de un proveedor de insumos o una compañía agrícola. La mayor parte de los hogares (67%) adquirieron el seguro agrícola a través de una institución de crédito.De los cuatro hogares que indicaron haber adquirido un seguro agrícola, el 25% lo hicieron con el propósito de eventualmente ayudarlos a recuperarse o a estar mejor preparados para enfrentar eventos climáticos.También se registró que de los cuatro hogares que habían adquirido un seguro agrícola, el 25% habían recibido durante el año pasado algún tipo de pago por parte de la empresa aseguradora. Al evaluar la información a nivel de género, se encontró que los agricultores que mencionan que recibieron algún tipo de pago por parte de la empresa aseguradora son todas mujeres.Acceso a servicios financieros por la cadena o proveedores -créditos, bonos o contratos formales.De 276 agricultores, el 3% accedieron a créditos por medio de los servicios por la cadena, el 5% recibieron bonificaciones o subsidio para promover una producción sostenible y el 2% tuvo un contrato formal para la venta de sus productos. Al evaluar el acceso a servicios financieros a nivel de género se observa que los créditos o préstamos fueron utilizados principalmente por hombres (6% de los hombres encuestados mencionan haber accedido algún tipo de crédito o préstamo), en comparación con las mujeres (1%). En cuanto a los servicios de bonificación y contratos formales, el porcentaje de mujeres y hombres que acceden a este tipo de servicios es igualmente bajo y muy similar.Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/ServiciosFinancieros Cuadro 4. Fuente de acceso a servicios financieros Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/ServiciosFinancieros Además de capacitaciones, los hogares también tuvieron acceso a apoyo técnico (57%) y a entrenamiento (39%). Otro de los apoyos diferentes a las capacitaciones fue el apoyo financiero (4%), pero este último es reportado únicamente por mujeres.En cuanto a las capacitaciones financieras, la principal fuente de capacitación fue el CCAFS capacitando al 53% de los 15 agricultores que indicaron haber recibido capacitación financiera. Además de las capacitaciones financieras, también se registraron otro tipo de apoyo como apoyo técnico y entrenamiento (67% y 33% respectivamente). A nivel de género, los hombres mencionan con más frecuencia haber recibido apoyo técnico con respecto a las mujeres (83% y 56%, respectivamente); pero al preguntar sobre el entrenamiento se observa el comportamiento contrario, en el que este tipo de apoyo se mencionado con mayor frecuencia por las mujeres que por los hombres (44% y 17%, respectivamente). El apoyo técnico en temas financieros se registró en las comunidades El Guayabo Tercer Caserío, La Prensa, Nochan y Tituque. El entrenamiento se reportó en las comunidades La Prensa, Tituque y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito.En términos de la capacidad de ahorro, se tiene que la misma es baja dado que solo el 10%, de 277 agricultores, manifestó que los ingresos personales provenientes de la agricultura le habían permitido ahorrar. La proporción de respuestas positivas a la capacidad de ahorro fue mayor en las mujeres que en los hombres (11% vs 9%).En cuanto a la capacidad de inversión, un número importante de agricultores indicó que, durante el año anterior realizaron inversiones en sus fincas (83% de 277 agricultores). En este caso, el porcentaje de hombres que realizó algún tipo de inversión personal superó al porcentaje de mujeres (91% vs 77%). El plazo para recuperar la inversión fue mayoritariamente de un año (68% de los agricultores), indicando que la mayoría de los agricultores realizan inversiones con periodo de recuperación a corto plazo. Al evaluar la relación género-plazo de recuperación de la inversión, las tendencias son similares a la general. Siendo las inversiones a corto plazo preferidas por los hombres y las mujeres.Figura 3. Frecuencia de las categorías de tiempo para la recuperación de las inversiones realizadas por los agricultores.Al momento de indagar el motivo por el cual fue realizada la inversión, se identificó que de 230 agricultores el 49% mencionó que la inversión fue realizada para ayudarlo a recuperarse o a prevenir los efectos negativos de eventos climáticos. Las mujeres mostraron una mayor inclinación a invertir por los motivos antes mencionados (55%) que los hombres (41%).En cuanto al uso específico que se le dio a la inversión, de 230 agricultores, el 80% menciona haber utilizado la inversión en insumos; en menor proporción también se mencionó haber utilizado la inversión en infraestructura (14%), jornales (3%) y cambio de cultivo o ganado (2%). Al evaluar las respuestas a nivel de género, tanto las mujeres como los hombres invirtieron principalmente en insumos (81% y 80%, respectivamente), en la inversión en infraestructura se observa que es mayor la proporción de hombres que de mujeres (17% vs 12%).Frecuencias de afectación de ingreso agrícola El 88% de 131 hogares respondieron que se vieron afectados por alguna situación que ocasionó reducción de la producción o el ingreso de su propia finca. En las comunidades Tituque y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito, el 100% de los hogares que respondieron a la pregunta indicaron haber percibido reducción en la producción o ingresos de su propia finca. Las comunidades que tuvieron un menor porcentaje de hogares que indicaron percibir este efecto son la comunidad de Valle nuevo y Nochan, con 75% y 74% respectivamente; aun siendo porcentajes muy altos.De los 100 hogares el 67% indicaron que sí se vieron afectados por algún evento climático que afectó la producción o el ingreso de su propia finca. Las comunidades en las que los hogares evaluados percibieron en mayor porcentaje este tipo de afectación fueron El Guayabo Tercer Caserío (95% de 20 hogares), Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito y Tituque (las dos con el 80% de 16 hogares evaluados en cada comunidad). La comunidad que índico percibir menos este tipo de afectación fue Valle nuevo (38% de 9 hogares).Los principales eventos climáticos evaluados en el ejercicio de monitoreo son: Tormentas, Sequías, Exceso de lluvias, Granizadas, Olas de calor, Disminución de la temperatura (mucho frío).Los principales eventos climáticos que afectaron los ingresos agrícolas según la percepción de los hogares evaluados son: Sequías (59% de 100 hogares), Exceso de lluvia (64% de 100 hogares), Granizadas (35% de 100 hogares) y Tormentas eléctricas (34% de 100 hogares). Todos los eventos mencionados anteriormente caracterizados por tener como factor principal la variable precipitación. Los eventos Olas de calor (14% de 65 hogares) y Disminución de la temperatura (15% de 65 hogares), aunque fueron identificados como evento asociados a afectaciones en el ingreso agrícola, son mencionados con menor frecuencia.La principal fuente de la cual obtuvieron los alimentos consumidos en los hogares fue del mercado (comprado, 79% de 150 registros evaluados), seguido de la producción de la finca (20%) y en un menor porcentaje por medio de familiares o medios de la comunidad (1%). Al relacionar la fuente de los alimentos con familias que adoptaron o no prácticas, se obtuvo la misma relación, siendo el mercado la principal fuente (88% de los hogares no adoptantes y 77% de los hogares adoptantes). Sin embargo, la frecuencia en la que la principal fuente de alimentos es la propia finca es mayor en los hogares adoptantes que los no adoptantes (22% versus 12%).Se reportó un muy bajo porcentaje de hogares adoptantes con dependencia alimentaria 2 (1%)En cuanto al acceso a alimentos a lo largo de los doce meses del año, es mayor el porcentaje en hogares adoptantes comparado con hogares no adoptantes (35% versus 23%).A nivel de comunidad, la tendencia es similar a la general con excepción de las comunidades La prensa y Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito; en las que el porcentaje de hogares que indican no tener acceso a suficiente comida a lo largo del año es mayor en los hogares no adoptante que en los hogares adoptantes.De 149 hogares evaluados, el 25% menciona haber realizado algún tipo de cambio en las actividades agrícolas; Ya sea por razones climáticas o no climáticas (es decir autónomos). Fueron más frecuentes los cambios en actividades agrícolas en los hogares adoptantes que en los no adoptantes (28% versus 15%, respectivamente).El 25% de 149 hogares indicaron haber realizado cambios en sus actividades agrícolas debido a causas climáticas o no climáticas. El porcentaje de hogares que realizaron cambios en las actividades agrícolas fue mayor en los hogares adoptantes (28% de 115 hogares) que en los hogares no adoptantes (15% de 34 hogares)De los hogares que respondieron la pregunta \"¿Los efectos negativos del clima le llevaron a usted o algún miembro de su hogar a realizar cambios en la infraestructura de la finca, tipos de cultivo o prácticas de manejo agrícola?\", el 74% indica no haber realizado ningún cambio, el 17% indica haber realizado cambios en respuesta a evento climáticos y el 9% indica haber realizado cambios autónomos. El porcentaje de hogares que indicó no haber realizado ningún cambio es mayor en los hogares no adoptantes (83% de 18 hogares) que en los hogares adoptantes (72% de 82 hogares). En cuanto a los cambios autónomos, estos únicamente son mencionados por los hogares adoptantes, el 11% de 82 hogares indicaron haber realizado este tipo de cambios. El porcentaje de hogares que realizaron cambios en respuesta a eventos climáticos es igual entre hogares adoptantes y no adoptantes (17%), pero es importante resaltar que el número de hogares adoptantes y no adoptantes que respondieron a la pregunta no es igual (82 y 18 hogares, respectivamente).La mayor parte de los hogares que realizaron cambios en las actividades agrícolas los hicieron como respuesta ante eventos climáticos (65% de 26 hogares); esta tendencia se observó tanto en hogares adoptantes como no adoptantes. Los hogares adoptantes, además de mencionar los eventos climáticos como razón para realizar los cambios, también mencionan haber realizado cambios autónomos. Los principales cambios realizados en las actividades agrícolas fueron: cambios en las prácticas de manejo de los cultivos actuales de la finca (47% de 17 hogares), seguido de cambios en la infraestructura de la finca (41%) y por último cambio de cultivos (12%). Con respecto a la relación de los cambios realizados y los hogares adoptantes y no adoptantes, la tendencia de los cambios realizados es similar a la general; la única diferencia es que la actividad cambio de cultivo solo fue reportada por hogares adoptantes.Por el contrario, la mayoría de los hogares no mencionan haber realizado cambios en actividades ganaderas debido a eventos climáticos.Únicamente el 5% de las 100 familias evaluadas mencionan haber realizado un cambio, principalmente cambios debido a eventos climáticos (3%) y cambios autónomos (2%). Los cambios en las actividades ganaderas fueron dos: cambio de pastura o del manejo del alimento (67% de tres hogares) y cambio del tamaño del hato ganadero (33%).A partir de estos cambios el 31% de 100 hogares consideran que han mejorado su habilidad para recuperarse del efecto de futuros eventos climáticos. Esta percepción es más frecuente en hogares adoptantes que en hogares no adoptantes.También se reportaron cambios en las actividades agrícolas y ganaderas debido a razones diferentes a afectación por eventos climáticos. De los 49 hogares que mencionan no haber sido afectados por eventos climáticos el 22% menciona que realizaron cambios en las actividades agrícolas. El cambio fue más frecuente en familias adoptantes que en familias no adoptantes. En cuanto a cambios en actividades ganaderas no se reporta ninguno.El 22% de 49 hogares indicaron haber realizado algún cambio (cambios en la infraestructura de su finca, en sus cultivos o en las prácticas de manejo aplicadas) aun si haberse visto afectados por los impactos climáticos. El porcentaje que indicaron haber realizado cambios fue mayor en los hogares adoptantes (27% de 33 hogares), que en los hogares no adoptantes (12% de 16 hogares).Al agregar a los hogares que mencionaron que fueron afectados por eventos climáticos, pero que los cambios que realizaron en las actividades agrícolas no fueron debido a la afectación de los impactos en el clima; se mantiene una tendencia similar a la mencionada anteriormente. El 34% de 58 hogares indicaron haber realizados cambios, siendo mayor el porcentaje en hogares adoptantes (43% de 42 hogares) que en hogares no adoptantes (12% de 16 hogares).Acciones autónomas de mitigación de riesgo en actividades agrícolas Los principales cambios realizados por los hogares adoptantes fueron en la infraestructura de la finca (78% de 9 hogares); los hogares no adoptantes no mencionaron este tipo de cambios. Los otros cambios mencionados en menor proporción por los hogares adoptantes son: cambio de cultivo y cambio en las prácticas de manejo (11% de 9 hogares en los dos casos). En cuanto a los hogares no adoptantes (2 hogares) que respondieron a la pregunta \"¿Durante los últimos 12 meses, ¿alguien en su hogar realizó cambios (infraestructura agrícola, prácticas de manejo o cultivos)?) en tus actividades de cultivo?\", el 50% indica haber realizado cambio de cultivos y el otro 50% indica haber realizado cambio en las prácticas de manejo.De los hogares que indicaron haber realizado cambios en los cultivos (2 hogares, uno adoptante y otro no adoptante), el 100% de los hogares adoptantes mencionan que cambiaron las variedades cultivadas (sustitución) y el 100% de los hogares no adoptantes mencionan que introdujeron más cultivos (diversificación).Sólo dos hogares indicaron haber introducido ciertos tipos de nuevos cultivos. Los dos hogares lo hicieron principalmente para la venta.Se evaluaron diferentes tipos de estrategias para afrontar los efectos negativos ocasionados por los eventos climáticos. Entre las estrategias evaluadas están la venta de bienes, uso de ahorro o pedir préstamos, reducir gastos, buscar nuevas fuentes de ingreso, buscar trabajo en otra parte, racionar o saltar comidas, sacar niños de la escuela y abandonó del trabajo en la finca. Es importante mencionar que la implementación de una estrategia no es excluyente, es decir, un hogar puede mencionar más de una estrategia para afrontar los problemas relacionados a eventos climáticos. Las principales estrategias mencionadas por los hogares evaluados (149 hogares) son: reducir gastos (62%), buscar nuevas fuentes de ingreso (56%), abandonar el trabajo de la finca (52%) y buscar trabajo en otra parte (48%). La estrategia menos frecuente es sacar niños de la escuela (3%) y vender bienes (10%). Al evaluar la relación entre las estrategias utilizadas y si los hogares son o no son hogares adoptantes se observa que se mantienen las mismas tendencias que a nivel general. En general, al evaluar las estrategias a nivel específico de evento climático. Las tendencias son similares, las principales estrategias mencionadas por los hogares son siempre las mismas.Se evaluaron cuatro prácticas ASAC promovidas en las seis comunidades de la zona en el 2017: Huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua, Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua, Riego y Variedades mejoradas de frijol. La práctica más implementada fue el Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua (97 hogares). De estos, el 38% pertenecen a la comunidad La Prensa, seguido por el 15% de la comunidad Valle nuevo; la comunidad Tuticopote Abajo Caserío El Bendito y las otras tres comunidades abarcan cada una el 12% de los hogares adoptantes de esta práctica. Las siguientes dos prácticas más implementadas fueron Riego y Variedades mejoradas de frijol, con 25 hogares y 26 agricultores que respondieron de forma afirmativa respectivamente. En cuanto a la relación género -práctica ASAC; no se observa una tendencia clara. La proporción de hogares liderados por hombres o mujeres que implementan las prácticas tienen mucha variación entre municipios y prácticas.La práctica más implementada fue Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua (65% de 149 hogares), seguido por las practicas Riego y Variedades mejoradas de frijol negro (18% y 17%, respectivamente). Por último, la práctica con menor frecuencia de implementación fue la de Huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua (11%). Esto se puede deber al alto costo inicial que puede implicar la implementación de la práctica. A nivel de género, la tendencia de preferencia de prácticas por hogares liderados por hombres o por mujeres fue igual a la tendencia general. A nivel de comunidad, las tendencias son similares a la general. La única comunidad que presenta una tendencia distinta es la comunidad de La Prensa; en la que mayor cantidad de hogares mencionan haber implementado la práctica de hortalizas con cosecha de agua que la práctica de riego (31% de 45 hogares versus 27%).En general, una de las principales motivaciones para la implementación de cualquiera de las prácticas fue haberlo aprendido en las capacitaciones impartidas por el CCAFS. Para las practicas Riego y Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua, también se reportan otro tipo de motivaciones.Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/PracticasCSA Des-adopción de prácticas ASAC La des-adopción de prácticas se presentó principalmente para la práctica de huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua. Los hogares liderados por mujeres fueron los más frecuentes en des-adoptar la práctica que los hogares liderados por hombres. El porcentaje de des-adopción del resto de las prácticas fue inferior al 10%.No se menciona nada sobre los motivos, ya que uno de los principales motivos es otros y no sabemos q está incluido dentro de otros.El principal efecto percibido de la implementación de las prácticas fue el aumento de la producción. Para la mayoría de las prácticas, más del 80% de los hogares que la implementaron mencionan un aumento en la producción. A excepción de la práctica variedades mejoradas de frijol negro, en las que el 59% de las familias que la implementaron mencionan que aumentó la producción, pero el 22% mencionan que no pueden evaluar el efecto ya que era una producción nueva. La producción adicional obtenida por la implementación de las practicas fue destinada principalmente para el consumo. Más del 83% de los hogares que implementaron prácticas mencionan auto consumir la producción. Estos resultados se relacionan con los resultados de seguridad alimentaria. Que nos indican que los hogares requieren aumentar su producción o ingresos para obtener el alimento necesario y aumentar sus niveles de seguridad alimentaria.Figura 5. Uso de la producción adicional generada por la implementación prácticas ASAC.Además del aumento de la producción para el autoconsumo, los hogares mencionan que lograron aumentar sus ingresos gracias a los aumentos en la producción debido a la implementación de las practicas. Más del 60% de los hogares que implementaron las practicas indican percibir aumento en los ingresos. La percepción de ingresos adicionales es más frecuente en los hogares liderados por mujeres que en los hogares liderados por hombres. Las practicas que están más asociadas a la generación de ingresos adicionales son las de huerto casero con y sin cosecha de agua. Figura 6. Porcentaje de agricultores que indican percibir aumento en la generación de sus ingresos debido a la implementación de prácticas ASAC.El principal uso de los ingresos adicionales fue la comprar de alimentos. Más del 65% de los hogares que implementaron las prácticas mencionan que utilizaron los ingresos adicionales para comprar alimentos.Figura 7. Uso de los ingresos adicionales generados por la implementación de prácticas ASAC.En general las cuatro practicas promovidas e implementadas por los hogares generan un efecto positivo en la seguridad alimentaria. Las prácticas huertos caseros con y sin cosecha de agua y la práctica riego, son las que mejores resultados tienen al evaluar la percepción de los hogares en la mejoría de la seguridad alimentaria. Independientemente de que el hogar sea liderado por un hombre o una mujer, se observan los mismos resultados. La práctica variedades mejoradas de frijol negro, aunque también presenta resultados positivos, la frecuencia de respuestas que indican la mejoría en la seguridad alimentaria es menor. Esto tal vez puede deberse a que esta práctica apunta a un único alimento (frijol).En general al comparar la percepción de las mujeres con la de los hombres, aunque los resultados tienen la misma tendencia, la frecuencia de respuesta de resultados positivos en los cambios de la seguridad alimentaria es mayor en las mujeres que en los hombres; esto se puede deber a que, en los roles clásicos de los hogares de agricultores, la mujer es la que siempre ha estado más vinculada con los quehaceres y toma de decisiones sobre los alimentos consumidos en el hogar.En cuanto al cambio en la diversificación de la dieta, el porcentaje de familias que indican percibir la mejoría o aumento en la diversificación de la dieta es mayor al porcentaje de familias que indican percibir mejoría en la seguridad alimentaria. Aunque todas las prácticas ASAC, se relacionan con resultados positivos; las principales prácticas ASAC o las que tienen mejores resultados según la percepción de los hogares de productores son Huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua y Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua. Al evaluar la percepción a nivel de género, se observan tendencias similares a las mencionadas en los cambios de seguridad alimentaria. La frecuencia de respuesta de resultados positivos es mayor en las mujeres que en los hombres.Además de los aumentos en la producción, ingresos y seguridad alimentaria, los agricultores también mencionan percibir un efecto de adaptación y disminución de la vulnerabilidad ante eventos del cambio climático a partir de la implementación de las prácticas. En general, más del 50% de los agricultores que implementaron alguna de las prácticas mencionan que estas les permitió verse menos afectados o recuperarse más rápidamente ante eventos relacionados con el clima.Nivel de participación en la implementación de las prácticas ASAC Al evaluar la participación de los hombres y las mujeres en la implementación de las prácticas, se observa qué: para la práctica huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua, la mayor parte del trabajo fue realizado por las mujeres y los hombres mencionan haber tenido más un rol de apoyo o ayuda en las labores; para la práctica huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua, el trabajo fue compartido entre hombre y mujeres; y para las prácticas de riego y variedades mejoradas de frijol negro, el hombre fue quien lideró el trabajo realizado y el rol de la mujer fue más como apoyo o ayuda.  Efecto percibido de las prácticas ASAC sobre tiempo de trabajo (por género) La práctica que más incremento en el tiempo de trabajó generó fue la práctica de riego, seguido de las prácticas huerto sin cosecha de agua, huerto con cosecha de agua y por último la práctica de uso de variedades mejoradas de frijol. El aumento en el tiempo de trabajo para la actividad riego tiene sentido ya que se deben realizar nuevas actividades como el mantenimiento y manejo del sistema de riego, además del alto costo inicial de tiempo en el establecimiento del sistema de riego. Por el contrario, la práctica uso de variedades mejoradas de frijol negro, no genera un importante aumento del tiempo de trabajo ya que no se están generando muchas más actividades nuevas en el manejo del cultivo. Al evaluarlo a nivel de género, se observa que las tendencias son similares a la general, y que pareciera que existe una relación entre los sistemas de riego (práctica de riego y cosecha de agua) y el incremento del tiempo de trabajo para los hombres. En el caso de la práctica uso de variedades mejoradas de frijol negro, son únicamente las mujeres las que indican que la implementación de esta práctica les generó un incremento en el tiempo de trabajo.Figura 10. Percepción del efecto en el incremento del tiempo de trabajo por la implementación de las prácticas ASAC según el género del encuestado.Efectos percibidos sobre acceso/control del ingreso generado por las prácticas En general son las mujeres las que toman decisiones sobre el cómo usar la producción adicional generada por la implementación de la práctica. La diferencia más importante está relacionada a la práctica Huero de hortalizas con cosecha de agua; el 100% de las 19 mujeres que respondieron la pregunta indican que sí participaron en la decisión de cómo usar la producción adicional generada por la implementación de la práctica, a diferencia de los hombres que ninguno mencionó haber participado en la decisión de cómo usar la producción adicional.Participación en la toma de decisión de implementación de prácticas Al preguntar si la decisión de la implementación de las prácticas se había tomado solos o en conjunto (hombres y mujeres), se obtuvo que en la mayoría de los casos la decisión se tomó en conjunto, más del 60% de los agricultores encuestados. Y que menos de un 30% mencionan que la decisión fue tomada solos o solas. En general la frecuencia de respuestas de decisión conjunta está más asociadas a los hombres que a las mujeres. Cuadro 6. Toma de decisiones para la implementación de prácticas Fuente: http://rpubs.com/g-bejarano/PracticasCSA Género y decisión de abandonar una práctica ASAC En cuanto al abandono de prácticas ya implementadas se observa que existe mayor frecuencia de hombres que participan en la toma de decisiones de este tipo, pero no se puede concluir que las decisiones de abandonar son tomadas principalmente por los hombres, ya que puede existir una relación entre la frecuencia de abandono de prácticas y los hogares liderados por hombres.Para los cálculos de la sección de seguridad alimentaria se toman las respuestas de una sola persona por hogar, siendo esta la mujer del hogar, si en un hogar no se encuestaron mujeres este no se tendrá en cuenta para los análisis de esta sección.La principal fuente de alimento para los hogares es el mercado (79% de 150 hogares), seguido de la producción en la propia finca (20%) y otros familiares o miembros de la comunidad (1%). La importancia de la fuente de alimento mercado es mayor en los hogares no adoptantes que en los hogares adoptantes (88% de 34 hogares y 77% de 116 hogares, respectivamente). La fuente de alimento \"producción de la propia finca\" es mayor en los hogares adoptantes que en los no adoptantes (22% de 116 hogares y 12% de 34 hogares, respectivamente).El porcentaje de hogares que respondieron sí a la pregunta \"¿Ha habido algún mes en el último año dónde usted o alguien en su hogar no tuvo acceso a suficiente comida?\", fue mayor en los hogares adoptantes que en los no adoptantes (76% de 115 hogares y 65% de 34 hogares, respectivamente) Escala de Experiencias de Inseguridad Alimentaria (FIES) Para evaluar la seguridad alimentaria se utilizó la Escala de Experiencias de Inseguridad Alimentaria (FIES) 3 . La escala FIES es una medida continua del grado de inseguridad alimentaria (acceso). Cuanto más alto sea el puntaje, más inseguridad alimentaria experimenta un hogar, cuanto más bajo es el puntaje, menor es la inseguridad alimentaria que experimenta un hogar. Para los hogares evaluados, el valor promedio del índice FIES es 6.87. Al graficar la frecuencia de los hogares por cada uno de los valores obtenidos de la escala FIES (entre 0 y 23), se observa un comportamiento asimétrico positivo. Siendo más frecuentes los valores por debajo de la media y menos frecuentes los valores por arriba de la media.Al clasificar los hogares en las cuatro categorías del indicador de Prevalencia de Experiencia de Inseguridad Alimentaria (PIES), se obtuvo que el 36% de los hogares están en la categoría moderada, el 29% en la categoría severa, el 28% en la categoría con seguridad alimentaria y el 7% en la categoría leve de inseguridad alimentaria. La distribución del número de hogares en las cuatro categorías fue similar entre todas las comunidades, siendo las categorías severa y moderada las más frecuentes y la categoría leve la menos frecuente. Las comunidades La Prensa, Nochan y Valle Nuevo, presentaron una frecuencia de hogares con seguridad alimentaria similar a la frecuencia de hogares bajo el nivel moderado de seguridad alimentaria. La Comunidad de Valle Nuevo es la única comunidad en la que la frecuencia de hogares bajo la categoría con seguridad alimentaria supera las demás categorías. Al relacionar las categorías del índice PIES con los hogares adoptantes y no adoptantes, se puede observar que, aunque en los hogares no adoptantes existe un mayor porcentaje de hogares en la categoría con seguridad alimentaria (35%), también existe un alto porcentaje de los hogares en la categoría inseguridad alimentaria severa (35%); representándose el 70% de los hogares no adoptantes dentro de estas dos categorías. En cuanto a los hogares adoptantes, se observa un comportamiento contrario, en el que los porcentajes de hogares en las categorías con seguridad alimentaria y con inseguridad alimentaria severa representan el 54% de los hogares y las categorías inseguridad alimentaria moderada e inseguridad alimentaria leve tienen mayor relevancia que en los hogares no adoptantes. Esto nos podría indicar que existe un cambio de categoría, pasando de las categorías de los extremos a las categorías medias. Aunque con la información observada no es posible definir si el cambio es positivo o negativo; es decir, que disminuyan las familias en la categoría inseguridad alimentaria severa y aumenten las familias en las categorías inseguridad alimentaria moderada o leve (cambio positivo). Pero el tener mayor frecuencia o una distribución más uniforme, con aumento en las frecuencias de las categorías medias, facilita el cambio en las categorías. Es mucho más fácil pasar de la categoría con inseguridad alimentaria leve a con seguridad alimentaria, que pasar de la categoría con inseguridad alimentaria severa a con seguridad alimentaria.Figura 12. Relación entre las categorías del índice PIES y los hogares adoptantes y no adoptantes.De los 278 agricultores encuestados, el 67% indican haber tenido acceso a información climática para la toma de decisiones en las actividades de la finca. Al evaluar el acceso a nivel de género, no se encuentran diferencias entre el acceso que tienen las mujeres y los hombres. El principal tipo de información al que tienen acceso los productores es a pronósticos de los próximos días, seguido de las alertas tempranas y los pronósticos de los próximos meses. Al comparar el tipo de información a la que tienen acceso y los tipos de cultivos que se desarrollan en las fincas de los hogares evaluados (cultivos de ciclo corto), es más relevante que la principal información a la que puedan tener acceso sean los pronósticos de los próximos días, ya que esto les permite prepararse ante cambios importantes que pueda afectar su producción. Pero a pesar de que existe acceso a la información, según los productores, esta no viene acompañada de recomendaciones que le ayuden en la toma de decisiones.Los principales tipos de recomendaciones que los productores indican haber recibido junto con los pronósticos son de tipo de variedades de cultivos, uso de fertilizantes y manejo, cosecha de agua e irrigación.El principal canal de acceso a la información climática es por medio de la radio, televisión o altavoz comunitario (más del 80% de los agricultores que indican tener acceso a información climática), sin importar el tipo de información climática que se quiera transmitir.Frecuencia de cambios en actividades agrícolas informados por el pronóstico estacional A partir del uso de información climática, los productores indican haber realizado cambios principalmente en las actividades agrícolas. La frecuencia de cambios en las actividades ganaderas es muy baja (2% de 81 agricultores). Los cambios que se realizan son principalmente dos: cambios en la infraestructura de la finca (que son más mencionados por las mujeres, 92% de 25 mujeres) y cambios en las prácticas de manejo de los cultivos de la finca (más mencionado por los hombres, 81% de 16 hombres). Fuentes de aprendizaje sobre prácticas ASAC Las principales fuentes de aprendizaje para la implementación de las prácticas fue la capacitación ya sea por el CCAFS o por el servicio técnico de otras instituciones. La implementación de prácticas como el uso de variedades mejoradas de frijol negro y los huertos de hortalizas con cosecha de agua fueron impulsadas principalmente por las capacitaciones realizadas por el CCAFS. En cuanto a las capacitaciones de las prácticas huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua y riego, están asociadas tanto a las capacitaciones del CCAFS y de otras instituciones. Lo importante a resaltar acá es que, aunque la frecuencia con la que mencionan el auto aprendizaje y aprendizaje con la ayuda de un familiar o vecino son bajas, existe este tipo de fuentes que les permite a los productores implementar nuevas estrategias y probar distintos métodos de manejo.Al analizar la difusión del conocimiento de agricultor a agricultor a nivel de género, se observa que la frecuencia de respuestas en las que indican que personalmente enseñaron la práctica a alguien fuera del hogar es mayor en las mujeres.Los agricultores indican con mayor frecuencia tener acceso a asistencia técnica de otra institución o capacitaciones/ demostraciones de CCAFS para la práctica Huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua (84% de 81 agricultores). Para las prácticas Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua y Variedades mejoradas de frijol negro el número de agricultores que indican tener acceso a capacitaciones es menor (66% de 219 y 119 agricultores, respectivamente). La práctica Riego, es la que en general tienen menor acceso de capacitaciones (57% de 116 agricultores). Al evaluar la percepción de acceso a capacitaciones a nivel de género, independientemente de la práctica las mujeres con mayor frecuencia tener acceso a capacitaciones en comparación con los hombres.En general, los hogares no adoptantes indican estar interesados en recibir información sobre las prácticas ASAC. Las prácticas en las que el mayor porcentaje de agricultores indicó estar interesado es en las prácticas Riego y Variedades mejoradas de frijol negro. Pero independientemente de la práctica, más del 80% de los agricultores encuestados indican tener interés en recibir información.Al preguntar sobre la capacidad de interpretar y utilizar en la toma de decisiones la información climática fue más común las respuestas afirmativas por parte de las mujeres que por parte de los hombres. Lo que confirma la importancia de trabajar con las mujeres para difundir información de prácticas de manejo de los cultivos.A pesar del buen acceso a la información, y de la buena capacidad que consideran que tienen las mujeres en la interpretación de la información climática, estas argumentan que los factores limitantes del uso de la información es la falta de confianza en la información o imprecisión, y que no sabían que decisión tomar. En el caso de los hombres la principal limitante es no saber qué decisión tomar. Es por ello por lo que es importante que la información climática sea clara, precisa y que siempre vaya acompañada de recomendaciones que les permita a los productores evaluar la situación y tomar las decisiones adecuadas según sus capacidades.El porcentaje de agricultores que menciona tener acceso a capacitaciones sobre información climática es bajo. La frecuencia con la que indican tener acceso a capacitaciones es más alta en servicios de alerta temprana (12% de 122 agricultores), que en los demás servicios. A nivel de género, las mujeres respondieron con mayor frecuencia tener acceso a capacitaciones que los hombres, independientemente el servicio climático. Independientemente del servicio climático en el que se realice la capacitación, los agricultores indican que la principal fuente de acceso es CCAFS, siendo las capacitaciones en los pronósticos de los próximos meses el servicio climático más frecuentemente mencionado por los productores. También es interesante mencionar que entre las fuentes de capacitación identificadas (CCAFS, Servicio de extensión del gobierno o servicio meteorológico, Compañía privada y Un familiar, vecino o líder de la comunidad) únicamente CCAFS es relacionada con los tres servicios climáticos evaluados. A partir de la cadena de valor, el 8% de las 276 agricultores encuestadas tuvo acceso a capacitaciones en agronegocios y el 5% tuvieron acceso a capacitación financiera. En cuanto a la relación de género con las capacitaciones en agronegocios, el porcentaje de hombres y mujeres capacitados fue muy similar (7% y 10% respectivamente). Las capacitaciones fueron principalmente impartidas por el CCAFS (48% de 23 agricultores que respondieron a la pregunta), seguido por instituciones de gobierno y el sector privado (13% y 9%, respectivamente). Un gran porcentaje de agricultores (22%) indican no saber cuál fue la empresa, institución y organización que impartió la capacitación; y un 9% indican que reciben las capacitaciones por medio de familiares, vecinos o líderes sociales. al evaluar a nivel de género, se observa que las mujeres mencionan todas las fuentes de capacitación (CCAFS, Familiar, vecino o líder, privado y de gobierno), mientras que los hombres únicamente mencionan las fuentes de capacitación CCAFS y gobierno.El acceso a la capacitación financiera es muy bajo, 5% de 276 agricultores indicaron recibido algún tipo de capacitación sobre uso de productos o servicios financieros.Los resultados del monitoreo realizado en Olopa en 2018 muestran que las principales causas de afectación de la producción e ingresos agrícolas en este TeSAC son los eventos climáticos. Aunque algunos de los agricultores indican tener buen acceso a la información climática, no sienten confianza en usar este tipo de información al momento de tomar decisiones, subrayando la importancia de que la información climática sea clara, precisa y que siempre vaya acompañada de recomendaciones que les permita a los productores evaluar la situación y tomar las decisiones adecuadas según sus capacidades.En términos de implementación de prácticas ASAC, la práctica más frecuentemente implementada fue Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua, tanto a nivel de comunidad, como por género y hogar. Las otras dos prácticas con mayor frecuencia de implementación fueron Riego y Uso de variedades mejoradas de frijol negro. La práctica con menor frecuencia de implementación fue la de Huerto de hortalizas con cosecha de agua. Esto se puede deber al alto costo inicial que puede implicar la implementación de la práctica. Curiosamente la práctica Huerto de hortalizas sin cosecha de agua (la más implementada) fue también la que registró mayores niveles de des-adopción. Esto puede deberse a la complejidad de mantener sistemas de producción de hortalizas bajo las condiciones de sequía de Olopa, sin un sistema de cosecha de agua que les permita asegurar la plantación en momentos críticos de sequía.El principal resultado del efecto de la implementación de las prácticas en los medios de vida de los hogares de los agricultores es que independientemente de las prácticas implementadas por los hogares, todos perciben un efecto positivo en el aumento de la producción, lo cual se traduce directamente a mejoramiento de la seguridad alimentaria y diversificación de la dieta (no siempre en cuanto al ingreso). Al aumentar la producción las familias tienes más alimento para su autoabastecimiento y con el excedente, pueden generar ingresos adicionales que les permite comprar alimentos en épocas de escases o comprar alimentos que no pueden producir en su propia finca.","tokenCount":"10161"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21ce9831c68d7e17c4cde1229b4c5b37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/315be819-77f3-4636-82dd-83febdf8fb52/retrieve","id":"-488936076"},"keywords":["Citizen Science","Data Collection","Community Engagement","Sustainable"],"sieverID":"52164b0f-6610-4a68-b09d-45b7de075608","pagecount":"19","content":"The Enviro-Champs initiative was developed as a community driven, citizen science initiative in Mpophomeni township in Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), South Africa. Over time, the scope of work done and data collected by the Enviro-Champs has expanded. There is now recognition both locally and globally that the Enviro-Champs initiative shows great promise for national and global upscaling. However, several areas within the initiative remain where it could be improved, especially technologically. GroundTruth, in conjunction with technical and funding support from CGIAR Research Initiative on Digital Innovation and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), engaged in a project which aimed to i) establish recruitment, training, and education tools to support establishment of a technologically integrated and upgraded Enviro-Champs initiative, ii) develop an outline for a training and education workshop for Enviro-Champs once they are hired, iii) improve data collection and reporting capacity and efficiency with a sustainable system (in collaboration with CGIAR and FormShare), and iv) pilot test technological improvements to the Enviro-Champs initiative within the Mpophomeni Enviro-Champs in conjunction with the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), and Umgeni Water. The overarching aim was to develop a technologically innovative and upgraded best-practice framework for the Enviro-Champs, from recruitment, through training and data collection, to data management and reporting. The primary outcome was to have a fully functional, digitally improved Enviro-Champs system in Mpophomeni, that could serve as a working template for upscaling the Enviro-Champs initiative elsewhere in Southern Africa or the world. This report reflects the process and outcomes of this project to date.The Enviro-Champs initiative was developed as a community driven, citizen science initiative in Mpopomeni township in Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), South Africa. Initially, this initiative trained community members to monitor and report sewage leaks within the township to assist in municipal management of the water use and waste disposal (Taylor and Taylor 2016). After resounding success, it was upgraded to include training on and implementation of a) data collection and reporting regarding potable water leaks and sewage issues, b) community engagement and awareness building regarding waste and wastewater management, and c) community engagement and emergency response assistance regarding flood preparedness (i.e., a community-driven early warning system for floods), flood risk, and evacuation prior to flooding. This broader scope was expanded to more areas in KZN beside the initial Mpophomeni community and was flagged as a promising 2 initiative for national upscaling and a model which could benefit greatly from technological improvement (Lepheana et al. 2021). To-date, the Enviro-Champs initiative has been successfully implemented in several regions across South Africa (Schachtschneider 2016;Taylor and Taylor 2016;Lepheana et al. 2021).Over time, the Enviro-Champs initiative evolved to introduce some technological aspects to the monitoring and training processes (Lepheana et al. 2021). These included group text messaging platforms to share information (including training information), and data collation in excel (from paper forms submitted on a weekly basis) by a manager. However, several areas remained where the initiative could be improved, throughout its process but especially technologically, including the recruitment and hiring process, the technical capacity of the Enviro-Champs (e.g., technical skills and scope of data capture, reporting, or management actions), the agency of the Enviro-Champs (i.e., accessing real-time information and data outcomes which can empower and inform Enviro-Champ and Community action), and ultimately the relaying of information to agencies (government or nongovernment) that can take action on the information and data gathered by the Enviro-Champs.Enviro-Champs, along with most people globally, even in rural places, generally have access to smartphones. These can be effectively used for data collection, boasting a host of advantages over traditional data collection techniques, including mobility, processing power independent of a power source (as opposed to desktops), connection to the internet, interactive and customisable user interfaces, and all-round accessibility (Hartung et al. 2010;E. A. Graham et al. 2011;Njue et al. 2019). Therefore, smartphones were targeted as an efficient means to improve the quality and quantity of data collection, while simultaneously building digital capacity with the Enviro-Champs. Through collaboration with CGIAR and previous experience collaborating on previous projects, the Open Data Kit (ODK, 2023) (Hartung et al. 2010) data collection mobile application (app) ODK Collect was selected as the ideal candidate to explore in terms of its abilities to meet all the requirements of the data collection side of the Enviro-Champs initiative. The ODK Collect app interfaces with the data capture and management platform FormShare (https://formshare.org), a CGIAR product.ODK is one of the most renowned, globally employed data collection and management services available (Brunette et al. 2013;Ouma et al. 2019). It has been successfully employed in both rural and urban settings, in both on-and offline situations, ranging from tracking tuberculosis (Ali et al. 2016), gathering data on childhood pneumonia (Ginsburg et al. 2016), through to use in farming (Ouma et al. 2019) and utilisation in disaster response (see case studies discussed in Brunette et al. 2013). ODK offers ODK Collect, a mobile app not only suitable for collecting the types of geo-referenced, photographic or text data typically collected by the Enviro-Champs, but capable of far more than previous data collection tools regarding data collection, curation, visualization, management, and reporting (specifically improving automation and reducing manual input and reliance on manual data handling for data management) (Ouma et al. 2019;Hartung et al. 2010;Loola Bokonda et al. 2020). ODK was also initially designed with the goal of providing a data collection and management solution that worked for rural and developing areas (Hartung et al. 2010), therefore building on an ideal ethos and outset mentality for use in citizen science in a developing or rural area as is the case with the Enviro-Champs initiative. Overall, ODK Collect, working in conjunction with Formshare to collate and handle the data, was chosen to implement for the Enviro-Champs initiative.GroundTruth, in conjunction with technical and funding support from CGIAR and IWMI, engaged in a project which aimed to i) establish recruitment, training, and education tools to support establishment of a technologically integrated and upgraded Enviro-Champs initiative, ii) develop an outline for a training and education workshop for Enviro-Champs once they are hired, iii) improve data collection and reporting capacity and efficiency with a sustainable system (in collaboration with CGIAR, ODK, and Formshare), and iv) pilot test technological improvements to the Enviro-Champs initiative within the Mpophomeni Enviro-Champs in conjunction with the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), and Umgeni Water.The overarching aim was to develop a technologically innovated and upgraded best-practice framework for the Enviro-Champs, from recruitment, through training and data collection, to data management and reporting. By working with SANBI and Umgeni Water, who currently fund the Enviro-Champs and gather their data for reporting, testing of technological improvements to data collection and reporting are planned om pilot tests in Mpophomeni.Going forward with technological developments, especially 3 regarding citizen science engagement, it is important to acknowledge the tenets of action-learning, and avoid past failures when implementing technological innovations (Rogers 2002). Issues relating to technical innovations and supposed transfers of technology to communities or other institutional settings are important for all Work Packages (WP) of the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation, or indeed any sphere of work seeking to integrate digital innovation and technology with pre-existing work frames. The literature is littered with failed technology transfer projects, not only in Africa, but world-wide (Rogers 2002;Jalbert and Kinchy 2016;Trouille et al. 2019). In a wide-ranging review of such projects, Rahnema (2020) identifies the underlying technicist assumptions and associated modernist ideology as the key weakness or stumbling block. As early as the 1980s, scientists were warning of this phenomenon, \"There is today an increasing consciousness that our technology has, in enough cases to worry us, out-stripped the ability of many organizations and individuals to make productive use of it\" -Eveland, J. D. (p 303, 1987). With rapid technological innovation and increasing complexity, this concept is even more threatening in the present day. To avoid replicating past failures we suggest that such issues are carefully addressed through throughout work in the arena of digital innovation.The initial aim of this work was to put together a research synthesis on the best practices for community engagement and Enviro-Champ recruitment, including broader education regarding the Enviro-Champ initiative. This initial aim culminated in the research and development of an education and recruitment framework for finding and hiring proficient Enviro-Champs. The framework is based on prior experience and a synthesis of what has thus far defined successful Enviro-Champs, and outlined best practice advice, from a situational analysis through to appointing successful candidates.Building on the experience of establishing the initiative in the Mpophomeni township in Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN) and in the Palmiet catchment in Durban, KZN, we have refined a 7-step process for selecting and recruiting Enviro-Champs suitable for implementation in the Limpopo and Inkomati basins (See Appendix 1).The second aim was the research and development of a framework for workshops to orientate, educate, and train newly recruited Enviro-Champs. The framework details bestpractice advice on the structure of a workshop that will be best suited to efficient education and training. The framework includes key topics to cover, such as all the duties of data collection, methods for community engagement, environmental awareness and safety, and in-depth training using the multi-media data and information systems associated with data collection and reporting:Several days of training workshops are required, especially considering that Enviro-Champs may have limited formal education and require baseline education and training in ecological principles, as well as the importance of water, sanitation, and hygiene. One option is to offer a training course or programme once a week on a suitable day, or alternatively to hold several days of education and training consecutively. Generally, for the first month or several months, there will be a requirement for follow-up training and education sessions to solidify the lessons learned and data collection protocols. Therefore, it is good to plan ahead accordingly, with particular attention on adaptive management and training in the early stages. The aims of these workshops are the following: 1) Formally welcome and congratulate the new Enviro-Champs on appointment, explaining the necessity and importance of their roles. 2) Facilitate a 'meet-and-greet' between all the Enviro-Champs working in the focal area and the management team. This will enable them to begin developing a support and working network between the each other, and between them and the implementing organization. It is important that all parties are acquainted and acknowledge their roles so as to improve sustainable communication and foster good working relationships. 3) Once the general introductions are completed, the capacity building can commence. In terms of a training methodology, \"The 5 T's of Action Learning\" (UNESCO 2018; Figure 1) has been found to be really useful (O'Donoghue, Taylor, and Venter 2018). Workshops comprise a series of multi-media lectures and interactive working-group discussions covering details on standard operations and data collection related to:a. The \"War on Leaks\", including measuring, reporting and fixing water leaks. b. Pollution monitoring and WTWW effluent compliance monitoring using clarity tubes (Graham et al. 2024). f. Use of the mini Stream Assessment Scoring System (miniSASS) assessment (Graham et al. 2004). Training for this can be done through use of the online miniSASS training course. g. Monitoring total suspended solids (via water clarity) in streams and rivers using clarity tubes (Graham and Taylor 2018).4) For data collection on each of the areas of interest, there should be accompanying demonstrations to explain using data capture software, such as the ODK Collect app on their smartphones, to collect and report data. At the end of the workshop, all Enviro-Champs should have full capacity for all aspects of data collection and reporting. Consequently, it is recommended that ample time is dedicated to training and practice in data collection. Spending time practicing with real examples for every aspect will allow for quick, real-time troubleshooting that is the most expedient way to ensure data are collected Considering it is important for training workshops to include simulated data collection related to each aspect of the work of the Enviro-Champs, it is recommended that the workshops are held in convenient locations in the focal area. This means that the training will happen in a comfortable, familiar location to the trainees (which is conducive to a good learning environment and easy for the trainees logistically), and that infield training can be carried out in the system where the Enviro-Champs will be deployed, maximizing the utility and real-life relevance of the training. One the initial orientation is complete, the Enviro-Champs can be deployed.Following the initial workshops, the skills and capacity of the Enviro-Champs are continually built upon through online feedback and occasional (quarterly at a minimum) follow-up in-person refresher, short workshops, to refine skills and act on adaptive feedback and training needs. After the initial establishment of the Enviro-Champs, their roles can be upgraded as appropriate and possible. For example, the Enviro -Champs can undergo formal basic training in skills useful for their data collection or even on-the-ground action for community improvement. Possible additional training can be offered according to the local needs and requirements. This could include, for example, alien invasive plant clearing, the use of chainsaws, basic plumbing, and first aid.It is important to note that the deployment and training of the Enviro-Champs is an adaptive and reflexive process that is ongoing post the initial training workshops. Feedback, support, and action-learning principles need to be continuously followed to ensure the Enviro-Champs are efficient, supported, well-equipped for their duties, and safe in carrying them out. Some of the potential duties of the Enviro-Champs, such as miniSASS assessments, clarity tube use, and fixing leaks, may require further training sessions over several weeks.Collaboration with CGIAR led to a thorough investigation of the use of ODK Collect as a data collection and management platform (in conjunction with a compatible data management and visualization platform FormShare). Overall, the ODK Collect app, in conjunction with FormShare, were identified as the ideal partners for the Enviro-Champs initiative for efficient, powerful, and customizable, mobile data-light, data collection, storage, and management. Critically, using ODK Collect is available via FormShare, making it accessible and maintained in terms of privacy and security requirements. It also means that the app will be supported on the front and back end by the FormShare developers. Keeping up-to-date with security and privacy requirements, and maintaining a data collection and reporting platform, can be prohibitively difficult if taken on without support from the developers. This can lead to project failure in the long-term, which using ODK Collect will mitigate.The data collection capabilities of ODK Collect include (Hartung et al. 2010;Brunette et al. 2013;Brunette et al. 2017;Ouma et al. 2019), but are not limited to (should more needs arise):• Auto-generated quick response (QR) code that links a unique user profile to a specific project. This streamlines adding app users (in-field Enviro-Champs) to the project, and auto-generates a user profile for each individual which can be customized for access to certain features, including geographic areas or sites, among others.• Customizable data collection forms. Any data that the managers need to be collected can be included in the forms, including precise locations, photos, videos, voice recordings, or virtually any form of quantitative or qualitative form-based information.• Visualizing geographic areas of interest (e.g., Wards) in which to collect data, on mapping software for Enviro-6Champs in-field to navigate by. Assistance navigating to points of interest is also built in;• Collection and real-time submission of geo-referenced image and text data covering all aspects of the data Enviro-Champs are required to gather, including leaks, clarity tube data, miniSASS assessment scores, various sources of pollution, sewer infrastructure damage, alien vegetation, and dump sites;• Collection of more complex geographical data. Global positioning system (GPS) data can be collected in lines or shapes, allowing for submission of more holistic visualizations of potential issues. For example, GPS data could be collected showing the distribution of a stand of alien plants, the path of illegal water connections, or the size of a dump site, rather than simply submitting a single point;• It is possible to collect background data continuously. For example, ODK Collect could be programmed to collect a GPS co-ordinate every ten minutes through a working day to develop a map of movement. This may prove useful, for instance, in visualizing coverage of a Ward or area of interest by Enviro-Champs, and isolating areas not yet or seldom visited that might need increased attention;• Minimizing mobile data use requirements. All data uploaded are G-zipped, minimizing data transfer requirements. It is also possible to predetermine the image quality of any images to be uploaded during submission. For example, images can be compressed to the lowest resolution that serves the data collection needs, and then zipped with all the other data collected, before submission. Ultimately, this process can reduce the data required for a submission by up to 90%, compared to submitting raw, unprocessed data;• Visualizing data collection points. App users can view both all points already submitted;• Data collection using the ODK Collect app can all be done offline, with options for submission either using mobile data when it is available, or solely a Wi-Fi connection when one is available. Powerful, designed offline data collection maximizes the geographic coverage of data collection (by allowing for a full suite of data collection in remote places), and works towards minimizing data costs by affording the opportunity to upload data at convenient times (optimized if data can be uploaded using freely available WIFI where possible, reducing expensive mobile data consumption to zero or close to zero) (Brunette et al. 2017). Importantly, ODK Collect is supported on over 21 000 devices, and has been developed to function in over 60 languages, maximizing accessibility (ODK, 2023: https://getodk.org).A custom ODK Collect form collection interface has been designed and launched for the Enviro-Champs (See Appendix 2 for screen shots of the data collection interface for the Enviro-Champs within ODK Collect), which is available via the FormShare webpage dedicated to the Enviro-Champs (Figure 2).ODK Collect uploads data to a FormShare server, which securely stores the data in a cloud-based format, making the data available online anywhere in the world. Through this process, one can create an end-to-end data management stream: Data are collected in ODK Collect in-field → data are uploaded and securely stored on the FormShare server → those data are auto-assimilated into a managed, live-updated database in FormShare, without the need for tedious manual data handling through transcribing paper-based forms into digital spreadsheets. The data are available for management (review, editing, and cleaning) on the FormShare platform, or they can be easily downloaded in a format suitable for management (i.e., the data are stored and can be downloaded or transferred in a variety of ways, whichever the data manager finds more suitable, e.g., .csv, .json, or .xls). All changes made to data can be logged and can be flagged for later approval or rejection. This allows for data to be updated / edited post collection should there be any errors or changes needed. Moreover, each data point submitted can be easily and quickly reviewed.Switching to ODK Collect and FormShare creates room for improving the Enviro-Champs' technical skill, building the capacity of the Enviro-Champs for collecting and visualizing data, and for processing and managing the data real-time through a primarily automated process. Switching to ODK Collect will also provide a partial (but best-case) solution to the limitations imposed by mobile data requirements for information data handling (e.g., uploading large data files and images). The ODK Collect app is designed for offline use, where the data can be stored and uploaded at a later stage once an appropriate internet connection is available. Therefore, some of the significant issues with internet connectivity in rural areas can be solved by using the ODK platform.Unfortunately, there are currently no sustainable possibilities for 'mobile data free' use of the ODK Collect app (which would remove any constraints Enviro-Champs might have with mobile data restrictions or expenses, which can be significant for people living in rural or disaffected locations). However, to fully overcome the bottleneck in data collection associated with mobile data constraints, UNICEF-South Africa in collaboration with GroundTruth, will explore options to fund mobile data use for data collection via the Youth Agency Marketplace (YOMA). The YOMA platform will ideally allow the entity managing and employing the Enviro-Champs to purchase data packages (via vouchers, which need to be redeemed for mobile data), modulated via blockchain technology, for the Enviro-Champs. This system will allow specific data challenges to be overcome in an efficient, accessible fashion, while minimizing the chance for abuse or dangers associated with direct cash transfers. Work on the applicability and potential of YOMA and blockchain technology in this manner is ongoing.At the introduction to this report we noted that there are challenges and assumptions that must be addressed as digital innovations, such as those relating to the Enviro-Champs and their work with ODK Collect and FormShare, must be understood and engaged with. In particular, issues related to technicism and technicist assumptions can have a marked debilitating effect on efforts to communicate, mobilize and implement such innovations.Research reveals how one can't simply discover the best possible digital innovations, such as the integration with and application of ODK Collect, and then communicate it to the Enviro-Champs, with the assumption that they will effectively apply the technology (Popkewitz 1984;Jalbert and Kinchy 2016;Walker et al. 2020). People and social change processes are much more subtle and unpredictable than this and one needs careful learning pathways that support the application of the innovations if these are to be effectively integrated with the work of the Enviro-Champs and the catchment management processes. This work resonates with Beck's concept of a 'risk society' (1992) an orientation which signals a transition from modernity to reflexive modernization (Giddens 1982). The research also engages with the technicist assumptions that are made in such arenas.As stated by Rogers (2002), \"…technology transfer is essentially a communication process through which the results of scientific research are put into use. As such, technology transfer is a unique type of science communication, one that is often frustratingly difficult. Many technologists believe that advantageous technologies will diffuse spontaneously, so technology transfer activities are unimportant and unnecessary. But this is not the case. For example, when technology transfer occurs too slowly, it is thought to be the fault of the receptors.\"It is important to acknowledge that the receptors are often not at fault. Rather, there is a requirement to engage in actionlearning to facilitate technology transfer, and the onus rests on developers and educators to ensure successful implementation of technological advances (Rahnema 2020). This is especially the case within unskilled, developing, and traditionally technologically limited settings (Walker et al. 2020;Weingart and Meyer 2021).Technicism is a dominating feature of modernist thinking.Technicism comes from a preoccupation with technique and technology, and also has a dominating linear and causal belief structure. Technicism is more than an obsession with technology and 'techno-fix'. It supports a belief structure that sees the world, and how people relate to it, as involving rational processes that can be addressed in a mechanistic manner (Lyotard 1993). Manifesting within modernism and techno-science, technicism has been supported by its research complement scientometrics, a positivistic research style that has dominated the social sciences until quite recently. Interventionist ideologies, especially as these relate to digital innovations, often have a technicist orientation that may be linked to positivistic research perspectives where social change becomes a matter of technical and administrative reform (Popkewitz 1984).For effective social change processes to be achieved, especially as these relate to the digital innovations we are developing with the Enviro-Champs, a close connection with the world-view or the social reality of the Enviro-Champs must be engaged with (Weingart and Meyer 2021;Hulbert 2016;Hulbert et al. 2019;Schachtschneider 2016;Taylor and Taylor 2016). In the Action Learning literature (e.g., O'Donoghue et al. 2018) we recommend 'tuning-in' processes that are crucial to help participants make the connections and engage with the complex social reality that involves water quality monitoring and catchment management. Such 'tuning in' processes also resonate with indigenous knowledge practices and the histories and cultures that have shaped how people live and relate to water and catchment management (UNESCO 2018). These approaches to social change, which are now being adopted by UNESCO, continue to define the further 5 T's of Action Learning, namely Talk, Touch, Tune-In, Think and Take Action.This thinking is not new. The ideology and importance of action-learning, although not so termed, was even reflected on by Xun Kuang, a prolific Chinese Confucian philosopher in 312-230 BC, whose philosophies were collected and published as the Xunzi by Liu Xiang in c 818 AD:\"Not having heard something is not as good as having heard it; having heard it is not as good as having seen it; having seen it is not as good as knowing it; knowing it is not as good as putting it into practice.\"-Chapter 11, Book 8: Ruxiao (\"The Teachings of the Ru\"), in the Xunzi (circa 818 AD), translated by Dubs, H. H. (1928).Step 1. Who to Work With? Situational Analysis and Partner IdentificationAt the outset of attempting to establish an Enviro-Champs initiative, it is crucial to engage with key stakeholders in the region. A situational analysis is a useful strategy because it will establish who all the role players and stakeholders are in a particular area, including Government Departments, Local Government, Non-Government Agencies and Community Based Organizations (CBOs). From the situational analysis, the project team can begin to identify partners suitable for working with the Enviro-Champs. The nature of these potential partners varies; they can range from well-situated, strong church groups, to NGO's such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).Step 2. Liaise with Relevant Authorities and PartnersThe next step is to engage with the agencies and communities identified in the situational analysis and partner identification.It is crucial to work with elected Councilors or Ward Representatives, whomever is directed with the charge of environmental regulation and service delivery in the region. There may also be traditional authorities with influence, engaging them, as well as with local municipalities and South African Local Government Association (SALGA) representatives, can be really helpful in ensuring the project is well received and gets the kind of support it needs. Other NGO's and CBO's from the region as identified in Step 1 should also be engaged with to establish whether they may be prepared to help host Enviro-Champs.Step 3. Develop Criteria for SelectionOnce partners have been identified who will take charge of funding and managing the team of Enviro-Champs, selection of Enviro-Champs can begin. The selection process for Enviro -Champs has been partially developed and refined since the inception of the first Enviro-Champs initiative, but never refined and formalized. Our aim was to synthesize a selection process that provides an objective and unbiased method for selecting Enviro-Champs who represent the focal area well, and who will effectively and passionately form environmental and community stewards. The approach for selection of Enviro-Champs, from spatial delineation of the catchment through to outlining the requirements for skills and traits of the selected personnel, and has two parts:The first part of developing the criteria for selection is developing a Decision Support Tool for establishing the geographic location from which the Enviro-Champs will be selected. To begin, a geographic information system (GIS) is used to spatially map and priorities informal settlements to objectively select communities from the Wards which comprise the focal catchment. The GIS mapping and prioritization is done according to the following process:1) The wards, or relevant government district units (hereafter 'Wards' is used), that are within the entire focal area are identified. The relative area of each of these Wards within the entire focal area is calculated.2) The relative area each informal settlement within the focal area, as well as the area of each informal settlement (considering Enviro-Champs initiatives are usually set up in rural areas, or areas with large informal settlementsthe strategy can be adjusted accordingly for local relevance) within the focal area, as mapped by the relevant local municipality, is calculated.3) For initiatives focused on stream and river monitoring, variable buffer scores, extending outwards from the mainstem catchment river/s in graduations (i.e. 100m, 500m, 1.5km, 3.0km) are used to establish the proximity of informal settlements to the river. Informal settlements occurring close to the river would have greater access in terms of ongoing monitoring. A buffer score is applied to each informal settlement where those occurring within 100m of the river are given a high score (buffer score = 4), whereas those occurring beyond 1.5km, but within 3.0km, are given a low score (buffer score = 1). An extent score (small = 1; medium = 2; large = 3) is also applied to the size of informal settlements, based on the assumption that larger communities will have a greater number of potential Enviro-Champs for the selection process. Guidelines for the delineation of these areas are: small (<1ha), medium (1 to 10ha), large (>10ha). Buffer scores (1 to 4) are multiplied by extent scores (1 to 3) to develop values that reflect access to the river and potential number of Enviro-Champs. Overall scores range from zero (0) to eight (8), where a low overall score indicates poor access to the river for a small number of potential Enviro-Champs, while a high score indicates good access by a large number of potential Enviro-Champs. Informal settlements with high scores are selected as suitable commu-Appendix 1. Recruitment Protocol for Enviro-Champs 12 nities for Enviro-Champs training. Within the informal settlements with high scores, there needs to be equal and fair appointment of candidates (focusing on equality in gender appointment and female empowerment). It is recommended (based on the size and coverage of each Ward) that enough Enviro-Champs be appointed to cover the key nodes in the relevant part of the focal area.4) If the focus of the monitoring program is not stream or river monitoring, the same scoring system can be applied to the variables of interest. Essentially, a score can be developed which accounts for the proximity to the variables needing to be monitored or managed, as well as the number of people who have close access to engage in that monitoring and management. Through this process, one can establish what areas should be targeted for recruiting Enviro-Champs, and how many Enviro-Champs would be suitable for that area. It is useful to keep in mind that citizen science achieves heightened efficacy and engagement the easier it is to engage. Therefore, focusing on proximity, ease of access, and minimizing costs, are critical to successful implementation.The second part of developing the criteria for selection is then to define the required and / or desirable qualifications, character, and traits of the potential Enviro-Champs applicants from the selected informal settlements. Within the selected geographic locations, the Enviro-Champs need to meet a set of criteria. Here, we provide a guide for selectors based on previous experience with what has defined successful and effective Enviro-Champs:1) Firstly, an Enviro-Champ should be a public-spirited person who cares about local people and the environment around where they live. Enviro-Champs need to provide linkages between the issues they and their community face, which are often about water, sanitation and waste, and the authorities who are situated to do something about those issues. While Enviro-Champs can be primarily focussed on environmental monitoring and management, they also play an integral role in strengthening social fabric. Enviro-Champs need to be willing environmental and community stewards who can respond when things go wrong, or even when things appear to be going right. Enviro-Champs need to be strong communicators, willing to engage with their community, educating them, congratulating them on what is going right, and challenging them on what is going wrong.2) To be effective the Enviro-Champs must be capable of conducting the following activities:a. Measuring, reporting and in some cases even fixing (if minor) water leaks, both of potable water in supply lines, but also of sewage leaks in the wastewater reticulation network.b. Industrial pollution monitoring and wastewater treatment works (WTWW) monitoring using the transparent clarity tubes (Graham et al. 2024 f. Have Grade 10 as the minimum requirement. This is a guideline, since people without formal educations can still contribute meaningfully to environmental and community stewardship. However, at least a basic education is very helpful for carrying out all the tasks required of an Enviro-Champ, especially in terms of the digital literacy required to capture and report monitoring data.g. Be a South African citizen (for initiatives in South Africa). This can be adjusted as required for the region. The local citizenship is aimed at bolstering local employment and affording opportunities to local nationals in regions characterized by extremely high unemployment and disenfranchisement.5) Interests: Applicants should be passionate about the environment and their community and should have an active interest in outdoor pursuits. Applicants should be committed to public service and to the health and development of the communities in the catchment in which they will be working. e. Determination and persistence. Many issues that Enviro-Champs face are persistent and difficult to remedy over short time scales. Therefore, it is important to persevere and remain proactive and positive in the face of adversity.f. Networking and communication skills. Enviro-Champs are often relied on as conduits of com-munication and networking between communities and local authorities. Consequently, they must show an ability and interest in forming and fostering those connections.g. Team building / capacity building skills.h. An understanding of community and social issues. Enviro-Champs often experience most of the issues they deal with first-hand. However, they need to show concern for their community issues, and a willingness to listen and communicate with community members to understand their grievances.i. An interest in research and data gathering skills.Step 4. AdvertiseAn advertisement for the Enviro-Champ's positions should be shared with the managing and funding partners, for input and editing. It is also a good idea to include local leadership, such as Ward Counsellors and Traditional Leaders, in the process before advertising to ensure that the new role of community members is transparent and welcomed. Following this consultation, the final advert for positions for the Enviro-Champs can be sent out by the key managing and funding partners in the best mechanisms they choose. At this stage, it is important to consider the best methods for reaching the target citizens. In some cases, digital access to conventional platforms may be limited, requiring alternative approaches such as open days in the community advertising the positions, or printing flyers to be distributed within the target communities.Based on the mutually agreed Decision Support Tool and selection criteria, the managing authority are then required to select and review the curricula vitae (CV's) of people who might be suitable and eligible Enviro-Champs. Notably, this step has proven a significant challenge in the past -collecting CV's for the positions can take a long time. Facilitating easy submission of CV's is vital, either via an online means (email or a submission portal), or through facilitating manual submission by providing a time and place, with printing services supplied, where CV's can be submitted. In addition to working through local authorities it is advisable to circulate job description advertisements in communities where the Enviro-Champs will be operating (e.g., pamphlets, educational / recruitment video; https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=VkSm4VDYY_Q) explaining the Enviro-Champs initiative and encouraging people to forward CV's to the appropriate Counsellors for consideration, increasing the uptake from the community side. A shortcoming of other projects has been a 14 low number of potentially suitable candidates to select from. This can potentially be overcome by extending advertising to the communities themselves in an engaging fashion.Step 5: Short-List CandidatesThis step simply requires verifying that the submitted candidates meet the selection criteria. Maximizing the number of CV's submitted increases the chances of having a strong pool of candidates to select from. Where there are enough applications, they can be narrowed down to those best suited to move on to interviews.Step 6: InterviewsOnce short-listing is completed, the remaining candidates are invited to interviews. The number of candidates interviewed will depend on the application pool, resources for interviewing, and the rate of successful appointment. The interview should attempt to establish how well the candidate fits the recommended skills and traits listed in Step 3. The most critical aspect of the interview process is to attempt to establish the participant's commitment to public-spirited or communitydevelopment work. As mentioned above, being an effective Enviro-Champ requires more than someone simply seeking employment and an easy paycheck. They must show genuine desire to be active within their community and to undertake a meaningful role in environmental stewardship. To this end, interviewees are invited to describe any community work they have undertaken, or the visions they may have for activities or practices which could lead to community improvement.Step 7. Appointing Successful CandidatesOnce suitable candidates are selected based on the interview performances, they should be required to undergo two final assessments of their physical health:• Medical screening: Candidates are requested to submit medical screening reports from clinics and doctors. Medical screening includes blood pressure and glucose levels. This is a low resolution, minimally-invasive screening to ensure a suitable level of baseline health. The medical screening can also help to identify potential issues, such as diabetes, that may be treatable before they become serious health risks.• Physical test: To work as an Enviro-Champ requires a certain level of basic fitness. This necessitates a physical test. It is suggested that candidates be invited to a walk of approximately 5 km in the focal area to establish if their fitness levels are adequate for the required work.It should be noted that candidates with disabilities should, nonetheless, be encouraged to apply to be Enviro-Champs. In the past several disabled persons have functioned effectively as Enviro-Champs, although the level and focus of work may need to be adapted to accommodate the skillsets of disabled persons.Once the host partner has established the list of successful candidates, the participants are informed if they were successful or not. The ideal number of candidates eventually appointed will depend on the size of the communities, Wards, and focal area, as well as the number of eligible applicants. The outcome of the Enviro-Champ appointment process is included here for the eThekwini Palmiet catchment Enviro-Champ initiative as an example that can be adapted for future use (Table A1).The process of appointment needs to be adaptive and reflexive. Local issues and challenges may affect the appointment process. Examples from the Palmiet project are noted here to illustrate how challenges could be overcome:• The number of Enviro-Champs selected per settlement was affected by not receiving adequate strong candidates from some settlements. For example, two more Enviro-Champs were added in Quarry Road West, while in Rainbow Ridge the number of Enviro-Champs was reduced by two.• Due to various delays, which were unavoidable and unforeseeable, there remained a need to repeat the selection process for Enviro-Champs positions in Dukezwe and Ezinyosini, where only two were selected instead of five. This illustrates how the process of appointment may be ongoing, until the requirements for Enviro-Champ presence in the catchment are met. Table A1. The number of selected for appointment of Enviro-Champs and the number of Enviro-Champs expected to be, compared to the actual number, eventually appointed in five informal settlements in the Palmiet catchment, Kwa-Zulu Natal","tokenCount":"6513"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ae9289bc0ce1fb4e46c5c9d83d245366","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1232ccc-4e77-4e8c-8aa2-3d763a4eecb6/retrieve","id":"2013295024"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"71bb890d-98a2-4ccd-868d-9c3bc0d9d5af","pagecount":"63","content":"Medicago (Annual) * (E,F) 1991 Mung bean * (E) 1980 Oat * (E) 1985 Oca * (S) 2001 Oil palm (E) 1989 Panicum miliaceum and P. sumatrense (E) 1985 Papaya (E) 1988 Peach * (E) 1985 Pear * (E) 1983 ii Fig The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 16 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP). The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,A draft version prepared in the internationally accepted IPGRI format for descriptor lists was subsequently sent to a number of international experts for their comments and amendments. A full list of the names and addresses of those involved is given in 'Contributors'.Fig is a typical neglected and underutilized crop, strategic in many marginal rural areas, particularly in the Mediterranean region where it originated. This Descriptor List is meant to provide the scientific community with an additional tool to promote research on its genetic resources and contribute to enhance its sustainable use and ultimately income generation opportunities of its growers.IPGRI encourages the collecting of data for all five types of descriptors (see Definitions and Use of Descriptors), whereby data from the first four categories -Passport, Management, Environment and Site, and Characterization -should be available for any accession. The number of descriptors selected in each of the categories will depend on the crop and their importance to the crop's description. Descriptors listed under Evaluation allow for a more extensive description of the accession, but generally require replicated trials over a period of time.Although the suggested coding should not be regarded as the definitive scheme, this format represents an important tool for a standardized characterization system and it is promoted by IPGRI throughout the world.This descriptor list provides an international format and thereby produces a universally understood 'language' for plant genetic resources data. The adoption of this scheme for data encoding, or at least the production of a transformation method to convert other schemes into the IPGRI format, will produce a rapid, reliable and efficient means for information storage, retrieval and communication, and will assist with the utilization of germplasm. It is recommended, therefore, that information should be produced by closely following the descriptor list with regard to ordering and numbering descriptors, using the descriptors specified, and using the descriptor states recommended.This descriptor list is intended to be comprehensive for the descriptors that it contains. This approach assists with the standardization of descriptor definitions. IPGRI, however, does not assume that curators will characterize accessions of their collection utilizing all descriptors given. Descriptors should be used when they are useful to the curator for the management and maintenance of the collection and/or to the users of the plant genetic resources. Highly discriminating descriptors are marked as highlighted text to facilitate selection of descriptors and are listed in Annex I.Multicrop passport descriptors were developed jointly by IPGRI and FAO, to provide consistent coding schemes for common passport descriptors across crops. They are marked inthe text as [MCPD]. Please note that owing to the generic nature of the multicrop passport descriptors, not all descriptor states for a particular descriptor will be relevant to a specific crop.Any suggestions for improvement on the Descriptors for Fig Passport descriptors: These provide the basic information used for the general management of the accession (including registration at the genebank and other identification information) and describe parameters that should be observed when the accession is originally collected.Management descriptors: These provide the basis for the management of accessions in the genebank and assist with their multiplication and regeneration.Environment and site descriptors: These describe the environmental and site-specific parameters that are important when characterization and evaluation trials are held. They can be important for the interpretation of the results of those trials. Site descriptors for germplasm collecting are also included here.Characterization descriptors: These enable an easy and quick discrimination between phenotypes. They are generally highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are equally expressed in all environments. In addition, these may include a limited number of additional traits thought desirable by a consensus of users of the particular crop.The expression of many of the descriptors in this category will depend on the environment and, consequently, special experimental designs and techniques are needed to assess them. Their assessment may also require complex biochemical or molecular characterization methods. These types of descriptors include characters such as yield, agronomic performance, stress susceptibilities and biochemical and cytological traits. They are generally the most interesting traits in crop improvement.Highly discriminating descriptors are indicated as highlighted text.Characterization will normally be the responsibility of genebank curators, while evaluation will typically be carried out elsewhere (possibly by a multidisciplinary team of scientists). The evaluation data should be fed back to the genebank, which will maintain a data file.The following internationally accepted norms for the scoring, coding and recording of descriptor states should be followed:(a) the Système International d'Unités (SI) is used;(b) the units to be applied are given in square brackets following the descriptor name; is the expression of a character. The authors of this list have sometimes described only a selection of the states, e.g. 3, 5 and 7 for such descriptors. Where this has occurred, the full range of codes is available for use by extension of the codes given or by interpolation between them, e.g. in Section 10 (Biotic stress susceptibility), 1 = very low susceptibility and 9 = very high susceptibility;(f) when a descriptor is scored using a 1-9 scale, such as in (e), '0' would be scored when (i) the character is not expressed; (ii) a descriptor is inapplicable. In the following example, '0' will be recorded if an accession does not have a central leaf lobe:1 Linear 2 Elliptic 3 Lanceolate (g) absence/presence of characters is scored as in the following example:0 Absent 1 Present (h) blanks are used for information not yet available;(i) for accessions which are not generally uniform for a descriptor (e.g. mixed collection, genetic segregation), the mean and standard deviation could be reported where the descriptor is continuous. Where the descriptor is discontinuous, several codes in the order of frequency could be recorded; or other publicized methods can be utilized, such as Rana  et al. (1991) or van Hintum (1993), that clearly state a method for scoring heterogeneous accessions;(j) dates should be expressed numerically in the format YYYYMMDD, where YYYY -4 digits to represent the year MM -2 digits to represent the month DD -2 digits to represent the day.Definitions and use of the descriptors 3All descriptors listed under Passport, belonging to the multicrop passport descriptors category, are indicated in the text as [MCPD]   1. Accession descriptors[MCPD] Code of the institute where the accession is maintained. The codes consist of the 3-letter ISO 3166 country code of the country where the institute is located plus a number. The current set of Institute Codes is available from FAO website (http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/). If new Institute Codes are required, they can be generated online by national WIEWS administrators[MCPD] This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions within a genebank collection, and is assigned when a sample is entered into the genebank collection. Once assigned this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number should never be re-used. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank at Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank at Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system) [MCPD] Provide the authority for the species names[MCPD] Subtaxa can be used to store any additional taxonomic identifier. The following abbreviations are allowed: \"subsp.\" (for subspecies); \"convar.\" (for convariety); \"var.\" (for variety); \"f.\" (for form)Subtaxa authority[MCPD] Provide the subtaxa authority at the most detailed taxonomic level 1.9Accession name[MCPD] Either a registered or other formal designation given to the accession. First letter uppercase. Multiple names separated with semicolon without space 1.9.1 Synonyms Include here any previous identification other than the current name. Collecting number or newly assigned station names are frequently used as identifiers[MCPD] Information about pedigree or other description of ancestral information (i.e. parent variety in case of mutant or selection)[MCPD] Name of the crop in colloquial language, preferably in English (i.e. 'malting barley', 'cauliflower', or 'white cabbage')The Remarks field is used to add notes or to elaborate on descriptors with value \"99\" (=Other) [MCPD] Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This item is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collections[MCPD] Collecting date of the sample where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated by hyphens. Leading zeros are required[MCPD] Code of the country in which the sample was originally collected. Use the three-letter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representation of names of countries. The ISO 3166-1: Code List can be obtained from IPGRI [ipgri-mcpd@cgiar.org][MCPD] Code of the institute that has bred the material. If the holding institute has bred the material, the breeding institute code should be the same as the holding institute[MCPD] Location information below the country level that describes where the accession was collected. This might include the distance in kilometers and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. 7 km south of Curitiba in the state of Parana)Latitude of collecting site 1[MCPD] Degree (2 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 103020S). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 10----S; 011530N; 4531--S)Longitude of collecting site 1[MCPD] Degree (3 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 0762510W). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 076----W).[MCPD] Elevation of collecting site expressed in meters above sea level. Negative values are allowed 6 Fig 1 To convert longitude and latitude in degrees (º), minutes ('), seconds (''), and a hemisphere (North or South and East or West) to decimal degrees, the following formula should be used: dº m' s'' = h * (d + m / 60 + s / 3600) where h=1 for the Northern and Eastern hemispheres and h=-1 for the Southern and Western hemispheres, i.e. 30º30'0'' S = -30.5 and 30º15'55'' N = 30.265.[MCPD] The coding scheme proposed can be used at 2 different levels of detail: either by using the general codes such as 10, 20, 30, 40 or by using more specific codes such as 11, 12 etc.10 Estimated slope of the siteThe direction that the slope faces. Describe the direction with symbols N, S, E, W (e.g. a slope that faces a southwestern direction has an aspect of SW)The landform refers to the shape of the land surface in the area in which the site is located (adapted from FAO 1990) Provide either the monthly or the annual mean  ","tokenCount":"1970"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7aeb9ba9941bca7bf59a9dbbfb9b9d99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/565e209f-0d71-401d-a119-d14af80ea1b2/retrieve","id":"-960711559"},"keywords":["Dr Netsayi Mudege CC5","3 -Gender-equitable development and youth employment Prof","Cees Leeuwis CC5","4 -Scaling RTB agri-food systems innovations Dr Godfrey Taulya CC5","2 -Sustainable intensification and diversification"],"sieverID":"ddc049e3-7c14-449b-a166-03ed94950305","pagecount":"19","content":"The scaling of innovations lies at the core of achieving RTB's ambitious targets of reaching millions of beneficiaries by 2022.FP5 develops RTB's 'science of scaling' that actively connects the pathways of research and development to achieve scaling of innovation. It supports researchers in making informed decisions on how to optimise the likelihood that their work will contribute to having impact at scale. In doing so, science of scaling supports:• The design, implementation and monitoring of impactful research processes through strategic foresight, ex-ante and ex-post impact analyses (CC5.1)• Government, public and private sector policy-making by showing the projected impacts that occur when RTB innovations are being used at scale (CC5.2)  Enhance RTB impact in a gender-equitable way by better addressing future opportunities and threats at local and global levels.   Looking ahead: opportunities and challenges  Opportunities: Cross-cutting linkages through Case Studies• CIALCA ($3M -IITA and Bioversity -approved yesterday)• BMZ (€1,2M -IITA, Bioversity, Leipniz Institute -under review)• LEAP-Agri (CIRAD and IITA)• 2 INSPIRE CGIAR Big Data Concept Notes (IITA, Bioversity, WUR)Opportunities: resource mobilisation • Glue between Clusters (cross cluster themes/ case studies and representation of scientists)• Central role in developing and assessing Scaling Fund proposals• Good visibility through joint publications, activities and communications such as RTB FP5 Symposium during the Global Food Security Conference in South Africa between 3-6 December 2017Thank you","tokenCount":"219"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0cf230cb41b119906ea4584dc7f4792a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2055d7b2-9555-4a75-9145-b2d9c6a6e683/retrieve","id":"1916236111"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17ffe6f8-307c-45a1-8be6-8200123909cd","pagecount":"22","content":"Step 3. Choose desirable varietiesThe best cassava varieties:• Grow fast • Give good yields • Tolerate major diseases and pests • Mature early • Give high root yields (fresh and dry) • Meet end-users quality characteristics • Store well in ground for more than 18 monthsFor high yielding and healthy planting materials, contact:  Step 4. Select healthy cassava stems Select planting materials from healthy cassava plants. These are plants (8-15 months old), which have minimal stem and leaf damage by pests and diseases.Avoid cassava stems with diseases and pests.Select hardwood portion of stem. Do not select stem cuttings from the top green stems and bottom portions of plants.Step 5. Prepare and handle cuttings properlyHandle hardwood stems properly to prevent bruises and damage to the nodes and to improve sprouting. Use hardwood cuttings for planting because they sprout better.Cut stem into cuttings of 20-25 cm long.Pack stems (1 meter long) in bundles of 50 and tie for transportation.Treat your stem cuttings against infection using a broad spectrum fungicide and insecticide e.g. Benlate (fungicide) and Perfeckthion (insecticide).Poor preparation and hand-ling of stem cuttings could result in poor sprouting, rooting, and low yield.Step 6. Select the correct planting time Planting date recommendations should fi t within local farming calendars.In zones with two rainy seasons, plant at the beginning of the major growing season (April -May) or minor growing season (August).In the savannah zones, plant at the beginning of the growing season (May -June).Plant cassava at the correct planting time to ensure: Step 7. Methods of planting cassava cuttings Cassava stem cuttings may be planted vertically, at an angle or horizontally, depending on soil types.Plant vertically in sandy soils with 2/3 of length of cutting below the soil to produce deeper lying storage roots for anchorage.Plant at an angle in loamy soils to produce more compactly arranged roots.Improper planting methods could make plants lodge, produce small roots, and diffi cult to harvest.Bury the stem cutting completely to increase stem production. Storage roots are many but they are comparatively smaller in size.Step 8. Plant at the correct plant spacingFor sole crops plant at 1 m x 1 m for the branching types. For the non-branching types planr at 1 m x 0.8 m.For intercropping, plant at a wider spacing, 1 m x 1.5 m for the branching types, and 1 m x 1 m for the non-branching types.Too wide spacing between cassava plants leads to increased weed competition and poor yields per unit area.Step 9. Control weeds early Weed competition reduces canopy development and root bulking.Early weeding prevents weeds from competing with the crop for nutrients, water, light and space. Combine different cultural practices to control weeds.[1] Manual weed control (hand weeding).[2] Use cover crops (Melon) to suppress weeds.[3] Use inter-row weeders (mechanical).[4] Use chemicals to control weeds.Step 9b. Herbicide use in root and tuber crops  In cold environments (Jos Plateau), harvesting can be delayed until 18-24 months after plantingEnsure that only mature healthy cassava stems are stored.Long-term storage of stems is diffi cult because of rapid dehydration.  The varieties listed below were carefully selected by IITA to meet agroecological and end-user requirement in Nigeria.These varieties are currently being evaluated in collaboration with:• National Root Crops Research Institute, NCRI • Agricultural Development Programs, ADPs • The Private Investors Information and Communication Support for Agricultural Growth in Nigeria (ICS-Nigeria) is a project which aims to increase the quantity and quality of information available for increased agricultural production, processing, and marketing and also strengthen the capacity of farmer assistance organizations to package and disseminate information and agricultural technologies to farmers for the alleviation of rural poverty.In recent past, investment in the support services to Nigerian agriculture has been neglected with the result that this sector has not realized its full potential to contribute to the prosperity and economic development of the country. Meanwhile, increasing population pressure and the accompanying need to intensify agricultural production is leading to erosion of the natural resource base on which agriculture depends.The sustainability of production is threatened by a vicious cycle of declining soil fertility and increasing problems of pests, diseases, and weeds. Moreover, the lack of knowledge on how to add value through proper storage, processing, and marketing impedes agricultural growth.Promising technologies exist to address these problems, but their adoption is constrained by a lack of information packaged in appropriate formats, and poor communication channels for this information, between farmers and the research, extension, and education organizations that are supposed to address these issues.ICS-Nigeria aims to assist in meeting these challenges by developing appropriate-format materials for disseminating information and agricultural technologies to target user groups, while increasing capacity of farmer assistance organizations to produce information materials. At the same time, communication channels will be reinforced so that information fl ow is enhanced.Agricultural technologies have been selected on the basis that they will lead to agricultural commercialization thereby enhancing rapid income generation for farmers and private sector practitioners. The project is taking advantage of existing agricultural development programs in Nigeria, national research institutes, and international research institutes in and out of Nigeria to identify these technologies. The project is also taking advantage of existing successful partnerships arising from recent and ongoing programs to enhance information fl ow.ICS-Nigeria is funded by the USAID.","tokenCount":"870"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c788cd30c68541c8fae90eb8acc1989b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/db300d11-68d1-4f4e-8f60-98ecf0c6dc0d/content","id":"1440718953"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e928b2f1-c56f-4454-beb1-ac574c6563d5","pagecount":"143","content":"This booklet is designed as a quick guide for identifying wheat and triticale diseases in the field. It is intended primarily for agricultural researchers, technicians, and farmers in developing nations, but will also be of value t o others. The text comprises a brief description of the major wheat and triticale diseases, insect pests, nematodes, physiologic and genetic disorders, and mineral and environmental stresses. Complementing this text and as an aid t o identification are numerous color photographs,l drawings2 and, i n the center of the booklet, a brief diagnostic key. In the case of specific causal organisms, the perfect stage name (when known) is followed by the imperfect stage name in parentheses. While most of the diseases, pests, disorders, or stresses included can be economically significant, some are not and are presented only because they are unique or might be confused w i t h more economically significant problems.11 All photographs compliments of CIMMYT staff, except for photo. 57, contributed by C.C. Gill,Puccinia recondita Symptoms: The pustules are circular or slightly elliptical, smaller than those of stem rust, usually do not coalesce, and contain masses of orange to orange-brown urediospores. Infection sites primarily are found on the upper surfaces of leaves and leaf sheaths (1 ), and occasionally on the neck and awns.Development: Primary infections usually are light and develop from wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease can develop rapidly when free moisture is available and temperatures are near 20°C. Successive generations of urediospores can be produced every 10-1 4 days if conditions are favorable. As plants mature or when environmental conditions are not favorable, masses of black teliospores may become evident (2).HostslDistribution: Leaf rust can affect wheat, triticale and many other related grasses. The disease is found w.herever temperate cereals are grown. The alternate hosts are Thalictrum, Isopryum, Anemonella, and Anchusa spp.Importance: Severe early infections can cause significant yield losses, mainly by reducing the number of kernels per spike, test weights, and kernel quality.Puccinia graminis f .sp. rritici Symptoms: Pustules (containing masses of urediospores) are dark reddish brown, and may occur on both sides of the leaves, on the stems, and on the spikes (3). With light infections the pustules are usually separate and scattered, but with heavy infections they may coalesce. Prior to pustule formation, \"flecks\" may appear. Before the spore masses break through the epidermis, the infection sites feel rough to the touch; as the spore masses break through, the surface tissues take on a ragged and torn appearance.Development: Primary infections are usually light and develop from wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease can develop rapidly when free moisture (rain or dew) and moderate temperatures prevail. If temperatures average about 20°C or more, the first generation of urediospores will be produced in 10-1 5 days. As plants mature, masses of black teliospores may be produced.Hosts/Distribution: Stem rust can affect wheat, barley, triticale, and many other related grasses; it is found wherever temperate cereals are grown.The alternate hosts are Berberis and Mahonia spp.Importance: If infection occurs during the early crop stages, the effects can be severe: reductions in tillering and losses in grain weight and quality. Under favorable conditions,,complete crop loss can occur.Puccinia striiformis Symptoms: The pustules of stripe rust, which. contain yellow t o orange-yellow urediospores, usually form narrow stripes on the leaves (4). Pustules also can be found on leaf sheaths, necks, and glumes (5).Development: Primary infections are caused by wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease may develop rapidly when free moisture (rain or dew) occurs and temperatures range between 1 0-20°C. A t temperatures above 25OC, the production of urediospores is reduced or ceases and black teliospores are often produced (6).HostlDistribution: Stripe rust can attack wheat, barley, triticale, and many other related grasses. The disease is found in all highland and/or temperate areas where cereals are grown. No alternate host is known.Importance: Severe infections can cause yield losses, mainly by reducing the number of kernels per spike, test weights, and kernel quality.Tilletia caries, T. foetida, T. controversa Symptoms: The main symptoms caused by these three species are fungal structures called \"bunt balls,\" which resemble kernels but are completely filled with black teliospores. The bunt balls of common bunt, caused by T. caries and T. foetida, are about the same size and shape as the kernels they replace (7); those of dwarf bunt, caused by T. controversa, are more nearly spherical (8). When bunt balls are crushed, they give off a fetid or fishy odor. Infected spikes tend to be bluish green in color (or darker), and the glumes tend to spread apart slightly; the bunt balls often become visible after the soft dough stage (9, 10; page 11 ). A slight reduction in plant height is typical of common bunt, while a pronounced reduction in height is typical of dwarf bunt.Development: Spores lying dormant in the soil or on seed germinate and infect emerging seedlings. Infection is favored by cool temperatures during germination. The disease develops systemically, with visible symptoms appearing after heading. Symptoms: Karnal bunt is not easily detected prior to harvest, since it is usual for only a few kernels per spike to be affected by the disease. Following harvest, diseased kernels can be easily detected by visual inspection: a mass of black teliospores replaces a portion of the endosperm, and the pericarp may be intact or ruptured ( 1 1 ) . Diseased kernels give off a fetid or fishy odor when crushed.Development: Karnal bunt is a seed-or soil-borne, floral infecting disease. lnoculum (teliospores) on or near the soil surface germinates, producing sporidia, which are carried by wind to the floral structures. These sporidia in turn germinate and penetrate the glumes, rachis, or the ovary itself. The fungus enters the newly formed kernel and develops in the intercellular space between the endosperm and seed coat. The degree of disease establishment and development depends on environmental conditions from spike emergence through grain filling.Ustilago tritici Symptoms: The entire inflorescence, except the rachis, is replaced by masses of smut spores (1 2). These black teliospores often are blown away by the wind, leaving only the bare rachis and remnants of other floral structures (1 3). HostslDistribution: The disease can occur wherever wheat is grown.Importance: Yield losses depend on the number of spikes affected by the disease; incidence is usually less than one percent and rarely exceeds thirty percent of the spikes in any given location.Uroc ystis agrop yri Symptoms: Masses of black teliospores are produced in narrow strips just beneath the epidermis of leaves, leaf sheaths and occasionally the culms. Diseased plants often are stunted, tiller profusely and the spikes may not emerge. A severe infection usually induces the leaves t o roll, producing an onion-type leaf appearance. The epidermis of older diseased plants tends t o shred, releasing the teliospores ( 1 4).Development: Germinating kernels or very young seedlings are infected by germinating spores on the seed or in the soil. The disease continues to develop systemically, and the black subepidermal strips of teliospores become visible near heading. Infection is favored by low soil moisture and cool soil temperatures.HostslDistribution: Bread wheats are the primary hosts of flag smut fungi, and the isolates attacking bread wheat tend to do so exclusively. There are few reports of flag smut on durum wheats and triticales. The disease is found in most winter wheat areas and in cool, fall-sown spring wheat areas.Importance: Flag smut generally is not an economically important disease, but where present, yield losses can range from trace amounts to moderate levels (when susceptible cultivars are grown).Erysiphe grarninis f. sp. tritici Symptoms: On all hosts, the first visible i symptoms of this disease are white to pale gray, fuzzy or powdery colonies of mycelia, and conidia on the upper surfaces of leaves and leaf sheaths (especially on lower leaves) (1 51, and sometimes on the spikes. Older fungal tissue is yellowish gray (16). This superficial fungal material can be rubbed off easily with the fingers. Host tissue beneath the fungal material becomes chlorotic or necrotic and, with severe infections, the leaves may die. Eventually, black spherical fruiting structures (cleistothecia) mav develoo in the mvcelia. and HostslDistribution: The fungus has a high degree of host specificity. Isolates infecting wheat do so exclusively; the same appears to be true for isolates infecting barley, oats, and rye. Further specialization exists in the form of races. Powdery mildew occurs worldwide in cool, humid, and semiarid areas where cereals are grown.Importance: Powdery mildew can cause major yield losses if infection occurs early in the crop cycle and conditions remain favorable for development so that high infection levels are reached before heading.Leptosphaeria nodorum (S. nodorum)Leptosphaeria avenaria f .sp. triticea (S. avenae f . s ~, triticea) Symptoms: Initial infection sites tend t o be irregular in shape, oval t o elongated chlorotic spots or lesions. As these sites expand, the centers of the lesions become pale, straw colored, and slightly necrotic, often with numerous small black dots (pycnidia) (1 7). The lesions of septoria tritici blotch tend t o be linear and restricted laterally (1 81, while those of septoria nodorum blotch (1 9; page 23) and septoria avenae blotch are more lens shaped. All above ground plant parts can be affected. Light infection produces only scattered lesions, but heavy infection can kill leaves, spikes ( 2 0 is S. nodorum; page 231, or even the entire plant. Identification of species in the field can be difficult, and microscopic examination is often necessary. Development: Primary infections tend t o be o n the lower leaves, beginning as chlorotic flecks or spots. These infection sites enlarge, turn dark brown, and often coalesce. When the disease is severe, affected leaves or leaf sheaths may die prematurely.HostslDistribution: Spot blotch affects wheat, triticale, barley, and most grasses. It is found worldwide, but is especially prevalent in more humid and higher rainfall areas.Importance: If infection occurs early in the crop cycle and conditions remain favorable for development, complete defoliation is possible; major reductions in yield and severely shrivelled kernels will then result.Pyrenophora trichostorna fHelminthhosporium tritici-repentis) S y n. P. tritici-repentis, Drechslera tritici-repentis Symptoms: A t first, lesions appear as tan t o brown flecks, which expand into large, irregular, oval-or lens-shaped tan blotches with a yellow or chlorotic margin (23). As these spots coalesce, large blotches are formed. The development of a dark brown t o black spot in the center of the lesion is characteristic of the disease. As the disease progresses, entire leaves, spikes, and even whole plants may be killed.Development: Initial infections come from diseased crop debris in the soil, or from diseased grass hosts. Usually the lower leaves are infected first, and the disease progresses to the upper leaves and leaf sheaths if conditions are favorable. This disease develops over a wide range of temperatures and is favored by long periods (1 8 hours or more) of dew or rain.HostslDistribution: Tan spot can affect wheat and several related grasses; triticale, barley, and rye are less frequently affected. The disease is found in the major temperate wheat-growing areas.Importance: When severe, tan spot can cause premature death of the leaves, thereby reducing yield by lowering test weights and producing a high degree of kernel shrivelling. This disease has become more important with the increased adoption of minimum and/or no-till agronomic practices, which leave crop debris in place.Symptoms: Small, chlorotic, oval-or ellipticalshaped lesions appear and, as they enlarge, these lesions become irregular in shape. The chlorotic borders of the lesions may become diffuse and turn light to dark brown in color (24). Lesions are difficult to distinguish from those caused by Helrninthosporiurn spp. Infection usually starts on the lower leaves, but symptoms can be found on all plant parts. Development: The fungus survives as conidia on seed or as mycelia within seed. Sporulation on lower leaves provides inoculum that can be dispersed by wind, leading to secondary spread of the disease. Seed-borne inoculum often results in spike infections late in the crop cycle. High humidity or irrigation, as well as warmer temperatures (20' to 25'C) favor infection and disease development.HostslDistribution: Bread wheat and durum wheat, as well as several related grasses, are the primary hosts. The disease is common in the eastern and central areas of the Asian Subcontinent.Importance: Alternaria leaf blight can be very severe if environmental conditions are favorable for disease development; major losses can result when susceptible cultivars are grown.Symptoms: The blotching caused by this organism becomes evident on leaves at about late-joint to early-boot growth stage. Young lesions occur as oval to elliptical, greyish green mottled areas, usually located where the leaf bends (25). The lesions enlarge rapidly, developing into large, \"eyespot\" blotches with bleached or light grey centers; the leaves tend to split or shred, beginning at the centers of the lesions ( 2 6 ) . The fungus also can cause seedling blight, foot rot, head scab ( 2 7 ) and, in winter cereals, pink snow mold.Development: Spores are produced on crop debris left on or near the soil surface. These spores are transmitted to leaves by the wind or by splashing rain. Disease development is favored by cool, moist weather.HostslDistribution: Generally, the disease affects durum wheat and triticale more than bread wheat or rye; oats and barley appear to be immune. Reports indicate that the disease is restricted to East Africa, the highland areas of Mexico, the Andean region of South America, and parts of southern China.Importance: Severe disease development can cause complete defoliation, resulting in poor grain development, shrivelling, and low test weights ( 2 8 ) .Fusarium spp.Symptoms: lnfected florets (especially the outer glumes) become slightly darkened and oily in appearance (29). Conidiospores are produced in sporodochia, which gives the spike a bright pinkish color (30). lnfected kernels may be permeated with mycelia and the surface of the florets totally covered by white, matted mycelia.Development: Several species of Fusarium can attack the spikes of small grain cereals; the ovaries are infected at anthesis, and infection is favored by warm and humid weather during and after heading. Temperatures between l o 0 and 28OC are required for infection. Once primary infection has occurred, the disease can spread from floret t o floret by mycelial growth through the spike structure.HostslDistribution: All small grain cereals may be affected by this disease. Fusarium spp. are present in nearly all soils and crop residues.Importance: Severe levels of infection can cause yield losses of more than 50% and significant reductions in grain quality. Kernels from diseased spikes are often shrivelled. Harvested grain containing more than 5% infected kernels can contain enough toxin to be harmful to humans and animals.Symptoms: At flowering, infected florets produce a yellowish, sticky, sweet exudate (containing conidia) that is visible on the glumes. As the spike matures, kernels of infected florets are replaced by brown to purplish black fungal structures (sclerotia or \"ergot bodies\") (31 ). These ergot bodies can reach 20 mm in length (32).Development: The primary infection originates from ascospores in fruiting bodies produced by sclerotia from the previous year's crop. Ascospores infect the florets, which then produce the sticky exudate containing conidia. Insects are attracted to the sweet exudate, and carry conidia to healthy florets in the same spike or to adjacent spikes. Rainy or humid weather favors the production of exudate and spores. An ergot body develops in each infected floret; these fungal structures can survive in the soil from one season to the next, and under dry conditions they can remain viable for many years. Sclerotia require cold temperatures before they can germinate.HostslDistribution: Ergot is found in all small grain cereal crops, especially if sterility occurs for some reason (e.g., frost). Sterile florets tend to open and thus become more liable to infection. The disease is more prevalent in cool, humid climates.Importance: Yield losses tend to be small, but losses due to discounted grain quality can be significant and occur worldwide.Alternaria, Helminthosporium, and Fusarium s pp .Symptoms: The pericarps of maturing wheat kernels turn dark brown to black, with the discoloration usually restricted to the germ-end of the kernel (33; 34 is healthy seed). If caused by Alternaria spp., the dark color affects only the pericarp; if caused by Helminthosporium or Fusarium spp., the germ may be invaded and injured or killed. There are other fungi that can cause black point, but the three noted here are the most common.Development: Usually, kernels are infected by these fungi during the dough stage. If humid weather prevails for a few days to a week just prior to harvest, the incidence of infection will increase and black point will develop in many cultivars.HostslDistribution: Wheat is the principal host; triticale and several related grasses also can be affected. Distribution is worldwide, wherever small grain cereals are grown.Importance: Losses are due mainly to discounted prices paid for discolored grain; if Fusarium or Helminthosporium spp. are involved, the viability of the seed also may be reduced.Symptoms: Diseased plants tiller profusely; they have short, erect, irregular, or crooked yellowishgreen culms; and the leaves are thick, erect, and usually in whorls (35). Tillers die prematurely or never head. If formed, the heads may be branched, and some of the floral tissues grow into leaflike structures (36).Development: The disease in cereals is generally associated with water-logged or excessively irrigated fields. Development is enhanced if temperatures range between l o 0 and 25OC.Infection may be initiated by inoculum in the soil, or from diseased weed hosts, and water must be present for infection to occur. Symptoms are most obvious during the tilleringlstem elongation growth stages of the host plant.HostslDistribution: The fungus has a broad host range, including small grain cereals, maize, sorghum, and most grasses. It may be found wherever soils become water-logged or are poorly drained.Importance: Small, localized epidemics can occur when conditions are favorable. There have been no reports of widespread and destructive epidemics.Gaeumannomyces graminis f, sp. tritici Syn. Ophiobolus grarninis Symptoms: This fungus causes rotting of the roots and lower stems. Basal stem and leaf sheath tissues, as well as roots, may turn a shiny black color (37). When examined with a hand lens (10x1, dark fungal hyphae may often be found on the subcrown internode beneath the old leaf sheaths. Coarse, black runner hyphae are conspicuous on roots. Severe disease development is indicated by stunted plants with whitened stems and spikes (38, page 43). When infection occurs early in the crop cycle, the number of tillers is often reduced and spikes are often sterile.Development: The fungus persists on crop debris in the soil. Initial infections come from contact with hyphae or ascospores in the soil. Infection can occur throughout the crop cycle, but is favored by cool (12-18OC) soil temperatures and alkaline or nutrient deficient soils. Nitrate also appears to enhance disease development. Infections of the roots occurring in the fall and early spring generally progress to the crown and lower stem tissues; infections occurring later in the crop cycle cause less damage since they usually are confined t o the roots.(continued) HostslDistribution: The take-all fungus displays. a degree of specialization for wheat, triticale and several related grasses. The disease appears t o be restricted t o temperate wheat-growing areas.Importance: Take-all is widespread in monocropped areas and has been known t o cause considerable yield losses in winter wheat and fallsown spring wheat areas, especially where liming or minimum tillage is practiced.Sy n . Cercosporella herpotrichoides Symptoms: The most obvious symptoms of this disease are the eye-shaped, elliptical lesions produced on the internodes of the lower stem (39). The lesions are bordered by dark brown to greenish brown rings, have straw-colored centers, and frequently develop on the leaf sheath at soil level. These lesions may coalesce and lose their distinct \"eye-spot\" appearance. When disease development is severe, the stem or culm may break near the ground or through the lesion where the stem is weakened (40). Symptoms do not appear on the roots.  Importance: The disease is usually more severe in fields that are continuously sown to cereals, especially winter wheat. However, no major or widespread epidemics have been reported.  HostslDistribution: These diseases affect all major small grain cereals grown in the temperate regions of the world.Importance: Major epidemics have not been reported. However, localized losses can result from thinned stands, a decrease in the number of tillers, and from reductions in head size and test weights.Corticum rolfsii (Sclerotium rolfsii) Symptoms: If infection occurs early in the crop cycle, pre-or post-emergence \"damping off\" of seedlings can result. Diseased tissues will frequently have white, fluffy fungal mycelia on the surface (441, which often permeate the soil surrounding the plant. Subsequent disease development results in rotted culms, crowns, and roots, and the eventual death of the plant; this leads to the appearance of \"white heads\" or spikes in the green crop (45). Sclerotia are commonly found on the crown tissues, culms, or near the soil surface (46). Young sclerotia are whitish and turn brown to dark brown with age. Development: When wet or humid weather occurs at or near crop maturation, or when plants are heavily infested with aphids, or when plants die prematurely, they may be invaded by one or more of these fungi. Technically, black molds do not constitute a disease, since the fungi are saprophytic and invade only dead or dying plant tissue.HostslDistribution: Black molds affect any kind of dead or dying plant tissue; distribution is worldwide.Importance: Black molds generally are not economically important. Under humid or rainy conditions, the fungi can invade mature kernels, causing discoloration, black point, or smudge.Bacterial plant pathogens are small unicellular rods . from 1 t o 3 p m in length. They do not have a well-defined nucleus, nor a nuclear membrane. Bacteria are spread by insects, air currents, splashing rain, and by mechanical means. Free moisture usually is necessary for infection, and penetration of host tissue occurs through wounds or stomata1 openings. These pathogens invade the vascular system or intercellular spaces in host tissue, and necrosis results from toxins produced or enzymatic activity of the bacteria.Xanthornonas carnpestris pv. translucens Syn. X. translucens, X. translucens f.sp. undulosa, X. campestris pv. undulosa Symptoms: Black chaff and bacterial stripe are both caused by the same organism; the site and extent of the symptoms depends on the strain of the bacterium, the affected cultivar and environmental conditions. \"Bacterial black chaff\" occurs primarily on the glumes (48); \"bacterial stripe\" occurs primarily on the leaves and/or leaf sheaths (49). Initial symptoms are narrow chlorotic lesions or stripes that have a watersoaked appearance; droplets of sticky yellowish exudate may appear with extended periods of rain or dew (50). The exudate dries t o form crusty droplets or a translucent film on the surface of affected tissues. The film may crack and give a scaly appearance. If infection occurs early in the crop cycle, the spike may be infected, resulting in sterility; when the disease is severe, entire leaves or spikes may be killed.Development: The bacterium can be seed borne and persists on crop residues in the soil, tolerating warm as well as freezing temperatures. Free moisture is required for infection and spread of the disease. Infection occurs through stomata and broken epidermal tissue. The disease is spread by splashing rain, plant contact, and insects.Hosts/Distribution: These diseases occur worldwide on all small grain cereals and many grasses.Importance: Black chaff and bacterial stripe rarely cause significant damage, even though symptoms often may be extensive.Pseudomonas syringae pv. atrofaciens Syn. Pseudomonas atrofaciens Symptoms: The leaves, culms, and spikes of v wheat and triticale can be infected. Infections begin as small, dark green, water-soaked lesions that turn dark brown to blackish in color. On the spikelets, lesions generally start at the base of the glume and may eventually extend over the entire glume (51 1. Diseased glumes have a translucent appearance when held toward the light. Dark brown to black discoloration occurs with age. The disease may spread to the rachis, and lesions may also develop on the kernels (52). Under wet or humid conditions, a whitish gray bacterial ooze may be present. Stem infections result in dark discoloration of the stem; leaf infections result in small, irregular, water-soaked lesions. Symptoms can be confused with those of other bacterial diseases, genetic melanism (false black chaff), septoria nodorum blotch (glume blotch), and frost damage.Development: The pathogen survives on crop debris, as well as various grass hosts. It is disseminated by splashing rain or by insects, and can be seed borne.s Hosts/Distribution: The disease can affect all small grain cereal crops; distribution is worldwide. i Importance: Basal glume rot usually is not economically important, but is frequently reported in humid cereal-growing areas.Symptoms: A yellow exudate on the spikes is indicative of bacterial spike blight. When dry, the exudate is white. Often the spikes and necks will emerge as a distorted, sticky mass (53). The early leaves may also be wrinkled or twisted. This bacteria is associated with the nematode Anguina tritici in some regions.Development: The bacteria persists in organic material in the soil. It attacks wheat when it comes in contact with the plant apex within the leaf whorl, and this transmission is often facilitated by the nematode A. tritici.HostslDistribution: Wheat is the only cultivated host, though some wild grasses are susceptible t o attack. The disease is frequently reported in the Asian Subcontinent.Importance: Bacterial spike blight is not economically important.Viruses Wheat and triticale can be attacked by a great many insects. Fortunately, only a f e w insect species are of major importance, causing severe damage over large geographical areas; most species are only occasional pests and/or are not geographically widespread. The \"pest status\" of many of species is not always well documented. Life Cycle: The life cycles of aphids involve winged (slates), wingless (apterous), sexual, and asexual forms. When feeding on cereals, the females of most aphid species reproduce asexually (without being fertilized), giving rise to nymphs rather than eggs.HostsIDistribution: Species commonly found on cereals throughout the world include:Importance: Aphids are important and widespread pests on cereal crops. When feeding in sufficient numbers, they can cause significant damage. In addition, the species listed above may act as vectors of barley yellow dwarf virus.Symptoms: Adult stink bugs feed on stem tissue or developing kernels (59). Saliva from this insect is toxic to the plant, and a single feeding puncture can kill a stem. Feeding on kernels during the milk dough stage will destroy the kernel, while feeding during later development stages will badly shrivel the grain. Feeding on the developing head may cause partial or total sterility. Adult stink bugs have a shield-shaped body (60) and emit a disagreeable odor when crushed.Life Cycle: Stink bugs over-winter as adults and may diapause. They tend t o hibernate under dead leaves and grass. In the spring they migrate t o cereal hosts, mate, and lay eggs at various places on the plant. These hatch into nymphs that feed on the plant. Mild winters and low rainful seem t o favor outbreaks of the insect.HostslDistribution: Stink bugs will feed on most cereals and grasses, as well as a large range of weeds (depending on the species). Stink bugs are of major economic importance in Asia Minor.Importance: Losses due to stink bugs are highly variable and depend on the density of the insects, weather conditions, and duration of the crop growing period. Losses are due primarily t o reduced baking quality.Symptoms: The primary symptom is defoliation of the plant. Larvae feed on leaves, chewing from the edges to the midrib, or on the heads of cereal plants. Heavy infestations can be very destructive; larvae may climb the plant and sever the neck just below the head. Some species may be found feeding at the soil surface, others underground feeding on roots, and still others feeding inside the stem.Life Cycle: Adult cutworms (61) and armyworms ( 62) are moths, and the females lay eggs on leaves and leaf sheaths near the ground. These eggs hatch within a few days and initially the larvae (63, cutworm; 64, armyworm) feed close to where they hatch. The larvae are found in cracks in the soil or under rocks during the day, feeding at night or early in the morning. In damp weather, they may feed all day.Hosts/Distribution: Larvae are generally omnivorous in attacking grasses. Species of these insects are found in most cereal-growing areas of the world.Importance: Cutworms and armyworms sporadically cause severe damage; when they do, they can devastate large areas.Symptoms: Adult beetles are 4-5 mm long, have a black head, light brown thorax, and a shiny bluegreen wing cover with parallel lines of small dots (65). Larvae are a dull to bright yellow color, but soon take on the appearance of a slimy, globular, black mass due to the mound of fecal material they produce and accumulate on their backs (66; 67). The most prominent symptom of cereal leaf beetle infestations is the distinct, longitudinal stripes on leaves (68); these stripes are produced by the feeding of adult beetles and of larvae.The insect produces one generation per year. Adults begin their feeding activity in the spring. They lay yellow eggs, either singly or in small chains, covering them with a sticky film that holds the eggs in place. Pupation takes place in the soil and the adults emerge in summer. Adults overwinter underneath plant debris on the soil surface, in leaf sheaths and ears of standing maize. or under the bark of trees.Hosts/Distribution: Cereal leaf beetles can be a problem on fall-sown cereals. Wheats with hairy leaves are affected less.Importance: Significant yield losses can occur in winter wheat and fall-sown spring wheat. Yield losses of from 14% to more than 25% have occurred with natural infestations.Symptoms: Thrips are small (1 mm long), brown or black insects with a tapering, segmented abdomen. They have piercing and sucking mouthparts and usually have two pairs of narrow wings. They are usually found behind the sheath of the flag leaf, feeding on the stem (69).However, leaves, stems, and heads may be attacked. Adults and nymphs both can cause damage and, if present in large numbers, may cause the tissue on which they are feeding to take on a silver coloration.Life Cycle: Eggs are inserted into or attached to host tissue. The generation time is very short, and there may be 10 or more generations per year. Heavy rains will usually destroy a high proportion of the population.HostlDistribution: Several thrips species live exclusively on cereals, and on forage or weed grasses.Importance: Thrips rarely cause serious damage, and it is unusual to find infestations at such a level as to warrant control.Symptoms: Severe infestations of Hessian flies result in stunting of the plants, thin stands, lodging, and reduced yield. Injury is caused entirely by the larvae, which suck juices from plant tissues (70). If infestation occurs during jointing, infested stems often will break prior to maturity. The Hessian fly is 3-4 mm long, has a black head and thorax, and a pinkish or yellowbrown abdomen.Life Cycle: Adult flies emerge in the spring from pupae that have overwintered in straw or stubble. The minute, oblong eggs are reddish in color and are laid in rows on the upper sides of leaves. The eggs hatch within one week; the white, legless larvae settle behind the leaf sheaths and suck the sap of the plant. They develop into translucent, pale green, slug-like maggots. The reddish brown pupae, commonly called \"flag seed\" because of their resemblance to the seed of the flax plant, are oval shaped, flattened, taper to a point, and are 3-5 mm long. They are found behind leaf sheaths, usually at a node.HostslDistribution: The Hessian fly is mainly a pest of wheat, but it may attack barley, rye, and other grasses. This pest has been reported in most wheat-growing areas of the world.Importance: This is one of the most destructive insect pests on cereals. Widespread outbreaks have occurred and, in some locations (such as North Africa and the USA), the pest recurs annually.Symptoms: When young tillers are attacked in the fall or early spring, the tillers usually die; infested plants show the \"white head\" condition typically produced by stem-boring insects (71). The adult flies are about 6 mm in length, and pale green to yellow with dark stripes.Life Cycle: Wheat stem maggot larvae overwinter in cereal plants or grasses (72). The females lay small white eggs, one per stem, near the sheath of the flag leaf; the larvae burrow into and consume the interior of the stem, killing the upper part of the stem and the head. There are normally three generations per year; one in the spring, one in the summer, and a third in the early autumn that overwinters as larvae.HostslDistribution: In addition to wheat, host crops include rye, barley, and other grasses. There are a number of other flies in various parts of the world that attack wheat in a similar fashion and produce the same kind of damage.Importance: In infested fields, 10-1 5% of plants may be injured. Damage can be severe in some years, but the insect seldom causes widespread damage. However, heavy infestations of individual wheat stands may kill a significant portion of the tillers.Symptoms: Damage by sawflies includes .premature yellowing of the head and shrivelling of the grain. The larvae girdle the stem (73) and, later in the crop cycle, lodging is common.Life Cycle: Sawflies produce one generation per year. The larvae overwinter in the straw (74); in the spring they pupate. Adult sawflies are small, fly-like wasps and appear from late spring to midsummer. The females deposit small white eggs in the upper nodes of stems just below the heads. Upon hatching, the legless white larvae bore into the stem and tunnel downward, feeding on the pith of the stem. When they have completed their feeding, they descend further and girdle the stem base.HostslDistribution: Nearly all cultivated cereals and native grasses act as hosts, although wheat is preferred. Fall-sown cereals are more commonly attacked. Wheat lines having solid or partially solid stems are much less susceptible to attack. The wheat stem sawfly is a major problem in the Mediterranean Basin.Importance: Sawfly can cause significant damage in some years, but infestations are usually discontinuous.Symptoms: White grubs can partially or completely sever the roots of the host plants. This causes patches of wilting and dying wheat plants (especially at the seedling stage), symptoms that could be attributed t o root rots. However, when stunted patches are observed, the surrounding soil should be examined for the larvae (75). When fully grown, the largest of these larvae may be several centimeters long and nearly one centimeter thick. The larvae :lave three pairs of legs on their thorax (76).Life Cycle: White grubs are the larvae of May or June beetles. Eggs are deposited in the soil and the hatched larvae feed on roots. The duration of the larval stage varies from species t o species.HostslDistribution: Many species of white grubs found throughout the world can attack wheat and many other plant species. Cereal crops may suffer significant damage if seeded into heavily infested grasslands.Importance: When the roots are not completely destroyed, the plants may survive, but are stunted and fail t o produce heads. However, the distribution and extent of attack is not uniform.Symptoms: Wireworm damage is very similar-to that caused by other soil-inhabiting chewing insects; the only sure means of identifying wireworms as the causal agent is to find them in association with the'damaged seedlings (77). The name \"wireworm\" refers to the tough, wire-like appearance of the larvae. They are 20-30 mm long and are often smooth, hard, and highly polished. They have three pairs of legs (781, and their color may vary from a rich cream to shades of brown.Wireworm larvae may attack wheat as soon as the crop is seeded, eating the endosperm of the kernels and leaving only the seed coat. A common sign of wireworm attack is the wilting and/or dying of a number of adjacent plants, either in a row or patch. The stems of affected seedlings will be chewed just above the seed.(continued)Life Cycle: Wireworms are the larvae of click beetles, of which there are many species. The adult beetles (79) lay eggs in the soil, usually in the spring, and the larvae may take several years t o develop prior to pupating, depending on species. Generations overlap so that all stages and sizes of larvae may be found in the soil at the same time.HostslDistribution: Many species of wireworms are found throughout the world, all of which can attack wheat. These larvae are capable of attacking many different plant species as well.Importance: Wireworms are among the most damaging soil-infesting insects. Damage is usually most severe where wheat has been seeded after fallow or after a number of years of grass.Slugs, Snails, Grasshoppers, and Crickets (various species)Symptoms: Slugs and snails (80) can feed on the endosperm of germinating seed, bite seedlings off at ground level, and graze older plants, chewing longitudinal stripes on the leaves (81). This gives the adult plant a frayed appearance. Grasshoppers (82) and crickets cause damage that is very similar to that caused by cutworms and armyworms.HostslDistribution: All these insects will attack a large range of plant species, including the cereals. Distribution is worldwide.Importance: These insects usually are localized in their distribution, but can cause a great deal of damage to individual stands of wheat.Symptoms: Adult mites are usually less than 1 mm long, and most of the plant-inhabiting species have sucking mouth parts. Mites are not insects.Adults typically possess four pairs of legs (831, while larvae have only three pairs. However, the wheat curl mite, Eriophye tulipae (syn. Aceria tulipae), has only two pairs of legs. When present in large numbers, mites cause a silvery flecking on leaves (84). Some species may produce webs and/or may cause infested plants to be severely stunted, to head poorly, and to turn white. Individual mites are so small that they can scarcely be seen with the unaided eye. Even so, if an infested leaf is held over a piece of white paper (folded to form a trough) and tapped sharply several times, hundreds of mites will fall onto the paper and can be seen moving about.HostslDistribution: Mites can be found wherever cereals are grown.Importance: Mites generally are not an important problem, with the exception of the wheat curl mite, which is a vector of wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV).Nematodes, also known as nemas or eelworms, are unsegmented round worms that inhabit soil and water in great numbers. Some species are parasitic on plants. All nematodes develop from eggs and pass through a succession of larval stages (usually four) prior t o adulthood.Reproduction may be sexual or parthenogenic.Nematodes are dispersed in soil, running water, and plant parts. Some species have a resting stage that will withstand desiccation.Nematode feeding reduces plant vigor and induces lesions, rots, deformation, and gall and root knots. Infested fields appear uneven, usually with distinct patches of stunted plants. HostslDistribution: The seed gall nematode parasitizes wheat, triticale, rye, and related grasses; it affects wheat primarily. It is found in the Near and Middle East, the Asian Subcontinent, Eastern Europe and, occasionally, in North America.Importance: This nematode rarely is of economic importance.cyst formation.Meloidogyne spp.Symptoms: Infestations of root knot nematodes are characterized by the formation of small knots or galls near the tips of the roots. Above ground, infested plants are stunted and chlorotic.Excessive branching of affected roots sometimes occurs (88).Development: Root knot nematodes usually invade plants in the spring or early summer. Each root knot contains one or more females, which produce large egg masses within their saclike bodies. By midsummer the eggs are extruded and the nematodes overwinter as eggs. Usually there is one generation per year.HostslDistribution: Root knot nematodes have a very wide host range, including all small grain cereals. Meloidogyne naasi appears to have specificity for cereals and grasses, and can be found wherever cereals are grown.Importance: The damage caused by root knot nematodes depends on the number of egg masses in the soil. All cultivars of winter and spring wheat seem to be compatible hosts of the nematode. In extreme attacks, seedlings may be killed. Such factors as nutritional deficiences, poor drainage, and soil-borne diseases can conceal the presence of nematodes.Abnormal plant development may be due t o physiologic or genetic disorders, nutrient deficiencies. and environmental stresses and irritants. ~h y s i o l o ~i c a l leaf spots, blotches, and chlorosis of leaves may occur for many reasons. Some forms of chlorotic streaks, spotting, and necrosis are genetically inherited (such as chlorotic flecking and brown necrosis), resulting from chromosomal instability or certain nonviable genetic combinations (hybrid necrosis). Genotypes may differ greatly in their predisposition to develop spotting and in the physical appearance of the spots.Symptoms: When no pathogen can be identified as the cause of leaf spotting (891, the symptom may be caused by a physiological disorder or a mineral deficiency (for example, manganese deficiency).Development: \"Splotch\" of winter bread wheats and durum wheats is reported as a physiological leaf spot; the spots begin appearing during heading and increase in size and number toward the top of the plant. Spotted plants otherwise are normal. Leaf spots may also occur when cool, cloudy, and moist weather is followed by hot, sunny weather, or as a result of large fluctuations in temperature.HostslDistribution: The occurrence of physiological leaf spots is related to variety and its interaction to the environment.Importance: Usually not a serious problem; ongoing breeding efforts tend to eliminate genotypes prone to spotting.Symptoms: Melanism occurs as brownish black to dark purple spots, streaks, or blotches on the leaf sheaths, stems (901, and/or glumes and results from a high production of melanoid pigments in some genotypes. The dark brown pigmentation usually develops on the glumes (91) and peduncles. Melanism and brown necrosis may be confused with bacterial black chaff or septoria glume blotch.Development: The symptoms develop under certain environmental conditions, in particular with cloudy, humid weather and a high intensity of ultraviolet light (high elevations). Melanism appears to be linked with the stem rust resistance genes from \"Hope\" and H44.Hosts/Distribution: Melanism occurs wherever wheat is grown, but is more pronounced in high radiation, high humidity environments.Importance: Generally not a serious problem; some crosses exhibit severe necrosis and yield is affected.Symptoms: Numerous diseases cause chlorotic flecking, but \"self-inflicted\" or genetically controlled flecking is a common occurrence in small grain cereals. The flecks may vary from small pinpoints t o large blotches (92). In some cases, leaves may be a pale green color, which may be a genetic trait for low chlorophyll content.Development: Genetic flecking or blotching may develop at any point in the crop cycle, but is more apparent at later stages of plant development (especially in spring wheats).HostslDistribution: Found in many genotypes of wheat.Importance: Genetic flecking does not necessarily make a wheat genotype unsuitable for cultivation. Several commercial wheat cultivars have high yield potential and have been released despite genetic flecking. Poor plant growth often can be attributed to inadequate levels of essential plant nutrients. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium are used by the plant in relatively large amounts, and therefore are the nutrients that are most commonly deficient. However, micronutrient deficiencies can occur as well. Many minerals in the soil, including those essential t o the plant, can be toxic if the amount freely available in the soil is too high. The buildup of salts in the soil, insufficient water, extreme temperatures, and poor application of pesticides also can affect the growth and yield of a crop.Nitrogen deficient wheat appears pale green (95) and lower leaves become yellow, usually from the tip t o the sheath, followed by necrosis if the deficiency persists. Nitrogen deficiency is the most common and widespread nutrient deficiency in small grains.Phosphorus deficiency usually results in stunted plants with fewer shoots (961, if the deficiency is mild. Severe deficiency often causes pale t o yellowish red leaves, starting with the lower leaves and moving from the leaf tips inward. Affected tissue may turn brown and, with severe deficiency, eventually dies. Green portions of the leaves may be bluish-green and the base of the culms purple. The development of small heads is also a common symptom.Potassium deficiency can be difficult t o detect, and yield losses can occur long before visual symptoms appear. A severe deficiency will cause the shortening of internodes, and the tips and margins of the lower leaves will become dry and scorched.Manganese deficiency causes grayish necrotic spots or streaks t o appear on the basal portion of the newest leaves. The necrotic spots may extend across the blade causing the upper portion of the leaf t o kink or twist (97). Deficiency of manganese occurs most commonly in soils that are calcareous, extremely sandy, or high in organic matter. Oats are more sensitive than other small grain species. Foliar applications of manganese sulfate can alleviate this deficiency.Copper deficiency symptoms include the discoloration of young leaf tips, followed by breaking and curling of the leaves (98). The plant may also produce bleached and sterile spikes. Often the spike does not emerge properly from the culm.Symptoms: High concentrations of aluminum will first reduce development of the roots, giving them a stubby appearance. They will often have a brownish color. Typical symptoms in the above ground portion of the plant are small leaves, and shortened and thickened internodes (99). It also is common for leaf tips to die and for old leaves to become yellow and brittle.Development: This toxicity is associated with low soil pH, and it can be reduced by liming.HostslDistribution: Though many minerals can be toxic to plants, the most common toxicity affecting wheat is caused by an excess of free aluminum. Genetic variability exists for aluminum tolerance within bread wheats and triticales (100).Importance: Large areas of potentially productive land with acid soils (low pH) have toxic levels of free aluminum.Symptoms: Salt concentrations within a field are rarely uniform; therefore, one of the first symptoms indicating a salt problem is variability in crop growth within the field (barren spots are not uncommon) (1 01 ). Plants suffering from salt stress are stunted and dark blue-green in color, with tip burn and firing on the leaf margins. A soil test can rapidly confirm whether levels of salt in the soil are excessive.HostslDistribution: All small grains are affected, but barley is more tolerant to high levels of salt than other small grain species.Importance: In some areas, salt levels in the soil have limited yields for a long time; some poorly drained irrigated wheat areas are experiencing a buildup of salt that will eventually limit yields. Moderately high temperatures increase the rate of plant development and reduce its rate of growth. The number and formation of spikelets and florets, as well as grain filling, are reduced, resulting in lower yields. The late-boot and seed-set stages are especially vulnerable and, in many areas, high temperatures are more likely to occur during these later stages of plant development. Very high temperatures will kill plants by denaturing proteins.Importance: In many areas, the flowering to maturity period in wheat coincides with the beginning of hot, dry weather. If desiccating winds occur along with high temperatures, major reductions in yield may be experienced.Symptoms: Phytotoxicity can result from the poor application of most pesticides. The application of such hormonal herbicides as 2.4-D too early in the crop cycle can cause leaf curling and deformed spikes (1 04); application near anthesis can cause sterility. Residues from the application of triazines (such as atrazine) t o the crop preceeding wheat can adversely affect wheat growth (105); symptoms are bleaching of the leaves followed by necrosis ( 1 06).Development: Damage results when chemicals are applied in excessive amounts, at the wrong growth stage, or t o the wrong species.Importance: In small grain cereals, damage is generally limited; deformations seldom cause significant losses. ","tokenCount":"7959"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3255206695.json b/data/part_5/3255206695.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5ebed2414137d52b13a82ae8f1a3171be64792eb
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+++ b/data/part_5/3255206695.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa543cbbdc5b83405644227a60710159","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e5c8da2a-24ee-42bc-ade5-bed0529ff5a9/retrieve","id":"997690628"},"keywords":["'","-.~-","!"],"sieverID":"a1ae1eb5-e3ac-445f-bbb1-8f197a740f24","pagecount":"24","content":"CE TOS nASICOS EH LA FISrOLOOIA DEL FRIJOL ,Josi\\ t(e~ M. I.A. Oriugla~~. Lain9. Fisi6log~Rajo canlliciones de campo, lA concentración de di5xido de carbono frecuentemente es el factor 1 imi tAnte en la fot,,sietesis. la concentraciall de C O 2 en la atmfisfera es de aproximadamente 330 ppm, la cual est~ muy por debajo de la Sil turacl6n del di6xldo de carbono para la mayorfa de ¡~5 p¡~ll taso Algunas no se saturan hasta Qlle se hava alcan?ado 'Jn~ concel,traci6n de 10 a Ion '1eees esto.S e h a s u q e r ido r¡ ti e 1 J e o n e e n l r a e i\\í n dI! d i 6 x id i1 d e e\" r•, b o n o e n U ti a i\\ 1 t a den s i rl a d rl epI ti n t a ~ p 11 e 11 e red u e i l' '; ~ ~ c} ~ i la mitad de 10 normal, ~lJe es suficientel~entc baj(1 rat'a r\"\" tri n 9 i r 1 a f o t o s í n t e s i s s e r i a 111 e n t e en 1\" 11 e h a s r 1 a n t ;1 e, • A q!j'~-11a5 plantas que tienen una compensacidn nula (esll \"S, a~lln lla5 que fal tiln de fotoresplración)tienden a absol'l'0l' dilÍxido de carbono muy eficientelnente a c,)nrcntraciOlle~ I'¡ias 'In dl6xido de carhono.Y flor lo tanto no sufrf'1l tanto :1,' lo:; 0, fectos de concentraciones rpr!llcidas de dióxido de ol'hollo.:,-3 Q)'ígeno le fotosíntesis normal se llevil a calJo en l~ illl'1li~rQril ¡¡.lt.i!l71e~tr: oxid.1llte de la tiC!rrn 1)1l0 [(lnl.i,'IlC' !JII 21~ ,I~ O)l..í-9\"n0.I.a niltllrilleza exactil C!\" la inllihici6,¡ ':ilusi\"l:a pur el I'xíqcro sobre l~ fotosíntesis no SI; COllflCf', rl (I)(i~l'no jlve-de actuar como aceptor de electrones en el sistema de transporte de los cltDeramos, conect«ndo 105 fotosistemas, En plantHs que carecen de fotorespiraci6n, el (IX~qe'10 causa una ligera reducci6n de la fotosintcsis a muy altas concentraciones probablemente como rcslIl tildo del daño del mecanismo de la fotosíntesis. En las plantas qtle fotorcspiriln. el oxí~p.no ejerce IJna inhibición competitiva con el CO 2 a concentraciones desde O hasta 70X.Esencialmente aunque las reacciones IU!Tlino~;¡:: no srl:' muy afectadas por la tcmpcraturil, lils rCilccinnr!s 1II!\\7.imátíc,\\s () reacciones oscuras son fuertemente dependientes rI~ la tr'l\"peratura. A tcmparfttllras ror ~ncima rl~ los JODC, 1~ foL0~¡n tesis puede inr.rell1t:nt<lfse trll1pnrall1lf'l1lc, pero pn,n1n decl lila a ratas mucho más bajoS y se rleticne il altas tCrHj1rr:: 1 ul';\\s.[ l r:fp.cto de Ji! concentraci611 de ro, .. la té 1\"\"P\\'i1l:II\"\" j' , 1,; 11/7 </1ol'e la fotosíntesis están tndos ír.l:crrDI~cinn,ltf\"s en Ut\\ lr.ayoY n menor ~rado y son depepdientes de ¡tri f'ÚfIlIeyr; d\" Cil-lDlt:.iÓn '10;' existe entre fotopcriodistllo v tf~Hper,I!l!i,l de Id t:I~¡ hablnremos mis adelante.El viento ocasionalmente es un factor en la fotosfntp- de un \"lnplio ran~o de <lmbientf's y ,istPI'lilS de clIlt,ivflS r::. im¡lOrtante en el sentido que faei 1 ita i1 los llIejorilc!or' P S df' diferentes localidades el trabajo con esa variedad.Para el fríjol los cOlllflonent(!s d\" ¡¡doptación F\\(¡\" illll'0,C tantes son:ran~o de latitudes sin un canlbio marcado en el tiel~po de.   El desarrollo puede ser definido como Iln camllio olrlpna do hacia un m's alto o comple,lo estad~. En la rl~lltn pI rr~ ceso en el cual toma lUfjar la diferenciación de t~,iidos rnproductivos cOJllenzando por la inici'lCión de la flrHilción, O\" be l' t ti l' a ti ~ fl o r r:: s, f 1': r t i 1 iza e í Ó ll, <1 r? s <1 l' ro 11 o el (' I ,1 v\" i 11,1 V dcsan'ol10 del grano es el ejelllplo (lJ,ís cLlro dI': ln '1lJC ' \"oz desarrollo,En h mayoría de 105 eul tivos es ill1porlantf' r\"lllOCC)' l~$ dife,•~nl.cs etapas de crecimiento paril I,odpt' h,lC\\?J' eV<1Ilu,1tho-Tles de tiro agronómico o fisiolónicn, t.n frijol lA\" n;,ír, ir'l-vo\\ta:J1tC:$ SOr.:N~¡nero de díflS contahilizados dc';dc la siembra (tenief!.,:n el' C\\l~nt~ el primer rie(lo o lluviil (?r\"C!:iVil) \"21st~ 9ve e.1 50% de las plantas en una sección definida del surco tienen 105 dos cotiledones arriba de la slIrerficie del suelo. clJal a~arece la flor, de 10 misma nlillleriJ la fecha en la CIJ,11 la flor aborta o de lo cOlltrarin la fecha en que se forMa la vaina.Y por último la fecho si 1-1 \\lilina ilhol'ta () llr(j,l a <:nll servarse corno tal.El porcentilje ,le 8115ici6n se calellld de In 5¡'¡uient~ manera:Vainas <3 cm % ilbsición :: No. Vil ill,15 a!lol'tildas <3 cm ---\"---._--, ----'----,.-1-'---'--  3) 11n i deotl po adapLado i1 cnnrl í e 1 (lile'; de prec 1 JI ¡rdclón dI tamentf! vilri,1blr; donde 11\\ esliJhl1idild rI¡: rene/il,tiento,.,,;una alta rriorida(l, pero uonde la respuesta del rcnd'jmiento a buenas coodlciones dl! c¡\",cil1íicnto 11lJ<\"'C esp\"!\"'1,r.. s e .\"","tokenCount":"805"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3261844287.json b/data/part_5/3261844287.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9b3b11649f78707f782939bbe4394a91aa81f8f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/3261844287.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"168e99c2f55380659052048b797d103a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d6fda086-b31c-411b-b9d9-42a2f1bc300d/retrieve","id":"1710368823"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"00b6c424-ae79-45a8-b04b-89c796f4eb72","pagecount":"1","content":"As a Stage 4 and a Maturity level 3 innovation, these businesses have been taken up by users and are contributing to poverty reduction, livelihoods & jobs, gender equality, youth & social inclusion. Policy and/or practice changes influenced by these innovative business models have led to adoption or impacts at scale or beyond the direct CGIAR sphere of influence. Among others, this is evidenced by adoption and use of the multicrop thresher that has significantly contributed towards closing the gender gap exhibited in farm activities, particularly in bean production. Post successful completion one such training, Imara Tech, a youth-owned company based in Arusha, upgraded their prototype from heavy tractor pulled thresher to easily motorbike transported machine that threshes up to eight staple grains including beans. MCT saves time and maintains grain quality (free from breakage and impurities compared to the hand threshing method or tractor), carried on a motorcycle, from farm to farm offering services during harvest season. Women and children who were often involved in threshing now have time for economically productive activities and also attend schools respectively.Soybean Innovation Lab, Missouri State University Grains Legumes and Dry Land Cereals (GLDC) ","tokenCount":"191"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3262496543.json b/data/part_5/3262496543.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c01ed4b9a56798b7ad3556f41fb5a79408eb21ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/3262496543.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"397093ba420a61d4ff7d9a61e80db7a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22c7b8c5-b4af-4a32-a635-822a1a7a3d1f/retrieve","id":"-782065188"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0938f605-a9c3-4d5b-888e-ab6d1e48d4ec","pagecount":"1","content":" Modelling and field work provide valuable insights on scaling potential of promising technologies for smallholder farmers;  Smallholder farmers are able to reap the benefits associated with sustainable intensification through improved yields with a lower environmental footprint.  Cumulative and combined effects of field conservation practices are scalable and were noted to reduce runoff and sediment load while increasing soil moisture storage and crop yield;  Low soil moisture supply for crop production in semi-arid zones is further aggravated by in-appropriate tillage practices which accelerate rain water loss through increased runoff;This poster is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. January 2017We thank farmers and local partners in Africa RISING sites for their contributions to this research. We also acknowledge the support of all donors which globally support the work of the CGIAR centers and their partners through their contributions to the CGIAR system• Cumulative and combined effects of field conservation practices are scalable and were noted to reduce runoff and sediment load while increasing soil moisture storage and crop yield (Figure 1). • The engagement of farming communities in the research processes to a large extent can improve decisions made by small-scale farmers on the selection of technologies as well as scaling options. • The use of in-situ rainwater harvesting with animal powered implements notably ox-ridging and ox-ripping techniques can result in increased maize grain yield remarkably despite low and erratic rainfall experienced in semi-arid regions (Figure 2).• Central regions of Tanzania is endowed with high number of livestock particularly cattle implying that deliberate efforts are required to fully exploit available resource through engagement of farming communities on the use of animal oxen drawn tillage implements that can improve soil moisture. • Farmers spend most of the time on their farms and phones help them in linking up the digital divide by communicating with agro-vet shops, seeking information about types of seeds and fertilizers to be used given the nature of the season as well as market prices. Africa RISING in collaboration with NAFAKA are exploiting this option to scale up viable and promising technologies. To maximize the benefits from research outputs, a strategy to scale-up and scale-out the results is essential in order to disseminate and transform project findings from outputs into beneficial outcomes with impact for stakeholder communities including input dealers, millers, seed suppliers and smallholder farming communities. The use of the mobile phone through ICT platforms is one of the most game-changing avenues (Figure 3).  ","tokenCount":"414"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3266716961.json b/data/part_5/3266716961.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..06a480b28c5050d631bd6c1d5ce7982dbe26670e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/3266716961.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0a7390e7a2ad8d73b01652cdfe24c8d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b30fe78-4a5c-41dd-9c1d-e8b6d4caa339/retrieve","id":"-971812574"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8b19109a-6187-48ba-9093-ecb7bde1d46d","pagecount":"28","content":"Distribution of bean germplasm from CIAT-GRU in 1973-2000 Source: CIAT, GRU, 2001 to outside institutions and partners in 96 countries: 82,978 accessions Stems from the need to define the object of access, so the national competent authority can provide itThe Treaty states :No IPR on \"related information\" may mean no IPR on naturally occurring genesStems from the need to define the owner, so the national competent authority can be defined and act IPR : legal ownwership of genetic resources•Clear and straightforward in case of wild species ?•Less obvious in case of landraces ?•Difficult in case of improved varieties ? •Clear and straightforward in case of wild species ?•Less obvious in case of landraces ?•Difficult in case of improved varieties ?  What is \"facilitated access\" ?•not included in the definitions (art. 2)•purposes: research, breeding, training (art. 12.3)•no need for individual tracking of accessions, free of charges•material must be remitted with relevant passport information•the Recipient cannot claim IPR on the material and genetic components•for material under development access decided by its developper•material included in the multilateral system remains available from the system•material is obtained through a Material Transfer Agreement to be agreed upon first time acknowledged, but an international perspective completely forgotten ?Contracting Parties are acting as the object of sovereignty will be there forever !voluntary basis; crop coverage against criteria !; facilitated access (MTAs) The material contained herein is being furnished by [Center] under the following conditions:The material described in the attached list is held in trust under the terms of an agreement between [Centre] and FAO.[Centre] is making this material available as part of its policy of maximizing the utilization of genetic material for research, consistent with the provisions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.The Recipient may utilize and conserve the material for research, breeding and training for food and agriculture and may distribute it to other parties provided the recipient is also willing to accept the conditions of this agreement.The Recipient hereby agrees not to claim any intellectual property rights or other rights that limit the facilitated access to the plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, or their genetic parts or components, in the form received from [Centre].The Recipient also agree not to take out intellectual property rights over the related information provided.The Recipient further agrees to ensure that any subsequent person or entity to whom the recipient makes the plant genetic resources available, is bound by the same provision and undertakes to pass on the same obligations to future recipients of the germplasm.<If the material provided under this Material Transfer Agreement is incorporated in a product that is a plant genetic resource for food and agriculture that is commercialized, then the recipient shall pay into the mechanism set up under the International Treaty an equitable share of the benefits arising from the commercialization of that product, except whenever such a product is freely available without restriction to others for further research and breeding, in which case the recipient is not obliged, but is encouraged to make such payment. The level form and manner of the payment shall be in line with commercial practice.>[Centre] makes no warranties as to the safety or title of the material, nor as to the accuracy or correctness of any passport or other data provided with the material. Neither does it make any warranties as to the quality, viability, or purity (genetic or mechanical) of the material being furnished. The phytosanitary condition of the material is warranted only as described in the attached phytosanitary certificate. The Recipient assumes full responsibility for complying with the recipient nation's quarantine/biosafety regulations and rules as to import or release of genetic material.Upon request, [Centre] will furnish information that may be available in addition to whatever is furnished with the seed. Recipients are requested to furnish [Centre] performance data collected during evaluations.The material is supplied expressly conditional on acceptance of the terms of this agreement. The Recipient's acceptance of the material constitutes acceptance of the terms of this Agreement.•Two sure winners: genetic erosion and transgenical crops ?!•We have a Treaty, and perhaps a starting point for a multilateral system on PGRFA !•Sovereign rights of whom and on what ?: future generations, and net loss of diversity•Access has been seen as static, even PGRFA are seen as static !•but the Global System of PGRFA could contribute to another agricultural revolution while genomics and bioinformatics are changing the context !•Misunderstanding about tropical forages; importance of CIAT, ILRI collections Cary FowlerGerald MooreThank you !","tokenCount":"749"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3268610494.json b/data/part_5/3268610494.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..41f636f7e75ce581784be8233025f79db910539a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/3268610494.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f1ab27115627330597ea5d42eb21df2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f24805d-0c58-4cd1-9748-456ae668c07b/retrieve","id":"1091978761"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"64a14e1d-c6fe-477e-98db-f42525ad0250","pagecount":"1","content":"The McKnight Foundation CCRP for funding. Governments of Malawi, and Mozambique for support and hosting the project PABRA-CIAT for technical support Partner organizations in 2 Countries: NGOs, CBOs, Traders (Private Sector) and Farmer Associations etc for collaborationBeans are an important crop for food/nutrition security, cash income and agro ecosystem improvement in Malawi and Mozambique. SABRN and CIAT have developed climbing bean varieties which have potential for wider adaptation and use across agro-ecological regions, and suitable for various consumer needs and market niches. This project is aimed at identifying suitable climbing bean varieties under different production circumstances to meet consumer and market requirements. It is implemented in two strategic transects Dedza-Angonia and Zomba-Gurue. The two transects have contrasting rainfall potential (700-900mm yr-1 and 1300-1600mm yr-1) but cover a similar range of altitudes (800-1600m).The criteria for selecting the preferred varieties was established disaggregated by gender across the PVS sites, and both men and women used grain yield and marketability as the key selection criteria.Stakeholders selected and ranked the preferred varieties. These differed by gender (men vs women) and transect (Dedza-Angonia vs Zomba-Gurue), however some varieties were crosscutting. ","tokenCount":"185"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3272228512.json b/data/part_5/3272228512.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d0d946f89ac6ef85f5ad0bad86219af295adb443
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_5/3272228512.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7274dd21ea7e93ac7043b482ac345d06","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/899e7d31-319f-409a-8095-98469afec2bf/retrieve","id":"1844586919"},"keywords":["Manihot esculenta","retting process","root firmness","starch pasting properties"],"sieverID":"26265cf7-feb9-4256-98fd-a5d8804f2445","pagecount":"11","content":"BACKGROUND: Retting is a key step of cassava processing into widely consumed foods (fufu, chikwangue, miondo and bobolo) in sub-Saharan Africa. For some populations, retting ability is a major quality criterion that drives the adoption of new cassava varieties. Despite this importance, the physiological basis associated with this process remains poorly understood, and should lead to improved screening tools for breeding. Eight cassava varieties contrasting in retting ability properties were used in the present study. Roots and soaking water were sampled during retting and characterized at both histological and biochemical levels.RESULTS: Histological data highlighted the degradation of root cell wall during retting. The average pH of soaking water decreased from 5.94 to 4.31 and the average simple sugars decreased from 0.18 to 0 g L −1 , whereas the organic acids increased up to 5.61 g L −1 . In roots tissue, simple sugars and organic acid contents decreased from 22.9 to 0 g kg −1 and from 80 to 0 g kg −1 , respectively. The total pectin content of roots among varieties at harvest was similar, and decreased during the retting process. Overall, there was a negative correlation between total pectins content and root softening, although this did not reach statistical significance.CONCLUSION: Major histological and biochemical changes occurred during cassava root retting, with some of them associated with the process. Retting affected starch pasting properties more than starch content. Although this process is characterized by root softening and degradation of cell wall structure, the present study strongly suggested that pectin is not the only cell wall component involved in these changes.Cassava plays a major role in food security for the African population with an average annual consumption of 100 kg of roots per capita, 1 represented by a wide diversity of culinary recipes. 2,3 Up to 70% of cassava peasant production is processed, 4 with fermentation representing the major unit operation. 5 Retting is one of the major fermentation procedures, consisting of soaking cassava roots in water for a period of 3-7 days. This softens the cassava flesh (main expectation of the processors) for malleability into further products (bobolo, miondo, fufu, chikwangue etc.) and detoxifies the roots from its cyanogenic glucosides. 6 In addition, production of organic acids confers these products with a characteristic typology. 7,8 The retting process has already been the subject of numerous studies focusing mainly on its kinetics and related factors 9,10 and on the biochemical and microbiological characterization of involved enzymes. 6,[10][11][12][13][14][15] Optimization of the retting process parameters was also investigated using suitable starters and assessing their effect in the product 12,13,[16][17][18][19] to optimize and standardize the retting process, as well as the quality of the endproducts. Based both on its central position in cassava processing and on biochemical phenomena involved in the process, retting can influence the acceptability and the adoption of cassava varieties, in terms of their retting ability. Indeed, a 'high retting capacity' is one of the main quality traits expected by the end users from new cassava hybrids as it influences the organoleptic properties (color, aroma, texture) of the end products (fufu, miondo, mintumba, etc.) and their overall acceptance. 20 Retting ability is a complex quality trait of which elaboration is the result of a coercive action of several genetic and environmental factors. The improvement of such trait by breeding requires a better knowledge of the physiological bases that govern their components, as well as how the related mechanism are regulated. Indeed, the malleability efficiency of cassava flesh expected by processors on retting and the resulting effect of the latter on organoleptic properties of end-products are linked to histological modifications in cassava flesh, in that the structural disorganization of cells during soaking both facilitates the malleability and is assumed to enable multiple interactions and chemical reactions among the flesh components. Hence the interest in understanding the histological changes on retting and, moreover, the physiological base of retting process. This would provide biochemical and molecular indicators that can be used as early phenotyping and selecting tools of promising hybrids that meet consumer expectations.The present study focuses on the physiological bases associated with retting in cassava roots, aiming to identify biophysical indicators related to the retting ability.To this end, a selected group of cassava genotypes, contrasting in their retting ability, was used to undertake a comparative biochemical characterization and histological analysis.Source and retting treatment of plant material A set of eight cassava genotypes including hybrids developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), with improved agronomic and nutritional performance, were selected. These genotypes comprised four with yellow-pulp (01/0040-27, 01/1797, I090593 and I071026; hereafter referred to as YP1, YP2, YP3 and YP4, respectively) and four with white-pulp (LMR, 92/0326, I090616 and local variety; hereafter referred to as WP1, WP2, WP3 and WP4) were used in the present study. The cassava genotypes were grown in the research station of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD) of Mbalmayo, Cameroon (N 03°31 0 , E 11°30 0 , altitude: 335 m), in partnership with IITA under the Agricultural Investments and Market Development Project (AIMDP) trials. Conventional cultural practices without fertilizers or herbicides 21 were followed. Cassava roots were harvested 14 months after planting.For each genotype, approximately 30 kg of roots were harvested from an average of 10 plants randomly selected in the field. The roots where peeled, washed and divided into three batches of approximately 10 kg each. Each batch was soaked in an individual container containing tap water for 3 days in accordance with the traditional retting method used by the local populations.The soaking water sample (approximately 2 mL) was filtered through a 45-μm cellulose acetate membrane (Legallais, Montferrier, France) and stored at 4 °C until analysis by HPLC. For roots, two samples of approximately 100 and 250 g were collected every 24 h from each fermentation batch for microscopy and biochemical analysis, respectively. For microcopy analysis, the root sample was stored at 4 °C in a fixing buffer (glutaraldehyde 3%, phosphate buffer 0.1 M, pH 7.4) until used. The second root sample was freeze-dried, then ground with a hammer mill (Perten Laboratory Mill 3100; Perking Helmer, Villebon-sur-Yvette, France) and the resulting flours packaged in plastic bottles with screw caps and stored at −20 °C for further biochemical and functional analyses.The pH of soaking water was directly measured at room temperature during retting using a portable pH meter (Multi 3630 IDS SET; Xylem Analytics, Nanterre, France).The preparation of the samples for histology analysis was carried out as described by Ngolong et al. 8 except that cassava flesh sections were embedded in paraffin and stained successively with Shiff reagent and methyl blue. The histology observations were made at magnification 200× using an optical microscope (Scientico STM-50; Leitz, Wetzlaz, Germany).Cassava root softness was assessed using a texturometer (TA-XTPlus; Stablemicrosystems, Swantec, Gennevilliers, France) in accordance with the method described by Mbéguié et al. 22 The softer the root, the lower its firmness. Measurement was performed on root samples taken at 0, 24 and 48 and 72 h after beginning of the retting process. Retting rate was defined as the percentage loss of firmness calculated for a given sampling point. It was calculated according to:where rr is the retting rate, Fi is the initial firmness value measured on fresh root and Ff is the firmness of fermented root at the sampling point.Fermentable sugars, alcohol and organic acids Fermentable sugars and organic acids contents of soaking water were quantified by analyzing the sample directly by HPLC according to the procedure described by Hor et al. 23 The equipment used was a Dionex Ultimate 3000 HPLC system (Thermo Fisher, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France) equipped with an analytical autosampler (WPS-3000 TSL; Thermo Fisher), an Aminex column (Aminex HPX-87H 300 × 4.6 mm; Bio-Rad, Marnes la Coquette, France) and an UltiMate 3000 diode array detector. For root flour, fermentable sugars and organic acids were extracted as described Mestres et al. 24 and analyzed by HPLC as described above.The total pectins of flours were extracted and quantified in accordance with the method described by Mestre et al. 25 Starch content and amylose content The determination of the starch content was carried out as described by Jourda et al. 26 according to the modified Holm enzymatic method. 27 Glucose was quantified by HPLC as described above. The amylose content of the cassava flour samples was determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) using a DSC 8500 apparatus (Perkin-Elmer, Norwalk, CT, USA) in accordance with the method described by Mestres et al. 28 Pasting properties of cassava flours A Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA 4500; Perten Instrument, Newport, NSW, Australia) was used to assess the pasting properties of native and retted cassava flours in accordance with the method developed by Batey et al. 29 Peak (PV), breakdown (BD) and setback (SB) viscosities were the main parameters assessed.All analyses were performed at least in triplicate and the results expressed as the mean ± SD. Analysis of variance of the means made it possible to compare the influence of the sources of variation (genotype and retting time) on the responses measured. Tukey's test was used to rank significantly different means (P = 0.5), using XLSAT software 2021 (XLSAT, Paris, France).After 24 h of retting, the soaking water of all cassava varieties resulted in an acidic pH value of around 4.5 (see Supporting information, Fig. S1). Marked softening changes were observed at the same time on roots, considered as an indicator of their retting ability. According to the percentage of firmness loss after 24 h, YP1 and WP1 appeared as fast-retting rate varieties (90.46% and 85.08%, respectively), whereas varieties WP2, YP2, YP3, YP4 and WP3 were medium-retting rate (50-70%) and WP4 demonstrated a slow-retting rate (37.70%) (Fig. 1).In an attempt to assess the putative relationship between roots softening and changes of root cell wall structure, histological analysis was performed and the results are shown in Fig. 2. At harvest stage and regardless of genotype, all cells except those from the xylem exhibited a consistent structure and contained the starch granules (red color). Xylem cells were larger with a thick wall surrounded by companion cells. At this stage, except WP4, which exhibited plasmolyzed cells (Fig. 2Hh), cells from all varieties had also a turgid appearance (Fig. 2A-G). After 72 h of retting, there was a loss of integrity of the root tissue and root cell wall degradation, leading to the observed loss of firmness (Fig. 2, right). This degradation was more pronounced in some varieties than in others. Indeed, the integrity of the cell structure was completely lost for YP1, YP4 and WP4, with a total disappearance of the cell walls and a disintegrated structure with starch granules as the main visible element. Genotypes WP3 and YP2 presented a cohesive cell structure with continuous cell walls, whereas WP1 presented a structure with cells that dissociated from each other with the intracellular starch granules, revealing clearly defined cell limits.Because of the contrasting softening behavior observed for different varieties, YP1 and WP1 were considered as those which retted quickly and two others (WP2 and YP2) were selected from the group of varieties with medium softening speed. These four genotypes were further used as contrasting models for advanced biochemical analysis.Changes of sugar, alcohol and organic acids during the retting process The kinetics of fermentable sugars in the soaking water and flours during retting is summarized in Fig. 3 and that of organic acids is shown in Fig. 4. Neither maltose, nor glucose was detected in the soaking water or in the flours after 72 h of retting. These sugars were more concentrated in the soaking water of genotypes YP1 and WP1 after 24 h of retting. Fructose and mannitol decreased in the flours and accumulated in the soaking water after 72 h of retting (Fig. 3). The main organic acids determined both in the soaking water and in the flours were lactate and acetate, with the former being more concentrated in the soaking water than any other compound analyzed. Unlike acetate, lactate was not detected in flours from unfermented roots (Fig. 4). The two acids accumulated differentially in soaking water and roots: lactate accumulated transiently in roots and continuously in soaking water. The acetate content in roots decreased during the retting, whereas it increased in soaking water. Butyrate appeared in the soaking water after 48 h of retting, regardless of the variety. Ethanol also evolved increasingly during retting. Butyrate and ethanol were not detected in the roots.Evolution of the total pectins content is described in Table 1. The yields of total pectin in flours were significantly influenced by genotype (data not presented) and always decreased significantly (P < 0.05) during retting. Flours from YP1 and WP2 had higher levels of total pectin compared to that from YP2. WP1 showed an atypically high increase in pectin content from 0 to 24 h, followed by the expected decrease through 72 h, whereas that of YP1 remained relatively unchanged during the retting process.   The histological data suggested that retting affects the cell wall more than the physical structure of starch granules. Therefore, starch content and amylose contents were measured only on cassava roots taken at harvest time. The results presented in Table 2 show that the starch content varied significantly among genotypes, from 75.87% (WP2) to 80.33% (WP1), whereas the amylose content ranged from 13.28% (WP1) to 15.79% (YP2).The pasting indicators, namely PV, BD and SB of flours from different cassava varieties taken at different retting stages (Fig. 5), displayed a wide genetic diversity, depending on retting duration and indicator considered. For gelatinization (Fig. 5A), retting did not affect significantly the swelling amplitude (represented by PV) of YP2 or YP1. WP1 tended to increase in PV, whereas that of WP2 tended to decrease after 24 h of retting. However, PV values for an extended retting period (72 h) tended to be similar to those of unretted roots, with the exception of WP2. The ability of gelatinized cassava starch to withstand high temperature (represented by BD) is genotype-and retting duration-dependent (Fig. 5B). In unretted cassava roots, WP2 displayed a high BD, characteristic of low resistance of its gelatinized starch to heat treatment at 90 °C. After 24 h of retting, the BD viscosity of gelatinized starch from WP1 and YP1 were higher (low resistance to heat). Their resistance to heat was improved (low BD values) after 72 h of retting with values close to those of unretted roots. After 72 h of retting, gelatinized starch of all cassava varieties converged towards relatively low BD values (i.e. high resistance to heat). Upon cooling to 50 °C (Fig. 5C), gelatinized starch from YP1 and WP1 varieties presented high SB values after 24 h of retting, characteristic of high susceptibility to retrogradation. However, when the retting time increases, all varieties displayed relatively low SB values (low tendency to retrogadation), close to those of unretted roots for YP1 and WP1.In the process of fermented cassava products, one of the key steps is the production of cassava dough, obtained after the root retting. The quality and/or quantity of the dough impacts the quality of the ready-to-eat product (i.e. fufu, miondo, chikwnague, muntumba, bobolo). Indeed, a cassava genotype with poor and/or low retting ability will give a low dough yield with poor quality. Such a genotype will be systematically rejected by end users because ready-to-eat products will not meet the expected sensory qualities (taste, texture in the mouth, aroma, etc.). With the prospect of increasing the rate of adoption of new hybrids from breeding program, an early and effective selection of hybrids that meet consumer expectations is a challenge that requires the availability of physiological indicators (biochemical and molecular) associated with the relevant quality trait of the consumer and usable as early selection filters for breeders.In the present study aiming to understand the physiological bases associated with the retting process, we characterized the biochemical and histological changes during retting of different cassava genotypes.The pH values of cassava soaking water obtained in the present study are in accordance with those previously reported. 30 This drop in pH was concomitant with the loss of root firmness, which correlated with the increase of organic acids that occurred in soaking water. 30   Histological analysis of cassava roots at harvest shows a structure similar to that already reported in cassava. 6,8 A change of root tissue structure during retting strongly indicates that the process mainly affected the cell wall, leading to root softening. However, based on integrity of starch granules, there was no apparent change in the starch macrostructure, even after 72 h of retting. In summary, retting appeared to affect the integrity of the cell walls without a marked effect on the starch granules. Probably, as suggested by Silva et al., 30 72 h of fermentation was insufficient to cause drastic changes in the granules of cassava starches.Biochemical characterization of the retting process Kinetics of sugar, alcohol and organic acids The high concentration of sugars (maltose, glucose) observed after 24 h in the soaking water of YP1 and WP1 roots was coupled with rapid softening observed in these varieties at this stage of retting. This resulted in a negative correlation (r = −0.95) observed between firmness and maltose content (see Supporting information, Table S1). A negative correlation was also detected between softening and ethanol content (r = −0.96), indicating that the loss of firmness was accompanied by the release of soluble sugars, which underwent anaerobic fermentation by different microorganisms in the soaking water, leading to a production of ethanol and lactate. 31 This fermentation also likely explains the total disappearance of fermentable sugars (maltose and glucose) in the flours and soaking water after 72 h of retting. The high concentration of lactate in soaking water and its relative abundance in all genotypes confirms the predominance of lactic acid bacteria activities during the retting process, as previously reported. 13,32,33 Lactic acid fermentation was followed by that of acid-tolerant yeasts. Ethanol is therefore the second most concentrated metabolite in soaking water. 10 Organic acids accumulated differentially in the soaking water and in the flour. Lactate content accumulated transiently, a pattern corroborating the one previously reported by Brauman et al. 10 However, in the present study, higher lactate levels were obtained. Acetate content of the flour decreased continuously during retting, probably as the result of leaching into soaking water. This result is in contrast to that of Brauman et al., 10 who reported a transient accumulation of acetate content, with a decrease 72 h after the beginning of retting. Organic acids metabolism during retting is probably a function both of genotype and microbial population involved, considering that both the study by Brauman et al. 10 and the present study were conducted in different areas and with different genotypes. The late appearance of butyrate in the soaking water confirms the assertion that the microorganisms responsible for their production may be strict anaerobes such as Clostridia. 34 These organic acids improve the aroma, flavor, texture and shelf life, and further contribute to preserving the quality of the products by inactivating the Enterobacteria and other infectious pathogens that produce toxins of food origin. 35 Total pectin content Previous studies revealed that the softening observed during cassava retting is the result of the degradation of cell wall pectin compounds. 8,33 Overall, there was a negative correlation between total pectin content observed during retting, and softening of the roots (see Supporting information, Table S1), which failed to reach statistical significance probably as a result of the small size of the dataset. Similarly, the degree of softening of roots from the different genotypes was not linked to the initial levels of pectin concentration. Additionally, in YP1 and WP1, which had already lost more than 85% of their firmness after 24 h of retting, the lowest total pectin content was reached after 72 h of retting. The main changes in wall polysaccharide composition during retting concern specific pectin polymers such as galactan, homogalacturonan and arabinan. 8 Thus, root softening during retting would not only be the result of pectin degradation, but also the distribution of methyl groups on the homogalactan skeleton, the degree of methylation or other cell wall component such as hemicellulose. All of them are known to affect cell wall stiffness 33 and therefore these component should be considered for further studies.In the present study, the level of starch and amylose content was different according to the genotypes. They were between 75.87 ± 1.01% and 80.33 ± 1.13% for starch, which is within the range of levels generally obtained in cassava root harvested after 12 months of growth in the field. The significant difference observed for starch at this stage between the varieties confirms the effect of genotype on the starch content of cassava as previously shown. 36 The level of amylose content ranged between 13.28 ± 0.19% and 15.79 ± 0.88% for amylose, which is lower than those previously reported. 37,38 One of the characteristics of cassava retting process is the cell wall degradation and root disintegration leading to the slight loss of material including starch released into the quenching water, which becomes cloudy and whitish. Regardless of the genotype, no significant difference in terms of starch and amylose content was observed during retting, suggesting that the material released into the soaking water has little impact on the starch and amylose content. This could be a result of the pasty properties of starch brought out by soaking in water. Our data also suggest that the retting process is not associated with a significant starch degradation, although recent studies reported the production by microorganisms of amylase. 39 Pasting properties of cassava flours The present study confirms the apparent stability of starch structure during retting, as observed on histological cross-sections of roots. The retting process affected mainly starch pasting properties rather than starch granule structure. Moreover, the above findings indicate that the pasting behavior of cassava starch is genotype-dependent. This finding was similar to those previously reported in several studies. 36,40 The pasting behaviour of cassava starch was also retting-duration dependent, as previously reported. 40,41 This pasting behaviour is probably linked to the rate of softening of the roots during retting. Indeed, an apparent correlation was observed between pasting behavior and the softening rate of cassava genotypes because the samples of each of the two selected groups (YP1/WP1) as fast retting speed and (WP2/YP2) as medium retting speed have comparable pasting behavior.It is obvious that other cassava components and characteristics, such as polyphenols and pectin structure and composition, sugars, and starch structure and composition, may be involved in the pasting and cell wall behavior as recently suggested. [42][43][44] Therefore, these components need to be investigated in relation with cell wall degradation and pasting property changes that occur during the retting process.Mapping cassava genotypes based on their retting ability assessed using loss of firmness and biochemical characteristics of flours and soaking water after 24 h of retting clearly discriminate the four genotypes (Fig. 6). The first two principal components were responsible for 80.00% of total variance. The WP1 variety presented the lowest firmness and more concentrated organic acids in the soaking waters, which is a symbol of effective fermentation, and, above all, a high swelling rate of flour resulted. Accordingly, it can be considered as the best in terms of retting ability after 24 h of retting. The WP1 variety was opposed in the principal component 1 (45.91%) to YP2 in which fermentation was very weakly established after 24 h of retting with weak softening. The YP1 was driven by principal component 2 (34.09%) and characterized by the metabolites contained in the roots. This could reflect a more advanced fermentation in the roots than in the soaking water as a result of the high pH of the roots. Flour of WP2 variety (driven by principal component 3) was most resistant to prolonged heating and less susceptible to retrogradation after 24 h of retting, making it suitable for fufu production.The data reported in the present study represent a substantial contribution towards understanding the physiological basis of the retting process through biochemical and histological studies. Histological and biochemical changes in the soaking water and in the roots were highlighted. The level of maltose decreased during retting in both soaking water and roots, whereas acetate content decreased in soaking water and increased in roots. This study also showed that (i) the retting process affects the functional properties of starch more than its content and that (ii) the loss of firmness shown by cell wall degradation is not well correlated with the evolution of total pectin content. This suggests the involvement of other cell wall compounds (e.g., hemicellulose, methylated forms of pectin and polyphenols) that warrant further research.","tokenCount":"4097"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e64da5ef6368098d48aa48a0658f8ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4a32857-e548-4a96-b04d-d27e8049c41a/retrieve","id":"40358083"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a37fa4c8-6987-4341-8f9d-07b705e27c2d","pagecount":"22","content":"Topics discussed: 1. Flagships: Not part of this planning process? Will use flagships as management tool in the RBM pilot, (report tables have extra columns for progress explanations and recommendations. no direct role for theme leader if not involved with CF project)? 2. RTB portfolio updating 2014-pre-step for flagships, revision of instructions, integrate CIRAD, integrate new milestones of 2013 (CFs) REPORTING TLs must contribute to centre reports. Do not duplicate Complementary funding (CF) reporting with centre reporting. CIRAD should only report for 2013 within CF reporting. Product portfolio reporting 2013 will have two tabs 2013 and 2012 carryover-FPs need to do this.This was an important meeting to take stock of where we are and to maintain the momentum of planning for the new phase of CRPs, with a pilot of Results Based Management in 2014. More focus is needed on capitalizing on the added value of crosscutting work. Greater clarity is needed in terms of communications, roles, responsibilities and resource sharing. This was our first meeting with full participation of CIRAD and we note the progress in bringing their scientists into our programs although there is still some way to go for comprehensive integration. The program needs to clearly identify and overlaps and gaps in its research portfolio, particularly with regard to the RTB flagships, which were also discussed at some length. Between presentations, delegates engaged in wide-ranging discussions, with common topics emerging on how to better work across centers, partners, themes and CRPs.This report is organized following the sessions of the workshop with a summary of the presentation and highlights of the questions and answers which followed. It begins with the action items which were agreed.We thank Vincent Johnson for his help in taking notes and preparing this report. Theme leaders (TLs) reviewed crosscutting research progress within each of their themes, (some TLs reported more about their activities. More emphasis needed on what was actually crosscutting in terms of crops, centers and even CRPs).Presented by Nicolas Roux (Bioversity): See: here Topics discussed:Cross-cutting strategy: Need clearer strategy that brings all theme 1 cross-cutting together and articulates how to best generate value addedPresented by: Luis Augusto Becerra (CIAT). See here Topics discussed:1. Pathway: need to include the whole pathway from gene to traits and identify any gaps? All issues of GxE testing, building field capacity etc. should happen within crop specific activities. We are building data to make more informed decisions, other aspects will be targeted in the flagship-this is a good opportunity to question the focus on one aspect perhaps at the expense of others 2. Training of African/local partners: 'omics' partner-training needed?3. Prioritization: need objective / holistic approach to developing workplans within each theme 4. Traits: TL assumes breeders have captured farmer-preferred traits?5. Gender: how to capture women's perspectives where only male farmers consulted. Need to capture who makes the decision on selection or phenotyping.Presented by: James Legg (IITA). See here Topics discussed:1. Communications/ working relationships: need: a) to improve communications and strengthen working relationships; b) to make RTB work more visible; c) more engagement with people doing experiments, and then validate these with target communities/ groundtruthing, and recommend combinations of options 2. Value proposition: need to include avoided disease spread in the figures for IDOs as a major benefit 3. Disease prioritization: need to prioritize; scope is relatively comprehensive via flagship coverage-10 key P&D covered in pest risk assessment exercise.Presented by: Jorge Andrade-Piedra (CIP). See here • There are different ways of managing knowledge in different themes• Need to present knowledge and value of work in clear, understandable language• Need to decide how to measure successful knowledge management and ensure knowledge is useful to next users• Case-studies could be disseminated using the triple A framework: Availability, Accessibility and Applicability-(ICTK approach). See here• Websites funded by RTB need to be developed consistently-maintenance issues; within projects to set up websites but after project end how do we provide continuity• Underrepresentation of women as senior scientists?• Still limited funding accountability for gender findings/ impacts; look at budgets, gender focal points? Where are gender results even when we are quoting for expenditures? Budget allocated for strategic gender work, but not clear how spending occurred?• Two aspects: one integrating gender into our work/ needs of women, and the other aspect separate strategic gender research; not enough funding for strategic work, but a lot of money available for gender integration. Need guidelines when the funds can be genderrelated or is it only strategic research?• Need dialogue between gender focal points, center focal points and finance to map gender funding; still work in progressPresented by: Robert Domaingue, Philippe Vernier (CIRAD). See here BMGFengagement? investing heavily in RTB crops-4 crops-ad hoc-bilateral discussionsapproach RTB to contribute to their projects-donors want all projects to be fully fundedinvestments not well mapped, need a more strategic engagement and more coherent visione.g. Banana flagship meeting -co-funding a workshop. BMGF keen on genetic gain.• Communications (theme 7) need to still communicate RTB logic so concept is positioned within our scientists; need seminars;IV. Looking into the future (2013/2014): Friday 27 SeptemberPresented by: Veronique Durroux (RTB) & Inge van den Bergh (Bioversity). See here Topics discussed:1. Website: revise basic info (TLs), website visits low: @537/month, content-no scientific papers? How improve? More stories? ResearchGate an option.3. Paper author attribution: act within center submissions also attribute to RTB; mapping of publications to RTB -also the bilateral funded grants publications-comments have been invited4. Bilateral funding acknowledgement. Needs to be formalized; what kind of support should be acknowledged? Differentiate between funding windows-so review the word 'support' 5. Affiliation: Need clearer directions for affiliation, but RTB not a donor, (see guidelines )6. PPA and acknowledgement/ attribution: to coordinate with centers, PPAs provide guidelinesneed to be reviewed -this is an IP issue, so need to review with Selim.Presented by: Netsayi Mudege (RTB), Anne Rietveld (Bioversity), Kayte Meola (CIAT), Holger Kirscht (IITA). See here Topics discussed:1. Gender is not about 'women-: rather targeting relationships between men and women, (see UN definition on gender mainstreaming).2. Gender strategic research vs integration: Need to develop a 2-page briefing note using a 2x2 matrix (Integration, strategic, outcomes responsive and transformative) putting matrix & examples on gender section of RTB website. Need to design a tool to measure gender impact?3. Gender and flagships: weak in flagships. Need to meet to share how we can implement concepts: checkpoints, spaces etc. guidance for PIs. Need to include GFPs at start of flagship development-Presented by Graham Thiele. See here Presented by: Guy Hareau (CIP) & Graham Thiele Highlighted IDOs & indicators. Caveats: more interaction with scientists, coordinate with IDOs/ flagship development, some aspects not captured (environment), understand yield losses better, better links to yield gaps.See: here -IDOs and here -Priority Assessment Topics discussed:1. Impact studies/ evaluation: who will fund IA studies? Some must be invested at program level, Impact studies expensive so need some cost sharing-SPIA/ other CG group may help fund piloting stages, but scaling out stage needs extra funding, perhaps from RTB. CG working group building evaluation plans-ECoP-but how can we link our evaluation to this?2. Indicators: how to define high-level indicators? Perhaps define milestones in indicator context. Need more consistency of kinds of indicators including gender dimensions; need to link indicators to assumptions in model.3. Priority setting: level of competence and research costs estimations in priority setting questioned. NPVs linked to benefits of adoption rather than research costs 4. Targeting: how to best use information in tables for targeting countries/ verifying that flagships focus on these same countries? Will have stream of benefits from poverty data, population etc. so can target countries in this way.5. Attribution: how to handle attribution between CRPs (e.g. Vit A in sweet potato in A4NH vs. RTB). All CRPs needs to cooperate for shared attribution. Don't have a specific attribution costs of delivery linked to adoption area; need to contact A4NH (and other CRPs?) now, to decide on approach to attribution, e.g. need to agree to say 'this was implemented together' 6. Modelling: Market price volatility-model based on economics principles but doesn't capture substitution etc.; if yields currently static how can we assume targeting 20% yield increase in next 3 years? In models will increase yields for target population not the average national yields. Need also to identify gaps in RTB portfolio & how to fill gaps?Presented by: Graham ThieleTopics discussed (especially for genetic gains flagship):1. Flagships: Have a full map of flagship with linked metrics from discovery to delivery-need to have full overview to help planning, including external and internal deliverables, and what partners' roles will be, and highlight any linkages between existing flagships. Genetic gains flagship will need a significant investment.2. M&E: need to get in a consultant to help establish an M&E system/ framework beforehand (including making an M&E assessment for genetic gains) discussed about game-changing genetic gains.1. General planning: Extend all CRP contracts to 2015, MTR 2013-14 (how will it be conducted? who goes 1st? see table), Guidelines for phase 2, Synchronized pre-proposals call by mid-2014, Pre-proposal review late 2014, full prop early 2015. Template available of pre-proposal-10 page, full proposal to 40 pages, (not forgetting any new CRPs relevant to RTB?). Will there be an end of term review? On-going discussions for planning for end 2015?2. Flagships: need to review full set of flagships (missing ones and overlaps); highlighting any overlaps between flagships (less in development store flagship), articulating how discovery flagships link to delivery flagships, and are the boundaries between discovery and delivery;Topics discussed:1. CIRAD role? How will CIRAD be considered?2. Resources: will take time and some estimations-through FPs we need to provide guidance on the feasibility and level of info; financial units can be mapped to PL-mapping by product (>$500K?).3. Level of mapping: why not stay at PL level rather than go down to Product? Within PLs we have products in different region. need to go as far down as possible-but if only estimates we can't provide an accurate picture-CO will be given a proxy they assume is the real world 4. Whether to include column on investment: some work is location-specific-but other is global-Some disagreement with linking to financing-perhaps at least indicate funding level? For what purpose? Investment-level doesn't always correlate with importance-levelgeneral agreement to go ahead with the IM scheme-but without exact investment rather just scale of activity. V Presentations Group Work Saturday 28 September See discussion here Group 2, presented matrix of the 7 IDOs (or themes on second tab) along top (+ inserting gender as a separate IDO), assessing how each flagship (down side) contributes to IDOs (see: here• Currently mainly targets IDO 1&2, less to other IDOs, Analysed 'petals' -weight given to IDOs may vary. Took different flagships and looked at how many times themes occurred in 'petals'-• some theme gaps-flagship concept not well-developed yet• 23 flagships-1 cross-cutting flagship linked to each theme, (Theme 2 has 2 cross cutting flagships)• gender is not strongly featured in basic flagship and linked product figures, Overlaps:• banana breeding, breeding tools, cross-cutting more about pre-breeding-should crosscutting be more about tools development-• Other reflections-gaps-little yam in t1, banana t6, phenotyping in T1, 2 or 3?• LS3 (postharvest flagship) little advance Topics discussed:1. Need to finalise flagship development process (MC will review).Group 3 considered how to improve an existing flagship-the seed framework. (see: here )• This is a learning and support flagship-but still needs project framework, case studies, piggy-back on existing work, disaggregate seed producers and farmers. Linked products-some of LPs not research, suggested cross linkages to improve flagship (see new 'daisy') -and PL changes.• Recommended a gender analysis per stakeholder, analysing potential impact of changes on gender relations See: here• Opportunities for RTB in Humidtropics, so collaborate more with Humidtropics-could expand theme 5 as systemic approach; Livelihoods aspect, NRM, allows assessing RTB contribution to systems productivity-may increase contributions to IDOs.• Mechanisms-Participation in Humidtropics CRP meetings; Assess potential for joint positions-at research level. Data sharing, situation analysis, common methodological approaches, joint research process• PIM collaboration? -larger scale macro-economic analysis?Topics discussed:1. VCs: some PIM planning on cassava VCs and impact of processing technologies; works on a broader framework e.g. on extension services-asset development, VCs, generic collaboration mechanisms.2. Areas/roles for collaboration: selects one or two places where action could start in short term-(e.g. in E Africa, rather than LAC of SEA), which crops play what role where? Situational analysis may provide better understanding of constraints. map out areas and roles and possibilities for sharing before November meeting?Topics discussed:1. Clarify TORs for both science quality and team engagement (including for Cross-cutting) 2. Time line for TLs: designated a 2-year period, then a review/ evaluation, and option to continue or rotating. Review if TL 10% time enough?What could be improved? ","tokenCount":"2101"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7f2339f4e6c6596cdc2e2d8be332cbf8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b4e3a47-a30e-410e-95a8-fd9e63b529df/retrieve","id":"26856752"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"937b841a-229f-4213-bd6d-c814a2b4c6ef","pagecount":"1","content":"The cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar) (Acari: Tetranichidae), originating in Neotropics, became a serious pest of cassava soon after its accidental introduction into Africa in early 1970s. It quickly spread across the cassava belt in Africa causing average cassava yield losses of about 35%. To date M. tanajoa has not spread beyond Africa. The pest is highly specific to cassava and has the typical tetranychid mite life cycle. We developed process-based phenology model for M. tanajoa, using ILCYM software developed by CIP, generated from data collected under five constant temperatures (16,  21, 26, 31, and 36°C), with relative humidity of ~75% and L12:D12 photoperiod. This phenology model was validated with similar data generated under three sets of fluctuating temperatures (long dry seaons, long rainy season and short rainy season). In turn, we used ILCYM to map M. tanajoa distribution and abundance under current and future climate scenarios using 2000 and 2050 WorldClim database. Outputs from this study show that M. tanajoa did not develop at 16°C and temperatures ranging between 21 to 36°C were highly suitable for its development and reproduction. The output of current distributions compare well with published literature which shows that the tropics are highly favorable for this species and that it can potentially be found where cassava is grown. M. tanajoa is presently widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical areas of Latin and Central America and in sub-Saharan Africa. It is still absent in tropical areas of Asia and the Pacific where conditions are highly suitable for its establishment. Warming climate is predicted to have small effects on the distribution of M. tanajoa, but abundance is likely to decline in large areas of Western Africa with higher abundance in the southern latitudes and highland areas. The most effective adaptation against this species is monitoring and surveillance where it is not present, and the introduction and conservation of predatory mites along with the use of hairy cassava varieties are best bet for risk avoidance at farm level.International Potato Center, Lima, Peru.The Sri Lanka fruit fly, Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White (Diptera: Tephritidae), 2005 is a devastating highly polyphagous pest of fruits and vegetables (42 known hosts) in tropical Africa, where it was introduced in is presently found in at least 24 countries. In this study, we determined development, survival and reproduction of B. invadens on a carrot-based diet at six constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 33 and 35°C), with a relative humidity of ~75% and a L12:D12 photoperiod. We used these data in ILCYM to develop a temperature-based phenology model. We then used ILCYM for risk analysis of this pest under current and future climates using the three risk indices establishment, generation and activity. We modeled the phenology of this species quite successfully despite the long life cycle of this species at low temperature (~ 1 year). Our data is the only complete such data set over such range of temperatures. Mapping current distribution showed that this species can establish (as it has) widely in a range of tropical and subtropical conditions (but most successful at not more than 12 degrees north and south of the equator). There will be a reduction in both the distribution and abundance of this species in the tropics by the year 2050 but the indices of distribution and abundance remain high enough to indicate that this species will remain a serious threat to fruit production in tropical areas of the world. Risk reduction adaptations are quarantine and surveillance in areas predicted to be suitable for establishment of B. invadens, the implementation of already tested control options such as biological control with parasitoids (e.g., F. arisanus), use of mass trapping (male annihilation) and bait sprays with effective commercial baits (GF-120).","tokenCount":"621"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"798a6021819c971153dc37bc5a02a85e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a503940a-df27-4fe8-9299-7d5971bad1d4/retrieve","id":"1105773232"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cfab06d5-d02d-4548-9b1b-89fd82c0044d","pagecount":"19","content":"• Crop residues are the second most important feed source for livestock next to grazing lands in the crop-livestock mixed production system in Ethiopia.• The major crop residues are cereals, namely, maize, teff, sorghum, wheat and barley, which account for more than 80% of the total acreage and production of the major food crops in the country.• Adoption of crop residues as feed for livestock to improve productivity is low because of its poor quality (low in protein and energy content, and high in fiber). Chopping: is the most common physical treatment of crop residues widely utilized by smallholder farmers.• Its primarily important for crop residues with thick stems like maize, sorghum and peril millet.• The advantages of chopping roughages like crop residues and hay are:Feeding Value Improvement Methods of Crop Residues• Chopping minimizes wastage of feed• It avoids selective feeding and• maximizes its utilization. Animals usually select the most nutritious parts like leaves to stems.• increases intake of roughages• Improve the overall feed use efficiency to increase productivityGrinding :crop residues may also be ground by residue grinding machines to sizes of 0.6 to 0.8 mm sieve size.• The ground crop residue is usually mixed with other feeds and fed to animals directly or even the mix could be made to pellets.• Generally chopping and grinding increases intake by animals by more than 25%. • It has also reported such practice increases feed passage rate and overall efficiency of feed utilization.• Farmers mix chopped /threshed straws or stovers with legume haulms to improve intake and quality  To improve feeding values of cereal crop residues, different chemical treatments has been developed Urea has been utilized for many years in different countries  The technique is very appropriate for many developing countries due to its ease of applicability and utilization.The main benefits for smallholder farmers are:  The treatment procedures are simple  Urea is available in most of smallholder farmers  Urea treatment doesn't have any negative health effects both in animals and human beings  It remarkably improves the nitrogen (crude protein) and digestibility of cereal crop residues• The most common recommended level of urea is 5 kg per 100 kg of material (5% urea measured on air-dry low-quality roughage).• The moisture or water level in the low-quality roughage to be treated determines how much water should be added and it may range from 0.3 to 1 liter of water per kg straw with a minimum being applied in areas with water scarcity.• An appropriate level of water is necessary for effective urea treatment (N-bound in the straw-increase) as well as packing of the material to exclude air. • Prepare a silo, pit, silage bags, or large volume plastic barrels• Prepare the crop residues to be treated -it should be chopped and weighed.• Prepare 5 kg of fertilizer grade urea to treat 100 kg of crop residue• To improve palatability and digestibility of treated crop residues it is advisable to add about 10 kg of molasses for 100 kg of crop residue (but this is optional and not a must).• Traditional feed storage and utilization practices often result in wastage of biomass• To address this problem improved feed storage and feeding troughs were introduced and evaluated• Use of feed troughs and storage sheds can save from 30 -50% of the crop residue biomass available for farmers compared to the traditional practices","tokenCount":"562"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69ab74063effd2ec5b0b8bd9211f6eab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27b40fa4-4a0d-476d-b58d-88846dbe968f/retrieve","id":"-1519564746"},"keywords":["Sadessa, K.","Beyene, Y.","Ifie, B.E.","Suresh, L.M.","Olsen, M.S.","Ogugo, V.","Wegary, D.","Tongoona, P.","Danquah, E.","Offei, S.K.","et al. Identification of Genomic Regions genome-wide association study","genomic prediction","water stress","well-watered","maize lethal necrosis","genotyping by sequencing","well-watered","water stress"],"sieverID":"afe15f2d-139c-4d71-9940-95e5d0e41784","pagecount":"28","content":"Breeding maize lines with the improved level of desired agronomic traits under optimum and drought conditions as well as increased levels of resistance to several diseases such as maize lethal necrosis (MLN) is one of the most sustainable approaches for the sub-Saharan African region. In this study, 879 doubled haploid (DH) lines derived from 26 biparental populations were evaluated under artificial inoculation of MLN, as well as under well-watered (WW) and water-stressed (WS) conditions for grain yield and other agronomic traits. All DH lines were used for analyses of genotypic variability, association studies, and genomic predictions for the grain yield and other yield-related traits. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) using a mixed linear FarmCPU model identified SNPs associated with the studied traits i.e., about seven and eight SNPs for the grain yield; 16 and 12 for anthesis date; seven and eight for anthesis silking interval; 14 and 5 for both ear and plant height; and 15 and 5 for moisture under both WW and WS environments, respectively. Similarly, about 13 and 11 SNPs associated with gray leaf spot and turcicum leaf blight were identified. Eleven SNPs associated with senescence under WS management that had depicted drought-stress-tolerant QTLs were identified. Under MLN artificial inoculation, a total of 12 and 10 SNPs associated with MLN disease severity and AUDPC traits, respectively, were identified. Genomic prediction under WW, WS, and MLN disease artificial inoculation revealed moderate-to-high prediction accuracy. The findings of this study provide useful information on understanding the genetic basis for the MLN resistance, grain yield, and other agronomic traits under MLN artificial inoculation, WW, and WS conditions. Therefore, the obtained information can be used for further validation and developing functional molecular markers for marker-assisted selection and for implementing genomic prediction to develop superior elite lines.Maize is an important staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where a large area is under maize production [1]. In east Africa, 82.48 million hectares (m ha) were covered by maize and about 156.21 million tons of maize grain were produced with productivity of 1.89 tons per ha (http://www.fao.org/faostat/, accessed on 2 November 2021). Both biotic and abiotic stresses are the major threats to crop production, particularly maize in SSA. Drought stress, high costs of improved seeds and fertilizers [2], and biotic stresses such as maize lethal necrosis (MLN) disease are the limiting factors for maize production in east Africa.MLN was first reported in Kenya in 2011 and later reported in Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, D.R. Congo, and Ethiopia [3][4][5]. Maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV) and sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) viruses were the confirmed pathogens that have jointly incited the MLN disease [5][6][7]. Both MCMV and SCMV are transmitted by insect vectors (MCMV by thrips and semipersistent beetles; SCMV by aphids) [5,8]. MCMV has been confirmed for its transmission by seeds and infected soils, making the management of MLN more challenging [6,[9][10][11]. Based on the maize plant growth stages and environment conduciveness for MLN causing pathogens, the yield losses ranged from 30-100% [12]. Thus, the management of MLN demands proper identification of resistant germplasm sources and associated genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) that aid to develop the resistant hybrids or varieties [13].Doubled haploid (DH) lines allow complete homozygosity over lines developed through pedigree breeding; this allows precision in phenotyping over multiple locations and years [14]. Further, high genetic variance in DH lines enhances response to selection [15] by increasing heritability for various traits. Compared to breeding under well-watered (WW) conditions, the genetic variability, trait heritability, disease resistance, and selection gain are very low for breeding under water stress (WS) conditions [16]; thus, WS condition makes the identification of best genotypes and expression of complex traits. These challenges are designed to be solved through established managed drought tolerance and disease screening facilities, not to lose the genetic variations, and to produce good yield under stress conditions. Understanding the maize crop's behavior under WS for grain yield and yield-related traits, proper statistical design and breeding scheme help to select the best genotypes under WS environments [16,17].Advancement in next-generation sequencing tools promoted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in many crops including maize [18]. Association analysis is based on the non-random association between genotypes and phenotypes of the diverse distantly related individuals [19]. The significance of the marker-phenotype association could be declared when the marker polymorphism is located within the linkage disequilibrium (LD) region. To detect an association of complex traits, a minimum LD average with cut-off point of r 2 =0.1 was used [19]. In maize, the rate of LD decay approximated to 1, 2, and 200-500 kb in landraces, diverse inbred lines, and commercial elite inbred lines, respectively [20].GWAS is useful in allele mining by dissecting the quantitative traits [19]. QTL or gene mapping consists of linkage map construction and identifying genomic regions associated with the targeted QTL [21]. QTL mapping helps to understand the genetic inheritance of quantitative traits [22,23]. Breeding for drought tolerance is complex since the trait is influenced by the environment and many genes with small effects [24]. In maize, about 239 QTLs related to drought tolerance were reported [25,26]. Five droughttolerant QTLs closely linked to grain yield were reported by Agrama and Moussa [27]. Semagn et al. [2] reported four meta-QTLs associated with grain yield for both under drought and optimum management. The high QTL detection power and fine resolution of mapping are exploited by joint linkage association mapping in multiple biparental populations [28][29][30]. The identification and validation of novel genomic regions associated with economically important traits under WW and WS as well as MLN are important to accelerate the development of climate-resilient improved maize varieties to enhance high maize productions in smallholder families and contribute to food security [12,31,32].Genomic selection (GS) uses genome-wide markers to predict the breeding values of individuals by trapping the effects of both major and minor genes [33]. In GS, from the training population, the effect of all markers are estimated, and then the genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) of the untested but genotyped lines are computed [33]. Lines in the testing population are only genotyped, not phenotyped, and thus important in reducing the breeding cycle and increasing the genetic gain per unit time. GS is effective in several crops over a wide range of marker densities, trait complexities, and breeding populations [34][35][36], where varying levels of prediction accuracy have been achieved in different studies.To understand how WS affects grain yield and other key traits, this study was performed using a tropical maize population under drought and optimum conditions across multi-location field trials and the MLN effect under artificial inoculation in Kenya. The objectives of the study were to (i) evaluate the large set of 879 tropical and subtropical maize DH lines for their responses to MLN disease severity under artificial inoculation, grain yield (GY), and other yield-related traits under WW and WS conditions; (ii) identify genomic regions and putative candidate genes associated with these traits across the three management conditions; and (iii) assess the potential of GS within management conditions. This study will provide valuable information for uncovering the genetic basis of GY under WW and WS conditions.In this study, 1462 DH lines from 40 populations were phenotyped in multiple locations under WW, WS, and MLN artificial inoculation conditions. Whereas, among these DH lines, 879 DH lines derived from 26 DH populations were genotyped, for the final analyses, we used only 879 DH lines. There are 26 parental lines were used to develop these DH populations (Supplementary Table S1). Among these, three lines with LapostaSequiaC17 background are known for their drought tolerance, whereas other CIMMYT maize lines such as CML312, CML395, CML442, CML444, and CML539 are commonly used as parents for most of single cross testers of most of commercial hybrids released in east and southern Africa. Additionally, new lines, which showed a better level of resistance for foliar diseases, were also used in a way to bring both biotic and abiotic stress tolerant lines together in a set of lines. The DH lines were crossed to a single cross tester from the opposite heterotic group. All DH lines were formed 17 sets and planted as 17 trials. There were seven commercial checks used, which were repeated in each trial, acting as connecting genotypes for each trial. Both genotypes and checks were replicated two times. The trials were connected by common checks (DK8031, H517, Pioneer30G19, PAN4M19, DUMA43, DH04, and WE1101). All the DH lines were evaluated in 17 connected trials under WW (Kakamega and Kiboko), WS (Kiboko), and MLN (Naivasha) conditions in Kenya. A single row of the plot with 4 m length in two replications was arranged in an α lattice design. Two seeds were planted per hill and thinned to one while 75 cm spacing between rows and 25 cm between plants was used. Eleven commercial checks were used in each trial. All recommended agronomic practices were applied uniformly to each trial.The detailed protocol on the preparation of inoculum is explained in earlier studies [12,13,37]. In brief, the stock isolates of MCMV and SCMV pathogens were massproduced in separately managed greenhouses. The sap extraction of both MCMV and SCMV pathogen inoculum was made using 0.1 mM potassium-phosphate and pH 7.0 extraction buffers in 1:10 ratio and mixed at a ratio of 4 SCMV:1 MCMV to create MLN disease inoculum. The inoculum was sieved using cheesecloth, and then carborundum was added to the mixture of MLN inciting pathogen inoculum at the rate of 0.02 g/mL to create a wound that enhances an attachment and penetration of the virus particles into the host plant. Before field inoculation, the mixture of MCMV and SCMV virus inoculum was checked using the target pathogen-specific antibodies using enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA). Field inoculation was performed using a backpack motorized knapsack sprayer at the four weeks of plant growth stage after planting, and the second inoculation was made one week after the first spray to keep a uniform inoculation.Two weeks after the second inoculation, the establishment, development, and existence of the MLN disease-causing viruses were rechecked using ELISA kits. The MLN disease severity (MLN-DS) rating scale of 1-9 was used, where 1 is highly resistant with no MLN disease symptoms and 9 is highly susceptible or necrosis symptoms or total death of the plant. The MLN disease data were recorded four times at ten-day-intervals starting from the third week of the post-inoculation. The progress of MLN disease or area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was calculated from the recorded MLN-DS data over four time intervals [5,32,38].The DH lines were evaluated at Kakamega under WW management, Kiboko under both WW and WS at different sites, and Naivasha under artificial inoculation of MLN for two seasons. Grain yield (GY, ton/ha), anthesis date (AD, 50% of pollen shed), silking date (SD, 50 % of silking), anthesis silking interval (ASI, the difference between anthesis and sinking dates), plant height (PH, cm) measured from the ground level to the base of the tassel after milk stage, ear height (EH, cm) measured from the ground level to the node bearing the uppermost ear after milking stage, moisture (MOI, percent moisture content of the grain at the time of harvesting using moisture meter), senescence (SEN, percent leaves lost chlorophyll to green leaves at the mid-silking), grey leaf spot (GLS, recorded using 1-9 scale), turcicum leaf blight (TLB, measured using 1-9 rating scale), common rust (CR, recorded using 1-9 rating scale), and MLN-DS (measured using the rating scale of 1 to 9 score) were recorded and analyzed. All the traits were phenotyped in all the trials but not in all the management conditions. For example, AD, ASI, EH, PH, MOI, and GY traits were phenotyped under both WW and WS; TLB, GLS, and CR under WW; SEN and ER under WS; and MLN-DS and AUDPC under MLN management conditions.Statistical model fitting for different traits was checked by plotting the histogram with standardized residuals. A plot of residuals against fitted values has shown that the residuals were symmetrically distributed with constant variance for all traits; thus, the data were not transformed. The phenotypic traits were analyzed with the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) method designed in the multi-environment trial analysis (META) R software developed in CIMMYT [39]. The following mixed model was used for across environments data analyses.where: Y ijkl is the phenotypic observation at the ith genotype, jth environment in kth replication of the lth incomplete block, µ is overall means, G i is the genetic effect of the ith genotype, L j is the effect of the jth environment, (GL) ij is genotype by environment interaction, R(L) kj is the effect of the kth replication at the jth environment, B(RL) ljk is the effect of the lth incomplete block in the kth replication at the jth environment, and e ijkl is the residual. The selected traits' broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) was calculated as follows:where σ 2 G , σ 2 GxE , σ 2 e , L, and R referred to the genotypic, genotype by environment interaction, error variance, environment, and replication, respectively. Best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) and best linear unbiased predictions (BLUPs) for all traits were calculated. The traits phenotypic distribution and Pearson's correlation coefficient were performed and displayed using R scrips (http://www.R-project.org, accessed on 17 November 2021).All 879 DH lines were genotyped with a high-density genotype by sequencing (GBS) platform using the pre-developed protocol at the Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA [2,31,40]. DNA was extracted from the young leaves using the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method [41]. Raw GBS data had a total of 955,120 SNPs loci distributed across maize genome. The raw GBS SNPs data were imputed by default parameter filling methods [24,42]. Different filtering criteria were applied to the raw data to obtain input data for LD and GWAS analyses. For LD, the raw data were filtered based on no missing data and >10% minor allele frequency (MAF). The BLUPs for the selected traits (MLN-DS, AUDPC, AD, ASI, GY, EH, MOI, SEN, and PH) across environments were used for the GWAS study. SNPs quality screening was performed using trait analysis by association, evolution, and linkage (TASSEL v.5.2.24) software [43] by filtering and discarding the SNPs with a <0.05 of MAF and heterozygosity of >0.05, resulted into 226,940 SNPs. SNPs and physical distance between SNPs were used to detect genome-wide LD [44]. LD decay was calculated at r 2 = 0.2 and r 2 = 0.1 using average pairwise distance, where the nonlinear model r 2 was used [45,46]. Scatter plots and fitted smooth curves for estimating LD decay were plotted using the LOESS function in R [47].The genetic relationship tree construction for 879 DH lines was performed using Darwin 6.0.21 software. At the first step, the genetic distance matrix was calculated based on the mean Euclidean method where homozygote 100 and heterozygote 50% similarity were considered. Secondly, the unweighted neighbor-joining clustering method was employed to construct the diversity tree of the genotypes. The population structure of 879 DH lines, which had both phenotypic and genotypic data, were analyzed and sub-grouped using structure software 2.3.4 version with 6745 SNPs [48,49] based on the variability of allele frequencies both within and between populations genetic distance. The number of discontinuous population structure clusters (K) was predicted from one to five with ten iterations. The true number of population structure clusters (delta K value) were harvested online using an available structure harvester software based on the highest ln P(D). The unique population genetic subcluster was represented by each color bar at a p = 0.001. The period of length of burn-in was set to 10,000, and Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) values were set to 10,000 cycles [48].GWAS analysis was performed with the R package \"FarmCPU-Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification\" [50]. GBS marker data in the \"hapmap\" format were converted to numeric (0, 1, 2) with the \"GAPIT\" package [51]. The first three principal components (PCs) obtained from TASSEL [43] were used as an input for GWAS in FarmCPU. The kinship matrix was calculated with the default kinship algorithm. The analysis was performed with a maxLoop of five, p threshold of 0.01, a quantitative trait nucleotide (QTN) threshold of 0.01, and a MAF threshold of 0.05. The maxLoop refers to the total number of iterations used. The p values selected into the model for the first iteration, the p-value selected into the model from the second iteration, and the minimum MAF of SNPs used in the analysis refers to the p threshold, QTN threshold, and MAF threshold, respectively. To determine the significance threshold, multiple testing correction was conducted where the total number of tests was estimated based on the average extent of LD at r 2 = 0.1. Concerning the above, the significant associations were declared when p values in independent tests were less than 9 × 10 −6 [38,52]. The Blast search against maize reference genome \"B73\" was performed for the significant SNPs; subsequently, the candidate gene adjacent or exactly in the same position with the significant SNPs identified and annotated and the candidate gene biological function described for each of the studied target traits (http://blast.maizegdb.org/home.php, accessed on 23 November 2021; http://www.maizegdb.org, accessed on 23 November 2021). CurlyWhurly Version 1.19 was used to plot and visualize the first three analyzed PCA components (https://ics. hutton.ac.uk/curlywhirly/, accessed on 19 November 2021).The phenotypic traits BLUEs were used for the GS analysis. Ridge-regression BLUP (RR-BLUP) with five-fold cross-validation was applied. From the GBS data, a subset of 6745 SNPs distributed uniformly across the genome, with no missing values, and minor allele frequency >0.10 were used for GS in GWAS panel under different management conditions. Details of the implementation of the RR-BLUP model are described in Zhao et al. [36]. We applied a five-fold cross-validations 'within population' approach, where both training and estimation sets were derived from within the association panel under different management conditions. The prediction accuracy was calculated as the correlation between genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) and the observed phenotypes. A sampling of the training and validation sets was repeated 100 times for each approach.The normal distribution was observed for each trait under WW and WS conditions (Figure 1). The analysis of variance revealed significant genotypic variance (Table 1) for the studied traits: MLN-DS and AUDPC under MLN management and GY, AD, ASI, PH, EH, TLB, MOI, CR, SEN, and GLS traits measured under WW and/or WS management. The variation for GY ranged from 4.35 to 11.66 tons/ha (mean = 7.54 t/ha) under WW condition and from 0.03 to 5.67 tons/ha (mean = 2.7 t/ha) under WS conditions (Table 1). The mean performance for AD showed 0.41 days earliness under WS compared to WW conditions. The range is higher for ASI under WS (−3.95 to 8.17 days) compared to WW (−3 to 4.5 days) conditions. The mean of PH and EH were reduced significantly under WS compared to WW conditions. Further, the range of distribution reduced drastically for SEN under WS. The META R combined analyses result revealed that the studied genotypes had a wide range of responses against the MLN-DS ranging from 2 to 9 (Figure 2, Table 1). GY had moderate broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) under both WW and WS conditions, while MLN-DS and TLB had relatively high H 2 with 0.67 and 0.80, respectively.Under WS management, the genotypes CKDHL140940, CKDHL142056, CKDHL142091, CKDHL141377, and CKDHL142061 had produced the highest GY values of 5.67, 4.91, 4.85, 4.81, and 4.77 t/ha, respectively. The genotype CKDHL140037 had a lesser AD (62.11 days) than the grand mean (67.55 days) and the best check Duma43 (62.68 days). Genotype CKDHL140091 has shown 0.38 days less than the best check (0.74 days) and grand mean (2.28 days). Comparatively, plant height (185.55 cm), which is not too tall or short, was obtained in the genotype CKDHL140125, even though it was slightly higher than the best check KD8031 (183.88 cm) and grand mean (176.40 cm). Under WW management, the genotype CKDHL141097 was performed better than the best check CML444 and overall mean, which had the GY values of 9.17, 7.20, and 8.28 t/ha, respectively. An AD (65.93 days) was recorded in the CKDHL140933 genotype, which was earlier than the overall mean (67.78 days) and comparable to the best check Duma43 (64.47 days) under WW management. Similarly, the genotype CKDHL140876 had a good ASI of 0.37 days lesser than the grand mean (0.42 days) but not better than the check CZL04003 (0.35 days). About 52 DH lines were rated from two to four and have depicted the resistance reactions against the MLN-DS, while 735 DH lines rated from four to seven were grouped as moderately resistant, and the remaining 92 DH lines had seven to nine values and were grouped as susceptible genotypes (Figure 2).    The phenotypic traits correlation analysis was performed independently for genotypes evaluated under both WW and WS management conditions. Significant strong positive correlations were observed between PH and EH both under WW and WS management, which was 0.71 and 0.80, respectively (Figure 3). EH and PH traits have revealed a positive correlation with GY that had the correlation values of 0.17 and 0.38 under WW management and 0.27 and 0.49 under WS management, respectively (Figure 3A,B). This positive correlation has indicated that an increase in EH and PH increased the GY to certain extent. AD had significant positive correlations with ER under WW (0.56) and MOI under WS (0.34) managements. Both AD and ASI were negatively correlated both under WW (−0.  Correlations with >0.10 and >0.15 were significant at 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively. AD-anthesis date; ASI-anthesis silking interval; CR-common rust; EH-ear height; ER-ear rot; GLS-gray leaf spot; GY-grain yield; MOI-grain moisture; PH-plant height; SEN-senescence; and TLB-turcicum leaf blight.The selected markers distribution was graphically presented in Supplementary Figure S1. A kinship matrix was developed that depicts the relatedness among the used DH lines (Supplementary Figure S2). Population relationship analyses in Darwin's software had displayed the neighbor-joining of 879 DH lines dissimilarity tree, which was constructed based on the genetic distance matrix of 0.01 calculated by the Euclidean method. The total populations were clustered into three main diverse groups with many subtrees (Supplementary Figure S3). The first population diversity group had DH lines derived from CML395/CML505, which has contained about 440 individuals represented by red, the second group had LaPostaSeq C7-F64 as a common parent with 174 individuals represented by blue, and the third group had DH lines having one of either LaPostaSeq C7-F86 or LaPostaSeq C7-F18 as common parent with 265 DH lines represented by a purple color (Supplementary Figure S3).Population structure analyses revealed delta K probability value with three to four clusters of 879 DH lines based on the highest ln P(D) values (Figure 4). An Evanno table was constructed in the structure harvester with the highest values of 204,444.45 ln P(K), 156.41 standard deviations ln P(K), and 1307.01 delta K. The delta K value-based line plot had suggested that the population could be structured into two to four groups (Figure 4). Pair-wise markers LD decay was measured as the r 2 and plotted against their distance. LD sliding window type with 11,225 comparisons were obtained from adjacent markers, while each dot represented a pair of distances between two markers on the window and their squared correlation coefficient. The LD decay cut-off point (r 2 ) at 0.2 and 0.1 had 3.69 and 10.49 Kbs average physical distance, respectively (Figure 5).  Based on principal component analyses all the DH lines were broadly categorized into three groups: Category One (215), Category Two (223), and Category Three (441) based on the displayed plot (Supplementary Figure S4). The populations CML444/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, CML395/CML505, CML538/LaPostaSeq C7-F18, CML442/ LaPostaSeqC7-F86, CML537/LaPostaSeqC7-F18, CML539/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, CML442/INTA-F2-192, and CML539/INTA-F2-192 were grouped into Category One, while CZL04003/LaPostaSeqC7-F18, CML538/ LaPostaSeqC7-F64, INTA-F2-192/LaPostaSeqC7-F18, CML537/LaPostaSeqC7-F86, CML536/LaPostaSeqC7-F18, CML539/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, CZL04003/LaPostaSeqC7-F86, CML445/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, CML536/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, CML444/LaPostaSeqC7-F86, CML312/LaPostaSeqC7-F64, and CML538/ CL-G1628 G16BNSeqC0F118 populations were grouped under Category Two; similarly, LPSC7-F180/ Katumani, Ry x CML395, WL429-40/[CML444/DRB-F2//DTPWC8F3], CML395/CML505, WL429-40/ [CML444/ DRB-F2//DTPWC8F3], L118 6/[CML312/CML444//[DTP2WC4H255/LATA-F2], and I-38 x CML442 populations were grouped into Category Three (Supplementary Figure S4 and Supplementary Table S1). The first four principle components explained 10.51%, 7.63%, 6.16% and 3.19% of the total variation (Supplementary Figure S4).Based on the marker p-value at the significance threshold cut-off (p = 9 × 10 −6 ), the marker positions, putative candidate gene, and its biological function were annotated for each trait. The GWAS results for all traits are summarized using Manhattan plots (Figure 6A,B) and QQ plots (Supplementary Figure S5). The GWAS analyses identified SNPs associated with the studied traits, i.e., 7 and 8 SNPs were associated with GY; 16 and 12 SNPs with AD; 7 and 8 SNPs with ASI; 14 and 5 SNPs with EH; 14 and 5 SNPs with PH; and 15 and 5 with MOI under WW and WS management, respectively (Table 2 and Supplementary Table S2). Similarly, 14 and 11 SNPs were associated with GLS and TLB resistance under WW environments, respectively. Under the WS environment, 11 SNPs were associated with SEN, whereas 12 and 10 SNPs associated with MLN-DS and AUDPC traits, respectively, under MLN artificial inoculation (Tables 2 and 3). Some of the SNPs that had the highest significance value were closely associated with the putative genes governing the studied target traits (Supplementary Table S2). The most closely associated and identified SNPs to the studied traits on different chromosomes and their position on the chromosomes are the SNPs S5_206615806 and S7_157468954 on chromosomes 5 and 7 linked to GY (Table 4), S8_148392640 and S10_88394535 on chromosomes 8 and 10 linked to AD; S2_194040196 and S9_136924349 on chromosomes 2 and 9 to ASI (Table 5), S5_27226539 and S8_158986117 on chromosomes 5 and 8 to PH, S4_166924899 and S7_87194068 on chromosomes 4 and 7 to EH (Table 6), and S8_162561752 and S5_200299111 on chromosomes 8 and 5 to MOI (Supplementary Table S2) under WW and WS environments. The SNPs S1_87301408 and S1_92348483 on chromosome 1 were associated with the GLS and TLB resistance, whereas S3_205474517 SNP was associated with the SEN trait under the WS environment. Under MLN artificial inoculation, the SNPs S3_184235364 and S1_22259426 were among the best marker associated with MLN-DS and AUDPC values, respectively (Tables 3-6 and Supplementary Table S2).        The selected and measured traits under WW, i.e., GY, AD, ASI, EH, PH, MOI, GLS, and TLB, had the genomic prediction accuracy values of about 0.53, 0.83, 0.68, 0.73, 0.56, 0.65, 0.39, and 0.61, respectively; while the phenotypic traits measured under WS, i.e., GY, AD, ASI, PH, EH, MOI, and SEN, had a genomic prediction accuracy values of about 0.42, 0.72, 0.46, 0.33, 0.45, 0.41, and 0.45, respectively (Figure 7). Similarly, under MLN artificial inoculation, both MLN-DS and AUDPC had 0.50 and 0.58 of genomic region prediction accuracy, respectively (Figure 7). AD depicted the highest genomic prediction accuracy under both WW and WS conditions, whereas the genomic prediction accuracy for the GY under both WW and WS environments was moderate at 0.50. MLN is the major challenge to maize production in SSA, specifically in east African countries. CIMMYT in collaboration with national research institutions has developed resistance breeding strategies against MLN. A large number of maize genotypes were screened, and MLN disease-resistant source materials and resistance QTLs were identified to develop resistant varieties by integrating both conventional and molecular breeding techniques [12,31,37,38]. Nevertheless, searching additional MLN disease-resistant lines, evaluation of the genotype's performance, identification and validation of QTLs associated with the target disease, GY, and other related traits play a vital role in the development of MLN disease-resistant varieties. In this study, 879 maize DH lines derived from 26 different populations were genotyped, and the performance of genotypes were evaluated under WW, WS, and MLN artificial inoculation management conditions. Among these 879 lines, 440 DH lines shared LapostaSeqC7 background lines as one of the parent, and the line LapostaSeqC7-F64 alone used as one of the parent to develop >250 DH lines, so, data was analyzed combinedly rather making it into subgroups based analyses.A significant genotype, genotype by environment interaction variances, and moderate to high broad-sense heritability were observed for GY and other related traits AD, ASI, PH, EH, TLB, MOI, and GLS measured under WW and WS conditions similar with the results reported by Yuan et al. [24]. MLN-DS and AUDPC were highly heritable with 0.67 and 0.74, respectively, which is consistent with earlier reported studies [31,37,53,54]. Several genotypes have been evaluated by CIMMYT against MLN disease in search for resistant materials [12,24,31,32,38,55]; with the current study, we identified about 52 MLN disease resistant/tolerant genotypes while most of other genotypes were susceptible. Some of the maize genotypes with a score from 2 to 3 against MLN-DS were CKLMLN145667, CKLMLN145667, CKLMLN144135, CKLMLN145119, CKLMLN145173, CKLMLN143806, and CKLMLN143351, which could be selected as resistant materials to MLN disease. The mean performance of lines for GY was 7.54 t/ha and 2.7 t/ha under WW and WS environments, respectively, which has revealed a similar result in earlier study [56]. The GY had positive correlations with both EH and PH and negative correlations with ASI and MOI under WW and WS management, respectively, which could help in an indirect selection for the GY under WW and WS conditions [24].The number of SNPs required to achieve maximum mapping resolution depends on the magnitude of LD and LD decay with genetic distance [57]. For GWAS, a large population is required since the LD or correlation between alleles in different genomic locations is generally based on the historical recombination between polymorphisms. In this study, we observed that the LD decay at r 2 = 0.1 and 0.2 cut-offs were 10.49 and 3.69 kb, respectively. Similarly, [54] in the IMAS association panel also reported the genome-wide average LD decay of 14.97 kb at r 2 = 0.1 and 5.23 kb at r 2 = 0.2 [54], and a similar range of LD decay was also reported by Rashid et al. [58] in their association panel. LD decay in tropical maize germplasm was rapid compared to the temperate germplasm; possibly due to a broader genetic base, resulting from high recombination events [59]. This provides an opportunity for breeders to select germplasm that integrates high GY with disease resistance and abiotic stress tolerance.For population structure analyses, the Delta K line plot, principal component analyses, and population genetic distance relationship analyses suggested that the utilized DH populations are structured into three to four groups. In STRUCTURE, the optimum number of subgroups was determined based on the output log-likelihood of data (LnP (D. The peaks of the line plot (Figure 4) suggest that the population could be divided into three or four distinct groups in order of possibility, with the K = 4 of delta K intersecting with LnP (D) showing a higher possibility. When K = 4, all lines were grouped as a mixed group and were further divided into three groups. The DH populations used in this study were grouped into CML395/CML505 derived DH lines, LaPostaSeq C7-F64 derived DH lines (174 individuals), and LaPostaSeq C7-F86 and LaPostaSeq F18 derived DH lines (265 individuals) (Figure 4). Due to the inclusion of DH lines derive from crosses of selected inbred lines in the panel, we observed moderate structure in the present study. Several researchers also been reported moderate structure in the tropical maize germplasm [29,31,37,53,54,60].In this study, we identified the significant SNPs associated with target traits under WW, WS, and MLN artificial inoculations (Tables 3-6). The results of this study for MLN-DS and AUDPC are similar to the reports in the biparental and DH population studied for the MLN-DS, AUDPC, and other traits genetic architecture [12,31,38,53,54,60]. Several putative candidate genes associated with the significant markers were identified for each of the studied traits (Tables 3-6). For GY under WW, two putative candidate genes, GR-MZM2G017470 and GRMZM2G030713, were identified, both located on chromosome 1 and, respectively, described as Dof zinc finger protein DOF3.6-like and O-fucosyltransferase 36 synthesis biological functions; whereas the candidate genes, GRMZM2G472167 on chromosome 1 and GRMZM2G019404 on chromosome 2, identified under WS were functionally described as peptide transporter PTR2 mha2 that involved in seed germination maternal control and plasma-membrane H+ATPase 2 that aid in activating secondary transport, respectively [61][62][63]. These genes are more relevant to plants' response to drought stress.Putative candidate genes GRMZM2G142383 and GRMZM2G124136 detected for AD under WW and WS are functionally designated as Uridine kinase-like protein 2 chloroplastic involved in the pyrimidine salvage pathway [64] and putative glycerol-3-phosphate transporter 4 involved in molecular function of transmembrane transporter activity [65]. The SNPs S8_3482389 and S2_205904889 on chromosomes 8 and 2 were closely linked to ASI under both WW and WS associated with the putative candidate genes, GRMZM2G136158 and GRMZM2G105869, respectively. These candidate genes are involved in Peroxidase 24 that aid in responding to environmental stresses such as wounding, pathogen attack, and oxidative stress [66], and histone-lysine N-methyltransferase SUVR3 known to be involved in the development of pollen and female gametophyte, flowering, plant morphology, and the responses to stresses [67], respectively.The two important SNPs linked to PH S6_161804186 under WW have shown a candidate gene GRMZM2G170625, and S2_43203188 under WS, which is located with the candidate gene, GRMZM2G114523. Both designated candidate genes have been described as Jacalin-related lectin 3 and lysine histidine transporter-like 6 functions, respectively. Jacalin-related lectin 3 are proteins that bind carbohydrates and play an important role in plant development and resistance development to fungal pathogens [68]. Lysine histidine transporter-like 6 helps to transport amino acid within or between the cells and is involved in plant uptake of amino acids [69]. SNP, S2_184012021 linked to EH under WW management was associated with the putative candidate gene, GRMZM2G116196, that was described as AUGMIN subunit 5 (AUG5) essential for the development of gametophyte and sporophyte [70] reproductions; another annotated gene GRMZM2G365374 encoded as heat shock 70 kDa protein (HSPA1A) under WS was known to respond to heat-shock stress [71].The SNPs S1_188031152 and S8_11662494 associated with the MOI were detected with well-described putative candidate genes, GRMZM2G419436 and GRMZM2G700386, respectively. The gene GRMZM2G419436 is characterized as well-associated receptor kinase 5 (WAK5), which significantly controls cell expansion, morphogenesis, and development [72], while the GRMZM2G700386 gene characterized as β-1,2-xylosyltransferase XYXT1 is involved in the xylosylation of xylan, the primary and secondary walls or major hemicellulose of angiosperms [73]. The SNP, S1_204865984, linked to SEN under WS environment was the annotated putative candidate gene, GRMZM2G328309, explained as ribonuclease E/Glike protein, chloroplastic, which is a family of proteins that plays a pivotal function to metabolize RNA [74].The putative genes, GRMZM2G009591 and GRMZM2G101117, annotated from the SNPs S1_246469847 and S7_82649117 linked to GLS disease resistance had been characterized as pyrophosphate fructose 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase and GDSL esterase/lipase, respectively. The first gene, GRMZM2G009591, is known to catalyze Dfructose 6-phosphate phosphorylation [75]; the second gene, GRMZM2G101117, is known for the molecular function hydrolytic activities of GDSL esterases and lipases enzymes [76]. Under WW management, putative candidate genes, GRMZM2G039173, GRMZM2G071023, and GRMZM2G106119 were identified based on the associated SNPs S6_157820129 and S4_212595942 with the TLB resistance. Rédei [77] has described the GRMZM2G039173 gene as the major facilitator superfamily protein that aided in transporting small solutes based on the chemiosmotic ion gradients, while the second putative gene characterized by Chai et al. [78] has functioned as a probable NAD kinase 2 chloroplast, which is actively involved in the protection of chloroplast against oxidative damage and synthesis of chlorophyll.MLN-DS trait-associated SNPs S3_184235364 and S6_38115747 are annotated with GRMZM2G429982 and GRMZM5G818106 candidate genes that have osmotin-like protein and phospholipase A1-II 7 functions, respectively [79,80]. Kumar et al. [80] characterized the candidate gene GRMZM2G429982 as being involved in biotic and abiotic stresses tolerance in plants, whereas the candidate gene GRMZM5G818106 has been described as protective of high temperature, cold, salt, and drought [79]. Wu et al. [81] reported that the function of the putative candidate gene GRMZM2G003752, which was characterized as fasciclin-like arabinogalactan protein 10, was to respond to abiotic stress and mediate the growth and development of the plant. This candidate gene was annotated from the S2_16652265 marker associated with AUDPC values. Similarly, the S10_125845596 marker was linked to the AUDPC value and then the putative candidate gene, GRMZM2G003917, was identified. This gene has been described by Wu et al. [81] as a fasciclin-like arabino-galactan protein 7 (FLA7) gene responsible for the development of microspores and, under salt stress environment, maintaining proper plant cell expansion.In the present study, a total of 98, 54, and 22 SNPs associated with various agronomic traits under WW, WS, and MLN conditions, respectively, were identified. Among these SNPs, some existed within different gene models whose genetic role is associated with either biotic or abiotic stress mechanisms. The favorable alleles can be identified by resequencing the detected candidate genes from contrasting, and these SNPs could be potentially converted to simple PCR-based markers to follow MAS in molecular breeding [82]. Similarly, several GWAS studies reported large numbers of SNPs associated with important traits in maize [83,84].High genetic gain can be achieved for complex traits by integrating modern tools into maize breeding [85,86]. With several genotyping service providers available with a lower cost per sample and availability of advanced statistical models, genomic prediction is routinely applied in maize for several quantitative traits [24,85,86]. In the present study, we compared the prediction accuracies under WW and WS conditions (Figure 7). As expected for all the common traits measured in both WW and WS conditions, the prediction accuracies were slightly higher under WW conditions compared to WS conditions. The observed accuracy for all traits under WW, WS, and MLN conditions reveals the effect of heritability as the traits with higher heritability generally had higher prediction accuracy. The main factors affecting genomic prediction accuracy are the relationship between the training and testing populations, training population sizes, the population structure of training and testing sets, marker densities, genetic architecture and heritability of target traits, genotype by environment interactions, and statistical methods [36,62,87,88]. Knowing the genetic architecture of the target traits, it is possible to improve prediction accuracy while implementing GS [35,89]. Moderate-to-high accuracies observed in this study for the association panel offer promise in breeding for MLN and drought tolerance. The prediction accuracy of the association panel for MLN-DS and AUDPC is in agreement with earlier studies on MLN [31] and MCMV [38]. The prediction correlations observed for GY and other agronomic traits are equivalent to earlier studies reported in maize under different stresses [24,62,85]. In GS, AD and ASI had higher accuracy compared to GY, which is expected, as these traits are less complex compared to GY [24,61,62]. GWAS results revealed GY, and other agronomic traits evaluated under WW and WS conditions are complex in nature, controlled by many loci with minor effects, influenced by environmental factors. Therefore, they are difficult to track effectively in conventional breeding alone. Increase in prediction accuracy as well as increase in accumulation of favorable alleles with both minor and major effects is possible by integration of GS with GWAS results leads.Phenotypic evaluation of 879 DH lines under artificially inoculated MLN has identified about 52 genotypes resistant/tolerant to MLN-DS, while seven of the selected genotypes (CKLMLN145667, CKLMLN145667, CKLMLN144135, CKLMLN145119, CKLMLN145173, CKLMLN143806, and CKLMLN143351) can be used as sources of resistance to MLN. GWAS identified SNPs associated with the studied traits i.e., about seven and eight SNPs for the GY; 17 and 31 for anthesis date; 10 and 22 for anthesis silking interval; 14 and 6 for ear height; and 15 and 5 for moisture content under WW and WS environments, respectively. Similarly, about 13 and 11 SNPs associated with GLS and TLB, respectively, were detected. Eleven SNPs were significantly associated with senescence were identified under WS management. Under MLN artificial inoculation, a total of 12 and 10 SNPs were associated with MLN-DS and AUDPC traits, respectively; these SNPs and the identified candidate genes for each trait can be used in the trait improvement program in maize breeding. GS under WW, WS, and MLN disease artificial inoculation environments revealed moderateto-high prediction accuracies. All the detected SNPs in this study need further validation before introducing to breeding pipelines, and it will be a great help for the understanding of complex genetic architecture traits under WW and WS. Overall, the present study identified","tokenCount":"6662"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2a11c3894211c0f7fcad2974e5585b47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fba3b354-87e4-4729-ab89-e27d3328ebd8/retrieve","id":"1236589078"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c33b16de-129c-4ef1-8365-05092164b959","pagecount":"10","content":"Cadmium, a heavy metal that occurs naturally in soil, is absorbed by cacao plants and can pose health risks to humans when cacao is consumed.Food safety regulations, especially since 2019 in the European Union, restrict acceptable concentrations of cadmium in cacao products such as chocolate and cocoa powder. This has ramifications for the cacao sector worldwide as many farmers, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean, may lose market access if they cannot meet these regulations.Actors across the cacao value chain, including farmers, must be informed and supported to adapt to these regulations.Cadmium in cacao products such as chocolate originates from the cacao beans rather than from contamination during processing or other ingredients. However, most regulations, including the EU and U.S. regulations, apply to the final product sold to consumers and not to the cacao beans. Cadmium limits for final products cannot be translated one to one to cadmium concentration in the beans nor to cocoa powder used as an intermediary product in processing.Considering that the cadmium in chocolate originates from the beans, the cacao processing industry has translated the official EU regulations into unofficial industry thresholds that apply to the beans. These unofficial thresholds vary from company to company and are raising concern with cacao growers that are affected by the new food safety regulations, especially in Latin America.In addition, affected cacao growers are in urgent need of solutions that can help to diminish cadmium concentrations in cacao beans. However, these solutions are not straightforward. On the one hand, our scientific knowledge of the various factors and processes that affect cadmium accumulation in cacao beans is incomplete. On the other hand, any solution that is technically feasible also needs to be applicable and affordable considering the socioeconomic context in which smallholder cacao producers operate.Cadmium in food products can be a serious health risk. Accumulation of cadmium in the human body over time can cause kidney problems and bone demineralization and it has been shown that cadmium is carcinogenic. Therefore, food safety regulations in several countries establish maximum concentrations for cadmium in several foodstuffs. The European Union (EU), for example, has set cadmium limits for a variety of food products, including several vegetables and fruits, potatoes, rice, wheat, seafood, and different kinds of meat, among others (Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 [1], which was recently amended [2]. In 2014, the European Commission first established the maximum allowed cadmium concentration in chocolate and cocoa powder [3]. This regulation has been in force since January 2019 (Table 1). Similar regulations for cadmium in cacao products have been, or are expected to be, implemented worldwide, for example,Neil Palmer/CIAT Farmers, practitioners, policymakers, industry officials, and other relevant actors in the cocoa value chain have many questions regarding cadmium in cacao. The objective of this set of Clima-LoCa Briefing Notes is therefore to address common questions regarding cadmium in cacao in a science-backed manner and to iron out some persisting misconceptions.This first Briefing Note deals with commonly asked questions about the origin of cadmium in cacao and about the interpretations and consequences of the EU food safety regulations. A second Briefing Note in this series deals with the mitigation measures or, in other words: What options exist for affected cacao producers to adapt to food safety regulations on cadmium in cacao?Europe is the largest importer of cocoa globally. Specialty cocoa, including fine flavor cocoa, is mainly sourced from Latin America. Overall, imports from Latin American countries have increased at an average annual rate of 4.5% in the past five years [7] in line with higher consumer demand for sustainable and higher-quality chocolate. As indicated above, in 2014 [1], the EU limits on cadmium in chocolate and cocoa powder were added to the existing food safety regulation that sets maximum concentrations of cadmium in a range of foodstuffs sold for final consumption on the European market. The limits for cacao products depend on the cacao solids content of the final product. Table 1 gives an overview of the EU limits for chocolate and cocoa products, which have been in effect since 2019. According to the recent amendment [2] of the EC food safety regulation, the limits on cadmium in cacao have not changed.What are the new EU limits and how do they translate to cacao beans? Research has shown that cadmium in chocolate and cocoa powder originates mostly from the cacao beans [8,9,10,11,12] rather than from contamination during processing or from other ingredients (e.g., sugar or milk powder). Therefore, cocoa processing companies in Europe are setting unofficial limits on the cacao beans they purchase from their suppliers. Within the cacao bean, cadmium is mostly present in the non-fat cacao solids. This means that cadmium concentrations in cacao butter is negligible [3].Because the cadmium concentration in chocolate depends on the percentage of cocoa solids in the product and because EU regulations also vary based on the cacao solids content, the acceptable concentration in cacao beans depends on the type of product that will be made with those beans. An online tool was therefore developed by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT to help different actors in the industry with these calculations, which can be accessed at www.chocosafe.org. It shows that cacao beans with up to 0.30 mg Cd/kg can be safely used in the production of all chocolate types (not cocoa powder) included in Table 1. However, acceptable concentrations in cacao beans intended for the production of dark chocolates are much higher. For example, cacao beans (or liquor) with up to 1.2 mg Cd/kg can be used to produce a chocolate with 65% cocoa solids without exceeding the maximum limits established by the EU regulation.For cocoa powder, the type of cocoa powder in terms of fat content of the product should be considered. Acceptable bean cadmium thresholds are lower for fat-reduced cocoa powder (<20% cocoa butter) vis-àvis regular cocoa powder (≥20% cocoa butter) [13,14]. For example, cacao beans (or liquor) with up to 0.43 mg Cd/kg can be used to produce a cocoa powder with 30% cocoa butter without exceeding the EU limit for cocoa powder (0.60 mg Cd/kg). The production of fat-reduced cocoa powder with only 20% cocoa butter requires cacao beans or liquor with up to 0.38 mg Cd/kg.Currently available research shows that cadmium concentrations are generally higher in cacao beans and chocolate produced with cacao beans from the Americas compared with other cacao-producing continents such as Africa [10,12,15]. The first report of elevated concentrations in Latin American cacao compared with cacao from other origins dates back to 1979 [16]. Average cadmium concentrations reported in the literature vary from 0.02 to 0.51 mg/kg for African beans, while average concentrations in Central and South American cacao are reported to range from 0.10 to 12.0 mg/kg [17]. However, elevated concentrations do not occur everywhere; a lot of variation exists across the Latin American region and within countries.There are so-called hotspots, areas with higher cacao bean cadmium concentrations than others, and these hotspots exist on national, regional, and even farm scale [17,18]. In other words, not all cacao in Latin America contains concentrations that are problematic in the light of the EU requirements. However, the data Are these limits of concern to cocoa producers?available in the literature thus far suggest that at least a relevant part of the production in Latin America exceeds the EU requirements, at times even by several orders of magnitude. The limits are thus definitely of concern to producers, although not all cacao producers will be negatively affected.The socioeconomic impacts in the affected areas can be substantial. Farmers of fine flavor cacao may no longer be able to sell to exclusive markets via their cooperative and might have to sell to local markets via intermediaries instead, which can result in lower prices.On the other hand, mixing cocoa beans from different areas may be needed to decrease the cadmium content in the cocoa, which, in areas that are known for their high sensorial value, can affect the flavor profile and thus the price. Finally, countries such as Colombia that promote cacao to replace illegal crops in areas that suffer from drug-related violent conflict can see their substitution programs threatened by the cadmium concern. | Cadmium in cacao: why it occurs, how it is regulated, and why it is a concern for producersWhere does the cadmium in cacao beans come from?In general, cadmium in cacao comes from the soil. All soils in the world naturally contain cadmium, but some contain more than others. Soils in large parts of Central and South America, including the Caribbean, are considered as young soils on the geological time scale. In comparison, the soils in West Africa are older and more weathered. As a result, their cadmium concentrations are lower.Even though soil cadmium concentrations are generally higher in Latin America than in Africa, reported soil cadmium concentrations for the Latin American region are still below 1 mg Cd/kg in most cacao-growing areas. This means that they are within the range generally considered for non-contaminated soils. Research to date indicates that cadmium in cacao in Latin America is mostly of natural origin rather than anthropogenic, that is, it is generally not due to soil contamination although anthropogenic inputs causing soil cadmium contamination can be of importance in localized cases. The use of fertilizer, such as mineral phosphorus fertilizer, is often mentioned as a potential source of cadmium in cacao; however, its contribution is likely negligible. To increase the soil cadmium concentration by only 0.1 mg/ kg, farmers would have to continuously apply significant amounts of fertilizer with high cadmium content (i.e., >100 mg Cd/kg P 2 O 5 ) for 100 years [17]. Considering that most smallholder cacao producers rarely use (larger quantities of) fertilizer because of economic constraints, this is highly unlikely. Hence, fertilizer is not the main source of cadmium on cacao farms, certainly not on a large scale. Irrigation water or flooding of riparian areas can be a relevant source of cadmium locally in areas affected by industrial activity or mining.In addition to the soil cadmium concentration, two other soil properties are important for explaining the extent of cadmium accumulation in cacao beans: soil pH and soil organic matter (see Figure 1). Based on a large data set [17], we showed that >40% of the variability in bean cadmium concentration found in the field can be explained by the combination of total soil cadmium concentration, soil acidity (pH), and soil organic matter (or carbon) content. This is because the amount of cadmium that is available for plant uptake or, in other words, present in a form that can be taken up by the roots of the cacao trees, increases with decreasing soil pH and with decreasing soil organic carbon. The combination of soil cadmium, soil pH, and soil organic carbon can vary a lot among and within farms, which explains why cacao bean cadmium concentrations also show a very high spatial variation, even within farms. Figure 2. Cadmium concentrations in the cacao pod differ for the different pod tissues. Cadmium concentrations are highest in the testa, followed by the nib, placenta and pod husk and finally the lowest concentrations are found in the mucilage (adapted from Vanderschueren et al 2021 [17]).Q4 How can farmers know whether their cacao exceeds EU cadmium requirements? Knowledge is power. Accurate knowledge regarding the cadmium concentration in their cacao beans allows farmers and cacao exporters to negotiate with European cacao buyers and/or enables farmers to take appropriate actions to safeguard their income. Bean or liquor cadmium concentrations can be measured by accredited laboratories. These analyses signify additional costs for cacao producers and exporters. For the information to be reliable, the laboratory should use adequate analytical equipment and protocols and must include certified cocoa reference materials in their analysis. If no cacao beans or liquor are available yet, for example, when assessing the suitability of a field for a new plantation or when the trees are still young, soil analysis can also offer some insights into whether the location presents cadmium-related risks for cocoa production. As stated previously, the cadmium concentration in cacao beans is related not only to the total soil cadmium concentration but also to soil acidity (low pH) and soil organic matter (or carbon), so soil analyses should include those three parameters as a minimum. More information on selecting an adequate laboratory for cadmium analyses can be found in other sources, for example, in the \"Caja de herramientas para la prevención y mitigación de la contaminación de cadmio en la cadena de cacao -Ecuador\" (Toolkit to prevent and mitigate contamination by cadmium in the cacao supply chain -Ecuador), published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of Ecuador [19].Maps are also available in the literature that provide predicted cadmium concentrations in soils and cacao beans within a country or a region [18]. However, these maps are only indicative and cannot be used to accurately predict soil or bean cadmium concentration in a specific location or farm. Because of the uncertainties in the predictions, actual cacao bean cadmium concentrations in specific farm plots can be up to twofold higher or lower than the value given on the maps. Actual measurements are thus needed to have more precise information as required for commercial purposes or to know whether a specific location may present cadmium risks when cacao is produced. | Cadmium in cacao: why it how it is regulated, and why it is a concern for producers What options do cacao producers have to adapt to the cadmium regulations?The easiest immediately implementable option is to mix high-cadmium cacao beans with low-cadmium cacao beans to meet the standards in the final product. Mixing can be done on a farm level or at cooperatives provided that accurate and reliable cacao bean Cd analyses are available. Mixing is also already performed on a large scale in the processing industry, where cacao beans from different continents are combined during the chocolate production process to obtain the desired characteristics for the final product. However, high-cadmium areas with known sensorial value may struggle with mixing as it can affect the unique flavor quality of the product. With Latin America being the main producer of specialty and fine flavor cocoas, and the region most affected by the cadmium regulations, this problem disproportionally affects producers and exporters of specialty cacaos in Latin America.At the level of the cacao farms, it is important for producers to use good agricultural practices in order to prevent soil acidification and to maintain or improve soil organic matter content as those soil conditions allow cadmium to be taken up more easily by the cacao trees. However, for those farmers located in cadmium hotspots, additional targeted measures will be needed. Specific mitigation interventions on affected cacao farms may provide solutions in the medium to long term but require extensive field research to evaluate their effectiveness and implications for farmer income in different soil types and agroecological conditions. Promising strategies may include the use of soil amendments that can decrease the transport of cadmium from the soil to the cacao tree, selection and use of genetic materials that take up less cadmium, or interventions in postharvest processing of the beans. Research is being conducted by Clima-LoCa partners and other research organizations in the affected regions. Our second Briefing Note deals specifically with this topic.Neil Palmer/CIAT Q5","tokenCount":"2548"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8705cbabfb79dfd9613f3ac3f40a2e23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Infobrief/8867-Infobrief.pdf","id":"-2083094216"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f168591b-7966-4b84-b092-eadad8dd2b77","pagecount":"8","content":"REDD+ projects in Indonesia are commercial 'heavyweights' 1 in global voluntary carbon markets and among the largest suppliers of carbon offset credits in the world despite only a few of them operating in such markets.REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) was created to tackle the complex challenges of climate and forest governance, and aims to bring about transformational change in the forestry sector by departing from the traditional business-as-usual practices that have led to deforestation (Brockhaus and Angelsen 2012; Moeliono  et al. 2014). There were two parallel pathways in the early stage of REDD+ development more than a decade ago; one focused on preparing the nuts and bolts of REDD+ at the national level under government oversight, while the other involved numerous smaller-scale projects across the tropics, often led by non-governmental organizations. There has been a surge of interest in nature-based solutions, and REDD+ projects are now successfully attracting international financing through voluntary carbon markets (VCMs) backed by certification from carbon standards (e.g., Verra, Plan Vivo). At the same time, national governments in major REDD+ countries such as Colombia, Indonesia and Brazil are developing domestic carbon pricing legislation to 'put a price on carbon'. They are developing emissions trading schemes in which REDD+ projects are expected to supply carbon credits (ICAP 2022). These changes are expected to have significant impacts on the financing of REDD+ projects and their contribution to the global supply chain of carbon credits. What: this project is intended to become the model for for-profit national park conservation against rapid forest conversion (to plantations), benefiting rural communities and orangutan habitat conservation.How: by acquiring land-use rights for forests bordering protected areas, project proponents can create a self-sustaining park system that benefits both the park and communities. Offset revenue is used to fund alternative livelihoods both within and beyond the project boundaries, community-based patrols, floating healthcare facilities, drinking water provision, and various educational opportunities for locals.What: this project seeks to reduce GHG emissions by avoiding planned deforestation and restoring and conserving peat swamp forests. Major threats to forest and peatland are illegal logging, fires, forest conversion to agriculture and small-scale mining.How: there are numerous activities centred on carbon (e.g., ecosystem restoration, enrichment planting, fire prevention) and alternative livelihoods (e.g., agroforestry, ecotourism, microfinance, aquaculture). Offset revenue is used to fund various initiatives at the village level, including but not limited to community development, fire response teams, and local business incubation.Non-profit What: The project aims to support five forest-dependent communities to protect their conservation forest against rapid land-use change driven by oil palm and rubber plantation expansion.How: by generating alternative livelihood sources through developing trade in nontimber forest products (NTFPs); and helping build the capacity of the forest management council. Offset revenue is used for, but not limited to, funding village forest (Hutan Desa) operational costs, providing various village programmes and infrastructure, and procuring staple foods.Non-profit What: this project took shape as a payment for environmental services from avoided deforestation and degradation (ADD) project. Village forests in the area are under threat from land-use change due to in-migration, particularly from coffee farmers.How: the project aims to set up sustainable enterprises focusing on improving coffee production and onsite processing. Offset revenue is used to fund activities including enrichment planting, protection and natural regeneration of native species, tree planting and agroforestry improvement.  with international support (previously 41%). This move certainly constrains REDD+ project developers financially, whether they are non-profit or profit-oriented entities. The financial risk to their core business increases the longer the suspension of carbon trading goes on. Some have had to scale down their operations while prioritizing core activities that prevent deforestation and forest fires. One respondent highlighted the contribution of their emissions reduction credit/REDD+ project to the Indonesian economy, and their hope for the upcoming ministerial regulation, saying, For now, REDD+ projects could be impacted by this legislation in at least three ways. First, projects that previously participated in voluntary carbon markets must register and report their mitigation actions and remaining carbon credits to the SRN. Second, as international carbon trading is legally permitted, it remains unclear whether REDD+ projects can immediately restart offset trading in global voluntary markets. This is because trading must be done in accordance with a sectoral carbon trading roadmap, which has yet to be released by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF) in the context of forest carbon trading. 5 Regardless, for now carbon trading seems to be decided on a case-by-case basis as any trade involving private (including REDD+ projects) and global entities must ultimately be conducted under ministerial authorization. 6 Finally, the government imposes an 'offset buffer' of at least five percent for domestic trading and between 10 to 20 percent for international trading to mitigate the risk of not achieving NDC targets due to trading being conducted prior to 2030. Rights to these offset buffer credits can be returned to REDD+ projects at least by 2032, and sold elsewhere if the sectoral NDC target is achieved without the need to claim the buffer credit. 7The government's openness to continued trading with foreign buyers was very much welcomed, with one interviewed project representative noting, \"Voluntary carbon markets have always been an important source for financing mitigation activities in forest and land use sectors across the world. Imposing limitations (in various forms) would put already achieved impacts for forests and people at risk\" (interview #5, August 2022).However, while international trade is now legally permitted under ministerial approval, there must also be clarity on how it may take place. This is an important aspect to ensure the smooth operation of a business, as stressed by one of the interviewees, \"It must be clear whether REDD+ projects in Indonesia can trade individually with foreign buyers and decide independently who to trade with, or whether (foreign) trade is conducted solely by governments on behalf of projects, in which case maybe only the government decides who to trade with\" (interview #3, June 2022).In line with the trend depicted in Table 2 and the 2022 World Bank report, another interviewee stressed that demand for carbon offsets has been increasing, as their company has secured several potential international buyers even before the project in Indonesia is operational.\"From our experience (having multiple REDD+ projects abroad), we are always short on (carbon credit) supply. Even now we have secured a number of foreign companies that are interested in buying carbon credits from us as we are setting up shop in Indonesia\" (interview #4, June 2022).Another respondent further highlighted that around 90 forestry business holders are submitting proposals to switch their current licenses to multi-forestry business permits, allowing them to engage and transact in voluntary carbon markets and the upcoming domestic carbon market in No. 385   May 2023Jejakin, Roxi and LindungiHutan), while existing businesses are trying to make use of the multi-forestry business permit (introduced under the Job Creation Law) to diversify their businesses, as such permits allow both traditional and carbonbased forest activities. On one side, new laws related to carbon pricing and job creation have created opportunities for private sector operators to seize financial opportunities from forest carbon. On the other side, the government needs to act swiftly to take advantage of these opportunities, while ensuring that forest carbon credits are of high quality, are ethically sourced, and are unburdened with greenwashing problems.Prior to the issuance of carbon economy-related regulations in 2021-2022, REDD+ project proponents traded their carbon credits without specific rules or limits imposed by the government. Naturally, the trade was concentrated in voluntary markets with demand for carbon credits from diverse sources (World Bank 2022). However, their operation was not entirely beyond government oversight. In 2013, two privately funded REDD+ projects in Central Kalimantan (Sills et al. 2014) and one in South Sumatra operated under ecosystem restoration concession licenses (IUPHHK-RE) now known as multi-forestry business permits, all of which are still operational to this day. 8 The ecosystem restoration concession (ERC) concept itself can be recognized as a manifestation of transformational change in forestry sector governance. As the timber boom ceased in the 1990s, foresters were bound to find alternative ways to signify forestry sector contributions to the economy. However, making an ERC operational (and profitable) is difficult, as one respondent noted, saying, \"For those who were born in the 70s, they had seen forests being cut every day since their childhood.[Us] coming to villages and [bringing the idea of ecosystem restoration] was something incomprehensible to them, as the only options they were familiar with (when forest was cleared) were either oil palm or timber concessions. People wondered, 'What is our product? Does this mean our land is going to be a national park?' There was much confusion when we entered the site.\" (Interview #2, June 2022).Box 1. Key highlights of selected pieces of legislation The emerging domestic carbon market, even though it has yet to expand to the forest and land-use sector, will be a potential source of funding that will make ecosystem restoration attractive and profitable at scale. On paper, the carbon benefit potential from five local REDD+ projects in Indonesia is promising, but sales have remained suboptimal (Table 3). To illustrate, the REDD+ project in Merangin Regency in Jambi had sold only 1,541 tCO₂e by 2020, or only around six percent of its expected annual carbon credit generation.Two other interviewed REDD+ project developers also voiced similar difficulties when they first went to their respective sites. Their approach and attitude were similar: change is gradual and will require long-term engagement, perseverance and sufficient resources before the first sale could be made. To illustrate, the project proponent in Bungo (Jambi) started working at their current site in 2000 To assist in the design of Indonesia's upcoming domestic carbon market, we have synthesized some recommendations from interviews. These are as follows:a. Diverse forest mitigation actions There must be a common set of rules that apply across the board, and include: 1. New and clear allocation of baselines/forest reference emission levels (FRELs) to subnational jurisdictions and projects; 2. A nationwide MRV system and ER accounting standard that works at all scales and modes to integrate projects' data into the national registry and/or MRV system in real time; 3. A uniform safeguards system and clear benefit-sharing rules that work across scales.Arguably, all of these, particularly points 1 and 2, are challenging as multiple baselines, ER accounting standards and MRV systems are used by the government and different REDD+ projects.A 'nested' system will harmonize carbon accounting of ER activities at multiple levels (i.e., RBPs and local REDD+ projects). Such a system will require consistent rules and methodologies that work for tracking and accounting ER across scales. This is certainly a difficult task, but must be performed nonetheless so that Indonesia can benefit from both domestic and international carbon markets. A transition to a nested system in Indonesia can be illustrated by following the case of the REDD+ regulation in Cambodia (RTS Cambodia 2020):1. Stage I (pre-nesting): REDD+ projects established prior to the enactment of the carbon market-related regulation are subject to a grandfather clause -allowing them to continue working with current methodologies and baselines for a period of time before shifting to a common set of rules once they are ready. However, new REDD+ projects must start by preparing their business with a new common set of rules in mind. This is also the period where all REDD+ projects must register with the National Registry System (SRN). The SRN will be the backbone of a functional carbon market. Thus, it is reasonable to expect its capacity to be strengthened along the way to allow for optimal monitoring of all climate change-related projects (interview #3, June 2022). 2. Stage II (early nesting): A transition period whereby REDD+ projects start shifting and using the new common set of rules. Progress may differ from one area to the other as some jurisdictions were exposed to large-scale REDD+ earlier (i.e., East Kalimantan and Jambi). Much like the 'learning by doing' phases traversed by REDD+ project developers, this stage also involves trial and error, which means there should be sufficient flexibility and support in adopting the common set of rules without running the risk of undermining a particular project or the whole system. 3. Stage III (full nesting): A fully nested system can be achieved when, for example, a fully integrated MRV mechanism, registry system and safeguard information system, and relatively equal human resources and institutional capacities across places and scales are in place.No. 385May 2023Smaller-scale REDD+ projects have been an integral part of global and national REDD+ development. They have now become commercial heavyweights in global voluntary carbon markets despite only a few of them operating in such markets.Overall, the insights provided by interviewees representing REDD+ projects highlight the potential opportunities and challenges they face in the upcoming domestic carbon market in Indonesia. As the country works towards a low-carbon economy, it is crucial to ensure that the market is designed in a way that maximizes benefits for all stakeholders, including smaller-scale REDD+ projects, as the future forest carbon suppliers in the domestic carbon market. With the right policies and support, these projects can continue to play a key role in mitigating climate change whilst contributing to rural development and the transition to a low-carbon economy.","tokenCount":"2203"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe1404d2ac8fb86fd0fb1a0540bd8145","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/59b0e4f5-2fa2-47ff-a154-ff8c01b23497/retrieve","id":"1773011301"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"98ff7c42-94c9-446b-a457-88941104b9e6","pagecount":"7","content":"The previous chapter has linked together the underlying components of IPs with their performance. Using the eight case studies featured in this book as examples, we have identified how specific IPs have managed to make good use of their process, content and support functions in order to achieve impact at scale. However, it also highlighted that none of the platforms studied here had attained all three of the impacts expected from mature platforms: highlighting system trade-offs, generalizing activities to multiple commodities and reaching a large number of beneficiaries. This chapter presents the lessons learned by the case study authors for IPs to achieve impact. We also discuss areas of future research to identify the remaining factors that will lead IPs to deliver impact at scale.In addition to the analysis based on the framework and matrices elaborated in the introduction and synthesis chapters, we also conducted interviews and facilitated exercises with all authors on what they considered to be the most important factors of success of IPs. This resulted in a common thread based on three complementing factors, namely vision, enabling environment and a research for development orientation. This concluding chapter will first provide a brief summary of each element, before proceeding to offer some final thoughts on the 'landscape' of mature IPs covered in this book, and some of the implications this holds for the future of IPs as a vehicle for agricultural development.The first success factor that emerged was vision, or the fact that the IP should be clear about where it wants to go and how. To be successful, this vision should be embodied and encouraged by able leadership, which needs to be empowered and accountable for making sure that the IP focus of work 'emerges' from the commitment and common interest of participants rather than being 'established' through an external drive to tackle a problem.In addition to able leadership, the group also identified skilful facilitation as another crucial element of the vision for IPs. The person facilitating the platform should be dedicated to this task and foster the participation of grassroots actors from the bottom up, taking into account power dynamics. It is important for the facilitator to be physically present to participate regularly in platform activities as this helps foster trust between the platform members and between members and their facilitator.Finally, the last component of vision is equity and transparency in the platform activities, whereby all actors in the platform are consulted in a similar way and all decisions taken have been discussed with the well-being of all actors in mind. Including equity and transparency in the platform vision helps strengthen the linkages between actors who are further motivated to participate.The second success factor of IPs involved in the case study competition was the enabling environment in which they thrived.The first component of this enabling environment is the linkages with public policies. In some contexts, the coherence of the platform objectives with public policies has helped the platforms become essential to policy makers' engagement with grass-roots stakeholders for more relevant policy formulation and effective implementation. In other cases, IPs have supported the strengthening of public policies that were not appropriate to the local context by triggering the development of better policies. In line with coherence, some cases highlighted the importance of using already existing networks of stakeholders to foster innovations, rather than creating new platforms that duplicate work already being done in parallel multi-stakeholder groups.The second component of an enabling environment for platforms is the willingness and capacity of members to participate in the innovation processes. This is achieved mainly through the skilful facilitation mentioned above and the search for right incentives, as discussed below. This involvement of all key stakeholders is particularly important for those who are likely to take action in order to reproduce successful innovations and disseminate them to other potential beneficiaries.The third component of the enabling environment of IPs consists of the incentives that keep participants interested in contributing. These typically need to include short-term monetary incentives to attract and retain membership of smallholder farmers. However, a reachable mix of both short-and long-term expected benefits is more likely to sustain continuous motivation and participation from platform members.The last success factor of the IPs reviewed in this compilation is the innovative science that the platform develops and trials. The application of applied science to solve real-life concrete problems and the participatory nature of the research trials conducted with platform stakeholders creates a meaningful link between science and practice.To achieve this useful link, applying science on a joint and concrete problem faced by the platform members is the starting point. It is also useful to prioritize the research activities that are likely to generate quick results; this will foster the interest of platform participants and provide incentives for their further participation, as highlighted above. Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a useful approach to facilitating this type of embedded research for development.Our synthesis demonstrated that none of the IPs featured in this compilation had attained all elements of impact at scale: systems trade-offs, application to multiple commodities and scaling of innovation (not to mention learning from failures). Therefore, we must ask why it is seemingly such an elusive task, and why platforms tend to gravitate towards a more narrow focus. Further research in this area, for example looking at the incentives and motivations of platform members, as well as their ability to manage multiple complex issues through a single entity would certainly be of interest in this context.This section has fleshed out how the innovation process, innovation content, and support functions provided by IPs can lead to achieving impact in agricultural development. In the previous chapter, illustrative examples from the eight case studies featured in this compilation have demonstrated the links existing between these four elements of the theoretical framework, as proposed in the introductory chapter of this book. However, a closer look at the framework and its resulting impact matrix lead us to conclude that the three pillars identified by the theoretical framework (process, content and platform support functions), posited to lead to platform impact at scale, are prerequisite yet insufficient factors of success at scale. Yet, a definitive answer to what is the 'secret sauce' of IP success (if such even exists) will need to be the subject of further inquiries. Nevertheless, we can deduce the following conclusions.As previously mentioned, we received no entries under the 'learning from failures' category. This in itself is a statement of sector immaturity, as it seems not to have embraced the approaches found in more mature sectors of owning up to failures and analysing to learn from both positive and negative lessons. A deeper look at the overall entries and cases published in this book further suggests that this is a trend that holds throughout. For example, we received only one entry on system trade-offs, and in the course of fleshing out the full case, its authors veered away from the core system trade-off elements to more generic productivity and process issues.The two categories that had the bulk of the entries did not fully live up to what this process had targeted to showcase in terms of 'pure' entries in these categories. So for instance, multi-commodity cases were often a combination of crops, as opposed to the holistic crop-livestock-tree interactions that many researchers advocate. Likewise, the scaling cases were for the most part in the low thousands of direct outreach -not a small feat in some of the difficult environments where these platforms operate, but certainly not even a drop in the bucket when one thinks of the billions of farmers that large-scale initiatives aim to reach.It is important to point out that useful elements emerged for each of these, even though they did not cut across the board -so while we see pockets of success, we still can't celebrate success across the board, or at a 'game-changer' scale. This then leads us to some of the questions we end up with, and which if/when answered, could provide a lot more insight into the suitability of IPs for specific work in a specific context, to inform investment decisions and facilitate more efficient and effective work in these areas. Some of these include:• Why is the landscape the way it is? Our findings suggest that although most platforms are 'set up', as opposed to 'emerge', the scope of their focus areas still tends to be rather narrow, and somewhat in disconnect with the very holistic objectives promoted by those who set these IPs up. Could this be linked to short project cycles, the desire to show quick results, focus on short-term financial incentives, or a narrow focus of anchor projects, with no capacity to integrate broader and sustainable incentives? One of the key lessons from this exercise is that there is a need to avoid narrow processes, which requires that IPs become multifunctional by embracing multidimensional processes. • Are IPs the most appropriate instrument to foster agriculture development?As was demonstrated through many of the cases, IPs can certainly lead to impact and can be an effective vehicle for agricultural development. However, it seems that insufficient attention has gone into examining whether the solutions developed by IPs (as opposed to the process), are scalable and replicable. Certainly, there is much to be said about the need for a much better availability of data on, and analysis of, the comparative return on investment (financial and otherwise) of IP work compared to a range of other intervention strategies. We've seen little evidence of a sense of urgency among researchers and practitioners alike to come up with a rigorous framework for measuring and reporting on this -but we feel that the lack of such an evidence-based approach is casting a shadow on much of the good work that is being showcased (including through anecdotal evidence such as most of the work presented in this book). How can this be measured? Similar exercises to understand more cases are critical to generate a matrix to guide any prudent investments in scaling approaches.• Finally, when analysing the cases and framework findings, we emerged with a sense that IPs can potentially be a potent 'bridge' between the local ('small is beautiful') approaches that embody much of the participatory, demanddriven and community-led initiatives, and those global 'large scale impact' technology-driven initiatives. • To be that bridge though, and to assume an integrative role for IPs alongside other approaches for inclusive agricultural development in the broader agricultural innovation system, the conceptual frameworks as well as the many implementation cases need to take a more balanced approach. They need to take into account local innovations but filter them (and the investment therein) through a lens of suitability for larger scale replication, and also factor in all direct and indirect costs to produce a more hard-nosed analysis of benefits per dollar invested.","tokenCount":"1802"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab6c54e4860456586b309dcb40489f2e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc3a304e-0892-4393-b2d3-0346681e681d/retrieve","id":"312897595"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c5976682-7585-4782-9a37-3ea9b16bd4fa","pagecount":"3","content":"Desde el punto de vista del control de malezas, la yuca es un cultivo que relativamente ha sido poco estudiado. Dada su rusticidad, se ha creído que este cultivo puede tolerar, sin mayor perjuicio, la competencia de las malezas; sin embargo, se ha observado en Colombia que la presencia de malezas durante los primeros 60 días del ciclo de cultivo causa una reducción de los rendimientos de, aproximadamente, 50% en comparación con yuca libre de malezas durante todo el ciclo.Las malezas representan un problema de gran importancia en la mayoría de los cultivos comerciales y, en el caso particular de la yuca, suelen ser un factor determinante en el desarrollo de la planta y en su posterior rendimiento.La importancia de las malas hierbas en la producción de alimentos y su control está claramente documentado y sustentado por pruebas evidentes, de manera que, para lograr una producción de calidad económicamente rentable, se debe realizar un adecuado controlEn la yuca, como en otros cultivos, existen diferentes opciones para controlar las plantas competidoras. El control debe ser sistemático e integrado. Se utilizan los controles cultural, manual, mecánico y químico, y se conocen combinaciones de estos métodos, ya que no existe uno que se adapte a todos los problemas.Este método agrupa prácticas específicas, que logran hacer que el cultivo sea más competitivo que las malezas. La selección adecuada del cultivar, el uso de \"semilla\" o estacas de buena calidad, la óptima densidad de siembra y la protección del cultivo son las prácticas agronómicas más destacadas dentro de este sistema de control.Como consecuencia del lento crecimiento inicial de la planta de yuca, es necesario realizar varias deshierbas con implementos manuales, hasta cuando el cultivo cierre completamente e impida el desarrollo de las malezas por la reducción en la entrada de la luz. Este método es utilizado en plantaciones pequeñas cuando existe mano de obra disponible y cuyos costos no sean muy elevados.Generalmente, este método es utilizado en combinación con el control manual o químico. Consiste en la utilización de herramientas (cultivadoras, rotativas, ganchos) tiradas por tractores o animales que pasan entre las hileras y caballones; se inicia cuando el cultivo tiene entre 15 y 30 días de plantado y se practica hasta cuando la cobertura del mismo lo permita.Este control se realiza utilizando herbicidas preemergentes, los cuales evitan el crecimiento de las malezas por un período que oscila de 45 a 50 días, durante el cual el follaje de la yuca aún no ha cerrado. Esta situación de insuficiencia del control químico, en relación con el crecimiento y desarrollo de la yuca, hace necesario que el productor tenga que hacer deshierbas posteriores.La crítica situación de escasez de mano de obra y el elevado costo de la misma hacen que actualmente el control químico, gracias a las ventajas que presenta, cobre mayor importancia y sea una opción práctica y económica, sobre todo en programas de control de malezas de grandes plantaciones de yuca.Para el control químico de las malezas en el cultivo de la yuca se dispone de varios productos con acción preemergente y algunos con acción posemergente, de fácil consecución en el mercado local, y cuya selectividad al cultivo varía entre mediana y alta; éstos se presentan en el Cuadro 7-1.La diversidad de las poblaciones de las malezas que se establecen en los campos es el resultado de su historia agrícola. Para la correcta elección del herbicida preemergente, es necesario reconocer las malezas predominantes antes de la preparación del suelo, y saber cuáles malezas controlan o no controlan los herbicidas presentes.Las malezas que escapan a la acción del preemergente pueden controlarse con la aplicación de un herbicida posemergente. De igual manera, los agricultores que no aplican a su cultivo tratamientos de control, con frecuencia afrontan infestaciones densas de malezas.La yuca es uno de los cultivos para los cuales se hace más necesaria la integración de los métodos de control de las malezas, dado su lento crecimiento inicial que permite el desarrollo vigoroso de éstas.","tokenCount":"659"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b75f90987c682150c2809ae30722e13d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d6cb03d-6be2-4df8-9209-86dd699e915a/retrieve","id":"101805708"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d54d2bdd-57db-4213-9f14-8b6d2f9fd936","pagecount":"10","content":"Shortages in the supply of quality early generation seed (EGS) of new and improved varieties, particularly of dryland cereals and legumes is a major challenge because of the business models. This triggers the following questions: what EGS business models would sustainably avail quality parent seed?To investigate this, we documented 16 EGS interventions. We found that pre-securing seed market ahead of production played important role in the successful seed business. Taking different forms (e.g., pre-orders, demand forecasting, pre-aggregation of demand, joint planning, contractual agreement), it brings confidence to EGS producers to continuously invest in the business and make it profitable.For sustainable EGS production and supply in sub-Saharan Africa, we advocate for market assurance in advance. Two guiding principles are also suggested and four recommendations formulated.Enhancing seed producers' access to parent seed, also called early generation seed (EGS), remains a challenge for National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), international agricultural research and development organizations like the CGIAR, and even to donor communities (USAID, BMGF, etc.).High quality seed of improved varieties is critical to enhance crop productivity and production. Therefore, sustaining access to EGS (pre-basic or breeder seed, and basic or foundation seed) is a critical step toward effective supply of quality certified seed and quality declared seed (QDS) of modern and high-yielding crop varieties. For most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the EGS problem remains unresolved, though many studies have been carried out and recommendations made over time.Yet, EGS is central to sustainable seed system to produce and market modern varieties, quality seed supply, increasing productivity and achieving sustainable development goals 1 and 2. The critical and relevant question that still remains unanswered is what EGS business models would sustainably avail quality parent seed?To answer this important and persistent question, we thought that it will be useful to question the existing literature by analyzing the past and current EGS experiences. Identifying the best practices and uncovering the critical factors shaping access to EGS for non-hybrid legume and cereal crops would inform policy interventions that support efficient production and supply of EGS in SSA. We recognize that access and availability of quality seed for various players requires an integrated approach that generates financial benefits to value chain actors, including farmers.The uptake of these improved varieties is significantly constrained by the unavailability of quality seed that is attributed to several factors and among them is the weak functioning EGS systems. This policy brief critically analyzes sixteen previous and present EGS interventions and provides pathways to sustainably address the inherent challenges, most importantly, for non-hybrid dryland cereals and legume crops.Limited and unsustainable supply of EGS reduces the capability of the seed supply system to avail quality certified seed to farmers. The rapid adoption of improved varieties remains dependent on EGS component to support production of enough certified seed and QDS. In many developing countries, public entities, and most importantly research institutes still play a major role in production and supply of EGS.Most of the time, the public organizations have limited capacity to handle the national needs of EGS. Usually, NARES still lack physical infrastructures, human and financial resources to sustainably handle EGS. For less commercial and non-hybrid crops/varieties, the extent of supply is very limited. In most developing countries, the seed policy hardly provides mechanisms for the production and supply of EGS at scale. It is often observed that very limited amounts of EGS is available, especially for the newly released varieties. Very few countries have established functional public private partnerships to effectively avail EGS. In the private sector, except for a few (e.g., SeedCo), most African seed enterprises lack physical facilities and capacities to handle the whole variety development chain, including breeding components. This is the reason why most of these rely on public-released varieties and public institutions for EGS that is used to produce certified seed.ISSD Africa Policy Brief: September 2022We performed a thorough analysis of past and current experiences to document lessons and inform future interventions for a sustainable EGS production and supply system. A total of 16 experiences of EGS business models were analyzed and 13 presented in Table 1.The typology used to categorize the business models led to public institutions-led models, private institution models and public-private partnership models (Table 1).Most business models involve a portfolio of crops including non-hybrid cereals and legumes. Selfproduction or contract farming arrangement are used by EGS actors to meet their production targets. Contract farming usually arises when a company has a large market demand that it cannot meet on its farm alone. The main practices keeping companies in business include seed demand forecasting, pre-order of seed, joint planning with partners, non-exclusive licensing, private seed companies buffer stocks, and revolving fund. Seed demand vagaries, poor/lack of infrastructure to produce EGS, mismatch between pre-basic and basic seed demand, high costs of supervising and managing outgrowers seed producers, and poor-quality seed jeopardize EGS production and supply systems.ISSD Africa Policy Brief: September 2022 Infrastructural deficiencies; poor quality of breeder seed.Legacy Crop Improvement Centre, Ghana (Maize, cowpea)Seed production on drip irrigation farm.Invested in seed infrastructure (irrigation and cold storage); access to regional ECOWAS market.Demand forecast challenges.SOPROSA-Sarl, Mali (Sorghum, pearl millet, groundnut)IER supplies pre-basic seed; Seed production throughout the year on own irrigated farm.Invested in seed production infrastructure (irrigation system for production). Most countries have to some extent implemented mechanisms to sustain EGS availability and supply though little achievements can be observed (Table 2). The country efforts were to create a conducive environment, e.g., enactment of seed acts including bills favoring the private sector investments, plant breeders' rights, plant variety protection, regional harmonization for seed trade/movement across countries, capacity building (human and infrastructure) and accreditation to the international bodies of seed testing, i.e., International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).Most countries have reached out to the private sector thereby reducing the public sector roles in seed activities and enhancing their roles in EGS. Countries like Rwanda, Kenya and Uganda are good examples to highlight. Public and private partnerships were established for hybrid and OPV cereal crops, the root and tuber crops, cassava and potatoes. Tanzania took necessary measures and got ISTA accreditation for seed testing. Functional PPP involving public research organization, seed companies, individual seed entrepreneurs, traders, and processors on various crops; licensing of private seed multipliers, e.g., seed potato, with royalties paid to research institutes for public-bred varieties; seed inspection and regulatory services were revised in 2017 giving the private sector role to support public service on the provision of seed inspection services.Accreditation of the National Laboratory of the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI) by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA); the PPP set for casava, groundnut, sorghum EGS supply for small scale farmers to have timely access to quality, disease-resistant and higher yielding varieties in desired quantities at affordable price; cassava seed certification and inspection protocol.The capacity of Seed Service Unit (SSU) built; significant improvement in number of seed inspectors trained and deployed to farmer organizations, seed companies, and in SSU; domestication of SADC seed harmonization program; seed revolving fund on legume crops.Alignment of the national seed laws with COMESA and EAC procedures; removed subsidies on imported seed to reduce seed imports and promote uptake and use of locally produced improved seed; locally produced seed subsidized by 79% against 40% for imported seed. Online application system tailored to increase access to improved seed by smallholder farmers facilitating seed purchase from accredited suppliers by agro-dealers; increased number of functional private seed companies. The Plant Variety Protection enacted; increased private sector participation in production and commercialization of maize, rice, and soybean breeder seed; increased seed quality control and seed sector governance; seed quality control through electronic seed certification system with scratch card authentication.Source. Opie et al. (2022b) Financing mechanisms and options play key roles in EGS supply. Like any enterprise, seed production involves infrastructural and financial resource investments to facilitate the acquisition of relevant equipment and facilities for running seed business. Financial mechanisms in place to support EGS business models involve initial financial grants provided by donor organizations directly to private sector-led companies or NARES through different projects.The production of EGS in most of the public research institutions relied on this funding mechanism through which they continuously run production of breeder and basic seed. The second mechanism is the revolving fund, a financing mechanism that operates on a cost-recovery principle. An initial seed grant is provided to the seed producing unit through which to finance seed production operations.A substantial amount (about 80%) of the financial proceeds from the produced seed is injected back into actual seed production activities and other operational expenses including warehouse, staff remuneration, certification fees and other administration fees; the remaining 20% remitted to host umbrella organization. International and public research institutions are actively using this method of financing, e.g., ICRISAT in Malawi, NARO in Uganda, and KALRO in Kenya.The third funding mechanism is direct financing by the private sector for variety development and seed production. Jointly with other relevant value chain actors, the private sector works closely to deliver an intended product essential for its processing. This is the case of Heineken who financially supported EIAR for malt barley seed production in Ethiopia. The guaranteed grain off-take by the brewing company, Heineken, along the financial support to the public research institution, EIAR, made the way to EGS production and further supply of certified seed of malt barley.Beyond financial mechanisms, other strategies have been developed to ease EGS access. We refer to seven of them as follows: -(i) Decentralized seed production is critical to ease EGS access constraints. Long distances between certified seed and EGS producers negatively affect access and increases supply cost thereby making seed more expensive to farmers. In Uganda for example, NARO and Integrated Seed Sector Development (ISSD) Uganda addressed this challenge by engaging Zonal Agricultural Research and Development Institutes (ZARDI) to produce foundation seed to bring EGS closer to certified and community seed producers.KALRO in Kenya, and EIAR in Ethiopia are using this approach too by establishing EGS producing units at specific agro-ecological zones. (ii) Non-exclusive rights licensing agreement to private seed companies motivated to produce and supply foundation seed for legume crops. This arrangement with payment of some royalties to breeding institute for maintenance breeding. An example is bean varieties released by Egerton University which were licensed to some private companies.The seed companies obtained non-exclusive rights to produce foundation seed of improved varieties with 5% royalties payment to Egerton University. (iii) Regional seed markets integration is an important mechanism for easing seed flow across countries within the region or economic blocks. Access to regional seed markets represents a major incentive for the private sector to invest in seed business of non-hybrid legume and dryland cereal crops. The wider market opportunities enhance business scale to private seed companies. In West Africa, LCIC markets seed in several countries thanks to ECOWAS regional seed regulation that allows for region-wide marketing of seed of varieties released in at least two countries.QBS is also surfing on this opportunity in East Africa. (iv) Seed demand creation information forecasting. The promotion of new varieties to stimulate demand goes together with awareness creation activities to stimulate seed demand. Some business models address this through facilitating dissemination and access to information to popularize the improved varieties by leveraging ICTs tools. For example, IITA's GOSeed uses an e-commerce platform to disseminate relevant information and promote their improved varieties.Stimulating demand is a key driver for EGS off-take. (v) Demand forecasting through seed preorder and joint planning systems. Forecasting and determination of seed demand is a critical bottleneck in the production of EGS in SSA. Various business models highlighted forecast of seed demand as a major challenge. For ICAR in India, EIAR in Ethiopia, and ISABU in Burundi, EGS seed production is based on a pre-order system in which clients submit well in advance their seed request to facilitate the coordination of EGS production and supply.In India and similarly Ethiopia, systematic planning of EGS seed production is based on seed orders submitted before the beginning of the season. The seed orders are useful to determine the amount of seed to be produced based on client needs. The system also minimizes risks associated with client behavior to abandon the orders made by requiring a prior deposit towards the ordered seed as a commitment from the clients. (vi) Seed production more than the expected demand. This involves intentional overproduction to create buffer stocks to mitigate seed multipliers' risk of unmet supply of breeder and foundation seed.A typical example is India's rice system in which the actual production of EGS exceeds the submissions from indenters. QBS in Kenya follows a similar approach. (vii) Seed infrastructure development. Sustained surplus seed production amidst market and climate change risks requires investing in production and storage infrastructure to ensure compliance with quantity and quality of seed desired by the market as demonstrated by private EGS producers as well as the PPP led EGS models.For various stakeholders investing in EGS-related matters for quality seed production and supply to farmers and other users, there is need to have guiding directions for actions. This involves laying key principles to follow to set up a functional EGS supply system. The two key guiding principles are depicted as follows:-An existing grain market or substantial purpose secures and sustains quantity and quality seed demand -The private sector investments along the seed and grain value chains are essential to sustain EGS production and supply.For sustainable production and of EGS for most of the non-hybrid dryland cereals and legumes, the entire seed and grain value chains should be considered. Only mechanisms driving the entire commodity value chain and involving the private sector can ensure and sustain availability of EGS.Operationalizing the aforementioned two principles in future EGS interventions involves following these four recommendations:-Each variety released should respond to a defined and targeted market segment or niche market or defined purpose, be it local, regional or global. The seed market/purpose should respond to quantifiable grain market outlets or purpose. Knowing the grain volume will facilitate backward planning for certified seed, basic and pre-basic seeds. This will also drive (seed) business contracts among partners along commodity value chains -Each new variety released should come with a minimum amount of buffer nucleus, pre-basic and basic seeds with clear multiplication path whereby the private sector and other key players are given a fair share in the multiplication scheme based on country context. Guaranteeing EGS should start with product developer with seed regulation making provision for volume needed to accelerate multiplication at scale without waiting for years to bulk -The seed supply systems should involve a pre-booking system. Securing the seed quantity in advance calls for actual seed producer commitment and allows proper planning -Developing (digital) tools, that are user-friendly to estimate and forecast seed demand will play a major role in the event of vague market.","tokenCount":"2470"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71fdb94238cf1178f60f1c3d41f1c8cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9f5e681-50ff-44bc-bae6-39aaea2312b3/retrieve","id":"242535943"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f86bf8e6-e0ca-4aae-86a5-b2fdfdc1e30c","pagecount":"20","content":" Too many animals (high SR) during critical time of plant growth  Bad timing: early grazing or prolonged grazing period (no chance for the plant to recover)Improper grazing practices (overgrazing and early grazing)Use of vehicles for transportation of water to the herds and of the animals to new pastures fosters prolonged grazing on rangelands and uncontrolled movement of the herds.www.cgiar.orgWeak institutional support and policy Importance of silvopastoral production system• Silvopastoral systems, a form of agroforestry, involve the interaction of woody perennials, forages, and livestock. The three components in the system are intentionally managed for optimal interactions aimed at augmenting agricultural production and environmental services (Sharrow, 1999).What kind of landscape we want to have?  History: How did we come to where we are? [What lead to the degradation?] past disturbances Context: What is the context within which the restoration or rehabilitation is going to take place? forage production, biodiversity, cultural, etc.  Improve the livelihood of the silvopastoral communities through increasing resilience, income and capacity of the local population. Is the need for restoration community driven or driven by outsiders?  How to mobilize and solicit community support for the management of the restored area?Set up a solid governance Agree on a common goal ","tokenCount":"204"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3419389126.json b/data/part_5/3419389126.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..cfcee052e373c43538545d3d52100ef2d4d3d5f3
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eb2419a710fcd380ca42fa486475b9e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/ZTMDUR/NIGLZB","id":"265108758"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b89569d-4b69-4a8e-b8ca-00e856ba54a3","pagecount":"2","content":"Agroecosystems was one of four pilot studies undertaken as precursors to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (www.maweb.org). The study identifies linkages between crop production systems and environmental services such as food, soil resources, water, biodiversity, and carbon cycling, in the hopes that a better understanding of these linkages might lead to policies that can contribute both to improved food output and to improved ecosystem service provision. The PAGE study also attempts to assess the state of the underlying soil resource conditions, both as a determinant of agroecosystem capacity to produce goods and services and as a consequence of agroecosystem management practices.The PAGE Agroecosystems report includes a series of 24 maps that provide a detailed spatial perspective on agroecosystems and agroecosystem services. Among these is a 1 km map of the global extent of agriculture, defined as those areas within which satellite-derived land cover data taken in 1992/93 indicate that at least 30 percent of the area is classified as cropland. Landscapes that have been significantly transformed in this way to provide more food and fiber have often been so at the expense of biodiversity, clean water, carbon storage capacity, and quality soils. Maps depicting indicators of these environmental variables are included in the report, which concludes that for the negative apparent trends in agroecosystems to be reversed, agricultural lands must meet a significant challenge: increasing food provision while continuing to provide and protect much-needed environmental goods and services.","tokenCount":"237"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..31bde71dd5fc134fbcb6009834ff9fb872bb84d0
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"438bef0e08d916d5cd6539105d5cc292","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abce4b3c-65ca-4fa3-9f49-30013b462539/retrieve","id":"1049163569"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fef2d188-cd2d-441f-a59c-1a41b2bbb759","pagecount":"18","content":"In Kenya's rangelands, resources such as water points, different categories of pastures (rainy season, dry season and drought) and livestock markets, as well as migration routes between all of these, are spread across landscapes usually without reference to county, subcounty and ward boundaries. Livestock owners move their herds to make opportunistic use of natural resources that are highly variable. This includes access to the best grazing available throughout the year including dry season grazing areas found along rivers or where there is a permanent water source. These key sites provide critical grazing when other pastures have been depleted. Easy and safe movement is vital if the marketing of livestock is to be supported and facilitated. Livestock routes are a key factor to consider in livestock development, trade and marketing, including exports.Poor planning-and often a complete lack of planning-can result in interventions that contribute to the loss of these resources and degradation of rangelands. For instance, inappropriate placement of new settlements and water points often encroaches into livestock migration routes thus hampering movement of herds and leading to overgrazing. Poor planning also contributes to conversion of important drought pastures to other uses such as irrigated agriculture. All of these factors hinder livestock production across the entire landscape.Spatial planning helps to ensure that existing resources are protected, communities understand the sharing of common resources, and new developments are executed in a way that supports rangeland management instead of undermining it. County governments are starting to develop county spatial plans. If done well, county spatial plans can play an important role in supporting rangeland management and improving the conditions for livestock production.In all of Kenya, Lamu county has led the way in developing a county spatial plan. Recently, however, six of the other counties that are part of the Frontier Counties Development Council (FCDC)-Garissa, Isiolo, Mandera, Marsabit, Tana River and Wajir-have taken steps towards county spatial planning. With the assistance of ILRI and FCDC, they have developed maps of key rangeland resources such as livestock migration routes, intercounty pastures and conflict hotspots. The resulting maps and geographic information system (GIS) layers are now ready to inform county spatial planning processes. In the case of Lamu, the county spatial plan has already been developed and approved. Nevertheless, work is still needed which includes adding detail for specific sectors and implementing the plan.With the support of the Swiss Embassy through FCDC and ILRI, a workshop was held for Lamu county to carry out an exercise to map rangeland resources. The workshop had the following objectives:• Document and map resources accessed by pastoralists across subcounty and county boundaries in Lamu• Produce maps and information to bring rangeland issues into spatial planning in Lamu County• Develop a shared vision among key stakeholders in Lamu county about appropriate planning, sharing and management of rangeland resourcesThe workshop was held in Lamu Town on 19 and 20 March 2019. Participants were identified prior to the workshop by a team of 15 personnel from various departments of the county government, under the guidance of ILRI and FCDC. The participants included more than 30 'local experts': people who are knowledgeable about county livestock movements, rangelands, conflict areas and livestock-related infrastructure such as water points. Local experts included elders, community leaders, personnel from county and national government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) personnel and others. In addition to their expertise, participants also represented various ethnic groups and subcounties.Opening of the workshopThe workshop opened with a prayer. Abdirahman Abass, the coordinator of the Sector Forum on Agriculture and Livestock of FCDC then gave opening remarks, including an overview of FCDC, its history and functions. Abass spoke about various trends and developments which have the potential to negatively impact rangelands and livestock production; he used the Lamu Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia-Transport (LAPSSET) corridor as an example. To avoid negative impacts, such developments, he suggested, need effective and participatory planning. He recalled how in his youth, livestock used to move freely around northern Kenya. The rangelands were productive and famine relief was a rare occurrence. Abass pointed out that the maps developed in the workshop will be used for county spatial planning, which could contribute to restoring livestock and rangeland productivity to previous levels. Six counties have already participated in mapping exercises: Garissa, Isiolo, Mandera, Marsabit, Tana River and Wajir. The FCDC expects to develop maps of northern Kenyan rangelands from Somalia and the Indian Ocean in the east to Kenya's borders with South Sudan and Uganda.Bashora D. Wachu of the livestock unit of the county's Department of Fisheries, Livestock and Cooperative Development, welcomed participants. He emphasized that there are key resources used by livestock and that these need to be mapped. For example, if there is a borehole but it is not captured in any records or maps, then it is easier for someone to claim it as a private resource. He urged the participants to endeavour to be as accurate as possible as they carry out the mapping exercise. Wachu thanked everyone for coming to the workshop and urged all of the participants to use the workshop as an opportunity to build unity.Paul Munyendo of the county Department of Lands and Physical Planning also welcomed participants.Emmanuel Koech, assistant county commissioner, Witu, welcomed participants and highlighted the importance of considering grazing corridors in all development plans. Mapping and demarcating grazing corridors help to prevent conflict.William M Magiri, assistant county commissioner for Hindi, also welcomed everyone. He praised Lamu county as a place which demonstrates the diversity of Kenya, highlighting that many tribes live side by side in Lamu and that Lamu people are friendly and hard working. Magiri recognized Lamu county as rich in resources. He thanked the FCDC and ILRI for supporting the workshop. Magiri encouraged participants to listen to each other and work together to develop a good plan for Lamu during this important workshop. Magiri then officially opened the workshop.Lance W Robinson of ILRI introduced the participants to county spatial planning and its potential for addressing challenges related to rangelands and extensive livestock production. He gave an overview of the workshop and its objectives, highlighting that the workshop and the maps that it would result in are only one step along the way towards developing a county spatial plan that takes rangeland issues into account.Munyendo summarized Lamu county's spatial planning process. Public participation activities occurred in various wards, which facilitated input and feedback. The plan took into account national priorities, particularly the National Spatial Plan. Munyendo acknowledged the length of the plan, which can be downloaded from the county website for free; a print copy may be purchased from the county. Lamu's development and county assembly approval of a spatial plan puts it ahead of many other counties, but the plan still needs to be implemented. This workshop will provide a forum for participants to focus on rangeland and livestock issues with the goal of incorporating knowledge and maps into the county spatial plan.Lamu county's spatial planning process was supported by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Abdalla Faraj of WWF described how WWF and the Lamu county government came together to develop the county spatial plan.The development of a spatial plan is a legal requirement for all counties. He explained that Lamu's plan has been fully developed and approved and is now a legal document. However, for the plan to be successful it must first be implemented, which requires funding from the county government.Participants in one breakout group adding features to the map (photo credit: FCDC/Abdirahman Abass).Stephen Oloo of ILRI gave a brief introduction of the tools to be used in the mapping exercise which included: base maps (prepared from old topographical maps obtained from Survey of Kenya plus a few recent features), sticky notes (used to label places which are not labelled or the label is not legible), pencils (used to mark features on the map during group discussions), marker pens (red, green, blue and black to mark features on the provided map after consensus is reached among group members), and notebooks and pens (to document all identified and mapped features). He then described the features to be mapped during the exercise and how each feature was to be classified.In groups representing different areas of the county, participants will map the following categories of features:• Livestock routes And finally, he gave a precise set of instructions to be followed during the exercise.Participants then separated themselves into three groups for the eastern, central and western parts of the county. Detailed notes were taken on each feature mapped.At the end of the first day, each group presented its progress to that point for crosschecking, correction of errors and filling in gaps. On the morning of the second day, the group work to complete the maps continued. The maps for the three sections of the county were then combined, the edges matched and any discrepancies at the edges corrected.Participants ensured that features such as livestock routes linked up seamlessly from one map sheet to another.By mid-morning of the second day, the above steps were completed and a discussion on the way forward followed.One participant asked why so much attention was being directed to livestock routes used by people from other counties who move into Lamu county during one particular season of the year. Another participant, however, highlighted that livestock owners from Lamu also use the same routes at other times of the year to move their livestock out of Lamu into those same counties. Those routes, he argued, are major livestock routes used all year round.Wachu commented that many conflict hotspots, shared pasture areas, livestock routes and other livestock issues have not been considered in new developments. One such example is Witu ranch, the creation of which blocked a livestock route.The maps of the three groups are lined up to create one all-encompassing map (photo credit: FCDC/Abdirahman Abass).Another participant pointed out that between Lamu and Tana River Counties, there are no assigned routes. During the rainy season, livestock are moved out of the flooded areas into uplands. When moving back, they then have to pass through farming schemes. This creates a permanent conflict zone. Though grazing areas exist, they are not properly designated and therefore end up being converted into farmland.One participant observed that pastoralists from some areas of the county were not represented at the workshop and emphasized that it is important for them to be invited to subsequent events.Another participant pointed out that the maps will be useful in managing the implementation of the LAPSSET corridor. He noted that, wherever it is finally situated, it will cut across some livestock routes and grazing areas. Therefore, livestock routes and grazing areas need to be considered in this and other developments.A participant identified conflict issues depicted on the map of Pate Island. All of the land is subdivided into individual plots, yet people have livestock to graze.Abass suggested that to address these issues, the county needs to develop livestock and land policies. Another participant suggested that as a way forward, pastoralists in the county need to form a committee to lobby for effective land policies.Participants leaving the workshop were urged to share information and sensitize people in their home communities to the issues regarding land use and resource sharing. However, another participant noted that this is a difficult task which requires support from NGOs or government. In response, it was suggested that further sensitization be carried out after ILRI and FCDC have validated and digitized the workshop maps. The completed maps can then be shared with a wide circle of pastoralist community leaders.Detailed notes were taken on all of the features mapped (photo credit: ILRI/Lance W Robinson).Features such as livestock routes and grazing areas that cross between the groups' maps were checked carefully (photo credit: FCDC/ Abdirahman Abass).The deputy governor of Lamu county, Abdulhakim Aboud Bwana, pointed out that by simply holding this workshop, the work on these tasks has begun. This was why he requested FCDC and ILRI to bring this mapping approach to Lamu. He emphasized that sensitization of people beyond this workshop must include the message that solutions to the problems raised will not simply happen-they need to be planned.Another participant emphasized that it will be very important to have pastoralists on board, seeing that there is a big push to subdivide land, a process which would affect pastoralists. He further noted that if the pastoralists are not well represented in these processes, they will not succeed.The deputy governor responded by highlighting the need for serious follow-up on this process. Attempts were made to include participants from the entire county but unfortunately, some invitees did not attend the workshop. He therefore urged those present to sensitize people in their own communities.Wachu argued that even though a few invitees for the workshop were missing, the knowledge in the room did cover the entire county and the mapping work was detailed and successful. He outlined the next step which would involve using Global Positioning System units to verify map features. He urged the deputy governor in particular to investigate farming schemes that have blocked livestock routes.One elder thanked the deputy governor for coming, noting that with devolution, these issues are no longer at the national level-they can be solved by the county government. He further noted that the organizations represented should endeavour to identify donor agencies that can help with the processes such as demarcating and servicing livestock routes.Robinson thanked the participants for their input. He highlighted that the participants need to work with their elected representatives and the county Department of Land and Physical Planning to bring this work to the next level. More importantly, the county spatial planning process, Robinson said, does not need to be a battleground between different interests; instead, it can be used to build unity and harmonize various interests.Abass pointed out that these kinds of conflict issues are not unique to Lamu. They occur elsewhere in Kenya and in Africa. Therefore, he urged participants to discuss these matters and resolve the issues in a sober way.The deputy governor closed the meeting with a few remarks. He called on participants to work together to solve the issues that were raised at this workshop. He gave examples of solutions to livestock and pastoralist issues coming from the bottom-up in other countries. He further noted that, as a community, the people of Lamu can also start looking for solutions. But when problems arise-when a livestock route is encroached, for example-the problem must be addressed immediately, not ignored for ten years. If an issue is raised years after its occurrence, such as a livestock route converted into farms, no one is going to evict the farmers. Now that this mapping work has been Participants discuss the implications of the maps (photo credit: FCDC/Abdirahman Abass).done, he said, people can clearly identify the areas that need attention and protection. The next step, he reminded the participants, is validation of the maps and he indicated that he is ready to support the process.Workshop participants (photo credit: FCDC/Abdirahman Abass). ","tokenCount":"2492"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"162fbe320b491b9807ca647322d80d04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c7193b0-9d71-436b-b41b-236d7e989159/retrieve","id":"-1211097227"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e206911b-22b2-4297-ac7e-73a21dc159d8","pagecount":"24","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.• The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication.• ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.We created a probabilistic decision analysis tool to model the issue of resilience in the Horn of Africa through a cooperative effort between the Technical Consortium for Building Resilience in the Horn of Africa (TC) and Hubbard Decision Research (HDR). The work was carried out under the guidance of Katie Downie from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). The objective was to provide a modeling framework to provide guidance for what should be measured to best support future decisions related to household and community resilience in the Horn of Africa. The quantitative methods used are supported by published research showing how these methods provide a measurable improvement on expert decisions done without the aid of such models.The process we use for improving decision quality is based on a probabilistic risk return analysis called Applied Information Economics, which uses Monte Carlo simulations to produce a distribution of potential outcomes. This method allows the potential stakeholder to consider uncertainty explicitly and to calculate the risk of a negative outcome or loss. Another primary output of an Applied Information Economics model is the calculation of the economic value of information for each uncertain variable. By collecting information values for interventions related to resilience, we can identify priorities for research and data collection related to investments in promoting resilience.Preparations for the project were started in June 2013, followed by a July workshop in Nairobi. The workshop included training on the AIE method including \"calibrating\" all workshop attendees. From the workshop we also selected a core group to work on the pilot resilience model. The group met (remotely) ten times between September and January, 2014 -two meetings to define the decision and pick the pilot project, six meetings for modeling and estimation, and two meetings for reviewing results of the model and discussing recommendations. This report contains a summary of our effort, gives an overview of the pilot project, and presents modeling results. We conclude with specific recommendation of next steps for reducing uncertainty on the project in question, as well as suggested course of action based on our findings.■ At the July workshop in Nairobi, there was an initial struggle with the concept of measuring resilience. There were competing definitions and the group was reluctant to define resilience without government stakeholders present. Since a definition was crucial to progress, the core group eventually accepted an interim definition of having a minimum number of calories available to each household in a region. If a household did not meet this threshold in a given year, they are considered food insecure for that year, which in turn indicated lower resilience. The true test of resilience in the Horn of Africa comes during droughts when food security becomes much more difficult to procure -thus a population may have high levels of food security in a good year but could still have a low level of resilience. Many factors play into food security both during droughts and during good years and these have been identified previously. 1 Measuring resilience, for this study, is simply a matter of measuring total levels of food security over a long enough time frame and over all households in a region.■ One of the key steps in the Applied Information Process when approached with a measurement problem is asking the question \"why do you want to measure it?\" The answer to this question can be quite revealing. In this case, the answer could have been \"we want to measure resilience because we want to increase the level of it.\" Or it could be \"we want to measure the level of resilience, but ultimately measure the importance of resilience to stakeholders and the aid community relative to competing outcomes.\" In the continuing effort to measure resilience, being clear on the outcome will continue to be important.■ The group settled on using an irrigation project to measure levels of uncertainty on variables related to resilience. When we first mentioned an irrigation project as an intervention to improve resilience, many of the workshop participants articulated a belief that irrigation projects do not improve resilience, or rarely do so. Interestingly, the project we modeled (Galana Ranch) had an average positive outcome -even considering all aspects of resilience and potential negative externalities associated with an irrigation project in the Kenyan drylands. This suggests several possibilities (which are not mutually exclusive): a. This irrigation project is an especially promising example b. Irrigation projects have both positive and negative effects on resilience c. The benefits of irrigation projects that are unrelated to resilience outweigh costs related to resilience ■ The two variables with the largest information values were related to the profit margin of irrigated crops, rather than a variable more directly related to resilience (there were also three variables related to the concept of resilience with significant information values). The fact that the largest information values were found in variables that lay outside the resilience focus fits with previous investigations. It is an encouraging sign that stakeholder officials are independently planning a 10,000 acre test farm for the project.  The ChallengeThe issue of measuring resilience in the Horn of Africa has proved to be a tricky subject. Part of this is due to disagreement over the definition of resilience.Without an agreement on the definition of resilience it proves difficult to measure or improve. However, there seem to be incontrovertible aspects to resilience with which nearly everyone agrees. One of these aspects is the concept of food security. Since this concept is easily defined in observable terms, it was a natural fit for our process. Embedded within this issue is also the decision whether to model the effects of an intervention on an individual household or on a community. An irrigation project could have catastrophic consequences for an individual household and yet increase the resilience in a community or a nation. This is also an important distinction when building a model -whether to model effects on many different individual households with different characteristics or to model the aggregate effect on food availability, income, health, and other factors.Our solution was to create a model both for the individual household and for the aggregate effects of the intervention. For the Galana Ranch model, the individual section is only used to simulate how a single pastoralist household would fare given no irrigation project were to occur. These results then represent a cost to the extent that pastoralist households are displaced as a result of the intervention. Other models could be based on only the individual household level (for example by comparing how a selection of households fared after a given intervention); this might produce other interesting results on what uncertainty reductions were of highest value.For this project, there were five major tasks as follows (See Appendix A for detailed task list):1. Decision Clarification Workshops: This critical first step was particularly challenging because we first had to work through the definition of resilience and how that was related to investment decisions. In the end we decided to model a large irrigation project with special attention to variables related to resilience.Training Workshop: This half-day workshop was held on site in Nairobi and all the participants were trained to assess uncertainties in a quantitative manner. 84% of participants were successfully \"calibrated\" at the end of the workshop so that estimates they gave could be expressed probabilistically. See Appendix D for more details on Calibration.This work was completed remotely after we had decided on the Galana Ranch food security project.For this task, we built the detailed decision model, including both the household and aggregate level parts of the model. Every variable in the model was estimated by the \"calibrated estimators.\"4. Risk/Return Analysis and Preparation of Deliverables: This takes the input of all previous steps to produce a quantitatively sound and complete analysis of the proposed investment.5. Value of Information Analysis (VIA): This step computed the economic value of measuring each of the uncertain variables. The team gained insight regarding which variables to measure in more detail and how much measurement effort is required and justified.The deliverables for this project included: 1. A detailed spreadsheet model which uses probabilistic methods to assess the decision 2. A \"value of information\" (VIA) analysis showing the economic benefit of measuring each uncertain variable in the investment so that effort can be spent measuring the right things 3. A risk/return analysis of the proposed investment including a \"probability distribution\" of the possible returns for the project or investment and how the investment compares to the risk tolerance of the organization 4. Recommendations on what to measure to reduce uncertainty and risk in the interventionThe modeling workshops begin by defining the specific decision that the group chooses to analyze. Arguably the most important (and often the most difficult) step is specifying what decision is actually being evaluated. As with other CGIAR groups, this step proved the most challenging as participants were initially reluctant to volunteer and settle on a specific intervention to model.Uncertainty in the model is assessed using a Monte Carlo simulation. This is a way of computing the uncertainty of a system or outcome given the uncertainty of the inputs to the model. A Monte Carlo simulation method is used for multiple reasons. First, there is evidence that those using Monte Carlo simulations are better at forecasting than those who do not. 2,3 Second, these decisions have significant risks and uncertainties and there is conclusive evidence that left to their own intuition, even quantitatively sophisticated decision makers will introduce several types of inference errors when it comes to the use of probabilities to describe uncertainty and risk. 4 A Monte Carlo simulation will make the mathematics of these inferences explicit and avoid several types of inference errors. Finally, Monte Carlo simulations are often the only mathematical solution that can assess a large number of uncertain variables in complex relationships.The HDR Monte Carlo spreadsheet tool consists of an \"Inputs\" tab that summarizes all of the important variables that go into the decision. We divide the variables into sections and each of these sections has both certain (deterministic) and uncertain (probabilistic) elements. We elicit estimations of each unknown variable from (the now calibrated) participants and the estimations include a best estimate and a range which represents a 90% confidence interval or, in some cases, binary probabilities (such as the probability of a project failure or drought in a given year).The best estimate values of the variables feed into an analysis of costs and benefits over a period of time (in this case 20 years). The range estimates flow into an analogous probabilistic cash flow calculation using the same calculations and logic as the deterministic analysis.Pilot Overview: Galana Ranch Food Security Project Table 1 summarizes the pilot chosen including the selected decision, a brief description of the project, and the parties involved. The Galana Ranch food security project is a proposed irrigation scheme that will affect 1.2 million acres in the drylands of Kenya. The project would aim to enhance national food security through increased productivity of the Galana and Kulalu Ranches through targeted investments on crop, livestock and fisheries production.The initial costs involved in this proposal include initial set-up costs for the irrigation and water resources infrastructure, land use planning, farm and livestock infrastructure, seed money for stocking and operations (farm development), an environmental and social impact assessment, and investments to offset potential negative externalities to existing and neighboring communities. Ongoing costs would include the annual costs associated with irrigated crops, livestock, and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure.Our model projects costs and benefits over a time frame of 20 years; it considers 199 uncertain variables, of which 123 are unique variables. Of this total, only 6 variables are found to have an information value significantly different than zero. Projected results from the Galana Ranch food security project suggest that the average case would be a benefit of $271 million over twenty years; 54% of scenarios had a positive NPV.We derived a Net Present Value by defi ning and estimating relationships between competing goals and outcomes. Although it is not necessary to use money as the common denominator, teams that start with a different common denominator usually come back to using money since it is the common element between many patois. The Net Present Value also necessarily references a particular perspective -since different actors will value different outcomes differently. In this case we are referencing the Net Present Value of the project from the perspective of the Kenyan Government who is the stakeholder in this decision.Not only does this analysis produce a quantitative picture (Figure 2) of potential investment results, it also delivers another important result: it mathematically derives the value of reducing uncertainty on uncertain variables in the decision making process. Thus, even as we focused on evaluating the merits of this investment, the discovery of information values for the variables in this decision was another primary outcome of the effort.The expected value of perfect information (EVPI) represents the economic value of reducing uncertainty on a single variable. Contrary to popular belief, the value of information can be calculated as a dollar value. Although the term \"information\" is often used in an ambiguous manner, it can also be used as an unambiguous unit of measure with a well-defi ned value calculation. This mathematical procedure can be paraphrased as follows:1. Of the roughly 200 variables in the model, the 5 variables shown in Table 2 have the highest information value. For each variable in the table, we include the lower bound, best estimate, and upper bound estimates given by calibrated participants, the expected value of perfect information (EVPI), the threshold for each variable and the probability the variable takes a value beyond the threshold. The largest EVPI was for the variable \"crop revenue/cost ratio\" which had a value of perfect information of $130 million dollars. It is rare to encounter information values this high in investment decisions but several determinants contribute to its size:1. The irrigation project analysis is based on 1.2 million acres over 20 years which means potential costs and benefits per acre have a large multiplier 2. The initial costs alone could add up to over a hundred million dollars 3. Annual costs (considering both direct crop costs and negative externalities) could cost additional hundreds of millions of dollars a year 4. The investment is highly uncertain; in 46% of outcomes the project would represent a net loss (occasionally in the billions of dollars)Given this additional information, a value of information of $130 million no longer seems so unbelievable. However given how cheap it would be to reduce uncertainty on this variable, it does seem remarkable that we would find such a high value.As with every other uncertain variable in the model, we collected estimates representing a 90% confidence interval of the participants involved in this project. This means, participants were 90% confident that the range contained or would contain (many of the estimates are referencing future events) the actual answer.As an example, for the variable \"crop revenue/crop ratio,\" participants were 90% confident that the range of 0.5 to 2.5 contained the actual crop revenue to cost ratio. Note that this was considering only the annual recurring costs and revenues associated with growing crops in the relevant region. This range (corresponding to a profit from growing crops of anywhere between a 50% loss to a 150% gain) may seem quite wide to someone unfamiliar with the AIE process, but the participants were estimating their current state of uncertainty, and they had been trained to do so accurately through calibration training. It is common practice to use narrow ranges, but that doesn't necessarily mean they are more useful. A narrow range given by an un-calibrated participant would not allow us to have any assignable confidence in the likelihood it would be correct.The \"threshold\" is simply the value, past which the project flips to being a net loss from a net benefit. The \"probability\" is the chance that the variable takes such a value given the estimates provided. So if the crop revenue/cost ratio was less than 1.173, then the net outcome of the irrigation project would be negative, and given estimates there is a 37% chance that the true value is below this threshold.For the variable entitled \"value of preventing a food insecure household\" the threshold is $857,000, meaning that the value of this variable would need to be higher than $857,000 to flip the average outcome from a positive to a negative. The logic of this works as follows:1. irrigation project displaces a pastoralist household 2. that household then has trouble securing other sources of income or food 3. this household then experiences food insecurity it otherwise would not have 4. this food insecurity is counted as a negative externality of the project Since there is a major push to increase resilience, we wanted to account for the decrease in resilience this represented (at least for this household). There could be a number of costs, explicit or otherwise, from a household becoming food insecure. Most obviously, there could be explicit costs to the member government or aid community of providing for this household above and beyond normal channels to ensure their food security. In addition, the members of the household are likely at greater risk to disease from stress and lack of nutrition; there may also be an elevated risk of mortality, an elevated risk of disillusionment leading to violence, and other negative externalities. Some of these possibilities are more likely than others, but participants were asked to estimate the aggregate average value of preventing food insecurity for a single household, considering all of these potential factors.The estimate that the group settled on was a lower bound of $550 and an upper bound of $150,000 with a lognormal distribution. Given these estimates, it would seem exceedingly unlikely that the true value of preventing a food insecure household to the Kenyan government would exceed $857,000; indeed, this intuition is verified by the probability of exceeding this threshold -a mere 0.38%. In spite of this small probability however, note there is still a large value in reducing uncertainty further on this variable.It is also noteworthy that of all the variables in the model, the value of preventing food insecurity is the variable most closely related to the concept of resilience. We might therefore expect a model meant to focus on resilience would find this variable to have the highest information value. Instead, the value of reducing uncertainty on this variable is less than 1% of the value of reducing uncertainty on the level of profit derived from irrigated crop land. This is an interesting result and could be seen as disappointing. Nevertheless, it fits into a general observation we have found with all CGIAR projects and across a variety of other government and industry investment decisions. The stated focus of a group is usually not the variable most in need of uncertainty reduction.Comparing the value of information results with the information values from other CGIAR projects shows there are some important similarities. In the construction of the Global Intervention Decision Model we identified six potential gaps in current measurement efforts (Appendix C): market prices, project failure risks, negative consequences, adoption rates, detailed household demographics, and land properties.The two highest value variables in the Galana Ranch Project (crop costs and crop revenue/cost ratio) fall into the first category of market prices 5 . All of the remaining variables fit into the category of negative consequences: negative downstream effects, health costs, and costs associated with increasing food insecurity for pastoralists are all examples of how a project might actually have an overall detrimental effect with a loss much greater than merely losing the invested resources. Additionally, the highest information value variable (the possibility of a negative profit on irrigated crops) falls into this category as well; after all if growing irrigated crops is a losing proposition, then losses will likely extend beyond the initial investment.The most urgent recommendation is to carry out the next step in the Applied Information Economics process, namely to make measurements on the variables where there is an economic justification for doing so. Involving stakeholders is also a critical next step -the values we are measuring are representative for the stakeholder who is making the investment and who will reap the benefits or losses associated with the project.Now that information values have been computed for an initial pilot project, decomposition and measurements should begin. The best approach will be small, incremental measurements prioritized by their EVPIs.1. Crop Revenue/Cost Ratio, EVPI $130,000,000: ■ Decompose variable; this is a case where decomposing into individual crops may significantly reduce uncertainty and is a very low cost strategy ■ Substitute a profit per hectare instead of a crop revenue/cost ratio ■ Estimate profit per hectare for maize, sugar, and horticulture separately ■ Given the size of the information variable, a small sample of average profit levels over 20 years in a comparable environment would be justified for each major crop or crop type. ■ It is encouraging that the stakeholders involved in the Galana Ranch project have planned a 10,000 acre pilot farm on part of the property to measure outcomes using the proposed technologies and crops. It could be that a quicker and less expensive method would reduce uncertainty sufficiently.2. Crop Costs ($/HA), EVPI $18,500,000:■ If the recommendations above are taken, the crop cost variable will be replaced. We recommend replacing crop costs and profit ratio for an aggregate crop variable with profit per hectare variables for individual crops 3. Potential Loss Downstream (livelihoods and ecological), EVPI $6,200,000:■ Decompose downstream ecological and livelihood loss. Again, we don't need to make measurements until we have better separated out the components of this variable: ■ Estimate downstream livelihood types for downstream populations of each livelihood type ■ Estimate chance of livelihood disruption and opportunity cost for each livelihood type if disrupted ■ Estimate ecological losses separately 4. Value of Preventing Food Insecure Household, EVPI $1,250,000:■ Refine definition of variable and conduct small sample of stakeholders ■ Better define the levels and effects of food insecurity. Would different aid organizations and countries provide identical definitions and effects of a \"food insecure household\"? If not, create more specific variable(s) with observable qualities and outcomes. ■ Conduct a small sample of aid workers and members of stakeholder governments to determine the value of preventing food insecurity, once it is clearly defined.An obvious shortcoming of this effort was the lack of presence from the stakeholder. Whether the effort to use the Applied Information Economics process is to help measure resilience in the Horn of Africa or to help prioritize research topics, projects, and groups in CGIAR, involving stakeholder governments and aid organizations is a natural next step for two reasons.1. The information values necessarily reference the entity making the investment -stakeholders are actually the group that stands to benefit most directly from these analyses.and what is found to have the highest information value. There may be a complementary knowledge base in the stakeholder community that can immediately begin to inform the metrics effort on the CGIAR side. Stakeholders could also be an aid in carrying out the measurement step of the AIE process as they have both a more direct financial resource and incentive to do so.Identify ways that rule of thumb estimates can be applied for variables like crop profit levels. It may be that differences between projects and regions could be exaggerated and that the uncertainty can be dramatically reduced with a couple of inputs such as annual rainfall and average travel distance to market.The Proposed Decision Method: Applied Information EconomicsThe World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), one of the research centers of the CGIAR, has identified a consolidated approach that will address three of the challenges facing research institutions in sustainable agricultural practice; these challenges are: ■ Estimating the impact of intervention ■ Determining how to measure agro-ecosystem health ■ Showing the value of research.The solution will involve the use of HDR's primary method called Applied Information Economics. Applied Information Economics (AIE) was developed as a robust method for addressing investment dilemmas that are large, risky, and full of difficult measurements. It is designed to perform even in the presence of \"intangibles\" and significant uncertainty. This approach is well suited to developing world agricultural research because decisions often involve opaque actors (e.g., stakeholder governments), poor and/or unreliable data (e.g., pastoralist regions), and effects that are perceived as difficult to measure (e.g., the effect of climate change on agriculture).Unlike traditional methods that produce arbitrary \"scores\" or deterministic returns on investment, AIE conducts a true Risk/Return analysis with the same degree of rigor used by actuaries to estimate loss rates in insurance pools. The method involves five steps -(1) define the decision(s), ( 2) model what we know now, (3) compute the value of information, (4) measure what matters, and (5) make better decisions.AIE combines several methods from decision theory, economics, actuarial science, and other mathematical methods. The method has been widely used in business, governmental, and NGO settings -in decisions as diverse as wildlife preservation, mine flooding, and IT security. AIE makes use of methods that have been shown to improve on human expert judgments in multiple independent studies. Here is a brief summary of the method:■ Define the Decision(s):As obvious as this step may first appear, it is the key to better understanding what to measure, and real decisions are often different from what they first appear to be. Is the dilemma whether to simply approve a project or how to conduct a project given a vast combination of alternatives? Or is the decision a matter of when a given initiative should be approved? The costs, benefits, timing, risks and even external factors are identified and the real decision is clarified.■ Model What We Know Now:Cost estimates, forecasts of benefits, project risks, and other variables in a typical big investment decision are almost never known exactly. The uncertainty about some variables, especially long term forecasts, can seem extreme. But the consequences of even extremely uncertain variables can be assessed using the \"Monte Carlo\" method and a special approach for training experts to assess probabilities. The Monte Carlo method is useful for conducting decision analysis by sampling variables that do not have exactly known values (i.e. most variables in a model). This initial model is effectively a snapshot of the current state of uncertainty about a problem before additional measurements are made.Not all variables in a decision model are worth measuring and those worth measuring are often a surprise to the decision makers. In fact, normally a kind of \"measurement inversion\" exists in most decisions -that is, the most uncertain variables tend to be ignored while the variables that usually receive a lot of attention actually have less bearing on the decision. With AIE, every variable in a model will have an \"information value\" that allows identification of high value variables in a decision. This approach targets only the variables in a decision that are the most likely to significantly reduce overall uncertainty in the decision.■ Measure What Matters:Once the high-value measurements are identified, a variety of empirical methods can be used. Contrary to what is sometimes assumed, relatively little data or simple observations may be required for extremely uncertain variables. AIE often uses efficient \"Bayesian\" methods, which exploit prior knowledge and can be used even when data is messy or sparse.The measured variables will have less uncertainty and then the model of uncertainty can be updated.■ Make Better Decisions:The output of the Monte Carlo model, updated with targeted measurements, is compared to the risk/return preferences of the organization. Research shows that the actual risk aversion and other preferences of decision makers change frequently and unconsciously. Different preferences are applied to different investments even when management believes they are being consistent. AIE addresses this major source of decision error by quantifying and documenting preferences such as risk tolerance and the value of deferred benefits so that the results of analysis can be assessed in a controlled, uniform manner. Finally, sometimes decisions have large combinations of outcomes and have to be part of a portfolio of decisions. When necessary, AIE applies optimization methods to determine the best decision even from a large set of alternatives. The AIE process can help scientists and planners to clarify and improve intervention decisions even in complex multi-stakeholder situations.If households do not adopt farming techniques, policies, and technologies, then the benefits may never materialize. Understanding and predicting the adoption characteristics of a population (see Appendix D) will be a recurring uncertainty in many interventions. This is also an observation that is very consistent with EVPI calculations in other fields in business and government.■ Detailed Household Demographics:There were recurring uncertainties about details of households and individual farms that had significant bearing on intervention decisions. The decisions of individual households on urban migration, the sizes of their farms, the number and type of livestock and other types of demographic information were required for the analysis. This sort of information is already gathered in some programs but this project finds that for some intervention decisions a higher resolution and broader scope of this data may be required. There is a lot of data that could be gathered, but even small samples of the population would have been informative. The specific data gathered should be driven by the information values.■ Land Properties:The specific size of different lands, density of trees, erosion rates and other characteristics of the land had high EVPIs in some projects. This is also information that is gathered to some degree already but the information values indicate that higher resolutions of this data may be required for some decisions. A Geographic Information System (GIS) type of data base may be the ideal format but the data gathered should be driven by specific information values.The order of our workshops is an important aspect of the process. Calibration workshops come before detailed decision modeling because AIE decision models are built with ranges of uncertainty on many of the variables. Therefore, before a subject matter expert or participant can contribute ranges on a variable, they must be able to accurately assess their uncertainty. This skill -the ability to accurately assess one's uncertainty -can be taught and we call this process \"calibration.\"Following methods designed by various academic researchers 6,7 and Doug Hubbard 8 , experts can measure how well they subjectively assess uncertainty with explicit probabilities. The vast majority of people enter training in a state of overconfidence -they predict they will be correct more often than they are. In other words, when most people say they are 90% confident in each of some large number of predictions, the frequency of correct answers will be significantly less than 90%. Once an initial assessment has been conducted, experts learn several techniques for achieving a measurable improvement in estimating. By the end of a 3-hour training workshop, 85-90% of participants achieve a state of calibration -that is, they are able to give estimates that are correct as often as they predict them to be. Even those who don't achieve calibration in the workshop can still participate once their overconfidence has been measured.The experience with the researchers was consistent with observed results for professionals in many other fields. Virtually all researchers started out in a state of extreme overconfidence about their estimates. But after training, most were performing to almost an ideal level of calibration (i.e., they could not be statistically differentiated from ideally calibrated persons given the sample size of estimates they provided).","tokenCount":"5290"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb7011681d774080ccd4b83f1a716bf5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4a77d238-4bb8-4ed7-9ad2-174dd763df54/content","id":"-929452750"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3236eb68-fea9-4958-b2f4-fc0054d3d8d2","pagecount":"147","content":"Fifty wheat vanetles representative of the major spring types were tested in the Fourth International Spring Wheat Yield Nursery ( ISWYN). Results were obtained from 63 locations throughout the spring wheat regions of the world. Data received included yield and other agronomic and disease traits. These data were analyzed statistically and correlations were calculated between the means of all traits measured for each location.The overall location mean yields reflect previous ISWYN results with Tnia 66, Pitic 62, Siete Cerros, Penjamo 62 and Super X, the 5 top yielding varieties in that order. Tobari 66 gave the best performance under all three rusts over all locations, but ranked 11 for yield. Some of the vartettes had been included in previous international nurseries (1,2,3,4,5,6,7, 8,9,10) and others were chosen from submissions because they exhibited some outstanding trait in specific regions. An attempt was made to balance previous entries and new entries to keep the nursery current and meaningful.The varieties entered for testing in the Fourth ISWYN were 1 : ARGENTINA Buck Manantial: Rafaela MAG x Buck Quequen -A tall, late maturing variety of good resistance to Septaria, leaf rust and stripe rust. It has moderate resistance to stem rust and susceptibility to scab, but is noted for good baking quality and especially strong gluten. *Gaboto: Bage 2018 x H 44-Sinvalocho MAG/Bage 1971/37 -One of the most important soft grained varieties in the northern part of the Argentina wheat belt. It is considered resistant to Septaria sp., Fusarium and rusts. *Klein Petiso-Rafaela: An experimental Argentinian line showing promise. This line has been used extensively in the CIMMYT breeding program.Sonora 64-Klein Rendidor: A line of promising yield potential and broad adaptation. It is of intermediate maturity, semi-dwarf and has good resistance. It has some cold tolerance and has shown tolerance to Septaria in some parts of the world, especially North Africa and the Middle East.Sonora 64 x SKE-Lerma Rojo 64 A: A promising semi-dwarf line selected under Argentine conditions.Sonora 64 x Tezanos Pintos Precoz-Nainari 60 (A): Sister line of Jaral 66 and the Third ISWYN entry Jaral \"S\". This line and the next entry were selected in Argentina and show promise of a high yield potential, good resistance to stem and stripe rust, strong gluten and early maturity. One defect is low grain test weight.Sonora 64 x Tezanos Pintos Precoz-Nainari 60 (B): See above description.*Tacuari: Massaux # 5-Gaboto -Released by the Instituto Nacional de Tecnologfa Agropecuaria (INTA), this variety is of good quality, but is susceptible to stem rust and Fusarium. However, it was an outstanding entry in the Fourth Inter-American Spring 'X'heat Yield Nursery and was included in this trial to test suspected broad adaptability.The international testing of promising spring wheats has provided new directions in breeding high-yielding varieties with desirable agronomic traits and disease resistance. The enthusiastic response from cooperators around the world has made such studies not only worthwhile, but highly productive.Rapid data summarization and distribution has become the major obstacle in reporting the returned data. This problem has now been overcome through the excellent cooperation of the Mexico City staff of RCA, S. A. de C. V., Computer Systems Division. Through their efforts CIMMYT is now able to present timely up to date reports on all international yield nurseries. Those involved in these trials can appreciate this significant step forward.• We, therefore, are most pleased to extend our thanks to Mr. Arthur A. Mancini, General Manager of RCA Computer Systems Division of Mexico and his staff for their assistance. We now feel confident that we will be able to match the enthusiastic support we are receiving from the cooperating scientists in this truly cooperative effort to improve wheat production throughout the world.Seed for the Fourth ISWYN was produced in increase plots at the Centro de Investigaciones Agricolas del Noroeste (CIANO) at Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico, during the 1966-67 growing season. The seed was treated with an organic mercurial disinfectant prior to packeting. The plots consisted of six, 2.5 meter rows with three replications. Instructions concerning seeding, nursery management and note-taking, as well as data sheets, were included with each set of seed.The fifty varieties (Triticum aestivum) in the nursery represent the principle varietal types of spring wheat grown in many areas of the world. used as a standard for spring wheat quality and for that reason has been widely used in the parentage of many of the newer U.S. and Canadian lines. It is extremely day length sensitive.The metric system and percentages were chosen as the units of measurement for presentation. When possible, other systems were conveited to the appropriate standard before computations were made. Every effort was made to assure the correctness of such conversions as well as the accuracy of translations of terms from other languages and interpretation of supplementary information. CIMMYT, however, takes full responsibility for any errors that mav have been made. Data were neither analyzed nor are presented for traits when no differential effect was observed.Yield data were requested from the four center rows of a six-row plot. Yields were converted from the units reported by the cooperator to kilograms per hectare ( kg/ha). For readers more accustomed to yield in bushels per acre, 1 ,000 kg/ha is equivalent to approximately 15 bushels per acre for wheat.Both test weights and 1,000 grain weights were requested because some cooperators do not have test weight equipment. The test weights are reported in kilograms per hectoliter ( kg/hl) and 1 ,000 grain weights are reported in grams. For readers more accustomed to test weights expressed in pounds per bushel, 75 kg/hi is roughly equivalent to 60 pounds per bushel.Disease 1 notes were requested from cooperators when differential reactions were observed. Rust reactions were most commonly recorded with the international rust scale noting the percentage leaf area infected and reaction type (i.e. lesion size). For statistical analyses these rust notes were converted to a coefficient of infection as used by Dr. W. Q. Loegering ( U.S.D.A. International Spring Wheat Rust Nursery 1959). This coefficient is calculated by multiplying the percentage of infection by a \"response value\" assigned to each infection type. Thus, the coefficient combines both the amount of infection and the reaction type. The response values are given in the following table : As examples, 20MS is expressed as ( 20 x 0.8) = 16.0 and 10 MR is expressed as ( 10 x 0.4) = 4.0. Ranges of reaction are averaged, such that 5R-15S becomes 6.0 ( 5 + 15 = 10 and 0.2 + 1.0 = 0.6) with 6.0 the product of 10 x 0.6. When cooperators reported only percentage of rust, the value was used directly. The occurrence of 0 values, plus the fact that the coefficients do not usually fit a normal distribution, requires that the coefficients be transformed to \\1 coefficient + 1.0. The addition of one unit to the coefficient eliminates all zero values and past experience has shown that the square root determination helps to improve the normality of the distributions.The transformed coefficients can be analyzed statistically as well as correlated with other traits (e.g. yield). However, for tabular presentation in this report, the standard rust scale notes from the first replication at each location are presented since the coefficients are more difficult to use in visualizing the response of a particular variety. The mean rust reaction by location is presented with its related statistics as an index of the amount of rust at that location. Relatively low mean rust values indicate low incidence and/or virulence of the pathogen. Higher means are indicative of a higher incidence and/or virulence. These means provide a relative location comparison and a reflection of the extent of that pathogen in that nursery under the environmental conditions that existed.Other indices of varietal performance were analyzed whenever possible and are presented in the tables. Most of these values were percentages. Several indices could be transformed to percent. In those instances where the scale used by the cooperator could not be converted to percent, the scale values are given. The percentage values were not transformed to V % + 1, as had been done previously. While some may consider transformation necessary, comprehension of the mean of a transformation is difficult. It was felt that it would be better to present values which were more rapidly comparable to the field scores used by collaborators.The grand mean of each trait was calculated and are presented with pertinent statistics in the tables. Previously, error estimates were calculated indirectly as residuals. Since incomplete data sets are often reported, indirect estimations of the error variance can give biased or even negative values. Therefore, estimated error variances were computed directly for all traits reported. This value was then used to calculate a standard error ratio of the grand mean, a coefficient of variation (the ratio of the standard deviarion to the grand mean expressed as a percentage) and the least significant difference (LSD) at the 5% level. The coefficient of variation is useful as a unit basis comparison of vanatton between locations. The LSDn~ can be used to compare 2 variety means at the same location.Considerable insight into factors influencing yield can sometimes be gained by correlation studies. Correlations were performed on all possible pairs of factors by location using the mean value for each trait reported. Correlations were computed on the replication means rather than the raw values because some types of data were frequently reported for only one replication. The population size is fairly small for this type of analysis and some spurious correlations may be encountered. Discretion is advised in interpretation of these values. Many workers find correlation analyses interesting and useful and they are presented as part of the summary table for each location with an awareness of their limitations.The overall location means were computed for each variable and are presented herein when the number of observations justified inclusion. It is hoped that• this expanded summary will be useful as a general source of information on variety performance. With the exception of the rust data the reported units are those used throughout this report. For arithmetic purposes the mean rust reaction were computed on the transformed values ( V X + 1 ) -where 1.0 would be no rust and 10 + is complete susceptibility. Relative comparisons are suggested for selecting potentially useful rust resistant varieties. Average values of less than 2.0 can be considered as qnite resistant, while varieties with values greater than 2.5 must be considered as susceptible.Many problems have been encountered in the analyses and summary of these unique data. It has been our attempt to provide the reader with maximum amount of usable information and yet not confuse the picture with a great deal of computation detail.Sixty-three trials were returned for the Fourth ISWYN. Figure 1 presents the reporting location with the corresponding table numbers. The test sites were as varied as previous ISWYN's as indicated by Figure 2.Inspection of individual locations (Tables 1-63) may offer readers more insight into the suitability of varieties to match specific conditions. The table format selected for the Third ISWYN was used again to assist individuals in variety evaluation at specific locations, and to help identify potentially useful varieties for direct use or as parents in a breeding program.Table 64 presents the overall mean values of each variety for those variables recorded with sufficient frequency to justify reporting. This table is ranked in descending order for mean yield.The highest yielding varieties over all locations is strikingly similar to previous ISWYN reports suggesting the stability of adaptability of these varieties and lines. Of the 12 new entries (i.e. not in common with the Third ISWYN) 4 were in the 10 highest yielding var1et1es. These 4 new lines: Sonora 64 x Kl. Rend., Sonora 64 x TzPP-Nai 60 (B), Lerma Rojo 64 x Sonora 64 and Sonora 64 x TzPP-Nai 60 (A), displaced last year's high average yielding varieties, Lerma Rojo 64A, Crespo 63, Nainari 60 and Tobari 66 in the top 10. However, the best 5 varieties varied little from last year's report. The overall mean yield of the \"Local Variety\" has been included as an index of performance as measured against varieties selected to represent the test regions.  ..     General Comments: Generally, the climatic conditions were favorable for cereal development. There were heavy attacks of powdery mildew and stripe rust, and good development of stem rust. Leaf rust and Septoria !!:.!ll£! also developed, but lightly. Weeds were controlled by hand. Some attacks of cephus fly occurred at maturity time, but did not make any clear varietal differences.                 ","tokenCount":"2087"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"811c2a6589f0c86ea8a1693d7c4c1f49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/62785f7e-7320-47cd-bfbe-b00791a4bb4e/retrieve","id":"-1604646737"},"keywords":["P1683 -Product Line 3.3.1: Feed preservation, processing and supplementation technologies Geographic scope:","National Country(ies):","Tanzania, United Republic"],"sieverID":"87bb2ad6-fc41-4805-b53c-3ebecfb0be42","pagecount":"1","content":"Sub-IDOs:• Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains • Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: The study evaluated the impact of improved Napier grass varieties (CGIAR materials from ILRI and CIAT) and maize stover based diets on milk yield under smallholder conditions in Tanzania. Farms were used as experimental units and lactating cows were used as replicates. 23 farmers from six villages participated in the trial. 24 lactating cows with two genotypes (local and improved cattle) were selected and were fed with Napier grass or maize stover based diets supplemented with bean haulms at different levels (100, 80, 70, and 60%). Data on breed type, fodder, supplementation type, pre-study fodder type, milk production, lactation length, source of feed, and feed and water intake were collected for 45 days with a 7-day adjustment.","tokenCount":"155"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3460425494.json b/data/part_5/3460425494.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d82d8a8fbaff825de2d299c182c8cf45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e084a41f-264b-41dc-9862-57ccf1ad4610/retrieve","id":"238580976"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0903891-eea8-4484-9276-7baee856934e","pagecount":"18","content":"In Southeast Asia, access to improved forages remains a challenge for smallholder farmers and limits livestock production. We compared seed exchange networks supporting two contrasting livestock production systems to identify bottlenecks in seed availability and determine the influences of the market, institutions, and cultural context of seed exchange, using interview-based methods for 'seed tracing' and network analysis. Government agencies were the primary sources of high-quality genetic materials, with secondary diffusion in the Philippines dairy case being dominated by key individuals in active cooperatives. In the Vietnamese beef-oriented production context, farmer to farmer dissemination was more substantial. In both cases, formal actors dominated where botanical seed was exchanged, while farmers frequently exchanged vegetatively propagated materials among themselves. To improve access to forage seed in these contexts, government agencies and development actors should coordinate quality seed production upstream while supporting the creation of appropriate training, structures, and incentives for seed exchange network improvement downstream.Demand for beef and milk increases globally and is expected to double by 2050 due to a growing middle class (Rao et al., 2015). In Southeast Asia, the rapid pace of this transformation is putting pressure on livestock production systems. Most of the meat and milk produced in the developing world come from mixed crop-livestock systems (Herrero et al., 2010), primarily small in scale in the Southeast Asian context. The most important factors limiting production for these systems are feed availability and quality (Rao et al., 2015). Each year, millions of tons of feed are currently imported by Southeast Asian nations, despite the potential economic and environmental advantages of local production, especially in remote areas (Stür et al., 2002). High-quality, protein-rich forages can increase the quantity and quality of meat and milk and produce a range of environmental benefits (Rao et al., 2015).Starting 30 years ago, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) has conducted adaptive research to identify suitable forage germplasm providing solutions to smallholder farmers in Southeast Asia. Through a series of research projects spanning this period (Table 1), more than 500 forage species have been introduced and evaluated in nurseries. Selected species were tested in participatory trials and multiplied by farmers (Stür et al., 2002).These efforts ultimately reached more than 10,000 households in Southeast Asia (Roothaert et al., 2003;Stür et al., 2006). Documented benefits included labor savings of 3 h per day for Vietnamese farmers who produced feed from Paspalum atratum 'BRA 9610' and Panicum maximum 'T58,' and high-quality forage production paired with erosion prevention for farmers in the Philippines who planted Setaria sphacelata var. sphacelata in contour lines on steep slopes.Preferred species emerging from this work included high-performing legumes such as Stylosanthes guianensis 'Stylo CIAT184' and Leucaena leucocephala, grasses such as Panicum maximum, Pennisetum purpureum, Brachiaria humidicola, Brachiaria brizantha, and Brachiaria hybrids such as the well-adopted 'Mulato' and 'Mulato II'. In the period following these interventions, introduced forages have continued to spread beyond the boundaries of the original participant groups. It is not unusual to find examples in government or NGO-run demonstration plots far from the original intervention areas. In addition to farmer adoption, government extension services have likewise integrated new forages into their demonstration trials, participatory research agendas, and country-level dissemination strategies.Notably, a significant outcome of tropical forage research projects in the region was the creation of a smallholder seed production program led by Ubon Ratchathani University in Thailand, which later launched Ubon Forage Seeds Co., Ltd., the first premium producer of tropical forage seeds in Southeast Asia (https:// www. ubonf orage seeds. com/ en/, and Hare et al., 2013). Further initiatives have sprouted at the national level, with the most notable adoption rates reported in the Philippines and Vietnam (Bosma et al., 2003;Stür et al., 2006;Ayele et al., 2012).However, despite these immediate successes, long-term adoption of improved forages remains limited, with seed availability and accessibility a common factor (Phaikaew & Stür, 1998;Philp et al., 2019). Identified reasons for these gaps involve the critical competition for the land area between forages, food, and industrial crops, a lack of policy support to stimulate local forage production, and a lack of community participation in research and development processes (Elbasha et al., 1999;Schultze-Kraft & Peters, 1997;Thomas & Sumberg, 1995). Despite the importance of improved forages to livestock holders, little research has since been published evaluating the seed systems of forage crops relative to those of food crops in Southeast Asia, despite longstanding calls for increased efforts (Phaikaew & Stür, 1998). A particularly glaring gap is apparent in the lack of study of ongoing scaling of forage introductions, including post-project implementation, through farmer networks. One potential reason is the historical development focus on promoting intensification of livestock systems and the associated development of forage technologies 'on-station' for transfer to farmers organized in commercial or projectbased groups, rather than co-generation of local, contextual production strategies for forage seed (Stür et al., 2002). This optimistic model of 'hand over' of technologies has slowly given way to recognition of the more complex nature of challenges in collective action in seed systems (Tadesse et al., 2019), as in other themes such as citizen science (Leeuwis et al., 2018).Conceptually, seed systems encompass all aspects of the production, maintenance, storage, and diffusion of plant propagules (Tripp, 1997a). In addition to this processbased definition, a stakeholder-based definition is provided by Bentley et al. (2018) to describe seed systems vis-à-vis the producers, users, researchers, policymakers, sellers, and all other participants in the production, distribution, and use of seed of given crops in a given area. Within both of these definitions (and much of the literature at large), the term 'seed' is employed to include all reproductive materials, including 'true' or botanical seed, as well as vegetative reproductive materials such as cuttings, rhizomes, or grafting materials (e.g., Abizaid et al., 2016). Understanding the context-specific structure and functioning of seed systems is important for ensuring seed security (McGuire & Sperling, 2013), preserving local agrobiodiversity (Pautasso et al., 2013), impeding the spread of pests and diseases (Gitaitis & Walcott, 2007;Jacobsen et al., 2019;McQuaid et al., 2016), and reaching producers with technologies such as improved varieties with enhanced agronomic characteristics (David & Sperling, 1999;Gaffney et al., 2016). Seed systems are often categorized in practice in terms of either informal / farmer networks (eg. saving of own seed, exchange among acquaintances), and formal/institutional networks (eg. government or licensed private sector multiplication of quality-controlled seed); of these two, the former is vastly dominant, accounting for perhaps 90% of seed supply globally (McGuire & Sperling, 2016), and is of even greater importance in developing country contexts (Almekinders et al., 1994;Gill et al., 2013;Louwaars & de Boef, 2012). Informal seed systems are increasingly undergoing an image shift from disorganized, chaotic purveyors of the seed of unknown origin to dynamic adaptive systems that efficiently reach large producers with planting materials acceptable to them (Coomes et al., 2015). However, formal seed systems often have advantages in accessing and introducing novel seeds and genetic materials through sources such as international seed companies, government breeding programs, or mechanisms such as gene banks and the multilateral system of the Plant Treaty. They are often instrumental in exchanges crossing administrative borders. The formal/ informal dichotomy, although sometimes helpful in discussing seed systems, belies a more complex reality of a heterogeneous stakeholder and exchange landscape defying simple binary categorization. In practice, seed systems are mixed, with informal and formal actors interacting, and commercial transactions often playing a more prominent role than previously believed (Delaquis et al., 2018;McGuire, 2008).Decentralization and increased private sector involvement have been increasingly promoted as strategies for increasing smallholder seed access (Almekinders et al., 2019), implying the existence of formal or semi-formal structures for seed introduction to serve as entry points for broader dissemination through informal networks. For such models to effectively benefit large numbers of producers, formal or semi-formal systems must link with social networks for secondary and tertiary exchange (Tadesse et al., 2017). Thus, the interface of formal and informal networks through institutional networks plays a critical role in scaling seed exchange, especially the interactions between groups or institutions providing access to seed resources. The degree to which institutional networks foster seed exchange both within and outside of the group. However, empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of these models is limited outside of a few major cash crops (Tadesse et al., 2019).In this study, we employ a conceptualization of seed systems based on the work of the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas, a community of over 50 seed system researchers focusing on the seed systems of vegetatively propagated crops. Building on dozens of case studies, the group has produced a toolbox for working with seed systems, including a method for 'seed tracing' studies, in which seed exchange transactions are mapped between stakeholders (Andrade-Piedra et al., 2020). We focus on exchange networks as a middle segment of the seed value chain, bridging upstream breeding and selection and downstream use to produce animal feed. Within this segment of the seed value chain we adapt the conceptual model for seed diversity of Stromberg et al. (2010), considering the forage seed exchange network as embedded in a larger cultural context comprised of 3 major mediating factors: collective action and institutions, market integration, and cultural norms that shape seed exchange practices.Network analysis has been developed as a method for comparative analysis of seed exchange networks (Abizaid et al., 2016;Delaquis et al., 2018;Tadesse et al., 2017), generating insights into the impacts of planting material introductions, conservation of agrobiodiversity, and identifying pathways to greater varietal adoption. Interview-based methods for seed tracing have been helpful as a method for rapid evaluation of seed exchange networks, the impacts of seed interventions through secondary exchange after project-based interventions (Almekinders et al., 2020), and for constructing networks for epidemiological modeling (Buddenhagen et al., 2017;Garrett et al., 2018). These methods generate visualization and statistical evidence of stakeholder exchange patterns, allowing for identifying key actors and their roles and positions in the network. Measures such as degree centrality and emergent properties such as network flatness provide comparability relevant to understanding the functioning of networks as a whole in addition to the characteristics of constituent stakeholders.To evaluate the impact of collective action and institutions, market integration, and cultural norms on forage exchange patterns within and beyond established farmer groups, this study evaluates two contrasting representative livestock production systems in Southeast Asia through survey-based assessments in selected sites to (i) characterize the forage seed exchange network structure beginning with producers' groups (members' roles, functioning and delivery of different types of seed), (ii) compare critical characteristics of identified seed networks and contextual elements, and (iii) to evaluate the role of institutions in forage seed dissemination between the members and in the interface with informal networks.The two contrasting livestock production systems evaluated were a specialized dairy system based around several smallholder cooperatives with high market access in the Philippines and a diverse smallholder crop-livestock beef production system under a government-organized producers' group with low market access in Northern Vietnam. We hypothesize that seed exchange behavior and networks will fundamentally differ between farmers' organization types, leading to different institutional roles in seed networks and differences in exchange patterns and types beyond group members due to different market, institutional, and cultural norm contexts.The Philippines and Vietnam have recently been upgraded to lower-middle-income country status (WB, 2020a), have comparable levels of development, and have rapid average growth rates (WB, 2020b and 2020c). As described above, the countries share a common history of forage dissemination efforts and comparable short-term successes, with rapidly developing livestock sectors and increasing demand for forages. However, the case studies differed in market orientation and group organization, with dairy cooperatives with strong collective action in the Philippines versus more individual farmers in Vietnam, organized in government-defined producers' groups. These two cases were selected for their representation of dominant livestock production strategies in Southeast Asia for the dairy and the beef sector, respectively.The Philippines produces 1% of the national demand for dairy, importing the remainder from the US, Australia, and New Zealand (Ang, 2017;PSA, 2016). Although the dairy sector has seen positive growth over the past decade with increased private investment, most production still originates from smallholder crop-livestock farms. The most common practice of feeding dairy cows is through the cut-and-carry method, in which forages are planted in a separate lot and harvested as needed. Availability of planting materials of improved forages is a major production constraint. While indigenous forages and crop residues were traditionally sufficient for low-density small-frame native animals, dairy cattle need additional feed to maintain profitable milk yields. This gap can be filled with commercial feed or cheap and readily available residues like maize silage. However, the former is expensive, while the latter struggles to meet the protein requirements for quality dairy production. Philippine dairy farmers are organized in cooperatives prioritized by government projects mandated to distribute high-quality forage planting materials, evaluated on the farm by farmers, and exchanged among community members.In 2014, the Philippines New Zealand Dairy Project collaborated with the National Dairy Authority (NDA) to introduce improved forage varieties suited to Philippine conditions, such as Mulato II (Brachiaria hybrid) and Mombasa (Panicum maximum), in the provinces south of Manila. Since then, dairy cooperatives in the project area of Quezon, Laguna, and Batangas provinces have been integrating cut and carry of improved forage varieties to supplement managed grazing. These provinces are part of the Philippine dairy belt, but the minimal effort has been made to understand how seed moves within and outside project beneficiary groups.In Vietnam, livestock production is one of the fastestgrowing agricultural sub-sectors and is concentrated in three geographical regions, including the Northern Mountains, the Central Coast, and the Central Highlands. Son La province is significant in the Northern region because of its large animal population and land resources for grazing and forage production. Implementing government resolution 258/2008 on the development of large cattle and ruminants resulted in a significant increase in dedicated forage area in Son La between 2009 and 2015. In Mai Son district, this policy resulted in the cultivation of over 321 hectares of forage and animal feed crops (Sub-department of Agriculture and Rural Development Mai Son, 2018). Well-adapted forages recommended for this region include Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Ruzi grass (Brachiara ruziziensis), TD58 grass (Panicum maximum cv. TD58), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.), and VA06 (Pennisetum purpureum cv. VA06). However, growing forages is not a traditional activity for most smallholder farmers. Bovids are mainly used for labor, transport, and beef production and are part of diverse crop-livestock systems. Plots dedicated to cut-andcarry forage production remain limited in comparison to the number of cattle and buffalos. Common feed strategies for cattle and buffalo include the use of maize, sorghum, and other crop residues and free grazing on pasture, fallow land, and grassy roadsides.In the Philippines, the study was carried out in four dairy cooperative communities located in the dairy mentioned above belt close to Manila: Palasan Dairy MultiPurpose Cooperative (PALCON) in Quezon province, Samahang Maggagatas ng Batangas Cooperative (SAMABACO) in Batangas province, and San Pablo Dairy Cooperative (SAPADACO) and SALBA Dairy Multipurpose Cooperative (SALBA) in Laguna province (Fig. 1). The region is relatively flat and includes coastal areas and highlands. Manila Bay borders it in the west and is approximately 75 km to Metro Manila in the north. It has two pronounced seasons: relatively dry from November to April and wet from May to October. The region is predominantly agricultural, and market-oriented dairy production is one of the leading agricultural activities.In Vietnam, the study was carried out in two communes of Mai Son district, Son La Province: Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong (Fig. 1). The area is mountainous, with steep slopes prone to soil erosion. The two communes are inhabited chiefly by ethnic minorities (Thai and Hmong) and are remote from regional markets (around 50 km in mountainous terrain). Provincial poverty rates are among the highest in the country (WB, 2018), reaching 11.5% and 17.8% in Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong, respectively (Dinh Thanh, 2020). Farming is still partially subsistence-oriented, with diverse agricultural production; field crops include rice, sugarcane, maize, and fruit trees, while livestock species include cattle, goats, pigs, and poultry. Feeding systems generally differed according to landscape position: hilltops with more accessible grazing areas, mid-slope zones offer more maize and sorghum crop residues, and low-lying lands are primarily paddy areas with rice residues. Farmers were not organized into commercial cooperatives as in the Philippine case, but rather in communal farmers' unions by the state, engaged in sharing information, training, and less commonly group purchasing/selling or access to material support for agricultural activities.Farmer and key stakeholder interviews were carried out from June-October 2019 in the Philippines and September-October 2019 in Vietnam. The questionnaire used in both countries was adapted from Delaquis et al. (2018), and aimed at capturing general socio-demographic information, description of forage seed use, and seed exchange behaviors. Respondents were asked to list the forage varieties on their farm, seed sources, and seed exchange partners over the past five years. Additional information was gathered for each forage seed transaction, including planting material species and reproductive type (true seed or vegetative). The transactions were classified into four categories: 'gathered' (self-produced or collected from community areas), 'gift' from relatives or friends, 'purchased', or 'distributed' by government or projects. Social relationships involved in each transaction were collected, reflecting the interviewee's classification (relative vs. neighbor, for example).The sampling strategy and the sampling boundaries were defined similarly for both cases through consultations with national government agencies and using a seed tracing The selected farmers were adopters and beneficiaries of forage materials and participants in varietal trials, while government personnel conducted capacity building and extension work. These focal nodes served as entry points for a snowball sampling technique interviewing actors that had seed transactions with the first group. The network population had a total of 30 identified actors, among which 20 were surveyed. Snowball sampling continued for a second round, while nodes at the third-degree level were not interviewed but were included in network mapping.In Vietnam, initial scoping meetings were conducted with local agencies (the Mai Son Agricultural Service Center and the Sub-Department of Agriculture and Rural Development) and critical traders to gain insights into forage seed distribution networks and local forage projects and local government involvement before survey implementation. In each of the two selected communes, six farmers involved with cattle production were selected for each landscape position (lowlands, middle slopes, and hilltops). The sampling procedure followed the method used in the Philippines, with subsequent snowball sampling identifying 25 farmers.Seed exchange network analysis was conducted using the package 'igraph' in R version 3.6.3 (Csardi & Nepusz, 2006). Stakeholders were coded as nodes and transactions between actors as links. Simple network properties were calculated as described by Shaw and Pautasso (2014). To compare the relative positions of actors in each network, two descriptive metrics were computed for all node positions: degree centrality and betweenness centrality.Degree centrality measures the direct connectedness of individual nodes with other nodes in the network. It can be calculated as: d(n i ) is the number of nodes connections, and ∑ x g−1 is the sum of all other nodes in connection. The nodes with the highest degree of centrality are sometimes called 'nodal' actors in the network (Wasserman & Faust, 1994). For directed graphs, in-and out-degree scores measure the number of links that point toward or away from a given node, respectively, in a directional network graph.Betweenness centrality measures the number of times a node lies on the shortest path between all other sets of nodes (Scott, 2004) and is calculated as.where C B (n i ) is betweenness centrality, g jk the number of connections between node j and k, and g jk (n i )/g jk the estimated probability that this path will be chosen. The betweenness centrality index for nodes ni is given as the sum of these estimated probabilities over all pairs of nodes excluding ith nodes.Betweenness centrality indicates the influence of an actor in facilitating flow between different areas of the network. Hence, nodes with relatively higher betweenness scores are termed as 'connector' nodes in the network. Connector nodes influence integration between the core and the periphery of the network and between otherwise distant actors. Therefore, removing these nodes from the network (for example, the migration of a given farmer or the closing of a seed company) would have powerful effects on the integrity of the network (Poudel et al., 2015).Farmers and system characteristics differed between the Philippines and the Vietnam sites (Table 2). Farmers in the Vietnam sites were younger than in the Philippines, and on average, had fewer bovine holdings and smaller dedicated forage areas. In both sites, farmers also raised other livestock species, including poultry and pigs. The Philippines' average total livestock units (TLU) was higher than Vietnam due to the former's higher holdings of dairy cows. The Philippine site had a household average of 33 dairy cows, 1 pig, and 7 chickens, while in Vietnam, households had average holdings of 3 beef cattle, 7 pigs, 82 chickens, and 27 ducks. All farmers in the Philippine survey were members of one of the farmer cooperatives, and in Vietnam, farmers were members of communal unions. In the Philippines, milk sales were the primary source of income for all farmers, complemented in a few cases by remittances and off-farm employment. In Vietnam, sources of income were more diverse, with dependence on crop and livestock sales (up to 60% of the production is sold) and essential sources of off-farm employment.Forage listed species were more diverse in the Philippines than in Vietnam, with 18 versus 4 species mentioned (Table 3). Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) dominated forage use in the Vietnam site, with only a single farmer using each of Mulato II and Mombasa. Mulato II was most widely adopted in the Philippines sites, followed by Mombasa and Napier, and thirteen farmers diversified forage grasses with legumes and shrubs.While farmers in the Philippine site cultivated at least two different forage species, farmers in Vietnam usually maintained only one, complementing their livestock feed basket with multiple crop residues such as top leaves of sugarcane (12 farmers) and chopped banana stems (five farmers).Forage seed networks constructed from the survey data comprised 30 nodes with 74 exchanges in the Philippines and The forage seed exchange networks for the Philippines and Vietnam are visualized in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively, weighted in each case by in-degree centrality, out-degree centrality, overall degree centrality, and betweenness centrality. The supplementary materials provide detailed tables of computed values for each case (tables SM1 and SM2).In the Philippines, five of the interviewed farmers occupied nodal positions with relatively higher measures of degree centrality (7-8) compared to the computed average (4.7), while institutions like the NDA, Philippines New Zealand project, and UPLB-DTRI had high values indicating central importance (20, 15, and 9, respectively) (Fig. 2C). The maximum in-degree score of 6 (average in-degree of 2.46), was held by a farmer, who frequently accessed both formal (government institutions and NGO), and informal (cooperative members and peripheral farmers) seed sources. Individual farmers from SAMBACO and PALCON were essential links to groups of farmers in the network's periphery, increasing seed dissemination from the network core (Fig. 2A). The primary seed source to farmers in all cooperatives was a central government institution, the NDA, with the highest out-degree score of 18 (average = 2.46). The NDA and the closely-linked Philippines New Zealand Dairy Project are essential suppliers of diversity, introducing and conducting first-level distribution of improved forage seed originating in Thailand and elsewhere in the Philippines (Fig. 2B). The NDA also plays a critical role in bridging otherwise not closely connected nodes, with a network betweenness score of 39.7. Four farmers acted as important connector nodes, with betweenness scores of 16, 7.65, 6.1, and 5.45 (Fig. 2D). The survey results indicate that these gatekeeper farmers were the leaders of cooperatives, board members, and a 'best farmer' awardee.In the Vietnamese case, 16 nodes were identified as nodal and connector actors (Fig. 3C): 11 individuals and five institutional actors. Actors had on average 3.34 connections to other nodes (average centrality score). Nodal and/or connector actors identified were farmers, traders, and government institutions. The highest in-degree score in the network (8) was the Mai Son Agriculture Service Center (ASC). This local government institution has direct access to diverse sources of seeds through government institutions (Fig. 3A). The Agriculture Service Center (ASC) had the second-highest betweenness centrality score and played a central role in supporting and deploying local and central government livestock and veterinary services programs.The highest out-degree scores were 5 and 6, representing a communal union, a local trader, and Ubon Forage Seeds (Fig. 3B), a private seed supplier from Thailand, necessary for introducing new varieties. A local trader occupied an essential central position in the network, providing products and services related to livestock production in Chieng Chung commune, with a betweenness centrality score of 155 (Fig. 3D). Communal veterinarians also appeared in the network, taking on roles in seed distribution in addition to their work on vaccination programs and local veterinary services. Node s2 was a vital connector, without whom the network would appear fragmented. Nodes s13, s17, s20,s25, s27, and s32 were local traders playing essential roles in providing and delivering forage seed. Finally, node s1 was a retired extension officer in Chieng Luong commune, with a strong local influence and much experience with forage introduction.The distribution of the seed exchange network parameters differed between the two cases (Fig. 4). Compared to the Philippines, where the network had two dominant nodes, the distribution of the degree centrality scores in Vietnam was flatter, with greater evenness between a higher number of nodes. This difference was also apparent in betweenness centrality. At the same time, one leading government actor had a significant connecting role in the Philippines; at least six main actors shared this role in Vietnam, backed up by a range of actors with medium influence. Interviewed farmers clearly remembered when and whom they obtained seed from, but in some cases had trouble recalling whom they gave it to, perhaps due to the often opportunistic and informal nature of seed requests or the higher social cost of requesting compared to providing seed. In the Philippines case, free seed distribution by the government and NGOs was the most common way of obtaining seeds in the last five years, followed by gifts, with 43% and 33% of the transactions, respectively (Table 5). In the Vietnam case, gifts dominated the transactions (53%), followed by purchases with 27%. Seed distribution in Vietnam only accounted for 16% of the observed transactions. The gathering of native forage species was uncommon, accounting for no more than 10% of the transactions in each site.Transactions involved different types of social relations between the seed provider and the recipient (Table 6). In the Philippines case, government institutions and NGOs were the most critical seed providers (63%), followed by cooperative members (26%). Family, neighbors and traders were not involved in transactions (or were already accounted for as fellow cooperative members). Different types of social relationships were involved in Vietnam, with equal importance of the government and neighbors and family combined, which were involved in 30% and 28% of the transactions, respectively. There was no formal cooperative, but friends and communal groups made up 19% of the transactions. Traders were involved in 14% of Vietnamese transactions, an actor type wholly absent in the Philippines case.Each type of actor was involved in different transactions in both sites (data not shown). Native material was gathered primarily by government actors, cooperatives, and farmers themselves. Gifts were prevalent among friends (27%), followed by family, neighbors, and cooperatives. The government was also implicated in 12% of gift transactions, although these transactions may have been better attributed to the seed distribution category. Official seed distribution, a more formal way of cost-free dissemination, was attributed to the government (67%), NGOs, and cooperatives.Interestingly, purchases did not exclusively involve traders and private enterprises (42% in total) but also government and NGO actors. Government actors in both sites were involved in different business and extension models, with and without payment, and participated in germplasm collection and seed production (42% of the gathered category). Cooperative members also produced their planting materials, mainly through vegetative means.Regarding information sources, government institutions were the most trusted actors, together with close relatives, i.e., family, friends, and cooperative members. The most common way of obtaining information about seed varieties was through conversations among close relatives and field observations.Figure 5 illustrates the transaction networks at both sites. In the Philippines case, seeds were distributed primarily by government and NGO actors to the members of the cooperatives, while farmer to farmer exchange was typically for vegetative material. Multiple flows of plant materials were observed between government and private enterprises. Similar trends were observed in the Vietnam site, with government actors and traders playing essential roles in  In both Vietnam and the Philippines, exotic improved forages dominated the exchange networks, with a gathering of native species occurring in less than 10% of cases surveyed. Exchange of native species may not be seen as a priority, either due to persistence in the landscape or national programs preferring to import improved varieties from successful breeding programs abroad. The central positions of government actors in the networks of both cases were similar, but their patterns of interaction with the rest of the network differed.In the Philippines, 100% of farmers were market-oriented in dairy cooperatives. Participation in dairy cooperatives provided a connection to active sharing networks with solid links to national institutions.Following an initial introduction by government or NGOs, cooperative farmers or community leaders accessed seed more frequently and for a wider variety of forage species, occupying essential roles in secondary dissemination networks. Community or institutional leaders may already possess advantages in social standing, education, or affluence, enabling them to be more risk-taking and receptive  to new technologies (Delaquis & Almekinders, 2020); for example land and labour endowment have previously been identified as factors limiting improved forage adoption (Gebremedhin et al., 2003). Farmers with fewer heads of cattle and smaller forage areas typically only maintained one or two forage varieties, acquired from other cooperative members or gathered from community spaces. However, at both sites, the nodal farmers often played the role of 'model farmers' in their communities, engaging in onfarm testing of new forages and linking new knowledge to their communities. Most exchanges between farmers were not financial transactions, especially if the amount was minor, and NDA-provided free seed was the most common acquisition method. This model may be sustainable as long as the central institution is well-functioning and funded but could hamper the development of the commercial seed industry. Conversely, gifting of seed with no associated financial cost may also have enabled farmers to access the greater diversity of seeds they maintained, as Stromberg et al. (2010), found in the case of maize.In Vietnam, a beef-based system with both market and subsistence components, farmers were less motivated for collective action and acquired forage materials from government actors, family members, and traders, the latter especially when enough material could not be sourced for free. Overall, forage species diversity in Vietnam was very low. As in the Philippines, government institutions such as the agriculture service center maintained important primary roles for entry of improved forages into the network, acquiring forage materials from other government institutions, colleges, and universities, and providing them for free to the farmers in the network. In both case studies, government actors played gatekeeping roles in introducing new forage species and varieties. This is unsurprising given the logistics and complexity of imports from suppliers based outside the country. Regulatory barriers have long since been identified as hurdles to developing effective seed enterprises, sometimes to such an extent that state and parastatal institutions better suited to navigate the bureaucracy often end up filling the role rather than private sector actors (e.g., Tripp, 1997b). Governments usually operate specialized institutions to improve agricultural productivity, partly through introducing and disseminating improved varieties. From this perspective, local seed systems can be conceptualized as branches of a small world network of global exchange of forage genetics. Such an approach has been adopted for mapping the networks of resistance genes in crop breeding programs (Garrett et al., 2017). The presence of international linkages through the government exchange, CGIAR hubs, and Ubon Seeds in Thailand for both case studies suggests that this level of analysis could provide relevant insights to increase access to adapted forages.The participation of traders and veterinarians as seed suppliers was unique to Vietnam and indicates the development of adaptive network pathways for forage dissemination when collective action was less pronounced. Traders have critical roles in many informal seed systems, and calls have been made to rethink their importance in seed supply and security (e.g., Delaquis et al., 2018;Sperling et al., 2020). Despite this, the adoption of improved forage seed was not common.Smallholder dairying is a technologically advanced activity requiring a redesign of the livestock production system and aspects of the supporting social system (Paul et al., 2019). Because of the challenges inherent in maintaining milk production and quality levels, improved forages are more likely to be introduced (and adopted) as part of the dairy farming 'system', which includes the cooperative as the exclusive buyer of the product, with an invested collective business interest in maintaining production and standards. This was apparent in the centralized structure of the cooperatives with solid links to government and actors in each cooperative encouraging adoption and multiplication of improved forages.Topographic characteristics (strong slopes) and remoteness of the farmers in the Vietnam site induce transportation issues, low market access, weak linkages between suppliers and buyers, and a general lack of market information. This was paired with lower investment in forage seed, a high preponderance of supplemental feeding with crop residues, and a relatively dispersed forage seed exchange network. Linkages with national research institutes like the National Institute of Animal Sciences (NIAS) or universities like Tay Bac University are insufficient to compensate for private sector weaknesses. It also remains to be demonstrated whether there is a business case for dedicated seed producers in this particular context or whether a subsidy is required to adopt improved varieties when demand is low. This contrasts with the Philippines site. Due to the perishability and high shipping costs of products, the dairy collectives are necessarily located where market access and connectivity are excellent. This market environment, combined with proximity to a large consumer market in Metro Manila, incentivizes the sector's organization around functional cooperatives and creates an attractive return to investment for national development programs, thus incentivizing forage improvement programs for farmers, institutions, and government.In Vietnam, the dominant market for local beef production represents a model less sensitive to feed quality than dairy applications (Maleko et al., 2018). Therefore, farmers may seek to maximize other metrics, such as returns to labor or overall income, favoring low-cost, low-labor, or low-land use strategies like free grazing and supplementing with crop residues. The high dependence on off-farm income sources in Vietnam also emphasized that the farmers in this case study were less dependent on livestock in their overall livelihoods. Such an interpretation could explain why the organizational network structure in Vietnam was flatter than in the Philippines, with government's role still central and farmer union membership important, but with weaker market orientation not providing the same incentives for collective action and benefits as the government-dairy-NGO structure in the Philippines.Climate had a substantial impact on the livestock sector in the Vietnam site, with winter temperatures routinely < 5 °C) hindering forage production and collection and limiting potential forage species to those exhibiting high winter hardiness. Developing forage seed exchange networks should be complemented here by further developing post-harvest conservation strategies like silage making for long-term storage and availability of quality feed throughout the year. Although there was no such climate constraint in the Philippines site, the lack of silage facility in the communities of the Philippines was still identified as a significant factor limiting farm productivity.The policy also plays a primary external driver for seed exchange network development. According to the national dairy roadmap of the Philippines, one of the main targets of the department of agriculture is to increase the selfsufficiency level in the ready-to-drink (RTD) milk market from the present 20% to 43% (NDA, 2010). The 19 existing dairy zones are planned to be expanded, and additional areas opened up to create more rural employment and boost economic growth. This policy necessitates parallel development of access to high-quality forage materials through R&D projects and continued investment. In Vietnam, resolution 258/2008 was accompanied by a significant increase in forages cultivated. Plans for Son La's development until 2030 include restructuring the livestock sector towards large cattle and herbivores. As was the case for the 2008 resolution, the corresponding land allocation must be planned for forage production. However, we also suggest that a policy emphasis be placed on developing the forage seed system to disseminate improved forage varieties. Consideration should include maximizing the impact of existing informal networks and exploring cost/benefit analyses for more formal approaches.Seed sharing in agricultural communities is an important individual and community act tied to profound social and cultural norms (Almekinders et al., 2020;McGuire, 2008;Rodier & Struik, 2018).Qualitatively, the interviews supported the network analysis results, outlining the importance of relationships in sharing forage materials in the Philippines. In most cases, the recipient farmer described sharing as being initiated, with requests for the material being very seldom refused. When asked, the need to share was expressed as a deep ethos of the community, a social norm that has been described as an essential driver of seed exchange elsewhere (Rodier & Struik, 2018). Forage materials were perceived as being integral to livelihood opportunities, and social norms strongly motivated sharing. Nodal farmers frequently maintained positions of importance within their groups and communities, and sharing forages was considered as part of these roles. However, recipients of seeds expressed that making repeated requests for materials would be awkward or viewed poorly. It was customary for the recipient to multiply and maintain the seed they had received and likewise share it when asked. The finding that farmers typically recalled easily from whom they had obtained seed, but not nearly as readily whom they had given seed to, echoes that of Coomes et al. (2015) and may imply some social costs in seeking seed from others.In the Vietnamese case study context, the culture of mutual assistance remains robust in social ties between farmers and their neighbors, friends, family members, and government actors. In terms of frequency of use for seed exchange, family members were almost unanimously more important than other network actors (neighbour, friend and government), and exchange among family were frequent, viewed positively, and usually had no cost attached; a similar finding to that observed after dissemination of legume seed in Africa (Almekinders et al., 2020). This finding is not surprising given the reduced market influence and importance to the overall livelihoods of cattle rearing in the Vietnamese case.However, seed sharing with unrelated network actors, especially traders or government actors, often limited or declined or became commercial transactions. In contrast to the informal network, government dissemination programs were viewed as being very top-down and formal in their approach. This may suggest that the organization of the collective action groups may not match the prevailing social and cultural norms around seed exchange. This condition can hamper the ability of institutions to provide seed that is acceptable to farmers (Almekinders et al., 2019).The relative ease of sharing vegetative planting materials, which are proper to varietal type, is advantageous to exchange (Bentley et al., 2018), and is supported by the more extensive exchange observed here for vegetatively propagated species. In addition to sociocultural elements of both contexts, vegetative reproduction may also help to account for the frequent sharing among farmers, including first-time growers, without the hesitancy of being considered as 'begging,' a constraint reported in other contexts (Samberg et al., 2013).Forage varieties introduced with past projects are often still found in former pilot sites. Some spill-over to nearby communities can be observed through distribution among friends, relatives, and community members. Governments often maintain collections of forage varieties, which are occasionally transferred to farmers during extension projects, but why does adoption remain so limited beyond the duration of project implementation? There are likely many contributors to this lack of sustainability, ranging from lack of knowledge of propagation techniques to lack of investment by institutions in understanding seed demand and exchange network structure. Proper seed production and dissemination were dominated by government actors when networks were assembled by planting material type. The specialized practices and knowledge involved in seed production may be barriers to wider dissemination which future projects could address.Farmer-led forage seed production has been successful in Thailand and has a critical regional role in forage availability through Ubon Forage Seeds Company (Hare et al., 2013). This company was the source of improved forage species found in both case studies. However, to be sustainable, seed businesses must be accompanied by marketoriented, coordinated plans for production and marketing. This is impossible without understanding seed networks and farmer demand segments for seed. When poorly planned, community seed banks have proven unsustainable due to high operation costs and lack of motivation to continue once startup resource endowments are exhausted (Bishaw & Turner, 2008;Cromwell et al., 1993). Linking forage supply to demand, as occurs in the case of dairy cooperatives providing seed to their members, is one way to motivate sustainability, whereby the providers of the seed (Government, cooperatives, and NGOs) directly or indirectly capture the benefits of their use (seed sale, increased milk revenues, taxes on sale of high-value commercial products).Seed tracing studies are efficient methods for rapidly assessing and characterizing seed networks. The cases investigated in the Philippines and Vietnam differed significantly according to the structure of collective action groups and market incentives, interactions with institutions, and the cultural norms of their environments.In both cases, government agencies served as primary sources of forage introduction, with secondary diffusion in the Philippines dairy case being dominated by active commercially invested cooperatives. In the Vietnam beef context, farmer to farmer dissemination dominated a looser group in a less intensified market setting. In both cases, formal actors dominated as sources of true seed, and farmers frequently exchanged vegetatively propagated materials. However, the overall diversity of forages was markedly higher in the Philippines case, likely due to a combination of the different forage needs of the respective products of each system and large differences in the importance of livestock activities in the overall livelihoods of farmers.Adapting to the evolving policy goals in Southeast Asia and globally will require increased focus on developing efficient seed systems to support increasingly productive livestock sectors. Our study indicates that both the formal and the informal seed sectors will play essential roles in access to forages. The interface between these systems is an increasingly important target for study to achieve impact at scale. Trends in livestock ownership and policy goals indicate continued growing demand for high-quality forages, shaped by the particularities of each case.Recommendations include a further study on seed demand across different contexts, improvement of technical skill in seed production for valid seeded forage species, and efforts to use the strength of institutional seed arrangements to develop incentives for more extensive networks for exchange. Critically, informal seed networks must be recognized as avenues for reaching beyond group membership and ensuring that seed networks do not weaken in the absence of project or government funding. This will require stakeholders to engage in a delicate push-pull between supply and demand issues to ensure quality seed production upstream while supporting the creation of appropriate structures and incentives for ongoing seed exchange network improvement downstream.were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.","tokenCount":"7361"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"872360c376d69c72d4b317d9be8a9e65","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/261682cc-5593-4fbb-9806-f1b871d5ecbb/retrieve","id":"-613552193"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"60658f27-287b-42b9-84bd-a418acac4b4b","pagecount":"30","content":"• Huge heterogeneity+ landless systems! Robinson et al., 2011 Impacts of CC on Livestock• Hazards/stresses:• Δ CO 2 , temperature, precipitation • Variability and extreme events• Direct impact  Need for more livestock specific assessments (IPCC AR5)• Case studies and local/national observations exist but little consolidation in regional and global assessments• Very little information available of CC impact on feed resources at regional level• Climate models are not well suited for pastures and rangelands productivity• Some first tentative analysis exist • Adaptation options will be needed if households are to cope with the multiple (inter-related) changes• Risk and vulnerability:• We're living in coupled socio-ecological systems 13Vulnerability: the predisposition of the system to the burden of CC, considering spatial and temporal differences in exposure, susceptibility and lack of resilience. Vulnerability largely rests within the condition and dynamics of the coupled socio-ecological system exposed to CC.Risk: probability of being negatively affected by climate change. It is a function of the climate change and the SES's vulnerability to it. This is in turn influenced by the exposure, susceptibility and lack of resilience. Where are most poor livestock keepers likely to be affected by CC? heavily reliant on natural resources• It involves individuals' behaviour as well as collective behaviour and the interaction between them.• It comprises activities which intervene either on the hazard or the vulnerability component of risk.• Is successful if it reduces the risks without compromising economic, social and environmental sustainability.• Context-specific:• Genetic improvement (productivity, heat-tolerance, disease-resistance, …)• Animal health • Feeds and forages:• improved forages, conservation, fodder banks, supplementation, land restoration, re-seeding of pastures The impact of SI policies in Rwanda   • Soil aggregates are groups of soil particles that bind to each other more strongly than to adjacent particles.• Aggregate stability refers to the ability of soil aggregates to resist disintegration when disruptive forces associated with tillage and water or wind erosion are applied.• Aggregate stability (e.g., MWD) is an indicator of organic matter content, biological activity, and nutrient cycling in soil.  ","tokenCount":"331"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e8a86b52102e8358b070112861e6cf5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/86cc0664-e890-4955-b874-5901d1d384e4/retrieve","id":"-191966903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4a94457-ddf5-447f-aef8-588eb1e2e246","pagecount":"1","content":"Utilizando ingredientes disponibles localmente, asequible y aceptables, combinamos métodos de investigación de laboratorio y de campo para desarrollar un alimento infantil para prevenir la deficiencia de hierro en bebés de 6 a 12 meses de edadAceptabilidad materna no predice la aceptabilidad infantil de un alimento La papilla con muslo de pollo puede proveer mayor hierro biodisponible a la dieta de los bebés Agregándole más hígado a la papilla con hígado quizás aumente la biodisponibilidad del hierro en la papilla Usando métodos de investigación de laboratorio y campo, hemos desarrollado -Papillas seguras con ingredientes culturalmente aceptable para los bebés peruanos -Papillas con carne que fueron más aceptadas por los bebés que por sus madres -Papillas con menos pollo en polvo y concentración de hierro de lo esperado -Una papilla con muslo de pollo con mayor biodisponibilidad de hierro que una papilla sin pollo debido al efecto favorecedor del pollo -Una papilla con hígado de pollo con una biodisponibilidad de hierro comparable a una papilla sin pollo 1 2 3 4 5Gráfica: Madres prefieren papillas sin pollo > menos pollo > más polloGráfica: Bebés tenían la misma preferencia para las papillas con o sin pollo Gráficas: A. Comparado con la papilla sin pollo, la papilla con muslo de pollo tenía más hierro biodisponible, mientras que la papilla con hígado de pollo tenía el mismo nivel de hierro biodisponible. B. Por mg de hierro en la papilla, la biodisponibilidad de la papilla con muslo de pollo era mayor a la papilla sin carne y a la papilla con hígado de pollo. ","tokenCount":"258"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b03332c17d78170262d04959e6ab9431","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa0fa69b-d24d-4e33-bd05-b0b7c4faa0c8/retrieve","id":"1654925073"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"55452ba9-bf81-406b-b45c-9433a28f088f","pagecount":"108","content":"We greatly appreciate the generous support of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food for funding this project. We also appreciate the tremendous support and guidance of the CPWF management team throughout the duration of the project. The input and support of Theme I leaders (John Bennett, Bas Bouman, Liz Humphreys) and the IGB coordinators (Alok Sikka, M.A. Khan, and their teams) were extremely helpful. We appreciate their time and input during our annual planning and review meetings, their occasional visits to the project sites, and for providing direct input to the team. We are particularly indebted to PN 10 leader T.P. Tuong and the project team for the close collaboration, joint activities, and discussions that resulted in useful recommendations, particularly for southern Bangladesh. The help of the IRRI Program Planning and Coordination office was enormous, from the initial steps of project development to the handling of all logistic, contractual, and financial issues of the project. We thank our NARES leaders and policymakers for their endorsement and support, particularly Dr. Shanker Nath Shukla, assistant director general-food and fodder crops, Indian Council of Agricultural Research;Efficient management practices were developed and validated to maximize the performance of tolerant crops and are further being outscaled through PVS trials. Cropping sequences for saline areas were adjusted for duration and to identify the most appropriate crops for the target areas. Options such as direct seeding, nursery management, optimizing seedling age, stage-specific water management, improved irrigation management, liming, low-cost reclamation measures, combining green manures, press mud, and genetic tolerance, and cropping sequences using early-maturing high-value crops are being disseminated. Freshwater harvesting in local canals or in village ponds helped in expanding DS crops. In alkaline soils, the use of cheaper amendments such as press mud, fertilizers, and FYM, in combination with tolerant varieties, reduced gypsum requirements to 25% of the recommended dose for reclamation. In coastal areas, proper nursery practicies coupled with the use of biofertilizers such as Sesbania and Azolla, and early planting of early-maturing salt-tolerant varieties to avoid high salinity at flowering, were effective and are currently being outscaled through PVS trials. Combining improved varieties with best practicies increased yield by 75-90%. Crop intensification using salt-tolerant rice and nonrice crops (oil, fodder, pulses, vegetables, etc.) and fish/shrimp culture during the DS enhanced food security and provided employment opportunities, especially for women. ICRISAT and ICBA brought new nonrice crops not known to farmers in these predominantly rice areas, which hold great potential for enhancing food security and farmers' income. Interaction with farmers was greatly enhanced through farmers' days, workshops, and fairs. Proper salinity monitoring is in place and extension material in local languages was prepared by several centers. The lack of sufficient high-quality seeds of salt-tolerant varieties and adequate inputs was recognized as the main constraint for successful dissemination. NARES partners' capacity was strengthened through different training activities. The project brought together diverse partners, some of them for the first time, uniting effective teams within and between NARES and advanced research institutes, providing matchless intellectual strength. participatory research, and then disseminated by conducting farmer-managed demonstration trials, organizing farmers' field days and visits to experimental sites, publishing and distributing extension materials, and using mass media. Finally, impact assessment was made toward the end of the project. Farmers generally grow local rice varieties with low yield potential. In the varietal improvement program, landraces were collected from coastal saline areas and evaluated for salt tolerance at the seedling stage. Some of the tolerant ones were used as donors to transfer the gene(s) into popular high-yielding WS varieties. For the dry season, a few IRRI lines were used as donors. A large number of salt-tolerant rice varieties/elite lines were evaluated in farmers' fields during the wet and dry seasons. The promising ones were selected through participatory varietal selection (PVS) for further testing through the mother-baby trial approach. A few CRRI lines are in advanced stages of testing for release. Efforts were begun to incorporate the Saltol QTL into popular varieties through MABC. A poor crop stand and low fertilizer inputs are the main causes of poor and unstable rice yields in coastal saline ecosystems with multiple stresses. Appropriate crop establishment and nutrient management options were validated through participatory on-farm trials. The use of older (40-50-d-old) seedlings raised with good nursery practices and transplanted at closer spacing (15 × 10 cm) in the WS and early planting (1st week in January) in the DS significantly improved crop survival and yield. The use of Sesbania as a green manure (GM) for intermediate lowlands (0-50 cm water depth), Sesbania + prilled urea (PU), and Sesbania + Azolla for shallow lowlands (0-30 cm) in the WS, and Azolla + PU in the DS, was found promising. In both seasons, the use of improved rice varieties even with farmers' management significantly increased yield, but even more so when combined with best practices where a substantial yield advantage (91% in the WS and 75% in the DS) was achieved. Because of the scarcity of fresh water during the DS, the introduction of less water requiring salt-tolerant nonrice crops is important for increasing cropping intensity as well as land and water productivity. Selected nonrice crops such as sunflower and chilli for high salinity and okra, watermelon, and pumpkin for medium salinity looked promising. Watermelon and pumpkin could also be grown under high salinity when fresh water is available, while a few varieties of sweet potato with good yield potential under medium to high salinity were identified. Lime application (1.0 t/ha) significantly increased the yield of sunflower, watermelon, okra, and groundnut. Marginally saline (2.4-3.1 dS/m) water could be used safely for 2 weeks during the vegetative stage under high salinity. Providing irrigation 2 days after the disappearance of standing water during the vegetative stage produced as much yield as continuous ponding, thus saving fresh water and helping in expanding cropping area. The highest yields of sunflower and groundnut were obtained with 4 cm of irrigation at 15-d intervals. Validated technologies such as improved rice varieties, the use of older seedlings and closer planting (WS), early planting (DS), Sesbania green manure (WS), Azolla biofertilizer (DS) and promising nonrice crops, lime application for nonrice crops, and technology packages for rice were disseminated through PVS trials. Considerable yield improvements were observed despite the variability in salinity and farmers' practices. Seeds of promising rice varieties and nonrice crops were provided to farmers for dissemination and outscaling. The most prominent achievement of this project was the expansion of DS farming and its contribution to food security in this area, where 4-6 months of hunger were not uncommon in the past. DS rice area increased dramatically from a mere 5% in 2004 to 36% in 2008. Many farmers leased lands for rice cultivation. Farmers now depend more on the less risky DS rice than on WS rice. Area under nonrice crops increased from almost negligible in 2004 to about 10% in 2007. Encouraged by these outcomes, an NGO (World Vision) started a project for constructing irrigation networks to provide fresh river water to these areas. Nearly 90% of the rice area of interviewed farmers was under early planting in 2008. The use of older seedlings, closer planting, Azolla, and Sesbania green manure is also being adopted and demand for seeds of improved rice and nonrice crops is increasing rapidly. Shatkhira, coastal Bangladesh, BRRI. More than 30% of the cultivable land is in the coastal zone and about 0.85 million hectares are salt-affected. The project sites were characterized and socioeconomic data were collected as for other sites. Challenges are similar to those of coastal Orissa, with rainfed rice in the WS and with the area under DS rice expanding where freshwater resources are available. In areas where salinity is high, shrimp culture is being practiced. Extensive efforts and progress were made to develop salt-tolerant high-yielding varieties. Large numbers of crosses were made each year and advanced and selected, and an extensive network of PVS trials was undertaken each year for germplasm evaluation. These efforts culminated in the release of BRRI dhan 47 as the first DS salt-tolerant variety in Bangladesh. This variety resulted in a substantial increase in DS rice, even in areas that have not been used before because of high salinity. Numerous elite breeding lines for both the DS and WS were also in the pipeline for release. In partnership with CN10, effective water management options and cropping sequences were developed that could at least double annual productivity. The soil in this delta seems relatively fertile and the nutrient management options developed for normal soils seem to work well for these saline soils, with little or no benefits from additional fertilizers, except that some response was observed with additional P and Zn. Monitoring of water salinity in nearby rivers suggested great potential for using surface water for a considerable part of the DS. Optimized rice-shrimp systems were demonstrated that can be more stable and profitable. Numerous farmers and other project stakeholders were trained in the relevant fields.Coastal Mekong Delta of Vietnam, CLRRI. Without doubt, 2004-08 witnessed significant achievements and valuable products in salt-affected areas of South Vietnam, thanks to the skill and commitment of CP 7. Substantial progress was made through the various project activities. Salt-tolerant improved varieties that suit different ecologies and less favorable areas were developed and several new varieties of rice were released for farmers (OM 4498, OM 5930, OM 5636, OMCS 2008, OM 4668, OM 4900, OM 6073). Other varieties of important crops were also released, such as maize (Bap Nep), peanut (OMDP 13), soybean (OMDN 1, OMDN 29), and mungbean (OMDX 1, OMDX 8). Moreover, additional elite breeding lines are in their final testing, including promising genotypes of mungbean, soybean, and peanut. Other promising rice lines such as OM 4900, OM 6073, OM 6377, and OM 6162 were developed that can yield 4 t/ha in salt-affected areas and are being outscaled; some currently cover more than 20,000 ha. For coastal areas, farmers demanded high-yielding, salt-tolerant, medium-to long-stature, and submergence-tolerant rice varieties and, for these areas, genotypes such as Mot Bui Do, Soc Trang 5, Ham Trau, OM 2395, and AS 996 were introduced that increased the productivity in coastal saline rice lands and farmers' income. Crop and nutrient management options were also developed for these new varieties. New cropping sequences were tested over the past few years. These involved the development of high-yielding, early-maturing varieties of rice and nonrice high-value crops such as soybean and peanut, for areas where water resources are relatively scarce during the dry season in Tra Vinh Province. The model rice-tiger shrimp was considered to be suitable for salt-affected soil, generated good income and social benefits, and increased rice grain yield by more than 20% compared with rice monoculture. Vietnam also sent to Laos and Cambodia 20 rice varieties, 5 soybean varieties, 5 peanut varieties, and 5 varieties of mungbean. Also, 10 new varieties of rice were shared with Indonesia, 33 new early-maturing varieties were sent to IRRI, and 8 of each were sent to Bangladesh and Myanmar. The novel early-maturing high-yielding varieties developed by CLRRI were found to be very useful in these countries to allow improved cropping intensity and diversity and higher annual production. These exchange activities significantly strengthened collaboration and linkages between research institutions of Vietnam and IRRI and with other participating countries.Salinity is a constant challenge in Egypt because of the dry climate, and more salt being carried by the Nile River as a result of pollution, water shortage, seawater intrusion, and human practices. More than 0.9 million ha of agricultural lands in Egypt are currently salt-affected, and this area is being targeted for rice production. This is to substitute for the area being forced out of rice in favorable lands of the delta because of water scarcity. Rice is still a major contributor to Egyptian food security and income, as it currently constitutes more than 5% of the country's GDP. Therefore, exploring salt-affected areas is essential to maintain their rice production. Despite the late start of the project in Egypt, significant progress was made under this project via the detailed characterization of salt-affected areas and farmers' strategies, the development and large-scale testing of genotypes suitable for salt-affected areas, and in developing and outscaling water, crop, and natural resource management. Considerable efforts were devoted to site testing and selecting varieties in farmers' fields, together with matching crop and natural resource management (CNRM) practices within a farming systems context, in partnership with men and women farmers and the assistance of extension services. Practices that could further augment rice salt tolerance and grain and water productivity were evaluated, such as the use of biofertilizer, bio-remediation, organic fertilizer management, enhancing seedling vigor, bed-planting methods to save water, as well as proper management and reuse of drainage water or low-quality water for irrigation. Opportunities to extend the duration of freshwater availability were explored to enable cropping intensification and diversification of income-generating activities for improving farmers' livelihoods. Besides rice, new salt-tolerant forage crops were introduced through ICBA for testing as part of the cropping system to enhance intensity and income. Special emphasis was devoted to training farmers and extension personnel in the proper use and management of the new salt-tolerant varieties at target sites. The increase in yield under such areas is expected to exceed 2 t/ha as a consequence of these new interventions, and this will considerably contribute to the country's efforts to enhance farmers' livelihood and alleviate poverty. Assuming that 30% of the area will soon be covered with these new salt-tolerant varieties and best integrated management practices, the potential increase in rice productivity is expected to exceed 400,000 tons of rice. In the Caspian Sea basin, salinity is becoming a major problem for rice production, particularly in years when irrigation water was not sufficient, resulting in the intrusion of saline water through irrigation canals and the uprise of underground saline water. RRII initiated its breeding program for salt-affected areas through this project, with the main target being Gilan and Mazandran provinces in the north, because they have more than 70% of the rice area in the country. The team completed a baseline study, covering representative villages in the two provinces, and established screening facilities at RRII. Local germplasm was collected and evaluated and a few salt-tolerant genotypes were identified and are being used in breeding. Through INGER, IRSTON nurseries were received and evaluated each season, and nominations from Iran were also included. A large number of crosses was made every year, and segregating materials were advanced and selected. A PVS trial network was established for the first time in these salt-affected areas and used for evaluation of the material generated through the local breeding program or selected through INGER, for evaluation for farmers and for subsequent nomination for release. Through this project, the capacity for research and participatory evaluation was strengthened, and partners participated in several training activities.High salt in soils is a persisting problem constraining crop production in more than 20 million ha of saline and sodic lands in Asia. Saline soils have excess neutral soluble salts, and sodic soils have excess carbonates and bicarbonates, producing excess alkalinity upon hydrolysis and causing poor physical properties. In coastal areas, high salinity is caused by marine influences through tidal activities and shallow saline water tables, and it is higher during the DS, but decreases with freshwater flushing in the WS. Sources of alkalinity and primary salinity in inlands are inherent salt deposits or consequences of mismanagement of irrigation and drainage water, and are increasing problems over vast areas such as the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Salinization is an insidious problem, steadily leading to soil deterioration until land and water productivity decline to levels that force poor farmers off their lands. Direct interventions to improve water and soil quality in salt-affected areas are costly and require major infrastructure development, with large investments that are beyond the reach of resource-poor communities living in these areas who have no political voice. For most rural poor in these areas, their only hope is to make the best out of their existing water and land resources to meet their food needs. Present rice yields are below 2 t/ha, but can be increased by at least 1 t/ha, providing additional food for millions of needy people. In both coastal and inland areas, rice is the only crop that can be grown in the rainy season, but the salt remaining at the end of the dry season affects seedling establishment. The limited time period of freshwater supply further constrains increases in cropping intensity and/or diversity during the DS. Improving crop productivity in these areas addresses the primary concern of the poor and mainly subsistence farmers, which is to have assured household food supplies. Putting salt-affected areas into more productive use will improve water productivity for food production. Building on previous progress and using recent advances in knowledge, this project aims to take an integrated systems approach to tackle the various challenges encountered in these salt-affected areas. Characterization of the biophysical, social, and economic conditions of farming communities was found to be helpful to develop a good understanding of the challenges, develop sound interventions, and monitor project progress. The development and deployment of high-yielding salt-tolerant rice varieties and nonrice crops were considered the initial entry point for making progress in these areas. To exploit the potential of these varieties, best agronomic practices were developed and validated, and further disseminated as a package with the varieties in demonstration trials run by farmers, which proved to be extremely successful. Through joint efforts of all partners, it became apparent that significant changes could be made in these areas to enhance water and land productivity and improve farmers' livelihood.The overall objective is to enhance land and water productivity of rice-based systems in salt-affected areas through innovative interventions that integrate genetic improvement and management strategies that are environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable to various resource users. Specific objectives are to − Develop a systematic understanding of target environments and the livelihood of people as a basis for exploring opportunities for improving water productivity and farmers' livelihood. − Introduce salinity tolerance into high-yielding rice and nonrice crop varieties that fit into the ricebased farming systems in salt-affected areas. − Develop farmer-friendly crop and natural resource management options for salt-tolerant varieties to enhance water and land productivity in salt-affected areas. − Develop strategies for validation and diffusion of new technological interventions through the participation of men and women farmers and local civil societies. − Enhance the capacity of NARES partners in innovative research and dissemination strategies. Achievements under each of these objectives are briefly summarized below. More details are provided with the supplementary information through the detailed reports of partners.1 Objective 1.Develop a systematic understanding of target environments and the livelihood of people as a basis for exploring opportunities for improving water productivity and farmers' livelihood Complete reports on this objective were provided, including detailed data collected from each site. This information is available as individual site reports. Achievements at each site are briefly summarized below.Coastal Orissa, India (CRRI) Project sites. The project sites were carefully selected based on areas affected by coastal salinity, physiographical condition, and importance of rice. Selected villages are situated near Paradeep port in Ersama block of Jagatsinghpur District of Orissa. These villages, Chaulia, Kankan, Gangadevi, Patna, Ambiki, and Kimilo, are about 80-95 km away from CRRI, and 4-10 km away from the Bay of Bengal. Jagatsinghpur District falls under the South and Southeastern Coastal Plain agro-climatic zone. Soils are mostly saline and acidic to neutral. Climate is subtropical, hot, and humid. The important rivers, Hansua and Sankha, are directly linked with the sea. Average annual rainfall is 1,558 mm but the entire block is prone to both drought and flood because of variability in monsoon rain during the cropping season. Early and terminal drought, submergence and waterlogging, flash floods, and cyclonic disturbances are frequent. This region is mostly monocropped with rainfed rice grown on 17,859 ha out of the total of 19,365 ha of cultivated area. Farmers are very poor, having marginal to small landholdings. Farming is the main source of livelihood, although a few are also engaged in fishing. Most farmers cultivate their own land, whereas some are engaged in sharecropping. The major constraints to rice production during the wet season are salinity and drought mostly at early seedling and reproductive stages, submergence/waterlogging mostly during the vegetative stage, and crop lodging at the reproductive stage due to strong wind/cyclonic disturbances during October-November. In the dry season, the major constraints to rice production are salinity throughout the season with large spatial and temporal variability, increasing salinity with the progress of the season, scarcity of fresh water for irrigation, and high temperatures at the reproductive stage when planting is late. Site characterization. A benchmark survey was conducted at the start of the project in 2004 by personal interviews of 50 households from different adopted villages using a pretested structured questionnaire prepared by Dr. Thelma Paris of IRRI's Social Sciences Division. The pro forma questionnaire was designed to collect information regarding socioeconomic status, current farming practices, constraints to rice production, and technology needs. Selected household respondents represented different socioeconomic groups. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools such as focus-group discussions (FGDs) on key topics, a cropping pattern calendar, and pie diagrams were used in collecting village-level information. The information collected primarily included socioeconomic, economic, and biophysical characteristics of the land, land use, varietal use, yields, labor use by source and gender in each crop operation, cost of inputs and returns from rice cultivation, income sources, environmental protection practices, and perceptions on their economic situation. The PRA tools were used in identifying farmers' needs and opportunities for improving the livelihood of the farming households. Qualitative information was gathered through FGDs to understand farmers' attitudes toward the new technologies. Secondary data related to biophysical characterization, institutional and infrastructural settings, and the presence of NGOs were also collected from the Block Development Office and State Agriculture Department. Characteristics of farm households. The average age of male farmers was 44 years, which implies that farmers were in their active age to engage in labor-intensive activities and had the potential to try new varieties and improve crop management practices. About 53% of the adult population completed secondary education, while 17% completed primary school. Literacy was 80%, with an average of six years of schooling. Adult males had higher literacy (87%) than females (73%). Among the young population (5-15 years old), literacy was 99%, indicating that farmers, irrespective of their socioeconomic status, were aware of the advantages of child education. All girls went to school, whereas 2% of the boys were illiterate, indicating the greater awareness of parents to educate their daughters, a positive development in terms of reducing the disparity in access to education between boys and girls. Further, 60% of the agricultural workers completed primary school, whereas 12% stopped at the primary level. About 48% of the nonagricultural workers completed primary education, while 20% discontinued at the primary level. About 80% of male adults were directly engaged in farming, whereas 83% of female adults were engaged mainly in household activities. Average household size was six. Patna and Ambiki showed the largest family size (8) while Chaulia had a smaller (5) family size. Other adult male members were engaged in business, private jobs, or services, or they migrated to urban and rural areas on a seasonal or long-term basis. About 52% of the nonworking population consisted of students, unemployed youths, and housewives. Socioeconomic groups. Almost half (48%) of the sampled farm families are very poor, with less than 1.0 ha of landholding (marginal category), while 40% of them have 1.0-2.0 ha of cultivated land (small). Only 12% of the total farm families have more than 2.0 ha of landholding (medium and large category). These findings indicate that it is difficult for farming households to ensure food security only from their own production. Rice is grown only during the wet season and on limited land. Thus, marginal and small farmers have to diversify their sources of income rather than depend solely on rice. As regards the tenurial system, 94% of the farm families were cultivating their own lands. Share-cropping was adopted by only 1% of farmers (mostly marginal), whereas 5% of them (medium to large) leased their land to other farmers. Biophysical characteristics. More than half (54%) of the total cultivated area under rice is intermediate lowland (0-50-cm water depth) and prone to submergence and waterlogging. Less than half (45%) of the area used for rice cultivation is medium or shallow lowland (0-30-cm water depth) and prone to both drought and submergence. A negligible proportion (1%) of the total rice-growing area is upland, wherein rice varieties with shorter duration (90-100 days) are generally grown during the wet season. Soil in the major rice-growing belt is sandy-loam (59%) and this is mainly found in the shallow lowlands. About 39% of the total rice-growing area has clay-loam soil, mostly in intermediate lowlands. Only 2% of the total rice area is loamy-sand and this can be found in the uplands. In general, soil salinity is low during the wet season but increases progressively during the dry season, reaching 6-11 dS/m or more. The pH of these soils varies from 5 to 7. About 88% of the total cultivated rice land is not irrigated, specifically in the wet season. However, 10% of the farmers use indigenous irrigation systems to lift harvested rainwater stored in small ponds and ditches while others irrigate their land using high-and low-lift pumps. Land use. Rice is the main crop grown during the wet season, covering 87% of the total cultivated land. On uplands and homestead lands, farmers grew vegetables on 10% of the cultivated land during the WS. Nearly 3% of the cultivated lands were left fallow, mostly in low-lying areas, because farmers did not have suitable rice varieties or management options for this type of land. Conversely, rice is grown on only 4.5% of the cultivated land in the DS using harvested rainwater, and about 87% of the land is left fallow because of high soil salinity, poor quality and scarcity of irrigation water, and a lack of knowledge on suitable crops. The EC of stored rainwater started increasing in February and, in some areas, water was too saline for irrigation. About 8% of the land was planted with vegetables. Farmers grew perennial crops such as betel vine, cashew nut, coconut, fruits, and other horticultural crops on about 48% of the total noncultivated land. Fish were raised in ponds and small ditches on about 48% of these lands, making fish an alternative income source besides agricultural crops. The rest (4%) of the land is planted to other crops (Table 1.1). Local landraces have certain advantages over improved varieties: early maturity, better ability to withstand salt stress at early stages, higher tolerance of diseases such as false smut, less grain discoloration, ease of threshing, and less deterioration of seed quality. However, yields are low at 1.5 t/ha. During the WS, farmers generally start seedbed preparation only after the first monsoon rain. In the dry season, the seedbed is normally prepared during late December to early January by puddling the field twice and pregerminated seeds are sown in wet beds. Seedlings aged 25-30 days are transplanted randomly on normal soils, whereas, in saline soils, farmers use 50-60-d-old seedlings. Primary tillage is done during the WS after pre-monsoon rain in June followed by final land preparation after enough rainwater is accumulated in the field during late July or early August. In the dry season, this is done in mid-January. Farmers with marginal to small landholdings usually use a country plow while those with large landholdings use their own or a hired tractor/power tiller for land preparation. Transplanting of wet-season rice is done during late July to mid-August after salinity is sufficiently washed by rainwater to ensure good crop establishment. Growing dry-season rice, which is not a common practice in this area, started as a contingency measure in 2000 after complete loss of the WS crop because of the super cyclone in 1999. The crop often suffers significant yield losses due to water scarcity during flowering/ripening stage and higher soil salinity because of increasing temperatures from March onward. Irrigation is generally at 3-5 days after the disappearance of standing water. The crop is harvested and threshed manually. During the WS, no fertilizers are applied to rice because of low yields and high risks. However, a few farmers apply only N. The rice-fallow cropping sequence is predominant in all villages. However, rice-rice and rice-vegetable cropping sequences were adopted in limited areas under partial irrigation, particularly in the uplands of some villages. In some villages, farmers raised vegetables (potato, chilli, Basella), watermelon, and cowpea during the dry season on homestead uplands and some medium lands with partial irrigation.Labor use in rice production. Small and marginal farming households rely heavily on family labor. To complete rice operations during peak seasons, they exchange labor or hire additional labor. Within a farm household, females and males have assigned tasks, which can be done separately or jointly. Children also help after school. Men are mainly responsible for preparing the land and establishing nurseries, while women do transplanting, weeding, and applying farmyard manure (FYM). Harvesting is done by both men and women and postharvest activities such as threshing and winnowing are mainly done by women. During the WS, men and women contributed 66% and 23% of the total labor input (71 days/ha) in rice production, respectively.The labor input of females was highest among marginal farming households, indicating that the participation of female family labor increases with poverty. The total labor requirement for different agricultural operations in rice cultivation for marginal farmers was 72 and 85 person-days per ha during the WS and DS, respectively. Marginal farm households usually depend on female members to fulfill the labor requirements in rice production. With the participation of female family members, farming households save on the cost of seedling uprooting, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, and threshing. Women are also mainly responsible for selecting seeds for the next season and storing them as well. Aside from crop production activities, women are engaged in dairy management, particularly collecting fodder and feeding livestock. However, despite their contributions to rice production and postharvest, they lack access to seeds of improved varieties, information on maintaining good-quality seeds, and good crop management practices. Among nuclear households, wives are compelled to make \"on-the-spot\" decisions when their husbands migrate to urban or other rural areas for nonfarm employment. Thus, women need to be trained not only on improved seed health practices but also on all aspects of rice farming. The engagement of family labor was 58 persondays (82% of the total labor input) during the WS and 83 person-days per ha (81% of the total labor input) during the DS. Economics of rice cultivation. Rice production in these areas is quite risky. Farmers gamble with their limited resources and they have limited marketable surplus. With the increasing cost of inputs such as fuel, labor, and fertilizers, their net returns are gradually declining. Marginal farmers had smaller parcels (0.55 ha) than small farmers (0.87 ha) and medium to large farmers (2.06 ha) during the WS. However, rice productivity was higher (1.96 t/ha) for marginal families than for small (1.78 t/ha) and medium to large (1.63 t/ha) families during the WS. In the DS, parcel area was slightly larger (0.32 ha) for marginal farmers than for small farmers (0.24 ha), but yield was similar (3.2 t/ha). On average, farmers spent Rs. 6,466 per ha for rice production. The highest proportion was spent on labor (78%) and expenditures on seed and seedling establishment (10%), fertilizers (5%), and land preparation (5%) were low. The total cost of inputs during the WS was relatively higher for marginal farmers (Rs. 6,744/ha) than for small (Rs. 6,360/ha) and medium to large (Rs. 5,728/ha) farmers. The total gross returns were Rs. 8,320/ha, 91% of which were obtained from the grain and 9% from the straw. Gross returns were higher for marginal farmers (Rs. 8,889/ha) than for small (Rs. 7,906/ha) and medium to large (Rs. 7,419/ha) farmers. Average net returns from rice cultivation were Rs. 1,854/ha. Among the different landholding categories, marginal farm families earned higher returns (Rs. 2,145/ha) than small (Rs. 1,547/ha) and medium to large (Rs. 1,691/ha) farmers.Poor farming families diversify their livelihood options to minimize their risks. Animal rearing and fish raising or fishing contributed the highest to total income (42%), followed by cultivation of other crops and vegetables (35%), wherein 13% was contributed by rice and 22% by other crops. Other income sources are agriculture-related activities (15%) such as selling labor and rental charges for equipment such as power tillers, tractors, and threshers mostly by medium and large farmers. About 8% of total income was generated from other nonfarm sources such as small businesses and services in different sectors. Both men and women from marginal households generally earned the highest proportion of their income (34%) as agricultural laborers in the villages, followed by cultivating rice (23%) and rearing livestock and fish (21%). A significant amount (11%) was also obtained from other nonfarm activities such as running small shops and pulling a rickshaw. For small farm families, livestock and fish rearing and fishing were the highest income earner (51%), followed by the cultivation of perennial crops such as betel vine, coconut, cashew nut (15%), and rice (12%). A similar trend was observed for medium-large farm families.Half of their family income generally came from livestock rearing and fish cultivation. About 36% of the income came from the cultivation of other crops such as betel vine, coconut, cashew nut, banana, and papaya. Only 4% of their total income was generated from rice cultivation, indicating that, when household size increases, dependence on rice cultivation decreases.Constraints to crop productivity and livelihood. Some 92% of the respondents identified a lack of awareness about suitable technologies and knowledge as the main constraint to improving crop productivity.The region is affected by natural calamities such as flood, drought, and cyclones almost annually, and about 70% of the respondents ranked natural calamities as the second most important constraint to improving their livelihood. The unavailability of salt-tolerant and submergence-tolerant rice varieties (38%) ranked third, while a lack of capital for field operations ranked fourth. Other constraints are a lack of employment opportunities, monocropping of rice, small landholding, poor infrastructure, poor economic conditions, and a low market price for farm outputs. Farmers perceive that the introduction of suitable salt-tolerant rice varieties and other crops in a rice-based production system, the adoption of best management practices, and the use of irrigation facilities for the DS through rainwater harvesting are important for improving their livelihoods and household food security. Soil characterization. Sixty surface soil (0-15 cm) samples collected from different villages in Ersama block of Jagatsinghpur District, Orissa, during the 2006 DS were analyzed for organic C, total N, and available P. The pH, EC, and ionic composition (Na + , K + , and Ca 2+ ) were measured, and wide variability was observed for each. The pH and EC of saturation extract were 5.8-7.0 and 3.4-29.4 dS/m, respectively (Table 1.3). The organic C, total N, and available P were 0.39-1.34%, 0.04-0.14%, and 1.4-10.0 ppm, respectively. The most dominant cation and anion were Na + and Cl -. Water characterization. Piezometers made of perforated PVC pipes (diameter 5 cm) covered with nylon net sleeves were installed at 1.3-1.5-m depth at nine sites in different villages of Ersama block of Jagatsinghpur, Orissa, during the 2007 DS. Depth to the groundwater table (GWT) was measured periodically, and groundwater samples were collected periodically and analyzed for EC, pH, and ionic composition. The EC of water collected from surface irrigation sources (rivers, creeks, and ponds) was monitored periodically using the same methods used with soil extracts. Table 1.4 summarizes some of the data. The EC of river water before and after the sluice gate was 0.4-0.6 and 11.3-37.3 dS/m, respectively, suggesting that construction of a sluice gate has helped in storing fresh water, which can be used for irrigation during the DS. Groundwater EC at four sites was very high, but DS rice is still possible using creek water with low EC. At two sites, pond-water EC was high but the groundwater EC was relatively low and certain salt-tolerant nonrice crops could be grown. At one site, both surface water and groundwater were highly saline and sunflower grown there did not perform well. At the remaining two sites, surface-water and groundwater EC was low and this water can be used to grow rice and nonrice crops. Strategies to tackle these problems were discussed with different stakeholders and appropriate technologies, such as salttolerant rice varieties for both the WS and DS; improved crop, nursery, nutrient, and water management practices; and proper cropping systems involving less water-consuming salt-tolerant nonrice crops, were developed and further validated in farmers' fields.Site selection and collection of data. This site represents alkaline inland soils. A reconnaissance survey of various villages covered under the reclamation program by the UP Land Development Corporation was conducted during 1995. Two villages along Pucca Road (Dhora and Mataria) were selected that are more representative of the study area. Both are close to the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) station, with a mandate for technology transfer. Selection of farmers in each village was based on availability of land, water, other natural resources, socioeconomic conditions, size of landholdings, caste, and religion. Farming is the major source of livelihood in these two villages. The characterization was based on existing farmers' classification and indigenous knowledge on the suitability of rice and wheat varieties in different parcels. Qualitative information from 50 farmers was obtained through interviews and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools such as focus-group discussions with key informants. Since women play crucial roles in crop establishment and seed maintenance, they were also asked for their opinions on relevant issues.There are three types of land situations in both villages, uplands used for cereals, vegetables, oilseed, and fruit crops, and medium lands and lowlands used for rice during monsoon (July to Oct.) and wheat in winter (Nov. to April). The main source of irrigation is tube wells and rice-wheat is the main crop rotation. About 38% of the farmers have landholdings of <1.0 ha, 30% have 1.0-2.0 ha, and 32% have >2.0 ha of land. The main source of irrigation in the area is tube wells, which cover about 74% of the total irrigated area. Canal irrigation covers about 24% and the remaining 12% of area is irrigated through wells, tanks, and other sources.Cropping pattern. The rice-wheat sequence is dominant in both villages. A large number of rice varieties are grown in the area but are dominated by Indrasan and Mussoori. Some farmers started growing salttolerant rice varieties rice such as CSR13. The most popular wheat varieties were PBW343, HD2285, and HD2329. Some other crops such as maize during the rainy season and mustard in winter are also grown. The surroundings of the villages are predominantly mango orchards, with some farmers growing mangos within their villages. A small area is grown with mixed crops such as wheat + mustard (4%) during the winter season. However, more women are illiterate (60%) than men (40%). About 68% of the children between 5 and 15 years of age are literate; however, the rest are illiterate because they either did not attend school from childhood or they could not continue their studies because of financial problems.A large part of the land is sandy loam, used for orchards or for a rice-wheat rotation. Salt-affected areas are high in clay and are mainly used for rice cultivation. The study showed that 58% of the total area grown to rice is sandy loam, 22% is clay, and 14% is clay loam. Crops such as oilseeds, maize, sorghum, and berseem are also grown on these soils. The average yield of rice in both villages is 2.8 t/ha and wheat yields only 1.84 t/ha. Total and net returns were higher from rice than from wheat because of the low yield of wheat, which could be replaced by other low-input, more profitable crops.The rice-based cropping system is labor-intensive, requiring about 171 person-days, compared with 125 person-days for wheat during the season. About 36% of the total labor requirement for rice and wheat is met by family labor and the remaining from hired labor. About 68% of the hired labor for rice and 65% for wheat is used for weeding, harvesting, and threshing. About 37% of the total input cost of rice cultivation is for labor. Other inputs include hiring of machines for field preparation, seed, fertilizer, insecticides, pesticides, and irrigation. Farmers pay about 26% of the total cost of rice production for fertilizers, 23% for field preparation, and 11% for irrigation. The irrigation cost is much higher for rice than for wheat. For wheat, the cost of fertilizers is about 32.5%, which is more than the labor expenditure. Apparently, the main constraints are the lack of availability of salt-tolerant varieties and inputs/amendments. From the survey conducted in both villages, about 70% of the households belong to the poor category. They mentioned a lack of irrigation facilities, small and fragmented landholdings, and unproductive lands as the main cause of poverty. During the interview, farmers also mentioned the problem they have with the current irrigation canal. It is completely filled with weeds such as water hyacinth, and there is no water at the tail end of the canal in both cropping seasons; therefore, they are not getting sufficient water for irrigation. However, 50% of the farmers stated that, although they have irrigation facilities, they still do not get good yields because of poor soil health. About 15% of the area falls under the very poor category. The main causes of poverty were very small landholdings alloted by the government under the poverty alleviation program, lack of capital to purchase agricultural inputs, lack of or ineffective irrigation facilities, and unproductive lands. Only those households with some other businesses and large landholdings were better off. After the project, farmers identified the following changes in their agricultural, economic, social, and general conditions due to the adoption of new technologies: (i) improvement in household status; (ii) increase in rice area for cultivation; (iii) increase in rice yield; (iv) improved knowledge about new technologies and farming practices; (v) more access to basic social services, including meetings and training; (vi) gender equality; and, lastly, (vii) improvement in general well-being.Site characterization. This site also represents inland alkaline/sodic soils. In Faizabad District, three villages were selected for the study: Dhamthua, Lodhe Ka Purwa, and Leela Ka Purwa. Research sites were selected based on the extent of sodicity and rice being the major crop grown in the area. The villages were 45-48 km from district headquarters and 5-8 km from the NDUAT campus. Soils are mostly sodic and major areas were affected by severe to moderate sodicity. Agro-climatic conditions are normal with four seasons, summer and rainy (March to October) and winter and spring (November to April). The important cropping seasons are kharif (wet), rabi (dry), and zaid (April-June). Average annual rainfall is <1,000 mm. The selected areas are prone to drought because of the variability of the monsoon rain during the cropping season. Rice and wheat are the major crops cultivated in these areas and more crop diversification is observed during the rabi season in some pockets where supplementary irrigation is available. Farmers are mostly marginal and small landholders. Cultivation and animal rearing are the main source of livelihood. Most male adult household members were engaged in nonfarm activities in adjacent areas as daily wage laborers (i.e., mechanic, electrician, tailor, construction worker, etc.). Most farmers are own cultivators. Some large landholders and farmers in the upper caste rented out their lands to farmers in the lower castes with small landholdings. This is due to higher input requirements, particularly labor, when their family members are unable to provide. Farmers who purchase irrigation water mostly do not grow rabi-season rice due to high costs and risk of unavailability of water. Only a few farmers owned electric motors. Interviewed farmers were selected based on (a) must have more than 50% (up to 70-80%) of area affected by sodicity;(b) should be owner-cultivator; (c) rice is the major crop grown in kharif season; (d) samples represent different socioeconomic groups and have women family labor in rice-farming activities (as worker or supervisor); and (e) are willing to collaborate in the project. Data collection. Primary data were collected using a pretested field schedule to 50 households at selected project sites. Both quantitative and qualitative information were obtained through baseline surveys and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools such as focus-group discussions with key informants. Aside from households' socio-demographic, economic, and biophysical characteristics, farm characteristics, crop production, and household economic conditions-information on farmer's livelihood strategies, crop management practices, and constraints to crop production under saline conditions and the extension of new technologies were likewise gathered. Some success stories were narrated.Results: demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. A special family structure called joint family system is still predominant in the villages of eastern Uttar Pradesh. The average household size of respondents is 7, with the upper caste having more family members (8). The average age of the male household head is 47 years while the female is 40 years old. This reveals that both male and female household heads are in their prime age and are still dynamic in farming activities. Women farmers attended only a few years of school, and despite the free education offered to girl children launched by the government in village schools, the percentage of literate girls is still low because of a lack of awareness and work burden in the house and on the farm, and animal management, which are basically done by females. About 85% of adult women were engaged in household activities besides farming activities. It was a normal practice that women actively participate in farming, helping their husbands in all ways they could, especially when the husbands were not around. Women farmers also have the primary responsibility of taking care of their children besides household chores. In eastern Uttar Pradesh, agriculture (60%) remains the core occupation of the majority of the households. At times, where the women actively work on the farm, the men work in either one or two of many nonfarm activities (teachers, drivers, gardeners). A few migrate to distant places in either Delhi or Punjab. Biophysical characteristics of the land. More than half of the respondents have loamy soil while the rest have sodic soil. Farmers grow rice (kharif season) and wheat (rabi season). In some areas, vegetables, oilseed, maize, and sugarcane are also grown. There is not much difference in land types except that some areas are in lower endowments and are treated as shallow lowland. However, a majority of the cultivated areas are of upland and midland types. Farmers grow the same rice varieties in both land types depending on the availability of supplementary irrigation. Most farmers depend on rainfall so they prefer short-to medium-duration varieties to escape late drought. During the rabi season, farmers grow potato, garlic, berseem, and other early rabi crops such as vegetables and spices in the upper toposequence. In Dhamthua and Leela Ka Purwa, 11.6% and 8.6% of the total area, respectively, is fallowed due to poor soils and lack of irrigation. A majority of the households are owner cultivators (93%), having marginal (57%) and small (35%) landholdings. Many belong to backward castes. Households in the upper caste have large areas, rent out their land to households in the lower caste because of management and labor problems, and have high input and production costs.Crop management and farming practices. Farmers grow different rice varieties based on land types and water level in the field during the WS. Important considerations for varietal selection are high yield (2.5-3.5 t/ha) and suitable duration (<135 days). Farmers mentioned many positive traits of currently used varieties (Sarju 52, Pant 12, Usar Dhan 3, NDR 359, Mahsuri). Among them are good yield, good straw, medium plant height, medium duration, medium bold grain size, and fertilizer-responsive. Yields averaged 2.5-3.5 t/ha in normal conditions (with timely irrigation and fertilizer application) and about 1.5-2 t/ha in saltaffected areas. In kharif 2005, salt-tolerant varieties performed very well and gave good yield (3.45 t/ha) compared with other existing varieties. The use of press mud as integrated nutrient management and Sesbania as a green manure along with salt-tolerant rice varieties substantially increased rice yield. Technologies adopted. Crop diversity is relatively high during the dry season. Farmers grow peas, lentils, potato, and other vegetables in this season chiefly for consumption purposes because very few crops can withstand high soil sodicity, and new varieties were recently introduced. Table 1.7 shows that 70% of the households adopted a salt-tolerant mustard variety. Mustards are usually grown during the rabi season along with wheat (the second most important crop in UP, after rice). Only 30% adopted salt-tolerant wheat varieties while 56% adopted salt-tolerant rice varieties. Some adopted salt-tolerant rice varieties along with either the application of press mud with zinc sulfate (32%) or Sesbania (30%). These technologies increased yields and were being adopted by neighboring farms and other farmers in the nearby villages. Several examples of the many success stories mentioned as a consequence of adopting introduced technologies were from Ram Sawari, Amitendra, and the couple Subedar and Shanti. Ram Sawari had highly sodic land with poor germination of rice seeds. She became involved in the project in 2005, testing salt-tolerant rice varieties on her 1 ha of land. In kharif 2006, she grew CSR23 plus Sesbania in one plot and got a yield of 2.3 and 3.3 t/ha in another plot using Usar Dhan 3 plus press mud. In rabi 2006, she planted 3 kg of rice in a small plot and got 45 kg to keep for seeds. The following year, she planted the same rice variety (CSR23) in one plot with press mud and it yielded more than 3.5 t/ha. In another plot, Usar Dhan 3 produced over 3.8 t/ha. In rabi 2007, she grew KRL19 (wheat variety) on 0.2 ha and got a yield of about 2 t/ha on sodic land. In 2008, she continuously grew salt-tolerant varieties. According to her, because of these technologies, her family's social status improved and she became more confident and empowered in making decisions. Amitendra, a resident of Parua Village in Faizabad District, participated in PVS trials and scaling-up of tested technologies in kharif 2006. He grew Usar Dhan 3 on 0.075 ha and got a yield of more than 2.5 t/ha on sodic land. In 2007, he grew the same variety and tried nutrient management technologies (press mud and Sesbania) introduced by the CPWF Project and got even better yield (3.5 to 4.5 t/ha). In the rabi season, crops planted in plots where Sesbania and press mud were applied during the kharif season also performed well. Subedar and Shanti also used the same technologies and obtained very good yields of rice, mustard, and wheat. According to Shanti, Subedar was able to get his mortgaged land back because of the increase in his crop production. They were able to grow other rabi crops such as sugarcane, potato, mustard, and peppermint that also gave them good income.Insights from a farm-level survey. In Bangladesh, more than 30% of the cultivable land is in the coastal zone, covering about 2.85 million hectares. Out of this, nearly 0.85 million hectares in 13 southwestern districts are affected by varying degrees of salinity. The coastal area is predominantly rural and agriculture is the main source of people's livelihood. Traditionally the coastal area was monocropped with rice; however, in recent years, visible changes were being observed in land use and management practices of the aforementioned farming communities. Problems of natural hazards, soil and water salinity, traditional farming practices, etc., are hindering the adoption of modern production technologies. In an effort to understand existing practices, and productivity potentials, three villages in Satkhira District were selected for this study. Both a participatory rural appraisal and surveys of farming households were carried out. The analysis revealed that the villages are distinct with respect to degree of salinity and cropping patterns followed by farmers. Ratneswarpur Village is a brackish shrimp area with little or no rice. On the other hand, farmers at Munshiganj grow rice in the rainy season and the fields remain fallow during the DS due to high salinity in both underground and river water. In the boro (dry) season, farmers grow BRRI dhan28 and IET at Gobindapur. However, these varieties are sensitive to salinity, which leads to low productivity and crop loss. The average farm level yield is 4.5 t/ha. In the wet season, BR23 and BRRI dhan41 are grown together with white fish, and this system is gaining popularity. The average yields of BR23 and BRRIdhan 41 are 3.7 and 3.9 t/ha, respectively. This practice has a positive impact on farming households because it provides new sources of income in these saline areas. Furthermore, the high incidence of insects, short seedling height, and low salt tolerance were considered the major constraints to the adoption of available modern rice varieties. Some 60% of the farmers state that inadequate irrigation facilities during the DS contributed to the slow adoption of modern varieties. Developing salt-tolerant varieties, improved crop management options, and good cropping patterns would help enhance the productivity of these deltas. Farmers' cropping practices. Farmers' practices in salt-affected areas vary based on rice variety, planting method, and harvesting period. In the past, farmers used to practice shrimp culture only. Because of a lack of fresh water, farmers could not grow rice, especially in the dry season (boro). After the installation of shallow tube wells (STW), fresh water became available to their shrimp gher (local name for shrimp cultivation area bounded by a polder) in order to grow rice with shrimp in both the dry and wet seasons. The availability of fresh water allowed farmers to introduce boro rice using modern varieties, allowing two seasons per year. Farmers also practice shrimp and freshwater fish cultivation with rice in both the boro and T. aman seasons. The degree of salinity determines the cropping pattern. In the low-salinity areas, boro-T. aman-vegetable and boro + shrimp followed by T. aman are the dominant patterns practiced by the majority of farmers in Shamnagar and Kaliganj. In areas with moderate salinity, boro-T. aman and shrimp + sweetwater fish followed by T. aman are the dominant cropping patterns. However, in high-salinity areas, farmers practice shrimp-shrimp culture in all three study areas. Farmers' opinions on the advantages of current practices over their traditional practices. Farmers indicated many advantages of current and improved practices over their traditional practices: additional employment, more income, and higher returns from their land through diversification. Farmers' perceptions and demand for MVs for both the wet and dry seasons are shown in Table 1.9. Farmers choose varieties based on their ability to tolerate salinity, yield (better than the yield of varieties they use), and height. BR23 is the dominant variety grown in the wet season in both Kaliganj and Debhata. In Kaliganj, BRRI dhan28 is grown in the boro season and is becoming more popular in the area. According to the farmers, BRRI dhan28 is moderately tolerant of salinity. Since the intensity of salt in both the soil and water is higher during the winter season, farmers prefer a salt-tolerant variety during this season. In the wet season, farmers grow BR23 on a large scale and it is most popular in Kaligonj and Debhata. Farmers believe that BR23 is susceptible to different pests. Moreover, this variety is comparatively short/medium statured. In areas affected by tidal inundation in the T. aman season, BR23 is prone to submergence, resulting in poor plant growth. Therefore, farmers require a high-yielding taller variety. Similarly, BRRI dhan40 is used by some farmers in Kaliganj and Debhata. Farmers observed that this variety can tolerate salinity but it has lower yield. Thus, farmers in these coastal areas want a taller salt-tolerant variety with higher yield. No solution until now. However, with mixed cultivation (shrimp with white fish), the virus seems to have declined.No solution yet Kaliganj *The shrimp cultivation area/plot bounded by a polder is locally called a gher.Farmers identified several constraints to rice production and their perceptions on water quality and environmental issues are shown in Table 1.11. Salinity was mentioned as the major problem. The salinity problem is being tackled by this CPWF project through the development and dissemination of salt-tolerant varieties that match farmers' criteria. The Cuu Long Rice Research Institute conducted surveys in six selected districts in Tra Vinh Province, using a participatory rural appraisal to identify knowledge gaps for crop establishment methods and nutrient management in salt-affected areas. Socio-demographic information and biophysical characteristics were also gathered and constraints to rice cultivation were identified. In addition, baseline surveys were completed. Socioeconomic characterization revealed that • The majority of farmers belong to the marginal and small holding category.More than 70% of the study areas in the districts are severely affected by soil salinity.There is a lack of awareness about improved technology for salt-affected soils.The average rice yield in salt-affected lands is 3.5 t/ha versus 6-7 t/ha in normal soil.Shrimp cultivation hampered rice production due to waterlogging. Shrimp cultivation is a profitable business but risky because of shrimp diseases and viruses. The livelihood of farm households depends on rice and shrimp cultivation. He Thu (WS rice) is the major crop in Tra Vinh District because of the scarcity of fresh water for irrigation in the DS. Farmers required high-yielding, salt-tolerant, medium-to long-stature, and submergence-tolerant rice varieties. The introduction of salt-tolerant rice such as Mot Bui Do, Soc Trang 5, Ham Trau, and short-duration OM 2395 and AS 996 can increase the productivity of coastal saline rice lands and farmers' income. Shrimp cultivation is a profitable business although shrimp diseases and viruses are major problems. Also, shrimp cultivation hampers rice production due to waterlogging. Based on these findings, several recommendations were made to improve the livelihood of farming communities in Bac Lieu and Tra Vinh regions and to increase farm and water productivity. Information on farmers' practices, innovations in coping with stresses, constraints to the adoption of improved technologies, and technology needs were collected through focus-group discussions, and draft reports were completed. A socioeconomic survey was conducted among 60 farm families in Bac Lieu Province and 35 farm families in Tra Vinh Province to determine current biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics of farm families involved in growing rice and shrimp in the saline areas of Tra Vinh and Bac Lieu. The information collected included size of landholdings, sources of irrigation, prevailing dominant cropping systems, prevailing crop varieties, cultivation cost, and family income, among others. Major technological constraints/gaps were identified and probable solutions suggested. Opportunities were also identified to help reduce these constraints.The northern Nile Delta in Egypt is an area with extensive saline soils, with high exchangeable sodium that reaches 70% and EC of more than 8 dS/m. Water resources in the northern Nile Delta are less than what is needed to meet domestic, urban, and industrial uses. Recycled wastewater or drainage water is the only source of additional water for agriculture to compensate for the shortage in irrigation water. The objective of this study was to survey soil salinity in the northern part of the Nile Delta close to the sea in the project target areas (Port Said Province and some districts in Kafr El-Sheikh Province). Furthermore, attempts were made to describe crop production problems and determine the optimum cropping patterns and productivity potential of these salt-affected areas. Irrigation water was monitored in Port Said Province, where all lands are affected to some extent by salt stress. Methods. Port Said and Kafr El-Shiekh provinces were selected based on primary data collected previously in salt-affected areas in northern Egypt. In Port Said, soil samples were collected along El Salam canal starting at 15 km up to its end in a long stretch of 60 km with a width of 5 km. From each km, one sample was taken and a total of 60 soil samples were collected and transferred to the laboratory of the RRTC for analysis. Water samples from the main irrigation canal (El Salam) and its branches were also collected and analyzed at RRTC. The water of this canal is a mixture of agricultural drainage water and fresh water from the Nile. EC, pH, anions, cations, bicarbonates, and carbonates were measured. Some 100 farmers were selected covering the target area to gather information on cropping patterns, rice production and management practices, and constraints. Questionnaires were distributed to 100 selected farmers by extension workers and the data were summarized. The data included farmers' cultural practices, nutrient management, irrigation and drainage schedules, and the common rice varieties. For Kafr El-Sheikh, coastal districts Sadi Salam, El Reyad, El Hamoual, and Moutobs were selected because they are located near the Mediterranean Sea, and they are more saline due to sea-water intrusion. Ten soil samples were taken from hot spots in each district. Additional information was also collected as in Port Said. Results: household characteristics. Household family size is about 6 members. Slightly over half of the family members are males (53%). The respondents' ages averaged 57. Only about 33% have actually attended formal schooling. Some 87% of the households covered by this study are involved in farming. About 59% are engaged in farming while others work as livestock raisers. Other households are either involved in business or work as government employees. Men dominate rice farming in the area. Their dominance of rice production is a reflection of the crop's commercial value rather than as a food staple. Rice is considered the second most important export crop after cotton. Wheat is the major winter cereal grain crop and the third major crop in terms of area planted. Maize is the second most important crop, but at least 50% of its production is used for livestock and poultry feed. From the survey, around 33% of the total annual household income comes from rice. Other crops such as wheat share 17% of families' annual income while barley and cotton share 23%. Aside from farming, respondents also get 21% of their annual household income from livestock raising. Farming practices. Rice is grown under irrigation. Almost all of the farmers (99%) source their water supply from the local irrigation system. Rice lands are affected by different degrees of salinity. Severe salinity occurred 15 years ago as reported by farmers (97%). Right before the project ended, salinity had gone to moderate conditions because of the technologies and change in farming practices adopted by farmers. Land preparation is done mechanically or with animal traction. Before, farmers used to plow twice and dry level the land. Farmers now use improved methods such as laser leveling, subsoiling, and gypsum amendments to reclaim their soils. Transplanting is the most popular method of crop establishment. Moderate to high rates of inorganic fertilizers were used together with rice straw compost. Weeds are controlled with combinations of manual weeding and herbicides. Farmers use salt-tolerant, short-duration, high-yielding varieties such as Giza 177, Giza 178, Sakha 101, Sakha 104, SK2034H, and SK23H. Yield, rice production, and use. Egypt achieved the world's highest national average rice yield in 2005, with production boosted by hybrids developed locally under an FAO-led project. A yield of 9.5 t/ha was achieved partly through the introduction of newly developed hybrids. In the summer of 2006, farmers' rice yield averaged 6.46 t/ha. Three varieties were planted during this season. Giza 178 is the most commonly used variety, planted on about 82% (102.5 ha) of the total rice area. It yields 6.47 t/ha. Sakha 101 and 104 yield an average of 6.13 and 6.67 t/ha, respectively. In the summer of 2007, Giza 178 was still the dominant variety, planted on about 80% (94.5 ha) of the total rice area. This time, its yield increased to 7.15 t/ha, 10.5% higher than the previous year. Aside from Giza 178, the newly developed hybrid SK2034 was also planted. It was the highest yielding variety during that season, with an average of more than 8.5 t/ha. Because of the exceptionally high rice yield obtained from these varieties, farmers were able to sell an average of about 40% of their total rice production and store 54% to sell later. Only 6% was used for home consumption.There are several constraints to crop production at the project sites The major ones are (i) poor drainage system; (ii) insufficient supply of goodquality seeds; (iii) poor irrigation; and (iv) unstable market, among others. For the adoption of new technologies, farmers' constraints are (i) the high cost of inputs; (ii) lack of knowledge about new technologies; (iii) unavailability of good-quality inputs (seeds, fertilizers, water, etc.); and (iv) lack of effective communication between farmers and agricultural extension officers. Because of the technologies introduced, farmers were able to obtain high yield and consequently high income that brought a good social life, stability, and gender equality among family members. Farmers in these salt-affected areas practice various cropping patterns (Table 1.12). The predominant pattern in Port Said Province involves rice followed by barley, wheat, or berseem. This project also explored the possibility of introducing a third crop, a shortmaturity salt-tolerant forage, using a time window of about 2 months of fallow. Salt-tolerant forage crops introduced by ICBA showed good promise in preliminary testing. Rice varieties grown in these areas are dominated by salt-tolerant Giza 178 (45%), followed by Sakha 104 (30%). However, grain yield in these areas is very low, from 1.2 to 2.8 t/ha. Table 1.12. Crop patterns in Port Said Province, Egypt (target area).El-Sheikh provinces. Apparently, farmers and even extension personnel in these areas often mismanage their crops. This is mainly because of a lack of access to knowledge and poorly trained extension personnel in activities relevant to salt-affected areas. The outcomes of these interviews can be summarized as follows:• Some farmers still grow salt-sensitive rice varieties such as Giza 177 and Sakha 102.Most of these salt-affected areas are not well leveled.Use of a high rate of immature farmyard manure with high salinity at the early stages of crop growth.High seed rate of up to 250 kg/ha.Farmers believe that older seedlings have higher tolerance of salt stress than younger ones, contrary to the recommendations of RRTC, suggesting the use of younger seedlings (25-30 d old) for higher yields.Improper sowing date of rice.Higher nitrogen and incorrect nitrogen sources and application strategies used for normal conditions.Wrong impression about Zn application for rice and subsequent crops, despite the apparent zinc deficiency.Farmers not familiar with the benefits and necessity of potassium application for rice grown in saltaffected soils or use of poor-quality water.Use of sulfur fertilizers on highly alkaline soils and some fertilizers with high content of sodium.Keeping irrigation water in the field for a long time without drainage or clogged drainage canals.Lack of proper crop husbandry at early stages and best management practices for saline soils.Poor communication between rice farmers and trained extension workers for rice management under poor-quality soil and water, and lack of extension material.Difficult communication because most farmers in the newly reclaimed soils (Port Said) are living on their own farms rather than in communities.Farmers are ignorant of how to reclaim saline soils or maintain them afterward, and lack good technology transfer programs, for both rice and other crops on saline soils. Soil analysis showed that soil salinity in the cultivated northern and central parts of the delta in the project area ranged between 4 and 16 dS/m. The soil is clay loam in most areas and could be characterized as saline-sodic. The soils in Port Said are severely deficient in zinc and phosphorus. In most areas, the soil is also deficient in K, whereas, in others, available K is adequate but still extra K is needed because of the high Na in all surveyed areas. Soil in Port Said is high in available nitrogen because farmers there use a rice-fish system with lots of high-protein supplements for fish farming before shifting to field crops. Irrigation water in the target areas is mostly of low quality. The salinity of the main canal is relatively high (2.0-2.9 dS/m) because of salt intrusion from surrounding fields. Furthermore, a large area is irrigated from the Baher El Baquar drainage canal, which contains municipal, industrial, and agricultural drainage waters with higher salinity and alkalinity as well as heavy metals. Analysis of soil samples collected from the northern districts of Kafr El-Sheikh showed that the soil was heavy clay, and high in both salinity and alkalinity (saline/sodic). In many samples, the concentration of Mg 2+ was very high, which makes it difficult to reclaim these soils. The dependence on reused drainage water for irrigation in Kafr El-Sheikh aggravated salinity and heavy-metal problems. The soil in this province is also highly deficient in zinc and phosphorus, and farmers mostly face problems similar to those faced in Port Said. In summary, people living in these salt-affected areas are too poor, with very low productivity and few options. A proper program for agricultural technology transfer for crops grown in these salt-affected areas needs to be in place. Efforts are needed to establish an effective extension program, particularly for rice, as the most suitable crop for such areas, to ensure better productivity of land and water resources. Dissemination of salt-tolerant varieties of rice and other crops, coupled with training and demonstration on best management practices under conditions of poor soil and water quality, is necessary. All stakeholders, including policymakers, administrators, and researchers have to combine their efforts to develop these unfavorable areas. Current funds are inadequate to cover all salt-affected rice-growing areas in the delta, and these efforts need to be extended to similar areas along the Nile River basin, where most communities are impoverished.Objective 2. Introduce salinity tolerance into high-yielding rice and nonrice crop varieties that fit into rice-based farming systems in salt-affected areasThe development and deployment of salt-tolerant varieties are the entry point for enhancing productivity in salt-affected areas, mainly because sensitive varieties respond poorly to inputs and mitigation practices. Different approaches were employed, with a major focus on conventional breeding and extensive sitespecific testing through participatory approaches using INGER. Modern approaches involving the development and use of marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC), anther culture, and mutant breeding were also explored. Substantial progress was made in tagging a major QTL, Saltol, and its introgression into popular varieties through MABC. Large numbers of native landraces were collected from target sites and evaluated for their salinity tolerance, and some of the tolerant lines were physiologically characterized. This information is essential for breeders to select donors for multiple traits and also for further genetic studies.The main achievements are briefly summarized below.Research into understanding the molecular genetic control of salinity tolerance has led to the identification of tolerant alleles at quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that can be transferred into popular varieties using molecular markers to develop salt-tolerant varieties for the target environments. The specific research activities involved identifying salt-tolerant donors, developing mapping populations, identifying QTLs, developing near-isogenic lines (NILs), fine-mapping, identifying and developing new markers to tag tolerant QTL alleles, validating promising markers in different genetic backgrounds, and using these markers to precisely transfer the QTL into popular varieties through marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC). Although the entire research pipeline for molecular breeding exceeds any single project, key elements of the salinity tolerance marker program were funded by the CPWF Project 7, while additional components were funded by the Generation Challenge Program and the German BMZ/GTZ. A major salt-tolerance QTL on chromosome 1, Saltol, previously identified from salt-tolerant landrace Pokkali, was the primary focus of molecular breeding activities such as marker development and MABC. Novel sources of tolerance were also explored, and other QTLs for both seedling-and reproductive-stage tolerance were identified with potential for breeding. This project built the foundation for future activities to combine multiple QTLs to develop higher salt tolerance for different growth stages and environments.IRRI. To identify novel sources of tolerance of salt stress, a set of 53 landraces and 9 modern varieties from Bangladesh and 10 checks from other countries was screened at the seedling stage at IRRI to characterize them physiologically for the basis of salt tolerance. Measurements were made on overall phenotypic performance (SES score), Na + and K + concentration in leaves, plant vigor, and chlorophyll content. Several landraces from Bangladesh were highly salt tolerant and excellent Na + excluders (e.g., Akundi, Ashfol, Capsule, Jatai Balam, Kalarata, Kuti Patnai), providing novel sources of tolerance for future breeding. An F 2 mapping population between Capsule and BR29 was developed. In addition, eight accessions of Pokkali were screened for tolerance and genotyped with 78 SSR markers to analyze the relationships between the different Pokkali landraces. Significant genetic and phenotypic variation was detected, revealing the extensive diversity across the different Pokkali accessions. Additional markers were also added to the IR29/Pokkali QTL map to better define QTLs on other chromosomes (besides Saltol) to provide more QTL targets for seedling-stage tolerance.In parallel efforts from 2005 to 2008, several thousand accessions, especially from IRRI's Genetic Resources Cnter (GRC), were screened to identify novel sources of salt tolerance in addition to traditional sources such as Pokkali and Nona Bokra, the two most widely used donors of salt tolerance. To identify more sources of salt tolerance, reportedly tolerant genotypes from the GRC and elsewhere were collected and screened for salinity tolerance at the seedling stage at IRRI under an Ec of 12 and 18 dS/m. The following genotypes were identified as tolerant and they are potential donors for breeding: Cheriviruppu (IRGC 19928), Kalimekri 77-5 (IRTP 14213), TKM6 (IRTP 11703), Bhura Rata (IRGC 28590), Mushkan 41 (IRGC 6828), Kalarata 1-24 (IRGC 26913), Bhirpala (IRGC 37015), IR4630-22-2-5-1-3 (IRGC 72958), Kajalsail, IR69502-6-SRN-3-UBN-1-B (TON4222 I), IR65483-118-25-31-7-1-5 (TON4244 I), IR65483-141-2-4-4-2-5 (TON4245 I), IR77298-14-1-2 (TON4263 I), IR63262-AC201-1-7-2 (TON4266 I), and IR73689-76-2 (TON4281 I). Some of these genotypes had multiple accessions, of which usually only one was tolerant. One outstanding genotype was from Sri Lanka, AT 401 (Acc. 9105), which showed tolerance comparable with that of FL478, the highly tolerant recombinant inbred line (RIL) derived from Pokkali. Other accessions identified with high salinity tolerance were CI0022 (IRGC 249) and Akundo (IRGC 36968) that were used as parents for crossing. Another improved variety from India, CSR28, also exhibited high salinity tolerance comparable with that of FL478. SSR markers combined with selective genotyping were used for mapping QTLs for salt tolerance in rice at CLRRI, Vietnam. The salt-tolerant cultivar AS 996 was crossed with IR50404 and 229 RILs were produced by single seed descent. In addition, an IR64/OMCS 2000//IR64 backcross population was developed and 217 BC 2 F 2 lines were analyzed. Regression analyses based on SSR allele class differences were performed. Highly significant associations were detected at the SSR locus RM223 on chromosome 8. To examine the power of the identified SSR marker in predicting the phenotype of the salt-tolerance locus, the genotypes of 93 improved varieties at locus RM223 were determined. The results indicated an accuracy of more than 95% in identifying resistant plants. Results of a germplasm survey on OM 4498 and OM 5900 will be useful for the selection of parents in breeding programs aimed at transferring these genes from one varietal background to another and using them in marker-assisted selection.Molecular marker development and validation. The IR29/Pokkali QTL map was updated using a larger number of RILs ( 140) and 100 SSR markers to confirm the location of Saltol and to identify additional salttolerance QTLs. NIL populations were also used to more precisely define the Saltol QTL to a 1.2-Mb region on chromosome 1 (11 to 12.2 Mb on the rice physical map). Twenty new polymorphic SSR markers were identified in the Saltol region, and these were used for further genotyping of BC populations. Graphical genotyping showed that FL478, the highly tolerant RIL currently being used as a donor for Saltol in MABC, had a small Pokkali introgression at the Saltol QTL region. Following fine-mapping and annotation of the Saltol region, numerous genes were identified in the locus that are likely to be involved in salinity tolerance based on converging evidence from expression data and physiological studies. At first, comparative sequence analysis of annotated genes in this region combined with DNA microarray data identified 8 promising candidate genes in the Saltol region that were up-regulated by salinity stress: pectinesterase, serine threonine kinase, phospholipase D, a Myb transcription factor, a Sec A transport factor, an unknown cDNA, a peroxidase, and a sugar transporter. Subsequently, additional candidate genes were identified that had predicted functions relating to salinity tolerance: SKC1 (of the HKT gene family) that was cloned and identified to be a K transporter by another group (Ren et al 2005), a chloride-cation co-transporter recently cloned (E. Blumwald, UCD), and the previously characterized SalT gene. Gene-based insertion/deletion (indel) markers were then developed at four genes: the chloride-cation co-transporter, SKC1, pectinesterase, and SalT, and these markers were genotyped in the fine-map and MABC populations.To further test the Saltol QTL effect using different donors and genetic backgrounds, three F 2 breeding populations derived from the crosses BRRI dhan40 (sensitive)/IR61920-3B-22-2-1 (tolerant), BRRI dhan28 (sensitive)/IR50184-3B-18-2B-1 (moderately tolerant), and Kajalsail (tolerant)/IR52713-2B-8-2B-1-2 (tolerant) were tested with 20 SSR and two EST markers across the Saltol region. The Saltol QTL was detected only in the population derived from BRRI dhan40/IR61920-3B-22-2-1 with the SSR marker RM8094 as the most significant (P<0.001) in comparison with four other significant markers, RM1287, RM3412, RM493, and CP03970 (P<0.05). An F 3 population of this cross was used to reconfirm these results. Interestingly, the tolerant parent (IR61920-3B-22-2-1) was unrelated to Pokkali used for the original mapping studies, showing that multiple alleles may provide tolerance at the Saltol QTL. However, the fact that no QTL was detected at the Saltol locus in the other two populations indicates that other QTLs are involved in salt tolerance. Fine-mapping of the Saltol QTL and diversity analysis. Four BC families were selected at the BC 3 F 1 of IR29/Pokkali, and 25 heterozygous individuals at loci RM140 and RM24 were derived from three backcrossed families and advanced to BC 3 F 3 . BC 3 F 4 seeds were grown to generate 10,000 NILs. Graphical data of 25 individuals derived from the three families showed heterozygous SSR loci of RM140 and RM24 that flanked Saltol, indicating recombination in the region. Seven polymorphic markers (RM8094, RM3412, RM493, CP06224, CP03970, AP3206, and RM140) were identified and used to genotype two families of 2,000 BC 3 F 4 plants. Based on interval analysis, two peaks were observed, at the RM140 locus and at the region flanked by markers CP03970 and CP6224, with LODs of 5.02 and 3.34, respectively. The peaks suggested two possible QTLs. A possible location of one QTL associated with the trait was between markers RM493 and RM8094 at a maximum distance of 0.6 cM. Moreover, single-marker analysis was done to determine the significant association of the individual markers with the trait, which confirms that marker CP6224 was highly associated with salinity tolerance at the seedling stage. In this study, 8% of the NILs had the introgressed segment of Pokkali. Most introgressed segments were in the region of the QTL.In another study, 115 diverse genotypes together with 7 Pokkali accessions were analyzed for diversity at the Saltol region from 10.8 to 13.7 Mb (58.1 to 66.5 cM) on chromosome 1. Seven SSR and EST markers were used. A total of 7 haplotypes were identified among the 115 genotypes. One haplotype was identified in five tolerant genotypes with high tolerance of salt stress. The other six haplotypes seem to be associated with moderate tolerance. Different accessions of Pokkali also seem to have different haplotypes, and accessions with tolerant alleles were identified for use in breeding.Marker-assisted backcrossing for improved salinity tolerance. An MABC system involving foreground (specific to the target QTL allele), flanking (recombinant), and background (recurrent parent-specific) markers was developed to transfer the Pokkali-derived Saltol QTL allele into popular but salt-sensitive varieties. Polymorphism surveys using SSR and gene-based indel markers were completed for a number of different popular varieties to identify markers that can be used in different populations. Crosses were made with the Saltol donor FL478 (IR66946-3R-178-1-1) to recurrent parents BRRI dhan28 (a dry-season Bangladeshi variety), BR11 (a wet-season Bangladeshi variety), IR64 (a widely popular irrigated rice), and Swarna and Samba Mahsuri (popular in India). Through this project, two populations underwent markerassisted selection in several backcross generations: FL478/BRRI dhan28 and FL478/IR64, were brought to an advanced stage, and are being continued through other projects to test the effectiveness of Saltol under field conditions. Furthermore, training for molecular marker techniques with NARES partners was pursued to help build their capacity for marker-assisted breeding.Further studies on Saltol at UCD. The significant contribution of Saltol, as the major QTL of Na + /K + discrimination during salt stress in rice, was determined by characterizing the ability of the parental lines Pokkali and IR29 and their progenies (RIL FL478 and NILs 30,17,23,24,and 35) to maintain ion homeostasis. The eight genotypes rank from tolerant to sensitive as follows: Pokkali, FL478, NIL30, NIL17, NIL23, NIL24, NIL35, and the most sensitive, IR29. Data on Na + and K + concentrations, damage scores, and dry matter production agreed with this classification. Pokkali, FL478, NIL30, and NIL17 had the lowest damage scores, higher dry matter production, and lower Na + concentration in roots and shoots. Genotypes that display the lowest Na + concentrations produced the greatest dry matter and had fewer dead and injured leaves.Genes in the Saltol region were annotated, and some of them were selected for further analysis based on converging evidence from physiological, positional, and global gene expression analysis. Transcript levels of selected candidate genes (cation chloride co-transporter, SKC1, SEC A, and serine threonine kinase) were up-regulated in roots and shoots of Pokkali, suggesting that these genes might be involved in the tolerance of Pokkali. The expression of ion transporter SKC1 and cation chloride co-transporter was up-regulated only in the roots of NIL30 and IR29. But the expression of SKC1 in the roots was very low in the two lines. Moreover, genes involved in vesicular trafficking (SEC A and SEC 23/24) were induced in the roots of IR29 under saline conditions. Only the cation chloride co-transporter and SEC 23/24 were up-regulated in roots of NIL17 under salt stress. The expression of SAM synthetase is regulated in a tissue-specific manner in all genotypes. Apparently, it seems difficult to make definite conclusions from these data on the responses of candidate genes to salt stress among these lines, as the expression of these genes could not differentiate tolerant lines from sensitive lines. However, the induction in expression of genes such as cation chloride cotransporter, SKC1, SEC A, and serine threonine kinase in the roots and shoots of Pokkali suggests a possible role of these genes in tolerance. The existence of another cation chloride co-transporter in planta is confirmed by isolating the gene from Pokkali. Cloning of this gene will help verify its function and determine the significance of these cation chloride co-transporters in ion homeostasis. Further analysis of this gene as well as others in the Saltol region is ongoing. Physiological basis of tolerance of salt stress in rice. Salt stress is a major constraint to cereal production worldwide, and particularly for rice grown in coastal areas under marine influence, or even in some inland areas where excessive irrigation results in a buildup of harmful salts. Rice is particularly sensitive to salt stress, but it is the only cereal that has been recommended during initial reclamation of salt-affected soils because of its ability to grow well under flooded conditions (Ismail et al 2008). Rice is peculiar in being relatively tolerant of salt stress during germination, active tillering, and maturity, but sensitive during the early seedling and reproductive stages. The physiological bases of tolerance during seedling stage are fairly well understood; key traits are high seedling vigor, salt exclusion at the root level, compartmentation of ions in roots and older tissues, high tissue tolerance, responsive stomata, and a sensitive antioxidant system, particularly the ascorbate/glutathione pathway of oxidative stress tolerance (Moradi andIsmail 2007, Ismail et al 2007). Growth and physiological responses during reproduction were investigated using genotypes contrasting in tolerance at both stages. Salt stress affects almost all aspects of vegetative and reproductive growth. It reduces survival and growth, delays flowering, hinders neck node elongation and panicle extrusion, reduces spikelets per panicle and pollen viability, and causes high panicle and spikelet sterility. Tolerant cultivars strongly exclude salts from the flag leaf and developing panicles, maintain their stomatal conductance and photosynthesis, particularly that of the flag leaf, and maintain the activity of enzymes involved in ROS-scavenging systems.Most of these mechanisms are effective during both the seedling and reproductive stage. These traits are mostly independent, but none of the known salt-tolerant landraces combine favorably more than a few of them, with considerable variation in the extent of expression of particular traits among cultivars, suggesting the likelihood of identifying even better donors and combinations of alleles at useful genes. Salinity tolerance at the seedling and reproductive stages is only weakly associated; hence, pyramiding of contributing traits at both stages is needed for developing resilient salt-tolerant cultivars. Based on these studies, we hypothesize that salinity tolerance can be improved substantially by using donors superior in particular traits and eventually through mapping and combining favorable alleles. We collected and characterized large sets of landraces from target areas as well as varieties and breeding lines developed for salt-affected areas. Most of this material was characterized for major physiological mechanisms. This information is useful for breeders to select suitable donors for particular traits.A large number of landraces were collected by partner institutions (India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Egypt, Iran) and inventories of these lines as well as of tolerant rice varieties were submitted to IRRI. Some of these lines were evaluated for specific mechanisms. For example, out of a set of 384 salt-tolerant elite lines, 11 lines were grouped as high Na + excluders (<0.06 mM/g/day), while 86, 63, 95, and 129 lines were categorized as excluders (0.06-<0.1 mM/g/day), intermediate excluders (0.1-<0.2 mM/g/day), accumulators (0.2-<0.5 mM/g/day), and high accumulators (>0.5 mM/g/day) for Na + uptake. Based on Na/K ratio, 69 elite lines had a very low (≤0.2) ratio, whereas 37 had a very high (>1.0) ratio. Na uptake and Na/K ratio were negatively correlated with visual symptoms (SES score). Another set of 75 lines was analyzed for physiological mechanisms for seedling-stage tolerance. This set included 33 tolerant (SES ≤ 5), 21 intermediate (SES >5 and <7), and 21 susceptible (SES ≥ 7) varieties. Measurements were made on leaf-to-leaf compartmentation, vigor, chlorophyll concentration, SES scores, and Na/K concentration in the roots and shoots at 10 and 25 days after the start of the stress treatment. Visual evaluation of seedling tolerance (SES score) was highly correlated with % Na + in shoots (R 2 = 0.82), with % leaf chlorophyll (R 2 = 0.77), and with Na/K ratio in shoots (R 2 = 0.72), but had less correlation with vigor (R 2 = 0.50), % Na + in roots (R 2 = 0.29), leaf-to-leaf compartmentation (R 2 = 0.28), and Na/K ratio in roots (R 2 = 0.11) (Moradi andIsmail 2007, Ismail et al 2007).Besides the work at IRRI, material collected at various centers was also classified for important traits such as visual symptoms (SES) and salt uptake and compartmentation. A good example is the work conducted at CSSRI using artificially salinized water tanks (125 mM NaCl). In this, entries IR63731-1-1-4, IR65192-4B-3-2, IR65195-3B-6-3, IR67075-2B-2-2, and BW 267-3 exhibited very low Na uptake(<0.60 mmol/g dry wt.) and therefore could be considered potential Na excluders. Similarly, IR9884-54-3-1E, IR51500-AC-11-1, IR55182-3B-10-3, IR72046-B-R-7-3-1, IR1829-3R-82-1, IR72048-B-R-2, and IR72046-B-R-8 exhibited low Na uptake, and IR51491-AC10, IR63275-B-1-1-3, IR63311-B-3R-B, IR64197-3B-17-2, IR65196-3B-10-2-3, and IR70865-B-P-16-2 accumulated higher K (>1.0 mmol/g dry wt.). In another set, IR65209-3B-1-2-1, Nona Bokra, IR65575-4B-10-1-2, IR63731-1-1-4-3, IR65196-3B-20-2-2, and IR65192-4B-4-2 were identified as high K accumulators (>1.5 mmol/g dry wt.). At RRII, a set of 75 lines from Iran was assembled and multiplied in normal paddy fields and characterized for salt tolerance at 0, 4, and 8 dS/m. Traits evaluated at the seedling stage were tolerance index (1-9), root dry matter, shoot dry matter, root/shoot length, Na and K concentrations, and Na/K ratio, among others. Rice genotypes were classified into tolerant, medium, and susceptible.Methods. Experiments involving peanut and pigeonpea genotypes contrasting in salinity tolerance, based on first-year data, were conducted at ICRISAT to investigate the response of transpiration to salt application. The background hypothesis is that salinity would decrease transpiration and thus reduce photosynthesis and biomass accumulation. In this case, we can hypothesize that \"successful\" genotypes would be able to maintain a relatively higher rate of transpiration, while being efficient at using water to produce biomass (high water-use efficiency, WUE). However, maintaining a high rate of transpiration under salinity may also allow a larger amount of salt to be loaded in the xylem stream, unless plants can exclude salt from being loaded via roots. We investigated three aspects: (i) the relative reduction in transpiration rate of tolerant and sensitive genotypes, (ii) the relation between WUE and biomass accumulation under salt stress, and (iii) the apparent xylem Na concentration in plants treated with salt.Results. In groundnut, transpiration decreased fairly rapidly after imposing the salt treatment. Although we could not assess transpiration on the first two days after salt treatment, it was very clear that, by day 5 after stress imposition, groundnut reached a fairly constant relative rate of transpiration compared with the control. Other experiments using a similar protocol have been carried out in pearl millet and showed a similar pattern, that is, a rapid decrease in transpiration after salt treatment and a fairly constant transpiration rate afterward. In contrast, the response of pigeonpea was very different. As in groundnut, transpiration decreased very rapidly, as shown by the lower rates achieved after treatment. However, the relative rates of transpiration continued to decrease steadily in the following 10 days, with several plants reaching less than 20% of the control.Genotypes of groundnut and pigeonpea varied markedly in percentage decrease in transpiration. One groundnut genotype maintained a transpiration rate at 90% of the control, whereas others had transpiration rates as low as 60% of the control. In pigeonpea, the rate of decrease was also different. Since that rate continued to decrease steadily, we compared genotypes based on average relative transpiration rates and found a good relation between the average rate of decrease and the degree of sensitivity of pigeonpea to salinity, as measured in the previous screening. The main conclusion of this study is that tolerant pigeonpea genotypes maintain higher relative transpiration than sensitive ones under salt stress, and that salinity decreased the transpiration of sensitive genotypes, resulting in a dramatic decrease in biomass accumulation. In groundnut, transpiration efficiency (TE) did not vary much among genotypes under a control treatment, and only ICG4955 had a lower TE, but large variation was observed under salinity. ICG4890 had the highest TE and ICG6022 the lowest. The ratio of biomass accumulation correlated with TE under salinity (R 2 = 0.42). In pigeonpea, very little difference in TE was also found under control conditions, except for two wild accessions that had higher TE. The relative decrease in dry weight under salt stress correlated with TE (R 2 = 0.59). In contrast, salinity stress decreased TE dramatically, with large variation across genotypes. The relative decrease in dry weight under salt stress correlated significantly with TE (R 2 = 0.71), suggesting a role of TE in tolerance.Xylem Na concentrations were high in groundnut, with substantial genetic variation, for example, genotype ICG11144 had 4.9 mg Na/kg water, whereas ICG4998 (tolerant) had only 2.72 mg Na/kg of water. The ratio of biomass increase correlated with xylem Na (R 2 = 0.53). Pigeonpea also showed large differences in xylem Na concentration. Xylem Na appeared to be higher than in groundnut, which might explain the higher sensitivity of pigeonpea to salinity than groundnut. Wild relatives of pigeonpea had much lower xylem Na accumulation (24-45 mg Na/kg water) than cultivated pigeonpea (43-105 mg Na/kg water). Except for two genotypes that showed large variation in their xylem Na concentration, we found a good relation between the ratio of shoot biomass under salinity and xylem Na concentration (R 2 = 0.51).After repeated screening of the groundnut mini-core collection in 2006 and 2006-07, we selected five tolerant genotypes and five susceptible genotypes for evaluation of TE and Na accumulation, particularly at the reproductive stage, with the hypothesis that, as in chickpea, reproduction might be more sensitive to salt stress in groundnut. Salt treatment was applied at either sowing or flowering time, and several biochemical indicators (ABA, proline, protein profiling, etc.), leaf gas exchange (transpiration and leaf conductance), and TE were measured. Salinity at the reproductive stage was applied when 50% of the plants had at least one flower. Differences between genotypes for pod yield under saline conditions were confirmed in a glasshouse environment for 4 out of 5 tolerant or sensitive genotypes. Tolerant genotypes showed a larger drop in transpiration rate upon salt treatment than the sensitive ones. On average, the relative transpiration of the sensitive group was about 60-80% of the control, whereas the relative transpiration of the tolerant group was as low as 40% of the control. No major differences between genotypes were observed in apparent xylem Na concentration. Using a parallel set of plants kept through maturity, no relation was observed between stem, leaf, and shoot Na concentration and pod yield, suggesting that the extent of Na accumulation in shoots was not directly responsible for the effect on pod yield under salt stress. This confirmed the lack of a relationship between shoot Na concentration and seed yield that we found in the large salinity screening of 2006. Discussion. After several years of evaluation involving a large number of germplasm accessions of chickpea and groundnut, it appears that the tolerance of these two crops of salinity had no relation with the Na concentration in shoot tissues, which is contrary to that observed in pigeonpea, in which salt tolerance correlated negatively with Na accumulation in the shoot. In fact, the high concentration of Na in saltsensitive genotypes was simply related to their lesser growth, and did not necessarily imply that the lesser growth was caused by Na itself. Therefore, these results contradict the prevalent idea that salt stress is due to Na toxicity. In chickpea and groundnut, the relation between biomass and yield under salt stress was very weak or inexistent, and the major effect of salt stress was likely to be on the reproductive stage rather than on growth per se. More recent work has been done in which we followed the number of buds, flowers, and pods to assess whether any of these stages are particularly sensitive to salt stress using several contrasting lines of chickpea. Results indicated that the yield differences between tolerant and sensitive genotypes were explained by differences in the number of flowers that were produced under control conditions. Among these legumes, groundnut appeared to be the most tolerant of salt stress, followed by chickpea. Pigeonpea was extremely sensitive to salinity and has a limited chance to become an option in saline areas despite some genetic variability.Salt stress invariably occurs with other abiotic stresses and tolerance traits for these stresses are controlled by numerous genes, so a breeding strategy to combine multiple stresses is needed. A modified diallel selective mating system (DSMS) was followed to develop genotypes with high yield and tolerance of multiple abiotic stresses. A large number of single, 3-way, 4-way, and multiple crosses (>1,850) were made in both the wet and dry season using diverse donors for salt and associated abiotic stresses during the project's timeline. Crossing aimed to break linkage blocks and integrate important traits to increase adaptability and productivity in salt-affected areas. The specific traits considered in selecting parents for crosses were salt tolerance; high yield; long slender, medium slender, long bold, and medium bold grains with good cooking quality; resistance to important diseases (rice tungro); and tolerance of other stresses such as zinc deficiency, iron toxicity, heat, and submergence. The objective of this breeding strategy was to increase the frequency of desirable alleles in the population, thus intermating only selected alleles based on phenotyping and also MABC to increase the probability of desirable recombinants and further improve popular rice varieties lacking specific tolerance. Donor parents were selected and F 1 s were again intercrossed to develop F 1 diallel series. To accommodate more diverse genotypes in the crosses, a partial diallel was used. It is difficult to make many crosses in selfpollinated rice, so a half diallel was made without reciprocals (n × (n -1)/2). The major donors for various traits involved in the basic series in successive cycles are as follows:• Salt tolerance: IR66946-3R-178-1-1 (FL478), Cheriviruppu, Kalimekri 77-5, CSR11, IR4630-22-2-5-1-3, IRRI 128 (PSBRc 88 or CSR23), AT401, CSR28 TKM 6, Akundo, Bhirpala, C10022, Pokkali, Nona Bokra • Submergence tolerance: IR82809-237 and IR82810-407 • Zn deficiency tolerance: A69-1 • Fe toxicity tolerance: Suakoko 8, IR61640-3B-14-3-3-2 • Good grain quality: OM 4498, PSBRc 82• Acid soils: AS 996 • Good plant type with high yield (from the irrigated breeding program): IR71701-28-1-4, IR74963-262-5-1-3-3 This is a long-term breeding strategy for generating novel recombinants for tolerance of multiple abiotic stresses and it envisages breaking the stubborn linkage blocks that are characteristics of self-pollinated species. So, the advantage of this series is expected to be harnessed beyond the timeline of the project. Screening, field evaluation, generation advancement, and dissemination of tolerant rice genotypes. More than 26,500 genotypes were screened in the IRRI phytotron for seedling-stage salinity tolerance and were advanced during the project duration. Screening was done using 120 mM of NaCl in modified Yoshida culture solution and buffer-based culture solution. Advanced breeding lines, selected based on seedling-stage salinity tolerance score and morphological acceptance, were further evaluated at a natural field site at Ajuy, Iloilo, during the wet season, with salinity of 12 to 15 dS/m, before final selection and seed multiplication. About 3,050 genotypes were selected during various cropping seasons and advanced. Stabilized genotypes were clustered into different modules specific for the different target areas based on specific plant-and grain-type requirements.The project included partners from both coastal and inland salt-affected areas. Coastal sites had two seasons, the WS and DS, whereas in others, rice was mostly grown only during the WS. During the project, each coastal site received 8 seed sets totaling 300 genotypes, while other sites received 6 seed sets comprising 242 genotypes through both regular and special sets of the International Rice Soil Stress Observational Nursery (IRSSTON). Additional germplasm was also provided based on specific requests. Breeding lines were screened and selected and promising lines were tested further with farmers through PVS trials. Examples of selected lines were IR59443-B-7-3-2, IR61919-3B-18-3, IR50184-3B-18-2B-1, IR51499-2B-29-2B-1-1, IR61919-3B-7-2, IR64197-3B-14-2, IR72593-B-19-2-3-1, and IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1. NARES also used selected materials as donors in their national breeding programs. Some lines are nominated for release such as IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1, selected for coastal areas of eastern India, and CSR-89-IR-8, selected for inland sodic soils of northern India. Another IRRI breeding line, IR63307-4B-4-3, was released as BRRI dhan47 for the saline areas of coastal Bangladesh. Adjusting screening techniques for seedling-stage salinity tolerance. Screening for seedling-stage salinity tolerance used to be conducted in phytotrons under 29/21 °C day/night temperature and 70% relative humidity (RH). But many entries identified as tolerant at the seedling stage performed poorly in many locations in both coastal (Orissa, India, and Satkhira, Bangladesh) and inland (Lucknow, India) areas as most of the target environments of NARES are hotter, especially at the early seedling stage. To mimic this temperature regime, the ambient temperature of the phytotron was readjusted to 35/25 °C day/night and RH kept at 70%. Higher day temperature increases salt uptake by enhancing transpiration, which subjects seedlings to more severe stress. Temperatures of up to 40 ºC are often encountered in coastal and inland salt-affected areas during the main rice season, whereas low RH is observed in inland salt-affected areas.BRRI followed a comprehensive approach to develop varieties adapted to the coastal saline areas of Bangladesh. Numerous activities were undertaken every year over the duration of the project. These activities are briefly summarized below. Further details and the data generated became available as part of the data files submitted with this report and also in a paper published in the proceedings of the \"International Conference of Delta 2007.\" Generation of new crosses and generation advancement. Numerous crosses were made every year for both irrigated (dry-season) and rainfed lowland (wet-season) ecosystems. During 2006-08, a total of 137 crosses were made for both irrigated (73) and rainfed (64) ecosystems. These crosses were then grown with their respective parents in subsequent years in hybridization blocks to confirm the F 1 hybrids. Confirmed hybrids were then used for generation advancement. For the dry season, the use of BRRI dhan28 and 29 as recipient parents was emphasized because of their popularity among farmers. Selected F 2 populations (2,000-3,000 plants per population) were grown every year and used for selection within each population. Selected plants were then grown in bulks (F 3 -F 4 ) in saline areas such as Sonagazi and Satkhira together with standard checks for the selection of pedigree progenies and bulk populations. This process continued until fixed lines with good yield and grain quality and with reasonable tolerance of salt stress were identified (F 6 -F 7 generation). Selected lines were then evaluated in observational yield trials (OYT). These trials combined lines from INGER-IRSSTN nurseries, PVS trials, and selected breeding lines, as well as germplasm introduced from elsewhere, such as the six varieties introduced from South Vietnam for the dry season. These trials were mostly nonreplicated, with plot size of 5.4 m by 10 rows, 25 cm apart. Selections were then made based on duration, plant type, and salt tolerance. Tolerant lines were then re-evaluated in replicated trials in the greenhouse of the plant physiology section of BRRI to confirm their tolerance. These OYT were conducted every year throughout the project and selected genotypes were either re-evaluated in a subsequent OYT or entered into preliminary yield trials (PYT).Preliminary yield trials were conducted throughout the project duration, from 2005 through 2008. Breeding lines developed through conventional methods, anther culture, or somaclonal variation were evaluated in yield trials with 2-4 replications. Lines were evaluated for morphological traits, duration, farmers' preference, tolerance of salt stress, and resistance to prevailing diseases and pests as well as grain yield. Numerous breeding lines were evaluated against salt-tolerant checks each season and superior lines were selected and re-evaluated through PVS trials. For example, during the last year of the project (2007-08), a total of 42 breeding lines were evaluated at the BRRI regional station in Satkhira, with BRRI dhan40 and 41 as tolerant checks, and 17 genotypes were selected for further testing during the WS. During the dry season of the same year, 8 breeding lines were evaluated with BRRI dhan47 as the tolerant check, but none of them outyielded BRRI dhan47.Genotypes selected from PYT were then evaluated in secondary yield trials (SYT). These trials normally involve fewer breeding lines but they are evaluated using the same methods described for PYT. BRRI dhan40 and 41 and BR11 were used as checks during the WS, and BRRI dhan28 and 47 were used during the DS. Numerous superior genotypes were selected during this process for both the WS and DS. Of particular importance are crop duration, plant height, grain quality, nonshattering, and grain yield. Selected genotypes are further tested in farmers' fields through PVS trials for final evaluation and selected lines are promoted for national testing and release as commercial varieties. BRRI dhan47 (IR63307-4B-4-3) was released through this process in 2006, and a few more lines are now in the final stages of testing.IRSSTN is the INGER nursery specific for salt-affected and other problem soils. Each country receives a set of genotypes through this network for evaluation under local conditions. Standard procedures are used across countries for evaluation and data collection. More than 160 breeding lines for the WS and 140 lines for the DS were evaluated between 2005 and 2008 in Bangladesh. During each season, selections were made relative to local high-yielding varieties and selected lines then went through the evaluation process described above. Germplasm evaluation for salt tolerance. This evaluation was performed under greenhouse conditions at BRRI, using culture solutions and the standard method developed at IRRI. Breeding lines selected from OYT, SYT, PVS, and IRSSTN trials were all evaluated for their salinity tolerance and selected lines were further tested for agronomic and quality traits. For example, during 2005-06, 170 IRRI lines, 57 landraces, 5 PVS lines, 19 IRSSTN materials, and 2 checks, Pokkali (tolerant) and IR29 (sensitive), were evaluated. In 2006-07, an additional 110 lines were evaluated and another set of 75 lines was evaluated in 2007-08. Tolerant lines were selected based on their overall performance using the standard IRRI SES scoring, with 1 being normal and 9 as dead or dying. Another set of trials was also conducted for evaluating breeding lines for tolerance of salt stress during the reproductive stage. The method used involved growing plants in perforated pots filled with fertilized soil. The pots were then bathed in saline water (6-8 dS/m), from a few days before panicle initiation until harvest. Tolerant lines were identified based on a set of traits, including the extent of panicle exsertion, fertility, overall health, and grain yield. These lines were then evaluated for other traits under field conditions.Farmers in the target areas mostly grow low-yielding local rice varieties during the wet season. In the dry season, a limited area is grown with high-yielding rice varieties, which are intolerant of salt stress and do not perform well under saline conditions. The development and deployment of suitable salt-tolerant varieties are essential for enhancing and stabilizing crop yields in these areas. In this project, local landraces from coastal saline belts were collected, evaluated for their salinity tolerance at the seedling stage, and then used as donors for developing improved varieties. In addition, advanced breeding lines and existing varieties received through the project's germplasm testing network were evaluated in farmers' fields and promising ones were selected through farmers' PVS trials. Seeds of selected genotypes were multiplied and provided to farmers for further testing and adoption. Collection and evaluation of rice germplasm. Forty-five rice landraces were collected from coastal saline areas of Orissa and West Bengal. They were evaluated for salinity tolerance at the seedling stage following the procedure developed by IRRI. Scoring for visual symptoms of salt injury was done at least twice during 8-16 days of growth at EC of 12 dS/m depending on environmental conditions and level of injury. Tolerant genotypes were re-evaluated in three replications to confirm their reaction. Nine lines were identified as tolerant (Kamini, Talmugra, Rahspanjar, Ourmundakan, Nangalmutha, Paloi, Marisal, Rupsal, and Ravana), with an SES score of 3. Some of these genotypes are now being used as donors in breeding programs. Development and evaluation of salt-tolerant rice varieties. Crosses were made using popular highyielding varieties Savitri, Gayatri, Swarna, Mahsuri, and Jaya as female parents and salt-tolerant donors Ourmundakan, Kalapanka, Rahspanjar, Bhurarati, Pokkali, and Patnai 23 as male parents for developing varieties for the WS. For the DS, high-yielding short-duration varieties Khandagiri, Parijat, and CR Boro Dhan 2 were used as female parents and the salt-tolerant donors IR73571-3B-2-1, IR72402-B-P-25-3-1, and NSICRC 106 as male parents. Elite breeding lines were evaluated along with existing salt-tolerant varieties, popular landraces, and elite lines from IRRI in on-farm trials during 2004-08 in RCBDs with three replications. The soils for these trials were sandy loam to clay loam, with pH of 5.5-6.6, organic C of 0.61-0.94%, total N of 0.06-0.09% and available P of 10-16 kg/ha. The most promising genotypes were reevaluated in subsequent years to test their yield stability.Out of 12 genotypes evaluated during the 2004 wet season, CR2093-7-1 produced the highest grain yield (6.4 t/ha), followed by Lunishree, Sonamani, CR2094-46-3, SR26B, and CR2096-71-2 (4.5-6.0 t/ha). The yields recorded in 2004 for most genotypes were relatively high, possibly because salinity was low (soil ECe of 2.4-6.6 dS/m and field water EC of 1.0-4.8 dS/m) and no drought owing to well-distributed rainfall. In the 2005 wet season, 13 genotypes were evaluated at two sites. Patnai 23 gave the highest grain yield (4.7 t/ha), followed by SR26B, CR2096-71-2, and CR2070-52-2 (3.6-3.8 t/ha) at site I (soil ECe of 3.9-10.4 dS/m and field water EC of 0.7-3.5 dS/m), and Lunishree, SR26B, CR2096-71-2, and CR 2093-7-1 (2.3-2.6 t/ha) at site II (soil ECe of 3.9-14.3 dS/m and water EC of 0.6-1.2 dS/m). Both sites were subject to earlyseason salinity followed by submergence twice during the active tillering stage. At site II, there was heavy infestation of leaf folder, resulting in lower yields.In the 2006 wet season, 14 genotypes were evaluated at two sites but the crop at one site was badly damaged by complete submergence for about 10 days soon after transplanting. Although the crop at the other site (soil ECe of 4.6-9.0 dS/m and field water EC of 1.2-5.5 dS/m) was also submerged for a few days, most of the genotypes survived and produced good yields. SR26B gave the highest grain yield of 3.6 t/ha, followed by Lunishree and CR2093-7-1 with a similar yield of 3.3 t/ha. Patnai 23 also had good yield. During the 2007 wet season, 14 genotypes were evaluated at two sites but most of them suffered heavy damage from drought and salinity at the seedling stage and unusually prolonged submergence after transplanting following heavy rainfall and blockage of the river mouth with sand deposits. Some of them even could not survive. Nevertheless, Lunishree, SR26B, Patnai 23, and CR2095-181-1 performed better at both sites and produced grain yields of 0.75-1.15 t/ha.Based on the results of these multisite and multilocation trials, SR26B, Patnai 23, Lunishree, CR2093-7-1, CR2096-71-2, and CR2070-52-2 were selected for the WS, and CSR4, Annapurna, IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1, IR72593-B-19-2-3-1, CR2473-7-169-1, CR2073-33-155-2, CR2473-9-136-1, CR2472-1-6-2, and CR2485-7-3-45-1 were selected for the DS as potential commercial varieties. The CRRI lines CR2096-71-2, CR2070-52-2, and CR2093-7-1 were nominated in 2005 for multilocation testing under the All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Program (AICRIP), and were found promising. Seeds of promising varieties/lines were multiplied and distributed to farmers of the target sites for testing in baby trials in their own fields each year.Evaluation of rice genotypes for sodicity tolerance through participatory varietal selection. PVS is an important tool for disseminating technology. We used this approach for validating and outscaling both salt-tolerant high-yielding varieties and management and mitigation practices. Methodology. PVS trials involving rice genotypes 2K219, CSR23, 2k239, NDR359, CSR13, CSR-89-IR-8, CSR30, CSR36, and 2K228 were conducted in farmers' fields with soil pH of 8.9 to 9.4 at Dhora Village, Unnao District, Uttar Pradesh, during the WS of 2006. Seedlings (35-d-old) were transplanted at 20 × 15cm spacing with four replications in 12-m 2 plots. The recommended doses of fertilizer (150 N:60P:25 ZnSO 4 ) were applied uniformly in all plots. Results. Narendra 359 had the highest grain yield (5.55 t/ha), followed by CSR36 (5.43 t/ha), CSR13 (5.11 t/ha), CSR-89-IR-8 (5.13 t/ha), and 2k239 (5.12 t/ha) at soil pH of 8.9. In fields with higher pH of 9.4, CSR13 had the highest yield (4.75 t/ha), followed by CSR-89-IR-8 (4.7 t/ha), CSR36 (4.7 t/ha), and Narendra 359 (4.2 t/ha). On the basis of these trials, it is also observed that genotype CSR-89-IR-8 matured about 10-20 days earlier than the other genotypes screened in the trials. These results suggested that adaptation of these varieties is site-specific based on the extent of stress, and that PVS is a good method for selecting varieties that can meet local adaptive and preference requirements. Rice genotypes identified for sodicity tolerance from international sources. A total of five genetically diverse germplasm entries, including three check varieties developed by CSSRI, were evaluated in highly sodic soils (pH 9.8) at the regional research farm, Shivari. The results indicated that entries CSR36 and IR70023-4B-R-12-3-1 developed by CSSRI and IRRI performed better than the other entries, with grain yield of 2.0 t/ha. Other promising entries were IR64419-3B3-2 (1.8 t/ha) and IR51491-AC10 (1.5 t/ha).Screening of IRSSTN germplasm for soil sodicity tolerance. IRSSTON entries and checks were screened every year for the project duration and selected lines were field-tested in PVS trials and used in breeding. In 2008, 40 entries and 2 checks (CSR30 and Narendra Usar Dhan 3) were evaluated in replicated trials at pH 10.5 during the WS. Entries were grown in 2-row plots of 5 m length using 20 × 15-cm spacing during transplanting of 35-d-old seedlings. Plant height (cm), days to heading, phenotypic acceptability, tillering ability, spikelet fertility (%), tolerance scores, yield, and disease and pest scores were evaluated using the SES. Monthly weather data indicate that total rainfall was high during the first week of August and declined progressively toward the end of the WS. Entries showed wider variation in all traits evaluated; 10 entries were selected for subsequent evaluation. Evaluation of promising lines for high sodicity tolerance. Twenty lines selected in previous years were evaluated for sodicity tolerance and zinc efficiency at pH 9.5 and 10.5 in two different sets, using an RCBD with three replications. Wide genetic variability was observed for yield and its attributes in both sets. The best entries at both pH are IR66946-3R-178-1-1 (FL 478), 507 (EC 541934), and IR75395-2B-B-19-2-1-2. These entries will be multiplied, promoted for validation in PVS field trials, and used for hybridization. Generation and evaluation of segregating populations and evaluation of local material. This activity began from the start of the project to generate new material. Each season, segregating F 2 s and advanced populations were evaluated in alkaline fields at pH 9.5. Selections were made and backcrossed, whereas topcrosses were purified for evaluation at higher sodicity. In addition, every year a few single crosses were made using local material, including landraces, to widen the genetic variability for further selection. Local landraces were also being collected every year and evaluated for tolerance. For example, in 2008, 19 traditional and improved genotypes collected from several districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh during 2006 and 2007 were evaluated and characterized for growth, phenology, and yield, and 6 genotypes (Amghaur, Gujrat 70, Kalanamak, Pusa Basmati1, NDR 359, and Sarjoo 52) were selected and used as donors for hybridization and for field testing.The past two decades witnessed substantial growth in agricultural production in Vietnam, with considerable improvement in farmers' livelihoods. However, most farmers living in coastal salt-affected areas of the Mekong Delta have not benefited sufficiently from these developments owing to the low productivity of these areas caused by persistent rapid population growth, diminishing agricultural land due to industrial expansion, land degradation, and persisting abiotic stresses such as salinity, toxicities to high Al and Fe, and low pH. Crop yields in these areas are generally low and are progressively decreasing, particularly in saline areas where farmers still use traditional varieties and practices. The project helped in introducing measures that can help enhance and stabilize productivity in these areas, through the introduction of salt-tolerant varieties adapted to these areas, best agricultural practices, and better cropping patterns. New salt-tolerant rice varieties adapted to the Mekong Delta region are being developed using both conventional and modern approaches such as anther culture, mutation, and marker-assisted breeding. Numerous short-maturity varieties such as Tam Xoan-93, Tep Hanh, Mot Bui Do, OM 4498, OM 5900, and AS 996 were developed that can yield 4 to 5 t/ha under salt stress of 6.0 to 9.0 dS/m, and they are now being outscaled. Most of these achievements were published in the Proceedings of the International Conference Delta 2007: Managing the Coastal Land-Water Interface in Tropical Delta Systems, and the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food 2nd International Forum on Water and Food. Collection and evaluation of local germplasm. Over the past four years, about 200 local landraces were collected; 65 of them were identified for analysis of different adaptive and agronomic traits. Considerable variation was observed in grain yield and yield attributes, as well as in growth and phenology. Molecular analysis using 34 polymorphic SSR markers indicated significant genetic diversity among the 65 traditional varieties, with 6 distinct clusters. Breeding strategies. Different approaches are being followed at the Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute (CLDRRI) to develop salt-tolerant varieties of rice, including conventional methods involving crosses with salt-tolerant donors and subsequent selection for agronomic and adaptive traits over several generations. Moreover, modern breeding tools such as mutation breeding, anther culture, and molecular markers are being implemented to accelerate progress in breeding salt-tolerant varieties. Our phenotyping system follows the screening methods developed at IRRI using the Standard Evaluation System for rice. Mutation breeding. New breeding lines of known varieties were developed through radiation and chemical mutagenesis. An example is the development of Tam Xoan-93 from the Vietnamese variety Tam Xoan, a traditional variety from northern Vietnam that is tall, has low yield, but has good grain quality and reasonably high tolerance of acid sulfate soils. Seeds of Tam Xoan were gamma-irradiated and the generated plantlets were advanced and screened for salinity tolerance in each generation. Tam Xoan-93 was subsequently identified with superior agronomic and quality traits: it matures earlier, is shorter, has more tillering capacity and higher harvest index, and yields more than 3 times the original variety, coupled with its high tolerance of salt stress. This new variety was released to farmers during 2004-05 and is being outscaled through this project; it already covered more than 500 ha by 2006. Anther culture. This is a quick method for developing homozygous salt-tolerant lines. We are now using this method to breed salt-tolerant varieties adapted to the salt-affected soils of the Mekong Delta. Six crosses involving high-yielding varieties × salt-tolerant donors were made and their progeny cultured and advanced after selection each year. Some 26 derived lines were selected that are salt-tolerant and they were being further evaluated for both seedling-and reproductive-stage salinity tolerance, as well as for other agronomic traits in the greenhouse of CLDRRI. The best selected lines will enter into yield trials in subsequent years for field evaluation and potential release as varieties. This demonstrated the effectiveness of anther culture in breeding. Use of DNA markers to accelerate progress in breeding for salt tolerance. We developed several mapping populations using salt-tolerant and sensitive genotypes and used them for mapping QTLs associated with salinity tolerance during the seedling stage. Two QTLs with relatively large effects were identified, one on chromosome 1 and the second on chromosome 8. Microsatellite markers closely linked to these loci were identified, such as RM215 associated with the QTL on chromosome 1 and RM223 associated with the QTL on chromosome 8. These markers were further evaluated for their effectiveness in selection using a set of 24 improved varieties, including tolerant (Pokkali) and sensitive (IR28) checks. The results indicated an accuracy of more than 95% in identifying tolerant cultivars, which indicated the usefulness of these markers in parental surveys and in identifying tolerant lines from segregating populations; however, further tests are needed to confirm their effectiveness in different genetic backgrounds. More efforts are needed to develop markers closely linked to these two QTLs to be used in MABC.Lines received through INGER together with local checks were evaluated regularly during both the wet and dry seasons each year during this project. These lines were evaluated in farmers' field trials as well as at the CLDRRI station. Different traits were assessed, including crop duration, plant height, grain setting and fertility, quality traits, and salinity tolerance. Lines that are early maturing (90-110 days), semidwarf (90-110 cm), with a medium number of panicles/hill (8-10), a high number of grains/panicle (80-100), and high tolerance of salinity were selected for further testing in rice-rice cropping patterns. Examples are IR73571-3B-9-3 and IR73571-3B-9-3 selected for salt-affected areas of Long Xuyen square and Ca Mau Peninsula. Some lines were also identified that have high salt tolerance but relatively longer duration such as IR73571-3B-9-2 (114 days) and IR73571-3B-5-1 and IR73055-8-3-1-3-1 (113 days), and these lines will be suitable for the rice-shrimp cropping pattern in Ca Mau Peninsula and other salt-affected areas. Selected lines will be further tested in subsequent years. A few salt-tolerant breeding lines were being tested in farmers' fields in Tra Vinh and some short-maturity lines (<100 d) were selected from IRRI breeding material that yield reasonably higher than the check AS 996. Lines such as OM 6043, OM 6036, OM 6040, and OM 6038 yielded significantly higher than the check variety and are considered candidates for release in areas where up to three crops can be grown each year. Besides the progress discussed above, the following activities were also undertaken by CLRRI: Identified breeding lines such as OMCS 2000 (tolerant) and OM 576 and OM 1490 (moderate) from greenhouse screening at EC of 10-12 dS/m. This material will be tested in the field.Selected 512 progenies and 96 bulk populations from F 3 -F 7 generation based on salinity tolerance and adaptability in salt-affected areas.Selected 21 moderately tolerant and 35 tolerant genotypes from observational trials for further evaluation; one somaclonal line, OM 5930, selected based on yield and phenotypic acceptance; two advanced lines, OM 2428 and OMCS 2009, were chosen by farmers for the rice-shrimp system for their earliness.Following extensive field testing, recommended about 10 lines for national testing and release as new varieties. About 70 lines from IRRI were moderately tolerant to tolerant. Some lines were selected for Tra Vinh and Bac Lieu provinces: IR73055-8-3-1-3-1, IR73571-3B-5-1, and IR73571-3B-9-2 because of their high yield, tolerance of bacterial leaf blight and brown planthopper, and adaptation to salt-affected areas. Three lines were also approved as new rice varieties for riceshrimp systems in the Mekong Delta. IR73055-8-3-1-3-1 and IR73571-3B-5-1 were selected by farmers and will be further evaluated in subsequent years. Multilocation yield trials. (i) In 2005, 22 elite breeding materials and five salt-tolerant and sensitive highyielding check varieties (OM 4495, OM 4498, OM 5240, OM 5439, OM 5976) were evaluated in Tra Vinh and Bac Lieu in six farmers' fields each with salinity of 6-7 dS/m in microplots in an RBD with three replications. OM 4498 and OM 4495 consistently ranked the best in almost all PVS trials in the field; (ii) in 2006, 10 lines (OM 4498, OM 5900, OM 4900, OM 5625, OM 4412, OM 5936, OM 6073, OM 2513, OM 2488, and AS 996) were evaluated at Tra Vinh and Bac Lieu in six farmers' fields each with salinity of 6-7 dS/m, as in 2005, and AS 996 and OM 5900 were selected; (iii) in 2007, 9 elite breeding materials (HG1, OM 4498, OM 4900, OM 5936, OM 5930, OM 5625, OM 2513, OM 5636, AS 996) and five high-yielding checks were evaluated at Tra Vinh and Bac Lieu, again in six farmers' fields each with salinity of 6-7 dS/m, and OM 4900 was selected for the WS; (iv) in 2008, 22 elite breeding materials and five high-yielding checks were evaluated as in the two provinces in previous years, and two lines, HG2 and OM 6073, were consistently the best. Material identified through these trials is being further validated through PVS trials before recommendation for national testing and release.Identification of new salt-tolerant rice genotypes. RRTC succeeded in developing some salt-tolerant rice varieties such as Giza 178, Sakha104 and 224, and SK2034H hybrid. During this project, an attempt was made to identify new elite breeding lines with higher salinity tolerance. Zinc deficiency also emerged as an alarming problem in salt-affected areas in Egypt and efforts were also made to screen genotypes that are more efficient in Zn uptake from salt-affected soils. Some 111 entries from different sources were selected and evaluated for tolerance of salinity and zinc deficiency during two successive seasons of 2007 and 2008.These lines were evaluated at the agricultural farm of the El Sirw Agricultural Research Station located in the northern part of the delta in Dammietta Province. This research station has a mandate to conduct research on salt-stress tolerance in various crops. A trial was irrigated with a mixture of fresh and saline water, with salinity ranging from 1.5 to 2.1 dS/m throughout the season. Each entry was grown in seven rows, 5 m each, with spacing of 20 × 20 cm. Soil samples were taken from each plot and analyzed at the RRTC laboratory for salinity and soil Zn concentration. Sowing was on 20 April in both years and transplanting was done 30 days after sowing. Data on heading and tolerance of salt stress and Zn deficiency were collected. At harvest, ten plants from each entry were randomly taken to estimate yield components. Panicles per plant, plant height, and panicle length were also measured. The inner five rows of each plot were harvested, threshed, dried, and used for determining grain yield. Cultural practices were followed using recommendations from RRTC. Results and discussion. Some genotypes showed high tolerance of salt stress comparable with that of Giza 178. Based on the two years of data, Giza 178, IET 1444, GZ5121-5-1-2, IR75395-2B-B-19-2-1-2, IR63307-4B-9-2, IR72593-B-3-2-3-8, IR72593-B-3-2-3-13, and IR75395-2B-B-19-2-1-2 were the most salt-tolerant entries, and, among these, the highly preferred entries were IR75395-2B-B-19-2-1-2, Giza 178, IR75395-2B-B-19-2-1-2, and IR63307-4B-9-2. These genotypes were selected based on their grain quality and tolerance of both salinity and Zn deficiency. Selected genotypes are further being disseminated to farmers in target areas. Apparently, new elite high-yielding genotypes with higher tolerance of salt stress were identified in these studies. These genotypes could be considered for release as commercial varieties after further evaluation of their grain quality. These genotypes are also being tested in other regions with similar soil problems for evaluation by farmers in PVS trials. Selected genotypes can also be used in breeding as donors for salt tolerance. Interestingly, this is the first time that screening for zinc deficiency was carried out, and the selected genotypes are important for breeding and further studies. Another important aspect of this study is the realization that selection for higher tolerance of salt stress and Zn deficiency could be carried out simultaneously at hot spots; however, more resources are needed to continue these efforts.Research on salinity at the RRII, Iran, began with this project, after recognition of the escalating salt damage around the Caspian Sea, particularly in years when fresh water in irrigation canals was low, resulting in salt intrusion and sometimes forcing farmers to use saline underground water late in the season, with devastating effects. Baseline socioeconomic surveys were conducted at target sites to understand the challenges and farmers' coping practices. Germplasm development. More than 50 native materials were collected from different provinces of Iran, and seeds were multiplied for evaluation of their salinity tolerance as well as for other agronomic traits. Screening of local material identified some lines that are tolerant such as Shiroodi, Shahpasand, Neda, Ahlami-tarom, Rashti, Abji-boji, Hasani, Dorfak, and Ghas-ol-dashti. RRII participated regularly in nominating breeding material and released varieties for sharing and testing in other countries through INGER, for example, genotypes Nemat, Sang-tarom, Hasani, Dasht, and Hashemi were nominated in 2008. Since the start of the project, new crosses were being made every year and segregating material selected and advanced for testing in farmers' fields. Testing of the identified new salt-tolerant materials in salt-affected farmers' fields. Fourteen selected salt-tolerant rice genotypes, together with Pokkali and IR29 as checks, were tested in farmers' fields in 2008. Three lines (Binam, SAL23, and SAL28) showed better performance and were selected for further tests in farmers' fields. In 2008, the numerous populations developed in past years were tested for salinity tolerance at seedling and reproductive stages. These populations are (1) BC populations (Spidroud/Ahlami-tarom)//Ahlami-tarom, (Neda/Ahlami-tarom)//Ahlami-tarom, and (2) F 2:3 populations (RILs): Khazar/ Tarom-mahali (about 160 F 4 s). These populations are being advanced for selection in subsequent seasons. Segregating populations developed each year were tested in salt-affected fields in Ghajarkheil District in Mazandaran. PVS trials were also instituted in both Gilan and Mazandran, the main rice-producing northern provinces, and seeds of selected genotypes from mother trials were increased each year and distributed to farmers for further testing before nomination for release. Nonrice crops. Seeds of accessions of five crops-rapeseed (7 acc.), fodder beet (8), barley (17), pearl millet (45), and sorghum (13)-were sent by ICBA to Iran in October 2007. Seeds of three crops (rapeseed, fodder beet, and barley) have been sown in salt-affected lands as a second crop in rotation with rice. Two other sets were not sown as they are summer crops. Based on preliminary analysis, four cultivars of canola , two barley cultivars (86/2 A, 58/1 A), and one fodder beet (acc. # Magnum) showed good performance in the first year of testing. These crops provide an option for farmers to grow another crop during the winter season, when lands are normally left fallow.Choice of plant species. The project activities at ICRISAT center on identifying nonrice crop species with tolerance of salinity. The major focus is on finding tolerant legumes suitable for saline soil, as a way to fit in fallows after WS rice, particularly in areas where freshwater resources are limited. After contacting the different partners in India and Bangladesh early in the project, we decided to work on chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut, which are also ICRISAT's mandate crops. There was also some interest in black gram and green gram, but the lack of direct access to germplasm made us leave these species aside. We also considered pearl millet and sorghum as possible fodder sources in India and Bangladesh. Peanut was considered a good commodity for salt-affected areas, with potential use in India, Bangladesh, and Vietnam. Setup protocol for salinity screening. At the beginning of the project, we first established a protocol to assess response to salinity across a range of crops. We initially used pigeonpea, groundnut, black gram, and green gram, using a few accessions for each species. The basic purpose was to define one salt treatment for which plant growth would be decreased by about 50% compared with a control. The screening setup for each crop species would then be used later on to screen a larger number of accessions. Plants were grown in 6-inch pots, filled with 2.3 kg of Alfisol. Three salt treatments were applied, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl. The treatments involved applying a salt solution on dry soil and then saturating it to field capacity (more or less 20% of the soil weight) with the respective salt concentrations. These treatments corresponded to an application of 0.58, 1.17, and 1.75 g NaCl/kg of soil. Similar experiments were done to determine an adequate salt concentration to screen for salinity tolerance in chickpea, using a Vertisol, and the adequate treatment appeared to be 1.17 g NaCl/kg Vertisol, that is, the application of 80 mM NaCl solution in sufficient amount to saturate the Vertisol (25% w/w). Protocols to screen for tolerant groundnut and pigeonpea were set up. After two repeated experiments, it was found that 100 mM NaCl (1.17 g NaCl/kg Alfisol) was suitable for screening in groundnut, whereas an application of 75 mM NaCl (approximately 0.88 g NaCl/kg Alfisol) was suitable in pigeonpea. Pigeonpea was indeed a lot more susceptible than groundnut to salt stress. We initially applied the salt treatment once only at sowing time, by saturating the soil with the salt solution. However, we found that this had a deleterious effect on early seedling development, except in chickpea. Therefore, to prevent a possible osmotic effect at germination stage, the salt application was split into three staggered applications in all subsequent experiments, performed within the first 2 weeks after sowing, by applying one-third of the dose at each application. The pots were sealed so that no salt could leach out. Watering was done daily to keep pots close to field capacity and prevent building up of salt, thus also avoiding waterlogging. Salt response was initially evaluated based on the biomass produced at about 50 days (vegetative stage). However, we soon realized that biomass under salt stress had little relation to yield under stress conditions. Therefore, most subsequent evaluations focused on yield. The protocols developed were set up in outdoor conditions, using large pots that allowed yield evaluation in a way similar to field conditions. This outdoor facility was equipped with portable rainout shelters to cover the crop in case of rain. Pots of 28 cm diameter were used, with 4 plants per pot for chickpea and 2 plants per pot for pigeonpea, groundnut, pearl millet, and sorghum. Screening of the chickpea mini-core collection. Plants were grown under saline and nonsaline conditions in 27-cm diameter pots containing 7.5 kg of Vertisol soil taken from the ICRISAT farm. The experiments were carried out between November 2004 and March 2005 at ICRISAT headquarters (Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India) in an open-air facility equipped with a rainout shelter. The average maximum temperatures ranged between 29.7 and 32.6 °C and minimum temperatures ranged between 15.4 and 16.1 °C. A similar experiment was repeated between November 2005 and March 2006. Salt-stress treatment was applied as an 80-mM solution of NaCl in a sufficient volume to wet the soil to field capacity. Two experiments were planted side by side: one for the evaluation of biomass at 50 DAS, the other for seed yield, with an RCBD in each experiment with two factors (salt and control) and three replications. A total of 263 genotypes were tested, including 211 accessions from the mini-core collection of ICRISAT (10% of the core collection, 1% of the entire collection), chickpea lines reported as tolerant of sodicity, popular cultivars and breeding lines, and one cultivar previously released by CSSRI for salinity tolerance (CSG8962). Both kabuli (58) and desi types (192) were included in the study. Screening of the groundnut reference collection. A total of 288 groundnut genotypes were screened, including the 189 accessions of the mini-core groundnut collection of ICRISAT, some breeding lines from the groundnut breeding group, and genotypes selected based on their passport data (origin in the Chaco area of northern Argentina, western Paraguay, and southeastern Bolivia, an area supposedly affected by salinity). Three trials were conducted: in 2005, between mid-April and mid-June; in 2006, between mid-April and the end of August; and one between November 2006 and March 2007. In the first trial, plants were grown for 60 days, corresponding to the pod development stage in most entries, under either control conditions (fresh water) or salinity (1.17 g NaCl/kg of soil applied in three splits doses, at sowing and in the initial 2 weeks afterward). In the second and third trials, plants were also grown under both saline and control conditions, and grown up to maturity. At harvest, shoot biomass, total pod weight, weight of mature pods, and number of total and mature pods were recorded.A large set of 300 accessions of pigeonpea has been screened. Of the 300 accessions 150 genotypes were from the mini-core collection of ICRISAT's genetic resource unit, 68 were different wild accessions, 69 were accessions selected from salt-affected areas worldwide (Bangladesh, Taiwan, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Argentina, Iran, and Brazil), and 13 genotypes were from breeding material (breeding lines and cytoplasmic male sterile lines; derivatives of different wild species), along with a few pigeonpea hybrids. Three trials were performed. The first was planted on 31 July 2005 under a rainout shelter in an alpha lattice design (30 × 10) in three replications with two treatments (0.88 g NaCl/kg of Alfisol and a control). The experiment was repeated in 2006 during the summer season but failed because all plants in the stress treatment died after salt treatment. We attributed this effect to the much higher vapor pressure deficit prevailing at the time of this experiment (March), with a consequent high salt uptake. A third trial was successfully repeated in 2007, during the rainy season also (planting in July and harvest at 60 DAS). At harvest, plants were separated into leaves and stems. There was very little flowering and pod setting, except for short-duration pigeonpea genotypes, so that pods were not considered for statistical analysis. Among the crops tested, pigeonpea was the only one in which only biomass was evaluated, rather than yield as in other crops. The reason was that pigeonpea seems more sensitive to salt stress and tolerance was initially dependent on survival under salinity, whereas, in the other legumes, most germplasm survives well under salt-stress conditions and genotypic differences in tolerance were reflected in grain yield. Results: screening protocols and relative tolerance of several legume species. Preliminary results showed great variation between species for salinity tolerance. Pigeonpea appeared to be the most sensitive to salinity, but also showed large variations, with some accessions dying at stress (0.88 g NaCl/kg Alfisol), whereas some genotypes were more tolerant. Groundnut appeared to have fairly good tolerance, even at 1.75 g NaCl/kg Alfisol. Black gram and green gram had intermediate tolerance between groundnut and pigeonpea, and showed a fairly large growth reduction at 150 mM, although they survived. From the preliminary experiments, we chose the range 1.17-1.46 g NaCl/kg Alfisol to screen for salinity tolerance in groundnut, and the 0.58-0.88 g NaCl/kg Alfisol range for pigeonpea. A treatment of 1.17 g NaCl/kg Vertisol was previously identified as suitable for screening for salinity tolerance in chickpea. Although the treatments for chickpea and groundnut were the same, we argue that groundnut is probably more tolerant than chickpea because the high organic matter content of Vertisol likely \"buffered\" part of the salt effect. Indeed, we also developed another protocol for screening for salinity tolerance in Alfisol in chickpea, through another project, and found that the seed yield under salt stress in Alfisol (under 0.94 g NaCl/kg Alfisol) was a little over 40% of that in Vertisol (1.17 g NaCl/kg Vertisol). Screening of the chickpea mini-core collection. Very large variation for yield response was observed, ranging from 2 to 12 g/pot under stress. Three findings were noteworthy: (i) 5-6 genotypes yielded better than a previously released salinity-tolerant variety (CSG6982); (ii) two parents of an existing RIL population fell at the extreme ends of the ranking, which opened up the possibility of finding QTLs for salinity tolerance in chickpea (this RIL population was phenotyed with support from another project); (iii) there was no relation between seed yield obtained under salt stress and biomass at 50 days after sowing. These studies further showed that earliness was an important characteristic of salt-tolerant chickpea, and that salttolerant chickpea is an Na excluder. Data from the early harvest showed that chickpea accumulated considerably less Na in shoots (0.1-0.5%) than sorghum (0.4-1.0%) or pearl millet (0.7-2.5%). Seed yield was related to the capacity of tolerant genotypes to keep a relatively large number of filled pods compared with sensitive genotypes. In contrast, seed yield under stress was not related to relative 100-seed weight (relative to a control). These data show that the reproductive stage rather than seed-filling differences accounted for the differences in salt tolerance between genotypes. The trial was repeated in 2005-06 and largely confirmed the results of the first trial. From this repeat experiment, crosses were made between contrasting genotypes (tolerant ICC1431 × ICC 6263 (sensitive) and tolerant JG11 × ICCV2 (sensitive)). Because phenology appeared to also interact with salinity tolerance, genotypes with similar duration used in the crossing program were chosen. These populations are now being descended under another project supported by the Australian Research Council. Data from the first year have been published in Field Crops Research (Vadez et al 2007). Data from 3 years of trials (2004-07) are being synthesized into a manuscript. Screening of the groundnut mini-core collection. From the screening carried out in the first year (2005), we found very limited variation for biomass under salt-stress conditions. In contrast, variation in number of pods and pegs at harvest was relatively high. From there on, and based on the lack of a relation between biomass at the vegetative stage and seed yield in chickpea (see above), we decided to assess groundnut pod yield in subsequent screenings. We carried out two such screenings, in April-August 2006 and November 2006-March 2007, in order to test genotype response in two different seasons. In 2006, the range of variation for pod yield under salinity was about 6-7-fold between the most and the least tolerant genotypes. Unlike previous findings in chickpea, we found no relation between pod yield under salinity and pod yield under a control, meaning that salinity tolerance for pod yield production under salinity was not related to the yield potential of groundnut. Again, contrary to previous findings in other crops, we found a modest relation between the ratio of pod yield (salinity/control) and the ratio of shoot biomass at maturity, suggesting that selection for biomass under salinity could improve grain yield. However, that relation was not confirmed in 2006-07. The number of pods per plant decreased by 50% under salt stress and pod weight was only 30% of that under a control. This suggested that both ability to produce pods and the ability to fill them are important under salt stress. The third screening (2006-07) revealed a fivefold range of variation in pod yield under salt stress (treatment of 1.46 g/kg soil was used, instead of 1.17 g/kg in 2006), ranging from 6.5 to 35 g/pot, with a large G × E interaction between the two years. Combined analyses of the data from both years identified 14 tolerant and 16 sensitive genotypes under salinity stress. In 2006-07, pod weight was less affected by salinity than in 2006, being 52% of the control, probably because of lower evaporative demand during the reproductive stage in 2006-07 compared with that in 2006. More details are discussed in a manuscript prepared for the IDCC conference (Alexandria, Egypt, 7-11 November 2008).A total of 31 groundnut genotypes contrasting in salinity tolerance were used to study the molecular diversity among them. Twenty-one primer pairs of groundnut SSR markers were selected on the basis of size differences, and DNA fragments were denatured and size-fractioned using capillary electrophoresis on an ABI-3100 automatic DNA sequencer. Of the 31 lines analyzed, 18 showed polymorphism. Diversity analysis was carried out to assess the genetic distance between lines and to identify pairs of contrasting parents for both phenotypic and genotypic analysis. Data are now available to identify pairs of parents that contrast both genetically and phenotypically. Publication of the work is planned and a PhD thesis is almost finalized on that screening and diversity analysis work. Interestingly, we found that genotype JL24 (sensitive) contrasted with ICG (FDRS) 10 (tolerant) across seasons. Genotype CSMG 84-1 (sensitive) also contrasted with genotypes ICGS44 and ICGS76 (tolerant). RIL populations from ICGS44 × CSMG 84-1 and ICGS76 × CSMG 84-1 have been developed for TE in past years and are now at F 8 . These three populations are available for mapping of tolerance of salt stress. Contacts were made with Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and with NRCG, Junagath, Gujarat, to further evaluate these lines at their locations. Current plans are to confirm the previous contrast identified in these lines and multiply these lines for field testing in salt-affected areas. Screening of the pigeonpea mini-core collection. In pigeonpea, assessment was made based on percent relative reduction under saline conditions compared with a control and the salinity susceptibility index by using the formula SSI = (1 -YSS/YNS)/SII, where YSS and YNS are the mean biomass of a given accession in saline and nonsaline conditions, respectively. SII (salinity intensity index) was calculated as SII = 1 -XSS/XNS, where XSS and XNS are the means of all accessions under salinity-stressed and nonstressed environments. Genotypes with <50% relative reduction and with SSI between 0 and 0.75 were considered tolerant. Genotypes with 50-70% relative reduction and SSI of 0.76 to 1.05 were considered moderately tolerant, and those with relative reduction of 70-90% and SSI of 1.06-1.37 were considered moderately susceptible. Others with higher values are considered highly sensitive. A very large range of variation for percent relative reduction in biomass (2-100%) was observed, with ICPW 87 and ICPW 94 as the most tolerant. Both genotypes belong to C. scaraboides. One accession (ICPW 68) of C. platycarpus also had a low SSI of 0.37 and only 24.3% relative reduction in biomass. Among the wild accessions, ICPW 87 and ICPW 94 were the most tolerant of salinity, with SSI of 0.03 and 0.28, and their relative biomass reduction was small (2.0% and 18.6%). Both genotypes belong to C. scaraboides. One accession (ICPW 68) of C. platycarpus also had a low SSI (0.37) and only a 24% reduction in biomass. In the set originating from areas putatively affected by salinity, ICP 13991, 14974, 13997, and 11412 were tolerant and ICP 13625, 13996, 14175, 11414, and 11420 showed high susceptibility. In the mini-core collection, 13 genotypes were considered tolerant (ICP 8860, 7803, 7260, 6815, 10654, 3046, 2746, 7426, 10559, 7057, 6049, 6859, and ICP 7), whereas three (ICP 15493, 15382, 1071) were considered susceptible. For the accessions selected from different areas putatively being affected by salinity, the variation ranged from 42% to 100% for relative reduction in biomass and from 0.64 to 1.52 for SSI, which also shows a very large genotypic variation to identify contrasting entries for salinity tolerance. In this set, ICP 13991, 14974, 13997, and 11412 were tolerant and ICP 13625, 13996, 14175, 11414, and 11420 showed high susceptibility. Among the mini-core collection of pigeonpea, the range of variation for biomass relative reduction was 15-100% and for SSI 0.23-1.52. These data show that the mini-core collection contained genotypes having higher salinity tolerance than in the group of genotypes putatively originating from salinity-affected areas. Out of 150 genotypes of the mini-core, 13 were considered as tolerant (ICP 8860, 7803, 7260, 6815, 10654, 3046, 2746, 7426, 10559, 7057, 6049, 6859, and ICP 7) and four (ICP 15493, 15382, 1071, and 6739) as salinity susceptible. Finally, for the set of wild derivatives of pigeonpea, the range varied from 42% to 84% for biomass relative reduction and 0.75-1.52 for SSI. Out of these, ICPB 2051, 2030, and 2039 were tolerant. Testing of pearl millet, sorghum, and groundnut in a farmer's field of Orissa. Ten genotypes each of pearl millet and sorghum were tested in a farmer's field of Orissa as potential forages in saline soils. Three genotypes of groundnut were also tested but salinity was probably too high and the crop failed to establish. Sorghum and pearl millet seem to be promising in these areas where some accessions of both crops produced more than 1 t/ha of fodder yield in saline fields in several cuttings. Tolerant lines of groundnut and sensitive checks (total of 11) were also sent to CRRI for further testing in 2008-09. In summary, after the 4 years of this project, we identified several highly tolerant genotypes of groundnut, chickpea, and pigeonpea based on large-scale assessment of the mini-core collections of these crops. These trials were carried out at least twice, with a focus on grain yield as a measure of genetic tolerance, contrary to many previous studies. Genotypes identified in these studies are now being used by breeders and for developing mapping populations for the identification of QTLs for salinity tolerance. This germplasm is also being tested in multilocation trials. The project also helped develop large-scale phenotyping facilities allowing the evaluation of a large number of entries and breeding lines. The contrasting germplasm identified is being used for studying mechanisms of tolerance of salt stress. Contrary to prevalent knowledge, Na accumulation in shoots has little relation with grain yield under stress in chickpea, groundnut, sorghum, and pearl millet, an important finding for effective breeding strategies and for studying their mechanisms of adaptation to salt-affected areas. Apparently, the extensive work done on the role of Na exclusion from plant tissue might have little relevance for chickpea and groundnut. The project has also been the basis for several peer-reviewed publications and two PhD theses (one currently submitted and two others in progress: one on pearl millet, one on chickpea).Rice-based cropping systems in the Nile River and Caspian Sea basins are affected by salinity, particularly late in the season. In addition, a fallow period exists between rice and the following crop. Existing crops are usually not profitable in salt-affected areas, but prospects are good for the introduction of new, more tolerant crops and varieties. Short-duration crops with sufficient salt tolerance are needed to provide alternatives for farmers so they can select material suitable for their conditions and use. The availability of salt-tolerant field and forage crops such as pearl millet, sorghum, barley, triticale, safflower, etc., would be of great benefit to these farmers, particularly when using effective and affordable management measures, as forage shortage is a major constraint in salt-affected areas. This component of the project focused on selecting promising crop genotypes that are salt tolerant and fast growing to be used as gap-filling crops within rice-based rotations. A large number of genotypes of numerous summer and winter crops were screened at salinity levels commonly experienced in farmers' fields. Many genotypes were selected with stable yield under moderate to high salt stress.Rice is grown from May to September in the Nile Valley and the Caspian Sea basin. Farmers grow several traditional crops in between two cropping cycles to maximize farm productivity. However, salinity in rice fields increases with excessive irrigation and the use of saline/brackish water. We attempted to identify crop species that are more tolerant of salt stress and adapted to conditions of rising salinity. Two types of crops were attempted: (a) fast-growing forages that can be planted in September and harvested in late November before the winter crops are sown and (b) salt-tolerant crops that fit the whole period between two cycles. For this purpose, ICBA started genetic improvement of barley, triticale, fodder beet, forage brassica, pearl millet, sorghum, and safflower for high yield under saline environments. These crops are the main source of winter and summer forages, except safflower, which is a valuable cash crop. Large numbers of genetically diverse accessions of these crops were screened at low, medium, and high salinity (5, 10, and 15 dS/m). Screening trials were conducted using pots to select a smaller number of promising genotypes for eventual field testing. High-yielding salt-tolerant genotypes (25 to 30) of each crop were identified and nurseries were assembled. These nurseries were evaluated under field conditions at three salinity levels and promising lines were used for seed multiplication. The seed was then distributed to NARES and farmers in the targeted regions for evaluation to select the best-performing genotypes under their growing conditions. More than 2,300 accessions of barley were evaluated at ICBA and other locations in West Asia and North Africa (WANA) regions. In addition, 64 barley varieties supplied by ICARDA were evaluated under field conditions. Similarly, more than 1,000 accessions of triticale were screened in pots at 10 dS/m. About 150 genotypes with variable seed type and forage type were selected for further evaluation. Biomass and seed yield of some accessions were in an acceptable range, even at higher salinity. As expected, yield decreased by 28% and 13% at high and medium salinity, respectively; however, genotypes with high salt tolerance and yield were identified. Overall dry matter and seed yield of barley varied between 12.9 to 4.5 t/ha and 5.6 to 0.3 t/ha, respectively. Varieties Saida, Australian, Badia, Giza-125, and Manel had the highest dry matter and seed yields under control conditions and at high salinity. Moreover, five international barley nurseries were also screened at ICBA. These nurseries were developed for specific agro-climatic conditions for barley cultivation. A wide range of genetic variability within and among genotypes was observed. Promising genotypes were selected from each nursery and assembled for further evaluation in saline fields. Most of the triticale genotypes showed high biomass and seed production, and genotypes were subsequently grouped into forage types and seed types. Fifteen fodder beet (Beta vulgaris) and seven forage rape/canola (Brassica napus) varieties were also evaluated for salt tolerance at ICBA and in other countries. Fodder beet varieties had good germination and establishment at all salinity levels and a few varieties were selected, such as Blaze, Blizzard, Interval, and Hobson. Most of the fodder beet varieties maintained higher biomass production at medium and high salinity and aboveground biomass yield decreased by a maximum of 31% under high salinity. Aboveground green forage yield varied from 26 to 41 t/ha and fresh tuber yield ranged from 74 to 95 t/ha. Beet varieties Turbo, Blaze, Blizzard, Tintin, Kyros, and Magnum produced higher aboveground green forage (up to 41 t/ha) and tuber yield (up to 95 t/ha) across the salinity levels tested. The yield of brassica varieties was also acceptable, although their yield declined with increasing salinity. Rape variety 98-D produced the highest green forage yield. The use of highly saline water reduced green forage and dry matter yield by up to 44% and 47%, respectively.Around 600 safflower accessions were screened in pots, and 273 accessions were identified and reevaluated. Subsequently, 60 elite accessions were selected for field evaluation in 2007-08. The average number of heads/plant varied from 1.2 to 16. Biomass production (dry matter) varied from 2.6 to 4.6 t/ha and seed yield varied from 0.8 to 4.6 t/ha. Genotypes PI243070, PI250924, PI251267, PI167390, and PI251291 maintained high and stable yields. For pearl millet and sorghum, ICRISAT supplied 36 pearl millet B-lines and 65 diverse genotypes, along with 46 sorghum genotypes for screening at ICBA during 2007-08. Dry matter yield of pearl millet accessions was higher than that of elite genotypes, hybrids, and earlymaturing progenies. Pearl millet genotypes IP6106, IP13150, HHVBCTall, ICMS7704, MC94C, and ICMV155Brist showed high and stable yield across different salinity levels. Hybrids ICMA95333 × ICMP451 produced the highest dry matter yield among ICRISAT and commercial hybrids. Dry matter production of sorghum genotypes SP39053, NTJ2, GD65008 (brown), SP39007, SPV1022, and A2267-2 reached 28 t/ha across salinity levels. These genotypes were able to maintain a consistently higher yield at higher salinity, confirming their suitability for areas highly affected by salt stress.During 2006-08, ICBA supplied seeds of barley, pearl millet, sorghum, fodder beet, rape/canola, and sorghum to two institutes in Egypt, the Desert Research Center (DRC) and Rice Research and Training Centre (RRTC), and to the Rice Research Institute in Iran (RRII) for testing under their local conditions. At DRC, crops were planted under two water salinities (6.25 and 11 dS/m) using two irrigation systems (drip and gated pipes). Several farmers participated in the evaluation of the selected crops. Based on results at DRC and farmers' evaluation, promising barley varieties were identified for low and medium salinity. The performance of pearl millet and sorghum was promising and higher yield was achieved across salinity levels. Both fodder beet and rape varieties also showed good performance. Drip irrigation proved better than the gated-pipes irrigation system. Farmers were able to select genotypes capable of maintaining high yields under their local saline conditions. Demand for seeds of the various crop genotypes is very high. ICBA in collaboration with partner institutes is working on developing a work plan for in-country and on-farm seed production of the selected genotypes. This component still needs further support and backup to bring it to fruition.The work of ICBA and NARES demonstrated great potential for these crops for forage and seed production at medium and high salinity. Selected material also has shorter duration so that it can fit into current cropping cycles and meet the high demand for forages in these areas. Selected varieties are well suited for use in a rice-based system to fill the gap between two cropping cycles or as rotational crops, under both normal conditions and salt-affected areas. Moreover, these forages are highly palatable and nutritious and can be fed fresh, dry, or as silage. Research findings of this project will have a great impact on rice-farming communities, particularly in coastal areas where forages are usually in high demand. Inclusion of these crops will enhance farm productivity and eventually improve the livelihood of poor farmers in rice-growing areas. Seeds of these crops should be multiplied and distributed for other salt-affected areas of Asia.Objective 3. Develop farmer-friendly crop and natural resource management options for salt-tolerant varieties to enhance water and land productivity in salt-affected areas.Nursery management for better crop establishment. Poor crop stand is the main reason for low and unstable rice yields in saline areas because of the high sensitivity of rice at this stage. Crop establishment during the wet season can be improved by using healthy and robust seedlings. On-farm trials were conducted during the 2004 and 2005 WS to evaluate the effect of different fertilizer treatments applied in a nursery on seedling vigor and grain yield of rice using variety SR26B. In 2004, seedlings raised with the recommended NPK (10 kg/ha each of N, P 2 O 5 , and K 2 O) in combination with Azolla compost and vermicompost at 5.0 t/ha were more vigorous (61.2% and 93.2% higher biomass) and produced significantly higher (8% and 10%) grain yield of 5.4 and 5.5 t/ha, respectively. Application of a double dose of NPK alone or in combination with organic manures further improved seedling vigor but had little effect on grain yield. In 2005 also, seedlings raised with the same amount of NPK, alone or in combination with organic manures (5.0 t/ha), were more vigorous (15-63% higher biomass) and produced significantly higher (29-43%) grain yield than unfertilized seedlings. Increasing the fertilizer dose from 10 to 20 kg/ha N, P 2 O 5 , and K 2 O did not improve seedling vigor or grain yield. Combining 20 kg/ha each of N, P 2 O 5 , and K 2 O with organic manures increased seedling dry weight by 20-38%, but with no significant increase in grain yield. Seedling age and spacing. Survival and productivity in saline soils can also be improved through the use of older seedlings and closer planting. The effects of seedling age (30, 40, and 50 days) and spacing (15 × 10, 15 × 15, and 15 × 20 cm) on grain yield of SR26B were evaluated during the 2004 and 2005 WS in a CRBD with three replications. Transplanting at 15 × 10 cm resulted in the highest grain yield in both years (Fig. 3.1). However, the differences between 15 × 10 and 15 × 15 cm or 15 × 15 and 15 × 20 cm spacing were not significant. The 50-d-old seedlings produced significantly higher grain yield than 40-d-old seedlings in 2005 but not in 2004, possibly because of severe submergence stress in 2005. The differences between 30-d-old and 40-d-old seedling treatments were not significant. The higher grain yield with older seedlings and closer planting was mainly due to the greater survival under stress and consequently more panicles per unit area. The crop suffered from submergence during the early vegetative stage and drought coupled with salinity during the reproductive stage in 2004, and submergence after transplanting, than during the reproductive stage in 2005. seedling age (30, 40, and 50 d) was conducted using SR26B in a CRBD with three replications. The 40-dayold and 50-day-old seedlings again showed better survival under severe stresses and produced significantly higher grain yield than 30-d-old seedlings. Fertilized seedlings also had higher survival and grain yield irrespective of seedling age. Date of transplanting. Salinity during the dry season increases as the season progresses because of water scarcity and increasing evaporative demand with rising temperature. A delay in planting causes a significant yield reduction, particularly during the reproductive stage. On-farm trials were conducted at two sites in the 2005 and 2006 DS to set the optimum time of planting, using a CRBD with three replications. Transplanting on 8 January produced the highest grain yield, except at one site in 2006, where yield was highest from 18 January planting (Fig. 3.2). However, differences between the two planting dates were not significant at this site in both 2005 and 2006. Later planting progressively resulted in a gradual reduction in yield. Transplanting after 28 January at site II in 2005 was damaged completely because of high salinity (ECe of 8-12 dS/m at planting). Furthermore, the groundwater table was nearer to the surface with even higher salinity, particularly for February plantings. This land was used for cropping in the dry season for the first time. In 2006, the gradual reduction in grain yield with a delay in planting at site II was significant because of the higher water table and groundwater EC than site I. The problem was further aggravated due to the scarcity of water toward the reproductive stage for later plantings. During the wet season, the effect of nursery fertilization on grain yield was more pronounced in 2005 than in 2004. However, rainfall distribution in 2005 was erratic and the crop suffered from submergence stress during the vegetative stage, leading to lower yield. Similarly, older seedlings and closer planting had greater effects on grain yield in 2005 than in 2004. These findings suggest that the use of robust, older seedlings and closer planting is particularly advantageous under stress conditions. In 2007, the crop suffered initially from salinity stress and later from prolonged submergence and waterlogging. Thus, yield declined drastically. Under such severe stresses, the use of older seedlings and closer planting was effective in increasing rice grain yield. During the DS, the crop transplanted in the first fortnight of January produced the highest grain yield because of relatively lower soil and irrigation water salinity, which increased gradually with increasing temperatures as the season progressed. Further, crops planted later would have experienced higher temperatures during the reproductive stage, resulting in a yield loss. Thus, almost normal yields could be achieved simply by early planting, even under high salinity.during the dry season of 2005. These results showed that tremendous progress can be made in salt-affected areas through proper crop and nutrient management in the nursery. Options include adjusted sowing date, proper nutrition, the use of older seedlings and proper seeding rate, and transplanting of older seedlings at closer spacing. The use of earlier maturing varieties during the WS will ensure early transplanting; however, their use is even more important during the DS to ensure maturity before salinity becomes too high, fresh water runs out, or the temperature becomes too high during reproduction.Farmers usually sow sunflower with very close spacing. An on-farm trial on the effect of different spacing (30 × 30, 30 × 25, and 30 × 20 cm) and fertilizer (recommended NPK and NPK + FYM at 5.0 t/ha) treatments was conducted during the 2007 DS using an RCBD with three replications. Seed yields in 30 × 30-and 30 × 25-cm spacing were comparable (2.06 and 1.92 t/ha) and significantly higher than that in 30 × 20-cm spacing (1.72 t/ha). Application of FYM increased average yield by 14%. Yield of sunflower could therefore be increased by using 30 × 30-cm spacing and applying FYM along with a recommended dose of NPK fertilizer. Nutrient management for rice. Farmers in coastal saline areas generally do not apply fertilizer for rice during the WS and resort to an indiscriminate use of fertilizer during the DS. INM combining chemical fertilizers with organic manures and biofertilizers is important for realizing the yield potential of improved salt-tolerant varieties. Site-specific on-farm trials were conducted during 2004-06 to evaluate selected INM practices for both the wet and dry seasons in three separate trials, two in the WS under shallow (0-30-cm water depth) and intermediate (0-50 cm) lowland conditions and one in the DS under irrigated conditions, using an RCBD with 4, 5, and 3 replications, respectively.In the WS, rice varieties Pankaj (shallow lowlands) and Lunishree (intermediate) were used, whereas Canning 7 and Annapurna were grown in the DS. About 40 kg/ha P 2 O 5 and K 2 O were used in all experiments. Soil and field water salinity was higher in 2005 than in 2004 because of lower rainfall during August-September. In the DS trial, the depth to the groundwater table and groundwater EC were 0.67-0.95 and 0.46-1.04 m and 3.6-10.5 and 2.0-9.9 dS/m in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Salinity in the DS was higher in 2005 than in 2006. A terminal drought during October-November in the 2004 WS was responsible for the greater salinity buildup in the 2005 DS, whereas high rainfall during October 2005 led to lower salinity in the 2006 DS. Apparently, salinity during the WS varied mainly based on the rainfall pattern and land situation, whereas, during the DS, it depended on the depth of the groundwater table, groundwater EC, temperature, and rainfall pattern in the preceding WS.In shallow lowlands, Sesbania GM + prilled urea (PU) (20 kg N/ha), Azolla + PU (30 kg N/ha), and Sesbania GM + Azolla were as effective as PU at 60 kg N/ha in increasing grain yield of rice in the 2004 and 2005 WS, with a yield advantage of 30-40%. The Sesbania GM + Azolla is of special interest because it does not need any inorganic N fertilizer. In intermediate lowlands, rice grain yields obtained under Sesbania GM and urea supergranules (USG) (45 kg N/ha) were comparable in 2004 but not in 2005, because Sesbania growth was poor due to early drought coupled with high soil salinity (8-11 dS/m). The FYM + PU treatment was not effective in 2004, possibly because of the slower decomposition of FYM under excess soil moisture conditions. However, in 2005, it significantly increased the grain yield (57%) over the no-N control and was on a par with the other treatments, possibly because of the favorable soil moisture conditions and residual effects of FYM applied in 2004. The yield advantage of USG and Sesbania over a control was 52% and 52% in 2004 and 68% and 27% in 2005, respectively. In a shallow lowland trial, yields were higher in 2004 than in 2005 because of prolonged waterlogging in 2005. A similar effect was not observed in intermediate lowlands, where a taller variety with better tolerance of waterlogging was used.In the DS, Azolla + PU resulted in significantly higher yields than the application of PU at 80 kg N/ha, with about 15% higher grain yields in both. This finding suggests that Azolla saved 30 kg N/ha of chemical fertilizer, besides improving rice yield. The yield advantage of Azolla + PU over the no-N treatment was 114% in 2005 and 91% in 2006. Grain yield in all treatments was higher in 2005 than in 2006, possibly due to lower ambient temperatures during grain filling, with an average of 28.6 °C in 2005 and 29.7 °C in 2006. In 2005, soil salinity was high toward maturity but remained below 6 dS/m during most of the season, and might not have affected grain yield. Yield enhancement under different nutrient management practices in both years was associated with higher panicle number per unit area and more grains per panicle. Results of these studies clearly suggest that Sesbania is promising during the WS in both shallow and intermediate lowlands. In intermediate lowlands, application of PU is not very effective due to frequent waterlogging, and Sesbania provides a good option to improve N supply. Although USG is equally effective, it is not readily available and its application has practical problems. Similarly, FYM is often available in small quantities and is mostly used for vegetables on homestead land. Azolla is a promising biofertilizer for the DS and can also be used successfully in shallow lowlands during the WS provided there is no drought or flood. Farmers can produce Azolla inoculums at low cost in ponds and ditches that are common in coastal areas. It seems that Sesbania and Azolla offer considerable opportunities to improve soil quality and enhance and sustain crop productivity in coastal saline soils, despite some limitations. Mitigating salinity through liming in rice. An on-farm trial on the effect of liming on rice yield was conducted during the 2008 DS, involving no lime (control), lime at 100 kg/ha in a nursery, lime at 1.0 t/ha in the main field, and lime in both a nursery and main field. Two rice genotypes, Khandagiri and IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1, were used in an RCBD with three replications. The soil was sandy clay loam, with pH of 5.7, organic C of 0.71%, total N of 0.07%, and available P of 10 kg/ha. Data showed that lime had no significant effect on grain yield, suggesting that these soils probably have adequate calcium. Effect of liming on nonrice crops. The effect of an application of lime at 1.0 t/ha on the yield of sunflower, watermelon, groundnut, and okra was evaluated in farmers' fields during the 2005 and 2006 DS using an RCBD with three replications. Liming significantly increased the growth and yield of all crops in both years, with a yield advantage in the range of 36% (sunflower) to 57% (watermelon and okra) in 2005. The response was relatively less in 2006, possibly because of residual effects from 2005. These findings suggest that liming could be recommended for enhancing the productivity of these crops in the DS. Water management for rice. Rice is the main crop during the WS in coastal saline areas. In the DS, limited areas are planted to rice using harvested rainwater, which is important for food security. To expand rice area in the DS, optimizing the use of fresh water and using it in conjunction with saline water at relatively tolerant growth stages are important. Two on-farm trials were conducted during 2005-08. In the first experiment, five treatments involving irrigation with fresh water throughout (control), irrigation with marginally saline (MS) water for 1 week during 41-48 days after transplanting (DAT), irrigation with MS water for 2 weeks during 34-48 DAT, irrigation with MS water for 3 weeks during 27-48 DAT, and irrigation with MS water for 4 weeks during 20-48 DAT were evaluated with two rice varieties (Annapurna and Canning 7) in 2005 and 2006, in a split-plot design with three replications. In the second experiment, four treatments, continuous ponding (control), irrigation 2 days after the disappearance of standing water (DSW), irrigation 4 days after DSW, and irrigation 6 days after DSW, were compared with rice variety Annapurna in 2007 and Annapurna and IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1 in 2008. An RCBD with four replications was followed in both years.The EC of irrigation water and groundwater in the first experiment was 2.4-3.1 and 5.8-7.4 dS/m in 2005 and 2.4-4.8 and 4.2-6.1 dS/m in 2006, respectively. Depth to the groundwater table was 50-80 cm in 2005 and 45-78 cm in 2006. Irrigation with saline water for 1-4 weeks during the vegetative stage (20-48 DAT) in 2005 did not reduce grain yield. In 2006 also, irrigation with saline water for 2 weeks had no significant effect on grain yield, but saline water irrigation for 3 or 4 weeks decreased yield by nearly 40%. This was mainly because of the higher salinity of irrigation water than in 2005, particularly during the reproductive stage. In the second trial, the EC of groundwater and depth to the groundwater table were 9.2-14.8 dS/m and 27-43 cm, respectively. Grain yield was highest under continuous shallow flooding. Providing freshwater irrigation 2 days after DSW during the vegetative stage (10 DAT-PI) did not significantly decrease yield. However, irrigation 4 and 6 days after DSW decreased grain yield by 30% and 48%, respectively, due to the higher soil and field-water salinity. In 2008, irrigation 6 days after DSW was not included because it caused a drastic reduction in grain yield. Here again, grain yield of both varieties was the highest when the crop was subjected to continuous flooding. The average grain yield of the two varieties in treatments receiving irrigation 2 d after DSW (5.0 t/ha) was comparable with that with continuous flooding (5.3 t/ha). However, irrigation at 4 d after DSW decreased yield by 23%. IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1 produced 28% higher grain yield than Annapurna. The study indicated that marginally saline water could be used safely for 2 weeks during the vegetative stage without a significant reduction in rice grain yield under high salinity. Furthermore, irrigation with fresh water 2 d after DSW during the vegetative stage produced yield similar to that of continuous ponding of water. These approaches would help in substantially saving precious fresh water and expanding the cropping area, leading to enhanced land and water productivity.Water management for nonrice crops. Two on-farm trials evaluated the effects of irrigation frequency (10-and 15-d intervals) and depth (2, 4, and 6 cm) on the performance of sunflower and groundnut during the 2006 DS using a CRBD with three replications. Depth to the groundwater table at this site was 60-100 cm. The initial soil ECe was 6-8 dS/m. For sunflower, seed yield was significantly higher with irrigation at 15-d intervals than at 10-d intervals, and with 4-cm irrigation depth than with 2-or 6-cm irrigation depth. For groundnut, irrigation at 15-d intervals resulted in higher pod yield when 4 and 6 cm of irrigation was applied but not with 2 cm of irrigation water. The depth had no significant influence when irrigation was provided at 10-d intervals, but yield was higher with 4-cm than with 2-or 6-cm irrigation depth when irrigation was provided at 15-d intervals. The highest yields of both sunflower and groundnut were obtained with 4 cm of irrigation at 15-d intervals. The higher yields with irrigation at 15-d intervals than at 10-d intervals suggest contributions from shallow groundwater. Best-bet management. Integration of improved management practices with high-yielding salt-tolerant varieties is important for enhancing productivity and ensuring household food security in these unfavorable areas. On-farm trials on the use of salt-tolerant rice varieties with improved management practices were conducted in different villages during the 2005 WS and 2006 DS. Four treatments-farmers' variety with farmers' management, improved variety with farmers' management, farmers' variety with improved management, and improved variety with improved management-were evaluated under intermediate lowlands using a CRBD with three replications. Farmers grew rice variety Bhaluki during the wet season and Khandagiri during the dry season. In the WS, farmers used random transplanting at wider spacing (>20 cm) using 35-40-d-old unfertilized seedlings with little or no fertilizer and pesticides in the field. During the DS, they followed random and late (3rd week Jan-1st week Feb) transplanting using 30-35-d-old unfertilized seedlings. The improved varieties used in the trials were SR26B during the WS and Annapurna/CSR 4 during the DS. The improved management package for the WS included the use of robust fertilized seedlings (NPK at 10 kg/ha each + FYM/Azolla compost at 5.0 t/ha), older seedlings (50 d old), closer planting (15 × 10 cm), and Sesbania as green manure. During the DS, improved management practices used fertilizer in the nursery as in the WS, early planting (January, 1st fortnight) with 30-d-old seedlings at 15 × 15-cm spacing, and Azolla + 50 kg N/ha (30 kg as basal and 20 kg at tillering). P and K were used at 30 (WS) or 40 (DS) kg/ha. Grain yield during both the 2005 WS and 2006 DS was the lowest under the farmers' variety and management (Fig. 3.3). Improved variety with farmers' management increased grain yield by 48% and 23% during the WS and DS, respectively. Similarly, the farmers' variety with improved management produced 24% and 46% higher grain yield in the WS and DS, respectively. The greater yield advantage from an improved variety in the WS was because the farmers' variety was a traditional one with low yield potential. However, the yield advantage due to improved management was higher during the DS, possibly because the farmers use a high-yielding input-responsive variety. Combining improved variety with improved management resulted in a yield advantage of 91% during the WS and 75% during the DS. Economic analysis showed that the benefit-cost (B:C) ratio was 26.4 and 13.5 for an improved variety with farmers' management during the 2005 WS and 2006 DS, respectively. Very high B:C ratios in this treatment were mainly because of the significant yield advantage with little additional cost for seed. The corresponding B:C ratios for improved management with a farmers' variety were 0.7 and 1.4. The low B:C ratio with improved management, particularly during the WS, was expected with the farmers' variety that was tall, was susceptible to lodging, and had a low response to nutrients. The B:C ratio for an improved variety with improved management was 2.7 and 2.4 during the 2005 WS and 2006 DS, respectively. Clearly, the introduction of high-yielding salt-tolerant varieties with improved management practices can substantially increase rice yield in the coastal saline ecosystem during both the wet and dry seasons with good benefits to farmers. These varieties have potential to increase yield significantly even under farmers' management with little additional cost, but improved management will ensure yield sustainability. These studies confirm that management packages developed through this project are, in fact, very effective under actual farmers' field conditions. However, more resources and efforts are required to disseminate these practices in these coastal saline areas as well as in similar ecosystems facing similar challenges. Rice-based cropping systems. Coastal saline areas are normally monocropped with rice grown during the WS because of the lack of freshwater resources during the DS coupled with high salinity. The introduction of less water-consuming salt-tolerant nonrice crops for the DS is important for better land and water productivity. On-farm trials were conducted in Ersama block of Jagatsinghpur District, Orissa, India, during 2005 and 2006 to evaluate the performance of selected nonrice crops in the DS. In 2005, sunflower, Basella, watermelon, chilli, pumpkin, peanut, tomato, bitter gourd, and okra were evaluated under medium salinity (ECe of 4-7 dS/m) and high salinity (ECe increasing from 10 to 15 dS/m) in sandy loam soils. In 2006, watermelon, chilli, sunflower, pumpkin, Basella, okra, and peanut were grown under medium salinity (Basella; ECe of 2-6 dS/m except during the latter part of the season) and high salinity (okra and peanut; ECe of 4-8 dS/m, increasing to 16-26 dS/m toward the end of the season) at two locations with sandy loam and clay loam soils. In 2005, all crops performed well under medium salinity, whereas only sunflower and Basella produced reasonable yields under high salinity. The other crops failed because of high soil and water salinity during the early crop growth stages. In 2006, all crops performed well, but with variable yield except for sunflower and chilli. The yields of watermelon and pumpkin were especially dependent on irrigationwater quality. Across seasons and salinity levels, watermelon, chilli, pumpkin, and sunflower were the best crops based on rice yield equivalent, net returns, B:C ratio, and water productivity. Okra was the most profitable under medium salinity, although its water productivity was lower than that of watermelon and pumpkin in some cases. These crops offer considerable opportunities for diversification in coastal saline areas. Detailed data were summarized in a paper presented at the Delta 2007 international conference held in Bangkok in November 2007, and also as a supplement to the data provided with this report. Apparently, salinity during the DS is affected by rainfall in the preceding WS, among other factors. Certain crops, such as sunflower and Basella, are more tolerant of salinity than other crops. Analysis of benefits and costs showed that, under medium salinity, watermelon produced the highest rice equivalent yield, net returns, and B:C ratio, followed by chilli, okra, pumpkin, and sunflower. The rice equivalent yield of okra, pumpkin, and sunflower was comparable, but the B:C ratio was lower for sunflower because of the higher cultivation costs. In 2006, rice equivalent yield and net returns were the highest for chilli, followed by sunflower and watermelon at one site; at another site, all crops, with the exception of sunflower and chilli, achieved much higher rice equivalent yields and net returns were highest for watermelon, followed by pumpkin and chilli. The B:C ratio of all crops in the high-salinity fields ranged from 2.0 to 6.9, with the highest value for chilli and watermelon. The B:C ratio across crops under medium salinity was 2.5-9.5, with the highest B:C value for okra. Water productivity. Water availability and quality are the main determinants of DS cropping in coastal saline regions. Crop-specific water productivity expressed as kg rice equivalent yield per m 3 water applied was determined for comparisons. In 2005, water productivity in medium-saline fields was the highest for watermelon, followed by pumpkin, chilli, and bitter gourd. Water productivity of watermelon was very high (more than 80 kg rice equivalent/m 3 of water), possibly because of its high yield. Obviously, rather low water productivity was achieved in high-salinity fields during 2005, when only sunflower and Basella succeeded. In 2006, water productivity in high-salinity fields was highest for watermelon, followed by chilli, pumpkin, and sunflower. Watermelon, chilli, pumpkin, and sunflower were promising for medium-and highsalinity conditions based on rice equivalent yield, B:C ratio, and water productivity. Under high salinity, watermelon and pumpkin performed better when fresh water was available. Okra was the most remunerative crop under medium salinity, although its water productivity was in some cases lower than that of watermelon and pumpkin. Sunflower and chilli yields were relatively consistent across locations and they were preferred by farmers for their own consumption needs and for their better storage characteristics. These studies showed considerable potential for nonrice crops in these highly saline areas during the DS. Evaluation of sorghum and pearl millet for green fodder. The cattle in this area are fed mainly with rice straw and no alternative green fodder is available. To ensure fodder supply during the DS, 11 sorghum genotypes and 12 pearl millet genotypes obtained from ICRISAT were evaluated in a farmer's field using an RCBD with three replications on a sandy loam soil. The crop was grown with the recommended dose of fertilizers and 2-3 light irrigations were provided using pond water. Green fodder was cut 2-3 times. For sorghum, S 35 produced the highest fodder yield of 11 t/ha and ICSV 112, ICSV 406, ICSR 170, and ICSV 93034 were comparable with fodder yields of more than 9 t/ha. Some cultivars of pearl millet also produced comparable yields of about 10 t/ha (HHVBC Tall). Others such as Raj 171, IP 6105, IP 6106, and IP 19586 produced more than 8 t/ha. Those data showed considerable scope for these fodder crops in coastal areas; however, farmers are still reluctant to use them and they prefer growing food crops to ensure their own food security. These crops could probably prevail after farmers first secure their food supply. Evaluation of sweet potato varieties. Sweet potato can serve as the main food when WS rice is not sufficient. We tested 15 sweet potato varieties under medium and high salinity during the 2007 and 2008 dry seasons in an RCBD with three replications in sandy loam soils. The trial was conducted in collaboration with the Regional Station of the Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. Soil salinity at planting in 2007 and 2008 was 5.9-17.5 and 4.2-5.9 dS/m at the medium-salinity site, and 8.7-22.6 and 4.9-8.7 dS/m at the high-salinity site, respectively. Variety CIP 440127 produced the highest tuber yield of 17 and 23 t/ha at the medium-salinity site and 9 and 12 t/ha at the high-salinity site during 2007 and 2008, respectively. CIP 440038 also produced good yields under both conditions and in both years. Samrat, Sree Bhadra, and Kisan performed well under both salinity levels in 2007, but their tuber yields under high salinity were much lower in 2008. Pusa Safed produced high yields under medium salinity but not under high salinity. The yields at the medium-salinity site were higher in 2007 than in 2008, possibly because excess rain and prolonged waterlogging in the 2007 WS lowered the salinity in the 2008 DS. These studies showed that sweet potato varieties CIP 440127 and CIP 440038 are the most promising for coastal saline areas in both medium-and high-salinity conditions. Apparently, there is good scope for root crops during the DS in these coastal areas, with light soils, especially when fresh water could be provided either through harvested rainwater or from surface-water resources, with considerable impact on food security.Water-saving techniques during seedling stage. During May, farmers in western UP, India, face water shortage because electricity is not available or diesel cost is too high. This study aims to establish the optimum seedling age for survival and water savings in sodic soils using salt-tolerant varieties. Methods. Experiments were conducted at the CSSRI-RRS experimental farm, Shivari, Lucknow, in sodic soils (pH of 9.36) using 20-, 30-, and 40-d-old seedlings, in an RCBD with four replications. Recommended doses of fertilizer were applied in all the treatments. Salt-tolerant variety CSR23 was transplanted on 13 and 14 July in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The crop was harvested on 18 to 28 October during the respective years. Yield attributes (grain and straw yield) were recorded at maturity, and water use was measured during the seedling stage in the nursery. Results indicated that rice grain yield increased with older seedlings but yield was similar from 30-and 40-d-old seedlings in both years. Based on yield and water savings, 30-d-old seedlings seem to be optimum for the salt-tolerant variety used in this study.The development of salt-tolerant varieties will enable more use of sodic land and water, while varieties with increased tolerance of short-term or medium-term water deficits, and of shorter duration, will help in saving water under irrigated conditions. The high early seedling vigor and harvest index of modern varieties also help in increasing water productivity over that of traditional varieties.This trial aimed at developing alternative water management strategies for using less water. The objectives were to (i) optimize irrigation requirements of salt-tolerant varieties of rice, (ii) assess the effect of water stress on growth, yield, and water productivity, and (iii) monitor changes in soil properties. An experiment was conducted during 2006, 2007, and 2008 at the CSSRI-Regional Research Station using two varieties, CSR23 and NDR-359, under seven different levels of water stress at three growth stages in a split-plot design with four replications. Seedlings were transplanted at 20 × 15 cm on 21 July and harvested from 27 to 31 October each year. Another experiment was conducted with early-maturing breeding line CSR-89-IR-8 and Samba Mahsuri (local variety) under four water stresses in sodic soils during 2007 and 2008 at the CSSRI experimental farm, Shivari, also using a split-plot design with four replications. Results. Grain yield of both varieties was higher when adequate irrigation was given during all stages and decreased progressively with decreasing water input. Under the most severe water-stress treatment (irrigation after 7 d of water disappearance), grain yield of CSR23 decreased by 28% and 20% during 2006 and 2007, respectively. Similarly, grain yield reductions in NDR359 were 32% and 23% under water-stress conditions during the respective years. The reduction in yield was more in NDR359 than in the salt-tolerant CSR23. In the second experiment, grain yield of CSR-89-IR-8 is higher than that of Samba Mahsuri in all treatments and CSR-89-IR-8 saved 155 mm of water because it matures earlier. Grain yield of both varieties was higher with adequate irrigation during all stages and the reduction under stress was greater in Samba Mahsuri than in CSR-89-IR-8. This showed that the use of salt-tolerant early-maturing varieties is more effective in reducing water use and increasing water productivity in salt-affected soils. Optimizing nitrogen for salt-tolerant varieties. Sodic soils are highly deficient in organic matter and crops invariably suffer nutritional disorders. Press mud improves the organic matter and time in reclaiming sodic soils. Fertility status of these soils is generally poor, with high pH, excess of exchangeable sodium, low available N, and poor physical properties. This trial attempts to optimize nitrogen recommendations for salttolerant varieties. The trial was conducted on reclaimed sodic soil (pH 9.2) at the CSSRI-Regional Research Farm. N treatments were a control (0 N), 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg/ha N with two varieties, CSR23 and CSR13, using a split-plot design with N as the main plot and varieties as subplots with four replications. The crop was transplanted on 19 July and 21 July in the respective years and harvested on 27 and 29 October, respectively. Half of N was given at transplanting and the rest equally split at 35 and 50 d after transplanting. Grain yield of CSR13 and CSR23 increased progressively with increasing N. Grain yield of CSR23 was highest at 200 kg N/ha, whereas that of CSR13 increased significantly up to 150 kg/ha. The data suggest a substantial response to N in these sodic soils. Modeling yield and water balance in sodic soils using ORYZA2000. The objective was to explore the possibility of applying the ORYZA200 model to simulate yield and water balance during the rice-growing season under well-watered and water-stress conditions in sodic soils. The model was calibrated with two varieties (salt-tolerant and intolerant) using field data collected over 2006 and 2007. The ORYZA2000 model seemed to work well as reflected by the close matching of the simulated and measured crop growth and yield data together with water-balance components. Application of this model is possible for predicting yield, yield gaps, and water productivity under these environments, and can help in developing strategies to optimize irrigation water use. For a given environment, this model can help envisage the effects of changes in morphological and physiological characteristics of rice to predict its adaptation to specific conditions, which is valuable for breeding.Feasibility of direct-seeded rice in partially reclaimed sodic soil. Transplanting is the most common method of crop establishment in salt-affected areas, but high labor input is needed, which is mostly not available during transplanting in July and labor is expensive. Transplanting in puddled soil reduces soil permeability and helps in controlling weeds, but repeated puddling aggravates soil dispersion in sodic soils. This trial attempted to test the feasibility of direct seeding in partially reclaimed sodic soil. Trials were conducted in 2005 (15 cultivars) and 2006 (4 cultivars), using either (i) transplanting of 8-week-old seedlings in puddled soil or (ii) direct seeding after dry plowing. Direct seeding was the same for both field and nursery. In the first year, eight genotypes produced more than 4 t/ha: CSR23 (5.1 t/ha), NDR 359 (4.8 t/ha), IET-18710 (4.7 t/ha), CST-7-1 (4.6 t/ha), Swarna Mahsoori (4.5 t/ha), IET-18708 (4.3 t/ha), Sarjoo-52 (4.2 t/ha), and IET-18702 (4.1 t/ha). In 2006, grain yield was significantly higher under direct seeding (3.6 t/ha) than under transplanting (3.4 t/ha). NDR-359 had the highest yield (4.2 t/ha), followed by CSR23 (4.1 t/ha), and these two lines had higher yield under direct seeding than under transplanting and were harvested 18 d earlier when direct seeded, which is desirable for the subsequent wheat crop. Plant height, panicle length, and 1,000-grain weight were considerably higher under direct seeding, but tillers per plant were lower. Salt-tolerant varieties help reduce gypsum requirement for reclaiming sodic soils. Farmers of UP have poor resources and can afford only low-cost technologies for reclaiming their sodic soils. The objectives were to find alternatives that can help reduce the recommended doses of gypsum. Trials were conducted in farmers' fields in Dhora Village, Unnao District, and Shakra Village in Hardeo District, on barren sodic soils, with pH of 9.76 and 10.06, respectively. The gypsum requirement (GR) at Dhora was 10.8 t/ha and the corresponding value of Shakra fields was 13.3 t/ha. Salt-tolerant CSR13 was planted on 17 July and recommended fertilizers were applied with control plots representing farmers' local practices. Treatments at Dhora included a control (no gypsum + local varieties of rice and wheat), 25% GR+ salt-tolerant varieties (CSR13 of rice and KRL 19 of wheat), and 50% GR+ salt-tolerant varieties. At Shakra, treatment combinations were 25% GR + salt-tolerant varieties, 50% GR + a salt-tolerant variety, and 25% GR + press mud at 5 t/ha + salt-tolerant varieties. At Dhora, CSR13 has better growth and yield than the local variety Pant 4. Grain yield of tolerant rice varieties with 25% and 50% GR were 4.2 and 4.4 t/ha, respectively. Corresponding wheat yields were 2.47 and 2.75 t/ha. The benefit of additional yields of rice and wheat from 50% GR was about Rs. 2,836, but the cost of additional gypsum is Rs. 7,200. At Shakra, 25% GR + press mud resulted in 5.6 t/ha when farmers obtain only 2.8 t/ha. The addition of press mud improved the organic carbon of the soil and had a residual effect on the succeeding wheat crop. Application of gypsum at 25% GR and the use of salt-tolerant varieties could therefore be used for reclaiming sodic soils when the pH is not too high; however, the addition of organic industrial by-products such as press mud will be useful in highly alkaline soils. With such reduced costs, sodic soils that had never been used for crop production could be completely reclaimed and used for both rice and wheat within 2-3 years. Cropping patterns: diversification of cropping system in partially reclaimed sodic soils. Rice-wheat is the predominant cropping system in reclaimed sodic soils, occupying about 60-70% of the area. Wide adoption of this system is due to its high productivity and less risk. But this created many serious ecological problems such as exhaustion of underground water and other adverse effects on soil conditions, crop yield, and factor productivity, thus increasing the cost of production and weed infestation in the wheat crop. A field experiment was conducted to explore more profitable alternatives to this system. Trials were conducted in farmers' fields during 2004-05 and 2005-06 on partially reclaimed sodic soil, with pH of 9.2, EC2 of 1.43 dS/m, and organic carbon of 0.10%. Four cropping systems were tested, rice-wheat (cereal-based), sorghum-berseem (fodder-based), sweet basil (tulsi)-matricaria (medicinal and aromatic crop-based), and chilli-garlic (spices-based). Pant 10, SSG-59-3, Sim somya, and LCA-235 of rice, sorghum, sweet basil, and chilli were grown during the rainy season and PBW 343, JB-2, vallary, and local varieties of wheat, berseem, matricaria, and garlic were grown during the winter season. Sorghum and berseem fodder yields were calculated on the basis of two and four cuttings each, respectively. The prevailing market prices of rice, wheat, sorghum, berseem, chilli, and garlic, and those of sweet basil oil and matricaria flowers, were used for economic analysis of different systems. Tulsi-matricaria is highly profitable compared with rice-wheat, sorghum-berseem, and chili-garlic, with a higher rice equivalent yield (14.2 t/ha), followed by chilli-garlic and sorghum-berseem, and the lowest was the rice-wheat system. The higher rice equivalent yield in sweet basil-matricaria cropping was because of the high market price of sweet basil oil (Rs. 500/L) and matricaria flowers (Rs. 52.5/kg) for medicinal and aromatic uses. There is good potential for alternative cropping patterns to replace the traditional rice-wheat system, given a stable market price.The target area is inland sodic soils of UP, with a focus on development and validation with farmers of affordable management technologies for reclaiming these soils and improving productivity. Technologies include the use of industrial by-products such as press mud from the sugarcane industry, the use of green manures and chemical fertilizers, and proper nursery management.Experiments were conducted during 2006-08 using Usar Dhan-3 and Sarjoo-52 in 2006, with CSR30 added in 2007and 2008. Treatments involved a control, press mud (PM), and PM + ZnSO 4 at 10 t/ha and 20 kg/ha, respectively. PM was incorporated 10 d before transplanting, while ZnSO 4 was added just before puddling. 35-d-old seedlings were transplanted in soil with pH of 9.5. Growth and yield parameters were better under PM and PM + Zn, with a yield increase of 23-40% in 2006 and 29.5-31% in 2007. However, the yield advantage in 2008 was much higher (36% to 55%). These data clearly showed the advantage of using this technology in reclaiming and enhancing productivity in sodic soils, which are normally low in available Zn. PM is an organic by-product of sugar factories rich in S, Zn, and Ca. PM is a cost-effective and easily accessible technology within the reach of rice farmers and it can effectively be used to improve the productivity of sodic soil when integrated with salt-tolerant rice varieties, thus eliminating the need for expensive gypsum. Validation of PM technology for improving yields in farmers' fields. This technology was validated over 3 years in farmers' fields using 10 t/ha of PM and 20 kg/ha of ZnSO 4 . In 2006, PM technology was evaluated by 10 farmers in 3 villages of Faizabad District. The soil pH was between 9.5 and 10.2. PM + ZnSO 4 increased plant height, tillering, and grain yield of Usar Dhan-3 in all farmers' plots, with a yield advantage of 31% to 67%, averaging about 47%. In 2007, PM technology was validated in Faizabad and Sultanpur districts of eastern UP, in 10 farmers' fields with soil pH of 9.6 to 10.2. Application of PM with ZnSO 4 substantially improved growth and increased the yield of Usar Dhan-3, CSR27, Sarjoo-52, and NDRK-5083, with a yield advantage of 11% to 56%, and with better responses in soils with higher pH. In 2008, 19 farmers were involved in three villages with soil pH of 9.3 to 10.2. Yield advantages in NDRK-5083, Usar Dhan-3, Sarjoo-52, NDR-359, and CSR27 were 33.3-37.5%, 16.7-62%, 50-86.7%, 28.5-66.7%, and 33-60%, respectively, again with greater responses at higher sodicity. These trials clearly demonstrated the dramatic and consistent benefits of using this relatively cheap technology when combined with salt-tolerant varieties and it should be outscaled to benefit more farmers who experience a severe yield reduction due to soil alkalinity in UP and elsewhere. Evaluation of green manure technology for yield improvement of rice in farmers' fields. Green manures (GM) are known to help improve soil health and reduce pH in alkaline soils. A series of trials were conducted with farmers during 2006-08 to validate and quantify its benefits against farmers' practices. In 2006, six farmers were involved in Faizabad and Sultanpur districts, using a combination of Sesbania as GM and Usar Dhan-3 as a salt-tolerant variety, under farmers' management practices. Soil pH varied from 9.5 to 9.8. The yield advantage over farmers' practices ranged from 31% to 60% in different farmers' fields. In 2007, trials were conducted in the same districts using Usar Dhan-3 and Sarjoo-52 with 7 farmers and soil pH of 9.3 to 9.8. Again, GM increased plant height and effective tillers. Grain yield of Usar Dhan-3 increased by 25-31% and that of Sarjoo-52 by 23-50%. In 2008, four varieties, Usar Dhan-3, NDRK-5083, NDR-359, and Sarjoo-52, were used by 11 farmers in three villages with soil pH similar to that of 2007 villages. Application of Sesbania as GM increased the grain yield of all varieties at all sites. The yield increase of Usar Dhan-3 ranged from 16.7% to 86.7%, NDRK-5083 from 37.9% to 50.0%, NDR-359 from 37.9% to 40.6%, and Sarjoo-52 from 28% to 75%. As with press mud, the yield advantage of GM was progressively higher with increasing soil pH. Nutrient management in the nursery for rice yield improvement in sodic soil. Poor crop establishment because of high seedling mortality is a major reason for low yield in sodic soils. These soils are also inherently poor in available nutrients. This set of trials tested proper nursery management options that reduce seedling mortality upon transplanting in sodic soils. Nursery treatments were either a control or the addition of a combination of chemical fertilizers and FYM (N:P:Zn:FYM at 60:40:20 kg/ha:10 t/ha). All nutrients were applied just before sowing except FYM, which was incorporated in the seedbed 10 d earlier in normal soils. After 35 d, seedlings were transplanted in an RCBD with three replications. In 2006, Usar Dhan-3 was used. The application of nutrient in the nursery increased grain yield by about 17% over the control. In 2007, Usar Dhan-3 and CSR30 were used, and nutrient application in the nursery again showed a significant impact on growth and yield. Usar Dhan-3 produced higher yield (2.83 t/ha) than CSR30 (1.9 t/ha) but the yield advantage over the control was more in CSR30 (27%) than in Usar Dhan-3 (21%). The addition of FYM and chemical fertilizers is therefore recommended for transplanted rice in sodic soils. This improved seedling health and showed carryover effects in sodic farmers' fields. This is cost-effective given the small nursery area that the farmers had to manage. Optimizing ZnO root dipping to improve rice yield in sodic soil. Sodic soils are inherently deficient in zinc and farmers have to apply 20-30 kg/ha of ZnSO 4 every season, which is expensive and sometimes not available with a reasonable quality. As a micronutrient, Zn is required in small quantities; thus, these trials tested the effectiveness of applying Zn in the nursery, or by just dipping roots in slurry of zinc oxide, on growth and yield after transplanting. Two experiments were conducted in 2006-07 involving Usar Dhan-3 and Sarjoo-52, and four treatments-control, ZnSO 4 at 20 kg/ha (basal), and dipping of seedling roots in either 15% or 20% solution of ZnO for 20 min, then drying in the shade for 30 min before transplanting of 35-d-old seedlings in the field (pH 9.5). An RCBD with three replications was used. In both years, dipping roots in 15% ZnO was more effective, and increased grain yield by 20-24% in 2006 and by 18-26% in 2007. This practice could effectively replace field application of ZnSO 4 , with substantial savings to farmers.Nutrient management for boro rice in salt-affected soil. Boro (DS) rice is being practiced on a large scale in southern Bangladesh, particularly with the availability of short-maturity and salt-tolerant varieties. This study aimed to establish nutrient management recommendations for this system and to test whether requirements in these saline areas could vary from recommendations for normal soils. BRRI dhan28 (sensitive), PVS-B3, PVS-B8, and PVS-B19 (tolerant) were subjected to six treatments as follows: T 1 = recommended dose (65-8-30-0.5 kg NPK-Zn/ha); T 2 = T 1 + 0.1% (FeCl 2 MnCl 2 , and CuSO 4 spray) at 15 days after transplanting; T 3 = T 1 + 0.1% (MnCl 2 CuSO 4 spray) at 15 days after transplanting; T 4 = T 1 + 0.1% FeCl 2 spray at 15 days after transplanting; T 5 = T 1 except for K as ash at 3.0 t/ha (before transplanting); and T 6 = soil test-based N, P, and Zn, and K as per basic cation saturation ratio (no need for fertilizer). A split-plot design with four replications was used, with variety as the main plot and nutrient treatment as the subplot. Forty-day-old seedlings were transplanted at 25 × 15 cm with 3 seedlings per hill. Seeding and transplanting were done, respectively, in mid-November and mid-December 2005. Nutrient and EC levels of the soil were determined before transplanting. The soil is saline (4-4.8 dS/m) but available P, K, Ca, Mg, and organic matter were at normal levels. Leaf nitrogen concentration was the lowest in T 6 , which received no N fertilizer. The application of Fe, Mn, or Cu did not significantly affect N concentration. Phosphorus, K, Ca, and Mg composition in leaves was similar in all genotypes and treatment effects were not significant. Similarly, Na concentration in all genotypes and treatments was similar. The ratio of K/Ca in PVS-B19 was greater than in other varieties, but ratios of other cations were similar in all genotypes and were not affected by any treatment. BRRI dhan28 was damaged during the early growth stage. The treatment effect was insignificant for plant height, tillers/m 2 , panicles/m 2 , and grain yield and significant genotypic effects were observed in plant height and panicles/m 2 . Based on these data and on soil analysis, it seems that micronutrient deficiency is probably not a major problem in these soils; however, the large variability in the data might have masked the genotype and treatment effects and the experiment needs to be repeated before solid recommendations can be made.On-station and on-farm trials were conducted at the BRRI regional station, Satkhira, and in a farmer's field at Tala. Soil salinity at the BRRI farm and at Tala was 4.96 and 4.50 dS/m at the start of the experiment. Two rice varieties, BRRI dhan28 and BRRI dhan47, were tested with four fertilizer management practices: T 1 = recommended dose of N, P, K, and Zn (120-8-30-0.5 N-P-K-Zn kg/ha); T 2 = T 1 + additional 50 kg K/ha; T 3 = T 1 + additional 5 t ash/ha at 15 days after transplanting; and T 4 = T 1 + additional 20 kg N/ha. The design was an RCB with three replications. Nitrogen, P, K, and Zn were applied as urea, triple superphosphate, muriate of potash, and zinc sulfate, respectively. Fifty-two-day-old seedlings were transplanted at the BRRI farm, Satkhira, and 53-dayold seedlings were transplanted in a farmer's field at Tala on 7 and 8 January 2007, respectively. P, K, and zinc sulfate were applied during final land preparation in the respective plots. For T 2 , one-half of K was applied during final land preparation and the rest was applied at PI stage. Ash in T 3 was applied at 15 DAT. Nitrogen was applied at 15, 30, and 45 days after transplanting. Field soil and water salinity was measured from 15 to 90 DAT. Salinity in the irrigation water was also measured fortnightly. Results. Irrigation water salinity at the BRRI farm, Satkhira, was 3.0 dS/m at 15 DAT and declined progressively with time to about 1.5 dS/m at 90 DAT. The treatment effect on water salinity was not significant. Soil salinity was slightly lower than water salinity at the first sampling date, but increased gradually and stayed slightly higher than water salinity. Treatment effects on plant growth and yield were not significant, but the varietal effect was prominent in plant height, tiller and panicle production, sterility, and grain yield. BRRI dhan47 outyielded BRRI dhan28 at both locations. At the BRRI RS farm, the yield of BRRI dhan28 was 6.12-6.47 t/ha, while the yield of BRRI dhan47 was 6.53-6.82 t/ha, and in farmers' fields was 6.18-6.53 and 6.35-6.64 t/ha, respectively. Soils of both locations had good supplying capacity of inherent N and K, which might have obscured the effect of additional K, ash, or N on rice. Further nutrient management studies in coastal saline areas need to be done in areas where farmers face difficulties with P and Zn deficiencies and iron toxicity. Investigation on soil characterization is needed in areas where farmers grow neither rice nor nonrice crops during the dry season. Monitoring river-water salinity. The Betna River is adjacent to the BRRI farm in Satkhira. A major interest is to use river water for irrigation in the dry season from November to April. Water samples were collected during high-and low-tide periods at the sluice gate point of the BRRI farm from the river. Figure 3.4 shows the weekly trend in water salinity from June 2006 to April 2007. River water becomes unsuitable for irrigation in March (>5.0 dS/m) when farmers start using brackish water for raising shrimp. River-water salinity was also monitored in the 2007-08 DS in both the Betna and Kopotaksho rivers and similar results were observed for the Betna River; however, Kopotaksho water is usable until May. It is evident that Betna River water can be used until the end of February, and for the whole DS from the Kopotaksho River. Water salinity of high tide is much more important for irrigation using tidal force. Improved cropping patterns. A set of 10 mungbean and 14 soybean varieties was evaluated for its yield after rice in the dry season. Substantial genetic variability was observed and a few superior varieties were selected from each crop for further testing. New cropping sequences were tested, involving the development of high-yielding short-maturity rice varieties for less saline areas with ample fresh water; nonrice high-value crops such as soybean and peanuts, for areas where freshwater resources are relatively scarce during the DS; and rice-aquaculture systems for areas where salinity is high during the DS, as in Tra Vinh Province.Results of these studies were presented in part in the proceedings of the Delta 2007 international conference.The rice-tiger shrimp system was suitable for salt-affected soil, can generate good income and social benefits, and can increase rice grain yield by up to 22% compared with mono rice culture. Demonstrations of the model of using salt-tolerant modern rice varieties followed by shrimp culture with proper management were substantially profitable and sustainable at our pilot site at Tra Vinh. In 2004, the farmer adopting our model obtained 4 t/ha of rice and 1,000 kg/ha of shrimp with a gross income of 78 million VND (net profit of 38 million VND). In 2005, the same farmer following this system obtained even better yields of rice (4.3 t/ha) and shrimp (1,200 t/ha), with a net profit of more than 50 million VND. Neighboring farmers using their traditional systems were unsuccessful because of the late start of the shrimp season and poor management. Introduction of this modern rice-shrimp system in Tra Vinh is profitable and results will be further outscaled. However, over the years, it seems that farmers tend to diversify their system from riceshrimp to rice-fish because of the uncertainties in shrimp cultivation. In another trial at He Thu in 2007, involving rice-tiger shrimp on 3 ha, four new varieties of rice were tested at three sites. The results showed that AS 996 and OM 6073 were suitable for this system at all sites, with a rice yield of 4.4 t/ha and shrimp yield of 0.7 t/ha. This clearly demonstrated the feasibility of this system in areas where salinity is too high during the DS, but proper techniques should be followed to ensure system sustenance. Integrated water, soil, and nutrient management strategies to mitigate salt stress. Because nutrient recommendations for favorable conditions might not be applicable in stressful environments, a series of trials was conducted in salt-affected areas. Some of these involved omission trials, to establish which elements were deficient at a particular site. In another set of trials, responses of five modern rice varieties during the WS to variable amounts of N (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 kg N/ha) and another set of five varieties for the dry season (0, 40, 80, 120, 160 kg N/ha) were evaluated. For the WS, all genotypes showed a positive response to applied N up to 90 kg/ha, whereas, in the DS, the response was up to 80 kg/ha. Significant variation was also observed among genotypes, with some being more responsive than others.Maximizing rice productivity in poor water and soils was the main objective of these studies. A series of trials was conducted to improve crop nutrient management of rice under saline soil, and to optimize the amount and application time, particularly for N and K. In addition, different fertilizer sources were tested as rice straw compost, FYM, and Azospirillum as biofertilizer under the wheat-rice cropping system. The project also helped in disseminating some options developed before, including proper nitrogen amounts for rice for saline soil (165 and 180 kg N/ha for inbred and hybrid rice, respectively). Nitrogen splitting into four parts with a small dose at booting stage under saline soil was found to be effective, and basal application of nitrogen is not recommended. Optimum sowing date is 20 April-5 May, for both direct-seeded and transplanted rice. Seedling age at transplanting is 25-30 d. Zinc and phosphorus applications were recommended as in the normal soil. Broadcasting pregerminated seeds is recommended using 50-75 kg seed/acre, based on salinity level. K enhances salinity tolerance and grain yield in salt-affected soil and this was confirmed in this project. Four trials were conducted.ٌ Role of K in productivity of inbred and hybrid rice in newly reclaimed saline soils. Two field experiments were conducted at the El Sirw Agricultural Research Station in Dammiatta, Egypt, during 2005 and 2006 seasons, to investigate the effect of K rates, 0, 24, 48, and 72 kg K 2 O/ha, on growth; Na and K in leaves and their ratio at heading; grain yield; and yield components of three hybrids, SK2034H, SK2046H, and SK2058H, and three inbreds, Giza 177, Giza 178, and Sakha 104. Soil was clayey with an Ec of 8.5 and 8.7 dS/m in the first and second seasons, respectively. A split-plot design was used with four replications, with varieties in the main plots and K treatments as subplots. Plant height, tiller number, panicle number per hill, panicle length, filled grains per panicle, % sterility, and 1,000-grain weight were determined on five random plants. Grain yield was determined on a 5-m 2 area and adjusted to 14% moisture content. Grain yield and panicle weight responded significantly to K application up to 72 kg K 2 O/ha in both seasons. Hybrid rice cultivar Sk2034H showed the highest yield and Giza 177 was the poorest because of its sensitivity to salt stress. The interaction between rice varieties and K was significant because responses were better in tolerant varieties. The study suggested the importance of using higher K in saline soils, with a consequent increase in tolerance of salt stress and yield. Irrigation intervals significantly affected yield and its attributes. Water stress significantly reduced growth, spikelet fertility, and grain yield. The irrigation interval of 6 d did not significantly reduce grain yield in this experiment. Potassium splitting significantly improved LAI, dry matter, chlorophyll content, and N and leaf K + content at heading, and enhanced grain yield in both seasons. Interestingly, K application as basal did not increase grain yield or enhance other attributes; however, triple splitting of 1/3 B + 1/3 MT + 1/3 PI resulted in better tolerance of both water and salt stress and subsequently improved rice growth and grain yield. The irrigation interval of 3 d resulted in the highest evapotranspiration (ETa), percolation, and water use in both seasons. The irrigation interval of 6 d resulted in the highest water productivity measured on the basis of water requirements and total water applied, and also in better returns. Thus, watering every 6 d could be sufficient in these soils. Organic and biofertilizer management of rice-wheat cropping system in newly reclaimed saline soil. Field experiments were conducted at the El Sirw Agricultural Research Station during 2007 and 2008 to establish the proper combination of organic, inorganic, and biofertilizers applied either directly before rice or before the previous wheat crop, and to analyze rice yield in the rice-wheat cropping system. Treatment combinations are presented in Table 3.1. Giza 178 and SK2034H hybrid, together with wheat variety Sakha93, were used. The soil was clayey and salinity ranged from 7 to 8 dS/m. At harvest, 5 random plants were used to determine plant height, tiller number, panicle number per hill, panicle length, filled grains per panicle, sterility %, and 1,000-grain weight. Grain yield was determined on a 5-m 2 area and adjusted to 14% moisture content.The hybrid rice variety significantly outyielded Giza 178 under all treatments, suggesting that this hybrid will be extremely useful in salt-affected areas of the delta, and should be outscaled. N application at 165 kg/h gave the highest grain yield, similar to that obtained under 5 t FYM + 83 kg N/ha, 5.0 t RCS +83 kg N/ha, and Azospirillum + 83 kg N/ha, particularly when organic fertilizers were applied to the preceding wheat crop. This suggest that chemical N fertilizer could be reduced by half in saline soils through the application of 5 t of rice straw compost and FYM or using bacteria Azospirillum inoculation. Applications of these organic fertilizers over several years might further reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. Results are being validated this year. In summary, in salt-affected areas of the Nile Delta, grain yield of rice seems to respond to K application for up to 72 kg K 2 O 5 /ha. K splitting into three doses (one-third each as basal, at active tillering, and at PI) is more effective than a single basal application, and can significantly enhance tolerance and grain yield. The use of chemical nitrogen fertilizer could be reduced by 50% in saline soils by applying 5 t of rice straw compost and FYM or by using bacteria Azospirillum inoculation. The application of organic manures seems to be more effective for rice if applied on the preceding wheat crop. Farmers reported appreciably higher yields with these varieties. In the DS, one of the IRRI lines, IR72046-B-R-3-3-3-1, performed well even under high salinity, with yields of 3.2-4.8 t/ha (mean of 4.2 t/ha) compared with 2.5-3.0 t/ha yields of farmers' varieties. Demonstration of the effect of nutrient management in the nursery. In the 2006 WS, demonstration trials on transplanting of seedlings fertilized with the recommended dose of NPK (10 kg each of N, P 2 O 5 , and K 2 O/ha) and NPK + FYM/Azolla compost (5.0 t/ha) were conducted at eight sites. Seedlings fertilized with NPK and NPK + FYM/Azolla compost produced grain yields of 2.1-3.8 t/ha (mean 2.7 t/ha) and 2.4-3.9 t/ha (mean 2.9 t/ha), respectively, as against yield of 1.6-3.2 t/ha (mean 2.2 t/ha) with the farmers' practice (Fig. 4.1), with a yield advantage of 8-39% and 12-62%. In the 2007 WS, demonstration trials with unfertilized and fertilized (NPK + FYM/Azolla compost) seedlings were planted at 10 sites, but the crop was badly damaged at seven sites because of repeated prolonged submergence following unprecedented heavy rainfall and blockage of the river mouth due to sand deposits. At the remaining three sites, yields were relatively poor compared with those of 2006. Nevertheless, transplanting with fertilized seedlings produced 10-35% higher grain yield than with unfertilized seedlings. In the 2006 trials, the improved method of transplanting had grain yields of 1.9-3.7 t/ha (mean 2.9 t/ha), against 1.7-3.0 t/ha (mean 2.1 t/ha) with the farmers' practice, giving a yield advantage of 13-69% (Fig.  Nonrice crops. Encouraged by the crop performance and farmers' response, seeds of sunflower, watermelon, chilli, and okra were provided to nearly 170 and 230 farmers from 11 and 10 sites in the 2007 and 2008 DS, respectively. Sunflower and watermelon produced 1.2 and 15.6 t/ha in 2007 and 0.9 and 11.8 t/ha in 2008, respectively. Although chilli and okra were badly damaged by mid-season rainfall and waterlogging in 2007, they still produced 0.8 and 11.4 t/ha yield, respectively. Farmers' response to adoption of these nonrice crops is encouraging and seed demand is increasing rapidly in this area. This would strongly contribute to crop diversification as well as livelihood improvement of the poor farming communities. On-farm trials on liming for groundnut (cv. AK 12-24) and sunflower (cv. KBSH 1) were conducted at four sites during the 2007 DS and eight (groundnut)) and 12 (sunflower) sites during the 2008 dry season. Lime was applied at 0.5 t/ha in furrows before sowing. The seed yield of sunflower in no-liming and liming treatments was 1.20-2.06 and 1.57-2.23 t/ha in 2007 and 0.6-2.25 t/ha and 0.8-2.41 t/ha, while the pod yield of groundnut in the two treatments was 0.79-1.87 and 1.05-2.50 t/ha in 2007 and 0.48-1.56 and 0.64-1.68 t/ha in 2008, respectively. Liming increased the yield of sunflower in 2007 and 2008 by 7.8-30.8% and 5.1-36.4% and that of groundnut by 18.7-57.8% and 4.2-63.6%, respectively. These demonstration trials were managed by farmers and there was considerable variability in the observed yields and yield advantages due to improved technologies depending on the amount of management and differences in soil texture, soil fertility and salinity status, depth of groundwater table, and hydrological situation (WS). Nevertheless, there was significant yield improvement in almost all the trials. The purpose of conducting demonstration trials on component technology is to provide different options to farmers, particularly for those who cannot afford the adoption of complete technology packages. Some of the improved technologies such as improved salt-tolerant rice varieties in both the wet and dry seasons, the use of older seedlings and closer planting of rice in the wet season, and early planting of rice, Azolla, and the cultivation of nonrice crops (sunflower, watermelon, chilli, and okra) in rice fallows during the DS are being widely adopted by farmers. Although Sesbania is also promising, farmers are somewhat skeptic about its use because of uncertain establishment of the green manure in the event of early drought. The adoption of salt-tolerant rice varieties with matching improved management practices as a complete package showed considerable potential for doubling yield in both the wet and dry seasons. Rainwater harvesting also proved to be effective in expanding dry-season crops, and 12 existing small ponds in six villages were renovated to increase their water holding for irrigating nonrice crops. Farmers' training on rice seed health management and seed multiplication. The production of healthy seed and its proper storage are very important in coastal environments due to the prevalence of high temperature and humidity. A farmers' training on \"Rice seed health management\" was organized in 2005, in which 25 men and women farmers from different adopted villages participated. Hands-on training was given on the selection of healthy seeds from rice fields, cleaning and grading of harvested seeds, and seed processing and safe storage. Seeds of promising improved rice varieties in large quantities were produced by the trained farmers under the supervision of CRRI scientists and these seeds were bought back for distribution to other farmers. This has greatly helped in disseminating the improved varieties. Farmers' field days and field visits. Farmers' field days were organized every year to discuss the major constraints to agricultural productivity in the target areas and possible technology options for improving land and water productivity in salt-affected coastal soils. Men and women farmers from different villages participated in the meetings. Experiences and success stories of farmers about improved technologies were also discussed. In addition, field visits to the experimental sites were organized during both the wet and dry season to create awareness about improved technologies. This has greatly helped in disseminating the improved technologies.Extension bulletins and media. A bulletin on \"Improving rice productivity in salt-affected coastal soils\" was published in English and the local language (Oriya) and distributed to farmers and extension personnel at both project sites and in neighboring districts. Several short documentaries on problems of coastal salinity and strategies for improving the land and water productivity of salt-affected soils were recorded and telecast through ETV during 2005-07. In addition, a special documentary on the prospects of using Azolla biofertilizer for improving rice productivity was telecast in 2006. The documentary in 2005 was mostly on the development of coastal saline areas and possible remedial measures through the deployment of salttolerant crops and varieties and soil, water, and nutrient management options. In subsequent years, discussion focused on promising technologies validated under this project. Also, proceedings of the farmers' field days were published in local newspapers to create greater awareness among the farming communities facing similar challenges. Qualitative impact assessment. Farmers in this region used to experience about 4 to 5 months of food shortage annually. A qualitative impact assessment was conducted by an anthropologist from IRRI, Philippines, in November 2006 through four focus-group discussions (FGDs) involving 15-20 farmers in each group. Separate FGDs of men and women farmers were conducted in each village. The farmers acknowledged that the adoption of improved salt-tolerant rice varieties and management technologies increased their yields in the WS and allowed expansion of rice area in the DS, leading to surplus rice production, enhanced farmers' income, and better food security. There is farmer-to-farmer exchange of improved rice seeds. Validated management technologies such as improved method of transplanting in the WS, early planting in the DS, and integrated nutrient management practices in both the wet and dry seasons are being widely accepted. Farmers reported that they had observed good crop growth and yield by using inputs and improved transplanting methods. Sunflower is well accepted by farmers as an option for diversification. The demand for seeds of salt-tolerant rice varieties and nonrice crops has increased substantially. Quantitative impact assessment. This was conducted in 2008 by interviews with 100 farmers from 11 villages using a structured questionnaire. Nearly half of them were also interviewed during the benchmark surveys conducted in 2004. The study showed a progressive increase in DS rice area from almost nil to 16.63, 34.82, and 48.20 ha in 2006, 2007, and 2008, respectively, out of a total landholding of 134.96 ha.The DS rice area of respondent farmers increased gradually in most villages, except in Kankan and Patna, where adequate irrigation water was not available, and area expansion was more extensive in villages having adequate irrigation water. The farmers now depend more on DS than WS rice for their food security.Encouraged by this spectacular outcome, an NGO (World Vision) has begun a project of making a network of irrigation channels for providing fresh river water to these areas. This would greatly help in further expanding dry-season rice. The area under nonrice crops after WS rice for the respondent farmers also increased from almost negligible in 2004 to 9.5% in 2007. However, the area declined slightly to 7.2% in 2008. The decline was noticed in four villages that have adequate fresh water for growing rice. In four villages with less fresh-water availability, the area under nonrice crops increased during 2008. On the other hand, information collected from the key informants for these villages indicated that total nonrice crop area had actually increased in 2008 (35 ha) compared with 2007 (30 ha). Among the CNRM technologies introduced through this project, early planting for dry-season rice has been most widely adopted by farmers, and area under early planting for interviewed farmers was 73.8%, 81.6%, and 89. 7% during 2006, 2007, and 2008, respectively. This simple technology was readily accepted by the farmers in 2006 and its adoption has remarkably helped in improving the productivity of DS rice.Adaptive trial for evaluating the production potential of salt-tolerant varieties of rice and wheat with a reduced dose of gypsum in salt-affected soils. Dissemination of integrated nutrient management techniques in the rice-wheat cropping sequence on partially reclaimed sodic soil. Sodic soils are highly deficit in organic matter and crops invariably suffer nutritional disorders. Sulficated press mud improves organic matter and enhances the reclamation of sodic soils. Therefore, adoptive research began in 2005 to (i) compare new integrated nutrient management options with the farmers' practice and the recommended chemical fertilizer alone in the rice-wheat cropping system, and (ii) identity any constraints to the adoption of these technologies in farmers' fields.Methodology. Field trials were conducted at three villages with initial soil pH2 of 9.0, 9.4, and 9.0 for Kashrawan, Hardoi, and Todarpur villages, respectively. The treatments included four nutrient management practices: T1 = farmers' practice (conventional rice-wheat system, rice seedling transplanting in puddled soil without basal NPK and Zn, and only nitrogen at 110 kg/ha was applied in three splits at 20-d intervals after transplanting. Irrigation was applied after 4 to 5 d after the disappearance of ponded water; T2 = 100% N and P (recommended) only; T3 = 50% of T2 + sulficated press mud at 10 Mg/ha; and T4 = T2 + sulficated press mud at 10 Mg/ha. Two rice genotypes were used: one was salt-tolerant and the other was highyielding and intolerant. The experiment was continued in the rabi season using two wheat varieties.Results. The application of 100% NP along with press mud increased yield by 40% and 84% for rice and wheat, respectively. The application of 50% NP together with press mud also significantly increased rice and wheat grain yields and saved 50% N. Yield of Narendra-359 (rice) and PBW 343 (wheat) was lower than that of salt-tolerant varieties CSR13 (rice) and KRL19 (wheat) at higher pH under conventional practices.The application of press mud improved the availability of micronutrient and hydraulic conductivity of surface soil.A \"Kisan Gosthi\" or farmers' fair was organized on 18 October 2005 at Mataria Village, Unnao District. Shri S.P. Dixit (IAS), special secretary (home), government of Uttar Pradesh, inaugurated this program. About 400 male and female farmers participated in this Gosthi and scientists of various institutes interacted with the farmers. Important national and international research projects on the management of salt-affected soils using participatory approaches were undertaken in this village. Special emphasis was given to different newly emerging techniques for the reclamation and management of sodic soils. The information on important salt-tolerant varieties released by CSSRI-CSR13, CSR23, CSR27, and CSR30 (basmati)-was made available. Field visits were conducted to show the performance of these varieties on highly sodic soils. In addition, several other technological aspects such as methods of application of amendments such as gypsum and pyrite were shared with farmers during field visits. In a structured question-answer session, various issues raised by farmers related to sodic land reclamation and management were addressed by specialists. Another farmers' fair was organized on 26 September 2006 at Krishi Vigyan Kendra Dhora Village, Unnao District, and about 120 male and female farmers participated.A \"farmers' meet\" was organized on 27 April 2007 at Krishi Vigyan Kendra Dhora Village, Unnao. About 80 male and female farmers participated. Dr. A.K.Biswas, president, Third World Center for Water Management, Mexico; Dr. Jonathan Woolley, program coordinator, CPWF, IWMI; and Dr. A.K. Sikka, basin coordinator of IGB, were present. Scientists from various institutes interacted with the farmers of the region. Special emphasis was also given to newly emerging techniques for the reclamation and management of sodic soils.Two bulletins, \"Soil Sodicity Test: A Field Kit\" in English and \"Mirda Chhariayata: Janch kit\" in Hindi, were published for use by extension personnel and farmers.Evaluation of promising salt-tolerant rice varieties in PVS trials with farmers. Seven promising varieties selected from previous mother trials were evaluated in baby trials by six farmers whose land had soil pH of 9.5 to 9.8. The following varieties showed considerable advantages over those being used by farmers: Sarjoo-52 (8-56%), CSR27 (40-49%), CSR30 (11-30%), NDRK-5089 (15-48%), CSR23 (21-43%), NDRK-5083 (54%), and NDRK-5050 (30%). In 2007, 11 genotypes were evaluated by 15 farmers on sodic soils (pH of 9.2-9.8). All varieties showed considerable advantages over the farmers' cultivars, but with considerable variation based on soil pH and farmers' management. NDRK-5083 was consistently ranked the best, with a yield advantage of 36-66% over the farmers' own varieties, followed by Sarjoo-52 (30-61%), Usar Dhan-3, IR67519-3R-994-2B-2-1, and NDRK-5089. In 2008, seven genotypes were evaluated by 20 farmers in two villages. Again, the new salt-tolerant varieties were considerably better than farmers' varieties in all trials, with a yield advantage of 20-75%. The best varieties were Usar Dhan-3, NDR-359, Sarjoo-52, NDRK-5083, NDRCP-8, CSR30, and CSR23. Across all trials, Usar Dhan-3 and NDR-359 ranked the highest among farmers. These trials demonstrated the advantages of replacing farmers' traditional varieties with these new salt-tolerant high-yielding varieties, which are also more responsive to inputs.Evaluation of rice genotypes for brackish shrimp-rice system, WS, 2005-06. Two PVS-T lines and two standard varieties were evaluated along with popular landraces in coastal areas after harvesting of shrimp in the T. aman season. Seedlings (35-40-d-old) were transplanted at 2-3 seedlings at 25 × 15-cm spacing in plots of 5 m × 10 m. The fertilizer dose was 80:60:40 kg NPK/ha. Gypsum and ZnSO 4 were applied at 100 and 10 kg/ha, respectively. N was applied in three splits. The total amount of P, K, gypsum, and ZnSO 4 was applied at final land preparation. Other cultural management practices were as farmers' practices. The field was washed at least twice with rain/high tide before transplanting. The trial was conducted in 8 professional brackish-water shrimp-culture fields. A farmer participatory approach was followed in collaboration with the NGO Sushilan. Two advanced lines, PVS-T2 and PVS-T5, were 1-3 wk earlier than the standard and local checks but with yield similar to that of the standard varieties. The earliness is important for preparation of the shrimp field. Therefore, farmers have chosen these lines for the rice-shrimp system. DS, 2005-06. Three PVS-B lines and a standard check variety were grown in seven farmers' fields, including the BRRI farm at Satkhira. These materials were selected through PVS \"mother and baby\" trials. An RCB design with three replications was used, and 40-45-d-old seedlings were transplanted at 2-3 seedlings per hill spaced at 25 × 15 cm in plots with 5.1 × 8 rows with NPKSZn at 100:60:40:18:2 kg/ha. The trials were conducted in cooperation with the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and two NGOs, Gurpukur and Shushilan, at Satkhira. A formal application was made to the National Seed Board (NSB) for conducting a field evaluation at heading and ripening stages for recommendations of varieties for release. NSB evaluated the trials at flowering stage at seven locations and showed satisfaction with the uniform heading of the proposed lines. The crop matured in late April 2006. The NSB team visited the fields again and the evaluation team cut the crop across the locations. Evaluating the distinctness, uniformity, and yield, the team recommended PVS-B3 (IR63307-4B-4-3) to the Technical Committee to consider releasing it as a commercial variety for salt-affected areas in the boro season (yield advantage of more than 1.5 t/ha over BRRI dhan28). The Seed Certification Agency (SCA) completed tests and BRRI is preparing details for submission to the Technical Committee.Two PVS-T lines were evaluated at 16 locations in fields where the previous crop was brackish shrimp. BR23 and BRRI dhan41 were used as standard checks. Also, a popular landrace was used as a check per site. Cultural practices were similar to the trials above. Among the 16 locations of the experimental plots, only four locations survived and the rest were damaged by high tidal inundation and waterlogging along with submergence for 10-15 days, a common risk in coastal areas. PVS-T2 and PVS-T5 lines were 10-15 days earlier and 10-15 cm shorter than the check varieties, making them tolerant of lodging. These advanced lines showed a 0.2-0.25 t/ha yield advantage over the local check. Water salinity ranged from 2.0 to 3.5 dS/m. PVS-T2 yielded higher than other varieties for all the locations except location 3, where PVS-T5 had a higher yield. Therefore, these two lines became more promising than others for the brackish shrimp-rice system. Upscaling of BRRI Dhan47 in Satkhira region in 2006-07. BRRI dhan47, previously called PVS-B3, was released by the NSB in January 2007. We distributed 4 kg of its seeds to each of 60 farmers in November 2006. The farmers were from Satkhira Sdar, Tala, Ashashuni, Debhata, Kaliganj, and Shyamnagar upazillas of Satkhira District. They followed their own practices. At maturity, A. Ismail and M.A. Salam participated in farmers' field days and evaluation at some of the sites. Among the 60 farmers, yield varied from 4.2 to 7.5 t/ha and averaged 6.1 t/ha. Farmers who have higher salinity in their irrigation water showed the highest satisfaction with BRRI dhan47. The release and outscaling of this variety are a major milestone for this project, as this is the first salt-tolerant variety to be released for the DS in coastal Bangladesh. Farmers are continuously demonstrating satisfaction with its performance and demand for seeds is increasing every year. Farmers were able to grow rice in areas that have not been productive over several years in the past. Extension services such as DAE, NGOs, and private farms are currently involved in the rapid dissemination of the variety in subsequent seasons. Evaluation of rice genotypes in brackish-water shrimp fields in 2007-08. Two PVS-T lines were evaluated at ten locations in fields where the previous crop was brackish shrimp. BR23 and BRRI dhan41 were used as standard checks and similar cultural practices were followed as in previous years. The crop condition was excellent at the beginning, but, because of cyclone Sidr, all the trials were damaged and no further data were collected. This is another case of vulnerability of this ecosystem to frequent natural disasters. Participatory varietal selection, 2007-08. Both mother and baby trials were conducted during the DS. The mother trial used 13 genotypes, including three popular varieties (BRRI dhan28, BRRI dhan29, and BRRI dhan47), five advanced lines, and four lines from Vietnam. The experiment was conducted at five locations in the Satkhira region named Satkhira Sdar, Shyamnagar, Kaliganj, Ashashuni, and Tala, using similar practices as in previous years. Water and soil salinity was monitored weekly; at maturity, farmers were gathered to select their favored lines. Yield at the sites depends on the amount of salinity. A few lines were identified that were earlier than BRRI dhan28, the earliest variety in the region, and these were BR7084-3R-39 and OM 1490 (from Vietnam). Overall, BRRI dhan47 was the best, followed by BR7084-3R-39, OM 4498, and OM 2718. Most farmers voted for BRRI dhan47, followed by BR7084-3R-39 and BRRI dhan29-SC3-27. Selected genotypes will enter baby trials in subsequent years. Further upscaling of BRRI Dhan47 at Satkhira in 2007-08. A package of 5 kg of seeds was distributed to more than 300 new farmers in early November 2007 at Satkhira Sdar, Tala, Ashashuni, Debhata, Kaliganj, and Shyamnagar upazillas of Satkhira District. In addition, seeds of BRRI dhan47 were distributed in three other locations in the Barisal region for demonstration. Trials were managed by farmers and monitored by the PN7 team to provide advice as needed. At crop maturity, the project team, led by M.A. Salam, visited several farmers' fields and conducted field days with farmers, scientists from BRRI and DAE, and NGO representatives.Focus-group discussions and farmers' field visits were conducted to enhance farmers' knowledge and encourage their adoption of new technologies. In addition, field days were organized at Cau Ngang, Chau Thanh, and Cau Ke, Bac Lieu, to provide first-hand information to the farmers about technologies available for sodic soil. Scientists, local government personnel, and CLRRI were regularly contacted for further information about technology adoption by the farmers. Seed production and seed health management training were organized in two provinces in collaboration with CLRRI.Training workshops and scientific research visits. A total of 21 classes, from 2 days to 5 days of training on the selection of salt-tolerant varieties and seed production and management of these varieties, were conducted during 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008  Training of farmers and local government agents. Field days were organized twice a year at least at two sites each year throughout the project duration. About 100 to 1,200 farmers, including men and women, participated in these workshops and they evaluated the new varieties at each site. Farmers were involved in ranking varieties from researcher-managed (mother) trials as well as in evaluating PVS entries during field days. They were also trained in seed cleaning, roguing, and selecting healthy panicles for pure healthy seeds. CLRRI shared its technical expertise, including seed production and handling of the new salttolerant varieties with partner institutions. A series of training activities on seed health and management was completed involving farmers and researchers in a few villages every year. In addition, CLRRI also shared seeds of its newly developed salt-tolerant short-maturity varieties with other partners, and some of them are expected to be released as commercial varieties as in Bangladesh and Indonesia. CLRRI also organized regular meetings with provincial staff at project sites to discuss issues relevant to rice-based system productivity and challenges.Based on the previous survey for target salt-affected areas in the Nile basin at the commencement of the project and previously identified challenges in these areas, plans were prepared for tackling such problems and to further develop these areas under this project. These plans focused on disseminating best-bet technologies for rice cultivation in salt-affected areas, as rice is the main crop representing around 75-80% of these areas. Several strategies were followed throughout the project duration to ensure effective technology transfer:• Extension lectures for women and men farmers in their own villages and towns: In three successive years, 102 lectures about the best-bet rice cultivation technologies for salt-affected soils were delivered to farmers. A total of 1,020 men and women farmers benefited from these lectures, representing the villages located in the target areas. In addition, extension workers in these areas were also involved to ensure further outscaling.Two training courses were also conducted to increase the awareness of farmers and extension personnel on the challenges of salt-affected soils and their proper management and use for agricultural production. This also included proper technology for mitigation and reclamation and proper cultural practices and crop husbandry and protection for effective rice-based systems. Some 32 extension workers and field technicians were also trained through these workshops.Booklets with packages of recommendations for proper rice cultivation in saline soil were also published in the local language and distributed to extension workers and farmers, including women and men.Demonstration fields: About 25-30 extension fields were developed in saline areas and farmers were regularly invited to observe modern technologies demonstrated through these farms. Field days were also organized at harvest and various stakeholders, including policymakers, local government officials, and farmers, participated. In these extension fields, new varieties and management practices were demonstrated against farmers' practices. Rice grain yield in these extension fields exceeded that of the adjacent field by around 1.0 t/ha, suggesting that these new technologies will significantly contribute to national productivity. The large gap between these fields farmers' fields suggested that more work is needed to bridge this gap. This is particularly important for Egypt, with limited land and water resources and the dire need to increase productivity from existing marginal resources, as yield from favorable areas already reached its plateau.Numerous capacity-strengthening activities were undertaken under this project involving degree and nondegree training as well as workshops on specific topics. These activities were also summarized in the capacity-building section of the final report document submitted with this report. A total of seven MSc students (one at CLRRI, two each at CRRI, ICRISAT, and IRRI) and five PhD students (one at RRTC and two each at CLRRI and NDUAT) received support during their degree training through this project. One postdoc was also involved at IRRI. Several additional training activities were presented below. Training on brackish-shrimp farming. This project attempted to introduce a rice crop in brackish-shrimp fields to maximize the use of land and water during the WS and reduce pollution and diseases caused by shrimp culture. Numerous trials were conducted during the WS involving salt-tolerant varieties grown in shrimp fields, which encouraged farmers to adapt rice production in the T. aman season in these fields after harvesting brackish shrimp. Eighteen farmers interested in growing rice after the harvesting of shrimp were trained in proper practices for brackish-water shrimp farming in collaboration with the Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI). The training was held in December 2005 at the premises of the NGO Shushilan, Kaliganj. The IRRI project leader (A. Ismail) and coordinator (M.A. Salam) also participated. During the meeting, farmers requested full-course training at BFRI, Paikgachha. Subsequently, a 3-d training course was conducted at BFRI, Khulna, for the same farmers during December 2005, at which farmers received a complete package of management for brackish-shrimp farming and learned how to maintain a healthy system for both rice and shrimp. Capacity strengthening of BRRI. Two BRRI students were able to pursue their degree training at IRRI under this project: Dr. Md. Rafiqul Islam, senior scientific officer, Plant Breeding Division, completed his PhD, while Mr. Akhlasur Rahman, senior scientific officer, Plant Breeding Division, is still pursuing his PhD, anticipating completion within one year. CLRRI, Vietnam. CLRRI conducted numerous in-country training workshops for farmers and other stakeholders (e.g., seed production, seeding rate, nutrient management, seedling handling and multiplication, integrated pest management) as summarized under activity 4. Numerous scientists also participated in short-term on-the-job training as well as workshops held at IRRI, on various techniques of phenotyping (seedling and reproductive stages) and the use of SSR markers, mapping, and marker-assisted selection. Varieties developed in Vietnam were also shared with other countries, including Cambodia (20 rice, 5 soybean, 5 peanut, and 5 mungbean varieties); Indonesia (10 new varieties); IRRI (33 new varieties); Bangladesh (7 varieties); and Myanmar (8 new varieties). Linkages were also strengthened with IRRI and other countries. RRTC, Egypt. Two training courses were conducted to enhance the capacity of extension workers in knowledge of managing saline soil. Sixty field extension trials were conducted during 2007-08. In addition, recommendation packages on integrated crop and nutrient management for saline soils were developed. IRRI. At IRRI, 29 staff from NARES institutions involved in the project participated in training workshops:(1) Marker-Assisted Selection Workshop, 21-24 February 2005;and (2) Workshop on Project Management Tools, 28 February 2005. Representatives of participating centers also participated in the rice breeding course held annually at IRRI.This portion of the study focuses on the outcomes and impact of the CPWF PN#7 on Development of Technologies to Harness the Productivity Potential of Salt-Affected Areas of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Mekong Delta, and eastern India. Before, large areas were not being used for faming, especially in the DS; now, some of these areas are being/could be exploited as in Orissa and UP, India, and southern Bangladesh.farmers.-Change in scientists', managers', and farmers' perception on the potential capacities of women to be agents of change, and they are also farmers.-Change among scientists' mode of working-from a single discipline to multidisciplinary approach and as a team, which fosters teamwork.-Changes in perception of managers and policymakers for the potential of saltaffected marginal areas and their possible role in food security.varieties with reasonable salt tolerance and quality and techniques to improve crop-waternutrient management (promising nursery establishment and crop and nutrient management packages for new salt-tolerant varieties) remain the main thrusts of the project.(70%), more proactive (52%), improved social status and wellbeing (50%), and increased women's participation (54%), among others.Of the changes listed above, which have the greatest potential to be adopted and have impact? What might the potential be for the ultimate beneficiaries?The products that have the greatest impact to be adopted are early planting for dry-season rice, earlymaturing and high-yielding salt-tolerant rice and nonrice varieties, salt-tolerant varieties and associated nutrient management techniques, cheap soil amendments, and the use of salt-tolerant varieties for early rice planting to enable farmers to grow another rice crop. New cropping systems such as rice-sunflower have a high potential for adoption. New breeding tools and optimized phenotyping protocols could speed the varietal development process. New practice and knowledge: Participatory varietal selection (PVS) for rice varietal improvement and participatory experiments on new farming practices, especially water management and nutrient management. These will all have a positive impact on the lives of the poor living in salt-affected areas. Lands that were barren/fallow before are now grown with rice and other crops, thus increasing crop productivity and cropping intensity, ensuring household food (rice) security, enabling farmers to have a marketable surplus, and providing additional income. Moreover, farmers were taught how to produce their own seeds while maintaining quality. The ultimate beneficiaries are men and women from poor farming households who grow rice and other crops in salt-affected areas.What still needs to be done to achieve this potential? Are measures in place (e.g., a new project, ongoing commitments) to achieve this potential? Please describe what will happen when the project ends. This project has been very successful in developing and validating effective interventions; however, these technologies were demonstrated in limited areas, and some will need further validation with farmers, such as new breeding lines. Much more needs to be done in scaling out and scaling up, particularly in the dissemination of new rice varieties and management packages. Although there is increased demand for salttolerant seeds, supply is short. Thus, more efforts are needed to strengthen seed systems to give farmers better access to these seeds. However, seed distribution is not enough. New information with regard to the crop management techniques associated with the seeds should be provided to farmers. Innovative strategies are needed to give farmers access to affordable inputs to improve the nutrient requirements of crops. Need-based training for researchers and farmers in all aspects of the project still need to cover target sites and strengthen the outscaling process.After the project ends: The project will benefit from a second phase to be supported by the CPWF, but with emphasis on validation and outscaling of technologies developed through the first phase, and further quantification of impacts. A lot needs to be done in a second phase to organize policy dialogues to bring these developments to the attention of governments and policymakers to solicit further support and make greater impact. More pilot demonstrations need to be made at additional sites within the project areas, for example, the IGB, for greater impact.Each row of the table above is an impact pathway describing how the project contributed to outcomes in a particular actor or actors. Which of these impact pathways were unexpected (compared to expectations at the beginning of the project?) − The proportion of dry-season rice area increased remarkably during the project period in Orissa and southern Bangladesh; in addition, farmers started leasing new lands when they discovered the benefits. − The area under noncrops increased from almost negligible in 2004 to 10% in 2007; in villages with less fresh water, the area under nonrice crops increased during 2008. − Considerable benefits from inputs once salt-tolerant varieties became available, and resilience of the farmers to adopt new changes. − Change of attitudes at the policy level toward the value of these marginal resources that were seemingly neglected in the past.Why were they unexpected? How was the project able to take advantage of them? Unexpected because some of them involved dramatic changes in farmers' practices, and that seems to start relatively fast, as adoption normally takes a long time to occur in farmers' fields. Also encouraged by the spectacular changes, local governments, for example, in Tra Vinh, and other organizations, for example, World Vision (an international NGO), tapped in with additional resources to implement and facilitate these changes. World Vision is developing an irrigation system to provide fresh water for DS crops in coastal Orissa after it witnessed the impacts on the few farmers involved in the project. The project facilitated this involvement, but more resources are needed to bring further attention and support to these interventions.What would you do differently next time to better achieve outcomes (i.e., changes in stakeholder knowledge, attitudes, skills, and practice)? − Focus on additional areas but with more resources to have quicker impact − Include more social scientists, and women, especially on the research team and in the outscaling process − More resources and trained people to increase farmer/community participation − Provide new seeds to involve more farmers in farmer-managed trials − Sensitize senior staff and NARES research managers on the importance of participatory approaches and encourage younger research staff to participate in project activities − Involve more women farmers in project activities and strengthen seed systems − More degree training to fill in gaps on research teams at NARESThe project produced a number of IPG that will have impact beyond the project target sites. These include tools and structured formats developed and used in the collection of data from socioeconomic surveys and feedback from different stakeholders, varieties released or in the pipeline of both rice and nonrice crops that are salt-tolerant, knowledge on best management practices, affordable mitigation and reclamation options for sodic/alkaline soils, and water harvesting. All these options will be useful in areas facing similar challenges worldwide. Landraces collected and evaluated are important for future studies and for preservation; those landraces identified with high tolerance could be used in breeding elsewhere.A number of tools were developed that will be extremely valuable for users beyond this project, including structured questionnaires and pro forma for surveys and feedback, advanced tools for accelerated breeding, large sets of DNA markers and protocols for MABC, efficient screening protocols for rice (IRRI) and nonrice crops (ICBA and ICRISAT), and established protocols for participatory evaluation of breeding material involving all stakeholders (researcher-and farmer-managed trial networks). Some kits were developed (CSSRI) that can help monitor soil alkalinity in the field. Extension material in local languages was also prepared and this will be available for large-scale distribution in similar areas.Many of the project outputs will show greater impact after large-scale dissemination if sufficient resources are made available. Many breeding lines were developed and are at different stages of testing. Some of these will be future varieties in some countries. Management strategies, including water harvesting, affordable reclamation and mitigation strategies, coupled with profitable cropping sequences, will help transform the life of farmers in many salt-affected areas. Some of these changes are already being seen at some of the project sites but will need to be outscaled to reach the vast majority of farmers who need them most.A unique feature of this project is the strong sense of ownership and partnership that developed among participants. Eleven institutions are involved, including seven NARES institutes in five countries, two CG centers, and two advanced research institutes. This allowed the development of a strong network of interdisciplinary teams with expertise across different ecosystems. Some of these institutions entered into partnership with IRRI for the first time. The project also facilitated stronger linkages between institutes even within each country as in the case of India and Bangladesh. The considerable diversity in expertise among partners allowed a holistic systems approach to be employed to provide sound solutions to the common problem of salt stress. Expertise included social scientists, economists, gender specialists, agronomists, soil scientists, water engineers, fisheries specialists, physiologists, breeders, molecular geneticists, and molecular biologists working together, and this provided unprecedented intellectual strength and diversity to the project. Building such a strong network also provided a lasting foundation for future collaboration and joint activities. These kinds of linkages were not possible in the past.Through the different activities and outputs of the project, several technologies were developed and validated, and a considerable amount of scientific knowledge was accumulated. However, more efforts are needed for up-and outscaling to reach the ultimate beneficiaries; some of these are summarized below: On research: − Increase investments in research on salt-affected areas, at both the national and international level, as these areas are currently extremely underused but hold great potential for contributing to food security. These areas have been largely neglected in the past, with the notion that little could be achieved. − Make greater efforts to establish accurate databases on the extent and severity of salt-affected lands, crop losses, and coping mechanisms. This information is needed in defining recommendation domains for technology targeting. − Build on indigenous knowledge in traditionally salt-affected areas and understand the interface between the biophysical and socioeconomic circumstances of targeted communities for effective development and dissemination of technology options and policy formation. − Increase efforts for the collection, evaluation, and preservation of native germplasm from habitually saltaffected areas, as this material constitutes precious sources of diversity and adaptation, and is useful for current and future breeding programs. − Understanding that high-yielding salt-tolerant varieties of rice and upland crops constitute an entry point for progress in these areas, but with considerable synergy when combined with best management practices. Farmers also showed the will to invest more in inputs for the new varieties. Greater efforts are needed to develop varieties with higher tolerance and proper management packages adjusted for these varieties. − Give special emphasis to crop establishment as most crops are more sensitive during this stage.Increasing seedling-stage tolerance, together with best management practices, is particularly important. Proper nursery management is needed for transplanted crops as rice is important and less costly. − Use a systems approach in addressing the needs and constraints of poor farming families who spread risks by resorting to various livelihood strategies. This will require a dedicated multidisciplinary team to develop/identify appropriate crops and varieties as well as best practices for their management. However, transformation of farmers' livelihood is foreseeable. On extension: − Involve farmers in each step of the adaptive research process from needs and opportunities assessment, and on-farm testing and validation, to evaluation and dissemination. Both men and women actively engaged in rice farming should be involved in testing new varieties as well as management options in their own fields using their own skills. This gives the farmers a sense of ownership and confidence and speeds the adoption process. − Ensure that men and women have access to new seeds as well as knowledge on crop management requirements specific for these unfavorable areas. Management is mostly as important as genetic tolerance, and neither of them could be effective on its own. − Consider farmers' available resources and capacities to absorb new knowledge (proper timing, rates of input use, etc.) when recommending alternative options over their traditional practices. − Increase the number of women extension workers who can work with women farmers. − Use diverse extension and communication strategies to accelerate dissemination and outscaling. − Tap entrepreneurs and service providers to enable farmers to have easy access to inputs and engage in agri-business ventures, for example, the use of stress-tolerant nonrice crops that are more profitable when fresh water is scarce, the use of alternative organic fertilizers when available, etc. On policy: − Develop infrastructure and marketing opportunities that can provide incentives to farmers to intensify and diversify their cropping systems. − Relax the varietal release regulations, for example, by considering the data obtained through PVS trials in farmers' fields as part of the varietal release process. This will speed the commercialization of new varieties to help reach their target beneficiaries. In many countries, subsidies could be provided to farmers only on seeds of released varieties. − Provide credit at low interest to farmers who want to invest in seeds and other inputs such as machinery and irrigation facilities, and to enable farmers to apply inputs as recommended. − Provide farmers access to high-quality seeds of stress-tolerant varieties at lower cost. − Researchers at NARES should be encouraged and supported to write proposals to their national programs to strengthen their local research output. For example, use of molecular breeding technologies will require a steady source of funding for these activities. On institutions: − Given the extreme diversity, severity, and complexity of abiotic stresses encountered in salt-affected areas, extensive site-specific evaluation is inevitable. The PVS system developed through this project needs to be institutionalized and sustained, and information and feedback gathered from farmers, both men and women, during evaluation should be carefully considered during the process of commercial release of new varieties. − NARES laboratories need to be equipped to incorporate modern breeding tools in their conventional breeding to streamline germplasm development. After the molecular laboratories are established, additional technical backstopping is initially required to ensure that the labs are running effectively. Ultimately, these labs should become self-sustainable and independent through NARES support. − NARES should encourage interdisciplinary research, with teams representing different disciplines but addressing a common problem. There is also a dire need for interinstitutional linkages within NARES. − National programs still lack the critical mass to undertake serious research and development activities targeting unfavorable areas in general and problem soils in particular. Investment is needed to strengthen human capacity in research and delivery, including degree training, building of proper screening facilities, and capacity for on-farm participatory evaluation and adaptive research. − Need for trained social scientists, particularly women, who can work with biophysical scientists in the development and dissemination of technologies and for incorporating farmers' perceptions and feedback.A summary of project publications was provided in the Excel spreadsheet of the project report (CP7 ","tokenCount":"43093"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"df5efe7c388021c2ff3d85ece9f4ad6d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2837c527-22e9-4583-95a2-cff19179bdc8/content","id":"1301582236"},"keywords":["variety","line","gene pool","drought tolerance","stability","adaptivity"],"sieverID":"f341c803-6436-40b0-9a86-802129b70a3d","pagecount":"8","content":"Drought during the wheat vegetative period happens often in West Siberia and Kazakhstan condition. For this reason, varieties with adaptation to climatic zones, drought tolerance and high stability have high importance. The breeding efficiency and rates depend on the amount of information on genotypes in every study cycle. The aim of this study was to screen breeding material in Siberian and Kazakhstan research institutes from KASIB nurseries for drought tolerance and to develop a drought tolerant pool. For the evaluation of genotypes, it is necessary to study them in diverse condition. The basic purpose of the present work is to study breading material of durum wheat from KASIB institutions at different ecological sites. In 2000-2015, durum wheat entries in the Kazakhstan-Siberian program were studied. Progress in durum wheat breeding was tested in Russian and Kazakhstan institutes. Entries were screened for drought tolerance, yield and yield stability. They have value for including in hybridization for developing varieties with adaptation to Siberian and Kazakhstan conditions. The following varieties and lines are recommended for breading for drought tolerance: 383-МС,сновная задача зернопроизводителей -получение высокой и стабильной урожайности. Однако в условиях Сибири и Северного Казахстана в течение вегетационного периода часто проявляются засухи различного вида, которые вносят существенные коррективы в производство зерна пшеницы. Наблюдаются как поч венные, так и воздушные типы засухи с преобладанием почвенных, а в отдельные годы возможны оба вида засухи. При этом они чаще бывают в первой половине вегетации.Существует множество физиологических методов диаг ностики засухоустойчивости растений, которые изложены в монографиях В.А. Кумакова (1980), П.А. Генкеля (1982), Г.В. Удовенко (1988). Разработан также целый ряд методов, используемых для оценки твердой пшеницы (Jaradat, Konzak, 1983;Ehdaie, Waines, 1988;Havaux et al., 1988;Clarke et al., 1989;Gumnuluri et al., 1989;Кожушко и др., 1990;Кубайли и др., 1990;Venora, Calcagno, 1991). Однако селекционеры при оценке засухоустойчивых генотипов чаще используют более доступные показатели. А.И. Грабовец и М.А. Фоменко (2016) считают, что масса зерна с единицы площади, уборочный индекс -наиболее объективные показатели адаптации генотипа к засухе. Полевая засухоустойчивость оценивается по степени снижения продуктивности в условиях засухи по сравнению с продуктивностью в благоприятных условиях (Головоченко, 2001; Янченко и др., 2004; Лепехов, Коробейников, 2013).Наиболее распространенный метод создания адаптив ных и засухоустойчивых сортов -гибридизация с использованием соответствующего исходного материала. Эффективность и скорость селекции по этим направлениям зависят от количества информации, характеризующей генотипы и поступающей в каждом цикле исследований. Увеличение такого «потока» информации за один год до стигается системной организацией сортоиспытаний по экологическим пунктам, различающимся динамикой и стрессовой нагрузкой метеофакторов. В связи с этим в 1999 г. была создана КазахстанскоСибирская сеть по селекции яровой пшеницы (КАСИБ). Основное назначение КАСИБ -повышение эффективности селекции яровой пшеницы в Северном Казахстане и Сибири путем обмена сортами, селекционным материалом, информацией при встречах, совещаниях, координированной оценки материала (Моргунов, 2003). Участники программы КАСИБ по яровой твердой пшенице -Казахский НИИ зернового хозяйства им. А.А. Бараева (КазНПЦЗХ), Казахский научнопроизводственный центр земледелия и растениеводства (КазНПЦЗиР), Карабалыкская сельскохозяйственная опытная станция, Актюбинская сельскохозяйственная опытная станция, Сибирский научноисследовательский институт сельского хозяйства, Алтайский научноисследовательский институт сельского хозяйства, Самарский научноисследовательский институт сельского хозяйства, Курганский научноисследовательский институт сельского хозяйства. Испытание селекционного материала во многих экологических точках позволило селекционерам Mеждународного центра улучшения кукурузы и пшеницы (CIMMYT) создать сорта, сочетающие высокий потенциал продуктивности с экологической пластичностью. Убедительные данные о возможности выведения высокоурожайных, отзывчивых на благоприятные условия сортов, адаптированных к засухе в маргинальных регионах, приводит S. Rajaram (2003). Результаты испытаний КАСИБ в условиях Западной Сибири показали, что по некоторым признакам выделяются формы, представляющие интерес в качестве исходного материала (Евдокимов и др., 2008). Основная цель нашей работы -при использовании результатов экологических испытаний в системе КАСИБ дифференцировать селекционный материал научных учреждений Сибири и Казахстана по засухоустойчивости и сформировать исходный материал по этому направлению. Новизна и уникальность исследований заключаются в том, что такое широкое экологическое испытание по твердой пшенице в России и Казахстане проведено впервые.  [Янченко и др., 2004]):где DSI -индекс засухоустойчивости; Y -урожайность сор та в условиях стресса; Yp -урожайность сорта без стрес са; X -средняя урожайность по всем сортам при стрессе; Xp -средняя урожайность по всем сортам без стресса. Параметры экологической пластичности рассчитывали по S.A. Eberhart и W.A. Russel ((1966) в изложении: Зыкин и др., 1984).Селекционный материал питомников КАСИБ изучен в различных почвенноклиматических зонах России и Казахстана. В табл. 2 показаны экологические пункты, в которых испытание проводилось не менее трех лет. Наиболее жесткие условия для возделывания твердой пшеницы сложились в Актобе (Казахстан), поскольку средняя урожайность по всем питомникам была 15.9 ц/га. При двухлетнем испытании в Павлодаре она составляла 9.8-12.7, в Петропавловске -14.6-15.9 ц/га. В условиях Барнаула она была равной 30.5 ц/га, Омска -28.4 ц/га (Россия) Алматы -29.2 ц/га (Казахстан). В остальных экологических точках -в пределах 26.3-27.2 ц/га. В табл. 3 представлены наиболее урожайные (тройка лидеров) и самые засухоустойчивые сорта, имеющие наименьшие показатели индекса засухоустойчивости.В питомнике КАСИБ 1 по средней урожайности во всех испытываемых пунктах в тройке лидеров были сорта Аметист, Гордеиформе 91255 (Сибирский НИИСХ), линия 1800221 (КазНПЦЗиР). Эти сорта высокопластич ны и отзывчивы на улучшение условий среды (коэффициенты регрессии урожайности на индексы среды равны 1.31-1.53, по (Eberhart, Russel, 1966) Карабалыкской СХОС, в 4-5м -КазНПЦЗХ, в 6-7м -Сибирского НИИСХ, в 8-9м -Карабалыкской СХОС, в 10-11м -Сибирского НИИСХ, в 12-13м -Самарского НИИСХ, в 14-15м -Сибирского НИИСХ (табл. 4). Средняя урожайность по всем питомникам была выше по сор там Сибирского НИИСХ (27.2 ц/га), Самарского НИИСХ (25.8 ц/га), Алтайского НИИСХ (25.2 ц/га).Индекс засухоустойчивости (средний по испытываемым сортам) в первом питомнике варьировал от 0.72 до 1.18 и был наименьшим у сортов Алтайского НИИСХ (табл. 5). Во втором питомнике его колебания составляли от 0.83 у сортов Актюбинской СХОС до 1.35 -Карабалыкской СХОС. В 4-5м КАСИБ изменчивость показателя составляла 0.42-1.18. Минимальное значение имели сорта Курганского НИИСХ, а максимальное -Карабалыкской СХОС. В КАСИБ 6-7 по засухоустойчивости выделились сорта Актюбинской СХОС (DSI = 0.53), омские сорта (0.85). У остальных сортов значение индекса составляло от 0.94 до 1.90. В питомнике КАСИБ 8-9 наименьшее значение индекса (0.87) имели сорта Карабалыкской СХОС. В питомниках КАСИБ 10-11 и 12-13 по засухоустойчивости выделились сорта Актюбинской СХОС: индекс засухоустойчивости составлял, соответственно, 0.84 и 0.93. В КАСИБ 14-15 преимущество имели сорта Карабалыкской СХОС (DSI = 0.88) и Актюбинской СХОС (0.90). Средний показатель по всем питомникам свидетельствует о том, что более засухоустойчивы сорта селекции Актюбинской СХОС (DSI = 0.88). Близки к ним сорта омской и самарской селекции (0.99 и 0.96).Приведенные в табл. 5 данные по средней урожайности в условиях стресса подтверждают выше отмеченное. Уровень урожайности сортов Актюбинской СХОС в условиях стресса был выше во 2м, 6-7м, 10-11м КАСИБ. Сорта Сибирского НИИСХ имели преимущество в 4-5м, 14-15м, сорта Карабалыкской СХОС в 8-9м, а самарские сорта в 12-13м КАСИБ. Средняя урожайность по всем питомникам была выше у сортов: актюбинских (15.8 ц/ га), омских (15.2 ц/га), самарских (14.9 ц/га).Для селекции на адаптивность твердой пшеницы немаловажное значение имеют засухоустойчивые генотипы, которые характеризуются широкой нормой реакции и формируют высокий урожай в более благоприятных условиях. Их использование в гибридизации позволит создать пластичные сорта со стабильной урожайностью. На рисунке представлено 32 сорта с индексом засухоустойчивости ниже 1.0. Среди них 12 генотипов в условиях без стресса сформировали урожайность от 25.6  ","tokenCount":"1136"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"051cf30595d1d034f1ad53a473cc8f1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57f71ba0-f96d-4e13-a5c4-e831d00583b2/retrieve","id":"-226579726"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7a20051-4268-4194-b3af-153d4e0381d8","pagecount":"1","content":"The role of traditional Musa for small producers •100% have a mixed cropping system: 82% coffee + Musas and the other 18% citrus + Musas •Six different varieties are produced • Musas are consumed by the household • 88% answered that Musas are important because they are constant income to maintain the household •For 77% of the producers, income from Musa amounts to less than 25% of the income from crops and are secondary crop, and for 23% it is more than 25%•The monthly sale of Musa contributes to maintain the household`s income between the annual harvest of the main crop •Transaction costs in the Musa Peruvian VC differ depending on the level of the chain •Selling in the long distance chain (VCP) is more profitable for farmers •Producers `profits decrease with poor road infrastructure and a small number of buyers visiting the communities •A long term relationship between producer and buyer results in lower profits since farmers trade-off prices for a secure sale •Higher profits are obtained by producers that are paid right after the transaction","tokenCount":"177"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b574c2fe346eafc75e866c3cbfa93ce9b48a2b92
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"45d0085b9c380da1ddb41aef9855301d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/054600eb-144d-491e-b740-3d5a11de94a6/retrieve","id":"-1766289192"},"keywords":["Vernooy","R.","Sthapit","B. and Bessette","G. 2020. Community seed banks: concept and practice. Facilitator handbook (updated version). Bioversity International","Rome. Italy. Cover photo First seeds for the Gumbu community seed bank","South Africa. Credit: Bioversity International/R. Vernooy Subedi","A.","Sthapit","B.","Rijal","D.","Gauchan","D.","Upadhyay","M.P.","Shrestha","P. 2012. Community biodiversity register: consolidating community roles in management of agricultural biodiversity. In: Sthapit","B.","Shrestha","P.","Upadhyay","M. (editors). On-farm management of agricultural diversity in Nepal: good practices (revised edition). Bioversity International","Rome","Vernooy","R.","Shrestha","P.","Sthapit","B. (editors). 2015. Community seed banks: origins","evolution and prospects. Routledge","London","UK"],"sieverID":"2afecca8-a987-4f26-81f8-398d25865727","pagecount":"150","content":"The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation.The Alliance focuses on the nexus of agriculture, environment, and nutrition. We work with local, national, and multinational partners across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and with the public and private sectors and civil society. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis.The Alliance is part of CGIAR, the world's largest agricultural research and innovation partnership for a food-secure future dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources. www.bioversityinternational.org www.ciat.cgiar.org www.cgiar.orgThe Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) is a national sphere of the South African government, responsible for implementing the laws and policies decided by the South African parliament. It specifically derives its core mandate from section 27 (1) (b) and ( 2) of the South African Constitution which is to: \"….take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realisation of the….right (of everyone) to have access to sufficient food.\" Within the DAFF, and more specifically the Agricultural Production, Health and Food Safety Branch of the DAFF, the Directorate Genetic Resources is mandated to regulate and provide an integrated national management system in support of the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources for food and agriculture. This involves the development and implementation of policies, legislation, strategies and norms and standards on the management of genetic resources for food and agriculture, the regulation and promotion of propagating material of genetic resources for food and agriculture and to provide for a risk mitigating system in support of agricultural biodiversity.Quiz answers 137This work contributes to the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For details, please visit: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organizations.The content of this handbook, directly and indirectly, reflects our own community seed bank expertise resulting from over 25 years of work in the field -collaborating with many researchers, practitioners, and farmers -and in the office through literature reviews, critical reflections, and discussions about our work, as well as writing stories, papers, articles, and books. We have also tried to incorporate the knowhow and experience of the many colleagues who have dedicated time and effort to establishing and supporting community seed banks in many regions of the world. We appreciate all these contributions to community seed bank research and capacity development. We thank the many Bioversity International colleagues who pioneered community seed bank research and capacity development and then, over time, developed it into a solid area of research.We thank Sandra Garland for editing the text and Luca Pierotti for the design of the handbook. We also thank Evelyn Clancy for proofreading the updated version.What are community seed banks?Community seed banks are mainly informal institutions, locally governed and managed, whose core function is to preserve seeds for local use. They have existed for about 30 years, conserving, restoring, revitalizing, strengthening, and improving local seed systems, especially, but not solely, focused on local varieties. They are known by a variety of names: community genebank, farmer seed house, seed hut, seed wealth centre, seed savers group, association or network, community seed reserve, seed library, and community seed bank. The women and men farmers who run community seed banks handle major crops, minor crops, and neglected and underutilized species, sometimes in small quantities of a few hundred grams per accession, sometimes storing hundreds of kilograms.Community seed banks are trying to regain, maintain, and increase control over seeds by farmers and local communities and to strengthen or establish dynamic forms of cooperation among and between farmers and others involved in the conservation and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity, such as researchers, extension agents, genebank staff, and development workers (Vernooy et al. 2015). Increasingly, a community seed bank is seen as the place to obtain seeds of local crops and varieties, as commercial seed companies, extension input depots, and private dealers are marketing only modern varieties and hybrids of a limited number of crops.Why this handbook?Over three decades, a number of international and national organizations have provided technical and financial support to community seed banks around the world. They include international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as ActionAid, Development Fund of Norway, OXFAM-NOVIB, SeedChange (formerly USC-Canada); international research organizations, such as Bioversity International; national NGOs, such as the Community Technology Development Trust (CTDT) in Zimbabwe, the Farmer to Farmer programme of the national farmers' union in Nicaragua (Programa Campesino a Campesino of the Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos) and Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) in Nepal; and national government organizations, such as the national genebanks of Bhutan, Ethiopia, Nepal, Uganda, and South Africa, and EMBRAPA in Brazil. To our knowledge, only a few of these organizations have developed and published a practical guide about how they have offered this support. LI-BIRD is one such organization, but their community seed bank guide is in the Nepali language.To fill this gap, we offer this handbook, which is based on our own experience, but also takes into consideration what other colleagues have accomplished to advance research and capacity development regarding community seed banks. The handbook is organized as a guide for facilitators -people who work in the field with farmers and their organizations on issues of seed conservation and sustainable use.The publication Community seed banks: origins, evolution, and prospects edited by Ronnie Vernooy, Pitambar Shrestha, and Bhuwon Sthapit (Vernooy et al. 2015), which offers a global overview of diverse community seed banks around the world, provided the foundation for the content of this handbook. Parts of that publication have been updated and integrated into the handbook. Training materials and exercises were developed and piloted in the field, particularly in a workshop in South Africa in early 2016 with colleagues from the national agricultural research and extension system. Feedback received during the workshop was used to improve the draft training materials and exercises. This is an updated version of the handbook. We look forward to hearing how it is used, and we count on your feedback to continue improving its content and structure.For whom is the handbook intended?This handbook is intended for people working directly with women and men farmers, who are motivated to set up a community seed bank or who want to strengthen the operations of a community seed bank that already exists. They may be NGO staff, researchers, plant genetic resource centre (genebank) employees, or government extension agents who want to become more knowledgeable about the concept and practice of community seed banks, who are leading a process to establish one or more community seed banks, and/or who are conducting training sessions for community members about the concept and practice of a community seed bank. This handbook has three companion booklets for farmers (Vernooy et al. 2020a, b, c; see References section for details).How is the handbook organized?The handbook is organized in nine modules, as follows:Module 1, Steps and processes in establishing and supporting a community seed bank, presents a logical sequence of the major steps involved.Module 2, Trends in agricultural biodiversity, introduces two tools to assess the current abundance (richness) and distribution (evenness) of local agricultural biodiversity in farming communities at the level of crop species and crop variety, and to trace and analyze trends over time.Module 3, The multiple functions and services of community seed banks, offers an analytical framework for deciding on the objectives of a community seed bank and organizing possible core activities: conservation, access and availability, and seed and food sovereignty.Module 4, Technical issues involved in operating community seed banks, defines the key principles and practices for the effective operations of a community seed bank from a technical point of view.Module 5, Governance and management, looks at how community seed banks are dealing with governance and aspects of management, including costs.Module 6, Support and networking, discusses the importance of providing sound technical and organizational support to a community seed bank and what roles network building and networking can play.Module 7, Policies and laws that influence the establishment and operations of community seed banks, gives an overview of the institutional and regulatory environments that can affect a community seed bank, its viability, and its sustainability.Module 8, Viability and sustainability of a community seed bank, analyzes the key dimensions of viability and sustainability and how they can be addressed in practice.Module 9, Preparing a generic plan for establishing and supporting a community seed bank, concludes the handbook by presenting a framework to help farmers and supporting organizations develop a start-up plan.In the final section of the handbook, you will find three Annexes: In Annex 1, complete Learner instructions to be copied and distributed to participants; In Annex 2, the Quiz answers for each module; and in Annex 3 a complete list of References and resources listed in each module.Community seed banks are usually small-scale local organizations that store seed on a shortterm basis and serve the needs of individual communities or several communities in a district. However, such local efforts can have a multiplier effect if the community seed banks cultivate partnerships and engage in networking with multiple actors and share information and seeds with others in the informal and formal seed systems. Small community seed banks can, thus, sometimes become larger ones; or a network of small community seed banks with considerable scope and depth can emerge, with each one responding to particular needs and interests.Independently of the scale, however, the process of establishing and supporting a community seed bank involves a logical sequence of several major steps that will allow careful matching of community interests and needs with the principles and practices of the seed bank. This logical sequence is the subject of this first module.Please discuss the following learning objective with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Describe the major steps required for the establishment and support of a community seed bankBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask participants what they already know about community seed banks. You may use such questions as:• Have you lost any crops or varieties that you wish to cultivate again?• Do you have any options to obtain or recover these local seeds?• Do you think the community should be involved in safe-guarding local seeds?• Have you been involved in a community seed bank before?• Have you been involved in the collection, conservation, or distribution of seeds?• Have you been involved in the creation or management of a community seed bank?And then ask participants:• What are the main lessons you learned from your experience?• What are the main difficulties you encountered?Ask participants to make some notes and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of this first learning activity.Learning activity 1:Steps and processes in establishing and supporting a community seed bankParticipants will be able to describe the steps required for the establishment and support of a community seed bank. Equipment or material needed for each group• A set of photographs (a sample set can be found in this module on pages 18 and 19)• An envelope for the photographs 2. Randomly divide the participants into groups of 4 or 5 people.3. Give each of the groups an envelope containing a set of the photographs.4. Ask the participants to have a look at the photographs and put them in order, using a collective decision-making process, and tape them on a large piece of paper.5. Ask each group to write down the logic behind the ordering of the photographs.6. Select someone from each group to briefly present the order and explain the logic in a plenary session.7. Allow for brief presentations of the ordered photographs and some time for feedback from the whole group.8. Wrap up the session with a presentation of the actual steps that have been followed at two pilot sites in South Africa and explain the logic (see the text below). You may also refer to the creation of other community seed banks that you may be familiar with. Mention that in the following modules each of the steps will be presented in more detail.9. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is the degree to which the groups have come up with a well-reasoned, logical sequence.Brief explanation of the steps portrayed on the photos related to the South Africa experience (see pages 18 and 19)1. Situational analysis activity 1: To determine the current state of crop diversity in the areas selected for possible establishment of a community seed bank, a seed fair was organized during which women and men farmers were invited to display their crops and crop varieties (photo 1 shows the one organized in Mutale, Limpopo province). This was the first time such a fair was held in the country. One important observation made during the fairs was that diversity was under pressure.To learn more about the status of crop diversity at the sites, a four-cell analysis was carried out. This tool (introduced in Module 2) provides insight into the relative abundance (or richness) and distribution (or evenness) of crops and/or crop varieties in a community.3. Situational analysis activity 3: Another tool used to learn more about the local seed system was a SWOT analysis: an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the system. This was done by focus-group discussion among women and men farmers.To learn more about current (and traditional) seed storage techniques and practices, a number of farmers were visited on their farm. Techniques and practices were demonstrated by farmers and their strengths and weaknesses were identified.The above analytical activities were complemented by a food fair to raise awareness about and increase appreciation of local food and related knowledge based on local crop diversity and to motivate farmers to join forces to conserve traditional varieties. This was also a pioneering event at both sites.6. Using the findings of all the situational analyses, a discussion was held with farmers at the selected sites to find out whether they were motivated to establish a community seed bank and to decide which crops and crop varieties to focus on. The basic organizational and technical principles were reviewed as an input into the discussion. Farmers at both sites decided to proceed, and a management committee was then elected by the farmers.The management committee and interested farmers discussed which crops and varieties to focus on and how to go about collecting seeds from the community.8. Seed health and seed storage activity 1: Attention then shifted to finding or constructing a facility to store the seeds. At one of the sites, it was decided to build a new facility on a piece of land that was offered by the village head. 9. Seed health and seed storage activity 2: At the same time, preparations began for collecting the first seeds by the community seed bank members, and two meetings were held to collect seeds and make an inventory.10. Seed registration activity 1: Seeds were cleaned, packed in plastic bottles, and labelled. Their information was then entered into the community seed bank seed registry.11. Seed registration activity 2: After the seed bank had been built and equipped, the first collection of seeds was deposited.12. Seed regeneration: Based on a group discussion with members of the community seed banks, a small number of the crops/crop varieties stored in the community seed bank were selected for first-time regeneration. A small group came together to prepare the land and sow the selected seeds.13. Information sharing: Farmers from neighbouring villages were invited to attend the formal inauguration of the community seed bank and learn about its activities.14. Monitoring of operations and results: After several months of storage in the community seed bank all accessions (bottles) were checked for seed quality. Accessions affected by pests or diseases were sorted and cleaned. At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.At the end of this module, you will be able to describe the steps required for the establishment and support of a community seed bank. 1. In a group of 4-5 participants, have a look at the set of photographs you received from the course facilitator and, through collective decision-making, arrange the photographs in order.2. Tape the ordered photos onto a piece of paper.3. Write down the logic behind your ordering of the photographs.4. Select a rapporteur.5. Your rapporteur will briefly present the photographs and explain the logic behind their order in plenary.6. Listen to the presentations of the other groups and provide feedback.7. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have.8. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Establishing and supporting a community seed bank involves several major steps. It is important to go through the process methodically, without rushing, and allow enough time for interactions with farmers. Priority should be given to the human and social dimensions of the process. The physical dimension, such as the construction or preparation of the storage facility, can wait. A \"five-star\" community seed bank building is worthless if farmers are not motivated and equipped to make use of it. There are nine major steps in establishing and supporting a community seed bank: These nine steps are briefly outlined in this module. In the following modules, more details are presented.Photo: Farmers carry out participatory variety selection, Ethiopia. Credit: Bioversity International/S. CollinsThis first step involves three operations: crop diversity trend analysis, seed system analysis, and community and site selection. Tools for these steps are presented in other modules.Participatory four-cell analysis, developed by Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD) and Bioversity International in Nepal, helps communities understand on-farm diversity and whether varieties are localized or widespread, common, endangered, rare, or lost. This exercise can be complemented by a diversity fair to help locate rare materials and complete an inventory of available seeds and associated information in a community biodiversity register or variety catalogue. This type of activity not only helps identify custodians of rare, unique, and valuable genetic resources, but it also helps create awareness among a large number of people about the value of biodiversity. Thus, a broad resource base is created for collecting seeds and planting materials. Module 2 elaborates on this topic.This kind of analysis aims to identify the key actors and the links among them in relation to all phases of the seed production chain, from selection to distribution. It also reveals stresses in a seed system, e.g., whether farmers are exchanging seed or why they are not doing so. Network analysis can be carried out using existing methods and tools, ranging from a simple Venn diagram to more sophisticated GIS-based mapping and vector analysis. The goal is to document and analyze how farmers manage the flow of seeds over time and in space, which linkages they establish with whom, and what are the challenges or bottlenecks in the system.Various factors should be considered when selecting a community or site for a community seed bank:• Availability of intra-specific diversity in the community (diversity base)• Sufficient seed production for community demand• Availability of good-quality and healthy seed (e.g., presence of formal outlets for local landraces)• Farmers exchange, save, and select seed Other factors that are also important are discussed in the next chapters: module 6 deals with the importance of support and networking, and module 7 elaborates on the influence of the institutional and regulatory environment. A useful framework for assessing the viability or potential viability of a community seed bank is presented in module 8.Based on a sound understanding of the local agricultural biodiversity situation, a start can be made by motivating and organizing farmers. Sometimes this does not require much effort, as farmers may already have considered and debated the issues. If not, the process can be initiated by forming one or more small groups of farmers, who can locate interesting crops and crop varieties and collect seeds on behalf of the community seed bank, and then follow up by multiplying lost, threatened, or endangered cultivars. Multiplying seeds is a practical activity and usually a good indicator of farmers' motivation. This can later be expanded by community seed bank members, who usually also collect seeds via social networks of neighbours, friends, relatives, and extension agents.Another effective way to kick-start the process is by organizing a seed diversity fair during which all farmers are invited to display their own crop diversity, exchange knowledge and ideas, and perhaps seeds. Such an event can be used to facilitate a motivational session where the concept and practice of a community seed bank are described. Seed identified at diversity fairs can be a proxy for total diversity, and a sample might be displayed in the community seed bank.When engaging farmers in these activities, it is important to consider the social factors (such as age, status, class, and ethnicity) and gender variables that are likely to influence the interests, knowledge, and expertise of women and men farmers in terms of the conservation and management of seeds and related knowledge. These variables usually also influence the way and degree to which women and men farmers participate in meetings and activities (Howard 2003).Community seed banks tend to focus on crop species that are locally important. Some have emphasized reviving traditional crops associated with local culture. Others have given priority to the identification, multiplication, and distribution of varieties that are tolerant to local biotic and abiotic stresses, such as heat, drought, and flooding, and that are better adapted to poor soil conditions, sometimes including farmer-preferred improved varieties. The idea behind dealing with both local and improved varieties is to provide access to a diverse portfolio of seeds that farmers need at their doorsteps, at a reasonable cost, and on time, as well as to generate some revenue to support conservation of local varieties and institutional sustainability through the sale of improved varieties.It is important to consult carefully with local communities and determine which crops and varieties they wish to include in the community seed bank. Fruit trees might require a particular approach to safeguard them on-farm, for example, in custodian orchards. Module 3 offers a framework for determining the various functions that a community seed bank may have.A critical factor in seed collection is how to obtain samples and select disease-free material. No field guide is available to help with this process, but the best techniques include sampling from different parts of a field (not just one corner), collecting from a number of healthy plants or panicles, and avoiding plants near the edge of the field as they might be the result of crosses with other varieties. Attention should be paid to choosing disease-free plants, panicles, or fruit, in the field, if possible, although seed material can be examined later.Cleaning at the source eliminates seed-borne diseases, weeds, and pests. Many plant pathogens are seed borne and can spread from a community seed bank if the members are not careful. Seedborne diseases can be caused by fungi, bacteria, or viruses. Most fungal seed diseases are soilborne and occur on the seed surface; they may lead to germination failure or diseased seedlings. Proper care should be taken when collecting materials; this includes assuring that hands, knife or scissors, and paper or plastic bags or other containers are clean. Avoid mixing seeds of different crops and/or varieties. The most important step is to reject any seed samples with signs of insect pests or diseases and repeat this process during cleaning, as insects and disease can multiply when seed is stored. Module 4 elaborates on this topic.To keep seed clean, healthy, and viable, a proper storage facility, furniture, equipment, and methods are critical. These can be simple and small at first, and may be expanded over time, for example, by adding more shelves, larger containers, or another room. Farmers may use traditional seed storage equipment and practices, as these time-tested methods are known to safeguard seeds. They may also integrate new storage methods using new knowledge and techniques. This is important, as farmers must learn the scientific basis of seed preservation, storage, and health.An hygrometer is a simple tool that can be easily installed to measure temperature and humidity in the storage room. The purpose is to demonstrate a simple principle of seed storage: make it dry and keep it dry. Seed viability can be extended if dry seeds are stored in cold conditions. Except in a few cases, however, most community seed banks do not have a mechanism, such as an electric fan or cooler, for controlling temperature and humidity, which is key to maintaining genetic material over a long period. Thus, more practical measures should be used, such as ventilating the room when the temperature and humidity become too high.All stored seeds should be regularly verified. In recent years, moisture indicators, e.g., Hydrion Humidicator Paper, have been placed in the seed bottle. The paper changes from blue to pink with an increase in relative humidity. Zeolite beads are also used to ensure dry storage, but they must be oven-dried at high temperature, and the availability of an oven might be a concern in developing countries. A good practice is to sun dry seeds, cool them, and store them again. When high humidity persists for a long period, and problems, such as pests, disease, or mould, are observed, immediate action is needed. Seeds should be cleaned and dried in an appropriate place. Module 4 also elaborates on this topic.Community seed banks are not only repositories of large numbers of seeds and planting material, but also places where traditional knowledge and associated information about local varieties can be found. Although this knowledge is usually documented with support from external agencies using a standard form, farmers can also be trained to maintain a register themselves. In general, such documentation includes the local name of the genetic resource, its specific use and value, current status, general characteristics, method of cultivation, related agroecology, the extent and distribution of its cultivation, its capacity to tolerate biotic and abiotic stresses in the field, the perceived nutritional value, and cultural and religious uses (if any). To a large extent, such documentation depends on the practices and guidance provided by the facilitating organization. More information about registers can be found in module 4. Useful registers are:• Seed collection register: A record of all seeds collected from farmers and conserved in the community seed bank• Seed multiplication register: A record of all varieties in diversity blocks with passport data• Seed distribution register: A record of all seeds distributed or sold from the community seed bank.In general, community seed banks contain a large number of local crops species and varieties, and some also maintain a few commercial varieties. Depending on available resources, many community seed banks try to regenerate some seed to keep it viable. For varieties that are in high demand, community seed bank members may offer a piece of land for seed multiplication.For varieties that are marketable, it is easy to determine the amount to be produced each year based on demand at the local and regional levels. Community seed banks that collaborate with seed companies are producing and selling tonnes of seeds (e.g., seed banks in Costa Rica and Zimbabwe, and emerging in India and Nepal). To be able to produce large quantities of seeds, community seed banks require land, water, human resources, transport facilities, and large seedprocessing and storage facilities.Many community seed banks regenerate the seeds they conserve annually, although that practice is not universal. Some also produce and market local varieties of seed on a large scale. The area to be planted and the quantity of seed to be produced each year largely depend on local demand, but also on the ability and availability of resources within the community. In the initial stages, it is wise to start on a small scale, either in a central location (e.g., the Gumbu community seed bank in South Africa has a large fenced area where its members can reproduce seeds on a relatively large scale) or in several locations (in farmers' own fields depending on interest and willingness). Sufficient time should be taken to prepare a sound business plan, if a community seed bank decides to start marketing seeds. Module 8 deals with the viability and sustainability of a community seed bank, including financial sustainability.Sharing information and experience among members, non-members, and other stakeholders is another important role of community seed banks. Each community seed bank has its own way of doing things. Case studies have revealed that some seed banks hold seed fairs and biodiversity fairs where information is exchanged. In Nepal, some community seed banks organize seasonal events to share seeds and associated knowledge. Field days, demonstrations, sharing at church events, community meetings, training events, and social reunions are some of the other tools used in several cases.Community seed banks in Mexico hold annual seed fairs at the local, state, and national levels.The Mexican network also envisions creating an electronic communication network as part of its national conservation strategy. Web-based information sharing and the use of social media are becoming common, mostly in developed countries. A mature community seed bank uses this platform of sourcing diverse knowledge of seeds to share with members for the benefit of the larger community. Module 6, which deals with support and networking, is relevant in this regard.Community seed banks use various measures to ensure good-quality seed -free of disease, insects, weeds, and inert materials and isolated from other varieties to maintain genetic purity. Those in Bangladesh, Costa Rica, and Uganda, for example, establish a small technical committee to oversee this area; in Nepal, the community seed bank's executive committee is responsible for seed quality in the field and in storage. In Nepal, the community hires a local technical person to be in charge of materials, annual regeneration, and quality assurance at the seed bank. In Bangladesh, community seed banks supported by UBINIG (Policy Research for Development Alternatives) have a Specialized Women's Seed Network responsible for day-today management as well as annual regeneration of seeds. A small team of dedicated people is recommended for monitoring the seed collection and taking necessary action when warranted.Regarding the monitoring of the results or performance, the community seed bank management team may conduct an annual review on its own or with the involvement of a supporting organization. The purpose is to look back at the year's activities and determine whether goals were achieved or why they were not met. Such an annual review can assess how well the community seed bank was managed, who contributed to its operations and who did not, how many and what kinds of seeds were deposited and by whom, and how many and what kinds were distributed and to whom. It could also determine how much time and effort were invested and by whom and address any issues that may have arisen during the year. For example, the community seed bank at Kachorwa, Bara district, Nepal, maintains a record of germplasm and seed multiplication and seed distribution, by variety and by socioeconomic level and sex of recipients. Over time, indicators, such as these, can provide insight into whether the seed bank is addressing the needs and interests of poorer households or women in the community, for example. Module 5 on governance and management and module 8 on viability and sustainability deal with such questions in more detail.Photo: Different volumes of seed stored, India. Credit: Bioversity InternationalIn this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about the various steps in establishing and managing a community seed bank. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer.1. How can we know whether varieties are localized or widespread, common, endangered, rare, or lost? This module is about assessing the current abundance (or richness) and distribution (or evenness) of agricultural biodiversity at the crop species and crop variety level in a community or given area, such as a small watershed. These two measures give a good snapshot of biodiversity.To complement assessment of the current situation, this module also addresses the historical evolution or trends in agricultural biodiversity. This helps reveal in what direction abundance and distribution are heading -upward, downward, or stable -and some of the main factors that affect the trend. The more farmers participating in these exercises, the better; the aim is to capture the status and trend as accurately as possible.Please discuss the following learning objectives with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Describe the status of local crop diversity in terms of abundance and distribution• Identify the major trends in abundance and distribution over time and list some of the main factors that have influenced/are influencing these trends.Before starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what they already know about agricultural biodiversity. You may use probing questions, such as:• In your area, do you have an idea about the number of crops and crop varieties that are currently present? Can you estimate the numbers?• Have you observed or heard about changes in crop diversity over time and space? In which direction is the change/are the changes going? Do crops and crop varieties undergo different trajectories?• Have you considered some of the factors or forces that have caused/are causing this change/these changes and possible different trajectories?Ask participants to take some notes during the exercises and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Learning objectiveParticipants will be able to assess the abundance (richness) and distribution (evenness) of local agricultural biodiversity within a farming community or a small watershed area at the crop (species) and variety levels. • Large sheet of paper to put on the floor and display seeds• Notebooks and pens for participants• Large sheet of paper, cards, markers, and tape or pins for placing seed samples and/or drawing illustrationsA: Preparation1. Prepare a presentation of the two participatory tools that you will use in the activity: historical trend analysis and four-cell analysis.2. Familiarize yourself with the history of agriculture in the district and community (or small watershed) and the changes that have occurred regarding the main crops over the last 20 years.Prepare some examples of historical trend maps.Prepare some examples of how a participatory on-farm crop diversity assessment can be used by a community seed bank in choosing crops and crop varieties for collection, multiplication, and subsequent distribution.5. Collect seed samples from 8-10 crops or, alternatively, prepare some photographs or drawings of the seeds and crops. 2. Introduce the two participatory tools that you will use in the activity: historical trend analysis and four-cell analysis.3. Introduce this section: Status and trend analysis of agricultural biodiversity at the district or community level.4. Explain that a community can evaluate the changes (positive or negative) in diversity of crops and/or crop varieties (in terms of number and area) over a time frame of one or two decades (comparing the situation 10 or 20 years ago with the current situation), using historical trend maps in a participatory manner.5. Present the historical trend analysis tool.6. Present a few examples of historical trend maps. b. Ask participants to map the changes (historical trend maps) in their notebook.8. In a plenary session, invite a few participants to present their trend map showing the historical trend of the selected crop.9. Introduce this section: Four-cell analysis of crops.10. Present the definitions of richness and evenness of crops and varieties (see page 40).11. Explain how a participatory on-farm crop diversity assessment can be used by members of a community seed bank to choose crops and crop varieties for collection, multiplication, and subsequent distribution.12. Present the four-cell analysis tool.13. Present a few examples of how a participatory on-farm crop diversity assessment done with this tool can be used by members of a community seed bank in choosing crops and crop varieties for collection, multiplication, and subsequent distribution.14. Organize the participants into groups disaggregated by sex and age.15. Ask the participants to carry out a four-cell analysis of crops using focus-group discussion.16. Organize the seed samples that you have collected (or drawings or photographs of crops/ seeds) or that participants have brought, on a large sheet of paper in the middle of the room. 17. In plenary, ask some of the participants to carry out a four-cell analysis on a number of crops using local seed samples, to identify priority crops for conservation and subsequent multiplication and distribution by a community seed bank.18. Introduce this section: Interpretation of historical trends and four-cell analysis for conservation and development efforts.19. In plenary, ask participants to review the results of both historical trend analysis and four-cell analysis. Determine whether there are any differences based on sex and age of participants and, if so, why these differences exist. Then ask the participants to come to an agreement on priority crops and crops varieties for collection and seed multiplication, including rare and unique crops and/or crop varieties taking into full consideration the possible different results based on sex and age.20. Wrap up the session with a summary of the main steps and results.21. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants collectively used the tools and results to make concrete conservation and development decisions.Photo: Rice diversity, Kachorwa, Nepal. Credit: Bioversity International/R. VernooyAt the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.Participants will be able to assess the abundance (richness) and distribution (evenness) of local agricultural biodiversity in farming communities at the crop (species) and variety levels. 2. Map the changes (historical trend maps) in your notebook.3. Divide up into small groups disaggregated by sex and age.4. Carry out a four-cell analysis of crops through focus-group discussion.5. In plenary, participate in or observe the demonstration.6. Look at the results of both historical trend analysis and four-cell analysis and agree on priority crops and crop varieties for collection and seed multiplication, including rare and unique crops and/or crop varieties.7. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have.8. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.To assess the current abundance (or richness) and distribution (or evenness) of local agricultural biodiversity within a farming community at the crop species and variety level, it is useful to review the evolution or historical trend in agricultural biodiversity. This helps to determine whether these factors are increasing, decreasing, or are stable and what factors may have an impact on the trends. Two tools here can help provide a good overview of current and past diversity. If one has time and resources, other tools may be used as well, e.g., key informant interviews with experienced women or men seed custodians or crop specialists in the community, who usually have a wealth of relevant knowledge.The objective of an historical trends analysis conducted by community members in a group setting is to create awareness about how local biodiversity is changing over time and in many places (but not everywhere), often shrinking quickly in terms of number and area of crop species and/or crop varieties. A second objective is to test whether this downward process (assuming that there is a loss) will stimulate the community to think about safe-guarding local diversity. This can then trigger an assessment by the community of whether there is enough interest to set up a community seed bank and start the effort of multiplication of rare and endangered crops and varieties.There is no blueprint for carrying out an historical trend analysis. Depending on the resources at hand, one could use meta-cards with the names of crops or photos and self-created maps of the community (land area) to chart historic trends in use of crops and varieties over the last 25 years or so; for example, comparing the last five years with the 10 years before that, and then going back another 10 years in time.One can first list all crops grown in the community (or if the list is too long, select the top 10 crops) at present, and then map trends (increasing, decreasing, or stable) in recent cultivation (over the last five years), compared with earlier times and highlighting the major reason(s) for the identified trend. Mapping these trends facilitates the exchange of information among different generations of community members and an understanding of current problems in an historical context and inspires thinking about a community driven action plan. An example of a map is shown in Figure 1 below.More in-depth crop or variety histories are also of interest but these can be better collected through interviews with key informants. This can be done at a later stage.Short durationGovernment supportFood security at local level Easy to growKnowledge of use not passed onNo marketOn-farm intraspecific diversity is measured by scientists in different ways, and the methods are difficult to communicate to farming communities. However, richness and evenness are two key measures of biodiversity (Magurran 2003). Richness refers to the number of varieties regardless of their frequency. Evenness refers to the proportion of area covered by each individual variety (Jarvis et al. 2008). Farmers can easily articulate richness by counting variety names and evenness by referring to the area planted with a variety. Four-cell analysis is a technique to assess the richness (or abundance) and evenness (or distribution) of local crop diversity in farming communities (Sthapit et al. 2012). This tool was first developed in Nepal and has since been used elsewhere for annual crops. More recently, it was adapted for perennial fruit tree crops (Sthapit et al. 2016).Experience has shown that four-cell analysis is best conducted in a group of 8-12 people from a village, who share a rich traditional knowledge and a similar environment. Although it is possible to work with up to 20-25 people, it will require much more time and very \"tight\" facilitation to give everyone time to contribute. The group may include both women and men or it can be divided into smaller groups disaggregated by sex and/or age. Ideally groups should include people whose knowledge and interest in biodiversity may differ, such as those from different ethnic or socioeconomic groups.The process starts with a focus-group-type discussion among the farmers, who list all the crop varieties that thrive in their village. They then divide the crop varieties into four groups based on abundance (count of varieties) and spread (many or few or large or small area covered). For example, is a certain variety abundant or rare; is it grown by many or few households. The variety is placed in one of the four cells accordingly.Some facilitators also add a separate \"fifth cell\" to record varieties that participants recall being grown in the area in earlier times, but no longer. If these varieties were only recently lost, this exercise helps farmers understand why, and they may plan to re-establish them.The analysis is complemented by visits to four or five farms to validate the information. Analysis of the results may reveal common patterns of land allocation and crop diversity. This kind of analysis with men and women of the community results in challenges, threats, and opportunities and provides sufficient local-level information to support decision-making for conservation and development efforts. The visual process enhances the knowledge of both farmers and researchers in a participatory manner. When the exercise is repeated periodically (after three to five years), it can provide valuable insights into trends in biodiversity maintenance in the specific area. Both communities and conservation agencies may use this tool to monitor crop diversity after interventions, policy changes, or random catastrophes.In this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about two tools to assess the status and trends in agricultural biodiversity in a district or community. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer. The multiple functions and services of community seed banksFunctions and services of community seed banks can be grouped into three core areas or activities:1. Conserving local and heirloom varieties and restoring lost varieties from the area 2. Providing access and availability to multiple crop varieties at the community level, fostering exchanges and production of seeds of participatory plant bred varieties 3. Ensuring seed and food sovereignty, i.e., local control over seed conservation, sharing of agricultural biodiversity knowledge and expertise, and promoting ecological agriculturePlease discuss the following learning objectives with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Give a definition of a community seed bank• Identify the major functions and related services of community seed banks• Use a framework of functions and services to identify the possible major functions and services that a community seed bank could have in their regionBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what they already know about the functions and services of community seed banks. You may use probing questions, such as:• What are the main activities of a community seed bank?• Do you know about a community seed bank in your country or region? What does this community seed bank do?• Can a community seed bank have more than one core function?• What kinds of community seed bank activities are useful for you and your community?Ask participants to take some notes during the exercise and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Learning activity 3:The multiple functions and services of community seed banksParticipants will be able to distinguish major functions and related services of community seed banks. A: Preparation1. Prepare a slide or poster with the definition of a community seed bank provided in Community seed banks: origins, evolution and prospects (Vernooy et al. 2015): a community seed bank is a locally governed and managed, mostly informal, institution whose core function is to maintain seeds for local use.2. Familiarize yourself with the functions and services of a community seed bank.3. Familiarize yourself with the framework of functions and services of a community seed bank developed in the article The multiple functions and services of community seedbanks (Vernooy et al. 2014).Explain the objective and the dynamic of the learning activity. 3. Ask participants to give their description of a community seed bank, based on knowledge from practice, references, and hearsay. Part 5. Introduce this section: Functions and services.6. Invite participants to identify functions and services of a community seed bank, based on knowledge from practice, references, and hearsay.7. Write the answers on cards: one function per card, one service per card.8. In the process, explore whether the answers can be grouped in a logical way.9. Probe the group if necessary by asking them to unpack the key words: \"community,\" \"seed,\" and \"bank.\" 13. Ask each of the participants to use the framework to identify the possible major functions and services that a community seed bank could have in their region and ask them to note down their answers.14. Invite some participants to present their answers in plenary.15. Wrap up the session with a summary of what has been covered and by inviting participants to think about what farmers in their region could see as the main functions and services of a community seed bank in their village or district.16. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants are able to apply the framework to their own region and make a realistic assessment of what the main functions and services of a seed bank could be.At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.Participants will be able to distinguish major functions and related services of community seed banks. 5. Use the framework to identify the possible major functions and services that a community seed bank could have in your region. Please note down your answers.6. Some participants will be invited to present their answers in a plenary session.7. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have.8. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.A useful definition of a community seed bank is a local, mainly informal institution whose core function is to maintain, safeguard, and exchange local and farmer-preferred seeds for local use (Vernooy et al. 2015). If the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources are not among the main objectives, then it is recommended not to use the concept of community seed bank (Sthapit 2013). For example, a local organization that produces and sells seeds as its core function is a seed enterprise and not a community seed bank. Most community seed banks are managed by a small group of dedicated women and men farmers, but they usually serve a larger number of farmers at the community or district level. They can operate as an outlet for local crop diversity and locally adapted planting materials in the absence of other sources of such diversity managed by the private or public sector.A community seed bank can perform multiple functions, not just one. Depending on the objectives set by its members, the activities might include:• Awareness raising and education Apart from the concrete results that these activities produce, farmers' involvement can also contribute to their empowerment as individuals and groups, especially women farmers who, in many societies, are the custodians of seeds.Some community seed banks are highly focused on conservation of agricultural biodiversity including reviving lost local varieties, while others give priority to conservation and access and availability of diverse types of seeds and planting materials suitable to various agroecological domains, primarily for local farmers. In addition to these two main functions, promoting seed and food sovereignty is another core element of some community seed banks.Functions and services of community seed banks can be grouped into three core areas: conservation (conserving local and heirloom varieties and restoring lost varieties from the area), providing access and availability (offering access to a portfolio of varieties at the community level, fostering exchange and production of seeds of participatory plant bred varieties), and ensuring seed and food sovereignty (local control over variety and seed conservation, sharing of agricultural biodiversity knowledge and expertise and promoting ecological agriculture). Some community seed banks combine functions:• Conservation + access and availability• Conservation + access and availability + seed and food sovereigntyConservation of local crop varieties is one of the most important functions of community seed banks.In fact, except for a few cases, most community seed banks were established to stop the rapid loss of local varieties and rebuild local crop diversity through rescue and rehabilitation. A number of factors have contributed to the loss of crop diversity and, in many parts of the world, continue to do so. We can distinguish between social factors, such as farmers following what their neighbours do in terms of replacing local varieties with modern ones; political factors, where the public sector has promoted improved and hybrid varieties with subsidies without considering loss of local varieties; natural factors, such as prolonged drought and devastating flood leading to the total destruction of local crops; and economic factors, such as the replacement of local varieties with improved and hybrid ones to increase production and household income. An additional factor is the lack of awareness among farming communities about the current value and future potential value of local varieties, as core elements of organic and ecological agriculture.A community seed bank is based on the principle of conserving local varieties on farm at the community level, that is, in farmers' fields or home gardens. However, most community seed banks include a seed storage facility collectively managed by the farming community as back up to their individual household seed storage (usually only encompassing a few varieties and small quantities). This represents a community-level ex situ facility, similar to that of a national or international genebank but with a short storage period. In practice, except in a few cases, community seed banks store seeds for only a few seasons and regenerate seeds each year through various mechanisms. This represents an important strategy facilitating evolutionary plant breeding and climate change adaptation.Access to and availability of a large quantity of farmer-preferred varieties, local or improved or both, are the core business of some community seed banks. The goal of these banks is to make germplasm or seed available to needy farmers when required. Depending on rules and regulations set by the farmers' organization operating the seed bank, it provides seed on a cash or loan basis. When community seed banks sell seeds, they always set a competitive price based on a service motive rather than to make a profit. In the case of seed loans, the borrower must return 50-100% more than the borrowed amount after harvesting his or her crop. These rules are set jointly by the members, and everyone is expected to abide by them.Involvement of community seed banks in participatory plant breeding activities, selection of farmerpreferred varieties, and seed production on a commercial scale are other ways that contribute to increased access and availability of newly improved varieties. These activities are taken up by more mature and experienced community seed banks and strengthen local capacity in variety and seed selection and management. For example, the community seed bank at Kachorwa, Bara district in Nepal, was involved in participatory plant breeding and, together with LI-BIRD staff, developed the rice variety Kachorwa-4 by crossing a local variety with a modern one. Thus, community seed bank members gained insight into the value of local genetic resources for crop improvement. Use of this variety has now spread beyond Bara to the Dang and Doti rice-growing belts and elsewhere.Another approach to making seeds available to seed savers and gardeners is used by the Toronto seed library in Canada. It is based on the principle of wanting to offer an alternative to the genetically modified seeds produced by large corporations. The seed library obtains seeds free of charge from individuals, seed companies, and seed stores and disseminates them to as many people as possible, also free of charge.In addition to making seeds available in these ways, many community seed banks also promote informal exchanges through seed or diversity fairs and participatory seed exchange events. The motto of these events is usually, the more seeds that circulate the better.A majority of community seed banks perform both conservation and access functions. In many countries, community seed banks are a major source of local varieties, guaranteeing farmers access to native seeds. These seed banks are engaged in on-farm conservation of a large number of local varieties and also make diverse types of high-quality varieties available to farmers through sales, loans, or free of charge. Production of many varieties -from a few kilograms to several tonnes a seasonas well as storage, cleaning, grading, packaging, distribution, and selling are regular activities of such seed banks. In general, community seed banks give priority to local varieties, but some also include farmer-preferred improved varieties released or registered by the national system.In Nepal, 15 community seed banks have conserved 1195 accessions of diverse crop species and more than 5000 farmers use seeds from these banks annually. Native Seed/SEARCH in the United States holds a collection of 1900 accessions of domesticated crops and distributes more than 50 000 packets of seeds of local varieties each year.Combining conservation with access and availability, when managed well, gives community seed banks greater operational vitality, and this can contribute to sustainability.Some community seed banks function beyond the scope of conservation of agricultural biodiversity and making seeds available to farmer communities. In addition, members of these seed banks are continuously working on issues, such as empowerment of farming communities; promotion of ecological agriculture; implementation of participatory plant breeding and grassroots breeding activities; establishing farmers' rights over seeds; and development of fair community-level benefitsharing mechanisms that may arise from the use of genetic resources. Although primarily facilitated by civil society organizations, this kind of community seed bank has developed seed sovereignty to some extent. This can contribute to food sovereignty, i.e., the capacity for citizens to maintain control over food produced, distributed, and consumed rather than leaving this in the hands of corporations and market institutions. A broader perspective also includes control over agricultural and food policies.In Bangladesh, the Nayakrishi seed huts and community seed wealth centres have been able to promote ecological agricultural among 300 000 farming households in the country. In Nepal, some community seed banks have set up a community biodiversity management fund, which has evolved as a key mechanism for the equitable sharing of benefits that may arise from the use of genetic resources. Such a fund contributes to the empowerment of farmers to manage biodiversity locally, by strengthening biodiversity-based livelihoods. As such, it can also contribute to the multiple objectives of a community seed bank.A framework of functions and services Sthapit (2013) and later, Vernooy et al. ( 2014) synthesized these three main functions and services in a single framework (Table 1). In this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about the multiple functions and services of community seed banks.Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer. Community seed banks must implement technically sound procedures and management processes, particularly in relation to seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution. Healthy and disease/pest-free seeds are at the heart of any community seed bank. Its staff must be able to monitor the technical aspects of these activities and follow up on any problems that might arise. This module presents key principles and practices for the effective operation of a community seed bank, as well as sound technical procedures and processes for seed management. The approach blends traditional and modern elements.Please discuss the following learning objective with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Define the principles and practices that are key to the effective operation of a community seed bank, regarding seed selection and collection, seed health and cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distributionBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what they already know about the technical aspects of a community seed bank. You may use probing questions such as:• What are the traditional seed management practices for major self-pollinated, crosspollinated, and clonal crops among the women and men farmers in your area?• What do you know about the key technical functions of seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution?• Do you know how to evaluate the quality of a sample of seeds? What essential elements must be considered?• Are you familiar with the technical aspects of the multiple functions of a healthy seed system and the key operational procedures for maintaining healthy seeds?Ask participants to take some notes during the exercise, and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Learning activity 4: Technical issues involved in operating community seed banksParticipants will be able to define the key principles and practices for the effective operation of a community seed bank regarding seed selection and collection, seed health and cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution. Part 12. Review the traditional seed management practices for major self-pollinated, crosspollinated, and clonal crops of women and men farmers.3. Identify the rationale for and principles of sound technical practices.4. Ask participants to identify problems, constraints, and knowledge gaps related to seed management.5. Hand samples of poor-quality seed to participants and ask them to identify the quality of the sample, highlighting problems and their causes. Ask if they are familiar with these problems in their area and if they know of any potential solutions.Part 2 11. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants can elaborate on the technical principles of the many functions of a healthy seed system and the key operational procedures required to maintain healthy seeds. Success includes the recognition that women farmers often play key roles and must be given opportunities to participate, make decisions, and take on leadership roles.Photo: Seed registration, Gumbu community seed bank, South Africa. Credit: Bioversity International/R. VernooyAt the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.You will be able to define the key principles and practices for the effective operation of a community seed bank concerning seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution. 1. Listen to the presentation on the traditional seed management practices for major selfpollinated, cross-pollinated, and clonal crops of woman and man farmers.2. Discuss the rationale for and principles of sound technical practices as well as problems, constraints, and knowledge gaps related to seed management.3. Using the seed samples provided by the facilitator, determine the quality of the samples, highlighting problems and their causes. Discuss whether these problems exist in your area.4. Record the problems in your notebook, and share your findings in plenary.5. Listen to the presentation on the key technical functions of seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution.6. Discuss key elements of seed biology, seed storage, germination, and seed-borne diseases.7. Identify knowledge gaps and the need for improvements.8. Reflect on the need and rationale for every community seed bank to establish basic operating rules and regulations at the outset for: Crop selection and seed collectionAn important question related to choosing crop species and varieties is whether a community seed bank should limit its work to local varieties or include improved ones as well. One can easily argue for or against these options, but what matters most is whether communities have made an informed decision. In addition, it is important for a community to consider whether it wishes to maintain minor, rare, neglected, and underutilized crops. Or it may, perhaps, focus on minor varieties of major stable crops. Although such decisions are difficult, the exercises in the previous modules should have provided some clarity.The number of local crop varieties collected and conserved in each community seed bank will vary, depending on many factors: the number of crop species grown locally and their availability; their importance to local food culture and social norms; human and technical capacity; resources and strategies chosen for identifying and collecting in the community and surrounding areas; the level of awareness of the value of local genetic resources and their role in conservation; the support needed to promote community seed banking efforts; and the nature of the enabling environment.No field guide will indicate how crops are selected, which seed samples are taken, and how disease-free material is chosen. However, best practices include sampling from different parts of a field (not just one corner) and avoiding those next to the edges, as they may have been contaminated by different plant varieties from other fields. If sampling from stored material, collect from a number of cobs or panicles. Attention should also be paid to choosing disease-free plants, panicles, or fruit. Careful selection should be done in the field, to the extent possible, although material can be examined later. It is important not to rush seed selection and collection.To ensure good-quality seed (free from disease, insects, weeds, and inert materials and isolated from other varieties), community seed banks can employ various measures. Some establish a small technical committee for this purpose; in others, the community seed bank's executive committee is responsible for seed quality in the field and in storage. In some cases, a local person is hired by the community to be in charge of materials and quality assurance. Traditional, usually low-cost techniques can be used. The most important factor is to quarantine any seedborne diseases and pests and prevent them from entering the community seed bank to avoid their further spread.Few community seed banks have characterized their accessions in detail using standard descriptors or have published a diversity register or catalogue. To carry out this type of work, they may need to collaborate closely with research organizations. Apart from traditional knowledge, the nutritional and medicinal properties of local varieties conserved in community seed banks are largely lacking. At a minimum, a simple log book should be maintained in which seed \"deposits\" and \"withdrawals\" can be registered noting date, name of farmer, village or community where the seed was collected, and name of crop/variety. If a scale is available (every community seed bank should have one), then the quantity should also be included. Well-organized community seed banks maintain two registers, one for incoming and one for outgoing seeds. In Nepal, in a few advanced community seed banks, members are trained to record new entries using simple passport data, so that information can be linked to that of an ex situ genebank.Depending on the crop species, community seed banks usually follow traditional methods for storing seeds and planting materials, not only to make management simple, but also because farmers are familiar with the traditional system and, thus, there are fewer chances of making mistakes. Most community seed banks dry seeds in the sun and then cool them before storing them in various types of containers including mud-sealed bowls and vases, dried shells of some vegetables (e.g., bottle gourds), containers made of bamboo, plastic or glass bottles, or rubber and metal containers of larger volume (see photos on pages 64-65).The important thing is to make sure that seeds are as dry as possible and free of weeds, dust, and stones. To keep stored seeds healthy and viable, community seed banks are gradually replacing traditional storage structures with modern equipment, such as airtight, transparent plastic or glass jars, metal bins and even SuperGrain bags (multi-layer plastic bags that provide a gas and moisture barrier). Some are using zeolite beads (aluminosilicate-based absorbents) to reduce moisture levels (photos 3 and 12 on pages 64-65).To keep seed clean, healthy, and viable, proper storage equipment and methods are critical.There is a wide variety of seed storage structures, depending on the goal, objectives, and core values of the facilitating organizations as well as the availability of resources. Some are temporary while others are permanent. Many donor-funded initiatives have invested in large-scale infrastructure that the community may not be able to manage, rather than building the social capital needed to sustain the facilities. Support for physical capital only after social and human capital have been built tends to result in an organization that is more self-sustaining.It is often a good idea to start a community seed bank with traditional storage practices and structures and to involve women farmers, as they are usually knowledgeable in this regard.Traditional practices can be found all over the world and usually guarantee proper storage of seeds over two or three seasons.Some seed banks use mostly local materials and traditional practices, while others use \"imported\" materials. Some are simple and small; others have multiple rooms or a second floor. Except in a few cases, most community seed banks do not have a mechanism for controlling temperature and humidity, which is key to maintaining genetic material over a long period. However, some seed banks in the North have modern equipment for long-term seed storage and are managed as a professional genebank.To track the health of the seeds stored in a community seed bank, verifying seed quality regularly is recommended. This can be done visually by checking the containers and/or removing part or all of the seeds from a container and verifying moisture level and pest and disease incidence. A trained farmer can easily determine when seeds must be dried and cooled. A useful piece of equipment for every community seed bank is a hygrometer that registers room temperature and humidity level (some modern containers have a hygrometer built in so that one can easily check the moisture level and temperature inside at all times). Hydrion Humidicator Paper can also be used.When problems are observed, immediate action should be taken to avoid the spread of mould, disease, or pests. Monitor the seed collection regularly so that timely intervention is possible when warranted. More experienced community seed banks carry out regular checks of stored material for insect/pests, germination, and viability of the seeds. Simple techniques can be used and responsibility can be assigned to specific community members.Almost all community seed banks regenerate the seeds they conserve annually, although that practice is not universal. The purpose of this exercise is to replenish the old stock with new seeds and maintain evolutionary selection processes on-farm. Regeneration can be done on a piece of land that belongs to the community seed bank (e.g., in the form of a diversity block) or on land offered by several members. Each member then takes responsibility for one or more crop varieties. Some community seed banks make it a requirement for all members to regenerate at least one crop variety from the collection. Some also produce local varieties of seed on a large scale for market.The area to be planted and the quantity of seed to be produced each year largely depend on local demand, but also on the ability and availability of resources within the community seed banks. There are no technical guidelines available yet to provide a basis for determining the area needed to produce specific quantities of seed for each variety.For a community seed bank to be able to distribute seeds to its members and, in some cases, also to non-members, it must contain sufficient quantities. There are no fixed rules or regulations concerning distribution: these should be agreed to by the community seed bank members.It is important to consider how distribution can be organized efficiently and effectively; most community seed banks strive to give all members a fair share of its stored seeds. In practice this means deciding whether to distribute to members only or to include non-members; adopting the principle of first-come first-served or establishing equitable and targeted distribution; deciding on repayment or the return rate for seeds (return rates may vary from 150% to 300% of seeds obtained from the seed bank); how to deal with cases of delayed repayment or failure to return seeds; and recording distribution in a well-organized manner.Well-functioning community seed banks regularly review the rules and regulations and make adjustments if needed. Some keep detailed records of distribution by variety, wealth category of recipient, sex, membership/non-membership, village/location, amount of seed, and mode of transaction to monitor the demand and supply side of seed transactions. Such data collection is essential to assess the performance of a community seed bank over time. However, it requires some skill, time, and effort.In this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about the various technical aspects that must be considered for maintaining a community seed bank. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer.1. An important factor related to choosing crop species and varieties is: Governance is a process whereby a group of people work as a collective to assure the health of an organization. There are usually moral, legal, political, and financial aspects of governance. The way in which accountability is dealt with is central to governance.A community seed bank represents a community-managed approach that comprises community-based practices of conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources from the level of household seed storage to the community (and sometimes beyond). The daily operations of community seed banks are expressions of collective action of women and men farmers, sometimes supported by extension staff, genebank staff, and researchers.The value of a community seed bank is that it is governed by local people based on rules and regulations that are locally developed and agreed upon. The very process of community seed banking builds social capital by mobilizing the local community, and this can lead to community empowerment. It also creates a learning platform for community-based management of agricultural biodiversity through use and conservation. Because it is usually a dynamic process with ups and downs, process management is an important capacity to develop.Management refers to the day-to-day coordination, execution, and monitoring of key tasks required to maintain a community seed bank in the short and long term. It usually involves human resources, as well as technical, administrative, organizational, and financial elements. In most countries, community seed banks are characterized by a high degree of voluntary effort, and this has a direct impact on the way management is organized.Please discuss the following learning objectives with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Define the concepts of governance and management of a community seed bank• Describe five categories of governance and management systems• Identify governance and management issues involved in successful, as well as average and poorly managed community seed banks• Describe key governance and essential management practices that must be implemented in a community seed bank• Identify key issues and challenges linked to the governance and management of a community seed bankBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what they already know about the governance and management of community seed banks. You may use probing questions, such as:• Have you participated either in governance or management of a community seed bank before? What were your roles and responsibilities?• Based on your experience, what are the key governance and management practices that must be implemented in a community seed bank?• Can you identify a few of the challenges that usually occur regarding these practices?Ask participants to take notes during the exercise and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Learning objectiveParticipants will be able to recognize key elements of good governance and operational management of community seed banks. 3. Present some cases of outstanding and successful seed banks, as well as cases of average and poorly operated ones.4. Illustrate the importance of governance and management issues.5. Introduce this section: Definition of governance and management.6. Ask participants to describe good and bad governance.7. Compare their descriptions with the good and poor practices listed on the chart for visual reference.8. Do the same for the concept of good and bad management. 9. Then use the inputs to propose succinct definitions for both terms (as used in Vernooy et al. 2015).10. Introduce this section: Key governance and management practices.11. In plenary, invite participants to identify key governance and essential operational management practices that must be considered and collectively agreed on to legitimize the process.12. Write the answers, in concise form, on cards, one principle per card. In the process, explore whether the answers can be grouped in a logic way.13. Compare the results of the group exercise with the framework developed by Vernooy et al. (2015).14. Wrap up the session with a recapitulation of what has been covered and invite participants to think about what farmers in their work region would see as the main governance and management components of a community seed bank.15. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants are able to see how to apply the concepts of good governance and management in their working modality.At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.You will be able to recognize key elements of good governance and operational management of community seed banks. 1. Listen to the review of examples of outstanding and successful seed banks, as well as cases of average and poorly operating ones.2. Try to identify good and bad governance and management practices related to community seed banks.3. Describe good and bad governance, based on your experience.4. Help the facilitator group various principles and governance practices.5. Do the same with management practices.6. Identify key governance and essential operational management practices that need to be considered and collectively agreed on to legitimize the process.7. Help the facilitator group the various answers in a logic way.8. Compare the results with the framework provided by the facilitator.9. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have.10. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Governance and management of community seed banks It takes time to set up a community seed bank with all the basic elements of sound governance and management. Although some seed banks have detailed and formalized rules and regulations, others manage with only general working principles. Usually, a community seed banks starts with an informal way of organizing both governance and day-to-day management. The various systems for running a community seed bank can be grouped into five categories (Table 2).Photo: Farmers meet for a general meeting, Kiziba, Uganda. Credit: Bioversity International/R. Nankaya Volunteer based (with varying degrees of formal management) or network of seed-saver groups. Sometimes the participants prefer the concept of seed library over community seed bank, as they believe that the concept of a bank connotes the privatization of seeds, which they oppose.Source: Adapted from Vernooy et al. 2015, Chapter 4, page 27.Most community seed banks evolve over time through a \"learning by doing\" approach that usually includes successes, but also challenges to overcome. Over time, a clear distinction between governance and management might emerge, rules and regulations become more elaborate and formalized, and, overall, activities related to governance and management become more complex. This all depends on the time and effort that is put into a community seed bank with regard to thinking about and designing how best to oversee things and make things work for its members.One way to structure the governance of a community seed bank, like many other organized groups, is with a \"general assembly\" or a group of members, a \"board of directors\" (leaders or coordinators), and an \"oversight committee\" (a small group of members charged with monitoring core activities). The general assembly is the decision-making body and usually meets at least once a year, with additional meetings held on special occasions. The board of directors is in charge of implementing the decisions made by the general assembly, while the oversight committee ensures that these decisions are applied correctly.The issue of accountability, apart from proper management of infrastructure and finances, is most clearly expressed through the rules and regulations concerning the use of seeds maintained in community seed banks. A well-functioning community seed bank should adopt a clear principle about this.Often a community elects a management committee to oversee the daily operations of a community seed bank, with formal distribution of tasks that include coordination and leadership, technical issues, finance, administration, communication, and outreach. However, more often the roles and responsibilities of each member are not that well defined. The number of farmers making up the management committee can vary from three to six. Where women play key roles in the management of seeds, it is important to include them in meaningful ways. As custodians and caretakers of seeds in many countries, women play an active role in the day-to-day functioning of community seed banks. In some countries, several community banks are run exclusively by women.It is recommended that the management committee is guided by a constitution drafted by the farmers or, in some cases, with external support from an NGO.Sometimes, community seed banks establish both management and technical committees to undertake specialized functions and provide expertise.The technical committee is usually responsible for deciding on:• Collection methods (e.g., through seed fairs, on farm/in the field, household seed storage, collections maintained by custodian farmers, etc.)• Phytosanitary standards (e.g., keeping seed free of diseases and pests, removing weed seeds, sun drying, etc.)• Documentation methods (e.g., passport data sheets, variety catalogue, community biodiversity register, etc.)• Seed multiplication and evaluation (based on farmers' descriptors)• Storage methods (e.g., short versus long term, local storage structure or scientific approach)• Monitoring of seed samples (e.g., for viability and vigour, initially and at planting time)• Rejuvenation (e.g., annual seed multiplication in diversity blocks, decision tools to determine which seeds should have priority, pollen control in open-pollinated crops, etc.)• Distribution (e.g., systems to improve access and availability, access for various categories of users: men or women, poor or rich, community or outsiders, researchers, private sector, etc.)Although there is no blueprint for how these tasks are to be executed, it is important to maintain a certain discipline and rigour in their execution. Both technical and management committees have to play a joint role in collection, multiplication, and evaluation processes and in developing strategies for seed distribution to needy people.Unfortunately, there is still a lack of information about the cost of establishing a community seed bank and annual operating costs. Physical structures, storage units, and the equipment needed for regeneration of seeds and day-to-day operations and care, both in the field and at storage facilities, are the major cost items.Estimates of the cost of modern types of ex situ conservation exist. In contrast, for most community seed banks, the physical structure, storage materials, and equipment are often simple and low cost. Labour-intensive tasks are carried out by volunteers, although some community seed banks hire a local person to carry out day-to-day operations. Costs also vary depending on the extent of activities: some seed banks deal with a few local varieties and provide small quantities of seeds, while others deal with tonnes of seeds.Community seed banks can be set up with financial support ranging from a small start-up fund of tens of US dollars to several thousand US dollars.Some community seed banks have started with a small seed fund of about US$1000-2000.Others have received start-up funds ranging from US$5000 to US$10 000 to build social capital and initial physical infrastructure, including seed storage units. Communities often mobilize local resources, such as construction materials, land (obtained sometimes from the local government), and labour. In parallel, external support agencies, through their regular project activities, also assume part of the cost of building social, human, and physical capital from which community seed banks benefit. In a few cases, government agencies are willing to cover these expenditures.When support organizations are associated with community seed banks over a long period, the total costs (including professional staff time, travel costs, costs of meetings, training, materials, etc.) will likely be higher by several hundred dollars a year per community seed bank. However, long-term capacity development is essential for building successful community seed banks.Investment in excellent and experienced community organizers to mobilize community members and support local leadership represents an important component of this process.Building legitimacy and a strong local institution: Community seed banks can be effective mechanisms, either in the absence of other local organizations or as another form of local organization, to mobilize existing social capital (trust, networks, and customary practices). Either way, being recognized and supported as a legitimate form of organization is important. The more the establishment and development process is based on community-driven participation that integrates new knowledge and practices with the local social system and local rules and norms, the greater the chance that the community seed bank will be effective in the short and long term, even in an environment that is not fully supportive.It is perhaps surprising that, as of today, many of the community seed banks in the world operate in a legal grey area. Only a few have been formally registered, for example, under a non-profit civil society organization umbrella or as a cooperative or seed enterprise. When this is done, it usually comes with a certain number of formal obligations, such as maintaining a membership registry, having an accounting system, and annual reporting. Legal status confers important recognition and protection, but in many countries it is (still) not possible to legalize a community seed bank. This might limit certain operations, such as opening and maintaining a bank account, for example.The following steps can help in building and strengthening the social capital required to operate community seed banks:• Sensitize the community This approach, which is centred around institution building, has produced good results in Nepal and has been followed by other organizations in other countries working with community seed banks, for example, South Africa. The success and sustainability of community seed banks depend on how the technical knowledge and management capacity of the change agents are enhanced and how the community seed bank is empowered to conduct self-directed decision-making.Recognition, access, and benefit-sharing mechanisms: Community seed banks can be legitimate and effective community-based organizations that improve access to and benefitsharing from locally important crop diversity, but in many countries they have yet to be formally recognized by the government. Recognition can take different forms: visits by local, national, or foreign officials; awards for special efforts and achievements from the local or national government; invitations to participate in important policy events locally or nationally; funds from local or national government and international donor agencies; and publicity in the local, national, or even international media.Although recognition is important, the development of proper access and benefit-sharing mechanisms is equally important. Civil society organizations and the private sector have a common interest in good governance to ensure that the quality of seeds is maintained or enhanced and that reliable and useful genetic resources remain available. Community seed banks have to face the challenges of the technical superiority of hybrid and modern cultivars, on one hand, and restrictions related to intellectual property rights over most of these cultivars, on the other. Thus, it is essential that community seed banks develop niche outlets for local landraces and farmer-improved cultivars and strengthen the marketing of locally produced or bred varieties.Photo: Inspecting the first collection of seeds, Stone village community seed bank, China. Credit: Bioversity International/R. VernooyIn this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about governance and management structures of community seed banks. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer. Building and strengthening partnerships with a range of stakeholders at different levels, including the national genebank, extension services, and local government, can contribute to organizational strength and sustainability. This module reviews the kinds of support community seed banks can mobilize and receive and the types of networks (light or dense webs) they may become involved in.Please discuss the following learning objective with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Identify various types of networks and forms of support that community seed banks can develop and benefit fromBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants if they know of examples of networks involving community seed banks and local, national, or international actors, and whether they can give some concrete examples of the type of support they can receive and how this benefits the community seed bank.Ask participants to take notes during the exercise and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Learning activity 6: Support and networkingParticipants will be able to recognize the role of social capital building and collective action in the development of a well-functioning community seed bank.  8. Include an analysis of which organizations and individuals are providing support to farmers and the community with regard to seeds. In the absence of such supporting organizations and individuals, identify how this gap might be filled.9. Wrap up the session with a discussion of the activities that could potentially strengthen the seed networks and, in particular, the community seed bank in the short and long term.Emphasize that building and strengthening partnerships with a range of stakeholders at different levels, including the national genebank, extension services, and local government, will contribute to organizational strength and sustainability.10. Evaluate the session. Good indicators of success are (1) the degree to which the groups have identified key stakeholders, their relationships, and the gaps that might exist and ( 2) their suggestions regarding how to strengthen trust and relationship building.At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.You will be able to recognize the role of social capital building and collective action in the development of a well-functioning community seed bank. 1. Listen to the description of a Venn diagram and its application to social network analysis.2. In small groups or pairs, use the Venn diagram to map key seed actors and their relationships in your area of work.3. Use a large sheet of paper to produce the map. Clearly indicate the names of the actors and their roles.4. Select a group member to present your analysis in plenary and listen to the feedback provided.5. Listen to the presentation of the concepts of \"dense\" and \"light\" webs of stakeholders and what this could imply for the strength of the local seed network.6. Answer questions or give examples of which organizations and individuals in your area of work are providing support to farmers and the community with regard to seeds. In the absence of such supporting organizations and individuals, identify how this gap might be filled.7. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have.8. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Sometimes, despite strong support from national and international agencies and attention paid to human capacity development, community seed banks do not evolve beyond the initial stages. This can be a result of several factors, including cultural values that do not encourage seed sharing, lack of strong community support to maintain operations, or labour shortages. Consider these factors from the start and reflect on how they might influence the operation and sustainability of a community seed bank.In a number of countries, community seed banks have not yet become part of dense webs (networks with many links), although this does not mean that they are not robust in terms of operations, governance, and performance. Others have become immersed in dense webs, characterized by a large number and/or frequent connections with multiple and diverse social actors in both the formal and informal sectors. Such networks can have a positive impact on the performance of community seed banks and offer opportunities to develop sustainability strategies. The important thing to remember is that networking does not happen on its own, but requires active relationship building.Some community seed banks have excelled in building such relationships; for example, in Bangladesh, an extended network has emerged over time among local seed huts and higherlevel seed wealth centres.Network development can take many directions. Sometimes, over time, networks are stable in terms of operations, but remain limited in scope with few connections. Others evolve to span a large geographic area, include many social actors from various fields, and have a large number of connections. The latter can become part of a more-or-less formal group, network, association, or federation of community seed banks along with other rural development organizations, such as NGOs, cooperatives, farmers' enterprises, and farmers' unions. Multiple and dense connections increase the chances of accessing new materials and information. For example, one such network operating at the state level in Brazil includes more than 240 community seed banks among which there is lively exchange of seeds and information.In some countries, such as Nepal and Zimbabwe, community seed banks are part of a dynamic network that operates alongside the formal research system, jointly conducting participatory plant breeding and participatory variety selection and exchanging knowledge and experiences. Some community seed banks have evolved into more than just seed-oriented organizations and serve as platforms for social learning, mobilization, and community development.The most common links built by a community seed bank are with international or national NGOs.In some cases, national and international research organizations (notably Bioversity International) provide technical and financial support. Through these support organizations, some seed banks have begun to interact with national government agencies that set policies on plant genetic resources. However, even when long-term relations exist, they are seldom stable because of their often highly personal nature as well as the financial uncertainty that faces these organizations.Many factors influence networking dynamics, e.g., geography, roads, communications infrastructure, local culture, the role of local leaders, municipal or district politics, the occurrence of natural disasters, civil unrest or war, national policy development, international development priorities, and the international financial situation.In this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about different types of networks and forms of support that a community seed bank may develop and benefit from. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer.1. Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true?a. Various forms of support will always strengthen operations and performance of a community seed bank.b. The degree of dependence on a single or a few support providers does not matter as such, as long as the community seed bank has the necessary resources to operate.c. As a community seed bank matures, more demand-driven forms of support can replace supply-driven forms. Around the world, community seed banks operate in countries with diverse political regimes and policy and legal contexts. However, until now, very little attention has been paid to analyzing the policy and legal environment in which community seed banks operate. This module aims to offer some initial insights about this very important issue.To make this difficult subject more approachable, we can ask ourselves a number of questions:• Which policies and laws concerning conservation and management of crop diversity on farm and in situ affect the operations of community seed banks? How are they affected?• What public policy interventions have supported the operation of community seed banks? Are community seed banks recognized and rewarded as an expression of farmers' rights? If so, are they legally protected?• What kinds of policy instruments could be put in place, if none exist, to create incentives for community seed banks to maintain crop diversity and contribute to other ecosystem services derived from biodiversity in agricultural landscapes?Please discuss the following learning objectives with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Identify policy measures and legislation that can support community seed banks• Identify policy barriers to the development of community seed banksBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants if they are aware of any policy or legislative measures supporting community seed banks or limiting their development. You may use probing questions, such as:• What policy measures or legislation support community seed banks in your (our) country?• What barriers to the development of community seed banks could be addressed through policy or legislative measures?• Do you know of any negative aspects of existing policies or legislation that concern community seed banks?Ask participants to take notes during the exercise, and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the next learning activity.Policies and laws that influence the establishment and operations of community seed banksParticipants will be able to:• Identify a number of national (and perhaps regional and international) policies and laws that would likely influence the establishment and operation of community seed banks• Describe how, in practice, the influence would be felt by a community seed bank• Assess the expected nature of the influence (positive/negative) • Slides on policies and laws• Handouts: table to fill in (see page 96)• Notebooks and pens for participants• Large sheet of paper, cards, markers, and pins for examples and illustrationsA: Preparation• Prepare a few slides presenting examples of policies and legislation taken from chapter 7 of Vernooy et al. (2015).• Invite a policy resource person to wrap up the session.• Prepare copies of the following table on policies and laws and their impact.Policies and laws that influence the establishment and operations of community seed banksPlease fill in the following tableHow it will affect community seed banks Part 13. Distribute the handout to the participants.4. Ask them to form small groups of five and fill in the table with reference to actual experiences and knowledge of policies and laws.Part 25. In plenary, invite the rapporteurs to present their results.6. Help the groups compare the results.7. Prepare a synthesis and solicit feedback.8. Wrap-up: invite a policy resource person to wrap up the session by commenting on the exercise.9. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants collectively use the exercise method and the resulting information to discuss conservation and development decisions that affect community seed banks.Photo: Farmers meet to decide about the rules and regulation of their community seed bank, Gumbu, South Africa. Credit: Bioversity International/R. VernooyAt the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.You will be able to:• Identify a number of national (and perhaps regional and international) policies and laws that would likely influence the establishment and operation of community seed banks• Describe how, in practice, the influence would be felt by a community seed bank• Assess the expected nature of the influence (positive/negative) 2. Listen to the instructions for this activity.3. Form groups of five and fill in the table with reference to actual experience and knowledge of policies and laws.4. Select a rapporteur.5. In plenary, your rapporteur will present the results of the small group work.6. Compare the results with the work of the other groups.7. Discuss the facilitator's synthesis.8. Listen to the invited policy resource person's wrap up of the session. 9. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.National seed policies and related laws normally address seed production (multiplication), standardization, certification, and commercialization; variety improvement, registration, and release procedures; protection of intellectual property rights (most often breeders' rights); technical support to the seed sector (research and extension services); and farmer organization.Other policies and laws may be relevant, such as those concerning agrobiodiversity and the development of cooperatives or farmers' organizations.Policies and laws concerning cooperatives or farmer organizations may afford strong support for community seed banks. They may provide legal recognition and protection, technical and financial support, opportunities for the commercialization of seeds, and other incentives, both monetary and non-monetary (e.g., prizes and awards), as well as opportunities to make farmers' voices heard at the national level.A review (chapter 7 in Vernooy et al. 2015) shows the wide array of ways in which current policies and laws affect community seed banks, both positively and negatively. On the positive side, promising changes have been taking place recently in a number of countries, for example, Bhutan, Brazil, Ethiopia, Mexico, Nepal, Uganda, South Africa (see the detailed case studies in Vernooy et al. 2015).In Mexico, community seed banks are receiving financial and technical support from the federal government and are part of the national conservation system.In Nepal, the Department of Agriculture has mainstreamed community seed banks in its plans and programmes as a strategy to increase access to good-quality improved seeds and to conserve local crops. The recently amended national seed regulation has relaxed its requirements for registering local crop varieties making it possible for individual and organized farmers to register their locally bred strains. Community seed banks are mentioned as key organizations in the revised National Agrobiodiversity Policy 2007 (amended in 2011 and 2014). This policy gives implicit credit to community seed banks through its focus on conserving, promoting, and sustainably using agrobiodiversity; securing and promoting farming communities' welfare and rights to their indigenous knowledge, skills, and techniques; and developing appropriate options for a fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from access to and use of agricultural genetic resources and materials.Community seed banks have the potential to support the implementation of international agreements such as the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture by helping to ensure benefit-sharing at the community level. However, a serious policy gap remains: support is needed for appropriate incentives based, for example, on a quality assurance system for community seed banks. With input from NGOs, Nepal's government pioneered a Community Seed Bank Guideline (2009), a comprehensive document developed to guide planning, implementation, and regular monitoring of community seed bank activities.In 2014, Bhutan's National Biodiversity Centre followed Nepal's example by drafting a guide for community seed banks. It has six chapters that include definitions, objectives, functions, organizers and collaborators, scope and establishment, and management guidelines.Over the last few years, three Brazilian states (Paraíba, Alagoas, and Minas Gerais) have approved laws aimed at providing a legal framework for existing community seed banks created and maintained by small-scale farmers´ associations with the support of NGOs and sometimes local governments. A special community seed bank programme allows Paraíba's government to buy seeds of local varieties for distribution among farmers and community seed banks. Previously, only certified seeds of improved varieties had been used for this purpose. This law has also allowed farmers to use seeds of local varieties to produce food and sell it to public schools and hospitals (through contracts with state government agencies).Photo: Advancing the case of community seed banks in Nepal.The state of Minas Gerais approved its community seed bank law in 2009. It established, for the first time, a legal definition of a community seed bank and offered some protection to farmers in terms of access and availability: \"a germplasm collection of local, traditional and creole plant varieties and, landraces, administered locally by family farmers, who are responsible for the multiplication of seeds or seedlings for distribution, exchange, or trade among themselves.\"In South Africa, the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries considers community seed banks to be a means to strengthen informal seed systems, support conservation of traditional farmer varieties, and maintain seed security at the district and community levels. In Zimbabwe, there have been discussions on the need for a comprehensive framework on farmers' rights legislative. The proposed framework will provide for the establishment of community seed banks interacting closely with the national genebank and the South African Development Community's Regional Gene Bank. Such cooperation has great potential in terms of strengthening conservation and sustainable use efforts at the national level.In Uganda, the Kiziba community seed bank is registered at the district level as a seed-producing group and operates under various policies, principally under the national seed policy (approved in 2018). The community seed bank also operates under the Seed and Plant Act (2006), which is the legal framework for the promotion, regulation, and control of plant breeding and variety release, seed multiplication and marketing, seed import and export, and quality assurance of seeds and planting materials. The Seed and Plant Regulations (2009) provide guidelines for enforcement of the act.In this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about policies and laws that can influence the establishment and operations of a community seed bank. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer. In previous chapters, we discussed key aspects of the operations and performance of community seed banks. Those factors influence what is known as organizational viability. However, sustainability, or long-term viability, is the greatest challenge facing community seed banks.Performance over time depends on the quality of technical and operational capacities, such as adherence to phytosanitary standards, quality seed production, technical rigour in monitoring germination and ensuring viability of stored seed, and management of information about stored varieties and growing conditions. It also depends on how well the chosen governance and operational management process works. Building a strong organizational foundation is crucial.As in other organizational efforts, when community seed banks are established without proper foundations, long-term survival is difficult.A number of conditions must be met to ensure sustainability: legal recognition and protection, options for financial viability, members with adequate technical knowledge, and effective operational mechanisms. Careful and systematic planning right from the start is another important factor.This module describes how to assess the viability of a community seed bank and introduces aspects of sustainability, namely, human and social capital, economic empowerment, policy and legal environment, and operational modality. Two learning activities focus on these dimensions.Please discuss the following learning objectives with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Use the ex ante viability framework (mentioned in module 1, see page 114) to assess the potential viability of the community seed bank planned at the outset of the process (see learning activity 8A)• Identify at least four key dimensions of sustainability of a community seed bank• Understand and explain the supportive conditions that must be in place for a community seed bank to remain effective (for this and the previous learning objective, see learning activity 8B)What do you already know?Before starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what makes a community seed bank viable and what are the main factors affecting sustainability. You may use probing questions, such as:• How do you define viability, with reference to a community seed bank?• What conditions and factors can contribute to make the establishment of the community seed bank successful?• What are the influencing factors that keep the community seed bank healthy over time?• What capacity development activities can contribute to making a community seed bank sustainable?• What other activities might contribute to sustainability?Ask participants to take notes during the exercise and signal that they will be invited to share their thoughts at the end of the two learning activities.Learning activity 8A: Assessing viability of a community seed bankParticipants will be able to use the viability framework (chapter 43 in Vernooy et al. 2015, page 257; reproduced and updated on page 114 of this handbook) to assess ex ante if it is wise to establish a community seed bank in their area. B: ProcessIn plenary, recapitulate the main results of the previous learning activities (specifically those of modules 3 to 5), reminding participants about the possible functions and services that community seed banks can have, the technical issues to consider, and how to set up proper governance and management.2. Introduce the objective and the dynamic of the learning activity.3. Ask participants, in pairs, to brainstorm about the way in which we could assess ex ante whether it makes sense to establish a community seed bank.4. Ask each pair to identify at least five variables or indicators for assessing viability and to propose at least one tool to determine the actual importance of these variables in their area.5. Collect all the inputs and list/organize the variables and the tools suggested.Part 36. Compare the results with the viability framework, identify similarities and differences, and discuss the differences (if any). The framework is presented in the Content section of this module.7. If time permits, expand on the results by introducing the challenge of organizational viability of a community seed bank in the long run.8. Wrap up the session with a recapitulation of what has been covered. 9. Evaluate the session. A good indicator of success is whether participants are able to apply the viability framework to their region and make a realistic assessment of the viability of a community seed bank there.At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.You will be able to use the viability framework (chapter 43 of Vernooy et al. 2015, page 257) to assess ex ante if it is wise to establish a community seed bank in your area. You will be given a copy of the framework by the facilitator. 1. Thinking about the possible functions and services that community seed banks can have, the technical issues to consider, and how to set up proper governance and management, participate in the group recapitulation of the main points from the previous learning activities (specifically those of modules 3 to 5).2. In pairs, brainstorm about the way in which you could assess ex ante whether it makes sense to establish a community seed bank in your area.3. Identify at least five variables or indicators for assessing viability.4. Propose at least one tool to find out about the actual importance of these variables in your area.5. In plenary, participate in the listing/organizing of the variables and tools suggested.Part 36. Compare the results with the viability framework, identify similarities and differences, and discuss the differences (if any).7. If time permits, you will be invited to expand on the results by discussing the challenge of organizational viability of a community seed bank in the long run. Learning activity 8B: Sustainability of a community seed bankParticipants will be able to:• Identify what core capacities community seed banks must have to be sustainable B: ProcessExplain the objective and the dynamic of the learning activity.2. Introduce the topic by summarizing some of the main points from the earlier modules.3. Highlight that in the book Vernooy et al. (2015), sustainability emerged as the most critical element, considering that maintaining organizational viability is an art in itself.4. Divide the group into smaller groups of five participants.5. Invite the group to consider the learning activity statement.6. Ask each group to answer the following questions:a. How could this be avoided?b. What capacities do community seed banks need to develop to remain viable in the long run?c. What are the conditions that can support this long-term viability?7. Ask the groups to select a rapporteur to present their answers in plenary.8. Ask the rapporteurs to present their answers.9. Make a synthesis of the results and complete the answers if necessary. Initial organizational strength or viability and long-term sustainability are two crucial aspects of any process to establish and maintain a community seed bank. This module includes a framework to help assess the potential viability of a community seed bank in a given community and a number of considerations or factors that influence sustainability. Viability and sustainability can be placed on a continuum. This means that the criteria included in the viability framework (Figure 2) are also useful for the reflections about sustainability.When a community seed bank is first established, it is valuable to make an ex ante assessment of its viability. Experience has shown that the framework below (Figure 2) can be very helpful in making early decisions. Score each of the criteria listed in Figure 2 as \"not very strong,\" \"medium strong,\" or \"very strong.\" If the overall score tends toward the \"not very strong\" side, then it will likely be difficult to get things off the ground, although that does not mean starting a seed bank is not feasible. Similarly, if the overall score is tilted toward \"very strong,\" start-up might be smooth, but that does not guarantee there will be no challenges. If the overall score is somewhere in the middle, pay special attention to the criteria that do not score well and explore how to improve those factors over time.  Community seed banks function on the principles of participation, collective decision-making, and shared responsibility for resources, risks, and benefits. Women and men farmers, working together and participating in activities, strengthen their capacity for collective action and build human and social capital. As explained in module 4, the technical aspects of community seed bank management are a crucial part of this process. The effective operation and survival of seed banks depend on their ability to provide access to quality seeds. This can only be realized with committed, trained, and capable people.Community seed banks usually follow traditional knowledge-based practices that are relatively simple and low cost. Some use modern equipment and the latest technologies, but this is not a requirement for good functioning. In addition to the physical facilities of the seed banks, the technical knowledge acquired and used by members plays a significant role in maintaining the quality of seeds. When members are fully equipped with the technical knowledge to conserve good-quality seed, chances of long-term functioning of the community seed bank are good. However, building capacities takes time and effort.Another important aspect of building human capital -and ensuring sustainability -is the transfer of leadership roles, knowledge, and expertise of senior members to second-generation leadership and young members. This is partly determined by the governance mechanism. It is therefore strategic to try to involve young people, both women and men from the start.Module 6 provided evidence that networking can contribute to developing human and social capital. In Brazil, Mali, Mexico, and Nepal, various types of networks have been set up, both as a result of strengthened capacities and as vehicles for further strengthening of community seed banks. In other cases, community seed banks are networking with national or provincial genebanks (e.g., Bhutan, China, South Africa, Zimbabwe). Such collaboration is another way to strengthen the capacity of seed bank members, particularly in the technical aspects of seed handling, including disease and pest management and, to a lesser degree, operational aspects.Working with the right partner organizations can be of much help in building capacities. In Zimbabwe, both the government extension agency and the Community Technology Development Trust provide guidance in technical and management aspects of community seed banks.The methods adopted by community seed banks for participation and decision-making by members relate to the key tasks to be carried out. Rules and regulations are usually established by the members themselves and efforts are usually made to respect them. In most cases, both women and men farmers are active participants.The operational dimension is important in terms of sustainability, because it is through the practices related to seed circulation among members and non-members that a community seed bank comes to life and remains active. Clear roles and responsibilities of the management team are features of well-governed community seed banks.To be financially viable and not depend completely on voluntary labour, a community seed bank should be designed in a way that it generates economic incentives at two levels: for its members (in particular those playing key roles) and for the organization as a whole. Community seed banks frequently become less functional when external support is withdrawn because of the lack of revenue to support member families.Community seed banks in Brazil, Nepal and Zimbabwe are producing and selling seeds in large volumes and doing well financially. Some countries, such as Uganda, are in the process of developing community seed banks as seed enterprises.A unique approach, initiated in Nepal and now being used elsewhere, is the establishment of a community biodiversity management fund. These funds (approximately US$5000-10 000 per community seed bank) were created using donor funds (through projects) and contributions from the community (amounting to 10-25% of the total). They were set up as revolving funds available to seed bank members to finance income-generating activities. The seed banks provide easy access to small amounts of credit (without collateral or complex procedures) to members as well as generating some income in the form of interest. The interest is used to cover staff salaries, the regeneration of rare local varieties, and other operational expenses. This mechanism and similar ones could provide immense support to many community seed banks around the world. However, successful implementation of a community biodiversity management fund requires social and human capital building from the outset.Without legal recognition, community seed banks are less likely to be sustainable in the long run. Most seed banks have been established with support from NGOs through project funds, usually of short duration. For seed banks to find their own funding, they require legal recognition and registration in most countries, as many funding agencies hesitate to provide support to an organization that is not a legal entity. On the positive side, obtaining legal recognition contributes to building confidence among seed bank members by requiring them to operate on equal terms with public, private, and civil society organizations.Another strategy is for community seed banks to become part of a network connected to the national level genebank. The Nepalese national genebank has proposed such a plan to promote collecting and regenerating locally adapted materials in their natural habitats and to create ex situ-in situ conservation links. However, no adequate policy or legal framework yet exists to carry this plan forward.It is not easy to achieve these four dimensions of sustainability. However, some community seed banks have made progress on the policy and legal sides, some have developed promising options for financial viability, some are working hard to improve technical knowledge and skills, and many are paying attention to developing more effective operational mechanisms.Photo: The president of the Nepal association of community seed bank calls one of the member community seed banks. Credit: Bioversity International/B. SthapitIn this concluding section, invite participants to review what they have learned by answering a short quiz. You may then compare answers and conclude this module. You will find the answers at the end of this handbook. A possible introduction to this activity follows.In this module, we learned about viability and the conditions for sustainability of a community seed bank. Here is a short quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Please note that for each question, there may be more than one right answer.1. Which of the following represent conditions that must be met to ensure sustainability? by developing an action plan for the establishment and support of one or more community seed banks at the district or community level in your area. In this last module, a simple tool will be presented that can be used for this purpose.Please discuss the following learning objective with participants. At the end of this module they should be able to:• Prepare a clear and concise action plan for the establishment and support of a community seed bankBefore starting the learning journey, take a few minutes to ask the participants what they already know about developing an action plan to establish or support a local organization. You may use probing questions, such as:• Have you used any planning method or tool to organize your work?• Do you have experience with developing an action plan to set up or support a local organization?• Are you currently involved with supporting a local farmers' organization?Learning activity 9: Preparing a planUsing the results of the previous learning activities, participants will be able to draft a clear and feasible plan to establish and support one or more community seed banks in his/her area of work 4. Ask participants to form small groups according to their area and in each group prepare a draft plan for the establishment and support of one or more community seed banks.The draft plan should be clear and feasible and indicate activities, the schedule, people responsible, and resources required.5. Ask participants to prepare a presentation of the plan on a slide or a large piece of paper.Part 26. Invite participants to present their plan in plenary. Provide feedback on the plan in terms of clarity, coherence, and feasibility. At the end of the handbook, facilitators will find a complete set of learner instructions to copy and distribute to participants.Using the results of the previous learning activities, you will be able to draft a clear and feasible plan to establish and support one or more community seed banks in your area. 1. As a follow up to the training workshop, you will be invited to take an active part in the planning or implementation of a community seed bank project.2. The facilitator will provide an example of a community seed bank proposal.3. Form small groups based on your area.4. In your group, prepare a draft plan for the establishment and support for one or more community seed banks. The draft plan should be clear and feasible and indicate activities, the schedule, people responsible, and resources required.5. Prepare a presentation of the plan on a slide or a large piece of paper.Part 26. Present your plan in plenary.7. Take note of the feedback provided by the facilitator in terms of clarity, coherence, and feasibility of the plan.8. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have. 9. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Learning activitiesLearning activity 1:Steps and processes in establishing and supporting a community seed bankAt the end of this module, you will be able to describe the steps required for the establishment and support of a community seed bank. 1. In a group of 4-5 participants, have a look at the set of photographs you received from the course facilitator and, through collective decision-making, arrange the photographs in order.2. Tape the ordered photos onto a piece of paper.3. Write down the logic behind your ordering of the photographs.4. Select a rapporteur.5. Your rapporteur will briefly present the photographs and explain the logic behind their order in plenary.6. Listen to the presentations of the other groups and provide feedback. Learning activity 2: Trends in agricultural biodiversityParticipants will be able to assess the abundance (richness) and distribution (evenness) of local agricultural biodiversity in farming communities at the crop (species) and variety levels. 2. Map the changes (historical trend maps) in your notebook.3. Divide up into small groups disaggregated by sex and age.4. Carry out a four-cell analysis of crops through focus-group discussion.5. In plenary, participate in or observe the demonstration.6. Look at the results of both historical trend analysis and four-cell analysis and agree on priority crops and crop varieties for collection and seed multiplication, including rare and unique crops and/or crop varieties. Learning activity 3:The multiple functions and services of community seed banksParticipants will be able to distinguish major functions and related services of community seed banks. 5. Use the framework to identify the possible major functions and services that a community seed bank could have in your region. Please note down your answers.6. Some participants will be invited to present their answers in a plenary session. Learning activity 4: Technical issues involved in operating community seed banksYou will be able to define the key principles and practices for the effective operation of a community seed bank concerning seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution. 1. Listen to the presentation on the traditional seed management practices for major selfpollinated, cross-pollinated, and clonal crops of women and men farmers.2. Discuss the rationale for and principles of sound technical practices as well as problems, constraints, and knowledge gaps related to seed management.3. Using the seed samples provided by the facilitator, determine the quality of the samples, highlighting problems and their causes. Discuss whether these problems exist in your area.4. Record the problems in your notebook, and share your findings in plenary.5. Listen to the presentation on the key technical functions of seed selection and collection, seed health and seed cleaning, registration of new seeds, seed processing, seed storage (physical structure and method), seed monitoring, seed regeneration, and seed distribution.6. Discuss key elements of seed biology, seed storage, germination, and seed-borne diseases.7. Identify knowledge gaps and the need for improvements.8. Reflect on the need and rationale for every community seed bank to establish basic operating rules and regulations at the outset for: Learning activity 5: Governance and managementYou will be able to recognize key elements of good governance and operational management of community seed banks.  Learning activity 6: Support and NetworkingYou will be able to recognize the role of social capital building and collective action in the development of a well-functioning community seed bank. 1. Listen to the description of a Venn diagram and its application to social network analysis.2. In small groups or pairs, use the Venn diagram to map key seed actors and their relationships in your area of work.3. Use a large sheet of paper to produce the map. Clearly indicate the names of the actors and their roles.4. Select a group member to present your analysis in plenary and listen to the feedback provided.Part 25. Listen to the presentation of the concepts of \"dense\" and \"light\" webs of stakeholders and what this could imply for the strength of the local seed network.6. Answer questions or give examples of which organizations and individuals in your area of work are providing support to farmers and the community with regard to seeds. In the absence of such supporting organizations and individuals, identify how this gap might be filled. Learning activity 7: Policies and lawsYou will be able to:• Identify a number of national (and perhaps regional and international) policies and laws that would likely influence the establishment and operation of community seed banks• Describe how, in practice, the influence would be felt by a community seed bank• Assess the expected nature of the influence (positive/negative) 2. Listen to the instructions for this activity.3. Form groups of five and fill in the table with reference to actual experience and knowledge of policies and laws.4. Select a rapporteur.5. In plenary, your rapporteur will present the results of the small group work.6. Compare the results with the work of the other groups.7. Discuss the facilitator's synthesis.8. Listen to the invited policy resource person's wrap up of the session. 9. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Learning activity 8A: Assessing viabilityYou will be able to use the viability framework (chapter 43 of Vernooy et al. 2015, page 257) to assess ex ante if it is wise to establish a community seed bank in your area. You will be given a copy of the framework by the facilitator. 1. Thinking about the possible functions and services that community seed banks can have, the technical issues to consider, and how to set up proper governance and management, participate in the group recapitulation of the main points from the previous learning activities (specifically those of modules 3 to 5).2. In pairs, brainstorm about the way in which you could assess ex ante whether it makes sense to establish a community seed bank in your area.3. Identify at least five variables or indicators for assessing viability.4. Propose at least one tool to find out about the actual importance of these variables in your area.5. In plenary, participate in the listing/organizing of the variables and tools suggested.Part 36. Compare the results with the viability framework, identify similarities and differences, and discuss the differences (if any).7. If time permits, you will be invited to expand on the results by discussing the challenge of organizational viability of a community seed bank in the long run.8. Listen to the wrap-up by the facilitator and ask any questions you might have. 9. Participate in the evaluation of this learning activity.Learning activity 9: Preparing a planUsing the results of the previous learning activities, you will be able to draft a clear and feasible plan to establish and support one or more community seed banks in your area. 1. As a follow up to the training workshop, you will be invited to take an active part in the planning or implementation of a community seed bank project.2. The facilitator will provide an example of a community seed bank proposal.3. Form small groups based on your area.4. In your group, prepare a draft plan for the establishment and support for one or more community seed banks. The draft plan should be clear and feasible and indicate activities, the schedule, people responsible, and resources required.5. Prepare a presentation of the plan on a slide or a large piece of paper.Part 26. Present your plan in plenary.7. Take note of the feedback provided by the facilitator in terms of clarity, coherence, and feasibility of the plan. ","tokenCount":"21583"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"57d28776469b9a9d0f40dd01235a8fe4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H028858.pdf","id":"-1345270819"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a38ca8bc-459e-4d74-b4ca-192581e56119","pagecount":"10","content":"As the largest user of water, irrigated agriculture is under intense pressure to concede water to other, rapidly growing sectors. Subsidies for infrastructure are shrinking, the most accessible and cheapest water resources have been developed, and in an increasing number of river basins, all or most of the water resources have been committed. Demand for water for higher value uses-domestic, industrial and hydropower-is rising and there is growing pressure to allocate adequate water to environmental needs. A natural consequence of scarcity is conflict over water allocation, rights and entitlements among the various claimants. In the face of these problems, the irrigation sector must produce more food with less water. Achieving sustainable increases in the productivity of irrigated agriculture requires increased water use efficiency at farm and system levels, and integrated management of water resources in water basins. Aware of these issues, many Asian developing countries are preparing to reform their policies and institutional systems. ADB's emerging water policy is helping this process. There is an urgent need for policy research and science-based solutions to improve the productivity and sustainability of irrigated agriculture, to ensure water-food security for poor men and women, a critical step in poverty eradication.Despite the remarkable expansion of irrigated agriculture in Asia that brought dramatic increases in aggregate food production in the past three decades, there remain vast areas in the established irrigation systems where productivity and incomes of farmers remain generally low and highly variable. This is attributed to a number of factors, including inequitable access to water, poor management, and a range of other physical, sociocultural, and economic constraints. The efforts of developing country governments to address poverty reduction in these specific areas have been limited and ineffective due to lack of proactive policies and actions, and knowledge of how alternative economic, institutional, governance, and technical interventions can address poverty related constraints. However, in the face of increasing water scarcity and ever-increasing demand for food, many developing countries in the Asian region are gearing up for major policy x i and institutional reforms to optimize the management of their water resources. Enhancing the productivity of poor farmers in these areas is a priority, as they are most vulnerable to the impacts of water scarcity. Poverty eradication is now the shared goal of donors including the Asian Development Bank (ADB), developing country governments, the CGIAR, and other major research and development institutions. Since the bulk of the poor in Asia still live in rural areas and are largely dependent on agriculture for food, income and livelihoods, and since irrigation is a major contributor to agricultural production, it is logical to focus on how the performance of this sector can be improved, so that it can become an effective instrument to fight rural poverty in the region.Irrigation has played a major role in poverty reduction in the past, even though the benefits were not always equitable. Irrigated agriculture will continue to be the main source of food supplies and employment for the poor in Asia. But the vitality of this sector is declining with growing scarcity and competition for water and increasing overexploitation and degradation of groundwater. Three conditions must be met to restore the pro-poor economic potential of irrigated agriculture: productivity, equity and sustainability. The productivity of irrigated agriculture is substantially below its potential in the region, with significant variation within and across countries. Low productivity in irrigated agriculture is largely a consequence of inappropriate policies and weak management institutions, which were designed for very different conditions in the past. Moreover, the extent to which irrigation contributes directly to improving the lives of poor rural people is a function of proactive policies and effective support mechanisms aimed at promoting equity and people-centered development. More will be said on what these policies might be during the workshop deliberations. Sustainable irrigation systems imply balancing economic, social, and environmental benefits through implementation of development policies, programs, and projects that will not enhance one type of benefit at the cost of others.This paper highlights major issues related to irrigation management and suggests approaches that can help make this important sector more productive, equitable and sustainable, with the ultimate aim to reducing widespread poverty in the region.Agriculture in developing Asia as a whole has made remarkable progress over the past three decades. Between 1970 and 1995, cereal production more than doubled from over 300 million metric tons to 650 million tons, while the population increase during the same period was 60 percent. This remarkable growth in food production was largely attributed to the growth in irrigated agriculture, coupled with the use of high-yielding varieties of crops and the application of fertilizers and pesticides. At present about 40 percent of the cropland in Asia is irrigated and accounts for about 70 percent of total cereal production. Irrigation has greatly improved the incomes of farmers with access to fertile and welldrained lands, reliable water supplies, yield-enhancing inputs, and credit as well as other supporting services. It has also benefited the overall population by providing more food at reduced prices. xii Although benefits are generally considered to be skewed in favor of those having access to fertile, well-drained lands, reliable water supplies, and yield-enhancing inputs, poor people have also benefited in terms of enhanced food security and incomes (marginal and small farmers), lower food prices (mostly urban poor) and employment (both rural and urban poor). In the period between 1965 and 1984, the net irrigated area grew at a compound rate of 1.6 percent, while food production was increasing at 3 percent per year. Between the 1960s and the 1990s real food grain prices fell by nearly 50 percent (ADB 2000). For landless laborers, tenants and share-croppers, increased cropping intensities through irrigation has meant more work over more days of the year.Despite these achievements, the productivity of a large part of irrigation systems remains severely constrained by insufficiency of some or all of these inputs. Such lowproductivity areas are characterized by persistent rural poverty. The distribution of benefits from irrigation development is thus largely skewed and unequal. Furthermore, the agriculture sector in the Asian and Pacific region is now facing the challenge of meeting increasing food demand, while conceding more water to other, 'high-value' uses. To add to this the many environmental negatives associated with irrigation were underestimated when large irrigation systems were originally designed. This raises the question of sustainability. The population of the Asian region is expected to grow from the current 3.0 billion people to over 4.5 billion by 2025. The per capita availability of water in 2025 is estimated between 15 and 35 percent of levels in 1950. ADB's 1999 rural Asia study showed that the cost of investing in new irrigation schemes has also increased substantially. 1 Moreover, the demand for water for other economic uses is rising fast in association with the rapid economic growth and urbanization in the region, along with the growing pressure to protect the environment.During the past two decades, the rate of expansion in irrigated area has declined to be nearly stagnant throughout Asia. Much of the past expansion in agriculture came through development of large and medium-scale irrigation systems. However, this option is no longer available to the majority of Asian developing countries. It is becoming increasingly difficult to expand irrigated areas, as most accessible water resources have already been developed to capacity in a growing number of river basins and the areas having good land and water resources are diminishing-thus closing land frontiers and basins. Perhaps even more important reasons for lack of expansion are, escalating financial costs, lower economic returns, and increasing concerns about environmental and social impacts of large scale irrigation systems (Rosegrant and Ringler 1998).From a food security perspective, there has been very slow growth in yields and in the total output of the main cereals (ADB 2000). As the single most dominant user of available water resources, irrigated agriculture is facing increasing pressure to produce more food with less water through significant improvements in water use efficiency at the farm and system levels. Low-productivity irrigated areas are in a particular stress, as resource-poor farmers in those areas are most vulnerable to water shortages, while there is also a significant need to enhance food production there to ensure food security for the growing population.A number of factors contributing to poverty relate to low-productivity in irrigated systems. These include: i.Poor performance of irrigation systems caused by in stitutional and managerial factors;ii. Physical factors (poor design, unsuitable topography, poor drainage, poor soil conditions);iii.Economic constraints (smaller landholdings, lack of financial resources and credit, lack of key inputs and marketing outlets); and iv. Sociocultural problems (tenure arrangements such as insecure rights and large landholdings leased to in dividual farmers, caste-related inequities, gender bias).While the determinants of low productivity are numerous and complex, they are to a large extent associated with poor performance of many of the established irrigation systems, which causes low, inequitable, and unreliable water supplies in those areas. 2 It has been widely acknowledged that actual irrigated areas in many of the irrigation systems are much smaller than planned. Large areas within the irrigation systems suffer from chronic and severe water shortages, especially the tail-end reaches. Large-scale waterlogging has also been reported. It is now widely known that these problems are 2 Examples of low-productivity irrigated areas in Asian developing countries include parts of both upper and lower Indus basin (in Punjab and Sindh Provinces Pakistan); tail-end areas of large government-managed systems in several Indian states including the states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh; northern and northeastern Bangladesh; northern uplands, north-central and central highland regions in Vietnam; irrigation systems in Central Java and in some some of the outer islands in Indonesia; and northwestern part of the People's Republic of China including the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, and Xingjiang. xiv largely caused by institutional and managerial factors, poor governance, and lack of funds for maintenance, rather than technical constraints, which could be addressed without large physical interventions but with greater cost-effectiveness benefiting the poor.Most of the past investments in irrigation were not targeted specifically to poor people. Also, women's needs and environmental concerns were rarely assessed in most of the earlier projects (ADB 1995). These were largely concerned with increasing the overall food production to achieve national food security and broad economic growth. In projects lacking a specific poverty focus, benefits to the poor have often been insufficient to significantly improve their living standards. The efforts of governments and other agencies to improve the livelihoods of poor irrigation farmers have not been uniformly successful, and a better understanding of the reasons of this phenomenon is needed, particularly as competition for available water resources increases throughout the region.In the past, agricultural policies in Asia, driven by the notions of self-sufficiency, were largely focused on aggregate food production. Investments in irrigation were determined on crude economic indicators, such as return on investment and the internal rate of return; social returns and environmental impacts received cursory consideration in the early investment decisions. The politically powerless smallholder farmers, women and the landless were unable to have their economic interests articulated in national policies. This meant that poverty and environmental (crucial for poor) considerations were either not included, or were left to the 'invisible hand.' New knowledge available over the last decade suggests that strategies exclusively focused on growth do not deliver, unless they are accompanied by deliberate measures that ensure a good degree of equity in access to, and control over, resources. What are some of the main equity issues in large irrigation systems in Asia, and how can they be addressed? More importantly, what are the best practices in the region in this area, and how they can be up-scaled and replicated?Inequities exist in many forms: some social categories get access to water, whereas others do not, or do so on less favorable terms. Inclusion and exclusion processes in decisions regarding investment in allocation and governance of water resources typically take place along class, caste and ethnic as well as gender lines. Poverty, a state of multidimensional deprivation, is very often correlated to deprivation from water in sufficient quantity and quality. Deprivation from access to water for productive uses is a strong bottleneck preventing poor people from fulfilling their basic income needs and escaping income poverty. Under growing water scarcity it is very probable that the social categories with the stronger water rights will secure their access to water first. Thus, the limited water rights that a number of poor people gained in the past risk being weakened and those poor people who were already excluded in the past risk being excluded forever. Growing water scarcity risks to aggravate rural poverty.x v These and other inequity issues are an important focus of the current project and constitute a challenging topic for the workshop. For instance, in the classical case of head-tail inequities found in an irrigation system, an important discovery may be a higher concentration of the poor at the tail end of the system, which will have implications on water allocation strategies. Similarly, well-defined water rights and guaranteed provision of specified irrigation services may have a positive poverty impact. Quantification and comparison of water productivity on small and large farms together with labor absorption capacity at different levels of farm size will provide important clues to allocating water resources that meet both the productivity and equity criteria.Irrigation is the largest user-some say abuser-of fresh water resources, especially in the Asian region. The inescapable conclusion is that irrigation has to produce more food with less water. What are the options for water savings, for mitigating the negative environmental impacts of irrigation, and for maintaining the regenerative capacity of agro-ecological systems in Asia? Before we can address these questions, we need to assess, quantify and put an economic value on the environmental consequences of irrigation and compare those with its benefits. This will enable governments, communities and individual farmers to make informed choices about the sustainable use and management of their water and indeed other natural resources.Attempts made by most Asian developing countries to improve the productivity of irrigated areas have been minimal and largely ineffective. Irrigation-related research has largely been focused on general agricultural productivity increases under the overall goal of increasing food production and enhancing food self-sufficiency. While international research organizations, including IWMI, have pursued the improvement of irrigation systems performance, the research efforts have not gone much beyond technical and physical interventions and general irrigation management transfer to farmer organizations at large. Little scientific knowledge exists on how a range of non-technical interventions such as economic, financial, institutional, and governance measures can most effectively contribute to reducing poverty in these low-productivity areas.With few opportunities to expand irrigated areas in most Asian countries, attention is now shifting to increasing the productivity of irrigated agriculture, with a particular focus on \"poverty stricken irrigated areas.\" These areas are characterized by substantially lower agricultural productivity than the national averages and their potential, acute water shortages, water and land degradation, and competition for, and inequity in access to, water. The low-productivity irrigated areas in Asia are home to a large number of poor xvi people. Typically, poor people in these areas have smallholdings, or are landless or otherwise asset-less. They lack financial resources to invest in productivity enhancing technologie, often have no access to credit, and are more prone to risks associated with higher investment and failing water delivery. Also, many sociocultural factors and political influences limit their access to and participation in the decision-making processes. As users of small quantities of water, poor people play minor roles in causing water scarcity and pollution, but are affected most adversely by their consequences. For them, access to small quantities of good quality water is the difference between having a crop or no crop at all.Under the circumstances, attention should now be focused on improving the productivity of these less productive irrigated areas, while addressing the range of specific poverty related problems therein. This should be pursued in the context of improving the overall water use efficiency, equity, and sustainability of the concerned irrigation systems. Emerging water policies of countries and donors encourage the transfer of management to autonomous and accountable service delivery agencies with appropriate user representation. Reducing poverty by ensuring equitable distribution of water in this process is also emphasized. ADB draft water policy and its poverty reduction strategies are examples of this. Some developing countries in Asia have already initiated programs toward this direction, adopting certain levels of management transfer of irrigation facilities to water user associations and installing financial autonomy and accountability measures. However, there is little evidence that these measures have resulted in more efficient water use. Even less available is the evidence that they have contributed to poverty reduction.To enhance the overall performance of irrigation schemes, in terms of productivity, equity and sustainability, a more elaborate set of appropriate interventions and their sequencing, need to be defined. The interventions should be able to provide necessary incentives and mechanisms for improved equity and reliability of water supply to those areas, ensuring the participation of poor farmers in the decision-making processes of water management. Necessary measures to ensure the sustainability of operation and maintenance (O&M) should also be put in place adopting the user-pay principle while taking into account affordability to the poor. Furthermore, specific interventions should be identified and designed to address other types of location-specific constraints to poor farmers. This objective can only be pursued through a rigorous assessment of the determinants of poverty in the low-productivity areas, and analysis of the poverty impacts of a range of alternative pro-poor economic, financial, institutional, governance, and technical interventions that are available or emerging within the region. Necessary changes in the overall policy and institutional framework should also be assessed to ensure an enabling environment. Given that the managerial and institutional weaknesses largely contribute to the persistent poverty in these areas, due attention should be paid to a range of non-technical interventions. These include managerial reforms in water user organizations, administration of water rights and water pricing, regulatory and supervisory measures, and other incentives and mechanisms to improve equity while improving system performance.As mentioned earlier, much of the irrigation-related research to date has been limited to analyzing the general agricultural productivity increases resulting from technical and xvii management interventions. Little empirical knowledge exists on the specific poverty and productivity impact pathways of policy and institutional interventions. Consequently, attempts to target the poor have met with limited success. Rigorous analysis of poverty, water scarcity and low productivity in low performing irrigation systems and their relationship with the policy and institutional environment is therefore needed to develop effective poverty reduction strategies.Attention must be paid to broader analysis of irrigation performance in the context of scarcity and competing uses of water basins and to finding ways to increase the productivity of water used in agriculture. Other broader issues such as institutional reforms at the system and river basin levels and the understanding the water-poverty nexus must be addressed urgently. Poverty and gender in irrigated areas is currently a subject of special research. This work is rooted in the current understanding on poverty and its causes, especially those offered by Amartya Sen and others. IWMI's research shows that poor people are essentially water deprived, and the policy interventions to combat this situation have to be based on the idea of entitlement. This means that policies and interventions need to address not just low productivity, but also inequities in access to water and decision-making forums.IWMI has documented several cases where policy changes have led to positive outcomes for the poor. For example, an ADB supported study in Bangladesh confirmed that, the pro-poor impact of freeing the market in small pumps reduced the vulnerability of smallholders to \"water lords\" and the emergence of a competitive water market with excellent water service even to the poorest farmers. Institutional research in Pakistan led to establishing joint management of irrigation systems by water users and agency staff, and reduced head-tail inequities, and eventually induced pro-poor legislation and primary and provincial level institutions (IWMI 1999). Preliminary findings from studies in South Africa on water reserves for the poor, show promising prospects to ensure poor people's entitlement to water to meet their basic social and economic needs (Van Koppen 2000). Research in India, Sri Lanka and elsewhere show that targeted irrigation development and improvement of existing systems can be a significant tool for poverty reduction.Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) policies can also have a strong poverty reduction impact by actively stimulating conjunctive water use and by organizing tail enders to contest water use at the head. There is considerable evidence that IMT is only viable if larger farmers see an opportunity to improve water delivery considerably through own management, and if extra labor and monetary costs still remain a minor portion of their total production costs (Shah forthcoming). This implies that poor farmers in the same command area would be passive followers, taking advantage of the trickle-down effects. This contradicts the often-implicit belief that IMT will stimulate democratic decision making through brand-new inclusive and horizontally organized member-organizations. A better understanding of equity effects and functional differentiation in water user organizations will allow identifying critical measures to ensure both effectiveness and equity, and better targeting of those measures. Better understanding of gender relations in irrigated agriculture and removing specific bottlenecks for women farmers to become more productive will also be an effective strategy. These approaches have not yet been consistently applied to the irrigation sector.A study on 'Pro-poor intervention strategies in irrigated agriculture in Asia' has been proposed that will undertake a rigorous analysis of poverty, assessments of performance of irrigation systems and its impacts on poverty in low productivity irrigated areas and determine their relationship with the policy and institutional environment, in order to develop effective poverty reduction strategies.The overall goal of the proposed study is to promote and catalyze equitable economic growth in rural areas through pro-poor irrigation interventions in the participating Developing Member Countries (DMCs) of ADB [Bangladesh, People's Republic of China [PRC], India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Viet Nam]. The immediate objective is to determine what can realistically be done to improve the returns to poor farmers in the lowproductivity irrigated areas, the context of improving the overall performance and sustainability of the established irrigation schemes.The study will focus on selected representative low-productivity irrigated areas and their peripheries with a large number of people under persistent poverty in the participating DMCs. The emphasis is on identifying and assessing a set of appropriate economic, financial, institutional, governance, and technical interventions at field and system levels, and changes in the overall policy and institutional framework as far as they affect the poor people's access to water resources. The scope is as follows: i.Analysis and field research on the impacts of the current policy and institutional framework, and the impacts of underlying physical, economic, and sociocultural conditions on the selected areas in particular and on the overall irrigation systems at large, including the assessment of opportunities for and constraints on improving productivity in these less-productive areas through improved access to irrigation water;ii.Identification and in-depth evaluation of a range of potential pro-poor economic, financial, institutional, governance, and technical interventions at field and system levels against a set of criteria including cost of implementation and potential to reduce poverty, and assessment of necessary changes in the overall policy and institutional framework under which such interventions could most effectively address poverty reduction in the study areas; and xix iii. Formulation of a set of appropriate interventions and the policy and institutional frameworks,including adequate support systems, required to ensure large-scale uptake, replicability, and higher impacts within and between Asian countries, to culminate into (a) the guidelines for identifying and evaluating appropriate pro-poor interventions and enabling policy and institutional framework for irrigated agriculture in Asia,and (b) country-specific action agendas for the selected low-productivity areas of the participating DMCs.The participating DMCs are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Vietnam. These countries have responded positively to IWMI's inquiries about their interest in participating in this study, and all have vast poverty-stricken low-productivity irrigated areas in their established irrigation schemes and the peripheries. They therefore have a strong interest in reducing poverty in these areas, with sound research-based advice and assistance in planning and implementing necessary pro-poor interventions.","tokenCount":"4046"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ae9d3e840fbf028eeed441782d8b493","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H044079.pdf","id":"-1793399526"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"61255d9c-504a-4723-839b-79cec1cb0194","pagecount":"2","content":"Ethiopia is investing good amount of scarce resources on irrigation development. But the performance of many of the irrigation schemes is often far from satisfactory with disappointing results of public investments. In this study, the type and performance of irrigation institutions and availability of support services were investigated taking three large and nine small scale irrigation schemes from different parts of the country.It was noted that at the macro-scale, the mandates the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Water Resources in irrigation development were not clearly articulated and scrupulously tended. The set up of irrigation institutions from Federal to Woreda level is frequently changing ensuing institutional memory lapse, duplication of efforts, and lack of accountability. The roles of Water Bureaus and the Agriculture and Rural Development Bureaus with respect to irrigation development are not clearly defined to date. Irrigation extension service was observed as an unsatisfactory and the training of farmers in irrigated crop production was wanting.Only the agro-industrial state schemessugarcane and cotton farms -are relatively well managed with little or no institutional and support service problems. Many of modern small scale irrigation schemes (86%) are nominally managed by Water User Association (WUA) with well crafted bylaws. However, many of them lack the authority to enforce them. The use of local courts to fine offenders was noted to be ineffective. Compared to formal institutions like water user association, traditional institutions were found to be better efficient for their penalty sanction mechanisms are stronger.Beneficiaries lack skills and institutions to manage common property resources; consequently, irrigation infrastructure quickly falls into a state of disrepair. Substantial numbers of the beneficiaries don't feel that they own/control the water. In the perception of the many irrigators, maintenance of the headwork and main canal are the responsibility of the 'government'. But government organizations are more focused on the development of new schemes. Maintenance was observed to be the most serious problem (74%) that caused underperformance of many schemes. The main cause was attributed to lack of fund (37%) and poor organization and planning.Water shortage ensued water theft and unauthorized canal breaching are said to be the major (78.1%) sources of conflict and water shortage in the irrigation schemes under investigation.Marketing problem caused by absence of communal planning, contractual farming, transport access and staggered production system targeted for market was cited as the disincentive to expand irrigated crop production. Supply of seed, pesticide and insecticide is also identified to be the major challenges in diversifying production. The availability of support service in terms of inputs (seeds, fertilizer, herbicides, fuel, farms implements) was noted to be below satisfactory. The Bureaus of Agriculture are said to be the major provider of support services (35%). The service from research institution was reported as minimal. Service Cooperatives organized by the Cooperatives Promotion Agency have stared to deliver fertilizer in their cooperative shops recently.In conclusion, irrigation water management institution is to be established and empowered with appropriate statutes. It is to be provided with extension and support services. The beneficiaries should be consulted in the","tokenCount":"507"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"491090122be0aaece43bda6022de7bed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/736978d5-e6b3-48ef-887e-2688f205efbd/retrieve","id":"968761921"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5315983d-ec03-459a-8a0f-c1d17c23b2a5","pagecount":"16","content":"Though economic growth in Kenya has wavered over the past three decades, incomes and living standards have improved for a majority of the population (World Bank, 2016). Improvements in living standards have been paralleled by overall population increases and an increase in the proportion of the population living in urban areas (projected to be 44% by 2050) (Owuor et al., 2017). These trends provide background context for numerous challenges faced by the Kenyan food system.In recent years, the Kenyan government has put in place measures such as tax exemption of some agricultural inputs, subsidy programs, market reforms, and policies to enhance sustainable production and consumption. Nevertheless, production rarely meets domestic demand, and market reforms have not been successful at stabilizing food access. In 2017 and 2018, for example, the country experienced major maize and sugar crises mostly due to dysfunctional agricultural markets. At the same time, the country has seen the rapid spread of supermarkets over the last decade (Qaim et al., 2014), providing both new opportunities and challenges for access to safe, affordable, and healthy foods.While gains have been made in reducing child stunting in the country, considerable progress remains to be achieved. An estimated 26% of children under five years are stunted, 11% underweight, and 4% wasted. Though just 4% of young children are overweight, one-third of women of reproductive age are either overweight or obese, and another 9% underweight (KNBS, 2015).This data profile is one output of the Entry points to Advance Transitions towards Sustainable diets (EATS) project, the goal of which is to understand how existing data can be leveraged to inform decision making regarding how to intervene to effectively strengthen the sustainability of food systems in Kenya.As an initial step towards this goal, the purpose of this profile is to communicate the results of our efforts to characterize available food systems data from Kenya. Our data characterization process was based on a review of existing datasets on food, agriculture, the environment, and nutrition at varying scales, from local to national. After characterizing recent data sources collected since 2000, we qualitatively categorized the data into eight domains through consultations with experts and sustainable diets conceptual (1) food production, (2) food processing and distribution, (3) food loss and inorganic waste, (4) food access and consumption, (5) food and water safety, (6) nutrition, (7) sociopolitical context, and (8) environmental health.A total of 162 datasets were identified (Table 1). Forty-eight of these were primary datasets and 114 were secondary datasets (i.e., data were re-analyses of primary data sources). Twenty-two of the 48 primary datasets were collected through cross-sectional studies, while 26 were time series studies (i.e., studies that repeated use of the same measurement instrument). Government and project reports constituted nearly half (49%) of the secondary datasets identified. Nearly a quarter of the primary datasets (n=21), and numerous secondary datasets (n=47) were collected after 2011 (n=47) (Table 2).A diversity of methodologies were used to collect these data (e.g., quantitative surveys, anthropometric assessments, focus group discussions, openended interviews). Interview-based datasets were based on a wide variety of food system stakeholders ranging from households (including from both farming and non-farming communities), farmer organizations, market vendors, and more. Nearly all of the time series data (23 out of 26 datasets) were nationally representative datasets, while just 3 focused on smaller regions; Nairobi, Central, and Northern Kenya. Sample sizes for the primary datasets ranged from a minimum of 17 to a maximum of 40,300.Across the 48 primary datasets, a variety of additional variables such as age, gender, education, ethnicity, occupation, and wealth, were also present. Studies associated with large-scale data collection collected a similar set of additional variables, while datasets obtained from smallscale studies collected more distinct variables (e.g., distance to market, type of market etc.), in addition to the general set of additional variables from larger studies.We accessed raw data for 14 of the 48 primary datasets, and 102 of the 114 secondary datasets. The primary data were mostly obtained through online requests (this entailed filling out a request form), sending emails, and physical visits to the respective organizations. The protocols for accessing the remaining datasets varied greatly (i.e., e-mail request, memorandum of understanding, non-disclosure agreement, etc.), and was dependent on the dataproducing institution.Domain mapping of the 162 datasets revealed that slightly more than half (52%) of the primary and secondary data sources were associated with the production domain (n=84) (Figure 1). The nutrition (n=22), and food and water safety (n=22) domains were the least represented domains in the datasets. The food processing and distribution (n=38), environmental health (n=39), and sociopolitical context (n=40) domains were all well represented among the datasets.A total of 63 data-producing institutions (\"data producers\") were involved in developing the 162 datasets analyzed. Most of these were research institutions (n=19) and the government (n=17) (Table 3). To better characterize the priorities of the data producers vis-à-vis the datasets and their domains, we extracted the institutional mandates of these organizations, using a similar strategy that was used to map datasets to their domains, and then mapped the text in the mandates to the eight domains.Table 1. Number of primary and secondary datasets identified, by study design.Repeated use of instrument (i.e., time series) 26Government and project reports 56Organization and government strategic plans 8Manuals and guidelines (on elements of food system domains) 8Websites (on elements of food system domains) 5Most data producers had institutional mandates associated with the production domain (n=35), while the food loss and inorganic waste domain was the least frequently mapped (n=2) (Figure 2).The majority of the datasets we identified were reports, which were based on information from primary sources. This trend suggests the dearth of available primary data Kenya. Accessing primary data was, not surprisingly, more difficult than accessing secondary data, which was commonly accessible online. The food production domain clearly dominates the food systems data landscape in Kenya. While this is a strength of the available data in Kenya, the paucity of data on nutrition and food safety, in particular, is problematic for food systems action.Table 2. Timing of data collection for the identified datasets.  ","tokenCount":"1008"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b5eacc9ec35a60447840abbe5148bff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/70368d00-f78c-4145-a659-84d964c62492/content","id":"-1238201457"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"673dda9e-f332-40d6-b0d6-57f05c062c90","pagecount":"10","content":"Robotics and autonomous systems are reshaping the world, changing healthcare, food production and biodiversity management. While they will play a fundamental role in delivering the UN Sustainable Development Goals, associated opportunities and threats are yet to be considered systematically. We report on a horizon scan evaluating robotics and autonomous systems impact on all Sustainable Development Goals, involving 102 experts from around the world. Robotics and autonomous systems are likely to transform how the Sustainable Development Goals are achieved, through replacing and supporting human activities, fostering innovation, enhancing remote access and improving monitoring. Emerging threats relate to reinforcing inequalities, exacerbating environmental change, diverting resources from tried-and-tested solutions and reducing freedom and privacy through inadequate governance. Although predicting future impacts of robotics and autonomous systems on the Sustainable Development Goals is difficult, thoroughly examining technological developments early is essential to prevent unintended detrimental consequences. Additionally, robotics and autonomous systems should be considered explicitly when developing future iterations of the Sustainable Development Goals to avoid reversing progress or exacerbating inequalities.T he Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were developed as an internationally agreed \"plan of action for people, planet and prosperity\" 1 . The 17 goals (Fig. 1) and 169 targets cover a wide range of ideals, from ending poverty and improving water sanitation to promoting peace, justice and strong institutions 1 . Many of the targets are interconnected with the possibility of co-benefits, but there is also potential for trade-offs, where the progress towards one SDG might hinder progress towards another 2 . Meeting the SDGs will require investments across society [3][4][5] , combining government-, civil society-and private sector-led actions 1,3,6 . As of early 2020, insufficient progress was being made towards meeting the SDGs by 2030 1 . For instance, actions were still needed to curtail inequalities within and between countries, reduce hunger or lower carbon emissions 7 . The coronavirus pandemic has also stalled some previous progress by, for example, pushing an extra 124 million people into poverty and exacerbating health inequalities 7 .Technological advancements have profoundly altered how economies operate and how people, society and environments inter-relate. A critical innovation is the emergence of robotics and automatic systems (RAS) 8 , with the ability to sense, analyse, interact with and manipulate their physical environment with minimal human intervention 9 . Globally, RAS are projected to be adopted by 60% of companies by 2025 10 . Their deployment is expected to change decision making-processes and the way humans interact with one another, governments, and the environment 11,12 .Mobilising digital technology, such as RAS, could significantly facilitate the achievement of the SDGs 8 . For instance, artificial intelligence has the potential to enable delivery of 134 SDG targets across all SDGs, through mechanisms such as supporting resource efficiency in smart cities and improving modelling of climate change impacts 12 . SDGs can also be inhibited by artificial intelligence, with 59 targets impacted, particularly those centred on poverty, education and inequalities 12 . The limited information that is available regarding how RAS may impact the SDGs tends to centre on individual SDGs. Positive impacts include how RAS can improve health through surgical procedures enhancements 13 and integrated nursing care 14 , transform agriculture through changes in weed control practices 15 , and contribute to biodiversity conservation through the control of invasive species [16][17][18] . There is also some concern about how RAS could change the job market 19,20 , influence pollution and waste 21 , be detrimental to biodiversity conservation by directly replacing living components of nature, such as pollinators 22 , and could increase carbon emissions from transport if implemented too widely 23 . Additionally, we have no systematic understanding of how RAS may impact society and the environment, nor how they might facilitate or impede the delivery of the SDGs as a whole. Indeed, plans to address SDGs rarely account for the potential of RAS which, in turn, are developed with little consideration of the SDGs 24 .Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Here we report the findings of an online horizon scan to evaluate the future key opportunities and threats associated with RAS in relation to all SDGs, as well as the potential for co-benefits and trade-offs among different SDGs linked to RAS implementation. Horizon scans are not conducted to fill knowledge gaps in the conventional research sense but are used to explore emerging trends and developments with the intention of fostering innovation and facilitating proactive responses by researchers, managers, policymakers and other stakeholders 25 . Using a structured and iterative survey (Fig. 2), designed to involve a large range of participants and a diversity of perspectives, we systematically collated and synthesized knowledge from 102 experts. The experts were based in 23 countries and their combined research expertise was global in scope (Supplementary Fig. 1).Through content analysis of an online questionnaire (102 participants), group synthesis and workshop content (44 participants), we identified five key opportunities and four key threats (Fig. 3) that need to be considered while developing, deploying and governing RAS with respect to achieving or impeding the achievement of SDGs. We then quantified, based on a Likert scale, the positive and negative impact of RAS on each SDG, as well as the associated uncertainties.Key opportunities to meet the SDGs using RAS. Two of the opportunities emphasised how RAS could either (1) replace or (2) support human activities in work, private and public realms. RAS were also deemed to have potential to (3) foster innovation by speeding up research and development, (4) enhance access by transforming transportation systems and enabling safer access to remote areas, and (5) improve monitoring to support and inform decision-making.Fifty-eight percent of participants noted that autonomous tasks that transform the built and natural environment could contribute to SDGs covered by their expertise (Fig. 3), emphasizing the salience of this opportunity. As such, RAS would be replacing humans in activities that are unsafe, repetitive, or for which workforce recruitment and retention is difficult. Examples given by participants covered crop production;, livestock and fisheries management; processing and packaging; waste and environmental management 26 ; eradication of invasive species 18 ; treatment of quarantined patients; disinfecting/cleaning public spaces 27 ; laboratory work; and manufacturing, construction or repair of built infrastructure 28 , including water management systems 29 . The main advantages over current practices envisaged by the participants were improved infrastructure maintenance, as \"the principles of using RAS in infrastructure are to reduce the size of defect that needs repairing by making frequent small repairs\", increased productivity, and reduced resource utilisation, potentially making goods and services more sustainable and/or cheaper.The opportunity for supporting human activities was recognised by 31% of participants (Fig. 3), highlighting that this opportunity was less recognised. Participants highlighted that RAS might decrease human workloads where there is a shortage of workforce, such as in elderly care 14 . In health, participants suggested that RAS would enhance surgical practices 13 and the physical movement of patients within healthcare facilities 13 . Additionally, they believed RAS might facilitate specific health screening activities, such as sexual health diagnostics, by distancing the human presence and the associated fear of judgment. Participants underlined how RAS could improve education 30 by offering everybody the opportunity of a quality education and vocational training, personalised according to their needs.Participants highlighted that RAS could also contribute to supporting specific public and private needs, for example, by providing help in overcoming physical or cognitive limitations. Socially assistive robots such as Nao 31 , a humanoid robot intended to interact with humans in education and healthcare settings, are particularly likely to aid inclusivity by creating a \"large amount of possibilities for physically impaired, autistic or vulnerable people\", including improving learning skills 32 and providing a safe, protected environment in which \"RAS can be reliable enabler companions […] and monitoring systems for anyone (including women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities) in public spaces\".RAS were perceived by 28% of participants as helping to achieve the SDGs by fostering innovation (Fig. 3). RAS were described as being \"the leading edge of technology development, […] based on the most advanced scientific knowledge and […] developed for solving industrial challenges\". Participants believed that RAS would speed up the research process across sectors but, in particular, the efficiency in the development of drugs/vaccines and renewable energies. Participants also suggested that RAS-led entrepreneurship could encourage creativity, stimulate the creation of highly skilled jobs 10 , and lessen inequalities between countries through RAS technology transfer.Forty-six percent of the participants suggested that RAS could contribute to progress towards the SDGs by enhancing access toStep One: Questionnaire Targets and goals are scored for RAS impacts, and impacts are describedStep Two: Group Discussions Each group agreed on (1) the main positive and negative impacts on the SDG, (2) the three targets with most positive and negative impact and (3) an evaluation of the overall level of impactStep Three: WorkshopGroup discussion of the trade-offs and co-benefits of RAS implementation across SDGs  remote and/or dangerous areas, facilitating interactions at distance and transforming current modes of transport (Fig. 3). Participants noted that enhancing access could have implications for improving disaster relief, for instance, by providing ambulance services. RAS could also help those in remote areas to access basic services, with examples ranging from how \"early childhood remote diagnosis and consultation may reduce mortality\" to delivering medical supplies, blood or vaccines 38 , or improving education 30 . Furthermore, RAS could facilitate environmental conservation and research in inaccessible locations 39 . Even in seemingly accessible locations such as cities, participants thought that RAS could manage features that are otherwise expensive, dangerous or difficult for humans to access, such as vertical farms 40 or green walls/roofs. The widespread uptake of autonomous vehicles has the potential to make roads safer while reducing the loss of unproductive time while driving 41 , which will impact how cities are planned 42 , with potentially positive implications for human well-being and the urban environment 21 . RAS are already widely used for automated monitoring and data collection to support decision-making 17,[33][34][35][36] and this opportunity was mentioned by 78% of all participants, highlighting its salience (Fig. 3). Participants stated that autonomous monitoring would take place across many sectors including infrastructure 34 , resource distribution, wildlife populations 17,33 , water quality 37 , global financial markets 35 and illegal fishing 36 . Participants described such advances as critical to \"provide […] a good framework for assisted decision-making, planning and governance\". Additionally, participants suggested that the collection of big data facilitated by RAS would provide opportunities to \"mak[e] massive public participation in [planning] easy and costeffective\". Automated monitoring was felt to be faster, more responsive to change, more transparent and devoid of human errors compared to manual methods. Participants were, however, concerned that \"monitoring per se isn't actually going to deliver [actions towards the SDGs]\".Key threats to achieving the SDGs because of RAS deployment. Four threats were identified that could impede the achievement of the SDGs (Fig. 3), with participants noting that RAS implementation could (1) reinforce inequalities due to a lack of affordability and transformation of the job market, and (2) negatively affect the environment via novel forms of biodiversity disturbance, as well as through the manufacture and disposal of RAS throughout their lifecycle. We also identified concerns that RAS would (3) divert resources away from triedand-tested approaches to achieving the SDGs. All three of these threats could then be compounded through (4) the inadequate governance of RAS, while also posing ethical issues about data use.The primary and most salient threat, raised by 51% of participants, was that RAS deployment would reinforce existing inequalities because \"through the course of history […] automation has always had a tendency to ease the accumulation of wealth, typically benefiting those who are already wealthy\". Participants envisaged scenarios whereby inequalities could be exacerbated by cultural contexts and negative perceptions that communities hold for RAS, such as RAS \"contradict[ing] the ideas of agricultural production embraced by indigenous peoples\" or human interactions being necessary for some occupations such as teaching or nursing. Inequalities could also be intensified by a transformed job market, as the need for low-skilled workers would decrease as \"low skilled, mundane and routine tasks can be automated. Reskilling employees will take time; during which more advanced jobs are probably being 'taken over' by RAS\".Although the impact of automation on jobs is uncertain 19,20 , the perception of RAS taking over jobs might be sufficient to slow down their deployment in some countries, as \"RAS […] won't be chosen over […] labour-intensive processes due to loss of livelihood, despite health and productivity benefits\". Participants thus noted that inequalities might rise between countries, as these negative perceptions interact with different starting points in regards to access to technology 43 , and a greater reliance on primary production and manufacturing rather than services in low-and middle-income countries 44 . However, participants emphasised how negative RAS impacts on the job market could be lessened by \"redefin [ing] what we mean by 'full and productive employment' […]. We might consider goals such as 'full unemployment' and the encouragement of leisure instead of work\".Unless actions are taken 12 , participants felt that RAS were likely to exacerbate existing inequalities by reinforcing preexisting structural biases. Specifically, if artificial intelligence 45 , which is central to many RAS technologies, is trained on biased datasets and decisions are taken without human intervention, those biases and associated inequalities will be amplified 46 . There are promising ways to mitigate such threats via ensuring biases in datasets are adjusted for using more appropriate algorithms, however those are yet to be tested in the real world and rely on biases in training datasets being openly acknowledged, which is as yet not the norm 47 . Additionally, participants identified the need to empower more women and those from diverse ethnic backgrounds to engage with RAS development. Currently most RAS researchers are male (84%) and white (67%) 48 . This lack of diversity poses a risk that any structural inequalities and preexisting biases in datasets are unconsciously reinforced by RAS developers who may not fully grasp issues facing minority and underrepresented groups.Twenty percent of participants were concerned about the potential negative environmental impacts of RAS (Fig. 3). Primarily, these were related to the lifecycle of RAS, including the type and amount of energy required for large-scale RAS deployment 49 , the impact of resource extraction to build RAS and the pollution caused by unrecovered RAS or their disposal 50 . In addition, participants were worried that improvements in productivity catalysed by RAS could well come at the expense of the environment. Landscape simplification is an important driver of environmental change and biodiversity loss 51 . Participants felt that deploying RAS for food production might expand landscape simplification by favouring practices such as sensorbased weed control 52 and robotic fruit-picking 53 , both of which require relatively simplified landscapes 52,53 . Participants noted how the \"history of the global food system has shown that the use of technology has increasingly contributed to seed poverty [and]  environmental devastation\" and were concerned about this being amplified. The negative impact of unmanned aerial vehicles on birds is well-documented 54 . Participants envisaged scenarios where large-scale RAS-deployment would intensify such disruptions and cause comparable issues with other taxonomic groups, including some that are currently poorly known or isolated due to their inaccessible habitats, such as deep-sea organisms 39 .For many of the SDGs, there are already tried-and-tested approaches that can be used to enhance their delivery. A threat identified by 27% of participants (Fig. 3) was that investments in RAS might divert resources away from more straightforward, less technologically-driven approaches. Participants highlighted that many of the SDGs are \"very human and politically driven ambitions and RAS may not be the best solution to achieve [them]\" and resource allocation to social and political programs were better alternatives (e.g. for achieving SDG10 or SDG16). Participants also warned that investing in technology without similar investment in the social context might be counterproductive. An example of this was \"high-tech public toilet cubicles installed in a city in India as safe and clean units for women to use. However, no-one used them as they were poorly placed and they feared that the automatic door would trap them inside\". Even for those goals which could benefit from RAS implementation, participants were worried that implementation of RAS systems will be too slow, as \"[t]he current state of the technology is not fully ready […], [r]eliance on autonomy might worsen the situation\". RAS should not be implemented at the expense of tried-and-tested activities such as vaccination campaigns, education or emergency response services.Another concern raised by 27% of participants, denoting lower recognition of the threat as compared to the threat of reinforcing inequalities, was the risk of inadequate governance of RAS (Fig. 3). There was consensus that, \"if used wisely\" and fairly, the impact of RAS would be mostly beneficial. Nonetheless, it remains uncertain how RAS-use will be regulated and who might own the resulting data 55 . This raises an important ethical issue, as \"solutions in tech risks creating a form of technological determinism and missing the need for broader reforms, including over who owns and controls tech itself\". Participants noted that ownership of human behaviour data collected for monitoring related to health, education or institutions could be exploited by transnational companies, authoritarian governments or hackers, with consequences for human rights and privacy 56 . Participants also thought that inadequate governance of RAS could increase the likelihood of reinforcing inequalities or damaging the environment. Participants felt that robust international legal and regulatory frameworks for RAS should promote sharing of intellectual property. If RAS technology and patents are largely owned by transnational companies who can bypass national regulatory frameworks, this might lead to higher operating costs, making RAS unaffordable for most of the population and reinforcing macroeconomic inequalities. Ownership by transnational companies could also augment negative environmental impacts, with participants concerned about the \"possibility that increased automation could further boost large-scale agribusiness that has been degrading ecosystems globally\".Net overall impact of RAS on SDG delivery. Despite identifying emerging threats, participants indicated that the impact of RAS on progress towards the SDGs was likely to be overwhelmingly positive (Fig. 4a). No SDG was determined to be predominately impacted by RAS negatively, and there were seven SDGs for which more than 75% of the participants believed that RAS would have only positive impacts on their delivery. For the remaining ten SDGs, trade-offs requiring careful management were identified. However, the future net overall impact of RAS on achieving the SDGs was considered hard to predict by most (Fig. 4b), especially for SDGs dealing with inequalities (SDG5 and SDG10). This uncertainty may well reflect the lack of interaction, and hence understanding, between engineering, natural sciences and social sciences experts 57 . Indeed, this was reflected in our participants, none of whom professed RAS expertise alongside knowledge of the SDGs dealing with issues of poverty, equality, justice or institutions (SDG1, SDG5, SDG10, SDG16 or SDG17; Supplementary Fig. 2). The participants only scored the certainty of RAS impacts as 'very easy' to evaluate for three SDGs, related to innovation and infrastructure (SDG9), cities (SDG11) and climate (SDG13).Co-benefits and trade-offs associated with RAS and the SDGs. Participants identified several SDGs, particularly those associated with environmental issues or multi-dimensional poverty, which would benefit from RAS implementation aligned with meeting other SDGs. For example, RAS implementation for land decontamination, aligned with SDG15, would also contribute to the environmentally sound waste management required to reach SDG12. Reduction of waste produced rather than its management later down the line is also critical in reaching SDG12, and ties closely with \"SDG2 […] in terms of food security, where you could actually deploy RAS [to monitor] consumption and thereby reduce food waste\". Likely co-benefits of RAS deployments in industry (SDG9) or agriculture (SDG2) were envisaged. For instance, RAS implementation to replace unsafe tasks in agriculture traditionally carried out by women could facilitate improvements in gender equality by decreasing the low paid work burden and freeing up time for education for women (SDG5). Examples with industry include cases when RAS might \"be deployed to gain more transparency across global value chains, and through this further reduce modern slavery aspects globally\". Due to the strong inter-linkages between health, education and poverty 2 , participants envisaged scenarios whereby the contribution of RAS to education (SDG4) would be a \"determiner of the success of other goals such as gender equality, […] poverty reduction, […] health and the like\". Equally, RAS-led improvements in food provision (SDG2) or health (SDG3) were thought likely to advance progress towards multi-dimensional poverty reduction (SDG1).Participants raised concerns regarding trade-offs between the benefits gained by RAS deployment for specific goals, especially where technical solutions may initially be attractive such as in upgrading industries and infrastructure. Opportunities were identified for RAS deployment to increase the efficiency of tasks, but better efficiency and associated cost reductions may well create rebound effects that amplify consumption 58 , thus worsening environmental crises 59 because more virgin materials would be processed into products each year 2 . Greater efficiency could also further concentrate wealth, reinforcing inequalities, such as in the case of water management, where \"some countries are […] endangering water for others, [so] increasing efficiency for some country might not necessarily be good for another in terms of monopolising water management\". Trade-offs emerging from RAS deployment were also identified within goals. For instance, the opportunity to enhance access and monitoring was perceived by participants to be as likely to open new routes for overexploitation as to improve conservation efforts 39 . Some of the trade-offs that were identified are inherent within the SDGs themselves, such as how SDG12, which promotes consumption and production, could lead to trade-offs with SDGs associated with health, poverty reduction and reduced inequalities 2 . Similarly, SDG8 on economic growth has multiple targets that can impede each other 60 .Participants also felt that over-reliance on RAS for monitoring to support decision-making might undermine progress towards meeting SDGs associated with inclusivity and improved governance, such as SDG11 on sustainable cities and communities and SDG 16 on peace, justice and strong institutions, as \"the decisions made by artificial intelligence algorithm-powered urban planning and management systems will exclude ordinary citizens\". Increasing use of RAS for informing decision-making could have widereaching repercussions by \"trigger[ing] humans to completely delegate the thinking job of decision-making to automated systems, reducing our knowledge and understanding of these complex systems and […] our control on the interplay of these complex factors that are affecting these systems\".RAS and SDGs: ways forward. RAS are here to stay and will fundamentally transform how we interact with one another, technology and the environment 9 . This transformation offers many potential benefits. However, realising those benefits while minimising unintended consequences and trade-offs will be complex. As a starting point, a declared aspiration to contribute positively to the full range of SDGs when designing and deploying RAS 61 would likely enhance the social and environmental benefits of RAS uptake. Early collaboration and continued dialogue across stakeholders while implementing RAS would contribute to both setting realistic expectations 62 and helping organisations working for sustainable development 63 to seize opportunities provided by RAS while avoiding any pitfalls. Greater engagement by engineers with sustainable development professionals would ensure that RAS are developed and deployed while respecting the needs of multiple different groups and mitigating any emerging threats 24,61 from the outset. Indeed, appropriate mitigation measures to counter the potential negative impacts of RAS would, by their very nature, contribute to addressing the SDGs. For example, improving education would help bridge technological gaps, reducing inequality of access to RAS 20 . Further, strengthening institutions would reduce the likelihood of poor RAS governance. Indeed, strong governance structures are central to mitigating any emerging threats, as is ensuring that adequate regulation is in place prior to widespread uptake will be essential. Robotics are now included in United Nations' strategies for peace 64 , yet the opportunities and threats posed by RAS are thus far not integrated into any other global initiatives, strategies or social goal setting. In part, this is likely due to the relatively slow pace of regulation and goal setting when compared to RAS development, leaving the door to non-regulation or regulation through non-binding norms or voluntary guidelines 65 . This  approach is, however, insufficient as it is unable to ensure inclusivity and representation 65 , which are both pillars of the SDGs. Iterative regulatory processes are that can be adapted in parallel with emerging new technologies are needed to ensure appropriate RAS governance 66 . Although all impacts of RAS across the suite of SDGs are hard to predict, inclusion of RAS in future iterations of the SDGs 67 will be essential to avoid detrimental and unintended consequences while realising the opportunities they offer.Horizon scans aim to \"support the early identification and collective exploration of emerging issues\" 68 through a systematic examination of potential future developments and their related threats and opportunities 69,70 . They can be carried out as either a document-based analysis, focusing on scientific literature, patents or media, or as an expert consultation process 70 . Horizon scans have been used to study a diversity of topics, including bioengineering 71 , security 72 , medicine 73,74 and biodiversity conservation 21,75 , and are increasingly used by private and public organisations worldwide 69 to inform decision-making. Here, we conducted a horizon scan of the future potential positive and negative impacts, opportunities and threats that RAS deployment could have on the delivery of the SDGs, and the co-benefits of trade-offs between RAS deployment for using a three-step expert consultation process.Horizon scan participants. We adopted a mixed approach to recruitment to minimise the likelihood of bias associated with relying on a single method. We recruited RAS and SDGs experts by directly contacting 1078 people with relevant research profiles. Additional participants were recruited through snowball sampling (i.e. participants suggesting additional experts from their professional networks), mailing lists (e.g. EU robotics, Pipebots) and social media. A pool of 102 participants responded to the online questionnaire, with expertise from across the world (Supplementary Fig. 1) and all SDGs (Supplementary Fig. 2). We asked participants to describe their areas of expertise, country of employment and countries in which they conduct their work (e.g. research projects, consultancy contracts). Countries were grouped into high-income and low-and middle-income according to the Development Assistance Committee list of official development assistance from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 76 . Participants were based in 23 different countries, with 58 (57%) in high income and 44 (43%) in low-and middle-income countries (Supplementary Fig. 2g, h). Most participants conducted research, with two working with the private sector, one for a government and one for an NGO. Our participant pool consisted of experts whose primary expertise was in engineering (25%) or mainly aligned with the 17 SDGs (76%) and was 36% female (Supplementary Fig. 2c-f).Prior to taking part, we asked participants for their consent, informing them that their involvement was voluntary, they could withdraw at any point, and their answers would be anonymised. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Leeds Ethics Research Committee (Reference LTSEE-105). The anonymised quantitative data are available on the University of Leeds Institutional Repository (https://doi.org/10.5518/1078). We piloted the questionnaire and, as a consequence, refined some of the wording to improve clarity. The answers from the pilots were discarded and not included in the analysis.Horizon scan. The first step of the horizon scan comprised an online questionnaire (Fig. 2) and aimed to evaluate the overall impact of RAS on each SDGs and extract the main opportunities for and threats towards SDG delivery associated with RAS deployment. Given that there are 17 SDGs covering a very broad remit (Fig. 1), we structured the initial questionnaire to allow participants to choose up to three SDGs that best aligned with their expertise. Each SDG covers a wide range of societal issues and consists of several targets (median = 10; range = 5-19; total = 169) 1 . It is likely that the impact of RAS will vary according to the target. We therefore asked participants to evaluate whether RAS would have (a) a positive impact and (b) a negative impact on the achievement of each target of the goal(s) in which they have expertise, using a 5-item Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree or strongly agree). A \"do not know\" category was also included. The response to the Likert scale was used to elicit an in-depth statement to the openended follow-up question as to what type of impact(s) were considered, thus providing a description of which opportunities (for positive impacts) or threats (for negative impacts) each achievement of targets would experience from RAS. Participants were also asked to evaluate the impact of RAS on the overall SDG, as either (a) positive, (b) negative, (c) both positive and negative or (d) no impact. The ease of predicting the impact of RAS on each SDG will likely vary according to the level of development/use of RAS in that area. To evaluate the level of certainty associated with RAS impacts on each SDG, we asked the participants to evaluate, through a 5-point Likert scale (very hard, hard, neither hard nor easy, easy or very easy), how difficult they felt it was to predict the impact of RAS on the SDG. The online questionnaire was completed by 102 participants (Supplementary Fig. 2a). Each participant covered a median of one SDG (range = 1-3), providing 144 responses covering all 17 SDGs. Participants submitted 1913 statements across the 169 SDG targets. The statements and quantitative rankings were collated and analysed for each SDG.For step two of the horizon scan, we wished to synthesise the statements for each SDG. In particular, we wanted to evaluate what the key opportunities and threats associated with RAS deployment for each SDG were, consider whether there was variation in which targets within each SDG were more or less likely to be impacted, and evaluate the overall impact of RAS on the SDG as a whole. To do this, we grouped the participants who opted to continue their participation into 17 groups, assigning them to SDGs that aligned as close to possible with their stated expertise. Each group included at least one engineer. Every group was presented with the collated answers from the first step to carry out the evaluation. Given that step one resulted in a low number of answers for SDG1, the participants assigned to this SDG independently provided their answers to the step one questionnaire prior to the group work. Participants assigned to SDG2 and SDG14 did not contribute.Step two resulted in 15 group synthesis redacted by 44 participants.Step three of the horizon scan consisted of an online workshop aiming to highlight the interactions, in terms of both co-benefits and trade-offs, between RAS deployed for delivering different SDGs. During this workshop, one representative from each group presented their synthesis. The 44 participants then discussed the interactions with the other SDGs.Analysis. We used an inductive approach to content analyse the qualitative data extracted from the in-depth answers from the questionnaire (step one), the synthesis (step two) and the transcriptions from the workshop discussions (step three). Data were grouped according to whether they described (a) an emerging opportunity through which RAS could contribute to the achievement of the SDGs or (b) an emerging threat to take into consideration when designing RAS to avoid any negative impact on the achievement of the SDGs. We took a similar inductive approach to content analysis to extract the co-benefits and trade-offs from the workshop discussions (step three).We quantified how recognised each opportunity and threat was by calculating the percentage of participants mentioning that opportunity or threat in their indepth questionnaire answers. We report percentages as an indication of how salient the opportunity or threat was perceived, rather than as a measure of its scientific validity. We generated visualisations of all Likert scores with the \"Likert\" package 77 of R, version 4.0.2 78 .","tokenCount":"5361"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"74a5829e172771c7aa31b8e659bf2634","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c295bd76-a4bf-455b-b884-c2141794fb09/retrieve","id":"219849750"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7a2f03b2-a141-4f40-884d-a6a40e7cf4f0","pagecount":"4","content":"Little is known about small livestock production in the South Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). An assessment of livestock husbandry by a rapid diagnostic survey (MAASS ET AL. 2010) and a participatory rural appraisal (PRA; by ZOZO ET AL. 2010), revealed that more participants held non-ruminent (monogastric) animals than ruminants, such as chicken, swine and 'cobaye' 1 (Figure 1a). More than half of the interviewees had cobaye. This high rate of occurrence of cobaye, an animal domesticated in the South American Andes (CHAUCA DE ZALDÍVAR 1995), and known as a laboratory animal and pet around the world, was unexpected. Therefore, the importance of this species for the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the region was subsequently studied in more depth.Livestock production issues in the South Kivu province of DRC were assessed by employing a rapid diagnostic survey (RDS; in June 2009 and February 2010) according to FUJISAKA ET AL.  (2005), and a PRA (in March 2010). Details on methods are provided by MAASS ET AL. (2010)  and ZOZO ET AL. (2010). Overall, the diagnostic survey together with the PRA included almost 300 participants from eight so-called 'groupements' 2 , comprising 24 villages. These villages were located in the groupements of Bugorhe (Kavumu), Burhale, Kamanyola, Karhongo (Nyangezi), Miti (Mulungu), Mudaka, Mumosho and Tubimbi. The importance of cobaye for the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the region has been emphasized when analyzing the data gathered. A thorough literature review on cobaye as a domestic animal was also performed.Livestock abundance and herd sizes. Small animals like goats, chicken, swine and cobaye were found to be the basis of livestock production and more abundant than cattle (Figure 1a). About 70% of respondents of the RDS held goats and/or chicken and about 50% swine and/or cobaye. However, relatively few animals were held per livestock species in general (Figure 1b), assessing only a mean of 1.84 TLU (tropical livestock units) per respondent (MAASS ET AL. 2010). Herd numbers of cobaye by roughly one third each of respondent households was 1-4 animals, 5-10, and 11 to >20 (Figure 2); the largest herd of 35 cobayes was found in Burhale. Typical Cobayes in the region were tri-coloured, with straight coat hair of black and red-brown pigmentation with varying degrees of white spotting, similar to those described for Cameroon by NUWANYAKPA ET AL. (1997). When weighing 22 adult animals randomly, they were found relatively small with 457 ±88 and 521 ±59 g live weight of males and females, respectively (unpubl. data).  Husbandry. Usually, cobayes were kept in the kitchen and were fed on kitchen wastes and collected forages. The latter included grasses and some herbs from field and road sides, such as Galinsoga parviflora and Bidens pilosa (MAASS ET AL. 2010). These two herbs are considered weeds elsewhere and do not provide adequate nutrition quality for cobayes (BINDELLE ET AL.  2007). Cobayes are predominantly kept by children and women, both of which are responsible to collect their forage at road or field sides. Cobayes are also fed on banana leaves and stems, a feed of low digestibility (KATONGOLE ET AL. 2008). No mating control is applied and, probably, a high level of inbreeding exists under traditional husbandry that, highly likely, impedes their productivity potential (NGOU-NGOUPAYOU ET AL. 1995). Female cobayes are capable to produce 4-5 litters/yr with 1-4 young (CHAUCA DE ZALDÍVAR 1995) resulting in 8 and more young/year, provided that they are given adequate husbandry. However, no livestock production figures are available for the South Kivu region. Through breeding and improved management in Peru, 10.8 animals per year per female are produced under improved, as opposed to 5.5 under conventional management (CHAUCA DE ZALDÍVAR 1995).Together with chicken, cobayes were associated with poverty, regardless of the gender group when assessing wealth classes during the PRA in Miti-Mulungu and Tubimbi.Possessing cobayes was not a criterion of asset ownership in terms of animal wealth classification. However, the poorest people in both groupements would not have any animals at all (Table 1). MAASS ET AL. (2010) showed that the possession of cobayes was related to lower levels of education and lower numbers of other livestock. Typically, cobayes were used to supply meat to the family and pay school fees. A cobaye may fetch about 1-2 US$ in the market (ZOZO ET AL. 2010), while fees are about 2-3 US$/ month/child in primary and 5-10 US$ in secondary school. Cobayes have great potential to contribute to reducing food insecurity in developing countries (LAMMERS ET AL. 2009). Among the advantages for smallholders to raise cobaye are its rapid reproduction cycle, its lack of competition for human food and, in case of looting, its potential to either be hidden or recover its population fairly quickly. The latter advantage is well recognized under the insecurity due to wars and armed conflict prevalent for the past decades in the Kivu region. Cobayes have helped these rural people's livestock populations not to be fully diminished by pillage; they have served for some cash income; finally, they were most valuable for paying school fees (METRE 2005). When in numbers around 25, cobayes were said to be exchanged at the market for other animals, basically swine and chickens. Thus, cobayes can serve as the first rung for climbing the 'livestock ladder' (PERRY 2002) that may lead to larger livestock species such as goats and cattle.Issues raised. Respondents to the RDS and PRA raised a number of issues regarding cobaye husbandry, which were strongly related with the risk of losing animals due to predators (e.g., dogs) and theft. Animals also suffer from diseases, especially diarrhea, that was said it could occur any time of the year (Zozo et al. 2010). Also, much time is required to fetch dry season feeds for livestock. Respondents were less aware about other important issues like the frequent inbreeding of cobaye herds, in-appropriate housing, and lack of hygiene.Outlook. The actual contribution to food security of unconventional livestock species like cobayes has, probably, been greatly ignored (BINDELLE ET AL. 2007). This contribution should be properly documented. In addition, its potential for improving the livelihoods of smallholders in South Kivu and elsewhere in Africa ought to be explored, including the possibilities to reduce some burdens of animal husbandry for both children and women. Children may get more time for their school work and play, and women for other chores. Finally, there will be enough meat for regular consumption and, thus, improved diets resulting in better nutrition security.","tokenCount":"1074"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70af60aed70749680f900d0e0397c774","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/721c0cfe-32ee-4df3-aff9-54416409b5b4/retrieve","id":"2147197746"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f0696b17-646c-4d28-8054-f82dcac81d52","pagecount":"8","content":"Training of women service providers in RiceAdvice digital application 2 Training of men and women farmers in RiceAdvice digital application 3 Women service providers generating RiceAdvice recommendations. 4 RiceAdvice: a digital application for site-specific crop calendar construction, varieties, and fertilizer recommendations HighlightsRiceAdvice is a free Android application that provides farm-specific advice on rice management practices with smallholder farmers for improving rice yield and profit. Farmers, extension workers, private sector, and development agencies having smartphone or tablet with android device can use this app. To generate the guidelines, farmers need to answer questions regarding their rice-growing environment, crop management, current yield level, etc. This interview takes about 5 minutes. RiceAdvice can identify the best period for planting, appropriate varieties and the choice of fertilizers to be purchased, their amounts and application timing, based on nutrient requirement and fertilizer prices. Using the app, farmers can also select their own target yield level based on their budget. RiceAdvice does not require Internet connection to generate the guidelines, except for updating the app.Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a three years project (2021 -2023) funded by the World Bank to scale climate-smart agriculture and climate information services to reach millions of smallholder farmers in Africa. AICCRA has six country teams and regional initiatives that work with national and regional partners to transform climate services and scale climate-smart agriculture, increasing access to and use of CGIAR innovations for the benefit of millions of small-scale farmers in Africa. With better access to technology and advisory services-linked to information about effective response measures-farmers can better anticipate climate-related events to take preventative action that helps their communities safeguard livelihoods and the environment. AICCRA teams focus activities on four research priorities -sharing knowledge, building partnerships, scaling innovation and fostering gender and social inclusion.In Mali, AICCRA focuses on rice, and other crops and livestock such as vegetables, legumes, root, tubers and fish that are produced in the same environment with rice, and aims to enhance the resilience of 250,000 farmers though the adoption of CSA and CIS using business models. From the stakeholders prioritization, RiceAdvice was identified as one of the technologies with high ranking in terms of the potential to increase crop productivity, adaptation to climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This training was conducted to the young service providers of the Centers for Mechanized Agriculture to strengthen their capacity in RiceAdvice application for resilient rice-based systems.The objective of the training was to strengthen the capacity of the young service providers involved in the Centers for Mechanized Agriculture business model in the use of RiceAdvice digital application for site-specific crop calendar construction, varieties and fertilizer recommendations.Forty-three people were trained to utilize the RiceAdvice digital application to generate site-specific crop calendars, varieties, and fertilizer recommendations.The Center for Mechanized Agriculture and the Selingue Irrigated Scheme Development selected the participants. There were two female participants, 41 male participants, and 37 young participants among the participants. The training went well, and all participants understood how to use the RiceAdvice application to provide appropriate recommendations for farmers. In summary, the presentation made by Mr. Kokou Ahouanton showed that potential beneficiaries of RiceAdvice are rice farmers working in lowlands, and service providers who can provide RiceAdvice recommendations to farmers for a fee. To be able to use RiceAdvice, the trainees should have a minimum level of education in English or French. They must be able to read, write, understand and translate into local languages to be able to ask accurate questions to farmers and report back the recommendations.Forty-six participants from the Center for Mechanized Agriculture (CEMA) and Sasakawa Global 2000 were trained in the use of RiceAdvice digital application for site-specific crop calendar construction, varieties and fertilizer recommendations.The participants included 10 females and 36 males from Segou and other locations. Among these 46 participants, 42 were young (less than 40 years). The training went well, and all the participants understood well the applications of RiceAdvice and are able to interview farmers to generate accurate recommendations.Picture 1: Group photo on training in RiceAdvice in Segou in MaliAll the participants were very much satisfied with the training conducted and will provide recommendations to farmers members of the CEMA in RiceAdvice recommendations and applications.Kokou Ahouanton a , Samuel Guindo b , Elliott Ronald Dossou-Yovo a a Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Bouake, Côte d'Ivoire b Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture, Bamako, Mali","tokenCount":"728"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3656471895.json b/data/part_5/3656471895.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c1e2d0df5430094288a8e5924debaa47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042504.pdf","id":"-1046523453"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1f71b8b4-1173-434b-bb6f-af9403b83541","pagecount":"15","content":"With its total area of about 200,000 square kilometers (km 2 ), which is 20% of the country's land mass, and accommodating 25% of the population, the Upper Blue Nile Basin (Abbay) is one of the most important river basins in Ethiopia. About 40% of agricultural products and 45% of the surface water of the country are contributed by this basin. However, the characteristic-intensive biophysical variation, rapid population growth, land degradation, climatic fluctuation and resultant low agricultural productivity and poverty are posing daunting challenges to sustainability of agricultural production systems in the basin. This calls for technological interventions that not only enhance productivity and livelihoods in the basin, but also bring about positive spillover effects on downstream water users. In this study, the farming systems in the basin have been stratified and characterized; and promising agricultural water management technologies, which may upgrade the productivity of smallholder rainfed agriculture while improving downstream water quality, have been identified. As a consequence, supplementary and full irrigation using rainwater and drainage of waterlogged soils are recognized as being among the promising agricultural water management technologies that can be easily scaled-up in the basin. The magnitude of the impacts of these technologies on the productivity of the upstream farming systems and the concomitant effects on the downstream water flow and quality are under investigation, assuming an assortment of scenarios.Currently, Abbay is one of the least planned and managed sub-basins of the Nile. About two thirds of the area of this densely populated basin fall in the highlands and hence receive fairly high rainfall of 800 to 2,200 mm per year. However, the rainfall is erratic in terms of both spatial and temporal distribution, with dry spells that significantly reduce crop yields and sometimes lead to total crop failure. The impacts of droughts on the people and their livestock in the area can sometimes be catastrophic. The population located in the downstream part of the Blue Nile, is entirely dependent on the river water Impacts of Improving Water Management of Smallholder Agriculture in the Upper Blue Nile Basin CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings 8for supplementary irrigation. Canal and reservoir siltation is a major problem exacerbating socio-economic burdens on poor riparian farmers together with the seasonality of the river flow. Solutions lie in improving agricultural practices and conserving water at all levels by all stakeholders: both within Ethiopia and downstream communities. Particularly, there is a paramount need for integrated agricultural water management to overcome the effects of water shortage in small scale agriculture, alleviate poverty and food insecurity; and avert the negative impacts of climate change in this part of the basin through improving rainfed system. As a component of the water demand assessment, identification of appropriate agricultural water management interventions, analysis of impacts on productivity and poverty alleviation as well as hydrology need to be carried out. This study therefore focuses on various indigenous and research based agricultural water management technological interventions suitable for small holder farmers in the Abbay basin, and attempts to quantify their impacts on productivity of the small holders agricultural as well as the overall livelihood of the farming communities. Therefore the overall objectives are to:• Characterize the upper BNSB and establish ‗homogenous' units of agricultural production Systems ; • Identify agricultural water management technologies for upgrading the rainfed systems; • Evaluate the impact of selected agricultural water management technologies on agricultural productivity, water availability and hydrology; • Develop methodologies and decision support tools for improved agricultural water management in the basin.The Blue Nile basin covers an area of 311,548 km 2 (Hydrosult et al 2006b). It provides 62% of the flow reaching Aswan (World Bank, 2006). The river and its tributaries drain a large proportion of the central, western and south-western highlands of Ethiopia before dropping to the plains of Sudan. The confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile is at Khartoum. The basin is characterized by highly rugged topography and considerable variation of altitude ranging from about 350m at Khartoum to over 4250m a.m.s.l. (meter above sea level) in the Ethiopian highlands. The main stay of the economy in the upper part of the basin is rainfed small scale mixed agriculture. Although the total annual rainfall the area receives is relatively good, due to its unfavorable temporal and spatial distribution, agriculture is prone to moisture stress. Besides, the poor water and land management in the region exacerbates land degradation leading to low agricultural productivity and perpetuating poverty.Abbay river basin is one of the three sub-basins of the upper Blue Nile in Ethiopia (Fig. 1). Situated in the north-central and western parts of the country it forms a generally rectangular shape that extends for about 400 km from north to south and about 550 km from east to west. It is characterized by a high bio-physical variation, such as terrain (Fig. 2) and soil (Fig. 3). The intensively changing train which leads to varying agro-ecology within short distances does not only hamper agricultural development planning and mechanization, but also exacerbates the rate of land degradation. Corresponding to the variation in landscape and other soil forming factors such as climate and vegetation, the soils of the basin are also highly variable. However, only four soil types, Nitisols, Leptosols, Luvisols and Vertisols cover over 80% of the area. Apparently, these soils have various productivity limiting characteristics such as acidity, depth and permeability (Table 1). The basin covers a total area of 199,812 km 2 and has an average annual discharge of about 49.4 Billion Cubic Meter, measured at Sudan border (BCM). Extending over three regional states of Ethiopia including Amhara, Oromia and Benshangul Gumuz, it is the most important basin in the country by most criteria as it contributes about 45% of the countries surface water resources, accommodates 25% of the population, 20% of the landmass, 40% of the nations agricultural product and most of the hydropower and a significant portion of irrigation potential of the country (http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=3.1). Originating from the centre of its own catchments around Lake Tana in the north, it develops its course in a clockwise spiral, collecting its tributaries all along its nearly 1,000 km length from its source, to the south of Lake Tana up until the Ethio-Sudan border (MoWR Master Plan: Abbay, 1999). Dabus and Didessa rivers that spring in western Ethiopia are the largest tributaries accounting for about 10 % and 8.5% of the total flow at the border, respectively.  Although quite diverse land use systems are common, rainfed based agricultural land use dominates the basin. Over 80% of the populations in the basin drive their livelihood mainly from small scale rainfed agriculture. Because of hazardous land use and poor land and water management systems, high population pressure, land degradation, small land holding and highly variable climate, agricultural productivity in the basin is increasingly challenged. High population pressure, lack of alternative livelihood opportunities and slow pace of rural development are inducing deforestation, overgrazing, land degradation and declining agricultural productivity.Poor water and land management in the upstream part of the basin reduces both potential runoff yields and the quality of water flowing downstream. The result is a vicious cycle of poverty and food insecurity for over 14 million poverty-stricken people in the uplands, and for millions of downstream users. It is widely recognized that improved water management in the Abbay catchments is key to improving both upstream and downstream livelihoods. Better water and land management will help increase water availability and alleviate the impacts of natural catastrophes such as droughts and reduce conflicts among stakeholders dependent on the Nile. The farming system of the basin has been classified into homogenous units based on the Basin Master Plan Study (BCEOM, 1998). The approaches of Westphal (1974;1975) were adopted. Accordingly, the major farming systems of the basin were described, but additional subsystems have been identified based on the major types of crops grown, vegetation, altitudinal variation, and cultivation practices. Also, the soil types of the farming systems were identified based on the basin master plan soil data (Figure 1) and the farming system data (Figure 2) using ArcGIS. The productivity of the farming systems under the current management systems have been determined based on district level CSA reports (CSA, 2007). Potential agricultural water management technologies suitable for the areas within the basin were identified based on a survey report conducted earlier in the country (Makonnen et al., 2009).We used AquaCrop (FAO, 2009) and using SWAT to analyze the impacts of the technologies on water consumption, crop production, runoff, water balance and land degradation in the basin. Data on climatic parameters, crop characteristics, soils and land managements were collected from secondary information and were analyzed under various assumptions and scenarios.The determinant factors that compel farmers to decide for one farming system or another could be a matter of further investigation. Apparently, environmental factors such as soil and climate play a vital role, while socio-economic factors including access to market for inputs and outputs, and exposure to productive technologies are also essential.Broadly, the farming systems in the basin can be categorized into the mixed farming of the highlands and pastoral/agro-pastoralism of the lowlands. However, about nine distinct farming systems have been identified in the basin (Figure 4) although only four of them cover about 70% of the area (Figure 5). The cereal based crop cultivation, coffee and other tree crops complex together with enset and other root crops complex constitute the mixed farming system. Covering the largest portion of the area (over 90%), the cereal based crop cultivation can be further sub divided into the single cropping, double cropping and shifting cultivation sub systems, which cover about 60%, 10% and 20 % of the area. A smaller section of the area is under the double cropping cereal cultivation, which represents a system where two rainfed cropping seasons per annum is possible.Impacts of Improving Water Management of Smallholder Agriculture in the Upper Blue Nile Basin CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings 13While tef, maize and sorghum account for about 50% of the single cropping system, barley dominates the double cropping system. Shifting cultivation systems which are practiced in the western and southern lowlands of the basin are persistently diminishing. Covering the largest part of the basin (62%), these farming systems encompass the cultivation of the major cereals grown in the basin including, tef, maize, sorghum and barley. The main characteristic of these systems is the production of crops from seeds, only once a year during the main rainy season. The production system can focus on production of either small grains such as wheat and tef or large grains such as maize and sorghum.The production of small seeded cereals such as tef, barley and wheat dominates this system, but a large variety of other grains such as finger millet, maize, sorghum, pulses,  2). Among the major potentials of this farming system for agricultural development is the availability of Impacts of Improving Water Management of Smallholder Agriculture in the Upper Blue Nile Basin vast area of land suitable for mechanized farming (BCEOM, 1998). Besides, a substantial part of the irrigation potential of the country including small scale irrigation (Table 3) fall within this farming system. Consequently, developing small, medium and large-scale irrigation schemes with suitable crop and water management systems is believed to significantly enhance productivity of the system and improve the livelihood of the communities. In this regard, low cost agricultural water management technologies which can be constructed and managed by the local communities can play a vital role, at least in the short term.Dominated by the maize based system in the south western and sorghum based system in the north eastern parts of the basin (Fig. 2), the large grain cereal cultivation system covers about 20% of the basin. While maize and sorghum are the dominant crops, a large number of other crops like tef, wheat, barley, finger millet, pulses and oil crops are also widely grown. The maize areas have generally gentle to flat slopes as opposed to the sorghum areas which are characterized by rough, steep slopes and mountainous regions that are largely devoid of vegetation cover. Nitisols followed by leptosols dominate both the maize based and sorghum based systems, with a higher extent of leptosols in the latter. In contrast to the maize area, which receives ample and dependable rainfall, the sorghum areas get erratic and unreliable rainfall.Similar to that of the small grain farming systems, not many farmers use the right type and quantity of fertilizers and improved seeds. The use of manure is established in maize areas, but often restricted to backyard farms. Crop rotation in maize areas of the western part involves legumes, but in the sorghum areas, the rotation is among the cereals. Land degradation and unreliability and shortage of rainfall are serious threats of the sorghum part (BCEOM, 1998). Thus, improving the rainfed agriculture through provision of efficient extension services and inputs, and implementation of suitable agricultural water management technologies, is believed to significantly enhance the level of production and productivity. A bimodal rainfall with the small rain resuming in January or February and extending to end of May; and the main rain starting in mid July and extending to mid September characterize the farming system. Although crops can be produced twice a year using the small and the main rains, both are not reliable due to climatic and edaphic factors. The onset and secession of the rainfall is highly variable that planning of agricultural activities is difficult. Besides, shallow soils (Letptosols) with limited water storage capacity cover over 70% of the area (Table 2). On the other hand, Vertisols, which have impeded drainage, are the second largest soil type covering over 10% of the area. Barley, wheat, tef and some pulses are widely grown in the farming system. The use of fertilizers and improved seeds is minimal, may be due to the unreliable rainfall, the subsistence nature of the farmers and highly degraded soils.Despite the limitations, productivity can be enhanced with proper use of improved technologies. For example, moisture conservation measures and use of short duration crop varieties can improve the productivity of the crops during two rains on the letptosoil areas. On the other hand, enhanced drainage and harvesting of the excess water for supplementary or full irrigation, together with complementary technologies can significantly boost the productivity of the Vertisols.Understandably, the livelihood strategy of the farmers in the basin is focused on production of food grains such as cereals, pulses and oilseeds, primarily for household consumption (CSA, 2005). Unfortunately, the productivity of the farming systems regardless of the crop types is miserably low (Table 3) (CSA, 2007). Evidently, the large grain crops gave the highest average yield across the farming system which is comparable to the national average, although that of Sorghum is slightly depressed. The overall grain productivity of the farming systems in the basin is less than 1ton per hectare. As the average land holding in the basin is less than 1 hectare per house hold, with the average household size of about seven, the level of crop productivity depicts the abject poverty in which the communities are entangled. The poor and declining performance of agriculture can be attributed to many interrelated factors including high population pressure, soil erosion and land degradation, unreliable rainfall, low water storage capacity of the soils and the catchments, crop pests and diseases, soil acidity, water logging, shortage of farm land, lack of improved technologies such as: improved varieties, soil fertility management (fertilizers, liming), water management (irrigation and drainage), soil and water conservation as well as farmers traditions. This calls for a comprehensive external intervention in terms of policy, institutions as well as technologies. The following session briefly deals with some priority technological interventions necessary to overcome the daunting challenges of productivity and sustainability prevailing in the basin.In order to overcome the constraints and ensure enhanced and sustained crop production in the basin, integrated technological interventions is necessary. A range of technologies including improved crop verities and species, appropriate land use, improved land and water management practices etc. should be used in integration to benefit from their synergetic effects. The use of suitable agricultural water management technologies such as, water harvesting, supplementary and full irrigation using different water sources, drainage of water logged soils, which can also be supplemented with harvesting of the excess water to be used as supplementary or full irrigation may increase and stabilize the productivity of the rainfed agriculture with a possibility of growing during the dry seasons, which increases the land use intensity. Although a multitude of technologies can be considered, the most suitable and sustainable ones are those that can be constructed and managed by the local community with minor technical support. Identification of such technologies could be achieved through the involvement of the stakeholders including the farmers in the selection of site specific technologies. In line with this, some suitable agricultural water management technologies have been identified for scaling up in the basin and its environs through participation of the farming communities and other stakeholders (Table 4).Traditional small scale irrigation from spring, river and other water sources has been practiced in Ethiopia since generations, but only by few farmers. Although a significant yield increase and productivity stability could be ensured without much investment and with less technical support. However, the widespread application was not sufficiently encouraged until recently. According to the Abbay basin master plan study document, a large area of land (over 41, 000 ha) can be developed by small scale irrigation using different sources of water ranging from rainwater harvesting to river diversions in the four major farming systems. On the other hand, a much larger area of land covered with vertisols (over 46000 km 2 ) (Table 5) can be developed by draining the excess water during the rainy season, and harvesting the drained water, which can be used for supplementary or full irrigation.Rainwater water harvesting is when the precipitation is collected from a small/large surface area (catchments) and directed through channels to a storage facility or to a nearby field or retained at the site itself (in-situ). The rainwater harvesting techniques most commonly practiced in Ethiopia are run-off irrigation (run-off farming), flood spreading (spate irrigation), in-situ water harvesting (ridges, micro basins, etc.) and roof water harvesting (Getachew Alem, 1999), and more recently are ponds. The harvested water can be used for irrigation of crops, pastures and trees, and for livestock consumption. Among the goals of rainwater harvesting are increasing productivity of rainfed agriculture, minimizing the risk of crop failure in drought prone areas, combating desertification by tree planting, and supplying drinking water for human and animals (Finkel and Finkel 1986). In order to ensure sustainability by avoiding siltation, watershed management with reforestation and other erosion control measures are necessary. Improved watershed management encourages recharging of the groundwater which may enhance the possibility of shallow well exploitation. Because of their higher quality and availability during the dry season due to reduced evaporation loss, shallow wells can be used for prolonged period of time for crops, livestock and domestic consumption. A significant area of land in the basin is covered by the vertisols, which are characterized by very slow internal drainage with infiltration rates between 2.5 and 6.0 cm day -1 due to high clay content (Teklu et al., 2004), which leads to water logging, as a result of which early planting is not possible. Traditionally, many Vertisol crops are planted towards the end of the rainy season after the water is lost mainly to evaporation, to grow on residual moisture (Abate Tedla et al, 1988), which does not only significantly reduce the length of effective growing period, but also water productivity as much of the water is lost due to evaporation. However, several studies have shown that surface drainage allows early sowing enabling the full utilization of the potentially available growing period. Besides, the early-established surface cover may reduce soil erosion (El-Swaify et al. 1985;Abate Tedla et al, 1988;Astatke, A. and Kelemu, F. 1993;Teklu et al., 2004;Teklu et al. 2006) leading to ecological sustainability. Among the various alternatives, surface drainage technology, known as broad bed and furrow (BBF) constructed by broad bed maker (BBM) which was developed at ICRISAT in India (El-Swaify et al. 1985) and was later modified to fit to the smallholder system in Ethiopia (Astatke, A. and Kelemu, F. 1993) has been popularized in the major Vertisol areas of the country. The advantage of this technology can be amplified by harvesting the excess water, which can be used later on as supplementary or full irrigation of the subsequent crops, allowing multiple cropping per year on a piece of land leading to a better land use intensity.  The envisaged impacts of the selected agricultural water management technologies to be implemented in the upper part of the Blue Nile sub basin could be economical and environmental. The impacts are expected be revealed both in the upstream and downstream parts (Table 6). The technologies can potentially allow double or triple cropping in the upstream part of the basin, contributing to the food security and poverty reduction effort of the communities. Besides, the integrated watershed management interventions coupled with the technologies is believed to result in increased infiltration, reduced runoff, improved ecosystem functioning and a better human health and habitation. The concomitant effect on the downstream part could be flow regulation, with reduced peak flow and increased base flow; reduced sedimentation and a better water quality due to soil conservation at the upstream part; and increased surface runoff caused by surface drainage of the Vertisols since the water that was otherwise would have been lost as evaporation would contribute the surface flow. ","tokenCount":"3597"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"180b22fa76aecb81455573079be4c95e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a94db968-5612-445b-9fd7-53a8fc7903de/retrieve","id":"-1908310853"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"528ee2aa-90e5-4a47-8d3c-16cb764cd8b5","pagecount":"19","content":"Les défis à la sécurisation des pâturages et une bonne gestion R4D on land governance and land use planning in Ethiopia• Document de référence pour le développement de la politique nationale d'aménagement du territoire.• Référence de l'entreprise dans les zones pastorales (x 4 -6500 HHs) -avec l'Égypte -riche source de données.• Travaillant avec l'IRG sur l'examen de la PRM (utilisation de l'imagerie satellitaire, plus de recherche au niveau local).• Renforcement de la mise à l'échelle PRM e.g WB-RPLRP• Des études sur les femmes et les terres pastorales (dans le cadre d'un cross-GCRAI) projet phare de gouvernance foncière.• Une approche différente de la recherche est requise• L'ensemble des centres CGIAR sous pression de montrer plus R4D et d'impact.\"• La réduction des sources de financement et un changement d'orientation.• Cette approche cadre avec le travaille l'ILRI sur la crise dans la gouvernance foncière des zones pastorales.• En collaborant avec des acteurs différents, la recherche peut influencer directement et contribuer à des changements positifs.• Fourniture d'appui technique Le travail avec ces partenaires est un bon point d'entrée.• Pas sans défis.• Toujours à la recherche de nouveaux partenariats.Ce travail est financé par le FIDA, UE, l'USAID, la FAO, l'ILC, WRI, il contribue à la recherche sur l' ÉLEVAGE DU CGIAR Programme Systèmes agroalimentaires et des politiques, institutions et marchés (PIM) ; ainsi que des projets bilatéraux.","tokenCount":"222"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43706438419e8fabfb72fb00e912d2a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8b4e658f-5253-4854-807a-c2117b3775a7/retrieve","id":"-1583224385"},"keywords":["Climate risk","Climate variability","Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies","El Nino Southern Oscillation","Indian Ocean Dipole","Seasonal climate forecast"],"sieverID":"3f6291be-7152-43f1-94a5-0a6cbefdb0e5","pagecount":"46","content":"Analysis of rainfall variability and trends for better climate risk management in the major agro ecological zones in Tanzania. CCAFS Working Paper no. 363. Wageningen, the Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) About CCAFS Working Papers Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture, and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. About CCAFS The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors.The dynamics of the Earth's physical climate system, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, and land surface, are drivers of the Spatio-temporal variability of the global climate. Global atmospheric and oceanic circulations are among the factors that contribute to fluctuations in weather variables such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, and rainfall. For example, MacLeod, et al. (2019) used the atmospheric relaxation technique in coupled seasonal climate hindcast experiments to study seasonal rainfall variability in East Africa. They found the northwest IndianOcean lower troposphere to be among the key drivers of inter-annual variability of March and April rainfall in East Africa. Endris et al. (2018) found the projected changes in the intensity and frequency of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) will significantly impact both the amount and distribution of seasonal rainfall in East Africa.Increased variability in the hydrological cycles and extreme events in many parts of the globe are vivid examples of global climate change and climate variability (Merabtene et al., 2016). At a country level, a proper understanding of such kind of variability is crucial for better climate risk management in various sectors such as agriculture, transport, and energy. Similar to other sectors, climate risk management in agriculture is impossible without adequate knowledge of climatic conditionsacquired through critical analyses of variability and trends in the historical climatic conditions-, regional and global climatic drivers, as well as major agricultural activities at the particular location of interest. This is among the reason why the provision of climate information services is crucial in agricultural risk management.Evidence from previous studies (Dayamba et al., 2018;Meybeck et al., 2012;Mittal & Hariharan, 2018;van Huysen et al., 2018) highlights the importance of climate information services in agricultural risk management to minimize the impacts of climate variability, improve the sustainability of agricultural systems, and productivity of agricultural activities.In Tanzania, several studies have been conducted to analyze the variability and trends in rainfall and temperature patterns over the country. Insights from recent studies show increasing trends in maximum and minimum temperature and insignificant trends in annual and seasonal rainfall. Moreover, the evidence of high intra-seasonal and inter-seasonal variability in rainfall, increase in extreme weather events such as drought and flood were presented in those studies (Borhara et al., 2020;Gebrechorkos et al., 2018Gebrechorkos et al., , 2020;;Nicholson, 2017;Nyembo et al., 2020). The aforementioned anomalies were associated with reduced livestock production;higher livestock morbidity and mortality; crop damage due to heavy rainfall, flooding, and waterlogging; increased pest and disease which all increase agricultural production risk in Tanzania (Kangalawe et al., 2016;Lugendo et al., 2017;Mkonda & He, 2018).Existing studies are limited to climate change and variability analyses rather than providing detailed analyses on the magnitude of the risks associated with such variabilities and the possible ways to minimize such risks. The present study used historical rainfall records from major agro-ecological zones in Tanzania to provide comprehensive analyses, oriented to crop production requirements, to quantify the production risks, and identify ways in which the risks can be minimized. A practical example of climate risk reduction is provided using the seasonal climate forecast. We investigated the level to which sea surface temperature anomalies in Indian and Pacific Oceans can explain the variability in seasonal rainfall. Moreover, we suggested further areas to explore which can be integrated into agricultural activities by small-holder farmers in Tanzania to minimize production risks associated with climate change and climate variability.The present study selected 9 locations distributed across major agro-ecological zones in Tanzania located between latitude 1 o to 12 o S and longitude 21 o to 41 o E (Figure 1). The elevation of the study locations ranges from 120m (Naliendele) to 2249m  Statistical analyses were conducted to understand the distribution and variability of annual, seasonal, and monthly rainfall in the study locations. We used average to characterize temporal variability and coefficient of variation (CV) to measure the amount of dispersion in the annual and seasonal rainfall amounts. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences in means of various groups of seasonal rainfall, and rainfall predictors such as sea surface temperature anomalies. Trends in seasonal and annual rainfall were computed using the Mann-Kendall test. The Mann-Kendall test is a non-parametric test that determines whether a monotonic time series data has an increasing or decreasing trend. It does not require a series to be normally distributed or linear. It tests the hypotheses (i)Null hypothesis: there is no trend in the time series (ii) Alternative hypothesis: there is either a decreasing or increasing trend in the time series (Gocic & Trajkovic, 2013).The Mann-Kendall test has been proven for its suitability to detect increasing and decreasing trends in climate and environmental data (Alemu & Dioha, 2020). The same test was also used to determine trends in the number of rainy days-a rainy day defined as a day that receives at least 1 mm rain-(WMO, 2010).The seasons were classified to below-normal, and above-normal according to the amount of rainfall they received relative to maize and sorghum crop water requirement (CWR). Maize and sorghum water requirements for the locations in the current study were calculated using a novel empirical method proposed by FAO (Crop water needs, n.d.). We found an average of 450 and 350 mm to be the minimum water requirement for maize and sorghum respectively in the study locations. We used the computed values as thresholds to get two definitions of above-normal and below-normal season i.e. a value greater than the calculated CWR was classified as above-normal and less than the calculated CWR was classified as below-normal.Variations in seasonal rainfall intensity and frequency are largely associated with sea surface temperature patterns around the globe. The impact of sea surface temperature anomalies on the atmosphere persists throughout the season due to their slow evolution. This makes the SSTa a good predictor of seasonal rainfall variabilities. Various statistical methods such as linear regression, canonical correlation analysis, and principal component analysis are used to predict seasonal rainfall variability (Parker and Diop-Kane, 2017). The current study used SSTa as predictors in the following multiple regression equation to estimate the amount of rainfall in the MAM, OND, and DJFMA seasons:Whereby \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC39 = Seasonal rainfall of a particular season i.e MAM, OND, or DJFMA \uD835\uDEFD = Regression coefficients \uD835\uDC4B = SSTa of a particular month (January to November)The month \uD835\uDC4B $ is the value of SSTa a month before the start of the season for instance for MAM, OND, and DJFMA seasons \uD835\uDC4B $ were the SSTa in January, August, and October respectively. We computed the differences between SSTa in the 90°E-100°E, 28°S-18°S and 90°E-110°E, 10°S-0°S regions and used the values in the linear regression model to predict seasonal rainfall variabilities. The choice of the aforementioned regions is due to the observed correlation between SSTa over the regions and coupled convectively equatorial waves such as Equatorial Rossby wave, Kelvin wave, and Mixed Rossby-gravity wave (Keshav and Landu, 2020; Subudhi and Landu, 2019) which all influence the variability in seasonal rainfall, especially in a local scale.The predicted rainfall amounts were then compared with the observed rainfall to determine the level to which the model characterizes the seasonal rainfall i.e. the accuracy of the predicted rainfall to capture the above-normal and below-normal seasons. The performance is presented in the results section.To understand the predictability of seasonal rainfall amounts and assess the potential role they can play in managing climate risks, we examined the reliability of the seasonal forecasts issued by TMA and ICPAC as well as the predicted seasonal rainfall using the SSTa of the above described Indian Ocean region in the linear regression model. The observed rainfall amounts were classified as below-normal (BN) and above-normal (AN) as described in the previous section. A hit was defined as an AN or BN forecast which matched the observed rainfall group (AN or BN)among the forecasts which were AN or BN respectively. Otherwise, a forecast was termed as a miss. We computed the number of hits and misses forecasts and calculated the accuracy (hit rate) of the forecast using the following equation:Based on the accuracy of the forecast calculated using the above equation, the skills of the seasonal rainfall forecasts were evaluated.The average annual and seasonal rainfall amounts show significant variation among the locations (Table 1). The western highlands, and western agro-ecological zones represented by Igeri, and Tumbi respectively received the highest amount of annual rainfall-above 1500 mm-followed by the coastal areas (both north and south coastal zones) represented by Mlingano, Tanga, and Naliendele which received over 1100 mm per year. In the lake zone and the central part of the country, the average annual rainfall was less than 1100 mm. The variability in annual rainfall was highest in Hombolo, Ilonga, and Tanga locations-both CV > 25%-, and lowest in Igeri (CV = 16%). Other locations have CV values ranging from 17% to 23%. The number of rainy days was at least 100 annually in Igeri, Mlingano, Tanga, and Ukiliguru (Table 1).However, the variability in the number of rainy days was very high in Mlingano (CV = 50%) and Ukiliguru (CV=36%) and a bit lower (CV < 20%) in Igeri and Tanga.  2). The central zone locations showed the highest variability (CV >25% (Table 1) as compared to other locations with a similar rainfall regime in the study areas.Igeri had the highest number of rainy days (110) on average compared to other locations. Except in Dodoma and Hombolo, other locations had at least 50 rainy days per season. Variability in the number of rainy days was higher in Hombolo (CV = 48%) compared to other locations (Table 1).  The long-term trends in the annual and seasonal rainfall were examined using the Mann-Kendall statistical test. We found insignificant increasing and decreasing trends in annual rainfall amount in all locations. However, increasing and decreasing trends in the number of rainy days in Ukiliguru and Tanga respectively, and a decreasing trend in the amount of rainfall in the MAM season in Mlingano were found to be significant (Table 2). The average monthly rainfall and number of rainy days per month showed both spatial and temporal variation. In the central, south-western highland, and the south-coast agro-ecologies, the wettest months were December, March, and April except for Dodoma and Hombolo for which January was the wettest month in the year (Figure C1 (a -f) in Appendices). The highest monthly rainfall of 575 mm was recorded in Igeri in March and the minimum monthly rainfall was observed in Dodoma (50 mm) in April. The variation in the amount of rainfall and the number of rainy days during the non-growing period months was very high with a CV>100% in all locations. During the growing season, December (CV≥42%) and April (CV≥37%)showed higher variation compared to January, February, and March. The central zone and the south-coast zone locations showed higher variability in both rainfall and number of rainy days (CV > 37%) as compared to the south-western highland and the western zone locations (Figure C1 (a -f) in the Appendices).   We examined the reliability of seasonal rainfall forecasts provided by TMA (local seasonal forecast) and ICPAC (regional seasonal forecast). ICPAC seasonal forecast is a consensus forecast that is negotiated by participating national meteorological agencies and is presented as a coarse-scale map showing the probability as \"belownormal,\" \"normal\" or \"above-normal\" categories. The TMA forecast is a downscaled version of the same. The predictions from the two forecast sources i.e. TMA and ICPAC matched in some years and mismatched in the others. Figures A1 and A2 The seasons were classified as below-normal or above-normal by using two threshold values that are based on crop water requirements as described in the methodology section. The two thresholds were used for performance comparison and to establish the usefulness of the forecast skills in selecting crops with different water requirements as a way to minimize the risks of exposure to uncertainties created by climate variability. Table 3 provides the details of the performance of the two sources of forecast used in the present study.An unpaired t-test revealed a statistically insignificant difference (t(10) =0.4622, p= 0.6538) in the prediction of AN seasons between TMA and ICPAC forecasts. However, there are differences in the forecast reliability across the seasons and the locations. ICPAC had higher accuracy in predicting the MAM above-normal seasons in Tanga while TMA predicted with higher accuracy the MAM above-normal seasons in Mlingano (Table 3). The performance of TMA and ICPAC in Ukiliguru for the MAM season slightly differed. In the OND seasons, ICPAC predicted with higher accuracy the BN seasons in all locations as compared to TMA. The accuracy has not improved when the threshold was reduced to 350 mm. The warm and cold phases of the IOD and NINO3.4 regions were added to make an additional criterion to predict a seasonal type i.e. AN/BN seasons. In both regions i.e. TMA and ICPAC seasonal forecasts, however, the prediction of BN seasons in both forecasts insignificantly changed (Table 4).  However, we could not compare the forecast skills with ICPAC seasonal forecasts as in the previous section due to the unavailability of data-ICPAC issues their seasonal forecasts in MAM, JJAS, and OND seasons only. Moreover, Igeri and Tumbi were excluded from the analysis because their minimum seasonal rainfall was above the thresholds used in the present study. Table 6 shows the details of the performance.The DJFMA forecast showed very low accuracy except in Naliendeli in which the prediction skills of the AN seasons were good. The change of the threshold from 450 mm to 350 mm improved the prediction of the AN seasons in Hombolo, Ilonga, and Naliendeli and insignificantly affected the prediction accuracy of BN seasons in all locations (Table 6). The forecast skills of the BN seasons were increased during the SSTa warm and cold phases of the IOD and NINO3.4 regions when 450 mm was used as a threshold while the same decreased when the threshold was changed to 350 mm. The AN prediction skills during the warm and cold phases of SSTa increased in 350 mm threshold and slightly increased in 450 mm threshold (Table 7).  Using the SSTa in the 90°E-100°E, 28°S-18°S, and 90°E-110°E, 10°S-0°S regions as predictors of the MAM, OND, and DJFMA rainfall we created a linear regression model to predict seasonal rainfall in the study area. The details of the model are described in the methodology section. The accuracy of the model in different locations is presented below using the R 2 values in Figure 6. The model had higher accuracy in all seasons in the central zone i.e. Dodoma, Hombolo, and Ilonga, and the lowest accuracy(less than 40%) was observed in Mlingano in MAM and OND. Other locations showed fair good accuracy (> 40%) in their growing period.  8 represents the performance of the regression model in predicting the MAM and OND rainfall. On average the accuracy of predicting the AN seasons is 76% and 84% when the first and the second thresholds were used respectively. Similarly, the model predicted the BN seasons with accuracies of 75% and 63% when the first and the second thresholds were used respectively.In the MAM season, the accuracy was at least 70% in both AN and BN seasons (7 out of 10 predicted seasons were correct) except in Mlingano in which the accuracy of predicting the BN seasons was 63%. Moreover, the model predicted the belownormal OND seasons with fairly good accuracy(67%) in Mlingano and the abovenormal MAM seasons in Tanga (60%). Changing the threshold from 450 mm to 350 mm slightly improved the accuracy in AN seasons but decreased the accuracy in BN seasons prediction(Table 8). The overall performance of the model in predicting the DJFMA rainfall is good in both AN and BN seasons. The average accuracy in predicting the AN seasons is 72% and 79% when the first and the second threshold values were used respectively whereas the BN seasons were predicted with an average accuracy of 79% and 85%when the first and the second threshold values were used respectively. Therefore, in 7 out of 10 years the model predicted accurately the AN seasons while in 8 out of 10 years the model predicted accurately the BN seasons.The model performed poorly in predicting AN and BN seasons (less than 70% accuracy) in Dodoma and Naliendele respectively as compared to other locations. On average the regression model created in this study to predict seasonal rainfall using the SSTa in the Indian Ocean as predictors performed well in both AN and BN predictions compared to TMA and ICPAC forecasts especially in the DJFMA season (Figure 7). The probability of detecting the AN and BN seasons by the model was at least 70% and 50% respectively while TMA and ICPAC had lower probabilities (< 50%) in some locations (Figure 7). Moreover, using the SSTa as predictors enabled the model to cover a bigger number of years than the TMA and ICPAC seasonal forecast which had a lot of missing years.  Analysis of trends and variability in annual, seasonal, and monthly rainfall in the study locations revealed significant Spatio-temporal variation of Tanzania rainfall patterns in both amount and frequency (Borhara et al., 2020). The difference between the amount and frequency of rainfall in dry and wet areas is large. For example, the northeast locations i.e. Tanga and Mlingano received about 1000 mm higher than the central zone locations i.e. Dodoma, Hombolo, and Ilonga annually.Likewise, the number of rainy days at Tanga and Mlingano were at least 20 days more than in central zones locations (Table 1). Such differences in rainfall distribution among the locations are associated with distance from water bodies, topographical differences, and other factors such as vegetation which influence the magnitude of coast influence and other atmospheric circulation effects (Borhara et al., 2020). Similar to annual rainfall, seasonal rainfall has also shown high variation among the locations and between the seasons at the same location. The short rain season (OND) received lower rainfall and showed higher variation with CVs ranging from 34% to 61% compared to the long rain season(MAM) during which the CV ranged between 26% and 36%. In the unimodal rainfall regions, the CV of seasonal rainfall (DJFMA) varied from 20% to 31% which is lower as compared to that observed in the bimodal rainfall regions. In general, variability has increased with decreasing seasonal rainfall.The probability of receiving 450 mm or higher amount of rainfall as required for growing water-sensitive crops such as maize has also shown high variability from one location to another depending on the rainfall regime of the location. For example, in the DJFMA season, Dodoma had the lowest probability (40%) of receiving at least 450 mm of rain per season as compared to other locations with similar rainfall regimes (Figure 2). Moreover, there is a relatively higher probability (20-40%) of getting less than 100 mm rain per month during the five-month crop growing period from December to April in Dodoma and Hombolo as compared to other locations with similar rainfall regimes (Figure 4). Locations with a bimodal rainfall regime also showed variation in the amount of rainfall received per season and monthly during the growing period. The MAM season was wetter compared to the OND season.Tanga and Mlingano had an 80% probability of receiving at least 350 mm in the MAM season whereas the probability significantly decreased in the OND season for the same locations and in both MAM and OND seasons in Ukiliguru. This kind of variation in the environment leads to production uncertainties and constrains agricultural production under rainfed conditions (Leweri et al., 2021;Silungwe et al., 2019).Hence, adaptation to variable climatic conditions is an important first step in making rainfed agriculture more productive and profitable. Adaptation measures are required both in pre-season planning and in tactical management during the season to minimize risks, optimize crop productivity and improve the sustainably of resource base in these areas. The analysis has indicated that the risk of growing crops with water requirements having greater than 450 mm is very high at Dodoma, Hombolo, Ilonga, and Naliendele compared to Igeri and Tumbi among the locations having unimodal rainfall regimes and at all locations during both MAM and OND seasons in the environment characterized by bimodal rainfall regimes.Climate risk reduction using seasonal climate forecast.Several studies have indicated that a significant reduction in the risk of exposure to climate uncertainties can be achieved with the integration of seasonal climate forecast (SCF) information in farm-level decision-making (Hansen et al., 2011). SCF, though less reliable than the short and medium-range weather forecasts, are reported to have sufficient skill to indicate the probability of getting or not getting average rainfall during the forthcoming season. This is an important piece of information with the potential to help in planning pre-season farm operations such as selection of crops to be grown, allocation of land to various crops, and the estimation of the potential level of crop performance or profitability based on the amount of rainfall that is required to meet the minimum water requirement of various crops in a season (Meybeck et al., 2012).We evaluated the skills of the regional and local SCF issued by ICPAC and TMA respectively in different rainfall seasons for their potential usefulness to serve as a basis in pre-season planning activities. In addition, a linear regression model to predict seasonal rainfall in the study area using sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTa) over the Indian Ocean as predictors was also developed and evaluated for its potential application in planning operations. Our analysis has shown higher forecast skills in SCF issued by TMA than those issued by ICPAC but there are differences between the locations and seasons. For example, in the MAM season, TMA prediction's accuracy of AN and BN seasons is higher(Table 6) in Ukiliguru and Mlingano as compared to that by ICPAC. However, ICPAC seasonal forecast had better skills than TMA in predicting the BN seasons in Tanga. In the OND season, the BN seasons were predicted more accurately as compared to AN seasons by both ICPAC and TMA. The SSTa predictors in the created linear regression model showed higher accuracy-in most locations the accuracy was found to be ≥70%-in characterizing the AN and BN seasons (Table 9 and 10). This brings the reliability of SCF to the level that farmers expect them to be. In general, farmers expect the SCFs to have 80% or higher reliability for use in farm-level decision-making (Rao et al., 2011). The overall performance of the regression model is higher compared to ICPAC and TMA forecasts because the SSTa predictors cover a large number of seasons compared to ICPAC and TMA. Moreover, the SSTa have proved to be more reliable predictors of seasonal rainfall variabilities due to their slow evolution and persistence for longer periods and because of their high predictability with greater accuracy (Parker & Diop-Kane, 2017).In rain-fed systems farmers make climate-sensitive decisions such as selection of crops and varieties, planting dates, planting density, and input use to adopt during the growing period. In the absence of reliable information about the forthcoming season, such decisions are mainly driven by farmers' expectations or perceptions of how the season is going to be (Guido et al., 2020;Nyasimi et al., 2017), the fact that makes seasonal climate forecast with the good skill to be critical input in planning farm operations. The uncertainties or lower skill in seasonal climate forecast provided by various institutions leads to a lack of trust in the information provided and makes farmers rely on the indigenous knowledge-whose skill and usefulness in planning and managing farm activities are unknown (Tsounis & Vlachvei, 2018).Under these conditions, assessing the potentials and limitations of seasonal climate forecasts is extremely important. Past studies on evaluating the SCF were focused on either ex-ante assessment of potential benefits (Thornton, 2006) or ex-post impact assessment (Msangi et al., 2006) to establish the potential role SCF play in improving the management of agricultural systems. Here, we used a different approach to evaluate the SCF. The method is based on the end-user requirements for making decisions. Farmers are more interested to know to what extent they can base their decisions on SCF. The present study revealed the level to which the seasonal climate forecasts can be reliable. In general, the skills of available forecasts from ICPAC and TMA are falling short of the end-user requirement. The end-user expects a positive outcome from forecast-based decisions 80% of the time or four out of five times.This condition was met only with a certain type of season and in some locations.However, the study revealed that there are opportunities to improve the forecast skill by taking into consideration the SSTa conditions in IOD and NINO3.4 regions.Such improvement in the skill presents an opportunity for better integration of the SCF in agricultural decision-making and better management of climate risks. Further improvement of the SCF in their reliability and enhancement of communication of climate information to smallholder farmers will help the farmers make informed decisions and use the available resources more efficiently. We have also revealed the usefulness of simple techniques of seasonal forecasts such as linear regression in predicting the seasonal climate variabilities in a month lead time. The insights emerging from this analysis will inform efforts to promote the use of probabilistic climate information with the right level of confidence and caution.Our study establishes that the complex dynamics of rainfall patterns in Tanzania are difficult to predict at a seasonal scale with high levels of reliability that meet the expectations of farmers and other end users. However, it is possible to improve the reliability of the seasonal climate forecasts by taking into consideration the SSTa and other phenomena and also by using better downscaling techniques. Integration of SCF with SSTa has increased the reliability of SCF to 80% at many locations which is also the level of reliability that farmers expect. Therefore, further improvement of the forecast skills, meaningful communication of climate information to smallholder farmers, and skillful integration of seasonal climate forecast with farm-level decision making could be among the effective strategies for climate risk management in Tanzania. ","tokenCount":"4447"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"97ef71293020d437730b139adf5f4dbe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28b13a98-af46-4e5b-bb75-85f018245f5e/retrieve","id":"-1562164941"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3bd2da5e-7ddd-4173-afd1-9fd9a2fcfa16","pagecount":"35","content":"Formal 'published' products with academic status Messages sent to 'target audiences' Often one-way 'Push delivery' systems Individuals as consumers Science communication 'un-usual'? 1. Co-create and co-learn in multi-stakeholder platforms 2. Open up to knowledge from the (un)usual people 3. Communicate using the (un)usual channels 4. Make knowledge, events, processes and platforms participatory and open 5. Be 'social'Participatory research (research 'in' development)• Engages people who may otherwise be subjects of research or recipients of interventions as coresearchers • Places the capacity for generating and using knowledge in the hands of people who are trying to improve their own lives.Participatory communication  better lives through livestock ilri.org ILRI thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system","tokenCount":"122"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5144e473cd1c031baa745c5ce8911462","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b97c2a5d-a84a-410b-bd62-3bf0b799cbf8/content","id":"437706030"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc84fcfd-b6ae-4a45-9d85-0cf197ea0f56","pagecount":"13","content":"This study uses a spatial bio-economic modelling framework to estimate the impact of the 2012 weather extreme in the USA on food security in the developing world. The study also quantifies the potential effects of a similar weather extreme occurring in 2050 under climate change. The study results indicate that weather extremes that affect maize productivity in key grain baskets can negatively affect food security in vulnerable countries. The 2012 weather extreme which occurred in the USA reduced US and global maize production by 29% compared to trend; maize consumption in the country decreased by 5% only and this resulted in less surplus maize for exports from the largest maize exporter in the world. Global maize production decreased by 6% compared to trend. The decrease in global maize production coupled with a reduction in the volume of global maize exports worsened food insecurity in eastern Africa, the Caribbean and Central America and India. The effects of the weather extreme on global food security would be worse, if the latter were to occur under climate change in 2050, assuming no climate change adaptation worldwide over the years. In addition, the hardest-hit regions would remain the same, whether the weather extreme occurs in 2012 instead of 2050: Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), South Asia and the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. However, sustained growth in per capita income across world economies between 2000 and 2050 would allow few countries in SSA and the LAC region to virtually eliminate hunger within their borders. In these countries, per capita income would be high enough by 2050 to completely offset the negative effect of the weather extreme. The study results are also consistent with USDA's estimates on US and global maize production and consumption in 2012 after the weather extreme. Some discrepancy is found on the volume of global maize trade; this implies that the bio-economic model likely overestimates the effect of the weather extreme on food insecurity. However, the trends from the analysis are likely to be valid. Further research would involve using a CGE model that can capture the net effects of weather extremes.The world food system is more vulnerable to weather extremes for various reasons, the key one being that crop yield changes have not been keeping up with rising food demand worldwide (Ortiz et al., 2008;Boyer et al., 2013). Yield growth rates have collapsed or are stagnating in about 30%, 38% and 39% of global harvested area for maize, rice and wheat, respectively (Ray et al., 2012). In addition, wheat yield gains across the developing world have remained below population growth in recent years (Ortiz et al., 2008). Other factors that make the global food system more vulnerable to weather extremes include the globalization of grain markets and rising fuel prices which increase food transportation costs (Brown and Funk, 2008).The globalization of grain markets implies that weather extremes that reduce food harvests in key breadbaskets influence world food prices and can have negative effects on food security in poor net maize-importing countries (Chung et al., submitted for publication). However, there is no empirical study on the subject. Most studies that aim to estimate the socio-economic impact of climate extremes use statistical approaches to quantify the direct economic losses brought by climate extremes (Pielke and Landsea, 1998;Changnon, 2003a;Hallegatte, 2007;Pielke, 2007). Such direct losses usually consist of estimated financial losses (e.g. property or crop losses) closely linked to the climate extreme (Changnon, 2003a;Changnon, 2003b;Hallegatte, 2007;Hallegatte et al., 2007). Other studies have attempted to quantify the effect of climate extremes on human mortality (Kunkel et al., 1999; Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wace Deschenes and Moretti, 2007). Studies that have estimated the primary and secondary effects of climate extremes used processbased models to analyse the impact of extreme weather events on poverty vulnerability in developing countries (Adger, 1999;Ahmed et al., 2009), producer and consumer welfare in Spain (Mechler et al., 2010), and food security in China (Nelson et al., 2010). Unlike statistical models, process-based models have the ability to consider trade effects in the socio-economic analysis of climate extremes. Mechler et al. (2010) used a process-based model, to quantify the economic effect of a combined heat wave and drought in Spain. Similarly, Nelson et al. (2010) used a process-based model to estimate the impact of an extended drought in China on food security in the nation. These two studies highlighted the need to consider trade effects in the economic analysis of extreme events. Since the USA is the leading maize producer and exporter globally, it is very likely that the extreme weather event of 2012 in the USA would have indirect secondary effects on food security in other parts of the world where maize is a staple food.This study assesses the impact of the 2012 weather extreme in the USA on food security across the developing world. The study also estimates the plausible effects on food security of a similar weather extreme occurring in 2050.A spatial bio-economic framework which is described in Nelson et al. (2010) and illustrated in Fig. 1 was used to estimate the global impact of the climate extreme occurring in the USA. Crop and spatial modelling were combined to estimate the biophysical impact of the climate extreme on maize yields in the USA under various climate models. The analysis involves a high performance computing cluster where the Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS, http://grass.osgeo.org/) is used to handle spatial data defined and the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) (Hoogenboom et al., 1999;Jones et al., 2003) was used to simulate crop yield and other biophysical variables. The biophysical results were defined at the 5 0 spatial resolution were averaged to the level of Food Production Units (FPUs), which are production zones defined within countries (Rosegrant and et al., 2012). These results were then inputted into the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) to derive socio-economic results. IMPACT is a multi-market, multi-country model that focuses on the agricultural sector and projects trends in national and global food security under alternative scenarios on population growth, income growth and future climates (Rosegrant et al., 2008;Rosegrant and et al., 2012).Chung et al. (submitted for publication) used geo-spatial crop modelling at the 5 0 spatial resolution to estimate the impact of the weather extreme on maize yields across the USA. The biophysical results were then aggregated to the levels of Food Production Units and inputted into IMPACT. More specifically, the biophysical maize yield change brought by the extreme weather event is used as maize area change (represented as \"al\" in eq. 1) for irrigated and rainfed maize in the USA. For example, the biophysical analysis by Chung et al. (submitted for publication) implies a reduction of 46% in rainfed maize produced in Ohio. This loss which is represented by \"al\" in Eq. ( 1) is inputted as maize area loss in 2012 due to the weather extreme in IMPACT. After 2012, the maize area in the USA is brought back to trend by re-adjusting area growth rates. More specifically, the area growth rate is adjusted as follows in 2012:Since IMPACT involves a partial equilibrium economic model, simulated per capita income would not change from one socioeconomic scenario to the next. In reality, the weather extreme, by reducing maize production in the USA, would affect the wages of maize farmers and other agents involved in the maize value chain in the USA. In turn, agricultural GDP and hence national income within the USA would be affected. Since the USA is a major maize producer and exporter across the world, the climate extreme would most likely affect wages in other countries. The effect of the climate extreme on wages would ultimately affect the ability of households at cushioning themselves against increased food insecurity. A multi-country Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model would be able to capture the effect of the climate extreme on GDP across world countries, as agricultural and nonagricultural income are endogenous variables in CGE models. IMPACT, a multi-market, multi-country partial equilibrium which focuses on the agricultural sector, estimates the impact of the climate extreme on food availability per capita without assessing the secondary effects of the climate extreme on wages and hence on the ability of households to cushion themselves against increased food insecurity.IMPACT is well calibrated for baseline food production and consumption across the world: simulated annual production and consumption of selected commodities from IMPACT is similar to FAO's averaged annual production between 1999 and 2001 (Fig. 2).Six scenarios are analysed in this study. They all involve one socio-economic scenario (Base) which consists of moderate growth in population and world economies between 2000 and 2050. Agricultural technologies are assumed to remain unchanged over the years, although yield improvements from enhanced agronomic practices are considered in the model. Consumers' diets are assumed to change with income growth and higher income is associated with increased consumption of animalsourced foods.In the first scenario (Base-2012), the emission of greenhouse gases stops in 2000 such that the projected climate around 2050 is identical to the baseline climate . In the second scenario (Base-2012-EW), the climate extreme occurs in 2012 under the baseline climate (Table 1).The three other scenarios relate to the 2050s (Table 1). The third scenario (Base-2050) projects the world food system in 2050, under the baseline climate scenario and the base socio-economic scenario. In the fourth and fifth scenarios, namely 'CSI2050-B1-EW' and 'MIR2050-A1-EW', the weather extreme occurs in the USA in 2050 under the CSIRO and MIROC GCMs, respectively. Previous analysis has shown that the combination of the CSIRO-Mk3.0 climate model for 2050 and the B1 emission scenario leads to the mildest changes in the key variables affecting crop growth, namely precipitation and temperature, compared to the baseline climate (Nelson et al., 2010). Similarly, the combination of the MIROC 3.2 climate model with the A1B emission scenario around 2050 leads to the largest changes in mean precipitation and temperature compared to the baseline climate (Nelson et al., 2010). Hence, the range of maize yields in the USA when the weather extreme occurs under climate change and the yield range of other crops on a global scale should all be encompassed by the yields generated under the 'CSI2050-B1-EW' and 'MIR2050-A1-EW' scenarios.3. Results: impact of the weather extreme on food security 3.1. Impact of the 2012 weather extreme on food security across developing world Under the 'Base-2012' scenario, maize production in the USA would reach 334 million metric tons in 2012. However, the extreme weather event consisting of combined heat wave and drought would decrease maize production in the USA by 29% compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario. On the other hand, maize consumption in the USA, which would have stood at 244 million metric tons under the 'Base-2012' scenario, would decrease by 5% only due to the weather extreme. Among all maize uses, the consumption of maize as animal feed would experience the largest decrease. The decrease in total maize consumption would be half of that of total maize production in volume terms and this implies that the country will have to reduce its net maize exports to meet its demand requirements. More specifically, net maize exports in the USA would decrease by 83 million tons under the 'Base-2012-EW' scenario compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario (Fig. 3).The decrease in maize production in the USA due to the weather extreme would act as a negative supply shock across world maize markets. Hence, world maize prices would increase to reflect increased maize scarcity on a global scale. The increased world maize prices would make maize production attractive in other regions not affected by the extreme weather event: they would increase their maize production (Table 2). Across the developing world, E & SE Asia and the LAC region would lead the increase in maize production in volume terms (Table 2). However, the increased maize production in other regions of the world would not be enough to compensate the decrease in maize production in the USA. Hence, global maize production would fall by about 48 million tons compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario; this drop would represent about 6% of global maize production under the 'Base-2012'; scenario. The projected increase in maize production in areas not affected by the weather extreme (Table 2) is likely to be overstated. Some large maize-producing countries, including China, plant maize around the same time as the USA. These countries would not be able to adjust their maize production the year when the weather extreme hits the USA.The decrease in global maize production would affect maize trade across the globe. All regions across the developing world would reduce their net maize imports. South Asia and the LAC     2). The decrease in global maize production means that global maize consumption would also have to decrease. E & SE Asia would experience the largest decrease in maize consumption in volume terms. However, Africa would experience the largest relative decrease. More specifically, maize consumption in SSA would decrease by 9% compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario. By contrast, E & SE Asia would experience a decrease of 7% (Table 3). The bulk of the reduction in maize consumption would relate to food in SSA. In all other regions of the developing world, the bulk of the reduction in maize consumption would relate to animal feed. The only exception would be South Asia where the consumption of maize as food and feed would decrease by roughly 40% each (Table 3).One indirect effect of the weather extreme consists of the changes in the demand for maize substitutes and complements. The negative impact of the climate extreme on global maize production would lead to higher maize prices and hence would incite consumers to substitute maize with other products. Another indirect effect of the weather extreme consists of changes in the production of other crops. Maize competes with other crops for the allocation of land and other agricultural inputs. Hence, the increased maize production recorded in countries not affected by the climate extreme should affect the production of other agricultural crops. These two indirect effects should lead to some changes in the production and consumption of other major cereals, namely rice and wheat; and other important staple foods, including cassava in Sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, the production of rice and wheat would increase globally by 2 million tons (Table 4). Such increase reflects a global shift away from the consumption of maize, which has become scarcer and hence more expensive, towards the consumption of other major cereals. CWANA, South Asia and E & SE Asia would increase their production of rice and wheat by a small margin; In SSA and LAC, the production of wheat and rice would be taxed by the increase in maize production (Table 2) and hence would decrease slightly (Table 4). The consumption of rice and wheat would substantially increase everywhere except in South Asia where their consumption would decrease by 89,000 tons compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario. In all other regions of the developing world, the consumption of wheat and rice would increase by 1.2 million tons (Table 4).The importance of cassava in African diets is illustrated by the fact that Sub-Saharan Africa would experience the highest increase in cassava production and consumption after the weather extreme. More specifically, the sub-region would account for 78% of the increase of 457 thousand tons in world cassava production in 2012 under the 'Base-2012-WE' scenario (Table 4). The sub-region would also increase its cassava consumption by 535 thousand tonnes and would have to rely on imports to meet its consumption requirements (Table 4).The drop in global maize production coupled with some adjustments in food consumption across the globe would lead to world maize prices increasing by 17% in 2012 if the climate extreme occurs under the baseline climate (Fig. 4). World prices of wheat and rice would also increase, albeit slightly: about 1%, each (Fig. 4).Daily caloric intake derived from maize would decrease most in SSA compared to other regions of the developing world when the weather extreme affects the USA (Table 3). This, coupled with SSA having the lowest average per capita caloric intake in 2012 (Table 3), suggests that consumers in SSA would find it more difficult to substitute maize for other food products. Hence, the   effects of the weather extreme on food security would likely be worst in SSA. Another region that would experience a substantial decrease in caloric intake from maize is the LAC region; however, its average per capita daily caloric intake, under the 'Base-2012' scenario, would be much higher than that of SSA (Table 3).The number of people at risk of hunger would increase most in SSA, the region that would also experience the largest decrease in per capita caloric availability due to the weather extreme. Within SSA, countries that would experience an increase of 1 million or more in the number of people at risk of hunger would mainly be from Eastern Africa and would consist of Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Fig. 5).Despite experiencing larger reductions in per capita caloric availability, Malawi would have a smaller increase in the number of people at risk of hunger compared to Kenya and Tanzania (Fig. 5). The higher population levels in Kenya and Tanzania would explain this result. Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi would have similar per capita caloric intake in 2012 under the 'Base-2012' scenario with 2070, 2081 and 2018 calories, respectively. Hence, their shares of people at risk of hunger would be similar: they would stand at 30, 27 and 34 for Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi, respectively. However, the population in each of Kenya and Tanzania would be twice as high as that of Malawi. More specifically, Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi would have about 43, 48 and 16 million people, respectively. The combination of similar per capita caloric intake across the 3 countries and a much smaller population in Malawi implies that the weather extreme would lead to a smaller increase in the number of at-risk people in Malawi, even if the country experiences a larger reduction in caloric intake, compared to Kenya and Tanzania. However, in relative terms, the effect of the weather extreme would be more severe in Malawi compared to Kenya or Tanzania. The relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be 24% in Malawi compared to the 'Base-2012' scenario; it would stand at 19 and 17% in Kenya and Tanzania, respectively. Relative values do away with the effect that population levels can have on estimating the impact of the weather extreme.Ethiopia and Zambia would also have similar daily per capita caloric intake in 2012, under the 'Base-2012' scenario; however, the Ethiopian population would be 6 times higher than that of Zambia. Hence, the weather extreme would lead to Ethiopia having a higher increase in the number of people at risk of hunger (Fig. 4), although its relative effect would be more severe in Zambia which would experience a higher reduction in caloric intake due to the weather extreme. In relative terms, the increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be 20% in Zambia and 5% in Ethiopia.Lesotho, which would experience the largest reduction in caloric intake in SSA would also account for the largest relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger: 46%. Lesotho would be followed by South Africa which would experience a relative increase of 41% in the number of people at risk of hunger. South Africa and Tanzania would have similar population sizes in 2012. They would also experience a similar reduction in per capita caloric intake due to the weather extreme (Fig. 5). However, South Africa would have a higher per capita caloric intake which would ensure that a smaller portion of its population would be at risk of hunger in 2012 under the 'Base-2012' scenario. The higher caloric intake in South Africa would also dampen the negative effect of the weather extreme on the number of people at risk of hunger (Fig. 5). In relative terms, South Africa would experience a larger increase in the number of people at risk of hunger compared to Tanzania, due to its smaller population at risk of hunger under the 'Base-2012' scenario.  The LAC region, which would experience the second largest decrease in per capita caloric availability due to the weather extreme, would see an increase of 2.6 million in the number of people at risk of hunger. Within the LAC region, countries from the Caribbean and Central America (CCA) would be hardest-hit, despite experiencing a smaller decrease in per capita caloric intake compared to Mexico (Fig. 5). In 2012, prior to the weather extreme, Mexico would have a higher daily per capita caloric intake compared to CCA; the caloric intake levels would stand at 3124 and 2458 in Mexico and CCA, respectively. Hence, CCA would have a higher share of its population at risk of hunger: 21% in CCA versus 5% in Mexico. These would correspond to 16 million people at risk of hunger in CCA versus 5.8 million in Mexico whose population would be 1.5 times higher than that of CCA in 2012. The weather extreme would lead to a higher reduction in caloric intake in Mexico; however, its effect of food security would not be worse in Mexico compared to CCA, because of the less precarious food security situation in Mexico, prior to the weather extreme. In relative terms, the increase in the number of people at risk of hunger caused by the weather extreme would be higher in CCA compared to Mexico: 5.8 versus 4.8%.Across the LAC region, few other countries CSA, NSA, Chile, Uruguay, and Colombia would experience a higher relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger compared to CCA (Fig. 5). CSA and NSA would have the highest relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger with a value of 8.5%, each. Chile, Uruguay, and Columbia would follow with increases of 7.2%, 7%, and 6%, respectively.In the CSA and NSA regions, caloric intake in 2012 prior to the weather extreme would be smaller than that of CCA. The decrease in food caloric intake brought by the weather extreme in the CSA and NSA regions would be similar to that of the CCA region. Hence, the proportional increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be lower in CCA compared to CSA and NSA.Chile, Colombia and Uruguay would have a higher caloric intake compared to CCA prior to the weather extreme. Hence, compared to the CCA region, these three countries would have a smaller proportion of their population that would be at risk of hunger prior to the weather extreme. In addition, each of Chile, Colombia and Uruguay would have a much smaller population compared to the CCA region. Hence, the proportional increase in the number of people at risk of hunger due to the weather extreme would be higher in these three countries compared to CCA.Interestingly, South Asia, where the reduction in caloric intake would be less than one-sixth of that of SSA, would be the second hardest-hit region in terms of food insecurity; the number of people at risk of hunger in this region would increase by 3 million due to the weather extreme. India alone would account for more than two-thirds of the increase in the number of at-risk people in South Asia, despite experiencing a reduction in caloric intake that would be substantially less than that of Nepal or Bhutan (Fig. 5). The very high population in India explains why the increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be much higher in value terms compared to Nepal or Bhutan. By 2012, India's population would stand at around 1.2 billion; in Nepal and Bhutan, the population numbers would stand at 31 million and 749 thousand, respectively. Prior to the weather extreme, daily per capita caloric intake would be higher in India than in Nepal and Bhutan. The values would be 2423, 2296 and 2229 in India, Nepal and Bhutan, respectively. Hence, the share of the population at risk of hunger would be lower in India; these shares would be 17%, 18% and 28% in India, Nepal and Bhutan, respectively. In relative terms, the impact of the weather extreme on the number of people at risk of hunger would be slightly higher in Nepal than in Bhutan: 8% and 6%, respectively. By contrast, India would experience a 1% increase in the number of people at risk of hunger due to the weather extreme. Apart from Bhutan and Nepal, Bangladesh would also have a higher relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger compared to India.Surprisingly, despite experiencing the largest reduction in maize consumption across the developing world (Table 3), E & SE Asia would not experience a substantial reduction in caloric intake compared to SSA and the LAC region (Fig. 5). This is mainly caused by the fact the bulk of the reduction in maize consumption in E & SE Asia would consist of a reduction in animal feed. In addition, the region would have the highest base caloric intake in 2012 without the weather extreme, among all developing regions (Table 3). Hence, E & SE Asia would experience the fourth largest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger, in both value and relative terms. The region would be ranking behind SSA, LAC and South Asia.Under the 'Base-2050' scenario, the world economies are projected to experience moderate growth in per capita income between 2000 and 2050. Under such scenario, countries which were ranked as developing countries in 2012 might no longer be considered as such in 2050. Hence, in this section, they are referred as developing countries/regions of 2012.Under the 'Base-2050' scenario, global maize production would almost double by 2050 compared to 2012. Just like in the 2000s and 2010s, the USA would remain the leading maize producer and exporter in the world in 2050: the country would account for 40% and 64% of global maize production and exports, respectively (Table 2). Hence, an extreme weather event that would affect maize production in the USA in 2050 could still have serious repercussions for food security in vulnerable regions.If the weather extreme occurs in 2050 instead of 2012, its effects on maize production in the USA would be more pronounced. More specifically, the reduction in maize production caused by the weather extreme would range between 37% under the 'CSI2050-B1-EW' climate scenario and 76% under the 'MIR2050-A1-EW' climate scenario. However, maize consumption in the USA would barely decrease. In this case, the country would have to become a net maize importer to meet its consumption requirements: its net maize imports would range between 4.6 and 19 million tons (Fig. 3).The substantial decrease in maize production in the USA in 2050 coupled with sustained maize consumption within the country would translate into high maize prices that would incite other countries not affected by the climate extreme, to increase their maize production (Table 2). Maize production would increase everywhere, except in the CWANA region (Table 2) where maize would still not be a key food product in 2050 (Table 3). However, despite the increased maize production in countries not affected by the climate extreme, global maize production would still decrease by 9% to 18%, compared to the 'Base-2050' scenario.By 2050, under the 'base-2050' scenario, the USA, Argentina, Brazil and Central Europe would lead global maize exports and would account together for 80% of global maize exports. However, the weather extreme would force the USA out of the list of the major maize exporters in 2050; other countries that would become major maize exporters globally would mainly come from the European continent (Table 2).The weather extreme in 2050 would reduce global maize consumption. E & SE Asia would experience by far the largest reduction in maize consumption in volume terms (Table 3). In addition, the reduction in maize consumption in this region would mainly affect animal feed. SSA and the LAC region would be next, relative to the reduction in maize consumption. In each of these regions, maize consumption would decrease by 15-30 million tonnes due to the weather extreme. In SSA, the bulk of the reduction would relate to human food whereas in the LAC region, it would relate to animal feed (Table 3).If the weather extreme occurs in 2050 under the milder climate change scenario, the decrease in global maize production would be accompanied by a decrease in the production of wheat and rice. This implies that the increased demand for rice and wheat brought by the weather extreme would not be strong enough to increase the production of these two commodities. Overall, the consumption of rice and wheat would decrease across all world regions, except the USA, where it would remain stagnant (Table 4). Similarly, the production of rice and wheat would decrease across most regions of the developing world of 2012, except in SSA, which would experience an increase in the production of maize, rice and wheat under the weather extreme (Table 4). In South Asia, E & SE Asia and LAC, the increase in maize production brought by the weather extreme would be accompanied by a decrease in the production of rice and wheat (Table 4).The weather extreme would see SSA increase its production of key cereals in 2050 under the milder climate change scenario. This increase would come at the expense of reducing the production of other crops, including cassava. More specifically, the sub-continent would lead all regions relative to the reduction in cassava production (Table 4). SSA would also experience the secondlargest reduction in cassava consumption if the weather extreme occurs in 2050 under the milder climate change scenario (Table 4). The LAC region would experience the largest increase in cassava production and the largest reduction in cassava consumption if the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario (Table 4). Since the region was a net cassava exporter prior to the weather extreme (data not shown), the change in its cassava production and consumption would be used as exports to other regions.If the weather extreme occurs in 2050 under the harsher climate change scenario, the decrease in global maize production would be accompanied by an increase in the global consumption of rice and wheat (Table 4). In addition, the changes in the production and consumption of rice and wheat across the developing world would be similar to those that would occur, if the weather extreme occurred in 2012.If the weather extreme occurs under the harsher climate change scenario, SSA would increase its consumption of not only rice and wheat, but also cassava. The sub-continent would increase its cassava consumption by more than 2 million tons; it would also be the only region that would experience an increase in cassava consumption due to the weather extreme (Table 4). Cassava production would also increase in the SSA (Table 4), but the subcontinent would still need to rely on imports to meet its consumption requirements. In the LAC region, the increase of 42 million tons in maize production would come at the cost of reducing the production of other crops, including rice, wheat and cassava. Cassava production would decrease by more than 2 million tons whereas the production of combined rice and wheat would decrease by 7.6 million tons (Table 4).If the climate extreme occurs in 2050 under climate change, maize prices in the long run would increase by 30% to 70%, compared to the 'Base-2050' scenario (Fig. 4). Long-run prices for wheat would increase from 1% to 3% whereas long run prices for rice would increase from 8% to 9% (Fig. 4). Interestingly, the prices of rice and wheat would be higher if the weather extreme occurred under the milder climate change scenario compared to the harsher climate change scenario. The higher prices, related to the milder climate change scenario, are partly fuelled by the decrease in the global production of rice and wheat when the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario (Table 4).Despite experiencing the largest reduction in maize consumption under the weather extreme, E & SE Asia would rank below SSA, South Asia and the LAC region, in the number of people at risk of hunger (Figs. 6 and 7). The combination of the highest base caloric intake in 2050 and relatively small reductions in caloric intake due to the weather extreme in E & SE Asia would explain this result. The reduction in maize consumption in E & SE Asia would mainly consist of a reduction in animal feed (Table 3). This would translate into a smaller reduction in caloric intake compared to other regions such as SSA where the bulk of the reduction in maize consumption would consist of a reduction in food (Table 3).SSA would experience the largest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger, if the weather extreme occurs in 2050 under climate change (Figs. 6 and 7). The region would be unique in combining one of the lowest caloric intakes by 2050 with one of the highest reductions in caloric intake due to the weather extreme (Table 3). The increase in the number of people at risk of hunger in SSA would range between 36 and 66 million people. In relative terms, the number of people at risk of hunger in SSA would rise by 14% to 26% compared to the 'Base-2050' scenario.If the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario, the countries within SSA that would experience an increase of 1 million or more in the number of people at risk of hunger are Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Nigeria (Fig. 6); most of them would be in East Africa. However, if the weather extreme occurs under the harsher climate change scenario, more countries would experience an increase of at least 1 million in the number of people at risk of hunger. Additional countries that would join the countries listed above are Angola in Central Africa; and Benin and Togo in West Africa (Fig. 7).In relative terms, the countries in SSA that would experience the largest increases in the number of people at risk of hunger under the weather extreme would also be located in eastern Africa. If the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario, countries with the largest relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be Gambia in West Africa with an increase of 163% and Lesotho in southern Africa with an increase of 68%. These two countries would be followed by Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe with 59%, 45%, 36%, 34%, 29%, and 23%, respectively. If the weather extreme occurs under the harsher climate change scenario, Togo in West Africa would experience the highest relative increase with 305%; it would be followed by Gambia in West Africa with 163%, Lesotho in southern Africa with 148%. Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe would follow with an increase of 146%, 82%, 76%, 68%, 52% and 47%, respectively.In southern Africa, only Lesotho would experience an increase in the number of people at risk of hunger, if the weather extreme occurs in 2050 under climate change (Figs. 5 and 6). More specifically, the number of people at risk of hunger would rise by 200 thousand under the milder climate change scenario to 421 thousand under the harsher climate change scenario (Fig. 6). If the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario (CSI2050-A1-EW), daily caloric intake would decrease by 112, 93, 86 and 77, in Swaziland, South Africa, Botswana and Namibia, respectively (Fig. 6). The reductions in caloric intake would be larger under the harsher climate change scenario. However, none of these countries would experience an increase in the number of at-risk people (Figs. 6 and 7). This implies that by 2050, daily caloric intake in all of southern Africa, Lesotho excluded, would have risen enough to offset the negative effect of the weather extreme on national food security.In Central Africa, 3 countries, namely Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon, would experience no increase in the number of people at risk of hunger is the weather extreme occurs under the milder climate change scenario (Fig. 6). Among these three countries, Cameroon would experience the largest decrease in caloric intake whereas Equatorial Guinea would experience the lowest decrease. In these three countries too, average per capita caloric intake would have risen enough by 2050 to counter the negative effects of the weather extreme on national food security. Among all 3 countries, oil-producing Gabon would be the richest by 2050 with a per capita income that would be 4 times higher than that of Equatorial Guinea and 7 times higher than that of Cameroon. Gabon would also be having the highest caloric intake prior to the weather extreme: 3411 calories per capita. If the weather extreme occurred in 2050 under the harsher climate change scenario, the same three countries would see no increase in their number of people at risk of hunger (Fig. 7). In all other countries in Central Africa, the weather extreme would worsen national food security under any of the climate change scenarios. These countries are Angola, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Moreover, in all these countries, except Congo, the reduction in caloric intake brought by the weather extreme would be higher under the harsher climate change scenario compared to the milder scenario (Figs. 6 and 7).In half of all western African countries, food security would not worsen if the climate extreme occurs in 2050 under the milder climate change scenario. These countries include Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. Benin would experience the second largest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger in West Africa. The country would experience an increase of 700,000 people and it would be followed by Niger with 360,000, Gambia with 260,000 and Burkina Faso with 240,000 (Fig. 7).Apart from Togo, all other countries in West Africa that did not experience an increase in the number of people at risk of hunger under the milder climate change would have the same outcome under the harsher climate change scenario (Fig. 7). In Togo, the reduction in caloric intake would rise from 127 under the milder climate change scenario to 200 under the harsher climate change scenario. As a result, the number of people at risk of hunger would rise from 0 under the milder scenario to 1.4 million under the harsher scenario. In Benin, Burkina Faso and Nigeria, the increase in number of people at risk of hunger would be worse if the weather extreme occurs under the harsher climate change scenario compared to the milder scenario. More specifically, under the harsher climate change scenario, the number of people at risk of hunger would rise to 1 million, 360,000 and 1.8 million in Benin, Burkina Faso and Nigeria, respectively (Fig. 7). In the other countries, namely Gambia, Liberia and Niger, the increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be smaller if the weather extreme occurs under the harsher climate change scenario compared to the milder scenario. In Gambia and Niger, under the harsher climate change scenario, the number of people at risk of hunger would rise to 260,000 and 4000 people, respectively; it would decrease by 31,000 people in Liberia (Fig. 7).Within the LAC region, the number of people at risk of hunger would rise from 5 million under the milder climate change scenario to 11 million under the harsher climate change scenario (Figs. 6 and 7). This result suggests that, as the momentum of climate change worsens, the negative effect of the weather extreme on food security in the LAC region would also worsen.Within the LAC region, the Caribbean Central America and Mexico would be hardest-hit: the number of people at risk of hunger would increase by 2-4 million in CCA and by 1.4-2.5 million in Mexico (Figs. 6 and 7). In relative terms, CCA would experience an increase of 13-28% in the number of people at risk of hunger compared to the 'Base-2050' scenario. In Mexico, the change in the number of people at risk of hunger would range from 25% to 43%. The higher at-risk population in CCA, under the 'Base-2050' scenario, explains why the weather extreme would lead to a higher increase in the number of people at risk of hunger, despite CCA experiencing smaller reductions in per capita caloric intake compared to Mexico.By 2050, under the 'Base-2050' scenario, Mexico would have a substantially higher daily per capita caloric intake compared to CCA, even if the latter would have seen an improvement in food security between 2012 and 2050. Indeed, average per capita daily caloric intake under the baseline climate model would be 2700 by the year 2050, compared to 2460 in the year 2012 for the CCA. In Mexico, per capita caloric intake would remain high by 2050 and would barely change between 2012 and 2050; it would increase from 3100 to 3200. By 2050, Mexico would also have a slightly larger population compared to CCA, under the baseline climate model: 144 versus 109 million people. The substantially higher caloric intake in Mexico coupled with a slightly higher population leads to Mexico having a lower at-risk population compared to CCA by 2050, under the baseline climate model. Indeed, by 2050, under the 'Base-2050' scenario, the number of people at risk of hunger would reach 14 million in CCA; it would reach 5.8 million in Mexico.In other regions not as populous as CCA, the relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be very high, despite these regions experiencing reductions in caloric intake similar to those of CCA and also sharing similar per capita caloric intake in 2050 under the 'Base-2050' scenario. NSA and CCA would share similar daily per capita caloric intake by 2050, under the 'Base-2050' scenario: 2700. Moreover, the reductions in caloric intake caused by the weather extreme would be similar across the two regions (Figs. 6 and 7). Yet, CCA would experience a higher increase in the number of people at risk of hunger (Figs. 6 and  7). However, the relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger in NSA would range between 34% and 80% and hence, would be much higher than that of CCA. The higher population in CCA explains this result: by 2050, the population would be 44 million in NSA compared to 108 million in CCA.South Asia would also be the second hardest-hit region after SSA, if the weather extreme occurred in 2050, instead of 2012: the number of people at risk of hunger would rise by 17 million people (Figs. 6 and 7). The largest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would occur in India. Interestingly, the reduction in caloric intake in India would be less than half that of Nepal and yet, India would experience an increase of 10-11 million in the number of at-risk people, unlike Nepal which would experience an increase of 1.1-1.6 million (Figs. 6 and 7). The higher population in India explains these results. The two countries would have similar average per capita caloric intake by 2050, under the 'Base-2050' scenario. In India, daily caloric intake would stand at 2700; in Nepal, it would stand at 2500. However, India's population would reach 1.7 billion by 2050, whereas Nepal's population would reach 46 million. In relative terms, the increase in the number of at-risk people in India would range between 8% and 7% compared to a scenario involving perfect climate change. In Nepal, the increase would range between 28 and 41%.USDA's estimates are in agreement with the simulated results on annual maize production and consumption in the USA in 2012, after the weather extreme. Based on USDA's estimates, annual maize production in the USA was estimated at 314 million tons in the 2011/12 season; world maize production stood at around 881 million tons over the same period (Foreign Agricultural Service, 2012). Hence, the share of the USA in global maize production was around 36%. Based on the simulated results from IMPACT, the projected share of the USA in global maize production after the weather extreme in 2012 would be 32%. The simulated results from IMPACT imply that US maize production in 2012, after the weather extreme, would be about 238 million tons and world maize production would stand at 741 million tons.Similarly, the estimates from USDA suggest that, with a consumption volume of 279 million tons in 2012, the USA accounted for 32% of global maize consumption (Foreign Agricultural Service, 2012). The simulated results from IMPACT imply that, with the weather extreme in 2012, US maize consumption would stand at 244 million and would account for 33% of global maize consumption.However, the estimates from USDA differ substantially from those of IMPACT on maize trade volumes. The simulated results from IMPACT imply that, with net maize exports amounting to 8 million tons under the weather extreme in 2012, the US would account for 11% of world maize exports. By contrast, USDA's estimates imply that net maize exports in the USA amounted to 14 million tons and the country accounted for 20% of global maize exports in 2012 (Foreign Agricultural Service, 2012). In addition, maize exports from the USA were much lower in 2012 than in earlier years (Chung et al., submitted for publication); they were also accompanied by a substantial decrease in US maize stocks, compared to earlier years (Chung et al., submitted for publication).The simulated results from IMPACT imply that the change in US maize stocks remains the same over the years, with or without the weather extreme. Such discrepancy between USDA's estimates and the simulated results from IMPACT reflect the limitations of IMPACT, a partial equilibrium model that assumes that changes in population, income and food stocks are exogenous. The projected substantial decrease in net maize exports from the USA would lead to substantial but unrealistic effects on food security across the globe. Hence, the magnitude of the results from IMPACT should be used with caution; however, the trends observed in the results are likely to be valid.The study results demonstrate that climate extremes that negatively affect crop production among major world exporters can indeed have negative effects on food security in other regions. The study results imply that across the developing world, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and the LAC region are likely to suffer most from the climate extreme that occurred in the USA, in 2012. Within SSA, the countries that would experience the highest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger due to the weather extreme would mainly be from eastern Africa; however, the countries that would experience the highest relative increase in the number of at-risk people would include countries from eastern and southern Africa; these countries, which would experience an increase of 10% or more in the number of at-risk people, would be Lesotho, South Africa, Malawi, Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Uganda and Bostwana. Within the LAC region, the CCA would experience the largest increase in the number of people at risk of hunger due to the weather extreme; however, in relative terms, CSA, NSA, Chile, Uruguay and Colombia, would also see their food security worsen due to the weather extreme. Within South Asia, India alone would account for twothirds of the increase in the number of people at risk of hunger. Other countries that would experience substantial increases in their number of at-risk people include Nepal and Bhutan.The relative effects of the weather extreme on long-run maize production would be worse if it occurred in 2050 instead of 2012. The negative impact of the weather extreme on maize production in the USA and hence on global maize production would be much worse in 2050 than in 2012. With the non-implementation of climate change adaptation strategies across the world food baskets between the 2000s and 2050s, climate change would be eroding crop productivity gains over the years. Hence, the weather extreme in 2050 would further weaken maize productivity in the USA, which is projected to remain the leading maize producer and exporter in 2050.Similarly, the negative effects of the weather extreme on food security would be worse if it occurred in 2050 compared to 2012. Globally, the relative increase in the number of people at risk of hunger would be 1.4% in 2012; if the weather extreme occurred in 2050, the relative increase in the number of at-risk people would range between 8% and 13%. However, the hardest-hit regions would remain the same, whether the weather extreme occurs in 2012 instead of 2050: SSA, South Asia and the LAC region. Across these regions, food security would improve between 2012 and 2050, under the baseline climate model and moderate growth in per capita income across world economies. In few countries located in southern, western and central Africa, and in the LAC region, per capita caloric intake would have risen enough to offset the negative effects of the weather extreme. However, in the other countries of SSA, South Asia and the LAC region, the weather extreme would erode much of the gains made in food security.The effect of the weather extreme on food security in vulnerable countries can be mitigated through social protection programs including cash transfers and food aid (Chung et al., submitted for publication). By 2012, the LAC region had strong social protection programs (Ferreira and Robalino, 2010) which likely mitigated the negative effect of the weather extreme on food security in the region. Another strategy for enhancing the adaptive capacity of countries to weather extremes would consist of changing policies that favour the use of maize or other food crops for biofuel production. The proportion of US maize production used for ethanol production increased from 1% in the 1980s to 25% in 2007/2008 (Piesse and Thirtle, 2009;Capehart, 2014). The increase was fuelled in part by favourable US policies (Yano et al., 2010;Capehart, 2014). Some of the maize used in ethanol production could be diverted into replenishing US maize stocks which could be used to buffer the production loss brought by weather extremes.Our results illustrate the considerable utility of the processbased spatial bio-economic framework, as a tool for assessing the impacts of extreme weather events. The socio-economic model (IMPACT) is calibrated for the year 2000 and assumes moderate growth in per capita income followed by the 2012 weather extreme. The results from the model were close to the reality despite the fact that it is unlikely that moderate economic growth was observed across the whole world between 2000 and 2012. Two major events, the global food price crisis in 2008 which was followed by the global financial crisis, were not captured in model. These events had large influence on global food prices and farmers' decisions. Similarly, speculation was not captured in model.One of the objectives of this study was to quantify the potential effects of the 2012 weather extreme in the USA on food security across the developing world. Study results suggests that the extreme climate of 2012 that occurred in the USA is likely to increase food insecurity among poor communities where maize provides a substantial portion of daily caloric intake and where households cannot easily adjust their food consumption patterns in the face of increased maize scarcity. Our results indicate that countries where food security would worsen due to the weather extreme are located in eastern and southern Africa; South Asia; and the LAC region.If a similar weather extreme were to occur in the USA in 2050 under climate change, its effects on global food production and security would be worse, assuming no adaptation to climate change over the years. In addition, the hardest-hit regions would remain the same, whether the weather extreme occurs in 2012 instead of 2050: SSA, South Asia and the LAC region. However, for few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and LAC, per capita caloric intake would have risen enough to completely offset the negative effect of the weather extreme on food insecurity.Future research would involve developing a CGE model that can consider the spillover effects of weather extremes. Similarly, frequency distribution on weather extremes could be used in combination with a CGE model to project the impact of climate extremes in the future.","tokenCount":"8722"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c14e90c246150a5efdd5ef9056c565ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0d11c92-dc71-408b-8596-0ca00bd3cb82/retrieve","id":"-1273233364"},"keywords":["~a Uyole Agr1eUlt,Ü' M:,-.,.LI?i:m1t","re----_1 >h' J. Sa1d1 1'rop1cal. Pest","l1Bsearch Institnte. lJ.tersture , '--~"],"sieverID":"9ddf9679-2e2f-4e4c-b1a0-7a875d3247ca","pagecount":"42","content":"Karol A.K. In presa. Yield (,)ossea from ami cantro\"TOr bean pod bOrerB, Maruca test-lllalis and Heliothis armigera. J. &:an. EiltOl!lo Karel A.K. and Rtle;yemamu C.L. In press. Reaistanee to the follar beetle Ootheca bl3llll1gseni in CO!lJDOll beana. l2Jviranmer:ltal. l2JtoIlIology Vo. 14. Karel A.K. ami l~o R.!!.K. In press. TIle eflact al insectJcides ami plant popul.atians on the insect pests and yields ol common bean (Pbaseolu.s vul.garj.!) J. Ecan. lihtollll)l. Karel A.K. and Rtle;yamamu C.L. 1984. Y1eld 10sses in tield beans follOld.nB follar damaBe by Ootheca bermigseni J. Eeon. 1liltolllo1. 77. 762-765. Soko:Ine I1n1vers1ty. &ro&oro, Dr Kare].•s current wrkBean fly resistance 500 linea trere tested and 24 were found with enou¡¡¡b resISt8ñce to be used in crosses. A few of these ve:re crossed at( ~.CIAl' 'Hith 'l'anzanian and cm variet1ea. The progEmy carne back in Sept.19S4 ami has now been plantad in two seasona. Progrese 18 elOl!l bsca:u.se 118UEil.l3 t.here 18 strong bean fl,y pressure 0IÜ3' in the sbort wst season, al&o tbe material 18 stUl segregating. 9 parametera are measured the ma:in. anea being no. ol ovipuncturee, lsrval counte ami stem damage.A papar en t11e aeleet1an lor :resistance 1B due to come out ehort:.l,y in the J. Eeon. Ebtomol. Vol 'lS 1+ or 5. beetle resi6tance. Local and cm lines we:re testad. Both we:re found ami croases vere lIIIlde nt CIAf witb ltaban.ima and other accepteble var1st1es. The prog~ llave bean testad in J seesona at~. (ve17 Ilaa;vy attack at ~&IlIIl!l&U t.h1s year lIIIlde reo-planting nacessa:q). See literature tar papel\" an the 1dent1ticat1an 01 :resistance. faen1a tbrips :resistance. Reports 01 :f'loI;fer losa due to these thr1ps !lave COlle espec~ from parta el central 'l'enz.enia and Ka¡era reg1on. Ilama&e 18 h1ghes Hhen El dr;¡r perlod co-inc1des with f.1.owering. .3, linee are being testad, many ol tdd.c:h are al.read¡y Im.otm to have resistance to bean f'J3 and Ootbeca. Hothing publ1 ehad. Assessment 01' crop loeses (a~ bean f'J3not wr1tten IIp t~) ~~, . . . . Hel.iothis spp MañiCa teatualla } Losase to es.ch psst ran¡;e from .30-50% E.f1'ect 01 plant P2pU!.atiane on insect peets ese literatura lor art:i.c1ee.Previous experimente ehowed the best populatian to be bst_ 200,000 _ .300.000 pLante per hectare, (ese lit.ersture). In 1984 and 198; .fUrther 1IIOrk 18 tr;¡ring to p1n po1nt the optimum with:in th1s ranga, 'Ifhen cover spn¡,ys ol fung1cida are usad. 1\"i.ma 01' ~ting. Prev.t.ous experimente found insect damage least with PLíñtJiíg\\lro weeks att.er the atart 01' the reina. (eee boon b1bllograpb;y). Thl.s yoar, 198;, the I1lOrlc 18 being repeated with Kabanima in additi.an to the Selian ¡'¡ander usad befora.(7) (S) Intereropping. Th.ere are 4 plant populationB and 4 combmations 01 iííaiZe and beans; puro maiJle} ' !.lM ~ us1ng a replacem6nt ser1es mere liM iB 1M .. 3B pare beans \"' ?In 1993 lJ3,OOO bean planta + 40,000 maise planta per ha gaw the bigbast. L.&.a. and also the lowest inBeCt populations of llIOSt 1nsect species.Ditlume U/¡.' vas apph.ed to control fungal oieeases. Th.ere were no resulta in 1984. and the exper1ment 18 being repeated this year. Notbina pubJi abad so faro _ated control.. An experiment. vas 1\"Ut'l lor three years ~ Kabenima has some reeista:nee to Ootheca and bsan ~}, Bacilllls thurin.!d.ensis aga:I.nat pod borers and insecticidas ilihere neceseary. A paper on tlí!S WOl'k tfaS eo-authored by van Schoonboven. Indigeneous inseet1c1des. EKt.raets from tomatoe leaves, cbn 11 e seede end neem were compared and naem vas fo1md mst. eftect1w. Fol:' too J.ast two years va.r1ous lol'!llUlations from neem have been eompared 'ld.th insecticida. a~us ext.1:'aet from neem l.eal aqneous ext.raet from neem kemel alcohol. ext.1:'aet from neem leal alcohol. ext.raet from neem kernel neem dust Th.e aqueous ext.raets have been too most eftect1ve. Nothing publ1ahed so tSl:'. Brucbids. Va.r:I.oua oils incl.ud:l,ng thst 01 neem were compared at 1$ and 3pC':l concentrat1an. The,y controlled bruehida lar about tliO montbs. '1'b1s will be publiahed in the B.I.C. annual reporto Tropical Pest1eides Rseeareh Institut.e. MI-J. Sa1d1(2) wect ~ rs~ore. 1995 18 the f1ret ;vear 01 cOlllparin& d1fluobenzuron 8ñd fenO.iijC) ld. endOsuU'en for control ol HeUoth1s armigera and aphids, tha ma1n insect pests in this regLon.1O;Yeer8 ego the seed bean erea was 60,000 ha to 70,000 ha and ñOliQii4. 2~,000 ha. '1'his big drop 18 due to the pool' infrastructure oí Tanzania and ita overvalued cUl'l\"Cl1CY. 1'00 Dutcb c\"\"i'GIlies are expand:ing in t.he U.S.A. and to a leaser extent in 1I:enya and ZiIlbabllle. 'l'.be erea in TanzEllll.a has increased tbia year bece.use 01 low stocks alter last year-s poor harveet, but the long term trend 1s etlll prooab~ dcnlnward.At present ldaho can undercut 'l'anzania. for price, out ita product has poorer germinatlon due to mechanical harvesting¡'tbresh1ns/sorting. 'lan'W'hn Beed .lS sometimes used. to :IJnp:rove the germination percentage of t.he ldaho producto I.f oean handling macb.inel7' in U.S.A. was l.lllproved t.hen the market for ased from 'l'anzania. would drop dramaticaJ.q. COl'ltract. growere Most produet1on 18 on large estatea, often leased d1rect4r b;y the Dutch aeed. compan1es. In t.he ear4r 19708 tha companies tried, and abamiOlled., t\\lQrld.ng uith Sl!IS.llholdere, but largar contract. grouere rema:ined, planting betwan 2O--SOO ha. 'l'here 1a curren~ a sbift a:rAl1Y 1'rom the use 01 out-growel'8 to produetion be1ng cOIlcentrated more on COlllpany estates. The companies ateta that th1s 18 due to the h.1gber qua1.1ty of the1r oun produetian ~h must be preservad in t.he l.ang term althaugh outgrower p:roduetion can be more profitabla in the ehort termo A cOll.Ip8I'l;f normalq grows its protected varietiea 0Il 1ts O1fl'li( ea1:.ates. ZS ~es. 'l'he COIltract. gI\"OWel'8 are heav14r financed. by t.ge c\"\"i'8\"ies seed, chem1eals and often land preparat1on, sorting and cash loan8. lt 18 th1s financ1ng ~h attra.ets out-growers e1nce the pr:u:e they are pa.1d is often well below the local msrket price tor toed beans. '1'his year the export price tlil.l be about 5b 12 per kg, with contract growers paid about 5b S per kg.  Pi'''ÜáiJw:i trLí1 j. 'l'he material 1.s pl.anted in two seasona at U.A.C., inc.lJul1ng en extra ear~ planting st the sta.rt. ol the l'a1na. 'l'bia trial 1.s l.l8ed 1f someth:1ng iB thought 1'.0 have good enthracnoae rea1.stance.'l'he decision on which prellm:fnar;y trial to use depende on maturity time end other characters, and eeed quentity. Thsy are than eovered w1th e011, by splitting the r1dgee, and 1eft lar a furthar 1-2 weeks before plant:1n.g the beene. Usual~ 2 rowa par furrow are planted, sometimes .'.h Problema LiBht lor ths re1a.y been crop ~en the area was v.Laited, in ear~ March, moat been crops lIere showing some etiolat1on in spite of maize 'leal removal. A ver¡ tew tarmers avoided this prob1em by cutt:1ng the maize atalk above ths cob, 1eaving only ths cob 1teelf.Splitt:1n.g the :r&dges, eepecialqif not done with great cara, trequent~ cauees ths maize to lodge.All the bea:n plante seen, of whatever age, looked chlorotic. No fertilizer 1s normally used on maize/beans, on~ on ~ maize 1Ihieh ie usua.l.lJ' planted as a pura atando Northem Reg1on.(1) stal! st Mpbompba farmers train:1ng cantre. A11 sources 8greed tbat beens 1e a problem crop, w1th~elds and even area planted having declined since the 1970's.('l'hs little data available from sampl.e surveye ie copiad below).Henga 2!::!:. Ra1na beg:ln but maize la not planted er lt would mature in wet weather • .!!!l.!:. Ma1ze and beana planted together. usual.q in the sama holea, on ri.dges. Mar-AprU Beans harvested. A tew í'a:rmers split the rid8es and p1ant a rela;v bean crop, but this ls rareo ~1oJhen practiced the 10wer 1eavas oí' maize may not be removed and even ir removed they are not burried in the new ridges. Beans may be planted on the maize ri.dgea.In the Hanga vaUey, and parts ot Mphompha, lt le more normal ter the April sown bean crop to be planted on 1and which la newly cleared. OOving been unClerf'tallow. (tlroad r1dgea are made, at least 300m vide, to cover the cleared vagetation. Beans are planted randomq scross the ri.dge. 'l'h1s land 1r.Lll be used fer maize er a maize/bean m:lxture the follow1ng December.Relativaq tew beans are planted in too 2nd sesean as can be sean from the data on tbls\"]lage::¡where lt 18 all included as 'sola crop'. Possible reasons ter the 10warea planted can be suggesteda (1) Seed shortage. AlthOU8ll the crop .1uat harveated could be reo-planted this ls the asasan just before maize harveat wen beana may be bad..q needed ter food or ter sale.( This eeasone resulte are expected te show a regresion CUl\"Ve f'or ea.eh variety. Deep pH testing (belOW 1; eme), 'llhere pH can be much b1sber, ~ show 1Ihet.ber different root1ng pattems could expl sin the var1eta diftereneas. Soil cbaracter1st1C8 in larmers fields.Uost beane come from the northem region 'llhere aoU pH 16 ~ below 4.0 and therefore they are normaJ.l,v grm¡n in the chitemene (asIl cUlture) eystem. pH of bean soils in tbis eystem have bean measured by R.J. Chaatle ranging from 4-0 -9.0, normall,y at the lower end. depending largel;v on the stage in the cyel.e. The pH of ths Mba1'a tr.:l.al sitas at around 4.2 16 therefore not ~al. tb,ougb 1t was obtai.:ned by l.im1ng up from 3.9 rather than by asIl.All informante atetad that active nodUles are rarel;y sean on beans in Zambia. '!'he pr:f..mary unit la the standard annumeration area (SEA) beeed on ceneus ennurnerattón areas. In each province either 1.0% \",2.0% ot the SEA's are selected (SJStemat1c circular w1th rsndom start), then 10% 01 the households in the selected SEA are used. 20% 01 SEA o e are S' U.I\"V\\!IYed in the main maizs provincas only which does not. includa 1iI0000ham Province, the ma1n bean ares. In fUture a mastel.\" sampling treme wUl be used, as in I!'enya.Oet -Nov.Ifar Apto -July SpeCitic bean problema houaehold l1eting, se1ect1on ol lO% aamp1e crop torecast, by questionaire and in-tie14 aub-samp!e re-estimate lOl'ecaat. urea measurement snd maize cutting (only maize 1ielda are sampled) post-harvest quest1.on ai re. i'he survey 1a alwa;ys in Deo/Jan ;ret in the north, 'tIhere most beane are gl'OIIII'1, tha main eaason is Feb-Ma;y. Beans may thel.\"efore be under-estimated.In tha 19rfJ/94 l3Ul\"VeY an intercropped lield ot 1 ha 1s recO!.\"ded as 1 ha -maize plus 1 ha -beans. In 1994/85 the aystem was changed to estimating the equivalent ares under aole crop.     The expansion for the Europeen market ls at the expense of Tenzanian and French producers.Most productlon is with:ln 100 Jan of Harare, for ease of supervisian by the agente. Areae below 1,200 1.e. Chegutu and Mazowe are preferred because of their freedom from froste.For eouthem Africa sugar beans are preferred and the main variety grown ia Bonus. becauee good seed NaS available from S. Afrlca. For Europe all the basic sead la importad.Canning types (30% of tha market :In Europa) -2.5 t/ha. Green types (70% of the market :In Europe) -1.8 t/ha Coste/prlcea Costa are about Z $ 700/ha and the farmer 1a pa1d about 'Z $ 1,OOO/tonne. The crop la attractlve.u~ aldr:ln or die1dr:ln aead dress:lng le used aga:lnst bean f1y. If thia is not done then 4 apray¡¡ of diazonal ~ be needed. If apbida or red apider mite build up dimethoate la usad.  A1l eourcee agree tbat for ihe 10\\<1 veld no potash :La needed end all fertil1zer can be applied at [plBnt:ing whi1e lor b1gh altitude arese potash 1a needed and some of the nitrogen should be topdreased.The 1nnoculum factory 1a a semi-commarc1al unit within the ííiini.stry af a.gdcul.ture. In 1te yeer of maximum product1on 1981-'$2 (alight decline since than) output waa 85,000 m1ts 01 wb1ch 00,000 were tor soya, 2,000 for grounclnuta and 1,000 for beene. In the current aasson ovar 1,000 units for bSans hava been eold. ~1 unit traste 42 kg ot bean seed. Most i'armera do not know what innoculum dose, tbinldng'ita sometbing to do with germination l . Its 4\"::-::::;;:' probabq bougbt becausa the soya innoculum is drsmaticalq etlactiva and bScauee .. te chasp, • 0.75 1 unit.Onq 1 Rhillob1um atrain is uaed, ca 1141, from Australia, called 1300 M/IB. !ii Ziíilbilblre. No field~triala bave bean done. II:. was chosen an greanhouse performance and atorege Sl.nce the other atrains tor beans d1d not keep at all well. '!'he problem ~ be the bagasillo med1um usad, 1t kept batter on agar. '!'he microbi010gist dic1ded againat doing field triaJ.s saying tbat heans are not a crop 01 euffic1anl:. importance.There are some indications that 1nnoculation ~ have en effect. Dr P. Grant 01 the Zimbabwe fertilizar company sa1d in har genaral observal:.ian mnoculated heans nodulate bettar. She suggeats tbat lailure to nodulate can be due to ploughing in crop reaidue :llJI!!IeIliateq before plant:ing which 1mmobilises soU nitrogen. A f1eld e.xperiment by the bean breeder, O. Vange, in 1994 showed ai¡¡;n1f1cantq more nodules end higher y1elds on mnoculated plantal but this work has not yet bean Tliriten up.   ","tokenCount":"2111"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"272af485556e6dde59522cf59e487dfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5efbc62b-7efd-452c-b5a0-7f6f2cce888c/retrieve","id":"232242767"},"keywords":["Planning and Review Workshop","Climate Services","PICSA","Seasonal Forecast","Tanzania"],"sieverID":"92235faa-e6b7-4246-bce1-5ac6861e6a4b","pagecount":"23","content":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Juvenal Kisanga is a National Programme Officer, Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM) at World Food Programme (WFP) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Contact: juvenal.kisanga@wfp.org training manual that need to be revised, and assessing the overall sustainability of PICSA.Plenary feedback from group works in Longido, Kondoa and Kiteto districts showed that the most successful training topics were: resource allocation maps, seasonal calendar, crop/livestock/livelihood options, participatory budget, historical climate information, calculating probabilities and risks and seasonal forecast. However, despite the success of the training, some challenges remain. For one, the use of symbols is not common among farmers.In addition, not all intermediaries were able to understand the materials adequately to train farmers and pastoralist in all topics. The plenary feedback also showed a consensus that intermediaries should give opportunity to farmers to decide which symbols to use during the trainings. The teamwork teaching and learning approach-whereby 2-3 extension workers form a group to assist each other in training farmers/pastoralists and solve the problem of incompetence in some topics-was successfully implemented in Kondoa and recommended for all districts.Extension workers reported that farmers and pastoralists from all districts found the training on constructing a seasonal calendar considerably helpful for planning seasonal activities.  Although few intermediaries from Kiteto and Kondoa mentioned seasonal calendar, historical climate information, developing resource allocation maps and selecting livelihood options as challenging topics for farmers and pastoralists, these topics were ranked as the most challenging and needed additional time for recap by half of trained intermediaries from Longido. Unlike in Kiteto and Kondoa where the majority are farmers who have many livelihoods options, the majority of households (85%) in Longido are pastoralists who practice transhumance (Coulibaly et al. 2015).Discussion with trained intermediaries revealed that there are several factors contributing to the farmers' ability follow the training, including the level of education among farmers and pastoralists (those who had primary education understood more quickly than those who had no primary education), age (those aged between 30-40 and 41-50 years understood more quickly than those who are above 70s years old), and gender (men understood more quickly than women). As influenced by culture, women are generally less able to act on the advice and trainings they received because of their lower ability to control production resources. This finding concurs with the baseline study assertion that in Kiteto and Longido most women have no or only primary school education. Scientific probabilistic forecast and the uncertainty concept may not be adequately comprehended by women, and as a result women do not rely on this information in their decision-making (Coulibaly et al. 2015).Despite the challenges intermediaries faced in implementing PICSA topics, both farmers and  Working groups from Kiteto and Longido districts reported that after receiving PICSA trainings farmers have adopted the habits of timely preparation of land, application of manure and using seasonal calendar. In Kiteto there has been an increase of agricultural production. In Longido district, pastoralists began to keep cattle for business rather than for prestige as they have done historically. As a result, pastoralists are now able to purchase cattle feeds during the dry season. On the other hand, Masai pastoralists who have traditionally favored keeping cattle over other options have been opting to reduce the number of cattle by selling them to do other activities.Unlike previous years, farmers are now able to access and rely on seasonal forecast information to grow crops accordingly. The baseline study conducted in 2014 found out that farmers and pastoralists were relying mostly on their indigenous knowledge and personal experience to inform their crop and livestock decision-making. The scientific climate information received by farmers and pastoralists-typically forecasts on rainfall onset and for extreme events-was often perceived as unreliable, especially if the weather events do not unfold as predicted, and thus is not among common sources of information factored into the farmers and pastoralists' agricultural decision making (Coulibaly et al 2015). One of the important achievements of this project is changing the minds of farmers and pastoralists to trust scientific forecasting given by TMA.In regard to challenges experienced by intermediaries during the implementation of PISCA, presentations from working groups reported that the challenging topics like calculating probabilities and risks, use of picture and symbols, and seasonal forecast information came late and were not accessed by the majority of farmers. In addition, not all intermediaries were able to understand well and train farmers and pastoralist in all topics. Some farmers and pastoralists reportedly challenged the PICSA approach and the focus on historical climate information as they were more interested in future rainfall trends and how it will affect their activities. However, it was reported that PICSA topics overall were useful and relevant to farmers and pastoralists.It was discussed and agreed in the plenary session that different approaches should be used on some topics presented to simplify understanding among farmers. On calculating probabilities and risks, in addition to teaching farmers to calculate these probabilities and risks, intermediaries should focus on advising farmers how to use these calculations in decisionmaking. On the participatory budget topic, it was agreed that intermediaries should use commonly used symbols, and farmers should be able to suggest symbols more accessible to them. Overall, intermediaries suggested that the program encourage participatory learning approaches, such as teamwork teaching and learning.There were a number of logistical challenges experienced by intermediaries. One issue was the lack of stipend budget for food and water for the farmers who had travelled long distances to the training stations, especially women who had come with young children. Since other international organizations that have worked with these communities typically give farmers a stipend, some extension workers had to spend time convincing farmers on the importance of the PICSA trainings. Poor timing can also greatly impact training attendance and continuity of trainings. In Kondoa, the training was implemented during the month of general election, resulting in farmers not being able to attend the training due to conflicts with events related to election campaigns. In Longido, many farmers could not attend the trainings as they were engaged in farming activities, while pastoralists often had to shift location to look for pasture and water away from their home villages.Cultural norms and language barriers also presented some constraints to training effort. The Masai culture, which favors keeping cattle over other options, also presented a great challenge during the identification and ranking livelihood options training. Extension workers in Longido reported that, according to the Masai culture, women cannot speak or make any contribution in the presence of men, making it difficult to assess whether they have understood the materials or need any clarifications. Furthermore, although intermediaries reported understanding on all terminologies used in PICSA manual, terminologies used in forecast by meteorologists are still not accessible. It was discussed and agreed upon that PICSA manual should be translated into Kiswahili, a language well understood by the majority of farmers. A translated summary of participatory budget, crop probabilities and seasonal forecast should also be shared with farmers after each training.In Kiteto, some challenges include farmers' inability to buy quality seeds or unknowingly buy uncertified seeds that resembled certified ones, causing them losses. Another challenge is associated with pastoralists' resistance to reducing the large quantity of their cattle herd that often causes unplanned movement.The TMA gave presentations on downscaled seasonal rainfall outlook for the period of After the TMA presentation on seasonal forecast, intermediaries posed a number of issues and questions, many of them concerning the 10-day forecasts not reaching farmers in time or at all, even though farmers' names and phone numbers have already been collected, and concerning unresolved weather station problems in many areas. According to the baseline study report, the farmer and pastoralist respondents, regardless of gender, want the seasonal information to arrive at the beginning of the season or several weeks before the event in order to incorporate it in their crop and herd management (Hampson et al. 2015). Intermediaries suggested that the TMA should determine which local radios are used in each district and work with them to disseminate seasonal forecast information to farmers in a timely manner.Seasonal forecasts are still general, especially for geographically large districts like Kiteto and Kondoa. Downscaling climate information to be location specific will make the service more relevant and credible for farmers. In Longido district, farmers and pastoralists depend heavily on seasonal forecast from the neighboring country, Kenya, as the Kenya BroadcastingCooperation's signal is stronger than the Tanzania there. However, the Kenyan seasonal forecasts tend to contradict those disseminated by the TMA, causing confusions.Intermediaries suggested that the TMA should determine which local radios are used in each district and work with them to disseminate seasonal forecast information to farmers in a timely manner. Intermediaries also recommended that the TMA should work with the Kenyan Meteorological Agency to avoid conflicting forecasts in the Longido region. They also suggested that the TMA produce and distribute brochures to farmers to help familiarize them with terminologies used in TMA forecasts.Intermediaries and district extension officers had an opportunity to discuss how PICSA can be sustained in their localities, and agreed that the TMA should continue sharing seasonal and short team forecast, including downscaled seasonal and ten-day forecast, while all district should commit to use forecast information from TMA in all planning related to agriculture and livestock.Intermediaries suggested that, for long term program sustainability, there should be an Intermediaries also suggested that the TMA should utilize the available farmer and pastoralist groups and their leaders at village level as a resource. In the Masai community in Longido, for example, trainings should include traditional leaders-especially the Laigwanan (community elders)-in the trainings and use these influential figures to spread information through village assembly. This method was also recommended by the baseline study report as an effective means to deliver information to a large proportion of farmers and livestock keepers in rural communities and do not require ownership or access to communication assets like radio, cell phone, and TV (Coulibaly et al. 2015).Planning and review meetings have guided both PICSA program managers and intermediaries to focus more on long-term GFCS project sustainability. The findings from these meetings show that PICSA fits well into planning and activities undertaken by extension workers from village to district levels. Efforts and strategies to enhance and integrate PICSA village, ward and district budgets require support from all GFCS project stakeholders.All intermediaries had an opportunity to plan the next steps based on seasonal and 10-day forecasts, especially on how they are going to engage and work with farmers. For most of the Longido, PICSA implementation will start in January 2016. In Kiteto district, where the seasonal forecast starts in December, the second training was scheduled to start immediately in November. For Kondoa district, intermediaries will continue working with farmers and guide them on PICSA approaches before seasonal rains onset.Working groups concluded that while there were some challenges in implementing PICSA, about 935 farmers in Kondoa district, 1572 in Kiteto district, and 1453 in Longido district have been trained. It has been reported that all PICSA topics were understood, relevant and useful to farmers and pastoralists. Farmers and pastoralists have begun to adopt the trainings into their practices and have started sharing this information in village meetings and Ward Development Community meetings. Addressing some of the logistical, cultural and language challenges based on feedback from intermediaries will allow PICSA trainings to be more accessible to farmers and pastoralists, and the PICSA approach to be better adopted into local agricultural practices.","tokenCount":"1924"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"27be7be862d0eaf3df2520542910da1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/796c13e8-ed4b-4ae3-9c09-7d358a8f8331/retrieve","id":"1213480097"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aeaeada2-7db4-4298-a527-efeeb193450e","pagecount":"12","content":"Livestock production is important for food security, nutrition, and landscape maintenance, but it is associated with several environmental impacts. To assess the risk and benefits arising from livestock production, transparent and robust indicators are required, such as those offered by life cycle assessment. A central question in such approaches is how environmental burden is allocated to livestock products and to manure that is re-used for agricultural production. To incentivize sustainable use of manure, it should be considered as a co-product as long as it is not disposed of, or wasted, or applied in excess of crop nutrient needs, in which case it should be treated as a waste. This paper proposes a theoretical approach to define nutrient requirements based on nutrient response curves to economic and physical optima and a pragmatic approach based on crop nutrient yield adjustedThe livestock sector contributes to the livelihood of millions of people, but their production poses several environmental challenges such as greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication, acidification and biodiversity loss (Mottet et al., 2017). While livestock products are rich in essential macro-(e.g. proteins) and micronutrients (e.g. Zn, Fe, Vitamins, see Parodi et al., 2018) contributing globally 18% of food energy and 25% of food protein (Steinfeld et al., 2006) the consumption of livestock products can also be associated with health risks (Springmann et al., 2018;Willett et al., 2019). Livestock can help transfer and convert proteins from plant biomass (e.g. grass or by-products, rangelands, or food waste) into animal-sourced foods utilizing resources that otherwise cannot be consumed by humans, but in other cases livestock production is in competition with other land uses such as food, fiber and energy production (Van Zanten et al., 2018).Ruminants, pigs and poultry have very different nutritional requirement for crude protein and energy, feed conversion efficiencies, and pathways of N excretion in manure. Feed N conversion efficiencies are highest for pigs and poultry, and lowest with beef cattle and depend on the type and amount of N consumed by each particular livestock species (Flachowsky, 2002;Huhtanen and Hristov, 2009). In general terms, between 55 and 95% of the nitrogen (N) and about 70% of the phosphorus (P) ingested by livestock are excreted through urine or feces (Menzi et al., 2010). A further inefficiency can occur from imbalances between nutrient imports (e.g. purchased feeds, animals) and managed exports (e.g. sale of animal products, manure) in livestock production systems, resulting in nutrient losses to the environment and additions to soil storage (Waldrip et al., 2015).The management of nutrient supply for agricultural production is central to agriculture and food supply chains. It has driven the development of agricultural practices through time, such as manure recycling and crop residues management, as well as the application of mineral fertilizer since its invention in the early 20th century (Erisman et al., 2008;Gerber et al., 2014). The considerable perturbation of the nutrient cycles since the industrialization of agriculture through increased fertilizer use and agricultural production has amplified the detrimental effects on ecosystems and human health (Galloway et al., 2003;Leip et al., 2015;Sutton et al., 2011). There is great uncertainty on how best to strike a balance between fertilizer (and manure) nutrient recommendations, economic yield, nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and environmental outcomes (Dalgaard et al., 2014). The nutrient value of manure has long been recognised but the ease of use of inexpensive manufactured mineral fertilizers has led to their dominance in many industrialized countries (Powell et al., 2010).Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely used tool to assess the environmental impacts of livestock supply chains and of resultant products (e.g. Gerber et al., 2010;van Zanten et al., 2016;Weiss and Leip, 2012). Where multiple products are produced, the environmental emissions are allocated between the various co-products, usually recognizing the stepwise procedure outlined in ISO14044 (ISO, 2006). When manure is produced as an output from livestock systems it may be considered as a waste or residual, where all system emissions are assigned to the other products, or as a co-product where it is recognised as a valuable product. For example, in the Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) partnership guidelines on poultry (FAO, 2016a) and large ruminants (Fao, 2016b) it is recommended that if manure is a valuable co-product, the production system emissions are allocated using a biophysical approach based on the energy for digestion that is generated by the animal for production of the manure.Economic allocation based on the relative revenue received for manure compared with that for the other co-products at the farm-gate could be a viable alternative. In practice, however, the economic revenue from manure may be an artifact of regulatory policy and may not be a good representation of the true value of the manure, depending on the geographical context. Manure also has value to improvements in soil quality and productivity, for example in building up organic matter or improving soil water retention, which often are difficult to quantify and are variable based upon past soil management practice. In most cases, manure is used as a valuable resource because of its nutrient value, particularly a source of the major nutrients of N and P, none of the current approaches is able to properly reflect this benefit that drives farmers to accept manure. Thus, an alternative approach for allocating emissions from a manure co-product could be based on its nutrient value.The objective of this study is to present a new methodology for the allocation of emissions in livestock supply chains over the co-products, based on the nutrient value of manure for crop production. In Section 2 we first introduce the concept and a method called 'theoretical approach'. As data for this approach will in most cases be unavailable we simplify the approach in Section 2.2 ('pragmatic approach'). The concept is illustrated using two case studies introduced in Section 2.3-2.4 with the results presented in Section 3 and discussed in Section 4. We finally conclude in Section 5.This study was developed in the context of the technical advisory group on modelling of nutrient flows and impact assessment in the livestock supply chains (FAO, 2018) of the Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) Partnership. The LEAP Partnership is a multi-stakeholder initiative composed of three stakeholder clusters: Governments, Private Sector, and Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations and is hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO).In the following, we develop a method for the quantification of the allocation of upstream emissions from a livestock system A between manure and other livestock products using attributional LCA, where the manure is used outside this livestock system. We do so based on the value that the manure provides to a system B which can be another livestock system, a crop system, or a non-agricultural system. As such, the method could be described as a 'hybrid' allocation approach, since it looks beyond the point of allocation as done in system expansion approaches. We note that this manuscript will look at the value that is carried with nutrients in manure thus ignoring other possible benefits of using manure. However, the approach described in this study can easily be extended to capture further benefits.To estimate the fertilizer value of manure, a framework based on plant growth curves is proposed as a basis to allocate environmental emissions from animal supply chains between the main animal products and manure. Most farmers use manure as an organic fertilizer because of its availability but the specific nutrient equivalent of the manure is often not estimated. This fertilizer equivalence defines the amount of manure that the farmer would apply if s/he had to purchase mineral fertilizers to provide the required nutrients (e.g. N and P) for plant uptake. Because manure is generally not traded with a price based on its fertilizer properties, the fertilizer equivalence value needs to be estimated with other approaches. For nutrients, this can be measured using the synthetic mineral fertilizer that the farmer would buy in case the manure was not available.For mineral fertilizers, the 'economic optimum' describes the application rate at which the marginal cost of additional fertilizer applications is the same as the additional revenue from increased harvest. If the cost for the mineral fertilizer is C min nut , [US$ (kg nutrient) −1 ] and revenue for the harvest is R crop [US$ (kg DM) −1 ], then the economic optimum ecopt is the application rate of mineral fertilizer Q min nut , [kg nutrient ha −1 yr −1 ] at which Equation (1) holds:where Y crop [kg DM ha −1 yr −1 ] is the yield of a crop. For a full list of symbols and indices used throughout the paper please see Section 7.For higher fertilizer application rates, the costs become higher and it is thus not rational to apply beyond the economic optimum from an agronomic perspective. However, if nutrients are free of costs, additional application may lead to yield increases until the physical optimum, beyond which application of fertilizers will not add any benefit.The nutrient equivalent f eq for the nutrients contained in the manure defines the amount of mineral fertilizers that provides the same amount of nutrients to the crop. Here we are interested in the amount of manure that provides the same crop uptake as mineral fertilizers at the economic optimum for mineral fertilizers ecopt. We define therefore the nutrient equivalent f eq as the ratio of mineral fertilizer application at the economic optimum and manure application rate providing the same uptake of nutrients (Equation ( 2)).We define useful outputs (Q output,nut ) as the nutrients taken up by the plant biomass, including crop residues (Q plant,nut ), plus possible accumulation of the nutrient in the soil if ultimately available for crop uptake (Q ssc,nut ). The difference between all inputs and useful outputs of the nutrient nut (Q) gives the nutrient surplus (Q surplus nut , ) which equals the sum of all losses to atmosphere and hydrosphere (see the nutrient balance Equation (3)). Assuming equal distribution of nutrients across crop compartments (harvested crops, straw, crop residues, roots), the only difference in N output between different fertilizer types is the soil stock change (Q ssc ).The concept is illustrated in Fig. 1 where a higher nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is assumed for mineral fertilizer as compared to manure.The value of the applied manure as a co-product is calculated from the amount of manure nutrients provided with manure up to yield that is achieved at the economic optimum for mineral fertilizers, net of nutrients that are obtained from other sources such as net soil mineralization, biological nitrogen fixation, or atmospheric deposition. This is to emphasize sustainable use of those nutrient sources. We summarize them in the term 'non-manageable nutrient input' (Q non-mgb ) (Equation ( 4)). Note that because of the convention of considering soil mineralization (=depletion of soil nutrient stocks) as a negative output, Q ssc nut , is used in Equation ( 4) with a negative sign.with ssc: soil stock changes, bnf: biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, atmdep: atmospheric deposition. For P, this would include P release from bedrock. Nutrients from land-applied manure and compost continue to become plant-available in successive growing seasons (Bar-Tal et al., 2004;Hadas et al., 1996;Hanč et al., 2008). Equation ( 6) allows mineralization of residual manure-nutrient to be accounted for by increasing the input of Q ssc,nut to Q non-mgb,nut . This shifts the crop response curves for manure and mineral fertilizers (Fig. 1) to the right, decreasing the requirement for nutrient inputs to meet current season demand. A range of models are available that enable this manure nutrient mineralization and availability to be estimated (e.g. Archontoulis et al., 2014;Beraud et al., 2005).In case the farmer applies manure at a rate beyond Q man nut ecopt , ,(see Equation ( 2)) when the response rate is declining but below the physical maximum Q man nut MX , ,s/he generates value only because the manure is freely available (or cheaper than mineral fertilizers) and external costs caused by the losses are not internalized. This share of manure must be considered as a co-product but using a lower value.The amount of manure valued as a co-product with the full fertilizer cost C min nut , is calculated as Q full nut , in Equation ( 5). It is the manure application rate at the economic optimum, or the total application rate of nutrients in manure if this is less than the application rate at the economic optimum.Equation ( 6) calculates the additional manureQ low nut, that is valued as a co-product but with lower nutrient equivalent price.is the difference of the manure application rate and Q full nut ,, if positive -but not more than the difference between Q man mx , and Q full nut ,. The lower nutrient price is calculated from the integral of the additional benefit of manure application, being the nutrient equivalent value close to the economic optimum, and zero at the physical maximum, because no further yield increase results from the application. The lower nutrient price is therefore approximately half fertilizer price if Q low nut , is at the level or higher than at the physical maximum Q man mx nut , ,. Generalizing, we use a discount factor for calculating the total value of the applied manure V man nut , in Equation ( 7). . Illustration of crop response curves for increasing application rates of nutrients from mineral fertilizers and manure. This assumes a lower NUE for manure than for mineral fertilizers. In both cases, input of fertilizer is given in addition to non-manageable nutrient inputs from atmospheric deposition and biological N fixation, or mineralization of e.g. crop residues. The figure shows the location of the economic optimum (at rates for ecopt) and the physical optimum at rates mx.In the case where multiple nutrients are assessed, the benefit of each nutrient is evaluated separately, and the values assumed to be additive in order to estimate the total value of the applied manure. Hence, in an example where both N and P are being evaluated, the total value of manure would be according to Equation (8):Any application of nutrients in manure beyond Q man mx nut , ,is considered as waste (Q waste ) and all associated emissions are allocated back to the livestock supply chain that produced the manure. The method for assigning a value (Q )man nut , vs. waste (Q waste ) for nutrients applied in excess should be nutrient specific.Fig. 2 illustrates the possible cases for determining the amount of applied manure that is considered as a co-product or waste, or 'remains' within the same livestock supply chains.To allocate the emissions from the livestock supply chain E lvst [kg CO 2-eq ] for manure versus other co-products (e.g. live-animals, eggs, wool, milk), the economic value is used. These emissions arise from the animals (e.g. enteric fermentation), housing, and manure treatment and management up to the point that it or a part of it is sold to a crop farmer, and all emissions from manure that is used within the supply Fig. 2. A decision diagram illustrating the possible share of applied manure that is considered a co-product or a waste. For explanation of the symbols see text.chain (the 'NO' branch at level A in Fig. 2). The livestock co-products return a revenue to the farmer of V lvst [US$]. But a part of the manure is exported out of the supply chain for application to croplands or other uses. That manure can cause further emissions E man [kg CO 2-eq ] at the point where it is stored and following application to the fields.Generalizing Equation ( 8) for a situation where the manure is applied on different fields i at a share x i , the total value of applied manure is obtained as in Equation ( 10):The allocation of emissions to the livestock products ( lvstk ) and manure ( ) man supply chains is according to economic allocation thus:The total emissions to be allocated amongst the livestock products include also any emissions on the crop farm for any of the applied manure that is considered as a waste:For whole farm system analysis, allocation between the various livestock products (e.g. milk, meat, fibre) would be carried out using recommended protocols (e.g. FAO, 2016a, b IDF, 2015).In many situations, available information is insufficient to establish a crop response curve and NUE at the economic optimum for mineral fertilizers and/or manure are not available. In those cases, we propose to estimate the nutrient equivalent f eq on the basis of actual crop nutrient uptake rates and standard loss rates, using e.g. default loss rates as in the IPCC (IPCC, 2006) or LEAP (FAO, 2018) guidelines, taking into consideration environmental conditions and farm management practices as far as possible, or using representative loss rates measured or modelled for representative/similar conditions. These conditions can be used to estimate standard mineral nutrient Q ( )and manure nutrient Q ( )application rates. Thus, Equation ( 2) Fig. 3. A decision diagram illustrating the possible share of applied manure that is considered a co-product or a waste following the pragmatic approach. For explanation of the symbols see text.transforms to:Assuming losses to the atmosphere and to the hydrosphere, both expressed as fractions of available nutrient that is lost through the respective pathways, the nutrient equivalent is obtained from Equation ( 14).  (and the corresponding term for manure) is required to account for the fact that nutrients available for potential loss to the hydrosphere represent the net after subtracting the losses to the atmosphere. This is the case when losses occur mainly through leaching rather than run-off processes.In the pragmatic approach, the standard application rate is estimated from the difference between crop uptake rate and losses. It is not possible to distinguish between the economic and physical optimum and the decision diagram simplifies to that in Fig. 3. Thus, it is different from the theoretical approach in not directly recognizing the contribution from Q non-mgt nor the variation in economic optimum rate with prices.This case study uses data from an organic dairy farm in Sao Paulo State, Southeast region of Brazil which uses poultry manure from a neighboring farmer to fertilize maize fields for production of feeds as green maize and maize silage. This is motivated by the fact that the manure and milking parlor effluent from the dairy enterprise are insufficient to fertilize the maize area and that due to the organic system, application of a mineral fertilizer is not allowed.The dairy farm was monitored throughout the year 2016 with data available on a monthly basis (see supplementary information). Main annual data are provided in Table 1, while chemical characteristics of products and feeds are given in Table 2.The dairy farm produced about 470 Mg milk, sold for a value of about US$ 224,000 from an average of 67.4 lactating cows (19 kg milk cow −1 day −1 ). The protein content of milk was 3.74%. We assumed an N content of 6.38 g N g −1 milk protein, and a P content of 0.9 g P kg −1 of milk (NEPA, 2012), giving a total of 2755 kg N in milk produced over the year. Manure excretion rate was 55 kg manure per livestock unit per day (LU, equivalent to 500 kg live weight; LW) totaling 1.9 kt manure year −1 .The feed mix for the lactating cows consisted of grass (20% protein), green maize (9% protein), soy meal (45% protein), and maize silage (9.5% protein). Feeding on rotational grass was possible during the wet season (September through April), and during the dry season (May through August) maize silage was fed. Over the year, a total of 12.6 t N was fed to the lactating cow herd (see Table 3).Most of the dairy manure was deposited on pasture land and the nutrients in the effluent from the milking parlor were insufficient for the cultivation of all the farm-grown feeds. Therefore, the farmer purchased poultry litter from a neighboring poultry farm, applying 20 t ha −1 on pasture and maize produced for silage. Thus, the farmer applied 464 kg N ha −1 year −1 on maize silage that compared to a harvest of only 230 kg N ha −1 year −1 (see Table 4 -results).For the estimation of the allocation of emissions to the applied poultry litter we estimated a value for broilers of 0.65 US$ (kg poultry) −1 and a value of mineral fertilizer of 0.7 US$ (kg N) −1 .The poultry farmer had three barns with 3300 chickens in each barn. Two-thirds of the poultry litter produced was sold to the dairy farmer.FAO (2016c, appendix 3) proposes a method for physical allocation of burden to eggs, meat and manure using the partitioning of the metabolizable energy (ME) into ME requirements for maintenance, growth, and production. This is used to calculate the Heat Increment of Feeding (HIF) to produce eggs, meat, and manure. The method is illustrated using an example of a laying operation with 1000 layers. Details on the calculation and background data for the example are found in FAO (2016c, appendix 3). The HIF-based allocation results in 46.5% for eggs, 27.4% for meat and 26.1% for manure, while the allocation between eggs and meat only (treating manure as a residual) is 63% for eggs and 37% for meat. The average spent hen weight was 3.3 kg; the mass of eggs produced in 100 weeks was 23.3 kg. We compare these results with an economic allocation and a mixed allocation approach. The economic allocation requires farm gate prices of cereals, mineral fertilizers, eggs, and poultry meat, which were obtained from the CAPRI database (for the year 2008) for EU-28. Other data required to obtain the value of manure versus the value of eggs and poultry meat are the N and P contents in each co-product, and the edible fraction of the poultry body mass, which are given in Table 5.This example has no 'crop farmer' who buys the manure but is illustrating that nutrient equivalents could be obtained in principle also without knowing specifically where the manure is applied.Table 6 shows the data required to calculate the allocation factor to be applied to sold poultry manure for allocating emissions from poultry production (in housing and manure management before selling) to the dairy farm. The calculation assumes losses of ammonia (NH 3 ) of 20% for both poultry litter (IPCC, 2006) and urea (EEA, 2016) and losses via leaching of 13% (estimated considering the climatic, soil and agricultural practices in the farm for poultry litter and assuming the same leaching rate for mineral fertilizer). With a crop uptake of 230 kg N ha −1 year −1 , this could have been met by application of 330 kg N ha −1 year −1 of mineral nutrient equivalents (using the pragmatic approach). Applying a price of 0.7 US$ kg −1 of N in mineral fertilizer, the value of the nutrient equivalent is 241 US$.It is known that the poultry farmer sells two thirds of the poultry litter to the dairy farmer. Based on manure production of 1.1 kg N (1000 kg of broiler chickens) −1 day −1 (IPCC, 2006) to calculate the amount of poultry per hectare-equivalent and a price of 0.65 US$ kg −1 of chicken sold, the revenue for chicken meat is US$ 1127.The poultry farmer has thus two products from the poultry: poultry meat with a revenue of US$ 1127 for each ha of maize silage production the manure was applied to, and manure for an equivalent mineral fertilizer value of US$ 241 ha −1 of maize silage production where the poultry litter was applied. This results in an economic allocation factor of 18%. However, the real price that was paid for the poultry litter was US$ 710 ha −1 . The dairy farmer thus not only bought about 40% more poultry litter than would be required to achieve the same yield, but paid also a price that was almost three times as high as the price the farmer would have had to pay for mineral fertilizers.Using the data from Table 5, the economic calculations result in allocation of 6% of emissions to manure, 94% to eggs (86%) and meat (8%) (Table 7). The allocation takes into consideration all value that manure gives to the farmer for crop production, which in this example is the sum of the economic values of N and P. However, other values could be considered as well (carbon, soil structural benefit), as long as the benefit can be monetized. The allocation amongst eggs and meat varies depending on whether the physical allocation factors developed by FAO (2016c) are used, or all allocation factors calculated based on economic allocation. Table 7 compares the result of both methods with a 'mixed' approach (see footnote of Table 7) and an economic approach considering manure as residual.Thus where manure is considered as co-product, 6% of burden is allocated to the crop it is applied to (when it is applied to land). To determine if the application of manure is to be considered as waste, additional information is required, such as the sources of other inputs to the land including atmospheric deposition, biological fixation, and mineralization of soil organic matter or use of inputs from previous years (e.g. crop residues) (but not the input of mineral fertilizers), and the maximum amount of nutrients that should be applied at the economic and physical optima.Recognizing the nutrient value in manure and thus treating manure as a co-product may encourage the livestock farmers to ensure that nutrients in manure at excretion are not lost during manure management and storage as this will directly decrease the nutrient equivalent value of his/her product. Additionally, it is in the interest of livestock farmers to ensure appropriate use of the nutrients, i.e. no application rate in excess of crop needs. For farmers living in regions of high livestock density as is the case for many Brazilian farmers, there is generally an oversupply of manure, which leads to manure being wasted, unless it is processed and/or transported to regions with demand for manure.However, economic incentives for efficient manure management practices and efficient nutrient use depend on the existence of a price for the external effects allocated, so we might hypothesize what would happen if GHG emissions from agriculture would be included in a carbon trading scheme? In practice, livestock farmers would need to be certified for the sustainable use of the manure in order to be able to get credits for the GHG emissions. This context holds also for the instances where manure is used for various other purposes including biogas generation (Amjid et al., 2011), biomass fuel (Roy et al., 2010), feeding of animals and fish (Negesse et al., 2007) and production of insects for feeds or foods (Hussein et al., 2017). In these situations, an approach similar to the one explained here could be developed, based on the value as a fuel or feed.While cropping farmers are interested in the nutrient content of manures, there are also GHG emissions associated with their use. A farmer may only purchase manure if the GHG burden is equal or lower than the equivalent emissions from mineral fertilizer, or the price is lower so that the additional cost for GHG emissions is compensated. This view applies to regions where livestock density and feeding practices lead to oversupply of nutrient. In many low income countries such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa, manure is often the only source of nutrient for crop production and farmers often keep livestock of this reason (Rufino et al., 2007(Rufino et al., , 2006)).If manure carries a higher GHG burden it will be less attractive to cropping farmers and would otherwise remain in the livestock supply chain, or need to be disposed of. The situation potentially changes if carbon sequestration associated with manure use is taken into   consideration. In this case, it might be attractive for the crop farmer given the evidence that continuous applications of manure can increase soil C and N stocks (Zavattaro et al., 2017). The value of manure, when applied at agronomic rates, may extend beyond nutrient replacement value to include soil quality improvements. These benefits are difficult to quantify economically but include natural resource and productivity value. Application of manure can influence the soil biological, physical and chemical environment with impacts on crop productivity, including benefits of macro-aggregate formation with reduced soil loss and runoff over several seasons (Graham et al., 2014;Wortmann, 2013;Wortmann and Shapiro, 2008). An extensive literature review of 141 studies comparing manure substitution for fertilizer revealed that manure had average reductions of 26% and 29% in nitrogen loss to surface and ground water, respectively (Xia et al., 2017).What is the correct price for manure? In case study A, the farmer paid more per kg N in poultry manure than one would have to pay for mineral fertilizer. However, since organic farming prohibits the application of mineral fertilizer, manure is a scarce nutrient resource for such a high-productive crop and the farmer was thus prepared to pay a Notes.a Source: IPCC 2006, Table 10.19. b Price of poultry estimated. The price paid for the poultry litter was R$ 115 per ton of wet poultry litter. Average price of urea in Brazil in2016 was R$ 1,100,00 per ton or US$ 355 per ton = 1,26 US$ (kg N) −1 (exchange rage 0.31 US$ per R$). c Revenue from broiler chickens based on a price for chicken meat in Brazil of 0.65 US$ (kg poultry) −1 and a share of poultry litter sold of 67%. d Volatilization rates for manure as per default IPCC (2006); volatilization rate for mineral fertilizer assuming application of urea (45% N). Emission factor from EEA (2016), Chapter 3D-Table 3.2 EF for NH 3 emissions from fertilizers (in g NH 3 (kg N applied) −1 ) for urea in warm climate. e Leaching of manure considering the climatic, soil and agricultural practices in the farm. We assumed the same leaching rate for mineral fertilizer.high price. In that case, it seems appropriate to allocate the higher share of 39% of poultry emission to maize silage production, which will increase the footprint of the milk as the main product at the dairy farm.On that farm, the application of manure was in excess of crop needs. We estimated that for a crop uptake of 230 kg N/ha, a quantity of more than 450 kg N/ha in poultry manure was purchased and applied. A large part of the applied manure was 'wasted'. In Section 2.1 we argued that wasted manure (i.e. applied in excess of crop needs or not used at all for any benefit) is to be considered as 'waste' thus all emissions remain (or are 'given back') to the main product(s) of the farm where the manure was produced, i.e. to poultry meat. This might seem 'counter-intuitive' as the dairy farmer paid good money for the 'wasted' manure, but the associated emissions go back to the poultry farmer. This leads to the strange situation in this case study that 18% of emissions from poultry and poultry manure management before selling of the manure is allocated to milk, but 29% (i.e. 134 kg N ha −1 excess of the total 464 kg N ha −1 applied) of emission caused by management of the manure on the dairy farm and from application of the manure to the maize fields is allocated 'back' to poultry meat. Unfortunately, there is no information on the management and emissions of the poultry farm. An alternative method for estimating the allocation of poultry emission to the dairy milk is to use the price that has been paid. This would be the 'normal' approach for any economic allocation procedure, but prices may be distorted and this would not give reasonable results in most cases. The pressure of getting rid of the manure due to environmental restriction for its application can lead to the fact that a price is paid that is more driven by the opportunity cost of having to dispose of the manure in other sustainable ways and could thus even be negative in case additional costs for the transport of the manure to the selling location occur to the farmer. In many cases though, manure is sold below the price of its fertilizer value and the price paid for manure can therefore not be used generally for the allocation of emissions.The approach developed here is motivated to incentivize farmers producing manure to proper use of the nutrients beyond their own farm if they want to minimize the footprint of their products. If responsibility is transferred to the crop farmer, the livestock farmer has less motivation to ensure proper use of the manure. In many cases, the price paid for the manure will be lower than the nutrient equivalent value, and in some cases there might not even be a crop product to which the waste could be allocated to. One way to incentivize change may be to assign the emissions of the wasted manure back to the livestock system. The crop farmer has less interest in using the manure carefully, although may be affected by other factors (e.g. effects on water quality or cost of fertilizer if manure nutrient value is ignored), but needs to 'certify' proper use to the livestock farmer. Thus, this approach engages both partners and makes both liable if the manure is applied excessively.Empirical evidence from crop-livestock mixed farming in Kenya (Castellanos-Navarrete et al., 2015) shows that manure is often the only source of nutrients for crops, representing a modest amount of the total crop uptake (16 kg N per ha), and about 300 kg C per ha to the soil. Yet, this addition of nutrients is crucial to sustain the production of food crops in the absence of other sources of nutrients (Castellanos-Navarrete et al., 2015). A recent study by Rurangwa et al. (2017) suggested that, in Rwanda, cattle manure is sold to crop farmers that grow vegetables, but its price is variable by district. For example, in the Kamonyi district, a pit of 5 t of manure, which contained 45 kg N, 25 kg P and 65 kg K cost 27 US$, whereas in Bugesera, it cost 13.45 US $, despite containing more nutrients, i.e. 90 kg N, 10 kg P and 70 kg K. Considering N only, the difference in manure price was 4-fold between these districts. The overall price, however, was lower than the urea market price in Rwanda, estimated at 1.41 US$ kg N −1 .This indicates that in some countries, manure is treated as a valuable resource, but uncertainty in the benefit means that its price is variable and consequently cheaper than fertilizer.In the Brazilian case study, we accounted only for the value of nitrogen in the poultry litter, while case study 2 accounted for N and P in manure. However, co-application of N and P in manure might lead to a situation of a high nutrient equivalent value for one nutrient and no fertilizer value for another nutrient. In several countries manure was seen as a source of N mainly but had led to excessive accumulation of P in soils resulting in eutrophication of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In this case, application of manure should be based on the required rate of the most limiting nutrient (P) in order to avoid the negative consequences related to over-application of that nutrient. The approach proposed in this paper needs therefore to be seen as one of several measures that needs to be combined for example with application limits to avoid food safety risks related to pathogens, heavy metals or other substances, and ensure environmental stewardship. Individual nutrients might be given value only if the soil test concentration is at levels consistent with recommendations for crop response from nutrient supplementation, taking into consideration multiple cropping years for less mobile nutrient such as P. The time window for evaluating manure nutrient value vs. waste should be specific for all nutrients commonly supplemented in a fertility program (most commonly N and P, possibly K, S, and Fe).We developed a relatively simple methodology that calculates the allocation of emissions from livestock production systems to manure and other animal products such as eggs, milk, or meat. As manure is often traded at a price that is not necessarily linked to its fertilizer value, the approach quantifies the value of an equivalent application of mineral fertilizers, which the farmer would apply in order to achieve the same crop yields. We believe that embedding a part of the emissions from livestock supply chains in the manure that is used as a fertilizer on crops outside the supply chains might contribute to increased awareness of the environmental effects of emissions associated with manure and consequently more sustainable management of manure. However, this can work only if the cost of the externalities caused by manure (contribution to global warming, health impacts through air pollution, coastal eutrophication, to name a few) are priced into their causes, the emissions of GHGs and losses of nutrients to atmosphere and waters. Overall, the approach developed here could potentially contribute to more awareness of the consequences of excess manure production and ultimately to improved management. Improved manure management could increase overall yield which would be important in countries/ regions where nutrients are a limiting valuable resource, as noted inAllocation factors of the poultry system in the example over eggs, poultry meat and manure on the basis of economic allocation between manure and food products and physical allocation based on heat increment for feeding (FAO, 2016c) a For the mixed allocation method, economic allocation is used for manure versus other co-products, and bio-physical allocation for eggs versus poultry meat. some African countries. Greater use of manure with less waste could lead to increased circularity and reduced fertilizer requirement.AL conceived the idea of the paper; AL, SL and AU contributed equally to the writing of the manuscript; JP contributed with data and calculations for the Brazilian case study; all co-authors contributed with discussions of the approach and to the writing of the manuscript.","tokenCount":"6334"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d42cd1ccdbcfd7013fff69c9868418e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c25eb3ed-ab2d-4541-a403-dfc4fd687cb1/retrieve","id":"485618509"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"131645e2-c4db-48b0-90a1-61cf4e51ef86","pagecount":"3","content":"The Foresight Monitoring Tool for Adaptive Management and Learning was designed to support planning, reporting, managing, and learning along the Foresight Initiative Theory of Change (ToC) which is populated by a number of knowledge products, capacity sharing activities and innovations generated by the synergistic collaboration of a multidisciplinary team of scientists from 11 CGIAR Centers and external partners. The Foresight Monitoring Tool was reported as an in 2022.Addressing the intricate challenge of coordinating diverse activities across entities, scales, and timeframes before reporting finalized results into the Performance and Results Management System -Reporting Tool (PRMS), the Foresight Monitoring Tool allows us to track efforts needed to deliver on the Theory of Change, by providing additional insights on the following areas: Currently, data is input into the Foresight Monitoring Tool via Excel which served its purpose during the tool's initial development. However, recognizing its limitations, the team proposes a transition to an MIS system. This strategic shift aims to establish seamless connections between the tool and its primary data source-the scientists. By enabling scientists to directly input and update their planned activities and deliverables, the transition to an MIS system promises improved data accuracy and relevance.Another avenue of exploration involves integrating the Foresight Monitoring Tool with AnaPlan. This integration seeks to enhance consistency in budget data by establishing a direct connection with the data source. In the fiscal year 2023, budget information was managed through Excel.The team aims to prioritize and implement these solutions in 2024. They also seek collaborating initiatives to test the new functionalities, with the ultimate scaling objective of having all initiatives adopt the tool for the next portfolio starting in 2025. This work is part of the CGIAR Research Initiative on Foresight. The Foresight Initiative combines state-of-the-art analytics, innovative use of data, and close engagement with national, regional, and global partners to offer better insights into alternative transformation pathways that can inform choices and sharpen decision-making today, leading to more productive, sustainable, and inclusive food, land, and water systems in the future. We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund.","tokenCount":"353"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2eafe70f9bb25ce847c2c98fbfdf4858","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/acaa6858-97b0-4867-9ff9-3640476d2ad7/retrieve","id":"1683188141"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca5f1c2d-1efd-443e-8f48-5bd4fd511d45","pagecount":"12","content":" Household types -the participants suggest investigating further potential correlations between the two variables used for the typology -some participants do not understand really the types presented.-the participants suggest considering a grouping based on income/wealth or altitude/ethnicity instead. Wealth would be like the government types for mountainous communes year 2016 -2020 (The Decision QD 50/ 2016 -QD-TTg), article 3: Communes in ethnic minority and mountainous areas are defined according to three areas: Commune Region III is a commune with extremely difficult socioeconomic conditions (poor >65%); Commune of Region II is a commune with difficult socio-economic conditions but has temporarily stabilized (poor >30% & <65%); Commune area I is the remaining communes (less than 30% of poor households). Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong belong to Region II. This classification is at commune level, and is based on poverty rates, topography and distance to roads, presence of cultural center, conditions of human health center, condition of schools, and WASH. Climate, associated with appropriate crops and different ethnic groups with different livestock practices (combining ecological regions and ethnicity): o <600m: Thai ethnic o 600m -800m: Thai ethnic, Kinh ethnic o >1000m: Hmong ethnic (cattle die a lot in winter) Breeds ₋ Some people think that local people prefer local breeds (local Pig, Mong Cai, Mong cow) due to climate change adaptability and market demand, and because of the association with program 135.-Indigenous pigs and cattle (like Ha Giang cattle) are more resistant There have been no improved breed for buffaloes. AI For pigs: more common in communes along National route 6 and less in communes of regions 2 and 3. For cows: nature mating.Discussions were good, but went a bit backwards, discussing again constraints and what we should do. Still, participants were very enthusiastic.  Genetics: time is very limiting, too short to see results, but the demonstration/ pilot interventions should be implemented then the extension can be done latter; Looking for breeds/ crossbreeds for high productive adaptation and performance  Health: people are happy about the plan, and discussion went into implementation details. Care will need to be taken to ensure this flagship does not take off too much in advance of the others, and that we approach the communities as a team. Training materials will need to have the same style/template. Discussion of coordination with Genetics has started.  Feeds and Forages: Huge knowledge gap hence potential in integration and effective utilization of feeds and forages for animal nutrition, especially forage legume biomass, feed preservation and drought-and cold-resistant forage grass varieties.  Environment: participants found the activity plan appropriate, however the most environmentrelated person had left the meeting before the group discussions.  LLAFS: high potential for LLAFS to work with local authority to develop an OCOP (One commune one product) trademark for dried beef/buffalo meat. Cattle feed mainly include green forage, elephant grass, bagasse, corn stalks, straw. In some place there is only Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass), so there is no feeds for cattle form December to February. Chieng Luong grows a lot of sugarcane while Chieng Chung have lots of banana hence do not experience much feed shortage in autumn and winter. Rice residues is also utilized as source of feed for the cattle. Some farmers also grow a few legumes such as mung bean and black bean. Megathyrsus maximus (Guinea grass) and Mulato II are mainly grow in several demonstration farms and not yet adopted by farmers.Feed for local pigs mainly comprise of banana trunk, taro leaves, sweet potato leaves and wild plants. Some leaves are dried for winter use. Hybrid pigs are mainly fed with concentrates. There is limited land to grow additional forages. Farmers do not pay much attention to grass planting: mainly growing grass on salvaged land, resulting in poor productivity and quality.  Drought periods causes limited water availability to forage crops, while cold winter temperatures causes forage grasses such as Guinea grass to die.  Limited knowledge on a diverse range of forage crop varieties and sustainable practices such as intercropping into current systems.  Napier grass grown and fed to cattle is less nutritious, as they take advantage of the high growth rate, low water and soil nutrient requirements.  Limited knowledge on F&F nutrition and management. For instance, the case with less nutritious Napier; Guinea grass is fed to cattle in high quantities (same as Napier), leading to overfeeding of cattle resulting to digestion problems; farmers perception of palatability of Mulato II because of its sharp/spiky leaves.  Utilization of forage legume biomass is minimal as farmers only harvest and use the seeds, not knowing what to do the rest of the biomass.  Feed preservation highlighted as a major issue.  Local pigs have a lot of fat with less lean meat, farmer's perceive this to be linked to feed.-Integrate forages into existing systems without necessarily needing to expand their farms e.g intercropping of forage legumes, rotation with food crops, and improved grasses in contours. -Increase awareness on F&F nutritional value, animal nutrition, benefits of forage crops to the farming systems e.g. improving soil quality, and improved crop management practices. -Provide seeds/planting materials for forages both for improved (drought and cold resistant) grass varieties and different forage legume varieties for nutritious high protein feed. -How best to utilize biomass of forage legumes for feed, better feed preservation from crop residues for winter storage? Know how to take advantage of some feeds besides grass such as bagasse, straw, corn and legume biomass -How best achieve lean meat and reduce fat in local pig breeds, using improved feeds and forages? Branding of livestock products -It is not feasible to develop dried products from local pigs given their high content of fat. Currently, dried pork available in the market is made from hybrid or cross-bred pigs. Supporting the development of a brand for FRESH local pork is advised. Local pigs have some advantages compared to hybrid or crossbred pigs such as high disease resistance, high market demand and high price. The existing problems are their long production cycle (1-2 years vs 3 months of hybrid pigs) and scattered production (e.g. each household raises several pigs which reach marketed weight at different time. Thus, farmers cannot sell their pigs directly to traders who often require a certain number of pigs for each trip, but instead sell to small collectors at relatively lower prices). These problems can be fixed through the Genetics flagship's interventions. They plan to do community AI for local pigs, which can help to shorten the production cycle and to ensure sufficient amount of marketed pigs to deal directly with traders. -High expectation from the local people to develop a brand for dried cattle and buffalo meat.Currently, some households are producing this product but not yet have a brand (trademark). There is good news that Mai Son district is progressing the development of a brand for dried cattle meat under a national program called \"One Community One Product\" or OCOP. This program encourages each community to develop one competitive and marketable product based on their local competitive advantages (local resources and knowledge). OCOP producers can be any of individual households, farmer groups, cooperatives, enterprises or associations. It usually takes 1 year to get a trademark approved. The products will be evaluated at two stages: district and provincial level. Products with 3 or more stars of OCOP standard at district level will continue to be evaluated at provincial level. Owners of OCOP products will receive financial aid from the government up to 150-200 million VND/year each to maintain the business. The government Mai Son has 21 communes and they expect to have at least 21 branded products. So far, 5 products (all are crop products) have been granted the OCOP trademarks at the provincial level and those products can enter formal market outlets (supermarkets, convenient stores, etc.). For dried beef, the district is supporting one individual household in Hat Lot Town to apply for the OCOP brand, but the application package is stuck due to that household cannot maintain their monthly or quarterly production. Thus, the application has not been through yet. This is the point that our project can support, which makes our plan to have branded livestock products more feasible, particularly in a short time of only 1.5 years.","tokenCount":"1378"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"04d7a6c8cf7a522ce99bb1034befc95e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a4394e9a-4e32-48be-997e-453d1ace35bd/retrieve","id":"799003964"},"keywords":["conceptual framework","multi-sectoral","systems thinking","waterenergy-food nexus"],"sieverID":"726f3d5f-fe74-4090-a1e6-5177e8edba43","pagecount":"25","content":"While water-energy-food (WEF) Nexus is one of the most important, and widely investigated, environmental topics of our time, previous stock taking efforts possess notable limitations, namely (i) their focus is restricted to research articles, and (ii) there is less focus on nexus permutations that begin with energy and food. This paper assembled more than 900 documents and systematically categorized them according to more than 10 key parameters (e.g. scale, methods, limitations), to characterize approaches, achieved outcomes and presence of variables likely to support on-the-ground change. Our results reveal that WEF Nexus activities are often driven by the water sector, undertaken at global and national scale and authored by experts from diverse backgrounds.Among the utilized methods, modelling and review (i.e. systematic) are the most common. While climate change and governance are routinely considered in WEF Nexus documents, gender, stakeholders and capacity are not. These findings highlight areas for improvement in the design of WEF Nexus initiatives.The WEF Nexus (just 'Nexus' in the following) across energy, food and water is intrinsically important as these sectors are all dependent on one another (Keulertz et al., 2016). Energy is important to access water, and water is a key means to generate energy. Equally, water is essential for food production but food production can compromise water quality.Reflecting the importance of these interlinkages, the German Government organized a widely-heralded conference in 2011 on the Water, Energy and Food Security Nexus-Solutions for the Green Economy (Hoff, 2011). Subsequently, the concept experienced a rapid rise in prominence and captures interconnection between multiple goals of Agenda 2030 of the Sustainable Development Goals (OFID, 2017;Ortigara et al., 2018;United Nations, 2018) and is reflected in strategies of key development agencies such as the Asian Development Bank (Panella, 2021).As countries emerge from a global pandemic only to face more intense manifestations of climate change (IPCC, 2022;World Economic Forum, 2022), there is growing urgency to pursue integrated and resilient approaches to resource management (Smith et al., 2019) to maximize their beneficial uses. The coronavirus disease  related risks of interruptions to the supply of and demand for resources, particularly for the WEF resources (Al-Saidi & Hussein, 2021) accentuate the need to rebuild our society differently. For instance, Kazakhstan, one of the biggest global wheat flour exporters, suspended exports as a result of COVID-19 (Harvey, 2020), resulting in supply shortages and price increases in importing countries like Tajikistan (FAO, 2021) that has plenty of water resources and is investing heavily in hydropower while running on grain deficit.Recognition of the value of Nexus approaches has driven ubiquitous research investigation, and thorough interrogation, of the nexus concept. A past search of Google Scholar (Lautze et al., 2020) suggested more than 8000 articles have been written on the nexus, while a range of review articles (Albrecht et al., 2018;Shannak et al., 2018;Simpson & Jewitt, 2019a) have identified the lower but still voluminous body of Nexus literature. Lost at times among the widespread nexus literature are emerging experiences in the practical implementation of Nexus projects, particularly in the developing world. For example, using seawater for aquaculture and utilizing nutrient-rich outflow from aquaculture to grow halophyte plants that are used for biofuel production (UAE and Qatar) (Halalsheh et al., n.d.). While there has been growing emphasis on stock-taking Nexus activities (Albrecht et al., 2018;Shannak et al., 2018;Simpson & Jewitt, 2019a), it is not clear whether such efforts merely review research endeavours or extend to include practice.Stock-takes of literature pertaining to the Nexus of different permutations of W-E-F are in no short supply (e.g. Albrecht et al., 2018;Al-Thani & Al-Ansari, 2021;Botai et al., 2021;Hamidov & Helming, 2020;Kliskey et al., 2021;Kondash et al., 2021;Namany et al., 2019;Opejin et al., 2020;Proctor et al., 2021;Purwanto et al., 2021;Sarkodie & Owusu, 2020;Shannak et al., 2018;Simpson & Jewitt, 2019a;Urbinatti et al., 2020;Wahl et al., 2021). Some of this literature focuses only on a particular country or region (e.g. Botai et al., 2021;Kondash et al., 2021;Okumu et al., 2021), however, while other portions of this literature do not include analysis of article contents but focus mainly on the frequency of keywords (Opejin et al., 2020;Proctor et al., 2021;Sarkodie & Owusu, 2020;Urbinatti et al., 2020). Still, other segments of this literature focus on the Nexus only in certain contexts such as urban areas (Wahl et al., 2021) or irrigation (Hamidov & Helming, 2020), or related to certain perspectives (Namany et al., 2019;Purwanto et al., 2021;Shannak et al., 2018) or particular objectives (Al-Thani & Al-Ansari, 2021). Finally, while some segments of this literature do attempt to review document content with few explicit constraints, the sample sizes utilized in such documents appear far from exhaustive. Albrecht et al. (2018) undertook a systematic review of WEF Nexus assessment methods employed in 245 articles. Simpson and Jewitt (2019a) undertook a review of 53 journal articles and documents from four grey literature. Kliskey et al. (2021) applied an assessment framework to 289 WEF Nexus articles. In any case, limitations that appear to cross-cut the existing set of Nexus stock-takes include: (i) they include research publications but exclude practically implemented nexus projects, and (ii) they are far from exhaustive, often examining a relatively small subset of available documentation.This paper is believed to constitute the most comprehensive Nexus stock-take undertaken assembling over 900 documents for full-text analysis. The paper addresses limitations of existing knowledge by extending the scope and broadening the focus of past Nexus stock-takes, in at least two ways:• To extend the scope, we examine the literature on both research and practice.• To broaden the focus, we include relevant literature regardless of the sectoral perspective from which it has emerged; sectors in Nexus acronyms can occur in any sequence.We also present a redesigned conceptual framework oriented towards capturing key factors relevant for achieving Nexus outcomes. To help move from concept to practice, we assess the frequency of inclusion of these key factors-for example, scale, research or implementation methods and sectoral focus-in the Nexus literature.This paper analyses the most voluminous set of Nexus documents to-date in order to characterize the depth and breadth of literature on the Nexus. Equally, the paper seeks to reveal status, trends and limitations in the body of work on the Nexus. The purpose of pursuing these objectives is to contextualize ongoing and future efforts, to encourage focus to be placed in areas that are (i) new, and (ii) likely to lead to positive, practical change. The paper first reviews the document collection process and develops an analytical framework in order to capture key aspects of Nexus documents. The paper then categorizes and synthesizes past research and implementation efforts. Key threads from past efforts are distilled, and recommendations are generated on priority areas of focus going forward.Nexus is defined as a connection or series of connections linking two or more things (Merriam-Webster, 2021). The term is widely-used across many sectors, but it would appear to have proliferated especially in technology 1 and development, for example, GIZ et al. (2014). In the development sector, Nexus is most often applied to integration across sectors of environment, water, energy, agriculture, natural resources and biodiversity-all of these sectors comprise key areas of development programming.A search of Nexus literature in the development community reveals frameworks that encompass various combinations of the three core sectors-that is, water, energy and food-as well as frameworks that include a focus on additional sectors. Hoff (2011) produced one of the first WEF Nexus schematics, in which water is situated at the centre of the triangle with water security, food security and energy security. SIM4NEXUS (n.d.) considered the nexus of climate, water, land, food, energy and ecosystems, with resources efficiency as the ultimate goal. Melo et al. (2021) advocate for forests to form an additional, foundational dimension of the water, energy, food, forest security nexus framework. Ultimately, while there are countless other examples, these documents serve to illustrate there are numerous permutations and indeed potential additions to the Nexus framings across energy, food and water. This paper focuses on W-E-F, in any order, as a common denominator of analysis.An increasingly recognized limitation of W-E-F framings is that they often have not been put to practice. Leck et al. (2015) suggest efforts to conceptualize the Nexus have been too ambitious and sophisticated for practical application. Al-Saidi and Elagib (2017) assert that Nexus is a novel concept with few practically useful recommendations. Simpson and Jewitt (2019a) equally underline that more focus is needed on action and mention a number of WEF Nexus challenges including the complexity of temporal and spatial scales. Zarei et al. (2020) clarify that not only the proposed management for the WEF nexus but even the analysis are at the theoretical stage. Rasul and Neupane (2021) make the connection between a lack of a framework that can operationalize the concept as a decision-making or a planning tool and the scarcity of its practical applications. Factors explaining the lack of application include:• Absence of appropriate institutional arrangements to handle the complexity (Rasul et al., 2021);• Insufficient stakeholder interaction (Wahl et al., 2021);• Insufficient understanding of the interlinkages of W-E-F systems due to knowledge and data gaps (Simpson & Jewitt, 2019a);• Feasibility of science-policy integration, for example, mismatch of disciplines, views, topical areas and jurisdiction (Romero-Lankao et al., 2017);• Cross-scale inequalities, for example, scalar considerations of which WEF systems should be considered, by whom and for whom they should be secured (Romero-Lankao et al., 2017) and • Path dependency, for example, infrastructure and social practices adopted for individual WEF systems are difficult to change (Romero-Lankao et al., 2017).While a review of the abundance of existing Nexus frameworks reveals substantial variation, certain common threads are also apparent. Synthesis of these core threads suggests a framing with water, food and energy at three points of a shared triangle (Figure 1), acknowledging that the points affect each other (biophysically) and related social and economic settings. 2 Reconciling diverse sectoral perspectives suggests that a particular sector should not feature at the centre of this triangle, because the three sectors are interrelated and each is essential (Willis et al., 2016). Rather, at the heart of the triangle are sustainable and resilient societies and economies-that is, the overall aim is to achieve through informed interventions that consider interdependencies, synergies and trade-offs across the three sectors embedded in other environmental systems and climate change. Indeed, the aim of a Nexus is not simply to integrate different sectors but to achieve an outcome that is more beneficial than pursuing isolated sectoral goals and build resilience and sustainability. Finally, given that the Nexus interaction do not exist in isolation but are grounded in a contextual environment that includes issues such as biodiversity, ecosystems processes and functions and environmental and societal pressures (e.g. climate change, demographic change, land use change), the contextual environment and climate are depicted in a way that encompasses and circumscribes the WEF Nexus frame. 3 2.1.5 | Holistic concepts are a tool to achieve holistic outcomes Ultimately, as shown in the right portion of Figure 1, Nexus framings should be viewed as a means to achieve practical improvements for people and the environment. Practical improvements include examples such as improved water productivity that reduces energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions but raises agricultural production, or using water retentions to simultaneously grow food and bioenergy crops. Importantly, the realization of Nexus outcomes depends on much more than the strength of the framework applied. Some of the key factors which may support or constrain the achievement of outcomes are shown in the centre of Figure 1, namely: the scale of Nexus intervention, sectors involved, available capacity, sectoral entry point and target, enabling conditions (e.g. governance, stakeholder engagement, capacity development) and type of research or implementation methods (e.g. review vs. tool development).This paper takes stock of Nexus research and practice in order to understand the spectrum, and potential impacts, of Nexus approaches that have been employed. To take stock, an extensive document collection effort was undertaken F I G U R E 1 Nexus framework: From concept to outcome (Authors' elaboration).in order to comprehensively capture relevant information on Nexus research and projects; the volume of articles initially compiled, coupled with the perceived limited relevance of some, in turn, motivated a filtering exercise. The set of documents was then categorized according to a system derived from the framework presented above. Finally, categorized documents were analysed.We conducted a systematic search on Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) database platforms to collect documents that explicitly address a combination of water, energy, food and nexus terms from both the research and project literature domains. The following search terms were utilized to identify relevant documents 'water AND energy AND food AND nexus'. These keywords were selected as opposed to the other variations (e.g. water energy land) to be consistent with the original WEF Nexus concept which was assumed to be more inclusive. The year range was not specified in the search. In addition, we conducted a Google Scholar search to capture very recent research publications (i.e. published in 2021 excluding publications already captured by Scopus and WoS) that could have been omitted from Scopus and WoS results due to a potential indexing lag in the utilized database platforms. Therefore, the year range was limited to 2021. To ensure the incorporation of practice-oriented literature, we also searched websites of various UN organizations, development banks, donor agencies, research organizations and the Nexus Resource Platform (i.e. water-energy-food.org). In total, we scanned the websites of 16 organizations. 4A list of some 3254 documents was initially produced, comprised largely of research publications. A total of 1084 documents in Scopus were also included in the WoS results, however. After removing the duplicate entries, the total number of documents was reduced to 2164 (Table 1). The resulting 2164 unique publications were then filtered to generate a list for a full-text review through the application of four criteria: (1) research documentation was limited to 'article' and 'review' publications; documents categorized as other types of publications including abstracts, call for papers, editorials, erratum documents were excluded; (2) research publications required a 'digital object identifier' number, in order to ensure that the publications are verifiable and accessible; publications lacking DOI were excluded;(3) research publications with fewer than five citations per year on average were excluded and (4) project documents which fail to focus on a specific case study were excluded. 5 Application of these four criteria yielded a progressive reduction in the total number of documents, resulting in 913 documents that satisfied all criteria for a full-text analysis. We could not obtain the full texts for three publications and the main texts of two publications were not in English, however. The full text of 908 documents was ultimately reviewed.A full-text review of the 908 documents revealed that 169 did not capture the entire W-E-F Nexus and were excluded from further analysis. Most of the excluded cases captured only two of the W-E-F sectors (e.g. water and energy) and some captured one of the closely related W-E-F elements (e.g. water-energy-nutrients) but not the actual W-E-F. Removing the 169 documents resulted in a final total of 739 documents that were categorized for further analysis. Among these, 648 were research-oriented-with methods sections typically published in peer-reviewed journals-while 91 were project-oriented publications obtained from websites of development agencies that typically depict project approaches and highlights.Building on previous efforts to categorize the voluminous research on Nexus (e.g. Albrecht et al., 2018;Botai et al., 2021;Purwanto et al., 2021), we coded the documents according to a predefined set of basic and advanced parameters (Table 2). Coding was done by the authors of this paper and an environmental specialist (referenced in the acknowledgements). Different categories of individual parameters were coded based on code descriptions, which were slightly expanded when unique cases emerged through discussion of new cases and mutual agreement. A randomly selected subset of coded publications was checked by a second coder to ensure consistency.Four basic parameters-namely, sectoral background of author(s), sectoral focus of documents, scale and geographical focus-were utilized to contextualize the focus of each document.• Authors' stated sectoral affiliation was categorized to capture the scope and type of primary sectoral perspectives included in research publications. Given the large variation of sectoral affiliations, the analysis was limited to capture affiliations with water (including marine environment), energy, food (e.g. agriculture, soil, fisheries), environment (e.g. environmental science, policy, engineering), sustainability (e.g. science, development), earth systems (e.g. Earth system science, observation), nature/natural resources (e.g. humanity and nature, natural resources) and other. It is possible for authors' affiliation to overlap (e.g. environmental engineering and agriculture) and in these cases, a document is counted in both.• Sectoral focus and scope were categorized to understand the relative emphasis on different Nexus sectors and sectoral 'priority' as the selected order of sectors is assumed to imply emphasis as suggested by Liu et al. (2018). 6   • Scale was categorized to capture the geographical extent of a document's focus. Scale is an important parameter, especially for WEF Nexus governance (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2021) and investment assessments (Rising, 2020) and was a commonly analysed parameter in previous Nexus literature reviews (Albrecht et al., 2018;Al-Thani & Al-Ansari, 2021;Chang et al., 2021).• Geographical focus was used to capture the region within which an article places focus. The geographical focus is important as it can highlight global regions most frequently captured by the Nexus studies. This analysis is different from 'country of origin' analysis because the authors of a study can be affiliated with an institution in one region (e.g. North America) but they can focus on Nexus in another region (e.g. East Asia and Pacific). The list of global regions was adopted from the World Bank classification of countries (The World Bank, 2021).Documents were also categorized according to eight advanced parameters, selected to facilitate the depiction of key aspects of a utilized approach. Type of research or implementation methods refer to the assessment approaches or tools utilized in considered studies. In this study, we differentiate methods into different categories derived from stratifications utilized in recent studies (Chang et al., 2021;Fouladi & Al-Ansari, 2021;Islam et al., 2021;Proctor et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2021). When more than one method is used, that article was categorized based on the more detailed method, for example, when footprint and optimization are used, an article was categorized as optimization because footprint results can be used as an optimization parameter. validate study results. We applied a strict interpretation of an outcome to capture a practical outcome rather than an outcome in any shape or form.Climate change and the WEF Nexus share a fundamental link. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy (i.e. fuel combustion and fugitive fuel emissions) and agriculture (e.g. food) are the largest anthropogenic sources (IEA, 2019) driving climate change. In turn, the key risk of climate change that spans across regions is a risk to food and water insecurity (IPCC, 2014). This analysis helps reveal the frequency of climate change emphasis in WEF literature. Governance refers to whether the publication mentions a governance context. A governance context in this study is assumed a discussion on policies, involvement of government institutions, resource management or mentioning a combination of relevant words or phrases. This analysis helps reveal the frequency of consideration to the governance context in the WEF literature. Stakeholder engagement refers to whether a publication mentions engaging the community or other relevant stakeholders. Capacity Development refers to whether a publication mentions capacity or skill enhancement activities. Finally, gender captures whether a publication explicitly references gender or makes a distinction between male and female actors.Most of the publications analysed focused exclusively on the water-energy-food Nexus in some order (87%; Figure 2). In terms of the sectoral 'prioritization' as reflected in the sequence of Nexus presentations, water was mentioned first in 64% of publications. Food-and energy-centric nexus documentation is less common. Food was mentioned first in 25% of publications, and energy in 10% of publications. In six publications (1%), a different sector was mentioned first (i.e. land, climate, soil). For example, Wolde et al.(2021) focused on the land, water, energy and food (LWEF) nexus. In fact, 99 documents, reflecting approximately 13% of the total, considered sectors in addition to water-energy-food (+ other sector). The three most mentioned additional sectors beyond the water-energy-food were ecosystem (3%), environment (2%), land (2%) and climate (2%).About 1/3 of research publications involved authors affiliated with the environment (e.g. environmental science, policy or engineering). Authors with a stated affiliation with water and food were each found among authors of 18% of publications (Table 3). 9% on energy and 9% on sustainability (e.g. sustainability science, development). 5% on Earth systems (e.g. Earth processes, observation), and nature/natural resources in 3%. Finally, the remaining 35% listed other backgrounds (e.g. ranging from health to machine learning).The largest portion of WEF documents are focused at the global scale (29%; Figure 3). National scale was the next most common scale in the WEF publications, 159 (22%). The third most common scale was a sub-national scale-encompassing any scale larger than a city and smaller than a country-with 18% of publications. Next, most common scale was the basin scale, 99 (13%) followed by the regional scale, 73 (10%). Thirty-eight WEF publications (5%) focused on the city scale. In 24 publications (3%), scale was not mentioned at all or was ambiguous, making the process of designating into one of the existing scales very difficult. An example of a study in this category is a study by Ozturk (2015) titled, Sustainability in the food-energy-water nexus: Evidence from BRICS (Brazil, the Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa) countries, which is in between the country and regional scale. Disaggregating research versus project publications suggests that almost a third of research (31%) is focused at the global scale, while only 9% and 11% of research is focused on regional and basin scales respectively. Conversely, only 13% of project documents focus on the global scale, while a comparatively higher proportion-18% and 30%-focus at regional and basin scales.F first 25%Other sector first 1%E first F first W first Other sector firstRelative prioritization of sectors in reviewed publications.T A B L E 3 Authors' stated sectoral affiliation in research publications.Environment (e.g. environmental science, policy, engineering) 33%Water (e.g. water security, water systems engineering, water resources) 18%Food (e.g. agricultural sustainability, soil sciences, food engineering) 18%Energy (e.g. energy and environment, biofuel research, petroleum studies) 9%Sustainability (e.g. sustainability science, development) 9%Earth Systems (e.g. Earth system science, Earth observations) 5%Nature/Natural Resources (e.g. humanity and nature, natural resources) 3%Other (e.g. urban studies, planning, health) 35%Note: The total adds up to more than 100% because some publications listed authors with multiple sectoral affiliations and were counted in all mentioned categories.In terms of the geographical focus, East Asia and Pacific ranks as the most productive region, with 16% of publications considered in this study focusing on that region (Figure 4). Europe and Central Asia were covered by 12% of publications. Sub-Sahara Africa was the focus in 9% of publications and North America in 8%. Seven percent of publications focused on the Middle East and North Africa, and only 4% of publications focused on South Asia. The geographical focus of the remaining publications was either general, unclear or multi-regional.3.5 | China, USA, Brazil are of the greatest national focus WEF publications were the most concentrated in China (8%) and the United States of America (USA; 6%) (Figure 5a). 7 WEF publications focusing on Brazil (16), Qatar (12), Spain ( 14) and the United Kingdom ( 16), were alike, 2% each. Cities that received the most focus in WEF publications were located in the above-mentioned countries.Seven WEF publications focusing on the city scale mentioned two or more cities. An example of such publication is a study by Djehdian et al. (2019) who covered 69 cities in the USA (not shown on the map). Global and regional distribution of WEF publications are not shown because of ambiguity.A total of 36 different basins and aquifer systems were covered by the WEF publications (Figure 5b). The top three most targeted basins were the Mekong River basin, followed by the Aral Sea and Nile River basins. Next commonly targeted basins were the Columbia River basin, Danube River basin, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River basins, Indus River basin and the Zambezi River basin. In general, we observed a large number of different methods utilized in WEF publications (Table 4). Among them, review and analysis was the most common method (28%) followed by modelling approaches (16%). The modelling approaches can be differentiated into different types (integrated, system dynamics, hydrologic, etc.) and we found that integrated modelling was the most common type detected in 10% of publications. Mathematical approaches were the next most common method detected in 12% of WEF publications. Methods involving supply chain calculations were used in 8% of publications. Qualitative methods were mentioned in 7% and other quantitative analysis (e.g. comparative, systematic excluding laboratory) in 6%. A few publications, making up 2% of the total also mentioned tool development (e.g. dashboard, game) and a similar number mentioned case study approach. A combination of all of the remaining methods was mentioned in 19% of publications. The less common methods were also very diverse ranging from multi-criteria analysis (e.g. decision-making; Analytical Hierarchy Process) mentioned by 1% of WEF publications to economic valuation methods mentioned by less than 1% of publications.Approximately 42% of the WEF Nexus articles acknowledged limitations in approaches developed and applied (Figure 6), but the types of these limitations in Nexus studies have not been analysed before (Sušnik & Staddon, 2021).Of those indicating limitations, some 40% identified data limitations as constraining their approach. Approximately 19% acknowledged that a model that was developed, excluded certain key variables. Approximately 15% identified uncertainties and assumptions as a key limitation of the approach. Approximately 8% of articles acknowledged the lack of transdisciplinarity 8 as a key limitation; this was often a way to acknowledge the lack of social science approaches. Finally, a range of other more minor limitations-including finances, capacity, participation and representative-comprised a final group of other limitations. This final group collective accounted for about 19% of documents.Evidences on tangible changes that supported real Nexus outcomes-from policy adoption or shifts, to new infrastructure that enhances cross-sectoral efficiencies-are unfortunately not abundant. Nonetheless, 14 articles docontain a focus on clear-cut Nexus outcomes, and several of these articles contain references to more than one outcome (Table 5). Outcomes range from general (e.g. enhanced Nexus benefits) to specific (e.g. water savings achieved, enhanced energy production and food availability). More interestingly, articles shed light on a range of key tools that were used to realize these outcomes. Tools ranged from solar steam irrigation to a hydropower mid-grid. Ultimately, a key way to realize Nexus outcomes going forward is to centre future projects on selecting and implementing one or more of these tools in conjunction with an analytic framework that ensures cross-sectoral benefits will be achieved.Climate change was mentioned in the majority of WEF publications (66%; Figure 7). While climate change was most often considered in the general sense, there was equally substantial specific consideration to adaptation and mitigation. An example of general climate change reference is a publication by Adebiyi et al. (2021), where the word 'climate' comes in the title and is followed by more discussions in the text-'Water-food-energy-climate nexus and technology productivity: a Nigerian case study of organic leafy vegetable production'. Similarly, a study by Nasrollahi Governance was mentioned in one form or another in most of WEF publications, 74% while the opposite was true for gender, which was mentioned in only 9% of WEF publications (Figure 8). An example of a WEF publication that mentioned governance is a publication by Sušnik et al. (2021), where they integrate policies, developed with relevant T A B L E 4 Methods used in the WEF studies. aReview and analysis (bibliometric; topical)Involves reviewing literature and conducting some simple analysis of the findings.Modelling Involves creating and simulating natural and anthropogenic processes.Mathematical Groups methods that involve heavy mathematical computation (e.g. probability, statistics and optimization).Supply chain calculations (LCA; footprint; input-output)Group of approaches that track inputs and outputs in the supply chain of products/processes.Qualitative A group of data collection and analysis methods that are more qualitative than quantitative in nature.Analysis (e.g. quantitative excl. laboratory)A group of approaches that mention general or comparative quantitative analysis.Tool development Methods involving development of (interactive) tools for broader audience.Case study Refers to studies that involve a case study design. 15 2% a One hundred forty-three papers possessed methods that do not fall in any of these categories. Improved production in and across WEF sectors (i) solar-powered pumping, (ii) wind farm to pump GW, (iii) biomass-powered off-grid electricity system, (iv) solar-powered refrigeration, (v) off-grid electrification, (vi) solar hydro hybrid system for fish and eco-tourism Given growing resources scarcity and increasing need to pursue environmentally sustainable management approaches, WEF Nexus has emerged as one of the most important development concepts of the 21st century. While there is a clear need to expand roll-out of Nexus approaches given their benefits, it is equally relevant to capture and understand lessons derived from the body of existing activities on the Nexus. As such, this paper assembled more than 900 documents which were filtered and categorized according to more than 10 key parameters (e.g. scale, methods, limitations) in order to characterize approaches, outcomes and presence of variables likely to support on-the-ground change. This is believed to be the most comprehensive effort to-date to understand activities on the Nexus.The major headline from this paper is that WEF documentation places insufficient focus on outcomes. This finding is consistent with assertions from existing work, like Simpson and Jewitt (2019b) found that the WEF Nexus research was mostly conceptual in nature and focused on macro-scale resource security. Similarly, Simpson andJewitt (2019a), andZarei et al. (2020) found that WEF Nexus analysis and management are mostly at a theoretical stage. In another study, Naess et al. (2021) stated Nexus is an evolving concept that requires multidisciplinary initiatives to achieve certain outcomes. These common findings lead to a bottom line that is-Nexus concepts need to start demonstrating practical value by achieving outcomes and fostering impact, in order to for this concept to secure a level of real-world legitimacy that will enable the concept to survive beyond fleeting prominence.Underlying the scant outcomes in WEF documentation is the scarce attention to elements that are key to realizing outcomes. Indeed, capacity building and stakeholder engagement are not commonly found in Nexus documentation. This finding is consistent with more limited efforts to examine the same. For example, Kliskey et al. (2021) reported that only a small portion of the Nexus literature involved stakeholders as equal partners, a trend that they attributed partially to time-intensive nature of engaging with stakeholders. In another example, Magdanz (2021) found simulations to be most common studies in the WEF nexus literature as opposed to empirical studies. Ultimately, stakeholder engagement is key to adoption of Nexus solutions, and given the sophisticated nature of Nexus concepts, many stakeholders will require some capacity development. Failing to consider these aspects will limit chances for adoption of Nexus solutions. Further constraining achievement of outcomes is that methods used in WEF activities-most commonly reviews and models-may have high data requirements that are often unmet. This link between the data availability and outcomes is consistent with the findings from Shannak et al. (2018) who emphasized lack of data availability and sharing as reasons for the failure of some promising models. Similarly, Huntington et al. (2021) struggled to include important variables (e.g. transportation, governance) in a systematic model that prevents capturing all relevant parts of the WEF system. At the same time, some studies call for further expanding the Nexus models despite the data availability challenges. For instance, Wang et al. (2021) call for further emphasizing material elements like ecological footprint and CO 2 emissions in the nexus models. Thompson et al. (2021) are working towards developing a complex, integrated model that requires large quantities of social and biophysical data. While achieving thorough characterization of Nexus interactions is clearly important and such efforts would clearly require immense quantities of data, it may be equally prudent to guard against overly circuitous processes-that is, sophisticated models that drive ambitious data collection which generate complex results that in turn require simplification for uptake-that prolong pathways to outcomes. Given the urgency of realizing Nexus solutions on the ground, it may be expedient to simplify pathways to outcomes by, for example, starting from simpler models for which data can be found or creating a platform that captures existing WEF (+ other sector) models and the description of their individual data requirements and potential sources. 9Unfortunately, distribution in the scale of focus found in Nexus documentation may further reflect a failure to adopt an outcome orientation. Consistent with the previous findings of Itayi et al. (2021) who found that Nexus research often focused on large (national, regional and global) scales and Chang et al. (2021) who found 34% out of about 100 analysed WEF articles focused on the global scale, our review found Nexus documents were most often focused at larger scales (e.g. global and national). While WEF Nexus approaches need to be scaled for different assessments because there is no one-size-fits-all model (Simpson & Jewitt, 2019a), there is some evidence to suggest that greater opportunity for practical outcomes could be achieved at smaller, more focused scales. To provide an example from a different field of transboundary waters, cooperation at smaller scales is more typically oriented towards development-oriented outcomes like hydropower development, whereas large-scale cooperation is more oriented towards facilitation and coordination (Holmatov & Lautze, 2016). Moreover, since qualitative analysis can be undertaken more easily at smaller scales (Itayi et al., 2021), a small-scale focus may serve as a constructive approach for engaging and co-producing knowledge and solutions with stakeholders representing different parts of WEF systems.On a positive note, the finding that governance and climate change are both frequently mentioned in Nexus documentation suggests that Nexus approaches are reasonably robust as concerns these elements. More detailed content analysis of Nexus documents that mention governance and climate change can help map factors that enable their frequent occurrences. Such analysis can reveal opportunities to amplify involvement of infrequent elements like gender, capacity development and stakeholder engagement. We recommend a detailed content analysis of Nexus documents as an area for future work.Further, there is fairly diverse sectoral participation in WEF activities. Similar to the results of Itayi et al. (2021) who determined water-centrism of WEF Nexus by analysing frequency of keywords in research papers and determined water as the most common keyword and energy as the least, our paper used a larger and diverse set of documents to confirm that Nexus activities are indeed more often driven by the water sector. Nonetheless, our paper was able to add considerable nuance by identifying that sectoral diversity in project teams is considerable regardless of sectoral driver-with the exception of the energy sector which may be somewhat underrepresented. This suggests that regardless of which letter comes first in the abbreviations, the process of developing Nexus approaches requires sectoral inclusivity. More effort could nonetheless be placed on (i) incorporating energy sector participation, and(ii) fostering Nexus efforts that are led by sectors other than water. Despite the new ground covered by this paper, there remain at least three notable areas on which future work can be conducted as a means to improve the strength and nuance of findings. First, research and project documents were mixed. While this intermingling allowed findings to reflect a broader and more diverse range of contexts, structural differences in the nature of documents at times presented challenges to categorization in a single template.Future research can focus on reviewing research versus project documents separately, each with its own template. Second, despite being the largest Nexus stock-take undertaken to date, the volume of documents is continuously expanding and, as such, this work should be updated in due course. Third, certain assumptions were made in document categorization, which is inherent when processing a set of secondary documents. Publications with mixed methods, for example, were categorized according to the more robust method based on our assessment.Application of more granular categorization, for example, which captured and categorized each method when several were employed, could reveal additional detail.Before closing, we would like to acknowledge three potential sources of uncertainty in this work. First, filtering research publications based on the average number of citations may have omitted inclusion of relevant publications, for example, published in fields where Nexus is not a common topic but with relevant results and novel insights. Second, while we assumed that sequence of W E F sectors highlights sectoral emphasis in Nexus publications (based on assumptions in previous studies), the sequence may not always reflect sectoral prioritization but simply reflect the authors' choice to use a default WEF sequence. Third, while the coding system encompassed for a rich set of parameters, screening for additional parameters like industry may have added additional nuance to the results.In closing, we offer five distilled recommendations for advancing the pursuit of the WEF Nexus:• Focus on outcomes in new projects. It may be better to implement and evaluate-learn-adapt rather than investing heavy focus on esoteric data-intensive frameworks.• Incorporate into WEF Nexus activity conceptualization and design, at a fundamental and upstream level, elements likely to enable realization of outcomes. Elements include things like capacity development and stakeholder engagement.• Keep it simple-Steer clear of complex models unlikely to be understood or applied in target contexts. Equally, a challenge to academics is to balance rewards for those who can achieve more sophisticated, often data-intensive approaches with those who can achieve more accessible ones.• Focus on smaller and more manageable scales like basin (or sub-basin/catchment), city, household rather than whole countries to limit complexity and achieve practical outcomes.• Incorporate energy specialists to a greater degree into teams devising WEF Nexus approaches and solutions in order to balance sectoral perspectives. Energy is a key sector and, given financial returns on energy investments, a potentially catalytic one for outcomes. Nonetheless, energy was found to be the least common background among professionals from WEF sectors. It is critical to bring energy specialists into the fold.basins, as well as Yazd-Ardakan Aquifer system (in Iran), Azraq groundwater system (Jordan), Tamar River basin (UK) and Cumbaza River basin (Peru) are not shown.8 Transdisciplinarity in this sense refers to transcending across approaches from different disciplines as oppose to interdisciplinary that would refer to transferring approaches from one discipline to another (Nicolescu, 2014).9 A platform similar to WEF Nexus Discover Map-https://pennstate.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/ a80f41228a4c477293d4ff48850d91e9.10 https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/ECE_MP.WAT_66_new_web.pdf","tokenCount":"6386"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2a685da39e380a3ebb7239a34728b306","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d26dd6a-1a62-4c8c-a544-301d9fe8d63e/retrieve","id":"-191379983"},"keywords":["Climate services","remote sensing","precipitation","risk management"],"sieverID":"2469cf65-4cef-443d-9f11-fe7cea525169","pagecount":"39","content":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.• Introduction to AGRHYMET's latest climate data, tools, and information products;• Training on the use of the tools for data analysis and visualization;• Engagement on the concept of climate risk management in the different sectors;• Soliciting feedback and needs from participants, to assess the value of the available tools and products to users, and inform improvements that are most relevant to stakeholders; and• Exploration of an Advisory Group for improving Climate Services provided by the AGRHYMET Center.The workshop introduced and solicited feedback on data, products and decision-support tools launched to support improved resilience to climate impacts, across sectors, initially targeting the agriculture, water and disaster risk management communities.Abdou Ali is a Hydrometeorologist with AGRHYMET. Contact: a.ali@agrhymet.ne Hamidou Djibo is a Hydrometeorologist with AGRHYMET. Contact: hdjibo@agrhymet.ne Bernard Minoungou is a Hydrometeorologist with AGRHYMET. Contact: bminoungou@agrhymet.ne Tufa Dinku is an Associate Research Scientist in Climate and Environmental Monitoring at the IRI. Contact: tufa@iri.columbia.edu Barbara Platzer is a Climate and Health Specialist at the Columbia Global Center-Africa.  The project work accomplished so far will significantly improve the availability of and access to climate information in West Africa. However, there was one big piece missing: ensuring the use of the new data, tools and climate information products. Generating climate information products and making them available online may not necessarily lead to their uptake.The workshop was therefore convened to critically engage stakeholders on the value and application of such information products. Recognizing the need for constant dialogue and interactions with different user groups, this workshop sought to identify practitioners in the agriculture, water and disaster risk management communities to work towards improved climate resilience in West Africa. Its objectives were to:1. Enable participants to understand and use AGRHYMET's new data, tools and information products.Enable participants to understand the basic concepts of climate change and variability.Enable participants to understand the basic concepts of climate risk management in their respective sectors.Solicit critical feedback from stakeholders in order to improve the existing information products and/or develop new ones based on identified needs.Explore the possibility and value of forming communities of practice.The Following the presentation, participants asked about the added value of the ENACTS products. Three areas of contribution were elaborated on:• Availability: With ENACTS, products and climate data are available for each 10km * 10km grid in West Africa.• Accessibility: Data are available online. Any user can therefore access them at any time.In addition, it is technically possible to make them accessible by phone.• Usage: Provided weather services and users are trained, using data and products from ENACTS will be easy.The fact that raw weather data is not free was raised. The added value of merging was discussed as a major benefit of combined satellite and ground products. Other data are also collected for the purposes of the Environmental Observatory.In addition, the Communication System of Early Warning was also presented. It is an early warning system for catastrophic floods. Communication relies on tools installed in areas called warning zones (90 zones) along the river between the city of St. Louis and ManataliDam. These tools are managed by local government representatives and include maps, hydrological data (including stage heights, flowrates, etc.).The presentation concluded by highlighting the constraints of data collection in the upper basin of the Senegal River. Difficulties of the OMVS member countries were also highlighted, and included those related to non-compliance with respect to data exchange protocols and information exchange between OMVS and suppliers of data.The In addition to presentations outlined above, Amadou Djibrill (CNEDD) provided brief remarks on collaborations with UNDP under the AAP program and the need for information systems to support early warning systems and flood forecasting. He summarized efforts underway on a review of institutional capacities the development of a national database and the requested support to ensure synergies with partners.The issue of data collection, quality control and ownership was raised by participants. In the case of water basin authorities, for example, participants asked NBA to clarify how their data is collected and how their seasonal forecast differs from that of AGRHYMET. NBA responded that its data is collected at the country level and that it supports this through new methods, training initiatives and equipment. They also shared that they rely on a \"debit-debit\"forecasting model and that a newer flood forecasting model taking water charts into accountwas not yet operational. The issue of who should imsue an early warning was raised.Participants discussed the need for local authorities and populations to be engaged. FollowingOusmane N'Diaye's presentation on experiences with CCAFS, participants inquired how climate change concerns were addressed with farmers in Kaffrine. Ousmane Ndiaye responded that assessments were made at the local level to see the usefulness of seasonal forecasts and the needs of farmers to better address the concept of resilience, as well as current and longer term planning. Participants discussed how to tailor climate information to be more relevant to specific users. The need to translate the climate information to a more digestable language easily understood by users (farmers, water managers, etc.) was raised.CCAFS raised the idea of dedicated trainings with farmers and communication tools (radio, social media) to reach partners throughout the value chain of climate information and services.A moderated discussion was facilitated by Ousmane N'Diaye to stimulate discussion on mechanisms for strengthening collaborations between AGRHYMET and user communities in West Africa. IRI's Tufa Dinku provided an introduction to the discussion and Abdou Ali provided background on AGRHYMET's experiences to date. ICF's Molly Hellmuth added thoughts on best practices and on the need to lead from decision-maker's needs, before opening the floor for discussion.The discussion mainly focused on country needs for product improvement and climate data.During the discussion, the optimization problem of hydrometeorological networks emerged. It was suggested that this optimization should take into account the needs of different stakeholders and sectors, including meteorology, agriculture, the environment and the services of early warning systems. It was suggested that this would require the multidisciplinary working groups to be revitalized. The problem of data collection in many countries was also highlighted as a barrier. Techniques combining the data were also raised as an issue.This talk presented a brief overview of the IRI Data Library 1 and the Map Rooms. The Data Library is a freely accessible online data repository and analysis tool that allows a user to resource to policy makers and the public for its translation of probabilistic forecasts to expected rainfall amounts.Participants raised concerns with accessing the IRI Data Library and generally with deployment of new technologies and online resources with local bandwidth constraints.Installation of IRI Data Library at AGRHYMET would help overcomes some of these challenges, but AGRHYMET is also awaiting improved network infrastructure in the next month.Participants asked about overlay of shape files and integration of this catchment versus administrative boundaries. It was explained that shape files of all sorts could be added (health district data, river basins, etc) and time series derived.Analysis Map Room. Presenters directed them to the Climate Anomaly graph.A question was raised on why the 30 year time series  was not available for the Climate Analysis Map Room, e.g. only 1983 to 2009. It was explained that TAMSAT rainfallAt the end of the afternoon session of Day 2, participants were invited to test the AGRHYMET products and Map Rooms for their own intended use and were guided through practical exercises.During open discussion on the data and products, participants asked for a more detailed explanation of the graph on seasonal forecasts with El Nino events in the Pacific Ocean. They inquired about other oceanic phenomena beyond El Nino that might help explain precipitation over the Sahel. Participants asked about probabilistic forecasts as expressed as terciles (normal-above normal and below normal) and how to interpret these categories given different rainfall distributions over different regions. Participants asked about using geographic coordinates in order to extract specific data for a point. It was reinforced that seasonal forecasts represent a consensus forecast over large areas. Participants suggested using CPT (Climate Predictability Tool) for seasonal forecasting. Participants asked for improved graphics and user interface for a better understanding and interpretation of what is available through AGRHYMET Map Rooms. For example, many graphs do not include legends. To improve the quality of seasonal forecasting, participants also asked about the ability to forecast rainfall distribution during the season.At the end of Day 2, participants were asked to reflect on the assignment below before final recommendations were drafted during the Closing Session on Day 3. Questions included:• Following the testing of the Map Rooms, participants made the following suggestions: Have information on the different watersheds in addition to those already available across administrative entities. Provide information on the flow and return periods of major floods coefficients. Integrate management models of water tanks in the system. Generate information on evapotranspiration in order to make the water balance of watersheds.CCAFS also indicated that AGRHYMET could learn from their experience and leverage the ENACTS products to address: the development of seasonal forecasts by downscaling; the calculation of indices of rainfall for agricultural insurance; and early warning systems for food security.Abdou Ali facilitated an open discussion on group feedback regarding the assignment, the existing tools presented and the requirements for new data and information products. The group also explored the formation of an Advisory Group and nomination of focal persons for improving climate services by AGRHYMET. To facilitate the discussions, the participants were divided into thematic groups (hydrology, climatology and agriculture and food security).The resulting recommendations are summarized in the Conclusion and Recommendations section.Closing remarks were given by Mallang Diatta (Representative of the participants), AbdouAli and Matty Ba Diao (AGRHYMET), Tufa Dinku (IRI), and Seon-mi Choi (UNDP).Dr. Abdou Ali, the main organizer of the workshop was the first to thank the trainers, the participants for their involvement in achieving the objectives of the workshop. He proposed the creation of a network of exchanges to improve the tools and products developed.M. Malang Diatta, representative of participants, thanked the organizers of the workshop, in collaboration with the IRI in the success of the workshop. On behalf of the participants, he also thanked the financial partners of the workshop (UNDP, USAID and CCAFS).The main facilitator Dr. Tufa Dinku thanked the host institution of the workshop, namely the CRA participants for their suggestions to improve the tool and the financial partners of the workshop. He hoped that stakeholders would maintain contact to improve the tool.UNDP, a financial partner of the workshop, reiterated their readiness to accompany the CILSS in the activities of building resilience to the impacts of climate change in the subregion.The closing speech was made by Ms. Maty Ba Diao, representative of the Director General of the CRA. She apologized for any shortcomings that the participants experienced during the workshop. She thanked the IRI for their technical and scientific partnership with the CRA for the design of tools, the development of climate information products and their involvement in the organization of the workshop. She thanked the contributors for their renewed confidence in CRA. She finally wished the participants safe return to their respective countries and declared the workshop closed.This workshop was part of an effort to improve the use of new climate data, information products and tools that are now available at the AGRHYMET Center. These information products and tools are based on methodology developed under the IRI-led 'Enhancing National Climate Services' (ENACTS) initiative. This is the first implementation of ENACTS at the regional level.Overall, the workshop provided a valuable forum to introduce the recently launched AGRHYMET products. The workshop met its basic objectives to introduce data, products and decision tools to support improved resilience to climate impacts, across sectors, initially targeting agriculture, water and disaster. The workshop also provided a platform for stakeholders to share their feedback on the value of the new information products and tools for their activities and on recommendations for what is further needed. These recommendations are very valuable for improving the information products and developing new tools targeting specific applications. The workshop also explored mechanisms for continued engagement and collaborations. The workshop participants identified the 'Groupe de Travail Pluridisciplinaire' (GTP) as a clear mechanism for stakeholder engagement.Following presentations, technical hands-on sessions and open discussions, participants were asked to respond to the questions below. Included here are the consensus recommendations and feedback of the participants at the workshop:1. What needs to be improved in the current AGRHYMET data, products and tools?• Update administrative boundaries.• Improve the quality of graphics, including legends and captions.• Improve the presentation of terciles in the seasonal forecasts.• Enable the integration of national climate forecasts in addition to the regional ones such as PRESAO.• Provide options for choosing years of interest, rather than the last three, in Fig ( c) of the Climate Monitoring Map Rooms and also add the mean in addition to individual years.• Improve the flexibility of tools by providing access to spatial and temporal data so that users can integrate the data into pre-existing tools.• Incorporate validation of the different data products.• Make the suggested improvements before the onset of the next season.• Add more climate parameters such as temperature, RH, PET, etc.• Refine temporal resolution to daily time scale.• Extend the time series of ENACTS data beyond the current 30 years to facilitate a better understanding of the Sahel climate.• Provide additional information products such as the start of the growing season, rainfall intensity and frequency, drought index, maps of drought risks, maps of flood risks, plant water requirements, pasture conditions, climate and health Map Rooms, etc.• Add information on climate change scenarios.• Create specific Map Rooms for water resources management, food security, and disaster early warning applications.• In addition to administrative boundaries, also enable analysis by intervention areas or livelihood zones.• Make tools more user-friendly.• Conduct analysis in order to provide more information and tools on the relationship between climate and health.• Enable the integration of non-climate data from different sectors.3. What additional capacity is needed by the user community in order to make the best use of climate information?• Continue capacity building, particularly after improvements to ENACTS data and information products.• National focal points should assess local capacity needs.• Train users at regional, national and river basin levels, as well as at technical and nontechnical levels.• Develop a tutorial for self-guided training.• Mobilize resources for capacity building.• Include these activities in other capacity building proposals/projects.• Contribute to the revitalization of the 'Groupe de Travail Pluridisciplinaire' (GTP) or promote the establishment of multi-working group structures similar to GTP.• Countries should strengthen collaborations with GTP to be partners at the national level and ensure the involvement of all sectors (Weather, Food Security, Hydrology, Agriculture, Early Warning).• Two focal persons (one climate person and one user) who participated in the current workshop should be identified and agreed.• Activities that have synergies with the current project and that are already funded, or for which financial resources are already available, should be identified. -What needs to be improved in the current AGRHYMET data, products and tools?-What new products and tools need to be developed?-What additional capacity is needed by the user community in order to make the best use of climate information?-What Collaborations are priorities?15:30-16:00Closing Remarks (AGRHYMET, IRI, UNDP, USAID).","tokenCount":"2543"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c0ab26326a326f8a364ab9442d01ae5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c8aa6e51-2cd7-4eb8-86eb-70b0548d3d9c/retrieve","id":"1244261898"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"27641297-20c6-411d-8a8e-544201dd7881","pagecount":"1","content":"In Ethiopia, the mixed farming systems initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods through sustainable intensification within target agro-ecologies and socioeconomic settings.2022 achievements § Manuals on crowdsourcing and evolutionary plant breeding were compiled and published. § Research commodities were identified in durum wheat, faba bean and enset in consultation with the local community. § Developed a catalogue of socio-technical bundles across Ethiopia. § Developed and refined socio-technical innovations that will be implemented in the mixed farming system of Ethiopia. § Established and carried out SIMFS technology trials on 10 farms in Jimma Zone. § Scoping study on major challenges and researchable issues of the dairy sector in mixed farming systems. § Scaling of climate-smart feed and forage innovations through development partnership and media engagement approaches. § Six sheep fattening groups comprising 450 youth and women were formed and 3 feed processing units were acquired for groups, to scale up market-oriented sheep fattening. § Scaling of early generation seeds 5.5 ton of breeder seeds of cereals, 0.7 ton of food legumes, 4.8 certified seeds of bread wheat and 5.9 ton of potato produced. § Multi-dimensional assessment of producer, processor and consumer varietal and traits preferences for 8 barley varieties was conducted.The adoption of innovations for sustainable intensification of mixed farming systems in and beyond the target countries will increase crop and livestock productivity, farm incomes and household incomes, ultimately resulting in poverty reduction for 13 million people (3 million households), assisting more than half a million people to exit poverty.The adoption of innovations for sustainable intensification of mixed farming systems in the target countries will significantly improve the nutrition, health and food security of about 13 million people (3 million households).Through gender-transformative approaches, constraining gender norms and dynamics are shifted and reduced, and norms and dynamics that support gender equality are strengthened, leading to greater gender equality, benefiting 5 million women in the target countries. Benefits reach 3 million youth, either directly, through engagement in capacity building on agricultural entrepreneurship and use of digital decision support tools, or indirectly through their households.The Initiative's socio-technical innovation packages contribute to the three pillars for climatesmart agriculture: productivity, adaptation and mitigation. Adoption of innovations in the target countries is expected to improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, resulting in increased adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change, a more stable income and significant improvements in welfare for 13 million people.Growing evidence shows the positive effects of sustainable intensification practices on environmental outcomes such as soil health and fertility, biodiversity gains and ecosystem service improvements, expected to result in substantial benefits to beneficiary farm households and improved management over 1.6 million hectares of land in the target countries.","tokenCount":"448"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9b437b6b962706f58d625caf099a9102","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f8fe05bc-93a7-4fe3-ad5d-25af895933b4/retrieve","id":"-1860509781"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"144d5db2-0e00-41cc-9a08-6b590b97a572","pagecount":"144","content":"The Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) concept represents a paradigm change in the way agricultural research and development activities are carried out in Africa. The concepts build on other models conducting agricultural research and development. The concept has its main root in the innovation system approach; which is a multi-institutional, multi-stakeholder framework that has been successfully used in the industrial development era of the West. The biggest problem with the concept was how to practically use it agriculture considering the sector uniqueness and dissimilarity from the industrial sector. The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) developed the IAR4D concept as a way to implement the innovation systems approach for agricultural development, this concept was packaged as a project and presented to the Consultative Group in International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for funding. The CGIAR council accept the project proposal for implementation as the Sub Saharan African Challenge Program (SSA CP) and requested that the first part of the project should aim conducting a proof of the IAR4D concept.The SSA CP proof of concept was carried out using a rigorous research methodology and was implemented in eight countries of the sub Saharan Africa. The project work involved many agricultural research and non-research organizations, with the core implementation in three pilot learning sites. These include; (a) Western Africa (Kano-katsina-Maradi); (b). Southern Africa (Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique) and (c). Eastern Africa (Uganda, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo) around the Lake kivu regions. The debut knowledge on the practice of the IAR4D concept as documented in this book was largely drawn from the jointly developed framework which is consistently refined by FARA staff; and the implementation of the concept under the socio-economic and cultural conditions of the Lake Kivu pilot learning site.The authors therefore wish to acknowledge the contribution of the following institutions to the development and implementation of the IAR4D concept. The contribution of the sub-regional organization viz.,Transforming the subsistence farming practices into commercial enterprises through market integration is a prerequisite for improving income generation for the smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. This integration could provide the needed levers for intensification of the farming systems, improvement of labor productivity and reduction of poverty in rural communities. The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) has played a significant role in catalyzing the necessary changes in agricultural research and development to improve the availability of food for the population and increased income for farmers while conserving the natural resource base in Sub-Saharan Africa. FARA is actively supporting market integration, policy development and competitiveness drive for the African smallholders.This publication presents a synthesis of methods and lessons learnt in the implementation of the Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) concept within the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program (SSA CP). It relates lessons learnt and impact gained from the program between 2005 to 2010. The SSA CP is the only Challenge program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) program that is targeted at a particular region and it represents an important partnership between the stakeholders in African Agriculture, represented by FARA, and the CGIAR. The IAR4D concept utilizes the principles of innovation systems approach to foster significant changes in agriculture through wholesome engagement of stakeholders in useful partnership, market integration and participatory innovation along technological, institutional and infrastructural realm.The central concept for engineering change in the process of production, processing and marketing of agricultural products in this program is the IAR4D concept. The concept applies a new theory of change to the sector where participatory action research is used to tap into local, entrepreneurial, managerial and scientific knowledge in order to generate innovative solutions fitting the needs of highly heterogeneous and complex stakeholders group. Accordingly, IAR4D promotes changes in skills, mindsets and attitudes of stakeholders in view of improving performances and returns from investment in the production chain. Fair sharing of benefits and risks from the added value resulting from the improved production chain is adequately taken care of within the IAR4D framework as it admits a balance in contributions and rewards through a good value chain analysis and agreed business plan. The operational frame for the IAR4D concept is the Innovation Platform (IP). This is a physical or virtual platform that brings all concerned stakeholders together into an effective dialogue for problem diagnosis, Foreword generation and implementation of solution for a change. The IP could have formal contractual arrangements for progress as it engages private-sector actors, policy makers, and others as part of the process. This will ensure a good combination of public investments and regulations with the innovative commitment of private stakeholders in a fair, inclusive and equitable manner.This book provides the needed guidelines to put the IAR4D concept into motion by setting-up effective Innovation Platforms; it also illustrates the pathway for the functioning of the innovation platform and the achievements of the SSA CP project in the Lake kivu Pilot learning sites.Through this publication the FARA Secretariat provides an evidenced based guide for the application of IAR4D concept in order to foster progress for the African farmers, input dealers, agricultural service providers and market agents in agriculture.Executive Director, FARAAgriculture has high potential for stimulating economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Pengali 2006, Delgado 1995). Currently, the sector provides livelihoods for over 80 percent of the population (Falkenmark andRockström 2005, World Bank 2000) and accounts for 70 percent of employment, 40 percent of exports and 33 percent of the gross domestic product (World Bank 2003).Despite this potential, agriculture is largely dominated by smallholder farmers practising subsistence farming and is largely undeveloped in several countries due to a range of technical, Chapter 1 institutional and infrastructural constraints. Technical constraints often affect agricultural productivity, such as developing high-yielding, disease-resistant and resilient varieties and breeds, controlling diseases and pests, and on-farm natural resources management, including soil, water and biodiversity. They can also limit the capacity for storage, processing and product development. Institutional constraints include inappropriate policies, ineffective markets, and constraints related to the underdevelopment of support services, such as input supply chains, extension services and research organisations. These issues also relate to governance and management rules and how these apply to both intra-and inter-organisational interaction. Infrastructural constraints include a lack of roads, markets and storage facilities, among others.Over the past several years, promising steps have been made towards overcoming some of these hurdles by proponents of agricultural research for development. These players have largely come from inchoate national institutions at the country level and international institutions at the sub-region level. Recently, sub-regional research coordinating agencies have complemented the efforts of these two types of institutions. A good number of technologies have been developed for various commodities -some receiving international, regional and local awards. However, despite their high potential, many of these technologies have not spread beyond the areas where they were developed, resulting in what many term 'islands of success' across the region. Consequently, the number of poor and hungry people has continued to rise (Amoako 2003). About a third of SSA countries cannot produce adequate food to support at least half of their populations (World Bank 2009, World Bank 2004), and there is a great danger that the region will not achieve the target of 6 percent annual growth, agreed by African leaders as the rate needed to reverse the downward economic trend (NEPAD 2003).Quick analysis of the outcomes of research in the recent past has shown that while significant attention has been showered on technical problems, the attention paid to both institutional and infrastructural problems has been either negligible or non-existent. This has led, through a gradual process, to the introduction of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) as an approach that enables simultaneous work on all categories of agricultural problems through innovative partnerships. Various IAR4D-related concepts are explored in this chapter. Section 2 reviews past efforts to address the poor performance of the SSA agriculture sector, while section 3 examines some of the theoretical underpinnings of the IAR4D approach and section 4 draws some conclusions.Since the 1950s, there have been several waves of enthusiasm for new approaches to address the aforementioned constraints. Socio-political conditions in SSA and changes in approaches to solving the global food problems have prompted donors, development partners and scientists to revise their assumptions about the mediocre performance of agricultural research and development in the region (Rhoades 1990). Various approaches have emerged ever since, as described below. Among others, these have included: farming systems research, farmer participatory research and integrated natural resources management (INRM) (Norman and Matlon 2000, Schiere et al. 2000, Norman et al. 1994, Chambers and Conway 1992, Norman and Lightfoot 1992, Chambers et al. 1989).Farming systems research was developed in response to the dismally low rate of adoption by resource-poor small farmers of the crop and livestock technologies developed in research stations. A systems perspective was needed for the identification, design, development and evaluation of improved technologies and for the creation of new types of partnerships between farmers and researchers. This approach requires greater involvement of farmers -and can lead to their empowerment. Also required were broader implementation strategies, including new forms of partnerships between the different developmental stakeholders and institutions, and a greater liberalisation of political structures and processes.Farmer participatory research mainly emphasised production research, and was planned and carried out by and with the farmers on their own fields (Haverkort et al. 1988, Ashby 1987, Farrington and Martin 1987, Tan 1985, Harwood 1979). Although experimentation by farmers could not entirely replace conventional scientific research, a 'synergistic relationship' existed between the two types of research. This arrangement could benefit the small resource-poor farmer and also contribute to the scientific knowledge base.Analysis of innovations in natural resources management (NRM) in Sub-Saharan Africa, show that most soil and water conservation approaches are supply-rather than demand-driven and largely use the linear 'research-extension-farmer' technology transfer model as opposed to the economic and institutional approach. But over time there has been an evolution in this approach to one referred to as 'integrated natural resources management' (INRM) where processes of adaptive management and innovations are increasingly stakeholder-driven (Thomas 2002). This is showing useful results. In 2006, Dormon showed that where farmers got higher prices, they were motivated to work together to collectively maintain the natural environment and reap the joint benefits. However, a key question revolves around the balance in terms of directing efforts towards the institutional vis-à-vis environmental dynamics.One of the major weaknesses of the above approaches is that they fail to analyse the complex relationships among actors and innovation processes. This called for new approaches that went beyond the simple conventional linear research-extension-farm model, which was being used by many professionals (Hall 2007, Spielman 2005, Campbell et al. 2001, Edquist 2001, OTA 1988, Edquist 1997). These are described as follows:• Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) introduced a new perspective, providing a framework for soft analysis of the different perceptions and interrelationships among stakeholders. The approach advocated a redefinition of complex problems as 'better' problems (ie, more narrowly defined), as well as the identification of a common objective by all stakeholders. This constituted a significant change from the conventional approach.• The sustainable livelihoods approach was championed by the United Kingdom (UK) Department for International Development (DFID), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). It stressed the need to focus on the range of available assets (human, social, infrastructural, financial and physical assets such as land), and the risks and vulnerabilities that poor people are subjected to. The approach sought to build policy and institutional environments that would support the livelihoods of the poor without undermining the integrity of the natural resource base.• The Agro-enterprise Development Approach (ADA), developed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and its development partners, added a market dimension to the sustainable livelihoods approach. By linking farmers to expanding markets, it placed fresh emphasis on the issues of social organisation and the policies affecting market access and trade opportunities. ADA identified markets, conducted analysis for improvement of marketing chains, and strengthened business support services.• The advantage over the ADA of the Competitive Agricultural Systems and Enterprises (CASE) approach, developed by the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) and its partner institutions, is the fact that it is grounded in experimental learning in addition to market development. The central principle behind this approach is that the competitive advantages of particular regions can be greatly increased through a threefold strategy: (a) focusing on well-targeted regional 'industry' clusters involved in particular commodity value chains; (b) strengthening technical, managerial and organisational capacities of the major stakeholders involved in the chain and in related business development services; and (c) facilitating efficient linkages among them.• The Client-Oriented Research Management Approach (CORMA) was developed by L'Institut d'Economie Rurale in Mali and the Department for Research and Development of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security in Tanzania, in collaboration with the Royal Tropical Institute in the Netherlands. It recognised that participatory approaches practiced by agricultural research centres are often not institutionalised, and therefore fail to reach their objectives. A more comprehensive approach was required to achieve the organisational change needed to reorient research towards clients' needs.The inability of research efforts to produce tangible developmental outcomes, especially in Africa, has been the concern of scientists, donors and policy makers in recent years. Naturally, this matter attracted the interest of the new Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA).Shortly after its inauguration in 2002, FARA began an intensive consultation, drawing inputs from a wide range of scientists from research institutions across the world. As expected, this extensive process identified many potential constraints, three of which were most frequently given highest priority: failures of agricultural markets, inappropriate policies and natural resource degradation. But other issues were also prominent, including productivity, product development, nutrition and gender. FARA recognised that treating these issues in isolation was the main flaw of past approaches. A new paradigm was needed to address these issues as well as the aforementioned categories of constraints in a holistic and integrated manner.FARA proposed integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) as a new, holistic way to tackle these problems. IAR4D aims to break from the conventional linear approach of agricultural research and development by engaging multi-stakeholder actors, principally from along the commodity value chains. IAR4D is an evolving concept, aiming to foster synergies among disciplines and institutions to renew commitment to change at all levels, from farmers to national and international policy makers.Consequently, the Sub-Saharan Challenge Programme (SSA CP), coordinated by FARA, has adopted the IAR4D paradigm. The programme's mission is to add value to, and enhance the impact of, on-going agricultural research for development in SSA. The SSA CP aims to provide examples of how processes for systemic innovation can be organised among researchers, practitioners, policy actors, market chain actors and rural communities. This is done in a way that demonstrates how the new technologies, strategies, techniques and policies can be useful, affordable and accessible to end users, and can have positive impacts on their livelihoods.The goal of IAR4D is to improve rural livelihoods and increase food security and sustainable natural resource management throughout SSA. The SSA CP is meant to foster synergies among disciplines and institutions, coupled with a renewed commitment to change at all levels.IAR4D is an innovation-based approach involving many stakeholders and partnerships. It is a continually evolving approach that relies on on-going interactions among actors to identify, analyse and prioritise problems, and find and implement solutions using feedback, reflection and lesson-learning mechanisms from different processes. This requires drawing on knowledge from relevant actors at each stage. IAR4D creates a network that considers technical, social and institutional constraints, in an environment that facilitates learning. Its ultimate aim is to generate innovative solutions rather than mere research products or technologies. IAR4D involves complex mechanisms that may require fundamental changes in the broader policy and institutional framework.The approach largely builds on the experiences of previous approaches, including integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and integrated natural resource management (INRM), and encompasses market and policy domains (von Kaufmann 2007). IAR4D is an action research approach that integrates the technological, natural resource management policy and institutional components, for various actors. The goal is to find innovative commercial, social and institutional solutions to agricultural development challenges in the face of changing market and policy conditions (Hall andYoganand 2004, Monty 2004). Its strength lies in its ability to capture policy and market factors, in addition to fostering systemic linkages among actors under diverse contexts. Therefore, these actors can have a stake in the process of generating, disseminating and using knowledge for socio-economic impact.Although as an iterative process IAR4D resists precise definition, there have been attempts to encapsulate the concept. As summarised by Hawkins et al. (2009b), 'IAR4D comprises a set of individual and organisational behaviours that promote the integration of stakeholder concerns, knowledge, actions and learning around a theme of mutual interest'. On the other hand, FARA (2007) describes IAR4D as an action research approach for investigating and facilitating the organisation of groups of stakeholders (including researchers) to innovate more effectively in response to changing complex agricultural and NRM contexts for improved developmental outcomes.In general terms, IAR4D is seen as a broad set of processes that, through their interactions, lead to the generation and use of knowledge (Hawkins et al. 2009b). The following features apply:• IAR4D is evolving and brings together a number of trends and ideas.• IAR4D is about change and innovation as an outcome, not just about information, knowledge or technology as a product. It precisely aims at the use of information, knowledge, technology and inventions to generate socio-economic benefits.• IAR4D places research as one of the components contributing to the development process, rather than as its only pivotal point.• IAR4D focuses on processes and performance rather than on products (technologies, policies); to put it another way, improved processes lead to the ultimate product, termed innovation.To achieve the desired outcomes, the conceptualisation and practice of IAR4D needs to go beyond methods to include changes in personal skills, mindsets and attitudes, organisational practices and culture, and the ways in which organisations interact as part of the wider 'innovation system'.The IAR4D approach is based on the following four defining principles that are described in more detail elsewhere (Hawkins et al. 2009b).a. IAR4D integrates the perspectives, knowledge and actions of different stakeholders around a common theme or 'entry point'. The theme represents a research and development challenge, identified by one or more stakeholders. In identifying the challenge, the stakeholders recognise that a broader working alliance is needed to achieve the desired development impact. The interests and actions of the different stakeholders are diverse, ranging from information and technology to business, politics, policy, finance, organisation and management. It is also assumed that there are existing or potential links among these interests. This principle is supported by the theories of positivism and constructivism, as well as by experiences from indigenous knowledge and farmer innovations, participation and participatory research, stakeholder analysis, agricultural knowledge and information systems, and innovation systems (Hawkins et al. 2009b).b. IAR4D integrates the learning that stakeholders gain from working together. Given that all stakeholders in an innovation system have relevant knowledge based on their roles, this knowledge is potentially available among the stakeholders through interactive learning and joint actions. In addition to being a concerted action process, IAR4D is also seen as a mutual and interactive learning process, with stakeholders learning from each other and from their joint experience. For this social and experiential learning to be effective, it requires a conscious and interactive process of planning, action and reflection, monitoring and evaluation, and subsequent re-planning. Reflection is particularly crucial; participating stakeholders become engaged in analysing the outcomes of their own behaviour and the processes in which they are involved.This 'learning cycle' is fundamental to the IAR4D approach and focuses primarily on the processes of stakeholder interaction themselves, rather than on the specific solutions to research and development challenges. Learning takes place at individual, organisational and institutional levels. At the individual level, participants become aware of how their own personalities, attitudes and mindsets may affect their interaction with others. At the organisational level, group members of organisations collectively learn how their administrative and management practices and incentive structures, etc., affect or limit the interactions between individuals within the organisation and between the organisation and other stakeholders. At the institutional level, individuals and organisations collectively learn how they can interact to facilitate innovation. Here individuals and organisations learn how to collectively create an enabling environment that encourages interactions, and how to share information and manage knowledge across networks. As well, local systems learn from other local systems (eg, through national learning platforms), and national innovation systems learn through international platforms. The theory of adult and experiential learning as well as experiences with knowledge management, action research, farmer field schools, learning cycles and learning alliances all support this concept.c. IAR4D integrates analysis, action and change across the different dimensions of development (eg, environmental, socio-economic). This principal is premised on the general and current concepts of sustainable development and multi-functional agriculture that require the interlinked dimensions of such development. These interlinked dimensions include economic growth (linking farmers to markets), conservation of natural resources (soil fertility, biodiversity and limited carbon dioxide production), social inclusion and equity (pro-poor development) and food security. Integrating analysis, action and change across the different dimensions will ensure that IAR4D achieves impact in terms of poverty and pro-poor development. The theory of rural livelihoods as well as experiences with INRM, value chains, social equity and gender frameworks, inter-disciplinary research and development, and agricultural development goals all give support to this principle.d. IAR4D integrates analysis, action and change at different levels of spatial, economic and social organisation. This concept follows the notion of an agricultural innovation systems perspective that implies that research is not the only driver of development, as was implied in the 'national agricultural research system' perspective, or that it even has the central role, as was still implied in the wider 'agricultural knowledge and information system' perspective. Agricultural innovation is an emergent property of the broader 'innovation system'. The agricultural innovation systems perspective sees research as only one of the sub-processes of a framework that encompasses the value chain and the knowledge and information system, as well as policies and institutions that determine the interactions between the components. To be effective at promoting innovations, IAR4D therefore needs to promote change and enhance learning throughout the innovation system, at all levels of organisation. These include spatial (field, farm and watershed), economic (product, firm, value chains and business clusters) and social (individual, group, community, organisations and innovation systems) levels. The systems theory and experiences with farming systems research and client-oriented approaches, as well as with integrated rural development, scaling up and out, agriculture sector policies and strategies, and new institutional economics, have all informed this concept.Over and above these principles, Hawkins et al. (2009a) argue that IAR4D requires a set of individual, organisational and institutional capacities that enables the principles to be put into practice.At an individual level, competencies need strengthening in meta-disciplines (systems thinking, knowledge management, strategic planning, knowing how to learn, effective writing, and use of information and communications technology), in social skills (communication, teamwork, networking and facilitation) and in mindsets (empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, selfmotivation and social awareness).At an organisational level, structures and processes need to provide the performance and incentives systems that encourage inter-disciplinary teamwork, partnerships with other stakeholders, an emphasis on mutual learning, and effective knowledge management that, combined, work to promote change. Also needed are approaches to impact assessment that go beyond economic returns to include and encourage a broader view of human development.At an institutional or system-wide level, capacity needs to be developed to allow different stakeholders (individuals and organisations, from the public and private sectors) to come together on a level playing field. Currently, there is often an institutional vacuum in this regard, although innovation intermediaries and competitive-funding committees can convene and articulate stakeholders to fill this vacuum. Finding an appropriate way to manage and finance inter-institutional space and the needed intermediaries is crucial, as is ensuring the neutrality of these intermediaries. It is also vital to build trust between the intermediaries and the different stakeholders, as well as among the stakeholders themselves.The IAR4D principles imply that it requires a new way of doing research and development.The IAR4D systems approach involves four dimensions: (a) intensification of subsistenceoriented smallholder farming systems; (b) prudent management of natural resources while intensifying their use; (c) development of more efficient markets; and (d) creation of enabling policies. To foster the integration of these dimensions, IAR4D requires additional supportive mechanisms or pillars: (i) promotion of organisational and institutional changes to enable cross-disciplinary research and development and multi-institutional collaborations; (ii) capacity building for project teams, farmers and scientists; (iii) information and knowledge management; and (iv) continuous monitoring and evaluation and a systemic approach to impact assessment.In an effort to test the IAR4D approach, the SSA CP identified three pilot learning sites, including the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), where Africa-wide IAR4D experiments would be implemented.The LKPLS is located astride the boundaries of north-western Rwanda, the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and south-western Uganda -around the famous Virunga chain of volcanic mountains. The site covers roughly 20,000 km 2 , comprising the administrative districts of Kabale, Kisoro, Ntungamo and Rukungiri in Uganda; all or parts of the provinces of Byumba, Gisenyi, Gitarama, Kibuye, and Ruhengeri in Rwanda; and the territories of Goma, Rutshuru, Masisi and Minova in eastern DRC.Physically, the terrain of the LKPLS is dominated by hills and valleys, with most slope gradients ranging between 12 percent and 50 percent, but some as great as 80 percent. Its climate provides for two cropping seasons each year, with bi-modal rainfall distribution; the long rains occur from mid-February through early June, while the short rains occur from mid-September to mid-December. The average annual rainfall in the entire region ranges from 800mm to 2000mm. Most soils of the pilot learning site are volcanic Andosols, except in some parts in Uganda north of Kisoro and south and east of Ruhengeri, where deeply weathered, lateritic Ferralsols occur. Andosols are relatively fertile and can support intensive farming in the absence of fertiliser inputs; however, they are very susceptible to soil erosion. The Ferralsols are considerably lower in potassium and other cation bases (Pali et al., 2009).Each of the countries in the LKPLS has a unique historical background and operates under a different policy and institutional framework. For example, Uganda has not seen active armed conflict for over 21 years. Policies have been revised but are lacking rigorous enforcement to make them work for the poor. DRC is still regarded as being in active conflict and having policies that have not been revised for decades, if they ever existed. The centralised governance system in Kinshasa has very poor linkages with the provinces. Rwanda has been out of active armed conflict for nearly 16 years, and it has revised many policies to meet the development challenges the country faced after the 1994 genocide.The institutional and policy environment for agricultural research and development must change in order to provide an enabling environment for IAR4D to take off. This also means that the IAR4D concept needs to be prominent on the agenda of ongoing debates on agricultural development issues within the policy, academic and operational communities.At the LKPLS, implementation of IAR4D occurred in phases. The first phase was the inception phase, during which all of the institutional structures and the governance framework were put in place. The task forces were identified, the expected outcomes spelt out and the pilot sites identified. This was followed by the research phase, based on a randomised study designed to prove the effectiveness of the concept of IAR4D.During the inception phase, a validation team was formed to identify critical entry points for cutting-edge research, with a focus on new opportunities and how the site would respond to development challenges. The team was also tasked with: (i) validating the hypotheses proposed by the FARA Secretariat in terms of their relevance to the pilot learning sites, refining them where necessary and suggesting additional hypotheses; (ii) examining capacities within the pilot learning sites to determine how different stakeholder groups could be involved; and (ii) preparing a logical framework with an impact pathway that shows how to integrate the four pillars of the SSA CP -namely, poverty alleviation, food security, environmental sustainability and wealth creation.The validation team found critical entry points for the LKPLS in low productivity, low input use, failed markets, limited access to agricultural credits, lack of (or limited) policy implementation, widespread natural resource degradation and limited adoption of improved natural resource management technologies and methods (FARA 2005). A call for proposals was sent out and three proposals were selected. These addressed the identified developmental challenges and had potential to stimulate the generation of the greatest returns with regards to land, water, labour, capital and tropical livestock units, increased diversification of agricultural and other natural-resource-based enterprises, improved quality of differentiated products including environmental services, and increased market information, market access, and competitiveness for agricultural inputs and outputs. The three projects were integrated into one programme to improve efficiency and provide for a multi-stakeholder and multi-disciplinary environment in which the targeted long-and short-term development impacts could be delivered.The CGIAR Science Council review of the programme, however, recommended that evidence be provided to show that the IAR4D approach is better than conventional approaches (CGIAR Science Council 2005). This required changes to the stated issues and questions, the research design, activities, work plans and budgets. It also implied a need for a joint implementation approach. The integrated programme was then centred on research and facilitation to prove the IAR4D concept, addressing the three research questions posed by the Science Council:• Does the IAR4D concept work and can it generate and deliver international and regional public goods for the end users?• Does IAR4D deliver more benefits to end users than conventional approaches? (ie, assuming that the conventional research and development [R&D] and extension approach had access to the same resources)• How sustainable and usable is the IAR4D approach outside the test environment? (ie, can it be scaled out for broader impact?) Some of the research activities undertaken were tailored along traditional lines and included innovative research on the interfaces between and among IAR4D's four components: (i) technologies for improving productivity; (ii) sound natural resource management; (iii) accessibility and efficiency of markets for smallholder and pastoral products; and (iv) formulation and adoption of policies and institutional arrangements that foster innovation to improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers (see Figure 1.1).To actualise the IAR4D, innovation platforms were initiated across the LKPLS. An innovation platform is a physical or virtual forum that brings together different stakeholders along the value chain of a commodity of interest and/or a system of production. These stakeholders include: individual farmers, farmer organisations and/or rural communities; researchers; non-governmental organisations (NGOs); extension departments; the private sector; and policy makers. The groups should have a common entry point or theme and serve as a forum through which all stakeholders identify issues and/or opportunities, develop joint action plans, share roles, responsibilities and resources, exchange information, track the progress of action plan implementation, and monitor the processes and outcomes of their interactions. A more comprehensive description of an innovation platform has been reported recently (Adekunle et al. 2010, Adekunle andFatunbi 2012). Twelve innovation platforms (four per country) were formed and are operational in the LKPLS. The use of innovation platforms in IAR4D brings on board various stakeholders, technologies and coordination procedures to generate innovative solutions to community challenges (Pali et al. 2009).This book presents the process of how the IAR4D concept was translated into practice, and highlights the results to date. The concept of IAR4D has been discussed in this introductory chapter. The next six chapters examine the use of IAR4D practices in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS). Strategies for setting up innovation platforms are described in chapter 2. Chapter 3 summarises innovation platform (IP) operations. Chapter 4 provides the story of institutionalisation and sustainability of innovation platforms, while policy and institutional frameworks in the LKPLS are presented in chapter 5. Chapter 6 gives selected success stories in the LKPLS, and finally, chapter 7 describes some operations and lessons learnt. Strategies for Setting up Innovation Platforms in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning SiteThe emergence of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) presents an opportunity to address development problems. IAR4D involves innovative principles and an integrated research agenda, while recognising the need for greater organisational capacities among stakeholders in agriculture. Actualising IAR4D revolves around the successful establishment of innovation platforms (IPs), as mentioned in chapter 1. These are being implemented in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP) to address agricultural development challenges. This chapter presents the stages and experiences of establishing IPs in the LKPLS.IPs can serve as multi-level and multi-stakeholder forums, allowing participants to identify, understand and address complex challenges and concomitant emerging issues. This mutual learning process can mobilise members to achieve an agreed vision. IP formation is a dynamic and highly context-specific process that incorporates all of the essential ingredients for successful innovation. It recognises the value of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and capitalises on prevailing policies and institutional settings, while involving local leadership.The evolution and timing of IP formation depends on the particular conceptual and local context, specifically the quality of facilitation and the socio-economic, cultural, biophysical, and political environments in which common challenges and/or opportunities are identified, as well as on the capacity of stakeholders to grasp the innovation systems approach, described below. Creating win-win situations with market-led interventions accelerates the process of IP formation. Strong leadership, strategic and operational partnerships, two-way information flows, and dealing with recurrent challenges are all critical to fostering innovation. Some of the major challenges experienced during the IP formation processes included the daunting task of building capacity among stakeholders and dealing with the persistent 'handout syndrome'a phenomenon where communities (especially those coming out of conflict, which have been receiving food aid) expect to subsist on what is received as aid instead of working to produce food and generate income.Innovation platforms were formed in the LKPLS with the understanding that African agriculture is still uncompetitive, mainly due to low adoption of essential technologies for increased productivity (IAC 2004). This low uptake is a result of several factors: inappropriateness of many technologies for the biophysical and socio-economic conditions of smallholder farming; high cost; weak linkages among farmers, extension agents, access to credit and markets; poorly implemented policies; poor infrastructure; and unfair competition from open market operations (Kirsten et al. 2009). The net result of these constraints is the continued practice of subsistence agriculture, which is characterised by minimal inputs and low productivity. This leaves farmers unable to tap the potential of the region for creating wealth through agriculture. As a result, the vast majority of end users remain vulnerable to poverty, food insecurity, environmental shocks and malnourishment -culminating in ill health and a low life expectancy (OECD-FAO 2006, Thorpe et al. 2004).Past agricultural research and development (ARD) efforts have failed to respond to these challenges. This is primarily because interventions are not tailored to address the particular problems of highly heterogeneous complex traditional smallholder farming systems, or because they fail to give due consideration to local knowledge and local biophysical and socio-economic constraints and opportunities. Proponents of ARD focus on the one-way flow of knowledge from researchers to farmers; there are no mechanisms for nurturing the innovative capacity of multi-stakeholders along the value chains, or to allow markets to address the recurrent production and environmental risks inherent in complex farming systems (see Figure 2.1). The current approach to agricultural research is often described as sectoral and fragmented, with little or no involvement of relevant stakeholders. Strengthening linkages among ARD actors is key to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of efforts to raise the economic performance of rural communities (Hall et al. 2006). This requires technology generation that takes into consideration the opportunities and constraints associated with input and output markets. An enabling policy environment is also critical. What is needed is a true paradigm shift from the supply-based ARD approaches to a more demand-driven approach (Figure 2.1).The innovation systems approach (ISA) has emerged as a promising alternative framework to guide ARD work in Africa (Akullo et al. 2009, Hawkins et al. 2009, OECD 2005). It entails systemic analyses to support organisational learning and change at strategic and operational levels. It focuses on institutional change and systemic innovation processes, and how they contribute to economic growth and sustainable development (Lundvall 2006, Edquist 1997, Foray 2000).The functional aspect of ISA is the integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) approach, described in chapter 1.Recognising the potential of the IAR4D approach for Africa, the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) developed, funded and implemented the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP). The programme sought to prove the IAR4D concept in three widely differing agro-ecologies in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), in three regions: West Africa, Eastern andSource: Tenywa at al. 2011Central Africa, and Southern Africa. The aim was to assess the usefulness of IAR4D in generating international and regional public goods, as well as technologies that are better adapted to the needs of end users (FARA 2008).The LKPLS, described in chapter 1, is the pilot learning site for the Eastern and Central Africa region, involving three countries: Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Rwanda. While the three countries share a uniformly mountainous terrain in the study region, their socio-economic and political environments differ significantly. For example, while the DRC is just beginning to emerge from political conflicts, Rwanda has been at relative peace for over 16 years, and Uganda for 21 years. These contrasting situations have proven that implementing IAR4D cannot follow a one-size-fits-all approach. What has been lacking are clear steps on how to identify and involve different stakeholders in problem-solving exercises as stepping stones to IAR4D.Spielman ( 2006) emphasised the need to make ISA operational in order to foster innovation capacity in a systematic way. Note that a major component of the IAR4D concept -and that which differentiates it from other approaches -is the establishment of IPs. IPs are useful tools for building social capital, widely increasing stakeholders' knowledge and strengthening their capacity to mitigate the diverse risks associated with complex farming systems. As such, they aim to circumvent obstacles to better livelihoods by stimulating multi-stakeholder innovation processes, rather than relying on chance learning. Like the IAR4D approach, IPs engender clear stages of formation, including how to identify and involve different kinds of stakeholders in constructive problem-solving strategies and action plans. The next section of this chapter describes the phases and stages of formation of IPs in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), which is one of the three pilot learning sites in Africa, the other two being in the Kano-Katsina-Maradi areas of Nigeria and Niger (West Africa region) and in the Mozambique-Malawi-Zimbabwe corridor (Southern Africa region).In the LKPLS, IPs were formed around chosen value chains (eg, sorghum, potatoes) selected in a participatory process based on percieved importance by the stakeholders. The selection of sites was dependent on a number of factors, including a range of biophysical characteristics, the network density of development agencies (high or low), soil and water conservation requirements, and the (in)accessibility to markets from a given location. Therefore, a total of 12 IPs were formed in the LKPLS, four in each of the three participating countries (Uganda, DRC and Rwanda). The institutional arrangements of each IP differ depending on the factors surrounding its formation.The formation and operationalisation of IPs in the LKPLS was carried out through a multi-phased participatory action learning approach. This involved a combination of iterative, participative, reflective and integrative desk modelling and field activities, elaborated in three phases: (a) pre-formation, (b) formation, and (c) post-formation. This chapter describes the pre-formation and formation phases. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to detail the operational processes conducted in each of the 12 IPs in the LKPLS, we refer to them when necessary.The pre-formation phase was carried out in five stages, adapted from the Network for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture, and the Environment (AFANet) research learning cycle (see Figure 2.2). These stages include:1. open exploration of different concepts of the IAR4D approach (see  The formation phase was divided into six iterative stages:1. identification of research and developmental challenges 2. site selection 3. consultative and scoping study 4. visioning and stakeholder analysis 5. development of action plans 6. implementation of the action plans.Only the first four stages are discussed in this chapter; the last two are described in chapter 3. All six stages are represented in Figure 2.3. Identifying challenges required an understanding of the research and development constraints affecting the productivity and profitability of a region. Detailed information about this was obtained from literature reviews, secondary data, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, case studies, market chain analysis, institutional capacity assessments, spatial analyses and expert information. In addition, the LKPLS relied greatly on information acquired from a validation study (Mateete et al. 2005) in which five challenges had been identified: producing more food at the lowest cost; diversifying agro-enterprises for wealth creation among the poor; improving markets; sustaining agricultural and natural resources; and refocusing on policies, institutional capacity development and organisational change.The agricultural production functions of each IP are based in a particular territory, which for the purposes of the SSA CP are named 'sites'. 1 Site selection was thus a very important stage in the IP formation processes, and was driven by project-specific criteria. Selection could be straightforward, such as in cases where the aim of the project was to alleviate the impacts of a certain biophysical constraint (eg, poor soil fertility) in a given area. However, in situations that sought to capitalise on existing and/or emerging market opportunities, site selection entailed analyses of socio-economic conditions, as well as the biophysical conditions and, of course, the willingness of the local communities to participate.In the LKPLS, the criteria and methods used in the selection of IP sites differed somewhat from those described by Farrow et al. (2009). The LKPLS selection process required the development of an understanding of the biophysical characteristics, accessibility to markets, and main crop enterprises of a range of potential sites (see Figure 2.4). General steps included: establishing a census of political units; defining low and high market access; modelling of market access; identifying candidate sites; developing a diagnostic tool for site selection; appraising candidate sites; and finally selecting the most appropriate sites.Next, we outline the methodology used for site selection in the LKPLS, highlighting the implications of the SSA CP research design. Some important characteristics of the LKPLS and the stratification of candidate sites are also reviewed. Across the three pilot learning sites, a consensus emerged that each site should be located within a local governmental unit. Local government units offer potential for dialogue with local policy makers; they also ensure positive spill-over effects, entailing utilisation of the experiences gained for up-scaling to other areas outside the study site during the project implementation phase.The sites where IPs were established had a governance structure at multiple levels (regional, national, district and local/sub-county). At the regional level in the LKPLS, three task forces -consisting of partner scientists from CGIAR centres and NARS (national agricultural research systems), local government and the private sector -were working closely on the interactions between agricultural productivity, natural resource sustainability, markets and policy themes. The interactions between these themes implied that the task forces worked in common sites and potentially with common partners. At the same time, the research design asserted that each of the three task forces in the LKPLS worked with four IPs, giving a total of 12 IPs in each pilot learning site. However, because of the challenges the mountainous terrain posed for communication among the IPs, it was decided that more than one IP would be formed in each site. Each IP was considered unique, and the problems and entry points (eg, poor soil fertility) were likely to be different for each task force, even though they would have some partners in common. Therefore, the number of sites was increased one year after the start of project implementation to ensure that 12 IPs were established in 12 distinct action sites (Figure 2.5). Initially seven sites had been selected, then five more were added the following year to meet the requirement for the statistical degree of freedom (FARA 2008). These additional sites were selected based on market opportunities (eg, value addition to sorghum and potatoes to target new market niches) that could lead to significant improvements in the income of smallholder farmers in the LKPLS.The SSA CP research design also required the identification of counterfactual sites for each action site to act as control sites. These sites should be as similar as possible to the action sites with respect to agro-ecology, farming systems, market linkages, culture and demography. Therefore, in each country four sites were chosen: two action sites where a full compliment of IAR4D was used and two counterfactual sites that were left under the conventional extension system (Figure 2.5).Given the limited number of districts (3 rd -level administrative units) within the LKPLS administrative structure, it was difficult to find suitable counterfactuals at that level. The most appropriate size for a site was thus found to be the 4 th -level administrative unit, which is a sub-county in Uganda, a secteur in Rwanda and a groupement in DRC.Although the SSA CP research design anticipated that action and counterfactual sites would be randomly selected from a full census of the potential sites within the LKPLS, certain issues necessitated a deviation from this research design in the LKPLS, including policy issues, market access and agro-ecological considerations. Major differences in policies warranted investigation in the three countries, which were at different post-conflict stages, variably reflecting the degree of stability and economic activities that influence access to capital (social, human, financial, physical and natural resources). This implied a first level of stratification to ensure that the same number of IPs was formed in each country. A further stratification was made based on access to a diverse set of markets: candidate sites were grouped as having either good or poor market access. A final level of stratification was required to ensure that candidate sites were characterised by the same agro-ecology, as well to exclude some areas deemed extremely remote, or unsafe, especially in DRC.From the resulting lists of sites a random selection was made for field visits and site characterisation, as well as for needs diagnosis and village identification. It was clear that even after the three levels of stratification the sites were far from homogeneous, with different marketing capacities, agricultural productivity rates and NRM issues. For this reason, action and counterfactual sites were deliberately paired to ensure that they belonged to the same population. Differences in levels of agricultural research for development (ARD) were also identified. In the end, action sites and counterfactual sites were assigned on the basis of having enough villages of the 'clean' and conventional ARD to provide satisfactory control for the 'IAR4D proof of concept'.As a result of these specific considerations, the complete process of site selection in the LKPLS required seven steps: (a) census of the sub- Much information regarding the characteristics of the LKPLS can be found in the report about the original choice of pilot learning sites (Thornton et al. 2006) and the LKPLS validation report (Mateete et al. 2005). It was felt, however, that the characteristics ought to be revisited and the quantitative approach of the validation report combined with the qualitative assessment of the stakeholders. Consequently, in a partner workshop held in Kigali in October 2007, the members of the three task forces listed criteria that could affect productivity, environmental sustainability and the success of agricultural enterprises. The criteria identified for the site characterisation and variability assessment consisted of: project partners that directly received funds from FARA, farmer organisations and networks; access to markets; rainfall; population density; infrastructure (roads, hospitals and schools); production systems; sources of income; terrain; soils; food security situation; settlement patterns; gender issues; conflict resolution; and land tenure systems. The most important criteria considered for site selection were those that exhibited large variation within the LKPLS, but which were relatively homogeneous within a sub-county, secteur or groupement, to ensure that the design maintains scientific validity.One critical research question was the degree to which the biophysical and socio-economic conditions at the sites affected their engagement with markets, the enhancement of productivity and the investment in NRM. According to López (1992), if institutional factors (eg, access to market, policy) dominate environmental dynamics, new institutions that invest and protect the land emerge, and consequently livelihoods of farmers improve. However, if a technologysupply-driven approach is used farmers are usually reluctant to adopt new technologies. Market access was a key hypothesis for many of the interventions that were being planned for the LKPLS (FARA 2008); therefore, it was considered a key variable in the stratification of sites.The LKPLS was then stratified into sites with good (diverse) market access and those with poor (limited) market access. Selection ensured that each country would have one site with good market access and another with poor market access; counterfactuals were also selected for each of these sites.In choosing markets, the LKPLS followed the methodology developed by the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA 2005) for a regional perspective on access to multiple markets. The spatial distribution of access to markets was based on models rather than observations but was augmented with expert opinion. Four types of markets were chosen: regional markets; cross-border markets or transit points (including minor and major cross-border transit points); national markets; and local markets. All partner institutions were requested to identify markets of each type.The purpose of the characterisation of the candidate sites was to be able to choose sites that would allow the investigation of the efficacy of the IAR4D principles and compare their results with conventional agricultural research and development (ARD) approaches. The action sites and counterfactual sites were stratified according to market access, with one action site having good market access and another with poor market access. This was repeated for the counterfactual sites.Action sites were chosen from the list of candidate sites according to the level of ARD between 2003 and 2008. All villages in each site were classified into two types: (a) 'clean' villages that had neither IAR4D nor conventional projects in the last 2-5 years; and (b) conventional villages that had projects identifying, promoting and disseminating technologies in the past 2-5 years.Sites with the most clean villages were chosen as action sites, while sites with a mixture of clean and conventional villages were chosen as counterfactuals.Final site selection relied on local leaders from the candidate sites and at the next-higher administrative level (district and territoire). Participants completed a semi-structured questionnaire as part of a focus group discussion, and the results were compared using triangulation methods. There were greater differences in the ARD activities between sites than between the three countries. It was also evident that in DRC the counterfactual sites had fewer interventions than the action sites. Differences between poor and good market areas were also not particularly large, but there were fewer interventions and stakeholders in the poor market access areas in all three countries.As presented in Figure 2.6, the choice of action sites aimed to demonstrate the value of bringing together multi-stakeholders to address complex challenges. For example, the Bufundi-Kabale district and Chahi-Kisoro district in Uganda had a low network density of development agencies compared to the counterfactual sites of Rubaya-Kabale and Nyakabande-Kisoro, which had high network density. In the action sites, more work was required to bring the relevant stakeholders on board to address existing or emerging challenges, compared with counterfactual sites. The choice of the three countries, namely Rwanda, DRC and Uganda (Figure 2.7) also presented an opportunity to address agricultural development problems under diverse socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental circumstances. The social network density of the three LKPLS countries was highest in Uganda, moderate in Rwanda and lowest in DRC, reflecting the post-conflict status of each country (about 24, 16 and 2 years respectively). Also, the ease with which relevant stakeholders were brought together to address these challenges corresponded to the length of the respective postconflict periods.The stage for consultations and scoping involved mobilising and building interest among stakeholders including policy makers, farmers, opinion leaders and research and development (R&D) partners at the district level. Key to this process is getting buy-in by local leaders, something which was optional in past approaches. One leader remarked that 'our involvement can make the initiative live or die'. This approach facilitated collaboration, networking and mobilisation of social capital and talent for knowledge-sharing among the stakeholders.For instance, farmers and other stakeholders (including extension workers, local leaders, private sector) met with researchers to better understand the nature of R&D activities as well as biophysical, socio-economic, technological, policy and institutional arrangements. Situation analysis was also undertaken to capture current knowledge, attitudes and practices of stakeholders; as part of the IAR4D approach, this helped explain the region's 'islands of success' and past failed approaches. Table 2.2 and Figure 2.8 outline the key stakeholder groups in addressing problems related to agriculture and rural livelihoods.A key incentive for many actors was being part of an effort to achieve a dream. It helped unleash fresh energy when the going got tough. The visioning process was either researcher-led or market-led. For the first generation (seven) IPs, the researcher-led processes were used. These involved inviting stakeholders to talk about the agricultural problems facing them and the potential roles they could play in resolving them. The market-led processes were used for  the second generation (five) IPs. They involved introducing market opportunities to the target communities and organising stakeholders to learn to tap them. In both approaches, visioning included: defining the desired expectations; developing an inventory of NRM-markettechnology-policy interface constraints and their rankings; and identifying IAR4D-derived ways of overcoming those constraints.During the visioning phase, stakeholder analysis was also conducted to determine the skills, weaknesses, strengths and opportunities of different stakeholders. Then, potential roles were identified for them in addressing the constraints and harnessing opportunities. In addition, the rationale for establishing IPs, including their functions; their principles and guidelines; critical analysis of challenges; capacity building; facilitation; teamwork/collective action and framework; and planning, monitoring and evaluation were all articulated in the context of the SSA CP.Further, through an iterative process, stakeholders internalised the process of forming IPs.Our experience shows that the market-led approach to formation of IPs created quick winwin scenarios that unleashed an innovative capacity, compared with IPs where the members were allowed to deliberate on their problems in relation to their vision. This is because in the market-led approach, stakeholders could easily identify the immediate benefits of being an IP member. Table 2.3 summarises the resources required for the various processes of IP formation.Following the processes described above, much effort and resources were expended to eventually establish the 12 IPs in the LKPLS. For every IP initiation, a scoping exercise was conducted on-site to identify potential meeting participants and to obtain more information on agricultural practices and livelihoods in general. In addition, key NGOs and cooperatives - • Time resources for the different stakeholders to meet• Conduct a stakeholder interaction survey.• Build awareness at the local administration level.• Financial resources • Identify different stakeholders and their potential roles in the IP.• Expertise of the different stakeholder categories• Ensure adequate financial resources to finance the meetings.• An issue to deliberate about • Arrange and implement an IP meeting for the buy-in of the local community. • For a researcher-led IP process, allow the IP to deliberate issues on its own and to make a decision to reject or accept.• For market-led process, sell the market opportunity upon which the IP can be organised (eg, USD200,000 per month worth of market demand for organic pineapple). • If stakeholders reject the researcher-led process, initiate the market-led process to get buy-in. M&E to track the IP formation process • Prepare and plan meetings between stakeholders prior to and after the meetings.as well as some champions -were invited to the initiation meetings. Representatives of NGOs and cooperatives, private sector (banks, microfinance institutions, agro-dealers), and farmers were also invited to establishment meetings. The meetings resulted in the selection of entry enterprises perceived to be of major economic importance.Agricultural innovation arises from various souces: researchers, farmers, development agencies, NGOs, private companies, entrepreneurs and agricultural artisans, among others. To get the most from each stakeholder, there is need for a common platform where interactions among actors are multiple, iterative and evolving, and where the mix of participants reflects the strength of political and institutional interest groups in the area. Innovation platforms (IPs) provide an opportunity to bring together all of the different actors in an area -be they farmers, traders, researchers, NGOs, local government, and universities -to create technical, economic and institutional change. This is normally done in systemic terms, where the flow of knowledge between actors and institutions, and the factors that condition the flow, are central to innovation performance (Hall 2001).In the LKPLS, the situational analysis and visioning processes allowed stakeholders to become aware of the value of participation in IPs. The participatory manner in which IPs were formed empowered the actors to come up with innovations based on their own unique situations. This made it possible to implement IPs in three countries with different socioeconomic circumstances, and showed that the process can be applied to areas outside the test environments. Hall (2001) noted that participatory approaches applied in appropriate institutional contexts are key to increasing knowledge flows between farmers and other parts of the innovation systems. This is not the case with the current R&D approach, in which knowledge is packaged and delivered to farmers by extension agents.Naturally, where social hierarchies are strong, professional and institutional hierarchies will develop simultaneously. The constituents of such structures have organisational ability and experience in policy making, which is necessary for IP formation. Sites where local leaders were involved in the process formed IPs in less time, compared with those where leaders did not participate. However, in the use of such hierarchies, caution must be taken to protect the IPs from being hijacked by leaders seeking to promote their personal interests. The heterogeneous nature of IPs brings together a wealth of experience, allowing the different groups to build on their knowledge. However, this can also bring discontent to the IPs if they are not well nurtured. Facilitators must strive to build trust among the various groups. Once the social fabric, consisting of relevant value chain actors, is developed, the operationalisation of the IPs is dependent on how well the multi-stakeholders are facilitated to access resources to address the existing and emerging challenges. These processes are described in detail in chapter 3. F Murorunkwere, M Kuule, P Mandefu, R Kamugisha Chapter 3Operationalisation of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) revolves around the successful establishment and functioning of agricultural innovation platforms (IPs).In chapter 2 it was stated that the IP formation phase involves the following six iterative stages:( (6) implementation of the action plans. The first four stages of IP formation were described in detail in chapter 2, and stages 5 and 6 will be described in this chapter (section 3.3).After IPs have been set up, the next logical step is to ensure their proper functioning. In the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), IP operationalisation was made possible by first ensuring that each IP was composed of a threshold number of members and that the members were registered, as evidence of their commitment. The membership of each IP was required to include relevant stakeholders and/or partners representing a selected enterprise or value chain. The entire membership forms a body called a 'general assembly'. The general assembly is entitled to elect an executive committee to run the affairs of the IP on behalf of the entire membership. The executive committee has the power to co-opt other members with specialised skills or expertise. In addition, the executive committee is mandated to form other committees to assist it in running various sectors or specialised fields of interest for the IP. The composition of the executive committee is balanced in its representation of area coverage, fields of expertise and gender. An important responsibility of the executive committee is to call and convene general meetings on a monthly basis. At these general meetings, major policies, findings and other issues are announced and discussed, work plans are formulated, duties are allocated, and solutions are suggested and discussed with regards to future implementation activities.The functional multi-stakeholder IPs in the LKPLS have formed roughly similar skeletal organisational structures and constitutions, but have tailored these to their local contexts to facilitate smooth functioning when addressing common interests and challenges. Some of these IPs require payment of a one-time membership registration fee and monthly contributions. Some have developed action plans with clear roles, and they meet monthly to review past activities (eg, training, exposure visits, negotiations, policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation) and to make plans for achieving their objectives. However, success breeds new challenges. As these new challenges emerge, new partners and stakeholders with relevant expertise are brought aboard to form task force teams that can look in depth at the issues and devise appropriate solutions.This chapter focuses on the last two stages of the IP formation phase, which focus on IP operationalisation (section 3.3). But before IP operationalisation can take off, certain mechanisms must be put in place to drive the operationalisation processes. These driving mechanisms involve the constitution of committees.Having first agreed to form IPs by assembling relevant stakeholders and partners together, in order for the IPs to start functioning the next step is to constitute committees. To initiate this process, a facilitator must organise a meeting and invite all participating farmers. Other relevant stakeholders and partners from a selected enterprise of common interest should also be invited to attend.One of the main agenda items for this meeting is to elect an executive committee at the lowest local government level (sub-county) to manage the affairs of the IP on behalf of the general assembly (ie, all IP members). In the LKPLS, each IP has elected an executive committee that is generally representative of its membership, in terms of geographic distribution, stakeholder groups and gender. These elected committees are not permanent; they are elected for a one-year term. In addition, depending on circumstances (eg, mistrust), an elected committee member can be replaced.After it has been formed, the executive committee has the mandate to manage the affairs of the IP. The executive committee must first lead the members in compiling the bye-laws and/or the constitution of the IP, which will guide the management of the IP. The executive committee is allowed to co-opt additional members with specialised skills or expertise into the committee.When any significant problem arises, the executive committee can elect or appoint an ad hoc committee or task force team to investigate and make a report of the findings and their suggested solutions, which should be submitted to the executive committee or the general assembly.The executive committees of the IPs in the three countries in the LKPLS are similar in size and composition, but they vary in the way they manage their affairs. For instance, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the executive committee can also form other committees, sub-committees or commissions to assist in running the technical operations of the IP. These technical commissions address the following issues: (a) research, especially on productivity and natural resource management (NRM); (b) markets; (c) credit and audit; and (d) monitoring and evaluation. Because of the vast distances between sites in the DRC, these committees also have 'branches' in villages, which serve as antennae for the executive committee. Currently, each executive committee in the DRC has five or six branches.The moment the executive committee is in place, the IP is ready to become operational. There is no particular formula for starting operations, but one of the initial activities should be to compile bye-laws and a draft constitution, which will be used to guide the IP operations. There should also be a members' register. Once these are in place, IP activities can begin.Initiation of activities starts with planning meetings. These planning meetings include periodic sub-county-level executive committee meetings, monthly general assembly meetings and district-level monthly partner meetings. What happens at these meetings is illustrated by the DRC case (see section 3.4 of this chapter). Two of the most important activities at these meetings are the development of action plans and their implementation -the final two stages of IP formation 2 .Action plans, or work plans, are developed at all levels: at the grassroots level (ie, IP level), at the national level and at the regional level (ie, the LKPLS). It is at the regional level that the action plans are harmonised (see Figure 3.1).In the LKPLS, generally the stakeholders and partners representing various organisations and knowledge groups come together at their monthly planning meetings and develop the IP-level action plans, through a participatory approach. Within these action plans, the roles, responsibilities and site-specific timelines (eg, governance, capacity building, facilitation, experimentation, monitoring and evaluation), methods of implementation and input requirements are all defined. The final work plan (operational plan) of Uganda's Chahi IP is presented in Table 3.1 to illustrate activities and roles at the grassroots level. Some of the input requirements for IP functioning are described in Table 3.2.All site-specific action plans are harmonised with the national-level work plans for site coordination. This is usually done during the monthly national-level site-coordination planning and review meetings. Partners of IPs in each country also conduct monthly meetings for planning and review. The different work plans at the national level are further integrated at quarterly regional planning and review meetings, when common elements are defined and harmonised, and synergies are forged. Emerging issues raised at the IP level, such as the lack of disease-free and pest-free 'clean' planting materials and access to credit, are addressed by task force teams (including relevant stakeholders) at the regional level. The regional-level work plans are in turn submitted to FARA for review and follow-up action (eg, funding).  Action plans can be grouped into two types: operational and strategic. Operational action plans are implemented at an action site, while strategic plans are implemented outside an action site. Implementation of operational action plans is carried out at site, national and regional levels. There are provisions for cross-site input using a participatory action research approach involving planning, action and reflection at all stages (Susman 1983). These implementation activities are often done in a cascading or parallel manner, while other activities, sometimes referred to as 'common activities', are implemented jointly.At the IP-level action sites, steering committees were elected, each consisting of a chairperson, vice chairperson (two in some countries, especially DRC), secretary and treasurer, in addition to members representing various end-user groups from different parishes (in Uganda) and antennes in the DRC. These committees were empowered to make operational decisions (eg, calling and scheduling meetings, drawing up the agenda, deploying staff) and also to liaise with national and regional partners. These committees were also supported by various sub-committees (eg, marketing, production, NRM and monitoring and evaluation).Among other activities, training on various topics was provided for various IP members as requested by the IP, for the purpose of increasing capacity and empowerment. Training topics At the national level, meetings were organised and stakeholders (eg, extension workers) participated to respond to issues raised by the executive committees at the action sites, to make strategic decisions and to raise issues that should be presented to the regional body.Other activities implemented at the national level included: coordination across action sites; facilitation of common activities; enhancement of synergies; and supervision of nationallyrecruited staff (usually two people) in each participating country. In Uganda, the country-level action site coordination body also hosted postdoctoral fellows, adding value to IP processes at the national and regional levels.At the regional level, task force teams were jointly responsible for both the research and facilitation functions of the vertical and horizontal integration of the IPs. At this level the actions of the task force teams included: developing and implementing overall plans; identifying common issues across countries; enhancing synergies and complementarities in resolving conflicts; advising the lead institution; making strategic decisions based on inter-country action documentation; and reporting on coordination across country action sites. Issues raised at the national level are handled by a regional-level team of three task force leaders representing the three implementing countries and responsible for the three main thematic areas: production technologies; NRM; and markets, policy and value addition. At this level, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) as the lead institution oversees the LKPLS and plays a pivotal role in championing the IP processes by responding regularly and promptly to emerging issues, providing feedback, conflict resolution, and by keeping the team together and focused. The lead institution is also instrumental in forging and maintaining linkages with both the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) and with FARA.A common question about IPs is, at what level should they be convened? Our experience suggests basing both operational and strategic meetings at the sub-county level. Higherlevel bodies at the district, national and regional levels should largely tackle strategic issues. Descriptions of some of the activities that have been implemented in the LKPLS are presented in Tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5. The next section of this chapter illustrates the routine functioning of the IPs, using the case of IP operations in the DRC and the example of the Maendeleo beans IP.   As already noted, each of the four DRC IPs operates one major crop enterprise (beans, bananas, cassava and Irish potatoes). Each of the IPs has four to six affiliated branches or antennae, for a total of 20 such IP branches in the DRC.New members may join the IPs at any time, so membership is dynamic and variable. New members pay a non-refundable, one-time registration fee, and all members pay an agreed monthly contribution.Each IP in the DRC is managed by an elected executive management committee composed of a president, vice president (usually two), secretary and treasurer, in addition to a number of advisors, and a representative from each antenna or branch IP. Each committee has four sub-committees or commissions, which assist with specific topics or tasks, including: (a) technical issues (research, productivity, NRM); (b) markets; (c) credit; and (d) monitoring and evaluation (M&E). The committees and sub-committees hold meetings to plan and discuss their respective activities.Once a month there is a general IP meeting, attended by all registered members as well as partners and other stakeholders, particularly the research partners. The main purpose of these general meetings is to discuss the activities accomplished during the past month and to plan activities for the next month. During these meetings, the research group responds to technical issues on productivity, NRM and markets. As an example, the next sub-section of this report describes a routine general meeting conducted by the Maendeleo beans IP.One of the scheduled monthly general meetings was held at Rubare for the Maendeleo IP. These meetings are conducted either in the local or national language. They are managed by the executive committee and chaired by the President. On this occasion, the President called the meeting to order at about 10.30 AM, and the agenda was as follows:• Prayers• Introductions• Discussions• Matters arising• Visitors remarksAfter participants had introduced themselves, discussions were held on production, NRM, credit and M&E activities, led by the chairpersons of the four respective commissions. Discussions were centred on activities undertaken during the past month and plans for the next month, with technical backstopping from researchers and other partners. At the close of the meeting, those present were counted and grouped by branch and gender, as shown in Table 3.6. The meeting was adjourned at about 12.00 noon with a closing prayer.There are approximately 27 partners associated with the 12 IPs of the LKPLS, about 11 of which are associated with the four IPs in the DRC. In collaboration with the IPs, the three task force teams (TF1 -production technologies, TF2 -NRM, and TF3 -markets) in the LKPLS are obliged to identify and incorporate partners who will assist IPs in their activities along the value chains.For illustrative purposes, some of the partners in the DRC and their roles are listed in Table 3.7.As discussed in chapter 1, IAR4D is a research-oriented approach to development that incorporates the various perspectives, knowledge and skills of different stakeholders around an issue of common interest. In the LKPLS, post-formation issues for the IPs were influenced by the nature and quality of the multi-stakeholder linkages and interactions, which led the IPs on various trajectories depending on the socio-economic, policy and cultural environments the IPs were operating in. Through joint analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring, research reflections, interactions and learning, the value chain-based multi-stakeholder engagements were drastically improved. This implies that it was important to the IPs to receive timely feedback on options for addressing emerging issues in the productivity-NRM-markets-policy interface, as provided by the relevant task force teams. As a result, such processes served to improve the performance of the IPs in meeting prevailing and projected market demands, and thus assisted them in realising their goals.In the LKPLS, other post-formation IP activities included M&E, impact assessment, feedback and technical backstopping, with reference to the indicators, tools and resources required for the various phases of IP formation and functioning (see Table 3.8). These activities ensured timely identification of problems and solutions as well as timely provision of feedback from relevant stakeholders.Successfully functioning innovation platforms (IPs) have facilitated the development and implementation of solutions to address the issues facing the IP members. But as these solutions Pre-/post-intervention surveys at plot/village level have been found and adopted, new challenges have emerged, requiring further reflection and action. Thus IP activities may continue indefinitely.For example, at the Chahi potato IP in Uganda, initial analysis showed that lack of access to organised markets and inability to get competitive prices were the main constraints. Consequently, negotiations were initiated with the private sector for direct purchase of potatoes from the farmers and delivery to organised markets. After exhaustive negotiations with various actors along the potato market chain, a system of direct purchase from the producers by a group of retailers was established with clear guidelines and a memorandum of understanding (MoU). The assumption was that local farmers had enough produce to meet the market demand. When the arrangement was implemented, it soon became apparent that there were insufficient potatoes to meet the market demand. The situation was reviewed, with the conclusion that productivity must be increased. However, this required improved seeds and other inputs, which required financial support, but such credit was not easy to access from banks.Similar situations have arisen for the Musanganya banana IP in the DRC with Kasiksi banana juice, and also for the Bubare sorghum IP in Uganda with Mamera sorghum porridge. Following successful processing, packaging and branding, and successful linkages to markets, new issues relating to patenting, standards, certification and licensing emerged for the IP members.Likewise, these new issues required dialogue and negotiations to devise appropriate solutions.In the Mudende milk IP in Rwanda, conflicts emerged among the IP members after the IP was linked to Inyange Industries through two competing cooperative societies. This problem required mediation to reach an understanding among the members.Many difficulties have also been experienced in relation to the so-called 'free handout' syndrome in the LKPLS. There were high expectations of free funds and gifts from project personnel. These expectations were particularly high in the emergency areas. Considering that most of the LKPLS IPs are functioning in areas where most of the people are resource-poor due to historical conflicts and injustices, it was quite difficult for them to contribute towards funding the IP activities. Moreover, most of the local IP participants had been used to receiving free handouts (including money) and services from non-governmental organisations, politicians and even directly from the government. Considering this context, some IP activities are currently partially funded by the project. This is likely to continue until the IPs are self-sufficient.Low capacity of partner organisations is another major constraint. It is clear that the IPs in the LKPLS are composed of stakeholders with varying capacities. For instance, the majority of retail traders have limited capital and have largely depended on intermediaries to assist their operations. Likewise, farmers in rural areas have low capacity to contend with the multitude of problems, risks and constraints they face due to low productivity, limited marketing and market forces. The national agricultural research system project personnel also have widely varying backgrounds and levels of experience. Therefore, it has taken a substantial amount of effort and resources to improve the low capacities among different stakeholders (individuals and groups) in order for them to grasp and implement the IP concepts and practices.Clearly, the successful functioning of the IPs still requires continuous backstopping in terms of facilitation and funding support to address current and emerging IP problems, until the IPs are able to stand on their own. Without this ongoing support, the important gains that have been made will quickly dissipate and be lost.Tukahirwa JMB, SO Nyamwaro, R Kalibwani, R Buruchara, MM Tenywa, K Karume, JM Mugabe, R Kamugisha, C Wanjiku, AO Fatunbi, AA AdekunleChapter 4The The rationale for IAR4D is to improve the capacity of stakeholders along agricultural value chains to respond to the rural farmers' needs, as well as to empower the stakeholders to adapt to changing conditions rather than focusing on delivering 'finished technologies' (Sayer and Campbell 2001). Further, the IAR4D paradigm recognises that the traditional approach to agricultural research and development has brought about significant advances, but also that its fragmented and reductionist nature makes it unable to cope with emerging complex challenges.As an approach as well as a process (Figure 4.1), IAR4D is a holistic tool for agricultural research for development, guided by a set of principles and operating within the agricultural innovation system framework. The IAR4D approach can foster synergy among disciplines and institutions, along with a renewed commitment to change at all levels -from farmers to national and international policy makers. As an action research approach, IAR4D facilitates groups of stakeholders (farmers, reserachers, extention agents, private sector and policy makers) to innovate more effectively in response to the changing and complex agricultural and natural resources management (NRM) contexts for improved development outcomes (FARA 2007). An innovation platform (IP), as described by Adekunle et al. (2010) is 'a physical or virtual forum established to facilitate interactions and learning among stakeholders selected from a commodity chain, leading to: participatory diagnosis of problems; joint exploration of opportunities and investigation of solutions; promotion of agricultural innovations along the targeted value chain'. Forming the core of the IAR4D structure, an IP is an informal coalition, collaboration, partnership and alliance of ARD actors who may include, among others, public and private  ) and the NGOs (IMBARAGA, DIOBASS, UNSPPA) all provided critical day-to-day backstopping for the IPs, through nurturing, mentoring, documenting processes and facilitating partnerships, including conflict resolution. These experiences in turn allowed the development of a more coherent system for problem analysis at the IP level and sowed the seeds of integration, which are crucial for IAR4D.Implementation of IAR4D towards generating impact in African smallholder agriculture requires collective action by a range of stakeholders at the local, national, regional and international levels. These include policy makers at decentralised local governments, farmers and rural communities, service providers (advisory, credit provision, suppliers, traders, processors, agribusinesses, retailers, researchers, extension workers and other actors in the chain, such as water boards, water-user associations and other consumer organisations). The process of involving a broad and diverse range of stakeholders across different scales and levels and facilitating close collaboration in all phases of agricultural development has important implications for building institutional, social and human capital, including harnessing unique partnership synergies. To optimise the collective capacity of IP partners to work together requires new and innovative approaches beyond interactive learning, using holistic capacity building methods to meet the needs of different stakeholder groups in a coherent manner.For these approaches to work on a broader scale requires innovative advances in terms of institutions and capacity, to create an enabling environment.Hagmann and Blackie (2010) observed that the divide between research and extension has become increasingly wide and that this inhibits effective feedback loops in the system. This applies to African research systems as evidenced by limited impact and by research agendas driven by supply and discipline rather than by an inter-disciplinary response to actual demands and challenges. Currently, with few exceptions in the LKPLS, notwithstanding individual capacities, the IP partner institutions are greatly lagging in terms of operationalising the appropriate IAR4D approaches and practices. Most of the research programmes in the national agricultural research systems (NARS) and the relevant sub-regional research organisations (SROs) are characteristically fragmented by their focus on commodity types and by their positivist traditions, as described in Table 4.2.It has been noted that positivist traditions are characterised by their approach to understanding phenomena, which involves breaking them down into their constituent parts and then studying these simple parts in terms of cause and effect (Flood 2002). Sellamna (1999) observed that a reductionist science approach is at the heart of the teaching model for transfer of technology that these are mainstreamed in government and partner institutions and given the required policy and resource support to grow on a sustainable basis. Consequently, the key drivers of institutionalisation are capacity building and creation of an enabling policy environment to facilitate the necessary changes at the individual, organisational and institutional levels. The desired changes at these levels can be summarised as follows:a. Changes in individual capacity: To be effective, IP partners must possess competence that goes beyond traditional disciplines to include meta disciplines (eg, systems thinking, knowledge management, strategic planning, experiential learning) in addition to social skills and positive personal attitudes, behaviour and values that allow for successful social interactions when working with others (Hawkins et al. 2008). The aim is to enhance skills and competence towards promoting the science and practice of IAR4D.b. Changes in organisational capacity: Organisations must have standard resources but also organisational processes that facilitate interactions. The organisational change process requires strong managerial capacity in four areas: (i) human and functional linkage management; (ii) management of interactive planning and learning cycles, and outputs; (iii) management of resource investments aimed at process activities; and (iv) informal management (Hawkins et al. 2008). Capacity development and change management support the development of new competencies related to communication, facilitation, and mediation needed to work with diverse stakeholders in identifying and developing new opportunities for technical and institutional innovation.c. Change in institutional capacity: Strengthening capacity at the system or network level involves addressing factors that influence the management of organising and in particular the interactions between organisations and stakeholders. This includes efforts towards formalising the position of IPs in relation to local government structures, with increased roles and responsibilities and with access to respected local champions and government budgeting processes.A holistic approach to capacity building and institutional change towards mainstreaming IAR4D essentially implies action at three levels:Educational institutions:• innovative learning partnerships with other stakeholders to create active and engaging interactive learning environments• curriculum development towards building capacity to deal with complexity• changing institutional culture, including systems of evaluation and reward• strengthening capacity (knowledge, skills, perceptions and attitudes) to facilitate interactive processes for development of hard and soft skills needed for innovation• developing a holistic approach to building human capacity and social organisation that meets the collective and diverse needs of stakeholders.Service providers and end users:• collectively developing capacity to set up and use multiple IPs• collective action and decision-making• empowering all stakeholders to participate actively in IP businesses.Education and service providers:• interactive experiential and social learning emerging from networking• linking education with rural innovations.In response to the need for capacity building to support successful implementation of the IAR4D approach, an intensive and also extensive issue-based programme was instituted to train farmers and IP partners in the LKPLS. Over a period of less than three years, many training courses were provided in at least 14 different subject areas. As reflected by the percentages shown in Figure 4.4, the most popular courses were those on partners' reflections and value addition.The comprehensive training courses provided in the LKPLS had the following results: (1) shared understanding among all partners of the principles and practices involved in IAR4D;(2) problem identification using iterative processes and development of action plans;(3) enhanced capacities of farmer organisations for effective involvement in communication flow, adaptive research and extension, and market aggregation and quality control; (4) enhanced learning by doing; (5) improved capacity of site-level partners for conducting participatory monitoring and evaluation (M&E) that feeds into decision-making at the IP level; (6) strengthened capacity in identifying gaps and addressing them within the IPs; and (7) effective and iterative communication strategies applied at all levels of the IPs.For sustainable functioning, growth and success, IPs require conducive and enabling policy environments that are supportive of IAR4D. Enabling policy environments must operate at the global, regional, national and local levels, and extend also to institutional mechanisms and frameworks. Supportive policies and institutions at the international level include treaties and conventions, while at the national level they include laws and declarations, at the district level they include ordinances, and at the grassroots level this refers to bye-laws. Pro-IAR4D policies are those that create and maintain an overall legal framework that supports IPs and their associated businesses. Hence, an enabling policy environment is one that focuses on relevant government actions such as competitive trade policies; supportive agriculture and NRM laws; removal of technical, legal and administrative barriers to adopting innovations; sound economic policies that trigger increased production; and regulatory frameworks that promote transparency. Put together, all of these elements create an enabling environment conducive to innovative partnerships that can work towards creating impact in the smallholder agricultural sector. Important policy components that would support the institutionalisation of IPs include:a. national strategies in line with the principles and practices of IAR4D b. national institutions as hubs for implementation of IAR4D c. national legal institutions that introduce codes and standards that help to reduce risks and protect intellectual property rights d. means for promoting partnerships while addressing equity issues and farmers' needs and capacities.At the global level, all three countries that are part of the LKPLS are also signatories to international multilateral agreements to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change, such as the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The primary focus of the UNCCD is to halt the loss of natural vegetation and the deterioration of the physical, chemical, biological and economic properties of soil. Subsequent to signing and ratifying the Convention, signatory countries developed National Action Plans (NAPs) aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts of land degradation and climate change on local livelihoods and development. Further, the UNCCD promotes synergy with other multilateral agreements, specifically the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This global policy framework provides a supportive context for IP institutionalisation since agriculture and the environment are closely linked with regard to issues such as climate and soil quality.At the national level, in response high poverty levels, the three participating countries have developed policies aimed at poverty alleviation. Such policies also provide important opportunities for adding value using the IAR4D approach. For example, the Government of Rwanda's Vision 2020 policy articulates a national road map to transform Rwanda's economy from that of a poor nation to that of a middle-income country. Among the seven objectives of this vision is the transformation of agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward and backward linkages to other sectors. The vision highlights relevant opportunities for nurturing IAR4D in the course of this transformation of the agriculture sector.In the case of the DRC, the Government is committed to revitalising and developing its agricultural sector as the engine of the national economy. In this respect, the Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (SGPR) has been developed with a focus on increasing rural incomes and diversifying agricultural exports. Consequently, a Council for Agricultural and Rural Management (Conseil Agricole Rural de Gestion, CARG) was set up under the Ministry of Agriculture and is responding to the structural requirements of the new agricultural policy.In tune with IAR4D principles, the Council's mandate is to address (among others things) the decentralisation and disengagement of the state in extension service delivery, including privatisation of public companies, and to promote the empowerment of farmers, market liberalisation and provision of incentives for private investment in rural areas.Similarly in Uganda, the Government is making efforts to ensure a participatory and broadbased policy-making process that can create the required policy environment. The Government has formulated the National Development Plan (NDP), which envisions a 'transformed Ugandan Society from a peasant to a modern and prosperous country within 30 years' and presents Uganda's forward-looking road map. Central to the NDP is the restoration of agricultural growth as an engine for employment creation, poverty reduction and industrialisation. In line with the IAR4D objectives, under the theme 'Growth, Employment and Prosperity', the NDP aims to increase household incomes, enhance the quality and availability of gainful employment, improve the stock and quality of economic and trade infrastructure, and promote innovation and industrial competitiveness. Other national policy initiatives relevant to IAR4D include the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) Act of 2001, which formalises the national agricultural advisory services as a single government programme integrating all extension programmes for agricultural development. One critical focus of the NAADS is the provision of market-oriented services by contracted service providers based at the sub-county level and controlled by farmers themselves. The farmers are expected to form forums in every sub-county to work with district and sub-county officials in contracting private sector service providers for extension services. Farmers are expected to demand, manage and monitor the advisory services that meet their requirements. In this regard, the formation of an IP with farmers as IP members and also as members of the sub-county farmers' forum would ensure a vital linkage with the NAADS programme and access to agricultural extension services. Another supportive policy to consider is the Decentralisation Policy of 1981, aimed primarily at the promotion of good governance through strengthening of local institutions and improvements in service delivery. Through this policy, the Government of Uganda may be able to provide financial resources for the development of organised groups at the sub-county level. IPs can strategically position themselves to access such resources through local government institutions. Already the IPs of Chahi and Bubare have integrated their work plans with those of their respective sub-counties. This puts the IPs in a good position to receive the available support and recognition from the sub-counties.It is evident, therefore, that at the national level the policy frameworks of the three countries present important entry points for IAR4D. IP plans can be upgraded through synergy with government programmes, further enhancing the sustainability of the IPs.Within the context of generating impact on smallholder agriculture, institutionalising IPs requires simultaneously developing the required institutional/social capacities while building an enabling institutional environment for learning, and application and mainstreaming of collective innovation approaches. These steps, however, cannot be implemented as blueprints but must be flexible and adaptive as the operationalisation and implementation of institutional innovations at national and regional levels are influenced by many local factors. Some of the critical influencing factors are considered to be: the prevailing institutional arrangements, existing levels of interests and experiences in both educational and implementing institutions for doing business as usual, and the willingness of both individuals and institutions to change. Consequently, institutionalisation is a process that is interactive, dynamic and evolving.There are important conditions that should be in place for successful institutionalisation to occur, namely: (i) clear demonstration of utility of the process; (ii) leadership commitment including the necessary resources; (iii) broader participation and effective linkages between stakeholders; (iv) a critical mass of trained actors, system thinkers and champions; and (v) continuous training.Streamlined governance of IPs has emerged as one of the most important foundation requirements for institutionalising IPs. The governance structures of the IPs, especially in relation to the functions that the IPs establish for themselves and their members, are crucial to the institutionalisation of IPs, their relative effectiveness and their sustainability. In the LKPLS, establishing governance structures of the IPs was prioritised and some examples of governance structures for Ntungamo and Chahi IPs of Uganda and a generic governance structure for IPs in DRC are illustrated in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.Overall, the 12 IPs in the LKPLS were developed outside of existing institutional structures through democratic processes. However, a good number of the elected IP leaders were also involved in steering government and other development programmes, further creating important linkages for sustainability. The IP leaders in the LKPLS, including executive and committee members, were popularly elected by the entire membership. Most IPs have constitutions that govern their operations and their business plans. As illustrated in Figures 5  and 6, the committee structures are elaborate, consisting of executive and various committees, such as technical or research advisory, finance and audit, marketing, and M&E committees. However, the committees vary across the IPs and countries depending on the core priority problems being addressed by the IPs. IP committees are organised at village or parish levels, representing operational clusters and -particularly in Uganda -the committees pivot into the lower local governance structures, assuring their sustainability. The streamlined governance structures of IPs present effective management structures while at the same time creating a sense of self-reliance, and generating internal financial resources, based on membership registration and monthly fees as well as IP overheads from marketing initiatives.In Uganda for instance, Bubare and Chahi IPs are operating as community-based organisations (CBO) registered at their respective district headquarters, while Bufundi and Ntungamo IPs are in the process of registration. Chahi, Bubare and Bufundi IPs have instituted a membership registration fee ranging from UGS 1000 to UgShs5000. There is also a monthly contribution of UgShs1000 in the Bubare and Chahi IPs. Leaders are elected by all IP members and they serve on a voluntary basis for a term of three years. The structure for representation is proposed by the IP members; for example, in Bubare the IP leaders are representatives of the eight sub-county parishes (two from each parish), joined by seven ex-officials and an executive of four, while in Ntungamo, the leaders are representatives of the seven participating sub-counties in addition to a chairman.There has been steady growth in IP membership derived from farmer groups. The membership growth is mainly due to the perceived benefits of joining the IP, resulting in spontaneous natural growth of the membership in response to the positive performance of the IPs. The sustained presence of a strong and committed IP leadership -comprising individuals who are respected and trusted among their peers -remains a critical pillar in institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs. Their passion and commitment to the cause at hand is important for maintaining the vision and for continued steering of efforts towards the vision through established missions. Such leadership champions remain important, not only within the communities but also among other actors, especially where change is critical for achieving and sustaining impacts.In considering the benefits of institutionalisation, sustainability is a key issue. It is a well known fact that sustainability is often tagged to financial resources, thus implying the diversification of revenue streams so as not to become overly dependent on a limited range of funding sources. Further, sustainability implies benefits, including programmatic, institutional and political sustainability. Sustainability relates to the continuation of benefits that result from a programme or project. Programmatic and institutional sustainability involves building the internal capacity of a programme/project by attracting competent leadership and staff, developing their technical competencies, being entrepreneurial, flexible and adaptable to changing internal and external conditions. Political sustainability involves gaining government and community support and participation in the programme, networking and collaborating with other like-minded organisations, and engaging multi-sectoral partnerships. All these are relevant aspects of the sustainability of IPs. In the context of the LKPLS, sustainability refers to the increasingly independent existence of IPs from the funding of the parent project, the SSA CP, with clear indications of viability.In the LKPLS, various strategies have been developed to ensure sustainability of IPs. Some of these strategies have included the efforts made in bringing together various stakeholders along agricultural value chains that have facilitated linking farmers to markets within a short time.Given that traders are also IP members, they have contributed positively to finding solutions to marketing challenges. This has occurred in almost all of the IPs in the LKPLS. For example, the Gataraga potato, Mudende dairy and Rwerere chilli IPs in Rwanda have been linked to various markets and processors. Gataraga has been linked to niche markets in Kigali (the Rwandese capital city) and other urban centres, Mudende has been linked to Lake Kivu and Inyange Dairy Industries, and Rwerere has been linked to URWIBUTSO Food Industries. In DRC, Musanganya banana and Maendeleo beans IPs have been organised into marketing groups and linked to Goma, Bukavu and Kinshasa markets. In Uganda, a functional potato traders' group has been formed to link with producers in Bufundi and Chahi Potato IPs. Sorghum producers are now linked to a processor, HUNTEX Industries, and have even branded their sorghum product as 'Mamera', a drink hygienically packed and now selling in supermarkets, food stores and kiosks all over Kabale District and beyond, including Kampala, the capital city.Further, along with farmers, partners such as researchers have been able to identify practical issues for immediate research attention and address them on behalf of the IPs. In Kabale, Uganda, for example, experiments have been carried out to demonstrate the effect of Rhizobia on the productivity of climbing beans, while in Kisoro, in the same country, a weather station has been put up to help farmers predict changes in weather and take appropriate actions.There have also been tremendous capacity building initiatives for the IP members on collective planning, formulation of action plans based on comparative advantages, developing business plans and writing proposals.The 'low-lying fruits' are those close range opportunities available to support institutionalisation.Examples of such low-lying fruits include, among others:a. Aligning with government and other relevant programmes and policies: This is an opportunity for securing resources for IP functioning and for addressing sustainability, thus adding value. A case in point is Rwanda, where IPs such as Rwerere capitalised on the 'one cow per family' policy and programme. Gataraga potato IP has also aligned itself to a government programme that funds the multiplication expansion of the Kinigi potato variety.b. Tapping into government planning cycles: The budget process is a cycle that runs through the entire financial year, and is a very participatory process that leads to the development of budget framework papers. In order to mainstream IPs into local government planning processes, Bufundi, Chahi and Bubare IPs in Uganda worked strategically to ensure that the IPs' work plans and activities were included in local-level development plans and budgets. The strategies used included:• preparing concept papers identifying priority actions and justification, corresponding to the ongoing 'prosperity for all' programmes during the review processes• lobbying key offices, including planning and budget officials• incorporating some local government officials as IP members and leaders.c. Capitalising on inter-IP partnerships: Chahi IP in Uganda was able to capitalise on good inter-IP relationships to access credit from DRC with MECRECO microfinance credit institution, which is also a members of IPs in DRC. Inter-IP partnerships also enable IPs not only to exchange lessons learnt, but also exchange appropriate and adaptive technologies such as disease-resistant high-producing potato varieties.A suitable institution should be identified to provide brokerage partnerships for IP activities. The local government or any other relevant institution could assume responsibility for this. This would be very important in helping to provide information about potential collaborators; brokering a transaction between two or more parties; acting as a mediator for groups that are already collaborating; and helping find advice, funding and support for the innovation outcomes of such collaborations.It is necessary to combine both indigenous technical and scientific knowledge, and to integrate different groups (including local farmers, marginalised and poor actors, traders, and external actor groups like civil servants, researchers, service providers) to build new learning communities and initiatives. It is also essential to pay due attention to overcoming racial, ethnic and gender biases that hamper the participation of marginalised communities, diverse ethnic groups and women. Participatory and experiential learning processes and multi-organisational partnerships, integrating formal and informal agricultural knowledge, science and technology, should be supported. Additional options are needed to extend these processes to the marginalised peoples and areas in ways that respect and uphold their roles, rights and practices.f. Investment in rural education: There should be investment in rural education, complemented by extension and advisory services, farmer field schools and research circles. Dissemination of all available information to all key partner organisations to capture all the implementation processes and activities in action sites is important, as is the training of trainers to carry out on-site capacity building workshops and programmes in IPs to guide the projects.g. Lobbying government for the promotion of linkages: Linkages can be promoted by devising ways of harmonising the differing incentive systems of the actors. More research needs to be done on this and governments should be lobbied to support the linkages, eg, through a supportive policy framework.h. Other sources of funding: IPs should be encouraged to start looking for other sources of financial resources, eg, from local government and from NGOs with similar interests. They should also be empowered with skills in proposal writing and resource mobilisation.Various current and potential obstacles stand in the way of successful institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs.• At the level of education and capacity building institutions, there are problems relating to their usual methods of operating. With deep-rooted traditions of educating by transfer of knowledge, these institutions have little experience in stimulating and facilitating interactive processes of learning by doing involving different stakeholders. Consequently, the institutional support systems needed to build individual capacity and develop organisational capacity for collective innovation approaches are limited or only poorly developed. So while the concept of IPs must continue growing, the capacity building institutions also need retraining.• At the grassroots level, key stakeholders -specifically farmer groups -are weak and marred with chronic internal conflicts, and lacking in best practices when it comes to institutional matters. Therefore they remain voiceless, with limited skills to articulate their needs and negotiate competitively with the private sector and other intermediaries.• While the concept of IPs is still in its infancy, its growth is being interrupted because of limited funding to facilitate continued research and development towards maturity.• Some IPs have experienced uncommitted members, joy-riders and spectators who join and the leave the IPs, but then re-join when opportunities look good. This sometimes causes confusion and conflicts in the management and well-being of the IPs.• Potentially, politicians may want to hijack the governance of successful IPs for their own political gains. This may derail the real objectives of the IP concept, by involvement with the political agenda. The proponents of the IP concept need to be cautious about political agendas and guard against IP derailment.• Conflicts of interest in IP governance may end up killing the concept.• The legal status of IPs is currently a bone of contention among IP stakeholders.• The SSA CP has been primarily acting as a broker, assisting in identifying the actors and bringing them together. Its abrupt withdrawal will, in the short run, leave a gap that is likely to destabilise the IPs.• Funding sources for IP activities are not yet guaranteed and this could result in implementation being fragmented, uncoordinated and under-funded, which could result in discontinuity of critical activities.• There are still insufficient favourable agricultural credit facilities and subsidies for IP activities; these types of funding resources are best-suited to support sustainability.• There is a need for improved human resources to handle IP activities, including scientific knowledge and skills for the development of strategic partnerships and alliances.• Investments in rural education are currently low.While many aspects of the success stories in the LKPLS are demonstrated in chapter 6 of this book, it is instructive to note that the success of an IP emanates from many aspects including its legality. In this respect, it is observed that some IPs, such as Bubare and Chahi in Uganda, are registered as CBOs at the district and sub-county levels. This has enabled them to be recognised as organised entities and has thus made them to succeed in integrating their work plans into the sub-county plans for the year 2010-2011. In this way the IPs are almost assured of receiving local government support as provided for in the Decentralisation Policy. This has also been useful for gaining positive political support, particularly towards the sustainability strategies of the IPs.In an effort to mainstream IAR4D, some countries in the LKPLS have made important strides towards adopting IAR4D. In Uganda, for instance, the general elements that are needed to strengthen capacity for IAR4D and its institutionalisation are outlined in the 'National IAR4D Plan', including a framework for more detailed planning by partner organisations in implementing IAR4D. The vision of Uganda's IAR4D Plan is a 'rural innovation system where individual and organisational behaviour promotes the integration of stakeholder concerns, knowledge and actions around priority development themes, leading to improved organisational performance and improved rural livelihoods'. 5. Creating a secretariat to coordinate IAR4D activities among partner organisations.6. Creating a pool of IAR4D facilitators/resource persons at national and decentralised (zonal/district) levels.7. Integrating stakeholder requirements and IAR4D competencies into university curricula.Overall, the anticipated IAR4D outcomes include: (i) shared and developed national visions of IAR4D and rural innovation processes by public and private partners; (ii) professionals and organisations with increased ability to work within multi-stakeholder arrangements and processes, and hence address complex technical and social challenges; (iii) reduced duplication of activities between different organisations, resulting in more efficient use of scarce resources; (iv) improved guidelines and proposals for, and quality of implementation of competitive grants for research and advisory services; (v) improved coordination between public and private organisations within established agricultural IPs, resulting in more market-responsive, client-oriented and demand-driven research and extension services; (vi) more concerted actions on specific and priority research for development themes (problems and opportunities), resulting in increased impact on rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation.IAR4D also implies changes in university practices. Consequently, pluralistic reforms have been introduced and are being instituted at Makerere University. The University has acknowledged the need to change the methods of teaching and conducting research into complex problems. University graduates have often been criticised for not being focused on problem-solving and hence not meeting the expectations of employers and the communities.To that end, new pro-IAR4D courses have been developed towards offering a Bachelor's degree in Agricultural and Rural Innovations (BARI) in the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension.It has been argued in this chapter that institutionalisation of innovation platforms (IPs) must involve people and institutions with developed capacity (knowledge, skills, mindsets, institutional cultures and modes of learning, and new forms of institutional linkages and collaboration) across a broad range of stakeholder and institutional settings. Institutionalisation of IPs thrives best in institutional environments that are conducive to innovation and that can only be created through the collective and concerted actions of all IP partners. Simultaneously, the enabling institutional environments would provide enabling innovative ways of learning and innovative forms of institutional collaboration across a range of stakeholders and institutions operating at different scales.Several examples from the LKPLS illustrate the great opportunities and efforts made, as well as the persisting challenges to institutionalising IPs. Capacity building remains a priority, especially when it comes to identifying educational organisations that can champion the creation of critical masses of partners advocating for and practicing IAR4D. This requires innovative changes to occur across a broad range of stakeholders simultaneously. Such action may not be an easy task, requiring strong and concerted commitments at many levels (national, regional and global). Overall, government institutions are best positioned to steer the process of IP institutionalisation and sustainability.Wanjiku C, R Kalibwani, SO Nyamwaro, E Birachi, M M Tenywa, R Buruchara, J R Mugabo, L Lubanga, S Mutabazi, M Majaliwa, B Nyamurinda, C Nyaboyisonga, S Mapatano, M A Ramazine, E Nkonya, A O Fatunbi, A A Adenkule Chapter 5Public policy is a purposive and consistent course of action produced as a response to a perceived problem of a constituency, formulated by a specific political process, and adopted, implemented, and enforced by a public agency, such as government ministries and other institutions. Governments establish institutions to implement policies. The integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) strategy can assist in establishing such institutions that cater for all stakeholders, especially farmers at the grassroots level.Poverty has been increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in spite of enormous efforts made through agricultural research and innovation to increase productivity, create wealth and ensure food security at the household level (Clegg 2010, Luiz 2006). Agricultural breakthroughs do not seem to translate into increased incomes and reduced poverty among small-scale farmers on the continent. Several internal factors have been put forward to explain this, ranging from bad governance and corruption, to low technologies, deteriorating ecosystems, population pressure and the effects of climate change (Bayart et al. 1999). External factors include colonial legacy, poor terms of trade, trading raw materials with little value added, fluctuating currencies, high cost of imports, and foreign-aid dependency syndrome (Adepoju 1993). Despite all of the above, little attention has gone into deep examination of the role of agriculture and its management. Agriculture provides livelihoods for over 80 percent of the inhabitants of SSA -it is still the major economic pillar for many countries that can help build Africa's economies. If supported by effective implementation of the right policies and institutional arrangements, agricultural growth can create wealth for the poor in SSA faster than growth in any other sector.In order to improve incomes and food security at the household, community and national levels, it is crucial to formulate, review and implement appropriate policies and to evaluate the institutional environments in which poor agricultural producers, processors, traders and other small-scale entrepreneurs operate. National policies, particularly those addressing trade and the agricultural sector, do exist in each of the three project countries participating in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP). This chapter examines existing policies in the three participating countries to see how they relate to the concepts and practices of IAR4D and its innovation platforms (IPs). It examines how IAR4D can be used to influence the review of policy and institutional arrangements to bridge any gaps that may work against the adaptation and adoption of the IAR4D strategy. It is now acknowledged that an IAR4D approach calls for institutional and information revolution through the use of consultative meetings involving interested stakeholders, including farmers and especially the rural poor. This is seen as a revolution that will not only improve and secure livelihoods, but also promote innovation along agricultural commodity value chains.IAR4D, through its institutional arrangement of IPs, helps farmers form direct links to other stakeholders who are interested in farmers' products and/or interested in alleviating rural poverty in SSA.The following four sections of this chapter cover the contextual setting (section 5.2), the IAR4D conceptual framework (section 5.3), a review and synthesis of selected policies from the LKPLS participating countries (section 5.4), and finally, some conclusions (section 5.5).Each of the three countries that make up the LKPLS appears to have a different policy and institutional framework. These differences can be classified as follows:Uganda has been out of active armed conflict for over 21 years. Most of Uganda's national policies have been revised and many of them are implemented through a devolved system of governance, which involves District assemblies with a parliament and a chairman as the major policy-implementing agencies. However, many of the policies lack rigorous enforcement mechanisms to make them work. This situation presents a favourable environment for IAR4D's IPs to provide grassroots institutions that can enforce the implementations of policies that respond to their needs.The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is struggling to come out of conflict, and there are still localised zones of sporadic conflicts. The DRC's national policies have not been revised for decades. Governance in DRC is highly centralised in Kinshasa, with poor mechanisms linking with provincial governments such as North Kivu Province. No policy document was forthcoming from the provincial office of the Ministry of Agriculture, because drafts sent to Kinshasa had not been returned. The few policies available were simple statements used to enforce policies, such as the seed policy, which stated in a few lines that if farmers test the new seed and they like it, the officers register that as released seed material. This provides a positive environment for testing and distributing new and improved materials from neighbouring countries and other programmes to improve farming in the country. This situation offers a fertile ground for formulating and reviewing policies that would benefit all the actors, particularly those in the agricultural sector, by ensuring that farmers reap the benefits of the supportive policy environment. This situation provides room to develop a policy environment that supports IAR4D.Rwanda has been out of active armed conflict for at least 16 years. Policies in Rwanda have been formulated, reviewed and revised to meet the development challenges that the country faced after the 1990s internal conflicts. Policies are implemented through a devolved system of governance with strong enforcement strategies and effective citizen participation, especially in monitoring and evaluation. The Umurenge Vision 2020 platform structure is the policyimplementing agency under the guidance of local government where a Joint Development Forum is constituted that examines development plans for each district (whether implemented by government or non-governmental institutions), and evaluates work plans and budgets for all stakeholders annually. The Government has established a system where every year development agencies have to apply for a licence to operate in a particular district and the Joint Forum has to verify and approve the application. This implies that policy compliance is enforced. The active participation of the citizens, represented by the district mayor's office, ensures that those entrusted with enforcement do so as required.A number of relevant policies from each country have been selected and analysed from the IAR4D perspective. It is important to see how IAR4D and its new institutional flagship IPs can take advantage of supportive policies. It is also crucial to see where the new approach can contribute to improving existing policies and strengthening institutional arrangements to benefit the poor and where it could contribute more efficiently and effectively to poverty alleviation and sustainable use of available resources and services.IAR4D is operationalised through innovation platforms (IPs). An IP is an institution that brings farmers, researchers, extension personnel, microfinance institutions and bankers, traders, transporters, processors and policy makers to the same table to deal with the challenges facing the farmers at the local level.Figure 5.1 illustrates an IP framework. As the diagram shows, an IP calls for all interested stakeholders (including researchers, policy makers and planners, natural-resources experts, processors, traders and marketing experts) in a given agricultural value chain to come together with farmers and address the challenges along that value chain. For most small-scale farmers on the continent, the most important value chains are those of food crops. In dealing with agricultural value chains, one has to think of the various stages a commodity goes through from production to sale/marketing and finally to disposal. Each of the circles in Figure 5.1 can be expanded into various components forming their own systems. For example, the market framework (Figure 5.2) can be developed from the market component of Figure 5.1.As Figure 5.1 shows, everyone concerned is invited to the table. Note that the circles depicting the farmers and the government are larger; this is because they are the only permanent members of the IP. All the others can come and go and be replaced by new members depending on the issue at hand.Figure 5.2 depicts a section of the platform (a sub-platform) that deals with market access issues. It is possible to identify a set of actors to address that problem and report back to the main IP at an appointed time. From LKPLS experiences, this kind of IP is possible at the grassroots/farmers level where one of the IP members, such as an NGO or a government department, plays the role of a facilitator to get the expected results.The major role of an IP is to provide a forum and facilitation so that actors can come together to address farmers' challenges and seek solutions to the challenges. When farmers' representatives sit at the same table with agronomists, private sector representatives (processors, traders, transporters, banks and other credit institutions) and policy makers (government officials) to address the challenges of a given commodity, solutions are found and implemented in the shortest time possible. There are many such challenges, which may be technological (eg, limited availability of improved crop varieties) or natural resource management (NRM) problems (eg, soil erosion and low fertility), or limited and poor markets for various reasons, including poor road infrastructure, poor market information, and lack of value addition, among others. There could also be policy and institutional arrangements in place that support or act as barriers to agriculture. Where there are policy barriers or a lack of policies, an IP provides a forum for policy review, especially when policy makers are also IP members.The IAR4D approach is people-centred. It is cyclic rather than linear. Thus, if Africa is committed to eradicating abject poverty (especially among smallholder farmers), the methods and strategies currently being used for wealth creation for them must change. African leaders should see African small-scale farmers as the critical decision makers whose ideas must be brought on board to guide agricultural research, policy and development.Consequently, the following requirements of the IAR4D approach are postulated.Source: Developed from discussions among Dr J.J.R. Groot, IFDC Director for East and Southern Africa Division, Dr Brigittee Nyambo, ICIPE and the authors.a. Government policies on production must also address the marketing issues including infrastructure, such as roads and information.b. The small-scale African farmer must be at the same table with the policy maker, the breeder, the agronomist, the banker or credit provider, the trader, the transporter and the processor for value addition, among others, who enter and exit the IP as needed.c. Markets for both food and export crops produced by small-scale farmers must be addressed as production is being addressed.In all three LKPLS countries, a quick review of existing agricultural policies indicates a trend towards increasing production and weak relationships between these policies and trade policies that address marketing of agricultural products. Analysis of the trade policies in the region also reveals a bias towards export markets and very unclear statements on the domestic markets.In addition, a quick survey on farmers' knowledge on policies shows that very few small-scale farmers are aware of policies that guide their farming and marketing of their produce. Many of them see the role of government as 'unfair taxation'.The discussion below is an assessment of selected policies in each country that affect smallscale farmers and that have a direct relationship with the IAR4D strategy. The discussion is at two levels: the national and the community levels. The national-level policy assessment highlighted major issues in connection with the IAR4D strategy, and the community-levels assessment examined implementation of bye-laws and ordinances.Many of the Rwandese policies have been revised and are implemented through a devolved system of governance where their enforcement involves effective citizenry participation for monitoring and evaluation. The Rwanda Umurenge Vision 2020 institutional platform (GOR 2007a) is the implementing agency, under the guidance of local government. There is in place a Joint Agricultural Forum at the district level.The Government of Rwanda's Vision 2020 (GOR 2000) is the main policy that gives guidance on how development activities in Rwanda should be implemented. This policy provides a road map for transforming Rwanda's economy from that of a poor country to that of a middleincome country. Its major objectives are to:a. reconstruct the nation and its social capital, anchored on good governance and underpinned by a capable state b. transform agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward linkages to other sectors c. develop an efficient private sector, spearheaded by competitiveness and entrepreneurship d. comprehensively develop human resources e. develop both soft and hard infrastructure f. promote regional economic integration and cooperation.The immediate concerns of the innovation platforms (IPs) are those directly linked with the tenets of objective (b).The Vision 2020 policy addresses current challenges, including: low savings and investment rates; high unemployment and underemployment rates; high dependency on exports of raw agricultural products that are prone to global price fluctuations; 90 percent of the labour force is dependent on agriculture, which remains unproductive and at subsistence levels, with decreasing productivity per unit area, and which faces massive environmental degradation; poor road network; narrow economic base; weak institutions; low levels of human resources development; public debt larger than the GDP; and the genocide legacy.Having identified the national challenges, the Vision's major objectives include, in the short term, the promotion of macroeconomic stability and wealth creation to reduce aid dependency. In the medium term, the goal is to transform the economy from an agrarian one into a knowledge-based one, which will focus on industries that would respond to domestic market requirements. The Vision calls for the participation of citizens by empowering them to participate in development decision-making processes. The Vision also appreciates the role of infrastructure in making it work, especially as the nation creates the environment for privatesector-led development. The private sector is expected to take over as an engine of economic growth. Although foreign direct investment will be encouraged, the Vision forecasts and encourages the development of indigenous entrepreneurs who will form part of the middle class needed for a growing economy.Vision 2020 appreciates that agriculture will still play a crucial role in the economic development of the country. Thus, the Government envisions an agricultural sector producing high-value crops and which is a business venture. As for providing a conducive environment for the implementation of IAR4D strategy, Rwanda Vision 2020 has essentially captured all the tenets of IAR4D -from technologies to NRM, markets and policies. These are all embedded in the transformation of agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward linkages to other sectors. However, the policy does not state clearly the institutional frameworks that will carry the Vision through. Nevertheless, Vision 2020 provides room for policies to be formulated that address the institutional gaps. These policies include:• appropriate solutions. Consequently, at each community there should be an established IP for the selected enterprises. These can include as many value-chain enterprises as possible. An IP can begin with one enterprise and then adopt more as they learn and perfect their strategy.At the LKPLS, the policy-technology-market-NRM interfaces have initiated policy-sensitisation programmes to ensure that whatever actions are implemented at the IP level are supported by relevant policies. Policy sensitisation is also designed to make markets work for the poor.Policy issues are being integrated into routine IP activities. For example, under the Rwanda land-consolidation and crop-intensification policies, there are two important policies that IPs in the country have used to their advantage: the policy on control of soil erosion and soilconservation strategies, and the 'one family one cow' (Girinka) programme.Using the Rwerere IP as an example, the IAR4D approach has taken advantage of these two existing policies to address challenges identified by the farmers; namely, low incomes and malnutrition, soil erosion and soil infertility, market access and poor farming knowledge. Specifically, the LKPLS IAR4D team has assisted in with the following initiatives.• Organic chilli peppers were introduced as a high-value product and producers were linked to a chilli processor, Urwibutso, to provide organic chilli production skills and a niche market.• Action de Sud, a partner organisation, is providing dairy animals on credit to the IP members. Send a Cow Rwanda (SACR) is providing dairy farming knowledge and skills. This has contributed to the Girinka programme as well as addressing the knowledge/skill gaps that farmers identified.These actions have resulted in more than 41 households receiving dairy cows (one per household). By the end of 2010, more than half of the cows had calved. Milk production started flowing in an area where there was none. This has certainly contributed to nutrition requirements identified as a challenge by the farmers. In sustaining the introduced dairy animals, four high-value fodder species were adopted and planted extensively on the terraced slopes, further enhancing control of soil-erosion. Manure is taken back to the plots for soil improvement.The Government of Uganda (GOU) is committed to a participatory and broad-based policymaking process. Policy issues are widely discussed and debated in a consultative process involving various stakeholders, such as the cabinet, parliamentary committees and interest groups, at the national and regional levels. Once a policy is launched, the relevant legislation is put in place to ensure a secure and conducive environment for the policy to be implemented.In general, the central government makes national policies in Uganda. These policies then are translated into parliamentary bills and are issued as Acts, which are more detailed and provide clear guidelines of what a person or an institution should do and not do and the penalties imposed in case of any breach. Based on these Acts of Parliament, the policy-implementing agencies (ie, the local government departments) can formulate bye-laws to support implementation. This devolved system of governance gives an opportunity to grassroots communities, including farmers, to directly participate in the policy-making process. Therefore, researchers using the IAR4D approach were able to initiate this process, starting with the IPs. However, the main challenge facing policy implementation in Uganda is enforcement.The This provides a conducive environment for IAR4D in Uganda.Central to the NDP is the restoration of agricultural growth as an engine for employment creation, poverty reduction and industrialisation. The NDP is the basis for the Development Strategy and Investment Plan (DSIP) for 2010/11-2015/16, which places renewed attention on the agriculture sector.The DSIP is the newly revised Ugandan plan to support the improvement of quality and quantity in the agriculture sector (GOU 2009). It consolidates and harmonises all the existing parallel policy frameworks in the agriculture sector into one coherent plan. The DSIP sets the priorities for the five-year period and these will be used as the basis for defining spending plans each year under the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF).In this strategy, appropriate technologies are supposed to be developed and validated for use in the agriculture sector. The DSIP puts markets on a special level. Markets are expected to receive significant improvements in terms of performance, access and value addition. The strategy identifies rural market infrastructure as a key area to be addressed. The strategy has also placed renewed emphasis on restructuring old institutions as well building new ones.It notes that several institutions have been established and are still operational. The idea is to continue addressing the weaknesses of the old institutions, particularly the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). The strategy calls for a review of funding for its relocation from Entebbe to Kampala.A few selected Ugandan policies and Acts that are relevant to IAR4D are briefly described below.The Seeds and Plants Act (GOU 2006) provides for the promotion, regulation and control of plant breeding and variety release, multiplication, conditioning, marketing, importing and quality assurance of seeds and other planting materials, and for other related matters. According to the Act, a National Seed Certification Service in the Department of Crop Protection of MAAIF is responsible for the design, establishment and enforcement of certification standards, methods and procedures. This Service is also responsible for training the people tasked with implementation of the Act, receiving and testing of all new varieties intended for release and multiplication, carrying out field inspection, testing and eventual certification, among other tasks. However, the Act does not propose any institutions for its implementation at the grassroots levels.There is room for policy improvement and it is proposed to have MAAIF train farmer groups in the communities and have them produce certified seed for faster multiplication and distribution. The proposed intervention from the IAR4D perspective would be to select and train IP farmers to provide certified seeds of improved varieties to other IP members and the rest of the community. The training could be provided by MAAIF and related institutions, such as the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) and the Uganda National Seed Potato Producers Association (UNSPPA).The National Agricultural Research Policy of 2003 is expected to provide sustainable research services that address the needs and opportunities of the poor in a market-driven environment. Its vision is to provide a market-responsive, client-oriented and demand-driven national agricultural research system (NARS), comprising public and private institutions working in tandem for sustainable national economic growth. The mission of the NARS is to generate and disseminate appropriate, safe and cost-effective technologies, while enhancing the natural resource base (GOU 2003).The key principles of this policy include responding to market opportunity, decentralisation of agricultural research activities, empowering stakeholders and promoting the participation of private sector, civil society and farmers. The policy provides for the establishment of NARO to take charge of all matters concerning agricultural research in Uganda. NARO, through its regional institutes, develops research priorities for the different agro-ecological regions. It promotes appropriate, safe and cost-effective technologies that are responsive to market opportunities.Under this policy, IAR4D has a home with NARO, an institution that can bring all the other actors on board.One by-product of the above policy is the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), which was established by an Act of Parliament in 2001 to support government efforts to eradicate poverty through the privatisation of extension services (GOU 2001). Its mandate, therefore, is to efficiently and effectively provide agricultural advisory services to poor subsistence farmers. NAADS' mission is to increase farmer access to information, knowledge and technology for profitable agricultural production. Extension services are provided to farmers on a demanddriven 4 basis, where farmer groups in each sub-county request a service, which is provided by a private service provider and paid for by the government through NAADS. NAADS is therefore responsible for increasing farmers' access to improved technologies. This has necessitated that demonstration sites be set up in various sub-counties by NAADS. The NAADS programme also provides market-oriented services, but does not link farmers to markets. However, in their groups, the farmers select marketable enterprises that they are interested in and the private services they require (which are paid for by NAADS). In terms of institutional arrangements, the programme is implemented through existing local government structures and farmer organisations. Farmers elect their leaders who represent them at the district and sub-county levels. These leaders then create the farmer forums. This is where IPs can fit very well.However, there is still room for policy improvement since more emphasis needs to be placed on the negotiation of contracts between the farmer groups and the private service providers (eg, input suppliers, traders, transporters). From the IAR4D perspective, the proposed intervention is to advocate for the establishment of guidelines for contractual arrangements between IP farmers and service providers at the national level for faster service delivery.The main objective of the National Trade Policy of 2004 is to improve the capacity for trade negotiations on market access and integration of agro-processing to enhance the linkages that exist between the domestic and external market sub-sectors (GOU 2004). The policy also aims to ensure that goods and services in the domestic market meet the required standards and sanitary measures, and to nurture a private-sector approach with a view to making the domestic market competitive. One of the strategies outlined for the achievement of these objectives is the Marketing and Agro-Processing Strategy (MAPS), which identifies ways in which marketing efficiencies and export opportunities might be improved for the benefit of the country's agriculture sector. The policy highlights the needs to promote competitiveness and raise efficiency of domestic production, stimulate domestic and foreign investment in export-oriented activities, and add value to existing exports, among other things. Although the policy proposes the development of strong private and public trade-promotion institutions, the institutional flagships of this policy are not clear. The establishment of a warehouse receipt system and an agricultural commodity exchange are mentioned, but not elaborated.Given that Uganda appears to have the most devolved policy framework of the three LKPLS participating countries, some policy innovation work was initiated among the four Ugandan IPs. At the policy-environment level, which deals with national-level policy, advocacy activities like holding meetings, dialogues and consultations with individual policy makers (area members of parliament, parliamentary committees and respective line ministry personnel) were conducted on various policy issues.Meanwhile, at the community level (the action domain), various activities leading to the formulation of bye-laws were carried out. Rapid appraisal surveys revealed that the major challenges concerning community bye-laws were not only their poor implementation and enforcement, but also the lack of a review mechanism for maintaining their relevance, and formulating new ones when the need arises. While a number of bye-laws existed -some documented and others not -they were not effective in influencing agricultural performance.Where attempts had been made to review and formulate new bye-laws, efforts were frustrated by local leaders who did not treat this as a priority, found the process lengthy and timeconsuming, or had other political interests.Focus group discussions were conducted with members from selected IPs in Uganda. The first stage of discussions was focused on understanding the Acts of Parliament that affect agriculture and related activities at the village level. The second stage involved reviewing existing bye-laws and other institutional arrangements within the selected communities, by discussing how they influenced operations of the IPs. Information and data gathered from the discussions were analysed qualitatively. Poor implementation and weak enforcement of the bye-laws was identified as one of the most important institutional issues that constrain production activities. Consequently, a process to review and formulate bye-laws was facilitated.The process of review and formulation of bye-laws was initiated at the IP level at the end of 2009. IP members mobilised their respective parishes and villages for this process and produced drafts. The drafts from the different parishes were merged together to form a sub-county draft, which was again taken back for more consultation at the parish level before being presented to the IP at the sub-county level. During the consultation process, back and forth between the sub-county and village levels, issues that were continually being amended included the title for the bye-laws, definitions of terms, actual content of the bye-laws under the different sections and a review of the penalties and fines. At the end of the process, seven sub-county drafts were at different levels of formation in the various IPs. In principle, a completed set of bye-laws (fully discussed from village to sub-county level by the community members) is to be introduced as a motion to a sub-county council meeting, where, after approval by council, the chairman will sign them, and they can then be operationalised in the sub-county. These processes were highly innovative. A summary of reviewed and formulated policy-related innovation is given in Table 5.1.The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a vast African country with diverse climate and soils, possessing immense potential for high agricultural production. It has an estimated area of more than 80 million hectares of arable land, of which only 10 percent is exploited currently. Due to the existence of massive mineral resources, agriculture is not given the prominence it deserves . The SSA CP is being implemented in North Kivu Province, which has high potential for agricultural production. In fact, North Kivu is a 'bread basket' area for the country.DRC does not have an agricultural policy. According to the officers in the Provincial Office, there is a draft that has yet to be discussed by the parliament. During the colonial period, Level Policy innovation Policy level 1. Advocacy activities, eg, meetings with individual policy makers (area members of parliament, parliamentary committees, respective line ministry personnel) on the following issues:• policy and guidelines on free-range livestock management• critical NRM issues at the four IP sites• road construction• institutionalisation of contractual arrangements between farmers and private service provider in value chains• coordination and establishment of regulations in agricultural input marketing and quality assurance 2. Modalities to be worked out for training and certifying IP members to produce and distribute certified seed 3. Modalities to be worked out to expand markets for agricultural produce within the region as provided for in the East African Community treaty 4. Legalisation of the IP status, and strategic positioning of the IPs to access local government resources as provided for in the Decentralisation Policy Community level 1. Community education and sensitisation programme on the following issues:• bye-law formulation, implementation and enforcement• free-range livestock management 2. Establishment of community structures to handle farmer-related conflicts, community stores, bye-law formulation, implementation and regular review, and strengthening of existing structures 3. Establishment of an incentive system to reward community members who comply with the bye-laws 4. Capacity building of the IPs to be able to mobilise resources for their activities 5. Establishment of modalities to institutionalise IP activities in local government structures the colonial government supported white farmers to grow crops on a large-scale for export. Africans were left to continue their traditional practices. Some attempts were made by the central government in Kinshasa to develop agricultural, trade and food-related policies, but very few seemed to progress to the stage of implementation. The 1990s armed conflicts made the situation worse.The agricultural sector in North Kivu province is mainly supported by international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) under emergency conditions. This means that these institutions can provide free seed and fertiliser and buy grain and distribute as seed depending on their financial status.Like all the other African countries under the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) strategy, DRC as a country is a signatory of the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), whose mandate is to revitalise and develop agricultural potentials in each country and to place agriculture as the engine of national economies. Although DRC has still not initiated the processes of implementing the CAADP strategy, a road map for its implementation has been developed and signed (GODRC, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock 2009).By itself, the DRC agriculture sector does not significantly contribute to the socio-economic development of the country because of its many weaknesses. The low agricultural production has resulted in food insecurity, malnutrition, shortage of quality seed, high food prices, poor development of agricultural products, fish processing and conservation. Consequently, the Government developed the Document and Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction to restore and surpass the level of production that existed before the conflict. It is expected to consolidate the growth of sectors, with a view to achieving the recovery of the agriculture sector, as well as livestock and fisheries, while also increasing incomes in rural areas and diversifying agricultural exports (GODRC 2006).In order to realise the aims of the strategy, in the short term it is necessary to: revitalise the seed centres; strengthen the mobilisation of and support to improved farming methods in rural areas; improve the livestock sector by aiding the reconstruction of herds decimated during the conflict; diversify cash crops; strengthen support to producers through improved access to inputs and dissemination of applied research results; develop and organise agricultural markets; and develop the fisheries sector. However, an institution to implement this is lacking.During the medium term, the strategy is expected to support private initiatives (eg, economic actors, cooperatives) particularly in the framework of facilitation, supply and marketing, and also to support community-development committees, village associations and cooperatives to ensure gradual transformation from traditional farming systems to economic operations. This is where the IAR4D strategy becomes critical as it offers the option of having innovation platforms (IPs) as the implementing institutions.For the rehabilitation of agriculture and livestock (GODRC, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock 2009), the GODRC is implementing several programmes and projects in different parts of the country, with the support of donors. Among the most important and active programmes and projects on the ground are the Multi-sectoral Programme of Emergency Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (PMURR) and the Support Project for the Rehabilitation of the Agricultural and Rural Sector (PARSAR).Both programmes have the following objectives: a. crop production through the provision of clean planting materials and quality seeds of the main food crops b. production of improved seeds (maize, rice, peanut, bean, cowpea, soya bean and cassava) c. publication of the seed regulation, which is under preparation d. rehabilitation of rural roads to improve access to markets for producers e. animal production through training of trainers for the ranchers and fish producers f. Implementation of studies to restart provincial agro-industries for cotton, palm oil, rubber, cocoa, coffee, tea and cinchona in Bas-Congo Bandundu, Kasai, Province Orientale, Kivu and Equateur g. provision of support to the Institute National pour l' Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques (INERA), National Seed Service (SENASEM) and the National Extension Service (SNV) through capacity building h. privatisation of seed farms in the province of Bas Congo.The official extension service is the National Extension Service (SNV), which is no longer fully operational on the ground. Instead, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock has established the Council for Agricultural and Rural Management (Conseil Agricole Rural de Gestion, CARG) to respond to the new policy of agricultural development and restoration strategies, including: the disengagement of the state; the privatisation or restructuring of public and parastatal companies; the empowerment of farmers; the liberalisation of prices and markets; decentralisation; and incentives for private investment in rural areas (embodied in the Agricultural Act).CARG is a structure for cooperation involving various actors in the rural areas, including decision makers, provincial parliament, the provincial administration, private sector, associations and trade unions, farmers, universities and research centres. CARG intervenes at three levels: the central state, the provincial capitals, and the districts. At the grassroots level, it is structured in sectors and territories.The purposes of CARG are to support farmers to form cooperatives, to communicate the content of the Agricultural Act, and to promote agriculture in general.and infrastructure. The most immediate infrastructure need for DRC IPs, for example, is the maintenance of the local transport network.As observed, major constraints and policies affecting the agricultural sector, including taxes, levies, transport infrastructure, utilities, credit, and demand and supply management, seem to be addressed better by membership in IPs. Consequently, IAR4D provides a framework for convergence of successful interventions in agricultural value-chain enterprises.It has also been observed that through IPs, IAR4D has minimised the sectoral approach to agricultural research and development in the region by bringing all policies to the level of the farmer for interpretation and implementation. This has created room for the farming agenda to lead policy analysis and formulation whenever and wherever it arises. This scenario is well illustrated in the case of the IPs in Uganda where soil and water conservation bye-laws have been formulated by the IP members and forwarded to the sub-county and district councils for ratification as bye-laws and ordinances. IPs are also empowering all the actors in the process, including bringing farmers out of the fields to meet traders and processors, policy makers and researchers, bankers and input dealers as equals, to address relevant policies and policy issues or to fill policy gaps where they exist. In the process, IAR4D and IP systems can be institutionalised and attempts are being made to do so, but this faces many challenges due to the 'emergency' mentality of most players in the field.have not been organised either. Where collective marketing has existed, there has also been mismanagement and corruption of all types.Often, production is increased based on speculative promises of anticipated market demands. When higher yields were attained ('bumper harvests'), farmers have faced many risks including poor infrastructure, perishability of their products, poor market access and volatile prices. For many reasons, proven technologies have remained unused. There has been limited valueaddition to produce. The major value-addition challenges have included: poor postharvest handling; storage pests; lack of modern processing technologies (equipment and packaging); limited skills, awareness and capital; untimely harvesting; poor preservation methods; and selling raw (low-value) products. In subsequent seasons, production has apparently gone down. As a consequence, intermediaries and their agents have abounded and filled the vacuum by undertaking some of the market functions, such as bulking, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, transporting and linking to markets. Most of the problems listed have mainly affected food crops.All of the above is likely to change with the advent of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP), which has initiated the integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) approach of doing research. In using the IAR4D initiatives, multiple stakeholders based on value chains in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) have been brought together to address common challenges faced by farmers and other value-chain actors. In introducing the IAR4D approaches in the LKPLS, the IAR4D change agents were faced with major challenges, including farmers' expectations of handouts and low participation of the private sector (which expected immediate returns). However, the operationalisation of market-demand driven innovation platforms (IPs) caused a shift in the mindsets of farmers from passive expectation of handouts to active engagement to tap market opportunities. Clear 'win-win' situations resulted and these stimulated participation of private-sector actors, including financial and credit institutions such as Equity Bank and Mutuelle d'Epargne et de crédit au Congo (MECRECO -a microfinance institution based in the Democratic Republic of Congo), processors, traders and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). As a consequence, various successful value-added products have been produced by the IPs in the LKPLS, including a sorghum drink called Mamera (a registered product of Bubare Sorghum IP in Uganda); a local banana-based alcoholic drink (Kasiksi) and juice (Mutobe) by Musanganya IP, in the DRC; potatoes in Gataraga IP, Rwanda; maize in Chahi IP, Uganda; milk in Mudende IP, Rwanda; and beans in Maendeleo IP, DRC.Realisation of these products has been attained largely as a result of the implementation of IAR4D work in the LKPLS since 2008. The work has involved exploration, discovery and exploitation of appropriate innovations and technologies to enhance enterprise productivity, including work in the areas of natural resources management (NRM); market organisation, linkage and penetration; and the use of supportive policies and institutions in an integrated manner. All of these have been directed towards improving agricultural product value chains under the umbrella of the SSA CP long-term objectives, which are to: widen networking through partnerships, enhance food security, increase rural incomes through commercialised agriculture and sustainably reduce poverty, while preserving the integrity of the environment.Within a time frame of about three years, the work undertaken in the LKPLS achieved substantial successes in various aspects, including project integration, teamwork, institutional arrangements, policy innovations and some successful agricultural product value chains. These have been achieved mainly as a result of using the IAR4D approach, which has brought farmers together to interact with researchers, extension staff, traders, processors, policy makers and other partners -working together in a synergistic way to develop strong and sustainable farming value-chain enterprises in the LKPLS. The IPs have provided forums for appropriate facilitation and research in terms of harnessing productivity-enhancing technologies and innovations, capacity building in terms of training and exposure tours, linkages to markets and service providers, and preservation of natural resources. This has enhanced the ability of farmers to conduct their businesses in new and better ways, to attain success within a short time. Frequent interactive meetings have enabled farmers, researchers and other partners to share information and experiences. Knowledge acquisition has occurred through training and knowledge creation and sharing activities (ie, exchange visits, demonstrations and learning sites, use of knowledge from weather stations, and workshops). Through such organised meetings, farmers in some IPs have formulated bye-laws that have enabled them to implement and enforce facilitative rules and regulations, in particular to reverse the degradation of natural resource bases.Practical modern agricultural knowledge and technologies -use of fertilisers, sprayers, soil and water conservation -have been gained. Useful linkages have been made with established institutions and service providers, including MECRECO, National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), Uganda National Seed Potato Producers' Association (UNSPPA), Uganda National Agro-Input Dealers' Association (UNADA), traders, universities (Makerere, National University of Rwanda [NUR] and University of Kinshasa), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). Knowledge has been gained in value addition for potato production and marketing -washing stations, proper storage and potato products (chips and crisps). A culture of ownership has been inculcated into IP members and partners. Members and partners have increased their participatory involvement in IP activities, eg, joint planning and decision-making, unlike in the past when famers acted individually. Communication among members and partners has also increased through social interactions leading to cohesion. IAR4D has contributed to lessening the drudgery and workloads of women given that all work within the IP is shared equally among the members. Some IPs (eg, Bubare and Chahi in Uganda) have gained recognition from local government authorities, through recognition and approval of their bye-laws, and incorporating their work plans into the local government work plans, for example. Some of the impacts achieved have brought positive changes in incomes as well as attitudes.Bye-laws -their formulation, approval, implementation and enforcement, as lobbied for by IPs -seem to be facilitating the implementation of important actions. The systems of punitive measures for failing to comply with given bye-laws are being transformed into reward systems in order to create an encouraging (rather than discouraging) working environment.The following are examples of success stories that have been achieved in the LKPLS within the short time frame of the project.Although proven productivity-enhancing technologies for complex farming systems have often remained 'on the shelves' for lack of critical linkages in the value chains, some of these technologies started to be used after the formation of the IPs. In Chahi Sub-county, in Kisoro District of Uganda, the Chahi potato-based IP had an opportunity to diversify and rotate the traditional crops -partly to take advantage of alternative crop commercialisation and also to safeguard food security. Given that the Chahi farmers had been growing a local maize variety known as Nyakagoye for fresh consumption since time immemorial and that they have been using maize on a small scale in rotation with potatoes and beans, the farmers took the opportunity to expand the production of maize.The opportunity was presented as a result of the IP being linked with an agro-processing industry, PHINTA Investments Ltd, located within the target zone of Chahi IP. Among other things, PHINTA uses grain maize to make feed mixes for poultry production. PHINTA was sourcing maize grain from distant places (over 500km away). Consequently, when an opportunity for diversification came with an assured market for grain maize in the form of a local private company, the growing of a hybrid maize variety (DK8031) spread rapidly, in large part replacing the local variety. The IP approached PHINTA for input support. PHINTA was ready to give the support based on the assurance that it would acquire maize grain from local sources. This linkage resulted in rapid adoption of maize hybrid DK8031 from 18kg of seed in 2008 to 1800kg in 2009, the equivalent to area coverage of 2 acres and 180 acres (0.81ha and 72.8ha), respectively. There were corresponding increases in the purchase of inputs such as fertilisers that had previously often remained on the shop shelves. The local market for inputs increased from USD30 in 2008 to USD3300 in 2009. Between 2008 and 2010, the proportion of farmers growing maize increased from 10 to 35 percent. The average area under maize increased from 1.3ha to 2.7ha per farm, while the total area under maize production increased from 5.3ha to 27ha (Tenywa et al. 2011). This venture became the first major effort to produce maize grain for commercial purposes in the area.Gataraga IP is essentially a multi-stakeholder problem identification and solving forum that brings together multiple stakeholders for visioning, planning and implementing new ideas, practices and services. The IP promotes interaction, creativity, insight and empowerment, with the aim of improving the existing conditions around a common interest or challenge and thereby bringing about desired change. It is composed of 10 villages located in Musanze District of northern Rwanda, where Irish potatoes have been grown for food security and occasional sales for a considerable period. However, production had been declining because of decreasing yields and difficulties in marketing the crop. Although research was undertaken in the past to address these constraints, there was little input from farmers and poor feedback from researchers. A few research outputs were adopted, but yields continued to decline.All this changed after the IAR4D interventions. The IP was linked to markets and this has stimulated increased production and improved postharvest handling for increased shelf life of harvested potatoes and improved quality (see Table 6 These problems included unorganised potato marketing and markets, limited knowledge on efficient potato production methods, inadequate seed potatoes, insufficient manure for soil improvement, and limited transport to market produce. The stakeholders also suggested and prioritised possible solutions to the problems: formation of farmer groups, improving the quality of seed potatoes, improving productivity, and improving postharvest handling and marketing. An action plan for resolving the constraints was agreed upon and implemented.Farmers were encouraged to form groups that could address production and marketing constraints through testing of new production technologies, and that could enhance collective bargaining for acquiring inputs and for marketing activities. Farmers have now formed 26 groups, each with about 25 men and women, and each represented on the IP.First, potato varieties demanded by the market were identified. Although 'Kinigi' was found to be the most popular variety, seed availability of this variety from ISAR remains limited. Options for rapid multiplication of 'Kinigi' were assessed and positive selection is now practised in the field, where healthy, disease-free tubers are selected for further propagation by local farmers. Meanwhile, ISAR -with support from the International Potato Centre (CIP) -has established modern facilities for tissue culture and rapid multiplication of seed potatoes. The next step will be for local seed producers to be identified to produce seed potatoes for the wider community. The Government of Rwanda has already allocated funds for introducing seed multiplication of 'Kinigi'.Participatory assessment of alternative soil fertility-enhancing options is being carried out by farmers from each of the village groups. This includes the use of manure from livestock, with fodder crops grown along contours on field boundaries for feeding to livestock and as live barriers to provide soil-erosion protection in steep hill environments. Five learning centres have been established, which provide opportunities for learning about improved potato production techniques using four improved potato varieties, organic and inorganic fertilisers, correct spacing, pest management and dehaulming (Figure 6.1). After all these IAR4D interventions, potato yields have increased from 6 to 24 tonnes per hectare. Some farmers are actually producing as much as 30t/ha. Regular monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is also undertaken by farmers, who describe the process as being like fertiliser, helping to ensure the crop is grown correctly and that costs and income can be monitored and checked. Local niche markets have been identified, and contracts established with hotels and supermarkets in Kigali and other urban areas (eg, Ruhengeri). These require that potatoes be selected, cleaned, sorted and graded, and, in the case of the supermarket, packaged in 5kg containers (Figure 6.2). Many clients are happy with the quality and quantities supplied (Figure 6.3). Discussions are ongoing between the hotels and the IP to produce and supply potato varieties to meet the different market demands, such as for chips and crisps. A number of potato-washing stations have been established. One of the new washing stations is owned and operated by a lady called Josephine, who is a farmer, trader and a member of the IP. She has been linked to credit providers who have extended credit to her to support production, purchasing and transportation. Some farmer IP representatives have been trained in grading, hygiene and sanitation, preservation and packaging.Since 2009, the marketing partners have been expanding with acquisition of new potato market clients in 2010, rising from five clients in February to ten in December 2010; and the quantity supplied rose from 2.5 to 15.5 tonnes (see Figure 6.4). Farmers who supply their potatoes through the IP marketing arrangements have received RWF30 per kilogram more than the local market prices. Most of these farmers also received commodity market loans from the traders in order to avoid piecemeal harvesting of their potatoes. The traders' sale prices depended on the transport costs, seasonal abundance or scarcity, and their contract with the client. Generally, the prices ranged from RWF160 to RWF250 per kilogram in 2010.The IAR4D approach has catalysed a vibrant IP in Gataraga. The IP is now established and accepted at the district level. Its regular meetings are well attended and there are women on the IP executive and steering committees. The IP is now viewed as a centre for bringing together experts to address farmers' problems. Farmers have taken up leadership roles and the linkages with the IP service providers enable them to seek contributions from different IP stakeholders to address their problems. The IP forums make them equal partners with others.Farmers have expressed a desire for exchange visits -to visit and learn from other IPs -and for the IP concept to be used in other sectors, outside agriculture in addition to extending this approach to other commodities. Thus, the concept and practice has great potential to be scaled up and also to be scaled out to other commodities, even beyond the agriculture sector.However, challenges that remain include the need for more farmers to be involved, and for capacity strengthening and learning processes to continue with production linked to the market. Key to future sustainability will be the ability of farmers to own and lead the IP, which would be driven by the commercial interests of the private sector, with research and facilitation backstopping provided by research and development organisations. The paradigm shift from the traditional research and extension service to an IAR4D approach to rural development through engaging multiple stakeholders (farmers, researchers, government and the private sector) in finding research interventions that build or strengthen the development of value chains has been tested in the LKPLS. In Bubare Sub-county of Kabale District in south-west Uganda, all eight parishes are participating in the Bubare sorghum IP, with stakeholders validating the IAR4D concept by identifying constraints to the sorghum value chain. The IP has pursued value addition as the key driver of sorghum value-chain development. Every household in Bubare grows a traditional sorghum variety that has been used for generations to produce porridge and weaning food for babies. The IP has partnered with HUNTEX Industries (owned by a private partner and a member of the IP) (Figure 6.5) to add value in processing the traditional sorghum into a healthy non-alcoholic beverage called Mamera, which is being sold in shops and supermarkets.The combined power of branding and state-of-the-art processing and packaging facilities have been applied to an existing local product to deliver the value-added non-alcoholic sorghum drink that has been branded and now sells in new up-market outlets, attracting better prices than before and appealing to middle-class consumers. The intervention has become the driver for the sorghum value chain in the region and a model of intervention in other value chains.Mamera is already a registered brand name and is gazetted by the Government of Uganda (GOU). The brand name is associated with the good-quality Bushera (fermented sorghum porridge) in Kabale District and it has attracted big market demands for the sorghum products in Kabale and beyond. This trademark, Mamera, is expected to be used for a number of products that will be produced by Bubare sorghum IP, including malted sorghum flour (a readyto-use flour for home or urban small-scale Bushera makers). Bushera quality parameters were developed by the incubation centre of Makerere University Food Science and Technology Department (MAK-FST).Sorghum, which has been grown traditionally for years, is a socially and culturally important crop, but low yields and tedious work have made it unprofitable. However, it provides a valuable local food, including as a weaning food for babies. Unfortunately, after local preparation it lasts for only three days before spoiling. With IAR4D interventions, the IP took advantage of emerging opportunities and initiated and implemented strategies for increasing production and value addition of sorghum through improved processing and marketing.The Bubare IP is now firmly established and operational with both women and men members participating in monthly meetings. An IP bank account has been opened. The IP executive committee has developed work plans and budgets, which have been integrated into those of the Kabale District Local Council. Interactions with other IPs such as Chahi are taking place to share experiences.The current work plans include the following selected key activities.• Participatory variety evaluation compares a number of improved highland sorghum varieties 5 with the local variety, 'Kyatanombe', to see whether yields can be improved, while maintaining the quality of traditional sorghum.• Learning sites (demonstrations) are established in each of the eight parishes, providing training opportunities for farmers on improving their crop management skills.• Research is being undertaken by HUNTEX Industries in conjunction with Makerere University to identify food processing technologies for further improvement of the sorghum porridge (Mamera) and extending its shelf life. This includes two beverage types, one unsweetened and the other sweetened with locally produced honey.• Market development is on-going using modern packaging and branding the malted sorghum beverage as Mamera.• Agreement must be reached on profit-sharing arrangements between the processor, HUNTEX and the farmers.• Sales of Mamera are already occurring in supermarkets, to the tune of USD1200 per month (for example, see the sales trends during the incubation period as shown in Table 6.2).In addition, the IP farmers have submitted proposals to the GOU to access funding to develop sorghum (and other crop) storage facilities, and have applied for a loan from the Muchahi SACCO.The future for the Bubare IP looks bright. The process of encouraging IP grassroots membership recruitment is on-going at sub-county and village levels, encouraging participation in various meetings and at learning sites. Consequently, this requires continued capacity strengthening, knowledge acquisition and linking further production opportunities to new market opportunities.At the same time, there are opportunities for the IPs to support the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) programme of the GOU. Although NAADS support local identification and prioritisation of problems, they do not bring stakeholders together -the IP forges linkages of this type.NARO has also shown enthusiasm in ensuring that research is demand-led, meeting the real and perceived needs of farmers. NARO-Kachwekano Agricultural Research and Development Institute (KAZARDI) is speeding up the process of providing planting materials of improved varieties of sorghum for the IP through their accelerated breeding and multiplication programmes.5. HLSO3/016, HLSO3/0 17, HLSO3/019, HLSO3/023, HLSO3/025, HLSO3/056.Using the IAR4D approach, some of the weaknesses of policy and institutional arrangements that affect the performance of agricultural products along the agricultural value chains were addressed in the four IPs of Kabale, Ntungamo, Bubare and Kisoro in south-western Uganda.The major purpose of addressing these weaknesses was to identify innovative actions that could be exploited to strengthen policy and institutional arrangements at local community levels in order to improve the performance of the IPs. Interaction with the IP members at the four IPs revealed the need to review the existing community bye-laws, as well as to formulate new ones that were relevant to IP operations.As a consequence, major institutional innovations were instituted in south-western Uganda within a short period of time. These institutional arrangements were meant to enable smooth and harmonious formulation of bye-laws that would strengthen policy-review processes,  conflict management, institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs. Committees were set up to oversee policy sensitisation, review and formulation. Measures for enforcement of these structures were also set up. These arrangements also helped in the formulation and approval of bye-laws.In order to strengthen the policy-review processes, workshops were held for stakeholders on formulation and review of bye-laws and policies, and on empowerment to attain legal status; these workshops were considered valuable. Conflict management was addressed through team-building seminars for IPs, policy advocacy, and meetings with concerned parties (eg, cattle keepers and crop farmers) to facilitate dialogue. To explore issues surrounding institutionalisation of IPs, participatory discussions were held on how IPs fit into African socio-economic development frameworks. For sustainability, participatory engagement was instituted to align IP work plans with the sub-county and district plans, budgets and development programmes (eg, community-driven development programmes).The process of review and formulation of bye-laws was initiated at the end of 2009. IP members mobilised their respective parishes and villages for this process and produced drafts.The drafts from the different parishes were merged together to form a sub-county draft, which was taken back for more consultations at the parish level, before being presented to the IP at the sub-county level. During the consultation processes -from sub-county to village and back to sub-county -the issues that were continually amended included the title of the bye-laws, definitions of terms, actual content of the bye-laws, the penalties, fines and rewards. These processes were similar in the IPs of Bubare, Bufundi and Chahi, where IPs were formed at the sub-county level with members coming from the different parishes in the sub-county. In Ntungamo, however, where the IPs were formed at the district level with members coming from seven of the district sub-counties, the process was a little different: bye-laws were generated by the respective parishes and sub-county drafts were made after the consultation processes.In the IAR4D approach, various stakeholders in an agricultural value chain come together at the IP to discuss and find solutions to problems along the value chain. The stakeholders -who in this case include policy makers and local leaders -sat together with the farmers to solve the challenges associated with the formulation and review of the bye-laws. Policy makers from local government and local leaders who were members of the IPs appreciated the need to have functional bye-laws to protect the farming community and other participants along a value chain. The bye-laws were thus reviewed and formulated and were then approved and signed by the respective councils in Bubare and Chahi.In Bubare, a set of bye-laws entitled 'Bubare Sub-county (Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Marketing) Bye-laws 2010' were approved at an extraordinary council meeting held on 23 November 2010, and signed (after amendments) for implementation in February 2011 after some sensitisation of the community. In Chahi, the bye-laws entitled 'Chahi Sub-county (Ifatanya Bubasha) Bye-laws 2010' were approved in a sub-county council meeting on 8 December 2010 and signed on 10 December 2010 (after amendments) to be implemented immediately upon signing.During the course of these processes, it was observed that the major challenges concerning community bye-laws were not only their poor implementation and enforcement, but also the lack of a review mechanism to maintain their relevance. It is important to remember at this point that, in spite of its vast natural resources, DRC is one of the poorest countries in SSA, particularly in terms of infrastructure, low formal education levels, high malnutrition and low incomes. North Kivu Province has enjoyed a peaceful postconflict period for only about 1½ years now. Policies have not been revised or reviewed for a long time. Agricultural products and services are provided in emergency situations by both national and international organisations.The Musanganya IP is operated by a management committee, which is answerable to a general assembly comprising all registered members. The management committee in turn has subcommittees and village committees, all of which work in a participatory manner with guidance, contributions and support from the IP's partners. The management committee and subcommittees are elected by the participating farming community. Hence, IP Musangaya has well-balanced management structures in place.Initially, the operations of banana production were based on profitable bulk-marketing opportunities. These opportunities have now been extended to banana transformation (value addition) into extended shelf-life banana products in order to conserve the banana products post-harvest, reduce their perishability and tap into new marketing opportunities in different market segments. So far, experience has shown that value addition of banana products is competitive and has great potential. There are, however, plans for complete removal of banana plantations infected with bacterial banana wilt, to be replaced with tolerant varieties under a programme that grows tolerant plantlets in micro-propagation units. Other challenges and opportunities that have been tackled include: water conservation, soil erosion and fertility; improved production, postharvest handling, crop and disease management; organised exposure visits of farmers to markets and traders to Musanganya for informal market negotiations; value addition by processing and packaging of local banana-based alcoholic drinks (standard and strong wines) and juices that are locally known as Kasiksi, Mutunda and Mutobe, respectively; and promoting environmental stewardship including use of firewood, clean air, micro-environment, and income generation from appropriate forestry harvesting.Achievements so far are that the Musanganya IP is established, operational and has gained acceptance in the district. The IP members have gained wide-ranging skills from various capacitybuilding programmes, including managing micro-propagation units and propagation of clean planting materials, accessing of clean banana planting materials and other improved planting materials, crop management practices, market identification, and banana transformation.There have also been improved household gender relations. Men have joined their spouses in growing improved disease-resistant banana varieties and women are participating in meetings and holding office in the IP. The IP has also established two tree nurseries of 20,000 seedlings each for agro-forestry and afforestation programmes.These achievements have been realised in the face of prevailing challenges. There have been problems in accessing credits, and in convincing some farmers to accept uprooting of infected banana crops, resulting in continuation of contamination of clean plantations. Bananas are an 'incentive crop' in that they take a long time to reach maturity and produce the first bunches after initial establishment. Market access has been a challenge as a result of limited market information and poor infrastructure, difficulties in bulking and conducting group marketing. It is taking a long time to achieve certification of banana by-products.The major highlights of the Musanganya IP have been on two fronts, namely: collective marketing of bananas and banana transformation through value addition (processing). The details of these activities are discussed below.In the past, farmers in Musanganya worked their farms and marketed their produce individually. This practice often forced farmers to sell their primary products prematurely and consequently at low prices, due to their limited individual bargaining powers. Banana producers visited the dispersed local open markets, and the process of selling and buying of their bananas and other products was relatively haphazard. This situation reduced farmers' negotiation powers and made them vulnerable to exploitation by intermediaries. This marketing approach did not guarantee producers competitive incomes since they simply had to take the offered price.This unfavourable marketing situation made it necessary to look into options for collective marketing, market linkages and product diversification. Given that banana was the main cash crop in Mupfuni Shanga Sub-county, it was selected as the entry value-chain enterprise by Musanganya IP.Using the IP as a tool, collective marketing was initiated as a way of avoiding the large numbers of intermediaries that congest the banana market circuit. In this way, the farmers would not only market their bananas in bulk, but would also gain in bargaining power, get competitive prices and therefore increase their incomes. Using an IAR4D rapid appraisal study conducted in two major urban centres in North and South Kivu provinces in eastern DRC, it was recommended that both farmers and traders should get organised in groups to conduct their banana selling and buying businesses. The IP producers were therefore organised into groups to initiate collective marketing of their products and first targeted Goma and Bukavu urban markets. Some of the activities undertaken before bananas reached their final marketing destinations include measuring circumferences of banana bunches, weighing them and offloading the bananas at the market place (Figures 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9). Data collection and analysis of various weights of bunches has shown that the weight of a banana bunch is correlated with the average selling price. The length of the banana bunches also significantly influences the price. This relationship is expressed in the equation below and in Figure 6.6. In the equation, P is the weight of a given banana bunch.Price = 0.0004 P 4 + 0.0311P 3 -0.9518 P 2 + 12.22 P -52.516 with R 2 = 1 (1)Seventeen rounds of marketing transactions were conducted, 12 in Goma and 5 in Bukavu markets, using three types of bananas: plantain, cooking bananas and beer-making bananas. A total of 69 IP members delivered 1706 banana bunches for total gross sales of USD6275.60 against gross purchases of USD4645.30. Plantain was highly appreciated, fetching premium prices compared with the other banana varieties. In order to increase incomes of producers, multiplication of plantain on a large scale was recommended.This pilot organisation of farmers and traders that linked the producers and buyers demonstrated that farmers can increase their incomes through bypassing a number of unnecessary intermediaries in the banana marketing chain. This way, producers are guaranteed stable and competitive pricing of the banana products. The transformation of agricultural products has always been regarded as a way to not only preserve food, but also to add value in order to be competitive on the market. In the past, and as recently as 2010, farmers in Mpfuni Shanga Sub-county were making local banana beer that had poor storage properties and lasted for no more than three days before spoiling. Even worse, the local beer fetched poor prices.Consequently, due to the need to preserve bananas and improve the shelf life of traditional banana beer, the Musanganya IP, with assistance from partners, undertook to transform and add value through processing their harvested bananas into three products -juice and two types of wine. With the IAR4D knowledge interventions of value addition through processing using technology from the University of Kinshasa and Makerere University, farmers are now able to make more refined, sanitary and bottled banana juice (Mutobe), standard wine (Kasiksi) and strong wine (Butunda) that all have longer storage properties and fetch higher prices. The banana juice and wines have longer shelf lives, lasting for months before going bad. The products are packaged and stored in 330ml reused Heineken beer bottles available in the market (Figure 6.10). These processes have so far been done successfully up to the demonstration stage.Profitability calculation of this process gives a substantial production yield of 92.5 percent.The findings from the market study indicate that the drinks are appreciated by both sellers and consumers due to their appearance and quality, taste and alcohol content. The Musanganya IP farmers received their share of the benefits by finding a quick way of selling harvested bananas from the field. Thus, the farmers' income is enhanced in the long run through production expansion. Recent rapid market surveys have indicated that the potential market outlook for these two products appears good -both locally in the rural areas and in urban areas (in bars, shops, kiosks and supermarkets). Indicative prices were USD0.50 for the unprocessed and unbottled 500lt beer, and USD2.00 for the processed and bottled 500lt beer.The banana IP farmers have been organised and trained to select the best banana bunches, pack and store them properly for transportation and marketing to various market destinations within the region. The farmers have been advised to observe and know the types (varieties) of bananas they grow -whether cooking type, beer-making bananas or plantains. Banana type dictates the marketing opportunities for bananas.The process used to produce banana juice and wines served mainly to prevent postharvest losses experienced by farmers in general and by members of the Musanganya IP in particular, and also created another marketing outlet for the bananas.With this method of production and conservation, the IP has made available to local consumers a standardised drink in terms of good quality, taste, alcohol content and physical appearance.The presentation of the products in 330ml bottles tightly closed, with a one-year expiration date adds value.Profits and market availability will make this process a cost-effective annual procedure for farmers and banana producers of Musanganya IP.The next step in the process is to organise the certification and licensing of the banana transformation process from the relevant government authorities and specialised laboratories.After certification and licensing are achieved, manufacturers will be called in by the IP to invest in mass production of the banana products (juices and wines) for large-scale commercialisation.uniqueness of the natural resource base, there have been only limited investments to reduce its degradation. As a result, a large number of people in SSA, especially those who are mainly dependent on agriculture, including those living in the Lake Kivu region of Eastern and Central Africa (ECA), earn less than USD1.00 per person per a day. Despite some remarkable research successes in SSA -including numerous projects to improve food security, incomes and nutrition -the number of poor people in the Lake Kivu region has been increasing.Agricultural research in general has followed the linear model of researcher-extension-farmer. At best, this agricultural research and development (ARD) model from the West and Asia has produced 'islands of success' in SSA.Since the 1970s, various research innovations have been introduced to address the complexity of agricultural systems in SSA. These innovations have included the farming systems research (FSR) approach, farmer participatory research (FPR), rapid appraisal of agricultural knowledge systems (RAAKS), the sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) and integrated natural resources management (INRM) (Norman and Matlon 2000, Schiere et al. 2000, Norman et al. 1982and 1994, Norman and Lightfoot 1992, Chambers and Conway 1992, Bunch 1989). The number of field-based project activities increased and important experiences emerged to create more space for more innovations for agricultural research and extension, through participation of local communities and building on traditional or indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) (Edquist 1997 and2001). However, all these approaches seem to have failed to address the multiple scales and complex web of interactions, networks and responses within and between physical and social subsystems that change with context, objectives and activities, with different levels of uncertainty, time lags and policy environments (Campbell et al. 2001). As observed, most of these approaches gravitated around the research-extension-farmer model.It was thus hypothesised that the nature of the conventional linear research-extensionfarmer approach -applied to address challenges and constraints of productivity, natural resources management (NRM), market and policy areas independently, when in fact they are all interlinked -was not having an impact in reducing the numbers of poor people in SSA.It is increasingly being appreciated that linear technology transfer is inappropriate in SSA, because of the complexity of the agricultural systems, with regard to their social, physical and economic settings. At the very least, technologies generated through the linear models need complementary organisational, policy and other changes to enable them to be put into productive use.Some of these observations and understandings motivated the Forum for Agricultural Research for Africa (FARA) to introduce a new approach to research and development that is referred to as 'integrated agricultural research for development' (IAR4D). This concept builds on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and INRM, coupled with integrated research on productivity enhancement, sustainable NRM, policies and markets. IAR4D is an action-research approach for investigating and facilitating organisations of multi-institutional and multidisciplinary actors (including researchers) to innovate more effectively in response to changing complexities of agricultural and NRM contexts, in order to achieve a shared vision of rural development (Hall andYoganand 2004, Jones 2004). The IAR4D approach was subsequently introduced and established in the ECA region on a pilot basis at the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP).A key feature of the IAR4D concept was the application of participatory approaches for the integration of actors in technological, NRM, market, policy and institutional components of agricultural innovation systems (AIS) to respond to changing market and policy conditions and provide commercial, social and institutional solutions that achieve broad and multiple objectives, including poverty alleviation, environmental protection, and social and gender equality. The potential strengths of the IAR4D concept lay in its ability to capture market and policy aspects in addition to fostering systemic linkages and communication among actors in diverse contexts who have a stake in the processes of generating, disseminating and using knowledge for social impact. However, due to its newness there appeared to be limited evidence that IAR4D would likely bring the necessary and sufficient changes to transform smallholder agriculture in SSA into a highly productive, efficient, sustainable and competitive system, while at the same time protecting the environment (Science Council 2005). Consequently the CGIAR Science Council (SC) recommended that IAR4D should first undergo a 'proof of concept' process before its widespread adoption and application.The basis for the proof of concept of IAR4D, implemented under the auspices of SSA CP, was that the approach is considered a better and more effective method for addressing productivity, NRM, market, policy and related challenges simultaneously than the conventional linear approaches. In implementing the IAR4D approach, the aim of SSA CP was to extract scientifically sound and replicable lessons, principles and guidelines for sustainable development. In this chapter, therefore, some key achievements in the proof of concept of IAR4D are highlighted. Also presented in this chapter are some insights into the dynamic processes, challenges, and key lessons and principles learnt to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the multi-stakeholder engagements, linkages and interactions that positively influence the innovation processes at the individual and institutional levels, which are pivotal to the IAR4D concepts and practices.Some of the milestones in these processes were the operationalisation of task forces (teamwork) in integrating three projects into one programme, establishing strategic partnerships, confidencebuilding among teams and individuals, actual implementation of the integrated programme and the establishment of 12 functional innovation platforms (IPs). It was established that in situations where productivity, NRM and market issues were addressed simultaneously, better IAR4D results were registered. The operationalisation of the four elements (productivity, NRM, markets and policy) of IAR4D required strong functional linkages, which were established with various research organisations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the private sector for validating research questions, farmer mobilisation and capacity building, value addition, credit provision and the identification of input and output markets. All these processes were undertaken in a phased way. For everything to work uninterrupted, IAR4D processes require facilitation of a functional and efficient central processing unit (CPU) to address and resolve any emerging dynamic issues.The SSA CP in the LKPLS has evolved considerably through three distinct phases, namely: the inception, the integration of projects into a programme, and finally the implementation (the latter is discussed in the next subsection).Beginning in 2005, initial efforts consisted of defining and validating the LKPLS's challenges, constraints and issues. This involved calling for concept notes and proposals to address the issues, and then selecting three successful teams to implement and champion the processes.The plan was that research and development efforts should focus on the interfaces between agricultural productivity, sustainable NRM, efficient markets and appropriate policies with supportive institutional structures. However, as a result of the CGIAR Science Council review and commentary in 2006, the research design of SSA CP was revised to focus on testing the effectiveness of the IAR4D approach relative to the conventional approaches. This made it necessary to reorganise the original work programmes and plans, which had been conceived by the task forces (teams) in productivity, NRM and markets to work independently, each with three research components. The three task forces operating in the LKPLS were subsequently integrated into a single coherent programme with authentic interconnections among the three task forces. Extensive efforts were made to bring the three task forces to a common level in terms of their thinking and understanding of the tasks, and to make them work as one team for effective implementation of the project and delivery of targeted outputs. Eventually, the task forces integrated and aligned their projects to the revised research design, which is being used as a principal reference in establishing the experimental framework and for evaluating the effects of IAR4D.Considering the importance of sites in drawing lessons that are attributable to IAR4D interventions, action sites and counterfactual sites were selected based on scientific criteria, including representativeness, current state of IAR4D, market access, and availability of geographic information system (GIS) spatial information and other data.Project teams were formed and jointly implemented various activities -including stakeholder identification and analysis, baseline and ex post impact surveys -and established and operationalised IPs. Some of these activities were facilitated in part through pooled financial and material resources. The SSA CP aimed, among other things, to develop principles, practices, options and practical examples of how the processes for systemic innovation can be organised and implemented involving a range of stakeholders from end users to policy makers. The tasks undertaken in the LKPLS involved 27 partner organisations, operating through 12 IPs. There were four IPs in each of the three participating countries -Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) -and each country had its own diverse range of biophysical, socioeconomic, cultural and political conditions. One of the major concerns when working with such a large group of partners with diverse backgrounds, interests, experiences and skills is to develop a common understanding of basic concepts and approaches. A training module was developed, covering the concepts and practical aspects of IAR4D, and was used to strengthen the capacity of all participating stakeholders in the IPs.During the initial stages of implementation, much of the focus was on establishing multiinstitutional and multi-stakeholder alliances and partnerships, which are the key components of IAR4D. After several rounds of initial consultations, broad guidelines and methods for forming and operating IPs were developed and seven IPs were initially formed during the first stage of the project in 2008. A further five IPs were initiated in 2009. Through extensive consultations, discussions and debates, all 12 IPs identified the major developmental challenges facing agriculture in their locations, and their possible roles in addressing the challenges, as well as potential solutions to the challenges. The IPs also developed action plans with well-defined roles and responsibilities for the various partners. The issues identified varied among the IPs, both within and between countries. Some of the issues identified, for example, include interface constraints of low and declining soil fertility, poor seed systems, certification of organic products, unstructured markets and marketing, limited access to new and existing market opportunities, poor implementation of policies, and limited access to knowledge and exposure to new technologies.The LKPLS project teams facilitated the IP discussions around these topics and, with active participation of all stakeholders, identified potential solutions. The potential solutions involved actions for research, extension, markets, NGOs, private sector (eg, processors, input suppliers, and microfinance and financial institutions) and local-level policy makers. The project teams worked closely with partners in implementing the action plans and in providing the required technical backstopping through various types of capacity building -training, value-chain analysis and identifying new opportunities, among others. A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) programme was developed to monitor the outcomes of various components of IAR4D and to inform the implementing teams about any need for mid-course correction. Progress made is documented and presented in quarterly and annual reports submitted to FARA, and a number of publications are at various stages of development.Only a few achievements and lessons learnt are selected for discussion in this section.During the SSA CP's evolving process (from inception to implementation), the major development experienced in the LKPLS has been the huge transformation, adaptation and flexibility exhibited by the partners as they learned and embraced the tenets of IAR4D.The initial shift involved changing the mindsets of the partners, especially members of the task force teams, from apathy to collaboration, and from competitiveness among three independent projects to one programme with integrated work plans and budgets. The second shift resulted from the recommendation of the CGIAR Science Council to first provide evidence that the IAR4D approach is better than the conventional approaches rather than simply taking that for granted. This implied instituting changes in terms of the issues and questions to be addressed, the research design, work plans and budgets, and the implementation of activities. This change necessitated a joint implementation approach. Despite the usual initial hiccups, several joint activities have been successfully implemented through pooled human, material and financial resources. In addition to defining monitoring indicators and harmonising work plans and budgets, the activities included stakeholder analysis; baseline household, village, NRM and market surveys; and establishment and operationalisation of IPs and linkages with other institutions.All this demonstrates the extent by which the task force partners have transformed in their willingness to learn and embrace the tenets of the IAR4D concepts, particularly networking for joint learning. They have demonstrated accommodative forms of flexibility, collaboration, adaptation and complementarities that explain the successes that have been achieved in the LKPLS. There is new confidence that task force partners will be 'talking the long walk' (ie, preaching and practicing IAR4D).Important lessons have been learned on the establishment and operation of IPs on issues such as the starting points for forming an IP, initiation and engagement of relevant stakeholders, guidelines for working together, formulation and implementation of action plans, definition of roles, resources required, expected benefits, and options for equitable sharing of benefits and liabilities. Innovation platforms (IPs) have also been useful in identifying competences and skills required of graduates from educational institutions (eg, universities) to facilitate multistakeholder processes. This has proved very successful with Makerere University in Uganda.Given that the IP concept was new to many organisations and partners alike, there was limited capacity to implement project activities. This meant that a substantial amount of time was spent in understanding and fostering of IAR4D processes among diverse traditional and non-traditional partners. Consequently, the initial stages of IP formation, consolidation and functioning took longer than expected. Continuous capacity building remains important. Facilitation skills are critical during the early stages of IP formation and development.Integration of resources and partnerships can break down boundaries through tackling obstacles. Integration in education, research, extension and policy domains has shown great potential for overcoming outstanding constraints in terms of human resources, technology generation and use, inefficiently interlinked output-input markets, and unavailability of agricultural credits.Lessons have also been learned on possible conflicts of interest, especially at that local level, and also in terms of differences in perceptions, expectations and interests among stakeholders.It was learned that it was sometimes crucial to involve local leadership in conflict resolutions.Early involvement of the private sector in input supply, marketing and finance provision was also identified as a necessity after realising that such partners were unlikely to attend long or frequent meetings. Hence, it became necessary to institute timely and clear identification of their roles and opportunities for commercial activities in terms of identifying quick 'win-win' opportunities for farmers and other private-sector beneficiaries and build on early successes.In this way, the LKPLS was able to develop rapport quickly with private-sector institutions like the market operators, financial, credit and insurance institutions in committing their time and resources.The IP discussions have clearly highlighted the complex and inter-related nature of the local-level problems, which conventional research has often failed to take into account. For example, the farmers in Kabale and Kisoro districts (Uganda), where the Chahi, Bubare and Bufundi IPs are located, were of the opinion that a particular potato variety was the best for their location because that variety was in greater demand in the market. But this view was not supported by research findings. Interactions with traders revealed that there was market demand for a diversity of potato varieties, and farmers were therefore at liberty to grow any variety suited to their biophysical and socio-economic circumstances. This knowledge resulted in a complete change in the farmers' attitudes and stimulated discussions on possible alternative varieties, which led to the identification of a range of issues that needed to be addressed to enable them to make use of the available opportunities. The issues identified included lack of research-based information on soil fertility management, lack of seed systems to multiply and supply seeds in sufficient quantities, constraints in government policies for releasing new varieties, and problems in accessing agricultural credits to enable farmers to purchase inputs including planting materials. This highlights the importance and value of multi-stakeholder IPs in arriving at solutions that are relevant and acceptable to end users with potential for scaling up quickly.The operationalisation of IPs in the LKPLS proved to be very effective and caught the imagination of other end users outside the IPs faster than was originally anticipated. This was after the establishment of the first set of seven IPs, which took more time and resources than anticipated, with these IPs experiencing a variety of conflicts, including in relation to the lack of free handouts. But the establishment of the second set of five IPs took a much shorter time and was to a large extent demand-driven. There was an overwhelming number of requests for forming these five IPs, received from various stakeholders with an interest in outcomes who had observed the successes of the first seven IPs.In many cases, IP establishment was faster where there were inspiring 'champions' at different levels. These champions helped facilitate teamwork and trust among the relevant stakeholders.It was also found that it is essential that IPs be established where environments are conducive to success. For instance, the not-so-favourable environment in the DRC has, to some degree, hindered the safe movement of IP partners. In particular, a policy environment that is supportive of the agriculture sector will greatly assist in the establishment, consolidation and operationalisation of IPs. For instance, good policies (especially agricultural policies) that provide for district and sub-county level 'stakeholder panels and engagement' can be very useful in helping IP processes to flourish. A case in point is Uganda, where the Kabale, Kisoro and Ntungamo local government authorities have been very receptive and have supported the agriculture sector and permitted IP actions and work plans to be integrated into their own, to support the IP activities. The active involvement of district or local government leaders and traditional leaders in supporting IPs provides the IPs with legitimacy and ensures active participation of other partners.With time, it was realised that the IP concept was applicable to different situations, even outside the pilot sites. This was influenced by IP establishment being regarded as a learning process, requiring changes to suit given contexts, implying that there may not be a specific formula for IP establishment. Market-led approaches to IP establishment created quick winwin scenarios, speeding up the processes of IP establishment.Considering that farmers' field problems are recurrent, frequent assessments are required for reflection and making adjustments. These problems are best handled by empowering IP members to solve them. In the LKPLS, monthly IP partner meetings were designed and implemented for that purpose, among other things.Given the multi-faceted, multi-stakeholder and multi-level partnership nature of IPs, it was found that facilitation was a key element in successful implementation of IAR4D. In the LKPLS, facilitation was taken as akin to a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Identification of appropriate organisations and teams to address the problems, bringing in new players to address emerging issues, ensuring free flow of information and addressing conflicts before they happen or grow into disputes are the key elements of the facilitation process. In addition, because the IAR4D programme is dynamic, the CPU makes it essential to foster new stakeholders and collaborations as required, with appropriate institutional linkages.Participatory monitoring and evaluation processes were also established in which both internal and external quality control and adaptive management of the IPs were assessed for refocusing whenever necessary. The monitoring often focused on the processes within the IPs and many IP farmers found the monitoring procedures for plots and trials particularly valuable. Many IPs in the LKPLS had M&E commissions or subcommittees to undertake the monitoring activities.The outcomes of the M&E programme have shown that significant progress was made in improving the understanding of the IAR4D concept by all stakeholders. The IP in Ruhengeri (Rwanda), for instance, has developed illustrations highlighting the IAR4D processes, which have been shared with other IPs.A number of alternative sources of income have been identified and integrated with existing IP practices in the form of diversification strategies. Some of the diversification processes (particularly in Uganda) are guided by the decision-support system that has been developed for comparing the profitability of different enterprises. This system guides IP farmers in choosing enterprises. It is worth noting that selected examples of successful enterprises are highlighted in chapter 6 of this book. The increased production associated with the successful enterprises highlights a need for strategic measures to protect the farmers from possible price fluctuations, including selling large volumes of produce.Most IPs are now getting involved in value addition of their agricultural products. In Uganda, the Bubare sorghum IP has registered the 'Mamera' trademark as a way of marketing a good quality fermented porridge known as Bushera in the LKPLS. There are possibilities for Bushera to attract a substantial market in the region and beyond. The IP is planning to use the trademark for a number of other products that have been (or are being) developed, including malted sorghum flour. Results from these IPs have also prompted consideration and revision of local policy and bye-laws. Gataraga IP in Rwanda has cleaned, sorted, graded, packaged and labelled potatoes whose outlets are now the niche markets in supermarkets and hotels in the city of Kigali and other urban areas.Most of the successful value-chain enterprises are expanding due to their linkages to markets. The integration of farmers with markets has created new awareness about the need to maintain the quality of the produce. To this end, the IPs have started highlighting the need for appropriate knowledge in product postharvest handling. Farmers need market information and training in storage, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, labelling and other requirements for both domestic and export markets. In Rwanda, supermarkets are paying more for deliveries from IPs because they have been attracted by this change in postharvest handling of the produce. In spite of all this, there remains a need for safe postharvest storage for many valuechain enterprises along with local agro-processing for value addition and local marketing.Establishing links with processors (like HUNTEX Ltd in Kabale, Uganda) requires trust between the farmers and the processors. Normally such links are strengthened by establishing firm and fair contractual arrangements, accompanied by reliable technical and financial backstopping.There is also evidence of increased quality and quantity of production of crops and other products like milk as a result of linking to markets. Quality and quantity of crops like beans and cassava is also increasing as a result of improved seed access and crop management.Observations made in the LKPLS show that the establishment and operationalisation of IPs is one of the institutional innovations being advocated for by change agents. Among other reasons, these kinds of innovations are also driven by the need to reduce transaction costs within value chains, and achieve positive margins of value-chain actors'.Preparation and implementation of work plans were undertaken annually in the early years. This involved all partners across the LKPLS. Activities were identified on the basis of the needs of the grassroots levels, their implementation schedules made, roles and responsibilities of partners identified and apportioned among partners. This ensured that there was adequate time for early research and testing to be conducted by farmers on options for addressing opportunities identified in the action plans. This style of collectively implementing identified activities presented clear signals to farmers that the IAR4D processes were not 'business as usual'. IAR4D is clearly linked to participatory action-research and extension, and learning approaches involving learning sites and demonstrations located on farmers' own fields.Attempts were made to balance efforts towards promoting improved NRM practices with increased productivity. Consequently, capacity building for farmers in the use of soil fertility and conservation technologies on a wide scale was intensified. Ways to manage conflicts arising from collective actions on soil and water management were also initiated, especially in the Ugandan IPs where bye-laws to that effect were formulated, accepted and are awaiting approval for implementation.Farmers' access to production and marketing information was essential for the IP processes and other operations. Faster and more cost-effective access to information was tackled for the Uganda IPs. Using Makerere University's Open Distance Learning Network (ODLN) in partnership with Warid Telecom Uganda, a closed user group (CUG) was established to allow fast information flow among a collection of pre-defined IP network users (Figure 7.1). A platform of 200 value-chain actors has been linked using such a facility so that diverse and distant actors are able to hold monthly IP and marketing meetings, thus avoiding the costs of conventional face-to-face interactions. Materials from various SSA CP workshops are also submitted to the ODLN, which translates the materials into local dialects for dissemination to the relevant stakeholders, especially the farmers. ODLN uses different information and communications technology (ICT) support including short message service (SMS), radio and print for faster dissemination. Benefits that have accrued from the use of ICT through ODLN innovations must not be undervalued. Makerere University's ODLN has added value to the SSA CP in the LKPLS through the use of ICT innovations and this has greatly enhanced information flows and communication among the diverse partners. Ultimately, it will be necessary to scale out the activities of this innovation to other IPs in the LKPLS to ensure wider participation and benefits.It is observed that purely livestock-orientated IP activities have been slow to take off. Using the example of the Mudende milk IP (Rwanda), the milk cooling and bulking storage facilities have taken a long time to operationalise for various financial, technical and logistical reasons and the venture would require access to credit or intervention of a private investor. Product theft occurred in many IPs. This was most prevalent in the Muungano potato IP (DRC), where farmers were forced to harvest crops prematurely. Long delays in buyers paying farmers for produce were a serious disincentive for continued production. Such delays were witnessed in Chahi and Bufundi potato IPs in Uganda.Overall, IAR4D has influenced attitudes and behaviour change (ABC) among all actors within the project.Many financial and microfinance institutions are reluctant to give credit to farmers who practise rainfed agriculture. Where agricultural credit could be sourced, it was at high interest rates of up to 37 percent per year in Uganda.Low capacity of partner organisations is another big challenge: IPs are composed of stakeholders with different capacities. For example, the majority of retail traders have limited capital capacity and have largely depended on intermediaries for their operations. Likewise, farmers in rural areas have low capacity to contend with the multitude of risks and constraints they face. The national agricultural research system (NARS) staff members also have different backgrounds. Therefore, it takes a lot of effort and resources to improve their capacity to grasp and implement IAR4D concepts through the IPs.Facilitation of networks is time-consuming, which often causes conflicts with core organisational mandates. The challenge here was that some organisations were not ready to recognise and reward these demanding networking functions.Differences in socio-political situations among the participating countries have influenced the introduction and operationalisation of IAR4D approaches and practices. The three countries are at different stages of post-conflict periods (Uganda has enjoyed 21 years and Rwanda 16 years of post-conflict stability, while DRC is just emerging out of conflict). It was therefore a challenge to conduct research and facilitation in the same way across the three countries. Language also presented a barrier to free communication across networks in the three countries.After finding solutions to the IPs' initially identified constraints, new challenges often emerged requiring prompt solutions. For example, at the Chahi IP in Uganda, initial analysis showed that limited access to markets and inability to get competitive prices for potatoes were the main constraints. Accordingly, negotiations were initiated with the private sector to directly purchase potatoes from the farmers. After long negotiations with various players in the potato market chain, a system for a group of retailers to purchase potatoes directly from the producers was established with well-laid guidelines and a memorandum of understanding. The assumption was that farmers in the area had enough produce to meet the market demand. When the action was implemented, it was quickly realised that there were insufficient potatoes to meet the market demand. The situation was reviewed and the need for increased production was identified as the solution. However, this required improved seed and other agro-inputs, which also required financial support from banks or microfinance institutions. Related situations were experienced with Kasikisi banana juice in the Musanganya banana IP in DRC and Mamera sorghum porridge in the Bubare sorghum IP in Uganda. Following successful processing, branding, packaging and presentation, and introduction to the market, new issues of patenting, standards, certification and licensing emerged among IP members. These required dialogue and negotiations to resolve. Similarly, in the Mudende milk IP in Rwanda, the IP involved two dairy cooperatives to establish successful linkages with the Inyange Milk processing plant. Conflicts emerged thereafter among IP members. This required mediation to reach an understanding among the members.Some stakeholders were still experiencing a dependency syndrome and expected 'free handouts'. This was particularly acute in those areas just emerging out of conflict situations. This required tactical skills for managing the syndrome. Most of the LKPLS IPs are being implemented in areas where most of the people are resource-poor and find it difficult to contribute towards funding the activities. Moreover, they are used to getting free services and other handouts (including money) from the government and NGOs. So far, IP activities have been partially facilitated financially by the SSA CP, and it is yet to be seen whether these IPs will become self-sufficient at the end of the project period. This poses a potentially huge challenge.Some IPs were set up under situations of net food deficits. Moving such IPs to the next level of commercial production (ie, sustainable market surpluses) remains a challenge, especially now that climate change appears to be increasing the frequency of droughts, both within and between seasons. Along the same lines is the challenge of balancing the NGO-driven food security relief programmes against farmer-driven production for the market.In addition to markets, improved productivity in the LKPLS is dependent on adequate seed availability of improved varieties, especially for vegetatively propagated materials such as potatoes, cassava and bananas. This is proving to be a big challenge given that it can take more than two years to produce sufficient quantities of the improved seed varieties to meet the demand from farmers and the market. This often means that farmers have to continue growing unsuitable varieties -especially in the case of bananas in Musanganya IP (DRC). Banana growers in the Musanganya IP also face the complication of uprooting the banana crop and planting alternative crops for a two-year rotation period in the field-cleaning process to get rid of the prevailing banana bacterial wilt disease that has afflicted the local banana plantations -an enormous challenge.Implementation of IAR4D requires time and patience. As evident in the LKPLS, IAR4D innovations are influenced by the quality of facilitation, strong market-led linkages and knowledge-based interactions -and these are highly context-specific. It has also been observed in general that innovation capacity increases with the number and quality of stakeholders. In the LKPLS, successful operationalisation of IAR4D requires a functional and efficient linkage system of Establishment and Implementation of IAR4D in ECA 131 partners and actors to address dynamic facilitation and research issues. This linkage system is likened to a CPU of a computer.Market-led processes are invaluable in catalysing innovations and providing incentives to actors. Creation of win-win scenarios among stakeholders seemed to have enhanced involvement of relevant non-conventional actors such as the private sector and universities. Policy support and involvement of local leaders also appeared to be very useful in fostering the well-being and sustainability of IPs.Although the end-of-project (mid-term) survey was undertaken and completed in the LKPLS, conclusive scientific evidence of the performance of IAR4D approach under the SSA CP has yet to be provided.Cross-border networking needs to be strengthened through regional efforts to address crosscutting issues (eg, cross-border trade).Policy innovations should be continued and expanded beyond the Ugandan IPs. This is especially important in facilitating formation of bye-laws that support and create an enabling environment for systemic innovations to address existing and emerging challenges.The time needed to build partnerships where roles are clearly understood and acted upon in an atmosphere of trust, openness and equity can take longer than originally conceived. It is therefore necessary to have good facilitation, leadership and champions from inception.It is important to ensure adequate capacity among facilitators and other partners for IP coordination and this should be pursued.","tokenCount":"34823"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eea17dfe6dab620ae8b43200083e2ec4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6c3c64a-db7d-4134-8208-3d506f3962ac/retrieve","id":"1482762317"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"073e11b7-9e15-4ad5-9d40-835ad52eea68","pagecount":"1","content":"Dairying in smallholder farming systems can be intensi ed to improve livelihoods. The biggest constraint faced by smallholder dairy farmers in Malawi is unavailability of a ordable high quality dairy feed. High quality pasture grasses and protein-rich leaf meal from leguminous plants (trees and annual legumes) are a low-cost option that is increasingly being promoted in the region. On average milk production is at 14 litres per day per cow with a range of 4 to 35 litres compared to potential yield of 40 litres. A household survey was conducted among 100 smallholder practising zero grazing in Dedza district to inventory feed sources currently fed to dairy cows, their impact on milk production and to identify niches that could potentially be used to increase feed and fodder production.1. TYPE OF LIVESTOCK FEED USED 1) Dairy farmers could be encouraged to store pasture feed as good strategy for feed supplementation during dry season. 2) Farmers could produce own high quality leaf fodder to substitute the expensive commercial feeds 3) Improved access to extension services as only less than 30% of the farmers accessed 4) Due to limited land, dairy farmers could be encouraged intercrop fodder and pastures on the farmlandsFarmers are using diverse feed sources which varied at di erent times of the year. Only 5% of farmers used combination of all feed sources and realised higher milk yields between 25-30 litres per day. An opportunity exists for dairy farmers to exploit niches for local feed formulation where leguminous fodder trees could be used to supplement high protein content an ingredient rich for increasing milk yields.We acknowledge support by USAID through the Africa RISING program ","tokenCount":"274"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"caa56e8c64cfeaa57fa4393227adbf66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/787846a4-5e8f-41c8-99b6-c75e9e944d7d/retrieve","id":"1518214368"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f950c728-2ca9-42e4-bf47-61b83405d8d4","pagecount":"36","content":"CIAT did well in 2008: its scientists continued their tradition of receiving prestigious awards; and the Center won widespread attention from national and international media for its work. Notable activities included research on seed systems in Africa, a legal fight to protect common beans in the public domain, contributions of germplasm to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, and the development of cassava with special starch characteristics.Although CIAT was delighted with its progress in 2008, it was also aware that a new vision and strategic direction was needed to respond to shifting regional and global priorities, and contribute to the CGIAR's revitalization. Thus, for much of 2008, CIAT also worked at defining its future directions. It conducted numerous consultations with partners and stakeholders, especially in Latin America; an Internet survey; and several special studies. By the end of 2008, the exercise was essentially completed. A Boardapproved document, outlining CIAT's new strategic directions, was published in February 2009.Because of recent difficulties, significant changes in the way CIAT is managed were introduced in 2008. The Center presented a Transition Plan to donors in March, several of whom provided special funding for its implementation. The Board and Senior Management were renewed, a new strategy prepared, staff consolidated, and investment made to maintain critical infrastructure. An \"Activity Based Costing\" system was also introduced to ensure that full institutional costs were recovered from all new project grants. To date, significant strides have been made. Donor support remained strong. CIAT received its highest total income ever at US$47.3 million. The Center ended 2008 with a small surplus, which brought its net reserves to $4.5 million. This is the equivalent of 39 days of operational expenditures.Strong donor support was also evident in the number of significant new grants approved during the year.CIAT's leadership and governance also experienced significant change in 2008. Throughout the year, the Center was led by Dr Geoffrey Hawtin. He had been appointed on a temporary basis to help put CIAT back on a firmer institutional footing, pending selection of a \"permanent\" director general. In July, recognizing the need for governance renewal, the elected members of Board of Trustees resigned. A new 11-member Board was elected, following consultations with the CGIAR. This Board met twice: first in Washington, DC, in September, and again in Colombia in December. They approved CIAT's new vision and strategic direction, and recruited a new director general, Dr Ruben G. Echeverría, who took up the position in March 2009.The year 2008 has certainly been one of considerable change and renewal for CIAT. We thank all our many friends and donors who continued to give the Center such strong support throughout this period. With new leadership recruited, a new Board, new strategic directions, and more effective management systems, we believe CIAT can face the future with confidence. With continued strong funding, CIAT expects to contribute substantially towards achieving its newly adopted vision: a more eco-efficient agriculture that better serves the needs of the rural poor in Latin America and throughout the tropics.The ultimate goal of CIAT's research is to overcome poverty, hunger, and environmental degradation in the tropics. CIAT's strategy derives from a vision of deploying science and new knowledge to achieve eco-efficient agriculture.This type of agriculture benefits the poor by (1) delivering sustainable increases in productivity;(2) enabling family farms to compete better in markets;(3) limiting damage to natural resources both within and outside agriculture; and (4) possessing resilience in the face of environmental shocks, particularly those resulting from climate change.By pursuing this vision with partners in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and elsewhere, CIAT plays a key role in the CGIAR system. To help create conditions essential for eco-efficient agriculture, CIAT and its partners follow a three-part strategy:1. Improved crops for the poor-Providing affordable and nutritious food, as well as pathways out of poverty.Overcoming poor soils to enable small farmers obtain sustained increases in agricultural production.3. Latin America and the Caribbean-Working with partners to solve problems of high priority for the region while generating global public goods.Most of CIAT's research is global in scope and relevant to LAC. Nevertheless, some effort also focuses on LAC's particular problems, even as the intention is to produce globally significant international public goods and promote South-South linkages between LAC and other regions.Improved crop and forage production is vital for improving food security, enhancing human nutrition, and raising agricultural incomes. CIAT conducts research in LAC and with partners around the world on four globally important crops:1. Common bean-The world's most important food grain legume, which, in Africa, is grown mainly by impoverished farmers, who are mostly women and children.2. Cassava-After rice and maize, the third most important food crop in the tropics and second only to maize in its suitability for multiple uses.IITA plays a leading role in cassava research in Africa.3. Tropical forages-A key input for the production of meat and milk, LAC's most important highvalue agricultural products. Forages also have considerable potential for enhancing natural resource management (NRM). In Africa and Asia, CIAT works in close collaboration with ILRI.4. Rice-The most important staple food in South America and the world generally. CIAT research focuses on the unique characteristics of rice in LAC, while IRRI and the Africa Rice Center (WARDA), respectively, concentrate on Asia and Africa.Crop improvement and soil-fertility management are closely related. Improved varieties, adapted to low soil fertility, will use soil nutrients more efficiently. Legumes, including beans and many tropical forages, can improve soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. Because crop yields tend to vary widely according to management, more efficient agronomic practices will greatly improve productivity. With improved management, crop residues and integration of forages into cropping systems will not only boost productivity by increasing soil organic matter, but will also help mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.To address the expressed needs and demands of the LAC region, CIAT follows an ecoregional strategy. This approach integrates the aims of increased agricultural productivity and improved NRM by taking into account both biophysical and socioeconomic perspectives and working through interinstitutional partnerships. CIAT's ecoregional research agenda focuses on four main topics:1. Improving crops that are important to LAC and globally.2. Improving other crops that receive high priority in LAC.3. NRM and policy research on issues that receive high priority in LAC.4. Strengthening research capacity in the region through institutional innovation, knowledge management, and skills enhancement.The research highlights presented in this report illustrate both CIAT's potential to make progress towards eco-efficient agriculture and its track record in working with partners to accomplish this objective.CIAT's research was lauded as \"excellent\" by the recent External Program and Management Review. In this section, we give the reader a flavor of the exciting research currently being carried out by the Center and its partners.From the tropics to the Arctic: A volunteer brings out a box containing seeds duplicated from the collections held in trust at CIAT, Cali, Colombia. The photo was taken during the Opening Ceremony held on 26 February 2008, inside the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Spitsbergen Island, Norway.Germplasm collections held at CIAT are duplicated for safekeeping in the Svalbard Global Seed VaultThe CGIAR system keeps in trust much of the world's agricultural heritage as plant germplasm collections. CIAT alone holds collections from 141 countries. As human populations, their wars, and other social upheavals increase, and as climates change, food supplies become disrupted and genetic erosion accelerates. Plant and crop diversity is in danger of being lost. Germplasm collections therefore more urgently need safeguarding by duplication in other facilities.One such facility is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, buried inside a mountain within the Arctic Circle at Longyearbyen, Spitsbergen Island, Norway. The main actors-the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the Government of Norway, and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center of Sweden-hope that \"one day, all of humanity's existing food crop varieties would be safely protected from any threat to agricultural production, natural or manmade.\"In an unmatched case of cooperation, the CGIAR gene banks, including CIAT's, responded to the call for samples for safekeeping in the Vault.To date, CIAT has sent 34,111 accessions, 23,812 of which were beans and 10,299 were forages. (For the Vault's opening, IRRI had sent 70,180 accessions and CIMMYT 57,721 accessions.)The response by CIAT and other CGIAR centers has helped increase security for the in-trust collections, complying with the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The CGIAR also won worldwide recognition for helping to protect agricultural biodiversity for present and future generations. But perhaps the most significant message was to the world community: that humanity's future survival depends on conservation. Roots of cassava (Manihot esculenta) usually spoil within 3 or 4 days after harvest. The rot-postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD)renders roots useless for consumption. Cassava clones react differently to PPD. In roots of susceptible clones, typical dark rings of PPD rot appear within 3 or 4 days of being harvested (Figure A). In contrast, a root harvested from a resistant clone shows no symptoms, even after 8 weeks of storage at room temperature. Different sources of tolerance of PPD are increasingly being found among wild relatives, induced mutations, recessive mutations, and cassava with high carotenoid contents in roots (which therefore have an orangey appearance, as in Figure B).Such is the case of M. walkerae, which shows resistance to this rot. Hence, the trait was introgressed into cultivated cassava and then backcrossed by using a different cassava cultivar. This approach, however, meant introducing many undesirable alleles from M. walkerae. To side-step this problem, other approaches were taken.At least three different sources of tolerance of PPD have been identified within M. esculenta. In an ad hoc replicated experiment, the roots of genotype AM 206-5 proved to have very low levels of PPD, even 3 weeks after harvest. Genotype GM 905-66 also proved to have high levels of tolerance of PPD. Two of its roots showed no symptoms of PPD 8 weeks after harvest when maintained at room temperature. Tolerance in this case may be linked to the antioxidant properties of high carotenoid contents. A third resistant genotype, an M2 line of a mutation-induced population, will be further evaluated in April 2009. It has already been screened but only in one plant, which had been grown from selfpollinated seed. A method for detecting the pathogen (Burkholderia glumae), using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), was developed to screen potentially infected materials. Results from the PCR, which had used seeds with different levels of infection, showed that apparently healthy seeds from infected panicles contained low concentrations of the bacterium. This finding therefore demonstrated the sensitivity and reliability of this technique.In addition, rice materials that tolerate this disease were also identified, using a methodology developed at CIAT for greenhouse conditions. This methodology permitted accurate reproduction of field symptoms on susceptible materials when pure cultures of the bacterium were used as inocula.CIAT also conducted training courses to transfer these methodologies to rice scientists from the universities and national rice programs of several countries, including Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Panama. (CIAT 36087)-showed varying degrees of high sensitivity to the combined stress conditions, higher water demand because of their higher growth rate, and difficulties in adjusting shoot growth to decreasing soil moisture.The two most tolerant genotypes had demonstrated delayed stomatal closure, combined with efficient use of soil moisture for plant growth during dehydration. This finding will enable scientists to use these traits to screen other Brachiaria grasses for resistance to drought and acid soils.www.ciat.cgiar.org/forrajes/index.htmCIAT scientists have tested the responses of six genotypes of Brachiaria under combinations of drought and aluminum toxicity. The results will be used to develop improved forages for smallholder farmers in the tropics.Valerio Hoyos, CIATBy simultaneously integrating several good soil management practices, ISFM improves, by even three times, the yields of important crops such as cassava and beans in eastern DR CongoTechnologies based on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) were evaluated for production systems in the humid tropics. Whether these technologies increased the productivity of cassava/legume intercropping systems was determined in a series of on-farm demonstration trials conducted in Sud-Kivu, DR Congo.To maximize productivity, the ISFM-based production systems combined improved germplasm, fertilizer applications, organic matter management, adapted agronomic practices, and crop spacing. For example, in the cassava/legume system, four rows of fast-growing legumes are planted in between rows of the slow-growing cassava, itself planted at 2 × 0.5 m. The spacing encouraged higher legume production without affecting cassava root yield. That is, compared with usual practices, legume yields in ISFM-based production systems increased by 300% and cassava yields by 200%.The cassava/legume system may be modified according to production objectives, and different legumes can be intercropped. In Sud-Kivu, for example, farmers prefer intercropping with beans and soybeans, while in Bas-Congo, intercropping with groundnuts or soybeans is more common.Farmer groups participating in the intercropping trials liked the system, which is now being further tested in farmer adaptation trials. Even so, farmers have already begun adopting the system. In pilot studies with fertilizer credit, expected benefit-to-cost ratios are highly favorable, ranging between 1.9 and 9.0. Hence, expected impact is to improve income, health, and nutrition for farming families.www.ciat.cgiar.org/tsbf_institute/index.htm www.ciat-tsbf-legume.or.keA farmer examines a plot of legumes intercropped with cassava, during a farmers' field day in Sud-Kivu province, DR Congo.Central American hillside farmers adopt the forage legume Canavalia brasiliensis, and benefit as milk production increases, crops receive more nutrients, and degraded soils improveThe dominant farming system in the Central American hillsides consists of small farms that grow maize and beans, and may carry cattle. Soil nutrient depletion is a major problem, leading to degraded soils, declining agricultural productivity and, eventually, food insecurity and poverty. Problems are compounded by the scarcity of forage during the 4 to 6-month dry season when milk production drops and prices rise by 40% to 50%.The forage legume Canavalia brasiliensis is drought tolerant. It was therefore assessed for its potential as a multipurpose option for use during dry seasons, that is, as a green manure and cover crop, as well as animal feed. Maize was planted during the first rainy season (May to July) and, in the second rainy season (September to November), as soon as the crop completed the filling stage, it was undersown with either bean or canavalia.Canavalia improved soil fertility by fixing significant amounts of nitrogen. Plant biomass in the dry season increased by almost 1 ton per hectare. This resulted in an increase of daily milk production at 1 kg per animal.The milk retained its original quality.Farmers showed considerable interest in integrating canavalia into their mixed farming system as a technology for substituting, in part, purchased fertilizers, increasing milk production during the dry Some varieties were adopted in several countries because of their suitability across different agroecologies and markets.Studies were conducted to estimate the economic, social, and environmental benefits generated by investments in beans for such major bean-growing countries as DR Congo, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Between 1980 and 2004, more than US$16 million were invested in bean research for sub-Saharan Africa. The studies (1) analyzed the impact of new bean technologies on households, (2) extrapolated results that provided aggregate measures of impact, and (3) estimated the rate of return to investments in bean R&D.The studies suggested that, between 1986 and 2015, the net benefit from the US$16 million investment in eastern and central Africa beans will reach $199 million, that is, more than $12 for each dollar invested.The average return to the total investment will therefore be 41%, but with substantial variation across countries, as follows: DR Congo-Kivu 40%, Malawi 37%, Rwanda 34%, Tanzania 25%, and Uganda 71%. The highest R&D benefits are being realized in countries with high annual bean output, acreage adoption, and yield gains. Activities include developing a searchable database to provide extensive data to researchers wanting to estimate the spillover potential of an improved variety targeted at a specific country. Drought maps are also developed for the GCP's mandated crops-rice, beans, and maizeusing the \"failed-season\" algorithm. Hence, breeders can focus on developing varieties that resist drought at a given stage of their life cycle, whether early, mid-season, or at maturity.CIAT contributes to the GCP Phenotyping Network by assessing and comparing sites across zones targeted for new cultivars, whether in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Through this Network, the Center assists crop improvement programs with information on experimental design, how to avoid duplicating sites, and how to determine genotypeby-environment interactions in a sample of sites chosen from various targeted environments.Through these activities, GCP-CIAT researchers are developing and providing crop varieties and other technologies that will lead to reduced poverty in drought-stricken regions.The \"failed-season\" model uses a climate database and simulated weather data to estimate water balance and, hence, the probability of a failed growing season. Maps like these are then placed over crop maps to identify drought hot spots for each GCP crop.\"Healthy, wealthy, and wise\": using ecosystem servicesReporting on the study \"Challenges to managing ecosystems sustainably for poverty alleviation: securing well-being in the Andes/Amazon\"The Ecosystems Services for Poverty Alleviation (ESPA) program is an initiative of DFID, NERC, and ESRC, all UK-based. The program aims to promote multidisciplinary research in sustainable ecosystem management around the world. For Latin America, it commissioned a study to \"perform a comprehensive analysis of the state of environmental services and their role in benefiting poor communities in the Andes/Amazon region\". This study is being conducted by ESPA's partners: AI, TNC, UNAL-Palmira, King's College-London, WWF, and CIAT.The partners first carried out a \"situation analysis\" to determine the entry points for research, development, and capacity-building, emphasizing ecosystem services and poverty alleviation in the Amazon Region and eastern Andean hillsides. The study involved extensive engagement with stakeholders in the region; novel analyses of secondary data on poverty and ecosystem services such as water provision, biodiversity, and soil quality; and a literature survey.The resulting report presented a list of priority research challenges for the region, and offered recommendations for improving the definition, assessment, and valuation of ecosystem services. Likewise, it suggested ways of developing sustainable and equitable management options that will also contribute to the alleviation of poverty.The report concluded that it is far more cost-effective to prevent future degradation through incentive-based schemes that empower local communities than to oblige people to comply with demands from authority bodies. Identifying environmental niches where supply chains could be implementedCIAT has generated several methodologies and tools for identifying environmental niches that would support the implementation of supply chains of high-value (or specialty) crops. These instruments are now being widely used by numerous public and private organizations across Latin America, Africa, and Asia to identify environmental niches for a wide range of crops and species, including many underused crop species.This outcome was achieved largely through a project in Colombia and Ecuador on diversification options for hillside agroecosystems, and subsequent off-shoot projects that also included Central America. Specialty crops included coffee, honey, medicinal plants, and forages.The supply chains studied involved 52 community-based organizations, public institutions, and private companies.Major results included a highly successful methodology known as the CinfO system, which enables the necessary two-way flow of information between farmers, exporters, processors, and consumers. At first, about 2000 farms were integrated into the system. Today, close to 4000 farms, farmer organizations, and secondary level organizations have adopted the tool, with numbers increasing.Two software programs, Homologue and CaNaSTA, were also developed. The first is used to find homologous environments for transferring technologies, whether these are varieties or management regimes. The second program combines formal scientific and socioeconomic knowledge to predict potential adaptation zones for a given crop.Once environmental niches are identified for the specialty production of different crops on different continents, information is fed back to farmers, providing them with options for increasing their incomes. Recent CIAT-IIED research suggests that big business, like small farmers, also needs guidance in structuring mutually beneficial and successful trading relationships with the rural poor \"Linking farmers to markets\" is a common theme in the R&D community. However, this approach has contributed only modest changes for women and the rural poor. Recent research indicates that a lack of scaleable models is a critical issue, leaving unanswered questions like the following: How can supply chains be structured so that they provide both business and development benefits? How can successful business linkages be leveraged to support large-scale processes of inclusive social development that will benefit women and the rural poor? How can such changes be measured and fed back into decision-making by multiple actors to scale-up positive results or reorient less successful activities?CIAT and the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) reviewed existing knowledge to identify critical underlying principles in successful market linkages between small farmers and buyers across the developing world. Perhaps the way the CGIAR does research needs reviewing suggests a workshop on \"Rethinking Impact: Understanding the Complexity of Poverty and Change\"The Workshop, organized by the ILAC Initiative, the PRGA Program, and ILRI, was held at CIAT headquarters, Cali, in March 2008. More than 60 participants from highly diverse backgrounds attended. They spent an intense 3 days working towards common ground and identifying future activities for achieving and assessing the impact on poverty of R&D agricultural and natural resource management. Six key issues arose from the workshop:1. If the CGIAR is to effectively link its research to poverty alleviation and other development issues, then it must continually increase its understanding of the complex dynamics existing between poverty, gender, and social inequality and exclusion. 2. The distinctions between research and development are breaking down. Hence, the comparative advantage of CGIAR science lies in conducting use-oriented research that links knowledge with action. 3. The CGIAR needs to recognize the legitimacy of work that spans academia, farmers, policy-makers, civil society, and market forces, thus creating and sharing knowledge for use as a basis for effective and sustainable action. 4. Thoughtful assessment is needed when considering which actors to involve in research affecting farmers and the poor (or the civil society organizations representing them). 5. CGIAR management needs to acknowledge the legitimacy of the diversity of impact-assessment methods and approaches that are available, including traditional ones, for evaluating outcomes and impact. 6. If the CGIAR is to adopt new approaches to research for poverty alleviation and associated impact assessment, its capacity to use these approaches and their methodologies must be improved.Workshop participants call upon the gods to help review the CGIAR's research approaches.The Agronatura Science Park at CIAT headquarters was created in the 1990s. It has since been developing cross-sectoral alliances in agricultural research and natural resource management in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It therefore contributes to CIAT's mission to work in the tropics to reduce hunger and poverty and improve human health through research that increases the eco-efficiency of agriculture.Over the years, Agronatura has strengthened its leadership in exploring and implementing opportunities for new collaborative initiatives. These addressed agricultural development concerns of priority interest to LAC and delivered research outputs more efficiently to end users. Highly diverse organizations have found that the Science Park offers an environment in which they can achieve interactive synergies that enable them to respond more effectively to the challenges of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of their research.In 2008, 12 institutions renewed their commitment to the Science Park (see next pages for brief descriptions of each member institution). They work on themes such as biodiversity conservation, sustainable natural resource management, generation of high-value alternatives for the agroindustrial and bioindustrial sectors, food sovereignty 1 , genetic resources, crop and animal health, and food safety. Now, more than ever, Agronatura will play a significant role in the Center's and the CGIAR's ongoing change process, taking advantage of the new policies that favor and value dynamic partnerships. CIAT's new Strategic Directions, finalized in February this year, indicate that, essentially, all its ecoregional and global research will be conducted through partnerships. Some of these will focus on joint research and others on linking CIAT research more effectively with development. The CGIAR, during its AGM08, emphasized that \"A re-invigorated partnership culture, supported by incentives and processes, will be developed. It will take on the best practices of today's CGIAR where partnership approaches have instilled new dynamism to the agenda\" 2 . Now is the time, therefore, to think not only about creating new, but also more effective, alliances that will access a private-sector perspective on global agricultural research. This enriched perspective will reinforce Agronatura's efforts to convert research outputs into products for the poor and, hence, truly reach farmers through closer contact.• Fondo Latinoamericano para Arroz de Riego (FLAR) Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice The Fund brings together the public and private sectors of 15 rice-growing countries of tropical and temperate Latin America.In responding to the needs of Latin America, the Fund offers innovative technological solutions that are aligned with principles of competitiveness and sustainability. The Fund also helps generate and transfer technologies that preserve natural resources while reducing unit production costs.• Centro de Investigación de la Caña de Azúcar de Colombia (CENICAÑA) Colombian Sugarcane Research Center Private, not-for-profit organization. Its mission is to help develop a competitive sugarcane sector through research, technology transfer, and provision of specialized services. The goal of this sector is to achieve and maintain excellence while playing an outstanding role in the socioeconomic progress of sugar-producing zones and the conservation of productive, pleasant, and healthy environments in those zones.• • Bioversity International Seeks to improve the well-being of present and future generations by enhancing the conservation and deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests.• International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) Dedicated to scientific research and training on issues related to maize and wheat to help improve the livelihoods of people in developing countries.This entity seeks to support the emerging global movement for ecoagriculture. In working towards its goal, EP actively encourages the development and assessment of new agricultural and natural resource management practices within a landscape framework.These practices aim at contributing to the three goals of healthy ecoagricultural systems: enhanced biodiversity conservation, increased agricultural production, and improved rural livelihoods.CIAT receives funds through the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) or under specific projects from countries and organizations. The Center also receives, from a growing number of institutional clients, funds for research and development services, which are provided under contract. We gratefully acknowledge their commitment and contributions. A list of donors can be accessed at www.ciat.cgiar.org/about_ciat/donors.htmIn carrying out its mission, CIAT works with a large array of diverse partners. We take this opportunity to sincerely thank our partners for their collaboration and dedication in the many projects on which we work together.An alphabetical list of partners, together with their links, can be accessed at www.ciat.cgiar.org/about_ciat/pdf/ partners_collaborators.pdfCIAT performed at the top end of CGIAR centers in the Performance Measurement exercise of 2007 (conducted and announced in 2008). The combined score of outputs, outcomes, and impacts placed CIAT in fifth position among the 15 centers. Figure 1A shows the Center's composite score, relative to the maximum and minimum scores achieved by other CGIAR centers.CIAT ranked third in the publication measurement exercise, with respect to peer-reviewed journal articles, coming in above the CGIAR average for the two publication indicators, as illustrated in Figure 1B. When the Science Council took, as a trial, the impact factor of the journals, CIAT would have ranked first.CIAT continues to play an important role in the capacity strengthening of institutions and individuals. In 2008, more than 300 young researchers were engaged in research and training activities at headquarters. About the same number of young researchers also benefited from working alongside research staff in Africa and Asia.During its 42 years of existence, the Center has trained well over 10,000 professionals from different parts of the world. They participated in all kinds of capacity strengthening activities, as indicated in the table on the following page.   We take this opportunity to sincerely thank those donors who helped fund the Transition Plan.CIAT estimates that total revenues will be slightly less than US$50 million and the balance will show a small surplus. Net assets will keep reserves at current levels (expressed as days of operating expenditures). With the current trend in the Colombian peso exchange rate, CIAT anticipates a significant increase in net assets during 2010, provided unrestricted donor funding remains stable.The Board of Trustees is responsible for establishing appropriate practices that will identify and manage significant risks in the achievement of CIAT's objectives. These practices will also ensure that the Center's management of risks will align with CGIAR principles and guidelines, now used by all CGIAR centers.These risks are operational, financial, and reputational, and are inherent to CIAT's activities. They represent potential losses resulting from external events, human error, or inadequate internal procedures or systems.The Management Team has communicated the risk management policy it adopted to all Center staff, both in the areas of scientific research, finance, and administration, and in the regional offices. This policy, supported by the staff, is based on a framework that identifies, evaluates, and prioritizes risks and opportunities across CIAT.CIAT Management is charged with implementing the policy and continuously evaluating identified risks. At all its meetings, the Board receives a risk management assessment report and a follow-up \"action review\".CIAT endeavors to manage risks by ensuring that the appropriate infrastructure, controls, systems, and people are in place throughout the Center. Key practices used to manage risks and opportunities include financial reviews, clear policies and accountabilities, transaction approval frameworks, financial and management reporting, and the monitoring of metrics. This last is designed to highlight the positive or negative performance of individuals and procedures across a broad range of key performance areas.Risk management assessment and the follow-up of actions are regular items on the Management Team's weekly meeting agendas. The Board's Audit and Risk Management Committee reviews and approves the annual risk assessment conducted by the Management Team.Assessment for 2008 identified risks in three broad areas:• In this context, CIAT has identified its priority risk areas in terms of degree and immediacy of impact, and likelihood of occurrence. These are:• Maintaining the effectiveness of research operations and retaining essential staff while the new strategic plan is being implemented.• Security of in-trust genetic resources.• Achieving net assets and operating reserves and other financial targets.• Ensuring the security of staff working in regions suffering political and social unrest.• Managing the Center's geographically decentralized structure to ensure integration and communication among and within regions, and with headquarters.The Board has reviewed the progress made by CIAT Management in implementing the risk management framework over the last year, and its focus on the highest priority risks. The Board notes that the effectiveness of risk management depends not only on the identification of risks, but also on the implementation of mitigation plans. It is satisfied with the steps initiated by Management to strengthen this latter area. It continuously monitors the status of the mitigation actions taken, particularly in relation to the high priority risk areas mentioned above.The Board is confident that the policy and practices so far implemented will lead to a stronger and more effective management and control over the potential risks that the Center faces now, and may face in the future. Financial statements","tokenCount":"5174"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"845615bd503bd625a1eae2a356733349","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a650170e-493a-4fe4-9664-9e5358ad778f/retrieve","id":"312163203"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e6a68f5c-ea98-4368-a15a-5bbb8fe32773","pagecount":"54","content":"Robust and legitimate informal collective pastoral tenure systems operate in communal grazing lands tailored to the livelihood goals of pastoralist groups. These are the main systems in play where pressures on the pastoral production system, and shrinking and fragmented rangelands, are minimal. These systems are long-lived, well-organised and have strong local legitimacy in that they are recognised and enforced to varying degrees. The main features of these de facto communal tenure systems are flexibility, community-driven management, dispute resolution, and freedom of movement by the community and others across wide landscapes. These landscapes are kept intact with limited divisions.The authors very much appreciate the extensive input of the advisory group and peer reviewers of this report: Ibrahim Ka (Chargé du foncier rural, Département de l'Agriculture, des Ressources en Eau et de l'Environnement -DAREN, Union Economique et Monetaire Ouest Africaine -UEMOA), Jenny Lopez (Land Governance Adviser, Foreign Commonwealth & Development Office -FCDO), Michael Odhiambo (consultant), Eva Hershaw (consultant and lead of International Land Coalition (ILC)'s LANDex).Climate change, armed conflict, environmental fragility and weak governance and the impact these have on natural resource-based livelihoods are among the key drivers of both crisis and poverty for communities in some of the world's most vulnerable and conflict-affected countries.Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent and Protracted Crises (SPARC) aims to generate evidence and address knowledge gaps to build the resilience of millions of pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and farmers in these communities in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.We strive to create impact by using research and evidence to develop knowledge that improves how the UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), donors, nongovernmental organisations, local and national governments and civil society can empower these communities in the context of climate change.Herders guide their cattle back to the pasture after watering them at a nearby reservoir, Zorro village, Bukina Faso. Photo: Ollivier Girard/CIFOR BACKGROUND Land tenure insecurity has been highlighted as a main factor in farmer-herder conflict (Flintan, 2012;Davies et al., 2016;Nassef et al., 2023). While tenure and tenure security for settled land users has been well documented, pastoral collective tenure and degrees of tenure security in pastoral systems are not as well understood.To explore this issue, we examined collective tenure systems in Burkina Faso, Sudan and Kenya. Two layers of tenure and tenure security were considered: that of the group and that of individuals within the group, recognising that groups are not homogenous. None of the pastoral communities in this study hold any formal documentation for their land but do consider themselves rightful landholders.To guide the research, we posed the following questions:1. How do pastoralist communities and their members access grazing land? What are the terms of that access? What happens in the case of disputes?2. What aspects of the tenure regime are most important for pastoralist communities?3. What are the main drivers of tenure insecurity for pastoralist communities and their members?The main factors contributing to feelings of tenure security are intrinsic to the pastoralist system. These include: (1) being locally known and respected (i.e. having local legitimacy);(2) maintaining strong relationships with the neighbours; (3) solidarity and cohesion within the group; (4) the fact that all communities have inhabited their respective areas for long periods without major contestation of their land rights; (5) that the community has local control over land and resources and the freedom to set and enforce its own rules, within limits; and (6) communities have respected leaders.A farmer tends a small herd of cattle by a reservoir in Taré, Burkina Faso. Photo: Olivier Girard/CIFOR Factors external to the system include: (1) the absence of major conflicts; (2) the absence of large-scale land acquisitions (e.g. for mining concessions, agricultural projects or regional and international initiatives); and (4) the possibility of formal land registration.Factors that contribute to feelings of tenure insecurity differ. In Burkina Faso, these include previous experience of land loss and continued grazing-land conversion. In Kenya and Sudan, where there has been no previous experience of land loss, there is more concern about the future based on community observations of what is happening in neighbouring areas. For example, in Kenya and Sudan, pastoral groups in neighbouring regions have been dispossessed of their land.Individual responses were similar to those of the group, with small yet significant variations that could be masked, and lost, in aggregate reporting. Individual responses by men, women and youth regarding the tenure system, and individual feelings of tenure security, did not differ substantially from group responses across countries, and individuals generally expressed themselves in collective terms with regard to grazing land. However, small yet significant variations were reported, making it important to capture individual perspectives alongside those of the group.For example, in Sudan, wealthier men are better able to access and use grazing lands. However, wealth has reportedly limited influence on access to power and decision-making. There is also a trend towards individualism and commercialisation among youth, which may impact the community's sense of collectivity in the future. Youth recognise this as potentially problematic.In Burkina Faso and Sudan, women emphasised collective care for vulnerable individuals such as widows and divorcees as a factor contributing to their feelings of tenure security. Although related to group cohesion, it is more specific to the idea of 'leaving no one behind'. In Burkina Faso, women felt markedly less secure than men with respect to collective grazing land. It may be that women do not participate in negotiations and discussions with the host community. Older men, who were more involved in these negotiations, had greater confidence in these negotiations eventually paying off.In Kenya, while collective interests are prioritised overall, the pastoral collective recognises and protects both individual and communal rights, with land concessions being granted to individual community members by the group. Respondents overwhelmingly confirmed that individual rights within the group are supported and protected, including for orphans and widows. However, there may be indications that certain individual land rights are less protected. For example, women's land rights may be more vulnerable, given existing patriarchal norms and influences. One woman reported that she disagreed that all individual rights are equally protected and was concerned that her daughters may not get their fair share of the available land. In Kenya, the tensions between collective and individual rights have yet to be explored in depth.Women do not play a significant or visible role in decision-making about collective grazing land, except in Kenya. In Sudan and Burkina Faso, there does not seem to be any sense of grievance about this. While women participate in name only in decision-making in Burkina Faso, this was shared as a fact rather than a problem. In Sudan, all individuals felt that equality between people was a strength of their tenure system, suggesting that women's roles are not seen as inferior to those of men. Alternatively, women's passive position may have been internalised to the extent that it is normalised. In Kenya, women are leaders and have always actively participated in decision-making.There may be a need to infuse the legitimacy of informal tenure systems with more support (e.g. national legality) in some instances, to give them greater clout in the face of mounting challenges. This might take the form of supplementing existing local legitimacy with documented legitimacy at the national level. This additional support could also serve as an opportunity to address biases and inequalities within local tenure systems.There are options to formalise collective pastoral land in Burkina Faso and Kenya but such options are less clear in Sudan. However, there are obstacles to formalisation, with valid arguments both for and against. The Kenya case study argues that it is important to understand the inner workings of existing pastoralist tenure systems and tenure security in the local context to inform the conversation on whether strengthening tenure security is required in the first place -and, if required, whether policy and legal interventions are appropriate or whether it would be better to use other types of support that strengthen informal governance systems and structures.Conflict over resources is more likely to become violent as available lands shrink and competition increases. The causes of conflict are multiple, interacting and highly complex, with pastoral land tenure insecurity highlighted as a main factor (Flintan, 2012;Davies et al., 2016;Nassef et al., 2023). There is, therefore, a need to strengthen pastoral land tenure security to ensure continued access to and use of communal land and to enable pastoral communities to protect against the conversion or excision of rangeland resources. Strengthened land tenure security is also a means of achieving sustainable use of land and natural resources (United Nations Statistics Division, 2021) and can play a main role in better enabling asset holders to respond effectively to climate shocks and stresses, as well as incentivising future investments in productivity, adaptation and mitigation (Henley, 2013;Lawry, 2014;Locke et al., 2013;Lawry et al. 2017).1 For example, there is a tendency to want to formalise communal land into a type of private tenure where ownership and administration is by a pre-defined group for land of a specifically defined boundary (an example is the group ranch model in Kenya). From observing the effects of the group ranch model, this method can be considered distortion through privatisation rather than protection of collective tenure systems (Lenaola, 1996;Kibugi, 2009).The way forward may involve some version of formalising pastoral communal tenure and rights in rangelands. There is increasing willingness within states to formally recognise pastoralists' communal land rights, which is a welcome development (Robinson and Flintan, 2022) since legal recognition can be a crucial source of legitimacy and also increases the likelihood that these rights are enforceable if threatened (Doss and Meinzen-Dick, 2020and Timmer, 2010in Robinson and Flintan, 2022). Alongside promising steps forward on land legislation, there are initiatives on formalisation across several countries (e.g. Ethiopia and Tanzania), and pastoralists themselves are taking action to secure their land rights (see Robinson and Flintan, 2022;Flintan et al., 2021), all providing excellent sources of learning.While there is much that is promising in the domains of land reform and formal recognition of pastoral communal land, the practice of 'parcelisation' in the rangelands and the influence of an assumed evolution of property towards privatisation remain significant (Flintan et al., 2021). 1 The effect is that formalisation of pastoral tenure is sometimes considered a 'distortion through privatisation' rather than protection of collective pastoral tenure systems (Lenaola, 1996;Kibugi, 2009). At the same time, mobility, flexibility, adaptability and multiple use by multiple users remain elements insufficiently appreciated or understood in discourse and initiatives on land reform and formalisation of communal land. Or, these elements are discussed in terms of effective incorporation into formal processes to avoid 'the rigidness that statutory tenure often insists upon', which can 'cut off access, use rights and the future claims of others' (Flintan et al., 2021), contributing to the problem rather than solving it.Formalisation has its challenges and is not, in all cases, synonymous with tenure security (Nizalov et al., 2020). It should be considered only one way in which pastoral tenure security can be strengthened. Indeed, 'about 90% of African land is governed by customary tenure and respective owners and users do not rely on formal tenure to secure their land rights… this basic fact confirms that the concepts of \"formal tenure\" and \"tenure security\" are linked but are not synonymous' (Nizalov et al., 2020). There is also the issue that 'any assignment and registration of rights will involve some redistribution of rights and transformation in the nature of the rights themselves. This helps explain why land registration and titling proposals and policies have been divisive in many African countries' (Boone, 2019). Therefore, both formal and informal avenues for tenure protection should be explored, depending on what best suits the context.For a clearer picture of how best to move forward, it is within pastoral tenure and governance systems themselves that information will be found that can best inform national, subnational and local processes to protect pastoral tenure security, particularly if these processes are to support pastoral systems rather than undermine them (Robinson and Flintan, 2022). Our study aimed to understand collective tenure in the rangelands and tenure security among pastoralists in light of the fact that pastoral collective tenure and degrees of tenure security in pastoral systems are not as well understood as tenure and tenure security for settled land users and, therefore, not as well represented in global measures and platforms such as Prindex and LANDex.Gender, age and wealth have been highlighted as main factors that underpin social stratification and associated power dynamics within communities. As per Flintan et al., (2021), pastoralist women usually access land and resources as part of the collective, and as part of this collective their rights to resources are generally protected, as it is in the group's interest that women are able to feed their families and contribute to the group's well-being. However, women usually do not have the same decision-making power as men over land and natural resources and must often negotiate access to and use of these resources through male relatives. This is beside the fact that customary practices tend to exclude women. Youth are also generally not part of decision-making processes, even though they tend to provide the main herding labour and experience first-hand the manifestations of tenure insecurity (e.g. blocked migratory routes, contestations over rights of access and conflict over resources). Finally, wealth is another main factor that deserves analysis since it affects social and power relations, particularly in an increasingly monetary economy. To what extent wealth affects access and use of land and natural resources is as yet poorly understood. It is equally important to understand variations for individuals within the community, since not all group members use and access land in the same way and they may also experience land tenure security and governance differently (Flintan et al., 2021).2 Perceived tenure security refers to how people assess or view their level of tenure security and the risk that they will lose their right to use land or property in the future (Locke et al., 2021).Research questions are available on request.The three communities selected for study were:Wakilé Allah pastoralist community In Burkina FasoWaldaa pastoralist community In KenyaIn-depth case studies were conducted in Burkina Faso, Sudan and Kenya representing pastoral systems in West and East Africa. Areas affected by violent conflict were avoided for safety reasons and because conflict can be considered a source of interference.Researchers well-versed in pastoralism and land tenure led the research. They defined and selected typical and well-functioning pastoral systems to identify intrinsic characteristics while minimising interference and complexities.The study focused on collectively held land and collective land tenure in pastoral grazing lands and on the season in which the pastoral land management system works more robustly and is enforced more strictly (i.e. the rainy season in Burkina Faso and the dry season in Sudan and Kenya).Focus group discussions (FGDs) explored the experiences of the group overall, and the experiences of individuals within that group to identify variations. The 'substance' and 'assurance' of tenure were discussed.In this study, the 'substance' of the tenure system refers to the mechanics of the tenure system which includes: (1) who can access or use the land;(2) what are the aspects of the land;(3) the associated bundle of rights such as access, use, management, exclusion and alienation; (4) the conditions of access and use (rules); (5) the authority or governing body defining the rules enforcing the system; and (6) the mechanisms and processes in place to enforce the system. The 'assurance' of tenure refers to tenure security. Researchers included a focus on 'perceived' 2 tenure security, with an understanding that perceived tenure security can be a function of formal (legal) recognition of access and use rights, and an individual's or group's experience.A sample of focus group questions, including those on perceptions of tenure security, was field-tested before the main FGDs to ensure the questions were clear and appropriate. 3 Changes were made according to the feedback. There were no sensitivities with regard to the perceived tenure-security questions.An adapted version of the Prindex methodology was used to assess perceived tenure security.A typical Prindex survey assesses respondents' perceived tenure security by asking how likely or unlikely they think it is that they could lose their land or property against their will within the next five years. 4 This study added more timeframes (i.e. within the next year, within ten years, and within the rest of the respondent's lifetime) to see whether responses differed across timescales. Similar questions were asked about the likelihood that mobility could be lost against a person's will. Participants were also asked about their level of confidence that their children would inherit the community's rights to access, use and mobility, and their level of confidence that not only would their children inherit these rights but that they would be able to enjoy these rights throughout their lifetime. Factors that affect perceived tenure security and insecurity, the potential impacts of loss of rights and previous experience of loss of rights, were also assessed.Key informant interviews were conducted at local, national and regional levels with members of the community, relevant government officials, and land tenure experts. A thorough literature review was also carried out for each country.Livestock, pastoralism and land across case study countriesThe national herd is estimated at 109 million head (FAO, 2020), putting the country among the top livestock producers in Africa (Wilson, 2018).6 Between 80% and 90% has been posited, although this percentage is thus far unsubstantiated (Behnke and Osman, 2011).The literature and key informant interviews inform the following discussion.In Burkina Faso, livestock is the third national export after cotton and gold, and contributes 30% to export earnings, more than 18% to gross domestic product (GDP) (PNSR, 2018), and 40% to agricultural value addition (FAO, 2019). Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists produce nearly 90% of the meat and more than 95% of the milk for the national market (FAO, 2019).The rangelands that support livestock production are typically held under informal communal tenure systems and constitute about 40% of the country's surface area (authors' calculation based on satellite imagery).Despite this significant contribution, pastoralism and the rangelands that support it are under considerable pressure. Pastoral land tenure insecurity (Sawadogo, 2011), increasing privatisation and monetisation of rural land (ibid.), and insecurity due to conflict (SNV, Reconcile, 2020) are among the challenges faced. Agricultural expansion and conversion, industrial and artisanal mining and land excision for private investment are the main reasons rangelands are shrinking. While there is no concrete data on the extent of this shrinkage, in 2004, it was estimated that the loss of pastoral space to agriculture was 3.3% per year (MRA, 2012). Loss of land affects even government areas specifically set aside for pastoralists, such as the Sideradougou Zone, which decreased from 307,000 ha at its creation in 1988 to about 51,500 ha in recent years (ONF-BF, 2017). Conflict also drives pastoral dispossession and land loss. Conflict linked to violent extremism has pushed pastoralists to search for more secure areas in southern parts of the country and neighbouring countries, particularly in northern Burkina Faso (SNV; Reconcile, 2020).The challenges are compounded by the pervasive policy skew towards agriculture and the under-or non-representation of pastoralists in decision-making fora. In Burkina Faso, the legal framework favours agriculture and the privatisation of land (SNV, Reconcile, 2020).In addition, the low involvement of pastoralists in decision-making bodies at the local level hinders them from defending their interests.In Sudan, livestock consistently contributes more than 60% of the value added to agricultural GDP and about 25% to national GDP (Behnke and Osman, 2011;FAO, 2020). 5 Pastoralism is the predominant livestock production system in the country (UNEP, 2013) and is said to be responsible for the greater part of the national herd. 6 Meanwhile, the rangelands that support this production constitute 60% of the country's surface area and are typically held under informal systems of communal land tenure (IUCN, 2021;Gaiballa, 2011).Land tenure insecurity (Sulieman, 2018), increasing privatisation and monetisation of rural land (UNEP, 2012) and insecurity due to conflict (Sulieman and Young, 2023) are also challenges in Sudan, driving pastoral dispossession and shrinking the rangelands. Largescale agricultural land grabbing and land acquisition for artisanal gold mining are widespread in many pastoral areas (Sulieman, 2018;Sulieman, 2019). While there are no comprehensive figures on the extent of rangeland loss and fragmentation, the trend is visible and reflected in reviews and case studies that provide telling snapshots based on satellite imagery (UNEP, 2007;Sulieman, 2018).Insecurity and conflict are persistent problems in many pastoralist areas (Sulieman and Young, 2023). Additionally, there is a trend towards agriculture, with successive Sudanese governments repeatedly depicting large-scale agriculture as the main engine for economic growth and export revenues. This is driving the continuous promotion of industrial-scale agricultural projects (Sulieman, 2015). Finally, pastoralists' participation in decision-making and political spheres is extremely limited (Young et al., 2013) and limits pastoralists' ability to influence trends. 7 7The political landscape seems to be shifting in Sudan, and violent bids for power are currently being made, including by a group with a primarily pastoralist background. This may influence land dynamics.The de jure and de facto tenure setting across countries 8 With the exception of some presence and effectiveness of the Forest National Corporation (FNC). A locality-led dispute resolution committee is also present, which is functional and intervenes if the purely informal system of dispute resolution does not reach a satisfactory conclusion.In reality, the land tenure system in pastoral areas is a combination of formal laws and institutions and customary informal systems. These exist side by side or overlap, and sometimes one takes precedence over the other. In the study area, the informal system mainly applies.At the local level, informal collective tenure systems are firmly in place across the country in terms of social group organisation and land use and management. Typical pastoral communities, which are numerous and mainly made up of the Fulani ethnic group, are organised around leaders known as rugga. The land use and management system is generally a typical customary pastoral system that emphasises collective land use and management, and flexible access to resources, over 'ownership' of land.Three main national laws apply to land in pastoral areas, all of which recognise collectively used or held land and also put forward mechanisms for the registration and formalisation of this land. These include the Agrarian and Land Reorganisation Law of 2012 (RAF), the Rural Land Tenure Law of 2009 (LRFR) and the Law of Orientation Relative to Pastoralism of 2002 (LORP). While the RAF and LRFR are the main laws on land and land management, the LORP is the main national law relevant to pastoralism and pastoral land and formally recognises the contribution of pastoralism in the country (see Annex 1 for further details).With regard to the formal landscape, while there is recognition of informal and customary collective tenure systems in the law alongside opportunities for formalisation, a progressive position in and of itself, there are a number of obstacles to implementation. For example, the law is poorly or only partially known or understood at the local level. Producers from farming or pastoral communities may know there are laws in place, although most would be hardpressed to name a law or to describe its content. Further obstacles include a lack of means and connections at the community and individual levels to apply the law, since starting and following legal procedures requires knowing where to begin and how to proceed, and can be costly and time-consuming. Poor or non-existent participation of pastoralists in local formal institutions (SNV, Reconcile, 2020) also means that pastoralists are often not at the table when decisions are made about land. This is compounded by a general and continuing bias towards agriculture and local corruption, where money and connections can influence decision-making, for example, in a civil court procedure.Although national law applies throughout the country, state institutions do not have a significant presence in many parts of Sudan, particularly in rural, remote or conflict-affected areas where the law is not routinely applied. For example, the Unregistered Lands Act of 1970 was never routinely applied in Sudan's non-riverine areas (see Annex 1 for further details).Authorities invoked the law only when a legal basis for state land acquisition was needed and to exert greater control over economic and other activities of interest. More specific to the study area, the state formal legal system is almost non-existent, or at least is not implemented on the ground, and pastoralists are unaware of any formal land legislation. 8Throughout history, Sudan has always had an embedded customary collective land tenure system. Communal land is managed under tribal units known as dar or hakura, which means 'homeland'. This is closely linked to the native tribal administration, more commonly called the Native Administration, which is the customary institution responsible for governance (Shazali and Ahmed, 1999).The management of each tribe and tribal area is administered through different types of hierarchical tribal systems or Native Administrations across Sudan. These systems are, in general, entirely male-dominated. In most pastoral areas, a nazir heads the system and is in charge of all administrative affairs associated with the tribe. An omda is responsible for tribal subsections, and beneath him comes the sheikh, who is responsible for his community at the village or smaller group level.A number of land tenure laws are in place and are of relevance to pastoral areas. Across the board, none of these laws formally recognises land held under communal traditional land tenure systems as legal ownership, with land rights formally conferred but stopping at usufruct rights (Abdul-Jalil, 2006;UNEP, 2012). 9 This is despite traditional land tenure systems having existed in the country for centuries, being mainly applied in most pastoral areas and rural communities in Sudan (UNEP, 2012). The state formal land tenure system (de jure) is mainly applied in urban areas (Komey, 2009;Abukashawa, 2021), with de facto communal tenure systems predominating in pastoral areas.Pastoralists in Sudan have a history of marginalisation 10 and have, in many places, lost control of their tribal institutions. 11 Although many of the roles of tribal leaders have been taken over by modern state institutions, their Native Administration still functions and plays a vital role. Despite the wider national context of massive political changes since the 2019 revolutionary transition and the subsequent fragile political situation in the country, the Native Administration remains the main form of local customary governance, with a continuing local presence and ongoing practical engagement in pastoralists' dealings (Sulieman and Young, 2023). The Native Administration also remains critically important for conflict resolution.While formal and informal systems are applied concurrently, there is a substantial gap between the two. In his analysis of land issues in Sudan, de Wit (2001)  Unlike trust lands, community land belongs to communities, as opposed to communities simply being land users as they were with trust lands. Following a formal registration process as proscribed under the CLA, the full set of land rights 12 is conferred on the community. The community then owns the land, which is then managed through elected committees made up of representatives of all community segments. 13 Until communities have formally registered their land, it continues to be held in trust by the county government. A main difference from the past is that any investments or proceeds from the land are held by the county government in a community account on behalf of the community, who can then access these proceeds at the time of registration. An example of this can be seen in Turkana, where land investments are currently held in a community account for access on completion of registration.The Community Land Act is seen as progressive legislation that could properly secure pastoralists' collective land rights, provided it avoids the pitfalls of past registration processes (Annex 1). However, operationalising the law has been slow, with questions around whether there is true political will to implement it (Alden-Wily, 2018). There are also questions about the state's financial and technical capacity to implement the law (Oloo et al., 2021).Marsabit, Wajir, Turkana, Garissa, Mandera, Samburu and Tana River counties have the main open, unregistered pastoral lands held in trust in accordance with Article 6 of the CLA (officially community lands). De facto, the majority of this land is still held under customary collective pastoral tenure systems and remains largely undivided to support pastoral mobility and flexible land use. 14 Within these lands, pastoralists are also not averse to holding private plots in urbanising townships or within some parts of the collective land. The informal system is, therefore, the main system in play.15 The community owns approximately 10,000 cattle, 15,000 goats, 15,000 sheep and 500 donkeys.The following discussion is informed by the field work conducted by researchers with in-depth knowledge of the context.The Wakilé Allah pastoralist community is a typical pastoralist group located in Burkina Faso's Centre-Sud region. They are in Zoundwéogo Province in the Tigré Peul District. They are Fulani, similar to most pastoral communities in Burkina Faso. Comprising approximately 3,000 men, women and children, the community is a clan of related families who live in the collective land area under study. The community's natural resources include grazing land and seasonal water resources. Just outside the Wakilé Allah's land area live the Tigré Bissa, Tigré Yarcé and Tigré Pissila communities, who are Bissa and Mossi farmers.During the wet season, most of the community's land is used for agricultural production by farmers and pastoralists, except five designated grazing areas and the lowlands. The lowlands are collective grazing areas with seasonal rainfed water sources and some pre-existing farms.There is also a designated vaccination facility. During the dry season, the entire landscape is used for open grazing by both pastoralists and farmers. Water in the dry season is obtained from boreholes located in the settlements, which are mainly used for human consumption, and from the local river, which is mainly used for watering livestock and subsistence agriculture. The dry season is also when livestock are most mobile and when transhumance takes place across the border to Ghana.Livestock rearing remains the community's main livelihood, followed by subsistence agriculture (which is increasingly important), artisanal gold mining and, more recently, the construction of houses for rental income. 15 Gold mining and construction are more prominent today given the challenges linked to livestock rearing (degradation of pastures and competition for space) and the lucrative nature of these other activities.For women, livestock rearing and subsistence agriculture are of equal importance. Women generally do not move with their livestock. This is done by men and children. Women mainly keep small ruminants for milk and for sale. In addition, women make handicrafts and collect forest products, mainly fuelwood and wild foods for domestic use and for sale in local markets. Forest products are in forest stands inside community grazing areas.People's mobility with their livestock remains central. Short-and long-range mobility are both practised. The group moves shorter distances mainly during the rainy season. In the dry season, long-range mobility takes place to neighbouring Ghana. While the direction of movements has remained largely the same, the frequency of mobility has increased due to increasingly limited grazing resources within the community's pasture land; in extremely dry years, the group tends to move longer distances.Today, there is increased pressure on the community's grazing land due to increased demand for agricultural land and more harsh and variable climatic conditions. This makes it more difficult for the community to 'ring-fence' their designated grazing areas during the wet season. In addition, the quality of soil and pastures has noticeably declined. Encroachment and conversion of land for agriculture have been experienced in some parts of the grazing land, concentrating livestock into smaller spaces, and the once cordial relationship between the community and its farming neighbours is becoming strained. There has also been some obstruction of cattle routes. In the dry season, the main and ongoing challenge the community faces is access to the river due to market gardening on the river banks.The Wakilé Allah community moved to the study area about 45 years ago from areas north of Burkina Faso due to severe droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. The host community, who are Bissa farmers, welcomed the Wakilé Allah community and gave them an area of land to settle on and graze their livestock, on condition that the land is to be accessed and used freely by everyone, with no exclusions. On arrival, there was mutual agreement between the Wakilé Allah community and the Bissa hosts to ring-fence the five designated grazing spaces and the lowlands for grazing during the wet season, except for the few pre-existing farms in the lowlands. This informal arrangement mainly protects the grazing land and, so far, these boundaries are more or less respected. However, there is increasing pressure on them due to the shrinkage of available land and demand on land resources for farming.The Wakilé Allah community has nurtured a cordial relationship with the chief of the host community, who maintains overall control and responsibility for the land. The pastoralist community is well known locally, particularly by the neighbouring communities A couple of youths watch over their cattle at a reservoir in Zorro village, Burkina Faso. Photo: Olivier Girard/CIFOR and government technical services. Outsiders can become members of the community so long as they are concerned with livestock and accept the community's rules and norms.The bundle of rights enjoyed by the Wakilé Allah community includes access, use, and some management. However, the host community maintains overall control of the land and de facto 'owns' it, retaining the rights of exclusion and alienation. Seasonal exclusion applies to land under cultivation (i.e. it should not be grazed before harvest season), and the Bissa chief also supports the Wakilé Allah group to ring-fence the five main grazing areas and, to a certain extent, the lowlands, from agricultural land encroachment but with declining success.The leaders of both communities set the rules and responsibilities, although mostly the Wakilé Allah community takes the lead in decision-making, provided they keep the Bissa chief informed. Leadership in the Wakilé Allah community includes a president, a deputy to the president, an information officer, and a women's officer and her deputy. These individuals are selected by the community and are chosen based on trust, experience, knowledge and confidence in their abilities. The pastoralist community also has a chief (the Tigré Peul chief), who is the most senior person in the clan and who is chosen for his wisdom. The chief sets and modifies minor rules and responsibilities. For more important decisions, he consults the wider community. Change to rules can also be instigated by the community, who can raise issues with the chief.There are informal mechanisms for conflict mediation and resolution. Community leaders intervene when there is conflict and, for the most part, these informal processes have been effective. Conflict between members of the community is usually resolved amicably. Conflict between the pastoralist group and neighbouring farmers is also usually resolved amicably, with payments of fines for damage done. 16 Cases that are not resolved informally are referred to the municipality. 17 However, most people prefer the informal approach, as it strengthens relationships and trust. Over the past ten years, disagreements related to field damage have increased and are estimated at an average of five per year.In relation to national laws, the five designated grazing areas in the study area could be called 'land reserved for grazing', and the remainder 'open spaces for grazing', as per the LORP and based on the current de facto land use and management observed (see Annex 1 for a description of these categories). The Bissa host community is, in principle, recognised as owners since land held de facto under customary systems is, in principle, recognised by the LRFR. However, there is no formal legal documentation held by either the pastoralist community or the Bissa hosts, and the system that functions in practice is the informal de facto system. In fact, collectively used and de facto held land in most cases in Burkina Faso has no formal status and is unregistered, except for a few officially registered private livestock ranches located outside the study area.16 Usually related to agricultural occupation of space, damage to fields, and killing animals trespassing on fields. 17 There is a Village Land Conciliation Commission (CCFV) in the area, which is a government body that provides local and flexible mechanisms for conflict resolution outside the civil courts, but it is not functional.Aside from community settlements, Wakilé Allah land is mainly used for grazing livestock, collecting forest products, and subsistence agriculture in the wet season. The collection of forest products and subsistence agriculture were named the two most important land uses after grazing, with the collection of forest products particularly important for women.The main collective grazing lands in the rainy season are also used to collect forest products. These are inside the five designated grazing areas and in the lowlands. In addition to these two types of collective grazing lands, a vaccination facility is used and managed collectively.Anyone with livestock, including farmers, is allowed to access and use wet-season grazing land at any time, from either within or outside the community, and these rights cannot be lost.There are no restrictions on movement as long as livestock do not encroach on pre-existing farms within the lowlands. Passage across farms is negotiated with the farmers, who should not block passage. Women have the same rights of access and use as men, although they use the grazing spaces and lowlands primarily for collecting forest products rather than grazing livestock. Symbolic permission to access grazing land is requested from the chief of the host community and is usually granted. Access and use of the vaccination facility is also open and inclusive; however, use requires payment and there are limits on the duration of a stay.Rules and responsibilities apply when accessing and using the various wet-season grazing areas. With regard to the designated grazing areas and the lowlands, cutting trees (whole trees as well as branches) and setting fires is prohibited, and the land can be used only for grazing and cannot be converted for cultivation, except for the pre-existing farms in the lowlands. These can be somewhat expanded where needed. Livestock are also not allowed to stay in the vaccination facility for long periods, to avoid the spread of disease, and a fee of 1,000 West African CFA Francs is charged per herd for use of the facility. These fees go towards maintenance. While there are rules, enforcement is not strict. The chief of the Wakilé Allah community is mainly responsible for surveying and monitoring and he does what he can, when he can. The wider community is also meant to monitor and report any irregular activity to the chief. While so far the rules are applied (more or less), there are transgressions. These are increasingly due to the mounting pressures on the community's resources. The rules and responsibilities are collectively known and are communicated verbally. They are not documented.So far, the 'protection' of grazing land is based on mutual respect and understanding between the Wakilé Allah community and their host community. As long as the overall relationship holds, then the agreement holds. However, this relationship is becoming increasingly strained due to increased demand for agricultural land and climate stress.There is also no compensation for converted or lost grazing land.The main advantages of the tenure system, according to the community, are that there is overall agreement within the community with regard to the system in place (i.e. there is a clear understanding of how things work), that the community maintains good relationships with its neighbours, 18 and that the tenure system is flexible and allows the community to exploit resources as and how they need, with guaranteed rights of movement and access to locations where they are best able to feed and care for their livestock. The main disadvantages are that monitoring and enforcing rules are weak, the system is perhaps 'too flexible', and there is a lack of action to reverse ongoing resource degradation. Flexibility is both an advantage and a weakness: an advantage in that it allows for reciprocity, and a weakness in that more open access makes it difficult to manage resources effectively.The characteristics highlighted as essential for the community's system to function well and for pastoral livelihoods to remain resilient are similar to those aspects highlighted as strengths of the tenure system. These include flexible access, freedom of movement, control over resource use, agreement between the pastoralist group and the host community, good relationships, and dialogue with others.Flexible access means that individual herders can decide where to take their livestock and when. Freedom of movement means herders can move with their animals wherever they want, once they have accessed an area. This applies to the wet-season grazing areas and the lowlands. Of the two characteristics, freedom of movement was considered more important than flexible access because gaining access without the ability to move freely does not help livestock who need to move to make the best use of available pasture land. Controls on resource use mean the presence of rules and regulations so the community can ensure that their land and resources continue to provide for them today and in the future. Agreement between the pastoralist group and the host community has protected communal pastoral land use so far and it gives the community's tenure system legitimacy at the local level.Agreement between the pastoralist group and the host community and others is underpinned by acceptance, respect, cordial relationships and continuous dialogue.Perceptions of tenure security were very different for the timescales queried (within the coming year, five years, ten years, and over a respondent's lifetime). Within the next year and the next five years, the majority felt it was 'somewhat likely' to 'very likely' that the community could lose the right to access the collective wet-season grazing land against their will. When asked the same question for within the next ten years and over the rest of the respondent's lifetime, the majority were more optimistic, with most respondents feeling the loss of rights was either 'somewhat likely' or 'unlikely'. For more information see the country reports.The pessimistic results for the next year and the next five years are mainly influenced by the strong agricultural pressures faced by the community in relation to their grazing lands.Younger members of the community and women provided the more pessimistic responses, while the older men, who have faith in the chief of the host community and his ability and will to safeguard their rights to resources, are less pessimistic. Responses shift from ten years and onwards because the community believes that ongoing dialogue with the host community and with others will eventually pay off and that the trends currently observed will be halted or reversed. Women do not share this view for the longer time horizon and retain their pessimism over all time horizons. These results may be influenced by the fact that women do not participate in inter-community dialogue and are not directly privy to what takes place during these discussions. They mainly see the physical evidence of agriculture pressure and encroachment and the deteriorating relationship with their neighbours.Half the respondents or more were 'very confident' their children would inherit their access and use rights, and would enjoy these rights throughout their lifetime. The main reason for this confidence is education. The community feels that, because their children are being educated, they will be better equipped to defend their rights to resources. Again, younger respondents and women were less confident for similar reasons. When women were asked on their own to cross-check findings from the mixed group discussion, none responded 'very confident'. Most were only 'somewhat confident' that their children would inherit these rights, and fewer were confident that their children could enjoy these rights over their lifetime.The majority felt it was 'very unlikely' they could lose the rights of mobility against their will this time next year. Confidence drops within the next five-year time horizon, with most respondents considering it 'somewhat likely'. Over the longer time horizons (ten years and longer), confidence again increases, with most considering it 'unlikely' or 'very unlikely'. Over the next year, it is clear that people feel their current mobility patterns would likely remain unaltered. But over the next five years, they feel they could experience more disruption and blockages while moving given the mounting pressure from agriculture. Optimism around mobility increases over the longer time horizons for similar reasons as those mentioned for access and use, and people believe that dialogue with the host community will eventually pay off. Women do not share the men's optimism regarding mobility, with most considering it 'somewhat likely' that the community would lose rights to mobility over all time horizons. The reasons are similar to those previously mentioned. Also, the majority were 'somewhat confident' their children will inherit mobility rights and will be able to retain these rights throughout their lifetimes. Again, women were less optimistic than the men.The main factors influencing feelings of tenure security are solidarity and cohesion within the pastoralist group and ongoing and open dialogue with the host community and neighbouring groups. Dialogue was cited as the most important factor preventing the group from losing their rights.The main factors that influence feelings of tenure insecurity are, from most to least important: (1) the weak or biased application of the law with regard to the protection of grazing lands within the area; 19 (2) the fact that the pastoral space is not demarcated and in this way recognised;(3) erosion of group cohesion; and (4) agricultural encroachment. The community feels that what most compromises their ability to benefit from collective grazing land is that the law is not properly applied in the area. For women, the only threat identified was agricultural encroachment.Contributing to feelings of tenure insecurity is the community's previous experience with land loss. Portions of grazing land used in the past have been lost, mostly in the eastern part of the pastoral space. This began some 20 years ago with the gradual establishment of fields in these grazing areas. At the time, the community took action to regain these lost spaces by lodging complaints with government authorities. The government took action, cleared out the occupants and marked the grazing land boundaries. However, this did not work for long. The signage used to demarcate the grazing areas was damaged and occupation of the grazing land gradually resumed. This type of encroachment by farmers, not just in the study area but throughout the country, signifies the denial of pastoralists' rights to land and defiance of administrative authority.Loss of rights to collective pastures would likely mean that the community would need to sell their livestock and increasingly emphasise other economic activities, such as trade, construction in towns and gold panning. It would also mean that those who choose to keep livestock would need to resort to sedentary animal rearing, including the use of bought fodder. Some respondents also did not rule out returning to their original lands.Overall, individual men and women find the tenure system in place robust, and agreed with the overall group regarding the main features that make the system well suited to their lifestyle. Wealth and level of social commitment, which were considered influencing factors at the individual level, did not affect individual rights of access and use of pastoral grazing land, which are the same for all. At the level of management, women do not participate in decisionmaking or formal dialogue with neighbouring communities, even though they are nominally represented in the group's leadership structure.Individual perceptions of tenure security do not differ substantially from those of the group. However, there are some differences in influencing factors. Among individual men (in general), strong community cohesion contributes to feelings of tenure security. Among individual men ranked by level of wealth, attachment to land is an important factor. Among individual men ranked by level of social commitment, good collaboration with other communities was cited. For individual women, the most important influencing factors, in decreasing order of importance, are that: (1) their community is accepted by the host community and by others;(2) there is community cohesion and solidarity between group members; and (3) vulnerable members of the community, such as widows and divorcees, are taken care of by the community.With regard to factors that contribute to feelings of tenure insecurity, individual men highlighted, in decreasing order of importance, that: (1) laws meant to protect grazing lands are not applied in practice;(2) the pastoral space is not demarcated; and (3) encroachment on space by agricultural fields is a continuing trend. Erosion of group cohesion was not mentioned as an issue. For individual women, the most important factors that make them feel tenureinsecure are the arrival and settlement of migrants in the area (both pastoralists and farmers), and the continued encroachment of agricultural fields into grazing spaces. Both are linked to increased pressure on pastoral resources.The expected impacts of the loss of rights to collective grazing lands were the same for individuals as for the group, although women mentioned different livelihood activities as alternatives (small businesses and handicrafts, rather than gold mining and construction). Individuals recounted the same experiences with regard to past loss of rights to grazing lands, suggesting that people think collectively about grazing land, rather than as individuals.To strengthen tenure security and the tenure system, both individual men and women recommended:(1) demarcation of the pastoral space so it would be better recognised; (2) improved monitoring and stricter management and control over resource use; and (3) the introduction of limits on access and use by outsiders. This would require a revision of existing rules and regulations and also agreements with neighbouring communities. Individuals are optimistic about the latter since they feel the chief of the Bissa host community is open to dialogue. They also hope that the government will begin to apply the law in practice within their area, to protect grazing land against land conversion to agriculture.The pastoralist community and collective land under study 20 The Kababish is an Arabic-speaking tribe and one of the main camel-herding groups in Sudan.21 The use of plastic water bladders is something new in the area and started about 15 years ago. They are currently widely used by the people in Rahad El Tamor for domestic use and for watering animals kept close to the houses. They are also used to water flocks of sheep and goats in distant grazing lands. For camels, the normal practice is to trek the herd to water facilities every two to three weeks during the dry season.22 The community owns approximately 10,000 sheep, 5,000 goats and 4,000 camels.The Bagagir pastoral community is a typical pastoralist community in Rahad El Tamor Village in Jabrat El Sheikh Locality in the state of North Kordofan. There are approximately 2,000 men, women and children in a subgroup of the Kababish tribe. People are connected through kinship and common ancestry. 20   The area under study is considered the community's dry-season grazing area, where it spends about 70% of the year. Besides being considered the main grazing areas for livestock, the tree stands are also a main source of building material, firewood, wild edible fruits and medicinal and aromatic plants. Mainly women and children collect the latter for household consumption. The seasonal water sources and the community's living quarters are inside the area. A small section of the land is also used for crop production.There are two main seasonal water sources, the rahad and the wadi (a natural pond and depression, respectively), which are filled during the rainy season. The water in both used to remain year-round and constituted the community's main supply. However, due to sand encroachment and siltation, both sources now collect only a small amount of water that lasts only to the end of the rainy season and for a small part of the dry season. For most of the dry season, the community and its livestock rely on boreholes and water yards in Um Surra Village, which is about 15 km to the north of Rahad El Tamor and outside their area. They transport the water by carts, tankers and plastic water bladders carried on vehicles. 21 The water facilities in Um Surra are privately owned and pastoralists have to pay for the water.Livestock rearing remains the community's central livelihood for men and women alike and is practised on collective grazing land with a typical dry-and wet-season pattern of mobility. 22  Other livelihoods connected to livestock rearing are livestock trade in local markets and big urban centres. Within the grazing areas, women also collect forest products.Smallholder rainfed farming is also practised on a limited scale and for household consumption. Between 3% and 5% of the community's land is used for crop production, mainly staples. 23 In recent years, the community has been paying more attention to farming. While there is no actual increase in the area under cultivation, people are diversifying their crops and cultivating new ones. The main reason is to increase self-sufficiency and reduce the cost of living, which has increased significantly in the last few years.Additional income streams include sending remittances home from Gulf countries (mainly from Saudi Arabia) and artisanal gold mining (a recent addition). Migrating to Gulf countries and working there as camel herders is an old practice that began during the drought in the mid-1980s when a significant number of people lost part or all of their livestock. Gold mining is a more recent activity and began around 2010. This activity is gaining attention among the area's youth and young pastoralists. Although there are no gold mines in the Bagagir territories, it is flourishing in the surrounding areas.Mobility remains central to pastoralist livelihoods. Short-and long-range mobility are both practised. During the dry season, community members who own large numbers of livestock move to distant grazing lands, sometimes hundreds of kilometres to the south. During the rainy season, some of the community spend the season in or near their home area, especially those who own small numbers of livestock. Others with larger herds go on to areas in the north and some go as far as the Gizu, a pristine and remote grazing area in the north of North Kordofan and North Darfur states.Livestock trespassing on agricultural fields is the main challenge during the wet season.A local committee is responsible for solving disputes around this issue and, so far, there have been no cases that have not been resolved locally by the committee. Livestock mobility does not face any obstacles, as wet-season grazing areas are not densely populated and farming activities are limited. Water access and availability are the biggest challenges during the dry season. Efforts to solve this problem are based on individual solutions through water transport from facilities in nearby Um Surra.23 The community's common ancestor set aside this dedicated farming space within the community's overall grazing lands (based on soil suitability) and, since that time, the community has adhered to this area for farming. Community members believe that confining farming in one area is more comfortable for management purposes and also minimises grazing animals trespassing on agricultural fields.The Bagagir community settled in Rahad El Tamor more than a hundred years ago and has used the land uninterruptedly ever since. Like many rangeland areas in Sudan, the land formally belongs to the state, but de facto and informally, it is collective grazing land belonging to the Bagagir community who enjoy full land rights, including management, exclusion and alienation.The community considers itself 'asyad elarid ' (the landowners) and has very little knowledge of the formal (de jure) tenure systems of the country. The community is well known locally among neighbouring communities and other ethnic groups and maintains strong relationships with neighbouring pastoral communities built up over many years.The community's dry-season grazing land and its forest resources are owned and managed collectively. 24 This is based on the common principle in pastoralist areas of open, equal and reciprocal access and use. The community enjoys all rights within its bundle of rights, including access, use, management, exclusion and alienation rights (de facto/informally). However, alienation is generally not applied. Women do not play any direct or visible role in the decision-making aspects of the tenure system, including management, exclusion or transfer of rights for any of the components of the community's land. Women are also not allowed to use or access land far from the village due to social rules and norms. People outside the group can access and use Bagagir community land, with some restrictions, although they do not enjoy any other rights within the bundle. There are community rules and responsibilities, but they are not written down. They are known collectively and transferred orally within the group and from generation to generation. The over-arching rule is to do no harm to the land and its resources (e.g. tree cutting) or the people in the area (e.g. livestock theft). Rules are defined and monitored collectively by the group.The pastoral communal tenure system remains intact in Rahad El Tamor. Although the rest of the locality has experienced land use change over the last ten years due to the expansion of large-scale mechanised farming and artisanal gold mining, these activities have not affected Rahad El Tamor.Agricultural land within the dry-season grazing area is held and managed individually by households and families rather than collectively, and a typical plot ranges from 10 to 20 mukhamus (1 mukhamus equalling 0.7 ha). Use rights can be extended to others by the owners, based on the practice of akul goom, a temporary arrangement whereby the landowner grants a landless member of the community the right to use and harvest the land at no cost for a specific season. Harvest usually takes place during the beginning of the dry season and an informal small committee is in place to manage any disputes due to livestock trespassing on farmlands.The community is represented in the hierarchical traditional tribal system of the Kababish through their sheikh. The community selects the sheikh and the position is not inherited.The sheikh is usually someone trusted by the community who demonstrates leadership and experience and is well-versed in community rules, norms and traditions passed down orally over generations. 25 His responsibilities include decision-making, rule enforcement, dispute resolution, and monitoring and safeguarding the community's common resources. If novel issues arise, the sheikh will consult the group to reach a decision.The community is responsible for managing and improving its resources and has the final say on developments that can or cannot take place on its land. It has not undertaken any active maintenance of its pastures (beyond normal pastoral grazing), given that the land is sufficiently healthy. Although there has been some deterioration of its local water sources (e.g. siltation), it has not undertaken any maintenance. With regard to decisions related to physical interventions on their land, such as water points and water supply, only members of the Bagagir community have the right to make these.There have been many cases of individuals from different tribes across Sudan or from neighbouring countries becoming members of the group, including women marrying in. The main elements for inclusion are that local norms and rules are respected and that individuals participate in the group's collective life, including participation in traditions such as nafir (collective work performed voluntarily for the benefit of friends and neighbours). There have been no cases of individuals losing their membership.26 During the wet season it is allowed to regenerate.27 Most pastoralists from outside the group pass through twice a year, once at the beginning of the transhumance journey and once at the end.28 There is a national forestry law in Sudan and prohibited activities within the law are similar to the activities informally prohibited by the community.The main use of community land in the dry season is for grazing, with a small area set aside for farming. Women use the same grazing land for collecting forest products. In the dry season, the community's seasonal water resources last for a short period, after which water must be bought from neighbouring communities throughout most of the dry season. Therefore, the main components of the community's dry-season grazing land, for which rules and norms may apply, are grazing land, forest stands within the broader grazing land, seasonal water resources and the agricultural part of the rangeland.Grazing land is open for the group and all its members within the territory of the group. However, the group has an agreement among themselves not to use the area in the immediate surroundings of their village during the rainy season, which is reserved for use only during the dry season. 26 This area, locally known as haram, spans two to three kilometres around the village. Pastoralists from outside the group are excluded from this area in both the wet and dry seasons but can graze freely everywhere else without permission and for as long as they want. 27 The only condition is that everyone respects the general rule of not causing harm to local resources or to the people in the area (e.g. tree cutting, setting fires and stealing animals).If rules are broken, visitors can only pass through without stopping. For example, since 2016, the community has restricted a particular visiting pastoralist group in this way as they were caught stealing on several occasions.Access and use of forest resources within the group's grazing lands are open to the group and outsiders as long as the rules are observed. For example, cutting trees, charcoal making and shaking trees to drop fruits and pods are prohibited and forest resources are closely monitored. If illicit behaviour is observed, it is reported to the sheikh who visits the location to resolve the issue. If the sheikh cannot resolve the issue directly, he raises it with the Forest National Corporation (FNC) in Jabrat El Sheikh Locality. 28 Such a case occurred in 2020 when a commercial investor was caught cutting trees for charcoal and was reported to the FNC. The FNC issued the investor an evacuation notice, which immediately stopped the activity.Access and use of the community's water resources (the rahad and the wadi) is an exclusive right for the people and animals of the community. Outsiders can use and access the water resources for domestic use only and not for their animals. Before the reduced capacity of both water sources, no one was excluded. However, given the limited amount of water, the community had to change the rules in 2000.For the remainder of the dry season, the community fully depends on its neighbours' privately owned boreholes and water yards in Um Surra. They have to transport water from there individually or take larger livestock there 'on the hoof', with each family relying on its own financial and material resources. Water is paid for and the community has no control over these water sources. Individuals and households with greater means to transport water have better access to it and, in turn, are better able to use different parts of the rangelands since they can transport water to their animals. This makes wealth a differentiating factor between individuals and households and affects the principle of equal access.Farming is an exclusive right for community members, and outsiders cannot cultivate community land. Within the farming area, each family privately owns its piece of land, which is inherited. Members of the group who do not own land can borrow it from others to cultivate under an akul goom arrangement, but the title of the land remains with the original owner. This is a temporary alienation. Harvest usually takes place during the beginning of the dry season and a small informal committee is in place to manage any disputes due to livestock trespassing. All reported cases of trespassing have been within the group. There are no other specific committees in place for land or natural resources.The main advantage of the community's tenure system is that it is a shared system followed not only by the Bagagir community but also by neighbouring communities, with slight variations. This makes the system well-understood and accepted by everyone. These consecutive and similar systems also allow flexible livestock mobility across different landscapes, as well as reciprocal arrangements for access and use. This is especially important in times of local resource scarcity. Although the system is flexible, another strength is that the community is fully in control of its resources, enforcing rules and limiting what outsiders can and cannot do. For example, excluding outsiders from farming is considered positive because it ensures enough farming land for group members and reduces the chances of conflict between groups. The system also strengthens social relations and coherence through collective work such as nafir.A disadvantage is that, given the open system, animals owned by different groups intermingle, which sometimes causes disease transmission. A problem that the system needs to adapt to or address is that young people are becoming more individualistic and may be losing the spirit of communal work.The characteristics highlighted as essential for the community's tenure system to function well and for pastoralist livelihoods to remain resilient include: (1) flexibility;(2) unrestricted mobility;(3) the absence of rigid borders; (4) an efficient and effective internal management system; and (5) an inherited sense of collectivity in terms of values and practices.Flexible and unrestricted mobility on the community's land and neighbouring lands assures timely access to resources, particularly in especially dry years, which occur from time to time. The absence of rigid borders allows mobility over long distances, which is particularly important for camel raisers.The tenure system is efficient, effective, local and sensitive to resource conditions, climatic factors and the needs of the group. It regulates land and resource use, prioritising the community without losing flexibility and inclusiveness for others. For example, even in times of water scarcity, the community takes a humane approach to basic needs and does not exclude outsiders from using their local water resources but does limit water use to human consumption only. Also, while outsiders are excluded from grazing in the haram area during the dry season, they are allowed to graze outside this zone. Dispute resolution takes place using traditional mechanisms, which function well, and all conflicts and disputes within the group and with outsiders have been effectively resolved locally.Collectivity is also central. For example, monitoring is a shared responsibility; everyone checks for degradation, overexploitation or activities that go against group rules (e.g. tree cutting). This is important because many groups cross the area during their annual migration cycle and, in turn, many eyes on the ground are needed to monitor harmful or illegal activities.Voluntary collective practices, such as nafir, are also firmly established, where community works are done jointly and help is provided to people in need. This extends to neighbouring communities, if necessary. For example, communal solidarity was shown during a wildfire in 2016, which affected multiple communities and was contained by all collectively. Collectivity also extends to agricultural land, which is privately held. Although land is privately owned, there is room for landless community members to get rent-free access to agricultural plots from others. Such behaviour increases solidarity within the group.The tenure system is an old system, passed down from generation to generation, making it an integral part of the group's historical tribal system based on collective values. This makes the system deeply rooted within the group and fully understood and accepted. At the same time, the system is flexible and can adapt. Rules can be changed and modified where needed. The community can also ask for support from government authorities, such as the FNC, in case they do not succeed in stopping invasive or harmful activities. This shows that dual governance systems can present challenges but also have strengths. In this case, the formal and informal systems complement one another, with the formal system providing backstopping and clout.On the whole, the community perceives their tenure as secure, with most, if not all, respondents saying 'unlikely' or 'very unlikely' to the likelihood of losing their lands or mobility over the multiple timescales put forward (within the year, within five years, within ten years and for the remainder of their lifetimes). With regard to the level of confidence that their children would inherit their access and use rights (or rights to mobility), and also be able to enjoy these rights throughout their lifetimes, all responses were equally optimistic, with most respondents indicating 'very confident.'The most important factor that influences their feeling of tenure security is that they are, de facto, the first community to settle in this area and have uninterruptedly used the land for at least four generations, with no competing claims to land. Therefore, they consider themselves asyad elarid (the landowners). The next most important factor is that the community is part of a larger ethnic group, the Kababish. They have the backing and support of the Kababish and are active participants in the ethnic group's wider affairs. Of equal importance is that there is enough good-quality grazing land in the area and its surroundings, limiting the need for competition and the fact that the area and its surroundings are not affected by conflicts.The fact that the community is known and respected by neighbouring groups from inside and outside the Kababish also plays a role, with inter-group collective activities such as nafir having been known to take place. Also noted was the absence of external threats. For example, the community's land has no known mineral deposits and is of little interest to government. This renders the local situation different from other parts of the locality where these issues are at play. Finally, the group has never experienced any loss of land or land rights and this too affects perceptions of tenure security.Most cited threats to their perceived tenure security were unrelated to the tenure system and related to natural phenomena and social change. The community mentioned: disease outbreaks; droughts; lack of water; the reluctance of some of their youth to continue working as herders; the increased individualistic and commercial mindset among them; and population growth increasing demand for farming land, in particular.When asked about the impact that loss of rights to collective grazing land would have, the group mentioned they would likely: lose their identity and traditions as pastoralists; be forced to sell their livestock and turn to farming; migrate to urban centres and seek alternative livelihoods; and migrate to Gulf countries and work in artisanal gold mining.FUDECO researchers interview communities in Wuro Bappate, Kenya, 2011. Photo: Gutoff/Mercy Corps29 Findings from both the mixed FGD and the women's FGD.While the tenure system is, in principle, considered the same for all, wealth is a differentiating factor in practice. Wealth affects the ability to access and use shared resources. This is most apparent in relation to water, where only the better-off are able to afford plastic water bladders and transport them to the different locations where they are needed. The less wealthy are less able to respond effectively to water shortages and are also less capable of safeguarding a constant water supply due to transport and water costs. This limits their options for livestock keeping. Wealth also influences livelihood choices. Men who are less well-off or have few or no animals will concentrate on farming and expand or intensify this activity, as farming is the most accessible option to rebuild herds.In practice, cultural norms and practices in relation to gender are also a differentiating factor. Women are constrained by social norms. For example, they do not have freedom of movement like their male counterparts, with young women being limited to the haram area around the settlement unless accompanied by a male relative. Women do not normally participate in any of the decision-making aspects of the tenure system. Yet, they shoulder many responsibilities, which increase substantially when their husbands leave to work in Gulf countries or gold mining. For example, they take on the responsibility for the family farm and livestock alongside their normal household duties. Women are also discouraged from selfsufficiency and independence. For example, men will always own a portion of the family's herd and have the option of taking it with them as a foundation for a new herd should they move away. Women are not treated in the same way. A woman may receive a few head of sheep or goats on marriage to take to her new home. This seems more a gesture towards household self-sufficiency in terms of milk and meat rather than livestock as 'money in the bank' and independence, as it is for men.The limitations on access and use for women, and exclusion from the management of dry-season grazing land, are part of a general context that is biased against women. The community is a typical patriarchal society, with women's roles limited to a primary focus on the household. This 'way of being' is passed down from generation to generation and is deeply rooted to the extent that the women in the community are satisfied with the situation and do not feel that anything is amiss with regard to their rights. 29 This finding is corroborated by those in the Intergovernmental Authority on Development Sudan Women's Land Rights Agenda (2021-2030) which states that 'gender roles and gender relations are socially constructed around the supremacy of masculinity and the domination of men over women. This has contributed to women's internalisation of their position as inferior and has compromised women's rights, including the rights to land' (IGAD, 2021).Among youth, there seems to be less interest in pastoral livestock keeping, a greater desire for independence from the extended family, and a shift in priorities towards individualism and commercialisation. Male youths are interested in combining livestock keeping with more diversified activities, such as migration to the Gulf, farming, gold mining and livestock trade at weekly markets. Migration to the Gulf and gold mining are particularly attractive options. However, youth are also aware of the shortcomings, noting that, although gold mining provides a good income, it also introduces increased competition between pastoral communities who vie for engagement in the sector and pushes people away from a pastoralist way of life, with all this entails. Youth also desire independence from the extended family and feel that they should be supported to grow their own herd and diversify their income sources. Those who already live separately from the extended family stay within the community but prefer to be responsible for only their own herd rather than the family herd, as they feel this is a more efficient way of building wealth. Older generations decry these changes, noting that collective work such as nafir should not be optional and that individualism will negatively affect the group's cohesion.All individuals feel confident in their tenure security, similar to findings for the overall group. Factors that affect individual feelings of tenure security are similar to those of the overall group, with a few additions. For individuals, being part of a larger ethnic group and having strong internal cohesion as a community is most important. They also emphasised the spirit of collectivity and internal social support networks as essential since, this way, no one gets left behind. For example, lending or giving livestock to poor and more vulnerable community members, such as widowed women, was highlighted. Also highlighted were prioritising vulnerable or disadvantaged women for nafir activities (e.g. for weeding and preparation of farmland and searching for lost livestock), encouraging widowed women to marry a male relative of the deceased husband, and the fact that community members already in the Gulf will support others back home who want to join them. Individuals have also never experienced a loss of land or land rights.The main threats to their assurance of tenure are not linked to the tenure system per se but more to external factors. Individuals felt that the main threat would be if gold were to be discovered in the area, which would create competition among community members.Booming artisanal gold mining is also expected to attract many outsiders to the area, which will affect social harmony. The focus on gold mining as a threat is based on individuals observing the effects of this activity in neighbouring areas.With regard to improvements to the tenure system, most individuals felt that having a more reliable and local source of water supply would level out inequalities in access to water and grazing land and reduce social disparities due to wealth.People feel that the human and livestock population will likely increase, and competition may become a factor. The ongoing trend of prioritising personal over group interests among youth was also highlighted as an issue that may affect the system. Meanwhile, youth expect the current increased interest in farming, combined with population growth, will likely increase the area under cultivation at the expense of the community's dry-season grazing land.Characteristics highlighted as essential for the community system to function well were similar to those mentioned by the group. Individuals highlighted equality within their system as an important characteristic. In principle, no one has more power than anyone else. Even the sheikh is considered a community member with the same rights as everyone else. Men added that a positive aspect of the system for them is that they can speak their minds during community meetings and, in this way, participate in group decision-making.Both women and men emphasised collectivity and the social support aspects of the system, such as nafir, as main features, although women emphasised this more. They especially highlighted the ability to use agricultural land rent-free and mentioned nafir and restocking by more well-off community members as an indispensable service.The pastoralist community and collective land under study 30 Approximately 40,000 ha constitute community settlements and the dry-season grazing area (with a 'core' area reserved for only the Waldaa community), and 20,000 ha constitute wet-season grazing areas.31 There were 420,000 cattle in 2018 and 186,440 in 2022 in Marsabit County, constituting a loss of nearly 50% (Marsabit County Government, 2018).The Waldaa community is a typical pastoral community in Marsabit County, northeastern Kenya. This community is largely Borana, with a shared heritage and ancestry, a shared natural resource base and similar resource-use patterns as practising pastoralists. Five-hundred and fifty households make up the community, including 420 households from among the 'first inhabitants' of the area and 130 immigrant households. The number of individuals is estimated at 4,700 men, women and children.The community land (approximately 60,282 ha) serves as the settlement and wet-and dry-season grazing areas. 30 Livestock rearing remains the main livelihood for both men and women in the Waldaa community. They keep cattle, sheep, goats and, more recently, camels, a livestock type not previously kept by the Borana. While agricultural production has been attempted, this has not succeeded on any meaningful scale. Alongside pastoralism, small businesses such as stalls by the roadside and in townships have also been taken up. Mobility is also practised, mainly during the wet season when livestock are grazed between 10 and 20 km from the settlement area to allow the dry-season grazing areas around the settlement to recover. In extreme drought years, the community takes their livestock further to Isiolo and Laikipia counties and across the border to Ethiopia.Waldaa community land is considered 'reserve' grazing land during drought, both for the community and for pastoralists from other communities who can come from far and wide with their livestock during local shortage in their home areas. Twenty or thirty years ago, the Waldaa community could reasonably predict rainfall conditions based on observed rainfall patterns in neighbouring locations. Today, the climate has become much less predictable and also much drier. The local river was abundant when the community first arrived in the area but has since dried up, and people rely on boreholes for their water. In addition, a series of drought years resulted in severe livestock losses and depletion of the area's grazing resources due to the combined effects of drought and demands that exceeded supply. 31For the past three successive years leading up to early 2023, the situation has been dire (locally and in neighbouring countries) to the degree that many pastoralists, including the Waldaa community, have lost a sizeable proportion of their livestock. Many herders have come back empty-handed from across the border in Ethiopia and from further away. This has increased reliance on small-scale businesses and has seen an emphasis on quarrying and tree cutting for charcoal making in the last five years, particularly among women. Both practices intensify rangeland degradation. In addition, educated youth are increasingly seeking formal employment elsewhere to supplement their extended family income. Despite these extreme challenges, the community remains committed to livestock rearing and emphasised that they must find ways of adapting to these new harsher conditions. This includes experimenting with new livestock types, such as camels, to cope with water stress. Although uncommon among the Borana, the community feels they must learn to work with camels to adapt. Some households have also migrated to nearby towns.Quality and availability of pasture resources are the main challenges during the dry season.Given the all-encompassing droughts experienced in the last few years, the community's dryseason grazing resources are over-stretched. This is exacerbated by the fact that livestock mobility has become an expensive enterprise only affordable to wealthier members of the community. An average community member would need to sell half of their herd to afford the journey, increasing the risk of destitution. Availability of pasture land is also the main challenge during the wet season. Due to increasingly unpredictable rainfall, the wet-season grazing window has reduced from 6-12 months to 1-3 months.32 In 2018, the Land Development and Governance Institute (LDGI) helped the Waldaa community organise itself to begin the process of land registration. The community has since received training and technical support from various organisations towards registration.The Waldaa community has been settled in their location for nearly half a century (since 1982) and has used the land uninterruptedly since, with most of the land remaining collective grazing land. The community owns the land de facto. In turn, they enjoy the full set of land rights, including management, exclusion and alienation, alongside access and use. These rights are applied in ways that support flexibility and mobility. These rights do not yet have a legal basis. However, the community began the process of formal land registration in 2018 as per the Community Land Act (CLA), 32 making the Waldaa community among the first pastoral communities in Kenya to undertake this registration process in open, unregistered community land held in trust under the CLA in the northern parts of the country. This process is currently ongoing and includes registration of community management structures and documentation of community rules and responsibilities.The community has clearly defined rules, regulations and responsibilities concerning land. These apply to all community members who know and accept the rules. Rules and responsibilities are typically oral and undocumented but are currently being documented as part of the registration process. Community leadership is also well-established, wellfunctioning and respected. There are two categories of leaders: religious leaders and village elders. Both are under a community chief. Together, they constitute the council of elders, responsible for setting community rules and responsibilities. Rules can also be changed by either the council or the community. For a new rule to pass, or to change a rule, there must be community consensus and also a clear reason. Women are among the community leaders and their participation is not a symbolic nod to gender representation or a by-product of quotas. Women's participation is down to their abilities and leadership qualities. The community chooses all community leaders based on these qualities. Women's participation in leadership roles is also not unusual and has always been the case.The community has a defined membership known to the community elders. Beyond the original settlers in the area, it is straightforward for newcomers to join the community. Membership is through birthright as well as marriage and registration. Most are members by birth. The community has a list of members, which is reviewed and updated every two years, and there are membership criteria for those who wish to join. For example, a newcomer must have a shared interest in pastoralism and must have been part of the community for at least three years to be considered for membership. Equally, the person must have shown good character and adhered to community rules and regulations during that time. With regard to marriage, a person who has married into the community keeps their membership even if the spouse dies and any children from the marriage, both boys and girls, retain membership indefinitely. A member can choose to give up membership, and membership can also be lost if an individual habitually fails to adhere to community rules and regulations, although this has not yet happened in practice.Various resource management committees are in place and are responsible for implementing community rules and regulations and monitoring, which is considered effective. These committees are informal structures that include community elders, religious leaders, women, youth, and people with disabilities. Committees include the land management committee, the mazingira committee (in charge of conservation, pastures and maintaining all the community's natural resources), and the water resource management committee. The land management committee is in charge of land allocations, for example, approving or rejecting ranch allocations for individuals and decisions related to land improvements, together with the community elders and the chief. Members of these committees are selected through a participatory approach and based on closeness to and knowledge of the resource in question. Committees also include younger members who are better able to move around for monitoring.Disputes are addressed and resolved through community mechanisms. When a dispute arises, the nearest capable person able to mediate is called upon. If the issue is about water, the problem is taken to the water committee; if about land, then the land management committee is called upon, and so on. If the relevant committee cannot resolve the issue, the dispute is taken to the council of elders. Should the dispute involve the Waldaa community and a visiting pastoralist group, elders from both groups are involved in dispute resolution. Depending on the resolution, community elders may (or may not) compensate groups or individuals if they lose their land rights.Women stand in high regard within the community. Women's rights to land and resources are considered a birthright; as members of the Waldaa community, women's rights are protected and upheld alongside those of any other members. From the focus group discussions (FGDs), it was clear that women are informed and very protective of their land. It was also clear that women hold a strong position within the community.The main components of the dry-season grazing area are the communal grazing and pasture lands, boreholes for water supply for both human and livestock consumption, and human settlements. In all affairs related to access and use of the community's dry-season grazing area, priority is given to the Waldaa community, who enjoy unrestricted rights with regard to grazing land and water resources, provided people abide by the rules and carry out their obligations. If someone flouts the rules, community leaders can revoke higher-level rights such as management and participation in decision-making and individuals will then be limited to access and use rights only.Visiting pastoralists from elsewhere are also openly welcomed on condition that they abide by the community's rules. Permission to use Waldaa grazing lands must be obtained from community elders, at which time conditions for access are defined. These would include duration of access, areas that visitors can use for grazing and watering, the number of incoming livestock and arrangements for reciprocity. The community's core dry-season grazing area is retained for the sole use of Waldaa community members during the dry season, while visiting pastoralists may use grazing areas outside this zone only around water points.With regard to water obtained from boreholes, visiting pastoralists are charged a fee of ten shillings per camel, while the Waldaa community is expected to pay only seven shillings, from which they are often exempted. Visiting pastoralists who flout the rules and shirk their responsibilities may be restricted with regard to future access and use. For example, certain Somali pastoralist groups have had their access restricted by Waldaa elders due to repeated instances of rule-breaking.The community identified mostly positive characteristics to describe their tenure system. These include that: (1) the community is strong and cohesive and has a clear tenure system in place;(2) there is equality across the community in terms of access and use of resources;(3) the community has the freedom to set and define its own rules; (4) the community can continue to practise their livelihoods as they choose, including mobility and flexible access to resources; (5) community leadership is known and respected; and (6) the system and its leadership can adapt to and fit in with the requirements of the CLA as part of the current formalisation process. Negative characteristics cited are more along the lines of emerging concerns. People are beginning to fear they could lose land to neighbours or external investors in the longer term if they do not secure legal recognition for their land and tenure system.A pastoralist in Kenya's Samburu region. Photo: ILRI/Kabir Dhanji They also feel that securing their tenure through formalisation would put them in a better negotiating position. For example, if there were a discussion around external investment in their area, they would be the main actors in the negotiation, rather than the government if the land remained in trust. If valuation of their land were necessary, they would be in a better position since the land would be formally documented.With regard to the tenure system currently in place, the community did not feel that any major changes were necessary other than formalisation. They feel that how the system is currently set up is best suited to the way they practise their livelihoods. The main feedback regarding change was related to improvements in the natural resource base, including actions linked to rangeland improvement and restoration on a communal or individual scale, which would help the community better adapt to climate stresses.The characteristics highlighted as essential for the community's tenure system to function well, and for pastoralist livelihoods to remain resilient, are similar to those highlighted as strengths of the tenure system. The main characteristics were the system's flexibility and an efficient and effective internal management system set locally by community members.For the question about the likelihood of losing land or rights to land within the next year, some responses indicated that this is 'somewhat likely' or 'very likely' (4 out of 12 responses), while the remainder felt it 'very unlikely'. For the timescale of five years and onward, the majority of responses were in the category of 'highly unlikely.' While the Waldaa community feels secure in their tenure overall and has no history of loss of land or land rights, the lack of certainty among the few is linked to recent observations of large-scale investments in neighbouring counties like Isiolo, which have disenfranchised rural people (e.g. the Lamu Port and Lamu-Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET) project and others). This contributes to feelings of concern over land. Additional concerns are that legislation could change in future, making them vulnerable to loss of rights, or that neighbouring communities lay competing claims on their land. The community therefore wants to guard against these possibilities and is keen to finalise the formalisation and registration process to enable them to retain control over what does and does not happen on their land. In this way, they add national legitimacy to what is already a locally legitimate tenure system. The concern, therefore, within the coming year, is that the registration process takes too long, leaving them open to the risks mentioned above.With regard to mobility, all respondents felt it was 'very unlikely' they could lose the rights of mobility against their will over all timeframes. All were 'very confident' that their children would inherit their mobility and land access and use rights and would be able to enjoy these rights throughout their lifetime. While the findings largely indicate that the community feels secure in their tenure overall, some community members feel that registration would give their tenure security legal clout.The most important factors that influence the community's feeling of tenure security are:(1) their internal cohesion as a community; (2) their shared and established history in the area for almost half a century without competing land claims; (3) their strong and respected traditional leadership, which successfully resolves disputes; and (4) that they feel they have full control over their land and resources in that they set and enforce their own rules, which are observed and respected. They also feel a confidence boost from beginning the process of registration.A factor that affects the community's feeling of tenure insecurity includes concerns about increased in-migration. While in-migration has always happened and is welcomed, the increase has led some people to thinking that perhaps their flexible membership system could be a drawback. The drawback, according to some respondents, is that increased heterogeneity due to in-migration could lead to greater difficulties in reaching a consensus.When asked about the impact of loss of rights to collective grazing land, the group mentioned they would likely lose their main livelihood.Individuals' responses were similar to those of the group. This consistency indicates that individuals believe that the community's interests serve them well individually and that their rights as individuals within the collective are well protected and recognised by the wider community. Indeed, they are enshrined in community by-laws, which the elders uphold.Community leadership also grants private land concessions to individual members for specific purposes, for example, ranching, and these lands are protected for the individual or the household within the land of the collective. However, in absolute terms, a certain level of group control or supervision of land matters is maintained, which means the group takes precedence over the individual. The reasoning is that land is seen as more than just a means of production.It is an integral part of a way of life, a culture and part of the community's identity.Sometimes, there is tension between individual and group rights within the collective. While overall, individual rights are supported and protected within the collective, women's land rights may be more vulnerable given the existing patriarchal norms and influences. For example, one woman said she disagreed that all rights of individuals are protected within the community. It came to light that she was concerned that her daughters may not get their fair share of land.Perceptions of individual tenure security mirrored those of the group in all categories.Factors that contribute to feelings of tenure security among individuals include: (1) trust in the community's leadership; (2) the presence of by-laws within communal rules and regulations that protect individuals' rights; (3) group cohesion and solidarity; and (4) established membership in the overall group by birth or registration.Individual loss of land rights has been experienced within the community, but the group generally minimises this type of experience. The only instances of loss of individual land rights have been cases when individuals acquired the land in ways that were not in line with community rules (i.e. when individuals went against the collective). In these cases, the community withdrew the individual's land rights.It was generally felt that registration would be a positive contribution towards protecting individual land rights. Through a clear statement of individual rights within a legal document, registration may better protect certain individuals who could be more vulnerable to the vagaries of collective opinion.The study aimed to understand collective tenure and tenure security among rangeland pastoralists. Two layers of tenure and tenure security were considered: that of the group and that of individuals within the group, recognising that groups are not homogenous.In Burkina Faso, Sudan and Kenya, the law recognises pastoralism and collective and communal land rights to various degrees, with Kenya and Burkina Faso more progressive in this respect. At the same time, pastoral areas in all three countries face similar challenges, as elsewhere on the continent, including pressures on the pastoral production system and shrinking and fragmentation of rangelands. Where these pressures are at a minimum, we have seen that informal communal tenure systems still robustly apply in pastoral grazing lands and are, in fact, the main tenure systems in play. These systems are long-lasting, wellorganised and have strong local legitimacy in that they are recognised, respected and enforced to varying degrees. None of the pastoral communities in the study currently hold any formal documentation for their land, but they do consider themselves the rightful landholders.Except in Burkina Faso, the pastoral communities in this study enjoy the full set of land rights for their land de facto, including management, exclusion and alienation. Burkina Faso is the exception since local farmers, who are the de facto landholders, host the pastoralist community. 33 Across the three locations, the communal tenure systems described fit what is known about collective pastoral tenure systems (Flintan et al., 2021) in that the rights held Goats feed on shrubs within Tiogo Forest, Burkina Faso. Photo: CIF Action collectively maintain the integrity of the pastoral landscape with limited subdivision, and that mobility is fully supported through a flexible tenure system that enables extensive pastoral land use by the local community as well as by outsiders. It is a system that is welcoming and inclusive of others and encourages reciprocity in times of need, an important feature considering the vagaries of climate in these rangelands. Local controls are applied, including limits on access and use and the application of user fees in some instances. Limits and fees apply to the local community and to outsiders, although the local community is generally prioritised or exempted.The main characteristics of the de facto communal tenure systems highlighted as essential for local pastoral systems to function well, and for pastoralist livelihoods to remain resilient, are:(1) that these systems are flexible and enable freedom of movement by the community and others across wide landscapes, which are kept intact with limited subdivision; (2) that there is robust yet flexible management that is set and driven locally by the community; and (3) in cases where there are neighbours, that good local relationships are maintained between the pastoralist community and others.Tenure security was experienced differently across the case study countries. The community in Sudan felt most tenure secure, followed by Kenya, then Burkina Faso. The main factors that contribute to feelings of tenure security are intrinsic to the pastoralist system or the group's lived reality. These include: (1) strong relationships between the group and their neighbours;(2) being locally known and respected (i.e. having local legitimacy); (3) solidarity and cohesion within the group; (4) the fact that all communities have lived in their respective areas for at least 40 years without major contestation of their land rights; (5) that the community has local control over land and resources and the freedom to set and enforce its own rules (within limits in Burkina Faso); and (6) that communities have strong and respected leadership. Factors external to the system were also mentioned, such as the absence of major conflicts, large-scale land acquisition (e.g. for mining concessions, agricultural projects, or regional and international initiatives), and the possibility of formal land registration (cited for Burkina Faso and Kenya).Factors that contribute to feelings of tenure insecurity are different across countries. In Burkina Faso, these include previous experience with the loss of land and the continued conversion of grazing land for farming. In Kenya and Sudan, the factors are more about concerns for the future based on community observations of what is happening in neighbouring areas. For example, an increased individualistic and commercial mindset among youth in Sudan could influence the 'communality' of the group and erode group cohesion and the communal tenure system. In both Kenya and Sudan, observing pastoral groups in neighbouring counties being dispossessed of their land raises local concerns.Introducing different timescales allows a more nuanced understanding of perceived tenure security. In Kenya and Burkina Faso, perceptions of tenure security were different over one year and five years from those over ten years and more.Individual responses by men, women and youth with regard to the tenure system and individual feelings of tenure security were similar to the responses of the overall group across countries, with slight variations. Individuals generally expressed themselves in collective terms with regard to grazing land. For example, in Burkina Faso, respondents recounted the same experience of loss of grazing land as that of the group, suggesting that individuals think communally about grazing areas.Individual responses varied slightly from country to country. Wealth, for men, is a differentiating factor in terms of their ability to access and use land and resources in Sudan. Wealthier men have better access to pasture further away because they are better able to pay for water and its transport in the dry season. However, wealth did not seem to have an influence on decisionmaking or power within the group. In Sudan, youth have a greater desire for independence from the extended family and lean towards individualism. While not linked to the tenure system per se, this may impact the community's sense of collectivity, where individual interests are prioritised above community interests. Youth are aware of this tension.Women in Burkina Faso and Sudan emphasised collective care for vulnerable individuals such as widows and divorcees as a factor that contributes to their feeling of tenure security.Although related to group cohesion, it is more specific to the idea of leaving no one behind. At the same time, in Burkina Faso, women felt markedly less tenure secure than men regarding collective grazing land. This may be because women do not participate in negotiations and discussions with the host community, making their feelings of tenure security entirely based on ongoing observations of grazing-land conversion. Older men, who were more involved in these negotiations, had greater confidence in these negotiations eventually paying offIn Kenya, both individual and communal rights are recognised and protected by the pastoral collective, with land concessions being granted to individual community members by the group, although, in general, collective interests are prioritised overall. Respondents overwhelmingly confirmed that individual rights within the group are supported and protected, yet there may be indications that certain individual land rights are less protected than others. For example, women's land rights may be more vulnerable given existing patriarchal norms and influences.Women have little to no visible role in decision-making with regard to collective grazing lands in Sudan and Burkina Faso, and there does not seem to be a sense of grievance about this. While women only nominally participate in decision-making in Burkina Faso, this was shared as a fact rather than a problem. In Sudan, all individuals felt that equality between people was among the strengths of their tenure system, suggesting that women's roles are not seen as inferior. Alternatively, it could be that women's passive position is internalised to the degree that it is normalised. In Kenya, the situation is different. Women are leaders and have always actively participated in decision-making.Finally, the collective tenure systems across case study countries are, on the whole, robust, locally legitimate and respected. While, in Sudan, tenure formalisation is a non-issue for the study community, the communities in Burkina Faso and Kenya (more so in Kenya) feel that national legitimacy may be necessary to protect them from pressures of land conversion and external land interests, since local legitimacy may not be enough to safeguard local pastoral communities against more powerful interests. Options for formalising collective pastoral land are available in Burkina Faso and Kenya and are less clear for Sudan. 34 There are obstacles to formalisation, with valid arguments both for and against. The author of the Kenya case study argues that it is important to understand the inner workings of existing pastoralist tenure systems and tenure security in context to inform the conversation on whether tenure security is required in the first place -and, if required, whether policy and legal interventions are appropriate or whether it would be better to use other types of support that strengthen informal governance systems and strucutres. This annex is informed by literature review, main informant interviews and country report authors' prior knowledge of context.De jure tenure Three main laws apply to land in pastoral areas in Burkina Faso, all of which recognise collectively used/held land and also put forward mechanisms for the registration/formalisation of such land. These are: the Agrarian and Land Reorganisation Law of 2012 (RAF), the Rural Land Tenure Law of 2009 (LRFR), and the Law of Orientation Relative to Pastoralism of 2002 (LORP). While the RAF and LRFR are the main Burkinabé land and land management laws, 35  the LORP is the main national law relevant to pastoralism and pastoral land. 36   The LORP specifically recognises and endorses pastoralism as an important activity in Burkina Faso, along with some of the livelihood's crucial parts, such as mobility and the right to access land and resources. It also clarifies land, disaggregating government land into a number of subcategories relevant to collectively used pastoral lands. These are pastoral areas of special management (government-established), lands reserved for animal grazing, and open spaces for grazing.Pastoral areas of special management (or zones pastorales) are areas specifically set aside by government for pastoral livestock rearing. Up to 2017, there were 28 of these officially designated pastoral areas in the country (ONF-BF, 2017). In these areas, government holds decision-making rights, while pastoralists have rights of access and use. Pastoralists obtain these rights through formal arrangements. Pastoralists can also apply for land concessions within these areas, for which they may be granted rights of management, either collectively or as individuals. However, overall responsibility and control lies with government (national or municipal).Land reserved for animal grazing is land recognised by government as used first and foremost for livestock grazing. In these areas, pastoralists are allowed free and uncontrolled access.Open spaces for grazing, on the other hand, describe land that is used by multiple users for multiple concurrent purposes -such as crop farming, forest use and other uses. In these spaces, pastoralists have recognised rights of access, on condition that they do not infringe on other users' concurrent land rights. For example, pastoralists have rights of access to fields left fallow or to fields after collection of harvest (unless expressly prohibited by the owner). 37  While ultimate decision-making regarding both these lands lies with the state or municipality, in reality these two categories of land are treated in a hands-off way allowing local/traditional de facto tenure systems to operate.In relation to these laws, most collectively used and de facto 'held' land could fall under one of the categories of government grazing land under the LORP (e.g. 'land reserved for animal grazing' and 'open spaces for grazing') and could also be considered private land. It can be considered private land since de facto held land under customary systems is, in principle, recognised by the LRFR. It can also be considered grazing land as per government definitions insofar as the LORP describes systems that more or less match the land governance systems seen in practice. However, collectively used and de facto held land, in most cases, has no formal status (i.e. is unregistered), with the exception of a few officially registered private livestock ranches located outside the study area.All three laws put forward mechanisms for the registration/formalisation of collective land. However, there are differences between the laws in terms of the name of the document being obtained, the process for obtaining it, and approving authorities. 38 For example, the RAF and LRFR put forward land charters and Certificates of Rural Land Possession (APFRs) to formalise tenure in areas where collective customary tenure systems predominate, and describe the process for each.APFRs function like a deed to private land and confer the full set of land rights on the holder, including access, use, management, exclusion and alienation. To start this process, the local village land tenure commission (CFV), established by the municipality, checks whether there are any existing or competing claims on the land. In contrast, a land charter allows for the documentation of existing de facto rights, rules, responsibilities and land governance mechanisms, in this way formalising local or traditional tenure systems. Under a land charter, the breadth of rights conferred on each of the parties to the charter is decided through a process of local consultation and can vary from location to location. A community or group can be responsible for the overall management of the land in question and could also be granted rights of exclusion should this be collectively agreed. However, the right of alienation remains with the owner. In all cases, the community must first be legally recognised to start the official registration process. This can be done, for example, by registering as a formal pastoralist organisation. Some formal pastoralist organisations are already in place, but these are few.Women's and youth land rights can be considered in the RAF and the LRFR, but not in the LORP. 39 The LRFR and the RAF (among other laws) not only make specific mention of women and youth but also provide for the setting of land allocation quotas for these groups within land developed by the state or local authorities. While the translation of law into practice can vary from place to place, having placeholders and provisions for marginalised groups (such as women and youth) in the law allows organisations and other advocates to use legal backing when arguing cases. For example, the provisions made for women and youth in the RAF and LRFR are regularly invoked by projects and programmes working with agricultural groups in Burkina Faso, to the point that the Ministry of Agriculture has announced that more than 60% of land allocations in 2021 have gone to women and young people. The same cannot yet be said for the translation of the law into practice for pastoral women and youth (or at least their situation regarding land is less known). This could be due to the absence of specific provisions for women and youth in the LORP.Main institutions responsible for implementing land laws locally include decentralised representatives of the national ministries, the municipality and, in certain cases (for example, for processing APFRs), the CFVs. The CFVs are meant to represent all local land users/owners and should have a good grasp of the de facto situation of the area's different land resources.Their role is to recommend that the municipality enables more effective decision-making.Village land conciliation commissions (or CCFVs) are set up alongside the CFVs at the village level to deal with land disputes. These commissions are government bodies that step in when there are disputes over land, and are meant to provide local and more flexible mechanisms to conflict resolution outside civil courts. Formal procedures through the civil courts can be pursued if no resolution is found through the CCFV process. CCFVs exist in more than 200 municipalities of the 351 in the country (DGFOMR, 2019). In municipalities where these are not established or functioning, the customary authorities, the prefecture (state-appointed representatives at the municipality level), or the municipality authority (voted in by local constituents) can intervene.In reality, the de facto land tenure system in pastoral areas is a combination of formal laws and institutions and customary/informal systems. These exist side by side or overlap, and sometimes one takes precedence over the other.Informal systems are firmly in place at the local level, regarding social group organisation and land use and management. Typical pastoral communities -numerous in Burkina Faso and mainly belonging to the Peul (or Fulani) ethnic group -are generally organised around leaders known as rugga. The rugga are responsible for ensuring the cohesion of the community or clan and the security of community members and their livestock and other assets. They have detailed knowledge of the local pastoral environment and pay particular attention to the community's annual transhumance (in terms of routes, organisation, etc.). The system of land use and management is generally a typical customary pastoral system that emphasises collective land use and management and flexible access to resources over 'ownership' of land per se.With regard to the formal landscape, while recognition of informal/customary collective tenure systems, as described above, exists in the law alongside opportunities for formalisation -a progressive position in and of itself -there are a number of obstacles to implementation. For example, the law is poorly or only partially known or understood at the local level. Producers from farming or pastoral communities may know there are laws in place, although most would be hard-pressed to name a law or to describe its content. Technical government officials may generally know the specific laws relevant to their field of specialisation, while their staff at the very local level -those most likely to interact with communities -may not have this level of knowledge. This situation creates space for weak, partial or unfair application of the law in practice.Further obstacles to implementation of the law include a lack of means (and connections) at the community and individual levels to apply the law, since starting and following legal procedures requires knowing where to begin (and how to move forward) and can be costly and time-consuming. De jure tenureFormal land tenure laws were first introduced in Sudan during the time of British colonialisation, 41 when the principle of control and management of land by a central government or authority was introduced. This legacy continued post-independence (UNEP, 2012) and continues to this day.A number of land tenure laws are in place and are relevant to pastoral areas in Sudan. Across the board, none of these laws formally recognises land held under communal traditional land tenure systems as legal ownership, with land rights formally conferred stopping at usufruct rights (Abdul-Jalil, 2006;UNEP, 2012). 42 This is despite the fact that traditional land tenure systems have existed in the country for centuries, and are mainly applied in the bulk of pastoral areas and rural communities in Sudan (UNEP, 2012). In fact, the state formal land tenure system (de jure) mainly functions and is applied in the country's urban areas (Komey, 2009;Abukashawa, 2021), with de facto tenure systems predominating outside urban centres.There is an obvious and substantial gap between the two systems. In his analysis of the land question in Sudan, de Wit ( 2001) stated that 'bringing the legal state mechanisms closer to these legitimate customs is the core issue of the land question. The granting of legal recognition of existing customary rights would mark progress towards achieving this objective'.Among the acts and laws on land tenure in Sudan, the 1970 Unregistered Lands Act stands as a notable example of how formal law does not sufficiently recognise or value the traditional and historical land rights of pastoralists and smallholder farmers in Sudan. 43 The act put all unregistered land under state ownership, including communal land used by different pastoralist groups (Sulieman, 2015). It essentially nationalised all unregistered land, which accounts for some 90% of the country's land (Komey, 2009). The government could dispense the land as deemed appropriate -essentially setting the stage for the wholesale commodification and privatisation of land (UNEP, 2012). The act did not define the legal status of existing historical traditional land users and gave the government broad powers to evict, and complete discretion with regard to compensation. The act provided a legal basis for land acquisition, which dispossessed local communities of their customary land rights.The 1984 Civil Transaction Act (CTA), which repealed the Unregistered Lands Act, was more progressive insofar as it acknowledged the presence of existing land users and gave local communities usufruct rights, although legal landownership remained with government (Abdul-Jalil, 2006). The CTA is also one of the first laws to specifically address grazing land. Under the CTA, all fallow land in the country is treated as pasture land. In this land, the government has the right to impose temporal or spatial restrictions on grazing as seen fit. The law also paradoxically provides the possibility of allocating and registering grazing land, at the same time giving the government the right to restrict or cancel such benefits (UNEP, 2012).The Local Government Act of 1988 was the state's attempt at filling the land management and administration vacuum created at the local level when the government abolished the Native Administration in 1971. The Local Government Act set the stage for the creation of local bodies linked to the formal state apparatus: land management committees responsible for land management and administration. These committees were meant to take into consideration the 'local realities' of the land (UNEP, 2012). The Interim Constitution of 2005 went further, calling for the formal incorporation of customary laws and practices in land management and administration. It stipulated the creation of land commissions (one at the national level and a number at the state level) to improve the adjudication and administration of land. However, the rights of representation of rural land users (e.g. pastoralists and smallholder farmers) were not reflected in the document (UNEP, 2012), and the commissions (where established) are not functional (IGAD, 2021).The relatively recent law on range and pasture continues to emphasise centralised control over resources. According to the 2015 Range and Pasture Law, the state authorities control and manage the rangelands in coordination with users. Like the CTA, this law allows communities to allocate and register pasture land. However, the state authorities retain the right to cancel this registration (Egemi, 2017). The law further bans cultivation in grazing lands and forbids agricultural activities on defined livestock routes, yet at the same time includes the following clause: 'Disposal of the Rangelands shall be prohibited in any form of transfer of ownership or restriction thereon, save after the approval of the Minister, upon recommendation of the Competent administration.'Multiple institutions are involved in decision-making around land, with no clear institutional lead (IGAD, 2021). This includes sectoral ministries (e.g. the ministries of agriculture, physical planning, animal resources, etc.) and the localities (mahaliyya). To confuse matters further, ministries have been carved up, combined, dissolved, and reinstituted multiple times over the last few decades, with main departments shifted from one ministry to another. For example, the Department of Range and Pasture has been shifted between the ministries of agriculture and animal resources multiple times. In addition, ministry offices -particularly at the local level -are often under-funded and under-resourced.Gender-blindness pervades the legal and policy landscapes on land in Sudan and assumes that the entire household benefits equally when the head of a household is given land (IGAD, 2021). Women are often under-represented in land-related institutions, gender responsiveness is generally absent in land administration systems, and data collection on land is on the whole gender blind (ibid.). Poor placeholders for women's land rights in the official domain create ample room for gender discrimination in access, control and ownership of land.Throughout its history, Sudan has always had an embedded customary, collective system of land tenure in place. Communal land is managed under tribal units known as dar or hakura, which means homeland. The idea of the customary tribal homeland is the most important part of rural land tenure in Sudan and is closely linked to the native tribal administration -more commonly called the Native Administration -which is the customary institution responsible for governance (Shazali and Ahmed, 1999).The management of each tribe (and tribal area) is administered through different types of hierarchical tribal systems (or Native Administration) across Sudan. These systems are, in general, entirely male-dominated. In most pastoral areas in the country, a nazir heads the system and is in charge of all administrative affairs associated with the tribe. An omda is responsible for tribal subsections, and beneath him comes the sheikh, who is responsible for his community at the village or smaller group level. The community (or group) is the basic unit in a collective pastoral tenure system and is based on kinship and common ancestry (i.e. the group is connected by blood and marriage). A group normally descends from one ancestral grandfather in Sudan, which is common.Members of a group have equal access to rangeland resources and also have exclusive rights over all other resources within their territories. This means they have the right to exclude others, but this is generally not applied in practice unless there are good reasons -such as in situations of severe water scarcity. The group is normally the first group to have occupied the area and is duly acknowledged by neighbouring groups from the same tribe and also from other surrounding tribes. Normally, each group has shared values, with members supporting one another and performing collective work. Collective work, which is performed voluntarily for the benefit of friends and neighbours (locally called nafir), is one of the ways in which the group strengthens its internal social ties. It is, in fact, considered a collective responsibility. The nafir system can also extend to neighbouring groups within the tribe or to groups from other tribes, depending on the relationship with that group and on mutual benefits and interests. While group membership is primarily based on kinship and common descent, it is also possible for outsiders to join the group. These outsiders can be accepted as members of the group over time if they respect the local rules and customs. In such cases, the outsider will eventually be given full rights as a member.Within the dar territory, individuals and groups from the tribe have the right to access and use the resources they require, which includes grazing land and land for farming (Elhadary, 2010). Within the tribal homeland, the collective tenure security of the tribe is established and individual rights to land are recognised and could be inherited but with no power to alienate land from the tenure of the tribe (this right is held by the collective). Guests and members of other tribes also have rights of access and use of the area's resources with some possible restrictions -for example, farming or access to water resources during specific periods.In some areas, outsiders are allowed access to land to cultivate for specific periods, which they then leave to the original owner. This temporal agreement is known as akul goom, which means 'eat and leave'. Normally, no rents need to be paid in akul goom arrangements (Babiker, 2008;Elhadary, 2010). Such open systems give pastoralists the advantage of exploiting various resources in different ecological zones (Abdul-Jalil, 2006), as arrangements are reciprocal with permitted flexible access and use.While not all tribes in Sudan have a dar, those who do not -such as a number of pastoral tribes in Darfur -have historically been acknowledged secondary rights holders and have generally had access and use rights to the dars of others (UNEP, 2012). Passing through the tribal lands of sedentary farming groups, for example, was traditionally organised through special arrangements between the traditional leaders from each group to ensure that the customary rights of each side were maintained (Abdul-Jalil, 2006).Overlapping rights for different users is a common characteristic in communal grazing lands across Sudan. Although these rights are accepted in principle, there are sets of rules that define how they are to be used or requested (Abdul-Jalil, 2006). These rules vary according to location and the relationships between the individuals and groups involved. The most common overlapping rights and uses in communal rangelands include access to water for humans and animals, access to livestock routes and passage, and access to forest resources (e.g. hunting, gathering of wild fruits, collection of fuelwood). Organising these rights within the same group and between different groups differs from one place or community to another depending on many social factors and the condition of the resources to be used (Abdul-Jalil, 2006).Customary systems also have shortcomings. While these systems grant primary rights for dar members, they may also show some discrimination towards outsiders by excluding them from some rights, such as access to water resources for animal use (normally during times of resource scarcity). Women are also excluded from decision-making in these systems, and decision-making power is usually concentrated in the hands of one or a select few (Babiker, 2008).Although pastoralists in Sudan are marginalised 44 and have, in many places, lost control of their tribal institutions (as many of the roles of tribal leaders have been taken over by modern state institutions), their native tribal administration still functions and plays a vital role. Despite the wider national context of massive political changes since the 2019 revolutionary transition, and the subsequent fragile political situation in the country that has critically crippled national and local formal government, the tribal administration remains the main form of local customary governance, with a continuing local presence and ongoing practical engagement in pastoralists' dealings (Sulieman and Young, 2023). The Native Administration also remains critically important for conflict resolution. Although a wide range of conflict-management institutions exists in pastoralist areas in the country, the most important and historically recognised mechanism remains the Native Administration. Tribal leaders have engaged in almost all types of traditional dispute-resolution mechanisms (Egemi, 2017), and continue to do so.It is clear that there are two land tenure systems functioning concurrently in the country -the formal and the informal systems. As mentioned above, the state's formal land tenure system functions more robustly in urban areas (Komey, 2009;Abukashawa, 2021), and de facto tenure systems predominate in rural areas. While the law applies in all parts of the country, state institutions do not have a significant presence in many parts of the country -particularly in rural, remote or conflict-affected areas -and the law is not routinely applied. For example, the Unregistered Lands Act of 1970 was never routinely applied in Sudan's non-riverine areas.Authorities invoked the law only when a legal basis for state land acquisition was needed and to exert greater control over economic activities and other activities of interest. More specific to the study area, the state formal legal system is almost non-existent, or at least is not implemented on the ground 45 in Jabrat El Sheikh Locality (or mahaliyya), where the study community is located. For example, the 2015 Range and Pasture Law, which gives the Department of Range and Pasture the right to manage the rangelands, is not implemented in Jabrat El Sheikh Locality and pastoralists are also unaware of this law or other formal land legislations.With regard to gender, due to the country's predominantly patriarchal approach, 'gender roles and gender relations are socially constructed around the supremacy of masculinity and the domination of males over females. This has contributed to women's internalisation of their position as inferior compared to men. Therefore, this has compromised women's rights, including the rights to land' (IGAD, 2021).45 With the exception of some presence and effectiveness of the Forest National Corporation (FNC). A locality-led dispute resolution committee is also present, which is functional and intervenes if the purely informal system of dispute resolution does not reach a satisfactory conclusion.De jure tenurePastoralism is formally recognised in Kenya. For example, the National Land Policy of 2009 asserts that the government shall recognise pastoralism as a legitimate land-use and production system and provide flexible and negotiated cross-boundary access to natural resources. Equally, the policy recognises that special attention must be given to pastoralism, given the historical perception around pastoralism and pastoral land. Similarly, the National Environment Policy states that the government is to implement a livestock policy that is cognisant of livestock mobility and communal management of natural resources. In fact, across livestock policy, there is a clear recognition of the importance of mobility for pastoralists and references to promoting and protecting it.In Kenya's past, land was officially categorised as private land, government land and trust lands, with most open pastoral lands falling under the latter category. The concept of trust lands was first introduced under the British as the colonial government's way of 'acknowledging' land held collectively under customary systems in rural areas under the 1938 Land Ordnance.Post-independence, it was the Kenyan government's way of doing the same, under the Trust Land Act of 1968 and the Land Group Representatives Act of 1968. Trust land extended only access/use rights to communities. Rights of management, exclusion and alienation remained with the government (Matteo, 2021). County governments (then councils) had delegated power to lease land concessions from within trust lands to individuals or companies, to sanction land alienation and privatisation, and to adjudicate land rights. This opened up trust lands to extensive political interference (Matteo, 2022) and made it straightforward to excise land from communal pastoral rangelands -an activity that takes place today.Also in the past, some pastoral lands were privatised as group ranches. The groupranch concept was introduced in 1965/1966 to privatise the rangelands and to transform subsistence-focused pastoral production systems into more modern and commercial livestock production (Kamau and John, 1998). It gave communities greater control and land rights within specific collective land parcels. While originally intended to improve livestock productivity, pastoralists used the group-ranch model to establish greater rights to land and to ward against pastoral land allocation to outsiders (Marcel, 1995).However, the group-ranch model proved far from ideal to protect collective pastoral tenure systems. Given the emphasis on privatisation and production under this tenure model, it was seen over time that land within group ranches became increasingly subdivided and parcelled, mainly for crop production, and often with the blessing of the community's common leadership (Mwangi, 2007;John, 1994). This posed serious mobility challenges and uninterrupted rangeland use for livestock production (Kamau and John, 1998). It also emphasised glaring inequalities within communities. For example, the long-term legacy of privatisation and parcellation under this tenure model is one of landlessness and poverty (Rutten, 1992), as some gained and others lost. Women also lost out. As group ranches were subdivided and parcelled, women were marginalised in this process due to entrenched patriarchal norms and an all-male leadership that favoured men, with women given smaller parcels of land in drier areas far away from water points and access routes. Conflicts over land became a regular feature in these areas (Campell et al., 2000).Today, given the historically precarious situation of collectively held pastoral land under the category of trust lands, and given the lessons learned from the group ranch model, Kenya has emerged on the other side of a land-reform process that has taken previous shortcomings into account. This reform process began with the delivery of the National Land Policy, which benefited from deeper citizen participation, followed by the Kenya Constitution of 2010, which, like the land policy, was largely citizen-driven. The constitution, among other things, replaced trust lands with community land. Community land was then formalised and further explained under the Community Land Act (CLA) passed in 2016.Unlike trust lands (where communities are merely land users), community land belongs to communities. Following a formal registration process as prescribed under the CLA, the full set of land rights is conferred on the community. The community then owns the land, which is to be managed through elected committees made up of all segments of the community (GOK, 2010;2016). Until communities have formally registered their land, the land continues to be held in trust by the county government, with the main difference being that any investments/ proceeds from the land are to be held in a community account on behalf of communities, to be accessed at the time of registration. An example of this can be seen in Turkana, where land investments are currently held in a community account on behalf of communities for access on completion of registration.There is a sense of optimism that communal land registered under the CLA will yield different results from those observed for group ranches, given that the principles underpinning the two models are different. The first was a state-led initiative emphasising commercialisation and privatisation. The second is a community-led initiative that advocates for the formal recognition of community ownership as per the de facto communal tenure systems already in place. The CLA is also seen as a means of formally rectifying inequalities and inequities in customary systems, such as the marginalisation of women and youth, given specific provisions for this in the law.The CLA and the Kenya Constitution of 2010, among other national policies and legislations, promote women's rights (including land rights) and outlaw gender discrimination. However, attention must be paid to this aspect during implementation to reduce the known gap between progressive policies and legislations and realities on the ground, where patriarchal systems still dominate and which have been known to influence implementation of the laws.Marsabit, Wajir, Turkana, Garissa, Mandera, Samburu and Tana River counties are the main open unregistered pastoral lands held in trust in accordance with Article 6 of the CLA (officially community lands). However, de facto, the land is still held under customary collective pastoral tenure systems and remains largely undivided, to support pastoral mobility and flexible land use. Within these lands, pastoralists are also not averse to holding private plots in urbanising townships and also within some parts of collective land. The informal system is, therefore, the main system in play.The CLA is seen as a progressive legislation that could properly secure pastoralists' collective land rights. However, operationalisation of the law is slow, with questions about whether there is genuine political will to implement it (Alden-Wily, 2018). There are also questions about the state's financial and technical capacity to realise the full implementation (Oloo et al., 2021).Women access pastoral land and natural resources as part of the pastoral collective, and their access to natural resources is still mediated through male relatives by marriage or kinship. There remains, therefore, the risk of women losing out on land rights should provisions under national laws not be implemented (or should they not be implemented in a timely fashion) (Oloo et al., 2021).","tokenCount":"22204"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f6482f7d6abdaed188993e4ff7856558","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/86f84c33-5148-4b9a-bbef-0ff0007baa02/retrieve","id":"939767262"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"914977e0-3e00-4330-a047-3c8dac414a9c","pagecount":"41","content":"Les guides de recherche de I'lita informenf et guident les scientifiques et techniciens engages dans des activiles de recherche essenlielles pour Ie developpement agricole. Les guides de recherche peuvent 6tre utilises dans la recherche et la formation. lis sont periodiquement mis a jour afin de relleler I'evolution de la connaissance scientifique.L'lita autonse la reproduction de ce documenf a des fins non lucratives. Pour toute reproduction de nature commerciale, confacter Ie Service des publications de I'ita.Objectif. Ce guide a pour objectif de vous pennettre de: Resume. En agriculture, I'arpentage sert a preparer des cartes topographiques qui indiquent les variations au niveau de la surface du terrain. Les cartes topagraphiques constituent une base necessaire pour la pre• paration de cartes de stations de recherche. Celles-ci indiquent entre autre. I'emplacement des champs, des batiments, des routes et les mesures de conservation du sol.Plusieurs types de carte peuven1 Hre utilises it differentes fins, comme une carte facile a reconnaitre (Fig. 1) pour Ie joueur de foot-ball, des cartes routieres pour Ie voyageur (Fig. 2) e1 des cartes iIlustrees (Fig. 3).Une vraie carte est une illustration qui indique toutes les caraeteris1iques et les distances en respectant leurs proportions au sein d'une region; en d'autres termes, l'iIIustration suit une echelle definie. Des symboles peuvent Hre utilises sur une carte pour indiquer diffe• rents elements, tels des bAtiments, des marais, des roehers, des arbres, des routes, des voies ferrees, etc. Les symboles sont expliques dans un coin reserve a la legende (Fig. 9). Une carte peut egalement etre orienlee vers les regions environnantes en indiquant sa position par rapport au nord. Par consequent, une vraie carte doit comporter une echelle, une fleche indiquant Ie nord \"reel\" ou \"magnetique\" et, normalement, une legende. Le type de carte Ie plus couramment utilis~ par les gerants d'exploitations agricoles est appe\\e carte topographique ou \"topocarte\" (Fig. 4). Une carte topographique rev~le les variations dans Ie niveau du terrain, telles qu'elles sont definies par les courbes de niveau. Une courbe de niveau relie tous les points d'une hauteur donnee au-dessus du niveau de la mer ou au-dessus de tout autre niveau SUT la carte. La hauteur representee paT une courbe de niveau est toujours indiquee sur la carte. Emplois des cartes topographiques. Une bonne carte topographique est indispensable it un gerant d'exploitation agricole, car elle lui serl a visualiser les pentes, a determiner si elles sont douces ou raides (Fig. 5 et 6), concaves ou convexes (Fig. 7). Elle aide it determiner les limites des galeries d'ecoulement naturel (Fig. 8), les sites routiers, les aires de construction et de culture.Les cartes topographiques servent it dresser:des cartes de capacite, des cartes de stations de recherche.FIg. 5. Carte variation d'une pente.•~:~b to . ~ .. ~.•9•• D .        . . • -.r.:   Exercice 3: Dessinez un rectangle irregulier flanque d'un triangle, mais en rapport avec une certaine orientation de la boussole (Fig. 17). Servez-vous de la boussole et du niveau a lunette. Le but de cet exercice est de vous familiariser avec la meth odologie des leves topographiques.Exercez-vous A etablir une grille au champ et A enregistrer des niveaux A tous les points de la grille pour preparer une carte topographique du site. VOllS pouvez travailler en equipes pour arpenter les parties attenantes d'un champ. Les cartes preparees par les equipes peuvent etre assembMes pour obtenir une carte complHe du champ.Etablissez une ligne de base commune pour la grille sur toute ]a longueur du champ A des intervalles de 30 m. Divisez cette ligne en parts, une pour chaque equipe. Chacune des equipes doit etablir un angle droit A partir de chaque jalon de la ligne de base et etendre les lignes jusqu'A la limite du champ, en pla~ant des jalons tous les 20 m.Chaque equipe doit installer son niveau A lunette et Telever les cotes A chacun des jalons du site. Calculez des quantites reduites pour l'exercice de cartographie plus loin (section 8).Materiel necessaire pour chaque equipe : ","tokenCount":"655"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"767c383b14f0881ab93b8afd0eaea8c4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b86e0936-bd7d-4a57-8bcb-f87bb20c478a/retrieve","id":"-1368501525"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"283febbd-837a-4a70-a2f6-ebf9aa55c79a","pagecount":"10","content":"Ethiopia is experiencing extreme weather variability with some areas being vulnerable to drought, while others are impacted by flooding. Despite being given relatively less attention as compared to drought, flooding has long been recognized as one of the major disasters affecting the lives and livelihoods of the people. Flood disaster has been limited in the past in terms of frequency and scope. The recent trend of increasing incidents of floods in Ethiopia is disrupting the livelihoods of the population residing in the lowlands. Flood hazard is part and parcel of living for a large number of people in the lowlands such as districts in Afar located along Awash River, in the Somali region along the Wabi Shebele River, in the South Omo along Omo River, in Gambella along the Baro and Akobo Rivers, and floodplains surrounding Lake Tana. The humid highlands that are characterized by steep ad rugged terrain and heavy rainfall features pose the lowlands prone to floods during the rainy seasons. Often, floods occur in the country as a result of intense and sustained rainfalls in the highlands causing rivers to overflow and inundate areas along the riverbanks in lowland plains. On the other hand, these regions have one of the highest potentials for flood farming as the runoff generated from the highlands of Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR, and Tigray can be available in the immediate lowlands.Flood-based farming is characterized by unpredictable flash floods (timing, frequency, and magnitude) from ephemeral and perennial streams resulting in high uncertainty to determine the extent and duration of farming. Furthermore, to utilize riverine floods, the river courses are changing from season to season leading to change in riverbed levels and sediment accumulations. Moreover, despite the growing flood events and seasonal flood hazards reported over years, there is no account of the extent of flood occurrence and lack of national strategies and aspirations to convert flash floods into an opportunity for mitigating drought and boosting dryland agricultural production. Traditional experience in recession farming and some pilot development actions of spate irrigation revealed the significance of flood farming to copping shocks and alleviating livelihoods in drought-affected areas. However, these opportunities are overlooked in the agriculture and water development strategies as potential solutions for drought management and reduction of flood risks. This information gap leads to low policy support to technical, financial, and legal aspects to respond to the development of flood risk management measures and flood-based farming and on-farm agricultural production practices.Flood hazard assessment is conducted by the National Flood Task Force (NFTF) coordinated by the National Disaster Risk Management Commission (NDRMC). However, the assessment of flash floods was conducted based on reports from local authorities without backup through hydrological analysis. The historical records on flash flood data collated from United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) flood flash update reports and remote sensing approach (i.e., using Sentinel-1 (Synthetic aperture radar) SAR images and satellite measured soil moisture) suggests that more than 390 districts faced flood hazards at least once in the period between 1960 and 2020. Before the 1990s, the flood incidence occurred in 23 and 17 districts in the 1970s and 1980s, respectively. The trends of flood incidents increased in the 1990s (247 districts), 2000s (306 districts), and 2010s (540 districts) (Figure 1).   The current experiences revealed that flood farming is practiced under two conditions driven by climate characteristics and geomorphological conditions. First, it is practiced in moisture stress areas that prevail rainfall variability and dry spells during the cropping season. In these areas, flood farming is possible if the upstream highlands receive high rainfall as a source of flood that reach low-lying flat areas. The resulting farming system fully depends on the runoff generated from upstream highland areas. Second, flood-based farming is practiced in areas that regularly receive floods, which can form the basis for either inundation or recession farming. In flood based farming, the production system encompasses common and staple dryland crops like sorghum, maize, millet, teff, cowpea, sesame, groundnut, vegetables, and other fodder crops. In addition, flood farming could increase the availability of livestock feed and livestock water which support to addressing the feed shortage in the dry months. Based on the intensity of flooding and the local prevailing conditions, currently, four flood-based farming techniques have been widely practiced. These include spate irrigation, inundation, recession farming, and flood spreading using weir structures. Based on a review of reports and studies, flood farming practices is estimated to cover nearly 120,000 ha of land in drought-prone areas. On the other hand, according to a recent literature survey, the potential flood farming is estimated at 5.5 million ha. Figure 3 illustrates locations where flood-based farming including spate, recession and/or inundation, and flood spreading are currently practiced. Flood-based farming is a type of farming where the water source is neither rainfed nor irrigation. It is a form of runoff water management that applies in areas where rainfed and irrigated systems are not potentially feasible. Although it is an uncertain type of farming, economically it is one of the potential entry points for agricultural production in the drought-affected and drylands. It has the potential to influence local livelihoods, economies, and biophysical systems as it is the only source of water in arid and semi-arid environments. It could have a range of purposes including agricultural production under dryland situations, rangeland management, livestock water supply, and restoring the soil and water resources. Flood farming holds potential at least in the short term to overcome the problem of crop failure. It also serves as a climate-smart practice to adapt to shocks and extremes. A proper understanding of flood occurrence and adaptability of the locations for flood farming will give ample opportunity in drought-prone areas to create resilient livestock and crop production system. Thus, addressing the knowledge and evidence gap on the potentials of flood farming contributes to an informed decision towards unlocking the opportunities of flood farming to support livelihoods and economic development in droughtprone areas.Out of the identified flood-prone areas, for assessing the socio-ecological suitability of areas for potential flood-based crop-livestock farming (crop farming, pasture production, rangeland management, and livestock watering), we employed a GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) approach with a set of weighted decision criteria. Finally, the suitability mapping revealed that 32.6 million hectares of land of the country (area with rainfall less than 500mm) has met the suitability criteria of which 61 % was classified as highly suitable area (SC1) whereas 39 % was classified as moderately suitable area (SC2) (Figure 4). Basin-wise analysis showed that the Wabi Shebele basin has the largest pflood farming potential coverage which accounts for 10.98 million ha (7.57 million ha highly suitable) followed by Genale Dawa with 8.17 million ha (5.39 million ha highly suitable) and Awash 4.92 million ha (2.63 million ha highly suitable). ","tokenCount":"1130"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54105a079dee3482824cfc28b6602ed5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/056fa862-9e65-4a0f-b72f-bc13eb83212c/retrieve","id":"1634073341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2825a882-2659-48f2-ab81-acb991f3db8e","pagecount":"8","content":"The share of countries that referenced soil organic carbon (SOC) in new and updated NDCs has increased since the previous round of NDCs. ◼ Among the top 10 countries with the highest mitigation potential for SOC in croplands and grasslands, 6 referred to SOC in mitigation measures. ◼ Among the top 10 countries with the highest mitigation potential in wetlands, 5 referred to wetlands in mitigation measures. ◼ Only five countries included GHG targets related to SOC (Belize, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Myanmar, and Uganda). ◼ SOC commitments that demonstrated high standards, which may indicate options for other countries, included quantified outcomes, information on reference levels of indicators, mitigation potentials, and policies. ◼ Specification of sub-sector actions in NDCs can improve eligibility for climate finance, but this level of detail can reduce countries' flexibility for meeting their NDC targets and countries often lack affordable, robust monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems. Transparent commitments to soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration as a measure for climate change adaptation and mitigation are critical for tracking progress toward global climate targets. Global SOC sequestration potential ranges from 2 to 5 Gt CO2 per year, or 4 to 10percent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2018 (Fuss et al. 2018, Ge et al. 2020). As of September 30, 2022, 106 of 164 countries submitting Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) included SOC or related measures in mitigation or adaptation contributions. Of these, 36 countries explicitly included SOC in agricultural land (including wetlands) in their new and updated NDCs. Ambition in SOC is especially needed among countries with the highest mitigation potential for SOC sequestration, yet not all of the top countries with the highest potentials included SOC in their latest NDCs. Kazakhstan has not submitted a new or updated NDC as of September 30, 2022.To better understand the role of SOC sequestration in the new and updated NDCs, we evaluated SOC and related commitments in the new and updated NDCs (see Box 1 for an overview). We evaluated progress and ambition since the previous NDCs, 1 assessed ambition among countries with the highest mitigation potential for SOC sequestration and protection, highlighted examples of domestic policies for implementation, and summarized needs for implementation support. We report here on these results and conclude with recommendations on how to enhance ambition and improve transparency in the NDCs, while recognizing the challenges countries face. The analysis aims to enhance the information necessary for clarity, transparency and understanding (CTU) of NDCs by identifying gaps in targets, finance needs and policy.As of September 30, 2022, 164 countries (137 Parties including the EU) submitted new or updated NDCs to the UNFCCC. 2 Of these, 36 countries referred to SOC (23 in mitigation contributions, 16 in adaptation contributions). This represents 22 more countries compared to the previous round of NDCs based on an analysis by Wiese  et al. (2021). Twenty-nine countries included SOC commitments for the first time since the previous round of NDCs. 3,4 One hundred seven (107) countries also referred in their NDCs to practices associated with increasing SOC sequestration (see Table 1 for a list of practices), with or without specifying SOC. When considering these related practices, 81 countries included SOC or related mitigation measures (49%) and 91 included SOC or related adaptation measures in the new and updated NDCs (55%) (see Figure 1). Agroforestry, wetlands and grassland management were prioritized in both mitigation and adaptation contributions (see Table 1).Similar to the previous NDCs, SOC commitments ranged from broad, qualitative measures (including policies) to GHG targets, defined as commitments to reduce emissions or increase carbon sinks by a specified amount and timeline. Only five countries included GHG targets related to SOC (Belize, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Myanmar, and Uganda). Specifying SOCrelated policies and non-GHG actions in NDCs may provide flexibility for countries that cannot track changes in SOC sequestration but can track policies and actions. Fourteen countries explicitly referred to SOC with quantified indicators (with or without clear timelines) in new and updated NDCs, seven of which included quantified indicators for the first time. 5 Forty-eight countries included quantified indicators for measures for SOC or related practices that may enhance SOC. The majority of countries with quantified indicators for SOC or related measures expressed goals in non-GHG units, typically hectares under a specific practice. Table 3 summarizes GHG targets related to SOC, and Table 4 presents examples of measures with quantified indicators in non-GHG units.   (peatland and mangroves) (Roe et al. 2021). 7 Only 5 of the top 10 countries with the highest mitigation potential referred to wetlands, peatlands, or mangroves within mitigation contributions in new or updated NDCs (see Table 6). Although Malaysia and Mexico lacked mitigation measures for wetlands in their NDCs, both countries described wetland conservation actions in their adaptation contributions. Among the top countries, only Australia and Indonesia referred to SOC or wetlands with quantified indicators.   ◼ Maintained mitigation measures for mangroves from previous NDC ◼ Clarified SOC is not currently included but noted that future efforts may be made to quantify SOC in mangroves and peatlands * Indicates wetlands, peatlands or mangroves were specified in mitigation measures for the first time in new or updated NDCs a Mitigation potentials shown here include non-CO2 greenhouse gases in addition to carbon sequestration.Finance: Nineteen countries reported finance needs for SOC and related measures in their new and updated NDCs, ranging from 0.6 million USD to over 1.8 billion USD from domestic or international sources (see Figure 2). The majority of countries specified finance for mitigation measures and measures conditional on international support. While more finance estimates were provided at the sub-sector level in new and updated NDCs relative to previous NDCs, many estimates were still only reported in aggregate for the agriculture sector. Figure 2 presents the finance needed for SOC and related measures, where reported. It does not include needs that may be aggregated across the agriculture sector or multiple sub-sectors. As such, the data presented in Figure 2 are not representative of all measures related to SOC in NDCs.Capacity Building: Most capacity building needs were presented as crosscutting needs that are not specific to agricultural sub-sectors. Countries mentioned several capacity building needs that are also relevant to MRV for soil carbon, such as data collection, support for establishing MRV systems, and inventory methodological improvements.Technology Transfer: Technology transfer needs were often discussed at the sector level; however, a few countries mentioned specific needs for SOC or related practices. For example, Sierra Leone identified the need for technology transfer to combat soil erosion. The Gambia included conservation agriculture as a priority for technology transfer.Countries often referenced crosscutting policies or priorities related to social inclusion in their new and updated NDCs. Some countries explicitly referred to gender, youth, local or indigenous communities as part of soil carbon measures. In the context of SOC and related measures, at least 22 countries referred to the role of women, youth, indigenous or local communities. For example, Cambodia plans to encourage women to participate in conservation agriculture. Papua New Guinea noted the importance of working with youth and women to implement agroforestry. Cabo Verde plans to provide incentives for women and youth to participate in a finance and credit scheme for regenerative agriculture. Social inclusion is more often described as part of adaptation measures, despite the relevance of inclusion for mitigation measures as well.Ambitious sub-sector action can attract finance and guide implementation. However, countries may prefer to maintain flexibility in how they plan to achieve their sector-level or economy-wide targets rather than commit to sub-sector actions. Sub-sector action may also be challenging to track, particularly for countries without affordable, robust MRV systems.Quantified SOC sequestration targets may not be feasible for countries without the data, technology, or finance necessary to estimate changes in SOC stocks. Open source, cost-effective accounting systems can help countries demonstrate greater ambition and track progress towards long-term goals. In the short-term, countries have adapted by including ambition for SOC in the form of SOC-related measures and non-GHG outcomes from these practices, or existing policies that contribute to SOC sequestration.The number of countries including SOC in their new and updated NDCs has doubled, but the overall numbers are still low. SOC was prioritized by only 50-60% of the countries with the highest mitigation potentials. Some countries with the highest ambition for SOC have improved their inclusion of SOC by providing more specific information on outcomes, reference indicators, and investment. Changes in ambition for SOC can be ambiguous if units are not consistent across NDCs. ","tokenCount":"1416"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bc927e7e54537d784e342a7160bc606a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c36e922c-e84b-4ed3-a7d5-83396858ac81/retrieve","id":"1789429885"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9ce6abff-625e-47c7-b9d9-66b3d0b8b7c2","pagecount":"2","content":"Project Title: P1684 -Product Line 3.4.1: Business models and novel knowledge diffusion approaches to enhance feed and forage technology adoption Description of the innovation: A local manufacturer in collaboration with ICARDA and its national partners in Tunisia designed and developed a prototype of a \"mobile seed cleaning and treatment unit\" which has been locally manufactured at low cost. With the help of these mobile seed cleaning and treatment units, members of farmer cooperatives can significantly increase their seed quality and consequently their fodder production. • 3.8.16 At least 2 inclusive business models for forage seed production and conservation identified in Uganda, Kenya and Colombia, and 1 existing seed business model evaluated and 1 seed processing business model developed for Tunisia Sub-IDOs:• 8 -More efficient use of inputs Contributing Centers/PPA partners:• ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas","tokenCount":"140"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"896f186e132c0cfdcc5820ddf058b6d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/027d0e83-a1d2-4997-8e48-5ddaaf0009b7/retrieve","id":"1652440893"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a2dc13d-b66f-43a0-adef-b47e48442319","pagecount":"7","content":"In its commentary on the original version of CRP5, the ISPC recognized the fundamental importance and potential of this CRP to fill a critical gap in the CGIAR research for development portfolio. The rationale remains compelling for a coordinated international research effort on water scarcity, land degradation and threats to ecosystem sustainability related to agriculturefocusing on research and outputs at the landscape to river basin scale. While the original proposal identified questions to be pursued and the outputs and outcomes expected from on-going projects, not enough was said about new science and innovative approaches that take advantage of the new CGIAR and its partners. The CRP appeared to be a collection of existing research activities placed into a Strategic Research Portfolio (SRP) without benefit of a prioritization framework to guide the amalgamation and resource allocation process. As such, the eight SRPs proposed were seen as largely independent and self-contained. The original CRP also had not provided the critical analysis, theory and narrowing of issues and hypotheses that could support a prioritization framework for the SRPs and the overall research agenda. Other issues raised in our commentary dealt with the logic of the SRP structure, variable quality of science in some SRPs, the weak IPG content of research outputs, justification of budget, and the proposed management structure. In short, the ISPC felt that a more coherent and compelling proposal could be developed, and recommended that the proposal be substantially revised and re-submitted paying particular attention to eleven key areas (summarized list below).The revised CRP5 proposal has been substantially re-written, and is now a much tighter and much improved document. CRP5 partners have taken the concerns and issues cited above seriously and have, for the most part, addressed them satisfactorily. We agree with the proponents that the revised proposal is more focused, has a better integrating framework and proposes a set of clearer targets and deliverables. The revised proposal is also markedly different in that more emphasis is given to new directions rather than a continuation of wellestablished research projects. It is particularly satisfying to learn that the process of revising the document has greatly enhanced cooperation between the major partners in the CGIAR such that there is a genuine sense of common intent and focus.Although a few concerns remain-as discussed below under each of the -Must Haves‖-the ISPC considers that the CRP5 partners have taken into account the bulk of the recommendations made in the initial review process in a conscientious and adequate fashion. The result is a more cohesive overall research focus and stronger logical structure developed through a smaller number of SRPs.The ISPC recommends that the revised CRP 5 proposal be approved subject to minor revision taking into account the following commentary, with particular attention given to:  While the link to the ‗cause-effect' thinking stated as the overall research aim of the Program is clear in some SRP components, it still needs strengthening in others and in many of the specific projects.  A more ‗hypothesis-driven' approach is being taken throughout the proposal; a remaining concern is that some of the hypotheses being formulated are pre-assigned beliefs for which information will be sought to provide justification, rather than undergoing rigorous, objective testing.  The ecosystem services perspective permeates the proposal, but elements of this perspective and respective analysis are absent in problem sets in some SRPs.  Productivityecosystem services trade-offs are explicitly mentioned at the ‗overall aim' level of the proposal but are sometimes missing conceptually at the lower, project level.  The Rainfed System SRP is better presented, but is not yet better integrated and could easily be a standalone CRP; it remains weak in terms of focus and likely impacts, and also in its IPG content. The links between the work on pastoral systems and relevant work in other CRPs should be strengthened at the design stage.  The degree of independence of the steering committee is questionable given the Lead Center DG as a cochair and the use of the word ‗implementing' in relation to the prioritization process which goes further than ‗strategic oversight'.Below is the ISPC's assessment of how the revised proposal responds to each of the 11 ISPC -Must Haves‖. In all but a few instances, the proponents have added key gap-filling sections, or re-written or re-structured the proposal to address these concerns in a comprehensive and satisfactory manner. Because there was quite a bit of coincidence and overlap between the -Must Haves‖ from the ISPC and the FC members commentaries (especially in terms of the need for a more coherent structure, for conducting innovative research and avoiding the status quo, comparative advantage issues, and the need to revise the governance structure and to provide authority to an oversight body), the FC -Must Haves‖ have not been listed here separately. For the most part, we believe that they too have been addressed satisfactorily.Adequately addressed: A compelling set of challenges for the program and for agriculture in the developing world is presented. Additional literature is reviewed in Chapter 1 and in the Appendices, which provides a sound basis for selection of specific natural resource management (NRM) issues to be included in CRP5 and provides the motivation for new research on water, land and ecosystems. The stated overall research aim of CRP5 is strong, innovative and vital for the evolving direction of research in developing country agriculture to address questions such as ‗how changes in production systems affect ecosystem services?' and, ‗how to measure and use information to improve policy and management at the basin and landscape scales?'The prioritizing framework (Chapter 2) is based on global visioning of the key issues (water scarcity, land degradation and ecosystem decline) surrounding agricultural intensification and their environmental impacts. Regional consultations and strategic reasoning underpin the definition of the researchable problems that can be dealt with in the next 5-10 years. More emphasis is now given to how solutions can be developed to deal with NRM and ecosystem services constraints on sustainable intensification and a number of major ‗problem sets' have been defined based on theories of change and research questions (hypotheses).The choice of the eight sets of river basins in section 2.8 reflects the need to capitalize on past and current work by the CGIAR and its partners. There is little doubt that the basins chosen are major river basins with a total population approaching one billion, and that the long-term nature of NRM work makes it desirable to fully exploit past research activities. It is therefore not surprising that the selected basins are those where Centers and the CPWF have been working until now. The motivation for the research to be undertaken is adequately described in the presentation of these basins (p38-55).CRP5 gives every indication of being a great opportunity to explore the ‗cause-effect' relationships between production systems and the full suite of their outcomes: one of these is the ecosystem services outcomes but also of significance (and importance in understanding incentives for up-take) are the financial (especially the impacts on farm costs and revenuesand thus profits) and social (gender and equity issues) impacts. In most of the research projects proposed, there is a link to this ‗cause-effect' thinking, and hence the overall research aim of the Program. However, it is not sufficiently well developed in some elements of the SRPs and in many of the specific projects.It is pleasing to see a more ‗hypothesis-driven' approach being taken throughout the proposal. That together with the development of research priorities through more evaluation work and the inputs of the Steering Committee should see a more ‗science-based' and ‗policy-driven' research agenda. A remaining concern is that at times the hypotheses being formulated appear to be based on beliefs for which information will be sought to provide justification. This is possibly a function of the way the CRP5 proposal sets out the anticipated outcomes of the research work. By its nature, research is a process of enquiry in which the hypothesis should be the target of falsification not justification. Nowhere is this more (potentially) problematic than in the research agenda for groundwater. In Problem Set 3 (p75) the focus is on the ‗over-draft' of groundwater in South Asia. 1 The proposition is put forth that the problem has been the result of subsidized electricity prices. The solution to the problem is envisaged to be through the electricity sector (rather than on other options such as conservation agriculture or choice of different crops). Yet in the fourth problem set that focuses on the Ganges Basin, it appears that the envisaged solution is to subsidise electricity supplies. Why is the solution in one system described as the problem in an adjacent basin? A preferable way of framing the research is to propose numerous management strategies as options and test them against a base of doing nothing. The common property nature of the groundwater resource is not addressed in either case, yet alternative management strategies could be framed around that condition.In this light, it would be constructive to ensure that each component research project has a sound hypothesis that relates back to ‗cause-effect' theory and that research methods are designed explicitly to seek the falsification of the hypothesis. In each case, this process should be focused on the specific issue / problem to be considered, the establishment of a range of potential solutions, the testing of those alternatives in the context of the overall ‗cause-effect' aim of the CRP, consistent with a specific hypothesis and the drawing of conclusions that are relevant to the established issue / problem. In a similar way the goal expressed on p143 that River Basins can be managed ‗to maximise the value of ecosystem services and benefits' seems to miss the point that there are trade-offs involved. These trade-offs are explicitly mentioned at the ‗overall aim' of the proposal but are sometimes missing conceptually at the lower, project level. For instance, it is not necessarily desirable to seek maximum ecosystem services from a basin when that means losses in financial and social benefits. The critical question that the overall CRP5 is addressing is how to come up with resource management solutions that maximise social well-being, given that this comprises ecological, financial and social contributions. Put simply, the overall aim of CRP5 is laudable but it has yet to be sufficiently ‗infused' throughout all levels of the SRPsto the problem sets and the individual research projects.The ISPC hopes that the above considerations are taken into account during the prioritization process (described in Chapter 3) where, it is understood, the Steering Committee will guide selection of future problem sets over the next six months, and also in the implementation phase, at which time the specific activities to be undertaken will be delineated in detail.Adequately addressed: This is achieved primarily through development of the specific problem sets to be tackled in the first five years. Problem sets are defined through analysis of previous work in the area, the specification of theories of change, research hypotheses to be tested, partnership strategies and outputs, outcomes and contributions to the SLOs of the CGIAR Strategy and Results Framework. A concern is that key problem sets that are established underneath the overall goal of the CRP are sometimes disconnected from it. This is particularly the case for SRP1 where hardly any mention is made of the linkages between production and ecosystem services. A good test for the CRP5 proponents would be to require every problem set and every research issue to show how it addresses the overall CRP aim.1 Questionable research structures are also apparent in other problem sets. For example: On p105: ‗we will help pastoralists secure rights and access to resources'. Why do the rights of pastoralists trump the interests of others? The issue should be one of investigating the consequences (or effects: financial, ecosystem, social) of alternative rights allocations (the cause). And on p146 it is ‗decided' that groundwater use is to be increased by 30% in SSA. Why is this the ‗answer'? Rather, alternative strategies for groundwater use should be investigated (cause and effect) and the analysis so undertaken should be used to provide policy advice regarding the development of the groundwater resource. Again, are there ecosystem services implications, along with financial and social impacts?Generally, however, the narratives in Chapters 4-9 describe the activities to be undertaken in adequate detail, and provide justification for the problem sets chosen under each of the SRPs-presumably selected in the consultation, vision and strategic thinking process described in Chapter 2. In Chapter 4 on Irrigated Systems, five problem sets are listed for the first five years. It is hard to argue about the relevance of the problem sets chosen, given the vast experience of the CGIAR Centers working on this topic. Impact pathways are more clearly delineated, and the specification of levers of change and uptake strategies (Table 3.1) is a very positive development in this proposal. However, uptake strategies will need further development and detail (e.g., ‗sit at the table with policymakers' is itself a major milestone... how to ensure CRP5 gets a seat at the policymaker's table is also an issue. The only criticism, which is problem set dependent, is that research outputs are often quite modest relative to the ambitious nature of the goals addressed in the write-up. For example, see Table 4.2 on the expected outputs for ensuring the success of irrigation in Africa. Other problem sets are more focused and have more tangible outputs, such as the one on the role of energy in managing groundwater overdraft.The proponents emphasize that annual work plans will keep the work focused and on track with respect to time. In addition, the priority setting processes and more detailed listing of deliverables and critical operational aspects (e.g., interactions with the other CRPs; identification of indicators, etc.) will be specified during the implementation phase.Adequately addressed:The revised CRP5 gives considerably more attention to the critical question of whether or not we can intensify and expand agriculture without significant environmental consequences. The program also introduces the concept of using ecosystem services to monitor agricultural impacts. The proponents do acknowledge that the proposal builds (rightly) on past work of the Centers and CPWF, but at the same time introduces innovative approaches and integration between Centers and partners. Thus, while the program builds on IWMI and CPWF work on river basin management, it will integrate soil and water information in a manner not yet attempted in the CGIAR. It also builds on other successful initiatives such as the African Soil Information System, IWMI's water productivity and drought assessment work, ICRISAT's watershed studies and ICARDA's water harvesting work. CRP5 plans to integrate some of this single Center type activity into new projects to deliver greater value. In theory, this program should provide a single point of access for all CGIAR water, land, soil, ecosystem and environmental information, which in combination with the FAO, will enhance the CGIAR's capability to deliver authoritative global and regional resource and environmental assessments related to the impacts of agriculture.The choice of the five SRPs and decision to mainstream ecosystem services perspectives across all SRPs are generally consistent with the conceptual framework and responds adequately to specific suggestions of the ISPC, though not completely. The SRP structure is not actually a nested one with Basins as the highest order, but the Irrigation and Groundwater SRPs and the Dryland and Pastoral Systems SRPs were merged, and the Information and Resource Use and Recovery are stand-alone. The CRP 5 partners have made an effort to integrate the work on ecosystem services across CRP5 by developing some guiding principles. The criticism that the SRP may remain largely independent and self-contained is addressed in section 2.5, where a number of examples are provided to highlight the possible interactions among SRPs. Such interactions are plausible but will only occur if there is a coherent program, driven by a Steering Committee with sufficient authority to foster cooperative work among the SRPs. CGIAR scientists working on NRM understand that research alone is not enough, and this point is well highlighted in 2.6, which describes -research to impact philosophy‖ and the scope of the Program.CRP5 is now built around a series of river basins and these make sense as priorities. The SRP that is still an outlier is SRP2 on rainfed systems. Although this SRP is now much better presented, it is not better integrated and it could easily be a stand-alone CRP. Landscapes are barely mentioned and so the link between landscapes and basins is not evident, which leaves considerable potential for overlap and duplication with other CRPs. The clear distinguishing features to avoid such overlap is that the other CRPs should address onfarm productivity issues in rainfed farming, while CRP5 should focus at the landscape level.Adequately addressed:The ecosystem services perspective, broadly speaking, permeates the proposal. Chapters 2 and 3 in particular give adequate attention to the definition of ecosystem services (supported by Appendix 1). However, because elements of this perspective and analysis appear to be absent in some SRPs and problem sets, it would be useful, as suggested above, to test to see that every problem set has adequately addressed the trade-offs between productivity and environmental services in an appropriate fashion.Not adequately addressed:The Rainfed System SRP is still the weakest in terms of focus and likely impacts. The IPG element is also fairly weak although the revised proposal indicates that tools and methods will be the IPGs. Some of the activities, however, such as providing supplementary irrigation to farmers are clearly not IPGs.Five problem sets are defined in this SRP. The first one addresses the restoration of the fertility of African soils and the reduction of land degradation. It focuses solely on the nutrient limitation and the access to fertilizers. Research outputs are quite general and vague (Table 5.2). The next two problem sets are also quite undefined and lack focus. The one on revitalizing productivity of responsive soils proposes to identify soils of high production potential that are not fully exploited. Here is an opportunity to develop and concentrate on innovative approaches for yield gap analysis, an issue that is mentioned as one of the research outputs but that deserves considerably more attention in the work planned in this proposal. The third problem set aimed at increasing agricultural production while enhancing biodiversity is even more general than the previous one, and is based on the hypothesis that it is possible to increase agricultural output and enhance biodiversity in rainfed areas through improvements in soil and water management practices. The activities planned here are too general. The last two problem sets are more specific and have a clear focus. One of these deals with availability and access to water and land for pastoralists, while the other expands on past successes in extending supplemental irrigation into rainfed areas. Both are well defined and have a clear pathway to impact.Overall, the earlier criticisms of the Rainfed SRP are only partially resolved. Because CRP5 concerns land and water, the overall focus should be the management of both rainfed and pastoral systems. It is imperative to address the water and soil components of rainfed agriculture to raise the very low efficiencies of resource use, and to protect the fragile ecosystems. Two of the five problem sets are quite diffuse and the proponents have been less successful in defining relevant problem sets than in the irrigated systems. It is puzzling that the concept of conservation agriculture (even the term) is not mentioned. Is it because it is covered under a different CRP, or that the subject is not amenable to a landscape-level analysis? Given that conservation agriculture proponents often exaggerate its benefits, it is an approach that cannot be ruled out for productivity enhancement and resource conservation in some situations, including some in small-holder agriculture.Beyond the farm level, there are issues at the landscape and higher levels that need to be researched.This SRP has the largest share of the budget -40% of the total CRP program budget ($28.5m out of a total of $71.6 m in 2011) and retains that share (with total budget rising) over the 3 years. Curiously, in the original proposal, the combined Rainfed + Pastoral Systems SRP budget was only 31% of the total, so the relative importance here has grown. The proponents are apparently open to revisiting the resource allocation but it is now locked into special project funding. In any event, as it is such a large program, it deserves a very much stronger and more compelling research program than currently described.Not adequately addressed: Section 5.7 provides some discussion on the links between the work on pastoral systems and other CRPs, but generally the response is disappointing. The ISPC recognizes the difficulties of describing in detail the links between CRPs while most are still at an early planning stage, but the text in section 5.7 emphasizes use of results from one CRP in another, whereas it might be more effective to engage in joint planning of research. In fact, interacting at an early stage to ensure that the results will add value to respective CRP outputs seems a better bet. The question raised above about conservation agriculture may be answered by the planned cooperation with CRP1.1.Adequately addressed: Connections with sentinel sites are now addressed adequately. In their response on this issue, the proponents indicate they are currently engaged with World Agroforestry and other CRPs to ensure that this happens.Reference is also made to expecting guidance on methods and monitoring opportunities from outcomes of the ISPC NRM workshop in Beijing in October. At the same time, the ISPC agrees with the proponents' suggestion that leadership from the Consortium Board and Office would be useful here.It would also be useful for the overall aim of the CRP5 to be better linked to those of the other CRPs. How do ‗cause-effect' relationships explored in CRP5 manifest themselves as inputs to the other CRPs? For instance, such inputs would be particularly appropriate as considerations in CRP 2 (policy) as they would in CRP 6 (climate change). In short, the overall aim of CRP5 is very powerful and could be more explicitly linked across to the other CRPs and down to the project level within CRP5.Adequately addressed: This issue is adequately covered in the revised proposal as a specific problem set under the Irrigated Systems SRP.Adequately addressed:The description of the partnership strategy at the program level is more focused and there is evidence within each SRP of a more focused (and strategic) approach to new partnerships than was apparent in the original version. The partnership strategy is built around the concept of having core research partners, implementing partners and outreach partners. Each SRP lists existing and potential partners by region. The Irrigation, Resource Recovery and Reuse, Basins, and Information SRPs include specific examples of how partnerships will work in terms of roles and responsibilities.Partly addressed: Figure 13.1 (p187) illustrates a good response to the first 2 points in this recommendation. The Steering Committee, now merged with the advisory committee, has a long list of responsibilities including oversight of strategic direction and partnerships and developing and implementing the prioritisation process. It will be cochaired by the Lead Center DG and an independent member, reports to the Lead Center Board and only appears to be scheduled to meet once per year-which would seem too infrequently. It will provide ‗independent scientific advice and strategic oversight' for CRP5, but its independence is questionable given that the Lead Centre DG is a co-chair and the use of the word ‗implementing' in relation to the prioritisation process goes further than ‗strategic oversight'. Surely implementation should be left to the Management Committee? Also, the composition of the steering committee should include scientists of international reputation that are not involved in ongoing programs, such as CPWF. This will not be easy given the wide involvement of the scientific community in CPWF and IWMI research, but it should be attempted. In summary, a strong and independent Steering Committee is a prerequisite for such an ambitious CRP.The description of monitoring is expansive and includes the setting up of a Monitoring, evaluation and learning unit to provide support to managers across the program. Reference is made to the importance of ‗learning' and providing ‗an adaptive environment, but there is not an explicit statement of how and who will be responsible for adjusting research design and focus within projects in response to the results of monitoring.","tokenCount":"4057"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ca0c12e8ca8c99f7d9b85427bd4c18ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6bd8eca6-d17e-4361-8f1d-0fc57a6861e0/retrieve","id":"533118708"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6d147004-3053-4278-8be0-7d5814c17bc2","pagecount":"82","content":"According with Pule et al., 2013, fields can be sampled intensively or less intensively sampled, depending on infection levels and field size. For intensive sampling in large fields (0•25 ha or larger), it is recommended to take samples at 20 equally spaced sampling points along a Wshaped sampling path that had severe infections. Less intensive sampling for smaller fields (<0•25 ha), consist of either taking five equally spaced sampling points along a diagonal path in fields with low infection levels or randomly collecting as many infected leaves/stems as possible in fields with very low infection levels.It is recommended to use tubers from fields where systemic fungicides against P. infestans have not been applied, because they can affect the establishment of oomycete in the tuber, especially if they are isolates susceptible to Metalaxyl. Initially, non-visible infections can develop, which are produced by contaminants, damaging the purity of the isolates. a. Select tubers of a susceptible variety to P. infestans that does not show symptoms of any disease.In CIP-Lima tubers of Huayro variety is used because of its higher content of carbohydrates and dry matter.b. Wash tubers with plenty of running water and with the help of a brush. Then immerse them in 1.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) for 3 minutes. Rinse tubers two or three times with deionized water to remove excess disinfectant and let it dry at room temperature and store at 4°C in paper bags.Bleach can be used (5.25-6% approx.) Diluted 1/5-1/10.c. Cut a tuber aseptically in half and quickly place an infected leaflet between both halves. Attach both halves with adhesive tape and wrap the tuber with paper towels, then place it in a paper or plastic bag for transfer to the laboratory.If a plastic bag is used, it helps maintain the humidity, but if it is kept closed for a long time (7 or more days), the development of soft rot caused by Pectobacterium can be favored. d. In the laboratory, cut the tuber in slices from the place of contact between the infected leaf and the tuber, then put them in a wet chamber and incubate for 7 days to induce pathogen development. Incubation temperature should be 15-18° C with light and dark periods of 12 hours.Tubers should be carefully examined to discard aseptically any secondary fungal or bacterial infection.a. A newspaper (sheet 55x44 cm) is folded in four. One short side is closed with staples to make a bag, so that we have two bags per sheet.b. Infected leaves are placed separately in each bag. The entire newspaper sheet is placed inside a plastic bag to reduce dehydration of the sheets.c. In the laboratory, place samples in a wet chamber for 3-5 days to induce P. infestans sporulation.Samples must be sent quickly to the laboratory to avoid dehydration of the leaves and consequently the death of the oomycete. If the sample has several days of collection it can be isolated directly from the tissue in culture medium with antibiotics.Laboratory manual for Phytophthora infestans work at CIPThere are different ways of isolating P. infestans from infected tissue but two common ways are 1) to transfer fungal hyphae and sporangia directly onto medium in a petri dish, and 2) to place infected plant tissue on a selective medium. The first of these generally involves growing the fungus on potato tubers and the second on tuber or leaf tissue. In our experience, potato genotypes are easier to isolate with method 1, and tomato isolates with method 2. In any case, it is always easier to isolate from a recent infection, which is just beginning to sporulate.P. infestans is relatively easy to keep alive by repeated inoculations on living tissue. On the other hand, P. infestans is sometimes difficult to get into pure culture. Therefore, keep your isolate alive on living tissue until it is successfully purified.1. Sporulating lesions on leaf tissue taken from the field are washed in fresh water and placed in a humid chamber (inverted petri dish with water agar) with the leaf's abaxial side up.Plates are incubated at 15-18°C for 1 day or until fresh sporulation appears.3. Small pieces of infected tissue from the sporulating border of the lesion are cut and placed under potato slices in an empty petri dish.Dishes are incubated at 15-18°C for 1 week, until there is abundant sporulation on the upper side of the slice.5. To re-inoculate leaves, pick sporangia from the top of the tuber and place them in a drop of water on a potato leaf or another tuber slice.You can repeat steps 2-5 several times to keep your isolate alive (Figure 1).1. Sporulating lesions on leaf tissue from the field are washed in fresh water and placed in a humid chamber with the leaf's abaxial side up.Plates are incubated at 15-18°C with a 14 hour light period for 1 day or until sporulation appears.3. Small pieces of infected tissue from the sporulating border of the lesion are cut out and placed on top of a drop of water on the abaxial side of tomato leaves in a humid chamber (upturned petri dish containing water agar).4. Dishes are incubated at 15-18°C with a 14-hour light period for 1 week, or until there is abundant sporulation.5. To re-inoculate leaves, pick sporangia from the top of the leaf and place them on a drop of water on a tomato leaf, or place small drop of water directly onto the sporulating lesion, wash the lesion several times with the same drop of water, then inoculate the abaxial surface of a new leaflet with the sporangial suspension obtained.6. You can repeat the steps 2-5 several times to keep your isolate alive.This can be done as in figure 1, but by substituting a tomato leaf for the tuber slice. If isolating from infected tubers, slice the tuber where infection has occurred and place in a moist chamber until sporulation occurs; then follow steps on next section.2.4.1 After transfer from potato slices. When clean inoculum appears on the upper side of an infected tuber slice or leaf, the sporangia are harvested in a flow chamber, by picking them up with an inoculating needle and placing the sporangia on selective medium. Do not touch the potato slice or leaf with the needle. The use of a stereoscope is helpful.It is possible to isolate the fungus directly from the infected leaf tissue, but it is advisable to produce fresh inoculum at least once. To isolate directly, a small piece of infected leaf from the sporulating border, including a little bit of green tissue, is cut out and passed through a 5% commercial bleach solution for 30 seconds, then rinsed in sterile distilled water twice, and dried off with sterile filter papers. The leaf pieces are then placed on top or inside a selective medium. The plates are incubated 18°C for 5-10 days, or until the fungus starts growing and feeding on the agar. Hyphal tips are then transferred to V 8 or Rye B agar plates. We have two methods for multiplying P. infestans: 1) on potato slices or leaves, and 2) on pure culture on agar plates.P. infestans is frequently multiplied on potato slices or leaves, primarily for inoculum production, but also for maintenance.1. Select tubers from susceptible varieties, medium sized if available, without rots, severe damage or green coloration.2. Wash the tubers thoroughly and let them dry.3. Sterilize surfaces of tubers by dipping them in 70% alcohol for a few seconds, and burning off. A note on contamination! Be careful with contamination of tuber slices (and to some extent leaves) with Erwinia and other organisms that may attack potato. Always inoculate tuber slices with very clean (filtration as above) and very dilute amounts of inoculum. A 10-microliters drop with about 50 zoospores is plenty of inoculum for tuber slices and will guard against contamination. Also, you may just transfer pieces of hyphae and sporangia as shown in Figure 1.Figure 2. Propagation of P. infestans on tuber slices1. Cut leaflets of fully expanded potato or tomato leaves, from greenhouse grown plants, which are not flowering, and place them in fresh water. Leaves must be healthy with no signs of disease or stress.2. Rinse the leaves and pat them dry with paper towel.3. Place leaves abaxial side up in the lids of inverted petri dishes containing water agar, and inoculate with two drops of sporangial or zoospore suspension of P. infestans.4. Incubate at 15-18°C for 1 day in the dark, then for 6 days with a 14-hour light cycle.For maintenance of cultures of P. infestans either one of these two procedures may be repeated once a week. Only spores formed on the non-inoculated side of the potato slices of leaves are harvested. For inoculum production, spores from the inoculated side of the slices or leaves may also be harvested if no bacterial colonies are visible.1. Sporangia are washed from the upper side of a sporulation lesion on a potato slice or tomato leaf with distilled water, and passed through a 30 μm mesh filter to remove mycelium and other debris.2. The filtrate is then passed through a 10-micron mesh filter, which traps the sporangia. These are washed several times with clean water, and then collected from the filter with a small amount of distilled water.3. This sporangial suspension is incubated at 6°C for two hours to promote zoospore release.4. To separate sporangia from zoospores, the suspension is passed again through the 10-micron mesh filter once the zoospores have been released, and the filtrate, containing only zoospores is collected.5. The zoospore suspension is inoculated onto tuber slices or potato leaves (in the case of inoculum from potatoes) or tomato leaves (in the case of tomato inoculum) to keeps the fungus growing.In CIP we use Millipore filters system (Complete Sterifil Aseptic System, 47 mm, Cat.XX11 047 00, Millipore Corporation, USA) and Nylon membranes of 10 and 30 μm (Spectra/Mesh Nylon filters cat. 146506, Cat. 146514). Basically all these recipes come from Caten and Jinks [Caten, 1968 #3268;Caten, 1970Caten, #2098]], and may have been slightly modified by Bill Fry's laboratory in Cornell. For the clarified medium, first centrifuge the 150 ml of V8 for 5 minutes at maximum speed, and then use 100 ml of supernatant and follow the recipe above.The selective media is prepared by adding antibiotics (see below) -Rye B1. Soak grains in distilled water for 36 hours.2. Pour off and reserve liquid.3. Boil the rye grains for 1 hour in enough distilled water to cover the grains.4. Strain through 4 thickness of gauze, and combine filtrates.5. Add sucrose, agar and ß-sitosterol, and then make up to 1 liter.6. Autoclave at 15 psi for 15 minutes.We have two different selective media, one is used in Cornell, and the other developed by Hohl (1991).Antibiotics for Cornell media 2. Mix the antibiotics in Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and add them to the medium, mix thoroughly, and pour plates.Pea broth:Frozen or fresh peas 120 g1. Autoclave 120 g of peas in approximately 1 liter of distilled water for 15 minutes. Laboratory manual for Phytophthora infestans work at CIP Storage of P. infestansWe store a dense suspension of sporangia freshly harvested from tubers or leaves.1. The sporangia are washed with distilled water and concentrated in a filter (10 micron mesh).2. The suspension is then mixed with 15% DMSO in the filter after the last wash. Wear gloves and work in a well ventilated area.3. Once the suspension is in the vials they are cooled slowly in an alcohol bath with controlled cooling and constant stirring for 3-4 hours until they reach -50°C. The controlled cooling is done by an immersion cooler. We use a Neslab (cc 60 IIA) cooler and a Neslab Agitainer for holding and stirring the alcohol. Both are available via the big lab equipment vendors.4. Quickly transfer the vials into the liquid nitrogen.To thaw, put vials in tap water (20°C) for a few minutes, then the suspension can be put directly on potato slices.1. Put 1 ml 15% DMSO in 2 ml cryovial, autoclave for 15 minutes.2. Add 5 plugs (cut with sterile instrument) taken at random 1cm from margin of 1-2 week old plate. A 40 mm diameter colony will make 10 plugs if entire colony is used.3. Snap vials onto cane, when canes are filled, put onto cardboard sleeve and into refrigerator in an open pipette can (4-5 canes/can); after the last cane is in the can, let them all sit for an additional 10 minutes.4. Put top on pipette can and place into -80°C for 60 minutes, then place canes slowly into liquid nitrogen canister.You can also put the cryotubes in a box and then in a Styrofoam container. Place them in the refrigerator for 30 minutes then in the freezer for a further 25 minutes afterwards in -80°C for one night. They can then be put in liquid nitrogen.To thaw, put in tap water (same as CIP) and then the plugs are transferred to fresh medium.Isolates are maintained in Rye A agar slants (see media recipes) stored at 15°C. A small actively growing plug of mycelium is put at the bottom of the slant and tubes are sealed with parafilm. New transfers are made every 4-6 months.4For both the Cornell and the CIP procedure there is now in the market a container from Nalgene (Mr. Frosty) in which the vials are put in an isopropyl alcohol bath, put in an 'ultra freezer' (-80°C) for 4 hours and then the vials are put onto canes and in the liquid Nitrogen. The method claims its rate of cooling is 1°C/minute. The vials can either have agar plugs or spore suspension. This information may be useful [Cunningham, 1973].1. Wash the rye and add water flooded rye, then place it at lower than 20°C for 24 hours.2. After pouring out the water, put the rye into a tube with screw cap. Every tube contains 3 g of rye and 10 ml of water.3. The tubes are sterilized at 121°C for 30 minutes. Note that the tubes lids do not tighten before the sterilization completed, then, do it.4. We cut the mycelia pathogen from the culture dish into small pieces of 0.25 cm 3 , and then put five pieces into one tube. We suggest that each species is kept for at least five tubes. Then store the tubes in a dry and dark cabinet. Use 10% unclarified V8 media with the corresponding metalaxyl concentration. The fungicide is prepared in a stock of 100 mg/ml. It is made by dissolving 1.1 g of 90.6% technical grade metalaxyl in 10 ml of DMSO. Allow medium to cool to about 50°C before adding the metalaxyl.Three different metalaxyl concentrations are tested and a control without fungicide: Concentration 0 µg/ml 5 µg/ml 50 ug/ml 100 µg/ml 10% V8 1000 ml 1000 ml 1000 ml 1000 ml DMSO 1.0 ml 0.95 ml 0.5 ml 0 ml Metalaxyl stock 0 ml 0.05 ml 0.5 ml 1.0 ml Set up duplicate plates of each of the three concentrations of metalaxyl.1. Cut uniform size agar plugs from actively growing P. infestans cultures and put one plug per plate of metalaxyl. We use the end of sterile large volume Pasteur pipets for a 9 mm size plug.2. After seven days measure the growth of the fungal colony at right angles, two diameters through the center of each plate. We usually include two known isolates in our tests as checks: one resistant and one sensitive.Metalaxyl resistance is determined as follows:Resistant: both 5 and 100 µg/ml > 40% growth of 0 µg/ml Intermediate: 5 µg/ml > 40% growth of 0 µg/ml Sensitive: both 5 and 100 µg/ml < 40% growth of 0 µg/ml 5 Figure 6. Metalaxyl resistance testVirulence is the ability of the pathogen to infect and reproduce on a plant with an identified gene for vertical resistance. This is usually tested with an inoculation on detached leaves. There are several ways of doing this but at this writing ours most resembles that of Cornell. The CIP approach is outlined first, followed by the Cornell procedure.1. Cut leaflets of differentials in the morning. Leaflets should be taken from the upper third of 6-8 week old plants (before flowering) and completely healthy. Put the leaflets in plastic bags with water to transport to the lab.2. Use two leaflets per differential per isolate and place them abaxial side up in petri plates with water agar on the top. It is better to do no more than 10 isolates at a time.3. A suspension of sporangia is prepared by washing one-week-old inoculated tuber slices or leaves.4. Incubate suspension at 5°C to promote zoospore release, and once the zoospores are swimming pass the spore suspension through the 10 micron mesh filter, and collect filtrate containing only zoospores.5. Calibrate zoospore concentration to 2000 per ml with a hemocytometer. Count two sets of five grids for a total of 20 zoospores: 10 grids x 1000 = zoospores / ml.6. Place one 10 µl drop of the calibrated inoculum on each side of the midrib of the leaflet.7. Incubate the petri plates at 15-18°C in the dark, then with a 14-hour light period starting the second day after the inoculation, for six days.8. Assess virulence on the sixth day by determining a compatible or incompatible interaction.The condition of the potato differentials is very important. Plants should be grown only in the green house. During these months the temperature and the photoperiod may be controlled (cooler temperatures and a 16hour photo period are required to maintain plants for virulence testing).1. Inoculate plates of 10% V8. (If the isolate grows poorly on V8, rye B with ß -sitosterol or Pea agar with ß-sitosterol maybe used instead).2. Between 1.5 and 3 weeks plates become ready for the virulence assay. (Using the binocular microscope, one must observe the plates in question to determine if they have produced enough sporangia for the assay. Plates may be used as soon as they have produced adequate numbers of sporangia. It is a good idea to check and mark the plates to be used about 2 days before you are planning to perform an assay.Plates older than three weeks should not be used. Unless you are only testing for a couple of virulence phenotypes, you will want to limit the number of isolates being tested to less than 10 at any particular time).3. Select leaves the morning of the assay. (Leaves selected for the assay should be dark green turgid leaves showing no signs of any disease. Leaves should never be taken from tuberizing or senescing plants.Selected leaves should be placed in bags with water in a Styrofoam box for transportation back to the lab. This protects the plants from the cold and maintains turgor). 4. Use four leaflets per virulence phenotype. Place 2 leaflets into the lids of petri dishes, randomizing leaflets so that plates to not contain two leaflets from the same leaf. Leaflets may place upside down in order to hold the drop of spore suspension better. (Remove any condensation that may have collected on the petri plate lids beforehand.).5. Harvest sporangia using 2-5 ml of sterile water. (The sporangia should detach from the mycelium on contact with water).6. Determine spore concentration with a hemocytometer. Count two sets of five grids (10 grids x 1000 = sporangia / ml). Use 40.000-100.000 sporangia per ml for the virulence assay. (Spore concentration should be determined right after harvest because within an hour sporangia may start to germinate into zoospores complicating this task. After the spore concentration is determined, the spore suspension may be placed in 4°C until ready to be used (up to three hours).7. Inoculate each leaflet with one drop of the spore suspension using a Pasteur pipette. (Be careful that you don't knock the drop off of the leaflets while handling.).8. Place plates in the 18°C chamber with a twelve hour photoperiod, 24 hours after inoculations, wrap the plates in parafilm.9. Six days after inoculation, assess leaflets for virulence.10. Leaves should be incubated in large petri plates with water agar (plates should be no smaller than 140 mm x 20 mm).NOTE: Each isolate should be tested at least twice. If two plates give enough sporangia for the first test the other two plates may be used to repeat the test.Use 10% clarified V8 medium. Place an agar plug of an actively growing isolate you want to test on one side of a petri dish, and a plug of a known A1 isolate at the other side. In another petri dish do the same with a known A2 isolate. Seal the dishes and incubate in the dark for 14-21 days, until the two colonies have come in contact with each other, and look for oospores using the microscope.A1 A2 X X Production, extraction and viability of oospores from agar based media1. Transfer isolates to be used as parents in crosses to petri plates containing Rye A agar (RA) amended with 0.05 g -1 ß-sitosterol and incubate for 10-14 days.2. Take two or three small agar plugs (5 mm diam.) from the margin of the fast growing colony and place the plugs on one side of a 9 cm petri plate containing RA amended with 0.10 g -1 ß-sitosterol.3. Place two or three agar plugs from the other parent on the other side of the plate, about 3 cm apart from the first parent.4. Seal the plates with parafilm and incubate in the dark at 15-20 ºC for 14 days (after 7 days check for oospore formation at the junction were the two parental colonies meet).In literature, many agar media have been described that facilitate large numbers of oospores to be produced. We have encountered difficulties using V8 based media since a fairly large group of Mexican and western European isolates appears to grow slow on V8 Media. We have tested Pea Agar but found few oospores formed. The best advice is to try several media in your lab and select the one that performs best.1. Mark the mating region (a distinct band visible by eye showing extensive stimulation of submerged hyphal growth at the interaction zone between the two parental strains) with a permanent marker on the bottom of the petri dish.2. Excise the mating region using a scalpel, transfer agar pieces into sterile 50 ml centrifuge (\"blue cap\") tubes containing 9 ml sterile double distilled water (ddH 2 O).3. Place a homogenizer (we are using a IKA T20 homogenizer with S20 probe) in a laminar flow cabinet and thoroughly sterilize the probe by 30 s full speed mixing using a beaker containing 96% Ethanol. Rinse twice with ddH 2 O.4. Blend the agar for 60 s at 20,000 rpm.5. Quantify oospore concentration by counting oospores in three 50 μl aliquots.A NovoZym treatment can be applied to lyses any mycelial fragments and sporangia in the oospore suspension.6. Prepare a NovoZym 234 solution by adding 50 mg NovoZym 234 (Novo Biolabs) per ml of ddH 2 O.7. Sterilize the NovoZym solution using a 0.2 μm filter. Keep in refrigerator until use.8. Add 1 ml of NovoZym solution to 9 ml of oospore suspension; incubate for 24 hours at 20 ºC. 9. Wash oospores in three successive steps by adding 25 ml sterile ddH 2 O, spinning down the oospores using a tabletop centrifuge, carefully remove supernatant using a pipette and re-suspended in 10 ml ddH 2 O. Lyse mycelial fragments and sporangia in the oospore suspension using the NovoZym treatment.2. Spread oospores (approx. 1 ml of oospore suspension) on a 9 cm petri plate containing 10 ml sloppy water agar (5 g -1 ).3. Tape the plates with Parafilm and incubated for 14 days at 20 ºC under cool blue fluorescent light.4. Oospore germination can be assessed using a reversed microscope (at a magnification of 10 x 10).1. Extract oospores from agar plates as described before.2. Add an equal volume of 4 M NaCl to the oospore suspension and mix by inversion.3. Incubate the suspension for 3 hours at 20°C.Plasmolysis can be assessed by micoscopical observation. Viability is expressed as the percentage of oospores that were plasmolysed.In case of routine assessments of oospore viability, there is no need to include a NovoZym treatment prior to the plasmolysis or MTT staining technique, as the NovoZym treatment generally will reduce oospore viability.1. Extract oospores from agar plates as described before.2. Prepare a 0.1 M Phosphate buffer (pH 5.8) and add 0.1% (0.1 g in 100 ml buffer) tetrazolium bromide (MTT), stir well.3. Add an equal volume of MTT solution to an oospore suspension in a 50 ml disposable centrifuge tube, close the lid and mix well by inverting.4. Incubate the oospore suspensions for 2 d at 35 ºC.5. Transfer a small aliquot (approx. 50 μl) of the suspension to an object glass and examine the colour of individual oospores. Rose coloured oospores are considered to be dormant, blue-pink oospores are assumed to be activated (ready to germinate) and unstained or black oospores are considered to be non-viable.6. Calculate the percentage viable oospores (dormant + activated) based on at least 250 examined oospores.NOTE: Tetrazolium bromide is an extremely toxic compound; make sure to protect yourself from exposure to MTT and work according to your local safety regulations.We are using three methods for this analysis: 1) potato starch gels, 2) cellulose acetate gels, and 3) polyacrylamide gels. We work with two enzymes: Glucose-phosphate dehydrogenase and Peptidase. The starch and cellulose acetate methods are basically Cornell's procedures. 3. Add TC 7 gel \"grinding buffer\" to each tube. The amount of buffer may vary according to the amount of mycelium, from 100 to 200 µl.4. Grind with a hand drill, which fit snugly inside the eppendorf tube.5. Centrifuge tubes at high speed 1minute. They are ready to be used directly or kept in freezer.Lyophilized mycelium can also be used. You would need only a small amount, just the tip of a spatula, about 1mg, add less grinding buffer, shake well and centrifuge; the samples are now ready to use.  5. Cut wicks of thick blotting paper.6. When gels have set, cover gel with plastic wrap.7. Get samples and marker dye ready; put them in an ice water bath.8. When gels have completely set, remove the two long (lengthwise) bars from tray. 9. Slice the gel lengthwise about 5 cm from edge.10. Pull slice back about 1 cm, and insert wicks soaked in appropriate sample onto gel. Leave room at the end of the gel for the marker dye (add after other wicks).11. When wicks are on, firmly push slice back up against the wicks leaving no air bubbles.12. Fill buffer tanks with appropriate electrode buffer (about 1/2 full) and put in handy-wipes folded twice with folded side up.13. Put handy-wipes onto both sides of the gel, making sure that they are straight and covering about 2 cm of the gel. Cover the gel with plastic film to prevent drying. Attach electrodes. Fill the tanks with more buffer. The level of buffer should be up to the electrode clip, but NOT touching. Turn on power and allow to run for about 15 minutes or until dye has traveled about 1 cm through gel.14. Then turn off power. Remove wicks. Push the two parts of the gel firmly back together. Turn on power again and allow running for about 14 hours. For GPI set amperage at 75; for PEP set amperage at 30.Prepare the following staining buffers and keep them refrigerated. Tissue can be from mycelia from broth cultures, scraped off plates or slants, or from washed sporangia from infected leaves or tubers. A very small amount is needed.1. Put sample in 1.5 ml tube with 100 µl of distilled water; grind the tissue with a plastic or teflon pestle adapted to a hand drill.2. Centrifuge for 1 minute to pellet cell debris. The extracts must be chilled before use to avoid enzyme degradation, or frozen for later use.Buffer Chemical Molarity g/lTrizma base 0.025 3 gGlycine, free base 0.192 14.4 gPlace several cellulose acetate gels on rack and slowly fill the reservoir with electrode buffer. Care must be taken to avoid air bubbles and splashes. The gels must soak at least 20 minutes before use and can be kept refrigerated for several days.All equipment must be kept spotlessly clean. We use the overlay method. It saves staining reagents and produces less amount of toxic waste.To stain, mix ingredients in buffer and add agar last. Pour solution over gel to cover, incubate until bands appear, then rinse with cold water. Score gel and then dry quickly with hair dryer to save as reference.Quantities for 2 gels:Tris-HCl, pH 8.0 0.05 M 1. Clean carefully glass plates, wipe them with alcohol. Slightly grease the black rubber spacers, put them in place around the edges of the glass, making sure that the bottom joints are closed with vaseline. Carefully lay the second glass on top and clasp the two plates together. Check that the spacers have not moved. Put the comb in place. Stand the glass plates vertically and fill the mold with distilled water, wait for about 5 minutes to check that there are no leaks, then pour off the water and remove last drops with absorbent paper.The standard gel for isoenzymes contains 7.5% acrylamide.1. Make a solution of 22.2% (w/v) acrylamide + 0.6% bis-acrylamide (dissolve the acrylamide before adding the bis). Polymerization is accelerated in the light, so the gel can be put near a window or a lamp to accelerate polymerization.1. Gels may be stored for a day or two before use. The comb should be kept in place until use. 2. When the gel has polymerized, the clamps should be removed and the gel can either be completely wrapped in polythene film, or put into place in the electrophoresis apparatus, with the tank buffer in place to prevent desiccation.Results are usually superior (neater bands and a more horizontal migration) if a stacking gel is made above the main separating gel. Davis 1964.1. Put the mold together as described above, with the comb in place.Make slightly less gel solution (30-32ml) and fill the mold up to about 1.0-1.5cm below the comb.In order to make a level surface, insert a syringe needle down towards the surface of the gel solution and very carefully add drops of distilled water to the surface until the water covers the entire width of the gel.Make sure that the gel is standing on a level surface so that the top of the gel does not set at an angle.Wait until the gel is polymerized (about 45 minutes) then tip or suck off the water.Tris 5.98% Adjust to pH 6.7 with 1 N HCl. Add 0.2 ml TEMED Take up to 100 ml with dist. water Acrylamide Acrylamide 20 g Bis acrylamide 5 gTake up to 100 ml with water. This is slow to dissolve. Dissolve the acrylamide completely first. Keep in a dark bottle at room temp.Riboflavin 4 mg Take up to 100 ml with water Keep in a dark bottle, at 4 ºC Sucrose 40 g Take up to 100 ml with water The gel may be made just prior to use.1 volume buffer + 1 volume acrylamide + 1 volume riboflavine + 4 volumes sucrose + 1 volume water.1 volume =0.9 ml 4. Pour into the mold as described above. Leave in the light to take place polymerization. Light is essential for the polymerization of riboflavin-catalyzed gels.1. Remove clamps and the bottom spacer. Pour 2 liters of tank (electrode) buffer (Tris -Glycine pH 8.8) into the bottom half of the apparatus, put the gel-holder in place and push the glass plates + gel into position. Melt a little old 2% agarose gel in the microwave, and use this to seal the joint around the glass and the holder. Check that there are no large bubbles trapped at the bottom of the gel, as this will reduce the flow of current through the gel. To remove these bubbles, lift the holder + gel out of the buffer, then slowly lower it in again, keeping it tilted so the air escapes to one side. If bubbles persist, it may be because there is too much Vaseline on the glass, in which case it may be necessary to wipe it off.2. Carefully remove the comb. Add buffer to the upper part of the apparatus, making sure that the top of the gel is well covered and that there are no leaks. Rinse all the wells with tank buffer using a syringe + needle (this removes not polymerized gel).A spatula-tip of ground lyophilized mycelium (about 5 mg) is put into a small Eppendorf tube, 100 ml extraction buffer added, mixed with a vortex mixer, then spun down at 14000 rpm for 2 minutes. The supernatant can be used immediately or frozen for future use. Very little mycelium material is needed for GPI; more is needed for other enzyme systems.Extraction buffer:TC 7 800 µl 40% sucrose 150 µlIf the lyophilized mycelium was ground using (a spatula tip of ) sodium metabisulphite, good results will be obtained with the buffer mix above. If the mycelium was ground without the addition of sodium metabisulphite, it is advisable to add beta mercaptoethanol to the extraction buffer, at 0.7% concentration.Rinse each well with tank buffer, using a syringe.Slowly add extracts to wells.For the 15 well comb 12 µl 20 µlFor the 25 well comb 8 µl 12 µlFor the old equipment (thicker gels), run the gel at 10 mA current for 30 minutes, then increase the current to 20 mA for a further 30 minutes, and then increase it to 35 mA for the rest of the run. Voltage should start at about 40-55 V, gradually increasing during the run.For the new equipment (1mm thick gels), run at 5 mA for 30 minutes, and then increase to 10 mA. If two gels are being run at the same time, double the amperage.Gels should be run until the blue marker is at the bottom of the gel, or longer if desired.Staining is carried out as for cellulose acetate gels. Pep activity is normally situated about halfway between the origin and the blue marker, whereas GPI migrates more slowly and is found in the upper part of the gel. Staining solution should be poured quickly and evenly over the appropriate areas.DNA extraction of P. infestans 1. Harvest mycelium from 8-10 day old pea broth cultures by vacuum filtration. Form the mycelium is a fairly flat shape, put it into 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes, ensuring that air can circulate down to the bottom of the tube. This will speed up the lyophilization and prevent the drying mycelium from popping up out of the tube.2. Freeze the mycelium rapidly, then lyophilize for at least 24 hours. Grind in liquid nitrogen with a little sand.3 5. We use a 25 µl final reaction volume.Primers sequences:  These times are longer than specified in Tooley et al. because they are also suitable for several anchored microsatellite primers, which can be used for amplification at the same time.5. Load 10 µl on a 1.4% or 2% gel, alongside a DNA ladder, and view after 1.5 hours.12 Laboratory manual for Phytophthora infestans work at CIPThe detection of polymorphism through RFLP involves several steps: DNA extraction, DNA digestion using restriction enzymes, separation of restriction fragments by agarose gels electrophoresis, transfer to a solid support (membrane), hybridization with the labeled marker (DNA probes marked with radioactive isotopes or by non-radioactive methods), and signal detection by autoradiography or another method.The probe RG57 has been widely utilized to characterize Phytophthora infestans populations. The insert is 1 kb in length. RG57 hybridization patterns are moderately polymorphic, which makes them particularly useful for international studies of diversity and migration. Globally, over 25 bands hybridizing with RG57 have been described for the pathogen. Not all bands will be present in an individual isolate. Each combination of bands is called an RG57 genotype; a group of highly similar genotypes is considered to be a lineage (we infer that the group is related by descent).We use the ECL Kit to label and detect probes. ECL-Direct nucleic acid labeling and detection systems provided by Amersham.1. Make up the mix for DNA restriction.Always prepare an additional volume per every 10 reactions.Restriction buffer (10 X) 3. Prepare an agarose gel (0.7%) and run 1 µl of each DNA sample in order to verify if DNA has been completely digested.1. Prepare a 0.7% agarose gel with TAE in a gel bed of 20 x 25 cm (Tris acetate EDTA).(See Solutions and buffers).Use thin combs (2 mm) to form the wells, to ensure tight bands. 4. Place the gel (upside down) on the platform, on top of the filter paper. Put the gel down carefully, starting with one corner and laying it down gradually, to avoid the formation of bubbles.To ensure that the buffer goes through the gel and then through the membrane, it is recommended to cover the exposed surface of filter paper around the gel with plastic film (Saran Wrap). This avoids direct contact between the lower filter paper and membrane or the upper filter paper.5. Put the membrane on top of the gel, again avoiding bubbles. Mark the location of the wells.The membrane can be made of nylon or nitrocellulose. CIP Mycology Laboratory uses membranes of nylon (Hybond -N + , Amersham).7. Add 3 layers of filter paper on top of the membrane, always avoiding bubble formation then put 7 cm of paper towel.8. Finally, place another piece of glass and then a weight of approximately 400 g. Do not crush the gel. Always avoid touching the membrane with your fingers. Hold it by the edges with a pair of flat-tipped forceps.Gloves should be worn.11. Let dry the membrane 2-3 minutes.12. The DNA is permanently immobilized by ultraviolet irradiation (cross linker) or by baking it in an oven (80°C) for two hours.If not be use immediately, fixed blots can be stored dry wrapped in Saran Wrap at 2-8°C or, for up to several weeks, at room temperature under vacuum. Complete to 1 liter. Can keep at refrigerator until 3 months.Tris(base) 242 g 2 M EDTA 18.6 g 0.05 M Adjust to pH 8 with glacial acetic acid (~57 ml) and complete to 1 liter.Azul The AFLP technique has been developed by the company Key Gene (Wageningen, The Netherlands), which has filed property rights on this technology (Zabeau and Vos 1993).AFLP is based on the selective PCR amplification of restriction fragments from a total digested genomic DNA.• The DNA is digested with two different restriction enzymes: a frequent cutter (the four-base restriction enzyme MseI) and a rare cutter (the six-base restriction enzyme EcoRI). Specific synthetic adapters for each restriction site are then ligated to the digested DNA (we perform the restriction and ligation steps in a single reaction).• The DNA ligated is then subjected to a preliminary PCR amplification using oligonucleotide primers that are specific to the adapter/restriction sites. An extra nucleotide is added, for example A, thereby only a subset of the fragments of the mixture is amplified (fragments in which the restriction site sequence is followed directly by an A).• A second amplification is then carried out using similar oligonucleotide primers but with 2 extra bases (for example AC). Therefore, only a subset of the preliminary amplification reaction will undergo subsequent amplification during the second round of PCR (fragments in which the AC sequence follows the restriction site sequence).• The subset of fragments is analyzed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to generate a fingerprint and DNA bands are detected by silver stain.• The AFLP technique detects polymorphism due to changes in the MseI and EcoRI restriction sites. Different combinations of +2 primers allow the amplification of different subsets from the initial amplification products and increase the probability of finding useful polymorphisms.Enclose you can find protocols for denaturing polyacrylamide gels and silver staining.1. Make up the mix for restriction -ligation. 3. Incubate at 37°C for 4 hours.4. Make a dilution 1:4 (add 150 µl of TE 0.1 mM EDTA).5. Store at -20°C. • Bring up to 200 µl the pre-amplified products with TE 0.1mM EDTA • Store at 4°C (or -20°C for long term). 1. Run in 6% polyacrylamide gel with 7.5 m of urea.2. Prepare the samples as follows:Mix 5 µl of amplified DNA with 3 µl of loading buffer for PAGE.3. Denature the samples for 5 minutes in thermocycler.Load 10 µ l of markers 1 kb and 50 bp in the wells extremes of the gel.\"Upper buffer\" ……… TBE 0.5 X \"Low buffer\" ………… TBE 1 XFor gel preparation and silver staining follow corresponding protocols.EcoRI adapter:Selective initiators:Mse A1 5'-GACGATGAGTCCTGAG Mse A2TACTCAGGACTCAT-5' Weigh 6.055 g of Tris bases for 50 ml; take to pH 8.3 with HCL, complete to 50 ml with Milli-Q water. KCl 1MPrepare adapters according to the stock concentration. For example: Polyacrylamide gels for DNA electrophoresis NOTE: Denaturant polyacrylamide gels are utilized for sequencing of DNA and for the separation of AFLP products in electrophoresis equipment from BIORAD sequencing gels (Model Sequi Gen-GT 38 x 50 cm).The glass plates should be meticulously cleaned. Rinse the clean plates with deionized water to eliminate possible waste, finally wash with ethanol.Treat the short glass plate with binding solution each time a gel is prepared.1. Prepare fresh binding solution by adding 3 µl of bind silane to 1ml of 95% ethanol and 3 µl of acetic acid.2. Wipe a scrupulously cleaned plate using a Kim Wipes  tissue saturated with 1 ml of freshly prepared binding solution. Make sure the plate is completely covered.You may use a tissue paper of your preference that does not leave a trace.3. After 4-5 minutes, apply approximately 2 ml of 95% ethanol to the plate and wipe with a tissue paper in one direction and then perpendicularly to the first direction pressing gently. (Rubbing hard will remove an excessive amount of the bind silane, and the gel may not adhere as well).4. Repeat this operation three times, using a new tissue every time, to eliminate the excess of binding solution. This is important to prevent the contamination of the long glass plate, which could result in a torn gel.1. Use new gloves before preparing the long plate to prevent cross-contamination with binding solution.2. Wipe a scrupulously cleaned plate using a tissue saturated with Repel  solution.3. After 5-10 minutes, remove the excess of Repel  solution by wiping the plate with a Kim Wipes  tissue. Excess Repel  may cause inhibition of staining.In the event of contamination of either Bind silane or Repel on the respective glass, soak in 10% NaOH for 30-60 minutes.Adapted from Promega protocols NOTE: Silver stain is used for AFLP detection. Alternatively, the Promega stain kit (Catalogue N° Q4130) can be used.The water quality influences a great deal on stain success.16.1.1 Solutions:1. Fix/stop solution (10% glacial acetic acid): add 200 ml of glacial acetic acid to 1,800 ml of ultra pure water (Milli-Q) or bidestilled water.dissolve 2 g of silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) in 2 l of ultra pure water and add 3 ml of 37% formaldehyde.dissolve 60 g of sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) in 2 l of ultra pure water. Chill to 10°C in an ice bath. Immediately before use, add 3 ml of 37% formaldehyde and 400 µl of sodium thiosulfate (10 mg/ml).After electrophoresis, carefully separate the glass plates using a plastic wedge. The gel should be strongly adhered to the short plate.Place the gel in a plastic tray, cover it with the fix/stop solution and agitate it for 20 minutes or until the tracking dyes is not visible (This step is critical for DNA precipitation and the elimination of the urea).Rinse the gel twice using agitation in ultrapure water (2 minutes every time). Take out the plate from the tray and allow to drain for 10-20 seconds before placing it in the following washing.Transfer the gel to the stain solution and agitate for 30 minutes. Complete preparation of the developing solution. Pour the pre-chilled developing solution into a tray.Microsatellites are simple sequence repeats amplified by PCR. These are tandemly repeated motifs of 1-6 nucleotides that are densely and evenly distributed through out the genome and often exhibit substantial variation in the number of repeats. They are usually flanked by conserved sequences, which allow specific amplification of each microsatellite locus within species.What makes microsatellites useful is the fact that at the same location within the genomic DNA the number of times the sequence (ex. AC) is repeated often varies between individuals, within populations, and/or between species. So, one population may commonly have 13 AC's repeated in a row while another population has 18 AC's repeated at the same location within the genomic DNA. Different regions of the DNA contain sequences that mutate at various rates. Some regions have a high rate of mutation while others have a low rate of change. In areas of the genome with high rates of mutation there is a wider range in the number of repeats found within individuals of a population (some individuals have 10 repeats others 11, 13, . . .). Each sequence with a specific number of repeated nucleotides is designated as an allele. So, a locus (a specific region within the genomic DNA) with 8 repeats is one allele and within another individual the same locus that contains 9 repeats is another allele.The most common way to detect microsatellites is to design PCR primers that are unique to one locus in the genome and that base pair on either side of the repeated portion (figure 12). Therefore, a single pair of PCR primers will work for every individual in the species and produce different sized++ products for each of the different length microsatellites.Microsatellites has proven to be a powerful tool for genetic studies of populations (Cheng y Crittenden, 1994), since they are very polymorphic, codominant (Both alleles at a locus are amplified and discriminated simultaneously), they present simple Mendelian heredity, they are easy to measure and analyze, and they are trustworthy, repetitive, and only tiny amount of DNA is needed. Once amplified the samples, they should be first confirmed in 1% agarose gel. Run 1 μl of amplified samples. The bands observed would be in a range of 100 to 300 bp depending on the primers that were used.1. Denature the samples by adding 2 μl of loading dye, mix and heat at 95°C for 5 minutes. Immediately place the denatured samples on ice to prevent annealing.2. Remove clamps. Clean excess of polyacrylamide and urea from the top of plates with distilled water.3. Place glass plates in the apparatus and add buffers. Pre run at 2000 V for 15 min, or 1500 V for 45 minutes.4. Clean comb area with buffer before to place the comb. Insert the shark toothcomb between the glass plates with teeth facing downwards. Clean each well with 1 X TBE buffer.5. Load the amplified samples into each well (approx. 10 μl).6. Run the gel at 800 V for Primer 4 B and for the rest of primers at 600 V over night. The next day you can rise the voltage without problem.Running time is variable depending on the size of PCR fragment. To finish the run is necessary to let fall the two colors of dye. The first one that falls is the blue color, because its weight is 60 bp. The second color is light blue and it has a weight of 106 bp (this color is that you observe the next day).In the case of primer 4 B, at 1500 V wait 40 minutes after the light blue color falls. For Primer 2 D, as soon as the light blue falls, immediately proceeds to stop the run.For primers 1 F and G 11 the light blue has to reach about 7 cm above the edge of glass plates.For primers Pi66, Pi63 y D 13 stop the run when the light blue is about 4 cm above the edge of glass plates.In the case of primer Pi89 let the light blue falls completely and stop the run.8. Turn off the power supply. Remove the plates from the tank. Separate the glass plates using a plastic wedge. And proceed with the silver stain.  13). Both samples may come from the same plant.In general it is recommended to take the following number of samples per field. Avoid:• RNA later (Ambion Cat #7023 20 x 5 ml)• Scissors• Paper like \"Kim care, Kim wipe …\"• 70% EtOH• Look for Phytophthora infected leaves. Choose leaves whose symptom is not only necrotophic and biotrophic.• Wipe scissors by wet paper like \"Kimcare\" with 70% EtOH.• Get 8 leaf discs (Diameter ~ 1cm) by Scissors and cut to tiny fragments, and put into RNA later.• Write location, date, sample ID to the bottle of RNA later.• Store 4°C when you arrive at the place where refrigerator is available. Until 1 week, samples can be stored at room temperature. When you arrive at your laboratory. The samples should be kept at -20°C.• You can use a cork borer instead of scissors. But scissors (3 min) is faster than cork borer (10 min). If you use #4 cork borer, you should collect 8 leaf discs and cut a disc in half.• RNA is stable at 4°C within 1 month.Storage at -20°C: Samples will not freeze at -20°C, but crystals may form in the storage buffer; this will not affect subsequent RNA isolation. Samples can subsequently be thawed at room temperature and refrozen without affecting the amount or the integrity of the recoverable RNA (Ambion RNA later protocol). • Prepare a 2 ml tube.• Add 550 µl Buffer RLT with β-Mercaptoethanol to the tube.• Remove RNA later solution from half of infected leaves on a paper towel.• Add the leaves to the tube.• Homogenize the leaves in the tube using disposable homogenization pestle or mortar& pestle.• Vortex vigorously.• A short 3 minutes incubation at 56°C.• Transfer the lysate to a QIAshredder spin column (lilac) placed in a 2 ml collection tube, and centrifuge for 2 minutes at full speed. Follow the manufacture protocol (from RNeasy Mini Hand book , Plants and Fungi p. 54, 4). • Add 500 µl Buffer AP1 and 5 µl RNase A stock solution (100 mg/ml) to the tube.• Remove RNA later solution from infected leaves on a paper towel.• Add the leaves to the tube.• Homogenize the leaves in the tube using disposable homogenization pestle or mortar and pestle.• Vortex vigorously.Method to dry P. infestans mycelium for storage, transport and DNA extractionThe silica gel adsorb all of the water from the tissue, drying it rapidly, completely, and preserving the tissue very effectively. Here we present an easy and inexpensive method to prepare P. infestans mycelia for storage, shipment and subsequent DNA extraction that does not require sophisticated equipment, such as a lyophilizer and -70°C freezer. This mycelia is non-viable and can thus be to send internationally with no biological risk.We recommend using orange silica gel since silica with blue indicator is very toxic.1. Collect mycelium from pea broth using a sterifil aseptic system, 47 mm (Catalog number: XX1104700).2. Place the mycelium in filter paper and wrap it using two filter papers.Filtered mycelia  FTA® cards extraction protocol for P. Infestans DNA• A single hole punch was used to remove a 6 mm disc from the center of the dried sample area of the FTA® card.• The disc was then transferred to a 1.5 ml microfuge tube.• After adding 400 µl of FTA® purification reagent (Whatman Inc.) to each tube, the tubes were vortexed, and the samples were incubated for 4 minutes at room temperature.• Used FTA® purification reagent was discarded using a pipette so that the disc remained in the tube.• The FTA® purification reagent wash was repeated once.• The disc was then rinsed with 400 µl of a modified TE -1 (10 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA) buffer in a similar manner.• The TE -1 buffer rinse was repeated once.• Using tweezers, the disc was transferred to a 0.5 ml microfuge tube and 80 µL of TE -1 (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA) was added.• After centrifugation (1 min), the disc was incubated in the buffer for 5 minutes at 95°C, cooled on ice and stored at -20°C.1. FTA Purification reagent 2. TE-1 (10 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA) The NaOH extraction method can be used with infected leaf material or with pure mycelium. If you are going to use mycelium, it is preferable to use mycelium that's been grown on pea broth instead of on an agar plate. The obtained DNA is good quality for SSR analysis.1. Using tweezers, take a piece of infected leaf tissue approximately 2 mm in diameter and put it in a clean 1.5 ml tube.2. Add 90 µl of 0.5 N NaOH.3. Grind tissue using a pestle until the sample is liquified (approximately 1-2 minutes). You will see fine particles in the liquid. This method is also used to get DNA from infected tubers, but an extra step is included to dilute the sample, as the starch can cause problems with the extraction.1. Basically, before starting the NaOH extraction, the tuber sample is crushed in 100 µl of TE buffer (10 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA).2. Then transfer 50 µl of the mixture to a new tube and use that as the sample for the NaOH extraction.3. Repeat steps 2-6.27","tokenCount":"8877"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8535d57ac9a4da7bd0e356f6a42e56ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/288e9793-2d6d-4d18-ab10-68e741e30cfe/retrieve","id":"-912908916"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"077b273e-ebab-4ab1-a0c0-a018d38dd54e","pagecount":"2","content":"Erect cowpea-Mamaba Erect cowpea-Obatanpa Erect cowpea-Etubi Spreading cowpea-Obatanpa Obatampa Spreading cowpea-Pan 53 Spreading cowpea Grain yield (kg/ha)The use of hybrid maize varieties is on the increase in northern Ghana. Compared to the open-pollinated maize varieties, data on the performance of the hybrids in association with grain legumes such as cowpea, soybean and groundnut is limited. Productivity of hybrid and openpollinated maize grown in association with erect and spreading cowpea types was evaluated on-farm in Africa RISING intervention communities in northern Ghana.A split-split plot design with four replicates was used. Mainplots were three: erect cowpea (Songotra), spreading cowpea (Sanzi) and no cowpea (sole maize). Sub-plots were four maize varieties -3 hybrids (Pan53, Etubi, Mamaba) and on open-pollinated variety (Obatampa). Grain yield and net returns were estimated.Grain yields (Figure 1) and net returns (Figure 2) varied among cropping systems. Land Equivalent Ratios of the intercrops were greater than 1, suggesting that productivity of the intercrops was higher than the monocrops.Sole and intercrops of Pan 53 maize hybrid with either erect or spreading cowpea types could result in higher returns on investment. ","tokenCount":"179"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/3976504590.json b/data/part_5/3976504590.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"47d73c903d62bdd17faa3f9af8b0e072","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/40b6e56c-52d1-4e12-b036-639628f92f77/retrieve","id":"1065462644"},"keywords":["responsive feeding","nutrition security","consumer behavior","Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs)","Kenya"],"sieverID":"0aff2277-7276-48d6-9729-8e41a83cb9aa","pagecount":"18","content":"Responsive infant and young child feeding as a reciprocal relationship between the child and his or her caregiver is recommended by the WHO but has received less attention than dietary diversity or meal frequency up to now. The current study assessed common (non)responsive child feeding practices and factors that facilitate or hinder caregivers to improve feeding practices in rural Teso South Sub-County, Western Kenya. The qualitative study used focus group discussion (n = 93) and Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs) (n = 48) to identify challenges and opportunities in household food distribution and feeding practices. Overall, the implementation of responsive feeding practices was feasible for the caregivers. Parents reported mainly positive experiences in terms of the child's feeding behavior and effects on child health. Traditional beliefs, practices, and cultural norms hindered some households to change intrahousehold food distribution. Households who manage to implement responsive feeding even in food insecure regions should be consulted to (a) improve existing nutrition education messages that acknowledge these cultural norms, (b) to include more responsive feeding information in nutrition education material, and (c) to address gender norms to create awareness of the importance of responsive feeding practices and the need for adequate time allocation for infant and young child feeding.The development of children's eating behavior and their dietary intake is influenced by parents, other caregivers, and their social interactions through verbal and nonverbal communication during feeding situations [1][2][3][4][5]. Mutual interactions between caregiver and child are referred to under the term \"responsive feeding\", which was defined by Harbron et al. (2013) as a reciprocal relationship between the child and his/her caregiver [5]. These interactions include the child's verbal or nonverbal communication of hunger and satiety, to which the caregiver responds immediately by offering age-appropriate and nutritious food in a supportive way and appropriate feeding environment. Although the provision of age-appropriate and nutritious food is included in this definition, the focus is usually more on the feeding situation, such as the communication between the caregiver and the child, the balance between assistance and encouragement to eat independently, the way the food is served, or the atmosphere of the feeding situation.Nutrients 2022, 14, 4677 2 of 18 Caregiver feeding styles are presumed to shape children's preferences and foodconsumption patterns. A feeding style characterized by controlling the child's eating without regarding the child's choices and preferences was, for example, negatively associated with vegetable consumption in African American and Hispanic preschool children [3]. At the same time encouraging children to eat healthy foods, while giving them choices about eating options as well, was positively associated with the consumption of dairy, fruit, and vegetables [3]. Overall, studies indicate that children benefit from a responsive feeding style regarding growth, eating behavior, and nutrient intake, whereas nonresponsive feeding was often associated with feeding problems as well as under-and overnutrition [4,5].The practice of responsive feeding is part of the list of recommendations for infant and young child feeding published by the World Health Organization [6,7]. However, recommendations on responsive feeding do not receive the same attention as those on the child's intake, meal frequencies, or dietary diversity. This trend is also evident for developing countries, where there have been more studies assessing the quantity and quality of children's dietary intake than the way children are fed, the feeding environment, and interactions with caregivers.In Kenya, 26% of children, 6-59 months old, are stunted [8]. This stunting rate represents a high prevalence according to the thresholds of the WHO and UNICEF and calls out for public health actions [9]. Research approaches in Western Kenya revealed poor complementary feeding practices with low dietary diversity for children aged 6-23 months [10] as well as other feeding problems such as feeding unhealthy snacks, the provision of watery, nutrient-poor porridge, and early weaning [11,12]. However, knowledge of responsive child feeding practices in Western Kenya is limited, but they are likely to contribute to poor dietary intake and malnutrition among children.The current study was, therefore, conducted to assess common (non)responsive child feeding practices by targeting children 0.5 to 8 years of age in rural communities in Teso South Sub-County, Western Kenya, and investigate factors that facilitate or hinder caregivers to implement improved responsive feeding practices.The study is part of a larger study called EaTSANE [13,14]. Details have been reported in a substudy on fruit consumption [15]. In short, this study was conducted in Teso South Sub-County, which borders Uganda in Western Kenya. Sample size was purposively selected (n = 8 villages). Each location was selected based on their closeness to the agricultural demonstration and training plots established within the project. Further, families were purposively selected within the selected villages from a previously established cohort, implemented by the principal investigators in the same region between 2015-2018 [15,16]. Thus, eligibility criteria were being a smallholder farmer with a child below the age of eight years and living in one of the selected villages. Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis, and informed written consent was obtained from the participants prior to any data collection.Focus group discussions were conducted in four out of the eight project villages and were held at a participant's home or a public building. The focus group discussions aimed at the determination of common child feeding practices within the community, focusing on possible inadequate practices. Different discussion groups of men, women, and adolescents were purposively formed. The discussion sessions were conducted, with the help of an interview guide, under the guidance of a facilitator, who led the discussions and at the same time ensured a pleasant and open atmosphere [17]. The conversations were held in the local language and the notetaker was responsible for writing down the statements of the participants in English. The discussions were recorded and listened to after the sessions by the facilitators, to add missing information to the notes. The audio recordings were, therefore, not verbatim but summarizing transcribed that were reviewed for quality assurance.A second round of focus group discussions was conducted at the end of the data collection during evaluation workshops. The focus was on the participants' experiences and perceptions during and after trials of improved practices (TIPs).The Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs) included 53 households in eight villages for data collection and is an established formative research technique in the field of social and behavior change [18].The trials were conducted between August and October 2019, within the EaTSANE project. The focus was on how best to improve dietary intake in families with children aged 0.5 to 8 years. Results from how best to improve fruit intake have been reported elsewhere [15]. This study focused on testing the feasibility of recommendations in regard to responsive child feeding practices among primary caregivers. They were offered a choice of recommendations, agreed with the enumerators which recommendation to try out, and were asked to provide details about the choices they made. Stories of successes and failures in implementation were collected and discussed in the recurrent counseling sessions. This process enables insights into barriers and motivators for behavior change to improve dietary practices [15,19].Facilitators were trained on how to conduct TIPs and counseling of child feeding practices recommendations. In addition, they were trained on how to deal with possible difficult scenarios during the counseling visits as well as the standardized data collection tools (e.g., monitoring sheets). Dialogues between mothers and facilitators (n = 4) were conducted in Swahili and other local languages. Refresher trainings were held to discuss (a) challenges in implementation of the recommendations and (b) how to interact with the participants in order to negotiate about the different choices presented during the trials to improve child feeding practices [15].The TIPs included one baseline and two follow-up visits. As described by Kretz et al. [15], the facilitators assessed the child feeding practices within the participating households (first visit) and recommended practices that needed improvement. Not all caregivers, thus, received the same recommendations. During the next two consequent household visits, counseling continued in order to identify merging issues when it came to putting recommendations into practices. Respective information was documented and translated for data analysis. The interview guides provided to the facilitators included questions about motivators and barriers to change feeding practices and, in particular, the participants' experiences with the recommendations and their intentions to continue implementing the recommendations in the future.Four topics were addressed during the TIPs, based on inadequate practices determined during the observations made in the previous focus group discussions: (1) nutritious meals and snacks, (2) fruit consumption and availability, (3) porridge quality, and (4) feeding practices and priorities during mealtimes. In total, the catalog included 13 recommendations for child feeding practices, of which 3 recommendations particularly addressed responsive feeding practices [15]:\"Make child feeding a priority in your household. Serve young children first. Make sure they get and eat their share\" [15].\"Separate the child's bowl from the mother's in order to know how much the child has eaten\" [15].\"Interact with the child during mealtimes and actively and lovingly encourage the child to eat; do not force or threaten your child to eat\" [15].The data collected during the focus group discussions and the TIPs were analyzed by applying a structuring qualitative content analysis [20]. Like in the larger EaTSANE study, the data were primarily categorized following the thematic structure of the interview guides. Subcategories were inductively and gradually derived from the respondents' answers. The categories were defined, and a coding guideline developed. The coding process was done with support of the open-source software QDA Minor Lite v1.4.1, by Provalis Research. Following the approach in the larger study, coding was validated with the support of a second coder. During the second coding round, disagreements were discussed amongst the coders. Definitions for specific codes were discussed, and the coding guideline was revised accordingly [15].Finally, Cohen's Kappa confirmed acceptable intercoder agreement with a coefficient of 0.82 ± 0.02 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the focus group discussions, 0.78 ± 0.04 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the TIPs data, and 0.82 ± 0.03 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the workshops, respectively. The calculations were done with IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.In addition to identifying the main barriers and motivators for implementing the tested practices, a descriptive analysis showed how many caregivers used inappropriate practices and how many successfully tested the recommendations.Each of the 12 focus group discussions consisted of 5 to 11 participants. The mean duration was about two hours. In total, 93 participants took part in the discussions, with 29 participants taking part in the women's groups, 26 in the men's groups, and 38 in the youths' groups.The TIP respondents were women aged between 22 and 58 years. They were primary caregivers of up to four children aged 0.5 to eight years.Out of the 53 households that participated in the study, 48 households were included in the final data analysis (Figure 1). In total, there were five dropouts during the household visits. Two households moved away and were, thus, not eligible to participate anymore, and two households withdrew their approval to participate due to a lack of interest. One household was excluded from the data analysis. A change in the family situation required extra counseling by the facilitators, and the team decided that this may have influenced the data.\"Separate the child's bowl from the mother's in order to know how much the child has eaten\" [15]. • \"Interact with the child during mealtimes and actively and lovingly encourage the child to eat; do not force or threaten your child to eat\" [15].The data collected during the focus group discussions and the TIPs were analyzed by applying a structuring qualitative content analysis [20]. Like in the larger EaTSANE study, the data were primarily categorized following the thematic structure of the interview guides. Subcategories were inductively and gradually derived from the respondents' answers. The categories were defined, and a coding guideline developed. The coding process was done with support of the open-source software QDA Minor Lite v1.4.1, by Provalis Research. Following the approach in the larger study, coding was validated with the support of a second coder. During the second coding round, disagreements were discussed amongst the coders. Definitions for specific codes were discussed, and the coding guideline was revised accordingly [15].Finally, Cohen's Kappa confirmed acceptable intercoder agreement with a coefficient of 0.82 ± 0.02 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the focus group discussions, 0.78 ± 0.04 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the TIPs data, and 0.82 ± 0.03 (SE); (p ≤ 0.001) for data analysis of the workshops, respectively. The calculations were done with IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.In addition to identifying the main barriers and motivators for implementing the tested practices, a descriptive analysis showed how many caregivers used inappropriate practices and how many successfully tested the recommendations.Each of the 12 focus group discussions consisted of 5 to 11 participants. The mean duration was about two hours. In total, 93 participants took part in the discussions, with 29 participants taking part in the women's groups, 26 in the men's groups, and 38 in the youths' groups.The TIP respondents were women aged between 22 and 58 years. They were primary caregivers of up to four children aged 0.5 to eight years.Out of the 53 households that participated in the study, 48 households were included in the final data analysis (Figure 1). In total, there were five dropouts during the household visits. Two households moved away and were, thus, not eligible to participate anymore, and two households withdrew their approval to participate due to a lack of interest. One household was excluded from the data analysis. A change in the family situation required extra counseling by the facilitators, and the team decided that this may have influenced the data.  The focus group discussion revealed that mothers have challenges in four core areas of responsive feeding: (1) serving priorities during mealtimes, (2) who is involved in feeding the children, (3) sharing a plate, and (4) strategies within the family to improve the children's food intake.The discussion showed a high occurrence of the practice to serve the father or husband first and the youngest child last: \"I am served first, my wife serves herself then eldest son to youngest child\".(FGD Men) \"Father [is] served first, then eldest son, then mother and other children come last\".(FGD Youth) However, this was not always the case. In some households, children were served before the parents (FGD Men), and statements showed that the youngest child was given priority: \"Youngest child first, older children, my husband and myself \".One reason for the preference of serving young children first was attributed to the child disturbing the others while eating: \"I serve the youngest child first because she won't allow other people to eat as she waits, then I serve my husband, other children, then I serve last\".Another social aspect of the serving practice is a potential reunion as a family for mealtimes. Answers indicate that family members tended to eat separately: \"I serve my husband and take his food to the main house then I serve myself and children come later\".(FGD Women) However, others reported a communal meal: \"I get food on the table so we just eat together as a family\".(FGD Men)Children were not only fed by their mothers but also, particularly in the mother's absence, by other family members or household members. Older siblings seemed to play an important role as caregivers regarding feeding. Nevertheless, men were mentioned to be involved in feeding too:\"There are children who eat well only when they are fed by their fathers\".The role of grandmothers and grandfathers was not discussed.The practice of sharing a plate with young children is important, as it is associated with the advice to observe a child's food intake. The discussions showed that families applied different practices when feeding children above and below the age of two years. The practice of sharing a plate with children over the age of two years was mentioned noticeably less frequently. Participants stated that children under the age of two years were fed from a collective plate, mostly shared with the mother and sometimes with the father or other children. A few reasons were named for this practice for both age groups, above and below two years of age (Table 1). During the trials of improved practices, most mothers did not report about shared-plate eating. In four households, the practice was carried out. In one case, twins of 17 months of age shared a plate during mealtimes; in the other cases, the mothers shared a plate with their child. Eating well Better food intake by the child was attributed to the practice.\"When children eat with their mother from the same plate they will eat well\" (FGD Women p5: l.199-201 col.1)The practice was stated to enable the mother to help her child eat, which she could easily do this way.\"I eat with him from the same plate so that I can help him feed\" (FGD Women p5: l.202-203 col.1)Children were assumed to be trained by the practice in terms of social behavior.\"Eats with other people from the same plate so that he/she doesn't become mean\" (FGD Women p5: l.195-197 col.2)Children were perceived to be too young to share a plate or old enough to eat from a separate one.\"We feel she is still too young to eat from our plates.\" (FGD Men p4: l.171-173 col.1)Children were perceived to be able to eat by themselves.\"Because they can eat by themselves\" (FGD Men p5: l.188 col.2); \"If they can pick by themselves, they are served on their own plate\" (FGD Men p4: l.181-182 col.1).The inability to eat on their own in a timely manner was assumed to put children under pressure when a plate was shared with others, e.g., older children.\"Because if served on the same plate with others they will finish for him\" (FGD Women p5: l.219-221 col. Linked with a separate plate for children was the assumption that they were already able to pick food for themselves or eat independently without the need for assistance. However, it was stated that the need for help in feeding was not an exclusion criterion to being served on a separate plate. Other participants emphasized that children in general should be fed from their own plates. Common factors cited for both practices were the child's age and education. Assistance was granted to children independent from a shared or a separate plate, but it was considered to be time-saving when the child ate by him-/herself from its own plate.Learning social skills was associated with eating on a shared plate, whereas others viewed the pressure placed on children to receive a fair and adequate share of the meal as more negative.There were five main categories of answers about ways to ensure adequate food intake when a child refused to eat. They ranged from positive encouragement such as providing company, showing care and affection, or searching for alternatives to violent behavior. Force, beating, and threatening the child were mentioned by all different groups (women, men, and adolescents) and seemed to be culturally acceptable. However, these statements were mostly made with laughter, indicating some insecurity. On the other hand, encouraging behavior was also found in every group, showing that caregivers knew and practiced other feeding styles. Solutions to boost a child's appetite also included harmful practices such as offering the child glucose or multivitamins prior to the meal: \"I give him glucose to boost his appetite first\".(FGD Women p7: l.299) Table 2 provides an overview about the strategies to improve food intake among children, an explanation, and an exemplary quote for each strategy.The recommendations were developed based on the focus group discussions' findings and provided among those households that showed inadequate practices during the first visit. Table 3 provides an overview about which inadequate practice was addressed and which recommendation was given to how many households. All households that received recommendations regarding responsive feeding and priorities at mealtimes implemented the practices for the duration of the trials. Modifications to the recommended practices were made in three households. Instead of changing the serving order during meals to start with the children, the mothers ensured that young children received and ate an appropriate portion of the meal. Caregivers provided extra foods that the child was more likely to eat or mixed disliked foods with the child's favorite ones.\"I provide other alternatives that they like\" (FGD Men p6: l.273)Feed frequently small meals The child was frequently fed small meals. \"I give small frequent meals\" (FGD Men p6: l.283)Let other people feed Instead of the mother herself, another person took over the feeding.\"I let other people feed him because he doesn't eat well whenever I am the one feeding him\" (FGD Women p7: l.317-318)Caregivers waited to feed the child until she/he was hungry and subsequently ate voluntarily.\"I let her play until becomes hungry and then she will eat\" (FGD Women p7: l.306)Boost the appetite Caregivers tried to boost the child's appetite by offering sugar or multivitamins.\"I give him glucose to boost his appetite first\" (FGD Women p7: l.299)Caregivers forced the child to eat, in particular when porridge was fed to the child.\"I force them to eat porridge from my palm\" (FGD Women p7: l.300) Beating Caregivers reported beating the child if they refused to eat.\"I beat them up until they take the porridge or eat the food\" (FGD Women p7: l.301)Caregivers threatened the child with a punishment that included beating or withholding favorite things.\"I scare him/her with a cane\" (FGD Men p6: l.276)False promises False promises were mentioned as a way to lure the child to eat well.\"I lie to her that if she eats her food, I will buy her mandazi\" (FGD Women p7: l.324) (note: mandazi is an African donut)Observe and try to solve the problem Caregivers observed the child to find out about underlying problems that could be addressed.\"I find out why my child doesn't want to eat and then address the problem, e.g., when sick, I take him for medicine\" (FGD Men p7: l.284-285)Please note: the different strategies have been grouped into categories and highlighted in bold respectively.The TIPs identified several factors that facilitate and hinder the implementation of the recommended practices, including the possible influence and reactions of family members, especially the children themselves, to these recommendations. The children's preferences were considered important in the making of food choices. The caregivers reported that their children preferred certain foods, e.g., tea instead of porridge, soup instead of solid foods, or just biscuits. To avoid conflict, the mothers followed the children's preferences and did not offer healthy food as an alternative [15]. Nonetheless, a child's preferences did not always lead to an adaption of food choices, and some caregivers resorted to the use of force. One mother explained her violent behavior toward her child with the child's refusal to eat on the basis that \"the child does not like most of the foods offered\" (woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr)). Other caregivers also mentioned the use of force when the child refused to eat. The practice of the mother sharing a bowl with the child was explained with the child's inability to eat alone: \"[The] child [is] still small and cannot feed on its own\".(woman, 32 yr (with child, 1 yr)) The child is fed from the mother's plate; children share one plate.Separate the child's bowl from the mother's in order to know how much the child has eaten.The child is forced to eat; the child is left alone to eat.Interact with the child during mealtimes and actively and lovingly encourage her/him to eat; do not force or threaten your child to eat.Difficult experiences that were mentioned after trying the improved practices concerned the reactions of the children. One mother reported that her child started to play with the food when served on a separate plate (woman, 32 yr (with child, 1 yr)). Other difficulties were faced when the children refused to accept the improved practices, mostly due to foods that they disliked: \"The child completely refused to take porridge\".(woman, 45 yr (with child, 7 yr)) However, the reaction of the children to the new practices was often positive. Mothers reported that children took the enriched porridge without any difficulty and had no problem swallowing one with a thicker consistency. Children were able to eat from separate plates and started to pick food on their own. The reactions of other family members were also mentioned as positive experiences during the trial. When mothers tried to change the serving order of meals, the men approved of being served after the children.Lifestyle, daily routines, and habits hindered the change of current inadequate practices. It concerned, e.g., the serving order in the household: \"Serving starts from the oldest to the youngest\".(woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr)) Furthermore, the practice of serving the fathers first was explained by the traditional role allocation between men and women. Many mothers stated that they served them first because the \"husband is the household head\" (woman, 37 yr (with child, 2 yr)). Convenience and time constraints also hindered serving the child food on an individual plate: \"It is too much work having two plates at once since I eat with my son at the same time\".The ability to take extra time for child feeding facilitated the implementation of the improved practices. Regarding encouraging a child through interactive mealtimes and matching food choices to the child's preferences better, one mother explained that she was \"willing to try because she has time\" (woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr)). This was not always the case, as caregivers often reported time constraints and times of being absent from home, which hindered some caregivers' ability to test the improved practices. Having mothers in charge of meals helped them implement new behaviors, such as giving preference to infants at mealtimes: \"[I am] willing to try that since I am the one who serves the meals\".(woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr))The knowledge gained through the study's nutrition counseling about the nutritional and health benefits for their children acted as a motivating factor to try the improved practices. Respondents were \"willing to do so because [they] now understand[] the importance of child feeding\".(woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr))Perceptions about children's progress in learning to eat independently, as well as the opinion that children should enjoy eating, also moved caregivers to action. Other perceptions functioned as barriers to change a common practice. These include perceived respect for the husband, related to serving him first: \"[I] always wants to serve my husband first because of respect\".(woman, 32 yr (with child, 1 yr)) Other respondents did not find it necessary to serve children first as \"even though she serves the husband first, the child still gets adequate share of the meal\".(woman, 32 yr (with child, 5 yr))Caregivers also expressed their emotions about the way they feed their children. One mother stated about her forceful behavior toward the child that \"[I] sometimes also feels bad about doing it and also beating had negative effects on child feeding\".(woman, 52 yr (with child, 7 yr))Regarding priorities during mealtimes, a respondent acknowledged: \"I don't like when the child cries after seeing my husband eating food before her\".(woman, 30 yr (with child, 4 yr))As the households experimented with improved feeding practices, they reported experiencing and observing different positive outcomes regarding their children's food intake, health, and behavior. The children were said to have improved their eating behavior and to have been more satisfied, resulting in fewer disruptions for parents: \"When the children are served first, they don't have to disturb their father\".(woman, 37 yr (with child, 2 yr))Caregivers also reported about encouraging interactions they had with their children during feeding situations and about the children's learning progress, to eat more independently while being supervised more closely. Even weight gain was reported: \"Since the child started eating from his own bowl, he has really improved and added some kilos\".(woman, 26 yr (with child, 2 yr))Caregiver responses, during the evaluation workshops six weeks after the last TIPs household visits, indicated that all responsive feeding practices were remembered and partially implemented, except for prioritizing child feeding within the household. The men observed that fewer children were forced to eat but more were assisted to eat. However, the men did not report noticing whether the \"feed the child from his/her own plate\" recommendation had been implemented. The reported experiences with the implementation of improved responsive feeding practices were consistently positive. Both women and men had also observed positive health effects on the child and changes in the child's behavior such as a greater satisfaction and less crying (Table 4). Table 4. Experiences and perceptions regarding the changes made in responsive feeding practices, since the TIPs household visits mentioned in the evaluation workshop *.Child is eating on her/his own without force.\"My child is eating at his own without being forced\" (W_FGD Women1 p2: l.71-72 col.2)Mother is able to monitor the child's food intake.\"I did not know how much my child could eat but right now am sure of how much he is eating\" (W_FGD Women1 p4: l.143-146 col.2)Child is healthier.\"The bigger children were finishing food for the smaller one and his health was not good but now he feeds slowly at his own pace and the body is ok\" (W_FGD Women2 p5: l.217-222 col.2)Child is satisfied.\"I used to force my child to eat but nowadays I negotiate with my child and even help him feed. The child used to cry even sleeps without eating but nowadays he eats very well knowing the next day he will get a good meal\" (W_FGD Women2 p5: l.205-208 col.1 and 2)* responses that were given by women or men are indicated by \" √ \". Please note: the different experiences and perceptions have been grouped into categories and highlighted in bold respectively.In general, there is limited information in the literature on responsive feeding practices compared to other feeding practices such as dietary intake or diversity, especially in developing countries. This study showed how inadequate responsive feeding practices, including shared-plate eating, forced feeding, and the low priority of child feeding within households may be successfully addressed.The practice of children sharing their plate when eating or feeding was evaluated differently by the study participants. Shared-plate eating was reported as a common practice in other low-income countries too [21]. Burrows et al. revealed variations within this practice, showing that food is either consumed directly from a central dish or served from a main plate to additional plates that are shared by two or more people [21]. In the current study, respondents mainly referred to children sharing a plate with the mother or the father and shared plates among siblings. The argument that one can monitor the amount of food the child has consumed was not mentioned, although it presents a major challenge, not only for the caregiver to estimate whether the child consumed an ageappropriate amount of food but also for the general assessment of dietary intake within research approaches [21].The complex distribution of food within households has been widely described in the literature under various aspects. For example, a male household head in Guatemala was granted a bigger share of the protein components than the rest of the family members, whereas the mother received a greater amount of the calories [22]. Concerns about inequalities in food distributions were expressed within the current study, with some participants stating about their child that \"if served on the same plate with others they will finish for him\" (FGD Women). In contrast to the negative effects of shared-plate eating, with smaller children getting smaller portion sizes, a case-control study in Nepal suggested that the practice is a rather beneficial eating behavior [23]. The Nepal study indicated that shared plates are associated with the consumption of a greater variety of foods and larger portion sizes compared to individual-plate feeding in general, whereas there were no differences in the consumption of carotenoid-rich fruit, vegetables, or meat. However, the authors also stated that shared-plate eating mainly occurred during main meals and only sporadically during snacks, so, subsequently, shared-plate meals were more likely to include a greater variety of food groups [23]. Another interview-based study in southeastern Nigeria described sharing plates among siblings as a parental strategy to encourage competitive eating among their children and, subsequently, to eradicate picky eating [24].Another aspect of shared-plate eating concerned assisting the child to eat or allowing the child to gain experiences while eating on her/his own under supervision. In this study, assistance was independent of whether the food was served on a shared or separate plate but was linked to the caregiver's attitude toward care and supervision during mealtimes. The argument for a separate plate, \"because he eats while playing thus taking too much time\" (FGD Women), indicates a lack of understanding about providing interactive and playful mealtimes and resulted, most likely due to time constraints, in limited care and assistance for the child. At the same time, the child loses their autonomy and may fail to appreciate satiety signals [25].As a rule, mothers were the main caregivers responsible for child feeding in the households. In the mothers' absence, other family members were in charge. The same groups of persons in different variations were described as caregivers in regard to feeding, in various studies [26][27][28]. A study by Wawire (2017) described the same caregivers for children in Migori and Kisumu, Western Kenya, with the additional explanation that mothers mostly did not leave their children without having a meal prepared beforehand [11]. The responses given in the focus group discussions were related to persons taking over the mothers' task in their absence, though it was not clear to what extent these persons assisted in general. During the discussion about caregivers' strategies for the children's food intake, it was mentioned that other family members took over to feed the children because this resulted in better eating behavior from the children. It appears that interaction with certain individuals during feeding could increase food intake, highlighting the relationship between a specific feeding person and the child in terms of responsive feeding.The serving order of meals within households seemed to be determined by traditional role allocations. The tradition to have a specific serving order, which privileged the male head of the household to be served first, has also been described for Guatemalan families, where it was associated with inequal intrahousehold food distributions [22]. In contrast, an observational study in a rural area in mid-Western Nepal reported about an intrahousehold serving order in which small children, regardless of their sex, had absolute priority [29]. The children were traditionally served before the male head of the household, and adult women served themselves last [29]. Although the serving order is not necessarily associated with an inadequate share of food for different household members, a preference given to children is seen as an indicator of adequate childcare and as an important contribution for the children's nutritional status [30]. A cross-sectional study in rural Nigeria showed that children were less likely to be stunted when they were given the priority of receiving a more diverse diet, compared to children in households where male or female adults were preferred in terms of food variety [30]. The focus group discussions in terms of serving orders and priorities were inhomogeneous, leading to the assumption that community members differ in their traditional practices and values or may have been exposed to similar nutrition education messages in this regard already. The families who already prioritized child feeding within the intrahousehold food distribution or were willing to change the serving order during the TIPs could become peers within parent-child-care groups, which would support a sustainable behavior change.Both responsive and nonresponsive feeding styles were a topic in the focus group discussions as well as in the TIPs. The responsive feeding style is characterized by a positive interaction with the child during feeding/eating, which can include encouragement in any form, conversations, playing games, smiling, and eye-to-eye contact, among others, bearing in mind the interest of the child [5,31]. Encouragement through company, showing love and affection, or promised rewards was mentioned by the study participants. Likewise, the search for alternatives showed the caregiver's concern about the interest of the child, by providing extra food. Moreover, feeding more frequently in small amounts or letting other people, who seem to have a positive influence on the child's eating behavior, feed the child can be considered a way out of a problem that has started at an earlier parenting age [31]. It is questionable whether the strategy of waiting until the child is hungry can be considered responsive. On the one hand, it fulfills the criterion of being oriented toward the expressed needs of the child; on the other hand, the underlying motivation for this could be a lack of willingness to take the time to sit down with the child for an interactive meal.Habron et al. ( 2013) classified nonresponsive feeding styles into three types: the indulgence type lets the child control the situation, the uninvolved type ignores the child during mealtimes, and the restricting type excessively controls and dominates feeding times [5]. The latter can be recognized in the study population by the reported behavior of forcing the child to eat. Porridge was especially named as being forced on the child. Pelto et al. (2003) reported this practice as well in one of their case studies, in which mothers in Nigeria fed the child porridge by hand. They held the child's nose when they refused, which forced them to swallow [26]. These practices are not easily reported and are least often addressed in nutrition education approaches, as they remain a culturally sensitive aspect of child feeding. During the TIPs, most mothers reported that their children ate without difficulties, but, upon further probing, they reported using strategies to increase the child's food intake, such as force. These practices were also described for complementary feeding practices in Migori and Kisumu, Western Kenya, where mothers used force in the case of the child's refusal but did not feel comfortable doing so [11]. Violence and nonresponsive behavior can lead to feeding situations characterized by tedious interactions and a lack of trust in the relationship between caregiver and child [5]. Furthermore, pressuring practices in child feeding were predominantly found to be associated with higher rates of picky-eating behavior, a lower interest in food, and a lower intake of food [4].In the current study, the children's preferences or dislikes for certain foods influenced the food choices made by their mothers. Children's reactions to the improved practices facilitated or hindered their implementation. This was to be expected, since the children were the ones affected by a change in feeding style. Still, the reactions from the children in the current study to new practices were predominantly positive and approving and facilitated the implementation. Unproblematic adaptions to new practices were also reported for children in studies using TIPs in Rwanda and Uganda [32,33].Some children in the current study were reported to refuse certain foods or to be slow or picky eaters. Whether this was a result of nonresponsive feeding practices at an earlier age could not be assessed in this study. However, in these cases, caregivers should be encouraged to introduce new food items several times to allow a child to become familiar with the food [4,5]. Foods should also be presented early in life to achieve higher acceptance, leading to higher frequency of consumption of these foods later [4,34]. This is especially important when nutrition education aims to improve dietary diversity, which often involves introducing new recipes and flavors. Within the study population, not even half of the children aged 6-23 months met the minimum dietary diversity score for children, but an age-related increase in the integration of more food groups into children's diets was noted by Waswa et al. (2015), which was confirmed within the baseline survey of this study [10]. Besides the introduction of a variety of foods in early life, a child should be given the opportunity to explore and learn to eat, while being assisted by their mother. Likewise, a child playing with food should not be considered as a hindering factor to offering a meal on a separate plate. This was explained during the TIPs with the concept of an \"interactive mealtime\", where the feeding situation is supposed to be relaxed and playful, while mother and child have eye-contact during their feeding interaction [5].A cross-sectional study in Vietnam investigated caregiver feeding styles with children 12 or 18 months of age, using video recording during mealtimes. Positive verbalization from the caregiver was associated with a higher acceptance of food, whereas threatening verbalization and force led to higher rates of rejection of food [35]. Similar experiences were reported by caregivers in the current study, when a child was positively encouraged to eat: \"The child eats even better than when force was being used during meals\".(woman, 27 yr (with child, 4 yr))Time was rarely explicitly mentioned to influence responsive feeding practices but became obvious through statements about the convenience of a practice, the mothers' absence from home, or the expressed disagreement with the child playing with food during mealtimes. A statement by one of the mothers, that she had time to try out the practice, shows that this does not mean the norm. Women in developing countries often face a double or even a triple burden of work with housework, childcare, and subsistence farming activities. In addition, women are increasingly involved in paid employment [36]. Heavy workloads, therefore, rival with the time required for adequate childcare and feeding practices. \"Competing interests for caregivers' time\" is considered as a barrier to implement responsive child feeding, highlighting the need for development to generate extra time to allow for the implementation of improved infant and young -child feeding practices [28,32,37,38].The respondents' perceptions of the current and improved responsive feeding practices were identified as facilitating and hindering factors. According to social psychological theories, perceptions are attributed with an important influence on behavior. Even if the objective consequences of an action were fairly certain, the intentions for a particular behavior would depend on how the person interprets these consequences [39]. Perceptions of the traditional roles of men and women influenced some mothers regarding the serving order in the family. They refused to serve the child first because they felt it was unnecessary or feared that this would be perceived as a lack of respect toward their husband, as the head of the household. Unlike the participants who changed the serving order with their husbands' consent, there was no information on the influence or reaction of the husbands of the refusing participants. None of the mothers mentioned difficult or discouraging reactions from their husbands. This could be explained by the relatively low participation of men in child nutrition decision-making in developing countries [27]. In more traditional societies, a tendency toward gender-specific roles was portrayed, with childcare seen as the responsibility of women. Therefore, despite being in most cases the \"household head\" in the current study, men were rarely involved in the decision-making concerning child feeding. However, although some women referred to themselves as the person in charge of meals, which facilitated the implementation of new feeding practices, others did not view themselves as confident enough to change the traditional serving order. Traditional norms and gender roles were, therefore, an important influencing factor and need to be taken into account in programs like this one, by involving husbands and community elders to gain their understanding and support for the concerns of children and women [27]. Several other studies showed that the sociocultural environment significantly influences child feeding practices [40][41][42]. Food taboos are increasingly and successfully addressed in nutrition education, but the household dynamics of who is served first and last or whether a child is forced to eat, for example, tend not to be addressed. Maybe this is a result of nutrition education up to now being a rather women-focused strategy. This requires more gender-specific nutrition education programs that also include men in the discussion of infant and young child needs, in order to combat malnutrition and improve fathers' views of infant and child needs.The study participants reported several positive effects such as improved child's food intake, health, or behavior when trying out the improved feeding methods. The perceived benefit to the child's health was described as the most common facilitator for the caregivers in other studies too [32,33,43]. The thicker consistency of porridge was perceived to contribute to a longer satiety, more energy, and weight gain [33,43]. Similar statements were made in the current study and highlight the underlying motivational factors for the mothers to guarantee the health and well-being of their children. These positive observations of the caregivers were also reported in the focus group discussions during the evaluation workshops. Mothers and fathers independently reported that they had seen changes in their children regarding a better food intake, positive health effects on the child, and a more satisfied behavior. As the period between the first household visits for the trials of improved practices and the workshops was about three months, positive effects could have been possible, but no measurements took place at the end that would have confirmed them (such as weight gain). The given statements reflect positive expectancies about the recommended responsive feeding practices and can function as motivators to implement the practices.This study focused on the implementation of child feeding recommendations in accordance with the WHO and did not include a systematic assessment of responsive feeding practices using instruments such as standardized questionnaires [44]. We also studied a wide age range of children. However, practices such as sharing plates, household priorities in serving meals, or encouragement while eating, as well as the general atmosphere at mealtimes, affect younger and older children in Kenya equally. All results of this study rely on the self-reporting of the respondents and are, thus, exposed to bias. Furthermore, data collection was conducted in the local language, with answers noted down in English in a summarized form, instead of performing a verbatim transcription following a translation. Detailed information could have been lost during the process, and there was a possibility of a subjective interpretation of the respondent's answers by the facilitators.The TIPs were not only carried out to collect data on the issue of child feeding practices but also on two other subjects for the research project. This implied counseling on three different topics during one household visit and resulted in a high number of recommended improved practices that the women agreed upon. The long counseling process might have exceeded the absorption capacity for information of the women, and the additional practices might have influenced the implementation of the ones concerning child feeding practices, by competing with the women's time and other resources.One has also to consider that this study followed nutrition counseling about dietary diversity, which occurred four months earlier. Information about the effects on the child had already been pointed out by the parents at that time, so respondents may have repeated these results. The effect of a method bias within the research approach could have occurred, if respondents pursued the practices for social approval through desirable behavior. This \"social desirability\" refers to the tendency to present oneself in a favorable way, despite one's true perceptions and feelings [45]. In the focus group discussions, there is also the likelihood of respondents agreeing with what another participant said, as well as the possibility of an answer being given only because the participant felt obliged to do so [17].The deductive formation of categories depending on the interview questions was used for structuring. These questions were researched beforehand through the literature and observations. This is an established method. Still, it is possible that certain feeding practices were not discovered through this method, as we concentrated on practices already mentioned in the literature and what we have seen. The answers of the participants, in contrast, were then coded inductively without any predefined structure to minimize the potential bias.Overall, the implementation of responsive feeding practices was feasible for the caregivers. They reported mainly positive experiences in terms of the children's feeding behavior and effects on the children's health. Traditional beliefs, practices, and cultural norms posed a great challenge in changing the established feeding practices within some households, although not all.There is, therefore, a need to involve households that are practicing adapted diets in food-insecure regions, such as those in this study, in the development of nutrition education interventions to improve existing messages. These messages should address cultural norms, include more information about improved diets, and address both genders to create more awareness of the importance of adapted feeding practices and the need for appropriate timing of infant and young child feeding.","tokenCount":"8107"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cbfa173eee835b9c86da45588a351b31","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d370d7db-bbe0-4237-a321-caa69f9426f7/retrieve","id":"-1831678864"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a1e564e1-7e4f-470a-b1b9-694a721800ca","pagecount":"8","content":" Malgré un assez bon niveau de robustesse du PNSR I (>50 %), les insuffisances dans sa mise en oeuvre n'ont cependant pas permis de lever les contraintes majeures au développement du secteur rural.  L'exercice d'utilisation des scénarios pour guider la formulation du PNSR II a mis en exergue la nécessité d'inclusion d'un volet recherche qui accompagnerait de manière transversale toutes les autres composantes du PNSR II en fournissant l'appui scientifique et technique requis en vue de l'atteinte des objectifs de développement rural du Gouvernement du Burkina Faso.  La nécessité de promouvoir dans le PNSR II l'agriculture intelligente face au climat (AIC) basée sur les connaissances endogènes ou les bonnes pratiques en mettant à profit les informations scientifiques actualisées ou des connaissances scientifiques nouvelles développées ailleurs, a été reconnue.  22 recommandations portant sur les axes 1, 3, 4 et 5 ont été identifiées en se fondant sur les scénarios socio-économiques et climatiques et ont été traduites en actions spécifiques ou thématiques nouvelles à prendre en compte dans le PNSR II.Dans le cadre du partenariat initié en 2015 entre le Programme de recherche du CGIAR sur le Changement Climatique, l'Agriculture et la Sécurité Alimentaire (CCAFS) et le Secrétariat Permanent de la Coordination des Politiques Sectorielles Agricoles (SP-CPSA), en collaboration avec d'autres programmes et centres de recherche du CGIAR, une analyse du Programme National du Secteur Rural (PNSR) fondée sur les scénarios socio-économiques et climatiques du CCAFS a pu être menée avec la participation effective des parties prenantes du secteur rural du Burkina Faso. Les 22 recommandations qui en sont issues devraient permettre une prise en compte effective des facteurs socioéconomiques, environnementaux et climatiques plausibles dans le futur proche et lointain, et ainsi aider à rendre le PNSR II plus robuste face aux incertitudes futures liées au changement climatique, aux dynamiques mondiales, aux évolutions socioéconomiques, aux changements des normes et valeurs, etc. En outre, un exercice avec l'ensemble des acteurs impliqués a consisté à traduire lesdites recommandations en actions et thématiques nouvelles à prendre en compte lors de la formulation du PNSR II. Les échanges entre acteurs ont également fait ressortir la nécessité d'une implication transversale de la recherche dans la mise en oeuvre des activités de cet important outil politique qu'est le PNSR II.Quatre scénarios qualitatifs et quantitatifs intégrés qui décrivent le futur jusqu'en 2050 ont été développés en vue d'explorer les incertitudes socio-économiques régionales majeures en Afrique de l'Ouest concernant la sécurité alimentaire, l'environnement et les moyens de subsistance dans un contexte de changement climatique. Pour ces différents domaines, deux éléments moteurs ont été considérés par les parties prenantes comme d'importance capitale en Afrique de l'Ouest mais avec des niveaux élevés d'incertitude (Figure 1) :-Les priorités à long ou court terme prévalent-elles dans la gouvernance régionale ? -Les acteurs étatiques ou non-étatiques sont-ils le moteur du changement dans la région ?Ces deux éléments moteurs « incertains » ont été utilisés pour structurer les quatre scénarios, lesquels ont été validés en utilisant deux modèles économiques agricoles : GLOBIOM, développés par l'IIASA, et IMPACT, développé par l'IFPRI. Auto-détermination  La société civile à la rescousse? Sauve qui peut. --Renforcer et rationaliser les structures de gouvernance existantes --Responsabiliser les ANE --Obligation de rendre compte --Contrôle de l'exécution Importance de la recherche dans la mise en oeuvre du PNSR II Au Burkina Faso, plusieurs centres du système CGIAR mettent en oeuvre la recherche à travers des Programmes de recherche en consortium couvrant : (1) les forêts, les arbres et l'agroforesterie, (2) l'eau, les terres et des écosystèmes, (3) le changement climatique, l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire et (4) les systèmes des zones sèches. Ces programmes sont mis en oeuvre en étroite collaboration avec les organismes nationaux de recherche, les universités, les services techniques du développement rural et les ONG.L'exercice d'utilisation des scénarios pour guider la formulation du PNSR II a mis en exergue la nécessité d'une coordination des interventions de la recherche en vue d'une meilleure contribution de résultats aux objectifs de développement du Gouvernement du Burkina Faso pour le secteur rural. En outre, les réflexions sur comment la recherche pourrait contribuer plus efficacement à la mise en oeuvre du PNSR ont permis d'identifier des besoins spécifiques d'action d'accompagnement de recherche pour chaque sous-secteur du PNSR. Aussi, l'identification de certains écarts et leurs traductions en thématiques nouvelles ont également fait ressortir le besoin crucial de connaissances et d'outils scientifiques pouvant permettre une planification et une mise en oeuvre appropriées de ces thématiques dans le cadre du PNSR II. Fort de ces besoins, les parties prenantes au processus ont vivement souhaité une inclusion dans le nouveau PNSR d'un volet recherche, lequel pourrait être considéré sous forme d'un axe transversal à tous les autres axes du PNSR II. ","tokenCount":"785"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"89b89b62f3b54d04522f7bbbd1538d3a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d8a52a1-7d2f-4949-ba57-05ddd8fcbdf7/retrieve","id":"283601868"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9c0f356c-81f0-4632-9889-8688a7e22b95","pagecount":"43","content":"This paper focuses on synthesising ILRI's experience with the Crop and Goat Project (CGP) in Tanzania from a gender perspective. ILRI's part concerning gender activities in the CGP is a cross cutting issue. Therefore, it cut across other components and activities carried out by partners. As such, ILRI's experience cannot be described without referring to other components of the CGP. Some findings were identified which are worthwhile pursuing in future similar projects. For example, access to and control over assets and the products and proceeds gained from them increased the independence of male and female household members as they can now make decisions with little dependence on resources of others.The project has also been able to positively improve some of the key domains of gender empowerment, i.e. asset ownership, decisions-making ability and authority, independence, improved sense of worth, willingness and ability to question one's status and capacity to negotiate relationships and change labour patterns.Furthermore, the use of gender analysis in design, implementation and evaluation stages helped in providing an understanding of the complexity of gender relations and labour organization and how they shape household strategies and power dynamics, and subsequently the differential impact of the project on different members of a household.Finally, the various project activities have helped to clarify the need for new participatory approaches, i.e. empowerment framework and pathway, to define a multi-level empowerment conceptual framework including a carefully determined targeting strategy (like working with women's and special interest groups and youth, but also ensuring the engagement with men and boys), set empowerment goals, translate the framework and goals into a pathway, identify indicators of change, and assess success of projects in enhancing change, all in a participatory fashion. Keywords: gender, decision-making, asset ownership, labour patterns, food security, access to service Unfortunately, the results of the endline household survey have not been analysed, so they could not be used to compare with the results from the baseline household survey. However, the baseline data analysis, the qualitative studies and the progress reports did provide sufficient information to present interesting findings concerning the status, and where observed or perceived progress, in gendered aspects of the project such as ownership, labour and decision-making in cassava and sweet potato cultivation and dairy goat rearing.We hope that the gendered findings, although they display existing inequalities which undermines progress for the individual farmers, their households and communities, also show that such situation is not fixed and that there are ample promising opportunities to transform towards a more equitable state of affairs and that the recommendations on how to facilitate such change processes will be considered in future research studies and intervention projects.Figure 1. This discussion paper looks at ILRI's experiences in the project called 'Integrating dairy goats and root crop production for increasing food, nutrition and income security of smallholder farmers in Tanzania', referred to as Crop and Goat Project (CGP), from a gender perspective.The goal of the CGP was to see 120 farmers in the Dodoma and Morogoro regions of Tanzania raise dairy goats and grow crops (cassava and sweet potato) that provide both fodder and food to improve nutrition, ensure food security and incomes from integrated farming for rural households with a view to improve their standard of living. Especially, resource poor households and female-headed households were expected to benefit from this project through careful design of project components, research instruments and development strategies.The objectives were to improve the milk production potential of indigenous goats through crossbreeding, improved management and control of major diseases at the community level. The project also tested and evaluated improved sweet potato and cassava varieties that have the dual purpose of improving food security and nutrition at household level and providing leaves and vines for the development of locally available and cost effective rations for dairy goats.The CGP investigates the livelihood strategies, production potential and marketing possibilities of local goats and crops in the study areas, and analyses the impacts (productivity, environmental, gender and empowerment, food security and nutrition) of integrating improved goat breeds with sweet potatoes and cassava into an agropastoral farming system.The focus of this paper is on the gender-based component and analysis that informed other components, structures, activities and results within the CGP project.ILRI and partners supported the gender component by providing the ex ante gender analysis of the project, backstopping other project partners and conducting other gender activities over the course of the project. These activities include the development of a gender strategy, the completion of the baseline household survey with gender disaggregated data, the application of Knowledge, Attitudes and Practice (KAP) surveys to collect gender-based perceptions in regard to different aspects of the project. These activities also spanned to the implementation of field studies to inform project interventions, and the development of partners and beneficiaries' capacities through gender training and awareness raising sessions.The project documentation of these activities to date have been reviewed to synthesise this discussion paper and explore the likely transformative impacts of the introduction of dairy goats and improved cassava and sweet potato varieties. The interventions, and their results where possible, were analysed on the status of or observable change related to the gender dimensions of the project such as men's and women's (labour) roles, responsibilities, perceptions and aspirations, and gendered differences in participation and decision-making and access to and control and ownership of assets and the proceeds derived from them. These dimensions determine the level of women's empowerment and achievement of sustainable transformation towards gender equitable behaviours in the farming households and their environment.Tanzania ranked 159th (out of 187) in the Human Development Report (UNDP 2014) with a Human Development Index of 0.488 and a gross national income per capita of USD 1702. Tanzania ranked 124th with a Gender Inequality Index of 0.553, a composite measure reflecting inequality in achievement between women and men in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market.The poverty status of Tanzania is improving slowly over the last 3 Household Budget Surveys conducted by the Tanzanian Government. The percentage of the population living below the poverty line in terms of food went down from 18.7% in 2000/2001 to 16.6% in 2007 and in terms of basic needs from 35.7% in 2000/2001 to 33.6% in 2007; however, in rural areas the poverty was higher than in urban areas. Though the overall percentage of female-headed households in Tanzania living below the poverty line went up from 22.9% in 2000/2001 to 24.5% in 2007, in rural areas the poverty of female-headed households was lower than in urban areas in 2007 (NBS 2013).Agriculture is a very important sector of the Tanzanian economy. It contributes about 95% of the country's food demand, 26.8% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 30.9% of foreign currency and provides employment to over 75% of Tanzanians (United Republic of Tanzania 2013a). Tanzania is well endowed with a variety of farming systems with climatic variations and agro-ecological conditions suitable for crop production (United Republic of Tanzania 2013b). According to data on UNFAO (FAOSTAT), 1 Tanzania produced in 2013 an estimated amount of 5.4 million tonnes of cassava and 3.1 million tonnes sweet potatoes. With 4.6%, livestock ranks second within the agricultural sector in terms of its contribution to GDP (United Republic of Tanzania 2014). The estimated 2010 official statistical data reveals that, there are 19.2 million cattle; 13.7 million goats and 3.6 million sheep (United Republic of Tanzania 2014).The Crop and Goat Project targeted farmers in the regions of Morogoro in the North East of Tanzania and Dodoma in Central Tanzania (see Figure 1). Two districts of Mvomero and Kongwa were selected from these regions. In the two districts, four villages were selected; Wamiluhindo and Kunke in Mvomero District; Masinyeti and Ihanda in Kongwa District to implement project activities. The four villages in the project were selected based on their levels of food insecurity, potential for increased production, low dairy goat population and the absence of other development projects in the area. The latter arguably contributes to a stronger attribution to the project of the changes reported.In 2002 the Tanzania population census reported 260,525 inhabitants in Mvomero. There are about 142,155 farmers (of which 49.8% women) in the district and 2534 pastoralists. The district's average individual annual income per capita in 2007/08 was approximately 337,000 Tanzania shilling (approximately USD 213). Eighty percent of the adult population relies on agriculture and livestock keeping for their livelihoods. According to the 2002 population census Kongwa included 295,476 residents. Eighty-five percent of households rely on farming and 4.7% on livestock keeping. Kongwa is reported to have significantly lower per capita incomes than Mvomero.Figure 1. Map of the study sites in Kongwa and Mvomero districts.Sources: ILRI (2013); Galiè and Kantor (2014).Domestic livestock are an important component of the agricultural sector in Tanzania, with goats ranking second to cattle. Yet low growth rates of livestock and low milk production among small-scale farmers (Chenyambuga et al. 2004) limit food and nutritional benefits. Therefore, dairy goats are an attractive investment and provide higher quantities of milk compared to indigenous goats. Also, small-scale dairy production is an important source of cash income for subsistence farmers, especially in the East African Highlands (Omore et al. 2004).In the past, some efforts were made to introduce dairy goats in Tanzania like the 'The Improvement of Newala Goat Research Project' under the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Group, which resulted in improved milk yields and improved knowledge and use of high quality feeds (Mtambuki and Salum 2009) and the Kenya Dualpurpose (meat and milk) goat, with support from the USAID-Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program (Peacock 2008). Unfortunately, the projects could not be sustained locally because the approaches were too complex, faced logistic obstacles, lack of funds and poor performance leading to the end of the initiatives.Several studies have highlighted advantages of growing root crops. Sweet potato and cassava have the ability to provide a food security buffer during hunger periods, are sometimes considered as a famine reserve foods (Kapinga et al. 1995), and can be successfully grown in semi-arid areas (Dahniya 1994; Kapinga et al. 1995). Cultivating such root crops has the added value of being both food for humans and feed for animals (dual-purpose) making these crops desirable to produce in areas where land availability is declining (Leon-Velarde 2000; Nyaata et al. 2000).Therefore, bringing the cultivation of root crops and livestock production together may lead to positive outcomes, which could benefit poor smallholder livestock keepers when carefully targeted. The capacity for mixed crop-livestock systems to provide protein-rich food for billions of smallholder rural food producers and urban consumers, generate income and employment, reduce vulnerabilities in pastoral systems, intensify small-scale mixed crop-livestock systems and sustain livelihood opportunities to millions of livestock keepers including vulnerable groups such as women (Saghir et al. 2012) makes them an appealing vehicle for poverty eradication and pro-poor development.In Tanzania, women are major contributors in the agricultural economy providing 54% of the labour force in agriculture (FAO, IFAD, ILO 2010) while agriculture also comprises a greater part of women's economic activity than men's (81% vs. 73%). In rural areas, that number rises to 98% for women (FAO, IFAD, ILO 2010). However, their potential at alleviating poverty is limited by the constraints they face in livestock production and agricultural development as they pursue their livelihood activities.Studies have shown that women do not exercise control over large animals in any system (FAO 2006;Valdivia 2001).The income from small-scale production involving small animals (like goats) has long been reported to be negligible compared to earnings from larger livestock such as cattle (Kryger et al. 2008;Staal et al. 2008). The concern whether or not women take decisions over livestock assets is based on an understanding that the social impacts of derived remunerations from these assets vary depending on which gender has control. Women are reputed to use profits from assets over which they have control for meeting household food security needs, including education and health of household members (FAO 2011).Various sources document similar findings from cassava and sweet potato studies in Tanzania. A study on cassava farming found that women in female-headed households were more likely to own crop fields due to the fewer number of adult males living in these households (Nweke and Enete 1999). Studies on sweet potato farming show that in some regions of Tanzania, women are 100% responsible for planting, weeding, processing and storing sweet potato, whereas men are responsible for 70% of rural area marketing (Kapinga et al. 1995), which implies a certain level of women's control over incomes generated from farming activities. Male farmers in Tanzania have been found to control most of the profits from commercialized cassava sales, while women control incomes from small cassava sales often using the money to buy household goods and support their children's education (Curran and Cook 2009).Livestock, compared to land and other physical assets are among the only productive assets that women can easily acquire and own (Rubin et al. 2010). The view that women are more likely to own small stock such as chicken, goats and sheep rather than larger animals such as cattle and camels tends to be unsubstantiated and is often supported by little statistical evidence (Bravo-Baumann 2000). There is however an emergence of studies that investigate gendered differences in livestock species ownership. For example, data from a recent study in Tanzania shows that women were more likely to own goats than cattle (Njuki et al. 2011). These data also showed that men owned a significantly higher number of goats than women because for every 1 goat owned by women, men owned 14 goats. While women may own more goats than cattle, the benefits they can gain from small stock needs to be more clearly understood if interventions with crops in mixed systems are to contribute to welfare benefits.Studies have shown that integrated farming is more beneficial to women and the disadvantaged because cassava and sweet potato crop cultivation and dairy goat rearing are considered by most traditional patriarchal communities as appropriate for women (Sanni et al. 2007;Njuki et al. 2011). Additionally, establishing and managing small stock is cheaper than cattle and the labour needed to handle dairy goats and crops is often readily available and provided by women.Women have different knowledge, access to, and control over resources, and different opportunities to participate in decisions regarding resource use and management than men (Sass 2001). Past studies have noted that most programs and projects at development and implementation stages seldom seek the opinion of women, despite their greater contributions and roles in agriculture (FAO 2007;CARE Ethiopia 2009). The exclusion of women has made many past interventions most ineffective (World Bank 2008).Interventions, like the CGP, that seek to increase women's livestock holdings must determine the extent of gendered differences in access to and ownership of different livestock species (Njuki et al. 2011) in order to improve outcomes. Also, roles that men and women play in agriculture, and the different opportunities they have to participate in household and community decision-making process are the interest areas of this discussion paper.Origin and structure of the Crop and Goat Project in Tanzania The project implementers also collaborated with households, farmer groups, district extension officers, local nongovernment organizations and several national research agencies. To support the local adoption and maintenance of integrated farming systems, a comprehensive program of research and analysis was conducted. A repeated livelihoods and environmental assessment focused on current opportunities and constraints to the introduction of new goat and crop activities along with insights into the actual experience of technological adoption at the household level.Gender issues were an integral part of this project. Gender analysis is focused on ways to enhance women's participation and benefits from project activities. Targeted research also focused on environmental impacts, market access and disease control with attention to sustaining household and nutritional benefits over the long term. Insights from this research contributed to the implementation of this project, laid the ground work for wider-scale adoption, and transferred research capacity to the development community in East Africa and beyond.Originally, 120 project farmers (30 per intervention village) were randomly selected to receive dairy goats but only 107 farmers (69 male and 38 female) received goats due to lack of interest by core pastoralists in keeping a dairy goat alongside local breeds which required different but contrasting management practices, while others could not afford the pre-existing requirements to build a house for the dairy goat (University of Alberta and Sokoine University of Agriculture 2012b).To further achieve the set goals of the CGP for integrated farming systems, the project bulked and distributed new improved varieties of cassava and sweet potato varieties to project farmers (aimed at 50% women involvement) in the villages selected for on-farm participatory trials.The CGP benefited from periodic baseline monitoring and evaluation and other analytical studies. Joint efforts of the multidisciplinary researchers and project students from SUA and UoA provided a vast pool of wide-ranging expertise and peer reviewed articles from the project that informed the success recorded by the project.The CGP supported eight basic complementary channels of intervention to address developmental challenges posed by inability to maintain goat breeding stock and household food insecurity that debars communities in the project villages to move beyond survival and subsistence towards sustainable development and poverty reduction. The area of intervention of most interest from a gender perspective for the presentation and discussion of findings in this paper was 'Gender impacts and empowering women and the disadvantaged, so that they can successfully benefit from project intervention'.The CGP is constructed around a series of crosscutting components that result into the increase in the quantity and quality of food consumed by households and increase in improved goat production. This ensures community ownership and participation and the use of local resources to deliver the project milestones, activities and outcomes sustainably. The research/project framework is displayed in Figure 2. The project components were:1. Food security systems:• Dairy goats (breeding and milk production)• Root crops (cassava and sweet potatoes)System-wide analytical tools• Livelihood analysis  Application of the various analytical tools has resulted in a comprehensive baseline survey, a gender analysis and gender strategy and environmental impact assessment, and a number of documents on on-going efforts with respect to dairy goat and root crop introduction and management (Chenyambuga 2012;ILRI News 2012;Kusiluka 2012;Mtunda and Msemo 2012). Market development studies have been performed by masters' students at the Sokoine University of Agriculture, as have household nutrition assessments and other field studies. A literature review of past experiences in improved goat breeding and mixed crop farming in East Africa (Amati and Parkins 2011) has been completed, and an analysis of gift-giving using cassava as a proxy for general gifting behaviour is being undertaken (Zigab et al. 2012). The project implements a dual monitoring and evaluation system with a project M&E and a community M&E system for community participation and feedback.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is one of the major collaborating partners who ensure that CGP realizes its stated objectives to increase food security among smallholder farmers in Tanzania with an emphasis on resource-poor households, ensuring gender equity and women's empowerment through an integrated farming system. The broad mission of ILRI 2 is to improve food and nutritional security and to reduce poverty in developing countries through research for efficient, safe and sustainable use of livestock ensuring better lives through livestock. ILRI strives to achieve a gender equitable enjoyment of benefits of development through interventions that reflect women and men's distinct needs, preferences and aspirations. The CGP project aligns with and informed by the gender strategy of the CGIAR Research Program 'Livestock and Fish'-led by ILRI-the goal of which is 'Poor women, men and marginalized groups have improved and more equitable access to affordable animal source foods through gender equitable interventions'.As such, part of ILRI's role was to ensure gender issues were integrated in the project. This is an approach for making women's, as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation in all political, economic and social spheres so that women and men benefit equally from the project interventions and inequality is not perpetuated.The M&E specialists of ILRI developed the gender-responsive M&E web-based system for strategy level goals, outcomes, outputs and activities as well as the thematic research areas of the CGP to develop project pathways and monitor results. They also trained partners and communities to enter their information on dairy goats and crops for easy access by stakeholders for proper monitoring and evaluation processes supported by ILRI. The M&E database system enhanced the production of various reports in the project including monitoring and evaluation reports of the implemented activities.ILRI provided platforms and a learning environment for the research teams in the project to share the research experiences and findings within the components of the project through periodic research workshops. These workshops provided an avenue for CGP sponsored faculty and graduate students to share preliminary research results and enable them to continue developing project-based insights across all aspects of the project.The M&E specialists of ILRI developed the gender-responsive M&E web-based system for strategy level goals, outcomes, outputs and activities as well as the thematic research areas of the CGP to develop project pathways and monitor results. They also trained partners and communities to enter their information on dairy goats and crops for easy access by stakeholders for proper monitoring and evaluation processes supported by ILRI. The M&E database system enhanced the production of various reports in the project including monitoring and evaluation reports of the implemented activities.ILRI provided platforms and a learning environment for the research teams in the project to share the research experiences and findings within the components of the project through periodic research workshops. These workshops provided an avenue for CGP sponsored faculty and graduate students to share preliminary research results and enable them to continue developing project-based insights across all aspects of the project. b. Farmer participatory trials of improved cassava and sweet potato varieties SUA conducted and introduced farmer participatory trials of improved cassava and sweet potato varieties. Men and women farmers' acceptability and the agronomic potential of improved cassava and sweet potato varieties and associated technologies were evaluated and documented through farmer participatory trials. ILRI supported data analysis of the participatory trials.This component was undertaken by SUA. The main purpose was to incorporate cassava and sweet potato into goat rations (to ensure availability of animal feeds all the year round) and deploy the on-farm evaluation of feed resources and feeding management research strategies.System-wide Analytical Tools a.Livelihood Analysis was carried out with by SUA and UoA and they benefited from the baseline data analysis conducted by ILRI. This involved the review of changes in perceptions and the use of technologies and other changes in livelihood strategies, social organization and status of the environment, and documented any changes to project implementation recommended. The gender and intra-household dynamics of improved technologies and market linkages were analysed and recommendations made for further activities on gender in the project to ensure benefits to men, women and their households.Gender experts from ILRI and SUA developed capacities of all project partners to ensure the integration of gender in their interventions and that the partners know how to examine the likely impacts of the introduction of dairy goats and improved cassava and sweet potato varieties on gender dimensions of the project such as the division of labour and decision making, independence and access to and ownership of assets, including the proceeds of these assets.The M&E component was spearheaded by ILRI experts in collaboration with SUA and UoA experts. SUA and UoA collaborated to achieve the set goals for the EIA component. ILRI provided the baseline data that laid the foundation for actualizing this component and also helped to design evaluation tools.c.Understanding and improving market access and improving goat and goat products value chains SUA collaborated with UoA to improve the functioning of the market and the value chains of goats and goat products.Gender experts from ILRI collaborated with their peers from SUA and a SUA graduate student to determine the prevalence of malnutrition and causes associated with it. This was realized by assessing nutritional status of under-five year of age children and evaluating household dietary patterns of the beneficiaries in Mvomero and Kongwa Districts. Data collected were disaggregated by gender.The CGP gender strategy was developed by ILRI for project partners to live up to one of the project's approaches of integrating gender concerns into CGP project. This action can make visible the gaps between project commitments and their actual implementation and impact, and can thus be used to hold commitment makers accountable for their actions, or their lack of action.This is an essential element for the success of the project and as a means to ensure gender equity and empowerment by identifying gender-based constraints and opportunities related to decision-making, roles within households and in the community, and ownership of and control over resources in relation to crop and goat production and marketing.The objectives of the gender strategy (Njuki and Saghir 2012) are to:• Ensure that project interventions meet the practical and strategic needs of both men and women because often overlooking women's needs undermines the success of agricultural development interventions.• Identify gendered constraints, opportunities and orthodoxies to dairy goat production and marketing, the current livestock ownership patterns, decision making, division of labour and management as this is likely to increase benefits for both men and women from the interventions.• Promote project sustainability, gender-sensitive strategies (that aim to improve the economic status of and opportunities for women) designed, implemented and systematically monitored and evaluated.• Contribute to the specification and identification of target gender-related variables within the key project milestones which is intended to serve as starting point for the broader research question on how integrated farming can bring benefits to women and men.• Hold implementers/stakeholders accountable to engender projects objectives, deliveries, outcomes and impacts. This action pinpoints who is responsible for certain actions within the project.• Assess challenges to success, and adjust programs and activities to better achieve gender equality goals and reduce adverse impacts on women and men.• Assist project implementers to identify how interventions can be adjusted to achieve their maximum impact, and where resources can be reallocated to improve overall development and gender equality.The strategy also aims to ensure proportional representation of women in key project activities and stressed the need to carry out periodic review of the project activities. This is necessary to assess challenges to success, and adjust programs and activities to better achieve gender equality goals and reduce adverse impacts on women and men.The strategy specified areas of gender integration in the project, i.e. gendered aspects of food security improvements, household level impacts, market access, amongst others. The strategy emphasized the need for periodic capacity development of project partners and beneficiaries in gender integration, so that men and women would benefit equally from project interventions. To achieve gender equity for the resource-poor women (especially female-headed households), the strategy was specific on the need to form women groups so they can benefit maximally from the project using group dynamics and collective actions.The strategy encourages achieving transformative and empowerment outcomes, and moving to community and individual efforts to transform the rigid patriarchal culture they are part of and preserves gender inequality.The strategy suggested the use of gender analysis-a method to assist in strengthening development planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and to make programs and projects more efficient and relevant. This recommendation was to make data gathering more meaningful and ensure generating relevant sex and gender disaggregated data.The aim of such analysis is to formulate interventions that are better targeted to meet both women's and men's needs and constraints, reduce gender inequalities and take advantage of existing opportunities to achieve gender equality.The CGP objective for integrating gender into its components and activities is summarily represented in Figure 3. Gender specific activities carried out by ILRI and other partners that ILRI backstopped can be divided into four parts:1 Gender transformative approaches through:• Training and capacity development for project partners and communities• Gender awareness sessions• Group formation and dynamics 2 Resource allocation and co-ownership:• Provision and distribution of dairy goats and improved varieties of cassava and sweet potatoes• Marketing and improved value chains for goat and goat milk products• Goat houses• Disease control and management 3 Field studies, data collection activities and research workshop:• Gender analysis and gender disaggregated data in:• Livelihoods studies• Food security and nutrition studies• Qualitative and quantitative analysis for M&E• Research workshop• Publications from the project 4 Monitoring and evaluation through:• Gendered monitoring and evaluation tools for project activitiesGender transformative approaches through:Capacity development sessions on gender integration were carried out for project staff, project partners and community members. Trainings were held at two levels: general gender awareness and analysis which covered issues such as introduction to gender, gender transformative approaches, gender sensitive facilitation skills and gender analysis. Gender specific trainings tailored more to the specific functions and roles of different team members and partners. For example, in January/February 2012, project team members and extension staff from Kongwa and Mvomero districts were trained on gender analysis and how to integrate gender into project activities. A total of 16 (seven females and nine male) staff participated and mainstreamed gender in their specific project activities. ILRI provided the training on gender and gender analysis. In addition, ILRI developed a gender strategy to provide further guidance to project stakeholders.Project partners were also taught on how to mainstream and integrate gender concerns into their activities.Community training on gender awareness and sensitization were held, for example, during focus group discussions when gender related issues come up. The objective was to create awareness and help change some stereotype mindsets based on cultural practices, and one way to engage men and boys in discussing gender related practices, especially those that create inequities.A village level gender training workshop was held for project farmers in all four villages (18 to 22 November 2012). A total of 122 project farmers (62 women and 58 men) and six government extension workers (4 men and 2 women) participated. During the training, farmers were helped to understand different gender related aspects particularly key gender concepts, gender analysis and the contribution of community in gender relations.A total of 126 project farmers (68 women and 58 men) and six government extension workers (5 men and 1 woman) received one day training on gender, nutrition and marketing.Other stakeholder targeted training sessions were held after a needs assessment. For example, female project farmers were trained on leadership, negotiation and conflict management skills.A gender study/inventory to identify existing and potential women groups was conducted in all four project villages in June/July 2012 (University of Alberta and Sokoine University of Agriculture 2012b).In relation to participation in social groups; three women groups were identified: crop production, VICOBA/SACCOs 3 and self-help social groups. As a response to findings from the baseline study and field studies, project farmers were trained on dairy goat production, management, market aspects, and steps taken to integrate gender, dairy goat and its products and extension services.Farmer participatory trials for the evaluation of men and women farmers' acceptability and the agronomic potential of improved cassava and sweet potato varieties and associated technologies were set up with 115 project farmers and a target of 50% women involvement. The CGP witnessed men and women in the households having joint ownership of goats and other resources and at the same time sharing goat management roles and responsibilities.Baseline household surveyThe report on the baseline household survey, analysing different parameters from a total of 552 households from the four project villages and four non-project villages in Kongwa and Mvomero districts which were surveyed in 2011 was completed in March 2013. There were 472 project farmers and 80 non-project farmers and 19% (103 of 552) of the households were female-headed households. Male household heads were on average younger (42 years) than the female household heads (56 years). The results of the surveyed households gives a broad picture on the following different household parameters: Household characteristics; Goat raising and root crop production; Livelihood analysis; Root and goat production and productivity; Market access for root crops and goat; Access to services and Access to community resources and environmental conservation. Part of the data was sex/gender disaggregated and the study showed some gendered analysis of these parameters.A gender study and inventory was carried out in all four project villages in June/July 2012, (Mosha-Kilave and Lyimo-Macha 2013). The objectives of the study were to identify female headed households (FHHs) in the project villages who had received dairy goats in the first round, explore their roles and capacity in keeping the dairy goats, and root crops cultivation, identify gender training needs for project participants, and identify existing challenges in dairy goat enterprises and training needs.Knowledge, attitude and practice survey 1In July 2012 (though published in August 2013) a study was conducted to assess the project farmers aspirations for their dairy goat project relative to the project objectives, to understand the preliminary outcomes of the dairy goat project from the project farmers perspective and to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of the project farmers regarding root crop and dairy goat production.Knowledge, attitude and practice survey 2In August 2013, focus group discussions were held in the project's four villages with 50 participating farmers (29 women and 21 men) and seven government extension workers (5 men and 2 women) to find out what they perceived as changes in their knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) as a result of the project interventions. This was meant as a follow up study from the KAP survey 1 conducted in July 2012.In January 2014 (44 women and 40 men) additional semi-structured interviews were held in preparation for the book chapter mentioned below.A number of the participants of the KAP survey 2 were randomly selected to participate in the most significant change story exercise. This methodology is used to capture change from the farmers' perspective at any level as a result of the project. Stories from 19 men and 19 women were collected.To determine the prevalence of malnutrition in under-fives and gendered causes associated with it, a study was carried out (Meena et al. 2013) to assess child nutritional status and gender relations among dairy goat and improved root crops project beneficiaries in Mvomero and Kongwa Districts.A research workshop was held at ILRI at Nairobi campus, Kenya, from 18-20 June 2013. This workshop provided an avenue for faculty and graduate students to share preliminary research results and enabled them to assess the progress for all aspects of the project, including on gender. During the workshop 20 presentations were made which helped to enrich the discussions and shape the future project interventions.All CGP partners have published articles of project findings to foster more knowledge sharing among partners and other scientists taking a gender perspective in discussion papers, books and newsletters. Some of the publications are:After the project inception meeting in 2011 a qualitative gender study was conducted on 12-17 September 2011 by ILRI with support from SUA in rural Tanzania. The study involved gender disaggregated Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) involving 224 men and women who participated in the FGDs from the four study villages of Wami Luhindo and Kunke in Mvomero, and Masinyeti and Ihanda in Kongwa respectively. A total of 12 FGDs were conducted to achieve the study objectives.Galiè and Kantor (2014) authored a book chapter 'From gender analysis to transforming gender norms: using empowerment pathways to enhance gender equity and food security in Tanzania'. Drawing on findings from field studies on knowledge, attitude and practices implemented in August (2013) and January (2014), they discuss the concepts of gender analysis, empowerment, and present a participatory empowerment pathway as a possible approach for operationalizing Gender Transformative Approaches in the field.Four issues of the Crop and Goat Newsletter were published and distributed. These were also placed on project website at UoA. 4 Issue four took a gender focus.Monitoring and evaluation:A project M&E framework was developed and presented at the inception workshop in May 2011. This framework included tools for data collection and tracking key results/progress of the project.From 23-26 July 2012, SUA conducted a day long training on community-based M&E in each project village with backstopping from ILRI where 81 farmer group members (51 male and 30 female members) were trained. They had all participated in the baseline survey and most of them own goats.From 11-15 February 2013, the monitoring team from ILRI in collaboration with SUA team, conducted training on M&E to 2 newly recruited research assistants, 8 village extension workers, 2 technicians from SUA who are attached to the project and 1 researcher from the root crop component. Main emphasis was on the different types of data to be collected, how this data is to be collected, how to input the data into the system, analyse them and give feed back to the farmers.4. https://sites.google.com/a/ualberta.ca/diary-goats-and-root-crops-tanzania/home/newslettersAt the time of the development of this paper the analysis of the endline household survey was not available yet, so the baseline data could not be compared with the endline data. However, the gendered findings of the baseline household survey are by themselves very important to be noted as findings at the early stages of the project, so they have been incorporated in the sections as well.At the end of this chapter some findings are provided that relate to how the project document was assessed halfway the duration of the project as being the guiding document for the planned activities. Whether a project accomplishes gender equitable results and impacts depends largely on the approaches used to implement interventions. Therefore, it is useful to share the perspective on the transformation or implementation processes used that was documented.The findings from the gender analysis of data collected from the two districts of the project in September 2011 (Saghir et al. 2012) showed that livestock such as cattle, goats, chicken and pigs play important roles in income generation and food security of both men and women in Tanzania. There was however a divergent report on the importance of livestock across gender as women considered small stock such as goats and chicken as convertible assets that are easily traded to meet household's immediate and future needs, whereas men considered livestock such as cattle and goats as immediate source of large income.Perceptions of women and men on the potential benefits of integrating root crops and goat varied. Men perceived value addition resulting from owning dairy goats and the attendant increase in income for them, whereas women perceived change as an increased workload resulting from stall goat management activities which may not lead to an increase in income for them.Another concern voiced by women was that any foreseeable increase in income from integrated farming might result in the withdrawal of men from household responsibilities. Some participants explained that the anticipated increase in men's real income could also come about either through men accessing women's income, or more commonly, women using their earnings to substitute men's expenditure on household needs and children's education.A dairy farmer's aspirations assessment conducted in July 2012 revealed that there are differences in what men and female farmer aspire to achieve in the project (ILRI 2013a). Aspirations over one year seemed to be quite similar between men and women wanting to increase incomes from the dairy goats and root crops or increase food directly.In Mvomero district, the focus differed; the top priority for men was to build houses for the dairy goats and for the women it was to expand the land under sweet potato and cassava. Over the three year period into the CGP project, clear differences between women and men's aspirations emerged. The focus of women was to improving the quality of life of the households. In Kongwa, the focus of the female members was to expand land under production first and then to improve their living conditions in their homes including taking children to secondary schools prioritized as the fourth most important. For the female members of Mvomero district, the priority focus was on education, food security and transportation. Education did not feature for the male members of the Kongwa group; rather the focus was on expansion of land, increased incomes and increased number of dairy goats.Fieldwork (discussions with project participants) carried out February 2013 also brought out the farmers' expectations and concerns (Farnworth 2013). Women and men expressed similar visions, though women corroborated early finding that they prioritize educating their children. However, some women articulated very large visions, such as building a new house. Farnworth (2013) found out that project beneficiaries 'spoke gender language' without really having the in-depth knowledge of what gender integration and actualization is all about. Lessons learned here is that there is need for more capacity development on gender issues in the project communities and possibly advocacy at the community level if ILRI is given more opportunity. This could be achieved if the CGP continues with a second phase. The implementation period for the first phase of the CGP was too short to monitor and evaluate transformative impact of CGP project. It was observed that despite of the gender integration centrality of this project, gender is almost invisible in the objectives. It appears only in terms of an expected impact analysis on the project objectives and in terms of female participation in value chains under objectives. Importantly, though, the outcomes per objective show strong gender disaggregation of expected outcomes and outputs. Subsequently, even if all project components will integrate gender, there must be a clear pathways for achieving such.Tracking of CGP gains and impacts were difficult. There is the need for clear indicators in future projects to include and measure empowerment, start with a clear definition of empowerment, develop indicators to measure change along the pathway (across scales and actors), so as to better track progress towards gender transformative and empowerment goals (Galie and Kantor 2014).The gender analysis (Saghir et al. 2012) found that men owned all the goats (though local breeds which are hardly used for milk production) and made all the goat related decisions unilaterally and women owned goats only through bride wealth, inheritance and by direct purchase, which was uncommon. Even when a woman purchases a goat, she does not own it due to the persisting cultural affiliation. In some cases, men even indicated that women could never own goats, explaining that goat ownership by men is a traditional right. However, for some groups, there was some willingness to consider goat ownership by women. A minority of groups from Mvomero district reported the existence of joint livestock ownership compared to the rigid gender stereotype that existed on goat ownership in Kongwa district.Ownership of crops between men and women is quite distinct, and depends on the market prices of crops and yield of the crop they grow for cash. Men own cash crops or crops for cash, whereas women own subsistence or food crops for home consumption. Even crops traditionally owned by women become men's once they become commercialized.The baseline household survey conducted at the end of 2011 (ILRI 2013b) showed that men owned more livestock than women (TLU 5 of 0.51 and 0.43 respectively), but mostly livestock was owned jointly (TLU of 4.86). This was also the case for ownership of household assets. Households that owned assets jointly (38.84) reported ownership of more assets than households where assets were owned either owned by men (23.49) or women (8.80).There were also differences in the contribution of livestock to the household asset index. The livestock contribution was significantly higher for women (16.19%) compared to men (8.95%) and highest for joint-headed households (30.44%). The land owned jointly (8.69) was significantly higher compared to that owned by men and women, whereby men owned more land than women (4.44 and 3.78 respectively). This shows that livestock assets as a measure of the store of wealth is more important to assets owned by women compared to assets owned by males. However, the livestock contribution was twice as important in households where assets were jointly owned.There were also differences in asset ownership for goat rearing households; joint ownership is significantly the highest (asset index of 124.91), whereby male-headed households asset ownership was higher (75.75) than in female-headed households (23.10). For cassava producing households, there was a significant difference between men and women with men owning more (26.84 and 7.89 respectively). Joint ownership of assets (31.96) was also more than men and women ownership of assets. Significantly, more assets were owned by men than women among sweet potato producing households (36.38 and 7.81 respectively) while joint asset ownership (34.71) was slightly lower than assets owned by men.In addition, the contribution of livestock to the household asset index was significantly higher for women (29%) and joint ownership (55%) than for men (19%) in goat rearing. This was also the case in sweet potato producing households (women: 23%, joint: 28% and men: 12%) and in cassava producing households (women: 20%, joint: 68% and men: 8%).The gender asset disparity ratio is computed as the ratio of women's asset index to men's asset index. In terms of gender equality a ratio close to 1 would be desired. This ratio was found to be much higher (and closer to 1) for households that produced cassava (0.7187) and sweet potatoes (0.6573) than those that kept goats (0.5078) in the project villages. This implies there is a lower gender asset disparity for cassava and sweet potato producing households compared to goat rearing households.CGP witnessed role reversal on the ownership of assets. This shows the desired change and impact expected with gender considerations in project communities known for cultural rigidity on goat and crop ownership. Now, women have joint ownership of both goats and crops, project communities are witnessing narrowing of assets disparity gaps between men and women. The resultant effect of this is improved food and nutrition for the family because of income managed by women. This improvement is due to the gender sensitization and awareness created by ILRI and partners on women empowerment and gender equity. Therefore, there is need to intensify sensitizing communities on gains inherent in gender equalities of access to opportunities and women empowerment.Though the CGP enjoys the rich data collected from the baseline M&E data, subsequent M&E data collected could not achieve same. There was no continuity in data collected from the project inception to project completion. The effect of blending M&E concepts together means that it is quite hard to (i) discern the actual entry point and strategy for achieving specified outcomes and to (ii) discuss the hypotheses underlying each intervention. This created dearth in information that could possibly highlight lessons learned. Comparison was difficult and conclusion on the impact of the project were anecdotal, not backed by endline M&E data. In the future, more information should be collected throughout the project to ensure consistency.On the decision-making how to spend the proceeds from the sales of goats or root crops the household head from male-headed households was predominantly responsible for making the decision followed by the joint decision in the male-headed households (ILRI 2013b). These findings corroborated with the findings from the gender qualitative study earlier conducted for the CGP by Saghir et al. (2012). Also, it was common that decision-making about proceeds from the sale of goats among the female-headed households was only done by the head (female) of the households. Noticeably, in some male-headed households the spouse (female/wife) was the decision maker whereas in other male-headed households the decision was made jointly (ILRI 2013b).Women also decided on food crop allocation such as the amount to produce. Some women indicated that their husbands contributed to household upkeep with the money from crop sales. Not all men, according to women, supported their families sufficiently (Saghir et al. 2012).Already in August 2013 attitudinal changes were noticed in regard to gender relations with women getting more opportunity to make joint decisions with their partners compared to what occurred before the advent of the CGP where male farmers made every decisions in the house pertaining to resources use, access to resources as well as disposal resources (ILRI 2014). However, some women reported that men still have final say in decision making pertaining to some household needs.The training on gender that women and men famers received led to changes in the way farmers made decisions over resources and nutrition at the household level. More consultations on important issues relating to goats are experienced between men and women. This is a major achievement compared to the rigidity in decision-making on goat related issues before the CGP. However, on a practical matter for training on goat and crop management women from Kongwa asked to focus the training on practicing the new knowledge in the field as they are not able to read and write and find it difficult to follow teachings in class.Decision-making about goat and crop management changed insofar as new activities were introduced: i.e. the women and men who manage the dairy goats and crops make decisions about their management (ILRI 2014). Most households in Mvomero said decision-making about milk and crop sale revenues were shared between men and women. Most women in Kongwa mentioned that they had not sold the milk or crops yet-due to the limited availability, even for household consumption-but thought that at the moment of sale their menfolk 6 would take over the management of the revenues accruing from such venture.The CGP ensured that gender concerns was a crosscutting issue and therefore influenced interventions. This also had a bearing on the strategies used for participants to benefit from the project. These strategies led to addressing gender disparities in group formation to include women in leadership positions like in Kunke where the chairperson for the group is a female and also to give women major responsibilities. An example was letting the women be the ones taking care of the buck to serve the does in the villages.Galiè and Kantor (2014) also found that decision-making about revenues mostly rests with the men. It appeared that men (only) started to share information with their womenfolk 7 so that the latter could take care of the goats when the men were away. This was not needed with local breeds that are grazed by men and boys only.The findings regarding decision-making over assets and the proceeds derived from them indicate that the trainings were perceived as helping to increase sharing of decision-making, but were probably insufficient to achieve gender equitable patterns. Moreover, when asked to detail the reasons why the work and decision-making relative to the dairy goats were shared more equally than in the past, it turned out that the main reason was the co-ownership of the goats. Men say they have no issue with women's ownership of livestock, but they are uncomfortable when decisions on goats are made by women rather than men. Co-ownership of the goats was the only way to ensure that men and women felt equally responsible in the goat management. Ownership by one family member only would entail the disengagement of the other member from any work associated with the goats and their produce.Gender equity in decision-making was also associated with age. Young people in project villages aspire to more 'modern' lifestyles that include more equal gender relations with comparative advantage in decision-making than older generation that believe men make the decisions on assets and resources.6. The word menfolk is used to demonstrate that the practice is not limited to the spouse only; it may also refer to other men in the household or extended family.7. The word womenfolk refers to the wife first, but also refers to other women in the household.The project has been able to positively improve some of the key domains of empowerment, i.e. resource ownership, power to make decisions, independence, improved sense of worth, willingness and ability to question one's status and capacity to negotiate relationships (Galiè and Kantor 2014). Again, a clear pathways and better indicators should be designed to track beneficiaries' livelihoods over time to ensure that CGP actually delivered and impacted on livelihoods of beneficiaries.The numbers of training and capacity building communities were exposed to may not be sufficient to achieve gender equity because the focus is primarily upon transforming people's normative frameworks rather than offering an array of activities focusing on achieving change in various domains. Project partners are just witnessing gender utilizations of capacities developed at both community and household levels. As such, more time is needed to show observable differences across gender, descent and age grade.Labour patterns Saghir et al. (2012) found that women are responsible for caring for animals kept at the homestead. In contrast, the first KAP survey conducted in July 2012 found that the majority in Kongwa (71%) and Mvomero (88%) districts strongly disagreed or disagreed with the statement that 'looking after dairy goats is a woman's job because dairy goats require special attention and are usually kept at home' (ILRI 2013a).Labour patterns, however, vary for both men and women in the two districts (Saghir et al. 2012). In general, men herded and women cleaned the goat house. In addition, women fetched water for the animals and took care of the sick kids while men were responsible for activities like gathering information on water availability, range conditions and market situation. Sometimes in the dry season, women stall-fed goats with purchased grain by-products they bought from the market. Children helped both men and women in these chores, but only when they were not in school. Demands of women's and children's labour increased during the dry season as they have to collect dried leaves and fodder for goats from nearby forests.The allocation of agricultural tasks tends to be gendered, and are influenced by the scale and purpose of productionsubsistence or cash (Saghir et al. 2012). Cassava and sweet potatoes were tagged as 'women' crops even though few women cultivated these crops; maize and paddy were cultivated by men. Women prepare land, harvest and participate in post-harvest activities. They also assist in their husband's crop farms, but the husbands never assisted the women with their crops. However, two years into the project some women mentioned that their husbands were contributing to the work more than in the past (ILRI 2014). This change may be due to gender relations awareness and sensitization on gender issues created by CGP implementers in the project communities.The baseline household survey (ILRI 2013b) indicated that only male-headed households were involved in sales and purchases of goats. This was also the case for crop sales and purchases. There seems to be a relation with the distance to the location of sales and means of transportation used to go there which favour the men to be preferred to handle the sales and purchases. This has implications on decision-making on household income, because who sells and where sold has a strong bearing on management of income and what such income is used for (Saghir et al. 2012). Farnworth (2013) found that women and men did not have the same view on how goat management tasks are divided/ shared among household members. The men indicated that they are responsible for the construction of the goat house and other tasks are fairly equally shared by women and men with the only 'pure' female task being the boiling of water. Female respondents did not agree and mentioned that cleaning the goat house and the care of sick animals was their sole task. Women may naturally assume the mentioned role of animal caregiving because they are usually at home and are also the cultural health givers in their reproductive roles.However, after more than two years in the project it was found that duties are more shared and there are more role reversal incidences in goat management such as feeding, milking and cleaning the goat houses and preparing the farms to plant root crops among other duties (ILRI 2014). The gender training was also instrumental in helping families learn how to share chores at home and ensure everyone is participating in family activities. Further, both male and female farmers received training in root crops activities, marketing, product management and even household management in general. Dairy goat rearing is very attractive and lucrative for women because the goats are housed at the backyard and does not really involve women herding goats. It nullifies time wastage and women can use extra time to do other things they love doing.Contrary to the perception some women had before the project started reported in Saghir et al. (2012), female farmers whose goats had kidded and were producing milk, and particularly the female heads of household, anticipate the new work on goats as a positive new task, because the benefits of accessing milk were more important than the extra work (Galiè and Kantor 2014). While the increased burden on women's workload is often considered a potential negative and unforeseen outcome of the introduction of new technologies, particularly when dissemination processes are gender-blind, this case shows that the women welcomed the increased workload as it was paralleled by their increased control of milk, its distribution in the household and prestige of owning dairy goats in the community.Although according to the project farmers, there were no particular changes at the family organization attributable to knowledge gained in regard to labour allocation, some women in Wami-Luhindo and Kunke reported that there was increased workload at the household level (ILRI 2014); when explicitly asked about it, men acknowledged the extra burden on women and partly children, according to Galiè and Kantor (2014). This increase in workload prompted household unit to be more organized in the way they share the labour at the household level. Men and women have to agree at the household level who does what in the morning. However, there are men and women from Kunke and Wami-Luhindo who felt that there was not much change in labour allocation since they are traditionally livestock keepers and the activities around goat keeping are the same. What actually changed is the manner in which labour was allocated and more consultation in labour allocation was established.The introduction of the dairy goats affected gender-based division of labour. In most households in Kongwa the women and children were mostly in charge of the new goats-kept at home-while men herd the other local stock for grazing. In Mvomero the goat management is shared among women, men and children.Gender analysis was important to reveal how a newly introduced technology impacted the workload of men, women and children differently. It also helped to reveal more complex intra-household arrangements than declared in initial answers. When asked about the impact of the project on farm management most women and men stated that they undertook all goat-related tasks and decision-making together with their family members. Some qualified their statements by adding that the project made them aware of the importance of working together. Only through more in-depth discussions-with a focus on daily tasks of women and men-was a clear gender-based division of labour, in some cases characterized by flexible arrangements, revealed.Source: Galiè and Kantor (2014).Changing livelihood opportunities like rural-urban migration were identified as a factor that influenced gender and goat management and this increases workload for women (Saghir et al. 2012).The baseline household survey data (ILRI 2013b) showed that the food adequacy situation in the two districts was noticeably different. In Kongwa, less than half of the respondents reported that they had adequate food in the last 12 months while the proportion of food adequate households among the female-headed households was slightly lower (39%) than the male-headed households (41%). In contrast, more than half of the households in the project villages of Mvomero district mentioned that they had enough food to eat during all the months in the last 12 months; however, again, the proportion of food adequate households among the female-headed households (52%) was slightly lower than the male-headed households (57%).The comparison between different households headed by men and women regarding the Food Consumption Score (FCS), which is based on dietary diversity, food frequency and relative nutritional importance, shows that male-headed households have higher FCS than female-headed households in the project villages, but almost all households reported acceptable FCS of more than 35 except non goat and crop producing female-headed households which reported an FCS of 31.It was also indicated that in all villages, female-headed households were on average poorer than the male-headed houses and secondly, incomes in different villages varied greatly. This may be a reason why female-headed households have less food (quantity) and less diverse/nutritional food (quality) to consume.Additionally, Farnworth (2013) reported additional studies at the project sites that provided findings in Kongwa where men eat first followed by wives and children and in Mvomero where families usually eat together which explained that the food diversity is higher there. Men usually take consumption decisions in the household except in female-headed households. However, sensitization based on these findings already led to some changes:• Some men-but not all-are starting to realize they have to take care of the family too, that it is also their responsibility to ensure that children-as well as women-are getting enough food. They are beginning to see that they can take care of the children, ensure access to health services and to share the work.• Women are getting more confidence to speak and discuss with men. They are establishing more communication with their husbands.• Change is most rapid and visible in female-headed households due to their relative autonomy and also because they are offered specific help by the project.Galiè and Kantor (2014) also found that both men and women believed that men were in charge of ensuring food security at home. However, further discussions revealed that in practice, women were heavily involved in food production and provision and shared decision-making roles in ways that often seemed to contradict the normative roles reported before.Both female and male respondents whose goats produced milk believed that their household food security had increased because they had reliable access to milk which they could either consume in the household or sell to buy other food. Many farmers, both women and men, used goat manure in their field to produce better vegetable crops that they ate or sold to buy other food, sold the manure or exchanged the milk to buy food. They also appreciated the money they saved by not having to buy milk, so they have more left to spend on other (food) items. However, the contribution of milk to household food security seemed more important in poorer households and particularly in female-headed households (both the poorer and less poor ones) and for women in male-headed households. In general female-headed households have less income-generating options (and remember female-headed households were on average poorer), so ownership of a goat provided options through sales of milk and manure or exchange it for vegetables with neighbours. Women considered the availability of milk in their courtyard important for them to control it and feed the children whenever needed.A study on child nutrition and gender relations in the household indicated that chronic malnutrition was more pronounced in male children with the age of 12-24 months than female children (University of Alberta and Sokoine University of Agriculture 2013). Factors associated with malnutrition were location where the child lives, age of the child, educational level of mothers, timing for introducing complementary foods, type of complementary food and feeding frequency. Most decision-making and ownership of resources were undertaken by men, thus hindering women to make decisions that may influence the nutritional status of the family, including the children.The only service for which a higher proportion of female-headed households reported that they had access to was information related to the crop and livestock market. However, they did not use that service as much as male-headed households did (ILRI 2013b).Whether a project accomplishes gender equitable results and impacts depends largely on the approaches used to implement interventions. Therefore, some findings are shared in this section that relate to how the project document was assessed as being the foundation document directing the interventions. Farnworth (2013) noticed that despite the centrality of gender to the project, gender was almost invisible in the objectives. It appeared only in terms of an expected impact analysis on the project objective side, and in terms of female participation in value chains under objectives. Importantly, though, the outcomes per objective show strong gender disaggregation of expected outcomes and outputs. In terms of addressing gender, staff have received training in gender, half-day gender training workshops have been held in each project village, some follow up discussions have been held and women are directly included in all activities. Halfway the duration of the project this was not considered sufficient to achieve gender equity because the focus is primarily upon transforming people's normative frameworks rather than offering an array of activities focusing on achieving change in various domains.A particular area of concern is ensuring effective research into development pathways. The research led project mentioned insufficient modalities for translating research into use. Work on gender could have been strengthened by developing an 'empowerment' framework. From an interview with a gender focal point who presented the project's vision for gender in her own words it was clear that the project was focusing on nudging women and men towards gender-equitable behaviour rather than attempting whole-scale transformation of gender relations. Indeed, the development of an empowerment framework based on the earlier mentioned gendered analysis and gender strategy could (have) help(ed) to achieve such transformation.A lack of a comprehensive risk analysis was also mentioned as a difficulty. Two areas of concern regarding gender were mentioned.• Value Chains. It was well documented that value chain projects are often captured by men and elites. This project relied primarily on gender sensitization as a strategy to prevent male takeover. Was this realistic? Could other methods to strengthen female participation in value chains have been introduced?• Gender. Gender relations in both areas, and again particularly in Kongwa, were characterized by strong male decision-making power, and high levels of formalized and non-formalized polygamy.Together with risks described in other areas of concern (i.e. environment, goat markets, goat milk markets, and cassava and sweetpotato) these issues posed serious challenges to the CGP. Therefore, it was suggested to develop a mitigation strategy for these risks.Furthermore, the targeting strategy was discussed. The random selection requirement demonstrates the tension between research goals and development goals. A lead justification for the project was a focus on the most marginalized households (including female-headed households) but random selection does not guarantee this. Whilst random selection of respondents is good research practice, it was not suitable in this project. It would have been preferable to engage in purposive selection using pro-poor and gender-responsive criteria developed largely by the communities themselves. Promoting self-targeting, by creating a project of interest to poor women and men-but conversely of little interest to wealthier farmers-is important.It was also stated that some key recommendations of the gender strategy developed early in the project were not addressed (yet).• Provision of assets to women. This could have commenced with ensuring joint ownership of assets. However, the project registered goats in the name of the household head only.• Specific strategies to involve very poor households, for example by organizing them into groups to obtain communal land for individually or communally worked plots.• Working with existing women's and special interest groups as an entry point.• Specific strategies to involve youth.With respect to other recommendations, the degree to which community members were actually working on the development of equitable criteria for the ownership, management, and decision-making over project benefits was not clear. Similarly, the degree to which gendered indicators have actually been developed with community members to help track improvements in women's involvement in project activities and benefits was also unclear.Although these findings were from the mid-term review, they are useful learnings and important to consider for the development of similar projects in the future.Project participants had given the impression of almost complete gender equity around goat management, and that women expect to play a strong role in determining how profits were to be used. Suspicion was raised that the project participants had learned 'development speak' very effectively and were saying what they thought the study team wanted to hear. This shows the importance of triangulation in order to verify whether change had actually occurred.Source: Farnworth (2013).Summarized shortly, some findings on the Crop and Goat Project are provided below which are worthwhile pursuing:• Access to and control over assets and the products and proceeds gained from them increased the independence of male and female household members as they can now make decisions with little dependence on resources of others.• The project has been able to positively improve some of the key domains of gender empowerment, i.e. asset ownership, decision-making ability and authority, independence, improved sense of worth, willingness and ability to question one's status and capacity to negotiate relationships and change labour patterns.• The use of gender analysis in design, implementation and evaluation stages helped in providing an understanding of the complexity of gender relations and labour organization and how they shape household strategies and power dynamics, and subsequently the differential impact of the project on different members of a household.• The various project activities have helped to clarify the need for new participatory approaches, i.e. empowerment framework and pathway, to define an empowerment conceptual framework, set empowerment goals, translate the framework and goals into a pathway, identify indicators of change, and assess success of projects in enhancing change, all in a participatory fashion.Women prepare the land, harvest and participate in post-harvest activities. They also assist their spouses with their crop farms. While it was mentioned in the beginning of the project that husbands don't assist the women, later in the project some women pointed out that their husbands were contributing to the work more than in the past. Furthermore, the majority of group discussion participants indicated that, although men were mainly in charge of crop and investment related decision-making, they also discussed with their spouses.Labour patterns, especially in dairy goat management, differed for both men and women in different districts of the project indicating there is no one single approach to goat rearing. With local goats, men herded and women cleaned the goat house, but dairy goats are kept at the farm courtyard with the zero-grazing system. Because men still take the other livestock out for grazing, women mostly manage the dairy goats. Nevertheless, a vast majority of the female and male members of the focus group discussions strongly disagreed/disagreed with the statement that 'looking after goats is a women's job because dairy goats require special attention and are usually kept at home'.While a concern on the division of labour was raised by some women that the perceived change instigated by the project added to their workload, others welcomed the extra work as they were compensated by the increased control of milk (access and ownership) and its distribution in the household (decision-making). The milk or manure provides them options for income or for exchange for vegetables with neighbours.Besides that women generally are in charge of milking the goats, selling the milk and using the milk for household nutrition, other tasks are nowadays shared between women, men, boys and girls.The introduction of dairy goats has increased the household labour and while men acknowledged the extra burden on women, they also asserted that the additional workload made the household consult among themselves to organize the tasks. Therefore, it is debateable whether the sharing of goat-related tasks and decision-making has changed because of more gender-equitable behaviour within the household or out of necessity to become more and better organized as a household. Only more discussion and collaboration to enhance work arrangements may not directly lead to sustained gender-equitable behaviour. However, it is a good practice and offers an opportunity to show that consultation and cooperation is beneficial for all involved, and therefore may ultimately lead to more participation and sharing of tasks in the household. A number of female respondents indicated that the project helped them to understand their position and improved it with regard to ownership, labour and decision-making, while some male respondents now realized the importance of joint planning and working together.Some respondents associated gender equity in decision-making to age and that the younger generations aspire to more 'modern' lifestyles that include more equal gender relations. This intergenerational difference offers an opportunity to break the culture of patriarchy and gender stereotype practices that was referred to before. Therefore, ILRI should take advantage of that feedback and empower the youth to promote gender equitable lifestyles among their peers (and their elders whenever possible).Changing livelihood opportunities like rural-urban migration when men move away to work elsewhere were identified as a factor that influenced gender and goat management by increasing the workload for women. It was also mentioned that it does not increase the women's decision-making in the household as that remained reserved for other men in the household or male family members which need to be consulted before a decision can be made and carried out by the woman left at home.Besides the potential opportunities that the findings revealed, the integration of gender into the research studies and the development activities has not been without challenges and raised pertinent questions as detailed below gathered from reviewing the project documentation:• How best to define gender and related concepts, achieve a common understanding and apply the concept of gender in development activities?• Which concepts benefit the gender activities within the project community, i.e. gender equality or equity? Will a call for gender equality be received with opposition from both men and women due to their cultural upbringing which put stress on differentiated roles for boys and girls, for men and women? Will a call for gender equality burden women with more tasks on top of the heavy burden they already shoulder at the level of household? Is empowerment and gender equity the way to go?• How best to achieve gender equity through a change in gender norms and behaviour patterns without undermining the cultural symbols of masculinity and men's power, e.g. over decision-making on assets?• Is the increased independence of women good for their economic empowerment or does independence add another burden and responsibility to women as providers of food and other necessities for household members?• It takes time to change mind-sets, e.g. gender roles from cultural practices to equitable sharing of roles.• The low levels of education, especially among women makes it hard for them to participate in project activities, access information by interacting with extension workers, read instructions on packages such as medicine for the dairy goat, among others.• The existence of a notion that the project achieved an understanding of gender equality (among community members) more as working towards 'sameness' defined as sharing tasks. This is contrary to the anticipated empowerment, gender equity and changes in gender norms which involve a pathway enabling more expanded choice and opportunities for women and men based on their diverse needs, opportunities and preferences.• The critical role of gender analysis in 'assessing how gender relations shape household livelihood activities and strategies in order for projects to respond adequately'.• Need for indicators in future projects, i.e. to measure empowerment, start with a clear definition of empowerment, develop indicators to measure change along the pathway (across scales and actors), so as to better track progress towards gender transformative and empowerment goal.• There is need for the development of a participatory understanding of local conceptualizations of empowermentthat way the project will be able to access whether the identified changes, e.g. in women's independence in the provision of food and access to cash income as progress towards empowerment and gender equity or overburdening of women with new roles and putting them at loggerheads with their husbands and other members of the household/community.As much as the findings showed some promising results towards gender-equitable outcomes which offer opportunities for change in gender relations and achieving more balanced benefits for women from development interventions, it won't be sustainable without clear pathways to achieve transformation from research findings into development outcomes. As indicated by Farnworth (2013) and taken further by Galiè and Kantor (2014) a clear empowerment framework (see summary description of their proposed empowerment pathway approach in box below) would provide such guidance.The empowerment pathway approach proposes to achieve ownership across this range of stakeholders through applying critical participatory action research to engage the actors in: defining empowerment; identifying the opportunities and threats associated with progressing towards individual empowerment goals; diagnosing how both technical and social constraints affect value chain functioning and outcomes; identifying ways to overcome both sources of constraints; defining key indicators to monitor progress towards set goals; learning from the outcomes of the actions; and applying this learning to future actions. This process aims to foster questioning of the assumptions and practices underlying gender inequality as part of a process of challenging gender-based power imbalances and developing people's aspirations for self-determination beyond existing gender roles. Participatory monitoring of progress in the selected indicators towards the identified goals will help adjust project activities and provide insights on the unfolding of empowerment processes from the perspectives of different actors involved in them. The process of articulating empowerment pathways is expected to enhance individuals' capabilities to define their needs, voice them and act to satisfy them; it is part of the empowerment process itself. However, enhanced individual capabilities can be undermined when interactions take place in social contexts with rigid gender norms. Therefore, gender transformative approaches that seek to foster a more enabling social environment are needed to provide the context in which individual empowerment processes can be realized and sustained.Source: Galiè and Kantor (2014).While the proposed empowerment framework seems to suggest to work complementarily at two levels (individual and societal) to develop personal capacity and an enabling environment for change the authors of this paper recommend to expand this model to include family or intra-household and community levels specifically which have a close influence on the individual's empowerment. The ecological model originally applied by Heise (1998) to explain the occurrence of violence against women and help identify potential prevention strategies has been adapted to show how stakeholders could be engaged in achieving gender equality in the CGP context and wider sustainable development. Specific targeting of interventions was another recommendation raised by Farnworth which would not only help determine beneficiaries of the project, but would also apply to selecting other stakeholders of the projects to be engaged to ensure all levels where gendered (power) relations occur are going to be addressed. Participation and representation are important to consider when designing, implementing and monitoring/evaluating a project and the (expanded) empowerment framework could assist in increasing this in the approach to gender analysis. Entry points such as women's and special interest groups and youth should especially be explored as it was shown that the younger generations aspire to more 'modern' lifestyles that include more equal gender relations and interventions will benefit from the familiarity of a (women's and special interest) group with the community rules as well as the power of collective action inherent in groups. Working with groups will also facilitate more efficient resource management and strengthen community institutions and relationships between these institutions. Local institutions are key actors in promoting change and recognition of good practice by these institutions. In that regard, the authors of this paper also believe extra efforts need to be made to engage with men and boys as well, because they are often the ones that may uphold gender inequitable power relations which need to be transformed.Applied research could document lessons on how to apply the gender empowerment pathway approach in different contexts and how the process of gender transformation occurs. It was clear from the review of the project documents that gender analysis and in-depth semi-structured interviews and group discussions focused on genderbased dimensions of the project helped reveal more complex intra-household (flexible) arrangements than declared in initial answers or through administered questionnaires like the baseline household survey.Farnworth also indicated in her report that the project farmers who participated in the qualitative field study through semi-structured interviews and-or focus group discussions sometimes gave the impression of almost complete gender equity around goat management, and that women expect to play a strong role in determining how profits were to be used. Farnworth suspected that the respondents had learned 'development speak' very effectively and were saying what they thought the study team wanted to hear. This shows the importance of triangulation in order to verify whether change had actually occurred and future work should take this into account when monitoring their progress and ensure multiple ways of retrieving information to validate findings. ","tokenCount":"13407"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f451fdbc8ba9c06e319995153f83c613","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b31e07ca-42d7-4960-8786-ec30d6b3b382/retrieve","id":"346204411"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7898f064-6b92-4b54-a719-720291f37551","pagecount":"32","content":"2) sentido geográfico: de qué parte de Colombia/ mundo viene este alimento?3) sentido cultural: quíen pensó en combinar estos alimentos? foto: Wills et al. 1984 De dónde vienen estos alimentos que tanto nos gustan? ?   identificación del \"ancestro\"Cuáles cambios pueden haber sido más influenciados por la gente? comprensión del \"síndrome de domesticación\" hoy entrada de la gente al continente americano último golpe frío 13,500-12,600 a.P. inicio de la domesticación de plantas Cuáles consecuencias han afectado el \"ancestro\" y el \"domesticado\"? progreso en mejora/ conservación de recursos genéticosCómo un científico puede considerar el origen de los alimentos? ?6/32 leer más: Harlan 1992Harlan , 1995;;Smith 1995 • agresividad del gallo• estacionalidad de la postura• empolladura marcada• masa muscular normal• tasa crecimiento normal• territorialidad marcada• (no-)agresividad del gallo• no-estacionalidad de la postura• empolladura débil (huevo)• masa muscular aumentada (carne)• tasa crecimiento acelerada  Por qué tan pocos animales domésticos desde África o el Nuevo Mundo? Eurasia con la mayor masa continental tuvo la mayor probabilidad de proveer estas rarezas  duración de la presencia humana para identificar estas rarezas:Creciente Fértil: 80,000 años versus 20,000 años en las Américas  en América: clima Mediterráneo restringido a pocas áreas (Chile, California) con poca fauna;no pudieron los demás biomas? Grandes planicies (prairie en USA, pampa en Argentina)?!  en África la fauna potencial ha tenido la más larga co-evolución con predadores (Homo incl.) (>1 millón de años para desarrollar instinto de fuga, comportamiento contrario a domesticación)  \"trajera cierta cantidad de plantas y no pueda salir sin ellas, porque será mucha causa para la población y perpetuación de ella\"  1L: 28%, 5S: 18%, 2S: 12%, 4C: 10%2S: 42%, 5S: 12%, 9: 10%, 3L: 8%3. 2 da espiguilla fértil 1L: 24%, 3L: 12%, 4S: 6%, 2S: 6%4S: 42%, 2S: 14%, 3L: 6%, 1L: 6%5. mazorcas sobre entrenudos cortos  Frente a la extinción de variedades tradicionales, se han establecido algunas colecciones","tokenCount":"312"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2f75a2891c8f4beeb187b493e8b2d6ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8208fe89-671b-4573-8076-ab4777cfb546/retrieve","id":"135975821"},"keywords":["Likert scale","Logit regression","Palliatives","COVID-19 palliatives","and Hunger reduction"],"sieverID":"6bd486ac-735a-4e16-a02d-7970f755a2bc","pagecount":"12","content":"This study interviewed 197 farmers that benefitted from the government palliative in the form of tomato farm inputs to help farmers contain the negative effects of COVID-19 of hunger, food insecurity, and poverty. Demographic features show that the average family size was 6, average age of the beneficiaries was 43, gender of the household heads shows that the beneficiaries have 67% males and 33% females. Production features show that 28% of the tomato farmers intercropped their tomato with other crops, 40% of them went through government training, and 25% of them accessed credit to take of their farms. Farmer to farmer was the main source of information (77%). Using the Likert Scale characterization shows that 74.6% of the farmers believed that the palliative increased their yield, 81.2% agreed that the palliatives just reduced hunger in their household, while 86.3% agreed that there was an increase in their farm income as a result of the intervention. Logit regression results reveal that Farmer's Age, Farm Income, Loan Access, and Tomato Yield are the factors that significantly increased perception of tomato farmers on hunger reduction. Farm Income and Loan Access factors have a positive coefficient which is significant at the 1% level, while Farmer's Age and Tomato Yield have positive coefficients but is significant at the 5% level. Association Membership negatively and significantly reduced farmers' perception of hunger reduction at the 5% level of probability while farmer-to-farmer information sources significantly reduced it at a 1% level of probability; meaning that only government extension agents and the media positively influenced information transfer on the government palliative efforts. The study recommends that government assistance should be extended to other resource-poor farmers and that getting access to loans should be made easier for farmers by the government.nomic status; thus the need to incorporate natural and human resources in the analysis of food security (FAO, 2002;Hossain et al., 2019).The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is a global health crisis caused by a newly discovered coronavirus (Di Gennaro 2020). COVID-19 is a pandemic calamity that has locked people in their own houses. The effect of the pandemic has caused a decrease in the economy as businesses, trans-portation, aviation, and industries have been halted the severe impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is clearly seen in the numbers: more than 3.1 million deaths and rising, 120 million people pushed into extreme poverty, and a massive global recession. The pandemic affects socioeconomic and food security (FS) worldwide as people were restricted from going for socioeconomic activities like farming or working place if they don't want to be contacted with Covid-19. Global access to food in developing countries like Nigeria, has become an alarming concern since the emergence of the Coronavirus that led to a great shortage of food supply chains and a significant loss of jobs (Petit et al., 2021). The United Nation's Framework for the Immediate Socioeconomic response reported that the virus would most likely increase poverty, food insecurity (FINS), and inequalities on a global scale. Therefore, achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is perceived as a top priority (United Nations, 2020; Perez-Escamilla, 2017). Moreover, the FAO defines sustainable food systems \"as the set of farms and enterprises and their successive coordinated value -adding activities that produce particular agricultural raw materials and process them into particular food products that are sold to final consumers and disposed of after use, in a way that is profitable across the board, has broad benefits for society and does not deplete natural resources permanently (Neven, 2014)\". Poverty, poor health of household member(s), as well as suboptimal livelyhood and household management strategies, could lead to FINS. The severity and classification of FINS depend on the perception of the household member towards food and food-related budget (Ballard, 2013). Consequences and threats of FINS include a negative impact on mental, social, and psycho-emotional status (Perez-Escamilla, Chinnakali et al., 2014;Egal, 2019;USDA, 2021). Food security and hunger may not always intersect, but they are related; if people are food insecure for months at a time, they may very well experience a substantial drop in food intake that leads to hunger. Food insecurity differs from hunger, the physiological process that occurs when an individual cannot afford to eat an adequate amount of food that would cater to their basic nutritional need for a prolonged period. Nigeria is no exception, with a population of over 190 million, and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) projected to be $500 billion, with an annual growth rate of around 3%. The revenue from crude oil and gas accounts for about 80% of the country's total earnings (Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, FMARD, 2018) cited in (Fasanya and Odudu, 2020). Despite the monocultural characteristics of the oil sector in Nigeria, the agricultural sector dominates the major source of livelihood for most people in Nigeria, with about 70 % of the population engaged in agriculture at a subsistence level, and it recently contributed 22.35% of the total GDP between the January and March 2021 (FAO, 2021). Overall, inadequate access to finance, fertilizer with other inputs, storage facilities, violent conflicts, and markets have restrained the sector's full potential over the years (Nicholson et al., 2019;FAO, 2021).Nigeria will continue to depend on agriculture to meet its various socioeconomic needs, considering its role in providing food and employment for the nation's ever increasing population. Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum) is among the major vegetables produced in the country, and is consumed in various forms (Aditi et al., 2011;Aremu et al., 2016). Nigeria is among the world's leading producers of tomato (ranked 16th), and the leading producer in sub-Saharan Africa (Ugonna et al., 2015). As of 2010, the country's production was about 1.8 million metric tonnes, which represent about 68.4% of West African production (FAO, 2010). Despite this status in the global and regional ranking in tomato production, the country still imports tomato to meet its demands (Edeh, 2017;Okojie, 2018). According to Sunday et al. (2018), Nigeria's annual tomato imports are valued at US$170 million. This is because tomato is highly consumed across all the regions of the country, constituting about 18% of the daily vegetable consumption of households (Babalola et al., 2010). The plant is a rich source of vitamin A and C, contains minerals like iron and phosphorus, and is the richest source of nutrients, dietary fiber, antioxidants like lycopene and beta-carotene, com-pounds that protect cells from cancer. Tomato's ability to be a nutritious food that meets Nigerian dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life makes it a food-security food. The plant's life span ranges between three to four months and it adapts well to different cropping systems.Summarily, the pandemic brought an overwhelming defect to the global economy. Smallholder farmers were severely affectedand as part of the palliative measures embarked upon by the various governments, the Oyo State government came up with the provision of agricultural inputs for tomato, including tomato seed, fertilizer, and herbicides with other agricultural inputs to the beneficiary smallholder farmers. The study investigates the effect of the palliative inputs given to tomato peasant-farmer beneficiaries in all LGAs in Oyo State. In this paper, Section 1 offers a general overview and the distri-bution of food insecurity globally and in Nigeria, respectively. The methodology of this study is discussed in Section 2. Empirical results of the study are presented and discussed in Section 3, and Section 4 provides the summary, conclusion, policy, and recommendations on the research, and References and Appendices.The Study Area Oyo State was created on 3 February 1976 out of the old Western Region by the then regime of General Murtala Mohammed. Located in Southwest Nigeria, Oyo State covers 28,454 square kilometers. The state is homogenous and comprises the Oyos, the Ibadans, and the Ibarapas, all belonging to the Yoruba family and speaking the same Yoruba language. People from within and outside the country trade and settle in the state mostly in the urban areas. The capital, Ibadan, is reputed to be the largest city in Africa, south of the Sahara.The state economy remains largely agrarian, with the western city of Shaki being described as the state's breadbasket. Cassava, cocoa, and tobacco are among the most important crops to Oyo State's economy. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Oyo State. The climate in the state favors the cultivation of crops like maize, yam, cassava, millet, rice, plantains, cocoa, palm-produce cashew, horticultural crops etc. There are a number of government farm settlements in Iseyin/Ipapo, Ilora, Eruwa, Ogbomosho, Iresaadu, Ijaiye, Akufo, and Lalupon. There is an abundance of clay, kaolin, and aqua-marine. There are also vast cattle ranches at Saki, Fasola, and Ibadan, a dairy farm at Monatan in the Ibadan. A number of inter-national and federal agricultural establishments are located in the state (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Oyo_State).The 33 local government areas (LGAs) have been divided into seven regions and beneficiaries were selected from three regions known for tomato production namely: Ibarapa, Ogbomoso, and Oyo as shown in Table 1. In order to assess the palliative effect of tomato production on the beneficiaries, a sample of the beneficiaries was selected based on the percentage of the beneficiaries in each region; regions with higher percentages have more beneficiaries in the sample selected, as shown in Table 1. A structured electronic questionnaire was used as the research instrument using Kobo toolbox; and the enumerators that were staff from OYSADA were trained on how to use the research instrument for interviewing farmers through phone calls. Information on questions that ranged from socioeconomic data of beneficiary respondents to harvest of their produce was solicited by the use of trained and experienced enumerators. Out of the sample size of 300 farmers, only 197 were successfully reached with data on their tomato production collected for analysis. A preliminary report was done using descriptive statistics to characterize the farmers, their farms, and their socioeconomic profiles where necessary. More information will be generated from the data with the use of relevant econometric models applicable to perceptions of farmers in regard to benefits of palliative intervention of the government in terms of improved yield, farm income, food security, and livelihood of farmers, among others.The Logit Model (LM) is for analyzing relationships whose dependent variables assume a discrete or dichotomous value; qualitative choice models are used. In such relationships, the probability of an event occurring is a function of a set of non-stochastic explanatory variables and a vector of unknown parameters. Following Amemiya (1981), the general form of the univariate dichotomous choice model can be expressed as:Where, P i = P i (Y i =1) is the probability of an outcome. It is a function of the vector of explanatory variables X i and unknown parameter Φ.Xi = Explanatory variables, Φ = Unknown parameters. Because the functional form of G is unknown, practical applications of the model are not feasible (Amemiya, 1981), so an explicit functional specification of G becomes necessary. Three functional relationships often specified are the linear probability, probit, and logit models. The dichotomous dependent variable model that will be used in this study is the logit model (LM) (the standard normal distribution function). A logistic regression model was selected to identify the significant variables that determined whether farmers were perceptive of reduced hunger or not. LM is given in its estimable form as:Where, Ln (P i /1-P i ) = log odd ratio, P i = farmer's perception that his/her household experienced hunger reduction or not; it ranges from 0 to 1, and is nonlinearly related to Z i ; i = constant term/intercept;  k = coefficients of regressors; X ik = K= 1, 2, ……n = independent variables (with ith observation); ε = error term with zero mean' as Z i ranges from -∞ to ∞, P i ranges from 0 to 1; thus the dependent variable 'P' is 1 if farmer perceives that he experienced hunger reduction and is '0' if the farmer does not perceive that he experienced hunger reduction, X is given as perception determinants. In binary regression models, the goodness of fit (R 2 values) is not important; the important feature is the expected signs of the regression coefficients and their statistical and/or practical significance. There-fore, the interpretation focuses on statistical signi-ficance, the direction of regression coefficients (either positive or negative), and the odds ratios (if estimated). The perception of farmers' decision to choose 'hunger reduction' or 'not' depends on house-hold demo-graphic, socioeconomic, and insti-tutional factors assuming that for each household 'i'; each household characteristics are summarized in Table 2 below. The Logit regression model for econometric analysis was used with the aid of STATA version13 in this paper. To estimate the logistic regression model, the explanatory variables were checked for the existence of multi-collinearity. For this purpose, co-linearity was checked for categorical variables using the contingency coefficient test. The independent vari-ables of the study are those which are expected to have an association with farmers' perception on hunger reduction. More precisely, the findings of past studies on the farmers' perception, the existing theoretical explanations, and the researcher's knowledge of the farming systems of the study area were used to select explanatory variables. The definition and units of measurement of the dependent and explanatory variables used in the logistic regression model are presented in Table 2.  The farmers planted the tomato seed on 0.4 ha of farmland. This paper aims to investigate the effect of these palliatives on farmers' work and livelihoods. Table 3 is on the demographic features of farmers. The data collected represented 33.5% of the beneficiaries, while males represented 66.5%. The Table shows that 88% of the sampled farmers were married. The average age of the farmers was 43 years and the Standard deviation (SD) shows that there was no abnormal variability among the farmers as it was smaller than the average year. The average family size was 6, an average of 4 people in the family were adults of 18 years and above. Farm practices by farmers in Table 4 show that 28% of the farmers intercropped other crops with their tomato, 52% employed family labor, while 63% used hired labor. Fifty percent of the farmers are members of one association or the other, while 40% of them went through government training. Some of the farmers (25%) accessed credit for the tomato enterprises. As part of management for optimum yield, 25% of the farmers used stakes to stake their tomato stems, while 91% of them used pesticide to eliminate and control insect pests. Many farmers weeded their farms more than twice, the highest being four times. Sources of information to farmers on farming activities from the Table were majorly through neighboring farmers (76.6%) and Extension Agents (19.3%), while the media constituted 3.6% among other arenas of getting information. About 21% of tomato farmers gave out part of their tomato seeds freely to farmers for planting. Table 3 shows that the average farm size was 0.4Ha, the average total tomato harvest was 70.2 baskets/Ha.On the effect of the palliative on tomato yield, 74.6% (Fig. 1) of the farmers were of the opinion that the palliative increased their yields, while 22.8% believed that it strongly increased their yield; others were either inconclusive or believed that their yield decreased (2.5%). On the effect of the palliative on food security and hunger reduction, 13.2% of the farmer stated that the palliatives reduced hunger dramatically after the harvest, 81.2% agreed that palliatives just reduced hunger, while 3.6% were inconclusive (Fig. 2). On farm income, 9.6% are of the opinion that their farm income strongly increased, while 86.3% agreed that there was an increase in their farm income (Fig. 2).Palliative on Farmers' Livelihood.The farmers were asked to state a major benefit derived from COVID-19 palliative: 36% of them believed that they experienced an increase in farm income; 34% of them were of the opinion that the palliative reduced hunger in their families, while 27.9% had increased harvested tomato through the palliative intervention as seen in Fig. 3. The farmers elicited some of the obstacles to their farming activities, as listed in Table 5. The major obstacle was inadequate capital (29.4%), followed by road and transportation problems (27.9%).Marketing is another challenge that needs attention as 19.8% of the farmers complained about it. The government may wish to proffer solutions to some of these challenges because that was why some of the farmers talked of a decrease in their yield under the Likert scale scoring. Some complained of their farm being eaten up by cattle and there are others in the table below. Table 5 contains some of the assets bought by the beneficiaries from income realized from the sales of tomato. About 30% of the beneficiaries indicated that they were able to acquire some assets from income generated from the sales of their harvested tomato; highest among these assets are knapsack sprayer, hoes, and cutlasses. Table 6 highlights the mind of the beneficiary farmers in regard to their expectations or needs from the constituted authority of Oyo State government. Most (11.7%) want the palliative program to continue with additional inputs inculcated in the palliative. They also need financial assistance (11.7%) in the form of loans and credit facilities. Some want different improved varieties of tomato to give them better options.  Being a member of an association (Association Membership) will decrease the perception of hunger reduction by 0.009; the implication of this was that the association was not doing anything pro-hunger but might be busy addressing other issues of interest. Finally, receiving information through farmers (Information Sources) will reduce the perception of the hunger reduction by 0.008, meaning that information flow from farmer to farmer was not the driver of hunger reduction, rather it was information through the media and Government institutions that were pro-hunger, spreading news about the government palliatives to beneficiary farmers. Therefore, the study recommends that such government palliatives be made to go round all resource poor farmers since it led to increased tomato yield and that government media institutions and agricultural institutions like OYSADA and the Ministry of Agriculture extension arms should be strengthen since they help in the hunger reduction through needed information and distribution of farm inputs among farmers and helped farmers to have a good perception about it.In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Oyo State government registered some resource-poor farmers to provide them with measures to cope with the hunger that characterized the period. This study interviewed 197 farmers that benefitted from the government's tomato farm inputs palliative to help farmers contain the negative effects of COVID-19; hunger and food insecurity and poverty. The tomato palliatives included 25 grams of improved seed of tomato, 200 milliliters of herbicide as a post-emergence herbicide, 250 milliliters of fungicide, and 50 kg of fertilizer. This paper investigated the effect of these palliatives on farmers' work and livelihoods. Demographic features show that the average family size was 6, average age of the beneficiaries was 43, and gender of the households' heads shows that the beneficiaries have 67% males and 33% females; 88% of them were married. Production features show that 28% of the tomato farmers intercropped their tomato with other crops, 52% utilized family labor, and 63% used hired labor, 50% of the farmers were members of associations, 40% of them went through government training, and 25% of them accessed credit to start their farms. Sources of information were mainly farmer to farmer (77%). Using the Likert Scale characterization shows that 74.6% of the farmers were of the opinion that the palliative increased their yield, 81.2% agreed that the palliatives just reduced hunger in their household, while 86.3% agreed that there was an increase in their farm income as a result of the intervention The farmers were asked to state a major benefit derived from the COVID-19 palliative: 36% of them believed that they experienced increased in farm income; 34% of them were of the opinion that the palliative reduced hunger in their families, while 27.9% had increased harvested tomatoes through the palliative intervention. Inadequate capital was the highest challenge facing the farmers (29%). Regression results reveal that the Farmer's Age, Farm Income, Loan Access, and Tomato Yield are the factors that increased significantly perception of tomato farmers on hunger reduction. Farm Income and Loan Access factors have a positive coefficient, which are significant at the 1% level while Farmer's Age and Tomato Yield have positive coefficients, but are significant at the 5 % level. Association Membership negatively and signi-ficantly reduced farmers' perception of hunger reduction at a 5% level of probability. In contrast, farmer-to farmer Information Sources significantly reduced it at a 1% level of probability; meaning that only government extension agents and the media positively influenced information transfer on the government palliative efforts. Farmers solicited government assistance in tackling their challenges.Finally, farmers appreciated government's effort and asked for continued and improved farm-palliative packages.","tokenCount":"3458"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a4a626d9f4d43c39041e08721196e88f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/498e6590-fd48-4456-9e04-0013c6c03250/retrieve","id":"-1718592404"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e3b95469-7249-4afa-a083-d9ecb7c2f873","pagecount":"12","content":"timely and reliable monitoring of food market prices at high spatial and temporal resolution is essential to understanding market and food security developments and supporting timely policy and decisionmaking. Mostly, decisions rely on price expectations, which are updated with new information releases. therefore, increasing the availability and timeliness of price information has become a national and international priority. We present two new datasets in which mobile app-based crowdsourced daily price observations, voluntarily submitted by self-selected participants, are validated in real-time within spatio-temporal markets (pre-processed data). then, they are reweighted weekly using their geo-location to resemble a formal sample design and allow for more reliable statistical inference (postsampled data). Using real-time data collected in Nigeria, we assess the accuracy and propose that our reweighted estimates are more accurate with respect to the unweighted version. Results have important implications for governments, food chain actors, researchers and other organisations.Timely and reliable monitoring of food market prices at high spatial and temporal resolution is essential to understanding market and food security developments and supporting timely policy and decision-making. Yet, in a time of new digital technologies and \"big data\" approaches, one significant challenge in producing statistics is the trade-off between the timeliness of new alternative data sources and the accuracy of traditional sample survey data 1,2 . The reference here is to the concept advanced by 3 , which classifies \"big data\" types as (i) data generated by people and stored in a digitalised format (e.g. from mobile apps, Twitter), (ii) data produced automatically by people when interacting with IT systems (e.g. scanner data) and (iii) machine-generated data usually captured by sensors. Official, reliable price estimates are often released several weeks after the end of the month or the quarter, and usually, as indices (e.g. the Consumer Price Index) aggregated at the regional or national level. Governments, agencies and market participants make decisions based on price expectations that are updated as information becomes available, which needs to be up-to-date and transparent-quality and trusted data that can be accessed in time by all market players and stakeholders 4 -to increase efficiency and market integration 5 and reduce uncertainty around decision-making 6 . While market efficiency (or vertical market integration) refers to the transmission of price signals from one marketing channel to another, in spatially well-integrated markets, price signals (informing producers and consumers) are transmitted from supply-deficit regions to surplus markets. For this reason, increasing availability and timeliness of market price information has become a priority at the international level, in both developed 7 and developing economies 8 , and at national levels-see, e.g. review of food prices observatories and the European Food Prices Monitoring Tool 9 .In the statistical tradition, following the seminal contributions of Neyman 10 and Fisher 11 and the well-documented failure of non-probabilistic samples 12 , surveys commonly involve collecting probability samples, which can guarantee sound probabilistic inference 13 . However, new Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) and innovative data sourcing methodologies (such as web scraping, scanner data, online surveys, mobile apps/mobile phone crowdsourcing, Internet-Of-Things, smart meters, internet panels and other citizen participatory approaches) offer the potential to complement official statistics with much higher data frequency and higher spatial granularity 14,15 . As such, crowdsourcing, in the form of data voluntarily collected by individuals using a mobile app, is becoming very popular in the empirical literature.In particular, in Africa, the rapid development and spreading of mobile phone networks, mobile internet and increasing smartphone penetration have given rise to several projects aiming to collect market food prices using mobile phones and citizen participation [16][17][18][19][20] .However, data quality is one of the most critical data management issues as data from various sources and formats become available to ensure the usability of the data 21 . A characteristic shared by these new emerging types of data sources is represented by the uncontrolled presence of both sampling and non-sampling errors.The first problem concerns the lack of any precise statistical sample design. In particular, with crowdsourcing data collection, participation is voluntary, thus producing self-selection of the data collectors. This situation is described in statistics as \"convenience sampling\" (a type of non-probabilistic sampling approach), which famously does not permit statistical inference 13 . More precisely, in a formal sample design, the choice of observations is suggested by a precise mechanism, which allows the probabilities of inclusion of each unit to be calculated (and, hence, sound inferential results). On the contrary, with convenience sampling, no probability of inclusion can be calculated, thus giving rise to over-or under-representativeness of the sample units 22,23 . Moreover, non-sampling errors such as measurement errors and imprecisions are also frequent in these non-traditional types of data sources. But comparatively less attention has been paid to developing new quality approaches to produce trustable datasets from these emerging sources (for exceptions, see e.g. [24][25][26][27] ).As a matter of fact, before considering this data as a new source of trustworthy statistics, it is necessary to address both sampling and non-sampling errors adequately. This paper aims to present a pre-processing and aggregation approach to correcting, in near (referring to the delay introduced by automated data processing between raw data submission and dissemination of processed data) real-time, the crowdsourcing data sample estimates, taking both problems into account. In particular, when dealing with sampling errors, we will introduce a reweighting procedure to minimise the bias and inefficiencies connected with convenience sampling. Reweighting procedures are quite common in surveys, even when they rely on probabilistic samples. Standard approaches include post-stratification, generalised regression estimation (GREG) and calibration. Post-stratification is a common strategy in which we assign different weights to each sample unit after the fact so that the weighted sample matches some population characteristics 28,29 . GREG is an extension of post-stratification used to ensure that the weighted sum of each variable corresponds to the total population value 30 . Similarly, calibration involves adjusting weights from the probabilistic design to match the known population totals [31][32][33] . have shown how calibration can also be used for non-probabilistic samples. In a probabilistic design setting, all these methods are used to increase efficiency and reduce bias by adjusting for the under-or over-representation of specific sub-groups that constitute the sample.We are working in the same tradition to suggest a reweighting procedure based on the calculation of weights obtained through a comparison between the data available from voluntary data collection and a desired sample drawn according to some probabilistic procedure. We call this procedure post-sampling 34 . Our work is empirically motivated firstly by the innovative initiatives launched to collect real-time food price data, particularly in developing countries, following the agricultural and food price hikes and volatility of 2007-2008 and 2011. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has underlined the need for real-time food price information for rapid and targeted food security interventions. Secondly, it is motivated by researchers' and practitioners' recognition of the consequent need to develop new effective quality assurance methods for new data sources 20 . We apply the methodology to the set of prices submitted through a mobile app in Nigeria by citizen volunteers between April 2021 and November 2021, developed by the Food Price Crowdsourcing Africa (FPCA) platform launched by the European Commission in 2018. An example of its application in price analysis during the pandemic can be found in 35 . The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, it introduces and applies a method to deal in real-time with sampling and non-sampling errors in price crowdsourcing. Second, it provides a food price dataset of high frequency and spatial granularity in Nigeria that demonstrates the potential of crowdsourcing to complement conventional data sources and opens the door to new studies on the spatial dynamics of prices. The paper is laid out as follows.The section on Methods describes the data, discusses solutions to the problem of reducing non-sampling errors by identifying standard and spatial outliers, and presents the post-sampling strategy. The following section presents the data records associated with this work, including the repository where this information is stored. The next section discusses the technical validation through an empirical application, and the final section contains information on the availability of the code.collecting and pre-processing crowdsourced food prices. This section presents the dataset we will use for the case study discussed in the technical validation section. Notably, our work refers to a dataset collected by the Food Price Crowdsourcing Africa (FPCA) platform, launched in 2018 by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (EC-JRC), the crowdsourcer or requester, to test \"on the ground\" innovative crowdsourcing-based (relying on voluntary citizen contributions, the crowd) data-gathering systems and statistical approaches to collect and disseminate reliable and geolocated real-time food prices in a cost-effective way. Developed with the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria and Wageningen UR, the tool includes an open-source mobile app linked to a data platform, a tested incentive system-monetary and non-monetary (e.g. \"nudges\") 36 -and an algorithm to automatically process and validate citizen data on food prices at different points in the value chain (i.e. farm gate, wholesale and retail), covering both urban and rural areas 34 . The data is published in near real-time on a web dashboard 37 . The tool initially covered four commodities (rice, maise, beans and soybeans) and their varieties and two states in north-west Nigeria (Kano and Katsina), and in 2021 (FPCA's second wave or FPCA-II) expanded to an additional commodity (garri) and two states (Kaduna and Lagos). The tool provides two types of datasets. First, data covering individuals' demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, occupation, and household size, is taken from the registration form in the mobile app. This data also contained information on how the collector learnt about the initiative, their motivation for participating and their preferred way of exchanging information. These auxiliary variables can be crucial to analyse data quality in relation to crowd characteristics or how to motivate participation better. Second, data on market transactions (price submissions), such as geo-coordinates, commodity, quality grade, price-expressed in the local currency, the Naira (₦), equivalent to 0.002867 Euro during the implementation of FPCA 38 -, packaging volume, market type and distance to market, is taken from the mobile app submission form. In exchange for a gamified monetary reward, volunteers were asked to submit actual transaction prices (paid/obtained), although the mobile app also allowed them to submit prices as mere observers. In this study, we used the second type of data: the actual data submissions between April 2021 and November 2021 in the states of Kano, Katsina, Kaduna and Lagos and used Local Governmental Area (LGA) and state aggregation levels. Notably, the LGAs correspond to the Second Administrative Level Boundaries, developed by the United Nations 39 to promote the availability of reliable geospatial information for sustainable development (i.e. policy-making, programming, and operations) and knowledge-and information-sharing and the state corresponds to the First Administrative Level Boundaries.A total of 904 volunteers from a crowd of 1306 registered and several unregistered volunteers submitted more than 26,700 data records (each may contain several prices for several food products) consisting of 230,335 daily market price observations during their routine market visits. The result was a weekly average of 6,398 price observations, with a remarkably declining trend over time, showing that attracting the crowd is easier than retaining it [40][41][42] and nine food product varieties per data submission. Furthermore, they submitted data whenever they wanted to, constituting a convenience and, thus, a non-probabilistic sample. The crowdsourcing exercise aimed to assess the potential of this form of data collection and to establish a quality methodology to efficiently produce reliable geo-referenced data on food prices at the local and regional level, accessible in near real-time, in order to meet the data needs of governments, food supply chain actors and other institutions. Figure 1 shows the spatial distribution of the crowd volunteers in the focal states. To achieve adequate population coverage, the FPCA made use of the fact that accessible broadband mobile technology was available in most parts of the selected states, and an increasing number of people were using smartphones both within and outside cities. As such, the mobile phone penetration rate can be used as a proxy for the coverage of the target population of individuals 3 . This offered an excellent opportunity for crowdsourcing using mobile phones. Radio adverts (only in FPCA-I) and flyers served to advertise the initiative (Fig. 2). Additionally, the collaboration of governmental agricultural extension agents, social media, and word of mouth contributed to increasing awareness. Crowd volunteers were only required to own a smartphone with GPS and follow online instructions. The system was based on Open Data Kit (ODK) and deployed on a compatible cloud-based server, ONA, which stores data submitted through the mobile app that is available via a private Application Programme Interface (API) in real-time.To increase the willingness of the crowd to participate, the initiative included a gamified reward system where valid daily submissions were rewarded (4 € per submission) on a \"first-submit, first-rewarded\" basis up to the 30 th submission. So it encouraged immediate (real-time) submission, with weekly and monthly limits to reduce potential fraud (e.g. sending repeated numbers). The initiative also included behavioural tools such as \"nudges\" (i.e. information sent to the crowd that may influence their behaviour without restricting their freedom of choice 43 ) via SMS messages. For example, the SMS shared \"social norms\" (the number of prices submitted by peer volunteers) and disclosed aggregated price information from the crowdsourced dataset by sharing the link to the web dashboard 36 .From a statistical perspective, mobile phone numbers are not an ideal sample frame for observing units from a target population as different links can be established between mobile phone numbers and individuals (e.g. one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one 3 ). To establish a one-to-one relationship, which does not contribute to survey error, and to avoid one-to-many relationships, the initiative allowed a phone number to be registered only once. However, it was inevitable that a person with several phones (many-to-one) could send data from all of them, whether this person was registered or not.In order to correct non-sampling errors in data submissions, such as measurement errors or possible fraudulent activities, we ran a pre-processing routine. The pre-processing routine consisted of extracting and validating the raw data reaching the crowdsourcing platform from the mobile app in real time. This phase consists of four steps: (1) automatic data retrieval from the digital platform through the API and conversion of the JSON into structured data, (2) data transformation (e.g. standardisation of measurement units), (3) data geo-location to different levels of administrative sub-divisions and, finally, (4) outlier detection. The latter consists of three steps, shown in the diagram in Fig. 3. Outlier detection starts by flagging outliers based purely on spatial proximity (e.g. clusters of points within a 12 km distance), and so detecting isolated points without reference to the values observed (Step 1). The method used for cluster detection is the density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (or DBSCAN) 44 . Compared to other algorithms, the DBSCAN can group points that are close together (points with many points nearby), discarding isolated points in low-density regions. Therefore, it is possible to define different spatio-temporal markets for each food product. Notably, DBSCAN uses two parameters. The first one is the 'eps' , the threshold used to define how close the points must be to decide whether a point is in a cluster. The second is the 'MinPts' , the threshold for the number of points used to classify a region as dense. Based on local competition between selling points, prices are expected to be distributed over space without significant discontinuities within market boundaries. The competitive pressure from a selling point is relevant for other selling points or stores within a few kilometres and diminishes with increasing distance 45 . Moreover, as a minimum number of observations was required in each cluster, it allowed multiple contributions for the same product to be compared, leveraging the 'wisdom of the crowd' 46 . Typically, detecting low-quality observations in crowdsourcing relies on redundancy by comparing each contribution to other contributions asked for the same task 42 . Then, averaging is a common approach for aggregating contributions for integrative solutions, where contributions are complementary, and the value relies on their integration (conversely, in selective tasks, contributions are competitive, and only one delivers the optimal solution) 47 .In the second step, we considered the points that enter a cluster from the DBSCAN algorithm and used two statistical methods to detect price outliers. The first method consists of the classical removal of exceptional values without considering the spatial distribution of the observation. It involves detecting and removing all values that exceed k times the standard deviation from the mean. In particular, we considered k = 2. Alternatively, a more robust approach responds to the classical right-skewed price distribution, using price medians instead of the means and interquartile ranges rather than standard deviations. We applied the latter. The second method relies on the idea that it is possible to detect outliers more precisely by introducing a spatial component and comparing only nearby points of sale within the same market. When this is done, unusual data (possibly generated by non-sampling errors) can be detected by looking at price values in the vicinity of the commodity in question. The idea is to define as neighbours all the points that are closer together than an arbitrary threshold. A spatial outlier is an observation that is statistically different from the values observed in the neighbourhood and is intuitively defined as the value that exceeds r times the variance from the average price (1) represented by the spatial lag (2). Then, all the observations marked as outliers are removed from the dataset. In the third step, we consider the points that are not part of any cluster produced by the DBSCAN algorithm, classified as isolated points. If the value observed in that point is similar to the mean of a cluster, the point is associated with that cluster even if the points are distant in space, with a maximal relocation distance defined by the parameter 'maxd' . The underlying idea is to minimise the loss of information by connecting the isolated point to a cluster instead of deleting it. If, conversely, the isolated point is very different from the mean of any other cluster, then the point is discarded.As a result, a validated and comprehensive dataset of daily food commodity prices was produced daily, offering relevant information on commodity prices but also on characteristics of the purchase behaviour of the citizens volunteering to be part of the crowd, such as the distance travelled to market 35 or the type of outlet. The consistent data flow from volunteers revealed nuances of commodity price data before and after harvest, which hinted that the crowdsourcing system was reliable. Price declines were observed during the autumn harvest.From a statistical point of view, basic price aggregates may be distinguished for different types of similar product varieties, regions and distribution/marketing channels, i.e. whether it comes from a retail, wholesale or farm gate marketing channel. Different channels give rise to different price types along the food supply chaini.e. wholesale, retail or farm gate. The term wholesale implies selling in bulk quantities (usually to other businesses), and retail stands for selling merchandise in small quantities (usually to final consumers). Commonly, retail prices are higher than wholesale prices. The farm gate price is the product price available at the farm, excluding any separately billed transport or delivery charge 48 . Accordingly, the DBSCAN procedure is run separately for the different food product varieties, regions, and price types. The wholesale, retail and farm gate classification of each price observation is made during the data transformation step of the pre-processing phase. It is based on the type of outlet (e.g. market, neighbourhood shop or supermarket) and the quantity (e.g. 100 kg, 20 kg or 1 kg) to which it refers 49 . We observe that over the period in question, 84% of prices are collected at retail markets, 13% at wholesale and only 3% at the farm gate. Concerning outlet types, about 63% of the crowdsourced prices come from open-air markets and street outlets, 28% from traditional neighbourhood shops, and only 4% and 3% from supermarkets and directly from farmers at the farm, respectively. The rest comes from specialised stores (1%) and bulk stores (1%). It very accurately reflects the situation of marketing channels for the sale of food in Nigeria, which is dominated by open-air markets, with retail chains and supermarkets accounting for a minor percentage, even for manufactured packaged food goods 50 . This purchasing behaviour is observed in both rural and urban areas. Understanding how citizens buy food from supermarkets, open-air markets, and other retail options is important for food security and urban planning 51 . Moreover, more than three-quarters of the data are reported from rural areas, reflecting the still high to intermediate levels of rurality of the focal states in North Nigeria 52,53 . In fact, it stands out that only 1% of the observations come from the focal state in the south, Lagos, which is eminently urban (41% come from Katsina, 37% from Kano and 21% from Kaduna). A follow-up survey with onboarded volunteers in Lagos revealed that people declared to be busy to participate, and the reward was not compelling enough. Also, they stalled on participating because of scepticism or perception that the initiative may be a scam, highlighting the importance of trust for crowd participation. They suggested that intensifying publicity on social media could help. Considering food products, 31% of observations are for rice (16% and 15% for local and imported rice, respectively), 23% are for beans, 20% are for maise, 15% for garri and 11% for soybeans. In terms of product quality, for those products for which the quality grade was collected, 94% of observations were from high-quality grades (i.e. 1 and 2), suggesting a preference in the crowd for higher-quality and more expensive varieties or a higher presence in the market. The data reveals that 66% of price observations were reported by volunteers merely observing the prices and not buying or selling. For more information about the FPCA data collection methodology, please refer to 49 .As stated in the introduction, crowdsourced data is submitted voluntarily, so collecting crowdsourced data represents convenience sampling that does not obey any probabilistic design. Consequently, it is extremely risky to use it if we wish to draw reliable statistical inferences. The strategy employed in this study to tackle this problem consists of subjecting the crowdsourced data to a process of reweighting before using it in subsequent analysis and inference. In its simplest form, reweighting assigns appropriate weights to each sample unit based on inclusion probability (if known) or based on available information to obtain a distribution more similar to the population we want to investigate. When inclusion probabilities are known, we call the process post-stratification 28 , which is a common strategy in statistics, although its properties have received little attention 29 . In this last case, after choosing an appropriate variable whose distribution is known in the population, sample units are weighted with the ratio between the theoretic proportion (in the population) and the observed proportion in the sample. Following this basic idea 34 , suggested transforming crowdsourced datasets to resemble a predefined geographical formal sample design with reference to the space where data is collected. This particular form of post-stratification was termed spatial post-sampling.In a nutshell, the spatial post-sampling method can be described as follows. Suppose that a set of N observations is collected by crowdsourcing on a set of L given geographical sub-areas (e.g. LGAs) into which the entire study area (i.e. the state) is partitioned. To implement the strategy, we then compare the location of the observed data with that of a set of points selected using a reference formal sample design of an equivalent sample size. While, in principle, any design can be used, it is reasonable to assume a stratified random sample with geographical stratification and probability proportional to size (pps) or one of the optimal spatial sample designs described in the literature as a reference sample design 54,55 .In each of the L sub-areas considered, the N observations are then reweighted to resemble the formal sampling scheme by following these operational steps:In Step 1, we count the number of observations available at a given geographical level. We will assume that in the l-th location (l = 1,…, L), we have a total number of n l crowdsourced observations, with n n l m m l , = ∑ , m being the internal index of location l. The total number of observations in the whole crowdsourced exercise is n N l L l 1 = ∑ = . We also define X m.l as the m-th observation of the variable of interest X in the sub-area l. In Step 2, the observations in each of the L locations are averaged with a simple unweighted meanIn Step 3, we count the number of data points needed to satisfy a formal sampling procedure in each of the L locations. Using, for instance, a random stratified sample with geographical stratification and probability proportional to the population size, we can identify a sample of data points exactly equal to those observed. We define m l as the number of observations which should be required by the formal design in each location, withIn Step 4 we build up a spatial post-sampling ratio, defined as the ratio between the number of observations required by the reference sampling plan and the number of observations actually available with crowdsourcing in each location, that is:Finally, in Step 5 the mean of the target variable X is calculated as a weighted average of X using the post-sampling ratio as weights. So, formally, we have:Thus, if in each location l, PS l = 1, then the number of observations available in location 1 is precisely that required by the reference sampling plan, and no adjustment is needed. Conversely, if in location l, PS l ≠ 1, then the number of observations available in location l is different from that required by the reference sampling plan, and the observations need to be reweighted. If no observations are available in location l (n l = 0), then the location is not considered in the averaging process; if no observations are required in location l (m l = 0), then the observations collected in location l will also not contribute to the calculation of the global mean.In its essence, our method falls within the class of post-stratification methods, which share the idea of reweighting observations to correct for under-or over-representation and differs only in how the weights are derived. In our case, the reference to the geographical space of the collection is essential to the method.Our framework can also be used to measure the reliability of a crowdsourcing exercise by comparing the available dataset with that required by a reference sample design.A possible reliability measure is the following Crowdsourcing Reliability Index:with all symbols already introduced. Expression ( 4) is a measure of reliability that ranges between 0 and 1. In fact, in the case of low reliability, we are in the worst-case scenario when all crowdsourced data is concentrated in one single spatial sub-area where, following a formal sample design, we needed the minimum number of points. In this case n N if l m , m in( )and n l = 0, otherwise and CRI = 0. Conversely, in the case of maximum reliability (when the crowdsourced data and the formal design perfectly coincide and we do not need any post-sampling correction), we haveand CRI = 1. The CRI index described above is be calculated by including all sub-areas present in the study area. If all observed data points are concentrated in one sub-area of the state, the CRI indicator is very low because actual data would not cover most of the region (i.e. state). Conversely, if data is collected in all sub-areas, but there are only a few observations in each area (in extreme cases only one), then CRI is high because data is reasonably well distributed.Two types of datasets were produced and stored in https://zenodo.org/record/7261389 56 : the pre-processed dataset and the final datasets. The pre-processed dataset-step2.csv-consists of the daily raw price observations recorded between April and November 2021 by the crowd volunteers, transformed and geolocated, and from which outliers (possible non-sampling errors) have been removed, as explained in Fig. 3. The final datasets-step3_sps.csv and step3_gps_agg.csv-consist of the price observations of the pre-processed dataset, aggregated weekly and by region (i.e. state) according to the post-sampling procedure, based on a random stratified sample with pps or an optimal sample design respectively, as described in Methods.The structure of the pre-processed dataset is related to the template developed by the FPCA team that underlaid the mobile app data submission form. This dataset includes information about the food product name, grade, packaging unit, price observed and kg price, submission date and time, position (GPS coordinates and locations) and flag for outliers or points that remain isolated (not included in a cluster). Table 1 provides an overview of the data, its description and its origin. Each row represents a price submitted for a specific food product within a data submission or data record, represented by the id_form.Table 2 presents the list of food products, the number of prices reported for each product and their share in the total valid observations. Tables 3, 4 show the packaging units and market types selectable from the tool, respectively, and the number of observations for each packaging unit.The structure of the final datasets (Table 5) is based on Arbia et al. (2018). These datasets result from the post-sampling procedure and include information about the region, the submission week and year, the product and price type, the weekly simple average and the post-sampled average and the crowdsourcing reliability indicator. Each row represents the weekly price of a specific food product from a marketing channel type (i.e. retail, wholesale, farm gate).The main objective of this work is to test the possibility of producing and using reliable real-time data from crowdsourcing (i.e. mobile app-contributed data) on food prices. Crowdsourcing can provide more timely information at a more granular level. For this purpose, in our case study, we employ the procedure described in Methods to clean and post-sample the crowdsourced food price data collected in Nigeria. To do this, the raw data of the crowdsourcing platform go through the quality procedure implemented in a series of codes and algorithms fully developed in the R software 57 in two phases. First, the pre-processing phase goes from extracting the data through the platform API and transforming them by cleaning the outliers due to possible data entry errors by voluntary participants (non-sampling error). The output of this phase is the pre-processed dataset. Secondly, the post-sampling phase corrects for the potential sampling error inherent to crowdsourcing data collection. Individual observations are weighted according to the two proposed strategies to make the dataset resemble a formal sample design (i.e. a random stratified sample design with probability proportional to population and an optimal spatial sampling design) to produce reliable and accurate estimates. Besides, the CRI (Crowdsourcing Reliability Index) indicator provides a normalised measure of the coverage of the crowdsourcing data points compared with the formal sample design. The output of this phase are the final datasets. As a result, the price data is updated twice a day on an interactive web dashboard 37 . The R codes for all these operations are available at https://github.com/vincnardelli/fpca.In the pre-processing phase, we adopted a procedure with customisable parameters to build dynamically spatial clusters or \"spatial-temporal markets\" (using, e. g., DBSCAN; Ester et al. 1996) and then identify within-cluster price outliers. As a result, outliers and isolated points (those that could not be joined to any cluster) are removed. Setting the parameters eps = 0.0019 (~12 km), MinPts = 5, maxd = 0.0078 (~50 km), over the eight months of weekly analysis (April to November 2021), we found 9,651 (or 4%) outliers and 65,628 (or 29%) isolated points. However, there are differences between commodities and states. Katsina has the highest percentage of valid observations (75%), with only 20% isolated points and 4% outliers. Kano is in second place with 69% valid observations, 27% isolated points and 4% outliers. Then there is Kaduna, with 51% accurate observations,  45% isolated points and 4% outliers. Finally, with considerably fewer observations in Lagos State, there are 48% valid observations, 50% of isolated points and 2% outliers. Over time, the percentage of outliers decreases, while the share of isolated points grows as the number of submitted prices consistently diminishes. It may reflect the effect on the quality of the monetary reward (only paid for valid submissions) and that voluntary participants learn and reduce input errors over time to maximise the reward's probability. Moreover, on the other hand, the volunteers' motivation seems to diminish over time, indicating the need to communicate with the crowd and implement strategies beyond financial incentives to keep volunteers engaged 36 . Next, we apply the suggested methods of estimation. We ran the post-sampling procedure and compared the performances of the different strategies 34 . As a result, we obtained three price estimates (FPCA estimates). The first assumes the crowdsourcing sample as a simple random sample and estimates the mean of the variable X (commodity price) for each state (first level of geographic aggregation) with the unweighted Horvitz-Thompson estimator. Let us call this estimator X FPCA HT (FPCA-HT). Since we know that crowdsourcing is a non-probabilistic sampling process, this choice can lead to biased and highly inefficient estimates for price, because it neglects the different densities with which price data are distributed over space. The second strategy uses the Horvitz-Thompson estimator X FPCA PSHT (FPCA-PSHT) with the individual crowdsourcing observations, but now weighted using the post-sampling (PS) ratios obtained by comparing the actual data with a random stratified design, with probability proportional to the population of the LGAs (second level of geographic aggregation). Finally, the third strategy again uses the Horvitz-Thompson estimator X FPCA SPSHT (FPCA-SPSHT) and post-sampling correction, but using the spatial post-sampling ratios obtained by comparing the actual data with an LPM2 design 55 . No auxiliary variable is required for the third strategy except for the geo-coordinates of each data point, which are recorded automatically at data submission by the mobile app. Notice that the acronym PS was used in a generic sense in Methods section to denote the post-sampling strategy, while here we distinguish between a PS strategy (when we use a random stratified sample as a benchmark) and an SPS strategy (when we use a spatial sampling strategy as reference).We assume that both post-sampled estimates X X ( and )FPCA PSHT FPCA SPSHT are more accurate and efficient estimators than the simple average X ( ). Accuracy refers to the difference between the estimate and the 'true' value of the parameter of interest.Trust in crowdsourcing data is a fundamental issue for future data collection and analysis applications. Indeed, the increasing quantity of data available through technologies and mobile apps represents the main advantage of crowdsourcing and participatory approaches such as citizen science. However, this makes it necessary to both establish trusted algorithms which can harvest the information and produce relevant data in a timely fashion, as well as to accurately describe the uncertainty associated with such algorithms. Crowdsourcing and technology provide easy access to a large amount of data from across multiple geographies in real-time. However, a drawback is that it relies on \"convenience sampling\", an example of non-probability sampling, which typically leads to possible problems with representation. The validity of the crowdsourcing approach depends on several factors: (i) the target population's (the crowd's) availability of and access to technology, (ii) the involvement and motivation of the crowd, (iii) the number of valid data points, and their spatial dispersion, which can compromise the quality and representation of the information; and (iv) the use of an adequate procedure to deal with the over or under-representation of the sample units 34 .This paper focuses on the last two points, proposing a methodology to trust the crowdsourced data collection by applying a validation through pre-processing algorithms to the data and a post-sampling strategy approach to deal with the bias and inefficiencies associated with non-probabilistic samples (Section on Methods). On both point (iii) and (iv) above, spatial auxiliary information of the data (i.e. the coordinates of the price data points) was used to improve the 'trust' in the data and in the final estimate.The 'trusted' methodology proposed was validated and tested through an application in Nigeria concerning mobile-app-based crowdsourcing to collect daily food market prices: nine food product varieties in the states of Kano, Katsina, Kaduna and Lagos. The three price estimates resulting from the crowd data collection were obtained by respectively applying a Horvitz-Thompson estimator, the same but improved by weighting with population data and by weighting considering the spatial location of the data.The proposed methodology could be extended by including other alternative data sources on prices, including geographic information (e.g. web scraped data). Moreover, it would be worthwhile to explore how this methodology could be integrated with data obtained through classical statistic approaches, for example, to produce accurate short-term forecasts.From a practical perspective, we are confident that the proposed dataset and methodology could be extremely useful for institutions and organisations aiming to complement price data collection systems with real-time and highly granular data approaches.Depositing your data to an appropriate repository. The dataset(s) described therein have been deposited in a public repository Joint Research Centre Data Catalogue and available at the following link: https://data. jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset/f3bc86b0-be5f-4441-8370-c2ccb739029e.","tokenCount":"6271"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cfd31d38ababa1238d7b66c73eb208f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b54803e-7395-4d2a-8508-892861319175/retrieve","id":"-754083056"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bceca5dc-906e-4c6f-bb7f-61f8b9c4b362","pagecount":"37","content":"This report addresses issues surrounding measurement of the potential productivity gains from new livestock technologies and the returns to international livestock research. The approach, applicable to many livestock production constraints and technologies, integrates a herd simulation model to measure the potential size of impact of a new technology, geographic information systems (GIS) to predict where this impact is likely to be felt, and an economic surplus model to value it. The particular problem examined is trypanosomosis in cattle in Africa, and the potential research product is a multi-component vaccine. The results suggest that the potential benefits of trypanosomosis control, in terms of meat and milk productivity alone, are worth over US$ 700 million per year in Africa. The disease is costing livestock producers and consumers an estimated US$ 1.3 billion annually, without including productivity losses associated with less manure and traction due to the presence or risk of the disease. Given an adoption period of 12 years, a maximum adoption rate of 30%, a discount rate of 5%, and a 30% probability of the research being successful within 10 years, the net present value of the vaccine research is estimated at US$ 288 million, with an internal rate of return of 33%, and a benefit:cost ratio of 34:1. The results of this study will assist in research priority setting and have highlighted the need for further research aimed at better understanding who the beneficiaries of the vaccine will be, and how it will reach them.As resources for agricultural research and development become increasingly scarce worldwide (Anderson et al 1994), ex ante impact assessments of the potential benefits and costs of research investments are being used by more national and international research centres to aid in priority setting and resource allocation (Norton and Pardey 1987;Anderson 1992). The economic surplus model has been used to measure the benefits of crop research in inducing changes in supply (e.g. Norton et al 1987;Walker and Collion 1997). Relatively little work has been done on the economic returns to livestock research, particularly research applicable to different production systems and countries. The nature of livestock enterprises raises issues that do not apply to crop research, where the measurement of increases in productivity per hectare resulting from successful research is relatively straightforward.The objectives of this study are to illustrate how:• productivity impacts resulting from livestock research can be measured using a herd simulation model• the results of this model can be extended spatially using geographic information systems (GIS) to determine the potential increase in livestock production that would result from adoption of a new technology• an economic surplus model can be used to value the estimated productivity impacts.The methodology developed in this study can be used to measure the benefits of alleviating constraints to livestock production and the potential returns to research and development approaches addressing those constraints. Here we use it to measure the potential benefits to control of African animal trypanosomosis and the benefits to one particular area of research, the development of a trypanosomosis vaccine. 1Trypanosomosis is an important constraint, if not the most important constraint, to livestock and mixed crop-livestock farming in tropical Africa. More than a third of the land area across Africa (8.7 million km 2 ) is infested with tsetse flies, where at least 46 million cattle are exposed to the risk of contracting tsetse-borne trypanosomosis, as are millions of sheep, goats, donkeys, camels and horses (Reid et al 1999). Ten years ago, African livestock producers and governments were spending US$ 30 million annually to treat animals exposed to this disease, administering 25-30 million curative and preventive treatments (Borne 1996). If one assumes an average of one annual treatment per animal at risk (at a cost of around US$ 1), this figure is now conceivably closer to US$ 46 million. By generally constraining farmers from the overall benefits of livestock to farming-efficient nutrient cycling, access to animal traction, income from milk and meat sales, access to liquid capital-trypanosomosis reduces both crop yields and areas cultivated. Taking into account the lower density of cattle found in tsetse-infested as compared to tsetse-free areas of Africa, and empirical estimates of the relationship between a country's stock of livestock and total agricultural output, Swallow (1997) estimated annual losses in income (i.e. gross domestic product) for the 10 African countries completely infested by tsetse to be in the range of US$ 192 to US$ 960 million.Around 300 million out of 670 million people in Africa will be living in tsetse-infested areas by the year 2000 (R. Kruska, ILRI, unpublished data). The costs of human trypanosomosis (sleeping sickness) are extremely difficult to quantify. However, it has been estimated that at least 50 million people are at risk of contracting this killer disease (Kuzoe 1991).The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has devoted a considerable part of its past and current research budget to the development, refinement and application of technologies to aid livestock producers in controlling trypanosomosis. These technologies include the use of livestock breeds that tolerate the disease, control of tsetse fly numbers and use of curative or prophylactic trypanocidal drugs. Recent research results on the development and application of an anti-trypanosomosis vaccine by ILRI scientists and collaborators indicate that the problems associated with antigenic variation of the parasite surface coat can be overcome. The goal now is a multi-component vaccine with components aimed at both the parasite and the disease (ILRI 1997;ILRI 1998). Good progress has been made with the identification of antigens aimed at parasite control. In addition, parasite components that are involved in pathology such as anaemia and immunosuppression are being pursued as vaccine candidates. Some parasite components currently under consideration appear to be shared by different trypanosome species. What this means is that a vaccine based on these common parasite components would be effective against livestock trypanosomosis transmitted by tsetse flies in sub-Saharan Africa (the focus of this study) and livestock trypanosomosis transmitted by biting flies in North Africa, Asia and Latin America. Furthermore, development of an effective livestock vaccine would have major spillover benefits for the development of a vaccine for human trypanosomosis.Direct losses from trypanosomosis in livestock include mortality, morbidity and impaired fertility, and the costs of implementing and maintaining tsetse fly and trypanosomosis control operations. Indirect losses stem from farmers' responses to the perceived risk of the disease, including the reduction and, in some cases, the exclusion of livestock from tsetse-infested grazing lands, and reduced crop production due to insufficient animal draft power (ILRAD 1993). Previous attempts to quantify these indirect losses have been based on the assumption that marked differences in the density of cattle in similar agro-ecological zones are due to the presence of tsetse flies. Such estimates of the potential increases in cattle numbers range from 33 million head (Jahnke et al 1988) to 95 million head (FAO, cited in Hoste (1987)).This study provides new evidence regarding the direct impact of trypanosomosis on the productivity of cattle in tsetse-infested areas of Africa and extrapolates using GIS to capture some of the indirect impacts as well. The approach integrates models of the biophysical, economic and spatial aspects of livestock disease in Africa.There are four stages to the analysis: 1) use of a herd simulation model to measure the impact of trypanosomosis control on productivity of cattle in terms of meat and milk output at a case study site in Ethiopia where tsetse control was applied; 2) linking data on tsetse distribution and livestock populations using GIS to determine the 'recommendation domain' for trypanosomosis interventions and extrapolate from the case study to all of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA); 3) use of an economic surplus model to measure the potential benefits of trypanosomosis control and to estimate the costs of the disease in terms of meat and milk productivity; and 4) use of these results to measure the potential economic returns to ILRI's trypanosomosis vaccine research.Measures of livestock productivity such as reproduction and mortality provide a starting point for comparing the performance of herds exposed to differing levels of disease risk. However, to determine the economic value of productivity effects and to compare them across systems, productivity should be expressed in terms of outputs of meat and milk (Upton 1989). An updated version of a 10-year herd simulation model (von Kaufmann et al 1990;Itty 1995) was used to capture the dynamics of cattle production and to develop annual projections of herd growth and milk and liveweight offtake.Data on livestock productivity and herd structure from field studies (described below) in Ghibe valley, Ethiopia, were used as inputs for the herd model. The model predicted annual herd milk and liveweight offtake both before and after tsetse control was introduced. Trypanocidal drugs were routinely applied to animals detected with trypanosomal parasitaemia for four years before the introduction of tsetse control, and over this period annual growth in herd size was 7.6%. The impact on productivity measured by the model thus represented the impact of tsetse control in a situation where farmers were already benefiting from routine chemotherapy. To simulate the impact of introducing tsetse control to a herd that may be more representative of the continental average, offtake was artificially increased to reduce the herd growth from 7.6% to 1.1% (estimated average herd growth for SSA (Winrock 1992)). To achieve this, a constant percentage offtake was added to each age group in year 1, with that for males (7.2%) double that for females (3.6%), (Table 1); thereafter, offtake rates were kept at these levels for the next 9 years for cattle up to 48 months of age, with the extra offtakes needed to maintain constant herd growth applied to the cattle above this age range. Following tsetse control the herd in Ghibe grew at 13.3% per year. The growth rate of this herd was likewise reduced by the same amount (6.5%) to 6.8% to measure the likely impact of tsetse control on the baseline herd. The herd was allowed to grow at this rate until year 9 when it was predicted that cattle numbers had reached a level consistent with the relative carrying capacity for a tsetse-free area (Figure 1). to restrict annual growth of baseline herd to 1.1% and herd under trypanosomosis control to 6.8%. In addition, offtakes of 88-100% were substituted to remove from the herd males over 5 years of age for traction. d. Includes values of 7.5% and 4.4%, for still births for baseline and control herds, respectively. e. Calculated as 365/calving interval ´100. f. For cows in neighbouring herds raising a calf that survived until the end of lactation.Baseline herd growing at 1.1% per year; herd with trypanosomosis control introduced in year 0 growing at 6.8% per year until year 9; herd in tsetse-free area growing at 1.1% per year and starting with herd size of 162, equivalent to the estimated carrying capacity in tsetse-free areas.The difference in average herd live weight and annual milk and liveweight offtakes predicted by the model between the 'baseline' and the 'trypanosomosis control' cases, estimates the potential benefits over 10 years following introduction of trypanosomosis control to a representative herd in SSA. Thus, this measures the impact of an intervention applied in year 0 with benefits accruing over a 10-year period, and is not an estimate of the cost of trypanosomosis per se. To do this it was necessary to simulate a herd of a size that matched the carrying capacity of a tsetse-free area in year 0, growing at a rate of 1.1% per year (Figure 1), and to compare this herd with the baseline herd. Productivity levels achieved in Ghibe following introduction of tsetse control (Table 1) were also used in the simulation of this herd.Additional outputs such as animal traction, manure and increased crop production were not valued and males (oxen) were excluded from the analysis when they reached 5 years of age. 2 This was achieved by setting offtake rates to 100% (Table 1).A sentinel village herd of 90 Highland zebu cattle exposed to high levels of drug-resistant trypanosomes in the Ghibe valley, south-west Ethiopia, was monitored from March 1986 until February 1997 (Leak et al 1995). Cattle were weighed monthly and blood samples collected for the estimation of packed red cell volume (PCV) and detection of trypanosomes using the phase contrast/buffy-coat technique (Murray et al 1977). Throughout the period 7 2. The magnitude of the benefits from animal traction and manure can be substantial in many production systems in Africa. For example, ILCA (1987) estimated that, on average, traction and manure are worth 34% of the total value of livestock production.animals with a PCV below 26% and found to be parasitaemic, or animals showing clinical signs of trypanosomosis were treated with diaminazene acetate (Berenil, Hoechst ® , Germany) at 3.5 mg/kg body weight. At the time of sampling owners provided details of births, deaths and disposals during the previous month.A tsetse control trial was started in January 1991 using a synthetic pyrethrod cypermethrin 'pour-on' (ECTOPOR ® , Ciba-Geigy, Switzerland) applied monthly to cattle as described by Leak et al (1995). This resulted in a 95% reduction in the relative density of tsetse flies and less nuisance from biting flies. Treatments were given free of charge until November 1992 when a cost recovery scheme was introduced and farmers paid for each animal treated (Leak et al 1995). Monthly records were kept of the numbers of treated cattle.Mean annual values of productivity variables (body weights, calving intervals etc) were calculated for the period before (1987-90) and after introduction of tsetse control (1992-96) as described by Rowlands et al (1999) (Table 1). Milk offtake was recorded monthly from 1989 to 1996 for cows in herds close to the area of control, and these were used to estimate milk offtake from the sentinel herd. The same average milk offtakes were assumed before and after tsetse control since there were no significant increases in calf body weight associated with tsetse control (Rowlands et al 1999), and trypanosomosis in individual cows did not significantly affect lactation offtake for human consumption (G.J. Rowlands, ILRI, unpublished data).Annual rates of mortality and disposal were calculated for different age groups over 12-month periods. Separate rates of disposal were calculated for males and females and, in view of the small numbers in each age group, consecutive age groups were pooled as appropriate. As described above, these offtake rates were subsequently modified to restrict herd growth (Table 1).The herd structure in 1990, the year before tsetse control began, was used to define the initial herd structure and the herd model was used to predict how the herd structure would change over the following 10 years. By year 10, the structure of the herd had reached an equilibrium; this was used to represent the structure of a 'population average' herd. This population average structure was used as the starting point for the different runs of the model reported in this study.In Africa, the likelihood of tsetse flies being present largely defines the risk of trypanosomosis in cattle. GIS was used to overlay data layers for the distribution of tsetse (Lessard et al 1990) and the density of cattle (Figure 2). The cattle density data layer was compiled from national census data reported for administrative units that varied widely in resolution (province, district, division etc) (Kruska et al 1995). A digital administrative boundary layer for the continent of Africa was acquired from FAO, 3 and the best available cattle population information for each country was attached. Cattle densities were then calculated for each administrative unit in the GIS (ESRI 1996). Areas with no cattle, such as protected areas and water bodies, were excluded.The results give a rough approximation of the 'recommendation domain', or target zone, for a potential trypanosomosis vaccine. An overlay of human population shows the number of people living within this recommendation domain and potentially affected by trypanosomosis (Figure 3).  An economic surplus model (Alston et al 1995) can be used to measure the potential benefits of trypanosomosis control itself, as well as the potential benefits of and returns to research or development efforts aimed at alleviating the constraint. A partial-equilibrium, comparative static model of a closed economy was used in the analysis, undertaken at a regional level. Assuming a closed economy implies that the adoption of a cost-reducing or yield-enhancing technology increases the supply of a commodity such as meat or milk. Because there is little or no international trade (an appropriate assumption for our regional as opposed to country-level analysis), the increase in supply reduces both the price of the commodity to consumers and the cost to producers. The simple case of linear supply and demand curves with parallel shifts was chosen. A review of studies of research benefits by Alston et al (1995) reveals that the majority of such studies use similar assumptions. Alston and Wohlgenant (1990) argue that when a parallel shift is used, as suggested by Rose (1980), the functional form is largely irrelevant, and that a linear model provides a good approximation to the true (unknown) functional form of supply and demand.In Figure 4, D is the demand function for the product (meat or milk) and S 0 is the supply function for the product before the research-induced technical change (e.g. trypanosomosis control). The initial equilibrium price and quantity are P 0 and Q 0 , respectively. Adoption of the new technology shifts the supply curve of meat or milk to S 1 , resulting in a new equilibrium price and quantity of P 1 and Q 1 , respectively. Gross annual research benefits are measured by the area between the two supply curves and beneath the demand curve. This area represents the total increase in economic welfare (change in total surplus), and comprises both the changes in producer and consumer surplus resulting from the shift in supply. Consumers are better off because they consume more at a lower price. Although producers are receiving a lower price for their milk or meat, they are able to sell more, so their benefits increase (unless supply is perfectly elastic or demand is perfectly inelastic, in 11 which case their revenues remain the same). These effects are shown in Figure 4. The algebraic derivations of these surpluses are shown in Table 2. The change in total surplus can be thought of as the maximum potential benefits to a technology (trypanosomosis control); they would be actual benefits if the research was successful and fully adopted.  Alston et al (1995).The output from the herd simulation model provided the estimate of the proportionate increase in productivity per head, E(Y). E(Y) was thus measured empirically in terms of quantity (i.e. the horizontal shift in the supply curve, or distance eb in Figure 4), and translated into a common currency (US$) by calculating the distance ac in Figure 4, i.e. the vertical shift in the supply curve. Productivity gains were then converted to gross proportional reductions in cost per tonne of output (C) by dividing the estimated productivity gain by the elasticity of supply (Table 2). This is a gross reduction in output cost, because the changes in input costs (E(c)) associated with the introduction of trypanosomosis control also have to be considered. These include the cost of the control technology itself and, in some cases, the corresponding reduction in the use of other inputs (e.g. trypanocidal drugs). The net proportionate change in marginal cost per tonne of output (k) is derived by subtracting the effect of variable input cost changes associated with the use of the technology.The technology or control measure is assumed, in this analysis, to be a vaccine. That is, we have assumed that a trypanosomosis vaccine will have the same effect on productivity that the pour-on technology had on productivity of cattle in the Ethiopian study. The main difference between the two technologies lies in their costs. We have also assumed that the vaccine will be available at a relatively low cost to the producer and that he or she, as in the case of the pour-on, will be able to reduce the amount of trypanocidal drugs used for treatment of the disease because of the vaccine. 4 Estimates of the change in input costs associated with the vaccine came from scientists' estimates of the probable production cost and likely number of doses needed for successful application of a vaccine, and from observed reductions in the use of trypanocidal drugs following tsetse control in the Ethiopian study (Rowlands et al 1999).A weighted average price of meat and milk was derived for different regions from recent farm-gate price data from various sources (Table 3). The meat and milk price for each country was weighted by its contribution to the total regional output of the product. The pre-research quantities (Q 0 ) of meat and milk produced in tsetse-infested areas of Africa came from the GIS analysis (Table 4). By overlaying the spatial distribution of tsetse flies with cattle densities, we were able to estimate the amount of meat and milk currently being produced in areas under trypanosomosis risk. The percentage increase in meat and milk production made possible with trypanosomosis control (k), was applied to this initial quantity. Elasticities of supply and demand were taken from regional empirical studies (Table 3). 759,000 398,000 2,113,000 374,000 Information sources: a. Elasticity of supply of milk (Alston et al 1995); elasticity of demand for milk for SSA (ERS/USD (Economic Review Service/United States Department of Agriculture), unpublished data ); elasticity of demand for meat (Tambi 1996); elasticity of supply of meat (ACIAR, unpublished data ). b. Prices: Eastern and southern Africa-weighted average 1997 farm-gate meat and milk prices for Zimbabwe and Uganda (Williams 1997), Kenya (Peeler and Omore 1997), and Ethiopia (B. Swallow, unpublished data); western and central Africa-weighted average 1997 farm-level meat and milk prices for Ghana, Nigeria and Niger (Elbasha et al 1999). c. Quantities: Authors' calculation, using ILRI/GIS (Kruska et al 1995, Table 7) and FAO data to calculate meat and milk production in tsetse areas (Table 8).The same methods were applied in the estimation of the costs of trypanosomosis. Potential annual benefits (i.e. change in total surplus) were calculated in a similar manner, using percentage increases in milk and meat output demonstrated when comparing tsetse-free and 13 4. A reduction in input costs with the introduction of a vaccine was only assumed to occur in eastern and southern Africa, where the use of trypanocidal drugs is common and a reduction in use corresponding to successful trypansomosis control has been observed. For western and central Africa, it was assumed that input costs would increase slightly with the introduction of a vaccine (Table 3). 7.2 Sources: ILRI/GIS calculations, using most recent available country-level livestock population data, usually by district, as described in Kruska et al (1995). Tsetse distribution data is from Lessard et al (1990). For some countries, information at district level data or recent cattle census data was not available, thus the total number of cattle may be underestimated. The data continue to be updated. baseline herds (Figure 1). In this case, the change in total surplus represents the estimated cost of trypanosomosis associated with reduced milk and meat output.Gross annual research benefits, measured by the change in total surplus, represent the maximum potential benefits to society from a new technology. To estimate the likely potential net benefits accruing to current research, however, some uncertainties must be considered: the uncertainty surrounding if and when the research may be successful, the uncertainty in the proportion of farmers adopting the vaccine and the rate at which they adopt. The economic surplus model accounts for such uncertainties by the use of probabilities. The challenge in using the economic surplus model to measure the potential returns to research, therefore, was how to estimate research and adoption lags, probability of research success, and the ceiling level of adoption.A survey of ILRI and non-ILRI researchers (both laboratory-based and those doing field-level research) was undertaken. Scientists were asked to give their pessimistic, most likely and optimistic estimates of the probability of research success. The probability of research success is jointly determined with the definition of a successful research outcome and the length of time until success is achieved; it depends on the assumed value for research costs. In this case research success was defined as a multi-component vaccine with components aimed at both the parasite and the disease (ILRI 1997;ILRI 1998). The research period was assumed to be 10 years, costing US$ 1 million per year starting in 1998, increasing at 3% per year.The results of this survey are summarised in Table 5. The average of ILRI researchers' pessimistic estimates was used as the baseline to enhance the credibility of the conclusions. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of changes in these assumptions. This included an analysis using the mean lowest estimate of probability of research success from non-ILRI scientists as well. Figure 4 represents research benefits for one product for one year. A successful research investment will yield benefits over a number of years. As the level of adoption increases there will be further shifts in the supply curve, and corresponding changes in benefits. This adoption process was assumed to follow a typical S-shaped curve approximated by a discrete time distribution (Jacobsen and Norton 1996).Since the results of research are likely to depreciate over time (e.g. due to availability of newer technologies), a depreciation factor also needs to be taken into account in the calculation of net benefits. The authors of this report assumed, based on information from the scientist survey, that a vaccine would be a relatively sustainable technology (compared to drugs against which the trypanosomes can develop resistance, for example). Thus it was assumed that the benefits would not depreciate substantially (1% per year), and that this depreciation would not begin until 10 years after the vaccine became available (Table 6). The benefits and costs of the research were arrayed on a yearly basis over a 30-year period, and a discount rate of 5% was applied to calculate the net present value (NPV) of vaccine research: the sum of total discounted returns minus total discounted costs. A positive NPV implies a research programme that is profitable. The internal rate of return (IRR), or the discount rate at which the NPV is zero, was also calculated. Using this criterion, research programmes are profitable if the IRR is greater than the opportunity cost of funds. The benefit:cost ratio, or total discounted returns divided by total discounted costs, was also calculated. Since many of the baseline assumptions are debatable (including the decision to start with the pessimistic, rather than most likely estimates as is often done), sensitivity analyses were undertaken to assess the effect of different discount rates, adoption levels and probability of research success on the NPV, IRR and benefit:cost ratio.The major impacts of tsetse control on the productivity of cattle in Ghibe valley, south-west Ethiopia, were shown to be a reduction in calf mortality (including still births) and increases in adult body weight, particularly in males (Table 1) (Rowlands et al 1999). Trypanosome prevalence in adult cattle was reduced from 41% to 16% during years of tsetse control (an absolute reduction of 25%) and the percentage of cattle requiring treatments with the trypanocidal drug diminazene aceturate declined from 42% to 21%. Annual growth of the herd increased from 7.6% to 13.3% per year.Applying the herd model to simulated herds growing at reduced rates of 1.1% and 6.8%, respectively, showed that milk offtake increased by 51% as a result of tsetse control (Table 7). Milk offtake for a herd of 100 cattle increased from 64,375 to 97,293 litres over the 10year period. Overall herd live weight plus live weight/meat offtake increased by an average of 50%. 5 The increase in liveweight offtake (41%) was associated with an increased offtake rate of 17% under trypanosomosis control compared with 13% for the baseline herd. This baseline offtake rate was equivalent to the continental average (Winrock 1992). obtainable from a trypanosomosis vaccine. 2. In year 9, herd size was predicted to reach that found in tsetse-free areas (Table 4); this was assumed to be the carrying capacity of the land, and herd growth thereafter was assumed to be at the same rate as for the baseline herd.17 5. The herd simulation model measured the percentage increase in the weight of the overall herd plus the liveweight offtake for the herd before and after tsetse control. The same percentage change applies to meat, valued in the economic surplus model.In the economic surplus model, these estimates of productivity gain were assumed to apply to quantities of milk and meat currently produced in tsetse-infested areas of eastern and southern Africa, but they were halved for western and central Africa. A recent review of the literature suggests that productivity gains from trypanosomosis control in trypanotolerant cattle breeds in western and central Africa may be somewhat lower than those found in breeds more susceptible to the disease (Swallow 1997).The results of the GIS cross-tabulation of cattle populations in tsetse-infested areas of Africa are found in Table 4. The results show that of a total of 150 million cattle in SSA, there are at least 48 million cattle raised in tsetse-infested areas. The quantities of meat and milk produced in each region (averaged over the 5-year period 1989-93) were multiplied by the percentages of animals found in tsetse areas of each region to estimate the amount of meat and milk produced in areas of trypanosomosis risk (Table 8). These 48 million cattle produce approximately 772,000 t of meat and 2.9 million tonnes of milk. Valued at the same farm-level prices used in the analysis (Table 3), this implies meat production worth US$ 1321 million and milk production worth US$ 830 million.  (FAOSTAT 1996) multiplied by the percentage of animals found in tsetse-infested areas of each region (Table 4).Sixty-nine per cent of Africa's cattle are found in eastern and southern Africa, the majority of which are zebus susceptible to trypanosomosis. The density of cattle found in tsetse-infested areas of this region (excluding the arid zone since tsetse flies are only found along water sources) is 8.9 cattle/km 2 , much lower than the 14.4 cattle/km 2 found in nontsetse areas (Table 4). This implies that with successful trypanosomosis control, a herd of 100 head would be able to increase to 162 head to reach the density level found in the non-tsetse area and this value was used as a measure of the relative carrying capacity of a tsetse-free to a tsetse-infested area (Figure 1).There will be an estimated 300 million people living in tsetse-infested areas of Africa in the year 2000 (Figure 3). With 65% living in rural areas (World Bank 1996), and if we assume 7 people per household, the recommendation domain for a trypanosomosis vaccine (or other trypanosomosis control measures) includes some 28 million rural households (not all of whom own livestock).The calculation of total economic surplus (i.e. gross annual benefits) from trypanosomosis control is shown in Table 9. Averaging over both regions, the estimated potential gains in productivity result in a 38% reduction in the cost per tonne of producing milk. Similarly, the cost per tonne of live weight produced decreases by 25%. Since the percentage change in the live weight of the herd plus offtake from before to after trypanosomosis control is accounted for (and will be the same for meat as live weight), the potential increase in the value of livestock capital with disease control is included in the estimate of potential benefits in terms of live weight/meat.The lower cost of production results in an increase in the amount of meat and milk supplied by farmers and a lower price to consumers. The change in total economic surplus, or potential gains from trypanosomosis control to farmers and consumers across Africa is estimated to be US$ 702 million per year (Table 9). Simulation of a herd in a tsetse-free area produced estimated increases of 83% and 97% in milk and meat offtakes (Table 7), respectively. The total economic surplus was shown to be US$ 1338 million (Table 9). This is an estimate of the annual cost of trypanosomosis in terms of foregone milk and meat productivity.The change in total surplus was adjusted by the levels of adoption, the probability of research success, and a depreciation factor (see Table 6) to estimate the returns to research into a potential new control strategy, a vaccine. These 'uncertainty adjusted' benefits, generated over the next 30 years, were then compared to ILRI's vaccine research costs and discounted (using a discount rate of 5%) to calculate the net present value (NPV) of the research. The net benefit stream (i.e. benefits minus costs over the next 30 years) is shown in Figure 5. The NPV of trypanosomosis vaccine research is estimated to be US$ 288 million, with an IRR of 33%, and a benefit:cost ratio of 34:1. Assuming a research lag of 10 years, a 30% probability of research success, an adoption period of 12 years, a ceiling level of adoption of 30% and a discount rate of 5%.Valuing the productivity effects of constraints to livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa is problematic. It depends heavily on assumptions on herd growth and offtake rates. We chose an approach that combined the use of observed productivity traits of a herd in a particular location with simulation of different offtake and growth rates that were judged to be more representative of the situation throughout Africa. This is difficult, because the productivity of a herd depends heavily on breed, management, and uses of the animals (e.g. primarily for milk, meat, traction or as a store of wealth). Ideally this type of analysis would be done for each production system, but this requires more data than exist at present. The aim of our analysis, however, has been to establish a methodology that is conducive to a production systems approach, so that estimates can become more precise as new data become available. The average reduction in trypanosome prevalence brought about by introduction of tsetse control in Ghibe, Ethiopia, was from 41% to 16%, which may not reflect reductions in trypanosome prevalence resulting from the same control strategy in other areas or through alternative control technologies. In the no tsetse-control situation in Ghibe, animals were being treated with trypanocidal drugs when they were found to have trypanosomes in their blood and were suffering the ill-effects of trypanosomosis. Thus the benefits of tsetse control were additional to those achieved through the chemotherapy that was being applied (Rowlands et al 1999). For this reason, we reduced the growth rate of the baseline herd to reflect the population situation. Another complicating factor may be that the tsetse control technique used in Ghibe, pour-on treatments of cattle, may have had positive impacts on animal health and productivity beyond its effects on trypanosomosis (e.g. reduction of nuisance biting flies) (Leak et al 1995). For farmers in the area the main advantages of the pour-on treatments were less trypanosomosis, fewer problems with biting flies, and fewer problems with ticks (Swallow et al 1995). Where trypanosomosis is one of a number of limiting factors to increased production, other limiting factors may reduce the benefits brought about by trypanosomosis control. 6  We have used a case study from one site in south-west Ethiopia to estimate the productivity benefits of trypanosomosis control, and we may have underestimated or overestimated productivity benefits that may occur in other regions. The Ghibe valley case study was chosen because it is the most extensive assessment of trypanosomosis control that has been undertaken. By reducing herd growth in our model, we were able to simulate a baseline herd with the average continental herd growth rate of 1.1% and offtake rate of 13% (Winrock 1992), so that our analysis is more representative of the overall situation in sub-Saharan Africa. 21 6. Separating out the various constraints, or the sequence of limiting constraints, to animal productivity is extremely difficult, and is one of the reasons ILRI's research covers animal health, feed, management, and genetic constraints as well. This analysis does not capture the potential complementary benefits if new technologies or strategies are pursued across these areas, nor the dampening effect on benefits if a vaccine is successful, for example, but poor feed strategies are followed.The results suggest that consumers of milk may have even more to gain from application of a successful trypanosomosis vaccine than producers, due to the lower prices they will pay for milk (Table 9). Given the high urbanisation rates in developing countries, many consumers will be relatively poor families living in cities. Cheaper milk could contribute to significant improvements in nutritional status, an indirect benefit. Milk sales provide an important source of steady income for many African smallholder producers (particularly women in many areas). Demand and world prices are expected to rise over the coming years due to increasing urbanisation and incomes and changes in dairy policies of the European community and other dairy exporters (Staal and Shapiro 1994). This analysis, which focuses on the supply shift only, suggests that smallholder producers will be able to sell more milk, and, despite lower prices, earn more total revenue. 7In the case of meat production, the potential benefits to producers are higher than those to consumers, but again both gain. If the demand curve for livestock products is indeed undergoing an outward shift (Delgado et al (1998) estimate an annual growth rate of meat consumption for SSA of 3.4% from 1993-2020), farm revenues will increase even more than the level predicted here.The potential benefits to trypanosomosis control are considerably higher in eastern and southern Africa than in western and central Africa (Table 9). This is largely a result of the higher initial quantity of milk produced in tsetse-infested areas in the region (2.1 million tonnes in eastern and southern Africa compared to 0.8 million tonnes in western and central Africa). However, the relative benefits are also influenced by the assumption that the productivity impact is lower in western and central Africa (one-half the productivity impact estimated from the Ghibe data). It is possible that the productivity impact of trypanosomosis is thus being underestimated for western and central Africa, particularly as more susceptible breeds of cattle move into the region (de Leeuw et al 1995;Bassett 1993).In this analysis, where and how much impact trypanosomosis control is predicted to have is determined by current knowledge about the distribution of tsetse and cattle across Africa. In fact, both are continually changing. Changes in tsetse relative densities are due to the effectiveness of the diverse technologies now available and the steadily increasing requirements for land by a rapidly growing human population (Perry 1988). Future analyses could build in predicted changes in tsetse distribution, for example, as a result of population pressure (Reid et al 1999). Capturing impacts due to the migration of cattle or shifts in breeds (or lack thereof), however, remains a challenge. 22 7. Producers gain given the baseline assumptions regarding elasticities of supply and demand and the linearity assumption. With a non-linear, constant elasticity specification of supply and demand, for example, the change in producer surplus is negative.In similar studies that have measured the returns from application of new technologies arising from crop research, benefits can be determined as soon as the crop is harvested for the first time. The benefits of a new disease-resistant crop variety, for example, also represent a measure of the costs caused by the disease. For the control of livestock diseases, however, this is not the case. The introduction of a vaccine, for example, has benefits that increase over time as the herd increases in size. Thus it would take several years for livestock farmers to reap the full benefits of a new vaccine.Our cost estimate ignores the value of cattle as suppliers of manure. With respect to traction, we have valued males over five years of age at a farm-level market (meat equivalent) price, which probably underestimates their value as trained oxen. Other costs of trypanosomosis not included in this estimate include:• inability or reluctance to shift to more productive breeds of cattle due to the high risk (or perceived high risk) of losses associated with trypanosomosis • cost of human trypanosomosis • costs of the disease outside of SSA • cost of trypanosomosis in sheep, goats, camels and horses • potential costs associated with land use changes resulting from trypanosomosis control.The estimated present values (US$ 288 million) of and internal rates of return (33%) to ILRI's trypanosomosis vaccine research indicate a sound investment, even with the cautious assumptions made regarding likely adoption rates and scope of the benefits (i.e. only meat and milk production in cattle). Returns of similar magnitudes have been estimated for international research on crops. An analysis of returns to 15 research themes at the International Potato Center (CIP) yielded estimates of net present value ranging from US$ 1 million to US$ 195 million (average US$ 67 million), with internal rates of return ranging from 13% to 51% (Walker and Collion 1997). CIP used an approach similar to the one in this report, taking scientists' most conservative estimates regarding likelihood of success and levels of adoption. The International Crops Research Centre for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) ranked returns to 110 different research areas. The average NPV, net benefit:cost ratio and IRR for the top 20 of those were US$ 61 million (with a range from US$ 8 million to US$ 265 million), 52:1 and 39%, respectively (Kelley et al 1995). The ICRISAT analysis used scientists' most likely as opposed to lowest estimates for the baseline analysis. Both CIP and ICRISAT included only their own research costs, as in this analysis, excluding costs associated with technology transfer.The research costs included in our analysis (US$ 11.5 million over 10 years) do not include past, sunk costs but only current and projected annual variable costs of research specifically related to trypanosomosis vaccine development. Sunk costs would of course be considered in an ex post analysis. In this ex ante impact assessment, the NPV measure cannot be attributed solely to the research done by ILRI scientists. Benefits and costs of other inputs into the research and adoption process are also excluded, yet are critical to achieving impact. These include research undertaken at national agricultural research centres; work by government health services and projects, pharmaceutical companies, and agricultural extensionists; and infrastructure development. What has actually been estimated is the benefit of the value of the research at the margin (Kelley et al 1995). In other words, the NPV represents the benefit foregone, or the opportunity cost, of ILRI not carrying out this research.Since many of the assumptions underlying the analysis of returns are subject to debate, sensitivity analyses were undertaken to explore the implications of changes in several of these assumptions-namely, the probability of research success, the period of adoption, the ceiling level of adoption and the discount rate (Table 10). The baseline analysis deliberately used fairly conservative estimates (derived from an average of researchers' pessimistic rather than most likely estimates) about adoption and probability of research success. First, more optimistic assumptions about the probability of developing a vaccine within the next 10-year period were made. When the probability of research success increased to 50%, research returns increased from US$ 288 to US$ 486 million with a benefit:cost ratio of 57:1. When the research lag was then lowered from 10 to 6 years, the NPV of the research more than doubled to US$ 662 million and the benefit:cost ratio increased to 77:1 (Table 10).Sensitivity analysis also demonstrates the benefits of earlier adoption that might be achieved by establishing stronger linkages between research centre and farmer. With an adoption lag of 6 years and 40% of farmers in tsetse areas adopting the vaccine, the NPV increases from US$ 288 million to US$ 504 million.The choice of appropriate discount rate has a significant impact on the results of this model. The discount rate is a time preference concept. If a 'socially optimum' discount rate actually exists, it is evident that such a rate can never be precisely known because the preferences and circumstances of future generations remain unknown (Goodland and Ledec 1987). Economists disagree as to whether the appropriate social discount rate should reflect the alternative value of public resources being consumed or invested (Alston et al 1995). They do agree, however, that in this type of analysis the rate should be a real rate of interest (adjusted for inflation) and that it should reflect any restrictions placed on alternative uses of the funds. Alston et al (1995) argue that this corresponds to a long-term, risk-free rate of return, such as the real yield from long-term government bonds (typically around 5%, used in the baseline analysis). We assessed the effects of the discount rate on returns by increasing it from 5% to 10% (commonly used in project analysis). High discount rates discourage investments with long-term benefits (which incorporate a relatively long period of research and adoption). Thus, in our case, the NPV of the research fell to US$ 103 million and the benefit:cost ratio decreased from 34:1 to 16:1 (Table 10).Because of the complexity of the disease, the most controversial assumption in this analysis is the probability of research success. It is jointly determined with the definition of a successful research outcome and the length of time until success is achieved, and it depends on the assumed value for research costs. Our approach was to interview scientists knowledgeable about the challenges trypanosomosis poses, the problems, opportunities and current 'state of the science' in vaccine development. These included those with some stake in the research (within ILRI) and those with no personal involvement in the research (within and outside ILRI). As could be expected, the estimated probabilities of research success were higher for ILRI scientists than non-ILRI scientists (Table 4). This can partly be explained by the fact that those not working on the research on a day-to-day basis are less familiar with the current state of knowledge. The 'pessimistic' scenario using a 16% probability of research success (as suggested by the lowest non-ILRI estimates) resulted in positive returns to research of US$ 149 million, with expected benefits outweighing the costs of the research by a factor of 18.In cost:benefit analyses of private investments the IRR is typically compared to a market rate of return on alternative investments. However, in this case we are considering returns to investment in research oriented towards the development of a 'public good'. Arguably, the lowest acceptable level of return one might expect is at least 20%. Another approach that can be taken with the sensitivity analysis is to ask the question, 'What does it take to maintain a 20% rate of return?' Keeping other assumptions constant, the rate of return falls from 28% to the 'break-even' point of 20% as the probability of research success reaches 7%. This suggests that if scientists think that they can solve this research challenge within 10 years, they should be able to give it at least a 7% chance of success to generate reasonable returns. Using the optimistic adoption estimates, this break-even probability of success falls to 3%.Similarly, a break-even analysis using a 50% probability of research success suggests that if ILRI wants to achieve at least a 20% return on the trypanosomosis vaccine research investment, researchers should be able to reassure donors that the ceiling level of adoption within tsetse areas of Africa will not be less than 3% of cattle producers (with a 12-year adoption lag). With 300 million people living in tsetse-infested areas (R. Kruska, ILRI, personal communication), 65% in rural areas (World Bank 1996), and assuming an average household size of 7 people, the 'recommendation domain' for a trypanosomosis vaccine includes some 28 million rural households (not all of whom own livestock). It will take 3% of these, or 840,000 households, to adopt the vaccine for the research to pay for itself.This study has developed a methodology that builds on the approach to measuring agricultural research returns suggested by Alston et al (1995). We have integrated a herd model to measure the potential size of impact of a new technology, GIS, to predict where this impact is likely to be felt, and the economic surplus model to estimate some of the costs of trypanosomosis, the potential benefits of controlling it, and potential returns to vaccine research. The advantage of this approach is that it uses field data and GIS analysis to determine where and how much impact research will have on livestock productivity, rather than 'guesstimates' by researchers, as has often been done in previous studies of returns to agricultural research. It is an approach, however, that requires much data and the type of information that is still scarce in many developing countries. This includes evidence of the productivity impacts of a given livestock technology at the herd, rather than individual animal level, and access to GIS data at the lowest administrative level possible (e.g. district). Ideally, household level survey data are used to complement the GIS data and verify the recommendation domain. Thus this approach will be enhanced in future analyses by the availability of a wider range of data collected at the household level from different livestock production systems to examine more closely the question 'Impact on whom?'","tokenCount":"8191"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9fd12ca2453d65f0441077ed98d01791","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/187d418f-fc91-47fb-9696-62f08d3ceb7a/retrieve","id":"-1402915705"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"43194227-3124-43d2-9e29-8cb4908b7b69","pagecount":"12","content":"Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are important food and commercial crops in West African countries. They contribute significantly to global food production and provide dietary energy. The quality of yam food products depends on specific internal and external parameters, such as the DMC and other biochemical traits. However, measuring these traits can be challenging, particularly when analyzing many genotypes. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging (932-1721 nm) along with machine learning to rapidly measure the dry matter content (DMC) of fresh, intact yam tubers. Hyperspectral images were acquired across the yam tuber's cross-sections, and the resulting spectra from the images were averaged and preprocessed. Partial least square regression (PLSR) combined with successive progressions algorithms (SPA), Competitive Adaptive Reweighted Sampling (CARS), Artificial Neural network (ANN) and Boruta algorithms (BA) were used to select the important wavelengths for developing a prediction model for DMC (g/100 g). The PLSR-SPA-CARS model showed the most accurate prediction performances with a coefficient of determinations in calibration (R 2 cal) and prediction (R 2 pred) of 0.974 and 0.958, respectively, and low root mean square error (RMSEP) of 0.898 g/100 g. The distribution of DMC was visually represented by projecting the developed model to generate color chemical maps. This study resolves that NIR hyperspectral imaging can rapidly assess the DMC of fresh, intact yam tubers.Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a staple food and economic crop in West African countries, particularly Benin, Ghana, Côte d′Ivoire, Cameroon, and Nigeria. These countries account for 98 % of global crop production (FAOSTAT, 2021), with Nigeria accounting for 73 % of total African production (FAOSTAT, 2021). As a critical root and tuber (RTB) crop, it contributes significantly to world food production and offers dietary energy in the form of carbohydrates in human and animal diets. Yam is a food security crop because it may be stored and used during the lean months or dry seasons, particularly in the tropics, where farmers rely on rainfed agricultural production. Rising consumer demand for high-quality food products derived from RTB crops necessitates detailed characterization of their external and internal quality traits, influencing their end products' cooking behaviour and acceptability. There is a high demand for precise and cost-effective techniques for determining the quality of food products to ensure they meet customer's quality expectations (Sun, 2009). Recent advances in quality characterization of RTB crops have employed near-infrared hyperspectral imaging techniques (NIR-HSI) as a non-destructive, rapid, and environmentally friendly alternative (Peng et al., 2022;Adesokan et al., 2023) to conventional approaches, which could be costly, time-consuming, and may involve exposure to harmful chemical materials, which in most cases are not responsibly disposed of, thus, negatively impacting the environment.NIR-HSI is a high-throughput, non-destructive technique that uses spectroscopy and imaging to determine food products' quality characteristics and spatial distribution. It has demonstrated the ability to characterize biochemical and biophysical components simultaneously, including their spatial distribution within the target sample (ElMasry and Nakauchi, 2016;Adesokan et al., 2023). Several authors have described the use of imaging techniques for the reliable quantification of multiple qualitative features of roots and tuber crops such as sweet potatoes, potato, cassava, yam, taro and sugar beet (Wang et al. 2022;Pan et al., 2015;Su et al. 2019;Su et al., 2020, Heo et al., 2021and Luo et al., 2020). Meghar et al. 2023 recently acquired hyperspectral images of 31 boiled cassava genotypes to quantify the dry matter, water absorption and textural attributes. A coefficient of multiple determination of 0.94 was reported, with root mean square error in prediction (RMSEP) of 0.96 g/100 g, which shows the potential of NIR-HSI for quality characterization of contrasting cassava genotypes.However, large data size, multidimensional spectral information, noisy signals and collinearity of spectral bands are some of the significant drawbacks of the technique. Therefore, appropriate image processing algorithms must be implemented to reduce the dimension of the spectra data while retaining important information and minimising the data analysis time (Ray et al., 2021). Food materials have a complex matrix, which may result in variations in acquired data; therefore, sample presentation must be carefully chosen to minimise noisy signals and ensure a representative image of the target is acquired (de Araújo et al., 2023). Within the RTBfoods project, water distribution in fresh tubers was monitored across the longitudinal section of yam slices (Meghar et al., 2022). Further study was recommended by Adesokan et al. (2023) to investigate the distribution of traits across the cross-section of RTB crops and to examine the variations in quality parameters from different sections of the same tuber. The conventional DMC analysis methods for RTB crops, including yam, are expensive, take much time, and are destructive to the samples (Alamu et al., 2021). It sometimes involves extensive sample preparation steps, such as peeling, cutting, and drying in the oven for 72 hours; these create limitations in improving the breeding cycles for the crops.The dry matter content of RTB crops and other essential quality parameters could be obtained on the intact yam tubers with minimal sample preparation, making on-farm phenotyping possible and minimising the time required for the analysis workflow. Prediction models for determining the critical quality traits in RTB crops using hyperspectral imaging will provide cost-effective, high-throughput phenotyping tools to breeding programs and food processors. In addition, visualization of the spatial distribution of key quality parameters in RTB crops is essential in helping to understand the biochemical changes that occur during storage and post-harvest activities. Shao et al. (2020) reported that the spatial distribution of the soluble sugar content of sweet potatoes was possible using hyperspectral imaging techniques. Anthocyanin content prediction in purple sweet potatoes using hyperspectral imaging was also reported by Tian et al. (2021) in their study. Presently, there is scanty information on the applications of NIR-HSI on yam quality analysis; therefore, our hypothesis is to explore the potential of hyperspectral imaging systems to accurately predict the DMC of fresh yam without destroying the samples. The current study developed prediction models for rapidly determining the DMC of intact fresh yams using PLSR and other machine learning algorithms. The optimum prediction model was used to establish a spatial distribution map for the DMC (g/100 g) of fresh yam tubers.Sixteen yam genotypes with contrasting food quality, comprising landraces and improved varieties, were collected from the experimental field plots at the IITA stations in Ibadan, Ubiaja and Abuja (Supplementary Table S1). Healthy and large yam tubers from each genotype were washed, peeled, and allowed to dry at room temperature. After preparation, an approximately 2 cm thick slice was cut off from both ends of the yam tubers to eliminate the stalk (Adinsi et al., 2021). Then, each tuber was cut into three cross-sections, each about 3 cm thick, using a stainless-steel knife and a measuring tape (Adinsi et al. 2021). These sections were labelled as proximal (P), central (C) and distal (D). 288 sampling points comprised 144 samples (16 genotypes x 3 cross-sections x 3 locations) x 2 replicate measurements was generated during the analysis. After hyperspectral imaging analysis, each sample was placed into a well-labelled paper bag and prepared for wet laboratory analysis. See Fig. 1 for the sampling and analysis workflow.This study used a push broom near-infrared hyperspectral imaging system (Fig. 2) consisting of a 12-bit (CCD camera (V-light; Lowel Light Inc., New York, NY, USA) with a two-dimensional (2D) light detector. It has a spectrograph with high sensitivity from 932 to 1721 nm and a spectral resolution of 8 nm. A translation Lab Scanner with a dimension of 40 cm×20 cm (LxW) was attached for image acquisition, and an illumination component made up of 150 W tungsten halogen lamps (Fibre-Lite DC950 Illuminator; Dolan Jenner Industries Inc., Boxborough, MA, USA). The distance of 500 mm was between the halogen lamps and the sample and at an angle of 45 0 C to the horizontal plane. The exposure time of the camera and the moving speed in the translation Lab scanner stage was set at 2 ms and 40 mm/s, respectively. A Lumo control software (SPECIM) was installed on a computer for systems operations. Due to the non-uniform distribution of light and the effect of dark current in the camera, it is important to calibrate the raw hyperspectral image with white and dark calibration references (Equ.1). This is done using a white Teflon board with diffuse reflectance of 99 % (Spectralon, SRT-99-100, Labsphere Inc, North Sutton, NH, USA) to obtain white calibration references (R w ). Also, a black calibration reference (R d ) with a reference of 0 % was obtained by closing the camera shutter. Images of fresh, intact yam tubers were collected using optimum acquisition parameters such as exposure time of 4 m/s, binning of 2 and scanning speed of 16.5 mm/s. The acquired image is a three-dimensional (3D) hypercube with (x, y, and z) dimensions of the image pixel, where (x, y) represents spatial dimension and (z) represents spectral wavelength (224 nm).where Rs = calibrated reflectance image; Ro = raw hyperspectral image; Rw = white reference image and Rd = dark reference image.Breeze (version 2024.1.0) and Evince Professional (version 2.7.21) are commercial software packages provided by Prediktera AB (Tvistevagen 48 A SE-907 36 Umea, Sweden) used for processing 3-dimensional hyperspectral images. These images are multidimensional and often contain redundant information and spectral noise, which can impact the predictive ability of models and complicate spectral data manipulation. To address this, preprocessing steps such as image segmentation and pretreatments were implemented using principal component analysis (PCA), which removed the background spectral intensities and reduced the spectral dimensions while retaining important features (Shao et al., 2022). The calibrated reflectance image (R s ) for each sample was imported to the Breeze software, and a PCA model was created to analyze the spectral variations in the sample images based on all the pixels in the image to generate the variance scatter plot (Fig. 3a). Each point in the scatter plot corresponds to pixels in the image or the background. The PCA model clustered pixels based on spectral similarities to separate the sample pixels from the background. The model showed the spectral variance between the sample and the background pixels, as shown in the maximum variance image of the samples (Fig. 3b). PC 1 explains the maximum variance (89.7 %) and visualizes the most important spectral variations in the sample image (x-axis of the scatter plot). The pixels of the sample in the scatter plot were selected to mark the region of interest, while the background pixels were eliminated (Fig. 3c).Also, the raw image spectra contain some non-important and noisy signals, which may be caused by strayed light from the instruments or external interferences from the environment. These signals could affect the identification of relevant spectra information during the modelling    process (Osco et al. 2022). Therefore, several preprocessing algorithms, described in the next sections, were applied to eliminate random noise and improve the signal-to-noise ratio (Xu et al., 2023).The raw spectra were pre-processed to eliminate noise and correct the baseline distortions. Preprocessing the spectra before model building helped to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio, remove atmospheric interferences and improve the prediction accuracy. Hyperspectral images were subjected to different pretreatment algorithms, including Standard Normal Variates (SNV), Savitzky-Golay (SG), Multiplicative scatter corrections (MSC) and Derivatives. The Standard Normal Variance (SNV) method normalizes the spectra by subtracting each spectrum by its mean and dividing it by its standard deviation. After SNV, each spectrum will have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 (Jiao et al., 2020). SNV is useful in removing scattering effects caused by physical variations of surface imperfections (Fig. 4a). MSC created a reference spectrum by averaging multiple spectra to form a spectrum with minimal scattering effects. The reference spectrum was divided by their average spectrum to represent the chemical information in the samples accurately. SG uses a polynomial least-squares fitting approach to approximate the data points within a moving window, effectively removing high-frequency noise while preserving the underlying trends and features in the data set (Dombi et al., 2020). Important parameters for SG, such as the window size and the polynomial order, were considered during the SG pretreatments. The window size, which determines the number of neighbouring data points that fit the local polynomial, was set at 2, and the polynomial order, which determines its complexity (Zimmermann et al., 2013), was set at 4 to obtain the optimum model. The first and second derivatives (Fig. 4b-c) were used to reduce the baseline shifts, enhance peak detection and resolve superimposed peaks (Fellows et al., 2020).Wavelength selection in hyperspectral data analysis is crucial to removing redundant information and noisy signals, potentially weakening a calibration model's predictive capacity. This study used Successive Progressive Algorithm (SPA), Competitive Adaptive Weighted Sampling (CARS), Boruta Algorithm (BA) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to select effective wavelengths from the full spectral wavelength bands using the R statistical software version (R.4.3.3). The SPA algorithms selected the wavelengths with the minor redundant information using vector projections analysis to find the variable group with minimum reducing information; this minimizes the collinearity between variables and then reduces the number of variables required for the model development. The multilinear regression model of different subsets of the wavelengths was established, and the subgroup with the minor root means square error (RMSE) was selected during SPA operations (Hu et al., 2023). The effective wavelength selection was also done using other algorithms like BA, similar to the Random Forest algorithm; it evaluates the relevance of each wavelength feature using statistical testing and shadow characteristics. Boruta created a randomized shadow feature for each original wavelength band, which was used as a baseline to compare the importance of the original wavelength bands. The BA developed a random forest model using the original wavelengths and the shadow feature as training datasets and generated importance scores for all the features. The original wavelength scores are compared with the maximum importance score of the shadow features, and the ordinal wavelength bands with a consistent importance score over its shadow feature are selected as important wavelengths. The algorithm iterates in several cycles until the selection is completed (Manikandan et al., 2024). Other feature selection approaches used were CARS and ANN algorithms. CARS aimed to enhance the efficiency of selecting important wavelengths by adaptively reweighting and competing among the different wavelengths, thus helping to select the most informative bands and improving the prediction models.The PLSR model was developed to determine yam samples' dry matter content (DMC) using full wavebands and effective wavelength selection. The calibration model was developed using the quantitative relationship between the extracted spectra and the DMC of fresh yam samples. The calibration and validation sets were chosen from the entire spectral data using the Kennard-stone algorithm, with a training-to-test set ratio of 3-1 to ensure data representativeness for modelling (Wei et al., 2024). During the development of the PLS model, the spectral data were the X variables, and the reference results for yam DMC (g/100 g) were input as the Y variables. The model's performance was evaluated using the correlation coefficient during calibration (R 2 cal ) and validation (R 2 pred ). Other performance criteria for the models are the root-mean-square error of prediction (RMSEP) and the ratio of standard deviation to standard error in prediction (RPD) (Maraphum et al., 2022). See Eq. 2 to 4 below.where yi, ýi, ÿ and SD represent the measured response variable, the predicted mean, and the standard deviation, respectively.The optimal PLSR model created a spatial distribution map for DMC. Each hyperspectral image contains a spectrum for every pixel, and the prediction model can determine the response attributes of each pixel in the image. The hyperspectral images were unfolded at specified wavelengths into a two-dimensional vector and then multiplied by the regression coefficient for the PLSR model. The resulting matrix was refolded into coloured images with dimensions similar to the initial image, generating a distribution map using a pseudo colour bar to represent the spatial distribution of the DMC in each yam piece.The dry matter content of fresh yam tubers was determined by the method of (Adesokan et al. 2020). Aluminium cups were washed and dried in an Oven (Memmert UN 55, GmbH) for 16 h at 103 • C until a consistent weight was reached. The cups were removed and allowed to cool for 10 minutes in a desiccator. About 10 g of the fresh homogenous yam samples were weighed (using a weighing balance calibrated to 4 decimal places) into the pre-ignited aluminium cups and placed in the oven maintained at 103 0 C for 16 hrs. The cups were removed and transferred immediately into a desiccator to cool. The loss in weight after drying was estimated as the sample's moisture content, and the DM (g/100 g) was computed as (100 -Moisture content). DM(g/100g) = (100-Moisture content)The dry matter content (DMC) of the fresh yam genotypes used for the study is shown in Table 1. Overall, DMC ranged from 26.30 to 42.60 g/100 g, with a mean±SD of 35.90±4.52 for the Abuja location, while for the Ibadan location, DMC ranged from 22.51 to 36.79 g/100 g with a mean±SD of 34.01±4.31. Ubiaja location had DMC ranging from 28.30 to 46.10 g/100 g and mean±SD of 37.45± 4.48, respectively. The average DMC of samples from the Ubiaja location is consistently higher than the two other locations, which could be due to differences in the agroecological conditions of the three locations, such as annual rainfall patterns, temperature, and soil nutrients. A dry matter content of 36.2 ±2.4 g/100 g was reported for Dioscorea rotundata by Matsumoto et al. (2021), which was within the range of values obtained in this study. The results also showed that the proximal part of the yam cross-sections has the highest DMC than central and distal regions, except at Ubiaja, where the distal section has an overall average of more than the proximal and central (Table 2). These results were consistent with the findings of Hamadina and Asiedu (2015), who discovered that the yam head area (28.6 g/100 g) had a higher dry matter content than the middle section (26.9 g/100 g), while the tail had the lowest value (22.30 g/100 g). However, the values reported in their study were lower than the current work, which could be related to different yam genotypes, as this study used advanced breeding lines from IITA germplasm. Mestres et al. (2023) also reported that dry matter and starch content vary significantly between various sections of boiled yam tubers. The dry matter content of RTB crops can affect product yield and influence the storage stability of tuber crops such as yam.The analysis of variance (Table 2) indicates that the location, crosssection, and genotype significantly impact the dry matter content of yam tubers. This suggests diversity in the dry matter content among the selected yam genotypes. Furthermore, the significant effect (p<0.001) of the cross-section (proximal, central, and distal) suggests variations in the distribution of dry matter content across the sections of a yam tuber, which agrees with the findings of Cheng et al. (2023).The raw spectra for all the samples (n = 288) were extracted in the 932.61-1720.20 nm wavelength range, as shown in Fig. 5. Notably, a slight increase in reflectance values was observed between 980 and 1001.40 nm and a prominent reflectance increase at 1400.20 and 1470.00 nm. The bands at 980 and 1470 nm are related to the first and second stretching overtones of O-H bonds, which may be attributed to the moisture in the samples (Yang et al., 2021;Jiyang et al., 2022;Ma and Sun, 2020). Also, the absorption peak at 1213.90 nm corresponds to the second overtone of the C-H bond and is attributed to the carbohydrate (Yang et al., 2021;Ding and Xu, 2000;Zhang et al., 2020). All the raw spectra for the yam samples exhibited similar patterns based on the genotypes and planting location; some noise was observed between 932.61 and 977.11 and 1673.70-1720.20 nm, respectively. These spectrum regions were eliminated to improve the quality of the spectra data.A PLSR model combined with various machine learning algorithms for spectra pre-processing was implemented on the full spectra data and selected wavelength bands to establish quantitative models for DMC by establishing a correlation between the spectra reflectance from the image and the laboratory reference from each section of the yam samples. PLSR is one of the most commonly used linear regression algorithms and an optimal option for developing a prediction model because it could incorporate both the spectra data matrix (x) and the variable matrix (y). PLSR can also resolve the collinearity problem in large data sets (Ismy et al., 2023). A total of 288 spectra data points were generated from the samples, and during the modelling, Kennard-stone's algorithm was used to divide the samples into 192 training and 96 test sets, where the test set was one-third of the total spectra. Pre-processing methods include standard normal variate, Satvizsky-Golay smoothing and derivative. After removing the wavelengths with noisy signals, the PLSR model was developed in the wavelength range of 949.43-1695.20 nm. Cross-validation was performed using the leave-one-out approach and implemented in 7 groups (Figs. 6 and 7).Table 3 shows the PLSR models for quantification of DMC (g/100 g)Summary of dry matter content of fresh yam (g/100 g) N = 288.  and first derivatives demonstrated the best prediction performances with a coefficient of determination in calibration (R 2 cal) and prediction (R 2 pred) of 0.90 and 0.83 respectively. The model processed with SNV + SG + 2nd derivatives had a higher R 2 cal of 0.92 but slightly lower R 2 pre (0.82), and the standard error of prediction is greater than the model processed using the 1st derivative by 0.04 Several authors have routinely used PLSR to develop models from hyperspectral data (Jiang, 2017;Yu et al. 2023;Zhang et al. 2023a). In their study to predict the moisture content of steamed and dried purple potatoes, Heo et al. (2021) also reported the highest accuracy from a model developed using PLSR combined with SG and the first derivative preprocessing with R 2 pre of 0.96 for quantification of moisture content of steamed and dried potatoes. The R 2 cal is higher than the value obtained in this current study but has a similar mean square prediction error. Hyperspectral image spectra data always contain reductant information and collinearity problems, which affect the model's accuracy and robustness (He et al., 2023). Therefore, SPA, CARS, BA, and ANN were implemented to extract important wavelengths from the raw spectra information. Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11 indicate the selected SPA, BA, CARS and ANN wavelengths, respectively. The green region in Fig. 9 indicates the selected wavelengths for the BA, while the red region shows the non-informative or rejected wavelengths. Table 3 shows the optimized PLSR models using the selected wavelengths. The prediction accuracy for DMC was improved for all the wavelength selection methods; PLSR combined individually with SPA, CARS, BA and ANN gave R 2 pre of 0.930, 0.973, 0.910, 0.940 and 0.943, respectively. Furthermore, PLSR combined with multiple algorithms such as   PLSR-SPA-BA, PLSR-SPA-ANN and PLSR-SPA-CARS had R 2 pre ranged from 0.850 to 0.966 with the PLSR-SPA-CARS giving the best model where R 2 cal, R 2 pred, and RMSEP were 0.974, 0.958, and 0.898 g/100 g, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 12). The optimum model was above the R 2 pred of 0.94 obtained by Meghar et al. (2023) for DMC on fresh, intact cassava roots using CovSel multiple linear regression (Cov Sel_MLR).Similarly, Wang et al. (2021) investigated the prediction performance of the PLSR model for potato starch quantification in three regions, namely the middle head and umbilicus, using the hyperspectral camera. These authors also combined competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) and support vector regression (SVR) to develop a model for each region. At the same time, the umbilicus gave the best performance, with correlations R 2 cal and R 2 pre of 0.94 and 0.93, respectively, and RMSEP of 17.4 g/kg. The correlation coefficient in calibration for the PLSR-SPA-CARS model in this current study performed better than the values reported in their findings.The PLSR model has been combined with hyperspectral data for other cereals and legumes; for instance, Qiao et al. (2022) utilized hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy to determine maize hardness. They developed a PLSR model after selecting characteristic wavelengths using the successive projection algorithm (SPA), achieving R 2 cal and RMSE values of 0.912 and 17.76 MPa, respectively. Additionally, the moisture content (MC) of maize seeds was predicted using long-wave near-infrared hyperspectral imaging technology. Wang et al. (2021) achieved optimal prediction performance of MC with the CARS-SPA-LS-SVM model, reporting R 2 pre and RMSEP values of 0.93 and 0.00094 %, respectively. NIR-HSI was investigated to quantify protein, starch, and moisture content using 77 wheat varieties converted into flour. Effective wavelength algorithms were combined with the hyperspectral data to develop a prediction model, the coefficient of determination and root mean square error for prediction of 0.98 and 1.15 g/100 g for protein, 0.9243 and 0.2068 g/100 g for starch, and 0.8646 and 2.1669 g/100 g for moisture was obtained. The performance of a prediction model is appraised using some important metrics, including the coefficient of determination in prediction and the root mean square error, which is the   measure of the difference between the predicted values and the observed values from the standard method. Generally, an accurate model should have R 2 cal and R 2 pre values closer to 1 and lower RMSEP and RMSEC. Also, RPD values must be > 2 for a model to be considered suitable for quantitative purposes (Cortes et al. 2019). The PLSR model developed in this study showed robust and reliable prediction performances and could be useful for routine analysis, especially when the PLSR model is built on the important wavelengths in the spectra bands, giving a better prediction capability.Table 4 shows the results of prediction models built using other machine learning algorithms, including linear regression (LR), random forest (RF), decision tree (DT), and support vector machine (SVM). The best model for DMC using a machine learning algorithm was obtained with linear regression with an R 2 of 0.808, a mean absolute error of 1.590 and an RMSE of 2.326. Decision trees and Random Forests have a similar mean absolute error, but R 2 of 0.733 and 0.719, respectively, which are also close. SVM also had an R 2 of 0.745 and a very low MAE of 0.231. Generally, most algorithms demonstrated a good predictive capacity for DMC with a relatively low mean absolute error, indicating the prediction error. However, the PLS models built on the selected important wavelength had better prediction performance than those developed using the other machine learning algorithms. This could be due to the nature of the data, as most machine learning algorithms work best with non-linear data. Nantongio et al. ( 2024) also reported that iPLS performed better than RF and XGBOOST in the prediction of sensory attributes of sweet potatoes. CARS was also combined with PLSR to  predict DMC in potatoes, and the authors reported an R 2 of 0.968 and an RMSE of 0.413 %. (Wang et al., 2022). PLSR combined with SPA-CARS in this current study also demonstrated the best prediction model for DMC in fresh, intact yam tubers.The distribution of dry matter content in fresh, intact yam was analyzed using a PLSR-SPA-CARS model. Each point on the yam samples corresponds to a pixel in the hyperspectral image and has a unique spectral intensity. Essential wavelengths were determined from the pseudo-RGB image of the sample and used to predict the dry matter content, resulting in a dry matter distribution map (Fig. 13). The distribution map clearly shows the variation in dry matter content across different parts of the fresh yam tuber. The colours on the map indicate the variance in dry matter content; blue represents low dry matter, while red represents high dry matter content. The chemical imaging map displays the variation in dry matter distribution in the yam tuber's proximal, middle, and distal regions. The proximal region exhibits higher dry matter content than the middle and distal regions of the yam cross-section.The study used the PLSR model and various machine learning algorithms to process spectra data and develop a model to quantify fresh yam tubers' dry matter content (DMC) for routine analysis. The PLSR-SPA-CARS model showed the most accurate prediction performance by effectively selecting wavelengths compared to the model using the full spectra wavebands. The PLSR-SPA-CARS model was enhanced with SNV-SG to develop an optimal model with R 2 cal and R 2 pre values of 0.974 and 0.958, respectively. The root means square error of prediction was low at 0.898 g/100 g, indicating the model's robustness and a high RPD of 4.88. The high coefficient of prediction suggests that hyperspectral imaging is a valuable tool for rapid analysis of the dry matter  Results of prediction models developed using machine learning models. content of fresh, intact yam tubers, which is useful for yam breeders and food scientists. The study also found that the proximal section of yam tubers has the highest DMC, with an overall average of 36.21 g/100 g, followed by the central section, with an average DMC of 35.07 g/100 g.The distal region has the lowest value (33.90 g/100 g), indicating that evaluating traits across the different cross-sections of the yam is important for accurate prediction. A chemical distribution map was developed in the study to visualize the spatial distribution at various points and sections of the fresh yam tubers, which will be helpful for quality control and monitoring of nutrient transfer during storage. The results of this show that NIR hyperspectral imaging can accurately assess the DMC of fresh yam tubers and has provided low-cost and rapid tools for phenotyping dry matter content without destroying the samples, allowing for prompt decisions on the quality characteristics of large yam germplasm for breeding programs.","tokenCount":"4965"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"feeab67a9ee00ac65eb4f393bd0195a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4cd673bd-6e60-4771-8325-fa66fa82cf7e/retrieve","id":"-2120281591"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c6f4a793-335c-49f5-9f45-ed262d72e6e2","pagecount":"84","content":"desarrolla tecnologías, métodos innovadores y nuevos conocimientos que contribuyen a que los agricultores, en especial los de escasos recursos, logren una agricultura ecoeficiente, es decir, competitiva y rentable, así como sostenible y resiliente. Con su sede principal cerca de Cali, Colombia, el CIAT realiza investigación orientada al desarrollo en las regiones tropicales de América Latina, África y Asia. www.ciat.cgiar.org CGIAR es una alianza mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre. Su labor científica la llevan a cabo quince Centros de Investigación en estrecha colaboración con cientos de organizaciones socias en todo el planeta. www.cgiar.org La Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH opera a nivel mundial como proveedora de servicios de la cooperación internacional para el desarrollo sostenible, con más de 50 años de experiencia en ámbitos como el fomento de la economía y el empleo, temas relacionados con la energía y el medio ambiente y el fomento de la paz y la seguridad, entre otros. La GIZ es una empresa federal de utilidad pública y como tal asiste al Gobierno Federal alemán. www.giz.deLos sistemas silvopastoriles son útiles para mejorar el bienestar animal, la producción de leche y carne, y al mismo tiempo hacer la producción ganadera más amigable con el medio ambiente. Por lo general, un sistema silvopastoril incluye especies arbóreas que proveen sombra a los animales, y arbustos y hierbas que sirven de alimento para el ganado. Al mismo tiempo, estas especies vegetales ofrecen beneficios al medio ambiente, como mejorar la fertilidad y estructura del suelo, proteger fuentes hídricas, proveer hábitat y alimento a otras especies de mamíferos, aves e insectos benéficos que cumplen roles importantes en los agroecosistemas. Además de ser un arreglo espacial de diferentes especies vegetales, los sistemas silvopastoriles también requieren de manejo que permita asegurar la continua producción de alimentos para el ganado. Para esto es necesario conocer la capacidad de carga animal de la finca, condiciones de fertilidad del suelo y así establecer un plan de manejo adecuado con el fin de asegurar la disponibilidad de alimento para el ganado en el tiempo, y evitar la degradación de las pasturas. Este manual es producto de un ejercicio de priorización de especies útiles empleadas en los sistemas silvopastoriles en la Amazonía Norte de Colombia, que fue realizado por los ganaderos caqueteños con el apoyo de los equipos técnicos de los programas Chiribiquete, ejecutado por la Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, y el Proyecto Paisajes Sostenibles para la Amazonía, implementado por CIAT. Ambos proyectos son parte de la Iniciativa Internacional de Protección al Clima (IKI), por encargo del Ministerio Ministerio Federal de Medio Ambiente, Protección de la Naturaleza, Obras Públicas y Seguridad Nuclear de Alemania (BMUB, por sus siglas en Alemán). El material que aquí se comparte contiene información útil sobre las características de las plantas, los usos que les pueden dar dentro de un sistema silvopastoril, otros tipos de usos que pueden tener las especies, recomendaciones de siembra, manejo y aprovechamiento. Esperamos que este documento sirva como una guía práctica para aquellos interesados en hacer de la ganadería una actividad sostenible.Este sistema silvopastoril está compuesto por lotes en Brachiaria decumbens en asocio con kudzu, intercalados con franjas de árboles maderables y especies arbustivas como el botón de oro. La pastura en combinación con leguminosas aporta a la alimentación de los animales, el botón de oro se utiliza en corte y acarreo para complementar la alimentación del ganado y los árboles aportan al bienestar animal gracias a la sombra que ofrecen.Utilizado en banco de proteínas, corte, acarreo, heno, abono verde (mejora suelos ácidos). Puede asociarse con otros forrajes y gramíneas.ESTABLECIMIENTO Se siembra en surcos o al voleo, usando entre 3 a 5 kg de semillas por hectárea. Las semillas deben escarificarse previamente y sembrarse a una profundidad máxima de 2 cm. Fertilizar de acuerdo al análisis de suelos. Se puede establecer fácilmente con otras gramíneas y leguminosas. No se comporta bien con especies que producen estolones como las brachiarias.Soporta pastoreo continuo cuando es asociada con gramíneas. En bancos de proteína, se debe sembrar cada 3 o 4 años. Para heno se debe rozar ligeramente durante el primer año, después cada seis a ocho semanas para promover el crecimiento de rebrotes. Evitar exceso de sombra y pisoteo.Materia seca: 5 a 10 toneladas por hectárea al año.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de proteína cruda: 8-15%; digestibilidad: 48-59%; fibra detergente neutra: 56%.Especie arbórea para ramoneo, corte y acarreo, muy apetecida por el ganado. Ampliamente utilizada en programas de reforestación de tierras degradadas. La madera es moderadamente dura y fácil de trabajar, comúnmente empleada en construcciones.ESTABLECIMIENTO Siembra por estacas: usar estacas de 40 cm de longitud para banco forrajero, y estacas de 2 m para cercas vivas. En cercas vivas debe protegerse durante los primeros dos años de establecimiento para que el ganado no consuma los rebrotes e inhiba el crecimiento de la planta.Se maneja con podas para corte y puede dejarse en crecimiento libre, sin embargo la copa puede ser muy densa, lo que inhibe el crecimiento de la pastura. En cercas vivas y franjas sembrar a 10 m entre árboles.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de proteína cruda: 15-16%. Contenido de fibra detergente neutra: 75-77%. Contenido de calcio: 0,97%; fósforo: 0,29%. Digestibilidad in vitro de materia seca: 17-32%.Esta especie se utiliza para sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles y para aprovechamiento de la madera.ESTABLECIMIENTO Se puede establecer por regeneración natural.forrajera arbustiva usada para corte, suplemento en periodos de sequía, bancos de proteína, concentrado, pastoreo. Puede usarse para reemplazar concentrados y suplementos. Otros usos alternativos a la ganadería incluyen: fuente de leña para uso doméstico y como barreras vivas rompevientos o para controlar erosión en zonas de ladera.ESTABLECIMIENTO Se siembra en líneas, con distancias de 1,5 m entre surcos y 1 m entre plantas. Se puede sembrar en forma directa con dos semillas por sitio entre 1 y 2 cm de profundidad. Adaptada a suelos ácidos y de baja fertilidad.Se puede cortar por primera vez cuatro meses después de la siembra cuando la planta tenga 1 m de altura. Es tolerante a cortes frecuentes con intervalos de 50 a 90 días, incluso durante época seca.Se corta a 30-90 cm sobre el nivel del suelo. Tolera pastoreo directo.Rendimientos de materia seca entre 2 a 5 t/ha en 8 semanas (periodo seco y de lluvias). Puede producir hasta 10 toneladas de forraje verde por hectárea en suelos de baja fertilidad, en un corte a los 3 meses con 50 cm de alto. Permanece verde y productiva hasta por 6 meses durante época seca.VALOR NUTRITIVO Alto valor nutritivo. Proteína cruda: 18-30%, digestibilidad de 60-65%. Durante la época seca se puede usar como suplemento usando 40% de la ración con rebrotes de 60-90 días con 6 a 10 plantas/animal/día.Foto: B. Hincapie/CIAT USO Planta herbácea y perenne. Se usa como cobertura del suelo, pastoreo (en asocio con gramíneas) y abono verde. cv. Maquenque se utiliza como cobertura en plantaciones de caucho y palma con poca competencia al cultivo.ESTABLECIMIENTO Siembra para pastoreo y en asocio con gramíneas: 0,5-1 kg semilla/ ha. Siembra como cobertura: 1-5 kg semilla/ ha. La profundidad de siembra es de 1 cm. El establecimiento es lento y es necesario hacer control de malezas.Manejo con altas cargas (3-4 animales/ha) para mantener una buena asociación gramínea-desmodium. Mantener el cultivo en etapa de rebrotes jóvenes, debido a la agresividad de la especie. Fertilizar con azufre, cal y fósforo.Foto: M. Sotelo/CIAT PRODUCTIVIDAD Producción de materia seca entre 1 a 7 t/ha/año, en asocio con brachiarias y pasto llanero.VALOR NUTRITIVO El contenido de proteína cruda varía entre 13-21% y la digestibilidad entre 34-54%. Presencia de taninos que pueden disminuir el contenido nutricional de la planta.Foto: M. Sotelo/CIATEspecie utilizada para sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles por su buena sombra y crecimiento relativamente rápido. Su madera también puede ser aprovechada.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede establecerse en cercas vivas y árboles dispersos en potreros. Para cercas vivas puede hacerse un arreglo con especies que toleren sombra y que tengan una tasa de crecimiento mejor, como guamos, bohío, achapo y ahumado.Leguminosa herbácea usada para alimentación animal, cobertura para cultivos, abono verde, protección de taludes, mejoramiento y conservación del suelo y el embellecimiento del paisaje.ESTABLECIMIENTO Por material vegetativo: Entre 0,5 a 1 toneladas de estolones son necesarios para el establecimiento de 1 ha en monocultivo, distribuyendo los estolones en surcos separados respectivamente a 1,0 y 0,5 m de distancia. Por semilla: puede hacerse al voleo o en surcos, en una densidad de 8 a 10 kg/ha, a 2 cm de profundidad. Para la siembra entre surcos se recomienda una distancia de 0,5 cm entre surcos y entre plantas.Es recomendable fertilizar con fósforo durante el establecimiento, a partir del segundo año y al comienzo de las lluvias, además realizar control de arvenses.Foto: M. Sotelo -J. Arango/CIAT PRODUCTIVIDAD Luego de seis meses de la siembra en monocultivo, se han obtenido de 500 a 700 kg/ha de materia seca.VALOR NUTRITIVO El nivel de proteína cruda en las hojas oscila entre 17 y 20% dependiendo de la edad de la planta; la digestibilidad varía entre 60 y 70% de materia seca. Altamente palatable para el ganado.Foto: A. Solarte/CIPAV USO Especie perenne multipropósito utilizada en cercas vivas, bancos de proteína, sombrío, melífera, rodenticida, madera, pigmento en aves (producción de huevos), fijación de nitrógeno. Las hojas son tóxicas para equinos y otros monogástricos.ESTABLECIMIENTO Por semilla: se puede establecer directamente o en vivero, a una profundidad de siembra de 2 cm. Plantas de vivero se trasplantan de 20-30 cm de altura. Para siembra directa se utilizan dos semillas por sitio. Por estaca: utilizar estacas de 5 a 6 meses, 1,5 m de largo y 3,5-4 cm de diámetro. Para banco de proteína se utilizan estacas de 50 cm de largo. Para cercas vivas, las plantas se siembran a una distancia entre 1,5-5 cm.Para bancos de proteína se recomienda una densidad de 10.000 plantas/ha. Para siembra en callejones de cultivos se deja una distancia de 1 a 1,5 m.Responde bien a las podas repetidas, siempre que el árbol tenga más de 1 año y 2 m de altura antes del primer corte. Soporta hasta 3 podas anuales para forraje. Cuanto más corto es el periodo de corte, más hojas se producen en comparación a madera o leña. Los bancos forrajeros en sitios húmedos pueden cosecharse cada 8 semanas. El primer corte se hace a los 8-12 meses después de siembra. El corte debe hacerse al final de la época de lluvias, para evitar la caída de hojas en época seca.La producción de biomasa alcanza su óptimo entre los 2 a 5 años después de siembra. Haciendo cortes cada 3 meses se puede alcanzar un rendimiento anual de 20 t/ha. Los animales consumen hojas y tallos delgados.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de proteína cruda: 20-30%. Digestibilidad: 50-75%. Para aves, se muelen las hojas y pueden formar entre 2 y 4% de la ración para dar pigmento amarillo a los huevos.Especie de crecimiento rápido. Las hojas se utilizan para alimentación animal. Especie adecuada para sistemas silvopastoriles (por ejemplo, cercas vivas y bancos forrajeros) y sistemas agroforestales.ESTABLECIMIENTO Propagación por semillas: antes de la siembra, escarificar las semillas con lija hasta que pierdan brillo. Luego dejarlas en remojo por 12 horas. Sembrar en vivero. Las semillas germinan entre 8 y 12 días después de siembra. Realizar trasplante cuando las plantas alcancen una altura entre 12 y 25 cm. Se adapta muy bien a zonas con inundaciones periódicas. Presenta buena adaptación a suelos ácidos y presenta rápida regeneración.Las podas varían de acuerdo al uso del árbol, se recomienda podas parciales de copa de 2 a 4 meses para prevenir el desarrollo de una fuerte sombra. VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de proteína cruda: 16%; fibra detergente neutra: 71-78%, fibra detergente ácida: 59-64%. Contenido de calcio: 0,18-0,86%; fósforo: 0,21%. Digestibilidad in vitro de materia seca: 21-26%.Utilizada para pastoreo, corte, acarreo, barreras vivas, heno y ensilaje ESTABLECIMIENTO Se establece utilizando semilla, aproximadamente 6 a 8 kg/ha, superficial y ligeramente tapada. Es de crecimiento rápido, sin embargo necesita manejo de malezas. Puede asociarse con leguminosas como maní forrajero, centrosema y pueraria.El primer pastoreo puede realizarse 90 a 120 días después de siembra, o antes de iniciar floración. Para hacer pastoreo intensivo es necesario manejar la fertilidad del suelo (buen drenaje, pH entre 5 y 8). Retirar los animales cuando la mombaza alcance una altura de 20 cm. Soporta cargas de 2,5-4 animales/ha en lluvias y 1,5-2 animales/ha en sequía.Materia seca anual: 10-30 t/ha. ESTABLECIMIENTO Por semilla sexual: es necesario escarificar la semilla antes de la siembra. Usar 3 a 4 kg de semilla por hectárea. Para siembra con material vegetativo, usar 1 tonelada de estolones por hectárea. Se asocia bien con leguminosas como desmodium y maní forrajero.El primer pastoreo debe hacerse a los cuatro meses de establecimiento, de forma suave para estimular macollamiento y permitir el enraizamiento de los estolones. Cuando el pasto humidicola se encuentra asociado con leguminosas, se recomiendan pastoreos en rotación y un periodo de descanso amplio. Se recomienda sembrar en asocio con una leguminosa para promover la producción y calidad nutritiva de este pasto. Corte, acarreo, barrera viva, heno y ensilaje.ESTABLECIMIENTO La siembra se hace con rizomas. Se requieren entre 400 a 600 kg de tallos para establecer una hectárea. Se siembran a distancias entre 0,5 y 1 m en cuadro. Requiere de suelos fértiles con alto contenido de materia orgánica.Requiere fertilización según análisis de suelos. Responde mejor a fertilización orgánica que química. Se maneja con corte bajo y a ras del suelo. Se obtienen cuatro a cinco cortes por año. Para ensilaje es necesario preorear el forraje debido al alto contenido de agua. PRODUCTIVIDAD Al año produce entre 10 a 20 toneladas de materia seca por hectárea. Gracias a su alta calidad forrajera y buena producción de forraje, es adecuado para un manejo rotacional intensivo. Por su crecimiento en macollas, permite asociación con leguminosas como el maní forrajero, centrosema, desmodium, cratylia y leucaena. Es recomendable fertilizar (de acuerdo a los análisis de suelos) con(Híbrido de Brachiaria) nitrógeno y fósforo, especialmente en suelos de fertilidad media o baja. En épocas de lluvia los periodos de descanso adecuados son de 21 a 28 días.Producción de materia seca por hectárea: 2,6 toneladas cada 90 días.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de proteína cruda: 10-12%; digestibilidad: 50-60%.Foto: M. Sotelo -J. Arango/CIAT otras especiesEspecie apreciada por la calidad de su madera. Utilizada en sistemas agroforestales y sistemas silvopastoriles para la separación de lotes y como barrera rompevientos. Especie en peligro crítico (CR) por sobreexplotación de madera, tala y expansión de frontera agrícola.ESTABLECIMIENTO Reproducción por semilla: embeber la semilla en agua a temperatura ambiente 24 horas antes de siembra. Posteriormente ubicar la semilla en un germinador desinfectado, superficial y protegido de la lluvia. La germinación se da entre 15 a 35 días después de siembra. El abarco es una especie pionera (requiere luz tenue en las primeras etapas de crecimiento). En Caquetá se comporta bien en zonas de vega alta drenada, lomerío y mesón.En plantaciones: plantar a una distancia de 4 x 4 m haciendo aclareos a los 8 y 15 años. Hacer podas de formación en las primeras etapas de crecimiento para evitar la bifurcación de las ramas. En sistemas silvopastoriles: en linderos y/o separación de lotes, sembrar a una distancia de 6 m entre árboles. En barreras rompevientos o franjas de árboles: sembrar a 6 m entre árboles y 30 m entre barreras.La plantación debe hacerse preferiblemente para enriquecer rastrojos o bosques secundarios, pero si se desea plantar a plena exposición, las distancias apropiadas son de 4 x 4 m. Con la plantación por enriquecimiento se obtienen árboles de muy buena forma, pero se sacrifica el rendimiento, pues crecen cerca de un 50% menos que los de plena exposición. Para mejorar la forma, se aconseja que las limpias se realicen en fajas, pues permite que la maleza sirva como tutora. Los aclareos se pueden realizar en los años 8 y 15. Dada la susceptibilidad de la especie a la bifurcación temprana, la poda de formación en las primeras etapas de crecimiento es una práctica recomendable.Alcanza entre 30 y 40 m de altura. 7 m 3 de madera por hectárea al año.Se utiliza para sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles y para aprovechamiento de la madera (madera fina). La corteza es utilizada con fines medicinales.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede establecerse en cercas vivas (necesita sembrarse bajo sombra), y enriquecimiento de bosques y rastrojos.Árbol de madera liviana, comúnmente utilizada para leña. En sistemas silvopastoriles se usa en arreglos de árboles dispersos en potreros (por regeneración natural), cercas vivas y bancos mixtos para corte y acarreo. Sirve como forraje y sombrío. También puede usarse para la recuperación de tierras degradadas y protección de fuentes hídricas.ESTABLECIMIENTO Esta especie se encuentra en Caquetá por regeneración natural. Se puede establecer en bancos mixtos de forraje con otras especies como: botón de oro, nacedero, veranera y morera, en altas densidades (7.000-10.000 plantas/ha); y en cercas vivas. Debido a su copa pequeña no afecta la producción de biomasa de pasturas.Para ramoneo puede hacerse poda de formación a 80 cm, manejando rotaciones cada 60 días. En potreros con una densidad de 6.300 árboles/ha es posible producir 6,8 toneladas de forraje comestible por hectárea al año.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de materia seca: 24-29%; proteína cruda: 20%; fibra detergente neutra: 52-54%; fibra detergente ácida: 41-42%; cenizas: 9%; calcio: 0,96%; fósforo: 0,68%. La digestibilidad in vitro de materia seca es de 27%.Corte, acarreo, barreras vivas, barbecho mejorado. También utilizada como alimento para especies mejores y fuente de néctar para abejas.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede establecerse por semilla y estaca, esta última es la más efectiva. Se utilizan estacas de plantas jóvenes de 50 cm de largo, 2 a 3,5 cm de diámetro, con 3 o 4 yemas, y con máximo 12 horas de cortadas. Las estacas se siembran horizontalmente a una profundidad de 2 cm.Si se usa para corte, se corta después de la primera floración y luego de 45 días, siempre a 70 cm. Debe fertilizarse con materia orgánica y regarse con agua después de cada corte. Si se usa en pastoreo, debe podarse antes del primer pastoreo entre 0,4 y 1 m de altura. La producción de forraje verde anual estimada es de aproximadamente 30 a 70 t/ha, dependiendo de la densidad de siembra, suelos y estado vegetativo. Con una densidad de siembra de 13.300 plantas/ha se alcanza una producción de 46 t/ha.VALOR NUTRITIVO A los 30 días de rebrote el contenido de proteína cruda es de 28,5%, materia seca de 14%, calcio de 2,25% y fósforo de 0,39%. El contenido de Fibra Detergente Neutra alcanza 35%. La digestibilidad está entre 63-65%.La madera es de buena calidad, utilizada para pisos, muebles, postes, entre otros. La corteza y la savia son usadas con fines medicinales. En sistemas silvopastoriles se utiliza como sombrío.ESTABLECIMIENTO Reproducción por semilla sexual: preparar la semilla embebiéndola en agua 12 horas antes de la siembra. En semillas frescas la germinación inicia entre 3 a 5 días después de siembra. Las semillas pueden almacenarse en refrigerador hasta por un año. Inicialmente, las semillas se germinan en un sustrato arenoso y posteriormente se siembran en vivero hasta que alcancen 50 cm de altura. Reproducción por recolección de plántulas de regeneración natural: extraer las plántulas sin romper la raíz y eliminar algunas de las hojas. La plántula se lleva a vivero, protegida de la luz directa. Trasplantar cuando la planta mida por lo menos 40 cm.Madera empleada en la fabricación de muebles finos, puertas, marcos para ventanas, canoas, cajas, chapas y tableros de partículas. Puede utilizarse como sombrío. Con las flores se prepara un remedio para calmar la tos.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede establecerse a libre exposición en áreas poco húmedas. Tiene aguijones en el tronco lo que permite su permanencia en sistemas productivos ganaderos.Se utiliza como sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles, como cercas vivas, franjas, sistemas silvopastoriles intensivos. Madera de alta calidad, es usada ampliamente en ebanistería, muebles finos, instrumentos musicales, construcción de embarcaciones, moldes, enchapados, contrachapado decorativo y de uso general.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede sembrarse a libre exposición o con sombra durante la etapa inicial. Por lo regular las plantas se siembran a distancias amplias (6 m entre plantas). Para enriquecimiento de rastrojos se recomienda cortar la vegetación cercana al sitio de siembra y sembrar cada 10 metros. Su propagación se hace mediante semilla, se germina en almácigos y luego se trasplanta a un sustrato mientras desarrolla la etapa de vivero.En general se reporta difícil de manejar en plantaciones puras. Se sugiere para el establecimiento de plantaciones de enriquecimiento, para lo cual se siembra en rastrojos. Son importantes las limpias durante los dos primeros años de establecimiento. En sistemas silvopastoriles es necesario proteger las plantas del ganado.Bajo óptimas condiciones se registra en los primeros años un crecimiento promedio anual de 1,3 a 1,8 metros en altura, y entre 1,3 y 1,6 cm en diámetro; 11 a 25 metros cúbicos de madera por hectárea/año. El cedro rosado pesa en promedio 690 kg por metro cúbico al 12% de contenido de humedad y se comporta muy bien en el secado.En sistemas silvopastoriles se utiliza para sombrío. También se aprovecha la madera para leña y para postes de cercas.ESTABLECIMIENTO El chilco es una especie de colonización, se establece por regeneración natural. Árbol maderable utilizado para la fabricación de embarcaciones, viviendas y, en general, construcción pesada, ya que es muy dura y resistente (madera fina). Puede utilizarse para enriquecer bosques secundarios y cercas vivas.ESTABLECIMIENTO Necesita sombrío durante la fase inicial de establecimiento, como, por ejemplo, el ofrecido por los guamos. Especie de crecimiento lento. Se utiliza para sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles. La madera se aprovecha para leña, tablas y combustible.ESTABLECIMIENTO Se realiza generalmente por regeneración natural. Especie adecuada para sistemas silvopastoriles de árboles dispersos en potreros. Se puede encontrar creciendo densamente en áreas abiertas, rastrojos y bosques secundarios, entre 800 a 2.800 m s.n.m.En los rastrojos se deja para utilizar como combustible de la finca.Especie arbórea utilizada en sistemas silvopastoriles como árboles dispersos en potreros, cercas vivas, barreras cortavientos, enriquecimiento, regeneración natural y restauración ecológica. La madera es usada para postas, varas y construcciones ligeras, tableros de partículas, almas de tableros, ataúdes y pulpa para papel.ESTABLECIMIENTO Por regeneración natural: especie pionera durable, resistente al fuego y de crecimiento rápido. En Caquetá se encuentra en procesos de sucesión inicial y avanzada, especialmente en lomeríos y mesones. Por semilla: pregerminar las semillas remojándolas durante 24 horas. La germinación ocurre entre 12 y 25 días. En vivero, las semillas deben sembrarse superficialmente cuidando que el riego no las destape. En sistemas silvopastoriles lineales (cercas vivas), sembrar a una distancia de 6 m entre árboles. Dado el crecimiento rápido de la especie, puede aprovecharse para acompañar el establecimiento de otras especies.Durante el crecimiento la especie se autopoda, por lo que la sombra que ofrece es poco densa.Especie arbórea usada para la producción de pulpa y madera. Es utilizada en sistemas silvopastoriles lineales con cercas vivas. También tiene uso como cortina rompevientos y ornamental.ESTABLECIMIENTO Puede sembrarse por semilla o estacas. Al momento de realizar el transplante se recomienda inocular el sustrato con hongos del género Glomus. Requiere manejo de malezas durante el primer año de establecimiento.Se realizan podas según el estado de la plantación, solo a los individuos que se seleccionen para la cosecha final se realizan dos raleos durante el turno de la especie, el primero a los 3-4 años de edad, con una intensidad del 50% y la deschuponada se hace simultáneamente a la primera poda de formación o cuando se requiera.Se debe proteger con cerca eléctrica para evitar el ramoneo del ganado.Rendimiento en volumen de 20-35 m 3 de madera/ ha/año.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido de 15% de proteína cruda y 43% de digestibilidad. Arbusto cuyo follaje es empleado en la alimentación de rumiantes, cerdos, aves y peces debido a su excelente contenido nutricional.ESTABLECIMIENTO El método más común de propagación es por medio de estacas plantadas en forma directa. La longitud de las mismas no debe pasar de 25 a 40 cm de largo y con no menos de tres yemas tomadas de ramas lignificadas. Deben enterrarse a 3 o 4 cm de profundidad. Sembrar a 75 cm de distancia para forraje.Debe efectuarse el primer corte 12 meses después de establecida la plantación y, si la fertilización es adecuada, la frecuencia de poda es cada 3 meses en época de lluvias y cada 4 meses en época seca, a una altura de 0,3 a 1,5 m del suelo. Se puede dar una poda en la época seca si la planta presenta buen desarrollo. Cada dos o tres años las plantas deben cortarse a 10-15 cm del suelo para que mejore el rebrote. Requiere fertilización, se puede combinar con gramíneas.Altamente palatable. Produce anualmente entre 15 y 35 toneladas de materia seca por hectárea.VALOR NUTRITIVO Alto contenido de minerales, alta digestibilidad de hojas (75-89%). Contenido proteínico: 15-28%.Forraje para diversidad de especies en ganadería y avicultura. Es usada en cercas vivas, en conservación y mantenimiento de fuentes de agua, y recuperación de tierras degradadas.ESTABLECIMIENTO Propagación por estacas de 20 a 50 cm de longitud, diámetro entre 2 y 4 cm y más de dos yemas. Para siembra directa, las estacas deben ubicarse horizontalmente o inclinadas, evitando tapar totalmente la estaca. Para siembra en vivero, usar una mezcla de 60% suelo, 15% arena y 25% materia orgánica, trasplantar cuando las plantas cumplan 50 días. Sembrar a una distancia de 1 x 1 m. Para bancos de forraje sembrar a distancias de 50 cm entre surcos y entre plantas.En bancos de forrajes, cortar cada tres meses a 1 m de altura. El primer corte se realiza a los 9 meses y el intervalo entre corte es de 4 meses. Se han reportado rendimientos de materia seca entre 3 y 6 t/ha, en suelos ácidos y poco fértiles, con una densidad de siembra de 10.000 a 40.000 plantas/ha.VALOR NUTRITIVO Contenido proteína cruda: 12-22%; digestibilidad: 50-70%; calcio: 32%; fósforo: 0,3%; fibra detergente neutra: 37%.Especie utilizada por su sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles y agroforestales. También es aprovechada por su madera de alta calidad y apreciada como ornamental.ESTABLECIMIENTO En sistemas silvopastoriles necesita protección del ganado durante las fases iniciales de establecimiento. Puede sembrarse por semillas y esquejes.Ofrece una poda natural, pues sus ramificaciones por pisos se van secando a medida que aumenta la altura del árbol.Foto: R. Pérez/SRTI, biogeodb.stri.si.eduSe utiliza para sombrío y madera. La corteza es utilizada para quemaduras en el piel, la madera es utiliza en construcción y como leña. Especie promisoria para ser utilizada en sistemas silvopastoriles gracias a la sombra que ofrece. Especie maderable. La madera se utiliza para construcciones rurales, en elaboración de muebles y carpintería, tablillas de parquet, mangos de herramientas, artículos torneados, armarios, puertas, estructuras, vigas y columnas. Sirve como sombrío en sistemas silvopastoriles (cercas vivas, árboles dispersos en potreros y franjas).ESTABLECIMIENTO Especie frecuente en bosques secundarios en áreas abiertas y soleadas, en bosques húmedos y suelos ácidos. Se establece por regeneración natural. Es una especie adecuada para sistemas silvopastoriles, pues tiene aguijones en su tronco, lo que evita daños por parte del ganado. Los frutos se aprovechan para alimentación humana. En Caquetá se encuentra comúnmente en huertos caseros. Gracias a su copa, puede aprovecharse para dar sombra.ESTABLECIMIENTO Se puede cultivar en arreglos de árboles dispersos en áreas deforestadas o rastrojos con densidad de 10-20 árboles/ha y en sistema de callejones con distancias de 8 x 8 m en triángulo. Esta especie puede establecerse por regeneración natural. La uva caimarona es una especie dioica que, cuando se propaga por semilla, presenta un número mayor de plantas masculinas. Se aplica la técnica de propagación vegetativa o clonación como la injertación.Poda de formación en periodo de crecimiento.Foto: Missouri Botanical Garden, www.tropicos.org, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0","tokenCount":"4578"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"96b02968114afc310c3e6b3fe3672908","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/26b81527-07b3-4633-be08-56b3c8467eae/content","id":"-856955906"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"782ddea3-1bd9-48ef-aa6b-2c57100fb918","pagecount":"17","content":"Most agricultural pests are poikilothermic species expected to respond to climate change. Currently, they are a tremendous burden because of the high losses they inflict on crops and livestock. Smallholder farmers in developing countries of Africa are likely to suffer more under these changes than farmers in the developed world because more severe climatic changes are projected in these areas. African countries further have a lower ability to cope with impacts of climate change through the lack of suitable adapted management strategies and financial constraints. In this study we are predicting current and future habitat suitability under changing climatic conditions for Tuta absoluta, Ceratitis cosyra, and Bactrocera invadens, three important insect pests that are common across some parts of Africa and responsible for immense agricultural losses. We use presence records from different sources and bioclimatic variables to predict their habitat suitability using the maximum entropy modelling approach. We find that habitat suitability for B. invadens, C. cosyra and T. absoluta is partially increasing across the continent, especially in those areas already overlapping with or close to most suitable sites under current climate conditions. Assuming a habitat suitability at three different threshold levels we assessed where each species is likely to be present under future climatic conditions and if this is likely to have an impact on productive agricultural areas. Our results can be used by African policy makers, extensionists and farmers for agricultural adaptation measures to cope with the impacts of climate change.The combination of about 795 Million people suffering from undernourishment [1] and an expected population increase from 7 up to 9 billion by 2050 is projected to lead to an increase in the need for food between 70-100% compared to 2010 [2]. At the same time, the United Nations have agreed to aim at reaching the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that include the eradication of hunger and the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. Yet, it is very likely that competition for the limited arable land will increase under these, at least partially, conflicting goals and that efficient and sustainable use of already cultivated land will become even more important in the future than it is already today.The global scale of climate change (CC) and the necessity for sustainable poverty mitigation strategies increases the need to quantify CC impacts. Especially the effects on agricultural production are of major importance for the local populations, in particular famers, national governments, regional bodies like the African Union (AU), international development partners and other stakeholders [3]. Such data can increase awareness and help to develop coping strategies for the vulnerable, as well as enable them to adapt better to a changing environment. It would also allow national governments to design and implement changes in policies, necessary for mitigating the effects of climate change [4].In Africa, agriculture is the source of income for many families and represents over two thirds of livelihoods of the poor. About 65% of full-time employment is in the agricultural sector and over half of the total export earnings derive from agricultural goods [5]. Large losses of agricultural production can be attributed to pests. In Africa alone 12.8 billion US$ were estimated to be lost to pathogens, insects and weeds between 1988 and 1990. Insects are the economically most relevant pest group and the cause for about 1/3 of the actual crop production equal to 4.4 billion US$ being lost [6]. Many people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) heavily rely on natural resources and have a relatively low tolerance towards climatic and economic stress because of high poverty levels and lack of alternative sources of income [4]. The often limited capacity to adapt to changes through a lack of knowledge and education, further increases the vulnerability of Africa´s poor to CC impacts [7]. Apart from the more general negative effects that CC is expected to have on agricultural production in many developing countries, it is also likely to have a profound impact on the abundance and distribution of many pest species.CC impacts are expected for the whole planet, but farmers in the developed world are likely to be better prepared to deal with potentially increasing numbers of pests or invasive species than those in less developed countries. Main reasons for this include greater financial means of farmers in the developed world to utlize different pest control strategies, be they biological, synthetic pesticides or genetically modified crops, interventions that are most often economically not feasible for most of the producers in the developing world. By consequence, this then results in greater food insecuirty in these regions.Agricultural productivity strongly depends on continued innovations to control pests as they develop resistances to different control measures, such as synthetic pesticides, or disperse to new regions [2]. While most studies estimate increasing numbers and distribution for many pest species, responses of individual species may vary depending on, among others, the bioclimatic conditions under different CC scenarios. In this study we use species distribution modelling to evaluate the possible extent and change of the habitat suitability across Africa for three important pest species, Tuta absoluta, Ceratitis cosyra and Bactrocera invadens, under future CC.Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), also called the tomato leaf miner, is a key threat to European and African tomato production. The pest originates from South America and is spreading rapidly over southern Europe into northern Africa since its first detection in Spain in 2006. Its high reproductive capacity and rapid development of resistance to many different insecticides make conventional chemical control very challenging. Consequently yield losses of 80-100% have been reported [8]. Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae), or mango fruit fly, is a serious pest in smallholder and commercial mango plantations across SSA. It is native to afrotropical regions and is commonly intercepted in Europe as larvae in infested mangoes [9]. Bactrocera invadens (Drew, Tsura and White, 2005) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a member of the oriental fruit fly species complex, possibly of Sri Lankan origin, and since 2003 has spread across East and West Africa. It has a very broad host range and feeds on a wide variety of unrelated wild and cultivated crops. Due to its highly destructive and invasive potential, B. invadens has become economically the most important fruit fly in Africa [10].Many studies investigating the impact of CC on pest distribution show increasing densities or an expansion of the geographical range of pests [11][12][13][14]. Significant research focusing on the possible impacts of CC on insects has already been carried out in temperate areas of the world [15][16][17]. It was reported that warmer winters might advance the survival rate of insects and permit a faster population revival that will consequently built-up in spring [17]. Additionally, an increase in the length of the cultivating period is projected, permitting multivoltine species to generate a higher number of generations per year and therefore upsurge invasions by alien species [15,18].In comparison to temperate areas, tropical countries of Africa are highly disposed to insect pest problems and outbreaks due to their year-round favorable environments for insects' population growth and host plants availability [19]. Further studies revealed that warming in tropical areas, although tiny in scale, is expected to yield harmful consequences because tropical insects are very sensitive to small changes on the magnitude of climatic veriables, such as temperature [20,21].Species distribution modelling with presence-only data can be used to model the current habitat suitability of a species and project future suitabilities under changed climatic conditions. Models of this type have already been developed for several pest species in Asia [22][23][24], North America [25,26], several European countries [27], as well as for the global distribution of pests [28][29][30]. Fewer modelling approaches have been carried out with a focus on Africa [31,32]. Considering the importance of agriculture for the continent, more studies assessing pest species dispersal are needed to estimate potential future yield losses as a result of CC.Climate change is likely to have negative impacts on food security and livelihoods of farmers in Africa through change of the number of generations and distributions of pest species [13,33,34]. Despite this, there are only few studies providing specific information on which species are likely to affect which regions under CC in Africa. This information, however, is vital for farmers, if they want to adapt to the impacts of CC.Presence records of the three important insect pest species were used from different sources including the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, www.gbif.org) and published studies (Table 1, Fig 1).Presence data were randomly split in two sets for model training (70%) and testing (30%). A number of presence records had to be excluded because of missing environmental information or other issues with the geographical coordinates (e.g. coordinates pointed towards locations in the ocean). All used presence records are provided in S1 File.Presence records (Fig 1 ) were used in combination with bioclimatic variables downloaded from the WorldClim database ( [44] accessed through [45]) to assess current and future habitat suitability of the pest species using maximum entropy modelling. Current climatic data correspond to interpolations of observed data from 1950 to 2000, while future climatic conditions represent downscaled modelled data averaged for the years 2041 to 2060 according to the IPCC5 (CMIP5). Three different global circulation models (GCMs) and four representative concentration pathways (RCP) were used in a 2.5 arc minute (4.6 km) resolution. Not all of the selected GCMs provide data for all RCPs (Table 2). The GCMs were selected based on their ability to reflect the dynamics of the West African monsoon [46,47] and their representation of modelled precipitation and temperature values from different CMIP5 models [48]. While the GFDL model represent colder and wetter values, the HadGEM model values are warmer and drier and the MPI-ESM values are close to the multi-model mean.Habitat suitability was modelled using bioclimatic variables under each GCM and RCP. Bioclimatic variables are calculated based on monthly values of temperature and rainfall but are likely to be biologically more meaningful than simple average values since they represent both annual trends but also seasonality and extreme conditions (Table 3).Mean values of future habitat suitability were calculated over all modelled habitat suitability datasets. They were calculated first over all models for all RCPs before they were calculated over all models. Therefore the lack of data for two RCPs for two GCMs only results in a lower confidence level for the results of the two higher RCPs. The overall results, however, are not skewed towards higher or lower emission scenarios.The machine learning approach Maxent (www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/maxent/) was used to assess habitat suitability based on maximum entropy. Maxent has been shown to perform particularly well for modelling presence-only data [49]. Maxent is used to predict the environmental suitability for the species as a function of the given environmental variables. Hereby the distribution probability is estimated by finding the distribution of maximum entropy that satisfies a set of constraints from environmental variables. The results serve as an approximation of a species' ecological niche under the studied environmental conditions [50]. Maxent belongs to the family of models relying solely on presence records of the investigated species. Environmental variables were reduced to only the three most important variables, with the highest variable contributions calculated according to a first model run based on all variables.A bias file was produced with the package kernSmooth in R [51] to correct for uneven distributions of sampling efforts across the study area. For this purpose coordinates from presence 18,108,111 records of all animals from GBIF were used to create a kernel density estimate map across Africa with a bandwith of 5 in each direction. Since the sample size is very large, we chose a relatively small bandwidth which is still large enough to result in values greater than 0 in each pixel cell.The performance of the model is characterized by the area under the curve (AUC). The AUC is obtained by the threshold independent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis [50]. In the process of modelling, 70% of occurrence localities were randomly selected as training data, while the remaining 30% served for testing the resulting models. The ROC method is based on the AUC when model sensitivity is plotted against 1 minus model specificity. This method has been shown to be effective in evaluating model performance and being independent of prevalence compared to the more commonly used kappa statistic [52][53][54]. The output of the model represents an area with conditions comparable to those in the species' known occurrence range, whereas the values between 0 and 1 indicate regions with no or most suitable habitat conditions, respectively.The response of the species distribution model to specific environmental variables was investigated through the permutation importance and response curves of each bioclimatic variable. The permutation importance is calculated based on the drop or increase of the AUC, when the respective environmental variable is altered.Based on a threshold value, habitat suitability can be converted from probability maps to species distribution maps. In this study we used three different threshold values to create distribution maps and overlaid them with agricultural production intensity with current and future species presence polygons. We chose to use three commonly used threshold levels to display the variability in distribution maps dependent on the selected threshold level (Table 4). The agricultural intensity map is an extract of the data on global crop land published by Ramankutty et al. [55] and represents the fraction of area being under use as cropland for each raster cell at a resolution of 5 min (10 km).All maps are displayed using a simple Plate Carrée (WGS 84) projection. This projection is an equidistant projection, which was chosen as it is appropriate for large-scale studies to balance area distortion and shape.AUC values for training data of all species are >0.85 and AUC values for test data of all species are >0.8 (Table 5). This demonstrates that all models show a good predictive performance.   and on the Arabian Peninsula. Especially in Egypt tomato, the host plant of T. absoluta, is an important cash crop. Egypt belongs to the top tomato producing countries worldwide (http:// faostat.fao.org/). Therefore, we expect large negative economic impacts of T. absoluta for tomato producers under future CC. The shown values represent mean values over model outputs with all available 10 bioclimatic variable datasets (3 GCMs and 4 RCPs, Table 2) using the three most important variables. Mean values over each RCP can be found for each species in S1-S3 Figs. Future habitat suitability of the three species appears to be overall similar to the current suitability (Fig 2). Although species react differently to projected climatic changes, in this study all three species showed, at least for parts of Africa, an increase in habitat suitability. Across large parts of the continent they show an either unchanged or even slightly increasing number of suitable habitat sites. Within the maps highlighting the change of habitat suitability an increase of suitability is indicated by the colours yellow to red, while the suitability of areas with the colours light-green to dark-green is likely to decrease.Permutation importance varies between species and for all environmental variables (Table 6). Response curves of the models for the three most important environmental variables of each species are shown in S4 Fig. For B. invadens temperature seasonality (BIO4), temperature annual range (BIO7) and precipitation of the driest quarter (BIO17) are the most important variables. The species is preferring for all of these variables rather low values. Especially temperature seasonality and annual range are unlikely to change dramatically in the future, which is probably the reason why B. invadens does not respond strongly to changing climatic conditions. The C. cosyra modelled suitability depends mainly on the mean temperature of the coldest quarter (BIO11), precipitation of the driest month (BIO14) and the precipitation of the wettest quarter (BIO16). Overall it prefers medium to high precipitation rates and temperatures >10°C throughout the year. Climate change projections indicate that in those areas of Africa, where we find increasing habitat suitability especially temperatures and precipitation are likely to increase under future CC. For T. absoluta the minimum temperature of the coldest month (BIO6), the mean temperature of the wettest quarter (BIO8) and annual precipitation (BIO12) are the most important parameters for suitable habitat conditions. The model indicates that it prefers higher temperatures and lower preciptition rates. Under CC more areas are projected to fulfill these requirements, especially in northern Africa.Assuming a threshold habitat suitability at different level shows that although habitat suitability in some areas might be increasing, under the suitability threshold equal training sensitivity and specificity the species is still not predicted to be present. However, under a threshold value of maximum training sensitivity plus specificity as well as balancing training omission, predicted area and threshold value much larger proportions of Africa are predicted to be inhabited by the species (Fig 3).Comparing the areas where the species is predicted to be present under current and future climate shows that B. invadens and T. absoluta are unlikely to shift their habitat at all. For all three applied habitat suitability thresholds species distribution does not change under current and future climatic conditions even though habitat suitability generally is increasing over large parts of the continent (compare with Fig 2). For C. cosyra we find a decreasing number of areas in southern and Central Africa being inhabited under a higher threshold (Fig 3D). For the two higher thresholds mostly the same areas are being predicted as suitable under future as under current climatic conditions.Comparing current and future distributions of the studied species with agricultural crop intensity indicates that those areas with high agricultural production are not under a higher threat under future CC than under current conditions. Habitat extent of all tested species is likely to remain constant, shift to less productive sites or decrease.Overlaying the habitat of all three species for all three thresholds under current and future climate shows that especially for lower threshold levels CC impact seems to be deniable (Fig 4). Under these levels almost all areas are already under current conditions affected by at least one of the pest species (Fig 4E and 4F). For higher threshold levels, CC seems to have a rather positive impact since the distribution of C. cosyra is slightly decreasing, while the distributions of the two other species remain largly constant (Fig 4A and 4B).In this study we assessed the impact of CC on three important agricultural pests of different crops in Africa. We used environmental variables to assess CC effects in combination with different presence records obtained from multiple sources. Few other studies have investigated the distribution and potential for dispersal of pests in Africa [31,32]. Here we modelled the future distribution of three important pests in Africa under current and future climatic conditions. Area under the curve statistics showed high values for all species confirming a good model performance.Climate Change impacts on agriculture poses a major threat to agricultural productivity in Africa [34,56,57]. Even without consideration of the impact of pests under CC decreasing yields for major crops between 5% for maize and 17% for wheat have been projected by 2050 across the entire African continent [56]. At the same time many studies indicate that productivity could also benefit under CC if suitable adaptation measures are implemented [58]. Adaptation through better agricultural management as well as decision making under consideration of CC risks, as suggested for example by Vermeulen et al. [59], is strongly influenced by the availability of information on CC impacts, such as the future distribution of important pests.Our results show that species presence or absence depends strongly on the choice of a habitat suitability threshold. While in a certain area a species might not be predicted to be present under a higher threshold level, it might yet be under a lower threshold level. Using variable threshold levels, as we did in this study, shows this uncertainty, which can also be translated to risk levels of pest species invasion. Such information are useful for farmers, NGOs and policy makers as they give them a prioritisation list on which pest species to focus on first and which species are of lesser concern to them. Furthermore, it provides a guideline which crops are recommendable to be planted and which should be avoided, if risks are to be minimized.Presence-only data models stand beside those based on presence and absence data usually obtained through systematic sampling, e.g. generalized linear or additive models. However, presence data are often easier to obtain than verified absence data for example from databases and museum collections. Therefore, presence-only models, such as Maxent, GARP (Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Production) or ENFA (Ecological Niche Factor Analysis) are usually used for predictions based on presence-only data. GARP models are based on the integration or rejection of rules that are being tested to improve or decrease the predictive performance of the model. ENFA based predictions are calculated from uncorrelated factors explaining the differences between the whole study area and the area inhabited by the species. Maxent, on the other hand, assumes that a species distribution would follow a maximum entropy without any environmental constraints. The model predicts habitat suitability by fitting a probability distribution for the occurrence of the species across the whole area. Based on data from the different environmental variables different constraints are being formulated and considered in the model. According to to Elith et al. [49] Maxent performs relatively well compared to other presence-only models. However, Maxent also seems to suffer from a higher tendency of overfitting at low threshold levels than e.g. GARP models [60]. For this reason we used three different threshold levels to display species distribution maps.Comparing our results with other studies shows some discrepancies in the predictions of habitat suitability for individual species under current and projected climate. For instance Tonnang et al. [30] modelled worldwide habitat suitability for T. absoluta using CLIMEX and found much larger areas of high suitability, especially across Central, eastern and southern Africa than in our study. De Meyer et al. [31] modelled habitat suitability for B. invadens in Asia, Africa and worldwide using two different approaches, i.e. GARP and Maxent with presence records from India, Sri Lanka and Bhutan. The Maxent modelling approach showed a much smaller area than the GARP approach. Suitable areas as predicted by De Meyer et al. [31] show some overlaps with highly suitable areas identified in our study. Yet for Central Africa we predicted lower suitability values than De Meyer et al. [31].The discrepancies between the findings in our study and other publications may be the result from the level of uncertainty of methodologies currently used for species distribution modelling as well as different modelling input data. For example both, Tonnang et al. [30] and De Meyer et al [31] did not correct for sampling bias.Another important fact is that the two species, B. invadens and T. absoluta, for which our modelling outcomes differ from those in other studies, are alien invasive species (AIS) in Africa. In Tonnang et al. [30] and De Meyer et al [31], both authors reported to have used records from the species native areas to develop their models; the obtained parameters were then projected to Africa for estimating areas of habitat suitability of the species. This approach differs from our modelling method, where we used only presence records from Africa. Being alien to Africa, the two species are likely to be still spreading and adapting to new environmental conditions to establish their final realized niches. When a species invades a new region its dispersal into new areas depends on environmental conditions and its ability to adapt can take a considerable amount of time. Hence, for model development using data of an AIS´home might not be ideal for correctly predicting habitat suitability in a newly colonised region/area. Alternatively, native presence records of a species can be used to predict habitat suitability in different regions. Yet for species with high tolerance towards different environmental conditions this may also lead to lower predicted habitat suitability, especially in areas with environmental conditions not present in the species native area. If a species has for example a high tolerance to lower temperatures but presence points of areas with low temperatures were not included in the model because the species has not yet invaded such an area, predicted habitat suitability solely based on native records could be lower than the true suitability.We used bioclimatic variables to characterize environmental conditions. However, other important environmental variables, such as soil properties, land cover and agricultural management interventions (e.g. use of pesticides or fertilizers) can influence species distribution but were not considered in this study. Including such variables has been described as a key challenge for modelling approaches [61]. While we agree that these variables are key to assess the final distribution of species, in this study, however, we emphasize on the necessity to assess only CC impact on three important agricultural pests in Africa. Since their distribution very much depends on which crops are grown where and how they are managed, projections under future climatic conditions are substantially influenced by individual decisions of farmers as well as market developments and thus difficult to model. Hence we decided to focus on assessing CC effects on the habitat suitability only.In our study we used three different habitat suitability levels as an estimated threshold for species presence. This way we accounted for uncertainties related to the choice of a fixed threshold level. However, estimating species distributions from current and future habitat suitability is hampered by the fact that a species fundamental niche may be different from its realized niche, for example due to competition with other species or because of the effects the species itself has on its environment [62,63]. Furthermore, it should also be considered that simple presence of a pest species might not be harmful for agriculture if the density remains low. Here, we only looked at habitat suitability and the likelihood of presence or absence of a species. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that higher densities are likely to occur if habitat suitability is high as long as the host species is present. Furthermore, we were only using agricultural crop intensity as an estimation of agricultural productivity. Yet, areas which are currently not in use and/or less productive, might become so under future CC. Since pest species are highly dependent on their host species and agricultural production, this is likely to affect species distribution in a significant way. This aspect was, however, not considered in this study due to the lack of specific data.Future research should include not only more important pest species in Africa, but also other environmental variables, and individual pest species should be linked to the cultivated areas of their respective host plants. Estimations of the impacts of pest species on agricultural production under projected CC would benefit from more species presence records as well as more detailed current and forecasted maps of crop production areas across the continent.We believe that the results of this study can help policy makers, extension organisations and farmers to make adapted agricultural management decisions today while anticipating future CC impacts, for instance by choosing crops that are less susceptible to certain pest species. This can help to secure food production and livelihoods of farmers in the coming decades, when some pest species are likely to expand their distribution under CC. The maps can give farmers an orientation which crops are less likely to suffer under pests in the future and which they should avoid planting because of their association with higher risk of infestation. Using species distribution maps and climate scenarios and integrating them into land management decision systems can help to increase agricultural productivity, mitigate global hunger and thereby decrease competition for arable land.","tokenCount":"4596"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"116817330bdb8d26ce57e3bb3bef762c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eec891ff-bfb7-4a2c-8bf2-b63d373737f0/retrieve","id":"1614618504"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2559fb7f-8a8e-4d60-8b26-1f718cb1e530","pagecount":"2","content":"In a context of benefit sharing of hydrological services it is of utmost importance that the expected benefit can be delivered. This starts with a precise understanding of the benefit itself, which is often poorly defined. \"More water\" for example, is not a precise enough definition. In mountain environments, the most appreciated service is often water regulation, the mechanism that assures surface water flow between rainy periods, and to a lesser extent, total water yield, but local circumstances of water use, such as the presence or not of large reservoirs, can change this prioritization.Natural montane forest is a good water regulator. Therefore it is easily thought that reforestation would recover any hydrological benefit, lost by deforestation.The myth that trees bring water is a persistent one. In the Andes, it is mostly based on the natural montane forest being a good water regulator. The poor definition and understanding of hydrological benefits is a major limitation for the implementation of benefit sharing mechanisms, and calls for more and more appropriate monitoring programs.International Forum on Water and Food water conservation purposes was adapted from commercial plantation practices, which aim for rapid growth and timber production. Its contribution to the prioritized benefits is not obvious at all.Modeling exercises and field monitoring should be precise enough to evaluate real benefits of such programs if they want to support benefit sharing mechanisms and feedback towards design of (re)forestation programs.","tokenCount":"233"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"05461da35dd53af69676b7b9eb2a8f06","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f86e912-e332-45ad-a712-98f0e2c63d3f/retrieve","id":"-165897303"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f5929446-292f-403d-934e-4c68e019be0b","pagecount":"11","content":"Chickpea is an important cash crop for Ada'a farmers as it does for farmers in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the world. Its production, however, has been dwindling due to biotic and abiotic stresses. According to participant farmers from Ada'a district, the production of chickpea in some Kebeles of Ada'a such as Gubasaye has been abandoned because of root rot and foliar diseases such as fusarium wilt. This paper presents the evaluation of upscaled varieties' performance assessed by metric data as well as through beneficiary farmers' self-assessment data. Recognizant to the problem, five varieties of chickpea tested in the Goro district of the Southwest Shoa zone, were introduced as part of the upscaling of crowdsourcing winner crop varieties in Ethiopia.Crowdsourcing is an approach of outsourcing variety evaluation, selection, and dissemination to volunteer crowds of farmers. The introduction of the winner varieties and adjustment of the planting time was found effective in the Ada'a district. Higher grain yield was obtained from the upscaled winner varieties in the range of 2.4-2.53 t/ha, with slight variations over varieties. Habru variety showed slightly higher performance than the others. Survey participant farmers have reported an increase in GY due to growing the winner varieties compared with varieties they used to grow before and gained higher annual income due to higher productivity, market demand of the upscaled varieties, and premium market price with 6-25 Ethiopian birr (ETB) per kilogram of sold grain of these varieties. High productivity is attributed to the genetic potential of the varieties, their response to farm management, and better adaptation to the local growing conditions. Participant farmers perceived that their livelihood has been improving because of the adoption of the upscaled varieties' productivity and market demand. The annual income of participant farmers is estimated to be 2500 to 181,000 ETB for growing the winner varieties. The results indicate that upscaling pre-tested chickpea varieties and delaying their planting time to early September are effective mechanisms for reducing yield loss to fusarium wilt and root rot diseases. It can be inferred that using the crowdsourcing approach for variety evaluation andChickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is widely grown around the world as a multi-purpose crop spanning from a rich protein source of human food to being an excellent contributor to soil fertility improvement [1][2][3][4]. It fixes up to 140 kg N ha − 1 from the air to meet its nitrogen demands [5,6]. Ethiopia is the leading producer, consumer, and exporter of chickpeas in Africa, and is among the top ten most important producers in the world [7]. According to the 2021/22 report of the Ethiopian Statistical Service (ESS), chickpea accounts for 12 % of areas under pulse crops coverage and 14 % of pulses production share with area coverage of 201,274.14 ha with an annual production of 445,312.72 tonnes [8]. The Amhara and Oromia regions are the dominant chickpea producers with 99 % of the total area allocation and 89 % of the production of chickpea in Ethiopia, according to the same report. Comparing the two giant producing regions, the Oromia region contributes more than the Amhara region in terms of area coverage (54 %) and annual production (50 %) of this crop. Furthermore, east Shoa of the Oromia region is one of the top chickpea-producing zones which accounts for 6 % of the chickpea area with 8 % production in the Oromia region. This zone contributes 3 % of the entire chickpea area and 4 % of its total production nationally [8].Nevertheless, chickpea production is challenged by low productivity of landraces, poor farming practices, and biotic and abiotic stresses, among others [7]. As the breeding programs continued introducing varieties that have been performing better under limiting conditions; as a result, its productivity showed a slight increase from time to time. The recent statistical data collected by ESS [8] showed that the national productivity of chickpeas is 2.008 t/ha and 1.944 t/ha for the red and white-seeded chickpea varieties, respectively. When downscaled to the Oromia region, the productivity of chickpeas is slightly higher (2.076 t/ha) and 2.043 t/ha) than the national average for both the red and white-seeded chickpea varieties. According to the survey conducted by the ESS [8], however, chickpea productivity in the east Shoa zone including that of Ada'a's district is higher (2.58 t/ha) than its productivity at the national and regional scale [8], probably due to more conducive climatic condition as well as soil types of the zone. Chickpeas are often sown at the end of the main rainy season and grow using residual soil moisture. This nature of the crop allows farmers to practice double cropping, which provides them with an additional source of income and protein.Farmers have abandoned the production of chickpeas in the Ada'a district of the east Shoa zone due to major yield losses attributed to diseases (participant farmers' personal communication). The major diseases identified as intimidators of chickpea production in Ada'a include root rots (fusarium wilt, collar rot, and dry root rot) and foliar diseases (Ascochyta blight, botrytis grey mold), and these diseases were identified as important diseases in Ethiopia [9]. A study conducted in 2021 in sampled chickpea production areas of Ethiopia indicated that fusarium wilt and root rot diseases incidence are significantly associated with clay soils (vertisols) type, Desi type chickpea, early planting practice, and early flowering and early plant maturity nature of varieties [10].It is worth mentioning, however, that the planting date of chickpeas greatly varied from place to place depending mainly on rainfall amount and its seasonal pattern [11,12]. Planting date adjustment helps to mismatch the susceptible development stage of the crop with the occurrence of the disease or other abiotic stresses. The combined use of resistant varieties and planting date adjustment is perceived as the best approach to managing stresses effectively. This study has utilized this approach by distributing pre-tested resistant varieties and advising farmers to delay these varieties' planting by two weeks from the planting date farmers commonly used. In Ada'a farmers used to plant chickpeas around mid-August every year, as early planting in moisture-stressed areas is recommended. Considering the nature of the crop, soil condition, and rainfall distribution, the farmers were advised to do the planting between 28 August to 5 September each year. After three years of production, 120 (37.3 %) out of the 322 direct beneficiary farmers were surveyed using a structured questionnaire to assess the perception of sampled beneficiary farmers in Gobasaye Kebele of Ada'a district aiming to capture the performance of the upscaled chickpea varieties and the livelihood improvement of the beneficiary farmers. This paper aimed to inform the benefit of the combined use of resistant varieties of chickpea and sowing time adjustment to improve production and productivity of this crop in areas where production is challenged by soil borne diseases. Furthermore, it presented the perception of beneficiary on the economic generated from growing the upscaled varieties.Chickpea varieties selected from the ISSD project and progressed for further testing and production in the Ada'a district with their economically important characteristics. The chickpea varieties upscaled currently were tested together with the other three varieties (Minjar, Naatoli, and Dera) in the Oromia region during the 2017-2019 cropping seasons [13]. The varieties were tested in the southwest Shoa zone at Goro Kebele during the Integrated Seed System Development (ISSD) project time and upscaled to the Ada'a district of the east Shoa zone during the 2020 cropping season and have been under cultivation since then. During the three years of crowdsourcing testing, the eight varieties of chickpea were grown by 50 farmers at Goro kebele where each variety was grown and evaluated by 19 farmers. Each farmer has deployed at least three varieties at a time for evaluation and selection purposes as well as increment of his/her chickpea seed portfolio. As shown in Table 1, the participant farmers have mainly evaluated the chickpea varieties against their yielding potential, disease and pest resistance, and market selling price while seed color and maturity time were also considered as important traits in some instances.Based on these merits, the first three varieties were upscaled to the Ada'a district of the East Shoa zone during the 2020 cropping season through the \"Upscaling crowdsourcing winner varieties project\", a project jointly implemented by Bioversity International and Oromia Seed Enterprise and commissioned by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) through the Fund International Agricultural Research (FIA). The chickpea varieties included in this study are those publicly available for research through the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture. The use of these varieties is fully in compliance with the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture variety registration and protection directive and The Plant Treaty on the use of plant genetic resources for food and Agriculture.Ada'a district is one of the thirteen districts in the east Shoa zone of the Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. The relative location of the district is about 45 km southeast of Addis Ababa, the capital of the country. It is bordered on the south by Dugda Bora, on the west by the west shoa zone, on the northwest by Akaki, on the northeast by Gimbichu, and the east by Lome. The district has a total population of 185,199, of which 96,024 (51.85 %) are men and the remaining 89,175 (48.15) are women [14]. The district has a land cover of 96,680 ha, of which about 79,517 ha is arable land, and is located in the Great Rift Valley [15,16]. Ada'a lies between latitudes of 8 • 46′ and 8 • 59′N and longitudes of 38 • 51′ and 39 • 04′ E with an altitudinal range of 1540-3100 m above sea level (m.a.s.l) [15,17] with over 90 % of the land lies between 1600 and 2000 m.a.s.l. The project intervention Kebele was Gubasaye located 7 km from Bishoftu the town of Ada'a district (Fig. 1).  The district has a typical sub-tropical climate and receives 860 mm of annual rainfall with mean minimum and mean maximum temperatures of 8 • C and 28 • C, respectively. There is consensus that the climate of the Rift Valley, where the district belongs to, is variable with a decreasing trend in annual rainfall amount coupled with variable distribution. On the other hand, the temperature of the area is on increasing trend. Black clay Vertisols is the dominant soil type, with good soil fertility status. The average farm size per household average ranges from 1 to 2.5 ha [17]. The farming system is a mixed crop-livestock production system and the major crops grown are tef, wheat (mainly bread variety), and pulses. Chickpea is the main pulse crop grown in the district and is used as a rotational crop with wheat and teff crops to restore soil fertility.Over the implementation period of the project, 322 farmers were randomly selected in Gubasaye Kebele of Ada'a district and agreed to grow the selected winner varieties of chickpeas. Most of these farmers are members of Abdi Waqa seed producer cooperative. district and Kebele within the district were purposively selected due to their potential for chickpea production. The indirect beneficiary farmersfarmers who accessed the winner varieties through the direct beneficiary farmerswere selected in mixed methods where most of them were supposed to be selected randomly. The number of indirect beneficiary farmers was assumed to be 8272 over three years.Grain yield data of all the upscaled chickpea varieties was collected from sampled direct beneficiary farmers using a 1 m × 1 m (1 m 2 ) quadrant and was converted to tons per hectare (t/ha). The data collection was carried out in 2021 and 2022 cropping seasons from plots managed by farmers. As a result, variability due to management differences is prominent which prevents the application of rigorous statistical analysis. Instead, the means and range of varietal performance across farmers were presented and discussed. Interseasonal variation was minimal and omitted from the discussion. The following simple statistical model was applied to analyze the data, as per the GenStat statistical software:Where μ is the grand mean; gi is the yield of variety i; sj is the yield variety i at sample j sample; ek is the yield variation of varieties across years and ᶓisk is the residual error due to varieties, sampling, and season.As the variation across seasons was not significant, results were presented only for varieties across samples and presented in Table 2. The least significant difference (LSD) was used to declare varieties performance differences across sampled farmers.An endline household survey was conducted from September to October 2023 to assess the overall perception of adopter farmers on the contribution of the upscaled varieties to their farm productivity, household food and nutritional security, household income and farm resilience to climate change-induced stresses. This survey tool also helped to triangulate the performance of the varieties and chickpea's diversity increase claim because of the upscaling of the crowdsourcing winner project. Specifically, the survey was designed to capture the contribution of upscaled winner varieties on farmers' varietal portfolio production and productivity of the target crops, resilience, and livelihood improvements of the target beneficiary farmers in the district.A structured survey questionnaire was designed and executed between the 17th of September and October 8, 2023. The source population was all the direct beneficiary farmers in Ada'a districts, and the 120-study sample was randomly selected from the source population. The sampling procedure used to identify the survey participants was a multistage sampling technique similar to the one mentioned above. The exception here was the selection of farmers from each Kebele was based on stratified random sampling where the farmers were grouped as direct (90 % of the sample) and indirect (10 % of the sample) beneficiaries and from each strata individual Δ Variability analysis on variety performance across farmers; *significantly different at 5 % significance level; ns = non-significant different at 5 % significance level.farmers were selected randomly.The survey instrument was prepared in consultation with the partners and a digital tool, the Kobotoolbox, was used for the data collection. Pre-tested semi-structured questionnairesoriginally prepared in English and translated into local language, Afan Oromowere used in the face-to-face interview. A total of 6 enumerators were recruited for the data collection and were given two days of practical training on the survey instrument and the utilization of Kobotoolbox as a digital data collection tool. The data collection was supervised by facilitators from OSE and ABC staff. Before embarking on the survey, participant consent to participate in the study was obtained by asking the question \"Are you interested to participate in this survey?\" Their \"informed consent\" was recorded as \"yes\" or \"no\" responses. All participants confirmed their willingness to participate and provided their \"informed consent\". The survey was conducted in compliance with Bioversity International's Ethics review protocol (https://tip.alliance.cgiar.org/irbSubmissionList/ create#!).The metric data collected from farmers' plots using the 1 m 2 quadrant from randomly selected farmers in three replications was analyzed for variability using GenStat-18 statistical software. The result was presented in mean form. On the other hand, the collected survey data was analyzed for descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage and increase/decrease trends using Excel and presented as suitable in tables and figures. Due to the nature of the data, we did not apply any rigorous data analysis to the survey data. The experimental protocols were approved by Bioversity International and the funder, BMZ/GIZ, in an approved detailed project proposal. Both field and survey data were collected according to the protocol detailed in the approved proposal, analyzed, and presented in this paper without disclosing the identity of the involved participants.The current project has distributed 8950 kg of seed of five chickpea varieties to 322 direct beneficiary farmers where each farmer was given 10 kg of starter seed. At the end of the third year, these varieties have been grown by 9554 farm households on about 6031.93 ha of land. Grain yield (GY) of each variety was collected from six randomly selected growers, using a m 2 quadrant. The analysis of the collected data showed that the mean GY of the five upscaled varieties ranges from 2.53 t/ha for the Habru variety to 2.4 t/ha for the Arerti variety, with an average productivity of 2.47 t/ha (Table 2). The varieties Habru, Ejere, and Dimtu gave greater than 2.5 t/ha of GY, which is higher than the regional as well as national average GY for chickpeas [8].Triangulation on productivity improvement was performed by conducting a household survey during 2023 that involved both direct and indirect beneficiary farmers from the district. About 86 % of the surveyed beneficiary farmers have noticed and reported an increase in grain yield of their chickpea because of accessing the crowdsourcing winner varieties, even though 11 % and 3 % of the respondents have reported no change and a decrease in GY after accessing the winner varieties compared to the varieties they have been growing before (Fig. 2A). The yield gained because of growing the winner varieties ranges from 6.25 kg/ha to 125 kg/ha (Fig. 2B). The recorded GY increment varies from grower to grower. About 22 (21 %) of the surveyed HHs have reported a GY gain of less than 25 kg/ha while the majority, 77 (74 %), of them have reported a GY gain of between 25 and 75 kg/ha (Fig. 2B). The remaining sampled farmers have reported a GY gain of greater than 75 kg/ha because of growing the winner varieties of chickpea. This GY gain because of growing the upscaled chickpea varieties could be associated with all or some of farmers preferred traits displayed by the varieties (Fig. 3).About 98 % of the respondents have associated the gain in GY to the genetic potential of the upscaled varieties. They claimed that Fig. 2. Response of surveyed households on their farm productivity after accessing the chickpea winner varieties (A) and perceived grain yield change (kg/ha) due to growing the winner varieties (B).the upscaled varieties were better than the varieties they had used to grow before. Besides, the upscaled varieties have a better response to farm management practices, better adaptability to diseases and pests and the local growing conditions (Fig. 3). Nonetheless, 14 % of the households (HHs) claimed that their productivity did not change or decrease because of growing the upscaled winner varieties, which might be associated with their poor farm management practice, poor soil fertility or negligence to apply the advised agronomic management (i.e. sowing date adjustment).Before the current intervention, farmers in the Ada'a district have abandoned chickpea production for 3-5 years because of fusarium wilt. Taking zero as a benchmark, the varietal portfolio of chickpea has increased in the range of 1-5 (Table 3). About 75 (64 %) of the beneficiary farmers have increased their varietal portfolio by 3-5 chickpea varieties because of either direct access to the varieties from the project or from other beneficiary farmers. Importantly 46 % of the sampled farmers have diversified their varietal portfolio to 5 by accessing all the upscaled chickpea varieties. On the contrary, about 25 % of the participant farmers have in possession of only 1-2 chickpea varieties which might be associated with landholding, variety preference, and/or lack of awareness of the availability of the other varieties in their district. The variety Arerti is dominantly possessed by 80 (67.2 %) of the surveyed farmers, which implies that these varieties could be the best suited to their growing conditions. The variety Dimtu was the next widely upscaled as grown by 63 surveyed farmers, which might imply that 57.3 % of farmers in the district are growing it.The data collected on household annual income, premium price gained because of growing the winner varieties of chickpea, and indicators of livelihood improvement are presented in Table 4A-C. From our sample, 103 (85.8 %) of the respondents have agreed to an increase in annual household income because of accessing the winner chickpea varieties with an annual income increase ranging from 2500 to 181,000 Ethiopian birr (ETB) (Table 4A). The current results have shown that the production of chickpeas in the Ada'a district is a rewarding business even though this business has collapsed due to disease pressure in the past. About 29 (24.2 %) of participant farmers have reported an annual income of greater than 100,000 ETB or 1791.158 USD at an exchange rate of 1$ = 55.8298 because of accessing and growing the winner varieties on a hectare of land. Acceptance of the varieties in the market, the increased production volume of chickpeas, and diversification of income were the main reasons for the increase in annual household income (Table 4C). Reduction of production cost, as chickpeas do not require much agricultural inputs, was also claimed to contribute Fig. 3. Attributes identified for better productivity of the upscaled winner varieties of chickpea at Ada'a district.Chickpea varietal portfolio of beneficiary farmers at Ada'a district after being involved in the crowdsourcing winner varieties upscaling project. significantly. We have seen that a combination of the factors contributed to the increase in annual income as most farmers, 76 %, have reported all four factors are contributors to their income increase (Table 4D).Of the surveyed farmers, 17 (14.5 %) have observed no increase in their annual income because of growing the winner chickpea varieties (Table 4B). The enumerated reasons include poor performance of the accessed varieties, disease pressure, and lack of trust in the varieties. It is unsurprising to see variations among grower farmers as technology adoption is influenced by several factors including lack of information support, ineffective dissemination methods, and perception of the proposed technologies. Some farmers perceive they work for the project rather than for themselves when involved in project activities and fail as a result to maximize their benefit.Surveyed participant farmers unanimously responded that a premium market price is obtained for growing the winner varieties of chickpeas (Fig. 4A), with price gain ranging from 1 to 25 ETB/kg of grain. This might be due to the wider acceptance of these varieties by the local market (Table 4D) to use the winner varieties for seed and also due to the attractive quality attributes of the upscaled varieties (Table 5) ranging from appropriate maturity time (60 %) to good color for market (84 %).About 60 % of the respondents reported an income gain of 6-15 ETB/kg of grain harvested from the upscaled varieties while about 23 % of them reported 16-25 ETB/kg an increase in price from a sale of the winner varieties. The increase in farm productivity and household income because of the higher market price for their produce has been perceived to influence the livelihood of the growerAnnual households' income (A), reasons for income change of households growing the winner varieties of chickpea (B and C), reported factors contributing to increasing household income (D) by chickpea grower farmers in the Ada'a district of Oromia region.  households (Fig. 3B). According to 85.83 % of the surveyed households, growing upscaled varieties of chickpeas helped farmers to start financial saving in banks. Over 79 % of the surveyed households have noticed that growing these varieties has been improving their household nutrition and increased household assets. Similarly, over 50 % of the respondents claimed that they afforded better schools for their children, accessed better healthcare facilities, and owned properties in a nearby town, Bishoftu.Ada'a district is among the major chickpea producers in the east Shoa zone together with Gimbichu, though other districts like Adami Tulu and Jiddo Kombolcha also have good potential [18]. The productivity of chickpeas in the Ada'a district is higher than its average in the Oromia region and the national productivity [8] which implies the importance of the district for chickpea production. However, its production is challenged by low productivity of landraces, poor farming practices, and biotic and abiotic stresses, among others [7,19]. Of the common diseases affecting the productivity of chickpeas, Ascochyta rabei, Fusarium Oxysporum, and Rhizoctonia solani are recognized as significant economic constraints to chickpea production in Ada'a district [20]. The focus group discussion conducted with Ada'a farmers to identify the crop types to upscale to Ada'a district by Bioversity International and Oromia Seed Enterprise in 2020 enabled us to know the abandonment of chickpea production because of root rot diseases, mostly those mentioned above. Participant farmers affirmed that chickpea production was abandoned in their kebele because of these diseases pressure.Five chickpea varieties identified for disease resistance and other important traits identified through crowdsourcing trials conducted in the southwest Shoa zone during 2017-2019 were introduced to the Ada'a district (Table 1) by the upscaling crowdsourcing winner varieties project. The use of crop diversity plays a pivotal role in smallholder farmers' ability to cope with and adapt to shocks. Shifting crop varieties and diversifying the crop portfolio are common risk-reduction strategies [21]. The use of high-yielding, disease, and pest-resistant, and other abiotic stress-tolerant varieties, coupled with improved crop management practices, is an indispensable approach for increasing chickpea productivity and production [20]. As crop management practice, adjusting the planting date was included as a package of upscaling. Adopter farmers were advised to delay planting of the upscaled chickpea varieties to late August to early September from the traditional mid-August planting time in the area.Variety selection and planting date adjustment are reported as effective mechanisms for reducing yield loss attributed to various diseases in chickpeas. For instance, Ali and Habtamu [12] recommended delaying the planting date and growing variety Mastewal to maximize chickpea yield and minimize the effect and progression of fusarium wilt at chickpea growing areas in north Shoa. On-station and on-field trials conducted in east Shoa indicated that the adjustment of chickpea planting to early September increased grain yield by 35 % under rainfed conditions [22,23]. Sowing date adjustment greatly varies from place to place. For instance, planting of chickpea can be done at early July in moisture-stressed lowland areas or when planted on sandy soil types [11,12]. In general, planting time is determined by the condition of abiotic and biotic stresses, soil type, and agroecological conditions of the target area. Bilate et al. [23] reported that the sowing of chickpea during mid-September was superior to that planted at mid-Augst and early October in the Meskan district of southern Ethiopia with grain yield advantage of 64 % and 67 %, respectively. The higher grain yield of mid-September planting of this study was due to the availability of favorable soil moisture and less intensity of disease pressure.The upscaling of crowdsourcing winner varieties of chickpea has increased farmers' varietal portfolio, farm productivity, and household income, and improved households' livelihoods. The average varietal portfolio of farmers' access to varietal diversity ensures stable production of a crop [24], improves productivity [25], and hence, ensures food security. Varietal portfolio effectively addresses location-specific emerging challenges and farmers' preferences [26]. Thus, increasing crop genetic diversity is a noble adaptation strategy in agriculture; especially for marginal environments and vulnerable areas to climate-related risks [25].As Ethiopia is the top producer, consumer, and exporter of chickpea in the world [7], increasing the varietal portfolio of this crop is uniquely necessary for Ethiopian farmers; to utilize the rich resources, gear towards sustainable quality seed system, and create a stable production of the crops in the face of the current climate change impacts. Sample data collected and analyzed for the various upscaled chickpea varieties confirmed that their grain yield ranged from 2.3 to 2.6 t/ha (Table 2) showing that they perform higher than the national average of about 2 t/ha [8]. The upscaled varieties are in a similar range of productivity even if Arerti was dominantly disseminated in the Ada'a district (Table 3). High grain yield is the most perceived farmers' preferred trait worth considering that perhaps underpins better adoption [27]. It has been observed that 86 % of the beneficiary farmers sampled and surveyed reported an increase in farm productivity after adopting the upscaled varieties (Fig. 2A). Empowering farmers to evaluate and select varieties through participatory methods such as crowdsourcing and assessing their feedback on the performance of varieties could accelerateAttributes of the upscaled chickpea varieties farmers claimed for their preference over the other varieties they used to grow in Ada'a district of east Shoa zone. the dissemination and adoption of selected varieties, which the classical variety development scheme lacks [28]. Furthermore, the upscaled chickpea varieties possess attractive preferential qualities such as market-attracting seed color, better taste, better cooking quality, and cultural valuesamong others (Table 5). Semahegn et al. [27] have reported that higher grain yield potential, resistance to rust diseases, and adaptation to drought and heat stress were among the most perceived farmers' preferred traits to adopt improved bread wheat. An increase in varietal portfolio accompanied by increased variety productivity plays a significant role in boosting smallholder farm household income and ultimately paving the way to attain household food and nutritional security [29,30]. The annual income of beneficiary farmers growing the winner chickpea varieties ranged from 2500 to 140,000 ETB, a much higher income than growing the other varieties of the same crop (Table 4). The upscaled winner varieties of chickpea were found, both through metric data and survey data, to perform well at Ada'a even though chickpea production has been challenged by root rot diseases. The analysis of collected metric data showed that the grain yield of the upscaled winner varieties of chickpea ranged from 2.4 t/ha for Arerti variety to 2.53 t/ha for Habru variety (Table 2). The surveyed farmers not only reported increment per se for GY but also have pinpointed the underlying causes for the increment in grain yield (Fig. 3) ranging from the genetic potential of the varieties to their resistance to pests and diseases. Greater than 80 % of survey participant farmers claimed that the high productivity of the upscaled chickpea varieties is presumably associated with their genetic potential (98 %), low input requirements (80 %); better response to farm management (92 %), resistance to pests and diseases (88 %) and their adaptability to the local growing conditions (91 %). The understanding of the farmers' insight into the performance of the varieties is believed to contribute to better adoption of the varieties which the classical variety development scheme lacks [28]. These traits of crops are among the most perceived farmers' preference traits under marginal production conditions where crop production is constrained by biotic and abiotic stresses [27,31].The access to adaptable and good-performing crop varieties ensures farm households' productivity, income, and overall livelihood [32][33][34]. Farm income is to audit both monetary and non-monetary income obtained from farm operations. Survey participant farmers claimed that their annual farm household income increased within a range of 2500 ETB to over 181,000 ETB because of growing crowdsourcing winner varieties of chickpea (Table 4A). The larger variation in farm households' annual income could be associated with the variety accessed and differences in farm management across the farm households [35]. Better annual income because of growing the upscaled varieties presumably associated with their reduced inputs (fungicide, pesticide, and fertilizer), which reduced production cost and the high yielding potential of the varieties. Besides, the upscaled chickpea varieties have higher market demand compared to other varieties of chickpea in the area (Table 4C; Table 5). It has been observed that the majority (>80 %) of farmers growing the upscaled varieties are earning between 6 and 25 ETB more price per sale of a kilogram of chickpea compared to those growing the other chickpea varieties (Fig. 4A). A higher market price premium is usually paid for variety type, seed color and size of seeds, which is highly affected by biotic and abiotic stresses [4]. Participatory engagement of farmers in the evaluation and selection of crop varieties increases farmers' adoption of developed varieties which improve their agricultural production and productivity, household income and overall living standard and consequently reduce poverty. A lower rate of agricultural technology adoption affects these household welfare [36,37]. Hence, the adoption of improved agricultural technology is a precondition for improving the living standards of the rural poor. The access to the upscaled crowdsourcing winner varieties has improved the livelihood of farm households in Ada'a district (Fig. 4B). It has been claimed by survey participant farmers that growing the upscaled varieties has helped them to increase their savings (85.83 %), increased household assets (81.67 %), improved family diet (79.17 %), better household healthcare (59 %) and affordability of sending children to a better school for better education (55 %). Verkaart et al. [38] inferred that the adoption of improved chickpea varieties in Ethiopia has increased growers' household income and reduced poverty and the cultivation of improved chickpea varieties is a promising pathway for rural development in Ethiopia.The future of food and nutrient security of the world population is partly dependent on the resilience of crops to climate change effect thereby contributing to the enhancement of crop production and productivity and improved livelihood. Varietal technologies coupled with crop husbandry (sowing date adjustment) restored chickpea production in Ada'a district where its production was almost abandoned because of the severe incidence of fusarium wilt and root rot diseases. The access to adaptable crop varieties enables farmers to sustain their farm productivity and reduce challenges of food security [39]. At this point, climate change is projected to escalate the frequency, intensity, spatial dimensions, and duration of extreme weather events, exacerbating the threat to the production and productivity of all major crops. This calls for better access by smallholder farmers to agricultural technologies that perhaps underpin resilient crop production to manage such climatic hazards. Having accessed the winner varieties of the upscaling experiment the target farmers realized farm resilience that can be conspicuously explained by the much higher grain yield of the varieties and better performance under stress conditions.The interaction with farmers in Ada'a district pointed out that the production of chickpea has been dwindling because of chickpea root rot and foliar diseases such as fusarium wilt. The decision made to revert the situation by introducing disease-resistant varieties and pushing the planting time from mid-August to early September worked well and now the production of chickpea is well restored in Ada'a with more than 10,000 farmers growing six varieties of chickpea in Gubasaye kebele only. The productivity of introduced chickpea varieties through the upscaling crowdsourcing winner varieties ranged from 2.4 to 2.53 t/ha, with slight variations over varieties. Habru varieties showed slightly higher performance than the others. According to survey participant farmers, the higher productivity of the varieties could be attributed to their genetic potential, reduced input requirement, better response to farm management, resistance to diseases and pests, and better adaptation to local growing conditions. High productivity and reduced production cost significantly contributed to household annual income, food and nutrition, and overall livelihood improvement. The mean annual income of farmers growing the upscaled chickpea varieties could reach 59607 ETB with a range of 2500 to 181,000 ETB. This might be attributed to the high-yielding nature of the varieties, low production cost, and premium market price -6-25 ETB/kga higher price for the upscaled varieties compared to other varieties in the market. The results indicate that upscaling pre-tested chickpea varieties and delaying their planting time to early September are effective mechanisms for reducing yield loss to fusarium wilt and root rot diseases. It can also be inferred that using the crowdsourcing approach for variety evaluation and selection for upscaling is a robust approach to improve the adoption and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies.","tokenCount":"5850"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"564c4245090618380bcae629dc6362f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H020476.pdf","id":"-1602487779"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"020f875d-52fb-402d-b09c-57ad9128e886","pagecount":"14","content":"An off i cia 1 Pucca h'araband i had been drawn up by the I r riga t ion Department only for one outlet (No. 19248/L of Distributary # 4). For other outlets, farmers had called upon the local Patwaris to assist in the drawing up of their unofficial warabandis, and this process was under way.Of the 8 selected sample watercourses, 4 each on the Distributary #s 3 & 4, warabandi of some sort had been drawn up only in 5 watercourses, where as in the remaining 3 watercourses some ad hoc arrangement was agreed upon by the farmers for sharing the irrigation supplies.Only two written down warabandi schedules could be traced.One of the main characteristics of the CRBC sign relates to its system capacity which provides for a higher water allowance.It allows for a delivery of 8.6 cusecs for 1000 acres (0.60 liters per second per hectare), compared to the mo re t rad i tiona 1 allowances in Pak is tan averaging to about 4 cusecs for 1000 acres (0.28 lps/ha).Ben its from this new design feature, however, would largely depend on the proper management of increased water supplies at the farm level. A disregard to this need resulting in inefficiencies in water use would exacerbate drainage problems, create unnecessary water shortage downstream the river system, and depress overall system performance and productivity of irrigation water. Ther ore, the way farmers share the water supplies and the way they irrigate their fields become critically important considerations.A study was carried out during two cropping seasons in selected sample watercourses in two Distributaries (No.3 along with Girsal Minor, and No.4) of the CRBC to understand and document the farmers' irrigation practices. This paper reports the preliminary results of the study and some related observations.Results of farmer interviews and field observations initiated during 1991/92 Rabi season in two distributary canal commands (Distributary No.3 with Girsal Minor,and Distributary No.4) can be summarized as follows: ..During this season, water distribution on both the Distributaries (I 3 & 1 4) was in a state of flux, both because of changes being effected in the physical infrastructure and the lack o~ experience among the farmers. As the command area was recently brought under irrigation, keeping in line with the normal practice, only the pipe outlets had been provided, later to be converted to Pucca outlets after the farm layout (Chakbandi) was fairly stabilized. Some of these out 1ets we re st i 11 be i ng re located to better command the area.A new minor, Jabbar Wala Minor on Distributary 1 4, was under construction to better serve the area with the smaller outlet chaks transferring the irrigation of some areas from Distributary 1 3 to Distributary 1 4.The situation of the Watercourse No. 14810/R of Distributary No.3 was ill ustrat i ve of some of the genera 1 observat ions made above. The farmers belonged to three separately identifiable groups among whom the water distribution plan was made in the first instance. Subsequently, the water allotted to each group was distributed further among their members by mutual agreement. The water distribution thus effected seemed to be inequitable; some landowners received more than their actual right while others received less than their due share. 'According to field information collected, this pattern was as shown in Table 1.As a f'O 11 ow up of the Rabi season's observat ions, another rapi d appraisal\"\" was conducted during Kharif 1992, and the results were analyzed along with regularly collected data.For most of the watercourses, farmers had called upon the local patwaris to assist in the drawing up of their unofficial warabandi, and in a f'ew cases the official warabandi schedules have been issued. However, in most areas, the process is still under way.In both Distributaries (Nos. 3 & 4), there were only for 2 outlets, outlet No. 19248/L and 7670/L, both in Distributary No.4, for which official Pucca Warabandi had been drawn up by the Irrigation Department. However, due to excess water supp 1 y these warabandi schedu 1es were redundant, and the farmers returned to the practice of the unofficial warabandi which was drawn up with mutual cooperation among the farmers.In outlet No. 1860jR, an official Warabandi was in the process of being drawn up.A 1 so there was a dispute among the farmers for water distribution on that watercourse. All the paper work had been completed and it required only the approval of the Executive Engineer. However, th i s process was abandoned when the dispute was reso 1ved , a 11 the farmers agreed to follow the unofficial Warabandi already under practice.In Distri butary # 3, out of 20 watercourses 17 have some form of arranged water distribution pattern popularly referred to as warabandi, and all these are unofficial arrangements.In Distributary # 4, the picture is slightly different: out of 36 watercourses, only 14 have warabandi, 2 of which (7670-L and 19248-L) have official warabandi, though not strictly followed by the irrigators mainly due to excessive water supply. One possible explanation for the difference in irrigation practices between the two distributaries is, as confirmed by the farmers, the relatively less reliability and availability of water in the watercourse commands of distributary # 3 than of distributary # 4. Another relates to the social characteristics, the population in Distributary # 4 being more diversified and with a higher proportion of recent settlers.In distributary # 3, in-depth investigations were carried out in four selected sample watercourse commands. The unofficial or the \"brotherhood (kachcha) waraband 1\" was pract iced on a 11 the four watercourses unt i 1 last Rabi season. During Kharif 1992 some areas of distributary # 3 have been transferred to Jabbar Wala minor of distributary # 4. The command area of one of the sample watercourses (14810-R) has been affected by these recent changes. As a result, even the unofficial warabandi of some commands has collapsed during this Kharif season.In Girsal minor, an official warabandi determined\" by the Irrigation Department is followed in the four sample watercourse commands. At the tail watercourses, although the official warabandi have been drawn up after the remode 11 i ng, d iff e rences a 1 ready ex i st between the des i gn stage and the'current practices. For the last 5 tail watercourses, differences are observed due to the soil erosion by the Indus ri ver which ha~ resulted in the decrease of the culturable command area of these wat~courses.Most of the farmers have reported that water is in excess during the Rabi season and that they are not keen about adhering to the warabandi. Thus changes from the warabandi frequently take place by mutual agreement.At times farmers close their outlets when they do not need any water. During the Kharif season, farmers cultivate a lower percentage of thei r land and again they are not particular about following their unofficial warabandi.Table 2 gives the type of warabandi and the water allocation for 12 sample watercourses. Farmers in each observed watercourse deviated substantially from their due share according to the uniform water allocation for the watercourse. The actual time durations of their irrigation turns were observed for the 9 watercourses supposed to be having some form of warabandi (see Table 2), and the results were analyzed further to see the degree of variation (see Table 3 for coefficients of variation for each of the nine watercourses). There is a high variability in the durations of the water turns as aga i nst the allocated time per hectare for the 4 watercourses of Distributary # 3. and the variability is much less in the case of the 4 watercourses of Girsal Minor. F i gu re I and Figure I I high 1 i ght the d i ffe rences between two watercourses, 10150 R of d i str i butary # 3 character i zed by a high variability of water allocation among farmers, and 5767 L of G-irsal mi nor whe re d i ffe rences are 1ess . These observat ions a 1 so 1ead to a conclusion that there is less equity in kachcha warabandi as compared to pucca warabandi.Even when warabandi exists, farmers have the practice of increasing the flexibility of water supply by exchanging canal turns or by purchasing full or partial turns of farmers having an excess of irrigation water.Most of the time, farmers exchange canal water in partial turns. These partial turns are used to complement the irrigation of some fields when the allocated time is short of 15 to 30 minutes of irrigation to fulfill the fie 1 d wate r requ i rements. Th i s type of exchange is seen to be' a daily irrigation practice in the area.According to field survey results, all the sample farmers in Girsal Minor, and 96% of those in Distributary # 3 have exchanged their water turns. , This shows that in fact, the warabandi turns have little practical meaning for the timing of the irrigation. Their real meaning lies in the fact that they -fix the right to irrigation water for the participating farmers, someth i ng that they can use to appeal when the i r access to wate r i So. jeopard i zed 1 n any way. They refe r to th is funct i on of wa.rabandi (is \"haqooq\".Especially during the rabi season when there is some rain, farmers deliberately miss their water turns. More generally, when the irrigation water supplied at a Distributary head exceeds the demand of the farmers or the needs of the crops, farmers usually close their outlets to avoid damages to crops or the risk of waterlogging. This practice is rather common in the 3 areas studied. In Table 4 below it can be seen that 92% of the interviewed farmers have closed their outlets at one time of the year or another.Table 4 leads to the following: i) no significant difference between the quartiles, ii) in Girsal minor, there seems to be lower prevalence of this activity, and iii) a trend seems to exist from the head to the tail of Girsal Minor, the percentage of farmers closing their outlets decreasing from the head to the tail. This can be explained by the fact that along Girsa1 there are several escapes that are opened in times of excess supply, so farmers don't need to close their outlets.Irrigation practices in CRBC area are still in an undeveloped stage and are evolving gradually. Two methods observed in the area are the toke method (where the farmer distributes his water among several fields at the same time), and the rotate method (where fields are irrigated one afte r the other). The toke method is more frequent 1 y used than the rotate method. The combined use of two methods have the highest prevalence. (In older canal systems of the Punjab only the rotate method is being used.)The survey revealed that the main reason for using a combination of the two methods is the presence of sloping lands. Another reason (in disty #3 & #4 area) is that before the start of CRBC this area was categorized as rain-fed area with small holdings, due to which farmers are hesitant to make farm level ditches, leading to the adoption of haphazard on farm irrigation methods for crop production.Due to the high content of clay in the so i 1 s of CRBC command, the s lopi ng nature of the soi 1 and no use of recommended ag r i cu 1tu ra 1 practices, fields are uneven. The majority of the farmers have always the problem of draining the extra water from their fields.Different practices are currently used by farmers, including the drainage of the excess water to nearby (adjoining) fields and to drain the water to the watercourse itself when possible. Mostly farmers are draining out water to adjoining fields.The survet has also revealed that some farmers use receptacles such as tins to drain the excess water out of their fields (lifting it) instead of draining water by breaking field bunds.PREFERE~TIAL ALLOCATION OF WATER TO CROPS Genera 11 y cana 1 water supp 1yin the area stud i ed was reported to be adequate to meet the crops' requirements. This meant that there was no need to prioritize among crops for the application of irrigation water. Despite this, the farmers were observed to have some preference for particular crops.In Rabi season there are only two competing crops which require irrigation. The data revealed that 72 percent of the farmers prefer fodder over wheat.Four main crops are grown during the Kharif season. Farmers always give the first priority to Rice. Sugarcane comes second, fodder third, and maize forth. The interview results and field observations suggest that the farm size also has some influence on these preferences.In new areas of CRBC, usually the farmers take the initiative when they feel that the watercourse is full of grasses, that the bunds are in bad conditions with the presence of rat holes and that water flow is not normal. One farmer takes the initiative to inform the others about a specific day for cleaning, this person, however, being generally a big land owner or the chairman of the defunct Water Users' Association, who has some influence in. such activities. All farmers get together at the end-point of the lined portion of a watercourse on a specific day. A farmer is selected to lead the cleaning process and to supervise the whole activity including the basic responsibility of dividing the watercourse length among water users according to the size of their farm or the time of their water turns. Each participant stops over at his farm nakka. If anyone is absent during this cleaning process due to any reason, his share is left or some farmers clean that and in 7ieu the absentee is asked to pay one day of labor.In some watercourse commands, the absentee farmers are not allowed to irrigate their fields but this happens very rarely.In the case of Gi rsa 1 mi nor, farmers reported the i nvo 1vement of patwaris of Irrigation Department in the watercourse cleaning. According to farmers, during the canal closure, the patwari comes to see the big or influential farmers and fixes a day in conSUltation with them and asks them to inform a 11 the water users. On the fixed date, he is usually present at the location of the cleaning. If farmers give names of absentees to the pa twar i for necessary act ion, then those are forwarded to the zi77adar who sometimes imposes fines on absentees.Irrigation practices in the new areas of CRBC Stage I are in an evolutionary process.Opening and closing of outlets by the farmers indi cate that they a 1 ready show some form of res~onse to crop water demand.A fixed water distribution schedule in the form of either kachcha or pucca warabandi has not yet been stab i 1 i zed in the area. Farmers in the area are mostly new to irrigation practices and welcome ass i stance to ~ improve the i r water management.There appears to be a good potential for a gainful effort in irrigation and agriculture extension services.The general feeling among farmers regarding an abundance of water is not ve .. y conducive to farmer organization at the watercourse level.Since there is no felt need to organize themselves for collective action, any real motivation among the farmers to form water users associations . cannot be expected in the near future. However, the only way to obtain proper information on certain aspects of farmer behavior as outlined above, such as opening and closing of outlets or any form of demand articulation, would have to be through an organizational mechanism. Since this information will be necessary for action by various agencies to manage the water delivery under these circumstances, the need to have organized farmer behavior will be felt more by the agency staff rather than by the farmers.------        ","tokenCount":"2662"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d473d18a2187bb3fdcffc1b2bc897908","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9bba838d-924e-445f-8079-350490bdd80a/retrieve","id":"-940497729"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a9b25b51-b941-45f5-b563-3fc5746e2029","pagecount":"234","content":"Producción y demanda de habichuela en los países en desarrollo (datos preliminares).Desde mayo 11 hasta mayo 16 de 19S7, se rea 1 izó en CIAT el primer taller Latinoamericano sobre mejoramiento de habichuela. El propósito de este taller fue definir objetivos y estrategias de mejoramiento para el cultivo y la relación existente, en este aspecto, entre un centro internacional de investigación agrícola y los programas nacionales.Adicionalmente se discutió sobre las relaciones entre mejoramiento de habichuela en el sector público y en el sector privado y la importancia de investigar y mejorar habichuelas para CIAT.Los procedimientos que Usted ahora leerá informan sobre las charlas y las discusiones Que se llevaron a cabo durante el taller. La importancia de la habichuela en el tercer mundo y en América Latina está descrita; estrategias de mejoramiento y de producción de semilla se exponen; progresos en diferentes paises de América Latina reciben mucha atención.Esperamos que importanci a de este taller contribuya a la discusión sobre la trabajar en habichuelas y otras hortalizas, estimulando e insp,rando la investigación de habichuela en los diferentes paises de América Latina. La justificaciOn para trabajos de mejoramiento en habichuela, surge de la importancia presente y del potencial que tiene el cultivo en el sector agrlcola, ya sea a nivel nacional para los institutos nacionales, o a nivel mundial para un instituto internacional como el CIAT. La importancia de un cultivo se puede expresar de varias maneras: se puede estudiar cuál es el área sembrada o cuál es el valor de la producciOn de habichuela a nivel de productor o consumidor. También se puede tomar en cuenta la importancia del cultivo en la nutriciOn o la importancia para pequeños agricultores, debido a que situaciones de equidad y nutriciOn complementan las consideraciones sobre el valor del cultivo.Las distintas formas para medir la importancia de un cultivo dan di fe rentes respuestas. el valor de la producción a a nivel de consumidor~ comercialización.En el caso de habichuela, por ejemplo, nivel de prOductor es mucho más bajo que debido a los elevados margenes tte Para entender de forma correcta 1 a importancia de un cultivo como habichuela~ es necesario conocer la estructura de esta industria.La Figura 1 muestra la estructura de la industria de habichuela en \", esquema simplificado. El productor de habichuela depende de un gran número de insumos, de los cuales la semilla es probablemente la más importante. La mayor parte de la producción está vendida y entra en una etapa de comercialización (mercadeo). La comercialización de la habichuela puede efectuarse en forma fresca o procesada (enlatada o refrlgerada). En el último caso hay una interacción entre el sistema de procesamiento y el de comercialización. Pasando por la fase de comercialización, el prOducto llega al consumidor final que puede ser un consumidor doméstico o uno externo. Por lo general en productos perecedero$~ el consumo doméstico es más importante que el consumo externo. Sin embargo~ aunque el consumo externo nO es tan ampl lO, esto puede constitulrse en una oportunidad de venta a altos precios (venta de habichuela en Europa o Estados Unidos durante el invierno).A continuación se tratará de enfocar los aspectos más importantes del consumo, mercadeo, procesamiento y producción de habichuela, para así clasificar la importancia del cultivo y los temas sobresalientes para futuras investigaciones y desarrollo. La habichuela forma parte del grupo de hortalizas, razón por la cual Se describirá el papel de ésta en comoaración con otras hortalizas.El oapel de las hortalizas en el mundo en desarrollo Como se puede apreciar en el cuadro 1, la contribución de las hortalizas a la nutrición se concentra en vitaminas (A y e más que todo) y minerales. Su contenido de calorlas y proteínas es bajo, 10 cua: significa que no juega un papel grande en la formación del organismo en el mantenimiento dei metabolismo. Estas dos últimas funciones dominan la nutrición con nive1es de ingresos bajos, donde la preocupación para mantenerse nutrido es inminente cada día. embergc. el suministro adecuado de \\'itaminas y minerales. es imoortante, por ejemDlo~ para desarroilar huesos fuertes. sangre sana y una visi6n adecuada. Por esta razón se puede anotar que el consumo de hortalizas sube rápida una vez que la gente tiene .mlls posibilidades económicas para variar Su dieta. Se puede concluir que una mayor di sponibil idad de al imentos básicos debe estar acompañada por mayor consumo de hortal izas para facil itar un progreso real en la calidad de la dieta.Cuadro l. El papel de las habichuelas en la nutrición.Prioridad en Contenido la nutrici6n+ ++ + + La nonna para una dieta con suficientes hortalizas es que se consuma 200 9 por persona diariamente, de los cuales 100 9 deben ser hortalizas ve~ (Samson Isou, AVRDC, comunicación personal).Para suministrar suficientes hortalizas se necesita en general de la produccifin nacional; las importaciones son caras y riesgos as por la 1 imitada vida poscosecha y soiamente son factibles en paises pequeños o can muy buena infraestructura.La producción de horta 1 i zas en cada pa I s es fuertemente detenninada por sus recursos geo9r~ficos.En el caso del SudesU! de Asia, la disponibilidad de climas frias 1) templados es reducido, 10 que significa que la mayor parte de las hortalizas deben ser producidas en climas calientes. Igualmente, en .1 Caribe el suministro de hortalizas de clima caliente dominar' (Cuadro 2).De otro lado, en América Latina o en la China hay amplia disponibilidad de climas intermedios y frfos y las zonas con estos climas participan marcadamente en el suministro de hortalizas.La habichuela es un cultivo de clima frio o intermedie, no se produce bien en climas calientes. por esta razón, toma más importancia en China. América Latina y Medio Oriente que en el Sur Este de Asia o el Caribe.El potencial de habichuela en un futuro próximo ne es determinado sólo por la disponibil idad de tierra frias o templadas sino también por la amplia disponibilidad de alimentos bhicos. Por esta raz6n, hay que ser pesimistas sobre el papel de la habichuela en el Africa. donde la disponibil idad de al imentos básicos es bajo y reduce la atención para hortalizas.Cuadro 2. Suministro de hortalizas en los diferentes continentes. Una última característica de las hortalizas es que pueden intercambiarse f&cilmente. El intercambio puede tener lugar, tanto a nivel de productor, donde un cultivo se reemplaza con otro, como a nivel de consumidor, donde una legumbre se sustituye por otra. El papel de la habichuela dentro del paquete total de hortalizas es deteminado en gran parte por su precio. por su calidad y por su compatibilidad con los alimentos básicos de la dieta.El consumo de la habichuela El consumo de habichuela para los paises donde hay una estimación razonable, se muestra en el Cuadro 3. Cuadro 3. Nivel,es de consumo per cáp1ta!a~a en diferentes paises Otras hortalizas kg!cap/año importantes Asia nTI pinas (1983) 0.39 Repo 110 Indianasi. (1981) 0.29 Otras hortalizas Taiwan (1985) 2.0 De hoja China (1978) 1.5- El consumo de habichuela en China y Taiwan es bastante mayor con reladón al de otros países de Asia. Al lado de la factibil idad para producir habichuela, influye aquí el hecho de que los chinos son grandes consumidores de hortalizas. Para ellos las hortalizas de hoja verde (repollo, repollo chino, lechuga y otros), tienen mayor importanci a que las hortalizas 1 eguminosas como h.bichue la, pero su alto consumo en general implica que el consumo de cualquier legumbre parece alto en comparación con otros paises.En América Latina el conSumo de la habichuela es considerable y parece haber cred do rápi damente en los úl timos diez afios. Además, la competencia no es tanto con hortalizas de hoja verde como con tomate, zanahoria y cebolla. Estimaciones sobre su consumo enAfrica no se han encontrado hasta el momento, mientras se sabe que en el Medio Oriente es una hortaliza popular pero aún no se tiene conocimiento sobre el consumo per cáplta exacto.Las estadísticas de la FAO sobre habichuela estiman un consumo total en los paises en desarrollo de un millón cuatrocientos mil toneladas, que igualará a un valor de unoS seiscientos millones de dólares al consumidor. Sin embargo, estos datos son muy incompletos y deben ser considerados como estimaciones.Para tener una idea sobre los posibles niveles de consumo, se puede tener en cuenta que en los EE. ÚU. el consumo oscila alrededor de los 3 a 3.5 kg/cap.El potencial de los mercados de exportación hacia EE. UU. y Europa es más limitado de 10 que se supone. Alrededor de los añOs 80 se importaron hacia Europa unas 34.000 toneladas de habichuelas por un va 1 or de 35 mi 11 ones de d61 ares aproximadamente (CIF). Las ;mportacione. a los Estados Unidos estimadas en fama preliminar, fueron menor en volumen, 20.000 toneladas y presentaron un valor de unos 15 millones de éó1ares. Hay que considerar que el crecimien1:o del consumo en estos mercados es muy 1 imitado y que en el caso de Europa, la entrada de los países mediterráneos al mercado común va a reC1ucir las perspectivas d. exportación a los países en desarrollo.!gua lmente, 1 as perspecti vas para el crecimi ento del consumo en los Cuadro B.A El potencfal de consumo de habichuela en Colombia. Consumo entre 1 •• personas que realmente comieron habichuela en el perfodo de la encuesta ORI. urbano anual llegarla a 6.7 kg per cápita. Igualmente. si se pudiera aumentar la frecuencla de consumo rura 1 a dos terceras partes de la frecuencia urbana, .1 consumo rural anual Subiría a 4.6 kg.De esta forma, el consumO promedio anual en Colombia subiría de 2.7 a 6.0 kg per cápita. En Colombia los niveles de consumo son altos en comparación con muchos otros paises, 10 que sugiere que en muchos de estos el consumo se puede triplicar f!cilmente.Para realizar estos incrementos en el consumo, eS importante que se produzcan habi ehue las de buena calidad y aceptación en e 1 mercado (Cuadro SS).En los países en desarrollo, los mercados de habichuela fresca tienen mayor importancia. La industria de procesamiento casi no se tla desa rro 11 a do . otros, verde claro.En ciertos países las habichuelas de color amari110,encuentran buena aceptación.Para aumentar el consumo de habichuela, es importante que en los programas de cuáles son las trabajando.mejoramiento se tome en cuenta exigencias del mercado para el El mercadeo de la habichuela específicamente cual se está Mercadeo minorista. El mercadeo de habichuela está integrado en el mercado de hortalizas. La mayor venta de habichuela tiene lugar en las plazas de mercado donde el consumidor puede escoger entre muchas clases y calidades de hortalizas. Una menor parte de la venta tiene lugar en tiendas o en supermercados. básicamente por razones de conveniencia. Las tiendas se encuentran cerca a los domicilios del consumidor, los supemercados permiten comprar un paquete completo de articulas de consumo de una vez. Otra forma para vender habichuela al consumidor es por medio de la venta ambulante.El mercadeo de habichuela depende en gran parte del desarrollo del sector detallista en general. En muchos países las plazas de mercado dominan el sector detallista e igualmente dominan la venta de habichuela. En otros países, los supermercados o los vendedores ambulantes tienen más importancia.En general, cada detallista dispone de volúmenes limitados de habichuela, ya que el producto solamente es una parte del paquete de productos horticolas.El mercado mayorista de hortalizas eS concentrado casi siempre en un sitio específico en cada ciudad. En estos sitios se concentra el suministro de productos horticolas de diferentes zonas y se organiza el suministro en paquetes adecuados para la venta al detalle.El mayor papel del mercado mayorista consiste en la redistribución de la oferta según las exigencias del data 11 i sta.Mercado rural. A nivel rural, el agricultor puede estar encargado del transporte hacia un mercado de recolección rural o urbano o la producción puede ser recogida en su finca.Si los volúmenes de prOducción por agricultor son pequeños, los 'mercados de recolección, reducen el esfuerzo al intermediario rural. Si el productor produce volúmenes considerables, los costos de recolección en la finca son reducidos y facilitan la llegada del acopiador al productor. Sin embargo. muchos productores grandes prefieren transportar y negociar su producto en un centro urbano, porque de esta fonna reciben un precio mayor.la función más importante del intermediario rural es el transporte. aunque a veces está encargado de la clasificación del producto. los volúmenes negociados por intermediario rural parecen ser bajos, por ejemplo, en ¡ndonesia es de 2.500 kg por semana.Debido a los volúmenes limitados por intermediario. la alta perecibílidad del producto y la pérdida de humedad después de 1. cosecha, los márgenes de comercialización son altos. En la mayorla de los pa's •• fluctúan entre 100 y 150% del precio al productor.La cantidad que venae un productor por transacción es casi 15 CC~jl\\lJ siempre baja. las razones son los limitados volúmenes que pueden absorber los acopiadores u otros agentes del mercado y los numeroSos recogedores que se necesitan para Cosechar grandes cantidades.Igualmente, la venta de grandes cantidades aumenta el riesgo de mercado, ya que los precios de las habichuelas tienden a fluctuar dia a dla en ,\",chos paises.El deseo de espaciar la epoca de venta explica 1. popularidad de las habic~uelas volubles con su cosecha indeterminada sobre los arbustivos que maduran todos de una vez.El procesamiento de la habichuela tiene poca importancia en paises en desarrollo y mucha en los paIses desarrollados.razones explican esto: primero, produtción de habichuela es muy en los países desarrollados, estacional.Para conservar los Dos la el producto se necesitan formas de procesamiento. En la mayoría de los países en desarrollo, la estacio\"alidad en la producción es menor y permite disponer del producto fresco la mayor parte del año.Segundo, el procesamiento sirve para hacer IWS conveniente la preparación de 1. comida. En los países desarrollados el ingreso per cápita permite la compra de productos convenientes.En los países en desarrollo, la mayor parte de la gente no tiene suficientes recursos para gastarlos en la compra de productos caros pero más convenientes~ La minoría que tiene suficientes ingresos para permitir la compra de productos procesados, a menudo dispone de servit;os de empleadOS y no estA en la búsqueda de productos convenientes para preparar.Para que el procesamiento sea bueno en los países en desarrOI lo. es necesario que e1 ingreso promedio suba y sea mejor distribuido para as'i crear una clase social que aprecíe 1i\" conveniencia y que pueda pagar. En este caso también es necesario que se integre mejor la producción y el procesamiento (por medio de contratos) y que se produzca habichuela a mayor escala del tipo arbustivo para facil itar planeación y cosecha. Control de ca 1 idad seria la otra condición importante para el éxito de una industria procesadora.Sin embargo, no es claro si en los paises en desarrollo es recomendable producir habichuela para procesamiento. ya que las condiciones climáticas, a menudo permiten producción contínua para mantener una oferta constante.Datos confiables de producción para algunos paises esUn disponibles en el Cuadro 9. Las áreas de producción en cada país son relativamente menores, en general, no m.!.s de 10.000 ha. Solamente países muy grandes como China. India, Brasil y Egipto tienen areas de producci6n mayores a las 10.000 ha.Las estadísticas oficiales probablemente subestiman el área sembrada en habi chue 1 a porque muchos lotes pequeños y caseros no han sido incluidos. Por esto, una estimación mlnima del área sembrada en habichuela en los paises en desarrollo podría ser 200.000 ha.(igual a la estimación de la FAO) , mientras Que una área sembrada de 250.000 ha, parece más razonable.La importancia de la habichuela no solamente se puede apreciar con base en el area sembrada, la cual solamente llega al 2.5% del área en fríjol. La prodUCCión de habichuela por ha, es alrededor de El precio de la habichuela a nivel de agricultor fluctúa mucho de pals a pafs y de mes a mes, pero una estimaci6n conservadora diría que el precio de la habichuela a nivel de agricultor es entre SO y lOOS del precio del frfjol. En este caso, el valor de 1. producción de 1. habichuela a nivel de finca en los pafses en Cuadro 9. Producción de habichuela en diferentes palses del' mundo en los principios de los anos 80. desarrollo es cerca de 20% del valor del fríjol, igual a unos 600 millones de dólares por año. A nivel de consumidor, la importancia de la habichuela sube por los altos m~rgenes de comercializaciOn, en comparación con el frijol. El valor de la producción a nivel de consumidor es un 27% del valor del fríjol.El productor de habichuela se j)reocupa menos por el rendimiento por hect~rea que por la calidad del producto.La calidad del producto determina el acceso al mercado y el precio interfiere mucho en las ganancias finales. la aplicación adecuada de riego, fertilizantes, pesticidas y fungicidas. el uso de semilla sana y de, tutores, no solamente sirve para aumentar el rendimiento, sino también para mantener y cuidar 10 calidad del producto. Especialmente el uso de medidas de protección química es muy alto, a veces m~s que 7 aplicaciones por cultivo de 70 días, lo cual puede traer problemas ec0109ic05 (al ambiente) y tOXicológicos (a la gente que trabaja en el cultivo y a la gente que consume el producto final).El desarrollo de variedades con mejor resistencia podría tener un impulso muy positivo sobre los costos y la sanidad del cultivo de habichuela. La habichuela es un cultivo muy intensivo en el uso de mano de obra y puede necesitar mas de 200 jornales por hectárea.Taiwan prácticamente todos los lotes son menoreS de 2000m 2 .En ciertos paIses; existe la posibilidad de recibir créditos para el cultivo de habichuela, pero frecuentemente el productor prefiere sembrar con base en sus propios recursos. En este caso\" si le resul ta mal el cultivo, pierde su dinero, pero no queda moroso con el banco.La habichuela es un producto hortlcola cuya forma de producción es muy parecida al fríjol.Por esta razón, es un cultivo que facilita el cambio de agricultur, a horticultura que esU tomando lugar en IIl\\Jchas áreas peri -urbanas.En esas fi ncas donde apenas está entrando la horticultura, la habichuela se encuentra en competencia con el café, fríjol, maíz o papa.En las fincas solamente hortfcolas, la habichuela está compitiendo o puede haber sido reemplazada por cultivos más intensivos como tomate, pimentón o flores.La habichuela se encuentra frecuentemente en rotación con otros cultivos que necesitan tutor como el tomate.El tomate tiene mayores exigencias de fertilidad y la habichuela puede aprovechar tanto el tutor come la fertilidad residual. La rotación con tomate puede causar problemas de nematodos en el cultivo de habichuela., pero para el agricultor, la rotación tomate/habichuela sigue siendo más beneficiosa que dos cultivos de tomate seguidOS o que el cambio de tutores a otro lote con la pérdida de ia fertilidad residual.Es importante entender que el papel de la habichuela depende de los otros cultivos en el sistema de producción. Para productores que apenas están entrando en el campo hortlcola, la habichuela puede ser el cultillo que aumente considerablemente el ingreso. Para productores solamente hortícolas, la habichuela puede ser un cultivo de rotaci6n y seguridad.La importancia de la semilla en la producción de habichuela La habichuela es un cultivo de ciclo corto, menos de 70 dlas. El resultado del cultivo áepende en gran parte de su germinación y vigor inicial ~ Por esta raz6n~ el uso de semilla de buena calidad eS recomendable.19ualw~nte, el uso de semilla de buena calidad reduce los ataques de ciertas enfermedades transmitidas por la semilla (antraenosis, virosis). De otro lado, la cosecha de un lote de habichuela no províene en foma de semil la sino en forma de vainas frescas y premaduras. Si el agricultor Quiere producir su propia semi 11 a. debe dejar parte de su campo para que se madure y seque la vaina.La factibilidad de comprar semilla es grande pero esta limitada en muchos casos por restricciones financieras al productor.En muchos paises Se observa que el productor compra semilla de vez en cuando y produce su propia semilla durante por 10 menos tres o cuatro ciclos hasta que la misma se contamina o reduce su vigor. En ese momento, la reemplaza con nueva semilla comprada.Las compras de semi lla por parte de 1 productor consti tuyen una integración importante del productor con el sector comercial. Esta integraci5n facilita la introducci6n de nuevas variedades y de nuevas prácticas culturales y aumenta el dinamismo en la producción de habichuela.En m!,chos paises en desarrollo. la producción y distribución de semilla est~ organizada de forma deficiente, Jo cual obstacuJ iza el proceso de adopción por parte de los productores.No se puede esperar que un sector semíllista se constituya solamente con base en las necesidades para habichuela pero sf hay que reconocer que el desarrollo de este sector ayudará en la distribución y el uso de nuevas variedades.La demar.da para hortal i zas crece tanto en e 1 proceso de urbanización como de ingreso.Por estos dos factores, la futura demanda por hortalizas se ve muy promisoria.El papel de la habichuela en el paquete de hortalizas depende de su precio, calidad y disponibilidad. El precio y la disponibilidad son determinados en su mayor parte por el sistema de mercadeo, ya que los márgenes son muy altos (100-150% del precio al agricultor). la calidad es la variable que depende en gran parte del productor; por esta razón, esfuerzos geneticos para mejorar la calidad del producto pueden tener más impacto que trabajos para aumentar el rendimiento y reducir los costos de producción.El área en habichuela es menor que el 3% del área en frijol, pero el valor de la producción de habichuela a nivel de consumidor es el 27% del valor del frijol. La demanda creciente por el producto puede significar que en unos afias la habichuela será el 40% del valor del fríjol o más. la importancia de la habichuela en la dieta es grande en China y Taiwan y en algunos paises de América Latina. En China son de gran importancia en la dieta las hortalizas en general. En los paises del mundo donde no hay climas fríos o inteníledios, la importancia de la habichuela en la dieta eS baja. El Medio Oriente es una zona donde según los datos preliminares, la habichuela tiene importanCia pero aún no se ha podidO averiguar esta importancia en más detalle.Para fomentar el desarrollo de 1. habichuela, es importante que se establezca una buena red de producción y distribución de semilla, que los costos de comercialización se bajen tanto como sea pOSible y que se integre al productor en el sistema de mercadeo urbano. la disponibilidad de variedades de alta calidad culinaria es la mejor contribución que el mejoramiento genético puede hacer para que la habichuela tome un papel prominente entre las hortalizas. Como parte de 1 a preparac.i ón delTa 11 er de Mejoramiento de Habichuela, se completó una encuesta sobre la producción, el mercadeo y el consumo de este cultivo en los países de los participantes. El siguiente informe presentar! los resultados m!s destacados de la encuesta y comparar! el papel de la habichuela en los diferentes países.En el Cuadro 1 se reunen los m!s importantes par!metros de producci6n y consumo.El área en producción de habichuela es menor a las 10.000 ha en cada uno de los países, según los participantes al taller.En Argentina, Colombia y Brasil, las siembras se extienden sobre unos miles de ha, mientras en Perú y Ecuador son relativamente menores. Los rendimientos fluctúan entre 4 y 9 ton. El menor rendimiento se observa en Perú y Ecuador, donde se cultivan variedades arbustivas con menor potencial de rendimiento. El mayor rendimiento se observa en Argentina, 10 cual refleja que en este país se han realizado esfuerzos más amplios para desarrollar el cultivo y para encontrar variedades adaptadas.Cuadro lo Producción, precios y consumo de habichuelas en diversos países de América Latina. Hay una disponibilidad de habichuela de mAs de 30.000 ton en Colombia, Brasil y Argentina y de menos de 10.000 ton en Penl y Ecuador. Per cApita la disponibil idad más alta es en Argentina y Colombia, cerca de 1.3 kg. En los otros pahes la disponibilidad no llega a medio kg. la disponibilidad per cApit. es considerablemente mAs baja que las estimaciones sobre el consumo per cápita en todos los pafses. En Argentina la diferencia es la menor, 1.3 kg de disponibilidad contra 1.8 k9 de consumo estimado. En Brasil y Ecuador el consumo estimado es más del doble de 1. disponibilidad estimada; en Colombia la diferencia es todavía mayor. La diferencias sugieren que el consumo ha sido sobre-estimado O la prOducción ha sido subestimada. Es muy probable, debido al corto ciclo de producción de habichuela, que el 4rea total sembrada durante los doce meses ~el año haya sido subestimada.Los precios de habichuela al productor se encuentran cerca a los 20 centavos de dOlar, con excepción del Perú, donde es el doble. La similitud de los precios es sorprendente, ya que se trata de un cultivo que no entra en el comercio internacional. El precio alto en PerO encuentra su raz5n en la inestabilidad monetaria que rige en aquel país, m4s el hecho de que el agricultor se encarga en gran parte de la comercialización.A nivel de consumidor los precios se hallan en el rango de 35 a 55 centavos de dólar por kg.Los precios a nivel de consumidor tienden a ser el doble de los precios a nivel de productor. los márgenes de comercializaci6n que resulten parecen altos. pero se encuentran dentro del rango común para productos perecederos. los El valor de la producción en los sesenta millones de dólares;países considerados es cerca él sin embargo, los datos de producción parecen subestimaciones de la producción real y un valor de producción de cien millones de dólares es m&s prcbable.Prácticas culturales en la ,roducción de habichuela El manejo del cultivo de habichuela se caracteriza por ser muy intensivo. Como se muestra en el Cuadro 2, el hábito de crecimiento de mayor importancia es el voluble (IV).En Ecuador y Pero Se cultiva habichuela arbustiva (1), pero las &reas sembradas en estos países son muy bajas.La siembra de habichuela en áreas con posibilidad de riego es muy común en todos los países. Solamente en Colombia se encuentran extensas siembras de habichuela en áreas sin riego. En muchos casos éstas son áreas donde se usa la habichuela como una alternativa de diversificación para el cultivo de café. El número de riegos que se apl jea al cultivo es alto, en caso de los volubles mas de diez veces por ciclo.La procedencia de la semilla es muy variada. En Argentina la mayor parte de la semilla se produce en la finca. Debido a la baja incidencia de plagas y enfermedades en Argentina, se puede producir semilla sana en la propia finca. En los otros paises la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades 1 imita m!s el uso de semilla de la propia finca. Según las encuestas recibidas. en Colombia cerca de la mitad de la semilla proviene de su propia producción, mientras la otra mitad se compra en el comercio.La semilla comprada proviene en general del exterior (Estados Unidos), con excepción del Brasil donde existe una industria nacional de semilla.El control químiCO en la producción de habichuela es muy intensivo. El uso de herbicidas es muy limitado, debido al corto ciclo del cultivo.Solamente las encuestas del Perú y Colombia indican el uso de herbicidas.Cuadro 2. Algunas prácticas culturales en el cultivo de habichuela en diferentes países de América Latina. Número de aplicaciones de:-Herbicidas Fertilización; -Producto 18-46-0 4-14-8Urea 10-30-10 El uso de fungicidas es mucho m~s frecuente. En todos los pafies con excepciOn de Argentina, se aplican fuogicidas coo frecuencia de fumigaci6n -eotre dos y nueve. La frecuencia de fumigaci6n es mayor en los paIses donde se siembra habichuela voluble. Las enfermedades que se tratan de cootrolar coo fuogicidas son oidium, roya y antracnosis.La frecuencia de aplicación de insecticidas es tan alta como la de fungieidas.El oúmero de aplicaciones varfa entre tres eo Ecuador y siete en el Perú. Eo el Pera el clima seco y húmedo que rige en las zonas de la costa donde tiene lugar la prOducción de habichuelas parece aumentar la presencia de insectos. -Barrenadores de vaina y saltahojas son entre otras. las p-lagas m~s comunes.La aplicación de fertllizantes es una práctica universal en la producci6n de habichuela. En general. se aplica tanto un abono qulmico como un abono organico. Donde la gallinaza está disponible, se convierte en la fuente de fertilización preferida.Phaseolus vulgaris es una especie con mucha variabilidad genética. Esta se puede comprobar, tanto en el frijol seco como en 1 a habichuela.Ciertas variedades tienen vainas largas, otras tienen vainas cortas. Igualmente, la secciOn transversal puede ser plana, semi-plana o redonda y el color puede ser verde oscuro y verde claro hasta amaríllo. Las características de calidad discutidas anteriormente se pueden definir con la sola observación de la vaina. Las áreas sembradas en habichuelas en los paises de los participantes al taller no son muy extensas. Debido al corto ciclo del cultivo, parece que se ha subestimado el área de producción. Aunque el área sembrada es baja, el \\lalor de la producción es considerable, cerca a los cien millones de dólares.La producción de habichuela es muy intensa. La aplicación de jos fertilizantes, riego} herbicidas, fuogicidas e insectic!das es frecuente. El eons tante control químico en hao; chue la no solamente es costoso, sine que también es peligroso. Las sustancias químicas que se usan pueden tener ciertos efectos muy negativos, tanto para la salud del consumidor como para la del trabajador de habichuela. Por esta razón, el mejoramiento genético de la habichuela, no solamente puede bajar los costos de prOducción sino aumentar la sanidad del cultivo.En el proceso de mejoramiento genético es critico tomar en cuenta las exigencias de calidad.En varios pa1ses de América Latina estas exigencias no son muy estrictas y dejan muchas posibilidades para mejorar la cal idad del producto. El Mejoramiento de la calidad podría tener un efecto amplio sobre la demanda del producto. Una demanda extendida permitirla a los productores de habichuela aumentar su producci6n e incrementar sus ingresos por parte de este cultivo.Douglas Pachíco* Small farmer. are an impertant target group fer agricultural develepment in the tropics hoth becaus. of their numerical importance and .lso hecause a prosperous agricultural sector is a major stimulus to general eeonamie growth. AlthOugh the traditional image of the sma11 farmer has been tnat of a subsistence oriented. produeer, inereasingly small farmers throughout the tropícs are becoming integrated joto markets. I/here sma 11 farmers are movi ng into greater participation in production for markets, they may have the opportunity to diversify out of tradition.l food staples into the produetion of market garden crops whieh may earn them a greater inceme. This paper reviews some economic aspects of snap bean production in order to make a general appraisal of the c~op's suitahilíty for small farmers.To make sueh an assessment it is useful to first consider what are the salient characteristics of smal1 farmers. By definition smal1 farmers have limited land holdings. This typica1ly lmplies thot they have a relatively abundant endowment of labor, even though they moy still face significant seasona1 labor constraints. Jt is also generolly assumed tnat smal1 farmers face st~ingent capital constraints. l/hile tnis 1s indeed typically the case among traditional subsistence oriented stapl. food producers, it may be rathe~ less trua among small farmers who are produei ng for tn. market. Sma 11 farmers who. produce for the market often have a suffident cash flow to permit them to invest in land augmenting agrochemica 1 s. Sma 11 farmers, 1 He near.1y a 11 producers, do face capital constraints, but these may not always be so limiting as to bar investment in improved seeds and agrochemicals.lt is also eomonly held that small farmers are limited in their production alternatives by their strong aversian to risL Daubtless rlsk ls a eoncern in productlon deeisions, but, as will be discussed in detall below, it Is not elear that small farmers are more limited by rls' than large farmers. lndeed, quite the opposite may he the case.In s\"mary, small farmers can be generally eharacterlzad by scaree land resourees, and relatively ample labor. Desplte conventiao.l wisdom, it is less elear that small farmers ~ se, (as apposed te subsistenee oriented small farmers ). can be generally characterized as extremely limited by capltal and hlgh aversion te rlsk.By eeonomle theory, it is clear that ration.l producers will maximiza returns to their scarcest factor. Since small farmer by definition ha ve limitad land resources, activities that 1 ead to high returns to land are attractive tD them. Data from Colombia show that snap beans generate very high returns to lanti compared to other small farmer crops (Table 1). This 1$ especially tne case when returns are considered on a per hectare per month basis. Such high returns to land make snap beans an attractive enterpris. for those sma]] farmers wno have the market aceess te mqke it a possible alternativa.Comparative data from the Phil ippines and Taiwan show aven h;ghe r returos per heetare from snap beans thao is the case in Colombia (Tabl.2).As well as laadiog te high returns to lana whieh is especially important to sma 11 farmers, snap beaos have the add; ti ona 1 charaeteristic of reQuiring substantially more labor thao maoy other crops (Table 3). Since large farms lack tha labor needad for snap bean produetion, or fa ce a diffieult challenge of labor superv;sion jf they try to produce snap beans on a large sca]e with hired labor, this makes snap beans a crop that is more feasible for small than large farme:rs* Moreover,. comparison of labor input to snap bean production aCCfOSS countries confirms that snap beans consistently require a hefty labor input (Table 4).Although snap beans do have t_o characteristics that make them an appropriate alternative for 5mal1 farmers -high returns to land and an intensive employment of labor other charaeter!,ties of the erap present 1 ess straight fO:--'f.'arc advan~ages for Sma 11 farmers. Fcr exampl e, total casts of snap bean production are quite high, ranglng froro $1677jha ta ne.dy $.4000/ha (Table 5). The composition of these costs varíes ccnsiderably among count~ies. For example t labor costs are higher in Colombia than the Philippenes or Taiwan, roughly $ll50/ha vs. $680;ha (Table 5). These high labor eosts are probably important reasons for the mueh 10wer labor input per hectare in snap beans production in Colombia as opposed to Taiwan or the Philippines (Table 4).Apart from labor, major cost centers in snap bean produetion !nelude seed, fertilizers, and pesticides (Table 6). High fertilizer ir,vest:r,ent is consistent with srnail far.r.er maxirr.ization of returns to their limited land holdings. Big expenses on insecticides and fungicides are probably derived beth from tne crop's susceptibilíty to pathogens and invertebrate pests, anti also frDm its high value of production which make jt worthwhile to incur substantial agrDchemical COStS tD protect the initia] investment and earn a high return.However, this comoination of high investment costs and hígh susceptabil i ty to pa thogens and pes ts, do contri bute to the crop' s riskiness. Compared to other small fanr. crops in Colombia, snap bean production entails the risk of a substantia1 investment (Taol. 7).Snap beans ar a rather risky crop. This oecurs due to multiple intense pathogen and pest pressure; a high capital stake; and wide fluetuation in product prices. While new snap bean cultivars with improved genetic resistance to pathogens may reduce risklness not only by decreasing disease losses but .lso by reduc1ng agrochemieal costs, the fact remai\"s that there are some substantia] risks invo1ved in production.Whether these risks are more disadvantageous to small or large farmers is an empírical question which can not be settled here.!t is possible, though, that sma1l farmers are better abl. to respond to these risks. By more intensiva crop management and more marketing efforts, they will be better abl. to anticipate production and price problems. Anyway there is no a priori reason to expeet they would be in a disadvantageous position with respeet to large farmers.In summary, snap beans may offer a very attractlve alternative for small farmers in the tropics who have good market access. Snap beans yieId very high returns to land and provide abundant empIoyrnent opportunities. The small farmer producing snap beans for the mark.t will be able te genera te a cash flew that aJlows sígnifícant investment in agrachemícals and other inputs. Ha\",ever, the crop daes eotall rísks due to market fluctuations. praductlan variability. and a high capital investmeot. Snap beans do appear to have elear potential for small farmers in developing eountries \",ho are favorad with 900<1 market access aod willing to assume some risks.   subsequent grading and handling of the crap in a1so by machine. In this system yi.ld and product quality are dependent on crap uniformíty. One of the factor. most critical for a unifom crap !s the planting of qua1ity seed.Seed qual ity may be di scussed as three separa te components: pathologiea1 quality, the freedom from seed born pathogens; genetic qua1ity. the freedom from off/type; and physiological quality. the capacity for vigorou., uníform germination.Segining in the 1920's a .nap bean seed industry dev.1oped in the arid west in areas where water was available for furrow irrigation. The dry elimate effectively controlled important seed boro funga I and bacteria 1 pathogens. inc1uding Colletotrichum and species of Pseudomona,s and Xanthomonas. Eventual1y practically a11 snap bean seed came to be produced in the arid west, with about 80% of the production in the Sta te of ldaho.In the 1960's. the effectiveness of this method of control began to deteriorate as an increasingly high percentage of snap bean seed carne to be contaminated with the haJo bllgh pathogen. !.Sgringn Rv. Phasolicola. Tne source of tne problem appears te have beeo the tremendous importan ce in 'nap bean breeding ef the variety Tendercrop. Tendercrop has ped and plant characteristics ideal for the processing industry. but is also extremely susceptible to halo blight. Tbe Idaho seed industry responded te this threat by imposting on itself regulations that limited the planting of snap beans in the .tate to lets that had been produced in Idaho and that had passed inspections by state appraved crews 1 • The subsequent decline of seed-bern infection suggests the effectiveness of this programo In addition several companles rautinely test stock seed lots using methods sufficiently sensitive to 'detect infection missed in the fleld. 8reeding pragrams of sorne of the same companies also actlvely select for improved level. of resistance in new cultivars.Careful maintanance of snap bean cultivar. 15 necessary to limit intraduetlon of off{types from mutation to wild types frcm physical mixture. and from out crosslng_ Asgrows malntenance pragram begins with a stock of breader. saed held at a low molsture content in cold storage. At intervals that depend on the sales volume of a particular cultivar, smal1 Qua\"tities of this breeders stock are space-planted in the fiold and harvested as individual plants. The next generation. a progany increase. is the only generation for which we feel roguing is an effectlve method to remoye off{types. Quantitative as \"ell as qualitative differences 1 Provislons do exist for trial grau\"ds. used for inerease of small quantity of seed outslde the state.are apparent in progeny rows when they would be missed in bulk inereases. These progeny increases are blocked by market elass so that a low incidence of out crossing is of little importanee. Subsequent generations, through the produetion of seed for sale, are under the control of Asgrow's production division.In these generations the produetion divisjon has establ ished proeedures for field selection and for cleaning of seed harvesting and handl ing equipment. Avoidance of preblems with genetic quality is the key te preduetio. jncreases, and inspeetions are intended to detect off/types. as opposed to eliminatíng them.Snap bean seed that is not vigorous or that has been subjected to mechanical damage wi1l\" not produce a uníform crop. Factors tnat contribute te poor physiological quality include rougn handling, low seed moisture, and a genetic predisposition to cracked coty1edons. When cotyledons are not intacto tnot portíon distal to tne crack contributes nothing to tne emergence oi the seedling. Factors interact to the extent that, in susceptible cultívars .. dry seed (below 10; molst\"re content) virtual1y ensures cotyledon wil1 break during handling or if planted in cold soil. Por los motivos anteriores, al prepararla debía partirse en tiras muy delgadas y cocinarla así, pues en estado entero la presentación en el plato era muy fea.A partir de ese tiempo. muy esporAdicamente se iban consiguiendo pequeños lotes de habi chuela. conocida actualmente con el nombre comercial de \"Habichuela Mantequilla\", COn cualidades culinarias y organolépticas muy superiores.Sin hilachas 3. Forma y presentaci6n uniforme. 4. Recolectada a tiempo, sin semilla pronunciada.Tanta fue la diferencia, que los almacenes de semilla la anunciaban con el eslogan de \"sin hilo\".Aunque mils atacada por enfermedades fungosas, sobre todo en épocas de invierno, los cultivadores poco a poco, iban cambiando a las nuevas variedades de habichuela mantequilla. los primeros cultivos de habichuela se hacfan del tipo arbolito o enano. Oe los años 70 en adelante, se introdujeron los nuevos tipos y variedades trepadora y de enredadera. la caracteristica del tipo arbolito es que el cultivo dura de 55 a 60 dias solamente y la cosecha termina con dos o tres recolecciones.El tipo trepadora dura en su cosecha de 4 a 6 semanas y da por 10 tanto un rendimiento más prolongado y mayor por metro cuadrado.Muchas de las actuales variedades, entre ellas la \"Lago Azulo Agua Azul\", se con~iguen en los dos tipos, arbolito y trepadora.Esta variedad se puede considerar hoy en d~a como la más popular y más conofida entre los cultivadores. la tendencia actual en el mercado de la semilla de Habichuela Mantequilla es la prodUCCión de nuevos h¡bridos con cualidades superiores como:1. Resistencia a enfermedades 2. Mayores rendimientos en kilos por metro cuadrado 3. Mejores cualidades de adaptación al medio ambiente (versatilidad) El tipo de habichuela California est~ totalmente descontinuado en la actualidad.Las zonas productoras están ubicadas en clima cafetero con pisos térmicos entre 1.000 y 1.800 m.s.n.m., preferenei.lmente con ambiente no muy húmedo. más bien medianamente seco.Es por esto que las zonas de Fusagasugá, Silvani. y Granada se han desarrollado desde hace años, como principales centros de producciOn que abastecen la ciudad de Bogotá. Largo mlnimo, medido en lInea recta de punta a punta, 8.0 cm, largo mhimo, medido en linea recta de punta a punta 15 cm sin contar las adherencias del tallo.De tamaño uniforme, dentro de las tolerancias.Frescura: Turgente, tierna, fr~gil, carnosa, con su humedad natural a 1 tacto, con su bri110 verde natura 1 y todos los si ntomas de un producto recién cogido. la coloraeiOn de la pulpa debe ser transparente, no blanca. Sanidad vegetal: Sana, libre de señales. de ataques de parhitos o enfermedades causadas por hongos, bacterias. vi rus, s in da~os mecánicos. las vainas enteras, sin señales de congelación y/o granizadas.sin sintomas de recalentamiento por falta de ventilación, sin residuos tóxicos de fumigantes, sin daños fisiológicos, sin manchas afectadas por pudrición.Limpieza; Limpia, sin mezcla de hojas, pastos u otras impurezas 4 Textura: Tierna pero firme al tacto por toda la superficie de la vaina, sin daños causados por presión. fricción o golpes.Color: Verde frondoso, típico de la variedad.Recta, alargada. sin curvatura más que en las puntas. Redonda y/o plancheta, según variedad.Cosechadas en su punto. sin hilos, los no pronunciados. La habichuela fácilmente, sin doblarse y sin producir rasgaduras.Apariencia: Atractiva, sin tallos y hojas adheridas cosechada con la uña. no arrancada de la planta, sin vainas despuntadas*Olor. aroma, sabor: Tipieos de la espeele y/o variedad, sin olores extraños.Los tamaños mínimo y máximo se limitarán cada uno al 10% del peso neto total del lote o de la muestra representativa escogida.Pequeñas variaciones en limpieza, forma, color t apariencia y desarrollo se aceptaran en conjunto hasta un máximo del 10% sobre el peso neto total del lote o sobre la muestra representativa escogida.En frescura, sanidad vegetal, textura, olor, aroma y sabor no se aceptarán variaciones de ninguna clase.Se aceptar~n los lotes que previa inspección cumplan con los requisitos y condiciones de cal idad y que no sobrepasan las tolerancias estipuladas. Estos lotes. previo pesaje y estandarización de rigor, pasarán directamente y en su totalidad al sitio definitivo de almacenamiento.Las remesas que no cumplen con estas normas\" se pasarán previo aviso al proveedor, a selección y clasificación a uprocesos'!.En caso de no aceptar el proveedor esta condí ción, se tendrá que rechazar el lote en su totalidad.Cuando se detecten olores a gasolina, petróleo, A.e.p.M. u otros y con indicios de pudrición interna y externa, se rechazará el lote en su totalidad.Se efectuarán de acuerdo con las normas y procedimientos establecidos.Observaciones la vaina es una parte de la planta que comprende las br&cteas carnosas y tiernas que encierran los granos de 1. habichuela.Gustavo Montes de Oca B.'La obtención de material genético de frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris) tipo habichuela es de mucha importancia para las regiones tropicales del tercer mundo desde el punto de vista alimenticio y alternativa económica para los agricultores.La habichuela tiene su origen en Europa y es el resultado de mutaciones genéticas del fríjol común introducido de América y su evolución y mejoramiento se da en paises como Francia y paises bajos, entre otros.Las variedades que se cultivan en las regiones tropicales son introducciones que no presentan caracteres deseables en nuestro medio, como resistencias a enfermedades, por ejemplo la Roya (Uromyce phaseol i), que reducen los rendimientos significativamente y elevan los costos de producción al ser necesaria la aplicación de productos químicos que contaminan el medio ambiente. Es por esta razón por la que se trabaja en la obtención de variedades resistentes de buena calidad como una alternativa viable . La habichuela cultivo considerado hort1cola a través de los años.legumbre de importancia en el mundo entere. en algunos paises más que en otres por Ser una Tuente de proteínas. vitaminas, minerales y calorfas. Excelente cultivo de rotación a nivel de peQueños y medianos agricultores. generador de trabajo en el campo por sus labores manuales y fuente de ingresos económicos.Periodo vegetativo 45 -55 dfas 55 -75 dlas 61 Rend i mi ento 5.000 -7.000 kg/ha 10.000 -12.000 <g/ha La habichuela es un cultivo que se ha venido difundiendo en muchas zonas o regiones climUicas desde los 800 a los 2.500 mS.n.m.; es un cultivo más delicado que el frIjol seco y la \"época óptima de cosecha\" es factor importante.Se conoce que las variedades que se, cultivan en los paises tropicales no SOn mejoradas para dichas condiciones, siendo altamente susceptibles a enfennedades C0l1l0 la Roya, necesitando de aplicaciones semanales de uBombas ll fosforados y carbonatos una o dos dlas antes de cosecha.3.Aumentar la capacidad de rendimiento de los materiales que se tienen en eJ mornento~ Búsqueda de yariedades resistentes a plagas y enfermedades con buena cal1dad de vaina.Búsqueda de variedades de amplia adaptación y de períodos vegetativos cortos. Búsqueda de variedades de doble propósito (habiChuela y frijol seco).Caracteres para mejoras genéticasPerfodo vegetatiYo Calidad de vaina, de acuerdo con los requerimientos de cada paisAmplia adaptación Arquitectura de la planta Estrés a sequla y baja fertilidad 62 \\ I I IEstudiar la herencia de los diferentes caracteres a mejorar, como calidad de vaina, color de vaina, tamaño de vaina, curvatura de la vaina t sección transversal. presencia de fibra en la vaina y otras características.Combinar 2 O más caracteres deseables en un material.Introducir caracteres deseab 1 es a variedades comerci al es de buena calidad de vaina.Bancos de germoplasma En viveros de mejoramiento Introducciones de variedadesMétodo de pedigree Método de retrocruzamientoLas poblaciones segregantes desde los viveros de cruzamiento hasta las Hneas avanzadas. requieren un buen manejo agronómico como control de malezas, corrección y preparación de los suelos, control mínimo de plagas y no control de enfermedades.Realizada la hibridación en los padres seleccionados, se hace 1. veriflcaciOn de la cruza en la F! para descartar la autofecundaclón.En F2, F3, F4, F5, F6 Y F7, se realizan selecciones individuales y pruebas de progenies buscando los caracteres deseados. • SelecciO\" de 250 materiales Originalmente se utilizaron los porotos únicamente al estado seco, y de esta forma se los guardaba durante el invierno; los hallazgos en antiguas tumbas parecen confirmarlo.Llegado el otoño, con las existencias del año anterior agotados y sin semillas nuevas maduras, probablemente surgi6 la idea de uti lizar semi 11as frescas para desgrane. Esta costumbre se ha mantenido en los pafses sudamericanos y se extendi6 también al sur de Europa. El poroto es oriundo de América Central. El grupo de porotos predominante en el norte argentino-chil eno tiene las mi smas caracterlstieas que los de América Central y es de suponer que se han separado de aquel centro muy tempranamente.Esto lo confirman las apreciaciones de O. Voysest en su libro sobre Variedades de Frljol en América Latina y su Origen: ya que el Imperio de los Incas extendía sus límites desde Pasto (Colombia) por el norte, y hasta el Río Maule por el sur de Chile. Abarcando 10 que hoy son 1 as prov i nei as Argenti nas de Juj uy, Sa 1 ta, Tucumán, eatamarea, La Rioja y Mendoz. (hasta San Rafael). formando el Tahuantinsuyo. A través de esta civilización se ha de haber realizado la difusión de estos tipos de poroto.En este ambiente. estos genotipos adquirieron características que le son propias y que los diferencian del de otras regiones.Sus propiedades más pronunciadas son: porte alto debido a sus entrenudos largos, reacci6n fotoperiódica que favorece su desarrollo en esas latitudes (no crecen bien ni en los trópicos y en latitudes mayores). además, producen vainas grandes. achatadas y anchas, con tendencia a carencia de hilos en las suturas y pocas fibras en la pared de la vaina, sus semillas no son muy redondeadas.Estos porotos fueron introducidos a Europa despu~s del descubrimiento de América. En aquel continente, y especialmente en la parte sur, se difundieron y arraigaron, pero reci~n a principios del siglo XIX pudo disponerse de cultivares apropiados para chaucha.Esto se 10gr6 mediante la experimentaciOn fitotécnica, por el cruzamiento de aquellos porotos con material procedente de América Central, los cuales se caracterizan por tener crecimiento sin guias, vainas redondas y angostas, siempres provistas de hilo y semillas alargadas.Los primeros cultivares obtenidos fitotécnicamente en Europa erar. indistintamente de enrame o sin guia. con chauchas anchas o tipo lápiz y de color verde o amarillo.Material de este tipo fue introducido posteriormente en Norte America, donde se real izaron nuevos cruzamientos con los porotos autóctonos de esa regi6n (estos son lI1orfológicamente semejantes a los de América Central), pero difieren en algunas caracterlstícas especiales, como por ejemplO la reacción fotoperi6dica.Desde entonces y por continuos cruzamientos realizados, tanto en Europa como en Norte Améríca t en busca de nuevas variedades se originó una mezcla de genotipos casi perfecta. Actualmente para reConocer el origen de los materiales se deben realizar grandes esfuerzos.Resulta interesante destacar que las varíedades de rama tienen por 10 común mayor rendimiento que las de crecimiento determinado, de manera que este tipo de poroto fue preferido durante muchos años ya que no interesaba mayormente el costo de mano de obra por haoer sido ésta abundante y barata.Actualmente en la Argentina esa preferencia por los cultivares de rama sigue vigente, pero al encarecerse la mano de obra y tecnificarse la agricultura, las variedades de rama fueron reemplazándose por las arbustivas. Estas últimas tanto por sus menores costos y por adecuarse mejor a las exigencias de la industria conservera, son actualmente preferidas en la mayorfa de los países de agricultura evolucionada. Las vainas ci llndrícas de estos cultivares SOn más adecuadas para enlatar que las achatadas de las variedades de rama.Debido a la importancia que tiene la industria1izaciOn europea de chauchas. sus fitotecnistas se abocaron a la tarea de crear variedades apropiadas para tal fin, es decir, chaucha redonda de 6ptima calidad y por supuesto de crecimiento arbustivo.Las chauchas arbustivas de vaina ancha. cultivadas para consumo en fresco no han recibido nunca el mismo interés de mejoramiento como las de industria y paulatinamente han resultado cada vez más inferiores en calidad y rendimiento. El tipo de vaina ciUndrico predomina en los mercados de Europa y Norteamérica, y desde que se logró introducirles genes de resistencia y/o tolerancia a varios patógenos gozan de la preferencia de los consumidores sobre los tipos de vaina ancha, generalmente muy susceptibles a enfermedades.La Argentina no ha tomado parte en esta evolución de sus propios porotos. Entre tanto se han recibido y cultivado variedades extranjeras obteni das a partí r de nuestros materiales autóctonos. ejemplO de ello es Bal!n de Albenga.El poroto ehaucha es un cultivo intensivo que no ocupa grandes áreas. Y la superficie sembrada es relativamente estable con alrededor de 3.BOO ha anuales y una producción de 29.600 t como promedio de los últimos 20 años (Ver cuadros Nos. 1 y 2). Servicio Nacional de Economía y Sociologfa Rural\" \"- --------,------,-----.----- De acuerdo con estudios realizados en el Mercado Central de Bs. As. el consumo per-c~pita de esta hortaliza es relativamente alto, ubic&ndose un escalón por debajo de los productos horHeolas de demanda masiva (ej. tomate, lechuga, hortalizas pesadas, etc.). Se estima COn base en los datos de producción para la campaña 1982/83 de 38.100 t que el consumo per-eápita anual sería 1,27 kg.Corresponde aclarar aquí que esta hortaliza frecuentemente se la cultiva a nivel de huerta familiar en gran parte de las zonas rurales del país, cuya producción no esta incluida en las características, 10 cual harfa que el valor del consumo per-cápita sea mayor.Las provincias de mayor área sembrada son Tueuman y Bs. As. Entre ambas reúnen el 60% del total del pafs. Le siguen Mendaz •• Santa Fé, Sa lta y Jujuy.Las provi ncias restantes no son importantes en la producción de poroto chaueha debido a la escasa superficie que presentan.El Grafico No. 2 muestra una evolución del area sembrada en los últimos 20 a~os en las provincias de mayor importancia en este cultivo.El mayor ~rea sembrada en las Gltimas campañas analizadas corresponden a Tucuroán, pero se observa que la mayor superficie la tiene tradicionalmente la provincia de Bs. As.Por su parte, Mendoza y Santa Fé mantienen su area en forma constante en el período analizado. Los distritos donde se cultiva chaucha en orden decreciente de importancia son: La Plata, Berazategui, Florencio Varela, Gral. PueyrredOn, Vil1arino, Beriso, San Nicol!s, etc.De un estudio de tesis realizado por un alumno de Horticultura de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad Nacional de Bs. As. se toman las características modales del, cultivo en esta zona, cuyas conclusiones se transcriben a continuaci6n:A partir del análisis de la información suministrada por las encuestas. se puede establecer el cultivo modal en la zona estudiada.El cultivo de poroto cnaucha se realiza en predios cuya superficie promedio es de 11, 12 ha.El establecimiento es exp 1 otado por los dueños. La mano de obra es famil iar y externa. Esta última bajo la farma de medieros. La cantidad de personal es de 0,5-1 hombre fha.El predio modal posee una o dos construcciones, tipo galpón. Tamoi;;n tiene un ~ami6n usado para transportar la producción a los mercados.El riego es aplicado en toda la superfiCie del precio, por sistema de surcos.El parque de maquinarias est~ compuesto por: un tractor, arado de reja y vertedera, rastra de discos, rastra de dientes, aporcador, escardillo y rotovator.El cultivo de poroto chaucha ocupa el 14,H del área total del predio. No hay una rotación establecida, pero se cambia la ubicaci6n del cultivo todos los años; y no hay antecesor considerado como IMS conveniente:. La preparaci6n del suelo se hace con una arada, 2-3 rastreadas (discos), 2-3 rastreadas (dientes) y el surcado del terreno con un aporcador.La ~poca de siembra va de agosto a marzo. Se real izan dos siembras, la primera en agosto o septiembre, y la segunda en diciembre, enero, febrero o marzo. La distancia entre hileras y plantas es de 80 cm y 30 cm respectivamente, la siembra es manual.El cultivar utilizado para la primer siembra es Balln de Albenga. y para la segunda el cultivar Contrancha. La semilla del cultivar Bailo de Albenga es importada de USA, mientras que la del Cantrancha eS de origen nacional.El tutorado se realiza con cafias o ramas de 61amo, 15 dlas después de 1. siembra. Se hacen dos carpidas y un aporque. No se aplican herbicidas.Se utilizan abonos organicos, estiércol de ave; se aportan 20 t/ha. Se esparce con pala y se incorpora con una rastra de discos.El riego se utiliza siguiendo las condiciones climáticas. No hay intervalo de riego prefijado.Se efectúan tratamientos sanitarios di\"igidos .1 control de plagas anillales. Se hacen con una periodicidad de 10 días. El producto u •• do es Paratión 50~ E, en dosiS de 1.000 cm3/ha. La enfermedad más común es 1. roya (Uromyces phaseoli) y las plagas habituales son la vaquita de los melones (Epilachna paenul.ta) y la chinche verde (Nezara viridula).La cosecha se realiza por primera vez 60 dfas después de la siembra y dura 3 semanas. Se hacen 3 recolecciones. En rendimiento promedio es de 6,37 t/ha, y el m!s frecuente 6 t/ha. Se comercial iza la producción en los mercados de Avellaneda o Beccar. La forma de comercializaci6n es el lorito de 10 kg. La rentabilidad es variable.Los otros cultivos que se realizan en el resto del predio son: tomate, lechuga, zapallito, acelga y perejil. Lamelas, Alberto, 1981.Tucumán: La producci5n en orden decreciente esta centralizada en los departamentos de Trancas, Fama;ll!. Taff, Chidigasta, Rfo Chico, Capital, BurruyacG y Leales. Es una zona productora de primicias entrando al Mercado Central de Bs. As. en septiembre, octubre, época en que se obtienen los preciOS mayores.En cuanto a cultivares usados en esta zona puede mencionarse \"Balina\" (dentro de las ramas de vaina ancha, aplanada). y .lgo de \"rolliza\" con el cultivar Famatina (tipo lápiz, arbustiva), yotros.Los departamentos involucrados en este cultivo en orden decreciente son: luján, Las Heras, San CarlQs, Maipú. Tunuyán, San Rafael, Tupungato, San Martfn. Esta provincia con su producción de choucho se autoabastece y además a través del Mercado Cooperativa de Guaymallén se envian toda clase de hortalizas (entre ellas chauchas) hacia la zona sur del pals. También parte de la producci6n va al Mercado Central de Bs.As.En cuanto a la modalidad del cultivo puede decirse que es intensivo, se realiza todo con base en cultivares de rama tipo Balln o Balina, con los cultivares: Valenciano Amarillo, Valenciano Verde, Painé ¡NTA, prácticamente no se cultivan variedades tipo lápiz ni de rama, ni arbustivas.El sistema de conducciOn es tutorado (Burba J. S., 1976): la modalidad de éste varIa según las condiciones locales más que por la eficíeneia de uno u otro. Entre los más difundidos se encuentran los siguientes: l. Carpa: Consiste en la colocación de cañas a distancias variables, que se unen de acuerdo en un solo punto y que generalmente sostienen 2 plantas por cada tutor.2. Espaldera: consiste en alinear tantas ca~.s como plantas existen sobre el surco, sostenidas transversalmente por un alambre tirado entre 2 postes cábeceros y atadas a él.3. Caballete: es una estructura símilar a la utilización para tutorar tomate, y es en síntesis una combinación de las dos anteriores, pero con mayor fortaleza, ya que cañas ubicadas en dos surcos continuos se apoyan sobre un solo alambre que es sostenido entre postes cabeceros.De los sistemas de tutorado mencionados, los más usados por lo. productores de esta zona son el 1 y el 3. El 2 es usado por ejemplo en la EEA La Consulta para la producción de la semilla Elite o Prebósica de poroto chaucha ya que permite' guíar plantas individualmente.(Respecto a ~pocas de siembra, ferti 1í zaci ones, herbici das, tratamientos fitosanitarios, No. de recolecciones, etc., están en la encuesta adjunta).Es importante destacar Que la recolección se lleva a cabo en forma manual y por sucesivas pasadas\" arrancando las vainas con o sin pendOne\"lo.El acarreo se realiza con canastos, luego se clasifica en la misma propiedad y se coloca en bolsas de arpillera plástica de 12-15-20 kg, siendo luego llevadas a los distintos mercados de concentración de la provincia de Mendoza, o de Bs. As., por el mismo productor. o por consignatarios.La producción de esta hortaliza estA distribuida en forma decreciente en los departamentos de Capital. Rosario, Garay, San Lorenzo y Constitución.El cultivo modal en esta zona ha sido estractado de una publicaCión de Scaglia E. M., et al. 1985: El poroto chaucha en cuanto a superficie cultivada de hortalizas en esta provincia ocupa un 3er. lugar (que compite con zapallito), luego del tomate y la lechuga.Hay dos épocas de siembra: agosto•septiembre Y enero-febrero. Es un cultivo muy importante como complemento de las demás actividades hortlcolas. Según orden de importancia la distribución seria:Pepino las especies que esUn en 3er. y 40. lugar apoyan los gastos originados por los cultivos que están en ler. orden. Debido a la época en que se cosechan los zapallitos, berenjenas y ehauchas (abril a octubre) primicia para los grandes mercados consumidores del pals adquieren precios muy compensatorios.En 10 que respecta a cultivares se usan: Lago azul: tipo lápiz.Balina: de vaina chata, tanto indeterminado como determinado.Chaucha mendocina o chaucha Gallega: de vaina chata, Mbito indeterminado, de muy buena calidad. Vaina de 20 cm o más de largo y 2 a 3 an de ancho t no tiene hi 1 o, y aún estando 1\\ aporatada ll es sumamente tierna (quizás se trate de una pOblación del Valenciano Verde que se cultiva en Mendoza).Rendimiento: pueden llegar a 16.000 kg/ha. Jujuy Datos suministrados por el Ing. Ricardo Hueda de la Agencia de Extensión de Perico INTA.Los departamentos donde se produce .sta. hortal iza son: Santa BArbara, Ledesma, El Carmen y San Pedro.Los cultivares que se utilizan son Balina y algo de Lago azulo chaucha lApiz que no se enrama.Se cosecha y manda al mercado de mayo a ju 1 io. Los pri nci pa 1 es mercados a los que va son principalmente Tucumán y eventualmente Ss. As.Existen numerosos tipos de clasificaciones de los cultivares de poroto, pero la seguida por Oswaldo Voysest, 1983, parece ser la mAs conveniente.Las variedades de frIjol (Phaseolus vulgaris) se pueden clasificar de acuerdo con diferentes criterios.   Dentro de las variedades de chaucha le sigue en orden de importancia en cuanto a sus caracteres: •el corte transversal de la vaina, surgen as1 los \"tipos '~pizlt corte transversal de la vaina circular ; y los \"tipos de ehaucha chata, plana o aplanada\" que son •los de mayor consumo en eSte pals (máS del 80% de 10 cultivado para este fin corresponde a este tipo). Luego interesa el color de la vaina, distinguiéndose sólo dos tipos; verde y amarillo (ver Cuadro 4).Los trabajos de investigaci6n sobre poroto ehaucha COmenzaron en Argentina en la Estación Experimental Agropecuaria La Consulta INTA. Por ello debo referirme nuevamente a los trabajos realizados por 1 a Ora. 011 i e Bergl und de Srüeher donde en sus \"Observaciones morfo15gicas y fenológicas en porotos inalgenas (Phaseolus vulgaris) de Argent4 na y eh; 1 e U , mene; ooa que: 11105 porotos chaucha si n gui a no eran conocidos en nuestro pals y variedades de este tipo de crecimiento fueron introducidas mucho más tarde, habiendo alcanzado a la fecha poca difusión.En cambio porotos para chaucha de rama se han hallado en la reserva aut6ctona argentina-chilena del Instituto Darwiniano.El tipo de chaucha grande, achatada. carnOsa se ha arraigado tanto en nuestro consumidor que es diffcil suplantarla por chauchas tipo Hpiz.Por tal motivo durante anos (1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966) en la Estación Experimental IIgropecuaria La Consulta rNTA se ha mantenido y observado una colecciOn de 300 cultivares (tanto de poblaciones autOctonas de nuestras provincias andi nas: Mendoza. San Juan. eatamare •• Tucumán, Santa y Jujuy, como del lado chileno desde Ta1ea en el sur hasta Coquimbo en el norte). además de procedencias de Ecuador, Perú, Venezuela, como de cultivares extranjeros.Oe esta vasta colección se estudiaron las caracterlstieas morfo16gicas. tales como tipo de crecimiento, forma, tamano y color de la vaina, forma y tamaño de la semilla, ademát de aspectos sanitarios de la planta en el campo.Pero como en poroto chaucha la vaina es la parte consumida y a los fines de hacer más breve la descripcion de caracteres. sólo se toman las observaciones referidas a ella.Las principales caracterfsticas de la vaina son: ancho y espesor, y con base en la relaci6n existente entre ambas se las agrupa en achatadas por un lado y redondas tipo l!piz por otra.Todos los cultivares indlgenas de Argentina tienen vaina achatada. Ilientras que el corte ovalado-redondo es tfpico de las autóctonas de América Central y América del Norte. Y para la gran rnayorfa de las variedades creadas en nuestro tiempo la mira de los fitotecnistas ha estado puesta en obtener un corte super redondo de la vaina.En cuanto al tamaño de 1. vaina es reducido en ciertas variedades autóctonas, como sucede en el Bolita Salteño, y relativamente grande y ancha en la mayorla de las existentes en Argentina, sin llegar al largo tlpleo de la Case Knife o Kentuc\\ty Wonder.La punta de la vaina, que es la extremidad estilar, juega un rol importante en la clasificación de las variedades. Salvo pocas excepciones, su forma es recta entre las autóctonas de nuestra tierra.En cambio en las variedades del hemisferio norte o de América Central muchas veces se caracterizan por su punta recurvada.El color de la vaina es generalmente verde con diferentes tonos.Vainas tiernas amarillas no han sido encontradas entre los materiales autóctonos de Argentina. No cabe duda que los cultivares tlpieos para desgrane han sido seleccionados en nuestro ambiente y es muy sensato suponer que los indios. que tanto gustaban de los colores llamativos. han colaborado en la oIltención de estas variedades.Tal hecho se nota especial .. nte en la combinación de las semillas grandes que sirven para deSljl\"ane. con la carac:erfstica de las yainas coloreadas que cuando alcanzan mayor intensidad est~n en mejor estadó para desgrane, lo que facilita su cosecha.Filogenéticamente este grupo es muy interesante porque est¿ íntimamente relacionado con los cultivares para chaucha ancha, y es aqui ad .... s. donde debemos buscar el origen de la caracterlstica de va; nas sin hilo.El factor dominante para ausencia de hilos se encuentra en diyersas poolaciones de cultivares-geogrHicamente distanciadas-que pertenecen a este grupo.La selección de lIneas sin hilo con la consiguiente obtención de variedades para chauchas se encaró, sin embargo. recién en tiempos modernos. Nuestros antepasados no han aprovechado esta oportunidad brindada por la naturaleza. Sin embargo, para la cosecha de semillas esta caracterlstica constituye un impedimento. pues la vaina sin hilo y fibra\" al secarse, se inserta alrededor de las mismas y dificulta su separación de la yaina. Por eso es muy probable que Otra interesante observación de este grupo, que afirma la hipótesis sobre su origen en nuestra en diferentes latitudes. zona, es la comparación de su precodidad Aún mientras en La Consulta estas variedades se comportan por lo general como tempranas, cultivadas en el sur de Europa o en el este de USA (a latitudes mayores) aparecen como tardfas. Además, la variedad Balina no se adapta a zonas como Venezuela; y lo mismo puede decirse respecto a Pinto para Costa Rica, por florecer demasiado temprano y no alcanzar suficiente desarrollo. vegetativo.La explicación radica en la gran sensibilidad con que el poroto reacciona a la longitud del día. Por la mis~~ causa la mayoría de los porotos tropicales, por ejemplO, son tardfos en La Consulta, a tal punto que generalmente no alcanza el grado de madurez.Nuestros cultivares de desgrane llegaron a Europa poco tiempo después de la conquista y su cultivo se difundi6 rápidamente en ese continente.Opinamos que tiene que haber sido en ese momento cuando comenzO la selección por vainas sin hilos y pocas fibras y el consumo de chauchas.En el sur de Europa se ha mantenido hasta nuestros dias el usa de porotos desgranados, mientras que más .1 norte nunca fue introducido debido. que las variedades apropiadas no Crecen bien en esas latitudes.En Norteamérica su cultivo esta poco difundido en la actualidad, a diferencia del último siglo cuando los \"Cranberries\" -nombre bajo el cual se agrupaban aquéllos-eran cultivados particularmente en los estados del sUr y oeste.Hablan sido introducidos desde Europa (como por ejemplo: London Horticultural, Haricat de Prague, etc.) a principiOS del siglo XIX, y m~s tarde los semi11eristas difundieron creaciones propias de este tipo.Chile es el pais que aún hoy detenta aquel tipo de variedades, mientras que en nuestra, provincias la costumbre de sembrarlas ha disminuido notablemente en los últimos afias, a tal punto que muchos cultivares han desaparecido.Dentro del gran grupo de desgrane se hallan las variedades para chaucha corno Balln de Albenga. Balin Milanés Archiovera. Los dos primeros son cultivares muy relacionados.Come sus nombres 10 indican procede del sur de Europa, su reacción foto periódica no les ha permitido difundirse mucho mAs al norte, donde sus vainas no alcanzan a madurar bien.Har. sido introducidas a Argentina repetidas veces y figuran bajo el nombre de Italian bean.En cambio el cultivar Algarrobeño no estil relacionado con el gran grupo para desgrane. Se supone que podrla estar re 1 oei ana do con las variedades norteamericanas de Kentueky Wonder.En la provincia de Mendoza (al igual que en la mayorla de las zonas productoras del pais) se cultivan variedades de enrame, de tipo de chauch. ancha, muy anchas y gruesas. A este tipo de cultivares se los ha genera1izado con el nombre de chaucha uBelina H (haciendo referenc; a a la forma de su semi11 a: redondeada, ti po ballo).El principal cultivar dentro de este tipo es BaHn de Albenga.BaUn de Albenga: sus vainas generalmente carecen de hilo, pero tienen algo de fibra en la pared, especialmente cuando maduran. la variabil idad dentro de la variedad no es muy grande, posiblemente porque una buena selección de origen argentino fue durante mucho tiempo multiplicada y mantenida por una semi1larla norteamericana.Esta provefa a nuestros agricultores de semilla sana y que respondía a las caracterfSticas varietales. Aunque la calidad de su semilla es muy buena. la planta no es voluminosa y Su rendimiento no es muy alto. Es muy susceptible a marchitamiento por rusarium y al virus del Mosaico Común.También la roya lo ataca mucho cuando las condiciones ambientales son adecuadas. la Dra. 011ie Berglund de Brijcher obtuvo el cultivar Balln de Albenga Selección la Consulta con las siguientes características: Grado da difusión actual: Por intennadio del Plan Nacional de Multiplicación de Semillas HorHcolas del ¡NTA, se vendió la semilla original para multiplicaciones en escala importante en Buenos Aires y Mendoza. En todas las regiones hoctícolas. incluida la de quintas del Gran Buenos Aires. se ha producido semilla en extensiones menores. Proceso seguido en el plan de mejoramiento: Selecciones individuales realizadas a partir del cultivar original de Balin de Albenga. en busca de una buena pureza varietal y mayor unifonr,idad de chauchas.Planta alta, de enramar, chauchas anchas y bastante largas. completamente sin hilos, de color verde claro. Las semillas son grandes, de color beige en el primer año, luego adquieren un color castaño claro uniforme.Caracteres ecológicos y fenológicos: Su desarrollo hasta la pri .... ra cosecha en verde ocurre en 80 dlas. El ciclo evolutivo total se cumple en 130 dlas desde la siembra. y culmina con l. producción de semilla.Empieza a prOducir temprano las chauellas para consumo en verde. Las semillas se desarrollan \"elativamente rApido, por lo cual las chauchas se vuelven \"aparotadas\" f~cilmente, y al envejecer se fonuan hilos' en sus paredes.Caracteres sanitarios: No presenta resistencia al Mosaico ComOn del pclroto (Phaseolus vulgaris 1) ni al chaseolus vulgaris 2, ni ~oco a Fusarium Caracteres. culturales: La densidad de siembra aconsejada es de 120 a 240 kg por na, para cultivo sin enramar o enramado, respectivamente. Se puede calcular su rendimiento en 10 Ó :2 kg por ha de chaucnas verdes. La producción de semilla es aproximadamente de 1.000 kg por hect¿rea.Caracteres tecnológicos: Se 10 cultiva exclusivamente para chauella. Peso d. 1.000 semíllas: 545 gramos. aproximadamente. Número de semillas por kilogramo: .\"'¡rededor de 1.810.Regiones adecuadas para $U cultivo: Casi todas las regiones hortico1as del país, desde el extremo norte) Salta y JujuY$ Tuc~n, Buenos Aires. ~endoza y hasta Rio Negro, en el sur.Ventajas sobre otros cultivares: pureza varietal y chauchas uniformes.Se destaca por una buena grandes, derechas, anchas y Defectos principales: Se \"aporota\" f!cilmente, 10 cual desmerece la calidad de las ehauchas, si la cosecha se atrasa.Luego tambi~n en ¡NTA, pero en el Instituto de Fitotecnia de Castelar, M. Popovieh y J. Deveie obtuvieron el cultivar Acay Magnif ¡NTA, con las siguientes caracterlsticas: Grado de difusión actual: Est~ desplazando al cultivar más difundido en el pals, Balln de Albenya. Proceso seguido en el plan de mejoramiento: Mejorar cualicuantitativamente las poblaciones locales del popular cultivar Balfn de Albenga.La técnica empleada se inició en el cruzamiento: Bal!n de Albenga x 5axa Brun y luego con la técnica corrien~~ para lograr nuevos cujtivares~ Caracteres ~~rfo16gicos: Planta de porte indefinido (de rama). de poco follaje. Flores blancas con tinte violáceo. Chaochas largas y aplanadas de 15 a 16 cm de largo por 2 a 2.5 cm de ancho. Semillas de color crema con estrias circulares de color pardo oscuro. Reniformes.Caracteres eco16gicos y fenológicos: Es medianamente precoz (75-80 dlas).Necesita riego abundante en la época de floración. No resiste las heladas.Caracteres culturales: Siembra desde octubre a marzo en la región del litoral, en hileras con diStancias variables segGn el modo de enramar y entre plantas 40 cm. Densidad normal: 50-80 kg por ha. Rendimiento normal de 10.000 a 12.000 k9 de chaucha verde por ha.Caracteres tecnológicos: Chauchas muy carnosas y sin hilos, de tipo aplanado, preferidas por nuestros consumidores. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 420 gr, aproximadamente.Número de semillas por kilogramo: Alrededor de 2.300.Regiones adecuadas para su cultivo: Todo el pa!s.Ventajas sobre otros cultivares: Muy buena calidad y mejor rendimiento.Defectos principales: No se destaca ninguno frente a otro cultivares.Luego el Iny. Jorge E. Oozo en 1. EERA Balearce INTA, reseleccionó el cultivar Magnif Acay INTA, a quien bautizó como Magnif Acay, Selección Balcaree: Grado de difusión actual: El Ilrea cultivada con esta especie enla zona de Mar del Plata, se estima -en un 70%. Proceso seguido en el plan de mejoramiento: Es una selección del cuHivar creado por el lnstituto de Fitotecnia: Magnif Acay ¡NTA. Se procedi6 a una selección de plantas destacadas en crecimiento, calidad de la chaucha y resistencia a las enfennedades~ Caracteres morfol0gicos: follaje abundante; flor semillas son de color crema Plantas indeterminadas (de rama); blanca con tinte viol~ceo.Las con estrfas circulares color pardo.Caracteres eco16gicos y feno16gicos: Se adapta a la regi6n sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, pero es más precoz y de mayor rendimiento y calidad que Magnif Acay ¡NTA.En comportami ento a campo muestra resistencia a bacteriosis y mosaico.Caracteres culturales: La técnica de cultivo es simi lar a la de la generalidad de los cultivares de esta especie. por su rendimiento de ehaucha que supera los 12.000 un cultivo para enramar. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 430 gr, aproximadamente.Número de semillas por kilogramo: Alrededor de 2.500.Regiones adecuadas para su cultivo: Muy adecuado para la región sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, donde su cultivo abarca más del 70% del área de multiplicación de esta especie, especialmente en los huertos de los alrededores de Mar del Plata.Es de mejor calidad y rendimiento que otros cultivares más difundidos. Origen genético y método de mejoramiento: Es una selección del cv. Magnif Acay ¡NTA. Se procedió a realizar una selección de plantas destacadas en crecimiento, tamaño y calidad de la chaucha y resistencia a enfermedades. Grado de difusión actual: Se estima en un 80% del ~rea cultivada en la zona hortfcola de Mar del Plata.Caracteres morfológicos: Planta indeterminada (de rama) de follaje abundante. Flores blancas con tinte viol~ce()'. las semillas son de color crema con estrías circulares color pardo.Caracteres ecológicos y fenológicos: Adaptado a la región sudeste boanerense. Más precoz, mayor rendimiento y mejor calidad que M.gnif Acay lNTA, del cual proviene.Caracteres sanitarios: Suena resistencia a oacteri osis y mosaico.Caracteres culturales: El cultivo se realiza en forma similar a la mayorfa de los cultivares de la especie. Se destaca por su rendimiento en chaucha, por cuanto supera los 12.000 por ha. La siembra se realiza en surcos distanciados a 0,70 m. Entre plantas, la distancia es de 0,20 m depositando 5 a 6 semillas por golpe. Demanda 70 kg de semilla por hect~rea.Caracteres tecnológicos: Chauchas aplanadas, muy pulposas, sin hi10s y sin tendencia a aporotarse. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 430 gr. Número de semillas por '9: 2.300Ventajas sobre otros cultivares: Mayor rendimiento y calidad de producto.Defectos principales: No se han observado.En la Estación Experimental de Balearce, ¡NTA, se siguen trabajos de mejoramiento can base en Painé ¡NTA, con las lineas L3 y L5 (selección genealógica) que son superiores y están prontas a inscribirse como nuevos cultivares.Simult!neamente con l. labor de fitomejoramiento de variedades de enrame con vaina chata llevadas a cabo en ¡NTA, el Instituto de Horticultura de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo también desarrolló cultivares con el mismo fin, obteniéndose dos muy promisorios, ellos son Tupungato FCA y Mendoza FeA.Tupungato FCA Técnico creador: ln9. Agr. Luis Orlando Melis Grado de difusión actual: Cinturón hortlcola de Mendoza. Proceso seguido en el plan de mejoramiento: Cruzamiento entre Ba 1In de Contrarehi overa por Al garrobeño amarillo y posterior seiección.Plantas altas, de enramar. De coauches anenes C2,3 cm) y de 17 cm de 1 argo, de color verde, s in hil o. carnosas.Las semill as son grandes de forma cillndrico globosa de color beige griSáceo con veteado marrón oscuro; cOn un leve esfumado tostado alrededor del hilo.Caracteres ecológicos y feno1ógicos: Las primeras chauchas se cosechan de los 60 días de genninaci6n en adelante para las condiciones de Mendoza.Caracteres sanitarios: No presenta resistencia a ninguna de las enfermedades mas comunes del pcroto.Caracteres tecnológicos: Se cultiva exclusivamente para chaucha. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 513,24 g.Regiones adecuadas para su cultivo: Todo el país.También debe  también Sal!n de Albenga en mencionarse aou! que durante varios años se trabajó en la purífiéación y selección de la Estación Experimental Agrícola de Tucum!n.Otro cultivar de rama de chaucha plana que se cultiva en nuestro medio es Algarrobeño. Este cultivar, mejorado por Abelardo Piovano, supera en rendimiento a todas las variedades de enrame (esto se debe fundamenalmente a su tolerancia al virus del Mosaico ConIln y al virus del Curly Top). El origen de esta variedad es sin duda europeo, y su semilla debe haber sido traída por alguno de los agricultores españoles o italianos que se instalaron alrededor de 1930 en el distrito El Algarrobal, del departamento de las Heras en Mendoza; de gran importancia hortícola. Como toda la chaucha que llegaba al mercado era de tal procedencia se 10 bautizó con el nombre de \"Algarrobeño\", con el que se popularizó en Cuyo (Abelardo Pi.vano, 1953). Los rendimientos en Mendoza han llegado a 25.000 kg/ha durante la primavera y el verano.Es una planta voluminosa, de buen rendimiento que tolera bastante bien los agentes patÓgenos comunes en Mendoza: Fusarium, Mosaico Común y Roya.La vaina es muy larga 17 a 20 cm, achatada (mas delgada que Salín de Albenga) y particularmente curvada en su tercera parte final. Por supuesto carece de hilo, pero tiene fibras en su pared.La semillá es grande, alargada angosta y de color rojizo. Produce quizás bastante más que Balfn de Albenga pero es de inferior calidad.El cultivar Buenos Aires, que figura en la bibliografla española corresponderfa a Valenciano verde (Ing. Luis O. Melis,comunicaci6n verbal).a 15 cm de. largo y 14 a 17 mm de ancho, más fibrosas ~ue las de Balfn de Albenga y menos tierna.Semillas San Antonio: Es una variedad que se cultiva en Bs. As., pero no se COIIoe. su origen. Tampoco es de muy buena calidad, es más fibrosa que Balln de Albenga.Dentro del gran grupo de cultivares de rama tipo vaina chata, falta hacer menci6n a las de color amarillo. Sólo encontramos dos cultivares Valenciano Amarillo y Mendoza FeA.Valenciano Amarillo: Es una población de muy buen rendimiento, y su origen no es conocido. Mendoza FeA: Es una creación del Ing. Luis Orlando Melis, del Instituto de Horticultura de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Posee las siguientes earacter!,ticas: Grado de difusión actual: Cinturón hert;eola de Mendoza. Proceso seguido en el plan de mejoramiento: Cruzamiento de Balln de Contrarchiovera por Algarrobeño amarillo, y posterior selección genealógica por sus caracterlstieas como chaucha.(¿raeteres morfológicos: Plantas altas, de enrame de ehauch. ancha (2.4 cm), 20 cm de largo. amarillas. Sin hilo, carnosas. las semillas son grandes cilindrico globosas, de color rosado al tostado con algunas vetas color marrón claro. Y un leve tostado esfumado alrededor del hilo.Las primeras vainas se cosechan a los 65 dlas de germinaciOn en adelante para las condiciones de Mendoz3* Caracteres sanitarios: No presenta resistencia a enfermedades y plagas. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 508 g.Regiones adecuadas para su cultivo: Todo el pals.Es de excelente calidad y rendimiento. De gran consumo en la provincia de Mendoza.Siguiendo la lfnea de los porotos ehaucha de rama, falta agregar aquf el único cultivar tipo lapiz que representa este grupo: Blue Lake o Lago Azul o Agua Azul como 10 llaman los productores.Stringless Bloe Lake: Es una var.iedad norteamericana que se caracteri za por sus va inas cil fndri cas. PI anta vo lumi nosa con buena sanidad, debido a su resistencia a Mosaico Común.Se cosecha en Mendoza dos selRanas más tarde que BaHn de Albenga y rinde casi el doble. Vainas de 16-18 cm de largo y 0.9 cm de ancho, con seceiOn redonda completamente sin hilo, bien derechas y con semillas bien distribuidas hacia la punta de l. vaina, 10 que evita desperdicios al prepararla para enlatado.Tiene semillas blancas, condici6n indispensable para una variedad industrial, puesto que el tegumento coloreado tiñe el caldo. Origen gen~tico y método de mejoramiento: Proviene de una planta de porte definido y vainas sin hil os, encontrada en una muestra recibida de FederaciOn (Entre Rfos). SelecciOn individual. Antecedentes en IDIA No. 96, Di<./1956. Grado de difusión actual: Sin datos. Se cultiva en el norte para consumo de los mercados locales y en huertas familiares.Caracteres morfo16gicos: Planta de porte definido, 35 a 40 cm, erecta, vigorosa y completamente sín guias. Tallo fuerte, redondo, acanalados en 1a parte superior e internodios cortos, follaje abundante de color verde oscuro, hojas grandes, redondas en su bas, terminando en puntas bien pronunciadas. Flor pequefia, de color blanco, algunas veces con tinte crema. Vainas color verde claro, tiernas y de textura fina, completamente sin hilos, tamaño grande de 15 a 19 cm de largo por 0,8 a 1 cm de espesor, circulares en su corte transversal y algo curvadas, conteniendo de 8 a 9 semillas. Semillas de tamaño mediano, color castaño oscuro con manchas m~s claras y IlojoU blanco.Caracteres eco16gicos y fenológicos: Muy precoz. Desde l. siembra hasta la primera cosecha de chauchas, transcurren de 50 a 55 dlas.Es resistente a la lIantracnosis\" y \"mosaico/! , Susceptible a la Ubacteriosis ll .Caracteres culturales: Por su porte definido, bajo y ausencias de gulas, resulta muy apto para el cultivo y cosecha mecánicos.En condiciones óptimas llega a producir alrededor de 9.000 kg/ha de chauchas y las dos terceras (2/3) partes en la primera cosecha.Caracteres tecnológicos: Chauchas (vainas) tiernas, textura fina y sin hilo, por 10 que se destaca su calidad culinaria. Peso de 1.000 semillas: 390,2 g. Número de semillas por kg: 2.560.Regiones adecuadas para su cultivo: Todo el pais con régimen pluviométrico adecuado y zonas de regadio. No obstante, en el pafs tambi~n se comercializan cultivares extranjeros de este tipo tales como ldaho Refugee, Rival, Tendergreen, Tendercrop, Bush Blue Lake, Black Valentine, Wade, Apollo, Toperop, etc., cuyo destino principal serfa la industria y algo para mercado en fresco. El resto de los materiales, tales como Romano enano (Bush romano), Graen Crop, Gino, Balina enana, Plano, etc., SOn comercializados a nivel de pals por diversas firmas semi11eristas extranjeras.En general en es te ti po de porotos chauchas sed a muy importante desarrollar nuevos cultivares, ya que es el tipo de vaina que requiere el mercado argentino y su cultivo (al no ser empalado) no es tan costoso como el de los cultivares de rama.ofertadas son bajas y corresponden a las provincias de Salta y Jujuy, obteniendo PQr 1.0 general buenos precios.Luego ingresa la producción de Santa F~, y la mayor oferta se registra con la entrada masiva del cinturón verde de Ss. As. hacia fin de temporada. En este momento detecta 1 a mayor oferta y 1 a mayor demanda (ya que por 10 general es una hortaliza de consumo estiva l), por 10 tanto la calda en los precios por una mayor oferta nO es tan significativa. Las condíciones mlnimas que deben cumplir las vainas para mercado son, además de la sanidad, higiene y buena presentación, estar libre de defonnaciones, hilo, pergamino y \"aparatado\" (semilla desarrollada en denasfa, mostr&ndose en forma manifiesta en la superficie de la vaina).El empaque se realiza fundamentalmente en bolsas de arpillera o malla pl&stica tipo red con capacidad de 10 a 25 kg.En cuanto al destino para industria del envasado al natural, ésta estuvo radicada en la zona de Mendoza en la década del 60 al 70, época en que se elaboraban alrededor de 148.200 kg con un total de 338.000 latas de ! kg Y 69.900 latas de 1 k9 (JOSé Crnko, 1967).El único cultivar que se usaba para este fin era Stringless Blue Lake.Lamentablemente al trasladarse la principal industria que la sustentaba (arveja al natural) a la zona litoral el poroto ehaucha dejé de industrializarse en nuestra provincia.Parte de esta industria se ha trasladado a la zona norte de Bs. As. y sur de Santa Fé junto con 1 a arveja, pero creo que su perspectiva con este fi n no es muy alentadora, quizás se deba en parte a que nuestra poblaCión no está acostumbrada a este tipo de ehaucha (lápiz) que es la que se envasa al natural.POROTO CHAUCHA (ENRAME). GASTOS EXPLOTACION/HA. Herbicida triflural ina 1,5 1 5. Surque.do (1)  1,5 4 1 gasoil ce aceite g grasa 6.Preparación poroto para grano seco. No se han hecho estudios especHicos para detectar 1 a incidenci a de plagas y enfermedades en chaucha. sa 1 va algunas excepciones en que la enfermedad llamó la atenci6n, ej. \"El Mosaico Común del poroto (Phaseolus vulaaris) en quintas de las alrededores de Bs. As.\"(Calot, Leonor; C. León y E. E., Teyssander.Común del poroto (Bean Cornmon Mesaic Virus: BCMV). El diagn6stico se basó en la sintomato1ogí. de las plantas enfermas, en la transmi sibil idad del vi rus por las semi llas, en 1 a determinación de sus propiedades fisicas y en su identificación al microscopio O. las dos enfermedades de la raíz, ambas son importantes al momento de emergencia.En la Estación Experimental Agropecuaria La Consulta, ¡NTA, se lleva un plan de trabajo sobre: Reconocimiento y estudio de las enfe,..,edades existentes en las semillas hortícolas.y sólo se ha hallado Pseudomonas phaseol icola en semilla del cultivar Mendoza FCA producida en Mendoza (Makuch, '~aria, comunicación personal).Plagas: listado de los principales insectos que atacan al poroto chauch. (Troilo Lilíana 1987).Thrip. tabac; UndDe todos ellos, el \"gusano barrenador del cuello\" es importante al inicio del cultivo sobre todo cuando previamente se ha cultivado maíz en ese suelo.Estaci6n Experimental Agropecuaria La Consulta INTA Aquí se realizan pruebas de materiales de distintas precedenci as de prato chaucha, tanto de rama. como arbustivas. y de vaina plana y cilíndrica.En una primer etapa se hacen ensayos donde se observa la aptitud ecológica para la zona y sus caracteres morfológicos.ambientales y que su calidad, sanidad y demás factores de producción son aptos, se incluyen en Ensayos Comparativos de Rendimientos para seleccionar aquellos que son superiores.Así, durante la campana 85-86 se hicieron las pruebas de adaotaci6n con 50 Hne.s procedentes del Instituto de Horticultura de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, y 235 lfneas avanzadas de CIAT (VEF-1985).De ambas fuentes de materiales se seleccionaron lIneas que fueron sometidas a Ensayos Comparativas de Rendimientos (Campañ. 1986-87) agrupándolas en dos ensayos: uno cultivares de rama y otro de cultivares arbustivos.  --Ballo de Albenga $el. le 22,80 13,95 12,80 3,80 13,74 13,74 8,31 10,70    Se 11eva el plan \"Enfermedades criptog §micas y bacterianas d. leguminosas alimenticias. EstimaclOn de daftos y pérdidas\".-Técnico responsable: Ing. Agr. Marta Gatica de Mthey -Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Ba1earee INTA. Balearee, Buenos Aires.Obtención y evaluación de nuevas lineas de poroto para chaucha, Phseolus vulgaris, a partir del cultivar Painé lNTA.-Técnico responsable: Ing. Agr. José Luis Marrapodí.-Suhestaci6n Experimental Agropecuaria Leales INTA. Tucum~n El principal objetivo de mejoramiento en ese lugar es desarrollar cultivares tipo Alubia con tolerancia a problemas vira 1 es, pero a su vez si se presentan en los segregantes 1 Tneas interesantes para chaucha las seleccionan. Así han obtenido T-99.Técnico responsable: Agr. tuis Gerónimo Górnez -Estación Experimental Agropecuaria San Pedro ¡NTA. Buenos Aires 1. Relevamiento de las enfermedades que afectan al cultivo del poroto en la región litoral sur (Rosario-la Plata).2. Determinación del grado de susceptibilidad a las enfermedades de los cultivos de poroto para chaucha de la eolecci6n de la EEA San Pedro.lotes comerci a 1 es de poroto que presentaban severos danos causados por hon90s del suelo.Técnico responsable: lng. Agr. lrma Z.M. de Mitidieri.Manejo de cultivo: tutorado y épocas de siembra Colección de variedades: rendimiento, adaptación, perfodo de cosecha.Técnico responsable: lng. Agr. Marla Inés Stoppani -Catedra de Olericultura. Facultad de Agronomia y Zootecnia. Universidad Nacional de Tucum&n.Ensayo comparativo de cu lti vares de poroto ehaucha (Phaseo 1 us vulgaris) en Tucum&n. _ Técnicos responsables: M.T. Div;z;. de Ricci y J. Ploper _ Estaci6n Experimental IOEVr. Víedma, Río Negro.Si bien la ZOna de cultivo es incipiente, tiene gran futuro.S. realizan ensayos de épocas de siembra y prueba de distintos cultivares tipo arbustivos._ Técnico responsable: Ing. Agr. Marisa Gorrochategui. Melhoramento genético da cultura NO Programa Nacional de Pesquisa de Hortalicas, coordenado pelq Centro Nacional de Pesquisas de Hortalicas (CNPH) de EMBRAPA, aparecem registrados em 1986, apenas 3 projetos de pesquisa com o feUao-de-vagem, sendo um des ses projetos, de melhoramento genético da cultura.Para a maior expansao da cultura no pals torna-se necessário o incremento de suas caracterfsticas com a finalidade de se obter maior productividade. plantas mais eficientes,. resistentes as principais praga s e doencas e cultivares de porte determinado, para a produ~¡¡o de vagens visando a comercia1iza~¡¡o do producto \"in natura\" e em uma etapa posterior a industrializa,ao. Programas de melhoramento tem sido conduzidos no pals como se verifica na Esta~1ío Experimental de Itagul da PESAGRO-RIO, no Estado do Río de Janeiro.Através desse programa, já Sé produziu, na década de 70, material seleccionaoo, de porte indeterminado, com boa productividade como a SeleGao Teresópolis, de vagem achatada. do tipo manteiga, com boa tolerancia a ferrugem.Mai. reeentamente Leal et al. (1982), lancaram no XXi! Congresso 6rasileiro de Olericultura, uma nova cultivar de feijao-de-vagem de porte determinado, denominado ALESSA, com vagens de see,ao transversal achatada, grande aceita<;'o comercial, elevada productividade (11 t/ha), a resistente as racas locais de ferrugem.No mesmo programa de melhoramento, Leal (1985), desenvolveu a cultivar ANDR con vagens de .ee,lio transversal arredondada e produ~¡¡o superior a 13 tjha. Essa nova cultivar tambén apresenta ,elevada tolerancia as racas locais de ferrugem. Recentemente, leal (1987), encerrou os estudos visando o lancamento de una nova cultivar denominada COTA.Essa cultivar possui vagens chata-arredondadas, com pl antas de boa adapta~ao para produ\\,ao tanto nas áreas de baixada como nas regioes serr.anas do Estado do Río de Janeiro.Essas cultivares foram derivadas de trabalho de pesquisa envelvendo inicialmente 5 progenitores, Green ¡sle, Casade, Bush Slue Lake 274, Gala Green e Tempo; no sistema de cruzamentos dialélicos. Os estudos de capacidade combinatória realizados por Leal {l978}. nos Estados Unidos da América do Norte, tiveram continuidade no Brasíl, culminando com o lancamento das tres cultivares. Essas cultivares estaD sendo utilizadas gradativamente pelos agricultores brasileiros.As va gens nao tem fibras e apresentam Doa censervacao natural pós-colheita.empresas produtoras de sementes tambén vem desenvolvendo programas de melhoramento do feijao-de-vagem, tendo já realizadas selecoes nos matedais genéticos superiores 00 produzidas novas eu lti vares.Entre essas empresas, podese mencionar a Agroceres, Agroflora, ianegras, Topseed e Isla. Corrijo, st 31. (1980), lancaram a cultivar de feijao-de-vagem \"Macarrao ll Favorito AG 480, através de e!l10resa Agroceres, de elevada productividade e resistente a ferrugem. Essa cultivar ~ derivada do cruzemento entre 8GF-1458 e Macarrao Trepador.Estudos genéticos tem sido realizados com o feljao-de-vagem, como base para O melhoramento da cultura.Além dos estudos de capacidade combinatória realizaClOS por Leal et al. (1982) Utiiizaram as cultivares Astro, Bush Blue Lake 47, Bush Blue Lake 92, Cape, Checkmate, Eagle, Goldrush, Provi der, Str; ke e XPB 3069.Con base nos resu ltados obt; dos recomenda ram para prograrr.as de melhoramento genético oS cruxamentos Bush 81 ue Lake 92 x Str; ke, Cape x Stri ke, ou Cape x XPB 3069, urna vez que aHam alta méd;a dos progenitores a uma consider!vel divergencia genética entre eles.Uma outra l; nha de pesquisa que vem sendo real izada na Estayao Experimental de Itagul, visa a criayao de variabilida de genética e reco;nbina~ao de genomas, utilizando se de progenies derivativas de cruzamentO$ interespedficos entre f. vuigaris a f. coccineus.Procura-se eom essa linha de trabalho ampliar a variabilidade genética do fejao-de-vagem, urna vez que a maioria dos materiais Nacional de Pesouisa de Arroz e Feijao/EMBRAPA.Em geral os objetivos que tem norteado os programas de melhoramento genético da cultura poaem ser resumidos da siguiente forma: l~ Obtencao de cultivares ma's produc~ivas com w~;or número de vagens por planta.Plantas resistentes as principais doen~as como ferrugem. antracnose. mancha angular, viroses e ofdio.Planta. resistentes a pragas como broca das vagens e vaquinhas.4. Melhor fixacao biológica de nitroganio.5. Va gens de melhor conserva~ao natural p6s-colheita.Plantas mais eficientes na absor~ao de nutrientes.7. Cultivares de crecimento determinado ccm vagens de boa qua 1 idade para o comérci o do producto \"i n na tura l\" • Resultados significativos productividade, tolerancia a natural p6s-colheita das determinado.já tem sido alcancados com rela~ao a ferrugem, qualidade e conserva,ao vagens e plantas de cresc imento Entretanto, ainda há que se lncrementar as caracter!sticas dos materiais disponívels e novas progre,so, tem sido buscados através da identificagiío e evaliagao de novoS germoplasmas e util izar;ao de cruzamentos interespecíficos. ii~ todavía dificultades de se obter boas fontes de germoplasma que permitam de maneira segura a transferencia de genes favoráveis para utilizadas pelos agricultores brasil.iros. El frijol vainita (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) es una leguminosa de gran importancia por su valor nutritivo, rica en calcio, fósforo y vitamina A.La vainita en el Perú se cultiva principalmente en la Costa Central, espec!ficamente en el Departamento de Lima en los Valles de Huaral, Chancay y Caftete, representando el 88% del total de la superficie sembrada y el 90% de la producción nacional de este cu1tivo (Cuadro No. l), siendo la variedad nprocessorJ! O \"Americanall distribuido a los diferentes mercados zonales, notandose una ligera escasez entre los meses de julio Il septiembre. ,la que determina un incremento en el precio por kg (Cuadro 4). la Investigación Agrícola del Fríjol Vainita en el Perfi De acuerdo con los diagnOsticos realizados en las zonas productoras de fríjOl vainita, se han determinado los siguientes factores limitantes de la producción: Escasez de semilla de variedades mejoradas Ataque de nematodosPara resol ver estos prob 1 emas se hace necesari o pI anHi car y llevar a cabo 105 siguientes objetivos generales:Incrementar la producción y la productividad del frIjol vainita en diferentes ecosistemas del Perú mediante el uso de variedades mejoradas.Desarrollar trabajos en investigación de fórmulas tecnológicas de producción a !tamente redituabJes, capaces de util izar el máximo potencial genético de las variedades.Desarrollar un sistema eficiente de producción de semillas mejoradas de frIjol vainita. una ma la adaptaci6n en la mayori a de materi a 1 es ~ lográndose seleccionar el cultivar Nemasnap que es un material resistente al ataque de nemátodos, precoz y de buen rendim1ento.En la Sub-estación Experimental de Cañete, se viene realizando una comoaración de variedades mejoradas de frfjol vainita de grano blanco.Es necesario introduC7r al Mercado Nacional nuevas variedades con caracter1sticas deseables (a 1 tos rendimientos, tal erantes a plagas) enfermedades), de buena calidad nutritiva y culinaria.Seleccionar aquellas variedades que se adaptan mejor a las condiciones del país buscando a la vez la época m~s apropiada y tratar de resolver aquellos factores limitantes Que encarecen su cultivo como es el alto costo de la semilla.Establecer un intercambio de materiales de frIjol vainita a nivel internacional, Que se distribuya material de frfjoles vainita en generaciones tempranas para ensayos de adaptación,  Durante esa primera etapa, el ICA entregó a los productores la variedad ¡CATO, de hábito arbustivo. Este material presenta el inconveniente de adaptación a un rango estrecho de condiciones ambienta 1 es; por fuera de este rango, 1 a planta es rntJy baj a, 1 as vainas inferiores presentan pUdrición en el Apice por contacto con el suelo y el ataque de pat6genos es fuerte; otra desventaja de esta variedad es el color de la semilla (granate moteado de crema), 10 que impide su uso en industria de enlatados por el color que toman los caldos.Agropecuario, ICA. Seminario Taller sobre Mejoramiento de Habichuela en CIAT. Mayo, 1987. ** Centro Regional de 1nvestigación liLa Selva\", Apartado Aéreo 100, Rionegro, Antíoquia.La Sección de Hortal izas inició actividades con esta especie en 19838 con base en una introducción inicial de 52 colecciones de crecimiento determinado obtenidas de casas productoras de semilla comercial y del banco de germoplasma del CIAT y 162 indeterminadas (128 segregantes F2 procedentes de CIAT y 34 comerciales). Selección inicial dentro de la colección disponible de materiales que reuna los siguientes requisitos: Rango de adaptación amplio que permita su siembra en diferentes zonas de producción.Tamaño y forma adecuados a las exigencias del mercado fresco.Preferentemente con semilla de color blanco que permita su utilización por la industria de conservas.fungosas que afectan el cultivo en Colombia.Cruzamiento de padres se 1 ecci onados en 1 a primera etapa (objetivo 1) para iniciar un programa de selección dentro de las progenies obtenidas para entrega de nuevas variedades que reunan los requisitos señalados.Los materiales que se entreguen a los agricultores. deben ser probados bajo las dos modalidades de siembra utilizadas en Colombia (monocultivo y asocio).Colecciones de creci~,iento determinado. Para 1987A. se tienen tres variedades experimenta les de buen comportami ento general; están en aumento para iniciar pruebas regionales en diferentes zonas productoras. Una dl ellas procede de una selección individual dentro de la población inicial de la variedad Deline], obtenida de Vilmorin. Francia; la descendencia de esta planta mostró su superioridad sobre la variedad original y sobre otras a lo largo de cuatro siembras.Las otras dos variedades experimentales proceden de se 1 ecciones individuales Holanda) y selecciones dentro de Owarf Bean Stratego (Slui. and Groot. ,enderlong (CIAT, Banco de Germoplasma); las individuales realizadas mostraron superioridad sobre las introducciones originales, pero no entre cada una de ellas y por tanto se mezclaron ítres de Owarf Bean Stratego y cinco de Tenderlong} para seguír cOn maneje masa 1 dentro de cada una.Colecciones de crecimiento indetenninado. Para finales de 1985. se tenian 11 colecciones (entre individuales y masales) pero algunas de ellas presentaban segregación en el color externo de la semilla, por lo que fueron separados de acuerdo con est.a caracteristica; esta separación dio lugar a 43 l/lineas 11 de las cua 1 es se descartaron 26 por conti nuar segregando en Fa. Las 17 restantes se tienen en campo para una nueva evaluación. Se espera seleccionar 4-5 lfneas estables durante 1987 para iniciar aumento y pruebas regionales en 1988.Con base en los resultados que se obtengan en 1987 con los materiales relacionados inicialmente, se pro9ramar~ 10 relativo a cruzamientos. Dentro de este grupo, se espera obtener la primera variedad por la Sección de Hortal izas para finales de 1988 en Mbito arbustivo y una más de hábito indeterminado para 1989. Asimismo, se realizarán los cruzamientos del caso entre los padres seleccionados para iniciar un nuevo ciclo.En 1987A se recibió una nueva colección procedente del CIAT, consistente en 29 segreg.ntes F2 para selección y 33 Hoeas para ensayo de adaptación, ambas de hábito arbustivo; asimismo. se recibieron 25 segregantes F2 y 15 líneas en el grupo de hábito indeterminado y 45 materiales comerciales. Con esta colección se reinicia el trabajo de selecci6n. La habichuela es una hortaliza de cobertura marginal en las laderas del Valle del Cauca y altamente tecnificada en suelos planos del mismo. Tiene una alta demanda en .1 mer<:ado y se le ha brindado poca atención, lo que ha impedido un mayor desarrollo del cultivo, el cual COn mayor investigaci6n y fomento redundará en mayor área sembrada, prodUCCión y empleo.En los actuales momentos, la habichuela ocupa el catorceavo (14) lugar en area dentro de un grupo de 34 hortalizas consideradas para Ca lodo;., s iendo superada por otras que indudab l emente poseen menos posibilidades que la habichuela. A pesar de esta situación, el cultivo es considerado de gran importancia por ~rea, producción e ingresos.Es i.portante mencionar que sólo se ha producido en Colombia una variedad tipo arbustivo, la ¡CATO de poco cubrimiento, ya que * Colaboración de los Programas de Hortalizas, leguminosas de Grano y Econa.ia Agraria del ICA. Palmira, Apartado Aéreo 233 .• * Respectiyamente, J.A. e J.A. M.Sc. de los dos primeros programas menci onados • 1 as vari edades vol ub les o de enredadera que son 1 as m~s apetecidas por los agricultores, corresponden a semilla producida en el exterior, y una pequeña cantidad multiplicada en el pafs y en las propias fincas de los agricultores.En el Valle del Cauca es común encontrar el cultivo en Pradera, Florida (zona de mayor producción), Santa Helena, Roldani110 y en las laderas de la Cumbre, Tocata, Dagua, El Dovio, El Castillo, Versal les, Toro, Oarién y Restrepo.Aparte de su valor nutritivo por los altos contenidos de vitamina A, tiamina, ribof1avina, niacina y vitamina e, además de algunos minerales como calcio, magnesio, fósforo, sodio y potasio. los mercados marcan una demanda creciente por habichuela fresca, 10 que hace que se tengan cultivos durante todo el año con la consiguiente ereaciOn de fuentes de trabajo por su gran uso de mano de obra. esto reunda en un uso intensivo y eficiente de la tierra y la no migraci6n de 105 campesinos a la ciudad.En 1979, el cultivo aportó $135 millones de pesos en 1.000 ha, de 1.5 a Z ha por agricultor, aunque el escalonamiento puede producir 4reas entre 10 y 20 ha(año, debido a una producción contInua dentro de la misma finca que combina tecnolog1a y recursos económicos disponibles. cañarnenuda colocada en tíjera t se amarran 1 as gu I as de 1 aEl estacado individual se realiza una vez las plantas echan gula, colocando perpendicularmente la cañamenuda o estacas de guadua con pos teri or a.' Tl. rre de las gu j as en 1 as es tacas. Es te sistema permite el uso de las estacas entre 3 y 4 cosechas.El riego es hecho por gravedad en la zona plana. con poco uso de riego por aspersión. En la zona de ladera la aspersión ha jugado un papel fundamental. pudiendo utilizar mangueras sencillas ean aspersores debido a las ca idas de agua.Epoca de siembra La síembra se real ü:a en cualquier época del año, debido a la disponi bil i dad de buenas fuentes de agua que aseguran cosecha durante todos 105 meses del ano.Durante l. época de invierno los riegos no pasan de 2 a 3, 10 cual con la lluvia podr!a fluctuar entre 250 y 300 lT/Il durante el periodO vegetativo: en cambio en verano 5 a 6 riegos y algo de lluvia pueden producir 200 a 250 lT/Il de precipitaci6n.Semi 11 a Unos pocos compran semil 1 a importada (Asgrow -Ferry Morse y Royal Sluis), otros prefieren sacarla en su propiO lote o compr~rsela a los vecinos con los consiguientes problemas de transmisión de plagas y efermedades, 10 cual se observa especialmente en las infecciones de Roya u Oidium.Se siembra únicamente la variedad Lago Azul de las siguientes caracter!sticas:AdaptaciOn: Rendimiento: Corresponde a una variedad producida en USA de pedigree cerrado de la compan!a Ferry Morso.No utilizan herbicidas pre-emergentes tradicionales; en general uSan Gramoxone antes de la emergencia de las plAntulas con 2 a 3 desyerbas posteri ores en época de invierno y 1 a 2 en época de verano. El no uso de Sramoxane ocasiona enmalezamiento temprano del lote que dificulta y compite con el crecimiento de la habichuela.El cultivo presenta serios problemas que sumados a las condiciones climAticas en ocasiones adversas hacen demeritar los rendimientos y calidad de la cosecha:En genera 1 corresponden a hongos de 1 suelo o foll aje, bacterias, varias clases de virus y en algunas ocasiones nemátodos.Hongos del suelo como Fusaríum sp. y Rhizoctonia sp. con poca incidencia pero en condiciones de mucha humedad pueden ocasionar muerte de plantas, sobre todo en parches bajos, inundables o de nivel fr~tico alto.La Roya \"Uromyces phaseoli varo típica', se encontrO en todos los lotes afectando principalmente las hojas m~s viejas o bajeras.Si no efectG. control químiCO en infecci ones tempranas. puede haber defol t~ci6n severa que acorta el periodo vej¡etativo del cultivo. El control puede hacerse con Oithane M-45 (protectantesl con 4 O 5 apl icaciones y Plantvax (sist~mico-curativol con 1 O 2 aplicaciones al inicio de la infección.Sacteriosis, UXanthomonas phaseoli ll • sin importancia econOmica debido variedad.Presente en algunos lotes a la tolerancia de la Oidium, se presenta cuando hay tiempo seco o al final del periodo vegetativo. En zonas de ladera puede requerir control químico en siembras de verano.Antracnosis, neo 11 etotríchum 11 ndemutianum ll ; preferencial mente se observa en cultivos de clima medio (1.300 a 1.800 m.s.n.m.). en algunas oportunidades ocasiona grandes pérdidas.Mustia hilachosa, I1Thanatephorus cucumeris ll ; es otra enfennedad de clima medio que se presenta COn alguna frecuencia produciendo daños severos en plantaciones pequeñas.Mosaico común y moteado clor6tico del frijol; se encuentra diseminado en las zonas productoras ocasionando daños en plantas aisladas; cuando el control de áfidos es pObre en los estados iniciales del cultivo, pueden presentarse epidemias severas. Este problema se debe manejar con semiila libre de vi rus.Los neoo!todos, de los cuales el mh importante es Meloidogyne sp. que induce agallas en la rafz, puede presentarse cuando hay rotaciones con tomate.Los productores de habichuela utilizan una amplia gama de productos qufmicos para controlar las enfermedades, en oportunidades desconocen la especlficidad de los mismos y los apl ican indiscriminadamente. Las dosis y las frecuencias de ap1 icación en ocasiones no son las m~s adecuadas, haciendo poco rentable el cultivo.En los primeros estados de desarrollo se presentan trozado res y tierreros \"Agrotis ypsiion ll y IISpOdoptera sp/', por lo tanto, desde esta etapa se inician las aplicaCiones de insecticidas. Suelos con rotaciones de maíz y sorgo con siembras seguidas de habichuela pueden presentar dafios considerables. El Col.spis sp. (cucarrón metálico), ha aumentado considerablemente a partir de 1979, siendo considerado como una posible plaga dañina a este cultivo en los primeros estados de crecilriento y bajo condiciones de estres de sequía. Su manejo esta basado en controlar las malezas de hoja ancha que abundan en nuestros lotes por efecto de los herbicidas y control químico. En ~poca de verano, 2 adultos por planta deben ser controlados oportunamente para evitar daños') .Perforador de la vaina \"Heliothis virescens\". Hace el daño en la parte comestible de la planta en detrimento de los rendimientos y afecta la calidad. La tecnología de control integrado, no ha sido tomada por los agricultores teniendo la plaga cada dla mayor importancia, 10 cual no ha sucedido en otros cultivas como tomate donde el contral biológico produce altas rentabilidades.Arañita roja BTetranychus spp.i!; ocasiona daño preferentereente en el verano y el control es obligado en la mayorfa oe las zonas.UPolyqotarsonemus ~1l, aparece preferentemente en el invierno con la misma situación del anterior.Siendo las plagas más limitantes en el momento, el lorito verde y el perforador de la vaina, su manejo se ha venido real izando con base en productos qUimicos, situación que ha creado un severe problema que es el ácaro blanco tropical, por 10 tanto, estas especies deberán ser manejadas racionalmente con un control integrado biológico, químico y de rotaciones.Dicho control consiste en liberaciones de Trichogramma cuando se detecten las primeras posturas, favorecer 1as colonias de avispas del género Polvstes y Polybia sin descartar el uso de insecticidas químicos cuando sea necesario.Tradicionalmente siembran por 10 menos 3 cosechas de habichuela y posteriormente una de malz, algunas rotan con tomate o pepino y en clima medio con arveja, 10 que ha ocasionado aumento en los problemas de plagas y enfermedades y disminuci6n de rendimientos.13. Fertilizacion la fertil izacion es hecha por la mayorla de los ag!'!cultores en forma adecuada, en ocasiones realizan aspersiones foliares con elementos menores combinados con aplicaciones de insecticidas, 10 cual produce buenos resultados. La cantidad de HPK es de 300 kg/ha combinada con úrea en dosis de 200 kg/ha.Se realiza cuando las vainas presentan color uniforme, las semillas se encuentran en fonnación sin abultamientos en las vainas, consistencia carnosa y sin presentar fibras. Generalmente se inicia entre 55 y 65 dias, para finalizar hacia los 80 dlas del periOdO vegetativo,en clima medio este período se alarga y la prOducción puede ser mayor.El empaque utilizado para mercadeo en plaza son los costales de polietileno con un gran volumen de habichuela por encima de ellos, lo que hace que se demerite la calidad.Para mercadeo en supermercados se utilizan cajas pl~sticas de 25 L de capacidad máxima, las cuales son suministradas por los supermercados buscando mejorar ia calidad. Los precios tienen que ser directamente con la primera cosecha del cultivo, presentándose calidades de 2a. y 3 El manejo de las malezas en las dos Ilpocas es similar, aún cuando se pensaría mayor proliferación en la época de invierno, sin embargo, el uso frecuente del riego en el cultivo crearia igual ambiente prollfico para las malezas, situación que fácilmente se controla con la aplicación del herbicida en post-emergencia y ¡as deshierbas manuales.La información de la Tabla 2 muestra qué actividades de los costos de producción del cultivo de habichuela son m~s costosas que las demás y cuál es el peso p:;rcentual dentro del conjunto. Al analizar ia información de la 7abla 2, con respecte al prornedio, se observa un desfase de los costos de las slguientes actividades en las dOS épocas: a) riegos; b) control de plagas y enfermedades y e) cosecha.Es decir, mientras el 8.7% de los costos totales se gastan en riesgos en la época de verano, el mismo costo representa el 1.1% en invierno. Respecto al control de plagas, la diferencia del costo no es muy amplia en las dos épocas, sin embargo, se infiere que las aplicaciones tienen que duplicarse en la época de verano. La recolección o cosecha es del 25.7% en invierno y del 17.0% en verano (Anexo 1).Los anteriores porcentajes mostraron la tendencia de menores costos en invierno, sin embargo, la recolección en este caso fue mayor. A pesar de ello, significa que hubo una mayor producción en esta época, o sea, sigue siendo favorable el resultado para la época de invierno~Mediante los parámetros económicos (Tabla 3). se resumen las grandes ventajas de cultivar habichuela en la época de invierno. La diferencia entre los valores de la ~poca de invierno y la ~poca de verano, serIan las pérdidas a las cuales los agricultores estarlan propensos a asumir.Los rendimientos (Tabla 3), son disminuidos en un 33.3%, representando unas pérdidas de 2.750 kg/ha. Convertidos a pesos monetarios de 1987, quiere decir que los ingresos de los agricultores se castigarían en S134.750 por ha. Esta situación se refleja, lógicamente, en la utilidad y en la rentabilidad.Las pérdidas en estos parámetros son del 82~, cifra líquida igual a $138.117 por ha.Respecto a los costos unitarios, éstos son de $43.4 el kg de habichuela producido en la época de lIerano y de $28.5 en la época de invierno. A1 comparar estas cifras con el precio monetario promedio de venta en el mercado de Palmira (Valle), se observa un margen muy De acuerdo con estos conceptos, los agricultores que cultivan en la época de verano deberán obtener 67 bultos/ha de habichuela, mie!ltl'as los de la época de invierno 37 bul tos/ha.La habichuela por ser un cultivo de ~rea marginal, la producción se circunscribe al consumo interno.El agua, COmO insumo de producción, incíde en los rendimientos obtenibles en habichuela en porcentajes muy altos (30-33%) comparativamente con los rendimientos de las épocas de verano.El carácter de picos de prOducción hace que la habichuela esté presente en el mercado durante todo el año a precios remunerativos para los agricultores aún en la época de verano donde hay menor rentab í1 i dad.Parámetros económicos como la utilidad, la rentabilidad, el costo unitario y el punto de equilibrio, muestran grandes ventajas de producción del cultivo de la habichuela en épocas de invierno, dado principalmente por la exigencia del cultivo al uso del agua.Los costos de producción calculados en SZ38.918/ha y en 5235 ,551/ha, respectl vamente, para 1 as épocas de verano e i nvi erno, infieren un uso racional de los factores e insumos de la producción en el cultivo de 1. habichuela en la época de invierno.19. Futuro potencial de la habichuela Debido a la falta de un programa de cruzamientos para esta hortaliza, la variabilidad ha estado reducida a la variedad 81ue Lake, de buena adaptabilidad pero con algunos problemas de enfermedades y plagas, que es necesari o mejorar con base en poblaciones segregantes, para probar en los distintos pisos térmicos de paises que consumen este cultivo. Una metodologfa similar a la de frijol pOdrla adaptarse señalando la ventaja de ser m~s facil por tratarse de un frijol mas tastico y de mayor producción que el arbustivo, donde el mercado est~ asegurado y el riesgo es menor debido al corto periodo vegetativo y. a su amplia demanda. La problemática de roya podrla reducir los costos de producci6n considerablemente, problema que una vez solucionado incrementarla la rentabilidad de los usuarios. parámetros de calidad se determinó el contenido de fibra, longitud de la vaina, eficiencia como habichuela y número de granos por vaina.Se realizó un análisis de varianza para cada localidad, complementando con pruebas de Duncan. Se hizo también análisis combinado de varianza para la variable rendimiento, obteniendo así una interacción genotipo-ambiente.Para determinar cuál será el mejor ambiente, se utilizó el método de Pearson como prueba de correlación.Para el análisis de adaptabilidad se empleó el método de Eberhart y Rus.ell. y para la agrupación de las lineas se utilizó el análisis de conglomerados (Cluster analysis), con el método de Ward, por distancia euclidiana. En cuanto a respuesta a problemas fitosanitarios, la mayor suscepti bi 1 i dad fue presentada por la variedad 81 ue Lake y 1 a linea Hab 213.Los mejores ambientes para el desarrollo del cultivo, de acuerdo con el anál isis de correlaciones fueron la finca La Libertad y 1 a Granja Tesorito, donde se presentaron 1 as mayores producciones. Aquí se debe tener en cuenta que los materiales evaluados fueron seleccionados para alturas de 1000 a 1500 m.s.n.m., sin embargo, las  En el Ecuador el cultivo de habichuela está ubicado en valles interandinos. a una altitud que oscila entre los 1.000 y 2.500 m. Está en manos de pequenos agricultores, con propiedades cuya extensión es de 3 Ó 5 ha.Debido a la gran cantidad de mano de obra requerida, especialmente durante la cosecha y, los relativamente bajos precios pagados por el producto en el mercado, es un cultivo rentable solamente con base en la disponibilidad de mano de obra familiar o muy barata. Felizmente, el mercado no es muy exigente en cuanto a calidad y, por otro lado, 10 que el agricultor pierde en calidad 10 gana en peso y volumen del producto cosechado.Actualmente no existen en el país estadísticas de producción de habihuela; sin embargo, con base en las estimaciones hechas en conversaciones con productores, extensionistas y comerciantes, es probable que existan entre 250 y 300 ha, con un volumen de producción que oscilaría entre 1.500 y 1.800 t por afio.* Jefe Programa Hortalizas. INIAP. Estación Santa Catalina. Panamericana Sur Km. 14. Apartado 340. Quito, Ecuador. Dentro de un programa de hortalizas del INIAP, se ha considerada que la vainita es una hortaliza cuyo cultivo merece investigación, con base en las siguientes consideraciones: l.Es un cultivo importante para pequenos agr•icultores 2.Su ciclo es muy corto 3.Por ser una leguminosa, es una planta muy valiosa en la rotaci6n de cultivos 4. Es una hortaliza muy apreciada en la cocina S. Posee un relativamente alto valor nutritivo 6.No existen variedades nacionales y la producción se basa casi exclusivamente en variedades importadas 7. Se han detectado importantes problemas de tipo sanitario 8.Existe una necesidad creciente de tecnología con el fin de bajar los costos relacionados con controles fitosanitarios, semilla y fertilización.Dentro del Programa de Hortalizas, el cultivo de vainita puede enmarcarse en los proyectos de investigación que a continuación se describen: Proyectos de Mejoramiento Poner a disposición del agricultor una variedad que responda a sus necesidades y a los requerimientos del mercado.2.Abaratar los costos de semilla a través de la sustitución de variedades importadas. Calidad: se determina con base en observación en el campo, de plantas individuales y los siguientes parimetros:-Forma: recta o semicurv. de secciOn redonda o semiplana. -Tamaño: longitud mfnima de 12 cm y di&metro m~ximo de 9 DIIl.Resistencia a enfermedades: se desecha plantas con ataques medios y severos de roya ylo antraenosis.Parcela: el tamaño de la parcela depende del número de semillas de cada familia.Identificación: cada planta seleccionada eS identificada con el número correspondiente a su ubicación en el surco y luego cosechada cuando ha formado semilla.H~bito arbustivo: 20 cm entre plantas y 70 cm entre surcos.Hábito voluble: 50 cm entre plantas y 90 cm entre surcos.c.Viveros de adaptación de lineas avanzadas l. Criterios y métodos de selecciOn:• Rendimiento: Con base en el peso de vainas en cada parcela. • Calidad: Con base en la observación y medición de las vainas cosechadas. forma: Recta o semi curva. de sección redonda o semiplana.Tamaño: longitud minima de 12 cm y di6metro m6ximo de 9 1lITI.• Resistencia a enfermedades: Se desecha parcela con ataques medios y severos de roya y/o antracnosis.2. Manejo del experimento.Parcela: El tamaño de la parcela depende del número de semillas de cada linea. • Diseoo: Bloques completos al azar con 2 o mas repeticiones. • Distancias de siembra: habito arbustivo, 10 cm entre plantas y 70 cm entre surcos. • Habito voluble: 20 cm entre plantas y 90 cm entre surcos.Pruebas de rendimiento de lineas promisorias.Estas pruebas son equivalentes a las que se hacen con variedades importadas.e. Pruebas de estabilidad de varieóades seleccionadas.Tambi~n se llaman pruebas regionales y sirven para determinar el grado de adaptación de las variedades a diferentes condiciones ambientales. Se estillla que hay alrededor de 600,000 has de habichuela sembradas en el trópico, y existe la posibilidad de incrementar esta area en la mayorfa de los paises del tercer mundo, ya que es un alimento potencialmente importante, sobre todo en las ciudades. Para cada regi6n se necesita definir el tipo de producción mas apropiado, mecanizado (variedades arbustivas) o manual (variedades volubles). En Colombia predominan las variedades volubles de alta productividad y con altos costos de producción. definir cuáles son los mercados principales También se necesita o futuros para el producto. Las variedades aptas para el mercado fresco, nonnalmente SOn diferentes a las variedades para enlatados y congelados.En el trópico la habichuela no tiene que ser necesariamente Phaseolus vulgaris. En algunas regiones se prOducen vainas de buena calidad de Vigna (clima c~lido) y en otras Phaseolus coccineus (clima fria). La habichuela nonnalmente Se cultiva en monocultivo, pero Su ciclo corto también favorece la asociación o relevo con * Fitomejoradcr del Programa de Frijol del eIAT. Cali, Colombia TrabajO presentado en la primera reunión de trabajo sobre el Mejoramiente de Habichuelas, ClAT. Mayo 11-15, 1987. otras hQrtal 1 za:; (,omo el tomate o con .ct;1tivo~ de ciclo largo cerno el maíz, la yuca y el café.En la mayoría de 105 paises del tercer mundo, no existen todavía poHticas sobre patentes para variedades de hortalizas. Estas politices pueden tener una influencia importante en el desarrollo de la industria y en el papel de las instituciones públicas vis-a-vis la empresa privada en la producci6n de variedades mejoradas. Por el momento, 1 a mayarla de 1 as variedades usadas en América latina y Africa provienen de los Estados Unidos y Europa, y son susceptibles a la mayoría de las enfermedades y plagas del trópico. Ilurante muchos años, en Estados Unidos se ha producido semilla 1i\"\"ia y de buena calidad en el Estado de ¡daho. Para el trópico habr~ que incorporar resistencia a las principales enfermedades que se transmiten por semilla, ya que hasta el momento no se ha organizado la prOdUCCión de semilla limpia. haciendo necesario i\"\"ortar semillas con frecuencia y usar muchos pesticidas.La estrategia del CIAT por lo tanto, radica en la explotación de 10$ avances realizados en fríjol seco para mejorar la habichuela para el trópico. Creemos que, en un plazo relativamente corto se puede mejorar la adaptación y el nivel de resistencia de las 'Iariedades aotualmente usadas, en un trabajo colaborativo entre el CIAT y los programas nacionales. La relación entre estos programas y la empresa privada queda por definirse en la mayoria de los paises, pero la política del CIAl en este sentido seria la de haoer una investi9ación más Msíca y .tratar de llenar los 'lacios dejados por la empresa privada.La metndologia de mejoramiento más apropiado para incorporar la resistencia a enfermedades del frijOl seco sin alterar la calidad de la habichuela, es la de retrocruzamiento. Este método funciona muy buen para enfermedades tales COil'O el mosaico com1nl la antracnosis (Colletorichum Lindemuthianum) y el añublo de halo (Pseudornonas phaseolicola). ya que se tiene una información bastante exacta sobre la herencia de la resistencia y la metodologfa para evaluarla. En la Tabla 1 se aprecia el método para el caso de dos genes, uno dominante para resistencia a antraenosis y uno recesivo para resistencia a añublo de halo. que permite llegar a ensayos prel iminares en el campo después de dos años de selección. En la Tabla 2 está el método en mAs detalle para el caso de la combinación de un gene dominante y un gene recesivo. La resistencia a mosaico común y \"Black root\" es controlada por esta combinación de genes. asl como la resistencia a añub10 de halo proveniente de la variedad Edmund. Las plantas seleccionadas .sUn marcadas con + en la tabla, 10 cual da una idea de la proporción de plantas deseables en cada generación. Donde el objetivo de mejoramiento es menos especIfico e incluye caracterfsticas como la adaptación. el rendimiento y el porte de la planta. se puede usar el método de selección recurrente, el cual consiste en real izar varios ciclos de cruzamiento y selección. En cada ciclo se obtienen progenies de mejor calidad y con caracterfsticas agronómicas superiores.La ,\"utagenesis puede usarse para alterar una caracterlstica de simple herencia. como el color de la semilla. Se puede tratar la semilla con rayos gama 00-15 KR) o Ethy1 Methane Sulphonate (EMS) con dosis de 1.0% por 4 horas.Las características prioritarias para la habichuela en el trópico incluyen la buena germinación y el vigor de la plántula. ya que: muchas variedades en los Estados Unidos tienen semiilas blancas delicadas para la germinación~ La resistencia a enfennedades, sobre todo la roya, la bacteriosis común, el añublo de halo. la 3ntracnosis, pUdriciones radicales y nemátodús, es importante, aS1 como la :olerancia a ciertos insectos (Emooasca en América. Bean fu en Africa). También se necesita una mayor tolerancia al calor, puesto que' el cultivo es de ciclo corto, si se va a obtener algún beneficio de la .nadulación, se tiene que seleccionar por la nodulación temprana. Las variedades no sólo deben producir vainas de buena calidad, sino un alto rendimiento de semillas también de buena cal idad. Para reducir el daño en las vainas bajas se debe buscar una mejor arquitectura de la planta, aprovechando los avances que se han logrado en frIjol seco. Tabla l. Método para incorporar resistencia a dos enfermedades a la vez: resis.tencia a antracrtosis controlada por un gen dominante, y resistencia a añubl0 de halo controlado por un gen recesivo.  IV 80% 20%Color: verde claro Redonda 80% Chata 20%También cada uno de los miembros que hemos participada en esta reunión nos comprometemos a generar la investigación b~sica necesaria en nuestros pafses, para de esta: manera lograr un avance real en el tema que sirve a los agricultores de habichuela en todo el mundo.1. Definir el papel de las instituciones públ icas (programas nacionales e internacionales), frente a la empresa privada.Producción de semilla b~sica para entregar a empresas privadas.Determinar fuentes de resistencia a enfermedades y plagas y realizar investigación básicaEfectuar cruzamientos y distribuir materiales instituciones públicas o privadas por igual.Realizar seguimiento con visitas de técnicos expertos.Insti tuciones públicas cuentan con equi pami ento sofi sticado con el cual muchas entidades privadas no puaden contar.Control de importaciones. En muchos casos 1. empresa privada deberla pagar las pruebas que las jnstituciones públicas hacen.Coordinación y contacto con la empresa privada~ La empresa privada tiene que cumpl ir COn los requisitos de infraestructura que garantice que el ~ateri.l no salga del pais.2. Definir el papel del CIAT frente a los programas nacionales.Hasta que punto pueden los programas nacionales llevar programas de mejoramiento benéfico.Catalizador de la relación de instituciones públicas con entidades priVadas para intercambio de .material, infomación y para cooperación.Entrega de material de preferencia F2 para que los programas tengan mayor oportunidad de seleccionar material que se adapte a condiciones específicas.Manejo de germoplasma y recolección de material silvestre o cultivares nativos en los países que 10 soliciten.Entrenamiento de personal de diferentes paises con el respectivo seguimiento y actualización.Los programas nacionales pueden ericargar al CIAT el cruzamiento entre progenitores seleccionados por su propio personal t~cnico.Además, pueden especificar las cardetedsticas que se desea combinar y el CIAT lo harla.Comparar estrategias de mejoramiento genético y colaboraci6n internacional para habichuelas con las estrategias para frijol seco. Hay m!s control del medio ambiente para habichuelas? Se necesita cumplir adaptación? El producto nnal de mejoramiento es completamente diferente • la habichuela es una hortaliza.Es muy diflcil obtener variedades para cada condición ecológica en donde se cultive habichuela y por lo tanto se requiere amplia adaptación de las variedades que se obtengan.Por ser una hortaliza, el CUltiva es mucho más intensivo que el frijol. Se usan más insumos y en general debe haber mucho más control del medio ambiente. Visitas de técnicos del CIAT a los paises donde se estan probando estos materiales.Promoción del intercambio de material entre paises, buscando adaptaci6n a diferentes altitudes de resistencia, rendimiento, etc.En la discusi6n surgió la pregunta hasta qué punto es relevante que el CIAT lleve a cabo un programa para mejoramiento de habichuela, cuando en la mayorla de los paises los investigadores están a cargo de una amplia gama de cultivos hortlcolas. los participantes a la reunión mencionaron tres razones por las cuales la participación del CIAT con la habichuela les podrla beneficiar aún en el caso de que ellos laboran con varios cultivos:1.la participación en habichuela por parte del CIAT, puede despertar el interés de los directivas del si stema de investigación agrico1a en cada pais.De esta fonna, los recursos disponibles para habichuela y para investigación hortleola en general podrían subi r.Se espera que para el CIAT el trabajO en habichuela podría ser un primer paso hacia un esfuerzo mayor y mas integrarlo en el campo hortí ca la. las personas en 1 a reunión se mostraron muy contentas con el papel del CIAT en habichuela, pero dijeron que lo ideal seria un soporte integral en el campo hortlcola por parte de algún instituto de investigación internacional.La habichuela puede servir como un \"cultivo piloto\" en programas de investigación y todavía mas fuerte en el campo de adiestramiento.los investigadores hortfcolas deben estar conscientes de los sistemas de producci6n con el cual se producen los cultivos y del balance de rendimiento y cal idad. Deben estar enterados de I as prácticas cul tural es, de los métodos de mejoramiento genético y de los problemas poscosecha causados por las limitadas posibilidades de almacenar hortalizas.La similitud entre habichuela y otros cultivos es grande, razOn por la cual los esfuerzos por realizar en habichuela pueden tener impacto en campos mSs amplios. Roya -Uromyces phaseoli La roya es uno de los problemas importantes en la producción de habichuelas en muchas áreas de América Latina. Por esta razón, el programa de mejoramiento de habichuelas de CIAT empezó con alta prioridad una estrategia de cruzamiento para incorporar resistencia a esta enfermedad en material.s habichuelas mejoradas.En las evaluaciones del banco de germoplasma de f. vulgaris se encontraron varias lineas habichuelas con resistencia a la roya (Tabla 1), las cuales fueron usadas como fuentes de resistencia en cruces. Posteriormente se obtuvieron lineas avanzadas con niveles de resistencia altos o intermedios (Tabla Z).El mejoramiento de habichuelas para resistencia a la roya no es difícil porque la herencia es generalmente simple y dominante. Sin embargo, la resistencia obtenida a través del tiempo puede quebrarse o no servir en lugares diferentes de la región de origen de las progenies. El hongo obligatof1o f Uromyces phaseoli I es uno de los patógenos más variables que se conccen y continuamente están surgiendo razas diferentes. Los complejOS de razas .pueden cambiar de un poís a otro y también pueden variar de una estación a otra dentro de la misma región. la mayor1a de los mejoradores uti1iza una fuente de resistencia especifica que es efectiva contra un rango limitado de razas de roya, En CIAT todas las líneas mejoradas son resistentes o intermedias a las  Mancha Angular -[sariopsis griseo1a lsariopsis griseo1a es un hongo que causa lesiones angulares en las hojas y vainas. Ataques Severos pueden causar defoliación completa de las plantas de habichuela. La enfentedad puede ser transmitida por la semilla.En la literatura. varias varíedades de habichuelas han sido reportadas camo resistentes a la mancha angular, tales como A1abarna No. 1, Epicura y MeCaslan. Algunos estudios han mostrado que la resistencía es heredada por genes recesívos o dominantes, segan la variedad progenitora.La mancha angular también tiene razas o cepas diferentes fisiológicamente, por 10 cual requiere de pruebas amplias del comportamiento de habichuelas supuestamente resistentes a esta enfermedad. los mejoradores del CIAT utílizan una subestacílin experimental en Santander de Quil i chao para evaluar materi a les para res i stenci a a manc.'1a angul ar ~ A 11 ~ 1 as razas e cepas parecen ser muy fuertes y hasta ahora los pat61ogos no han encontrado inmunidad de f. vulgaris.~erc si se han encontrado buenos nivelas de resistencia identificados que pueden ser uti1;zados an un programa de mejoramiento.Las evaluaciones de mancha angular se hacen en las hojas y en las vainas (Tabla 3). Hay indicaciones que la herencía de resistencia en las hojas puede ser diferente a 1. de la vaina.Queremos enfatizar que es muy importante que la habichuela pase a ser una linea de investigación en CIAT en sus diversos aspectos (sanitarios, mejoramiento, economía, estadística, etc.) ¡ también cada uno de los miembros que hemos participado de esta reuni6n nos comprometemos a generar la investigación básica necesaria en nuestros paises, para de esta manera lograr un avance real en el tema, que sirve a los agricultores de habichuela de todo el mundo.1.Definir el papel de las instituciones públicas (programas nacionales e internacionales) frente a la empresa privada.Producción se semilla básica para entregar a empresas privadas.Determinar fuentes de resistencia a enfermedades y plagas y realizar investigación básica. Efectuar cruzamientos y distribuir materiales a otras instituciones públicas o privadas por igual. Realizar seguimiento con visitas de técnicos expertos.Instituciones públicas cuentan con equipamiento sofisticado, con el que muchas entidades privadas no pueden contar. Control de importaclones. En muchos casos la empresa privada debería pagar las pruebas que las instituciones públicas hacen.Coordinaci6n y contacto con la empresa privada. La empresa privada tiene que :umplir con requisitos de infraestructura que garantice que el material no salga del país.2. Definir el pape] del CIAT frente a los programas nacionales. Hasta qué punto pueden ] os programas naciona] es 11 evar programas de mejoramiento benéfico.Discusión Premoción del intercambio de material entre paises, buscando adaptación a diferentes altitudes, fuentes de resistencia, rendimiento, etc.En la discusión surgió la pregunta hasta cu~l punto es relevante que el CIAT llevara a cabo un programa para mejoramiento de habichuela, cuando en •la mayoria de los paises los investigadores estan a cargo de una amplia gama de cultivos hortlco1as. los participantes de la reunión mencionaron tres razones por las cuales el desenvolvimiento de CIAT con habichuela les pOdrla beneficiar, aún en la situación de que ellos laboren en •• rios cultivos.l.El esfuerzo que CIAT ha puesto en la habichuela puede despertar el interés de los directivos del sistema de investigación agricola en cada pais. De esta forma los recursos disponibles para habichuela y para investigación horticola en general, podrían incrementarse.Se espera que para el CIAT el trabajo en habichuela podria ser un primer paso hacia un esfuerzo mayor y más integrado en el campo hortlcola. Los asistentes al taller estan muy satisfechos con el papel de CIAT, pero consideran que 10 ideal seria un soporte integral en el campo hortlcola por parte de algún instituto de investigación internacionai.3. La habichuela puede constituirse en un cultivo piloto en programas de investigación, y todavía más fuerte, en el campo de adiestramiento. Los investigadores horticol., deben ser conscientes de los sistemas de producCión en los cuales se producen los cultivos y del balance entre rendimientos y calidad. Deben entrenarse en las prácticas culturales. en los métodos de mejoramienm gel1éti ca, y en los prob 1 emas post-cosecha causados por las lí.itadas posibilidades de almacenar hortalizas.","tokenCount":"22257"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"453e1956130b4ed5474f9c72caaea83c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c0884601-337c-4b98-9c1b-802f8c9c78b9/content","id":"-911072912"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3053a5ef-f2d5-4b33-842d-ad0710f7fec4","pagecount":"39","content":"Similar results confirmed from extensive trials in Zimbabwe in the 1990s (eg. Vogel, et al,, 1994;Nyagumbo, 2002;Nyagumbo, 2008)   • Yield benefits from CA progressively increased over time and in most cases became more apparent after the third cropping season• No maize variety interactions with CA: good varieties performed well irrespective of cropping systems (SIMLESA-2).• However yield benefits were depressed on poorly drained or waterlogged sites due to excessive moisture.• Focus has been on improving biomass productivity in maize-legume systems • In Zimbabwe increased forage output through mucuna, sunnhemp and other forages has resulted in improved participation of farmers in livestock markets (ZimCLIFS) and engaged more than 10 000 farmers • ILRI has also engaged farmers in Forage/fodder production activities in 7 districts (2 in Tanzania, 5 in Ethiopia)Oats/vetch on farm, Damote, Ethiopia• ILRI provided menu of forage options to farmers (integration in cropping-niche/species-14 spp)• Grasses: Rhodes, Desho, Oats, Brachiaria, Napir 5. What challenges did we encounter?• Challenges with residue application: competition from livestock particularly in crop-livestock farming systems.• Residue application also increased termite prevalence in CA systems (Nyagumbo et al., 2015).• Diseases and pests occasionally• Poor performance in waterlogged soil• Seeds access (maize/legumes• Monitoring extensive research activities ……..5 Key messages 6. So the key messages from the last 7 years.• Where surface residues were applied periodically as recommended, improved soil moisture conservation from CA systems was apparent in most countries.• In well managed systems, the use of CA improved soil quality with respect to soil organic carbon, but such increases were only evident after more than 4 years of CA implementation.• Depending on legumes employed, rotations in CA systems significantly improved maize yields across all countries in ESA. • Although intercrops resulted in lower maize yields than rotations, most land constrained farmers preferred intercrops due to the dual benefits of two crops from the same piece of land.• Yield benefits of CA systems over conventional practices may not be immediate but progressively increased over seasons particularly on well drained soils.• However on poorly drained soils, maize yield benefits may fail to show even after four years of implementation due to waterlogging.• Use of improved agronomic practices including planting density, planting configurations, inorganic fertilizer, improved seeds and timely weed management, offered farmers the opportunity for the fastest yield 'jump' • GAP accounted for more than 60% of the yield increases over the conventional unimproved farmer practices with no external support, let alone the improvements from CA. Hence investments in such crop input resources alone could provide the fastest pay-off in terms of productivity increases on farmers' fields.Key message 57. The future/ Further research• Getting an improved understanding of the complex interaction between residue application rates x nitrogen x rainfall x soil type • Developing alternative sources for soil cover in crop-livestock environments. What other strategies for soil cover under different crop-livestock settings in different agro-ecological conditions can farmers include in their cropping system? Live cover ? • Accelerated synthesis: Cropping systems by agro-ecology gradients analysis (model tools as aids) • FAW and other emerging pests in CA systems • Development of apps or decision support tools that facilitates scaling of CA, based on agro-ecological conditions, farm or farming systems, and other external drivers. • Learn from farmers uptake and factors behind their modifications • Regional/ community level scale studies testing effectiveness of input support models • Farming systems: integrated technologies impact at farm level• No more silo thinking • Stronger partnerships with regional players and institutions. Improved regional research collaborations• Other projects learning from SIMLESA eg Innov-Africa,• Institutionalization of SIMLESA approaches eg APPSA, SAPP,• Long term funding from ACIAR enabled new insights on carbon to be generated (thanks to ACIAR).","tokenCount":"609"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63481173d7c3d77ef4a5662eeac6b5a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b48f4baf-8bba-46b9-826c-26ef805905eb/retrieve","id":"-748480320"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4f64e1f4-8332-46fc-9cfa-175608945e47","pagecount":"1","content":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:• Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making • Gender-equitable control of productive assets and resources • Technologies that reduce women`s labor and energy expenditure adopted Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets:• # of more people, of which 50% are women, meeting minimum dietary energy requirements • # of people, of which 50% are women, assisted to exit poverty Description of activity / study: The accuracy of gender scores for PIM 2018 and 2019 peer-reviewed publications was assessed. In addition, the study includes a synthesis of lessons learned on several gender themes and make recommendations for improving gender research in PIM and the future One CGIAR portfolio.Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications:• https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134267 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:15 (GMT+0)","tokenCount":"141"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1c113c584aff5095b8867e69bc92bf30","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bbac53a9-3c4b-4bac-a6b3-fdfdacd4ee85/retrieve","id":"-454346064"},"keywords":["Innovative interventions","changes in income","value-chain"],"sieverID":"6c6aff12-b018-425f-bfbd-a20369f6ef6d","pagecount":"7","content":"With irrigated vegetables development, interventions on the uses of improved inputs such as water lifting devices; varieties; on-farm water, nutrient and pest management, and access to credit and market information were introduced in Atsbi-Womberta district, Ethiopia. Besides, skill and uptake capacity of vegetable growers, extension service providers and vegetable traders were improved accordingly. The response to the integrated interventions in the valuechain of vegetables indicated that the total annual income increased from less than 16,733 in 2000 to more than 3.0 million USD in 2008. Simultaneously, beneficiaries increased by 82% while irrigated vegetable coverage by 87%. These successful changes in income attributed to improved capacity of actors to manage irrigated vegetables effectively in response to emerging opportunities and challenges including shifts in irrigated crop choices in reply to nutrient mining, pest load and market demand. Hence, the introduction of highland pulses in rotation with vegetable ssucessfuly breaks the pest load and increase soil fertility while simultaneously generating high income. Moreover, the presence of attractive market for vegetables and alternative crops triggers the expansion of water harvesting and utilization, increased crop diversification and sharpened the choice of marketable crops to optimize income.With increasing population pressure, there has been continuous cultivation of arable lands, overgrazing and reduction in vegetation cover in Atsbi-Womberta district, northern Ethiopia. These practices result in loss of the fertile topsoil due to erosion. This means finer soil fractions that contain most of the plant nutrients and soil water holding capacity reduced. The loss of the fertile topsoil and reduction in soil moisture retention leads to low yields of less than 500 kg/ha for most crops (Abegaz, 2005). In worst cases, low crop yield is associated with high production risks such as uncertain and erratic rainfall which occasionally lead to crop failure, food shortages and dislocation of rural population. Thus, without extension support and innovative interventions to improve agriculture, the famers in Atsbi-Womberta district have been rendered as food insecure for many years.Since 1991, a shift in thinking has emerged along with the change in governement in Ethiopia, which focused on 'Agricultural Development Led Industrialization' strategy to support the food security of smallholder farmers. The shift in thinking critically addresses the management of natural resources as a key input for improved agricultural production. The inputs include soil and water conservation on various land uses and some of them have been put under area closure.Consequently, vegetation cover has improved and runoff reduced, groundwater in the valley bottoms has been enriched and springs developed. As a result, crop production under irrigation emerged with a gradual shift from traditional cereals to market oriented high value crops (IPMS, 2004). With the emergence of market oriented irrigated vegetables, the Tigray Region Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) and its district branch offices, and the Improving Productivity and Marketing Success (IPMS) project facilitated the introduction of participatory market oriented planning and implementation interventions following the assessed gaps in knowledge along the value chain of vegetable production systems. The objective of the paper is to describe the changes and associated approaches and processes for market oriented vegetable commodity development, identify lessons and making recommendations for scaling out/up lessons.The vegetable interventions conducted at Atsbi-Womberta district level, located in the eastern zone of Tigray about 70 km north east of the Regional capital, Mekele. The district consists of 23,400 households with an average family size of five (IPMS, 2004). Rainfall occurs between June-September, with an annual average of about 668 mm and air temperature of 18 o c with an altitude range of 918 to 3069 m above sea level. Mixed crop-livestock systems are the major practices in the district (IPMS 2004). A multi-stakeholder meeting preceded by a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) identified irrigated vegetable as one of the emerging marketable commodities that could contribute to the livelihood of farmers in the district. The potentials, limitations and gaps in knowledge that warrant interventions were synthesized along the value chain of vegetable production systems. The key gaps in knowledge include lack of access to market linkage and information; lack of skills on product processing and grading, seedling and on farm management, and input handling and operation such as motor pumps. List of interventions were identified with research and development partners, farmers and local administrators under the facilitation of the IPMS/ILRI project (Table 1). Intervention structures and scales follow the structure and scale of the extension service provision. Within the structure, the practical interventions focus more at the scale of farmers and DAs, and specialized capacity development at supervisors and experts. The OoARD and the IPMS monitored the intervention responses at PA level, annually. In some cases, IPMS also facilitated specialized studies to monitor and evaluate the impact of interventions and associated changes in irrigated vegetables using structured household level interviews and group discussion. Linkages among vegetable producers, traders and consumers established and communicate using the telephone services available at each peasant association. Vegetable market information within the district and from the nearby towns has been available to growers biweekly in addition to the weekly supply of market information by radio.Techniques of quality based grading, packing, transporting and improved temporary processing storage options introduced.Improved skills and knowledge on vegetable seedling, on-farm water, nutrient and pest management practices introduced and demonstrated. Choices of dynamic market oriented cropping patterns in response to nutrient mining, pest resurgence and frost facilitated.Private vegetable seedlings production and marketing, skills on maintenance and operation of water lifting devices such as drip, treadle and motor pumps facilitated. Credit for purchase of vegetable inputs such as water lifting devices was available from credit facilitators.The changes observed in response to the interventions in irrigated vegetables can be classified into four: changes directly associated with the value chain of irrigated vegetables, capacity to response to emerging opportunities and challenges, triggering the expansion of other commodities and altitude towards natural resources management.Before the intervention in market linkage and access to market information, vegetable price in the main town Mekele was about 2-3 times higher than the farm gate price. After the intervention, the difference in vegetable price narrowed to 40-60% during peak production periods (TAMPA, 2008;OoARD, 2008). After the intervention, vegetables handling, productivity improved. Most of maintenance and repairing of water lifting devices managed within the district as compared transporting to other towns.The annual income from vegetables increased from less than 16,733 in 2000 to more than 3.0 million US dollar in 2008. Simultaneously, number of beneficiary households increased from 1250 to about 11,400 households while irrigated areas expanded from 109 to1487 ha in the district (OoARD, 2008). Wealth status of households were ranked as rich, medium and poor, on the basis of their herd status, land size and amount of grain (Abegaz, 2005). Aggregately, about 81% of the beneficiary households were classified as medium to rich in wealth status which is food secure households compared to 39.5% from the none beneficiary households (Gebremichael, 2009). About 61% of the non-participating household was classified as poor compared to 19% in the beneficiary households (Gebremichael, 2009).With continuous cultivation of vegetables, excessive nutrient mining, pest resurgence and frost have emerged as challenges to vegetable production. Farmers test the use of chemical spray, cereal and pulse in rotations with vegetables. Vegetable growers spray different chemicals against various vegetable pests but the economic advantage of spray was not properly evaluated and the problem of nutrient mining and partly that of pests continued as a challenge. Moreover, the use of the chemicals spray showed a noticeable side effect to the mushrooming beekeeping industry.Farmers indicated that the introduction of cereals in rotation with vegetables, to have reduced pest loads in their plots but nutrient mining continued, and the income obtained from cereals was much lower than that of vegetables. Farmers also indicated that the use of pulses (field pea, faba bean, lentil and fenugreek), in rotation with vegetables, to have reduced pest load, increased soil nutrient levels and incur reasonable income. Most importantly, irrigated pulses were produced during the dry season when there are no other rainfed pulses which fetch about 65-85 USD/qt compared to 45-65 USD/qt for rainfed beans harvested in December. Furthermore, the harvesting of irrigated beans coincides with the peak demand by migrating laborer working in sesame production in the western part of Ethiopia.Garlic was introduced as an alternative crop during frost seasons. Thereafter, four improved garlic varieties were tested and the improved variety, Tseday 92, gave about 8100 kg/ha fresh bulb yield compared to 4000 kg/ha from the local garlic variety (Teweldebrhan, 2009).Moreover, techniques of garlic bulb seed production and storage demonstrated to farmers. At present, about 25 farmers are producing garlic during frost periods and few started supply of garlic bulb seeds to others. The current price of fresh garlic bulb in the local market is about one USD per kg.Triggering the performance of other commodities within the system. Pulses planted during the dry season (January-May) and flower in March and April, when shortage of bee forage is critical. Beekeepers indicated that honey yield and bee colony strength improved following the introduction of irrigated pulses during the dry season. At the same time, various researchers indicated that grain yield of pulses such as faba bean increase by 19-52% due to honeybee pollination in Australia and Middle East (Musallam et al., 2004;Somerville, 2002).Local and cross breed dairy cows also benefiting from the expansion of irrigated vegetables due to the year round supply of green feed. At present there are more than 500 cross breed cows in the district. and used vegetable production (Berhane, 2008).Undoubtedly targeting marketable commodities and interventions designed on the basis of knowledge gap analysis along the commodity value chain have made a significant contribution to the livelihood of rural farmers. The responses reflect in the changes in income and wealth status of vegetable growers, increased number of beneficiaries, improved farm gate price of vegetable, and attitude of farmers to invest in agriculture. The responses also reflect in the capacity of the actors to manage vegetable production effectively in response to emerging opportunities and challenges. Among them include the shift in irrigated crop choices in response to nutrient mining, pest load, market demand and use of frost periods to grow other vegetables.The introduced and tested garlic varieties become alternative crops to generate high income during the frost months. Besides, the presence of attractive market for vegetables and alternative crops triggers the expansion of water harvesting and utilization, increased crop diversification and sharpened choices of marketable crops to optimize income. Thus, the lessons learned on the approaches and processes in the effective introduction and implementation of innovative interventions in the value-chain of vegetables can be scaled up/out to the nearby districts and beyond. To this end, the IPMS and partners, mainly the Tigray regional BoARD conducted subsequent field tours, exhibitions and workshops to scale up the lessons learned with integrated interventions and responses along the value chain of vegetable production systems.","tokenCount":"1808"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7867226ce118fd259b2629884bc6598d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c56ebd7-27d6-4fb2-b596-a8e76c53c93e/retrieve","id":"352638059"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f66d5766-209b-47cb-856b-b7615ea7272b","pagecount":"35","content":"Honduras es uno de los países más afectados por fenómenos naturales, meteorológicos y climáticos de las últimas décadas. Durante los últimos años, el país ha sido recurrentemente afectado por fenómenos climáticos (sequias y huracanes) ocasionados por la variabilidad y el cambio climático actual. (Germanwatch, 2019). Durante el 2020, el país enfrentó nuevamente el desastre y pérdidas millonarias en todos los sectores productivos como resultado del paso de los huracanes ETA y IOTA.Debido a esta situación, los daños y pérdidas se han acrecentado en especial en el sector agroalimentario, sumado a estas afectaciones por fenómenos meteorológicos, los usuarios en el sector agro enfrentan limitantes financieras y de acceso a la tecnología que permitan mejor desarrollo y reducción de daños y pérdidas de sus cultivos.El seguro agropecuario se presenta como una herramienta de transferencia de riesgo de los productores en asocio con aseguradoras dispuestas a asumir de manera calculada el riesgo de ocurrencia de un siniestro a cambio de una prima. Adicionalmente, el seguro agropecuario vinculado al servicio de crédito podría apoyar a los pequeños productores a acceder a tecnologías apropiadas para la gestión del riesgo climático e incremento de la producción.Sin embargo, en al país aún existe un escaso desarrollo del mercado de seguros agropecuarios, el cual se ha identificado debido a la escasa demanda y oferta. Por el lado de la demanda, la escasez surge de primas elevadas, desconocimiento, falta de cultura del seguro y experiencias negativas. Por el lado de la oferta, se reportan elevados costos operativos y grados de siniestralidad, escaso soporte del gobierno, complejidad de la inspección y falta de información y asesoría.Los seguros agrícolas por índice climático se presentan como un instrumento financiero y de trasferencia del riesgo clave para el desarrollo del sector agropecuario y la adaptación al cambio climático. Si este tipo de seguro se diseña de manera adecuada, puede transferir los riesgos climáticos futuros derivados del cambio climático. Por ende, resulta atractivo su diseño y comercialización por parte de las compañías de seguros y la implementación con estructuras y organizaciones de productores del país.Hasta el año 2020 solamente dos aseguradoras privadas ofrecían seguros agropecuarios sin subsidio gubernamental. Como estrategia de apoyo para impulsar al sector agroalimentario el estado de Honduras ha promovido el crédito agrícola a través del Banco Hondureño para la Producción y la Vivienda (BANHPROVI), a través del Fondo de Reactivación del Sector Agrícola (FIRSA) el cual pone a disposición una cartera de crédito agrícola con una tasa de interés del 8.7%. Aunque aún existen muchas limitantes de acceso al crédito para los pequeños productores y la falta de un mecanismo de trasferencia del riesgo que ayude a los productores apaciguar la inversión ante incidencias climatológicas.Durante los últimos años, en el país se ha mejorado el marco de políticas del sector agroalimentario a través de la creación de estrategias, planes y políticas que buscan mejorar las intervenciones orientadas a la adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático y la reducción de los riesgos. Este proceso coincide con el de promoción de instrumentos de transferencia del riesgo.Los beneficios que puede aportar la tecnología de los seguros paramétricos, las sinergias que beneficien a productores, compañías aseguradoras y gobierno, hacen viable la implementación del modelo en el contexto agroclimático hondureño. Este documento presenta antecedentes y contexto actual para avanzar en su adopción, resaltando la importancia de la articulación institucional y el agrupamiento de usuarios a través de asociaciones que faciliten la distribución de los productos financieros. Se recomienda vincular las crecientes iniciativas de adaptación y mejora productiva al igual que la vinculación al proceso de construcción de Marco Nacional de Servicios Climáticos de Honduras.Honduras es uno de los países más afectados por fenómenos naturales, meteorológicos y climáticos de las últimas décadas. Durante el año 2017 el país llego a la segunda escala en el Índice de Riesgo Climático Global medido por vulnerabilidad a afectación climática e incidencia, recurrencia y afectación (Germanwatch, 2019). Las afectaciones han repercutido y tenido incidencia negativa en el sector agrícola, sector transcendental del país, los daños y pérdidas en la agricultura y la ganadería han aumentado en un alto porcentaje durante la última década. Los eventos El Niño, Oscilación del Sur (ENSO, por sus siglas en inglés) una mayor recurrencia, intensidad e impacto de los fenómenos extremos como tormentas tropicales, huracanes, sequías, inundaciones etc. Además de las afectaciones por fenómenos meteorológicos, los productores agropecuarios enfrentan limitantes financieras y de acceso a la tecnología que permita el desarrollo y la reducción de pérdidas de sus cultivos. Otra problemática recurrente es el riesgo socioeconómico que presentan los mercados para la comercialización de los productos.Estos riesgos mencionados incluyen eventos asociados con plagas, enfermedades, variación de precios, afectaciones laborales, cambios en tasa de interés y tasa cambiaria, regulaciones, entre otros. Cada uno de estos riesgos tiene diferencias en la manera de atención, por ejemplo, para acceso financiero se utilizan contratos a plazo, integración vertical y en lugares que estén disponibles, contratos a futuro. Para el manejo del riesgo en el entorno socioeconómico se analiza la información económica y financiera, el uso de incentivos y la inversión en capital humano. Para los riesgos de producción, se proponen herramientas como mejores prácticas de manejo, diversificación, ahorro en buenas cosechas (auto seguro) y el seguro agropecuario (transferencia de riesgo).La gestión del riesgo climático (GRC) se define como las diferentes acciones que se pueden realizar para la reducción del riesgo derivado de los fenómenos climatológicos. La finalidad de la GRC es prevenir, reducir y controlar los diferentes factores asociados al clima, así como brindar una adecuada preparación y respuesta ante desastres.El cambio climático hace que las hipótesis relativas a la frecuencia y gravedad de las amenazas climáticas derivadas de la experiencia histórica dejen de ser una base fiable para la evaluación de riesgos a corto plazo. Si bien es cierto que la conciencia acerca de los riesgos climáticos ha aumentado notablemente, todavía a menudo las instituciones nacionales no están lo suficientemente preparadas para responder y prevenir los riesgos asociados a las nuevas y múltiples amenazas que afectan a distintos sectores. Esto se suma a una falta de claridad sobre regulaciones y coordinación del trabajo entre los distintos organismos y departamentos que se distribuyen las responsabilidades de la gestión de los riesgos de desastre (PNUD, 2010).Los riesgos climáticos no son un fenómeno nuevo, y la gestión de riesgos climáticos en su sentido más amplio se viene realizando desde hace mucho tiempo. Los agricultores predicen las lluvias utilizando diversos indicadores, y planifican la siembra y los insumos según estas predicciones; instalan sistemas de riego si pueden; y reducen su exposición al riesgo diversificando sus medios de vida en la medida que les sea posible (Ellis, 2000).Los científicos también han buscado formas para ayudar a gestionar los riesgos asociados al clima. Por ejemplo, las investigaciones en agricultura han proporcionado variedades de cultivos que toleran la sequía, así ́ como prácticas de manejo de los suelos que mejoran la capacidad de retención de la humedad. Las predicciones meteorológicas han supuesto un gran avance como ayuda a la planificación.La sequía es un estado de condiciones anormalmente secas durante un tiempo suficiente para causar un desequilibrio hidrológico grave. El término sequía es relativo. Por ejemplo, la escasez de precipitaciones durante el periodo de crecimiento incide en la producción de los cultivos o la función de los ecosistemas en general (debido al déficit de humedad del suelo, también denominado sequía agrícola). (IPCC G. , 2018).En Honduras son cada vez más recurrentes los años secos (por lo general, años NIÑO), que dejan como resultado pérdidas grandes en la economía, específicamente en el sector agropecuario. Estos eventos pueden llegarse a presentar cada vez más frecuentes, lo cual repercute directamente en el desarrollo productivo. De acuerdo con los escenarios climáticos, este tipo de condiciones será cada vez más recurrente y extremas debido a las condiciones y el avance del calentamiento global.Según los escenarios futuros de cambio climático, se presentarán casos más extremos en centro y sur occidente del país. Al 2030 se proyectan aumentos de temperatura máxima para todos los escenarios y épocas del año entre 1.0°C y 1.5°C. (MiAMBIENTE, 2020). 1El IPCC define las inundaciones como desbordamiento por encima de los confines normales de un arroyo u otro cuerpo de agua, o la acumulación de agua por encima de zonas que normalmente no están sumergidas. Los distintos tipos de inundaciones comprenden las fluviales, súbitas, urbanas, pluviales, de aguas residuales, costeras, de desbordamiento de lagos, entre otras.Las inundaciones en Honduras generalmente se dan ante la presencia de fenómenos naturales como huracanes, tormentas tropicales, vaguadas, etc. La zona norte y sur del país coincidente con costas las cuales generalmente son las más afectadas por estos tipos de fenómenos.Actualmente se están presenciando periodos extensos de sequía y lluvias acumuladas en grandes cantidades durante algunos meses del año. Según los escenarios de cambio climático al año 2030 se proyectan déficits de precipitación estacional en toda la geografía hondureña en el trimestre más húmedo del año (JJA), en comparación con la normal climatológica de referencia ; es decir, se percibe una intensificación en la canícula. Para todas las demás temporadas la tendencia es al aumento especialmente en el trimestre MAM, lo cual sugiere que en el futuro las lluvias podrían comenzar antes en el año en comparación con las condiciones normales. (3ra Comunicación Nacional sobre Cambio Climático Honduras, MIAMBIENTE 2020).Para el manejo y gestión de los riesgos asociados a incidencias y fenómenos climáticos, se requiere el desarrollo progresivo de diferentes acciones asociadas a la disminución del riesgo y aminorar los daños y pérdidas que los mismos puedan ocasionar.En tal sentido se conocen las siguientes fases: Preparación y prevención: En esta fase lo principal es la planificación en función de los riesgos identificados; identificar y fortalecer las principales vulnerabilidades en el territorio, comunidad, parcela. Se recomienda el desarrollo de actividades que permitan implementación de medidas técnicas correctivas, medidas biológicas y actividades de manejo de agua y suelos. Entre otras acciones se recomienda la organización, el análisis y desarrollo de recursos y la generación de alertas que permitan anticipar un evento para la toma de decisiones.Respuesta: Son las acciones que se pueden desarrollar durante la presencia de un evento o amenaza climática. En la gestión de riesgos en general lo más importante de esta fase es el salvaguardo y protección de la vida humana. Sin embargo, en agricultura también se pueden desarrollar acciones que permitan rescatar medios de vida y cultivos siempre teniendo en cuenta la conservación primaria de la vida. Aquí las acciones más importantes a realizar son la generación de alertas y boletines de información, acciones de mitigación del daño y cuantificación de daños y pérdidas.Recuperación: Son las acciones para desarrollar post un desastre, en esta fase se prima la recuperación de los medios de vida dañados o perdidos en su totalidad. El desarrollo de acciones deberá permitir adaptarse ante la recurrencia o presencia de otros fenómenos ambientales o meteorológicos. Durante esta fase se deberá dar inicio a la identificación y acceso al financiamiento.Trasferencia del riesgo: La transferencia del riesgo de desastres permite a los usuarios (individuos, empresas o gobiernos) que terceros cubran los costos producidos por un desastre, a cambio de aportaciones (principalmente económicas) periódicas previas a la ocurrencia del desastre, de esta manera, el usuario no tiene que absorber todos los gastos de los daños producidos. Los seguros son el esquema más conocido de transferencia de riesgo, mediante el pago de primas y deducibles a una aseguradora.En el ámbito empresarial y familiar todas las actividades están expuestas a un nivel de riesgo, susceptibles a daños por incendios, inundaciones, robo, pérdidas agrícolas, daños tecnológicos o usurpación de información, enfermedades, muertes, accidentes, etc., a través de los cuales pueden provocar importantes deterioros en la capacidad financiera de los agentes económicos. Ante esta situación es de gran relevancia para empresas y personas la adquisición de pólizas de seguros que contengan parcialmente los daños colaterales de la ocurrencia de los riesgos. (CNBS, 2020).A pesar de esta situación, el hondureño tiene poca cultura de seguros, es decir, existe poco interés para asegurar sus bienes y que estos permitan la reducción de las perdidas ante siniestros. Los estudios de país hacen referencia a que el hondureño adquiere seguros principalmente para los siguientes según su orden de interés (Seguros de vida, accidentes y enfermedades, seguros generales y otro tipo de seguros). La siguiente imagen refleja el nicho de mercado y tipos de pólizas de seguros que más venden las principales compañías aseguradoras del país.Ilustración 1 Nicho de mercado de las principales compañías de seguros en Honduras -Perfil del Sistema Asegurador de Honduras, CNBS.Sumado al aspecto cultural, tampoco es fácil para el hondureño promedio adquirir algún tipo de seguro para proteger sus bienes o la vida misma. Hablando de ingresos, el salario mínimo o base en Honduras es de $ 415.95 al mes, el cual está expuesto a modificaciones, ya que tiene una gran dependencia de la actividad o rama de trabajo de las personas, así como del tamaño de las empresas. Mientras que el costo de la canasta básica que permita su alimentación y supervivencia diaria es de un aproximado mensual de $ 367 en las zonas urbanas y $ 336.6 en zonas rurales (UTSAN, 2018). Es importante recalcar que en la canasta básica solo están incluidos 30 productos alimenticios, excluyendo otras necesidades básicas del hogar como ser; salud, transporte, educación y otros, cuyo valor es más alto en las zonas rurales del país.Tomando en cuenta la información anterior, los hondureños utilizan aproximadamente el 90% de su salario en alimentación, restando nada más un 10% del mismo para cubrir otras obligaciones y necesidades. En consecuencia, económicamente se vuelve poco viable para un hondureño promedio adquirir un seguro de cualquier tipo, sin olvidar la baja cultura de ahorro y protección de sus bienes.Sin embargo, el reto es más evidente en las zonas rurales. Debido a que un productor de agricultura familiar en Honduras ingresa mensualmente un aproximado de $280.02 canalizándolo principalmente en la seguridad alimentaria de su familia. Así mismo, las amenazas climáticas mencionadas anteriormente terminan ocasionando pérdidas parciales y hasta totales de su principal fuente de ingresos y medios de vida.La pobreza, la variabilidad e imprevisibilidad del clima suponen un riesgo que puede limitar gravemente las alternativas disponibles, condicionando con ello el desarrollo. Dicho riesgo se puede materializar a dos niveles: los efectos directos de un fenómeno meteorológico extremo y los efectos indirectos originados por la amenaza de ese fenómeno meteorológico extremo (que puede o no llegar a materializarse). (IRI, 2009). Ante la amenaza de un posible evento meteorológico adverso, las personas pobres evitan tomar riesgos (Rosenzweig y Wolpin, 1993).Las personas en las zonas rurales están cada vez evitando el desarrollo de la agricultura debido a las pérdidas recurrentes, el poco atractivo de implementación y la escasa adquisición económica. Es cada vez mayor la migración de la zona rural a las grandes ciudades o la migración a otros países que ofrezcan mejores oportunidades a pesar del riesgo que esto supone.El productor actualmente ante la incertidumbre por las condiciones climáticas prefiere no arriesgarse para desarrollar la agricultura y perder la producción e inversión. Igualmente, los que optan por implementar nuevas tecnologías o innovaciones que les permita aumentar su productividad, se ven desmotivados ante la presencia de un evento extremo que les haga perder dicha inversión.Existen diferentes acciones, estrategias y prácticas que permiten mejorar la adaptabilidad de los cultivos ante condiciones del clima, estas prácticas consisten principalmente en mejorar las condiciones del cultivo combinadas con el entorno en el que desarrollan y sacan el máximo provecho y productividad de éste. Por ejemplo, procesos de adaptación al cambio climático en agricultura. Sin embargo, los desarrollos de éstas prácticas no aseguran totalmente que una situación extrema no afecte y repercuta en pérdidas económicas graves.El seguro agropecuario es una herramienta de transferencia de riesgo de los productores a la aseguradora que está dispuesta a asumir de manera calculada el riesgo de ocurrencia de un siniestro a cambio de una prima. El seguro reduce los efectos de la aversión al riesgo del productor al hacer más homogéneos los ingresos de éste a través del tiempo. Adicionalmente, el seguro agropecuario vinculado al servicio de crédito podría apoyar a los pequeños productores a acceder a tecnologías avanzadas y hacer frente a ambas limitantes al desarrollo: el acceso a crédito y aversión al riesgo. Es decir, el seguro agropecuario apoya a salir de la trampa de la pobreza al interrumpir el círculo vicioso de no invertir en tecnologías mejoradas por la aversión al riesgo o por no acceder al crédito, y no tener mayores ganancias por no invertir en mejores tecnologías. De esta manera, la limitante del productor a utilizar nuevas tecnologías por no tener acceso a crédito, lo ayuda a sobrellevar el seguro, y de esta manera se transforma la limitante al desarrollo, en un producto que es regido por los incentivos de mercado.En Honduras, existen varios tipos de seguros agrícolas: a) seguro de inversión con ajuste a cosecha o recolección; b) seguro individual por planta; c) seguro pecuario. Cada uno de estos contempla el riesgo de producción de diferente forma y cubre siniestros meteorológicos y biológicos. Los meteorológicos incluyen la precipitación (inundación, exceso de lluvia, sequía, granizo, anegamiento), viento (huracanes, ciclones, vientos fuertes) y temperatura (bajas temperaturas, heladas). Finalmente, los biológicos consideran eventos de no emergencia de la semilla por anegamiento del suelo. Al adquirir un seguro es importante saber exactamente cuáles siniestros cubre la póliza debido a que varían de una a otra y no se cubren todos los riesgos (Pejuán, 2015).Al año 2020, dos aseguradoras privadas ofrecían seguros agropecuarios sin subsidio gubernamental: Seguros Interamericana (FICOHSA) y Seguros Atlántida. En el caso de esta última, se constató que aseguraba los siguientes productos:Seguro de inversión con ajuste a cosecha: Se asegura la inversión efectuada por el productor desde el establecimiento del cultivo hasta la recolección de la producción. Se recomienda para aplicarse en hortalizas, melón, sandía y granos básicos.Seguro por planta: Se asegura el valor por planta de una finca de cultivos perennes o semi-perennes, como banano, plátano, palma africana y cítricos.La póliza ofrecida a nivel nacional por las compañías aseguradoras disponibles tiene una cobertura multi-riesgo que contempla inundaciones, sequía, exceso de lluvias, huracanes, vientos fuertes, bajas temperaturas, heladas y granizo. (CEPAL & SECAC, 2015).En la actualidad existe una gran cantidad de compañías de seguros en el país. Sin embargo, existe poca demanda de los seguros debido a la falta de cultura o conocimiento del funcionamiento de estos por parte de los productores, por lo cual se limita a disponibilidad de opciones y ofertas. Las compañías de seguros se han limitado actualmente a la comercialización del seguro tradicional para el cual manejan una cartera de clientes con una capacidad relativamente media alta de adquisición. Sin embargo, existe la oportunidad de ampliar la cobertura de los seguros a nivel a nivel rural y mayor incidencia en rubros altamente afectados por la incidencia climatológica.Sin embargo, los productos financieros y el análisis de oportunidades de mercado son dinámicos. Así las compañías y bancas de inversión se encuentran constantemente identificando nuevas iniciativas y productos innovadores que les permitan competir en el mercado actual de los seguros.Los instrumentos de transferencia de riesgo, como los seguros, han jugado un papel clave en muchas regiones del mundo en la mitigación de los riesgos climáticos. Pero no son una opción generalizada en los países en desarrollo, donde los mercados de seguros, cuando existen, son limitados y no se orientan a las poblaciones pobres. Una nueva modalidad de seguro, el seguro en base a índices climáticos abre nuevas puertas a la gestión del riesgo climático en los países en desarrollo.El escaso desarrollo del mercado de seguros agropecuarios está asociado a la escasa oferta adecuada y por consecuente una demanda sostenible. Por el lado de la oferta, se reportan elevados costos operativos y grados de siniestralidad, escaso apoyo del gobierno, complejidad de la inspección y falta de información y asesoría. Mientras que, por el lado de la demanda, la escasez surge de primas elevadas, productos inadecuados, desconocimiento, falta de cultura del seguro y experiencias negativas.No obstante, las aseguradoras también enfrentan problemas de selección adversa y riesgo moral que hace ineficiente este mercado, especialmente con el seguro tradicional. La selección adversa genera una concentración de productores riesgosos y eventualmente primas más altas. Con el riesgo moral, los productores realizan acciones que incrementan la probabilidad de recibir una indemnización. Mientras que el seguro paramétrico tiene ventajas para sobrellevar estos problemas.Los seguros por índice pueden contribuir a las estrategias de adaptación y gestión de riesgos de los países en desarrollo y reducir la incertidumbre derivada del cambio climático. Según el documento Clima y Sociedad No. 2 del Instituto de Investigación internacional para el Clima y Sociedad (IRI por sus siglas en ingles), son al menos tres las maneras en las que los seguros por índice climático pueden ayudar a potenciar la capacidad de adaptación:  Como mecanismos de trasferencia de riesgo.  Como mecanismo para ayudar a las personas que precisan acceder a los recursos para salir de la pobreza derivada del clima.  Como una estrategia integral para la adaptación en el sector agropecuario.Estos instrumentos son capaces de ayudar a que las sociedades afronten los riesgos meteorológicos de hoy y potencialmente, si se diseñan de forma adecuada, también los riesgos futuros derivados del cambio climático. Estos tipos de seguro no pretenden sustituir las opciones que se puedan desarrollar para la adaptación o la reducción de los riesgos climáticos, sino que deben desempeñar un papel complementario. Pueden servir por ejemplo para paliar la brecha que surge cuando los mecanismos existentes para enfrentar los riesgos se derrumban como consecuencia de un shock meteorológico (Clima y Sociedad IRI, 2015). El seguro en base a índice climático es un producto nuevo y quizás por ello difícil de entender por las partes interesadas. Es necesario por tanto invertir tiempo y recursos en explicar su funcionamiento.  Es un seguro que depende de la disponibilidad de datos de buena calidad y pertinentes a los riesgos.  Son vulnerables al riesgo de base. El riesgo de base surge cuando las indemnizaciones pagadas no se ajustan a las pérdidas reales, bien porque se producen pérdidas sin que haya derecho a una indemnización, o porque surge el derecho a una indemnización sin que se hayan producido pérdidas. Por lo que el diseño del contrato, y sobre todo la elección de un índice adecuado, es de vital importancia para minimizar el riesgo de base.  Los cultivos asegurados deberán estar cubiertos o próximos a una estación meteorológica o asegurar la disponibilidad de datos climatológicos satelitales.El reaseguro es la opción más confiable y tradicional aplicado por las compañías de seguros. Es sumamente efectiva en relación con su coste para la trasferencia de la mayor parte de los riesgos asumidos por el asegurador. Al aplicar un reaseguro los aseguradores se sienten con mayor confianza y más eficientes en el manejo de los riesgos adquiridos.En el país no existen prácticamente compañías de reaseguros que cubran pólizas de seguros agrícolas, se atribuye a que el riesgo adquirido por los seguros tradicionales en el sector agropecuario es mínimo y las pólizas cubiertas son de menor riesgo y cubiertas por el coste de la prima.Sin embargo, las reaseguradoras se presentan como un actor clave para la implementación del seguro indexado debido al alto riesgo que representan el mismo con el uso de variables y la variabilidad climáticas con las que el asegurador directo no está familiarizado o simplemente les genera desconfianza. El reasegurador asume ese riesgo adquirido y además pone a disposición el uso de diferentes herramientas que permiten el análisis y estudio para asegurar la viabilidad del seguro. Durante la elaboración del presente análisis algunas reaseguradoras como SwissRe y corporaciones intermediarias como AON, contactaron al equipo consultor para conversar acerca del potencial de los productos.El usuario es el actor más importante para que un esquema de seguro sea sostenible. Es demandante del producto y quien paga si considera el mismo de utilidad y finalmente es quien decide si mantiene la relación con el producto después de un evento extremo o catastrófico.Por lo anterior, es necesario conocer al usuario y sus necesidades con el objetivo de diseñar productos que respondan a su vulnerabilidad y exposición a eventos climatológicos, para asegurar que sean demandados y sostenibles a largo plazo.Es de importancia también la confianza y el conocimiento que el usuario tenga del seguro, esto reduce la incertidumbre que se pueda producir cuando existe un pago por parte del seguro. Por lo que el sector asegurador deberá complementar sus esfuerzos de venta con una campaña educativa y un acompañamiento técnico a los usuarios sobre el funcionamiento del seguro y la evaluación de la ocurrencia de los pagos.Otra importante consideración es la multiplicidad de potenciales usuarios y los posibles enlaces entre estos y el sector asegurador. Los seguros paramétricos para la agricultura pueden operar para diversos niveles, desde el productor individual hasta las cooperativas, entidades financieras o agencias de gobierno (i.e. niveles micro, meso o macro.) Para definir un producto final viable y su estructura comercial es clave definir a qué nivel operará el mismo y diseñarlo con base a la diversidad de necesidades y accesibilidad. En Honduras, existe el potencial de implementar los seguros paramétricos en la agricultura en diferentes niveles, siendo el nivel productor individual el que presenta las mayores dificultades de implementación y escalamiento. Sin embargo, es a través de este tipo de oferta que se generan el mayor nivel de cambio en comportamiento frente a la adversidad de riesgos climáticos y consecuentemente una mayor inclusión financiera que promueva el desarrollo del sector agropecuario. Por tanto, este estudio considera las cooperativas, federaciones y en general, agrupaciones de productores como el canal ideal para la implementación, el acompañamiento técnico y la sostenibilidad a largo plazo de un seguro paramétrico en el sector agropecuario.Con el objetivo de avanzar en la articulación institucional con estos potenciales agrupadores de usuarios, se llevaron a cabo conversaciones iniciales con la Federación Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Honduras (FENAGH) y la Asociación Regional de Servicios Agropecuarios de Oriente (ARSAGRO). Más adelante se detallan los resultados de la socialización con FENAGH. Por otra parte, con ARSAGRO, una asociación de productores de granos básicos en el departamento de El Paraíso quien participo y facilitó el estudio experimental llevado a cabo por el IRI-CIAT en el 2015, continúa expresando su interés en este tipo de productos para sus asociados, con el objetivo de ofrecer herramientas financieras que les protejan de los riesgos climáticos. En una siguiente fase se recomienda avanzar a los procesos de identificación de necesidades, diseño técnico y definición de un potencial esquema comercial.En Honduras el antecedente más antiguo de la implementación del seguro por índice climático data desde aproximadamente 10 años atrás. En 2010 una iniciativa promovida por el Banco Mundial desarrolló una experiencia binacional para el desarrollo del seguro paramétrico en Guatemala y Honduras. El proceso consistía en la identificación de las zonas agrícolas más vulnerables por riesgos climáticos y el desarrollo de un mapeo a través de grillas de información que permitía determinar la afectación o siniestro del tipo de cultivo en la zona.A partir del año 2014 el IRI, con el apoyo del Programa de Investigación del CGIAR (Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Internacional Agrícola) sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) y socios hondureños como El Zamorano y la Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG), desarrollaron un proyecto piloto de seguros basados en índices climáticos. Como parte de las actividades del proyecto se reunió en un primer taller a las potenciales partes interesadas, en el que participaron el sector financiero y asegurador, instituciones que trabajan en gestión del riesgo y organismos de cooperación. El objetivo principal era el de identificar su nivel de conocimiento, interés y capacidad existente en el país para la eventual implementación de seguros basados en índice y construir una agenda con los pasos a seguir para la implementación del proyecto (CCAFS, 2015).Los principales hallazgos encontrados durante el proceso fueron: a) Fortalecimiento institucional. Fortalecer la capacidad del gobierno en la gestión de riesgos agropecuarios y los seguros. A este respecto, la reinstauración del Comité de Seguros Agrícolas posibilitaría la coordinación entre diferentes instituciones para abordar aspectos técnicos del seguro de índice climático.b) Fortalecimiento de la información climática. Fortalecer las plataformas de información climática para hacer más preciso el diseño de un seguro agropecuario.c) Educación técnica en seguros agropecuarios dirigida a los productores, con la participación del sector académico y la cooperación técnica de entidades locales.d) Generación de un seguro de índice climático adecuado. Sintonizar las experiencias de los agricultores con la información disponible del sector agropecuario, meteorológico y financiero.e) Durante este proceso se diseñó un prototipo de seguro agrícola por índice climático con el desarrollo de un testeo a manera de piloto durante una de las temporadas de producción en la zona oriental del país con el fin de observar cómo se comportaría al ser implementado, la viabilidad y aceptación por parte de los productores y su rentabilidad y atractivo de oferta para el mercado de compañías aseguradoras.Seguidamente entre los años 2015 -2016 se desarrollaron a través del proyecto dos procesos que permitirían avanzar y dar continuidad a esta iniciativa de seguro. Dicho proceso consintió en el desarrollo de actividades a nivel de productor y a nivel institucional:a. Nivel productor:Se organizaron talleres participativos en marzo de 2015 con la intención de que los productores conocieran cómo funcionan los seguros indizados, además de involucrar directamente a productores de maíz y frijol en el diseño del seguro mediante un ejercicio en el cual se les solicitaba a los agricultores recordar las pérdidas más importantes de las cosechas de los últimos 30 años por motivo de sequía, a fin de compararlas con los datos de satélite recolectados anteriormente. La información obtenida de más de cuarenta productores fue utilizada para mejorar un producto prototipo, que toma información de CHIRPS, un satélite de medidas de precipitación que utiliza información de las estaciones meteorológicas de Honduras. (CEPAL & SECAC, 2015).La metodología que se utilizó para generar conocimiento del seguro y capacidades por parte de los productores sobre el funcionamiento operacional fue la de llevar a cabo simulacros de los seguros paramétricos en forma de juegos experimentales, siendo así un resultado beneficioso para el desarrollo y la implementación del producto. Los simulacros demostraron ser de provecho al aumentar la demanda del producto, ya que ayuda a los productores entender cómo funciona el seguro indexado y cómo puede funcionar dentro de sus sistemas de producción.Se logró demostrar que al implementar un simulacro se obtiene información valiosa sobre las preferencias de los productores como también identificar los ajustes necesarios al producto. Por otra parte, brindó la posibilidad a los socios y aseguradoras a participar en esta etapa donde pudieron ver en funcionamiento el producto, lo que ha demostrado generar confianza en éste e informar las decisiones para la comercialización del producto.Como principal objetivo de este proceso era lograr que los productores conocieran y se familiarizaran más con el producto del seguro, conociendo cómo funcionan las ventanas de siembra y la interacción del seguro con las mismas, definición de precipitación, sus disparadores y umbrales y el posible pago de siniestros.Ilustración 2. Riesgo de sequía, resultado de ejercicio de comparación con productores de granos básicos -IRI 2 + b. Nivel institucional:La principal acción es la de vincular los procesos con las instancias nacionales pertinentes, en este caso con la Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG), se desarrollan acciones de coordinación interinstitucional para la promoción y presentación del seguro en base a índice climático.A partir de la experiencia con los productores de maíz y frijol se presentó y discutió con actores del sector privado, entidades multilaterales y organismos de cooperación, se presentaron los resultados del simulacro con los agricultores a fin de identificar la demanda de los seguros indizados en comparación con otros productos disponibles. Con el objetivo de lograr un producto comercial que las aseguradoras pudieran ofrecer a los pequeños agricultores y que el mismo resultase atractivo para ambas partes.Como resultado de este proceso, se logró desarrollar el modelo de seguro piloto de sequía para granos básicos (ilustración 3) y una nota técnica que recoge todos los aspectos técnicos además del proceso para diseñarlos.Para las dos temporadas de cosecha (primera y postrera), se identifican los siguientes riesgos:Riesgo A: Falta de precipitaciones pluviales durante la siembra de la primera temporada o también llamada ventana de primera.Riesgo B: Falta de precipitaciones pluviales durante la etapa de establecimiento y floración o también llamada ventana de canícula extendida.Riesgo C: Falta de precipitaciones pluviales durante la siembra de la segunda temporada o también llamada ventana de postrera.Se entenderá que hay un siniestro cuando el índice climático sea inferior al disparador establecido en la póliza para cada una de las ventanas establecidas. (Diseño de seguro índice climático, IRI, 2015)El estudio realizado logró definir las diferentes variables necesarias para el desarrollo del producto de seguros como ser: ventanas, límites de precipitaciones, índice climático, disparadores y umbrales que de igual manera se deberán de determinar y ajustar según la información existente y las necesidades de los ofertantes del seguro paramétrico (ver ilustración 3). Durante ese periodo se involucró a la superintendencia de seguros, la Comisión Nacional de Bancos y Seguros. Así mismo, Seguros Equidad estuvo en proceso de someter el seguro a aprobación para lanzar una campaña comercial, en base a un estudio actuarial.6. Lecciones aprendidas.Con base a la experiencia mencionada, Sofía Martínez, en representación del IRI y contratada durante ese periodo por parte de CCAFS Latinoamérica para el desarrollo del análisis de situación de Honduras en la implementación del seguro indexado destaca las siguientes lecciones aprendidas a lo largo de los procesos de generación de capacidades y diseño del seguro indexado. El sector público puede lograr incentivar una nueva modalidad de seguro. Los programas de políticas nacionales interesadas en el desarrollo rural deben poder identificar y dirigirse a los grupos de agricultores como los principales actores y demandantes de herramientas de reducción de los riesgos. El seguro indexado se alinea con las políticas y estrategias gubernamentales para la adaptación y manejo de riesgos que ya existen y se encuentran en implementación. Es necesario desarrollar incentivos para promover el seguro indexado. Se deberá vincular como una estrategia de estado que pueda ofrecer alternativas que permitan volver atractivo el producto, como ser el pago de subsidios, reducción en la tasa de interés crediticia, reducción de primas, etc.,  Identificar nuevos socios estratégicos y coordinación con otras instituciones gubernamentales que trabajan en el sector rural con grupos de productores y con algunas iniciativas de financiamiento. Generar capacidades tanto a nivel de productor como a nivel de las instituciones involucradas. A través de procesos participativos y de conocimiento continuo. Tener en cuenta que los procesos gubernamentales son periódicos y cíclicos. La propuesta es el desarrollo de un marco político que influya y vaya más allá de una administración pública y los procesos electorales. Es importante comprender y construir una estrategia que se enfoque en una relación a nivel organizacional y no individual. Por ejemplo, a través de memorandos de entendimiento u otros mecanismos que formalizan la participación de la agencia gubernamental más allá del interés de los funcionarios designados. Creación de alianzas entre las instituciones público y privadas que permitan el mejor desarrollo del seguro y generar una estrecha vinculación con los organismos locales de implementación del seguro. Es fundamental crear un ambiente donde se genere una demanda por parte de las personas que permita que el proyecto se concrete. Las relaciones público -privadas incluyen el desarrollo de generación de capacidades y creación de interés a nivel local. Esta genera conocimiento a nivel local y por ende la demanda de un producto financiero aumenta. El desarrollo de capacidades genera oportunidades de negocio con expectativas realistas y cambia el paradigma de los servicios o productos financieros. Comprender el contexto particular de dónde se genera el producto de seguro puede ayudar a establecer un plan de negocios que se adapte mejor a sus procesos de toma de decisiones. Estos procesos pueden verse influenciados por el desarrollo de capacidades que se centran en temas como la información climática y la usabilidad y las brechas en la educación financiera. El sector académico y de investigación es importante en la formación del seguro indexado. Las organizaciones y las instituciones de investigación locales ayudan a proporcionar un contexto local adecuado que ayude a crear productos de seguros basados en índices que funcionen y generen soluciones para los agricultores locales. Es importante que las partes comprendan la viabilidad del modelo de seguro propuesto, antes de comprometer recursos para la implementación comercial. A partir de esto, las partes interesadas también deberán identificar los ajustes necesarios al diseño del producto inicial que ayudarán a evaluar mejor el riesgo de sequía, como se experimentó durante la temporada agrícola 2015 en Honduras. Proyectos como el Seguro Indexado para el Sector Agrícola en Centroamérica deja una marca en el desarrollo de capacidades de las organizaciones de investigación y universidades locales.A través del acuerdo de cooperación entre el Programa Mundial de Alimentos (PMA) y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) ; \"Mejoramiento de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y los servicios climáticos en Honduras\", se desarrolló durante finales del año 2020 y principios del 2021 un trabajo técnico que tuvo como objetivo brindar asistencia para apoyar la formulación y el desarrollo de Marco Nacional de Servicios Climáticos de Honduras (MNSC) en el componente agroalimentario, como un mecanismo habilitador que permita la promoción y adopción de productos financieros, como ser los seguros por índice climático para el sector agrícola con el propósito de transferir riesgos climáticos.La base para el desarrollo del proceso fue analizar actualmente la viabilidad de los seguros paramétricos como mecanismo financiero que permita a los pequeños y medianos productores contar con una alternativa de transferencia de los riesgos climáticos. Entre las acciones realizadas fueron definidos actores y roles pertinentes para la implementación del producto en Honduras, también se realizaron eventos de diálogo, gestión de conocimiento, articulación y promoción tanto de los seguros paramétricos como de los servicios climáticos para la agricultura a nivel nacional y local.Se desarrollaron diferentes reuniones, reactivando los diálogos para mejorar la comprensión entre los diferentes actores involucrados en el tema de los seguros agrícolas. Cada uno de estos hace parte del eslabón de la cadena de valor que pretende ofrecer productos financieros de trasferencia de riesgos. Igualmente, se identificaron actores estratégicos que se vinculan, como ser el estado, empresas privadas y los usuarios de los seguros.Los diálogos evidenciaron la oportunidad de acercamiento y vinculación específica necesaria entre no sólo las compañías aseguradoras que brindan los productos financieros tradicionales, sino también, entre las entidades de gobierno y privadas, asociaciones de productores, con el objetivo de desarrollar modelos acordes a las necesidades de productores y que generen una oportunidad de negocio para las compañías de seguro manteniendose dentro de las regulaciones establecidas.Acciones de socialización y capacitación se llevaron a cabo a diferentes niveles con actores relevantes para el desarrollo de los seguros, es importante destacar la orientación para el desarrollo de las capacidades en dos temas en específico: Generación de conocimiento, inter-aprendizaje y culturización del seguro agrícola basado en índice climático.  Generación de capacidades que permitan el acceso, traducción, difusión y uso de datos climatológicos.A nivel de gobierno Las instituciones de gobierno tienen un rol importante en la posibilitación e implementación de seguros desde el punto de vista de la incidencia política sobre mecanismos que facilitan el desarrollo económico, social y tecnológico del país. En ese sentido se identificaron las principales instituciones que tienen incidencia directa o son vinculantes para el desarrollo del seguro por índice climático.La Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG) es la institución de estado responsable de coordinar los aspectos relacionados con las políticas sectoriales que son ejecutadas por instituciones que conforman el sector público agrícola, específicamente aquellas relacionadas con la tenencia de tierra, financiamiento rural, comercialización, silvicultura, producción agropecuaria y desarrollo rural. Tiene como objetivo lograr que la producción agrícola nacional sea competitiva, sostenible y con capacidad para insertarse en la economía internacional. En este sentido, la institución puede ser un soporte para la promoción y desarrollo de los seguros agropecuarios.La SAG, en su proceso de fortalecimiento, puede continuar apoyando a través de la incidencia política, así como a través de las estrategias y programas de seguridad alimentaria y mejoramiento agrícola, articular con los programas de subsidio y estrategias de distribución. Las compañías de seguros se pueden servir de la información y redes de asociaciones vinculadas a la SAG. En materia de riesgos climáticos tiene la oportunidad de promover el respaldo y asesoría a productores La Unidad de Agro-ambiente, Cambio Climático y Gestión de Riesgos de la SAG, ha participado del proceso antes mencionado de diseño, socialización y promoción a las instituciones financieras y compañías de seguros el seguro de índice climático para su comercialización.Institución rectora en coordinar y fortalecer el Sistema Nacional de Gestión de Riesgos (SINAGER), mediante la gestión compartida pública y privada, orientada a la prevención y reducción del riesgo, la atención de las emergencias, la recuperación y adaptación al cambio climático para garantizar la vida, los bienes materiales y ambientales de la nación.La principal entidad a nivel nacional responsable y rectora de la generación de información climática a través del Centro Nacional de Estudios Atmosféricos, Oceanográficos y Símicos (CENAOS -COPECO), en la generación de productos y servicios hidrometeorológicos con excepción de la meteorología aeronáutica y con capacidad de proporcionar servicios para sectores como la agricultura, el turismo y la operación de infraestructura y otros.El CENAOS -COPECO es un actor importante en el desarrollo del seguro basado en índice climático, debido a ser la institución primaria para la gestión de información climatológica en el país.La Comisión Nacional de Banca y Seguros (CNBS), es la entidad responsable de la regulación y supervisión en Honduras para el desarrollo de los seguros. Es así que a través de esta institución se deben desarrollar los marcos normativos y regulatorios de las políticas de seguro que permitan la implementación e inclusión en mercado de nuevos modelos de seguros como ser los paramétricos.Dentro de las responsabilidades y competencias de la CNBS es velar por el correcto diseño y funcionamiento de este tipo de seguro, que el mismo sea de beneficio tanto para las compañías de seguro como para los usuarios de estas.La oficina Presidencial de Cambio Climático (CLIMA+), se presenta como un aliado estratégico que permite mejorar la dinámica e interés político para promover el seguro indexado. Esta institución de gobierno que durante ya algunos años ha liderado iniciativas para el cumplimiento de las NDC´s, específicamente en el desarrollo de acciones por parte de los sectores estratégicos de país que permitan mejorar la adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático y la identificación de financiamiento climático inclusivo de sectores productivos como el café, agricultura y ganadería. Otra de los objetivos de CLIMA+ también es propender por el desarrollo de acciones que permitan la innovación y la reducción de los riesgos ocasionados por cambio climático.CLIMA+ remarca la importancia de los seguros en el país como un mecanismo de reducción de los riesgos más recurrentes cada año. Hace énfasis en los recientes fenómenos climáticos que atravesó el país en 2020 con el impacto de los huracanes ETA y IOTA, por lo cual es de mucha importancia la promoción de las diferentes alternativas e iniciativas que surjan en el país.Se hace énfasis en importancia de la vinculación estratégica institucional que permita un correcto marco regulatorio y habilitador para el diseño, construcción y comercialización del prototipo de seguro ya definido. Es también importante que las compañías aseguradoras interesadas en el desarrollo del producto lo presenten como alternativa y una herramienta innovadora para sus clientes.Por su parte la CNBS, hacen énfasis en que tiene la total disponibilidad como entidad rectora de apoyar el proceso, menciona que actualmente trabaja en un ante proyecto de mejora de la ley de regulación de los seguros que pude permitir y flexibilizar las normativas para la implementación del seguro agrícola por índice.Recomiendan también realizar el acercamiento con otras compañías aseguradoras además de las ya contactadas y como espacio ideal de acercamiento a las mismas proponen a través de la Cámara Hondureña de Compañías Aseguradoras de Honduras (CAHDA) abordar a las mismas.El sector asegurado en el sector agrícola es reducido y selecto, por ende, se deberá buscar el desarrollo de producto también con otras instancias de intervención como las cooperativas. Otro de los mecanismos financieros a los que proyectan buen desarrollo en el país por la experiencia en la región es de trabajar el modelo de los micro seguros y seguros grupales que permitan el desarrollo del seguro por índice. Es necesaria la articulación y seguimiento interinstitucional que permita el desarrollo del seguro.  A través de la CNBS se podrá incluir este segmento en la construcción del ante proyecto de normativa y reglamentación de los seguros en Honduras.  Es necesaria la vinculación con las diferentes instituciones del gremio asegurador a través de la Cámara Hondureña de Compañías Aseguradoras (CAHDA) que favorezca la gestión de conocimiento y promoción del producto para su implementación.  Es oportuna la identificación de experiencias previas en contextos similares en la región para capitalizar las lecciones y escalamiento en el país.  Es pertinente la identificación de la tipología de actores potenciales para identificar las sinergias de vinculación a los nuevos productos en base a seguros paramétricos en la agricultura.  Dar seguimiento a los productos y notas técnicas de implementación del seguro desarrolladas por las compañías aseguradoras.A nivel de instituciones privadas y aseguradoras Es oportuna la armonización de instrumentos de transferencia de riesgos entre las compañías de seguros que existan, es importante la identificación de las instituciones privadas relacionadas con el financiamiento agrícola que pueden formar parte del modelo de facilitación de los productos financieros.Atlántida es una de las principales instituciones financieras privadas que existen en el país. A través de SEATLAN son una de las principales aseguradoras que brinda un producto de seguro tradicional a los productores desde 2003Desde inicios de la socialización y diseño del prototipo de seguros para granos básicos en 2015 SEATLAN se ha interesado en el producto paramétrico logrando el diseño de un nuevo producto basado en índice climático para la comercialización de éste como alternativa al seguro tradicional que actualmente ofrecen. Seguros Atlántida desarrolló la iniciativa de seguro paramétrico de sequía para el cultivo de sorgo en Olancho. La iniciativa reflejó la necesidad de revisión, acceso y verificación de los datos climatológicos. Igualmente se evidenció la necesidad de acompañamiento por parte de la CNBS que permita el asesoramiento técnico y regulatorio para la implementación del seguro. La construcción de nota técnica respaldaría por parte de la CNBS el desarrollo de esta iniciativa.La Cámara Hondureña de Aseguradores (CAHDA), es la asociación que aglutina hasta doce (12) de las compañías aseguradoras del país. Es por ende la entidad asesora y que representa los intereses de los aseguradores y reaseguradores privados en Honduras.La CAHDA se ha manifestado a favor de las iniciativas que permitan poner en el mercado de los seguros en el país nuevos y novedosos productos para la transferencia del riesgo en el sector productivo. A través de su representación se reafirma el interés en el producto de seguros basados en índice climático por parte del sector asegurador en el país. Es también importante vincular estas nuevas iniciativas para el mejoramiento de las herramientas ante emergencias que el país ha venido presentando durante los últimos años. Se remarca la importancia que demanda el sector reasegurador en poder contar con apoyo por parte del gobierno, asimismo como del sector reasegurador que permita reducir el riesgo adquirido por las compañías aseguradoras. Se deberá explorar la alternativa del subsidio por parte del gobierno que permita un mayor incentivo para la accesibilidad del seguro por parte de los usuarios.Otra iniciativa desarrollada anteriormente en el país por seguros Equidad, durante los años 2007 y 2008 en base al indicador climático de sequía, esta experiencia mostró que para la fase de desarrollo del seguro es necesaria la información climática con las variables necesarias y análisis estadístico preciso que no siempre es accesibles en el país. Este es un factor importante y puede ser una barrera que aumenta el valor de la prima del seguro. La información satelital puede ser una alternativa que permita reducir esta brecha de déficit de la información climatológica.Otro reto encontrado es el del riesgo base y la confiabilidad del mecanismo del seguro para que se precise la realidad de los pagos según las situaciones presentadas. Se deberá hacer diseños de modelos de seguro para cada cultivo/rubro potencial o con interés en la implementación y estos deberán ser con base en sus propios requerimientos. Sin embargo, se deberá recomendar a la CNBS la aprobación de productos con base al riesgo cubierto para promover el escalamiento de la innovación. También recomienda explorar otros tipos de riesgos además del riesgo por sequía que permitan volver más atractivo un modelo de seguro por índice.AON es un corredor de reaseguro, una empresa británica proveedora de servicios de gestión de riesgo, gestión de reaseguros, recursos humanos y consultoría.Se desarrolló una reunión con el objetivo de identificar posibles acciones o líneas de intervención conjunta para el abordaje de iniciativa de seguros agrícolas indexados en Honduras y la región de CA.AON cuenta también con alguna experiencia en Latinoamérica en el desarrollo de seguros catastróficos e intervención para el desarrollo y funcionamiento del mismos en los países en los que tiene intervención.Para el caso de Honduras en específico, AON propone brindar el apoyo al desarrollo del producto y a partir de la experiencia poder replicar en otros países. Es valioso también el apoyo y acercamiento que puedan brindar como institución internacional en la búsqueda de nuevos socios o compañías reaseguradoras que presenten interés por el desarrollo del seguro en conjunto con las aseguradoras nacionales. Su experiencia en el asesoramiento de marcos regulatorios y normativos de los seguros en diferentes países puede resultar beneficioso como asesor técnico. Finalmente, proponen del desarrollo de un proyecto conjunto de investigación que permita avanzar en la implementación.Aspectos clave del trabajo conjunto con AON: Interés a nivel nacional de desarrollar un producto orientado a Huracanes. En el país solo se maneja el seguro tradicional sequia e inundaciones. La propuesta del seguro indexado aun es solo para sequia por el prototipo realizado con granos básicos.  Identificar claramente los siguientes pasos para comercializar el producto en Honduras y armar un plan para lograrlo. Si conseguimos aseguradoras y reaseguradoras interesadas en participar, ¿qué más haría falta?  El interés debería ser según la reunión con CNBS, para asesoramiento en la construcción de marco regulatorio e identificación de reaseguradoras que a través de la experiencia de AON puedan estar interesados en la construcción de un modelo de sustento del seguro paramétrico agrícola para las compañías aseguradoras.  Se requiere más trabajo en la captura de datos a ser usados para determinar con más precisión los umbrales y disparadores del producto. Si AON cuentan con modelos climáticos y otro tipo de herramientas e información, iniciativas para el mejoramiento del acceso será oportuno. En resumen, las acciones de apoyo que pueden brindar los actores como AON con iniciativa a implementar seguros paramétricos son: brindar el recursos técnico -financieros para el proyectos de investigación del mejoramiento del flujo de información climática en el país, apoyo técnico al desarrollo de lineamientos, normas y reglamentación para el correcto funcionamiento del seguro, apoyo en el desarrollo de un marco habilitador que permita a las compañías reaseguradoras el desarrollo de un modelo conjunto con las compañías aseguradoras interesadas en los productos paramétricos, definir la tipología de productor, riesgo a asegurar, lugar, área, tipo de cultivo, etc.Climate Risk Management Solutions LLC (CLIMAS) se enfoca en proveer servicios de consultoría a entidades públicas y privadas para entender y generar soluciones que le permitan a individuos, organizaciones y gobiernos mitigar la exposición a riesgos climáticos. Con la experiencia generando, revisando y probando soluciones de manejo de riesgo y de información climática, CLIMAS tiene la capacidad para implementar una metodología centrada en los usuarios finales, ofrecer soluciones reales y sostenibles a los clientes del sector agropecuario en Honduras.El equipo de Climas tiene extensa experiencia trabajando alrededor del mundo con diferentes tipos de actores para identificar brechas y oportunidades y evaluar el valor de las soluciones de manejo de riesgos y servicios climáticos para los usuarios finales. Durante sus más de 9 años de experiencia en el sector, la ahora Directora General y Consultora Principal de Climas, Sofía Martínez Sáenz, ha manejado iniciativas de adaptación y manejo de riesgos climáticos alrededor de América Latina, ha desarrollado regulación de microseguros paramétricos en Puerto Rico y apoyado en el diseño de productos actualmente mercadeados. Para lograr los objetivos de estas iniciativas, CLIMAS ha coordinado y facilitado talleres de investigación inicial y desarrollo de capacidades, al igual que reuniones con actores como también usuarios finales (e.g. comunidades rurales,) ONGs, instituciones financieras, agencias de gobierno, donantes internacionales y organizaciones intergubernamentales.Además, CLIMAS aloja experiencia identificando y abordando actores relevantes para evaluar brechas y oportunidades que permitan proponer soluciones innovadoras de manejo de riesgos climáticos. La Directora General ha trabajado con una multiplicidad de actores en Honduras para definir la viabilidad y desarrollar un piloto experimental de seguros climáticos para pequeños agricultores, mientras desarrollaba capacidades locales sobre temas técnicos como conceptuales de adaptación al cambio climático, en representación del IRI de Columbia University en un proyecto de CCAFS. A través de esta experiencia, además del apoyo directo en la generación del presente estudio, CLIMAS tiene un profundo conocimiento de las redes de actores en Honduras referente a los seguros agropecuarios y a las iniciativas relacionadas al manejo de riesgos y los servicios climáticos.CLIMAS podría apoyar tanto en el diseño técnico de un seguro paramétrico y la definición de una cadena de valor que responda al contexto y las necesidades de los usuarios, y posteriormente acompañar al sector asegurador en el manejo técnico y definición de pagos del mismo.En el análisis de actores, la identificación del nivel de los usuarios del seguro es fundamental. La viabilidad o no del seguro paramétrico depende de la demanda de éste. Es decir, es necesario conocer el interés de parte de los potenciales usuarios que tendrá el seguro. El interés se genera a partir del conocimiento de cómo funciona el modelo de seguro y los beneficios o no que se tendrán a partir de su implementación. Los productores no invertirán en la compra de un instrumento si no resulta atractivo en cuanto a protección de sus activos.Las organizaciones agrupadoras tienen la ventaja de contar con una estructura que sirve de canal de distribución y gestión.Durante la revisión de potenciales usuarios agrupadores se identificaron diferentes actores, entre ellos, la Federación Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Honduras (FENAGH).La FENAGH, agrupa diferentes asociaciones y gremios productivos del país, es una institución que brinda asesoramiento técnico para el mejoramiento de la producción de sus asociados. En tal sentido, se realizaron acercamientos con FENAGH quien también demanda identificación de herramientas que les permitan a sus asociados el mejoramiento de su productividad y posibiliten la disminución de pérdidas ocasionadas por eventos climáticos.Cabe destacar que FENAGH expresa interés especial en la reducción del riesgo de desastres a nivel nacional, en específico en la zona norte del país. Recientemente con huracanes ETA e IOTA la zona de mayor producción ganadera sufrió grandes daños físicos y perdidas económicas resultado de la gravedad de estos fenómenos extremos.En el marco de esta intervención, con la FENAGH se aplicó un instrumento para medir e identificar capacidades en la institución y los gremios para el abordaje a la gestión de los riesgos.En la ilustración 4 se listan las instituciones que se han identificado y vinculado en el desarrollo del seguro agrícola actualmente en el país y que aportan al menos con un rol de manera técnica, política o en implementación para el desarrollo de los seguros paramétricos en Honduras. Hace referencia a las diferentes instituciones públicas y privadas. Los círculos de mayor tamaño expresan mayor incidencia y acciones relacionadas al seguro. Además, entre más orientada este la figura que representa a la institución al cuadrante dos (2) de la gráfica, se hace referencia a que la institución tiene mayor relevancia para el desarrollo del seguro. El diseño y comercialización de un producto de seguro por índice climático, estará en función de la demanda existente, de los subsectores productivos como el ganadero, granos básicos, café u otros que tengan interés. FENAGH expresó interés de promover a través de sus gremios asociados el instrumento de transferencia de riesgo. Existe interés en realizar más pilotos con compañías aseguradoras en el desarrollo de productos orientado a sus asociados con el propósito de lograr el escalamiento. El compromiso institucional es un aspecto importante, a través de una estrategia que contenga un plan de monitoreo y evaluación, la CNBS y la SAG entre otras instituciones, podrán impulsar políticamente el nuevo modelo de seguros, gestionar conocimientos y culturización. El acompañamiento por parte de estas instituciones de estado genera confianza a las aseguradoras comercialicen el producto. Así mismo, a través de la instancia interinstitucional se pueden identificar recursos que incentiven la implementación. Las nuevas tecnologías proveen insumos para reducir el riesgo adquirido por las compañías de seguros ante siniestros. Actualmente novedosas herramientas se ponen a disposición para acceso y uso de información climatológica que deberían reducir los costos de transacción. Una de las barreras que limitan el desarrollo del seguro paramétrico es el costo y difícil acceso para un pequeño o mediano productor, esta situación limita la demanda. Una de las opciones estratégicas es generar incentivos por parte del gobierno y sector privado que haga más atractivo y accesible el seguro. Los subsidios podrían fortalecer el mercado.Como resultado del análisis de la situación de los seguros agrícolas por índice climático en Honduras, se sugiere el desarrollo de las siguientes acciones que permitan la implementación de estos seguros:a. Reactivar el comité de seguros agropecuarios liderado por organizaciones de estado con el objetivo de a) Asesoramiento a las diferentes entidades del gobierno y empresa privadas relacionadas con los seguros en la formulación, seguimiento y evaluación de estrategias, recursos, servicios relacionados con el desarrollo del seguro agrícolas paramétricos y en general, b) Actuar como órgano de coordinación y enlace entre las empresas aseguradoras, los productores individuales, asociaciones u organizaciones de productores y entidades gubernamentales y no gubernamentales que desarrollen actividades vinculadas a los seguros agrícolas.b. Fomentar a través del comité de seguros agrícolas la socialización y capacitación para las entidades de seguros y asociaciones de productores. Incrementar el conocimiento y fomentar mayor cultura sobre el seguro agrícola por índice climático con los actores públicos y privados involucrados.c. Desarrollar alianzas de colaboración y elaborar memorandos de entendimiento (MdE), generando espacios e intervención entre las instituciones que generen sinergia.d. Elaborar propuesta de política a partir del documento de la situación actual de los seguros por índice climático en Honduras, y en base al detalle de recomendaciones de implementación y desarrollo de mejores prácticas y recopilación de información de los diferentes actores a través de entrevistas, reuniones y talleres.e. Mejorar la cantidad, accesibilidad y calidad de la información agrícola, estadística, meteorológica y técnica relevante para el seguro agrícola por indicador climático a través de la identificación de recursos y fuentes de financiamiento que permita el desarrollo de capacitaciones a los miembros del comité de seguros agropecuarios e identificación de las instituciones que generen información que pueda ser utilizada en el desarrollo del seguro.f. Conformar alianzas de colaboración con entidades dedicadas a la investigación agrícola, seguros, gestión de riesgos y similares que permitan el desarrollo de seguro indexado y su escalamiento a nivel nacional y de diferentes gremios de producción en el país.g. Promover el crédito agrícola complementado con el seguro por índice climático.El comité de seguros agrícolas debe impulsar la incorporación en la normativa bancaria vigente.h. Desarrollar alianzas de colaboración y elaborar memorandos de entendimiento (MdE), generando espacios e intervención entre las instituciones que generen sinergia.En Honduras durante los últimos años se han desarrollado iniciativas con el propósito de estudiar, pilotear e implementar seguros paramétricos, producto de estas iniciativas, diferentes actores asociados a la temática tienen un mejor conocimiento del producto y su potencialidad.Una de las necesidades identificadas es la de mejorar la inclusión y articulación entre instituciones relacionadas para la implementación del seguro. Los actores identificados en este documento presentan diferente grado de relevancia y todos son importantes para el desarrollo eficiente del modelo que beneficie a todos.Aunque a la fecha el diseño del producto paramétrico se ha orientado principalmente desde las compañías aseguradoras, existe un gran potencial en otras entidades financieras ligadas el desarrollo del sector agroalimentario como ser las cooperativas, cajas rurales de ahorro y crédito, y empresas proveedoras de insumos agrícolas. Todas tienen una función en desarrollo del crédito agropecuario y han generado vinculación y confianza mutua con los productores y las asociaciones a nivel local. Un paso siguiente es diseñar una estrategia para el funcionamiento del seguro paramétrico vinculado al crédito agropecuario que se brinda a través de éstas entidades.Durante los últimos años en el país, las instituciones privadas y públicas han mantenido la búsqueda constante de estrategias que permitan la reducción de los riesgos agropecuarios, ante la existencia de alguna herramienta o instrumento financiero éstas instituciones se muestran flexibles a la cooperación, incidencia política y promoción de los seguros paramétricos, sin embargo, se requiere más gestión de conocimiento y de capacidades técnicas para la apropiación de éste instrumento.Se recomienda generar mayor socialización del modelo de seguro paramétrico, asimismo, lograr establecer mayor compromiso político para e escalamiento del producto. Esto deberá ir acompañado de acciones que incentiven a los productores y fortalezcan la demanda. En esta vinculación se deberán establecer precios de pólizas acorde a la capacidad de pago de los productores de referencia.Algunos de los participantes a los talleres de consulta afirman que, para asegurar la sostenibilidad del seguro indexado, es necesaria la asistencia a través de incentivos promovidos por parte del gobierno. No obstante, actualmente existen diferentes iniciativas de adaptación al cambio climático orientadas al sector agroalimentario que pueden servir de modelo de complementariedad para respaldar a los usuarios que evidencian la implementación de acciones de adaptación en sus sistemas productivos. O bien, el apoyo del subsidio para el seguro ante la adquisición de un crédito agrícola.Se recomienda armonizar la iniciativa de los seguros paramétricos en el marco regulatorio que permite su desarrollo.En el marco de esta consultoría se diseñó un instrumento con el objetivo de identificar capacidades, interés y potencial demanda del producto paramétrico. También se socializaron herramientas de información climática para usuarios de datos de variables meteorológicas.Este instrumento tiene como objetivo brindar sugerencias para guiar discusiones con potenciales usuarios finales de seguros agropecuarios e informar un estudio de demanda. El mismo recopila una variedad de información en cuanto al contexto del agricultor, sus estrategias de manejo de riesgo, experiencias con riesgos climáticos, prácticas agronómicas y acceso a la información. Conociendo este perfil nos permite tener una perspectiva sobre las necesidades de los diferentes tipos de productores para guiar posibles decisiones de diseño de un seguro agropecuario.a. ¿Con qué cultivos trabaja? ¿Cuál es el cultivo principal? ¿Secundario? b. ¿Cuáles son las temporadas para estos cultivos? c. ¿Cuántas hectáreas?d. ¿Cuánto aproximadamente gasta en insumos por temporada para su cultivo principal?e. ¿Tienen créditos con alguna institución financiera para cubrir costos de producción? ¿Para otros costos?a. ¿Cuáles han sido los peores 5 años de producción del cultivo principal? Haga una lista en orden, empezando por el peor.b. ¿Qué causó que estos fueran los peores 5 años, para cada uno de los años?c. ¿Cómo le afectó? ¿En qué etapa de desarrollo del cultivo ocurrieron los eventos e.g. floración, siembra, cosecha, etc.? ¿Perdió toda la cosecha o solo disminuyó el total de producción? d. ¿Tomaron algunas medidas antes del peor año para reducir el impacto de los eventos climáticos? (por ejemplo: riego, mejores semillas) e. ¿Recibieron algún tipo de apoyo durante el peor año? ¿Cuál?3. Practicas agronómicas y acceso a la información a. ¿Han recibido información climática que les ha ayudado a manejar los riesgos climáticos, por ejemplo, pronósticos meteorológicos o recomendaciones de fechas de siembra?b. En general, ¿cuáles son las diferencias entre los agricultores en función de tamaño de la finca? (por ejemplo, acceso a la financiación, riego) c. ¿Qué estrategias están disponibles para ayudar a los agricultores a mejorar su productividad?d. ¿Hay agricultores que no se pueden beneficiar de estas estrategias o herramientas? ¿Porqué?Este instrumento tiene como objetivo brindar sugerencias para guiar discusiones con instituciones que agrupan o se relacionan con potenciales usuarios finales de seguros agropecuarios para así informar un estudio de demanda. El mismo recopila una variedad de información en cuanto al contexto, estrategias de manejo de riesgo, experiencias con riesgos climáticos, y acceso a la información. Conociendo este perfil nos permite tener una perspectiva sobre las necesidades de los diferentes tipos de productores para guiar posibles decisiones de diseño de un seguro agropecuario.a. ¿Cuál es el rol principal de la institución?b. ¿Con productores agropecuarios de que rubro(s) trabajan? c. ¿Qué servicios les ofrecen a los productores? d. ¿Los productores pagan por estos servicios? e. ¿De que forma(s) pagan por estos servicios? ¿Ofrecen algún tipo de crédito? ¿Cuál?f. ¿Cuáles han sido los peores 5 años para su institución y la relación con los productores agropecuarios? Haga una lista en orden, empezando por el peor.g. ¿Qué causó que estos fueran los peores 5 años, para cada uno de los años?h. ¿Qué tuvieron que hacer para manejar la situación durante estos años?i. ¿Recibieron algún tipo de apoyo durante el peor año? ¿Cuál?3. Practicas agronómicas y acceso a la información e. ¿Han recibido y/o utilizan información climática que les ha ayudado a manejar los riesgos climáticos, por ejemplo, pronósticos meteorológicos?f. En general, ¿cuáles son las diferencias entre los agricultores en función del tamaño de la finca?g. ¿Qué estrategias están disponibles para ayudar a los agricultores a mejorar su productividad?h. ¿Hay agricultores que no se pueden beneficiar de estas estrategias o herramientas? ¿Porqué?Con el propósito de facilitar la gestión de conocimientos en los actores de gestión de riesgos agroclimáticos del sector agroalimentario Honduras, se compiló una guía de herramientas para la obtención de datos climáticos.El instrumento cuenta con información acerca de contexto nacional e impactos de cambio climático definición e interpretación de variables climáticas y otras generalidades de la climatología y finalmente un instructivo que orienta a los usuarios al desarrollo de los distintos procesos que se llevan a cabo en la búsqueda y obtención de información climática, precisa y oportuna para los tomadores 3 decisiones.","tokenCount":"11061"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7222ff1aececedfb78c681cdb44a9fb8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a1007a4-907f-44af-8a2e-332d4a536227/retrieve","id":"1356918902"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"546a3039-7006-4384-a96c-cbd87a5ecc08","pagecount":"24","content":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement, and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communication and Public Awareness Department at the address below. Some days before harvesting, identify the plants to be harvested and cut the foliage. Harvest the roots carefully with a garden tool (for example a fork), avoiding any root damage.  Separate marketable and non-marketable roots on the field. Select a representative sample. For this purpose, 5 to 10 sweetpotato roots should be collected at random in each replication. The roots should have a representative size for the clone, variety or genotype.  Avoid selecting damaged roots, roots with extreme sizes, and roots from plants that grew in the borders.  Put the collected roots inside a paper bag previously labeled with the corresponding identification code of the field plot.  Place the paper bags with the sweetpotato roots in a box and store them in proper conditions (dark, ventilated and fresh room, protected from dust, etc.) until sample preparation. The sweetpotato samples should be processed for nutrient analysis as soon as they arrive at the laboratory (maximum 1 week after harvest) 2A and 2B)  Wash the 5 to 10 roots with abundant tap water (trying to remove all soil residue), rinse with distilled water and dry the roots with paper towel.  Put the washed roots in a clean and labeled paper bag and store them under proper conditions (dark, ventilated and fresh room, protected from dust, etc).  Place the samples in white plastic trays, sorting in a correct order. Peel the roots with a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic peeler, wash them again with distilled water, dry using paper towel and cut each root longitudinally in 4 sections with a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic knife. Peeling should be done carefully, with minimum removal of the flesh.  Obtain 3 -4 slices of each of two opposite sections of each root to obtain a 50 g weighed sample. Use a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic slicer.Option 1. Using a freeze drier (Figure 2A)  Put the sweetpotato slices in polyethylene bags and take note of the exact weight. Store the samples in a freezer at -20 °C and freeze-dry them until the residual moisture is less than 3%. (At CIP's Quality and Nutrition Laboratory, 72 hours freeze-drying is needed for drying 350 sweetpotato samples (50 g fresh material each) in an industrial freeze dryer.  Weigh the dried samples and take note of the exact weight. Use the fresh and dried weights to calculate the dry matter content of the samples.  Mill the dried samples in a stainless steel mill (40 mesh) and place the milled sample in Whirl-Pak plastic bags.  Store the milled sample at room temperature if the samples are going to be analyzed for minerals (XRF or ICP) or at -20 °C if other nutrients such as vitamin C, carotenoids or phenolics are also going to be analyzed. Put the sweetpotato slices in a glass petri dish, take note of the exact weight and dry at 80 ºC for 48 hours. Dried samples should have less than 3% residual moisture.  Weigh the dried samples and take note of the exact weight. Use the fresh and dried weights to calculate the dry matter content of the samples.  Mill the dried samples in a stainless steel mill (40 mesh) and place the milled samples in Whirl-Pak plastic bags.  Store the milled sample at room temperature.Note: Oven drying is used for mineral analysis only. Other nutrients are on risk of degrading due to the high temperatures.    Harvest the tubers carefully with a garden tool (for example a fork), avoiding any tuber damage.  Separate marketable and non-marketable tubers on the field. Select a representative sample. For this purpose, 7 to 10 potato tubers per genotype, clone or variety in each replication from the field should be collected at random. The tubers should have a representative size for the genotype, clone or variety.  Avoid selecting damaged or greened tubers, tubers with extreme sizes, and tubers from plants that grew in the borders.  Place the collected tubers inside a paper bag previously labeled with the corresponding identification code of the field plot.  Place the paper bags with the potato tubers in a box and store them in proper conditions (dark, ventilated and fresh room, protected from dust, etc) until sample preparation. The potato samples should be processed for nutrient analysis as soon as they arrive at the laboratory (maximum 1 week after harvesting). 4A and 4B)  Wash the 7 to 10 potato tubers with abundant tap water (trying to remove any soil residue), rinse with distilled water and dry the tubers with paper towel.  Put the potato tubers in a clean and labeled bag and store them at 5 ⁰C. One day before processing, place the samples in white plastic trays, sorting in a correct order.  Peel the tubers with a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic peeler, wash them again with distilled water, dry using paper towel, and cut each tuber longitudinally in 4 sections with a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic knife. Peeling should be done carefully, with minimum removal of the flesh.  Obtain 3 -4 slices of each of two opposite sections of each tuber to obtain a 50 g weighed sample. Use a high-grade stainless steel or ceramic slicer. Put the potato slices in polyethylene bags and take note of the exact weight. Store the samples in a freezer at -20°C and freeze-dry them until the residual moisture is less than 3%. (At CIP's Quality and Nutrition Laboratory, 72 hours freeze-drying is needed for drying 350 potato samples (50 g fresh material each) in an industrial freeze dryer.  Weigh the dried samples and take note of the exact weight. Use the fresh and dried weights to calculate the dry matter content of the samples.  Mill the dried sample in a stainless steel mill (40 mesh) and place the milled sample in Whirl-Pak plastic bags.  Store the milled sample at room temperature if the samples are going to be analyzed for minerals (XRF or ICP) or at -20 °C if other nutrients such as vitamin C, carotenoids or phenolics are also going to be analyzed.Option 2. Using an oven (Figure 2B)  Put the potato slices in a glass petri dish, take note of the exact weight and dry at 80 ºC for 48 hours. Dried samples should have less than 3% residual moisture.  Weigh the dried samples and take note of the exact weight. Use the fresh and dried weights to calculate the dry matter content of the samples.  Mill the dried samples in a stainless steel mill (40 mesh) and place the milled samples in Whirl-Pak plastic bags.  Store the milled samples at room temperature.Note: Tubers can be stored at 5⁰C for minerals, vitamin C, carotenoid and phenolic analysis but not for sugar analysis. Oven drying is used for mineral analysis only. Other nutrients are at risk of degrading due to the high temperatures.   The staff who participate in sample preparation must be conscious of the importance of avoiding contamination of potato and sweetpotato samples with minerals from other sources.Common contaminant sources include: Soil or dust on hands or equipment, skin care products on bare hands, dirty or rusty material, and lack of appropriate laboratory equipment. We consider a potato tuber or sweetpotato root sample to be contaminated when:  The concentration of Al is higher than 4 ppm, even when Ti is not present;  The concentration of Ti is higher than 0.1 ppm and the concentration of Al is higher than 2 ppm; and  The samples contain Cr, which is generally reported as Cr <0.2 ppm.We consider that a sample is possibly contaminated when the concentration of Al is higher than 2 ppm and lower than 4 ppm, even when there is no presence of Ti.For example, in Table 1:  Sample 1 has high iron concentration but, as indicated by the high levels of Al and Ti, the sample is contaminated.  Samples 3, 4 and 5 have medium iron concentration but are also contaminated, as indicated by the high levels of Al and Ti.  Sample 8 and sample 10 present high levels of iron, but the high levels of Cr indicate that those samples are also contaminated.  Samples 2, 6, 7 and 9 are not contaminated and the mineral results are trustable. ","tokenCount":"1451"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b90a598a3d5fe78eb90cd03504a280f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/42fd36ac-1bfe-4bfd-a43b-b014203e8272/content","id":"2014375858"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b8caf555-eb33-435d-a20c-eed1a7db60c1","pagecount":"11","content":"Wheat high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) determine dough elasticity and play an essential role in processing quality. HMW-GS are encoded by Glu-1 genes and controlled primarily at transcriptional level, implemented through the interactions between cis-acting elements and trans-acting factors. However, transcriptional mechanism of Glu-1 genes remains elusive. Here we made a comprehensive analysis of cis-regulatory elements within 1-kb upstream of the Glu-1 start codon (−1000 to −1) and identified 30 conserved motifs. Based on motif distribution pattern, three conserved cis-regulatory modules (CCRMs), CCRM1 (−300 to −101), CCRM2 (−650 to −400), and CCRM3 (−950 to −750), were defined, and their functions were characterized in wheat stable transgenic lines transformed with progressive 5′ deletion promoter::GUS fusion constructs. GUS staining, qPCR and enzyme activity assays indicated that CCRM2 and CCRM3 could enhance the expression level of Glu-1, whereas the 300-bp promoter (−300 to −1), spanning CCRM1 and core region (−100 to −1), was enough to ensure accurate Glu-1 initiation at 7 days after flowering (DAF) and shape its spatiotemporal expression pattern during seed development. Further transgenic assays demonstrated that CCRM1-2 (−300 to −209) containing Complete HMW Enhancer (−246 to −209) was important for expression level but had no effect on expression specificity in the endosperm. In contrast, CCRM1-1 (−208 to −101) was critical for both expression specificity and level of Glu-1. Our findings not only provide new insights to uncover Glu-1 transcription regulatory machinery but also lay foundations for modifying Glu-1 expression.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), an important staple crop worldwide, can be processed into a wide range of food products. This unique property results from its seed storage proteins (SSP) which form a polymer complex and provide both elasticity and extensibility for dough [1,2]. High-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS), the major component of wheat SSP, determine dough elasticity, and their differences in content and composition can explain up to 70% of the variation in the processing quality [3][4][5][6]. Therefore, it is very important to mine the desirable alleles encoding HMW-GS and uncover the regulatory machinery underlying their expression. HMW-GS are encoded by Glu-1 loci on chromosomes 1AL, 1BL, and 1DL, and each locus consists of two tightly linked genes (Glu-1-1 and Glu-1-2) encoding x-type and y-type HMW-GS, respectively [7]. Numerous variant alleles of Glu-1 genes have been identified and the relationships between these alleles and processing properties have been well studied [1,7,8].Glu-1 genes are specially expressed in the endosperm at the mid and late stages of wheat seed development [9,10]. Just like other SSP genes, the spatiotemporal expression pattern of Glu-1 is primarily controlled at the transcriptional level involving a series of cis-acting motifs and trans-acting factors [11,12]. In term of trans-acting factors, four families of transcription factors (TFs), bZIP, DOF, MYB, and B3, were reported to be involved in SSP regulation [13][14][15][16][17][18]. Numerous cis motifs have also been identified in the promoters of SSP genes and several of them have been characterized functionally in model plants. The prolamin box (P-box) and N-motif (GCN4-like motif) complex are usually identified as the −300 element or endosperm box at around 300 bp upstream of the transcription start site for many SSP genes [19][20][21][22]. Mutation analyses in rice revealed that the Nmotif regulates both gene expression specificity and quantity whereas the P-box controls only the expression level [23,24]. The AACA and ACGT motifs govern SSP expression quantitatively and their mutations can lead to dramatic reductions in promoter ability but have no effect on endosperm specificity [24,25]. The RY motif is another important element controlling seed-specific expression of SSP genes in dicots [26][27][28].Previous functional characterizations about Glu-1 promoter were mainly carried out in heterologous systems due to the lack of efficient stable wheat transformation technique. By promoter deletion assays, a 38-bp element designated as the Complete HMW Enhancer was identified within wheat Glu-1 promoter and it could regulate both gene expression level and specificity in tobacco [29]. The quantitative roles of P-box and ACGT motif for Glu-1 expressions were characterized by transient assays in maize endosperm [30]. Glu-1 promoters have also been functionally analyzed in rice [31] and Brachypodium distachyon [32]. Although heterologous systems play an important role in understanding Glu-1 promoters, they do not necessarily reflect their native functions. Wheat Glu-1 promoter was unable to maintain tissue specificity when transformed in rice [33]. Therefore, it is necessary to decipher the functions of Glu-1 promoters in homologous systems. Recent advances in transgene technology allow us to systematically dissect the functions of Glu-1 promoters using wheat stable transformation.The current study provides a comprehensive analysis of conserved cis motifs in ten representative Glu-1 promoters and defines the conserved cis-regulatory modules (CCRMs). The regulatory functions of CCRMs are characterized by deletion assays in wheat stable transgenic lines. This work not only deepens our understanding on the transcription regulatory machinery underlying Glu-1 expression, but also sets the groundwork to alter HMW-GS contents at the transcriptional level as a model system for modifying flour quality attributes.One-kb regions upstream of the start codon in 10 representative Glu-1 genes were selected to characterize conserved cisregulatory elements. Promoter sequences for the Glu-1Ax1, Glu-1Bx7, Glu-1By8, Glu-1Dx5, and Glu-1Dy10 alleles were retrieved from public databases (KC820627, X13927, DQ537336, X12928, and X12929 in GenBank: https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/). The promoters for the Glu-1Ay null, Glu-1Bx14, Glu-1By15, Glu-1Dx2, and Glu-1Dy12 alleles were amplified from the wheat cultivar Fielder (Triticum aestivum L.) using rTaq DNA polymerase (Takara Bio, Ohtsu, Japan). PCR were carried out in 20 μL reaction volumes containing 10 μL 2× GC buffer I, 100 μmol L −1 of each dNTP, 2 pmol of each primer, 100 ng of genomic DNA and 1 U of rTaq polymerase. The specific primer pairs for each promoter are listed in Table S1. PCR products were separated in agarose gels and recovered using a GeneJET Gel Extraction Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). After purification, target fragments were inserted into the pEASY-T5 vector (TransGen Biotech, Beijing, China) and eight positive clones were identified for sequencing.Genes with similar transcriptional characteristics are often regulated by consensus cis elements and this can be used to identify important motifs in gene promoters [21,[34][35][36]. Glu-1 promoter sequences were aligned using DNAMAN5.2 (http:// www.lynnon.com/). Motif annotation was carried out with the PLACE database (https://sogo.dna.affrc.go.jp/cgi-bin/sogo.cgi? lang=en&pj=640&action=page&page=newplace) [37] to define the CCRMs. For motifs with overlapping signal sequences and similar functions, only the longest one was taken into account for further analysis. For the motif variants, we also named them as the typical motifs deposited in PLACE database (Table 1).The Glu-1Dx2 promoter was selected for vector construction and functional validation. To assess the function of CCRMs, progressive 5′ deletion fragments were generated from Glu-1Dx2 promoter and fused to the GUS reporter gene. Five fragments corresponding to 100-bp (core region), 208-bp (core region plus CCRM1-1), 300-bp (core region plus CCRM1), 650bp (core region plus CCRM1 and CCRM2), and 950-bp upstream (core region plus CCRM1, CCRM2, and CCRM3) of the start codon were amplified from Fielder genomic DNA and inserted into plant expression vector pUbi-GUS to create pGUS100, pGUS208, pGUS300, pGUS650, and pGUS950, respectively. These constructs were introduced into Fielder by Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation using a licensed procedure (http://www.jti. co.jp/biotech/en/plantbiotech/index.html). Transgenic lines were grown in the greenhouse at 20 °C and 16/8-h photoperiod with supplementary lighting provided by high-pressure sodium vapor lamps (Powertone SON-T AGRO 400W; Philips Electronic UK). Positive transgenic lines were identified by PCR with promoterspecific forward and common GUS-specific reverse primers. Primer sequences for vector construction and transgenic lines screening were shown in Table S1.Nine independent T 2 transgenic lines for pGUS300 construct and 10 for each of pGUS100, pGUS208, pGUS650, and pGUS950 constructs were used to investigate GUS expression. Plant tissues such as roots, leaves, leaf sheaths, spikelets and stems were collected two weeks after flowering, and seeds were sampled at the middle of spikes every 5 DAF until maturity (30 DAF). Seeds were also collected every day from 6 to 9 DAF to define point of the initiation of Glu-1 expression. All samples were collected from 3:00 to 5:00 pm to avoid diurnal fluctuations in gene expression. One part of the samples was used for GUS staining and the remainder was stored at −80 °C for GUS gene expression and enzyme activity assays. For histochemical analysis of GUS activity, hand-cut seed pieces (longitudinally and laterally) and other tissues were incubated in 0.1 mol L −1 sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) containing 1 mmol L −1 X-Gluc at 37 °C for 0.5 h to overnight [24,29,38]. GUS-stained tissues were imaged with a Leica M165 FC stereo microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany).GUS activity was measured by fluorometric quantification of 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU) following Jefferson [39]. Mature seeds (30 DAF) were ground in GUS extraction buffer The dash lines indicate TFs were not identified. The underlined motifs were reported to regulate SSP expression levels. a Motifs were not included in PLACE database, but these are involved in SSP regulation [43][44][45]. b There were polymorphic nucleotides in motif sequences and the variants were named as the typical motifs deposited in PLACE database. c Symbols in brackets indicate the motif location in the plus strand (sense strand) or minus strand (antisense strand). Motif locations refer to the Glu-1Dx2 promoter.and the supernatants were used for quantification of GUS activity. Protein concentrations were determined using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as control [40]. Fluorescence of 4-MU was measured at 365 nm excitation and 455 nm emission using the Synergy H1 microplate reader (BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA). GUS activity was calculated as pmols 4-MU/min/mg protein. GUS gene expression was examined by qPCR. Total RNA was isolated from frozen tissues using RNAprep Pure Plant Kit (TIANGEN, Beijing, China) according to the manufacturer's instructions. First strand cDNA was synthesized by a PrimeScript RT Reagent Kit with gDNA Eraser (Takara, Ohtsu, Japan) following the manufacturer's protocol. qPCR was performed on a BioRad CFX system using iTaq Universal SYBR Green Supermix (BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA). Relative gene expression was normalized to elongation factor 1 alpha (eF1α) using the 2 −ΔΔCt equation [41]. Primer sequences for qPCR were shown in Table S1.The one-way ANOVA analysis was performed with the SPSS Statistics 20 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Multiple range test was used to compare mean values at the P < 0.05 probability level.Previous studies showed that a 1-kb region upstream of the start codon enabled Glu-1 highly expressed in endosperm [9,42]. The regions of ten representative Glu-1 promoters were used to identify conserved cis motifs and define CCRMs.Multiple alignments showed that Glu-1 promoters had a high sequence identity although some insertion or deletion differences were present (Fig. S1). Based on previous reports and PLACE annotation, we identified 30 conserved motifs, most of which were reported to be involved in SSP regulation (Table 1).According to motif distribution pattern, three CCRMs, CCRM1 (−300 to −101), CCRM2 (−650 to −400), and CCRM3 (−950 to −750) were defined (Fig. 1). CCRM1 contained 11 conserved motifs, five of which were included in the Complete HMW Enhancer, a critical element for Glu-1 expression in transgenic tobacco [29]. CCRM2 comprised 9 conserved motifs. Among them, the N-motif regulated the endosperm specificity of SSP expression in rice [23] and RY controlled the seed-specific expression of SSP in dicots [26,28]. CCRM3 included 8 conserved motifs. In addition to RY, the ABRE, E-box and AMY were involved in seed-gene regulation [24,46,47]. Notably, the core region (−100 to −1) was also quite conserved, harboring basal transcription motifs such as a TATA box and the transcription start site (TSS) (Figs. 1; S1). The detail locations about these motifs were listed in Table S2.To investigate the function of CCRMs, progressive 5′ deletion fragments were generated from the Glu-1Dx2 promoter and fused with the GUS reporter gene to create constructs pGUS300, pGUS650, and pGUS950, which were transformed into wheat cultivar Fielder mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. No GUS staining was detected in roots, leaves, leaf sheaths, spikelets or stems from all transgenic plants (Fig. S2). GUS expression was restricted to endosperm and prolonged incubation did not lead to staining in the embryo (Fig. 2-a), indicating that deletions of CCRM2 and CCRM3 had no effect on endosperm-specific expression of Glu-1. In short, the 300-bp promoter spanning CCRM1 and core region (−100 to −1) guaranteed Glu-1 expression specificity.To determine the effects of CCRMs on expression activity, GUS expression patterns directed by pGUS300, pGUS650 and pGUS950 were monitored during seed development. GUS staining was detected in the endosperms from 10 DAF until 30 DAF and its intensity visibly increased with seed development (Fig. 2-a). Additionally, longer promoters drove stronger staining intensity, which was confirmed by GUS activity assays in the mature seeds (30 DAF) (Fig. 2-b). On average, GUS activities driven by pGUS650 and pGUS950 were about 4 and 6 folds higher than that by pGUS300, respectively, indicating that CCRM2 and CCRM3 greatly promoted Glu-1 expression. However, there was still considerable GUS accumulated in seeds of pGUS300 transformants.To define the accurate GUS expression pattern, we performed real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) during seed development in different transformants. All three constructs directed similar GUS expression patterns with transcripts gradually increasing up to 20 DAF and then declining sharply until 30 DAF (Fig. 2-c). This inconsistency between GUS gene expression (Fig. 2-c) and GUS staining (Fig. 2-a) may be explained by the long half-life of GUS protein [48]. Consistent with GUS staining, the longer promoters could drive a higher transcriptional activity. Compared to pGUS950, pGUS650, and pGUS300 GUS transcripts at 20 DAF were decreased by about 20% and 50%, respectively (Fig. 2-c). Thus, CCRM2 and CCRM3 could increase Glu-1 expression level, whereas the 300-bp promoter was sufficient to shape Glu-1 expression pattern during seed development.To further specify the effects of CCRMs on the transcription initiation of Glu-1, we performed a precise comparison of GUS expression in transgenic seeds during the early seed developmental phase. In the initial experiments, no GUS was detected in all transgenic lines at 5 DAF (Fig. 2-a, c). Therefore, histochemical staining and qPCR assays were carried out to test GUS expression in young seeds every day from 6 to 9 DAF. The detection results showed that GUS staining first appeared at 8 DAF (Fig. 3-a), whereas GUS transcripts had accumulated to a certain level at 7 DAF in all transformants (Fig. 3-b). Thus Glu-1 expression was initiated no later than 7 DAF. We also observed that GUS was initially expressed at the distal part of the endosperm and then spread towards the embryo in all transgenic lines (Fig. 3-a). In summary, CCRM3 and CCRM2 did not affect onset of Glu-1 expression and the 300-bp promoter was enough to direct accurate initiation of Glu-1 expression.Since the 300-bp promoter was sufficient to drive Glu-1 spatiotemporal expression, we conducted further functional dissection of the region. Based on the distribution pattern of motifs, CCRM1 were further divided into two sub-CCRMs, CCRM1-1 (−208 to −101), and CCRM1-2 (−300 to −209) (Fig. 1). CCRM1-2 was represented by the Complete HMW Enhancer, which extended from −246 to −209 and had previously been reported to control both gene expression level and tissuespecificity in transgenic tobacco [29]. To test the functions of CCRM1-2, a pGUS208 construct was generated and transformed into wheat cultivar Fielder. Histochemical staining indicated that GUS protein was restricted to the endosperm and could not be detected until 15 DAF (Figs. 4-a; 5). Additionally, GUS activity in seeds of pGUS208 transformants was only one-third of pGUS300 at 30 DAF (Fig. 4-b). qPCR assays also confirmed that deletion of CCRM1-2 greatly reduced the GUS transcriptional level (Fig. 4-c). Overall, CCRM1-2 significantly affects the expression level but not endosperm-specificity of Glu-1.A pGUS100 was created and introduced into Fielder to investigate the function of CCRM1-1 (−208 to −101). Histochemical staining showed that the 100-bp core promoter (−100 to −1) failed to drive GUS expression in seeds (Fig. 4-a), but there was some GUS transcript accumulation in seeds detected by qPCR assays (Fig. 4-c). Apparently the 100-bp core promoter could still drive transcription of Glu-1, albeit at quite a low level. However, the transcriptional activity of the 100-bp core promoter (−100 to −1) was negligible compared to pGUS208 (Fig. 4-c). No GUS activity was detected in all tested tissues except the rachilla of the spikelet (Fig. 5). As such, the 100-bp core promoter was unable to maintain endospermspecific expression. Taken together, CCRM1-1 was critical for both expression level and endosperm-specificity of Glu-1. In rice, the N-motif acts as an essential element regulating endosperm-specific expression and its internal removal or sitespecific mutation abolishes endosperm-specific expression [ 24,25]. The RY element controls seed-specific expression in dicots, and its mutation eliminates promoter activity in seeds and causes gene expression in leaves [26,49]. In the present work, PLACE annotations of Glu-1 promoters showed that all conserved RY and N-motif are located in CCRM2 and CCRM3 (Figs. 1; S1) and their deletion does not alter the endospermspecific nature of the Glu-1 promoter (Figs. 2-a, S2). The 300-bp promoter is able to confer endosperm-specific expression of Glu-1. Thus the N-motif and RY are not necessary for the endosperm-specific expression of Glu-1. This result is supported by previous work showing that a 338-bp Glu-1 promoter was able to confer endosperm-specific expression in transgenic tobacco [50]. Moreover, seed-specific promoters containing the N-motif from wheat and barley were unable to direct seedspecific gene expression in transgenic rice [33]. Therefore, the N-motif and RY do not maintain a conserved function in directing endosperm-specific expression between wheat and other plants.In transgenic tobacco, the Complete HMW Enhancer controls Glu-1 expression specificity and levels [29]. To validate the function of the element, CCRM1-2 carrying the Complete HMW Enhancer was deleted from the 300-bp promoter. GUS staining showed that deletion of CCRM1-2 did not affect GUS expression specificity (Figs. 4-a; 5), indicating that the Complete HMW-Enhancer cannot regulate Glu-1 expression specificity in wheat, which is different from Thomas and Flavell [29]. This result also demonstrates that the heterologous system cannot faithfully or fully reflect the real functions of Glu-1 promoters.Since pGUS208 still directed an endosperm-specific property, CCRM1-1 was further deleted from pGUS208 and the resultant pGUS100 construct was transformed into Fielder. No GUS staining was detected in all tested tissues in pGUS100 transformants except the rachilla of spikelets (Fig. 5). Therefore, the elements in CCRM1-1 should confer endospermspecific expression of Glu-1 but only three conserved motifs were identified in this region (Fig. 1). Among them, the POA (similar to the P-box) and AACA motifs only control gene expression level in seed [24], whereas the (CA) n motif regulates gene seed-specific expression in dicots [51]. Thus, (CA)n motif might have a role in Glu-1 specific expression in endosperm. However, we did not rule out the possibility that the POA and AACA motifs or other non-annotated elements could function in Glu-1 endosperm-specific expression. We generated a series of site-specific mutant versions of the 208bp promoter for each of the (CA) n , POA, and AACA motifs, as well as a 125-bp promoter (−125 to −1). The constructs containing these fragments fused with the GUS gene were firstly introduced into Arabidopsis. However, 208-bp promoter and its mutant or truncated derivatives were unable to drive GUS expression in seeds, indicating that the promoter was not activated in Arabidopsis. We further conducted transient expression assays in developing wheat seeds by biolisticmediated transformation. All of the resulting promoters above were able to confer endosperm-specific property (Fig. S3). This result is consistent with transient assays in maize which showed that the 117-bp promoter of Glu-1 was sufficient to drive gene expression in endosperm [30]. Transient gene expression by particle bombardment is affected by both the particle and DNA amount and is positively correlated with gene copy number, so it may not be a suitable approach to assess the effects of POA, (CA) n , and AACA motifs, as well as the 125-bp promoter, on Glu-1 expression. Thus, stable wheat transformation is prerequisite to identify the motifs responsible for endosperm-specific expression.The CCRMs were defined by 30 conserved motifs, most of which were reported to regulate SSP expression levels (Table 1). GUS activity and qPCR assays revealed that all CCRMs could promote Glu-1 expression levels in the endosperm. The ABRE, P-box (POA), Skn-1, and AACA motifs have been reported to be quantitative motifs, and their roles in regulating GluB-1 have been well characterized in rice [24,52]. Sitespecific mutations of these motifs can result in at least a twofold decline in promoter activity. The RY and N-motif control both gene expression specificity and level, and their mutation also lead to loss of promoter activity in seed [23,28]. Although no TFs binding to the E-box and CCAAT box in Glu-1 promoters have been isolated, evidence from other SSP genes indicates that they may participate in Glu-1 expression [46,53]. Moreover, I-box, W-box, TOA and AMY might mediate crosstalk between Glu-1 expression and other signaling pathways. HvMCB1, a light induced MYB TF in barley, can activate SSP synthesis and repress germination-related gene expression through interaction with the I-box [54,55]. The Wbox, TOA, and AMY are motifs related to sugar signaling and activate or repress gene expression in sugar metabolism through interactions with TFs [47,[56][57][58]. A recent study also demonstrated that O2 and PBF directly bind to promoters of starch biosynthetic genes in maize and regulate starch synthesis thus connecting sugar and protein metabolism [59]. Therefore, sugar metabolism and Glu-1 expression may Fig. 5 -GUS staining of different tissues from the transgenic wheats carrying pGUS100 and pGUS208 constructs. Plant tissues were collected two weeks after flowering and incubated in 1 mmol L −1 X-Gluc solution. Bar, 2 mm. be linked by cis motifs and their binding TFs. Collectively, the I-box, AMY, TOA, and W-box maybe mediate the cross-talk between Glu-1 expressions and sugar metabolism, whereas the AACA, ABRE, P-box, E-box, RY, Skn-1, and N-motif probably regulate Glu-1 expression in a quantitative manner.Previous studies showed that Glu-1 genes initiate at the mid and late stages of seed development, ranging from 8 to 12 DAF in tobacco and durum wheat [9,29]. We first detected GUS staining at 8 DAF, but transcripts had already accumulated to a detectable level at 7 DAF in pGUS950, pGUS650, and pGUS300 transformants (Fig. 3-a, b). Thus the precise onset of Glu-1 expression is defined as 7 DAF, earlier than previous reports. Deletions of CCRM2 and CCRM3 had no effect on initiation of Glu-1 expression. The 300-bp promoter with CCRM1 was sufficient to ensure accurate initiation of Glu-1 expression at 7 DAF (Fig. 3-a). However, appearance of GUS activity was delayed to 15 DAF when CCRM1-2 was removed from the 300bp promoter (Fig. 4-a). Thus CCRM1-2 is probably important for Glu-1 initiation. This delay in GUS appearance might be attributed to low transcriptional activity of the 208-bp promoter. pGUS208 directed only about one-third of GUS transcripts compared to pGUS300, and no GUS activity was observed until 10 DAF (Fig. 4-a, c).In this study, the 300-bp promoter was sufficient to direct spatial and temporal expression of Glu-1. Additionally, the endosperm box (−300 element) at around 300 bp upstream of the transcription start sites was identified as a critical cisregulatory element for endosperm-specific expression of many other SSP genes [19][20][21][22]. To further uncover the common regulatory machinery, or key cis-regulatory elements for wheat SSP expression, we carried out promoter alignments between Glu-1 and other major SSP genes such as Glu-3, Gli-1, and Gli-2, which code for low-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GS) or gliadins, respectively. Unexpectedly, low sequence homology was detected among these promoters (Fig. S4). Although a few common motifs were identified among the promoters of the four gene families, they were arranged with different organizing modes (Tables S3, S4). Therefore, in terms of sequence alignment and motif distribution patterns, endosperm-specific expression of Glu-1 may be regulated in a different transcriptional manner compared to other SSP genes in wheat.In this study, we defined three CCRMs, CCRM1 (−300 to −101), CCRM2 (−650 to −400), and CCRM3 (−950 to −750) based on characterization of cis motifs within ten Glu-1 promoters. A series of constructs, pGUS300, pGUS650, and pGUS950 were generated to evaluate the regulatory function of each CCRM in stable wheat transformants. GUS expression analysis showed that CCRM2 and CCRM3 enhanced transcriptional activity but had no effect on endosperm-specific expression of Glu-1. The 300-bp promoter spanning CCRM1 and core region (−100 to −1) was sufficient to direct the Glu-1 expression pattern during seed development. Further dissections of the 300-bp promoter indicated that CCRM1-2 (−300 to −209) regulated only Glu-1 expression level, whereas CCRM1-1 (−208 to −101) was not only indispensable for endosperm specificity but also critical for the level of Glu-1 expression. This is the first time that this level of precision has been achieved in the functional dissection of Glu-1 promoter in wheat. These results could enhance our understandings about Glu-1 transcriptional regulation and set the groundwork to alter HMW-GS contents at the transcriptional level.","tokenCount":"4104"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4622c9f74b184c1554f346bf869d4bfa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/44987e11-4a5f-4f67-9f49-d2a313ff6a93/retrieve","id":"324017512"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"611af4f5-ad31-49a5-a566-48a972e97d9e","pagecount":"8","content":"This factsheet gives answers on how climate exacerbates root causes of conflict in Kenya, using spatial hotspot analysis. The findings show that areas of high conflict and harsh climate interactions cooccurred with hotspots where socio-economic vulnerabilities (undernutrition, inequality, migration, low productivity) are present. This occurs in the following wards: Wajir East Township, Wagberi, Barwago, Bulla Mpya, and eastern Khorof.The main objective of the spatial hotspots analysis is to map the climate-conflict nexus, and identify the geographic co-occurrence of specific combinations of conflict, climate conditions, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. The purpose of the spatial hotspots analysis is to provide answers to the following research question:In response to this question, a traffic light code is created following three categories:• green color: limited conflict -good climate,• yellow color: moderate conflict -harsh climate, and• red color: high conflict -harsh climate.All other co-occurrences are colored in gray, for simplicity. The hotspots of climate insecurities correspond to the socio-economic vulnerabilities overlapping with the yellow and red categories of the traffic light code.The hotspots analysis develops four steps: 1) determination of conflict clusters, 2) determination of climate clusters, 3) identification and mapping of conflict-climate interactions, and 4) identification of socio-economic vulnerabilities. The conflict and climate clusters are determined through patternbased spatial cluster analysis using a regular grid of 30 km 2 of resolution. The labels for the resulting groups are defined by a conflict or climate gradient from descriptive statistics. The socio-economic vulnerability conditions are determined by extreme percentiles (10% or 90%, depending on the variable), based on the assumption that the most extreme conditions (in either tail of the probability distribution) are the most likely spots for urgent intervention. Finally, a simple traffic light code is used to identify the hotspots of climate-conflict and socio-economic vulnerability. Conflict data are from ACLED; climate data are from CHIRPS, TerraClimate, and AgERA5; and socio-economic variables are from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), Facebook's wealth maps, amongst others. Most of these data are directly available through Google Earth Engine.   ","tokenCount":"331"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d90bfa52cc745d0e1f9a6b5b23264c64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7f5d579-e0da-4936-a46b-972c50461b12/retrieve","id":"-1765238999"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b4c62448-3d6d-437e-baa9-a15127496c2c","pagecount":"14","content":"This publication is an output of the CGIAR Research Initiative on Transforming Agri-Food Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA). Any opinions expressed here belong to the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by the Center or CGIAR.Currently icipe is part of a Digital Transformation Committee (DTC) initiative in Kenya to bring various stakeholders together to support the Agricultural Transformation Office (ATO) agenda of a co-created unified agricultural data platform (epitomized by the iFoodSOS) (to be funded by the World Bank). The portal developed herein will lay the foundation for this initiative and thus there is the possibility that a similar portal will be developed for Kenya.Digital advisories have the potential to reach millions of small-scale farmers and render advisories and bundle services effectively tailored to their needs (Gatsbyafrica, 2023). Advisories can lead to the uptake of eco-friendly integrated pest interventions and actions in due time that will help to improve yield and reduce chances of crop failure and safeguard food security, while also reducing the need for external and expensive synthetic fertilizers (or ecologically harmful pesticides).Technologies that icipe has developed for the Fall Armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda) and the parasitic Striga weed (genus Orobanchaceae) need to be upscaled to the entire continent ideally using a web application that aids in decision making and informs where to deploy interventions. This project will contribute to the WCA initiative, WP 2 Informed Digital Agriculture for Climate Resilience, which aims to enhance the uptake of digital services in the initiative for agriculture and resilience. The specific objective is to enhance the DACA and other existing infrastructures with early warning (EW) information on pests, weeds, and climate stress. In Ghana, the models required creating an EW information and dissemination system (pilot phase), while for Rwanda the objective is to operationalize the piloted service developed in 2022. Overall objective is to contribute to the uptake of digital information for agriculture, enhance resilience of small-scale farmers to pests and climate stressors and safeguard livelihoods of farming communities within the WCA project region.Using the sub-contract with icipe, a bottom-up modeling framework with partners in Rwanda and Ghana was co-developed and implemented as a demand-driven \"downstream\" digital service to farmers and stakeholders. The project delivered critical monthly fall armyworm (FAW) forecasting information for the main cropping season (quasi-real time) and Striga weed infestation risk information for the same period. Both biotic stressors were then integrated with monthly climate forecasting information provided by Alliance Bioversity Ciat (DACA initiative) or the Ghanaian or the Rwandese Meteorological Services, respectively. An integrative modellingframework and information layers visualization online platform integrates this information, and the outputs will be/were disseminated via sms and other means.Pests such as the FAW and striga weed have posed a significant challenge to agricultural productivity in both countries. These pests cause massive crop losses of up to 80% (https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-627-2010), and farmers have been struggling to manage them. Monitoring and early warning systems are key pieces for the strategic management of the FAW.BACKGROUND ON DEVELOPING A DIGITAL PLATFORM FOR DISSEMINATION.Digital data portals in both countries can only be effectively implemented if a bottom-up approach is used and localized conditions and stakeholders' needs are considered from the onset. In both countries, agricultural extension services entities linked to agricultural ministries and NGOs were used for implementation. In Rwanda (pilot phase), the service was co-developed with the One Acre Fund in partnerships with the Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Board (RAB), and in Ghana the platform was piloted and co-developed in cooperation with Esoko (NGO), the CSIR, and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA). In Rwanda, a key stakeholder's assessment was already performed during the pilot development in 2022. In Ghana, this was done in early 2023. Important in both countries is the juxtaposing of existing infrastructure demand with the offerings of icipe (or supply). Thereby the consideration of access to digital tools such as smartphones was considered (to maximize the adoption potential), moreover the consultations helped to consider language barriers and political advisory reporting frameworks. During the pilot phase for Rwanda, it became clear that a survey would have to be conducted to study the impact the early warning advisory messages have on the individual farmers and in which time dimensions actions were taken.In Rwanda during the pilot phase in 2022, ecological predictors and FAW density occurrence data was already successfully tested within an artificial intelligence modelling framework to forecast monthly FAW infestation levels. Likewise, known striga weed locations were related to other similar ecological variables to predict a static striga risk map (valid over several years). Few advisories have been developed that consider weed abundances over wide-area landscapes, particularly for the genus Striga.As explained, the three stressors (FAW predictions, striga weed risk and water stress, quantified in terms of precipitation anomaly (PA)), were integrated using a straightforward integration risk grading model. For the FAW and the striga risk probability models, the risk levels were categorized as follows: If the predicted density was below 40% of all the predicted values, it was classifies as a low risk, if the predicted densities were between 41% and 70% of the all the predicted values, pixels were classified as moderate risk and if the predicted density was above 70% of all the predicted values, corresponding pixels were graded as being high risk. For precipitation anomaly (PA) or drought, anomaly data was sourced from the Columbia University global precipitation project (link).In calculating the integrated risk level, we used the following unique value coding (Table 1). The same web-GIS portal as used in the Rwanda outputs for 2022 was used to visualize results for Rwanda in 2023 and the new Ghana results ( 2023). The integrated model and the individual results were then innovatively housed under one web portal for universal access.The individual AI-powered algorithms at the back-end, that are currently running on both R and Python languages, were restructured to run a Python back-end with FastAPI used to interface the front-end built on ReactJs. This architecture provides a solution that is easy updatable in the back end and accessible using a webdomain. The architecture is also set up in such a way as to collate and coalesce diverse data sets that will act as the basis to further improve the existing algorithms and integration.Often digital systems used in advisories do not holistically consider both abiotic (climate stress) and biotic factors (pests and weeds), thus these digital systems cannot transfer the data into comprehensive insights and actions. This tool aims to combine both aspects that are, moreover, compounding each other and thus may exacerbate stresses on crops. For instance, more drought conditions cause FAW infestations to increase, since rain washes away larvae, and more rain enhances crop growth which strengthens its resilience. Croplands affected by the FAW and the striga are known to experience yield declines of up to 80% in Africa.Moreover, digital advisories (outreach messages) often only focus on mobile applications or web platforms, which is out of reach of many small holder farmers that do not necessarily have access to the internet. Here also, the aim was to use a free feedback function that allows a two-way communication per short message service (SMS), i.e., a farmer may have questions and needs further advice on the advisory given. This was tested for Rwanda in 2022 (as a prototype) and again implemented in 2023 for Rwanda, while for technical reasons and set ups this was not possible for Ghana currently.The opportunity in this tool (portal) also lies in the unique early warning aspect.The models used forecast FAW infestation and climate stress one month before these stressors occur, based on artificial intelligence (AI) models that are trained with FAW data from the past and climate and crop seasonality forecast data.Moreover, in both countries there is a need to bundle digital advisory services and have these cover larger areas affected by several stressors. This project will deliver the baseline service to effectively bundle various stressors and appropriate advisories.The overall objective for this output is to develop an online software or portal for Ghana and Rwanda (where already a prototype portal was developed in 2022;http://wca-rwanda.icipe.org/, last accessed 3 rd of November 2023) that will disseminate early warning SMS advisory messages to farmer promoters (Rwanda)or individual farmers (Ghana). The farmers /farmer promoters are already subscribed to the digital advisory systems in both countries; the Esoko digital system in Ghana and the One Acre Fund/RAB managed platform in Rwanda. The advisory issues integrated pest management and cultural and other advice, based on risk forecasting for the smallest administrative districts in both countries. Risk forecasting is performed for county-level FAW infestations, and precipitation anomaly (both one month ahead) and striga weed risk (long term spatial data set).The specific objectives include.• In line with end users and stakeholder needs, develop a back-end infrastructure based on data ontologies, various AI-models, and their optimizations, develop batch processing pipelines linked to a data repository.• In line with end users and stakeholder needs, develop the front-end using web-GIS and execute various APIs for data visualization and aggregation, including exporting spreadsheet data for advisory formulation.• Implement an easy-to-understand integration model of all stressors, as shown in Table 1 • Develop and continuously improve the input risk AI-models using newly available earth observation data such as land surface temperature from the Sentinel-3 sensor.• Ingest the outputs risk levels with advisory text in cooperation with ESOKO (Ghana) and RAB (Rwanda) and send > 1,000 SMS to farmers (see also report on bungle SMS for Rwanda).• For Rwanda only, use a digital randomly designed field survey to assess the impact of the tool (collect interview surveys from farmer promoters) (see also report on bungle SMS for Rwanda).The underlying data layers used to create the risk gradings and advisory messages were produced within the portal. These were monthly for FAW and PA for Rwanda, while for Ghana because of lack of model training data the FAW layers were only produced for August (tillage season) and December (end of cropping season). The following maps show the 1-km grid cell monthly FAW forecasts that were predicted for FAW infestation in Rwanda for the B cropping season (Figures 1-4) and can be visualized and the data accessed within the online software tool (main output). Most important for these FAW outputs is that 5.000 occurrence points on FAW density from trappings data were available for training and the most important model predictor, that helped to stabilize the model in terms of accuracy and scalability, is Land Surface Temperature (LST) (at 5-km pixel resolution) from the newly available Sentinel-3 sensor (link). The October 2023 forecasts show the highest FAW infestation; this is because October is the peak phenology seasons with much fodder (i.e., crops) around for this migratory pest. December 2023 will have the lowest FAW infestation since it's the end of the cropping seasons and thus less food for the pest.Figure 5 shows the integrated forecasting map for September (tillage season in Rwanda), which is available on the Rwandan portal, after applying the integration model presented in Table 1. This map shows the area having all three risk levels:striga risk areas, with the FAW forecasting for September, and PA (here termed drought risk in order to use a familiar term for most end users). Figure 6 and 7 shows the online maps (model results) available for Ghana. Figure 6 is the FAW infestation in the tillage season (September 2023) and the corresponding Striga risk map is shown in Figure 7. As evident from the FAW September product, the only FAW map that could be produced thus far because the FAW density data were scarcely available, FAW infestation is low. The low infestation levels is due to the lack of mature crops in the tillage season and possible also due to the establishment of natural enemies of the FAW over time. Figure 8 is the integrated product for Ghana for September 2023 (based on the maps shown in Figures 6 and 7) that was used to formulate the advisory for the tillage season. The integrated product for Ghana shows that only moderate risk gradings were mappable, as PA was near to normal for this season, and FAW infestations were also low (see Figure 6). The tables (Tables 2 and 3) below show the aggregated risk gradings and descriptions that were discussed with stakeholders in both countries. The percentage affected of the total area of each district is also shown and can be used to exclude districts with low levels where interventions may not be feasible. The last column is the description of the combined risk. Only the first couple of lines are shown for each country. Subsequently these information sheets provided the basis for the advisories that farmers received in September 2023 in both countries. Table 3 was the basis for formulating the advisory text. For Rwanda, the smallest administrative level is the sector level, thus here sectors were used. The percentage of sectors is also shown, as well as the risk level.The online portal can be assessed using the online link; http://wcarwanda.icipe.org/ (last accessed on the 3 rd of November 2023). The link will be updated to reflect both countries and is continuously updated and improved.As mentioned, the need to include bundle service, commercialization of the portal and connecting the advisory to incentives are some of the next steps. Bundle services are set to grow in the WCA region, since the persons owning smartphones will increase to 50% of the population by 2025. Also, many countries in the WCA region have set up field farmer schools and farmer promoters that can be effectively included in the scale out of appropriate IPM interventions connected to the digital advisory. For instance, the icipe push pull system (an eco-friendly IPM technology) that repels FAW and is, moreover, a climate -smart technology could be implemented in areas identified to be continuously high risk (from the data in the portal) (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143151). The online portal developed herein could well be scaled to the wider African region and support various IPM interventions and food security measures.","tokenCount":"2336"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"295ebbebba780617e4cd7f2b195889dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7a980ed9-6113-41b4-9677-ed36e278e251/retrieve","id":"-351855106"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e34c9eb-078d-4332-beaa-fe6eea678dd7","pagecount":"65","content":"El presente documento recopila los Boletines Técnicos Agroclimáticos que fueron generados en ejercicios participativos en las reuniones de las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (denominadas Mesas Agroclimáticas Participativas en el país -MAP), llevadas a cabo en 2021. Las MAP son realizadas es realizada gracias al esfuerzo conjunto de un gran número de instituciones locales, nacionales e internacionales, enfocados en garantizar la seguridad alimentaria y la agricultura sostenible. Permiten generar espacios de discusión entre actores para la gestión de información agroclimática local, con el fin de identificar las mejores prácticas de adaptación a los fenómenos de variabilidad climática. Para más información consulte el manual de MTA disponible en https://hdl.handle.net/10568/114605.¿Cómo usar el agua eficientemente en su finca?.Se debe realizar una planificación del riego para evitar un exceso o una insuficiencia del agua en los cultivos, según fase fenológico de la planta.. Recuerde: Implementar en su fincas tecnologías de uso eficiente del agua para la adaptación al cambio climático y la seguridad alimentaria, tales como:• Prácticas de conservación de los suelos y manejo integrado de cultivos para riego y que sirvan para mantener la humedad en el suelo. • Protección de manantiales o fuentes de agua debe ser prioridad de todos sus habitantes.• Utilizar tecnologías para la captación y almacenamiento del agua, tanto de las que provienen de las precipitaciones o aguas lluvias, como las superficiales y aguas subterráneas.• Implementar tecnologías para el bombeo y la distribución de agua para fines agropecuarios, utilizando técnicas de riego que minimicen las pérdidas de agua y de erosión del suelo. • Reutilización del agua grises o servidas, a través de sistemas de dosificación y desinfección que permiten un uso eficiente del agua y de los nutrientes en los sistemas de riego, principalmente para huertos familiares.Semilla Variedades: Preferiblemente utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a su región, o variedades comerciales como : Dehoro y Amadeus 77 que se adaptan a zona baja y zona alta del departamento, (si hay mucha humedad, el grano tiende a dañarse por lo que hay que tener buenas practicas agrícolas). Manejo Agronómico: Realizar adecuado control de malezas antes y durante todo el ciclo del cultivo. En Laderas hacer barreras vivas o barreras muertas y sembrar con curvas a nivel. Realizar la siembra con un distanciamiento de 40 cm entre surco y depositando 8 semillas por metro lineal bajo labranza mínima. Eliminar malezas de 15 a 20 días antes de la siembrapara evitar hospederos de plagas.Es importante en la etapa de siembra, seleccionar bien la semilla, verificar si es apta para la siembra. Realizar sufertilización utilizando productos orgánicos como ser Bocachi, humus,entre otros. Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo y control de plagas y enfermedades: Mancha angular, Mosaico dorado, Roya. Post cosecha: Hacer un manejo adecuado Post cosecha del grano, Cosechar en canícula. No secar el grano en la parcela. Al almacenar el grano cosechado se recomienda hacerlo en Graneros o silos limpios, libres de plagas..Manejo Agronómico: Manejo preventivo con fungicidasa base de cobre. Manejo adecuado de sombra y ventilación del cultivo para evitar enfermedades. Rotación de productos químicos y fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Realizar \"pepeneo\" del fruto caído para control de la broca • Fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo y control de enfermedades fungosas: ojo de gallo, roya, mancha de hierro. Monitoreo de la plaga grillo indiano. Monitoreo y control de enfermedades fúngicas como la roya, mancha de hierro y ojo de gallo con productos a base de cobre; así también, el control de plagas como la broca y grillo indiano. Control con trampas.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, realizando buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Usar variedades de pasto como : Cuba 22, Brisantha, King Grass, pasto Camerún y Alicia.Hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.Vacunación, desparasitación para control de garrapata y vitaminado del Ganado.Establecr bancos forrajeros, mediante la siembra de árboles como leguminosas.Realizar Ensilaje, bloques nutricionalesy heno, asegurar alimentación del Ganado. Suministrar sales minerales, para asegurar salud del ganado.Vacunación ,desparasitación y vitaminado del Ganado. Establecer bancos forrajeros, mediante la siembra de árboles como leguminosas.Seleccionar las variedades según ventanas de mercado y que se adapten a las condiciones locales, ejemplo: Cebolla: Bella Dura (Buena aceptación mercado local), Sweet Caroline (Exportación) y las Cebollas Rojas (Matahari, Rasta, Red Pasion y X-P Red). Al establecimiento del cultivo, hacer una buena preparación del terreno, haciendo subsolado para evitar el encharcamiento.Emplear sistemas de agricultura protegidas como casa malla, macro-túnel, mega-túnel y estructuras temporales como casa chinay micro-túnel (Agribon).Semilla Variedades: sembrar variedad de forraje de pastoreo y variedades mejoradas, tanzania, mombasa, brachiarias. Establecimiento de Pastos de corte como cuba 22, King grass, caña de azúcar. Siembra de forraje para ensilaje como Maíz, sorgo, pastos de corte. Manejo del Suelo: Evitar la quema de potreros, realizar una adecuada preparación del suelo incorporando rastrojos e incorporar estiércol para el abonado del suelo. Manejo del Agua: Elaborar Cosechas de agua y/o reservorios, para zonas donde exista exceso de precipitación, también elaborar canales de drenaje para evitar encharcamientos. Donde no exista mucha precipitación establecer sistemas de riego para producción de forrajes. Manejo Agronómico: Ajustar las fechas de siembra con relación a lo presentado, sembrar los pastos de corte en la primera semana de mayo. Para los pastos se recomienda usar Urea, estiércol para su fertilización, con un distanciamiento adecuado de siembra. Realizar siembra de árboles y establecer bancos forrajeros y el establecimiento de sistemas silvopastoriles. Establecer una rotación de potreros para mejorar el establecimiento de forrajes Plagas y Enfermedades: Realizar Monitoreo constante de cultivos para identificar plagas.Post cosecha: Implementar prácticas de conservación de forrajes (ensilaje y henificación), también la realización del almacenamiento del ensilaje y heno para prolongar la calidad de estos.Semilla Variedades: Maíz de ciclo corto, DICTA Sequia, DICTA MAYA y QPM.Manejo del Suelo: Realizar labranza cero y realizar el manejo de rastrojo para mantener la humedad incorporarlo al suelo.Manejo del Agua: En la parte plana incorporar rastrojos para mantener la humedad y en la ladera se debe hacer curvas a nivel para que el suelo no se erosione y se mantenga la humedad, se recomienda establecer barreras muertas o barreras vivas. Manejo Agronómico: Aplicación de fertilizantes dependiendo de la semilla mejorada o hibrido. Aplicar ficha técnica compuesta por fertilizantes, control de malezas.Plagas: Aplicación de insecticidas amigable con el medio ambiente (etiqueta amarilla, azul o verde) y aplicación de fungicidas (franja azul o verde) dependiendo de la variedad.Enfermedades: Constante monitoreo y aplicación de fungicidas Post cosecha: Doblar el maíz para que seque más rápido, trasladarlo a la secadora para aplicar el secado (podría ser con una secadora solar) y utilización de bolsas plásticas, silo y hojas mejoradas para el proceso de almacenamiento FRIJOL Semilla Variedades: Seleccionar semillas libres de hongos y enfermedades y elaborar pruebas de germinación Utilizar variedades para laderas arriba de 800 metros, se recomienda Honduras Nutritivo y Paraisito, Manejo del suelo: Hacer una buena preparación del suelo que sea profunda para que penetre más el agua, debido que se pronosticas muchas lluvias se recomienda se recomienda siembras a curvas a nivel, surcos de drenaje. Si siembra con bueyes siembre en la parte alta del surco Es recomendable elaborar camas debido a la intensidad de las lluvias.Manejo del Agua: Debido que se pronosticas muchas lluvias se recomienda elaborar pequeños reservorios de agua, donde sea factible.Manejo Agronómico: Estar pendiente de las alertas de lluvias para realizar la fertilización.Plagas: Tratar la semilla con plaguicidas para evita el ataque de plagas, hacer monitoreo del cultivo para detectar los brotes a tiempo, realizar el control adecuado mediante el uso de adherente al momento de realizar aplicaciones.Enfermedades:. Utilizar semillas tolerantes a enfermedades principalmente hongos y bacterias, realizar monitoreos constantes y fumigaciones preventivas para disminuir apariciones de enfermedades. Rotar el suelo si ya tuvo plagas o enfermedades en una parcela. Cosecha y Postcosecha: Hacer el uso de tendales como túneles de plásticos para tenerlos listos para la cosecha. Tener materiales plásticos a la mano para cubrir el producto y estar pendiente de información climática para realizar la cosecha en su parcela. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes practicas en sus cafetales:• Utilizar variedades tolerantes a la roya y nematodos.• Realizar un manejo adecuado de semillero y viveros.• Utilizar variedades como LEMPIRA y PARAINEMA.• Realizar las plantaciones con las densidades adecuadas de siembra y de acuerdo a las variedades seleccionadas. • Realizar un manejo de sombra adecuado en el cultivo.• Realizar control y monitoreo de plagas y enfermedades.• En caso de utilizar pesticidas,preferiblemente hace ruso de los de etiqueta verde Manejo Agronómico: Curar su semilla y sembrar de 6-7 semillas/mt y 30-40 cms entre surco. Cuando siembre en laderas, hacer curvas a nivel y camas levantadas, puede incorporar materia orgánica y procurar proveer al cultivo una buena fertilización 12-24-12 a la siembra, a los 20 días urea y a los 40 días la segunda. Puede utilizar productos orgánicos de fabricación casera: Caldos microbianos, Fermentación, Sulfocalcico. Plagas y Enfermedades: Para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca. Para la mancha de asfalto mantener un cultivo limpio y aplicar productos a base de cobre. Realizar constante monitoreo de plagas como gallina ciega y gusano cogollero.Pos cosecha: Cosechar a 14% de humedad y almacenar en estructuras secas y herméticas como silos o bolsas de cosecha, que mantengan el grano libre de plagas. En el caso de silo aplicar práctica de la vela para garantizar un sellado hermético (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD06dBpfT1M). Utilización de ajo como medio de conservación de granos.Semilla Variedades: Preferiblemente utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a su región, o variedades comerciales como : frijol Amadeos 77 y Honduras Nutritiva, (si hay mucha humedad, el grano tiende a dañarse por lo que hay que tener buenas practicas agrícolas), también están las variedades Campechano y Catrachito.Manejo Agronómico: Es importante en la etapa de siembra, seleccionar bien la semilla, verificar si es apta para la siembra, realizar buen control de maleza, preferiblemente manual para que quede forraje en el surco y así evitar la erosión del suelo. Puede hacer zanjas de infiltración para mantener humedad del suelo y elaboración de pequeños reservorios Plagas y Enfermedades: Realizar un manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades como ser de Áfidos, diabrótica (tortuguilla), mosca blanca y gallina ciega, en el que puede usar plaguicida natural, compuesto de ajos, madreado, chiles bravo y detergente para que se adhiera a la hoja de la planta; Se recomienda para la babosa Caracolex, Enfermedades: Mancha angular, la roya y mosaico dorado.Post cosecha: Realizar un manejo Post cosecha adecuado del grano, buscando con tiempo lugares secos para el almacenamiento del grano. Pos cosecha: Evaluar la planta para verificar si existe alguna plaga, tratar de evitar daños mecánicos al momento de manipular el fruto, procurar que las cajas plásticas no lleven mas del 80% de su capacidad al momento de transportar el fruto y almacenar la cosecha en un lugar fresco.Semilla Variedades: Puede sembrar variedades nacionales (PUREN, Jicaramany) y variedades importadas como Bellini, Arnova, Paluca, Soprano, Toronto Montecarlo, Barcelona, Granola, Ambition, vivaldi, baranka entre otras. Sembrar semilla certificada Manejo Agronómico: En laderas hacer terrazas, curvas a nivel, barreras vivas, incorporación de materia orgánica (rastrojos y gallinaza) para mantener humedad del suelo. Hacer remoción de suelo con el objetivo de romper el pie de arado provocado por la compactación. Buscar zonas donde tenga acceso al agua, siembras en verano el distanciamiento es más cerca y en invierno más separado para evitar hongos. En invierno utilizan terrenos con pendiente, hacer enmiendas agrícolas como ser cal, gallinaza en lugares con poca cobertura vegetal.Plagas: Paratrioza: promover la eliminación de rastrojos, identificar de acuerdo a la etapa para aplicar la cantidad adecuada del producto químico a usar. Mosca Minadora: identificación y aplicación de plaguicidas. Gallina Ciega: Remover los suelos con anticipación y aplicación de productos químicos a la hora de la siembra y el aporque con productos granulados. Palomilla: productos químicos, no dejar la papa tanto tiempo en el suelo.Enfermedades: Conocer el historial para rotación de suelos, para los hongos: mildium, tizones: en invierno sembrar separado entre planta, realizar un programa de manejo de enfermedades con la utilización de productos químicos de manera eficiente, buscar lugares con pendiente para evitar la humedad, preparar los suelos con anticipación, utilización de camas altas.Cosecha y Postcosecha: Chapiar el producto para la cosecha en época lluviosa, fumigación del producto con gramoxone en época seca controlando así la enfermedad de paratrioza. Semillas Variedades: Cultivo de fresa variedad San Andreas, Albión y criolla.Manejo del Suelo: Preparación completa usando arado, rastra y acamadora, con uso de curvas a nivel, emplasticado de suelos. Manejo del Agua: En el caso de fresa se recomienda uso de sistema de riego por goteo auto compensado. Manejo Agronómico: Distanciamiento de siembra de 0.40 cm entre surcos y 0.30 cm entre plantas. La preparación de suelo según las pendientes del terreno se puede hacer utilizando tractor o mediante tracción animal, en este caso el énfasis es profundizar a 30 cm. Las fechas de siembra recomendadas para fresa de preferencia en octubre o noviembre, pero si se hace en mayo o junio se debe contar con invernaderos. Los insumos para el cultivo de fresa de preferencia en un 50% con uso de orgánicos y además utilizar productos de menos de 3 días de residualidad. La fertilización dependerá del análisis de suelos y de las recomendaciones brindadas en el mismo. Plagas y Enfermedades: Control preventivo de enfermedades causadas por hongos( Alternaria, Pestalotia) en rotación de productos comerciales recomendados para este cultivo, hacer control preventivo de plagas como ácaros (arañita roja) usando productos acaricidas a base de abamectina. Manejo Post Cosecha: Se debe hacer uso de cajas de foam y de bandejas plásticas. Así mismo se debe contar con áreas techadas y de preferencia la parcela debe estar cerca de carreteras para evitar daños por transporte. Además se debe tenerse acceso a refrigeración para evitar daños y alargar la vida del producto. Para áreas de producción extensivas y en zonas bajas como La Másica, Esparta, Arizona que presentan niveles friáticos altos se puede hacer uso alternativo de variedades existentes en las casas comerciales (RR, RR+BT, Dcal etc.). Se recomienda el uso de semillas certificadas. No utilizar mas de 2 semillas/postura. MANEJO DEL SUELO: Evitar los suelos compactados, por lo que se debe hacer uso de la mecanización en zonas planas y en laderas uso del rastrojo. al momento de preparar suelo no quemar. MANEJO DEL AGUA: Es muy importante la incorporación de un sistema de riego MANEJO AGRONÓMICO: La aplicación de los fertilizantes formulados DAP,etc), se debe hacer al momento de la siembra y las posteriores aplicaciones hacerla sembrada para su mayor eficiencia. PLAGAS Y ENFERMEDADES: Curado de semilla para las plagas de suelo y control preventivo de Gusano cogollero con insecticidas sistémicos. En zonas que se han presentado Mancha de asfalto utilizar el hibrido Dicta 96. POST COSECHA: Hacer dobla para evitar problemas fungosos, para facilitar la cosecha se debe hacer previamente control de maleza.SEMILLA VARIEDADES: Usar variedades según zonas: semilla mejorado como Amadeus 77 y Tolupan rojo y Criollas como Seda arbolito y el chile. No utilizar mas de 2 semillas/postura. MANEJO DEL SUELO: Evitar quemas, incorporar los rastrojos o residuos de cosecha, incorporar materia orgánica. Realizar un fertilizante orgánico como bocashi u otro que este a su alcance, el mismo debe incorporarse un mes antes de la siembra para que sirva a la retención de humedad al suelo. MANEJO DEL AGUA: Preferiblemente donde se pueda tener sistema de riego por goteo, es recomendable regar por la mañana para hacer aprovechamiento del agua. MANEJO AGRONÓMICO: Realizar aporque entre los 12 y 15 dds, Utilizar un fertilizante formulado granular al momento de la siembra, hacer un buen control de malezas y plagas y uso de fertilización foliar al menos 2 veces antes de los 35 días para evitar estrés en la planta PLAGAS: Hacer un control preventivo preferiblemente con insecticidas sistémicos, uno a los 12 dds, hacer monitoreo constante y si es posible muestreo de plagas. Esperar que el suelo presente humedad para aplicar y evitar estrés en el cultivo. ENFERMEDADES: Hacer control preventivo de hongos, a los 12 días primera aplicación preferiblemente fungicidas sistémicos, mantenerse vigilantes a la presencia de lluvias y hacer aplicaciones al paso de las mismas, evitar aplicaciones de cualquier tipo en periodo de floración. POST COSECHA: Se tiene que tener un almacenamiento adecuado, a un de 12 % de humedad, se recomiendo pastillas para curar frijoles para evitar la incidencia de gorgojo. MANEGO DE PLAGAS: Salibaso plaga de pastos Utilizar variedades resistentes para evitar la plaga. Contar con un plan de control para la plaga. MANEJO POST COSECHA: Preparación oportuna de ensilaje en temporada seca, silos, bloques nutricionales y heno (en caso de abundancia de pastos) para asegurar la alimentación del ganado.Realizar una mezcla adecuada de sales minerales de acuerdo a las condiciones del ganado. Realizar vacunación, desparasitación y vitaminado para asegurar la salud del ganado.Utilizar programas preventivos para evitar enfermedades como la pierna negra, carbón sintomático, antrax. Establecer un manejo integrado en las operaciones de higiene durante el ordeño para evitar enfermedades como la mastitis. Para ectoparásitos realizar un programa intensivo de acuerdo al ciclo de vida del ectoparásito, realizar aspersiones para el control de los mismos y realizar monitoreo constante. Realizar un programa de desparasitación de acuerdo a la incidencia de los parásitos, vía oral o intramuscular cada tres meses. MANEJO DEL SUELO: Hacer una buena preparación del terreno, utilizar suelos profundos, crear una cobertura vegetal (materia orgánica) y uso de curvas a nivel. MANEJO DEL AGUA: Realizar un buen drenaje, realizar pruebas de infiltración y el Uso eficiente del recurso hídrico. MANEJO AGRONOMICO: Sembrar la sombra primaria y secundaria con el fin de conservar la humedad del suelo y reducir la temperatura, realizar podas correspondientes, aplicación de fertilizantes orgánicos y evitar el uso de insecticidas porque reduce la polinización. PLAGAS: Para el control de la monilia, monitorear la humedad y realizar podas y desechar los frutos enfermos en un sitio especifico. ENFERMEDES: Realizar podas y monitoreos constantes.POST COSECHA: Iniciar el proceso de fermentación y secado siguiendo los protocolos establecidos, realizar el proceso de almacenamiento de igual manera siguiendo los protocolos establecidos y hacer uso eficiente de los subproductos para lograr un mayor ingreso.En el cuadro 1 y 2 se presentan las fechas de siembra propuestas para el ciclo de primera 2021 para los cultivos frijol y maíz en los 8 municipios de la Región 04 Valle de Lean, según resultados que brindó la modelación realizada con la herramienta CROPWAT 8.0 de la FAO.CUADRO Semilla Variedades: Se recomienda realizar pruebas de germinación antes de la siembra. Utilizar semilla de buena calidad de ciclo corto, de acuerdo a las variedades mejoradas (DICTA Ladera, DICTA Guayape, DICTA Maya). Respecto a las variedades locales/criollas, se recomienda utilizar las que presentan mejores rendimientos y menos ataques a plagas y enfermedades.Manejo del suelo: Se recomiendan las bordas en zonas planas, acequias o zanjas al contorno en zonas inclinadas, para que no afecte la escorrentía.Manejo Agronómico: Realizar labranza mínima, incorporar rastrojo en la parcela. De ser necesario el uso de químicos se recomienda la utilización de (Rimoxato y Paraquat). Debido a las altas precipitaciones se recomienda realizar levantamiento de bordas, uso de barreras vivas y muertas. De igual manera, se recomienda aplicar fertilizantes como 18-46-0 y 12-24-12. Plagas y Enfermedades: Para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca.Realizar control preventivo de Mancha de asfalto con productos a base de cobre o Benomilo. Realizar constante monitoreo de plagas como gallina ciega y gusano cogollero, además de un control oportuno de malezas.Post cosecha: La cosecha se debe realizar con la humedad adecuada del grano (14%), al almacenar en silos o trojas, es necesario curarlo y mantenerlo en un lugar libre de humedad con practica de cierre hermético.Semilla Variedades: Sembrar variedades criollas adaptadas al territorio como: frijol vaina morada, frijol arbolito de matocho, frijol vaina blanca (frijol negro) y variedades como \"Honduras Nutritiva\", Amadeus, Carrizalito, Dehoro, que sean precoces como el frijol Cuarenteño y resistentes a plagas. Manejo del Suelo: Realizar siembras cuando el suelo presente 20 cm de humedad. Preparación del suelo antes de la siembra y control de malezas cada 15 a 20 días para mantener limpia la parcela del cultivo y evitar plantas hospederas de plagas y enfermedades. Manejo Agronómico: Realizar adecuado control de malezas antes y durante todo el ciclo del cultivo. Distanciamiento de siembra entre postura, 8 semillas por metro lineal.. Fertilización foliar con productos orgánicos como el madrifol, realizar un buen manejo integrado de enfermedades contra mustia hilachosa (tela araña o hielo negro) y la antracnosis. Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo y vigilancia de plagas como la gallina ciega, babosa y tizones tempranos y tardíos, realizando monitoreos constantes y con la aplicación de cal, ceniza y sulfocalcio para evitar utilizar productos químicos. Monitoreo y control de enfermedades como: Mancha angular, Mosaico dorado, Roya del frijol.Post cosecha: Hacer un manejo adecuado recolección del grano, cosechar en canícula. No secar el grano en la parcela. Al almacenar el grano cosechado se recomienda hacerlo en graneros o silos limpios libres de plagas.Manejo Agronómico: Manejo preventivo con fungicidas base de cobre. Manejo adecuado de sombra y ventilación del cultivo para evitar enfermedades. Rotación de productos químicos y fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Aplicación de biofermentos, para que las plantas de café sean mas resistentes a ataques de enfermedades. Estableciendo de arboles maderables en sistemas agroforestales para sobra dentro del cultivo. Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo y control de enfermedades fúngicas como la roya, mancha de hierro y ojo de gallo con productos a base de cobre; también realizar el control de plagas como la broca y grillo indiano.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, realizando buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Usar variedades de pasto como : Brizantha, Camerún, Cuba 22, Clon 51, Botón de oro.Realizar la rotación de potreros, para garantizar la restauración de los pastos, utilizando cercas eléctricas. Realizar prácticas de conservación de suelos , implementar sistemas silvopastoriles, barreras vivas y curvas a nivel.Hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional, además del uso de algunas leguminosas como Leucaena y Guanacaste. Se recomienda realizar riego por aspersión, para el manejo de los pastos.Realizar vacunación, desparasitación y vitaminado del hato ganadero para evitar plagas y enfermedades. Garantizar el suministro de agua limpia en la piletas para que esté disponible para el ganado. Realizar suministro de sales minerales y suplementos alimenticios. Realizar pruebas de mastitis y tuberculosis, monitoreo constante de enfermedades relacionadas con el exceso de humedad. Vacunación contra pierna negra. Realizar Ensilaje, bloques nutricionales y heno para asegurar la alimentación del Ganado.Seleccionar las variedades de ciclo corto, realizar siembra a inicio de junio, elaborar almácigos para la germinación de las semillas. Y utilizar variedades que se adapten a las condiciones climáticas de la temporada. Realizar la preparación del suelo e incorporar abonos orgánicos, realizar obras de drenaje al suelo y en el caso de suelos secos tratar de mantener humedad en el suelo con materia orgánica. Controlar las malezas con limpieza artesanal y mediante productos agroecológicos y biofermentados. Realizar control tanto mecánico como natural de plagas y enfermedades. Así como también monitoreos de plagas y enfermedades preventivos y continuos  Manejo Agronómico: Realizar pruebas de germinación de 15 a 20 días antes de la siembra, tratar la semilla previo a su siembra. Sembrar a una apropiada densidad según la variedad para evitar competencia entre plantas. Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y sólo si es necesario el uso de productos químicos que sean de baja toxicidad.Plagas y Enfermedades: Para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca. Realizar control preventivo de Mancha de asfalto con productos a base de cobre o Benomilo. Realizar constante monitoreo de plagas como gallina ciega y gusano cogollero. Realizar control oportuno de malezas. Evitar hojas en el suelo, para prevenir enfermedades de origen fungoso.Post cosecha: La cosecha se debe realizar con la humedad adecuada del grano (14%), al almacenar en silos o trojas, es necesario curarlo y mantenerlo en un lugar libre de humedad. Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, realizando buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Renovación de potreros utilizando variedades importadas como: Brizanthas, Brachiarias Decumbens, Mombasa y Pasto Mulato. Establecer sistemas de ensilajes con siembra de maíz QPM, maicillo sureño y caña agregando sales y suplementos alimenticios de alto valor nutricional empleando dosificaciones adecuadas en la alimentación.Hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.Vacunación, desparasitación para control de garrapata y vitaminado del Ganado.Establecer bancos forrajeros, mediante la siembra de árboles como leguminosas.Realizar Ensilaje, bloques nutricionales y heno, asegurar alimentación del Ganado. Suministrar sales minerales, para asegurar salud del ganado. Diseñar un plan sanitario de reproducción y engorde por finca con el acompañamiento de técnicos de la SAG. Manejo Agronómico: Realizar pruebas de germinación de 15 a 20 días antes de la siembra, importante tratar la semilla previo a su siembra. Utilizar una apropiada densidad de siembra según la variedad para evitar competencia entre plantas.Sembrar en curvas de nivel, evitar las quemas, labranza cero, utilización de barreras viva para evitar la erosión, utilización de tanques de ferrocemento para el almacenaje de agua, realizar bancales de materia orgánica para mantener la humedad del suelo, en época lluviosa realizar drenajes para evitar inundaciones, realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos que sean de baja toxicidad.Plagas y Enfermedades: Es necesario la detección temprana del gusanó cogollero y control inmediato. Realizar control oportuno de malezas. Para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca. Para la mancha de asfalto mantener un cultivo limpio y aplicar productos a base de cobre.• Pos cosecha: Cosechar a 14% de humedad y almacenar en estructuras secas y herméticas como silos o bolsas de cosecha, que mantengan el grano libre de plagas. En el caso de silo aplicar práctica de la vela para garantizar un sellado hermético(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD06dBpfT1M) Utilización de ajo como medio de conservación de granos. Aprovechar los rastrojos para incorporar materia orgánica, eliminar malezas de 15 a 20 días antes de la siembra para evitar hospederos de plagas. Realizar su fertilización utilizando productos orgánicos como ser Bocachi, humus, entre otros. En los predios planos se puedan hacer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Se recomienda utilizar sistemas de riego por goteo, donde sea factible, desarrollo de sistemas de humedales para reutilización del agua, captación de aguas lluvias a través de represas artesanales para su almacenamiento.Plagas y Enfermedades: Realizar monitoreos constantes para evitar plagas y enfermedades como: Mancha angular, Mustia hilachosa y Roya. Realizar monitoreo constante de las parcelas. Realizar control de malezas para evitar plagas y enfermedades.Manejo Agronómico: Manejo preventivo con fungicidas a base de cobre. Manejo adecuado de sombra y ventilación del cultivo para evitar enfermedades. Rotación de productos químicos y fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Realizar \"pepeneo\" del fruto caído para control de la broca Fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Regulación y manejo de sombra, ventilación del cultivo para evitar enfermedades. Diversificación de la finca cafetalera, siembra de granos básicos y hortalizas Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo de la plaga grillo indiano. Monitoreo y control de enfermedades fúngicas como la roya, mancha de hierro y ojo de gallo, con fungicidas a base sulfocalcio y cobre. Control con trampas.• Siembra de pasturas mejoradas, altos en proteínas para mejorar la dieta y nutrición del ganado, realizando una buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Siembra de sorgo multi propósito como DICTA 29 y el BMR.• Realizar fertilización con abonos orgánicos.• Realizar rotación de potreros.• Hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.• Manejo adecuado del ensilaje, bloques nutricionales y heno para asegurar la alimentación del Ganado. Establecimiento de bancos de proteínas con árboles como las leguminosas. Ganado:• Implementar la ganadería con enfoque sostenible y planificación de los hatos ganaderos • Vacunación, vitaminado y desparasitación del Ganado para control de endo y ecto paracitos.• Suministrar sales minerales, para asegurar salud del ganado. Plagas y Enfermedades: Para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca. Para la mancha de asfalto mantener un cultivo limpio y aplicar productos a base de cobre. Realizar constante monitoreo de plagas como gallina ciega y gusano cogollero.Pos cosecha: Cosechar a 14% de humedad y almacenar en estructuras secas y herméticas como silos o bolsas de cosecha, que mantengan el grano libre de plagas. En el caso de silo aplicar práctica de la vela para garantizar un sellado hermético (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD06dBpfT1M). Utilización de ajo como medio de conservación de granos.Semilla Variedades: Preferiblemente utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a su región, o variedades comerciales como : frijol Amadeos 77 y Honduras Nutritiva, (si hay mucha humedad, el grano tiende a dañarse por lo que hay que tener buenas practicas agrícolas), también están las variedades Campechano y Catrachito.Manejo Agronómico: Es importante en la etapa de siembra, seleccionar bien la semilla, verificar si es apta para la siembra, realizar buen control de maleza, preferiblemente manual para que quede forraje en el surco y así evitar la erosión del suelo. Puede hacer zanjas de infiltración para mantener humedad del suelo y elaboración de pequeños reservorios Plagas y Enfermedades: Realizar un manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades como ser de Áfidos, diabrótica (tortuguilla), mosca blanca y gallina ciega, en el que puede usar plaguicida natural, compuesto de ajos, madreado, chiles bravo y detergente para que se adhiera a la hoja de la planta; Se recomienda para la babosa Caracolex, Enfermedades: Mancha angular, la roya y mosaico dorado.Post cosecha: Realizar un manejo Post cosecha adecuado del grano, buscando con tiempo lugares secos para el almacenamiento del grano. Pos cosecha: Evaluar la planta para verificar si existe alguna plaga, tratar de evitar daños mecánicos al momento de manipular el fruto, procurar que las cajas plásticas no lleven mas del 80% de su capacidad al momento de transportar el fruto y almacenar la cosecha en un lugar fresco.Semilla Variedades: Puede sembrar variedades nacionales (PUREN, Jicaramany) y variedades importadas como Bellini, Arnova, Paluca, Soprano, Toronto Montecarlo, Barcelona, Granola, Ambition, vivaldi, baranka entre otras. Sembrar semilla certificada Manejo Agronómico: En laderas hacer terrazas, curvas a nivel, barreras vivas, incorporación de materia orgánica (rastrojos y gallinaza) para mantener humedad del suelo. Hacer remoción de suelo con el objetivo de romper el pie de arado provocado por la compactación. Buscar zonas donde tenga acceso al agua, siembras en verano el distanciamiento es más cerca y en invierno más separado para evitar hongos. En invierno utilizan terrenos con pendiente, hacer enmiendas agrícolas como ser cal, gallinaza en lugares con poca cobertura vegetal.Plagas: Paratrioza: promover la eliminación de rastrojos, identificar de acuerdo a la etapa para aplicar la cantidad adecuada del producto químico a usar. Mosca Minadora: identificación y aplicación de plaguicidas. Gallina Ciega: Remover los suelos con anticipación y aplicación de productos químicos a la hora de la siembra y el aporque con productos granulados. Palomilla: productos químicos, no dejar la papa tanto tiempo en el suelo.Enfermedades: Conocer el historial para rotación de suelos, para los hongos: mildium, tizones: en invierno sembrar separado entre planta, realizar un programa de manejo de enfermedades con la utilización de productos químicos de manera eficiente, buscar lugares con pendiente para evitar la humedad, preparar los suelos con anticipación, utilización de camas altas.Cosecha y Postcosecha: Chapiar el producto para la cosecha en época lluviosa, fumigación del producto con gramoxone en época seca controlando así la enfermedad de paratrioza. Semillas Variedades: Cultivo de fresa variedad San Andreas, Albión y criolla.Manejo del Suelo: Preparación completa usando arado, rastra y acamadora, con uso de curvas a nivel, emplasticado de suelos. Manejo del Agua: En el caso de fresa se recomienda uso de sistema de riego por goteo auto compensado. Manejo Agronómico: Distanciamiento de siembra de 0.40 cm entre surcos y 0.30 cm entre plantas. La preparación de suelo según las pendientes del terreno se puede hacer utilizando tractor o mediante tracción animal, en este caso el énfasis es profundizar a 30 cm. Las fechas de siembra recomendadas para fresa de preferencia en octubre o noviembre, pero si se hace en mayo o junio se debe contar con invernaderos. Los insumos para el cultivo de fresa de preferencia en un 50% con uso de orgánicos y además utilizar productos de menos de 3 días de residualidad. La fertilización dependerá del análisis de suelos y de las recomendaciones brindadas en el mismo.Plagas y Enfermedades: Control preventivo de enfermedades causadas por hongos( Alternaria, Pestalotia) en rotación de productos comerciales recomendados para este cultivo, hacer control preventivo de plagas como ácaros (arañita roja) usando productos acaricidas a base de abamectina. Manejo Post Cosecha: Se debe hacer uso de cajas de foam y de bandejas plásticas. Así mismo se debe contar con áreas techadas y de preferencia la parcela debe estar cerca de carreteras para evitar daños por transporte. Además se debe tenerse acceso a refrigeración para evitar daños y alargar la vida del producto. Manejo del suelo: Hacer una buena preparación del suelo que sea profunda para que penetre más el agua, debido que se pronosticas muchas lluvias se recomienda siembras a curvas a nivel. Es recomendable elaborar camas debido a la intensidad de las lluvias.Manejo del Agua: Se recomienda elaborar pequeños reservorios de agua, donde sea factible. Manejo Agronómico: Sembrar cuando el suelo presente humedad en los primeros 20 cm de profundidad. Realizar un adecuado control de malezas para evitar hospederos que provoquen enfermedades (áfidos y babosas). Sembrar en hilera a una distancia de 10 cm entre postura y 50 cm entre surco. Plagas: Tratar la semilla con plaguicidas para evita el ataque de plagas, hacer monitoreo del cultivo para detectar los brotes a tiempo. Enfermedades:. Utilizar semillas tolerantes a enfermedades principalmente hongos y bacterias. Rotar el suelo si ya tuvo plagas o enfermedades en una parcela.Cosecha y Postcosecha: Cosechar cuando la parte inferior de la vaina este seca.No secar el grano en la parcela.Manejo Agronómico: Manejo preventivo con fungicidasa base de cobre. Manejo adecuado de sombra y ventilación del cultivo para evitar enfermedades. Rotación de productos químicos y fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Realizar \"pepeneo\" del fruto caído para control de la broca.Fertilización adecuada del cultivo. Plagas y Enfermedades: Monitoreo y control de enfermedades fúngicas como la roya, mancha de hierro y ojo de gallo con productos a base de cobre; así también, el control de plagas como la broca y grillo indiano. Control con trampas.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, realizando buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Usar variedades de pasto como : Cuba 22, Brisantha, King Grass, pasto Camerún y Alicia. Para los pastos se recomienda usar Urea, estiércol para su fertilización, con un distanciamiento adecuado de siembra. Realizar Monitoreo constante de cultivos para identificar plagas. Implementar prácticas de conservación de forrajes (ensilaje y henificación), también la realización del almacenamiento del ensilaje y heno para prolongar la calidad de estos.Vacunar, desparasitar y vitaminar el ganado para control de plagas y enfermedades. Aislar a los animales que presenten síntomas de alguna enfermedad para evitar su transmisión (tuberculosis, Septicemia, Estomatitis, Mamilitis Herpética). Realizar pruebas de mastitis. Establecer bancos forrajeros, mediante la siembra de árboles como leguminosas.Realizar Ensilaje, bloques nutricionales y heno, asegurar alimentación del Ganado. Suministrar sales minerales, para asegurar salud del ganado.Seleccionar las variedades según ventanas de mercado y que se adapten a las condiciones locales, ejemplo: Cebolla: Bella Dura( Buena aceptación mercado local), Sweet Caroline (Exportación) y las Cebollas Rojas (Matahari, Rasta, Red Pasion y X-PRed).Al establecimiento del cultivo, hacer una buena preparación del terreno, haciendo subsolado para evitar el encharcamiento. Emplear sistemas de agricultura protegidas como casa malla, macro-túnel, mega-túnel y estructuras temporales como casa chinay micro-túnel (Agribon). • Hacer sistemas de drenaje, zanjas y canales para evitar posibles inundaciones y encharcamientos dentro de los cultivos.• Diversificación de la finca promoviendo la agricultura familiar y hortalizas.• No realizar quemas, para evitar incendios forestales, ni deforestar.• Realizar la preparación del suelo e incorporar rastrojos, materia y abonos orgánicos • Evitarlabranza,sobretodoenladeras,paraevitarlaerosióndelsuelo,yrealizarcurvasanivel.• Realizarlaboresconstantesenelcultivo,comoeldeshierbemanual,controldemalezaylimpieza artesanal.• Conservación de fuentes de agua a través de la reforestación de la zona de recarga hídrica. En zonas de valle preparar el suelo con drenajes y sembrar en camas altas de 20 cm, en zonas de ladera asegurar prácticas que eviten la erosión utilizando barreras vivas y muertas. Preparar el suelo, antes de la temporada de lluvia. Realizar rondas de limpieza eliminando malezas que sean hospederas de plagas y/o enfermedades. Realizar obras de drenaje para evitar encharcamientos e inundaciones en el cultivo. Incorporar materia orgánica y abonos naturales al suelo que mejoren la textura del suelo evitando la erosión y manteniendo retención de humedad. Seleccionar y curar bien la semilla que se plantará. Manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades a través de un monitoreo constante. Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos que sean de baja toxicidad.La cosecha se debe realizar con la humedad adecuada del grano (14%), al almacenar en silos o trojas, es necesario curarlo y mantenerlo en un lugar libre de humedad y de plagas como roedores, procurando un cierre hermético. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Sembrar del 10 al 20 de septiembre, para cosechar a finales de noviembre donde haya ausencia de lluvias. Utilizando preferiblemente las variedades criollas adaptadas al territorio, y para zonas altas DEHORO, zonas arriba de 300 msnm AMADEUS y por debajo de los 300 variedad arbolito. Cultivar en camas levantadas para evitar el encharcamiento del suelo y para un mejor desarrollo radicular de la planta Implementar barreras vivas y muertas. Incorporación de rastrojos para evitar erosión del suelo, protegerlo y retención de humedad. En lugares con pendiente realizar obras físicas de conservación de suelo y siembras a contorno de pendiente. Monitoreo permanente del cultivo para prevenir plagas y enfermedades.Utilizar fertilizantes biológicos, exudado de lombriz y biofertilizantes foliares aplicar cada 8 días. Además, puede realizar su fertilización utilizando productos orgánicos como ser Bocachi, humus, entre otros. Implementación de secadores solares para brindarle la humedad correcta al grano.Al almacenar el grano cosechado se recomienda hacerlo en bolsas postcosecha y silos limpios, libres de plagas utilizando el cerrado hermético con ayuda de una candelita: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD06dBpfT1M.Estatus del Sistema de Alerta del ENSO: VIGILANCIA DE LA NIÑAEstablecer cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía, principalmente durante los meses de septiembre y octubre. Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo.Almacenar agua en obras de captación, retenciones, cosechadoras de agua. Aparatos hidráulicos, para aprovechar el agua de escorrentía de las quebradas y fuentes de agua. Implementar el reciclaje de agua a través de posos recicladores. Construcción de bomba de agua Manual o Casero, llamada Bomba Flexi, ver el siguiente video para su construcción: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-iqY8IODZMTratamiento de las semillas. Se recomienda hacer selección/preparación de las semillas y preparar adecuadamente la tierra eliminando las malezasEvitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices. Donde sea factible establecer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Implementar acequiasAnte las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros. Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenadosEl viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.La pandemia de coronavirus durante los últimos meses ha generado impactos en la producción de alimentos, debido al acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Por lo que se recomienda a los actores de las cadenas agroalimentarias tomar en cuenta las siguientes medidas de bioseguridad:Uso adecuado y constante de la mascarilla tanto en la producción y distribución de sus rubros productivos.Lavado de manos con abundante agua y jabón y si no tiene acceso utilice alcohol clínico al 70%.Mantener la distancia de 1.50 a 2.00 metros de personas que lo visitan o usted visita y en la calle.Gestionar y/o buscar la vacuna con las autoridades sanitarias.Si ya está vacunado, por favor continúe con las mismas medidas de bioseguridad.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Utilizar las variedades mejoradas como: Sorgo Sureño, Sureño 2 BMR, DICTA 10 y DICTA 29, también se pueden utilizar variedades criollas que presentan buena adaptación, rendimientos y tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades como el sorgo \"tortillero\".Preparación del en laderas realizar prácticas de conservación de suelos para evitar la erosión y siembras a contra pendiente.Realizar obras físicas para mantener un buen drenaje dentro de la parcela.Antes de la siembra, realizar limpieza de parcela principalmente de malezas hospederas y rastrojos contaminados con enfermedades o plagas.Realizar la siembra con un distanciamiento entre surcos a 70 cm y entre planta a 10 cm.Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos preferiblemente que sean de baja toxicidad.Almacenar el grano cosechado en un lugar limpio libre de plagas o enfermedades.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Para el Ganado: Los cruces de Pardo x Brahman y considerar los cruces de Guir lechero x Holstein como alternativa para ganado lechero y doble propósito Diseñar un plan sanitario de reproducción y engorde por finca con el acompañamiento de técnicos de SAG. Implementar Sistema Silvopastoril con la siembra de árboles como la Leucaena, Cratylia, Madreado, puede ser para cercas vivas, mejora la temperatura del ganado.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, y pastos Brisanta, Alicia y Victoria, hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.Realizar ensilajes para almacenar alimentos para la temporada seca.Hacer las fumigaciones correspondientes para el control de plagas y enfermedades.Cultivar en callejones con barreras de contorno que servirán como beneficio alimenticio y nutricional para el ganado. Comayagua: precipitación similar al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento de Comayagua. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 121 mm a los 450 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.La Paz: precipitación similar al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 201 mm a los 350 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.Comayagua: precipitación superior al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento de Comayagua. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 161 mm a los 400 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.La Paz: Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 201 mm a los 400 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.Comayagua: valores de precipitación superiores al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 131 mm a los 350 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.La Paz: Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 131 mm a los 350 mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Sembrar variedades de frijol resistentes a la humedad y variedades precoces como el Cuarenteño y variedades mejoradas como Honduras nutritivo, Amadeus, DeHoro, además de variedades criollas adaptadas a la zona como frijol Vaina Morada.Sembrar variedades de maíz de mediana y baja altura para evitar el acame como: Dicta Sequía. Sembrar en bordas, terrazas o camas levantadas para evitar el encharcamiento de la planta, promoviendo un mejor desarrollo radicular y conservar la humedad necesaria en el suelo.Implementar barreras vivas y muertas para control de viento y retención del suelo.Incorporación de rastrojos para evitar erosión del suelo, y aumentar la retención de humedad.Distanciamiento de siembra de 15 a 20 cm a 1 semilla por postura.Mantener limpia la parcela, eliminando malezas días antes de la siembra para evitar hospederos de plagas y enfermedades. Monitoreo permanente del cultivo para prevenir plagas y enfermedades y uso preventivo de MM.Utilizar biofertilizantes como Madrifol y aplicación de pulpa de café incorporada al suelo.Cosechar oportunamente en galeras o con secadores solares cuidando la correcta humedad del grano (13-14%). Implementación de secadores solares para brindarle la humedad correcta al grano.Al almacenar el grano cosechado se recomienda hacerlo en bolsas postcosecha y silos limpios, libres de plagas utilizando el cerrado hermético con ayuda de una candelita: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD06dBpfT1M.Sembrar semillas criollas adaptadas a la zona y variedades mejoradas e híbridos. Preparación de suelos realizando obras de conservación de suelos, incorporando abonos naturales materia orgánica como: cascara de café, estiércol de ganado, casulla de arroz y gallinaza, para mejorar la composición y calidad del suelo. Sembrar en terrazas en zonas de ladera y sembrar barreras vivas y muertas.Preparar muy bien el terreno, antes de la siembra. Realizar rondas de limpieza continúas eliminando malezas que sean hospederas de plagas y/o enfermedades.Realizar obras de drenaje para evitar encharcamientos e inundaciones en el cultivo. Levantar camas para evitar encharcamientos o producir en huertos techados con plásticos UV de preferencia. Manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades a través de un monitoreo constante. Para el tratamiento de Mosca blanca y Gusano \"Rosquilla negra\" se recomienda su tratamiento con productos orgánicos como Sulfocalcico o con extractos a base de chiles, de ser necesario aplicar productos químicos. Para el tratamiento de hongos entomopatógenos se recomienda controlar con productos químicos según la severidad del caso, de preferencia utilizar etiqueta verde. Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos que sean de baja toxicidad.Aplicar cal al suelo para prevenir plagas y enfermedades. Para prevención del virus del mosaico y roya, aplicar Sulfocalcico o caldo Bordelés, para Mal de talluelo prevenir con aplicaciones de productos a base de ajo, chile, ruda y plantas aromáticas.Cosechar con un índice adecuado de humedad.Estatus del Sistema de Alerta del ENSO: VIGILANCIA DE LA NIÑAEstablecer cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía, principalmente durante los meses de septiembre y octubre. Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo.Almacenar agua en obras de captación, retenciones, cosechadoras de agua. Aparatos hidráulicos, para aprovechar el agua de escorrentía de las quebradas y fuentes de agua. Implementar el reciclaje de agua a través de posos recicladores. Construcción de bomba de agua manual o casero, llamada Bomba Flexi, ver el siguiente video para su construcción: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-iqY8IODZMTratamiento de las semillas. Se recomienda hacer selección/preparación de las semillas y preparar adecuadamente la tierra eliminando las malezasEvitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices. Donde sea factible establecer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Implementar acequias y canales de drenaje.Ante las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros. Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenadosEl viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.La pandemia de coronavirus durante los últimos meses ha generado impactos en la producción de alimentos, debido al acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Por lo que se recomienda a los actores de las cadenas agroalimentarias tomar en cuenta las siguientes medidas de bioseguridad: Uso adecuado y constante de la mascarilla tanto en la producción y distribución de sus rubros productivos. Lavado de manos con abundante agua y jabón y si no tiene acceso utilice alcohol clínico al 70%. Mantener la distancia de 1.50 a 2.00 metros de personas que lo visitan o usted visita y en la calle. Gestionar y/o buscar la vacuna con las autoridades sanitarias. Si ya está vacunado continúe las mismas medidas de bioseguridad.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Variedades para hacer cambio de plantación en finca, se recomienda Parainema y para zonas altas Colombiano Amarillo, por su resistencia a la roya y calidad aromática.En laderas, realizar prácticas de conservación de suelos para evitar deslizamientos, incorporar barreras vivas y muertas.No utilizar insecticidas para conservar la calidad de la producción y calidades organolépticas del café.Realizar obras físicas para mantener un buen drenaje dentro de la parcela.Mantener una buena regulación de la sombra dentro de la finca cafetalera. Para el tratamiento de la Roya utilizar caldo Bordelés.Para control de Broca, se recomienda aplicación de sustancias para proteger el grano utilizando hongos entomopatógenos como Beauveria bassiana.Utilizar aguas mieles como fertilizantes foliares.Darle tiempo adecuado a la fermentación del grano.El secado del grano, hacerlo en secadores solares para un mejor control de humedad.Realizar un correcto tostado del grano para conservar calidad del café.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Para el Ganado: Para las zonas bajas utilizar una genética resistente como el ganado cebú. Implementar Sistema Silvopastoril con la siembra de árboles como la Leucaena, Cratylia, Madreado, puede ser para cercas vivas o para mejorar la temperatura del ganado. Establecer pequeños reservorios de agua, o embalses de agua, e implementar reutilización de aguas grises para riego de pequeñas parcelas.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, y pastos Brizantha, Alicia y Victoria, hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.Realizar ensilajes para almacenar alimentos para la temporada seca.Hacer las fumigaciones correspondientes para el control de plagas y enfermedades.Cultivar en callejones con barreras de contorno que servirán como beneficio alimenticio y nutricional para el ganado. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes practicas: Variedades/Semillas: Recomendamos utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a la región, o variedades, como DEORHO, AMADEUS y Paraisito Mejorado.En laderas hacer barreras vivas muertas y con curvas a nivel. Incorpación de rastrojos para mantener humedad. Elaborar acequias en las zonas planas que tienden a inundarse de agua.Debido a las condiciones esperadas de lluvia sembrar a una densidad adecuada.Para evitar enfermedades como la mustia hilachosa, se deben de hacer aplicaciones preventivas de fungicidas. En el caso de mancha angular y virus del mosaico Dorado, usar variedades mejoradas y rotar cultivos. Mantener una parcela limpia, libre de rastrojos y malezas para eliminar hospederos.Establecer fecha de cosecha que no sea lluviosa. Realizar un manejo Post cosecha adecuado del grano.Por la lluvia, no secar el grano en la parcela. Busque sitios secos que estén cerca de la parcela.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes practicas: Variedades/Semillas: Usar Semillas que se adapten a las condiciones climáticas y que presenten los mejores rendimientos, como DICTA Ladera y DICTA Sequía. Curar su semilla y sembrar de 6-7 semillas/mt y 30-40 cms entre surco. Se debe seleccionar variedades con buena cobertura de la mazorca, para evitar enfermedades como pudrición de la mazorca.Elaborar acequias en las zonas planas que tienden a inundarse.Para la mancha de asfalto mantener un cultivo limpio y aplicar productos a base de cobre. Proveer al cultivo una buena fertilización 18-46-0 a la siembra, a los 20 días urea y a los 40 días la segunda Realizar constante monitoreo de plagas como gallina ciega y gusano cogollero. Cosechar a 14% de humedad y almacenar en estructuras secas y herméticas, para que el grano esté libre de plagas. Se recomienda cosechar el maíz de primera mas temprano de lo habitual para evitar la temporada más lluviosa que puede afectar la calidad del grano.Estatus del Sistema de Alerta del ENSO: VIGILANCIA DE LA NIÑAEstablecer cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía, principalmente durante los meses de septiembre y octubre. Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo.Tratamiento de las semillas. Se recomienda hacer selección/preparación de las semillas y preparar adecuadamente la tierra eliminando las malezasEvitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices. Donde sea factible establecer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Implementar acequiasAnte las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros. Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenadosEl viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.La pandemia de Coronavirus durante los últimos meses ha generado impactos en la producción de alimentos, debido al acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Por lo que se recomienda a los actores de las cadenas agroalimentarias tomar en cuenta las siguientes medidas de bioseguridad:Uso adecuado y constante de la mascarilla, tanto en la producción y distribución de sus rubros productivos.Lavado de manos con abundante agua y jabón y si no tiene acceso utilice alcohol clínico al 70%.Mantener la distancia de 1.50 a 2.00 metros de personas que lo visitan o usted visita y en la calle.Gestionar y/o buscar la vacuna con las autoridades sanitarias.Si ya está vacunado continúe las mismas medidas de bioseguridad.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes practicas:Utilizar las variedades mejoradas como: Sorgo Sureño, Sureño 2 BMR, DICTA 10 y DICTA 29, también se pueden utilizar variedades criollas que presentan buena adaptación, rendimientos y tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades como el sorgo \"tortillero\".Antes de la siembra, realizar limpieza de parcela principalmente de malezas hospederas y rastrojos contaminados con enfermedades o plagas.Realizar la siembra con un distanciamiento entre surcos a 70 cm y entre planta a 10 cm.Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos preferiblemente que sean de baja toxicidad.Almacenar el grano cosechado en un lugar limpio libre de plagas o enfermedades. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Zona alta, sembrar en postrera tardía a partir de finales noviembre con variedades como Amadeus, carrizalito, Zona media alta y baja: variedad campechano variedad de fitomejoramiento participativo, variedad NC, Amadeus, Honduras nutritiva. Materiales criollos adaptados a la zona.Realizar un adecuado manejo de coberturas para evitar la erosión del suelo, así como el establecimiento de barreras vivas en las parcelas, tomando en cuenta la pendiente de los terrenos. Aplicación de abonos orgánicos como Bocashi, Micro organismo de montaña sólidos y líquidos, cal.Restablecer reservorios de agua que permitan su almacenamiento como la implementación del diseño Key line. Según CENAOS-COPECO para el departamento de Intibucá en los meses de agosto-octubre 2021 el pronóstico de anomalía de precipitación acumulada presentara el comportamiento expresado, según los siguientes meses:Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Ya que las condiciones son de mucha lluvia, se recomienda sembrar entre el 10 al 25 de agosto. Maíz de porte bajo, principalmente en zonas de valles para evitar los vientos; como Guayape, Tuxpeño, Victoria, DICTA Maya y Sequia. (Dicta Maya y Sequía son muy buenos ya probados tiene cobertura de mazorca y es de porte bajo se evita el acame.) En Zona alta: Criollo \"Maizón\": de porte bajo, se dobla en cualquier época y no se pudre. Se deben aprovechar los rastrojos para incorporar materia orgánica, protección de la erosión y mejorar las capacidades de retención de agua. Además, evitar las quemas para no erosionar el suelo. Se recomienda, utilizar sistemas de riego por goteo, desarrollo de sistemas de humedales para reutilización del agua, captación de aguas lluvias para su almacenamiento en el verano.Preferiblemente, No utilizar los agroquímicos de etiqueta roja.Realizar un control riguroso de hongos. Para evitar la mancha de asfalto tener limpia las fincas y combatir con fungicidas a base de cobre. Adecuado almacenamiento, prácticas de conservación de productosEstablecer cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía, principalmente durante los meses de septiembre y octubre. Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo.Almacenar agua en obras de captación, retenciones, cosechadoras de agua. Aparatos hidráulicos, para aprovechar el agua de escorrentía de las quebradas y fuentes de agua. Implementar el reciclaje de agua a través de posos recicladores. Construcción de bomba de agua manual o casero, llamada Bomba Flexi, ver el siguiente video para su construcción: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-iqY8IODZMTratamiento de las semillas. Se recomienda hacer selección/preparación de las semillas y preparar adecuadamente la tierra eliminando las malezas Evitar inundaciones Evitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices. Donde sea factible establecer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Implementar acequiasAnte las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros. Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenados. Uso de adherentes en las aplicaciones para asegurar la efectividad del producto. Regulación del pH del agua para realizar la aplicación.El viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.La pandemia de coronavirus durante los últimos meses ha generado impactos en la producción de alimentos, debido al acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Por lo que se recomienda a los actores de las cadenas agroalimentarias tomar en cuenta las siguientes medidas de bioseguridad: Uso adecuado y constante de la mascarilla tanto en la producción y distribución de sus rubros productivos. Lavado de manos con abundante agua y jabón y si no tiene acceso utilice alcohol clínico al 70%.Mantener la distancia de 1.50 a 2.00 metros de personas que lo visitan o usted visita y también en la calle.Gestionar y/o buscar la vacuna con las autoridades sanitarias de su localidad.Si ya está vacunado, por favor continúe con las mismas medidas de bioseguridad.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Utilización de las variedades como ser Soprano, replica de Bellini, Daysi, Faluca, Barcelona, Arnova, y variedades de producción nacionales como DICTA. Sembrar en suelos con una pendiente mayor a 0, 1 ó 2 grados, para evitar problemas de encharcamiento. Realizar prácticas para evitar la erosión como las barreras vivas/muertas, siembra a curvas de nivel, incorporación de rastrojos, aplicaciones de enmiendas como ser cal, llevar historial de suelos que no tengan enfermedades de bacterias.Hacer drenajes en suelos planos e implementación de siembra en camas. Seguir el paquete tecnológico de fungicidas e insecticidas para el control de hongos, distanciamiento de siembra más separado entre surco y entre planta para evitar la proliferación de Hongos. Control de hongos como mildiu, control de minadores, control de gusanos del suelo utilizando insecticidas como ser: CPS órgano fosforados, utilización de productos de cinta verde que son productos de baja toxicidad, Utilizar trampas biológicas de plástico color amarillo y rojo, y al aplicar pesticidas uso de adherentes. Control de humedad, ciclo de cosecha correspondiente, en la bodega utilizar tarimas. Selección de Papa de libres de daños mecánicos papas verdes, papas podridas.FRESA Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Puede Utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a la zona, o variedades como la San Andreas y Albión. Se recomienda sembrar el cultivo en camellones, de preferencia bajo sistema de riego por goteo. Las plantas se deben sembrar a una distancia de 40 cm entre surco y 30 cm entre plantas para evitar problemas de hongos. Para la fertilización hacer previo un análisis de suelos, por si necesita hacer enmiendas. De preferencia el 50% con uso de productos orgánicos o con productos de baja residualidad.Realizar un manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades.Hacer rotación de productos químicos, sobre todo paralas enfermedades causadas por hongos como la alternaría y Pestalotia.Hacer control preventivo de plagas como ácaros (arañita roja) usando productos acaricidas a base de abamectina. Al cosechar, se debe hacer uso de cajas de foam y de bandejas plásticas para no dañar el fruto. Se debe contar con áreas techadas y de preferencia la parcela debe estar cerca de carreteras para evitar daños por transporte. Además, se debe tenerse acceso a refrigeración para evitar daños y alargar la vida del producto.Para la zona alta variedad Hass y para la zona baja Choquete y variedad Antillana. Puede aplicar materia orgánica como gallinaza. Los agujeros deben ser profundos, con buen drenaje para evitar encharcamiento.Realizar manejo integrado del cultivo, manteniéndolo libre de malezas, además de monitoreo de plagas y enfermedades. Al momento de la cosecha, evitar daños mecánicos en el fruto. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Aprovechar canícula para labores de cosecha, si esta ubicado en la cordillera nombre de dios donde hay presencia de lluvias en agosto, cubrir la cosecha en campo, colgar el frijol para acelerar el secado. Monitorear la madurez fisiológica y proceder a cosecha a un % menor al 17.No dejar grano en campo, llevarlo bajo techo una vez desgranado.Establecer cultivos en menor área para época de postrera, sembrar en septiembre, en laderas, no quemar, incorporar rastrojos para evitar pérdidas de suelos, usar curvas a nivel.Hacer un control preventivo con fungicidas e insecticidas y hacer uso de fertilización foliar, mantener constante vigilancia de las enfermedades.Elaborar toda practica agronomía antes de los 30 dds, antes de floración.Se favorecen condiciones de ENSO-neutral para el restante del verano (~60% de probabilidad hasta septiembre), con La Niña surgiendo posiblemente durante la temporada de agosto-octubre y durando hasta invierno 2021-22 (~70% de probabilidad durante noviembre-enero).Según CENAOS-COPECO para el Valle de Lean en los meses de agosto-octubre 2021 el pronóstico de anomalía de precipitación acumulada presentara el comportamiento expresado, según los siguientes meses:Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Acelerar labores de cosecha, concentrándolas en los meses de agosto y septiembre.Hacer pruebas de humedad y proceder a cosechas si se tiene de menor a 18%. Si la siembra se realizó en el mes de junio es recomendable proceder a doblar para evitar daños por excesos de humedad. Cubrir la cosecha en campo o trasladarla bajo techo. Asegure una humedad menor del 14% si el grano va ser almacenado aprovechando los días soleados aun presentes en el mes de septiembre principalmente en la zona costera. Si está en la zona baja de preferencia no establecer el cultivo de maíz en los meses de setiembre y octubre, sustituir el rubro por el cultivo de arroz para el ciclo de postrera. Si está en ladera, no quemar, usar el rastrojo para conservación de suelos, sembrar con curvas a nivel, usar variedades de tamaño mediano para evitar acames www.upeg.sag.gob.hnSe recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Para el Ganado: Se recomiendan los cruces de Pardo x Brahman y considerar los cruces de Gyr lechero x Holstein, como alternativa para ganado lechero y doble propósito. Diseñar un plan sanitario de reproducción y engorde por finca, con el acompañamiento de técnicos de SAG. Implementar Sistema Silvopastoril con la siembra de árboles como la Leucaena, Cratylia, Madreado, puede ser para cercas vivas o para mejorar la temperatura del ganado.Sembrar pastos mejorados adaptados a la región, y pastos Brizantha, Alicia y Victoria, hacer bancos forrajeros, se puede utilizar el rastrojo de la caña, sales y suplementos alimenticos de alto valor nutricional.Realizar ensilajes para almacenar alimentos para la temporada seca.Hacer las fumigaciones correspondientes para el control de plagas y enfermedades.Cultivar en callejones con barreras de contorno que servirán como beneficio alimenticio y nutricional para el ganado. Valores de precipitación, superiores al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento de Olancho. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 121 mm a los 250mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento, con probabilidad de aumento en las precipitaciones.Según mapa se precian valores de precipitación, superiores al promedio en todos los municipios del departamento de Intibucá. Se presentarán condiciones de lluvia entre los 161 mm a los 350mm en la mayoría de municipios del departamento, con probabilidad de aumento en las precipitaciones. Hacer drenajes en las parcelas. Realizar arreglos de siembra, zonas altas sembrar 2 a 3 granos, con distanciamiento de 15 y 18 pulgadas entre postura y postura, zona baja entre 60 a 65 cm. Realizar un adecuado manejo integrado del cultivo durante todo su ciclo de producción, controlando plagas como áfidos, babosas mosaico dorado, lorito verde y enfermedades como la mancha angular y roya.Realizar un adecuado manejo de coberturas para evitar la erosión del suelo, así como el establecimiento de barreras vivas en las parcelas, tomando en cuenta la pendiente de los terrenos. Aplicación de abonos orgánicos como Bocashi, Micro organismo de montaña sólidos y líquidos, cal.Restablecer reservorios de agua que permitan su almacenamiento de la misma.Para evitar enfermedades como la mustia hilachosa, se deben de hacer aplicaciones preventivas de fungicidas, y en el caso de mancha angular y virus del mosaico Dorado, usar variedades mejoradas, y rotar cultivos.Realizar un manejo Post cosecha adecuado del grano. Por la lluvia, no secar el grano en la parcela.Se favorecen condiciones de ENSO-neutral para el restante del verano (~60% de probabilidad hasta septiembre), con La Niña surgiendo posiblemente durante la temporada de agosto-octubre y durando hasta invierno 2021-22 (~70% de probabilidad durante noviembre-enero).Según CENAOS-COPECO para el departamento de Olancho en los meses de agosto-octubre 2021 el pronóstico de anomalía de precipitación acumulada presentara el comportamiento expresado, según los siguientes meses:Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas: Utilizar preferiblemente su semilla criolla adaptada al territorio, también variedades mejoradas como DICTA maya, DICTA ladera, Guayape (Ensilaje), Victoria (Maíz amarillo). Se deben aprovechar los rastrojos para incorporar materia orgánica, protección de la erosión y mejorar las capacidades de retención de agua. Además, evitar las quemas para no erosionar el suelo. Sembrar cuando el suelo presente humedad en los primeros 20 cm de profundidad. Realizar conservación de suelos incorporando barreras vivas y muertas y microorganismos para el mejoramiento del suelo. No quemar, ni deforestar y realizar incorporación de rastrojos, preferiblemente hacer camas para evitar encharcamiento y/o pérdidas de los cultivos.Realizar un adecuado distanciamiento de siembra recomendado para el cultivo.Realizar una buena fertilización ya sea con productos químicos u orgánicos, preferiblemente, No utilizar los agroquímicos de etiqueta roja. Para evitar plagas como cogollero y enfermedades como la mancha de asfalto realizar un adecuado manejo integrado del cultivo durante todo su ciclo de producción. Evitar hojas en el suelo, para prevenir enfermedades de origen fungoso.El secado del grano para su cosecha y almacenamiento debe de ser a un 14% de humedad.Establecer cobertura/protección de suelos para evitar o reducir erosión por escorrentía, principalmente durante los meses de septiembre y octubre. Desarrollar procesos adecuados de desinfección del suelo.Almacenar agua en obras de captación, retenciones, cosechadoras de agua. Aparatos hidráulicos, para aprovechar el agua de escorrentía de las quebradas y fuentes de agua. Implementar el reciclaje de agua a través de posos recicladores. Construcción de bomba de agua manual o casero, llamada Bomba Flexi, ver el siguiente video para su construcción: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-iqY8IODZM Manejo de semillas:Tratamiento de las semillas. Se recomienda hacer selección/preparación de las semillas y preparar adecuadamente la tierra eliminando las malezasEvitar la siembra de cultivos en zonas propensas a inundaciones o deslices. Donde sea factible establecer drenajes para evitar encharcamiento. Implementar acequiasAnte las condiciones de alta humedad pronosticadas, vigilancia y control de pudriciones radiculares en frijol y el complejo de mancha de asfalto en maíz.Incrementar la vigilancia epidemiológica fitosanitaria para el monitoreo de plagas por la alta humedad. Particularmente para plagas de lepidópteros. Evitar el exceso de fertilizantes nitrogenados. Uso de adherentes en las aplicaciones para asegurar la efectividad del producto. Regulación del pH del agua para realizar la aplicación.El viento puede provocar acame (doblez o inclinación del tallo) en maíz, frijol y otros granos básicos. Barreras vivas como se recomienda en zonas expuestas a vientos fuertes que se repiten cíclicamente.Respecto al manejo postcosecha, incorporar medidas e infraestructura que beneficien el secado y calidad de granos.La pandemia de coronavirus durante los últimos meses ha generado impactos en la producción de alimentos, debido al acceso al mercado y el empleo rural. Por lo que se recomienda a los actores de las cadenas agroalimentarias tomar en cuenta las siguientes medidas de bioseguridad: Uso adecuado y constante de la mascarilla tanto en la producción y distribución de sus rubros productivos. Lavado de manos con abundante agua y jabón y si no tiene acceso utilice alcohol clínico al 70%.Mantener la distancia de 1.50 a 2.00 metros de personas que lo visitan o usted visita y también en la calle.Gestionar y/o buscar la vacuna con las autoridades sanitarias de su localidad.Si ya está vacunado, por favor continúe con las mismas medidas de bioseguridad.Para ganadería se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Vacunación, desparasitación para control de garrapata vitaminado del Ganado.Establecer bancos forrajeros, mediante la siembra de árboles como leguminosas.Diseñar un plan sanitario de reproducción y engorde por finca con el acompañamiento de técnicos de SAG.En finca: Establecimientos o mejoramiento de Sistemas Silvopastoriles o Agrosilvopastoriles, con siembra de árboles como, Leucaena, Cratylia y Madreado para cerca viva.No exponer el suelo a la compactación y brindar tiempo para realizar prácticas de chapias. Para pastos se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Siembra de pastos mejorados, realizando buena fertilización con abonos orgánicos. Renovación de potreros utilizando variedades importadas como: Brizanthas, Brachiarias Decumbens, Mombasa y Pasto Mulato.Establecer sistemas de ensilajes con siembra de maíz QPM, maicillo sureño y caña agregando sales y suplementos alimenticios de alto valor nutricional empleando dosificaciones adecuadas en la alimentación.Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Seleccionar semillas de ciclo corto, de preferencia variedades criollas adaptadas al territorio.Se sugiere sembrar en ladera, contra la pendiente a una distancia de 20 centímetros entre cada planta y 1 metro entre surco Utilizando 3 semillas por postura. Antes de la siembra, realizar limpieza de parcela principalmente de malezas hospederas y rastrojos contaminados con enfermedades o plagas. Realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario el uso de productos químicos preferiblemente que sean de baja toxicidad.Almacenar el grano cosechado en un lugar limpio libre de plagas o enfermedades. Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Utilizar preferiblemente las variedades de frijol de ciclo corto: DEORHO, AMADEUS, Carrizalito y Paraisito Mejorado, asimismo, puede utilizar variedades criollas adaptadas a cada región.Hacer drenajes en las parcelas, y levantar camas para evitar el encharcamiento de agua Realizar arreglos de siembra, zonas altas sembrar 2 a 3 granos, con distanciamiento de 15 y 18 pulgadas entre postura y postura, zona baja entre 60 a 65 cm.Aplicación de abonos orgánicos como Bocashi, micro organismo de montaña sólidos y líquidos, cal.Realizar un adecuado manejo integrado del cultivo durante todo su ciclo de producción, controlando plagas como áfidos, babosas mosaico dorado, lorito verde y enfermedades como la mancha angular y roya. Realizar aplicaciones preventivas de fungicidas.Realizar un manejo Post cosecha adecuado del grano. Por la lluvia, no secar el grano en la parcela. Se recomienda cosechar y almacenar el grano con el porcentaje óptimo de secado para prevenir perdidas de almacenamiento.Usar estructuras herméticas para el almacenamiento como silos y barriles.Almacenar el grano con el porcentaje óptimo de secado (13-14%).Se favorecen condiciones de ENSO-neutral para el restante del verano (~60% de probabilidad hasta septiembre), con La Niña surgiendo posiblemente durante la temporada de agosto-octubre y durando hasta invierno 2021-22 (~70% de probabilidad durante noviembre-enero).Según CENAOS-COPECO para el departamento de Santa Bárbara en los meses de agosto-octubre 2021 el pronóstico de anomalía de precipitación acumulada presentara el comportamiento expresado, según los siguientes meses:Se recomienda realizar las siguientes prácticas:Usar semillas mejoradas, en zonas de laderas, sembrar DICTA Ladera y DICTA Sequía y GUAYAPE y VICTORIA (Maíz amarillo).Utilizar distanciamiento de 25-30 cm entre planta y 70 cm entre surco y reducir la densidad de siembra a 50,000 plantas/Ha.Al momento de la siembra realizar fertilización y el tratamiento adecuado a la semilla contra plagas del suelo.Monitoreo constante de plagas y enfermedades.Rondas de limpieza, chapia y eliminación manual de maleza, fomentar la incorporación de materia orgánica y abonos naturales al suelo que mejoren la retención de humedad;Preferiblemente realizar la fertilización con productos orgánicos y de ser necesario químicos con baja toxicidad;Para la cosecha y post cosecha tratamiento de secado al grano hasta dejarlo a 14% de humedad, curar adecuadamente los granos y almacenarlos en un lugar libre de humedad que permita la inocuidad y adecuadas condiciones transporte.","tokenCount":"11883"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8aeb1c16e56fb74b4118058f35a8ba2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/742a7f9c-d500-40ff-9c4c-e51ff2585723/retrieve","id":"1649617585"},"keywords":["Fertilizer","Groundnut","Plant density","Sudan Savanna","Varieties"],"sieverID":"c441c986-2038-47ad-a2c1-74b29514aa9e","pagecount":"12","content":"Despite the recent release of several improved varieties of groundnut in Nigeria the productivities have not increase significantly due to lack of commensurate recommendation in agronomic practices. Two groundnut varieties were evaluated for their response to different plant density and phosphorus application in two locations in the Sudan Savanna zone of Nigeria in 2012 and 2013. The groundnut were planted at density of 44444, 66667, and 133333 hills ha -1 with average of two plants per hill. Phosphorus was applied at rate of 0 or 20 kg P ha -1 . P fertilizer application increased pod and haulm yields by 26% and 16% respectively in Minjibir. It increased pod and haulm yields by 62% and 27% respectively in Wudil. Pod and haulm yields, harvest index, revenue, profit and cost benefit ratio increased with increasing plant density. Samnut-24 produced pod yields that were significantly higher than Samnut-22 across treatments. Pod yields at density of 133,333 hills ha -1 was 31% higher than at 66667 and 40% than at 44,444 hills ha -1 . Application of fertilizer increased profit by 22% and 49% in Minjibir and Wudil respectively. Planting at density of 133,333 hill ha -1 increased profit by 19% and 27% over 66,667 and 444444 hill ha -1 respectively in Minjibir, while it increase profit by 9% in Wudil. Cultivation of Samnut-24 at high density with phosphorus application will make groundnut production a more profitable venture in Sudan Savanna zone of Nigeria.Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) is a leguminous crop of economic importance around the world, with about 94% of the world production coming from the rain-fed crop grown largely by resource-poor farmers (Dwivedi et al., 2002). Nigeria is the largest groundnut producing country in West Africa accounting for 40% production of the region. In Northern Nigeria, Groundnut contributes 23% of household cash revenue (Ndjeunga et al., 2010) and was grown on 2.4 million hectares in 2012 producing 3.07 million tons with an average pod yield of 1.268 tons/ha (FAOSTAT, 2015).The average yields of groundnut in Nigeria and most parts of West Africa are lower (903 kg ha-1) than those in South Africa (2000 kg ha-1), Asia (1798 kg ha-1), or the rest of the world (1447 kg ha-1) (FAOSTAT, 2015). The main constraints limiting groundnut production in the Nigerian savannas are diseases (early and late leaf spot and rosette), drought, low soil fertility and poor agronomic practices (Ndjeunga and Ajeigbe, 2012). Naab et al. (2005) noted that the lower yields in West Africa are largely due to leaf spot disease as well as low soil fertility and water limitation (drought). Drought is an important constraint in the dry savannas and it can come early, mid or late season drought. While early maturing varieties may escape early or end of season drought, varieties with drought resistant or tolerance are required to produce economic yields when midseason drought occurs.Recently released varieties (Samnut 24, Samnut 25, and Samnut 26) in Nigeria (NACGRAB 2014,) are resistant/tolerant to most of the important diseases and are early maturing to escape drought. These varieties are being promoted in the dry savannas of Nigeria through several initiatives (Monyo and Gowda, 2014). However poor agronomic practices, especially the practice of wide spacing and limited or lack of fertilizer application particularly phosphorus limits on-farm yield (Ajeigbe and Singh, 2006) and profitability of groundnut production. Crop production in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in the semiarid and sub-humid Savannas, is often limited by biophysical constraints, including poor soil fertility (Manu et al., 1991;Giller et al., 2011;). Groundnut is a leguminous plant and it can fix its own nitrogen from the atmosphere, however, it needs other macro and micronutrient in the soil. Phosphorus deficiency is the most frequent nutrient stress for growth and development of grain legumes including groundnut (Kwari 2005;Kamara et al., 2008;Kamara et al., 2011). Phosphorus is essential for many processes that occur in the growing plants such as biological nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and cell division. Sharma and Yadov (1997) reported that phosphorus plays a beneficial role in legume growth and promotes extensive root development and thereby ensuring good yield. Kamara et al. (2011b), reported response of soybean to P fertilizer in the savannas of northern Nigeria, while Kamara et al. (2011a) reported linear increase in pod yields of groundnut with increase in P rates from 0 to 40 kgP/ha. Addition of phosphorus fertilizer enhances root development which improves the supply of other nutrients and water to the growing parts of the plants, resulting in an increased photosynthetic area and therefore, more dry matter accumulation (Maity et al., 2003;Atayese, 2007).Farmers in Nigeria and many other West Africa countries plant grain crops in rows spaced 75 cm because most tractor and animal drawn ridgers available are fixed at width of 75 cm leaving the farmers with no option in reducing row spacing. This long established practice has been in line with the recommended groundnut spacing (75 cm x 20cm) corresponding to plant density of 66,667/ha using about 50 to 60 kg of seed (Ousmane and Ajeigbe, 2009). This density though higher than the initial recommendation of 44,000/ha (NAERLS, 1977), it may not be optimal for maximising groundnut yield.In India for example, between row spacing varies from 20 -100 cm and within row spacing from 7.5 cm to 15 cm (Nigam et al., 2006) ensuring hill density of 100 to over 200,000 hill/ha. Kamara et al. (2014) reported soybean yield increased by 62-100% when density increased from 266,666 to 666,700 ha -1 in the Guinea savanna of Nigeria. They noted that appropriate plant density enhances productivity through efficient use of soil moisture and nutrient as well as adequate photosynthetic light capture. Nigam et al. (2006) suggested that optimum plant stand remains the key to higher yields in groundnut. Most of the newly released groundnut varieties are erect types of early duration with much smaller foliage compared to the older varieties which are spreading medium to late maturing. While the plant characteristics of most of the modern varieties have changed, the recommended seeding rate of 50-60 kg seed ha-1 and planting densities have remained unchanged. Combining adapted early maturing groundnut varieties with phosphorous application and optimal plant density may increase groundnut productivity and make groundnut cultivation a more profitable enterprise for smallholder farmers. On this basis, field trials were established in two locations in the Sudan Savanna ecology of Nigeria to evaluate the response of two contrasting groundnut varieties to P application and increased plant density.The The fields were harrowed and ridged at 75cm between ridges using tractor drawn implements before plot layout and sowing. Groundnut seeds were sown at the rate of 2 seeds per hole at depth of 3-5 cm. Weeds were controlled manually using hand hoe at 3, 6 and 9 weeks after sowing (WAS).The experimental design was a split-split-plot with 4 replications. The groundnut varieties; SAMNUT 22 (a medium maturing Virginia type variety released in 2001) and SAMNUT 24 (an early maturing Spanish type variety released in 2011) were the main plots.The fertilizer application; 20 kg P ha -1 applied at sowing and a control with no fertilizer were the subplots.The 20 kgP ha -1 was applied as SSP by drawing a furrow on the ridge. The required SSP was spread evenly in the furrow and covered with soil. One blank row was left in between the sub-plots. The sub-subplots were the density treatments of 44,444, 66,667 and 133,333 hills ha -1 obtained using a spacing of 75 x 30, 75 x 20 and 75 x 10cm respectively. The sub-subplots sizes were 12 m 2 (4 rows 4 m long).The two middle rows per plot were used for data collection. Data were collected on % soil cover at 3 and 6 weeks after sowing (WAS) which was the proportion of the plated area covered by the groundnut at 3 and 6 weeks respectively after sowing.Days to 50% flowering (number of days from sowing to when at least 50% of the plants in the net plot had at least one flower), days to physiological maturity (days to when at least 90% of the plants in the net plots have attained physiological maturity). Plant height (cm) at maturity (mean height from base to highest point of five plants), number of branches per plant, pod and haulm yields (Pod and haulm weights were obtained after sun-drying all the plants harvested from the two middle rows per plot to constant weight and then converted to kg ha -1 ).Partial budgeting was used to estimate revenue, and total profit per hectare for each groundnut variety at different fertilizer and density treatments using the method suggested by Ajeigbe and Singh (2006). The variable cost consisted of the cost of seed, fertilizer and fertilizer application. Labour cost for planting and harvest were assumed constant across seeding rate. Profit margin was estimated by deducting the cost of the seed, fertilizer and fertilizer application from the income derived from grain and haulm produced. Farm gate price were determined each year by taking average price across locations two months after harvest.The data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the GENSTAT statistical programme (GENSTAT, Statistical software 16 th edition). Least significance difference between means was used to compare treatments (LSD) using a significance level of α = 0.05. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated between the variable and yields.Variety (V), Phosphorus fertilizer application (F) and plant density (P) significantly influenced groundnut performance in both locations. Table 3A shows the mean squares from the Analysis of Variance for the measured parameters in Minjibir. Year of planting significantly affected all the agronomic parameters except pod yield. Phosphorus fertilizer application significantly influenced pod and haulm yields as well as harvest index (HI). Plant density significantly affected pod and haulm yields. Differences between the two varieties were significant for all parameters except for haulm yield. Table 3B shows the mean squares from the Analysis of Variance for the measured parameters in Wudil.Year of planting significantly affected all the agronomic parameters except pod yield. Significant differences were observed between the varieties for all the agronomic parameters. P fertilizer application significantly influenced plant height, number of branches per plant, pod and haulm yields as well as HI. Plant density significantly affected pod yield. Y×V interaction was significant for plant height at harvest, number of branches per plant, haulm yields and harvest index. Y × F interaction was significant for pod and haulm yields as well as HI. V×F interaction was significant for number of branches per plant pod and haulm yields. Y×P interaction was significant for pod and haulm yields. V×P and F×P interactions were not significant for any of the attributes. The three way interactions among V, F and P was not significant for any parameter. Table 5 shows the interaction of groundnut varieties and plant density on groundnut pod yields in the Sudan savannah zone of Nigeria. Pod yields generally increased with increasing plant density for the two varieties in both locations. In Minjibir mean pod yield was 44% higher at plant density of 133,333 plants ha -1 than that at density of 66,666 plants ha -1 and 54%higher than that at density of 44444 plants ha -1 . In Wudil, pod yield was 17% higher at plant density of 133,333 plants ha -1 than that at density of 66,666 plants ha -1 and 25% higher than that at density of 44444 plants ha -1 . In both locations, the early maturing variety SAMNUT 24 produced higher pod yields than SAMNUT 22 at all plant density. The mean pod yield of SAMNUT 24 were higher than SAMNUT 22 by 122% in Minjibir and by 59% in Wudil. While pod yields of SAMNUT 24 were higher than SAMNUT 22 by 121% 140 and 107% at density of 133333, 66667 and 444444 hills ha -1 respectively in Minjibir, it was higher by 70, 56 and 50% respectively in Wudil.  6 shows the interaction of groundnut varieties and P fertilizer on groundnut haulm yields in the Sudan savannah zone of Nigeria. While there was no significant difference between the groundnut varieties for mean haulm yields in Minjibir, Samnut 24 produced significantly higher mean halum yield (1536 kg/ha) than Samnut 22 (1202 kg/ha) in Wudil. There was also significant variety x P fertilizer interaction.However, there was no significant difference between the two varieties for haulm yields in the unfertilized plot, Samnut 24 produced haulm yields (1796 kg/ha) that was significantly higher than Samnut 22 (1273 kg/ha) in the P fertilized plot. In both location P fertilizer applications produced mean haulm yields that were significantly higher than control (16% and 28% in Minjibir and Wudil respectively).The Pearson`s correlation coefficient of agronomic traits with pod yield at each location is presented in Table 7. All the traits were significantly correlated with pod yields in both locations. Days to flowering and maturity and number of branches per plant were negatively correlated with pod yieldTable 8 shows the effect of groundnut varieties, P fertilizer and plant density on mean total revenue, total profit and cost benefit ratio of groundnut.Mean total revenue and profit were significantly higher for Samnut 24 than for Samnut 22, while costbenefit ratio was significantly higher for Samnut 22 than for Samnut 24. In addition, P fertilizer application produced higher mean total revenue and profit than the control in both locations. Total revenue was higher at higher plant density of 133,333 plants ha -1 than at the lower plant density of 66,667 and 44,444 plants ha -1 . There were no significant difference in the mean total profit between plant density of 66667 and 444444 plants ha -1 in both locations. Similar results were obtained for total profit and cost-benefit ratio in both locations.  Purcell et al., (2002) and (Ball et al., 2000) reported that increasing plant density increased LAI and light inception of soybean in the USA. Greater light interception often increases yield (Alessi et al., 1977).  , 2009) is not sufficient for optimal groundnut yield. In most Asian countries, the row spacing varies between 30 cm and 45 cm while within the row spacing varies between 10 and 15 cm (Nigam et al., 2006). This high density of 148000 to over 300000 ensures mean yield of about 1.8 t ha -1 to tons ha -1 . It is interesting to note that higher significant yields were obtained at higher density than the recommended and probably the density at which the varieties were developed. ","tokenCount":"2397"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43a735a4963e147018e75bfe4cff56d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5ca16269-823e-400b-831a-bcd5ac659fc6/retrieve","id":"-2115565224"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"34ecd7c9-da70-4d6d-b2d7-65fc4b22df83","pagecount":"14","content":"Regional Research Centre Kisii mandate area covers nine and four Districts in Nyanza and Rift Valley Provinces respectively. These are Nyando, Kisumsu, Rachuonyo, Homabay, Migori, Nyamira, Kisii, Gucha, Kuria, in Nyanza and Transmara, Kericho, Bomet, and Bureti in the Rift Valley Province. Geographically the area extends from latitude 0 0 to 2 0 S and longitude 34 0 to 35 0 30' E. The mandate area encompasses 12 Agro-Ecological zones (AEZs). Kisii and Nyamira districts cover Upper Midland (UM1, Lower Highland (LH1 and LH2) AEZs. Homabay, Rachuonyo, Migori Kuria and Transmara occupy Lower Midland (LM1 -LM5) while Kisumu and Nyando cover LM1-LM4. Kericho, Bomet, and Bureti are in the Upper highland zones and occupy UH1 -UH2 with some pockets of LH and LM zones (Jaetzold and Scmidt 1982). Other than crops and soils the Regional Research Centre is mandated to conduct adaptive, applied and on-farm livestock research aimed at improving animal nutrition, feeding and management practices for recommendation to various categories of livestock farmers in the region. Three of the districts in the region (Kisii, Rachuonyo and Nyamira) have a combined cattle population of 336118 head of exotic, crosses and Zebu cattle. The cattle are also kept for cultural as well as emergency purposes such as payment of dowry, school fees, as an indicator of wealth and also for ceremonial purposes.The ultimate goal of dairy farmers is to realize and increase in milk production. Some of the objectives of the Soil Management Project at RRC -Kisii are to assist farmers achieve some if not most of their goals. In 1998, it was therefore proposed that a study be carried out to evaluate the milk production potential of cattle fed Napier grass/legume intercrop grown using different fertilizer regimes. In a related project participating farmers in Bogetaorio village in Rigoma division of Nyamira district understood the value of legumes as important protein sources to their milking cows as well as the role they play in soil fertility. Other studies include DFID funded maize defoliates as a source of livestock feed and good quality feeding of cattle to produce high quality farmyard manure.The dairy industry in the three districts should pick up in the near future provided steps are taken by the relevant stakeholders to:-Provide the much needed grade or improved breeding stock -Improve the current breeding programmes especially artificial insemination -Introduce better fodder and legume crops, forages and pastures in areas where there are none -Avail adequate veterinary services to all interested livestock producers -Provide credit facilities to farmers who are willing to invest in livestock farming -Improve the infrastructure in the rural areas particularly Nyamira district where poor roads have a big impediment to milk production and marketing. -Provide adequate and organized milk marketing channels -The question of extension staff mobility should be urgently addressed.Central Kisii District is one of the twelve districts in Nyanza Province. It is situated at the southeastern part of the Province between latitude 0 0 30' and 0 0 58' s and longitude 34 0 38' and 35 0 E. The district covers an area of 645 km 2 of which 499 km 2 is arable and can be used for production of both crops and livestock. The altitude of the district is 1420 m a.s.l. in the lower areas (Suneka and Mosocho divisions) and 2000 m a.s.l. in the higher areas (Keumbu and Masaba divisions). The types of soils in the district include Nitosols Phaezems in Keumbu and Masaba divisions, Nitosols composols in Mosocho and Marani divisions and mainly Ferrasols Luvisols type of soils in Suneka division. The cattle population comprises of 105955 head of which 57% are grade and 43% Zebu.. There are 529 zero-grazing units in the district housing a total of 1343 mainly grade cows. The district is not self sufficient in milk production and relies heavily on milk imports from neighbouring districts such as Bomet, Bureti and Kericho. Some of the milk is also obtained from processing plants such as KCC, Ilara and Premier. The average milk production levels per cow per day are 8 and 1.5 litres of milk for grade and Zebu cattle, respectively. Most of the milk is produced from grade cattle (96%) with Zebu cattle accounting for the rest. The district has an area of 861 km 2 of land out of which 691 km 2 can be used for various agricultural activities. The altitude ranges from 1280-2100 metres (a.s.l). The bi-modal rainfall patter ranges between 1200-2100mm per annum. The human population in the district is estimated to be 489,883 spread in 60880 households in the district. Dairy production is the major livestock enterprise in the district. Apart from the settlement area (Borabu division) Most of the dairy activity is undertaken on smallholder farms with one hectare or less of land. Most of the dairy herd (over 70%) is made up of grade cattle and their crosses with an average milk production of 6 litres per day per cow while the zebu cattle produce 2.2 litres per day per cow. Approximately 60% of the cattle in the district are grade. There is a notable decrease in numbers of zebu cattle over the years due to upgrading and replacement through purchase of exotic breeds from neighbouring districts.The district cover an area of 930 km 2 of which 835 km 2 are dry land and 95 km 2 are covered by Lake Victoria. 744 km 2 are arable land while 91 km 2   The district has a large population of Zebu cattle, which produce 98.5% of the milk in the district. Milk requirement for the district is 32 million while the production is 11.5 million litres annually.Most of the milk produced in the district is from grade cattle, which accounts for 96%. There are no organized milk marketing channels. Almost all milk produced in the district sold through hawking and the rest at the farm gate. The milk price ranges from Kshs 20-35/= in rural and urban areas. Due the efforts of LDP in the district there has been an improvement in milk production and therefore increase in income of the farmer. This has been achieved through upgrading local cattle by using grade bulls and provision of dairy cows to the women groups in the district. Some of these achievements include:-38 cows given to 20 women groups -20 rotations have exchanged hands -31 women groups in the scheme have opened bank accounts -10% mortality for the procured cows has been recorded which is an enormous achievement considering the district average. -37 bull schemes have been established of which 14 are currently active.However, there is an urgent need to address the problems of calf and bull mortality at 45% and 59% respectively. The problem has been identified as tick borne diseases. The bull distribution has also been concentrated in the three divisions of Marani, Mosocho and Suneka. -Few women groups due to limited funding -Lack of credit facilities -Limited land sizes have contributed to less forage establishment -High cost of acaricdes for control of ticks -Poor management of communal dips which has led to high incident of tick borne diseasesDairy farmers in the district play an important role in the agricultural sector. Milk production is projected to increase from 45million litres in 1999 to 61 million litres in the year 2005. This production deficit can be filled if production strategies planned by the Ministry of agriculture extension staff are implemented. Currently there are 28547 and 50230 head of Zebu and grade cattle respectively, which produce 45 million litres annually.There are 22 active dairy societies. The total milk produced in the district in 1998 was 33.9 million litres out of which 1.9 million litres were delivered and marketed through organized cooperative societies Lactation period varies between 280 -290 days for the grade cattle with an average production of 8 -10 litres per cow per for the grade cattle. The average calving interval is 430 days. It is estimated that 41 million litres of milk were produced in the district in 1998 out of which 2.5 million was marketed through dairy cooperatives. Most of this milk ended up in the KCC processing plant in Sotik Bomet district. The average milk price per litre through hawking is Kshs. 20-30/=. Milk delivered at Sotik KCC factory is paid out at Kshs 13/= per litre to the cooperatives who in turn pay the farmers Kshs. 10/= per litre. Nyamira and Keroka farmers' cooperative societies pay farmers Kshs. 15/= per litre and sell the milk locally at Kshs. 18/= per litre. Two third of all farmers who keep grade cattle use artificial insemination while the rest use grade bulls provided by the bull schemes.The district has the potential to produce 68.4 million litres annually if 60% of the households keep at one grade dairy cow each. However, each of these cows will have to produce 2400 litres of milk per annum under Zero-grazing or intensive system of production for the said level to be achieved. Other conditions that are necessary for the improvement to occur include:-Reduce calving interval through improved artificial insemination services and provision of bull schemes -Facilitation of farmers on group solidarity basis through provision of credit facilities or in kind repayment schemes such as the heifer revolving arrangementsThe current milk production level is 8.2 million from Zebu against 3.3 million litres from the exotic cattle. The lack of ready organized milk marketing channels has led to hawking milk or sales at the farm gate. However, there is one co-operative milk buying centre which currently operating below its potential mainly due to availability of cheaper milk imports from other districts. The price of milk ranges between Kshs. 20-35/= depending on location.The district has a pasture area of 14050 acres and 3079acres of established Napier grass.There are 41000 fodder trees, which include mainly Calliandra and Leucaena. Due to the increasing attention to grade dairy cattle there are measures in place to encourage farmers to grow fodder legumes such as desmodium and dolichos. The land allocated to growth of pasture and fodder is therefore likely to increase. The district has an area of 83660 hectares (691 km 2 ), which is utilized to grow natural and improved pastures, fodder crops and food crops and woodlots. The breakdown of district land utilization is as follows:-Natural pastures 9010 ha -Improved pastures 960 ha -Fodder crops 1668 ha -Food crops and woodlots 71400 ha -Total 83660 ha There are 6.2 acres of bulking plot established and 16 acres of on-farm demonstration. 16500 fodder tree seedlings have also been distributed in the district. The pasture and fodder utilization in the district is also reflected in its production and consequent utilization:- Fodder and pasture production and management is crucial for continued milk production in the district. There is a protein gap in the dairy cattle feeding which can be narrowed or eliminated through feeding of fodder legumes, multi-purpose trees, sweet potato vines and other legumes. There is an urgent need for intensified fodder conservation for dry season feeding so that milk production is maintained throughout the year.  ","tokenCount":"1836"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f2357430b83efb9347bd7973031306d7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d2d8fc66-4095-4f7c-b822-bef56d016cf7/retrieve","id":"-77098831"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"68106bd6-474f-45f8-bf5f-134b82e5660e","pagecount":"16","content":"An outcome of a participatory process of systematization or capitalization, this publication was possible thanks to the unwavering collaboration of each and every one of the ACORDAR teams.Special thanks go to the Technical Committees of the different value chains (Cacao, Coffee, Beans, Vegetables, Cocoyam) as well as the Committees of Cross-cutting Themes (Gender, Municipal Development, Business Development) for their patience in translating the lessons they learned into products that now form part of this publication. These Committees are the main architects of this systematization experience.We would also like to thank the ACORDAR management teams for their trust and support, without which this process would have been impossible. In order for systematization to become a true institutional learning process, accountable to society, it needs organizational leaders that not only believe in its benefits, but also promote its implementation. In this sense, ACORDAR was lucky. Our sincere appreciation goes to Jorge Brenes and Jefferson Shriver, Directors-General of ACORDAR; Santos Palma, Value Chain Manager, and his team of collaborators, Ligia Corrales, Ronald Flores, Tomás Laguna, and Oswaldo López, who coordinated and headed the report writing process; and Juan Alberto Molina, Design, Monitoring, and Evaluation Manager, and his team of collaborators, Erika Herrera, Fredred Valdivia, and Tomás Valdivia, whose work provided essential supportive data for each report forming part of this publication.Special thanks also to María Eugenia Narváez, CRS Communications Advisor, whose help in handling the ACORDAR corporate image proved fundamental.Five years of fieldwork, more than 52 million dollars invested, nearly 200 organizations working together in alliances, 50 municipalities covered (one-third of Nicaragua's municipalities), 25 local governments that invested more than 20 million dollars in the strengthening of value chains, 7711 farm families benefitted, 27,396 permanent jobs generated, a 20% increase in income, 222,760 tons of food produced, more than 128 million dollars in sales, more than 100 professionals contributing knowledge and expertise, and a monitoring and evaluation system that has served as model for other initiatives make the Alliance to Create Opportunities for Rural Development through Agro-enterprise Relationships (ACORDAR) an unprecedented project in this Central American country.The ACORDAR Project:1. A value chain differs from a production chain mainly in the type of relationships established between the actors forming part of the chain: collaboration and trust oriented to achieve competitiveness along the whole chain as system through the innovation of technology, processes, and organizations. The work carried out by ACORDAR helped the cacao, coffee, beans, fruits and vegetable, and roots and tubers production chains become value chains through different alliances.Although the term 'production chain' describes a series of interwoven links, a true articulation between the individuals and organizations forming these links does not occur naturally, but has to be knowingly nurtured to increase the levels of confidence and collaboration that sustain relationships between actors. This is what a 'value chain' 1 seeks to achieve.To link the different actors of a production chain so all participate and all are in a win-win situation, working in a concerted and interdependent way to add value to the entire chain, can only be achieved by major efforts not only of the actors who plant, harvest, transform, package, transport, and sell products, but of all those who provide technical, technological, and financial support so activities can be carried out.The ACORDAR Project was a determined attempt to link an array of actors of several production chains of Nicaragua (cacao, coffee, beans, fruits and vegetables, and roots and tubers) as central strategy to generate employment, increase To face the great challenge of linking actors to increase the competitiveness of the most important chains in the regions under the umbrella of the project, ACORDAR opted to use two mechanisms: Technical Committees and Governance Committees. The former served as managerial teams-one per chainand were formed by the technical personnel of the organizations belonging to the executing consortium and responsible for promoting actions and linking the fieldwork of the different stakeholders involved in the process. The latter represented the groups of actors of the value chains and were responsible for promoting and advocating the most strategic demands of each group before public and private entities, at both national and international levels.The work carried out by these two committees for each value chain was coordinated through a Competitiveness Strategy, a document that compiled the main results of several analysis and planning exercises, such as mapping of the chain, problem trees, and establishment of a logical pathway, carried out by each Technical Committee with the participation of the different actors of the corresponding chain. Short-, medium-, and long-term activities were accordingly planned to overcome problems or take advantage of the opportunities that had been collectively identified.These competitiveness strategies were developed at a series of theoretical and practical workshops facilitated by CIAT, whose role in this process was to train and guide the ACORDAR technical team, represented by the Technical Committees, in field activities required to develop and implement strategies. At the same time, these strategies became the point of departure for each Governance Committee to design and carry out its own work strategies. One of the main outcomes of the strategy development process was the strengthened capacities of participating technical personnel, who are now replicating what they learned.Part of ACORDAR's efforts aimed to promote the regulatory frameworks already existing in Nicaragua in favor of value chains, which was an innovative element within this type of initiative, not only empowering producers to participate in different municipal decisionmaking spaces but also influencing local governments to make investments vital for chain development, such as improvement, opening, and rehabilitation of roads as well as expanded coverage of drinking water systems, totaling US$20,373,889. This experience, which corresponded to the cross-cutting theme of municipal development, was not only valuable because of the results obtained but because 25 municipal governments became active and efficient actors within the initiative.Parallel to municipal development, ACORDAR worked on two other cross-cutting themes: business development and gender equity, both of which became flagship themes, mainly during the last two years of the project.In the case of business development, ACORDAR benefited 142 small-and medium-sized producer organizations by carrying out different activities that aimed to strengthen their institutional and human capabilities so that they could offer better services to their members, increase the number of services offered, become self-sustaining, and increase their market share. The work in this area was crystallized during the last two years of the project through an entrepreneurial strengthening plan that sought the graduation or transition towards self-sufficiency of 34 rural enterprises and/or agribusinesses, with the accompaniment of consortium members. This 'graduation' process had great leverage in the ACORDAR Innovation Fund, which financed 16 proposals for the amount of US$875,075, of which US$305,579 corresponded to USAID funds and the rest to counterpart funding of cooperative entities.The process sought to create business opportunities so that cooperatives and other small and medium enterprises, in alliance with the private and public sectors, could increase their competitiveness, while it also endorsed small producers so they could access inputs, equipment, technology, and other services that helped boost the competitiveness of value chains and raise the income of small women and men producers.Regarding gender-related issues, the participation of partners that were already addressing gender-sensitive issues prior to the launching of the ACORDAR project was transcendental during the development process of ACORDAR's own gender policy. These partners inspired and encouraged peers to begin to incorporate gender-sensitive actions within their own organizations. The gender policy developed by ACORDAR ultimately managed to permeate and guide the actions carried out by the different strategic and local partners of the ACORDAR Project, creating awareness about the importance of promoting and facilitating the participation of women in value chains. As a result, 1488 women were able to access opportunities of economic, social, and business development in the field.In addition, ACORDAR invested heavily in infrastructure-US$5,697,723-generating permanent jobs; solving production, transformation, collection, and quality problems that limited chain competitiveness; reducing the negative impact on the environment; and improving the quality of life of beneficiary families. Such investments included irrigation systems, wells, tanks and water reservoirs, greenhouses, collection and packaging centers, a tropical roots packaging and processing plant, both wet and dry processing of coffee, solar predryers, organic fertilizer production plants, vermicompost production facilities, storage facilities for harvested produce and inputs, and an agroindustrial center for processing beans with the capacity to process and add value to 75,000 quintals 2 of beans/year.To sustain these investments and facilitate their sustainable use by farmers and their organizations, all project components not only received technical assistance from both consortium partners and local partners, but also benefited from capacity-building and knowledge-sharing efforts and were introduced to new environmentally friendly practices through training in different aspects of agricultural production (including use of permitted pesticides), postharvest management and added value, marketing, gender-sensitive issues, and municipal development.The alliances established with financial and non-financial service providers of both public and private sectors potentiated these investments and lead to joint efforts to enter markets, placing all stakeholders in a win-win situation. For example, non-financial service providers reached an agreement with producers to jointly validate the products and inputs they offered. Many other trade agreements were established with buyers, and the endorsement of public organizations, such as the Ministry of the Agriculture and Forestry (MAGFOR, its Spanish acronym) and the Nicaraguan Institute for Agricultural Technology (INTA, its Spanish acronym), to certify farms in good agricultural practice (GAP) and good manufacturing practice (GMP) was achieved.There was a tremendous potential for both insiders and outsiders to learn from the ACORDAR Project in view of its components and scope. The entire process was accordingly documented, discussed, and analyzed, and the findings are consolidated herein. After a process of participatory systematization, eight reports were prepared that comprehensively address the actions carried out, the results obtained, and the lessons learned per cross-cutting theme (municipal development, business development, gender issues) and per value chain (cacao, coffee, beans, vegetables, cocoyam) that the project worked with.As illustration, some of the main lessons learned are presented.The conceptual model proposed by the ACORDAR Project consisted of three central elements (producers capable of being good business partners, buyers willing to purchase the products, and an enabling environment), and was applicable in most of the value chains served by the project.Based on this concept, the following lessons should be highlighted:• Entrepreneurial capacity building is extremely important to link resource-poor small producers to markets. However, it is not enough to organize cooperatives if efforts and funds are not invested in developing their capacity to function efficiently and effectively as enterprises, with access to appropriate production technologies. The ACORDAR Project illustrated the importance of balancing these approaches by strengthening cooperatives and developing several models to access technology that ranged from direct provision to the establishment of alliances with suppliers. Development projects often emphasize either entrepreneurial capacity building (understood as the cooperatives' capabilities) or technology. The ACORDAR Project showed the importance of focusing on both, but working in a coordinated manner.• There are many ways to change buyers' attitudes and habits. At the beginning of phase II of the ACORDAR Project, CIAT proposed the use of a methodology that focused on the buyer's business model but its scope and application were not as expected. Notwithstanding, ACORDAR managed to directly impact the business practices of several key companies by participating in value chain committees. On the other hand, the Innovation Fund, the Gender Policy, and the plan for graduating enterprises allowed the ACORDAR Project to consolidate during Phase II (corresponding to the last two years) many of actions that it had carried out during Phase I. Therefore, one of the main lessons learned is that in upcoming initiatives these three elements should be considered from the start because, on the one hand, the Innovation Fund helps activate the entrepreneurial capacities of grassroots organizations and, on the other, the Gender Policy serves to guide the actions of all participants in the same direction and with the same purpose of empowering women. Finally, the graduation plan or transition toward self-sufficiency of associative enterprises is fundamental so that these reach a level of maturity that ensures their sustainability. Now, although the ACORDAR Project secured employment for many women, better pay, a fair wage, access to health benefits, and support in the development of pre-business organizations and groups, clearly much more is required in the area of gender policy. In fact, the project wanted to achieve so much more, but the theme was not promoted with enough energy and firmness from the start to better empower women to participate in the management of resources and incomes generated by the value chains, beyond being considered as manpower.Another important lesson learned from the ACORDAR Project is that, although the smallest and poorest producers should be the main beneficiaries of development actions, the best way to benefit them is not always to focus solely on them.The alliances established by ACORDAR with the public and private sectors demonstrate that the participation of these actors reaps greater benefits not only for the small producer, but for all actors along the value chain, ultimately helping to fight poverty.In addition, it is decisive to increase the capability of this type of projects to disseminate and share the lessons learned during their implementation and thus provide data for public and private decision-making processes that facilitate the use of market-related mechanisms to reduce poverty. At the very least, these efforts should be linked to spaces such as the value chain committees, but could also prove quite useful beyond the chain itself and the country per se and be used in discussions with donors and policy makers in the international scenario.","tokenCount":"2260"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cc63d3267bc15b88f55cf978ae0fd9ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/97117664-3d83-4503-83d8-88cd6e3448dd/content","id":"1348793370"},"keywords":["Breeding effects","Genetic gain","Historical series","PVC tubes","Root section"],"sieverID":"0706c027-33a2-4f53-9620-9bdfee284349","pagecount":"14","content":"Aims This study aimed to quantify the changes in root and aerial biomass of durum wheat brought about by the introduction of the Rht-B1b dwarfing allele and their effects on yield formation. Methods A historical series of 24 Mediterranean cultivars with allelic variants a (tall) and b (semi-dwarf) at Rht-B1 locus was tested in tubes in three greenhouse experiments and six field experiments.The root system of wheat is essential for firmly anchoring the plant to the soil and taking up water and nutrients from it. In reduced-input agricultural systems, root traits affecting the acquisition of mineral elements often determine yield (Ehdaie et al. 2010;White et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean Basin, one of the largest durum wheat producers in the world, more than 50 % of the total grain of durum wheat is produced in arid and semi-arid conditions, with severe drought most years (Loss and Siddique 1994;Araus et al. 2003;García del Moral et al. 2005). In dryland agricultural systems, a large root system that promotes access to soil water and nutrients is regarded as beneficial for plant growth (Richards 2008), although under terminal drought a greater investment in fine roots at depth would improve yield due to the better access to water and nitrogen (King et al. 2003). Accordingly, root dry weight at depth has been related to drought adaptation (Lopes and Reynolds 2010).The introduction of semi-dwarf cultivars with greater resistance to lodging during the Green Revolution in the second half of the 20th century led to major yield gains (Borlaug 2007). Dwarfness in most durum wheat cultivars is controlled by the Rht-B1b (formerly Rht1) allele. In order to incorporate in durum wheat the dwarfing genes already identified and used in bread wheat, crosses between tall durums and semi-dwarf bread wheats were intensively carried out by Dr. Borlaug's program at CIMMYT from the late 1950's. The varieties 'Langdon enano' and 'Barrigon Yaqui enano' (whose pedigree is YAKTANA-54//NORIN-10/BREVOR/3/ 2*BARRIGON-YAQUI) were the first semi-dwarf durum lines resulting from that crosses (Julio Huerta-Espino, pers. Comm.) The objective was to transfer the short and stiff straw character in order to allow the intensification of agronomic practices (increased sowing rate, fertilizer applications and water supply). The Rht-B1b allele induces insensitiveness to gibberellic acid, thus preventing stem elongation (Peng et al. 1999;Hedden 2003). In addition to the reduced height of the plant, the Rht-B1b allele has well-known pleiotropic effects on plant growth, and morphological and physiological characters (Gale and Youssefian 1985;Li et al. 2011;Rebetzke et al. 2012). It increases yield, mostly under favourable conditions, by altering the proportion of dry matter allocated to grain (De Vita et al. 2007;Royo et al. 2007Royo et al. , 2008;;Álvaro et al. 2008a). However, the effect of the Rht-B1b allele on the root system has been poorly explored (Waines and Ehdaie 2007). Previous studies found no consistent association between height genes and root growth and function (Blum 2011). Though the Rht-B1b allele is known to inhibit stem growth, thus making available a surplus of assimilates that are used for thickening the roots (Miralles et al. 1997) without reducing the stem diameter (Calderini et al. 1996), it has been proposed that the enlargement of the root system and its penetration ability might not be under the control of dwarfing genes (Miralles et al. 1997;Kubo et al. 2005). Vigorous shoot growth has been related to vigorous root growth under a wide range of conditions (Mian et al. 1993). However, negative relationships have been identified between root dry weight and plant height in bread wheat (Miralles et al. 1997), and a lower shoot:root ratio has been found in dwarf cultivars (Siddique et al. 1990), seeming to suggest that the selection of cultivars with higher yield and other suitable traits during the 20th century also led to an unintentional selection of those with a reduced investment in root biomass (Zhu and Zhang 2013). Furthermore, modern cultivars containing the Rht-B1b allele have shown an increased capacity to take up water in irrigated environments (Pask and Reynolds 2013), thus demonstrating greater efficiency in the use of water after anthesis than the old tall cultivars (Subira et al. 2015).Quantifying root characteristics in field experiments is a labour-intensive task because the root crop zone is difficult to access (Motzo et al. 1993;Waines and Ehdaie 2007;Izzi et al. 2008;Botwright Acuña and Wade 2012). Therefore, little attention has been devoted to root systems in breeding programmes in the past, most of which have dealt with the above-ground plant organs (Waines and Ehdaie 2007). A number of root observation methods have been proposed, but due to their cost or slowness for routine screening work in breeding programmes, the most widespread among breeders has been the tube method (Blum 2011). The assessment of the root system is essential because water availability is the most limiting factor for the correct expression of yield potential even in irrigated environments, and projections indicate that less usable water will be available in the future (Pask and Reynolds 2013). The tube method is therefore useful for boosting knowledge of the most appropriate root systems for the drought environments that will be more common in the future.The effect of breeding activities during the 20th century and the introduction of dwarfing alleles on yield, yield components, biomass production and allocation was previously studied by our team on a historical series of 24 Italian and Spanish durum wheat cultivars released in different periods and with different allelic compositions in the Rht-B1 gene (Royo et al. 2007(Royo et al. , 2008;;Álvaro et al. 2008a, 2008b, 2008c;Subira et al. 2014). The same set of cultivars was used in the present study with the following aims: (i) to quantify the changes occurring in root biomass due to the introduction of the Rht-B1b dwarfing allele, (ii) to determine the relationship between the changes in root biomass and the changes in aerial biomass, and (iii) to study the relationship between biomass and yield formation in tall and semi-dwarf cultivars. Objectives (i) and (ii) were addressed through experiments in PVC tubes under greenhouse conditions, while objective (iii) was addressed using data of field experiments and relating them to those obtained in the greenhouse experiments.The plant material used in this study consisted of a historical series of 24 durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) cultivars selected to represent the germplasm grown in Italy and Spain during the last century (Table 1). The set included tall landraces cultivated before 1945, early semi-dwarf cultivars derived from CIMMYT germplasm such as 'Mexa', landmark early European cultivars such as 'Creso', and cultivars released by local breeding programmes during 1990s in both countries. PCR-based markers specific for the base pair responsible for the semi-dwarf phenotype were used to identify specifically wild-type (Rht-B1a) and mutant (Rht-B1b) allelic variants at the Rht-B1 locus following the methodology described by Ellis et al. (2002), thus allowing classifying the cultivars into two groups: tall, carrying the Rht-B1a allele, and semi-dwarf, with the Rht-B1b allele. This methodology confirmed the presence of the Rht-B1b allele in the genome of the Italian cultivar 'Adamello', which had previously been considered not to carry any dwarfing allele (Isidro et al. 2011;Álvaro et al. 2008a, 2008b, 2008c;Royo et al. 2007), according to the results of the test for sensitivity to gibberellic acid (Gale and Gregory 1977).Experiments in tubes in the greenhouse Three experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions during three growing seasons at CIMMYT research station in Toluca, State of Mexico (19 o 16'N, 99 o 34'W). Temperatures and daily photoperiod are shown in Fig. 1. Plants were grown in PVC tubes of 120 cm height and 10.2 cm width filled with a soil/sand mixture at a 1:3 ratio and sealed at the bottom with a hole for drainage. Each tube was fertilized with 3.0 g of urea and 0.5 g of triple superphospate (TSP), and irrigation was provided periodically to prevent water limitation. Experiments consisted of 72 tubes in 2009 and 2010 and 96 in 2012, arranged in randomized complete block designs with three replications in 2009 and 2010 and four in 2012. Planting dates were 2, 10 and 21 December in 2008, 2009 and 2011, respectively. Three seeds of each cultivar (all of them with a diameter between 2.8 mm and 3.5 mm) were sown in each tube and after seedling emergence only two plants per tube were kept.At anthesis (Zadoks stage 65, Zadoks et al. 1974) plant height was measured from the soil to the top of the spike excluding the awns, and the entire plants, including the roots, were removed from the tubes (Fig. 2). The roots were carefully washed following the methodology described in Blum (2011) and divided into three sections (upper, middle and lower) of equal length. The aboveground biomass and the three root sections obtained   2). Experiments followed randomized complete block designs with three replications and plots of 12 m 2 (8 rows, 0.15 m apart). Sowing rate was adjusted to 400 and 350 fully viable seeds per m 2 at Gimenells and Chimeneas, respectively. Plots were fertilised following the recommendations for maximizing yields while preventing lodging, and were kept disease-and insect-free with preventive pesticide applications. Anthesis date was recorded for each plot when 50 % of the plants reached this stage and plants within a 50 cm-long row per plot were pulled up at this stage. In the laboratory the number of plants in each sample was recorded and the plants were oven-dried at 70 °C for 48 h to obtain the crop dry weight (CDW, g per m 2 ) and the aerial biomass per plant as the ratio between CDW and the number of plants per m 2 . A second 50-cm-long row was randomly sampled at ripening (Zadoks stage 92) on each plot and used to determine the number of spikes per m 2 and the number of grains per spike. Harvest index (HI) was obtained on a dry weight basis as the ratio between total grain weight and aboveground biomass of the same sample. The harvest was conducted mechanically at commercial maturity and grain yield was adjusted at 12 % moisture level. Thousand kernel weight was calculated using a subsample of the grain obtained.Combined ANOVAs were performed across greenhouse experiments considering the experiment, the cultivar and their interaction as fixed factors in the model. The sum of squares of the cultivar effect and its interaction were partitioned into differences between alleles at the Rht-B1 locus and differences within each of them. Means were compared with the Student t test (P = 0.05). Absolute (AGG) and relative (RGG) genetic gains were computed as the slope of the linear regression line fitted to the relationship between the absolute or relative value of the trait and the year of cultivar release. Relative values were computed for each cultivar as percentages irrespective of the average value of all cultivars. Linear regression models were fitted to the relationships between: i) traits assessed in field experiments, ii) traits assessed in the greenhouse, and iii) biomass assessed in tubes and yield and biomass related traits determined under field conditions. In all cases mean cultivar data across replications and experiments were used. All analyses were performed with the JMP V.8.0 (SAS Institute Inc. 2009) and Enterprise Guide 4.2 statistical software (SAS Institute Inc. 2006).Results of the field experiments showing genetic changes in yield, yield components, biomass and HI have been published elsewhere (Royo et al. 2007(Royo et al. , 2008;;Álvaro et al. 2008a, 2008b). In this study, the examination of the relationships between yield and its components in terms of biomass production and allocation revealed that, for the whole set of cultivars, grain yield under field conditions  was negatively associated with above-ground biomass at anthesis, determined either at the plant level (Fig. 3a) or at the crop level (Fig. 3b). However, when these relationships were assessed for tall and semi-dwarf cultivars separately they were only significant for the former, which showed greater variability for biomass and also for grain yield (Fig. 3a and 3b). Harvest index was significantly and positively associated with grain yield, and accounted for 85 % of yield variations in the model considering all cultivars (Fig. 3c). This relationship was also significant when semi-dwarf and tall cultivars were measured separately, but its reliability was greater for the latter group. In accordance with these results, aerial biomass per plant at anthesis and HI were negatively associated, particularly for the set of tall cultivars, but not for the semidwarf ones (Fig. 3d).The assessment of the relationship between aerial biomass per plant at anthesis and the three main yield components (number of spikes per m 2 , number of grains per spike and grain weight), showed that for the whole set of cultivars the number of spikes per unit area was negatively associated with aerial biomass per plant at anthesis (Fig. 3e), but no significant relationships were observed between the number of grains per spike and grain weight with aerial biomass per plant at anthesis (Fig. 3f and 3g). This pattern was similar for tall cultivars, while for the semi-dwarf cultivars no significant relationship was found between aerial biomass per plant and any of the three yield components.The results of the ANOVA showed large significant differences between experiments, but negligible differences between replicates within each of them (Table 3). Differences between cultivars were significant for all the traits assessed and always accounted for more than 21 % of total variation. For plant height the cultivar effect explained 67.1 % of total variation. Differences between cultivars carrying and not carrying the Rht-B1b allele were also significant for all traits, but for plant height they accounted for 54.5 % of total variation. Variability within the semidwarf cultivars was greater for all traits than the variability within the tall cultivars, except with regard to plant height.The introduction of the Rht-B1b dwarfing allele had a greater effect on root biomass per plant, which decreased by 28.1 %, than on aerial plant biomass, which only decreased by 7.6 % (Table 4). Accordingly, the root/aerial biomass per plant ratio was 28.6 % lower in semi-dwarf cultivars than in tall ones. The lower section of the root, the most distant from the root crown, was the one most altered by the Rht-B1b dwarfing allele, as it was reduced by 36 % in the semi-dwarf compared with the tall cultivars, while differences in the upper and middle sections were 25 % and 27 %, respectively (Table 4). The distribution of root weight in the three sections was similar in tall and semidwarf cultivars: 52 % and 54 % in the upper section, 26 % and 27 % in the middle section, and 22 % and 19 % in the lower section, respectively (deduced from Table 4).Among tall cultivars 'Trinakria' showed the lowest values for all the traits assessed in the greenhouse, while 'Blanco Verdeal' had the largest aerial and total biomass per plant and 'Bidi 17' had the largest root biomass per plant and the greatest root/aerial biomass ratio (Supplementary Table 1). The lowest values for root biomass within the semi-dwarf cultivars were recorded for all sections in 'Simeto', which also had the lowest root/aerial biomass ratio. On the other hand, the highest values for all traits except plant height and root biomass in the upper section were recorded in the cultivar 'Camacho'.Absolute (AGG) and relative (RGG) genetic gains were significant and negative for all traits (Table 5). In absolute terms, the aerial and total biomass per plant decreased at a higher yearly rate than the root biomass. However, in relative terms the decrease was much greater for root biomass (−0.73 g y −1 ) than for aerial biomass (−0.17 g y −1 ).Aerial biomass was positively and significantly associated with root biomass, both for the whole root (Fig. 4a) and for each of its sections (Fig. 4b, 4c and 4d). These relationships were also significant when tall and semidwarf cultivars were considered separately, except for the root middle section in tall cultivars (Fig. 4c).The analysis of the relationship between aerial biomass per plant assessed in tubes and aerial biomass per plant (Fig. 5a) and per unit area (Fig. 5b) in field experiments showed positive and significant associations in all cases when all cultivars were taken. Moreover, the relationship between aerial biomass per plant in tubes and grain yield (Fig. 5c) showed a similar trend to that observed when both traits were assessed in the field (Fig. 3a). Although aerial biomass per plant in tubes was more than three times that recorded in field experiments, both models showed the same tendency and were equally significant for the whole set of cultivars. Similarly, the model fitted to the relationship between aerial biomass per plant measured in tubes and HI determined in the field (Fig. 5d) was similar to that obtained when both traits were determined under field conditions (Fig. 3d). The consistency of all these results led us to examine the relationships between root biomass and both yield (Fig. 5e) and HI (Fig. 5f), which, as expected, were negative in both cases, as occurred for aerial biomass.The great disparity between the data obtained in the three greenhouse experiments was not unexpected considering the differences in the range of temperatures recorded in them. Previous studies demonstrated great experimental variability in root traits under both However, the results of the three replicates of each experiment were consistent, as shown by the lack of statistical significance for all traits of the replicate effect (nested to the experiment) of the ANOVA. The  significance of the cultivar effect for all traits and the high percentage of total variability explained by its sum of squares denoted the wide genetic diversity in the set of cultivars used in the current study. Particularly for plant height, the cultivar effect accounted for ca. 67 % of total variation, and differences between Rht-B1 alleles explained more than 81 % of genotypic variability, thus supporting the importance of plant height in differentiating durum cultivars released before and after the Green Revolution (Royo et al. 2007(Royo et al. , 2008; Graybosch and Peterson 2010). The greater variability of aerial and root biomass found within semi-dwarf cultivars when compared with tall ones supports the statement that genetic variability was not reduced in modern Mediterranean durum wheat cultivars as a consequence of the breeding activities conducted during the 20th century (Martos et al. 2005). The significant differences observed in the greenhouse between cultivars carrying the Rht-B1a (tall) and Rht-B1b (semi-dwarf) allele for aerial and root biomass indicated that the dwarfing allele not only reduced above-ground biomass, as widely reported by previous studies (Brancourt-Hulmel et al. 2003;Royo et al. 2007;Álvaro et al. 2008a), but also caused a decrease in total root biomass and in each root section. Moreover, the reduction caused by the dwarfing allele in root biomass (ca. 28 %) was much greater than that observed in aerial biomass (ca. 8 %), as shown by the relative rate of change, which was more than four times higher for the roots than for the aerial organs (−0.73 % y −1 and −0.17 % y −1 , respectively). Nevertheless, as the aerial fraction of the plant was much heavier than the root fraction, when expressed in absolute terms the genetic change was about four times greater for the aboveground biomass (−27.0 g y −1 ) than for the roots (−7 g y −1 ). The relative change in the root/aerial biomass ratio was more than twice that recorded for aerial or total biomass, showing that in relative terms the dwarfing allele had a greater effect on reducing the dry matter of roots than on reducing that of aerial organs. The root/aerial biomass ratio was 29 % lower in semidwarf cultivars than in tall ones. Considering the higher grain yield of the former (Canevara et al. 1994;De Vita et al. 2007;Motzo et al. 2004;Royo et al. 2008), this finding may suggest that cultivars carrying the Rht-B1b allele have greater root efficiency for input capture than those carrying the Rht-B1a allele, which is in agreement with the recent proposal of Subira et al. (2015) that semi-dwarf cultivars have an improved capacity to respond to water availability after flowering. In addition, the larger biomass at depth of tall cultivars may denote greater transpiration under drought stress (Blum 2011).The strong relationship found between root and aerial biomass assessed in tubes was consistent with the reduction caused in both of them by the Rht-B1b dwarfing allele. However, the slope of the linear regression model fitted to the relationship between aerial biomass and biomass of the lower root-section was more than twice the slope of the model fitted to the upper root-section. This result may indicate that differences between cultivars in root biomass are related to greater differences in aerial biomass when the divergence is due to the lower rather than the upper part of the root.The results of the study of the relationships between aerial biomass and grain yield under field conditions depended on the specific set of cultivars that were considered when the models were fitted. For the whole set of cultivars, around 60 % of yield variations were explained by differences in the aerial biomass, considered either on a plant or a crop basis, which were negatively associated with yield. Moreover, for the whole set of cultivars 85 % of yield variations were explained by genotypic differences in HI, which had a positive relationship with yield and a negative association with aerial biomass. However, when semi-dwarf and tall cultivars were analysed separately, these relationships were statistically significant only for tall cultivars, suggesting that for this sub-set large biomass at anthesis resulted in low yields, probably due to its negative association with HI. These results indicate that, for the set of cultivars carrying the Rht-B1a allele used in the current study, the maintenance of a large crop biomass competed with the allocation of dry matter in the grain or, in other words, large biomass at anthesis was detrimental for achieving high yields. In contrast, for the set of semi-dwarf cultivars, yield did not depend on the crop biomass at anthesis but was positively associated with HI. These results suggest that, for the set of cultivars carrying the Rht-B1b studied here, yield relied on the capacity of the plant to accumulate photosynthates in the grain, independently of the size of the plant canopy at anthesis. It has been demonstrated that one of the greatest effects of the dwarfing allele was the increase in HI, related to the increase in the number of grains per spike and spikelet and an improved translocation efficiency of pre-anthesis assimilates to grains (Royo et al. 2007(Royo et al. , 2008;;Álvaro et al. 2008b, 2008c).Differences between tall and semi-dwarf cultivars were also detected when the relationships between aerial biomass and the three main yield components were examined in field experiments. Although both number of grains per spike and grain weight were independent of the plant biomass at anthesis regardless of the set of cultivars considered, for genotypes carrying the Rht-B1a allele the number of spikes per unit area was negatively associated with aerial biomass, while the two traits were independent for semi-dwarf cultivars. These results may suggest competition in tall cultivars between the investment of resources in enlarging the canopy and the development of reproductive organs. This competition did not seem to exist within semi-dwarf cultivars, probably because their lower plant biomass allowed them to develop a larger number of spikes, as reported by Royo et al. (2007).Aerial biomass assessed in tubes was positively and significantly associated with that obtained in the field when all cultivars were included in the model, but not for each set independently. These results demonstrate that, although plant development in tubes was much greater than that recorded under field conditions at commercial plant densities, the results obtained in tubes and in the field were properly correlated, but only when the model included a wide range of variability. This assumption was confirmed when similar trends were found in the relationships between yield and aerial biomass assessed in both the field and in tubes, and similar patterns were also obtained for the relationships between HI and aerial biomass determined by field and tube experiments when all cultivars were included in the model. In order to predict the relationship between root biomass and yield, it was hypothesized that if a significant association existed between the aerial biomass assessed in tubes and in the field for the whole set of cultivars, a relationship would also most likely exist between root biomass in tubes and in field experiments. In accordance with this assumption, the negative associations that appeared between root biomass and both yield and HI when all cultivars were considered in the model confirm the findings of previous studies regarding the lower efficiency of the biomass of tall varieties in terms of yield formation (Álvaro et al. 2008a, 2008c).The introduction of the Rht-B1b allele in modern durum wheat cultivars resulted in a reduction in aerial biomass of the plant and an even greater reduction in root biomass along its whole length. A strong and significant positive relationship was found between the aerial and root biomass in the three sections, thus showing that the reduction of the root biomass due to the introduction of the Rht-B1b allele occurred in both the upper and the lower parts of the root. Within the tall cultivars, those with large aerial biomass had a lower number of spikes per unit area and also a lower HI, which resulted in yield reductions. On the other hand, within the semi-dwarf cultivars a greater aerial biomass was neither detrimental nor beneficial in terms of yield formation.","tokenCount":"4256"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a2a215c86e6c0084129623af6f6cc8af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af8277fd-ac17-4e4d-be86-ebec5c48e397/retrieve","id":"-719071151"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc8d8b92-29fe-41aa-b2fb-7e63267db4b7","pagecount":"24","content":"Bioversity International es una organización mundial de investigación para el desarrollo. Su visión es que la biodiversidad agrícola alimenta a las personas y sostiene el planeta. entregando pruebas científicas, prácticas de manejo y opciones de política para utilizar y salvaguardar la biodiversidad agrícola y así alcanzar la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición global sostenible. Se trabaja con socios en países de bajos ingresos en las diferentes regiones donde la biodiversidad agrícola puede contribuir a la mejora de la nutrición, la resilencia y adaptación al cambio climático.Hivos es una organización de desarrollo internacional guiada por valores humanistas. Junto con organizaciones de la sociedad civil local en los países en desarrollo, Hivos quiere contribuir a un mundo libre, justo y sostenible. sus valores fundamentales son: i) dignidad humana y la autodeterminación, ii) pluralismo y la democracia, iii) centrarse en los aspectos materiales y no materiales, iv) solidaridad mutua y la responsabilidad ciudadana, v) respeto de la identidad cultural y social de las personas, vi) gestión responsable de la naturaleza y los recursos naturales El Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), liderado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), reúne algunos de los mejores investigadores del mundo en la ciencia agrícola, investigación para el desarrollo, las ciencias del clima y de la tierra, para identificar y abordar las interacciones más importantes, las sinergias y disyuntivas entre el cambio climático, la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria. CCAFS trabaja en cinco regiones: África del Este y del Oeste, Sur y Sudeste de Asia y América Latina. www.ccafs.cgiar.org ASOBAGRI, es una Asociación Civil, sin fines de lucro, conformada por pequeños productores de café diferenciados de calidad (Orgánico y Comercio Justo). ASOBAGRI está conformado con 1179 asociados y asociadas productores de café orgánico diferenciado y cuentan con el sello de Comercio Justo. ASOBAGRI fue fundada en el año 1986 y su legalización en octubre de 1989; ante la necesidad de mercados y otros servicios surge una convocatoria por el gobierno de Guatemala para apoyar a las organizaciones, en la cual 20 productores se organizaron para legalizar a la asociación Barillense de Agricultores. Actualmente la producción de café continua con la certificación orgánica y Fairtrade, además está registrada como café bajo sombra (Bird Friendly) por Smitzonian, Unión Europea y Estándares de Japón -JAS-. El café es clasificado y exportado en tres tipos: Estrictamente Duro (SHB), Duro (HB), y Semiduro (XHB). Las variedades de café con las que se trabajan son: Borbón, Caturra, Villalobos y Típica; cultivadas en suelos franco arcillosos, ubicadas en altitudes de 1150 a 1650 msnm.Agradecemos Baltazar Francisco por el apoyo en la ejecución de las diferentes actividades con las familias productoras de café, agradecimientos a ASOBAGRI por el apoyo logístico e institucional durante la fase de campo en las aldeas de Puente Alto, Balli, Cocolá, Babeltzap y Nuevo San Mateo en Barillas, Huehuetenango, Guatemala, se agradece el programa de Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentario (CCAFS, por sus siglas inglesas) a Hivos por apoyo financiero, agradecimiento a CATIE por su apoyo y acompañamiento en la ejecución del proyecto y en especial agradecimientos a los productores que participaron durante los eventos de vulnerabilidad al cambio climático en paisajes cafetaleros.Octubre, 2016 Identificar participativamente la vulnerabilidad climática en los sistemas alimenticios y estrategias de vida valorando el potencial comunitario para la adaptación al cambio climático en Nuevo San Mateo, Barillas, Huhuetenango Guatemala. Identificar las principales amenazas y vulnerabilidades en la comunidad de Nuevo San Mateo. Determinar las principales medidas de adaptación que los comunitarios implementan como respuesta ante la variabilidad climática. Determinar las principales organizaciones, asociaciones, entidades estatales y ONG que inciden en los diferentes ámbitos de las comunidades en función de la variabilidad climática.El Panel Intergubernamental sobre Cambio Climático (IPCC) 1 define el cambio climático como: Cualquier cambio en el clima a través del tiempo, ya sea debido a su variabilidad natural o como resultado de la actividad humana. En los paisajes cafetaleros en Guatemala según estudios realizados por el CIAT en el año 2012 afirman que, de continuar con la misma dinámica de uso de los recursos naturales, la precipitación anual disminuirá y las temperaturas máximas y mínimas mensuales se incrementarán moderadamente para el año 2020 y continuarán aumentando progresivamente para el año 2050.El clima en general se volverá más estacional en términos de la variación a través del año con un aumento en la temperatura en las zonas cafetaleras de 0,9 ºC para el 2020 y 2,1 ºC en el 2050 y será más estacional en precipitación con un número acumulativo de meses secos que disminuye de 5 meses a 4 meses y una reducción de 93 mm en la precipitación anual. Las implicaciones de estos cambios serán que la distribución de las tierras aptas para café disminuirá seriamente para el año 2050, de forma tal que para ese año las tierras óptimas para el cultivo serán de un 30-50% Es de suponer que los sistemas cafetaleros de Guatemala son vulnerables a los impactos del cambio climático esto se puede sustentar mediante el número de manzanas afectadas por la roya y la débil nutrición de los plantíos de café para soportar la enfermedad, también mediante la cantidad de productores endeudados al no producir café y no tener otras opciones de capitalización otro aspecto podría ser el aumento de la inseguridad alimentaria de las familias cafetaleras, los porcentajes de migración etc.La capacidad de adaptación de un sistema [humano o natural] para ajustarse al cambio climático (incluida la variabilidad climática y los cambios extremos) a fin de moderar los daños potenciales, aprovechar las consecuencias positivas, o soportar las consecuencias negativas. 4 Aunque el impacto en los sistemas cafetaleros en Guatemala fue de gran magnitud, poco a poco, con y sin asistencia los productores de café van adaptando sus sistemas a las condiciones climáticas actuales haciendo uso de medidas y prácticas de producción sostenibles. Por esta razón este estudio tiene como meta identificar, caracterizar y divulgar cuáles son las practicas agroecológicas que los productores de implementan para aumentar su capacidad adaptativa.Para lograr esta meta, era necesario conocer de manera directa los diferentes efectos que causa el cambio climático en los sistemas alimentarios y en las diferentes estrategias de vida de las familias productoras de café. La metodología debería de incorporar herramientas participativas con familias rurales de forma tal de poder realizar un análisis multidimensional de los efectos del cambio climático para entender las razones de la vulnerabilidad de las familias, los aspectos donde son más vulnerables y como afecta directamente la seguridad alimentaria. Para ello este estudio se basó en la metodología propuesta por Ulrichs et al. 2014   5 denominada \"análisis de vulnerabilidad al cambio climático y seguridad alimenticia\" como un método eficaz y participativo con familias rurales.La Aldea Nuevo San Mateo se encuentra en el municipio de Barillas y es de muy reciente formación, se formó a partir del año 1988. Su formación se originó por la falta de terrenos productivos de algunos productores de San Mateo Ixctatan, quienes al ver la falta de medios de trabajo iniciaron las búsquedas de nuevas oportunidades encontrándolas en este sitio el que estaba ocioso y pertenecía a un habitante de Barillas. Al realizar la negociación llegaron hasta el lugar 49 productores para comenzar a dar las condiciones necesarias y poder traer posteriormente a sus familias.Octubre, 2016En su llegada los nuevos pobladores tuvieron las primeras dificultades al aparecer a la vez otros supuestos dueños de la propiedad que querían desalojarlos del terreno. Este conflicto se arregló mediante un juez quien falló a favor de los nuevos pobladores. Por provenir de San Mateo Ixtatan bautizaron a la aldea con el nombre de Nuevo San Mateo.Figura 1. Mapa de ubicación de la aldea Nuevo San Mateo, Barillas, Huehuetenango Guatemala.Ha sido una aldea con muchos esfuerzos para su desarrollo y con muchos éxitos, producto de ese esfuerzo en tan poco tiempo de formación han logrado consolidarse como una comunidad más de Barillas logrando hasta la fecha las siguientes condiciones: i) carretera de acceso hacia las vías principales las que fueron construidas por los pobladores, ii) sistema de agua potable que beneficia a Nuevo San Mateo y aldeas aledañas, iii) escuela de educación primaria y iv) reconocimiento por las autoridades locales y ONG.El rubro principal que se explota en la aldea es el café que se cultiva a una altura promedio de 1055 msnm en tierras de ladera con pendientes superiores al 40%, sin embargo, el maíz y los frijoles son de mucha importancia para el auto consumo de la población. Los productos de la canasta básica que no producen en la zona son adquiridos en Barillas que es el centro urbano más próximo.Octubre, 2016Como es de recién formación aún no han ocurrido eventos que pongan en peligro a los habitantes de Nuevo San Mateo, sin embargo, es importante construir las infraestructuras para viviendas con algún tipo de planificación.Como se mencionó anteriormente, esta aldea es de recién ubicación en el sitio donde se encuentra, los pobladores provienen de San Mateo Ixtatan y en su mayoría eran pobladores que no tenían condiciones para vivir ni producir en esa localidad. Un grupo de 40 hombres llego hasta este nuevo sitio e iniciaron las negociaciones con el antiguo dueño de estas tierras quien no hacía uso. Posterior al asentamiento falleció el antiguo dueño y surgieron problemas por la legalidad de las tierras adquiridas. El conflicto se resolvió por la vía judicial a favor de los migrantes de San Mateo Ixtatan.Posterior a este conflicto, el resto de familias emigro desde su aldea de origen hacia este nuevo sitio al que bautizaron como Nuevo San Mateo en honor a su aldea de origen y marcando un nuevo comienzo para estas familias. Los primeros meses fueron arduos ya que en la aldea no existían las condiciones idóneas para el establecimiento familiar y tuvieron que soportar inviernos fuertes y fríos en casas improvisadas de plástico y zinc (lamina de metal para techo). De igual forma no habían parcelas para granos básicos ni café, los nuevos pobladores tuvieron que botar parte de la montaña para hacer parcelas de granos básicos y parcelas de café.Durante el año 1991 los pobladores gestionaron el proyecto de agua potable, ese se obtuvo con el apoyo de la unión europea y la municipalidad de Barillas, los pobladores aportaron con mano de obra para el establecimiento del sistema. A la vez con puro esfuerzo de la aldea construyeron la carretera desde Nuevo San Mateo hasta la aldea ojo de agua donde ya existía acceso vial. Para el mismo tiempo también se construyó el templo católico y para el año 2000 se construyó el primer templo evangélico.Los efectos climáticos que han marcado la aldea han tenido efecto directo con la producción de café, el ataque de roya tuvo un impacto alto en la producción, aproximadamente se perdieron 1,200 cuerdas de café en Nuevo San Mateo y las aldeas aledañas acentuando entonces la migración hacia México y otros lugares de Guatemala. Octubre, 2016Figura 2. Línea de tiempo de los principales eventos climáticos y sociales que han ocurrido en Nuevo San Mateo.La tabla 1, nos muestra los principales medios de vida de los habitantes de la aldea Nuevo San Mateo, debido a su recién formación, los pobladores de Nuevo San Mateo aún tienen poco desarrollado sus diferentes medios de vida con los cuales desarrollarse como unidad productiva. En primer lugar, el café representa el principal medio que proporciona divisas para la sostenibilidad de la familia. Según la percepción de las mujeres el segundo lugar lo ocupa el cultivo del cardamomo, cultivo que se ha generalizado en Barillas por su adaptabilidad, fácil manejo y comercialización, los hombres sitúan este cultivo como un medio de vida de cuarta posición.Al igual que en las otras aldeas, los granos básicos son de mucha importancia para la alimentación de la familia y en último puesto se sitúa la venta de mano de obra, la cual muchos pobladores la venden en la aldea de ojo de agua o a los vecinos con mayores posibilidades económicas.Octubre, 2016Tabla 1. Principales medios de vida de los habitantes de Nuevo San Mateo por género y orden de prioridad.Primer Octubre, 2016Los indicadores de bienestar nos dan a entender con mayor detalle los aspectos que las familias consideran son importantes para estar bien, estos tienen mucha relación con el entorno donde las familias se desenvuelven y nos reflejan también los aspectos que más preocupan a las familias de cada comunidad en dependencia del grado de desarrollo y al acceso a los servicios con que cuentan.Tabla 2. Indicadores de Bienestar en las familias de Nuevo San Mateo según la percepción por género.Masculino Alimentación Educación Hogar Salud En la tabla 2 se muestran los principales indicadores de bienestar para las familias de Nuevo San Mateo: en primer lugar, se encuentra la disponibilidad de alimentación, para lograr esto los habitantes afirman que es necesario contar tierras para producir, tener una buena planificación familiar para poder alimentar a toda la familia, y contar con una vivienda que puede albergar a todos los miembros. En segundo lugar, la Educación es de necesidad, la Aldea de Nuevo San Mateo supera las 100 familias por lo que se hace necesario contar con una escuela más grande y con educación secundaria.Otro indicador de bienestar la tenencia de hogar, ellos afirman que para poder lograr tener un hogar se hace necesario contar con una fuente de empleo que proporcione los suficientes ingresos para lograr este beneficio. Y el último indicador se refiere a Salud, las determinantes para alcanzar este indicador en nuevo san mateo es contar con buena salud personal y cuidarse mucho después de las labores cotidianas.En la tabla 3 se especifican la distribución de las actividades de los pobladores de Nuevo San Mateo durante el año. La numeración (1, 2 y 3) se refiere al grado de intensidad de cada una de estas. En este caso las casillas en blanco significan que no hay actividad para ese mes en específico, el número uno significa que hay inicia una labor en específico con poca intensidad y el número tres cuando se dedican completamente a la actividad indicada el cien por ciento del tiempo.Octubre, 2016El café representa el principal cultivo en Nuevo San Mateo, por lo tanto, es normal que se le dedique el mayor tiempo durante el año. Las labores de cosecha inician en el mes de noviembre y culminan en el mes de marzo del año posterior. Durante los meses posterior a la cosecha se dan las labores del cultivo como la limpia, manejo de tejidos y otras.El cultivo de granos básicos tiene mucha importancia en la aldea, y se pueden hacer en dos siembras en los meses de noviembre o diciembre, en junio o julio. Con respecto al cultivo del frijol, este se realiza solamente durante el mes los meses de mayo o junio ya que las condiciones climáticas posteriores no facilitan la cosecha.Con el cultivo del cardamomo, los pobladores de Nuevo San Mateo afirman que las labores de siembra se realizan durante todo el año. El deshije se realiza en su mayoría en el mes de junio, disminuyendo su intensidad en los meses posteriores hasta el mes de septiembre. La cosecha levemente en el mes de octubre, en noviembre es plena cosecha disminuyendo su intensidad hasta finalizar en el mes de marzo del año posterior.Con respecto a las condiciones pluviométricas, en esta aldea llueve la mayor parte del año, habiendo un receso en los meses de marzo, abril y mayo. La época lluviosa y la aparición de enfermedades comunes Octubre, 2016 coincide con los meses cuando más frio hace en Nuevo San Mateo. Por otro lado, la escasez de alimentos, y falta de dinero se dan con mayor intensidad en los meses antes de la cosecha de cardamomo ya que los productores deben de tener recursos para poder costear la mano de obra requerida en el levantamiento de la cosecha. Los meses con mayor migración en Nuevo San Mateo es en abril y diciembre.Los eventos climáticos que más afectan los medios de vida de Nuevo San Mateo son: el frio, lluvias fuertes, los fuertes vientos y la sequía. En el cultivo del café, el frio tiene un impacto alto, este provoca la incidencia de más enfermedades, caída de frutos, marchitez de la planta entre otras. Los hombres afirman que el daño por las lluvias fuertes es similar al frio provocando también la caída de frutos y hojas. En cambio, las sequías y los fuertes vientos es bajo el impacto que causan (tabla 4).Octubre, 2016en el área basal y foliar de la planta. Con respecto al trabajo de jornalero, tanto el frio como las lluvias fuertes tienen un impacto medio, en tanto la sequía tiene un impacto alto ya que escasea la necesidad de contratar mano de obra.En la Aldea de Nuevo San Mateo los productores están organizados en función de la producción de café el cual se produce de manera orgánica y se comercializa a través de ASOBAGRI, esta es una asociación que además beneficia a los productores con proyectos de capacitación, asistencia técnica y protección de cultivos entre otras iniciativas. Al igual que en la región Nuevo San Mateo el ataque de roya tuvo un efecto negativo en la producción reduciendo los promedios de producción en un 55% pasando desde 22.5 qq/ha a 10.13 qq/ha durante el ataque (figura 3).Figura 3. Rendimientos promedios de café pergamino en quintales por hectáreas producido de forma orgánica con y sin roya en Nuevo San Mateo.La tabla 5 describe los diferentes productos que se producen en la aldea de Nuevo San Mateo, es notable que todo lo que se produce en la aldea se consume en la familia, pero también la mayor parte se vende a través de intermediarios. Octubre, 2016En el caso del café se comercializa tanto para a nivel local como a través de ASOBAGRI, el café que se vende localmente fue el que no cumple con las calidades para la exportación entonces se comercializa a través en el caserío. El cultivo de cardamomo se vende en su totalidad en el mercado de Barillas donde existen acopiadores que terminan de secar el grano para su traslado hacia la capital.Con respecto al maíz y frijol, el primer destino es el autoconsumo, algunos excedentes son comercializados o intercambiados por productos que no se producen en la aldea a través de la venta local o en el mercado de Barillas.Existen varios productos que los pobladores de Nuevo San Mateo no ven su valor comercial debido a las pocas oportunidades de comercializarlos, estos son: los cítricos, el tomate de árbol, el güisquil, malanga, la caña. En cambio, hay otros productos como las musáceas y la pimienta que poco a poco van ganando valor comercial en los mercados locales, sin embargo, hay mucho desconocimiento sobre el cultivo y las formas de comercializarlo. Con respecto a la producción de patio, esta es para el autoconsumo y para la venta local hablando específicamente de gallinas y cerdos.Octubre, 2016La tabla 6, nos muestra los actores internos y externos que inciden en la aldea de Nuevo San Mateo, en este sentido a nivel interno los pobladores están reunidos en función del desarrollo de la aldea, emergencias que surgen productor de fenómenos climáticos, así como temas religiosos y de producción de café, por otro lado, la presencia de instituciones es escaza y se resumen en la municipalidad, el ministerio de salud, el apoyo de ASOBAGRI y PCI.Tabla 6. Principales instituciones y organizaciones presentes en Nuevo San Mateo. Como se puede observar en la tabla 7 las medidas de adaptación ante la variabilidad climática en paisajes cafetaleros de Nuevo San Mateo afirman que son viables están orientadas hacia la aplicación de prácticas agroecológicas y de respuesta ante el ataque de roya.En años anteriores se cultivaba café solamente para el autoconsumo, desde que tiene un valor comercial más alto se busca mayor producción por área lo que implica en el uso de técnicas y prácticas para potencializar los rendimientos. En este sentido el uso de barreras vivas, terrazas y curvas a nivel constituyen la práctica más común que en Nuevo San Mateo utilizan y se encuentra dentro de la normativa de producción orgánica, esto les permite comercializar su café con otro valor agregado, razón bajo la cual obtienen mayor precio por unidad vendida. Otra práctica que se ha visto generalizada es la fertilización en función del grado de intensidad de explotación de cultivo de café por área, en su condición de orgánicos necesitan el reciclaje de materias verdes y secas provenientes de la misma finca evitando al máximo el uso de fertilizantes químicos y de plaguicidas.También se realizan limpias frecuentes con el fin de evitar malezas que compitan con el cultivo por nutrientes luz y espacio y asociado a esto se realizan también el manejo de la sombra en la cual losOctubre, 2016productores optan por tener en su sistema arboles con frutales y maderables. Otra práctica que se realiza es el manejo de tejidos donde se eligen bandolas enfermas o se realiza el despunte del cogollo.Y producto del ataque de roya los productores se vieron forzados a la búsqueda de nuevos materiales con tolerancia a la roya entre las variedades que están estableciendo se encuentran catimores mundo novo y sarchimor. Los eventos sociales que han marcado la comunidad de Nuevo San Mateo fue su recién formación que data de los años ochenta, conflictos por la propiedad conllevaron a un litigio el cual fue a favor de los nuevosOctubre, 2016 pobladores. Con respecto a eventos climáticos extremos no se reporta ninguno desde que se asentaron en el lugar.Con respecto a los medios de vida en la comunidad, el café es el rubro principal tanto para hombres y mujeres, otros rubros de explotación son el cardamomo las musáceas y la pimienta, sin embargo, en algunos casos se desconoce el ciclo del cultivo y otros medios de comercialización. Existe también en la aldea la venta de mano de obra como jornales y la migración hacia el interior del país como a México y estados unidosLas actividades cotidianas y productivas de Nuevo San Mateo giran en función de la producción de café, en este sentido las actividades de mantenimiento se desarrollan durante los meses de marzo a octubre, iniciando en este mes la cosecha que se extiende hasta el mes de marzo. Estos meses es cuando existen más ingresos y por lo tanto mayor disponibilidad de alimentos. El maíz se siembra en mayo o junio y su cosecha es en septiembre, el frijol se siembra en diciembre y su cosecha es en marzo, se reportan también actividades en el rubro de cardamomo durante todo el año cosechando en el mes de octubre.Los indicadores de bienestar en Nuevo San Mateo están ligados a la falta de servicios sociales en la aldea, estos son: acceso a alimentación, acceso a la educación, hogar y acceso a salud. Algunas determinantes que ellos exponen para llegar al bienestar son planificación familiar, acceso a tierras para lograr obtener ingresos y buenas cosechas.Con respecto a la calificación de riesgo, no se han reportado eventos que pongan en peligro vidas humanas, sin embargo, el frio, las lluvias fuertes, el viento y la sequía son los fenómenos que afectan los medios de vida de Nuevo San MateoLas prácticas agroecológicas que con más frecuencia se practican están orientadas a la reducción de la incidencia de roya estas son a corto plazo como es la regulación de sombra, a largo plazo el cambio de variedades de café es común en la comunidad. Es notorio una modernización en los sistemas de siembra con orientación a la agricultura orgánica, los productores realizan, además control de malezas, fertilización orgánica, manejo de sombra y tejidos.Con respecto a la productividad del café orgánico la roya causo una merma del 55% de la producción, pasando de 22.50 a 10.3 qq/ha de café oro promedio.El sistema alimentario de Nuevo San Mateo está compuesto de la producción de café, cardamomo, granos básicos, frutales y hortalizas a nivel de patio. Rubros como las musáceas, pimienta han emergido como potenciales generadores de divisas al aumentarse la comercialización de estos. Las aves de patio y cerdos se usan para autoconsumo y venta local.Es muy deficiente el apoyo externo que la aldea percibe para el apoyo de su desarrollo local, estos se ven limitados al ministerio de educación, ministerio de salud y apoyo a la producción de caféOctubre, 2016Las siguientes recomendaciones están basadas en el análisis de vulnerabilidad realizado en la Aldea Nuevo San Mateo y corresponden a la opinión del equipo técnico que realizo el estudio:En vista de su recién formación, la aldea de Nuevo San Mateo necesita un acompañamiento con el fin de fortalecer y diversificar los medios de vida y contar con más fuentes de ingresos que complementen o sustituyan las divisas generadas de la producción de café y cardamomo, sobre todo en tiempos de baja de precios o de ataque de plagas. Existen otros cultivos que han expresado muy bien su desarrollo como la pimienta y las musáceas.Se debe de involucrar a los jóvenes en las gestiones en las municipalidades y otros organismos para la captación de proyectos y programas conducentes al desarrollo comunitario de Nuevo San Mateo, acompañados también de programas especiales de educación que fortalezcan las capacidades sin perder los aspectos culturales nativos de las aldeas, tomando a la vez aspectos de género que incluyan a las mujeres productoras de la aldea.En vista del tamaño de la población de Nuevo San Mateo y de la falta de algunos servicios básicos y vías de acceso principales, de deben impulsar acciones colaborativas con los habitantes para gestionar los servicios básicos que no están disponibles para todos los pobladores, estos aspectos son: un centro de salud permanente, educación secundaria, alumbrado domiciliar y público, así como mayor apoyo y capacitación a los juntas directivas de las caminos rurales que conducen a Nuevo San Mateo para que presten un mejor servicio así como mejores condiciones a la carretera.Es necesario un programa integral de asistencia técnica al rubro café, en el que incluyan, nutrición de plantas, manejo de sombras, manejo de tejidos y uso de variedades de buena taza con el fin de elevar los promedios productivos de las familias de Nuevo San Mateo y que estos continúen con la calidad de café que han exportado hasta la fecha.Se propone documentar o sistematizar las buenas experiencias en la aldea de Nuevo San Mateo en la resolución de conflictos y de gestión comunitaria, en este sentido están: i) creación de una nueva aldea a partir de la necesidad de tierras, ii) organización y gestión para defender el derecho de la propiedad, iii) construcción del sistema de agua potable y de la vía de acceso con esfuerzo comentario.","tokenCount":"4435"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e514d535be9a08c0e2eb521829b525bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0bf165f1-8baf-428f-baf1-32a872345d4a/retrieve","id":"-787389737"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"89cf4ae7-9aec-4e22-9601-1633a5d883b5","pagecount":"2","content":"Total productivity of the small-scale mixed farming systems in northern Ghana is low due to weak integration of the crop and livestock enterprises. Farmers tether sheep and goats on fallow land to recycle manure and urine for crops, but data on the effect of sheep and goat stocking density (SSD) on grain yield and soil properties in such systems is limited. The effect of SSD, maize planting density (MPD) and nitrogen (N) fertilizer level on grain yield was evaluated.A split-split plot design with 9 replications in 3 communities (Gia, Nyangua and Samboligo) was used. Main-plots were SSD (0, 400 and 200 head ha -1 ) on farmland overnight, subplots MPD (6.93, 10.40 and 138.67 plants ha -1 ) and sub subplots were N fertilizer rate (0, 60, 90kg ha -1 N). Grain and stover yield were measured. Agronomic efficiency (AE) and Partial Factor Productivity (PFP) indices were estimated according to Dobermann (2007) as:where F = amount of fertilizer applied in kg ha -1 ; crop yield with applied nutrient and Y 0 = crop yield with no applied nutrient.Grain yield was affected by SSD and N fertilizer rate (Table 1). Grain and stover yields were affected by MPD (Figure 1) and N fertilizer rate (Table 2).SSD of 400 with 60kg ha -1 N resulted in highest grain yield and best N use efficiency. Crop-livestock farmers can stock at SSD 400 with MPD of 10.40 x 10 3 plants for improved grain and stover yield.  Prepared by: Abdul Nurudeen (a.nurudeen@cgiar.org), Asamoah Larbi (a.larbi@cgiar.org) and Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon (i.hoeschlezeledon@cgiar.org) africa-rising.netThis document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence ","tokenCount":"271"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e56ca796b331dcd1f8cf4070725d0ee1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ecdaf595-850b-434e-8914-44fb62efc048/retrieve","id":"-866778382"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e48ac448-1128-4b94-80c3-0bfee5b828b7","pagecount":"2","content":"• I1143 -Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) in Tanzania and Kenya (https://tinyurl.com/2fh6vej8)• Dissemination of manuals/ tools for rangeland and land use planning processes in Tunisia, Kenya and Tanzania to community leaders, local government officials and national line ministry staff by the end of 2018.• 4.5.2 National government agencies in three priority countries use flagship outputs to improve land governance arrangements, thereby helping to reduce land degradation.• 25 -More productive and equitable management of natural resources • 13 -Increased access to productive assets, including natural resources • 29 -Enhanced adaptive capacity to climate risks (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:49 (GMT+0)","tokenCount":"105"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f45581b4881e39036af965212863b941","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85cc0560-9396-4546-9114-a21bd8fbf1e0/retrieve","id":"-888926902"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c5608400-16c7-457f-a55a-bfdc2aaff8b0","pagecount":"86","content":"Biophysical and socioeconomic processes understood, principles and concepts developed for protecting and improving the health and fertility of soils Rationale Sustainable agriculture is viewed from a systems perspective in which the agroecosystem interacts with the atmospheric system and the hydrological cycle as well as with the social and economic systems of the community where it is practiced. This conceptual model trascends the classical boundaries of the biophysical sciences and requires integration with economics, sociology, anthropology and political science.However, the rural poor are often trapped in a vicious poverty cycle with land degradation, fuelled by the lack of relevant knowledge or appropriate technologies to generate adequate income and opportunities to overcome land degradation.Improving soil fertility is essential for intensification and diversification of cropping systems and the recuperation of degraded lands. Farmers in the tropics, particularly in Africa and few countries in Central America rely mainly on organic inputs to maintain or improve soil fertility, with small or no additions of inorganic fertilizers. Within the ISFM framework, it is now recognized that both organic and mineral inputs are necessary to enhance crop yields without deteriorating the soil resource base. This recognition has a practical dimension because either of the two inputs are hardly ever available in sufficient quantities to the small scale farmer, but it also has an important resource management dimension as there is potential for added benefits created by positive interactions between both inputs when applied in combination. Such interactions can lead to improved use efficiency of the nutrients applied in organic or mineral form or both. Assessing the combination of the two in terms of resource quality, nutrient input, C, N and P dynamics and water use efficiency help to identify technology options for increasing farm productivity and system resilience. There is increasing need, however, to address the issue of scaledependence of different soil processes ranging from processes at the plant's rhizosphere, to nutrient gradients within farms or greenhouse gas emissions at the landscape scale and confront these processes with the socio-economical dimensions of rural and urban communities.The processes of land conversion and agricultural intensification are a significant cause of biodiversity loss, including that of below ground biodiversity (BGBD), with consequent negative effects both on the environment, ecosystem services and the sustainability of agricultural production. Documentation of BGBD, including the biological populations conserved and managed across the spectrum of agricultural intensification, is an essential component of the information required for assessment of environmentagriculture interactions, as is the evaluation of the impact of agricultural management on the resource base, particularly that of the soil. Soil organisms contribute a wide range of essential services to the sustainable function of agroecosystems among which the biological control of pests and diseases ranks high. The combination of soil fertility and pest and disease management approaches is likely a unique opportunity to exploit synergies for the benefit of crop productivity.Improving the natural resource base without addressing issues of marketing and income generation is often the reason for the lack of adoption of improved farming practices. Participatory approaches have shown considerable potential in facilitating farmer consensus about which soil related constraints should be tackled first. Consensus building is an important step prior to upscaling and collective action by farming communities in integrated soil management at the landscape scale. Integration of local and scientific knowledge to develop an integrated or \"hybrid\" knowledge and thus increased relevance is an overall strategy for sustainable soil management.Showed that the plant measurements used to assess forage quality in animal nutrition studies can be used to predict aerobic decomposition of tropical legumes on the soil and confirmed the potential usefulness of IVDMD (in vitro dry matter digestibility) for screening tropical legumes for soil fertility management. High Mg 2+ saturation caused marked negative effects in some soil physical properties of Vertisols such as: soil structure, rate of infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity and sorptivity. These changes have to be taken into account for developing improved soil management strategies. Showed that during the drying process, \"magnesium soils\" tend to reduce their volume, therefore causing negative changes in specific soil volume and normal and residual shrinkage. There was a reduction of soil volume equivalent to 28% when the soil dries from field capacity to wilting point. A description of Martiodrilus species with its main biological, ecological and functional attributes was made in native savanna and introduced pastures in Carimagua. Introduced pastures were a favorable media for this species. The impacts of the conversion of native ecosystems into extensive or intensive pastures on soil fauna were assessed. Extensive cattle ranching led to slight enhancement of earthworm populations, while fire induced a decrease in macrofaunal density. Found that there is genetic variability among accessions of Brachiaria humidicola regarding the nitrification inhibition (NI) activity of root exudates. The accession CIAT 16888 was identified as having superior NI activity compared with the commercial cultivar CIAT 679 used in most studies so far. Found that additions of charcoal to low fertility, acid Oxisols increases soil pH, cation exchange capacity and availability of various soil nutrients and result in a net increase in nitrogen fixation by common beans, measured by 15 N isotope dilution technique. the soils studied. It ranged from 23 to 55 mg kg -1 in the topsoil. In general, the labile P levels were higher in soils of the DS than of the NGS and were related to the oxalate-extracTable Fe (Fe ox ), and Al (Al ox ) as well as soil texture. The subsoil of Kasuwan Magani (profile KS 9-21 cm) required 153 mg P kg -1 to maintain 0.2 mg P l -1 in solution (standard P requirement), and Danayamaka (profile DD 7-32 cm) required 145 mg P kg -1 . These could translate to 214 and 200 kg P ha -1 if a plough layer of 10 cm is assumed. Because these are within the plough layer, more P fertilizer would be needed for crop production than in the other soils. The standard P requirement and the adsorption maxima were related to Fe ox and Al ox , dithionite-Fe (Fe d ), and texture. The increase in labile P content with decreasing Fe ox and Al ox could imply that management practices capable of reducing the activities of Fe and Al in solution might improve P availability.Modeling nitrogen mineralization from organic sources: representing quality aspects by varying C:N ratios of sub-pools M.E. Probert, R.J. Delve, S.K. Kimani and J.P. Dimes Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2005The mineralization/immobilization of nitrogen when organic sources are added to soil is represented in many simulation models as the outcome of decomposition of the added material and synthesis of soil organic matter. These models are able to capture the pattern of N release that is attribuTable to the N concentration of plant materials, or more generally the C:N ratio of the organic input. However the models are unable to simulate the more complex pattern of N release that has been reported for some animal manures, notably materials that exhibit initial immobilization of N even when the C:N of the material suggests it should mineralize N. The APSIM SoilN module was modified so that the three pools that constitute added organic matter could be specified in terms of both the fraction of carbon in each pool and also their C:N ratios (previously it has been assumed that all pools have the same C:N ratio). It is shown that the revised model is better able to simulate the general patterns on N mineralized that has been reported for various organic sources. By associating the model parameters with measured properties (the pool that decomposes most rapidly equates with water-soluble C and N; the pool that decomposes slowest equates with lignin-C) the model performed better than the unmodified model in simulating the N mineralization from a range of feeds and faecal materials measured in an incubation experiment.A.O Esilaba, J.B. Byalebeka, R.J. Delve, J.R. Okalebo, D. Ssenyange, M. Mbalule, and H. Ssali. Agricultural Systems, 2005. In press This paper reports on a Participatory Learning and Action Research (PLAR) process that was initiated in three villages in Eastern Uganda in September 1999 to enable small-scale farmers to profitably reverse nutrient depletion of their soils by increasing their capacity to develop, adapt and use integrated natural resource management strategies. The PLAR process was also used to improve the participatory skills and tools of research and extension personnel to support this process. The farming systems of the area were characterized for socio-economic and biophysical conditions that included social organizations, wealth categories, gender, crop, soil, agroforestry and livestock production. Farmers identified soil fertility constraints, indicators and causes of soil fertility decline and suggested strategies to address the problem of soil fertility decline. Soil fertility management diversity among households indicated that most farmers were not carrying out any improved soil fertility management practices, despite previous research and dissemination in the area. Following the diagnosis stage and exposure visits to other farmer groups working on integrated soil fertility projects, the farmer's designed eleven experiments for on-farm testing. One hundred and twenty farmers then chose, for participatory technology development, sub-sets of these eleven experiments, based on the main agricultural constraints and potential solutions identified and prioritized by the farmers. Quantitative and qualitative results from the testing, farmer evaluation and adaptation, training, dissemination strategies and socio-economic implications of these technologies are discussed.The APSIM Manure Module: Improvements in Predictability and Application to Laboratory Studies Probert, M.E., Delve, R.J., Kimani, S.K. and Dimes, J.P. In: Delve, R.J. and Probert, M.E., ed., 2004. Modeling nutrient management in tropical cropping systems. ACIAR Proceedings No. 114,136p. Existing models are able to capture the pattern of N release from plant materials based on their C/N ratios. However, these models are unable to simulate the more complex pattern of N release reported for some animal manures, especially for manures that exhibit initial immobilization of N even when the C/N ratio of the material suggests it should mineralize N. This paper reports on progress towards developing a capability within the APSIM SoilN module to simulate nitrogen release from these manures. The SoilN module was modified so that the three pools that constitute added organic matter can be specified in terms of both the fraction of carbon in each pool and also their C/N ratios. The previous assumption that all pools have the same C/N ratio fails to adequately represent the observed behavior for release of N from some organic inputs. By associating the model parameters with measured properties (the pool that decomposes most rapidly equates with water-soluble C and N; the pool that decomposes slowest equates with lignin-C) the model performed better than the unmodified model in simulating the N mineralization from a range of livestock feeds and manure samples.Testing the APSIM Model with Data from a Phosphorus and Nitrogen Replenishment Experiment on an Oxisol in Western Kenya J. Kinyangi, R.J. Delve and M.E. Probert In: Delve, R.J. and Probert, M.E., ed., 2004. Modeling nutrient management in tropical cropping systems. ACIAR Proceedings No. 114, 136p. An experiment was conducted on an Oxisol near Maseno in western Kenya, to compare the growth of maize crops to inputs of two phosphorus sources. Commercial triple superphosphate (TSP) and Minjingu phosphate rock were applied either at a once-only rate of 250 kg P ha -1 or as five annual inputs of 50 kg P ha -1 . The experiment was carried out over 10 cropping seasons between 1996 and 2000. An additional factor studied was the source of N, either as urea or Tithonia biomass-N to supply 60 kg N ha -1 . Both N and P sources were applied only to the crops grown in the long rain season. The APSIM model has been tested against this data set. The effects of P treatments were large in the long rain season, but in the short rain season the inadequate supply of N greatly reduced growth and P effects. The yields of the maize crops were predicted well (r 2 = 0.88) with respect to both the P treatments (as TSP) and the N inputs (as urea). The predicted water, N and P stresses were informative in understanding the contrasting pattern of response observed in the two seasons. The simulation of this long-term experiment shows that the APSIM SoilP module is robust, in as much as it extends the testing of the model to a very different environment where there were both N and P stresses affecting plant growth, and on a very different soil type to where the concepts in the APSIM phosphorus routines were originally developed and tested.Evaluation of a farm-level decision support tool for trade-off and scenario analysis for addressing food security, income generation and natural resource management Robert J. Delve, Ernesto Gonzalez-Estrada, John Dimes, Tilahun Amede and Juma Wickama.Resource-poor farmers face difficult decisions over the use of scarce nutrient sources in crop-livestock production systems. A better understanding of the comparative values and trade-offs in the use of land, labor, manures and other locally available resources is required in order to increase the production and efficiency of mixed crop-livestock systems. While efforts are required to expand our knowledge of the biophysical aspects of alternative uses of organic nutrient sources, similar efforts are also required on the socio-economic driving forces behind farmers' decision making. The approach uses trade-off analysis, partial budgeting and multiple goal linear programming to identify management options to address farmers production criteria and overcome their constraints. This evaluation includes both the short and longer-term economic and environmental benefits. From the social and economic viewpoint, organic resources can be identified that could substitute for mineral fertilizers in areas where fertilizers are not affordable. From an environmental aspect, management practices could be identified that results in fewer nutrient losses and could rebuild or maintain the soil resource base. A multi-stakeholder coalition has been working in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Uganda and has successfully developed a decision support tool (DST) to explore these different trade-offs and scenarios based on smallholder farmers existing practices and opportunities. This paper uses case studies from AHI benchmark sites in Lushoto, Tanzania and Areka, Ethiopia to discuss the potential of the DST for improving farmers and development partners decision making to achieve food security, increase farm income, increase returns to land and labor and maintaining sustainable production. Examples to be presented will investigate scenarios and trade-offs for three different wealth categories per site and for different areas of the farm with varying soil fertility levels, for example:Land allocation -which crops to which land Efficiency of fertilizer use -when to apply, where to apply it in the rotation, how much Labor constraints -when to weed, when to apply manures Investment options: capital allocation-livestock versus crop enterprises, labor allocation-farm and non-farm Appropriate use of crop residues in mixed systems Integration of legumes into the systemThe distribution of phosphorous fractions and sorption characteristics of benchmark soils in the moist savanna zone of West Africa O.C. Nwoke, B. Vanlauwe, J. Diels, N. Sanginga and O. Osunubi Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosytems, 2004, In Press The fractionation of soil P into various organic and inorganic pools with differing levels of bioavailability coupled with the knowledge of the P adsorption and desorption characteristics of the soils provide insights into management strategies that might enhance availability to crops. Sequential soil P fractionation (using the modified Hedley scheme) was conducted on 11 soil profiles selected from the benchmark areas of the West-African moist savanna zone. Also P fractions were determined on soil samples taken from experimental fields under different management practices in the study area. Phosphorus adsorption and desorption studies were conducted on samples from the surface horizon of the soil profiles. The total P content varied within and among the soil profiles and tended to decrease with increasing depth in most cases. It varied from 53 to 198 mg kg -1 in the topsoil and about 30% existed in the organic form. The resin P fraction of the topsoil ranged between 1 and 14 mg kg -1 decreasing with depth within the soil profile. The low resin P levels indicate low availability. Addition of organic matter (OM) and soluble phosphate fertilizer (PF) increased the inorganic P (Pi) fractions extracTable with resin, HCO 3 and NaOH by about 400% in the northern Guinea savanna (NGS) fields but had no significant effect on the organic P (Po) pools and the more sTable Pi forms. Organic matter and PF alone or in combination (OM+PF) did not influence the Pi fractions differently in Glidji. The P sorption capacities were low with the adsorption maximum deduced from the Langmuir equation ranging from 36 to 230 mg kg -1 . The amount of P sorbed to maintain 0.2 mg l -1 in solution ranged between 0.6 and 16 mg kg -1 . Phosphorus desorption with anion exchange resin differed among the soils with the recovery of added P ranging from 17 to 66% after 96 h. On the average, more of the applied P was recovered in the DS soils than in the NGS soils. Because of the relatively low sorption capacity and the relatively high percentage recovery, small additions of P to most of the DS soils tested might be adequate for crop growth.Bocary Kaya 1 , Amadou Niang 2 , Ramadjita Tabo 3 , André Bationo The human population growth rate in the Sahel (nearly 3% per annum) is among the highest in the world creating a high land use pressure with the disappearance of the traditional fallow system. This has accelerated the degradation of the natural resources base by a poverty-stricken population forced to overexploit soils, rangelands and forests in order to subsist. The consumption of mineral fertilizers in SSA increased slowly by 0.6% during the last 10 years, compared to 4.4% in the rest of the other developing regions. The total annual nutrient depletion in SSA is equivalent to 7.9 Mg yr-1 of N, P, and K, six times the amount of annual fertilizer consumption in the region. In the particular case of the southern Mali region, N-K-Mg budgets in 1992 were estimated to be -25, -20, and -5 kg per hectare per year indicating that as much as 40% to 60% of the income generated by farming in this region were based on \"soil mining\". It is in the light of these constraints that the Malian agricultural research institute (Institut d 'Economie Rurale, IER), the Sahel Program of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) joined efforts to undertake research activities aimed at sustainably improving soil fertility and agricultural crop yields in the Mali. Thus, from the year 2000 14 different trees and shrubs are being tested in improved fallow systems to find which ones perform best to replenish soils and improve crop yields. The results have i) identified most suited species for 1 or 2 yr improved fallows, ii) determined their impact on sorghum grain yields and iii) documented the remnant effects of their impact on soil fertility and crop yields. Some species could not survive more than 1 year the Samanko conditions. In 2002, the first year of cultivation, it was the Kenyan provenances of Sesbania sesban which performed best with sorghum yields over 2 t ha -1 . A year later, 2003, there has been a general decrease in crop yield. Again, the Kenyan provenances of S. seban, with yields 40% lower than the first year of cultivation, were the worst affected by this decrease. No significant changes were observed in the traditionally tested chemical soil parameters.Characterisation of soil degradation under intensive rice production in Office du Niger zone of Mali M. Bagayoko, M.K. N'Diaye; M. Dicko and B. Tangara Food security is a major priority of the most Sahelian governments. With the cyclic droughts, irrigation is believed to achieve that objective. Unfortunately, present observations show that soils of irrigated areas in Sub Sahara African countries have changed unfavourably. In the Office du Niger zones, producers and extension workers are concerned with soil degradation symptoms such as salinisation / alkalinisation or sodisation. For some people, this needs more attention while other think that the phenomenon is localised and therefore not very important. In the context of intensive crop production, from 1995 to 1999, \"the Pole regional de recherche sur les Systèmes Irrigués (PSI)\" which was a regional networking project was aimed to determine the nature, and the importance and dynamic of the processes in general and their effect on the evolution of soil fertility in particular. Analysis of the functioning of water Table has been made at different scales in the irrigated zones to explain the operation of the hydraulic system of the soil and estimated the in and out flow of water. More over, the study addressed the terms of hydro-saline balance. A piezometric network installed in the area revealed the impact of cropping systems and soil types on the evolution of water Table in terms of dynamics and quality. The results clearly show evidence of soil geochemical changes and water management of the irrigated areas. The present paper highlight the research conducted to combat soil degradation in the irrigated rice system in the Office du Niger in Mali from 1995 to the present days.Mineral fertilisers, organic amendments and crop rotation managements for soil fertility maintenance in the Guinean zone of Burkina Faso (West Africa) B. V. Bado 1 , A. Bationo 2 , Lompo, F 3 ; M. P. Cescas 4 and M. P Sedogo Low nutrient contents in particular N and P deficiencies, low organic carbon content are the main characteristics of dominated Alfisols of the Guinean zone of Burkina Faso (West Africa). Long-term cultivation without or with low quantities of mineral fertilisers due to weak incomes of small holder farmers leads to soil fertility declining over years. Management options using mineral fertilisers, organic amendments, crop rotations with fallow and N2-fixing legume crops are discussed using results of agronomic experiments. Optimum crop yields are usually abstained by combination of mineral and organic fertilisers. Positive interactions between mineral and organic N have been pointed out, indicated that management options using both mineral and organic fertiliser could increase crop yields and allowing a sustainable management of soil fertility. Crop rotation with one year fallow could be an usable management option for soil fertility maintenance. Soil of annual fallow prevents soil organic carbon declining. But highest crop yields are usually achieved when legume crops such as groundnut or cowpea were used in rotation systems. Legume crops increase soil mineral nitrogen and N fertiliser use efficiency and both sorghum and cotton produced highest in Cotton-Sorghum-Groundnut rotation. Then, sustainable management of soil fertility can be achieved by integrated management of mineral and organic fertilisers in combination with crop rotations. N2-fixing legume crops (cowpea and groundnut) could be efficiently used to increase soil fertility and system productivities. Cotton-Sorghum-Groundnut rotation is one of the most efficient rotations for crop productivities increasing and soil fertility maintenance using mineral fertilisers at recommended doses for each crop. For a better productivity of the system, cattle manure need to be applied at 3 tonnes per hectare on sorghum and cotton. Soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamic is a key element in savannah soil fertility and much depends on farming systems. In the western part of Burkina Faso, the land use is greatly linked to the cotton-based cropping systems. These practices induced modifications of the traditional shifting cultivation and upgraded the issue of soil fertility management. In order to more understand its depletion process in this area, SOC dynamic was assessed based on a large typology of land cultivation intensity at Bondoukui (11 ° 51' N, 3° 46' W, altitude 360 m). Thus, 114 plots were sampled on soil 0 -15 cm depth, considering the field-fallow successions (shifting cultivation, cyclic cultivation, continuous cropping), the age of each cultural phase, the tillage intensity (occasional ploughing, biennial ploughing, annual ploughing), and the soil texture (sandy and silty-clayey soils). Soil organic carbon physical fractionation was done according to the following particles size classes: > 200 µm; 50-200 µm, 20-50 µm and < 20 µm. The results exhibited an increase of SOC content, and a lower depletion rate with the clay content. After a long-term fallow, the land cultivation led to an annual loss of 2 % (315 kg ha -1 ) of its organic carbon during the first twenty years. The different fractions of SOC content are affected by this depletion according to the cultivation intensity. The coarse SOC fraction (> 200 µm) was the most depleted. The organic matter (manure, crop residues) ploughing-in in low frequency of tillage system lowered soil carbon loss compared to annual ploughing. Nowadays, human-induced disturbances (wildfire, overgrazing, fuel wood collection, fallow duration decreasing, crop duration increasing) in savanna land unable fallow to reach the SOC level of previous equilibrated shifting cultivation system. Decline in crop yields is a major problem facing smallholder farming in Kenya and the entire Sub-Saharan region. This is attributed mainly to the mining of major nutrients due to continuous cropping without addition of adequate external nutrients. In most cases, inorganic fertilizers are expensive hence unaffordable to most smallholder farmers. Although organic nutrient sources are available, information about their potential use is scanty. A field experiment was set up in the sub-humid highlands of Kenya to establish the chemical fertilizer equivalency values of different organic materials based on their quality. The experiment consisted of maize plots to which freshly collected leaves of Tithonia diversifolia (tithonia), Senna spectabilis (senna) and Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra) (all with % N >3) obtained from hedgerows grown ex situ (biomass transfer) and urea (inorganic nitrogen source) were applied.Results obtained for the cumulative above ground biomass yield for three seasons indicated that a combination of both organic and inorganic nutrient source gave higher maize biomass yield than when each was applied separately. Above ground biomass yield production in maize (t ha-1) from organic and inorganic fertilization was in the order of senna+urea (31.2), tithonia+urea (29.4), calliandra+urea (29.3), tithonia (28.6), senna (27.9), urea (27.4), calliandra (25.9), and control (22.5) for three cumulative seasons. On average, the three organic materials (calliandra, senna and tithonia) gave fertilizer equivalency values for the nitrogen contained in them of 50%, 87% and 118% respectively. It is therefore recommended that tithonia biomass can be used in place of mineral fertilizer as a source of nitrogen. The high equivalency values can be attributed to the synergetic effects of nutrient supply, and improved moisture and soil physical conditions of the mulch. However, for sustainable agricultural production, combination with mineral fertilizer could be the best option.Resource flows and nutrient balances in smallholder farming systems in Mayuge district, eastern Uganda A.O. Esilaba, P. Nyende, G. Nalukenge, J.B. Byalebeka, R.J. Delve and H. Ssali.Resource flows and farm nutrient balance studies were carried out in eastern Uganda to ascertain the movement of organic resources and nutrients in and out of the farm system. Resource flow mapping was conducted during a participatory learning and action research (PLAR) process. The resource flows were transformed into nutrient flows and partial nutrient balances were calculated for the crop production, animal production, household and out of farm systems using the Resource Kit computer package. Results of a farmers' soil fertility management classification at the start of the PLAR intervention in 1999 revealed that 3% of the farmers were good soil fertility managers, 10 % were average soil fertility managers (class II) and 87% were poor soil fertility managers (class III). There was a strong relationship between wealth ranking according to the farmers' own criteria and soil fertility management classification. Soil chemical and physical properties of the soils in the three soil fertility management classes did not differ significantly despite the differences perceived by the farmers. The study revealed that very low quantities of resources and nutrients enter the farm system, but substantial amounts leave the farm in crop harvests. The main source of nutrients on the farm is the crop production system and the major destination is the household system. The livestock component contributed little to the flow of nutrients in the farm system due to the low levels of livestock ownership. The results indicate that the net farm nutrient balances kg ha -1 per season for all the nutrients (N, P, and K) were negative for both the good and the poor soil fertility managers. Class 1 farm balances irrespective of the season, were however more negative than those of class 3 farms. For the long rains seasons (LR 2000(LR ,2001(LR and 2002)), the average net farm nutrient balances for N, P, and K for class I farms were -5.0, -0.6 and -8.0 kg ha -1 year -1 , while for the short rains seasons (SR 2000 and2001), the nutrient balances were -3.5, -0.5 and -6.0 kg ha -1 year -1 respectively. For the class III farms, the average net farm nutrient balances for N, P, and K in the long rain seasons (LR 2000(LR ,2001(LR and 2002) ) were -3.3, -0.3 and -4.0 kg ha -1 year -1 while for the short rains seasons (SR 2000 and2001), the nutrient balances were -3.5, 0.5 and -5.0 kg ha -1 year -1 respectively. The partial nutrient balances for the various subsystems in the short rains for class 1 farmers were lower than those of the long rains season. Significant nutrient loss occurred in the crop production system as almost no nutrients return to the system. Potassium export from the farm was severe especially for farmers who sell a lot of banana. Soil management interventions for these small-scale farmers should aim at reversing nutrient depletion with a focus on profiTable management of the crop production system, which is the major cause of nutrient depletion. Strategic management of nutrients that enter the household system such as through home gardening and composting near the household would greatly increase the return of nutrients to the crop production system.Mineral nitrogen contribution of Crotalaria grahamiana and Mucuna pruriens short-term fallows in eastern Uganda J.B. Tumuhairwe, B. Jama, R.J. Delve , M.C. Rwakaikara-Silver.Nitrogen (N) is one of the major limiting nutrients to crop production in Uganda and is depleted at faster rates that replaced. Consequently, yields at farm level are less than 30% of the expected potential. Paradoxically, the majority subsistence farmers are poor to afford use of mineral fertilizers but improved fallow have been reported economically feasible in such conditions. Therefore, a study was initiated in Tororo district, eastern Uganda (i) to determine mineral N contribution of C. grahamiana and M. pruriens short-duration fallows compared with farmers' practices of natural fallow, compost manuring and continuous cropping, (ii) sampling period that closely related to maize grain yield was also determined and also (iii) whether improved fallow provided adequate mineral N for optimum grain yield compared to farmers' practices. It was noted that improved fallows increased mineral N at Dina's site during fallowing (at 0 week sampling), and in the first and fifth week after incorporating their biomass than farmers' practices. For instance, at harvesting fallows (0 week sampling), C. grahamiana and M. pruriens had 12.68 and 12.97 mg Kg -1 N compared to 6.79 and 7.79 mg kg -1 N from following natural fallow and continuous cropping respectively. However, no significant increase was realized at Geoffrey's site at any of the sampling dates attributed to low biomass yield and incorporated. C. grahamiana increased grain yield by 29.3% (Dina's site) and 56.6% (Geoffrey's site) and M. pruriens by 36.0% (Dina's site) and 27.2% (Geoffrey's site) compared to natural fallow with -11.9% (Dina's site) and 17.4% (Geoffrey's site) then compost manure -9.6% (Dina's site and 0% (Geoffrey's site) in relation to continuous cropping as a bench mark. Supplementing the land use systems LUS (C. grahamiana, M. pruriens, natural fallows, compost manure and continuous cropping) with inorganic N fertilizer as urea significantly increased grain yield in all except C. grahamiana at both sites. There were two peaks on mineral N. The first and major peak occurred in the third week dominated by NO 3 --N and the minor one in the tenth week with NH 4 + -N prominent consistent at both sites. Mineral N in the fifth week after incorporating biomass was most closely related to grain yield followed by sampling at planting (0 week).Mucuna pruriens and Canavalia ensiformis legume cover crops: Sole crop productivity, nutrient balance, farmer evaluation and management implications R.J. Delve and B. Jama Afrcian Crop Science Journal, in review The high costs of inorganic fertilizers in Uganda limits their use by resource-poor smallholder farmers. There is also little practical knowledge existing in Uganda about the management of herbaceous legume cover crops that often are promoted as low-cost alternatives. Therefore, the effects of a one season sole-crop fallow of Mucuna pruriens and Canavalia ensiformis legume cover crop on a following maize crop and topsoil N, P and K balances were assessed for 2 seasons in two locations, Osukuru (0 o 39 / N, 34 o 11 / E) and Kisoko (0 o 43 / N, 34 0 06 / E) of Eastern Uganda. During land preparation, 50 or 100% of the aboveground biomass of Mucuna and Canavalia was manually incorporated into the topsoil (0 to 15 cm depth) using a hand hoe. Mucuna and Canavalia aboveground biomass production was not affected by the initial soil fertility of the sites and produced 6 t ha -1 at Osukuru and 7 t ha -1 at Kisoko. Incorporation of 50% or 100% of the in-situ aboveground biomass significantly increased maize grain by up to 118% and stover yields by up to 75% compared to farmer practice in the first season after incorporation in nearly all treatments. No significant increases in maize grain or stover yields were observed in the second season after application. No significant differences were also observed between 50% and 100% in-situ biomass incorporation on maize grain and stover yields, giving resource poor farmers the option of alternative uses for the additional 50% of the biomass, for example, biomass transfer to other parts of the farm, for compost making or for livestock feed. In the first season after incorporation of the legume cover crops, addition of 100% and 50% of the aboveground biomass resulted in a positive nutrient balance for N only. Additions of 100% of the aboveground biomass of either Mucuna or Canavalia were needed for a positive nutrient balance for K, whereas none of the treatments produced a positive balance for P, thus suggesting the need for inorganic P fertilizers additions in order to mitigate depletion in the long run. Farmers had multiple criteria for assessing the different species and used these to select the potential species that fitted within their production systems and production objectives.Relationships between organic resource quality and the quantity/quality of the soil organic matter pool H Wangechi and B Vanlauwe The management and enhancement of Soil Organic Matter (SOM) is pivotal to the sustainable utilization of soils. SOM is a major determinant of soil fertility, water holding capacity and biological activity and is highly correlated to levels of above and below ground biodiversity. A loss of SOM can lead to soil erosion, loss of fertility, compaction and general land degradation. In addition changes in the use and management of soils that result in a decline in SOM can lead to a release of CO 2 to the atmosphere, with practice that increases SOM leading to sequestration of C from the atmosphere to soils. The management of SOM is therefore important at the field, regional and global scale. Management practices that affect crop biomass production, residue maintenance, and litter will also affect SOM.This report summarizes the progress of an ongoing project in central Kenya (Embu and Machanga) sites. The main objective focuses on the role of the quality and/or quantity of organic resources in sustaining crop production and regulating the quality and quantity of the SOM pool under different soil and climatic conditions. Similar experiments are being undertaken in Ghana and Zimbabwe. The impact of these organic resources on crop yields, N use efficiency, and SOM dynamics are being monitored over time in these sites.Summarizing the last 5 seasons in the Kenyan sites, maize yields were influenced significantly by the application of organic materials, their organic resource quality, and fertilizer nitrogen application (Figure 2a). Grain yields were highest for Tithoniaand and Calliandra for both Embu and Machanga sites. In Embu, application of maize stover, manure, and sawdust resulted in higher yields compared to the control plots, while in Machanga, this was true for the manure treatment. In the latter site, application of maize stover and sawdust in absence of fertilizer N depressed maize yields. Generally spoken, responses to application of N fertilizer were minimal in Embu for most organic resources while in Machanga, application of N fertilizer substantially increased grain yields for all organic inputs, except manure (Figure 2b).With last year's approval of the National Science Foundation grant on 'The interaction between resource quality and aggregate turnover controls ecosystem nitrogen and carbon cycling', it will be possible to look at the quantity and quality of biologically meaningful SOM pools, following a sizedensity fractionation procedure after aggregate separation. Isotopes will be used to trace the contribution of freshly applied and old organic C to the various SOM pools. The latter information will reveal insight in how aggregate turnover is affected by the resource quality of the applied organic resources. It will also be possible to look quantify N 2 O production as this counteracts the potential sequestration of C due to its relatively high global warming potential. Finally, attempts will be made to directly quantify the fate of applied fertilizer N as affected by mixing this input with organic resources of varying quality, using 15 N labeled fertilizer. The experiments are expected to continue for at least 5 more years as their final goal is to make conclusive statements regarding the management of organic resource quality as a potential means to regulate the SOM quantity and quality and consequently the various functions associated with this.  A decision support tool for evaluating alternative nutrient sources, management practices and impacts on soil fertility has been developed and evaluated. This has successfully developed a linked Decision Support Tool (DST). The DST has two components, a data entry and database section and a multiple goal linear programming tool. It was not thought necessary to link simulation models explicitly as their data can be added into the DST for evaluating trade-offs and scenarios. For this work, an approach established by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), to analyze agricultural systems at the farm level was followed. The core component of this approach is the integration of simulation and multiple-criteria optimization models. Both data and models are assembled in the software, IMPACT (integrated modeling platform for animal-crop systems). The methodological aspects of IMPACT and its interaction with optimization models are briefly described below and given in Figure 3. IMPACT provides a protocol for collecting essential data to characterize a farming system. This data collection protocol is organized in such way that it describes the flow of resources through all the farming activities and their interactions. Information within IMPACT is organized in eight groups: 1) climate; 2) family structure; 3) land management; 4) livestock management; 5) labor allocation; 6) family's dietary pattern; 7) farm's sales and expenses; and 8) soil nutrient flow. In addition, IMPACT processes these data to provide a baseline analysis of the system's performance. This base-line analysis includes: 1) monthly financial balances; 2) the family's monthly nutritional status; and 3) an annual soil nutrient balance.igure 3. System prototyping and impact assessment for sustainable alternatives in mixed farming A suite of simulation and optimization models can be directly linked to the data stored in IMPACBased on farmers perceptions  T. In IMPACT's current version (1.0.3), there is direct connectivity with the Household optimization model and the Ruminant simulation model. The Household model is a multiple-criteria model for assessing the impact of management interventions on the performance of farming systems and the livelihoods of the families that depend on them. The model explicitly incorporates IMPACT data related to on-and off-farm resources, as well as their seasonal management. It also includes information on food security-related factors, off-farm income generation, and labor constraints. Thus, the Household model determines the best combination of farm resources that satisfy a set of objectives according to a series of both management and economic interventions. These objectives can be directed towards maximizing gross margins, minimizing nutrient losses, or minimizing risk, amongst others. The effect of interventions can be tested by including simulated outputs from other models (e.g. the Ruminant model mentioned above and DSSAT). Thus, the overall effect of a specific intervention is subsequently tested at the whole farming system level by including simulated outputs in the Household model.The DST captures all inputs and outputs for the farm enterprise, especially in terms of labor and cash spe egume green manuring for soil productivity improvement in eastern Uganda een blamed on continuous cultivation of the land resource fNet: The role of micro organisms in African farming systems ite 1: Cameroon rbuscular Mycorrhiza Resource Bank and Selection of Beneficial Microorganisms for Crop vours an integrated approach based on a significant reduction in the excess use of chemical products for more sound ecological ones. Our overall goal in this project is to nt on buying food and household items throughout the year. A major advance in this work was achieved when labor was separated by individual operation within crop and livestock management, e.g. for land preparation, planting, fertilizing, weeding etc. This gives the DST the power to be able to add in different scenarios easily, for example, if you wanted to see what difference adding more fertilizer to a crop would make, a soil-crop model could be used to give a 20 year average yield and in the DST another enterprise can be added to reflect this fertilizer use. As labor and cost are already known for most of the operations in this crops production, another scenario is very quick to add. L M.J. Kuule, M.A. Bekunda and R.J. Delve.Declining per capita food production has b without adequate replenishment of soil nutrients. A recent fertilizer use survey reported a less than 1kg of nutrient fertilizer per hectare per year. Yet rates of nutrient uptake by plants through crop harvest or loss through leaching and other loss processes from arable land are much higher. This leads to serious nutrient depletion. Green manuring offers an alternative source of nutrients especially N in a relay system of intercropping. A study to demonstrate this potential and to identify suiTable legume species for the area was conducted on farmers' fields in two sub counties, Kisoko and Osukuru in Tororo district. Four legume species, Canavalia, Crotalaria, lablab and Mucuna, were intercropped with Maize (Longe 1variety) in the first season (short rains of 2000) on plots of 5m X 5m. The legumes were incorporated during land preparation for the second season, in their respective plots and planted with maize. Maize grain and stover yields were measured for each season and an economic analysis using partial budgeting and marginal rate of return tools performed to highlight the feasibility of the green manure technology in the farming system. Results showed a no significant response in the intercropping (first) and third (residual) seasons, but significant maize gain yield increase for Crotalaria and Lablab green manure after incorporating(second season) the legumes of 96.4 and 69.6 % respectively compared to the control plot. This was probably due to deep nutrient capture by the Crotalaria roots and recycling the nutrients through leaf fall. Economic analysis results indicated positive returns to both land and labor from using green manure technology and highest Marginal rate of return of 100.63%were obtained from using Mucuna compared to Canavalia green manure. Based on economic returns and ease of establishment, Mucuna and Canavalia green manures were recommended for farmers as low cost soil improving technology.The new concepts on food production fa promote an ecological approach in agricultural systems and the integrated management of land resources for the enhancement of productivity and agro-ecosystem sustainability. Soil biota can be manipulated to enhance nutrient cycling, improve the physical properties of soil and regulate decomposition processes. Key soil biotic groups such as N-fixing bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, earthworms and termites are important regulators for nutrient cycling and good soil physico-chemical properties. The Applied Microbiology & Bio-fertiliser Unit (UMAB) is developing biological processes in Cameroon. A project set up by UMAB for the production and marketing of two microbial fertilisers. N-fixing bacteria may accelerate natural fertilisation of soil through atmospheric nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes such as groundnut. Mycorrhizal fungi are useful for soils' natural fertilisation, improving phosphorus cycling, protecting crops against some diseases and pests or drought. Bio-fertilised crops and trees have some additional characteristics such as: a better growth and vigour, fast production, yield improvement, reduction of losses caused by diseases, pests or transplantation, products of better quality and are also better adapted to poor soil conditions. Most field assessment in Oxisol, Ultisol and Vertisol showed significant increase in growth, yield (50 to more than 200 %), diseases tolerance and also food quality after using the bio-fertiliser inoculation technology (rhizobia or mycorrhiza).oject is to assist small scale farmers in these countries to improve their agricultural production nt of Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi resource bank and selecting beneficial micro-organisms n important microbial resource bank of beneficial organisms was set up. The beneficial organisms are: s This is collaborative work between institutions in six AfNet Sub-Saharan African countries. The aim of the pr systems and profitability by introducing ecologically sound and sustainable mycorrhiza bio-fertiliser technology. The specific objectives of the project are to: 1) Initiate an arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi resource bank and select beneficial micro-organisms, 2) Assess the effectiveness of mycorrhizal inoculation using legume cover crops for biomass production, N and P cycling and soil fertility, 3) Quantify the impacts of legume cover crop on maize and legume yield. 4) Evaluate the potential of mycorrhiza on soil microbial activities and disease tolerance. 5) Create awareness, assess socio-economic benefits at farmers' level. 6) Build capacity on mycorrhizal technology through training. The work will be conducted in different agro-ecosystems in six Central, East, and Southern African countries on acid soils. The project will provide post graduate training in soil biological management and sustainable agriculture. In addition, good quality mycorrhizal bio-fertiliser are expected to be mastered during the project. The research is thought to provide scientific understanding of the functioning of key soil organisms and their potential for a better crop production management and also improve capacity building. Through participatory approach, awareness will be created, and farmers' socio-economic status will be improved. In addition, reports, workshops, brochures, and policy briefs and methods for legume micro-symbionts management to sustainable soil fertility and food quality will be recommended. It is thought that network collaboration among scientists interested in the biology and fertility of tropical soil management will be developed.A mycorrhizal fungi, rhizobia, and pseudomonad. Recently a new group, phosphorus solubilising microorganism (PSM) was added to the previous ones. The arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) collection was set up from more than 200 soil samples collected in diverse agro-ecological zones of Cameroon (much more on humid forest acidic soils). Results from systematic sampling on land use systems (forest, fallow, plantations and farm soils) showed that direct evaluation on mycorrhizal diversity from spores is generally an underestimation. Trapping and repetitive sampling may be the best way to obtain a good evaluation of soil diversity of AMF species. More than 230 isolates of Glomalean fungi constitute the AMF resource bank, from which only about 50 % of isolates are identified (40 species) at species level and most at genus level using morphological methods. Non identified isolates could lead to new species. Their distribution is as follows and contains 5 genus out of 6 known in the world: Glomus (73%), Gigaspora (14%), Acaulospora (6%), Scutellospora (4%), Sclerocystis (3%). The most distributed species are Glomus aggregatum, Glomus clarum and Glomus versiforme. From this collection, only 22 isolates were screen for their efficiency for crop improvement. In order to have a good inoculum for large scale evaluation, it is useful to follow up successive steps such as: isolates characterization (root colonisation, spore number, infectivity,..), selection (plant growth increase, P & N uptake, mycorrhizal dependancy, yield, stress and disease tolerance, competitivity) before production at pilot scale. After this step, the inoculm produced on sterile substrate must be evaluated for biomass and yield improvement under nursery and latter on farm conditions using specific crops. Also inoculum viability and efficiency should be checked during storage (1 to 3 years) in order to assess the best storage conditions and the loss on activity during storage and time. A strategy of inoculum improvement was set up by a regular selection of the best mixture of strains. Preliminary isolation from 16 acid soils samples originating from 8 sites and 4 provinces (out of 10 in the country) under oil palm rhizosphere provided 230 isolates of PSM. The P solubilising activity were assessed under Petri dishes but a more complete characterisation and identification of some strains is envisaged. Most isolates are microscopic fungi and rhizobacteria (Pseudomonas, Bacillus).s one of the main research theme, advanced studies were carried out to set up a good inoculum for the p project on acid soils. Soils from natural habitat (farm, fallow cterization from soil samples he number of infectious propagules (MPN test) from 5 soil sites (Bafia, Douala;, Edéa-Ndupe, h variation from one site to another. This number varied from production his study was carried out using cowpea, leek and millet under controlled conditions. Results shown in s, the most effective isolates for root colonization for cowpea are o have enough inoculum of known quality (increased concentration A nutrient cycling using legume cover cro and forest) in more than 85% sites studied contain less than 10 spores/g soil. In some cases, this number may reach 48 to > 100 spores/g in farm soils but in few cases the number can be as low as 0 to 5 spores/g soil. AMF studies also include diversity, morphological characterization of mycorrhizal spores and roots, physiological characterization of their infectivity, viability during storage, root colonization, root growth parameters, enzymatic activities, P and N uptake, plant biomass and yield increase under nursery or farm conditions.T Ngaoundéré and Yaoundé) reveal a very hig 0.3 for Edéa-Ndupe forest soil, 5 for Douala farm soil, 17 for Bafia fallow soil, 43 for Yaoundé farm soil and 2783 for Ngaoundéré mixed farm and cattle rearing soil. This variation was also noticed on millet root colonization by the same soils from 25% (Edéa-Ndupe soil) to 98% (Ngaoundéré soil). No correlation was found between spore number and the number of infectious propagules. Another study to establish the influence of land use system (LUS) on AMF diversity microbial biomass was done on forest, fallow, plantations and farms in humid forest zone of Cameroon. The results will be available at the end of this cropping season.T Table 1 indicate that out of 10 isolate GIMNV, GIME13 and GIXYC, for millet GIMNV and GCDM, for leek GIME13 and GIXYC. For P uptake, theses isolates are also the best though we noticed preference of some crops for some isolates or mixtures of two isolates. In order to select some effective isolates, a certain number of other criteria were assessed such as spore viability and germination, acidity tolerance, competitiveness under natural conditions and activity during storage and according to environmental factors (temperature: 4 and 25°C, storage duration: 1, 2 and 3 years).An assessment was made under controlled conditions in order to have some significant data on inoculum production. The aim was t of spores, assess the infectivity, high activity and viability of AMF). This was done using sterilised arable soil, on 10 litter pots using 2 plant/pot of millet (Pennisetum americanum) and 50 g/pot each of 5 isolates of AMF ( Glomus clarum, Glomus hoi*, Gigaspora margarita, Glomus sp., Glomus intraradices, Scutellospora gregaria and S. heterogama), the experiment was replicated 10 times for each isolate.Table 1. Response of mycorrhizal fungi inoculation on phosphorus uptake (mg/plant) and root colonization (%) on millet (Pennisetum. americanum), cowpea (Vigna. unguiculata) and leek (Allium porum.) under nursery conditions. LSD at 5% significance. 1 Harvest 90 days after planting, 2 60 Harvest days after planting (5 plants/ treatment) In order to compare the effectiveness of different inoculants (Glomus clarum, Gigaspora margarita and Myco 4, a mixture of 6 Glomus and Gigaspora species) on the same crops, onion and shallot were used and some parameters assessed: root colonisation, P uptake, phosphatase activity and plant growth were analysed. On both crops, the inoculum made by Glomus clarum provided a good root colonisation and was considered as the best for plant improvement compared to the others. (Table 2).  dé). For most ass, yield gen uptake) were significantly very high in e hen the number of native rhizobia were low in Yaoundé site (100 cells/g) compared to Bokito one 0.000 cells/g). Results show the potential of molybdenum and rhizobia to increase the grain/pod ratio 52 and mycorrhizal fungi, a synergistic effect was noticed. An excellent example is the growing of cowpea in a poor ferralitic soil where results showed that the double rhizobial and mycorrhizal inoculation (R+M+) eatments respectively compared to the control (R-M-). Beside, R+M+ treatment gave the best pod yield (3 nt (3.28 t.ha -1 ), R+M-treatment (1.51 kg.ha -1 ) and the R-M-25 t.ha Most field experiments in Cameroon indicated that when legumes are combined with rhizobia increases flowering precocity of cowpea by 6 days compared to the non-inoculated control (R-M-). Increase of biomass yield from inoculation was about 4, 5 and 6 times higher for R+M-, R-M+ and R+M+ tr .58 t.ha -1 ), followed by R-M+ treatme Site 2: Niger Biological nitrogen fixation in Banizoumbou and Gaya, Niger 15N dilution technique was used to quantify the biological nitrogen fixation of three cowpea varieties (local, TN5-78 and Dan illa) under different soil fertility conditions (Photo 1). A non-fixing (NF) cowpea variety was used as non-fixing crop. The samples have been sent to JIRCAS laboratory in Japan for mass spectrophotometer analysis of 15N in order to assess the biological nitrogen fixation. Water harvesting techniques such as the tide ridges and the Zai system combined with the use of plant nutrient could be an excellent approach for a win-win situation where the nutrient use efficiency will be increased with the capture of water and also the water use efficiency will increase with the improvement of soil fertility. This win-win situation will result in higher and sTable crop production within the African desert margins. Activities were implementation very successfully in Niger, Mali, Kenya and Burkina Faso. This was done by AfNet sci High N fixing cowpea variety entists who had received training on additional methodologies for effective interven be highlighted in this report will be from three sites (Niger, Kenya and Ma tion. The field activities were implemented in Niger, Mali, Kenya and Burkina Faso using appropriate water harvesting techniques and therefore facilitated comparisons across the desert margins of the African continent. The results to li) where this experiment had been implemented by the end of 2003 but results from Burkina Faso site where the trial was implemented in 2004 will be available at the end of this cropping season. Plans are underway to initiate the same field trial in Senegal.Combining water harvesting techniques and integrated nutrient management for sustainable food production in the Sahel Due to the increased population pressure and the limited availability of fertile land, farmers in the desert margins increasingly rely on marginal or even degraded land for agricultural production. The farmers habilitate these lands with different technologies for soils and water conservation. Among these is the zai (Photo 2), an indigenous technology for land rehabilitation, which combines water harvesting by means of small pits and hill-placed application of organic amendments. re Photo 2: The Zai system in the Sahel.To study the resource use efficiency of this technique in the context of the Sahel of Niger, an experiment was conducted at two lo are lands in a farmer field from 1999 to 2000. In these experiments, the effect of organic amendment type (millet straw and cattle manure (3 t ha -1 ) and ater harvesting (with and without water harvesting pit) on millet grain yield, dry matter production and(zai) we t was conducted at two lo are lands in a farmer field from 1999 to 2000. In these experiments, the effect of organic amendment type (millet straw and cattle manure (3 t ha -1 ) and ater harvesting (with and without water harvesting pit) on millet grain yield, dry matter production and(zai) we cations on degraded b cations on degraded b w w w water use were compared. ater use were compared.Results showed a high effect of Zai technique on yields response and plant establishment. Plant establishment: statistical analyses showed a high effect zai on plant establishment and it's effect on organic fertilizer applied. Average number of successful hills was 4957 per ha for the zai plots significantly different from no zai plots with 1310 hills per ha (p=0.000). There was also an effect of organic matter ap Results showed a high effect of Zai technique on yields response and plant establishment. Plant establishment: statistical analyses showed a high effect zai on plant establishment and it's effect on organic fertilizer applied. Average number of successful hills was 4957 per ha for the zai plots significantly different from no zai plots with 1310 hills per ha (p=0.000). There was also an effect of organic matter application (manure) on number of hills per ha whether or not water-harvesting techniques re applied (Table 3).   4 below shows the effect of the zai system on millet and cowpea yields. It was observed that in an intercrop, pearl millet yields were about 273 kg/ha in zai compared to only 87 kg/ha from the plots with no zai system. There was no significant difference for the cowpea yields. The use of the Zai system in the Sahel has proved to be a good technology for Pearl millet production.Site 2: Mali is exp -legume rotation and iii) cereal and legume intercropped (Table 5). One year f data c Th eriment was setup in Mali in 2003 at Siribougou, a rural village located at about 35 km west of Ségou. The main research hypothesis this project aims to test is that combining water-harvesting techniques (Photo 3) with the effective nutrient management will result in higher efficiency of resources and will increase the profitability of the investment in water harvesting. The experimental design allows to compare the combined effects of water and nutrient management on three cropping systems, namely i) continuous cereal, ii) cereal ollection has just been completed. o Photo 3: Water harvesting through the use of ridge tillage along contour lines in Siribougou, Mali, 2003.Table 5: Treatment structure at Siribougou, Mali. ns received in this site re was no significant eff ted due to water of water harvesting and mineral fertilizer and manure application 00 g/ha of pearl millet grain yields with application of water harvesting technology. This was only noted in whereby mineral N was applied. The control treatment gave the lowest pearl millet grain yield (about 400 kg/ha). In plots which had no manure, there was response to N application regardless of whether there was water harvesting or Legume + P -N 12 not. With water harvesting and manure application, there was no N response noted. However, millet yield response to N was observed in plots without water harvesting.Pearl millet grain yield ob intercrop with beans was about 800 kg/ha with water harvesting while yield without water harvesting was about 600 kg/ha (Figure 5). This was only true with manure and mineral fertilizer appli on beans as influenced by water n 2003.Bean grain yield in an intercrop with pearl millet was also influenced by water harvesting (Figure 6). In the absence of mineral nitrogen, the yield from plots where water harvesting was about 1043 kg/ha while only 709 kg/ha was obtained from plots where no water harvesting was practiced. This was only true with the manure plots. There was no significant difference observed between water harvesting and no water harvesting in plots which did not receive manure.  The application of manure coupled with water harvesting and mineral fertilizer application gave the highest bean grain yield (Figure 7). This was about 1428 kg/ha compared to 962 kg/ha obtained from lots which received manure and mineral fertilizer but no water harvesting. p Although water harvesting technologies improved on the grain yields of both pearl millet and beans, it could be noted from these preliminary results that the inclusion of external inputs was ineviTable in this region.This study was started in the semi-arid areas of Makueni district in eastern Kenya during the long rains (LR) of 2003. The semi-arid area in Makueni district is in agro-ecologicqal zones (AEZ) 5 (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983). Rainfall is bi-modal and, as is typical of semi-arid areas, it is low and erratic. The short rains (October to January) are generally have more rainfall and are more reliable than the long rains (March to June). Temperatures are high giving rise to high evapo-transpiration.A split-split-split plot experimental design was used with water harvesting vs conventional tillage as the main treatments; and manure vs no manure application as the sub-plots. The sub-plots were split into three crop management systems i.e. (1) Legume-cereal rotation, (2) legume-cereal intercrop and (3) continuous cereal. In each crop management system different fertilizer treatments was applied as indicated below;Tied-ridges was used as the water harvesting method. Ridges (30 cm high) and ties (cross ridges, 20 cm high) was constructed using a oxen driven ridger to create a series of basins for storing water. The spacing of the ridges was 90 cm and the cross ridges were at 2.5m interval.Goat manure at a rate of 5tha -1 was applied in the planting holes. Fertilizer was applied at 0 and 40 kg P ha -1 in treatments having P; and 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg N ha -1 for plots receiving nitrogen. Tripple superphosphate (TSP) and Calcium ammonium nitrates (CAN) fertilizers were used as source of P and N respectively. Each treatment was replicated four times in a completely randomized block design.The individual plot size ws 5 m long and 5 m wide. Maize (Katumani composite B) and cowpea 80) was planted on 9-10th April 2003 at 90 x 30 cm spacing in pure stands. Maize and cowpea was Topsoil samples were taken at the start of the experiment from 0-30 cm depth at the main plot level for organic C, total N, available P, pH and texture determination. Weeding was done twice in the season. Thinning was done 10-11 th June 2003 (60 days after planting) to a single plant per hill. During the thinning, three cowpea and two thinned maize plants were sampled for dry biomass determination. Harvesting was done on 12-15 th August 2003 (from a 3x1.8 m 2 area at the middle of the plot) and plant samples taken for dry matter and yield determination.From the general observation during germination period, it was noted that germination in tiedridges appeared better than in plots where there were no tied ridges (Photo 4). ertilizer application, there as no significant effect of water harvesting on maize grain yield in the Kenyan site (Figure 8). The h water harvesting was about 1.7 -2.7 t/ha while in plots where (K intercropped in the same row but alternating planting holes.Unlike in Mali where pearl millet responded to water harvesting and mineral fRidging Photo 4: Use of tied ridges in Kiboko, Kenya.w average maize grain yield obtained wit there was no water harvesting the yiled ranged between 1.6 -2.9 t/ha. This could be attributed to the relatively high rainfall received during the study period. The application of manure did not have any marked effect on maize grain yields in this site too. For plots which received manure, application of mineral N fertilizer beyond 80 kg N/ha seemed to reduce maize grain yield.Water harvesting Activities in this site were initiated in 2004 and the data is not yet analyzed. This will be available at the end of this cropping season. In summary, it was noted that in Niger, the proposed methodologies and approaches in soil fertility management are well appreciated by both farmers and NARES scientists in the Sahel. The use of the zai technology was a success story in this particular site. This technology is combined with the use of plant nutrient situation where the nutrient use efficiency will be increased with the capture of water and also the water use efficiency will increase with the improvement of soil fertility. This win-win situation will result in higher and sTable crop production. In Mali the use of ridge tillage along contour lines proved to be superior to farmer practice and this technology will be tested further in on-farm trials. Although the use of tied ridges was noted to be the best technology for the drier areas in Kenya, this was not quite conclusive because the trial was affected by unevenly distributed rains received during the growing period. These results will be validated through the second year data. Activities in Burkina Faso were begun in 2004 and analysis is yet to be concluded. These results will be available at the end of this cropping season.The impact of soil organisms on soil functioning under neotropical pastures: a case study of a opical anecic earthworm species to create a win-win tr J.J. Jiménez 1 and T. Decaëns attributes of this species in a natural savanna and several introduced pastures at the Carimagua Research Station (320 km east from Villavicencio) was the main objective in this study. Density and biomass of this species were significantly much higher in the introduced pastures compared with the savanna (ANNOVA, P 0.01). Evidence of vertical migration during the year was observed, while it is active in the topsoil during the beginning of the rainy season, it enters in a true diapause to withstand adverse environmental conditions before the onset of the dry period, being adults the last to enter into this phase (after reproduction period). Martiodrilus n. sp. seemed to select food substrates with high organic contents since casts produced in the two systems had significantly higher total C and total N contents than the bulk soil. Besides, C content also increased significantly during ageing of casts (+100%), possibly because of CO 2 fixation processes, accumulation of dead roots and/or macrofaunal activities. The effects of earthworm activities on soil and cast seed banks were revealed in another experiment. The composition of the above standing vegetation was relatively closer to that of the cast seed bank than that of the soil seed bank. The results obtained in this study support the general knowledge of how earthworms can affect soil fertility and plant growth. Martiodrilus n. sp., through the production of casts affects the availability and nature of both the spatial and trophic resource in soil. This species certainly belongs to the functional group of \"ecosystem engineers\", as it affects the availability of some resources for other organisms through the production of physical biostructures. The next step in research should be directed now to test whether Martiodrilus n. sp. is a keystone species within the soil community or not.nities in permanent pastures derived from tropical forest or savanna . Decaëns 1 , J.J. Jiménez 2 , E. Barros 3 , A. Chauvel 4 , E. Blanchart 5 , C. Fragoso 6 , P. Lavelle 4 a Tropical (CIAT), AA.6713,Cali,Colombia 478,Manaus AM,Brazil 6 reased macrofaunal activity with a high taxonomic diversity is expected to have y of pastures in Colombian savannas. In the Amazon basin, slashing t for intensive pasture establishment resulted in more dramatic effects on native ic diversity was particularly strongly affected. Native earthworm species were t the expanse of exotic peregrine species like, e.g. Pontoscolex corethrurus. These d on the sustainability of agropastoral systems in this area. Soil macrofauna are sensitive to land use changes and this may have implications to soil functioning. The impact of the conversion of native ecosystems into extensive or intensive pastures on soil macrofauna were assessed with a standardized methodology in two neotropical phytogeographical regions, i.e. a tropical savanna area (Eastern Plains of Colombia) and a tropical rain forest area (Brazilian Amazon). In the savanna area, extensive cattle ranching only led to a slight enhancement of earthworm populations and to short-term fire-induced decreases of macrofaunal density. In intensive pastures, the initial taxonomic richness and composition of soil macrofauna were maintained, while native earthworm biomass was strongly increased. This may be explained by the similar mesologic conditions between these systems (similar vegetation structure) and by the higher quality of the organic inputs in the pastures (roots, litter and cattle faeces). Inc positive impacts on the sustainabilit and burning of the fores macrofauna. Taxonom largely depleted a results are probably bound to the deep environmental changes that follow the conversion of forest into grassland ecosystems. Such modifications of macrofaunal communities are known to have potential negative effects on soil functioning an Condiciones hidrofísicas de suelos con alta saturación de magnesio en el Valle del Cauca, Colombia efficient. From this haracterization it is concluded that these soils, have constraints for crop production and must be managed ater r root growth, olombia , T.J. Sampayo  Agronómica 52(1-4): 29-37(2004) In Cauca Valley of Colombia, there are 116,872 hectares of soils in which the dominant ion in the cation exchange capacity (>20 cmol(+) kg -1 ) is Mg +2 (>40%). The soils are Vertisols. High Mg ++ saturation may causes marked negative effects in the soil properties that are related to plant responses and crop production. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and characterize soil physical conditions in magnesic soils. It was found that the soils (dominated by vemiculites and esmectites) presented the following general physical characteristics: clay content higher than 55%, plasticity index higher than 45%, COEL index higher than 0.10%, very high bulk density (>1.7 Mg.m -3 ), and very low total porosity (<30%). They presented massive soil structure or it was very weak. From the point of view of water flow they showed great constraints. Basic infiltration varied from 1.19 to 0.34 cm.h -1 , saturated hydraulic conductivity from 0.18 to 0.44 cm.h -1 , sorptivity from 0.025-0.084 cm.S -0.05 , water pressure for air entry varied from 4.7 to 27.7 cm. The non-saturated hydraulic conductivity can be represented by an equation of the following form: ae 0.05h , were h=matric potential and a is a soil co c to increase total porosity and macroporosity. If this is achieved it is possible to improve soil w infiltration, soil drainage and soil aeration, therefore, developing a better environment fo which in turn will improve the general soil condition and its productivity. An extensive area of loamy soils has been recognized in the Cauca River Valley to have high magnesium saturation values. They are called \"Magnesic Soils\". These soils are of special interest because they are being used for intensive agricultural production. They require previous knowledge of their behaviour to define the soil management practices that have to be used in order to avoid degradation and to increase productivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the physical characteristics of these soils in relation to changes in soil volume as they are getting drier. Thirteen soils profiles were selected, described and sampled for the study. The changes in soil volume of core samples taken in cylinders of known volume, were determined under laboratory controlled conditions as soil dried. The following contraction indices were determined: specific volume ( ), specific volume full of air (P), moisture content ( ), normal shrinkage (n) and residual shrinkage (r). Soil shrinkage varied from 0.44 m 3 Mg -1 to 0.27 m 3 Mg -1 , depending on the topographic position, with higher values at the flat position. In general, it was found that there was a volume reduction of around 28% as the soil dried from saturation to a suction of 1500 MPa. These volume changes were directly associated to clay content (r=0.53) and initial bulk density (r=0.52). Volume changes were higher at low water suctions. The slope of the normal shrinkage varied from 1.33 to 0.63 and that of the residual shrinkage from -0.83 to -0.50, depending on Mg ++ content. There was a strong association between Mg ++ and the presence of esmectites and vemiculites. The change in soil volume as it dries, should be taken into account for developing soil management practices.  23 (4): 39-50 (2004) Root growth and distribution of crop and forage components of production system have importan experiment was established in 1994 in th are medium to fine textured Oxic Dystropepts derived from volcanic-ash deposits. Four treatments, cassava monocrop, cassava + cover legumes intercrop, elephant grass pasture, and imperial grass pasture, were selected to determine differences in dry matter partitioning, leaf area index, nutrient composition, root distribution (0-80 cm soil depth), nutrient acquisition and soil loss. Root biomass of the cassava + cover legumes intercrop was 44% greater than that of the cassava monocrop. The presence of cover legumes not only reduced soil erosion but also improved potassium acquisition by cassava. Among the two pastures, elephant grass pasture had greater root biomass (9.3 t/ha) than the imperial grass (4.2 t/ha). The greater root length density (per unit soil volume) of the former contributed to superior acquisition of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium from soil. In addition, the abundance of very fine roots in elephant grass pastures in the topsoil layers reduced the loss of soil from the steep slopes. These results indicate that (i) the presence of cover legumes can improve potassium acquisition by cassava; and (ii) elephant grass can be used as an effective grass barrier to reduce soil erosion in Andean hillsides. Knowledge of the P dynamics in the soil/plant system and especially of the short-and long-term fate of P fertilizer in relation to different management practices is essential for the sustainable management of tropical agroecosystems. Since 1993, CIAT researchers in collaboration with NARS partners have conducted long-term field studies on soil P dynamics, acquisition and cycling in crop-pasture-fallow systems of low fertility tropical soils of the savannas and hillsides agroecosystems of Latin America. The progress made from these long-term studies that were partially supported by special project funds from ACIAR (LWR2/1999/03) is described in this article. In tropical savannas in the Llanos of Colombia, soil P dynamics, acquisition and cycling were quantified in cereal-legume rotations (Maize-soybean or ricecowpea) and ley pasture systems. Measurements of soil P fractions indicated that applied P moves preferentially into labile inorganic P pools, and then only slowly via biomass production and microbes into organic P pools under both introduced pastures and crop rotations. Field studies conducted to quantify the residual effectiveness of P fertilizer inputs in crop rotations in terms of both crop growth response and labile P pool sizes indicated that soluble P applications to oxisols of Colombia remain available for periods of time which are much longer than expected for \"high P-fixing\"soils, such as the oxisols of Brazilian Cerrados. In Andean hillsides of Colombia, the impact of short-term planted fallows to restore soil fertility in N and P deficient soils by enhancing nutrient recycling through the provision of soil organic matter (SOM) was investigated. Results indicated that the fractionation of SO c conventional soil analysis methods. Litterbag field studies contributed to characterization of the rate of serve as biofertilizers.validation of APSIM model.o 50% f primary forest biomass in the region. Wood N and P concentrations decreased with forest age.Although soil stocks of exchangeable Ca (207.0 ± 23.7 kg/ha) and soil to ge (117.8 kg ha yr ), probably due to N fixation, ranged between 42 al C accrual (7.04 Mg C ha -1 yr -1 ) in reported in other studies. Tropical SF r C and rebuild total nutrient capital for long-term C gains; however, soil nutrient deficits may limit future decomposition and nutrient release from twelve different plant materials that could The data sets from these long-term experiments from the tropical savannas and hillsides agroecosystems of Latin America could be valuable for further testing and Over the past three decades, large expanses of forest in the Amazon Basin were converted to pasture, many of which later degraded to woody fallows and were abandoned. While the majority of tropical secondary forest (SF) studies have examined post-deforestation or post-agricultural succession, we examined post-pasture forest recovery in ten forests ranging in age from 0 to 14 yrs since abandonment. We measured aboveground biomass and soil nutrients to 45 cm depth, and computed total site C and nutrient stocks to gain an understanding of the dynamics of nutrient and C buildup in regenerating SF in central Amazônia. Aboveground biomass accrual was rapid, 11.0 Mg ha -1 yr -1 , in these young SF. After 12 to 14 yrs, they accumulated up to 128.1 Mg/ha of dry aboveground biomass, equivalent to 25 t o Aboveground P and Ca stocks accumulated at a rate of 2.4 and 42.9 kg ha -1 yr -1 ; extracTable soil P stocks declined as forest age increased. extracTable P (8.3 ± 1.5 kg/ha) were low in the first 45 cm, both were rapidly translocated from -1 -1 plant pools. Soil N stocks increased with forest a atmospheric deposition, and/or subsoil mining. Total soil C storage to 45 cm depth and 84 Mg/ha, with the first 15 cm storing 40 to 45% of the total. Tot both aboveground and soil pools was similar or higher than values regrowing on lightly to moderately-used pasture rapidly sequeste following pasture abandonment. Translocation of some nutrients from deep soil (>45 cm depth) may be important to sustaining productivity and continuing biomass accumulation in these forests. The soil pool represents the greatest potential productivity. The aerobic decomposition of plant materials is a slow process and thus methods used to estimate degradation rates on the soil are time and resource consuming. Earlier studies have shown highly significant correlations between in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and plant decomposition under field conditions. The authors suggested the usefulness of applying time saving methods used to assess forage quality for ruminants to predict decomposition of plant material on the soil. Such a rapid laboratory \"test\" could be useful for screening germplasm with potential contribution to soil improvement, to reduce costs and contribute to higher research efficiency.Three woody tropical legumes with contrasting qualities were used: Indigofera zollingeriana Miq. ndigofera), Cratylia argentea Benth. (Cratylia) and Calliandra houstoniana (Mill.) Stan. var.order to estimate extents and rates of aerobic degradation in litterbags on the eriment during 144 h me species.(I calothyrsus (Meiss.) Barn. CIAT 20400 (Calliandra) were used either fresh, freeze-dried, frozen, ovendried (60 o C) or air-dried in soil during 140 days and anaerobic degradation in an in-vitro gas production exp (Table 6). Results showed, that aerobic decomposition rates of leaf tissues were highest for Indigofera (k=0.013 day -1 ), followed by Cratylia (k=0.004 day -1 ) and Calliandra (k=0.002 day -1 ). Gas production rates evaluated under anaerobic conditions, were highest for Indigofera (k=0.086 h -1 ), intermediate for Cratylia (k=0.062-1) and lowest for Calliandra (k= 0.025 h -1 ). Decomposition and gas production rates differed (p<0.001) ces between post harvest treatments were not statistically significant (p>0.05). position was highest for Indigofera (82.5%, w/w), followed by Cratylia (44.6%) and alliandra (26.4%). The extent of gas production was highest for Indigofera (218.8 ml), followed by . Highest gas production was h among species. Differen The extent of decom C Cratylia (170.1 ml) and Calliandra (80.1 ml). Extent of decomposition and extent of gas production were significantly different (p<0.001) among species. In contrast to the extent of decomposition, the extent of gas production was affected (p<0.001) by sample post harvest treatments observed for the fresh and frozen treatments (Figure 9). The forage quality parameters that best correlated with aerobic and anaerobic degradation were lignin+bound condensed tannins, lignin+total condens (IADF) and in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD). Results s ed tannins/N, indigestible acid detergent fibre howed that differences in decomposition and digestibility were more related to intrinsic plant quality parameters than to changes in tissue quality induced by post harvest treatments. In addition, we found that rate of aerobic degradation of legume leaves on the soil was highly correlated to IVDMD (r>0.80, p<0.001) and gas production (r=0.53, p<0.001) (Table 7).  These results indicate that plant measurements (IADF, IVDMD and gas production) used to assess forage quality in animal nutrition studies are more rapid and resource saving predictors for aerobic decomposition of tropical legumes than initial plant quality ratios (lignin+polyphenols/N and lignin+total condensed tannins/N) commonly used by many researchers. Furthermore, this study confirms the potential usefulness of IVDMD for screening tropical legumes for soil fertility management. ents of penetration resistance were made in eight cassava-based cropping systems nd one bare fallow treatment on 27 Erosion Experimental Plots according to Wischmeier and Smith (1978) on slopes with an inclination of 7 to 13%. The plots had been in use since 1986 through a consecutive research project. They were designed as a completely randomized block with three repetitions. The randomized block design was selected to manage local soil heterogeneity 7059 2 Centro Internacional Soil erosion, run-off and its problematic consequences have been recognized by farmers in Latin America, but knowledge and means to combat this phenomenon are unavailable. Until now, soil crusting and sealing has received minimal scientific attention in the Andean zone of South America. Although the contribution of soil crusting and sealing to soil erosion are widely accepted, there have been long discussions of the causes such as 1) the splash impact of raindrops coupled with low aggregate stability; 2) the dispersion of clays throug Field research was conducted in Santander de Quilichao at the CIAT Research Station, Department of Cauca in southwestern Colombia (3°6'N, 76°31'W, 990 m.a.s.l). The area is characterized by moderate to high erosion potentials due to its undulating relief with some steeper slopes, a strong effect of soil and crop management, and due to an extreme climatic impact (mean annual rainfall: 1756 mm, rain intensity: up to 330 mm h -1 ). Trials were installed in 1986 on an amorphous, isohyperthermic oxic Dystropept (US soil taxonomy), which is a ferralic Cambisol according to the WRB. It is developed from fluvially translocated, weathered volcanic ashes from the local volcanoes Puracé and Sotará.The measurem a All nine treatments were grouped into three categories to evaluate the specific research questions, such as e impact of chicken manure on soil crusting, the influence of conservation systems on structural effects of dif ctices on s il structure ility:1. The manure gro uded cass t ha -1 chic e (T5), cassava 4 t ha -1 chicken manure (T2), and cassava monoculture (T3 No significant differences were found in the year 2000 in the major aggregate classes (>6.3 mm and >2 mm) and in the three minor aggregate classes (>0.25 mm, >0.125 mm, and <0.125 mm). In the aggregate class >4 mm, the T3 and T1 treatments contained a significantly lower amount of aggregates an T4. In the class >1 mm, a significant difference between T4 and T9 as well as T1 was found. In t th class >0.5 mm, T3 presented significantly lower amounts of aggregates than T4.y highest aggregate stability in the biggest aggregate class In 2000, T4 showed the significantl >6.3 mm (55.5 %) compared to the other treatments, with the exception of T5, T8, and T6.Results of soil erosion and run-off obtained in both years revealed significant differences in 2000 between treatments. T1 generated the significantly highest amounts of run-off in all treatm exception of T9 and T4. The run-off rate was also the highest in T1. Similar to run-off, was soil erosion higher in 2000 than in 2001 due to more erosive rainfalls in the year 2000 and due to lower precipitation in 2001. The highest amount of soil erosion was found in T1. It presented such a marked disparity to the other results that it had to be excluded from statistical analysis as normality criterion could not be reached.In the year 2000, highest total nitrogen (N) was found in T4, whereas T1 revealed the significantly lowest N content. Highest potassium (K) was found in T4 and T2. Significantly T8 and T3 and the lowest amount of K was found in T1. The analysis of calcium (Ca) showed the highest rate in T4, followed by T2 and T8. The lowest Ca was found in T1. Similar results were obtained for magnesium (Mg). The significantly highest amounts of aluminum (Al) were found in T1 and the lowest in T4. Iron (Fe) presented no real differences, and manganese (Mn) was significantly highest in T4, T2, and T5. In contrast, the significantly lowest Mn was found in T1. T4 presented the highest N content and was significantly different from T5. The highest soluble P was found in T1 which was significantly different from T3. Regarding soluble K, it was found out that T4 differed notably fr Similar results were found in Ca and Mg where T4 showed markedly higher values than T1. The investigation of soil reaction revealed significant differences in most treatments with the exception of T5 and T8. The lowest pH was measured in T1 (pH 3.8) followed by T3, T5 and T8, T2 and finally T4 (pH 5.2). The pH-values were higher in the cultivated treatments due to the application of dolomitic lime. Exceptional results showed T3 which presented only a pH of 4.3.The influence of soil organic matter (SOM) on the development of soil crusting and sealing has nic matter dep mat h SOM w resistan ents. The overall EC was highest in T4 within t ts, however T5 was significantly different from T8. Lowest EC was found in T1 (0 re treatments did not differ significantly from T4 in soil aggrega ng systems towards the sequence soil l tion was inversely correlated with soil widely been investigated. Statistical analysis over the course of two years of investigation revealed a significantly lower SOM-content in T1. The mean annual soil loss of about 180 t ha -1 during the research period from 1987 to 2001, and high surface run-off is the reason for this accelerated soil orga letion. In contrast, T4, T8, and T7 maintained soil fertility owing to the contribution of organic erial, i.e. mulch, grass roots and legume parts, to t e SOM-pool. Therefore, the significantly highest as measured in T4 (7,1 %) and T8 (7.0). Results showed a significant correlation between Electrical Conductivity (EC) and penetration ce and shear strength, as well as some elements in the treatm (0.61 mS cm -1 ), being significantly different from T5 (0.38 mS cm -1 ). No real differences were found he chicken manure plo .20 mS cm -1 ) followed by T3 (0.26 mS cm -1 ). A strong correlation between penetration resistance and shear strength was found in February 2001 and in August 2001. Shear strength correlation to EC was higher in Feb 2001 which points to the importance of the date of application of fertilizers and manures for the degree of correlation.Results on soil physical characteristics showed marked effects of chicken manure on the cropping systems. T5 and T6 demonstrated structural changes in both years. In the rainy seasons there were no real penetration restrictions. In contrast, its superficial soil structure altered in both dry seasons, and changed from a well structured soil to a superficially crusted soil. This phenomenon can be attributed to the effects of chemical dispersion on the soil structure which led to a destabilization of the superficial aggregates due to isomorphous replacement of elements of this nutrient rich manure. The development of soil crusting and sealing could be clearly distinguished from natural soil hardening due to aggregation by field observations in both treatments. Chicken manu tion but revealed notably lower amounts of aggregates in the class >6.3 mm and higher amounts of aggregates in the classes >1 mm, >0.5 mm and > 0.25 mm. The positive soil effects of chicken manure on soil fertility are counteracted by extreme structural degradation.Investigating the physical and chemical predisposition of Andean croppi development of soil crusts and seals revealed that excessive organic manuring and tillage practices negatively affected the soil's physical and chemical status. As a con crusting and sealing occurred in these treatments.Conservative soil treatments like minimum tillage and crop rotations improved the physical soil structure and chemical fertility. Consequently, soil crusting and sealing was not observed in these treatments. Soil erosion as a final monitor was strongly reduced. Therefore, these treatments should be strongly recommended to the farmers by local extensionists.There is still a need for additional research to find out appropriate amounts of organic and minera fertilizers on Andean hillside farming systems. Soil crusts and seals developed on steeper slopes in this research area should also be an important factor to be investigated in order to minimize soil degradation in this area.Wetting and drying processes in two textural savanna Oxisols in the Colombia Llanos P. Hoyos, E. Amézquita and D.L. Molina 1 Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) Institute of CIATIt is generally believed that Oxisols have excellent structural conditions that give them a high infiltration capacity and good drainage. However, different studies conducted in the flat Colombian Savannas (Llanos) have shown that these soils after being disturbed by machinery lose part of their infiltration capacity, increase runoff, and lose nutrients. A study of water infiltration capacity in a wide range of soil textures showed that infiltration was closely related to the percentage of sand in these soils. Soils with sand content inferior to 50% presented low infiltration capacity, while those with more than 50% of sand had moderate infiltration capacity. In these studies water infiltra strength ohyperthermic kaolinitic. The soils are acid with Al saturatio nd content and 24.6% of clay) and heavy (29.7% of sand and 40.9% of clay). The eva measured in the upper 0-3 cm of soil. Values that are higher than 45 KPa at field capacity showed restrictions to water infiltration. Although there have been numerous studies on water infiltration, very few have documented the processes of wetting and/or drying of the soil over time. The purpose of this study was to evaluate during the dry season, how different amounts and frequencies of applying water, affects the distribution of water in the soil profile of two contrasting textural soils: heavy and light. The study was conducted on the Matazul Farm, township of Puerto López (lat. 4° 5' and long. 72° 58'). The soils are classified as Typic Haplustox Is ns higher than 80%, base-saturation percentage less than 15% and low phosphorus content (2.3 ppm). The mean annual rainfall of the farm is 2251 mm, with a unimodal distribution from April-Nov. The potential evapotranspiration of the zone is 112 to 123 mm/mo for the rainy and dry seasons. Solar radiation varies from 4.47 to 4.77 Kw-h/m 2 , respectively.The purpose of this research was to study how in a dry soil profile of a natural savanna, water is redistributed after irrigation. Different amounts of water were applied every day (continuous application) or every other day (alternating application) to experimental units of 1 m 1 m of soils with different textures: light (58.6% of sa luation was made during the dry period (11 Feb.-3 Mar.) after 45 dry days, having two field replications in a completely randomized design. To each experimental unit different amounts of water were applied at a rate of 0.5 L/min. Nine treatments were used, they are presented in Table 8. The basic application rate for one day was 20 L/m 2 . The 20 liters were applied in four 5-L dosages, every 10 min, to prevent waterlogging and runoff. eavy soil had ost twice the OM content as the Treatments 1-5 received 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 basic rates, respectively, on continuous days, nding to 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 L of water/m 2 . Treatments 6-9 received 2, 3, 4 and 5 basic rates nating days, corresponding to 40, 60, 80 and 100 L/m 2 . After finishing each treatment, the tric moisture was measured at different depths (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and im 30-40 cm) and days 1, 2, , 6 8, 10 and 12, taking two samples of soil for each depth stratum in each experimental plot (i.e., 4 /treatment and depth). An initial sampling was done to determine OM content, bulk density ubes 10 10 10 cm) and particle density.Particle-density values mainta differences for soil texture or depth in the soil profile. The bulk-density values of the light soil were in the heavy-textured soil. Therefore, the h significantly higher at all depths, than those higher values of total porosity. On the other hand, the heavy soil had alm light soil.Table 9 shows the percentages of gravimetric moisture content in the light soil one day (field capacity) after the last application of water. It can be observed, that the maximum amount of water occurred when 100 L were applied in a continuous way. In this treatment moisture content was significantly higher than in the others treatments up to a depth of 20 cm. There were no significant differences with the application of 40, 60 or 80 L/m 2 . Moisture content values during the first day were higher than these of the control (6.54, 7.20, 7.52 y 8.56).Table 9. Percent of gravimetric moisture content (%) in the light-textured soil 1 day after application of the rates in the respective treatments.Rates Applied (L/m 2 ) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 --------------------Gravimetric moisture content (%) - --------------- ---Samples could not be taken with the borer due to the hardness of the soil; also indicates that the water was not sufficient to wet the soil.In general the continuous-eatments had higher gravimetric moisture contents than the alternating-application treatmen oil ha h s a transmit w he results from    Figures 10 and 11 show the gravimetric moisture content for the light and heavy tex spectively, for days 1, 4 and 8 after applying 100-L/m 2 treatments with continuous and altern plications vs the savanna control. For both textures a higher gra the continuous treatments than in the alternating treatments. in g tric moisture content between continuous vs alternating treatments in the heavy-textured soils than in the light-textured one. On day 8, the gravimetric moisture content in the light texture was lower than that for the savanna (control); while in the heavy texture a slightly higher gravimetric moisture content was maintained in the continuous treatment over the control. The data indicate clearly how the heavy-textured savanna maintains a higher gravimetric moisture content level over time than the light texture, which can be associated with a higher OM content, finer particles, greater capacity to store water and less macroporosity.The methodology used was sufficiently sensitive to detect the dynamics of drying the soil and could prove useful for understanding and d is necessary to eliminate the loss of water due to the lateral flow in the adjacent zone that did not received water. The light-textured savanna soils had a higher bulk density, lower total porosity and lower eavy-textured soils at all depths. The latter soils had a higher proportion of m itted more water retention, but their hydraulic conductivity was slower. At the field level, the wilting point was higher in heavy textures than in light, at both t isture (12.7 vs 7.3%) and volumetric moisture content levels (16.5 vs 10.8%). Sim er field capacity in heavy-than in light-textured soils: 17.5% and 10.9% isture content base 22.7% and 16.2%, respectively. The available water for plants was fairly similar in the two textures (6.2 and 5.4% light textures, respectively). These values are considered limiting for adequate plant growth and ent. The evapotranspiration rates in the 100-l/m 2 treatment were estimated at 13.6 and 16 the continuous and alternating systems, respectively. In the light-textured soil the available water was depleted in 4 days; in the heavy soils, after 8 days of drying. The treatments with continuous application had higher percentages of gravimetric moisture content and volumetric moisture content and theoretical available Susceptibility to compaction of improved Oxisols in the Eastern Plains of Colombia E. Amézquita, L.F. Chávez, D.L. Molina, P. Hoyos and J.H. GalvisDetermining the degree of soil compaction is very important to define its quality in terms of its capacity for crop production. It is necessary to use parameters that characterize it and that give values that can be compared among different soil types. In general, there is a scarcity of predictive methodologies capable of indicating to what extent a soil can be compacted without having an adverse effect on agricultural production. It is accepted that the methodology of determining relative bulk density (susceptibility to compacting or compacting level) satisfies this need. The \"compacting level\" is defined as the percentage of the ratio between the initial and the final bulk densities of a volumetric soil sample equilibrated to a suction of 7.5-10 KPa (field capacity), and subjected to an uniaxial confined pressure of 200 KPa. This percentage expresses the maximum value of the ratio ( ai/ af -initial bulk density of the soil/ final bulk density) that a soil can reach and relates it, according to Häkansson (1986), to a critical good level of 87%. Soils with values higher than this critical level are less adequate for root growth and for crop roduction. Values close to 100% indicate that the soil is already compacted and that the probabilities of of 30 cm at different intensities: 1, 2 and 3 chisel passes with legs separated at 5 m to obtain three degrees of soil loosening. These plots were sown in a rotation gras end in th f residues for improving soil physical conditions. the und 10-20, 20-30 and 30eva satu sub a Proctor apparatus (final volume). The ratio to c on to native savanna, no-intervened soil, that presented values ranging from 1.43-1.53 soil w bulk densities are of great importance for soil wat plan p agricultural success are low. This methodology is based on the use of large soil samples, but it can also been used with small samples. This article presents and discusses the results obtained in an Oxisol of the astern Plains, when applying this methodology to a soil-improvement trial.The experiment was established on the Matazul Farm (4º 9' 4.9\" N, 72º 38' 23\" O), located in the municipality of Puerto López, Meta Province, at an elevation of 260 m.a.s.l. The zone has two clearly differentiated climatic periods: a rainy season that goes from March until December and a dry season from December until the first week of April. The average annual temperature is 26.2ºC. The zone has an average annual rainfall of 2719 mm, a potential evapotranspiration of 1623 mm and a relative humidity of 81%. The soil is classified as Isohyperthermic Kaolinitic Typic Haplustox in USDA soil classification system. This trial was initiated in 1996; the measurements determinations that correspond to this paper were made in 1999.Susceptibility to compaction was made in plots of an experiment, designed to improving the soil physical condition of soils with high bulk density. The following treatments were used: (i) vertical tillage (use of chisel) to a depth 0.60, 0.30 and 0.1 system of rice/soybeans. The other treatments involved the use of two chisel passes and were sown with s alone pasture, legumes alone and a combination of grass + legume to be incorporated early (at the of the rainy season) or late (at the end of the dry season) into the soil, to study the effect of the season e incorporation o Experimental plots of 30 50 m were established and were random distributed at the beginning of experiment 1996A. After three years 1999B, in each plot three pits of 0.5 0.5 0.5 m were dug, and isturbed soil samples were taken in cylinders (50 50 mm) at four depths: 0-10, 40 cm using four replications. Twelve samples were taken per treatment per depth. The parameters luated included bulk density (initial and final) and susceptibility to compaction. The samples were rated and then submitted to equilibrium at a suction of 75 cm (field capacity, initial volume) and then jected an uniaxial pressure equivalent to 200 KPa in between the initial and final bulk densities permitted the determination of the percentage of \"susceptibility ompaction\" or \"compacting level\".In comparis (Mg.m -3 ) at the depths studied (Table 10), the values found in the treatments were lower, indicating that the had improved as a result of the treatments. SuiTable lo management in this type of soil as they are indicative of factors that regulate root growth, infiltration, and er movement in the soil, which in turn affects nutrient availability in soil and nutrient acquisition by ts. Given that a good bulk density values for crop production in mineral soils ranges from 1.10-1.30 ), the values found in the treatments we to those found under the condition of native savanna (natural state). This indicates ents had i d the soil physical condition. For interpretation of the results it should be taken into account that a value of 1 dicates soil is alr mpacted, as the field bulk the bulk of th ubmitted to the confined pressure. In the case of the native savanna at this depth, the value was 95.1%, which indicates that rema 4.9% of the soil volume, to be totally co d. In the native savan lues ways h than the l 87% level, indicating that sical condi these soils is not suitable for planting that vertical tillage needs to be applied before these soils e used for agriculture (Figure 12). Under the late incorporation of residue treatm nt, biological tre ts with gr legumes o passes of the chisel, had lower values (Figure 13 ), the values found in the treatments we to those found under the condition of native savanna (natural state). This indicates ents had i d the soil physical condition. For interpretation of the results it should be taken into account that a value of 1 dicates soil is alr mpacted, as the field bulk the bulk of th ubmitted to the confined pressure. In the case of the native savanna at this depth, the value was 95.1%, which indicates that rema 4.9% of the soil volume, to be totally co d. In the native savan lues ways h than the l 87% level, indicating that sical condi these soils is not suitable for planting that vertical tillage needs to be applied before these soils e used for agriculture (Figure 12). Under the late incorporation of residue treatm nt, biological tre ts with gr legumes o passes of the chisel, had lower values (Figure 13  deformed) of the soil is low. Values higher than 15% indicate that the soil is resistant to compaction and has a good machinery supporting capacity. The values for the native savanna were below this critical level to the depths studied. They ranged from 7.0% to 2.4%. The values found in the treatments were higher to a depth of 30 cm, leading to the conclusion that vertical tillage is essential for correcting these soils.The Oxisols of the Colombian savannas in their natural condition have high compacting-level values, ranging from 93-97% (a value equal to 100 indicates that the soil is already too compacted for farming and production of pastures), to a depth of 40 cm. Under these conditions, they are not apt for growing crops. These values can be lowered to \"adequate\" levels by using vertical tillage (2 passes of the chisel) in cator of the actual Centro tigate their influence on water infiltration. Field research was conducted in Santander de Quil rainsimu nfiltration were conducted in both rainy seasons (April/May and October rface with a needle of about 4 cm. Penetration resistances were measure combination with planting improved tropical forage grasses and/or legumes. The methodology used in this research proved to be sensitive to the changes produced by vertical tillage in the soil physical conditions; therefore it is recommended as an indi condition of soil compaction. The measurements of penetration resistance were made in nine cropping systems on 27 Standard Erosion Experimental Plots on slopes with an inclination of 7 to 13%, 14 years after the experiment was establish as a completely randomized block in three repetitions. Infiltration was measured using a minilator described by Amézquita (1999), irrigating a defined soil surface area (32,5 cm 40 cm) with a distinct amount of rain (90 ± 5 mm h -1 ). The simulator was installed about one meter inside the plot boundary. Leaves, grass particles and weeds were carefully removed from the soil surface before measurement. After calibrating the simulator by collecting and measuring a defined rain period of 1 min, a specific rain event of 50 min was carried out. The construction of this simulator enabled the collection of periodically (every 5 min). The difference between irrigated rain and run-off was defined as infiltration. Measurements of i /November) in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Each measurement was repeated nine times per treatment (three time per plot) to account for the spatial variability. Field measurements of penetration resistance were taken with a pocket Penetrometer. Six measurement points were established on each plot, two at each end and two in the middle part of the plot at a one-meter distance from the plot boundary. The penetrometer was inserted into the soil su d by pushing the penetrometer vertically into the soil surface. Four readings were taken at each measurement point and their mean noted.Considering the varying results of penetration resistance in the year 2000 (Table 11), four distinct time periods could be observed (January-March, March-beginning of May, May-September, September-December). These periods obviously coincided with the rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season March/May 2000 and the strong dry season July/August 2000 were of special interest. When the soil was wet, penetration resistance generally remained at a low level. In contrast, when the soil dried out penetration resistance increased in some treatments.In 2000, outstanding results in penetration resistance measurements were found in T4 revealing 46.4 kg cm -2 in August (Table 11). The cassava chicken manure treatments (T2, T5 and T6) showed a similar -2 trend in the rainy and dry season. Highest penetration could be measured in T6 (19.6 kg cm in wed by T5 (16.2 kg cm -2 in July) and T2 (12.9 kg cm -2 in August). T7 and T8 showed resu new (197 , results of T1 in September and October were not included in the analysis. Results of the two measurements in 2000 revealed that T4 and T8 showed the highest final infiltration after an as well as T1 and T3. Statistical analysis at p 0.05 did not reveal significant differences because of high averaged rain intensity of 90 mm h -1 (±5 mm), the lowest final infiltration was found in T5 and T3. The mean final infiltration reached only 42.2 mm h -1 in T5 and 42.7 mm h -1 in T3, respectively. In contrast, T4 presented a mean final infiltration of about 76.2 mm h -1 ). Investigating the curves of all treatments in 2000 showed stronger decrease in slope in the chicken manure treatments (T2, T5, and T6) spatial variability between measurement points (Tables 12 and 13). At a higher -level, p 0.10, significant differences between T4 and T5 were discovered. Additionally, final run-off was statistically analyzed at p 0.10. In the above mentioned treatments, the significantly highest final run-off was measured in T5 and T3. In contrast, the lowest final run-off was observed in T4. Taking the lower -level of p 0.05 into account, no further significant differences were found. Soil structural degradation and consequently reduced water infiltration as found in the cropping systems of Santander de Quilichao were attributed to the application of chicken manure (T2, T5, and T6) and destructive soil use such as bare fallow or cassava monoculture treatments (T1 and T3). Beneficial effects of chicken manure on soil fertility were neutralized due to the higher amounts of manure. The application time had a remarkably great impact on superficial soil structure. The favorable growth conditions during rainy seasons on one hand alternated with periods of severe physical restrictions for plant development due to soil crusting and sealing on the other hand. Although final infiltration was comparably high in T5, the risk of higher surface run-off was increased due to extremely high rain events and high rain energies reported for this region. Superficial soil crusts are known to cause a decrease in infiltration. The crusts act as natural barriers against local water infiltration. Thus, as a consequence of long-term manuring, all chicken manure treatments were characterized by a strong decrease in final filtration.on of organic manuring and intensive tillage practices leads to higher soil crusting and onsequently lower infiltration especially in fragile landscapes such as the Andean hillsides. Num ous soils from the tropics show pr ce of p peri c fires. In nutrient limited soils, coal add e sho ositive qual parameters and best ed ca the bla zonia anth genic soils that maintai ductivi nturie e. Bla n (C) identified as a key component in these soils. However, N availability was found to be lower on the black C rich Amazonian Dark Earths than adjacent soils. This N limitation in black C-rich soils was not found or legumes, a f forests on Amazonian Dark Earths than adjacent soils. Legumes also performed better on N-limited soils than grasses after charcoal applications (Rondon et al. unpubl. data) ere carefully removed from the soil, washed and separated into leaves + stems, roots and pods. Dry biomass was determined and then a finely ground subsample was used to reconstitute a composite plant sample for analysis of various nutrients, determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Another subsample was used for analysis of total N and 15 N content by Isotope ratio Mass Spectrometry.As can be seen in Table 14, soil pH is increased by increasing the additions of charcoal as well as the cation exchange capacity of the soils. This resulted in a net increase in the availability of some soil nutrients such as potassium which increased linearly from around 100 mg.kg -1 up to 490 mg.kg -1 with the higher additions of charcoal. Magnesium also increased from 25 to 85 mg.kg -1 . Nitrogen clearly limited plant performance as indicated by the low plant biomass in the non nodulating plants. Likely as a result of higher pH and higher availability of some soil nutrients, total plant biomass, nitrogen uptake and yield also inc n.gen uptake by nodulating and non nodulating common beans.Total plant Total plant N reased with low to medium additions of charcoal. Increments up to 40% were possible by the addition of 60 g of charcoal kg -1 soil. Nevertheless, the highest dose of charcoal did not have an effect on plant biomass of fixing beans and had a negative effect on biomass and total N uptake of the non nodulating bean isoline. The reason for a drop in BNF as well as biomass production (though not yield) at high charcoal application rates is not clear but may be related to nutrient unbalances, low N availability due to adsorption phenomena on the charcoal surface, and consequently low photosynthate productio In Figure 14, values obtained for the proportion of total nitrogen derived from Biological nitrogen fixation are presented, as well as the partitioning of plant nitrogen from the soil and from the atmosphere. Nitrogen fixation was increased significantly with additions of charcoal, from around 50% in the soil alone to 72% with the highest dose. Most of the increase is reached with even low doses of charcoal. derived from soil (NdfS) and from biological fixation (NdfA) by plants of common beans. This pro e e inhibitory effect on nitrification in soil (IP-5 Annual Report, 2003). We have tested the stability, to the soil with 182 ppm f N as (NH 4 ) 2 SO and incubated at 20 C and 95% RH. Sequential sampling was done at 25 d intervals cess could be associated with increased levels of both Molybdenum and Boron in the soils that received charcoal. Nitrogen total uptake from soils decreased with increasing charcoal doses. These results demonstrate the potential for increasing the N input by BNF into agroecosystems in highly weathered and acid soils by using charcoal applications. Future studies should include field experimentation to optimize BNF and explore the sustainability of BNF improvement by charcoal.   Our results support the hypothesis that presence of NH 4 -N stimulates the synthesis and release of NI activity from roots (data not presented on the root tissue NI levels). The release of NI activity from roots appears to be a highly regulated phenomenon and NH 4 -N in the rhizosphere is certainly one of the portant regulating factors for the release of NI activity. Also, regulatory role of NH 4 -N in the1 JIRCAS, Tsukuba, Japan  16). The NI activity released in the presence of NH 4 -N was several-fold higher than in the absenc Root exudates collected using distilled water or 1 mM NH 4 Cl Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) Institute of CIAT pan and reduces the emission of nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Given these findings with f nitrification ent tropical grasses, there is a need to determine the extent of genetic variation rmplasm bank. This information will en nitrification inhibition and roo P, 100 K, 66 Ca, 28.5 Mg, 20 S and micronutrients at 2 Zn, 2 Cu, 0.1 B and 0.1 Mo. A total of ten accessions were used (accessions CIAT 679, 6133, 6369, 6707, 16866, 16867, 16886, 16888, 26149, 26159). A control without plants was also included. The experiment was arranged as a completely randomized block design with four replications. Each pot contained four plants. After sowing, plants were allowed to grow for 15 weeks and were cut to 10 cm height to simulate grazing effects under field conditions. Plant tissue was dried and saved.Plants were allowed to re-grow during 5 weeks more to promote a well developed root system and then ammonium sulfate was applied in solution at a rate of 38.5 mg N-NH 4 /kg soil (equivalent to 100 kg N-NH 4 per hectare). Five weeks later plants were harvested (at 25 weeks after sowing). At the end of the experiment, plants were carefully removed from soil minimizing mechanical damage to the roots. Soil adhered to the fine toots was removed and the roots were rinsed with deionized water. Once clean, the roots were fully immersed in 1 liter of deionized water and were allowed to produce root exudates during 24 hours. Collected root exudates were kept in the refrigerator and were reduced in volume to approximately 100 ml using a freeze drier.Harvested plants were separated into shoot and roots. Root length was measured using a root length scanner. Dry matter content and N status of both shoot and root biomass was determined. At harvest time, soil samples were extracted with KCL and analyzed for nitrate and ammonium levels. The concentrated root exudates were further concentrated using a rotovapor using protocols that were developed for this purpose. The final concentrate was tested for its nitrification inhibitory activity using a ecific bioassay developed at JIRCAS. l biomass roduction among most of the CIAT accessions except for the accessions of 16866 and 16867, which were lo level of NI (nitrification inhibitory) activity in the ot exudates of most of the accessions tested (Table 16). However a range in NI activity was found among the tested accessions. dón 1 , I.M. Rao 1 , C.E. Lascano 1 , J.A. Ramírez 1 , M.P. Hurtado 1 , J. Ricaurte 1 , G.V. Subbarao 2 , T. Ishikawa 2 , K. Nakahara 2 and O. Ito 2 1 2 JIRCAS, Tsukuba, Ja Collaborative research with JIRCAS, Japan, has shown that B. humidicola CIAT 679 inhibits nitrification of ammonium the commercial cultivar of B. humidicola CIAT 679, and the fact that a range of inhibition o was observed among differ among the 69 accessions of B. humidicola that are part of CIAT ge be extremely useful to develop screening methods to select genetic recombinants of Brachiaria grasses that not only are resistant to major biotic and abiotic stress factors but also can protect the environment. Given the vast areas under B. humidicola in the tropics, reductions in net emissions of N 2 O could also have important environmental implications.The main objective was to quantify differences among 10 accessions of B. humidicola regarding the nitrification inhibition activity of root exudates collected from plants grown under greenhouse conditions using infertile acid soil. Also we intend to test the relationship betwe t production in terms of biomass and length.A sandy loam Oxisol from the Llanos (Matazul) of Colombia was used to grow the plants (4 kg of soil/pot) under greenhouse conditions. A basal level of nutrients were applied before planting (kg/ha): 40 N, 50 spResults on dry matter partitioning among shoot and root biomass from the comparative evaluation of the ten accessions are presented in Table 15. No significant differences were found in tota p wer than the rest of the accessions. However, significant differences among accessions were found in root biomass production. The commercial cultivar, CIAT 679, which has been used in most of the previous work, seems to have root biomass around the average value for the group tested. The accession 6707 produced the highest root biomass among the tested accessions. Values of root biomass of this accession were more than twofold greater than the value for the lowest in the group, the accession 26149.Results from the bioassay indicated substantial ro Accessions could be grouped in 3 classes in relation to their specific NI activity. Group 1 with the accession CIAT 16867 showed no NI effects, behaving similarly to other grasses such as Panicum maximum, which also lack the NI activity. Group 2 that included accessions CIAT 6133, 6707, 16866, 26149, 6369, and 6707 showed similar levels of NI that was observed with the commercial cultivar CIAT 679. Group 3 that included the accessions 16886, 16888, and 26159 showed significantly higher levels of NI than the accession 679. The accession 16888 was outstanding in its NI activity with a value of more than three times to that of the value of CIAT 679.Table 16. Nitrification inhibitory activity (total NI activity pot -1 and specific activity g -1 root dry weight) of the root exudates from ten accessions of B. humidicola grown under glasshouse conditions. Plants were grown for six months before the collection of root exudates. In a given column, data followed by the same letter indicate non-significant differences (LSD, p<0.05). NI activity is expressed as AT units; One AT unit is defined as the inhibitory activity caused by the addition of 0.44 M of allylthiourea (AT) in the bioassay medium. Thus, the inhibitory activity of the test samples of root exudates is converted into AT units for the ease of expression in numerical form. * Negative activity indicates that nitrification was stimulated by the root exudates. need to validate some of these findings under field conditions. This year a collabor oil is fertile with a pH of 6.9. wo accessions of B. humidicola were included: the reference material (CIAT 679) that has been used r most of our previous studies, and the high NI activity germplasm accession (CIAT 16888). The s included as a moderate NI and Panicum maximum var. common was included as a egative non-inhibiting control. A crop rotation (maize-soybean) was included to assess under field the rotation we used maize variety (ICA re removed manually is used as an absolute control. next year. f ios 1 and I. M. Rao 1 te regions. Other grasses such as Panicum maximum lack the NI activity, while the Brachiaria hybrid cv. Mulato was found to have a moderate level of NI activity. The use of this hybrid is expanding rapidly in Latin America due to its high productivity and forage quality.All these above studies were conducted either using hydroponic systems or soil in pots under greenhouse conditions to test and verify the concept of the biological phenomenon of nitrification inhibition. There is a clear ative (CIAT-JIRCAS) long-term experiment was initiated to validate the phenomenon of NI under field conditions and to monitor whether the NI activity is a cumulative process in the soil.Given the vast areas currently grown in the tropics on tropical grasses, an understanding of the NI process and the possibility of managing it to improve fertilizer N use efficiency, reduce nitrate pollution of surface and ground waters as well as reduce net impact on the atmosphere through reduced emissions of nitrous oxide, could have potential global implications for sustainable agricultural development and environmental protection.The field experiment was established on 31 August 2004 at CIAT-Palmira on a Mollisol (Typic Pellustert) as a randomized complete block (RCB) design with six treatments and 3 replications. Annual rainfall at this site is about 1000 mm with a mean temperature of 25 C. S T fo Hybrid Mulato wa n condition the recent finding that Soybean lacks NI ability (indeed accelerate nitrification), while maize shows some degree of inhibitory capability. As first crop of V109). A plot without plants where emerging weeds a Plot size for each treatment was 10m x 10m. Irrigation will be provided if necessary. Maize was planted from seeds and the tropical forage grasses were propagated from vegetative cuttings. Fertilizer will be applied (broadcast) for every crop cycle, consisting of (kg/ha) 96 N (as urea), 48 K, 16 P, 0.4 Zn, 0.4 B and 8 S. The fertilizer is split into two equal applications: one at 20 days after sowing of each crop (either maize or soybean) and the other at flowering time at approximately 60 days after sowing.A number of soil and plant parameters will be measured at every four months. These include nitrate and ammonium availability in the soil, dynamics of nitrifier organisms in soil, plant nitrogen uptake and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions. The NI activity of soil water extracts will be measured using the bioassay. Soils samples will be periodically collected and sent to JIRCAS to assess changes in inhibitory compounds in the soil. Gas samples for measuring N 2 O fluxes will be collected every month. Once a year, soil incubation studies will be conducted using rhizosphere soil, to monitor nitrogen dynamics and fluxes of N 2 O. Currently plants are growing well and the initial sampling is expected in January 2005. Results from this field study will be reported Ecosystems, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia Crop production on Andosols in the tropics is limited primarily by availability of phosphorus (P). The high allophane contents of these volcanic ash soils strongly sorb phosphates. To maximize P fertilizer use efficiency it is necessary to quantify the residual value of previous P fertilizer applications.The APSIM model (Agricultural Production Systems Simulator; www.apsim.info) simulates the effects of management or nutrient availability on soil quality and crop growth. Recently a phosphorus capability has been added to APSIM. This study extends the testing of the P capability to a wider range of soils and crops. APSIM can be used for farming systems where both organic and inorganic sources of nutrients are supplied. In this study, two experiments were carried out to evaluate APSIM for rotations of maize and beans, responding to different rates of chicken manure and soluble phosphate fertilizer applied as annual inputs or residual effects from an initial application.The experiments were established on farm in Pescador, Cauca, Colombia (2 48'N, 76 33'W, 1500 m (CHME) were es h two more cycles. Basal nutrients (N, K, Ca, Mg, and micronutrients) were ap .a.s.l.). The area has a mean temperature of 19.3°C and 1900 mm of annual rainfall. Soils are derived from volcanic ash depositions and classified as Oxic Dystropepts, with a bulk density close to 0.8 Mg.m -3 , pH-H2O 5.1, total C > 52 g kg -1 , effective CEC of 6.0 cmol c kg -1 and P availability (BrayII) of < 11 mg kg -1 .Residual Phosphorus Response experiment (RPRE) and chicken manure experiment tablished as random complete block designs with four replications. RPRE consisted of nine levels of P (as triple superphosphate) while CHME had four levels of chicken manure (local organic fertilizer) (Table 17). Experiments started with planting of maize (Zea mays L. cv Cresemillas) in September 2001. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv ICA Caucayá) was planted in March 2002. The rotation of maize and bean crops was continued throug plied to all treatments in RPRE but not in CHME.To predict the response to P and chicken manure additions in both experiments, daily temperature, radiation and rainfall were generated using Marksim. Soil characteristics (i.e., nutrient contents, P fractions, plant available water content) were measured in the field at the start of the experiments. Crop parameters (i.e., time to flowering, time to maturity and nutrient concentrations) were measured and used as inputs for the model. For practical purposes, only the first two cycles of maize and bean are reported For which measured yield data were available. 1 1 Annual application of P (kg ha -1 ) to maize as triple superphosphate, 2 Annual application of Chicken manure (t ha -1 ) to maize. * A= annual, R= residual, ** Nutrient content of chicken manure varied from year to year; average values were 37% C, 3.3% N, 1.5% P, 2.0 K, 3.8% Ca, 0.9 % Mg.Measured data: For RPRE in the first cycle the highest yields of biomass and grain were obtained at the highest rates of P application (P160R and P80R) (Figure 17). In the second cycle however, yields for P80R declined but P40A increased relative to P160R. For CHME, yields of biomass and grain increased with application rate of chicken manure in both cropping cycles (Figure 18). Bean shoot biomass and yield in the second cycle, particularly in RPRE, was very low because plants were severely affected by diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Colletotricum lindemuthianum. In the first cropping cycle, yields obtained with the higher rates of superphosphate (P80R and yieldsThe results suggest that the P inputs in RPRE are inadequate to maintain sustainable yields or there is some other limiting factor that is being corrected by chicken manure additions. d P160R) or chicken manure ( 6 and 12 tha -1 ) were similar, but for the lower rates of application declined markedly in the second season.Simulated data: There are numerous reasons why the model might fail to adequately predict the observed pattern of response. These include: 1) insufficient crop parameterization because maize and bean varieties used were not adequately characterized. This was the first ever attempt to model a P response for beans using APSIM; 2) generated data from MarkSim apparently overestimated total rainfall for 2001 and 2002 when compared with meteorological data measured at the site. This results in APSIM predicting that the site is very wet with leaching of nitrate N from the root zone (data not shown); and 3) APSIM does not consider pest and disease problems, which clearly affected bean yields for the second cropping cycle in RPRE.Nonetheless there was a fair degree of conformity between the predictions and the observed data. For the maize crops, the highest yields obtained at the high rate of chicken manure and the response to the lower rates were predicted reasonably well by the model. For RPRE, the model tended to overpredict the effectiveness of the P40 treatments in the first cycle and the residual effects of the initial P treatments in the second cycle.The agreement is sufficiently encouraging to undertake further measurements to better specify the crop parameters for the cultivars grown and to revisit the simulations when crop yield data for the third cycle become available. Opportunities also exist to evaluate model performance in terms of soil P status (i.e., compare soil P test data with model predictions of the labile P pool). Enset ventricosum is a perennial, security crop that feeds about 13 million people in Ethiopia. It is grown in the homesteads, covering about 18% of the farm, in mixture with Coffee, kale, and other vegeTables. The recent shift from enset to cereals and continual soil fertility decline in the outfields caused food deficit for at least 3 months in a year. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of soil fertility gradients on enset growth, identify the major growth limiting nutrients, and identify farmers' decision making criteria in allocating resources to various enterprises. The research was conducted on farmers fields of resource rich (G1) and poor (G3) for four years (2001)(2002)(2003)(2004). Enset transplants were planted in homestead and outfields. Application of fertilizers by farmers to different units over seasons and years as recorded. Enset growth and nutrient content was measured. The results showed that the G1 group roduced about 2xs more organic waste than G3, and purchased chemical fertilizers 5xs more than the G3 e enset field in the homestead. There as significantly higher N, P, K and Ca contents in the home stead soils than in the outfield, regardless of farmers nced about 90% height reduction and 50% reduction in pseudo stem dia mestead. We thus w p farmers. About 80 % of the organic resource produced was allocated for maintaining soil fertility, while 20% being allocated as cooking fuel. Of this 65% is allocated for th w ' resource endowment. The P content of the outfield was the lowest, less than 25% of the P content of the homestead. Similarly organic matter in the outfield was only about 40% of the homestead. Enset plants grown in the outfields experie meter, regardless of resource categories, while the NPK content of the plant tissues grown in the outfield was significantly higher, in some case up to 150% than those planted in ho concluded that growth reduction in the outfield was not directly related to NPK deficiency, but it could have been caused by off-season moisture stress in the outfields, manifested by low soil organic matter. The attempt to attract resources to the outfield using enset as an attractant crop failed, not because of labour shortage but because of unavailability of enough organic resources in the system. Hence on spot management of nutrients was initiated by farmers.Explori enyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya; Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya; Makerere Univers e farm. Nutrient use efficiency aries strongly along these gradients of soil fertility in African smallholder farms. Targeting soilertility gradients within smallholder farms must be onsidered when designing integrated soil fertility management strategies, aiming at an improved e overall nutrient dynamics within the farm system. Here, we quantify the magnitude and tudy the origin of farmer-induced, within-farm soil fertility gradients as affected by biophysical and nditions, and investigate farmers' perceptions of such heterogeneity. Farm transects for rm management assessment, participatory resource flow mapping, and soil sampling for both chemical esenting the variability found in the highlands of western Kenya. Within-farm ed by defining field types, considering distance from the homestead and ment practices, crop for different field types and N balances and general soil fertility status varied between field types, though not ng diversity in soil fertility management of smallholder farms in western Kenya. II Withinfarm variability in resource allocation, nutrient flows and soil fertility status P. Tittonell, B. Vanlauwe, P. A. Leffelaar, K. D. Shepherd and K. E. Giller National Agricultural Research Organisation, Kampala, Uganda; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; K ity, Kampala, Uganda; Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Strong gradients of decreasing soil fertility are found with increasing distance from the homestead in tropical farming systems, due to differential resource allocation within th v improving technologies to the more degraded soils as a means for restoration of agricultural productivity is often unsuccessful. The existence of soil f c efficiency for th s socio-economic co fa and spectral reflectance analyses were performed across 60 farms in three sub-locations (Emuhaia, Shinyalu, Aludeka) repr heterogeneity was classifi differences in resource allocation, and according to farmers' perceptions. Manage productivity, nutrient balances and soil fertility status were documented farmers' land classes within the farms. Both field typologies were in agreement, as farmers classified the home fields commonly as 'fertile'. Despite strong differences across sub-locations, input use, food production, C and always correspondingly. Concentration of nutrients in the home fields was verified for the average extracTable P levels and secondarily for exchangeable K, whereas the spatial heterogeneity in soil C and N contents were only important at individual farm scale. Farmers managed their fields according to their perceived land quality, varying the timing and intensity of management practices along soil fertility gradients. The internal heterogeneity in resource allocation varied also between farms of different social classes, according to their objectives and factor constraints. The interaction of these with the sub-locationspecific, socio-economic and biophysical factors, had important implications for farming system characterisation necessary to facilitate targeting research and development interventions to address the problem of poor soil fertility.Quantification of the range of within-farm soil fertility gradients and identify the major biophysical and socio-economic factors driving their generation A Muriuki and B. Vanlauwe TSBF Institute of CIAT That declining soil fertility and resultant land degradation are the causes of the ever decreasing agricultural production in East Africa is now widely acknowledged. The need to rectify the problem is pertinent if the region is to become self sufficient in food production. Crops grown on depleted soils typically respond to N and P fertilizers, but fertilizer recommendations, where they exist, cover large areas and ignore within-farm soil fertility gradients, which have become a common feature of smallholder farms. The Farm Gradients Project (FG) reported here is attempting to develop site-specific recommendations for Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) based on local soil fertility lassification schemes. It is hypothesized that within-farm soil fertility gradients are large enough to be hen planning the allocation of scarce nutrient inputs at the farm level. The project characterized 240 smallholder farms located in 3 benchmark sites in East Africa ved characterization of s, agro-ecological zones and estigating factors affecting soil fertility status. c taken into account w namely in Vihiga and Siaya districts in western Kenya, in Tororo and Mbale districts in eastern Uganda and in Meru South and Mbeere districts in central Kenya. Farm selection invol benchmark sites using secondary data, superimposition of GIS layers for soil administrative boundaries, and random selection of 4 sub-locations (Kenya) or parishes (Uganda). In the final stage, a 'Y' sampling frame was used to select 10 farms in each sub location/ parish. The 'Y' frame was considered to be most efficient for quantifying spatial correlation between sampling units and for removing spatial correlation effects when inv Seven forms were prepared to capture the administrative, biophysical and socio-economic characteristics of each farm. Administrative information was used to identify each farm from country to the village level. Socioeconomic information included a farm map, information on the household head, the farm's labor structure, inputs used, off farm income, food security, livestock, and links to nearby markets while biophysical information was collected on a field by field basis and included field characteristics e.g. slope, landscape position, flooding, erosion, hard-setting, rock/stone cover etc and management information e.g. fallow, nutrient input use, conservation, farmer soil fertility assessment etc. Soil samples were taken to 50 cm soil depth, from a 5m by 5m quadrant placed at random locations within each field and the auger holes geo-referenced. The field corners were also geo-referenced. The samples were analyzed for diffuse reflectance spectra (0.35 to 2.5 µm). A corresponding soil fertility index (SFI) was assigned and used to estimate corresponding soil organic carbon (SOC) and extracTable P values. A database was been set up and efforts to transfer all the data from hard copy to electronic form are well advanced.Preliminary analyses of the SOC and organic P variance structures (Table 18) using a mixed model approach, confirm the existence of large soil fertility variation at all levels, but particularly within farms. The variation increased, district < sub-location < farm < within farm for SOC and sub-location < district < farm < within farm for extractable P. These results show that soil management recommendations made at the district or higher levels will not allow farmers to manage this variability adequately. Field covariates such as distance from the homestead, number of years cultivated, number of seasons that fields have been fallowed etc. were used to explain this variability. Position on the landscape and distance from the homestead significantly contributed to the variability of SOC and extracTable P values (Table 19). When covariates such as position on the landscape, land use and distance from the homestead were used simultaneously in the model (Table 19), their inclusion did not change the previous variance structure (Table 18) considerably. Position on the landscape and land use are commonly used when making agro-ecological zone based fertilizer recommendations while distance from the homestead has been observed to influence fertility in smallholder African holdings. Evidently, identifying the major contributors to this variability at the global (regional) scale is not easy. Exploration at lower scales could yield more meaningful results, thus data analyses will be initiated at these scales. The project also explored whether farmers were aware of the existence of soil fertility gradients in their farms. They were asked to rate the fertility of fields into three classes: low, medium and high, and their responses compared to measured values of SOC and extracTable P in soil samples taken from those fields. Farmer perceptions were fairly agreeable with measured values. For example, of the 510 fields rated low, 378 had low SOC and low extracTable P, 110 had low SOC but medium values of extracTable P, while 22 had low SOC and high values of extractable P (Table 20). Fields rated low but with medium ers ted 333 fields as having high so lity and of these, 222 had high m extracTable P and SOC. Clearly, farmers can id elds with differing fertility levels fairly accurately. In the coming y dies will be car xp edge il quali As a follow up to the farm char z , two field experim re laid out in April 2 sub-locations per district in 5 districts (Vihiga, Siaya, Meru South, Mbale, Tororo). The first e s at diagnosing th st limiti ong N , and S for e production while the second will determine specific site responses to N and P fertilizer for a maize/bean intercrop ( SOC values and low P were 113, while those which had low extractable P but high SOC values were 19. Of the 716 fields rated medium, 514 corresponded to medium values of extracTable P and SOC.  Grand Total -locations were selected on the basis of w ariation of SOC and m trasting mean SOC. As far as possible, the experiments were laid out s that had been previo racterized by is project. Where new farms were included, preparations are underway to characterize them following the Farm L (all data below in kg/ha)(all data below in kg/ha) Sub idest v ost con in farm usly cha th Gradients Project protocol. All new farms are located within the Y in affected districts. Each experiment was laid out in 5 randomly selected farms per sub-location and within each farm, in two fields following a paired plot design. The selected fields represent the extremes of soil fertility status for potential cereal fields, one field having the highest SOC value, the other the lowest. Potential cereal fields located in the bottomland and drainage positions on the landscape were automatically disqualified as were homestead fields, fields under perennial crops and those under fallow. Treatment layout in both experiments was completely randomized. The experiments will continue throughout 2004. Data from the Limiting Nutrients trial (Table 22) will be used to determine the relative importance of missing nutrients, the potential yield of maize under NPKS application and under inherent nutrient supply, as well as to estimate the recovery fractions of applied nutrients using the QUEFTS model. The output from the Specific Site Response trial will be a sub-location based yield response curve to N and P application.Peter Ebanyat, Rob Delve, Mateete BekundaThe broad objective of this Ph.D. research is to increase understanding and enhance use of ISFM practices by targeted application taking into account within and between smallholder farm variability in soil characteristics. The specific objectives to be researched are:o To understand the impacts of long-term farm management practices on creation and/or reinforcement of within-farm soil fertility gradients o To understand the need for targeted ISFM practices within-farms o T on ecological and socio-economic s a r e To develop guidelines for implementation of targeted ISFM practices taking into account existing soil fertilit ients n the fi r the focus s been on c ing the 10 fa n each of villages and understanding the term utrient bal , mean partia nces acros llages for N, and K are shown in Figure 19 (a). N balances were most negative for Keria village (-2.3 kg ha -1 ). Both P and K o evaluate the impact of targeted ISFM practices ustainability at f m scal o I y grad rst yea ha lass rms i three ir systems in s of n ances l bala s the vi P balances at village level were positive although there were variations at farm level in each of the villages of Onamudian (b), Chelekura (c) and Keria (d). Mineral fertilizer is hardly used in farms across the villages. Equally, the use of organic manures is very low. Grazing and atmospheric deposition contribute a substantial inflow of nutrients to farms at the village level. The greatest losses of N occur through leaching while for P and K from manure dropped outside (Table 23). 0.1 (0.2) 0.2 (0.3) 3.4 (9.4) 0.8 (2.2) 2.4 (6.8) 0.1 (0.2) 0.0(0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 1) 6.7 (7.1) 6.7 (7.1) 3.6( . 4.5 (0) 0.7 (0.0) 2.9 (0) 4.5(0.0) 0.7 (0.0 2.9 (0.0) 4.6 (0.3) 0.8 (0.0) 3.0 (0.2) BNF 1.8 (1.6) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0) 2.0(2.6) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 1.0 (1.1) 0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) Crop prod Crop resid Manure Leaching Gas Loss Erosion Hum Excr -0.6 (0.7) 0.0 (0) -4.0(0) -13.6(3.7) -3.2 (8.1) -0.8 (0.6) -4.0 (2.9) -0.2(0.2) 0 (0.0) -3.8(3.7) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) -0.4(0.3) -1.2(0.9) -0.2(0.3) 0.0(0.0) -4.4(4.0) -0.6(0.5) 0.0 (0) -1.2(0.9) -0.8(0.6)-1.9(4.8) -0.3(0.7) -2.2(2.4) -0.9(0.7) 0.0 (0.0) -1.9(1.4) -1.3(2.6) -1.3(1.7) 0.0 (0.0) -3.3(5.0) -10.9 (8) -2.3(1.3) -0.7(0.9) -3.4(1.9) -0.3 (0.3) 0.0 (0.0) -3.3 (5) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) -0.4 (0.3) -0.9 (0.5) -0.8 (0.9) 0.0 (0.0) -3.3 (5) -0.8(0.5) 0.0 (0.0) -1.1(1.0) -0.7 (0.4)Values in brackets are standard deviations A selection criteria for the farms, in terms of socio-economic and biophysical characteristics was then used to develop a farm typology through Principal Cluster Analysis (Figure 20)  Data collected using the NUTMON tool were used in agglomerative cluster analysis using SPSS a er Z score similarity of farms was derived using the using the Ochai coefficient (van Tongeren, 2002)  to clust 28 in o c ass and e h of them into diff re t classe The maj r highly orrelated ariables . total fa m area, n t arm inco es, famil earnings t tal livest ck units nd total selected define th ee farm ses whic e inclin wealth s t s (Table 24). The HRF a very few but hav th highest tal tropi l livesto nits and net farm igure 21 & b). A hough to l farm area is an impor ant varia le it doe n t well di erentiate he farm lasses bec ut use the MRF rathe than HR ave large farm siz s (Figur 2  Standard method for land use inventory and classification (including land use intensity) for adoption in the BGBD project defined J.J. Ramisch, J. Huising, P. Okoth, CSM-BGBD partners At the annual meeting of the CSM-BGBD project, held in Embu, Kenya, it was agreed that the country teams would apply a minimum set of standard questions for conducting their baseline surveys of socioeconomics, land-use history, current practices and awareness of BGBD in their sites. This set of topics would, at a minimum, include background information on the respondent (i.e.: the land users for the sites at which each of the BGBD inventory sampling activities was taking place + respondents from the broader community to establish how representative the BGBD sample sites were of the urrounding practices), the respondent's land holdings, current land management practices, and land-use istory, and finally the current awareness of the respondent of below-ground organisms or processes.e \"pre-contact\" perceptions of respondents of below-ground rganisms, such as whether or where their influences were strongest or weakest, or whether impacts of Standard method for land use inventory and classification (including land use intensity) for adoption in the BGBD project defined J.J. Ramisch, J. Huising, P. Okoth, CSM-BGBD partners At the annual meeting of the CSM-BGBD project, held in Embu, Kenya, it was agreed that the country teams would apply a minimum set of standard questions for conducting their baseline surveys of socioeconomics, land-use history, current practices and awareness of BGBD in their sites. This set of topics would, at a minimum, include background information on the respondent (i.e.: the land users responsible for the sites at which each of the BGBD inventory sampling activities was taking place + respondents from the broader community to establish how representative the BGBD sample sites were of the urrounding practices), the respondent's land holdings, current land management practices, and land-use istory, and finally the current awareness of the respondent of below-ground organisms or processes.e \"pre-contact\" perceptions of respondents of below-ground rganisms, such as whether or where their influences were strongest or weakest, or whether impacts of ill be sampled using the sam r Infra-red ill be sampled using the sam r Infra-red be used for analysis soils be used for analysis soils and data added to the and data added to the FG database. During 2 FG database. During 2 05 ISFM options sele 05 ISFM options sele testing by farmers will be evaluated. testing by farmers will be evaluated. s s h h Since the project is expected to have greatest impact on awareness and understanding, it was felt that the most important element of the baseline was th Since the project is expected to have greatest impact on awareness and understanding, it was felt that the most important element of the baseline was th o o Potas sium these organisms were largely beneficial, negative, or neutral as far as local priority crops or other land use activities were concerned.The standard set of methods was developed and circulated in mid-2004. However, it is not clear to what extent this set has actually been incorporated into the actual baselines conducted within the teams, as the expected inter-team communication and sharing of both survey instruments and preliminary results has not taken place. Repeated efforts at stimulating such interactions using the project listserve and direct e-mailing have not been successful. The greatest exchanges so far have been from direct, personal interaction, which typically only involves one country team at a time, usually during field visits by the project coordination. Soil contains one of the most diverse assemblages of organisms of any habitat on earth and still soil biota remains largely unexplored. Although soil biota performs crucial ecological functions in natural and agricultural ecosystems, the relationships between soil macrofauna diversity, soil characteristics and landuse are poorly understood, as are the mechanisms that govern these interactions. To date, little attention has been paid to the potential of agroecosystems to conserve and manage biological diversity within soil.Because soil macrofauna can have positive influences on soil fertility due to the effects of their activities on soil physical, chemical and biological properties, agricultural practices that promote diversity and abundance of soil macrofauna may actually promote improvements in soil quality and productivity in a important ramifications for food security, income and quality of life. The overall objective of this study is to determine the effects of the Quesungual agroforestry system on the diversity, distribution and abundan y. The exploration of spatial and temporal hetereogeneity in soil properties and soil una communities relative to patterns of vegetation and land usewill be part of this study.recognition that the integration of local knowledge and scientific knowledge can ad to insights into sustainable management and reduce risks associated with farming difficult as hillsides. There has been relatively little research into farmers' perceptions, values nd observations of soil macrofauna diversity and community composition, although some traditional species, such as earthworms, be, used as an indicator of soil fertility.dnut (Arachis hypogea) on succeeding sorghum were tudied during three years (2000 to 2002) in a weakly acid Ultisol of the agronomic research station of West, 11 o 6' North and 405 m altitude), located in the Guinean zone of Burkina Faso. wo field agronomic experiments were used. The first experiment was a factorial design in a split plot trogen fixation (BNF), legume effects on succeeding sorghum yields, N recovery and eriment, Nitrogen Fertiliser Equivalencies (NFE) 0), a simple randomised block experiment ndnut-sorghum, cowpea-sorghum, maize-sorghum and sorghum-sorghum) and rghum was sown on all plots and each main ce of soil macrofauna and the implications for soil quality. The Quesungual agroforestry system presents a prime opportunity for studying the relationships and feedback mechanisms among land use, soil characteristics and plant biodiversity and soil macrofauna, and for examining whether this system can benefit both farmers and biodiversity conservation. This research project will concentrate on relationships between soil quality and the Quesungual system, focusing on the diversity, abundance and ecological functions of soil macrofauna as a component and indicator of soil qualit fa There is growing le environments such a farmers in areas of the tropics are known to regard the presence of particular as indicators of soil fertility. This study will examine farmers' perceptions of soil biodiversity, and investigate whether soil macrofauna is, or could The effects of cowpea (Vigna unguculata) and groun s Farakô-Ba (4 o 20' T arrangement with four replications using crop rotations as first factor and fertilizers as second factor. Biological ni nematode infections were measured. In the second exp of groundnut and cowpea were studied. In the first year (200 with four treatments (grou four replications was used. During the next year (2001), so plot was split into five subplots and five rates of N fertiliser (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 kg N ha -1 ) appliedsubplots. Then, the experiment became a factorial 4 x 5 design in a split plot arrangement with four replications. The results show that compared to continuous cultivation of sorghum, cowpea and groundnut increased succeeding sorghum yields. Cowpea was the most efficient in increasing the yield of the succeeding sorghum. Legume-Sorghum rotations increased sorghum grain yields by 60 to 300 % compared to continuous sorghum. The N fertiliser equivalency of groundnut (35 kg N ha -1 ) was higher than that of cowpea (25 kg N ha -1 ), indicating that using these legumes like precedent crop may involve an economy of 25 to 35 kg N ha -1 in mineral fertilisers. Groundnut fixed 8 to 23 kg N ha -1 and the percentage of N derived from the atmosphere varied from 27 to 34 %. Cowpea fixed 50 to 115 kg N ha -1 and the percentage of N derived from the atmosphere varied from 52 to 56 %. Compared to the mineral NPK fertilizer alone, legumes fixed more nitrogen from the atmosphere when phosphate rock (PR), dolomite or manure was applied with mineral fertilizers. Compared to continuous sorghum, Legume-Sorghum . Barrios , G. Mahuku , N. Asakawa , C. Jara , J. Navia and L. Cortés cional de Colombia, Palmira,Colombia del Valle, Cali, Colombia. ocietal demands for agricultural sustainability and biodiversity conservation has been ached in the past decade (UNCED-1992). New approaches to continuing problems, like soil nt approaches owing a better control of soil soil biota. Use of green ing from (i) protection of the soil biological activity and diversity of microorganisms, which in turn can lead rotations increased soil mineral nitrogen. The soils of Legume-Sorghum rotations provided more N than those of continuous cultivation of sorghum. A better use of N fertiliser was also observed in legume-sorghum rotations. In continuous sorghum, fertiliser N use efficiency (NUE) was 20%. But in Cowpea-Sorghum and Groundnut-Sorghum rotations, NUEs were 28 and 37% respectively and the highest total N uptake by sorghum was observed in legume-sorghum rotations. Compared to continuous sorghum, groundnut-sorghum rotations decreased soil and sorghum infection by nematodes while cowpea-sorghum rotations increased nematode infections. Consensus about s re degradation and soil pest and diseases, are then needed in order to achieve agricultural sustainability. Our overall working hypothesis in this study is that combining soil fertility and pest manageme would provide a unique opportunity to exploit synergies all fertility/pest&disease limitations to crop productivity than either approach alone. The management of organic matter is crucial to the activities of the manures can have a multi-faceted beneficial effect on crop productivity aris soil from erosion; (ii) increased nutrient cycling; (iii) synchronized nutrient release and uptake by the plants; and (iv) increase in to minimized damage and loss from soil borne pathogens, and increased activity of beneficial microorganisms. However, different sources of green manure can have different effects on the balance between populations of harmful and beneficial organisms because they have different rates of decomposition and nutrient release as well as different impact on soil moisture and temperature that invariably affects relative population sizes. For this reason, we considered important to evaluate the effect of different sources of green manure on three key functional groups of soil biota: 1) pathogens, 2) microregulators and 3) microsymbionts. We are studying the population dynamics of soil pathogenic fungi (Fusarium, Sclerotium, Macrophomina, Rhizoctonia and Pythium), soil nematodes (discriminated by feeding habit), soil microsymbionts (mycorrhiza, rhizobia) during cultivation of common bean in soils infested with pathogenic fungi. Evaluations were carried out by: a) directly identifying and quantifying different soil biota from functional groups mentioned above and by quantifying growth of external hyphae as a measure of AMF activity and b) indirectly, by evaluating the incidence of disease on susceptible plant genotypes and by plant infection test for determining the native rhizobia symbiotic potential. The relative position of these three groups in the soil food web suggests the potential for soil organic matter management to reduce soil pathogenic fungi populations and incidence in bean plants by change induced in soil moisture and temperature, nutrient availability and interaction with other soil organisms.An experiment was established in CIAT's Santander de Quilichao Research Station, using a plot that has a history of high incidence of root rot pathogens. The plots were planted with a root rot susceptible bean variety A 70. Immediately after planting, the plots were covered with three green manures treatments: (1) rapidly decomposing Tithonia diversifolia(TTH); (2) intermediate rate of decomposition (but greater soil cover due to leaf morphology) by Cratylia argentea(CRA); (3) slow decomposing (Calliandra calothyrsus (CAL) at a rate of 6 ton ha -1 ; and (4) control (no green manure added). The experiment was replicated five times. Soil samples (0-10 cm) collected during the cropping season included at least planting and harvesting time. Samples were collected within rows and between rows, to measure the effect of the rhizosphere of bean plants on the soil biota studied.Diversity of soil pathogenic fungi: Preliminary data revealed that plots receving CRA had a significantly less fungal diversity (p<0.05) than plots receiving the other sources of green manure or the control (Figure 23). No significant differences were observed between the other treatments and the control. However, since this is the second season after initiation of the experiment, it is still too early to ake sound conclusions. m The most frequently isolated fungus was Aspergillus (A) in all treatments, while Macrophomina (Ma) and Rhizoctonia (R) were the least isolated fungi (Figure 24). Other fungi that were isolated included Fusarium (F), Penicillium (P), Humicola (H) and Mucor (M). The presence of Penicillium is interesting, as some species of this fungus are known to solubilize phosphorus. Humicola is a fungus that has been found to be involved in decomposing organic matter, and this was found in abundance in plots receiving Calliandra. Several fungi were isolated that are currently being classified. These were tentatively placed under the \"unknown\" group (D). It is possible that some of these fungi could be potential biological control agents. Although Macrophomina has been observed in the past in high frequencies and incidence on infected plants, this fungus was not detected in the soil samples analyzed thus far. It is possible that the method of analysis that is used leads to the exclusion of this fungus, or the high incidences observed under field conditions results from seed-borne inoculum. Frequency of different fungi isolated from plots receiving none (control) and slow decomposing green manure or the control.soil nematodes: Total number of soil nematodes was always higher in the row th lighting the importance of the bean plant rhizosphere effect (Figure 25). On a atodes were found when Tithonia was applied to the soil and the overall order was TTH>CRA>CON=CAL . Taxonomic identification of nematodes and classification into feeding gro nd should help in the interpretation of abundance trends observed.Abundance of an between the rows high verage greater number of nem ups is on going a igure 25. Total number of nematodes from plots receiving a fast, intermediate and slow decomposing green manure or the control Incidence of root rot pathogens: Significant differences were observed in the incidence of root rots in some treatments when compared to the control (Figure 26). Application of Calliandra, and Tithonia significantly reduced disease incidence (p<0.05), while a slight increase in disease incidence was Analysis of the samples collected from these plots revealed that most of the root rot symptoms were caused by Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium solani, while Rhizoctonia solani was occasionally isolated. Significant yield increases were observed for plots treated with Calliandra (10%) and reduction for plots receiving Tithonia (-29%) (Figure 26). Although a slight increase in yield was observed (1.2%) for plots receiving Cratylia, this was not significantly different from the control plots.ments some initial trends can be identified. Compared with the control application of Calliandra resulted in increased bean yield, reduced incidence of root rots and low nematode abundance. In the case of Cratylia, there were minor differences in root rot incidence, yield and nematode abundance (in row) when compared to the control. Although disease incidence was low in plots receiving Tithonia, bean yield was also negatively affected. Taxonomic identification of nematodes would help to understand if high nematode populations in TTH were involved in reducing bean yield. In addition, the impact of treatments on the bean plant symbiosis with mycorrhiza and rhizobia needs to be included for a more complete explanation of yield differences encountered. Nevertheless, yield differences were likely also influenced by a combination of physico-chemical factors including differences in nutrient release by the three green manure sources.While at this early stage application of Calliandra seems to offer the best results we need to xamine how transient or cumulative these effects are and the mechanisms of action involved. The y been grouped under the \"Unknown\" group for potential Incidence YieldIncidence of root rots and yield of the bean genotype A 70, grown in plots with or without different types of green manures expressed as a percent of control treatment.First results indicate that despite the relatively limited time of green manure treat e potential exists that unknown beneficial microorganisms are promoted in the soil by green manures and thus can potentially be used to manage root rot pathogens and/or for promoting plant growth. We are urrently evaluating fungi that have tentativel c antagonistic effects, as well as Penicillium species for their ability to solubilize phosphorus.Estimating yields of tropical maize genotypes from non-destructive, on-farm plant morphological measurements P Tittonell, B Vanlauwe, PA Leffelaar and KE Giller Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 2004, In Press Maize is the main grain crop grown in the highlands of sub-Saharan Africa, on a broad range of soil ability has been reported at different scales, iting and growth-reducing factors. Maize urate to estimate both total above ground dry matter and grain yields per plant (r 0.76 P. Titto ified using information on product ieces of land nd relied on low wages derived from working for wealthier farmers. Farms of types 3 and 4 were es in household wealth and production orientation between farm types were reflected in the atterns of resource flow at farm scale. Nutrient resources and land management practices (e.g. fallow) rmously between sub-locations. Both inherent soil properties and management explained e variability found for soil fertility status. Texture explained the variation observed for soil C and lated total N between sub-locations, whereas P availability varied mainly between farm types as se.fertility and management conditions. Important yield vari reflecting the intensity and spatial distribution of growth-lim yield estimation represents a valuable tool to assess within-farm variability in soil fertility through crop performance. The objective of this study was to develop mathematical relationships between plant morphological attributes and grain yield of tropical maize genotypes, based on plant allometric characteristics. These models were used to estimate maize yields and the estimates were validated against independent data collected from experimental and farmers' fields in western Kenya. Three commercial hybrids and three local varieties were considered. Multiple linear regression models including plant height and cob length and diameter as explanatory variables, and simple linear regressions including only plant height, were the most acc 2 to 0.91). Average values for the harvest index ranged between 0.34 and 0.42, describing a curvilinear relationship with total aboveground biomass per plant. Yield estimations on ground area basis for farmers' fields were somewhat less accurate due to the variability in plant density. Plant height measurements can be easily taken at any moment after maize flowering, and used in simple linear regression models, providing acceptably accurate estimations of maize yield.Exploring diversity in soil fertility management of smallholder farms in western Kenya. I. Heterogeneity at region and farm scale nell, B. Vanlauwe, P. A. Leffelaar, E. Rowe, K. E. Giller The processes of nutrient depletion and soil degradation limiting productivity of smallholder African farms are spatially heterogeneous. Causes of variability in soil fertility management at different scales of analysis are both biophysical and socio-economic. Such heterogeneity is categorised in this study, quantifying its impact on nutrient flows and soil fertility status at region and farm scales, as a first step in identifying spatial and temporal niches for targeting of soil fertility management strategies and technologies. Transects for soil profile observation, participatory rural appraisal techniques and classical soil sampling and chemical analysis were sampled across 60 farms in three sub-locations (Emuhaia, Shinyalu, Aludeka) representing the variability found in the highlands of western Kenya. Farm system models were developed for five representative farm types that were ident ion components of the farm system, farm assets, family structure, labour and income sources, and considering household objectives and main constraints faced by farmers. Soil fertility management and nutrient resource flows were studied for each farm type and related to differences in soil fertility status at farm scale. The farm system models were consistent across sub-locations. Farm types 1 and 2 were the wealthiest, though the former relied on off-farm income and farmed small pieces of land while the latter farmed large land areas mainly with cash crops. The poorest farm type 5 also farmed small p a intermediate representing diverse crop production strategies for self-consumption and the market. Differenc p also differed eno th re affected by input u practices and farmer perceptions on linkages between soil management practices and soil quality. The tudies will be carried out in eastern Uganda (Tororo and Mbale) and western Kenya (Vihiga and Siaya) ling Rural Innovation in Africa: Lessons from multinational agricultural research institutes, extension services training events and joint field visits, regular communication and informa itutionalizing partnerships beyond dividual personalities. Overcoming the challenges of quality public-private partnerships between markets. alait, Tororo District; Busumbu and Mbale, Mbale District have been randomly selected from each wealth class to carry out a resourc s districts and will commence immediately.Agricultural research and development organizations are increasingly under pressure to build partnerships with a range of stakeholders, institutions and organizations of different characteristics, sizes, levels and objectives. What is not obvious however, is how to build such partnerships, and to cope with obstacles and challenges to effective partnerships to make small-scale farming more market orientated. This papers reflects on partnership experience of Enabling Rural Innovation (ERI), a multi-institutional and multistakeholder partnership between international and , non governmental organizations, farmers' organizations, and the private sector for linking farmer participatory research and market research in a way that empowers farmers to better manage their resources and offers them prospects of an upward spiral out of poverty. The paper highlights several important factors that contribute to the success of partnership, and discusses strategies used for coping with the obstacles to quality partnerships. Critical success factors include a shared vision and belief in community-based participatory approaches, strong and consistent support from senior leadership, joint resources mobilization and resources sharing, evidence of impacts and mutual benefits, and sharing credit and recognition. Other important factors include building human and social capital through interpersonal relationships and friendships, tion sharing. The changing policy environment, and current reforms in agricultural research emphasizing partnerships and participatory approaches, provides a conducive environment for quality partnership. However, sustaining quality partnerships is challenging. This requires creative strategies for coping with some obstacles such as staff turnover and over commitment, expectations of individual benefits, sustainable funding mechanisms, and challenges of inst in agricultural research institutions, government services and private sector, especially business services and market institutions, will be critical for achieving success in linking smallholders farmers to Typologies developed to relate household resource endowments to on-farm soil fertility gradients and their management J.J. Ramisch 1 , A. Muriuki 1 , B. Vanlauwe 1 , I. Ekise 1 ; M.T. Misiko 2 ; J. Okello 3 ; J. Ogada 4 1 TSBF-CIAT; 2 Wageningen Agricultural University; 3 Makerere University, Uganda; 4 Egerton University, KenyaTo study the social aspects of within-farm soil fertility gradients, a survey was conducted in eight sub-locations in Western Kenya (Ebusiloli and Emusutswi, Vihiga District; Nyalgunga and Nyabeda, Siaya District) and Eastern Uganda (Kayoro and K), using participatory methods (facilitated community meetings and small group work with key informants) to be followed up with formal interview schedules. The study provides a baseline for characterizing the reasons underlying the differential management of local farms (various fields), addressing both internal (e.g., resource endowment), and external (e.g., access to input/output markets) factors. The indicators of wealth and soil fertility management practices identified are now being used to both a) determine the degree to which the households identified through the spatially-guided \"Ysampling\" process are representative of their communities (i.e.: the sub-locations the Y's are designed to characterize) and b) to provide a resource-endowment basis on which to stratify the sample population. On this second point, ten informants e flow mapping exercise after the survey. Many of the wealth indicators mentioned were common to all sites. These included livestock, farm size, access to transport; use of hired labour; use of rented land, use of inorganic fertilizers, the food security afforded by the crops harvested from the farm, reliance on off-farm income, and reliance on-farm income such as cash crops or the sale of milk. In general, the community members who met in each of the study sites provided very comprehensive lists of criteria that would distinguish three wealth classes igh, medium, and low) relevant to the ability to manage agricultural land. Examples of these criteria are (h given in Tables 25a and b for Ebusilloli sub-location in Kenya, and are typical of the criteria and subsequent partitioning of households generated in the other sites. Means \"to give out livestock\" under an agreement that allows the keeper to derive all the benefits, including sale of milk, except selling the animals. This article explores the question of how scientific information can improve local agronomic management using concepts of uncertainty classification and uncertainty management. Information and data on local soil fertility management based on a local classification system of soil quality were collected from a small watershed in Cauca (Colombia). The analyses suggest that farmers hold local knowledge about soils at two levels. The first is based on empirical obse s using measured soil parameters. At a second level, farmers have some awaren and appropriate use of rela argued that local knowledge is not sufficient to cop agriculture, including, increasing land pressure, unpredicTable market have suggested how scientific knowledge can contribute to the solution, based on an analysis that relates Cohen's (Hueristic reasoning about uncertainty: an artificial intelligence approach. Pitman London, 1985) and Rowe's (Risk Analysis 14, [743][744][745][746][747][748][749][750]1994)  This manual presents and discusses methods and tools applied under the \"Strengthening Folk Ecology\" project. It is a descriptive and analytical summary of how those methods and tools were developed, applied, and how they have continued to be adapted and combined for different circumstances. Rather than simply offering another \"toolkit\" for practitioners and farmers, the main discussions focus on key lessons learned about the application of those tools and methods under the project.The \"Folk\" Ecology project was a community-based interactive learning initiative. Its focus was to broaden farmers' soil fertility management strategies by incorporating scientific insights of soil biology and fertility into their repertoire of folk knowledge and practical skills. The major objective of the \"folk\" ecology project is to develop innovative and interactive learning tools that facilitate the exchange of knowledge and skills between farmers, scientists and other agricultural knowledge brokers.To achieve its goals, the project first undertook community-level studies on local soil fertility practices and perceptions using several mainly qualitative methods and tools. These methods and tools have been described and discussed in section two of this manual. The third part provides \"folk\" ecology teractive learning approaches and experiences. This manual is divided into four parts: part one, retical background relevant to \"folk\" ecology; part two, tools for communityased studies; part three, the \"folk\" ecology interactive approaches and experiences; and part four, anual.University; TSBF-CIAT , Kenya, 27 Sept -4 Oct, 2004 to manage their agro-ecosystems is \"dynamic\" in that it responds ncreasing understanding of local ecological knowledge and strengthening interactions with formal ened. .J. Ramisch ; M.T. Misiko 1 ; I. Ekise 2 ; J. Mukalama The expertise small holder farmers use to local logic and ever-changing bio-physical, climatic, and economic environments. \"Dynamic expertise\" is thus rooted in the local knowledge system (\"Folk Ecology\") that smallholder farmers use to interpret new ideas and research findings. Participatory research methods integrate local knowledge with the knowledge of outsiders (researchers, other experts) to build the \"dynamic expertise\" that empowers farmers to apply knowledge to practical situations. This poster presents experience with generating dynamic Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) expertise among farmers in rural western Kenya. This process formed part of the Strengthening \"Folk Ecology\" project, a community-based interactive learning initiative of the Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute (TSBF). The \"Folk\" Ecology project generated dynamic expertise through dialogue and hands-on strategies to understand how farmers' local logic would influence outcomes of project work, such as the incorporation of elements of new technologies into the farming system. Evidence of dynamic expertise included: new farmer experiments, enhanced capacity for local institutions and networks, and new \"language\" for new knowledge and skills.2 J 1 Wageningen Agric Work with com do indeed possess and use a functioning local ecological knowledge system, which we have designated a \"folk\" ecology to distinguish it from the \"formal\" or systematized \"science\" of ecology. Th ecology follows its own consistent logic an relevant concepts and understanding of the agro-eco ns and gaps of folk ecologies apparent through an iterative dialogue between esearch groups (FRGs) and between farmers and researchers (see Figure 27 ogy). Making \"folk\" ecology more accessible both to its users and to researchers es to improve the utility of local knowledge for making agricultural decisions and ication of new ideas between actors. f reasons, understanding (and then enriching and broadening) \"folk\" ecological ely long and complex pro (ISFM)hat\" (i.e.: to identify e project or of PhD-level researchers. igure 27. The Strengthening Folk Ecology process. Dialogue and group activities that form part of as an entry point for community activities largely because TSBF's strength is in improving soil management. However, because of the embedded nature of \"folk\" ecology, the activities and innovations of the community-based learning process have extended well beyond purely addressing \"soil fertility\". The depth and quality of \"folk\" ecological knowledge varies widely between actors, even within relatively homogenous communities, such that it is difficult to generalise \"who\" knows \"w \"women's knowledge\" as such, etc.) The local institutions involved (FRGs, kinship and marriage networks, etc.) are themselves also extremely complex and often volatile, with memberships, priorities, and motivations that can change substantially over time. Similarly, \"folk\" ecological knowledge relating to soil management is rarely conceived of separately from broader livelihood concerns and priorities. The goal throughout will be that \"folk\" ecology is strengthened through processes rooted in local institutions, actors and processes, ensuring that the co-learning activities are not (either in perception or reality) overly linked to the presence of thTechnology testing F the \"Integration of local and insiders' knowledge\" feed into an iterative process of collective and individual technology design and testing, which leads to the generation of local \"dynamic expertise\" for managing agro-ecosystems. However, understanding the processes that lead to the evolution of this \"dynamic expertise\" is as important as the expertise itself. Continuous community-based studies inform researchers' contributions to the integrated knowledge activities, while documentation helps both farmers and researchers share knowledge with each other, with other communities (scaling up activities), and with other knowledge brokers.Future work will build on the achievements of the first phase by documenting the dynamics by which \"folk\" ecological knowledge is generated, shared, or withheld in the institutions involved in the research so far. These institutions include the formally constituted groups (i.e. FRGs, women's groups, etc.) as well as informal community networks such as those of kinship, marriage, or friendship, commercial or patron-client relationships. Participant observation of key informants and of the functioning of the FRGs demonstrated that \"folk\" ecology is learned and modified through a variety of learning styles, and that no single approach is fully sufficient for building farmers' confidence with new or unfamiliar topics. For example, many of the FRGs used fairly researcher-designed demonstration or experimentation activities of soil fertility management as a starting point but have since evolved their own unique sets of activities incorporating local logics and priorities. The experimentation is now much more Up-scaling to other communities distributed to multiple individuals within the FRGs with various ways of sharing findings within each context. The emphasis of activities has also shifted from \"purely\" soil improvement to food security issues, and test crops now cover everything from local vegeTables to root crops to legumes and cereals. In all the sites, FRGs now engage in various co-learning activities such as drama groups, small discussion circles, and self-help financing.The increasing diversity of activities requires substantial follow-up, which will be implemented through a participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) process that will both: a) determine how FRGs' innovations can be supported and enriched with inputs from partners or each other and also b) feed the FRGs' lessons into on-going farmer-researcher dialogue. Combining the outputs of the farmer-driven PM&E and more researcher-driven documentation process will generate appropriate co-learning activities, experiments, and materials to support improved decision-making for managing the local agro-ecosystems.Finally, we are reinforcing the successes of the first phase by following the transmission of knowledge within FRGs, and also the modes in which technical people and farmers interact, with the goal of comparing the information content and outcomes that result from different generations of interactions. This component of the project will allow us to derive general principles about how to \"unbundled\" complex knowledge (such as t ed in il-germplasm livelihood technologies) and how to better communicate ments to that knowledge.M.T. Misiko 1 , J.J. Ramisch 2 , J. Mukalama 2 , Ken Giller 1 ; Paul Richards 1 1 Wageningen Agricultural Unive 2 TSBF-CIA Paper in preparation This paper analyses farming practices among smallholder farmers of Butula, Chakol, Emuhaya and Matayos in western Kenya. It assesses the soil fertility worth of these practices that included use of different organic manures (compost, FYM, mulches) of varying qualities and traditional systems (such as crop rotation, natural fallows, intercropping) that depended on complex local logic. This local logic was not by and large geared tow , rather the u g factors inc : available materials; tradition and traditional economic needs and abilities; land size, labour, new knowledge, and the differ f it, which shaped new dynamism. New dynamism resulted in strengthened ecological knowledge of few local farmers, which nevertheless, did not qualitatively percolate out to other individuals within and outside the sites. This paper points out that accelerating dynamism (i.e. strengthening positive vitality of) local logic is the best approach to enhance soil fertility ers can offer many insights into the sustainable management of opical soils. In order to capture this local knowledge and link it with technical knowledge systems, a particip hat involv improve managing so -climate- A South-South development of a methodological guide for linking technical and local soil knowledge for designing Integrated Soil Fertility Management options Barrios, E., Delve, R.J., Bekunda, M., Mowo, J., Agunda, J., Ramisch J., Thomas, R.J.The increasing attention paid to local soil knowledge in recent years is the result of a greater recognition that the knowledge of smallholder farm tr atory approach in the form of a methodological guide has been developed to identify and classify local indicators of soil quality related to technical soil parameters. This methodological guide was initially developed and used in Latin America and the Caribbean (Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Dominican Republic), and was later improved during adaptation and use in the East African context (Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) through a South-South exchange of expertise and experiences. Valuable contributions from collaborators in Africa have now been incorporated into a new Spanish version of the methodological guide via a full reciprocal South-South exchange cycle. This methodological tool aims to empower local communities to better manage their soil resource through better decision-making by fostering the development of a local soil quality monitoring systems. It is also designed to steer soil management towards developing practical solutions to identified soil constraints, as well as, to monitor the impact of management strategies implemented to address these constraints. Farmers become aware that some local and technical indicators can provide early warning about unobservable changes in soil properties that later lead to visible soil degradation. The methodological approach presented here constitutes one tool to capture local demands and perceptions of soil constraints as an essential guide to relevant research and development activities. A considerable component of this approac d landscap tandard methods was mandatory, were learly defined and assigned to all the participating countries. A list of optional functional groups, with all as developed in consultation with the partners. eloped and circulated to project nts. The countries are Brazil, Cote d'Ivoire, India, nya, Mexico and Uganda. The functional groups whose inventories were k areas. Taxa have been determined for 8 h involves the improvement of the communication between the technical officers and farmers and vice versa by jointly constructing an effective communication channel. The participatory process used is shown to have considerable potential in facilitating farmer consensus about which soil related constraints should be tackled first and what potential soil management options could be used. Development of local capacities for consensus building is presented as a critical step prior to collective action by farming communities resulting in the adoption of integrated soil fertility management strategies at the farm an e scale.This year, significant progress was made in the GEF funded CSM-BGBD project in all the participating countries in terms of methodology development and inventory of below-ground organisms. Functional groups of soil organisms, for which the inventory by prescribed s c the attendant methods for their inventory, w Standard methods for the inventory of the soil organisms dev partners in seven countries in three contine Indonesia, Ke considered manadatory include: legume nodulating bacteria (LNB), Arbuscular Michorrhizal Fungi (AMF), Phytopathogenic Bacteria (i.e. Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Erwina, Xanthomonas), Ectomycorrhizae, Soil Borne Fungi (i.e. Phythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia), Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Nematodes (i.e. plant pathogens and free-living pathogens), Mesofauna, Macrofaune (i.e. ants, beetles, termites, and earthworms) and finaly palnt pests (i.e white grubs or commonly known as fruit flies.Collecting samples for inventory of BGBD and site characterization of benchmark sites completed in Brazil. Fieldwork for first project phase completed in Mexico. Sample analysis is underway. First results of the inventory of earthworms and nematodes presented to a stakeholders workshop. Indonesia completed field work for two benchmar groups of soil biota. Inventory of pests and disease is underway. Uganda has completed fieldwork for site characterization and BGBD inventory. 3 (Geoffrey's site), compost manure $70.9 (Dina's site and 114.2 (Geoffrey's site) and continuous cropping $314.2 (Dina's site) and $314.2 (Geoffrey's site) per hectare. Improved fallows saved on labor compared with continuous cropping and compost manure except for natural vegetation fallow. Higher returns to labor were obtained through use of improved fallow than compost manure and continuous cropping. Returns to labor of $0.54 day -1 were obtained for compost manure (at Dina's site), which is less that the wage rate at $0.57 day -1 indicating a loss in labor invested.Profitability analysis and linear programming to optimize the use of biomass transfer and l tools, whilst stud perenni determi inorgan improve species SIP we especial found 5Mucuna application. Under the optimal solution 0.81 ha, 218.1 labor days and 188,867 r three cropping seasons would require For BT the application of 0.91 t ha of T o with a 1 day h of sm ll ete m ecies in eastern ganda production in sub-Saharan Africa is declining due to increasing population land. A resultant feature is the dependence on external inputs to attain crop yields at and nce level. This paper evaluates the acceptance of one low cost approach to overcome high of green manure and legume species in Eastern Uganda. The eight shrubs of main cus were Mucuna pruriens, Canavalia ensiformis, Tithonia diversifolia, Sesbania sesban, Crotalaria nts of decisions to utilize these technologies and farmer perceptions of the management of these focus group a were subjected to descriptive statistics improved fallow species for soil fertility improvement P.N. Pali, B. Bashaasha, R. Delve, R. Miiro Submitted to African Crop Science Journal Studies that have focused on the economics of integrated soil fertility management technologies have predominantly used the partial budgeting and Economic Rate of Return (ERR) analytica ies that have used the linear programming (LP) technique have been restricted to the evaluation of al cropping systems including agroforestry. This paper uses a partial budget analysis and LP to ne the optimal combination of management practice and profitability of using organic and ic soil improvement options. The incorporation of 100% or 50% of the above-ground biomass of d fallow (IF) species Mucuna pruriens and Canavalia ensiformis and the biomass transfer (BT) Tithonia diversifolia are the focal soil improvement practices (SIP) considered in this study. All re more profiTable then farmers existing practice, with BT being more profiTable than IF, ly when BT was used in combination with inorganic N fertilizers. For IF the optimal SIP was 0% Mucuna and 100% an investment of 327,150 Uganda Shillings would be required to obtain the optimal benefit of Uganda Shillings ove -1ith nia with 30 kg N ha -1 would produce the highest net benefits of 445,744 Uganda shillings ha -1 , 6% lower optimal net benefit solution of 372,069 Uganda Shillings, on 0.83ha, using 105 labor s. T e IF and BT options considered were all profiTable and the production objectives and constraints a holder farmers is the only constraint to their adoption. A survey of 108 farm households using a structured questionnaire and e dat discussions (FGD's), were the main data collection tools. Th and Probit regression modeling analytical techniques. The factors that explained technology acceptance were insecticide use, household size, cultivated area, perception of soil improvement technology following use, education, and wealth. Sesbania and Mucuna were found to be the most popular and problematic tree and shrubs respectively. Reported benefits related to sustainable utilization and improved livelihoods through shrub and tree technologies included increased yields, soil texture, soil structure improvement, erosion control and alternative uses of shrubs and trees Competitiveness of agro-forestry based soil fertility management technologies for food production: the case of small holder food production in western Kenya Maithya, J.M 1 , Kimenye, L.N 1 , Mugivane, F. 1 , Ramisch, J. 2 1 Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi; 2 TSBF-CIAT Paper submitted to African Crop Science Journal Persistent food insecurity accompanied by low and declining farm house hold incomes are a common feature of many small holder maize and bean producers. This has been largely attributed to soil nutrient depletion among other factors. One way of addressing soil fertility problems in many maize-based ropping systems is the use of agro-forestry based technologies. A survey was carried out in Vihiga and n systems which were categorized on the basis lity. Farm budgets were first formed and in turn used to s namely: maize-bean intercrop without any inputs, maize-c Siaya districts of western Kenya. The Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) method was used to determine the social and financial competitiveness of different productio of the technology used to address soil ferti construct the PAMs for six production system bean intercrop with chemical fertilizers only, maize-bean intercrop with chemical fertilizers and improved fallows, maize-bean intercrop with improved fallows only, maize-bean intercrop with improved fallows and rock phosphate, and maize-bean intercrop with farm yard manure (FYM) only (see Table 26 and 27). Use of the combination of chemical fertilizers with improved fallows was the most financially and socially profiTable production system, with profits of Ksh 10,038 and Ksh 7,370 respectively. Use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) gave the third highest financial profits of Ksh 8,390 and also the second highest social profits (Ksh 6,977). One thing which is clearly observable from the production systems is that use of chemical fertilizers enhanced the financial profits gained from use of improved fallows. However, due to price constrains in relation to chemical fertilizers, it can be concluded that use of FYM can be both an affordable and profiTable technology package for the production of maize and beans.There is need for retailers selling chemical fertilizers to consider repackaging it into small quantities (like 100g, 200g and 300g) which can be affordable to farmers. Also, farmers should be encouraged to use Farm Yard Manure (FYM) though it ranked third in terms of private profitability and second in terms of ocial profitability.  Classification of farmers in study sites based on their wealth status resulted also in three classes. This classification was paramount as it identified important farmers' socio-econo which are critical determinants in adoption of soil fertility management technologies.Average correlation coefficient (r) in both sites (0.5), indicated a positive correlation between soil fertility management and wealth endowment variables. T-test on r-values ( = 0.05) led to rejection of null hypothesis that there is no relationship between farmers' wealth endowment and their soil fertility management status. This result therefore, indicates that wealthy farmers are also good soil fertility, thus confirming PLAR classification. Results indicated significant differences in some technical soil quality indicators (TSQI) between classes and within different portions of same farms. However, some TSQI did not show such significant differences.  es. The to level including crops, forages, trees, valley bottoms, homestead crops and other niches b) participatory estimation of biomass yield per time and space in selected farms c) Monitoring resource flows and production fluctuations at household level in selected farms d) Participatory identification of possible niches for growing more biomass in the system, e.g. integration of high biomass producing, promiscus type legumes, (e.g. Climbing beans, Soybeans) and fast growing and browsing resistant forages (e.g. napier grass).","tokenCount":"31340"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b07079ccb5facb17274d6fcf092f6ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d9067f5-3e4f-4693-8d3c-23aff99c8f7d/retrieve","id":"1473170895"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"402877a2-1385-44d9-95b4-1dae918d21d1","pagecount":"12","content":"1 4 61 i~ 1 8 FEB. 1994 Tlle need lo m¡¡inl8ln selected clones and promising hybrids in a dise8se-frce condition lor dislribution lo national programs stimulaled some 01 the early studies on in vitro germplasm maintenance 01 potatoes (Solanum) and cassava (Msníhot).Immediale ulilizalion 01 tile improved germpl8sm W8S Ihe major force bohincJ these early in vitro conservation efforts wilh polaloes and cassava (Schilde-Rentschler and Roca 1987, andRoca, 1985). At aboul the same time Morel (1975) and Henshaw (1975) advoeated in vitro culture teclmiques lor plant genelie resource conservatían, in contrast to merely holding collections lar immediate use in plant breeding. Also during thisperiod, successful work on the conservation 01 plant !issues by cryopreservation look place at Ihe Universily 01 Nottingham under the lale Prolessor Slree! (1973). It was only in 1980 Ihal lile polential 01 in vitro cullure melilods lor Ihe conservation 01 \"diflicult\" plant species was recognized (Wilhers and Wílliams 1985).These included vegetatively propagated crop plants and those whose seed was unresponsive lo 011hodox seed conservation condítíons such as low temperature and • Paper presented al Ihe OAS/SRG Bíotechnology Conlerenee, \"Tíssue Culture Technology lor lmproved Farm Produelion\", Sept. 30-0el. 3, 1991, Kingston, Jamaica, W.I. decreased waler content, which is typical 01 many tropical perennial Iruit species and various palms. In the early 1980s, lollowing a report on global in vi/ro conservation by Wilhers (1979) /n vitro conservalion has lo be considered part 01 Ihe overall conservation slralegy lor a pal1icular plan! species, as a valuable adjunct to g(!Ile!íc rosourco conservation. In some cases, in vítro slorage wauld be Ihe only strategy lar a given species, lor example, lor some tropical Iruil trees such as cacao (Tl1eobroma). Tuber and root cropo, like potatoes, cassava, and sweet polatoes (Impomoea) wO.Jld probably be stored as seed and in vitro methods being preiered lar Ihe; eonservatíon 01 genotypes (cultívars, hybrids, elite clones, etc.). For olher tropical tuber and root crop genotypes and ¡ruit species (e.g., Musa) that seldom produce seed and are totally sterile, in vitro slorage and ex situ field gene banks would probably be complementary.In the case 01 tropical species with recalcitrant saed, in vi/ro collection and exchange should playa basie role.The range 01 crop species whose conservation is potentially achievable through in vitro techniques is wide. In addition to the species listed aboye. several genera 01 asexually propagated-plants can be included, SUCll as Colocasia, Xant/70soma, Vitis, and Saccllarum. Furthermore, genera traditionally propagated by sexual means bu! wllose seed is recalcitrant or presents slerilily problems are also potential candidates lor the in vitro approach. This range 01 species includes Tlleobroma, Citrus, Correa, Cocos, and E/ais.Conservation of plant genetic resources by means 01 in vitro culture methods can be achieved by changing the culture environment 10 slow down or totally suppress the growth 01 cells and lissues, the objective being to eilher increase the culture transler period as much as possible or extend it indelinilely.Two Iypes 01 in vi/ro gene-bank conservatíon llave been proposed (Witllers and Williams 1985): (i) the in vitro active gene bank (lVAG), wllere cultures are maintained under slow growtll and (ji) Ihe in vitro base gene bank (IVBG), where cultures are cryopreserved. The IVAG is being developed, lo a large extenl, lor cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, banana, and sugar cane and constitutes a working collectíon. Its counlerparts would be líeld collection and sexual seed collecHon lor short-term storage, Tlle IV8G constitutes a base collection; cryopreservatían ís slill not lully developed lar a given crap. The lalter approach enables germplasm genolypic slability lo be fully mainlained, and its counterpart would be sexual seed coHection lar lang-term storage.Regeneration 01 wllole plants 110m cell culture systems is oHen lile limiling slep in applying in vitro culture techniques lo planl species Iha! cannot be propagated by means 01 preformed meristems. Despite lhe ability lo initiate callus from a variety 01 lissues and organs in many crop species, reproducible regeneration 01 whole planls remains problematic. Adventitious regeneration via somatie embryogenesis is highly desirable, as Ihe process affords high multipliealion rales and results in propagules Ihal possess bolh rool and shoot axes (Stamp and Henshaw 1987). Somatic ernbryos may develop ¡rom single eells, and planls with more stable genotypes may be recovered (Evans el al. 1981).The evaluation 01 viabilily 01 in vitro cultures should be earried out systemalícally.Under slow-growth condilions, in which Ihe cycle lerm ís extended for several months or years, evaluation 01 cultures should be more frequenl Ihan with potentially indefinile conservation under liquid nitrogen, for example. The mas! important ¡eatures lo be evaluated under slow-growth storage 01 shoo! tip derived cultures are (i) contamination, (ii) leal senescence (lile ratio 01 green leaves lo dead leaves), (iii) number 01 green shoots (lar lurtller micropropagation). (iv) presence or absence 01 rools, (v) occurrence 01 callus, etc. Monitoríng Ihe genetic slabilíly 01 in vitro plan! cultures 01 crop species is becoming 01 great ínteres!. Morphologícal, biocilemical, and molecu'lr critería lor the detection of genetic changes have been proposed (Withers and Willíams 1985).Techniques lo assess isozyme variabílity in small samples 01 tissue obtained lrom in vitro cultures should be developed as a complementary method 01 stability evaluatian. Vegetative propagalion afien exposes the cassava crop lo a wide range 01 pesls and diseases wllich can be transmítted vía tlle stakes through successíve generatíons.For inslance, cassava baclerial bligtll, African mosaic disease, superelongation disease, and frog-skin disease can produce great losses.Maintenance 01 cassava germplasm by meristem culture can be done ttlrough a combination 01 eryogenie teehniques and minimum-growth storage eonditions.Recent researeh on cassava conservation at CIAT has províded mean s to slore in vitro cultures under mínimal condítions 01 growth. It has been shown (Roca 1984(Roca , 1985) ) Ihal storage al 23•24°C deereases the rate 01 shoot elongation lo abOl)1 one-fifth 01 that 01 cultures kept al 28-30°C. Storage temperatures lower than 18°C were detrimental lo a number 01 cassava varielies il the illumination was kept high.However, culture viability could be maíntained by lowering the illumination lo less than 500 Ix. Inereasing benzyl adenine (BA) Irom 0.04 to 0.11 mM and sucrose from 0.050 lo 0.12 M also decreased shool elongation but mainlained 90% viability. However, if low-temperature slorage was combined with high BA and suerose levels, the grow1h 01 cultures was arrested to such a degree that most 01 Ihem deterioraled alter 3 monlhs. Recenl findings indicate that culture growlh is decreased when Ihe total nitrogen contenl 01 Ihe medium is lowered lo 20mM at 27-28°C and 40rnM at 20-22?C.Mannitol at 5-25 mM was lound to be effeclive nol only in arresting growth but in decreasing tissue viability al the lowest storage lemperature. However, il mannitol was added lo Ihe medium, along with 0.088 and 0.18 M suerose, culture viabilily significantly increased al both low and high storage temperalures.Nearly 5000 varieties Irom Ihe world cassava germplasm collection assembled  1991). These developments will help the future use 01 cellular and molecular genetíc methods in cassava germplasm characterization and crop improvement The availability 01 comprehensive, readily accessible in vi/ro germplasm collections, under both slow-growth and cryogenic conditions, will be crucial lo tha! eflort.","tokenCount":"1176"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"694f66a0b00a68a207846885fefada38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01558bc2-5b26-492f-811e-32b3e44c76d9/retrieve","id":"539055400"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d19a006b-465e-477c-8615-98db76ce47bf","pagecount":"1","content":"The paradigm of involving farmers in research is based on strong evidence that enhancing farmers technical skills and research capabilities, and involving them as decision-makers in the technology development process results in innovations that are more responsive to their priorities, needs and constraints. Linking process research and the technology development process to market opportunities has the potential to promote links between investment in natural resources, markets, and adoption of technologies. Market orientated agriculture for reducing poverty and environmental degradation needs to centre on three related paradigms; strengthening biological processes in agriculture (to optimise nutrient cycling, minimise external inputs and maximise the efficiency of their use); building farmer's capacities (to learn and innovate focused on improving livelihoods through market opportunity identification and the management of natural resources); and developing forward and backward linkages (between natural resources, production and markets). Examples of TSBFs and CIATs legume research in understanding processes, targeted germplasm development, adaptive testing of technologies and dissemination strategies will be used to show the evolution of legume research for ISFM and how increased market orientation can lead to increased adoption of improved technology options, investment in natural resource management strategies and provide valuable feedback for the research process.","tokenCount":"198"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/4446269242.json b/data/part_5/4446269242.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..78cb341ddae504eea6c4d15029fc1df0e2fcb439
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c5d7bb05a7c587c228c5e66c7590c9c6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/23517129-19f3-4202-8f51-1f09996acfd8/retrieve","id":"-1346660608"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ad1313cf-879b-4a71-85e3-3db62a50646a","pagecount":"25","content":"Since its re-emergence, HPAI H5N1 has attracted considerable public and media attention because the viruses involved have been shown to be capable of producing fatal disease in humans. While there is fear that the virus may mutate into a strain capable of sustained human-to-human transmission, the greatest impact to date has been on the highly diverse poultry industries in affected countries. In response to this, HPAI control measures have so far focused on implementing prevention and eradication measures in poultry populations, with more than 175 million birds culled in Southeast Asia alone.Until now, significantly less emphasis has been placed on assessing the efficacy of risk reduction measures, including their effects on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and their families. In order to improve local and global capacity for evidence-based decision making on the control of HPAI (and other diseases with epidemic potential), which inevitably has major social and economic impacts, the UK Department for International Development (DFID) has agreed to fund a collaborative, multidisciplinary HPAI research project for Southeast Asia and Africa.The specific purpose of the project is to aid decision makers in developing evidence-based, pro-poor HPAI control measures at national and international levels. These control measures should not only be cost-effective and efficient in reducing disease risk, but also protect and enhance livelihoods, particularly those of smallholder producers in developing countries, who are and will remain the majority of livestock producers in these countries for some time to come. http://www.hpai-research.net/index.html. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by or representative of IFPRI, or of the cosponsoring or supporting organizations. This report is intended for discussion. It has not yet undergone editing.For more information about the project please refer to www.hpai-research.net. ivHow does information about a suspected outbreak of avian influenza on the farm level reach the respective authorities? How and through which actors is the response to a confirmed outbreak implemented on the ground? These were the guiding questions for representatives of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, poultry producers and traders and the research sector, to map out the information and response networks concerning Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Ghana. This report shows the resulting network maps drawn, indicating the actors involved, their different kinds of linkages and the influence that these actors have on making sure that the information about suspected outbreaks on the farm or market level reaches the national authorities and that appropriate and timely response is implemented. While the participants agreed that in the past experience (outbreaks of HPAI on three commercial farms), government agencies and their partners showed an impressive ability to do the right thing at the right time, they also pointed out some bottlenecks that would need further attention -either because there is still a knowledge need that calls for more research or because structures and procedures need to be improved:• Lack of incentives for traders to report suspicious bird deaths, because there is no compensation scheme for traders. Thus traders are likely to sell sick birds off and contribute to the spreading of the disease. • Reluctance of farmers to disclose their sources of birds, which makes it difficult to track down where the infection originated / entered the country. • Double edged role of the media, being both the motor of the bird flu scare (and resulting collapse of poultry market) and the distributor of valuable information. Government representatives agreed on the need to deal more proactively and in partnership with the media. • Crucial role but low coverage (1 per 5000 farms) of animal health technicians linking rural farms to the rest of the agricultural system, when if comes to disease reporting. Can the coverage be increased or can other district level actors be empowered and trained to support them? • Compensation procedures and rules were not clear to everyone. Especially informing farmers who are not members of associations remains a challenge. • Knowledge gap: What is the impact of different length of re-stocking ban and different timing for compensation payment? Early payment lifts immediate stress but might be used for consumption or alternative livelihood activities, if the restocking ban is still in place. Compensation payment after the end of re-stocking ban might make it easier for farmers to use money on poultry farming, but how do they meet their immediate survival needs in the meantime? • So far, experience only with outbreaks on big commercial farms in the South of Ghana. The future may show how the system can react to outbreaks in more remote areas and less commercialised settings.The objective of this research was to identify the institutions and their relative influence associated with surveillance and control of HPAI in Ghana, the flow of information for disease reporting among institutions, and the institutional responses to disease occurrence. The questions were: Who is involved? How do they communicate about suspected outbreaks? How do they respond to confirmed outbreaks? How influential are they in terms of impacting on information flow and response? What are the remaining bottlenecks?This report presents Net-Maps drawn by a group of HPAI stakeholders from governmental agencies, farmer and trader organisations and the research sector (see Appendix for complete list) during a multi-stakeholder workshop of the \"Pro-Poor HPAI Risk Reduction Strategies Project\" in Ghana.The Net-Map method aims at making implicit knowledge about networks explicit and allowing members of a group to share their knowledge and opinions. Participants gathered the names of actors involved in HPAI communication and defence and mapped, on paper, the flow of information about suspected outbreaks, and the responses to HPAI. In addition, participants identified influential institutions and constrains in relation to the flow of information and responses to the disease. More information on the Net-Map method and its use is available at: http://netmap.wordpress.com/ and see Schiffer and Waale 2008.The participants of the workshop were asked to identify the actors involved in disease reporting and response. These actors could include individuals, groups and institutions. The actors involved in H5N1 surveillance and control in Ghana include (for detailed list see Appendix):Different kinds of facilities where chicken and eggs are produced: Peri-Urban Big Farmers (large scale intensive) Urban Small Farmer (no or low husbandry practice) Rural Small Farmer (no husbandry practices)National level directors, the minister and laboratories Regional level directors, laboratories and veterinary officers District level directors, veterinary officers, extension officers, animal heath technicians, and Veterinary officer at the border postsPresident of Ghana Ministries and line agencies responsible for environmental protection, communication, health, trade, interior, wildlife and customs/immigration The police The poultry board Decentralized administrative bodies such as the regional coordinating councils and district assemblies and Research stationsThe veterinary officers at the border posts and the directors of agriculture of neighboring countriesActors involved in agricultural matters such as community livestock workers and Respectable community members such as assembly members, teachers, chiefs and other opinion leaders.Testing samples and coordinating the international aspect of the intervention MediaAfter identifying a list of 65 actors, the next question the participants answered was:\"In case of a suspected outbreak of HPAI, how is the information about the outbreak communicated upward for official confirmation by the respective authorities?\"The flow of information was drawn for outbreaks on the different levels of farms, at the border posts or in the trade system. As Ghana has experienced HPAI outbreaks in the past (on 3 commercial farms) and the participants were involved in the activities around this outbreak, the links drawn are intended to depict the actual situation following a suspected outbreak. However, strictly speaking, the links concerning outbreaks on backyard farms, border posts and the markets are extrapolations from the experience on commercial farms. Further the group was asked:\"How strongly can these actors influence that the information actually reaches the respective authorities?\"The result is shown in Map 1. The size of the nodes indicates the influence that actors have on the flow of information about outbreaks (in the perception of the participants). For easier visual structuring of the data, those places where the information originates from (source of outbreak) have been indicated by using dark dots. While listing a diverse group of trade actors, the group members basically treated the input and output trade system as a rather homogeneous actor group with the same levels of influence and the same kind of links to the rest of the system. Thus, to simplify the picture, the input and output trade system has been collapsed into one group actor (square node). To allow for a speedy and effective response, the information about a suspected case needs to reach the National Veterinary Services, which communicate with the national and international laboratories and the Minister of Food and Agriculture to initiate the appropriate action. One striking characteristic of the network drawn by the participants is the potential break point of the communication flows between the Animal Health Technician and the District Veterinary Officer. While both, Animal Health Technicians and Agric Extension Agents are important collectors of risk information on the local level, the only link that transmits this information from the frontline staff to the higher levels, comes from the Animal Health Technician to the district officer.The district officer will report directly by the fastest means with cc's to other people who need to be informed. Note that the agricultural extension agents cover operational area, while the animal health technicians cover zonal areas 1 , concentrating in areas with the larger density of animals. Here, it is important to note that the coverage of Animal Health Technicians, who specialize, per farmer was described as relatively low with 1 per 5000 farm households, while the agricultural extension officers tend to be cross purpose specialists covering corps and livestock and described as being 1 per 1,500 households. In areas where there are no animal health technicians, individuals report to the agricultural extension officers. As in other countries in the sample, the pathways for small farmers (both urban and rural) and big commercial farmers differ from each other, as the commercial farmers have direct access to the regional and national level actors, while small farmers have to go through their district level intermediaries 2 While the general assessment was that farmers had strong incentives to report, because of the compensation for culled birds (but not for those died of the disease), the trade system has a different incentive structure. The participants explained that especially a cross border trader with infected birds would have strong incentives to hide the disease from the border veterinary officers or to try to bribe the customs and immigration officer, as there is no compensation plan for traders and thus it is economically tempting to avoid control and sell sick birds off -thus spreading the disease. In case an outbreak is reported at a border post, the information flows both through formal channels (from border veterinary officer in Ghana, through national director of veterinary services in Ghana, national director in neighbouring country, to border veterinary officer in the neighbouring country) and informal channels (directly between theThe group described a high level of exchange of information on the local level, with different agricultural and non-agricultural actors being involved. However, the information about suspected outbreaks only moves up to the next level, if any of these actors contacts the animal health technician. It should also be noted that if there was a suspicious case found at the live bird market or the wet market people were likely to report to the media first to get recognition before the veterinarians. Once the information gets reported to the MOFA it moves to what is called a suspicious case for confirmation and an action plan is developed.Note that a number of actors who are crucial in the response network (see below) are not or only marginally involved in the network of disease reporting.One quantitative measure of the position of actors in the network is closeness centrality. Closeness centrality describes how many steps one actor has to take to reach everybody else in the network. A low closeness value indicates that an actor is not very close to the other actors in the network, thus has to go through many intermediaries to reach everyone (see table 2 in the Appendix). In the information network, the animal health technician is the actor who can reach everyone else in the network on the shortest path, which underlines the crucial importance of this actor. This is further underlined by the high influence scoring that participants assigned to the animal health technician.The participants pointed out a number of bottlenecks that might delay the reporting of a suspected outbreak.Trade system: Lack of incentives to report veterinary officers on both sides of the border). While participants saw some potential challenges concerning the reporting by traders, however, especially in the peak of the scare period, in Ghana the input-output trade system also acted as an informal early warning system, providing information about observed suspicious deaths of birds to the respective authorities and to the media. A closer and more pro-active interaction between the trade system and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, might enable a systematic use of the information that traders gather as a by-product of their activities.Participants saw the role of the media critically. Ghana has a vibrant and free system of public and private media. During the peak of the bird flu scare especially private radio stations were seen as unnecessarily nurturing panic and thus contributing to the collapse of the market for poultry products. However, participants also related that a meeting between government officials and media representatives was a successful step towards facilitating more realistic reporting and that as the situation moved on the media was a strong partner in distributing valuable information. For future cases, participants recommended a strong pro-active partnership with the media from the start, to make sure that it can fulfil a positive role in crisis management.After drawing the information network, participants outlined the ways response to an actual outbreak of HPAI involves different actors in the network. They were asked:The response pathway is similar for small scale and big scale farmers, with the difference that the national and regional level veterinary officers get involved in response at the commercial farm level while the district level veterinary officer takes over the same role on the small farm level. However, in both cases, the animal health technicians, who were crucial in the information network, seem to have a less defined role in the response.After drawing the networks, participants were asked to assess: \"Once the outbreak is confirmed, how strongly can these actors influence that the appropriate response is implemented successfully?\"Once the suspected case is confirmed, the response takes the following steps: The director of veterinary services informs the Minister of Food and Agriculture so that the Minister can evoke the animal disease act. In an informal memo he informs all members of the National Committee on Avian Flu Preparedness about the crisis. The committee consists of: After sending out this memo, the Minister of Food and Agriculture talks to the ministries of communication, trade, interior and media. Then they hold a press conference to inform the public about the situation and set the response in motion. The first activity in the field is to quarantine the infected area. The implementation on the ground is done by the police, veterinary services, the environmental protection agency and the National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO) which is housed in the Ministry of Interior and has members across Ministries (Interior, Finance, Health, Welfare, Information, Local Government and Rural Development, Defense, Environment, Science and Technology, Transport and Communications, Planning Commission, Fire Officer). Together these agencies organize and enforce, if necessary, the destruction of the birds in affected areas.Immigration services are informed about the crises and take action at the border in terms of increasing monitoring. Ghana Telecom supported the response by providing cell-phones and free HPAI hotlines. Other actors who were seen as highly supportive while not directly involved in the enforcement and implementation on the ground were international organizations, who provided funds and training to prepare Ghana to react effectively and efficiently to a HPAI crisis. Farmers were compensated for the birds culled following a compensation plan modeled on the one developed in Nigeria. In terms of degree centrality (number of direct links per actor), the different farm types and the national director of veterinary services range especially high in terms of in-degree (incoming links). The other actors involved in the response receive one or two incoming links, pointing towards a rather clear line organisation of the response. Many of these links originate either from the Minister of Food and Agriculture (initiating the response) or from the national director of veterinary services (coordinating the response), who range highest in terms of out-degree (see Appendix, table 3 and 4). This means: In the response network, there are few actors coordinating activities (Minister and National Director, high outdegree), thus the others involved get their directives from few source (low in-degree), to enable them to coordinated and concerted action on the farm level (high in-degree). This clear division of responsibilities and centralized coordination might be one of the reasons why the Ghanaian authorities were able to react in a concerted and timely manner.As the national director of veterinary services and the Minister of Food and Agriculture are central in directly initiating and implementing the response, they establish close links to all different areas of the network, which is reflected in their high closeness centrality. While the peri-urban big farmers range high in terms of closeness centrality as well, the rural and urban small farmers seem to be more removed from some actors in the network. This might be due to the fact that the response for commercial farms comes directly from the national or regional level, while the response for small farms comes from the national level, going though regional and district level actors until it reaches the local farm level. However, the group participants seemed confident that outbreaks both on small and big farms would be reported in a timely manner. So far the experience in Ghana is limited to outbreaks on commercial farms.The participants mentioned a number of bottlenecks that challenged the ability of the system to ensure a rapid and effective response.Participants criticised that the information about compensation and other procedural issues was not clearly delivered to all those concerned. Members of producer organisations had a higher chance of being targeted by agricultural frontline staff, but even in the discussion group, participants disagreed about the question whether or not compensation would be paid for birds that died from the disease (instead of only compensating for culled birds). One participant proposed that this conception might be due to the fact that in the real case, some officials of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture \"took pity in the farmer and counted all dead birds for compensation.\"While the outbreaks and the resulting scare led to a serious shock on the market, some participants observed that traders used the situation strategically to bargain for lower prices with small farmers who had incomplete price information. Some producers also had to find a different place to market their eggs as markets were closed.In terms of compensation payment, participants had different opinions about the effects of a time lapse in payment, which occurred in the past, on the farmers. On the one hand, timely payment would enable the farmer to meet his or her immediate needs after having lost an important source of livelihood. On the other hand, farmers who received payment before the end of the ban on re-stocking, were very unlikely to invest this money in poultry again and would rather either use it for consumption or invest in alternative livelihoods. Thus they were not able to restock when the ban was lifted.The re-stocking issue was made more severe by the fact that the government of Ghana decided to impose a ban of 3 months instead of the internationally recommended 20 days.Two hazards to an effective eradication of the disease at the source are the reluctance of traders (especially cross border) to report outbreaks as discussed above and the reluctance of farmers with an outbreak on their farm to disclose their sources of life birds.The District Assemblies were seen in need of information and empowerment to be able to take more responsibility instead of always having to rely on action from the national level.In terms of logistics, the actual destruction and disposal of tens of thousands of birds with limited technical infrastructure and in tropical climate proved put a great strain on the extension agents involved and participants criticised that no additional funds/compensation was made available for the workers involved in the task. Participants criticised that there was not a well thought out plan for destruction and disposal of animals. ","tokenCount":"3457"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"37ae8bc269ccf2c38f6442614f193ce2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f30d3ae-ccc3-44d5-a6fb-9c608ac09a0c/retrieve","id":"680911993"},"keywords":["Usambara","Tanzania","climate change","food security","gender"],"sieverID":"f5b47ffb-c4d1-4675-a808-9982ee7dfdf1","pagecount":"27","content":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.There is a growing consensus within the scientific community that climate change is a real and serious threat for many people throughout the world. Agricultural productivity will be especially hard hit since it depends heavily on climate conditions. Furthermore, the negative effects of climate change will likely impact developing countries the most owing to their geographic location, their reliance on resources sensitive to climate change such as agriculture and fishing, and their low adaptive capacity. Eastern Africa is a region where reliance upon agriculture and fishery is high. Also, this region is expected to endure some of the worst weather changes, in the form of extreme droughts, erosion, erratic and severe rainfall and in general unpredictable weather conditions. Recent attention has been paid to how farmers could adapt to these changing conditions, and to build their resilience when the consequences of climate change affect their daily activities. Furthermore, there is likely a distinction in the way men and women are affected by climate change. This report describes participatory workshops conducted as part of the larger project, Playing out Transformative Adaptation, which seeks to identify feasible climate change adaptation strategies for both male and female farmers in East Africa. The overall objective of the project is to identify and understand, through integrated agricultural research, the adaptation process for four CCAFS benchmark sites in East Africa, namely Nyando, Kenya; Hoima, Uganda; Usambara, Tanzania; and Borana, Ethiopia. The aim is to fulfil the objectives ofIn late 2010 and early 2011, CCAFS research teams conducted household surveys in the benchmark sites in order to understand the main changes in crops, land and soil management that farmers had made in the last ten years. After initial crop modelling and analysis of CCAFS baseline household surveys, workshops were carried out in order to understand and foresee reactions by farmers. The workshops, conducted in November 2012, used participatory methods such as the use of diagramming and visual sharing to communicate ideas with the farmers. The project worked with partners in the CCAFS sites to facilitate effective communication between the research team and the farmers and to enhance a balanced participation by stakeholders including both male and female participants. The final outcome is directed towards the understanding of the level of consciousness of the local farmers concerning current climate change, and how they perceive that it might affect their daily activities. A special focus was put upon the differences in gender-roles, especially concerning the intra-household decision making and division of daily tasks. In general, it is hoped/expected that the results presented in this report will contribute to developing adaptive initiatives to address the predicted consequences of climate change within Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.The following are the main objectives of the workshops:1. To share with stakeholders (farmers and local partners) the results from previously collected baseline information; 2. To understand perceived historical changes in natural resources and land management strategies. 3. To perform a \"reality check\" -compare crop suitability maps with the perceptions of farmers in the village. 4. To identify specific perceived constraints (including biophysical, economic, and environmental constraints) to climate change adaptation and intervention requirements, 5. To understand farmers' perceptions of the benefits and risks associated with land management strategies designed to adapt to climate change; and 6. To perform gender and vulnerability analysis, including assessment of institutional capacity and 7. To identify and share lessons learnt from past experiences.In order to achieve the objectives workshops were conducted using participatory methods. The following gives an outline of the workshop.• Introduction/Icebreaker (list and discuss crops grown in the site)• Historical Calendar (Climate, Resources, Agricultural Activities, and Infrastructure) • Present and discuss crop suitability maps and models • Present and discuss baseline data-why changes were made in agricultural production activities Discussions about gender-who does which activities and who makes which decisions?The introduction/icebreaker and the general presentation of results were done in a large group but smaller groups were formed to do the historical calendars and to discuss crop suitability and baseline data as well as the gender questions. Most of the small groups were divided by gender, typically with two men's groups and two women's groups.The Usambara Mountains form part of the Eastern Arc Mountains. These mountains are a global hotspot for biodiversity with diverse micro eco-zones within a relatively small area. The area makes use of a mixed crop-livestock. There can be made a distinction between the higher and the lower elevated areas. The upper land makes use of quite intensive farming systems, whereas the lower land uses agro-pastoral farming systems. The Usambara Mountains make up for an important source of water for northeastern Tanzania, where especially the Pangani River is utilized for urban water supply, irrigation and hydropower generation. The area deals with many changes in the climate as well as the environment that cause serious threats to the food security of the area. Deforestation, poor land management and inadequate funds for watershed management pose a threat to the long-term supply of quality water from the Usambaras to downstream communities. Impacts are already seen in agricultural production, municipal water supply and hydropower. Furthermore, the lack of land is a limiting factor due to increasing population and poor land productivity. By-laws are non-existing or do not possess the ability to be enforced, which has led to the failure of implementing measures to improve environmental services (www.ccafs.cgiar.org). Approximately 24 farmers participated in the workshop conducted in this site. After a brief introduction, farmers listed the crops grown in the seven participating villages. Since this site is also has livestock-production, livestock was also included into the activity. After this, participants were asked how many of them grew the different crops and whether they were grown for home consumption or for selling them in the market. Finally they were asked whether they associated the crops with men or women. Examples of the questions asked are as follows: 'What do you grow?' 'Why did you decide to grow this crop?' 'What are the changes that you have been noticing in the past 10 years?' and finally 'Is the crop primarily associated with men or women?' The results are presented in the following figures. As can be seen in the graph, many crops are grown in this site and farms are quite diversified in terms of growing multiple crops. The main crops grown in the region are maize, beans, bananas and trees. Also chicken were held. Although carrots, peppers and onions were identified as crops grown in the region, few or none of the participants grew them.2.1 Reasons to plant the crop and whether the crop is considered to be a man's or woman's crop  After listing the crops that they grew, participants were asked why they grew each of the crops. The main reasons to plant the crop, according to the results coming from the workshop, are to use them for selling, and in some cases for home consumption. The final part of this activity was for participants to say whether they associated each crop primarily with men or women; specifically they were asked, \"Who comes to mind first, men or women, when you think of [crop]? Using these criteria, most of the crops are considered to be representing the male gender, whereas very few represented both genders. After doing this activity, there was a brief discussion to summarize the results and ask for explanations. After this introduction the most important crops grown by the farmers were identified (the most commonly grown by participants-see figure 1). After listing them they were asked whether the practices had changed over the past ten years, and if so why. In the case of a negative answer the farmers were asked to further explain.Why or why not?Application of manure Changed from using local varieties to improved varieties.There is a reduced seed density per hole now There can be seen to be an improved land preparationThere is better yield, there can be noticed a climate change, but the fertility has improved The yield is better, early maturity, drought tolerant, disease resistant There are highly variable rains, low rains, so farmers are ploughing to capture more moisture Tabel 1: Listing of the most important crops grown in the region, and the answers from the participants on whether or not the crops have changed over the past ten years, and if so, why or why not 3 Historical CalendarIn Usambara, participants were divided into two groups-one from the \"upper land\" and one from the \"lower land\"-to identify changes in climate, resources, agricultural production activities, and infrastructure. As can be seen on the map, there is a division between the two groups. This division also appeared in their evaluations of changes they have seen over the past forty years. With stones they were asked to identify the changes. For example one stone meant little rain, whereas five stones meant a lot of rain in the area (see Annex 2 for the original tables). Concerning the rain and temperature in the upper land, various fluctuations seem to have been going on. Although the situation seems to have worsened in the past forty years, the situation has been worse as far as the upper land. In the lower land, both the rain and the temperature have gone down in perceived quality.    Both groups coincide on the fact that the quality of soil, water and trees has gone down over the past forty years. The situation in the upper land, according to the participants seems to be a bit worse than in the lower land. According to both groups the quality has been stable for the past two years though. There can be seen a division on how the quality of livestock has changed over the years. The upper land group seems to perceive a situation that has severely worsened over the years. The cultivated area seems to have been stable over the past ten years, whereas the quality of crop production in both the upper as the lower land area seems to have gone up. In the lower land area, the quality of livestock has gone up the past forty years. The quality of the cultivated area has gone down, but has been stable over the past few years.  Both the upper land and the lower land group seem to agree on the fact that the quality of schools and roads has gone up. Especially the quality of schools has improved a lot over the past forty years. According to the upper land group, the quality of the hospitals is not good though, and this bad situation has been stable over the past forty years. According to the lower land group however, the quality of the hospitals has gone up the last twenty years. The farmers received an explanation of the possible impacts of climate change to some of their main crops: beans, cassava and maize. The preliminary results from EcoCrop analysis were presented to the whole group and then a subgroup discussed these in more detail.   As can be seen from the results presented above, the disease and pest problems the crops of cassava and maize experience is a big concern. Therefore, there is a need for new varieties. Also, less rainfall and prolonged seasons of drought is becoming an increasing danger which makes the necessity for draught resistant varieties more present.5 Presentations of baseline survey results & reality checkIn the second part of the participatory workshop eight household baseline indicators were presented for further discussion. The following table gives the per cent of households who reported that they made changes in agricultural production practices for the reasons listed (results based upon CCAFS household survey, 2011) 3 .Indicator According to the results derived from the workshops, some of the problems perceived deal with less predictable rainfalls and less productive soils. Famers have learned to plan around the rainfall; however, there is a need for drought resistant seeds and varieties. The participants are content with the higher amount of information on best practices and the better prices they receive for their products. However, but there is always a need for improvement.7 Final Activity-Vision of FutureThe final activity of this participatory research/workshop was conducted by an open discussion with the participants. The farmers were asked what their visions for the future were. What changes should be made in the future to lead to food security and better future perspectives. Solutions to the perceived climate change: Various answers and solutions to the perceived climate change have been brought up by the participants of the workshops. There seems to be a need for planting trees, soil conservations and improved varieties of crops. These improved varieties need to be disease, pest and drought resistant. The example of the introduced CCAFS beans has been given, and this proved to be a good initiative. In general the cassava crop has been considered a good crop to rely on; however, more seeds are needed to keep up with the changing environment. Extension services: In general the participants have been asking for more extension services and farmers training. These seminars, as well as the one given currently, should take the opportunity to be expanded to reach other farmers.Irrigation systems: According to the changes in the climate, farmers feel that there is a need for the expansion of the irrigation systems. The water is there, but especially in times of drought there is a need for a better infrastructure to make use of this water.A last point touched upon is the provision of fertilizer and farm implements. An expansion of the fertilizer markets and the market for farm inputs in required. To be able to get to these expansions, subsidizing the cost/price of fertilizers and farm inputs would be an ideal way to reach this.A general comment is that the farmers do accept that without God there is nothing to get done. With other words, whatever changes or applications might be introduced within the community of Usambara, God plays a major role. ","tokenCount":"2344"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5fb9dbd9bb671b720c85dc197dea4773","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01cde92b-776d-406f-baf4-b926bf9cfb11/retrieve","id":"737966755"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d2eefa10-0593-44a7-b9f2-2e588cb63512","pagecount":"33","content":"Co-investigators:Lian Thomas Kristina Rosesel Arshnee Moodley Delia Randolph Hung NguyenBackground:• One Health scaling -an ambition or process of expanding the coverage of One Health, either through:o Institutionalization (national, sub-national levels), or o Horizontal expansion• Quality refinements or improvements, as opposed to spreading out• Scalable unit -need to identify microsystems/mesosystems/an organizing system that can be scaledSupport initiatives in place through:• Partners & Prospective• Rangelands cover more than half the world's surface.• Livestock production systems cover 84% of rangelands• Healthy rangelands are important for livelihoods.• More than 50 million pastoralists rely on rangelands.• The One Health approach, that brings together rangeland, human and animal health, provides a good opportunity for improved rangeland management.The One Health for Humans, Environment, Animals and Livelihoods (HEAL) ProjectAim: enhancing the well-being and resilience to shocks of vulnerable communities in pastoralist and agro-pastoralist areas of Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia.Approach: HEAL project is the first to integrate land health into the health of humans and animals.Outcomes: Members of pastoral communities are engaged in defining sustainable, demand-driven and need-based One Health Units (OHUs).• Context-specific cost-effective One Health service delivery models are in operation • HEAL-OHUs is recognized as a solution for service delivery for pastoralist communities in the Horn of Africa by policymakers and investors  Why?• Maintain adequate pasture area and reduce concentration of livestock • Reduce degradation and initiate restoration • Limit spread of diseases and parasites How can we further improve rangeland health and livestock health? -Integrative, 'win-win' actions will be most effective for people's livelihoods -These actions are developed through interdisciplinary collaboration in HEAL -They will rely in part on information systems, also in development","tokenCount":"268"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"97af98895287d13af81f4ac902a264f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/073c1e23-07f4-4406-bdde-f884f9499954/retrieve","id":"128664000"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cfc38cb2-9b93-42ed-ac28-9f352d881b96","pagecount":"1","content":"• Without access to vegetables and fruits a diverse diet is not possible which is associated with a high risk for malnutrition. In Turkana vegetable and fruit production is limited due to water scarcity.• At the same time the poverty level in Turkana is high and associated with high levels of food insecurity.• The limited opportunities to purchase vegetables and fruits in the surveyed region calls for public health measures which enhance the market availability of fruits and vegetables at affordable prices. ii) what is the impact on individuals, households, the community? iii) which challenges occurred, how were they solved? iv) how were children and women affected by the project?• Coding of transcripts was done in cycles and categories of analysis were developed ","tokenCount":"123"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5b81c1e08aa7bb1501337da8f40f7b39","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb772436-d98c-403f-8b70-30aa95c13741/retrieve","id":"1926840617"},"keywords":["greenness","Mars soil analogous","salinity","Solanum spp.","stomatal conductance"],"sieverID":"d4c5df41-e3d9-412f-aaab-fca978625874","pagecount":"7","content":"One of the future challenges to produce food in a Mars environment will be the optimization of resources through the potential use of the Martian substratum for growing crops as a part of bioregenerative food systems. In vitro plantlets from 65 potato genotypes were rooted in peat-pellets substratum and transplanted in pots filled with Mars-like soil from La Joya desert in Southern Peru. The Mars-like soil was characterized by extreme salinity (an electric conductivity of 19.3 and 52.6 dS m −1 under 1 : 1 and saturation extract of the soil solution, respectively) and plants grown in it were under sub-optimum physiological status indicated by average maximum stomatal conductance <50 mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 even after irrigation. 40% of the genotypes survived and yielded (0.3-5.2 g tuber plant −1 ) where CIP.397099.4, CIP.396311.1 and CIP.390478.9 were targeted as promising materials with 9.3, 8.9 and 5.8% of fresh tuber yield in relation to the control conditions. A combination of appropriate genotypes and soil management will be crucial to withstand extreme salinity, a problem also important in agriculture on Earth that requires more detailed follow-up studies.National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has invested considerable resources (crops identification, growth chambers design, food processing equipment, among others) to guarantee fresh crops growth through bioregenerative food systems (BFS) for future missions to Mars (Perchonok et al. 2012). Although, BFS were mainly focused on artificial growing medias (hydroponics, aeroponics, zeoponics, membrane systems), soil-based agriculture (SBA, i.e. using real soil growing media) has become increasingly relevant, achieving even higher productivity in some crops (Nelson et al. 2008). Some authors (Silverstone et al. 2003;Kanazawa et al. 2008;Maggi & Pallud 2010) have pointed out that SBA using in-situ available resource of Martian surface is an important way to guarantee long-term sustainability for the future Martian colony. Mars today is a cold, dry desert world with surface conditions that are not habitable for even the hardiest known life forms from Earth (Davila et al. 2010;McKay 2010), however, there is evidence of past (or may be present) water activity and the presence of interesting niches for life (e.g., such as subsurface and/or evaporitic minerals) (Pottier et al. 2017). Moreover, the Martian regolith is very salty and contains exotic salts such as sulphates and perchlorates (Hecht et al. 2009) becomes a major challenge for its use in agriculture (Wamelink et al. 2014). In this context, the use of terrestrial analogues of Martian surface constitutes an important effort to know and solve limitations to get SBA in the future (e.g. Silverstone et al. 2003Silverstone et al. , 2005;;Kanazawa et al. 2008;Nelson et al. 2008). Mars-like soils on Earth provide a better understanding the physical, geochemical and microbiological processes that occur, or could have occurred, on Mars (Peters et al. 2008;Valdivia-Silva et al. 2016). Appropriate soil's analogues on Earth are identified by their similar composition or environmental conditions that describe mechanisms that might guide the search for fossil and living evidence of microbial life (Preston & Dartnell 2014) or/and simulate future problems if Martian soil will be used as a source of future crops and materials for human colonies (Bohle et al. 2016). An interesting Martian soil analogue studied and identified as a key analogue model for life in dry Mars-like conditions is Pampas de La Joya Desert located in southern Peru (Valdivia-Silva et al. 2011, 2016). The very low levels of organic carbon (10-40 ppm) and the presence of exotic minerals (including salts) and oxidants, could allow to identify and analyse the limits of growth in extreme conditions of different plants.Potato is an extremely versatile crop with thousands of existing varieties adapted to grow well above the Arctic Circle to those able to grow in tropical regions, from 0 up to more than 4000 m above sea level including habitats with extreme weather and soil conditions (Zimmerer 1998;Birch et al. 2012). Wild relatives are found in even more extreme habitats, including extremely arid, saline and frost prone areas and can serve as a source of genetic traits for further adaptation (Martinez et al. 2001;Schafleitner et al. 2007;Vasquez-Robinet et al. 2008;Monneveux et al. 2013). Potatoes are also extremely productive per unit of land area and water usage in comparison with most other staple crops (Renault & Wallender 2000) and are nutritious, rich in digestible starch, protein, fibres, vitamin C and B6, K, Mg and Fe (Woolfe 1986). Therefore, the potato has been considered as a promising crop for growing in space exploration by NASA for many years (Perchonok et al. 2012;Wheeler 2017). An advanced population with wide genetic diversity and stable performance across divergent environments of the subtropical lowland agroecologies, resistance to main potato biotic and abiotic stresses, has been developed by International Potato Center (CIP) breeding program (CIP 2017). Such improved materials may prove their value beyond our planet to enable plant production in extreme environments of other planets. In this paper, it is reported a preliminary study testing a large and diverse panel of potato materials including native and improved varieties for their ability to grow and produce tubers in a Mars soil analog from La Joya desert in Southern Peru. The study aims were:to analyse the limiting conditions imposed by the assessed soilto identify potential materials with higher yield under the tested soil.Sixty-five genotypes consisting of 38 advanced clones from the CIP Breeding Program for adaptation to subtropical lowlands and tolerance to abiotic stress, 22 native varieties from the taxonomic group Andigena, previously selected for drought tolerance (Cabello et al. 2012) and five improved varieties (see Table 1) were chosen for this experiment. On 30 May 2016 six in vitro plantlets per genotype were transplanted to peat pellets (Jiffy Products Ltd., Canada), which were kept hydrated for 15 days until roots were well developed and plants reached 10-15 cm high.The soil substrate was collected on 2 April 2016 from the hyper-arid area of Pampas de la Joya desert (quadrangle located between 16°38.386′ S-72°2.679′ W and 16°44.986′ S-71°58.279′ W), extensively studied for its geochemical Martian characteristics (Valdivia-Silva et al. 2011, 2012, 2016). This desert is the northern part of the Atacama Desert and is located to 50 km of the Arequipa city in Peru. To cover the spatial variability, approximately 700 kg of Mars-like soil was sampled from different points of the desert. The sampled soil was transported to CIP 'La Molina' experimental station located in Lima, Peru (12.08°S, 76.95°W, 244 m.a.s.l.) and a composite sample was analysed at Laboratorio de Suelo, Plantas, Aguas y Fertilizantes belonging to Universidad Agraria La Molina, Lima, Peru. The soil was loamy sand (72, 22 and 6% of sand, lime and clay, respectively) with very low organic matter (0.32%) and neutral pH (6.9 and 6.7 under 1 : 1 and saturation extract of the soil solution, respectively). The soil was hyper-saline (an electric conductivity of 19.3 and 52.6 dS m −1 under 1 : 1 and saturation extract of the soil solution, respectively) with a large prominence of Cl −1 , Na 1+ and Mg 2+ (580, 403.4 and  198.4 meq l −1 , respectively) as soluble anions and cations.On 27 June 2016 six peat-pellets with in-vitro plants of each genotype were transplanted in 1 l pots filled with Mars-like soil or a peat-based substrate (PRO-MIX, Premier Tech Horticulture, Canada), the latter serving as a control. All the pots were distributed in six plots randomly distributed in a greenhouse. Every plot had one plant of each genotype: three plots with a plant under Mars-like soil treatment and three plots with a plant under the control condition. All the pots were watered twice per week, to avoid soil leaching and therefore a fully assess for salt tolerance, the water quantity supplied was established through measurement of the maximum evapotranspiration per treatment through the gravimetric method every 2 weeks. For these ten randomly selected individuals per treatment were weighed before the irrigation and the target water quantity per soil treatment was defined as the maximum value estimated to recover the field capacity (see details of this method in Rolando et al. 2015). Based on soil analyses (see the previous sub-section) the fertilizer applications consisted of 200 : 100 : 240 : 20 mg kg −1 as N:P 2 O 5 : K 2 O : CaO. In total, each pot was fertilized with 37.7 mg of Ca(NO 3 ) 2 , 80.6 mg of NH 4 H 2 PO 4 , 159 mg of NH 4 .NO 3 and 266.6 mg of KNO 3 , distributed in 2, 4, 8 and 6 weekly applications.The trial duration was 134 days, under this period the average maximum and minimum daily temperature was 19.4 ± 0.2 and 15.2 ± 0.1 °C respectively and atmospheric humidity varied between 94.7 ± 0.3 and 72.0 ± 0.9% (atmospheric temperature and humidity sensor HC2S3 model, Campbell, USA). The daily average photosynthetic active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm) was 2.60 ± 0.26, 3.05 ± 0.23, 4.78 ± 0.34 and 5.38 ± 0.29 MJ m −2 d −1 during July, August, September and October 2016, respectively (LI190SB model, LI-COR, USA). The daily global average atmospheric pressure was 984.3 ± 0.9 mb during July-October 2016 (PTB110 model, VAISALA, Finland).Physiological performance of plants under Mars-like condition in relation to the control was assessed through the mid-morning (taken from 8 to 10 am) or maximum light saturated (fixing 1200 µmol m −1 s −1 of PAR) stomatal conductance (g s_max ; see details in Ramírez et al. 2016) after and before two water pulses. For this purpose, four genotypes were chosen based on following criteria: (i) contrasted leaf chlorophyll concentration values in relation to the control plants (see formula (1)) assuming that plants with greener leaves in relation to the control were more affected by stress condition imposed by Mars-like soil (see Rolando et al. 2015); and (ii) plants with appropriate leaf size to be assessed in the cuvette of a portable photosynthesis system (LI-6400 TX, LICOR, Nebraska, USA). On 20 July 2016 leaf chlorophyll concentration (Chl SPAD ) was assessed using a portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502 model, Konica Minolta, Japan), for this experiment four readings were taken of an apical leaflet belonging to a young, expanded and sun-exposed leaf and were averaged per plant. For each genotype Chl SPAD amplitude (Chl SPAD_Amp , proposed as stress tolerance index, Rolando et al. 2015) was estimated as follows:Where X Chl SPAD_MS and X Chl SPAD_c were the Chl SPAD average value in the three plots under Mars-like and control soil treatments, respectively. Harvests (22 September and 8 November 2016) were performed when stems of plants grown in the control soil were brown and had fallen to the ground i.e. code 690 of senescence following Jefferies & Lawson's (1991) classification. In the first harvest, some early genotypes and those that had already died in the Mars-like soil were sampled, whereas in the second harvest the majority of plants were in code 690 of senescence (i.e. 'stems brown and fallen to the ground'). All the tubers were cleaned and weighted and among the surviving genotypes (established as those that survived and yielded in more than two plots) the percentage of fresh tuber yield (g plant −1 ) in relation to the control (% yield) was estimated as follows:where X yield MS and X yield c were the average values of fresh tuber yield in plots under Mars-like soil and control treatments respectively. Extreme salinity as a challenge to grow potatoes under Mars-like soil conditionsTwo-way ANOVA was performed to assess differences among genotypes, soil treatments and their interaction in fresh tuber yield. A linear regression between Chl SPAD_Amp and % yield was analysed in the surviving genotypes and the most influential points i.e. outliers with significantly affected in the regression line slopewere flagged using Cook's D and DFFITS tests (Rawlings 1988). All the statistical analyses were run using R software (v. 3.3.3, R Core Team 2017).The selected genotypes for g s_max assessments showed Chl SPAD_Amp values of 9.3,14.7,15.1 and 19.9 corresponding to CIP 304350.18,CIP 388615.22,CIP 309043.123 and CIP 309068.7, respectively. Plants grown in control soil increased their g s_max to 82.7 ± 7.2 and 80.5 ± 17.1% on average after the first and second watering, respectively (Fig. 1). Potatoes in control soil, in particular after water pulses, showed g s_max > 150 mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 , whereas plants growing under Mars-like soil, showed g s_max < 50 mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 (Fig. 1). Forty percent of the assessed genotypes survived under Mars-like soil condition with a fresh tuber yield ranging between 0.3 and 5.2 g plant −1 (Fig. 2(a)). The 2-way ANOVA detected significant differences in soil types (F = 541.0, P = 0.048), genotypes (F = 3.9, P < 0.001) and their interaction (F = 4.7, P = 0.031). The % yield as compared with control soil was ranged between 0.3 and 9.3%, being CIP 397099.4, CIP 396311.1 and 'Tacna' variety (CIP 390478.9) the genotypes with the highest values (9.3, 8.9 and 5.8%, respectively; Fig. 2(b)). The fitted linear function between Chl SPAD_Amp versus % yield showed a negative slope (y = 19.3 − 1.1x; R 2 = 0.25) (Fig. 3). The more influent points were the ordinate pairs [x;y]: [1.6%;28.3], [8.9%;5.3] and [9.3%;10.7] defined by Cook's D (0.17, 0.24 and 0.09, respectively) and DFFITS (0.65, −0.70 and 0.43, respectively) tests (Fig. 3).In particular, after water pulses, potatoes in control soil showed g s_max > 150 mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 (Fig. 1), which has been identified as an appropriate indicator for optimum irrigation and where plants are under optimum conditions (Flexas et al. 2004). On the other hand, plants growing under Mars-like soil and even after water pulses showed g s_max < 50 mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 , which is defined as a physiological severity threshold in potato (Ramírez et al. 2016) where plants are likely submitted to irreversible physiological (oxidative) damage Medrano et al. (2002). This last result and the low tuber yield in relation to the control (Fig. 2) confirms the difficult growing condition characterized by an extremely high soil salinity (see the section Materials and Methods) far beyond that tested in any other studies (from 2.3 to 16.2 dS m −1 of electric conductivity) looking for salt effect in potato (see Katerji et al. 2000;Shaterian et al. 2005;Nagaz et al. 2007). Salts dominated by sulphates, carbonates, chlorides and nitrates are identified as important likely components of Mars regolith (Clark & Van Hart 1981;Osterloo et al. 2008), so extreme salinity conditions such as Mars regolith pose potential problem to grow crops in for future SBA missions (Silverstone et al. 2003;Ewing et al. 2006). It is necessary to design methods to remove or reduce salinity toxicity (e.g. testing previous leaching treatments) but also improve the fertility level of Martian regolith through the incorporation of organic matter recycled from solid waste composting activities from the human habitat (Silverstone et al. 2003;Nelson et al. 2008). The use of microorganisms to degrade organic matter (Kanazawa et al. 2008) and process remnant salt components (Matsubara et al. 2017), including nanoparticles for soil remediation (Patra et al. 2016), will be important for a sustainable SBA in Mars. Indeed, Martian regolith has high presence of different types of salts and evaporitic minerals i.e. formed by the evaporation from bodies of water (Vaniman et al. 2004;Ewing et al. 2006) and they have been detected on Mars both in situ and remotely by different monitoring instruments (Wadsworth & Cockell 2017). The controversy about their effects on the habitability of that planet is still under research. Thus, some studies have positive implications showing these minerals as possible electron acceptors by microorganisms capable to provide energy for growth or as powerful antioxidants protecting plants against Mars' harsh environmental stresses and boost the rate of decomposition of organic matter (Bohle et al. 2016). On the contrary, other studies show the Martian salts as a detrimental condition for life survival (Wadsworth & Cockell 2017). The presence of different living beings in extreme salt condition on Earth such as the halophilic organisms encourage the options to generate future crops and better understand the mechanisms of survival in these conditions.Despite the extreme salinity, 40% of the genotypes survived (Fig. 2). There is a debate if potato is considered as salt sensitive (Maas & Hoffman 1997;Larcher 2003;Nagaz et al. 2007;Levy et al. 2013) or tolerant (Katerji et al. 2000). However, whatever the classification, models estimated as the slope of % yield reduction versus soil electrical conductivity in previous studies (−5.6, −12 and from −34 to −54%/dS m −1 corresponding to Maas & Hoffman 1997;Katerji et al. 2000 andNagaz et al. 2007, respectively) predict no tuber yield under the salt levels found in the Mars-like soil used in this study. In contrast to these predictions, there was tuber yield as compared the control soil (0.3-9.3%; Fig. 2(b)) highlighting the potential of the assessed genetic material to produce under extreme saline conditions, meriting further studies.Promising tolerant genotypes and physiological indicators for extreme salinity CIP 397099.4 and CIP 396311.1, which are advanced clones belonging to CIP lowland tropic virus resistant breeding population (CIP 2017), were identified as the most tolerant to the Mars-like soil with % yield >8% compared with the control (Fig. 2(b)). CIP 396311.1 is an advanced clone with extreme resistance to PVY an PVX, early maturing and tolerant to heat has shown good yields in sites affected by high soil salinity in Southern Bangladesh (Amoros personal communication). The 'Tacna' variety (CIP 390478.9) a genotype also with extreme  resistance to PVY and PVX, selected from arid and saline environments of the Southern Peruvian Coast (Zegarra & Fernández 2013) showed a yield >5% compared with the control (Fig. 2(b)). This variety is considered as drought and heat tolerant (CIP 2017) with high yields under water restriction conditions reported in Uzbekistan (Carli et al. 2014) and China (locally named as 'Jizhangshu 8′; He et al. 2013;Wang et al. 2014). Because some mechanisms of resistance are unspecific to the kind of stressors (Larcher 2003), it is expected that genotypes highly resistant to biotic (virus PVY and PVX) and other abiotic (drought and heat) stresses, could also show tolerance to other unreported stressors like salinity. Drought and salinity tolerance share common physiological mechanism (Chaves et al. 2009), so it is expected that some of the traits selected by phenotyping for drought tolerance could confer resistance to salinity also. This was supported by the inverse relationship found between Chl SPAD_Amp and % yield (Fig. 3) predicted by Rolando et al. (2015) under drought stress. Potatoes leaves under stress reduce their growth, concentrating their chlorophyll in less area and appear greener when they are more sensitive to drought (Ramírez et al. 2014;Rolando et al. 2015). Although the predicting capacity of the fitted function was slight (R 2 = 0.25), the more influent points were those that showed the higher and lower Chl SPAD_Amp values (Fig. 3), the latter of which corresponded to the genotypes with higher tolerance to Mars-like soil mentioned above (CIP 397099.4 and CIP 396311.1). Greenness inspection through Chl SPAD_Amp may, therefore, be a worthwhile predictor of high tolerant genotypes under extreme salinity that could be used in future breeding programs.Extreme soil salinity will be an important stressor to the growth of any plants using Martian soil. Under a controlled/protected environment with pressurized atmosphere, a combination of an appropriate sowing method, tolerant genotypes and soil management will be crucial to achieve yield in such conditions. In this preliminary study, In vitro plantlets of two advance clones (CIP 397099.4 and CIP 396311.1) rooted in peat pellets substratum and transplanted into Mars-like soil under drip irrigation, were able to yield more than 8% of tuber biomass as compared with the control under the highest salinity condition reported in scientific studies for potatoes. More studies are necessary to increase the yield in these genotypes through longstress memory improvement (see Ramírez et al. 2015), to test appropriate controlled atmospheric conditions and soil treatments to reduce extreme salinity effects with a concomitant increase of water and nutrients availability.","tokenCount":"3341"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e6eb497a8efeafa9cb97198e1f2ab72b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H023671.pdf","id":"1101365687"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f8660009-fd8e-4638-8092-a38212b94baa","pagecount":"22","content":"This paper describes IIMl's institution and capacity building efforts after 1992 because in 1992 IPR a detailed account of these activities were provided by Rao and Abeywickrema. Also as the concepts, as stipulated in the strategic and medium term plan document of IIMI, still remain valid the paper will concentrate primarily on methods and results.An analysis of IIMrs institution and capacity building efforts require a through understanding of the historical development of the irrigation agencies in the country. Therefore, as a prelude to the main discussion on methods and results, a brief description of the evolution of various irrigation agencies is presented. The discussion will primarily center around the public sector institutions though substantial inputs have been provided to the capacity building of the farm level irrigation institutions.Irrigation in Sri Lanka is nearly as old as civilization and this has prompted several authors to identify her as by hydraulic civilization. The contribution of irrigated agriculture to the Sri Lankan economy has been substantial. Some 550,000 ha of irrigated land of which 90% is devoted to food crops brought the country to near self sufficiency in cereal production in eighties.The significant achievement was possible due to support provided by the public sector agencies in the construction, operation and maintenance and series of other activities supportive of the agricultural production increase. The pioneering public sector agency was the Irrigation Department which was ably complemented by the Department of Agrarian Services, Mahaweli Authority, IMD etc. In the recent years special programs like Integrated Management of Irrigation Systems (INMAS), Irrigation Management Policy Support Activity (lMPSA), Management of Irrigation Systems (MANIS) etc. were also launched to augment public sector effort to improve irrigated agriculture. During the last decades farmers institutions have also been organized and strengthen to effective take over some of responsibility of the public sector. The role of the Non Government Organization (NGO's) had been marginal in the development and management of the irrigated agriculture sector.18.1The following section briefly describes the historical development of different public sector irrigation agencies of the country.Irrigation works in the 19th century were carried out by a section of the Public Works Department which employed a few irrigation engineers. The execution of works in respect of construction and maintenance was carried out by the Public Works Department with the officers specially seconded to the Central Irrigation Board. As a step to expedite the execution of irrigation works the Irrigation Department was established on the 15th of May 1900. The Irrigation Department was required to undertake additional responsibilities during the period from 1920 to 1930 when the activities of the department were enlarged to include flood control work. During early 1930s the activities expanded to include (a) major and minor irrigation works (b) flood protection of rural and urban areas (c) drainage and reclamation. To assist the department in these activities Hydraulics Laboratory, Gauging Section (Hydrology) and Materials Testing Laboratory was formed. The ID at this time had undertaken the land development covering all operations necessary to transfer the jungle into ready made farms complete with houses. This function was carried out till the Department of Land Development was established.The expansion of the Irrigation Department's activities required an efficient organization to be set up for training of personnel on design and planning. By the end of 1948 the organizational set up was expanded to include Design, Planning, Drilling, Foundation Investigations, Training. Hydraulic Laboratory, and Soil Mechanics Laboratory. It was felt that the trainees should receive their training in an atmosphere and environment in which they would be required to work as technical officers and hence a training centre was opened at Galgamuwa. Further expansion of the activities took place in 1959 when the department established its own Land Use Division for agricultural soil investigations.The operation and maintenance of major and minor and minor village works was handed over to the Territorial Civil Engineering Organization (TEGO) which was established in 1971. This organization was responsible for all minor works (less than Rs. 2.5m, maintenance and construction of highways, water supply and drainage etc. This organization was set up utilizing the staff and facilities","tokenCount":"683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff5179fe48a3b63b166bfa157508021d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/59f8e871-107b-4644-bef2-66e3aac7d5b5/retrieve","id":"-1676821043"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1ce6f48e-9daf-4664-983d-41eac49ad293","pagecount":"36","content":"In our diary CCAFS EA in the media Further reading and CCAFS tools CCAFS East Africa Quarterly Newsletter i How Ethiopia's social safety net programme leads to climate change mitigation cobenefitsDawit Solomon made this remark during the CCAFS East Africa Strategy Meeting held in Arusha, Tanzania between 8 and 9 February 2018. The meeting brought together 65 stakeholders comprising of researchers, regional policymakers, experts from governments, private sector, multilateral international organizations and NGOs from East Africa and around the world to develop an integrated research for development strategy for CCAFS East Africa. Through a range of participatory and interactive approaches, the stakeholders examined the interactions, synergies and trade-offs between climate change, agriculture, and food nutrition and security, highlighting new opportunities to advance climate-resilient and low emissions agriculture, reduce vulnerability, and enhance nutrition and diversify smallholder incomes in East Africa, integrating gender and social inclusion.In order to ensure demand-driven research for development aligned with national, regional and global priorities, the meeting started off with a panel discussion comprising of policymakers from the four CCAFS focus countries in East Africa-Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania-and representatives from the African Group of Negotiators to give a regional and continental perspective. The panel discussion focused on climate change-related challenges and opportunities for each country and identified entry points for CGIAR and specifically for CCAFS including opportunities for collaboration. George Wamukoya of VUNA and a member of the African Group of Negotiators (AGN) moderated the discussion and the panelists included: • Input into national Medium Term Plans; • Climate finance and insurance; • Information services and capacity building for researchers and policymakers in East Africa.With increasing climate variability and change, the scientific community has an essential role to play in informing synchronized, strategic investments to establish climate-resilient agricultural production systems, minimize greenhouse gas emissions, make efficient use of resources and ensure food nutrition and security. During the meeting, scientists from different CGIAR centers shared ongoing work on climate change adaptation and mitigation in East.Catherine Mungai is the Partnerships and policy specialist at CCAFS East Africa. Maren Radeny is the Science officer at CCAFS East Africa.Blog: 8 new projects join forces to scale climate-smart agriculture: https://bit.ly/2L24D9r Blog: What's the state of climate adaptation and mitigation efforts in African agriculture?: https://bit.ly/2wHuJeO Blog: Unpacking climate-smart agriculture for upscaling in East Africa: https://bit.ly/2Inps1x Blog: Is digital agriculture the key to revolutionize future farming in Africa? https://bit.ly/2rLYlCc GCP/NWO summary: Kick-off meeting of the Food & Business GCP4 projects https://bit.ly/2L8VifYCCAFS East Africa Quarterly Newsletter 3• Peter Craufurd of CIMMYT shared how the Taking Maize Agronomy to Scale in Africa (TAMASA) initiative is applying technology to increase knowledge delivery through smartphone.• Polly Ericksen spoke on the work ILRI is doing under the program on climate-smart livestock which seeks to provide scientific evidence to livestock stakeholders. This is especially critical to inform countries as they implement their Nationally Determined Contributions.• Evan Girvetz of CIAT highlighted various initiatives on CSA, including the application of CCAFS science to de-risk agriculture to improve access to credit for smallholder farmers, business models for scaling CSA and technical support to guide large investments in CSA.• Todd Rosenstock shared some of the on-going climate change related projects at ICRAF which focus on climatesmart value chains including access to credit, climate-smart agroforestry and multi-scale co-learning processes to scale up climate-smart options.• Laurence Jassogne shared how IITA is supporting the development and implementation of policies on climate change adaptation and mitigation, including an example from the coffee sector.• Rosa Maria Roman-Cuesta of CIFOR demonstrated how a landscape approach can be used to manage trade-offs between social and ecological impacts including landscape restoration through integrated landscape management practices.• Carlo Fadda of Bioversity spoke about community seed banking initiatives in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda including seed trade within the region.To further support the scientific input, six presentations were shared by thematic speakers on emerging areas for research and development. The themes included climate services, climate finance, linking mitigation science and policy, the role of decision support tools and the role of the youth. Specific topics covered included:• Improving availability, access, and use of climate information and ICT-based agro-advisory in East Africa, Jim Hansen -IRI, Columbia University, USA.• Bringing East African countries together to find ways to grow more food without increasing greenhouse gas emissions, Hayden Montgomery -the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases. In terms of investments, moving forward, Bruce Campbell, director of CCAFS pointed out that 4 million dollars will be invested annually in the 4 CCAFS focus countries. \"Yearly, about 20 million dollars is raised by the programme for climate-smart agriculture projects for all the five regions in the world, including Africa,\" he added during the media interview held at the strategy meeting.The CCAFS strategy meeting was held back to back with the kick-off meeting of the Food & Business GCP4 projects which took place on 6 -7 February. The eight research projects funded in the fourth Global Challenges Programme call will be implemented in East Africa beginning 2018, and focus on how to scale climate-smart agriculture practices in East Africa. The new projects will contribute to the achievement of the regional strategy for development.By Dawit Solomon, Dominic Woolf, Lili Szilagyi and Catherine Mungai Social safety net programs that include the restoration of degraded land and agroecosystems at scale are expected to provide increased food nutrition and security, while also contributing to climate change mitigation as a co-benefit.and degradation is a global problem that adversely affects the livelihoods and food security of billions of people. Among the world's largest food security programs are public works programs focused on restoring degraded land. Such land restoration is expected-over the long term-to contribute to increased food security.A recently published article by Cornell University and CCAFS researchers, co-authored by Dawit Solomon, CCAFS East Africa Regional Program Leader, looks at the potential and possible pitfalls of the climate mitigation co-benefits of such programs, focusing on Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP).• PSNP provides food and financial support to beneficiaries in exchange for public works.• More than 8 million farming communities benefit from it and it covers over 600,000 ha of land.• It implements participatory integrated watershed management and degraded ecosystem rehabilitation programs at both the landscape and smallholder farm levels to restore and build the productive capacity and ecosystem services of the land.Ethiopia has been deemed a climate \"hotspot\"-a place where a changing climate could pose grave threats to agricultural production, food security, and human wellbeing. These threats are exacerbated by the rampant land degradation in the country. Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) aims to increase the rural smallholder communities' long-term resilience to food shortages. Ethiopia launched the PSNP in 2005 to respond to the needs of foodinsecure households while creating productive investments that promote rural economic growth and environmental rehabilitation.The authors suggest that, although the intent of Ethiopia's PSNP was to improve resilience and livelihoods, an unintended co-benefit is climate change mitigation from reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increased landscape carbon stocks.According to the study, which was carried out in 24 woredas (districts), the total reduction in net GHG emissions from PSNP's land management strategy at the national scale is estimated at 3.4 million Mg CO2e y-1, approximately 1.5% of the emissions reductions in Ethiopia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) for the Paris Agreement.The article explores some of the opportunities and constraints for scaling up this impact. For example:• Improving management and implementation of individual projects can bring the average carbon benefits closer to the higher levels that were observed in the better performing survey sites.• Further scaling up will require a transition away from the sub-watershed projects that presently characterize PSNP, towards jurisdictional approaches that incentivize the sustainable management of landscapes over entire woredas, zones or regional states.• PSNP is only one of the large-scale programs conducting sustainable land management in Ethiopia. The potential for scaling up of public works to provide a more substantial contribution towards Ethiopia's NDC should, therefore, take a coordinated and integrated approach that encompasses all of the relevant national programs.The World Bank's PSNP Climate Smart Initiative in Ethiopia was the basis for the study. Key international policy insights from CCAFS' assessment of the initiative include:• Food security programs can contribute to climate change mitigation by creating a vehicle for investment in land and ecosystem restoration.• Maximizing mitigation, while enhancing but not compromising food security, requires that climate projections, and mitigation and adaptation responses should be mainstreamed into planning and implementation of food security programs at all levels.• Cross-cutting oversight is required to integrate land restoration, climate policy, food security and disaster risk management into a coherent policy framework.• Land-based productive safety net and food security programs have synergies with climate change mitigation. These efforts are not mutually exclusive. • The study shows that the unintended climate change mitigation co-benefits of this food-security and safety net investment is clearly supporting Ethiopia's Climate Resilient Green Economic policy and programs.The lessons learned from the Ethiopian experience described in the article have the potential to inform safety net programs in developing countries worldwide, creating an opportunity for social protection to also provide a mechanism to support international and national responses to climate change. Additional research on the social and economic trade-offs and co-benefits between land restoration works and food security will be required to fully realize the potential of such programs to contribute to stabilizing the Earth's climate within safe limits.  By Lili Szilagyi and Catherine Mungai New paper reviews different evaluation methods for informing stakeholders about the benefits of different options for investing in climate services for African agriculture.xtreme climate events such as droughts, floods, dry spells, heatwaves and storms are becoming more frequent and severe around the world. Smallholder farmers in Africa are especially vulnerable to weather variability, which can occur both between seasons and within a season.Climate services empower smallholder farmers, particularly in climate-sensitive developing countries such as those in Africa, and allow them to reduce climaterelated losses and enhance benefits, protecting lives, livelihoods and property.There are many promising initatives across Africa that aim to improve the access to and quality of climate information services. On the national scale, however, funds for public sector services, including climate services, have come under increasing budgetary pressure. Therefore, there is need to make decisions on how to use the often scarce financial resources for climate services in agriculture most effectively.Decisions to invest in new services or improvements to existing ones are best made on the basis of evidence of the benefits that the changes are predicted to produce, relative to the costs. A recently published working paper by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Climate services in agriculture: What are the costs and benefits of investment for Africa?Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) reviews the suitability of ex-ante evaluation methods for informing funding agencies, the private sector, and other national and regional stakeholders about the benefits of different investment options in climate services.The paper classifies the approaches available to quantitatively estimate the benefits of climate information into four categories: economic modelling, stated preference, avoided loss and benefit transfer.The review considers relevant and recent studies that used methods in these categories, and details how the methods are used to estimate the benefits of investing in climate services for the agriculture sector in Africa.The authors explain the benefits of the four types of approaches as follows:• Economic modelling has so far been used mainly for understanding the scope for using climate information (primarily weather and seasonal forecasts) for agricultural management decisions.• Stated preference is a reasonably simple and cost-effective approach for estimating the subjective value that individuals place on existing climate services.Lili Szilagyi is the Communications Consultant at CCAFS East Africa. Catherine Mungai is the Partnerships and Policy Specialist at CCAFS East Africa.• When estimation of the benefits of climate services in the agriculture sector is conducted with limited time and resources, as is common in Africa, the benefit transfer method can be used to estimate value in one geographical location based on evidence from another.• The avoided loss approach is a good fit for assessing the contribution of early warning information to disaster risk management, including interventions designed to protect farmer and pastoralist livelihoods from frequent climate variabilities and extremes and in the face of climate-driven food crises, particularly in East Africa.The paper concludes that all of the methods reviewed can provide the necessary information to convince stakeholders that investing in climate services in the continent is worthwhile. The cases reviewed in the study support the generalization that climate information services are beneficial to the agricultural sector in Africa.Working with partners, CCAFS continues to help farmers across Africa, Asia and Latin America with climate services that meet their needs and the institutions that support them, enabling the transition toward climate-smart agricultural systems and resilient livelihoods. In celebration of the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, women scientists and researchers share how their work is helping women and girls achieve food security, improve livelihoods, and create a more equitable world.Girls in Science, women scientists and researchers share how their work is helping women and girls achieve food security, improve livelihoods, and create a more equitable world.Despite the gains made in education and the workplace, women and girls continue to remain underrepresented in the sciences. In most places, women are less likely than men to earn a degree in the sciences and, globally, researchers remain overwhelmingly men.Achieving gender equality in the sciences is not just good for individual women, it is essential for development initiatives, like those put forth by the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals.In 2013, the United Nations' General Assembly called for the \"full and equal access to and participation in science, technology and innovation for women and girls of all ages\" in order to \"achieve gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls.\" Two years later, the General Assembly officially recognized February 11 as the International Day of Women and Girls in Science.In recognition of the day, women scientists and researchers share how they are working with women and Woman to woman: Women scientists share how their work is helping women and girls succeed in agriculture girls to improve agriculture around the world, including:• Dr. Helen Greatrex, Associate Research Scientists Index Insurance (CCAFS and the Financial Instruments Sector Team) How are women and girls using innovations and innovating in the agricultural field? Dr. Helen Greatrex (HG): Farming is big business and there's a lot of evidence to show that women and girls are innovating in agriculture. For example, in the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) Program, both women and men of all ages use climate information to inform their decision making for the upcoming farming season. In Ghana, women have co-opted the budgeting lessons from PICSA to improve their small businesses. Another example is agriculture insurance. We've seen that insurance is just as useful for women farmers as it is for men, allowing them to invest in productive options (such as new seed or technology) without having to worry about a 'bad year'.Deissy Martínez Baron (DMB): Rural women's role is usually related to food security for their families and communities, meaning they must adapt to climate changes while having to keep their family food secure throughout the year. In Cauca, Colombia and Olopa, Guatemala, Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs), women are growing vegetables in home gardens which they irrigate with harvested rainwater. In Cauca, women lead local nurseries where they teach and encourage children to grow and consume vegetables, prepare the soil using food residues and organic matter, and how to monitor local climate with a low-cost weather station. This new approach helps educate little children for a better future.Nitya Chanana (NC): Women and girls are using technologies such as mobile phones to increase their awareness about agricultural best practices, weather information, and health and nutrition. With the help of training in water harvesting practices, they are also experimenting with different crop varieties to increase their income.Alejandra Marin Gomez (AMG): Some women and girls in Colombia and Brazil are using a technological innovation in grazing management based on concepts (process) rather than inputs, making it easy to apply and easy to accept. The grazing management strategy proposed, called Rotatinuous, maximizes animal nutrient consumption, with the ultimate goal of making the most efficient use of the pasture. In Colombia, women play an important role in food security and family nutrition through agriculture. In general, most farms are medium and small and dairy farming is the main source of income. On dairy farms, in which entire families participate in production, rural women are actively involved as decisionmakers, creating plans, strategies, and training activities. The innovative role of rural women includes the application of new technologies, and interventions to improve livestock productivity and prepare for climate change.Laurence Jassogne (LJ): While not directly linked to women and girls on the ground, the Policy Action for Climate Change Adaptation (PACCA) project, trains policymakers to integrate gender into policies and plans. The most important component of a gender responsive policy or strategy is the inclusion of gender budgeting. While gender is often mentioned in policy, if a specified budget is not allocated, then women and girls will not benefit. Another project is a joint decision-making innovation which will help us understand how decision-making influences and affects women's welfare and livelihoods. We find that, in households where husbands are flexible and allow women to make joint decisions, there is joint planning and implementation of coffee activities, including use of income accrued from sale of coffee beans. In households where husbands are inflexible, women are forced to find ways to go around husbands to achieve their goals.In most cases, you find that women have a close relationship with nature so they are able to provide indigenous and local knowledge. They are also good adopters of climate-smart technologies and practices. We find that women are always willing to learn new things and share information. So, if a woman attends a meeting, she goes home and tells her husband and even the children what transpired.Le Thi Tam (LTT): Women in North Central Vietnam are involved in various agricultural activities and practices that are already climate-smart and which have been passed down generation to generation. However, there is still room for improvement. Improved access to actionable climate information services and agro-advisories can help women better manager their farms. As women are often in charge of fertilizer application, climate and weather forecasts can help them determine when to apply fertilizer and how much they should use. Additionally, some farmers are making compost Scientists share how their research is making a difference for women farmers.from crop and livestock waste by using micro-organisms. Not only does this produce good quality compost, but it reduces the use of chemical fertilizer.HG: Agricultural insurance is a really interesting topic, because it's very context specific. Its impact depends on the insurance itself and the thing that's being insured. In general, although many women are buying insurance, it tends to be a male dominated market. I'm working on a project, The Social Impact of Weather Insurance for Agriculture, to explore the reasons behind this. In general, we've seen that women are interested in agricultural insurance, but the product being protected isn't one they want. For example, the insurance is set up for the wrong crop. In some cases, we found that women have less access to technology, like mobile phones which are commonly used for insurance registration, or sometimes they simply didn't receive the right information.DMB: Our research enables women to make informed decisions on what, where, and when to plant crops to feed their families and to sell surpluses and increase family income. Through the women's producer association in Cauca CSV, women have been able to sell oversupply from their vegetable home gardens to community members and in urban areas. They continue to diversify the products they grow and aim to stabilize production so they can satisfy the increasing demand. NC: The gender analysis done as part of our projects is helping to identify appropriate interventions to help women farmers. For instance, female led solar cooperatives in Nepal's CSVs help female farmers reduce dependency on rainfall, grow high value crops, and earn a higher income. This, in turn, has enabled them to enhance their identities and dignity within the community.In this case, the technological innovation, Rotatinuous, could help women and girls improve their incomes and gain more free time to spend with their families. Rotatinuous is still being evaluated in Colombia, but it has been widely used in Brazil, where it was developed by a Grazing Ecology Research Group. There, smallholders are using this innovation in grazing management, with results including enhanced productivity and a reduced dependence on external inputs. The social impact in those communities has been quite significant, related, in a large part, to the greater availability of free time for families to spend together. This simple strategy is easy to access and, additionally, allows for improvements in production systems, including those led by women farmers.LJ: This is one of my biggest questions. Sometimes I think the project is helping women, sometimes it is the opposite. For policy work, it would be great to see if gender mainstreaming is actually leading to positive changes in women's livelihoods.Christine Niragire from Nyanza district, Rwanda sorting her beans after harvest.LTT: In My Loi village, located in the Ha Tinh province, the Agro-Climate Information Services for Women and Ethnic Minority Farmers (ACIS) project is helping farmers access climate information and agro-advisories. ACIS was developed based on a participatory action research approach, so it brings together multiple stakeholders, including weather forecasters, extension and agriculture staff, local authorities, farmer unions, and farmers. Farmers have the chance to interact with various stakeholders. Additionally, gender is mainstreamed throughout all project activities and trainings. After participating, women use input more efficiently, choose appropriate crop varieties, avoid crop loss, and adjust their farming schedule to avoid flood risks. Other advancements include improved goat cages, using microorganisms for chicken beds and composting, and diversified vegetable production.How are scientists/researchers working to better meet the needs of women and girls? HG: I hope in lots of ways! We're giving women and girls more of a voice in program design processes and allowing them opportunities to provide feedback. We're recording the stories of women and girls to understand why their needs aren't being met, then using this to look for missed opportunities that could really benefit them. Finally, we're trying to move away from 'one-size-fits-all' approaches towards allowing people to make their own decisions for their own individual farms and situations. DMB: Understanding the challenges women and girls face in today's rural and urban society helps us to conduct our research so that we can provide insights and solutions to improve livelihoods and life quality. The threats of climate change and variability add to local vulnerabilities. We increasingly take into account the local characteristics -the environment, the culture, socio-economic factors -that pose challenges to women and girls, in order to come up with tailored innovations to address these issues. LJ: From a scientist perspective, we need to include gender at the start of the proposal development stage. Especially at IITA and within CCAFS's PACCA project, gender is not considered through value chains, but through a system approach to understand gender dynamics, including constraints and opportunities to increase women's participation and benefits.We are working together with other research institutions to test livestock, such as sheep and goats, that are also resistant to climate change and also can be a source of food. We also encourage them to plant different types of crops on their farms so they have a diversity of crops so if one crop fails at least they are able to rely on another crop as a source of food.AMG: Scientists/researchers recognize the important role of rural women in the different productive activities of the agricultural sector. There are several work fronts developed in Colombia which aim to make it easier for peasant women to live in the countryside, most of them related with entrepreneurship, associativity, basic human health care, nutrition, and animal husbandry. In Colombia, scientists/ researchers are working on innovations based on concepts, which are easy to apply, not dependent on external inputs, looking to improve the quality of life of farmers, and which reduce the impact of their activities on the environment. However, more research on how rural women can integrate more and better into society are needed. Colombian researchers always hoped that scientific research could reach rural women because we know innovation can help transform their lives.LTT: Talking to women and giving them the opportunity and platform to express their ideas with a wider audience of stakeholders is the best way to understand what women farmers need and how to help them overcome their challenges. In ACIS, men and women may have difference preferences for the format in which they receive forecast information. It is necessary to evaluate or explore these differences and how to make both genders understand and make use of the information they get. It all seems okay but when you speak to the residents, they tell you that changes, largely negative, are already happening. Some of the most frequently mentioned changes include decline in crop production, increased soil erosion, declines in forest cover, rising temperatures, drying of rivers, decreasing water in the valleys and irregular rainfall patterns.The Lushoto District Climate Change Learning Alliance, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) convened a meeting in December 2017 with an aim of jointly identifying with the stakeholders specific actions for land restoration and collective multi stakeholder efforts. It brought together farmers and local leaders from the four villages of Boheloi, Mbwei, Sunga and Madala, representatives from the Environment Management Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, university staff, civil society organizations, faith-based organizations, and District authorities.During the opening session, the Lushoto District Council Chairman, Hon. Lucas Shemndolwa stated, We need a holistic approach to land restoration. For example, the youth migration is a big problem. The elderly population remaining behind does not have the energy to undertake high labor demanding land management practices such as terracing. We also need to continue creating awareness on water, land and ecosystem management among the younger generation. It is possible that past generations contributed to land degradation out of ignorance on the impact of their practices. We also need to provide households with the interventions required to enable them to support policies targeted at promoting sustainable land and water management. For example, by providing alternative energy sources. Research needs to provide information on the context specific practices -what is needed where.\"Facilitated by Caroline Mwongera, stakeholders generated a long list of soil and water management practices and actions appropriate to the local context. This resulted in about 30 technologies. Three groups were formed to carry out further prioritization: a women's group, a men's group, and a group of local experts.There are some similarities in what was prioritized especially between the men's and women's groups. Interesting to note is that whereas the expert group focused more on the practices themselves, the other two groups (men and women) took a more comprehensive approach and included both practices and the enabling environment required to achieve land restoration. Some of the technologies bundle together many practices which can pose a challenge to scaling. This suggests that there could be a need to develop a stepwise approach to enable farmers to choose what is most useful and feasible for them to adopt.We have been identifying priority areas and developing implementation plans, but the challenge is that the majority of our partners come with set objectives and priorities. We believe this is one of the issues why we see slow progress,\" says Mr. Eliezer Moses, Lushoto District Agricultural Officer and the Climate Change Learning Alliance facilitator.For sustainable soil and land management to occur, a systemwide holistic approach looking beyond technologies to address also the incentives for adoption and implementation challenges is important.As part of the solution, the District Chairperson highlighted that population management is critical to reduce pressure on the environment. Participants also advocated for participatory  Terracing is one option to help restore land on the steep slopes around Lushoto, Tanzania.In celebration of Africa Environment Day 2018, CCAFS is highlighting recent and ongoing work advancing environmental sustainability in four African countries: Tanzania, Uganda, Burkina Faso and Senegal.At first glance, all seems well in the Lushoto District in Tanzania. But speak to the residents, and you begin to understand that they are suffering: declining crop production, increased soil erosion, declining forest cover, rising temperatures, drying of rivers, decreasing water in the valleys and irregular rainfall patterns are making life harder.To rectify these issues, the Lushoto District Climate Change Learning Alliance, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) convened a multi-stakeholder meeting in December 2017. The aim of the meeting was to jointly identify specific actions for land restoration and collective multi-stakeholder efforts.Three groups were formed to carry out prioritization: a women's group, a men's group, and a group of local experts. While the expert group focused on the practices themselves, the other two groups (men and women) took a more comprehensive approach and included both practices and the enabling environment required to achieve land restoration. Meeting participants also advocated for participatory land use planning to ensure land is used sustainably to support various livelihood activities and Africa Environment Day: CCAFS celebrates progress in Tanzania, Uganda, Burkina Faso and Senegal By Catherine Mungai, Dansira Dembele and Marissa Van Epp 14 ecosystem services.In developing countries, forests and trees on farms are important carbon sinks and are part of complex rural landscapes that fulfill the livelihood needs of the rural populace who rely on a variety of ecosystem services such as fuel, food, and water. Agriculture, though crucial for food security and development, remains the key driver of deforestation, and the major cause of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the forest sector. CCAFS is supporting a landscape approach to these issues, making it possible to develop solutions for agriculture that do not come at the expense of forests, and vice-versa.In Uganda, the Rakai district learning alliance has integrated various sectors and stakeholders at the landscape level to enhance synergies between proudctivity, adaptation and mitigation, the three interlinked pillars of climate-smart agriculture (CSA), as well as the sustainable management of ecosystem services. Through the learning alliance, stakeholders have discussed the need to show farmers the benefits of conserving forests and wetlands. Helping farmers to understand the utility of conservation may pave the way for a bottom-up approach to conservation.The learning alliance has also served as a platform for participatory land use mapping. The mapping exercise helped to build the capacity of stakeholders to engage in CSA planning at landscape level, and also encouraged synergies between conservation actors that will facilitate sustainable use of natural resources in the district.The Sahelian and Sahelo-Sudanian zones in the Sahel are characterized by savanna, few trees, and a dry climate. Increasing aridity, along with a growing human population, continues to reduce plant cover, making the existence of rural populations increasingly difficult. In localities like Yatenga, Burkina Faso and Kaffrine, Senegal, where CCAFS is implementing the Climate-Smart Village approach, the number of trees is decreasing and the environment is deteriorating. A study published in the Journal of Arid Environment states that one in three trees in the Sahel has died since 1950.According to CCAFS research, integrating trees into agricultural systems helps rural communities adapt to climate change, mitigate its impacts, and improves their livelihoods. One method for doing this, and for more generally restoring Crops growing in Lushoto, Tanzania. As a consequence of increased population pressure on land, extensive farming through clearance of bushes and forests has become common.A. Eitzinger (CIAT) degraded lands to regain their health and productivity, is known as Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR). A low-cost land restoration method and that regenerates vegetative cover by re-growing living tree stumps, FMNR is now being considered as a promising climate-smart agriculture practice.In the villages of Daga Birame, Senegal, and Tibtenga, Burkina Faso, an initial study conducted in 2013 identified erosion, droughts, and strong winds as key contributors to soil degradation. To help solve the problem, CCAFS and its partners-the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), Burkina Faso Environmental Institute for Agricultural Research (INERA), and Senegal Agriculture Research Institute (ISRA)-set up a FMNR demonstration trial. The trial aims to improve productivity while rebuilding biomass and carbon sequestration. illions of smallholder farmers around the world keep livestock and grow crops on their farms to improve their livelihoods and for food security. An essential aspect for smallholder crop-livestock farmers in sub-Saharan Africa is productive soils that is necessary to maintain productivity. Manure is an important source of nutrients for soils; it can sustain crop productivity as it is an important by-product to serve as fertilizer for smallholder farmers.Flavia A.M. Casu, a student at Wageningen University (WUR) has recently carried out research in Kenya on how the improvement of manure management practices could reduce nutrient losses and increase overall manure quality. The study took place in Nyando Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) in Kenya, under the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).The use of manure as fertiliser is seen as a promising and economically viable way to improve soil fertility and crop production and through this, develop a farming system that is more resilient against the effects of climate change. In order to effectively use manure as fertiliser, different management options exist to decrease the risk of nutrient losses and consequently increase the quality of the end product.Data collection took place during a three-month period of both field and laboratory work. Farmers were interviewed By Lili Szilagyi and John Recha 16 through a questionnaire on household and farm characteristics, market orientation, livestock composition and manure management perceptions and practices. Besides the survey, manure samples from large (cattle), small ruminants (sheep and goats) were taken from each farm. For both stored and fresh manure, 300 grams were stored in plastic zip lock bags and transported in cooling boxes to the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) laboratories for further analysis.Between resource endowment categories, differences in management, decision-making and perspectives on manure management were present. However, all farmers included a basic form of manure management and confirmed the importance of collecting manure from their livestock and incoporating it on-farm. Manure was thus seen as an important livestock waste and it was believed that manure was beneficial for crop production on the landscape.The laboratory results showed a difference in nutrient content between fresh and stored manure. The carbon content was higher in fresh manure, which can be explained by the storage period of manure after collection, which is on average between 6 and 12 months.The results show that from excretion to application, large losses occur and that most farmers have far less manure (and thus nutrients) available than on average required per hectare. However, if collection and application of manure would be taken more seriously, farmers could increase nutrient levels that could nourish Current manure management practices lead to higher nutrients losses.The research suggests that improved manure management practices will help farmers reduce the crop nutrient gap. These practices include:• covering manure with a plastic sheet; • improving floor and roof of the storage unit; • decreasing the storage period; • adding organic materials to the manure heap;• increase the frequency of manure collection, and • improve flooring of stalls where livestock is kept overnight.Cows are tethered on a crop field to manure it. According to the study, improved manure management practices could help farmers in Nyando reduce the crop nutrient gap.The study was carried out with support from the International Livestock Research Institute. To explore how localized interventions can enhance and sus¬tain agricultural productivity in addition to increasing resilience to climate change, farmers, in partnership with CCAFS East Africa, national and international research institutions, the private sector, non-governmental organizations and communi¬ty-based organizations (CBOs) initiated the CSVs approach that could increase food security, enhance resilience to climate change and reduce GHG emissions.Villages in Kenya, with over 2,000 households, to test a portfolio of climate-smart agricultural in¬terventions. CCAFS and partners provide opportunities for adaptive learning and innovation that builds household and community resilience through participatory action research and field-based learning approaches.Through this process, farming households are making progressive changes to their crops as well as introducing new climate resilient livestock breeds. The farming households are able to apply new agricultural knowledge and practices to address climate-related risks and build resilience at local scales.By using the evidence from the CSVs, CCAFS is also involved in engaging policymakers to pro-vide a supportive policy environment in which farmers can ac¬cess technologies and other incentives for adaptation.There is huge potential for African policymakers at local, national and regional or continental levels to embrace CSA and scale up CSVs; and commit to transformational change processes that spur sustain¬able agricultural growth and utilization of natural ecosystems. But this will call for revamping their knowledge of agriculture and technology systems, in particular, critical technical and poli¬cy advisory services on CSA as well as a sustainable governance of agricultural support systems.  The eight projects, which are aligned with ongoing CCAFS research, aim to create an enabling environment for CSA scaling. The projects address different aspects of this enabling environment, like inclusiveness of value chains and business models, and innovative finance mechanisms. The kick-off meeting was an opportunity for the projects to agree on a theory of change for the portfolio, and also identify crosscutting objectives to collaborate towards. One example of a collaboration formed was among the projects focusing on dairy: these projects jointly developed a pathway to outcomes focusing on supporting institutional behaviour change around inclusive business models and low emissions development.To identify potential partnerships that can help the By Marissa Van Epp projects achieve their objectives, workshop participants mapped similar initiatives and networks in East Africa. The implementing consortia also engaged government representatives of relevant ministries in three countries in the region, who offered their insights on the policy context, as well as regional organizations, whose input provided valuable perspective on the proposed impact pathways.  Production costs for the improved varieties also decreased, because farmers were trained in improved practices. From the selection of planting materials, to planting, pest and disease control, harvesting and post-harvest handling, improved practices were undertaken correctly by over 70% of the farmers. Moreover, due to varietal resistance to late blight and timing of planting, the use of pesticides by the farmers was drastically reduced, further reducing the cost of production. With the use of climate information that involves a combination of both indigenous knowledge and scientific weather forecasting by the Tanzania Meteorological Agency, Lushoto farmers can now plant the early maturing potatoes three times a year.Lushoto potato farmers are now linked to the quality declared seeds (DQS) program of the Tanzanian government, which seeks to empower farmers who face challenges with accessing high quality viable seeds. The QDS project involves multiplying seeds at village level, using select trained farmers who grade the seeds based on uniformity in size. QDS seeds are presumed to be free of deadly diseases, like bacterial  wilt, which causes extensive losses. Within Lushoto District, 41 farmers, including 15 women, have been certified by the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI) as potato QDS multipliers. This is one of the highest concentrations of QDS farmers for potatoes within a district in the northern part of Tanzania. Their farms range from 0.25 to 1 hectare in size and the seeds that are produced are sold in nearby villages.Lushoto farmers are using the diffused light storage (DLS) technology, which is a low-cost method of storing seed potatoes developed by CIP. DLS uses natural indirect light instead of low temperature to control excessive sprout growth and associated storage losses. The basic criteria for a DLS structure include an insulated roof, translucent walls, and adequate ventilation. The units are built with a combination of timber, corrugated iron, plastic sheets, and fly screen. In Lushoto, the QDS farmers store between 1 to 2 tons of seed potatoes, and DLS has been useful in extending potato storage life and therefore maintaining their productivity.New partnership opportunities have emerged for the Lushoto community. Farmer exchange visits took place between 15 and 21 December 2016, when 153 potato farmers from West Kilimanjaro region, including 53 women, travelled to Lushoto for a one-week farmer learning tour from their Lushoto peers. Apart from the knowledge exchange, trade ties were formed through which the QDS Lushoto farmers will supply the farmers in other parts of northern Tanzania, such as the Kilimanjaro, Meru, and Arusha regions. The farming learning visits to Lushoto are ongoing. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is proposed as a solution to transform and reorient agricultural systems to support food security under the new realities of climate change.To address the need for proven and effective CSA options, CCAFS has developed the Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach as a means to agricultural research for development (AR4D) in the context of climate change. It seeks to fill knowledge gaps and stimulate scaling of CSA. The CSV approach is founded on the principles of participatory action research for grounding research on appropriate and location/context-specific enabling conditions, generating greater evidence of CSA effectiveness in a real-life setting and facilitating co-development of scaling mechanisms towards landscapes, subnational and national levels.In Nyando, Kenya, CCAFS has been working since 2011 to test a variety of climate-smart practices and technologies to help farmers improve their food security and resilience, while mitigating the effects of climate change.A recently published blog by the World Bank exemplifies the success of climate-smart agriculture with CCAFS' work in the Nyando Climate-Smart Villages, among others in the region. Our work was also featured in a World Bank publication on climate-smart agriculture successes in Africa.Many success stories from East Africa prove climate-smart agriculture is the way forward to address the impacts of climate variability and change.Climate-smart agriculture is the future for smallholder farmers in AfricaResults from the Nyando CSVs show that climate-smart practices and technologies help farmers better respond to climate variability; for example, a shift in farming techniques reduces the number of households eating one or no meals each day, and new livestock breeds provide additional income to farmers.Sharing success stories such as CCAFS work in Nyando can help spread the word on the benefits of climate-smart agriculture and essentially contribute to transforming agriculture in the face of climate change. As COP23 has broken the deadlock, and reached a decision on next steps for agriculture within the UNFCCC framework, the next big step for CCAFS is to showcase our successes to help Parties take meaningful action on agriculture under the UN negotiations.Read more: ","tokenCount":"7106"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0debdf156f05e7c3ec2e9f3732bed8ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2b2a76b9-1c9b-4d2e-b1e7-c0ff003a73ca/content","id":"-1995908846"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fa429e62-a0d8-4609-a184-9d4e5ae44406","pagecount":"9","content":"Sembradora fertilizadora de 4 surcosLa sembradora MUMC DHTS-4C fue construida para productores de mediana y gran escala. La sembradora puede cubrir 4 camas angostas de 0.8 m para una siembra a dos hileras de semilla pequeña o una hilera de semilla grande, siembra y fertilización. La máquina cuenta con un sistema desmenuzador que lo componen un cilindro y cuchillas ajustables que realiza una trituración del rastrojo y una distribución uniforme del mismo. Cuenta con una tolva con sistema de dosificación de rodillo acanalado de doble propósito con el cual se puede realizar la aplicación de fertilizante granulado o semilla pequeña. La sembradora además puede configurarse con 4 tolvas para semilla grande con sistema de dosificación neumático de plato vertical. Para regular la profundidad de siembra y altura del sistema desmenuzador con respecto al suelo, la maquina cuenta con dos ruedas de soporte que además genera la tracción. Dimensiones (largo, alto, ancho) 2.20 m x 1.70 m x 4.20 m Masa total del implemento 1500 kg Sistema de dosificación de semilla Sistema neumático de precisión: Plato vertical Capacidad de la tolva para semillas 25 kg Sistema de dosificación de fertilizante Rodillo acanalado Capacidad de la tolva para fertilizante 300 kg Tipo de abresurco Abresurco tipo cincel Sistema para manejo de residuos Sistema desmenuzador Diámetro de la rueda de tracción 0.72 mEn la imagen 1 se pueden identificar los principales componentes de la sembradora fertilizadora de 4 surcos modelo DHTS-4C.Imagen 1. Principales componentes de la sembradora fertilizadora DHTS-4C. 1) Enganche de tres puntos, 2) Tolva de fertilizante, 3) Tolva de semilla, 4) Abresurco tipo cincel, 5) Rueda de tracción, soporte y control de profundidad, 6) Bastidor, 7) Turbina, 8) Sistema desmenuzador.a) Enganche de 3 puntos y bastidor La sembradora fertilizadora DHTS-4C cuenta con un enganche de 3 puntos de una sola pieza empotrada a la primera barra y concha del bastidor. La conexión del enganche de 3 puntos al tractor de 4 ruedas se realiza por medio de los dos brazos hidráulicos laterales del tractor y su brazo central. Para su conexión es recomendable primero identificar el brazo fijo y el brazo móvil del tractor. El orden recomendado de enganche es: primero conectar el brazo fijo del tractor, después el brazo central ya que este nos permite alejar o acercar el implemento agrícola y por último el brazo móvil.Imagen 2. Enganche de 3 puntos de una sola pieza. b) Rueda de tracción, soporte y control de profundidad La sembradora fertilizadora DHTS-4C cuenta con dos sistemas de tracción que brindan la transmisión y dan movimiento a los sistemas de dosificación de la máquina. Empotrado a la primera barra en conjunto con el sistema de trasmisión encontramos catarinas que permiten modificar la dosificación de semillas a colocar en una hectárea manipulando la combinación de catarinas. Las ruedas de tracción, además, tienen la función de soporte y control de profundidad permitiendo regular la hondura de trabajo del sistema desmenuzador y de los abresurco tipo cincel para la colocación de los insumos como semilla y fertilizante dentro del suelo. Mediante un brazo ajustable se manipula la altura de la rueda, permitiendo profundizar en menor o mayor medida los abresurcos.La sembradora cuenta con cuatro tolvas para semilla grande de 25 kg cada una con un sistema de dosificación neumático con plato vertical enfocado principalmente a la siembra de maíz híbridos. El sistema neumático consta de una turbina que genera una succione de aire desde el plato vertical con barrenos, cámara de vacío y mangueras. La turbina es accionada por medio de un cardan conectado a la caja de transmisión de la sembradora la cual a su vez se conecta a la toma de fuerza del tractor. Al generar la succión de aire los barrenos del plato vertical se cargan de semilla. El excedente de semilla en cada barreno se elimina con ayuda del desencuatador dejando una sola semilla por barreno la cual cae libremente al fondo de la cama o surco. Es importante que la semilla para utilizar debe ser homogénea ya que la variación en forma y tamaño puede provocar una deficiente calidad en la siembra a causa de fallas en la colocación.Imagen 4. Componentes principales de sistema neumática de siembra: 1) Caja de transmisión, 2) Cardan, 3) Turbina, 4) Tolvas para semilla grande con un sistema de dosificación neumático con plato vertical, 5) Abresurco tipo cincel.Para la distribución de fertilizantes granulados la sembradora cuenta con una tolva de 12 salidas con sistema de dosificación de rodillo acanalado de doble propósito. Se dice de doble propósito porque permite también la distribución de semillas pequeñas como el trigo, cebada y avena. Este sistema consta de dos partes, una parte lisa y una parte acanalada. Manipulamos el desplazamiento de dosificador de rodillo acanalado sobre el área de descarga de la buchaca por medio de una manivela que se encuentra en la parte central de la tolva.Imagen 5. Componentes principales de sistema dosificador de fertilizante granular: A. Tolva de fertilizante con sistema de dosificación de rodillo acanalado: 1) Tolva, 2) Buchaca; B. Vista interior de buchaca: 1) Rodillo acanalado, 2) Rodillo liso, 3) Ceja reguladora.Para la sembradora fertilizadora DHTS-4C se diseñó un sistema desmenuzador que por medio de una caja de transmisión y un cardan se conecta a la toma de fuerza del tractor. Este sistema cumple la función de triturar los residuos y distribuirlos de manera uniforme generando un mínimo disturbio en el suelo. Al sistema desmenuzador lo componen también un cilindro sobre el cual se montan las cuchillas las cuales son ajustables de acuerdo a una siembra de maíz o trigo.Imagen 6. Componentes del sistema desmenuzador: 1) Caja de transmisión, 2) Polea de transmisión, 3) Cilindro desmenuzador, 4) Cuchillas.▪ Antes de iniciar alguna operación con la máquina es importante revisar que todas las partes de unión y fijación estén en perfectas condiciones (tirantes, tornillos, tuercas, etc.); revise también que estén bien puestas y apretadas. No use la máquina si los sistemas de fijación no están bien puestos y bien apretados.Verifique que los elementos giratorios como cadenas, engranes y bujes estén correctamente engrasados, use grasas multiusos de litio y lubricantes SAE 20. ▪ Si la máquina deja de utilizarse durante un período prolongado, es necesario almacenarla en un lugar protegido contra los agentes atmosféricos y cubrirla de manera que no sufra daños. ▪ Antes de guardarla se recomienda limpiar exhaustivamente toda la máquina y lubricar bien todos los órganos mecánicos para protegerla contra el óxido. ▪ Lavar bien las tolvas con agua, sobre todo las tolvas de fertilizante ya que los químicos producen un gran deterioro sobre el metal. ▪ Mantener limpios los órganos de siembra; las acumulaciones de tierra, piedras, raíces, etc.","tokenCount":"1105"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c782c9f01ab53d9663e29f6fcc25cc35","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/873c6ab1-6ee2-4d94-8d7b-02f261537f1c/retrieve","id":"-1655386282"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f939ba9b-8bfa-435c-b8bd-21be965c6377","pagecount":"13","content":"instability (Matthews and Grové 2023; Brownlie et al. 2023); economic and political pressure to reduce the health risks and environmental impacts of industrial agriculture (FAO 2023); the development of companies that manufacture biological inputs and the availability of an expanding range of products on the market (Le Velly et al. 2023); or incentive policies aligned with the debate on more sustainable agri-food systems (Place et al. 2022), promoting, for example, the production of biological inputs in biofactories located on the farms themselves (Bullor et al. 2023).Among the wide range of technologies involved, those based on microorganisms, used both as biofertilizers and for biological control, have been the subject of outstanding growth (Goulet 2023;Goulet et al. 2023). These microscopic bacteria or fungi, applied to soil or plants, help the latter to capture nutrients, strengthen their defences against disease, or act directly on pests thereby controlling their population. The growth of these technologies reflects the increasing attention being paid to microbiota in agriculture, particularly in soil management (Granjou and Phillips 2019), and more generally with the growing promise of the bioeconomy (Mittra and Zoukas 2020; Delgado 2024).As a way to reduce agriculture's dependence on chemical inputs, biological inputs have major technological potential. Biocontrol products and biofertilizers, which were previously limited to technological niches and alternative farming systems, are currently making their way in large scale production systems. There are a number of reasons for this change: the rising cost of chemical inputs, particularly fertilisers, recently accentuated by global geopolitical Microorganisms are considered as allies which can perform productive tasks in agricultural or industrial systems (Paxson and Helmreich 2014;Daniel 2023), but with characteristics that differ radically from those of conventional inputs or technologies. Their application conditions, the temporality and intensity of their effects, but also the fact that they can be relatively easily produced by users or amateurs (Pilizota and Yang 2018), outside \"traditional\" laboratories, are among the most notable of these characteristics. The ways in which they differ from chemical inputs raise questions about the concrete conditions of their emergence and widespread use in agriculture. As already shown in other sectors (Geels and Schot 2007), the emergence of alternative technologies involves much more than a logic of substitution: it implies a reconfiguration of the socio-technical systems in which the technologies are embedded.By emergence, we mean the processes which at an early stage and by involving a diversity of stakeholders (research, industry, public administrations, distributors, users, etc.), contribute to the spread of a technology thereby rendering it important, even predominant (Rotolo et al. 2015). In the case of micro-organism-based agricultural inputs, the conditions of this emergence need to be considered in the light of two characteristics. Firstly, there is the question of how these technologies can be \"transferred\" from laboratories to companies or biofactories on farms. Indeed, until now, microorganisms have mainly been the subject of research by laboratories belonging to agricultural research organisations, mainly conducted by specialists in microbiology and biotechnology. Secondly, the conditions of emergence -and hence of leaving the laboratory-need to be considered in the light of the biological nature of the technologies concerned.In the Cambridge dictionary, the term 'biological' refers to entities that are \"about or relating to living things'. Their living nature induces phenomena of reproduction, growth and senescence that make them a priori less easy to control and subsequently less standardised than non-living entities, such as synthetic fertilisers or pesticides. Biological entities are also subject to spontaneous physico-chemical transformations making them perishable and creating uncertainty, but also to the risk they may escape (Bauer-Panskus et al. 2020). Leaving the laboratory or experimental stations involves loss of control, even if only partial, over these entities; scientists and users must therefore exercise a certain amount of control over these allies, both to avoid excesses and to ensure they are productive (Daniel 2023). Faced with imaginary fears and proven risks, scientists and industrialists usually try to understand citizens' and users' fears concerning biotechnologies in order to allay them (Bauer 2002), and to consider their social acceptability (Gupta et al. 2012). In economic sociology, particularly in social studies of the organisation of markets for agricultural products, a few authors have highlighted the fact that the perishable nature of agricultural goods can influence the nature and organisation of markets (Chance et al. 2023). However, despite the literature on downstream production, the way in which technologies used upstream as 'lively commodities' (Barua 2017) emerge and leave the laboratory remains unexplored. Above all, while the cognitive and political dimensions involved in moving the production sites of these bio-based technologies out of the laboratories have been documented in other sectors (Meyer 2013), elsewhere they remain uncharted.The objective of this article is to fill this gap, by focusing on the dynamics of the leaving of these microscopic beings from the laboratory and their movement towards biotechnology companies and farms. Today, the scientific and industrial uses of living organisms and their agricultural applications are at the intersection of economic, ethical and political issues (Busch et al. 1992), and are particularly controversial, as illustrated by the case of GMOs from the 1990s onwards (Levidow 1999;Marris et al. 2005). The aim here is to pay close attention to the debates, frictions and controversies that are accompanying the emergence of these microorganism-based technologies, with a particular focus on the new division of labour between the main players in agricultural science and technology. We more specifically consider the cases of two Latin American countries, Brazil and Mexico, where microbiological inputs have recently attracted the attention of stakeholders of the agricultural sector.The article is organised as follows. First, we review the debate about how technologies and innovations are transferred from the laboratory to industry and to users, in particular by examining the features of technologies of biological origin. We take the opportunity to emphasise the concept of laboratorisation of society, part of the actor-network theory, which we use more specifically to shed light on the field data. Section 3 describes the methods and materials used for this research. The results are presented in two parts that embody two distinct modalities of the laboratorisation of society. On the one hand, the forms of connection between science and the microbiological input companies; on the other hand, the dynamics and tensions associated with the on-farm production of microorganisms by farmers, and the controversies they raise concerning the relationship between science, policy and society. Finally, we discuss these results and conclude by suggesting avenues for further research.The relationship between scientists and engineers who design technologies and their potential users is a long-standing area of research, in which the relationship between science and society has been examined from many angles. Past studies of the diffusion and adoption of agricultural technologies have, for instance, looked at the way technologies are disseminated within societies over time, and characterised the profiles, motivations, and rationalities of adopters (Rogers 1962). This approach has been criticised for its linear nature and Taylorist interpretation of innovation. Works on the role of users in innovation have highlighted the possibility that new ideas may come not only from the laboratory and scientists, but also from citizens (Von Hippel 1976), or, in the agricultural sector, from farmers (Chambers et al. 1989;Dolinska and d'Aquino 2016).For their part, co-innovation (Saragih and Tan 2018) and co-design (Meynard et al. 2012) approaches have emphasised the porous nature of laboratory boundaries both in the design stage of innovations and technological diffusion, which supports the idea that scientists and users collaborate to create and subsequently to adapt technologies to each societal context. These kinds of collaborative models now permeate approaches that call for the democratisation of innovation and science (Von Hippel 2005;Elmquist et al. 2009), emphasising the role of lay people. However, the incorporation of users and citizens frequently fails to account for the diversity of stakeholders and institutions involved in the development of the technologies and innovations concerned. Forms of collaboration between science and industry (Ankrah and Al-Tabbaa 2015), the triangular relationships between science, industry and public policy captured by the triple helix model (Leydesdorff 2000), to which, civil society is added in the quadruple helix model (Carayannis and Campbell 2009), try to capture this diversity. Like the innovation systems approach (Lundvall 1992), these different approaches are based on the premise that scientists and engineers are not the only actors capable of generating technologies and innovations. The interactions and collaborations they pursue along with other stakeholders are the main forces that boost innovations and push the knowledge they create out of the laboratories.These interactionist approaches converge with those that have emerged in Science and Technology Studies (STS) on the social construction (Bijker and Pinch 1987) or social shaping (Williams and Edge 1996) of technologies, and more broadly with the Actor-Network Theory (ANT), which makes it possible to gain insights into the diversity of actors involved in the expansion of a technology, at the interface between a laboratory and society. According to ANT, what makes an innovation successful is not just its technical relevance or economic efficiency, but the translation processes by means of which certain actors -equipped not only with ideas and discourses but also material and technical instruments such as reports, standards, guides, tests, Petri dishes -try to convince different stakeholders that their interests are aligned with the development of the innovation (Callon 1986;Akrich et al. 2002). Therefore, technologies and their expansion involve the construction and extension of sociotechnical networks and arrangements that create entanglements between actors and non-humans. As close as possible to the technologies and their uses, these sociotechnical phenomena involve reciprocal adjustments between the technologies and their environment. Technologies are not simply 'adopted': they may be adapted and transformed by users, in the same way as the technologies affect their environment. Technical objects thus carry with them scripts (Akrich 1992), which predetermine a certain number of conditions under which users and actors outside the design process will have to act.Based on his analysis of Louis Pasteur's work on microorganisms, Bruno Latour showed that technologies never really leave the laboratory and enter society: rather, society incorporates the characteristics of the laboratory to accommodate the technologies (Latour 1988). In fact, it is the extension or replication in society of the material conditions and working methods that usually prevail in the laboratory which enable the expansion of technologies designed in this controlled environment. This is what, following Latour and his 'Pasteurisation of France', Callon, Lascoumes and Barthe, termed the \"laboratorisation of society\" (Callon et al. 2011). They show that researchers are not antisocial scientists who isolate themselves in their laboratories with one aim, i.e. to develop technologies, rather they are social actors who play an active role, particularly in interactions with funding bodies and public decision-makers, in rendering the world receptive to these technologies. The success and emergence of the technologies they promote depends to a large extent on the creation of replicas of the laboratory outside the confines of the academic world. For instance, the emergence and success of the vaccines designed by Pasteur in his laboratory were based on training doctors in bacteriology and hygiene, and on installing the necessary instruments and conditions for storing and applying the vaccines in their practices. Thus a whole range of equipment and knowledge together form the infrastructures (Star 1999) and replicate the laboratory conditions that are required for the emergence and diffusion of technologies from the laboratory into society. The dynamics highlighted by Bruno Latour apply far beyond the case study he analysed, and are relevant to many technologies and innovations. However, the question of microbes and microorganisms remains an exemplary case, highlighting what is feasible under laboratory conditions and what is not feasible elsewhere. First and foremost, it's the ability to isolate and control living organisms that are invisible to the naked eye, and which might otherwise escape notice. Secondly, as Latour points out, it enables us to make these entities visible through inscriptions, and to act upon them.As we have seen, innovation and the emergence of living entities from the laboratory are complex questions, highly sensitive to the relationship between science, technology and society, and to how this relationship has evolved over time. More recently, this evolution has gone hand in hand with a transformation in the very way living entities and their role are perceived from whichever side of the boundaries between laboratory and society. From inert commodities, they have become recognised for the work they do and for their vitality (Barua 2019;Beldo 2017). In addition, the boundaries between laboratory and society, or between the different categories of actors empowered to work on biological objects, are also shifting due to the development of participatory science (Schrögel and Kolleck 2019) or do-ityourself biology (Meyer 2021). These movements call on the ability of citizens to deal with these biological entities, all once again anchored in mobilisations tinged with epistemic and political claims.In this changing context, marked by a renewed role for nature-based technologies, the transformation of the relationship between science and society, and the increasing political anchoring of innovations, the objective of this article is to better understand how microbiological technologies originating in academic circles are emerging at a large scale and are proceeding towards industry and the end users, in this case, farmers. To this end, the following sections draw on previous works associated with ANT to analyse one particular process of laboratorisation.The research on which this article is based was conducted in Brazil between 2019 and 2023, and in Mexico between 2022 and 2023. The aim of the research was to understand the driving forces behind the emergence of biological inputs in the two countries, based on interviews with the main stakeholders involved in biological inputs. A total of 44 interviews were conducted, 23 in Brazil and 21 in Mexico. Seven with farmers who produce and/or use microorganism-based inputs (State of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil and Sonora in Mexico); 9 with employees of companies that produce and sell microorganism-based solutions; 3 with agents of companies that produce and sell solutions for on-farm production of microorganisms in Brazil; 3 with retailers who sell both chemical and biological agricultural inputs; 8 with officials from the Ministry of Agriculture and regulatory agencies in the two countries; 4 with independent consultants specialised in providing agricultural advice on bioinputs; and 9 with researchers in microbiology, entomology or agronomy. A snowball approach (Parker et al. 2019) was used to select the sample of actors interviewed. The This seminal work on laboratorisation not only invites us to rethink the very idea of \"leaving\" the laboratory, but also, through the case study analysed by Latour, to question the possible specificities of mechanisms that enable technologies based on living organisms to thrive outside laboratories or experimental stations. At first sight, one might consider that the specifics are null, so much so that the deployment and diffusion of such technologies -for example improved varieties of cultivated plants (Ryan and Gross 1943) -were reference cases for the first works in the field of diffusionist approaches. In agriculture and livestock breeding, the large-scale dissemination of improved animal breeds and plant varieties (Fabrice 2019; Byerlee 2020) was a textbook example of this massive outflow of biological technologies from laboratories over the course of the 20th century. But one of the reasons for this success is precisely the fact that these biological entities have undergone processes of standardisation, stabilisation and commodification (Barua 2016;Smessaert et al. 2020), thereby helping to reduce their unpredictable nature and variability. Advances in genetics have been essential to this trajectory, but not only: it has also depended on the development and promotion of a whole range of technologies surrounding these living entities -the famous 'ready-to-use' technological packages, including fertilizers and pesticides in crop production, for examplethat have enabled these entities to prosper. But resistance to this well-oiled mechanism of commodified living expansion has since emerged. First and foremost, it is living beings and nature itself that have reminded humans of their existence with, for example, the sensitivity of these beings to health pressures outside the laboratory leading to the ever-increasing use of pesticides or antibiotics, or to the ever-tighter confinement of factory-farmed animals in spaces that are just as confined as laboratories (Hinchliffe and Ward 2014). It is also humans who have become engaged, applying a political register to criticize the impoverishment of biodiversity engendered by these transformations, and claiming the right and capacity of citizens themselves -farmers, for example -to ensure the conservation and improvement of biological resources (Kloppenburg 2004). The era of genetic modification in the laboratory has brought this contestation and the reaction of experts into the realm of risk management and risk prevention: whether for genetically modified plants or insects (Levidow and Tait 1992;Reis-Castro and Hendrickx 2013;Schwindenhammer 2020), the transition from the laboratory to the outside world has thus become an issue of \"release\" into the environment of entities that have become suspect. More than ever, these technologies and their release from the laboratory have become political objects, both for citizens, for the professionals who use them, and for the actors in the political field who are obliged to deal with them (Schwörer et al. 2023).are less restrictive than agroecological crop protection, which requires in-depth redesign of production systems, as a scientist from the Mexican National Research Institute for Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock (Inifap) pointed out: \"It is the closest thing to a chemical pesticide replacement. An application of Metaryzium, of Beauveria, or even Bacil-lus…. this can quickly replace a conventional application of a chemical pesticide\".In Brazil, a similar movement has been underway since 2000, with microorganisms becoming a new common denominator for research on biofertilizers and biocontrol. In Brazil, organisational links are even tighter, with, for example, the 2016 merger organised by the state-owned Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) of the national research portfolio on biofertilizers and on biocontrol into a single portfolio on biological inputs and a shared bank of microorganisms. Starting in the early 2000s, research and development conducted in the laboratory began to be transferred to the industrial realm with the emergence of numerous start-ups and spin-offs, with close links to public research laboratories and universities. This is particularly true in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. Installed near the city of Campinas, the Instituto Biológico provides strains of microorganisms for beginning companies who supply the market with biocontrol technologies for sugar cane cultivation. This is also the case of various companies in Mexico, including a biocontrol company set up by a citrus grower, incubated in the early 2000s at the Centro de Ciencias in the state of Sinaloa. Combined with supplying bacterial strains, this research centre provides quality control for the company via a seconded agent. This component is essential, as there is a risk that poor multiplication practices will result in solutions that are insufficiently concentrated, or are contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms. Similarly, in 2003, a biofertilizer company in the state of Morelos was established with a signed agreement between an entrepreneur and the Research Centre for Biological Nitrogen Fixation of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The company's founder describes this partnership and the importance of maintaining close links with research laboratories:We drew up the agreement so that we could promote, disseminate, produce, market and research the topic of biofertilizers in collaboration with the centre. We originate from a research and production linkage and, over the years, we have developed it rather than moving away from it, quite the reverse, we have strengthened it. We have collaboration agreements with various institutions that all, in one way or another, deal with the subject of agrobiotechnology or sustainable and alternative technologies.best-known ones on the subject were first identified through an internet search or through our professional contacts; the interviews we conducted with these first actors then enabled us to identify and interview other significant players.In addition to the interviews, in 2021, observations were made in Brazil during a three-day field trip accompanying a technician from a Brazilian on-farm solutions company, as she interacted with her farmer customers in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. In addition, we took part in two online events in Brazil, one in 2020 and one in 2021, which included debates on the rise of on-farm production in Brazil, in the presence of representatives of the biological inputs sector, farmers, researchers and Brazilian government officials. Finally, we examined institutional documents produced by public administrations and by private companies in the sector in both countries.The recordings of these interviews and events were transcribed, and the most relevant elements were classified in twelve analytical categories dealing with the relationship between science and industry, science and policy, farmers' motivations and career paths, and the legislative framework for biological inputs and how it is evolving. These categories were established inductively, using a grounded theory approach, on the basis of all the data collected, so as to gather the most relevant material in a single working document.Research on microorganisms and their applications for plant nutrition and health has expanded considerably in recent decades. In the case of biofertilisation, there was a boom in research on biofertilisation and its applications in the mid-1990s, mainly in South America, with the development of soybean crops and the search for bacteria capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and transferring it to the plants. Using microorganisms for biological control is a more recent topic (Syed Ab Rahman et al. 2018), as biological control was long dominated by work on macroorganisms as the main tool for agroecological crop protection or integrated pest management, both of which combine biocontrol and chemical pesticides (Deguine et al. 2021). In Mexico, a public institution, the National Reference Centre for Biological Control, was created in 1991 whose mandate was to produce and transfer technological alternatives to pesticides. Although the centre initially focused on macroorganisms, a real turning point came in the mid-2000s, with the discovery or laboratory improvement of the properties of certain bacteria and fungi. In terms of biological control, these microorganisms offer farmers new possibilities; they scientific evidence of the effectiveness of their products. They usually call on private companies to conduct ad hoc studies. But as one Mexican agronomist from a research centre pointed out, the protocols used are often not sufficiently rigorous, and deviate from laboratory standards:When I started to see the impact of biofertilizers, I saw that there was practically no scientific information, let's say, including experiments, with statistical analysis, repetitions, experimental design, and in fact, there were comparisons, where in my opinion, they were using the wrong control, not the normal dose of fertiliser (…) I never saw an experiment where they used the right control.From the production of microorganism-based inputs to the evaluation of their effects, the laboratorisation of society -in this case embodied by companies which produce or evaluate inputs -is an essential factor in the emergence of these technologies. Laboratorisation is even obligatory for long-established companies in the sector: without it, and the guarantee it represents for product quality, they risk compromising their fundamental interest in increasing sales. But the extent to which this is happening varies with the entrepreneurial sphere, and consequently seems to be jeopardising, or at least hindering, the robust and rapid emergence of microbiological inputs.In addition to the relationship between research laboratories and private companies, another way of laboratorising the sector is succeeding in both Brazil and Mexico: the production of microorganisms directly on-farm, by farmers. As we will see, this approach has a great transformative potential, but is also deeply controversial in terms of the rigour of the laboratorisation.One of the specific features of the Latin American continent is booming on-farm production of microorganisms by farmers, which began in the mid-2010s. This type of production of microorganisms, which in Brazil, is sometimes referred to as on-farm production, is embodied by the concept of biofactories at the regional level. With these biofactories, the aim is to achieve the process of laboratorisation by replicating the laboratories that produce microorganisms on farms, or in local units located close to farms. Farmers are interested in doing so for a number of reasons: in The secretary of the Brazilian Association of Biological Control Companies 1 also discussed the importance of this proximity and collaboration between companies that produce microorganisms and research laboratories, while differentiating this technological field from that of macroorganisms used in biocontrol:These are companies with completely different profiles; because there is a much greater need for technology in companies that work with microorganisms. For production reasons, because it's high-tech: you have to select the microorganism; you have to adapt the formulation. Not with macroorganisms. Insects, you just produce them. They don't have the same wide variability as microorganisms.Their closeness to science, this continuum between companies and research laboratories, is much vaunted by these companies. Communication campaigns and websites are full of references to science and research, photos showing Petri dishes, staff in white coats with protective goggles and masks, and gleaming laboratories with stainless steel benches, refrigerators and vats. Everything is done to emphasise that these companies rely on laboratories that comply with the strictest safety and hygiene standards, on a par with the laboratories of the most prestigious research institutes or universities. These long-established companies do not hesitate to denounce competitors who, unlike them, do not maintain close links with research and do not replicate the latter's protocols, which they believe are the only way of guaranteeing quality products. A Mexican entrepreneur in the state of Coahuila denounced what he called \"charlatans\":There are many pirate products in Mexico. And all these pirate products are produced by companies that see the market opportunity, but don't invest in technology, they don't invest in laboratories, they don't invest in qualified staff. They just see a business opportunity. And the truth is that -the word is going to sound very ugly -but they are prostitutes in the market.In their view, these companies are jeopardising the emergence of microbiological inputs, and hence the entire sector, by not complying with laboratory standards. Beyond the production conditions, the way in which companies seek to demonstrate the efficacy of their products is also called into question. Since they are positioned in a market that offers alternative technologies, of which farmers are often already suspicious, they have a great deal at stake in providing stage\" of production. The company draws attention to their \"scientific teams\", one of which has \"30 PhDs and 5 postdocs\". In 2022, the team took on board one of Embrapa's leading microbiologists, who had headed the national biocontrol research programme, and who became the company's Director of Research and Innovation. All this scientific rigour serves one purpose, as emphasised by the two leading companies: \"to develop the ideal laboratory project for the farm\", and to enable the emergence of \"professional onfarm multiplication\" of microorganisms.While the momentum in favour of biofactories continues in both countries, this does not exclude criticism from scientists and private companies who question the rigorous nature of this attempt to laboratorise farms. With scientific studies to back them up, microbiologists in public research institutes such as Inifap, Embrapa and universities in both countries are warning about the risks of multiplying pathogenic microorganisms, some of which are resistant to antibiotics, that would then be released in the fields. In an interview, an Inifap scientist explained: \"In our laboratories, we have evaluated products they say will include one strain… we evaluate them, grow them and all kinds of things grow, (…) we start the analyses, and there's a zoo growing right there\".Given the expansion of such biofactories, scientists make every effort to underline the poor quality of the equipment and of on-farm practices, as well as the low level of qualifications of the people involved. For example, one scientist in Mexico pointed out that, despite the training provided by Inifap researchers, the technicians working on the Producción para el Bienestar programme are not capable of reaching the standards required by these technologies: \"The problem is that the technicians do not master the concept, that is the biggest problem they have. I had to teach some topics to technicians in the programme and they do not have the profile, some of them are not even agronomists, others are teachers\".Yet, it is mostly the farmers' skills that are being called into question by scientists and industrial producers. The head of Embrapa's national microbiological nitrogen fixation programme put it bluntly: \"Farmers don't have the skills to work with microorganisms. Microorganisms are not for amateurs\". The professionalism of scientists and companies is held up in contrast to the amateurism of all those who have neither the skills nor equipment, or who allegedly do not respect the strict protocols recommended by research and industry. In the opinion of these actors, it is the boundary between scientists and non-scientists that needs to be preserved, as biofactories are in no way equivalent to what areas with limited access to commercial companies, it gives them access to biological inputs; and for those who already have access, it gives them access to these technologies at a much lower price, in return for their initial investment in the required infrastructure. The equipment mainly consists of plastic or stainless-steel tanks, air circulation systems to facilitate aerobic multiplication, and sometimes cold rooms to store the resulting solutions. The equipment is usually located in a dedicated area on the farm, which most farmers call the 'laboratory', which contains everything they need to produce microorganisms including a microscope to observe the microorganisms, charts or notebooks in which information such as the temperature or pH of the solutions is recorded at regular intervals, fridges to store the strains, disinfection equipment, etc.But farmers need to acquire knowledge on how to run these on-farm laboratories on their own, and in this respect, they are not being left behind, on the contrary, they are being trained through public training opportunities or thanks to agricultural development programmes at federal or state level -Producción para el Bienestar in Mexico, Programa Nacional de Bioinsumos in Brazil -involving researchers and technicians from Inifap in Mexico and Embrapa in Brazil. Informative documentation is also produced, for example in Mexico with a series of \"Practical manuals for the development of bioinputs\", that explain the basics and list the equipment needed to set up a biofactory.Companies that specialise in setting up biofactories and supporting farmers also play a key role in these dynamics, particularly in Brazil. Two companies established in the mid-2010s are very involved in the process of laboratorising farms. They offer farmers a turnkey service, including production infrastructure, strains of microorganisms selected in laboratories, the growth solution needed to multiply them, hygiene products and, of course, advice and training. Their objectives are clear: to position themselves as laboratory brokers, bypassing traditional marketing channels for inputs, and to expand their market share at the expense of companies marketing micro-organism-based solutions. They position themselves as science and technology brokers for farmers, insisting, like their counterparts who market ready-to-use solutions, on the scientifically sound nature of their work. Their websites and communications materials show staff wearing white coats and gloves, workbenches and laboratories, and the \"advanced research centres\" they have recently built. The structures they install are described as particularly rigorous, complying with the strictest scientific and industrial laboratory standards. As one company website explains, they comply with \"pharmaceutical production standards\", \"air quality control [is] on a par with world-class hospitals\", and have \"networks of accredited external laboratories to guarantee quality control at every and Mexico, policies in favour of biological inputs have flourished under governments with conflicting approaches to science and academia. The Jair Bolsonaro government has been accused of massive disinvestment in science and technology, and more generally of disregarding the opinions of scientists on many subjects (da Cunha Bustamante et al., 2023). In turn, the government of Andres Manuel López Obrador in Mexico is often accused of seeking to bring the scientific apparatus to heel in the service of its policies, and of implementing a populist model of governance in the sector (Reyes-Galindo 2022). The case of public policies for the development of biofactories offers an unexpected window into these debates.In Brazil, tensions rose in 2020, with the publication of Decree 10.375 establishing the National Bioinputs Programme, the main political instrument for the promotion of biological inputs by the federal government. In response to the article in this decree encouraging support for the creation of biofactories, the National Institute of Science and Technology MPCPAgro (Plant Growth Promoting Microorganisms for Agricultural Sustainability and Environmental Responsibility) published a particularly critical technical note. It criticised the government's \"simplistic\" attitude and its \"disrespect for science\", pointing out that the \"scientific advances\" made over the last few decades show that microorganisms are \"living organisms that require special precautions for handling and use\". It points out that the production of microorganisms requires \"knowledge of complex fermentation processes, high technological and microbiological knowledge and aseptic conditions to control microbial growth\", and \"several pieces of equipment, including an autoclave, a laminar flow hood, an analytical balance, a growth oven, a microscope, as well as an aseptic control room\". In other words, farmers would have neither the skills nor the material resources to replicate on-farm laboratories capable of multiplying microorganisms in a sufficiently controlled manner.The confrontation between scientists and policy-makers continued in 2021 with the proposal for a bill to formalise the absence of obstacles or regulations, so that farmers can produce microorganisms on-farm. One of the aims of the bill was to guarantee that large-scale farmers, who were allies of the government at the time, would be able to continue to operate freely. At the time, increasing numbers of farmers were investing in on-farm production units, and were receiving support from the highest levels of government. Such support dates back to the previous government, under the presidency of Michel Temer, when the Minister of Agriculture was the country's largest individual soybean producer, and also produced microorganisms on-farm. At the time, the bill explicitly aimed to recognise and encourage \"a conduct that today is widely practised by the national agricultural is practised or produced in 'real' laboratories. In so doing, they also seek to preserve exclusive rights to their field of knowledge and expertise, and of course, when the actors are companies, to defend their market share. In this way, they set themselves up as the \"official\" spokespersons for genuine laboratorisation, as the owner of a Mexican bioinputs factory put it:Every activity requires scientific knowledge to back it up and that cannot be taken away. So, if I make someone do the task who knows nothing about the subject, he becomes a sorcerer's apprentice. Everyone can make biscuits or bread in their own kitchen, but setting up a bakery is another matter.In their communication materials, manufacturers emphasise their high level of technical expertise and professionalism, which sets them apart from laypersons who would expose the natural environment and consumers to the risk of contamination. As a manufacturer from the state of Morelos, in central Mexico, pointed out:We have installed a hermetically sealed computercontrolled reactor there and the levels of oxygenation, stirring, etc., are controlled by the computer according to the requirements of the micro-organism. If we put Azospirillum, we know that we are going to produce Azospirillum and nothing else.It is in this way, and only at the cost of this strict and hermetic guarantee of good laboratory practices, that microorganisms would be able to work and the risk of jeopardising a promising industry, sources of employment and of income can be avoided. As the head of Croplife Brasil, the association of the agricultural inputs and biotechnology industries, pointed out, such technologies based on the multiplication and use of living organisms involve specific risks, and must therefore comply with the highest production standards. For instance, as high as those applied for decades to the production of chemical inputs, for which, because of the complexity of the processes and facilities required, such a move towards on-farm production has never been envisaged: \"We're not playing at mixing products in a tank with a broom, we're talking about technicalities. The rigour that applies to the control of traditional pesticides has to be the same for biologicals\".An essential facet of this challenging laboratorisation is also present at the political level, and in the relationship that governments establish with the scientific sector. In both Brazil 1990s, only plays a secondary executive role in Sader's programme, with a few engineers and researchers involved in training the technicians responsible for supporting farmers. As an agent from the Sub-Secretariat pointed out: \"They didn't know about bioinputs, they are just starting… (…) They didn't have the researchers for this. We have had to get some\". On the other hand, the National Council for Science and Technology (Conacyt), a generalist institution that has been the subject of major political interventions by the federal government -an intervention which was denounced by a large proportion of the scientific community -is identified as a partner of choice. This is not just because of its expertise in agricultural microbiology, but also because of the transformation it has undergone in its relationship with society as a result of government policies 2 . The same agent from the Sub-Secretariat said:Conacyt is doing things, Conacyt is our research entity. And they are participating more and more with us, because they have changed: instead of doing desk research, producing theses, or writing papers, they are doing more applied research. So they have started to link up with us. Getting academics out of their comfort zone has been difficult.Unlike the case of Brazil, the Mexican government's interest here is in implementing concrete measures in favour of small-scale producers, echoing the government's broader political agenda to support the poorest sections of society as a priority. But like in Brazil, and for similar reasons, the Mexican government's actions in favour of biofactories are nevertheless being contested by leading scientists in agricultural microbiology. Their protest is in line with that of officials from the Secretariat of Agriculture, who are involved in working groups to modernise the existing regulations on biological inputs. These groups were set up in response to growing demand from companies, more and more of which want to market biological inputs and call for legislation that differs from that designed for chemical inputs. Researchers and civil servants involved in these working groups denounce a two-headed State, which on the one hand tries to modernise the regulatory framework on the basis of scientific criteria, but on the other hand, intends to promote biofactories in rural areas with no concern for strict standards in the production of microorganisms. Referring to these diverging policies, a microbiologist involved in the working group for the regulation of biofertilisers production sector\", and to \"protect farmers\" with biofactories. At the time, the interest of the government was clearly to pledge its support to the lobby of large agricultural producers, and to its many political allies in parliament. Faced with this proposal, scientists also protested. This time it was Embrapa, even though it was under the political authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, who, in November 2021, published an official statement openly critical of this legislative process. The statement listed the risks associated with onfarm production when technical and sanitary standards are not met, including \"the proliferation of contaminants\", \"the pathogenic risk for humans, animals and plants\", and ultimately the risk of \"damaging the good image of bioinputs\". On the basis of these warnings, the scientists recommended that all producers of microorganisms should be recorded in an official register, and that farms should have an authorised technical manager. The Ministry reacted calmly to these \"alarmist\" calls from scientists, urging them not to get involved in politics. One official explained:Embrapa has to focus on Science and Technology and Innovation, and the Ministry of Agriculture is concerned with monitoring. In the same way that I don't do research, I think Embrapa should concentrate on doing research. (…) In this case, I think it's better to let everyone focus on their own business.In Mexico, although the controversy has not reached the same level of publicity as in Brazil, the tensions are no less present. The main programme that promotes biofactories, Producción para el Bienestar, is part of the Sub-Secretariat for Food Self-Sufficiency, itself part of the Secretariat for Agriculture and Rural Development (Sader). Like the sub-secretary, who is close to the campesino's movement and an advocate of biofactories, the sub-secretariat supports the development of agroecological practices for small farmers. The concern for biological inputs within the programme is, according to its managers, an \"import\" into the Ministry of what has been practised in the field for years by NGOs defending agroecology for peasants. One of the programme's managers, whose career path has been at the interface between these organisations and committed university research, describes it in this way: \"We had already been practising it and agroecological organisations, organic farming organisations, etc., already existed that had been doing this. What we did was, let's say, make it a public policy that targets small farmers\".The claim of being close to the world of NGOs also implies distancing from scientific organisations, or at least from some, and from a certain vision of the relationship between science and society. Inifap, for example, which has been developing biocontrol programmes since the early heightened by the microscopic nature of the organisms concerned, which are invisible to the naked eye. Since it is impossible to assess their quality without laboratory equipment, the only real guarantee of the quality of the products is to ensure that they are as robustly produced as they would be in a laboratory, respecting strict quality standards. Science and its practice, its standards and its equipment, are therefore necessarily at the heart of the emergence of these technologies and the successful laboratorisation of the society on which it is based. Emergence is thus both a matter of moving between production sites -from laboratories to companies or farms -and a matter of replicating a set of equipment, knowledge and other protocols. This dual process is both enabled by the biological nature of the technologies concerned -farmers could not, for example, synthesise pesticide molecules on their farm -and constrained by the latter, as production processes are very strict due to the fragile and sensitive nature of these living beings. But, although based on the symbolic and regulatory authority of science, this laboratorisation is nevertheless the subject of heated debate, with some stakeholders defending contradictory positions and interests. In fact, laboratorisation and the importance it gives to science has become a political issue in the two countries featured in this article, Brazil and Mexico. For some stakeholders, the laboratory and its distance from society are the embodiment of a science that is not at the service of the 'real' world and hence of society as a whole. What is called for by these people, is a partial and simplified laboratory approach, which in some cases ends up getting the better of the scientists. The controversies surrounding these processes and levels of laboratorisation thus bear witness to the misalignments that can arise between the interests of the various players involved in a given technology, and which are ultimately expressed at different levels, be they economic, epistemic or political.On the basis of these results, two points for discussion and potential opening emerge. The first stems from the fact that in this article we considered all farmers as being members of the same population, whereas, as is often the case, the question of technological change is being raised with increasing vigour in connection with smallholder agriculture (Glover et al. 2019). Smallholder access to technologies, in this specific case, to commercial biological inputs and the knowledge needed to use them, is often limited, as they lack the necessary economic resources or logistics. On-farm production can be a promising option in this context, but it is also in just these situations that practices are most likely to deviate from sanitary recommendations. Appropriate forms of laboratory training for these groups should thus be considered. The question of adapting technologies to smallholders (Van Loon et al. 2020), which is sometimes considered from the angle of the cost of technologies or their maintenance, in this case, largely shifts to the sanitary and biosafety risks associated with technologies based on living inputs. A recent study on on-farm food processing commented: \"Between what we are working on, updating the official Mexican standard, and this public policy, it is totally contradictory\".In the opinion of the officials responsible for regulating pesticide products, such contradictions end up working to the detriment of manufacturers, who for their part would do their utmost to use good practices to produce microorganisms. One of these officials remarked: I consider the problem to be more political than technical; it is very difficult to make them [the manufacturers] understand a series of elements. And in the end, it results in unfair competition on the market. Industry complaints concern exactly that, i.e. there are a lot of home-made products that have not been the subject of scientific rigour.At the intersection between political, scientific and economic issues, the laboratorisation of society to accommodate the emergence of microbiological inputs is therefore crystallising major tensions in the political field and within public administrations.What are the drivers of and challenges to the emergence of microbiological agricultural inputs? In this article, we attempted to answer this question, focusing in particular on the redistribution of knowledge and tasks between stakeholders in agricultural science and technology, and the political frictions this redistribution entails. We have analysed the process of laboratorisation of society that has accompanied the expansion of agricultural microorganisms from research laboratories to biotechnology companies and farms in Brazil and Mexico in recent years. We have shown that laboratorisation follows contrasting paths, in which proximity to scientific standards is not only a variable, but also the subject of heated debate. The development of production processes that are as close as possible to laboratory standards is considered by scientists and industrialists to be a prerequisite for the successful emergence of these technologies and the further development of this important sector for the agroecological transition. In their view, if these microorganisms are not produced using precise and robust laboratory processes and protocols, their living nature carries a twofold risk. Either they die, because of poor production or conservation practices, and the solutions produced have no effect and, in this case, will compromise the reputation of biological inputs; or they are produced haphazardly, contaminated with undesirable microorganisms, which could have negative effects on the health of ecosystems, environments and even human beings. As Bruno Latour points out, these risks are article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/. and on-farm slaughtering of animals provides some pointers in this area (Hultgren et al. 2018). Regardless, the most heated debates concern these sectors in which further research would be of great interest.Finally, the case study invites us to reflect on the transformation of relations between science and society around technologies based on living organisms. In recent decades, there has been a debate about the social utility of public research, its ability to generate transformative change (Schot and Steinmueller 2018) and its impact (Blundo-Canto et al. 2018). Here, particularly with the development of biofactories, we have a special case where scientists find themselves not lacking impact, but on the contrary caught out by a transfer that escapes them, or at least is not occurring in the conditions they would have chosen precisely because of the biological nature of the technologies and inputs in question: whereas no farmer would be able to synthesise chemical fertilisers or pesticides on his/her own, because of the heavy industrial infrastructure that would be needed to do so, they can do it with microorganisms. This reluctance on the part of researchers echoes the literature showing that, in the past, researchers have opposed the use to which their work has been put, for example in the context of armed conflicts (Moore 2013); here we find ourselves in an inbetween situation, between researchers' conviction of the value of their work for farmers and society, and their rejection of the ways in which technologies emerge and scale. This in-between situation gives rise to an original scenario, which raises questions about the contemporary forms of linkage between science, public policy and society in the context of agroecological transitions, about how to set up and scrutinise policy developments and how to contextualise ongoing research.sustainable agricultural systems at different scales. His main areas of expertise are around the sustainability of small-scale farming systems, ex-ante and ex-post multicriteria assessment, natural resource management, agroecology and food and nutritional security. He has led and participated in several projects worldwide related to the development and implementation of agricultural innovations and integrated farming systems research with a wide diversity of partners and students.Paulo Niederle is a professor of agri-food studies and economic sociology at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), where he coordinates the Research Group in Sociology of Food Practices (SOPAS). He is also a member of the and the Research Group in Agriculture, Food and Development (GEPAD) and the Public Policies and Rural Development in Latin America Network (Red PP-AL). His research interests include agroecology and transition to sustainable food systems, the interface bettween food activism and food policies, and institutional change in food markets.Sylvanus Odjo is a scientist working at CIMMYT as the Agricultural Technology Innovation Lead for Latin America and the focal point for CIMMYT in the OneCGIAR initiative Nature Positive. He is working on the development of agricultural research for technology innovation related to postharvest and agricultural mechanization for cereals and other grains to achieve food security in rural communities. He coordinates a network of research platforms and experiments for agribusiness innovation for last-mile service providers, food processing, and biodiversity conservation with collaborators in Mexico, Central America, and Africa to address research gaps and inform recommendations to farmers, the private sector, governments, national agricultural research institutions and non-governmental organizations.Sergio Schneider is Full Professor of Sociology of Rural Development and Food Studies at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. He holds a PhD in Sociology and is CNPq Scholar PQ1B for high research productivity. He is currently deputy president of IRSA (International rural Sociology Association) and since 2019 is invited Professor at COHD-CAU-China. Former Visiting Fellow at CPLAN-Cardiff University-UK (2008), FLACSO-Ecuador (2010-2014), CFP-City London University-UK (2015), MUSE-University of Montpellier (2023). Perform as consultant/advisor for U.N. organizations (FAO, WHO, IFAD) and also farmers unions and coops in Brazil and Latin America. His research interest encompass sociology of food, territorial markets, food systems, rural development, family farming, public policies, bio inputs and alternative proteins.Nele Verhulst is a soil scientist and agronomist and was a researcher at CIMMYT from October 2011 to June 2024, leading the Cropping Systems Science team in Latin America. She worked on the development of Conservation Agriculture-based management practices and postharvest technologies, with a focus on Mexico and Central America. Capacity development with researchers and extension agents is also an important part of her work. Nele has developed a wide range of publications to communicate research results with more than 70 international peer-reviewed journal articles, 10 book chapters and international conference proceedings.Jelle Van Loon an agricultural engineer with a PhD in biosystems modelling, has over a decade of experience in agricultural research for development in Latin America. He serves as Associate Director for Latin America of CIMMYT's Sustainable Agrifood System Program, leading research to build resilient food systems and long-term rural development. Jelle creates partnerships and business models to bring scale-appropriate solutions to smallholder farmers. In addition, he serves FAO as a Mechanization expert in Africa and the Asian Pacific and is part of a think tank on disruptive innovation for social entrepreneurship in Belgium's primary health sector.","tokenCount":"8663"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3cbb39c226f5516c476ddc229c6347aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ed0bf40-8257-4be5-9a86-db34a1a6737f/retrieve","id":"1496755572"},"keywords":["Vincent Fautrel, CTA Editorial project management: Bianca Beks, CTA Editing: WRENmedia, United Kingdom Design and layout: Flame Design, South Africa © Cover photos: Napat","Salajean","Rakratchada","Alexnika/Shutterstock.com Printing: Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, United Kingdom"],"sieverID":"423a64ac-e309-4aa7-8b53-2118547d867d","pagecount":"60","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities.CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU.For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA)Although development and promotion of inclusive agricultural value chains are widely recognised as key strategies for achieving economic growth and ensuring social cohesion in most African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) regions, inclusiveness is often not documented or analysed.Inclusive value chains generally do not arise naturally; they are the result of lengthy discussions, consultations and negotiations between the actors of the chain as they try to find a balance between sometimes divergent interests. Trust is a critical element in that process and often determines the success or failure of such collective initiatives.Since 2010, CTA has been supporting the development of sustainable, inclusive and profitable value chains in ACP countries using a three-step approach: building the evidence, strengthening the capacities of value-chain actors and facilitating multistakeholder dialogue. Documenting success stories and in particular the factors influencing inclusiveness is extremely important if we are to really understand the dynamics of such value chains and more importantly to be able to scale them up.The six cases presented in this report (jatropha in Burkina Faso and Mali; oilseeds in Uganda; litchi in Madagascar; cashew in Benin; milk products in Senegal; and bananas, pigs and aquaculture in Uganda) are concrete examples of how smallholders can effectively participate in value chains and identify the main criteria for success in establishing inclusiveness. These are analysed to provide a list of key issues that appear to be preconditions for ensuring long-term inclusiveness.We would like to thank again the non-governmental and research organisations that responded to our initial call for papers and for the richness of their analysis. We strongly believe that such lessons need to be systematically learned and shared and we invite all our partners and readers to help us in disseminating the findings as widely as possible. There is simply no time to reinvent the wheel.Director CTAThis paper reports on six case studies commissioned by CTA to examine factors contributing to the success of inclusive value chains in ACP countries. All six studies are from Africa. They cover: (1) jatropha chains in Burkina Faso and Mali;(2) oilseeds in Uganda;(3) litchi in Madagascar; (4) cashew in Benin; (5) milk products in Senegal; and (6) bananas, pigs and aquaculture in Uganda.There is a range of definitions of inclusive value chains but such chains are generally considered to be those that seek to obtain supply from poorer farmers, thereby maximising farmers' access to market opportunities. Recent developments in production and marketing systems do not automatically benefit small-scale farmers and conscious efforts need to be made to achieve positive results for them. Even so, not all farmers can be included, for reasons such as their location, farm size and natural resources, capacity to meet increasingly strict product standards, and the farmers' aversion to risk.According to FAO, features likely to be found in an inclusive value chain include: suitability for households with few assets; reliable and profitable trading practices; diversified market opportunities; a strong element of capacity building; and full and transparent consultation. Although \"inclusion\" tends to emphasise the position of farmers within a chain, the strength of the value chain approach is that it moves development efforts away from being farmer-centred to considering the entire chain from producer to consumer. Some of the case studies well illustrate the value of this approach, such as litchi in Madagascar where efforts to develop export sales had a positive benefit for all in the chain.A major factor in the success of inclusive chain development is the extent to which the buyers provide \"embedded\" services, such as input supply and technical advice, for which the farmers only pay indirectly through lower final prices for their products. Not only does this practice overcome the financial constraints of farmers but it also gives them access to inputs and support that might otherwise be unavailable. Even where such support is not fully embedded and farmers are required to meet some costs directly, the provision of improved seeds and other inputs specifically tailored to the needs of a particular product buyer can be very beneficial.Efforts to establish inclusive value chains may fail if the buyers make little effort to understand both the agricultural practices and skills of the farmers and their socio-cultural environment. For example, yield projections should be based on the local farm situation and not on yields achieved on commercial farms or on research stations. The capacity and willingness of farmers to follow recommended practices should be fully assessed. The implications of new farming practices on household and employed labour, and on gender relations, must be fully reviewed.Trust between farmers and buyers is essential if inclusive chains are to be successful. Developing such trust can be complex and time-consuming and the role of outsiders, such as NGOs, in supporting this can be beneficial. Regular meetings between buyers and farmers are important, as are multi-stakeholder approaches that bring together all involved in a chain, including government officers and local politicians. A major cause of discord is slow payment and companies should ensure that they pay on delivery or as soon as possible thereafter. Delayed payment jeopardised the oilseeds chain in Uganda.Risk minimisation is a major factor in farmers' production and marketing decisions. Farming always involves risks and inclusive value chains should be set up in such a way that the risk is certainly not increased and, preferably, is reduced. Risk reduction should result from farmers having access to reliable markets, price guarantees, and advice that can help them address climate and other production risks. Creating a dependence on just one crop should be avoided and there are good recent examples of where companies have encouraged their farmers to diversify.Projects and businesses seeking to promote inclusive value chains do, therefore, need to carry out a realistic assessment of the capacity of smallscale farmers to take on production activities. Because a particular investment by a farmer seems like a good idea to the manager of a contracting company, or to an NGO staff member, it does not mean that the investment will be seen in the same light by poor farmers, particularly if it appears to them that this will increase their risk.While households may benefit from efforts to promote inclusion, this does not mean that benefits will necessarily be shared equally. Depending on the particular culture of an area, women may see few rewards and may actually lose out. They sometimes face an increased workload, while financial benefits go only to the men. Training courses and meetings are often held only for men, even when the women do the bulk of the work. The potential negative impact of involvement in value chains on household food production is of particular concern. This can result from allocating land previously used for food gardens to cash crop production or from the increased workload faced by women.Companies rarely want to deal directly with thousands of individual smallscale farmers. Farmer organisations and cooperatives can play an important role, either as agents of a company or as the prime movers of an inclusive value chain. The use of full-time business management appears to be essential for farmer organisations seeking to become involved directly in value chains as there are many risks associated with poor management skills.NGOs working to support inclusive value chain development have tried various approaches. One model is to work only with established organisations and not try to set up new ones. Bodies set up solely to bring about inclusion often have a short life span. On the other hand, where no suitable organisations exist an inclusive value chain may require some consolidation of farmers into groups in order to promote communication, provide training and facilitate logistics to deliver inputs and collect the products.The case studies show that inclusion of small-scale farmers often requires a \"trial and error\" approach by both companies and NGOs, in order to arrive at the most suitable model for a particular environment. Changes in approach are fairly common as companies struggle to identify the best method of working with farmers, and NGOs discover how best to link the buyers and farmers.The research also suggested that the tendency in development work to ignore the traditional trading sector may be misguided. While not suitable for the handling of products requiring export quality and traceability, traditional marketing intermediaries do have a capacity to provide transport from remote areas, to buy small quantities per farmer and to pay in cash. Farmers are often inclined to sell to them despite agreements with other buyers. However, in contrast to the frequent support provided by donors and NGOs to farmer organisations, it is presently rare to find projects and programmes that provide either technical assistance or direct support to traders. 1)A study by the Institut de recherches et d'application des méthodes de développement (IRAM) and JatroREF looked at efforts by around 15 projects to develop value chains for jatropha in Burkina Faso and Mali.The majority concentrated on promoting smallholder production of the crop, which, although not widely exploited, has been known to farmers in Africa for some time. While early promotional efforts were often based on the possibility of exporting biodiesel, this was found to be uneconomic and emphasis is now on growing the crop for vegetable oil fuel (l'huile végétale pure, or HVP), which can be used locally as a substitute for diesel by mill owners or rural electrification schemes. Jatropha can also be used to manufacture various other products, such as soap.The Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), in partnership with the UK-based International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), submitted a paper on the oilseed sector in Uganda. This primarily addressed sunflower development in areas of the country recovering from rebel activities in the 1980s and 1990s. The study described the business model adopted by the country's largest oilseed processor, Mukwano Industries, in which farmers were supported with provision of specific seeds, technical assistance and guaranteed markets, in association with government programmes, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and with support from agencies such as SNV.Agronomes et vétérinaires sans frontières (AVSF) submitted a study of the Madagascar litchi industry, specifically about the Fanohana cooperative, which had succeeded in developing a profitable fair-trade market for its members, both for export and domestic processing before subsequent export. This was achieved in spite of the fact that nationally the litchi industry provided poor returns for farmers, for whom rice is the dominant crop.Self Help Africa contributed a study on a project to promote the inclusion of small farmers in the cashew value chain in Benin. This was known as the PEPSICO Initiative for Cashew in Africa (PEPSICA) and received funding from PEPSICO. Cashew processing facilities were not working to capacity because many of the nuts were being exported raw. The project worked with one processing company, Tolaro Global, and with the African Cashew Alliance to increase the production of 1,200 farmers and to link them more effectively with Tolaro Global.A study carried out by the Groupe de recherches et d'echanges technologiques (GRET), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Jokkolabs in Senegal looked at the interaction between value chains and nutrition in Senegal. Specifically, it reviewed the experience of a pilot project to assess the impact of supplying cakry -a traditional dairy product of Senegal which had been fortified with ironto families with small children who supplied milk to the Laiterie du Berger (LdB) dairy. This dairy has become well-known outside Senegal for its innovative and inclusive value chain activities, and has attracted considerable support from international dairy companies, donors and non-governmental organisations.The final case study was contributed by Shoreline Services, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Based on interviews with 300 farmers, the case study concentrated on identifying the factors influencing the successful inclusion of smallholders in three Ugandan value chains, i.e. cooking bananas, pigs and fish from aquaculture.This paper begins with a brief summary of what is generally meant by 'inclusive value chains' and then considers the main factors underlying the success of such chains. Arguably, the most important factor is the development of trust between the parties, so this issue is reviewed in the third chapter. Farmers everywhere face risks: chapter four then discusses these, with a particular emphasis on risks from involvement in value chains. While the promotion of inclusive value chains can have very positive outcomes, the benefits may not be equally shared so the fifth chapter reviews potential gender impacts. This is followed by two chapters that consider the role of producer organisations in such chains and other approaches to working with small farmers that do not necessarily involve producer organisations. The importance of value chain finance is then reviewed in chapter eight, followed by a consideration of the role of donors and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in providing technical assistance in chapter nine. The paper ends with some brief conclusions.Each chapter, apart from the conclusions, provides a brief summary of the main recommendations arising from the research. In general, efforts to promote inclusion attempt to address some or all of such constraints. The CTA Call for Proposals considered 'inclusive value chains' to be those that \"obtain supply from smaller farmers, although value chains that actively involve small and medium-sized enterprises, such as small traders and processors, could also be considered\". From a review of the literature it can be noted that the definition of 'inclusion' usually refers to poverty rather than to size. However, while inclusive projects aim to work with the 'poor' the definition of 'poor' is often imprecise. Do they constitute the poorest half of farmers, the poorest quarter, or almost all? Is the definition of 'poor' universal or is it based on relative poverty in a particular country? Perhaps the easiest approach is that taken by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), which defines inclusive business as any business that interacts with smallholders (GIZ, 2012). But in that case the question arises as to what is new about the concept of inclusiveness, given that farmers have been interacting with buyers for generations.What do we mean by 'inclusive value chains'? Haggblade et al. (2012) address this question. They see actions to promote inclusiveness as a response to changes to production and marketing systems that have opened up opportunities for some rural suppliers to access new markets but have exposed others to new threats as a result of quantity and quality requirements. They argue that agribusiness investments are not inherently pro-poor and that the move towards stressing 'inclusiveness' responds to this, by promoting interventions that benefit the poor. Desired outcomes of such an approach include higher income earnings for the poor as well as greater participation of women and youth in value chains.This approach does, however, raise the question of how to make value chains more inclusive for poor farmers without hampering competitiveness. Harper, Belt and Roy (2015) aim to show that it is possible and profitable for businesses to build and maintain such value chains, without subsidies or other non-commercial assistance. In other words, working with the poor can \"do good and be good business\". They consider 'inclusive' value chains to be those that include and substantially benefit large numbers of poor people. These are often smallholder farmers, but could also be artisans, or small-scale retailers or customers.A workshop organised by FAO in 2013(FAO, 2014) provided guidance on the criteria necessary for businesses to be regarded as inclusive. The guidance stipulated that businesses should:• be accessible to farmers with less assets, including women and minority groups• use trading practices that provide benefits for smallholders, including profit, stable market outlets, shared risks, and access to services and finance• not create dependency on any one value chain or buyer, and provide profitable diversified market options for smallholders• build capacity of farmers and farmer groups according to market needs• use transparent platforms and forums to identify and solve problems.At the same time as trying to promote inclusion, there is now widespread appreciation that for meaningful development to be achieved it is not enough just to work with farmers. The particular benefit of the value chain approach is that it has permitted a movement away from a simple concentration on producers towards an understanding that farmers are just one part of the system and that if other parts are not working well development assistance to farmers will achieve relatively little. This is, for example, now central to the approach of SNV whose case study notes that the organisation's theory of change aims to \"improve the system as a whole to contribute to sustainable poverty reduction and improved living conditions rather than targeting smallholder producers directly\". From the case studies, implementation of this approach is best represented by the study of Madagascar's litchi sector, where AVSF improved linkages between the cooperative and potential buyers in overseas markets.SNV's case study of oilseeds in Uganda defined inclusion as the participation of smallholder famers in the value chain, by committing a part of their farm's enterprise to the production of a particular crop. The inclusiveness of the chain is considered by SNV to be defined by the formal and informal opportunities provided by joining and by barriers to participation, if any exist. However, while chains may offer considerable scope for farmers to join, the actual level of inclusion will still depend on their choice to participate or not participate. In making this choice, risk and the level of risk aversion, discussed below, is a particularly important variable. The SNV study defines an inclusive business as a socially responsible entrepreneurial initiative, which integrates low-income communities in its value chain for the mutual benefit of both the company and the community (SNV and WBCSD, 2010). This, therefore, involves the expectation that large processors will relate with farmers in an equitable manner.An important factor in inclusion is location. Even if committed to working with poor farmers, companies are likely to seek to minimise their costs by buying within easy access of their facilities and/or by organising a large number of farmers in one location to provide scale economies for technical support, purchasing and transport. The attractiveness of location to a company is not simply measured by distance. An organised group of farmers 100km from a factory along a good-quality road may be more attractive than the same number of scattered farmers 20km away down a pothole-filled dirt track.Similarly, efforts to promote inclusion need to recognise that, without efforts to strengthen the capacity of small farmers and to achieve economies of scale, richer farmers are also more likely to be more attractive to companies.Companies will often conduct detailed assessments of potential farmers before deciding which ones to work with. Understandably, they usually have a preference for linking with those who have greater production potential, whether measured by land size, soil suitability, farmer skills, capacity to handle risk, or all of these. Thus, while inclusion does permit smallholders to play a CHAPTER 1greater role in more sophisticated value chains, in many cases the smallholders who benefit tend to be the larger ones in any particular area. The study of pig farmers in Uganda, for example, found that there was a strong correlation between the number of pigs reared and participation in organised value chains. In Uganda, Vorley et al. (2015) found that being more active in oilseed value chains, measured by having higher proportions of land allocated to the crops, was correlated with total land ownership. On the other hand, the Ugandan study of fish farming found that the better educated and better off farmers were less likely to be involved in inclusive value chains, largely because they had alternative income-earning opportunities and, as a consequence, regarded farming as just a part-time activity.The picture is somewhat different when the driver of the value chain is a farmer organisation. In this case, the organisation is likely to make every effort to ensure inclusion, and donor support is likely to make that a precondition for assistance. In the case of Fanohana in Madagascar, the cooperative's statutes limited membership to farmers with no more than ten hectares. The average landholding in 2013 was just 2.6 ha.Also influencing the adoption of an inclusive business model is the fact that products targeted at export markets, in particular, are increasingly becoming subject to certification. Exporters need to be sure that the farmers they work with are capable of meeting the standards required by the certifiers. Unless donor support is available, farmers need to have the financial resources to provide facilities (e.g. toilets and washing facilities for employees) specified by certifiers as well as the education levels and technical skills to carry out the necessary production practices.Certification continues to expand but, unfortunately, Kuit and Waarts (2014) conclude, from a review of many certification programmes, that there is little evidence that farmers are benefitting from it. This conclusion is supported by a study cited by the Madagascar case study, which found that litchi farmers certified as GlobalGAP did not receive statistically higher prices than noncertified farmers (Subervie and Vagneron, 2011). Unlike the Fanohana cooperative's investment in fair-trade certification, which was the main focus of the case study, GlobalGAP was driven by exporters, not producers. Certified farmers were, however, able to sell greater quantities as a result of GlobalGAP certification, providing support for another emerging conclusion about certification, that it is becoming more of a precondition for selling products than a way of obtaining higher returns. Given that Madagascar's litchi exporters limit exports in order to guarantee reasonable returns on European markets, the conclusion must be that higher sales for certified farmers result in lower sales for non-certified farmers. As certified farmers tend to be much larger than those who are not certified, certification in this case would appear to be working directly against inclusion of smaller farmers. Indeed, if the industry decided to go for 100% GlobalGAP certification, smaller farmers could be excluded altogether.Competition from other buyers can challenge the contract farming model that involves contractual arrangements with farmers to provide inputs and technical support in exchange for a commitment to sell the crop or deliver animals to the company supplying the support (Eaton and Shepherd, 2001). Successful attempts to provide inclusive support could attract other buyers who may be less keen on providing production support, such as inputs on credit, while being in a position to offer prices as good as, if not better, than companies following inclusive business models. Such 'side-selling' was reported to varying degrees by all four of the studies that looked at value chains involving contractual relationships.As a consequence, the oilseeds study from Uganda argues that development agencies pursuing a vertical coordination model of inclusive value chain development need to consider working with more diversified sets of buyers, including small traders. It notes that \"innovative inclusion efforts are shaped by the realities of oilseed production and marketing\". Clearly, strong linkages between companies and farmers become much more difficult when there are multiple competitive buyers operating in rural areas, where production is primarily for the domestic market and where there is little premium for providing high-quality or safe products. For this reason contract farming has rarely been successful for staple crop production and markets for crops such as oilseeds bear many similarities to those for staples.Finally, the study of the Senegalese dairy sector was somewhat different from the other case studies in that it examined an attempt to use an existing value chain to promote nutritional improvements. At the same time it also aimed to benefit the dairy, by tying supplies of fortified cakry to milk sales by producers. 'Inclusion' in this context meant the extent to which producers were able to qualify to receive cakry, which was based both on the age and number of qualifying children and the level of milk deliveries. Particular difficulties were faced in the dry season, when milk deliveries are low. Initially, cakry was given to producers when they sold more than one litre of milk per cow per week. In the dry season this had to be reduced to 0.5 litres and, subsequently, 0.3 litres.• Seek to maximise income-earning opportunities for poor farmers by allowing them to address new opportunities presented by agribusiness.• Usually involve donor and NGO facilitation, but there are good examples of development by the private sector.• Emphasise the development of the whole chain and not solely upgrading of farmers.• Aim to provide profitable options for farmers with fewer assets.• May still exclude some farmers on grounds of location, farm size and natural resources, capacity to meet increasingly strict standards, and farmer risk aversion.• Can be jeopardised by competition from other buyers, leading to side-selling.The case studies identified a wide range of factors contributing to a greater smallholder involvement in value chains. Provision of inputs and technical support are usually central to the development of more inclusive value chains.In the case of cashew in Benin, quality-testing equipment, known as Kernel Outcome Result (KOR) kits, was supplied by one processor, Tolaro Global. This enabled producers to test the quality of cashew nuts before delivery to Tolaro and also negotiate better prices with other buyers, which producers were previously unable to do. The company's quality control manager also trained the farmers on developing and maintaining high-quality production and on the use of KOR kits.The introduction of sustainable agricultural practices for cashew producers by the company, and attention to the supply of inputs for this to be achieved, enabled farmers to access more remunerative markets as a result of better seedlings, improved weeding, pruning, organic composting, tree spacing, backburning, harvesting and post-harvest handling. These and other efforts resulted in average yield increases from 350 kg/ha in 2012 to 550 kg/ha in 2014.The introduction of a 'lead farmer' system in Benin also proved very successful. These farmers received training on appropriate technologies and practices and shared these with groups of other farmers through practical demonstrations in orchards in their villages. Grouping of farmers to negotiate with and sell to buyers provided the economies of scale necessary to achieve higher prices through direct linkages with the buyers. Lead farmers managed around 40 producers each. Their incentive to be a lead farmer was that they had priority access to improved planting materials.Although the business model in Uganda was not strictly a contract farming agreement, as the company did not supply seeds on credit, farmers still benefitted from closer linkages with Mukwano. The main benefit was an agreement to buyWhat are the main factors affecting success of inclusive chains?their produce at an agreed minimum price, as long as the hybrid seed supplied by the company had been used. Other benefits included having access to planting material that was likely to result in much higher yields than other varieties, extension support, and the fact that the company organised transportation. In order to have the opportunity to buy hybrid sunflower from farmers and then sell it to the company, some traders were apparently buying the seed imported by the company and selling it to farmers. As a crop, sunflower was appreciated because it matured quickly, was easy to manage and could be grown as a second crop after the more traditional crops in the area.In Madagascar, the cooperative was able to obtain benefits for its members through a variety of means. First, good planning, together with well-organised logistics and transport organisation, made the cooperative more efficient than traders who carried out speculative purchasing visits and would often have to decline to purchase fruit because their trucks were full. It also enabled the cooperative to control costs. Second, with assistance from AVSF, the cooperative was able to identify higher priced markets involving certification (fair-trade and organic) and value addition through both bulk processing and preparation of consumer products for sale at retail level. Third, by negotiating pre-financing with buyers and by using sales contracts as guarantees for loans, the cooperative was able to compete with traders who offered advances to farmers. Also, farmers reported benefitting from improved access to production and post-harvest training.The litchi case study also considered that sales to the cooperative made farmers more active participants in the value chain, as they were involved in decision-making, and that this increased their status in their communities. However, with success can come problems. Farmers were reportedly unhappy that the cooperative was not in a position to buy all of their production, as it concentrated on supplying only certified markets that were limited in size, and did not attempt to compete with traders for non-certified supply.Whether formal contracts involving small farmers are needed is often a topic for discussion. In general, verbal agreements can often be adequate as long as safeguards are taken to ensure that farmers are fully aware of what they are agreeing to. In the case of jatropha in Mali one company did introduce formal contracts to be signed by producers. Another tried something similar but this was resisted by producers as it was considered both too complex for a small emerging industry and unnecessary. One consideration was the lack of reliable data on yields that could be used to calculate production quantities to be sold by the farmer and inserted in the contract 1 . Another company just agreed a simple 'moral commitment' with farmers.Despite different arrangements being used, agreements reached by the various jatropha companies, particularly in Mali, aimed to achieve an integrated approach by agreeing to: a guarantee to purchase jatropha seeds and pay cash on delivery; discuss the price at the beginning of every season; provide planting material and assist with establishing village nurseries; provide extension advice for both jatropha and other crops; provide pre-financing; and support farmer group formation. In turn, producers agreed to follow specified technical requirements, sell only to the company with which they had an agreement, harvest and sell only mature seeds, and support group formation activities. However, interviews by the case study team ascertained that farmers generally had an inadequate understanding of the terms of the agreement, particularly when it was reached between the processor and the farmer organisation, rather than directly with the producer.For any company wishing to become involved in inclusive value chain linkages or even contractual linkages that are not particularly inclusive, it is essential to understand both the agricultural practices and skills of the farmers and the socio-cultural environment. Particular difficulties were experienced in the dairy sector of Senegal, both in developing the dairy value chain and in attempting to introduce fortified food for children. These were caused by the multiplicity of family and community groupings within a pastoralist context, which included: a household (ménage), which may include a man and one or more wives; a gallé, approximating an extended family, including parents and adult children, and usually associated with one communal herd of animals; and a wuro (village or community), that could consist of several gallé. This complexity caused difficulties in identifying who was responsible for milk production and, in the case of supplying fortified foods, in identifying who should qualify to receive such foods, when the qualification was based on milk deliveries. • Ensure that technical packages introduced will result in a significant increase in income for farmers, with minimal additional risk, if any.• Develop a full understanding of the socio-economic structure of the area and the implications of this for value chain development.• While working to ensure inclusiveness, ensure that farmers selected do have the potential to take advantage of the opportunities provided.• Consider options for group and/or farmer organisation development appropriate to the socio-economic context.• Ensure that all farmers involved endorse agreements reached with group or farmer organisation leaders.• Address smallholder credit constraints by providing inputs and other assistance on credit.• Organise meetings with farmers to ensure that they understand the implications of such credit in terms of repayment through deductions at the time of delivery and the long-term benefits of honouring repayment commitments.• Seek to identify and develop new markets that can offer higher returns in a cost-effective way. Options include sales to new buyers or countries, branding, processing, quality upgrading, certification, and exploitation of the products' origin.Both in traditional and more modern chains, buyers need to trust farmers to supply agreed products, particularly when formal contracts or unofficial agreements have been reached that involve input supply, technical assistance or other financial advances. Farmers have to trust their buyers to provide the agreed support and to make payments on a timely basis. Buyers further along the chain must trust intermediaries who work directly with the farmers. Developing such trust can be complex and time-consuming and the role of outsiders, such as NGOs, in supporting this can be very beneficial. For example, the Madagascar case study reported that the involvement of AVSF overcame the doubts of a litchi processor about the wisdom of working with a cooperative.The complexity of arrangements in the Senegalese dairy industry, described at the end of the previous chapter, tended to cause confusion among the community and contributed to the development of a measure of mistrust. Also, farmers alleged that the dairy did not send collection vehicles as agreed and that farmers considered that the payment they eventually received did not reflect the quantities that were collected from them. This was attributed to the lack of formal weighing at collection and to reductions in weight due to rejection on quality grounds when the milk reached the dairy. Such clear issues of trust suggest the need for greater communication between the dairy and the farmers and the possibility of organising occasional visits to the dairy so that producers could witness milk reception, grading and weighing in person.The PEPSICA cashew project promoted open discussions between all relevant actors prior to and during design of the project, which facilitated a climate of trust between the stakeholders. Later in the season the willingness of the leading cashew processing company to pay immediately on delivery was an important factor in ensuring continuity of market linkages. Even so, difficulties were experienced. As reported by the case study authors: \"when the prices increased, the farmers didn't want to sell their cashew nut at the prices agreed How can trust be promoted?with the processor. When the price decreased, the processor didn't want to pay the price agreed with the farmers\". This is a common problem with contract farming-type arrangements and creative ways of minimising the danger of contract disruption need to be developed. One approach is to have two payment arrangements: one part of the farmer's delivery is paid for at the contracted price while the other part is purchased at the market price.In the Ugandan oilseeds sector the leading processor was to some extent a victim of its own business model. Its success in building up production through importation of hybrid seeds attracted other sunflower seed buyers, thus creating incentives for farmers to breach their contract. The incentive to side sell was increased because the processor was very slow in paying the farmers, making it difficult to compete with traders buying for cash, even if at a slightly lower price. In Mali, one jatropha project found that some of the farmers it was supporting were side-selling to other buyers who were offering a higher price for the jatropha seeds. However, other farmers continued to support the project because they saw the potential advantage of the planned usage of fuel from jatropha for rural electrification.Promotion of trust in various agricultural sectors has been shown to be enhanced by the existence of multi-stakeholder organisations, or commodity associations, that have the capacity to bring together the large-scale private sector, smaller traders, farmers and others working to support the sector (Shepherd et al., 2009). For example, the Oilseed sub-Sector Uganda Platform (OSSUP) has played an important role in promoting the industry and in improving linkages between the various parties. OSSUP was developed by SNV and other Dutch organisations, working together with the Uganda Oilseeds Producers and Processors Association and Makerere University.Despite the role of OSSUP, there were still trust problems in the Ugandan oilseeds sector. As is often the case, these seem to have been mainly related to the price paid. The quickest way to lose farmers is if they feel cheated.Although the company advertised its buying prices by radio and other means, farmers complained that they were not receiving that price. This may have been because the price given out by the company included commissions given to their site coordinators and agents, and that this was not understood by farmers. Another cause of dissent was that farmers were required to pay cash for seeds supplied by the company but were only paid for the output after 2-3 months. Farmers had to wait for agents and coordinators to bulk up the production to send to the company, receive payment and then return it to the farmers.• Maximise communication between buyers and farmers. Hold regular meetings to ensure that farmers understand what is expected of them and why.• Organise meetings with local authorities to ensure their full understanding of the arrangements.• Ensure that farmers fully understand and are in agreement with the buyer's requirements in terms of cultivation practices, input use, harvesting and delivery.• Explain payment arrangements, the method of price calculation and any deductions for inputs supplied on credit or advances given to farmers.• Agree on quality criteria and on how quality shall be measured. Make arrangements for farmers or their representatives to be present when quality is assessed.• Pay farmers on delivery or as soon as possible thereafter.• Where possible, work with local intermediaries respected by the farmers to minimise the potential for disagreement.• Encourage the development of industry-wide associations with membership drawn from all stakeholders.Farmers face numerous risks and the case studies covered many of these. Risk minimisation is a major factor in farmers' production and marketing decisions and, as already noted, in their decisions about whether or not to take part in inclusive value chains. Such risks are usually faced, whether farmers are part of inclusive value chains or are just making ad hoc sales on local markets, but there is an expectation that inclusive value chains will involve an element of risk sharing (FAO, 2014). Belonging to organised chains can often reduce some risks by, for example, providing easier access to pest control chemicals or technical advice in the event of an infestation. Under formal contractual arrangements there may be an element of risk sharing. For example, large companies with long-term investments may agree to waive repayment for inputs provided if production difficulties are experienced, or, at least, defer repayment until the following year.The study of three value chains in Uganda by Shoreline and ILRI identified several major risks. Bananas are subject to Bacterial Wilt, nematodes and Black Sigatoka disease and a major shift of the cultivation area to the west of the country has been reported as a result of soil exhaustion in previous production areas. Climate change is also beginning to have an impact. Other banana problems include praedial larceny (the theft of crops from the field) and damage from roaming animals. There is also a significant marketing risk in view of the perishability of the product and frequent shortage of transport. Pig chains in Uganda reported that swine fever outbreaks are common and can wipe out the entire stock. Fish farming has inherent production and marketing risks. Protecting the quality of the water and maintaining the cold chain necessary to keep the fish fresh from harvest to the final consumer are costly undertakings that can easily go wrong. Fish pond poisoning is not unknown. The unreliable quality of both fingerlings and feed are also risks. Perhaps surprisingly, there is also a market price risk as farmed fish competes with captured fish, the output of which is extremely variable.What are the risks faced by farmers?Also in Uganda, the study of oilseeds, found that risk factors played a major role in farmers' decision-making, particularly for sunflower. Risks associated with the market, such as price risk, timeliness of payment or, simply, whether it would be possible to sell the product, were often perceived by farmers as being more important than production risks. Farmers seeking greater inclusion were presented with a complex risk equation in balancing the opportunities from increased cash-crop production against the risks and the possible loss of food production as a consequence of concentrating on oilseeds.In the case of litchi, production is very responsive to water and the subsoil cannot be allowed to become dry. Average production in Madagascar has reportedly varied between 407 kg per household in 2007 and 165 kg in 2008. This production risk can be offset, as prices can double in years of poor rainfall, even though the case study suggested that much of the production is never marketed. Browning of the litchi and post-harvest decay during storage and transportation are currently controlled by using sulphur dioxide fumigation although limited quantities of fruit are exported by air freight without this. Fumigation must be carried out as soon as possible after harvest but farmers in remote districts run the risk of not being able to get their fruit to fumigation centres in good time. With this need for speedy transport, smaller farmers often have to accept the offer made by the first trader to arrive, even though the price may be low, for fear of not being able to find a buyer in time. Further risks faced by Madagascar's litchi farmers include the time at which the fruit reaches maturity. Almost all of the country's litchi exports are timed for sale in Europe during the Christmas period. If the climate results in the litchis maturing either early or late they are more or less worthless. Vessels to take the fruit to Europe are pre-booked and prices rise in the 3-4 days prior to the scheduled sailing when exporters need to get sufficient supply to meet their orders. The crop can also be damaged by cyclones. Given these risks it is no surprise that litchi is just one of many crops grown by Madagascar's farmers.In addition to rice, breadfruit and jackfruit, cassava, bananas, sunflower, and coffee are commonly cultivated.Farmers entering into contracts to produce new crops, in particular, are often dependent on the companies they work with to provide them with a realistic assessment of likely yields and, hence, potential profitability. They face the risk that, by accident or design, false expectations are encouraged. Shepherd (2013) noted that jatropha yields had been significantly exaggerated by its proponents in other countries and the JatroREF study found that yields were below expectations in West Africa. In turn, these yields were jeopardising the viability of the processors and in both Burkina Faso and Mali processing is now close to being abandoned. Original plans were for plots of jatropha to be grown on relatively poor soils; these were subsequently replaced by promotion of intercropping with maize, groundnut and black-eyed pea, or by encouraging the use of jatropha as a hedge.Another risk-related issue to arise from the jatropha study was that commitments to provide advances to farmers were sometimes not honoured and financial difficulties experienced by the processors meant that some were unable to purchase all of the farmers' production. A further concern was that while the harvest took place at a time when families had significant expensessuch as the purchase of food to bridge the gap when there was limited food availability, the purchase of seeds and fertiliser and the paying of school feesand was thus thought to be a potentially beneficial crop, it also coincided with a time when they had significant other work to do, such as land preparation, weeding and the harvest of other crops. This emphasises the need for promoters of inclusive value chains to be fully aware of the labour and other socioeconomic implications of farmers taking on new production activities.As noted earlier, a factor influencing milk production is its seasonality. For producers this is not so much a risk as an annual occurrence that they have learned to live with. For dairies, however, such seasonality can present considerable problems. If they install facilities adequate to handle production at its peak they will be running far below their capacity during the low season and risk being unable to cover their costs. If they install facilities insufficient to handle peak production they risk alienating their producers by being unable to take all of their milk. During the dry season in Senegal, LdB experiences problems both because of lower milk yields and because of seasonal transhumance of the pastoralists. The company's cost-controlling responses have included changing collection arrangements to maximise milk collections per trip and the use of motorised tricycles for collection, thus reducing transport costs.• Recognise importance of risk minimisation in farmers' decisionmaking and plan their involvement in value chain development with this in mind.• Conduct a full analysis of the socio-economic viability of smallholder involvement in the value chain, including a reliable assessment of yield potential based on local conditions.• Consider how risks should be shared between buyers and farmers to ensure sustainable long-term relationships.• Promote development of new varieties that can, among other things, help overcome consequences of climate change and address disease problems.• Ensure appropriate post-harvest systems are in place to maintain quality and minimise delays between harvest and delivery.While activities to link farmers in more sophisticated markets may well lead to broader inclusion, it cannot be assumed that all within a farming family will benefit. Depending on the particular culture of an area, women, in particular, may see few rewards and may actually lose out. In Senegal, for example, the dairy case study found that payment was more often than not collected by the men, even if they played little part in rearing the animals and milking the cows. However, field research also found examples of where men were quite happy for women to handle the money from milk production. Unfortunately, during the pilot project to use the dairy industry to promote rural nutrition, the information about the project was shared mainly with the men. It became apparent that a proportion had not passed on this information to their wives.The project concluded that it should have conducted specific training activities targeting women.In Benin, men usually take control of cash-crop production. Women accounted for less than 10% of cashew farmers and none were selected to be a lead farmer to provide advice to other farmers. Although women do much of the work on cash crops, the financial aspects are nearly always controlled by men. Thus, as elsewhere, there is always the danger that greater inclusion will increase the workload for women while financially benefitting only men. Furthermore, women do not usually have land rights and therefore it is difficult for them to own cashew orchards. In trying to address this problem, the next phase of the project has been designed to incorporate women through promoting intercropping of leguminous crops in cashew orchards and establishing apiaries in orchards, both of which have the dual function of providing a source of income to women and increasing cashew productivity.In contrast, the study of value chains in Uganda found that pig farming was more the preserve of women, who were involved in animal rearing and marketing as well as decision-making about the proceeds from sales. The What are the gender implications of greater chain involvement?Ugandan oilseeds study, however, noted that women were generally more concerned about the importance of growing food crops and were worried about sunflower cultivation attracting pests and causing soil exhaustion.The West African jatropha case study found that meetings of producers to discuss the industry were relatively rare, around two or three times a year.The one exception was a women's cooperative in Mali, which met twice a month. However, on the whole women expressed dissatisfaction with the introduction of jatropha as a commercial crop because they were often required to do the harvesting but the crop was usually sold by the men. In some cases there was the opportunity to make soap from by-products of processing and some women also purchased HVP in order to make highquality soap for sale.• Ensure maximum consultation with both women and men prior to reaching a contractual agreement.• Develop mechanisms for sharing information with both women and men throughout the contract.• Be aware of implications of contracted production on women's food crop production and ensure this is fully discussed with both women and men.• Be aware of the implication of new value chain activities on the workloads of both women and men.• Wherever possible, ensure that contracts are signed, or agreements reached, with the family members doing the bulk of the work and that payment is made to those family members.Most of the case studies touched on the role of producer organisations and cooperatives in facilitating value chain linkages. Notable among the successes was the Fanohana cooperative in Madagascar, which, as described in Box 6, succeeded in upgrading production of litchi and other crops, negotiating fairtrade and other export contracts for its farmers, and adding value to products by working with a local cannery. Such markets could not have been developed by farmers acting individually and fair-trade certification generally depends on farmers working through a farmer organisation that is able to apply the fair-trade premium for community development purposes.Can producer organisations play an important role?Prior to the involvement of AVSF in supporting the development of the Madagascar litchi industry, there had been another attempt by an NGO to work with a cooperative to develop litchi exports in 2003. This reportedly failed because of the limited role given to the cooperative leaders and the inadequate attention paid to logistics, with the disastrous consequence that most of the litchis purchased from members had to be thrown away. However, the experience did alert a few cooperative members to the possibilities of grouped sales to exporters, which they carried out in 2005 and 2006, but not through the cooperative. In 2007, AVSF selected three cooperatives to work with from among 12 farmer organisations. A fourth was added soon after, following pressure from the cooperative itself to become involved. These cooperatives were subsequently merged into one union, Fanohana, before it eventually became a cooperative in its own right, rather than a union. Farmers became members of Fanohana, rather than the original cooperatives, thus enabling it to offer a consistent service to all 265 members.In 2008-09 an agreement was reached with a fair-trade organisation in France and with a processor in Madagascar to supply 14 tonnes of frozen litchi pulp (equivalent to 35 tonnes of fresh litchi). Each of the 152 members was given a quota of 320 kg, representing 5-10% of their annual production. The fair-trade premium was not paid to the farmers but served to increase the funds of the cooperatives. From 2010, the French buyer required production certified as organic and cooperative members were successfully certified. Supplies of organic litchi pulp increased from an initial 14 tonnes of pulp to 42 tonnes in 2011-12.Following this success with pulp exports, the cooperative, with support from AVSF, identified fair-trade markets for fresh litchi, but the arrangement only lasted for a year, following failure to agree on the price. However, in 2012-13 agreement was reached with a major French fair-trade importer and, working through two local exporters, Fanohana was able to export 166 tonnes of fresh litchi. Many farmers from the cooperative had also been certified as GlobalGAP compliant and in 2013-14 exports amounting to 243 tonnes were certified as fair trade and GlobalGAP. In 2012-13 Fanohana also developed a market for fair-trade litchi with a local processor, which made sales of syrup in retail units to France, with sales doubling the following year. Trials were also made with dried fruit exports, which were seen as a way of expanding the European market beyond the traditional Christmas period and making exports possible when no ships for fresh litchi were being chartered.The strengthening of the management skills of the cooperative had enabled committee members to carry out the necessary audits of farmers' land in order to guarantee that organic and fair-trade procedures were being followed and to facilitate traceability. Contracted volumes were allocated on the basis of production potential and delivery schedules were worked out and agreed with the members. Committee members also negotiated with transporters in Tamatave, the export port, and the capital Antananarivo. Following the success with litchi, Fanohana diversified into marketing other crops grown by its members, including pepper, vanilla and cinnamon. As with Madagascar's rural traders, this permitted cooperative staff and facilities to be productively employed over a much longer period, when there was no demand for litchi, and also generated working capital.Source: Adrien Brondel, AVSFApproaches of NGOs to working with farmer organisations varied. AVSF in Madagascar decided that it would only work with established organisations and would not try to set up new organisations in order to deliver technical assistance. Self Help Africa in Benin also worked to strengthen existing cooperatives. On the other hand, SNV's work in Uganda involved consolidating farmers into groups and then consolidating those groups into larger organisations.Only 102 of the 1,200 farmers targeted by the Benin cashew project were initially cooperative members but as a result of the project 850 people signed up to one of the cooperatives. Negotiations on prices were carried out by cooperative board members or, in some cases, representatives of smaller groups, who returned to the farmers to discuss the deal as a group before proceeding. To ensure full transparency during the sales process, producers transported their product to the cooperative and received a delivery slip. The nuts that were collected were delivered to the buyer who paid on the spot. Producers then presented their slips to the cooperative to receive payment.In Uganda, farmer groups were initially consolidated into High-level Producer Organisations (HLPOs), which each represented between five and ten groups, and had the economies of scale to procure inputs collectively. Subsequently, efforts were made to merge these HLPOs into formal cooperatives that would be able to autonomously engage in business activities. However, their potential to function as independent value chain partners was not fully achieved and the cooperatives remained dependent on the seed supply and extension services offered by the processor. While better prices can be achieved through economies of scale, few of the organisations had been able to develop sufficient capital to pay farmers in cash, given that the company only paid after three months. Thus, despite the fact that farmers did show some loyalty to their organisation, the organisations were still subject to side-selling by their members to cash-paying traders.A further, rarely considered, difficulty for farmer organisations, was that cooperatives in Uganda were obliged to prepare formal accounts and submit annual tax declarations. This put them at a disadvantage to informal traders because of the possibility of paying tax, the costs involved in preparing accounts, and the fact that, in Uganda, some of their smaller potential customers were also in the informal sector and were unable to provide the necessary documentation.Apparently independent of external assistance, over 1,000 fish farmers in Uganda, seeking to avoid reliance on selling through spot markets, established CHAPTER 6a fish farmers' cooperative society. This aimed to help members have access to essential services and inputs, while also developing market linkages and adding value through sales to a company that marketed fresh fish to supermarkets and also made fish sausages.In the West African jatropha industry, the various processors used different approaches to link up with farmers. Some sought to strengthen producer organisations so that they could provide extension advice and bulk up their members' production for subsequent collection. Others collaborated with farmer groups but purchased from their members individually. One, Mali Biocarburant, originally involved around 3000 producers as shareholders of the company but changed its approach when it became clear that production would be insufficient to develop the planned export market. Instead, it worked with a large cooperative to organise the farmers into 15 groups, with the intention that they would produce HVP. Another company decided to set up an informal body that could be developed over time as needs emerged, rather than creating the structure unnecessarily for a farmer organisation. Only one company chose to work directly with individual farmers.The difficulties faced by the jatropha industry as a whole do not permit any conclusion as to which approach was the most successful. The relatively small quantities produced in both Burkina Faso and Mali, together with the small marketing and processing margins available, meant that funds to support farmer organisation development were limited. The low profitability of jatropha and small individual production levels also meant that farmers faced difficulties in paying their membership subscriptions. In fact farmers seemed to have rapidly formed the opinion that there was little economic benefit in jatropha and were thus perhaps less enthusiastic about cooperating than they would have been with more profitable developments. However, some groups, formed originally to promote production, continued to operate subsequently to carry out other activities such as nursery operation or marketing. On the other hand, groups that received most initial support were reported to be largely inactive.The oilseeds case study from Uganda argued that development agencies needed to critically reflect on the comparative advantage of producer organisations. The evidence presented by that study and by the jatropha study would seem to support that view, although the Benin and Madagascar cases both showed cooperatives in a positive light, albeit with the advantage of considerable technical and financial support. Certainly, both farmer associations and cooperatives have in the past seemed to be a bottomless pit for development resources. Strong evidence that there are major problems with such organisations, at least as far as carrying out value chain activities is concerned, is usually met with the response that additional time and funds are required, rather than serious consideration of the development model.• Where possible, ensure that producer organisations working in inclusive value chains are financially sound (independent of subsidies) and able to finance their activities.• Where funding is required, develop a detailed business plan to ensure that the organisations can be self-sustaining by completion of the project.• Maximise communication between buyers and farmer organisations to identify the most appropriate models for farmer organisation involvement, including working through small groups.• Encourage organisations carrying out value chain functions to have professional management teams for these activities and support such teams with appropriate training.• Identify and facilitate linkages with new market outlets that producer organisations may on their own have difficulty in assessing.One lesson learned from the various case studies is that adaptation of the business model as the project proceeds is often very necessary. In the Ugandan oilseeds sector, the company started out by working with individual farmers. Contracts stipulated exclusivity in selling the oilseeds to that company when the inputs it supplied were used, even though the seeds were not supplied on credit. There were complaints that the company was exploiting its monopoly import role. At one time the contract with farmers mentioned the possibility of legal action for non-compliance, although such action against small farmers would be practically impossible. With NGO assistance, the company then moved on to working with farmer groups, as described earlier. The hope was that the embedded services, such as extension, would lead to loyalty from the farmers when it came to selling their crop. Individual farmers were still required to sign contracts and these were to be witnessed by the village council chairman. In practice, however, such contracts appeared to have achieved little, with the only real sanction open to the company being to refuse access to the hybrid seed the following season.With all of these problems, the company's programme to tie exclusive access to seed to an exclusive market for the product was effectively abandoned and by 2008 it was estimated that around 40 percent of the company's 'contracted' oilseeds were actually bought by traders, including in remote areas that the company's programme had not reached. The number of cash-paying traders had continued to grow while the company continued to pay slowly through an arrangement involving agents and coordinators. From 2012, the company reportedly adjusted its programme to more of a marketing contract. However, it retained site coordinators and piloted a loan scheme with a local bank that both enabled the coordinators to pay cash for the crop, thus avoiding the payment delay, and reduced the company's transaction costs.What are the alternative approaches to linking farmers with buyers?CHAPTER 7Such changes in approach are fairly common under contract farming arrangements as companies struggle to identify the best method of working with farmers. While, in the case above, the company tried to find ways of avoiding working with individual farmers, there have been other examples where companies have found working through farmer organisations to be unsatisfactory and have decided to work directly with farmers. In other cases, companies may have recognised the need to work with groups but have struggled to identify the best way of coordinating them, as appointment of local coordinators can lead to rivalries.In the case of the Senegalese dairy industry, formal contractual arrangements were not entered into by the dairy, LdB. The case study attributed this to the fact that most producers were pastoralists, and hence very mobile, so would not be supplying on a regular basis. Contracts were also deemed unsuitable because of literacy problems. However, to try to ensure that the milk supplied to the dairy was delivered by producers familiar with its requirements in terms of quality, all families or extended families were provided with numbered, 18 kg-capacity churns, and this registered number was the basis for the monthly payments. To maximise their cash income producers would sometimes sell all of their fresh milk and consume powdered milk, with possible implications for family nutrition.There has been a tendency in development work to ignore the traditional trading sector. Traders are often portrayed as 'unscrupulous middlemen' who cream off profits from the chain while contributing little. Thus NGOs and others have often tried to develop market linkages that by-pass traders and connect farmers directly with the end buyers. Where the products involved are highly perishable there are good reasons for this, as an extra hand in the chain could slow activities and lead to loss of quality. Exporters of fresh fruit and vegetables, for example, would not usually want to procure their products through traders.However, in the case of less perishable products, the attempt to by-pass the trader may not only be misguided but also a recipe for the failure of the whole venture. Traders are not going to suddenly disappear just because an inclusive value chain is being developed. As seen in the Ugandan oilseeds case, for example, their capacity to offer transport, travel to remote areas, buy small quantities per farmer and pay in cash meant that farmers were often inclined to sell to them despite their agreements with the company. A further issue to emerge was that traders were usually less fussy about product quality than the more demanding standards of the lead company working with SNV, largely because their customers, the competing oilseed crushers, were themselves less demanding. As the SNV study puts it, \"traders have not been side-lined by the vertical coordination efforts of other [value chain] actors\". Farmers like to keep their access to different marketing channels open and not put all their eggs in one basket.Ugandan traders are able to be competitive in this situation in part because they handle a range of products and are thus able to work throughout the year to build up capital. Litchi traders in Madagascar also handled a range of crops throughout the year. However, in some cases the problems faced by traditional traders are not dissimilar to those faced by companies who attempt to develop inclusive linkages. Traders build up linkages with farmers over time and these are often trust-based or based on kinship. Advances from traders to farmers are not unknown but, as with more formal contract farming, these advances are sometimes misused and the production sold to others. However the SNV case noted that, by and large, traders did tend to respect each other's 'territory'.Despite their apparent capacity to pay cash, traders invariably reported that their biggest problem was the availability of working or operating capital.In Madagascar traders face considerable risks, particularly from long queues at the exporters' premises and the possibility of being unable to sell their products to exporters for reasons of poor quality. The alternative local market is small and low-priced. The case study noted, however, that farmers and traders often had longstanding relationships and sometimes reached verbal supply agreements. In remote areas there was often only one trader operating.Studies have estimated that around 3,000 traders handle litchi in the country, as well as other crops. More professional traders own their own vehicles. They often provide advances to farmers, primarily to guarantee supply and know in advance how much of the crop they will be able to buy. Sometimes the larger traders provide extension advice, in an attempt to improve quality and grading.At the other extreme some occasional traders include people who sometimes hire vehicles to go on a buying trip and others such as minibus drivers who take advantage of their presence in the producing area to buy small quantities. These have little interest in promoting quality improvement.How important is finance to successful chain development? 2All of the case studies touched on the topic of finance as being both a constraint for inclusive value chain development and a problem also experienced by competing small-scale traders. Farmers often experience significant cash-flow problems. While their farming activities are, in themselves, profitable they do not generate cash at the right time in order to meet necessary costs. For example, labour costs, often underestimated, were reported as a constraint in Uganda, where application of cow dung on banana land cost around €80/ha. Advances to farmers were reported by all of the case studies, whether by the inclusive value chains studied, traditional traders, or both. However, both institutional lenders and value chain companies are often reluctant to lend where there is a high level of risk associated with an activity. The study of pig chains in Uganda found that no financial institution would lend to pig farmers because of the risk of swine fever.A stumbling block during the PEPSICA project in Benin was the lack of access to credit by producers who, in order to meet household expenses such as school fees and labour, were obliged to sell part of the cashew crop early in the season when prices were low. To address this, the leading processor, with advice from the project, decided to make an advance payment to the farmer groups to enable them to buy from farmers in advance of the harvest, thus reducing their incentive to sell early to outside buyers. The project also linked cashew producers to a micro-finance institution through their producer group and cooperative. However, uptake of the loans was rather low, despite subsidised interest rates, with cashew producers using them mainly to hire labour for orchard maintenance activities. Advance payment was also reported by fish farmers in Uganda with buyers paying for fish from aquaculture two to three months in advance of the harvest. Some limited pre-financing was offered to farmers by one processor in the Burkina Faso jatropha sector.2 For a detailed review of this topic, see Miller and Jones, 2010. Membership of a group was a precondition to obtain such financing although repayment liability was at the individual, not group, level. However, this support to farmers became jeopardised by the lack of financing available to the processor; a problem that, in time, also meant that the processor was unable to buy all of the jatropha offered by farmers, who became frustrated and lost interest in producing.In Senegal, the dairy company provided forage to producers, in particular to ensure feed availability during the dry season. The price was fixed in advance and producers were able to pay in cash or credit, with repayment deducted from payment due for their milk. The amount of feed allocated to each producer was theoretically controlled so that no producer could owe more than a set percentage of the expected monthly milk payment. However, this caused problems because the time that producers required the feed the most was the time when they made the smallest deliveries. Despite the dairy's controls on credit advances there were occasions when producers found that they owed money at the end of the month. At the end of 2012, LdB was forced to forgive the debts of all producers because their debts had become unsustainable. Debt forgiveness of this type is not generally recommended by development finance professionals on the grounds that it creates the possibility of 'moral hazard'. This means that the borrower fails to use a loan efficiently, confident that, whatever he or she does, the debt will eventually be forgiven. Under such circumstances it becomes difficult for a rural financial institution to develop a viable business model or for a contracting company to run a profitable contract farming operation. Thus, in the long run, politicians in some countries who dictate that debts should be forgiven may actually be harming rather than helping farmers, by reducing the availability of rural finance or contracting opportunities in the country.In Madagascar, the French fair-trade buyer pre-funded 39% of the value of the contract, paying the remainder after three months. Pre-financing support was also supplied by a French 'solidarity bank', SIDI. The Fanohana cooperative was also able to negotiate some pre-financing from a local processor for the supply of fair-trade fruit for processing and export to France, and was able to use its confirmed export contracts to obtain trade receivables financing, whereby the lender could use the contract as collateral. The traditional marketing channels for litchi in Madagascar also involved significant prefinancing by the larger traders. This suggests that the majority of farmers had little capital and, acting individually or even as groups, would not have been able to finance their own marketing activities, even if the marketing channels were equipped to buy from them. Given the lack of funds available to most farmers, the capacity of farmer organisations and cooperatives to develop value chain activities without outside assistance would appear to be minimal. As noted earlier, jatropha farmers had experienced difficulties in paying their membership subscriptions.• Conduct detailed studies of the financial constraints facing farmers in order to understand the impact of these on the potential for inclusive value chain development, and the ways of addressing such constraints.• Within a contract farming context, consider providing loans for inputs, as well as other advances. However, ensure that farmers do not reach a level of indebtedness that will jeopardise repayment.• Require investors in inclusive value chains to demonstrate that their resources and cash flow are adequate to honour commitments to provide inputs and make timely payments for the products.• Investigate the potential for warehouse receipt financing for nonperishable products or for financing against confirmed orders.• Wherever possible, work with local financial institutions, both to increase the flow of finance into the chain and to promote the availability of financial services in rural areas.Companies may lack both the capacity and the resources to develop inclusive value chains even if, in principle, they recognise the need to work more closely with small farmers. As noted earlier, depending on the crop, there is generally a preference to work with larger farmers as these offer economies of scale, both in terms of the quantities they produce and when delivering technical and other assistance.While there are examples of companies working directly with many thousands of small farmers, either by choice or for want of an alternative, the general practice seems to be for smallholders in value chains to be organised into formal or informal groups. The majority of companies lack staff qualified to carry out the specialised and time-consuming work necessary to ensure effective group organisation, and lack the resources to employ such individuals. Similarly, while companies are increasingly employing their own extension staff, they usually lack both the facilities and the qualified trainers to carry out formal training of farmers.Thus, the support that NGOs and development projects can offer enables companies to work with smaller farmers without having to develop a whole range of new skills. In Benin, for example, a cashew processor established a 1.5 ha model farm and a Cashew Farmer School which were then used by the PEPSICA project to build the capacity of lead farmers that the project had identified after forming farmers into groups. The project also facilitated meetings between cashew producer organisations and the company, which built relationships between the two parties, and permitted the company to clarify quality and quantity requirements and arrangements for purchase.A similar role was played by SNV in the oilseeds sector in Uganda. Prior to 2009, the leading company, Mukwano, had worked individually with 45,000 farmers but this proved unsustainable. With SNV support it developed aWhat role can technical assistance play?cluster approach in which farmer groups were coordinated by lead farmers and connected to 'site coordinators' who were working on contract for the company and were supported by the company's extension agents. Each group managed around 30 farmers and had access to hybrid seeds at cost, technical support and a guaranteed market and minimum price, with the opportunity to negotiate before harvest for prices above the guaranteed minimum.In Madagascar, as described in Box 6 in Chapter 6, the NGO, AVSF, played a major role in developing market linkages with buyers in Europe. This seems to be an important technical assistance role because both cooperative managers and owners of small-scale export businesses are unlikely to have any experience of market research and development. Indeed, exports from ACP countries are often made to contacts in the diaspora -even though exporting in this way is quite risky -rather than to more established food importers. A further problem faced by ACP exporters to Europe is that even if they have the skills to identify and develop markets, they are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain visas for visits to explore those markets, a problem not faced by international staff of NGOs.While donor and NGO support can have a very positive impact on value chain development, both in terms of the technical assistance provided and the funding made available, the question arises as to what happens when that support comes to an end. Often, the model followed by the development assistance cannot be maintained once that assistance is withdrawn. This is likely to be because of a lack of resources, both financial and human, to carry on activities that were previously being provided largely free of charge.Collaboration with development agencies makes sense for the private sector when it has few costs to bear, but subsequently taking on those costs itself may not represent a very good business model. In Uganda, for example, the oilseed processor that had worked with SNV did not independently take over the activities after SNV's project ended.The papers used for these case studies inevitably provide a slightly biased approach to the topic of value chain development for small farmers. This is because the organisations applying to CTA for funding to prepare such studies are likely to be the NGOs involved in supporting their development. Indeed, five of the case studies were prepared by NGOs and concerned activities in which those NGOs were, or in some cases still are, actively engaged. It is improbable that any of the chains described in this report, other than the banana, pig and fish chains in Uganda analysed by the Shoreline study, would have emerged in the form described without NGO or other intervention.While the Fanohana cooperative in Madagascar benefitted from some earlier moves towards cooperative litchi trading by a few farmer leaders, the development of export markets for fresh and processed certified products, particularly fair trade, would not, according to the French fair-trade importer, have been possible without involvement of the NGO, AVSF. Fanohana was also able to obtain funding from a government project to pay for a salaried management team as well as for infrastructure investments. In West Africa, one reason for forming cooperatives in the jatropha sector was that official registration would qualify the cooperative for various subsidies from the government or NGOs. In Senegal, the dairy admitted that it could not have operated the programme of nutrition development out of its own resources and that the contribution of partners was essential for it to work. This suggests that the benefits of the programme in terms of increased milk deliveries may have been relatively small.The use of full-time business management appears to be essential for cooperatives and farmer organisations seeking to become involved directly in value chains as there are many risks associated with a lack of management skills. However, there is often a chicken-and-egg situation in that embryonic business activities generate insufficient surplus to pay for such managers.This would appear to provide a convincing case for external funding of management, as long as realistic projections indicate that the activities will eventually be able to cover such costs, and as long as the subsidies are not used solely to increase farmer incomes, thereby providing false perceptions of the value chain's profitability. However, none of the case studies provide indications that such considerations were taken into account.Studies of contract farming and similar arrangements have always stressed that extensive communication between the parties is essential in order to build up trust. While making considerable efforts to achieve this seems to have been an important factor in the success of the Fanohana litchi cooperative, other case studies, such as that on jatropha, identified problems in this area. Farmers need to be consulted from the outset, both about the wisdom of introducing a new product to an area and about the structure proposed for the value chain. The jatropha case study also concluded that where contracts were used for jatropha they were often extremely vague. Contracts do need to be kept simple, so that they can be easily understood, but they also need to clearly indicate the responsibilities of both the producers and the buyers and be fully explained to farmers.In contrast to the frequent support provided by donors and NGOs to farmer organisations, it is rare to find projects and programmes that provide either technical assistance or direct support to traders. However, a case can be made, as suggested by the SNV study, that investments in the informal sector can achieve as much if not more than investments in producer organisations or even investments to support linkages with poorer farmers by large commercial concerns. Traders respond to smallholders' needs and may contribute to their inclusion in value chains. Strengthening traders -for example by facilitating their access to finance from financial institutions, improving post-harvest handling and storage, introducing a capacity to advise farmers on production and on input use, and developing trader associations, together with efforts to improve transparency in the informal sector -could benefit producers by improving services to farmers who, for various reasons (see Chapter 4), are unable or unwilling to be incorporated in more sophisticated value chains. This could lead to greater inclusion of smaller, asset-poorer and more risk-averse farmers. However, few traders are, on their own, in a position to invest in production intensification and quality improvement.With one exception, the studies used for this paper each looked at the development of an inclusive value chain for just one product, i.e. jatropha, litchi, sunflower, dairy, and cashew. However, some of the studies noted that the products being promoted represented one of several or many products being produced by the farmers. One of the strengths of traditional traders is that they can handle a range of products. Particularly when these products are harvested at different times of the year, traders can maximise the use of their storage and transport by buying a range of products and can also use profits from the trading of one to buy another later in the year. Where inclusive value chains are promoted using producer organisations, such economies are not normally available to the organisation, particularly if the new chain is its first venture into trading activities. This makes it more difficult to compete with traders. Indeed, the Fanohana cooperative in Madagascar had recognised this and was beginning to work with its members on other crops in addition to litchi. In certain circumstances there may therefore be a case for donors to move away from concentration on one product at a time to more of a 'whole farm' approach to value chain development, where emphasis is placed on upgrading the skills of those working in a variety of product chains relevant to farmers in a particular area.Projects and businesses seeking to promote inclusive value chains do need to carry out a realistic assessment of the capacity of smaller farmers to take on risk. Because a particular investment by a farmer seems like a good idea to the manager of a contracting company, or to an NGO staff member, it does not mean that the investment will be seen in the same light by poor farmers, particularly if it appears likely that such an investment will increase their risk.Similarly, other socio-economic implications must be considered from the beginning. Will farm families have the necessary labour resources when labour is required? If not, will there be people available to be recruited to carry out casual farm work, and will farmers have access to the cash to pay them? If not, could involvement in value chains lead to increased levels of child labour?Consideration of gender implications is also vital. Will participation in inclusive value chains increase the workload of women? Will it result in less land for food production for their families? Will it have other nutritional implications, such as in the Senegal dairy case where households sold fresh milk for cash and purchased powdered milk for their own consumption? Will women share in the monetary benefits of value chain participation or will the payments all be taken by their husbands? If the answer to some of these questions is 'yes' or 'perhaps' then a re-examination of the approach is likely to be necessary.Financing of agriculture is a complex issue. Creative approaches to providing value chain finance are now being developed. These aim to address the high level of risk usually experienced by lending institutions when making short or medium-term loans to farmers or other value chain actors. Much remains to be done, however. It seems essential that value chain finance must be placed on a sound commercial footing from the start if it is to be sustainable. Those developing inclusive value chain projects therefore have a responsibility to avoid direct subsidies and work with financial institutions to develop sound financing arrangements based on commercial principles. Unsustainable interventions not only jeopardise the project they are applied to but also put at risk the entire rural financial structure, as those not benefitting from subsidies seek similar arrangements to those who are.Government agencies and NGOs can only intervene in a limited way to promote inclusive value chains. Thus the prevailing concern is how to replicate apparently successful large-scale interventions and how to scale-up activities that have been successful on a small scale or as a pilot. As noted at the end of Chapter 9, private businesses may not always wish to carry on donor-led activities once a project has ended. This suggests that new project activities need to be planned in close collaboration with companies and with a strong emphasis on developing affordable interventions that, if successful, will provide a business case for the private-sector partner to continue implementing them. In turn, demonstrated profitability should provide the model for future replication or scaling up.","tokenCount":"13993"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"649eca1cf04995ffc3235b386f0a224b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be1c3736-bbf2-4f29-95cf-a63f7633b97f/retrieve","id":"626440296"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c55b287a-fa31-466f-8a9f-8e98dd301d1d","pagecount":"13","content":"Gender in the farmed fish value chain of Bangladesh: A review of the evidence and development approachesBangladesh is the world's fifth-largest aquaculture producer (FAO 2016), and statistics indicate that aquaculture now makes up about 56% of the country's total fish production in terms of value (FRSS 2016). In Bangladesh, fish is the most important food after rice, accounting for 60% of animal-source food consumed, and by far the most frequently consumed micronutrient-rich food (Toufique and Belton 2014).Bangladesh is considered a patriarchal society, and its predominant gender norms and attitudes reinforce women's roles as primarily limited to domestic and care duties, which take place mainly within the confines of the homestead (Kabeer, 2011). This limits the ways women can participate in the labor market and renders them economically dependent on their husbands or families (Bridges et al. 2011).Although aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector in the world, generating significant employment opportunities, men and women are not able to conduct activities along the aquaculture value chain in the same way, and benefits are not equitably distributed between them. This means they are unable to generate the same incomes and other benefits, and have limited incentives to invest time and resources to improve their position. To better appreciate the situation, it is important to understand the underlying social and gender norms that determine what women and men can and should do if the aim is to engage women, in particular, as more effective value chain actors (Farnworth et al. 2015).This brief is based on a review of the relevant literature (Box 1), focusing on analyzing gender relations in fish farming and value chains, i.e. the roles women and men play in diverse aquaculture production systems and other value chain nodes, their relative access to and control over resources, intrahousehold decision-making, and social and gender norms and attitudes. Literature covering the shrimp and prawn value chains was excluded from the review, as the majority of shrimp and prawn is destined for exports, and the foreign trade aspects make these chains distinct from the more domestically focused fish chains. 1The search focused on literature published in the past 15 years, while older projects were included if they were mentioned in the documents from this period. An online search of EBSCOHost, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Google was carried out using search terms in various permutations (\"women\"; \"gender\"; \"aquaculture\"; \"fish farm*\";\"Bangladesh\"). In addition websites of relevant organizations were also searched for applicable publications. The search identified 108 documents, of which 76 were excluded because they did not sufficiently cover gender issues, or were about shrimp and prawn, capture fisheries or natural resource management. We found some information on 15 projects, but in many cases there were no documents available that contained a full evaluation, and we were therefore not able to assess the effectiveness of the approaches used.The general view is that women in Bangladesh have major but often unrecognized (and/or unpaid) involvement in specific activities related to fish production, such as stocking ponds, feed preparation, feeding, pond supervision and management, fertilization, liming, and harvesting fish for home consumption, as well as sorting, cleaning and grading fish for the market (Das and Khan 1996;Ahmed 2009;Shirajee et al. 2010). Tasks like harvesting fish for the market, marketing fish and the purchase of inputs such as fish seed and feed are usually done by men (Shirajee et al. 2010).However, the situation is much more nuanced than this statement portrays, and it varies with production systems. For example, in cage and homestead farming done close to the home, women may be involved more actively (e.g. Halim and Ahmed 2006) and may have more control over decisions being made with regard to fish production and use. Women's involvement varies across locations, technologies and cultural contexts. For example, women in Hindu families were found to be active in fish farming, whereas women's participation was low in conservative Muslim families (Debashish 2001). Another study on cages in moderately and highly shaded ponds found that women's involvement was higher in the latter (Haque et al. 2015). The authors attribute this to the fact that the highly shaded ponds are located closer to the homestead. However, another potential explanation is that these ponds are less productive and therefore possibly of less interest to men. Production intensity also matters, with the contribution of labor days among women from farming households found to be lowest among intensive catfish (pangasius and koi) culture systems (2%), and female hired labor more common in gher-farming 2 than in intensive ponds (Jahan et al. 2015).Involvement of women may also depend on the relative wealth status of the household, with women's labor in wealthier households being replaced by hired labor (Barman 2001). Women's involvement in other nodes of the farmed fish value chain is limited. A value chain study in the southwest of Bangladesh found that 0-1% of people involved in trading and retail were women (Kruijssen and Pyburn forthcoming). This is different from the capture fisheries chain, where 80% of people involved in drying fish are women and children (Belton et al. 2014). However, this processing method is not commonly used for farmed fish, which typically are sold fresh to consumers.Workload is considered a major constraint on women's increased involvement in aquaculture and is related to the overall gender division of labor within households (Jahan et al. 2010;Shirajee et al. 2010;Morgan et al., 2016). Some aquaculture projects that targeted women did not consider these workload issues and developed activities that resulted in further increased workloads for women and intrahousehold conflict about it (Halim and Ahmed 2006). Clearly, when developing and implementing projects that promote new practices and innovations, the potential impact on workloads needs to be taken into account (Kantor et al. 2015).Access to and control over assets and inputs such as land, ponds, equipment, information, knowledge, skills and finances are critical for successful involvement in aquaculture value chains. The nature of access and control is highly gendered in Bangladesh's farmed fish value chain. Women often have limited access to high quality inputs such as seed, feed and fertilizers because of the location of vendors at long distances from the homestead, linked with mobility constraints stemming from social norms (Shelly and D'Costa 2001). The fish value chain in Bangladesh has mobile traders, in particular for seed. However, women often are reluctant to deal with them because of a lack of confidence in their own skills to select good quality seed and a lack of trust in the sincerity of these traders, while men may not trust the skill and ability of women to negotiate themselves (Kruijssen and Pyburn forthcoming). Access to aquaculture technologies, including equipment, may also be limited for women in Bangladesh due to strongly held beliefs that they cannot operate machinery and the fact that men mostly own all machinery (Naved et al. 2011). Furthermore, available technologies may be a poor fit because of perceptions that roles associated with the technologies are not acceptable for women (Morgan et al. 2015). A lack of access to inputs and equipment, as well as the financial resources to purchase them, may demotivate women from adopting new farming techniques or investing time (Kantor et al. 2015).Linked to a lack of inputs, equipment and technologies is a lack of information, knowledge and skills to use them properly. A review of five projects in Bangladesh suggested that many women did not have the technical skills and basic understanding of commercial fish production (Halim & Ahmed 2006). This deficit of information and knowledge has been linked to lower levels of education and literacy among women (Caritas 2007;Danida 2009;Jahan et al. 2010;Shirajee et al. 2010;Morgan et al. 2016), inappropriate extension and technology dissemination mechanisms targeted mainly at men (Shelly and D'Costa, 2001;Naved et al. 2011;Quisumbing and Kumar 2011) and reduced mobility for women because of restrictive social norms (Barman 2001).Few women own land and ponds in Bangladesh. Although Islamic law allows women to own property, the Islamic inheritance law stipulates that sisters inherit half the share of their brothers. In practice, women face other issues to own land, as husbands may acquire property in their wives' names, or women are encouraged to relinquish inheritance claims to their brothers (Subramanian 1998 in Sproule et al. 2015). A study among 2678 farmers across the country found less than 1% pond owners are women (Jahan et al. 2015). This lack of assets translates into lack of access to collateral-based formal credit and loans (Shelly and D'Costa, 2001).Finally, access to and control over the benefits of aquaculture are not always equitably shared between men and women. In a survey, men reported to set differential wages for male and female workers without much resistance from women, who in turn indicated they were forced to accept lower wages out of necessity and a lack of alternative options (Jahan et al., 2015). And even when receiving equal benefits, a majority (78%) of women involved in aquaculture in five regions in Bangladesh reported no or only limited control of the income derived from aquaculture (Halim and Ahmed 2006). Deliberately targeting women in projects does not guarantee that they will benefit as intended, because men have been found to take control of new technologies as soon as their profitability became apparent (Quisumbing and Kumar 2011).Most authors indicate that decision-making power in aquaculture in Bangladesh is heavily skewed toward men (Shelly and D'Costa 2001;Halim and Ahmed 2006;Naved et al. 2011;Jahan et al. 2015), although it has been suggested that there is more joint decisionmaking when it comes to harvesting fish for home consumption (Naved et al. 2011;Jahan et al. 2015). A lack of decision-making power has been found to result in lower effectiveness in fish production (Barman 2001), a lack of ability to adopt innovations (Kantor et al. 2015;Morgan et al. 2015) and reduced motivation (Ireland 1999). Similarly, other studies suggest that overall levels of fish production, productivity and utilization may improve when women have stronger roles in household and community decision-making processes (Shirajee et al. 2010;Belton et al. 2011;Farnworth et al. 2015).Washing mola for cooking, Madhob pasha, Babugong, Barisal, Bangladesh.Photo credit: WorldFishIn Bangladesh, women are expected to fulfill reproductive roles and responsibilities, such as household management, food preparation and nursing tasks. This reduces their ability to participate in paid economic activities outside of the household (Farnworth et al. 2015). Their freedom of movement is further limited by social norms regarding women's mobility, in particular where Islamic purdah (female seclusion) is practiced (Morgan et al. 2016). These social norms limit women's ability to participate in aquaculture value (Halim and Ahmed 2006;Shirajee et al. 2010;Caritas 2007;Danida 2009;Jahan et al. 2010;Morgan et al., 2016). The level of support by husbands and in-laws becomes a key determinant of the extent to which women are able to get involved in the aquaculture value chain (Debashish et al. 2001) because women's lives are governed by the gender relations that they coexist with (Morgan et al 2015).Gender attitudes are also apparent in society's recognition and individuals' self-perception of their entitlements (Kruijssen and Pyburn forthcoming). This is seen, for instance, in the recognition by society of the work that women and men do along the value chain, and the individual's own sense of contribution. Where society does not perceive it to be a woman's right to participate in paid work outside the household based on gendered stereotypes, e.g. as a retailer or trader, these prevailing, deeply engrained, attitudes may result in self-perception among women of having inadequate skills to participate in market transactions (Kruijssen and Pyburn forthcoming). However, the ways that roles and responsibilities can change over time and the roles that some women and men fulfill in unusual situations (e.g. where the husband has employment away from the home) are indicative of the potential transformability of norms (Halim and Ahmed, 2006). For example, poor women and women with absent husbands seem to be less restricted by economic need.A private sector facilitator (PSF) runs training.The review uncovered 15 development projects in the aquaculture sector in Bangladesh, implemented over the past three decades, that included some focus on gender (Figure 1). These were the projects identified from the literature only, and it is most likely not an exhaustive list of projects implemented. Some early projects initially did not take gender into account at all, but a realization that women needed to be targeted led to the introduction of quotas for women's participation in project activities. There was also increased awareness for the need to take the gender division of labor into account in project implementation. More recent projects adopted family approaches, e.g. by enrolling both husband and wife together in farmer field schools. A third wave of projects realized the importance of addressing social and gender norms, e.g. through awareness trainingand community theater, and gave explicit attention to gender-based constraints, access and control over resources, decision-making power and gender norms (USAID 2013). Project implementers also started recognizing the need for gender-balanced project teams and gender awareness raising among them.The review methodology does not allow for an assessment of the effectiveness of the approaches, as most documents are not clear on specific successes and failures but report on overall project results without separate mention of gender work. It is clear, however, that development organizations have been progressively experimenting with and giving weight to gender approaches. Consideration of the key issues highlighted by the research literature is also increasingly evident in project documents.  There are considerable differences in the ways and degrees to which men and women participate in the aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh. In the literature, the causes of these differences have been related to the gender divisions of labor, gendered access to and control over resources and benefits, and gender-based levels of decision-making power. These conditions are rooted in and perpetuated by societal norms and attitudes.A large number of development projects in the aquaculture sector that have specific aims around women's inclusion and/or empowerment were identified. The approaches used by these projects show a progression over time with gender issues and their complex nature being increasingly recognized in project design and implementation. There is also growing recognition that project teams must be well aware of gender issues and embody the knowledge and skills to address these in their work, and that project teams themselves should be gender balanced. New projects should take these lessons on board and build upon past learning for more effective implementation.","tokenCount":"2393"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"89818f49351af3c5a5a534959fb487ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/03882f02-28fe-4418-8901-7946d19db0ef/retrieve","id":"1371205435"},"keywords":["Cattle","crop-livestock","manure","phosphate rock","sustainable agriculture"],"sieverID":"59dfe539-1a13-47bf-a197-9872aabfe693","pagecount":"26","content":"In the mixed farming systems that characterise the semi-arid zones of eastern and western Africa, low rural incomes, the high cost of fertilisers, inappropriate public policies and infrastructural constraints prevent the widespread use of inorganic fertilisers. As population pressure increases and fallow cycles are shortened, such organic sources of plant nutrients as manure, crop residues and compost remain the principal sources of nutrients for soil fertility maintenance and crop production.In this paper, the effect of manure on soil productivity and ecosystem functions and services is discussed. This is followed by highlights of the management practices required to increase manure use efficiency. We end with a discussion of emerging new research opportunities in soil fertility management to enhance crop-livestock integration.Although the application of manure alone produces a significant response, it is not a complete alternative to mineral fertilisers. In most cases the use of manure is part of an internal flow of nutrients within the farm and does not add nutrients from outside the farm. Furthermore, the quantities available are inadequate to meet nutrient demand on large areas. Research highlights have shown that efficiency is enhanced by different management practices including the timing and methods of manure application, its sources and integrated nutrient management. Sustainable crop-livestock production in West Africa Research opportunities include analysing and understanding the ecosystem functions and services of manure use, the establishment of fertiliser equivalency for different manure sources, the assessment of the best ratios of organic and inorganic plant nutrient combinations, the crop-livestock trade-offs required to solve conflicting demands for feed and soil conservation and the use of legumes to enhance soil fertility and for animal feed. The establishment of decision support system guides and assessment of the economic viability of manure-based technologies in farmer-focused research are presented as powerful management tools intended to maximise output while preserving the environment in the mixed farming systems of the semi-arid zones.Rapid rural and urban population growth, changes in agro-ecosystems and increased market access in western and eastern Africa all provide the stimulus to drive agriculture towards intensification, where continuous cropping increasingly replaces pasture and fallows. Manure, forages and crop residues become more valuable as part of the intensification-oriented technologies, with increasing off-take from a fixed land base. The ultimate results of this dynamism are the emergence and evolution of mixed croplivestock systems. The evolution process often includes:• paddocking or corralling livestock on crop land in high-potential areas • a shift to the system of collection, processing, storage and application of animal faeces and urine • change from field-grazing crop residues and pastures to confined livestock feeding • replacement of manual labour with animal traction and mechanisation • intensification through growing multi-purpose legumes and forages.This calls for a new research approach that allows replacement or refinement of old paradigms with new principles, notably the identification of 'best-bet' options and strategies using a whole farm or holistic approach to working with farmers. Such an approach has resulted in new lessons and insights in management and augmentation of nutrients through crop residue and manure management, including livestock-mediated nutrient cycling, crop combination and crop geometry, livestock feeding studies, the effect of the livestock component on soil fertility (chemical, physical and biological properties), and also gender, policy and institutional issues.A major challenge facing researchers in their attempt to contribute towards sustainable intensification of the crop-livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is that of soil degradation, where the poor quality and low inputs of crop residues, kraal manure and other amendments lead to a decline in soil productivity. Inorganic nutrient inputs are often too expensive for low-resource endowed farmers. In such systems, the demand for organic inputs such as manure is likely to increase in response to system Sustainable intensification of crop-livestock systems through manure management in eastern and western Africa intensification. The contribution of manure management to enhanced soil productivity is unquestionable (Murwira et al. 1995;Pankhurst 1990;Murwira, this volume). However, there is a need for research to be viewed realistically. This is especially true in the context of the evolving farming systems in arid and semi-arid areas, notably integrated (mixed) crop-livestock systems which may hinder or complement each other. There is a growing recognition of the need to develop technologies and policies that ensure optimal enterprise combination. Implicit in this strategy is the maximisation of the contribution of each livestock unit to soil fertility improvement while addressing the challenges of increasing intensity in crop-livestock systems.In this paper we first discuss the effect of manure on soil productivity and ecosystems services. This is followed by highlighting the management practices needed to increase manure use efficiency. We then elaborate on emerging new research opportunities in soil fertility management to enhance crop-livestock integration.In the mixed farming systems that characterise the semi-arid zone of Africa, low rural incomes, high costs of fertiliser, inappropriate public policies and infrastructural constraints prevent the widespread use of inorganic fertilisers (Williams et al. 1995). Under this situation, as population pressure increases and fallow cycles are shortened, organic sources of plant nutrients such as manure, crop residues and compost remain the principal sources of nutrients for soil fertility maintenance and crop production (Williams et al. 1995). Estimates of the nitrogen (N) contribution from manure to the total N input budget suggest that up to 80% of N applied to crops is derived from manure in both extensive and intensive grazing systems in eastern and southern Africa (Kihanda 1996;Mugwira and Murwira 1997).Many scientists have reported on the effect of organic amendments on crop yield increases in western and eastern Africa (Abdullahi and Lombin 1978;Mokwunye 1980;Pichot et al. 1981;Padwick 1983;Pieri 1986;Powell 1986;Pankhurst 1990;de Ridder and van Keulen 1990;Bationo and Mokwunye 1991;Bationo et al. 1995;Gibberd 1995;Murwira et al. 1995;Probert et al. 1995;Kihanda 1996;Kihanda and Warren 1998;Kanyanjua and Obanyi 1999;Lekasi et al. 1999;Kihanda and Gichuru 2000).Most of the literature has focused on the responses of crops to farmyard manure (FYM) applications. One of the earliest reported increases to FYM application in SSA was by Hartley (1937) in the Nigerian savannah. It was observed that application of 2 t/ha FYM increased seed cotton yield by 100%, equivalent to fertilisers applied at the rate of 60 kg N/ha and 20 kg phosphorus (P)/ha. In Embu, Kenya, FYM significantly increased maize and potato yields in a long-term trial (Gatheca 1970). The data in Table 1 (Panels A and B) summarises the results of a number of trials on manure and manure+inorganic fertilisers conducted at research stations in West Africa. The data (treatment yield -control yield) / quantity of manure applied, DM = dry matter.2. Response of sorghum in the second year of a four-year rotation involving cotton-sorghum-groundnut-sorghum. Manure was applied in the first year.3. NS = not specified.4. Estimated from visual intrapolation of graph.Source: Williams et al. (1995).showed that manure collected from stables and applied alone produced about 34-58 kg of cereal grain and 106-178 kg of stover per ton of manure (Table 1, Panel A). The application of manure together with inorganic fertiliser resulted in yields of 32-90 kg of cereal grain and 84-192 kg of stover per ton of manure (Table 1, Panel B).In Kenya, Kanyanjua and Obanyi (1999) under the Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP) observed that response to manure application, averaged over several locations and seasons, was in the order cabbages > potatoes > maize > cowpea and that crops grown on Nitisols responded more than those grown on Acrisols (Table 2). Kihanda (1988) evaluating the effects of inorganic fertilisers, lime, FYM and crop residues on the yield of maize in acidic Andosols of central Kenya found that FYM increased maize biomass by 210%, while lime increased yields by 115% and P by 57%. They concluded that the large response to FYM application might have been due to a reduction in exchangeable aluminium (Al) and manganese (Mn) allowing the plants to Sustainable intensification of crop-livestock systems through manure management in eastern and western Africa establish better rooting systems in addition to providing nutrients, particularly potassium (K).In the Sahelian zone of West Africa, Bationo and Mokwunye (1991) found no difference between applying 5 t FYM/ha or applying 8.7 kg P/ha (as single superphosphate, SSP) and a further application of 20 t FYM/ha only doubled the pearl millet grain that resulted from the application of 5 t FYM/ha (Table 3). Source: Kanyanjua and Obanyi (1999). Source: ICRISAT Annual Reports (1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988). Gatheca (1970) reported that an annual application of 5-6 t/ha of manure resulted in higher yields of maize in Kenya than heavy applications of 20-30 t/ha applied at intervals of 4-5 years. In the acidic soils of central Kenya, Mugambi (1979) noted that application of 5 t FYM/ha increased potato tuber yield by more than 50% above the control. A combination of the same rate of FYM and P at 100 kg P/ha increased potato yield by more than 100% above the control, an indication that P was also limiting in that soil. The data in Table 4 indicate that the application of 3 t/ha of FYM plus urine resulted in the production of grain and total biomass that were 3-4 times higher than when only manure was applied and that crop response to sheep manure was greater than to cattle manure. Research studies indicate that approximately 80-95% of the N and P consumed by livestock are excreted. Whereas N is voided in both urine and faeces, most of the P is voided in faeces (ARC 1980;Termouth 1989). In the P-deficient sandy Sahelian soil, the addition of P fertiliser increases the efficiency of FYM, and hill placement of both FYM and P fertiliser produce better responses than when they are broadcast (Figure 1). The data in Table 5 for eastern and Table 6 for western Africa give the variation in the nutrient concentration of manure samples from different locations, indicating that even on the same soil type and with the same rainfall, the response to manure application will greatly depend on the source of manure. Pieri (1986;1989) summarised the results of the long-term soil fertility experiments in sub-Saharan Africa. One important conclusion that emerged from the experiments is that the application of mineral fertilisers is an effective technique for increasing crop yields in the Sudanian zone of West Africa. However, in the long-term the use of mineral fertilisers alone will not increase crop yields but just sustain them. More  (Ikombo 1984) 1.62 0.50 1.34 0.26 ND 1 Kenya (Kihanda 1996) 1.19 0.24 1.46 0.97 0.26 Zimbabwe (Mugwira 1984) 0.6-1.3 0.1-0.2 0.7-1.0 0.2-0.3 0.1-0.2 Kenya (Probert et al. 1995) 0.23-0.70 0.08-0.22 0.28-1.14 0.58-2.02 ND 1. ND = not determined.Source: AfNET (2002).Effects of manure placement methods and phosphorus fertiliser on pearl millet grain yield (t/ha), in Karabedji, Niger (1999). sustainable and increased production is obtained when inorganic fertilisers are combined with manure (Figure 2). At Kabete in Kenya, Palm et al. (1997) obtained higher yields of maize in a long-term soil fertility management experiment when mineral fertilisers were combined with FYM (Figure 3).To obtain a modest yield of 2 t/ha of maize the application of 5 t/ha of high-quality manure can meet the N requirement but it cannot meet the P requirements in areas where P is deficient (Palm 1995). Organic inputs such as manure are often proposed as alternatives to mineral fertilisers; however, it is important to recognise that in most cases the use of such manure is part of an internal flow of nutrients within the farm and therefore does not add nutrients from outside the farm. Also the quantities of available manure are inadequate to meet nutrient demand over large areas because of their limited quantities and low nutrient content, and the high labour demands for processing and application. The availability of manure for sustainable crop production has been addressed by several scientists. With the present livestock systems in West Africa the potential annual transfer of nutrient from manure is 2.5 kg N and 0.6 kg P/ha of cropland. Although the manure application rates are between 5 and 20 t/ha in most of the on-station experiments, the quantities used by farmers are very low and ranged from 1.3-3.8 t/ha (Williams et al. 1995). Hiyami and Ruttan (1985) reported that exclusive use of inorganic fertilisers in Africa will increase annual food production at best by 2%, well below the population growth rate, and not even close to the 5-6% required to reduce poverty and ensure food security. Organic sources of nutrients, however, will be complementary to the use of mineral fertilisers (Quiñones et al. 1997). Despite its vital role, the quantities of manure needed are not available on-farm for a number of reasons. There are simply insufficient numbers of animals to provide the manure needed, and this problem becomes more pronounced in post-drought years (Williams et al. 1995). The amount of livestock feed and land resources available are also limited. Depending on rangeland productivity, between 10-40 ha of dry-season grazing land and 3-10 ha of wet-season grazing land are required to maintain yields on 1 ha of cropland using only animal manure (Fernández-Rivera et al. 1995).Annual manure production by zero-grazing cattle in Kenya has been estimated as 1-1.5 t/animal (Strobel 1987). Two animals are needed to supply enough to grow a 2 t/ ha maize crop, if the manure is of high quality, but eight animals are required if the quality is low.The data in Table 7 on the Sahelian zone of Niger clearly indicate that manure application will not only improve the organic carbon (C) content of the soil but by  Effect of application of farmyard manure and mineral fertiliser singly and in combination on soil organic carbon at 0 to 25 cm soil depth on a Humic Nitisol, Kabete, Kenya (1974-94).Annual treatments:NP + FYM = 120 kg N/ha + 52 kg P/ha + 10 t FYM/ha FYM = 10 t/ha NP = 120 kg N/ha + 52 kg P/ha Sustainable intensification of crop-livestock systems through manure management in eastern and western Africa complexing iron (Fe) and Al it will also increase P availability. In long-term soil fertility management trials, although soil organic C decreased in all treatments over time, the organic C value was higher in the treatments where crop residues and manure were applied (Figure 4). Past and on-going research has focused on the assessment of the relationship between land management practices and C storage. Our current understanding is that the C sequestration potential of different organic inputs is an analogous index to that of fertiliser equivalency. Further studies are needed to assess the trade-offs between the use of soil C for agricultural productivity and its value for C sequestration potential and environmental conservation. This is a relatively new area of research especially on assessing the effect of quantity and quality of organics (both organic manures and residues) on soil organic matter fractions and crop yields.Expected benefits from manure application in the context of ecosystem functions include the non-nutritional effects on soil physical properties that in turn influence nutrient acquisition and plant growth. The resource, through interactions with the mineral soil in complexing toxic cations, helps to reduce the P sorption capacity of the soil (Bationo and Mokwunye 1991).Manure quality varies widely and clear indices of quality determination are sometimes difficult to apply widely. Past research has focused on evaluating different ways of managing manure to improve its quality. Preliminary studies suggest that feeding of concentrates, zero-grazing rather than traditional kraaling, manure stored under cover instead of in the open, and on concrete rather than soil floors results in higher quality manure (Lekasi et al. 1998).Animal type and diet. The quality of manure has been observed to vary with types of animals and feeds, collection and storage methods (Mugwira 1984;Ikombo 1984;Probert et al. 1995;Kihanda 1996).In Kenya a study conducted by Lekasi et al. (1998) observed that the nutrient contents (especially N and P) of manure were in the order of chicken > pig > rabbit > goat > cattle, with manure mixed with urine having a higher quality than dung alone. Nevertheless, current characterisation studies (Williams et al. 1995) indicate that manure quality is very variable, e.g. 0.23-1.76 (N %); 0.08-1.0 (P %); 0.2-1.46 (K %); 0.2-1.3 (Ca %) and 0.1-0.5 (Mg %). High-quality manure has been defined as that with >1.6% N or C:N ratios of <10; while low-quality manure has <0.6% and C:N 1. Numbers on right of legend indicate C:N ratio.Source: Kihanda and Gichuru (2000). Irrespective of animal type, the quality of manure can be enhanced through feed manipulation and is more favourable in intensive grazing systems (stall or zero-grazing units) than in extensive grazing systems (communal or range grazing). In a study carried out in eastern Africa on cattle, it was reported that manure-N concentration increased by more than two-fold when the basal diet of barley straw was supplemented with poultry waste and high-quality forage shrubs, e.g. Calliandra and Macrotylama spp. In another study, the P content in manure from cattle that received P supplements of Busumbu rock phosphate (0.70% P) and Minjingu rock phosphate (0.45% P) increased by two to four-fold above the basal diet of Napier grass (0.24% P) and bone meal (0.50% P). However, feeding animals with Unga commercial feed resulted in much higher values of P in manure (0.95% P) (Kihanda and Gichuru 2000).Composting techniques and materials. While the quality of materials used to make composted manure determines its quality, composting techniques are equally important. ratios of >17. Recent studies have shown poor correlation between manure quality and lignin, polyphenols and soluble fractions of C (Kihanda and Gichuru 2000). Figure 5 shows the effect of the C:N ratio on N mineralisation of manures. It was noted that the higher the C:N ratio, the slower the rate of N mineralisation. Figure 6 shows that the N fertiliser equivalency increases with N content. Higher-quality manures are often obtained from covered-shed composting than from open-shed composting; and similarly from pit composting compared to heap or surface composting (Murwira et al. 1995). Furthermore, crop residue incorporation has been found to minimise nutrient losses through aerobic volatilisation or anaerobic dentrification. For example, in a study in Kenya it was reported that by composting lowquality manure with different proportions of either Tithonia diversifolia or Lantana camara, the N content of manure was increased by between 10 and 40% depending on the treatment, but no changes in P concentration were found (Kihanda and Gichuru 2000).In a study conducted in Zimbabwe investigating manure N changes during storage, Nzuma and Murwira (1999) showed that total N measured in anaerobic (pit) manure composts at the end of storage was significantly higher than in aerobic (heap) manure composts. The aerobic manure compost that incorporated maize straw had 0.9% N in April and 0.6% N in July, while the values for manure alone without incorporated straw were 1.4% N in April and 1.2% N in July as a result of the lack of N immobilisation.Note: Fertiliser equivalency is the specific amount of an organic material that can have the same effect on crop yield as a certain amount of inorganic matter.Source: Mutuo et al. (2000) Figure 6. Relationship between fertiliser equivalencies (%) and nitrogen content (%) of organic materials (Regression line excludes Calliandra and maize stover) in Zambia and Tanzania, 1998. The results also showed that the pH in the anaerobic manure compost system ranged from 6.5-6.9 while the aerobic manure composts were more alkaline with a pH range of 8.2-8.6 (Figure 7).The effect of composting on phosphate rock (PR) dissolution has been studied by Bado (1985) and Lompo (1984) in Burkina Faso. The local Kodjari PR alone or combined with urea was incorporated into two low-quality organic materials and composted for 6 months. The PR and urea were incorporated into the organic materials at the rate of 4 kg of PR (25% P 2 O 5 ) for 100 kg and 12 kg of urea for 1 t dry organic matter (Lompo 1984). The first organic material was a mixture of 75% sorghum straw and 25% cattle manure (used as an inoculum). The second organic material was a mixture of sorghum straw, feed residues and the faeces of cattle usually collected by farmers in the cowsheds.The results (Table 8) indicated that the composting of the organic materials with PR involved an enhancement of the total water-soluble P (WSP) balance. The total WSP was positive for all treatments and for the two organic materials. A positive balance of 67-740% of the total WSP was observed after 6 months of composting. The augmentation of the total WSP may be explained by an increase in the soluble P from organic matter. It may also be due to a probable dissolution of the P in the PR by the organic acids during composting. Two processes might have taken place during composting and these results cannot confirm the effectiveness of organic acid in dissolving P. Isotopic techniques using 31 P or 32 P would be necessary to determine the ability of the organic acids to dissolve P from PR during composting.Handling and storage techniques. Besides heaps and pits, manure may be collected and stored in cattle kraals, bomas, open areas etc. Recent research shows that manure quality may be affected by the prevailing conditions. Murwira and Kirchmann (1993) reported that under the aerobic and high pH conditions found in kraals, volatilisation of ammonia can occur, while the wet soggy anaerobic conditions may lead to dentrification and leaching losses. Such losses are minimised under intensive grazing systems such as zero-grazing units with concrete floors and covered roofs. In such systems the provision of low-quality organics as bedding helps to trap the nutrients from the urine. Lekasi et al. (1999) reported that manure removed from grazing units with a soil floor had much lower N and P and higher ash contents than manure removed from barns with concrete floors. Factors responsible for enhanced gaseous N loss in composting include increased total N, high temperatures, low pH and frequent turning (Dewes and Hünsche 1998). On the other hand, high dentrification losses are often associated with increased pH and not with the increase of insoluble C compounds as opposed to reducing sugars under anaerobic conditions. Run-off and nitrate leaching losses can also be substantial from composted manure.The beneficial effects of combined manure and inorganic nutrient sources on soil fertility have been repeatedly shown, yet there is need for more research on the establishment of the fertiliser equivalency of various manures and also to determine the optimum combination of these two plant nutrient sources [integrated nutrient management (INM)] taking into account the high variability in quality. Such information is useful in formulating decision-support systems and in establishing simple guidelines for the management and use of these resources. Studies investigating the benefits of sole versus combined application of manures and inorganic fertilisers have given variable and sometimes inconsistent results. At Chisunga in Zimbabwe, the application of N in 100% inorganic and 100% organic sources resulted in yields of maize lower than those from combining the two plant nutrients. For example, the application of 100 kg N/ha in the inorganic form resulted in maize yields of about 3.2 t/ha but the application of the same quantity with half N in organic and the other half in inorganic forms gave maize yields close to 6 t/ha. In Manjoro there was no advantage to combining organic and inorganic plant nutrients (Figure 8). Studies in Tanzania indicated that there was no significant difference in maize yields between sole and combined application of 5 t/ha of manure and 60 kg N/ha of mineral fertiliser (Richard 1967). Disparities in such responses are partly due to the addition of different rates and quality of nutrients through compared treatments and also to differences in the limiting nutrients and soil moisture at the test sites. Another cause of inconsistent results may be the depressing or antagonistic effects of the nutrient source combinations. For example, a study in Zimbabwe showed that while increasing rates of manure, lime and NPK mineral fertilisers increased the growth of pearl millet, lime alone had a depressing effect on the effectiveness of manure, but the NPK fertilisers increased its effectiveness (Mugwira 1985). Short-term trials do not give a true picture of the long-term effects of the treatments. Higher fertiliser equivalencies have been observed in sandier and drier soils that contain less moisture and that are less fertile (Kimani et al. 2001). Using data collected from different sites, Mutuo et al. (2000) as shown in Figure 6 found a linear relationship between the percentage fertiliser equivalency and the N content (2-0.67). This linear function indicates that with an increase of 0.1% N in the tissue of the organic amendment, there is a 6% increase in the fertiliser equivalency value and that the critical level of the N content of organic material for net immobilisation or mineralisation was found to be 2.2%. This is in Source: Nhamo and Murwira (2000).  agreement with the 2.2% suggested by Palm (1995) and Palm et al. (1997) in the decision tree for the selection of organic materials (Figure 9).Low-quality manure is often observed to depress crop yields. This deleterious effect can be overcome by applying the manure ahead of planting the crop. In some cases, surface application has resulted in better results than incorporation, but often this depends on the quantity of manure applied. Some studies have investigated the potential to overcome this problem through megadose instead of annual applications. But studies from Zimbabwe suggest that there are no differences in crop yields between the two application regimes, e.g. 7 t/ha annual application, 14 t/ha applied every second year and 28 t/ha applied every fourth year (Mugwira and Murwira 1997).Fortification and pelleting. The bulky nature of manure and its low quality constrain its transportation and returns from application. To convert manure to a biofertiliser that is easily handleable (less bulky) and applicable, some studies have shown granule pelleting to be a user-friendly packaging system for farmers (Kihanda and Gichuru 2000). Other studies have demonstrated that the quality and return to such biofertilisers can be improved by fortifying them with the addition of inorganic nutrient sources; composting under cover to minimise leaching and loss of nutrients via gases; and the use of high-quality biofertilisers on high-value crops solely or in combination with inorganic fertilisers (Kihanda and Gichuru 2000).In high external input systems, large quantities of maize stover or wheat straw can be generated (8-10 t/ha), and this is frequently either burned or partly grazed, resulting in large nutrient off-takes unless the manure is recycled. To overcome this constraint, fortification trials have been conducted. Okalebo et al. (2000) found that the combined application of composts of 2 t/ha of wheat straw or soybean trash with 80 kg N/ha of mineral fertiliser resulted in higher maize yields (grain and stover) than from the application of 80 kg N/ha of mineral fertiliser alone. Sole application of residues depressed yields. In related studies Muasya et al. (2000) found that wheat straw composted with inorganic fertiliser (80 t/ha compost) resulted in slightly higher wheat yields (3.6 t/ha) than with the same rate of normal (no fertiliser) compost (3.0 t/ha).Strategies to increase manure quantity. In both eastern and western Africa, manure is produced abundantly under extensive (pastoral and transhumant) systems. As these systems diminish, settled arable agriculture increases in importance. In the latter systems farmers keep their cattle under confinement or in paddocks. Lots of manure is accumulated in cattle kraals in the eastern Africa region. In West Africa, corralling, i.e. keeping livestock in selected areas over a given period of time, helps increase and accumulate manure through urine and dung voided in the field. Recent studies have shown that corralling for two nights results in between 5 and 13% higher crop yields from crops grown on coralled fields than those from crops on uncoralled fields (Powell et al. 1998).Past reviews of research on the use of organics (with or without mineral fertilisers) for soil fertility management in tropical agroecosystems (Padwick 1983;CABI 1994;Palm et al. 1997;Nandwa and Bekunda 1998;Palm et al. 2001) have shown widespread nonadoption or low adoption of emerging technologies. It has been reported that often the use of organic materials is based on trial and error (Palm et al. 2001). At the research and development level, presently and in future, there is a need to set priorities (Kilambya et al. 1998) and to target a potential 'best-bet' technology for smallholder farmers in the form of agronomically superior, economically viable, environmentally friendly and culturally acceptable options.Wider adoption of soil productivity technologies requires that their profitability for smallholder farmers be carefully evaluated. The imperative for future manure research is to adopt a holistic framework for closer interaction between soil productivity subjectmatter specialists, economists, environmentalists, extensionists and policy makers. There is a need for more horizontal and, above all, vertical networking to create momentum and synergy in soil productivity management research. Lack of multidisciplinary research has been reported to lead to inadequate discounting of soil quality by economists in the context of a 'future generations sustainability quest' (Young 1998). Furthermore, other workers have reported a poor relationship between farm product price and nutrient withdrawal (mining) in the context of nutrient replacement costs. Recent work in Kenya showed that 32% of the average net farm income amounted to the mined nutrients of many farms owned by smallholder farmers, 54% of whom are estimated to live below the poverty line, i.e. on less than US$ 1/day (de Jager et al. 1998). The proposed new approach should provide synergies between applied or strategic research and adaptive research, and also between farmers' indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and main scientific knowledge (MSK), thereby resulting in higher rates of technology adoption. Future multidisciplinary research should also investigate yield depression attributed to the phytotoxicity associated with manure management (Elliott et al. 1978), plant diseases (Cook et al. 1978) and pests (Musiek and Beasley 1978).There is a need to shift from a top-down to a bottom-up research approach because the use of the former approach in soil productivity management research in the past has proved retrogressive, especially for heterogeneous, risk-averse farm households. Future manure and other nutrient input management research should use participatory research approaches, e.g. farmer field schools (FFS), or participatory learning action research in the context of the target farming systems, integrating different disciplines and with the participation of farmers (Haverkort and de Zeeuw 1991;Martin and Sherington 1997).Most manures are often characterised as intermediate-low-quality resources and hence are prescribed to be used in a mixture with mineral fertiliser (Palm et al. 2001). Future research is required to identify the 'best-bet' low-quality manure that can be mixed with high-quality inorganic resources to satisfy the short-term goal of nutrient availability and the long-term goal of building soil organic matter (SOM). Such research should come up with cases for proper discounting of resource conservation estimates (Smaling et al. 1997).Like other organics, the benefits of using manure over mineral fertilisers are both in the short-term effects and residual or long-term effects. Future research opportunities include the development of guidelines that link the quality of manures to their shortterm fertiliser equivalency value and longer-term residual effects through SOM turnover and formation.• These should build on past organic resource databases (ORD) to develop decision support system (DSS) guides and simple tools, based on both scientist and farmer perspectives to guide the choice and use of manures depending on their varied qualities and quantities. This will require research that correlates scientific indicators (chemical content and nutrient release) with farmers' indicators of manure quality (texture, colour, smell, white fungi/sand, homogeneity and longevity of composts). • The relationship between manure quality and a number of variables that influence quality, e.g. animal feed manipulation, composting techniques, manure handling and storage method, should be established. This type of research should include determination of strategies that minimise nutrient losses, leaching, erosion, volatilisation and dentrification. • Development of a systematic framework for investigating integrated nutrient management based on fertiliser equivalence values and pertinent ecosystem services and functions. This research should determine the economic and social trade-offs of improved soil fertility management alternatives to manures, e.g. legumes, high-quality organics, green manures and forage legumes in traditional mixed farming systems. • Determination of the biophysical and socio-economic boundary conditions for the adoption of manure management based techniques.There is considerable information on manure management in western and eastern Africa. The results of comparative analyses from the regions suggest that different lessons can be learned. As an example, it is clear that scientists in West Africa can benefit by learning more of the technologies developed in eastern Africa on composting with manure fortified with rock phosphate. Scientists in West Africa can also learn from the work done in eastern Africa on the assessment of manure fertiliser equivalency, technologies based on the identification of the best combination ratios of organics and inorganics, and the systematic characterisation of manure for its nutrient contents and lignins and polyphenols in order to use organic matter decision trees.Crop response to manure alone or in combination with inorganic fertilisers is variable and site-specific. The difference in response may be due to several factors, e.g. soil fertility status, quality of manure and environmental factors. This means that modelling and decision support systems will have an important role in future research. Other new research opportunities include such topics as the crop-livestock trade-off to be gained by developing new strategies that minimise competition between crops and livestock, such as the conflicting demands of crop residues for feed and soil conservation, the use of legumes for soil fertility management per se or as feed for livestock, increased inorganic fertiliser use efficiency due to better management of manure, the relationships between manure quality and buildup of SOM, other benefits of manure use, and the socio-economic and policy implications.","tokenCount":"5597"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"531c9d70e8a3fc688b2cdfd3a970930a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/482b8c94-7229-4286-b552-c51229e844de/retrieve","id":"-1283915347"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"66108d89-59a2-4396-ba88-73cf68a0e7e5","pagecount":"21","content":"This chapter discusses the evolution of gender research at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its predecessors 1 , and in the context of CGIAR. It then reviews the impact of ILRI's gender research in a number of areas including development, science, capacity and policy.Discrimination against women in access to skills, assets, employment, education and healthcare is costly in foregone output and in heightened inequality. Research at international agricultural research centres, although often ad hoc, has long sought to identify technical and policy measures to eliminate or reduce bias against women in agriculture. Specifically, research at ILRI has focused on gendered access to assets, such as livestock and land, and to technology needed to raise livestock and crop production. As livestock often provide a significant share of women's employment and income, and are often an asset they have control over, identifying gender-based biases through research can be a powerful tool to improve the condition of women and improve the sector as a whole. Gender research in livestock also enhances the effectiveness of interventions by increasing the relevance of livestock technologies and institutions to local communities by addressing needs, preferences, constraints and challenges of all farmers. Recent work also looks at how livestock can empower women by revealing social relationships and power dynamics in decision making that affect livestock interventions and how it is possible to build upon livestock as an asset for empowerment.The accounting of ILRI and its predecessors is insufficient to estimate the gender share of research and development spending at the three institutions. During the CGIAR Research Programme (CRP) on Livestock andFish (2011-2017), this changed with the mandate of the CRP to spend 10% of its budget on gender. At the same time, there has been an increase in direct funding to projects on gender 2 , but it is premature to estimate the impact of this funding. ILRI's presence in the gender literature, as indicated by Altmetric (www.altmetric.com/; accessed 10 March 2020), is limited. The ILRI institutional database on the keyword 'gender' within Altmetrics has 1.0% of the Altmetrics global database; the rate is even lower for the keyword 'women'. The only major papers (over 100 citations) with specific notice of the work and output of women are the systems studies for Maasailand (Solomon Bekure et al., 1991) and Borana (Coppock, 1994). There has been a recent increase in gender-specific articles produced by ILRI staff and partners, such as Galiè et al. (2019a) on the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI), which had a download index of 1.9k by April 2019.Research on gender at ILCA began in the 1970s in the principal systems studies conducted by ILCA, notably those in Kaduna in Nigeria, Borana in Ethiopia, Maasailand in Kenya, and Niono and Macina in Mali. The main gender-related impacts of the systems studies were: (i) to identify gender bias in ownership of livestock, land and other assets; (ii) to identify gender bias in access to technology and advisory services; and (iii) to give methodological guidance on avoiding gender bias in the design and conduct of field investigations.Recent scientific impacts of gender work at ILRI have included: (i) institutionalizing a strategic approach to avoid bias in experimental design and conduct; (ii) refining field methods to show potential gains from greater gender equity in the generation and application of field results; (iii) a paradigm shift among technical scientists to understand that women, as well as men, are members of their client groups and have their own demands and needs in terms of animal health services, feeds and forages, environment and genetics, as well as facing different constraints and challenges related to livestock; and (iv) developing indicators and an understanding of women's empowerment through livestock.The following development impacts were identified:• Defining beneficiary populations for technical changes in livestock investments, including in dairy, in vaccination campaigns and in plant-breeding programmes.• Adapting advisory services to the potentially different needs and constraints of female and male farmers in crop and livestock production.• Strengthening personal and institutional capacities to enable ILRI, other CGIAR centres and several partners to do gender analysis in both pastoral and mixed farming systems.• More efficient identification of target groups for campaigns to improve food safety.• Identifying livestock assets as a means of women's empowerment.When ILCA opened in 1974, its aim was 'to integrate sociological, economic, and biological research and development related to livestock in Africa' (Waters-Bayer and Bayer, 2014). Despite its development objectives, ILCA did not systematically include gender in its early work. A review of gender-related impacts of CGIAR research criticized the methods and results of international agricultural research on gender issues more than a decade after most of the international agricultural research centres had been established (Jiggins, 1986). ILCA social scientists working in field conditions (see Chapter 15, this volume) recognized the important roles of women in agriculture and sought to understand these roles within complex farming systems. What became the early, innovative, gender research focused on intrahousehold decision making, indigenous knowledge, farming systems, the roles of women and even the power and privilege aspects of extractive research (Waters-Bayer, 1985).The ILCA Subhumid Zone Programme at Kaduna, Nigeria, was a pioneering effort in ILRI's evolution (von Kaufmann et al., 1986). It studied the production systems of settled and seasonally transhumant agro-pastoralists to find ways of increasing crop and livestock production. Milk sellers were exclusively women in the rural markets in central Nigeria, as had been described in the drier areas of Nigeria and Niger (Dupire, 1960(Dupire, , 2018;;Stenning, 1994;Hopen, 2018). Waters-Bayer (1985), in the Kaduna study, looked at resource control and decision making in Fulani households, specifically at Fulani women's processing and marketing of milk products, and highlighted the ways in which these agro-pastoral women understood market forces and recognized the social and local political functions of their work. The research also explored the limits of Fulani women's knowledge of connections between the local, national and international economies. The study argued in favour of the participatory research to build on rural people's knowledge to enable them to understand and cope better with external influences on their activities and help them 'better defend their own interests against the macroplanning State' (Waters-Bayer, 1985).In an effort to bring gender more to the forefront, in 1984, ILCA hosted a workshop on women in agriculture in West Africa, sponsored by the Ford Foundation. The conference covered a wide range of topics related to women in development and included an often-cited paper by Okali and Sumberg (1985), which focused on ownership patterns between women and men in small-ruminant production systems and the intra-household processes therein.By the late 1980s, there had been a shift in ILCA's focus, and it began to emphasize more discipline-based research in animal health, nutrition and genetics, and stressed 'precise' measurement. This approach conflicted with ILCA's previous innovations in livestock systems research and development and its investments in social scientists. This new approach led to the removal of ILCA's social scientists, apart from economists (Romney and Minjauw, 2006;Waters-Bayer and Bayer, 2014), implying that some of the innovation and momentum on gender disappeared.The merger in 1995 of ILCA Again, in 1996, ILRI realigned its agenda to emphasize the importance of considering people as part of the livestock systems, which included women. The gender perspective of ILRI's research at the time focused on the roles of, and constraints to, productivity faced by women as agricultural producers. Specific studies of smallholder dairying on the Kenya Coast indicated that women operators were more productive than men, even where men owned cows where the woman operator received the bulk of the additional earnings. The Kenya Coast research also looked at the importance of targeting extension to women as well as to men to make technical advice more effective. Other research in Kenya focused on the importance of understanding women's and men's roles on trypanosomiasis; this yielded a recognition of the importance of understanding gender-differentiated willingness to adopt disease-control strategies (Echessah et al., 1997). Research in Ethiopia involving the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute (EHNRI) and ILRI looked at the impact of cross-bred cattle on men's and women's decision making around dairying income (Nicholson et al., 1999).In 1999, a study of 54 households in a semi-arid subregion of western Niger highlighted shifts in livestock ownership related to long-term economic and environmental changes (Turner, 1999). Turner found significant shifts away from cattle owned by men and towards sheep and goats owned by women over the period 1984-1994. To some extent, these shifts have gone unnoticed in the gender literature, yet they confirm the point, often made in the same literature, that separate survey and analytical approaches are needed to capture the importance of women's economic activities and the potential gains that can be realized by reducing bias against women in access to inputs and services.In 2005, ILRI undertook a gender audit, which reviewed its understanding of gender analysis in research, its gender equity in the organization and its mainstreaming of a gender-based approach. The audit found a good-faith effort to improve gender equity and diversity in the workplace among staff and that management backed this effort. It noted that this effort had helped create a supportive environment for mainstreaming gender analysis in the ILRI's research programmes, as an understanding of gender in the workplace is known to facilitate the integration of gender in research.In terms of gender analysis in research, the audit found that there was no policy on gender analysis in setting research priorities. It was noted that gender analysis in ILRI was discussed more than practised and that ILRI's strategy did not mention gender issues. The gender audit also found that, although there was an understanding of the importance of gender to this point, there had been little training of scientific staff, managers and students in gender analysis or integration. The institution had not yet instituted a unit or focal point to systematize gender in its programme, although some staff were considered to have expertise in gender analysis (Roothaert et al., 2006). The audit therefore concluded that, while there was good understanding of what gender analysis is in the research capacity of ILRI staff, undertaking such analysis was limited (Roothaert et al., 2006).As a result of the audit, ILRI formed a task force in 2006 to develop a research agenda on women and livestock issues, but it was only in 2008 that the task force began to have meaningful dialogue with experts and partners (Njuki et al., 2011). This was initiated through a global e-consultation, the Global Challenge Dialogue on Women and Livestock (Gonsalves, 2013). The consultation brought together major livestock players and proposed: (i) the production of a landmark document providing evidence of the feminization of the livestock sector throughout the world; (ii) a plan for revitalizing a global women's and livestock alliance; (iii) a review of strategies used by research and development organizations to reach women; and (iv) plans for scaling out those strategies that have been successful in reaching women with livestock interventions (ILRI, 2012).While gender analysis was not systematically integrated in ILRI's research, several projects included gender outcomes. Most projects were development oriented and included women as beneficiaries of the technologies without analysing the actual needs of the women involved. For example, the broad-bed maker tool in some mixed farming systems of the Ethiopian highlands (Rutherford, 2008), the Improving Productivity of Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers project (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013) and the East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) were efforts to introduce interventions that included women as beneficiaries.The EADD Phase 1 project in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013) set out to double the dairy income of 179,000 smallholder families in 10 years. Its entry point was women as beneficiaries of training and as producers. In 2009, EADD set out to address this gap by developing a gender strategy, hiring a gender and youth coordinator in 2010, developing gender disaggregated data templates and a gender work plan and performance targets, and outlining strategies to include women in project activities. Although a development project, it did open up a new understanding of gender and the need to focus specifically on women (Baltenweck and Mutinda, 2013).In 2009, ILRI established a new theme on 'Poverty, Gender and Impact'. This demonstrated a shift in its commitment to ensuring genderresponsive research by focusing on two components: (i) investigations where the research agenda has been set by scientists, such as forages or genetics, and gender considerations are integrated to study the subject more effectively; and (ii) strategic research where the subject is gender.Important in the 2000s was ILRI's work developing a conceptual framework on livestock as a pathway out of poverty that had, at its core, the importance of assets, markets and other institutions (Kristjanson et al., 2004). ILRI used this framework in a seminal literature review to discuss women and livestock as a pathway out of poverty for women (Kristjanson et al., 2010).The authors hypothesized that livestock pathways out of poverty: (i) secure current and future assets; (ii) sustain and improve the productivity of agricultural systems in which livestock are important; and (iii) facilitate greater participation of the poor in livestock-related markets. Each of these brought a new attention to gender in its own right and to the importance of livestock as an asset for women.In 2010, ILRI developed a common set of gender, livestock and livelihood indicators to help the centre measure the impacts that projects and other livestock interventions, such as markets and biotechnology, had on poverty, gender and equity (Njuki et al., 2011). These indicators were developed for household-level surveys with the potential for adaptation for community-level focus group discussions.Another turning point for institutionalizing gender approaches at ILRI came when the Institute produced its 'Strategy and plan of action to mainstream gender in ILRI' (ILRI, 2012). The strategy recognized ILRI's need to guide and design the consolidation of ILRI's expertise and gender resources, to engage stakeholders, and to ensure that men and women participate in and benefit from ILRI's research. It also emphasized the need for commitment from ILRI's board, management and staff and from its many other partners. ILRI's gender strategy represented a true shift over time from research that looked at women as components in farming systems research to a full gender and agricultural research theme including production, processing, markets, value chains and strategic gender research.In 2014, ILRI introduced a new theme -Enabling Innovation -which focused on adaptive capacity and increased attention to gender. This continued the research of the Innovations Work Unit established in 2007, which, in part, also generated information and learning to empower women in livestock innovation (Waters-Bayer and Bayer, 2014). The Innovation Works Unit recognized women's key roles in livestock production, nutrition and health, noting that most resource-poor livestock keepers are women, and campaigning to keep gender issues at the forefront of livestock research and development. This included a greater emphasis on the impact of technologies and policies on women and a greater awareness of gender issues overall.A later shift in ILRI's gender research followed the development of the CRPs in 2010 and 2011. With the CRP on Livestock andFish (2012-2016), ILRI recognized the need to consolidate the centre's gender expertise and resources to ensure that men and women participated in and benefited from CRP work. Gender was one of the programme's six themes along with animal health, genetics, feeds and forages, sustainable interventions and value-chain development (Galiè and Kantor, 2016;CGIAR, 2013).The CRP on Livestock and Fish focused on gender relations and dynamics, access to and control of productive resources, and gendertransformative approaches. The CRP explored local meanings of livestock ownership across three CRP value-chain countries (Tanzania, Ethiopia and Nicaragua) (Galiè, 2015). The CRP developed an article reviewing tools developed in livestock and fish value chains (Farnworth et al., 2015) and a policy brief looking at gender relationships and farmers' capacity to mitigate climate change (Gumucio and Rueda, 2015). To enhance the capacity of scientists to integrate gender in their work, the CRP on Livestock and Fish engaged the Royal Tropical Institute in the Netherlands, which, together with the ILRI gender scientists, coached them; this work led to the publication of findings from 14 gender-integrated livestock and fish research studies (Pyburn and van Eerdewijk, 2016).In 2015, ILRI and Emory University in Georgia, USA, identified a mismatch between the limited attention to livestock issues in the WELI, which focused on agriculture in general (including livestock, crops and fish) and the importance of livestock in East Africa. The WELI was subsequently developed to explore how women's empowerment can be supported through livestock and to assess women's empowerment quantitatively, particularly in a case study of Tanzania (Galiè, 2018a).Currently, ILRI's gender research work is focusing on: (i) animal health, through enhancing gendered capabilities to address threats through a gendered lens and engaging women in health services; (ii) feed and forages, through gender-sensitive forage interventions, gender dynamics in fodder seed innovation systems, and gender dynamics in forage conservations systems; (iii) genetics, through gender-sensitive community breeding of small ruminants (Marshall et al., 2019); and (iv) the environment, through gender and land tenure for reduced land degradation, increased intensification, labour dynamics, gender norms, and gender and pastoralism (de Haan and Mulema, 2018).The impacts of ILRI's gender work can be grouped by influences on: (i) scientific perspectives, methods and levels of analysis; (ii) farming systems and technologies; and (iii) empowerment.Research by Waters-Bayer (1985) on agropastoral Fulani women in Nigeria and by Okali and Sumberg (1985) on women and small-ruminant production in the subhumid areas of southern Nigeria provided some early understanding on the intersection of gender and livestock production.  (Njuki et al., 2011). The women's empowerment in livestock-focused agriculture -the IMMANA project (2015-2018)in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania developed new metrics for women's empowerment and animalsource food intakes that are sensitive to maternal and child nutrition, and are relevant to different livestock value chains, including pork, dairy cattle and poultry.The CRP on Livestock and Fish developed a set of tools for social and gender analysis for value chains (Kruijssen et al., 2016). These tools, adapted from existing tools from other organizations, help users to explore gender relationships and the underlying causes of inequities. One helps users undertake a supplementary gender and social analysis when there is already an existing value-chain analysis, while the other helps users undertake a full value-chain analysis including underlying causes of gender inequality.In 2016, the CRP on Livestock and Fish integrated gender into the Feed Assessment tool (FEAST), a participatory tool focused on feeds and forage and developed by scientists at ILRI, the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). This supported researchers and practitioners in their research to surface the issues of gender relationships and how they affect livestock farming, particularly feeding practices and innovations (Lukuyu et al., 2016). The resulting app has now been gendered into G-FEAST, which specifically looks at gendered preferences for forages.Waithanji and Grace (2014) also developed a gender strategy to support mycotoxin control given that, in many regions, women are responsible for producing food for home consumption and may also have roles in feeding and caring for livestock. The strategy is an important tool for researchers working on mycotoxin control as it outlines a Theory of Change and research cycle approach as well as gender-responsive goals, objectives, research questions, activities and outcomes that can inform research and interventions in livestock health. The WELI has been found to be particularly useful for measuring the impact of livestock projects on women's empowerment over time. ILRI, together with Emory University, developed the WELI and piloted it in Tanzania in 2015 (Galiè et al., 2019a). The WELI helps researchers and decision makers better understand which interventions work best for empowering rural women. Such evidence is important to fine-tune interventions and provide better empowering opportunities for rural women. The actual discussions on empowerment between rural women and men also provide value, opening spaces for individuals, communities and households to think about what empowerment means, who has access to more opportunities for empowerment, and how social and gender norms affect the ability of individuals to succeed. Tavenner et al. (2018) analysed resources, decision making and labour dynamics in dairy farm households in western Kenya. This study found statistically significant differences in practices based on gender. The most divergent responses between men and women were decision making around the morning and evening milk sales. The authors argued that the choice of interviewee affected research findings because survey respondents may have different perceptions or valuation about 'who does what'. Galiè et al. (2019b) discussed some of the difficulties encountered in adopting a mixedmethod approach that results in contradictory quantitative and qualitative findings. The article discusses some reasons for this discrepancy including the different definitions, domains and indicators adopted by the two approaches when studying 'food security' 'nutrition security' and 'women's empowerment'. In addition, the qualitative study may have given space to a discussion on 'aspirational' versus 'actual' gender roles in guaranteeing food and nutrition security that quantitative and closed research questions may have not provided.Gender work has typically been done at the household level and has studied intra-household dynamics. To widen the impact of gender research, in 2017, the CRP on Livestock began work on gender at the landscape level through the development of national livestock master plans. New versions of such national master plans will guide investment towards women in the livestock sector (Shapiro et al., 2015 for Ethiopia). There is also a move to integrate gender in modelling work and livestock sector analytics that underpin the national master plans. An ongoing project is developing a methodology to scale gender dynamics from the household and community levels to higher national and regional levels in the context of the feminization of agriculture (Galiè et al., 2019d). Farnworth and Colverson (2015) found that rural advisory services operate in environments structured by gender relationships. In other words, women often have less-effective participation in community decisions, in value-chain networks and in innovation platforms. Because women are reached less often by advisory services, it is more costly for them to adopt new methods. The study concluded that advisory services should be seen as a facilitation system to tackle underlying gender relationships that constrain access and implementation rather than as a supposedly gender-neutral service. Omondi et al. (2014) found that women were reluctant to participate in dairy hubs in Kenya because of their loss of control of income from milk sales, underscoring the importance of intrahousehold income distribution. The findings implied the need for evidence-based interventions and changes in structures that encourage women's participation, promote more equitable income distribution from dairying and/or compensate women's loss of income, without negative impacts on the stability of gender relationships within the households. Basu et al. (2019) analysed approaches to women's participation adopted by the EADD by looking at how participation actually emerges in specific contexts through gendered negotiations with participatory development policies. The authors discussed how initiatives that include women construct new pathways for women's participation because of the ways that various participatory strategies relate to one another, rather than due to the efficacy of one strategy over another.Work at ILRI and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) on smallholder dairying based on a fodder cut-and-carry system found that an integrated dairy development package had limited acceptance among farmers. A subsequent study looked at women's roles and labour, and found that women were more likely than men to adopt more of the package and demonstrated higher milk yields per lactating cow (11.5 litres/day) than male contact farmers (6.8 litres/day) (Mullins et al., 1996). Although women faced increased workloads as dairy operators, they also perceived improvements in the welfare and long-term development benefits of their households through women's income going to school fees, books, and food purchases (Mullins et al., 1996).A study on a traditional Maasai forage conservation system (ololili) in Tanzania (Galiè, 2018a) found that the system relied heavily on women's labour when it was in use during the dry season, whereas livestock management involved both women and men. Women's and men's groups were found to have similar knowledge of local forage plants but ranked their importance differently. They also showed the same level of interest in intensifying forage growing in the ololili. At the same time, gender norms and dynamics were found to strongly affect the ability of women -mostly poor women, and widows in particular -to manage ololili. These social constraints in the governance of the ololili, if not addressed at the inset of any intensification intervention, were found to be likely to decrease the success of forage technology interventions because they limited the sustainability of the system. Galiè (2018b) showed how a forage breeding intervention can enhance the empowerment of female farmers. The author demonstrated practical challenges faced by a breeding programme that aims to include gender considerations in its activities and showed how a lack of access to seed because of gender-discriminating norms and practices at local and national levels can hinder progress towards empowerment. Ultimately, the article challenges assumptions that gender considerations be integrated in breeding programmes to enhance their effectiveness only, by showing the empowering potential of a gender-responsive programme to progress towards gender equality. The article also shows the importance of taking into account the wider context (e.g. socio-cultural, policy and seed systems) in which a breeding programme is implemented, to ensure its benefits reach both female and male farmers.Galiè (2017) studied smallholder livestock keepers in Tanzania and found that while men and women were both involved in animal health management and had similar knowledge of diseases, women faced more constraints than men in accessing livestock services, disease information and veterinary drugs because of restrictive norms on both their movement and their interactions with unrelated men, because of biases about their reliability in identifying diseases and paying for services, and because they had limited control over the household resources. The study suggested supporting women's groups as a way of enhancing women's control over livestock and revenues, and access to animal health information and income-generating opportunities. The study recommended enhancing the capacity of service providers in gender-responsive approaches and organizing community outreach activities that highlight the benefits of shared intra-household decision making. It recommended that research institutes include gender considerations when identifying priority species and diseases for research on animal medicines and assess which format (e.g. size or temperature sensitivity) increases the accessibility of animal medicines at local level. Dione et al. (2016) explored how gender relationships affect African swine fever control protocols and how current male-centred approaches often disregard women's roles in pig husbandry. Specifically, the research looked at how women and men in Uganda perceive African swine fever and the factors affecting how they respond to it in efforts to encourage farmers to adopt improved husbandry practices and disease-control measures. The study noted that to control the disease, farmers require information and money for disinfectant as well as the agency to make decisions. It found that women work closely with livestock, often detecting the disease or symptoms. However, men typically make decisions, control household income, and have access to training and veterinary services.Elsewhere, Kiama et al. (2016) conducted a qualitative study with male and female dairy farmers in Kenya on their awareness and perceptions of mycotoxins and how their risk of dietary exposure of mycotoxins is influenced by these. The gender analysis found that those responsible for mitigating risk of exposure are not always those with the knowledge of how to do so. It also pointed to the importance of extension services targeting women as they are the main handlers of food. The study found that farmers had a high level of awareness of the harm of eating mouldy food even though risk categories, awareness of mycotoxicosis and carcinogenic effects were generally low. Typically, women were more careful than men not to feed cattle spoilt maize and they were key decision makers in dairy cow diets and disposal of mouldy foods. Furthermore, while farmers agreed that hygienic handling was the most important method to enhance meat and milk safety, it was women who took more care in ensuring that this happened, while men were more likely to treat sick animals. Kimani et al. (2012) investigated the gender and social determinants of the risk of exposure of Cryptosporidium spp. from urban dairying in Dagoretti, Nairobi. The study found that gender, age and household roles are all determinants in exposure to Cryptosporidium spp. For example, farm labourers and people aged 50-65 years had the most contact with cattle, while women had greater contact with raw milk and children had relatively higher consumption of raw milk. Women had more contact than men with cattle faeces. Age also played a factor, as older women had more contact than older men. Socioeconomics was a partial factor, with those living in poverty consuming less milk than others, although their exposure to cattle was not affected. There was no significant gender difference in knowledge of cryptosporidiosis symptoms or other zoonotic diseases in the dairying sector; however, the level of education was a determining factor in awareness, with those with higher levels of education more aware of the disease and factors affecting its transmission. Jumba et al. (2016) illustrated that vaccines against East Coast fever, a major tick-borne disease of cattle and buffalo, can increase overall household productivity while making it more unequal. This resulted from an increase in women's labour on livestock at the same time as their husbands controlled income from increased livestock sales. As a consequence, women were sometimes reluctant to buy vaccines.Working on contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in Kenya, Muindi et al. (2015) noted that women and men perceived the effects of, and were affected differently by, CBPP occurrence because of prevailing gender norms. While women perceived cattle mortality to be the greatest effect of CBPP because it caused food shortages and a decline in income from milk sales, men perceived reduced participation in cattle markets to be the greatest effect of CBPP occurrence. The findings pointed to the need to incorporate gender in animal health research to develop appropriate interventions to prevent or mitigate small-ruminant diseases. A related example is given by Wieland et al. (2016) in Ethiopia in a Participatory Epidemiology and Gender Project. This project provided insights about the differential veterinary knowledge of women and men in households keeping sheep and goats related to their gender-specific roles and about the need to target interventions, such as deworming, accordingly.Research on 20 livestock and fish value chains found that the influence of gender on risk exposure and management is essential for improving food safety in informal markets (Grace et al., 2015). Socially constructed gender roles were more important determinants of health risk than biological differences between men and women; variations in risk exposure were mainly due to gender-based differences in occupational exposure.Gender inequalities can affect the orientation and outcomes of programmes to improve livestock genetics. A study by Rijke (2017) focused on the gender capacities of national partners in the African Chicken Genetic Gains project.It measured gender capacities at organizational and staff levels of national and regional research institutes and assessed them in relation to the institutional and policy environment that enables or disables other capacities. On a scale of 1-5, the study found that core gender capacities are insufficiently to partially developed (2.4-2.9), pointing to the need to substantially improve the gender capacity of these organizations to support genetics research.Other research by Mora Benard et al. (2016) in Nicaragua demonstrated gender disparities in milk production and breeding technologies (artificial insemination). Ramaswamy and Galiè (2018) studied gender trait preferences in poultry in Ethiopia and showed that women valued traits related to behaviour and feathers that breeding programmes usually neglect by focusing on meat yield and taste only. Women's preferred traits affected whether a breed was adopted by a household or not. The same study also showed that men respondents preferred traits related to productivity, health and marketing of chickens with a view to scaling up their poultry keeping to an intensive system for business. Women responders, in contrast, aspired to increase the scale of their poultry keeping within their household level only and therefore valued traits to increase productivity in extensive systems. Women were not interested in upgrading poultry to a business because of the high labour requirements (mostly their responsibility); their lack of land to keep chickens intensively or assets to make financial investments needed for intensification; and their loss of control over the benefits provided by chickens when, with intensification, men took on the marketing of the birds. The authors, therefore, recommend that, to increase adoption, poultry breeding programmes include gendered preferences for both traits and chickenraising systems.ILRI participates in the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative, which seeks to build an approach that incorporates gender perspectives from the beginning of a breeding programme through implementation and impact assessment. The initiative is currently working on a toolbox that helps such incorporation. The toolbox will be used to assure the gender relevance of tools in the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Platform (Liljander et al., 2015), while supporting national agricultural research institutes and other breeding programmes. As part of this initiative, Galiè et al. (2019a) analysed approaches to see what is effective in making a plant-breeding programme gender responsive. The authors argued that a programme needs to: (i) adapt its criteria to select farmers to host and evaluate trials to ensure women (who own smaller parcels of land than men or none at all) are involved; (ii) adapt its process to evaluate trials in ways that women can express their preferences (e.g. by using scoring systems that require little literacy or, for example, by creating a safe space for women to assess the crops and express openly their preferences; in a community with strong purdah practices, this may entail a women-only field trip and domestic space to discuss and score trials); (iii) expand the traits it considered for further breeding to include traits preferred by different groups of women and men; (iv) expand the crops it included in its portfolio (to include crops of interest to women and men); and (v) include both oral and visual information-sharing approaches to reach women who are often more illiterate than men. However, for a genderresponsive breeding programme to result in actual gender-equitable outcomes (e.g. producing seed that benefits both women and men), a coherent and comprehensive package of technological (e.g. improved seed) and institutional (e.g. policy and governance) solutions needs to be developed by multidisciplinary teams.The EADD programme in Kenya examined sustainable milk intensification, climate change mitigation and gender dynamics in determinants of participation and in distribution of benefits (Tavenner et al., 2018). Household surveys covered decision making, resources and labour dynamics in cattle-keeping households in Bomet, Nandi, Uasin Gishu and Kericho counties. While women and men reported similarly on some issues, they contested others. The research demonstrated the challenges of interpreting gender dynamics and addressing challenges in the dairy sector methodologically and programmatically. Gumucio et al. (2015) looked at capacity and gender relationships in the context of mitigating climate change. Based on a review of silvopastoral production systems in Costa Rica, Colombia and Nicaragua, the work found that gender relationships affect the capacity of livestock producers to mitigate climate change. The study also demonstrated that women face certain limitations as agents of change compared with men due to gaps in access to, and control over, productive resources. Related work by Gumucio and Rueda (2015), derived from a review of 105 national policy documents in seven Latin American countries, concluded that development and environmental policies often failed to recognize women's roles as producers in the national economy.Galiè and de Haan ( 2019) highlighted the relevance of gender in policy pathways for food and nutrition security. Price et al. (2018) explored the linkages between women's empowerment and household nutrition in relation to livestock knowledge and looked at perceptions of women's empowerment from the perspective of female farmers in Tanzania. The study found that women perceived an increased ability to provide nutrition for their families if they had more control over livestock, income and agricultural resources. However, women were reluctant to describe the direct links between empowerment in livestock work and household nutrition, in part because they could not imagine that it would be possible to gain significant power over livestock within their societal constraints. Women frequently described opportunities for becoming empowered outside the livestock sector (i.e. in new crop agriculture or business) where gender norms were less entrenched than in livestock because they are less constrained by tradition.Similarly, Galiè et al. (2019b) presented a mixed-methods study that examined the relationship between women's empowerment, household food insecurity, and maternal and child diet in two regions of Tanzania. Indicators across three domains of women's empowerment were scored and matched to a household food insecurity access scale. Qualitative research helped appreciate the gender dynamics affecting the empowerment-food security nexus in a forage conservation system. In cluster-adjusted regression analyses, scores from each domain were significantly associated with women's dietary diversity but not with household food security. All three empowerment domains were positively associated with food security and nutrition in the qualitative analysis. The authors discussed some of the methodological challenges encountered when combining quantitative and qualitative methods and the implications of the findings.Other research in rural Kenya examined how 'women's time use and decision-making patterns related to dairy income and consumption are associated with intensification' and found that 'children in high-intensity households received more milk than children in medium-intensity households' and that women in high-intensity households also spent less time on dairy activities than women in mediumintensity households. Although women seemed to be gaining control over evening milk sales, men appeared to be increasingly controlling total dairy income, a trend countered by the increase in reported joint decision making (Njuki et al., 2015). Galiè et al. (2019b) confirmed this in their recent article on milk production. Farnworth et al. (2015) examined current research to develop analytical frameworks and implementation guidelines to support gender analysis in livestock and fish value chains. Njuki and Sanginga (2013) carried out research on women and livestock and provided empirical evidence from different production systems in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique of the importance of livestock as an asset to women and their participation in livestock product markets. They explored intra-household income management and the economic benefits of livestock markets to women, focusing on how markets, products and women's participation in markets influence their livestock income.From experience in the IPMS project in Ethiopia, Aregu et al. (2010) demonstrated that site-specific commodity-based gender analysis is essential for understanding the different roles of women and men in the production of specific commodities, marketing and decision making and their share in the benefits; in identifying potential barriers for women's and men's participation in market-led development initiatives and technology adoption; and in identifying what actions may be required by the project in order to overcome some of these barriers that limit women's participation in these particular commodities development initiatives. It helped to explore challenges and identify opportunities for promoting gender equality and women's empowerment through increasing women's access to skills, knowledge and assets and by increasing women's participation in market-oriented agricultural production and their control over the benefits.Recent research on cattle and dairy market participation in Kenya demonstrated the advances in gender research in recent years to include attention to the gendered nature of market participation and privilege over dairy income (Tavenner and Crane, 2018). This research demonstrated the importance of considering the social trade-offs and the gendered costs of dairy commercialization in interventions aimed at redressing gender power imbalances. Elsewhere, recent work on milk trading in peri-urban Nairobi revealed strong gender-based constraints faced by women milk traders that result in milk business being more lucrative for men than for women (Galiè et al., 2019c).Similarly, market-oriented smallholder development in the dairy sector in Holetta in Ethiopia and Kiambu in Kenya contributed to the question of whether smallholder research results in women were losing control over income in the East African highlands and suggested the need for more robust understanding of the context in which gender roles and relationships exist and the subsequent impact on women's time use, participation in market-related livestock activities and benefits (Tangka et al., 1999). McPeak and Doss (2006) also highlighted the importance of understanding gendered roles and relationships in producing and marketing dairy products through their research on mobile pastoralists in Kenya. They found that women had the right to sell milk, but men were responsible for the whole herd and where they would camp. If women's marketing objectives conflicted with men's herd-management objectives, then men used location to restrict women's access to markets.A study on pork consumption in Uganda studied the reasons why pork consumption is lower for women than for men at pork joints (Mabwire, 2018). The study focused on two main possible reasons: the attributes of retailer outlets and gendered perceptions associated with pork consumption at joints. The study found hygiene (of the outlet environment and the waiters and waitresses) to be the main attribute that women consider when eating at joints. It also found that the communities usually negatively label unaccompanied female pork consumers as 'lonely', 'single' or 'prostitutes'.Empowerment through livestock is a new area of work for ILRI. It has meant a move away from simply ensuring that women can benefit from technologies developed by ILRI to one where the research is on how women can benefit from livestock based on their own needs and aspirations, and how they can potentially be empowered by livestock. Three initial areas of work have been understanding: (i) the concept of livestock ownership as part of empowerment; (ii) the links among food security, nutrition security and empowerment; and (iii) livestock as an asset for empowerment (Galiè and de Haan, 2018). The team has also engaged in developing new conceptualizations of empowerment based on fieldwork with livestock keepers (Galiè and Farnworth, 2019).As empowerment is often also within a context, it has also meant increased engagement and research of gender-transformative approaches. Gender-transformative approaches aim to deepen social change by addressing some of the norms that constrict a particular group by determining, for example, what behaviour is acceptable for women and men (e.g. of a given ethic group, social status or age) or what resources and opportunities they are entitled to or can claim (Galiè and Kantor, 2016). Gendertransformative approaches are often contrasted to ' accommodative approaches'. Accommodative approaches recognize and respond to the specific needs and realities of men and women based on their existing roles and responsibilities as shaped by existing social and economic structures; they do not question the systemic barriers put up by the social context of people's lives (Cornwall and Edwards, 2010). Using both empowerment as an entry point and gender-transformative approaches is a new area of work for ILRI but an important one in understanding the potential for livestock to improve livelihoods.Working closely with scientists and partners has been the best approach to develop capacity on gender and to leverage that capacity for a larger impact. In 2013, in collaboration with Transition International, ILRI produced a gender capacity assessment tool to evaluate existing skills and gaps in partners' gender capacities and identify measures to address them. In 2015, the tool was implemented in four of the value-chain countries (Ethiopia, Nicaragua, Tanzania and Uganda) in the CRP on Livestock and Fish (ILRI, 2017). The ILRI gender team has engaged in addressing some of the identified gaps during capacity development workshops and through the use of a training manual. The team has also undertaken capacity development at national levels through, for example, close collaboration with the Ethiopia Institute of Agriculture Research (EIAR) and with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to develop an approach to building capacity at policy levels.Under the CRP on Livestock and Fish, the gender team was embedded under different flagships to provide coaching to individual scientists and technicians. Doing so resulted in a cadre of researchers who had a more in-depth understanding of gender in their subject area and in the development of a book on how to integrate gender within different areas of livestock development (Pyburn and van Eerdewijk, 2016). It also resulted in the investment of a gender strategy for the African Chicken Genetic Gains project and the placement of a gender expert in the project to provide support in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Nigeria (Rijke, 2017).Working together, EIAR, ILRI and ICARDA, together with the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency, began to integrate gender in agricultural programmes by sharing the gender capacity assessment methodology and tools developed by the CRP on Livestock and Fish (ILRI/ ICARDA, 2017). The results and experiences from gender capacity assessment of the smallruminant value-chain partners were also distributed through the Agricultural Transformation Agency to stimulate interest in and appreciation of the methodology and tools.A regional dairy development project was implemented in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda by Heifer International with ILRI and other partners. One project objective was to increase women's participation in producers' organizations and in the dairy value chain (Pyburn and van Eerdewijk, 2016;Basu et al., 2019). The project included two studies, one to assess women's roles in the dairy value chain beyond production, and the second to analyse the inclusion of women and youth in producer organizations. Both studies illustrated that in all three countries, participation of women was higher at the production links of the value chains and weaker at higher links. Participation of women in leadership positions in producer organizations, cooperatives and credit agencies was insignificant.A study of a sheep value chain in Ethiopia identified gender-specific constraints for participation in the value chain (Wieland et al., 2016). The results showed that men and women both faced constraints in terms of capital -social, financial, human, natural, political, cultural and physical -but women faced more severe constraints than men. Projects to support pro-poor value chains would therefore need to devise mechanisms to release women's capital constraints.Another study in Tanzania showed that women and men had similar knowledge of animal disease management and its possible impact on food security (Galiè et al., 2017). However, women faced more constraints than men in gaining access to veterinary services, information on diseases and animal drugs. The implications are that veterinary and extension services should give proper attention to different service constraints faced by men and women. Quisumbing et al. (2013) assessed the impact of dairy value-chain interventions on gender issues, including ownership of assets, asset control and decision making, and time allocation. The study results indicated that value-chain interventions increased joint household assets of men and women. Value-chain interventions did not alter production decision making, although they did have an impact on intra-household decisions. The value-chain interventions also increased the time allocated to dairying, most of which was provided by women.Of note is the contribution to science impacts of the development of the WELI, which helps quantify empowerment in a way whereby scientists can measure its changes over time. The WELI provides a common framework for determining the effectiveness of various interventions and can support decision makers and policy makers in measuring progress against the investments they make and can strengthen the integration of empowerment in development policies and programmes.The Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) framework produces standardized, coherent, cost-effective, quantitative, decisionrelevant information to support efficient and impactful development programming for planning and monitoring investments in sustainable intensification across a range of rural contexts. RHoMIS captures information on farm productivity and practices, nutrition, food security, gender equity, climate and poverty (van Wijk et al., 2016). The core set of data feeds into a global discussion on the success of sustainable intensification. RHoMIS includes a gender equity indicator, 'Gendered income over assets and foodstuffs' (van Wijk and Hammond, 2018), and since its inception in 2015, RHoMIS has been applied in 22 countries.Based on ongoing work, the future of research on gender and livestock covers two different but equally important agendas (for further elaboration, see chapter on 'Conclusion: The Future of Research at ILRI', this volume):• Improving the productivity and efficiency of the livestock sector by increasing the opportunities for women and men to engage in the livestock sector.• Strengthening (economic) empowerment of women through livestock.Research to inform and support this will be undertaken under the following themes:• Conceptual framing of gender and livestock.• Increasing options to engage equitably in the livestock sector and identifying gender-specific interventions in ILRI's research for development.• (Economic) empowerment through livestock and livestock as a business for women.• Gendered empowerment and nutrition.• Gender in livestock policy and at the landscape scale. This includes investment plans in the livestock sector (in Ethiopia and Namibia) that focus on gender at a broad scale rather than the household scale. From the perspective of modelling, the RHoMIS and GENNOVATE (a global comparative research initiative that addresses the question of how gender norms and agency influence men, women, and youth to adopt innovation in agriculture: https://gender.cgiar.org/themes/ gennovate/; accessed 14 April 2020) initiatives provide potential for impact.1 ILRI refers to the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA, 1974(ILCA, -1994) ) and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD, 1973(ILRAD, -1994) ) unless specified otherwise. ILCA and ILRAD were merged to form ILRI in 1995. 2 In terms of gender in the workplace at ILRI and the institution's inclusion of women among its scientists, the share of female scientists rose from an average of 22% in 1980-1986 to 32% in 2006-2011 (the most recent period before the arrival of the CRPs.). 3 ILRAD's work on gender was limited to some aspects of its field epidemiology studies in East Africa after 1986. 4 One experienced ILRI ecologist was said to have referred to gender as the 'really hard science' .CGIAR's efforts to address gender in international agricultural research began in the 1970s and have evolved across time and institutions. A recent evaluation of gender in CGIAR identified three phases of gender mainstreaming: a first phase in the 1990s, a second from the 1990s to 2011, and a third after 2010 (CGIAR/IEA, 2017). The recent CGIAR 2010-2015 Strategy and Results Framework provided the foundation for the first round of CRP proposals and identified gender inequality as a critical area directly affecting CGIAR's likelihood of success in achieving its four system-level outcomes of reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving nutrition and health, and the sustainable management of natural resources. This was a crucial step in acknowledging the importance of gender equity to the effectiveness of CGIAR research. The Consortium developed and adopted its first explicit Consortium Level Gender Strategy in 2011 and implemented this in 2012 alongside the first-generation CRPs, covering both gender mainstreaming in research and at the CGIAR workplace (CGIAR/IEA, 2017). Gender Research Coordinators were appointed in each CRP to lead the gender strategies, supported by a Senior Gender Adviser at the Consortium, and the wider Gender Network has provided the capacity to advance the process (CGIAR/IEA, 2017).Several CGIAR programmes have focused on gender and have had wide influence across the centres. These include: (i) the Intra-household Research Programme (1992-2003), led by IFPRI; (ii) the CGIAR Gender Programme (1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999), led by CIAT, focusing in part on gender staffing as well as on gender analysis in research; (iii) the Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Programme (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011), which was a systemwide programme until 2010 when it became a CIAT programme; and (iv) the Gender and Diversity Programme (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) hosted by the International Centre for Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF) (CGIAR/IEA, 2017). The Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Programme essentially moved gender analysis out of the Gender and Diversity Programme (Gurung and Menter, 2002) and focused on gender research primarily on crop and natural resource management research.ILRI and its predecessors played an active part in the Consortium, although the focus and intensity of gender research changed over time. Gender efforts began with researcher-led intra-household approaches to farming systems research in the 1970s and 1980s. Reinvigorated efforts on gender in the 1990s were in part due to the influence of CGIAR's Gender and Diversity Programme and of the Systemwide Programme on Participatory Approaches and Gender Analysis. In the early 2000s, gender found growing attention, with a focus on poverty reduction and renewed interest in social sciences. The hiring of a Programme Leader in the latter part of the 2000s for a theme that included gender (Livelihoods, Gender and Institutions) and a new Gender Strategy helped institutionalize gender in ILRI. These efforts strengthened under the inter-centre research collaboration on the CRP on Livestock and Fish, followed by the more recent CRP on Livestock and were supported by gender strategies to guide more strategic research as well as gender-mainstreamed research and capacity strengthening.ILCA had played an important role in early CGIAR research by highlighting women's roles in farming systems research. Notably, ILCA's research drew attention to the importance of women in pastoral livelihoods in East and West Africa and, importantly, contributed to the discourse on participatory versus extractive knowledge systems.","tokenCount":"8797"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"02fd294bae532908c5835253e70a347e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99ae1860-c37a-4a57-90b2-9a1250e55d2f/retrieve","id":"-409432075"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f221f5e1-f5dd-49b9-8164-0c1b27612442","pagecount":"24","content":"Try to find on a map the country or region where each of these plants grew for the first time.Tomatoes grew first in South America. Explorers brought them back to Europe in the 1500s.Bananas originally came from Southeast Asia. They were probably the first fruit to be farmed by humans.  The coconut probably got its name from Portuguese explorers in the 15th century. When they found the fruit growing on Indian Ocean islands, the three holes in the coconut reminded them of two eyes and a little round mouth, so they called it coco, which means 'grinning face'.In the Middle Ages, coconuts were so rare and valued in the West that their shells were polished and mounted in gold. By the 19th century, new trade routes and steamships made them common in European markets.The coconut is part of magic and myth in many tropical countries where it is a very important source of food.Today, coconuts grow on about 12 million hectares in 90 countries-an area larger than Denmark, Switzerland and the Netherlands combined! About 50 million people make their living from growing coconuts, and about 30 million of them live in Asia.96% of the world's coconut crop grows on small plots of less than 4 hectares.  European fruit market.Jennifer Northway.In the past 100 years, as much as 75% of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops may have been lost. ","tokenCount":"229"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a4a43dade2d14c615a4bda756cd8d0fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abd3356c-8f70-4782-b365-8367b0ab087a/retrieve","id":"-1035637219"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bf445edd-c0be-4c74-9146-51e181c4930d","pagecount":"1","content":"During the pre-and post-harvest seasons, cereals & starchy roots were equally important in both districts, with slightly higher importance during the post-harvest season.• Next to own production, markets & existing social networks are important household food sources in the study areas. Fig.2: Summed Dominance Ratio (SDR) of food groups in Mumias and Vihiga districts at pre-harvest and post-harvest seasons, N = 15 per district'roots/tubers' and 'fruits' in Vihiga district (Table 1).• With promotion of simplified cropping systems, agrobiodiversity is under pressure to decrease.• There is replacement of mixed farms with monoculture systems.• Mixed farms represent a source of high agrobiodiversity that can be utilized to tackle food insecurity (Fig. 1).• Smallholder farmers utilize multiple channels to attain household food security.• Different food procurement channels need equal consideration in extension, research and development.(i) How does crop diversity on smallholder farms of different agro-ecological zones vary with seasonality? (ii) Where do foods that are consumed within the surveyed households mainly come from?  • 62 different edible plant species were reported at T1, while 60 were represented at T2.• Despite smaller farm sizes, Vihiga farms had consistently higher, or equal, SDRs of cereals and fruits (Fig. 2).• In both districts, the main food sources were own production and markets, but also family and friends for the food groups • Maize, a staple in the region, was not sufficiently available on farms year-round, so markets were the main cereal source.• In Vihiga, sourcing from family & friends exemplified the importance of working social networks for food exchange. ","tokenCount":"253"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/4699678914.json b/data/part_5/4699678914.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"914264ba5598c446b28592551f3ee613","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ab241a6-5771-481d-b195-116d957a69b5/retrieve","id":"-689238085"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ecdea2ec-55a7-49c9-8cd2-6bc5b5645a30","pagecount":"7","content":"Given circumstances preclude a face-to-face Board meeting, a virtual Board meeting was held to enable the Board to address matters essential to the continuing good governance of ILRI, with a focus on decisions and essential Board matters leading up to formal transition to One CGIAR unified governance on 1 October 2020.The Board chair welcomed all members to the extraordinary virtual meeting. He made a brief report noting:-A welcome letter was sent to all One Board members which had been well received with 'thank you' replies from all. -Board members have received all relevant One CGIAR documents over the past weeks to ensure that all are fully informed of the ongoing processes prior to decision making. -The ILRI Board executive committee has been active in considering details of proposed changes and this is well appreciated. -ILRI's resolve to support and join fully with One CGIAR continues within the overarching consideration of ensuring that livestock research continues to be well governed and conducted -The chair has continued to participate in TAG3 meetings .-The director general will not present an update at the current special meeting and will do so at the 56 th meeting of the Board later in September 2020.1.1 Items approved electronically since the last Board meeting were formally noted as follows.Minutes of the 54 th Board meeting Minutes of the 54 th meeting of the Board of Trustees had been circulated and approved electronically.No objections from Board members to approve ILRI's General Assembly vote: appointment of SMB members and SMB member compensation On 28 July 2020 the Board secretary circulated to all Board members information on the decisions requested from the General Assembly (GA) of centres by 31 July 2020 requesting that members should indicate any objections to a 'yes' vote before the voting deadline 31 July 2020 (below). No objections were received and the chair accordingly voted 'yes' for both decisions.Centres were informed on 31 July 2020 that both decisions (below) were approved, in line with Article 5.4 of the Charter of the CGIAR System Organization (which provides that an affirmative vote will require a minimum two-thirds majority of all the Centers.). Pursuant to Article 5.1.f of the Charter of the CGIAR System Organization, the General Assembly of Centers approves the compensation of the voting members of the CGIAR System Management Board (including their service as CGIAR common board members on Center/ Alliance governing bodies) of USD 35,000 per year of service, payable on a pro rata basis in quarterly installments; plus, based on demonstrated additional engagement, a daily rate of USD 800 for any day required to be contributed over 35 days each year, up to a total maximum of 50 days in such year.No objections from Board members to approve amendments to the Charter of the CGIAR System Organization On 19 August 2020 the Board secretary circulated to all Board members information on the decision requested from the General Assembly (GA) of centres by 31 August 2020 requesting that members should indicate any objections to a 'yes' vote before 26 August 2020. No objections were received, and the chair accordingly voted 'yes' for this decision.No objections from Board members to approve ILRI policy on Safeguarding children and vulnerable adults On 26 August 2020 the Board secretary circulated to all Board members a policy approved by ILRI management on Safeguarding children and vulnerable adults requesting no-objections approval by midday 28 August 2020. No objections were received; thus, the policy is approved.To set the context for subsequent agenda items, Board members reviewed the progress towards One CGIAR, noting the transition is proceeding on schedule, with the major governance and management changes scheduled to be in place on 1 October 2020. Several Board chairs have engaged on matters relating to constitutional amendments for the centres.Directors general have also continued to engage across the centres, including the same constitutional issues and the research strategy, noting that the latter whilst urgent, still lacks detail that will inform the new programs and thus resourcing post-2021. A first meeting of directors general with the newly appointed EMT will take place on 10 September 2020.Board members agreed that among the critical issues for ILRI is the relationship of the director general with the EMT and centre Board. There is a risk that if the construct for responsibility and authority rests with the EMT and not the DG this would be contrary to host country agreements and could jeopardise ILRI's ability to operate.Audit chairs had meetings in August, recognising the critical time through to 1 October 2020. The meetings focused mainly on workplans which are largely on track. The chairs also considered matters concerning conflict of interest and noted that clarifications are being made regarding 'conflict of interests', 'conflict of objectives' and 'duality of interest'. A common audit committee for CGIAR will be formed, but the present audit committees will continue to function through to the end of April 2021, as foreseen as a function of the ILRI Board Advisory Committee.-Summary and disposition of BOT53 and BOT54 Members were provided with the summary and disposition of matters arising from BOT53 and BOT54 and were requested to advise the Board secretary by email of any issues to be raised in the next Board meeting. The Board also noted that both the timing and agenda of the advisory committee meetings need to be in synchrony with the ILRI Board meetings to ensure that the Board chair and other voting and non-voting members of the post-October ILRI Board will be in a position to present key strategic issues to the Board.Advisory committee members would be issued appointment letters by the continuing ILRI Board chair to commence on 1 October 2020.The Board agreed that the Board secretary is to make the amendments to the draft and share with the Board for electronic approval (with deadlines) and subsequent minuting at the 56 th Board meeting. It was noted that as One CGIAR advisory committee(s) are formed, the terms of reference for the ILRI Board advisory committee may likewise evolve but that it is considered essential for the initial years.According to the One CGIAR plan, the eight member One CGIAR Board, together with 4 centre-specific members, will constitute the 12 voting members of the ILRI Board from 1 October 2020. The 4 centre-specific members will include the two host country members, plus two discretionary voting members. At the 54 th meeting ofIt was also noted that should this current understanding of matters prove incorrect, the Board will revisit the discretionary Board members accordingly. The System Management Office has confirmed (during a TAG3 meeting and in a subsequent email) the understanding that the chair-elect will step in once the current ILRI Board chair finishes his term in April 2021. Given this understanding, the Board confirmed the decision regarding ILRI discretionary Board members as:-The current Board chair: Lindsay Falvey -The current program committee chair: Martyn Jeggo The Board chair will issue a formal letter appointing Elsa Murano as the Board chair with effect from April 2021. Action: Board secretary to facilitate.Host country member, Kenya: Harry Kimtai Host country member, Ethiopia: awaiting confirmation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, EthiopiaThe provisions of the arrangements for the ILRI Board from 1 October 2020 allow for up to four non-voting discretionary Board members. One of these members will be the director general. Given the plans for current ILRI Board members to constitute an ILRI Board Advisory Committee from 1 October 2020, at this juncture the Board nominated three other members to join the Board in the capacity of non-voting members. Given the strategic level inputs required by the post-October Board, the Board unanimously agreed to the following as non-voting Board members from 1 October 2020: Director general: Jimmy Smith Current Board vice chair and chair-elect: currently Elsa Murano Finance (sub) committee chair: currently Richard Golding Audit and risk (sub) committee chair: currently Li Lin FooThe first post-October ILRI Board meeting scheduled during the period 27-29 October 2020 will be among all centre/alliance Board meetings to take place during this three-day period, with the intention that the Board meeting for each centre will focus on the highest-level strategic governance and oversight matters. Accordingly, the ILRI Board at its present meeting reviewed arrangements for an ILRI Board Advisory Committee which it is anticipated will review ILRI's portfolio and provide short inputs/ recommendations for the continuing board members . Recognizing it is incumbent on the present Board, as part of its due diligence for ILRI and ILRI's mandate, to ensure that the ILRI Board meeting agenda for 23-25 September 2020 and the Board Advisory Committee subsequently, addresses all the oversight and governance responsibilities, the Board considered agenda items for the forthcoming meetings. It was noted that the 56 th Board meeting in late September will enable key items of ILRI's Board governance and oversight to be addressed. Thereafter the roles of the ILRI Board advisory committee and the interactions of post-October voting and non-voting Board members on the ILRI Board will be crucial to ensure the full breadth and depth of Board responsibilities are undertaken, albeit in a short, virtual meeting format.The Board agreed that the essential elements of an induction program for ILRI and the livestock sector would be necessary for the incoming Board members to ensure they are fully cognizant with ILRI's mandate and complexity to enable them to fulfil their governance and oversight responsibilities.The Board resolution on operations of the institute's bank accounts was last updated and approved in 2015, hence, as a matter of due diligence, the mandate was reviewed and updated.During its meetings in 2019 and 2020, the ILRI Board has continued to address how to continue to ensure that ILRI's assets are fully deployed for its livestock research mandate as the One CGIAR processes are put into place. This includes Board recommendations and resolutions and incorporation of tailored provisions in the constitutional amendments).The Board discussed the current status of ILRI's assets, reserves and the provisions in place. In confirmation of the Board decision at its 54 th meeting, 20 July 2020, the Board was also advised that:-The ILRI Board chair received written confirmation from the System Office regarding the succession plan for the chair-elect, Elsa Murano to succeed Lindsay Falvey as ILRI Board chair when his term ends in April 2021, and to remain in office at least through to the end of her term in April 2022. -The Board chair will also issue an appointment letter for Elsa Murano as Board member and Board chair from April 2021.Non-voting members of the ILRI Board from 1 October 2020: Jimmy Smith, Director General, ex-officio Elsa Murano, current Board vice chair and chair-elect Chair finance (sub) committee: Richard Golding Chair audit and risk (sub) committee: Li Lin FooThe Board approved the above appointments to the ILRI Board from 1 October 2020, noting that these Board appointment approvals are contingent and inter-dependent on the full approval of the all constitutional amendments agreed to at the present meeting.","tokenCount":"1820"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/4701016902.json b/data/part_5/4701016902.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c61daf7053b23ba2a7a320c4da889e87639b3bf7
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b39d80491db933269d0322cd7f815127","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2726a3b3-4c7d-4b0e-ad3e-3c1186c3c99b/retrieve","id":"-304988796"},"keywords":["Primary Funding Agency The RockefeUer Foundation Steering Committee D. Spencer","IITA","(Chairman) S. Hahn","IITA R. Best","CIA T R. Barker","lIT A","Board of Trustees T. Tshibaka","IFPRI J. Lynam","The RockefeUer Foundation"],"sieverID":"3fbbf200-4f1b-480d-be35-dc0420488c73","pagecount":"32","content":"Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 UstorFlpres Frequency distribution nf survey villages by hungry months and by population density, Africa, 1989/1990 ................................. Frequency distribution of men, women and children involved in cassava processing by sub-process, COSCA countries, Africa, 1989Africa, /1990 ........ . ......... ........ . .......... Association between gender role in cassava processing and the degree of commercialization of cassava production in COSCA countries, Africa, 1989Africa, /1990  Frequency distribution of montbly production peaks for cassava product types in high density areas ................................................... PREFACE THE Collaborative Study of Cassava of Africa (COSCA) is ao inter-institutional effort. The aim is to provide baseline information on cassava over a wide area Such information is needed to improve the relevance and impact of agricultural research on the crop in Africa in order to realize the potential of cassava in increasing food production aod the incomes of the people of Africa.The COSCA working paper series is published informally by COSCA to disseminate its intermediate output. Publicatioll5 in the series include methodologies for, as well as preliminary results of, tbe various components and phases of the COSCA surveys. The series is aimed at scientists and researcbers working witb national agricultural research systems in Africa (NARS), the international research community, policy makers, donors and members of international development agencies that are interested in cassava. AI, these papers are not in their fmal form, comments are welcome. Such comments should be addressed to the respective authors or to the COSCA project leader.CASSAVA (Maniho/ escu/enta Crantz) was introduced to West and Central Africa from South America by the Portuguese more than 400 years ago. It is now grown throughout sub-Saharan Africa ' and is considered second in importance to maize as a human staple, accounting for more than 200 calories per day per person (!ITA 1988). Estimates show that ahout 160 million people or 40 per cent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa consume cassava as a staple food (Nweke et aI. 1988).One of the major advantages which cassava has over other carbohydrate/starch crops is the variety of uses to which the roots can be put. In addition to being a major staple food for humans, it also has excellent potential as livestock feed (Best 1978) and in the textile, plywood, paper and pharmaceutical industries. One major constraint however, when dealing with cassava, is that it is a highly perishable crop. Although mature cassava can be stored in the ground for up to six months or longer, once harvested, cassava deteriorates rapidly.The fresh roots must be transformed into more stable products within two or three days from harvest. This transformation requires various combinations of technology-peeling, grating, boiling, fermenting, drying, frying and milling. A second constraint in utilizing cassava involves reducing the toxic levels of cyanogenic glucoside (linamarin and lotaustralin) found in cassava (Cooke 1982, Hahn 1984, Oke 1982).The objective of this study' is to examine the seasonality of cassava processing, as well as the gender role in cassava processing, the degree of mechanized processing and the relationship between the proportion of low and high cyanide varieties and fermented and unfermented flours. Added to the end of this report are two appendices: Appendix 1 is a classification of the different cassava processing steps; appendix 2 is a list of more than 80 different cassava products found in the COSCA study countries.The following hypotheses were tested.Gender role in cassava processing tends to change. as processing becomes more mechanized.ii.Women's role in cassava processing is greater with increasing commercialization of cassava production.Ill.As more cassava is produced for sale than for home consumption, processing becomes more mechanized.iv.As population density increases, cassava processing becomes more mechanized.v.The more accessible the product-producing areas to the market, the greater the degree of mechanized processing.The period of fermentation is decreasing in areas where cassava proocssing is mechanized.vii.The period of fermentation is decreasing in areas with good access to market.Flours from unfermented cassava are associated more with areas growing sweet than bitter varieties.1 See COSCA Working Paper No. 5, for a map of the agro-ecological zones of cassava productioo in Africa, Louise Fresco, 1991. 4rhe Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa is being conducted in three phases; this study is part of phase one, which had as its major objective the characteri~tion of ca!>Sava produC1ion and distribution systems in Africa.The majority of the villages in the survey were in the lowland humid tropics (53 per cent) and lowland semi-hot (36 per cent) ecologies, although fIVe climate zones were represented (table 1). The number of villages is almost evenly distributed between high and low population density areas, while access to roads is slightly skewed to the good side (table 2).  (Onwueme 1978). Unlike otber crops, cassava cannot be harvested all at once, because the roots cannot be Slored for more than two or three days without rapid deterioration_ Other estimates indicate that about 20 per cent of the cassava hectarage is used for root storage (Phillips 1974). This scenario suggests that cassava is harvested in small sections, based on what the farmer needs for home consumption. However, jf the cassava is sold to processors, then large quantities may be harveSled. Being a major staple food and a highly perishable crop, cassava is, generally, harvested all year round. Likewise, cassava processing continues throughout the year, however,the intensity of processing activities, however, depends on the availability of other crops.Peek procasing fIIINIIIu. Processing trends appear fairly similar in all the climatic zones-with peak periods occurring more frequently between May and September (figures 1 -4). The exception to this observation is flours in the lowland semi-hot zones and cooked roots in the highland humid zone. The peak processing periods correspond almoSl entirely with the hllngry months in the study areas, which occur mainly between March and September in the high population density areas, and April to September in the low density areas (table 3).   .  The second peak occurs between December and January, when processors, especially in West Africa, take advantage of favorable drying conditions, to process and store flour. The bulk of these products are consumed at a later date, however, because of the availability of other food staples, such as yams and grains, during this period. Production peIIlcs for products. Production peaks for various products were evaluated for areas with low and high population deosities (figures 5 and 6). The processing peaks follow a similar trend in both the high and low density areas. The frequency of peaks in the high density areas appears quite uniform for all processed products, except flours, which generally peak during the month of July. This trend probably indicates that cassava plays a more important role as a household food security crop in the high density than in the low density areas. The flrst peak for flour production occurs in January, and a second peak occurs in July.There is probably no other agricultural crnp for which a similar range of postharvest processing activities exists as for cassava. Women use a wide range of processing techniques in order to transform fresh roots into foods and storable/marketable cassava products. As would be expected, there is some overlap in the classification where different names are used to describe the same product and also where similar or identical names are used for different products. (See appendix 2 at the end of this report for a list of the 80 food items recorded doring Phase I of the survey).In order to c1istinguish the clifferent product types and processing techniques, the cassava products were divided into subgroups based on the minimum number of processing steps by which a product type could be identified. Nine c1ifferent categories emerged. The flrst six include food items made from the roots, while the remaining three categories include drinks made with cassava components, food made from the leaves and medicines.i.  Rnasted Cassava. The simplest way of preparing fresh cassava roots is roasting whole roots of sweet cassava varieties in the coals of burnt-down fifes. Roasted cassava roots are often prepared and eaten by farmers during field work. When the root is cooked, the burnt peel is scraped off and the white steamed inner part of the roots is eaten alone or with palm oil or stew. Even in areas where bitter cassava varieties dominate, farmers plant at least some stands of sweet varieties for food during farm operations. The taste of roasted cassava is influenced by the length of time the roots remain in the ground before harvesting, and the variety of sweet cassava used. Roasted cassava is rarely made in the compound, as other methods of preparation are available.11.Boiled Cassava. The roots from low cyanide varieties may be boiled fresh after peeling, washing and cutting into small pieces. The pieces are usually submerged in boiling water and not steamed as is often done with yam or sweet potatoes. Boiling in large quantities of water reduces or eliminates the small quantity of cyanide which is also present in the fresh roots of sweet varieties. Boiled cassava is eaten like boiled yam or boiled potatoes with stews or vegetable soups. Certain starchy varieties are also pounded and eaten like yam.iii. Soaked Boiled Cassava (AbacJuJ). Another variation of boiled cassava can also serve as a storage technique, and is known as 'wet abacha' in Eastern Nigeria. After the peeled cassava has been boiled, the water is poured off and the boiled pieces are covered in cold water and kept in a cool place. Abacha is caten as a part of the main meal. By changing the water everyday, the boiled cassava can be stored for two to three days before fermentation begins.Cassava flours are the most widely spread food product made from cassava in Africa and are processed in a variety of ways. In the COSCA study countries a large number of methods were observed, but certain steps i.e., drying and milling are essential. Drying is either done in the sun or over low fires, and milling is done by manual pounding or grinding or by mechanical mills. Cassava flours are generally eaten as a thick paste, which is obtained by mixing the flour with hot water. The paste is eaten with stews and soups. The flours are also used to prepare deep-fried, savory or sweet cakes and snacks.Two major flour types exist: those derived from unfermented dried cassava roots and those obtained from fermented cassava. Different fermentation methods were observed: fermentation in water, open air fermentation and fermentation with a specially prepared starter. Flours from unfermented cassava roots are more common in areas where sweet cassava varieties dominate.Unfermented Floun. In all the countries where unfermented cassava flour is prepared, the roots are peeled and cut into small chips immediately after harvest and spread in the sun for drying. Tn drier climates, like in the northern part of Ghana, the chips may sun dry in only a few hours. In the more humid forest zone it is common, especially during the rainy season, to dry the chips over the fireplace in the house. Roots or cuttings dried in the smoke need to be cleaned and scraped before milling in order to obtain a nice white Hour. The traditional methods for milling are pounding in a mortar or grinding on a grinding stone. Data from 233 villages in the COSCA study indicated that 86 villages had milling machines. After milling, the coarse fibers are sifted out to obtain a homogenous Oour.n. Fermented Flours. Where bitter cassava varieties are common, the fresh roots are fermented before they are dried and milled. Whole unpeeled cassava roots are submerged in water from 3 to 5 days depending on the taste desired and the weather. Warm weather intensifies and shortens the fermentation process. A longer or intensive fermentation produces a sour tasting flour which is preferred in some regions.Many processors peel the cassava and submerge the roots in clean water for fermentation. This usuallyrcsults in a whiter fl ou r. The color of the cassava fl our depends on the time used for sundrying. If the drying is not finished the same day, the prod uct may start to ferment again or get mouldy. To shorten the drying time the fermented roots may be put in bags or baskets and pressed with stones or a screw press to remove excess water. In East Africa, fermentation is often done in heaps without adding water. Where sundrying is extended over several days ferme ntation takes place in open air. Therefore, drying for more than two days was classified as a special form of ferm entation even though it is not seen as an additio nal or separate processing step.RoGsted or geklliniZed fiiITIIIUks (p). Gari is prepared by ferm enting grated fresh cassava in sacks, squeezing out the excess water, and then frying the semi-dry granules in a minimum amount of oil to prevent sticking until a gelatinized crust forms. Yellow gari results when palm oil is used to fry the raw grated granules. The longer the period of fermentation the mare sour the taste of the gari. Grating is either done manually, or mechanically, with mOlor-powered grating machines. Grated wet cassava is then bagged or put in baskets; the excess water is pressed out in a variety of ways: processors may use planks weighed down with heavy rocks, planks with car jacks or hydraulic presses. Frying is usually done in large round earthenware pots or iron pans. Gari can be stored up to three months in plastic bags or other containers, depending on the quality of the product.Gari can be reconstituted with hot water and stirred to form a thick paste and eaten with soups and stews; it can also be mixed with cold water/milk and sugar and taken as a snack.SteDmedft:mlDlledfiilTlllUks (auieke). Attieke are semi-dried cassava granules which are processed by peeling, washing, mashing, fermenting, dewatering, granulating and semi-drying in the sun. A starter culture is added to the cassava during mashing, which influences the taste and quality of thc end product. The starter culture is prepared either by boiling, roasting or cutting fresh roots which are then fermented for a period of about three days; or through the preparation of a filtrate Cram cassava which has been boiled, pounded and squeezed through a cloth. The traditionally recommended fermentation period for anieke is three days; however, the COSCA survey data indicate that tbere is a trend towards shorter fermentation periods.In Cote d'ivoire, these semi-dried granules (a!tieke) are stcamed and eaten with stews and soups. The H ausa in Nigeria use pressed, sieved and fermented cassava granules mixed with onions, tomatoes and spices, 10 form cakes which are then deep-fried in oil. These cakes are called kwosai and are eaten as a fun meal or as a ' snack between meals.5_ FERMENTED PASTES I.IJoikyJ fa. 1 J jIQSIeS. The processing steps for preparing fermenl ed cassava paste include: peeling, washing, grating or cutting into finger-like pieces, ferm en ting in water, mashing or pounding and squeezing through a fine c101h or sieve. This raw paste is now boiled in waler or sleamed in wrapped Icaves. The normal ferm entation period is from 1 to 3 days, howcvcr, in Ghana, the grated cassava was fermented up to 7 days. Longer periods of ferm entation result in a more sour taste , which is preferred by some consumers.One essential characteristic of all these fermenled pasles (demanded by consumers in the COSCA study areas), is the while color and smooth lexture of the boilcd cassava paste. In some of the study countries, a slarler culture obtained from previous processing was added during the fe rmentalion period. Sedimenled pastes can be sto red up to two weeks. sometimes even lo nger, depending on how long the cassava was ferment~d. Longer ferm enlation is positively relaled to longe r storability.6. SEDlMt:Nn:U STARCHES i.Tapioca. Cassava starch is made by peeling and grating fresh roots and stirring them in water in o rder to separate the fibers fr om the starch. The starch particles arc allowed to settle on the bolt om of the conlainer.where it forms a whi te muddy cake . The wa ler is then cardully skimmed off, and Ihe cake is removed and further dri ed in the sun. T he semi-dried slarch mHy be ruasted in iron pans unlil il is completely dry 10 form ii.Slilldt flour. Alternatively, the sun-dried starch cakes can be pounded or milled into a fine flour, which is used as a thickener in soups and stews_ Part of this powder may be sold or used as laundry starch.111.LlIIuuJTy starch. Where cassava is being processed inlo gari on a large scale the water which is pressed out during fermenlalion is collected in large basins and allowed 10 seUle. The slarch so formed is not considered clean enough to be ealen and is used as laundry starch. However, few processors seem to be taking advanlage of this by-produci al present.Cassava is used as a substitule for maize and other grains in the preparalion of local beer. It is also mixed wilh cereals to stretch out supplies and still arrive at a product which resembles the original cereal-based beer.Consumers tend to give priority to high alcohol conlent over taste. The type of yeast used influences the quality of the end product, especially in the brewing of local beer. As the taste of distilled drinks is less affected by raw materials, the proportion of cassava can be higher, and even Ihe lowest quality producls, such as mouldy or damp flours which are useless as food, can still be fermcnled to alcohol.The leaves from Ihe low cyanide cassava varieties can be boiled and eaten like spinach. The leaves from high cyanide varieties are also consumed bUI Ihey arc boiled, squeczed out and reboiled to reduce the toxicity. High cyanide leaves are also boiled logelher with palm oil, which has the same effect.Various medicines arc prepared from both the leaves and the peels of sweet and bitter cassava varieties.5_1 Gender role in cassava processing Women, and 10 a lesser extcnl children, perform mosl of Ihe processing operations (table 4). As Ihe opportunities ror commercializ(ttinn increase, (he number of women involved in processing also increases. often planted by individuals (especially women) for personal gain, as distinct from family cassava. While men may participate, even if to a limited extent, in the production of family cassava, they may not do so at all with respect to the women's individual cassava that is meant for tbe market. Men are seldom involved in cassava processing operations, but perform more of the heavy duty farm operations.It was observed, however, that as mechanized processing equipment (such as graters and mills) is acquired, men's participation in cassava processing tends to increase, as they often control and operate these machines. The bypotbesis that gender role in cassava processing tends to change as processing becomes more mechanized, was accepted at 0.01 level of significance (table 6). While cassava processing is, to a large extent, stereotyped along sex lines, this is not the case wilh respect to age (table 4). There are virtually no operations exclusively done by children, and only 1.8 per cent of the operations Viere restricted to adultS.Of the total number of machines in the study villages, 87 per cent were located in Nigeria, Uganda and Ghana. The remaining 13 per cent were found in Tanzania and Cote d'ivoire. Mechanical processing is insignificant in Zaire (table 7). Mechanized graters were observed only in West Africa; Nigeria accounted for 81 per cent of the stock, and the remaining 19 per cent were found in Cote d'ivoire and Ghana. Cassava presses were only found in COte d'ivoire and Nigeria.Areas where the population density is high, also bave the largest share of cassava miUs and graters. About 69 per cent of the number of mills and 84 per cent of the number of graters are located in the bigh population density areas. This supports the hypothes s that as population density increases, cassava processing becomes more mechaDized, whicb was accepted at 0.01 level (table 8) .The distribution of cassava presses between the low and high population density areas did not, however, seem to foUow the same paltern as that of the graters and mills, since, 70 per cent of the presses are located in the low population density areas (tahle 7). A further analysis of the data in table 7 bowever, shows that COte d'ivoire alone, with all its sampied villages in tbe low population density areas (table 2), accounted for 50 per cent of the tOial number of cassava presses. When Cote d'ivoire data are excluded from the analysis, the distribution of the presses then follows the hypotbesized distribution, with 61 per cent of the presses located in the high popuiation density areas.  In addition 10 population density, there are other variables tbat were found to be significantly associaled wilh mechanized processing. As road access 10 market improves, cassava processing tends to be more mechanized.This hypothesis was accepted at 0.04 level of significance (Iable 9) . The length of fermentation is often much shorter where processors have access to a cassava press which dewatcrs the grated cassava mash. The relationship between fermentation and the presence of cassava presses was found significant at 0.002 level(table 10). Using a press, it is now possible to complete all the steps in gari production in one day. .66 Significant at 0.002 ~I While the length of fermentation is significantly associated with the degree of mechanization, it did not seem to be affected by market accessibility. Thus, the hypothesis that the fermentation period is decreasing in areas with good access to market, was rej ected at 0.05 level of significance (table 11). Cassava production objectives do not seem to be significantly associaled with the degree of mechanized processing. Even if more cassava is being produced for sale than for home consumption, processing has not shifted to more mechanized methods. Cassava flours can be produced by milling either fermented or unfermented dried cassava chips. Fermentation reduces the level of cyanogenic glucosides present in the fresh cassava roots. As would be expected, flour made from unfermented cassava was found in areas wbere low cyanide varieties dominate; while flour from fermented COSCA Working Paper No.6SEASONALITY OP CASSAVA PROCESSING IN AF'RICA 13 cassava was found in areas where high cyanide vaneties are mainly grown. A significant r elationship (x' = 9.69) was found between the proportion of low to high cyanide varieties and the presence or absence of fermented flour (table 13). In Africa, cassava is a major staple food for man; it also has great potential as livestock reed and as an industrial crop. Before it can be used as human food, however, it must be processed. Processing not only eliminates the toxic effects of the cyanogenic glucosides present in cassava, it also helps to convert the highly perishable roots into sIable, storable and marketable products. A wide range of processing techniques arc employed in transforming the fresh roots into numerous products. Different names and descriptions for similar cassava products exist across Africa, and these are largely location specific, reflecting the large numbers of ethnic groups. More than 80 different cassava products were reco rded in the study areas. Nine different product types were identified: Cooked cassava, cassava flour, roasted granules, steamed granules, fermented pastes, starches, drinks, leaves (cooked as spinach) and medicine.Cassava processing in Africa is essentially a manual operation. Women, and to a lesser extent children, do most of tbe processing. The number of women involved in processing tends to increase with greater commercialization of cassava production. As commercialization of production increases, women also begin to plant/buy their own cassava to process and sell. While men may participate in cassava production for household consumption, they generally do not help in the processing of cassava intended for sale in the market. However, where m achines are in use for activities such as grating, pressing and milling, the men often own the equipment. This seems to imply that the gender role in processing begins to cbange as processing becomes more mechanized.As would be expected, tbe mechanization of cassava processing tends to occur wh ere the population density is high and access to market is good and the demand therefore, is higher. Although only about 25 per cent of the African population reside in the urban areas (Nwcke 1988), the growth rate in urban centers is high, exceeding 5 per cent per annum in most countries. This underscores the need to process cassava into products which are easy to store and prepare in the home. Mechanization reduces thc amount of time needed to process the fresh roots into storable/marketable products. This may prove a health hazard, however, where high cyanide varie ties are grown, as the levels of hydrocyanide present may be let hal if the fermentat ion period is reduced. ","tokenCount":"4138"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f6c7768af69a44c18333420e5aedfbb7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50a506f5-401b-45b1-942e-868af36a34a5/retrieve","id":"-1496332398"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"edef8228-891d-47c2-b7c8-13b9de3a6bc8","pagecount":"8","content":"Cassava is probably the most videly cultivated starch-produci.ng plant species in tbe lovland tropics ot ' the vorld, and one of the maJar sourcea ot carbohydrates for the inhaoitants of these regions.This root crop has been largely overlooked by research vorkers in temperate climate countries. No tropical country, vhere the .crop i8 gravo in large quantities, has organized and maintained an imprOYement program of satisfactory scope and duration to produce significant results.Cassava has a great potential as a ma.jar :t'ood and feed source and u rav n:aterialfor industry in the tropical lowlands. 'rhe development ot tbis potential merita a strong research effort.CIAT has established the following goals in order to develop prodw::tion systems for increasing cassava production in tbe tropics. Theae goals are: tManihot in the countries vhere TBriability is preaent, vith . . •.;•• emphasis in the primary centers of origin (lforthern South Amerie• • •• : . J .i and Middle America) , in order to establish a germ plasm buk re-1 •~ ~ • ' • presentative of the vorld's variability. ..To classif'y and evaluate the genetic T&riabUity ot the collected material as a basis for t'uture vork. The germ plasm banlt vill constitute a reservoir ot breeding material available to researchers throughout the vorld tor the improvement o:t' this important • tropical crop.To identity superior cultivare that can raise preaent yield •ubstantially.d) To find production systems that maximize the etficiency ot pl.anting methods; control ot peste, diseasea and veeds; adequate tertilizer application and harvesting procedures.e) To deTelop more practic&l and etf'icient. systems of <1171n8 end using cassava as human tood, animal feed and tor industrial uae, vith emphasis in ecanomic mechanization schemes that cu be usecl by smal.l or 'large growers • ., t '. •:, 4• ' \"   Two newsletters, Tropical root and tuber crops newsletter and Noticiero tuberosas are useful regarding announcements of new and i mportant works on cassava. In addition, the Tropical Products Institute is considering a bibliographical project by which they vould be able to dis-s~nate bibli ographies on cassava, as well as other r oot and tuber crops of importance in tropical are as.  bliography. The publications themselves are scattered in librarles thToughout the world. Tbifjority of these libraries do not seem to central~ze thei.r publicat ons on cassava, e~ther by physically separating the publications or by pr iding centralized access through cataloging; exceptions as they are kn are ~entioned below. With the Natio~al Agricultura! Library the possibility is being. explored that they may be able to provide us with a listing prepared by computer of the publications they have on cassava. The Royal Tropical Institute has provided us with a listing of all the publicationa they have on cassava (622 iteros); the Food Research Institute has 133 pam~ phlets and reprints on cassava; and with the Tropical ~oducts lnstitute we are currently corresponding about the possibility of receiving a listiog of the publications they have on cassava • . .are not yet finished establishing all the locations of cassava literature, we have probably identified the major locations of such literature. The Library~th the greatest quantity of cassava literature is perhaps the National Agricultura! Library, and this 11brary has not attemFted to make a special collection of its cassava literature , with its attendant advdntage of easy access. On the other haod , a library such as that of the Royal Tropical Institute, ~ich has eataloged its cassava collection in order to provide immediat~ access to it, does not have too large number of cassava publications.! ThJ European bibliographical centers• for cassava are in ~gland, the Netherlaods and France. These &eem to be well-organized librariea and there should be no difficulty • in exploiting their resources through correspondence. Other areas of the wo~ld may p~esent different problems, however . So far, no library important in cassava in Asia has been found, yet several Asian countries are importaot producers of cassava. It is pre~ently being explored with the European librarles as to possible sources of information in this respect, and also with ICAR in India. The possibility should be kept opau, however, of travelling to Asia to secure cassava publications wheréver they may be, in experiment stations, ministeries, etc. It may also be necessary to travel in Brazil, Paraguay and Colombia .  The first step would be to c dllect all t he bibliographies and lists of casaava publications. This would include bi bliographies prepared for us by bibliographical journals not covered by Montaldo or Hermann, b8sed on the articles the journala bave , listed on c assava, and also lista from librarles and individual& who could supply lists of tbe publications they have.Tbe eecond step would b e to collat e theee liste and biblio ~raphies into a single, comprehen sive listo This list could t hen be reviewed by the appropriate scientists to determine whicb of thc publication~ should actually be collected by CIAT. If t he collation is done manually, it would need three or four months, a t l east, to prepare t he cards, collate th~ and produce a sing l e lis t ing . I f done by some t ype of mechanical means, it may take considerably l eas t ime ; however, at present it is not known if facilities to ell3ble CIAT to undertake mechanica l collation ,.;111 be available.• Thera ~y b~ some question a s to what kind of a review of literature citations is necessary. In many cases , it s imply is not known if a certain publication on cassava is useful or not ; the publication has to be read first. For the I RRI rice bibliography, publications earlier than 1951 were excluded ~ a s well as publ ica t ions of a popular or semi-scientif ic nature. CIAT s c ientists have pointed out that there is a concentra tion of cassava literature appearing early in this century which coul.d• not r easonably be excluded. They have aleo indicated that there nny be va lue in popular or eemi•scicntifie inform~tion since a good part of the work on cassava has b een done on meager budgeto which have precluded publications in many technical j ournala . De spite the exclusions of the IRRI rice bibliogr aphy, t here were over 7000 citations in the first volume alone; the largest cassava bibliography, that of Montaldo has 2688 citations. We could rea s onably estimate that the total number of pub lications on cass ava in existence is s~wbere be~~een 3,000 -4,000, inclQding publication s not i nc luded i n bibliographies and publications •l -appearing since the bibliogr aphi e s of Hermano and Montaldo were published~ Whether or not it was.decided to proceed with thc collation of the various lista, the work of s ecuring tbe public ations could begin immediately.• (The Cassava Literature Collec~ion Project is envisioned as a unit apart from but working closely with the Library of CIAT. The Project would have its own Director, staff, and systems of acquisition, cataloging and shelving...Once it is decided to order a publication, it would have to be determined from where to order the publication. This decision would be based on (1) Previous knowledge as to where a publication is loeated, i.e. ve have the reference from a certain library or individual; (2) Searching through union lista or p~bliahed agricultural library cataloga to locate a library that might have the publication; (3) As a last resort, correspondence would have to be initiated in an at~empt to locate publications not to be found through the usual means.The publications would be ordered according to the requiremeata of the supplying source~, be tbis by coupons, special order forma, etc., . and paid for by coupona, check, per deposit arrangement, etc. The card catalog of cassava publications would be divided into four:parts: (1) Author; (2) Title; (3) Subject; (4) Country. This meana that every publication would have a card in each aection, and in the case of' subject, perh.aps more than one carde For subjects W'e would use the • aame eleven subjects that Montaldo uses in bis bibliography.The publications themselvea would be arranged on the sbelvea in .. chronological order of accession. Tbe approacb to tbem would be ~hrough As the publications are received and cataloged, regular lista of tbem would be distributed to interested scientiats in CIAT and around the world.At all times it will be po1aible to acquire photocopies of any of the• publications in CIAT's cassava literature collection. Tbis aérvice would be made available on a world-wide basia. Scientists will know wbat CIAT has tlu~ the acquisitions lilts.,. . Translation and Abstract Services Publications on cassava appear in at least the following seven languages: English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, Italian and German. While translation and abstract services will undoubtedly be necessary at some time, perhaps these services sbould wait until tbe literature is here, cataloged and reviewed. As it would not be necessary to continue with as large a staff to maintain the cassava literature collection up-to-date as to do the original collecting and processing, some of the positions used for the original staff could be assigned to an abstractor and/or translator.Some form of computerized bibliographical control would give a great deal more flexibility in exploiting the literature, especially in terms of subject approach. It would aleo be invaluable if it were ever decided to publieh in book form the catalog of the cassava literature collection at CIAT. Time Schedule of Project 1. To have identified and located sources of the literature, including having in hand all relevant bibliographies and lista: tbis work has already begun and should be completed by August 31, 1971.2. Collating the different lista of the literature: three-four months.3. Collecting and cataloging the literature: could begin anytime after August 31, 1971, when funda, equipment, supplies, staff and space are available.4. First acquisitions list: one month after the collection has begun.S. The bulk of the literature should be at CIAT and cataloged by one • year after the collection has begun.6. The collection and processing of all retrospective and current literature should be completed by eighteen months after the collection has begun.7. After the completion of step 6, it will be necessary to keep up with the current literature, and also it may be advisable to begin • at this time with translation and/or abstracting services. Witb the completion of step 6, it vould be appropriate to bring out in book form the catalog of the cassava literature at CIAT .•","tokenCount":"1750"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0cecd96b4ae0f5594e9287b8742e6148","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e07e6a81-f804-42e7-9740-db491b84eeb6/retrieve","id":"1755422430"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e63f0ae7-ed3c-48e2-9eb4-91fdda139a4c","pagecount":"20","content":"The climate crisis is having a significant detrimental influence on livelihoods in developing countries. Climate variability and extremes can negatively impact climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and livestock which are a considerable source of employment and a key contributor to economic growth in developing countries (Burke, Hsiang, and Miguel 2015; Dell, Jones, and Olken 2014; 2012). The intensification of the climate crisis poses a threat to efforts aimed to eliminate poverty and food security which, in turn, can threaten peace (United Nations 2020). Despite not being the main or the only cause, there is growing evidence of the importance of food insecurity in sparking and sustaining civil and communal conflicts (FAO 2016).Latin America and the Caribbean is particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events and climate variability as it is not only highly exposed to both slow and rapid onset events but also has a low coping capacity and a considerable dependence on climate-sensitive sectors (Abdenur, Kuele and Amorim 2019). LAC is also considered one of the most violence-affected regions in the world with presence of different types of conflicts that undermine efforts to eliminate poverty and food insecurity while also undermining capacity of states, communities and individuals to cope with the effects of the climate crisis.Venezuela and Colombia are two paradigmatic examples of countries that suffer from different types of violence and insecurity while also being highly exposed and vulnerable to climate variability and extremes. Venezuela is undergoing one of the worst humanitarian and migrant crisis in the world. More than 5 million Venezuelans have fled to other countries in LAC while 9 million people remain food insecure in the country. Colombia is a key actor that bridges South America with Central America whose location is highly relevant for human mobility and migration routes along the American continent, including the recent influx of 1.7 million Venezuelan migrants. Both countries are particularly vulnerable to the climate crisis which is likely to adversely impact land, water, and food systems, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities as well as the overall instability and insecurity.Using Impact Pathway Analysis, we attempted to identify, describe, and represent complex and nonlinear interactions between climate, conflict, and existing vulnerabilities and risks that are present in both countries. By doing so we aim to inform academics, practitioners, donors, investors, national and international policymakers about a complicated and heterogeneous reality, to help develop more tailored responses targeting regions and communities most at risk. We conclude the paper highlighting some key messages and potential entry points, including the potential of CGIAR contributions on land, water, and food systems to address conflict and security risks through evidencebased environmental, political, and socio-economic solutions.The climate crisis is having a significant detrimental influence on livelihoods in developing countries. Climate variability and extremes can negatively impact climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and livestock which are a considerable source of employment and a key contributor to economic growth in developing countries (Burke, Hsiang, and Miguel 2015;Dell, Jones, and Olken 2014;2012). The intensification of the climate crisis poses a threat to efforts aimed to eliminate poverty and food security which, in turn, can threaten peace (United Nations 2020). Despite not being the main or the only cause, there is growing evidence of the importance of food insecurity in sparking and sustaining civil and communal conflicts (FAO 2016). Food price increases, which often push many vulnerable households into food insecurity, have been empirically associated with social unrest and can act as a catalyst for instability and even conflict when interacting with local socio-economic and political vulnerabilities. Some regions of the world are also particularly prone to extreme weather events and climate variability. This is the case of LAC, a highly diverse region with a wide range of ecosystems that is considerably vulnerable to the changing climate (Abdenur, Institute and Rüttinger 2020;Brácena et al. 2016;Abdenur, Kuele and Amorim 2019). LAC is not only highly exposed to climate variability and extremes but it also has a low coping capacity and a considerable dependence on climate-sensitive sectors (Abdenur, Kuele and Amorim 2019).While most of the countries in LAC suffered from civil wars and armed insurgencies in the second half of the 20 th century, nowadays the type of violence present in region is mainly characterised by organized crime and high rates of state violence (Abdenur, Institute and Rüttinger, 2020). Despite not having many remaining full-fledged armed conflicts, the region suffers from high homicide rates. Some countries in LAC such as Honduras, Nicaragua, or Venezuela are ranked at the bottom of the Global Peace Index despite not being at war (Institute of Economics & Peace 2021). Additionally, the region has also witnessed various conflicts over natural resources (Ross, 2013;Abdenur, Institute and Rüttinger, 2020). In particular, issues revolving around the access and use of land have been present for decades and have been at the heart of several conflicts and post-conflict situations including Colombia and El Salvador.The Impact Pathway Analysis (IPA) aims to identify, describe, and represent the complex and nonlinear interactions between climate, conflict, and existing vulnerabilities and risks with a special focus on food, land, and water systems. In particular, the IPA intends to address the following questions:• What are the potential climate security pathways through which climate may act as a threat multiplier? • Which specific vulnerabilities and risks, that are at the heart of insecurity and conflict, may be exacerbated by the climate crisis? • How can dimensions such as natural resources, livelihoods, mobility, governance and food, land, and water systems, inform climate security pathways in specific contexts?The IPA follows a systematic literature search and review to find, collate, analyse and synthesize insights from relevant knowledge products, including reports, policy briefs, fact sheets from grey literature, as well as books, journal articles, and other sources of documented evidence in academic literature and public media. The construction of a narrative is then followed by consultation with a designated set of experts and stakeholders through interviews and written feedback to gather evaluation and incorporate suggested revisions.The idea that climate change can exacerbate existing social, economic, political and environmental vulnerabilities and have an impact on security was first recognised by the UN Security Council in its 2009 report \"Climate change and its possible security implications\". The UN Security Council acknowledged that climate change can act as a \"threat multiplier\", aggravating certain stresses, vulnerabilities, and risks that are often at the heart of conflicts and have a direct impact on national and human security such as poverty, weak institutions, inadequate access to information or resources and high unemployment (UN Secretary-General 2009). However, there is still a lack of evidence and consensus on the causal pathways and mechanisms through which climate can impact socio-economic and political elements such as state capacity, migration, or food systems. It is therefore primordial to look at context-specific cases to try to unveil the geographical hotspots and causal pathways through which climate change and variability may contribute to conflict. This effort is essential in order to inform academics, practitioners, donors, investors, national and international policymakers about a complicated and heterogeneous reality and help them to develop more tailored responses that target those regions and communities most at risk and in need of urgent help.Colombia is a highly diverse country with a large range of ecosystems and considerable biodiversity that plays a vital role in combating climate change (The World Bank Group 2021). Its geographical location makes Colombia a unique location that bridges South America with Central America, connecting the Central American Dry Corridor with the Andes and the Amazonas. This particular location makes has important implications for human mobility and migration routes along the American continent that are becoming increasingly important due to increasing instability as well as the aggravation of the climate crisis. Colombia is also highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, livestock, fisheries, mining, and tourism which makes it particularly vulnerable to the climate crisis, especially considering the wide array of socio-economic and political vulnerabilities that it suffers, including the most unequal land distribution in Latin America and the recent influx of 1.7 million Venezuelan migrants (Guereña 2016;WFP 2020).The current humanitarian crisis in Venezuela, triggered by a disputed presidency and collapse of the oil-based economy, has left more than 5 million Venezuelans fleeing to other LAC countries due to threats of violence and insecurities related to food, health, and essential services (Collins 2019, Corrales 2019, Abdenur and Rüttinger 2020). The exposure and vulnerability to climate variability and extremes has the potential to aggravate insecurity and migration dynamics. The country's relatively lower overall vulnerability score in ND-GAIN index is accompanied by low readiness, which can then compound fragility, especially in sectors like food and health (University of Notre Dame 2019). Venezuela has experienced severe and persistent drought over the last decade, along with flooding, increasing rainfall variability and accelerated loss and retreat of glaciers in the Venezuelan Andes due to warming (Chemnick 2019, Braun andBezada 2013). Projected climate impacts are predicted to impact crop suitability and production, threatening an already alarming crisis that has left around 9 million people food insecure (Congressional Research Service 2021; World Bank 2021).Colombia?These impacts of the climate crisis on existing socio-economic, political, and environmental vulnerabilities could exacerbate existing risks and tensions and contribute to instability and insecurity in Venezuela and Colombia through multiple pathways.The current humanitarian crisis in Venezuela has been triggered by a disputed presidency and collapse of the oil-based economy. With more than 5 million Venezuelans fleeing to other LAC countries due to threats of violence and insecurities related to food, health, and essential services, this urgently calls for adopting a climate security lens (Collins 2019, Corrales 2019, Abdenur and Rüttinger 2020). This lens can be used to examine potential pathways of Venezuela's climate security nexus (Figure 1) where climate may act as a \"threat multiplier\" exacerbating conditions of insecurity and fragility, through complex interactions with environmental, socio-economic, and political factors.As home to 6% of the Amazon rainforest, one of the most crucial carbon sinks in the world, Venezuela's humanitarian crisis and political economic instability could arguably have a devastating environmental footprint (Burelli 2021). Adverse effect of activities like resource extraction and mining on the environment can translate to harmful consequences for lives and livelihoods dependent on natural resources like trees, water, and fish. Loss and damage to this precious ecological reservoir from deforestation and forest degradation could cast a long shadow over climatic conditions of the region, with harmful feedback effects through carbon emissions (Pacheco-Angulo et al 2017).Venezuela's weak environmental institutions, augmented by the restructuring and transition of the Ministry of Environment into the Ministry of Ecosocialism under the Maduro regime, have not been able to address and regulate deforestation caused by illicit logging activities. Illegal logging has become a source of firewood and alternative livelihood for many in the country, and a source of profit for corrupt officials, leading to further neglect of environmental laws and institutions (Burelli 2021).While on the one hand there is lack of effective implementation of environmental policies, on the other, communities dependent on natural resources for their livelihood and culture tend to be held responsible for the loss of forests. For instance, traditional fire use and management practices for subsistence activities by indigenous communities like the Pemón in Canaima National Park area have been misunderstood as the leading cause of forest loss. This has resulted in conflict between the Pemón people and government agencies, with the latter adopting a conservation strategy like fire exclusion (Bilbao et al 2010).Although the country's vulnerability to flooding and rainfall variability is well-documented, Venezuela has also experienced a severe and persistent drought over the last decade, along with accelerated loss and retreat of glaciers in the Venezuelan Andes due to warming (Chemnick 2019, Braun andBezada 2013). Effect and frequency of droughts have been linked to ENSO events, with serious consequences like loss of mangroves along the Caribbean coast of Venezuela (Barreto 2008). Further, projected retreat of the last remaining Humboldt glacier comes with dire implications for downstream ecology and water cycle in glacier-fed river basins (World Bank 2021).The country's relatively lower overall vulnerability score in ND-GAIN index is accompanied by low readiness, which can then compound fragility, especially in sectors like food and health (University of Notre Dame 2019). A recent estimate by the World Food Program (WFP) finds around 9 million Venezuelans to be facing food insecurity (Congressional Research Service 2021). Projected climate impacts on agriculture, livestock, and fisheries are predicted to threaten food security, with factors like rainfall extremes, increasing temperatures, flood, drought, and heat stress adversely affecting crop suitability and production (World Bank 2021). While prior to the pandemic, the country was witnessing protests due to grievances against the government's inability to deliver basic services, criticisms of the government's inadequate COVID-19 response have been met with arrests and human rights violations of migrant workers, healthcare workers, and humanitarian actors (Harrison and Kristensen 2021).Pathway #1: Livelihood insecurity, environmental degradation, and weak state capacity pathway This pathway describes the overall countrywide crisis, with specific focus on some parts of the country.Although the role played by the recent drought and rainfall anomalies in amplifying the ongoing economic and political crisis in Venezuela needs more scrutiny, the subsequent shortages and rationing of water and electricity due to heavy reliance on hydropower affected agricultural sector, and exacerbated social tensions, revealing inadequate capacity of the state to respond to drought (Chemnick 2019, Abdenur andRüttinger 2020).More than 70% of Venezuela's rural population lives in poverty, with small-holder farmers largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture. This makes their livelihoods vulnerable to impacts of climate variability (World Bank 2009). With the discovery of vast oil reserves, contribution of agriculture to the economy was reduced. This was further reflected in weak agricultural policies of the government, along with collapse of agricultural credit institutions, which, together with rising costs of inputs left farmers without adequate support and incentive (World Bank 2009). Inability of the state to meet needs of farmers as the only farm supplier via the nationalized Agropatria further weakened the agricultural sector, crippling agrarian economy of states like Portuguesa, the country's breadbasket (Watson 2017). While private companies provide agricultural insurance, lack of government support for agricultural credit and insurance markets can compound effects of climate related risks. Decline in agricultural production and agribusinesses can be further connected to rise in food imports and the phenomenon of rural-urban migration (Watters 2021). Destruction of market mechanism through expropriation of millions of hectares of agricultural lands, and industrial plants for coffee, dairy, cement, steel, as well as banks, along with foreign exchange shortage and debt accumulation have reportedly contributed to the government's inability to address insecurities around water, health, and electricity (Walsh 2019).Worsening livelihood and food insecurity due to adverse impact of climate on agriculture, as well as the vacuum left by lack of state support and weak institutional capacity, can contribute to risks of tensions and political unrest. Decreasing annual rainfall over the last decade can be linked with growing water and energy insecurity, as Venezuela is heavily dependent on hydropower (Chemnick 2019). With drier winters and lower water availability affecting productivity of the Guri Dam, rationing of water and electricity by the state has led to widespread power outages in Caracas and other areas. These shortages augmented the economic meltdown, further impacting agricultural sector and climate-sensitive livelihoods through water scarcity (Chemnick 2019). Weak coping capacity to respond to energy shortages, despite having been an oil-rich \"petro-state\" (Walsh 2019), can seriously undermine Venezuela's path to recovery from the ongoing crisis.Furthermore, environmental degradation due to resource extraction in fragile ecosystems can have severe ramifications like biodiversity loss and contamination of water and food, fueling grievances of local communities. Lake Maracaibo, an estuarine lake in northwestern Venezuela, has been a site of thousands of oil spills over the last decade. Between 2010 and 2016, more than 46,000 spills have been traced to the state oil company Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) (Paúl 2021). With continuous leakages from oil wells severely affecting the lake's ecosystem, the surface is said to resemble a \"permanent black tide.\" Pollution of the lake is adversely impacting local fishing communities, through smaller catches, contaminated fish, skin disease, and equipment damage (Paúl 2021). Efforts for conservation have not been effective under the Maduro regime (Burelli 2021). This situation can escalate a vicious cycle of livelihood and food insecurity, especially in light of the economic meltdown, decline in oil prices, hyperinflation, corruption, and failing capacity of the state to ensure human security for all. This can then have serious implications for climate related security risks in a country becoming increasingly reliant on foreign aid while dealing with sanctions, a situation worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic and lack of trust in the government (Congressional Research Service 2021).While more attention has been usually given to the northern part of the country because of its vast oil reserves, this pathway focuses on southern Venezuela, specifically the mineral-rich region south of the Orinoco River (Burelli 2020). Prompted by the collapse of the oil-based economy and the claim of having the second largest gold reserves in the world, the Maduro regime decreed this area as the \"Orinoco Mining Arc\" in 2016, thereby opening up this biodiversity rich Amazonian region to extraction of minerals (including gold, diamonds, coltan, and rare earth metals such as uranium, nickel, and titanium) (Ebus 2019a, Burelli 2020). This policy has resulted in increasing environmental degradation through deforestation, sedimentation, mercury poisoning of rivers, and desertification of vast areas of Amazon, along with spread of diseases such as malaria. Sediments from mines can be further damaging to existing infrastructure, such as hydropower turbines at the Guri dam, the hydropower facility that serves as a major source of electricity for the country (Burelli 2020).This large-scale environmental destruction can be linked to the ongoing crisis in the region, involving massive human rights violations, lawlessness, and loss of sovereignty over a vast swath of the territory (Ebus 2019a). Mining in the region, a key source of revenue for the Maduro regime, has become a fertile ground for organized crime and a parallel economy based on gold, with involvement of both state and non-state actors, including the National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) dissidents who operate in the region by embedding themselves in the local community, and through volatile alliance with the state military who profit from the mining (Ebus 2019a, Ebus 2019b, Burelli 2020).Insecurity risks in the region are largely related to the countrywide economic collapse and hyperinflation, and associated decline in employment and income, which then drive local communities to move to this area in search of alternative livelihoods. They then mainly get involved in illegal mining and criminal activities, with the likelihood to join non-state armed groups for survival. Uncontrolled resource extraction in lands that traditionally belonged to indigenous groups can be connected to forced displacement of populations, and related dismantling of indigenous social structures. This can then lead to further compounding of risks of violence for local people in the south, already suffering from epidemic and food shortages, through prevalence of channels for human trafficking, slave labor and child labor (Burelli 2020). Violent clashes between armed groups are a regular feature in these parts, with local crime syndicates, called sindicatos engaging in violent clashes with the Colombian guerrilla groups and army over the control of mines (Ebus 2019a).Furthermore, with revenues from resource extraction serving as capital for corrupt political elites, revenues through taxes become undervalued, thereby widening the rupture between the government and local people in this region (Ebus 2019a). Therefore, in the absence of good governance and lack of effective institutions for conflict resolution, impact of climate variability would be likely to exacerbate risks of violence and insecurity.The economic meltdown brought on by declining oil prices, hyperinflation, and lack of access to public goods and services including water, electricity, and healthcare, together with the political turmoil around the disputed presidency, have created a humanitarian crisis, resulting in mass exodus of over 5 million Venezuelans fleeing this repressive regime, and moving to other Latin American countries (Chemnick 2019, Abdenur and Rüttinger 2020, Human Rights Watch 2021). Officials under the Maduro regime have been indicted by the US for engaging in narcotrafficking, corruption, and human rights abuses, reportedly deriving their income from the inflow of currency through drug trafficking. While foreign interventions through oil sanctions hurt the legitimate economy, criminal accomplices of the regime are said to benefit from extortion of remittances sent by Venezuelan migrants across the international border (Ellis 2020).Many of these migrants are crossing the border to neighboring Colombia. For example, in oil producing Zulia state in north-western Venezuela, people are escaping to the Colombian side of the border, driven by hunger, poverty, violence, and inflated costs of basic services. However, instead of finding sanctuary on the other side of the border, distressed migrants (many with serious health conditions) struggle to survive without adequate food, water, and basic services like healthcare (Ebus 2020).The influx of these refugees may put a strain on resources in the receiving areas, and possibly contribute to tensions with the host community. Without adequate livelihood support, refugees can become even more vulnerable to insecurity risks by finding employment through organized crime channels that flourish in the border area due to absence of cooperation by security forces. Additionally, there have been reports of sexual and gender-based violence at border checkpoints (Ebus 2020). Furthermore, risks of violence confronting migrants, refugees, and residents in the borderland area can come from violent clashes between the indigenous Wayuu community and narcos and guerrillas wanting to control the border (Ebus 2020).COVID-19 further compounded precarity of the migrants, heightening their exposure to the virus in the context of lack of access to water, sanitation, and shelter. Xenophobic sentiments against displaced Venezuelans, especially those evicted and homeless, can magnify their exposure to insecurity and violence, with women forming a significant proportion of this group, and youth not in education system at the risk of being recruited by criminal organizations and armed groups (UNHCR 2021). Such situations can then lead to the possibility of COVID-induced return of migrants from neighboring countries, with associated risks of contagion from being detained for \"quarantine\" under crowded conditions (Ellis 2020). Colombia is a highly diverse country with a large range of ecosystems and considerable biodiversity 1 and water resources (The World Bank Group 2021). The country is highly vulnerable to climate change and variability, frequently suffering from extreme weather events such as droughts and floods.Temperatures are projected to continue rising between 2 and 4°C for the period to 2041/2070, potentially impacting water and land resources. Small-scale farmers are especially vulnerable because of their high dependency on rain-fed agriculture and their limited adapting capacity (The World Bank Group 2021; Colombian Government 2010). Rainfall variability is also likely to increase with a significant regional disparity -more rainfall in the Amazon basin and the coastal areas, and less rainfall in the highlands (The World Bank Group 2021). These changes in climate are likely to severely impact Colombia's economy and society which is notably dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, livestock, fisheries, mining, and tourism. Climate variability will particularly affect rural population and contribute to migration and internal displacement as well as hinder poverty reduction strategies, increasing the vulnerability of the most marginalised populations (PNUD 2011).At the same time Colombia suffers from many vulnerabilities, inequalities, and risks, some of which are both a cause and a consequence of the ongoing armed conflict. Unequal access to land has been at the heart of the conflict, including the preceding era of La Violencia, the civil unrest and the emergence of armed groups. The post-colonial governments continued with the Spanish legacy of high concentration of land and extended practices of land dispossession through violent means that severely undermined the livelihood of rural citizens (Pons-Vignon and Solignac Lecomte 2004; Thomson 2011). In fact, Colombia has the most unequal land distribution in Latin America with more than two thirds of the agricultural land concentrated in only 0,4% of the farmland holdings. In contrast, 84% of smallholder farmers controlled just 4% of the land (Guereña 2016).To counter the growing influence of the guerrilla groups and strengthen their power, big landowners created paramilitary self-defense groups which continued evicting farmers from their lands, taking advantage of the widespread absence of formal land titles which facilitated the expulsion of farmers from their lands (Guereña 2016). This dynamic, which continued throughout the 20 th and 21 st centuries, has recently been progressively linked to the expansion of the agribusiness and mining industry (Guereña 2016). Likewise, the growing violence, the eviction of farmers from their and the increasing presence of paramilitary groups has been also linked to the drug trade which boosted in the 1980s. In fact, drug cartels and paramilitary groups invested a considerable amount of their profits in acquiring land, using it for livestock and oil palm plantations. These groups currently own around 5 million hectares of land which accounts for 15% of Colombia's territory (Guereña 2016). Land acquisition has been the easiest way of money laundering as the land is a low taxed asset that can be easily purchased with a scarce government surveillance (USAID 2013;IDEAM et al. 2017). The land accumulation process shows how land in Colombia has been often regarded as a wealth accumulation mechanism rather than a productive mean to produce value (IDEAM et al. 2017). Such incredibly high concentration of land has been found to be detrimental for economic growth as well as a driving force for deforestation and a root cause of climate change (Lema and Kleffmann, 2019). Likewise, the use of land in Colombia shows an important imbalance between agriculture and livestock. The number of hectares devoted to livestock, which is generally characterised by a low productivity, has increased at the expense of agricultural land and forests. This evinces the excessive use of land for the livestock industry and the underused potential of the agricultural sector that uses only 24% of the farmland (IDEAM et al. 2017).Despite considerable progress in the last two decades, Colombia still has a 35.7% national poverty rate while also having a 52% food insecurity rate that has increased last year following the loss of employment and income caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (WFP 2020;World Bank 2021). The longlasting armed conflict, the arrival of 1.7 million Venezuelan migrants as well as the occurrence of extreme weather events have adversely impacted livelihoods and undermined food security (WFP 2020). In total, the armed conflict in Colombia has led to the internal displacement of more than 8 million people, curtailing their resilience and the capacity to cope with the effects of the climate crisis (ACNUR 2011;Contreras and Contreras 2016). The conflict has also had severe consequences for the environment. Actions taken by non-state armed groups (NSAGs) such as illegal mining and deforestation, the contamination of aqueducts and the explosion of oil pipelines have severely damaged ecosystems (Gutiérrez, Canal, and Ávila 2018).In this context, there are multiple pathways through which the climate crisis could act as a threat multiplier in Colombia, exacerbating pre-existing socio-economic, political and environmental vulnerabilities that are at the heart of conflict and security risks (Figure 2).La Guajira is a department of the Caribe region located in the northeast of Colombia, near the border with Venezuela. La Guajira is the most arid region in Colombia with less than 500mm annual rainfall and one of the most affected by the climate crisis (IDEAM et al. 2017;AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018).It suffers from extreme events such as droughts, floods and hurricanes as well as La Niña and El Niño phenomena (ELC La Guajira 2020; AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018). The existing conditions characterised by high levels of desertification and salinisation complicate agriculture and livestock activities. Only 2% of the land is considered suitable for agriculture and 2% suitable for livestock, compared to the average national levels -19 and 13% respectively (Bonet-Morón and Hahn-De-Castro 2017). During the last three decades there has been a rise of 0.7°C in average temperatures as well as an increase in rainfall variability (AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018). This trend is likely to continue in the future with increases in average temperatures between 0.95 and 0.15% by 2040 and of 2.3°C by the end of the century as well as a decline in annual rainfall between 14 and 16% by 2040 (IDEAM et al. 2015;AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018). Without the adequate mitigation and adaptation actions, these changes in climate may exacerbate existing socio-economic and political vulnerabilities, and potentially lead to an increase in tensions and conflict.The department suffers from a series of socio-economic and political vulnerabilities, including its economic isolation from the rest of the country as well as the prevalence of rural and highly disperse population which increases the difficulties and costs of public service provision (Bonet-Morón and Hahn-De-Castro 2017). Despite not being the most important region of drug trafficking in Colombia, its coastal territory has been used by many mafias and armed groups for exporting drugs and importing weapons and chemical supplies (Trejos Rosero 2017). The territory has suffered from the violence exerted by paramilitary groups -Clan del Golfo and Los Pachenca-and guerrillas -ELN and FARC-EP-as well as organised crime but also intra-communal violence (Trejos Rosero 2017;PNUD 2019).La Guajira, which shares a border with Venezuela, has been heavily affected by the humanitarian crisis that the neighboring country suffers since 2015 and it currently hosts around 150,000 Venezuelan migrants (GIFMM La Guajira 2020). The region has strong commercial ties with bordering Venezuelan regions -including fuel contraband-, reason why it has suffered the consequences of Venezuela's economic and political crisis (Bonet-Morón, Riccuulli-Marín, and Peña 2021; Ebus 2020). For instance, there has been a steep decline in remittances coming from Venezuela which has severely affected people's income as well as the department's tax collection (Bonet-Morón and Hahn-De- Castro 2017).Corruption is also a core problem that has hindered efforts to address some of the existing vulnerabilities, reason why the national government decided to intervene in the provision of public services such as education, healthcare and water management in 2017 (Bonet-Morón and Hahn-De-Castro 2017; HRW 2020).La Guajira is the department with the highest poverty rate (66.3%) and one of the highest food insecurity rates (59.1%) in Colombia (DANE 2021;WFP and ICBF 2008). The vulnerability of the children is particularly alarming with 27,9% of the children suffering from chronic malnutrition as well as significant rates of stunted growth, anemia and protein deficiency (AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018;WFP and ICBF 2008). Despite the overall reduction in the last five years in the infant mortality rate of Colombia, La Guajira has witnessed an increase, being the department with the highest infant mortality rate and representing 17% of the national cases (ELC La Guajira 2020). These socio-economic vulnerabilities affect particularly the Wayúu, an ethnic group that represents 38,4% of the region's population, has been historically marginalised and is particularly vulnerable (ELC La Guajira 2020; HRW 2020; Villalba Hernández 2007).The ECLAC has identified the potential of conflict over the different water uses, including irrigation, safe water supply and mining. While mining sectors are essential for many Latin American economies, mining operations require considerable water resources and are also often linked to water pollution which can endanger water resources and lead to conflicts between different water uses (Martín and Justo 2015). In the case of La Guajira we can see that the relevance of the agriculture and livestock industry has declined in the past few years while the lands that are best suited for agriculture have been devoted to mining while the local population continued to suffer from food insecurity and malnutrition (AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018). Lack of access to clean water is a crucial aspect of food insecurity in La Guajira which already suffers from an overall lack of hydric resources (AREMCA and Corpoguajira 2018). The Constitutional Court of Colombia concluded that mining activities in La Guajira have degraded water quality and hindered the access of some indigenous communities to this essential resource (Corte Constitucional de Colombia 2015;2019).La Guajira has witnessed conflicts over the access and use of water resources between indigenous and civil society organisations and mining companies. The most notorious and controversial involves the large open-pit coal mining project of Cerrejón 2 that operates in the region since 1976 (Dupre- Harbord 2017). There have been claims that the mine has curtailed water resources while also polluting the remaining ones (Dupre- Harbord 2017). As a consequence, the access to water of the communities for drinking and household needs as well as for agriculture and livestock activities has been undermined (Corte Constitucional de Colombia 2015) . In recent years the conflict over water resources has been exacerbated because of the repeated drought episodes that have render the population even more vulnerable, reducing water availability and increasing food insecurity and malnutrition in the region (FAO 2019;Dupre-Harbord 2017). Projected increases in temperatures and declines in precipitations could exacerbate the problem over the access to water resources, further impacting livelihoods of vulnerable communities and potentially increase tensions between indigenous communities and mining companies.The Colombian president has recently restated the commitment to decarbonisation by 2050 as part of the global effort to fight climate change (EFE 2021). The renewable energy transition will lead to an increasing importance of low-carbon energy and La Guajira has a great potential for wind and solar energy production (El Tiempo 2017). However, it must make sure that this transition is made in a climate security sensitive way. The investment of Enel Green Power for building a wind park that rekindled the conflict between two clans that had been fighting for more than a decade over land disputes in the village of Puerto Lopez is an example of a non-conflict sensitive climate action. The company negotiated with just one of the clan leaders without considering the other group which created resentment and renewed conflict (Mejía 2021;Bueno 2021) Therefore, the impact that climate action can have on peace and security should always be considered, as well as taking into account the unwanted effects that peacebuilding actions can have on climate action.Agriculture has traditionally been a crucial sector of the economy and it currently represents 7.6% of the GDP. Despite the overall decrease of the relevance of the sector in the past 50 years, during the last decade there has been an increase in the contribution of the sector to the GDP (The World Bank 2021). Agriculture has a great potential to continue growing and supporting food security, but it should effectively consider the threat posed by the climate crisis (World Bank, CIAT, and CATIE 2014).Projected increases in temperatures, soil erosion, desertification, and floods can adversely impact agriculture, resulting in declining production and productivity, increasing food insecurity particularly in rural areas (Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2012;Smith, Olosky, and Fernandéz 2021). Without any adaptation strategies, it is estimated that 60% of the cultivated land and 80% of the crops will be impacted by the changes in climate, including losses in important exports such as coffee, banana, and cocoa (Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2012). This is particularly worrisome for small scale agriculture because of its high dependency on rain-fed agriculture and its limited adapting capacity (Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2012;The World Bank Group 2021).The cultivation of illicit crops such as coca and opium poppy by small scale farmers has been identified as an unsustainable and dangerous way to cope with food insecurity and the unpredictability of agricultural markets (UNODC n.d.). In some rural areas of Colombia there is a lack of the necessary infrastructure that can grant the access to markets for legal crops while illegal crops have fixed prices that are generally higher than other crops as well as access to markets granted by narcotraffickers and armed groups (International Crisis Group 2021).However, the cultivation of illicit crops has a severe impact in the Colombian economy and society as well as the environment. The cultivation of illicit crops is linked to high levels of violence that particularly affect farmers which stand between the confrontations of the different armed groups and are subjected to their arbitrary rule (International Crisis Group, 2021). The planting of coca is also an important driver of deforestation and loos of biodiversity. The increase in coca cultivation has been linked to the expansion of the agricultural frontier, the increase of extensive livestock production as well as the control of the territory by NSAGs which often run illegal mining activities that further contribute to deforestation (Gutiérrez, Canal, and Ávila 2018). Deforestation, in turn, increases GHG emissions, contributing to climate change, while also altering the solar radiation, the nutrients and the humidity of the soil (Palomino López et al. 2014).The cultivation of coca contributes to environmental degradation through the deterioration of highly biodiverse areas which are essential carbon sinks that play a crucial role in the fight against climate change. In the last two decades there has been an encroachment of coca plantations into conservation areas such as indigenous reserves, national parks and other types of conservation areas where around half of the plantations are currently located (UNODC-SIMCI 2021). The changes in land use have affected ecosystems in different ways, including the reduction of water resources (Quimbayo Ruiz 2008). The chemicals used in the processing of the coca, often done in the same place as the cultivation, generally result in the pollution of food, land and water systems (Slunge 2015).The cultivation of coca and the associated deforestation reduce the resilience of socio-ecological systems, increasing the vulnerability to the projected increase in climate variability and extremes (Kendra McSweeney 2015). This is particularly worrisome when the environmental degradation and the loss of socio-ecological resilience -because of the strong presence of coca plantations coincidescoincide with the exposure to climate variability and extremes. For instance, the department of Putumayo, which concentrates the third largest area of coca cultivation in the country, is also exposed to an increasing number of landslides and floods (Murad and Pearse 2018;The World Bank Group 2021). In these contexts, the impact of the climate crisis could exacerbate existing social-economic, political and environmental vulnerabilities, increasing livelihood insecurity of small-scale farmers and incrementing the likelihood of their engagement in criminal and narcotrafficking networks through, for example, the cultivation of coca or opium poppy (Nett and Rüttinger 2016).Following the Peace Agreement between the Colombian Government and the FARC-EP signed in 2016, Colombia's Program to Substitute Crops Used for Illegal Purposes was launched in 2017 to promote the voluntary substitution of illicit crops through the implementation of various sustainable projects aimed to enhance farmers livelihood and living conditions (Presidencia de la República 2017). In this post-conflict scenario, Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) could play a vital role in increasing the productivity and food security of Colombian farmers while also mitigating and adapting to the effects of the climate crisis, increasing their overall resilience and the likelihood of engagement in criminal and narcotrafficking networks. The IPA develops different specific pathways through which climate can impact socio-economic, political and environmental vulnerabilities and exacerbate the risks of insecurity and conflict in Venezuela and Colombia. Particularly, it helps to understand how the complex and multifaceted interconnections between climate and conflict play out in specific climate security hotspots that are vulnerable to both climate and conflict. By doing so it aims to inform academics, practitioners, donors, investors, national and international policymakers about a complicated and heterogeneous reality and help them to develop more tailored responses that target those regions and communities most at risk and in need of urgent help. However, interconnected climate, security, and migration crises are being managed as separate challenges in LAC. It is essential to overcome sectoral silos between the development, climate and peace communities, making sure that climate action is more conflictsensitive and that peacebuilding efforts take into account their impact on climate. Through welltargeted support that complements humanitarian, political, social, and security-focused solutions, agricultural research for development can help rural populations adapt to and mitigate climate change impacts, stabilize agriculture-based livelihoods, and increase peace and security.CGIAR is uniquely positioned as a global leader in scientific research on land, water and food systems in a climate crisis. Given the interlinkages of land, water and food systems with peace and security, it follows that CGIAR science, innovation, and technologies are critical in supporting global efforts to secure sustainable peace. CGIAR aims to address gaps in knowledge about climate and food security for peace and security policies and operations through a unique multidisciplinary approach. It´s main objective is to align evidence from the realms of climate, land, water and food systems science with peacebuilding efforts already underway in order to address conflict through evidence-based environmental, political, and socio-economic solutions.CGIAR has identified several entry points for a climate security road map in LAC, including efforts to:1. Foster inter-ministerial and inter-sectoral dialogue on currently siloed perspectives. 2. Comprehensively quantify interrelated social, economic and environmental challenges and business cases to target public and private sector investment, including in research. 3. Build on existing regional networks and transfer platforms to re-think and re-design community-based approaches that can effectively serve a range of interrelated objectives and provide space and freedom to act for locally led, community-based approaches and build local resilience. 4. Put rural human development much higher on the agenda. 5. Strengthen and focus agricultural research for development to transform the agricultural system to be resilient and productive in response to climate change as a way of enhancing rural livelihoods.","tokenCount":"6865"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d2fc6a087fb97a19cf17aed1b38d766","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4196c87d-03b9-4ddb-a89a-92b7b265064e/retrieve","id":"402188538"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5f411f87-23f6-4f36-a24d-4761204811d2","pagecount":"24","content":"Évaluation et Leçons apprises de l'utilisation des services d'information météorologiques et climatiques au Sénégal. Document de capitalisation des acquis du projet USAID/CINSERE. Programme de Recherche du CGIAR sur le Changement Climatique, l'Agriculture et la Sécurité Alimentaire (CCAFS). Wageningen, Pays Bas, 24 pages.Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de  L e projet USAID/CINSERE (Services d'information climatiques pour améliorer la résilience et la productivité au Sénégal) est un projet de résilience qui vise à renforcer les capacités nationales pour la production, l'accès et la diffusion efficientes d'informations météorologiques et climatiques, à développer des stratégies pour une mise à l'échelle durable de l'utilisation des services d'information météorologiques et climatiques (SIMC) sur toute l'étendue du territoire national.Le projet est financé par l'Agence des Etats-Unis pour le Développement International (USAID) et mis en oeuvre par le CCAFS/ICRISAT en collaboration avec l'ANACIM depuis 2016. Dans le domaine de la pêche en particulier, le projet a renforcé les capacités des communautés de pêcheurs et a accru l'accès aux informations climatiques à travers le renforcement du système d'alerte précoce mis en place par USAID/Comfish. Dans le domaine de l'agriculture, en plus du renforcement des capacités de l'agence de la météo pour la production des services d'information climatique (SIC) de qualité, les agriculteurs ont été capacités pour l'utilisation efficace des SIC. Aussi, des canaux de diffusion ont été développés pour permettre à un grand nombre d'agriculteurs d'avoir accès aux SIC.Durant les quatre années de mise en oeuvre du projet, des études économiques et des évaluations ont été menées pour répondre aux questions suivantes : Ce document a été élaboré en utilisant l'ensemble des résultats des évaluations et études suivantes mises en oeuvre dans le cadre du projet.-Etude de base du projet USAID/CINSERE effectuée en 2016 par l'IPAR (Initiative Prospective Agricole et Rurale) qui a concerné 576 communautés de Pêcheurs et 1481 agriculteurs.-Évaluation de l'accès et de l'utilisation des services d'information climatiques : depuis 2017, quatre évaluations ont été menées aussi bien dans le domaine de la pêche que dans celui de l'agriculture. Ces évaluations sont faites en étroite collaboration avec Jokolante, une entreprise privée spécialisée dans la communication. Elles ont pour but de: i) connaitre le niveau de compréhension de l'information climatique par les populations cibles ; ii) identifier les types de décision prise à la réception de l'information par les bénéficiaires ; et enfin iii) évaluer les retours reçus des populations cibles par rapport à l'information reçue. Au moins 300 personnes sont interviewées dans le domaine de la pêche dans les catégories suivantes : pêcheurs, mareyeurs ou transformatrices dans les régions de Dakar, Saint-Louis et Mbour. Dans le secteur de l'agriculture, au moins 350 agriculteurs des zones de Kolda, Kaolack, Fatick, Ziguinchor, Sédhiou et Kaffrine ont été interviewés. Les interviews sont réalisés au téléphone avec la plateforme Jokalante.-Évaluation économique de l'utilisation des services d'information climatiques en vue de déterminer: i) la volonté des pêcheurs/ agriculteurs à payer pour l'accès à l'information climatique ; ii) l'impact de l'utilisation des SIC sur le revenu des pêcheurs/agriculteurs et iii) la rentabilité de l'utilisation des SIC. Pour cette étude, 500 pêcheurs ont été interviewées dans les zones de Mbour, Cayar, Saint-Louis et Dakar. Au niveau de l'agriculture, 1500 agriculteurs ont été impliqués dans les régions de Kaolack, Fatick, Kolda, Sédhiou et Ziguinchor.-Parallèlement, des entretiens ont eu lieu avec des personnes ressources, des agents de la direction de la protection et de la surveillance des pêches (DPSP), des membres des comités locaux de pêche artisanale (CLPA), des directions de développements rurales (DRDR) et des organisations de producteurs tout au long de la mise en oeuvre du projet. Ce document a été réalisé en prenant aussi en compte les leçons apprises dans la mise en oeuvre de la stratégie de suivi-évaluation.La mise en oeuvre de ces activités d'évaluation a été réalisée en collaboration avec l'IPAR qui a mené l'étude de base, la start-up Jokalante qui a été chargée des évaluations de l'accès et de l'utilisation des services climatiques. Il y a eu aussi une participation de l'ANACIM, de la DPSP, de la DRDR, des CLPA et des réseaux de consolidation, des populations de producteurs et communautés de pêcheurs qui ont bien voulu répondre aux questions. Les évaluations menées dans le secteur de la pêche ont montré que les informations sur la houle, les vents et les marées ont été les plus diffusées par l'ANACIM (Figure 2). D'autres phénomènes météorologiques extrêmes liés le plus souvent à la visibilité en haute mer sont largement accessibles par les pêcheurs. Le réseau social, constitue la principale source d'accés à l'information. Il est suivi des drapelets (fanions de vigilance) qui se trouvent au niveau des quais de pêche, des sms et de la radio (Figure 1).Les communautés de pêcheurs sont très satisfaites des informations reçues et les jugent utiles (Figure 3). Toutefois, elles préfèrent recevoir les alertes météo à travers la messagerie vocale car le sms exige un certain niveau d'éducation pour la lecture (Figure 4) .   La plupart des pêcheurs qui reçoivent une alerte météo qui concerne la houle ou les vents violents choisissent de ne pas aller en mer. Certains choisissent toutefois de changer de destination ou de ne pas considérer l'information. Ces derniers estiment que la pêche est leur unique activité lucrative et ne pas aller en mer entraine inéluctablement un manque à gagner financier pour nourrir leur familles (Figure 5). Les communautés de pêcheurs restent unanimes que les informations climatiques leur ont permis de diminuer les pertes en vies humaines, les accidents et de protéger leurs matériels de pêche. Toutefois, il demeure important d'accompagner les usagers de l'IC à changer d'activités pour leur permettre de ne pas perdre de revenus car l'IC induit une diminution des revenus, l'activité de pêche demeurant la principale activité lucrative pour ces pêcheurs (Figure 6). Pour les mareyeurs en particulier, lors des évènements météo extrêmes, ils choisissent de ne pas se rendre au niveau des quais de pêche pour acheter du poisson; ils en profitent pour vendre les poissons stockés à un prix plus élevé afin d'augmenter les revenus. Aussi, les femmes transformatrices utilisent en plus les informations sur la pluie pour choisir les jours de séchage/fumage de leurs produits.Les pêcheurs ont montré une réelle volonté à payer pour l'accès aux SIC. En général, dans l'année, ils consentent à payer 2617 Fcfa pour les SMS, 3363 FCFA pour les appels vocaux et 634 Fcfa pour les émissions radios. Le consentement varie considérablement d'une région à l'autre compte tenu de la vulnérabilité des zones aux phénomènes météorologiques extrêmes mais aussi de l'ampleur des pertes matérielles et humaines enregistrées (Tableau 1).  Les études réalisées ont été jugées rentables pour les pêcheurs et aussi pour l'économie nationale. L'impact pour les pêcheurs a été estimé à 18 600 138 FCFA (Figure 8). Au niveau national la VAN et le TRI ont été utilisés pour apprécier la rentabilité sur un horizon temporel de 5 ans. La VAN est estimée à plus de 2 milliards pour un taux d'actualisation de 7,5% et le TRI à 25%. La valeur actuelle nette représente l'enrichissement supplémentaire de l'investissement des SIC. L'accès aux IC en haute mer reste un défi majeur pour prévenir les catastrophes en mer. Un autre défi est que les pêcheurs sont confrontés à une diminution de plus en plus importante de leurs revenus à cause de la récurrence des phénomènes météorologiques qui les empêche de faire leur principale activité lucrative. Aussi, malgré les efforts consentis dans l'accès à l'information climatique, il est toujours observé des pertes en vies humaines et matérielles du fait souvent de l'absence de moyens et du manque d'accompagnement des services publics dans la prise en charge des populations lors de phénomènes de grande envergure.( perte de matériel )Impact 18 600 138 FCFA Photo 4. Un pêcheur consulte les informations climatiques reçus par sms. Crédit photo Ouédraogo I.L'accès et l'utilisation des SIC sont presque effectifs dans le secteur de la pêche. Pour assurer une durabilité, il demeure nécessaire de mettre en place des dispositifs permettant aux pêcheurs de disposer des informations à temps, mais aussi en haute mer pour leur permettre de prendre des dispositions idoines. Aussi très peu de pêcheurs ont un accès direct aux IC via le SMS ou appel vocal, il est donc urgent de développer des mécanismes payants pour leur permettre d'avoir un accès direct en fonction du canal qu'ils auront choisi. Il demeure tout aussi important que les autorités publiques accompagnent ces communautés de pêcheurs en mettant en place des mesures de préparation et d'accompagnement pour les populations lors des phénomènes de extrêmes. Les communautés de pêcheurs devront aussi être encadrées et accompagnées pour entreprendre d'autres activités lucratives lors de ces phénomènes pour leur permettre à la fois de prendre soin de leurs matériels et de leurs vies et de maintenir ou d'améliorer leurs revenus. L'introduction de l'assurance pêche dans toutes les zones de pêche pourrait être une bonne option.    La perception du paysan sur les informations climatiques a pris une nouvelle considération. De nos jours, les agriculteurs se servent de ces informations pour faire le choix des variétés à cultiver, le choix de la date de semis et pour réaliser les opérations culturales( Figure 12). Connaissant l'utilité de ces informations, les paysans sont désormais à sa quête et expriment leur inquiétude quand elles tardent à venir. En début de campagne, les IC sont utilisées pour les choix de la date de semis, d'une variété ou d'une culture donnée. En cours de saison, les informations permettent de planifier les activités liées à la fertilisation organique et minérale mais aussi au désherbage (Figure 13). En fin de saison, les agriculteurs utilisent les IC pour planifier la récolte et les activités post récolte (Figure 14). Toutefois, les agriculteurs estiment que le temps entre la réception de l'IC et la survenue de l'évènement annoncé est peu suffisant pour se prémunir des risques liés aux évènements climatiques. La plupart des enquêtés qui trouvent ce temps absolument insuffisant suggèrent une réception de l'information 24 heures avant sa réalisation prévisionnelle. Les agriculteurs estiment que les informations sur la pluie restent la plus utile pour la planification de leurs activités quotidiennes.     Pour garantir une durabilité de l'accès et de l'utilisation des services climatiques, il est important de faire face aux défis suivants :-la traduction des messages alertes en langues locales pour permettre une meilleure compréhension; -le couplage des informations climatiques avec des conseils agro météo -la production des IC à une échelle très fine ; -la réduction du délai d'envoi des informations climatiques ; -l'organisation des séances de renforcement des capacités sur l'information climatique et sur le changement climatique pour les agriculteurs. • Les bénéficiaires des SIC sont très satisfaits des informations climatiques et ont un bon niveau de confiance des services de la météo • Les pêcheurs comprennent les risques liés à la non-utilisation des services climatiques • La prévision saisonnière a un impact positif et significatif sur le rendement et le revenu agricole de l'agriculteur • Les bénéficiaires des SIC sont prêts à payer pour recevoir les informations climatiques • Les acteurs privés sont engagés à s'impliquer dans des modèles d'affaires pour la durabilité des SIC • La production et l'accès aux informations climatiques est rentable autant pour le pêcheur que pour l'agriculteur","tokenCount":"1860"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d72ff3d90498953f6b9191ca1be97ec7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2aeafab3-9bb4-4c7b-9934-420f5d2f5779/content","id":"-1125685647"},"keywords":["Bread Wheat","Early Maturity","SSRs","Allelic Diversity","Bi-parental Mapping Populations"],"sieverID":"c02f1c15-bb0a-40cf-8692-c576a07ac9a6","pagecount":"21","content":"The study involves evaluation of 96 wheat genotypes for early maturity and related traits and molecular characterization of trait speci c candidate genotypes using 26 (20 random and 6 genic) SSR markers. Trait characterization revealed signi cant variation for early maturity and related traits. The analysis of genotypic data of 26 markers led to the detection of 166 alleles ranging from 2 to 8 alleles with an average of 3.8 alleles per locus. Separate analysis of genotypic data of 20 random and 06 trait spece c markers led to the identi cation of 118 and 51 alleles, respectively. Sub-population-wise allelic diversity in early and late maturing populations could detect a total of 167 and 144 alleles, respectively. Higher gene diversity was detected in early maturing sub-population (0.135) when compared to late maturing sub-population (0.071). Single marker analysis (SMA) revealed signi cant association of 05 random and 02 trait speci c markers already reported for early maturity. Therefore, two trait speci c markers (Xwmc1 and Xgwm271) have been validated during the present study and contributed 21.36% and 10.94% phenotypic variation for early maturity, respectively. In order to breed for early maturity for Western-Himalayas, F 2 segregating populations were also developed by making crosses among spring × spring and spring × winter wheat genotypes and several important recombinants/ segregants for early maturity and related traits were identi ed. Overall, the ndings of the present study will prove useful in future wheat improvement programs leading to development of early maturing wheat varieties.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important cereal crop grown under diverse climatic conditions in different parts of the world. In India wheat is being cultivated in different states as an important rabi crop. Under intensive agriculture where we compete for getting more food from less area, the timely vacation of the elds are important to have more number of crops per unit area per year. The genetic improvement of early maturity trait in wheat is thus considered as an important objective of wheat breeding programs of India in general and north-western Himalayas in particular. Earliness in maturity is also considered as important factor for timely crop harvest and thus vacating eld for timely rice transplantation. Breeding early maturing wheat cultivars is also expected to provide protection from biotic and abiotic stresses (Joshi et al. 2007). Various physiological mechanisms like earliness, cooler canopies, stay-green, high transpiration rate, and reduced photosynthetic rates are employed by the plants to adapt to extreme temperature stress. Under late incidence or post heading of high temperature stress, earliness provides an escape mechanism (Joshi et al. 2007) and it has been considered as a single effective trait that de nes adaptation under such conditions (Tewolde et al. 2006).Therefore, breeding for early-maturing cultivars and inheritance of early maturity and its attributes, along with the high yielding trait serves as base material for wheat breeders to develop a short duration cultivar in wheat.Wheat owering/maturity is a complex quantitative trait controlled by set of vernalization (Vrn), photoperiod (Ppd) sensitive loci and earliness per se genes (eps) (Kato and Yamagata 1988;Zikhali and Gri ths 2015). Combinations of these genes contribute to differences in owering and maturity time in wheat, taking into account environmental conditions (van Beem et al. 2005;Kamran et al. 2013;Gomez et al. 2014;Guedira et al. 2014;Sukumaran et al. 2016). It is of utmost importance to characterize the wheat for early maturity and related traits as there lies spatiotemporal differentiation for these traits in wheat. Various studies have shown that earliness is greatly in uenced by the local climatic conditions and each genetic factor is controlled by multiple homoalleles (Goldringer et al. 2006).Potential of high-yielding and early maturing wheat lines have also been evaluated in different environmental conditions (Mondal et al. 2016). Further, genetic studies have been carried out in wheat to understand the mechanism of heading time to photoperiod responses both under normal as well as controlled conditions (Sourdille et al. 2000). To elucidate more about earliness in wheat, various morphological as well as molecular characterizations have been carried out earlier (Sourdille et al. 2000;Le Gouis et al. 2012;Mondal et al. 2016;Sukumaran et al. 2016;Kiseleva et al. 2016). In addition to genes for owering/photoperiod, several molecular markers have also been found associated with owering time/early maturity per se and other related traits through a variety of approaches. QTLs for earliness and its components are widely available, but little is known of the genetic control of earliness in wheat when compared with other species where genes and biochemical pathways are well documented, such as legumes (Weller et al. 2015) or Arabidopsis (Putterill et al. 2004).Furthermore, the use of molecular markers for the evaluation of genetic diversity is receiving much attention as they allow calculation of genetic distance based on allele frequencies and are also useful in studying the relationship of closely related lines (Huang et al. 2002). Availability of superior and diverse alleles/genes form the basis of genetic improvement of crop plants including wheat that can help in identi cation of new cultivars (Abouzied et al. 2013) . In addition, SSR markers are also useful for marker-assisted selection (MAS), genetic diversity, identifying quantitative trait loci, labeling of stress-tolerant genes in wheat or its wild relatives and genetic variability studies in wheat seed-borne diseases (Landjeva et al. 2007;Ijaz and Khan, 2009;Ya et al. 2017;Sharma et al. 2018;Biradar et al. 2018;Nsabiyera et al. 2018). Therefore, it was found imperative that the wheat material for early maturity be characterized (morphological characterization and molecular characterization) and already reported markers be validated on the available germplasm. This study aims at testing of a set of pre-selected wheat genotypes for early maturity, attempting promising crosses to have maximum possibility of getting a useful recombinant with extra-early maturity, develop relevant mapping populations and use random and trait speci c/genic (early owering/ maturity) SSR markers for germplasm characterization and identifying marker-trait associations for early maturity.The plant material used during the present study comprised of 96 wheat genotypes. The 96 wheat genotypes include 48 wheat genotypes procured from CIMMYT, BISA, Ludhiana (25 early maturing), 20 released Indian bread wheat varieties (medium maturing genotypes) from IIWBR, Karnal, 36 winter wheat genotypes (late maturing) procured from PAU, Ludhiana and 13 local wheat selections genotypes. List of material used in the study has been given in ESM Table 1. The material was evaluated along with two local released wheat varieties including Shalimar wheat-1 and Shalimar wheat-2 as checks at Faculty of Agriculture (FoA), Wadura, Sopore, Kashmir, India.The wheat germplasm (96 genotypes) were evaluated for 11 important quantitative traits viz., days to owering, days to maturity, plant height, number of tillers, spike length, number of spikelet's per spike, number of grains per spike, thousand grain weight, yield per hectare and seed morphological traits including seed length and breadth following PPV and FRA (Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Right Authority) descriptor (2007). The experiment was laid out in Random Block Design (RBD) with two replications. All the recommended package and practices were followed to raise a healthy crop. Ten plants were selected randomly before heading and tagged for recording the data. Analysis of variance for all the characters for testing variation among genotypes was carried out as per the procedure suggested by Verma et al (1987). Minimum, maximum, range, mode, mean, coe cient of variation, variance, standard error and standard deviation values have also been calculated for all the 11 traits. The data on early maturity trait was utilized for the study of marker-trait associations (MTAs) through single marker analysis (SMA) to identify signi cantly trait associated markers. The analysis of trait data also led to the identi cation of most promising parental genotypes for the development of biparental mapping population. All the above computations were carried out using the statistical software, Strengthening Statistical Computing for NARS -IASRI (Online Consortium, 2018).Based on phenotypic evaluation, a set of 57 genotypes (early and late maturing genotypes) were selected for SSR marker genotyping. A set of twenty-six (26) microsatellite or SSR markers spanning over all the 21 wheat chromosomes were selected from the consensus genetic map of wheat (Somers et al. 2004). These 26 SSR markers belongs to different series of SSR markers including WMC, GWM, GDM, CFD, CFA and BARC series of SSR markers. Details of primer sequences for all these SSRs are available elsewhere (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG3/).The selected markers included both genomic as well as genic SSR markers hereafter designated as Set-I and set-II SSR markers, respectively. The Set-I including random SSR markers while as Set-II includes trait speci c/genic SSR markers associated with QTLs for early owering and maturity. Set-II markers were selected from the previous published literature (Hanocq et al. 2006;Kuchel et al. 2006;Hanocq et al. 2007;Bonnin et al. 2008;Gri ths et al. 2009;Le Gouis et al. 2012;Zanke et al. 2014). The SSR once selected were synthesized on contract from Sigma Aldrich, Bangalore, India for marker genotyping work.The genomic DNA from each genotype was extracted from the leaves of one month-old plants following modi ed CTAB method (Saghai-Maroof et al. 1984). RNase treatment and phenol: chloroform: isoamyl alcohol precipitation was carried out for puri cation of isolated DNA (Sambrook et al. 1989). The basic PCR ampli cations were performed in a 20 µL reaction mixture containing 10 µL 2 x Taq PCR Master Mix, 1 µL 50-100 ng µL -1 g DNA, 1 µL 10 p mol lL -1 of each primer and 7 µL sterilized ddH 2 O (Guo et al. 2015). The PCR pro le was: Initial denaturation at 94 °C for 5 minute, followed by denaturing at 94 °C for 1 minute, annealing at 52-60 °C for 30s, and extension at 72 °C for 30 seconds to 2 minutes, and steps 2-4 were repeated 34 cycles with a nal extension at 72 °C for 10 min. The ampli ed products were checked on 3% agarose gels and resolved on 10% polyacrylamide denaturing gels (PAGE) followed by silver staining (see Mir et al. 2012b for details). The genotyping data (marker alleles) for all SSRs was recorded manually using the stained gels.The estimation of genetic indices and AMOVA were performed using GeneAlEx 6.41 (Peakall and Smouse, 2006).Both random (20) and trait speci c/genic (06) SSR marker genotypic data was used to calculate genetic indices include estimation of total number of alleles (Na), number of effective alleles, expected heterozygosity (He) and number of private alleles con ned to a single population. All these analysis helped to compare between early and late maturing wheat sub-populations. Cluster analysis was performed using the unweighted pair group method and arithmetic average to study the genetic relationships among the cultivars. These coe cients were used to construct dendrogram using the un-weighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) using statistical software DARwin version 6 (Perrier et al. 2003) for the classi cation of population into sub population and the robustness of internodes was assessed by bootstrap analysis and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was performed on the entire germplasm set computed from SSR markers using DARwin software (Perrier and Jacquemoud-Collet 2006).The polymorphic information content (PIC) was also calculated following Botstein et al. 1980. See formula 1 in the supplementary les.Where, P ij and P ik are the frequencies of j th and k th alleles for marker i, respectively.Simple linear regression was determined for days to maturity trait with all the genotypic data of all SSRs. A potential relationship between the marker and trait was established by considering the signi cance of the regression coe cient. Adjusted R 2 value is used to judge the marker-trait relationship. R 2 value gives the overall percentage of phenotypic variation explained by a particular marker for early maturity.Based on phenotypic and genotypic trait evaluation, a set of candidate genotypes possessing extra early maturity, late maturity, high yield and disease resistance were selected. Intercrossing was performed among the selected genotypes and with winter wheat genotypes. Two F 2 bi-parental mapping populations were developed by crossing contrasting parents for early maturity and yield related traits. These include Andalou (winter wheat) / WS-1614 (spring wheat), CIMMYT-4060 (spring wheat) / Aardvark (winter wheat). Parents, their F 1 s and F 2 s were evaluated under eld conditions and data was recorded for morphological traits viz., days to owering, days to maturity, plant height, number of tillers, spike length , number of spikelets per spike and yield per plant. Mean, minimum, maximum and standard deviation values were calculated from the recorded data. In order to identify the transgressive segregants among F 2 populations, individual F 2 plant was evaluated and compared with its parents.Early maturity, high yield and related components are important targeted traits in wheat. Many wheat breeding programmes around the globe are targeted at describing new genetic variation for early maturity and yield related traits. Breeding for early maturity is considered one of the most important and challenging tasks for wheat breeders in areas experiencing long period of cold weather followed by short crop growing periods. Thus breeding for early maturing wheats in these areas assumes importance for successful rice-wheat crop rotation. Rice-wheat crop rotation is important for doubling farmer's income in north-western Himalayas where wheat is grown during winters followed by rice in summers. Vacating wheat eld on time for rice cultivation in early summers is considered one of the daunting tasks for wheat breeders. Therefore, the present study was aimed at testing of a set of wheat genotypes for early maturity, attempting crosses between contrasting parents for developing segregating populations for days to maturity and identi cation of early maturing recombinants. Efforts have been also made to use SSR markers (both linked to early maturity and random markers) for genotyping of the available germplasm for the genetic analysis of early maturing trait in wheat.The frequency distribution of all the 11 important quantitative traits (days to owering, days to maturity, plant height, number of tillers, spike length, number of spikelet's per spike, number of grains per spike, thousand grain weight, yield per hectare, seed length and seed breadth) exhibited normal distribution (Fig. 1). Values of minimum, maximum, range, mode, mean, coe cient of variation, variance, standard error and standard deviation for all the 11 traits under study have been presented in the Table 1. Coe cient of variation was highest for number of tillers, seed set per spike, spike length and grain yield. However, thousand grain weight and plant height showed medium coe cient of variation. It indicates the presence of su cient amount of genetic variability for all the traits. The analysis of variance (Table 2) also revealed that the treatments were highly signi cant for all the 11 traits and highest value for mean sum of squares was estimated for grain yield (kg ha -1 ) followed by seed set per spike, while as seed length and seed breadth had lowest. Days to owering and days to maturity traits also showed signi cant results. Similar kind of results were also substantiated by Singh and Sharma, (2007); Atta et al. (2008); Gupta et al. (2009); Mohsin et al. (2009); Chandra et al. (2010) and Bhuri and Upadhyay, (2013). The estimation of variation is very important for any plant breeding programme and selection is effective when the magnitude of variability in the breeding population is high. Here in our study, huge amount of variation was also detected for traits under consideration including important traits of our interest (days to owering and days to maturity). This trait variation can be utilized for different wheat breeding programmes for the development of early maturity and high yielding varieties. Further, morphological markers and trait variation are considered as important tool for germplasm characterization and thus they play a crucial role in detection and mapping of genes of economic importance.The molecular characterization of a set of wheat genotypes using genomic and trait speci c/genic microsatellite markers and their allelic diversity is important in selecting a core set of early maturing genotypes, the selection of parents to develop relevant mapping populations and to initiate wheat breeding programs for the areas where early maturity in wheat is an important consideration. In bread wheat, genomic SSRs have been extensively used for the study of genetic diversity (van de Wouw et al. 2010). The genetic diversity detected by genomic SSRs may not represent \"true genetic diversity\" as most of these markers may detect polymorphism in non-coding and poorly conserved regions of the genome among species (Brown et al. 2001;Gupta et al. 2003). Therefore, SSR markers associated with trait of interest and selected from the genic regions may help to detect true genetic diversity.Keeping in view, two set of SSR markers were used in the present study. Set-I include the random SSR markers while as Set-II include SSR markers associated with QTLs for early maturity and related traits (Hanocq et al. 2006;Kuchel et al. 2006;Hanocq et al. 2007;Bonnin et al. 2008;Gri ths et al. 2009;Gouis et al. 2012;Zanke et al. 2014). The results of the SSR markers used for characterization of 57 genotypes are presented below: SSR allelic diversity: genomic vs genic SSRs Twenty-six SSR markers (20 random and 06 genic SSR markers) were tested on 57 wheat genotypes during the present study for their characterization. These SSRs were distributed on 15 chromosomes (2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, 1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 1D, 2D, 3D, 4D and 5D chromosomes). These 26 markers led to the ampli cation of 53 genomic loci including 37 loci by random and 16 loci by genic SSRs. The 20 random markers tested on 57 genotypes could detect 118 alleles with an average of 3.10 alleles, while as 6 genic SSRs detected a total of 51 alleles with an average of 3.20 alleles/locus. The number of effective alleles detected was 84.09 and 51 respectively, for random and genic markers. While analyzing the data separately, the number of private and common alleles detected was also compared between the random and genic SSRs. The random SSRs detected an average of 3.2 private alleles, whereas the genic SSRs detected an average of 3.1 private alleles. Expected heterozygosity (He) per locus in case of random SSRs ranged from 0.188 (Xcfd39B) to 0.838 (Xcfd267B) with an average value of 0.506, while as for genic SSRs it ranged from 0.233 (Xcfb3266A, Xcfb3266C) to 0.774 (Xgwm453B) with an average of 0.450. The average value of PIC (Polymorphic Information Content) for all markers was 0.518, ranging from 0.188 (Xcfd39B) to 0.838 (Xcfd267B) (Table 3). By analyzing the above parameters, the diversity detected by the SSRs associated with QTLs for early maturity and related traits (Set-II SSRs) was slightly lower than the diversity detected by the random SSRs (Set-I). Private alleles detected by the random SSRs were also slightly more than the trait spece c/genic SSRs. One possible reason may be the use of less number of trait speci c SSRs. Other reason may include the selection pressure on the SSRs associated with the QTLs for early maturity and related traits. These results during the present study were expected and are in agreement with our earlier results on Indian wheats (Mir et al. 2012a) where less diversity was detected by SSR markers associated with grain weight compared to random genomic SSR markers. The random SSRs could detect a total of 295 alleles (average alleles/locus = 7.02) while as trait spece c/genic SSRs for grain weight could detect 220 alleles (average number of alleles/locus = 4.59) in released Indian wheat varieties (Mir et al. 2012a). The less diversity detected during the present study by us may be due to trait speci c germplasm (early maturing germplasm) used during the present study where targeted breeding programs leads to reduction in genetic diversity. Other researchers have also reported less genetic diversity in different wheat collections with average number of alleles per locus ranging from 2.36 to 3.5 (Drikvand et al. 2015;Kumar et al. 2016). Drikvand et al. (2015) assessed genetic diversity of some durum and bread wheat genotypes and distinguished a total of 71 alleles. In contrast, some ndings have described high level of genetic diversity as re ected by allele number per locus ranging from 4-18 alleles per locus in various wheat collections (Huang et al. 2002;Roussel et al. 2004;Maccaferri et al. 2005;Zhang et al. 2010;Chen et al. 2012). Roussel et al. 2004 evaluated genetic diversity of 559 French wheat accessions and reported 14.5 alleles per locus and a polymorphic information content (PIC) value of 0.66. Interestingly, the mean PIC value of SSR markers recorded in the present study was moderate (0.188 to 0.838 with the mean PIC value of 0.518). This was in agreement with earlier studies (Roussel et al. 2004;Zhang et al. 2010;Mir 2012a;Arora 2014). Furthermore, our ndings have well justi ed the potential of primers selected for assessing genetic diversity in the set of wheat germplasm. The primer Xgwm453 with highest Shannon's Information Index was identi ed as most potential primer for genetic diversity studies in wheat. Such primers can be recommended and used for wheat genetic diversity studies in future. In addition, maximum He was recorded in the present study (0.506 for Set-I, and 0.450 for Set-II) which is in agreement with our previous study where also maximum heterozygosity was found for both the sets of markers (He 0.65 in Set-I and 0.55 in Set-II) (Mir et al. 2012a).The allelic diversity of early maturing genotypes when compared to late maturing genotypes led to identi cation of 167 alleles in early maturing genotypes with an average of 3.00 alleles/locus. The average number of alleles with frequency >= 5% was 2.73 and the number of effective alleles were 120.625 with an average of 2.16. Similarly, gene diversity (expected heterozygosity; He) varied from 0.135 to 0.703 with an average of 0.461. The lowest He (0.145) was recorded for SSR marker Xgwm383A and highest (0.830) for SSR marker Xcfd31B. Similarly, for late maturing group, the total number of alleles detected in the germplasm was 144 with an average of 2.81 alleles/locus. The average number of alleles with frequency >= 5% was 2.64 and the number of effective alleles were 112.080 with an average of 2.06. Similarly, gene diversity (expected heterozygosity; He) varied from 0.071 to 0.656 with an average of 0.45. The lowest He (0.091) was recorded for SSR marker Xgwm383A and highest (0.756) for SSR marker Xgwm190A. The number of alleles unique to a single population were present more in early maturing population (0.377) as compared to that of late maturing population (0.189) (Table 4). Upon measuring and comparing genetic diversity among populations, estimated number of different alleles, effective alleles, private alleles (number of alleles unique to a single population) and expected heterozygosity was more in case of early maturing population as compared to that of late maturing population (Fig 2). These results con rmed the differences between two populations on molecular basis and thus can be used as an effective tool for the study of genetic dissimilarity among the two populations and selection of parents from the two populations. These results were in agreement with those of Zhang et al. (2006), who emphasized that SSRs were an effective marker system for detecting genetic diversity among wheat and related species and provided useful information about the phylogenic relationships. The present study also demonstrated that the wheat genotypes could be distinguished by these SSR markers showing high level of polymorphism. This also leads to the parental characterization (using SSR markers) of genotypes involved in various cross combinations for early maturity and related traits. Furthermore, to evaluate the extent of population differentiation, the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) based on 99 permutations was analyzed and the genetic variation within and between populations was quanti ed. The PT (analogue of FST xation index) value for genetic variability and the percentage of polymorphism (%) were calculated for each population, using GenALEx 6.41. Molecular analysis of variance showed that 91% of the diversity was distributed within populations and 9 % among populations (Table 5). The high PT value (0.093, P = 0.010) indicates signi cant genetic variability. A sense of genetically signi cant difference was found in the early and late maturing populations. These results also correspond to those of Donini et al. (2000); Mir et al. (2012a); Manickavelu et al. (2014). AMOVA partitioned 10% of the total variation for genetic diversity as among sub-cluster and 90% as within sub-cluster in the distance-based analysis (Zhang et al. 2010). Similar studies have reported that ge netic diversity losses have been observed in recent times attributable to breeding in bread wheat (Christiansen et al. 2002;Reif et al. 2005;Warburton et al. 2006;Huang et al. 2007;Hysing et al. 2008).The un-weighted neighbor joining (UNJ) dendrogram of random markers constructed on the basis of genetic dissimilarity matrix grouped the cultivars into two groups, early and late maturity population. One largely carrying cultivars belonging to CIMMYT wheat group, and the other largely carrying those belonging to winter wheat group and some promising wheat varieties. Principal coordinate analysis also separated the 57 genotypes into two major groups, which was consistent with assignments generated by UPGMA clustering (Fig. 3). The genotypes belonging to group 1 were mainly distributed in the lower left portion of the resulting plot, with group 2 distributed in the upper right and lower right, indicating higher diversity among the two groups. These results were later on con rmed by the single marker analysis results which led to the identi cation of some new marker-trait associations with early maturity (see section single marker analysis). Therefore, these markers associated with early maturity among random markers may be responsible for trait speci c grouping of genotypes using random markers.UPGMA cluster analysis using non-random markers i.e., trait speci c genic markers also led to clear cut separation of genotypes based on their trait values (days to maturity). The analysis divided the 57 genotypes into three major groups thus depicting high resolving power of speci c markers. Each group is divided into further two sub groups carrying early and late maturing genotypes in different sub groups as presented in the gure 4. This grouping pattern also supported the conclusion that the groups of cultivars differed genetically and demonstrating the superiority of trait speci c markers in cluster analysis. Principal coordinate analysis also separated the 57 genotypes into different groups, which was consistent with assignments generated by UPGMA clustering (Fig 4). In our earlier study also, we have demonstrated the clustering of 263 Indian wheat varieties into two groups: pre-green revolution period varieties and post-green revolution period varieties (Mir et al. 2012a).Incorporation of genomics and marker assisted selection (MAS) into breeding programmes often results in increase in the genetic gains by nearly two-fold compared to standard phenotypic selection (Batten eld et al. 2016;Crain et al., 2018). Marker-assisted selection (MAS) or molecular breeding offers an opportunity to accelerate the traditional breeding programs. Single marker analysis was conducted for days to maturity with Set-I (random SSRs) and Set-II (trait speci c/genic) SSRs. The aim was to identify new marker trait association and validate already known to be associated with early maturity (trait speci c markers). Interestingly markers were found associated with early maturity from both sets of SSR markers used during the present study. The results of Single Marker Analysis (SMA) using random markers and trait speci c markers are presented in Table 6. Days to maturity showed signi cant association with 05 out of 20 random markers. The phenotypic variation explained (PVE%) by these random markers varied from 7.61% to 18.57% (Table 6a). Among these 05 associated SSR markers, the marker Xgwm148 explained 18.57% phenotypic variation for early maturity followed by the marker Xcfd31 explaining 13.34% phenotypic variation. Interestingly, markers Xcfd31 and Xgwm148 have also been previously reported to be associated with QTL for grain Zn (QZn.pau-7A) (R 2 = 18.8%) and slow rusting resistance genes (QYrlu.cau-2BS1) (R 2 = 36.6%), respectively (Guo et al. 2008;Tiwari et al. 2009;Hua et al. 2009). Thus, these marker trait associations can prove useful in wheat breeding programs after future validation. Similarly, while testing MTAs of trait speci c markers reported for early maturity, 02 markers out of 06 trait speci c SSR markers were again found associated for early maturity and therefore validated (Table 6b). These validated markers Xwmc1 and Xgwm271 explained 21.36% and 10.94% phenotypic variation for early maturity trait, respectively. Therefore, during the present study markers like Xwmc1 and Xgwm271 with highest R 2 values have been validated for early maturity. This study concluded that these SSR markers could introduce a great bene t for breeding programs to select early genotypes without waiting eld evaluation and could be used in marker assisted selection for earliness trait. These results also support the idea that SSR markers can provide fast detection of genes of interest. Trait-linked DNA markers have been identi ed for numerous traits in wheat, including disease resistance and grain quality (Helguera et al. 2003;Williams et al. 2002;Daetwyler et al. 2014;Qureshi et al. 2018;Li et al. 2018;Camargo Rodriguez et al. 2018;Kumar et al. 2018). All these identi ed markers in various studies are being successfully utilized for wheat breeding programmes throughout the world.Trait analysis of bi-parental (F 2 ) mapping population for early maturity and yield related traits Highly signi cant differences were found among the four parental genotypes for days to owering, days to maturity, plant height, effective tillers per plant, spike length, spikelets per spike and grain weight per plant. For days to maturity, one winter × spring and one spring × winter wheat crosses Andalou (winter wheat) / WS-1614 (spring wheat) and CIMMYT-4060 (spring wheat) / Aardvark (winter wheat) had signi cant differences among parents of about 30 and 50 days, respectively. Average days to maturity recorded for F 1 s was 240 for both the crosses. Total 150 F 2 plants were screened from both the crosses. In case of F 2 s, days to maturity ranged from 225 to 260 days with an average of 239.6 days and 218 to 276 days with an average of 249.7 days, respectively. Data obtained for other early maturity and related traits also showed signi cant differences as has been presented in Table 7 and Table 8. Few transgressive segregants have been identi ed with yield ranging from 30-33 gm per plant and having early maturity ranging from 225-228 days. Spike length which is also an important yield contributing trait ranged from 13-14 cm for the identi ed plants. The F 2 plants thus identi ed can be used for further breeding programmes in wheat. The main aim of our study was to identify several transgressive segregants that resulted from both the crosses for traits like early owering, early maturity and yield. The existence of genetic variation for early maturity, yield and its components in both of the crosses indicates that these crosses have the potential that can be exploited through selection from the recombinant inbred lines in advanced generations.In wheat different types of multi-parental populations have been developed in order to obtain greater precision in ne mapping with little or no genetic structure. One approach is to combine different biparental populations, for example, diallels or factorial crosses (Rebai and Go net, 1993) or crosses with a common reference line (nested association mapping, NAM (Yu et al. 2008). The biparental maping populations developed in ","tokenCount":"5186"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d52ede2d7efceaef99da9632eba9a285","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b18efab7-5467-4146-8d9d-7ae0dab1129e/retrieve","id":"-246856675"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0abb05c-7084-4d44-b890-fff63927c6cb","pagecount":"13","content":"Cette publication répond aux droits d'auteur de l'Institut International de Recherche sur l'Elevage (ILRI) et suit la licence Creative Commons Paternité -Pas d'utilisation commerciale -Partage des conditions initiales à l'identique 3.0. Pour voir cette licence visiter http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/deed.fr. Sous réserve d'indications spécifiques, vous êtes libres de copier, dupliquer ou reproduire, et distribuer, afficher ou transmettre tout ou partie sans permission, et d'entreprendre ¬traductions, adaptations ou autres travaux dérivés selon les conditions suivantes : ATTRIBUTION. Vous devez attribuer l'oeuvre de la manière indiquée par l'auteur de l'oeuvre ou le titulaire des droits (mais pas d'une manière qui suggérerait que ILRI ou l'auteur vous approuve, vous ou votre utilisation de l'oeuvre). PAS D'UTILISATION COMMERCIALE. Vous n'avez pas le droit d'utiliser cette oeuvre à des fins commerciales. PARTAGE DANS LES MEMES CONDITIONS. Si vous modifiez, transformez ou adaptez cette oeuvre, vous n'avez le droit de distribuer votre création que sous une licence identique ou similaire à celle-ci.Les systèmes de productions animales en Afrique sont en train de subir des mutations importantes à la suite de chocs du coté de l'offre et de la demande (Delgado et al, 1999). Ces conflits sont en train d'induire des modifications dans les systèmes de productions animales et d'exposer les ressources génétiques animales à des risques de perdre leur diversité génétique (Delgado, Rosegrant, et Meijer, 2001). La perte de la diversité, y compris le bétail ruminant endémique (BRE) est le résultat de choix faits par les producteurs et les Gouvernements pour des raisons essentiellement économiques et d'opportunisme politique, respectivement (Mhlanga, 2002) Pour les bouchers, l'attribut Embonpoint est le plus important, contribuant jusqu'à 73 % des prix. Cela indique que les bouchers n'attachent pas beaucoup d'importance à la race, à la catégorie, l'origine agroécologique, ou à la couleur de la robe. La rentabilité après abattage est ce qui les intéresse, d'où l'importance de la conformation physique de l'animal. S'agissant des marchands, l'importance relative de chaque attribut est mieux repartie, avec Embonpoint (32 %), Catégorie (22 %), et Race (20 %) étant les attributs les plus importants. Ceci est bien connu des entreprises commerciales d'élevage en Afrique de l'Ouest en général, et au Mali en particulier.Les acheteurs, notamment ceux qui achètent dans les marchés terminaux, gardent très rarement pour longtemps le bétail acheté : en fait, certains concluent un accord pour simplement faire demi-tour et revendre le même animal, sans avoir à supporter des frais supplémentaires, faisant ainsi un profit rapide. Tout comme les marchands, la contribution relative des différents attributs sur la formation des prix, basés sur des estimations du sous-échantillon autres acheteurs, est plus équilibrée avec Embonpoint et Origine agroécologique, respectivement contribuant 30 % and 24 % dans la formation des prix. Vu qu'il s'agit d'un groupe hétérogène, toute explication devient un peu difficile. Ce groupe est essentiellement composé d'acheteurs occasionnels qui, pour des raisons superstitieuses, privilégient une couleur de robe sur une autre, lors de leurs achats pour des cérémonies familiales. Cela a été expliqué précédemment pour ce qui est du rabais/escompte de la robe noire par rapport à la robe blanche. La race et la catégorie de l'animal sont également importantes pour ce groupe.Les estimations présentés dans le Tableau 1 peuvent être utilisés pour prédire le prix de n'importe quels profiles (jusqu' à 442) de bovins présentés sur les marchés du bétail maliens sur la base des attributs utilisés dans cette étude. Tableau 2 offre une présentation des prix prédits de six profiles choisis comme exemple.Tableau 2. Prix prédits de quelques profiles de bovins utilisant les estimations de prix de base, primes et déprimes des différents attributs bases sur la totalité de l'échantillon (en CFA) Les résultats de l'étude ont des implications en matière de production et de commercialisation, car ils permettraient aux producteurs et aux marchands de BRE de prendre des décisions bien motivées de production et de marketing , après avoir été mieux informés sur la façon dont les attributs du bétail qu'ils mettent sur le marché, sont primés ou pénalisés. Ce qui peut se faire sur la base d'un système d'information sur les marchés qui pourra diffuser les prix des animaux relative à leur attributs. Plus important encore à retenir : tandis que le croisement (métissage) peut conduire à des prix plus élevés, la sélection au sein de la race et l'embouche sont les meilleures voies qui pourraient mener à de meilleures perspectives pour les producteurs de Ndama vu qu'ils conduisent à un meilleur prix, tout en protégeant la race pour une utilisation future. Cela nécessiterait des investissements de la part des producteurs de Ndama, ce qui pourrait aider à soutenir le gain en qualité aussi longtemps que le marché continue à rétribuer des attributs tels que l'excellent embonpoint plus qu'ils ne pénalisent la race.","tokenCount":"782"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"08e6e86d4c09dbda3c1af1e7a8bed04b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb8da656-b1a9-4f40-a301-fb30faba4a2a/retrieve","id":"-1635075875"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9913019a-8f41-48f4-83de-93c053e3614d","pagecount":"8","content":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank.The Community-Based Breeding Program (CBBP) was introduced in Ethiopia in 2009 as an innovative sheep and goat breeding approach, departing from traditional methods that relied on exotic breeds and nucleus breeding. This program aims to improve the livelihoods of sheep and goat producers, enhance market supply and food security, and establish a replicable genetic improvement framework within and beyond Ethiopia. The Menz sheep community-based breeding program in North Shewa has been at the forefront of CBBP in Ethiopia, playing a crucial role in sustainable livestock development. As the Menz CBBP expands and accumulates a vast amount of data, the management and analysis of this data becomes increasingly complex, impeding the timely provision of feedback. Hence, a digital database system called DTREO has been developed and implemented to facilitate the data capture and analysis process. To ensure the functionality of the DTREO, a well-trained team of enumerators is essential to collect, maintain, and utilize data efficiently through a digital database. The objective of this training program is thus to equip enumerators working on Menz sheep CBBP with the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out their tasks effectively, thereby contributing to the overall success of the Menz community-based breeding program.The training was focused on:Menz sheep is one of the well-known and recognized for adaptation and disease-resistance breeds in Ethiopia. Importance of data quality for the success of genetic improvement programs.Accurate Breeding Value Estimation: Genetic improvement programs rely on estimating the breeding values of animals to make informed selection and mating decisions. Breeding values predict the genetic merit of individuals for specific traits. High-quality data ensures these estimates are as accurate as possible, leading to better selection decisions and genetic progress.Effective Selection and Mating Decisions: Quality data allows breeders and geneticists to identify animals with desirable genetic traits and characteristics. Accurate information on traits such as productivity, health, and adaptability enables breeders to select animals that will contribute positively to the overall improvement of the population. Reliable data ensures that animals are chosen based on their true genetic potential, leading to more effective selection and mating decisions.Enhanced Genetic Diversity Management: Genetic improvement programs aim to maintain and improve genetic diversity within a population. High-quality data helps identify individuals with unique genetic attributes and potential mating pairs that maximize genetic diversity. Accurate data on pedigree, ancestry, and genetic relationships enables breeders to make informed decisions to prevent inbreeding and maintain a healthy gene pool.Monitoring Progress and Evaluating Program Performance: Data quality is vital for tracking the progress of genetic improvement programs over time. By consistently collecting accurate and reliable data, breeders can assess the success of their selection strategies and evaluate the program's performance. This information helps identify areas for improvement, adjust breeding goals, and implement necessary changes to ensure continued progress.Dtreo Genetic Database is a powerful tool for capturing and analyzing genetic data in breeding programs. To • Introduce enumerators to the Dtreo Genetic Database and its key features.• Train enumerators on data entry/capture procedures within the Dtreo database.• Provide hands-on experience in using Dtreo for data collection in the field.• Familiarize enumerators with data validation and quality control measures within Dtreo.• Demonstrate how to save captured data within Dtreo and ensure proper data storage.• Training on data transfer procedures from Dtreo to the cloud storage platform.","tokenCount":"596"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4c76796a6689d0689d8f85e2f0f473a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4a773c81-41ff-4def-9132-8a7db97f56ab/retrieve","id":"1408179630"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1a9995ed-d2ff-4a22-8ae8-37532f76a25f","pagecount":"6","content":"Crop adaptation to climate change requires accelerated crop variety introduction accompanied by recommendations to help farmers match the best variety with their field contexts. Existing approaches to generate these recommendations lack scalability and predictivity in marginal production environments. We tested if crowdsourced citizen science can address this challenge, producing empirical data across geographic space that, in aggregate, can characterize varietal climatic responses. We present the results of 12,409 farmer-managed experimental plots of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Nicaragua, durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) in Ethiopia, and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in India. Farmers collaborated as citizen scientists, each ranking the performance of three varieties randomly assigned from a larger set. We show that the approach can register known specific effects of climate variation on varietal performance. The prediction of variety performance from seasonal climatic variables was generalizable across growing seasons. We show that these analyses can improve variety recommendations in four aspects: reduction of climate bias, incorporation of seasonal climate forecasts, risk analysis, and geographic extrapolation. Variety recommendations derived from the citizen science trials led to important differences with previous recommendations. climate adaptation | genotype × environment interactions | crop variety evaluation | citizen science | crowdsourcing Author contributions: JC rop improvement is important to increase agricultural productivity and to contribute to food and nutrition security. The need for new crop varieties is exacerbated by climate change. Farmers need to replace crop varieties with better-adapted ones to match rapidly evolving climate conditions (1)(2)(3)(4). Where suitable modern varieties do not exist, suitable farmer varieties are needed instead (\"variety\" is applied to all cultivated materials here) (4). The variety replacement challenge has yet to be effectively addressed. One proposed solution is to increase variety supply by accelerating crop breeding, removing older varieties from the seed supply chain, and assiduously promoting new varieties for farmers (2). Supply-driven variety replacement requires that new varieties are locally adapted and acceptable, but varieties are often recommended without prior geographic analysis to determine recommendation domains (5) on the basis of trials that do not adequately represent local production conditions (6)(7)(8). Therefore, a supply-driven approach may introduce varieties that perform worse than locally grown varieties. Demandoriented approaches address this issue but also fall short of a solution. They involve farmers directly in the selection of crop varieties in on-farm experiments (6). Farmer-participatory selection stimulates local interest in new varieties and produces information on variety performance that is immediately relevant to local climate adaptation. This local focus is a strength as well as a limitation. Scaling is constrained by the resource-intensive nature of current participatory experimental methods and the incompatibility of datasets across different efforts (9). The resulting paucity of data is a problem, because variety trials need to capture spatiotemporal environmental variation to characterize climatic responses.A solution could come from a more scalable type of participatory research: citizen science using digital \"crowdsourcing\" approaches (10)(11)(12). This has already shown its potential to engage large numbers of volunteering citizen scientists who jointly generate sizable datasets that allow for geospatial analysis of climate change impact (for example, on cross-continental Significance Climate adaptation requires farmers to adjust their crop varieties over time and use the right varieties to minimize climate risk. Generating variety recommendations for farmers working in marginal, heterogeneous environments requires variety evaluation under farm conditions. On-farm evaluation is difficult to scale with conventional methods. We used a scalable approach to on-farm participatory variety evaluation using crowdsourced citizen science, assigning small experimental tasks to many volunteering farmers. We generated a unique dataset from 12,409 trial plots in Nicaragua, Ethiopia, and India, a participatory variety evaluation dataset of large size and scope. We show the potential of crowdsourced citizen science to generate insights into variety adaptation, recommend adapted varieties, and help smallholder farmers respond to climate change.bird migration) (13). In a similar way, farmer citizen scientists could provide information about crop variety performance, which would feed into a demand-driven, scalable solution to varietal climate adaptation.To test this idea, we applied a recently developed citizen science approach tricot-triadic comparisons of technologies (14,15). In tricot variety evaluation, each farmer plants seeds from a personal test package of three varieties, which are randomly assigned from a larger pool of tested varieties. Farmers' independent on-farm observations are compiled and analyzed centrally. A simple ranking-based feedback format allows even farmers with low literacy skills to contribute their evaluation data through various channels, including mobile telephones (15). Pilots with the tricot approach have established its potential to produce accurate data (16) and to engage motivated farmers as citizen scientists (17).The question that we address is if tricot trials can provide robust, actionable information on varietal climate adaptation. We organized tricot trials to obtain a dataset covering 842 plots of common bean in Nicaragua, 1,090 plots of durum wheat in Ethiopia, and 10,477 plots of bread wheat in India (Fig. 1). The trials captured environmental variation through broad sampling both spatially (many fields distributed across the landscape) and temporally (different seasons and planting dates). We linked farmers' observations via their geographic coordinates and planting dates to agroclimatic and soil variables. We modeled the influence of the environmental variables on the probability that varieties outperform the other varieties in the trials. We evaluated whether seasonal climate adequately predicts variety performance in the tricot trials. Then, we explored if climatic analysis of tricot trial data improves variety recommendations.Cross-validation showed that the tricot trials uncovered statistically robust differences in variety performance (Table 1). From a previous pilot study, we expected consistently positive, but low to moderate, pseudo-R 2 values (16). In this study, model fit was comparatively low for bread wheat in India (0.04-0.09), moderate for common bean in Nicaragua (0.15-0.20), and high for durum wheat in Ethiopia (0.39-0.48). The three case studies each provide independent confirmation of the predictive value of the tricot trials. Various factors influenced model fit, includ-  ing farmers' observation skills and environmental variation. The largest differences were between countries, which were probably due to the different levels of diversity within the sets of varieties. Indian and Nicaraguan farmers evaluated a small, carefully selected group of modern varieties with relatively homogeneous performance. In Ethiopia, farmers tested a diverse set of modern and farmer varieties drawn from a wide area and evidently found easily observable differences in performance between varieties.For each country, we modeled the environmental influence on variety performance. We were specifically interested in models with covariates derived from seasonal climatic conditions (climate in Table 1), because these covariates can potentially enhance extrapolation of variety performance predictions across time and space. In all cases, these models had indeed a better fit than the respective model without environmental covariates (no covariates in Table 1). The next question that we addressed was if the models with climatic variables captured the main environmental factors or missed important aspects. Therefore, we compared these models with two other types of models. One type of model includes covariates that represent the experimental design and are known in advance: geolocation, season, planting dates, and soil categories (design in Table 1). These models reflect how multilocation trials are often analyzed and capture variation in terms of the trial structure but not in terms of the underlying climatic causal factors, hence limiting the potential of extrapolation beyond the trial. In all cases, the models with climatic covariates slightly outperformed the models with trial design covariates. This means that the climatic covariates contain unique and substantial information explaining varietal performance. A second comparison was with models that include the climatic covariates together with additional covariates that represent geographic structure (climate + geolocation in Table 1). This comparison tested if important local factors are being overlooked that are not covered by the climatic covariates. Adding these geolocational variables did not improve the models, however, and even slightly degraded them. This implies that no large-scale geographical structure remained after accounting for seasonal climate. From this analysis, it is clear that the models with climatic covariates captured a large part of the environmental variation in variety performance. Therefore, in subsequent analyses, we focused on models with climatic covariates only.We generated generalizable models that afford extrapolation across seasons of variety performance predictions by selecting those climatic variables that contribute to predictivity across seasons. The variable selection procedure retained one climatic variable in each case (Fig. 2 and SI Appendix, Fig. S1). We discuss the results for each case study.For Nicaragua, Fig. 2 shows the Plackett-Luce tree (PLT) with the retained variable of the generalizable model for common bean. We found that bean variety performance changed when the maximum night temperature exceeded 18.7 • C. This finding corresponds to the threshold temperature for heat stress reported in the literature of 20 • C at night (18). Our estimate is slightly lower than the reported threshold but refers to land surface temperature rather than air temperature. Three For durum wheat in Ethiopia, varietal differences in performance were related to the lowest night temperature during the vegetative period (SI Appendix, Fig. S2). Performance patterns changed when at least one 8-day period had average night temperatures under 8.4 • C. This temperature corresponds to the threshold temperatures for vernalization and cold acclimation induction (19). Under warm conditions, vernalizationrequiring varieties will delay flowering. Under cold conditions, cold-sensitive varieties will reduce their yield due to chilling or frost damage. Most of the varieties tested in Ethiopia were farmer varieties and likely adapted to their original environments, which may have led to differences in adaptiveness between varieties. To test the effect of local adaptation, we compared cold-adapted varieties with cold-sensitive farmer varieties as detected by the tricot trials (Materials and Methods). Coldadapted varieties came from higher elevations (2,483 ± 113 meters above sea level) than cold-sensitive ones (2,101 ± 485 meters), a significant difference [t(594) = 16.1, P < 2.2 • 10 −16 ]. Our results indicate that cold tolerance is a main geographic adaptation factor for durum wheat in the Ethiopian highlands.For bread wheat in India, varietal performance patterns changed with the diurnal temperature range (DTR) during the vegetative period, which is the difference between minimum and maximum daily temperatures (SI Appendix, Fig. S3). Splits occurred at DTR values of 14.5 • C and 15.7 • C. Between these two values, the varieties showed very similar performance. Many varieties that performed above average under high DTR performed below average under low DTR and vice versa. Some varieties performed well under both high and low DTR, especially HD 2967. Our interpretation is that low and high ranges of DTR are related to different sets of stresses, while the middle range has relatively low stress. DTR has an impact on crop yield through several mechanisms: high DTR is associated with increased heat or cold stress, and low DTR is associated with high cloud coverage, low solar radiation, and high rainfall. Consistent with our results, a study has shown that DTR explains a substantial share of wheat yield variation in India (20). This same study found that DTR has a negative correlation with wheat yields in some areas and a positive correlation in other areas, in line with high and low DTRs having an association with different types of crop stress.We examined four ways in which climatic analysis afforded by tricot trials can improve variety recommendations. First, a potential improvement is that climatic analysis corrects the climatic sampling bias, a bias that occurs when trials are performed under unrepresentative seasonal climate conditions, thereby degrading variety recommendations. To assess the importance of climatic sampling bias, we followed the cross-validation procedure used to generate the generalizable models but did not use the seasonal climate data for predictions. Instead, we predicted variety performance for a representative 15-y base period of seasonal climate data and averaged the results (average season in Table 2). The averaged prediction had slightly higher pseudo-R 2 values than the \"no covariates\" model in all cases. This analysis shows that, even when climatic sampling bias is low, correction can help to further improve predictions.Second, climatic analysis can improve variety recommendations by incorporating seasonal forecasts. Perfect forecast in Table 2 shows that the pseudo-R 2 values increase further when observed climate information is available for prediction. The improvement gained from a perfect forecast was substantially larger than the improvement from sampling bias correction. It requires additional work to quantify the improvement of variety recommendations with a realistic climate forecast skill. It is clear, however, that variety recommendations derived from tricot trials can benefit from seasonal forecasts.Third, climatic analysis can support risk analysis. Table 3 shows the expected probability of outperforming all other varieties, which is a metric of average performance, and a risk metric, worst regret (21)-the largest underperformance of the recommended variety relative to the best variety. These two metrics produced divergent variety recommendations in all three cases (indicated in bold in Table 3). In principle, risk analysis for variety choice is also possible without explicit climatic analysis, but this produces results that are difficult to interpret in terms of climatic causality and requires trials during a large number of   The results show how different criteria of variety selection can lead to different recommendations (best value according to each criterion is indicated in bold). Using the probability of winning as a criterion maximizes the average performance but ignores risk. Minimizing worst regret (the loss under the worst possible outcome) is a criterion that takes a conservative approach to risk. seasons to avoid sampling bias and to characterize probability distributions accurately (22).Fourth, climatic analysis of tricot trial data can generate variety recommendations for wider areas through geospatial extrapolation. To illustrate this, we generated maps of varieties recommendations based on \"average season\" model predictions (Fig. 3). In all three cases, geographical patterns of variety adaptation have no relationship to administrative boundaries or agroecological zones, which are commonly used to delineate recommendation domains.To assess what the tricot trial results mean in practice, we contrast our results with existing recommendations. For Nicaragua, we compare the results of the tricot trials with the recommendations of a recent national variety catalog (23). The catalog recommends INTA Rojo and INTA Matagalpa for the study area, but these varieties performed worse than the local varieties in the tricot trials (Fig. 3A). However, the tricot trials identified INTA Fuerte Sequía and INTA Centro Sur as top varieties (Table 3), but the variety catalog recommends them for warm areas outside our study area. In the tricot trials, INTA Fuerte Sequía and INTA Centro Sur outperformed other varieties, especially under heat stress, which apparently occurs with more frequency in our study area than assumed by current variety recommendations. In Nicaragua, then, the tricot trial results show that official variety recommendations fail to identify superior bean varieties that are sufficiently heat tolerant for the study area.For Ethiopia, the Wheat Atlas of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) recommends modern varieties Hitosa, Ude, and Assassa for all of the Ethiopian highlands, which it classifies as a single \"mega-environment\" (24). The tricot approach produced geographically more specific recommendations (Fig. 3B). With this, we confirm the results of a previous analysis based on multilocational trial data that showed the benefits of location-specific recommendation domains for durum wheat in Algeria, and we show that such an analysis can also be done with tricot data (25). The tricot results confirmed the superiority of farmer varieties 8208 and 208304 (Table 3), which were approved for official variety release in March 2017 (on the basis of other field trials) (26). Farmer variety 208279 also has a high probability of winning, but it has a high value of worst regret (Table 3). Our analysis suggests that 208279 could be considered for the coldest areas as shown in Fig. 3B. In Ethiopia, the tricot trial findings improve variety recommendations for durum wheat by uncovering the importance of cold adaptation.For India, we compare our findings with the front-line demonstrations of the Indian Institute for Wheat and Barley Research (IIWBR); the 1-ha plots demonstrate new varieties by comparing them with a check variety. IIWBR promoted the variety HD 2967 for the North-Eastern Plain Zone during 2016-2017 (27). HD 2967 was indeed the top variety in the tricot trial among the varieties considered by the IIWBR (Table 3). In the tricot trials, however, K 9107 (a variety released in 1996) outperformed HD 2967 (released in 2011), with a comparable level of worst regret (Table 3). The tricot trials also showed that another variety, HD 2733, outperformed HD 2967 in a large part of the study area (Table 3). In the IIWBR front-line demonstrations, HD 2733 was included as a check variety in four areas and was outyielded by HD 2967 in only one of four areas, while in the other three, the yield difference was not significant (27). Our analysis shows that HD 2733 generally does better than HD 2967 in areas with a low average DTR during the growing season (Fig. 3C). In India, the analysis of the tricot trial data adds geographic specificity to the existing variety recommendations and suggests that a broader set of wheat varieties should be promoted to take into account the climatic differences across the study area.We quantified how much farmers can benefit from tricotbased variety recommendations by calculating variety reliability, the probability of outperforming a check variety (Eq. 2 in Materials and Methods). For each location, we compared the tricot-recommended variety (Fig. 3) with the bestperforming variety from the previous recommendations as the check. Reliabilities ranged from 0.59 to 0.65 in Ethiopia, from 0.58 to 0.60 in Nicaragua, and from 0.51 to 0.62 in India (SI Appendix, Fig. S4), indicating substantial benefits for large areas.The main question that we addressed is whether on-farm participatory crop trials, scaled through a farmer citizen science approach, can generate insights into climate adaptation of varieties. Citizen science data revealed generalizable relations between seasonal climate variables and crop variety performance that corresponded to known yield-determining factors. Climatic analyses of these data were shown to improve variety recommendations. Our study demonstrates that, in vulnerable, low-income areas, climatic analysis of variety performance is possible with trial data generated directly by farmer citizen scientists on farms. Arguably, similar results could be achieved by a combination of existing approaches (target environment characterization, multilocation trials, participatory variety selection, variety dissemination). The unique contribution of the tricot approach is that it integrates aspects of these approaches into a simple trial format that addresses the challenge of variety replacement for climate adaptation in a way that is, at the same time, scalable and demand led. Tricot trials can track climate trends as they manifest themselves on farms, adjust variety recommendations and recommendation domains, and contribute to understanding how affects on-farm varietal performance. Trial analysis combines insights in climatic adaptation mechanisms with a comprehensive evaluation of variety performance from the perspective of farmers, the end users of the seeds. Results can, therefore, be directly translated into actionable information for climate adaptation on the ground. The findings can serve to create variety portfolios that diminish climate risk (22), can feed into climate information services in combination with seasonal forecasts (28), and can become part of decentralized plant breeding strategies for climate adaptation (8). Combining the tricot trial data with other data could generate additional insights into variety performance and acceptability as influenced by environmental (11), socioeconomic (29), and genomic (30) factors.The tricot approach facilitates engaging large numbers of farmers in citizen science trials with large sets of varieties. Scaling does not only involve an expansion in terms of numbers and scope, however, but also, it implies new institutional arrangements. Carefully designed strategies should foster communication between providers and users of information (31). Wide-ranging collaborations are needed for climate adaptation in crop variety management, involving farmers, extension agents, seed retailers, seed producers, plant breeders, and climate information providers. The tricot approach can help to cut across these different domains, because it is able to link climatic and varietal information directly to farmer decision making. With appropriate institutional support and investment, citizen science can potentially make an important contribution to farmers' adaptive capacity and to the mobilization of crop genetic diversity for climate adaptation.Crop Trials. Trials were performed between 2012 and 2016 during three cropping seasons in Ethiopia, five cropping seasons in Nicaragua, and four cropping seasons in India (SI Appendix, Table S1). Trial design followed the tricot citizen science approach (14,15). Sets of varieties were allocated randomly to farms as incomplete blocks (7), maintaining spatial balance by assigning roughly equal frequencies of the varieties to each area. In Nicaragua and India, incomplete blocks contained three varieties. In Ethiopia, we used a modified approach that included four varieties per farm. Plots were small to facilitate farmer participation but in all cases, large enough to avoid strong edge effects. Farmers indicated the relative performance of varieties through ranking. Ranking is a robust data collection approach that avoids observer drift (32) and allows for aggregation across disparate datasets (33).The trials required three moments of contact with the farmers: (i) explaining the experiment and distributing the seeds, (ii) collecting evaluation data, and (iii) returning the results. Data were initially collected using paper forms and in subsequent seasons, through electronic formats linked to a purposebuilt digital platform, https://climmob.net. In the trials presented here, field agents collected the data through visits (phone calls are also feasible).Data Analysis. All analyses were done in R (34). For the analysis of the variety-ranking data generated by farmers, we used the Plackett-Luce model (35,36). The Plackett-Luce model estimates for each variety the probability that it wins, beating all other varieties in the set. The model determines the values of positive-valued parameters α i (worth) associated with each variety i. These parameters α are related to the probability that variety i wins against all other n varieties in the following way:The probability that variety i beats another variety j is calculated in a similar way.Eq. 2 also serves to calculate the reliability of a variety-its probability of beating a check variety (37). These equations follow from Luce's Choice Axiom, which states that the probability that one item beats another is independent from the presence or absence of any other items in the set (36). We report worth values that sum to one. This makes each worth value α i equal to the probability of variety i outperforming all other varieties:In the trials, we used rankings of three varieties (i j k), which have the following probability of occurring according to the Plackett-Luce model: P(i j k) = P(i {j, k}) • P(j k).[4]The log likelihood for a ranking i j k follows from Eqs. 1, 2, and 4 and takes the following form (38):(α) = ln(P(i {j, k})) + ln(P(j k))= ln (α i )− ln α i + α j + α k + ln α j − ln α j + α k .[5]The log likelihood is then the sum of the log-likelihood (α) values across all rankings. Using an iterative algorithm, the log likelihood is maximized to identify the α values that make the observed rankings most probable. We also generated quasi-SEs for α (39). To take into account covariates, we created PLTs through recursive partitioning (40). Additional details are given in SI Appendix.Data and Code Availability. Full data are available through Dataverse (41).Code is available in SI Appendix.","tokenCount":"3862"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4516b939de0386ac3469347c3693d437","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbb36a7a-9d39-4c71-a4ec-35f556d52922/retrieve","id":"1059007817"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"67dca39f-edbb-4747-9061-a019ba2afc63","pagecount":"47","content":"\"./t_ph_w84.zip\") # Read Avena demo data set into R baseline <-read.delim(\"./AvenaCWR.txt\", header=TRUE, dec=\".\") # AvenaCWR.txt contains the table with all occurrence data and the necessary ecogeographical information for Avena crop wild relatives. You can use AvenaLR.txt and modify the code accordingly to run the script with the example data for Avena landraces # unzip the raster and read unzip(\"./elcmap_AvenaSativa.zip\") elc<-raster(\"./elcmapAvena.asc\") # elcmapAvena.asc contains the ELC map for Avena ecogeo <-extract(elc,baseline[,c(\"LONDEC\",\"LATDEC\")]) # ecogeo extracts from the ecogeographical map the ecogeographical units that correspond to each occurrence point baseline2<-cbind(baseline,ecogeo) # baseline2 adds the column ecogeo with the ecogeographical units to the baseline table,this will only work if all occurrence data contain coordinates FAVENA<-table(baseline2$ecogeo) FAVENA <-cbind(names(FAVENA),as.vector(FAVENA)) # The function 'table' obtains the frequencies of occurrences in each ecogeographical unit # cbind combines the names of the ecogeographical units with their corresponding frequencies # The ecogeographical units are usually numbered, e.g. from 1 to 78 in ELC map for Avena created in the PGR-Secure project # Here, aluminium toxicity is the target trait for Avena, and we use the following variables as proxy for aluminum content: T_PH_H2O and T_OC. Values for these variables are included in our occurrence data set i <-order(baseline2$T_PH_H2O) baseline2 <-baseline2 [i,] # We order the subset according to the variable of our choice creating an index(i).n <-1000 # n is the number of records we want to have in our optimized ecogeographical core set nc <-dim(FAVNEA) [1] # nc is the number of ecogeographical units that have occurrences # The dim function provides the dimension of the object (1:rows; 2:columns) f <-as.numeric(FAVENA[,2]) # f provides the frequency of each ecogeographical unit prop <-f/sum(f) # Provides the proportional value of each frequency even <-pmin(prop,rep(1/nc, times=nc)) even <-even/sum(even) # even object provides the minimum value between the proportional value and the even share # In the second row it is adjusted to sum a total frequency of 1. a <-.5 samples <-(a*prop + (1-a)*even) * n # Samples is the number of samples that are to be selected from each ecogeographical unit # It combines the proportional and the even allocation approaches through the parameter \"a\" # a=1 provides a complete proportional allocation # a=0 provides a truncated even allocation (even for those values where proportional is greater than even) samples[is.na(samples)] <-0 # Provides 0 value to samples if na is obtained from log(0) in the previous step samples <-pmax(round(samples),f>0) # Rounds the values of samples and provides values of at least 1 for those frequencies that are greater than zero i <-order(baseline2$T_PH_H2O,decreasing=FALSE) baseline2 <-baseline2 [i,] # Reorders the whole subset according to the T_PH_H2O variable in ascending order. # Change it to decreasing=TRUE if you wished to reverse the order baseline2 <-baseline2 [!is.na(baseline2$ecogeo),] # Eliminates the records that have na values for the field ecogeo. For T_PH_H2O na=na and is not -9999, like in BIOCLIM variables.  # \"s3\" has the stem rust trait scores reclassified as three levels:# 1 = resistant, 2 = intermediate, and 3 = susceptible germplasm accessions. # [the following command is one line in your script]Xbio <sr[c(\"s3\",\"bio1\",\"bio2\",\"bio3\",\"bio4\",\"bio5\",\"bio6\",\"bio7\",\"bio8\",\"bio9\",\"bio10\",\"bio 11\",\"bio12\",\"bio13\",\"bio14\",\"bio15\",\"bio16\",\"bio17\",\"bio18\",\"bio19\")]","tokenCount":"511"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70b3b563c650a6cd12a3c77a604dc7ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/599af5cd-f32a-4b9b-8234-24ccb2f926e8/retrieve","id":"2124355463"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3b4a7d77-7f12-4812-abbc-47e9eaca2405","pagecount":"2","content":"Le Programme de défi pour l'eau et l'alimentation dans le Bassin de la Volta (CPWF-Volta) vise « à renforcer la gestion intégrée des eaux pluviales et des petits barrages afin qu'elles puissent être exploitées mieux équitablement pour des usages multiples ». L'un des moyens par lequel on peut atteindre cet objectif est d'augmenter la productivité agricole et pastorale par des Stratégies de gestion des eaux pluviales et d'améliorer la productivité de l'eau au niveau champêtre.Les IP sont une forme de partenariat public-privé. Ce sont également des systèmes multi-acteurs mis en place pour identifier:• comment les parties prenantes avec diverses capacités et compétences peuvent se mobiliser pour travailler ensemble afin de développer une chaîne de valeur donnée dans les systèmes de production agro-pastorale dans le bassin de la Volta et pour renforcer les interrelations entre elles;  ","tokenCount":"135"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/4869280564.json b/data/part_5/4869280564.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4ec17a1e550196b95737a3738438126","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95387fe2-6d95-4c66-966b-6fe5d7a1f346/retrieve","id":"166487316"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"208f4419-d76d-4c18-86f2-8c4d2227ca3d","pagecount":"45","content":"CIAT's research program is designed in the context of the Future Harvest Centers of the CGIAR. Genetic resources conservation, characterization and enhancement are major global public goods, and CIAT prioritizes beans, cassava, and tropical forages. Agroecosystems research priority is placed on the commonalities between Latin America hillsides, the mid-altitudes of eastern and southern Africa, and the uplands of Asia. Across these broadly similar environments research focuses on pathways to improved livelihoods through improved soil health, local production of high value crops and value added products, integrated pest management, and land and watershed management. Global public goods are produced through research on methods and principles of participatory research and rural agro-enterprise development to link small farmers to market opportunities.A s in the two previous years, CIAT continues to focus i t s research around three key Research for Development Challenges: Increasing and Sharing the Benefits of Agro-biodiversity; Restoring Degraded Agro-ecosystem; and Enhancing Rural Innovation.Thanks to the efforts of all personnel, CIAT fund raising in 2004 has been the most successful during the history of the Center, including an important diversification of the donor portfolio. Total funding increased 13 percent compared with 2003. By source of funding, unrestricted income increased 15 percent and restricted funding increased 13 percent. Expenditures increased 12 percent, basically due to the revaluation of the Colombian peso and by the additional restricted projects Implemented during 2004. We continue to feel strongly that the diversity of funding sources should be one of the key financial indicators applied to all Centers. Total income was US$36.98 million and expenditures were US36.44 million, leaving a net surplus of US$0.54 million. Net assets increased to US$16.09 million, of which, excluding Capital Invested in Fixed Assets by US$10.09 million, leaves a balance of US$6 million, which is the base for the calculation of the adequacy of the reserves indicator. The liquidity indicator increased 3 percent: from 75 days in 2003 to 77 days in 2004; the adequacy of reserves indicator increased 9 percent: from 58 days in 2003 to 63 days in 2004.Even though the daily cost in 2004 was higher than 2003. mainly due to revaluation of the Colombian peso and increased restricted project implementation, these Indicators improved because of the generated surplus of $0.54 million plus $0.88 million of the provision for employees retirement, which was reclassified a s a designated reserve as per recommendation of the external audit.Last Fall, the BOT provided the Secretariat and the CG Chair with our 3 year plan to reach the CGIAR financial targets. We are on track with the plan.The Audit Committee of the Board of Trustees, the Independent Auditors, Management, and Internal Auditors periodically discuss internal accounting control, auditing and financial reporting matters. Following the recommendations of the CGIAR. during 2004 the firm Deloitte and Touche was appointed as the new external auditors.In order to deal with the uncertainties of unrestricted contributions to CIAT and with the most significant risks identified by the systems internal audit office. the Board of Trustees approved a policy on risk and quality management to analyze risks in terms of potential impact, likelihood of occurrence, and actions to be taken to minimize these. f. James W.fies Board ChairFor the years ended as of December 3 1, 2004 and 2003 (expressed in thousands of U.S. dollars)Note 1: ObjectiveThe International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is a not-for-profit organization that conducts socially and environmentally progressive research that aims to:Reduce hunger and poverty in the tropics through collaborative research that improves agricultumlproductivctsity and natural resource management.CIAT is one of the 16 food and environmental research centers working towards these goals around the world in partnership with farmers, scientists, and policy makers. Known as the Future Harvest centers, they are funded mainly by 64 donors including countries. private foundations, and international organizations that make up the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIARI. These include the World Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).Under an agreement with CIAT. signed on 5 May 1987 and ratifled by Law 29 of 18 March 1988, the Colombian Government recognizes CIAT as a not-for-profit international organization and grants it certain prerogatives, including exemption from Colombian taxes.Beginning January 1. 2004. the Center prepares its financial statements in accordance with the new accounting policies and reporting practices prescribed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for international agricultural research centers. These policies established to Centers fully adoption and complying with all relevant IFRS. According to the above some figures of the financial statements as of December 31, 2003 have been reclassified to conform to the 2004 presentation.The major accounting practices followed at CIAT are summarized below:Q.The Center prepares its financial statements, except for cash flow information. under the accrual basis of accounting.Under the accrual basis of accounting. transactions and events are recognized when they occur (and not as cash or its cash equivalent is received or paid) and they are recorded in the accounting books and reported in the financial statements of the periods to which they relate. Expenses are recognized in the Statement of Activities on the basis of a direct association between the costs incurred and the earnings of specific items of revenueCIATs financial statements are stated in U.S. dollars. Those assets and liabilities (but not including supplies, spare parts, property. and plant and equipment) denominated in other currencies are translated at the exchange rate in effect at the end of each financial period. Grants received in currencies other than U.S. dollars are recorded at market exchange rates in effect at the time the grant is received or, if outstanding at 31 December, at the market rate of exchange in effect at the year's end.Expenses and other revenues denominated in other currencies a n d supplies, spare parts, property, and plant and equipment made in other currencies are translated at the average exchange rate during the month the transaction occurs. Translation gains and losses are included in the statement of activity.Cash comprises cash on hand, petty cash funds, currencies awaiting deposit and local or foreign currency deposits in banks which can be added to or withdrawn without limitation and are immediately available for use in the current operations.Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are both: i) readily convertible to known amounts of cash: and ii) so near their maturity date that the risk of changes in value due to changes in interest rates are insignificant.Investments are initially recorded at their acquisition cost (including brokerage and other transaction costs) if they were purchased, and fair value if they were received as a grant.Investments in equity securities with readily determinable fair values and all investments in debt securities shall be measured at fair value as of the date of the Statement of Financial Position. Investments received as grants from donors a r e to be recorded at their fair market value.Interest, dividends, losses, and gains relating to flnancial instruments should be reported in the Statement of Activities as expense or revenue.Investments acquired with the purpose of disposing from them within one year or less after their acquisition date are to be classified as current investments. Furthermore, investments classifled as current, as distinguished from cash equivalents, are those that are acquired with original maturities of more than three months but not exceeding one year.Investments acquired with the purpose of keeping them for more than one (1) year as from their acquisition date are to be classified as long-term investments.Inventories of materials and supplies are stated at cost, using the moving average price method. Cost represents the purchase price of supplies and spare parts, plus freight and handling charges. Materials in transit are stated at invoice cost.Grants in the form of inventories are measured at fair value at t h e time of receipt.Inventories held at the end of the financial period are stated at cost or net realization value, whichever is lower.Property, plant and equipment acquired through the use of restricted grants are recorded as assets and fully (100%) depreciated, and the depreciation expense is charged directly to the appropriate restricted project in the same year of acquisition.Acquisitions of property, plant and equipment less than USD500 are expensed.Property, plant and equipment acquired through non-monetary grants are recognized a t fair value at the date of the grant. Such grants are presented in the Statement of Financial Position as Deferred Revenue and are taken to account as revenue on a systematic and rational basis over the life of the asset.The contract signed with the Colombian Government related to the land on which CIAT has its headquarters to the Center in commodatum was renewed until July 2005. This contract may be extended thereafter by mutual consent. At the end of the contract, CIAT is to return the land with its improvements, buildings, and installations, free of any kind of judicial actions or embargoes and without receiving any compensation. This land is not considered a contribution to \"property. plant and equipment\".According to the new accounting policies and reporting practices prescribed in March 2004 by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ( C G W , since January 1, 2004. all new facilities provided by host countries to the Center or constructed for the use of the Center. which will revert to the host country in the event the Center ceases to operate, are recognized as assets.Subsequent expenditures relating to property, plant and equipment that has already been recognized are added to the carrying amount of the asset only if the expenditure improves the condition of the asset beyond its originally assessed standard of performance. All other subsequent expenditures are recognized as expenses of the period where incurred.Depreciation of assets owned by the Center is computed by the straight-line method over the asset's estimated useful life. except assets acquired with restricted grants. The basis for computing depreciation is the asset's acquisition cost, less its estimated salvage value.The following list indicates the useful lives and estimated salvage percentages of the Center's fixed assets:Physical facilities: These are claims held against donors for the future receipt of money, goods or services.Receivables due from donors can arise from: Unrestricted grants which are due and receivable by the Center and amounts due from restricted grants that have been negotiated between a donor and the Center.Accounts receivabledonors are classified as follows:Unrestricted Grants: Receivables from unrestricted grants are recognized in full in the period specified by the donor.Restricted Grants: Receivables from restricted grants are recognized in accordance with the terms of the underlying contract. Restricted Grants include Intercenter Activities and Challenge Programs.These include grants received from donors for which conditions are not yet met and amounts payable to donors when donors in respect of any unexpended funds received in advance for restricted grants.Accounts payabledonors are classified as follows:Unrestricted Grants: Are those received from the unconditional transfer of cash or other assets to the Center.Restrlcted Grants: Are those received from a transfer of resources to the Center in return for future compliance relating to the operating activities of the Center. Restricted Grants include Intercenter Activities and Challenge Programs.C Funds in trust and support to partners These funds have been provided by donors and are managed by CIAT for an ultimate beneficiary other than the Center.Net assets comprise the residual interest in an entity's assets after liabilities are deducted. They are classified as either unrestricted or restricted:Unrestricted net assets are those whose use is not restricted by the donors. They are subdivided as follows:-Undesignated net asset, the use of which is not designated by CIAT Management for special purposes.-Designated net asset, are those that have been restricted by CIAT Management as reserve for replacing property and equipment and for retirement of National Staff.Restricted net assets are net assets whose use by the Center is limited by donors to later periods, after specifled dates, or specified purposes.Restricted grants are those received from a transfer of resources to the Center in return for past or future compliance to the operating activities of the Center. Unrestricted grants are those received from the unconditional transfer of cash or other assets to the Center.The grants, whether restricted or unrestricted. are recognized until there is reasonable assurance that the Center will comply with the conditions attaching to; and the grants are received.Unrestricted grants in currencies other than U.S. dollars are recorded at exchange rates in effect at the time of receipt or. if outstanding at 31 December, at the exchange rate in effect at the year's end.Note 3: Cash and cash equivalents Cash as of December 31 consisted of: The cash and cash equivalent balances include the following amounts considered restricted Cash. See Notes 12 and 13: The following is the movement of the allowance for doubtful accounts: 2003Balance at start of year 107-42(1) On the date of the balance sheet, the Center had contracted to purchase USD 1,509 under a forward contract with Corflnsura as protection (hedge) against exchange losses on the investment constituted in Colombian pesos. See Note 3.Inventories as at 31 December consisted of: 2003Cane 123Subtotal 249Less: Allowance for doubtful accounts:Total 227Supplies 90The following is the movement of the allowance for inventory obsolescence: This account corresponds to accrued salaries and benefits for locally recruited personnel (1) Other provisions consist primarily of self-insurance reserves for theft. accidents, provision for national outposted staf€.(2) The international staff reserves correspond to the estimated costs of repatriating members of the senior staff to their home.countries. as specified in their appointment letters. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT)  ","tokenCount":"2248"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"84b9ca0f08ea670e219501375a8ab8a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1af8ca15-d578-49e9-97f8-617690aa2901/retrieve","id":"777070155"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c01d94a6-2be6-44b1-9683-7ddaa2743a1c","pagecount":"16","content":"Des savoirs à distiller, des plantes à (re)découvrirTrop \"ajustée\", l'agriculture périclite C'est ainsi que, dans les pays en développement, le retrait de l'État de l'encadrement et de l'appui à l'agriculture, lié aux ajustements structurels des années 1990, et l'ouverture des marchés ont dégradé les conditions de la production agricole familiale et conduit à une détérioration des conditions de vie rurales. S'y ajoute la libéralisation des échanges qui met en concurrence des agricultures aux écarts importants de productivité : de 1 à 1 000 entre agriculture manuelle pluviale et agriculture intensive et mécanisée. La concentration des filières dans les mains de grandes entreprises agroalimentaires et l'évolution des modes de distribution (multiplication des supermarchés, voir Spore 110) marginalisent chaque jour un peu plus les petits agriculteurs qui, contrairement à d'autres, ne bénéficient pas du soutien de leur gouvernement.L'accroissement démographique a entraîné celui des surfaces cultivées, parfois sur des sols marginaux, et une réduction des superficies disponibles par exploitant. Ainsi, en Côte d'Ivoire, la surface cultivée est passée de 8,5 % à 23,5 % du territoire national entre 1961 et 1999.La priorité donnée aux consommateurs des villes, de plus en plus nombreux, et le recours aux importations de produits subventionnés ont fait chuter les prix agricoles. Résultat : les agriculteurs de nombreuses régions ne peuvent plus vivre convenablement, ni même, dans certains endroits, assurer leur propre alimentation (Spore 128).En Afrique, l'augmentation de la population de 3 % environ par an depuis 1960 est supérieure à celle de la production agricole qui n'a été que de 2 % durant la même période. La production par tête a chuté, aggravant l'insécurité alimentaire et poussant les jeunes à l'exode vers les villes ou hors du pays. Dans les pays d'Afrique australe, le sida, qui touche surtout les forces productives, accentue cette chute.Pour autant, la proportion de personnes vivant de l'agriculture ou des activités annexes reste très forte et ce secteur joue un rôle très important dans le marché de l'emploi. C'est ce qu'a démontré RuralStruc, un programme de recherche de la Banque mondiale sur les conséquences de la libéralisation pour le développement rural. Au Sénégal, par exemple, pays très urbanisé, 7 des 11 millions d'habitants, à peine moins qu'en 1960, vivent toujours principalement d'activités rurales, faute d'emplois en nombre en ville. Chaque année, 120 000 jeunes ruraux arrivent sur le marché du travail. Si l'agriculture ne leur offre pas de revenus suffisants, ils iront grossir le nombre de chômeurs à Dakar ou chercheront à tout prix à émigrer vers l'Europe. \"Restaurer, consolider et développer le réservoir d'emplois que constitue l'agriculture africaine apparaît comme l'un des impératifs de la prochaine décennie\", estime Bruno Losch, de RuralStruc.Les enjeux du maintien et de l'amélioration de la production familiale sont donc aussi sociaux. Leur abandon pourrait entraîner \"un exode massif et prématuré des petits paysans, auquel la plupart des pays ne sauraient faire face\", comme le soulignait Peter Hazell, de l'Imperial College de Londres, dans Spore 125. Enfin, ces agriculteurs sont les seuls à pouvoir sauvegarder les ressources naturelles de leur pays, vitales pour tous. Un rôle dont ils pourraient tirer parti dans l'avenir en adoptant des modes de culture qui préservent l'environnement et réduisent les émissions de CO 2 (Spore 130).Moderniser les agricultures familiales et accroître leur productivité pour les rendre compétitives tout en employant une importante main-d'oeuvre pour la production, la commercialisation et la transformation, voilà l'urgence. Cela passe par un changement radical de politique. Les dirigeants doivent réaliser que l'agriculture familiale peut être moteur de croissance ; la soutenir est la première étape indispensable. Ils doivent accompagner ces très nombreux petits agriculteurs pour les aider à produire plus et à accéder aux marchés. Il leur incombe de relancer la recherche agricole et la vulgarisation, abandonnée depuis une décennie, de favoriser le développement de l'irrigation, de faciliter l'accès aux intrants et au crédit, d'améliorer le réseau routier, d'électrifier les villages, de les sortir de leur isolement grâce aux TIC. Rendre les marchés locaux plus accessibles en facilitant le transport des produits et l'accès aux informations sur les prix peut rapidement améliorer le revenu des producteurs. Il est aussi possible de développer des produits de niche à forte valeur ajoutée, qui peuvent avoir d'intéressants débouchés régionaux, ou permettre la fabrication de biocarburants.Pour parvenir à ces résultats, les pays ACP doivent pouvoir se doter librement de politiques agricoles propres adaptées à leur contexte et protéger leur agriculture de la concurrence. C'est ce qu'estiment, en particulier, les organisations de petits agriculteurs qui, comme l'association des agriculteurs des îles du Vent (WINFA) aux Caraïbes ou le Réseau des organisations paysannes et des producteurs de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA), ont mis l'agriculture familiale au coeur de leurs revendications. Ces organisations méritent d'être soutenues et largement consultées, car elles sont le mieux à même de faire remonter les besoins et les objectifs de leurs membres, de tirer parti des échanges d'expérience, de mettre à disposition les informations utiles. Sans oublier de faire une place plus importante aux femmes, dont le rôle prépondérant dans les exploitations familiales est trop souvent négligé, et aux jeunes qui en sont l'avenir. L'avenir d'une grande partie du monde.En Afrique du Sud, un projet pilote utilise des enzymes pour extraire la pectine des citrons et de leur zeste. La pectine est un gélifiant naturel employé pour réduire la quantité de sucre dans la fabrication des confitures. L'objectif est de créer un débouché pour les tonnes d'agrumes impropres à l'exportation en raison d'une qualité insuffisante (40 % de la récolte d'agrumes du Cap-Est). Dans un second temps, le consortium public-privé à l'initiative du projet mettra au point une pectine en poudre destinée à l'exportation.L'Alliance internationale pour les médecines vétérinaires du bétail (GALVmed) est une initiative récente en réponse au besoin urgent de traiter les maladies du bétail qui nuisent aux populations pauvres. Basée à Édimbourg (Royaume-Uni), elle rassemble des chercheurs, des instituts de recherche, des universités et des firmes pharmaceutiques. Le but est de produire de nouveaux tests de diagnostic, des vaccins et des médicaments, et d'améliorer ceux qui sont déjà sur le marché. Deux des premiers projets GALVmed sont en cours au Kenya. Le premier espère mettre au point pour les petits éleveurs de volaille un vaccin contre la maladie de Newcastle, stable à haute température. Le second cherche à prévenir la fièvre de la côte Est, qui tue chaque année plus d'un million de têtes de bétail et cause plus de 200 millions $ US (148 millions €) de pertes en Afrique de l'Est et australe.  Sa précocité et sa fécondité ont surpris les éleveurs. Les mises bas, dont la première intervient dès l'âge de 10 à 12 mois en moyenne, donnent régulièrement deux ou trois chevreaux. Et même lorsque la mère allaite ses chevreaux, l'éleveur peut encore recueillir près d'un litre de lait par jour, alors que la chèvre locale \"mossi\" ne produit qu'environ un quart de litre. À 3 mois, la chèvre rousse vaut déjà 17 500 FCFA (27 €), soit le double du prix d'une chèvre de race locale de 8 mois. Sa peau fine et souple est très recherchée en maroquinerie de luxe pour la confection de chaussures, sacs et vêtements.Le développement de cet élevage butte toutefois sur le fait que la plupart des agro-éleveurs de la zone n'ont pas l'habitude de traire complètement les chèvres, car il y a peu de consommateurs de lait, à part les enfants. Or, si le pis n'est pas complètement vidé de son lait, il peut en résulter des mammites (inflammations des mamelles). Les responsables du projet devraient bientôt commencer à former les paysans à de bonnes pratiques de traite. Les chèvres sont ainsi en meilleure santé et donnent un lait sain qui peut être transformé en fromage, yoghourt ou autre produit.Photo: © Syfia International Le tournesol mexicain augmente la fertilité des sols kenyans.La chèvre rousse de Maradi (Niger) fait le bonheur des éleveurs burkinabé.Selon Julias Adiwo, assistant de recherche senior à l'ICRAF, les sols d'une grande partie de la région sont dégradés du fait de leur surexploitation. La plupart des agriculteurs possèdent de très petites surfaces et ne peuvent acheter des engrais. Très peu d'entre eux avaient remarqué le pouvoir fertilisant de l'adventice, bien qu'elle pousse naturellement presque partout au Kenya, ajoute-t-il.Elizabeth Ondiga, qui a commencé à utiliser cette technique sur sa parcelle de 0,8 ha, explique qu'elle récolte à présent assez de maïs et de haricots pour nourrir sa famille jusqu'à la saison suivante. \"Le prix des engrais grimpe de jour en jour, dit-elle. Cette herbe est un bien meilleur moyen pour relancer mon exploitation.\"Au Bénin, près de 400 élèves de huit écoles des communes de Dassa-Zoumé et de Glazoué ont récemment participé à la seconde finale d'un concours interscolaire original. Sous l'impulsion de l'ONG Connaître et protéger la nature (CPN) -les Papillons, cette manifestation, parrainée par le CTA, a permis aux enfants de \"plaider pour la préservation de l'environnement\" devant plus d'un millier de spectateurs.Avec l'aide de leurs enseignants, ils avaient auparavant réalisé des manuels sur la biodiversité, les écosystèmes naturels, la dégradation du cadre de vie et les comportements à adopter pour préserver l'environnement. Un jury a analysé ces manuels et écouté les plaidoyers -20 minutes maximum chacun. Toutes les écoles ont obtenu de bonnes appréciations et chacune a reçu des arrosoirs, houes, poubelles ou autre récompense utile. Les plus jeunes participants ont aussi reçu des plants.Deux mercredis par mois, dans le cadre du même projet Renforcement de l'information et de la communication environnementale au Bénin, des collégiens de trois établissements présentent une émission de radio intitulée \"La nature et nous\". Traduite en idaasha et en maxi, l'émission a \"plusieurs centaines de milliers d'auditeurs\". On y parle feux de brousse, désertification, recyclage des sachets plastiques, compostage, déboisement et reboisement, écotourisme et environnement. L'Afrique de l'Est est le premier exportateur de produits biologiques certifiés du continent. Le secteur a reçu une nouvelle impulsion avec l'approbation, en avril 2007, de la Norme est-africaine pour les produits biologiques (EAOPS). Cette norme devrait permettre des économies d'échelle sur le matériel pédagogique et la certification, ainsi qu'une position commune des agriculteurs biologiques dans les négociations, qui favoriserait leur accès aux marchés d'exportation.Mais la capacité de l'EAOPS à stimuler les exportations africaines de produits bio pourrait être gravement compromise par la position du plus important organisme de certification bio britannique. La Soil Association, qui certifie plus de 70 % des produits alimentaires bio vendus au Royaume-Uni, envisage en effet de suspendre son autorisation pour les produits importés par avion. Selon elle, l'avion génère 11 % des émissions de gaz carbonique, ce qui va à l'encontre des principes écologiques. L'association devrait rendre sa décision en novembre.L'apiculture rayonne en Zambie. Le Centre d'assistance technique agro-industrielle de Zambie (ZATAC) a dernièrement formé des apiculteurs dans le district de Mwinilunda à la production de miel biologique certifié pour l'exporter sur le marché international. Entre-temps, la Kansanshi Mining Ltd à Solwezi a invité des experts à initier des villageois à l'apiculture. Mutanda Honey, l'une des initiatives à émerger, achète du miel en rayons aux apiculteurs locaux pour ensuite le transformer et le revendre à des détaillants. Selon le Centre pour la recherche forestière internationale, environ 10 000 apiculteurs de la province Nord-Ouest gèrent aujourd'hui 500 000 ruches qui produisent chaque année jusqu'à 1 000 t de miel et 100 t de cire d'abeille. Une arachide saine et marchande L'ennemi numéro un des producteurs d'arachide en zone tropicale est l'aflatoxine, une substance produite par le champignon Aspergillus flavus. Elle menace gravement la santé des consommateurs, mais aussi les revenus des planteurs qui ne peuvent vendre sur le marché international si leurs arachides sont contaminées. Pour obtenir une arachide de qualité, il faut prévenir la contamination à la fois au champ et à tous les stades de la filière -traquer l'aflatoxine \"de la fourche à la fourchette\".Le projet européen New tools for groundnut aflatoxin control in Sahel Africa a montré que la sécheresse en fin de cycle cultural favorise le développement des aflatoxines. Il conseille en conséquence l'utilisation de variétés précoces à petites graines, plus résistantes. Après la récolte, il est aussi important de traiter les greniers et entrepôts afin de limiter l'infestation.Des variétés résistantes à l'aflatoxine sont actuellement diffusées en Afrique de l'Ouest. Au Sénégal, le CIRAD et l'Association sénégalaise pour la promotion du développement à la base (ASPRO-DEB) cherchent à bâtir une filière de production d'arachide de qualité, en associant organisations de producteurs et secteur privé. Un projet a transformé le bassin du Mandraré, l'une des régions les plus pauvres de Madagascar, au bord de la famine, en une zone d'exportation de riz. Ce projet financé par le Fonds international pour le développement agricole (FIDA) a restauré les systèmes d'irrigation, les routes et autres infrastructures et introduit des méthodes de culture plus intensives. Il a aussi mis en place un réseau d'institutions de microcrédit. La zone exporte aujourd'hui jusqu'à 25 000 t de riz par an. La seconde phase du projet a vu les agriculteurs produire 200 t de choux, tomates, oignons, ail et carottes par an, ainsi que des semences de maïs et de manioc (4,5 t) et de riz (plus de 8 t). L'initiative a encouragé les agriculteurs locaux à former des associations de producteurs pour commercialiser leur production.Ces cinq dernières années, le virus de la striure brune du manioc (CBSV) s'est répandu dans toute l'Afrique subsaharienne. Il détruit la racine alors que les feuilles semblent saines, si bien que les agriculteurs ne se rendent compte des dégâts qu'à la récolte. Des chercheurs de l'Institut international d'agriculture tropicale (IITA) en Tanzanie pensent que le virus se répand via la diffusion de boutures de manioc contaminé à l'occasion des déplacements des gens à travers le continent. Ils ont aujourd'hui développé par croisement de nouvelles variétés de manioc qui résistent bien au virus, d'après les essais. Afin d'accélérer leur diffusion, l'IITA enseigne aux agriculteurs une nouvelle méthode de multiplication par bouturage. Plusieurs projets encouragent leur élevage dans les Caraïbes.Le Programme Farmer-to-Farmer de l'USAID a envoyé des volontaires en Haïti pour enseigner la cuniculture aux producteurs. La demande des restaurants touristiques semble avoir galvanisé la production à Cap Haïtien et Portau-Prince. En avril 2007, la FAO a soutenu un projet 4-H à Rose Hill en Jamaïque. À la Barbade, un projet de cuniculture et d'agriculture biologique durable a été lancé en juillet par le Programme de petites subventions du Fonds pour l'environnement mondial (PPS-FEM) qui, pour l'occasion, a donné des lapins à une école primaire. À Trinidad, on s'efforce de mettre en contact détaillants et fournisseurs et d'implanter une unité de transformation de la viande de lapin.Il y a toutefois un frein à l'expansion de cet élevage : le \"syndrome du lapin de Pâques\". \"Certains considèrent les lapins comme des animaux de compagnie, trop mignons pour être mangés. Même des fermiers qui les élèvent n'arrivent pas à les tuer\", explique Ansari Hosein, de l'Université des West Indies, qui vient d'achever une étude sur la production cunicole.Les agriculteurs et les consommateurs de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée s'y mettent eux aussi.Depuis l'introduction de 15 lapins en 1993, les effectifs ont grimpé à 2 500. Ils se sont fort bien adaptés aux conditions locales. Des études de l'Institut national de recherche agricole ont révélé qu'on peut largement améliorer ces résultats en introduisant dans leur alimentation des plantes locales riches en calories. Les lapins uniquement nourris de feuilles prennent peu de poids. Ils prospèrent quand ils reçoivent un complément -peu coûteuxde manioc, banane, patate douce, canne à sucre ou noix de coco.Dans les régions sèches d'Afrique, la production de gomme arabique à partir de l'Acacia senegal est une source importante de revenus, mais elle varie fortement d'une année à l'autre selon la pluviométrie. À partir d'essais au champ sur des arbres adultes au Sénégal, au Burkina Faso et au Niger, des chercheurs ont montré que la productivité des acacias augmente de 25 % lorsqu'on leur inocule des rhizobiums au début de la saison des pluies. Ces souches de bactéries stimulent la croissance des arbres, renforcent leur tolérance aux variations des précipitations et améliorent la production de gomme. Ce projet a été financé par le Conseil ouest et centre africain pour la recherche et le développement agricole (CORAF).   M. Tsengué-Tsengué, inventeur congolais et responsable de l'entreprise Challenge Futura spécialisée dans la fabrication d'équipements agroalimentaires, a conçu un \"séchoir solaire continu et réglable\". Ce séchoir peut utiliser l'eau chaude quand le soleil manque. Un partenariat a été conclu avec la société française Atlas qui va étudier \"une version simplifiée afin que même les analphabètes puissent l'utiliser facilement\", explique l'inventeur.Cette invention a reçu le prix de l'Organisation mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle (OMPI) et le prix SWISSOLAR de l'Association suisse de l'énergie solaire lors du 35 e Salon international des inventions, des techniques et produits nouveaux, qui s'est tenu à Genève en avril dernier.  Un procédé innovant et simple de conservation de l'eau de noix de coco permettrait aux petits entrepreneurs des pays ACP d'exploiter le marché en expansion de cette boisson tropicale traditionnelle. Des chercheurs de l'Université des West Indies, le Coconut Industries Board et le Conseil jamaïcain pour la recherche scientifique ont développé et testé en Jamaïque la technique de conservation à froid, avec le soutien de la FAO qui publie un guide d'apprentissage gratuit offrant une explication claire du procédé.Dès qu'elle est exposée à l'air et à la chaleur, l'eau de coco se dégrade rapidement. \"Le processus de conservation à froid nécessite peu d'investissements et de compétences ; il offre une chance aux petites entreprises de pénétrer le marché de la mise en bouteille d'eau de coco de qualité\", explique Rosa Rolle de la Division FAO des infrastructures rurales et des agro-industries.La production commerciale d'eau de coco en canettes requiert la stérilisation du produit par pasteurisation rapide à haute température ; ce procédé détruit certains éléments nutritifs de l'eau de coco et l'essentiel de sa saveur délicate. En revanche, le nouveau procédé, qui implique filtration, mise en bouteille et contrôle rigoureux de la température, protège son arôme naturel. Il permet de produire une eau de coco en bouteille qui conserve sa fraîcheur pendant 10 à 21 jours. La technologie de la conservation à froid n'est pas brevetée et peut donc être librement utilisée. Détergent à l'essence d'agrumes, bougies anti-moustiques à la citronnelle, complexe respiratoire à l'eucalyptus ou même chaussettes aux huiles essentielles… Le naturel est un bon argument de vente qui pousse les industries agroalimentaire, chimique, pharmaceutique et cosmétique à rechercher des substances naturelles bénéfiques pour la santé et l'environnement et aussi efficaces que des produits de synthèse. D'où l'emballement pour les huiles essentielles (HE), substances odorantes volatiles issues de plantes sauvages ou cultivées. Elles sont le plus souvent obtenues par distillation à la vapeur (voir encadré) ou, dans le cas des agrumes, par pression à froid des zestes. Il ne faut pas les confondre avec les huiles grasses tirées de plantes oléagineuses tels le jojoba ou le karité.Le prix de ces précieuses huiles dépend des parties et des quantités de plantes utilisées, ainsi que de la difficulté de la cueillette, le plus souvent manuelle. L'une des plus chères est l'huile de Néroli extraite des fleurs du bigaradier (Citrus aurantium) ou oranger amer, cultivé dans plusieurs pays ACP. Un minuscule flacon de 2 ml se vend environ 13 € sur Internet tandis que l'essence extraite de l'écorce des fruits vaut de dix à quinze fois moins cher. Les HE font partie des produits qui, selon le CDE, \"ont l'avantage de requérir peu d'investissement, de faire appel à des technologies simples, éprouvées, faciles à utiliser et à implanter en milieu rural (avec effet induit sur la distribution des revenus aux populations rurales), de requérir peu de volume et de pouvoir être facilement expédiés par avion à des coûts raisonnables\". La production doit répondre à des critères très sévères de qualité, sans quoi les plantes seront pauvres en principes actifs et donc de faible valeur. Les HE étant des substances complexes, leur qualification pour l'exportation exige des analyses régulières en laboratoire. Il faut en effet déterminer leur chémotype (voir encadré), c'est-à-dire leur structure biochimique exacte, qui dépend fortement des zones écologiques de récolte.Comme nous le notions déjà en 2000 (Spore 86), \"le marché des HE est attrayant, mais difficile à conquérir, car la qualité des produits est une priorité\". L'UE impose des normes très strictes. Le système REACH, qui assure le contrôle de 30 000 substances chimiques depuis 2006, s'applique aux huiles essentielles. Il impose aux industriels de faire la preuve de l'innocuité de leurs produits, ce qui est hors de portée de la plupart des PME ACP sans mesures d'accompagnement.S'ajoutent pour les petits producteurs les contraintes spécifiques du marché, très changeant d'une année à l'autre du fait de la concurrence. Il faut bien s'informer des tendances, tisser des liens avec des clients potentiels et disposer de quantités suffisantes et régulières pour les retenir. Même si les producteurs du Sud ont plus que dans le passé un accès direct au marché des pays industrialisés, notamment grâce à Internet, ce marché reste lointain, aléatoire et exclusivement demandeur de matières premières brutes. Les produits dérivés ont du mal à s'exporter sauf s'ils sont issus d'une tradition comme le Bay Rum des Caraïbes, un mélange d'HE, dont celle de Pimenta racemosa. Il est utilisé de longue date en Europe comme eau de Cologne ou lotion capillaire.La plupart des études de ces dernières années sur les HE insistent sur les opportunités commerciales que les marchés locaux et régionaux pourraient offrir aux pays ACP. À l'exemple de cette petite entreprise ghanéenne partie à la conquête des pays voisins avec une lotion anti-moustique à base d'HE de citronnelle (Cymbopogon nardus).Les HE peuvent être très utiles dans leur pays d'origine où leurs propriétés antivirales, antibactériennes et antifongiques aideraient à protéger les hommes, les animaux, les cultures et les récoltes. Ainsi, les pharmacies de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée vendent de l'HE de waria waria (Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa) dont les propriétés antiseptiques sont proches de celles de l'arbre à thé (Melaleuca alternifolia). De nombreuses recherches sont en cours dans les pays ACP pour étudier les propriétés des HE extraites de la flore locale, en se basant sur les savoirs traditionnels. Ainsi, en Afrique du Sud, les branches de Lippia javanica servaient à repousser les insectes. L'HE de cet arbuste s'est révélée efficace pour éloigner les moustiques Aedes aegypti, vecteurs de la fièvre jaune. Ajoutée à des bougies, elle a repoussé 98 % de ces moustiques contre 40 % la citronnelle. Au Burkina Faso, au Cameroun, au Congo et au Kenya, on teste les pouvoirs répulsifs de différentes essences végétales contre les moustiques vecteurs du paludisme.Au Cameroun, plusieurs universités coordonnent leurs travaux sur les pouvoirs biopesticides d'HE de plantes locales. Certaines étudient l'action d'HE contre le charançon et le capucin du grain, ravageurs des stocks de maïs. D'autres comparent l'efficacité de différentes essences de citrus contre Phaeoramularia angolensis, un champignon qui provoque la cercosporiose des agrumes et freine leur culture dans de nombreuses zones d'Afrique centrale. Au sein du réseau, l'Université de Ngaoundéré s'occupe plus particulièrement de la domestication et de la vulgarisation des plantes sources d'HE.Au Burkina Faso, une équipe de l'Institut de l'environnement et de recherches agricoles (INERA) a démontré l'efficacité des HE de Cymbopogon citratus, C. giganteus, Lippia multiflora et Ocimum basilicum contre les champignons des semences de riz. À Madagascar, l'action antibiotique de l'HE de Cinnamosma fragrans, une plante de la pharmacopée traditionnelle malgache, intéresse les chercheurs du Centre national de la recherche appliquée au développement rural (FOFIFA) et du CIRAD, qui y voient un substitut aux antibiotiques utilisés actuellement dans les élevages de crevettes.Le succès des HE pousse à rechercher sans cesse de nouvelles plantes sources d'ingrédients potentiellement bénéfiques. Cela aboutit parfois au pillage de la flore sauvage, surtout forestière. La culture est l'option à privilégier, pour éviter ces prélèvements nuisibles à la biodiversité, tout en favorisant la création d'emplois et de revenus pour les petits producteurs et distillateurs. La de Pierre Léger n'est plus faire. Frager/Agri Supply, son usine implantée dans la Plaine des au sud d'Haïti, approvisionne à elle seule près de 70 % du marché mondial d'huile essentielle de vétiver. \"J'en exporte plus de 80 t par an\", se réjouit cet agronome de 59 ans, en montrant des échantillons exposés dans un coin de son vaste bureau de Port-au-Prince. Devenir et rester le leader mondial du marché du vétiver n'est pas une mince affaire, surtout dans un pays aussi turbulent qu'Haïti. Le secret de Pierre Léger tient en peu de mots : toujours fournir un travail de qualité à ses clients, essentiellement les parfumeurs européens, et tenir les délais de livraison.L'homme d'affaires du pays le plus pauvre des Caraïbes reconnaît que les quelque 25 000 agriculteurs qui lui fournissent les racines de vétiver sont le véritable pilier de l'industrie. \"Frager/Agri Supply appartient à la communauté du Sud, lance-t-il. Les agriculteurs participent directement à sa gestion ; ils surveillent le rendement et me dictent parfois les décisions à prendre.\" Pour Pierre Léger, le manque criant d'infrastructures dans le pays reste le principal handicap au développement de l'industrie des huiles essentielles en Haïti. \"L'état déplorable des routes, le rationnement drastique de l'électricité, l'absence de ports et d'aéroports ont porté nombre de producteurs à abandonner cette activité\", regrette-t-il.Le PDG de la plus grande usine de vétiver du monde participe à toutes les activités de la communauté. Pour traduire son engagement dans la formation des jeunes, il accorde des bourses d'études dans des universités haïtiennes et étrangères. Récemment, il a fait don de 25 ha de terre à l'État haïtien pour la construction d'un campus universitaire dans la région.Depuis 2000, l'homme à la taille de géant -il mesure près de deux mètres -a élargi son horizon et parcourt régulièrement le monde pour partager son expertise et aider à la mise en place de filières de production d'huiles essentielles dans des pays confrontés comme Haïti à la pauvreté. Tout a commencé lorsque le Centre du commerce international (CCI) l'a envoyé en mission dans la région des Grands Lacs africains pour évaluer la capacité de production des HE de ces pays. \"Les huiles essentielles étaient alors méconnues au Rwanda et au Burundi\", rappelle Pierre Léger, qui croit dur comme fer que les relations Sud-Sud sont le moyen le plus efficace pour lutter contre la pauvreté. Le Rwanda et le Burundi sont, selon lui, sur le point de devenir à leur tour des producteurs d'huiles essentielles de qualité. \"Des plantations de patchouli y ont été introduites, dit-il. On a réalisé des essais et on a obtenu la meilleure qualité d'huile de patchouli du monde.\"Depuis, on le sollicite de partout -d'Asie, d'Amérique du Sud, d'Afrique. Mais ses responsabilités de chef d'entreprise en Haïti ne lui permettent pas d'accéder à toutes les demandes. Il a toutefois entamé un partenariat avec le Brésil l'an dernier.Après 34 ans dans la production d'huiles essentielles, Pierre Léger estime que le moment est venu de passer le flambeau. \"J'avais été initié très tôt par mon père dans le domaine. J'ai fait de même pour mon fils et ma fille. La parfumerie mondiale les admet maintenant sans réticence\", se félicite aujourd'hui l'agronome, qui avait lui-même pris le relais de son père Frank à l'usine en 1984, après ses études aux Pays-Bas. L'essence de l'art, en quelque sorte.Jean Pharès Jérôme parfum de réussite ///////////////////////////////////// Haïti Photo : © Syfia InternationalÀ son départ de Tahiti en 1787, l'infortuné Bounty du capitaine Bligh avait à son bord 1 015 plants d'arbres à pain en pots. La plupart furent perdus dans la mutinerie qui suivit, mais l'infâme capitaine finit par débarquer l'arbre à pain aux Caraïbes lors de voyages ultérieurs. Cet arbre avait été domestiqué dans la région du Pacifique bien avant que Bligh n'y navigue, son fruit nourrit les îliens depuis plus de 3 000 ans. À part le Pacifique et les Caraïbes, l'arbre à pain pousse aussi dans certaines régions côtières d'Afrique, en particulier au Mozambique et en Guinée. Mais il ne faut pas confondre Artocarpus altilis Fosb avec le fruit à pain africain (Treculia africana), une tout autre plante, ni avec le fruit du jaquier (Artocarpus heterophyllus) auquel il ressemble. Polyvalent, l'arbre à pain fournit aliment, bois, médicaments et insecticides naturels ; il fait partie intégrante des jardins de nombreuses communautés des pays ACP.Bien que pratiquée dans près de 90 pays, la culture de cet arbre reste à développer. Sa valorisation permettrait de faire progresser nutrition et revenus. Les perspectives d'amélioration des variétés cultivées et des procédés de transformation pour fabriquer des produits à haute valeur ajoutée sont très vastes. Lors du premier symposium international sur la recherche et le développement du fruit à pain, en avril 2007, Aleki Sisifa, directeur du Département des ressources foncières du Secrétariat de la communauté Pacifique, a déclaré que le fruit à pain est sousexploité faute d'attention de la part des instituts de recherche et des gouvernements.Le symposium organisé à Nadi, Fidji, avec l'appui du CTA a fait le point sur les recherches sur l'arbre à pain, la conservation des ressources génétiques et le développement de produits alimentaires. Plusieurs intervenants ont souligné la valeur du fruit à pain comme aliment local sain, surtout dans le Pacifique où la tendance croissante à consommer des aliments transformés importés est lourde de conséquences pour la santé et l'économie. Le fruit à pain est riche en calories, en vitamines A, B (thiamine, riboflavine et niacine) et C, en phosphore et en fer. Il entre dans la préparation de nombreux plats -hors-d'oeuvre, salades, soupes, ragoûts, pains et desserts. Tout comme la banane fruit et plantain, il peut être consommé comme légume avant maturité ou comme fruit une fois mûr.Selon les nutritionnistes et les chercheurs soucieux de le promouvoir, il est possible de développer de nouvelles techniques de transformation alimentaire à partir des méthodes traditionnelles. La fermentation est une voie intéressante si l'on adapte des techniques employées dans la préparation de plats tels que les masi ulu, des biscuits de fruit à pain fermenté des îles Samoa.  Ce rapport en ligne, en anglais, évalue les politiques en matière de TIC dans le monde, en mettant l'accent sur leur impact sur les habitants des pays en développement. Au sommaire : la politique de TIC de plusieurs grandes organisations, les politiques nationales à travers les rapports de 22 pays, dont de nombreux pays ACP, ainsi qu'une section spéciale sur la façon de mesurer les progrès accomplis.Global Information Society Watch 2007 Téléchargeable en PDF sur : www.globaliswatch.org Les biocarburants suscitent des espoirs parmi les producteurs des pays du Nord comme du Sud (Spore 123). C'est ce que montre ce documentaire qui est allé à la rencontre de producteurs de sucre français, mauriciens et brésiliens.Pour les Français, la transformation de la betterave en biocarburant est une solution pour compenser la diminution de la consommation de sucre en France et relancer la production.À Maurice, la canne à sucre est menacée par la fin du Protocole sucre avec l'UE, qui fera baisser les prix de vente de près de 40 %. Produire de l'éthanol est une solution pour préserver cette culture et les emplois et diminuer la facture énergétique.L'immense Brésil, lui, s'est lancé depuis des années déjà dans la production de biocarburants et de voitures compatibles, étendant sans cesse les superficies cultivées en canne au détriment de la forêt amazonienne.Le film de 52 minutes explique bien pourquoi et comment de grosses entreprises agricoles se sont lancées sur ce nouveau marché.La seconde partie du film met en perspective, à l'échelle de la planète, ces biocarburants censés remplacer, au moins partiellement, le pétrole. Car ils ne présentent pas que des avantages et il y a même danger si leur production se fait au détriment des cultures vivrières, surtout dans les pays en développement qui peuvent être tentés par ces débouchés. C'est pourquoi, conseillent des spécialistes, il vaudrait mieux attendre la seconde génération de biocarburants à base de déchets forestiers ou agricoles, comme la paille. Il ne faut pas se leurrer, préviennent les chercheurs interrogés, la planète ne pourra pas à la fois nourrir ses 9 milliards d'habitants et leur fournir de l'énergie. Réduire la consommation de pétrole reste un impératif. Les exercices sur le terrain, à la base de ces systèmes, permettent à des populations marginalisées de représenter leur terroir sur des cartes qui peuvent aller du simple croquis à des modèles en trois dimensions. Le savoir local ainsi retracé est un outil de décision et facilite la communication entre les groupes et avec les gouvernements.Des expériences très significatives, sur les différents continents y compris en Amérique du Nord, sont ici détaillées. L'enthousiasme des responsables y est perceptible et fait écho à celui des villageois qui ont participé aux exercices. Ces exemples illustrent la diversité des utilisations et des outils des SIGP. Qu'il s'agisse de sauvegarder le patrimoine culturel des Fidji, de résoudre des problèmes fonciers au Ghana ou de promouvoir la gestion communautaire des ressources naturelles en Namibie, les SIGP aident les populations locales à faire reconnaître leurs droits.À condition, précise le dernier chapitre \"Théorie et réflexions découlant de la pratique\", de respecter des règles morales précises qui assurent, en particulier, une bonne utilisation des données recueillies et le consentement clair des populations qui en sont ensuite les gardiennes.Grâce à ce cédérom, ceux que ces méthodes intriguent ou intéressent seront comblés. Ils y trouveront aussi de très nombreuses références et de courtes vidéos qui montrent des exercices pratiques.  Cet ouvrage analyse les enjeux et les espoirs des processus de décentralisation, qui influent grandement sur les nouvelles politiques africaines de développement dans bon nombre de pays. Il étudie en particulier la communalisation intégrale au Burkina Faso, qui permet aux ruraux de gérer plus directement leurs affaires.   Il fallait une nouvelle approche pour revitaliser l'agriculture dans les Caraïbes. Ainsi est né le concept de la \"nouvelle agriculture\", qui ne peut qu'évoluer étant donné le dynamisme de l'environnement international. La nouvelle agriculture repose d'ores et déjà sur certaines caractéristiques clés. Elle englobe l'ensemble de la filière, de la production des intrants -y compris les outils -à la vente des produits finaux, frais ou transformés. Elle met l'accent sur les marchés de niche et les produits à haute valeur ajoutée et s'adapte aux pratiques alimentaires changeantes, avec des aliments sains, nutritifs et faciles d'emploi. La nouvelle agriculture inclut des produits non alimentaires : nutraceutiques, biocarburants, plantes médicinales et objets artisanaux.Les technologies, notamment la biotechnologie et l'informatique, sont ses moteurs. C'est un business et elle est donc tournée vers le marché, plutôt que poussée par la production. Elle fait appel à toutes sortes de compétences et de programmes de vulgarisation, de formation et de recherche et entretient des liens organiques avec d'autres secteurs économiques comme le tourisme, l'éducation, la santé, le transport, le commerce et les finances.Le succès de la nouvelle agriculture dépendra en partie de la responsabilisation et de la réactivité du gouvernement. Mais surtout, il faut l'implication totale de tous les acteurs. À Sainte-Lucie, par exemple, une chaîne hôtelière cherchait à se fournir en fruits et légumes frais. Des représentants de la chaîne, du ministère Il existe bien d'autres exemples concrets de nouvelle agriculture, comme l'introduction de la technique de culture sous abri pour produire des légumes de qualité destinés aux marchés nationaux, ou encore le programme haïtien Prohuerta, inspiré par l'Argentine, dont les produits visent à améliorer les régimes alimentaires. Au Guyana, la communauté Trilakes produit des ananas biologiques pour transformation et exportation vers le marché européen.Bien sûr, il y a aussi des obstacles. Il faut arriver à convaincre les gens de la nécessité d'un dialogue et d'un accord sur des objectifs communs. Tous les partenaires doivent s'engager sur le long terme et rester déterminés contre vents et marées. Persuader les petits agriculteurs d'adopter cette nouvelle approche n'est pas toujours facile. Mais avec des encouragements adaptés et l'assurance que les intrants, l'appui technique et les marchés ne leur feront pas défaut, ils participeront, et leur succès aura un effet multiplicateur.Si les agriculteurs n'adoptent pas la nouvelle agriculture, ils risquent de ne plus pouvoir vivre de leur métier. Il leur faudra alors se tourner vers d'autres secteurs de production, en zones rurales ou urbaines. Leur migration en ville alourdira le fardeau des autorités nationales chargées de fournir les infrastructures sociales, civiles, voire pénales, adéquates. À l'évidence, c'en était fini de l'agriculture à l'ancienne.Spore 131 / Octobre 2007","tokenCount":"6019"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"74487d6fb4c63c45cd1683508d241b69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14a76a39-e801-42d1-83b7-8ccfe7e729eb/retrieve","id":"-722513608"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bb686bf6-f2de-4d48-8176-4aa4bfb52048","pagecount":"17","content":"EY'establecimiento exitoso de pastos depende INTRODUCCION en el uso de semilla 'apropiada (o material vegetativo) de las especies deseadas cuyos requerimientos para su germinaci6n y crecimiento inicial corresponden a las condiciones del ambiente en su forma natural 6 se logran mediarite.1 manejo.Estas condiciones ambientales son relativamente f~ciles de suministrar durante una parte del año en tierras cu4~~vadas o fáciles de cultivar, si se disponen de los recursos requeridos. En el mundo real de , la mayorla de las zonas tropicales en via de desarrollo, algunos o todos los r'ecursos son casi siempre 1 imitantes. la semilla puede estar muy escaza Ylo costosa. Los fertilizantes y la éa1, la maquinaria apropiada y hasta la mano de obra son frecuentemente • 1 imitantes. La vegetación nativa junto 'eón la 'topograffa y condiciones f'sicas del suelo alcanzan a limitar la capacidad ,del agricultor de suministrar un ambiente óptimo para el estable¿imiento del pasto, utilizando sistemas tradicionales de labranza • El Objetivo de nuestra investigaci6n en establecimiento de pastos es el de desarrollar sistemas eficientes, econ6micos y accesibles dentro del medio para el establecimiento de especies forrajeras adaptadas sobre el rango de condiciones climáticas, edáficas y bi6ticas que se encuentran en las regiones de suelos álicos enEl primer paso es el estudio del ecosistema con el fin de caracterizarlo con respecto a los factores que influyen 'en el establecimiento de pastos. Se puede determinar los parlmetros edlficos fácilmente pero los factores climáticos y blót1cos son rara vez bien conocidos en áreas en desarrollo y pOdr1an requerir varios afios de observaci6n para caracterizarlos en detalle~ Con un conocimiento adecuado del ecosistema, uno puede escoger especies o ecotipos que se adapten bien al ambiente o que se requieren con poca modificación del mismo, para un buen establecimiento.Huchos parámetros edificas y algunos climáticos y bi6ticos son. sujetos a modificación a trav~z del manejo. pero frecuentemente, el factor econ6mico no permite el cambio deseado. De tal manera, en suelos'muy acidos y de baja fertilidad que se encuentran en la mayor1a de las regiones de sabana en Am~r~ca Latina, nuestra, ' polftica ha sido de trabajar con especies'que son tolerantes a la acid~z en vez de encalar el suelo para combatir el problema.Por otro lado la respuesta de los pastos a la adición de nutrimentos. especialmente el f6sforo, es tan grande que casi siempre aplicamos fertilizante, por 10 menos en la etapa de establecimiento~ Los investigadores han tenido mucho más exito en la selecc16n de especies y ecotipos de alto rendimiento que tole~an.,la acid~z que en la selección de especies tolerantes a bajos niveles de P y K en el suelo. La calidad de la semilla es talvez el eslab6n más debil en el proceso de establecimiento de pastos tropicales. Quisieramos siempre tener una semilla de alto porcentaje de viabilidad pero frecuentemente es necesario compensar la mala calidad de la semilla .-{ comercial por cantidades exageradas de semillas a sembrar. Ademls . -, .\",:-...i f '.-.,'de la baja viabilidad de semilla de pastos tropicales se presentan dos problemas adicionales: La dormancia de~semil1a y. en el caso de leguminosas. semillas duras. La d8rmancia se puede romper mediante almacenaje o por tratamientos con el calor y el frio y por el uso de estimulantes de crecimiento (Grof. 1968;Ramos, 1975). La escarificaci6n es frecuentemente necesaria para .solucionar el problema de semillas duras de leguminosas aunque a menudo se recomienda un cierto porcentaje mínimo de semillas duras para ser incluido en la siembra en Ireas en donde el patr6n de clima es poco predecible y son frecuentes las sequias (Cook y Lowe. 1977).La mayoría de los pastos tropicales son de sém11las peqúeñas, por 10 tanto se debe sembrar muy superficialmente. En Carimagua, hemos perdido siembras de gramíneas como Me1inis minutiflora (15 x lO' semillas kg~~), debido a una siembra demasiado enseguida de la preparación de la tierra. Las lluvias que cayeron despu~s de la siembra alcanzaron a tapar la semilla demasiado y no pudo salir.~.-..Recomendamos la siembra de gramfneas de semillas muy pequeñas apenas despu~s de varias lluvias siguiendo la preparación de la tierra para que la superficie se compacte y se llenen-algunos de las microdepresiones con tierra suelta. Humphreys (1974},recomienda la siembra hasta profundidades de un cm. para la mayoría de las '\"\" \" \" \" \"• \"o, '; .t.'o ''\\, .-5leguminosas y gramlneas forrajeras de semil~as pequenas. En el \\ caso de \"Townsville\" stylo, la siembra se hace siempre sobre la superficie. Las reservas de nutrimentos en la semilla son insuficientes para su emergencia de mayores profundidades.El Establecimiento del PastoComenzando con semillas de buena calidad, los factores ambientales mds importantes que influyen en la germinaci6n y establecimiento son: La presencia siempre de humedad adecuada, aireaci6n suficiente, condiciones flsicas del suelo que permiten la penetraci6n de las rafees y la salida de la p14ntula, nutrimentos suficientes, pH adecuado, temperaturas adecuadas para el crecimiento rdpido de la planta y la ausencia (o control) de pat6genos 6 predatores y de vegetaci6n que compite con la nueva siembra. Algunas semillas requieren luz para su germinaci6n. (Leach et al, 1976).Humedad: Los pastos que se siembran sobre la superficie son \\ especialmente susceptibles a la falta de humedad aún\"cuando el \" ;suelo tenga humedad a poca profundidad. McWillfam et 'al (1970) encontraron grandes diferencias entre especies de \"zonas\" templadas con respecto a su requerimiento para humedad. La compactaci6n del suelo que se encuentra demasiado poroso y flojo puede solucionar el problema de secamiento, asegurando un flujO de agua de capas mds profundas hacia la superficie por capilaridad, proceso que • 0,'• \"no ocurre si los poros son demasiado grandes. Willard (1962).recomienda el uso de dos rodillos corrugados, el uno inmediatamente antes de la salida de semilla de la sembradora y el otro inmediatamente detrás. Los suelos en Carimagua son a menudo demasiado porososdespués de una preparacidn tradicional de la tierra y se han perdido siembras debido a sequlas de poca duración si no se compacta la superficie, al menos sobre la hilera.El uso de rastrojo de un cultivo o de la misma sabana puede ser muy Otil en el control del secamiento de la superficie del suelo.El rastrojo alcanza a moderar las temperaturas en la superficie y asf conserva la humedad y mejora el ambiente de la plántula en la primera etapa de su desarrollo.Desde que la temperatura ni la duracidn de luz no verfan mucho a travéz del año en las 'latitudes bajas. las fechas de siembra se pueden escober para asegurar las condiciones más favorables en cuanto a humedad durante la etapa de establecimiento. Humphrys (1974) recomienda la siembra antes de las primeras lluvias (que aseguran una humedad adecuada) pero admite que 10 diffcil es :;,,'predecir la fecha en que van a caer las primeras lluvias! ~ ::.,' Aireación: La mayorfa de los Ultisoles y Oxisoles son suficientemente , ,~, \" ,\" bien drenados para una aireación adecuada a no ser que hayan sido cultivados 6 sobre preparados (un caso que se presenti demasiado frecuente con parcelas experimentales!).....Condiciones f'sicas del sue10: Las rafees de la planta recién germinada tienen que penetrar el suelo para darle a la planta anclaje y para obtener la humedad y los nutrimentos requeridos por la planta. Semillas sembradas sobre la superficie de la tierra no preparada son a veces incapaces de penetrar la.superficie compactada, en parte por la alta resistencia del suelo y la falta de poros y además, por la falta de anclaje de la semilla que puede ser empujada sobre la superficie del suelo por las rafees que vienen creciendo, (Barley, et al 1965, Campbell andSwain. 1973a). Este problema se ha presentado en las pruebas que hemos sembrado sobre sabana nativa sin ninguna preparaci~n en Carimagua. Sin embargo, es poco frecuente el problema en tierra_preparada. La formaci6n de costra es raramente un problema a no ser que la semilla se siembre demasiado profunda o se cubra demasiado por la erosi6n causada por la lluvia después de la siembra. Problemas de condiciones ffsicas en el suelo son m~s comunes en areas que se han cultivado 6 que están siendo renovadas después de varios anos de pastoreo.Las propiedades f'sicas de los Oxisoles recién cultivados son excelentes.Rugosidad de la superfic.ie (microrelieve): Es un aspecto muy importante en la preparación de la tierra para la siembra que a veces se nos pasa por alto. Una tierra sobre preparada (demasiado fina y plana) es frecuentemente la causa del sellamiento de la Temperatura: Las altas temperaturas en suelos del tr6pico tienen como efecto la d'secación rápida de la superficie del suelo y de semillas y plantas recién germinadas. sembradas superficialmente •.El problema es especialmente grave en lotes donde el suelo se encuentra demasiado fino y plano ofreciendo asf muy poca protecci6n a la planta. EJ uso de rastrojo como una posible soluc16n del problema se ha mencionado. Bajas temperaturas pueden ser limitantes.estacionalmente en el crecimiento de las plantas.en zonas subtropicales.Pat6senos: Semillas de pastos se tratan a veces con sustancias qufmicas para el control de pat6genos. Sin embargo. en nuestro programa dependemos de la resistencia o tolerancia genética a. '. \" Un gran número de insectos junto con hormigas arrieras (CIAT. 1974) causa daños muy serios en lotes recién sembrados de gramíneas y leguminosas en Carimagua. Es sin duda,uno de los problemas mis graves que tenemos que enfrentar en el establecimiento de pastos en !Sabanas.Vegetación gue compita con pasto: El control de especies nativas y malezas que compitan con el pasto durante el periodo de establecimiento y crecimiento es talvéz uno de los factores más importantes en todo el proceso en suelos de sabana. El control en.:~f. no es~dif(cil.Con una labranza adecuada se logra un control completo de la En zonas selváticas o de cerrado, el proceso de tumbar y quemar los árboles y arbustos alcanza a mover el suelo y deja condiciones favorables para el establecimiento de muchas especies forrajeras.Las mismas condiciones naturales que existen en el bosque son mucho más favorables para el establecimiento de pastos que las que se presentan en sabanas. En la quema de la sabana no hay mayor acumulación de cenizas ni movimiento,del suelo y la luperf1cie muchas veces se mantiene compacta, poco porosa y muy inhóspita para las s1embras superficiales de pastos. Tenemos dos anos de experiencia trabajando con un sistema de labranza basado en el uso de palas, de cultivadora que alcanzan a cortar las especies de la sabana auna profundidad de tres o cuatro cms y asf efectúan un control adecuado de la vegetación (CIAT. 1?76). Las palas dejan todo el rastrojo en la superficie, alcanzan a separar la planta de su sistema radicular dando un control muy adecuado si las Seguimos buscando otros sistemas más eficientes para el control de la vegetaci6n y de la tierra para un buen establecimiento de pastos sembrados. El costo de labranza tradicional es el.mayor costo en todo el proceso de establecimiento y parece subir en forma alarmante debido al cos~o de la maquinaria y el combustible; Métodos de siembra: La s1embra en banda tiene varias ventajas . ,,; . • \" .comparada con la siembra al voleo. En suelos de baja fertffidad's~ permite la aplicaci6n en banda de peque~as cantidades de fertil izantes para favorecer la germinacitln y crecimiento 'inicial de la planta sin estimular demasiado el crecimiento de las maJezas.'Además la práctica reduce bastante la fijación de f6sforo en suelos En la siembra de asociaciones a nivel experimental. separamos la leguminosa de la gramfnea. sembrando en hileras intercaladas ó en franjas. Tenemos un ensayo bajo pastoreo en que el Kudzu fué sembrado en franjas de 2.5 metros intercalados con franjas de' gramfneas del mismo ancho. la esperanza es de darle más oportunidad a la leguminosa. especialmente cuando se siembra con gramfneas muy agresivas como es el pasto Brachiaria. Comercialmente. serta más fácil sembrar por separado en franjas que en hileras. El factor distribución espacial de los, diferentes componentes de una asociación requiere más estudio. Cabrales (1975) informa de una siembra exitosa de'Kudzu en un potrero establecido de para;,sembrando en franjas.Es conveniente utilizar una sembradora abonadora combinada para • una aplicaci6n precisa de la semilla con respecto a la banda de fertilizantes. La semilla normalmente no se tapa 6 se tapa con una capa muy superficial mediante ruedas de compactación ó cadenas . .Humphrys (1974). prese~ta recomendaciones en cuanto a cantidades de semillas a sembrar. Las recomendaciones se basan en semillas de buena calidad y es esencial conocer la calidad de semilla a usar y compensar la falta de germinaci6n por tasas ajustadas de siembra.Enfoques Actuales de Nuestro Programa En el Informe Anual de CIAT ~1976) se encuentra un reporte de progreso con respecto. a la investigaci6n en el establecimiento de pastos. En este ano estamos en una etapa de transici6n en que la mayoría de los trabajos relacionados con la nutrici6n de la planta pasarán a un colega en el Programa, dejandonos más tiempo para ampliar los trab~jos relacionados con aspectos físicos en el establecimiento de pastos.' Tenemos interés especial en reducir los costos de preparaci6n del terreno, la cantidad de semilla 6 material vegetativo requerida para una siembra adecuada. un uso más eficiente de la mano de obra en la siembra y más seguridad en cuanto al~ establecimiento de poblaciones adecuadas de las especies forrajeras más promisorias para la zona de interés al Programa.","tokenCount":"2197"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6bee2ceba1f5dfb4e174cd2f4dcc117b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e895ce3-2495-43ed-ba2b-4490adddde67/retrieve","id":"1301599138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4b65eaee-9fdf-423d-a627-a6bdc7037289","pagecount":"4","content":"Worldwide, cell phones are used by 5.4 billion people. They are becoming increasingly prevalent in the rural areas of low-and middle-income countries (LMICs), providing smallholder farmers with access to agricultural markets. If they reduce information asymmetries between women and men farmers, they can also contribute to closing the gender gap in agricultural productivity. So far, however, digital innovations have had limited success in transforming agricultural systems. This may be due, in part, to the gender gap in cell-phone use. Rural women in LMICsparticularly those with low incomes, low literacy levels, or disabilities-are less likely than rural men to have access to cell phones, the Internet, digital currency, or other digital services. This policy note summarizes research intended to shed light on the impact of cell-phone ownership and use on the gender gap in agricultural productivity in LMICs.The analysis reported in this policy note is based on interviews with 1,050 rural households in 70 villages of Kenya's Kitui County during November and December 2022. The purpose of the study was to explore the impact of access to and use of digital services on agricultural productivity, and whether and to what extent a gender divide existed. In order to assess the impact of variable network coverage, the household sample was divided equally between areas with high and low network coverage. Note that household plots were categorized as (1) those managed by women only (a subsample of 340);(2) those managed by men only (a subsample of 296); and(3) those with at least one man and one woman listed as managers (a subsample of 634).  3).Although the survey indicated that the use of agriculturerelevant digital applications was very low for both men and women (2 percent and 1 percent, respectively), men were significantly more likely than women to own cell phones capable of accessing Internet-based features, including email, Internet calling and messaging, and social media. These differences can be fully attributed to smartphones; after controlling for ownership, all gender differences in usage become insignificant. Thus, while there were stark gender differences in the ownership of smartphones, there were no differences in how women and men used smartphones. Nonetheless, the gender gap in smartphone ownership has important implications as a driver of gender inequality in Internet access.Cell-phone ownership and, in particular, smartphone ownership may provide plot managers with distinct advantages in enhancing their agricultural production. However, in comparing the production outcomes of plots managed by respondents who owned cell phones versus those managed by respondents who did not,Source: Calculated by authors based on primary survey data. Notes: The sample included 634 plots managed by men and women jointly, 340 plots managed by women only, and 296 plots managed by men only. No differences across groups were significant. Confidence intervals are shown at the 90 percent level.Source: Calculated by authors based on primary survey data. . Notes: The sample included 819 men and 889 women who managed at least one cultivated plot of land. The differences between men and women for \"Owns a smartphone\" and \"Owns any phone\" were found to be significant (p < 0.1). Confidence intervals are shown at the 90 percent level. there was no evidence of differences. On the other hand, in comparing outcomes between plots managed by respondents who owned smartphones and those managed by respondents who did not, plots for which at least one manager owned a smartphone outperformed other plots in four of the six production outcomes (Figure 4). However, restricting the sample in this way significantly reduced the sample size, thereby eliminating the opportunity to assign statistical significance to these differences, despite their magnitude in many cases.The study's final research question was whether any of the gender-based differences in cell-phone ownership related to gender differences in agricultural productivity. The analysis involved examining the relationship between production outcomes and a host of explanatory factors, including smartphone/ cell-phone ownership by at least one plot manager, and whether a plot was managed by women only (Figure 5). Results illustrate the findings, which are consistent across outcomes. While the coefficient for smartphone ownership is often positive, and the coefficient for plots managed by women only is often negative, at no time are either statistically significant. Hence, the study found no definitive evidence of gender differences in the relationship between cell-phone ownership and agricultural production and production value per hectare.Source: Calculated by authors based on primary survey data.The sample included 819 men and 889 women who managed at least one cultivated plot.The differences between men and women for all uses were found to be significant (p < 0.1).Confidence intervals are shown at the 90 percent level. Cell phones have inherent potential to provide smallholder farmers with timely access to agriculture-related information, which over time could transform Africa's agricultural production systems. The lack of evidence of a significant relationship between cell-phone use and agricultural production in this study does not invalidate this potential. Findings do, however, highlight issues around the type of digital technology available to smallholders. Smartphone ownership and use were rare among the sample's plot managers, especially compared with ownership and use of basic cell phones-and this was especially so for women. This means that, instead of using phones to access information via the Internet, communicate through email, participate in social media, or take advantage of digital applications (\"apps\"), smallholders' access, at least in the short term, will be restricted to the text-and voice-based features of basic cell phones. This is particularly true for women farmers, suggesting that policies and programs should aim not only to increase smallholder farmers' access to smartphones, but also to explicitly promote women's access as a means of closing the gender digital divide.  ","tokenCount":"936"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"977fb0ac5051add5386b09838a15f790","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/72e9e7dd-6596-4d80-89fb-de84e48a8902/retrieve","id":"781398679"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c3cee9ea-d8cf-48eb-ac8a-a5d3ee7b6e42","pagecount":"40","content":"Biomass production and management practices in mixed crop-livestock systems in the west African Sahel: Opportunities and constraintsEffects of compost application on sorghum yield components (5 Mg* ha -1 ) in Yatenga  The Sahel is a semi-arid region extending from the southern border of the arid Sahara to the northern border of the subhumid tropical savannas (Charney 1975;Ouedraogo et al. 2014). The Sahel covers 3,053,200 kilometres (km)² and is concerned with parts of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan and Eritrea. This portion of the African continent is characterized by a marked inter-annual climate variability and has experienced a number of food security crises following the severe droughts during the 1970s and 1980s (Ali and Lebel 2009;Brandt et al. 2014;Meroni et al. 2014;Nicholson 2013).The rainfall varies between 200 millimetres (mm) and 600 mm annually with a north-south positive gradient, mainly occurring between June and October. The majority of the population (about 80%) lives in rural areas practising agriculture and livestock farming (Ickowicz et al. 2012). Low and erratic precipitation in the Sahel is the most important factor limiting crop yield in the region. In addition, the unbalanced soil factors (texture and profile depth) with the prevailing precipitation has resulted in a crop yield (millet and sorghum, mainly) below the potential (Unger et al. 1991;Lal 1990). Livestock husbandry in the region has been a traditional activity built upon commonly organized use of resources such as water and pasture (Ancey et al. 2008).Currently, due to recent challenges such as rapid population growth, climate change, environmental concerns and market changes which cause major impacts to their production systems, the Sahelian people have been changing and adapting their production systems and the way they live to cope with uncertainties. This change, although built upon their indigenous ingenuity to adapt to current situations, has however been favored by the introduction of external technologies and/or improvement of the existing ones by research and development institutions and nongovernment organizations (NGOs). These interventions are aimed at improving on-farm and/or off-farm biomass production for resilient household wellbeing in the Sahel. This present report reviews the various biomass production and management issues in the mixed crop-livestock systems in the west African Sahel.The report mainly focuses on the drivers of changes, the production and management practices, the effects of the biomass production and management on agricultural productivities, gender and ecosystem services, some examples of best practices, trade-offs associated with the production, and the opportunities, constraints and lessons learned from biomass production. Some policy recommendations that can be used to improve biomass production and management practices are made.In this report, our region of interest is the west African Sahel with focus on Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal (Figure 1). However, to enrich the data in the review, relevant information outside our region of interest but within west Africa have been included.The population of the four countries has rapidly grown from 20 million people in 1960 to 80 million people in 2010 (Figure 2). More than 80% of the population are rural dwellers who practice small scale farming for their livelihoods of which 60% are involved in mixed crop-livestock systems (Ly et al. 2010). The crop-livestock systems play an important role for both agriculture and livestock as well as the maintenance of a good livelihood standard in west Africa. The majority of the livestock population depends on mobility and contribute 30% to the agricultural GDP.The farming system is oriented towards livestock and crop production that are more or less complementary in the land use system. The area being open, the access to natural resources is based on several usage rights to maintain their mobility and reciprocity (Ancey et al. 2008). A family organization governs the access to land and controls the production factors. Similar to the rapid increase of human population in the west African Sahel, the cultivated area and livestock populations have also increased between 1960 and 2010 (Figure 2). This may be an indicator of existence of conflicts linked to competition for natural resources between different land users which may sometimes result in migration of part of family members towards less crowded and more fertile zones in the south. Biomass is concerned with all organic material that stems from plants produced by green plants converting sunlight into plant material through photosynthesis and includes all land and water based vegetation, as well as all organic wastes (McKendry 2002). Biomass production practices consist of all management strategies/interventions that aim to improve plant material production. In this report, for the sake of clarity we set apart two types of biomass production practices: on-farm biomass and off-farm biomass production. On-farm biomass production practices are all intervention/techniques that contribute to maximize crop yield while off-farm biomass production practices deal with any management technique aiming to enhance above ground plant production outside cultivated lands, considered as grazing land in the Sahel. This study specifically focuses on herbaceous and lignin biomass, and biomass from crop residues.Mixed crop-livestock or mixed farming systems are systems where crops and livestock are integrated on the same farm (Herrero et al. 2010;Thornton and Herrero 2014). Famers raise livestock in rural areas for many purposes including milk and meat production, traction, transport, manure production, as a store of wealth ('living saving account') and as a source of income to meet household needs. They plant grain crops to meet their consumption needs. Crop production provides feed (crop residues) to livestock while livestock production in turn provides draught, manure and traction to improve or facilitate crop production (Figure 3).The mixed farming systems cover globally 2.5 million hectares (ha) of land and produce about 90% of the world milk supply and 80% of the meat from ruminants (Herrero et al. 2013). The system is particularly important for livestock and food security because it provides most of the staple food consumed by poor people. All papers selected for review were written in English or French. The title and abstract were reviewed for relevance; if relevant, the papers were downloaded and read in full. Books chapters and conference proceedings meeting the key search terms were also included. The year of publication, the practice, the location and the key findings of literature selected for inclusion were recorded.In terms of analysis, the literature was synthesized for general trends, the type and importance of the various practices, and the conclusions drawn. The practices identified in the selected literature have been grouped into sets of challenges addressed, the country and year the studies were conducted, their efficiency and constraints of adoption.Over the last three decades, the Sahel in general has experienced important and rapid changes in vegetation cover, plant community composition, hydrological conditions and soil properties (D'Odorico et al. 2013) which led to loss of ecosystem services and poses serious threats to sustainable livelihoods. This is referred to as desertification, resulting in an increase in barren lands, loss of soil nutrients and water holding capacity, increase in soil salinity and toxicity (D'Odorico et al. 2013;Martinez-Beltrán and Manzur 2005). For example, this process can create shifts in vegetation composition from perennial to annual species, palatable to unpalatable grasses or woodland to shrubland (Scholes and Archer 1997;Tarhouni et al. 2010;Todd 2006). In the west African Sahel, the impacts of increasing desertification are marked by erratic rainfall sequences within and between years coupled with recurrent desert locust invasion and the presence of large areas of inherently low fertility and crust prone soils, leading to high uncertainties in herbaceous and lignin biomass production, and biomass production from crop residues (Breman et al. 2001;Barry et al. 2008;Borona et al. 2015). Consequently, the west African Sahel today is suffering from an environmental and food crisis which sometimes leads to political instability. Among the driving forces of the change in biomass production are natural and human induced factors.Changes in the global and regional patterns of precipitation are the major drivers of the current Sahelian biomass status. According to Goudie (2006), many degraded zones were formed millions of years ago while the majority of them were affected by Pleistocene climate changes which extended at some points to currently much wetter zones. Lezine (1989) and Le Houerou (1997) identified two types of climate change in the Sahel: natural long-term fluctuations which altered the vegetation over the last centuries and short-term changes like the severe droughts that occurred in the1970s and 1980s.Wind and water erosion Sterk et al. (1996) and Middleton and Thomas (1997) have explored wind and water erosion systems in the Sahel and their effects on vegetation loss. It was revealed that one-third of the Sahel is affected by moderate to low wind erosion while one per cent of the Sahel (six million ha) are strongly affected by wind erosion. In this ecological zone, nutrients are stored within the few centimeters soil layer. As such, loss of topsoil material corresponds to loss of entire soil fertility. In the same way, water erosion frequently driven by heavy rainfall intensity washes away soil layers, resulting in extended lands with sparse vegetation cover and bare surfaces. Areas where wind and water erosion originate lose their soil nutrients while pooling areas benefit from deposited material, if not buried too deep.The degree of human impact on resources in the Sahel is strongly related to population growth (Wezel and Rath 2002). According to van Vliet et al. (2013) and Raynaut (2001), the Sahel region experienced one of the world's highest demographic growths from 1.5% per year in the 1950s to 3% per year in the 1990s, which has resulted in the threefold increase in the population. The west African Sahel population increased fourfold within a half of a century, from 20 million in 1960 to 80 million in 2010 (Figure 2). In the context of less developed countries, such as countries in the Sahel, population growth is always associated with biomass degradation through poor farming practices (Geist and Lambin 2002). In some cases (Burkina Faso and Senegal, mainly), biomass degradation is associated with inmigration of farmers fleeing drought affected zones and pulled by the fertile soil of the down south areas (Ouedraogo et al. 2009;Ouedraogo et al. 2012;Ouedraogo et al. 2015).About 80% of the population in the Sahel rely on traditional fuel use of wood and charcoal (Ouedraogo 2006;Ouedraogo et al. 2010;Ouedraogo et al. 2011) and this has led to an immense reduction of herbaceous and lignin biomass in the Sahel (Breman and Kessler 1995;Fontes and Guinko 1995;Wezel and Rath 2002;Tappan et al. 2004).In the past, only dead wood was collected for household energy requirements. Today, green wood is cut down by commercial traders to meet the energy need in the capital cities. In Senegal, similar to the other Sahel countries, cutting of trees for charcoal production was found to be the main factor that led to the disappearance of several tree species (Bergeret and Ribot 1990).Grazing areas in the Sahel include natural pasture, fallow land and harvested cropland (Wezel and Rath 2002). Grazing is among the factors of land degradation in some areas in the Sahel due to its high intensity and mobility and to the high sensitivity of most of the plant species to heavy grazing (Hiernaux 1998). Natural pasture is usually open to all users while fallow and post-harvest cropland can be used in mutual agreement with the owner.The lack of control over resources is one of the major reasons for the degradation of natural resources and this is exemplified by the Sahel case. As illustrated by Hardin (1968), in open access rangelands, the 'tragedy of the commons' paradigm holds that an individual behaving in his own self-interest will continue to exploit a common resource, even when it is being overused and degraded because the benefits from such behavior accrue to him alone, while the constraints are divided among members of the community as a whole.In some remote areas of the Sahel, cash crops such as groundnut and cotton have been promoted during and after the colonial period (van Vliet et al. 2013). Intensive groundnut production was superimposed in Senegal in the 1840s while cotton production was introduced and maintained in Mali and Burkina Faso. The expansion of the cash crop production has resulted in decreased biomass with an important increase of bare lands. In the areas where cotton is currently produced, it is likely that the soil will become unfertile due to the overuse of chemical fertilizers.In rural areas within the Sahel, the cost of living has risen greatly since the populations aspire to luxury as a spinoff of a new consumerism and market economy (Ouedraogo et al. 2015). They strive to meet the new living standards in terms of education, health, housing (metal and cement), transport (motorcycles) and communication (mobile phones). This can only be met by increasing the area of individual cash cropland. The artisanal gold mining boom in the Sahel has led to mitigated impacts on the environment while huge areas have been destroyed for mining. In addition, important croplands in some localities have been abandoned because many young farmers converted to gold miners.Faced with drought and declining crop yields in the 1980s, farmers in the Sahel began to experiment with various soil and water conservation and ecosystem restoration practices (Reij et al. 2005;Kabore and Reij 2004;Botoni and Reij 2009). The objectives were to rehabilitate the productive capacity of the land through better rainfall and runoff controls as well as to improve soil fertility management and reforestation.The results of the literature survey on biomass management practices are shown in Table 1. This table indicates the various practices, their efficiency and constraints and the publications on each practice since the 1990s as well as the countries where the studies were conducted.Figure 4 presents a simplified pictorial representation of the number of publications that address each of the four main challenges of the Sahel for each single west African Sahelian country. These challenges are: declining soil fertility, increasing wind erosion, increasing water erosion and decreasing vegetation cover. Niger has the highest number of publications ( 44) in general and particularly on soil fertility, wind erosion and vegetation degradation issues. It is followed by Burkina Faso (37) for the same issues. Few publications (three) were recorded for Senegal.Among the Sahelian countries, Niger was the one that suffered the most from the severe droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. After the droughts, many researchers focused on Niger. Also, the presence of the headquarters of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and the AGRHYMET Regional Centre in Niamey may have contributed to the rise in the number of publications focused on this country. The few numbers of publications recorded for Mali and Senegal do not imply that important research has not been conducted in these countries but they might not have been published in English peer reviewed journals which we largely used for this study. We did not obtain access to publications that were not available on the web. The literature survey revealed that in the west African Sahel, there are many management practices that aim to improve soil fertility for biomass and crop production in the mixed crop-livestock systems (Table 1 and Figure 5):• On-farm crop residues management is a widespread practice in the Sahel. Crop residues management is defined as a technology whereby at the time of crop emergence at least 30% of the soil surface is covered by organic residue of the previous crop (Erenstein 2002). In addition to enhancing soil fertility, crop residues management can contribute to reduce wind and water erosion, improve the harvesting and conservation of the crop residues and can improve the nutritional quality of the crop residues as animal feed. The main challenges of this practice is that in the Sahel, crop residues have multiple uses that conflict with on-farm crop residues management: crop residues constitute important feeds for livestock and also a primary source of energy at the household level.• Mulching consists of covering the ground with a layer of plant materials in order to conserve soil water, to stimulate the activity of soil biota (e.g. termites) and to reclaim degraded soil for crop production (Bayala et al. 2012;Ouedraogo et al. 2007). This is done using plant materials such as wild grass, crop residues or tree biomass, either leguminous or not. The main constraint of this practice is that it may not be applicable to a large-scale farming system due to limited availability of biomass and the conflicting use of crop residues as livestock feed, and use by households for other purposes such as fuel, for construction etc.• Soil and water conservation techniques include traditional practices such as zai, half moon, stone and earth bunds and grass strips. These techniques are well adopted in the west African Sahel and aim at increasing infiltration, soil moisture retention, soil organic matter content and improving soil structure besides reducing soil erosion (Zougmore et al. 2000;2003;2004). Zai are planting pit systems where organic materials are deposited during the dry seasons (Photo 1). Crops (millet, sorghum etc.) are planted in it during the rainy season. On bare soils, pits are shown to increase the activities of termites which increase woody plants regeneration and speed up the restoration of degraded land (Mando and Stroosnijder 1999;Sileshi et al. 2010;Bayala et al. 2012). These techniques can also improve the vegetation cover. However, soil and water conservation techniques are labour intensive and time consuming.• Manuring includes composting and green-manure management. Green manure is the biomass from herbaceous cover crops (Crotolaria spp, Mucuna cochincinensis (Lour.) A. Chev., Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC, Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub., Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. etc.) grown to be turned under soil as a soil amendment and nutrient sources for subsequent crops (Bayala et al. 2012;Mabrouk et al. 1998). Usually the cover crop is established through relay cropping with the staple food crop. This works well if the farmer has his own livestock.• Rotation and crop association techniques improve food diversity. Legumes (e.g. cowpea, groundnut) are frequently intercropped or rotated with cereals. In order to improve soil fertility and animal nutrition, several cereal-legume associations and cover crops (e.g. mucuna, stylo, crotalaria etc.) are found in farmers' fields. Sorghum-cowpea millet-cowpea, maize-cowpea and sorghum-groundnuts associations are commonly found in the west African Sahel (Bado et al. 2006a,b;Bayala et al. 2012).• The fallow system of farming is a practice dating from ancient times. Basically, the term fallow refers to land that is plowed and tilled but left unseeded during a growing season for a certain number of years to allow the soil to recover (Wezel 2000). The fallow system provides grazing lands for livestock. However, in the context of limited arable land due to population increase, the fallow system has almost been abandoned in many areas.• The use of chemical fertilizers is not so well developed in the Sahel. This is because most of the farmers are unable to obtain inputs such as fertilizers and hybrid seeds due to the associated cost and fears of long-term soil and water pollution as is the case with most fertilizers (Epule et al. 2012;2013;2015). Practices such as wind breaks, grass strips, mulch lines, stone alignment/bunds and stone walls and terraces (Table 1 and Figures 6 and 7) are used to control water and wind erosion in the Sahel. The techniques contribute to biomass and crop production improvement as well (Zougmore et al. 2004;Kassogue et al. 1996). The limitation of these practices are that wind breaks and grass strips need to be protected from grazing and stone alignment, walls and terraces are labour intensive and time consuming. Grass stripsThe literature survey reveals that various practices are used to improve off-farm biomass production in the Sahel (Table 1 and Figure 8): • Farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is a rapid, low cost and easily replicated approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pasture lands. FMNR is based on encouraging the systematic regrowth of existing trees or self-sown seeds (World Vision 2012). It was begun in the 1980s and became increasingly popular in the west African Sahel. FMNR is based on the regeneration of native trees and shrubs from mature root systems of previously cleared desert shrubs and trees. Regeneration techniques are used in agricultural cropland and to manage trees as part of a farm enterprise. FMNR in the savannas is well adopted in southern Niger for instance and is known to produce continuous harvests of trees for fuel, building materials, food and fodder without the need for frequent, costly replanting (Joet et al. 1998). Trees are trimmed and pruned to maximize harvests while promoting optimal growing conditions.• Revegetation of bare soil with mulch is similar to the mulching system with the only difference that it is used on bare soil on off-farm land. The principle is the same as the on-farm mulching techniques. This is an effective and rapid way to restore bare lands in the Sahel (Sterk and Haigis 1998).• In the Sahel, vast tree planting programs usually take place during the rainy seasons, between July and August. Most of these programs are initiated by the government's institutions through their ministries of environment. NGOs and international development/research institutions also promote tree planting during that period. The success is however very limited due to lack of follow up and water stress resulting in high rate of mortality. Another factor limiting the success of tree planting in the Sahel is the weak land tenure system and the lack of property right over land. This discourages many people from planting trees on their farms and on the common rangelands.• Forest conservation and/or protection consists of planning and maintaining forested areas for the benefit and sustainability of future generations. Forest conservation involves the upkeep of the natural resources within a forest that are beneficial to both humans and the ecosystem. Forest conservation acts to maintain, plan and improve forested areas. Forests provide wildlife with a suitable habitat for living along with filtering ground water and preventing runoff. In the Sahel however, due to the rapid population growth combined with the increasing demand for arable and wood materials, many conserved/protected forests have been cleared for agriculture and grazing. Burkina Faso Mali Niger Senegal Autres• Community-based forest management is the management, by communities or smallholders, of forests and agroforests they own, as well as the management of state owned forests (some of which share customary tenure and rights under traditional laws and practice) by communities. The community forests in the Sahel are grazing lands where people collect wood materials for energy and domestic uses. In recent periods, some community forests are selected to benefit from the voluntary carbon market, where local communities are engaged in tree plantations, reforestation and afforestation.Mulching practices are proven to be very efficient and have a positive effect on crop productivity in the Sahel (Bayala et al. 2012;Klaij et al. 1993;Thornton and Herrero 2014;Erenstein 2003). It affects soil conservation, soil ecology, crop yield, labour and capital productivity and agricultural externalities (Erenstein 2003). A study in Nigeria by Carsky et al. (1998) revealed that when the mulch rate increases, the runoff and soil loss decrease substantially and the crop yield increases importantly. In zones outside the Sahel (e.g. Zimbabwe, China and USA), the use of mulching has significantly increased total soil organic carbon and three other active carbons (light fraction organic carbon, liable organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon) by 7.1-128.6% (Wang et al. 2015).Years ago, farmers in the Sahel integrated trees in the farming system following the recognition that this practice offers them the opportunity to close yield gaps (Leakey 2012;Carsan et al. 2014). Practices such as evergreen agriculture that integrate Faiderbia albida and other trees are reported to increase groundnut yield by 37% in Senegal, sorghum by 115% in Burkina Faso and maize yield from 1 to 3 tonnes/ha in many countries in the Sahel (Sileshi et al. 2008;Garrity et al. 2010).The use of compost significantly increases crop productivity and quality (Tables 2 and 3) with an increase rate of 45% (Ouedraogo et al. 2001).  Adopters grew an average of almost four crops on their farms while their matched nonadopters grew just over three, suggesting that adoption increases crop diversity. Adoption also appears to increase tree diversity by between one and three tree species per farm and increases tree density by between 12 and 16 trees per ha.The Millennium Development Goals recognize the need to promote gender equality and empower women to participate in all facets of economic and social life with the aim of achieving sustainable development. In the mixed crop-livestock systems, the achievement of sustainable development for the rural poor, especially women, constitutes a real challenge. For decades, women in the Sahel have suffered from issues related to limited access to natural resources such as arable land, water, forest products, information, economic and social facilities etc., and this situation may be amplified as increasing climate variability shrinks resource availability.Behavioural patterns of women and men, young and old, rich and poor differ greatly in the Sahel. In this context, the adoption rate of successful biomass production and management practices by men and women, rich and poor, young and old will differ significantly (Nampinga 2008). Practices that require financial resources, intensive labour and ownership of livestock such as chemical fertilizers, composting, and soil and water conservation techniques will be highly adopted among rich farmers while poor farmers will rely on low-cost practices with evident low outputs.Improving biomass production practices and protecting the environment require reducing poverty and achieving livelihood and food security among rural women and men. There are many gender issues in the Sahel in relation to biomass production interventions in the Sahel (Ndungo et al. 2010). Rural women and men in the Sahel have different roles, responsibilities, and knowledge in managing natural resources. In crop production, for instance, men tend to focus on market-oriented or cash crop production, whereas women often work with subsistence crops, minor crops and vegetable gardens. Also, gender divisions of labour vary substantially by age, ethnicity and marital status. Consequently, the water use and management varies accordingly (Elmhirst and Resurreccion 2008). Around small reservoirs in the crop-livestock systems in the Sahel, men use water for irrigation systems and livestock watering, whereas women may not have access to irrigation systems for vegetable gardens and subsistence crops. Decreases in biomass and agricultural production and household food security create additional health problems related to increasing workload for women. Although both rural women and men play a critical role in natural resources management, women's use, conservation, and knowledge of resources play a key role in shaping local biodiversity. Also degradation of natural resources can alter gender responsibilities and relations in households and communities.Access to new technology, information and training related to biomass production and management remains highly gendered, with most of the related initiatives targeted to men (Ndungo et al. 2010;Elmhirst and Resurreccion 2008). For instance, extension personnel in agriculture and natural resources frequently speak only to men, often erroneously expecting that the men will convey information to their wives (Agarwal 2003;Enarson and Meyreles 2004;Sachs 2007). Moreover, degradation of the natural resource base can result in new forms of cooperation, conflict or controversy between men and women or different ethnic groups: when natural resources become insufficient to support the livelihoods of the population, drastic measures result, such as men's or women's outmigration. Men's out-migration leaves women to assume men's traditional roles and responsibilities, increasing their work burden, but leaving them without equal or direct access to financial, social and technological resources (Lambrou and Laub 2004).In general, the continuing efforts in rehabilitating the vegetation cover in the west African Sahel through wind and water erosion controls, agroforestry, FMNR, tree planting, community-based forest management and the pro-poor environmental service market may have already contributed to improving biomass production in this region. Many recent publications using large-scale analysis of the trend of vegetation cover in the west African Sahel based on Earth Observation Systems have revealed that there are important spots of re-greening (Herrmann et al. 2005;Anyamba and Tucker 2005;Hickler et al. 2005;Fensholt et al. 2012;Dardel et al. 2014). Despite the demonstration by these authors that rainfall improvement is the driving factor of the re-greening process of the Sahel, Herrmann and Tappan (2013), Olsson et al. (2005) Seaquist et al. ( 2008) Ouedraogo et al. (2014) argued that although rainfall has obviously increased during the last three decades, the state of greenness as observed from remotely sensed data (mostly National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ) could not have been reached without additional human factors. For Ahmedou et al. (2008), Botoni and Reij (2009), Kaboré and Reij (2004), Reij et al. (2009) and Sendzimir et al. (2011), the re-greening trend of the vegetation in the Sahel is mainly driven by the appropriate implementation of the biomass production practices by the population of the Sahel.Good biomass production and management practices improve the provisioning, regulating and supporting services of the ecosystems. They improve the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of rural dwellers to diseases, drought and flood, resulting in enhanced food security and poverty alleviation. Management of natural resources such as pasture/ range, woodlands, forest, wetlands and water resources results in a lower incidence of land use conflicts and improves wellbeing. Biomass production practices can have direct impacts on sediment transport, downstream water quality, flow patterns and groundwater recharge. A large range of ecosystem services are provided through sustainable biomass production interventions. These services include nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, maintenance of the hydrological regime, biological control of diseases, and pollution, waste and climate regulations.Figure 9 is a pictorial representation of the mulching systems known as a successful biomass and crop management practice (Gicheru 1994). The mulching system halts soil erosion by providing a protective layer to the soil surface, increasing resistance against overland flow and enhancing soil surface aggregate stability and permeability through its combined physical and biological effects (Erenstein 2002). This results in soil quality improvement which in turn increases crop and biomass yields. Thus, mulching contributes to food security, poverty reduction (income generation), feed availability for livestock through abundant crop residues and provides more residues to be used for the next mulch.Similarly, to the mulching techniques, the use of animal manure in crop production is widespread in the mixed croplivestock systems in the Sahel for multiple reasons. Animal manure is used to improve soil quality on the farmlands. At harvest, crop residues are collected to feed animals during critical periods while livestock is grazed on harvested farms. In this context, the mulching techniques are not practiced. However, the digested crop residues (manure) are collected and spilled on the farms for the next cropping season.Agroforestry and the use of legumes rotations or intercropping can positively influence the drivers of agricultural intensification such as nutrient cycling and water use and help close the yield gap in the Sahel (Carsan et al. 2014). Agroforestry systems using Faidherbia albida in maize fields are reported to improve water filtration and water use efficiency above sole maize treatments (Sileshi et al. 2008;Garrity et al. 2010). The use of legumes in rotation or as intercrops can restore soil nutrients by fixing nitrogen, improving soil organic matter and reducing reliance on fertilizer use. Practices involving species mixtures and intercropping can create diversified production systems yielding both staples and marketable tree products to improve livelihoods (Leakey 2012;Dawson 2013;Simons and Leakey 2004). The pods and leaves from Faidherbia albida are nutritious feeds and well appreciated by livestock which spend most of the time under these trees during dry seasons. While under these trees the livestock leave their manure which contributes to soil fertility under Faidherbia shade. The intercropping system with legumes has a double role for farmers. While legumes contribute to soil restoration, they also contribute to household food and nutritional security and improvement. Leaves and grains from beans, for instance, are valuable food as they are loaded with irons; their residues are also used for animal feeds.  (2006) and Reij et al. (2009) have strongly demonstrated that FMNR is widely practised in the region of Maradi and confers significant benefits at the household level (food, feed, fuel, housing material etc.). Extrapolating from their results, an estimated 62,000 households in the region of Maradi practise FMNR, raising the total gross income of the region by between USD17 and 21 million per year and contributing an additional 900,000 to 1 million trees to the local environment.FMNR is a rapid, low cost and easily replicated approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forested and pasture lands. FMNR is based on encouraging the systematic regrowth of existing trees or self-sown seeds. The widespread adoption of FMNR is probably due to the fact that its benefits are obtainable at minimal costs to the farmer. The practice requires no expenditures beyond the farmer's additional labour. The annual benefit-cost ratio of practising FMNR is between 2.5 and 3.0 (Haglund et al. 2011).According to literature cited above, FMNR has contributed to:• expanding cultivation of cereals and vegetables, with harvests doubling in some areas;• doubling or tripling producers' incomes through the sale of wood, seed pods and edible leaves in many rural areas in Niger;• improving stocks of fuel wood and fodder;• reducing average time spent by women collecting firewood from 2.5 hours to half an hour;• an increase by 10-to 20-fold in tree and shrub cover on about five million ha of land, with approximately 200 million trees protected and managed;• improving soil fertility as higher tree densities act as windbreaks to counter erosion, provide enriching mulch and fix nitrogen in root systems;• increasing population of wild fauna, including hares, wild guinea fowls, squirrels and jackals;• creating new food export markets, primarily to Nigeria; and• creating a specialized local market in buying, rehabilitating and reselling degraded lands, with land values rising by 75-140% in some areas.Mulching techniques (crop residues management and mulching using off-farm biomass) are proven to be the best practices for all the west African Sahel countries in general. Evidence from case studies are presented in section 3.3 and 3.6 of the present report.Recent studies (Valbuena et al. 2015;Valbuena et al. 2012;Giller et al. 2009;Hiernaux and Ayatunde 2004) conducted at different sites with contrasting levels of agroecologies and crop intensity in sub-Saharan Africa have revealed that crop residues represent a fundamental resource for crop-livestock integration and intensification. Studies from Valbuena et al. (2015) and Valbuena et al. (2012) in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia revealed that crop residues provide livestock feed at sites with low crop intensity during dry season while at sites with high cereal intensity, crop residues are vital for fuel and construction. They concluded that the interaction between demand for biomass and access to alternative sources determine the intensity and diversity of crop residues use. It is important to note however, that the magnitude of crop residues as livestock feed does not necessarily depend on cropping intensity but on the availability of biomass from natural pasture which in turn is a function of the agroecological gradients. The studies by the authors cited above concluded that using crop residues for soil amendment is common in three cases: (i) moderate levels of cereal production, low demand for biomass and significant access to alternative feed resources; (ii) low demand for cereal production, high demand for biomass but access to better feed sources for dairy production and (iii) very high levels of crop production that satisfy high demand for biomass even if alternative resources are limited. In all cases, there are synergies between complementary roles of crop residues:• Farmers use crop residues to feed power oxen at critical times of the year, thereby increasing the level of crop production, resulting in more crop residues for livestock feed.• Farmers without livestock pay herders to graze the crop residues in their fields whereas in exchange, the livestock deposit manure on the crop field which improves the soil nutrient status and enhances crop yields.• Farmers feed crop residues to their livestock in enclosures to improve feeding and manure production efficiency, thereby increasing the overall productivity of the farm.When different uses of crop residues are not complementary, pressure on crop residues use can increase trade-offs. For instance, the removal of residues from the soil combined with the low use of inorganic fertilizers and animal manure increases erosions by water and wind and nutrient depletion of soils (Valbuena et al. 2015;Haileslassie et al. 2005). At this stage, to restore soil conditions, the mulching system can be promoted (Figure 9).The mixed crop-livestock system is affected by climate uncertainties and the entire system needs to cope with the changing situation. In the agricultural sector, the response to the threats posed by climate change may be technological such as the use of more drought tolerant crop varieties, behavioral such as shift in dietary regime, managerial such as implementing the different farm management practices, and political such as market and infrastructure development (Thornton and Herrero 2014;IPCC 2007).One of the best adaptation options to changes in the Sahel is to increase the resilience of the mixed systems. This can be done through appropriate soil and integrated nutrient management (composting manure and crop residues, mulching, fertilizers etc.) and using legumes for natural nitrogen fixation to close yield gap (Wu and Ma 2015).There is also a need to improve water harvesting and retention to reduce the water shortage due to decreasing rainfall. The use of pools, ponds, dams, pits, retaining ridges and increasing soil organic matter will substantially raise the water retention capacity of the soil (Douxchamps et al. 2014;Lasage 2015). Efficient harvesting and early transformation of agricultural products can reduce post-harvest losses and preserve food security and quality.Another option is to deeply engage in crop-livestock farming when weather risks increase (Thornton and Herrero 2014). Livestock can be used as an asset to smooth income fluctuations and opportunistic cropping can provide dietary calories for households at critical times of shortage. The Early Warning System is an opportunity for the Sahel as it can be used for weather forecasting that could help the farming and risk management systems. Policy support and a secure land tenure system are essential for the implementation of the management practices.Poor performance of extension services or poor research extension linkages in the Sahel have sometimes been blamed for the limited spread of technologies (Thornton and Herrero 2014). Certain technologies such as soil and water conservation or rangeland restoration are inherently long term, requiring security of tenure over land for an extended period of time. Therefore, many farmers who lack land security are reluctant to invest in these technologies (Thornton and Herrero 2014;Giller et al. 2009).Most of the biomass production interventions require technological appropriation and financial and institutional supports. However, in the Sahel, appropriate technical manuals for the best practices are lacking or when they exist, they are written in a language sometimes not accessible in most of the rural areas. In addition, the direct beneficiaries of the technologies often rely on financial assistance from NGOs/donors to be able to adopt the practices. Finally, despite the decentralization process started in the 2000s, many rural areas in the Sahel are still lacking institutional partners that would facilitate access and uptake of the management practices.The payment for ecosystem services as vegetation conservation and restoration strategies is an important opportunity for the Sahel. It was poorly reported in the literature survey maybe because researchers have not yet investigated the outcomes of payment for ecosystem services. The voluntary carbon market such as Plan Vivo are oriented toward developing countries and contribute to diversifying local communities' income sources while engaging them in tree plantation, reforestation, afforestation and agroforestry. Between 2012 and 2016, 17 carbon sequestration projects from Africa were accepted in the Plan Vivo system, from which five belong to the west African Sahel (four for Burkina Faso and one for Senegal: http://www.planvivo.org/project-network/projectpipeline/). The main constraints for carbon project development in the Sahel is the recurrent one, land use right issues. For long-term investments through environmental service provision, secure tenure arrangements are absolutely capital (Tschakert 2007). In Senegal and Burkina Faso, there are coexisting and conflicting tenure systems between the state and the communities and this renders the success of the payment for ecosystem services projects very uncertain. As recommended by Tschakert (2004Tschakert ( , 2007) ) for the flourishing pro-poor carbon market to succeed in the west African Sahel, flexible management plans, adequate payments and institutional strengthening appear to be the most critical elements to be integrated into pro-poor market-based mechanisms in order to address the needs and constraints of poor marginal smallholders.Biomass production practices and management improve ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, maintenance of the hydrological regime, biological control of diseases and pollution reduction. It also contributes to close the yield gaps from 15% to 75% depending on areas and practices (Leakey 2012;Dawson 2013;Simons and Leakey 2004); thus contributing to income generation and diversification for the households.Smallholder farmers in the Sahel have a variety of technologies in both farming and grazing areas to adapt to their changing environment in a context of climate uncertainties and unprecedented population increase. Most of the practices in use are indigenous but have been improved by the research and development institutions. In the farming sector, practices such as crop residue mulching, mulching with use of wild grass combined with animal manure, weeds and tree biomass as well as the soil water conservation interventions (zai, half moon, stone alignments) and parkland systems are very promising. Combining all practices in a form of integrated nutrient management has been shown to considerably improve crop yields by minimizing nutrient losses in the environment and by managing the nutrient supply, and thereby results in high resource use efficiency, cost reductions and improved resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Wu and Ma 2015).In the vegetation recovering management strategies, agroforestry, tree planting, FMNR, community forest management via a pro-poor service provision market have all been successful as they seem to have played a role in the slight vegetation recovery (the re-greening debate in the Sahel). However, scientific documentation of the extent to which those practices have contributed to the apparent re-greening is missing. Therefore, research activities that aim at quantifying the recovered areas due to each single practice will be very important. So far, there is no tool available that could facilitate targeting and scaling up such success stories throughout the west African Sahel. The development of such web-based tools will be a good contribution to re-greening the entire Sahel.A considerable body of knowledge has been built up about biomass production practices as well as the drivers of change of the production systems in the Sahel. It can be argued that there are still gaps regarding practices performance and spatial extent but this should not deter further research, and refinement and promotion of these practices to combat hunger and poverty in the Sahel. Biomass production practices, when they are well performed, increase crop yield, provide abundant feed to livestock and moreover contribute to climate change mitigation. Biomass production ultimately depends on rainfall and human capacity to manipulate the production system. Therefore, in the light of climate change and increasing uncertainties for the future of the Sahel, effective biomass production practices that go beyond the conventional engineering concerns could be the best options for sustainable intensification production.To develop a resilient biomass production system in the Sahel, more investments by governments, institutions and agencies are required. Within the framework of the regional Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control, the New Partnership for African Development and the international conventions namely the Convention of Biological Diversity, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, African heads of state and governments have committed to investments to improve biomass production. Yet, many production and management practices are underutilized because there is a huge gap between the input prices (high) and the output prices (low) which is a result of under investments in market, infrastructures and upscaling techniques. We believe that the following recommendations can make biomass production in the west African Sahel more efficient and resilient to the various shocks for the benefit of agricultural and livestock productivity.• Strengthen land tenure systems to give property rights to land users. In most countries in the Sahel, clear land use policy is lacking and this discourages farmers from adopting land management options on lands that do not belong to them. As all practices require investments (financial, labour and time), farmers will not assume investment risks on a piece of land where there is no guarantee of a return on investment.• Foster institutional linkages to create better conditions for a large diffusion of best practices. Extension services should be strengthened and their agents should be trained and well equipped so that they can reach farmers more easily. Good collaboration between extension services, NGOs and community-based organizations such as youth associations and women's groups are essential.• Foster the use of climate information to inform decision-making. Because high intensity rainfall variability is the main concern for biomass production in the Sahel, the use of seasonal climate forecasts to inform farmers, herders and other users will be necessary to inform and guide management decisions in the case of an impending drought.• Promote improved biomass production and management practices such as mulching, crop residues management, agroforestry, soil water conservation, composting/manuring, agricultural rainwater harvesting, drought tolerant crop varieties, crop diversification and small scale irrigation.• Develop special rural micro credit schemes for small scale farmers. Farmers in the Sahel have often been bypassed by new technologies because the rural financial facilities are poor or lacking in sufficient resources. Micro credit schemes in the form of rural finance should be promoted. ","tokenCount":"7570"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b890b515f68293563637ef1f40f41659","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/944c3418-cca7-47ff-8251-b8b76b4c7834/retrieve","id":"-361778"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62643fed-2a6a-4a72-8526-9dbc1c0df10a","pagecount":"8","content":"Build on innovations generated under:§ CGIAR research programs (e.g., LIVESTOCK, WHEAT, MAIZE, GLDC); § specific SI projects, such as Africa RISING, CSISA, SIMLESA Innovations for SI of MFS include, among others: § the diversification of cropping systems with multipurpose crops; § improved forages and supplemental feeding of livestock; § crop residue and manure management; § Tools for assessing and targeting MFS innovations, etc.o The ambition is to will apply scaling readiness to 26-50% of its total innovation portfolio.o At least 12 scaling readiness assessment studies (six Light Track and six Standard Track) will be published by 2025.These will:i.Provide a detailed characterization of core SI-MFS innovations; ii. Diagnose their current readiness and use (WP2, WP3); and iii. Lay the foundation for strategies to overcome bottlenecks for scaling. WP3We Closely linked to:o WP 2: methodological innovations, o WP 3: piloting of innovation and feedback from the implementation of innovation bundles, but also feedbacks to the SR conceptual framework (time sequencing of innovations, entry points for system transformation, enhanced methodology for the identification of \"core innovations\", etc.)o WP4: part of the scaling strategies may involve working on the enabling environment, o WP5: CapDev and KM innovationsScaling readiness assessment within MFS is expected to be coordinated with other initiatives (SAPLING, EiA, LCSR, HER+) to enhance synergies and share costs.","tokenCount":"215"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"780feabf0c3581d7bced75cf4b88bace","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/403ecf8c-8423-4889-ae33-aab2b09dd649/retrieve","id":"377947903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ee22962-c1fa-4716-a7c6-3ed6242d7c4d","pagecount":"5","content":"The reasons why farmers are unable to harness the benefits embedded in technologies and take advantage of business opportunities in livestock sector in developing countries remain unresolved. Drawing on insights from innovation systems approaches, this paper assesses innovation constraints, identifies the bottlenecks and missing links in dairy sector and suggests some instruments needed to address the constraints. We find that missing actors, limited capacity of existing actors, inadequate interactions between actors and poor coordination of activities along dairy value chain have been the major reasons for low technology adoption and underdevelopment of dairy subsector in developing countries. Future research should pay attention to designing, prototyping and experimenting with alternative institutional arrangements that can effectively coordinate inputs, services, processes and outputs in livestock value chains.The demand for dairy products is growing rapidly in Ethiopia. For example, the demand for milk and milk products in Ethiopia is projected to increase from 19 kg per capita in 2008 to approximately 27 kg per capita in 2020 (Francesconi et al. 2010;Duguma et al. 2011). However, milk production in the country has not kept pace with growing demand. Per capita milk production in Ethiopia is estimated at 20.83 kg in 2009 (Tefera et al. 2010). Livestock sector in Ethiopia has not been able to meet the growing demand for animal source foods mainly due to failures to take advantage of potential benefits improvements to technical aspects of dairy production. The increasing demand for milk and milk products needs to be met within the limited land and water resources. The challenge is to provide for the needs of a growing human population and at the same time sustain scarce land and water resources. Successful approaches are likely to bring together positive aspects of sustainable intensification and resource conservation. Increasing demand for milk and milk products and increasing competition for land and water resources, therefore, imply that livestock production systems in Ethiopia will have to intensify to ensure acceptable livelihoods for its producers (Descheemaeker et al. 2009). Past experience and research findings have shown that agricultural productivity gains are strongly associated with adoption of improved agricultural production technologies (Shaw 1987;Minten and Barrett 2008). Development and effective utilization of new agricultural technologies and practices can shape the extent to which farmers take up business opportunities in the dairy subsector. Several technologies and interventions have been promoted in Ethiopia to enhance the productivity of dairy cattle (Staal 1995;Ahmed et al. 2004). In spite of the higher productivity gains resulting from use of livestock technologies, adoption of the technologies at smallholder farmers' level has been very low. The productivity levels achieved on research stations and a few commercial dairy farms are seldom achieved at smallholder farmers' level. The reasons that farmers are not reaping the benefits of improved technical practices and not taking advantage of business opportunities in the livestock sector in the country remain unresolved. The persistent resistance of subsistence farmers to adopt improved production technologies can sometimes be hidden in higher-order coordination issues. In this paper, we assess innovation constraints, identify the bottlenecks and missing links in dairy subsector development using a systemic innovation policy framework (Wieczorek and Hekkert 2012) and suggest some policy instruments needed to address system weaknesses.We use event history analysis to assess the fulfilment of the seven innovation functions needed to build market oriented dairy. The historical event analysis method is a longitudinal research method that is based on the construction of an event sequence and has proven to be powerful in creating insights into the dynamics of innovation (van de Ven 1990;van de Ven et al. 1999). In total, 39 program and policy documents covering 1950's to 2013 were reviewed. The information was obtained particularly from government policy documents, program outcome reports, project and program evaluation reports, peer reviewed journal articles and information from websites of relevant organizations. The occurrence of the events was cross-referenced using published materials wherever possible.We find evidence that the major thrust of livestock development in the country over the past five decades has been placed on the technical solutions to breeding, feeding and health constraints. Organizational and marketing issues were treated lightly or totally neglected by most projects and programs implemented in the country (Table 1). Aims to contribute to enhanced income of smallholders and other value chain actors through increased and sustained market off-take of high value livestock and irrigated crop commodities.Most projects have targeted limited technical problems at one or two steps in the value chain. We find that shortage of scientific and technological knowledge is not a big constraint. There are articulate actors who can explain science to a scientist but cannot show proof of concept in farmers' fields. The main reasons for low adoption of dairy technologies and slow response to the growing demand for livestock products can be attributed to the underappreciated problem of coordination failures in dairy value chains. So far, public research and extension systems have not been able to provide the institutional set up to coordinate complementary sources of knowledge and resources along livestock value chains. Little attention has been given to research which looks at the organizational requirements of the innovation process in the livestock sector.Experience and research findings show that business success is not solely a function of good technologies; it is also about the capability to apply and maintain them in sustainable actions (Gopalakrishnan et al. 2010). Thinking through all activities along the value chain and dealing with all the challenges that will inevitably come at every step of the value chain require organizational innovation. Invention and implementation of organizational models are as important as development of the physical technologies themselves. The lessons from a highly acclaimed Operation Flood India suggest that organizational strategy that is functionally and spatially integrated, that seeks to exploit technological and scale advantages, that aims at a near-saturation coverage of an area and that builds upon a synergy among various activities was perhaps the single most critical factor which influenced its performance (Sambrani 1982;Bellur et al. 1990).This suggests that innovation in institutional arrangements is key to translate technological inputs and services into farmers' practices and to induce innovation in livestock sector.Our findings suggest that the components of most of the projects and programs implemented in the country over the past five decades have been focused on the technical solutions to breeding, feeding and health constraints. Organizational and marketing issues were treated lightly or totally neglected. A suitable combination of technologies, skills and behaviour, processes and organizations are needed to unlock the full potential of dairy technologies. Exploring alternative institutional arrangements for organizing knowledge, skills, services, inputs and outputs in livestock sector should be one of the research priorities. Designing, prototyping and experimenting with alternative institutional arrangements that can effectively coordinate inputs (e.g. existing and new technologies), services, processes and outputs in livestock value chains should be taken as a serious research undertaking. There are promising results emerging from piloting innovation platforms, milk shed hubs, community based breeding schemes and vertically integrated dairy cooperative models. These efforts require proper recognition, resources and rewards. Governments and donors need to encourage the search for new models of institutional arrangements and allocate necessary resources. Monitoring the efficacy of different models of institutional arrangements should also be taken as serious research agenda.","tokenCount":"1205"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9ea0ee88703d7b01fa82ac74e595254a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f43660cc-d17f-4d12-ba29-b48ede18af91/content","id":"-295980577"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1d307c82-9328-4d41-a428-4f25a3602956","pagecount":"8","content":"Exploring the Interaction between the built food environment and intra-household gastronomy through photovoice in India. TAFSSA Research Note 22. Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA).Growing attention to food environment policies has been observed to address the multiple aspects of malnutrition (Kumar et al. 2023). In India, interventions promoting sustainable agriculture, small-scale farming, and equitable access to markets have been initiated to address the food and nutrition security of economically vulnerable groups.However, transformative interventions require deeper understanding specific contexts and a deep knowledge of the food environment.Moreover, simply improving food availability and access does not necessarily lead to better nor more equitable nutrition outcomes. Understanding the systemic cultural drivers of food choice, interventions promoting sustainable dietary choices can be more effectively contextualized leading to improved nutritional status.In this research note, we have adapted an expanded definition of the food environment using the socio-ecological framework (Downs et al., 2020) and the Gastronomic Systems Research (GSR) framework (Cuevas et al., 2017;Samaddar et al., 2020;Custodio et al., 2021). These frameworks allowed us to characterize the structures and processes in which individuals directly interact with the built food environment and the range of cultural factors influencing food choice for lowto middle-income households. By employing Photovoice, a participatory and visual methodology that offers an emic approach by placing cameras in the hands of individuals facing socioeconomic disadvantage and/or marginalization (Pradeilles et al., 2021), we captured consumers' experiences to identify the factors from the food environment that shape low-income households' purchase of food, in general, and of healthier food options, in particular. Findings from this study could provide evidence for understanding consumption behaviors and associated factors, thereby providing insights into developing nutrition-sensitive interventions to improve the food environment that promotes healthy diets in low-income households. We examine the case of Bihar in India as it is considered one of the more malnourished states in India where the affordability of a healthy diet is a significant concern, with more than half of its population being impoverished and/or undernourished (NITI Aayog, 2021).The main objective of this study was to explore the interaction between the built food environment and intrahousehold gastronomy to understand the food purchase and consumption behaviors of low-income households. Specifically, we sought to (1) contextualize the different elements of the built food environment of the target population, (2) explore intrahousehold gastronomy and consumption behavior, and(3) investigate the association between food environment and intra-household gastronomy. Results from the content analysis revealed five emerging themes that consumers consider in their interaction with the built food environment: (1) availability of food, (2) consumer decisions, (3) sociocultural dimensions, (4) affordability of food, and ( 5  Availability examines the abundance and variety of food options considering product variety, locational and seasonal stock (e.g., cauliflower is only available in large vegetable markets and in local markets (mandis) during the summer), market proximity, shop similarity (e.g., across different markets and types of retail market). Consumers' food purchase decisions and consumption behaviors are associated with family dynamics, food preferences of household members, and retail's available payment methods. Food purchase appears to be a complex decision-making process based on the households' gastronomy (e.g., the specific dishes they prepare for specific occasions, the ingredients they need for these dishes), eating habits, and ingredient sources. Our study findings reveal that sociocultural dimensions play a crucial role in (1) how consumers perceive the nutritional value and health benefits of food,(2) their interpersonal relationships with retailers, and (3) their perceptions towards brands. The \"affordability\" theme captures consumers' willingness to pay for various food items and the associated costs in purchasing the food items. The \"convenience\" themes reveals the importance of (1) considering the perceived benefits of packaged food, (2) accessibility of different products at different places and time, and (3) social dynamics in acquiring credit.   Each household member plays a distinct role in relation to the household's gastronomy. The female member decides on the dish to prepare and consume at home while the male member buys the ingredients and consequently decides when and where to purchase them. Dishes are influenced by the elders and the preferences of children or specific household members. Moreover, households typically prepare food two times a day-in the morning which is served for breakfast and lunch, and in the evening served for dinner. This behavior reflects the daily activities that household members are engaged with. These findings underscore the importance of food availability and accessibility on household's purchasing and consumption behavior. Where the food environment meets consumers' decisionsThe five key themes of the built food environment that emerged influence the decision-making of male and female household members regarding their food purchasing behavior (Fig 5). These include food availability in the market and at home, affordability, and convenience in purchasing food items that the household prefers to consume. Our data on the decisionmaking process suggests that male members are mainly engaged in purchasing day-to-day food items/ingredients to be cooked in the household, while female members are mainly engaged in food preparation and suggest the food and ingredients that are required to meet the family's demands and preferences. It is noteworthy that this dynamic illustrates the different dimensions of the food environment (i.e., availability, convenience, preference, and consumers' food choices and purchasing decisions).Nutrition-sensitive interventions need a deeper understanding of the food environment and how consumers' food purchase and consumption decisions influence their diets. The food environment plays a crucial role in the development of nutrition interventions as it encompasses the full range of options within which consumers make decisions about what foods they acquire and consume (Downs et al., 2020). However, the success of nutrition interventions ultimately depends on understanding consumers' food choices, which are influenced by interrelated factors such as their nutritional needs, their sociocultural context, their hedonic motivations, and their attitudes and beliefs towards food (Castellini et al., 2023;Cuevas et al., 2017;Karanja et al., 2022). In this research brief, we explored how consumers interact with the food environment and how this interaction influences the gastronomic systems of low-income farming households. Thematic analysis revealed five emerging food environment themes that influence food purchase and food consumption:(1) availability, (2) consumers' decisions, (3) sociocultural dimensions, (4) affordability, and (5) convenience, where availability and affordability were observed to be closely associated. Intra-household dynamics provided insights into the distinct gender roles and levels of influence of male and female household members. Female household members optimize the available ingredients to prepare the best possible dish appropriate for different eating occasions. The purchasing behavior of male household members is influenced by the availability of food and their household's perception of the health benefits. The good purchase decisionmaking process from both male and female members illustrated how the food environment influences intrahousehold gastronomy. These insights related to the different food environment themes and gastronomic systems are important to consider in the design and implementation of nutrition-sensitive interventions.","tokenCount":"1134"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a9c62ecfe70beec131a07af958609d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/104eaa95-8168-4b75-8d71-7e6201ec1bee/retrieve","id":"-889188562"},"keywords":["genebank","plant genetic resources","relative humidity","seed drying","seed longevity","storage environment","temperature"],"sieverID":"0bf4c1d4-ba6b-49c2-bbb1-f577e19745e1","pagecount":"6","content":"In this paper, we considered the effects of different drying regimes on the subsequent longevity of Bambara groundnut seeds. Freshly harvested Bambara groundnut seeds from 27 genebank accessions were divided into five samples. One sample (control) was immediately dried at 17°C/15% RH and the other samples were dried at 45°C/35% RH for up to eight days, before transfer to 17°C/15% RH. After drying, seed moisture content was raised to 10.9% before packing the seeds in aluminium foil packets and placing at 45°C. Samples were removed at regular intervals for germination tests to compare seed longevity. Initial drying at the higher temperature resulted in a faster reduction in seed moisture content. The effect of the different drying regimes on subsequent longevity was not significant for most accessions. Nonetheless, the seed longevity of smaller-seeded accessions was perhaps enhanced by initial drying at a higher temperature; in contrast, initial drying at 17°C appeared to be the best drying treatment for larger-seeded accessions. Overall, the results suggest that initial drying at a higher temperature was beneficial for reducing processing time and for some accessions would be beneficial for seed longevity, but further work is required to understand for which seed lots.nutritive value as they contain protein (19%), carbohydrate (63%) and fat (6.5%) (Goli, 1995). The seeds can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying and are consumed at different developmental stages. The immature seeds can be consumed fresh, boiled or grilled, or mixed with immature groundnuts or green maize (Bamshaiye et al., 2011). It is resistant to high temperature and suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown (Yamaguchi, 1983). The plant is known for soil improvement because of nitrogen fixation and it makes very little demand on the soil (Baryeh, 2001). It is not prone to the risk of total harvest failure even in low and uncertain rainfall regions.Seed longevity is an important agronomic factor in the preservation of seed physiological quality after harvest (Finch-Savage and Bassel, 2016) and maximising seed longevity is crucial for genetic resources conservation. The longevity of seeds in storage is influenced by the initial quality as well as storage conditions. In legumes, longevity is progressively acquired during seed maturation, from seed filling onwards (Zanakis et al., 1994;Verdier et al., 2013;Righetti et al., 2015;Leprince et al., 2017). Upon harvest, seed longevity is then dependent on the moisture content of the seeds, storage temperature (Ellis and Roberts, 1980) and, to a lesser extent, availability of oxygen (Ellis and Hong, 2007). The Genebank Standards advise storing seeds hermetically after drying at 5-20°C and 10-25% RH (FAO, 2014), however it has been reported that drying at a higher temperature results in increases in seed longevity under experimental storage conditions, at least for some species produced under tropical conditions (Whitehouse et al., 2015(Whitehouse et al., , 2018)). The study described in this paper was conducted with the objective of determining the optimal drying temperature for subsequent seed longevity of Bambara groundnut seeds in storage.This research was conducted at the seed processing laboratory of the genebank of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (7°30' N, 3°54' E), Ibadan, Nigeria (7°30' N, 3°54' E) using 27 accessions of Bambara groundnut obtained from the genebank. Seeds sampled from gene bank storage were sown on 30 August 2017 into 10 × 10 m plots with inter-row spacing of 100 mm and intra-row spacing of 1 m. The planting depth was 5 mm with one seed per hole. The first irrigation was carried out one week after planting with subsequent irrigation every two weeks until senescence to prevent the pods from rotting. Fertilizer application (side dressing) was done two weeks after planting, using triple super phosphate produced by Elixir Garden Supplies (Morecambe, UK) at the rate of 5 ml per plant. Seeds were harvested on 10 February 2018. A small sample of freshly harvested seeds (pods) was hand-threshed and used to determine the moisture content at harvest with the aid of a Sinar Agripro seed moisture reader (Sinar Technology, Camberley, Surrey, UK). The harvest moisture content ranged between 8.0% (accession TVSu-1804) and 15.4% (TVSu-609).Freshly harvested seeds (still in their pods) were divided into five samples. One sample per accession was dried at low temperature according to the normal genebank process, in a drying room at 17°C/15% RH, for 14 days. The remaining four samples were dried for 2, 4, 6 or 8 days at 45°C/35% RH and then transferred into the genebank drying room for 14 days for final equilibrium drying. Seeds placed directly into the drying room, gradually lost moisture over the 14 days, reaching a mean moisture content of 6.6% (figure 1). This is a little higher than the expected moisture content of Bambara groundnut seeds at equilibrium with these conditions (5.8%), calculated using the Seed Viability Constants module of the Seed Information Database (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2020),  based on a mean seed oil content for these accessions of 6.36% (s.d. 0.63, range 4.93-7.48%), determined using a Soxtec System HT2 fat extractor (Foss Analytical, Hilleroed Denmark)). Seeds initially dried at 45°C lost moisture more quickly, reaching 6.1% after six days; further drying at this temperature did not result in significant further change in moisture content. Upon transfer to the drying room, seed moisture content declined more gradually, but the final moisture content was consistently lower for seeds initially dried at higher temperature than for seeds only dried in the drying room. This suggests that initial drying at a higher temperature than the genebank currently uses is more efficient with respect to processing time.After drying, seeds were sealed in aluminium foil bags and stored at 5°C for 16 days until the storage experiments commenced. Seed samples in their foil bags were allowed to equilibrate to laboratory temperature before opening. Each seed sample was weighed and transferred into individual net bags. Bags of seeds were placed over water in an incubator (Percival Scientific, Perry, Iowa, USA) set at 25°C until they reached the target moisture content of 10.9%. The moisture content of the seeds was estimated based on the change in weight of each sample, which was measured daily. Once each sample had reached the desired moisture content, each seed lot was divided into subsamples according to their drying treatment (accession × drying treatment) and sealed inside aluminium foil bags which were placed in an incubator at 45°C. One bag per treatment was removed on different days for up to 60 days for germination testing. For each germination test, three samples of 20 randomly selected seeds of each seed sample were sown on wet germination paper in a plastic germination box. Germination boxes were tightly closed and then transferred to a germination room where the temperature ranged between 25 and 30°C. Counts of germination were made on day-10 (first count) and day-15 (final count) after sowing.Data were analysed using GenStat 20 th Edition (VSN International Ltd., Hemel Hempsted, UK). The germination data from the seed storage experiments were subjected to probit analysis, thereby fitting the Ellis and Roberts (1980) viability equation:where v = seed lot viability in probits after p days in the storage environment; K i = initial viability of the seed lot in probits (seed lot constant) and σ = time (days) taken for seed lot viability to drop by one probit (−1/σ is the slope of the survival curve plotted using a probit percentage scale and is the parameter estimated in the probit analysis).The data for different drying treatments within each accession were analysed together, constraining first σ and then both σ and K i to the same values among the different seed Figure 2. Estimates (± standard error) of the time for viability to fall to 50% (p 50 ) during experimental storage for Bambara groundnut seeds initially dried at 45°C for 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 days. For the accessions for which it was possible to constrain the survival curves to a common line, p 50 is represented by columns, with the result of the best-fit estimates represented by symbols. For those accessions where it was not possible to fit the data using a common line, the estimates shown are the result of fitting a best-fit or common slope model. 6 7 9 6 8 1 6 8 4 9 2 1 9 2 4 9 2 8 9 8 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 7 2 1 2 9 5 1 4 9 6 1 6 2 2 1 6 3 3 1 6 3 5 1 6 9 6 1 7 0 4 1 7 0 5 1 7 1 8 1 7 7 1 1 7 9 6 1 7 9 7 1 7 9 8 1 8 0 4 1 8 2 5 2 0 6 3 2 0 7 5 Result of constraining to a common line Best fit model (hollow) or common line model (solid) for seeds dried at the higher temperature 0 days 2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days lots (drying treatments). An approximate F-test was used to determine whether either of these constrained models could be accepted without a significant increase in deviance. As part of the model fitting, the time (days) taken for germination to decline to 50%, p 50 , was also estimated. Seed longevity varied among accessions (figure 2). For 23 of the 27 accessions, it was possible to constrain the survival curves to a common line without a significant increase in residual deviance (P > 0.05). However, since the sampling intervals were not optimised and, further, some of the F-test results were only just significant (i.e. between P = 0.05-0.10), the best-fit estimates are also shown. For two accessions, TVu-1797 and -1804, it was possible to fit the data using a common slope model without a significant increase in residual deviance, while for the remaining two accessions, TVu-1696 and -2075, it was not possible to introduce any constraints into the model fitting, i.e. there were significant differences in both K i and σ, and hence, p 50 , depending on the drying treatment. Most of the accessions could be allocated to one of two groups according to which treatment resulted in the maximum p 50 according to the best-fit model fitting: those for which initial drying at 45°C for eight days resulted in the highest estimate of p 50 (e.g. TVu-921, -1130, -1496) and those for which immediate drying in the drying room (17°C) was best (e.g. TVu-1705TVu- , -1797TVu- , -1825)). Although it appears that this sorting is according to accession number, accessions were not harvested sequentially and nor were the storage experiments conducted sequentially. There was however, a significant difference in the seed weight between the two groups, with those with a higher p 50 after drying at the higher temperature more likely to have a lower seed weight (measured after final equilibrium drying) than those with a higher p 50 after (one-tailed t -test carried out using GenStat: P = 0.011). The response did not appear to be related to the harvest moisture content (two tailed t-test using the same groupings as above: P > 0.05), as was seen in rice (Whitehouse et al., 2015(Whitehouse et al., , 2018)). Given the variable response in Bambara groundnut, further investigations are required to understand the likelihood of a freshly-harvested seed lot responding positively or negatively to initial drying at a high temperature; whether the response is related to seed size; and whether other non-standard drying temperatures (i.e. >17°C) may be better than 45°C. However, there is perhaps a clear benefit of initial drying at a high temperature in relation to the length of time required to dry the seeds to an acceptable level for long-term genebank storage (figure 1; Justice and Bass, 1978). Thus, based on these and previous results, it may be useful to consider a two-step drying procedure to boost subsequent seed longevity in genebank storage and reduce the rate and hence cost and risks of regenerating accessions.","tokenCount":"1989"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f9dc6487cf56c7ec74d837bea0e6e83e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/15d1cd65-8ef1-4ade-9d7c-fae2679f0f46/retrieve","id":"1463472737"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11b38e0c-295d-43f4-aaa9-26daaa84b268","pagecount":"1","content":"(1) International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) A.A.Candidates as SSR marker     Disease severity scale Cassava bacterial blight (CBB), caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam), is a major disease of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) in Africa and South America causing losses between 12 and 90%. Planting resistant varieties is the preferred method of disease control. Previous studies on the genetics and number of disease loci involved in host plant resistance to CBB revealed many QTLs that control disease resistance (Jorge et al. 2000;Jorge et al. 2001). In the present work, the evaluation of more than 400 simple sequence repeats (SSR) detected one SSR marker associated with CBB resistance in a segregating backcross family in which disease symptoms were evaluated under field conditions. The association between SSRY 65 and CBB resistance in field was obtained with a significance level P < 0.05. According to the frequency distribution graphs for CBB resistance, the GM 315 family (Fig. 1) showed the widest segregation for resistance/susceptibility and had the highest standard deviation (0.697) for individuals in each class: 46% of individuals of this family had a score between 2.1 and 2.5, thus showing intermediate resistance, whereas 6% scored less than 1.5 (i.e., resistant); and 2% scored more than 4.5 (i.e., susceptible).Bulk Segregant Analysis. Bulk segregant analysis of the family GM 315 revealed polymorphism between the parents and bulks with SSR markers (Figs. 2 and 3). A summary of BSA are presented in Table 2.Primer SRRY65 showed differences between resistant and susceptible individuals of each bulk (Fig. 4) and it was evaluated in the whole family (GM315) (Fig. 5)The presence of SSRY65 marker in resistant individuals of GM315 family suggests association with CBB resistance from field evaluations. A probability of P=0.007 association was obtained for association between marker SSRY 65 and field phenotypic data.All four families have a common recurrent male parent, which is resistant to many strains of Xam (Table 1).The families' reactions to CBB were analyzed, using a frequency distribution graph for each family, based on an average of 6 plants per plot, and a disease severity scale of 1.0 to 5.0, where 1.0 indicates plants with no symptoms and 5.0 death plants. Resistant plants scored between 1.0 and 2.0 on the scale, intermediate between 2.5 and 3.0, and susceptible more than 3.5.Evaluating simple sequence repeat markers linked to bacterial blight resistance in cassava. One of the four BC1 families was selected based on its high standard deviation of disease response within the family for Bulk Segregant Analysis (BSA) towards the identification of SSR markers linked to CBB resistance. Bulks were constituted from 11 resistant genotypes (a score of 1.0 to 2.0) and 11 susceptible genotypes (a score of 4.0 to 5.0). Bulked Segregant Analysis (BSA) provides a method of focusing on regions of interest with molecular markers as against analyzing the entire genome (Michelmore, 1991).M Nga 19 and contrasting bulks (11 individuals in each one) were evaluated, using 486 microsatellite primers, the SSR markers have been described elsewhere (Mba et al 2001;CIAT 2001).Opening of the Bulks. Individuals from resistant and susceptible bulks were evaluated with candidate primers which showed polymorphism between bulks.Candidate primers that showed polymorphisms between resistant and susceptible individuals were considered potential SRR marker associated with resistance. They were evaluated in the whole population to confirm association between SSR marker and CBB resistance in the field.Association between molecular marker and plant response to CBB. Association between SSR molecular marker and CBB resistance in the field was determinated by a Chi-square Independence test (SAS procedure, SAS Institute, 1999-2001). An association was considered significant if the probability of the null hypothesis (no association) was less than P<0.05 CONCLUSION SSRY65 is a microsatellite marker associated with CBB resistance genes that can be used to differentiate between resistant and susceptible individuals of GM315 family to CBB in field","tokenCount":"634"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"09939ca052807053b6091d423608f3e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_19759i.pdf","id":"-583679419"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6768d56f-aa76-48df-9641-e324f2ecea22","pagecount":"161","content":"Artist's impression of farmer-farmer interactions (by D.C. Karunaratne).RECOGNIZING THE LIMITATIONS of expanding areas under irrigation, recent development efforts in irrigated agriculture have placed emphasis on devising new management strategies to increase productivity in this sector. One such strategy is the devolution of tasks by government agencies to farmer organizations in areas ranging from operation and maintenance (OSrM) and fee collections to fullmanagement turnover, which in the Philippines is popularly called the \"participatory approach,\" pioneered by the National Irrigation Administration (NIA). Past studies on the impact of farmers' involvement in irrigation systems management provide evidence that turnover of management responsibilities to Irrigators' Associations (IAs) has led to significant improvement in system performance. A study of the Institute of Philippine Culture (IPC) using four national systems under NIA's participatory program as samples showed that the systems improved in financial viability and gained in their areas and cropping intensities after farmers were engaged in system management(Jopil10 anddelosReyes 1988). Inaddition, Wijayaratna(1993) assessing the Philippine experience in irrigation turnover and self-management, reported that access to water, reliability, adequacy and equity in water distribution have improved. farmer satisfaction has increased and conflicts over water distribution have decreased following full or partial turnover of system management toIAs. A Bicol University-IIMIresearch on theperformance of IAs revealed that IA performance efficiency significantly contributes to system performance. This collaborative research then concluded that system performance can be enhanced by strengthening the IAs' capability for irrigation management and maximizing farmers' involvement in the system management and planning process (Lauraya and Sala 1990).Concomitant to the NIA's objective of achieving full turnover status for the majority of the national systems, the Bicol University, for the past five years, in coordination with IIMI Philippines and NIA Regional Office V, has been exploring innovative management strategies with the view of packaging a model intervention approach that would fit to the requirements of Farmers' or Irrigators' Associations (IAs) as they vary in maturity from a developing organization to one which is ready for full management turnover.From 1989 to 1994, a four-phase pilot intervention project had been implemented aimed at strengthening IAs and systems' performance. Initial activities concentrated on benchmark studies to establish entry points in the institution-building task. Results underscored the need to restructure the farmer's organization into smaller groups below the turnout service area level based on water and work distribution. A self-assessment technique was also initially introduced among farmer leaders as acountercheck on the evaluation measures done by the project team.Drawing from the lessons learned from the preparatory stages of the project, the last 2 years were devoted to the development and institutionalization of a systematic process of performance assessment and monitoring of IA activities. Referred to as \"self-assessment of performance\" among farmer leaders. this 2-year project aimed at institutionalizing the self-assessment process, further developing it into a management information system for the IAs as a whole. In jointly managed systems such as thenational systems where theNIA sbaresmanagement responsibilities with theIA, the need tocorroborate plans retlecting both the farmers' and government's management needs becomes imperative. As conceived therefore data generated by the IA shall eventually be linked to the NIA's information needs. This would reduce the agency's work in collecting data at the grassroots level because farmers are now being developed to have the capacity to gather and consequently analyze irrigation data. Most importantly, the farmers' perceived inadequacies, particularly in repairs and maintenance could be regularly integrated into the agency's plans. It is expected that once this Management Information System is institutionalized, it would: I ) improve interaction among members, between members and leaders and among leaders themselves; 2) help resolve conflicts; 3) increase awareness of O&M problems among IA and TSA leaders; 4) provide a basis for the IA's feedbacking to NIA on the O&M requirements of the part of the system within NlA's responsibility; and 5) strengthen theO&M ofthe systems. Hence, the self-assessment pi-ocess could lead to the enhancement of system performance and eventually spin off improvement in agricultural productivity.Documented herein a e the intervention activities implemented during the 2-year period from March 1992 to April 1994, and the project's effect as indicated by some performance indicators. This report is organized into 9 chapters. Following the introduction, Chapter 2 renders a briefaccount of the project background and outlines the objectives of the intervention project while Chapter 3 describes the project site and the profile of the farmer leaders who are the key participants of the self-assessment process. Chapter 4 provides a description of the project's conceptual framework while Chapter 5 documents the process and methodologies of the intervention activities carried out during the 13-month period. Chapter 5 also introduces five major activities and traces the chronological sequence of the process of implementation including the rationale for pursuing these activities. Chapter 6 presents some indicators of success of the intervention activities. It defines the performance indicators used and outlines the measures adopted by the researchers to ensure validity and objectivity of the self-assessment process. This is followed by Chapter 7 which documents the TSA Leaders' perspectives on the self-assessment process as gathered through a survey by an independent researcher. Chapter 8 delves on the project turnover process and the final chapter presents the lessons and challenges that need to be confronted for a successful project replication.CHAPTER 2To PROVIDE THE reader with a holistic view of the action research described herein, the activities and results of the three other phases pursued earlier are discussed below. Each phase has been documented in separate project reports available at IIMI. Table 1 provides the specifics of each phase.Phase I delved on benchmark studies which involved several academic institutions. The Bicol University was tasked to assess the performance of Irrigators Associations under the NIA's national systems in the Bicol Region and pinpoint factors that are constraining or nurturing the IAs' successful participation in irrigation system management. Four out of a total of 8 gravity type irrigation systems were chosen as study sites and all the 22 IAs within these systems were taken as samples. The outcome of the 1-year research undertaking led to the identification of appropriate mechanisms to improve the performance of the IAs and the systems.These recommendations were field-tested through a one-year intensive action research which involved about 4,000 farmer members in 2 IAs of the Barit River Irrigation System, a large national system located 400 kilometers (km) south of Manila. The intervention strategies adopted were: a) restructuring theorganizational setup of the farmer's organization adopting thesmall group approach below the Turnout Service Area (TSA) level based on water source and task distribution: b) redesigning the NIA training programs by integrating the value-clarification concept in systems maintenance trainings, tapping farmers to train farmers, and by adopting the experiential learning approaches; c) distributing information, education and communication (IEC) materials which promoted the values taken up in the training; d) crafting new 6 Project Background and Objectives roles for the O&M personnel by letting them perform institutional functions; and e) introducing a participatory self-assessment process as a mechanism that would monitor and evaluate the project's outcome, to supplement the researcher's summational evaluation. Phases I and 2 were undertaken under the irrigation research component of the USAID-funded Accelerated A g rcultural Productivity Project (AAPP) which also aimed to enhance the research capability of the local universities involved.The second phase of the project was successful in bringing about the following changes in the IAs involved: a) increased effectiveness of the organizational task structure for water distribution services; b) increased membership participation in irrigation activities; c) increased IA collection efficiency; and d) improved systems O&M. One notable outcome was the involvement of the O&M personnel (Water Masters and Ditchtenders) in institutional development work. The systems management training entailed a self-analysis among the farmer members to determine the root causes of dysfunctional structures and damaged irrigation facilities. In the midst ofthe proceedings are the O&M personnel interacting closely with the farmers. At the end of the session, the Water Masters, Ditchtenders and the farmers had developed an action plan for the O&M of the turnouts, detailing the responsibilities ofeach ofthem. Compared to theregularlnstitutional Development Officer, the O&M personnel were in the best position to assist the IA in planning their systems maintenance activities given that O&M are these personnel's own territory. These plans were implemented through the small groups formed which were effectively the work teams in the TSAs.Engaging the Water Masters and Ditchtenders in institutional tasks is the best alternative that might be explored by NIA given the I A s increasing participation in O&M activities. With full irrigation management turnover, the O&M personnel would become redundant within the IA. in which case other options may become imperative. There is the \"golden handshake\" or voluntary retirement with attractive exit packages. But such may pose financial drawbacks to the agency given its budgetary constraints. Another alternative would be for the IA to employ the above-mentioned personnel whichmay not yet he feasible given the fact that most IAs have very low collection efficiencies and can ill-afford to pay for professional workers. The self-assessment scheme is a learning process by which farmers and farmer leaders are being trained to systematically record and evaluate their performance and use these data €or planning and decision-making functions. Specifically, its objectives are: I. To develop and test a method to monitor and evaluate performance of irrigation systems in general and IAs in particular To introduce a learning process to identify and characterize the types of strategies that could he used internally to catalyze collective action and thereby improve system performance as an alternative to external catalysttinterventionTo develop a generalizable method to strengthen the IA's managerial capability by introducing a systematic process for participatory planning and monitoring IA activities (both for operational and organizational) To determine whether or not farmers have the objective capacity to collect and analyze self-assessment performance data To test the practical value of self-assessment as a general strategy for strengthening organizational capacity of farmer groups to take over irrigation management tasks To link the self-assessment strategy with NIA's information system 2.CHAPTER 3 The BRISDAFIA has 57 turnout service areas (TSAs) spread across 15 barangays ( v i l l a p ) . Its total service area is 740 ha of which 683.5 ha had been reported as irrigated area by the TSA Leaders during the wet season of 1992 (July -December). Altogether there are about 1,831 farmers of whom only 5.7 percent or 104 are registered members. Although it appears that the number of registered members is quite small, it should not be interpreted that only this number participates in IA activities such as ra6us (voluntary work), meetings, payment of ISF and the like. As observed, the only difference between members and nonmembers is that the former have paid the required membership fee (registration fee). All water users, whether they are registered as members of the 1A or not, benefit from water service delivery and are expected to participate in IA activities. However, since membership fee is one of IAs' sources of income, it should seriously contemplate on strategies 10 Description of Project Site and Profile of Farmer Leaders that would motivate farmers to register as IA members. This concern is true to both IAs covered by the project. Although considered as having a large service area, this IA is characterized by a very small average landownership area which is 0.35 ha while the average farm lot size is only 0.22 ha. The IA also has geographical drawbacks as it is located in a typhoon belt area of the country and is a drainage site, which is hence prone to recurring floods. It is therefore not surprising that its ISF collection rate is one of the poorest. Each TSA is headed by a leader (TSAL) who automatically becomes a member of the Board of Directors (BOD). This Board is the central governing body of the organization, empowered to formulate policies and elect executive officers comprising the president, 2 vice presidents, secretary, assistant secretary, treasurer and auditor. Except for the president, each officer chairs the 4 standing committees of the IA, namely: Service, Education and Training, Finance, and Audit. The Farmer Irrigator Organizers (FlOs) who were tapped by the NIA to organize the IA are now considered as the Association's Board of Advisers. A sample organizational structure is shown in figure 1 which is also the same structure adopted by LAPSEFIA.The relatively large membership of the Board probably weakens its dynamism to govern given the statutory rule of constituting aquorum, which is that 50 percent of its members must be present in order to formulate resolutions or declare decisions on issues. It has been noted that during the The relatively large membership of the Board probably weakens its dynamism to govern given the statutory rule of constituting a quorum, which is that 50 percent of its members must be present in order to formulate resolutions or declare decisions on issues. It has been noted that during the past BOD meetings, the required quorum has been seldom attained. In addition, the association faces several challenges that need to be overcome in order for it to stand independently as a private entity and succeed in its task of providing a satisfactory irrigation service to farmer members. As identified by farmer leaders themselves during an assessment activity done in the project's third phase, such challenges include the following:Descripfion of Project Sire and Profile of Farmer Leaders and, hence, there is sufficient water in most parts of its service area.Farmers do not feel the urgency to undertake the required maintenance tasks as there is always plenty of water whether or not they maintain the canals. Another factor is the inability of the IA to provide more services to the members other than water delivery. Since farmers benefit from water delivery service whether or not they become registered members orparticipatein theIAactivities, thereisnoincentiveforthem to actively get involved in IA activities. The IA leaders have recognized that their organization should be able to offer services beyond water delivery exclusively for members' benefit to ensure their commitment to the IA.Inactive Turnout Service Area Leaders. More than half of the TSA Leaders of this IA are preoccupied with secondary economic activities which compete with the time that otherwise could have been devoted to the fulfillment of their functions as TSA Leaders. It should be mentioned that these leaders shoulder their duties and responsibilities without any compensation. Given their low farm income, itisquitejustifiable to think of material incentives to motivate these leaders to turn in a good management performance.Poor maintenance of facilities and unregulated use of water resulting in inequity of water distribution in certain parts of the IA as well as water inadequacy in the other IA located downstream. Some portions of BRISDAFIA suffer from tlooding while other parts experience water inadequacy within the same cropping season. These concerns are interrelated to the above-mentioned two problems. In addition, the TSA Leaders complain about the lack of control structures like steel gates which weakens their ability to regulate water flow in their areas of responsibility .Lack of a systematic collection process for irrigation service fees and membership dues. The IA has a service area of 740 ha and it has only 9 authorized IA collectors. On average, each collector is expected to cover about 80 ha. Although the IA has assumed the collection functions from the NIA for the ISF since 1991, the NIA continues to provide them assistance in undertaking this function. It is the NIA which prepares the bills and sets the target collection for the IA collectors. Since the NIA also bas its own constraints, the bills are usuallydelayed and thus the ISF could not be collected during the harvest period. Fiestas (community 2.celebrations to honorapatron saint) are usually observed after the harvest and it has been the practice of the farmers to overspend during these occasions. If a collector arrives after these fiestas, it is seldom that the farmers are able to pay. It is therefore important that collection be timed with the harvest period.Low IA share from ISF collection. This problem is both an outcome of situation number 4 and the very minimal share of the IA in the IA-NIA sharing system stipulated in the Type I1 contract.The LAPSEFIA has 52 turnout service areas dispersed across 9 barangays. The total farm lots inventoried through the spot maps prepared by the TSA Leaders aggregated to 3,024 covering 853.8 ha of irrigated area. These farm lots are tilled by 2,157 farmers of whom 741 (34%) are registered members to date. The average farm lot size is 0.2823 ha while the average landownership is 0.3958 ha.The IA at present carries a Stage I1 contract with NIA and given its commendable performance on collection and maintenance, this IA would be ready to assume full management responsibility in the very near future under NIA's full turnover arrangement or the Stage Ill contracting system.Being at the tail end, the IA suffers from water inadequacy, particularly during the peak of the dry season. This threat, however, is cushioned by the dedication of its leaders and a high sense of cooperation among the farmer members. The IA is now looking at the prospect of venturing into non-water services to complement the delivery of irrigation service to the farmers.Described herein are the characteristics of the turnout service area leaders (TSALs) in the two U s covered by the study. This provides a backdrop on the intervention strategies adopted and the project outcome after the 13month period of project implementation. The data used in this section were based on a one-page Personal Profile Questionnaire distributed to all TSA Leaders in January, 1993. In BRISDAFIA, 46 out of the 56 TSA Leaders completed the questionnaires while 43 out of 49 TSA Leaders from LAPSE-FIA provided the needed information. Details of the succeeding discussion are presented in table 3.       Almost all of the TSA Leaders (98%) reported that farming is their main occupation. Only one claimed that he considered himself as a carpenter while undertaking farming as a supplementary job. However, 26 (57%) pursue other economic activities to supplement their farm income. Some of the reported secondary occupations include: small-scale business, vegetable gardening, livestock raising, fishing and being an ofiicial in the barangay council, a carpenter. a laborer and a security guard. The majority of the farmer leaders (64%) earn an annual income of P20.000 and below ($800). with the largest number earning only about P10.001 toP15,000per year ($400 -600) in 1993 prices. The average number of children is 5. With the poverty line pegged at P3,500/month or P42,OOO ($1,680) annually, the farmer leaders are considered generally as being among the poverty groups intheregion.It has been noted frompast meetingsoftheIABoard of Directors that the quorum could hardly be obtained particularly during peak planting or harvesting periods. This could be due to the fact that almost all are dependent upon farming for their main source of income and more than half are preoccupied with secondary economic activities.Civil Status and Occupation of Spouse. Four out of five of the TSA Leaders (82%) are married. The rest are either single or widowed. The majority of their spouses (58%) are full-time housekeepers. It should be noted that except for one, all of the TSA Leaders are male. Given the fact that the farmer leader is occupied with earning a living to support the family, it is bigh time the spouse was involved in irrigation-related activities that would complement or support the farmer leaders' role in the association.Average Age and Educariorial Attainment. The average age of the farmer leaders is 56 years, which is slightly higher than the average age of members which is 52 years. Electing the older members to occupy important positions in the IA is perhaps an unconscious adherence to the belief of giving respect to elders and heeding their counsel sharpened by experience. The average educational attainment is high school education,which again is higher than that obtained by most members, which is elementary level.Vision of the TSA Leaders of the IA. When asked to share what they want the IA to be in the future, more than half(58%) expressed their desire to improve water delivery service of the IA, convert it to a cooperative and go into the provision of support services to members. Other responses included: improve its management, attend to the condition of the irrigation facilities, inform farmers about their obligation to pay irrigation fees, compensate the leaders for their services to the IA and campaign among fellow farmers to register as members. It is notable, however, that the farmer leaders in this LA who have not expressed their views on what they believe should be the direction of the IA in the future comprised 24 percent. Table 4 reveals the vision of the TSA Leaders for the IA.d.a. Type of Occupation and Annual Family Income. As in BRISDAFIA, 93 percent of the farmer leaders confirmed that farming is their main occupation. Only 25 percent had secondary activities to supplement their farm income. More than half earn an income ofP20,OOO ($800) or higher per year which indicates that farmer leaders in this I A are relatively better off than their counterparts in BRISDAFIA. The average number of children is 6.Civil Status and occupation of Spouse. The farmer leaders are predominantly male (only one is female) and married (86%). Most of their spouses (72%) are housekeepers while 3 (7%) reported that they were involved in farming.Average Age and Educational Attainment. The average age and educational attainment are more or less similar to those of the counterparts in BRISDAFIA: 56 years and high school level.b.c.I. Improve water drlivcly and conven the LA into B cooperative to help farmer members obtain capital and incmnse production so that it can stand independently.I hope that the management of the IA can be 2.improved.I wish to see the irrigation facilities in good working condition and the farmer memhers being taught thc proper lechniquc to maintain and p r o t ~~t these facilities.The farmers should lemn to pay the irrigation service fees.5 . I hope that the IA shall hove sufficient funds to pay an honorarium to the BOD.The IA should invite the farmem to register with thc IA.Improve the performance of fhc Association for it to take ovec full management of the system.To have honest leadden and united memhers.A clear set of guidelines a d B systematic collection process that is easily understood by the farmers of the IA.7.0. No resIlunsr. d. Vision of the TSA Leaders far the IA. The farmer leaders of this IA articulated their thoughts on how they pictured the IA in the future. Their outlooks were more or less directed towards the same vision-that of improving the performance of the IA, hut varying on perceptions about how to transform such a dream to reality. The greatest number of farmer leaders eyed the possibility of a cooperative, along with water delivery, and venturing into the provision of capital to members to improve production. Ahout one fourth (21 %) manifested their desire to take over full management of the system. Some (16.3%) placed emphasis on improving the irrigation facilities and the need to inform members on their proper use and protection. Others saw the need to have a set of honest leaders and united members as the basic foundation of a progressive association (table 4).CHAPTER 4As THE TERM suggests, the self-assessment mechanism requires the Turnout Service Area Leaders (TSALs) to gather data pertaining to their turnouts which will indicate how well are performing their O&M and institutional development responsibilities. This self-correcting scheme is complemented by participatory assessment by farmer members at the lowest stratum of the organizational hierarchy, spearheaded by the farmer leaders at the supplementary ditch levels. Utilization of the TSA Leaders' performance report by the Board of Directors (BOD) and officials at the central level of the IA would provide these officials an insight into the performance of the IA as a whole and would serve as a rich source of information for planning future activities.The self-assessment process then becomes the nucleus for the IA's Management Information System. In this project it is asserted that a sound feedback mechanism will have a direct consequence on the performance level of Supplementary TSALs and IA officials which in turn will have bearing on the degree of effectiveness of the farmer organization in delivering services to the water users. It is assumed that NIA would also benefit from the IA's Management Information System by facilitating its data-generation requirement at the grassroots level. It may be mentioned that as part of the project's intervention activities, the O&M personnel have adopted their own performance assessment system utilizing the data reported by the TSA Leaders. Through regular interaction with farmer leaders, NIA personnel and the IA are provided with timely information that could be used as a basis for planning the management work of the irrigation system. The designed reciprocal action between the agency personnel and the farmer leaders is hoped to result in a better working relationship 22 Conceptual Framework between these water management partners which would propel an improvement in irrigation system performance.Figure 2 illustrates the schematic flow of hypothesized results of the project activities.The effectiveness of an organization and the sustainability of participation depend crucially on the quality of leadership attracted from among the water users. The function of leadership is to plan and cany out decision making, resource mobilization and management, communication and conflict management (Uphoff 1986, p. 86). However, the organizational leadership, particularly in large, farmer-managed systems, needs a feedback mechanism that would enable it to undertake these management functions. In large farmer-managed systems, the I A is composed of several turnouts, each headed by a farmer leader.Having a systematic monitoring system at the TSA level enables the TSA Leader, among other things, to gauge if he has been successful in meeting the demands of water users in terms ofadequate, equitableand timely distribution of water. The same monitoring system if recorded would provide the leadership at the systems level a means to check on the performance of each turnout. Plans and activities would then be undertaken based on the information obtained. The project concept originated from the articulated need of I A officials for baselineinformation which would aid them in planning and decision-making tasks. The IA leaders' desire to have a database was reinforced by observations of the university research team and IIMI Philippines who had been interacting with the same farmer groups since 1990,3 years before this project was introduced. The strategies and methodology of how this information system would be realized were developed jointly by the university research team and the IIMI Philippines Field Operations Office. The self-as-sessment process for obtaining data on and assessing farmer leaders, IAs and systems performance was largely influenced by the experience gained in participatory management at the Gal Oya Scheme, Sri Lanka.However, the actual performance monitoring tool was constructed in close consultation with the IA officials and the NIA Systems Staff. The indicators of leaders, IA and system performance were identified jointly by the project team and the IA officials. The latter determined which information was important to them and on this basis, preliminary indicators listed were either retained or deleted from the forms. On their part, the NIA O&M personnel identified the needed information from the IA which was required by their agency. Through a series of test runs involving the TSALs, the monitoring forms were refined incorporating the comments of these leaders who were the actual users and the key participants of the self-assessment method. The idea to link the IA's information system to that of the NIA had taken into account the changes that the agency need to institute given its participatory approach policy.To MEET THE project objectives, a series of intervention activities had been outlined. The initial activities conceived focused simply on revising the self-assessment forms and institutionalizing the process in the IA. It would be recalled that the self-assessment process was already introduced to the farmers and farmer leaders in 1991. But at that time, the intention was just for a one-shot activity to supplement the researchers' summative evaluation of the AAPP. Institutionalizing the self-assessment mechanism requires not only the involvement of the IA leaders but of the NIA office O&M personnel as well. The project plan therefore also included the introduction of the self-assessment mechanism for Water Masters and Ditchtenders and the implementation of a strategy to link the two activities to serve the information needs of both the IA and the NIA.In pursuing the above-mentioned tasks, the researchers realized that they could not confine the scope of assistance as embodied in the plan. The activities undertaken expanded in response to farmers' needs like the intervention for improving IA collection efficiency. Results of the participatory assessment process showed that most problems at the turnout level were caused by dysfunctional structures or canals needing repairs. The IAs are pressured to act on these problems to ensure continued member participation. In this regard the IAs have to generate funds internally by way of increasing collection from irrigation fees. One important performance indicator that NIA uses in assessing the level of IA's share in the fees collected is collection efficiency, which is the ratio of the actual to the target ISF collections, especially in IAs which assume the collection function, as in the case of LAPSEFIA and BRISDAFIA. These two IAs expressed the need to install a mechanism that would improve their present collection efficiency. Recordsshow that prior to the implementation of this project, the collection efficiency in these two IAs was very low-less than 50 percent on average. As a result, BRISDAFIA failed to receive any ISF share and feelings of disillusion prevailed over IA collectors as they did not get a single centavo for their efforts. Further, it surfaced that the IAs did not have the funds to cover their administrative costs like honoraria for the TSA Leaders. Considering that most of them depend on farm income and need to pursue secondary occupations to meet basic necessities, there must be a tangible incentive for involving themselves in additional organizational work such as the self-assessment scheme. Of course, their basic reason for joining the IA was the benefits brought by the irrigation system. However, the project requires that additional work be input in the IA by the TSA Leaders which would mean competing with time which otherwise could be devoted to gainful economic activity. It was therefore quite understandable that some farmer leaders would expect real incentives such as honoraria in return for an increased intensity in their performanceas TSA Leaders. In view of this, thc projezt team, in consultation with thc IA officials and the NIA staff, introduced some strategies to improve the financial resources of the two IAs.The self-assessment process involves the officials of the turnout and the IA as key participants. Using a simple structured questionnaire, the TSA Leader records significant information pertaining to the situation of his turnout such as the stage of farming activities within his area of responsibility, status of crops, water adequacy at farm level, organizational activities, conflicts that occurred and were resolved, status of irrigation structures and facilities, payment of ISF by farmers and problems encountered.The report at the TSA level was to be monitored and consolidated by the IA officials who agreed among themselves to divide the service nreas into clusters with one IA official having I to 8 turnout service areas to he monitored. To carry out the monitoring task, the IA official checks the record kept by the TSA Leader and consolidates the reported data using another form, the contents of which shall be reported at the monthly meetings of the Board of Directors.In designing the self-assessment tool, the project team closely worked with the IA officials, TSA Leaders and NIA O&M staff. Because of this, the instrument was able to take into account the dynamics of the IA organization activities vis-a-vis farming activities. The fanner leaders analyzethedata they themselves have collected. As a result of a series of consultation meetings with farmer leaders the instrument used in 1991 was streamlined to reflect the most essential questions needed by the TSA Leaders to carry out their functions. The questions have also been transformed to facilitate recording and at the same time to draw out vital information for planning and decision making. Inasmuch as the self-assessment process was structured to capture the performance indicators ofthe TSA Leaders, a list of the latter's duties and responsibilities was attached to the questionnaire. This list served as the link between the self-assessment process and the farmer leaders' mandated duties. By emphasizing the objective of the self-assessment process, (i.e., it would guide the leader how to perform his duties better), the researchers gained the farmer leaders' cooperation and appreciation for the need of the recording process. The spot map drawn by the TSA Leader which contains valuable baseline data was appended to the self-assessment questionnaire. The spot map served as a reference point in filling in the questionnaire.The research team conducted a series of test runs specifically to determine if the self-assessment tool adequately covered all areas of TSAL performance; to evaluate the utility of accomplishing or answering the questions and to clarify among farmer leaders the importance of the self-assessment process by linking it to the duties and responsibilities embodied in the farmer organization (IA) bylaws. A significant outcome of this series of meetings with the TSALs was the discussion of common issues or problems encountered and the sharing of actual experiences among farmer leaders. The self-assessment tool served as a guide for them to systematically evaluate the farm situation, and as a consequence, to catalyze action for problem resolution.The research team distributed the monitoring forms in October 1992. Field work then focused on training the TSA Leaders in recording the performance data required. The researchers were grouped into 2. one for each IA. On average, each team covered 5 TSA Leaders per.day.The form used for the self-assessment continued to evolve as the project team learned from the farmer leaders' feedback. The research team and the TSA Leaders agreed to adopt several changes with the objectives of developing a simple and functional assessment instrument. The project team believes that the latest self-assessment form would still undergo changes in Intewention Activities and Methodologies the future as the IA evolves and takes on additional functions or encounters significant experiences that would substantially affect their information needs.In the first form introduced, the TSA Leaders recorded such aggregate data regarding the turnout as total number of parcels planted, total number of farmers following the cropping calendar and total number of farm lots with adequate water. It was noted that these questions could not be answered without looking into the status of each individual lot. Besides, the aggregate data per se may be useful to an external evaluator interested in assessing the TSA Leader's performance, but these figures would be quite meaningless to the leader unless he could easily identify who among the farmers failed to comply with the cropping calendar if this is the aspect which was being assessed. Considering that individual farm data were generated from the spot map, the team and the TSA Leaders contemplated using this to facilitate the latter's work.It should be mentioned that prioi to project implementation the farmer leaders were already undertaking data-generating functions for the NIA. The joint management contract between the NIA and the IA required the TSA Leader to submit to the NIA systems office a weekly report on the planted area under his supervision. The NIA provides the reporting format which entails listing each lot number of every irrigated parcel that had been planted, its actual tiller or owner and their addresses. This information is used by the NIA to estimate the target collection of Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) for the current cropping season as well as the basis for determining which farmers used irrigation water and how much they would be billed. On NIA's part, the farmer leader's participation in the preparation of this crucial report resulted in billing inefficiencies caused by thedelayed report submission by the farmer leader. The Ditchtenders presumed that the TSA Leaders' inability to submit the report was due to their lack of cooperation when, in fact, it was due to difficulties such as writing handicaps. Hence, these personnel had to do the reports themselves rather than face the ire of the systems office for submitting late reports. Expecting the same behavior from the TSA Leaders, some Ditchtenders fell into the habit of doing the report themselves. This is effectively an \"informal\" withdrawal of the leaders' role in the reporting system thereby eroding the participatory process that NIA expects.Discussing the project team's desire to modify the self-assessment forms with the NIA systems staff resulted in NIA's sharing of the dilemma on the List of Irrigated and Planted Area (LIPA) form. It surfaced that the forms used by NIA could not be filled in by the TSA Leaders because of difficulty of writing the names of individual water users given the size of the turnout service area membership and the leaders' advanced age and low educational attainment. It was therefore agreed that the Project Team would assist NIA in devising the form such that all names of water users in the area would already be printed together with farm lot size and lot numbers which shall be taken from the result of the spot mapping activity. Given this innovation, the TSA Leader was then expected to simply check the names of those who were able to plant during the week being monitored. The Ditchtender then collects the forms and submits them to the NIA Systems Office.The innovation introduced in the LIPA form was also adopted in the self-assessment form. Columns were provided to reflect the different stages of farming activities per month. Starting in July and going on to November 1993, the leaders agreed to check in the appropriate space required to fill in data for the farming stage of a particular farm lot. Moreover, additional columns were incorporated in the same page to reflect status of payment of the various Financial dues by farmer members. With this method. recording became easier, quicker and more accurate. The leaders can, at one glance, determine the names of farmers not complying with the cropping calendar and who among them needed to be reminded to pay their dues. One major drawback of this revised approach is that much paper is required to incorporate all the names of the farmers per TSA. This is worth emphasizing because the additional cost of printing and reproduction might hamper the sustainability of the entire process after project phase out considering that the IAs' financial resources are very meager. The final modifications introduced called for monitoring water distribution on a per farm lot basis. The aim was to shorten the questionnaire and attain higher accuracy in data gathering. Annex I1 shows the original form while Annex 11-a is the final form used.The project team deemed it necessary to visit each TSAL to give him further training in filling in the form. This function was slowly transferred to the 1A official assigned to supervise a group of TSALs. Eventually, the IA officials are expected to use the self-assessment results as a means to gauge the level of performance of the TSA Leaders. On their part, the TSA Leaders would be able to assess which functions they were able to carry out effectively and those that need to he improved. The present data analysis among TSA Leaders is limited to the data needed by the NIA such as those for the preparation of the LIPA and for the report on damaged farm areas due to pests, flood or drought needed for determining which farm lots are eligible to be exempted from ISF payment. Figure 3 illustrates the specific activities undertaken to date.an I in mmon an I In ormwitAs discussed earlier, the original project activities did not provide for the IA involvement in the collection function except in the generation of financial data. The researchers realized that with the increased participation of theTSA group in problem identification, there is a need to assist IAs build up their resources to act on the problems identified. The problems reported by the TSALs, largely dealt with repairs and maintenance of structures. To be able to undertake them requires substantial funds which presently the IA's financial coffers cannot provide; neither can the NIA which is also dependent on the IA's remittance of ISF collections.The researchers, together with the Water Master of the NIA Systems Office who was simultaneously designated to act as the System's Institutional Development Officer (IDO), then drew up a plan to assist the two pilot IAs in undertaking their collection functions and improving the financial resources other than through ISF collections.The IA officials, the Project Team and the Systems Office O&M personnel joined forces in identifying weaknesses in the collection function of the IA. It surfaced that the poor collection performance in the past was caused by the Intenmtion Activities and Methoddogies late issuance of the bills, the preparation of which is the responsibility of the NIA. This office usually issues group bills which are not acceptable to the collectors. Some reasons cited include: 1) the good payers were discouraged to pay their fees since they could see from the group billing that there were many delinquent payers, and 2) farmers wanted individual billing as an official notice on the account that need to be settled. It was therefore agreed that the IA shall prepare the individual bills based on the group billing to be issued by the NIA. The lack of an incentive scheme for the IA collectors was also pinpointed as a major setback.Given these problem areas, it was agreed that the Project Team and the Water MastedIDO would assist the 1A in devising the individual billing form, establishing a process for bill distribution and in installing an incentive mechanism for the IA collectors. In addition, collectors were provided with journals where they shall record their collection and remittances. A contest was also launched to motivate the collectors and TSA Leaders to turn in high performance in the collection of ISF. The new billing system, however. which was supposed to be implemented during the wet season of 1992 was never tested because the NIA Systems Superintendent decided to shift to individual billing.During the wet season of 1993, the TSA Leaders were tapped to undertake the collection function given that they were in the best position to do the task. They have the list of water uscrs, the size and location of the farm lots as well as their residential addresses generated through the spot-mapping activity. Sincemost oftheTSALs were beginners in thecollection work, they had to be trained for this function. It was observed during thetraining sessions that the transaction instruments used by the IAs were handed down by the NIA and were not yet modified to suit the capability of the farmers who are now delegated with the collection function. The training was extended to the actual collection period to give the new collectors practical experience in the field. The researchers helped theNIA staffmonitor the progress ofthe trainees in issuing receipts, and in preparing the required collection report. Figure 4 highlights the sequential activities undertaken.The 1A has two important sources of funds which have not been fully tapped. These are the membership fees and the annual dues. Each farmer is supposed to pay PI 0.00 ($0.40) upon registration as member of the IA. Given that one IA has a potential farmer membership of 1,831, it stands to gain P18,310Interveniion Activities and Methodologies 33 ($732.40). Once a farmer becomes a member, he is obliged to pay an annual due of P5.00 ($0.20). Again, multiplying this with the number of potential members, the IA would be able to generate P9,155 per year ($366.20). These sources were not fully tapped by the IA. By July 1992, in BRISDAFIA, only 6 percent of its potential members had registered while in LAPSEFIA, the number was 34 percent. There was a need therefore to campaign for membership to the IA and enhance collection of the membership fees and annual dues. Thus the following activities were implemented:  a. Membership campaign. The IA officials headed by their president took the responsibility for organizing membership campaign meetings with the assistance of the NIA Institutional Development Officer (IDO) and the BU Research Team. In February 1994, the number of registered members increased from 34 percent to 41 percent in LAPSEFIA while in BRISDAFIA the change in the number of registered members was quite negligible.Decentralizing membership fee and annual dues collection. Before the start of the project, the collection scheme for the dues was centralized at the IA level and became a function of the IA treasurer. With this setup, the treasurer found it very difficult to collect individually from the members resulting in a very low collection rate. Tapping the IA collectors to do this function was not very successful as the task did not provide any incentives in return for the collectors' efforts.It was therefore recommended by the Research Team and theNIA's I D 0 that the collection of the dues be delegated to the TSA group. This scheme would mobilize the Finance Committee and the Education and Training Committee at the TSA level (Annex 111). The membership fee would be totally remitted by the TSA Leader to the IA treasurer while a substantial part of the annual dues shall be retained at the TSA level. BRISDAFIA adopted an 80-20 sharing system with the greater portion to be kept by the TSA as seed money to finance its activities. The distribution of the funds to be collected in one IA is given below. The collection of these funds is entirely dependent on the IA and its ability to encourage members to participate in the I A s affairs. Payment of these dues is a good indicator of the members' interest to be part of the organization. Hopefully, the scheme would: The spot-mapping activity was conceived when IA officials expressed their desire to have a profile of the IA and the TSAs which reflects baseline information about their area of responsibility and this could be readily used when establishing linkages with other agencies. In addition, spot maps were deemed an important tool in the self-assessment process in that leaders would have a defined and clear picture of their area of responsibility, including an accurate estimate of the size of farms and number of farmers under their jurisdictions. With the spot map, the TSAL can also easily indicate the status of canals, main and supplementary farm ditches and facilities. Specifically, the spot map contains: It should be noted that the entire process took too much time because so many lots were without lot numbers and area size. Hence, TSALs could not complete maps on their own. Added to this, there were farmers who refused to have their lots measured. On the one hand, validation of spot maps by NIA personnel took a long time because of other priority assignments. However, the length of time spent in spot map preparation is justifiable considering its importance to both the IA and the NIA. Because of their simplicity, spot maps can be used by leaders with low educational status and are cost-effective compared to parcellary maps.  The detailed procedures for spot map preparation which were distributed to the TSALs are given in Annex IV (only the English version). Also a sample of a spot map made by the leaders is given as Annex V.The NIA management acknowledged the importance of this endeavor because the information generated had a number of uses and advantages: a. Update the list of registered members needed for LIPA preparation. In the process of preparing the spot maps, initial findings disclosed that a number of water users had not paid ISF for years. They were not registered members and their farm lots were not reflected on the parcell a y map.Determine area harvested, area benefited and area planted. These are required for ISF computation. In the past, it was the responsibility of the O&M personnel to generate these data, who in turn tapped the assistance of the FIOs and the TSALs.Area served during the wet and dry seasons. The data are specially relevant to LAPSEFIA since seasonal discrepancies arise due to submerging of areas during the wet season.By April 1994,92 percent of the maps were validated and are now being used by the TSAL in the self-assessment process. The spot mapping activity was to identify 28 hectares of benefited area which were not registered with the IA and NIA and so were not billed. It is expected that there will be an increase in ISF collection due to the inclusion of newly identified water users in the IANIA's billing list. Under the farmer-agency joint irrigation management contract, NIA's responsibilities in O&M activities are mostly implemented by the Water Masters and the Ditchtenders. Figure 6 illustrates the organizational chart of the Barit RIS Office and O&M Division. Each Ditchtender is given a specific area within the IA's service area which has a corresponding number of farmer Intenlention Activities and Methodologies leaders as counterparts for the O&M task. In BRISDAFIA, Ditchtenders and Water Masters are responsible for the maintenance of the main canals and laterals while the TSA Leaders take charge of the O&M function from the turnout to the main and supplementary farm ditches. Meanwhile, in LAPSE-FIA, the NIA O&M personnel are responsible for the main canal maintenance while the TSA Leaders assume the maintenance task from the lateral down to the main and supplementary farm ditches. Since their duties are complementary, it was logical that the Ditchtender should also gather field information that would reflect his performance. The scheme requires the DitchtenderlWater Master to be in contact with farmer leaders to monitor their performance as well as to thrash out problems. Considering that the data collected by the Ditchtenders cover not only their area of responsibility hut those of the TSA Leaders as well, the Water Master who consolidates the report is provided with a complete picture of the system for his own planning and decision-making function vital at his supervisory level. Eventually, it is planned that the data shall be channeled to higher management levels. In February 1993, the BU Research Team, the NIA Region and Systems Officials agreed to reconcile the self-assessment form for O&M staff with existing forms used by the NIA Central Office (Irrigation Management Information Systems) and those prescribed at the Regional level. Figure 7 shows the process of the self-assessment mechanism for the Water Masters and Ditchtenders. The ultimate aim was to develop a single form that would satisfy the data needs of NIA Central, Regional and Systems levels as well as those of the IAs and the TSA Leaders taking into account timeliness, data utility and facility in data recording. The significance of this self-assessment scheme is not only the linking of IA and NIA information system but that the O&M personnel are being trained on-the-job in institutional tasks by making them front liners in dealing with the farmers. Inasmuch as the bulk of irrigation problems brought out by farmers deal with O&M aspects, indeed the Ditchtenders and Water Masters areMA's bestrepresentatives in the field. Thisactivity issupporliveofNIA's long-term plan of eventually transferring institutional development tasks to the Water Masters. Under the project scheme, the Water Masters were designated by the Irrigation Superintendent as NIA's official representative in all IA activities such as BOD and Turnout Service Area Group meetings, hirervention Activifies and Methodologies membership campaigns, and the like. A Water Master WJS also given authority to act on NIA-IA matters that do not require higher-level decisions. On the other hand, the Ditchtenders were assigned to monitor a specified number of TSA Leaders with regard to the accornplisliment of the self-assessment forms. With the recent streamlining of the Institutional Development Officers (IDO) due to financial constraints, the Water Master had fully assumed all the official duties of the I D 0 in the 2 IAs covered by the project.Although the Bicol University Research Team assumed the overall management of the project due to the working agreemeiit made with IIMI. the lead implementing agency was the BARIT Rinconada Systems Office headed by the Irrigation Superintendent. The Bicol University served as a partner of the NIA in strengthening the managerial capability of the IAs in consonance with its participatory management policy. ?be NIA Bicol Regional Office coordinated and monitored the prqject implementation while IIMI provided the funding support and technical supervision and also monitored the project.On NIA's part, the project involved the Irrigatioii Superintendent. the Assistant Superintendent who heads the Systems O&M Division, two Water Masters in charge of the Pilot IAs, six Ditchtenders and one Instituticinal Development Officer (IDO). At the time of project phase-out, one of the two Water Masters was doing the work of an I D 0 since the services of the previous one were terminated due to budgetary constraints. Likewise, the number of Ditchtenders wns reduced to three due to the same reason. The Regional Office of the NIA was represented by the Chief of the Institutional Division and a representative from the Research Section. By the middle of the project implementation, the Regional Manager retired and the designated Officer-in-Charge showed keen interest i n the project having been one of those who piloted the participatory process in the Philippines.The Bicol University Research Team consisted of two Study Leaders, with one acting concurrently as Project Leader, a Community Development Specialist (CDS) and two Research Assistants (RAs) and had a Word Processor. The RAs worked lull time i n the field and were residents of the Pilot IAs. The Study Leaders and the CDS wete Professors in the University who were partly released from their teaching tasks Lo be able to undertake the project. On average, each devoted 24 hours in the project site per week. The introduction of the self-assessment process was spearheaded by the BU Research Team. Their role was to conceptualize the project activities in consultation with the NIA and IA officials. The IA officials and TSA Leaders were the key participants in the self-assessment scheme. The IA and NIA officials took a very active part in the design of the instrument after which the BU Research Team trained the TSA Leaders in filling in the forms and monitored their progress. The TSA Leaders filled in the forms in consultation with the farmer members. The results were reported to theIA officials through the organization's regular Board of Directors' meeting.IIMI was involved in all phases of project implementation, from the planning stage, actual operation, documentation and in the analysis of the project outcome. As earlier mentioned, the general strategies and methodology for operationalizing the self-assessment process was conceptualized jointly by the Bicol University project team and IIMI. Valuable inputs were given by IIMI researchers particularly in initially identifying the dimensions of organizational performance that should be assessed. Monitoring was done periodically and its output became the basis for providing the BU Research Team directions in future activities to be undertaken in the field. IIMI also provided the project team very relevant literature which kept the team in touch with research activities pursued in other countries.CHAPTER 6THEULTIMATETEST of IA performance is whether the organization has satisfied the general objective of ensuring adequate and timely delivery as well as equitable distribution of irrigation water among beneficiaries. As a corollary, the attainment of this objective necessitates that canals and structures he maintained properly, timely and cost-eff&tively. In this context, the self-assessment process captures the performance of TSALs who are the principal actors involved in the execution of the above-mentioned function. The questionnaire which is filled in by the TSAL monthly, incorporates a number of performance indicators which revolve around the five major activities required in managing the irrigation system. These are: water allocation and distribution, system maintenance and repair, financial management, planning of organizational activities, and conflict management. Table 6 summarizes the indicators reflected in the self-assessment process and how these were quantified.The extent of efficiency in water allocation and distribution at the TSA level is manifested by the actual number of farmers who have adhered to the cropping calendar, the number of farm lots whose water supply is perceived to be adequate, and conversely, the number of ,lots damaged due to pests, flooding, drought, etc. These items of information are specially important in LAPSEFIA as it is perennially beset by water-short problems due to its tail-end location. For efficient utilization of scarce water, therefore, strict enforcement of the cropping calendar and adherence to rotation schedules are imperative and are duly recognized by the NIS as well as the IAs. This policy should particularly be addressed to most upstream farmers belonging to the 44 Indicators of Success of lnterventiorr Activities otherIA (BRISDAFIA) because their profligate useof waterdeprives tail-end farmers of timely water delivery. The self-assessment questionnaire reflects how well these functions are carried out by examining the number of farm lots in each stage of farming activity and the number of farmers who practiced rotation monthly. Ideally, if there is compliance to cropping schedules, the monthly variation in the number of farm lots in various stages of production is minimal.  As an indicator of system maintenance and repair, the status of canals (Supplementary Farm Ditch [SFD], Main Farm Ditch [MFD], laterals, main) as well as structures within the jurisdiction of the TSA is assessed and recorded by the farmer leaders, theresults ofwhich woulddisclose how active the TSALs and Ditchtenders are in initiating and rendering maintenance and repair works. Figure 8 illustrates the layout of the main and lateral canals as well as the main and supplementary farm ditches. Adopting the scale of 1 to 3, the canals were evaluated by the TSA Leaders in terms of their cleanliness with 1 corresponding to very clean and 3 corresponding to dirty. The irrigation structures such as the division boxes and steel gates and their conditions were likewisedetermined by theTSA Leadersusing the same scale with 1 referring to dysfunctional condition and 3 to functional. Similarly, since the viability of singularly functioning IAs is basically determined by their effectiveness in ISF collection, the extent of motivation and groundworking activities undertaken by the TSAL for this purpose is reflected by the collpction efficiency attained at the TSA level.The extent to which the TSALs foster membership involvement in irrigation activities is also revealed by the number of meetings held and the rate of membership participation not only in meetings but in scheduled voluntary works.Finally, the number of conflicts that have arisen and resolved per month are likewise monitored and would reflect the extent of ingenuity and concern of the leader in minimizing conflicts and resolving them.Aside from assessing the performance of the TSALs, the self-assessment instrument generates valuable inputs crucial for planning and decision making at the IA and NIA levels. Table 7 highlights these items of information, their specific uses and persons responsible for action. The very nature of the self-assessment technique requires that the principal executors in irrigation system operatinn-the TSA Leaders and NIA personnelhecord and evaluate their own job performance utilizing an instrument jointly designed by them and the research team. Along this line, unless performance parameters whose objectivity and validity are unaltered regardless of who gathers them are explicitly identified at the outset, the assessment process may yield biased results, and as snme may put it, it might be more a self-defense than a self-assessment.Cognizant of this, the instrument was so designed that it would only capture output-oriented, factual and easily verifiable data which will directly or indirectly gauge the TSA Leaders' performance. It must be stressed that, in addition to the usefulness of the self-assessment data as a basis for judging the TSA Leaders' performance, the process of recording itself acts as an impetus to improve further their own performance. This is because data-generation cannot be possibly done with the TSA Leaders sitting down. The magnitude of work necessitates them to go around the fields, closely monitor their assigned territory and interact with farmers, the latter being a major source of information. In other words, because of the self-assessment exercise, the farmers recognize the presence of the leaders and are given the chance to express their irrigation-related problems. Such interaction may ultimately motivate the TSA group to get more actively involved in IA work.To ensure the validity of the self-assessment outcomes, it becomes expedient to install a checking mechanism which would assay these performance results. To elucidate, one major function of a TSA Leader is to enforce compliance of the cropping calendar to optimize the use of the limited water resources. To assess how well this task has been accomplished, the leader records the number of farmers who are into various stages of farming activity. These data are then used to prepare the list of planted areas (LIPA) which is submitted to the NIA for billing purposes. Since a NIA Ditchtender is assigned to collect the LIPA and monitor the area, he would be in a position to examine the accuracy of the submitted report. Besides, a leader is expected to exercise care in preparing the report and would not really include an area in the LIPA which is not actually planted because this would cause the ire of the farm owner who eventually would be billed and required to pay the corresponding irrigation service fee.The collection efficiency in the rotational area is another indicator of performance and could be culled from the self-assessment form. It must be recognized, however, that the collection performance is heavily dependent on the current farm yield which in turn is influenced by a number of other factors such as pests, prevailing weather condition and inputs used. It cannot be refuted, however, that the system of collection and the collection efforts exerted also influence collection performance. Specifically, this aspect reflects theefficiency ofthe leader in bill distribution as well as his effectiveness in motivating farmers to pay their dues. Again, accuracy of the report is ensured because the leaders who are at the same time collectors use the self-assessment report as a basis in preparing the weekly and monthly collection reports which in turn are submitted to the IA treasurer together with the amount collected. Thus, the self-assessment form becomes a monitoring lridicarors of Success of Intervention Activities tool not only of the treasurer but also of the leaderlcollector since the instrument at one glance shows which farmers have yet to pay their dues.As an indicator to the extent to which equity in water distribution in the rotational area is realized, the TSA Leader assesses each farm lot in terms of water adequacy and keeps track of the location as well as the number of farm lots which have inadequate, excessive or enough irrigation water. He also records the number of farmers who practice rotation when scarcity of water is experienced. Similarly, he evaluates the cleanliness of canals and functionality of structures. These and other data are consolidated by an 1A officer and are then reported to the BOD meeting. This presentation serves a dual purpose-first, to provide the IA officials with a holistic perspective of the operational dynamics of the association from which decision making and planning shall emanate, and second, as a means of verifying the reliability of the individual reports of the TSALs. A leader who values his credibility and integrity therefore would be compelled to record only factual data because other BOD members, especially in the adjacent areas, would certainly be well informed of the status in their neighboring areas and could therefore attest to or contradict the results.Meanwhile, the self-assessment instruments which are filled up by the NIA officials contain data gathered by the TSA Leader, among others. Basically, the performance of the Ditchtenders is based on how well their assigned areas of responsibility function. This is in turn translated to a number of indicators which are similarly applied to the TSAL, such as maintenance of canals and structures, collection efficiency and resolutions of conflicts. As with the TSA Leaders, the NIA personnel would be obliged to reflect only truthful information as these could be easily verified by their supervisor, the Water Master, who just has to attend the BOD meetings where, as previously discussed, performance reports ofTSALs andNIA Ditchtenders are regularly reviewed and evaluated.Irrigation experts in the Philippines as in other countries are unanimous in recognizing the crucial role of local farmer organizations entrusted to take over some responsibilities in irrigation management on the viability and sustainability of irrigation systems. To this end, institutional development of IAs in the Philippines which in the past was given lukewarm attention by the NIA, now stands on equal footing with physical rehabilitation and construction of systems. The present project therefore deems to enhance social infrastructure, the thrust of which is to capacitatefarmer leaders to effectively carry out their mandated functions. If realized, the gains shall ultimately redound to more strengthened and better performing IAs.The subsequent discussion highlights the project's accomplishments after two years of implementation.The focus on collection efficiency as the choice of performance measure emanates from the contention that the ISF collection will be greatly improved once the TSA Leaders are emboldened to execute their functions more effectively, which is precisely what the self-assessment process hoped to accomplish. Since the IA performance is just a summation of the individual TSA's contribution, a better-performing IA can ensure more efficient and adequate water delivery which consequently shall contribute to higher farm yields and ultimately increase the capacity of farmers to pay the ISF. This presupposition however, will be well grounded if water adequacy is the only limiting factor in attaining optimal yield. As it is, farm produce is determined by an interplay of water and non-water factors such as the weather conditions (e.g., existence of flooding, drought), level of production inputs used, and soil type, among others. Hence, in utilizing the collection figures as an indicator of IA performance, one must take note of these conditionalities which will provide a backdrop for the evaluation.In practice, collection efficiency at the IA level is computed in two ways; current collection efficiency which is the ratio of actual collection to the current target collection, and overall collection efficiency which compares current collections and actual back account collections to current target collections. The former is used to determine the share that would accrue to the IAs under TypeIStage I1 contracts. Incidentally, the use of collection efficiency as a measure of IA performance jibes with what the NIA uses as the indicator of systems performance called \"viability\" which is computed as the ratio of revenues (mainly arising from ISF collections) to O&M expenses at the systems level.The bar graphs (figure 9) present the comparative collection efficiencies in the two IAs before (wet and dry of 1991) and after (1991-1993) project implementation. Comparing the overall collection efficiency levels of both IAs with the present national average of 56 percent, it appears that, to begin with, the project team has worked with poor performing IAs. At the regional level, NIA records show that BRISDAFIA and LAPSEFIA have very low collection figures compared to IAs with Type I1 and Stage I1 contracts, respectively, in Bicol. This can be attributed to a number of factors. First, the two IAs are located in drainage areas and are hence prone to flooding. In fact, in November 1993, a massive flood hit the two IAs causing substantial damage to the farmers. This problem is more pronounced in LAPSEFIA because aside from its downstream location, it is also a lower-lying area compared to BRIS-DAFIA. Thus, during periods of heavy rains, flooding is bound to be a more serious problem in this IA while an extended dry season triggers drought, the effect of which is more extensive than at its counterpart, LAPSEFIA.Second, the average farm lot sizes in BRISDAFIA and LAPSEFIA (0.223 and 0.282 ha, respectively) are well below the average farm size of 1.4 ha in the Bicol Region as disclosed in a previous study (Lauraya and Sala 1990). As such, the collection function is much more tedious and difficult in these two IAs because of the necessity to cover so many farmers, each tilling a negligible parcel of farmland. The same research revealed that the 22 IAs in the National System studied had an average size of 307 members and an average area of 332 ha. Compare this to the average membership size of 1,994 and an average irrigated area of 653 ha in the two IAs under btudy. Indeed, for the same collection efforts expended, collection efficiency is expected to be higher in IAs whose average farm lot is relatively big. Also, since the farm size generally determines the economic status of the farmer, it could be surmised that farmers with big landholdings are in a better position to pay the ISF than those small farmers whose produce is barely enough for subsistence as in the case of the majority of the water users in the two participant IAs.Focusing on current collection efficiency data (Annex VI), it is transparent that despite these odds, the IAs have achieved a marked improvement in this aspect speculated to be a result of the intervention efforts. Compared to thewetseasonin 199l,therewasanupwardtrend(12.41%in 1991 to23.63% in LAPSEFIA in 1992) in the two succeeding seasons in both IAs during the implementation phase. The same observation is noted during the dry seasons although a slight decline in collection efficiency was recorded in LAPSEFIA from 1992 to 1993 which could be attributed to the low harvests of members particularly those in the downstream areas whose farms have been seriously bit by the extended drought that took place. This adversity is evidenced by the sharp reduction in target collections (wet 1993) in this 1A as a result of exemptions from payment of ISF emanating from farm.destruction. Consistent with NIA's policy, farmers may be exempted to pay ISF partially or fully depending on theextentoffarmdamage arisingfrom pests, floodsordrought. The role of TSA Leaders in this case is very crucial because they are the ones charged to prepare the exemption reports, to be submitted to the NIA.With respect to overall collection efficiency, while figures in LAPSEFIA consistently rose, a slight decline was noted in BRISDAFIA in 1992 for both seasons which rose again in 1993. The reduction was due to low back account collections which more than offset the rise in current collection efficiencies. During this period, the systems office, as part of its collection campaign took a hard stance and informed the water users that terminal drainage would be extended indefinitely unless ISF collections improved. Hence, some farmers with back accounts could have been induced to pay the current dues first. On Indicators of Success oflnrervention Acriviries hindsight, however, it can be discerned that the strategy had hardly any impact.Focusing on the reported collection figures once more, it is interesting to note that the back account collections whether in absolute terms or expressed as a percentage of actual collection in BRISDAFIA during the three-year period were consistently higher than in LAPSEFIA even if collection efficiencies in both 1As are not too divergent. This trend, which the researchers anticipate would persist, is partly the result of deviations in the sharing schemes being followed by each association. While LAPSEFIA, under a Stage I1 contract, stands to collect an incentive for any amount collected for current collectibles, BRISDAFIA, with aType I1 contract. is not entitled to any share if current collection efficiency falls short of 50.01 percent. Meanwhile, a different system is followed for back accounts. Both IAs shall automatically receive incentives computed as a proportion of total back account collection using a fixed percentage, e.g., 25 percent of old accounts incurred prior to the effectivity of the contract, and 2 percent of new back accounts in BRISDAFIA. Since this IA never exceeded the 50 percent mark in current collection from the time it entered the Type I1 contract. it has yet to receive a share from current collections. With what has been experienced, it is but rational for IA collectors to give priority to back account collections, knowing that they would be compensated for their efforts.A shrewd collector might even deliberately encourage late payment of ISF as this amount would be eventually charged to back accounts. From the farmers' viewpoint, there is an incentive to be delinquent in paying dues because the penalty expressed as interest added to back account (]%/month) is much lower than the prevailing rate in both the formal (2%/month) and informal (lO%/month) credit markets. Therefore, farmers who lack production capital may opt to use the money intended for ISF payment to sustain the succeeding production cycle rather than avail of production loans. Clearly, this situation, being detrimental to NIh's finances considering the opportunity cost of funds, requires some policy changes. For the penalty to be enforceable, itsimpact must bebig enough tooutweighany gains arising from late payment of ISF. Laxity in enforcing sanctions against delinquent payers perpetuates the concept that an irrigation system is a public good, the maintenance of which should be the responsibility of the government. The IAs are charged with the responsibility of collecting irrigation fees and yet, the NIA assumes the responsibility for penalizing delinquent payers. To date, however. no one has been penalized despite the fact that many farmers have accumulated enormous back accounts. Since it is now the IAs that have direct contact with individual farmers, it is reasonable that penalties arising from back accounts be imposed by them instead of the N U . In turn, the NIA could impose penalties on the IAs through contracts.It is viewed that the present incentive scheme for back account collection of 2 percent is insufficient to encourage IA collectors to seriously pursue delinquent farmers. A higher percentage given to the IA, say 25 percent of back accounts collected, will certainly trigger their interest to attain higher collections. Such a strategy could therefore minimize NIA's problem on back accounts which has burgeoned over the years.Paradoxically, the poor collection performance is brought about by the poor maintenance service. Since it has been shown that the self-assessment process can be a tool to inspire ISF collection, it can be viewed as a means to break that vicious circle. It is anticipated that the IA as well as the NIA performance levels would be further enhanced once the self-assessment process is well internalized by the farmers, and, most importantly, linked to the data needs of the NIA.Aside from the self-assessment process, the preparation of the spot maps by the TSA Leaders helped update the master list of water users and resulted in arise in thebilledarea, which contributed totheincreasein theISFcollection. Specifically, 28.3 ha were identified as benefited areas but were not reflected in the NIA's master list. If one would compute for the added revenue given the present rate of ISF, the newly identified areas would mean an increase of P 42.462 ($1,698) per year. Presuming that 100 percent collection efficiency is attained on these areas, collection efficiency is expected to increase by 5 perce.nt based on the 1993 wet season collection figures on both IAs (Annex VI).The NIA Regional Office, the NIS and the IAs have acknowledged the utility of the spot maps as a cost-effective source of farm-level information. Earlier, the NIA office relied on the parcellary maps which had never been updated since it was developed a decade or so ago. As a result, farmers who have bequeathed or disposed of their farm properties, or have already passed away were still being billed by the NIA office, to the consternation oftbe new water users. There were also reports on some discrepancies in billing areas. As a result, farmers who were made to pay a larger ISF than the actual ISF, because the billed area exceeded actual farm size, have long complained but Indicators of Success of lntervenrion Activiries their complaints had fallen on deaf ears. In cases where farm sizes were bigger than what was reflected in the NIA master list, they clearly represented losses on the side of the IA and NIA. Similarly, in instances where the farm lots with irregular areas were subdivided to heirs, refusal to pay the ISF was common because of the confusion as to how much each tiller has to pay, thereby aggravating further the already grave back account problems.All these have been resolved with the preparation of the spot maps at almost no cost to the NIA. It should be borne in mind that the TSA Leaders spearheaded the spot map preparation voluntarily, the results of which were validated by the Ditchtenders and Water Masters. It is worthwhile to mention that the participatory nature of evolving the spot maps established the leadership of the TSA Leaders and forged a closer link between them and the farmers. In the process of spot map preparation, the leaders felt the necessity to consult with the water users especially when farm lot measurements were put in question. Together with the owners, the TSA Leaders and the Ditchtenders were involved in farm area measurements.Recognizing these successes, other Water Masters in the same NIS have replicated these activities to other IAs. The Regional Office has also articulated its desire to introduce the concept to the other systems.Prior to the project. preparation of the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA) was still being done by the NIA Ditchtenders and Water Masters although this task was supposed to be carried out by the TSA Leaders. As already discussed in the previous section, the self-assessment process paved the way for the revision of the LIPA form used by NIA to make it easy for farmers to prepare it. As a result, a heavy burden has been lifted from the NIA staff. Also, the self-assessment process has enhanced the capability of the leaders in preparing exemption reports arising from crop damages and has allowed them to submit accurate reports promptly. Previously, as with the LIPA, the NIA personnel were forced to prepare these exemption reports due to the lack of baseline data available at the TSA level. Because of the sheer number of individual farmers that need to be monitored by a handful of NIA staff, not all farmers entitled to be exempted from ISFpayment were included in their reports; hence, farmers' complaints concerning this have been noted in the past.The subsequent discussion details the results of the self-assessment done by the farmer leaders from October 1992 to February 1994. The focus is to demonstrate how the data collected were used by the TSA Leaders in assessing the farmer leaders' actual accomplishments vis-a-vis the expected roles in irrigation management and how the resulting assessment served as input in improving performance.It might be mentioned that the mere process of data recording sets in motion the process of improvement in the performance of the TSA Leaders. While gathering field data, it became necessary for the leaders to closely interact and discuss not only with the members under them, but with other TSA Leaders and the NIA field staff as well. As a result, and as communication flows improved, all parties became more aware of pertinent irrigation issues. In anumber of instances, conflicts were immediately responded to and the water problems resolved.The two IAs practice two cropping seasons annualty. The wet season starts in June and ends in November while the dry season starts in December and ends in May of the following year. The filling in of the self-assessment instrument began during the last two months of the wet season in 1992 (October and November) and covered the three succeeding cropping seasons. The occurrence of drought from April to June 1993 extended the terminal drainage till June 16,1993,anddelayedthecroppingcalendarin the following period. Note that during the last cropping season under study, the cut-off date for data consolidation by the project team was set for February 1994 because the project wasdueforcompletion inMarch 1994. Thisisnottosay, however, that the leaders also ceased recording data after the set date. Since the dry season extends up to June, recording is expected to continue until then. In the following wet season, new forms will have to be distributed to the TSA Leaders by the NIA as previously agreed.Since the two IAs share the same source of imgation water, the cropping calendar of both IAs is basically the same. From experience however, the farmers belonging to the upstream IA (BRISDAFIA) undertake farming operations a few weeks ahead of those in the downstream portion. Control of water flow is difficult to implement due to illegal checks and dysfunctional steel gates. In general, the expected timing of the various farming activities for both the wet and the dry seasons is shown below: Compliance to the cropping calendar can easily be discerned by comparing the consolidated reports of the leader with the schedule shown above. These reports were reflected in the first part of the self-assessment instrument where the leaders monthly recorded the stages of farming activities of each farm lot.Due to the revisions in certain sections ofthe instrument and the consequent changes in the methodology for data gathering and recording, the accuracy of the resulting figures varies but increases as project implementation progresses. For instance, thedata on the number offarm lots in each stage during the earlier phase (October 1992 to March 1993) were taken from the estimates of the leader and are, hence, not so reliable. From July 1993 onwards,recording wascarried out on aper lotbasis, and thereforetheelicited values became more factual and verifiable.It is observed that, in general, the majority of the water users belonging to the two associations comply with the cropping calendar. Figures IOa to 11 b and Annex VII support this contention. This is understandable because water discharge from the headgate is not continuous. Almost always, the system institutes terminal drainage at the end of the cropping calendar so that farmers whose water requirements are solely derived from this source have no recourse but to adhere to the schedule. As gleaned from the graph, there is some degree of noncompliance to the cropping calendar among a number of water users. These water users are either located at the farthest reaches of the system and are thus perennial sufferers of water shortages or they are in areas where the supply of irrigation water from other sources is interrupted. There is not much difference in the number of noncomplying farmers between the two associations but the reason for it varies. In LAPSEFIA, its tail-end location forces its members to be at the mercy of their neighbors in BRIS-DAFIA who are able to enjoy and maximize the use of water first, being at the upstream. These fortunate farmers can freely do so because some control structures such as steel gates are rendered dysfunctional. There is also laxity in the enforcement of penalties on illegal checks in this IA. Noncompliance to the cropping schedule in BRISDAFIA is mainly due to the desire of some farmers to practice three croppings particularly when terminal drainage is not instituted.Information elicited from this portion of the self-assessment form is used as input for preparing the LIPA which in turn become bases for billing. A leader is therefore expected to exercise care in data-recording since any discrepancy might cause the ire of farm owners who might be billed and required to pay the irrigation fee even when they do not use irrigation water.Data from October 1992 to March 1993 were taken from the unrevised self-assessment instrument. The figures show the percentage of farm lots in satisfactory condition and those damaged due to flooding or drought. Initially, the leaders estimated these percentages outright. Looking at the graph (figure 12), one would notice a decreasing trend in the number of farm lots in satisfactory condition from October to December. This observation should not be interpreted unfavorably because only those farm lots which were in the maintenawe stage were assessed as to their condition. Farm lots at the harvesting stage were not included in the assessment. Since the number of harvested farm lots increased gradually from October to December, the farm lots whose conditions were to be evaluated correspondingly and successively decreased which consequently explains the downtrend in the number of farm lots in satisfactory condition. From the standpoint of leaders, this procedure did not elicit very useful data and hence the instrument was improved taking this weakness into account.From July 1993 until the end of the projects (table X), the listing of farm lots incorporated in the revised questionnaires was used, on a monthly basis, by the leader in identifying the damaged farm lots as well as the nature of damage. Again, the information gathered is essential in preparing reports on crop damages and exemptions from ISF payment. In the past, a contributory factor for the very low collection efficiency was the failure of the TSA Leaders to submit these reports on time, if at all, causing overestimation of target collections. The self-assessment record enabled the leaders to readily identify the farm lots that needed to be reported at any given moment. For example, datadisclosed that major flooding occurred in the 1993 wet season, particularly in September. As a result, about 1 1 percent and 9 percent of farm lots in BRISDAFTA and LAPSEFIA, respectively, were destroyed. One can confidently surmise that exemption reports were prepared because the collection target for that year dropped by 23 percent compared to the wet season of the previous year.One source of conflict between the TSA Leaders and their members is the inability of the farmer leader or whoever is assigned by the leader to do the task to prepare exemption reports forcing affected farmers to pay the ISF. The self-assessment record facilitates the preparation of these documents, thus lessening the disputes arising from such acts. Initially, water distribution was assessed in terms of percentage of farmholdings with sufficient water per month. Ideally, for a given stage of farming activity, water sufficiency is measured by approximating the water height in the field and comparing it with a given standard. For example, water requirement is deemed adequate if the water level is about 2-3 cm during the planting period. However, the original self-assessment instrument failed to take this into account hut utilized instead the perception of the leaders as to water adequacy. In this case, it was assumed that the judgement ofthe leader could be used as a reliable basis for evaluktion. As observed during the collection of data, the TSAL considered a farm lot to have sufficient water supply if there was actual water in the field regardless of the stage of farming activity. As a consequence, those areas which are ripe for harvesting and hence did not require water anymore were regarded as having an inadequate water supply. This explains why there was a declining trend in the number of farm lots in satisfactory condition from October to December 1992 (figure 13).Since most pf the farm lots were at the harvesting stage and did not have water in the field, the leaders excluded them in the count of farm lots with adequate water. Given this process of evaluation, it is expected that while the number of barvestable areas progressively increases, the number offarm lots in good condition will conversely decrease. This flaw was not easily recognized by the project team during the initial monthly visit because the original self-assessment instrument did not retlect the individual listing of farm lots. Refinements in the questionnaires were instituted to retlect better and more accurate figures in the succeeding months. Nevertheless, the resulting graphs from October 1992 to March 1993 should not he rendered entirely useless.For one, comparable values offarm lots receiving enough water during the start of the dry season (December) showed that almost 100 percent of farm lots was reported to be enjoying a sufficient water supply in BRISDAFIA in January 1993 while the number only peaked in LAPSEFIA in February 1993. This simply confirmed that BRISDAFIA, being at the upstream, made use of irrigation water first and that only when almost all their wafer requirements were met did the upstream farmers allow water to flow to the tail end (LAPSEFIA). This is the primary reason why LAPSEFIA perennially experiences water inadequacy problems (almost 1/4 of the irrigated area during the 1991 dry season suffered from drought). It should be emphasized that the main source of irrigation water of those two IAs is the Buhi Lake and that there are competing water users such as the fishermen and the National Power Corporation. There is an existing agreement between the Buhi Municipal Government and the NIA that only when the water level has exceeded the minimum requirements of fishermen will the NIA be able to source irrigation water from the lake. As the dry season progresses, [he available water in the dam also diminishes and hence there is not enough pressure for the water to reach downstream.The initial solution thought of was to advance the cropping calendar for LAPSEFIA relative to BRISDAFIA. This strategy was not effective since it was observed that farmers in BRISDAFIA did not adhere to the set schedule for several reasons; there were undisciplined farmers who resorted to illegal checking during nighttime to avoid being caught, and in some areas, water continued to flow to the farm ditches due to the dysfunctional control structures. Once irrigation water is conveyed from the headgate, the immediate response of some upstream farmers would be to start the farming activity. They rationalize that since water is already available, it would be wasteful if they would not make use of it, unaware perhaps that the consequence of their action represents water deprivation to downstream farmers. This attitude is indicative of two factors, lack of dissemination of rotational schedule which is the responsibility of the TSA Leader and poor concept of the value of sharing.NIA is aware that water supply will almost always be inadequate for the two IAs during the dry season and that long-term solutions must be explored, i.e., provision of an alternative water source.Starting in July 1993, the leaders used letter codes to assess the status of water delivery by farm lot; T for tama or just enough, K for kulang or too little, S for sobra or too much, by comparing the actual water height in the field with a given standard per farming stage. The process of assessing water adequacy at the farm level required the TSA Leaders to monitor the fields and consult with the members. For instance, during the regular visits by the project team, one TSA Leader said he could not yet produce the data as hehad not yet gone around the assigned area, to check on the water status. Resulting figures underscored the established fact that water inadequacy is a serious problem in LAPSEFIA. While as many as 42 percent of farm lots In fact, in this IA, about the same number (47 S) of farm lots was observed to have too much water during the same period. One can conclude, therefore, that water supply from the reservoir, at least for this season, may not be lacking as some leaders would have claimed. In this particular instance, mere reallocation of water from those with excess supply to those experiencing shortages would improve farmers' satisfaction with irrigationservices. Required actions to ensure more efficiency in water distribution between the two IAs should ,be initiated by the Systems Office together with the two IA presidents. Or the existing Federation of IAs where the two IAs are members may serve as a fonun to discuss this issue. The information emerging from the self-assessment process may be utilized to identify the locations of the affected areas as a basis in deciding what strategies to take, i.e., which dysfunctional control structures require immediate repair and which portions of the canals need stricter monitoring and policing for illegal checks.One of the functions of the TSA Leader is to inform his members about the cropping calendar and the schedule of water delivery ahead of time to allow the farmers to adequately prepare for the forthcoming activities. Considering that December was the start of the 1993 dry season, the TSA Leaders should have provided the farmers with the schedule as early as November. However, for this particular season, water delivery was only initiated in January. As a result, the number of farmers informed went up in BRISDAFIA and LAPSE-FIA, to 43 percent and 16 percent, respectively, only in December 1992 (figure 15). The next terminal drainage took place from May 15 up to June 15, 1993. Since no recording was done during these months as the self-assessment questionnaires were previously collected by the project team to be revised, the project team was not able to monitor the number of farmers informed by the leaders of the cropping schedule prior to the initial date of water release. As the water was already available in the ditches and no succeeding terminal drainage was instituted until the last month of the assessment period, there was no more need for information dissemination on the schedule of water inflow or to inform farmers of the cropping calendar as the original schedules were being adhered to. These facts explain why no data after December 1992 were elicited in the self-assessment process.From experience, it was found that the number of irrigation-related problems rose at the onset of the cropping period when farmers made demands that their farm lots be irrigated first and during the land-soaking and crop-maintenance phase when the need for irrigation water is at its peak. True enough, the number of conflicts declined during the initial harvest period (October 1992 -November 1992) but once again it picked up in December or during the start of the 1993 dry season. From July 1993 until the end of the assessment period, no conflicts were reported in BRISDAFIA. Meanwhile, in LAPSEFIA, the highest number of conflicts recorded was 10, occurring in 5 turnout service areas at the start of the 1993 wet cropping season. This finding just highlights the difference in water adequacy in the two IAs, it beingamajor sourceofdiscord among water users. Figures ldaand 16bshow the difference between the two IAs in terms of conflict management.The farmer leaders started to monitor the number of conflicts resolved only in January 1992. Results show that in BRISDAFIA, of the six conflicts experienced by the TSAs in January 1992, not one was resolved in the same month. Of the two conflicts recorded in February, only one was settled. In LAPSEFIA, it is observed that while the number of conflicts rises, the number of resolved conflicts correspondingly increases. Of the 10 reported in July 1993, 8 were resolved. In the succeeding months, a11 conflicts experienced were straightened out. Again, these findings imply that the TSA Leaders in LAPSEFIA seem to do better in facing and resolving conflicts, This reflects the relative maturity of this IA as an independent entity. As mentioned earlier, this IA. being at the tail end, is often confronted with water-adequacy problems which are caused mainly by the insufficient quantity of water that reaches the la's area of responsibility. Hence,most water-shortage problems in this respect could be beyond the control of the TSALs. As observed by the researchers, the members of the BOD in this IA are now made to render accomplishment reports during their regular monthly meetings and, in the process, thrash out conflicts between TSAs. It is heartening to note that the reporting of leaders during BOD meetings was triggered by the self-assessment process.From the perspective of the TSA Leader, the record of conflicts encountered, their nature as well as those which remain to be unresolved may be used as the document in reporting to the monthly BOD meetings. These sessions may serve as an avenue to resolve problems which require intervention from the central IA officials. Besides initiating voluntary work, the TSA Leader, from time to time, assigns the small group leaders or some members to perform other irrigation-related tasks ranging from groundwork activities such as membershipcampaigns and dissemination of informationlresolutions emanating from the IA Board. distribution of bills, monitoring of water inflow to actual cleaning and maintenance of canal sections. It must be noted that the formation of small groups below the TSA level to strengthen mass-based membership was a component of the earlier action research implemented by the project team. It is heartening to observe that several small groups are now functional and are actively undertaking tasks assigned to them. Task distribution is particularly applied in LAPSEFIA where, as a policy, some water users are released to perform voluntaiy workifthey turn over to the IA the 1Opercentdiscount from cash payment of current ISF that they are supposed to avail of. These funds shall then be utilized to remunerate other members willing to take over the responsibilities left by those who obtained money for their labor contributions.It is a common practice in the two IAs to undertake cleaning of canals and minor repairs a few days before the schedule of water inflow after terminal drainage. Resulting data bear this out. For example, in BRIS-DAFIA, the average number of farmers assigned tasks per TSA peaked in December, July and February (figures 17a and b), as these corresponded to thefirst months ofthecroppingcalendarwherecleanlinessofcanals iscrucial in ensuring delivery of water. As the seasons progressed, the number of assigned tasks declined. In LAPSEFIA, water delivery for the 1993 dry season was carried out only in January 1993, or a month later compared to BRISDAFIA. This schedule was consistent with the agreement between the IA presidents and NIA that BRISDAFIA would now be supplied with irrigation water first instead of LAPSEFIA as initially agreed because, from experience, any plans of allowing farmers in LAPSEFIA to plant ahead are never realized. The situation being so, the number of farmers given tasks in LAPSEFIA peaked in January of that season and correspondingly declined in the subsequent months.In December 1994, the number of persons given tasks in hotb IAs rose significantly even if land preparation activities commenced in BRISDAFIA only in January or even 2 months later in LAPSEFIA. The need for maintenance activities was due to the massive flooding which literally engulfed the entire municipality of Nabua where the system is located. Canals had to be desilted and debris removed in preparation for the next planting cycle.Comparing the two IAs it was found that there were more members assigned tasks and more members doing the task in LAPSEFIA than in BRISDAFIA during the entire assessment period. The monetary remunerations given to the workers in LAPSEF'IA possibly account for the difference.Judging from the increasing trend, over time, in the average number of farmers assigned tasks and those who actually performed these tasks. it can be inferred that the TSA Leaders have not only recognized the importance of eliciting membership participation in irrigation-related activities but have been, in fact. successful in mobilizing them. The project team firmly believes that the self-assessment process had a part in influencing this favorable outcome. It is to be recalled that in the course of regularly monitoring the progress of the self-assessment work at the farm level, the project team and the leaders jointly and extensively discussed issues and strategies to address better TSA management.The TSA Leader also lists the number of persons expected to participate in voluntary work and compares this with the number of actual participants. The outcome manifests the capability of leaders to mobilize labor resources in irrigation maintenance. Figure 18 shows the percentage of membership participation in voluntary work in the two IAs. As observed, the number of units of voluntary work as well as the percentage of participation peaked during the start of the cropping season and declined until the harvest seasons although in a few cases, voluntary work was scheduled in between.Comparing the two IAs, it appears that the percentage of voluntary work participation in BRISDAFIA did not significantly change in the course of the project except in one isolated case where the average number of voluntary workers of 25 exceeded the average of 20 in January 1993. Meanwhile, in LAPSEFIA, the noticeable downward trend in the percentage of voluntary work participation should not be interpreted negatively because as already discussed, most farmers in this IA opted to obtain money for their labor contributions. Those who got paid to render such work were not included in this count but were reflected in the previous figures on task distribution.Of what use will recording this information be to the TSA Leaders? For one, the information reflects the number of farmers given tasks who actually performed the expected work. The resulting figure shall indicate the extent of interest of members to get involved in IA activities. The format in the instrument must, however, be redesigned to enable the TSA Leader to record the names of farmers involved in undertaking various tasks, their accomplish- ments, amounts received for the services rendered and, perhaps, the signature of the worker once payment is made. Such documents can then be used for auditing purposes.It must not be forgotten that mere data-recording by the TSA Leaders indirectly improves their performance because, as has been repeatedly pointed out, it is exigent that they maintain continuous discussions or dialogues among members to elicit truthful information. The interaction in itself sets a venue where plans are jointly discussed and conflictslwater-related problems thrashed out as is consistent with the participatory process.Ideally, IA activities should be planned during farmers' meetings. As mandated in the IA bylaws, TSALs are to initiate monthly meetings with farmers within their area of responsibility in order that problems met or required activities during the month could be discussed and planned in a participatory manner. Unresolved problems could be brought out in the monthly BOD meetings if necessary. However, results revealed that meetings at the TSA level are seldom held. When queried, TSA Leaders confirmed that they stopped calling for meetings since farmer members did not attend them. Instead, they resorted to passing on information from one farmer to another or to use the public address system to disseminate important activities like rabus(vo1untary work) schedule or dates ofirrigation feecollection. The TSA Leaders were almost unanimous in claiming that they, as leaders, no longer place a premium on attendance at meetings a long as farmers maintained the ditches and participated in rabus. In instances where meetings are really needed, TSA Leaders coordinate with fertilizer dealers or sales representatives to provide the necessary attractions to draw attendance. However, it has been observed that farmers do attend if they think that the meetings are important. Examples of these are meetings where extension workers from the Department of Agriculture are invited to share information on farm technologies. Therefore, TSA Leaders should call meetings when these are demanded by the membership. During the entire duration of the assessment period however, no meeting at the TSA level had been held.An additional item in the revised instrument reflects the attendance of the TSA Leaders in the regular BOD meetings. A tick with a \" J \" indicates presence while an \"X\" denotes absence. Upon inspection of his record, a leader thereby becomes cognizant if he has been remiss in his monthly Indicators 0. f Success of Intervention Activities obligations. Hopefully, this process of self-reflection will eventually induce him to become more conscientious in his attendance.The TSA Leaders' performance with regard to maintenance was assessed in terms of the status of cleanliness of the farm ditches, laterals and main canals (although the latter two items areNIA's responsibility in BRISDAFIA while main canals are its responsibility in LAPSEFIA). Through ocular inspection by the TSA Leaders and using a rating of 1 to 3 with 1 representing very clean and 3 represznting dirty, it appears that the status varies with the stage of farming activity and coincides with the schedule of maintenance activities. As discussed, structures are commonly cleared before or during the start of the cropping calendar and, hence, the ratings for cleanliness of canals and ditches were at their best during this period but diminished in the succeeding months (figures 1% and b). This trend is understandable since these activities are seldom undertaken after the onset of the cropping period.Another item of information being gathered by theTSA Leaders pertains to the condition of the structures such as division boxes and steel gates. The TSA Leaders assessed the condition of these structures. The maintenance of these structures is the responsibility of the NIA. The TSA Leaders assessed the condition ofthese structures using the values of I to 3 (with 1 representing dysfunctional condition and 3 representing functional). Figures 20a and b show that in both IAs the steel gates were. given a lower rating compared to division boxes indicating that most of these were considered dysfunctional throughout the assessment period. As observed, the condition progressively worsened indicating that NIA has been remiss in its maintenance tasks. Considering the importance of the steel gates as control structures for implementing the cropping calendar, theTSA Leaders haverequested NIA to repair the structures. But the latter could not act on these complaints due to lack of funds. As a consequence, the TSA Leaders cite these damaged structure as the reason tor not being able to regulate the use of water among the members of the turnout group and for failure to implement the cropping calendar more effectively.Figures 21a and 21b show that in BRISDAFIA, the number o f farmers who paid the ISF was highest in December. If we compare this to the peak harvest season, October and November, i t could be said that the collection effort was late since it is logical to assume that farmers would be in a better position to pay their financial obligations at harvest time. Looking at thecase o f LAPSE-FIA, the largest number o f farmers paid their dues in November, the peak o f the harvest season. As a consequence, the latter attained a much higher collection efficiency.The number o f farmers who made good their obligations was seemingly quite low. The figures, however, are understated and should not be counted against the TSA Leaders' performance because they were not involved i n the collection process and the records are kept by a different I A collector. As such, the TSA Leaders have no updated information as to the actual number of farmers who settled their ISF dues. Recognizing the role of the TSA Leaders in boosting the collection performance within their jurisdiction, the two IAs have made good the policy of decentralizing the collection activities at the TSA level where qualified TSA Leaders shall take on the function o f a collector concurrently, during the last cropping season prior to the project being phased out. Training the TSA Leaders to be collectors became a major activity of this project.To meet the data requirements o f the leaders, the self-assessment questionnaire was revised to enable the TSA Leader to individually monitor whether the farmer accountable has paid his dues. The TSA Leader recorded the data once per cropping season. Since the recording was done only during the last cropping season covered by the project, no trend could yet be discerned and, hence, data were not included i n this report. The same is true for the number of members who paid the membership and annual dues. Nonetheless, previous records showed that very few farmers registered with the I A . This is an indication of the TSA Leaders' poor performance in increasing the number o f registered farmers i n their area o f responsibility. This issue had been brought to the attention of the B O D and arrangements were initiated to address this problem including the decentralization of the collection of dues which was described i n the preceding section of this report. As a strategy to motivate water users to become registered members, the IAs have been clamoring for a policy change from the N I A regarding the 10 percent discount given to all farmers who promptly pay ISF in cash. Specifically, the IAs recommend that the 10 percent be granted outright to the  CHAPTER 7The Self-Assessment Process asViewed by the TSALsA COMPONENT OF the project focuses on how the management innovation5 being introduced could be perpetuated even after external support is phased out. To a large extent, its sustainability is a function of how well the TSA Leaders recognize the worthiness and utility of such strategies. Presuming that the self-assessment process is cost-effective, it could only be adopted as part of their regular activities if the TSA Leaders clearly appreciate its importance and consider it as an indispensable tool to systematically carry out their mandated functions and improve their job performance.In the desire to determine whether the self-assessment process has potential for institutionalization, the research team embarked on a survey among participating TSA Leaders after 18 months of implementation. The survey results were likewise expected to pinpoint weaknesses in the instrument where improvements can be input while the project is still ongoing. It is worth mentioning that the survey was timed during the harvest season when onofarming cycle has been completed so that corrections can be incorporated before the start of the next cropping season. It should be noted, however, that three cropping cycles have already lapsed since the self-assessment process was first introduced. To ensure objectivity of the responses, an independent researcher was requested to do the survey and was instructed to emphasize to the leaders that she is not part of the project. Although during field work the research team is able to obtain valuable feedback from the leaders, criticisms may not be articulated at all. Considering the high value that indigenous leaders place on maintaining smooth interpersonal relationships, they might feel that such remarks could hurt feelings and erode the harmonious relations 92The Self-Assessment Process as Viewed by the TSALs that have already been established between them and the project implementors. Hence, the need for an impartial survey.Altogether 29percent or28 PercentoftheTSALeaders equally allocated between the two IAs were interviewed employing a structured questionnaire prepared by the research team. Systematic rondoin sampling was applied to determine the names of the respondents.The survey questionnaire is composed of four parts. Part A assesses the ability ofthe TSA Leaders in filling up the forms. Part B dwells on the utility of data. Part C determines the sustainability of the self-assessment process while Part D evaluates the extent of usefulness of the various intervention activities the project has implemented aside from the self-assessment technique.The subsequent section documents the results of the survey. In terms of ability in filling in the forms, about half (48%) of the respondents claimed they were able to fill in with minimal assistance, less than one third (3 I %) can fill in with no assistance, while the remaining 21 percent can fill in only with full assistance. More cfforts should therefore be dcvotcd to train the leaders in data recording. Although the form was already simplified to match the low education of the leaders, modifications are in order and should take into account the detailed assessment of the leaders on their areas of difficulty in the self-assessment form. Results showed that in every item of the self-assessnient form, 3-6 of the 39 leaders interviewed encountered difficulty in obtaining and recording the data required.In terms of utility of data, all except one considered the self-assessment process useful to them as TSA Leaders. In addition, 93 percent claimed that it is also useful to the IA while 82 percent reported that its utility even extends to the NIA. The remaining few could not determine its usefulness to any of the three target users.The respondents were asked to cite specific functions that were improved due to the use of the self-assessment form. Almost all attributed improvements in preparing reports on crop damages and exemptions for ISFpayment, LIPA preparation and conflict resolution to the self-assessment activity. Meanwhile, more than half (59%) noted improvements on water management and resource mobilization work after the implementation of the self-assessment scheme. Because of these gains, it is not surprising that almost all TSA Leaders want the self-assessment process to continue as their regular activity. However, only 68 percent contemplated that they would be able to continue the activity on their own without any external assistance.The SelfAssessment Process ns Viewed By the TSALsThe leaders, in turn, assess the extent to which the project as a whole was able to help the IA. Most (79%) reported that the project was of much help to them while the remaining 21 percent felt the project was somewhat helpful to them. When asked which of the various activities (other than the self-assessment process) implemented had a positive contribution to 1A performance, the attendance of the research team at BOD meetings (83%) emerged as the most important factor. As pointed out, the team was able to assist the IA in clarifying issues, and providing insights in settling disputes, making resolutions, and in disseminating information. Spot-mapping and the improvement of LIPA pre.paration were cited as the next important contributors to IA performance. Leaders reported that the spot-mapping activity led to the proper identification and measurement of farm lots, and the discovery of unregistered lots whose owners had been using irrigation water for a long time. The leaders found the preparation of LIPA easier and more systematic because of the new scheme introduced by the team.Finally, the leaders were sought to identify the forms of assistance which could strengthen their IA. Traininglassistance to venture into non-water functions and livelihood activities such as marketing and distribution of inputs emerged as their foremost suggestions. Indeed, transforming the association to undertake multipurpose functions is viewed as providing the members additional benefits which, i n turn, shall elicit more participation from them. Other types of assistance cited were training on farm technology and efficient water utilization.The Project Turnover Process THE SELF-ASSESSMENT P~~OCESS or any innovation introduced would only be sustained if the participants perceived some benefits due to its usage. As part of the phase-out activities, the researchers tried to elicit information from the IA officials and TSA Leaders as to their commitment to continue the process. The officials from both IAs affirmed the utility of the technique but contended that not all areas assessed were useful to them. Aspects of the self-assessment form deemed functional and should be retained if the process would be pursued are: the first part where the TSA Leaders record the stages of farming activities of each farmer under their jurisdiction, status of crops and list of the farmers who have paid their dues-membership, annual, and ISF; and the second part where the TSA Leaders assess water adequacy in each farm lot. The portion where rabus activities are monitored should be so modified that the names of the individual farmers would be reflected. This will facilitate identification of those who have contributed voluntary labor at any given time. TheIAneededthis informationtoenforceits policy todeduct lopercent of the ISF due from those who contributed labor for maintenance of the irrigation structures. Nonparticipants in voluntary work shall have to pay 100 percent of what is due. The IA officials also noted that monitoring of turnout maintenance status need not be done since the 1As have already established a pattern for clearing the canals and ditches which is at the beginning of each cropping season. The modified LIPA where the names of tillerslowners are provided was also considered functional.The officials believed that the TSA Leaders were willing to develop and have already developed the capability to record the data but its continuation is constrained by the nonavailability of funds to reproduce the forms. The officials requested the NIA to supply the forms as well as to take over the 96The Project Turnover Process monitoring function ofthe BU Team. TheTSA Leaders believed that periodic monitoring encourages them to fill the self-assessment form. Specifically, the Ditchtenders were thought to be in the best position to do the monitoring activities at least once a month.Noting the gains accruing to the self-assessment process by the officials, the BU Team broached to the NIA Systems Office the possibility of providing assistance to the IA so that this activity can be sustained. By the time of project phase out, the Systems Office was in the process of introducing the management information system for the IA (IAMIS) in the other systems. This is similar to the self-assessment process. The Irrigation Superintendent and the Acting Regional Manager were committed to continue the self-assessment process in the two pilot IAs while the IAMIS shall be implemented in the other IAs. The Systems Office will then take care of the reproduction, administration and monitoring of the process.The BU Team was committed to turn over the computer diskettes containing the self-assessment form per TSA, and to train the billing clerks and the Assistant IS on how information from the diskettes can be accessed.For purposes of replication, the cost of project implementation over a two-year period is estimated to be at $4,732 or $45 per farmer leader. This cost does not include personnel services of the research team since it is assumed that its task shall be assumed by the regular staff of the National Irrigation Administration.CHAPTER 9A ~E R TWOYEARS of field exposure, it is worthy to devote serious thinking on certain issues which would be of help to others who are interested in replicating the self-assessment process technique. As in any social intervention, its long-term sustainability could be achieved if it produces useful results. Indeed, the success of the self-assessment process is an integrated effect of the contributions of three principal actors; the TSA Leaders, the IA, and the NIA. The project succeeded in demonstrating that theself-assessment process is a useful tool in assessing the performance of TSA Leaders. Since the TSA group is the foundation of the IA, enhancing the capability of the TSA Leaders would in the long run redound to improving the performance of the IA as a whole. Only when the TSA Leaders perceives the importance of the self-assessment process will he they motivated to continue what has been started without prodding and assistance from external catalysts. Internalization of the process would he achieved through the following:The information generated can be utilized at three levels. At the TSA level, it is a feedback mechanism for the farmer leader on the status of the irrigation service distribution such as the adequacy of water at farm level and his capability to oversee the irrigation-related operations including membership participation. At the IA level, it is not only a rrieclianism to check on the status of each turnout which would reflect the performance of the TSA Leader but is an input to its overall planning and decision making. Finally, at the NIA level, it is a complement to its information needs. Each of these sectors has experienced the utility of the process which would then ensure its sustainabil-1ty.In the two IAs under study, the TSA Leaders are not provided with funds which they can use to act on matters within their authority. Aside from these, their efforts are not compensated with cash. A challenge that the IA should consider is how to provide real incentives to farmer leaders to turn in higher performance and act on the problems and issues resulting from the feedback mechanism instituted. As Goonesekera concludes (cited in Merrey, Rao and Martin 1988) there is a need to provide irrigation managers with financial incentives to provide good management. IAs should be viewed as business organizations run by managers who need to be given incentives based on their inputs and outputs. This need is articulated in the vision of TSA Leaders that the IA should have sufficient funds to pay their honoraria. An IA's potential source of fund is its share in the ISF collection. If the NIA agrees to increase the IA's percentage share the NIA stands to benefit while the IA would be able to provide better maintenance service to its members which, in turn, increases the ISF collection. A different sharing scheme may be worth exploring which may be tested on a pilot basis. The sixth recommendation presents some innovations which may be made in the NIA-IA contracting scheme.To augment the very limited financial resources of the IA, there is a need to examine ways to generate additional funds. Experience shows that one source of disillusion among members and TSALs is'when problems brought to the IA requiring immediate attention are not acted upon due to lack of funds. To ensure the continuity of the self-assessment process, it is imperative that \"fund sourcing\" be considered as top priority. One area that the IA can explore is the possibility of making the collection system more efficient by involving TSALs in the collection function. Another source of possible funds is the registration and annual dues from members. At present, there is only a very small number of registered members.NIA is currently implementing a management information system on a pilot basis which requires data from the TSAL. This strategy, however, does not have a capability-building component to ensure accuracy of data generated by these leaders. Hence, as practiced, the NIA personnel are burdened with these additional tasks. Considering that the primary concern of the self-assessment process is to strengthen the capability of TSALs to record data, this project actually complements NIA's envisioned information system. Having this in view, the Project Team has taken into account NIA data requirements in the revised design of the self-assessment instrument. The project proved that the farmer leaders have the capability to generate the needed data, which is also very cost-effective.For jointly managed systems such as the two IAs under study, it is inevitable that NIA should play a significant role in the management of the irrigation system. In particular, it needs to act on O&M issues which are under its jurisdiction as stipulated in the contract. At present, however, it is faced with budgetary constraints limiting its ability to comply with its responsibilities, specifically maintenanceof main canals and repairs ofcontrol structures. This has caused disenchantment among IA members and leaders. Indeed, the Financial Report ofthe NIA Barit River Irrigation System Office, January to December 1992, showed that it did not spend any amount for O&M activities except for the payment of salaries to its O&M personnel. If this persists, the rate of deterioration of the structures and facilities is expected to accelerate. The ray of hope given by the NIA that the requests of the farmers will be adequately served is the implementation of the physical rehabilitation com-ponent of the Irrigation Operation Support Project (IOSP II), funding for which comes from foreign borrowings. Continued inaction on the physical repairs and maintenance required by the farmers may pose as a stumbling block for the success of the self-assessment process. Since it is foreseen that a budget shortage will prevail in the long run, maintenance needs have to be prioritized jointly by the IA and the NIA. The utility of the self-assessment process will he more appreciated under this arrangement because the IA would he hacked up by information to decide on their maintenance requirements.This is a concern of those IAs canying out a Type I1 contract whereby the collection function is undertaken by the IA. It is perceived that the present sharing scheme is partial towards the NIA since the IA only stands to gain a minimal share based on a graduated scheme starting at 2 percent of the target current collection once it has attained 51 percent collection efficiency. To illustrate, BRISDAFIA will get only a minimum amount of P 3,765 ($151) for a collection of P188,249 ($7,530).However, to reach this level of collection, the IA employed 9 collectors who need to devote at least 30 days per cropping season. If all of the share is allocated to thesecollectors, each will receive only P418 ($17) for amonth's labor. This figure is very much lower than the minimum wage of P2,070 ($83)/month. The transportation expenses required are also shouldered by the IA collectors who are assigned to cover 80 hectares each on average. The management cost for the IA is not even accounted for as yet. BRISDAFIA has undertaken the collection function for the past two cropping seasons, and although their performance has increased, it was not enough toreach the point where they could avail of the sharing scheme. Hence, for these two cropping seasons, the collection cost had been underwritten by the IA. Even if one assumes a 75 percent collection efficiency for the target collection of P369,116 ($14,764) for the wet season, 1992, and total IA share percentage increases to 10 percent of total current collection, still the IA stands to gain a very minimal amount of only 27,684 (US $ 1,107). If the collection shall be paid at the rate of the minimum wage for 1 months' work, the required amount for this represents 67 percent of the IA share and p9,135 ($365) shall be left to cover maintenance and management costs. This scenario, however, would require a magnanimous effort on the part of the IA. As a result, U s have been clamoring for a more equitable sharing system.Basedon feedbackfromIAleaders, theStageIIcontractprovidesabetter incentive to the IAs. Shown below is the NIA-IA sharing system under the Stage I1 contracting scheme: Unfortunately, the Stage I1 contracting scheme had been replaced by the implementation of the Type I1 contract. The NIA Central Office Institutional Development Division (IDD) admits that formerly the NIA was more liberal in the sharing arrangements, but now the ceiling on funds going to the farmer is much lower (IIMI Review 1989).If the rationale for involving the IAs in systems management is to help the NIA recoup the development cost of irrigation, the present sharing system is quite restrictive rather than a boost to participation. Ultimately, it is anticipated that IAs would rescind the Type I1 contract and return to NIA the collection function which it may not be in a position to effectively cany out given its present retrenchment policy. On the other hand, if a more equitable sharing system would be adopted, one which is based on actual cost requirements for both the IA and the NIA in undertaking the collection task, then income accruing to NIA is predicted to increase significantly. The proposed sharing scheme has to have the following features: a. Regardless of collection efficiency attained, the IA must be remunerated for the fixed cost incurred in the collection function, namely, a minimum fee paid to IA collectors based on the number of farmers reached, expenses for receipts, and administrative costs of TSA Leaders.The collection function should be decentralized at the TSA level so that incentives for the TSA group shall be based on their collection efficiencies. High-performing TSAs shall be duly recognized by providing them the deserved benefits. At present low-performing TSAs pull down the b.good-performing ones since reckoning of collection performance is done at the IA level.Types I and IIcontracts should be fused into a singlecontract transferring to the IA both the system maintenance and ISF collection functions, similar to the previous arrangements under the Stage I1 contract. However, in the determination of the sharing scheme, it is proposed that incentives given to the IA, in addition to the share covering the fixed cost of collection, shall be provided only when the collection efficiency attained shall have satisfied the NIA expenses for the salaries and wages of existing personnel assigned in the IA plus the said fixed cost of collection defrayed by the NIA. This can be illustrated by citing the case of BRISDAFIA: Under this scheme, therefore, if collection efficiency in BRISDAFIA is 32 percent and below, the IA share will only be a fixed amount of PlO,OOO, equivalent to the fixed collection cost. Above 32 percent, incentives on top oftheP10,OOO shall becomputed asapercentageof actual collection, therate of which shall progressively increase as collection efficiency rises. d.Collection efficiency = 32% [(190,000/599,000) x 1001 Implementation of automatic retention of the ISF share at the IA level to enable IA to put up equity in minor repairs and immediate compensation to the IA collectors.Finally, for those who intend to implement action-research projects, the project team wishes to share some insights. Action research is participatory and as such project activities could not be confined to what the project implementors had initially conceptualized prior to field immersion. The process requires several cycles of planning, implementing, observing and evaluating to arrive at a more refined plan for action. In most instances, one would have to undertake activities in response to the clamor of the participants. It is quite frustrating, however, to be confronted with the reality that onecan only be flexible to theextent thatresources would permit. In thiscase, the expertise of other agencies with whom the IA may forge linkage could be explored. What are its uses and benefits? 2.a. Used as the basis in preparing the IA profile. This document is required if the IA intends to tap government agencies and development organizations for any form of support services.Used as the basis to accurately prepare the LIPA. For example, those farm lots benefiting from irrigation water but are unregistered with the N U can be identified and billed. ISF collection is thereby expected to increase and the list of registered members shall be updated; names of deceased members and those who have changed ownership due to inheritance and purchase will be replaced. It should be noted that after IA organization in 1975, records and parcellary maps have not been updated. d. Used rls a guide in filling up the monthly self-assessment questionnaire. For instance, leaders can readily determine the exact number of farm lots with inadequate water and easily pinpoint areas which require cleaning as well as identifying location of structures needing repair. A more realistic evaluation of the status of the TSA is therefore achieved; hence the planning process which stems from this assessment is made easier and more responsive. -Conduct a walk-through in their respective m a s of responsibility.-Prepare spot maps. For identified farm lots which are unregistered with the NIA but had been using irrigation water: If no farm area is availablc from any official document (e.g., title. tax declaration). draw the shapr of the lots and, together with the ownerlcultivator. menure the sides. Submit to Water Master who will compute for the farm area based on the given data.-Affix signarurcs to authenticate lhe validily of the maps.Confer with owners of unregistered lots and request lhem for documents that would show the farm area to be used for billings. In the absence of such documcnts, the accuracy of the farm area computed by the Water Master should be affirmed by the owner.-Submit maps to FIO -Validate r p t maps -Confer with TSAISTSAGIMFDG leaders if revision i s to be made. -Affix signatures -Submit to BU Research Assistants.BU Re-ch Assistants -Monitor progress of TSAL in preparing the spot maps.d.-Submit to Water MasterslDitchtenders e. Water MasteMDitch -Assist TSAL in preparing the spot maps. Tenders -Compare the spat maps with the pxcellary maps. If differences afise. consult with the TSAL and conduct a walk-through to resolve such.-Indicate the lot number and determine areas of farms whose lengths and s h a p have becn dctermincd by the TSAL.f. BUTeam -Affix signature and submit to the BU Team.-Monitor TSAL in spot map preparation -Finalize the spot maps -Submit the spot maps to CO who in turn will be given to the FIO. The FlO shall hen return them to the TSA Leaders.What aTe the detailed steps to be followed in preparing the spot maps?a. Indicate familiar landmarks to be used as reference points (e.g., main canals, laterals, drainage ditch, facilities). Identify farm lots contiguous to these landmarks. Once these are identified, the location of adjoining farm lots can be readily pinpointed.","tokenCount":"21944"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"99ee09489080c9f810230bcd8ea99d66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b1fd5d4e-51c5-4749-b5da-0347f8570bdf/retrieve","id":"-41237158"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94c10d49-5c54-4693-b524-4d72a1dfa9bd","pagecount":"24","content":"Rice is an important food for many people in Uganda and across the world. It is a cereal grain that comes in various types such as long-grain, medium-grain, and short-grain. Each type has its characteristics in terms of texture, flavor, colour, etc.Today in this booklet, let us briefly discuss the benefits of certified seeds for rice, including the opportunities in agri-business for farmers, women and youth.Rice belongs to the cereals group of foods, and is a great source of energy for the body. Rice also has other health benefits.However, for best health, rice should be consumed as part of a varied diet that includes different food groups. Each day, a person should try to eat from 5 different food groups.Certified seeds for rice are seeds that have been produced and certified according to the government's established standards to ensure quality.Certified rice seeds offer several advantages over other varieties such as: • Higher yields • Faster maturity • Higher tolerance to unpredictable weather • Higher resistance to disease • Higher resistance to pestsAs a farmer you may be tempted not to invest in certified rice seeds but let us count the benefits: • Higher yields • Higher market prices due to higher quality • Spending less on fertilizer • Spending less on pesticidesRe-using seeds results in lower yields, and higher chances of losses due to diseases.It is important to replace your seeds periodically with new seeds for best results. Talk to an agricultural expert for more information.When replacing seed, it is vital to only buy certified seeds.Certified rice seeds are available at your local NARO licensed cooperative.If you would like to verify that the seeds are genuine, ask to see the certificate issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) through the National Seed Certification Services.Many ladies and the youth suffer due to lack of income, but this need not happen. Investing in certified seed businesses can offer them economic independence.In this section let us look at the business opportunities certified seeds for rice have for women and youth. We will also discuss how women and youth can get into these businesses.There is great demand for rice within our country and it keeps increasing. Currently, as a country we have to make some imports to get all the rice we need. This shows there is opportunity for existing farmers, as well as women and youth to get involved in growing rice to help meet the country's needs. Also,many farmers are not getting the maximum returns from their land due to using inferior seeds.Women and youth can earn good incomes as multipliers of certified seeds for rice. This requires some training and certification . To start off, you and your group if you have one should join a MAAIF (NSCS) licensed cooperative.It is also good to register your groups at the Sub County offices. This will enable you to get more support from the government and part-ners. Contact your district agricultural officer for more information.There are also business opportunities for hiring out farm machinery to farmers to do various tasks like harvesting, planting etc.Other business opportunities include engaging in transport of rice, storage etc.There are special credit facilities available to women and youth thanks to the government and development partners. These offer affordable loans for women and youth to engage in certified rice seeds businesses and value addition.Visit your local microfinance office to know which options are available or speak to your District Agricultural Officer for more details.","tokenCount":"579"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3461d6aaaa561052bec43c8c50da9a1d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/25356bf6-6869-4e97-9418-f35e94823c7f/content","id":"-1802470245"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"30478b02-d190-4a7f-959b-e07bc80270c6","pagecount":"19","content":"Farmers reported increased frost damage in barley (Hordeum vulgare) sown in conservation agriculture in the Mexican Bajío region during the autumn-winter season. To determine whether this effect is real and whether it reduced crop yield under conservation agriculture, we performed two field experiments and gathered observational data from other experiments and farmers' fields. Although more frost damage can sometimes indeed be observed in wheat and barley sown in permanent beds with stubble cover, the data indicate that the plants recover from this damage and that it does not affect yield. Frost damage should not be considered an impediment to adoption of conservation agriculture in the crops grown in the autumn-winter season in the Mexican Bajío.Conservation agriculture (CA), the production system based on minimum tillage, permanent soil cover and crop diversification has been shown to have many potential benefits compared to conventional agriculture, such as reduced production costs, water use and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as improved yields and soil health (Dendooven et al., 2012;Follett et al., 2005;Fonteyne et al., 2021bFonteyne et al., , 2021a;;Verhulst et al., 2011). Because of these benefits CA has been widely promoted with farmers, including in the Mexican Bajío region (Martinez-Cruz et al., 2019;Monjardino et al., 2021;Van den Broeck et al., 2013).The Bajío region is one of the main grain producing regions of Mexico, most farmers with access to irrigation sow maize (Zea mays L.) during the spring-summer cycle (May-December) and sow small grains cereal (wheat or barley) in the autumn-winter cycle (December-May). While the summer crops are mostly rainfed, winter crops rely completely on irrigation, mostly furrow irrigation. In the region, low temperatures occur regularly during the winter growing season, and frost events can occur, though they are infrequent and do not occur every year. Low temperatures are necessary for wheat and barley to induce tillering and therefore to obtain high yields (Fischer et al., 2022), however frost and low temperatures can also cause damage to plants, which can have an impact on yield (Fonteyne et al., 2016).Agriculture in the region is highly productive, leading to the production of large quantities of crop residues. Residues as soil cover have many beneficial effects in CA systems. However, if quantities become too large technical problems may arise, e.g., at sowing. Residues also alter the microclimate and can lead to slower warming of the soil. In the Bajío, where frost occasionally occurs one of the concerns mentioned by farmers about switching from conventional practices to CA is whether frost damage is more likely to occur under the latter management technique.To evaluate whether higher levels of residues lead to higher frost damage in small grain cereals in the Bajío we performed three experiments: 1) A field experiment on the effect of residue levels on barley yield in the Bajío in San Juan del Rio, Queretaro 2) A field experiment in Metepec, Mexico State, located in the highlands of Mexico, where frost is certain to occur and 3) Analysis of yield data from field experiments and on farm side-by-side comparisons in Bajío and the Pacific Northwest. The objective of the report was to bring together observations and first experimental data to determine whether frost is a problem in CA in the region and whether more research on avoiding frost damage in CA is needed.Experiment 1: The San Juan del Rio III research platformThe experiment was located in a region where frost often occurs during the winter season, San Juan del Rio in the Bajío part of Queretaro state. The objective of this experiment was to answer two research questions:1) Is barley yield lower with reduced tillage? 2) When using reduced tillage, is yield lower when residues are left in the field?The experiment was performed in the San Juan del Rio III research platform, which forms part of the innovation hub network CIMMYT operates in Mexico (Gardeazabal et al., 2023;Govaerts et al., 2021). The trial was located in a farmer's field in El Organal, San Juan del Rio, Querétaro (N20.46592, W100.09205).The soil is classified as Vertisol and is irrigated using water from a nearby dam. The region has a dry temperate climate with an annual mean temperature of 16.5°C and a mean annual rainfall of 572 mm (Supplementary figure 1). In the 29 years (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016) that meteorological data are available, there were 550 events where the temperature went below 2 °C and 95 below 0 °C (INIFAP station, La llave, San Juan del Rio, Queretaro). In the trial maize was sown at the end of May and harvested at the beginning of December, thereafter barley was sown which was harvested early May.The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with two repetitions and 10 treatments, of which 5 that compare residue levels were used in this study (Table 1). The treatments comparing bed width were already reported in Saldivia-Tejeda et al. (2021). The plot size was 70 m long by 6 m (8 rows of maize) wide. The field was leveled at the beginning of the experiment in 2017, after which raised beds were formed. In conventional tillage, these beds were plowed every year, in treatments with permanent beds, only the furrows were reshaped every cycle. The maize hybrid was DK-2069, sown at 101,000 seeds/ha with 75 cm between rows, the barley variety was Josefa, sown at 120 kg/ha and 15 cm between rows. Barley fertilization was 183N-46P-60K-84S-2B-3.3Zn, 100 kg/ha KCl and diammonium phosphate and 120 kg/ha urea applied at sowing and 300 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, and 80 kg/ha urea applied 30 days after emergence. Barely was irrigated 4 times per cycle using flood irrigation. Weed, pest and disease management were done using conventional farmers' practice. To study the effect of residues on frost damage we installed a field trial in the Sanjaya Rajaram Experimental station in Metepec, State of Mexico. The station is located at 2600 m above sea level, frost is highly likely to occur in each winter season. In the trial we evaluated the response of barley to frost under different tillage treatments and residue management. Additionally, we evaluated the use of salicylic acid as a stress reducing treatment.The objective of the experiment was to answer the following research questions:1) Is frost damage higher with reduced tillage? 2) When using reduced tillage, is frost damage higher when residues are left in the field? 3) Can frost damage be reduced by inducing stress tolerance by salicylic acid application?In the field where the trial was located, maize was harvested in the first week of September, this was earlier than usual, with the objective that the stubble would have time to dry before planting barley. The trial was designed in three blocks, with each block having different tillage (conventional tillage, strip tillage and permanent raised beds), within these blocks, treatments with residue and salicylic acid application were evaluated (Table 2). Each treatment was evaluated with three repetitions in plots of 10 beds of 0.76 m wide and at least 12 m long. Barley of the variety Josefa was planted on 19 October 2018 at a planting density of 120 kg/ha in 2 rows at 22 cm distance per bed (76 cm from furrow to furrow), a 50 kg N/ha fertilization was applied, in order to supply enough nitrogen for tillering. Temperature was monitored in the different treatments, using two iBotton sensors (Analog Devices Inc, Wilmington, USA) with two repeats per plot. The sensors were placed inside mesh bags and placed on stakes in such a way that the sensors were 5 cm above the surface of the ground. For the treatments with salicylic acid application, 2 effervescent Salicylic acid pills were dissolved inside a 20 L backpack. Applications were done 15 and 30 days after plant emergence. The data collected in the experiment were: soil surface temperature, emergence date, density of plants at emergence, frost mortality (percentage of live plants per plot after frost) and frost damage (necrosis in surviving plants). Due to the certainty of frost occurrence during heading, flowering or grain filling, yield was not considered in the experiment. Frost damage was scored using a 1 to 8 scale (Table 3). In Mexico, CIMMYT operates 12 innovation hubs to promote sustainable agrifood systems (Gardeazabal et al., 2023;Govaerts et al., 2021). In these innovation hubs stakeholders work together to develop, validate, and implement new sustainable technologies. For this, they install research platforms, side-byside comparisons and demonstration fields. This large number of fields and collaborators allows for the comparison of the effects of frost damage across a large number of observations. To obtain a better idea of the realities of frost damage in relation to residue management, collaborators were surveyed, and the e-Agrology database was used to compare the reported yield of small grains with and without residues.Farm advisors from Queretaro, Guanajuato, Michoacan did indeed report to have observed greater frost damage in plots with more residues left on the surface. When this occurs during tillering, there is more damage in CA, however if it happens during later stages, the damage is similar between CA and conventional tillage, as the whole soil is similarly covered by the crop by then.The data from the Metepec experiment were analyzed by linear mixed models, using the lmer() function of the lme4 package (Bates et al., 2015) in R (R Development Core Team, 2020). Pairwise comparisons and Tukey-adjusted p-values were obtained with the emmeans() function from the emmeans package (version 1.5.3; Lenth, 2021).With Y = frost damage or plant survival.Experiment 1: The San Juan del Rio III research platformIn the 2017-2018 autumn-winter cycle, the planting date was December 21, 2017, which is considered within the optimal planting period. Frost occurred before the first auxiliary irrigation, all treatments were visibly affected by frost, except in the conventional tillage treatment (CB, R). During the growing season the temperatures were relatively low but suitable for the development of the crop (Fig. 1). The incidence of foliar diseases was minimal and was controlled with a single application of fungicide, in addition to the fact that environmental conditions (low relative humidity) led to low risk of foliar disease.In the 2018-2019 autumn-winter cycle planting was later and took place on January 3, 2019. Low temperatures occurred mainly in mid-November and until the second half of January. Thereafter, the temperature was higher, which led to a high incidence of Septoria and less tillering of the plants, which led to low yields. In the 2017-2018 cycle, yield was similar in all treatments, with an average yield of 5.3 t/ha. The lowest yield was obtained in the treatment with 10% stubble and permanent beds (4.1 t/ha) while the highest yield was obtained with the treatment with permanent beds and 100% stubble (6.0 t/ha). In the 2018-2019 cycle, yield differed significantly between treatments (Fig. 2). The highest yield was obtained by the treatment with permanent beds and 100% stubble retention, while the lowest yields were obtained with conventional tillage and permanent beds with 25% stubble retention. On average over both years, the treatment with permanent beds and 100% stubble yielded most (5.4 t/ha) while the treatments with conventional tillage (3.6 t/ha) and permanent beds and 10 or 25% stubble retention yielded less (3.9 and 3.4 t/ha respectively).In both cycles, treatment with 100% stubble obtained the highest yield with 6.0 and 4.6 t/ha. In the 2018-2019 cycle in treatments with 50 and 100% stubble, a lower incidence of foliar diseases and more tillering was observed, which may have contributed to the higher yield. Relative humidity did not differ between treatments, only one sensor in the treatment with strip tillage and residue retention indicated higher relative humidity values, however, as this was not the case in the repetition of the treatments, this was likely due to a sensor malfunction. Average humidity differed by 4% between the highest and lowest treatment value.Minimum temperatures were lower in treatments with residues retention. While minimum temperatures in ST-R and PB-R were -4.5 ⁰C, in PB-K temperatures were as low as -5.2 ⁰C (Fig. 3). Frost damage was not greater in treatments with permanent beds or strip tillage where residues were left in the field compared to where they were removed (Fig. 4). The treatment with conventional tillage and incorporated residues (CB-K) had higher frost damage scores than the other treatments troughout the experiment (P<0.05). A small effect of aspirin (salicylic acid) application was observed (P<0.001). Salicylic acid was only applied in treatments with conventionally tilled or permanent beds and full residue retention. In both cases, the treatment with salicylic acid application had a lower frost damage score than the equivalent treatment without salicylic acid application, indicating that it had more visually observed frost damage (Fig. 5). Plant survival was higher in treatments with tillage, mortality was lowest in conventionally tilled beds which had no mortality until the latest observation (Fig. 6). Survival was lower in strip till, but not significantly different from mortality in conventional beds. Plant survival was significantly lower in permanent beds (P=0.006), although overall plant mortality did not surpass 12% for PB-R, the treatment with the most mortality. Residue retention did not lead to higher mortality, on the contrary, both in strip till and permanent beds, the treatments without residues had higher mortality (P=0.004). Salicylic acid application showed a protective effect in permanent beds with residue retention (Fig. 7), as the treatment with salicylic acid had a higher number of living plants throughout the experiment (P<0.001). No effect was observed in conventional beds since these treatments suffered no mortality until the last date of observation.   The data from 235 innovation modules which had a side-by-side comparison of conventional tillage and CA with wheat or barley grown during the winter season were compared. Average yields were higher with CA, so there was no indication of lower yield in CA (Table 4). In barley yields were lower in CA than in CT in 8% of observations in barley and in wheat in 6% of observations, however it was not reported that whether this was due to frost damage. In general, it appears that the benefits of CA in terms of increased soil health, higher water retention, reduced production cost outweigh the risk of higher frost damage, and the risk of frost damage should not be an impediment for the implementation of CA. In Irapuato, Guanajuato, there were two research platforms active during the 2019-2020 growing season, in Irapuato I wheat was grown and in Irapuato III barley (Fonteyne et al., 2021b). A frost occurred on January 6, 2020, shortly after plant emergence and cold temperatures continued until January 16. The low temperatures generated greater visible damage in the treatments in CA, but the plants recovered quickly. Ultimately, yield was not affected as treatments in CA obtained slightly higher yields (Table 5).   Conservation agriculture with higher levels of residue was associated with higher levels of frost damage during the tillering stage in the Bajío, both in the dedicated field trials as well as in observations in farmers' fields. This did not have negative effects on grain yield, however, as it seems that the other benefits of CA offset the negative effects that may occur due to frost damage.Likewise, fodder oats yielded more under CA with different levels of residue retention than conventional tillage in a long term trial in San Luis Potosi, Mexico over a 25 year period, even though frost damage also occurred in the trial (Fonteyne et al., 2019).The trial in Metepec had variable results. The treatments with tillage had higher frost damage, but lower plant mortality than the treatments with less tillage. Keeping residues in the field did not increase frost damage or mortality, however, Aspirin or salicylic acid application showed a protective effect against frost mortality and may be an option to protect plants when frost stress is likely to occur. However, similar to the effect of tillage, it had a higher frost damage score.Overall, wheat and barley in CA may present more symptoms of frost damage when frost occurs during the tillering stage, however this has no effect on yield. On the contrary, yield tends to be higher in CA. It is likely that plants in the tillering stage can quickly replace the damaged leaves and tillers, and the cold stress may even induce extra tillering, which may lead to more awns and more grain later on. Problems other than frost may have a larger effect on yield, such as the Septoria incidence in barley in the experiment in San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, and conservation agriculture could have had a beneficial effect on this, by increasing beneficial soil microbiology (Rieke et al., 2022).Conservation agriculture has many proven benefits for grain production in the Bajío, such as improved soil health, improved irrigation efficiency, reduced production costs, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and these benefits offset the negative effects of frost that may occur in region. While greater damage may occur when frost happens during the tillering stage, this does not affect yield and should not be considered a reason not to implement conservation agriculture.","tokenCount":"2819"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b6f6b5d9bf5b86ba5de74c1ebea1fd4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b58499f7-78d5-46c5-8ba9-21b73867627d/retrieve","id":"-1942641124"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d78124d-55e6-4448-9132-6cff113998a4","pagecount":"4","content":"La evaluación horizontal es un método flexible de evaluación que combina la autoevaluación y una revisión externa por \"pares\". Hemos desarrollado este método para utilizarlo en una red regional en los Andes que desarrolla nuevas metodologías de investigación y desarrollo (I + D). La participación de \"pares\" neutraliza las relaciones de poder asimétricas que prevalecen en las evaluaciones externas tradicionales, creándose una atmósfera más favorable para aprender y mejorar. El elemento central de una evaluación horizontal es un taller que reúne a un grupo de \"participantes locales\", quienes están desarrollando y aplicando una nueva metodología de I + D, y a un grupo de \"visitantes\" o \"pares\" interesados en dicha metodología. El taller combina presentaciones sobre la metodología \"en estudio\", visitas de campo, trabajo en grupo y discusiones en plenaria. El método suscita y compara las percepciones de los dos grupos con respecto a las fortalezas y debilidades de la metodología y provee sugerencias prácticas para mejorarlo, que a menudo se ponen en práctica inmediatamente; promueve el aprendizaje social entre los grupos involucrados y estimula la investigación más a fondo y el desarrollo de la metodología en otros entornos.Los autores de este Resumen ILAC coordinan la Iniciativa Papa Andina, una red de trabajo regional del Centro Internacional de la Papa, que promueve el intercambio de conocimiento entre los socios de Bolivia, Perú y Ecuador, con el propósito de reducir la pobreza y fomentar el desarrollo sostenible en los Andes.Durante varios años organizamos visitas de estudio para que los profesionales locales intercambiaran conocimientos, así como también evaluaciones tradicionales dirigidas por expertos. Las visitas de estudio fueron constructivas para los participantes pero hubo pocos resultados claros. Las evaluaciones realizadas por expertos externos brindaron resultados interesantes pero la implementación de sus recomendaciones fue irregular.En vista de las limitaciones de las visitas y las evaluaciones externas, desarrollamos junto con nuestros socios el método de evaluación horizontal, una alternativa participativa que busca combinar lo mejor de ambos enfoques.La evaluación entre \"pares\" es lo que hace que el proceso sea \"horizontal\", a diferencia de la evaluación \"vertical\" típicamente proporcionada por evaluadores externos, calificados de estatus profesional superior. Este método difiere de las revisiones por pares anónimas, usadas generalmente por las revistas profesionales y por los financiadores de investigación, en que la evaluación horizontal es abierta y transparente, y en que se alienta a todos los participantes a aprender y beneficiarse del proceso de evaluación.La evaluación horizontal neutraliza la dimensión de poder implícita en la evaluación tradicional, en la que el \"experto\" juzga al \"inexperto\" y \"el que tiene poder\" evalúa \"al que no tiene poder\". Como resultado de esta neutralización, se crea un entorno más favorable de aprendizaje.Muchos de los involucrados directamente con Papa Andina han sido especialistas de organizaciones de investigación y desarrollo vinculadas con la papa. Provienen de contextos sociales y profesionales comparables y cuentan con niveles similares de conocimiento, y, por lo tanto, se consideran los unos a los otros como \"pares\". En calidad de partes interesadas de Papa Andina comparten intereses con respecto a las metodologías desarrolladas con el apoyo de la red. Esto los motiva a aprender y contribuir.La evaluación horizontal es un método flexible que puede aplicarse en una amplia gama de escenarios. Se estimula el aprendizaje social, se fortalecen las capacidades y se promueven las acciones correctivas necesarias para mejorar, adaptar y ampliar el uso de las metodologías de investigación y desarrollo.Una evaluación del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas (EPCP), conducida por el proyecto Promoción de la Producción Competitiva de la Papa Peruana (INCOPA). Perú (2003).Una evaluación de la experiencia del Proyecto Innova, en Bolivia, en el diseño y aplicación de las metodologías para articular las demandas tecnológicas de los agricultores de pequeña escala, con la oferta de tecnología. Bolivia (2004). Una evaluación del uso de plataformas multiactores como espacios para vincular a agricultores de pequeña escala con el mercado. Experiencia conducida por el Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP).Ecuador (2005). Una evaluación sobre la aplicación inicial del EPCP en Uganda, conducida por el Programa Regional de Mejoramiento del Cultivo de Papa y Camote en África Central y del Este. Uganda (2005). El recuadro de la página siguiente brinda una breve descripción de la primera de estas experiencias.Creemos que el enfoque puede aplicarse en diferentes tipos de proyectos y programas, especialmente en aquellos que operan en el marco de redes de trabajo.El corazón de la evaluación horizontal es un taller participativo de tres días, que involucra a un grupo interno o local (llamado \"participantes locales\") de aproximadamente 10 a 15 personas, y a un grupo externo de tamaño similar (llamado \"visitantes\"), formado por los \"pares\", que cumplen el rol de evaluadores. Los \"pares\" provienen de organizaciones que trabajan en temas Evaluación Horizontal: Estimulando el aprendizaje social entre \"pares\"Resumen ILAC 15 febrero de 2008 1 1.similares o tienen interés potencial de aplicar la metodología objeto de evaluación en el taller.El rol del equipo local es presentar su experiencia y con la ayuda de los visitantes, evaluar críticamente la metodología y formular recomendaciones para su perfeccionamiento. El rol de los visitantes también es evaluar críticamente la metodología, identificando sus fortalezas y debilidades y brindar sugerencias que puedan ayudar a su aplicación más amplia. Los visitantes pueden contribuir a la formulación de recomendaciones, sin embargo, queda en manos del equipo local la decisión de aceptarlas o no, puesto que su apropiación será la clave para su implementación.Planificación del taller: Es crucial formar un comité organizador involucrando a los socios de la red para identificar la metodología apropiada a ser evaluada, seleccionar los participantes y preparar el evento. Es muy importante que el tema de la evaluación sea claramente definido: lo que deseamos evaluar es la metodología y no el proyecto u organización que la está aplicando. A esto se le llama el \"objeto\" de la evaluación. Para que la evaluación sea exitosa es fundamental definir el objeto de la evaluación al principio y mantener este objeto en mente durante todo el proceso.Día 1-Explicar la metodología: El taller funciona mejor cuando lo conduce un facilitador experto. Al comenzar el evento, el facilitador expone los objetivos del taller y los procedimientos. Enfatiza que el taller no persigue evaluar el desempeño de la organización o proyecto, sino sólo la metodología que ha sido elegida para el análisis. Motiva a los visitantes a ser críticos pero constructivos, identificando las fortalezas y aspectos positivos de la metodología, así como sus debilidades. Motiva al equipo local a que sea abierto y receptivo a los comentarios y sugerencias del equipo de visitantes.En la mañana el equipo local presenta el contexto y propósito de la metodología objeto de la evaluación, explica las etapas que conforman su aplicación y describe las actividades llevadas a cabo y los resultados obtenidos. Nuestra experiencia indica que una exhibición de posters es más provechosa que las presentaciones tradicionales en Power Point. Esta actividad se organiza al estilo de una feria de conocimientos, donde diferentes expositores del grupo local presentan al grupo de visitantes una parte del caso con un poster como ayuda visual; los visitantes tienen la oportunidad de intercambiar ideas e información. Cada stand cuenta con 15 minutos para hacer su presentación y para las preguntas; puede haber de cinco a siete stands.En este día, los visitantes deben limitarse a hacer preguntas de tipo aclaratorio o a recabar información que a su juicio no ha sido expuesta por el equipo local. Deben abstenerse de hacer juicios de valor sobre la metodología y esperar a tener más información e insumos que serán provistos durante la visita de campo.Durante la tarde del Día 1 se presenta en plenaria, para su discusión y revisión, la lista tentativa de criterios de evaluación que ha sido preparada con anterioridad. Estos criterios son sumamente importantes, puesto que ellos serán utilizados a lo largo de todo el ejercicio de evaluación. Se podrían evaluar muchos aspectos de la metodología, sin embargo, dado que el tiempo y los recursos son limitados es imprescindible lograr un consenso sobre una lista corta de criterios que sean, por un lado, buenos indicadores sobre la utilidad de la metodología y, por otro lado, prácticos en el contexto del taller. Hemos aprendido que es conveniente seleccionar no más de cuatro criterios principales, los cuales podrán ser usados en el resto del taller y que proveerán el hilo lógico que articule todo el proceso. Ambos equiposRecuadro: Aplicación de EPCP en el Perú.Apoyamos al Proyecto INCOPA, que llevó a cabo la evaluación, en el diseño y preparación del taller. Los socios identificaron los siguientes criterios de evaluación para analizar el EPCP:Potencial para desarrollar nuevos productos dirigidos al mercado.Potencial para empoderar a los agricultores de pequeña escala y para aliviar la pobreza. Capacidad para estimular innovaciones tecnológicas organizacionales.Costo / efectividad. La nómina de participantes locales incluyó a actores privados de la cadena productiva, mientras que los visitantes provenían del sur de Perú, de Bolivia y Ecuador.Durante el primer día, el equipo local explicó el EPCP, las actividades conducidas y los logros alcanzados alrededor de dos nuevas oportunidades de mercado: a) hojuelas fritas de papa amarilla, y b) papa seleccionada y clasificada en envases estandarizados, con peso y calidad controlados para el mercado mayorista de la ciudad de Lima.En el segundo día, los participantes visitaron dos lugares:Una pequeña fábrica procesadora de hojuelas fritas de papa amarilla donde entrevistaron al dueño.El mercado mayorista de papa en Lima. Se entrevistaron con autoridades del mercado, comerciantes y miembros del sindicato de estibadores.La evaluación encontró lo siguiente con respecto al EPCP: Fortalezas: Implementación rápida, involucrando en forma participativa a varios actores de la cadena productiva de la papa. Facilita el cofinanciamiento de actividades compartidas y la formación de una plataforma para futuras acciones colaborativas. Promueve el empoderamiento de los participantes, quienes intervienen activamente en el proceso y asumen responsabilidades.Necesita acciones complementarias para asegurar el impacto en los agricultores pobres.Es necesario desarrollar materiales de capacitación para los facilitadores del EPCP. Las experiencias de aplicación del EPCP deben sistematizarse y compartirse adecuadamente.El taller de evaluación horizontal estimuló un proceso de aprendizaje con respecto al EPCP y también el intercambio de conocimientos relevantes. Después del taller los visitantes aplicaron y ayudaron a desarrollar el enfoque en Bolivia y Ecuador. Papa Andina apoyó este proceso y documentó el enfoque así como sus resultados. (Bernet et al, 2005).deben utilizar sistemáticamente los criterios de evaluación para estructurar sus análisis en cada etapa subsiguiente del taller, incluyendo la visita de campo. Este es un punto clave, puesto que asegurará la comparabilidad de análisis entre los grupos local y de visitantes.Como ejemplos de criterios de evaluación que hemos utilizado, podemos citar:Efectos en el empoderamiento y la equidad de género. Ventajas en comparación con métodos similares. Relación costo-efectividad. Relevancia.Al final del primer día, los participantes se dividen en dos pequeños grupos (6-7 miembros por grupo). Cada grupo incluye a miembros del equipo local y de visitantes. Estos grupos visitarán diferentes sitios durante el día de campo para observar diferentes aspectos de la aplicación de la metodología que se está evaluando. En los casos que hemos apoyado, las visitas de campo incluyeron comunidades, mercados, funcionarios de gobiernos locales, oficinas de sindicatos y fábricas procesadoras. Antes de salir al \"campo\", los visitantes de cada grupo estructuran una entrevista corta en base a los criterios de evaluación y formulan un plan simple para la visita (deciden por ejemplo quién será el que presente al grupo y explique el propósito de la visita y el tipo de preguntas que deban ser formuladas).Al igual que un barómetro sirve para medir el estado de la atmósfera, se constituye un \"grupo barómetro\", que día a día se encarga de tomar el pulso de la evaluación horizontal, incorporando la perspectiva de los participantes y asegura que la atmósfera del evento sea propicia para la interacción de los equipos locales y de visitantes.Día 2 -Visita de campo: La visita de campo brinda a los visitantes la oportunidad de observar en la práctica la metodología bajo desarrollo y de conversar con las personas cuyos medios de vida se ven afectados por su aplicación. Los visitantes conducen una entrevista semiestructurada y, además, observan cuidadosamente lo que ven, para que en la medida de lo posible, se triangule información de diferentes fuentes. Por ejemplo, si los agricultores dicen que los ensayos participativos fueron implementados en varios sitios en la comunidad, estos sitios deberán visitarse.Dentro de los grupos, los visitantes son los encargados de exponer las preguntas. Los participantes del equipo local sólo pueden actuar como \"guías\", brindando información en caso de que sea explícitamente requerido por los visitantes. Deben resistir la tentación de responder por los entrevistados o de influenciar sus respuestas.Después de la visita de campo, cada grupo sintetiza sus conclusiones en forma de un cuadro, estructurado de acuerdo con los criterios de evaluación. En este momento los participantes locales pueden hacer comentarios y brindar su interpretación.Posteriormente, los grupos se reúnen en una sesión plenaria y cada uno presenta un cuadro con las conclusiones para cada criterio de evaluación (véase ejemplo en la figura 1), a fin de que todo el grupo pueda comparar y contrastar las conclusiones a lo largo de los sitios. El uso de fotografías para mostrar los aspectos más importantes de cada visita otorga credibilidad a las conclusiones y mantiene viva la atención de las personas durante la sesión. Los cuadros presentados se documentan y fotocopian, para que le sirvan de recurso a los participantes el tercer día.Día 3 -Análisis comparativo y clausura: Al inicio del tercer día, los visitantes y el equipo local trabajan por separado. Los grupos identifican fortalezas, debilidades y formulan sugerencias de mejora. Es útil trabajar con tarjetas de colores de 10 cm x 30 cm. Las tarjetas pueden moverse y agruparse, asignando un color diferente a cada criterio de evaluación. Los apuntes de la visita de campo ayudan a los participantes a preparar las tarjetas. Para que el ejercicio sea manejable, pedimos a cada grupo que se limite a identificar no más de seis fortalezas, seis debilidades y seis sugerencias para cada criterio de evaluación.Después del trabajo en grupo, los participantes locales y los visitantes presentan sus conclusiones en una sesión plenaria. Con ayuda del facilitador, los participantes identifican ideas convergentes y divergentes. En los casos en que las ideas sobre fortalezas son convergentes o coincidentes, los participantes locales pueden sentirse seguros de que van por buen camino. En cambio, cuando ambos grupos coinciden en identificar las mismas debilidades, esto indica que probablemente son necesarias las acciones correctivas. Cuando la evaluación de fortalezas y debilidades diverge entre los grupos, es preciso explorar las razones y alcanzar un entendimiento compartido (aunque no necesariamente un consenso).Por ejemplo, en uno de los talleres los participantes locales identificaron el \"plan de negocios\" como una fortaleza, mientras que los visitantes lo calificaron como una debilidad. Después de la discusión, los \"locales\" se dieron cuenta que los agricultores contaban con un \"plan de producción\" que especificaba las superficies que debían sembrarse cada mes, pero que este no era precisamente un \"plan de negocios\", que fundamentalmente trata asuntos vinculados con mercados y beneficios. En este caso los participantes locales cambiaron el tenor de la tarjeta de fortalezas a \"plan de producción\" y la aparente contradicción fue resuelta. En otros casos las divergencias pueden tener raíces más profundas, reflejando distintos valores o modelos mentales subyacentes acerca de los procesos de desarrollo. En estos casos el facilitador no debe forzar consensos, sino permitirle a los participantes a que adquieran un mejor entendimiento sobre las causas de dichas diferencias.Después de la sesión plenaria, los participantes se dividen nuevamente en dos grupos: participantes locales y visitantes. Basados en las discusiones de la plenaria, los participantes locales sintetizan las recomendaciones e identifican las lecciones aprendidas para mejorar la metodología en el futuro. Los visitantes analizan el potencial y los requerimientos para aplicarla en sus propios contextos. Luego ambos grupos se reúnen nuevamente en una sesión plenaria final para presentar, discutir y modificar sus conclusiones. El taller termina con la Resumen ILAC 15 identificación de pasos específicos para mejorar la metodología y para facilitar su amplio uso, si se considera apropiado. Al final del taller es útil obtener la opinión de cada participante con respecto a los aspectos positivos y los resultados del taller y sobre qué mejoras pueden integrarse en eventos similares en el futuro.El \"grupo barómetro\" que viene evaluando la marcha del taller, también debe reunirse al final del último día para analizar el evento, sus resultados clave y para hacer sugerencias sobre cómo mejorar el método de evaluación horizontal para el futuro.Después del taller: El comité organizador debe establecer responsabilidades claras y fechas límite para editar y distribuir la memoria del taller a tiempo.Los participantes locales usan las recomendaciones del taller para hacer cambios en la metodología. La evaluación horizontal promueve la apropiación de las recomendaciones, siendo así la implementación más probable que en el caso de las evaluaciones convencionales. En los cuatro talleres que hemos apoyado, la evaluación horizontal ha promovido cambios significativos en la metodología.En los casos que la evaluación horizontal forma parte de una amplia red de trabajo, como Papa Andina, los coordinadores de dicha red pueden dar seguimiento, facilitando el intercambio de información o promoviendo la aplicación de la metodología por visitantes (por ejemplo, pueden brindar asesoramiento y apoyo en una capacitación más a fondo sobre la metodología, organizar visitas de intercambio más largas, encargar la elaboración de material de capacitación, etc).Hemos encontrado que la evaluación horizontal tiene las siguientes ventajas sobre las evaluaciones externas tradicionales y los viajes de estudio:Es adaptable a diferentes objetos de evaluación (incluyendo metodologías complejas de investigación y desarrollo).Es estimulante para los participantes, quienes como parte del proceso aprenden mucho en un entorno dinámico y estructurado. Los participantes locales aceptan con más facilidad la retroalimentación crítica y las observaciones de sus \"pares\", que de los evaluadores externos. Fomenta el aprendizaje social, puesto que los participantes locales y los visitantes están activamente involucrados. Estimula la experimentación con la metodología y su desarrollo más a fondo en otros escenarios. Puede ser utilizada en conjunción con evaluaciones externas más tradicionales, para generar información adicional e ideas.Hemos identificado los siguientes factores, críticos para el éxito de la evaluación horizontal:Seleccionar el momento adecuado para el taller; uno en que la nueva metodología bajo estudio esté suficientemente avanzada para que brinde material suficiente de revisión pero no totalmente acabada para que haya pocas posibilidades de modificación. Una cuidadosa selección de los visitantes, para asegurar que tengan diversas perspectivas, posean un nivel adecuado de conocimiento y experiencia y que sean percibidos por los locales como \"pares\" y no como \"superiores\". Buena facilitación, para crear un entorno de confianza, enfocar la atención de los participantes y manejar el tiempo eficientemente. Identificar un número limitado de criterios de evaluación claramente definidos. Presentaciones y visitas de campo muy bien preparadas, que aseguren que los visitantes obtengan toda la información que necesitan para entender la metodología.La evaluación horizontal se ha convertido en el elemento central de nuestro enfoque para desarrollar metodologías de investigación y desarrollo y compartir conocimiento a través de la región en la que trabajamos. Es especialmente relevante para redes de trabajo que busca reunir \"pares\" para el aprendizaje social en procesos en marcha. Después de cada taller hemos reflexionado y mejorado la evaluación horizontal como una herramienta. Creemos que la evaluación horizontal ya está lista para ser usada por otros grupos de especialistas que están desarrollando nuevas metodologías de investigación y desarrollo con socios en diferentes lugares, quienes están dispuestos a aprender de sus experiencias. Resumen ILAC 15 4 La iniciativa Institutional Learning and Change (ILAC) busca incrementar su contribución a la reducción de la pobreza mediante la investigación agrícola. La iniciativa ILAC actualmente cuenta con el apoyo del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de los Países Bajos. El objetivo de los resúmenes de ILAC es estimular el diálogo y difundir ideas y experiencias que los investigadores y administradores pueden utilizar para fortalecer el aprendizaje y rendimiento organizacional. Una publicación de ILAC puede introducir un concepto, enfoque o herramienta, puede resumir los resultados de un estudio o resaltar un evento y su importancia. Para solicitar copias puede dirigirse a ilac@cgiar.org . ILAC fomenta el uso imparcial de la información en sus resúmenes y solicita al lector retroalimentación de cómo y por quién fue utilizada la publicación. ","tokenCount":"3370"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e0d559ec917776b4353b4d08388f511b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f8319f89-b7f5-4463-bada-b1da28be431c/content","id":"-1275865278"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f85c4bb-dd03-4a6e-9044-292776615585","pagecount":"44","content":"CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic global partnership of CGIAR and Future Earth. It brings together the world's leading researchers in agricultural sciences, development research, climate science and Earth System science, to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and tradeoffs between climate change, agriculture and food security.In the last few decades, South Asia has made great strides in agriculture and food security. Despite this, the region has one-fourth of the world's hungry people and forty percent of the world's malnourished children and women. A large proportion of this population lives in regions that have widespread poverty and are very prone to climatic risks. With shrinking land and water resources, producing food sustainably to meet the needs of a growing population is a herculean task.Climate change is likely to compound these problems further. Millions of people in South Asia are vulnerable to depleting glaciers, increasing coastal erosion, frequent floods, droughts, and periods of higher temperatures associated with global climate change.There is now conclusive evidence that the climate is changing and its impacts are already being felt in South Asia. Numerous studies show that the productivity of crops, fish and livestock will decline in the absence of adaptation measures. If the Sustain-able Development Goals of ending poverty, achieving food security and promoting sustainable agriculture are to be realised, climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions need to be implemented in earnest. There is, therefore, an urgent need to identify cost-effective, inclusive (with a focus on gender and socially marginalized groups), evidence-based, integrated and scalable solutions to enhance the adaptive capacity of vulnerable farming communities.Many stakeholders from the region which includes governments, researchers, civil society members as well as industry, have stepped up their efforts to develop strategies to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to climatic risks. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), a strategic global partnership of CGIAR and Future Earth, has been active in South Asia since 2010.This booklet highlights 10 success stories, catalysed by CCAFS research and partnerships in South Asia, that are having an impact on building climate-smart agricultural (CSA) systems in the region. These systems are characterized by the achievement of enhanced food security and development goals through sustainably increased productivity, enhanced resilience and reduction of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions wherever possible.The success stories presented here, exhibit evidence on how agriculture can be transformed to become resilient and productive, thereby, protecting the farming systems from the hazards of climate change. One of the key highlights of the following success stories is the use of the Climate-Smart Village AR4D approach to identify models of CSA portfolios which have been brought to scale by several state governments in India (Story 1), by the Nepal government (Story 3), through the system of farmers' cooperative in Gujarat, India, by utilizing solar power to minimize climatic risks in agriculture (Story 4), and by the deployment of precision nitrogen sensors (Story 10).In the area of agriculture insurance, CCAFS research has made significant contributions towards improving the risk transfer mechanism which has traditionally been marred by faulty designs. Consequently, research, leading to the designing and use of innovative models for determining triggers in weather index insurance has led to a win-win insurance product for farmers, industry and the government (Story 5). Further, the Nepal government is also being aided, in its efforts towards regular monitoring and assessment of its food security through CCAFS knowledge products (Story 8).In What was the problem?India is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change. Rise in average temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, and increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as severe droughts and floods have been observed in different agro-ecological zones of India, which poses a significant threat to India's food security. Compounding these issues is the significant amount of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, making it pertinent for future agricultural systems to explore strategies to reduce such emissions wherever possible. Several technological, institutional and policy interventions have been proposed by the experts to manage these climatic risks and to mitigate GHG emissions. Action is needed to integrate top-down government schemes and scientific innovations, with the stakeholder needs to build lasting resilience in Indian agriculture.How was this addressed? How was the CSV approach scaled up?To scale-up and out the results of the CSV approach, CCAFS has undertaken the following:1 India became the first nation in the world to adopt a comprehensive agroforestry policy which recognises its potential to reduce poverty, enhance productivity, while also making agricultural landscapes more resilient to the risks of climate changeWhat was the problem?Over 60% of India's farmers are rainfed smallholders with two hectares or less of land and are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Agroforestry can increase the resilience of smallholder farmers, while contributing towards poverty reduction and increasing the productivity of their farms. In addition to direct benefits, agroforestry sinks atmospheric carbon, improves agricultural soils and provides a range of ecosystem services to the farm communities. Though agroforestry has been practiced for generations in India, its full potential has not been realized for many reasons. Among these are lack of appropriate policies, legal constraints, inadequate investments, weak markets and a dearth of institutional finance. The government of India harbours an aim of increasing tree covers from 25% to 33% and agroforestry is recognised as one of the alternatives to meet this target. However, a policy was required to achieve the target through a greater coordination across the wide range of agroforestry programs currently operating in different ministries, such as those of agriculture, rural development and environment.How was this addressed? What was the problem? 3 Nepal government scales out theEncouraged by the evidence generated in the CSV-AR4D approach tested in several districts, Nepal government has integrated the lessons learnt in its national agricultural adaptation and development plans What was the problem?In many parts of India, irrigation in agriculture is mainly done with underground water by using fossil fuels or electric water pumps. Poor irrigation systems, high cost of pumping groundwater and limited availability of electricity are key problems for many rural farmers. Considering the declining costs, solar irrigation pumps could be a possible replacement for diesel pumps. But there is no sustainable business model of solar energy use in agriculture that could be followed by farmers to use energy for water pumping during periods of rainfall deficit as well as to earn additional cash when crops do not require irrigation. This pilot project focused on research uptake as soon as the experiment started showing results and this paid off as it received significant space in policy discussions in the state. Since the start of its operation, many stakeholder visits including that of farmer's learning visits have taken place to the project location in order to better comprehend the model. These visitors include government officials, academia and representatives from the solar industry.  What was the problem?In weather-based crop insurance, the claim payment to farmers is an explicit function of specific triggers related to thresholds of rainfall, temperature or humidity as recorded at a specified reference weather station. India in 2015 had 14 million farmers covered by such a scheme. Despite such schemes being heavily subsidized by the government, most farmers remain largely dissatisfied with them due to faulty design of triggers, leading to high basis risk and insufficient pay-outs. How was the method scaled up?Maharashtra is a chronic climatic risk prone state of India. The state government of Maharashtra together with the Agriculture Insurance Company of India implements various insurance schemes for different commodities. We ensured that these stakeholders were involved in this process of defining triggers right since the beginning of the program. A comparison of the performance of the proposed product versus the current product helped stakeholders in understanding the value of the product. District-wise contracts with specified triggers were prepared for soybean, cotton, rice and pearl millet. State government and the insurance company adopted these contracts in their scheme in 2015. More than one million farmers were insured by the revised product in the rainy season in 2015 alone. What was the problem?Seasonal floods are a common occurrence in river basins. During the rainy season, excess runoff in large volumes from the upstream parts of the basin often causes great damages downstream. On the other hand, some of these regions face shortage of water due to year-round agriculture production which is largely dependent on groundwater. Large quantities of water pumped for agriculture, especially in the dry season when surface water is limited, can exceed the amount that is recharged by rainfall. This causes groundwater levels to fall, with major consequences for all users of the resource. The solution to tackle these two interlinked problems has not yet been implemented at a scale.6 Transforming hazards into opportunities:Government of Uttar Pradesh integrates evidence from large scale field pilot on flood water management in its district development plansPartners: How was the approach scaled up?  What was the problem?Climatic scenarios in Bangladesh pose a grim picture, with increasing frequency of severe floods and droughts, intrusion of coastal water into the agricultural lands, cyclones and other weather related extreme events. The government of Bangladesh has started several initiatives to address the immediate impact of climate change through disaster risk management and climate change adaptation activities. However, understanding these challenges calls for an analysis of the transformational changes that will be needed in terms of policies, institutions and governance in agricultural production and food security in the future. Well-developed future scenarios can offer rich information and data in response to regional and sub-regional situations. How were the recommendations scaled up?Relevant partnerships were developed in Bangladesh whose capacities were raised on the scenarios making process and in understanding the opportunities for convergence of policies. Workshops were organized with the Planning Commission of the government to continuously engage them with the methodologies and add to their perspective. The comprehensive analysis of existing agricultural programs and policies and recommendations to forge greater convergence of Climate-Smart Agriculture among government programs provided valuable inputs to the preparation of the 7th Five Year Plan (2015-16 to 2019-20) of Bangladesh (Chapter 4: Agriculture). Recommendations from future scenarios assessment on adaptation to climate change, land use and environment were also incorporated in the preparation of the 7 th Five Year Plan.What was the problem?Unpredictability in crop yields in climate vulnerable regions is often damaging on more counts than one, negatively influencing not just food security but the larger economy as it affects factors such as import-exports, food prices as well as people's livelihoods. Nepal's food security is fragile because of large climatic risks. The government undertakes efforts to estimate crop yields by relying on traditional crop cuts, surveys and field verification reports. This process is slow and expensive and does not offer real-time information on the crop situation. The CRAFT was then used for in-season estimates of rice and wheat production.The following figure shows a comparison of our real-time assessments for rice and wheat production estimates with that of the government of Nepal.How was the tool scaled up?The  What was the problem?Rice is the major staple food of Bangladesh. Traditional rice production techniques are water intensive and in many places farmers use electricity or/and diesel pumps during its production, which significantly increases its cost of cultivation as well as Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. Rice production is responsible for about 25% of total estimated methane emissions from Bangladesh, making rice cultivation the third-largest source of methane after domestic wastewater and livestock. Technologies which can minimize the cost of cultivation, promote water use efficiency, and reduce emissions while maintaining yield are, therefore, a critical requirement for the country.9 Propelling a low emission pathway for rice cultivation in Bangladesh Rice based cropping system in South Asia is one of the major sources of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. In the intensively cropped areas in the region, farmers are using imbalanced and inappropriate nutrient doses, which not only lead to high production costs and low nutrient use efficiency but also increase total GHG emissions from the agricultural lands. The bottleneck in improving nutrient use efficiencies are often attributed to a lack of access to soil testing and hence the nutrient recommendations. Fertilizer best management practice would require that farmers consider the spatial and temporal variability and inherent nutrient supply capacity of their soils. Blanket fertilizer applications result in under-fertilization in some areas and over-fertilization in others. To address these issues, site-specific precision nutrient management strategies need to be adopted at scale to achieve the triple goals of food security, protection of natural resources and reduction of agriculture's environmental footprint. How was the approach scaled up?These decision support tools for crop nutrient management were tested and evaluated in collaboration with government's agriculture research organizations, state agriculture department and universities. Strategic research and learning platforms have been developed in various locations to demonstrate the technical aspects as well as benefits of the technologies to farmers, private sector players, extension agents and researchers. Periodically, travelling seminars and farmers' fairs have been organized in these learning platforms to bring farmers, researchers and change agents for learning and sharing experiences. Linkages with the private sector have been initiated to develop local service providers and provide business case for some of these technologies. Some of these tools have been integrated into the precision nutrient management programs of states, such as Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa in India and also, by the government of Nepal. Crop diversification is an important strategy for climate resilience. Bioversity International and its partners co-designed a sustained effort to investigate the potential of small millets, that are highly nutritious and resilient to climatic stresses. The evidence generated from these efforts in combination with appropriate policy engagement has found reflection in India's Food Security Bill. This bill targets more than 800 million people with publicly financed food distribution, and will distribute coarse grains such as millets, sorghum, and maize, in addition to rice and wheat. In 2010-2011, 31.8 million households cultivated coarse grains in India, which are resilient to climate induced stresses.   Crop diversification is one of the principle means to help farming communities, especially those highly vulnerable to climate change, in building resilience. Thus, a combination of different crop varieties/species/landraces not only proves to be the best insurance against such stresses, but also lends additional benefits such as improving soil fertility, supporting pollination, pest control, ensuring yield stability while also contributing to food and nutritional security. Through the Citizen Science approach, approximately 46,000 participatory trials in different locations in India have been successfully conducted by Bioversity International. The initiative has brought under its coverage over 25,000 farmers from 600 villages of 49 districts in 7 states of India. Two technology based outputs as part of the initiative has been the micro-weather recording device called i-button and the ClimMob 2.0 tool, an online platform that allows scientists to analyse the collected data and generate individual/collective preferences for the region. These results are being further scaled out through training courses in Citizen Science for CSA in universities and also through extension services.   Bioversity International and National Agriculture Research Centres in South Asia developed a regional database of crop germplasm matching their suitability with current and future climatic zones. In India, a passport database was developed, including geo-referenced information for almost 40,000 accessions of Indian collections of chickpea, pearl millet, pigeon pea, sorghum, and wheat. They were collected from the global databases of GENESYS, Bioversity International, collection missions, SINGER, EURISCO and GRIN-Global, and updated with the NBPGR database containing geo-referenced information. Similarly, in Nepal, more than 4,000 accessions of cereal, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables were collected and geo-referenced. The Climate Analogue Tool was used to map the performance of these germplasm in different agro-climatic conditions, providing crop adaptation information under current and future climatic scenarios and help identify hotspots where germplasm will be threatened by future climate change. Special collection missions were launched at such hotspots to conserve germplasm. Researchers from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan have been trained on identifying such hotspots of germplasm using the climate analogue and similar tools. ","tokenCount":"2681"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ea4dba805cc0eeb21093b3ff2d5b1016","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_17073.pdf","id":"-384280993"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fb071dcc-bdec-4cf0-9247-6089aa2ecc41","pagecount":"134","content":"Farmers in KOISP have access to institutional credit but are more inclined towards informal credit sources thus avoidiriig formal application submission, approval and delays. Institutional loan recovery ra :es are low during adverse seasons, and the crop insurance scheme could not change tiiis situation due to a low participation level. X The expansion plans were formulated in the 1970's. The KOISP was funded by three external donorsthe Asian Devclopment Bank (ADB), the Kredietanstalt fur Wiederaufbau, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)and by the Government of Sri Lanka. The loan was released in 1978 and the project was inaugurated in 1979. Because of substintial cost overruns due to implementation delays and local inflation, the project was reformulated in 1982, when two phases wereThe broad objective of the project wai; to attempt to assess the overall effects of the interventions as implemented under the KOISP. More specifically, the objectives of the study were to i) identify and measure KOISP outputs and trends; (ii) to measure the project benefits and evaluate the impacis of the project and (iii) to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of the KOISP. The overall objectives of this study are reviewed in Chapter 1, jointly with an account of the settlement policy of the Government of Sri Lanka. In addition, general lessons were to be derived from the conclusions of this study, which should contribute to improvements in future irrigation development and land settlement projects and to improved policies in these areas.This project impact evaluation study bas covered a wide range of topics for detailed impact assessment. It should be recognized however that it is virtually impossible to measure all (final) project benefits and impacts through this study. Among the areas for detailed examination are crop and lives! ock production, project management, irrigation, socio-economic conditions, forestry anc environment. Other aspects such as sanitation and water supply, education, health eta:, are also covered by the study, but at a lower level of detail.The distinctive stages of the study consisted of literature review, planning for and collection of appropriate data, data analvsis and the preparation of the reports. To collect data, different research methodologies itere used such as sample surveys in the old and new area, special studies on nutrition and health, rapid appraisals and observations in the project area, and interviews with officers from various departments. The analysis of existing information made up an important part of the literature review. The ARTI baseline survey of 1983, the mid-term project evaluation of 1986, IIMI's studies of Irrigation Management and Crop Divers fication (ADB Technical Assistance Study, Phase I and 11) were important sources of dat 5.This present draft final report contain'; two segmen.ts. Part I comprises the major findings and conclusions of the project impact evaluation study. In this section abstracts of all research components are presented, providing the reader with a relatively compact overview of the scope of the research activities. Part I1 includes the full and detailed versions of the research components iof this study, and provides an in-depth evaluation of the conditions prevailing in the KOISP.Irrigation System Development, Operation and Maintenance as described in Chapter 2, concentrates on different aspects of the irrigation component of the KOISP. An assessment of the water resources pollential in the Kirindi Oya basin made clear that the estimated average inflow has decreast!?d considerably. The decline is about 25 percent of ADBs 1976 estimated inflow due to a perceptible drop in the rainfall at the Kirindi Oya basin. The average annual release from the Lunugamvehera reservoir is 40 percent below the projected release. As a result it was only possible to irrigate 71 percent of the irrigable area during the last six year::;. The average duty for the new area works out to 8.5 acft/acre while for the old area it is only 2.4 acft/acre. The overall efficiency of irrigation over a six year period is 47.3 percent against a simulated value of 44.5 percent for an inflow of 177.6 mcm. This inditcates that the system has performed very well.A comparison has been made between the proposed and actual irrigation water requirements during land preparatbn and the time taken for land soaking, land preparation and sowing. These parameters as actually used in the field are very much different from what has been assumeld in the design and operation guidelines.The field canals in KOISP are designed for a typical design discharge of one cusec and the turnout areas are sized to serve tlhe peak water requirements for rice. Most of the field canals are able to meet their requirements, but some turnouts serving 20-24 ha. have operational difficulties.Most of the distributaries in the Kirinldi Oya system have design discharges which are less than the aggregate sum of the detiiign discharges of all field canals served by them. This imposes a potential capacity constraint (particularly during the land preparation period) when all field canals are oper,ated simultaneously with continuous flow.Financial allocations for maintenance in the Kirindi Oya system are low (in 1992: Rs. 54/= for O M ) . An analysis of the bi:eakdown of O&M costs between administrative and O&M costs shows a trend to spend a greater part of the funds on administration. This has a negative effect on maintenmce.The study of fanners' perception about the construction quality of the irrigation system revealed that more than 50 percent of tlie farmers felt that the construction of the various irrigation structures is normal, excepit for the farm turnouts. In this case, 38 percent perceived the construction as normal while 35 percent said it was poor. vi Chapter 3 on Land Development and Settlement deals with the settlement program of the KOISP aimed at providing user rights to the landless people in order to increase the productivity of land resources in the xoject area. The objectives were to improve the socio-economic conditions of the pesants already living in the area by ensuring irrigation facilities to their lands, to irstablish necessary irrigation infrastructure and cultivable lands to the landless migrants from the densely populated areas surrounding the project and to evolve a self-reliant peasant community in the project through the equitable distribution of land and water. The development activities began simultaneously with the settlement of people. This is known as \"advanced alienation\" which was also meant to curb the encroachment problems and to obtain settlers participation in the project development activities.The project planners followed two approaches to select suitable persons to allocate land: a) provision of alternative lands to the households that lost their original lands due to the project development (alternative set;lers) and b) provision of lands to landless families in the surrounding districts (open settlers). Open settlers were the largest segment of the allottees in Phase I, while more land has been allotted for alternative settlers under Phase 11. In the new area about half of the respondents identified themselves as alternative settlers. Of the open settler:, about 50 percent reported to have been allocated land not only because they were landless, but also because of their political affiliations. The open settlers in the sample said that they were provided land mainly because of the loss of their lands to the project.A prescribed range of assistance was provided to the new settlers to establish themselves in their allotment and communities. ':he agricultural assistance consisted of free seed materials, a cash subsidy, free agriculiural implements and instructions for cultivation. This agricultural assistance program and the development of agricultural related organizations had a considerable impact on the settlers, they have been encouraged to venture in agricultural related activitim. However, the old area farmers have benefitted more than the new area farmers, and income disparities have tended to increase. From the housing program the settlers received grants for temporary shelters and semipermanent houses and an interest free loan to start a venture. These loans have not been repaid by the settlers. In general, the housing program has not been sufficient to assist the settlers in building houses as on y the higher income groups have constructed a permanent house. The World Food Program (WFP) provided dry food rations initially for 18 months, but this period was exceeded because of the delayed irrigation facilities. The first phase settlers received food rations up to 1986. During the later stages of the project food assistance was reduced to promote domestic productivity. But the haphazard manner of this scheme negated settlers' anticipations and consequently forced them to seek alternatives.At present, settlers in KOISP face sevwal operational problems. Boundary disputes due to alienation in a vague manner using only temporary land marks is one example. 37 percent of the settlers state their boundaries are not clear, most of them having undersized plots. Other problems are ihe migration of settlers and non-resident allottees (which has caused cancellation of allocated plots), reallocation of plots due to salinity of soils and cattle problems.Infrastructure Development (Chapter 4) deals with support to settlers which included facilities for health care, education, (ransport, water supply and food. Also training courses on irrigated agriculture, marketing assistance and agricultural research were formulated in the project proposals.Most of the originally designed consb uction as well as the delivery targets with regard to the infrastructure services of the KOISP have been achieved. Changes have occurred due to the subsequent revisions of the plans based on experience and problems prevailing in the project area (e.g. 23 hamlets and 4 village centers instead of 28 and 5 respectively).The project has established 20 primxy schools in hamlets and 4 junior and senior secondary schools in new towns. All of these are operational except one at the Left Bank where the people are not yet settled. This has vastly improved the type, volume and facilities of the educational infrastrulcture in the area. The educational status in the KOISP has gradually improved durlmg the project period. The project literacy rate increased to 96 percent and school participation rates in all age, sex and income categories in the old and new area have gone up. The current problems with project schools relate to the difficulties of many schools to maintain a sufficient number of students as many settlers have sent their children to schools outside of the project area.The health facilities in the area imprcved due to the construction of a rural hospital at Lunugamvehera and the provision of professional medical care to two dispensaries on clinic days. Malaria has declined drastically due to the spraying program of the government. Infant mortality rates in he area are low. Suicide rates appeared to be high (16 percent).Malnutrition as a result of chronic and acute undernutrition (stunting and wasting) was found with respectively 36 and 46 Ipercent of the children in the area. The former coincides with the national average but the latter is much higher.The length of the road network constructed by the project increased from 175 km. to 435 km. In addition, homestead roads (200 km.) and linking feeder roads (60 km.) have been constructed. 96 percent of the houses in the new area are now accessible by a vehicle. Bus services in the new and old areas have a prominent place in the public transport system, but seem to be inadequate (early morning, night) and do not adhere to a proper time table. Farmers' participation to maintain field channel roads is high in the new area. Project roads suffer from pot-holes, inadequate drainage and poor maintenance. viii Presently, 17 of the 25 constructed cooperative shops are open, but the open markets sometimes offer better quality products at lower prices. Many cooperatives do not make profits. Most of the settlers depend an the cooperatives to buy foodstuff and other household items. Hence, settlers appreciate the services of the cooperatives as retail shops. Only 2 produce stores (to storl? inputs such as fertilizer and outputs such as paddy) were opened for the intended purposes.The drinking water supply in KOISP i:; now guaranteed by the piped water system at a rate of Rs. 11/= per month per familv. Women's time spent to collect water has been reduced considerably. Most of the alteinative farmers stated that the tap water supply was the greatest achievement they had experienced so far from the KOISP. Problems however relate to the excessive numbers of families allocated for one tap and the restricted time of water supply.Other services which have been provided by the project are sub-post offices, community centers, agricultural service centers, a pdice station, an agricultural research station, an extension unit, staff quarters and a farmer training center. All these services add to the overall impact of the project infrastructure facilities. The availability of accessible infrastructure facilities within shorter distance for the majority of the households is an important achievement of the KOISP.Participation in construction activities IS estimated at 7.2 million person days for the period 1980 -1985, which is one million more than projected at the appraisal stage.About 56 percent of the households ir the new area and 13 percent in the old area participated in the project's constructioii work.In Chapter 5 the benefits and impacts of the KOISP on the overall socio-economic conditions in the project area are evaluated. The findings are mainly based on the information gathered through a large-scale sample survey and special (sub-)studies on health and nutrition.The average family size for the KOISP area is 5.5, which is only marginally higher than the national figure of 5 persons per family. During the pre-project period the average family size was 5.7. This declining trend is similar to the national pattern. The literacy rate, being a key achievement indicator, increased considerably during the project period. The literacy rate for men increased frcim 90 (1981) to 97 (1994) percent. The female literacy rate increased from only 79 to 94 percent. School participation rates appear to be very high.The housing conditions differ for the olc~ and the new areas. In the old areas the houses are relatively larger (creating less overcrc wding) and more permanent. Almost all houses are owner-occupied. The households hare a good water supply (80 percent obtain their drinking water from their own well or pipes), and almost all houses had toilet facilities. ix The labor force in the project area does not show any major changes during the 1981-1994 period. The economically active population remained stable at around 60 percent. The percentage employed in the new area increased substantially from 32 percent (1986) to 71 percent (1994). Corresponding figures for the old area are 29 and 63 percent respectively. While agricultural relatied employment opportunities decreased, salaried employment has shown a sharp upward trend in the area.The average monthly household inc3me was more than Rs. 2,000/= for almost twothirds of the households in the new area. The majority of the population in the old area (65 percent) received an income of more than Rs. 3,000/=. The lower income groups spend a high proportion of their income on food and non-food items (despite foods stamps and Janasaviyu).Chapter 6 addresses the progress in the area of Crop Production which received considerable attention in the project documents. For the maha season 1993-94 the average rice yields in the old and new areais is estimated at 3,706 kg/ha. and 3,649 kg/ha. respectively, which indicates no significant difference. Potential paddy yields in the KOISP are reported to be roughly 4,800 kg/ha., but only a minority of farmers obtain these yield (7 and 13 percent in the r ew and old area respectively). The OFC program does not show encouraging results, silnce these crops are grown to a limited extent only. The cropping intensity of the lowlands (old area) increased to 163 percent which is a marked achievement. This index for he lowlands in the new area is 98 and 48 percent for the Right and Left Bank respecti rely. The annual projected paddy production for KOISP was set at 44,000 mt. For 1993 the actual production amounted to 41,000 mt. However, this figure fluctuates over the years depending on the paddy area in the yala seasons.Rice production is not very attractive in terms of economic returns. Based on an average yield of 3,605 kg/ha., a farm gate price of Rs. 7.50 per kg and total cost of production of Rs. 23,000/= per ha., the net income from rice production has been calculated at Rs. 4,200/= per ha., or a monthly net incoime of Rs. 700/=/ha. over a six month period. OFC production has generally yielded a Q h e r net income of Rs. 6,00O/=/ha., based on a mixed cropping system.HYVs. Fertilizers and agro-chemicals are widely applied to their fields, but frequently not according to the recommendationi. The agricultural extension and training program did not play a sufficient role in informing farmers, since the majority of the farmers did not receive regular visits from the field staff.Agricultural marketing is almost entirdy controlled by private dealers. Prices of paddy and OFCs decrease considerably during the harvesting periods. The absence of floor prices, especially for OFCs has caused significant price fluctuations.Chapter 7 on Livestock Development highlights the fact that although the KOISP area was considered to be one of the predoriinant cattle and buffalo regions of Sri Lanka, no livestock component was included in the first phase of the project. This study was severely constrained by the lack of background information and published data on the pre-project situation. Animal numbers presented another problem as herdsmen were often reluctant to give actual numbers, so it was felt that the reported numbers are heavily underestimated.Livestock raising in KOISP does not seem a popular activity: out of the total sample of 479 households less than 10 percent k e p livestock. Cattle and buffalo raising is the most important livestock enterprise, while pclultry assumes secondary importance. Due to the construction of the KOISP, the traditional cattle and buffalo raising system was modified and today five types of management systems have been adopted by the herdsmen in KOISP: the Village Based System, the Migration System, the Traditional System, the Jungle Based System and the Tethered Grazing System.Reliable estimations of the animal population in the KOISP area are not at hand. The approximation by this study would be roughly 67,000 (48 percent buffaloes and 52 percent cattle), but according to herdsmen this figure must be a heavy underestimation.The gross income per livestock unit ranges from Rs. l,lOO/= to Rs. 1,900/= per year in all systems except the Village Based System in the new area, where returns per livestock unit are Rs. 689/=, the lowest reported. For the project as a whole, returns per livestock unit are Rs. 1,423/=.The Mahaweli Draft Animal and Dairy Development Program (MDADDP) established the Mahaweli farm at the end of 1986 to provide several services to the herdsmen. The cattle and buffalo upgrading program was not very fruitful and the milk collection and marketing activities could not compete with the private dealers to whom most of the herdsmen sell their milk today. The vatxination program however appeared to be one of the most effective services rendered by the MDADDP. The services of the veterinary surgeon's office have been used by a large percentage of the herdsmen.The establishment of the Cattle Owners Associations should assist in solving the current problems of crop damages by cattle, the eising conflict between herdsmen and cultivators and the need for grazing land.In sum, the evaluation of the livestock component of the KOISP is not invariably positive. While, for instance, the project planned an incremental production of 4.1 million xi liters of milk annually, the total quantity of milk produced in the KOISP area would be roughly around 2.6 million liters.Chapter 8 reports on the Social Forestry component of the KOISP which was launched by the Land Commissioner's Depai tment, with the Forest Department acting as the executing agency. This component included the development of nurseries, woodlots, homelots, live fencing and extension services. In addition, the condition of forests in the project area are described and an assessment is made of the elephant relocation, establishment of medicinal herb gai dens and planting of roadside avenues. The fuel efficient cooking stoves component was not implemented.The targets for the nursery development were not met. Even all the seedlings produced have not been planted by the farmeirs mainly due to the fact that usufruct rights and long lease agreements were not given to them. The woodlot program showed a relatively good result and provided farmers wii h fuel wood and other small timber for their needs. The medicinal herb gardens are unfixtunately not well maintained, but has become a source of readily available material for Ayurvedic treatment.The awareness raising activities of ihe project made settlers realize the value of tree planting and it seems that the illicit cutting of the dwindling forests resources has been reduced. Reforestation to add to the f >rest cover which is estimated at 1,645 ha. has been carried out on a minor scale only. The replanted lands have been suffering from cattle and elephant damages. Despite the relative success of enclosure of elephants in the National Park, lone elephants continue to damage crops and home gardens in the settlements.In Chapter 9 four components of environmental impacts resulting from the construction of the Lunugamvehera reservoir upsitream of the old Ellegala anicut diversion and the development of the new irrigated laitd and settlement of farmer families on the Right Bank and Left Bank of the KOISP arc? discussed.First, the disturbances in the lagoon ecology of the natural lagoon systems which are located in the lower coastal plain resulting from the altered hydrology of inflow from the new irrigation system are limited o the Embilikala and Malala lagoon, which receive drainage water from the KOISP righ. bank and Badagiriya. There is no disturbance to the Bundala lagoon due to the fact that RB tract 3 and 4 have not been developed.Second, the salinity hazards arising from the leaching of soluble salts from the new irrigation system to the old Ellegala system are very significant. The Ellegala has to cope with added accretion of soluble sal's coming from the drainage waters of the new system. As a result of the inadequate drainage in the Ellegala, it presently acts as a sink for salt coming from both the upstrtLam new areas and normal cyclic salts and other accretions as well.xii Third, the hydrology of the lower floodplains areas and the irrigated command area of the old irrigation system has been modified in several ways, such as no natural scouring of the Kirindi Oya river bed, a new riwr course carving itself out as an outfall to the sea, no further flooding of the lower flood plain during November and December, and the changed water table and the water qwlity of the homestead wells.Finally, the soils in the undulating terrain of the newly irrigated lands are subject to erosion on the sloping lands, but the threats have been minimized because all irrigable land has been terraced for wet paddy cultivation. Monitoring of the first and second order drainage ways revealed very little or no silting, but substantial silting was observed in the higher order drainage ways.Chapter 10 considers key aspects of the project management of KOISP, institutional development under the KOISP and beneficiary participation in the KOISP. Although many aspects of the KOISP went very well, this chapter has focussed on the problems in an attempt to learn how to improve project management for future projects.There were a series of controversial de1:isions and errors that occurred in the planning of the KOISP, among which the dam location (apparently motivated by the need to maximize the area), the overestimation of water availability, the miscalculation about the possible degree of crop diversification, the failure to deal with the displacement of cattle and the lack of groundwater investigations in dug well planning are the most important. These planning problems resulted fmm the inadequate information for planning purposes.The KOISP showed severe problems in irrigation system construction, particularly the problems of cost overruns and construction delays. These delays were due to insufficient basic data for planning, problems with contracting and procurement processes, the difficulties the Irrigation Department hild keeping some of the contractors on schedule and due to the delays in the construction of the main canals. All these delays were a major cause of the costs increases.The problems in the management of the settlement process were threefold. First, the advanced alienation strategy provided settlers allotments in the second half of 1983, but some settlers had to wait almost three y?ars before cultivating their allotments. Second, there is the problem of nonresident allottees (who allegedly received their allotments as a consequence of interventions by politicians) who do not participate in Farmer Organizations, do not clean canals etc. Third, the failure to investigate the groundwater resources of the area led to a failure to plan for adequate domestic water supplies.The project coordination mechanisms M'ere not able to address those problems whose solutions required cooperative planning and effort from two or more agencies (e.g. the cattle problem and the OFC dilemma).xiii With respect to beneficiary participat. on it appeared that there was no system to involve local persons in the planning and design of the irrigation systems or settlements. Participation in construction took phce on a wide scale, but participation in decisionmaking was absent.The development of FOs under the KOISP was necessary to help manage the irrigation system and to represent farmers interests. Almost all farmers know about the FO and their representative, but they are relatively ignorant about many aspects of the functioning of the FO. There seem: to be a lack of communication among the FO members. Overall, farmers organkations have taken over maintenance but not operations. Their performance in maintenance seems to be satisfactory and they clearly have helped improve water distribution, at least on the field channels. The great majority of farmers feel that they can do routine maintenance better than the ID can.The Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)(Ch,rpter 11) was undertaken to determine whether the project is economically or financially iriable under the current circumstances. There were considerable cost as well as time overruns. Water availability was overestimated, while the projected area could not be brought under cultivation. The cropping patterns that were originally conceived for the project never materialized. The environmental or indirect negative/positive impacts of the project were not fully understood at the time of implementation. Therefore an attempt was made to take into account the above factors, wherever possible, in estiw ating the economic benefits under the existing scenario and on projections based on currently available information.A formal CBA was undertaken using actual costs as well as direct benefits of the project (actual production, prices and income). Project costs have been recorded in different formats according to the needs of the user. The annual accounts, which appeared to be the most reliable, provided cost data in an accounting format The next major source of cost data were the quarterly progress reports. Although less reliable than the annual report, there was a greater breakdowin of costs. Cost figures however did not match in the two documents. The figures in the progress reports tended to be lower than those in the annual reports. The third sour:e of cost data were the various subject files of the Irrigation Department. Very much more details are available in these files, but they were not available for all the years. It was decided to use the data from the annual accounts for purposes of the CBA, SL pplemented by data from progress reports.The Economic Internal Rate of Returr, has been estimated at approximately 6.3 percent, taking into account the incremental blenefits from the old system, and the benefits from paddy production, forestry and livestock in the new area and a few of the indirect benefits and costs.An attempt was also made to estimate the indirect impacts of the project, both positive and negative. The positive impacts could come from the general increase in economic activity in the region as a result of the project activities. This would include such xiv activities as, rice milling, transport, sinall businesses, agricultural processing, inland fisheries, banking activities, service facilities for marketing of agricultural produce and repair of machinery, employment in pr Dject construction and maintenance, housing etc. The negative impacts included losses due to salinity, soil losses, reduction of coastal fisheries due to fresh water inflows to the lagoons, possible higher incidence of health problems due to water borne diseases, 2ollution of ground water by chemicals, etc. Sub studies have been conducted to deternhne the impact of some of these factors. These were presented as separate studies.Chapter 12 summarizes some of the major conclusions and lessons of this impact evaluation study.xv cooperation throughout the design and research phase to make the study possible. Particular mention must be made of thc accessibility of and assistance given by Mr. K.Yoganathan, former Director of Irrigation, as well as Mr. S. Senthinathan, Deputy Director (Major Construction), ID at t h ~ time this study was done. Both took the time to review an earlier draft and to provide comments and suggestions as well as discuss possible follow up actions in which IIlvlI could assist ID. Also Mr. S. Senthinathan, together with Mr. Y.W.M.R.J. Seimon, Irrigation Engineer, ID provided data from the ID Head Office, assisted in collecting data from various sections of ID and afforded the use of the ID Library.We are particularly grateful to the staff of ID who came to our assistance at all levels, these are far too numerous to mention. However, we wish to acknowledge the help of Mr. We also thank Ms. Bernadette M. van Raamsdonk who has done an excellent job of editing this report and Ms. Mala Ranawaka, Secretary, who assisted in typing and formatting the final draft.Last but not least, we express our sincere gratitude to former Director for International Co-operation of lIMI, Mr. Nanda Abeywickrema for his counsel and guidance, throughout the study. Land Settlement in Sri LankaLand settlement and land deve1opmi:nt in Sri Lanka dates back to the 19th century.During the 1930s, the Dry Zone became the main focus for government development programs and policies. The most important strategy was the opening up of irrigated settlements to achieve the following clbjectives:increase food production, particularly by opening up irrigable land; relieving population pressure of the densely populated wet zone as well as the southern parts of the country by shifting the landless unemployed population to the dry zone areas in which land and irrigation water could be provided; provision of employment oppcrtunities to the increasing population; protection of the peasant farmers as a class; promotion of agricultural development in general.A review of land settlement policies i I developing countries shows that the benefits of settlement schemes are not invariably positive. Land settlements are costly, yielding low rates of return as productivity levels ire far below potential. They are administratively top heavy, suffer from internal social problems, very often resulting in a fairly high rate of physical desertion. The Sri Lankan case confirms this general picture (Economic Review, 1986).It is within this setting that the KOISP impact assessment was undertaken. The study attempts to evaluate the performawe of the KOISP Project in terms of the above objectives, and its impact on the bent'ficiaries as well as on the general economic and social conditions in the project area.The Kirindi Oya Irrigation an 1 Settlement Project: Phase I and Phase I1The KOISP is the largest irrigation a i d settlement scheme in the South of Sri Lanka implemented under the land settlemimt policy of the Government of Sri Lanka. The broad objectives of the scheme were the same as for other settlement schemes in Sri Lanka and thus consistent with the government's major economic plans.The scheme is located in the dry zone of the southeast quadrant of Sri Lanka about 260 km. from Colombo, and is an expansion of the old Ellegala system, a very old irrigated area. During the 19th century, the Ellqgala diversion was constructed in the Kirindi Oya to divert water to five ancient and previously independent tanks: Debarawewa, Tissawewa, Yodawewa, Weerawila W ewa and Pannegamuwa Wewa.in 1977 remained valid during the re-appraisal of the project and can be summarized as follows:[ComponentLand Settlementm m increased food and fiber production (to reach self-sufficiency esp. in ricc?); generation of employmc nt (construction, farm labor); foreign exchange savings to improve the balance of payments; settlement of landless people (to reduce the population pressure in the wet zone, to exploit the human resources of the peasantry and to improve the position of the peasant cultivator, more equitable land distribution); increased income for project beneficiaries through irrigation, improved crop management and 1 1 vestock development.The main project components (excl. the consulting services) to accomplish these objectives as formulated in 1977 are summarized below in Table 1.Table 1. KOISP Project Components (1977) Description The realization of these activities would lead to an Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) of 17.6 per cent?. The proje1:ted increase in paddy and cotton production (resulting in a foreign exchange cost saving of approx. US$ 8.2 million annually), the settlement of mostly landless laborers, the additional employment opportunities, the provision of water supply, public heallth care and education facilities, the training center and pilot farms, and the improved water management skills of the farmers were all factors which induced the project aplpraisal mission to conclude that the project was economically viable, technically sound and socially desirable.In 1982, the EIRR of the KOISP project was estimated at 11.0 per cent, which included only a part of the settlement costs of ihe project. Expenditures which the GOSL would have to incur elsewhere in the absence of the project, were excluded (ADB, 1982). The full costs of the dam and appurtenar t structures have been incorporated. The rate of return of Phase I and Phase I1 was appraised at 13.6 per cent, recognizing however that significant benefits of the settlement component cannot readily be quantified.Aspects of the environment and publil: health received attention during the appraisal of the project, and are associated with the creation of the reservoir, conversion of secondary forest area to settled irrigated cultivatim and with the introduction of new settlers in the area. In 1977 the net environmental and health effects of the project were assumed to be positive and were to be realized by a ) watershed management; b) erosion control and c) construction of drainage facilities and the application of rotational irrigation to prevent the appearance of waterborne vector diseases, so that in combination with wells, the morbidity and mortality rates would be reduced.In the appraisal document of 1982, the environmental and health effects were expected to be neutral or positive, and the report specifically mentions the goal to minimize negative environmental effects (e.g. by the proper use of agrochemicals by the farmers). This statement is reiterated in 1986, arid has become one of the explicit objectives of the project (ADB, 1986): to prevent further environmeni a1 degradation associated with chena cultivation, by proper land use and applichon of appropriate farming systems.The general objective of the settlemen: policy of the Government of Sri Lanka is to raise the economic and social status of rural people, particularly the peasantry: the small based on August 1977 constant prices and specific assumptions on economic costs and benefits, see Appraisal Document, Appendix 20 (ADB. 1977).farmers and the landless. The settlement goals of the KOISP have changed over time, to correspond with the insights into thi? development of the project and the actual availability of the water for the system.In 1977, it was planned w to settle 8,320 farm families in 32 hamlets and villages with the necessary infrastructure (roads, public health, education, rural water supply, cooperative stores, community services; to provide irrigation facilities to 8,409 ha. of new land; to improve the irrigation facilities for 4,525 ha. of the existing system (Ellegala: 3,734 ha. and Badagiriya: 850 ha 1.The revised goals of the project under :?hase I and Phase I1 were as follows: In 1986, further components were adied to the original ones of the first phase of the project. The project as formulated at that moment consisted of 9 components, including for instance forestry and environmeni: irrigation and drainage (extension LB canal; branch distribution and field canals; secondary and field drains; land clearing and land leveling); land settlement (rural roads and water supply; hamlets and village center facilities; assistance to settlers; vehicles and equipment); DoA agricultural support services (extension; education and training; seed production); marketing (produce stores; ma :ket information; specialist marketing officer); credit (bank field staff; training; credit facilities); livestock (service center; procurement of bulls and heifers; extension service; milk producer societies; sales network); forestry (nursery support; tree crop establishment and agro-forestry; seedlings for homelo ts); environment (buffer zone; st idy of critical areas of concern; relocation of elephants and formation of National park); project benefit monitoring and evaluation (series of studies).The goals for agricultural developmer t were based on the provision of irrigation to new lands and improvements to the irrigalion facilities in the old area, but these changed as the project was being constructed. The initial objectives in 1977 were: double cropping of rice in the lowlands; non-rice crops on the uplands (cotton, pulses) in the dry season (Yala) and subsidiary (OFC's) crops (puls ?s, cereals) in the wet season (Maha); a cropping intensity of 189 percent (\"considered attainable\");  In para 28 of the Memorandum of Understanding of the KOISP Phase I1 ADB Review Mission, June 1992, it was agreed to tarry out a detailed and comprehensive impact study as an expansion to the originally envisaged post-evaluation study of the KOISP. According to the MOU, the study should assess and quantify the direct and indirect benefits and possible negative effects of the Project. The study should also formulate measures to enhance the benefits of the investments and mitigate or minimize negative effects.This Project Impact Evaluation Study aims to assess the overall effects of the interventions as implemented under the KOISP. More specifically, the objectives of the study are: a to identify and measure KOISI' output and trends; to measure the project benefit5 and evaluate the impact of the project; and to conduct a benefit-cost analysis of the KOISP.As a first step, the specific physica outputs as generated by the project (e.g. new settlements, new irrigation infrastructure, woodlots, education and health facilities, transport etc.) are identified and described in the study.The assessment of the benefits and th? evaluation of impacts is being conducted on the basis of the outputs produced by the project. Most attention will be given to three areas, viz. agriculture and livestock, the PO mlation in the project area and the environment and natural resources. The population will be differentiated in order to demarcate the impacts of the project on the specific beneficiary groups.Direct and indirect benefits and cost:, will be analyzed in the CBA to conduct a with versus without analysis. The study of the KOISP pre-project socio-economic conditions (ARTI, 1983) contains an important pirt of the baseline data required to carry out this cost-benefit analysis.In addition, general lessons will be derived from the conclusions of this study, which may contribute to improvements in future irrigation development and land settlement projects and to improved policies in these areas.The KOISP covered a wide range of a:tivities over its life span with impacts on a wide range of fields. This means that it will be virtually impossible to measure all of the resultant benefits and project impacts through this study. Therefore, priority was given to the assessment of selected benefits and evaluation of their impact. Among the areas for detailed study are agricultural (crops and livestock) production, irrigation, employment and household income, and impact on forestry, wildlife and environment. Other aspects such as sanitation and water supply, education, regional development, health, etc. are also covered by the study, but at a lower level of detail.Water for irrigation from the Lunugaxnvehera Reservoir has been available for the last eight years; the first water issue to the new areas was made in Yala 1986. However, some components of the project were implemented very recently. The impact of these late interventions cannot be measured as yet. Therefore, the final benefits and impact of the KOISP cannot be determined by tiis study.In the next chapters a summary of thcs main components of the KOISP impact study, which were selected for detailed impact analysis will be presented. These are: 8 irrigation system development, speration and maintenance; land development and settlement: infrastructure (incl. nutrition anil health); socio-economic conditions; crop production; livestock development; forestry; environment; institutional development and project management: and cost-benefit analysis.The KOISP planned to augment irrigation water supplies for the existing irrigation systems Ellegala and Badagiriya whick. cover 4,500 ha. Besides the project intended to provide irrigation facilities through the Right Bank and the Left Bank Main Canals from the newly constructed Lunugamveher a reservoir for an additional area of 8,400 ha. About 8,320 families would be settled 3n the newly irrigated lands.Under phase I of the project, the reservoir at Lunugamvehera was commissioned in early 1986. New and improved irrigation faclities were provided for 8,775 ha. of which 4,584 ha. were already under cultivation. Phase XI construction commenced in 1987 and was meant to develop an additional 4,100 ha. of new land. The phasing of the project was necessitated by large cost over-runs and time delays.The climate in the project area is tropical and characterized by nearly constant yearround temperatures of 26 -28\" C. Evaporation is uniform throughout the year with an annual average approximating 2,100 m a . Mean annual rainfall is 1,000 mm. with maha.rainfall (October to February) three times the yala rainfall (March to August). The soils consist of well drained reddish brown earth in the upland and intermediate zones and poorly drained low humic gley soils in the lowland areas.Data for this chapter were derived from a variety of sources including direct field measurements, published work, research reports, project design and various reports from the funding agencies. Interviews were held with operating and decision making officials. Minutes of the Central Coordinating Committee and progress reports of the Irrigation Department were consulted as well as the large-scale sample survey of farmers conducted under this consultancy.Unfortunately, most of the details regarding design, implementation and as-built drawings were destroyed during the 1989 insurgency and thereby restricting the ability to compare between proposals and achievements. Therefore, the operational and procedural aspects of water delivery and performance were collected through field observations, measurements and publi:,hed reports. For field measurements and analysis a set of sampled distribution systems (representing head, middle and tail as well as representing Right Bank Canals, Left Bank Canals, the Old Ellegala System and the dam proper) was selected. The analysis loo Ked into the following aspects: planning, design, implementation, operation and monitoring of irrigation systems.Irrigable Area'The KOISP appraisal report proposed to develop a total irrigable area of 13,300 ha. Not more than 77 percent of this acreage (9,430 ha.) has been developed due to insufficient water flow to the Lunugamvehera reservoir.The water resources potential of the Ikindi Oya basin has been estimated several times during the past years. The estimated average inflow has decreased considerably over the years. The decline is about 25 percent of ADBs 1976 estimated inflow. One of the major causes for the decreased inflow into {he Lunugamvehera reservoir must be sought in a perceptible drop in the weighted aveiage rainfall at the Kirindi Oya basin from 1,646 to 1,152 mm. (1986 -1993).Water Resources of Kirindi Clya BasinThe average annual release from the Ianugamvehera reservoir in the period 1986 -1993 amounts to 177.6 mcm., which is i. 60 percent of the projected release. The ADB appraisal reports of 1982 and 1987 estimated reservoir releases of 294 mcm. and 297 mcm. respectively. As a result of this achievement it has been possible to irrigate 71 percent of the irrigable area with an irrigation intensity of 66 percent during the last six years?The average duty for the new area wvks out to 8.5 adt/acre while for the old area it is only 2.4 acft/acre. This reduced duly is mainly due to additional water received from drainage of new areas and surface run-off from its own catchments. The intensity of irrigation based on the proposed irrigable area is 47.2 percent whereas it is 66.6 percent based on the actually developed irrigable area.The overall efficiency of irrigation is defined as percentage of irrigable area developed for irrigation multiplied by the percentage of irrigation intensity. The actual observed overall efficiency over a 6 year period is 47.3 percent against a simulated value of 44.5 percent for an inflow of 177.6 mcm. ?his indicates that the system has performed very well. Two reasons can be attributed to the improved performance. One is the large amount of return flow emanating from the new irrigated area which adds to the total quantum of water utilized in the project area. Another is the operational plan adopted by the Irrigation Department especially to effectively use the rainfall by closing the distributary canal.There has been a rapid development 01 agro-wells in the command area of the KOISPproject. In 1991 yala only 2 agro-wellf; were found, irrigating 1.5 ha. and used by 2 farmers. In 1993 yala these numbers had increased to 325 wells, 74.5 ha. of irrigated land and 266 farmers.Development of Agro-wells in the Command AreaReuse of Drainage water Drainage measurements have been carried out from May to July 1993. The drainage discharge varies from 83 cusecs in May to 32 cusecs in July. It is estimated that drainage discharge during maha. will be much higher.While drainage water moving out front tracts 1 and 2 of the Left Bank and tract 1 and 2 of the Right Bank reaches Ellegala tank systems, drainage from the new area tracts 5, 6 and 7 goes to the sea. Hence, this drainage water is not effectively re-used. At the planning stage of the KOISP the use of dug-wells and the effective use of the drainage return flow to supplement the Lunugamvehera reservoir water were not given due considera tion.Design Assumptions and their Realization A comparison has been made of the proposed and actual irrigation water requirements during land preparation and the time taken for land soaking, land preparation and sowing. These parameters as actually used in the field are very much different from what has been assumed in the design and operation guidelines. E.g. the water requirement in D2, yala 1989 was 800 mm. while a requirement of only 175 mm. was estimated for the design guideline. Likcwise, 15 days were planned for individual plots as design guideline while 38 days were actually observed at a distributary level.A number of reasons have been attrituted to these divergence. The most important among them are: the irrigation system has not yet stabilized, the farmers are not organized well, the support services a*e poor and the design assumptions need to be updated.The seepage and percolation values are especially high for upland soils. A figure of 6 mm. per day was assumed for the upland new area. In Right Bank tract 5 BC2,10.9 mm. per day was actually measured.The assumed and realized distributary efficiency in the new area do not differ very much. For distributary canal DC2 in the new area the design guideline mentioned an efficiency of 0.65 while 0.70 has been measured in yala 1988.The return flow to the Ellegala tank system based on data obtained during maha.1992/1993 has been computed. The results indicate that the actual drainage water including rainfall run-off entering into the Ellegala system tanks (53.5 percent of water supplied to the Right Bank and the deft Bank) is much higher than what is normally assumed (20 percent) for scheduling ~urposes. This higher inflow of drainage water into the Ellegala system allows to release a lower quantity of water from the Lunugamvehera reservoir, thereby bringing down the duty of water released from Lunugamvehera to the Ellegala system.Design Management InteractionsThe design of field canals and turnouts in the KOISP embodies a set of technical, operational and institutional assumptions. The field canals are designed for a typical design discharge of 28 l/s (one cusec) and the turnout areas are sized to serve the peak irrigation water requirements for rice, depending on the total percentage of well-drained and poorly drained allotment areas served by the field canal. Most of the field canals are able to meet their requirements. Hcwever, some turnouts serving 20 -24 ha. with predominantly well-drained soils have operational difficulties as the design discharge in the field canal can not meet the irr gation needs of all the fanners within the typical irrigation interval of seven days, if rotation is implemented.Some of the distributaries in the Kirir.di Oya system have design discharges which are less than the aggregate sum of the de:rign discharges of all field canals served by them. This imposes a potential capacity coiistraint particularly during the land preparation period when all the field canals are clperated simultaneously with continuous flow. If such a distributary has excessive conveyance losses above the assumed values, the distributary canal capacity becomes a constraint in ensuring an adequate and equitable supply to the farmers.In Kirindi Oya the \"variable discharg?fixed period\" mode of water distribution was adopted. It was however observed that the farmers rarely followed the intended internal rotations and instead resorted to various informal ways of water sharing throughout the season. This compelled the turnout attendants to deviate from strict adherence to the schedules prepared by the Irrigation Department for rotations among the field canals and to respond to the needs of each imdividual field canal in an ad hoc manner.The conformity between the design an3 the construction of distributary canals could not be verified as most of the as-built drawings and files were destroyed during the insurgency in 1989. For a typical distri,butary canal in Left Bank tract 3 the conformity has been assessed and there is no sigr ificant deviation found between the design bed level and the constructed bed level. Data such as sluice discharges variation, tank water level, wind speed and spill tunnel pressure is being collected routinely at the Lunugamvehera Dam and maintained in a register. There is however little evidence that most of the data are analyzed and that any corrective measures are taken. Old systems like Tissa get the higher a locations to cover its overhead costs. In 1992 the KOISP new area received Rs. 54/= per acre for operation and maintenance. An analysis of the breakdown of operation and m,iintenance ( O M ) costs between administration and O&M shows that the ratio of admir istrative expenditure to O&M expenditure is 3.96 in 1991 compared to 0.21 and 0.71 in pievious years. There seems to be a trend to spend a greater part of available funds on administration with a corresponding detrimental effect on maintenance. Administrative overhead costs are even covered by using the funds provided for physical work. To overcome this situation and to minimize fixed expenditure the Irrigation Department should reorganize its operation and maintenance division by bringing in more commanjd area under each division.The area cultivated in the KOISP from maha. 1987/1988 to yala 1993 shows the following percentages.In a large scale sample survey farm'zrs were requested to respond to the construction quality of the main canal, the brarch canal, field canal, regulators, gates and farm turnouts. More than 50 percent of tkie farmers felt that the construction of the various components of irrigation structures is normal except for the branch canal and the farm turnouts. As far as the branch canal is concerned, the response can not be considered as valid since just a few farmers using the only branch canal in the whole system were induded in the sample. With regard to farm turnout 38 percent perceived the construction as normal while 35 percent said that it was poor.Farmers' Perception about Cimstruction of Irrigation SystemsThe sample survey extracted the fobwing information.Farmers' Perception about Irrigation Problems 1.6 .8.75 percent of the farmers think that water received in the reservoir is used efficiently.67 percent expressed that during the cultivation period their field canals receive enough irrigation water.Approximately 40 percent of the farmers reported to get an adequate water supply during maha. while th2 same percentage of farmers said that they were unable to receive sufficient irrigation water from the field canal during yala.About 80 percent of Ellegala farmers said to have water problems only during the early stages of crop growth in yala. In contrast, 90 percent of the new area farmers indicated that they hzve problems in getting enough water during all stages of crop growth in yala.65 percent of the farmers statecl to participate both in field and distributary canal maintenance works.70 percent feel that they can do routine maintenance better than what the Irrigation Department is presently doing.The money allocated for maint'mance is not adequate according to 50 percent of the farmers.The money allocated for distributary canal maintenance is used efficiently by FO on a contract basis according 45 percent of the farmers.Approximately 50 percent feel that FO would be able to handle successfully the operation and maintenance re ;ponsibilities turned over from the Irrigation Department.The rehabilitation completed jus : after the Lunugamvehera reservoir construction failed due to the poor construcion quality. The structures collapsed in a short period. This is reported by 65 percent of the farmers in the Ellegala system.11. According to 45 percent of the farmers the Irrigation Department rectified the difficulties pointed out by the farmers after walk-through surveys.Approximately 40 percent of the farmers feel that the OEIS tanks are to be operated by ID officials while a:iother 40 percent feel that it should be operated by farmers and ID officials both in collaboration.As one would expect diversion of water from other basins and efficient use of available water are the two major solutions to overcome water deficiency in the Lunugamvehera reservoir as identified by farmers.1.3.Detailed hydrological analysis together with an integrated approach of using surface water together with diainage return flow and groundwater are very essential to plan an efficient pmject especially in water short areas such as the Kirindi Oya basin.Water rights for old and new settlers are to be decided very clearly before the start of the project for efficient operation of the project.The present procedure of aligning field channels traversing well-drained, imperfectly-drained and poor1 y-drained soils is not conducive for efficient operation when other field c r o x are to be raised during the dry yala season. Separate provision of parallel ficlld channels for well-drained and poorly-drained soils would facilitate a better system operation when other field crops are raised, it will effectively intercept the drainage flow and it will increase the on-farm water use efficiency. However, this needs to be field tested.Better maintenance, improved monitoring and evaluation of the system performance and incentives for the operating personnel are necessary for further improving system performance The suggested incentives are: rent free quarters with an adjacent unit office fcr work supervisors at the tracts with essential facilities; recognition based on performance of field staff.This chapter aims to assess the immediate benefits of land development and settlement under the KOISP on the population in the newly irrigated area and in the old irrigated area in particular and on the people of Sri Lanka in general.The principle data collection technique for this chapter was the large-scale sample survey with involved almost 500 farm families in both the new and the old area. In addition, the survey included qualitative information gathering techniques such as discussions with field level officers, farmers and selected individuals. Secondary data and information was also reviewed extensively. Unfortunately, several limitations restricted the survey output: lack of primary data related to land demarcation and land allocation to families, inconsistency and contradictions of available data gathered by different agencies and lack of beneficiary perception on project benefits and services.Available reports suggest that prior to the commencement of the KOISP people had settled under an extensive animal-agro-forestry farming system. Paddy was widely cultivated under five major tanks, while smaller areas were cultivated under minor tanks and under rainfed conditions.The old irrigation infrastructure consisted of two independent irrigation systems. The Ellegala system which was constructed in 1872-1977, served an area of 3,734 ha and the Badagiriya system serving an area of 850 ha. It is acknowledged that in ancient times the whole South East Dry Zone, including the Kirindi Oya basin formed a unique agricultural and settlement entity. The striking feature of this system is that the traditional cascade type of small and medium scale tanks could store the whole of the surface run-off from the watersheds of the streams and rivulets.The following five types of land use pattern were common:1. Forest, forest reserves and uncultivated shrub lands.Water spread areas (irrigation and paddy lands).Home gardens and highlands.Chena plots on jungle patchec,. 5.Land for residential, commercial and recreational purposes.In addition land was used extensively for the free grazing of cattle. The absence of a policy to alienate lands for livestock grazing considered in relation to the carrying capacity and the herd population has been one of the major deterrents of the land development and settlement process of the as Kirindi Oya area.Approximately 75 percent of the tota! irrigated paddy lands in this area were located in the settlements under the Ellegala Anicut. Nearly 17 percent was located in the unirrigated region.Associated land use in the traditionill villages of the area showed that the wet lands were cultivated with rice and the hig,her dry lands occupied by homesteads cultivated with tree crops, pulses or vegetables. The forest shrub lands and fallow lands were used for livestock grazing or animal agro-forestry. The paddy tracts stretched along the river banks, mainly along the lower part cf the Kirindi Oya and the catchment of the major reservoir.The population was predominantly rural with an average density below 100 per square According to employment records in the period prior to the project, 30 percent of the population was employed while 5.4 percent was unemployed. Housewives were 18 percent, students 25 percent, discouraged workers 1 percent and others 20 percent.Employed is understood as paid and unpaid family workers. The unemployed include those without gainful employment, for at least 15 days within three months prior to the survey. The discouraged workers are those not looking for employment and others include retired, disabled, too young or too old to work.Two-thirds of the employed in the sample were engaged in agricultural activities. There was no significant difference in the proportions between the irrigated and unirrigated areas. 37 percent of the households received their entire income from agriculture based activities.78 percent of the female employees fell into the categories of farm helpers, agricultural and non-agricultural laborers and domwtic servants. Only 46 percent of the employed men fell into these categories.The project plan focussed on three development criteria: economic growth, resource equality and sustainability. The project mticipated the settlement of 8,400 farm families in 32 hamlets to be created under the woject. Twenty hamlets in the Right Bank and twelve in the Left Bank. In addition to'the settlement of farm families the project also expected the in-migration of considerable non-farming populations, through the development of basic infrastructure, rclads, village and urban centers, marketing and other agricultural support services.The settlement program of the KOISP aimed at providing user rights to the landless people in order to increase the produc ivity of land resources in the project area. The program has formulated the following objectives at the beginning of the project:1.To improve the socio-economic :onditions of the peasants already living in the area by ensuring irrigation facilities to their lands.To establish necessary irrigation infrastructure and cultivable lands to the landless migrant people from the densel), populated areas surrounding the project.To evolve a self-reliant peasant community in the project through the equitable distribution of land and water.Unlike other settlement projects, implementation of project development activities began simultaneously with the settlement of people. This is popularly known as \"advanced alienation\" which also meant to curb t h e ' encroachment problem and to obtain the settler participation in the project development activities.Based on the surveys conducted in 1979 and 1980, the project planners have followed two approaches selecting suitable persons to allocate landProvision of alternative lands to the households that lost their original lands due to the project development. Those who have obtained land under these schemes is known as alternative settler:;. These are people whose land was taken to the project or those who had govcrnment permits for chena cultivation, prior to the project.Provision of land to the landless families in the surrounding districts. Mainly Hambantota, Matara, some pi rts of Moneragala, Galle and Ratnapura Districts. These settlers are known as open settlers.The main reason for the selection of allottees under an open selection scheme was to reduce the social unrest among young families due to unemployment, low income and landlessness in the South-East region. The selection criteria for alternative settlers put more emphasis on youth and persons who had experience in agriculture.Although it was planned to settle 8,400 families in two phases, only 5,000 families have been settled so far. This is mainly du,? to continued water shortages for cultivation and delays in the infrastructure development activities, specially in phase two.Open settlers were the largest segment of allottees in phase one, while more land has been allotted for alternative settlers under phase two. In the new area about half of the respondents identified themselves as alternative settlers.50 percent of the open settlers reporied to have been allocated land not only because they were landless, but also because of their political affiliations. Although most of the open selectees received land due to 1z ndlessness in their places of origin they admitted that the political affiliations with the members of parliament in their original electorate, also helped them to get lands undei the project. On the other hand, almost all the alternative settler respondents in the ;ample said that they were provided land mainly because of the loss of their lands to the project.Two criticisms raised by different agencies and individuals must be mentioned here.First is the claim that the selection of farmer families from outside the project area led to the disappointment and displacem2nt of bona-fide farmer families who had been in the project area prior to the project, but were not selected as settlers. Second is the irrigation difficulties experienced during the initial project period which also exacerbated the frustration among settlers in sharing the project benefits.A prescribed range of assistance was provided to new settlers to establish themselves early in their allotments and communities. These included food aid, drinking water, assistance in constructing shelter, fen1:ing and the provision of free planting materials along with some agricultural implemenk. Also a subsidy scheme was implemented with a package of various items. The assis:ance to settlers can be categorized as follows: agricultural assistance, housing and sanitation facilities, food and drinking water and organization and community assistance. For this section only the assessment of the agricultural, housing and food prograrn is relevant.Growth of agricultural production was one of the main objectives of the project. Settlers were provided with 1.2..Further The agricultural assistance program and the development of agricultural related organizations had a considerable impact on the settlers, they have been encouraged to venture in agricultural related activities However, old area farmers have benefitted more than new area farmers. As anticipated in theories of economic development, in this case essentially based on agriculture, with the higher gains in productivity and income in the old area, income disparities among the new area settlers have tended to increase. Hence, carefully designed further assistance is required until the disparities are eliminated.During the pre-and mid-project period the settlers found it difficult to construct a house according to the specifications given without materials being supplied by the project at concessionary prices. Therefore, the su xidy scheme was later revised to cash subsidies as interest free loans. This proved to be a temporary help for the settlers.At the beginning of the project the settlers received Rs. 500/= to build a temporary shelter. Once this was completed, they received another Rs. 1,500/= to purchase construction materials for a semi-perm,inent house. In addition they were given interest Free seed materials for the harv 2sted and irrigable allotments. Cash subsidy of Rs. 300/= and :idging of the irrigable allotment.Free agricultural implements along with interest free loans to start the cultivation practices.Instructions from agricultural arid agrarian services with regard to cultivation.free loans of Rs. 11,500/= to start a venture. These loans have not been repaid by the settlers, which has led to a hesitation from the side of the government to provide more loan schemes. The housing program has not been sufficient to assist the settlers building permanent houses as only the highcr income groups have constructed a permanent house.More than 95 percent of the houses ire provided with toilet facilities. However, water seal toilets were mostly built by old area farmers as a result of their better living conditions, while the new area settlei's still have toilets with concrete slabs.At the beginning of the project settlers who were brought into the then non-irrigated areas received food subsidies until they settled down. Dry food rations were provided for a period of 18 months for all the family members. The World Food Program (WFP) further assisted by providing adequaie quantities of food to all settlers. In fact the WFP supplied food rations to most of the families for a period exceeding 18 months to overcome the initial difficulties caused by the delayed irrigation facilities. The first phase settlers received food rations from 1962 to 1986.In spite of this food subsidy program the monthly expenditure on food among the low income groups (below Rs. 2,000/=), is nearly conterminous with their income or even above it. The overall household expenditure rises to 150 to 200 percent of their income when expenses on non-food items is also taken into account. Even when the value of food stamps and other food subsi,jies were deducted from the total household expenditure, the latter still remains above 100 percent.During the later stages of the project iood assistance was reduced to promote domestic productivity. But the haphazard mann 2r of this scheme negated the settlers' anticipations and consequently forced them to seek alternatives. Hence, the current program of food assistance to the settlers should be relived.According to the pre-project socio-e':onomic survey of 1983, a population of 2,897 families was living in the catchment, command and tank areas of the KOISP. With the commencement of the project, the number of encroachers had increased the population speculating on the future legal access i:o land. Advanced settling was started in 1984 to obtain settler participation in the project work and to reduce encroachment. Thus alienation was done amidst the consmction of headworks and prior to the issue of water for cultivation. It was done in a vague manner using only temporary land marks. The fact that land was uncleared at the time of alienation, added further confusion to Operational Problems of Seitl ements the boundary demarcation. The land clearing started almost after one year and at that time most of the land marks were not found in their original positions. The settlers had to mark their land boundaries as they r ?membered it one year ago. This has resulted in lowland plot sizes from one to four acres. When the actual land survey was conducted, instances were found where either distributary channels or field channels were running in the middle of the land, thus fragmentng the plot. However, the earlier boundaries did not change, creating numerous boundary disputes.Although the majority of the responden is in the new area reported their land boundaries to be clear, one cannot overlook the facl. that some of them have oversized plots and do not want to admit it fearing to lose the excess land. 37 percent stated that their boundaries are not clear, most of them having undersized plots. The boundary problem appeared to exist only in the lowlands. Highland settlers expressed to be satisfied with the demarcation of their plots.Initially a significant number of open :,ettlers was reluctant to stay in the project area.The main reason was uncertainty of recmeiving irrigation water. Water issuing was done in a rotatory system as an answer to the water shortage. Most of the open settlers, who had land in their native villages or who had relatives elsewhere, migrated to these places during the seasons when their respective zone did not have priority for water issue.Approximately 10 percent of the respondents could be seen as migrating farmers. They are found more often at the Right Bank as compared to the Left Bank.The non-residency problem has caused a cancellation of the allocated plots in 5 percent of the cases. Another 7 percent are yet to be canceled.Some settlers could not adapt to the barren conditions of the project area and abandoned their lands. These plots were later reallocated, but the majority of these settlers leased their land to traders in either the project area or in nearby towns.Reallocation of Land Due to various reasons several originally allocated plots were abandoned and the settlers received new land elsewhere. The most important reason for abandoning the plots has been salinity of soils. 138 plots (3 percent) have been reallocated due to salinity. Another 115 plots will be reallocated for the sarie reason. Salinity of soils is mostly found at the Right Bank, especially hamlets 10, 11, 18, 19 and 20 are badly affected.The conflict between cattle owners and paddy farmers has become one of the major operational problems of the project, th eeatening its sustainability (refer chapter 7). This Settler Migration and Ncin-Resident Allotees problem is most intense in hamlets 4,5 and 6 of the Left Bank. Although this problem has been reduced to some extent tiy the joint actions of the Cattle Owner Farmer Organizations and the Project Farmer Organizations, it remains unsolved.The problem of land fragmentation was found to be acute in the old area. Land fragmentation has not been reported in the new area.The KOISP intended to support the settlers in the new area by providing the basic public infrastructure including facilities for hedth care, education, transport, water supply and food. Also training courses on irrigated agriculture, marketing assistance and agricultural research were formulated in the project proposals.It was planned to establish five village centers consisting of 28 hamlets. Each hamlet would have one health center, a cooperative and a primary school. Each village center would have a health center with a maternity home and dispensary, a cooperative bank branch, paddy stores, sales center, a post office, a junior and senior secondary school and quarters for the officers. In addition in total a 200 km. of roads would be constructed and 420 dug wells which implied one bell for 20 families. The establishment of a district research, extension and training centel' for the area was also included in the original plan.Most of the originally designed construction as well as delivery targets with regard to the infrastructure services of the KOISP have been achieved. Changes have occurred due to subsequent revisions of the plans based on the experience and problems prevailing in the project area.The area which was planned to be developed under the KOISP was reduced as a result of the shortage of water in the Lunugamvehera reservoir. This reduced the number of families to be settled and consequently a reduction of the number of hamlets.Accordingly, not more than 23 hamlets and 4 village centers were established. The village centers Beralihela and Weligatta are new, Lunugamvehera and Weerawila are upgraded village centers.The KOISP has established 20 primaiy schools in hamlets and 4 junior and senior secondary schools in new towns. All oE these are operational except for one at the Left Bank where the people are not yet settled. The construction of 22 schools and the upgrading of the existing 2 schools by ihe KOISP has drastically improved the type and volume of the educational infrastructure in the project area as there were only 28 schools in different categories before the project started. This number now increased to 50. Also the school facilities changed positively. Although the project did not give attention to the educational facilities in the old area, as an indirect result of the project activities these have developed there too. The attraction of a large population consisting of various categories of society required advanccsd educational facilities. The government and other organizations have responded well to this.It was envisaged to construct one school for 274 settler families in the new area. Since the number of families actually settling turned out to be lower than expected, there is now one school for every 246 families.The educational status in the KOISI' area has gradually been improved during the project period. This is reflected by lkeracy rates and school participation of boys and girls in the old area. At national level the literacy rate increased from 87 percent in 1981 to 89 percent in 1993. In the project area the literacy rate increased during the same period from 85 to 96 percent. Women are still more frequently illiterate, but the big gap between the male and female educational levels has been reduced.It is important to note that the literacy rates of both men and women in the new area have grown much faster than in the old area. Apart from a better school attendance, the higher educational level of the selected settlers have contributed to the growth of the literacy.School participation rates in all age, sex and income categories in both areas have gradually and satisfactorily gone up during the project period. Participation of girls has become equal to boys in all age categories, which was not the case in the pre-project period. There is no relationship observed between income level and school participation in both areas. This is even true for the age group of 15 to 19 years. Only families earning less than Rs. 1,000/= per month in the new area, appeared to withdraw boys more often from school.The major reasons given today for school avoidance by children in the compulsory school age have changed as compared :o the pre-project period. Earlier economic reasons were most frequently mentioned, while nowadays simple lack of interest is most often reported. The absence of schools whidi was a reason for 20 percent of the truants in the new area has stopped being a argument.Problems with Project SchoolsThe failure of the project to provide permanent residential places to settlers has created various educational problems. Many schools have difficulties to maintain a sufficient number of students because settlers cdten stay only temporarily in the settlements or change residences frequently. Those who have not settled permanently, did not bring their children along. The frequent change of schools by one and the same student is caused by his/her parents mobility and has become another problem in the operation of schools. To solve these problems alternative income generation opportunities during droughts should be sought.Moreover, 26 percent of the households in the new area and 6 percent of the households in the old area have sent their children to schools outside the project area. The majority of these settlers reported to do this because they considered the school facilities in their original areas to be of a better quality. Sxondly, the low income they are deriving in the settlement has encouraged them to keep their children with relatives.Households who send their children to school in the project area have indicated several shortcomings. The most important issue was the shortage of teachers, especially in the new area. The shortage of teachers in specific subject matters is even more acute.Secondly, the inadequacy of school buildings due to excessive pressure of the student population was mentioned as important problem. Some schools were found to utilize produce stores to hold classes as a temporary solution. Thirdly, in the overpopulated schools the classroom equipment was lot longer sufficient. This could temporarily be solved by using under-utilized equipment from other schools.The farmers who originally lived in thl? area before the project started have benefitted most from the establishment of new s:hools. In the pre-project period only a limited number of schools was available at renote places. Poor access roads and low incomes discouraged the children's school partil5pation. Older children were kept home to look after their younger siblings, while their parents went out to work. The provided road network and schools closer to hamlets have removed the problems of accessibility. The World Food and the Junusaviyu Program as well as the midday meal program contributed to remove the latter constraints.The second group who benefitted most are children from neighboring traditional villages. Also they now have schools within a shorter distance and better roads available.The KOISP school facilities have been more beneficial for girls because they have contributed most to the increased school participation.Finally, it should be noted that the new schools provided the opportunity for a large number of people to engage themselves as teachers or school staff. A total number of 260 persons is working as teaching staff at the schools. 26 percent of them comes from the new area, 28 from the old area, while the remaining 46 percent comes from other areas.As far as 61 percent of the teaching stafi'is female, demonstrating that women have been benefitting most.The KOISP project documents focussed to some extent on improving health facilities. The objectives formulated were as fo lows:1.3.Before the project started there were three district hospitals. One in Tissamaharama, one in Hambantota and one in Debarawewa with limited facilities. In addition there were two dispensaries, two mobile dispensirries and two Ayurvedic dispensaries. Further four midwives and five public clinics providing prenatal, post-natal and immunization services were available in the project area.Public health clinics were held a specific places on a particular day of the week. Due to poor roads and transportation proble ns, these clinics and the mobile dispensaries too failed to function according to schedule. Therefore most of the people were compelled to travel to the district hospitals. These hospitals did not have adequate facilities to cater to the needs of the population.The KOISP Mid-Project Evaluation Study stated that the health services in the area were managed by the Department of Health, which installed basic facilities. The old area had relatively better health facilities than the new area according to this study. The project constructed a rural hospital at Lunugamvehera with three wards, including a maternity ward. Further professional medical care was provided at two dispensaries on the clinic day.This study surveyed the public opinion about the services provided by the clinics.Nearly 44 percent of the respondent; considered the services to be good, while 37 percent felt they were average. In thct new area 26 percent said that drugs were not available at village level, to get medicines they had to travel nearly 5.5 km. In the old area this distance was claimed to be 7.3 km. At that time anti-malaria spraying and distribution of drugs had been initiated by the project in the new area.The facilities available at the Debarawewa and the Lunugamvehera hospital in 1987 and 1994 have been compared. Data reved that in this period of time facilities have not changed much. The total number of beds, nurses and attendants remained almost the same. However, the number of doctors and dental surgeons increased from 3 to 7 in total. Nevertheless, the facilities seemed not to be sufficient to serve the total population.Each village center would haw a maternity home and a dispensary.Each hamlet would have one health clinic.Malaria should be eradicated with the help of anti-malaria agencies.Health Facilities in the Pre-Project PeriodHealth Facilities during and after the KOISPThe people in both the new and the old area reported to be more or less satisfied with the mother and child care and midwives services provided. Approximately 70 percent stated to be satisfied with these services, while roughly 10 percent considered the services to be bad. Asked about overall health facilities, 41 percent of the respondents appeared not to be satisfied with the health services in the area. The major reasons for the dissatisfaction were shortage of drugs and medical staff.Malaria and Water Bornc! DiseasesIn the period 1991 to 1993 the number of patients treated for malaria in the Debarawewa hospital has declined drastically. Thi: may be due to the spraying program of the project. Also the number of patients trcated for water borne diseases was much higher in 1992 than in 1993. However, comparable figures from the Lunugamvehera hospital in the period 1988 to 1994 show a fluctuating pattern to such an extent that no valid conclusions can be drawn.Doctors in this area reported that incidence of malaria is very high directly after the rainy seasons. The diarrheal diseases art? higher during the dry months. According to the settlers themselves incidence of malari1 in this area is very low.Other Health IndicatorsThe data collected in the sample survey revealed that infant mortality in the project area is very low. Out of 335 births only 2 habies died directly after birth. The figure is the same for maternal mortality.Suicide rate appeared to be high. 16 percent of the people who died, had committed suicide, mostly using agro-chemicals.In order to improve the health conditions of the people in the KOISP area the following recommendations have been formulatcsd-The hospitals in the area are to be equipped with adequate personnel and materials.-Transportation facilities, especially outstation, have to be developed.Training programs on hygienic measures must be conducted at school level, household level and staff level.-Family planning methods muit be introduced.-Research work to develop a proper health program is needed.Malnutrition undermines development in many ways: undernourished people lack the strength and energy to actively take part in development projects, a lack of a balanced diet also causes health problems, which can in turn have serious effects on the family income.Since pre-school children and pregnant and lactating mothers are the most vulnerable groups in terms of nutritional status, attention is focussed on these groups.Stunting is malnutrition as a result of chronic undernutrition. This becomes visible trough a deficit in height for age. L3ata obtained through an anthropometric survey conducted in July 1994 revealed that in the KOISP area 36 percent of the children had signs of chronic undernutrition, which is almost equal to the national average. However, there appeared to be a significant dilference of stunting between the old and the new area: 46 and 33 percent respectively. ' I his dissimilarity may be explained by the fact that in the old area many landless families and families having a permanent income came to the survey.Wasting is a sign of acute undernutrit on, indicated by a deficit in weight for height. The percentage of acute undernutrition ippeared to be very high in the project area. 46 percent of the children had signs of wasting, whereas the national figure is only 18 percent. Again a significant difference between the old and the new area is observed, showing an opposite picture as compared to stunting. Wasting was found among 49 percent of the children in the new areii and among 30 percent in the old area. Moreover, for the children above 12 months wasting appeared to gradually increase with the age.Concurrent chronic and acute undernutrition (concurrent stunting and wasting) is an effect of long term protein calorie undernutrition. When the observed height of a child is less than 90 percent of the reference median for its age and the observed weight is less than 80 percent of the reference medim for its height, concurrent stunting and wasting is diagnosed. The incidence of concurrent chronic and acute undernutrition does not show significant dissimilarities in the old and the new area. The percentages are highest for the age groups of 12 to 23 month: and 48 to 59 months.A child born with a low birth weight (under 2.5 kg) is more likely to die within the first months of life. The incidence of low bieth weight was reportedly high in the KOISP area, 43 percent for the new area babies, 2f~ percent for the old area babies.Road NetworkIn the pre-project period the total 1enp;th of roads amounted to 175 km. The project's construction work increased this to 435 km. Homestead roads for access to households and service centers have been constructed stretching over 200 km. Furthermore, linking feeder roads were constructed conneciing hamlets with main roads and towns. These came to a total length of 60 km.The project road network serves more ihan 4,900 families or 27,000 people settled in the new area directly. According to the large-scale-sample survey 96 percent of the houses in the new area is today accessible by a vehicle. In the old area this percentage would be 93 percent. Exact figures from the pre-project period are not available, but people reported that a considerable number of houses could not be reached by vehicle at that time. The predominant means of travelling in the area are by foot or push bike.The bus services in the new and the old area have a prominent place in the public transport system. There are two kinds of busses: the busses of the Peoplised Transport Boards and private busses owned by individuals. The bus services appeared not to be sufficient, in the early morning and at light they do not run at all. During the day they do not adhere to a proper time table. The inadequate bus service in the new area is a constraint for the functioning of the service centers and to attract new settlers into the settlements.The Peoplised Transport Board in Kata'agama claimed that the roads constructed by the project are not suitable to operate a pioper bus service. The roads are too narrow and in some places no proper culverts haw been constructed for long vehicles to be able to pass.Maintenance of Project KoadsMaintaining the linking roads is the responsibility of the Land Commissioners Department. Channel roads are mair tained by the Irrigation Department and field channel roads are maintained with f,wmers participation on a voluntary basis. The survey revealed that 94 percent of the farmers in the new area participated to maintain field roads. This percentage for the old area is much lower as there are fewer field roads.The majority of the settlers have appreciated the construction of project roads and recognized the consequent improved t:ansport facilities. They claimed that the share of costs for transporting their produce hiis reduced with the changed mode of transport.Faster transport in case of emergencie:; was mentioned as an other important effect.Pot-holes, inadequate drainage and poor maintenance are among the statements of dissatisfaction.The project road network has reduced the problems of access to various service stations and also the time required to reach there. Although the settlements are now connected with the major towns by better roads, the distances are often very long. It should be considered to construct cross roads between hamlets and major towns to solve this problem.Constructing cooperative shop buildings for every hamlet and new town has been a major goal of the project's infrastructure program. The operation of the 25 constructed shop buildings has been handed ove' to the Cooperative Department. At present only 17 shops are open, 16 in hamlets and one in Lunugamvehera new town.Under the prevailing liberalized econc mic system there are alternative places to purchase goods, sometimes the open market offers better quality at lower prices. The cooperatives have not always been able to buy the produce from the farmers at attractive prices. Therefore many cooperatives are making a loss. Only shops can be run viably in places where there is a sufficient number of permanent settlers and where there is a large number of food stamp holders. Prodems in protecting the cooperative shops from thieves was another important reason for closing shops in hamlets.Most of the settlers are depending 3n the cooperatives to buy foodstuff and other household items. Hence, settlers appreciate the services of cooperatives as retail shops.The second purpose of the cooperative shops is to purchase the farmers' products. The farmers' production is not always of the required quality, but the cooperatives do not have the flexibility of private traders :o change the purchasing prices accordingly. This has limited the cooperatives' purchasing opportunities.Produce Stores 23 buildings in hamlets and new towns were allocated to be used as produce stores. 10 of these have been constructed earlie' as World Food Program stores, the others have directly been constructed as produce stores. The main purpose of the produce stores was to facilitate the storing of inputs such as fertilizer and outputs such as paddy.Field observations revealed that only two produce stores were opened recently for the intended purpose. Some of the produ:e stores are used to hold classes of overcrowded schools. The stores could be utilizeil more effectively by farmers organizations to purchase and stock paddy and other products when their prices have considerably dropped.Drinking WaterThe project plan to provide drinking water to the new area by constructing one dug well for every 20 families has been unsuctessful due to the high rock table, salinity and severe drought in the area. Only 37 dL g wells have been constructed.As an alternative the project has suppl.ed bowser water to each household and service center. This was continued until every family was given piped water.The piped water system issues 3,000 cubic meters of water per day to be used only for drinking. Water is released during a limited daily period only to avoid blockage of filters. A flat rate of Rs. 11/= per month is charged per family. Water consumers organizations formed for each stamp ~o s t are providing support.The bowser water as well as the piped water scheme has changed the source of drinking water of the households. According to the large scale sample survey as much as 76 percent of the households in the new area and 17 percent in the old area are now using water from road pipes. The percentage of households using either well water of piped water has gradually increased during ihe project period; from 80 percent in 1991 to 96 percent in 1994 in the old area. In the iew area the percentage raised during the same period from 64 to 81 percent.As a result of the project's water supp,y the time spent especially by women to collect water has drastically reduced. In the pre-project period the vast majority of the households (90 percent) in the new area depended on nearby wells or tanks and rivers and the housewives had to spend around 30 minutes to collect water. Now this time has been reduced to 5 -15 minutes.The majority of the settlers expressed their dissatisfaction with the bowser water distribution. Most of them felt that the amount of water supplied was not sufficient. A considerable number of settlers mentioned malpractices of the officers involved in water distribution (giving more water to people with whom they had a close relationship) and also irregularities in distribution.Most of the alternative farmers stated that the tap water supply was the greatest achievement they had experienced so far from the KOISP. Only 23 percent of the respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the piped water scheme. Reasons given were amongst others the restricted time of water supply and the excessive number of families allocated for one tap. In fact, the limite tion of water release to certain hours of the day has resulted in the high number of consumers at stamp posts at the same time. Construction of more stamp posts or small tanks near stamp posts in places where the situation is worst, would allow a number of people to obtain water simultaneously.According to the management of the tap water scheme the operational costs of the scheme can not be covered by the charges paid by the consumers at present. The present charges are very small and could easily be increased. Furthermore, the reported misuse of water should be controlled. Consumers are not allowed to use water for cultivation purposes neither for bathing at the stamp post itself. But there is no control over the usage of water which is taken away from the post. It is recommended to strengthen the water users societies and to give them the power to control the use as well as the misuse of water. This may minimize the operational costs of the scheme.Other ServicesIn all four new towns sub-post offices have been established. These offices are operating with unequal facilities and several constraints. Nevertheless, it is a great service for the people in the new settlement and the old area close to Lunugamvehera and Weerawila.In the new area a total of 22 community centers have been established, one in each hamlet. Almost all of the centers are presently used for various purposes such as family clinics, farmers organizations, community meetings and village festivals. In every community center a nursery school is voluntarily conducted by one or two young women from the same hamlet.The project has also constructed 3 Agrarian Service Centers to assist settlers obtaining input requirements. At present two centers are operational. As nowadays inputs are available in the open market as well, ihe importance of the Agrarian Service Centers as places of input supply has been reduced. In isolated areas such as Beralihela the center is still beneficial.The project has established one police station in the Lunugamvehera township. This station provides a service to the area which earlier could not be provided by the Tissa police which had a larger area to cover. The new police station and the new road network of the project strengthened tTe supervision by the police in villages resulting in a reduction of illegal activities in the area. The number of offenses in the period 1986 to 1993 gives an erratic picture, but tke number of offenses solved by the police has increased in recent years.To enhance the agricultural research 0x1 area specific issues, the KOISP has established an agricultural research station in Weerawila new town. Only one research officer is available although two more officers were initially planned. Recently the station was involved in a research to identify suitable crops for the area maximizing productivity and income from the land under the existing condition of water shortage.The Research Station provides advises m d solutions for salinity problems of farmers in the project area. According to the statislics of the station 500 to 1,000 farmers a year had their soil tested. In addition the water and the soil in the area and the reservoirs are continuously tested by the station.To provide extension service to the project area, an extension unit has been set up, linking in with the normal extension system of the Agricultural Department. However, the Department abolished the post of agricultural extension officer, thereby breaking up the total extension system. At the time that these extension officers were still working at village level, around 40 demonstration plots and even more training programs were organized. But today more than 15 of these plots are deserted. Some of recent useful demonstrations included the cultivatior of maize and ground nuts, upgrading land with a combination of chemical fertilizer and paddy straw, use of pure fertilizer by mixing and the successful cultivation of saline land.Two types of staff quarters were constructed to enable service staff to stay in the project area. The first type of quarters are constructed at the sites of various service centers such as schools and hospitals. Generally, these are well-used. The second type is constructed in each hamlet for Field Inspectors, Colony Officers etc. In the initial phases of the project these quarters were frequently used by the relevant officers. Presently, the cadre of hamlet officers has been reduced as t-teir services are less required. Consequently, the hamlet level quarters are less used by these officers, but staff involved in other services are now using the same quarters.The District Farmer Training Center c'mstructed by the KOISP has a capacity of 150 farmers. This center conducts program:i for various groups such as farmers, Janasaviya The availability of accessible infrastructure facilities within shorter distance for the majority of households is an importmint achievement of the KOISP. For example, today around 90 percent of the households have a primary school, secondary school, An estimated 400 permanent employment positions have been created in the new service institutions of which 30 percent has been occupied by new area employees, 27 percent by old area employees and 43 percent by people from elsewhere. 46 percent of the employees are female.CHAPTER 5In this chapter the benefits and impa:t of the KOISP-project on the overall socioeconomic conditions in the project area are evaluated. The effects of the project on the following categories are investigated:The study has given special attention to women and the second generation of the settler families.Settler families, women and youth in the new area.Farmer families in the old area.Employees of implementing state agencies. Employees in the private sector.The people of Sri Lanka.The study is based on information gathwed from 479 households in the KOISP area. A sample survey has been carried out during March and April 1994. The sample design was a stratified two stage simple random sample with hamlet units as the prime sample units. The total farm families in the project area are distributed as follows: Left Bank 3,237 households, Right Bank 1,757 households, old area 2,985 households. Hence, the sample represented 6 percent of the total number of households. A structured questionnaire has been administered to each selected household. Additional information was collected from several secondary soiuces such as the Department of Census, Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Government officials in the project and other relevant studies published by ARTI, IIMI, the Land Commissioner and others.Benefit assessment and impact evaluation in the KOISP is a complex exercise because the effects are not only due to project activities but also to some micro-economic and social policies which are introduced by the government. Therefore, the study analyses have been done within the macro level socio-economic framework instead of limiting the analysis to the framework of the KOISP.Furthermore, since some data and inlbrmation regarding expenditure and income particularly with regard to credit marketing transactions and household expenditure were not available, the findings reflect only the general trend.The estimated farm population in t h e project area is 52,124, which represented 10 percent of the district population in 1993. The estimated population during the pre-project situation in 1980 also represented 113 percent of the total district population which was 438,000.The settlers can be grouped into twc major ethic categories: Sinhalese and Muslims. The Sinhalese population is evenly dktributed over the area. The Muslims as a small minority are living only in hamlet 8 in the Right Bank. The very few Tamils in the area were not included in the sample.The average family size for the KOI!iP area is 5.5, which is only marginally higher than the national average of 5 persons pc!r family. During the pre-project period the family size came to 5.7. The declining trend is similar to the national pattern. Two additional reasons specifically applicable in the KOISP area should be noted. Firstly, the health and education facilities in the area gradually improved during the last 15 years. Secondly, some settlers in the higher income groups did not bring all their family members to the project area because of a lack of eclucational, residential and infrastructure facilities. The age-specific school participation rate is another important indicator which illustrates the level of education and accessibility of education facilities. The general trend of school participation appeared to be cery high. This was due to the greater availability of schools, especially in the new area where construction of new schools was part of the main infrastructure facilities providcd for the new settlers. On the other hand, the general upgrading of schools throughout the island is also a factor responsible for higher school participation. The number of children avoiding schools has decreased over the given time frame.Housing and SanitationOf the sample households in the old are 3 62 percent had a permanent house, 38 percent a semi-permanent. In the new area only 14 percent of the surveyed houses appeared to be a permanent construction. The vast majority of the houses are small: in the new area 84 percent has a floor area of less than 500 square feet, in the old area 50 percent of the houses fall into this category. Compared to 1981 only in the old area the size of the houses has increased 84 percent of the houses in the old area had a floor area of less than 500 square feet at that time, 88 peicent of the houses in the new area.In the pre-KOISP period nearly 88 percent of the houses were owner-occupied. This has increased now to about 99 percent of the houses, mainly due to legal activities and the alienation process undertaken by the KOISP authorities.The extent of overcrowding in the houses has been estimated in two different ways. On the basis of \"minimum floor area per person\" 34 percent of the houses in the project area are overcrowded. On the basis of \"three persons or more per room\" only 12 percent of the houses appeared to be overcrowded. It was observed that houses in the new area are more overcrowded than those in the old area. Comparing 1981 and 1994, overcrowding declined faster in the old area than in tie new area in terms of three or more persons per room. Minimum floor space per pcrson decreased in the old area from 33 to 23 percent, while it increased slightly in the new area from 39 to 40 percent of the houses.Water availability is an essential infrastructure facility for better living conditions of the people. Nearly 80 percent of the households in the new as well as the old areas obtained their drinking water from their own wells or pipes. In 1981 only 10 percent of the households in the new area received their water from these sources, and 40 percent in the old area. Hence, it can be concluded that the water supply in the project area has been relatively good.Lavatory facilities are an important method for better sanitation and is also an indicator of the standard of living. Approximately 95 percent of the households were found having toilet facilities. In 1981 the figures for the old and the new area were respectively 75 and 49 percent.The type of toilets available can be seen as an indicator of the general status of health of the people. In the old area 70 perccnt of the households owned a water seal, 15 percent of pit with concrete slab. In the new area on the contrary, only 22 percent had a water seal, while 56 percent used a pit with concrete slab.Type and Size of HousesHousehold Durables Availability of specific household tlurables and other valuable items can be taken as a crude indicator of the economic status of a household. The study revealed that the old area farmers are relatively wealthier than the new area farmers.However, estimation of the level of prosperity or poverty in the KOISP area on the basis of household durables is a difficult and complicated task. Yet, it was obvious that there are some positive changes in the socio-economic conditions of the people who were settled in the schemes. This is not only the result of project activities, but also of micro and macro level socio-economic poiicies which are implemented by the government.While comparing the data and the project evaluation studies of 1981, 1985 and 1994 a declining trend of poverty in relative terms and an increasing trend of prosperity is revealed. This has been due to incre,ised income levels and production, development of infrastructure facilities and some other benefits which are provided by the project as well as the central government. Nevertheless, it is important to note that there are no significant data available to estimate poverty in absolute terms.Employment 5.5.1The different characteristics of the labor force are explored in order to identify the educational level, the economically active population and the employment and unemployment level of the population of the KOISP area. The labor force is defined to include all those in the age group of 15 to 64 years.The labor force in the project area did not show any major changes during the 1981-1994 period. The economically active population increased from 59 percent in 1981 to 64 percent in 1986, declining again to 62 percent in 1994. Low birth rate and out-migration are important factors contributing to this trend. The old area continued to record a higher percentage of labor force thm the new area. A considerable increase in the employed population of the new area must be noted. The percentage employed in the labor force in the new area increased from 32 percent in 1986 to 71 percent in 1994.Corresponding figures for the old area are29 and 63 percent respectively. This expansion is mainly due to employment oppor iunities provided upon completion of the project. This becomes clear while comparing the mid project evaluation data of 1986 and the final evaluation data of 1994. Both iireas continued to maintain a high economically active ratio but the new area registered an increasing trend over the period 1981-1994 whereas the old area registered a downward trend in this sector.The percentage of discouraged workers r,iised from 2 percent (1981) to 12 percent in the old area and from 1 to 6 percent in thi! new area. This increase is unavoidable but constitutes a serious threat to the development process.During the time span of 8 years from 3986 to 1994 agricultural related employment opportunities have decreased from 79 to 74 percent in the old area and from 83 to 82 percent in the new area. This reduction is attributed to the persisting drought and the consequent inadequate water supply dui ing that period.Salaried employment including the private sector and the state sector have reported a sharp upward trend in the same period. Self-employment was found more frequently in the old area showing an upward trmd, whereas skilled employment showed a downward trend in both old and new areas.Female dominance is found in farm helping, while males were dominant in agricultural operations. This was true in both areas. Women are more involved in the government and private sector in the old area as compared to the new area. The old area experienced less female participation in agricultural related activities.Nearly 93 percent of the heads of the households in the new area are engaged in an occupation connected with agricultural activities. In 1986 this was 83 percent. For the old area, this percentage increased from 80 Flercent in 1986 to 91 percent in 1994.Both old area farmers and new area settlim have experienced a growth in their income patterns, although this increase in only marginal. The increase is not proportional to the current cost of living and expenditure patterns.Almost two-thirds of the households in the new area received more than Rs. 2,000/= as average monthly income. An average monthly income of more than Rs. 4,000/= has been received by 24 percent of the sample households. Since the greatest part of the income is from agricultural related activities, the release of adequate water at the right time would have further increased their income.Almost 38 percent of the income is obtained from paddy and other agricultural activities.Yet, the income from agriculture is mul:h lower than had been expected due to the problems in water release. The income from livestock and other field crops gradually decreased because the contributions from paddy and salaried employment increased.Also the number of animals reared and the lands brought under OFC cultivation reduced.The second major sources of income (ire salaried employment and self-employment. Also government subsidies and food stamps have contributed considerably to the income level. This was particularly true for the new area settlers.Examining the housing patterns in relation to income class distribution, a clear association of improved housing ninditions and facilities with increasing income is noted.The majority of the population in thi! old area (65 percent) received an income of more than Rs. 3,000/=. Better infrastructu*e facilities and related education facilities further encouraged and strengthened the possibilities in seeking employment other than agriculture, which however still remains the major source of income. Compared to the new area settlers, the farmers in thc old area are better off in most of the domestic departments.Paddy remained the most importani source of income in the old area. Cultivation of other field crops contributed very little and the livestock sector showed a declining trend. The decrease could be due to the growing influence of other salaried employment, both government and private sector, and to the income from paddy as these activities remained the major income sources. Another reason could be the decrease in number of animals reared and in the lands biought under OFC cultivation.Also agricultural subsidies constituted a major source of income. Therefore removal of these subsidies would have an effect. Dependence on food stamps, school stamps and lunusuviyu was almost nil. Further, Middle-East employments started its headway to the old area since 4.5 percent of the monl hly income has come from this source.Hiring out agricultural implements contributed almost 6 percent to the income which is nearly ten times higher than in the new area.A positive association of improved hoL sing conditions and basic facilities with increasing income is observed.Due to better infrastructure facilities in the old area, this area reported a high percentage of households owning assets, In both areas bicycles are found to be the best mode of transportation. Motorized vehicles for transportation and tractors, both 2 and 4 wheels are more common in the new area than in the old area.The project documents of the KOISP griinted much attention to the development of the agricultural sector in the area. The main agricultural objectives formulated were as under.2.Increase the cropping intensity in the new area from 20 percent to 170 percent.Improvement of the irrigation systems in 4,300 ha. of the existing old system.Increase the cropping intensity in the old area from 140 percent to 170 percent.Incremental production of paddy and other field crops (OFC) by 44,000 mt. and 11,400 mt. respectively.Generation of agricultural employment.Providing agricultural support services such as input supply, extension, training, research, credit, marketing and Frocessing.This study utilized the ARTI large sample as sample frame out of which initially 150 farmers were randomly drawn. The final sample consisted of 32 farmers of the Left Bank, 62 farmers of the Right Bank and 54 of the old area, adding up to a total of 148 farmers. The farmers have been interviewed using a structured questionnaire during the months June, July and August 1994.Crop Production prior to the ProjectThe project area was regarded as one of the most important centers of agricultural production in the island. A well established tank irrigation system supplied water to the area. Nearly one-half of the household:; received a greater part of the family income through farming. The traditional land use pattern consisted of five types:1.Forest and uncultivated land.Home gardens and highlands.Chena plots.5.The major crop on irrigated lowlands was rice. Approximately 4,000 ha. was confined to this crop which was grown both in the maha and the yala season. The cropping intensity was found to be 121 percent with a marked difference between the irrigated and unimgated areas, 152 and 65 percent respectively. The average rice yield for the two seasons amounted to 2,500 kg/ ha. A significant share of the rice cultivation was confined to the major irrigation systems in the area.About 44 percent of the lands was utilized for rice as compared to 16 percent for chena cultivation on the unirrigable highlands and the encroached crown lands, 14 percent for homesteads and 25 percent consisted of highlands other than chena.The farming systems in the area were determined by the types of land and availability of water. Under irrigated conditions lowland rice cultivation had priority. On the highlands rainfed farming was practsed. This farming system can be grouped into two different types: chena cultivation wh,ch concentrated on annual crops and secondly the cultivation of perennials and annual:; on permanent highland plots and homesteads.Land for residential, commei cia1 and recreational purposes.Technology AdoptionAs the project area was basically a rice-growing area different institutes took initiatives to introduce innovations to the rice culture during the pre-project period. Most of the farmers cultivated 44% months Hig I Yielding Varieties (HYVs). Agro-chemicals and fertilizers were being used but the quantities appeared to be lower than recommended.Transplanting as a method of plant establishment was not popular in the area.The farmers' yields ranged between 1,820 kg/ha and 2,860 kg/ha depending on the cultural practices adopted and inputs applied. The higher yields came from the irrigated areas. Yet, the majority of the farmers considered chena cultivation as more dependable than irrigated agriculture.The technologies preferred by the farmers were HYVs, fertilizer, agro-chemicals and tractors for land preparation. The data demonstrate that adoption rates were higher in the irrigated areas. Crop Production -Current SituationThe majority of the farmers in the old area receive an adequate supply of water in both maha and yala which enables them to grow rice in both seasons. Although efforts were made to provide irrigation facilities thro igh a network of canals in the new area, farmers often experience conditions of water shortage. It has been observed that most of the farmers in the new area, both Left and Right Bank, grew their rice crop only in the maha season.For the maha season 1993-1994 the aver,ige yields in the old and new areas is estimated at 3,706 kg/ha and 3,649 kg/ha respectively, which indicates no significant difference. Farmers in the old area have obtained an average paddy yield of over 3,000 kg/ha even during the yala season.The main cropping systems in the lowlands of the old areas are: (1) maha rice cultivation followed by yala rice cultivation and ( 2 ) maha rice cultivation followed by other field crops. The latter cropping system is no1 prominent.The predominant lowland cropping system of the new area is maha rice cultivation followed by a yala fallow period. The cultivation of OFCs was introduced in the 1987-1988 maha season as a remedial meamre to overcome the water problem, but the sustainability of this solution can not bi! assessed as yet.The potential paddy yields in the KOISI' area are reported to approximate 4,800 kg/ha. A performance index' has been calculat2d separately for farmers in the new and in the old areas. On average farmers have exp oited 75 percent of the yield potential, whereas only 7 percent of the farmers in the new area and 13 percent of the farmers in the old area were able achieve the full yield potential.Cultivation of Other Field CropsThe KOISP had planned to cultivate ric2 in poorly drained soils and OFCs in well and moderately drained soils during the m,iha season. In the yala season OFCs would be introduced to 50 percent of the lowland area. This cropping pattern was suggested to solve the water shortage in the area. The results are however not encouraging. The majority of farmers in the old area limit themselves to rice cultivation in both seasons (91 percent in maha 1993-1994 and 63 2ercent in yala 1993), OFCs are hardly grown.About 31 percent of the farmers abandon their rice fields in yala altogether.On average 65 percent of the farmers in the new area have exclusively grown rice in the maha season 1993-1994 (Right Bank 81 percent, Left Bank 50 percent). Only 11 percent on the Right Bank and 16 percent cln the Left Bank have practised the combination of rice and OFCs in the same season. In the yala season the percentage of farmers who were able to cultivate rice as well as OFCs, was negligible. The rice fields were abandoned in yala by 92 perceni of the farmers. These data suggest that crop diversification has occurred only in a marginal form, farmers clearly prefer paddy.At the inception of the KOISP it waii expected to increase the cropping intensity in the old area from 140 to 170 percent. Reports reveal that the cropping intensity of the lowlands has increased to 163 percent which is a significant achievement. In contrast, the cropping intensity of the highland area did not exceed 65 percent.The cropping intensity in the new area was expected to raise from 70 to 170 percent. This objective has not been satisfactorily achieved yet. The lowlands of the Right and Left Banks have recorded cropping intensities of 98 and 48 percent respectively. The estimated cropping intensities in the highlands of the same domains is only 60 and 42 percent.The above data demonstrate that crclps introduced to the highlands, especially OFCs, have not been incorporated well into the farming systems.Chena cultivation is practised mostly on crown lands. A variety of crops such as maize, chilies, cowpea, gingerly, green gram, kurakkan, onion and vegetables are grown under rainfed conditions. Twenty percent of the farmers reported engagement in chena cultivation. The majority of them exploit plots in the category of 0.8 -2.0 ha. The fallow period has now been reduced to 1 -:! years, while some farmers utilize the same plot continuously converting the shifting cultivation into a permanent farming system. Mostly a mixed cropping system is implemented and external inputs such as fertilizers, insecticides and weedicides are only marginally used. Therefore, the cost of production is not very high. This farming system produces a considerable amount of grains, pulses and vegetables, but farmers often face marketing problems which result in insufficient farm incomes. Further, the cultivations are frequently damaged by wild animals. It also seems that institutional services such as credit, research and extension have not been oriented towards chena cultivation.Total ProductionThe study has revealed a fluctuating pattern for paddy production in the past seasons. Maha production was higher than y;la production in all the years. The KOISP had projected an annual incremental paddy production of 44,000 mt. The actual production for the year 1993 amounted to 41,000 mt. The uneven pattern of the annual total production is primary due to the fluctuating paddy area in yala seasons. The cultivated area in the old system was generally constant for both seasons. In contrast, the area under paddy cultivation in the new are,% showed a marked variation ranging from 0 to 1,616 ha. in previous yala seasons. Even in maha seasons the paddy area in the new system varied.The KOISP expected an annual output of 11,400 mt. of OFCs. The actual production of OFCs in 1993 amounted to only 2,800 nt., which satisfies not more than 25 percent of the projected production target.The cultivated area for OFCs showed a significant variation from 67 ha. (yala 1989) to 1,747 ha. (maha 1990/1991). Many farmers abandoned their fields in yala due to water shortage. However, during the last three seasons OFCs occupied an area of over 1,000 ha, which indicates a relatively stable SI tuation.Farm BudgetThe average cost of rice production in the area is estimated at Rs. 23,000/= per ha. Based on the farm gate price of paddy (Rs. 7.50/= per kg.) and the average yields of the sample (3,605 kg/ha) the calculated net income of rice production has been Rs. 4,200/= per ha. This implies a monthly net in:ome of not more than Rs. 700/ha. Hence, it appeared that rice production is not very attractive in terms of economic returns and further, it contributes only marginally t 5 the family budget.The study revealed that 44 percent of th? production costs were spent on labour wages, 39 percent on inputs and 17 percent on machinery and fuel.Among the OFCs grown in the area green gram, cowpea and ground nut are the most important crops. The average yields of these crops were below the potential yield.Cowpea and ground nut cultivation indicated net losses. Green gram on the contrary, has produced a profit of Rs. 24,000/= per ha. But since the majority of the farmers practise a mixed cropping system OFCs have generally yielded a net profit of Rs. 6,000/= per ha. Factors contributing to the low yields and the low income from OFCs vary from water shortage and diseases to marketing problems.Cost of Other Field Cropc~ CultivationTechnology AdoptionThe KOISSP made efforts to introd Ace technologies such as HYVs, fertilizers, agrochemicals, transplanting, multiple cxopping, processing and storage.HYVs have really gained popularity in the area, almost all the rice farmers cultivate these varieties now. Transplanting has been introduced as a plant establishment method, but it seems that farmers still are inclined to practise broadcasting. The reason should be sought in the high labour involvement in transplanting and in the timing of water issues.Nearly 70 percent of the farmers have applied fertilizers to their rice fields. Farmers in the new area show relatively lower aidoption rates due to the risk associated with the conditions of water shortage. Although the majority of the farmers have utilized fertilizers, it is reported that the reccmmendations on frequency and dosage were not followed by 35 percent of them.Pests and diseases were controlled with chemicals only, by almost 75 percent of the farmers. Most of them have nevertheless deviated from the standard recommendations.Weed control too was mostly done M i t h agro-chemicals. Yet, 30 percent of the farmers still practised manual weeding.An adoption index has been constru(:ted to measure the degree of adoption of given technologies by the farmers in a give,? domain. It appears that about 40 percent of the farmers belonged to the category of low adopters, revealing that technology utilization in the project area is not satisfactory.The study revealed that fertilizers and agro-chemicals are widely available in the project area. The ago-chemical companies have organized demonstrations and launched advisory services in addition to the supply of inputs. Still, the farmers' knowledge about standard recommendations pertaining to time of application, frequency, mixing ratio, threshold value and precautionary techniques is not satisfactory.The farmers have mentioned the high Firice, the low quality, the lack of advisory services and unavailability of inputs as constraints with respect to the use of fertilizers and agrochemicals. Half of the farmers considers the prices as too high which results in the application of lower quantities than recommended or avoiding to use these inputs altogether. The fact that farmers named lack of advisory services as major constraint could have been anticipated since the extension-farmer contacts were reduced with the removal of the Village Extension Workers.However, during adverse seasons farmers were often unable to settle their loans. As farmers experienced many adverse seasons in a series, they were unable to settle their institutional credit. Therefore, non-institutional borrowing increased during the past period.The crop insurance scheme was introduced by the Agricultural Insurance Board.Agricultural insurance was compulsory in the credit schemes and often the cost of insurance was included in the loan. ::he insurance payments were pre-determined by the extent of damage with a ceiling of Rs. 5,412/= per ha. for irrigated paddy and Rs.1,476/= per ha. for rainfed crops. The crop insurance scheme has encouraged farmers to adopt new crops, new agricultural techniques and cropping patterns with greater confidence.The present study indicates that only 55 percent of the farmers in the project area have contributed to the crop insurance s1:heme. Factors for non-participation were too low income, no confidence in the scheme, not having received enough benefits in past seasons and not having obtained adequate information.Agricultural Marketin,:At the inception of the project the Paddy Marketing Board and cooperatives were the main buyers of paddy and OFCs thi,ough a guaranteed price scheme for paddy and a floor price scheme for OFCs. As t h i ! government has oriented its policy towards the private sector these marketing institutions and these price schemes are not operating effectively. In fact, it seems that the marketing is completely controlled by private dealers.Prices for paddy as well as OFCs det:rease considerably during the harvesting periods and this proved to be particularly problematic for the latter crops. The absence of floor prices for OFCs caused significant piice fluctuations. In addition to a limited access to market information, these factors adversely affected the crop diversification program as introduced by the project.CHAPTER 7 LIVESTOCX DEVELOPMENTAlthough the KOISP area was considered to be one of the predominant cattle and buffalo raising regions of Sri Lanka, no livestock component was included in the first phase of the project. Only in the second phase of the project (1983 -1986) livestock was incorporated into the mainstream of thc development activities of KOISP. The major objectives were:1.Development of 1,000 ha. for liveiitock (and agro-forestry) enterprises.Incremental production of 4.1 mill ion liters of milk annually and saving of foreign exchange by import substitution.Improved living conditions of the beneficiaries and sustained economic growth.A recent study (1994) conducted by the ART1 revealed that only a meagre 3 percent of the farmers in the KOISP area show preference for animals other than cattle or buffaloes. Therefore, the study has focussed exclusively on cattle and buffalo raising activities as the single most important livestock husbandry practise in the Kirindi Oya area. The study has been conducted in three stages.In the first stage the project proposal and secondary data on the pre-project situation were scrutinized. It became clear that the project proponents had not paid any attention to livestock development at the project foimulation stage. Further, documentary evidence on the pre-project status of livestock husbandry proved to be scarce.The objectives of the second stage were to describe the pattern of livestock production today, to examine the various costs and returns associated with these livestock production practices and to depict the present institutional set up providing livestock services.In the third stage of the study an attempt was made to find out the overall impact of the project on livestock production activitiez in the KOISP area.The target population of the study consisted of all herdsmen in the project area. In the absence of a proper population frame the lists of member herdsmen of the three Cattle Owners Associations in the KOISP region, including both settler and non-settler herdsmen, were taken as the population frame. It should be noted that only 80 percent of the herdsmen in the area have obtained membership in these associations.A distinction should be made betwcmen the Herdsmen-Settlers and Settler-Herdsmen in the KOISP area. The former categoiy consists of the traditional herdsmen in the area who have been traditionally involved in cattle and buffalo raising. They are mainly concentrated in the old area. The Si!ttler-Herdsmen are those settler-cultivators in the new area who have adopted cattle and buffalo raising after they were allocated land in the KOISP project. All the Settler-Hcrdsmen are concentrated in the new area and they are part-time livestock farmers.A structured questionnaire was administered with a view to collecting detailed quantitative data on herd characteristics, feeding practices, animal health, costs of production, income, use of extension and other services. In addition case studies and rapid appraisals were used as surve 7 techniques.The study experienced severe constr,iints due to a lack of background information and published data on the pre-project situation. This made it hard to compare the present milk production data with those clf the past. Animal numbers presented another problem. Herdsmen were often reluctant to give actual numbers as they were hesitant to disclose their wealth position. Also, counting the number of animals owned is supposed to be a socially despised practise and therefore not done. It is felt that the numbers as reported by the herdsmlm are heavily underestimated. The Jungle Based System of cattle and buffalo rearinj; made data collection and field observations a difficult task.The traditional system of cattle and buffalo husbandry in the Kirindi Oya area was a low technology, low input and extensive system. Purchased inputs formed a negligible part of the variable costs, the major inpui was manual labour. The outputs of the system were milk and draught. It could be con sidered as an environmentally friendly crop-stock integrated system because the cropping system benefitted from draught power and organic fertilizer provided by the animals while the animals were fed on stubble left behind in the paddy fields after the cu tivation season. As most of the farmers were both herdsmen and cultivators, there was a social harmony between the two categories of farmers.One of the turning points that affected the pre-KOISP livestock industry was the introduction of tractors in the mid-twentieth century, which reduced the importance of male animals for draught power. Alor g with this technological change commenced the sale of male animals for beef.Cattle and Buffalo Husbandry in the Pre-KOISP PeriodOut of a total sample of 479 households only 44 kept livestock. Cattle and buffalo raising is the most important livestock enterprise, while poultry assumes a secondary importance. Poultry appeared to have gained popularity in the new area where more than half of the livestock raising households keep poultry. The small sizes of the flocks show that poultry is mainly kept for home consumption. Pigs and goats are not raised in the KOISP area although the latter are supposed to be good dry-zone animals.Neither the appraisal of the KOISP in 1977 nor the appraisal of the reformulated KOISP in 1982 mention the cattle and buffalo ir dustry in the area. Since the emphasis of the project was on settler-based irrigated crop production, about 1,800 ha. of scrub jungles used by herdsmen as grazing lands were cleared and a large number of irrigation tanks that supplied drinking water and wallowing sites for cattle and buffaloes were levelled and developed. These activities had an adverse impact on the cattle and buffalo husbandry practised by herdsmen in the old area, who now lost their traditional grazing grounds which were located in the new area. Moreover, the KOISP facilitated double cropping which drastically reduced the duration of the fallow periods. This prevented the herdsmen from keeping their animals in the fallow fields for extended periods of time. These changes have led to a modification of the traditional cattle and buffalo raising system. Today, five types of management systems have been adopted by the herdsmen in the Kirindi Oya area.The KOISP and Livestock Raising 1.3.The Village Based System of cattle iind buffalo raising is mainly practised by parttime farmers whose herds are dominated by cattle. They keep their herds in the village itself. During the nights the animals are enclosed into pen. Close supervision of the animals is essential during the cultivation period, therefore both women and child labour are extensively used.Due to the loss of traditional grazing land herdsmen in the new area are forced to take their herds to jungle areas during the cultivation periods. During the fallow period the animals are brought back to the village and are then fed on stubble left behind in the paddy fidds. This system depends on hired and family labour both.The traditional system is a modification of the pre-KOISP system of cattle and buffalo raising. As a consequence of the loss of the traditional grazing grounds and the reduced fallow periods, ths? herdsmen moved to jungles adjacent to their villages. Unlike the pre-KOISP system, the herdsmen bring the calves and lactating cows to cow pens i I the evening. They keep a closer eye on the animals than the old system in which some animals returned to the herdsmen only after a few seasons. The animals are brought back to the fallow paddy fields whenever possible.Some herdsmen, both in thcs old and new areas, have taken their herds to far away jungles in search of food and drinking water. The herds are kept in the jungle over long periods. However, the Jungle Based System can be regarded as a type of Migration System too as the animals are brought back to the villages when sufficient food is avaihble in the paddy fields.The Tethered Grazing System is adopted by Settler-Herdsmen in the new area.The herd size in this system 1s small and mainly cattle is raised. The purpose of production is principally to K eet household consumption needs. The animals are kept in cattle yards and sheds and they are fed with cut grass and straw. The system depends totally on family labor.In the new area the Village Based and the Migration System are equally important. In total 88 percent of all herdsmen in tht new area are engaged in cattle and buffalo raising under these two systems. In the old area almost half of the herdsmen practise the Migration System.Of the Settler-Herdsmen in the new area approximately 57 percent used the Tethered Grazing System, which is not practked at all in the old area.Reliable estimations of the animal population in the KOISP area are not at hand. Based on the available information the total animal population would come to 54,244, which are 26,3322 buffaloes and 27,912 cattle. According to knowledgeable herdsmen in the area, these figures must be heavy underestimations.Data provided by the herdsmen indicate that the number of animals today is slightly above the 1985 level. This is in contiast to the popular belief that animal populations have decreased since the implementation of the KOISP.The largest herds are maintained by Herdsmen-Settlers in the old area practising the Jungle Based and Migration System. Thc average herd sizes are 194 and 105 animals respectively. Even in the Village Based Srstem the average herd size is rather high 50 in the new area and 66 in the old area.Cattle dominates the herds in all management systems except for the Jungle Based System in the old area.In the Village Based System cattle is predominant in both the new and old areas. The largest herds are raised under the Jungle Based System, Migration System and Traditional System in the old area and, also the Traditional System in the new area.Approximately 25 percent of the animals in both new and old areas are of an improved type (pure breeds and cross breeds). In the Jungle Based System improved animals are mostly found among the buffalo population indicating that the aim of this system is mostly buffalo milk production for curd. In most of the management systems the calf population consists of more improved animals than the cow population which demonstrates an increasing interest among herdsmen in improving their herds.According to the respondents the calving percentage has increased slightly over the past six years for both buffaloes and cattle in the project area as a whole. The calving percentage is higher in the old area than in the new area.Information provided by the herdsmen rerreals that calf mortality has increased with the implementation of the KOISP. With the vlrterinary services provided by the project this situation should not have arisen. There miiy have been a high degree of misreporting by herdsmen who are biased against the KClISP.The average milk yield of an animal in the new area is approximately half that of the animals in the old area which can be attrihted to the food shortage in the new area. The herdsmen indicated that the average milk yield has shown a downward trend since the implementation of the KOISP.Figures on milking percentages show thai: curd production from buffalo milk is mostly concentrated in the old area. The major reason for not milking the cows appeared to be drought in both old and new areas.The lactation yield is low in the new area, probably due to insufficient availability of grazing land. The highest lactation yield is reported by herdsmen in the Village Based System in the old area where more feed is available and animals are raised under closer supervision than in the other systems.The Village Based and the Tethered Grazing System in the new area appeared to bring in negative gross profits indicating that they are not viable in the short run. However, family labor takes a great share of the total labor costs in these systems. If the opportunity cost of family labor is assumed to be close to zero, then both these management systems show positive gross profits.The long term viability of an enierprise is indicated by positive net profits. Even assuming zero opportunity costs for family labor, the Village Based System of management in the new area is noi viable in the long run.The costs of raising animals is lowest in the Migration System in the old area and highest in the Tethered Grazing Sjatem in the new area. If no costs are imputed for family labor, the costs or raising anmals in the Tethered Grazing System would be Rs. 299.16 per livestock unit which is tlie lowest of all systems. For the project as a whole the average cost of raising one live: tock unit is around Rs. 788/= a year.The gross income per livestock unit ranges from Rs. 1,100/= to Rs. 1,900/= per year in all systems except the Village Based System in the new area, where returns per livestock unit are Rs. 689/=, the lowest repcrted. On average for the total project, returns per livestock unit are Rs. 1,423/=.The net profit per livestock unit appeared to be negative for the Village Based and Tethered Grazing System in the new area as well as for the Jungle Based System in the old area showing the risk of disappcarance of these management systems. For the total project positive net profits of Rs. 59,'= per livestock unit per year reveal the long term viability of the cattle and buffalo raising activity.Profitability of Buffalo and Cattle Raising 1.To develop a 80 ha. Service Center.To import 25 pure-bred Sahiwal and 5 milking buffalo sires.To establish a specialized Extmsion Service.To purchase and supply to seltlers 2,800 local female cows and 400 local buffalo 60 heifers.To establish a milk collection, processing and sales system.Due to civil disturbances in the country during the years 1988 and 1989 the livestock development program of the MDADDP could not be carried out according to schedule. Some of the services planned could not be rendered.The pure-bred stud bulls expected to be imported at the commencement of the development activities arrived only in 1490. The response of the herdsmen to the 'board and lodging-system' has been poor. This system failed due to the feed problem within the Mahaweli Farm and due to the 3xoblem of transporting the animals by the herdsmen. As an alternative stud bulls were also stationed at five stud bull centers on the Left Bank. These bulls were freely reared by selected herdsmen. This produced better results than the 'board and lodging-system'.The other components of the cattle and buffalo upgrading program have not been very successful either. The failures can be attributed to the following reasons:The Cattle and Buffalo Upgrading Program -Herdsmen were reluctant to obtain breeding cows from the farm because theyComplaints were reported that some cows had problems delivering hybrid calves Some herdsmen stated that the breeding cows had already conceived when theyThe feed problem in the farm imFosed limits on the number of breeding animals were uncertain whether they would get a hybrid calf sometime later.of large body sizes.were purchased by the farm. Therefore there was a high risk of obtaining local calves from the purchased breeding animals.that could be kept on the farm.---Four milk collecting centers have been established. Groups of producer herdsmen were formed as a cooperative around these centers. The milk collection was highest in 1992 and has declined since then. It is evident that the MDADDP has not been able to compete with the private dealers of milk such as Milco and Nestle to whom most of the herdsmen sell their milk today. When thr! herdsmen sell their milk to the MDADDP they have to take their milk to one of the colkcting centers whereas the private dealers have appointed their own local suppliers who operate as small-scale collectors in the villages.The vaccination program appeared to bc one of the most efficient services rendered by the MDADDP. Vaccinations increased from 1,845 in 1990 to 12,602 in 1993. Further two field trips have been organized. One trip in 1992 with 28 herdsmen and the other trip in 1993 with 25 herdsmen particip;,ting. In view of the training resources available at the farm and the needs of the herdsmlm in the area, these extension services can hardly be called adequate.The production of the mini-dairy of the MDADDP also shows a declining trend since 1992. This can be attributed to the decreasing amount of milk collected.The major beneficiaries of the scrvices provided by the MDADDP have been the herdsmen in the new area. Milk marketing facilities, stud bulls and veterinary services have been obtained by a quarter of the sample herdsmen (n = 32) in this area. In the old area these services have been obtained by only a tenth of the sample (n = 68).Veterinary ServicesThe present program of activities of the veterinary surgeon's office at Tissamaharama includes vaccinations for HS and FM, training classes for cattle farmers, artificial insemination, castration and supply of stud bulls. 90 percent of the herdsmen in the new area and 80 percent in the old area have utilized the services of the veterinary surgeon's office.Institutional GoeditWith the establishment of the Mahaweli Farm loan schemes were designed to help the needy herdsmen to purchase stud tlulls or improved heifers from the farm. The center would act as mediator while the state banks would provide the loans. However, there has been hardly any demand for these loans. This does not necessarily mean that institutional credit is not important !or livestock development in the area. The problem was associated with the nature of the livestock rearing system which did not induce herdsmen to acquire good valuable animals to the herd.Cattle Owners AssociationsThe pervasive problem of crop damages by cattle, the rising conflict between herdsmen and cultivators and the strongly felt need for grazing land to feed their large herds was recognized by most of the herdsmer. in the KOISP area. During the latter part of 1991 and the early 1992 these herdsmen ibrmed three Cattle Owners Associations (COAs).The main functions performed by thl, Associations at present are the collection of milk, intervening in the problem of crop damages by animals which usually gives rise to conflicts with cultivators and working towards obtaining suitable grazing lands for the cattle and buffalo populations from the government. The major impetus for the formation of COAs came from the u *gent need to find suitable grassland for the large herds. All the COAs have identified Imds to feed their herds and discussions have been carried out at various levels of authority to obtain these lands.The most important problems enco~ntei~ed by the herdsmen today are associated with insufficient availability of grazing land, milk marketing problems and inadequate veterinary services .The KOISP project cleared large extents of forest lands and levelled hundreds of small tanks to develop land for cultivation The proponents of the project had really underestimated the significance of thew forest lands and small irrigation tanks in the sustenance of the traditional livestock raising system in the area. Apart from these project activities, land encroachment by chena cultivators and their land clearing activities have resulted in siltation of taiiks. The water holding capacity of most of the tanks has declined and they dry out rapidly during the dry season. The animals have to walk long distances in search of water and along with poor feeding, they lose weight and their milk production drops to less than half a liter per day.Another problem that emerged with the implementation of the KOISP resulted from the new possibility of cultivation during the yala season. This drastically reduced the fallow period during which the animals used to feed on stubble left in the fields. OFC cultivation was done in unprotected poc,kets dispersed in tracts. Thus crop damage by grazing animals became a serious problr!m. To avoid this the herdsmen were forced to move their herds away from the fallow paddy fields where OFCs are cultivated.With the loss of traditional grazing land iinimals were often raised close to the cultivated plots of land. This increased the risk of crop damage by the animals which is nowadays considered to be the major cattle problem. It must be noted that fencing of cultivated plots was done even by the traditional Kirindi Oya folk to protect the plots from animals. In fact, the herdsman and the cultivator happened to be the same person in many instances. At present, cultivators a,id herdsmen are often two categories of people who are in conflict with each other. NOW the cultivators seem to expect the herdsmen to keep their animals away instead of putting up fences around their cultivated plots. Costs incurred by herdsmen for crop damages form a considerable portion of the variable costs of cattle and buffalo raising. Some herdsmen in the Migration System in the new area pay crop damages equal to almost 38 percent of their variable costs.The problems associated with milk marketing are price fluctuations during the year and problems of transportation. Very often the herdsmen use motorcycles for daily transporting the milk to the collecting centers. This causes a quality deterioration of the milk if transported over long distances and high costs. This is especially felt during the dry months when the average milk yield drops by about half.With the termination of the livestock development activities of the MDADDP by the end of 1993 the herdsmen no longer received services such as vaccinations provided by the livestock officers of the Mahaweli .:arm. The veterinary surgeon can not handle all the veterinary needs of the herdsmen.At its initial stages the project failed to recognize the Kirindi Oya area as an important cattle and buffalo raising area. The significance of the scrub jungles and the countless number of small irrigation tanks in the sustenance of the livestock rearing system was not realized. Most of the problems faced by the herdsmen today are the result of this negligence.Although it was envisaged to develop 1,000 ha. for livestock development and agroforestry, this reforestation project failed to contribute any notable impetus to the development of the livestock industry. Hardly any management system based on these reforested land was found in the shidy.While the project planned an incremental production of 4.1 million liters of milk annually, the total quantity of milk in the KOISP area would be roughly around 2.6 million liters which is far below even the incremental milk yield projected.With respect to the objective of imprciving the living conditions of the settlers, the project has been able to help a few settlers (4 percent) to take up livestock raising on a small scale.Poultry appeared to be a livestock enterprise gaining popularity among settlers. They rear poultry mainly for egg producticn to meet domestic consumption needs rather than for the market. In view of the nutritional status of households, this is an activity that should receive attention of those concerned about the development of the Kirindi Oya area.Goat farming is not practised in the Kirindi Oya area although the goat is an animal which is well adapted to dry zone scrub lands as those found in the KOISP area. A well formulated extension program with incentives for innovators and early adopters would be required.Generally, it can be said that the project has failed to achieve its objectives with respect to the dairy industry.Of the different types of large scale cattle and buffalo raising systems, the Village Based and Jungle Based Systems of management would disappear in the long run for these systems enjoy negative net profits. Migration and Traditional Systems would remain but their sustenance depends on the rate of deforestation for other development activities and the rate of encroachment of jungle land by chena cultivators. One of the most important strategies in helping the livestock industry in the KOISP area is to allocate grazing land for the herdsmen in the three Cattle Owners Associations. These associations should be helped with technical support for the reconstruction of tanks and to dig wells.It is of paramount importance to strmgthen the veterinary service and the herd improvement program. A good herd improvement program should be supported by a strong extension service that encompasses farmer training classes focussed not only on a particular practice, but on the livestock production activity as a whole.Milk marketing has been pointed out as a major problem in the area but is not very significant compared to the problems mentioned above. The market for buffalo milk can be considered as near perfect. The problem is more acute with cow milk where collecting centers are located away from producticin areas and where exists an oligopsony rather than a perfect market. A solution would be to help the herdsmen setting up more collection centers under the leadership of the Cattle Owner Associations. The activities started in 1986. However, the introduction of fuel saving stoves has not been carried out while the establishment of medicinal herb gardens and planting of roadside avenues have been added as supplementary activities.For the assessment of the environmental impact of KOISP activities records of the Forest Department and the Department of Wild Life Conservation have been consulted. Several rounds of discussions were held with officials from various line agencies. Relevant plans and maps of the area were obtained front the Irrigation Engineer Tissa. In addition field work has been carried out visiting wocidlots, homelots and the forest and plantation areas. Information from the years 1986 to 1993 has been recorded. However, nursery information for the year 1986 was not available in the Forest Department records atTanamalwila. The number of plants pmduced in 1986 was therefore worked out by finding the excess recorded in later yeais.The target set by the Forest Department (ED) was to raise 500,000 seedlings per annum.Six maha seasons were identified for plant production from 1986/1987 to 1992/1993. Three million plants were to be produced in the FD nurseries. The actual number of plants raised is just slightly over 1 million which is far below the target. This may be due to the reduced extent of woodlots, homelots and plant distribution during the project period. 1.1 Million plants hiwe been distributed to farmers, the excess originating from outside purchases.Not all the seedlings have been planted by the farmers. Some farmers lost their motivation because the promise of usufruct rights and long lease agreements (up to 25 years) has not been kept. Although the project document has suggested this procedure, not a single lease agreement has been issued as yet. Another reason for not planting the seedlings can be found in the poor coordination of the plants distribution. Complaints have been reported that plants were supplied to farmers after the rainy season. Due to transport problems the FD failed to supply the plants well in time.Woodlot DevelopmentFor the development of farmers' woodlots a target was set at 400 ha (1,000 acres) to be distributed among 540 families. The objective was to establish tree crops together with agricultural crops in a Taungya system. The woodlot would be provided on a 5 year lease to be extended to 25 years with usufruct rights. Consequently, the farmers would obtain fuel wood and small woods for their needs.From 1986 to date, 687 acres have been allocated to 441 farmer families while the area finally planted did not exceed 611 acres. This indicates an achievement of 70 percent of the intended families and 61 percent of the projected area. Reasons for these poor results should be sought in the preference of farmers for cultivation, thereby ignoring the tree planting component in the agro-foi,estry system. Yet, compared to other plantations raised by the Forest Department in the past, this is a good result. This success is mainly due to the participation of the farmers. Higher outputs would have been achieved if the promised long leases were issued. The fanners here too had requer fed the FD to issue them long term agreements fur usufruct rtghts but this was not done. Occasional damges by elephants ale experienced.Medicinal Herb GardensIn addition to the woodlot and homelot development the Forest Department undertook a program to establish medicinal herb gardens. Commencing at 1986/1987 15 herb gardens comprising of 1 acre blocks have been established. The gardens are located close to schools, government buildings, corn munity centers and residences of Ayurvedic medical men. Eleven different species of trees and herbs are grown. These herb gardens have become a source of readily available material for Ayurvedic treatment, the settlers collect the leaves and bark of the trees n-henever they require them. Nevertheless, the gardens are not well maintained, most herb lots are overgrown with weeds.While the Forest Department's target for planting at roadside avenues was 36 km, 44 km have been realized in the period from 1986 till 1991. The planting has been carried out on a self-help basis by fanners living at the road side.The climatic conditions in the area have been ameliorated to a great extent as a result of the planting of these trees. Mo 'eover, the trees provided the much needed shade to roads, homesteads and birds. The lower branches serve as fodder for the livestock and the dry and dead branches provide fuel wood.Live FencingThe objectives of planting live fences were to provide fences to the homelots, to produce fodder for the livestock and to geTerate fuel wood from the pruning. It was projected to supply:- --For the total program an achievement of 450,000 stem cuttings was envisaged. In the period 1990 to 1993 not more thau 95,300 sticks have been supplied which implies a result of even less than 25 percent. The survival rate of the cuttings in the field is estimated at 60 percent, the failures being caused by long delays in transportation and untimely supply (eg. during dry periods).The KOISP provided the following constructions to the Forest Department:-1 Forest Ranger's Quarters, Lunugamvehera  Many video shows and lectures on t:onservation, protection and planting of trees have been delivered to participants and school children. As a result the illicit cutting of the dwindling forest resources has been reduced. Settlers have realized the value of tree planting. Planting techniques and the choice of species are known to them.The establishment of a rest named Thuru,jevena in the project area served as an excellent spot for awareness education. Unfortunately, these days the rest is not used for this purpose any more. Therefore it is sugger#ted to reorganize the place and to reintroduce the awareness education program.The forests in the project area are of the Dry Mixed Evergreen type. There are strips of riparian lowland forests close to waterways and coastal forests. Most of the area has been logged and partially cleared for clrena cultivation. As a result scrub vegetation dominates with a few emergents such as Palu, Kolon, Satin, Thelambu, Veralu and Ingini. These forest types cover an estimated awa of 1,645 ha. The people living in the project area continue to extract fuel wood from these forests. In the RB Mahapelessa forest blocks some chena cultivation is still practised but as a result of the irrigation settlements this cultivation technique is reducing. There is no evidence of illegal felling of timber.Reforestation has been carried out on a minor scale only. The 100 acres which were replanted have been considerably damaj;ed by elephants and cattle.A total area of 1,988 ha may be considered as lands covered with trees. This includes natural forests, woodlots, medicinal herti gardens and Forest Department Plantations.Before the start of the KOISP in 1986 elephants moved freely within the project area.With the opening of the Lunugamvehera National Park an attempt was made to drive the herds from the command area and to enclose them within the National Park. This has been quite successful, but lone elephants and families of three (tumpath rela) continue to raid crops and home gardens in the settlements.The completion of the boundary survey of the National Park is expected to take another six months. As long as the boundaries are not settled the laws pertaining to the National Park can not be effective. About 300 villagers continue to practise chena cultivation within the proposed Park. The officers of :he Department of Wild Life are unable to evict them until the law comes into force.An estimated 10,000 privately owned bu::faloes and 2,000 neat cattle roam about in the Lunugamvehera National Park. These animals threaten the limited stock of fodder grass and drinking water during droughts, creating problems for elephants and other ruminants. Unless the cattle population is provided with alternative lands the wild animals will continue to visit the village farm lots. In this chapter the following four compclnents of environmental impacts of the KOISP project are reported.1.3.Disturbances in the lagoon ecology of the natural lagoon systems which are located in the lower coastal plain i.esulting from the altered hydrology of inflow from the New Irrigation System. This includes the Bundala bird sanctuary component too.Salinity hazards arising from the leaching of soluble salts from the New Irrigation System (NIS) to the command are1 of the Old Ellegala Irrigation System (OEIS).Modifications in the hydrology oj' the lower floodplain areas and the irrigated command area of the OEIS.Soil erosion in the undulating termin of the newly irrigated lands and the silting of the natural drainage water ways located within the NIS.In maha 1991 -1992 and the following yala season four trips were made to three lagoon areas. During these trips field observaticlns were made making use of 1982 air photos as well as 1:50,000 ABP maps of the Surv ?y Department. These maps provided the base for proper location and delineation of the natural features such as lagoons, streams, drainage ways, outfalls and watershed boundaries. Water samples were taken for testing at the Weerawila Agricultural Research Station laboratory for electrical conductivity. More detailed field traverses were made within the Bundala Bird Sanctuary area. These studies continued up to late maha 1993.In the New Irrigation System three locat ons were monitored for trends in soil salinity levels. Electrical conductivity measurements were made on 1:5 soil water extracts of soil samples taken. These studies continued i'rom maha 1989 through to yala 1993.In the Old Ellegala Irrigation Systcsm systematic sampling and testing of the quality of irrigation water at fortnightly intervals from the main Lunugamvehera and the four Ellegala system reservoirs commenced in January 1990. Corresponding soil sampling of salinity affected areas also cornmenzed from this period and continued up to maha 1993-1994. Both pH and conductivity of soil solutions and soil paste 1:l were measured for each sampling site and date.These studies are based on regular visits from 1991, and field observations made with the aid of air-photos and Irrigation Department layout maps which showed contours of the land. Several interviews were made with farmers in the affected areas in the lower floodplain area. Detailed field inspections were carried out twice a year since 1991 around the area of the outfall of the main river and its recent altered course to the sea.Six benchmark sites were selected from the first, second and third order drainage maps. Sharpened L iron stakes were drivea into the ground in June 1991, and levels of silting noted at bi-monthly intervals. Supporting observations were made in other tracts by rapid field inspections at 3 to 4 monthly intervals for the purpose of comparison and co-rela tion.Disturbances in Lagoon Ecology and the Bundala Bud SanctuaryThe Bundala lagoon is located within its own independent catchment and is in no manner influenced or hydrologically Zonnected to any drainage flows from the Weligatta Ara. Had the proposed Right Bank tracts 3 and 4 been developed according to the original development plans, the Bundala lagoon would have received the resulting drainage inflows from the newly irrigated lands.Other activities than those arising frcm the KOISP irrigation interventions have caused modifications to the natural hydrology of the lagoon. Firstly, the western portion of the Bundala lagoon (520 ha) has been converted into a saltern which is exploited by the National Salt Corporation. Secondly, an artificial sea outfall has been cut through the sedimentary sandstone barrier (the dune ridge) from the lagoon towards the sea to expel excess water from the lagoon.A greater part of the area covered by the Bundala lagoon can be regarded as a natural habitat of fish, birds and other wild life. As long as there will be no irrigation development planned for Right Bank tract 3 and part of tract 4, the KOISP is not likely to have negative impacts on the present environmental regime of the Bundala lagoon system, which is now in an acceptable slate of a sustainable environmental equilibrium.The Embilikala and the Malala lagoons are interconnected by a meandering incised canal. While the Embilikala is an inland lagoon with no direct outfall to the sea, the Malala lagoon has a direct link to the sr!a at the Malala modera.The Embilikala lagoon (430 ha) receives a large quantity of drainage water from Right Bank tracts 5 and 6 of the KOISP in addition to the normal run-off from its own catchment. The Malala lagoon (650 ha) receives all the drainage water from the Badagiriya irrigation system (850 ha) in addition to the normal run-off from the Malala Oya catchment.Inflows into these two lagoons fluctuate) depending on the amounts of drainage water received, the water levels vary from +1 msl to +2.2 msl accordingly. High levels of salinity between 14 and 41 ppt occur during the dry months of July to September, low levels of salinity between 7 and 15 ppt are measured during the wet months of November and December.The Embilikala and Malala Lagoons Field interviews with the villagers around these lagoons reveal that the Embilikala lagoon has been subject to the most serious negative impacts since the development of the KOISP started. Increased flows of fresh water into the lagoons from the KOISP scheme have now reduced the lagoon's salinity to sub-optimal levels for prawn production.It has not been possible to estimate the degree or levels of agro-chemicals such as fertilizer and pesticides brought in with the drainage water from the irrigated lands in Right Bank tract 5 and 6. However, the non-occurrence of algal blooms and the presence of small fish species that are sensitive to lower threshold levels of pesticides provide an indirect evidence of the absence of a serious threat.The Irrigation Department recently constructed a canal to discharge excess fresh water from the two lagoons. This canal appeai,ed to be successful in its objectives to maintain the water levels as prescribed and to lead sufficient salt water into the Malala lagoon at high tide in order to obtain the requlred salinity level for prawn cultivation. The performance of this canal should be prclperly monitored to assess if adaptations in the management system are to be made.The Bundala Bird Sanctu,iryDue to the shortfall of water supply in the main Lunugamvehera reservoir, the development of the proposed Right Barrk tracts 3 and 4 has not taken place. Therefore there has been little or no disturbance in the natural forest cover in the proposed buffer strip located between the Bundala sanctuary and the proposed tracts 3 and 4.A more environmentally destructiv? activity which takes place in this area is that of shell mining. Although this is not related to KOISP development activities, it is mentioned here because it is likely to have long term negative impacts on the environment of the Bundala National Park if permitted to expand beyond its present level. Associated with shell mining is the cutting of trees and collection of fuel wood for burning the shells. This results in a depletion of the ve$;etation cover and in the creation of unofficial access tracks within the sanctuary area. Th? forests around the lagoon are of critical importance as they protect the soil against excessive surface erosion and consequent soil wash into the lagoons, thereby shortening their life time.The New Imgation System Initially complaints of soil salinity were reported from the newly developed lands in the new area. The complaints reached a peak in the 1989 maha season but declined progressively since. Currently, salinity is found only in very small areas located adjacent to the natural drainage valleys. This occurs especially where the natural drainage ways are not functioning properly or eke have been purposely blocked by unauthorized cultivators who illegally developed the drainage reservation areas.During the last five years the soluble salts initially present in these newly developed lands have been leached out by the Class I quality irrigation water that comes from the main Lunugamvehera reservoir. At present very little salinity is reported for the rice crop during the wet maha season. Only if rice is grown during the dry season after May when irrigation supply is limited and also when the evaporation rates exceed 7 mm per day, there is yet some upward capillary movement of salts, mostly during July and August. This depresses the performa ice of the rice crop, but it does not affect the OFC's which are recommended during the dry season.In the preceding years more serious complaints of salinity have come from the OEIS where farmers reported that the soluble salts leached out from the NIS were being collected in the four old major tanks that service them.For the last 100 years the alluvial soils of the Ellegala have been irrigated with Class I irrigation water originating from the main Kirindi Oya and diverted to the command area through the Ellegala anicut. This coupled with the incised nature of the downstream Kirindi Oya had prevented the build ng up of salts.The Ellegala used to have an adequate drainage network leading to several outfalls. These outfalls were damaged by the 1969 floods and have not been repaired or maintained since then. It is from this time that farmers in the lower reaches of the Ellegala report incipient occurrences of salinity in their areas.In January 1990 the Department of Agricdtwe commenced a program to test, once every fortnight, the quality of the water in the Lunugamvehera and in the five Ellegala tanks.The quality of the water in the Lunugamvehera was well below EC of 0.20 milli mhos per cm during the wet season from October to January and hovers around 0.25 for the rest of the year. In the case of the Tissa IYewa and the Yoda Wewa EC values increased to 0.75 milli mhos per cm between March and June and between August and October. EC values for the Weerawila exceeded 0 75 milli mhos per an between March and June.While for almost all twelve months of the year the water quality in the Lunugamvehera is Class I, the quality of the water in the reservoirs of the Ellegala fluctuate considerably during a season. This depends on the reception of substantial amounts of salt enriched drainage water from the new areas and on the amount of Class I water received from the Lunugamvehera via the Ellegala anicut.The Ellegala has now to cope with added accretion of soluble salts coming from the drainage waters of the new system. As a result of the inadequate drainage in the Ellegala it presently acts as a sink for salts coming from both the upstream new areas and normal cyclic salts and other accretions as well.Monitoring of the quality of the drainage water at four outfalls located within the command areas of the Tissa Wewa anc, the Yoda Wewa commenced in May 1993. A clear trend of increasing salinity of drainage water for the upper to the lower reaches of the command area was observed.The following recommendations are made to mitigate the effects of salinity:1.A low-cost water quality monitoring system for the five reservoirs should be sustained with a view to releasing the required amount of Class I water from the Lunugamvehera reservoir.As two factors contribute to thj? salinity problems of Ellegala, two different solutions are suggested. Firstly, the increased salinity contribution of tank water should be modified by dilution from Lunugamvehera water. Secondly, the drainage congestion in the Tisss and Yoda Wewa command areas should be cleared by keeping the drainage ways free from blockage and by ensuring that they are connected to the main arl erial drains and eventually to the outfalls to the sea.It is extremely important to continue the fortnightly monitoring of water quality in all reservoirs and the four outfdls over the next five years. This would help to keep track of the trends in salinity as the basis for the appropriate corrective action to be taken.Consequent on the construction of tlie Lunugamvehera reservoir the following dominant changes in the hydrological regime have taken place.Modification in Hydrology of the Old Ellegala Irrigation System 1.4.There is no natural scouring of the Kirindi Oya river bed especially in the section between the Ellegala anicut and the point of entry of the Weerawila Aru. There is also less scouring of the rive1 bed from this point up to the sea outfall in the rest of the main Kirindi Oya.A new river course has carved itself out as an outfall to the sea. However, this river can take only a smaller discharge than the main Kirindi Oya river and is therefore just sufficient for the minimum evacuation of accumulated salts in the lower flood plain.There is no further flooding of the lower flood plain during November and December and no further deposition of any river borne material in this area. The settlers had thriving gardens of coconut and other tree crops which are now adversely affected by the absence of flooding and enrichment.In contrast to earlier days farmers now report a significant dry weather flow in the Kirindi Oya resulting from the drainage flows in the NIS during the yala season. This has helped them to lift small quantities of water from the river during this period and to cultivate high value crops on the levee banks of the river.The altered hydrology of the CEIS has affected both the water table and the water quality of the wells in the homestead settlement areas. Complaints of increasing salinity have been reported from users of wells located close to the hydrological influence of the Weerawila a n i the Yoda Wewa during the dry season. Yet, the salinity was not high enough 10 make the water unusable. Wells located further south down the river course have benefitted from an enhanced water level during the dry season.The Old Ellegala Irrigation System is located within a slightly uplifted flat alluvial plain and has an incised major river the Kirindi Oya, cutting through it. In this type of landscape there little or no erosion hazard nor silting is experienced.The New Irrigation System on the conirary, is located within an undulating residual mantled plain with slopes varying betu,een 3 and 6 percent in the upper aspect of the toposequence and between 1 and 2 perccnt in the lower aspects. The soils are 75 percent reddish brown earth and 25 percent sohdized solonetz. The reddish brown earth soils have a low structural stability and are thus subject to erosion on sloping lands. The solodized solonetz soils are sodic soils with an exchangeable sodium percentage of more than 15 percent. They are subject to dispersion under flood irrigation until the sodium gets flushed out. But because all the irrigable land has been terraced for wet paddy cultivation, the erosion threats have been minimized. The limited erosion that was found, is mainly slumping and has been observed on poorly maintained field channels, on a portion of the distributary channels and on the unprotected banks of the main canals where the channel is located on filled scctions of the channel traverse.Almost all the land in the NIS was pr'rviously under chena cultivation. Because the fallow periods shortened in some parts of the former NIS, there had been observable soil degradation. The terraced land development for wet paddy cultivation has arrested this trend, the irrigated land is now in good health.The removal of the forests for land development for irrigation has had no adverse impact since a more productive and sustainable tree cover has been established around the settlement homesteads. In sum, it cciuld be stated that the development of the NIS has had a positive environmental impac't with respect to the soil erosion menace.Most of the surface soil wash and silting of drainage ways and streams has occurred during the development phase and the initial irrigation phase of KOISP. A three year period of monitoring commencing in June 1991, recorded very little or no silting in the first and second order drainage ways. !substantial silting was observed in the higher order drainage ways. A major part of the silt load comes from the less stable banks of the main canals especially in those locations that are used by buffalo herds as crossings.Run-off from the poorly maintained road network also contributes to the silt wash.Beneficiary participation in rehabilitation of the Ellegala Irrigation System.Although many aspects of the KOISP went very well, this section focusses on the problems in an attempt to learn how :o improve project management for future projects.Financial management is not discussed here as it is the subject of auditor's reports. However, reference is made to the ef :ects of the various problems on total project costs.The fact that the costs about doubled over the life of the project requires explanation.Project Planning Problems There were a series of controversial decisions and errors that occurred in the planning of the KOISP. Firstly, the much cliscussed decision about the dam location was apparently motivated by the need to maximize the new area to be brought under irrigation rather than by consideration of what would be the most cost-effective approach.Secondly, the water availability in th 2 Kirindi Oya was badly overestimated. Although this seems to be due to a weather change rather than errors in data collection or analysis, it might have been better to be more cautious in planning around the estimated figures.Thirdly, the Project Appraisal Reports proposed the planting of other field crops to reduce water demands. However, whether markets for OFCs existed nor the access that farmers would have to them were nclt considered carefully by the planners. Moreover, the suitability of the soils for this croFping pattern was assumed while experience in the new areas indicates that about half the new areas that have been developed are suitable only for paddy during maha. The proposed cropping pattern appears to have been designed to fit the estimated water availability without full consideration of the needs of the farmers. As a result there has been only a small shift to OFCs.Further, studies of the geology of the proposed dam site failed to adequately sample the variability at the side. Thus, after ewavations began in 1980, it was found that the proposed dam site was not totally appropriate. Much more detailed investigations were necessary to define the geology well enough to allow for satisfactory redesign of the dam, The required changes took time and added greatly to the costs. Also estimates on the availability of construction materials turned out to be over-optimistic. Materials had to be brought from further away, significantly increasing costs of construction.Without investigating groundwater, project planners planned to use dug wells to provide domestic water for the settler:;. Problems arose in 1982, leading to investigations that showed suitable groundwater was not generally available and to the decision to build a piped water system that takes its water from the Lunugamvehera Reservoir. This decision also raised costs considerably.Although the Hambantota area has long been famous for its dairy products and cattle herds, the planners seem not to have given thought to the consequences of taking over the large areas of graze for the cattle for small-holder irrigated agriculture. There is now a \"cattle problem\" in Kirindi Oya since cattle cause much crop damage, particularly to OFCs.The main problem seems to have beer, that the project was planned by irrigation, settlement, and agriculture specialists. Neither livestock specialists nor local residents were included.If the issue of the dam location is left aside, all of these planning problems resulted, at least in part, from inadequate information for planning. Better information on water availability, on the geology of the dam site, on the availability of groundwater, on the distribution of soil types, on crop maikets, and on cattle would have enabled the planners to anticipate most of the major problems that occurred, many of which raised the costs and reduced the benefits of thcs project. More caution in planning would have helm warranted. A project design that would have been implementable in stages might have helped.The 1977 Appraisal Report estimated thz,t it would take four years to complete the dam and six years to complete the construction of the whole system. In fact, it took eight years to complete the dam and the whole system was never completed. Also, costs increased tremendously during the peri 3d.The following factors contributed to construction delays at Kirindi Oya:Delays in Construction of the Irrigation SystemThe basic data on the geology and water resources of the area were insufficient for the design of the dam, for adequate network and construction planning. The dam and the spillway had to be redesigned, channels often had to be realigned and structures moved. All thi!; increasing costs and time delays., -There were significant delays and problems with contracting and procurement processes. The most importarit of these was the delay in awarding the contract for the dam construction. The original work plan assumed that the contractor would be fully mobilized by mid 1979. The contract was not awarded until 1980 and the contractor did not bei;in work until September 1980.The Irrigation Department had great problems keeping some of the contractors on schedule. The Department seemed to have relatively little control over the construction schedule of the dam contractor, the River Valleys Development Board (RVDB). The RVDB had great difficulties with equipment maintenance and getting spare parts. They had an undisciplined work force and further, because of security problems getting the needed explosives was problematic. The biggest problem however, was not having sufficient cash. Ultimately, the Irrigation Department took part of the dam contract from the RVDB and awarded it to another contractor.-There were also delays in the construction of the main canals. A variety of arrangements were used, largcr contracts, small contracts and force account. The basic problem seems to lie in the balance of power between construction supervisor and contractor. With small contractors, the Irrigation Department is quite willing to demand performance and threaten to cancel contracts. In contrast to large contracts, a small contract can easily be awarded to a new contractor without causing major delays In the case of the dam contract, the RVDB had political support to consider.These delays were a major cause of the cost increases. The following suggestions might help future projects avoid these delals:1.Either better data on the area s nould be provided through better project planning studies or provision should be made in the design and construction process itself to get the data. In the latter cise additional funds have to be provided to cover the redesigns that will arise.Sri Lankan and donor contracting and procurement procedures should be streamlined and simplified to avoid major delays. One cause of slow contracting is the requirement for Cabinet approval of the award of large contracts. This requirement should be dropped not only because of the delay but also because it encourages political interventions.In Sri Lanka, the balance of power between agencies supervising contracts and large contractors is weighted too heavily in favor of the latter, partly because of lengthy contracting procedures anll political involvement in contracting. Power needs to be rebalanced by a) streamlining contracting procedures as mentioned above, and b) using the smalles,t contracts consistent with efficient project management.Problems in Management of the Settlement ProcessThe settlement process at Kirindi Oya included several separate tasks: surveying the area, selecting the settlers, allotting each s8ettler family a house site in a hamlet and farm site, providing initial support for the settler family until their income starts to flow, constructing the basic public infrastructure, training the settlers in irrigated agriculture and other needed skills, and solving prodems of the settlers as they occur. All of this was handled by the Land Commissioner's Department (LCD). For the most part, the process flowed smoothly, there are few complaints. However, three major problems have arisen:-Advanced alienation refers to the practice of settling farmers on the land before the irrigation construction is com Aete to prevent problems with squatters. The first settlers were given their allotments in the second half of 1983, expecting that the first water issues from Lunugrmvehera would be made in 1985. Because of the delays, some settlers had to wait almost three years before cultivating their allotments. LCD was responsible for supporting them during this period, thus raising the costs. Besides, in many cases LCD officers had to identify the settlers' allotments before the irrigation channels were constructed or even before detailed designs were done. As a result, many settlers ended up with a false idea of their plot boundaries. Also, the channels were often realigned. Because of these problems a great many disputes have arisen between settlers.-A current problem in the new areas of Kirindi Oya is the nonresident allottee. These are persons who have resources elsewhere that they use for making a living. These allottees do not participate in farmer organizations, they also rarely -Failure to investigate the groundwater resources of the area led to a failure to plan for adequate domestic water supplies. The chosen alternative, the piped water supply system raised cos8ts, not only because this system was more expensive than digging local wells, but also because, until the system was completed, the LCD had to supp y water to the hamlets in bowsers.The main difficulties laid in .:he contracting process to be followed for constructing a piped water supply system. The plans and the contract were much delayed by the need to donor and Cabinet approval for each.The real causes of these problems lie elsewhere.The problematic consequences of advanced alienation were greatly aggravated by the delays in irrigation system construction while the nonresident idlottee problem has been aggravated by political intervention in the selection process. The delay in construction the piped water system is due to the same constraints.The direct intervention of politician!; in settler selection has been constantly reported verbally. For KOISP, this interventim aggravated the \"non-resident settler\" problem.As noted above, politicians also oversee the award of large construction contracts.Reducing the direct role of politician:; in these areas would help to prevent some of the reported abuses, such as ignoring se tler selection criteria.While reduction of direct intervention by politicians overall will require a major cultural change, specific efforts, including widespread publicity about the problems, can be directed at specific situations. This can only happen, however, when the top political authorities make it happen.For the KOISP, the various executin:g agencies worked largely independently of each other. Coordination mechanisms functioned primarily to keep finances flowing, to ratify major changes in the project, and to adjust time schedules. Although the mechanisms proved adequate to solve many problems, they were not able to address those problems whose solutions required cooperativi? planning and effort from two or more agencies. As a result two major problems wwe not dealt with: the cattle problem and crop diversification.The cattle problem consists of the fact that the owners of the large herds of cattle in the area have difficulty in finding pasture. As a result, the cattle often wander freely near cultivated areas and damage crops. ' The solution to the cattle problem involves some combination of finding pasturage for {he herds, perhaps including finding ways to share the cultivated area, and reducing herd size. Finding a solution requires coordinated help from the LCD and other government agencies concerned with land administration and help from livestock agencies.Although reference was made to the problem in Project Coordinating Committee minutes frcim 1983, no coordination exists and no solutions have been found.Effective promotion of OFCs among farmers requires help from the Department of Agriculture to teach farmers how to grow OFCs, help from the Irrigation Department to make sure water is delivered in the right amounts at the right time, help from unspecified agencies to prevent crop damages from elephants and cattle, and help from marketing specialists to identify and provide access to markets for the crops. Although crop diversification is a key requirement for the success of the KOISP, the KOISP coordination mechanisms did not supply an effective means of getting the needed coordinated efforts. No progress was made until 1989.There are two ways to provide coordinated effort that have worked in Sri Lanka:1.Creation of a special interdisciplinary project agency like the Gal Oya Development Board or the Maha weli organizations can provide coordinated efforts. However, this is expensivc! and it has so far proven impossible to kill these agencies once their job is over. For example, the main dam contractor, the RVDB, is the descendant of the Gal Oya Development Board.Using limited purpose committees whose members include agencies that can provide special rewards to the pnrticipants or that include farmers who can provide personal satisfaction. This IS not as satisfactory a solution as the a special agency but it does not give rise to the problems created by special agencies.10.2.5For this component, ARTI has carried out a baseline survey and a midterm evaluation study and a large number of studies on specific aspects of the project. These studies have generated a great deal of information on the area and on the effects of the project.Two aspects of ARTI's work kept it from serving the needs of the project as well as it might have: ARTI did not establish a continuous monitoring program to provide feedback to KOISP management. And secondly, the results of ARTI studies often came out late and were thus less useful for planning and decision-making than they could have been.A continuous monitoring system that could provide frequent and rapid reports would have been more useful and is suggested for future large projects.Beneficiary Participation in the KOISP ARTI's study on beneficiary participation carried out among farmers and officers, points out that there was no system to involve local persons in the planning and design of the irrigation systems or settlements. For the two main construction activities of the irrigation system and of the settlement facilities local persons were recruited to provide labor. In the 1992 ARTI survey, 99 percent of the surveyed settlers indicated that they had contributed to road construction, 69 percent to construction of the canal system and 32 percent had worked on buildings. Participation in the construction activities during the early 1980's was a significant sourcc! of income to early settlers and others in the area.While there was little participation i n the early Ellegala rehabilitation work, there was significant participation in the planning and execution of the Rectification of Irrigation Difficulties in 1992-93. The greater participation in the latter program was a major reason for the greater success.While providing unskilled construction labor is clearly beneficiary participation of a sort, it is not the type of participation that provides the greatest benefits to the project. As shown by Esman & Uphoff (1984), it is participation in decision-muking about the project that contributes the most to development. While local farmers, particularly those few who were in the area when the project was being designed, could not contribute significantly to technical aspects of diim and irrigation system design, their involvement might have prevented some of the planning mistakes that were made, such as ignoring the cattle problem and depending too heavily on non-rice crops. This point is also demonstrated by the results of the different Ellegala rehabilitation programs. Although almost all farmers know about the farmer organizations and are acquainted with their Farmer Representatives, t hcmy are relatively ignorant about many aspects of the functioning of the farmer organizations. Lack of knowledge about meetings and about the status of Farmer Organization funds implies a lack of communication among members. The general dissatisfaction with funds handling implies problems in this area as well. IMD data too, showed that thcs KO's organizational strength is reasonably good except in the area of finances. Also, IMD has not been able to collect a full set of reports since June 1993, indicating weakness in both the DCOs and the Institutional Organizer program.Overall, farmer organizations have tiiken over maintenance but not operations. Their performance in maintenance seems to be satisfactory and they clearly have helped improve water distribution, at least on the field channels. The great majority of the farmers feel that they can do routine maintenance better than the Irrigation Department As mentioned above, a few years ago many farmers were ignorant of this important function of the PMC. Awareness has increased but it is still low.Fifty-two respondents (34 in the New Awas and 18 in Ellegala) gave reasons why they were not satisfied with the performance of the SPCs and PMC. The single most important reason (15 answers) was that decisions of these committees were not implemented by the agencies. Almost as prevalent (14 answers) was the opinion that these committees cannot find solutions to the problems.The key points about the farmer organizations are a) they have been formed but are not strong, and b) there has been only partial turnover of operations and management responsibilities to them.The data presented here implies the seeriingly paradoxical findings thatThe FOs are well known to and M,ell accepted by farmersvirtually all farmers claim to be members of their local FObut are also relatively ineffective.Although the majority of farmers do not know clearly what the Subproject Committees and the Project Management Committee do, these committees now effectively play a part in seasonal planning.The DCOs are the only farmer organizations that are recognized by the agency officers. Thus, no matter what the organizationd weaknesses are, they offer the promise of serving as a means of interacting more effectively, from the farmers' point of view, with the agencies (cf conflicts between the 1:Os and the \"independent\" FO during maha 1992/93 as reported in IIMI 1993). Also, the PMC is clearly the body most fitted to do seasonal planning (IIMI 1994).Overall, while the FOs and joint management committees at Kirindi Oya have problems, they have recognition and legitimacy so that they can be developed to the needed level with appropriate inputs.bodies have been disbanded. There are two exceptions: a) the Irrigation Department has not yet completed the transition for a con:,truction organization to an O&M organization, and b) the Land Commissioner's Department maintains a skeleton office that deals with a few remaining responsibilities, including maintenance of hamlet roads.No full evaluation of the agencies that lave taken over was attempted. However, it appears that all suffer from the funds and manpower shortages endemic in Sri Lankan government agencies. Solutions to this problem will require major changes in government practices and attitudes. Net benefit streams were calculated with and without project for the old areas, which consisted mainly of the incremental paddy production from the area. For the new area, incremental benefits from paddy, O K s , livestock and forestry were included in the benefit stream. The following costs were included in the analysis: production costs, investment costs, O&M costs and C O S : ~ foregone. All costs and benefits were converted to constant 1994 US dollars, for the malysis. A separate analysis of the new and old areas was also undertaken. Sensitiv ty analysis was undertaken for cost, price and cropping pattern changes.The project was estimated to cost Rs. 570 million in 1977. This was subsequently revised in 1982 and 1986 to Rs. 1,500 and Rs. 3,000 million respectively. The final cost of the project over a 15 year period of impkmentation was Rs. 2,700 million. This is almost a 500 percent increase over the original estimate. The dollar cost of the project increased from $52 million to approximately $ LOO million, nearly a two fold increase. The dollar cost was contained due to the depreciation of the SL Rupee against the US dollar, over the extended period of implementaticin lasting over 15 years. An analysis of the project costs show:; that a little over 40 percent of the total cost was spent on the dam. If the distributary system is also included, this proportion rises to 52 percent of the total costs. This high level of expenditure on the dam was partly due to unforeseen foundation problems di xovered during the excavation stage of dam construction. The long delays in implementation of the project also added to the cost. As this is a relatively a high cost dam, the full benefits can be achieved only if the maximum possible area is developed for irrigation. Unfortunately for the KOISP, the full area could not be developed due to inadequate water resources. A third of the area planned for development was abandoned, thus causing a reduction in benefit flows from the project. The full benefits of the prcject cannot be realized unless the entire land area earmarked under the project is fully developed for irrigation and cultivated. However, it is theoretically possible to generate itdditional incomes through marginal investments in the distributary system, providecl that the water resource availability improves considerably (either through improved water management or additional resources of water).The project envisaged the construction of a dam across the Kirindi Oya and irrigation facilities to cover 8,300 ha. of new lands and supplementary irrigation facilities for 4,500 ha. of existing irrigated lands. However only two thirds or 5,342 ha. of new lands were actually provided with irrigation facilitim. The entire extent of the old irrigated lands were provided with supplementary water. The cropping intensity in both areas were to rise to 1.7 according to project estimates. However, the actual cropping intensity of these areas as observed over the last few years was 1.6 (about 95 percent of the expected value) in the old area and 0.9 (52 percent of estimate) in the new area. Only about 60 percent (5,200) of the targeted number were actually settled on the new lands.It was also expected that half the extent in the new lands and a smaller proportion in the old areas would be grown with OF(% This expected diversification did not take place. Less than 10 percent of the land was actually diversified. This too in very water short years and with much efforts from the management. The lack of enthusiasm for O K s was due to many reasons. These included, lack of know-how and finances, price fluctuations and the resulting uncertainty of income, inadequate facilities for irrigating OFCs, soil. and topographic conditions, etc. But in water scarce situations farmers have been persuaded to diversify with good mccess, although their preference would be to grow paddy.In terms of the incremental annual outputs envisaged by the project, the achievement for paddy was 55 percent (24,000 mt.), and that for other field crops 14 percent (1,600 mt.). Incremental milk production was 17 percent of the target (0.7 million liters). The project did however generate 5.5 million man days of incremental employment in the construction phase and 2.6 million man days in production activities since the commencement of construction of the project in 1978. The poor achievements for OFCs and milk production, reflect poor planning of the project, particularly the lack of farmer input in planning. Forestry development was also restricted to 25 percent of the targets.Project investment costs were obtained ]Tom the records of the Irrigation Department.They have been recorded in different formats according to the needs of the user. The annual accounts which appeared to bc' the most reliable, provides cost data in an accounting format. The data are aggregited by major components and are not ideally suited for cost benefit analysis. Quarterly progress reports of the Irrigation Department also provide expenditure statements, that are more detailed, but less reliable. Cost figures did not match in the two documents. Therefore it was decided to use data from the annual accounts in the analysis, supplemented by data from the progress reports. Data on cost of production were obtained from 1977 onwards. These data were obtained from the Department of Agriculture, Cost & Production Publications. This was supplemented by data from the various studies undertaken in the project, the IMCD studies by IIMI and data from the suiveys conducted by the Ruhunu University. World market prices for traded commodities were obtained from various sources, including, FAO, commodity bulletins, WorldBank, as well as the Fertilizer Secretariat of Sri Canka.Local farm gate prices were obtained from the Census and Statistics Department, ARTI and Central Bank. In almost all cases there were gaps in the data which were either estimated or, taken from supplementary sources. Data on crop production and cultivated extent of the old irrigated areas were the most difficult to obtain, particularly for the years prior to 1986. All available information was used in the analysis.Data on non-agricultural benefits we: e obtained through special surveys conducted in the project area, supplemented by previous studies done on the subject. The data on economic and financial benefits obtained from the survey were not very reliable, as the respondents were unwilling to reveal :iuch information. Incremental benefits from inland fisheries were included in the analysis. The losses due to the decline in prawn fisheries and those due to salinity were estimated and included in the cost benefit analysis.The assumptions for cost benefit analysis for the old and new areas with and without project are listed below.Old Irrigated Area (OIA): Inclusion of OFCs in the cropping pattern as in the alternate case reduces the ERR to 5.6 percent. This was considered a feasible option, as the entire extent of paddy cannot be substituted with OFC for technical reasons. Net returns from paddy are lower than that obtained from high income OFCs bul lower or equal to the low income OFCs.The economic farm gate prices of paddy were consistently higher than market farm gate prices indicating that the country would gain from cultivating paddy. In the case of OFCs, the market farm gate prices were higher than the world market prices, in most years. Although OFCs may be more rvmunerative to the farmer, they could be imported at a lower price. However such imports would reduce output and farmer incomes.Sensitivity analysis shows that the rate of return is more sensitive to output price declines than cost increases. A 30 percent cost increase reduces ERR for the base case by 0.5 percent, while a similar level of price decline reduces ERR by about 2.0 percent. A 30 percent price decline together with a 30 percent cost increase reduces ERR by nearly 3 percent. A separate analysis of the new and old areas was undertaken. This showed that most of the project benefits were derived from the OIA, with returns as high as 900percent if the entire investment cost was assigned to the new area and only the rehabilitation cost is assigned to the old area. The new area showed low or negative returns with the full costs of investment included in the cost stream. With 35 percent of the cost assigned to the old area, the ERR of the old area reduces to 10.7 percent and that of the new area increases from 2.4 percent to nearly 4 percent. If the indirect costs (losses from prawn fisheries and salinity) and benefits (inland fisheries) are excluded from the analysis, the ERR remains the same. It increases slightly for the new area. Sensitivity analysis of changes in croppin:: intensity and cropping patterns showed that ERR improved with higher levels of padtly cultivation. If the full area is developed in the near future at about 20 percent of the total cost, the ERR increases to just over 7 percent. In all of the above analysis the financial rate of return was always less than the economic rate of return.The analysis indicates that the overall project rate of return is marginally above the 6 percent Economic Discount Rate worked out for Sri Lanka . The financial rate of return was lower than the ERR. The project is tf.us viable in terms of the direct as well as few indirect economic costs and benefits from the project. However if one takes into account many other indirect as well as intangible benefits not included in the analysis and the possibility of a higher level of cropping, with improved water management and change in weather patterns, the future returns may be considerably higher.There has been a substantial increase in agriculture related and non-agricultural economic activities in the project area. Business as well as service activities such as rice mills, milk, tourism, inland fisheries, groceries, marketing, and transportation etc. have expanded considerably after the project. While most of its indirect benefits have come after the establishment of the KOISP, other development projects implemented in the region have also contributed to this. The value of the indirect benefits could not be estimated due to lack of reliable data.The major negative impact of the project ?as been identified as losses in prawn fisheries in the adjacent lagoons. Prawn fisheries has been almost wiped out in the Malala lagoon.The number of prawn fishermen has berm reduced from 400 before the project to less than 10 at present. The losses have been estimated at Rs. 3-4 million annually. Salinity has also cropped up in pockets of the old areas, due to salts being leached into this area from the newly irrigated area. The re:iulting losses are estimated at Rs 1 million annually. Inclusion of these costs in the cconomic analysis has very little impact on the rate of return.The rate of return of this project is estimated at 6.3 percent approximately and is just above the economic discount rate of 6.0 percent worked out for Sri Lanka. However the overall impact of the project in terms of :;ocial and indirect benefits may be higher. The possibility of future improvement of the water regime is another factor that should be considered. The project area has experienced a prolonged period of water shortages, due mainly to changes in weather patterns. Experience over the last few years seems to suggest that this pattern is changing gradually with the possibility of improvement in water availability to the project, over the next decade or so. Better use of the drainage water (estimates of drainage flows were much lower than currently measured quantities), reduction in the very high water duty for paddy (estimated at 8 acre feet/acre) and improved water manz.gement, as well as diversification to water saving crops are all likely to increase the cropped area and thus enhance project benefits.The KOISP Impact Evaluation Stuliy has revealed many of the conditions which have influenced the relative successes and failures of the respective components of the project. While the foremost objective of this research was to assess the impacts of the interventions, it is evident that lessons which relate to these conditions should be formulated as well.There were several contributing factors and circumstances which had a bearing on the development of the KOISP. The result was that some of the objectives of the KOISP were only partially met and that the \"end-product'' was not in line with the initial targets as specified in the project documlmts. There were circumstances in the external environment (e.g. the drop in rainfall in the Kirindi Oya Basin), human as well as technical factors relating to planning, management and coordination and other aspects of the project, that led to the above.Whatever the reasons were for the discrepancy between the plans and reality, this study was not meant to lay blame on institutions or organizations involved in the planning and implementation of the ICOISP. Neither was it meant to blame the government or donors. Some of the mo;e generic conclusions drawn from this study presented below form the basis for the lessons learned from the experiences in the KOISP.The estimated inflow into the Liinugamvehera reservoir does not take place mostly due to reduction in rainfall within the basin during the last 20 years. The average rainfall within the basin has reduced by about one-third of its normal rainfall. Moreover, a number of small tanks constructed within the catchment has obstructed regular flow to the reswvoir. Because of this water shortage, only 71 percent of the proposed irrigable area was developed during the Phase I and I1 construction of the project.The average annual release from the reservoir during the last eight years of operation works out to 177.6 mcn. which is only 60 percent of the estimated release. However, the irrigable aiea developed is 71 percent of the design area.The cropping pattern suggested in the project Appraisal Report did not materialize for a number of reasons. Farmers preferred to grow paddy initially, but only recently they have started diversifying to other field crops.Better maintenance, improved monitoring and evaluation of the system performance and incentives for the operating personnel are necessary for further improving the system performance.The project planners of the KOIW have followed two approaches to select suitable persons to allocate land: alternative settlers and open settlers. Approximately half of the open settlers reported to have been allocated land not only because of they were landless, but also because of their political affiliations. On the other hand, almost all altemative settlers said that they were provided land mainly because of the loss of their lands to the project.A prescribed range of assistance was provided to new settlers to establish themselves early in their allotmen is and communities. This included food aid, drinking water, assistance in conslructing shelter, fencing and the provision of free planting materials along with ciome agricultural implements. Also a subsidy scheme was implemented with a package of various items.The agricultural assistance program and the development of agricultural related organizations had a considerable impact on the settlers. They have supported as well as encouraged settlers to ventu :e into agricultural related activities. However, old area farmers have benefitted more than new area farmers. As predicted by theories of economic and agricultural development, with the higher gains in productivity and income in the old area, income disparities between the new and old area settlers have tended to increase. Hence, carefully designed further assistance is required until the disparities are eliminated.The housing loans have not been repaid by the settlers, which has led to a hesitation from the side of the government to provide more loan schemes. The housing program has not been suflicient to assist most of the settlers in building permanent houses. Only the higher income groups have been able to construct permanent houses.At the beginning of the project scttlers who were brought into the then nonirrigated areas received food subsillies until they settled down. Dry food rations were provided for a period of 18 months for all the family members. The World Food Program (WFP) assisted further by providing adequate quantities of food to all settlers. During the latter sta1;es of the project food assistance was reduced to promote domestic productivity. But the haphazard manner of this scheme negated the settlers' anticipations and consequently forced them to seek alternatives. Hence, it recommended that the program of food assistance to the settlers be revived.The majority of the respondents in the new area reported that their land boundaries were clear. However, one cannot overlook the fact that some of them have oversized plots and do not want to admit this on the fear that they would lose the excess land. Approxiriately 37 percent of the respondents stated that their boundaries are not clear, mo.st of them having undersized plots. The boundary problem appeared to exist cnly in the lowlands. Highland settlers expressed satisfaction with the demarcation of their plots.Initially a significant number of open settlers were reluctant to stay in the project area. The main reason was mcertainty of receiving irrigation water. The nonresidency problem has causec a cancellation of the allocated plots in 5 percent of the cases. Another 7 percent #ire yet to be canceled.Due to various reasons several originally allocated plots were abandoned and the settlers received new land elscwhere. The most important reason for abandoning the plots has been salinity of soils. 138 plots (3 percent) have been reallocated due to salinity.The KOISP has established 20 primary schools in hamlets and 4 junior and senior secondary schools in new towns. All of these are operational except for one at the Left Bank where the people ar 2 not yet settled. The construction of 22 schools and the upgrading of two existing schools by the KOISP has substantially improved the type and volume of the educational infrastructure in the project area. There were only 28 schools in different categories in the area before the project started.= The educational standards of ihe KOISP area has improved gradually during the project period. This is reflected by the improved literacy rates and school participation rates of boys and girls in the old area. At national level the literacy rate increased from 87 percent in 1981 to 89 percent in 1993. In the project area the literacy rate increased from 85 to 96 percent during the same period. Women are still more illiterate, but the large gap between the male and female educational levels has been reduced. About 26 percent of the households in the new area and 6 percent of the households in the old area have sent their children to schools outside the project area. The majority of the srttlers who reported this did so because they considered the school facilitie:; in their original areas to be of better quality.While the health facilities in the KOISP area have improved substantially, further improvement could be gaincd by equipping the hospitals in the area with adequate personnel and miierials; by developing transportation facilities, especially outstation; conduding training programs on hygienic measures at school, household and staff level; introducing family planning methods and finally by conducting research to develop and operate an improved health program.The anthropometric survey revealed that in the KOISP area, 36 percent of the children had signs of chronic undernutrition, which is almost equal to the national average. Wasting, which is a sign of acute undernutrition, is indicated by a deficit in weight for height. The percentage of acute undernutrition appeared to be very high in the project area. About 46 percent of the children in the project area had signs of wasting, whereas the nati'mal figure was only 18 percent.In the pre-project period the total length of existing roads amounted to 175 km. The project constructed a further network of 435 km. of roads in the area. Homestead roads for access to households and service centers have been constructed stretching over a length of 200 km. Furthermore, linking feeder roads were constructed, connecting hamlets with main roads and towns up to a total length of 60 km.The settlers have appreciated the construction of project roads and recognized the consequent improved transport facilities. They claimed that costs of transporting their produce has reduced with the changed mode of transport, which was enabled by the improved network of roads. Faster transport in case of emergencies was mentioned as an other important effect.The project road network has reduced the problems of access to various service stations and also the time required to reach them. Although the settlements are now connected with the major towns by better roads, the distances are very often large. Consideration should be girren to the construction of cross roads between hamlets and major towns to solve this problem.Cooperative stores have been established in the project area. However, under the prevailing liberalized economic system there are alternative places to purchase goods. Sometimes the open market offers better quality products at lower prices. The cooperatives have not always been able to buy the produce from the farmers at attractive prices. Therefore many cooperatives are making a loss. These shops are viable only in places where the *e are a sufficient number of permanent settlers and a large number of food stamp iolders. Lack of protection of these cooperative shops from thieves was another important reason for closing down these shops in the hamlets.The project plan to provide drinkng water to the new area by constructing one dug well for every 20 families has been unsuccessful due to the high rock table, salinity and severe drought in the area. Only 37 dug wells have been constructed.As an alternative the project has supplied bowser water to each household and service centel. This was continued until every family was given piped water.The majority of the settlers erpressed their dissatisfaction with the bowser water distribution. Most of them felt that the amount of water supplied was not sufficient. A considerable n Amber of settlers mentioned malpractices of the officers involved in water distribution (giving more water to people with whom they had a close re1ationship:l and also irregularities in distribution.As a result of the project's water supply scheme the time spent especially by women to collect water has been drastically reduced. In the pre-project period the vast majority of the households (90 percent) in the new area depended on nearby wells or tanks and rivers for their domestic water supply and the housewives had to spend around 30 minutes to collect water. Now this time has been reduced to between 5 and 15 minutes. are 29 and 63 percent respectively. This expansion is mainly due to employment opportunities provided upon completion of the project.Salaried employment in the privat2 and state sectors has shown a sharp upward trend in the same period. Self-employment showed an upward trend and was found more frequently in the old area, whereas skilled employment showed a downward trend in both old and new areas.Almost two-thirds of the households in the new area received an average monthly income of more than Rs. 2,000/=. An average monthly income of more than Rs. 4,000/= was received by 24 percent of the sample households.The majority of the population in ihe old area (65 percent) received an income of more than Rs. 3,000/=. Better infrastructure facilities and related education facilities further encouraged and strengthened the possibilities for seeking employment in other than the agricultural sector, which however has remained the major source of income.The study revealed that expenditure on food items as a percentage of household income, decreased with the increase in incomes in the new area. This was also observed with regard to non-food items as well as income from food stamps and Janasaviya. Among the lower income groups (below Rs. 1,500/=) the monthly expenditure on food was nearly equal to their income or even above it.In the old area too expenditure on food as percentage of household income has decreased along with increases in income. The lower income groups spend a large proportion of their income on food and non-food items despite the food stamp The majority of the farmers in the old system cultivated rice in both seasons but the percentage of farmers growing; rice during the yala season is only 63 percent. In contrast, farmers in the new axea cultivated rice only in the maha season.The average yields of paddy in the old and the new areas is estimated to be 3,706 kg/ha and 3,649 kg/ha, respectively for the maha season. Hence, there is no significant yield difference in tht! two domains during the maha season. The average yield of paddy in the entire area is 3,605 kg/ha. Thk can be regarded as a reasonable achievement. The annual total production of OFCs was estimated at 2,800 mt. Compared with the target of an incremental production of 11,400 mt. of OFCs, this cannot be considered as a reasonable achievement.The farmer performance index indicates that on average,farmers have exploited 75 percent of the potential rite yield. The majority of the farmers was unable to exploit the full yield potential in the area.The cropping intensity of lowlands in the Right Bank of the new area was 98 percent and in the Left Banl: 48 percent, but lowlands of the old area had a cropping intensity of 163 pexcent. The cropping intensity of the highland area (both old and new system) is well below 65 percent. The KOISP expected to increase the cropping intensitv of the old system and the new area to 170 percent. Only the lowland area of the'existing system has approximated the target.The degree of technology adclption was investigated by employing an adoption index. It demonstrates that technology utilization in the project area is still not satisfactory as 40 percent of t,ie farmers can be considered as low adopters.The KOISP has made efforts i o improve institutional facilities such as supply of agro-chemicals, extension ar d training, research, credit and insurance and marketing. It appears that private sector involvement has increased, but farmers still encounter certain difficulties which should be addressed.It is evident that the project, ai its initial stages, did not recognize the Kirindi Oya area as an important cattle a id buffalo raising area in the country neither the importance of the scrub jungles and the countless number of small irrigation tanks in the sustenance of this livestock rearing system. Most of the problems encountered by herdsmen toc ay are the result of this negligence. Ruhunu reveals that this animal can be very profitably raised by the people in this area. As in the case of poultry, when asked about raising these animals on a small-scale many settlers said that they are reluctant to do so lacking the knowledge. What is thereforv required is a well formulated extension program with incentives for innovators and early adopters.It can generally be said that the project has failed to achieve its objectives with respect to the dairy industry, but some progress is seen in the raising of other livestock such as poultry which can contribute significantly to improving the level of nutrition of the population. Even with regard to dairy industry some progress has been achieved in bringing down calf mortality and in improving and upgrading herds. Systems lik? the Tethered Grazing System which makes use of 'non-marketable' resources appeared to help settlers to raise livestock at the least possible costs to meet domes tic consumption needs.Of the different types of large scale cattle and buffalo raising systems, the Village Based and Jungle Based Systeins of management would disappear in the long run for these systems give negahve net profits. Migration and Traditional Systems would remain but their sustenance depends on the rate of deforestation for other development activities and the rate of encroachment of jungle land by chena cultivators. One of the most inportant strategies in helping the livestock industry in the KOISP area is to allocate grazing land for the herdsmen belonging to the three Cattle Owners Associations. These associations should be helped by way of technical support required fox reconstruction of tanks which are in a ruined state and, to construct wells. Grazing lands should be allocated but they should also be properly protected by enforcing laws against encroachment by chena cultivators and by erecting fmces around the lands to protect herds from wild animals. The herd sizes would then become stabilized in the long run after adjusting to the available resources.The other important aspect of intervention is to impose strict rules and regulations on cultivators to put up proper fences around their cultivated plots. The bias against the herdsmen in paying crop damages caused by animals can not be justified at all occasions. Therefore, a good herd improvement program should be supported by a strong extension service that encompz sses farmer training classes on all aspects of livestock production. At the in tial stages of such a program, the number of improved animals distributed can be kept small with more funds to build up an extension program.Marketing of buffalo milk is not considered a problem with the market being more competitive. It is more p~oblematic in the case of cow milk, where the market is more oligopsonic with only a few buyers. Moreover, the collecting centers are located away from producing areas, causing losses to herdsmen. One solution is to help herdsmen establish more collecting centers under the leadership of Cattle Owners Associations. These associations should be helped to set up dairy societies by way of providing milk marketing equipment, soft loans, other technical help, etc. This decentralization of collection points would also keep herdsmen from adding Hydrogen Peroxide to arrest deterioration of milk quality. Herdsmen did not complain about milk prices, other than fluctuation of prices, caused by supply fluctuations.The livestock center of the MDAIIDF farm at Jambugaswewa could still serve as the Livestock Center for the area The services of this center should be extended to include herdsmen in the old area. As noted earlier, attention should be focussed on strengthening the exlension base of the center rather than expanding and increasing technical input packages.  Early action should be taken to :lear the drainage congestion and to keep the drainage ways free from blockage and ensure that they are connected to the main arterial drains and eventually to .he outfalls to the sea.It is extremely important that thc fortnightly monitoring of water quality of all reservoirs and the four outfalls (Bnsnnwns) be continued over the next five years.. While there was little participation in the early Ellegala rehabilitation work, there was significant participation in the planning and execution of the Rectification of Irrigation Difficulties in 1992-1993, The greater participation in the latter program was a major reason for the great€ r success.While providing unskilled construction labor is clearly beneficiary participation of a sort, it is not the type of par .icipation that provides the greatest benefits to the project. As shown by Esman k Uphoff (1984), it is participation in decisionmaking about the project that cor tributes the most to development. While local farmers, particularly those few who were in the area when the project was being designed, could not contribute r,ignificantly to technical aspects of dam and irrigation system design, their involvement might have prevented some of the planning mistakes that were made, such as ignoring the cattle problem and depending too heavily on non-rici? crops. This point is also demonstrated by the results of the different Ellegala rehabilitation programs.. The total cost of the project as at the end of 1994 is estimated at Rs. 2,700 million (US$lOO million) in current SL Rupees. This is about 5 times the original estimate of Rs 570 million in 1977 ( US$ 52 million). In current US $ terms the cost is double that of the original estimate. The depreciation of the SL Rupee in terms of the US$ enabled the dollar cost of the project to be contained within the revised estimate of US$ 100 millicin.An analysis of project costs shows that over 40 percent of the total cost was spent on the construction of the dam. If the distributary system and other civil works are included this proportion riscss to 62 percent of the total. Since this is a relatively high cost dam, the largcr the area developed for irrigation the higher will be the benefits. In this particLlar case insufficient water resources led to the non development of a third of the area originally planned under the project, and thus reducing the benefits from :he project. It is possible to increase benefits substantially by further marginal ir vestments in the distributary systems provided that the water resource availability improves considerably (either through improved water management or additional sources of water).In terms of incremental outputs cnvisaged by the project, the achievement for paddy is 55 percent (24,000 mt.), for other field crops (OFCs) 14 percent (1,600 mt.) and for milk 17 percent (0.7 million liters). The cropping intensity in the old area is close to the projected figures while that in the new area is only 50 percent of the target. The project did however generate 5.5 million man days of employment in the construction phase and 2.6 million man days in production over the last eight years of operation of the project. The latter is about 20 percent of what was expected by the projc ct.. . The projected ERR of the KOISP in 1977 was 17.6 percent. This was later revised to 11.0 percent for Phase I of the project and 13.6 percent for both Phases I & 11 in the re-appraised project reFlort of 1982. The ERR as estimated by this study works out to approximately 6.3 percent for the whole project, which is substantially lower than the anticipated rate of return. This analysis is based on future assumptions that take i ito account past performance and the experience over the last eight years of operation of the project. The base case analysis assumes that only paddy will be cultivated in the project area, with a cropping intensity of 2.0 in the old area and 1.1 in the new area.An alternate future scenario with the inclusion of OFCs in the cropping pattern was found to yield an ERR cf approximately 5.6 percent. In this case it was assumed that the cropping intlmsity in the old area would be 1.7 of paddy and 0.2 of OFCs and in the new area 0.8 of paddy and 0.1 of OFCs. This was considered a feasible option, :;ince the reduction in the paddy area cannot be completely substituted by OFCs, due to technical as well as economic considerations such as soil, top >graphy, irrigation limitations, high cost of inputs, price fluctuations and problems in marketing of OFCs. Net returns from paddy cultivation are lower than that obtained from the high income OFCs like chilli and onions but above that of low income OFCs like green gram, cow pea, gingelly, etc. Paddy has the added advmtage of an established marketing system, price stability, and farmer preferences. The economic farm gate price of paddy has been consistently higher than the financial farm gate price, thus providing greater economic benefits to the country.Sensitivity analysis shows that the rate of return is more sensitive to output price declines than production cost iwreases. A price decline of 30 percent reduces the ERR by 2.0 percent, while a cost increase of 30 percent reduces the ERR by 0.5 percent. Both a price decline and a cost increase by 30 percent reduces ERR by 3 percent. A separate analysis of the new and old areas shows that most of the project benefits are derived froin the old area, with very high rates of return (over 90p percent) when the full investment costs are assigned to the new area. With 35 percent of the investment costs assigned to the old area, the ERR of the old area reduces to 10.7 percent aqd that of the new area rises from 2.4 percent to nearly 4 percent. The ERR remains unchanged if the indirect costs and benefits are excluded from the analysis If the full extent is developed at 20 percent of the total costs the ERR rises to just over 7 percent for the base case and 6.4 percent or the alternate case.There has been a substantial increase in agriculture related and non agricultural economic activities in the projcct area. Business as well as service activities such as rice mills, inland fisheries, tourism, marketing, and transportation, etc have expanded considerably in thcs area. While most of the indirect development activities have been established as a consequence to this project, other major development projects implementtd in the area have also contributed to this. It is not possible to value the impacts of these activities due to the non availability of reliable data.The major negative impact of the project has been identified as the losses in prawn fisheries in the adjacent 1: goons. Prawn fisheries has been almost wiped out in the Malala lagoon. The number of prawn fishermen has been reduced from 400 before the project to less than 10 at present. The losses have been estimated at Rs. 3 to 4 million annually. Salinity has also cropped up in pockets of the old areas, due to salts being leached into this area from the newly irrigated area. The resulting losses are estimated at Rs. 1 million annually. Indirect benefits from inland fisheries is estimated at Rs. 3.6 million annually. Inclusion of these costs and benefits in the economic analysis has very little or no impact on the rate of return.The project area has experienced a prolonged period of water shortages, due mainly to changes in weather pal terns. Experience over the last few years seems to suggest that this pattern is changing gradually with the possibility of improvement in water availability to the project, over the next decade or so. Better use of the drainage water (estimates of drainage flows were much lower than currently measured quantities), reduction in the very high water duty for paddy (estimated at 8 acre feet/acre) and improved water management, as well as diversification to water saving crops are all likely to increase the cropped area and thus enhance project benefit;.","tokenCount":"38038"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4310fb836ddf9d0bd8bc32f0f3523469","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/413a1090-c673-4bd3-afc1-23c22c34254f/retrieve","id":"513615468"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7e7079a3-c18d-4b35-ad0c-0ea5dfafc0ca","pagecount":"13","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.As feed availability remains one of the major constraints to sustaining improved livestock productivity and building the resilience of livestock keepers, alternative high-yielding forages are essential. Such technologies not only help improve feed supply in the face of climatic shocks but also enable farmers to enhance the quality of the diet of their livestock. Universities in Ethiopia have the necessary facilities, specifically land and trained personnel, to serve as training hubs for improved forage cultivation and as sources of planting materials for farmers who wish to grow these forages. The CGIAR Initiative on Sustainable Animal Productivity (SAPLING) aims to create synergy through strong collaborations with Ethiopian universities, which are located close to the livestock farming communities.SAPLING has been working with various national partners in Ethiopia to extend its zone of influence and scale up technologies that support sustainable improvements in livestock productivity and the livelihoods of farmers. Among the national institutes in Ethiopia, universities are mandated to provide community development services by deploying improved technologies in their surrounding communities. This report outlines the collaborations between the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)-the SAPLING initiative under Work Package One(WP1)-and five universities in Ethiopia: Debre Berhan, Selale, Ambo, Bahir Dar, and Jimma which have been involved in establishing forage demonstration plots and multiplication centres. The aim of this collaboration is to support national institutes in accessing improved forage genotypes for teaching, research and training, thereby increasing their capacity to provide community service and outreach activities.ILRI has a long-standing collaboration with Debre Berhan University (DBU) in the implementation of research-for-development projects and capacity development. The university is located in the North Shewa zone, about 125 km north of Addis Ababa. Under the SAPLING initiative, joint work began two years ago. During the first year, consultations between university staff and the ILRI genebank unit took place regarding the establishment of forage demonstration and evaluation plots on the university campus, located on the outskirts of Debre Berhan town.Being in a highland area at an elevation of 2,800 m above sea level, the university's location is in the cool highland regions of central Ethiopia, which are characterized by a predominantly vertisol soil type. Considering the agroecology of the location and the districts the university serves through community service, the ILRI genebank provided highland forage crops (both legume and grass species) for the establishment of forage demonstration and evaluation plots on the DBU campus. The forage species included Lolium, alfalfa, Trifolium, desho, Phalaris, Festuca, vetch, and Urochloa (Brachiaria) grasses (Table 1). Almost all the forages established well in the first year (Figure 1), allowing for the evaluation and comparison of their performances and the screening of the best-performing accessions.  Considering the first year's performance of the forages and the plan to reach farmers in the surrounding districts with forage technologies, the university allocated close to 1 hectare of irrigable land during the second year for forage multiplication and distribution. The forage types selected for multiplication were alfalfa, Festuca, desho, and Lolium. The SAPLING initiative sourced seeds of alfalfa and root splits for the grasses from the ILRI genebank and supplied them to the university. The forages were successfully established in the multiplication sites and irrigated to ensure they would be ready for dispatch during the main planting season (Figure 2 and 3). The university hired field labourers and invested resources to manage and irrigate the multiplication site regularly.  During the 2024 planting season, the multiplied forages were dispatched to farmers in six districts: Angolela Tera, Asagirt, Basona Worana, Moretna Jiru, Debre Birhan and Ankober (Figure 4). Assessment of the forage distribution and feedback from the districts indicated that a total of 1,615 farmers received root splits of these forages and planted them. The area coverage is estimated to be 11 hectares, including communal watersheds, farmers' plots, and farmer training centres.To expand community service, the university plans to maintain the forage multiplication centre and mobilize resources for the next planting season. ILRI will continue to support these efforts in every possible way. Selale University is a relatively young institution established in 2016. It is located in the North Shewa zone of the Oromia region. The area represents a major milkshed in the central highlands, with many farmers specialized in dairy production and supplying fluid milk to large milk aggregators and processors around Addis Ababa. The Selale highlands are also known for hay production from natural pasture, which is supplied to the central market. The production of cultivated forages fit well into the farming system in this locality and access to improved forages will ultimately contribute towards increased livestock production and economic gain among small-scale livestock farmers.Selale area is located 2,750 m above sea level, with an average annual rainfall of 1,150 mm and an average temperature of 17°C. The soil type is predominantly luvisols, with a pH tending to be acidic. In 2024, in consultations with ILRI scientists, the university established forage demonstration plots with species/cultivars suited to this area (Table 2). The aim was to evaluate the performance of selected forages, suited for highland agroecology, in order to select best-bets for mass multiplication and adoption among surrounding communities. The project is at its early stage but so far nine different forage species are currently undergoing evaluations (Figure 5).  Bahir Dar University is located in the Amhara region in the northwestern of Ethiopia. The altitude of the location is about 1,850 m above sea level, with an average annual rainfall of 1,400 mm and a daily temperature of 27°C. Vertisol and nitosol soil types are dominant in the area, with the majority of the soil tending to be acidic.ILRI has been collaborating with BDU in the implementation of various research projects and capacitybuilding programs. In recent years, PhD and MSc students, jointly supervised by ILRI and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) researchers along with BDU professors, have investigated different forage genotypes for water and nutrient use efficiency in an effort to screen forage cultivars that can perform well under deficit moisture and limited fertilization. Following the conclusion of these student projects, the university expressed interest in establishing a permanent forage demonstration and training site. ILRI provided forage seeds and planting materials (Table 3 and Figure 6).The College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science of AU is located in Guder town at an altitude of 1,850 m above sea level, with an average daytime temperature of 21°C and annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm. The soil type is predominantly nitosols. The area is suitable for growing different kinds of forage and staple crops.Livestock is an integral part of the mixed farming system in the area.To increase the availability of productive and quality forage varieties, forage demonstration plots were established in 2023 in collaboration with the College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science. The best bets and cultivars of Napier grass and Brachiaria (Table 5) have been planted and have established well (Figure 8).  ","tokenCount":"1183"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b2f843497c2d8a594b57d4321ec9aa8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H026516.pdf","id":"980168414"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc843c1c-adfe-46a9-9dfe-65de7d55daf0","pagecount":"36","content":"A large body of documentation is already available on the subject, which has become an international issue. Many initiatives are underway to the point that it seems like 'everybody wants a piece of the action' and there is a feeling amongst some involved persons that this is leading to duplication of actions with very inefficient use of available resources.The present document is the result of IWMI's investigation of the subject, and a good portion of the document reflects the findings of a very comprehensive report (BGS and MML 1999)  prepared, in January 1999, for the Government of Bangladesh by the British Geological Survey in collaboration with Mott MacDonald Ltd., a British consultancy firm, and financed by the Department for International Development, UK. The investigation and the findings were supplemented by information received during discussions conducted by the author during a field mission in Bangladesh in September 1999.Hailed as a public-health success story in the 1980s, Bangladesh is now associated with the world's biggest environmental health crisis of the centurydhronic poisoning of exposed populations by arsenic concentrations in groundwater well above the WHO guideline of 0.01 mg/l.Over the last two decades in Bangladesh, untreated tube well water (which is usually bacteriologically 'safe') was heavily promoted and developed as a safe and environmentally acceptable alternative to untreated surface waters, which are generally unsafe from a microbiological standpoint. Such a policy, promoted primarily by the UNICEF and other agencies dealing in water supply, was launched to combat the high mortality rates resulting from diarrheal diseases through the consumption of unsafe water by the vast majority of people in developing countries and in particular children and infants. The program was a success till the recent discovery that the groundwater in certain parts of Bangladesh and West Bengal (India) was heavily contaminated with arsenic and that the population drinking this water was showing symptoms of arsenic poisoning.In researching the explanations behind the arsenic contamination of groundwater, one of the first theories put forward was that overexploitation of groundwater, in particular for irrigation purposes, was linked to the high incidence of arsenic contamination of the groundwater.To determine the validity of this theory, which could have far reaching consequences for the agriculture and irrigation sector, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) decided to investigate the issue through a review of current literature on the subject and through discussions with key informants involved in researching solutions to the problem. A further reason for this exercise was to provide IWMI with sufficient facts to make informed decisions regarding the future role that IWMI might be called upon to play in the search for solutions to the arsenic contamination problem in Bangladesh, particularly in relation to arsenic in the agriculturehrrigation cycle.Elevated toxic concentrations of arsenic have been reported in air and water samples from around the world, most notably from China, Taiwan, Japan, Mexico, Chile, Argentina, USA, Canada, new Zealand, Europe (Hungary, UK), Ghana, Thailand, India and Bangladesh. At least 75 percent of the global atmospheric arsenic has been reported as anthropogenic. Elevated arsenic concentrations in water can result from both anthropogenic activities and natural processes. The primary mineral sources of mobilized arsenic are pyrite (FeS2) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS). Pyrite is a ubiquitous mineral, occurring in most major rock types. The close association of arsenic with pyrite reflects the geochemical affinity of arsenic with sulphide mineral formation in sedimentary and hydrothermal environments (Nordstrom 1998).The problem was first identified in Bangladesh in 1993 in the far west of the country (adjacent to West Bengal in India), after reports of contamination in India in 1988. Since 1995, detailed and extensive surveys have been carried out, funded and executed by various agencies to assess the situation. These included two nationwide surveys as well, which gave the true extent of the problem. The Asian Arsenic Network first involved itself in the problem in Bangladesh in 1996 following the publicity given to the issue in West Bengal. But it was in 1997 that public awareness was raised to a high degree and the World Bank arranged a fact-finding mission to assess the situation and initiate a mitigation program. This was the forerunner to the project entitled Groundwater Studies for Arsenic Contamination in Bangladesh financed by the DFID, carried out by the British Geological Survey in collaboration with Mott MacDonald Ltd., who prepared the first detailed and comprehensive report on the situation (BGS and MML 1999). Through a systematic survey undertaken in 41 of the 64 districts of Bangladesh, 2,022 well water samples were analyzed for arsenic (one sample per 37 square kilometers). The results of this survey are presented in figuresla and lb. In summary, of the samples: 51 percent > O.Olmg/l (WHO Guideline value) 35 percent > 0.05 mg/l (Bangladesh drinking water standard) 25 percent > 0.10 mg/l 8.4 percent > 0.30 mgil 0.1 percent > 1.00 mgllThe problem of arsenic in groundwater is serious in much of southern and eastern Bangladesh (though its first manifestation in Bangladesh was in the western states close to the West Bengal border) and, in terms of population exposed, it is the most serious groundwater arsenic problem in the world. Other countries that have manifested this problem of contamination from natural (geological)   years (the arsenic has probably been present in the groundwater for thousands of years). Extensive exploitation for drinking purposes (4 million tube wells, and at least an estimated 95% or more of the population use groundwater for drinking) was encouraged only in the last two decades, by the government and other agencies as a strategy to combat the high infant mortality from diarrheal disease, a strategy that was indeed found to be successful. Arsenic poisoning symptoms take 5 to 15 years to manifest themselves.It is interesting to note that in early 1994, the National Minor Irrigation Development Project (NMIDP 1955) commissioned a baseline Water Quality Survey on groundwater and some surface water, to detect pesticide and fertilizer residues, in critical zones where groundwater irrigation and cropping intensities were high and where there was intensive application of pesticides and fertilizers. The question of arsenic contamination of groundwater was not obviously a national issue at this time and this parameter was not measured. Later, in early 1997, after arsenic contamination had become a national issue, the North-East Minor Irrigation Project (NEMIP) of Bangladesh commissioned a randomized survey of arsenic in irrigation wells (1,200 samples) in six districts of North East Bangladesh (figure 2 shows the combined test results run by two different laboratories for the NEMIP).Patient surveys were carried out as well. The first international conference on the subject of arsenic contamination in Bangladesh was held in 1998 (International conference on arsenic poisoning of groundwater in Bangladesh Causes, effects and remedies; Dhaka; 105 papers were presented) and was the first major opportunity for sharing knowledge and information on the subject. Since then a number of conferences and seminars have addressed different aspects of the problem.The present standard for arsenic in Bangladesh is 0.05 mg/l. The country has retained this original value utilized by WHO when drinking water standards for this element were set. In 1993, WHO made it more stringent to 0.01 mg/l based on new information. Neither India nor Bangladesh has changed its standards.Though arsenic testing facilities were strengthened in some of the laboratories in Bangladesh they still remain inadequate. The two methods generally available at laboratories in Bangladesh are hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (HG-AAS) and silver dithiodicarbamate (SDDC) spectrophotomehy. The scale of arsenic contamination and the need for providing feedback to water users have led to the development of field-test kits by various ageacies. All are based on the mercuric bromide stain method. It was concluded in the course of various studies that field-test kits provide a reliable way to identify contaminated water above 0.2 mg/l. The reliability is much less for values below this and should be used with caution. Surveys using field test kits also demonstrated the potential for community involvement in testing programs. Data on arsenic are available in a computerized database, geocoded and where possible geo-referenced. The data have been incorporated in a GIS for analysis and production of hazard maps. A CD-ROM of all data is available as well. Origin and Distribution of Arsenic Arsenic (As) contamination in Bangladesh is of geological origin, from alluvial and deltaic sediments in areas where the water table is generally high (7 m). A high water table is characteristic in most parts of Bangladesh, except in areas that are drier and in areas where intensive groundwater irrigation has increased the annual decline of the water table. However, the high rainfall ensures that the aquifer is fully recharged every year. In Bangladesh, the shallow aquifer seems to be the one that is contaminated by arsenic. No arsenic contamination has been found to date either in the shallow hand-dug wells (< 10 m in depth) or in the groundwater drawn from depths greater than 150-200 m, even in areas otherwise manifesting high arsenic contamination. No arsenic contamination has been found in Dhaka tube wells either.The University College of London, in collaboration with the Dhaka University and others, conclusively demonstrated the geological control over the distribution of arsenic in groundwater. This study also led to the main alternative explanation to the pyrite oxidation hypothesis (see section on Mobilization and Transport of Arsenic in Groundwater) for the origin of arsenic, which was the prevalent thinking till then.Studies also show that there are both regional and local patterns to the distribution of arsenic in groundwater. Regionally, the most contaminated areas are to the south and east of Dhaka. There is a strong correlation with surface geology and geomorphology and hydrogeological parameters. The worst affected aquifers are the alluvial deposits of the recent floodplains. Of the extensive geological units, the most contaminated groundwater is found beneath the Chandina Alluvium, Deltaic Silt and Deltaic Sand. Geomorphologically, the most contaminated areas are in the Meghna River Floodplain and the Old Estuarine Floodplain. Typically, the content of arsenic in alluvial sediments is in the range of 2-10 mgkg and it appears likely that a good portion of this is in the adsorbed form. An explanation for the adsorbed form of the element is that the original sources of arsenic, which were in the form of both sulphide and oxide minerals, were oxidized releasing arsenic in the soluble form as As (V), which was subsequently adsorbed by the secondary iron oxides formed. The greatest arsenic concentrations are mainly found in the line-grained sediments, especially the gray clays. The older sediments are not significantly rich in arscnic. There are also important differences related to the floodplains.The nonuniform distribution of arsenic in groundwater is described using the term \"hot spots\" (one tube well may have very high concentrations of arsenic whilst a neighboring tube well may be free of arsenic contamination) and some experts (Hansen 1999) have tried to explain this phenomenon by linking it to the nonuniform pattern of sedimentation over geological time zones. The meandering nature of the rivers in Bangladesh and the displacement of the riverbed both horizontally and vertically over time caused a nonunifom deposition of the arsenic-laden sediments washed down from the bedrock of the Himalayan region. The pattern of distribution of arsenic in groundwater could also be linked, according to another expert (Ahmed 1999) to the flooding patterns exhibited by the rivers draining the floodplain. According to this, most of the areas having over 50 percent of tested contaminated tube wells, fell into the mainly deeply flooded areas (see figure 3), the rarely flooded lands having no significant arsenic contamination. another oxidizing agent like nitrate, it oxidizes the sulphide mineral following the simplified schema shown in figure 4 and arsenic gets released into the pore water, which then mixes with the shallow groundwater when the water table subsequently rises. Continued pumping eventually draws down the arsenic-rich water into the intake zones of the shallow tube wells. According to this theory, the greater the volume abstracted the greater the drawdown of the water table and the greater the release of arsenic into the groundwater.Field evidence in Bangladesh is not consistent with the pyrite oxidation theory. In the alternative cxplanation it is believed that arsenic is transported and deposited in the adsorbed form on fine-grained iron or manganese oxides (amorphous iron oxyhydroxide, which is the potential arsenic-bearing mineral, retained as the source of arsenic, is well known for its ability to adsorb arsenic under oxidizing conditions during sediment-water interactions and to readily release adsorbed arsenic under reducing conditions). This arsenic-bearing mineral, after burial, slowly breaks down as the pore water of the organic-rich sediments become more reducing over time (i.e., once the dissolved oxygen has been consumed in the decomposition of organic matter present in the sediments and once all other sources of oxygen such as nitrates and sulphates are consumed as well), releasing the arsenic. In support of this theory, various studies have shown that the water is rich in ferrous iron indicating that anaerobic conditions had existed that led to the reduction of the ferric iron. Also uniformly low sulphate concentrations were found, which is contrary to the expectations of the pyrite oxidation theory. Mineralogical and sedimentological studies showed insignificant amounts of pyrite in the aquifer sands but the conspicuous presence of fermginnus coatings on sand grains that were rich in adsorbed arsenic, further support this theory. A summary of the main evidence relating to mobilization has been extracted from the BGS and MML 1999 report and is shown in table 1.The highly reducing nature of the groundwater has led to the reduction of some of the arsenic to As (111) resulting in possible increased desorption of arsenic since this form of arsenic is less strongly sorbed by the iron oxides than As (V) under the near neutral pH conditions observed. If strongly reducing conditions manifest, then other strongly sorbant ions like phoshate get released as well from iron oxide dissolution, and compete with As (V) for the sorption sites, thus tending to increase the concentration of arsenic in the water. Presence of phosphate (from anthropogenic sources, e.g., fertilizer use) can aggravate the arsenic problem and make arsenic treatment mnre difficult. High arsenic is found in oxygen-poor groundwater.High arsenic occurs predominantly in strongly reducing water.Very low concentration in general, and no correlation with arsenic.Concentration is generally high, and correlates positively with arsenic.Almost all water with a high arsenic concentration contains a high iron concentration but the latter does not necessarily indicate a high arsenic concentration.Generally low all over the country, an apparent positive correlation with arsenic in coastal areas.Positively correlates with arsenic. No relationship between amount of pumping and arsenic concentration. The fact that the highest arsenic concentrations are found in the lower part of the delta suggests a secondary enrichment process.Arsenic occurs in the Recent Alluvial aquifers and not in the Plio-Pleistocene aquifers. BGS and MML (1999) studied the geographical distribution of cumulative groundwater pumping to construct temporal trends, as no systematic monitoring data existed. The temporal trend of arsenic is assumed to be directly related to the circulation of water through aquifers. It was concluded that there is no correlation of arsenic occurrence with present gross abstractions of groundwater, and the highest occurrences of arsenic are not in the areas of most intensive abstraction. The basic distribution of arsenic in groundwater existed before the onset of pumping, and any trends resulting from the impact of pumping will be secondary, and will require careful measurement and statistical validation. Groundwater flow and contaminant transport modeling studies were conducted to predict the possible movement of arsenic away from hot spots. This provided the answers to a number of questions that were posed, in spite of the fact that such modeling studies give only an approximate insight into arsenic movement. The answers to some key questions are given in table 2.Results from direct monitoring of a few wells and from indirect observation do indicate that arsenic concentrations may be increasing with time but evidence is inconclusive. The regional survey established a correlation between age of wells and the percentage of wells contaminated by arsenic over a period of more than 20 years, but there clearly is a need to continue monitoring studies for at least a decade or longer.The risk of contamination of the uncontaminated deeper aquifer through transfers of arsenic from the shallower aquifer has been the concern of a number of experts as well, when discussing the possibility of extracting groundwater from the deeper aquifer for potable use. Whilst there is reason to believe that poor-quality lining of the tube well would enhance the risk of such transfers, according to Ahmed (1999), in normal circumstances the risk is negligible. In most of the aquifers in question, an impermeable layer separated the 'shallow' aquifer from the 'deep' one. Furthermore, there is an underground horizontal flow of water in the deeper aquifers, which will therefore minimize or even eliminate vertical transfers between water phases. The source of replenishment of the deeper aquifer is generally from the higher areas not connected to the contaminated zones. Finally, borehole sediment data from Bangladesh have shown that the highest soil contamination of arsenic is in the shallower upper areas. Of course, none of these hypotheses has yet been fully validated.Question Answer Has historical groundwater Despite the very slow movement of groundwater, contaminants would spread movement contributed to the spread significantly if no sorption were considered. Sorption will, however, occur of arsenic contamination?and the sorption characteristics of the aquifer, which determine the retardation of arsenic, depend on the chemistry of the groundwater and the iron content of the sediment. Although retardation slows down the arsenic movement its spread can be significant over time scales of hundreds to thousands of years.How is the mobility of arsenic The least retardation occurs in groundwater that has a high phosphate affected by the hydro-chemical concentration and that has a low pH, and that moves through sediments with conditions in the aquifer? low iron content. A low phosphate concentration, a high pH and a high iron concentration in the sediment cause very significant retardation, to the extent that arsenic at low concentrations migrates extremely slowly.How do local variations in the If arsenic hot spots occur in low permeability horizons then the natural permeability of sediments that are migration to more permeable sediments is extremely slow. Even after 50 presumed arsenic hot spots affect years and with moderate retardation, the arsenic is effectively immobile. the spread of arsenic through the However, if the hot spot is penetrated by a tube well, migration is possible aquifer? directly from the hot spot into the tube well.How do local variations in the Local relief and rivers impact on the direction and velocity of groundwater direction of groundwater flow flow and therefore on the migration of arsenic. Groundwater flow from highimpact on the migration of arsenic? to low-relief causes deeper penetration of contaminants into the aquifer. The One may consider the impact of reverse is hue in areas that are low in relief. Here upward groundwater rivers and local relief on arsenic movement would bring contaminants to shallower horizons. movement in groundwater. Near rivers, groundwater flow is often enhanced, although flow direction changes between seasons. This may lead to the establishment of diffuse zones of arsenic contamination such as observed near Faridpur town along the banks of the Kumar River.How does groundwater abstraction Large-scale groundwater abstraction for irrigation has limited impact on for irrigation and water supply, regional groundwater flow velocity and will, therefore, not cause a dramatic which has been introduced in recent change in the movement of arsenic in the aquifer. Tube wells that penetrate years, impact on the movement of sediments, which contain arsenic in dissolved form, will obviously abstract arsenic? the arsenic directly from these sediments.What are the short-term risks of Even within tube well command areas, arsenic migration is limited unless the contamination of tube wells that arsenic is present very close to the well. The model findings indicate that the currently uncontaminated movement of arsenic in groundwater is slow, of the order of no more than a groundwater? few meters per year. This indicates that tube wells that currently yield safe drinkine water are not at immediate risk of contamination.yield Source: BGS and MML 1999.Groundwater containing arsenic is being used in Bangladesh for irrigating crops, mainly rice. There is concern over the possible accumulation of arsenic in soil and in the food chain. Normally, arsenic would tend to be quite strongly adsorbed in aerobic soils, but the situation in paddy soils is apparently more complex and less-well-understood. Plants themselves can provide barriers to heavy metal uptake by preventing the translocation from root to shoot. While sufficient data do not exist as yet for conclusive evidence, some studies by the BGS and MML (1999) did come up with the following results:. Arsenic concentrations decreased significantly along primary irrigation canals.Quite high concentrations of arsenic were found in the soil of paddy fields. Arsenic was found in the roots of paddy plants but not in the rice grain.The possible influence of pumping is a key policy issue for the water sector. There is extensive withdrawal of groundwater for domestic use and for irrigation. Although, comparatively speaking, there are fewer irrigation wells than domestic wells pumping the groundwater, groundwater abstraction for irrigation accounts for 90 percent of the abstraction by volume (figure 5 shows the growth in irrigation over the period 1975 to 1995). The critical question therefore is whether or not groundwater pumping for irrigation is either creating or exacerbating the problem of arsenic in drinking water. Hypothetically, the influence could be that either the lowering of the water table or the through-flow of groundwater through the aquifers has a direct consequence on arsenic mobilization and/or transport. These hypotheses were tested as explained in the section on Arsenic Mobilization and Transport and the following conclusions can be drawn:There was no spatial correlation between areas of most intense arsenic contamination and the distribution of groundwater abstraction, and also the deepest groundwater levels.Even under conditions of low arsenic sorption, movement of arsenic might be in the order of 50 m in 15 years; therefore while irrigation wells may enhance the movement and dispersion of arsenic this effect is likely to occur over the time scales of decades.Enhanced fluctuation of water tables is not responsible for mobilizing arsenicRavenscrofi (1 999) hypothesized that continued abstraction of groundwater might even clear the aquifer of its arsenic content, as equilibrium concentrations of arsenic in the sediment and water phase are finite and will eventually have to be flushed out completely if pumping continues. This theory, of course, does not account for any arsenic that may re-enter the groundwater through the use or recycling of contaminated irrigation water. Source: BGS and MML 1999.However, three aspects related to irrigation and irrigated water use need further investigation (BGS and MML 1999):The widespread use of \"boro\" (seasonal) rice provides just the conditions that would minimize air entry to the underlying aquifer and would therefore make any ongoing reduction and arsenic release that much more effective.The effect of phosphate fertilizer use. Phosphate concentrations in the groundwater are abnormally high (frequently higher than 0.5 mg/l as phosphate-P), and this could make the arsenic more soluble by competing for sorption sites as explained earlier.Possible entry of arsenic from contaminated irrigation water into the food chain and its effects on soil quality.Ravenscroft (1999) and Kabir (1999) feel that a coordinated effort must be undertaken to study the fate of arsenic in the irrigationiagriculture cycle and the sustainability of food production systems with arsenic accumulation. Thus far, this aspect has received little attention given the overwhelming need to solve the domestic/drinking water crisis looming ahead. Many pertinent questions, such as a) Is there reduction between the levels of arsenic in the water at the well head and the root zone? b) Different crops accumulate arsenic differently and might these be related to the amounts of water required? and c) Arsenic may already be present in the soil in some of these areas and what is its contribution compared to the arsenic being distributed through the irrigation cycle?require answers. A conceptual model of the fate of arsenic in groundwater irrigation, which may have interesting possibilities if IWMI does get involved in the irrigation aspects of arsenic, is proposed (see figure 6).Arsenic is widely used for a variety of purposes including the manufacture of pesticides, defoliants and herbicides, and in lesser amounts as a feed additive (in chick feed). Arsenic is widely distributed in soils, mostly combined with iron, nickel, gold, and sulphur. In soils it may originate from the parent materials that form the soil or from industrial waste discharges, irrigation waters contaminated from mining sources, and agricultural use of arsenical pesticides.Arsenic is found in detectable concentrations in all soils. In uncontaminated, nontreated soils its concentration seldom exceeds 10 parts per million (ppm), but in agricultural areas where arsenic pesticides or defoliants are used, arsenic residues can accumulate to very high levels in soil (even as high as 600 ppm at the soil surface). In areas near natural arsenic mineral deposits, soil levels may average 400 to 900 ppm. Studies have shown that arsenic can move downward with leaching water, especially in coarse soils, Arsenic exists in several forms (both inorganic and organic) and oxidation states in the soil matrix. In strongly reducing environments, elemental arsenic and arsine (Ill) can exist, but arsenate (V) is the stable oxidation state in aerobic environments. Under moderately reducing conditions like flooded soils, arsenite (111) may be dominant. Arsenite is a common commercial form of arsenic and one of the most toxic arsenic compounds.Arsenic is not an essential element for plant growth although stimulation of root growth has been observed with small amounts of arsenic in solution. Small yield increases have also been observed at low levels of arsenic in soils in tolerant crops such as corn, potatoes, rye and wheat. This type of plant growth stimulation does not always occur and may sometimes result in reduction of top growth. The uptake and translocation of arsenic (i.e., whether it remains in the root zone or migrates elsewhere) seem to be influenced by the source of arsenic (the chemical form or compound). Arsenic uptake seems to be passive from terrestrial soils to plants.Crops have different degrees of tolerance to soil arsenic. Members of the bean family, rice and most legumes are fairly sensitive. Paddy rice is known to be very susceptible to arsenic toxicity as compared to upland rice, since the prevalent reducing conditions in rice paddies stimulate As (111) (which is a more toxic form) and Fe (11) production, resulting in a synergistic effect that would intensify toxicity. In Japan, irrigation of paddy fields with water contaminated by mining wastes has frequently produced growth depression in rice. FA0 information indicates that paddy yield will be decreased by 2 6 3 0 percent if it is irrigated using water containing arsenic in concentrations between 0.01 and 0.05 mg/l. Water quality criteria for arsenic in wastewater used for irrigation purposes, from a few countries across the world indicate a variation in values ranging from 0.05 mg/l in some countries to 1.0 mg/l in others (Chang et al. 1996).The major symptoms of phytotoxicity include wilting of new-cycle leaves, followed by retardation of root and top growth, sometimes accompanied by discoloration and necrosis of leaf tips and margins. In rice plants tillering is severely depressed. All these symptoms are indicative of a restriction in the movement of water into the plant, which may result in death.The cycling of arsenic in an agronomic ecosystem is presented in figure 7. The figure has been modified by the author to show the possible transfers to and from a field for the organo-arsenical herbicides and arsenic from irrigation water.In practice, ordinary crop plants do not accumulate enough arsenic to be toxic to man. In fact, they themselves die before the arsenic contamination in edible parts can achieve levels toxic to man. Instead, growth reductions and crop failure are the main consequences, and only small increases in the total arsenic content of crops are noted in contaminated as compared to non-contaminated soils. Edible O P P P c-0 portions of crops usually contain less arsenic than the other plant parts. Arsenic concentrations in plant parts were found to be below detectable levels (less than 0.02 ppm) in com kernels and shelled peas. In potatoes, most of the arsenic was found in the peelings and was slightly above trace level (less than 0.1 ppm), even in potato flesh from plots treated with 720 kgiha of arsenic (Adriano 1986).In an aquatic environment, waterborne arsenic is known to accumulate to high concentrations in some species. According to the National Imgation Water Quality Program Guidelines on Arsenic (US EPA), bioaccumulation of arsenic from water has been well-documented, but there is no evidence of magnification along the aquatic food chain. In Bangladesh Plant uptake of arsenic had not been studied in Bangladesh yet to any detailed extent (Ahmed 1999;Heijnen 1999;Haq 1999). WHO is collecting and compiling all available infomation on arsenic in plants. This will be released in December 1999. Some rice samples had been collected by the Asian Arsenic Network and analyzed in Japan. Some samples of vegetables consumed in a well-known five-star hotel had been analyzed (Ahmed 1999) at the request of the hotel management, which was concerned about the reactions of tourists and visitors staying at the hotel. It is ironic that the leafy vegetables had high concentrations of arsenic (no exact figures were mentioned), and it is these same vegetables that arsenic-affected patients are usually encouraged to consume as some of the nutritional value of these is a good barrier against manifestations of skin conditions related to chronic arsenic poisoning.A recent study (Haq et al. 1999) from Bangladesh in which about a dozen samples from vegetables grown in an area of severe arsenic contamination were analyzed, showed that arsenic concentrations ranged from 107 to 2,000 parts per billion (ppb). Edible vegetables were found to contain a very high amount of watersoluble arsenic. Universities and research institutes in Bangladesh recognize the importance of studying the impacts on rice crops and livestock (which are fattened on rice stalks used as cattle fodder). Other studies in Bangladesh (quoted by Shah 1998) in areas irrigated with water containing arsenic concentrations over 1.2 mgil showed soil concentrations of arsenic up to 51 mgkg.Human arsenic intake is usually associated with food, particularly with seafood. In an analysis of total arsenic in various food groups in Canada it was found that fish and shellfish had the highest concentration of arsenic per kg wet weight, i t . , about 400 times more that what is found on an average in beverages. Beverages contained the lowest concentrations ranging fiom 3-4.5 microgramskg wet weight. Cereals, dairy products and meat/poultty products were in the range of 25 to 30 micrograms. However, arsenic in fish, for example, is low-toxicity organic arsenic, compared to arsenic in drinking water, which is of higher toxicity because of its predominantly inorganic form.Whilst as little as 0.1 mg/l of arsenic trioxide can be lethal to humans, arsenic toxicity depends on concentration and length of exposure. The early symptoms are various skin disorders; chronic arsenism can cause cancer of various organs amongst other things. In general, health effects from the ingestion of arsenic over a period of time can be classified under cancers (internal and skin), cardiovascular effects, dermatological, and neurological effects, and some other miscellaneous effects. Some epidemiological studies conducted in different parts of the globe, on health impacts of arsenic identified internal cancers of the bladder, liver, lungs, and kidneys, skin cancers, hyperkeratosis and hyperpigmentation, and certain neurological conditions such as amnesia and peripheral neuropathy, cerebrovascular conditions, ischemic disease, arteriosclerosis and diabetes, as conditions that result from arsenic exposure (Calderon 1999).Some epidemiological studies in Bangladesh have revealed that 92.5 percent of the population exposed to arsenic concentrations in water of 0.2 to 2.0 mg/l are affected by arsenical dermatosis and hepatomagaly. Hussain (1999) cxplained that the effects of chronic poisoning in Bangladesh were not very well known. However, two stages of poisoning could be distinguished. In the early stages, the symptoms were blackening and hardening of skin of soles and palms. Leukomclanosis, white spots and carcinogenic effects characterized the latter stages. Common clinical symptoms of chronic arsenicosis among affected populations in Bangladesh were hypermelanosis on the chest, hyperkeratosis and hyperpigmentation in palms and soles and non-cirrhotic portal fibrosis. More unusual manifestations of arsenicosis here were sclerodenna-like lesions (rare), Blackfoot disease and carcinoma (Sheikhtar 1999).Bhattacharya, Chatterjee and Jacks (1996) quote that significant accumulation of arsenic has been noted in the skin, hair, skin-scales, as well as in biopsy samples of affected persons. Sarwar and Ashrafuzzaman (1999) showed that 25 percent of the children tested in one study were affected by arsenic poisoning. In one study area situated about 30 km outside Dhaka in the Narayanganj district, the prevalence rate of arsenicosis on the basis of visible symptoms was 8 per 1,000 persons (Hussain 1999). Here, during a site visit the author saw a very young child (under 5 years of age) who was affected by arsenic poisoning.There is no curative treatment for arsenicosis, only palliative. Reversal is possible in the early stages particularly in young children if taken off the arsenic contaminated water. Treatment is difficult. Only the dermatic conditions might respond to some form of medication. One such medication used Beta-carotene as the active ingredient (also used as a food supplement in many western countries), extracted from the blue-green algae spirulina. A hospital-based nonrandomized study of a sample of 50 patients representing all stages of arsenicosis, followed by an epidemiological survey where half of them received 3 g/day of spirulina in capsule form (to avoid bad taste) and the other half received placebo; showed, after one and a half months, that 29 of the patients had improved after treatment. A more detailed study is required to validate these results (Hussain 1999).Below (table 3) are some data relating to the skin and other manifestations of arsenic toxicity in Bangladesh: Source: Khan et al. 1997 Providing Water Supply Options in Arsenic-Affected AreasIn terms of strategic options, two possibilities exist, viz: avoidance of arsenic-contaminated water or treatment of the same before consumption. With the avoidance principle, sources of water can be uncontaminated groundwater from shallow dug wells in the uncontaminated zone, uncontaminated shallow tube wells (which though not so numerous still exist), or water from the deeper uncontaminated aquifer (which is a very costly option), or from infiltration galleries. Surface water is a possibility as well but this will have to be from protected ponds with pond sand filters, household filters, or solar distillation/disinfection for added safety. Rainwater harvesting is another possibility.In terms of treatment, arsenic is more readily removable from water when it is in the As (V) form rather than in the As (HI) form. Therefore, oxidation is necessav as a pretreatment to any removal process. A variety of methods and techniques exist for the removal of arsenic, which include chemical treatment, physical processes or biological methods. The choice of the method depends, amongst others, on the overall water chemistry, the availability of products and their costs, and the quantity of water to be treated. Generally speaking, treatment methods can be co-precipitation and adsorption processes, lime treatment, naturally occurring iron precipitation, use of sorptive media, ion exchange, membrane techniques, microbial processes, and chemical packages and filter cartridges. These may be large scale or small scale, depending on the costs of the technique used.In any removal process, care has to be taken to make sure that any waste products containing arsenic from the treatment process are safely disposed of.No universally accepted low-cost treatment method(s) have so far been retained, though a number of filter media are being tested and presented regularly to the Bangladeshi authorities mainly from foreign private-sector interests. Three possible low-cost remediation techniques for large-scale removal (Jacks et al. 1999) are:Auto-attenuation, which requires allowing the contaminated groundwater once extracted to stand for a period of time. During this time, a process of auto-oxidation of Fe (11) to Fe (111) takes place generating a favorable substrate with surface reactive sites for the adsorption of both uncharged As (111) and anionic As (IV).Laterite adsorption (particularly for the arsenate form), in a filter column or by direct mixing into the water.. Artificial recharge of aquifers, which involves introducing an oxidizing agent like oxygen or nitrate that will change the redox potential so that arsenic is not mobilized. in the presence of citrate, followed by flocculation and precipitation, and is still under study.The 18 District Towns Water Supply, Sanitation and Drainage Project is providing drinking water in some of the secondary townships (Cremers and Hanchett 1999). The source of water for these townships was groundwater that was usually high in iron content. In some of these cases, the water was also contaminated with arsenic. Removal of iron, using precipitation methods followed by sedimentation or filtration, is common with such waters. During this process a high percentage of the arsenic also gets removed. Whilst comprehensive data on the phenomenon are not being collected it is clear that the removal process is effective enough to provide arsenic-free water within the Bangladesh standards.The Danida arsenic mitigation project is a one-year pilot study, started in March 1999, whose objective is to test, on a much larger scale, the two-bucket household level chemical treatment system described above, in addition to creating awareness and researching other possible options (Thogersen 1999). In the first phase of the study, piped water supply from deep groundwater for core areas and shallow tube wells for peripheral areas had been set up providing a 24-hour supply of treated water, the treatment comprising Fe removal and chlorination as an added precaution during distribution. The common shallow tube wells extract at depths of 1&15 m. An Arsenic Removal Unit (ARU) has also been developed with an automatic dosage mechanism, which can be attached to individual tube wells. Operation and maintenance of these units may however be problematical.Over the last two decades, the population of Bangladesh has learned to reject surface water as unsafe and harmful. People have learned to trust and subscribe to tube wells. Though arsenic contamination of groundwater is widespread in Bangladesh, the notion of arsenic contaminated water is highly abstract to the vast majority of people. A survey commissioned by UNICEF shows that only about 14 percent of the rural population are aware of the arsenic problem. There exist some misconceptions about arsenic contamination and its outcomes, e.g., arsenic was confused with iron. Even the difference between pathogen-free and arsenic-free water was not clearly understood by the people. There is no immediate and visible cause-effect relationship that can be established, which might have helped to explain the consequences. All this makes the issue of dealing with this problem more complex. In the instances where people are somewhat convinced of the dangers of consuming arsenic-contaminated water, there is often no alternative source of safe water available, or else it is more expensive or labor-intensive having a further impact on women and girls who usually fetch water for domestic purposes.Some of the other key findings about people's perception of the problem, which was tbe basis for developing the Bangladesh government's communication strategy on arsenic (DPHE-UNICEF 1999 a and b; Sanvar and Ashrafuzzaman 1999), are listed below:Field research confirmed that while there were wide variations in what people knew about arsenic contamination and its consequences for health, awareness levels were very low across groups. The level of awareness was relatively higher in those areas where some mitigation activities had been conducted.Generally speaking, the attitude to the arsenic threat was one of complacency. There was general resistance to change water consumption and water management behavior, e.g., people with safe wellswere not disposed to sharing them with others who were not so fortunate mainly because of concerns regarding the careless use of pumps by others. There was also the issue of prestige--one's womenfolk could not be seen begging for water.In general, while there was concern and fear regarding arsenic in affected communities, there were no visible signs of panic. No active instances of social ostracism were observed in the UNICEF survey, but instances have been reported of affected persons being rejected by family and friends. In some areas, affected families were selling their properties and relocating. Whether this was because they were under pressure to do so is not clear from the report. Sometimes, due to ignorance arsenic-related skin disorders were being mistaken for leprosy and affected persons were shunned+hildren were prevented from attending schools and adults were debarred from social and religious functions.Victims were not even allowed to collect water from uncontaminated wells in the neighborhood.Marriage and job prospects were nonexistent for the victims. In spite of this, affected communities did not generally see themselves as playing any role in arsenic mitigation.People were more predisposed to switch to a safe source of water if 9It was familiar.It was economically viable.It did not contradict existing beliefs (e.g., drinking pond water that looked dirty).It could be made available at the individual household level.Women were responsible for water collection and management but were constrained by restricted mobility and had limited access to information sources. Provision of safe water alternatives would need to take this into consideration.Testing of tube wells was conducted by DPHE tube well mechanics, who had not received any direct or formal training in the procedure. No standardized procedure was followed to distinguish safe from unsafe tube wells. If tube wells were found to be contaminated, no systematic or formal feedback was provided to owners.Some social factors that inhibit the defection of affected persons are listed below:Belief that arsenic-borne disease is contagious and fear of being isolated and ostracized keep people from seeking medical attention. Young women patients do not turn up for treatment because suspicion of contamination will affect their marriage prospects. Older women avoid treatment to safeguard their marriages. Lack of female medical personnel inhibits women in rural areas from seeking medical assistance. Accumulation of arsenic may continue unknown to the victim as symptoms surface only after a certain exposure period, leading to neglect of the initial condition. Lack of easy access to medical facilities further retards treatment, whilst medical teams deployed for the purpose do not take people's work patterns into consideration and thus miss a number of working-class victims.A recent news article (ACIAR 1999), quoting Chakrabborty, mentioned the addictive nature of arsenic contaminated water thus adding to the complexity of the mitigation problem if this fact is substantiated. It appears that people used to drinking this water seemed to prefer it to uncontaminated water, and continued drinking such water by choice. The author did not come across this phenomenon during the field mission there; neither did the other medical personnel who took part in the visit to an affected area mention this fact. In contrast, at one site visited, there was a high degree of awareness of the problem and those who knew of the problem and who had an easily available alternative source preferred not to put themselves at risk. Some persons consumed arsenic-contaminated water even after they knew of the risks, but this was explained by the fact that they did not believe themselves to be at risk.Various initiatives have been undertaken by concerned organizations to mitigate the arsenic problem to the point that there are a number of uncoordinated actions leading to wasteful utilization of resources. In The World Bank is leading a special theme group of UN agencies (UNICEF, WHO, UNDP, and UNESCO), which has been formed to help address the arsenic crisis. UNICEF has increased its commitment to arsenic-mitigation activities (budget of US$3 million). From the time that the issue gained international attention in 1997, the World Bank and WHO have allocated U S 3 2 . 4 million to resolve the problem, but they are now being accused of not having done anything concrete to help the victims.A major initiative is the World Bank coordinated Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP) set up with the objective of encouraging rational use of water resources in affected areas. Its intention is to put in place a mechanism using a community-based demand-driven approach that will enable people to make rational choices about the sources of water they wish to use. Nongovernment organizations (NGOs) will act as facilitators to this process with the community themselves taking the lead as entrepreneurs. It is intended to mobilize the village as the organizational unit rather than the different community groups, so that the final decision will be a unified one in relation to the village unit itself rather than the separate communities that might comprise the village. The villages would then have to show their commitment by paying a fee after which the Project would help them implement the decision. The objective is thus to create a national framework that would then be applied irrespective of Establishing a National Arsenic Mitigation Information Center (NAMIC) is part of this effort where the center will act as a clearing house for information in relation to possible mitigation options and contribute to a more rational decision-making process.A National Steering Committee on arsenic was set up in 1993 as one of the first initiatives when arsenic became an international concern, chaired by the Secretary to the Ministry of Health. It does not appear to be very active or effective, and its location within the Health Ministry seems also to create some institutional tensions with the Ministry of LGRDC, which is actually implementing the National Project.There is a strong representation of medical and health persons on the committee with some local government representation as well. Public health inputs and other technical inputs are thus somewhat limited on the committee. It is accused of being rather inactive considering the very important role it should be playing in the arena. There is too much tension between the different government players and separation of roles and tasks is not clear, leading to some confusion and duplication of efforts. The government was inefficient in the use of available funds, and instead NGOs and some external support agencies (ESAs) were playing a key role in getting things done on the ground. Testing of wells was still regarded as one of the key needs.Besides the National Steering Committee and the Technical Advisory Committee, the Government of Bangladesh has set up a Ministerial Level Steering Committee under the Prime Minister. Interestingly, the ministries dealing with water resources, irrigation and the environment are not involved in this action. When questioned about this, the Secretary to the Ministry of Environment stated that there were other ministries and departments better placed to handle the problem. UNICEF has given itself the task of raising awareness and educating the population on arsenic.The Danish and Dutch governments as described earlier have shown their commitment to mitigating the problem through the projects underway. Other donors and ESAs like the Germans and the Japanese have shown their interest to play a much stronger role to solve the problem. Individual researchers financed by different sources are also carrying out some isolated studies on trace metals in soils and fish biology in relation to arsenic.IUCN Bangladesh is carrying out a study on water use and management by villages in 8-10 hydrogeological zones using a participatory process involving NGOs. Other NGOs playing an active role are the GRAMEEN Bank, and the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), one of the few NGOs worldwide that has a large outreach.Scientists from Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) have assembled an international team comprising, in addition to themselves, persons from the Ballarat University (Australia), Kalyan University (India), and Dhaka University (Bangladesh). After investigating arsenic exposure pathways and possible routes of arsenic ingestion, including the impact of arsenic in quality of crops and phytotoxic effects, the team will develop strategies that will reduce or eliminate the risk of arsenic exposure.Initially, this study was not conceived as such a broad-based one, but as the author studied the issue it became apparent that unless one looked at the overall picture, it would be difficult to adopt and support the arsenic problem. This discussion paper was aimed at consolidating findings from current literature on the arsenic issue in Bangladesh and to supplement these findings through a field mission. During the field mission, the discussions conducted were always open and fruitful; and many useful ideas were exchanged and contacts made.On the basis of these findings, it is possible to recommend that there is scope for a comprehensive, holistic study on the impacts of arsenic on the irrigatiodagriculture cycle. Such an approach has not so far been undertaken and most initiatives relating to arsenic within the irrigation or agriculture cycles have been focused on a single aspect. Such studies, whilst being useful, cannot predict the consequences or project the impacts, for which an integrated approach involving a multidisciplinary team will have to be applied. In this regard, IWMl's comparative advantage in all things related to irrigatiodagriculture could be put to good use.","tokenCount":"8167"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c4f28fe0dae59790643e0b649281a2c4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77ad6090-ecc3-4423-a0f7-d98739a2e754/retrieve","id":"-186396164"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dfb6f345-d62c-48b0-a982-05ce62f03e21","pagecount":"47","content":"• Population: Africa's rural population expected to rise by 53% by 2050-By 2100, Africa may overtake Asia, only continent with popn growth• Urbanization: stretched value chains and mega cities and more polarized population distribution (Barrett, 2020)• Income growth: low incomes means highest income elasticity for food• SSA also has the world's lowest agricultural TFP (Fuglie et al. 2019) -Between 2001-15 TFP grew by 0.4% in SSA and 2% in South Asia The impact framework for DLC CropsScience-based innovation co-development of sets of knowledge products, technologies, services, and other solutions along a scaling pathway.Targeted capacity development working with individuals, firms, and organizationsdesigned to improve the utility and use of technological and institutional solutions.Advice on policy including business strategies, institutional arrangements, and investment programs, together with more formal public policy sector instruments.  • Market-oriented crops: high value crops• Agro-industrial crops: valueadded, processing chains• Non-food uses: fodder, feed, industrial products• Market and processor traits: uniformity, low perishability, ease of processing Those with economic opportunities in low-skilled informal labor markets.These farmers are likely to have the resources to be able to engage in income generation from food farming and linked to trade and industry ","tokenCount":"190"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b2d51378e3086f14fae0428f99f4c90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d0f2e04-1e89-4fdb-8958-8317ad5216b0/retrieve","id":"1531399508"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0246750d-1834-469a-96d8-5095b22e43f6","pagecount":"34","content":"In 1982 the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) established a Livestock Policy Unit (LPU). The objectives of the LPU are: 1. To heighten the awareness in African governments and in other organisations of the importance of livestock policy issues. 2. To collate in an easily assimilable form what is already known about policy issues and to present it to policy makers. 3. To carry out research of its own (including that commissioned from consultants) on priority livestock policy issues and to present the results to policy makers. 4. To encourage others to carry out similar research and to assist in presenting their results to policy makers.Like many other agricultural services, livestock services in most African countries are funded from central government budgets. In many cases government funds are becoming increasingly inadequate in the face of growing livestock populations and the high demand for such services. In many African countries staff expenditures have tended to take a large and increasing portion of total recurrent expenditure and prima facie this seems to affect adversely the effective provision of services at field level.Government revenues originating from service fees have fallen far short of government outlays for livestock services and governments continue to subsidize heavily the cost of services. The number of staff available and the ratio between different staff categories affect the capacity of the services to carry out their functions more effectively. This paper, which is the second in a series reviewing the financing of livestock services in Africa, describes the situation in six East and southern African countries. The contribution of the livestock sector to agricultural output and the size of the recurrent expenditure on livestock services are briefly discussed. The composition of expenditure in terms of staff and non-staff categories as well as the sources and methods of financing including revenues collected from service fees and sale of veterinary requisites are compared. Although the impact of the size and composition of expenditures on production or on the welfare of users cannot be quantified at this stage, some measures of adequacy are discussed. A comparison of some important patterns of expenditure of the six countries and of those reviewed in an earlier study is briefly outlined.1.01 The paper is the second in a series reviewing the financing of livestock services in Africa. The first paper dealt with about 13 countries in West Africa plus Madagascar (Anteneh, 1983) and was based on a review of the available literature. Sources of data for the present paper are government and non-government published and unpublished documents as well as information supplied by individuals. The countries covered by the review are Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Unless otherwise indicated, sources of tables in text are the same as those indicated in the annex tables 1 and the .reference list at the end of the paper.1. Annexes A1 to A6 provide detailed information on expenditures and other related data summarized and discussed in the text. 1.02 The paper is divided into five sections. Section 2 which follows this introduction presents a brief picture of the role of livestock in the economies of the different countries. Section 3 deals with the size and composition of the livestock services budget. Section 4 reviews the sources and methods of financing in the countries considered. Section 5 attempts to evaluate the adequacy of livestock services by using measures which are normally used in assessing such services. Section 6 concludes with a comparison of some important patterns of expenditure in the West African countries reviewed in the first paper and in those dealt with in the present paper.1.03 Like the first paper, this review also concentrates on the recurrent budgetary allocation by central government or the actual expenditure by the departments responsible for the provision of livestock services. Data on in-country local or regional allocations are hard to come by. An exception is Tanzania where there has been a deliberate attempt at decentralization.  (1975 and 1980). 1975 1980 LGDP as % AGDPLGDP a. Ndzinge et al (1984). b. Ochieng (1981). NA = data not available.Sources: FAO (1983) and Jahnke (1982) 2.02 One can see from the above that livestock continues to be an important agricultural activity in the majority of these countries.3.01 Table 2 below shows the size of the livestock services budget as a percentage share of total agricultural expenditure. Source: IMF (1982) for total agricultural expenditure.3.02 Table 3 shows the average growth rate of actual expenditure over varying periods for the different countries. The following discussion on the composition of recurrent expenditure heavily emphasizes the aspect of how much of the total is allocated to staff and non staff categories of expenditure.One important reason for emphasizing this aspect is that it is a variable over which those responsible for livestock services (at departmental level) have greater control, and which can be manipulated to provide more effective services at field level (Sandford, 1983).3.05 Table 4 below shows that the non-staff expenditure (NSE) category, which comprises such items as internal transport and travel, purchase of vaccines, drugs etc, and other operating expenditures, grew at a much faster rate than the staff expenditure (SE) category. While one can generally say that this is a much healthier sign than is usually the case in many other African countries (see Anteneh, 1983 for West African countries), it may also be indicative of the absolute shortage of staff available for livestock services in the face of an increasing livestock population. 3.08 In Malawi, a country comprising a much smaller area and a more densely settled livestockkeeping population, veterinary staff in total increased to about 1.2 times their number in 1971/72 against an increase of 1.5 times in the livestock population (LSU). In both Botswana and Malawi government officials have stated that fund availability is not a major constraint.3.09 In Kenya the relative proportions of SE and NSE were very similar to those in Botswana at the beginning of the period. When available manpower is not a major constraint, the cause for the substantial reversal, during 1980-1982, of the percentage shares must lie somewhere else. The sharp decline in the percentage share of non-staff expenditures during these years is largely attributed to the financial crisis which set in at the beginning of 1980. This has obviously forced the government to cut down on funding the non-staff operating costs of livestock services while keeping a relatively large establishment of professional and technical personnel under continued employment. In 1980/81 there were about 2600 professional and technical staff of all categories in the government establishment for livestock development.3.10 The composition of the livestock services budget in Tanzania presents a substantially different picture-SE has consistently had the larger share of total recurrent expenditures. The shares of staff and non-staff expenditures in total recurrent livestock expenditures are markedly different in the central government's budget compared to the regions (see Annex Table A4). We will return to this aspect at a later stage of the paper:3.11 From Tables 4 and 5 above one can readily see that in Tanzania the SE percentage share remains higher than that of NSE despite absolute decreases in staff expenditure and the high growth rate of the absolute values for NSE. While the Tanzanian data for both SE and NSE show considerable fluctuation between years, this is more pronounced for the NSE figures (see Annex Table A4). Fluctuations ranging sometimes between 25 and 50% up or down from one year to another cast serious doubt on the reliability of the data found in official publications. Despite this, while financial constraints affecting NSE should partly explain the continued high percentage share of SE in total recurrent livestock expenditure, lack of data on the staffing situation of livestock services did not make it possible to see whether the prevailing situation in Tanzania is similar to that in Kenya.3.12 There are significant differences between the composition of central government and regional budgets (see Annex Table A4). In Tanzania, a deliberate programme of decentralization of development including separate regional budgetary allocations has been in operation for some years. Such decentralization apparently started some time in 1972 but it did not become operational in budgeting terms until 1974/75. Published estimates on budgetary allocations are available starting from that year. A4 in the annex shows that the composition of the recurrent livestock expenditure at the central government level in Tanzania is radically different from that of regional expenditure.During the period 1974/75-1981/82 staff expenditure at the central government level had on average a 38% share (with a range of 24-63% between different years) in the total recurrent expenditure on livestock services as opposed to an average of 77% (range of 61-93%) at the regional level or 63% (range of 54-76%) of the combined central and regional expenditures.Judging by the level of expenditure which obtained prior to 1974/75 and thereafter, there is no evidence that the decentralization process has substantially shifted expenditure on livestock services from the central administration to the regions. In other words, it seems that the expenditure budget for livestock services at the central government level has more or less been maintained while additional allocations were made to the regions. This being the case, the relatively small share of operating expenditures which continued to be allocated at the regional level could be a signal of the potentially limited effectiveness of regionally posted staff without enough funds for transport and material inputs to provide veterinary and husbandry services. The causes for this situation are likely to be more fundamental than can be deduced from the figures shown. However, the reported intention of the Tanzanian Government to recentralize agriculture and livestock services is probably indicative of how much less effective than expected decentralization has been in the provision of field services.3.14 The data for Zambia are not available continuously over the years, and calculating growth rates of the recurrent expenditures on livestock services does not make much sense. However, it can be generally said that total recurrent expenditure has declined in real terms over the years, with non-staff expenditures having decreased in 1980 to about 40% of the absolute figure in 1971. Staff expenditures fluctuated over the years, amounting in 1980 to about 90% of those in 1971, again in real terms. Staff numbers in all categories seem to have remained at the same level.3.15. Although one cannot be conclusive on the basis of the data available (only for 4 years out of a possible 8), it seems probable that financial constraints have played an important role in the decrease of both the total recurrent and non-staff expenditures over the years. In the latter case in particular budgetary cuts seem to have been a more important cause. For example, in 1982, about 86% of all the reductions made from allocated budgets were accounted for by reductions in the non-staff budgets. These reductions were made due to economy measures which seem to have affected solely non-staff operating expenditures. In 1978, as much as 30% of the underexpenditure of the authorized budget for veterinary services was accounted for by \"nonavailability of vaccines and drugs\".In Zimbabwe the share of staff expenditure in the total recurrent expenditure on livestock services was relatively high during 1976/77, through 1978/79 but started declining relatively rapidly to become only 32% of the total in 1981/82. In current prices, total expenditures as well as expenditures in both categories of recurrent expenditure grew at very high rates, with NSE having increased by about 38% p. a. on average. As in other sectors of the Zimbabwean economy, the manpower situation during and after the liberation war became increasingly acute.Although only 1-year data could be obtained on the number of different categories of staff available, it is a fact that the out-migration of a considerable number of the professional/technical cadre of white Rhodesians has depleted the pool of adequately trained and experienced staff in livestock services. It is most likely that staff expenditure has been affected more by this event than the lack of funds in absolute terms.4.01 In Botswana, Malawi and Zambia funding for recurrent expenditure on livestock services is provided by the central treasury through the department responsible for livestock services. The same is mostly true in Kenya. But here, community dips had been run by county councils until they were recentralized following misallocation problems which adversely affected animal disease control operations (FAO, 1981). As mentioned earlier, in Tanzania there are distinct regional allocations under the control of regional administrations, even though the funds are provided by the central government. At the same time, regions seem to be allowed to collect veterinary service charges but have no authority to use these funds without going through the central allocation process. 2 In Zimbabwe, dipping services used to be run by district commissioners who could use the proceeds from the dipping charges to run the service with some central government support when revenue fell short. This arrangement was said to work quite satisfactorily. Recently dipping services have been transferred to the Department of Veterinary Services which must surrender any collections from user fees to the Central Treasury.Dipping services are now provided free of charge (Madzima, personal communication).2. Tanzania is strongly committed to central planning; funds collected have to be vetted through the planning process before they can be allocated to a particular activity (Mrisho, personal communication).4.02 There is no evidence available in any of the six countries studied that recurrent expenditures for the provision of non-capital, on-going livestock services draw on any, external sources of financing. However, many livestock development projects are heavily dependent on external financing from several sources. There are details of sources of financing in the development budget estimates for Kenya and Malawi. In Kenya, up to 50% of capital items in livestock development projects have been financed by external loans and grants; it is only in a few cases that expenditures of a recurrent nature (e.g. salaries and wages of local project personnel, nonstaff operating expenditures such as for transport) are financed from external sources. In contrast, in Malawi external loans and grants financed between 85 and 90% of the development budget expenditures and in almost all cases include both capital and recurrent items, the latter including personal emoluments. Despite initial plans to gradually shift the funding of recurrent expenditures to the revenue accounts of the government, it has been observed that the same projects continue to show the same share of financing from external sources over relatively long periods (e.g. UK financed projects).4.03 Part of the problem arises because governments are unwilling to charge for certain, even beneficiary-specific, services to meet part of the operating cost necessary to maintain such services. In one case donor pressure to reduce service charges to a low level could have been the reason for the inability of government to maintain project-introduced services or even to reintroduce nominal economic charges-Kenya's AI service exemplifies this problem (Leonard, 1983).4.04 There is no evidence from published information that any of the six countries charges livestock head taxes similar to those which used to be charged in West African countries.4.05 Other taxes, charges and levies used are in the majority of cases associated with veterinary services, which normally include artificial insemination services. Export and import duties on live animals and livestock products are a feature of many of the surplus producing countries. 3  Botswana has the most extensive tax levy on cattle export and livestock by-products which include blood-, bone-, and meat-meal as well as hides and skins. Tanzania levies export duties on meat products as well as hides and skins.3. Kenya levies a cess on hides and skins exports which are earmarked for hides and skins improvement programmes (Leonard, 1983). Zimbabwe does not levy taxes on live animal exports (Rodriguez, personal communication).  4.08 As would be expected, considering that livestock production is the major activity in the agricultural sector of Botswana, the livestock subsector contributes a major portion of the agricultural revenue. Furthermore, livestock-related revenue is equivalent to about one quarter of the total gross expenditure on livestock services.4.09 Due to lack of readily available data, calculations involving livestock-related revenue cannot be made for the other five countries. However, data on revenue collected from charges and fees on some of the services provided are available for most of the countries studied from government-published data of several years. Table 7 below shows the amounts of such collections over the years. a. veterinary fees and cesses; b. collection from the sale of drugs, vaccines, semen etc.; and c. proceeds from the sale of livestock and livestock products from research stations and similar establishments. For our purposes the more important and comparable figures are the revenues collected from the first two categories, as they relate more directly to the quantity of services provided.The growth rates for some countries shown in Table 7 are impressive. However, a comparison of revenues collected per LSU using a common currency are more revealing as shown in Table 8 below. LSRvi = livestock services revenue from veterinary services arid sale of inputs.4.13 On the basis of the revenue data shown in Table 7 above, we can calculate how much such revenue could actually contribute to defraying the cost of the services. Table 9 shows the extent to which revenues covered recurrent expenditures irrespective of whether the proceeds were actually earmarked to the departments providing the services. Over the years shown, revenues constituted the following average percentage shares of the total recurrent expenditure and nonstaff expenditure of livestock services.4.14 Column (3) of Table 9 shows the average percentage share in non-staff expenditures (NSE) of the revenue collected from veterinary fees and the sale of inputs (LSRvi). There is a reason for using NSE as a base in calculating the share of revenue in this manner. In the majority of African countries livestock services are a monopoly of government veterinary departments. For historical reasons, as well as for reasons of deliberate policy, this situation has been maintained. In the countries considered, except perhaps Zimbabwe, there is no evidence that governments have so far encouraged the private sector or government-promoted cooperatives to provide, on their own account, even some of the services.4.15 At the same time, livestock producers have had very little or no control on what government personnel do or should do (in the contractual sense) in terms of the quantity and quality of services rendered. In such circumstances, it would seem reasonable to argue that users should only be charged for the non-staff expenditures (the variable costs) incurred by government departments providing the services, and that government services should try to maximize the portion of the variable costs covered by user fees and charges. In such a case it would make more sense to see to what extent revenues from veterinary fees and the sale of inputs cover actual nonstaff expenditures incurred.The averages shown in Table 9 mask considerable fluctuations between the years. In the light of what contributions such revenues could make toward meeting the cost and maintenance of viable livestock services, it would have been worthwhile to go into more analysis of what causes underlie such fluctuations, on the premise that livestock services revenue from veterinary fees and sale of inputs is a function of non-staff expenditure rather than total expenditure for livestock services. Unfortunately, it was not possible to establish a discernible pattern in this relationship from the available data, partly because sharp declines or increases in partially nonrecoverable expenditures affect the level of total non-staff expenditures. An example is the level of non-staff expenditure in Botswana in 1980/81 which almost doubled while revenues collected remained at about the same level as the preceding year (Annex Table AI). The increase in expenditure was a result of the outbreak of FMD for which vaccination is compulsory but free. Kenya's case is different in that in 1979/80 the proportion of revenue declined in absolute terms while non-staff expenditures increased by about 16% over the preceding year (Annex Table A2).In the case of Malawi, which is a country less subjected to epidemic outbreaks, both non-staff expenditures and revenues grew steadily at about the same rate thus resulting in less sharp fluctuations in the proportion of expenditure covered by revenues (Annex Table A3). Table 10 below depicts the situation in the three countries for which continuous data are available over several years. 4.17 Despite the fluctuations it is still clear that revenue from these sources, which the services would legitimately put a claim to as part of their funding requirement, accounted for no more than 25% of the expenditures actually incurred. Thus governments have continued to heavily subsidize non-staff expenditures even in cases where benefits from services provided almost totally accrue to the individual user. In certain cases this has resulted in the veterinary services being denied funds for operating expenses because of government fund shortages in spite of the declared willingness of users to pay higher fees.4.18 A good example is Kenya's AI service which is reported to be encountering budgetary difficulties in several districts in providing uninterrupted services to farmers who have become heavily dependent on AI (FAO, 1981). The AI service is heavily subsidized (up to 97% of the average cost) by the government. The AI fee is currently Ksh 1 per insemination set (minimum of 3 inseminations) instead of Ksh 10 (grade) and Ksh 5 (zebu) charged up to 1971. Proposals to increase the fee have been made since the mid-1970s (Hopcraft, 1976) and were repeated in the early 1980s (FAO, 1981), but they do not seem to have been accepted, at least not up to 1983 (Githae et al, 1983). It is understood that farmers, particularly those with grade cows, are willing to pay higher fees to ensure a reliable service (Leonard, 1983).5.01 Measuring the quantity and quality of services delivered for given outlays over a period of years is part of the test of the effectiveness of policy in resource use and management. Quantitative data on the number of the ultimate beneficiaries served or on the effect on livestock productivity over time as a result of financial policy are not readily available at present for all the countries studied and/or services. However, there are proxies which can indicate the degree of adequacy of the prevailing financing situation. For our purposes, the following proxies are expected to indicate if the trend of financing livestock services in the different countries has tended to be similar to or divergent from generally accepted standards. These are:i. the expenditure to GDP ratio; ii.the proportion and ratio of staff to non-staff expenditures; iii.the number and proportion of technical staff of different categories.5.02 Table 11 shows the ratio between the expenditures 5 to GDP ratios in the agricultural and livestock sectors of the countries listed.5. Government recurrent expenditure on agricultural and livestock services.Table 11. Relative expenditure a (expressed as a ratio) on agricultural and livestock services in agricultural GDP and livestock GDP (1980). 5.04 One can thus say that Malawi and Tanzania spend proportionately more than the contribution of livestock output to agricultural GDP, and Zambia and Zimbabwe allocate proportionately less. As mentioned earlier, Tanzanian expenditure figures appear to be of questionable reliability. However, assuming that livestock GDP figures are reliable for all the rest, the ratio for Malawi seems to confirm the evident effort that the government is making in livestock development. Zambia's case is clearly unsatisfactory from the livestock sector's point of view, while that of Zimbabwe may be a reflection of the difficult situation during the liberation war prior to 1980.5.2 Staff and non-staff expenditure 5.05 Field experience in the operation of animal health services indicates that the ratio of nonstaff to staff expenditures should, as a minimum, be equal or close to 1-i.e. non-staff expenditures should account for at least half of the total expenditure (GTZ/ SEDES, 1976;IEMVT, 1980). One can calculate the NSE:SE ratios for the different countries studied from the figures in Table 5. The calculations show that during the period 1975/76 to 1981/82 the NSE:SE ratios for Botswana, Malawi and Zimbabwe have increased from 2.02 to 3.8, 1.6 to 1.9 and from 0.7 to 2.1 respectively. The figures for Tanzania again fluctuate too much to give a meaningful trend, while those for Zambia are not available continuously. The ratio for Kenya has generally tended to deteriorate (from 2.4 to 0.4) during the same period.The \"ideal\" NSE:SE ratio clearly cannot be identical in all situations and countries. However, the implication of a deteriorating ratio should be of serious concern to policy makers as long as services are funded from government budgets and delivered by government staff. To use the available resources to pay steadily increasing salaries to an increasing number of staff without providing the operating means necessary to deliver the services is clearly an inefficient way of running the services. This seems to be the case in Kenya while the other countries with reliable data appear to be able to avoid such a situation.5.07 On the other hand, one must also be aware that a favourable NSE:SE ratio does not automatically depict an efficient operation of services. The factors which cause a rise in the NSE:SE ratio could be several: increasing non-staff expenditure resulting from rising fuel costs for transport, rising prices of veterinary requisites etc. These factors tend to affect the cost situation in all countries, but they do so to different degrees.5.08 An important factor may be the absolute shortage of skilled manpower available for livestock services; this tends to put a limit to what governments can spend on this element in recurrent expenditures unless they recruit expensive expatriates directly: Under such a situation non-staff expenditures, particularly transport costs, are likely to rise quickly in order to make the limited staff more mobile. It is interesting to note that countries with small human populations but large land areas (e.g. Botswana) seem to fit this picture. Prima facie this would appear to be a more efficient use of resources. However, compensating for staff shortages by high non-staff expenditures must be evaluated for cost effectiveness before judging a high NSE:SE ratio to be more efficient.5.09 One important aspect is that there be a proper balance between different staff categories so that the provision of services is effective at both the planning and management levels as well as the actual delivery of the service to the ultimate beneficiaries. Ratios of 1:5 middle-to low-level (ML:LL) and a ratio of 1:3 high-to middle-level (HL:ML) staff are generally accepted as appropriate in livestock services (GTZ/SEDES, 1977).The ratios are based on experience in the West and central African countries, particularly those in the Sahelian zone. These ratios can vary depending on several factors of which the major ones are as follows:i. the geographical distribution and density of the livestock population; ii.the production systems in which the services are provided (e.g. pastoral, settled systems) iii.the size of the individual herds with which the livestock services have to deal; and iv.the size of functions carried out by the different classes of professional and technical staff providing livestock services.5.11 Factors listed under (i) -(iii) cannot be directly manipulated through financial allocations.The range of functions (factor iv), on the other hand, is partially dependent on how much money is made available to the veterinary services. It is therefore relevant to see how the range of functions of the veterinary staff influence staffing ratios.5.12 Sandford (1983) distinguishes three levels of functions for purposes of estimating ratios between high-and low-level staff (middle-and low-level staff are treated together as auxiliary personnel). First, where the high-level staff are mainly concerned with visual diagnosis of diseases in the field, mass vaccinations against epizootic diseases and quarantine control, a ratio of 1 HL to 20-30 LL staff would be appropriate. Second, where the functions consist of more sophisticated diagnosis, preventive medicine on a herd/flock basis and simple advisory work to livestock owners, a HL to LL ratio of 1 to 10 would be more appropriate. Third, where the veterinarian carries out a full range of services including AI and the treatment of individual animals, a much lower ratio (of 1 to 3-5) between high-level and low-level staff would be required.In most African countries, veterinary services have historically tended to emphasize disease prevention and mass treatment of the major diseases (Rinderpest, CBPP, trypanosomiasis, FMD, ECF). The ratios which are most relevant under such a situation are those related to the first and second . set of functions indicated .above. To that extent, the \"appropriate\" ratio between highand low-level staff (1 to 5) established by CTZ/SEDES (see paragraph 5.09 above) on the basis of West and central African experience would be within the range of 1 to 25 to 1 to 10 suggested by Sandford and would be equally applicable to the East and southern African countries considered in this paper. Table 12 below shows the staffing ratios for five of the countries where data are available.  b.1973 c.1975 d.1976. e.1981/82 NA=data not available 5.14 As can be seen the general trend in Botswana is for the ML:HL ratio to increase and for the LL:ML ratio to decrease. This could perhaps be an indication of Botswana's efforts to mitigate the shortage of highly skilled manpower. If the high non-staff expenditures imply greater transport costs this then is consistent with the strategy of having a limited number of high-level staff who are more mobile. Only Kenya and Malawi display overall ratios between low and high level staff in the range 10-15 indicated above as being appropriate for the sort of functions being carried out.6.01 Although one needs to be cautious about making generalizations, some contrasting patterns seem to emerge between the East and southern African countries reviewed in this paper and the West African countries reviewed in Anteneh (1983). Some of these findings are briefly summarized as follows:i. In real terms recurrent expenditures on livestock services seem to have increased at a considerably faster rate in the East and southern African countries; ii. The East and southern African countries for which data are available seem to have either maintained or increased the share of expenditure on livestock services in total agricultural recurrent expenditure; iii. In general the East and southern African countries have allocated a more \"adequate\" portion of total expenditure to non-staff expenditures; iv.The practice of applying user fees to finance services is more widespread in the East and southern African countries; v. in regard to staffing, the East and southern African countries tended to concentrate on increasing the number of low-level staff while the West African countries tended to concentrate on increasing middle-level staff.6.02 Another interesting pattern that seems to emerge is that small countries in both groups (e.g. Sierra Leone, Malawi) seem to allocate proportionately much more to non-staff expenditures than the larger countries.6.03 That these differences in some important aspects of expenditures on livestock services exist cannot be totally coincidental. It is interesting to note that the East and southern African countries presently considered are British ex-colonies while most of the West African countries are French ex-colonies. These two groups of countries seem to use different political and economic as well as administrative processes in dealing with financing issues, which have probably given rise to the different expenditure patterns. This may have important implications for policy if the patterns listed above are a reflection of the use of different policy processes and instruments.6.04 It would be beyond the scope of subsequent studies related to financing of livestock services to deal with all these aspects in depth. But further coverage of some countries that do not exactly have the above characteristics would be quite useful. Further, other in-depth studies would be of interest to see if the different pattern of staff and non-staff expenditures that seems to exist between small and large countries holds true e.g. by a review of the situation in such small countries as Swaziland and Lesotho who have at the same time an important livestock sector.","tokenCount":"5304"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a1f29e887d79dffdeb4d5a10feacc57","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9cf72023-3d29-463c-a19d-066a9964075e/retrieve","id":"555235232"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"67399e8c-c187-40ad-828f-20327398732b","pagecount":"148","content":"• Los autores agradecen a los agricultores, familias y usuarios de las microcuencas Los Zanjones y Guadualito, de la vereda La Laguna, y la minicuenca del Rio Guaicoché , comprendida entre las veredas Primavera y Buenavista del Municipio de Caldono, Cauca (Colombia).Asimismo agradecen la labor de campo de Marleny Aranda quien colaboró en la convocatoria a las comunidades.A los estudiantes de La Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Palmira, Luz Dary Palomino, María Helena Cobo y Killian Alarcón , quienes ayudaron a probar la metodología en el campo, y corregirla y estuvieron dispuestos a comprometerse con la comunidad; a Jorge Rubiano y Liliana Hurtado por sus aportes y a los programas del CIAT: SIG e IPRA por su colaboración, inspiración y metodologías.Sin el apoyo que recibimos de la DANIDA (Agencia Danesa Internacional de Desarrollo) y el CIID (Centro Internacional de Investigación para el Desarrollo) entre 1996 y 1998, no hubiera sido posible escribir esta Guía, ni acumular la experiencia básica necesaria para desarrollar el trabajo en el campo que se requirió para presentar este instrumento .Agradecemos también a las siguientes personas: José Ignacio Sanz, Edmundo Barrios, Georgina Orozco, Alberto Meléndez, Carlos Trujillo, Joaquín Cayapí, Rodrigo Vivas Rosas, Ana Milena de la Cruz, Eider Camilo Fernández, (Gobernador del Cabildo Indígena de la Laguna) Roberto Chepe, Jorge Trujillo, Freddy Escobar, por las distintas contribuciones hechas a lo largo del proceso que condujo a la concreción de esta metodología .Esta Guía tiene dos objetivos. El primero es presentar una metodología encaminada a adoptar y estímular la acción colectiva (AC) en el manejo de los recursos naturales(RN). El segundo es permitir a los lectores, investigadores y capacitadores multiplicar y desarrollar la metodología en otros eventos o talleres similares.Está dirigida a técnicos e investigadores que trabajan con agricultores y otros usuarios de los recursos los naturales con el objeto de mejorar el manejo de estos últimos no solamente en cada finca, nicho de bosque o fuente de agua, sino en el contexto de todo el paisaje o cuenca. Se sugiere que una precondición para usar la guía es el conocimiento de las técnicas para aplicar entrevistas semiestructuradas y hacer dinámicas de grupo.La idea central de esta metodología es que, el manejo de los recursos naturales, casi siempre tiene lugar en un contexto de múltiples intereses que pueden estar en conflicto unos con otros. Por tanto. es fundamental que los esfuerzos para mejorar el manejo de los recursos naturales se basen en el reconocimiento de los intereses de todos los usuarios relacionados con su manejo.La metodología que se presenta en esta Guía se ha desarrollado con el fin de identificar estos diversos intereses y facilitar un proceso a través del cual los grupos de interés puedan negociar sus intereses de manera abierta y lograr acuerdos y propuestas concretas sobre cómo mejorar el manejo de los recursos naturales. Consiste en un proceso que se inicia con reuniones, entrevistas y análisis durante el cual el papel del técnico o investigador es el de facilitador. Implícito en el proceso es estimular el reconocimiento, entre los participantes, o sea los usuarios de los RN, de la necesidad y ganancias potenciales de un manejo concertado o colectivo de los mismos.Aunque la Guía solamente describe el proceso hasta el punto en el cual se identifican los problemas y conflictos que perciben distintos grupos de usuarios con relación al manejo de los recursos naturales, debe COnsiderarse además un proceso que incluye la negociación de estos intereses y la formulación e implementación de propuestas concretas para mejorar el manejo de dichos recursos naturales.Cuando se inicia un proceso de análisis y discusión entre los usuarios de los recursos naturales, sin duda crecen las expectativas entre los participantes de que algo se va a mejorar. las personas u organizaciones facilitadoras de este proceso deben ser conscientes de esto, tanto para evitar crear falsas expectativas como para no frustrar expectativas bien fundadas. Implica mayor responsabilidad en las personas y organizaciones facilitadoras que usan la metodología para no iniciar un proceso de análisis de problemas y negociación de acuerdos sin seguir hasta Su culminación la implementación de ellos y tener propuestas concretas.La serie de nueve Guías sobre Instrumentos Metodológicos para la Toma de Decisiones en el Manejo de los Recursos Naturales está dirigida a dos tipos de usuarios específicos.El primero, compuesto por profesionales y técnicos que trabajan en organismos e instituciones de los sectores público y privado, dedicados a la investigación, al desarrollo y a la capacitación en el manejo de los recursos naturales renovables. Este nivel de usuarios puede aprovechar las guías para apoyar la planeación, ejecución, seguimiento y evaluación de sus iniciativas en esos tres campos de acción. Pero, sobretodo, se espera que este grupo, una vez capacitado en la aplicación de las metodologías, ejerza un papel multiplicador para cientos de profesionales, técnicos, voluntarios y productores en la promoción, análisis y adaptación de dichas metodologías a la toma de decisiones en el manejo de los recursos naturales en los ámbitos local, regional y nacional.El segundo grupo de usuarios está conformado por quienes, en última instancia son herederos legítimos de las propuestas para el manejo de los recursos naturales generadas a través de la investigación y presentadas en las guías: los habitantes de las cuencas y subcuencas de América Tropical. Estos, a través de la capacitación, asesoría y apoyo de una variedad de organismos no gubernamentales y agencias del estado, podrán apropiarse de los métodos y estrategias que aquí se ofrecen, para participar activamente en el manejo y conservación de los recursos naturales.Este material tiene una especial dedicación para los docentes de las facultades y escuelas de ciencias agrarias, ambientales y de los recursos naturales. Son ellos quíenes forman profesionales y técnicos, que acompañarán a las comunidades agrícolas, en el futuro inmediato, en la ardua tarea de mantener o recuperar los recursos naturales, puestos a su custodia, para las próximas generaciones. La serie de Guías de Capacitación sobre Instrumentos Metodológicos para la Toma de Decisiones está basada en un modelo didáctico fundamentado en el aprendizaje a través de la práctica. Este modelo propone a los usuarios inmediatos de estas guías -capacítadores y multiplicadores-un esquema de capacitación en el cual los insumos de información resultantes de la investigación en campo sirven de materia prima para el desarrollo de habilidades, destrezas y actitudes requeridas por los usuarios finales para la toma de decisiones acertadas y relacionadas con el manejo de los recursos naturales.Los usuarios de estas guías observarán que sus componentes metodológicos se diferencian de otros materiales de divulgación de tecnologías. Cada una de las secciones en que se dividen las guías, contienen elementos de diseño que le facilitan al capacitador ejercer su labor de facilitador del aprendizaje.Las Guías están orientadas por un conjunto de objetivos que le sirven al instructor y al participante para dirigir los esfuerzos de aprendizaje. Este se lleva a cabo a través de ejercicios en el campo o en otros escenarios realistas, en los que se practican los procesos de análisis y toma de decisiones, usando para ello caminatas, simulaciones, dramatizaciones y aplicación de diferentes instrumentos de recolección y análisis de información.Otros componentes incluyen las sesiones de información de retomo, en las cuales los participantes en la capacitación, junto con los instructores, tienen la oportunidad de revisar las prácticas realizadas y profundizar en los aspectos que deben ser reforzados. La información de retorno constituye la parte final de cada una de las secciones de la guía y es el espacio preferencial para que el instructor y los participantes lleven a cabo la síntesis conceptual y metodológica de cada aspecto estudiado.En resumen, el modelo consta de tres elementos: (1) la información técnica y estratégica, que es prOducto de la investigación y constituye el contenido tecnológico necesario para la toma de decisiones;(2) la práctica, que toma la forma de ejercicios en el sitio de entrenamiento y de actividades de campo y que está dirigida al desarrollo de habilidades, destrezas y actitudes para la toma de decisiones; y (3) la información de retomo que es un tipo de evaluación formativa que asegura el aprendizaje y la aplicación adecuada de los principios subyacentes en la teoría que se ofrece.Las prácticas son el eje central del aprendizaje y simulan la realidad que viven quienes utilizan los instrumentos para la toma de decisiones presentados en cada guía. A través de los ejercicios los participantes en la capacitación experimentan el uso de los instrumentos, las dificultades que a nivel loca! surgen de su aplicación y ¡as ventajas y oportunidades que representa su introducción en los distintos ambientes de toma de decisiones en el ámbito local o regional de cada país.Los ejercicios que se incluyen en las guías fueron extractados de las experiencias locales de investigación de los autores en microcuencas de Honduras, Nicaragua y Colombia. Sin embargo, los instructores de otros paises y regiones podrán extraer de sus propios proyectos de investigación y de sus experiencias en el campo excelentes ejemplos y casos con los cuales reconstruir las prácticas y adaptarlas al contexto de su localidad. Cada instructor tiene en sus manos guias que son instrumentos de trabajo flexibles que pueden adaptar a las necesidades de distintas audiencias en diferentes escenarios.Es importante que los usuarios (instructores, multiplicadores) de estas guías conozcan el papel funcional que brinda su estructura didáctica para que la utilicen en beneficio de los usuarios finales. Son ellos quienes, van a tomar las decisiones de introducir los instrumentos presentados, en los procesos de desarrollo a nivel local.Por ello, se hace énfasis en el empleo de los flujogramas por los instructores a quienes les sirven para presentar las distintas secciones; las preguntas orientadoras, que les permiten establecer un diálogo y promover la motivación de la audiencia antes de profundizar en la teoría; los originales para las transparencias, los cuales pueden adaptarse a diferentes necesidades, introduciendo ajustes en su presentación; los anexos citados en el texto que ayudan a profundizar aspectos • tratados brevemente dentro de cada sección; los ejercicios y las prácticas sugeridos, los cuales, como se dijo antes, pueden ser adaptados o reemplazados por prácticas sobre problemas relevantes a la audiencia local; las sesiones de información de retorno, en las cuales también es posible incluir datos locales, regionales o nacionales que hagan más relevante la concreción de los temas y los anexos didácticos (postest, evaluación del instructor, evaluación del evento, evaluación del material, etc.) que ayudan a complementar las actividades de capacitación.Finalmente, se quiere dejar una idea central con respecto al modelo de capacitación que siguen las guías: Si lo más importante en el aprendizaje es la práctica, la capacitación debe disponer del tiempo necesario para que, quienes acuden a ella tengan la oportunidad de desarrollar las habilidades, destrezas y actitudes que reflejen los objetivos del aprendizaje. Sólo así es posible esperar que la capacitación tenga el impacto esperado en quienes toman decisiones sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales . . asegurar \"ue todos los individuales . grupos de interés esIán --;:::==..:0;==..; . . ,_.... representados?la figura muestra la dinámica de la metodología de análisis de grupos de interés. En ella se describen los cinco pasos que se deben completar para comprender problemas y conflictos sobre el uso de los recursos naturales y para identificar todos los grupos de interés y su interrelación. Estos pasos son los siguientes:1. Selección del área de trabajo.2. Acercamiento y sondeo de interés -Primera reunión. Aclaración de expectativas e intereses de los agricultores.Identificar el uso y los problemas en el manejo de los recursos naturales (RN) y los grupos de interés.• 4. Hacia una primera interpretación.Analizar el uso y problemas del manejo de RN identificando conflictos y grupos • de interés.• • • 5. Discusión colectiva de uso, problemas y grupos de interés -Segunda reunión.Análisis participativo de problemas y conflictos en el manejo de los recursos naturales.Para seguir la lógica de la Figura, estos cinco pasos o acciones implican respuestas a preguntas esenciales que pueden surgir cuando se presentan las intenciones y objetivos de la metodología del análisis de grupo interés. Para aplicar la metodología a una situación real, con el fin de facilitar el proceso de manejo colectivo de los RN, la primera pregunta será ¿Dónde es posible aplicar esta metodología?Para lograr los mejores resultados de una acción colectiva que represente a todos los grupos de interés, es importante tener un contacto personal. Esto se puede lograr siguiendo las pautas para seleccionar el área de trabajo, que aparece a continuación:-Areas naturales contiguas -Entre 25 y150 hectáreas -Entre 20 y 40 familias -Además, otros criterios de selección que se relacionen con las condiciones específicas locales.Después de identificar el área de trabajo, la siguiente pregunta será: ¿Cómo presentar la idea de manejo colectivo de los RN a los agricultores y cómo identificar sus intereses para resolver los problemas y conflictos en forma colectiva? Obviamente, es necesario organizar una reunión con los agricultores. En la guia se llama acercamiento y sondeo de interés -primera reunión, con 105 puntos siguientes:-Presentación de los participantes.-Aclaración de las expectativas y los objetivos.-Análisis colectivo del dibujo ficticio.-Sondeo de 105 problemas actuales sobre manejo de los RN existentes en la cuenca. -Aclaración sobre la contribución del proyecto.-Sondeo de interés de los usuarios para participar en el proyecto.-Propuestas para acciones futuras (segunda reunión y entrevistas individuales).-Agradecimiento y clausura.Si existe interés entre los agricultores en continuar la colaboración entre ellos y los facilitadores, la pregunta siguiente será. ¿Cómo comprender el uso, los problemas y conflictos del manejo de los RN y cómo asegurar que todos los grupos de interés estén identificados, con el objeto de involucrartos en el proceso de toma de decisiones? La respuesta será realizar entrevistas individuales y hacer una interpretación, con base en el análisis de los datos obtenidos en las entrevistas individuales.La lógica de la entrevista será:-Entrevista con un usuario seleccionado al azar (líder local, familia conocida).-Análisis de las ideas centrales, percepciones y preocupaciones en relación con el manejo de los RN en la microcuenca con el fin de hacer la primera interpretación de las ideas centrales. -Entrevista a usuarios con diferentes percepciones, sugeridas por la primera familia entrevistada. Presentación de la interpretación basada en la entrevista de la primera familia. -Análisis de ideas centrales, percepciones y preocupaciones en relación al MRNsegunda interpretación. -Entrevista con los usuarios que tienen diferentes puntos de vista, y que fue sugerida por el segundo usuario. Presentación de la interpretación con base en las primeras entrevistas. -Fin de la entrevista, si las mismas familias resultan nominadas y no hay más variación.Teniendo en cuenta el análisis de la información que se recolectó durante las entrevistas individuales, la interpretación de ella debe responder las preguntas siguientes:-¿Cuáles son los usos que se dan a los recursos naturales? -¿ Cuáles son los problemas que se perciben con respecto al uso de los recursos naturales? -¿Cuáles son los conflictos o desacuerdos que se presentan en la cuenca? -¿ Cuáles son los grupos de interés y cuáles los factores que definen dichos grupos?Las entrevistas individuales tienen por objeto permitir la identificación de información oculta y su interpretación está diseñada para organizar e ilustrar la versión que utilizaron los facilitadores sobre los problemas y conflictos relacionados con el manejo de los RN. Pero la pregunta seguirá siendo: ¿Cómo presentar estos resultados a los agricultores, cómo dar a conocer los conflictos sin comprometer las personas entrevistadas y cómo facilitar los análisis y la discusión entre los agricultores? Se sugiere realizar una segunda reunión con los agricultores con el fin de determinar los grupos de interés. En ésta, se seguirán estos pasos:-Aclaración de expectativas. Presentación de la interpretación hecha por la entidad.Discusión y modificación de la interpretación, en plenaria.-Discusión y modificación de la interpretación, en grupos.-En plenaria, unificación de las interpretaciones anteriormente modificadas en los grupos de interés.-Propuesta sobre acciones futuras.-Sondeo final sobre el interés de los usuarios de la microcuenca en el proyecto.-Compromisos y etapas o acciones.       Las anteriores aclaraciones presentan la dinámica de la metodología de análisis de grupos de interés. En esta Guía, además de presentar los pasos en el análisis, se argumenta sobre la necesidad de la acción colectiva y la identificación y participación de todos los grupos de interés. Finalmente, el manual se diseñó con ejercicios e ilustraciones que se pueden utilizar para presentar el análisis de los grupos de interés a otros facilitadores .A continuación se solicita dar respuesta a algunas preguntas. No es una evaluación, sino un ejercicio que permitirá conocer cuáles son sus percepciones y conocimientos sobre los temas y problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales, la acción colectiva y el análisis de grupos interés.1. ¿ Qué se puede hacer para resolver los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales, como la protección de fuentes de agua, el control de la erosión y de plagas y otros que los agricultores no pueden resolver en forma individual?2. ¿Por qué fracasan algunos intentos de acción colectiva?3. ¿Cómo se puede debatir pacíficamente sobre los conflictos de interés entre los agricultores?4. ¿Cómo asegurar que estén representados todos los grupos de interés?5. ¿Cómo lograr una base de negociación para el manejo colectivo de los RN?     Ahora usted ha examinado su percepción y conocimientos sobre la acción colectiva, los intereses en conflicto y la solución de problemas. Compare entonces sus respuestas con nuestras sugerencias que siguen el contenido de la guía.Los problemas sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales requieren la acción combinada de los agricultores, porque dicho manejo influye en los otros agricultores. Esto es lo que se denomina manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales.Las respuestas pueden ser muy variadas, por ejemplo:-La concertación toma tiempo; el tiempo que el agricultor prefiere invertir en algo que considera más productivo o que dará resultados inmediatos o más seguros. -El agricultor no está seguro que si hace algo su vecino también lo hará.-Las diferencias y aún los conflictos, entre los vecinos hacen que la comunicación sea difícil. -No se conocen cuáles problemas son comunes a todos o a muchos de ellos.-No saben o aprecian qué ventaja o ganancia recibirán de la acción colectiva. Por tanto, cada uno trata de solucionar sus propios problemas.Además, es necesario enfatizar que los intentos por organizar los agricultores con frecuencia fracasan, ya que no se incluye a todos los grupos de interés. Por tanto, no se presentan algunos intereses y aquellos que los tienen no participarán en la acción, cuando la idea es que todos estén involucrados en la búsqueda de las soluciones.La sugerencia es presentar a todos los agricultores una interpretación de los problemas del manejo de los recursos naturales, basada en el análisis colectivo y en las entrevistas individuales.Primero, es importante identificar cuáles son los grupos de interés en la región. La institución debe trabajar dentro de un área natural integrada, no mayor de 25 a 125 hectáreas con una población entre 20 y 40 familias. Segundo, las entrevistas se deben hacer aplicando la metodología de muestreo por variación máxima.El método de presentar una interpretación de las entrevistas individuales para iniciar un dialogo, es una buena base para un análisis colectivo y para especificar la acción común.      • El objetivo de la metodología de Análisis de Grupos de Interés es estimular la acción colectiva para el manejo de los recursos naturales e identificar los grupos que tengan opiniones contradictorias sobre el uso y manejo de los recursos naturales.Los objetivos de la Guía son:./ Mejorar la comprensión del manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales ../ Mejorar la capacidad de análisis con relación al uso de los recursos naturales y el manejo de los problemas relacionados con él ../ Desarrollar la capacidad para efectuar entrevistas individuales basadas en la metodología de muestreo por contraste o muestreo por máxima variación ../ Desarrollar la habilidad para involucrar los agricultores en las discusiones participativas yen los análisis sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales./ Fortalecer la capacidad para generar soluciones a los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales .Originales para Transparencias   ~ Meiorar la capacidad de análisis sobre el uso y los problemas de maneio de los recursos naturales.~ Desarrollar ta capacidad para realizar entrevistas individuales basadas en la metodología de contraste o muestreo por máxima variación.~' Capacitar sobre la forma de involucrar a los agricultores en las discusiones participativas y en los análisis sobre el maneio de los recursos naturales.~ Generar soluciones a los problemas relacionados con el maneio de los recursos naturales.Grupin-1.   LAl ¿Cómo asegurar que estén representados todos los , . grupos de interés?~ ¿Cómo lograr un consenso para el maneio colectivo de los Recursos Naturales?Grupin-1.4   ¿Por    Al finalizar el estudio de esta sección, los participantes estarán en capacidad de:,¡' Reconocer la importancia de la acción colectiva en el uso de los recursos naturales.,¡' Identificar los objetivos principales que persigue la acción colectiva.,¡' Describir el proceso de facilitación de la acción colectiva.1. ¿Cómo se define el término 'acción colectiva'? J 2. ¿Por qué fomentar la acción colectiva en el manejo de los recursos naturales?3. Mencione ejemplos de acciones del manejo de los recursos naturales que han mejorado con la acción colectiva.¿PorQué _ , . , , . Acc/6n Col_a?1-54. ¿Qué es una área natural contigua?5. ¿Cómo se estimula la apreciación sobre la importancia de la acción colectiva en el manejo de los recursos naturales?1. ¿Por qué Fomentar la Acción Colectiva?Después de estudiar este tema, el participante podrá definir qué es la acción colectiva y explicar cómo se puede utilizar para abordar los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales.Los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales en la agricultura generalmente trascienden de una finca o parcela. Lo que sucede en un sector de la cuenca o paisaje depende de las prácticas de manejo que se están dando en otro sector. Los problemas de plagas y enfermedades en los cultivos, la erosión del suelo y los problemas relacionados con la cantidad y la calidad del agua son ejemplos de esta interdependencia temporal y espacial. Se requiere de alguna forma de acciones colectivas entre los usuarios de la tierra para coordinar los diferentes escenarios• manejados en este tiempo y espacio comunes. • En los agroecosistemas y laderas de Latinoamérica muchas cuencas son manejadas por pequeños agricultores propietarios individuales de sus fincas o parcelas. Estas constituyen, conjuntamente con otros recursos naturales y su participación en el jornaleo en otras fincas, la base económica de su subsistencia.Las decisiones sobre cómo administrar la tierra, el agua y otros recursos naturales tienden a ser formuladas individualmente y a estar supeditadas a sus preocupaciones particulares relacionadas con el aseguramiento de la subsistencia familiar, más que con una visión con respecto al paisaje y sobre otros usuarios del sistema. Esto implica que los usuarios de la cuenca pierden la perspectiva del recurso tierra incluyendo el flujo de agua, los movimientos de matera orgánica en el suelo y la diversidad del paisaje, que podrían ser mejor manejados en forma comunal.El Objetivo de la acción colectiva es buscar maneras de fomentar acciones concertadas entre los usuarios del paisaje, para el manejo diario de los recursos, y así posibilitar un acercamiento a los problemas de manejo de recursos naturales que no pueden ser resueltos individualmente de una manera eficaz.• \",etorIoIog/a de Análisis de Grupos de/nterés _a el \"'-Jo de Recursos Natunoles en MlcrocU8lJCBSLa acción C()lectiva en el manejo de una cuenca se desarrolla dentro del contexto de diversidad. En las zonas de laderas de los Andes, por ejemplo, se encuentra una gran cantidad de recursos tanto privados como comunales y de libre acceso. Cada recurso tiene asociado a una serie de intereses complejos y generalmente conflictivos, perpetuados por los grupos de interés que los detentan, tanto dentro como fuera de la cuenca.Microcuenca Los Zanjones Ascender en una escala desde cultivos a recursos naturales y, a su vez, de parcelas a paisajes, implica que no es suficiente caracterizar los usuarios de acuerdo con las dimensiones utilizadas tradicionalmente en la investigación agrícola. Diversas metodologías trabajan con agricultores que toman decisiones de manera participativa, pero al final de la investigación las recomendaciones, adopciones o adaptaciones de las tecnologías se implementan de manera individual, solucionando problemas aislados que no necesariamente comprometen la comunidad a la cual pertenecen.Muchos aspectos entran en juego en la investigación de los sistemas agrícolas:• el uso de la tierra no agrícola, • la ubicación de una parcela en particular, • un cultivo o una practica dentro de un paisaje, • el grado de vinculación del agricultor con la tierra, • la religión, • la etnia.Desde el punto de vista de la metodología el problema consiste en que los factores específicos que definen la existencia de diferentes grupos de interés dentro de una cuenca varían entre sitios, dependiendo de cada caso particular dentro del manejo del paisaje. Esto eXCluye, o al menos complica una identificación de grupos de interés, basada en un listado predeterminado de posibles factores.Por la misma naturaleza biofísica de muchos de los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales es de suma importancia trabajar en áreas vecinas y con todos los usuarios de estas áreas.Para determinar el tamaño adecuado del área de trabajo es importante analizar nuevamente los factores que normalmente dificultan la acción colectiva, así como el tiempo que se necesita para que los agricultores se comuniquen entre sí, y la desconfianza y desconocimiento sobre las condiciones y problemas enfrentados por otros vecinos. Un elemento importante para tomar confianza mutua entre los usuarios y para averiguar si todos están cumpliendo con los acuerdos negociadas por el colectivo, es facilitar la oportunidad para que e/los puedan reunirse personalmente y así /legar a conocerse entre sí. Para que esto sea factible, es conveniente que el área no sea demasiado grande -algo que implica mucho tiempo en transporte-y también que los grupos de usuarios sean relativamente pequeños, es decir, entre 20 y 40 familias.  1.4.2 Apreciación de la necesidad de la acción colectiva Una vez que se ha definido el área donde se va a trabajar, y se han identificado sus usuarios, una de las primeras tareas en el proceso para fomentar la acción colectiva consiste en estimular la idea de que a través de la acción colectiva se podría encontrar soluciones viables a algunos de los problemas que se tienen en el manejo de los recursos naturales en la cuenca.Una manera concreta de estimular la apreciación de la importancia de la acción colectiva es través de un dibujo de un paisaje imaginario como el que se observa en la Figura 1.2. El dibujo muestra una serie de actividades que diferentes personas llevan a cabo dentro de un paisaje: una persona que está pescando pero aparentemente sin mucha suerte, otra persona estácontenta, fumigando su cultivo de tomate; mientras, de una letrina está saliendo agua negra directamente al río. Por otro lado, hay un señor descansando mientras está quemando su lote, mientras la vecina se ve muy preocupada por lo que pueda suceder con su cultivo de maiz . Figura 1.2.El dibujo se presta para realizar un análisis colectivo de la situación que se puede presentar en una zona y sobre cómo se relacionan las diferentes personas en ella. Este análisis es el punto de partida inicial sobre la situación en la cuenca actual. Se propone que el análisis del dibujo del paisaje ficticio y el análisis posterior de la situación actual constituyan el tema central de la primera reunión de los vecinos en la cuenca.Antes de invitar a la reunión hay que hacer un sondeo sobre los posibles sitios en la microcuenca para realizar reuniones. Es casi inevitable que en términos de acceso un lugar es favorable para un sector de la cuenca y menos favorable para otros sectores. Además puede ser asociado con un grupo de gente; algo que lo hace difícil o incómodo para otros grupos que quieren partiCipar en reuniones en tallugar. Lo más factible puede ser buscar sitios neutrales y alternar entre ellos para no siempre favorecer al mismo sector de la cuenca. destacar la importancia de la acción colectiva en el manejo de los recursos naturales. Se busca una primera respuesta del grupo de usuarios sobre su interés en participar en el proyecto.Es probable que al momento de la primera reunión no sea claro para todos los participantes la significancia de palabras como 'recursos naturales' y 'acción colectiva'. Por tanto, algunos pueden solicitar más infonnación sobre estos concaptos. Sin embargo, según lo enseña la experiencia puede ser prematuro hacer esta aclaración en la primera reunión, ya que el esfuerzo en lograr esto casi siempre estaría sesgado hacía los participantes más entendidos y más extrovertidos, como suele ocurrir. Por la misma razón, es prematuro tratar de llegar a una aclaración de cuáles son los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales, porque puede restringir la opinión Mura de los participantes sobre problemas y posibles soluciones a las opiniones presentadas por aquellos que más hablan y así se impediría que todos tengan la oportunidad de participar en el proceso de definición de problemas y planteamiento de posibles soluciones.En resumen, la idea en la primera reunión no es analizar los problemas sino que se presenta el proyecto, se explora el posible interés en él y se motiva a los participantes para que reflexionen individualmente sobre problemas del manejo de los recursos naturales, sin imponer conceptos y percepciones fijas.El tiempo lolal recomendado para la primera reunión no debe pasar de 2 horas.Inicialmente es importante crear un ambiente de confianza, rompiendo el protocolo, el temor y la distancia entre los participantes y enlre estos y los facilitadores. Esto se puede lograr refiriéndose a todos por su nombre -y no por título-colocando el nombre de cada uno sobre su camisa en un papel pequeño e involucrándolos en juegos y dinámicas de grupo. Se presentan también los técnicos e investigadores comentando algunos anlecedentes de trabajo en la zona . profesión y entidad donde trabajan. Seguidamente, como ya se sabe que todos viven en la misma microcuenca, es Importante que cada usuano diga en que parte de ella está su línca o su terreno. Otra manera posible de haCElrlO es invitarlos a dibUjar un mapa de la minicuenca utilizando diferentes tipos de materiales como piedras, y palos. Esto se puede iniciar con los primeros participantes que asistan a la reunión, y a medida que van llegando se van integrando alrededor del mapa. Así se cumplen dos funciones:1. aprovechar el tiempo (mientras llegan todos), e 2. introducir o involucrar los asistentes en el tema a tratar durante la reunión.Tiempo requerido: Varía de acuerdo con el número de asistentes. Para 20 personas este trabajo demanda aproximadamente entre 10 Y 15 minutos.El diseño de la microcuenca sobre un mapa es opcional y puede requerir más tiempo (25 minutos).Preguntas guía:-¿Quién les invitó? ¿Cómo se enteraron de esta reunión? -¿Cuál era el motivo de la reunión? -¿ Conocen los motivos de la reunión? -¿Al final de la reunión, cuáles son sus expectativas?Debido a que los participantes pueden tener diferentes expectativas en relación con el objetivo de la reunión, es importante aclarar rápidamente el objetivo de ésta, lo que se espera de ellos y lo que se espera de los facilitadores (posible asistencia en el futuro). Se recogen las opiniones de quienes conocen el tema con el fin de reforzar el• objetivo y aclarar a partir de las mismas respuestas de los participantes los temas • que no se tratan en esta reunión.Tiempo requerido: 10 minutosSe les pide a los asistentes pasar frente al auditorio y observar un dibujo de un paisaje ficticio, en lo posible dibujado a color (Figura 1.2) y se les formulan preguntas sobre él para estimular la conversación alrededor del tema. Para obtener un mejor resultado del dibujo éste debe tener la mayor cantidad de situaciones conflictivas y problemas, y sus interdependencias. Otras alternativas de presentación consisten en proporcionar copias del mismo dibujo a grupos de 3 o 4 participantes, o presentarlo en una transparencia. Es importante que los participantes opinen de acuerdo con sus percepciones originales. Si esto se dificulta, el facilitador puede apoyarse en las preguntas siguientes:-¿Qué observan ustedes en este dibujo? -¿Qué está haciendo este seFlor? -¿ Cómo ven a la sel'lora? -¿Porqué está preocupada la seflora? -¿Qué está pasando en este sitio? -¿Cómo ven las relaciones entre las diferentes personasen el dibujo? -¿Qué pasaría si se comunicaran entre ellos? Tiempo requerido: 30 minutos\"etodoIogfa de Análisis de GrIIpos delntel'és para eI\"anejo de Recrnsos _uraIes en ,,/aocU8llcas 1.5.4 Reflexión sobre la posible existencia de problemas parecidos en la cuenca actualEn este paso, se pide a los agricultores que reflexionen y comenten si en su cuenca existen problemas parecidos a los que se observaron en el dibujo, o sea, problemas sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales que no es posible solucionar individualmente, sino que necesitan algún tipo de concertación, coordinación o acción colectiva entre los usuarios. Se pide que hagan esta reflexión como una lluvia de ideas, es decir, que cada agricultor pueda mencionar lo que se le ocurre con respecto al tema. Sus ideas se anotan en un papelógrafo. Así se forma una primera estimación o interpretación, sobre cuáles son los problemas percibidos en el manejo de los recursos naturales. Es importante señalar que es la audiencia y no los facilitadores quienes hacen las sugerencias. Estas se deben escribir claramente de forma visible para todos, utilizando las palabras textuales de los participantes, buscando la participación de todos, especialmente los más pasivos. Los facilitadores no deben tratar de buscar un consenso sino más bien recoger las diferentes opiniones y puntos de vista. Es importante especificar que son problemas colectivos los que se van a analizar -o sea problemas que en su efecto involucran a más de una persona-pero que en subsiguientes reuniones se abordará lo referente a problemas y soluciones. La primera reunión sólo es un sondeo de intereses y una primera estimación de problemas.Tiempo requerido: 20 minutos .En este paso se trata de aclarar o especificar las expectativas que puedan tener los agricultores, pero ahora en el contexto del sondeo que se ha llevado a cabo. Se aclara que la organización responsable del proyecto puede llevar y financiar soluciones técnicas a los problemas identificados, o facilitar en su papel de mediadores el contacto con otras instituciones que pueden tener estas soluciones. También puede facilitar el acceso a información que sirva para encontrar soluciones y facilitar la organización y negociación entre los usuarios de la microcuenca. En este contexto es importante explicar que la concertación o la acción colectiva entre usuarios forma una parte esencial de la solución de muchos problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales. Por ejemplo el control de las hormigas: puede ser técnicamente posible, pero si un agricultor aplica un método mientras el vecino no lo hace, las hormigas pasan de la finca del vecino a la finca del agricultor que si está controlando las hormigas, y su control, aunque técnicamente eficiente, no es efectivo por falta de concertación con los vecinos.Tiempo requerido: 10 minutos .1-131.5.6 Sondeo sobre el interés de los usuarios de la microcuenca en participar en el proyectoEl propósito es hacer un primer sondeo sobre el interés que tengan los usuarios en participar en el proyecto. Los participantes están invitados a exponer sus opiniones sobre el proyecto. En este momento no se toma una decisión final, sino que se invita a los participantes que una vez regresen a sus casas piensen con sus familias y vecinos. Se recalca que la entidad promotora o los facilitadores se encargarán de motivar la participación de los vecinos que no quieran hacerlo. No es necesario definir claramente el problema, sino enfatizar en la acción colectiva. Se propone hacer otra reunión para realizar un sondeo definitivo sobre el interés en participar.Tiempo requerido: 5 minutos.Además de la propuesta para realizar otra reunión para recoger la opinión sobre el proyecto propiamente dicho, se pide permiso para que el personal del proyecto pueda realizar entrevistas con algunos de los usuarios de la microcuenca sobre sus opiniones y preocupaciones con respecto al manejo de los recursos naturales. Esto se hace para protundizar mas el análisis que se acaba de realizar y para escuchar las diferentes opiniones, que siempre existen en una zona. Se propone que estas entrevistas se hagan en el tiempo entre las dos reuniones. El personal del proyecto se compromete a presentar los resultados de estas entrevistas en la próxima • reunión, lo cual recordemos se debe realizar en otro sitio con el fin de alternar los lugares preferidos por unos y por otros.TIempo requerido: 3 minutos.Al terminar la reunión es importante enfatizar los agradecimientos a los participantes por el tiempo para asistir, particularmente, a aquellos que tuvieron que recorrer un largo camino para llegar. También es bueno abrir un espacio para que los asistentes pongan de presente sus percepciones finales y sus expectativas para próximas reuniones. Este ejercicio se puede aplicar de dos maneras (a) y (b).(a) Una corta solamente contestando individualmente Verdadero I Falso, seguido por la discusión en plenaria (Tiempo requerido: 15 minutos), y (b) una más extensa involucrando el trabajo en grupos (Tiempo requerido: 30 minutos). Al finalizar la sección de preguntas y respuestas en forma individual, los participantes se reúnen en grupos de cuatro y comparan las respuestas dadas a cada pregunta .-Si las respuestas coinciden, los participantes deben anotar, debajo del tema respectivo la razón por la cual es falso o verdadero.-Si las respuestas ente los diferentes miembros no coinciden, entonces deben discutir las razones de sus discrepancias. Si las discrepancias se mantienen, deben expresarlas en la plenaria donde se discutirán todas las respuestas. Si hay consenso, otra vez deben escribir las razones por las cuales opinan que el item es falso o verdadero.Recursos necesarios Lea las siguientes frases y marque con una X, si las considera verdaderas o falsas. En las líneas que aparecen abajo de cada frase, explique su respuesta.Afirmación 1. La acción colectiva busca coordinar a los diferentes usuarios de la tierra en tomo a problemas que los afectan, tales como escasez del agua.2. Los agricultores habitantes de una cuenca conocen la problemática de todos los vecinos, ya que ellos tienen el mismo acceso a los recursos naturales.Verdadera Falsa 3. No se requiere de una acción colectiva en una microcuenca cuando problemas como la quema de los bosques. Estos pueden ser resueltos por cada agricultor Individualmente.• 5. Para solucionar los problemas de erosión lo mejor es capacitar a los agricultores con poca tierra, quienes son los que más la ocasionan.6. Los agricultores toman la decisión de fumigar un cultivo de acuerdo con sus costumbres y consultando previamente con los vecinos que toman agua de la quebrada .Afirmación 1Verdadero. En una misma cuenca se pueden estar usando las mismas fuentes de distintas maneras, dependiendo de la situación en el paisaje, el nivel social, las creencias y, por tanto, se pueden estar afectando unos a otros los agricultores sin darse cuenta.Falso. Algunos agricultores poseen acueducto, otros obtienen agua de otras fuentes y, muchas veces, no conocen los recursos naturales que posee el vecino.Falso. Los problemas relacionados con el manejo de los recursos traspasan los limites de la finca y requieren de acciones concertadas entre los agricultores para decidir cómo, cuándo y dónde se va a conservar el recurso natural.Verdadero. Generalmente son los mismos o los que disponen de tiempo los que asisten.Falso. los propietarios de grandes extensiones, y con explotación ganadera, también causan erosión.Falso. Muchos no están conscientes de que están afectando a otros, y los agricultores no confían en que por el hecho de ellos hacer algo los otros también harán su parte. 1. Pida a los participantes que conformen parejas.2. Entregue a cada pareja una copia de las instrucciones para el ejercicio.3. Pida a los participantes que una vez terminado el ejercicio se preparen para compartirlo con el grupo en general.• 2. Lea cuidadosamente cada una de los segmentos de las entrevistas (E 1, E2 .... E6) realizadas con los agricultores.3. Después de cada entrevista escriba los temas (1 o 2 palabras) que usted considera que se relacionan con acciones colectivas.4. En un análisis de grupo comparta sus respuestas con sus colegas.E ;; entrevistadoEntrevistas (E):E1= El problema es que viene un señor que no es de aquí, un contratista para cortar los pinos y aunque el Gobierno de la comunidad indígena le ha dicho que tiene que dejar 20 metros alrededor del nacimiento de agua, el sol se esta metiendo mucho y yo soy el más afectado porque el agua nos escasea en el verano, Tema Entrevista no. 1: a.b, e, E2-Los de la ciudad, que tienen fincas para veranear (en la parte alta) no les preocupa y de pronto no conocen lo que pasa acá en la parte baja que es donde recibimos toda el agua sucia cuando ellos fumigan sus huertas.¿ Ustedes también tienen problemas con la tala del bosques? Se les merma el agua de los nacimientos?1-20 ¿Por Qué FomenW la Accl6n CoIodIva? d.f.    ~ ¿Por que fomentar la acción colectiva en el maneio de los recursos naturales?~ ¿Puede mencionar eiemplos sobre el maneio de los recursos naturales que han meiorado con la acción colectiva?'i ¿Qué es una área natural contigua?~ ¿Cómo se estimula la importancia de acción colectiva en el maneio de los recursos naturales?    Objetivo ,/ Después de estudiar los conceptos de esta sección el participante podrá utilizar la técnica de entrevista individual para elaborar una interpretación en relación con el manejo de los recursos naturales en una microcuenca.1. ¿Cuál puede ser una ventaja y una desventaja de las entrevistas individuales utilizadas para conocer las opiniones de los usuarios?2. ¿Cuál puede ser una ventaja y una desventaja de las entrevistas grupales?3. ¿ Qué opina de las entrevistas individuales como medio para identificar percepciones y conceptos contrastantes, y grupos de interés?4. ¿Cómo se puede definir el término grupos de interés?Para tener éxito en el manejo de una cuenca es importante identificar y entender todos los tipos de usuarios, sectores involucrados o grupos de interés que existen dentro de ese entorno. En el libro, Evaluación de la Cuarta Generación, Guba y Lincoln (1989) proponen que la identificación y el análisis de los grupos de interés se deben realizar como una investigación constructivista abierta. Dentro del contexto del manejo del paisaje esto es un proceso a través del cual los usuarios exponen sus opiniones, perspectivas, preocupaciones, e inquietudes; es decir las construcciones o interpretaciones, relacionadas con el paisaje y con la administración de los recursos que hay.¿Como se logran las interpretaciones basadas en las preocupaciones personales de cada usuario?• Para ello se recomienda hacer entrevistas individuales. Generalmente en reuniones amplias con agricultores se convoca a toda la comunidad, pero asisten siempre los mismos y al final los problemas candentes o latentes no logran superar las barreras soci.:.:es y presiones de grupo. Existe un temor al castigo o reprensión publica por haber llevado a cabo acciones que van en contra del orden establecido. En muchas ocasiones, quienes están en contra de la mayoria o individuos con poder, o de grupos de presión, no se atreven a participar en las reuniones. Además, siempre hay • agricultores tímidos o a los que cultural mente no les es permitido expresarse en público, como es el caso de las mujeres, por ejemplo. Todas las opiniones y conflictos percibidos por ellos se quedarían sin abordar en una reunión amplia.La experiencia enseña que en las reuniones o asambleas colectivas, las opiniones se dirigen a señalar que todos sufren los mismos problemas, son homogéneos y están de acuerdo con todas las decisiones; pero la realidad subyacente es otra y después se detectan desacuerdos en el uso de los recursos de otros sectores no representados como, por ejemplo, el desbroce o las quemas alrededor de las riberas de los rios o el uso excesivo de agroquímicos. Además, tratar los conflictos de interés en una reunión amplia, implica distanciarse de los vecinos en su presencia, algo que no es socialmente aceptado. En el Cuadro 2.1 se comparan algunas de las características de la entrevista grupal e individual.Para facilitar las entrevistas individuales, se utilizará un formato con seis preguntas o temas para guiar las entrevistas (Anexo 6.2). Las primeras dos buscan sondear el tema de la utilización propia de los recursos naturales y los problemas percibidos. Las dos siguientes exploran la forma como cada uno de los usuaríos entrevistados ve afectado su propio uso de los recursos, como resultado de la interdependencia con los recursos de sus vecinos. En un quinto tema se trata de motivar a la persona • • entrevistada para que piense en la posibilidad de una acción colectiva. La última pregunta sirve para asegurar que todos los grupos de interés estén identificados.Cuadro 2.1 Caracterlsticas de las entrevistas individual y grupal.Reunión grupalEs un método sencillo. Los conflictos latentes no afloran.Menos exigente para el técnico en habilidades Los más tímidos no emiten su opinión. para facilitar discusiones y manejar grupos.Los dalos son más fáciles para recolectar yAlgunos sectores temen enfrentarse a sus manejar oposltores.La información suministrada tiende a ser más Los que han tomado posiciones en contra confiable. de lo establecido lemen ser señalados.No está sujeta a las presiones de grupo.No es socialmente aceptado debatir problemas a la luz pública entre vecinos y correr el riego de ganar enemigos.La confiabilidad de la información puede verificarse mas fácilmente.Se solicita a cada persona que contesta, nombrar a otro usuario del paisaje que esté dispuesto a presentar una percepción propia o diferente a la del entrevistado. Entrevistando a la persona nominada, los usuarios del paisaje terminan siendo parte de la muestra, lo que se conoce como muestreo por contraste o muestreo por variación máxima. El proceso de entrevistar y solicitar nominaciones para nuevos entrevistados se repite hasta que la información se convierta en redundante o de inicio a dos o más interpretaciones sueltas o sin parejas.Después de cada entrevista, los temas centrales, conceptos, ideas, valores, preocupaciones y propuestas por la persona entrevistada son analizados por el entrevistador y colocados como la formulación inicial de una interpretación. Después de que el siguiente entrevistado formule voluntariamente su propia percepción, los temas sugeridos por el entrevistado inmediatamente anterior se introducen como material de la entrevista y el nuevo entrevistado puede comentar sobre dichos temas.La constante comparación y el análisis de los puntos de vista contrastantes y divergentes es una de las características esenciales de la investigación constructivista y es determinante cuando se intenta identificar la existencia de intereses en conflicto.Por ejemplo, en La Recuperación, una microcuenca del Río Cabuyal (ver ejemplo, de variación entre dos microcuencas vecinas, numeral 1.2), se detectó que las preocupaciones o temas en conflicto que se presentaban en el área se relacionaban con el uso de los recursos forestales, la distribución de tierras ocasionada por la granvariedad de altitudes y condiciones agroecológicas en el área y el suministro .... doméstico de agua, incluyendo el sabotaje en las tuberías. Los entrevistados, en su . . mayoría relacionaron estos problemas con la falta de una organización efectiva entre los usuarios de los recursos.Naturales?A veces el significado del término recursos naturales no es muy claro para los agricultores. Puede ser que perciban el término 'recursos' en su significado económico, o quizás piensen que sólo se refiere a los árboles (bosque) o el agua, dejando por fuera recursos como el suelo, la vegetación y la fauna. Para superar este problema es recomendable iniciar la entrevista hablando un poco de lo que son recursos naturales. Puede ser conveniente buscar un sitio donde haya una buena vista sobre la cuenca para desde allí hablar sobre lo que se ve y lo que son recursos naturales. O se puede utilizar un dibujo que ilustre un paisaje (Figura 2.1).Es conveniente enumerar los recursos imperceptibles a simple vista, por ejemplo:• ¿Qué opina de las aves, y su efecto en los cultivos?• ¿Cuáles son los insectos y qué atacan?• Los fenómenos del clima (viento, lluvias, sequía) Cuando se termina el proceso de la entrevista es hora de que los entrevistadores se sienten para formular una interpretación sintetizada de cuáles son los usos, cuáles son los conflictos y cuales son los distintos grupos de interés relacionados con el uso de los recursos naturales, tomando en cuenta las percepciones que han salido de las entrevistas individuales. Esta versión debe mantener el mismo esquema de las entrevistas.Se trata de establecer cuáles son los usos que se dan a los recursos naturales en la zona.Se describen los problemas que se perciben en la zona al utilizar los recursos naturales y cuáles son los conflictos o desacuerdos que se presentan.Se establece hasta qué punto se pueden agrupar los usuarios en la microcuenca según el uso que hagan de los recursos naturales, los prOblemas que perciban y su papel o posición en los conflictos o desacuerdos que se han presentado. En otras palabras, se trata de establecer cuales son los grupos de interés con respecto al manejo de los recursos naturales en la zona.A veces sucede que los grupos de interés, así definidos, coinciden con otros factores que caracterizan a los usuarios de los recursos naturales de una zona como, por ejemplO, étnicos, de género, los que viven arriba y los que viven abajo. Pero muchas veces, no existe esta coincidencia o por lo menos no se percibe fácilmente. Esto no importa. Lo importante es que los grupos de interés se definan por las percepciones expresadas en las entrevistas individuales sobre el uso y los problemas relacionados con los recursos naturales.Es importante adarar que el hecho de que un grupo de usuarios no mencione un problema, por ejemplo la contaminación del agua, no quiere decir que este grupo no está relacionado con este problema. Al contrarío, bien puede ser que este grupo de usuarios realmente está causando el problema, no para ellos mismos, sino para otros usuarios de los recursos de la cuenca. Uno de los retos del análisis de los grupos de interés es precisamente aclarar, no solo quienes tienen los problemas sino también quienes los causan con la mala utilización de los recursos naturales, y de esta manera, hacer evidente las interdependencias que existen entre los usuarios en una zona. De aquí surge, entonces, la necesidad de la acción colectiva. 1. Pida a los participantes que formen grupos de dos personas (parejas).2. Entregue a cada pareja una copia del ejercicio 3. Pida a los participantes que una vez terminado el ejercicio se preparen para compartir los resultados con el grupo en general.• Hoja de Trabajo A1: El agua es propia, tenemos una manguera para cada familia. la de nosotros baja unos 30 metros y trae el agua desde donde los vecinos Quilindos. Pero como no tenemos recursos(económicos) para hacer un tanque (recolector), hemos hecho un pozo en la tierra.E: ¿Usan el agua de las quebradas? Para lavar? Para riego?A1: Cuando nos llega el agua, sí se usa. O cuando se revienta la manguera. A veces también la usamos para jabonar el poquito de ropa que tenemos.E: ¿Hay peces?A1: los que tienen cultivos de fique (penca o cabuya) matan los peces. los vecinos de aquí abajo también, pero están fuera de la cuenca. Pero el vecino de arriba lava en la casa. La que nosotros usamos es limpia, viene del nacimiento.E ¿ Cuando hay problemas toman agua de la quebrada?-. '•• A 1: Sí pero, los vecinos de arriba jabonan la ropa y el agua llega sucia. Los que lavan el fique, más allá, no los alcanza a afectar. La gente critica que a veces no llega el agua. No hay acuerdo, cada uno tiene su propia opinión distinta; por ejemplo, el señor Juan va a las reuniones y luego vuelve y nos dice otra cosa, cuando traduce del español a su dialecto lo hace a su conveniencia.A2: Tenemos tubería de manguera, pero ésta a veces falla, nos falta tubería de acero. El agua se usa para cocinar y lavar. Víene del nacimiento de Santa Barbara. El agua de esta quebrada, la Colorada, le han echado dos veces fique y no nos explicamos cómo no les ha pasado nada a los usuarios nuevos que tienen lagos de peces. Ellos encontraron estopas de fique en los lagos. Nadie hace las cosas porque no hay acuerdo y no se reunen a discutir sobre ese problema. Solo tienen mangueras y se revientan. Antes existía el problema que a las mangueras les echaban piedras, pero ahora no. Hace como 8 años venía el agua con vidrio molido.• 12:• A3: A mí me falla el agua más que todo en verano, anteriormente tenía el problema con las mangueras que se reventaban y las remendaba con neumáticos de llantas, pero ahora tengo agua independiente. En verano escasea porque están cortando los árboles cerca al nacimiento. El contratista que tumba los arboles no deja ni 10 metros del nacimiento sin cortar. La Junta dijo que tenía un dinero para ayudarnos, pero si nos uníamos a otra comunidad. Pero no nos hemos podido poner de acuerdo.A4: A mí me toca todo sola. Estamos mal de agua porque no nos llega suficiente . En el nacimiento hay, pero por falta de manguera, no hay agua en la casa. A Pedro le gusta desconectar la manguera del tanque de agua y ésta no nosM9II><IoIogIa de Análisis de GivpoiS detnl.Wés para el Manejo Colectivo de Rewrsos Haturatu en IIlt:rocuencas llega. También afecta a la vecina de abajo. La manguera se rompe y empatan • un pedazo para reconectar. Como vivo en la parte alta el agua no me llega, ya que viene de una parte mas baja. En verano se escasea. No poseemos tanque de agua.No vamos a las reuniones de La Junta porque nunca se ponen de acuerdo.A5: Anteriormente tomaba agua contaminada porque la cogía abajo. Ahora saco agua limpia de una poceta propia. A veces voy a limpiar el pozo para que el agua baje y la misma presión desempata las mangueras. No le gusta el acueducto porque otros desconectan las mangueras y hay muchos problemas, pero cuando invitan a trabajar yo sí participo. Ha habido problemas por trozar las mangueras y han tenido que hacer reuniones y llamar la atención, por eso me han tratado de pegar, yo no quiero agua del acueducto para no tener problemas. La misma comunidad es la que echa mugre en los tanques.Hace dos años también me acusaron de robo, pero salí inocente. Es que estos indígenas son perezosos no como los Guambianos que sí trabajan. Yo soy • también Paez, pero no me gusta meterme con éstos.A6: Ellos están reforestando con nacedero, pino, carboncillo, para revivir el agua y pensaban criar pescados en el lago natural porque el agua es limpía. Traen agua por manguera. El problema es hacer un tanque. Antes hacían acueducto familiar pero ahora quieren hacer un tanque para toda la comunidad (unas 50 familias). Los problemas que se generan es que los que tienen pozos como Sofía no aceptan porque ya tienen sus pozos propios, pero para el futuro de mañana es necesario el proyecto del acueducto. Como para lavar el café.Yo he estado viviendo en Cali y trabajado en fábricas, me gusta trabajar con entidades, hacer lo que recomiendan las técnicas nuevas.• • • A7: La comunidad necesita ayuda para la tubería del acueducto. La tubería principal tenía 2 km de ramales y estaba quebrada. Yo no tengo problemas de falta de agua. Tengo casa en la parte de arriba (otra cuenca), no tengo, problemas de agua en verano, ni de contaminación. A otros vecinos si les hacen falta los recursos económicos porque no tienen cómo comprar las mangueras. Quisiera trabajar individualmente, no quiero un crédito en grupo porque unos para trabajar no cumplen. Anteriormente echaban vidrio molido al agua pero ellos hablaron con los muchachos de allí mismo yeso se arregló. Sobre el acueducto no se han puesto de acuerdo porque unos dicen que la quebrada donde proponen sacar el agua es muy poquita, y otros que del Cabuyal, pero eso elevaría los costos. Ellos están de acuerdo con La Junta pero hicieron un proyecto de acueducto y los desconocieron aunque participan en todas las reuniones.Ejercicio: 2.1 Interpretaciones a Partir de Entrevistas IndividualesA continuación se presenta una serie de posibles respuestas a cada una de las interpretaciones pedidas a los participantes. Es importante destacar que estas no son una respuesta única. Son ejemplos dentro de las varias posibilidades existentes.11: Algunos tienen agua propia y otros no. Uno tienen tanque recolector de aguas y otros hacen pozos. Existe un problema con las mangueras que se revientan. Los de la parte de arriba jabonan y ensucian el agua de los de abajo. Los que lavan fique matan los peces con el agua contaminada. En verano llega muy poca y no alcanza para los de abajo. Hay critica hacia la Junta por favoritismos y hay falta de acuerdos entre ellos. Existen líderes que manipulan la comunidad.12: Las mangueras que traen el agua fallan mucho, se rompen. Los del fique lavan y matan los peces. Nadie se ha reunido para tratar este problema. Hubo un problema con vidrio y se solucionó en reuniones.13: En verano el agua, escasea porque, aunque ya no tienen necesidad de las mangueras, tienen un pozo cerca que les suple. El corte de árboles por otro • usuario les merma el abastecimiento de agua en verano. Tienen problemas para . reunirse y llegar a acuerdos. 14: Las mujeres solas tiene mayor dificultad para solucionar {os problemas de agua.El problema de las mangueras y el acceso a las fuentes de agua dependen de la topografía. No todos tienen tanque. Hay acusaciones a otros usuarios de que sabotean las tuberías del acueducto.15: A este señor se le acusa de desconectar las mangueras del acueducto, pero según relata también en el pasado ha sido acusado de lo mismo. Parece que no se siente parte de la comunidad y tiene conflictos con ellos. También contribuye con la idea de que el agua que cogen abajo ya está contaminada.16: Este es un líder que ha tenido contactos externos con instituciones y experiencias en otros departamentos. Le gusta innovar. Tiene deseo de organizar su comunidad. Por otra parte, otros usuarios dicen que manipula. 17: A este usuario no le interesa asociarse. Tiende a ser más individual. De nuevo vemos que los de arriba tienen solucionados sus problemas de agua con respecto a los de abajo. Contradice las otras opiniones con respecto a la Junta de Acción Comunal. Se denotan problemas de organización y críticas hacia las instituciones locales. • • •Las mangueras están en muy mal estado y por eso se revientan tanto. Los de la parte de arriba conocen el problema del lavado del fique lo que mata los peces de los estanques. Pero de nuevo, no se reúnen para dar soluciones, aunque si hay una experiencia anterior exitosa relacionada con los problemas ocasionados por los vidrios en el agua que echan los de arriba.Hay sectores o grupos de interés en contra y a favor del acueducto.Egon, G. Guba; Yvonna, S. Uncoln. Fourth generation evaluation. 1989. Sage publications. United States of America. Utilizar la técnica de entrevista individual para elaborar una interpretación relacionada con el manejo de los recursos naturales en una microcuenca.Grupin-2.2 , ,• Preguntas Orientadoras i ¿Cuál puede ser una ventaia y una . . de las entrevistas individuales para conoc opiniones de los productores?i ¿Cuál puede ser una ventaia y una desventaia de entrevistas grupales?~ ¿Qué opinan de las entrevistas individuales como medio para identificar percepciones contrastantes y grupos de interés?4 ¿Cómo se puede definir el término\"grupos de interés?1I 3.3.5 Unificación de las interpretaciones modificadas en los grupos de interés ...... 3-9 3.3.6 Propuesta sobre acciones futuras ................................................................... 3-9 3.3.7 Sondeo final sobre el interés en el proyecto de los usuarios de la Al finalizar esta sección los participantes estarán en capacidad de:,f Identificar y valorar los intereses diversos y opuestos que determinan el manejo de los recursos naturales,f Demostrar habilidad para sacar a la luz pública los conflictos que existen en torno a los recursos naturales, sin comprometer a las personas entrevistadas .. ,f Demostrar habilidad para iniciar un diálogo sobre el uso adecuado de los recursos naturales.1. ¿Cómo se pueden presentar los problemas y conflictos en una microcuenca?2. ¿Cómo se pueden analizar problemas y conflictos relacionados con los recursos naturales en los diferentes grupos de interés?3. ¿Por qué es necesario continuar el proceso iniciado?La idea es presentar la interpretación o construcción realizada por la entidad en una reunión con la participación todos los usuarios de la cuenca. Esta sería, por tanto, una segunda reunión.Como se comentó anteriormente, es muy dificil que en una reunión concurrida se hable libremente sobre conflictos entre vecinos. En muchos casos, esto simplemente no es socialmente aceptado. Por eso, es muy importante que cuando se formule y presente la interpretación se haga sin comprometer a las personas entrevistadas.Hay que respetar que las personas entrevistadas digan cosas que probablemente no hubieran dicho en una reunión concurrida.En cambio, para la entidad que llega desde afuera no se aplican de la misma manera las normas sociales que prohiben a los usuarios de la cuenca hablar explícitamente sobre los conflictos existentes. Entonces, un papel importante que tiene la entidad es sacar a la luz los conflictos que existen sobre los recursos naturales frente a todos los usuarios, con el fin de iniciar un diálogo y negociación sobre su uso adecuado. Para esto sirve la interpretación que realiza la entidad.La interpretación que realiza la entidad no debe ser presentada en la segunda reunión como la interpretación final. Por el contrario, al presentarla, la entidad debe enfatizar que se trata de una interpretación que ellos han hecho y como quienes la elaboraron no son de la cuenca, puede estar llena de errores y equivocaciones. Al igual que en el primer paso, después de haber presentado la interpretación o punto de vista de la entidad, se invita a los participantes a que hagan sus observaciones y comentarios • sobre dicha interpretación, primero en plenaria y después en grupos más pequeños, • con el fin de modificarla.Como parte de la interpretación, la entidad propone cuáles, en su percepción son los grupos de interés. Esta propuesta también se incluye para la discusión entre los participantes en la segunda reunión. De acuerdo con los resultados de esta discusión, los usuarios se dividen en subgrupos, ya definidos como grupos de interés. La tarea que se da a estos grupos de interés es revisar de nuevo y modificar la interpretación de la entidad. Con las interpretaciones de los grupos de interés se forma la versión o interpretación final, o la versión o interpretación compartida.3.3 Discusión sobre el Uso de Recursos Naturales, Problemas y Grupos de Interés -Segunda ReuniónEn esta parte se explica cómo es posible llegar a una interpretación compartida sobre la utilización y los prOblemas surgidos a partir del uso de los recursos naturales.Presentar y modificar la interpretación de la entidad sobre el uso de los recursos naturales en la cuenca y los conflictos relacionados con dicho uso, con el fin de crear una interpretación final y compartida entre todos los usuarios. Esta interpretación conjunta se hace con el fin de elaborar una base sobre la cual se pueden desarrollar planes de acción para mejorar el manejo concertado de los recursos naturales .El facilitador saluda y aclara el propósito, tanto del proyecto en general como de la reunión en particular. Si se percibe inhibición o temor en los participantes, se puede usar una dinámica de grupo.Tiempo requerido: 20 minutos.3.3.2 Presentación de la interpretación de la entidad sobre el uso de los recursos naturales y los conflictos relacionados El facilitador presenta la interpretación que ha realizado tomando las entrevistas individuales. Esto se hace sin comprometer a las personas entrevistadas, preferiblemente sin mencionar a quien se entrevistó. Es conveniente buscar una manera gráfica para presentar la interpretación de la entidad. Si los participantes saben leer y escribir, también se puede presentar parte de la interpretación en títulos grandes seguidos de explicaciones. La presentación gráfica debe ser lo más representativa posible de la zona seleccionada, y se hace con un dibujo que muestre los problemas y conflictos relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales en su sitio, la localización de los usuarios afectados y los causantes. La interpretación escrita puede ser dividida de acuerdo con los diferentes recursos naturales en el área• o a los diferentes grupos de interés y cómo éstos se interrelacionan a través del uso compartido de los recursos naturales. La presentación de la interpretación de la entidad debe responder la siguiente pregunta:-¿Cuál es el uso que se da a los recursos naturales y cuáles son los problemas en torno al uso que se da de esos recursos?Al presentar su versión del uso y los conflictos sobre los recursos naturales, la entidad pone énfasis en que se trata de una interpretación hecha por ella y, por tanto, puede tener errores y equivocaciones.Tiempo requerido: 15 minutosEl facilitador invita a los participantes para que hagan sus observaciones y comentarios sobre la interpretación con el fin de modificarla. Cualquier comentario positivo o negativo es bienvenido. Debido a que esto se hace en plenaria es posible que la participación no sea suficiente, por lo cual se debe continuar con el siguiente paso.Tiempo requerido: 15 minutosDe acuerdo con los resultados de la discusión sobre la parte de la interpretación que se refiere a los grupos de interés, se pide a los participantes que se dividan en subgrupos según grupos de interés identificados.La tarea para estos subgrupos es discutir y modificar nuevamente aquellos aspectos de la interpretación que los involucra como grupo de interés con el fin de que la interpretación realizada por la entidad corresponda, en lo posible, a su propia interpretación.Las siguientes preguntas sirven para iniciar la discusión en los subgrupos.1. ¿En qué consisten los problemas? 2. ¿Cuáles son las causas de estos problemas? 3. ¿Qué se ha hecho antes para solucionar estos problemas? 4. ¿Qué se puede hacer ahora para solucionar los problemas?En una interpretación compartida se presentan las modificaciones que cada subgrupo ha hecho a la interpretación inicial. los participantes están invitados a hacer comentarios sobre las modificaciones con el fin de formular una interpretación conjunta de todos los grupos de interés.En caso de que se perciban dificultades en este paso, se puede proponer que las negociaciones continúen entre los grupos y que se seleccione otra fecha para formular una interpretación compartida.Tiempo requerido: 15 minutosLa entidad agradece a los participantes por haber terminado un trabajo difícil, consistente en escuchar y tratar de entender los problemas, las percepciones y las preocupaciones que a veces son opuestas a las propias, y por haber logrado una interpretación compartida de los problemas del manejo de los recursos naturales en su cuenca. Con base en este acercamiento y entendimiento mutuo, la tarea ahora es desarrollar un plan de acción para mejorar el manejo de los recursos naturales, esta vez no en forma separada, sino de una manera concertada y coordinada. El facilitador aclara en qué forma está dispuesto a apoyar este proceso.Tiempo requerido: 10 minutosEn la primera reunión se hizo un sondeo sobre el posible interés por parte de los usuarios en participar en el proyecto. Ahora, es el momento de retomar este sondeo, para que los participantes digan si están interesados en seguir en el proceso propuesto por la entidad para tratar de mejorar el manejo de los recursos naturales a través de acción colectiva concertada. Si la respuesta es 'no', se continua con el punto 3.3.9.Tiempo requerido: 10 minutos.En esta parte, se trata de definir cuáles son los próximos pasos para continuar en otra fase. Es decir, del diagnóstico a la acción. Qué se necesita para desarrollar e implementar un plan de acción relacionado con los problemas identificados. A veces, es necesario hacer un inventario en conjunto de los recursos de la cuenca y de su uso, o hacer mediciones del estado de los recursos, o se requiere información sobre posibles soluciones desde afuera. Obviamente, cuáles serían los próximos pasos depende de cada situación específica.En algunas oportunidades, si la reunión ha sido demasiado larga y la audiencia se percibe cansada, se aconseja elegir un grupo pequeño con representantes de todos los grupos de interés para que elaboren una agenda de trabajo para la próxima reunión.Tiempo requerido: 5 minutos.Al terminar la reunión es importante enfatizar los agradecimientos a todos, por tomar el tiempo para asistir, particularmente a aquellos que tuvieron que andar un largo camino para llegar. También es bueno abrir un espacio para que los asistentes pongan de presente sus percepciones finales y sus expectativas para próximas reuniones.Tiempo requerido: 5 minutos.Con esta interpretación compartida se ha creado una base para la formulación de propuestas de acción tendientes a mejorar el manejo concertado de los recursos naturales. Es una base que toma en cuenta no sólo las percepciones y prioridades de la élíte local o sectores dominantes, sino las percepciones y prioridades de todos los usuarios de la cuenca.Este es un logro 'sine qua non' para un manejo concertado de los recursos naturales, por lo cuál se debe facilitar, a los usuarios de la cuenca ya los mismos facilítadores. Sin embargo, es apenas el inicio de un proceso largo para mejorar el manejo de dichos recursos. Ahora, empieza la negociación entre los distintos grupos de usuarios sobre la formulación e implementación de propuestas concretas para mejorar dicho manejo.Obviamente, esta negociación puede resultar complicada. Para enfrentar realmente los problemas percibidos de los diferentes grupos de interés, rara vez es suficiente limitarse a las propuestas sobre las que existe consenso entre los usuarios, al contrario, es necesario estimular la negociación sobre temas más controversia les. El propósito de esta negociación debe ser la búsqueda de compromisos entre intereses en conflicto y mecanismos asociados de compensación.El papel de los técnicos es facilitar esta negociación y especialmente ser creativos para que todos los usuarios sientan que ganan con su participación en el proceso, bien sea, directamente a través de los cambios en el manejo de los recursos naturales, o indirectamente a través del reconocimiento que les brindan los vecinos• por su participación en el proceso, por sus habilidades personales o por su voluntad • de hacer sacrificios personales para el bien de todos.Estos procesos han sido poco comprendidos y todavía no existen propuestas metodológicas sobre cómo facilitarlos. Se espera que a través de experiencias concretas, colaboración y retroinformación entre organizaciones que trabajan en tomo al incremento de la capacidad local para el mejoramiento de los recursos naturales, se pueda avanzar en la identificación de estas propuestas metodológicas . Aplicar los pasos de un proceso de análisis de opiniones de diferentes grupos, en relación con el manejo de los recursos naturales.Este ejercicio ha sido diseñado para que sea imitado por diferentes grupos de trabajo, en distintos contextos y países, donde se lleve a cabo la capacitación sobre este tema. Por ejemplo, el ejercicio se puede realizar para aplicar los pasos del proceso en el análisis de diferentes intereses y opiniones sobre el manejo de una microcuenca, con personas o grupos que comparten la misma problemática. En algunas culturas no se entienden las palabras 'recursos naturales' y es necesario iniciar la entrevista con un sondeo para aclarar éste término.La metodología usada consiste en un juego de papeles (rOles), y está basado en un estudio de caso. Los ejemplos fueron tomados de la realidad, pero se pueden reemplazar con ejemplos más familiares al contexto especifico donde se realiza el taller.  deben representar los cuatro grupos de interés en el área. Los grupos de interés se definen por su relación con el uso e identificación de problemas del manejo de los recursos naturales. Seleccione los actores según sus experiencias previas y su habilidad para actuar en forma articuiada y creativa. Si el tiempo lo permite, entregue el caso y la agenda a los cuatro representantes de los grupos de interés el día antes del ejercicio y dedique tiempo para discutir los papeles con ellos.2. Entregue el estudio de caso a todos los participantes.3. Permita el tiempo suficiente para que se familiaricen con el caso (15 minutos).4. Organice las mesas de actores de acuerdo con la Figura 1 (o de acuerdo con las posibilidades físicas del salón. Divida el resto de los participantes en cuatro grupos de entrevistadores usando los números de 1 a 4. Informe a los participante que cada entrevista no debe durar más de 15 minutos. El instructor debe tomar el tiempo y dar la señal de inicio.5. Entregue a los grupos de entrevistadores la guía de entrevista. • Copias suficientes del estudio de caso para todos los participantes.• Copias del estudio de caso y el manuscrito para cada representante de los grupo de interés. • Copias de las guías de entrevistas para los entrevistadores. Se trata de una microcuenca en América Latina. La microcuenca 'Simulandia' tiene 140 hectáreas y está habitada por 40 familias con un promedio de cinco personas por familia. La cuenca está densamente poblada en las partes baja y media, pero menos poblada en la parte alta. En la cuenca existen diversos grupos de interés respecto a cultura, propiedad de tierra, sexo y manejo de los recursos naturales. El interés está en el último, aunque sabemos que este aspecto tiene que ver con los demás.En cuanto a cultura, existe un grupo de indígenas, otro de mestizos y otro de blancos. La mayoría de los indígenas y blancos tienen su propia tierra, mientras que algunos mestizos tienen que alquilar tierra de propiedad de los blancos. Todos los indígenas y la mayoría de mestizos tienen la agricultura como su única fuente de ingresos, mientras que los mestizos más pObres y los mestizos sin tierra tienen que trabajar en las otras fincas, para poder sobrevivir .Los blancos viven en la parte alta, los mestizos en la parte media y los indígenas en la parte más baja.Durante el análisis, se encontraron dos conflictos principales sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales, además de otros conflictos menores. Los dos principales tienen que ver con escasez y calidad de agua, erosión y degradación de suelos.La población en la cuenca tiene acceso a agua proveniente de dos ríos. El primero, nace en la parte alta y es limpio, mientras que el segundo fluye en la parte baja y está contaminado. Este río se origina en otra área más poblada por fuera de la cuenca.Todos prefieren el agua de la cuenca, por que el agua del río de abajo es dañina para la salud. El problema principal consiste en que el agua del río de la cuenca es escasa, sobretodo, en el verano. El sitio donde nace el río es propiedad de un blanco, pero él permite a sus vecinos y a gente cercana recolectar tanta agua como deseen. Esta gente que vive en la parte alta tiene agua suficiente para su consumo y para sus animales pero el agua es escasa para la gente de las partes media y baja. En el verano, ellos tienen que beber agua del río contaminado, por tanto, sugieren construir un acueducto para distribuir agua limpia del río de la cuenca, en forma más equitativa. Han presentado su plan al municipio y están dispuestos a apoyar el • proyecto, tanto técnica como financieramente.El problema principal consiste en que la gente de la parte alta reclama que ellos • necesitan el agua para ellos, sus cultivos y sus animales. Por otra parte, no tienen acceso al río de la parte baja y si se hace el acueducto no tendrán agua suficiente para sus cultivos y animales. En consecuencia su producción disminuirá y no tendrán suficientes recursos para emplear a la gente que no tiene tierra y que proviene de la parte baja de la cuenca.El área alrededor del 'ojo de agua' tiene bosques que protegen el agua. Sin embargo, los agricultores a pequeña escala, que habitan en la parte media, y usan toda su tierra para cultivos, van al bosque a cortar árboles para tener leña. Por tanto, cada año hay menos agua en el río y se intensifican los problemas por falta de agua pura.En la zona el suelo es poroso y liviano, llueve bastante y muy fuerte durante el invierno, lo que favorece la erosión. Para controlar la erosión, la población indígena de la parte baja de la cuenca ha aplicado algunas técnicas de conservación, como barreras vivas y terrazas. La ayuda técnica y financiera para lograr esto, ha estado dirigida por la organización indígena. El trabajo relacionado con la conservación del suelo y la mayoría de cultivos lo realizan las mujeres y los niños, mientras que la desyerba y la cosecha es responsabilidad de los hombres.El problema se genera porque los mestizos de la parte media de la cuenca no aplican .... técnicas de conservación de suelos. Cuando llueve, el agua y la tierra acumulada ~ aceleran la erosión, no sólo para ellos sino para los agricultores indígenas de más abajo. Además, el agua que corre contamina el río de la cuenca.Los hombres mestizos hacen todo el trabajo de campo, mientras que las mujeres, por cultura, deben encargarse de la casa y los niños. Los niños mayores de 8 años van a la escuela cercana. Los hombres mestizos no tienen suficientes recursos para aplicar técnicas de conservación de suelos, y el trabajo como jornaleros es escaso. Esto es especialmente cierto para los agricultores más pobres, quienes tienen que buscar empleo en fincas de los más ricos, en la parte alta de la cuenca. El municipio está dispuesto a ofrecer asistencia técnica y financiera a los agricultores si éstos se organizan. Los problemas surgen porque los mestizos no se quieren organizar con los indígenas, por su cultura y religión diferente, y porque la población indígena ha ocupado la tierra durante 15 años. Además, los mestizos no se quieren organizar internamente, debido a conflictos por el acceso al agua.Si se dejara tierra en descanso (barbecho) sería posible resolver el problema, pero los agricultores mestizos tendrían sólo pequeñas porciones de tierra, pues la mayoría de la tierra es propiedad de los agricultores más ricos de la parte alta de la cuenca. Instrucciones para los representantes de los grupos de interés A favor de las prácticas de conservación de suelosUsted ha sido escogido para representar uno de los grupos de interés en la microcuenca 'Simulandia'. A continuación encontrará la descripción del papel que le toca representar. Esta descripción es la base de su personalidad y de sus opiniones.Sin embargo, le invitamos a desarrollar su trabajo en forma creativa, obviamente, sin cambiar el carácter del personaje. Se agradece su colaboración.Usted representa a una mujer indígena que comparte intereses con el resto de la población indígena. Ha trabajado arduamente toda la vida para aplicar técnicas de conservación de suelos para proteger la tierra. Usted y su familia se han beneficiado de la asistencia técnica y financiera que obtuvieron de la organización indígena local. Pero no es suficiente para detener el flujo de agua y suelo de la parte alta de la cuenca. Las cosas comienzan a empeorar debido a la presión del aumento de la población. La tierra se está yendo y el agua está contaminada. Usted cree que las mujeres mestizas y los niños deben ser obligados a trabajar con prácticas de conservación, o que todos los habitantes de la cuenca se deben reunir para recibir ayuda financiera y técnica del municipio. Usted no entiende por qué es tan difícil para la gente organizarse en la cuenca. Tampoco entiende porque ustedes deben soportar los problemas de las otras personas.Con relación al agua, usted está a favor de un acueducto, pues los niños se enferman por tomar agua del río de abajo, pues está contaminado por la erosión. En ese sentido, usted comparte intereses con el resto de la población, de la parte baja y media de la cuenca, excepto con aquellos que tienen el acceso directo al agua de arriba.Ejercicio 3.1 Análisis e Interpretación de los Grupos de Interés -Juego de Papeles -Hoja de Trabajo No. 2Instrucciones para los representantes de los grupos de interés A favor de las prácticas de conservación de suelosUsted ha sido escogido para representar uno de los grupos de interés en a microcuenca 'Simulandia'. Enseguida encontrará la descripción del papel que le toca representar. Esta descripción es la base de su personalidad y de sus opiniones. Sin embargo, le invitamos a desarrollar su papel creativamente, obviamente, sin cambiar el carácter del personaje totalmente. Se agradece su colaboración.Usted representa a un hombre mestizo que comparte intereses con la mayoría de familias de su raza. Percibe la erosión del suelo como un problema porque destruye la fertilidad de la tierra. Antiguamente este problema era menos grave, pues todos dejaban tierra para barbecho. Usted cree que la razón del aumento de la erosión se debe a la invasión de gente indígena y el aumento de nacimientos, lo cual aumenta la presión sobre los recursos naturales.• Usted está a favor de la conservación del suelo y sabe que la mano de obra y la asistencia financiera y técnica son elementos claves para solucionar éste • problema. Pero, usted no permitirá que las mujeres y los niños trabajen en el campo, . pues las mujeres deben cocinar y mantener la casa limpia y los niños deben tener la oportunidad de ir a la escuela. Además, por ningún motivo desea organizarce con la población indígena para recibir la ayuda técnica y financiera del municipio. Ellos reocuparon una parte de su tierra, hace unos 15 años. Usted no utilizó la tierra en esa época, pero aún así considera que es suya y hoy día necesita tierra virgen para compensar la pérdida de fertilidad.Con respecto al agua, está de acuerdo en que se debe construir un acueducto, pues el agua es escasa en el verano. Usted ha sido escogido para representar uno de los grupos de interés en a microcuenca 'Simulandia'. Enseguida encontrará la descripción del papel que le toca representar. Esta descripción es la base de su personalidad y de sus opiniones. Sin embargo, le invitamos a desarrollar su papel creativamente, obviamente, sin cambiar el carácter del personaje totalmente. Se agradece su colaboración.Usted es una mujer mestiza, y el mayor problema es la falta de agua limpia en el verano. En este sentido, comparte intereses con la mayoría de mestizos e indígenas. Sus niños se enferman por tomar agua de la parte baja del río y usted sufre dolor de espalda porque tiene que cargar agua desde el río hasta la casa. Participó en la reunión donde el municipio ofreció ayuda para construir un acueducto, que lleve el agua desde el ojo de agua hacia abajo por la cuenca. Piensa que sería una buena idea, pero cree que nunca se realizará, porque el dueño del ojo de agua no quiere compartirla y además es muy amigo del Alcalde. El le dará dinero al Alcalde para la campaña de reelección .Usted cree que la organización general de la gente en la cuenca, tanto mestizos como indígenas, ayudaría a solucionar el problema. Sabe que su esposo se opone a la idea, pues los indígenas reocuparon una parte de sus tierras hace muchos años. Aún así usted cree que si se organizan habrá presión sobre los políticos, pues las elecciones se realizarán dentro de un año. Además, cree que es tiempo de olvidar viejos conflictos, y dicho sea de paso, sus mejores amigas son indígenas.Usted cree que la erosión del suelo es un problema y cree que se deben adoptar prácticas de conservación, pero no sabe qué se puede hacer para lograrlo.Usted ha sido escogido para representar uno de los grupos de interés en la microcuenca 'Simulandia'. Enseguida encontrará la descripción del papel que le toca representar. Esta descripción es la base de su personalidad y de sus opiniones. Sin embargo, le invitamos a desarrollar su papel creativamente, obviamente, sin cambiar el carácter del personaje totalmente. Se agradece la colaboración.Usted representas a un hombre blanco. No tiene problemas con el manejo de los recursos naturales, pues tienes suficiente tierra yagua. En ese sentido, es diferente a la mayoría de la población de la cuenca y sólo comparte un poco sus intereses. Pero eso no le preocupa, pues es rico y tiene amigos poderosos en la alcaldía.Usted participó en la reunión donde algunos técnicos del municipio propusieron la construcción de un acueducto para solucionar el problema de escasez de agua. Se• opuso a la propuesta y defendió su posíción con mucha convicción. Su argumento • era que no hay suficiente agua de cualquier modo y que el problema real es que cortan los árboles cerca del ojo de agua. Pero sabe bien que algunos de los grandes agricultores riegan la tierra y alimentan el ganado usando la mayor parte del agua.Respecto a la erosión, usted no tiene problemas y no comprende por qué la gente no se organiza para conseguir ayuda financiera y técnica del municipio. le parece que eso demuestra lo simple y desorganizados que son. En general, cree que la gente permanece pobre porque se apega a las viejas tradiciones y no tienen visión. Es su propia culpa.• Ejercicio 3.1 Análisis e Interpretación de los Grupos de Interés -Juego de Papeles Paso 2.¡' Aplicar los pasos de un proceso de análisis de opiniones de diferentes grupos, en relación al manejo de los recursos naturales Instrucciones para los grupos de entrevistadores 1. Lean el estudio de caso.2. Organicen cuatro grupos y nombren una persona que tabute las respuestas.3. Usen la guía de entrevista para entrevistar dos de los participantes, quienes representen un grupo de interés.4. Usen 15 minutos para la primera entrevista y 15 minutos para la segunda. 2. ¿Usted puede mencionar algunos ejemplos de desacuerdos sobre el uso de los recursos naturales, que se han presentado en esta zona?3. ¿Usted se ve afectado por el uso que otras personas dan a los recursos naturales en esta zona?4. ¿En su opinión, qué se necesitaría para solucionar estos problemas?5. ¿Podría dar el nombre de un vecino que tenga una opinión diferente a la suya?6. ¿Por qué cree que él tendría una opinión diferente a la suya? La interpretación sintetizada se elabora utilizando las percepciones que han salido de las entrevistas individuales. Al formularlas y presentarlas se debe evitar mencionar los nombres de las personas involucradas (entrevistadas). La interpretación debe sacar a la luz, frente a todos los asistentes, los desacuerdos existentes con respecto al tema. El propósito es iniciar un diálogo y una negociación sobre el mejoramiento de la situación o sobre la solución del problema.Después de entrevistar a dos personas que representan diferentes grupos de interés, cada equipo de entrevistadores debe hacer la interpretación respectiva. Para ello:1. Los representantes de los grupos de interés hacen grupos con su respectivo entrevistador.2. En el cuesflonario adjunto se escriben las interpretaciones.3. Se nombra un relator para que presente la interpretación elaborada en la plenaria inmediata. Si es posible, trate de elaborar la interpretación en forma gráfica. Haga un dibujo en lugar de escribir.1. ¿ Cuáles son los problemas que surgen en el uso de los recursos naturales?2. ¿ Qué solución han sugerido para enfrentar estos problemas?• 3. ¿ Cuáles son los conflictos o desacuerdos que se han presentado en la cuenca? Aplicar los pasos de un proceso de análisis de opiniones de diferentes grupos, en relación con un tema de interés común.Este ejercicio ha sido diseñado para que pueda ser imitado por diferentes grupos de trabajo en distintos contextos y países, donde se lleve a cabo la capacitación sobre este tema. Por ejemplo, el ejercicio se puede realizar para aplicar los pasos del proceso de análisis de diferentes intereses y opiniones sobre el manejo de una microcuenca, con personas o grupos que comparten la misma problemática.La metodología usada en el ejercicio es el estudio de caso. Los ejemplos fueron tomados de la realidad donde se trabaja, pero se estimula su reemplazo con ejemplos relacionados con el contexto específico donde se realiza el taller .1. Divida a los participantes en subgrupos de 3 a 6 personas basándose en sexo, edad, nivel educativo.2. Entregue el estudio de caso y las preguntas que se deben contestar.3. Anime a los participantes a compartir sus opiniones. las opiniones discrepantes deben aparecer en la tabulación.4. Recoja los formatos con las tabulaciones.• Copias del estudio de caso • Copias de las preguntas para responder • Tiempo estimado para este paso: 30 minutos Tiempo tolal sugerido: 2 horas 30 minutos(1) Este ejercicio se sugiere como una atternativa al inmediatamente anterior {Ejercicio 3.1 l. El instructor decide sobre su empleo dependiendo de las circunstancias locales.  Se trata de una microcuenca en América Latina. La microcuenca 'Simulandia' tiene 140 hectáreas y está habitada por 40 familias con un promedio de cinco personas por familia. La cuenca está densamente poblada en las partes baja y media, pero menos poblada en la parte alta. En la cuenca existen diversos grupos de interés respecto a cultura, propiedad de tierra, sexo y manejo de los recursos naturales. El interés está en el último, aunque sabemos que este aspecto tiene que ver con los demás.En cuanto a cultura, existe un grupo de indígenas, otro de mestizos y otro de blancos. La mayoría de los indígenas y blancos tienen su propia tierra, mientras que algunos mestizos tienen que alquilar tierra de propiedad de los blancos. Todos los indígenas y la mayoría de mestizos tienen la agricultura como su única fuente de ingresos, mientras que los mestizos más pobres y los mestizos sin tierra tienen que trabajar en las otras fincas, para poder sobrevivir.Los blancos viven en la parte alta, los mestizos en la parte media y los indígenas en la parte más baja.Durante el análisis, se encontraron dos conflictos principales sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales, además de otros conflictos menores. Los dos principales tienen que ver con escasez y calidad de agua, erosión y degradación de suelos.La población en la cuenca tiene acceso a agua proveniente de dos ríos. El primero, nace en la parte alta y es límpio, mientras que el segundo fluye en la parte baja y está contaminado. Este río se origina en otra área más poblada por fuera de la cuenca.Todos prefieren el agua de la cuenca, por que el agua del río de abajo es dañina para la salud. El problema principal consiste en que el agua del río de la cuenca es escasa, sobretodo, en el verano. El sitio donde nace el río es propiedad de un blanco, pero él permite a sus vecinos ya gente cercana recolectar tanta agua como deseen. Esta gente que vive en la parte alta tiene agua suficiente para su consumo y para sus animales pero el agua es escasa para la gente de las partes media y baja. En el verano, ellos tienen que beber agua del río contaminado, por tanto, sugieren construir un acueducto para distribuir agua limpia del río de la cuenca, en forma más equitativa. Han presentado su plan al municipio y están dispuestos a apoyar el proyecto, tanto técnica como financieramente .• necesitan el agua para ellos, sus cultivos y sus animales. Por otra parte, no tienen .acceso al río de la parte baja y si se hace el acueducto no tendrán agua suficiente para sus cultivos y animales. En consecuencia su producción disminuirá y no tendrán suficientes recursos para emplear a la gente que no tiene tierra y que proviene de la parte baja de la cuenca.El área alrededor del 'ojo de agua' tiene bosques que protegen el agua. Sin embargo, los agricultores a pequeña escala, que habitan en la parte media, y usan toda su tierra para cultivos, van al bosque a cortar árboles para tener leña. Por tanto, cada año hay menos agua en el río y se intensifican los problemas por falta de agua pura.En la zona el suelo es poroso y liviano, llueve bastante y muy fuerte durante el invierno, lo que favorece la erosión. Para controlar la erosión, la población indígena de la parte baja de la cuenca ha aplicado algunas técnicas de conservación, como barreras vivas y terrazas. La ayuda técnica y financiera para lograr esto, ha estado dirigida por la organización indígena. El trabajo relacionado con la conservación del suelo y la mayoría de cultivos lo realizan las mujeres y los niños, mientras que la desyerba y la cosecha es responsabilidad de los hombres.El problema se genera porque los mestizos de la parte media de la cuenca no aplican técnicas de conservación de suelos. Cuando llueve, el agua y la tierra acumulada aceleran la erosión, no sólo para ellos sino para los agricultores indígenas de más abajo. Además, el agua que corre contamina el río de la cuenca.Los hombres mestizos hacen todo el trabajo de campo, mientras que las mujeres, por cultura, deben encargarse de la casa y los niños. Los niños mayores de 8 años van a la escuela cercana. Los hombres mestizos no tienen suficientes recursos para aplicar técnicas de conservación de suelos, y el trabajo como jornaleros es escaso. Esto es especialmente cierto para los agricultores más pobres, quienes tienen que buscar empleo en fincas de los más ricos, en la parte alta de la cuenca. El municipio está dispuesto a ofrecer asistencia técnica y financiera a los agricultores si éstos se organizan. Los problemas surgen porque los mestizos no se quieren organizar con los indígenas, por su cultura y religión diferente, y porque la población indígena ha ocupado la tierra durante 15 años. Además, los mestizos no se quieren organizar internamente, debido a conflictos por el acceso al agua.Si se dejara tierra en descanso (barbecho) sería posible resolver el problema, pero los agricultores mestizos tendrían sólo pequeñas porciones de tierra, pues la mayoría de la tierra es propiedad de los agricultores más ricos de la parte alta de la cuenca .•• Ejercicio 3.2 Análisis e Interpretación de las Opiniones de los Grupos de Interés -Estudio de CasoAplicar los pasos de un proceso de análisis de opiniones de diferentes grupos, en re/ación con un tema de interés comúnPaso 1La idea en el Paso 1 es hacer que los participantes expresen y analicen sus opiniones acerca de la manera de resolver conflictos relacionados con el manejo de los recursos naturales en una microcuenca.Se seleccionarán conflictos relacionados con dos recursos naturales. Los participantes serán agrupados atendiendo a edad, sexo y nivel educativo. las opiniones encontradas deben incluirse en el formato previsto. Se deben exponer las opiniones para los dos casos en los que hay conflictos con los recursos naturales.• 1. Conformen grupos de tres a seis miembros.• 2. lean el estudio de caso y nombren a una persona que registre las respuestas.3. Discutan y respondan a las tres preguntas que aparecen en la página siguiente.4. Las opiniones discrepantes dentro del grupo debe~ expresarse en el formato de registro con el nombre de las personas que no estan de acuerdo.5. Pasen al facilitador la hoja con las respuestas tabuladas .Ejercicio 3.2 Análisis e Interpretación de las Opiniones de los Grupos de Interés -Estudio de Caso -Hoja de Trabajo No. 1Nombre de los miembros del grupo:1. ¿Cuáles son los problemas en relación con: (1.1) el acceso al agua y (1.2) la conservación del suelo?1.1 1.2 2. ¿Qué grupos de interés existen y cómo afectan con su manejo de los recursos a otros grupos de interés?3. Seleccione una de las soluciones que aparecen abajo y presente las ventajas y desventajas de esa solución (consideren todas las opiniones diferentes del grupo).Posibles soluciones al problema de acceso de agua:1. Construir un acueducto. Así todos tendrían acceso a agua limpia.Ventajas:Nombre de las personas del grupo que prefieran esta solución: ________ __ 2. Ofrecer a la gehte de la parte baja participar en el programa de Colonización del Amazonas para reducir el avance de la densidad de población y la presión sobre las fuentes de agua en la cuenca. Hay tierra gratuita y programas de crédito para los productores.Ventajas: Desventajas: Nombredelas:=per==s=o=na=s~de~l~g~ru~p~o~q-ue~p-re~fi~le-ra-n-e-s~t-a-s-07Iu-c~ió~n-:--------------Proteger el bosque no resolverá el problema de acceso de agua, pero protegerá las fuentes existentes.Ventajas: Desventajas: Nombre de las personas del grupo que prefieran esta solución:Posibles problemas de conservación de suelos:1. Para solucionar el problema de escasez de mano de obra se pide a las mujeres y niños mestizos trabajar en las labores de campo.Ventajas: Desventajas: _________________________ _ Nombre de las personas del grupo que prefieran esta solución:2. la tierra se distribuye más equitativamente para permitir que los pequeños productores dejen alguna tierra en reserva y reducir de esta forma la erosión.Ventajas: Desventajas: _________________________ _ Nombre de las personas del grupo que prefieran esta solución:3. Se le pide al municipio ofrecer asistencia técnica y financiera para la conservación de suelos, sin exigir que haya una organización de los productores para recibirla.Ventajas: Desventajas: _ _ _ _ -,-:--_ _ _ _ --,,-_ _ _ _ ~_:_:_-------Nombre de las personas del grupo que prefieran esta solución:Ejercicio 3.2 Análisis e Interpretación de las Opiniones de los Grupos de Interés -Estudio de CasoCrear una situación de máxima variación de intereses y opinionesPaso 21. Analice las respuestas recibidas de los grupos de discusión.2. Elija 4 -5 participantes con opiniones muy diferentes, sobre cómo resolver los problemas de acceso al agua y de conservación de los suelos. Estos participantes representarán diferentes grupos de interés en las siguientes entrevistas individuales.3. Informe a los participantes quiénes representan un grupo de interés, y colóquelos en un cuadro, de acuerdo con el dibujo que se presenta a continuación, (o de acuerdo con las posibilidades físicas del salón). Instruya a los participantes • diciéndoles que ellos están representando un grupo de interés y que ellos deben • defender su opinión, y deben argumentar a su favor cuando sean entrevistados..[ Opinión 4] Opinión 1• 15 minutos para cada entreviste.• 2 entrevistas por cada grupo 4. Cuando termine el receso para el café, divida el resto de los participantes, al azar, en 4 ó 5 grupos (conforme al número de grupos de interés seleccionados arriba).Explíqueles que su tarea será entrevistar dos grupos de interés, antes de hacer una interpretación de opiniones, ventajas, desventajas e interrelaciones. Informe  Después de entrevistar a dos personas que representan diferentes grupos de interés, cada equipo de entrevistadores debe hacer la interpretación respectiva. Para ello:1. Los representantes de los grupo de interés se unen a cada uno de los entrevistadores.2. Se utiliza el cuestionario adjunto para la elaboración de interpretaciones.3. Se nombra un relator para que presente a la plenaria inmediata, la interpretación elaborada. Tenga en cuenta durante la discusión de los trabajos de grupo los conceptos siguientes:• Este es un ejercicio de simulación, un modelo de la realidad y los participantes no se conocen. Para trabajar con acción colectiva en la realidad es fundamental que se conozcan, que tengan un interés en común. Por ejemplo en una microcuenca los usuarios pueden tener relación con sus familias, una relación con la tierra, comparten el mismo hábitat, intereses comunes, actividades sociales compartidas y lo que hace uno influye en el otro. También comparten ancestros comunes y una historia que los identifica.• Es difícil encontrar intereses y objetivos distintos debido a factores como temor, desconocimiento, desconfianza. En una cuenca, por ejemplo, por razones culturales algunos campesinos tienden a ser individualistas y relacionarse solo con sus familiares cercanos, y grupos étnicos. Puede que no exista en ciertas comunidades la tradición de resolver conflictos, ni organizarse para ello. Otros sectores no saben leer, escribir o expresarse ante audiencias grandes.• Puede que no existan conflictos sino meramente opiniones distintas. Por ejemplo, si hay dos vecinos usando fertilizante orgánico de manera distinta; uno piensa que debe taparlo, pero al otro le es indiferente. Piensan distinto pero no hay un conflicto, y este último sufre las mismas consecuencias del que no tapa.• En la solución de los problemas puede existir un conflicto. lo mismo pasa en el campo por ejemplo si un agricultor no quiere colaborar con el control de hormigas. Todos tienen el problema y los afecta a todos. Al momento de querer solucionar ese problema, el que no quiere hacer control va a entrar en conflicto con los otros, porque su actitud afecta a los demás.• la importancia de tener todos los puntos de vista.• la necesidad de dialogar para resolver los problemas comunes.• Valorar intereses diversos y opuestos.• Difícil conocer un contexto nuevo en forma rápida.   V El conocimiento mutuo; un mismo interés en común. V La importancia de proveer un espacio para la relación persona a persona.V Interdependencia temporal yespacial. V El tratar de obtener los intereses y obietivos diversos puede dificultarse debido a factores culturales como presiones de grupo, aceptación social y/o personal.V Puede que no existan conflictos, sino opiniones distintas. En la solución de los problemas se puede generar el conflicto. Esta no es una prueba para calificar sus conocimientos, sino una oportunidad de revisar lo que ha aprendido y una oportunidad para avocar en perspectiva la discusión del manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales. Al terminar de contestar, el instructor compartirá con usted las respuestas que él ha formulado a cada uno de los temas. Usted tendrá la oportunidad de aclarar con él y con sus compañeros algunos aspectos que pueden no estar aún claros.1. ¿Cuáles son las oportunidades y las debilidades que presenta el manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales, a una escala de paisaje y en el largo plazo?2. ¿Cómo se manejan las entrevistas individuales cuando se trata de agricultores más pobres y menos educados?3. ¿Qué elementos del manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales no están incluidos en la metodología de análisis de grupos de interés?Anexo 2. Evaluación Final de Conocimientos -Información de RetornoPara la pregunta 1El manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales puede ocurrir en una variedad de niveles, desde una microcuenca hasta una cadena montañosa. El aspecto que es común a las actividades colectivas es la acción concertada de grupos de individuos. Esto no quiere decir que el manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales supone eliminar la acción individual. Muchos de los problemas que los productores buscan resolver, como el mejoramiento de las cosechas, cría de animales y el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo se controlan mejor a nivel de cada finca, no obstante, las soluciones se pueden haber encontrado como resultado de la acción concertada entre los productores o entre estos y los investigadores. Es evidente que hay algunos problemas que los productores no pueden resolver en forma individual y requieren de acción colectiva. Sin embargo, la organización de la acción colectiva no es una tarea fácil.• El manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales se refiere a cambios en los recursos que son difíciles de visualizar en el diario acontecer de una comunidad, como es el caso de la erosión o el de la contaminación del agua. • Tanto las causas como los efectos de los fenómenos ocurren a menudo fuera de los linderos de la finca. • El impacto del manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales es lento y sus resultados difíciles de medir. • Los costos de transacción pueden ser demasiado altos, particularmente para los agricultores pobres, quienes usan la totalidad de sus recursos para atender sus necesidades básicas. • La acción concertada puede requerir de habilidades organizativas que no tienen los productores ni los investigadores. • Los contlictos subyacentes, previos a la acción colectiva, y que no tienen que ver con el manejo de los recursos naturales, pueden dificultar la comunicación y la colaboración entre los productores. Esto puede ser particularmente evidente cuando se trabaja con grupos definidos por el uso de los recursos naturales y no por relaciones sociales. Los grupos de interés definidos por los recursos naturales no tendrán relaciones sociales o normas que motiven o forcen las acciones de los agricultores individuales.La acción colectiva es difícil porque maneja asuntos difíciles. las perspectivas de largo plazo y la visión holística del paisaje hace el mundo mucho más complicado. la acción individual es más fácil de llevar a cabo, pero es de corto plazo y para espacios limitados. Se necesita ir más allá de la finca y trabajar en el manejo de los .~• • • recursos naturales para las generaciones por venir. La acción colectiva puede ser una de las respuestas.La entrevista grupal es un método ampliamente utilizado para conocer las percepciones y los problemas de los productores. Las entrevistas grupales tienen la ventaja de que pueden cubrir un cuerpo mayor de conocimientos acerca de la comunidad. Más aún, la dinámica de las entrevistas de grupo tiende a abrir el camino para la generación de preguntas inesperadas que proporcionen información adicional (la totalidad es mayor que la suma de las respuestas individuales). Sin embargo, las entrevistas grupales tienen debilidades, tal como se explicó en la Sección 2 de esta Guía, que bien pueden subsanar las entrevistas individuales.Estas pueden detectar una máxima variación y un máximo contraste en las opiniones. Así mismo, sirven para manejar uno de los grandes dilemas de la participación que se refiere a cómo llegar a los productores más pobres y menos articulados desde el punto de vista educativo, cuando los más educados y progresistas toman el control del proceso de desarrollo.Cuando se tienen las entrevistas individuales y las interpretaciones realizadas por los facilitadores, los agricultores más pobres y menos articulados llegan a expresar sus preocupaciones y deseos en público. Esto no significa que se estén llevando a cabo acciones para resolver sus problemas mientras que los progresistas dominan las reuniones, sino que sus voces no se escuchan. Y este es un punto de partida para un proceso de desarrollo más equitativo que tiene que ver con todos los grupos de interés.El manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales incluye una amplia gama de actividades, siendo una de ellas la identificación de grupos de interés. Por ello, el desarrollo de la metodología de grupos de interés es sólo un paso hacia la elaboración de una comprensión más completa de cuáles son las acciones y estructuras que motivan y facilitan el manejo colectivo de los recursos naturales. Algunos de los aspectos en que la metodología no es muy exitosa, son:• Cómo comprometer a todos los grupos de interés en actividades colectivas.• Cómo crear un foro de negociación en el que todos los grupos de interés (una vez identificados) puedan y deseen participar. • Cómo resolver conflictos.• Cómo organizar grupos de productores para estructurar actividades colectivas.Estos son asuntos que los investigadores deben resolver en el futuro, para que esta metodología llegue a tener todo el potencial requerido para un manejo colectivo exitoso de los recursos naturales .   A continuación aparece una serie de descripciones de comportamientos que se consideran deseables en un buen instructor. Estas han sido recogidas de la literatura educativa con respecto a las características que describen un buen docente o una buena capacitación.Con este instrumento se pueden analizar cuatro dimensiones del desempeño del instructor: (1) orga, ,;zación y claridad, (2) conocimiento del tema, (3) habilidades de interacción, y (4) dirección de la práctica. Para cada una de estas dimensiones se incluyen descriptores frente a los cuales la persona que se autoevalúa puede marcar si el comportamiento descrito fue ejecutado o no por ella, durante la capacitación.Marque una X en la columna SI cuando usted esté seguro de que ese comportamiento estuvo presente en su conducta, independientemente de la calidad con la cual podría evaluarse su ejecución.Marque una X en la columna NO cuando usted esté seguro de que no se observó ese comportamiento.El proceso de autoevaluación tiene dos momentos: (1) cuando se está preparando para la capacitación, el instructor hace una revisión de cada ítem para recordar todos los aspectos que debe tener en cuenta para que su desempeño sea exitoso; (2) inmediatamente después de la capacitación, para reconocer los desempeños que no tuvieron lugar durante la misma, por diferentes causas.Cada instructor, en forma individual, es el primer beneficiario de la autoevaluación.Este instrumento le ayuda a mejorar su desempeño en futuras actividades de capacitación.Este formulario también puede entregarse a algunos de los participantes en la capacitación para que consignen sus percepciones acerca del desempeño del instructor. Luego, se recogen los formularios y se tabulan las respuestas usando la hoja de tabulación (A-16).Yo, como instructor ... (a)1 . 1 Presenté los objetivos de la actividad 1.2 Expliqué la metodología para realizar la (s) actividad (es) 1.3Respeté el tiempo previsto 1 .4Entregué material escrito sobre mi presentación 1,5Seguí una secuencia ordenada en mi exposición 1.6Usé ayudas didácticas que facilitaron la comprensión del tema 1.7Mantuve las intervenciones de la audiencia dentro del tema2.8 Estoy seguro de conocer la información presentada 2.9 Respondí las preguntas de la audiencia con propiedad 2.10 Relacioné los aspectos teóricos del tema con los casos prácticos 2.11 Proporcioné ejemplos para ilustrar el tema expuesto 2.12 Centré la atención de la audiencia en los contenidos más importantes del tema3.13 Usé un lenguaje adaptado al nivel de Jos conocimientos de la audiencia 3.14 Acepté preguntas de la audiencia 3.15 Me aseguré que la audiencia me entendiera 3.16 Mantuve contacto visual con la audiencia 3.17 Formulé preguntas a los participantes 3.18 Invité a los participantes para que formularan preguntas 3.19 Proporcioné información de retorno inmediata a las respuestas de los participantes 3.20 Mantuve una buena interacción con los cofacilitadores Orientaciones:1. El formulario de autoevaluación puede distribuirse entre 10 o más participantes para que observen y evalúen el desempeño del instructor.2. El instructor recoge los formularios y tabula los resultados. Luego traslada los puntajes al perfil de desempeño para establecer la diferencia entre el puntaje observado y el ideal. Dirección de la práctica .50.60 .70.80.90 100Para establecer los puntajes y el perfil, se procede así:1. Sumar las tabulaciones en cada casilla y anotar la suma en la columna 'puntaje observado'.2. Se establece el puntaje que corresponde al 100%, según el número de evaluadores (por ejemplo: Fila 1: organización y claridad, respondieron 10 evaluadores; puntaje observado 45, puntaje correspondiente al 100% = 70. En este caso el puntaje observado (45) es el 64% del puntaje ideal. Este se marca en el perfil de desempeño. 3. En la gráfica 'perfil de desempeño' se unen los puntos de cada componente (1,2,3 Y 4) para establecer el perfil. Area contiguas naturalmente.Entre 25-150 ha.,/ Presentar la propuesta del proyecto, ,/ Estimular la apreciaáón de la importancia de la acción colectiva enelmartejo €lelos recursos naturales.,/ Estimar la posible existencia de problemas con el manejo de los reCUrsos naturales el micro éuenca, • Presentaeíóndélpel'SÓna!.• AClal</cióndeexpe9latl~a$~¡ntfo®CciÓ!'l al • Prímera,estímaClóndela posÍllllleXlstenCiade probtemascon manejo lIelQSrecursos . naturales.• Aclatacióllde¡cOilttitiueión .det. J)roYeclo. . ,( Analizar los problemas del manejo de los recursos naturales.• Entrevista con faroiliaseleccioneda al azar~íder locat,. faroilia conocida). .• Análisis de ideal; (:entralel;,pereepeiones y preocupaciQneseil reláción con el manejo de 10srecufSQs naturales en la mierocuenoa para elaborar unaprirneraihlerpretaciól1.• Entrevista con familias que tienen diferentes percepciones, y señaladas por la ptimsra familla.Prasentaeióilde la construcción basada en fa en la entrevista de la pnmerafamllia.• An;ílisil; de ideas centrales, percepciones y PRlocupacionesen relación con eHnanejo de los recufS()s . naturales . pElrEl' hEleerlEl segunda cOl1strucción.• Entrevista con familias. que tienen diferentes percepciones, y señaladEls por la segunda familia. Presentación de la construcciónbaseda en las entrevistas previas.• Terminar entl'evistasCGn las mismas familias nominadas y cuando no se halle másvariación, §c~ese$er uSo-I'Iue selJa. iJ lOS &CUfSOS . n.atl.lrales?. recursos naturales (como control de hormigas y de erosión), él corta árboles para • tener leña y quema el bosque cerca de los ojos de agua, para obtener más tierra cultivable. Además, él mismo contamina el agua arrojando aguas negras. Estas medidas afectan a otros agricultores, los cuales pueden o no ser conscientes de esto. El dice que el agricultor E2 es quien causa sus problemas de contaminación de agua y de hormigas, y a su vez, el otro agricultor puede tener ideas diferentes sobre el manejo de los RN.Continuamos con la segunda entrevista, E2, quien relaciona los problemas de recursos naturales con moscas, quemas y falta de agua limpia. Para él las moscas, afectan la salud de la familia. El problema de las quemas nace de la posibilidad de que éstas se pueden salir de su control. El mismo usa insecticidas, no controla las hormigas y corta árboles para leña. Sin embargo señala E3 como el causante de sus problemas. El proceso de identificar y analizar el uso, problemas y conflictos continúa hasta que ellos mismos comienzan a señalar a los agricultores que ya han sido entrevistados. Se llega a un punto donde ya no hay más variación.Siguiendo las flechas desde E1 hasta E4, la transparencia muestra el proceso para identificar el uso, los problemas y los conflictos, pero también se puede ver como el análisis final de la interrelación entre el uso, los problemas y los conflictos.Se muestran claramente los problemas de cada agricultor, las causas de éstos, y los problemas causados por otros agricultores. Se hace consciente que otros • agricultores también mencionan los mismos problemas suyos (flechas negras), pero el análisis final también muestra una interrelación con el manejo de los recursos naturales de otros agricultores, la cual es desconocida por el agricultor que está siendo entrevistado (flecha punteada).Ilustra que aunque los agricultores enfrentan los mismos problemas, ellos tienen percepciones diferentes sobre los efectos del problema. Por ejemplo, las moscas las perciben como perjudiciales para la salud, o que son molestas. Reconocen que las quemas son peligrosas, y que disminuyen los ojos de agua. la tala indiscriminada es la razón de la falta de leña, pero al mismo tiempo, es la causa de la desaparición de animales y aves.","tokenCount":"18782"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1b64b1637124fb98fb0c1937db75d782","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c09451c-2b71-476e-a11d-1bb7e5f8992b/retrieve","id":"-1432327149"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b9bde890-5003-4691-a8a9-26733c829dd0","pagecount":"6","content":"As a poverty alleviation intervention in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) focusing on reducing child malnutrition and supporting families negatively affected by diseases such as HIV / AIDS, FARM-Africa -an international NGO based in London, specializing in rural and agricultural development in Africa (www.farmafrica.org.uk) implemented a number of community based dairy goat improvement projects 1 .The most successful of these projects has been the one based in Meru District in Kenya, having benefited from the experiences gained from other similar projects 2 .The project sought to address the poor milk production and growth rate of the East African indigenous goat as a means of improving productivity and increasing nutrition, income and overall livelihoods of the majority of the rural poor with limited livestock asset base. The specific objectives were to:improve livelihoods of small-holder farmers through livestock development improve family nutrition and income of poor farmers create employment within target communities increase milk production of the indigenous goat enhance market access by the poorFARM-Africa imported a popular exotic dairy goat breed to use for crossing to the indigenous goat reared in the project area. To ensure that the project had impact on the poor, participatory techniques involving community leaders, extension staff, development workers, and FARM-Africa were used to identify resource poor farmers who were to benefit from the project. Potential project farmers were then facilitated to form community goat farmers' groups, each comprising of 25 members. Conscious effort was given to women participation. Participation was only open to those belong to farmer groups. From each group, 2 individuals were trained on basic animal husbandry, housing, fodder development, conservation and utilization, and dynamics in group work, prior to receiving the goats. Other individuals, nominated by their respective members, were trained on basic animal health techniques in order to be able to provide animal health services to the community within easy reach and at an affordable cost. A detailed description of the area and project design is in Ahuya .Farmers trained to be breeders received, on credit, four pure bred Toggenburg does and one buck; these formed a breeding unit. Buck units were also established to avail bucks to the community for mating in a crossbreeding programme with the indigenous goats. Bucks from the farmer breeding units were | Print | selected using mass selection to supply bucks to Buck Stations. A dispersed nucleus breeding unit was thus established and operated. The project emphasized the need to retain beneficial characteristics of indigenous genotypes within the cross developed; consequently the upper limit on exotic (Toggenburg (T)) genes was set at 75% for animals released to farmers (Figure 1). Each community was the custodian of the Buck Station, females belonged to individuals, but the bucks and breeder units were collectively owned and managed by individuals from within the group on a contractual arrangement with the respective group. The set-up of the breed improvement is illustrated in Figure 2. Within the communities, non-group members could use the services of the buck stations, but at a higher fee than group members. FARM-Africa managed and facilitated the operations of the project from the inception (1997) until June 2004, then handed over key responsibilities to the communities through a new umbrella organization (created as part of the project), the Meru Goat Breeders Association (MGBA).To ensure sustainability, FARM Africa maintained an advisory role to the MGBA.From the inception of the project in 1996 to 2007 farmer groups grew from an initial ten (250 farmers) to more than 160 (4000 farmers) within the study area, while another 56 were formed outside the project or study area. Farmer groups spread from the original five divisions to thirteen divisions, while the pure Toggenburg goats population grew from the initial 130 to more than 1,000 in a period of 10 years 4 . New groups were also formed in other areas of the country including Mwingi, Kitui and Western Kenya.The immediate impacts of the project were both at individual and group level. Individual farmers were able to own the assets (dairy goats), obtain milk for home consumption which resulted in improved nutrition for the family. Income was earned through sales of both milk and animals, and manure was available for crop production enterprises. Milk production increased from about 250 ml by indigenous goats to 1 litre by F1s and 2 litres by 75% exotic goats. An improvement in farmers' income was evident, with an increase in the value of the stock owned. Prices of breeding goats within the community ranged from $25 for an indigenous goat to US $154 for a crossbred and US $415 for a pure-bred Toggenburg.At the group level the communities were able to work together and collectively access better services for their farming enterprises, jobs were created through the breed associations, market access for the goats and goat products were improved, and the capacity of the community in livestock management was enhanced. The large quantity of manure collected from the intensive (zero-grazing) goat rearing units have been used in kitchen gardens, maize, bananas, macadamias, Napier grass and coffee, increasing significantly the yields of these crops. The crossbred male kids which grow faster and mature earlier also increased, through sales, cash earnings for these families. The project participants are members of groups where they share knowledge, resources, exchange visits and experiences. Even the poorest members can upgrade their animals. This has improved the socio-economic status of, and cohesion among, farmers.New farmer groups are still being formed within the region under the auspices of the MGBA. The popularity of the crossbred has spread within the East Africa region, with several buyers from the different countries coming to purchase crossbred goats from the project farmers. Prices of upto US$450 are offered for registered crossbred animals under one year of age. This lucrative price has resulted in a shortage of young breeding animals within the project. In a bid to expand and introduce new Toggenburg blood into the population, the farmers requested FARM-Africa to facilitate fresh importation of breeding stock. However, due to government restrictions on imports of livestock and livestock products, and uncontrolled outbreaks of diseases, these efforts have failed. Opportunities for using alternative breeding methods such as Artificial Insemination in order to expand the exotic gene-pool are thus being explored.Following the change in milk marketing rules by the government, a pilot farmer-owned goat milk processing plant, supported by FARM-Africa was set -up to help market the milk produced. A Kenya Goat Development Network (KEGODEN) was also founded by FARM-Africa to promote goat development within the East Africa region. This organization meets every two years to present results of efforts made, and plans for future development of goats within the region.Planning the intervention with key stakeholders and partners ensured that the target group was reached, and all necessary resources required for goat improvement were availed on time.Goats introduced to the farmers were provided on credit, to be paid over time in cash or kind. The farmers thus valued the goats and ensured they adhered to the project guidelines to get outputs of value from the animals reared.Working with small farmer groups at a time ensured accountability and good practice was recognised and rewarded from within the communities.Capacity building within the community in animal management and the provision of animal health services for a cost ensured continuity at the end of the project as income earned sustained livelihoods of those involved.Raising goats in confinement is environmentally friendly. It needs little heavy work, so can be done by women and men, young and old and people who are suffering from HIV/AIDS.National policies to accommodate community based livestock improvement initiatives are inadequate 6.Popularity of the crossbred from the project led to a high demand for breeding animals, pushing up the price of goats fivefold. This has had a negative impact on the population over time as the faster growing animals tend to be sold. With the loss of the faster growing animals, the farmers are unknowingly practicing negative selection for growth rate.Maintaining and conserving the pure-bred indigenous breeds by the smallholder farmers where crossbreds are successful to ensure the retention of their desirable traits in the population is a challenge which, as the project expands, will require public sector investment.The relatively small scale of the projects restricted their ability to address wider issues, such as constraints related to input supply, animal health and breeding delivery services, access to markets and technical information, availability of appropriate replacement animals, and forage resources.Government restrictions on imports, lack of expertise, inadequate networking among primary stakeholders and development partners would also need to be addressed.Until 2008, when through intense lobbying by FARM-Africa, there was a change in policy, the only officially marketable milk in Kenya was that from cattle. There was thus no way of exploring and expanding the marketing of goat milk. Marketing issues and demand for product can now be expanded.Currently the MGBA and a GTZ supported project are the main organizations supporting the production of these crossbred goats on a small scale.12.There is opportunity for significant expansion of this program or replicating it elsewhere in Kenya or other countries. There is a high demand for dairy crossbreds by smallholders as well market for crossbred, fast-growing, meat animals in urban areas of East Africa. FARM-Africa's experiences. FARM-Africa Pb, ed.","tokenCount":"1538"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..30c33e50942687bec07b3186bd8f1a949799d5a0
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"191385c0d46f3f3cd945d7e0a59e1c55","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27ab2c95-6087-4db5-8db7-bc65bc2b6de5/retrieve","id":"182820084"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9a211881-e260-45eb-96f8-026a8834351e","pagecount":"152","content":"The CGIAR endorsed the ExCo recommendations on the 2 nd ILRI EPMR.• Concerning the global expansion of ILRI, the CGIAR cautioned that it should be an evolutionary process and should be within the framework of a well-structured and financed strategic plan. It welcomed the pro-active response of the Center management on partnerships. It also noted the importance for ILRI to share lessons from its positive EPMR with other Centers.April 2007The Report of the Second EPMR of ILRI was discussed at the Seventh Meeting of the Science Council (SC), held at ICRISAT, Patancheru, India, in the presence of Panel Chair, Dr. Lindsay Falvey, the Chair of ILRI's Board of Trustees, Dr. Uwe Werblow, and the Director General of ILRI, Dr. Carlos Seré. The SC thanked the Panel Chair and Members for a constructive and perceptive report. The SC agrees in general with the Panel's analysis of ILRI today and how it should evolve in the future. This analysis draws from the particular history of the institute recognizing the successful transformation from the ILCA-ILRAD merger and the changes that ILRI has undergone since the 1 st EPMR.The Panel's starting point was ILRI at the time of the 1 st EPMR, which took place 5 years after the merger of two centers of disciplinary orientation, each with a distinctive culture. The SC is pleased to note the Panel's judgment that today ILRI is firmly established on a route to be a \"regionally owned and globally driven livestock research institute\"-to quote the DG-with a mission to serve the people that depend on livestock for their livelihoods.The 2 nd EPMR report presents 18 recommendations that the Panel considers important for further improving ILRI's performance as a globally relevant, well managed and financially sound Center, together with a significant number of suggestions particularly in section 3 on the research programs. Eleven recommendations are on strategic planning and research and 7 are on governance, management and finance. The SC is pleased to observe that ILRI has agreed with nearly all of the recommendations and has already made considerable progress towards their implementation. The SC endorses the findings of the review and the recommendations, while recognizing that the global livestock sector is particularly dynamic, given the rate of increase in the consumption of livestock products in the developing world and the current global interest in using land for biofuel production and its potential impact on livestock feed prices.The SC finds the recommendations (and suggestions) comprehensive and constructive. While accepting ILRI's caveats to recommendations #4 (on pastoralists) and #6 (on People, Livestock and the Environment Theme), the SC expects ILRI to comply with the intent of the recommendations. With respect to recommendation #8 (on IPMS project), the SC understands that occasionally Centers are pressured (by e.g. donors) to take responsibility for managing development projects when it is perceived that there are no local institutions to do that. The SC, however, agrees with the Panel that alternative management options, such as private implementation agencies, need to be considered to relieve the Center from the risks (both financial and managerial time) of such involvement. The SC is not persuaded by the argument that ILRI needs to be involved in managing development projects in order to learn about and help evolve an emerging paradigm of \"innovation systems\". The ISNAR Division of IFPRI is arguably better positioned to undertake needed research on innovation systems.The SC welcomes the Panel's recognition of ILRI's success in its strategy of influencing others to contribute to delivery of ILRI's mission: 'to reduce poverty and enhance sustainable development through livestock related research'. ILRI is to be commended for its efforts to identify and manage different kinds of partnerships (including joint work with other Centers), which often need to be very complex, to serve research and development purposes. ILRI's high rate of joint publishing with both NARS (60%) and ARIs (53%) illustrates the success of its partnership strategy over a number of years. The SC notes that ILRI has had a CCER on Partnerships commissioned by its Board and encourages ILRI to evolve its partnership strategy towards the more general issue of sustainable agriculture, which is not much discussed in the report. As pressure on land increases due to the need to balance food security with energy security, ILRI's systems approach could have an increasing role to play in relation to sustainable agriculture.The Panel views 10 years as a suitable general planning horizon for ILRI's research and recommends a five year plan that brings together the research, human resource and finance plans as a good management practice (#1). The SC is pleased to note that despite the difficulties of predicting the funding realities and the dynamics of the livestock sector in the developing countries, ILRI agrees with the recommendation finding it useful to develop a five-year business plan underpinning the MTP particularly for greater clarity in responsibilities for deliverable outputs and outcomes. The SC emphasizes the importance of institutionalizing the System Priorities through their incorporation into the day-to-day business in the annual operational plans as the SP framework plans mature.The SC supports the Panel's recommendation of a 10 year planning horizon, particularly with respect to location of sites and staffing strategies. ILRI's response suggests that the 10-year horizon will not be reviewed until just prior to the next EPMR. A 5-year implementation plan will however be developed, relating to issues such as geographic scope (response to #2), staffing (response to #1) and a reassessment of the assets at its sites in Kenya and Ethiopia (response to #17). Changes in staffing, expanding geographical location of offices and asset disposal strategies are costly exercises (both in financial and human terms) and thus while welcoming the 5-year planning, the SC urges that the rationale for any changes to these strategies in the context of the 10 year planning horizon should be clearly recorded for the benefit of the next EPMR.The SC noted that extensive quantitative strategic planning and priority setting exercises undertaken by ILRI in response to the 1 st EPMR to provide more focus do not appear to have been referred to in the 2 nd EPMR; this illustrates how changes in the individuals involved in management and EPMR teams can advocate different priorities within a Center's overall mandate. The SC would have liked to see how the quantitative analysis has and could continue to provide focus.With respect to geographical focus, the SC agrees with Panel's recommendation #2 that ILRI 'requires a more geographically distributed allocation of a critical mass of resources' in order to fulfil its broad global mandate. The SC supports ILRI's approach towards a broadening geographic spread of its research through an evolutionary process. This will necessarily include full consultation with key national partners in the regions as ILRI's global perspective unfolds. However, like the Panel, the SC does not view the Systemwide Livestock Program as the primary means of satisfying ILRI's global mandate. The SC notes the concern of recent EPMRs of the loss of focus on international public goods research in some Centers that have tried to implement extensive regional programs by location in single countries. Therefore, the SC agrees with the Panel's recommendation that ILRI should share facilities with other CGIAR Centers to achieve the Panel's intent with respect to critical mass and it should collaborate with partners focused on a similar mission of delivering international public goods.The Panel makes a few recommendations for improving and adjusting the focus of the research program. Some of the recommendations (e.g. #4 and #6) are somewhat specific and are only partially accepted by ILRI. The Panel acknowledges that ILRI is best placed to decide on changes at the organizational level, but the recommendations imply that ILRI's ability to address the research topics highlighted could be improved. One such area emphasized by the Panel is research on pastoralists -an area where past involvement has been sporadic. ILCA was involved in such research that included consideration of how changing land tenure influenced the welfare of pastoralists. The SC agrees with the Panel that ILRI's orientation should be changed from considering pastoralists from an environmental point of view to addressing livelihoods issues.The report could have gone deeper in the analysis considering, for instance, decrease in available land and changes in land tenure as they affect the pastoralists. The SC agrees with the Panel's point of view that there are other pastoral communities outside SSA. Lessons learned in SSA might be of benefit in improving the welfare of such communities in parts of Asia.ILRI has a mandate to conduct research on livestock diseases of importance to developing countries. Comments on the long time it has taken to develop a vaccine against Theileria parva need to be seen in the context of a similar effort by groups seeking to develop vaccines against other protozoan parasites, such as malaria. The first identification of a gene that encodes a surface protein of the human-infective stage of malaria was more than 30 years ago. In spite of large investments, predominately by ARIs, no vaccine has been developed so far. However, research has established that immunity to both malaria and theileriosis is mediated by both the antibody and cellular arms of the immune system. Vaccine development is complicated by the latter and a better understanding of the elements that elicit cell mediated immune (CMI) responses is required.The SC is thus pleased to hear that ILRI considers vaccines still as a key intervention for many animal diseases. The SC agrees with the EPMR Panel that ILRI's approach to vaccine research needs to be carefully considered and it believes that ILRI's current intention to develop different tools for partners through a platform approach is appropriate. The Panel's suggestion to rank diseases through cost-benefit studies (p 27) needs to build on the extensive ex ante impact assessment and priority setting work previously undertaken by ILRI after the 1 st EPMR.The Panel acknowledged that the 1 st ILRI EPMR recommended discontinuation of research on trypanosomiasis, but provided no further discussion. The disease remains an important livestock constraint in Africa, particularly affecting pastoralist societies. Conventional vaccines have been shown by earlier ILRAD/ILCA research to be an unlikely solution. However, there are continuing but dispersed efforts to work on alternative means to combat the disease (including drug and anti-vector strategies). This work lacks an international focus for application and ILRI may be advised to consider a role in relation to its target livestock systems.x The Panel's intention with regard to moving research on zoonotic diseases to the Theme related to markets (#6) was initially not quite clear to the SC, but clarification identified their perception of additional opportunities, which could arise from a stronger market focus.The SC would have liked to see more clarity on how the Panel considered ILRI's role in developing its contribution to research on pigs and poultry since these were mentioned, but the SC agrees with ILRI, that relevant research objectives should be identified from an issues perspective rather than being species-driven. For these two domestic species, consideration also needs to be given to ILRI's comparative advantage in an area in which the private sector has heavily invested in developing measures for disease control.The SC commends ILRI for establishing the BecA network with the involvement of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) as a collaborator. BecA has been created as a regional \"center of excellence\" and ultimately to be a driver of economic growth. It has been difficult for countries in the region to pool their resources in support of such centers. BecA seeks long-term approaches, based on partnership for transformation of the economies of the countries in the region. Central to this economic development agenda will be the role of science, technology and innovation. As noted by the EPMR Panel, BecA will provide the opportunity for ILRI to be involved in the study of a range of diseases (#3) depending on the needs of its partners, which will be based on a problem-solving approach in building regional capacity in the biological sciences. The SC agrees with the Panel in suggesting that ILRI maintains a clear focus on its role in collaborations with like-minded partners.The SC notes that economists form a remarkably high proportion of ILRI research staff (32% of IRS) and that economists are involved in all themes, although (appropriately) to differing extents. This compares with only 28% in 'animal science/health/genetics and nutrition' disciplines. ILRI should be cognizant of the importance of maintaining an optimal balance of disciplines among its researchers. The SC will be interested to see the Center's vision for disciplinary balance in the long-term as ILRI develops its staffing plan.The 'Market theme' has the smallest range of disciplines with only 5 out of 19 professional staff not having an economics/economic policy background. The Panel drew attention to this narrow skill base. The SC wishes to encourage ILRI to ensure that its scientists across disciplines are aware of the findings in this rapidly developing area and the implications for the context of their own research. The SC encourages ILRI to plan its activities in this area in the context of the System Priority 5B.The SC was interested to learn that ILRI's decision to merge the 'Enabling innovation' and 'Targeting opportunities' themes, signalled in the current MTP 2007-2009, superseded the Panel's recommendation to do so. The SC is concerned by the lack of publications in major peer refereed journals in these two themes, given the significant investment in these areas and anticipates that the merger will bring more scientific rigor to the work in the new theme. The SC notes with satisfaction the relatively high level of publications-quantity and quality-in other themes.The SC is pleased to see that ILRI will address the need to conduct ex post impact assessment across its research themes. This activity was intentionally kept dormant for the past six years due to the emphasis on ex ante work during the implementation of the strategic plan and systems approach, and the apparent lack of interest on the Center's part on evaluating the impact of discontinued projects for merely accountability purposes. The SC believes ex post impact assessment is a continuous need and ILRI's decision to de-emphasize it recently has contributed to its low ratings in the 3a and 3b components of the Performance Measurement System. The SC is pleased to learn that Outcome Mapping, a monitoring tool that ILRI has introduced to its teams, is seen as a complementary tool to ex post impact assessment, which the SC hopes will facilitate these appraisals.xii xiiiThe ILRI Board and Management thank the EPMR panel chair and members for their thoughtful review of ILRI's program and management. We found the panel's comments on ILRI's past performance and future directions both insightful and helpful.We are in agreement with the recommendations of the panel. A specific response to each recommendation is given in the Table below.Considering the competitive operating environment, the substantial assets of ILRI and the naturally long horizon for measuring results in livestock research, ILRI should expand its planning horizon to complement the MTP. The Panel recommends a planning cycle in which strategic vision and goals with ten year horizons yield strategic five-year business plans, operationalized annually. Agreed -ILRI currently has a strategic vision and goals that were developed in 2002 and reviewed in 2005 prior to its 2nd EPMR. The 10-year strategy will be reviewed prior to each subsequent EPMR. ILRI has begun developing 5-year implementation plans that bring together research, resource mobilization, staffing, partnership planning and communications and linking these to annual workplans and performance management. The 5-year horizon is appropriate for planning how research outputs lead to development outcomes.The ambition of global impact requires a more geographically distributed allocation of a critical mass of resources. Projects with global outcomes can beneficially be managed from locations other than east Africa. The Panel therefore recommends that ILRI redefine its physical location strategy (using CGIAR Centres wherever possible) and its modus operandi for each region. The Board should assess progress in three years through external review.Agreed -ILRI accepts this recommendation, recognizing the major programmatic, partnership and financial challenges this acceptance implies. We see an expansion in geographic scope as an evolutionary process in which the Board and management will develop a plan to engage with key partners in different regions and through that mechanism develop strategies and resource mobilization opportunities. Our approach will be to focus on key global livestock issues backed up by a global knowledge management and communications strategy that takes account of the context, needs and opportunities in different regions. With Respect to Research Programs -Themes 3 Noting that the BecA network will offer ILRI and its partners opportunities to study a range of diseases, the panel recommends that ILRI maintains a clear focus in vaccine research, and that before ILRI enters any new disease for developing a vaccine or diagnostic, it clearly defines its role and that of its partners, and evaluates the viability of any new technology. Agreed -In vaccine and diagnostic research we plan to follow two approaches, one when ILRI plays the leadership role (such as for East Coast fever) and one in which ILRI contributes a specific component to a larger initiative led by others. In vaccine projects that ILRI plans to lead, we will carefully consider our comparative advantage, research capacity and financial resources before committing to lead the project. When ILRI is requested to participate in vaccine projects led by NARS or ARI partners, we would agree to provide specific research inputs if we have the capacity and financial resources are made available.As pastoralists are an ancient and continuing component of the livestock sector, and as they are increasingly marginalized by agricultural development, the Panel recommends that People, Livestock and the Environment Theme research related to transhumant livestock keeping be oriented to pro-pastoral policies globally and that knowledge developed to date be published in a global context as a priority. Partially agreed -Strengthening ILRI's global contribution by publishing methods and practices for pro-poor pastoral research for development is a logical next step. This contribution to global fora will build initially on research results from studies in East and West Africa that have provided important insights such as sustainability, diversification and vulnerability issues for pastoral communities. ILRI's contribution to global pastoral issues will focus on pastoral systems in the tropical zones, as others have comparative advantage in pastoral systems of temperate zones.In view of the imminent new capacity for plant biosciences in BecA, the Panel recommends that ILRI maximize use of the facility for the forage genebank activities while also increasing research collaborations, particularly with the CGIAR Centers, that enhance the use of the germplasm. Agreed -Our plans for interactions between the forage genebank and BecA would focus on the identification and selection of traits for key abiotic and biotic stresses for a few selected forages. Broad-scale molecular characterization of forages is unlikely to be a priority. We see opportunities for other Centres to use the grass germplasm in the ILRI collection to look for genes of interest to their breeding programs. A critical short-term focus will be to work with CIAT and ICARDA to increase the efficiency of global forage genetic resources in the areas of genebank management and strategic utilization of conserved materials.The Panel views the People, Livestock and the Environment Theme as both broad and uneven. To remedy this, the Panel recommends that OP2 be focused on pastoralists and INRM and a refocused OP3 be transferred to the Markets Theme. Partially agreed -ILRI recognizes the need for greater focus and coherence within the People, Livestock and Environment Theme. We see the coherence coming from a focus on two main issues, sustainability of land and water resources in livestock production systems and the intensification of crop-livestock systems given the need for greater production from limited land and water. These issues will be considered and implemented through a number of strategic realignments of the theme portfolio over the next 18 months. Research on zoonotic diseases of importance to the poor is a priority for ILRI. We will review how to structure this between the People, Livestock and Environment and the Market Themes.Following success of ILRI facilitating the creation of a large regional initiative (BecA), the Panel recommends that ILRI look at how it can generate adequately resourced, high impact initiatives for each Theme. Agreed -ILRI will continue to improve its resource mobilization by strengthening the current strategy and how it is implemented. A selected number of livestock issues of global concern to which ILRI research can make a contribution have been identified as priorities for concerted resource mobilization efforts.Given the risks to ILRI of being perceived as conducting development activities, the Panel recommends that the IPMS project be managed, budgeted and reported in two parts with research allocated to respective Themes and project management done by the DDG's office, and that ILRI decline management roles in future development projects. Partially agreed -To have impact, ILRI research needs to actively engage with development projects and partners. We agree it is critical that ILRI constantly assess its research for development role. We also agree that in the management of large research -development projects, ILRI concentrates on its research role and partners with others who have expertise in development activities. ILRI believes it is important to manage the IPMS project as one entity. However, ILRI agrees to better link the research components and their reporting to its research programme. With Respect to Cross-cutting Issues   9   In the interests of continuing to improve the quality of its research output, the Panel recommends that ILRI immediately and systematically invest in increasing its Internet capacity for research purposes. Agreed -ILRI is committed to expand its internet capacity with increased expenditures in 2007. ILRI and ICRAF are establishing a common ICT unit which should improve our capacity for strategic investment. Currently we are undertaking an internally commissioned review on ICT to advise on practical approaches and the investment required to increase internet capacity, taking into account regulatory and infrastructure conditions. 10 As a critical component of ILRI's systems approach, the Panel recommends that ILRI management charge the research themes to conduct ex post impact studies on selected programs using methodologies developed by the new Innovation and Impact Unit, and using external inputs where needed. Agreed -ILRI will take steps to strengthen its ex-post impact assessment capacity. These will include the participation of scientists who carried out the research, methodological support from impact assessment specialists in ILRI's Innovation and Impact Unit and review by outside experts to ensure objectivity.As part of ILRI's contribution to strengthening capacity, the Panel recommends that ILRI make this activity explicit and measurable in research program design and report results for both training and follow up activities.xv finalizing a capacity strengthening strategy for the institute. Procedures will be put in place so that capacity strengthening contributions are explicitly recognized in its program planning, implementation and reporting. With Respect to Governance, Management and FinanceThe panel recommends that ILRI provide new members of the board with a thorough orientation to the financial issues and trends that shape ILRI's budget, strategy, and capacity as well as to the processes that support the board's responsibilities for financial stewardship and oversight. Agreed-An orientation program is being developed and a financial briefing session was presented to the Board prior to its November 2006 meeting. This program will be updated to reflect the changing environment and the changes within ILRI's priorities and structure as well as the evolving requirements of the Finance & Audit committee of the Board.The Panel recommends that ILRI management and the board chair redefine the responsibilities and scope of work of the Board Secretary and improve ILRI's practices with respect to meeting preparation. Agreed -A detailed checklist on Board meeting preparation and the conduct of Board affairs throughout the year is being developed by the Secretary and the Board Chair and will be implemented by ILRI management and Board.The panel recommends that the board increase the quality of its board recruitment process by developing a multi-year strategy for the recruitment of new board members, which supports the global mandate of ILRI and provides it with a board that is a sustained asset to the accomplishment of its work. The 2 nd External Program and Management Review of ILRI was conducted under the Chairmanship of Professor Lindsay Falvey. The composition of the Panel and their biodata are provided in Annex 1. The Terms of Reference for conducting EPMRs and the list of the Science Council's (SC) strategic issues to the review Panel are given in Annex 2. The review was carried out in two phases and in addition included prior attendance at the ILRI Board meeting by the Chair and Governance expert and field visits in Africa and Asia as detailed in the Panel itinerary in Annex 3.The EPMR Panel was guided by the general objectives of EPMRs: (a) to provide the CGIAR members with an independent and rigorous assessment of the institutional health and contribution of the Center; and (b) to provide the Center and its collaborators with assessment information that complements or validates their own evaluation efforts. The Panel made every attempt to conduct the review in an objective and transparent manner with a focus on the future as well as the past.The information, on which the Panel based its decisions regarding the key concerns and issues, and its assessments and conclusions, was gathered in a number of ways. These included: briefings given to the Panel Chair and members by the SC and its Secretariat; extensive documentation provided by ILRI and the SC and the CGIAR Secretariats documents and data provided to the Panel in response to its particular needs, all provided at an EPMR Internet site (listed in Annex 4); analysis of the CVs of professional staff providing information on their career The Panel decided not to assess every aspect of the Center operations in-depth and it relied, to the extent possible, on the 10 Center commissioned external review reports and one donor report.The Center was kept informed of the Panel's activities and progress during the review. The Panel Chair and ILRI DG were in regular contact, particularly during the Main Phase. Between the Initial and Main Phases, Panel members prepared first drafts of all the sections of the report and during the Main Phase focused of validating the hypothesis, discussing and agreeing on the main findings and completing final drafts of each section of the report that were agreed by the whole Panel. These Panel drafts were shared with the Center for checking their factual accuracy prior to finalization. At the end of the Main Phase visit, the Panel Chair presented the main findings and recommendations of the Review to a meeting of ILRI staff at which the Board Chair was also present.ILRI is a successful organization by most measures. It has overcome a difficult merger 12 years ago, and has risen to the challenge of a vastly expanded mandate without benefit of substantial additional resources. To make its task more difficult and its achievements more impressive, it is supposed to conduct research across all major domestic animal species in all regions of the poverty-affected world. To accomplish any of this requires a form of intelligent focus that ILRI has been able to demonstrate. It should be a matter of pride to the CGIAR and beyond that a Center has delivered so much in an increasingly restricted and competitive funding environment, one in which funding increases tend to be modest. This review of ILRI's programs and management takes place within the context of a sound institution. It is for that reason that many of the EPMR's recommendations are presented in terms of strengthening current trends and practices, although sometimes with specific requirements for changes in modes of management and delivery.ILRI operates in a dynamic setting -more dynamic than that of a single commodity center where the focus is determined by one or a few crops. ILRI's response to the dynamism of its mandate is to focus on systems, in preference to discipline or geography. This has allowed ILRI to launch into global livestock research on a scale and to an extent that would not have otherwise been possible. In doing so, it has modulated its initial identity as mainly cattle and only Africa, and moved beyond the boundaries of its parent organizations. It has skillfully balanced its plans with donor requirements to produce a reasonably focused research program.In framing its research approach, ILRI has sought to underpin research activity by addressing the primary constraints to assisting the poor. This approach incorporates technical, economic, social and policy research in a coordinated interaction to identify and reduce those constraints. Of course, the approach links with development activities and there is a risk of being pulled from research into development itself, a danger that ILRI has by and large avoided, and which, the Panel hopes with recommendations in this report, it will be able to avoid as it plans its future.In its planning, ILRI has sought a single, compelling vision to guide it. Recent plans center this vision on a 'revolution' in demand for livestock products in poor countries. The vision has proved useful for refocusing the organization. It can now be widened to include more insight and understanding of the way in which different groups of the poor are affected by this revolution, and in widening ILRI's activities to focus better accommodate both global and species variations by applying its characteristic approach to problem identification and research.The systems research approach has facilitated ILRI's global expansion through multi-country projects. This has been done with minimal staff located out of ILRI's east African base(s), working at times in unsupported and intellectually lonely conditions. As an initial commitment to global expansion, the minimal staff presence beyond east Africa has been useful, but has only limited potential in the long term, particularly if ILRI is to develop its credibility in distant regions. To move forward with its mandate, ILRI must create a presence in Asia and West Africa, ideally located within other CGIAR Centers wherever possible to create a context for staff and synergies with other Centers. ILRI's strategy is expressed through a research program framed by Themes. These are designed to break down disciplinary barriers, but they also add a layer of complexity to ILRI's management. Projects are generally well conceived and conducted, yet there are some that would be better combined with others or cancelled, and others that need to be improved by demanding better quality of outputs, notably publications.In an evolution of the strategic plan, the Targeting and Innovations Theme brings together elements of two Themes that were separate in the initial conception of the plan, but are now integrated. The new Theme is redefining its role in support of research and global activities throughout ILRI. The Markets Theme is the lens through which management mostly clear views the ILRI vision and its understanding of markets provides loci for parallel technical and policy research. In the Biotechnology Theme, soon to receive a major boost from the BecA investment and network, ILRI's already fine work can be expected to improve even further if it retains focus, reduces duplicative inefficiencies in database and phenotype descriptive work, and considers a wider range of species in a more global approach to its work.The Peoples, Livestock and Environment Theme is broad, and needs to be rationalized to achieve a critical mass of research capacity in some areas and to increase and focus its publications in other areas in order to match the competent work of the germplasm bank and the impressive work in India supporting nutrition in feed-food selection of crops (both will continue to rely on partnership with other Centers for efficiencies). To create clearer support for enhanced impact assessment, a separate unit has recently been created within the office of the DDG.The Panel noted throughout its review the readiness of ILRI to engage partners in a collaborative approach to its work. It has overcome many of the barriers that typically prevent collaboration in a highly competitive environment. It has taken the initiative to find more enterprising and efficient ways to work with other Centers and provided support and a home to the effort to create a sub-regional MTP, albeit at some management cost. The values that shaped this approach to other CGIAR Centers and partner organizations are integral to ILRI's culture and are evident through much of the organization.The Panel hopes that its report, notwithstanding its specific recommendations for improvement, conveys the generally favorable impression it formed of ILRI, its work and its staff. ILRI continues to be a unique center that deserves specific recognition for addressing an orphan component of international agricultural research. It is worth recalling and repeating: livestock are often kept by the poorest of marginalized farmers and the landless; general agricultural research, even that conducted on behalf of poor crop farmers, can easily further marginalize the even poorer farmers who keep some livestock; pastoral communities continue to be pushed to increasingly limited land areas that compromise their once sustainable practices; developed country research is not generally transferable to poor livestock keepers; private sector livestock research is oriented to market opportunities which do not exist for poor livestock keepers; in some cases, NARS are oriented to crop-based developments that do not include livestock or may even further marginalize livestock keepers; rising numbers of urban poor keep some small livestock; and livestock often form integrated components of a farm, no component of which can be understood without understanding the overall system. It is facile to say that if the world did not have an ILRI, we would have to create one, but it is important to ask how we may improve the efficacy of this essential organization.Continuous improvement is part of any responsible organization and ILRI has proved itself to be responsive and responsible in undertaking a wider mandate than was envisioned properly when it was created. The Panel commends its progress and concludes that ILRI while functioning well will continue to improve by implementing the following recommendations.Recommendation 1. Considering the competitive operating environment, the substantial assets of ILRI and the naturally long horizon for measuring results in livestock research, ILRI should expand its planning horizon to complement the MTP. The Panel recommends a planning cycle in which strategic vision and goals with ten year horizons yield strategic five-year business plans, operationalized annually.Recommendation 2. The ambition of global impact requires a more geographically distributed allocation of a critical mass of resources. Projects with global outcomes can beneficially be managed from locations other than east Africa. The Panel therefore recommends that ILRI redefine its physical location strategy (using CGIAR Centers wherever possible) and its modus operandi for each region. The Board should assess progress in three years through external review.Recommendation 3. Noting that the BecA network will offer ILRI and its partners opportunities to study a range of diseases, the Panel recommends that ILRI maintain a clear focus in vaccine research, and that before ILRI enters any new disease for developing a vaccine or diagnostic, it clearly define its role and that of its partners, and evaluate the viability of any new technology.As pastoralists are an ancient and continuing component of the livestock sector, and as they are increasingly marginalized by agricultural development, the Panel recommends that People, Livestock and the Environment Theme research related to transhumant livestock keeping be oriented to pro-pastoral policies globally and that knowledge developed to date be published in a global context as a priority.Recommendation 5. In view of the imminent new capacity for plant biosciences in BecA, the Panel recommends that ILRI maximize use of the facility for the forage genebank activities while also increasing research collaborations, particularly with the CGIAR Centers, that enhance the use of the germplasm. Recommendation 6. The Panel views the People, Livestock and the Environment Theme as both broad and uneven. To remedy this, the Panel recommends that OP2 be focused on pastoralists and INRM and a refocused OP3 be transferred to the Markets Theme. Recommendation 7. Following success of ILRI facilitating the creation of a large regional initiative (BecA), the Panel recommends that ILRI look at how it can generate adequately resourced, high impact initiatives for each Theme. Recommendation 8. Given the risks to ILRI of being perceived as conducting development activities, the Panel recommends that the IPMS project be managed, budgeted and reported in two parts with research allocated to respective Themes and project management done by the DDG's office, and that ILRI decline management roles in future development projects.Recommendation 9. In the interests of continuing to improve the quality of its research output, the Panel recommends that ILRI immediately and systematically invest in increasing its Internet capacity for research purposes.Recommendation 10. As a critical component of ILRI's systems approach, the Panel recommends that ILRI management charge the research themes to conduct ex post impact studies on selected programs using methodologies developed by the new Innovation and Impact Unit, and using external inputs where needed.Recommendation 11. As part of ILRI's contribution to strengthening capacity, the Panel recommends that ILRI make this activity explicit and measurable in research program design and report results for both training and follow up activities.Recommendation 12. The Panel recommends that ILRI provide new members of the board with a thorough orientation to the financial issues and trends that shape ILRI's budget, strategy, and capacity as well as to the processes that support the board's responsibilities for financial stewardship and oversight.Recommendation 13. The Panel recommends that ILRI management and the board chair redefine the responsibilities and scope of work of the Board Secretary and improve ILRI's practices with respect to meeting preparation. Recommendation 14. The Panel recommends that the board increase the quality of its board recruitment process by developing a multi-year strategy for the recruitment of new board members, which supports the global mandate of ILRI and provides it with a board that is a sustained asset to the accomplishment of its work.Recommendation 15. ILRI having identified the weaknesses in key management proficiencies, the Panel recommends that the DG and DDG institute comprehensive training and development opportunities for all managers and hold themselves and managers responsible for improvements in performance.Recommendation 16. The Panel recommends that as part of overall improvements to the HR function, ILRI develop a staffing plan which is cognizant of geography, anticipated disciplinary expertise and gender, and is consistent with the ILRI priorities.Recommendation 17. The Panel recommends that ILRI undertake a comprehensive reassessment of its current sites in Kenya and Ethiopia, exploring all options with respect to the management and disposition of its properties.Recommendation 18. The Panel recommends that ILRI continue to improve its financial management through adoption of a new investment strategy, a more comprehensive resource mobilization plan, and more efficient grants management.Any consideration of absolute poverty alleviation must include livestock because poverty and livestock are inextricably linked -70 percent of the poor rely on livestock. Hence livestock research that serves international development requires a clear understanding of where the real poor are, the reasons that they are poor and assessment of where research can be applied. This simple requirement is often confused by unconsidered global averages. To emphasis this context, this document introduces some common misconceptions about livestock and the poor in order to demonstrate the critical role played by ILRI in poverty alleviation and livestock development. Within that context, ILRI's strategic contribution is to understand the dynamics of the sector, and to assist the poor to cope with change and to seize opportunities. It is a wide mandate and one in which ILRI has been particularly successful, after having weathered earlier difficult times well while contributing substantially to multiple donor objectives.Livestock research for development offers means of interacting with the really poor by developing technologies and policies that enhance security and health, which are often higher level requirements of the poor than dollar measures. Global figures indicate that livestock are important in providing some 20 percent of food energy and 30 percent of protein, yet these figures mask their relatively higher value to the poor, geographical distributions, excess animal products in some diets and nutrient deficiencies in others, as well as cultural dietary differences. Nevertheless, it may be said without hyperbole that livestock are critical to all conventional considerations of the mandate of the CGIAR and other international development organizations. The complexity and diversity of opinions about livestock development create misconceptions that haunt much international livestock research. The livestock of the poor are not those that consume grain better consumed by the hungry poor, nor are they usually those which create the major risks of animal-to-human disease transmission, or damage environments or produce the major greenhouse gas emissions, nor is their low productivity inefficient in terms of resource inputs. Such livestock -rabbits and other rodents, poultry, pigs, goats, sheep, cattle, buffalo, yak, camels, horses and others -are numerous, and even though most are remote from the quality standards of affluent markets, local markets can form a part of the dynamic change occurring in poor areas.One response this market separation is to enhance market-driven intensification of livestock to assist the poor. This can sometimes further marginalize the poor, but otherwise it largely passes them by. In any case, the demands of additional grain production for intensive animal industries, the ethics of animal welfare in intensive production systems, and cultural-rights questions surrounding assumptions that nomadic livestock keepers should become sedentary, raise wider questions in terms of the CGIAR approaches. Sandwiched between assumptions of global proliferation of intensive livestock systems and traditional systems that can benefit from insightful research is the meat of the mission of international livestock research for the poor, expressed as acting 'to reduce poverty and enhance sustainable development through livestockrelated research' through policy, markets and technological research. The locus of such research is the various part of the globe where the poor are located -South Asia, SSA and Southeast Asia.Affluence-driven livestock-product consumption over the past two or so decades, particularly in Asia, indicates rises of three-times for meat and two-times for milk above rich-country rises. 2 Even modest increases in income seem to produce marked increases in demand for animal products. For milk consumption in India and pigs in China, opportunities exist for some cashpoor livestock keepers close to markets to benefit from this increased demand. Such marketdriven development seems self-perpetuating and of marginal relevance to the real poor excluded from such opportunities by distance or other barriers. Relying only on the affluence-pull out of poverty argument begs the question of who are the poor.If the majority of the nearly 50 percent of all people whom we think exist on less than US$ 2 per day are in Asia, the primary regions for poverty-oriented livestock research would seem logically to be in Asia. 3 Of course, cash-poverty is less serious than a lack of basic minimum needs which may place some of tropical Asia's poor above others in colder and less productive subsistence environments. This difference between absolute-and relative-(cash-based) poverty is critical to interpreting the intent of the CGIAR vision, and when coupled with considerations of some parts of Asia having the capacity to address local issues, a relative balance between the livestock research needs of the poor across the globe becomes evident. 4 Cash comparisons are probably more relevant to urban dwellers, who are the faster rising component of less-developed countries and who may expect to benefit from the apparently continuing decline in livestock product prices associated with efficient, private, intensive production units close to major urban centers. 5 In such cases, the externalities from industrial systems can have serious consequences for the poor, and research to minimize negative impacts is valuable.A challenge for poverty-oriented research is to discriminate between issues properly addressed by these industries themselves such as waste-concentration pollution, food safety and even animal-human disease transmission. For the poor livestock keepers, it is their location and production system that defines the research opportunities.Livestock production may be separated into; rangeland systems, integrated agricultural systems and landless systems. In terms of the poor, rangelands include the extensive pastoral systems that continue in Asia (for example, Mongolia and China (Tibet)) and Africa (for example, the Sahel); integrated agriculture includes smallholder mixed crop-and-livestock systems across Asia, Africa and some countries of Latin America; landless systems include urban herders and milkers, backyard monogastric and rodent raisers and scavenging livestock. Potential to improve the welfare of poor livestock keepers exists in all systems, but is naturally greater where favorable market, climatic and feed resources exist -factors that generate their own demand for innovation especially to serve rising affluence. Research is not necessary to accelerate such self-fueling development, but research that learns from it can assist the poor in other regions -it can link to research that serves the continually marginalized and food-insecure in the complicated milieu of international livestock research planning.Economically marginalized livestock keepers conceive livestock products differently from those in commercially-linked systems. 6 For example: dung is not simply seen as crop fertilizer but also as material for house construction, cooking fuel and so on; animal power is not just for ploughing but also for traction, packing, working mills etc; frequent small income from milk, eggs, hair and small meat producing animals is valued over delayed higher incomes, milk is not just a fresh product made into butter and cheese to suit tastes but is made storable and transportable through diverse fermented and other traditional products; course hair and wool for family use is valued above finer products, meat is not a primary product but an end-of-life product associated with the production of other perhaps more valuable non-edible animal products, and the financial value of an animal set by a urban market may grossly undervalue its economic value when cultural, self-incremental savings capacity and other values are considered.Seen from this perspective, assumptions that, (1) livestock systems evolve into commercial markets and (2) that the trend should be accelerated by development research, could be conversely argued to further marginalize the poor and food insecure livestock keepers unless balancing research in their immediate interests forms part of the same program. Focusing on areas of high development potential -defined as access to affluence-driven markets -lead one to ask 'is this research assisting the poor?' The point is worthy of elaboration. Poor people keep environmentally adapted indigenous livestock breeds that are assumed, often without objective evidence, to have limited genetic capacity for higher productivity. Appropriately, ILRI leads in confirming the value of these breeds. They live in subsistence or near-subsistence economic systems and what potential for technological improvement exists is limited by understandably risk-averse lifestyles and often related infrastructural deficiencies. In such circumstances, if research is to be judged by its impact, it needs to be matched by development analysis. For example, belated development of infrastructure and policy change has led to adoption of technologies decades after they had been assumed to have had no impact. Livestock research needs this context, perhaps more than crop-based research.Past agricultural development analysis has often ignored alternative worldviews of the real poor. One example is assumptions that nomadic pastoral systems tend toward sedentary mixed croplivestock systems, but this is not universally true and where it occurs may be because policies force such transition. Dire outcomes can result from such assumptions, such as evidenced in the 70 years of well-intended enforced settlement of Mongolian pastoralists. Of course, increases in human population can cause pastoral systems to exceed natural resource resiliencies, but other development components such as education and health services need to be factored into such analyses before reaching conclusions about the viability of pastoralism. In any case, pastoralism is usually the only productive use possible from environments where it has persisted, and ruminants are able to utilize fibrous plant material that has no alternative use. Unclear pastoral land rights are similarly a reflection of a sedentary agricultural orientation to development.Rather than assume that existing policies define the research context, objective research such as in ILRI's targeting activities define the context of such livestock systems that will be with us for the foreseeable future and which we understand less about than we do for mixed crop-livestock systems.Mixed crop-livestock systems in Asia as well as Africa, offer perhaps the greatest potential for assisting the poor through research. This extends beyond technical research to such areas as socio-economics and policy to inform decisions on whether to protect smallholders from being displaced by factory farming. Linked with this is continued reliance on proven indigenous genetic resources, which as in pastoral and landless systems, incidentally assists conservation of genetic resources in a manner more likely to be sustainable than industrially oriented activities. Landless livestock production conducted in backyards or unused lands is a means by which the poor apply their labor and limited capital to economic and nutritional benefit, and thus represents a further valid area of pro-poor research.Within the wide and diverse needs of international livestock research for the benefit of the poor, ILRI has taken different approaches according to the trends of different epochs, and these responses inform us of ILRI's current iteration. Beginning by seeking a single technical solution such as a vaccine or new breed, a broader conception evolved that considered the value of a wider range of livestock products such as draught and milk, and this has now been further widened to accommodate some of the profound complexities of interrelationships in traditional production systems. These three faces in ILRI may be seen as; the separate ILCA and ILRAD initiatives (1973-1993), the phase of merger and consolidation under Hank Fitzhugh as the DG (1993-2001) and the current systems approach steered by the present ILRI DG Carlos Sere (2002-). The former two are well documented in past files and in the minds of some external observers, while for this EPMR the present approach of holistic systems -from production, to markets, to institutions, to policy -sets the context. ILRI's current approach in the light of all the above has been to select a common conceptual framework for discussion and planning. This is based on defining the determinants of beneficiary well-being and then identifying interventions for improved policies in order to identifying practical research opportunities. From this logic, actions are derived to secure livestock assets, improve livestock system productivity and to improve market opportunities. This is hardly revolutionary, which should provide comfort to donors that past work has been useful and is being built on in a systemic manner. This emphasis on working within systems has already revealed some deficiencies in some past development assumptions, such as the risk of adopting research outputs often being too high for the absolutely-poor unless some protection or confidence is provided. Such security may be assisted through participatory planning of research. A specific type of researcher for a specific research approach is therefore required, which seems to favor those educated in development environments.Attempting 'to reduce poverty and enhance sustainable development through research' across the globe on an annual budget of some US$ 34M would be difficult for a mono-commodity center, and is even more complex for ILRI with its responsibility for all domestic animal species of the poor in integrated social, economic and technical systems of production. Clearly, ILRI cannot be expected to conform to conventional modes of livestock research management and must take a different approach to its work in a declining funding environment. Figures presented in the financial management section of this EPMR indicate that in constant 2005 dollars the ILRI budget declined after merger and has been largely rebuilt to a fairly constant level since 2002.As a product of the merger of ILCA and ILRAD, ILRI manages within a unique organizational and geopolitical heritage. It also inherits the orphan role assigned to livestock in agricultural science and the perceived failure of at least one of its antecedents to meet its objectives. Being assigned a global mandate at merger placed ILRI in a disadvantageous resource position compared to the four mono-crop Centers established in the CGIAR some 35 years earlier.Nevertheless, ILRI has produced some remarkable outputs, and it has also undergone much internal self-analysis and revision. Also unlike most CGIAR Centers, ILRI has been forced to radically revise its structure, mandate, approaches and self-image as a result of merger and changing external circumstances. In so doing, it has achieved international best practice in some cases, such as its biotechnology research, yet more focus and quality control is needed, which the Board and management seem to appreciate in facing high-level issues specific to ILRI.The meta-issues facing ILRI may be captured by such polarized and leading questions as: Is it the international livestock research center or the cattle center for Africa? Is it a rehashed convergence of ILCA and ILRAD activities or is it a genuinely new vision for livestock research? Are its MTPs shaping the research agenda or is it formed by the funding environment? Is it creeping into development activities or is it engaged in insightful research designs suited to development outcomes? Does ILRI overemphasize the assumption of a 'revolution' that may trickle down to the poor, or is it reorienting to an emerging marginalized livestock sector? And if ILRI did not exist, how would global livestock needs of the poor best be approached? These questions -some implied and some verbalized -challenge management and governance, and also in general terms the CGIAR and the EPMR. They provide a basis for checking the analyses presented in this report and we therefore return to them in our final section.ILRI displays the vigor of a younger organization, perhaps as a result of its hybrid birth from two older institutions. Yet such heterosis is accompanied by identifiable traits of each parent, such that one Theme looks a little like ILRAD and one can see ILCA in other Themes. Since 1999, ILRI has been slowly metamorphosing into a new institution with a different mission and approach to that of its antecedents. External observers may not have noticed this gradual change, which has required planning, management, recruitment, organization and supervision of activities while continuing to meet past agreements and wider CGIAR requirements. The previous EPMR described an institution that was recoiling from an ill-planned merger while searching for a future role. While largely recovered from that recoil, ILRI is now different from the sum of its former parts.The current MTPs (2006-2008 and 2007-2009) are the continuing instruments of reorganization around multidisciplinary teams in a limited number of themes -a major contrast to the discipline-based structure of the past. It is this structure of activities that confuses onlookers who expect to see broadly-based geographical or technical programs and find only 'Themes' stretched across locations and disciplines with the expectation of generic outcomes that will serve a wider global audience. Thus discipline-based and geographically-specific research projects have been replaced, in conceptual terms at least, by firstly defining where research can be useful and understanding the drivers of change in livestock systems (Targeting Opportunities Theme), understanding change processes and influencers (Enabling Innovation Theme -now merged into Targeting Opportunities Theme), determining market access (Marketing Theme), producing biotechnologies to suit the previous three situations (Biotechnology Theme), and then understanding the interactions between the major components of the system in the People, Livestock and Environment Theme 5.Reforming financial and other systems has occurred in parallel with reengineering the organization. ILRI considers that its funding has increased since the last EPMR, although as indicated earlier, the real quantum has at best been maintained and proportion of restricted funds has increased. Reserves management has been conservative in preparation for infrastructure investment and places ILRI among the most prudent of CGIAR centers.But before presenting great detail, it is important to say that donors to ILRI should be particularly pleased with the process of self-reinvention of which they are part, for ILRI is best conceived as a partnership with its donors as it increasingly adds value to donor ideals and policies related to research for development. Now, in 2006, it is not possible to say ILRI as a simple cobbling together of ILCA and ILRAD programs. Of course, some programs continue -as they should, but the processes of planning and reorganization of activities and management systems has integrated these continuing programs with new activities that enhance the probability of beneficial research outputs and in some cases, direct development outcomes. The transformation of its parents into ILRI has, through its planning processes, also acknowledged many changes in the external environment.Drivers of change in the external environment have become more evident in recent times and interact in a manner that is determining the role and nature of ILRI. Among these drivers are:(1) changes in donor support; (2) uneven technological development; (3) information technology (IT) developments; (4) international legal developments; (5) CGIAR reformation, and (6) shifts in the socioeconomic environment of ILRI's targeted beneficiaries.Donor financial support for the CGIAR Centers in general has not kept pace with development-oriented donor funding over the past decade and has only partially been replaced by project-specific funding, and often under conditions that unrestricted core donors will fund the full overhead costs of projects. At the same time, contributions from the World Bank, which come with requirements over CGIAR programs, have been tied to other contributions in a competitive fundraising environment. In the case of ILRI, major reductions in funding accompanied the latter days of ILRAD and ILCA and the 'lost' funds have been difficult to replace in real dollar terms, and the gap yawns wider when new funds are tied to specific projects or programs. Coupled with these changes is refocusing of the international agenda around such foci as the Millennium Development Goals.Technological changes in molecular genetics and genomics for example, have advanced rapidly in recent years and are expected to continue. While mainly oriented to humans and plants, spin-offs exist in the animal sciences, including the implications of cropresidue quality and quantity for the animal feeds of the poor. Commercial opportunities in the field are dominated by private sector interests that engage contract researchers in government and university research bodies. ILRI should not compete in this arena, yet it also cannot assume that commercial interests will develop products of value to the poor or the food insecure. Such a change in the external environment behooves ILRI to remain informed of developments in the field as a knowledge-broker for those who act on behalf of the poor.Information Technology continues to develop quickly and to offer potential benefits to the poor and poor countries through information access and even education and training. However, increased dependence of researchers on real-time interaction across high-speed links to utilize databases and capacity in other locations may well be limited by the location of CGIAR scientists in countries with poor IT access and services. 4.Legal frameworks have advanced for the IPR of genetic resources, which have been regularized by the Convention on Biological Diversity of 1998 by establishing national sovereignty over genetic resources. 7 Together with patents, such regulations primarily affect CGIAR crop Centers, with the exception that forage species and the Forage Gene Bank continue to be managed within ILRI. 5.CGIAR 'renewal' has encouraged the reorientation of ILRI focus to poverty reduction.Changes within CGIAR itself have included ILRI in leadership of the MTP process for Eastern and Southern Africa, the SLP (since 1995) and various chair and committee roles. CGIAR is now attempting to reduce fragmentation through development of a coherent research agenda to address 20 system priorities related to: conserving animal resources; genetic improvement; high-value products; natural resources management, and policies and institutions. 8 ILRI contributes to each of these five overarching priorities but not to all 20 detailed priorities. 6.In addition to these drivers, ILRI's ultimate client base is also changing. This is partly the so called 'livestock revolution', which may be placed in an overall development context of continued rising affluence in Asia accompanied with an increased separation between subsistence and commercially oriented systems, and the now-critical marginalization of some pastoral and landless livestock systems.The first (1999) and only previous EPMR of ILRI produced 14 recommendations (28 items). ILRI's self-assessment of actions in response to recommendations and the 2 nd EPMR Panel comments on the implementation are presented in Annex 5. The Panel considers that ILRI has fully implemented nine of the recommendations. Other recommendations have been addressed partially or not at all, mainly because they were superseded by events or ILRI taking wider actions that subsumed the intention of the recommendations. In these areas ILRI has exceeded the actions recommended by developing strong scientific leadership and incisive decisionmaking; integrating global evaluation of all animal feeds with nutritional evaluation of dietary options; reorganization of the institute, and ceased some operations in the LAC region. Those areas where some further action is pending include more ex ante impact assessment than that housed in the Targeting Opportunities Theme by addition of ex post impact assessment, and operationalizing the global mandate in terms of staff operating bases. The previous EPMR was upbeat about the critical role to be played by a revamped ILRI but it failed to relate resources to the challenge of expanding globally. Thus it is concluded that ILRI has not only implemented the 7 The International Treaty on Plant genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of 2004 addresses the exchange of plant genetic resources important for food and agriculture to allow multilateral exchange of germplasm for major food crops. vast majority of the recommendations that were practical, but has exceed their intent in some cases. Means of continuing to improve ILRI form the basis of ILRI planning, which is discussed in Chapter 2.ILRI's strategic directions and priorities have improved markedly since the 1999 EPMR and in the 11 years since merger, these have yielded management documents that reflect ongoing changes in direction and focus, including changes in structure and function. The 2006 EPMR looked at a number of issues important to ILRI planning at the present time: the assumptions on which plans are based, the strategies to implement the mission, financial planning, determining priorities and geographical considerations, and to the extent it still had an effect, the integration of the parent entities.MTPs need to define the objectives, strategy and activities that combined with available resources identify ILRI's niche. This begins with defining the target beneficiaries and then determining the modes of assisting them through research; matching priority research areas with potential partners and donors; and then designing the means of influencing the international agenda and other researchers while conducting high quality scientific research that levers other funds and benefits.ILRI planning is based on three premises: the Livestock Revolution, the multiple roles of livestock in the livelihood strategies of poor people and the need to address global issues. The latter premise reflects the reality of livestock in various systems, from social to economic, from farming to nomadic -and as such is appropriate to the mandate to \"reduce poverty and enhance sustainable development through livestock-related research.\" The Livestock Revolution is used by ILRI, and now some other agencies, for the trend of market development. The Panel is pleased to see Livestock Revolution terminology better contextualized in the new MTP, with a clearer acknowledgment that increased demand for livestock products potentially increases environmental pressure and threatens to further marginalize poor livestock keepers.In noting that rapidly developing economies consume more meat and dairy products, ILRI aims to \"reduce poverty by enhancing the participation of poor people in dynamic livestock value chains\" This takes ILRI beyond working only with be the poorest livestock keepers. The strategy also recognizes threats to the poor from trends in consumption, and ILRI's response has been to orient its assistance to this group to policy safety nets based on perceived rates of return on ILRI's investment. Policies that empower the poor are to be applauded, but the integration of policy research for the very poor in ILRI research could be better enunciated.ILRI's mandate orients it to the global role of livestock in crop-livestock and subsistence farming, traditional nomadic pastoral, landless and other poverty-related livestock keeping systems. In fact ILRI's programs, activities and donor contributions support this orientation. The Panel suggests that the MTP balance the importance of the expansion in livestock product demand with clear explanations and operational details of activities of benefit to the really poor and marginalized livestock keepers.Another approach to analyzing priority setting is to investigate the processes of project initiation, the allocation of unrestricted funds, and the relationship of objectives to such specific indicators as animal species. Such an analysis indicates that the MTP process is top-down for general implementation plans that allow Theme Directors to develop OPs in a bottom-up process consistent with strategies within funding availability. While unable to determine how real stakeholder inputs feed into planning processes connected to the development of MTPs, the Panel finds that ILRI's general approach yields pragmatic priority setting reflective of the external environment.For the allocation of unrestricted funds, ILRI acknowledges broad CGIAR System priorities, donor realities, stakeholders interests including regional and sub-regional research organizations (in Africa at least) and global livestock-interested bodies. Theme directors receive a rolling threeyear allocation from core funds to make strategic appointments to new areas and attract funds for larger projects by matching contributions. Core funds are also allocated to rapid response and politically charged areas; a current example is Avian Influenza. ILRI maintains that its defined priorities managed through incentives is balanced by a quality management process in which concept notes and proposals are all reviewed for congruence with the strategy.In terms of priority setting with respect to species, ILRI, while responsible for all agriculturally important livestock species, makes no specific allocations on this basis, which perhaps explains ILRI's traditional and dominant emphasis on cattle, and to an extent, small ruminants. Overall, the Panel concluded that the process of setting and managing priorities has continuously improved and that the next steps include specific actions to meet the broader livestock mandate.ILRI's mission is still valid and appropriate: \"to reduce poverty and enhance sustainable development through livestock-related research.\" The mission is divided into three general \"pathways\": securing the assets of the poor, improving the productivity of their livestock systems, and improving market opportunities. Clearly ILRI cannot accomplish all that these pathways imply, and hence its strategy includes influencing of others to also contribute towards these ends. Seventeen (to be 15 after January 2007) Operating Projects (OP), including SLP projects, are grouped into four (previously five) Themes: Targeting Opportunities and Enabling Innovation; Market Opportunities; Biotechnology; and People, Livestock and the Environment, into which the ILRI-related research activities of BecA and IPMS can be seen to be subsumed. Capacity strengthening is embedded in most projects and is overtly recognized as a significant component in many.The Themes grew out of the issue-driven restructuring of ILRI linked to the adoption of a new strategic plan in 2002. Themes incorporated a number of pre-existing projects that were consistent with the new strategy, and rationalized the termination or completion of a number of old projects over the period 2000-2006 (Table 2.1). Given the relatively long-term nature of livestock research, the development of a theme-based strategic framework indicates a laudable effort to reshape ILRI's focus. Themes are flexible in nature and can accommodate changes in the external environment, as well as the changes within ILRI as an institution.The OPs reflect an approach to gender inclusion and awareness uncommonly mature in research planning. This results from the mode of operation of the Targeting Opportunities and Enabling Innovations Theme, which underpins all research in the ILRI plan, and to the systems approach employed throughout ILRI. An ILRI commitment to participatory research inherently includes all players. This ensures that ILRI deals with all persons in a livestock area, including children where they are engaged as herders, for example. The Panel notes that the level of gender inclusion and awareness accrues both from the overall approach of ILRI and because the role of women in livestock, although it varies widely, is particularly important across cultures. This fact and ILRI's approach will ensure a continued openness to gender without the need to address it as a specific issue in planning. To consolidate its gender-related findings, an 'Innovation and Impact' monitoring unit in the DDG's office will include gender in its scope of work. Existing MTPs also indicate that in addition to the elimination or evolution of existing projects, new projects have also been initiated (see Annex 6 for a diagram of evolution from old Projects to new Themes and Operational Projects). The presentation of activities within the MTP heightens the impression that management of systems-research is complex. Reporting of outputs by Themes in some cases and projects in others, hides regional or disciplinary outputs and thereby adds an additional analytical task when making the case for a global presence. Creating more transparency in reporting regional activities would seem to support ILRI's rationale for its structure as a means of breaking down past programmatic and geographical silos -including an overwhelming east African focus. A cross-cutting reporting structure for geographical coverage, at least, is needed for the MTP to fully reflect ILRI's mandate and strategy.The MTP process is also linked to a rolling three-year budget cycle, which should be seen as an opportunity to develop more nuanced and strategic business plans. Within the general funding constraints and greater reliance on restricted funds, two issues need to be considered: the value of periodic zero-based reviews of projects, and an aggressive approach to full cost recovery on projects supported by restricted funds.Zero-based reviews examine ongoing projects for the benefits of their continuation. It forces projects to re-argue their value in the medium and long-term in order to justify the continuation and level of resource allocation, and helps to resolve the natural inertia that grows around projects over time. Reviews are typically conducted on a three-year schedule. In addition to questioning a project's continuation, reviews should also consider restructuring projects to improve efficiency and perhaps merge with other projects.Full cost recovery for projects, particularly those funded with restricted funding, is a critical financial practice as the number of short-term and restricted projects grow. ILRI's financial performance indicator of for indirect costs for restricted projects indicates some way to go in the full recovery of costs. Refining costing and budget methodologies to ensure as full a recovery of indirect costs as possible requires enhanced accounting capacity in budget development and monitoring and reporting. The Panel, therefore, urges progressive improvements to full cost recovery for restricted projects to provide ILRI with the maximum discretion possible over the use of its unrestricted resources.Considering the competitive operating environment, the substantial assets of ILRI and the naturally long horizon for measuring results in livestock research, ILRI should expand its planning horizon to complement the MTP. The Panel recommends a planning cycle in which strategic vision and goals with ten year horizons yield strategic five-year business plans, operationalized annually. (Recommendation 1)Enhanced planning for longer intervals would not impede the planning and monitoring required for MTPs and would strengthen overall strategic planning, resource development and resource allocation.In addition to CGIAR priorities, ILRI notes that its priority setting is based on such criteria as: impact on poverty, user-demand, ILRI's value-adding capacity and creation of IPGs. The Panel was unable to satisfy itself that donor influence and resource availability were not significant factors in priority setting, which is normal and would be expected in the current funding environment and which is understood by ILRI. Because of this, the planning process needs to recognize such external forces in an open fashion. The policies and actions of global investment banks and donor organizations with respect to livestock development and research are a critical component of the planning context and should form an analytical prelude between the mission and the strategy by which ILRI may make an impact. It is suggested that future ten year plans and MTPs include a summary of detailed analysis livestock research and development in general, and that if ILRI does not have this capacity that it seek external assistance.As ILRI differs from most CGIAR centers in covering more than one or two staples, prioritysetting also extends to geographical coverage and choices about animal species, which in addition to cattle might be expected to include poultry, goats, sheep, pigs and perhaps even less conventional species like rabbits -even though some species, regions and approaches may be then be rejected in the targeting of global issues.Livestock research is emphasized in the CGIAR System Priorities (SPs The Panel concludes that ILRI's research seems to fit very well with those SPs which address livestock issues, including livestock related institutional and policy areas. However, there are some areas, such as zoonotic animal disease where ILRI's engagement may be justified, while they are not within the SPs.In 1995, the newly formed ILRI explored the meaning of a global mandate through workshops with partners that produced inventories of researchable livestock issues beyond the scope of its predecessor organizations. After confirming that most of the poor and poor livestock keepers resided in South Asia (36%), SSA (30%) and SEA (11%), ILRI's considered its most appropriate niche to be SSA with some activities in South Asia and liaison presences in China and SEA. ADB, ACIAR and IFAD assisted early work in SEA that subsequently ceased, while South Asian work focused on partnerships with ICRISAT, and demonstrated the benefit of such inter-center leverage. Details about ILRI's current activities in Asia are given in Annex 7.ILRI's theme-based structure, which operates through Themes rather than regions or disciplines sets ILRI apart from NARS' structures and orients ILRI to IPG-related research. However, it also tends to orient of the geographical coverage of its work to content and ideas more than loci of operations, which is confirmed by the majority of IRS (94%) being based in Africa.The Panel understands and queries ILRI's contention that it achieves its global approach through IPG research it conducts and that there is a continued priority placed by international donors on SSA. The Panel also sees the strides ILRI has made in initiating viable global presences and the improved efficiency it has experienced with global sites that are well-selected, particularly when associated with other CGIAR centers, and encourages ILRI to locate a greater proportion of it staff to other regions. While addressing globally important issues from one base may be appropriate for a policy institute in a developed country, ILRI is now at a stage of addressing its global presence to enhance its credibility outside east Africa.As an illustration of the benefits of raising ILRI's profile in other geographic regions, the Panel considered the perceive value of ILRI's role and agenda in the Asian-Pacific region as reflected by the relationship between ILRI and donors that focus on the region, especially Australia and Japan. Australian funding of IARCs, channeled through ACIAR in an usually transparent and policy-driven approach, totaled about A$10M (US$7.5M) in 2005 for both core funding (55-60%) and projects that met partnership, geographical and performance guidelines (40-45%). For core funding, which is allocated according to sustained impacts of a CGIAR center in the Asia-Pacific region, ILRI has now slipped to the lowest funded category. Regardless of the amounts of funds involved, given the disproportionate influence on the Asian agenda enjoyed by Australia and its interest in livestock, its decisions with respect to ILRI can send a perhaps erroneous signal to other donors interested in the region.Funding from Japan tells a similar story. Its contribution to CGIAR in general has declined from 12.6% in 1995 to 3.3% in 2004 with an emphasis on IRRI (29.6%); ILRI received only 2.2% of its funds from Japan in 2003 and 2004, and in 2005 and 2006 received less than US$250,000. The small amounts committed to ILRI from donors who are active in Asia are only one indication of ILRI's perceived relevance to the region. It seems that more than one donor views ILRI as an African-focused institution. The balance between dispersed activities and staff location, and between mandate responsibilities and necessary focus is a constant factor in donor relations and requires diligence to maintain.In stating that ILRI will, after 2007, expand \"South Asia operations to include market opportunities, livestock feeding, emerging diseases, utilization and conservation of animal genetic resources, crop-livestock integration and issues associated with the intensification of livestock systems\" ILRI implies the allocation of significantly more resources and ILRI-led projects. As this does not seem achievable by simply linking Asian activities with those of SSA, the Panel assumed that staff and budget would clearly be allocated to Asia, although this is not yet evident in the MTP. Intentions to \"work with other CGIAR Centers in the latter regions\" is similarly laudable and the preferred mode of operation, yet the implementation of this intent is similarly not easy to find in the plans. 9 The Panel feels that the previous EPMR was overly ambitious in implying the ease of global expansion without major resource reallocations. Having formulated an approach to global involvement within its resource base since 2002, ILRI is now challenged by the need to establish its reputation globally through reasonable levels of presence. The Panel sees this challenge as one that ILRI has struggled with since it was founded, and continues to attempt to resolve. With flexible Themes and the BecA initiative now advanced, it is time for this challenge to be accepted, for a critical mass of staff to be located in other CGIAR locations (for example, ICRISAT and IRRI), and for alternative delivery mechanisms to be tested in other areas.The ambition of global impact requires a more geographically distributed allocation of a critical mass of resources. Projects with global outcomes can beneficially be managed from locations other than east Africa. The Panel therefore recommends that ILRI redefine its physical location strategy (using CGIAR Centers wherever possible) and its modus operandi for each region. The Board should assess progress in three years through external review. (Recommendation 2)With the adoption of its strategic plan \"Livestock: A Pathway out of Poverty\" in 2003, ILRI revised its research strategy and reframed its programs and management structure to achieve its goals. Changes to the plan over the intervening years reflect an evolution of the strategy shaped by experience as well as deliberate adjustments to the plan to improve its results. These changes and adjustments reflect positively on the ability of ILRI's board and management to remain responsive to changes in ILRI's operating environment and in its capacity and strategic advantage.In this chapter the Panel examines ILRI's present research activities within the most recent iteration of its Theme-based structure, which now centers on four Themes. 10 Three of these Themes are based on specific problem-solution domains:• Livestock Markets (Markets)• Biotechnology for Animal Health and Genetics (Biotechnology)• People, Livestock and the Environment (PLE)These Themes are underpinned by an additional Theme that concentrates on cross-cutting issues:• Targeting and Innovation. (A Theme resulting from a combination of parts of two earlier Themes that will be finally completed by financial integration in January 2007)Research activities linked to two specific projects, BecA and IPMS, can also be found reflected in the Themes, and are discussed as part of this chapter. One conception of the interrelationship of these Themes and projects is presented in Figure 1. It can be understood as the first three Themes listed above presented as separate yet related, cut across by a fourth Theme called Targeting and Innovation as well as by the large IPMS project and a separate CGIAR funding mechanism, SLP. All aspects are interrelated, as indicated by the circular arrows. The diagram differs from those presented by ILRI and in the opinion of the Panel makes communicating an otherwise complex structure easier for those not within the system.Within each Theme, research is implemented in three to five operating projects (OP) that focus on research outputs. Cohesion between the Themes is encouraged by a common focus on three outcomes:• Securing Assets to Reduce Vulnerability • Increasing Productivity to Improve LivelihoodsAn overview of the research staff input (IRS only) in each Theme is presented in Table 3.1, which demonstrates that, although a limited number of staff are allocated to more than two Themes, most are allocated to two or one. Because Themes are issue oriented and multidisciplinary, staff allocation across Themes and OPs is necessary.  a Junior scientists and post-docs make significant contributions to this Theme. b Currently being reallocated to \"Targeting and Innovation\" and a unit in the DDG's office.This is a combination of two themes -Targeting Opportunities, and Enabling Innovations, both of which cut across other Themes. The decision to combine relevant parts of the Themes occurred during the Panel's review and we therefore present the discussion on that basis to facilitate future discussions. However, as work to date has been conducted separately, we divide this section into the two original Themes, Targeting Opportunities and Enabling Innovation. The staff complement is shown in Table 3.2. The Theme aims to influence and support policy making and the setting of livestock research priorities by: assisting other themes to better understand livestock-based systems; identifying prevailing constraints in livestock systems and proposing viable opportunities for research; and additionally carrying out ex ante impact assessment to guide to the future research agenda. The Theme is organized in three OPs: livestock systems evolution (OP1), poverty, sustainable livelihoods and livestock (OP2), and targeting pro-poor livestock interventions (OP3).OP 1 -livestock systems evolution -could also be called the \"strategic engine of ILRI,\" as it synthesizes changes in livestock systems to determine the drivers of change. It focuses on emerging trends and their drivers including consumption demand, trade patterns, land use change, water-livestock dynamics, and climate change. This includes development of future scenarios of livestock development and assessment of consequences for livelihoods and the environment. OP 2 -poverty, sustainable livelihoods and livestock -handles poverty and livestock dynamics issues by analyzing determinants of poverty (referred to as poverty mapping) from assessments of the role of livestock in poverty that integrate quantitative, qualitative and spatial analysis, and policy dialogue OP 3 -targeting pro-poor livestock interventions -deals with the typology of households, and development and improvement of analytical methodologies and decision-making tools. This OP also conducts impact assessments that guide selection of research topics and potential partners.All three OPs are discussed together because their outputs and impacts are interrelated.The Theme's work on poverty mapping and livelihood assessment has significantly influenced formulation of pro-poor policies and the setting of priorities for interventions in developing countries. An example from Kenya and Uganda illustrates that the poverty mapping has influenced national and sectoral policy decisions in favor of the poor. Development agencies such as the World Bank, EU and NGOs are utilizing such decision support tools as PRIMAS (poverty reduction intervention mapping in agricultural systems) and EXTRAPOLATE (ex ante tool for ranking policy alternatives).In addition to the ILRI poverty maps themselves, the ILRI methodologies and tools for mapping have been adopted by development agencies including several governmental agencies and NGOs in Kenya and Uganda, as well as CIAT and CIP, which have used the approach in Colombia and Peru. In addition, spatial targeting tools have been used by FARA and its SROs in providing targeting criteria for the choice of the pilot learning sites for the SSA-CP. The same tools have been applied in the analysis of smallholder dairy systems in Uganda and India.A recent (2005) CCER of this spatial analysis and systems modeling work commended the extent to which ILRI has applied these approaches and methodologies to its wider livestock research. 11 Achievements have also attracted other organizations to partner with ILRI, such as the ODI-ILRI-KARI association for ex post impact assessment of partnerships and processes for pro-poor policy change. In addition, ILRI is involved in FAO's Pro-poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI), which helps to raise the profile of livestock-based interventions in poverty reduction strategies.The Theme has produced 43 papers in peer reviewed journals in three years (1.1 per fte per year), which is below the ILRI average.This Theme is of unquestionable relevance to ILRI's approach and has achieved positive outputs and outcomes. Now, its content and future will be influenced by its combination with the Enabling Innovation Theme. Combination is logical insofar as targeting and prioritization of research activities go hand-in-hand with enabling innovation. Consequently, the combined theme should play a stronger role in providing strategic guidance in priority setting and targeting interventions across ILRI's research portfolio.The dynamism of livestock systems means that continued understanding of systems change is essential to the design of pro-poor livestock research. The future focus of the new Theme should build on past conceptual work on risk management and risk coping strategies in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. The outputs could then contribute to an emerging policy agenda on social protection.This Theme is and should continue to participate in the SLP, particularly in the identification of drivers of change in major crop-livestock systems and livestock components of conservation agriculture programs. In addition, as many livestock production systems are rangeland-based and are in marginal and semi-arid areas, particularly in Africa where they form the basis of peoples' livelihoods, ILRI should continue its work in these areas, including active participation in such collaborative programs as the DMP and African Livestock (Alive). In designing future research work, the Panel feels that it is important to include pig, poultry and other small animal production systems, particularly in urban and peri-urban areas, where demand for products from such species is on the increase.The above achievements cause the Panel to see the Theme as having performed well in the past five years with the work on targeting pro-poor interventions being one of the Theme's key outputs. Without such outputs, it would have been extremely difficult for ILRI to maintain its image with clients and stakeholders in most parts of Africa. Its outputs also indicate that its professional staff and disciplinary mix are appropriate.Nevertheless, the Panel sees the Theme as having concluded its most influential work in poverty mapping, because other institutions including some NARS can now handle such work. It is therefore with some satisfaction that the Panel notes that the Theme has already begun to disengage from poverty diagnosis and mapping activities in recognition of a growing loss of comparative advantage in the area. This decision may also have been influenced by the need to leverage past investments in poverty diagnostics in order to focus more on the analysis on livestock options for poverty reduction.Impact assessment (both ex ante and ex post) is also conducted within this Theme and warrants comment. As the majority (75%) of ex post impact assessment studies for the past five years were conducted before 2001, the Panel expresses its concern that impact is not being given the importance it warrants.As discussed in the following section concerning the Enabling Innovation Theme, the Panel commends plans to establish a separate gender and impact assessment unit to develop methodologies and other impact assessment tools, and to backstop the scientists in all the Themes.This is a difficult Theme to explicate, yet it is central to the ILRI research approach and is an indication of the creative manner in which ILRI strives to meet its wide mandate from a limited resource base. It is therefore important to discuss it separately before considering its integration with the Targeting Opportunities Theme and other ILRI units.Essentially, the \"innovation systems approach\" studies all interactions implicated in plans to introduce change. In many ways it counters a narrowness that has crept into applied social science and economics, which is evident, for example, in limiting the educational origins of extension to a technology transfer role and narrowing faith in the factors of production to land, labor, capital and more recently, markets. By stepping back and using an innovation systems approach, the institutional and cultural contexts, rather than technological innovation alone, are seen as determining conditions for development. Within ILRI, innovation approaches may be better understood as a search for increased efficiency in linking research to outcomes. Through this, ILRI strives to inculcate an ethos of understanding the processes of innovation in its researchers as well as contributing to global knowledge development in the field of innovations research.The Theme has demonstrated impressive impact among ILRI staff as a means of designing and conducting research that is likely to produce development outcomes, yet the Theme was unable to attract a new leader for over a year. Both facts stimulated management's decision to merge the Theme's research functions with the Targeting Opportunities Theme, and to move research support functions to a new unit to be created in the DDG's office.The Theme espoused great ambition, such as: to \"access a network of people/organizations working in innovation; access expertise for mentoring and support of ILRI activities; build capacity within the CGIAR and partner organizations to enhance the overall understanding of the innovation system approach; conduct innovation system studies to better understand the mechanisms that lead to improved capacity of a system to innovate, and accelerate institutional changes within ILRI, -spreading innovation systems ideas so that they are applied across the institute.\"In pursuing this ambition, each OP takes a different perspective. OP1 evaluates innovation systems to relate research design to development impact, and to define success indicators, processes of behavioral change and information generation and exchange up to the policy level. OP2 tests, adapts and develops technologies and delivery systems through practical case studies applying innovation systems approaches. OP3 investigates research partnerships that encourage institutional development. It is in this context that OP3 links with NARS, through networks such as AARNET. The Theme also encompasses monitoring systems for gender and impact assessment and databases for contextual information to complete feedback loops on understanding change in real situations. In essence, the Theme is a convergence of monitoring, databases and case studies, and a vehicle for reorienting the whole institute.The Theme had nine IRS and three research NRS in the fields of economics (2), animal sciences (six including epidemiology and animal health), project management (1), natural resource management (2) and forage breeding (1). An eclectic mix but suited to a new and diverse field.Merging the research activities of the Enabling Innovation Theme with the Targeting Opportunities Theme sensibly integrates cross-cutting approaches to targeting research and understanding its utility. The realignment results in an OP within the new theme on understanding the processes, drivers and impacts of change, and the creation within the DDG's office of an Innovation and Impact Unit for cross-institute monitoring of research, gender analysis and impact assessment. In commending the reorganization of the Enabling Innovation Theme, the Panel warns against research activities being conducted in the new service unit. The Panel also notes that AARNET, a partnership and service research network in Eastern Africa, may best be managed from the partnership unit, and that, case studies involving livestock keepers in situations of environmental and political conflict and instability could well be allocated to the People, Livestock and Environment Theme.The ambitious objective of influencing the whole CGIAR was discernable in the Panel's interactions with other Centers but further comment on this objective is beyond this EPMR. In terms of influencing the way that ILRI does business, the Theme has already shown impact. By 2008, OP1 is expected to have led to a broader understanding across the Center of the institutional and policy contexts that shape livestock knowledge production, and use processes.OP2 is expected to have identified generic principles that enhance innovation and promote equitable wealth creation and sustainable development. OP3 is expected to have identified new patterns of livestock R&D partnership involving public, private and civil society sectors.The non-specific nature of these outputs makes monitoring difficult and this can undervalue the Theme. Specific outputs include having: assessed improvement of export market success through food safety regulations for poor producers; contributed to analysis of the causes and consequences of scaling-up of production units; defined trends for smallholder success in dairy markets through case studies in East Africa and Assam; assessed technical and policy options to assist small-scale producers in urban African markets; defined issues for rationalization of dairy policies in eight African countries; and analyzed human health risks and mitigation measures associated with milk in Kenya. These have translated to outcomes such as: governmental formulation of pro-poor policies for small-scale milk traders; milk hygiene training programs conducted by NGOs associated with licensing and monitoring; and stimulating an IFAD Smallholder Dairy Commercialization loan to Kenya.ILRI often presents the Kenyan Smallholder Dairy Project as an example of the innovation systems approach. The project operated within a productive inter-institutional and partnering environment that enabled efficient assessment of existing production systems, markets, and milk consumption patterns, and hence informed selection of technologies more likely to be adopted by producers. As the project has been extensively documented by ILRI, we do not report on its successes here.The large Fodder Innovation Project in Nigeria and India began with DFID interest in unused technologies and brought ILRI into partnership with CIAT. Subsequent support from IFAD via the SLP narrowed the focus to dual-purpose crops and the reactions to changes in technologies and production factors that produced innovation, such as when new varieties of cowpea require different milling techniques.Notwithstanding the Theme's successes, the Panel concludes that ILRI may not have a comparative advantage in innovation research except through its ethos of partnerships. The Panel was unable to discern whether partnerships such as with UNU reflect ILRI leadership or UNU's need for field sites -both of which are valid approaches. ILRI's inability to attract a Theme leader to east Africa suggests that either the field is not producing leadership specific to a subsector of agriculture such as livestock, or that ILRI is not a competitive or attractive home for such leadership.Overall, the Panel wishes to highlight the Theme's success, but also emphasize that the approach is a current iteration of the continual ebb and flow of holistic versus reductionist approaches felt by all open-minded researchers.Science in the Theme appears to meet the general quality of the emerging field although ILRI has not made any leading contributions to the literature. Most Theme publications seem to be in the disciplinary fields of staff rather than innovation systems. This may be due to most of the literature in the young field focusing on theoretical underpinnings of the field itself, which suggests that ILRI case studies should soon be publishable. The IPMS project (see Section 3.7.2) with its innovations systems framework offers potential opportunities for just such case-study publication.Overall the Panel suggests: that the unit in the DDG's office assume responsibility for developing capacity for impact assessment (ex post and ex ante) and gender analysis among ILRI researchers and research partners but not be engaged in research; that the Innovations Systems approach on which the ILRI operational strategy rests be acknowledged clearly in the profile of the combined Theme and be managed to generate publications, and that the rapid adoption of innovations in global contexts be one aspect of cross-center research.Research on livestock market opportunities is central to ILRI strategy to 2010, because improved marketing of livestock products is recognized as one of the major pathways for income generation by the poor. The rapidly growing and changing livestock markets in developing nations provide opportunities for income generation as well as threats. These are represented by the increasing integration of markets (national and international), the changing nature of food demands by consumers in urban centers, the changing regulatory environment for health and food safety, and an inability of smallholders to produce high quality products, because they lack technology, inputs, financial resources and up-to-date information.Research activities in this Theme are organized into three OPs: Smallholder competitiveness in changing markets (OP1); Changing demand and market institutions (OP2), and Animal health and food safety for trade (OP3).Smallholder competitiveness in changing markets (OP1) addresses two main areas: identification of constraints to and strategies for supporting uptake of improved production technologies, and contractual and organizational arrangements to support smallholder livestock producer's participation in markets. Changing demand and market institutions (OP2) focuses on the determination of the driving forces of change in the domestic market channels that are traditionally supplied by poor smallholders, including changes in demand for increased safety, uniformity, and higher levels of processing. In addition, this OP assesses the impact of the changes on the price of livestock products to poor urban consumers and strives to provide viable options for improving their access to low cost and safe products. Animal health and food safety for trade (OP3) seeks to identify animal disease control, health and standards certification methods and other strategies to improve access to markets by poor smallholders, with a focus on international and regional markets. It is also involved in the assessment of the cost of compliance with sanitary and other technical standards in those markets.Currently (September 2006), the Theme has a staff of 20 professionals, whose disciplinary background is shown in Table 3.3. Based on ILRI's policy of sharing staff across themes, about half of this Theme's professional staff is shared in the following manner: Targeting Opportunities (five staff with time allocation of 6-50%), Enabling Innovation (three: 2-20%) and People, Livestock and Environment (one: 50%). In terms of geographical locations, the majority of the IRS are based in Eastern Africa (11 in Kenya and Ethiopia) and Latin America (3). The Asian continent has the smallest share, with one staff each in India, Vietnam and Syria, and there are none in the West African region since the departure of an experienced economist in early 2006. OP1 and OP2 are discussed together because they are closely related, OP3 is discussed separately.The identification of technical and policy options for improving smallholder dairy systems mainly in East Africa has led to the improvement of the efficiency and food safety performance of small-scale producers and their agents and producers in urban markets. A good example is the formulation, rationalization and harmonization of pro-poor dairy policies in some countries of the East and Central African region -an effort which has been taken up and led by ASARECA/ECAPAPA, with ILRI playing the backstopping role. Based on these achievements and requests by national partners, these outputs are now being tested in the States of Assam and Andhra Pradesh in India.It is also worth noting here that other development partners have taken up the results of ILRI's research on smallholder dairy systems, which has led into the design of large development projects. The same previously mentioned US$20M IFAD-funded Small Dairy Commercialization Program, which targets dairy farmers and traders in poor districts of Kenya, used the results of the Smallholder Dairy Project in its design.The work on livestock marketing systems of West Africa has also produced useful results. 12 The findings and conclusions of the study were used to develop four policy briefs as follows:(1) regulatory and administrative issues and options for livestock marketing in West Africa;(2) Lowering cross-border livestock transportation and handling costs in the central corridor of West Africa; (3) Livestock marketing channels, flows and prices in West Africa; (4) Promoting livestock marketing and intra-regional trade in West Africa. The briefs, which are in both English and French, are being used as references in policy formulation in West Africa.The analysis of causes and consequences of scaling-up of individual livestock production operations, including dairy, poultry and pigs in fast developing countries (conducted in collaboration with IFPRI and FAO in Brazil, India, Philippines, Kenya and Thailand) has been useful in finding viable options for improvement of smallholder operations.Most of the professional staff in OP1 and OP2 have published several papers and articles in international and regional scientific journals, making their research outputs more accessible to the various stakeholders. On average, each of the 17 IRS published (authored and co-authored) 1.5 papers in peer reviewed journals per year during the last three years. However, this is lower than the other ILRI themes, where the average is 1.9 papers. 13 The Panel was shocked to learn that some 5 IRS (including both newly recruited staff and research managers) have not published a single paper in a scientific journal in the past five years. The Panel suggests that ILRI management review the reasons for such a failure.The Theme has scored significant achievements in exploring improved market opportunities and these have been translated into policies, enabling smallholders and other small-scale traders to 12 This CFC-funded project, (titled \"improving livestock marketing and intra-regional trade in West Africa: determining appropriate economic incentives and policy framework\") had two components: market and policy research covered by ILRI and infrastructure development handled by CILSS (Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Secheresse dans le Sahel) and involved six countries, namely Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger (as exporters) and Ghana, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire (as net importers). 13 More details are in Chapter 4, section on quality of science. reap substantial benefits out of dairy farming systems, particularly in East Africa. Given the fact that the Theme has completed several projects, it is important that at least some of these are subjected to ex post assessment by the new Innovations and Impact Unit referred to in the Enabling Innovations Theme. 14 In cases, where ex post impact assessment is not possible, due to funding limitations, for instance, efforts should be made to conduct adoption studies for completed projects. The Panel has not seen any reports on adoption studies and suggests that such studies be part of the Theme's strategy and should be carried-out wherever feasible.Despite the Theme's significant achievements, a lot of time and resources has been spent on smallholder dairy systems (mainly cattle), with limited attention to other smallholder livestock species, such as small ruminants, poultry and pigs, which are also important in poverty alleviation. The Panel is of the view that these other species need also to be addressed, not only for the sake of market diversification, but also to accommodate different farming systems, ranging from rural, peri-urban and urban, all which have different demands and economic opportunities.One of the challenges faced by all OPs in this Theme is extreme geographical dispersion, with staff posted in virtually all the developing regions of the world -i.e. Latin America, Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia and Africa. The Panel commends the Theme's management for this effort, a requirement of ILRI's global mandate. However, it is extremely important that these staff do not feel isolated, even if they are able to work and interact as virtual teams.The Panel is of the view that to avoid isolation and improve productivity a critical mass of staff and scientific interaction with fellow researchers needs to be taken into account. These could be achieved if such staff are located within established CGIAR centers or other related national institutions in those regions. Good examples are the posting of Theme staff at ICRISAT (India) and ICARDA (Syria). In addition, efforts should be made, to ensure that such all Theme staff, including some senior NRS, attend meetings physically (such as the annual planning meetings) and the Theme Managers budget time to visit the research sites and interact with the staff there.The Panel has also noted the absence of Theme staff in West Africa -a region that is too important to be ignored. The Panel commends the intention of ILRI management to post new staff in Mali and Nigeria as soon as replacements for those who departed early this year can be identified. However, appropriate location, critical mass and collegial interaction still will need to be taken into account. 15 The majority of staff in the Theme are economists, appropriate given the mandate of the Theme. Nevertheless, the Panel is of the view that more efforts are needed to build broader skill sets for the Theme staff in place and others to come, so that they can better address evolving and dynamic institutional and change processes. Close working relationship with IFPRI-ISNAR is but one way of overcoming these limitations.The Panel has noted challenges faced by the Theme in terms of research input and emphasis. It is important that this Theme assess carefully what role it should play (active or catalytic), in given situations (e.g. policy analysis) and should avoid undertaking research in areas that can be addressed by other partners such as IFPRI and the NARS under the umbrella of the SROs and FARA in Africa, and the national research institutions of Asia and Latin America. The ILRI-IFPRI joint program on livestock markets is noted as a good example of a collaborative research arrangement. The Panel suggests that, in future, the Theme's focus should be on much broader livestock market issues of regional and global importance.The rationale for this OP is found in the evolution of the livestock sector in developing countries. On one side, increasing urban populations wish to have access to good quality and safe animal products for their consumption; on the other side, on-going globalization offers many avenues for export.However, the poor in developing countries may not benefit from these opportunities. Most developing countries cannot comply with national or international regulations governing trade in livestock products. Moreover, many countries, even developing ones, may use these regulations as non-tariff barriers to prohibit importation of animal products. In its new strategy, ILRI has attempts to address this issue. For these and other reasons, OP3 works on animal disease control schemes and the constraints that face the poor livestock owners in complying with international or national standards, both related to animal health and other safety and quality issues. For this purpose, \"risk analysis from veterinary epidemiology is combined with analysis of the costs and benefits of different options and policies.\"Activities planned for 2007-2009 include: analysis of health and food safety constraints to the production to consumption chain for smallholder beef production in Central America (with a large number of international, regional and national partners including CIAT, IICA, CFC); ICAR-ILRI collaborative research and capacity building program on the integrated epidemiological and economic implications of animal disease control in India; improving livestock market opportunities through animal health interventions (FARA, Alive); and analysis of the impact of institutional arrangements for delivery of small ruminant health services on income and market participation among poor in the WANA region.ILRI has a long experience in epidemiology and economical analysis. The OP scientific team, composed of one epidemiologist, two animal science specialists and three agricultural economists, has an appropriate multidisciplinary approach. Moreover, many partners are involved in the on-going activities: CGIAR centers (such as CIAT); regional institutions (such as AU-IBAR, FARA, IICA and CAC); international organizations (FAO-PPLPI), and national institutions including in India, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.Efficient disease control is based on a good knowledge of the epidemiology (particularly geographic distribution and prevalence) and the economic impact of the disease. The book \"Investing in Animal Health to Alleviate Poverty\" should only be used as a guideline as it gives a subjective picture of the 'opinion of the experts'. Cost-benefit studies are necessary to rank diseases in a priority list.The results of ILRI's research in this field are particularly welcome especially as few institutions deal with it. The achievements of the OP in recent years have already helped alert policy makers and international organizations through several papers, communications and books; and have proved the necessity to continue and even increase this activity. 16 The studies have also identified some \"success stories\" that may be reproduced. Among the factors identified for successful participation by developing countries in markets are: change is driven by the private sector, it concerns animal products not live animals, strong brand identities need to be developed, and there must be vertical integration.The Panel is of the opinion that ILRI should continue to focus on the issues of food safety and the economic impact of animal diseases on market access by smallholders. Given its experience and credibility, ILRI could also develop new and innovative methodologies for animal disease economic impact assessment and cost-benefit analysis of control measures to be applied in developing countries.The Biotechnology Theme mainly addresses two pathways out of poverty: securing assets and improving productivity. Specific applications of biotechnology include better understanding of the diversity and enhanced utilization of indigenous animal genetic resources, and reducing disease and environmental risks through developing new diagnostics and vaccines.Research activities are organized in three operating projects; Improving disease control (OP1), Animal Genetic resources (OP2) and Delivery of genetic change (OP3).As recommended by the first EPMR, the OPs are managed from Nairobi; this allows closer interaction and synergies between the scientists and improves research quality and productivity, but possibly risks alienating other parts of the globe. Activities in OP1 are mainly focused on Theileria parva responsible for East Coast Fever (ECF), which is relevant for East, Central and Southern Africa. Activities on characterizing livestock genetic diversity in OP2 were first focused on cattle in Africa but have been extended to cover a broader range of species in Africa and Asia. Research on the genetics of resistance to production-constraining diseases focuses on Trypanosomosis in Africa and helminthosis in small ruminants in Africa and Asia.An overview of the disciplinary background of the IRS and NRS scientists active in this theme in 2006 is given in Table 3.4. Of the NRS scientists, five hold a PhD degree and three hold an MSc degree, whereas all IRS scientists hold a PhD degree except for the head of the animal unit. One-third of the IRS scientists and half of the research NRS work on OP1 and the others on OP2 and OP3 (50:50). 16   In 1999 the first EPMR Panel concluded that the slow pace of results and unrealistic timescales had led to a lack of credibility in the area of ILRI vaccine development (ECF and Trypanosomosis). To address this recommendation, a CCER was conducted in July 2000. The recommendations of this CCER, after careful consideration, resulted in the decision of ILRI to stop its research on a vaccine against trypanosomosis. Further, a new approach was adopted for the development of ECF vaccine with a time-bound go/no-go procedure.The strategy that is implemented today is based on four principles: 1. Focus on development of the East Coast fever vaccine; 2.Build a generic antigen identification and formulation platform for prototype vaccines and diagnostics that can be applied in a wider range of pathogens and parasites; 3.Identify the constraints to the use of existing but sub-optimally functioning animal health technologies in order to improve these technologies and enhancing their relevance for a wide range of users; 4.Work with partners (including private sector) that can develop and produce the new technology.The Following the recommendations of the CCER, ILRI has largely reduced its immunological research on Trypanosomosis, which is a major disease in large parts of Africa, South America and Asia with huge economic impacts on livestock holders and with an important zoonotic aspect. Host genetics of Trypanotolerance remains a significant area of research under OP2 of this Theme. In recent years, ILRI has focused on ECF for which there was a prospect of developing a vaccine.The consortium that has been created for the ECF vaccine offers the opportunity to develop the vaccine and make it commercially available to stakeholders. However, the private sector has its own logic which is to make profits. The price that the livestock owners will have to pay for the vaccine may prohibit its use by the poor. ILRI has used the current ECF vaccine to study issues of cost and adoption by the poor. As OP3 has only recently started, it is discussed jointly with OP2.Livestock species in many areas of the developing world have evolved critical adaptive traits such as disease resistance. There is increasing demand for improved understanding and conservation of genetic diversity in indigenous livestock. Molecular markers are combined with phenotypic data to characterize priority livestock species globally. In collaboration with partners from NARS, this information as well as information on livestock systems and markets, is used to guide in situ conservation programs. Capacity building is integrated into all projects.Activities on characterization and conservation of livestock genetic resources, and on development of disease resistant livestock have been combined into one OP. Neutral markers play an important role in characterization (OP2). For characterization related to adaptation, disease resistance is taken as the focus. Utilization has recently become a separate OP (OP3).Livestock genetics research (OP2 and OP3) at ILRI addresses two pathways out of poverty: better characterization of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) to support conservation through utilization of FAnGR; and improving productivity of livestock through identification and promotion of optimal existing livestock breeds, and development of more adapted and improved breeds through breeding. The research is leading towards an adaptable and properly characterized pool of breeds of priority species able to respond to the current and future needs of livestock production systems worldwide.Other research focuses on the genetics of resistance to two major production-constraining diseases, Trypanosomosis in Africa and helminthosis in small ruminants in Africa and Asia. Both are diseases where alternative control strategies through drugs, vaccines, or chemical or biological vector control are inadequate or unavailable.In terms of characterizing animal genetic resources, the OPs have done much, including: the mapping of genetic diversity for domestic livestock species (cattle populations in Africa, small ruminants in Africa and Asia, Chicken in Asia and yak in Asia); the Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS) database has been compiled and is now freely accessible on the Internet; electronic training resources on FAnGR have been developed and disseminated, partners in Africa and Asia have been trained by a joint ILRI-Swedish Agricultural University team, and trainees are using this tool in the development of policies and breeding programs; and molecular tools have been developed by ILRI used to characterize genetic diversity in indigenous livestock species (particular cattle) in Africa.In terms of understanding the genetic basis of disease, the OPs have achieved the following: functional genomic studies of Trypanotolerance have identified mechanisms, pathways and candidate polymorphisms for trypanotolerance for use in cattle breeding; QTL markers associated with helminthosis in mice have been identified; and Trypanotolerance functional genomics research has resulted in an unexpected but significant finding that cholesterol metabolism is closely associated with survival of mice following a tryps challenge.In 2003-2005, 81 papers were published in peer reviewed journals, of which 23 concerned sheep, 16 cattle and six goats. 18 Of these papers, 38 related to Africa, 10 to Asia, three to South America, and 30 were on general issues.ILRI scientists have been part of an expert panel to formulate DAD-IS, the FAO database for farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR). The system at ILRI (DAGRIS) covers technical informationphenotypic (including physical descriptions and performance) and genetic characteristics based on individual publications from conventional and grey literature, distribution, threat status. As opposed to DAD-IS, in which data is entered on the basis of all breeds in a country (treating breeds in each country as different from those in the other countries), DAGRIS is based on the \"breed\" as a unit of entry, thus allowing recognition that a breed can be found in multiple countries. DAGRIS has been shown to be a valuable tool for researchers that want to work on a particular breed. The two databases are clearly complementary yet serve different purposes. The activities at ILRI complement the activities of FAO in the field of FAnGR. The Panel suggests that ILRI investigate how (in technical as well as legal terms) the DAGRIS expertise and information can be used to assist countries to provide information for the country-driven DAD-IS system. The scientists working on genomics for animal health (vaccine and diagnostics research) and genetics (diversity and gene discovery) used to work separately, which led to duplication of equipment, such as sequencing machines, even after ILCA and ILRAD activities were moved to one location. It was decided to bring these teams together in one Theme to exploit synergies and to rationalize infrastructure -for example, a single unit for genotyping sequencing and oligo synthesis which also provides service to other groups, including non-ILRI researchers.While a number of senior scientists have left ILRI in recent years, retaining core competency has been managed by recruiting a scientist through a joint appointment arrangement with University of Liverpool (which ends in 2008), and by appointing a full-time expert in bioinformatics. A stateof-the art bioinformatics facility is included in the BecA initiative.To support and accelerate the detection of genes involved in resistance against diseases, which requires long-term experiments in cattle and sheep, ILRI also conducts research in mice to increase the understanding of the molecular basis of Trypanotolerance and more recently helminthosis. The murine model has also been used to evaluate marker assisted introgression schemes. Several of these results have been reported in publications in peer reviewed journals. 19 The award of a major grant by the Wellcome trust testifies to the quality of this work and significantly contributes to ILRI's international visibility.The Panel commends researchers for being at the forefront of science on the genetics of Trypanotolerance and the unraveling of the history of domestication in cattle. Productivity measured in terms of publications in scientific journals is good and some papers have even been published in high impact journals (Science and PNAS). The papers deal with a wide range of species and a significant number are related to populations in Asia. The SC report, \"Conservation of Livestock and Fish Genetic Resources,\" emphasizes the importance of characterization, conservation and utilization of FAnGR and underlines that these activities are clearly related. The report recommends that CGIAR should be a strong contributor to strategic research on characterization of FAnGR, their conservation in situ and ex situ, and their use in genetic improvement. Given the needs and opportunities in developing regions, the Panel suggests that the SC and ILRI implement the recommendations in this joint report.Genomics tools (tools for mapping and functional analysis) are developing rapidly which is important for the identification of genes affecting important traits in farm animals. The BecA facilities provide access to bioinformatics and facilities for functional genetics that represent new opportunities for gene discovery research. ILRI has made major investments in populations with information on Trypanosomosis (cattle) and helminthosis (sheep) which are a very valuable resource for future research. ILRI should seek funding to continue analysis of these populations. Access to livestock populations with known pedigree structure and phenotypic information is an important resource for gene discovery, and barriers to it might become the limiting factor in the near future. The Panel suggests that ILRI explore opportunities to collect, in collaboration with NARS, high quality phenotypic data in different regions for research on gene discovery as well as to test already detected genes in different populations and environmental conditions.In situ conservation is sustainable only if those FAnGR provide the best livelihood option for farmers. ILRI recognizes this and it is another reason for the separate OP3. To ensure the best use of available capacity, the Panel suggests close collaboration and exchange of information between scientists working in OP2 and OP3.Finally, as chicken and eggs are relatively cheap sources of animal protein for the poor, and are often the first step on the \"livestock ladder\" out of poverty, the Panel suggests that ILRI increase its emphasis on pigs and poultry beyond genetic characterization. OP 1 aims at identifying opportunities to improve food security and reduce poverty through policies that promote equitable, productive and sustainable use of water and livestock. It also intends to promote household and community innovations that improve both the livelihoods of the livestock keepers and the productivity of their water resources, while also encouraging researchers, development professionals and policy-makers to include livestock production practices in strategies to improve water productivity.An important output comes from an investment study on livestock-water options in SSA. 22 Other case studies are conducted in the Nile River basin, Uganda and Ethiopia (Sudan has been delayed) within the Challenge Program on Water and Food. The main results of OP1 are: a methodological framework to assess the use of water in production systems and to enhance its productivity; publication of the framework and making it available to NARS; studying a water harvesting scheme (with NGOs); and increasing the interest of donors and decision makers on the relation between livestock and water.The very small team (1 full-time IRS and 2 NRS), which expects to be supplemented by a joint ILRI/IWMI scientist appointment, conducts part of its work in a narrow collaboration with Theme 1 including GIS work and economic decision making. The OP seems promising, especially as its activities only started recently and it has already produced interesting outputs.In order to create greater credibility for the approach while also making it more amenable to independent assessment of the scientific outputs, the Panel suggests that even though the OP is new, the team ensures that publications are prepared for journals, reports, and manuals.Most ILRI projects involve crop-livestock systems; this OP is the only one specifically focused on extensive pastoral systems. It aims at improving ecosystem resilience through the provision of livestock-based options for enhanced land-use management for the poor in marginal lands, and therefore like OP1 it concerns INRM. Its main activities are the identification and better understanding of the management and policy options for sustainable land use in marginal lands used pastorally (especially in relation to land-use conflict), as well as supporting target institutions and individuals in developing and implementing better strategies.In Kenya and Tanzania, the OP studies responses of the Masai livestock owners to climatic, demographic and land use changes, as well as the relations between livestock and wildlife. In Niger, a scientist is working on the interaction of plant diversity and livestock production, and on conflict issues at the local level while also making minor inputs to the Desert Margins Program (DPM). Overall, partners are mainly ICRISAT and ICARDA, and FAO's LEAD.Current plans include potential collaboration with ICRISAT and ICARDA in their development of a GEF-funded project in Asia; and developing the new initiative OASIS (a new systemwide program approved by the Alliance for Future Harvest centers). In West Africa, OP2 will be involved in a GEF-funded project in the pastoral area for the NRM component.In the last 3 years, the scientists of OP 3 have published more than 20 papers in well-known international journals on vast variety of topics. However, the Panel is of the opinion that many of these studies do not relate clearly to pastoralism, land use policy and poverty alleviation.Translation and validation of methods from one local environment into more general methodologies applicable elsewhere do not appear advanced.As pastoralists are an ancient and continuing component of the livestock sector, and as they are increasingly marginalized by agricultural development, the Panel recommends that People, Livestock and the Environment Theme research related to transhumant livestock keeping be oriented to pro-pastoral policies globally and that knowledge developed to date be published in a global context as a priority. (Recommendation 4)There is an assumed overall positive interaction between livestock and human health, as high value nutrients from animal products contribute to the health conditions of vulnerable groups (reduction of child mortality by consumption of milk and milk products, eggs and meat, and improvement of maternal health and mitigation of disease consequences). On the other hand, animals have historically been associated with major health challenges to humans through zoonotic diseases. OP3 is therefore designed to deal with both positive and negative interactions between livestock owners and their animals. The goal of the OP sounds ambitious aiming as it does at improving human nutritional status, especially of vulnerable populations such as mothers, children and communities affected by HIV or malaria, but ILRI has defined a small niche for its work.To date the activities include reviewing the existing literature, and conducting a case study on zoonoses in Ethiopia in collaboration with the Swiss Tropical Institute in the form of a nutrition and socio-economic survey of livestock keeping and child nutrition in the Debre Zeit area, some studies in Kenya aimed at reducing the risk of Cysticercocis, as well as a risk-assessment study in collaboration with Cornell University.The team involved in this OP is very small and is insufficient to \"play a facilitative and catalytic role in promoting appropriate research and policy through partnerships and leveraging external expertise in the health sector,\" which is the stated approach. However, the increasing threat of animal disease transmission to humans opens new prospects for the OP, but according to the OP leader, at least two full-time equivalent scientists and three post-docs are required to meet the targets.To date, it is not possible to evaluate outputs as this OP has only started recently and funding is yet to be secured for staff and projects.As a new program far from the issues of animal research, this OP raises the question of whether ILRI is the best institution to lead or conduct this type of research. A definitive and positive answer to this question is not evident to the Panel, which considers that if ILRI considers this OP a key project in its strategy, it would have allocated more human resources and financial support to it, at least during this initial period.Under the circumstances, the Panel suggests ILRI should revise its strategy and provide adequate means to the OP at least in the initial steps so that it can gain visibility with donors.The OP aims to define means for improved feeding and productivity by optimizing resource use in intensive crop-livestock systems in SSA and South Asia; within this approach, is the implication of further intensification of feed production and use. Specifically the OP seeks to generate information on exploitable genetic variations in crop residue fodder traits in rice, maize, pearl millet and pigeon pea to produce dual purpose cultivars, to apply the same concept of improved food-feed-characteristics in sweet potato silage for pig feed, and to understand tradeoffs and better feeding strategies. Projects in this OP are relatively well-funded and executed.The pearl millet project (US$ 478,134) is led by ICRISAT and aims to improve stover quality suited to commercial hybrid seed production and isolating stover quality QTLs based on in vitro and in vivo testing. Improved parental lines are to be released to public and private seed companies. In the case of maize, ILRI is the lead center for the program, which may be one reason that the project (Euro 609,197) focuses on three countries in East Africa. Its specific activities examine the influence of livestock ownership on choice of maize cultivars, identification of superior dual-purpose maize cultivars for these agro-ecological zones, and identifying other opportunities for similar work. Another SLP project (US$ 505,000), housed in the Targeting and Innovations Theme but linked to this OP, deals with innovation processes and systems for the adoption of forage and fodder technologies. In Nigeria, an IITA-led project (US$ 250,000) focuses on trade-offs between the use of crop residues in terms of soil fertility and feed. In South Asia, an IWMI-led project includes ILRI (Euro 95,329) on wastewater irrigation for dairy forage and development of a GIS database of peri-urban agriculture. A second ICRISAT-led project (US$ 40,750) is building a consortium for coping with drought and mitigation strategies in the semi-arid tropics through capacity building and knowledge sharing. Also in Asia, a visiting scientist from Korea contributes to a project (US$ 80,000) for improved use of sweet potato as a food-feed-crop for pigs.The OP is well focused considering the disparate projects seeking to cover a huge range of environments. In the case of the Indian wastewater work, the nutritional research supports an understanding of the decision-making criteria of forage and fodder purchasers, which potentially adds to practical policy advice and refined nutritional and other research. The somewhat openended nature of such work has proved to be its strength and may be seen as closely related to the former Innovations Theme. These benefits are in addition to any that may be associated with health and other aspects that are within the IWMI purview of the project.The potential impact of developing nutritional parameters for feed-food crop breeding work, and the observed outcomes where these have been taken up by commercial breeders and farmers, are worthy of special mention. The value-added by involving both crop Centers and ILRI further reinforces the benefits of co-location of center staff (in this case the ICRISAT-ILRI connection in Hyderabad stands out). A past success indicates the power of this type of CGIAR partnership; sorghum in at least parts of India is now routinely selected for fodder quality as well as grain by the national system and commercial varieties are produced by the private sector, all may be traced to recognition of the need to view the sorghum from the perspective of poor farmers, and is an outcome of which ILRI is rightly proud.The Panel notes that this OP demonstrates the benefit of sustained effort and clear goals that are readily understood by donors. The Panel suggests that the OP be strengthened by limiting future projects to specific cases where a product such as a dual-purpose crop or improved nutritional understanding is an output in conjunction with systems approaches that generate understanding of applications and constraints. The combination of technical and innovations research offers efficiencies that innovations research projects without a specific technical orientation, such as feed production, lack.The objectives of this OP are to enhance utilization of forage species by collecting, preserving and making seeds of germplasm available, and by improving the information available about the forages for better choice by users for forage seed production. Some of these activities are aligned with the Systemwide Program on Genetic Resources. It is fully in agreement with the CGIAR priorities to conserve and characterize under-utilized plant genetic resources for the benefit of the poor.The forage gene bank is the core activity of this OP for both conservation and distribution of germplasm. A small pilot project in Ethiopia supported this focus through a participatory activity to understand farmers' preferences in the use of forages based on their decision-making and adoption practices. The Forage Selection Tool that was developed in partnership with CIAT and CSIRO is an important step, and the project is developing a website to make passport data, characterization information and images accessible to users (estimated to be ready by the end of 2006). 23 This activity should be continued and enhanced.A CCER on 'Forage Diversity Management and Use' was conducted in 2005. The Panel is pleased to note the CCER was useful and that most of the recommendations have been accepted and are under implementation. The OP links with OP4 (Mitigating Feed Scarcity) for coordination of improved feed utilization using food-feed crops, particularly crop residues, and forages. It also links with CIAT (for the gene bank), IPMS (for the pilot project) and the SLP (for coordination of feeds utilization).The Forage Gene Bank achieves its goal of the secure conservation of a forage collection with more than 18,000 accessions from more than 1,000 species, making it one of the largest collections of grasses, legumes and fodder tree species in the world. This collection is stored at the Addis Ababa site with seed multiplication at different sites (needed for the climatic adaptation of a number of species) including Debre Zeit, Soddo and Zwai (for the species with short-lived seeds or those that rarely produce seeds). Core budget (2003-2006) and the Global public goods (GPG2) initiative (starting in 2007) provide an adequate investment in OP5.The OP also conducts limited research activities on phenotypic variation and diversity in terms of nutritional traits in order to identify the \"best bets\" for further agronomic evaluation and utilization. Field testing is restricted to food-feed crops, specifically some model species (Cowpea, Pigeon Pea) in collaboration with OP4 (Mitigating Food Scarcity).OP5 also provides training to national partners in laboratory techniques (MSc and PhD). But due to logistical reasons, the candidates come mainly from Kenya and Ethiopia. The OP has contributed with IPGRI to the development of a manual and e-learning on 'Handling Seeds in Genebanks'. Training is also given to NARS, NGOs and farmers.The facilities in Addis are at the expected level for such an important resource and activities, but the green house does not appear adequate. The team is small and a critical mass of scientists may not be in place in terms of the OP's large range of activities: the three scientists in Addis Ababa (including the head of the OP) and one technician in Debre Zeit are motivated and efficient, but they cannot do everything. Even if many partners are sought (see below), this OP should be strengthened in order to fulfill its mission.The Panel notes that this OP5 is governed by GPG2 and the Systemwide Genetic Resources Program (SGRP) as a resource for research and development. To develop a virtual forage diversity global system in collaboration with other Centers implies a higher profile and a different reporting structure than a livestock oriented OP.The Panel endorses the recommendations of the CCER for more efficient management of the germplasm collection through improved databases and a computer based management system with bar coding. This requires that staffing remain at least at current levels. The Panel also suggest that more work should be conducted in conjunction with other projects to gather information on the adoption processes of users and to assess the impact of new forages in situ.In view of the imminent new capacity for plant biosciences in BecA, the Panel recommends that ILRI maximize use of the facility for the forage genebank activities while also increasing research collaborations, particularly with the CGIAR Centers, that enhance the use of the germplasm. (Recommendation 5)With such a broad approach to a vast field, this Theme must strengthen its teams to present greater visibility to donors and other stakeholders. In order achieve critical mass in scientific teams, the number of OPs should be reduced by merging those with common or similar goals: for example, OP1 and OP2 could merge to create a project dedicated to INRM and possibly OP4 and OP5 could be better integrated from ILRI's perspective. However, the Panel suggests that such decisions should only follow careful examination of their impact on the genebank and successes in OP1. Overall the Panel believed the Theme contains some gems that can be missed by the OPs' diversity of projects. Those with technical elements combined with social science research seem the most likely to generate the systems information that ILRI seeks.The Panel views the People, Livestock and the Environment Theme as broad and uneven. To remedy this, the Panel recommends that OP2 be focused on pastoralists and INRM, and a refocused OP3 be transferred to the Markets Theme. (Recommendation 6)ILRI manages two large projects outside its Theme structure (IPMS and BecA), an approach that allows new cross-sectoral or large initiatives to be developed. As presently managed, these can potentially weaken the Center's Theme structure and add to management complexity. At this stage of their development, the Panel finds that the research aspects of these projects should be managed within the Themes. In addition to management efficiencies, this approach offers the advantage of focusing the project on ILRI's agreed strategy and encouraging a research orientation in all projects.Biosciences East Africa (BecA) is a member of NEPAD's continent-wide network of centers of excellence. The BecA network will consist of a Hub and Secretariat, Regional Nodes and other participating laboratories and organizations, and will mobilize biosciences for Africa's development.A business plan for BecA was finalized in April 2005. 24 Design of the Hub facilities, which involves the refurbishment of current ILRI facilities, and the environmental impact assessment have been completed. In September 2006, the Canada International Development Agency (CIDA) agreed to a CDN$25M (US$21.5M) investment for the implementation of the planned construction of the hub facilities, the establishment of research nodes, and the implementation of research and capacity building activities.The BecA Hub refers to the facilities and services to which BecA members and BecA participants gain access and use and includes the shared research platform to which CIDA has contributed substantial funding. The facilities will be located on ILRI's Nairobi campus. ILRI will host the secretariat for the BecA network, provide administrative support, and serve as the legal persona of BecA. For its support and administrative services, ILRI will receive an annual management fee. ILRI's use of BecA facilities for its own scientific research is expensed in ILRI's own budget. The organizational chart describing the ILRI-BecA project management arrangements is given in Annex 8. Details have been documented in signed agreements. 25 For information about the budget see the Annex 8 Table 1: BecA Implementation Phase Forecast.BecA will be guided by a Steering Committee, which is intended to reflect the regional nature and broad community of BecA stakeholders and will consist of up to fifteen voting members. The Steering Committee is responsible for coordinating the cooperative efforts of the members of the BecA Network, and encouraging and guiding the conduct of activities at the BecA Hub, secretariat and regional nodes. The Steering Committee selects and appoints the network director, who provides leadership to all components of the BecA network and is responsible for the day-to-day management of the secretariat. The BecA secretariat is responsible for network coordination of joint venture research activities, the institutions hosting nodes are responsible for node activities, and ILRI is responsible for the development and operation of the Hub facilities.As referenced above, ILRI will provide support services to the BecA secretariat, including recruitment of staff, procurement of goods and services, and preparation of assessments and reports for contributors and donors. Funds designated for infrastructure development and operations at the BecA Hub will be administered by ILRI and reported on to the Steering Committee. ILRI, on behalf of BecA, has signed contribution arrangements with CIDA and is legal responsible for reporting to CIDA.Realizing up-to-date facilities: The laboratories at ILRI were established in 1978 and there has been no real investment since then. ILRI management recognized the need to invest in its facilities and the additional need to enter into a partnership to realize this. This development of BecA is in line with the report of a CGIAR task force on genomics which recommended the development of regional genomics platforms. 26 From BecA funds, US$7.7M will be used for designing and upgrading the Hub facilities and US$3.1M will be invested in equipment. ILRI will contribute US$3.8M of its financial reserves to the facilities upgrade. Through these investments, ILRI will get access to up-to-date facilities for genomics and bioinformatics. 27Creating a platform for bioscience research: ICRISAT and IITA have a presence on the ILRI campus in Nairobi and make use of ILRI's genomics facilities. ICRISAT and IITA together with other partners from eastern and central Africa will occupy the plant section of the Hub.Discussions with CIP and CIAT to move some of their bioscience people to ILRI's Nairobi campus have started. The up-to-date facilities available at the Hub will bring biosciences research on animals, plants and microbes closer together. There are clear financial and scientific benefits in doing this and the Panel compliments ILRI for making it possible.To foster the application of biosciences in the region, the BecA Network will support the establishment of research nodes in other countries. 28 The research nodes provide ILRI and other CGIAR centers with excellent opportunities to interact with research organizations in the region. Three other NEPAD centers of excellence are planned for Africa. Until other centers are realized, ILRI could serve in the interim as the biosciences Hub for Africa. ILRI can also use the facilities for its own research related to Asia and South America.The BecA network will have first call on up to 50 percent of the increased capacity represented by the HUB. This would accommodate 80 scientists, students and technical staff associated with BecA projects per year. The total number of scientists, students and technical staff using the Hub is expected to increase from 175 in 2006 to 350 by 2010.Increasing research capacity at ILRI: BecA develops capacity in the biosciences among African scientists through fellowships, and educational and training activities. 29 It is expected that it will annually attract visiting scientists and PhD students to ILRI and significantly increase its research activities. In addition to CIDA, other funding agencies have committed themselves to fund fellowships for scientists, for example, the sorghum improvement consortium and the Swedish government).The costs of refurbishing existing laboratory facilities are budgeted at US$11.2M. Two issues arise with respect to financial risks to ILRI: Is ILRI responsible for cost overruns? And, what are the downstream financial consequences to ILRI as legal owner of the facilities in the event the projected business plan fails or falls substantially short of projections?Research in the Biotechnology theme especially is expected to benefit from the upgrading of the facilities at the Nairobi campus. The research plans for the biotechnology theme of ILRI as presented in the MTP and for the BecA network overlap but are not the same. It is important that ILRI safeguards its own research agenda.ILRI will employ three staff to manage the additional work load (Platform Research Manager, Capacity Building Officer and Project Site Manager), and four key technicians to support visiting scientists in using the biosciences equipment. This should prevent ILRI scientists from spending additional time on managerial tasks. It is important to monitor whether that potential problem is avoided.The goal of the BecA network is to support eastern and central African countries to develop and apply bioscience research expertise to produce technologies that help poor farmers secure their assets, improve their productivity and income, and increase their market opportunities. The significant investment that results in one of ILRI's four themes might be interpreted as a possible change in ILRI's research emphasis and could also be seen as an increased emphasis on the region rather than on ILRI's global mandate. It is important to communicate ILRI's intent in a transparent and balanced manner to minimize these potential consequences.BecA offers benefits as well as risks to ILRI. The Panel stresses the need for ILRI to develop a strategy to deal with the financial risk as well as the potential impact on its image. The Panel also suggests that ILRI carefully monitor the usage and operating costs of the Hub facilities.The objective of BecA is to create a benefit to the region. This implies that it is critical that the chain from discovery to delivery is well understood. It increases the importance of involving partners in this chain in the design of research projects. For ILRI projects connected with the facilities, the major impacts are anticipated to be in the improved utilization of indigenous genetic resources and vaccine development. The Panel stresses the importance of ILRI identifying the pathway for and partners involved in the delivery of improved livestock genetics to poor livestock keepers. The delivery of improved genetics to livestock keepers needs to be better understood. The BecA network will face similar challenges and may wish to wish to share experiences with ILRI.In recent years, ILRI has reduced its efforts on vaccine development. The new facilities offer opportunities to work on a broader range of diseases. The Panel has suggested earlier (see Biotechnology Theme) that it should be careful not to spread its research activities over too many diseases.The facility enhances capacity for research beyond the BecA mandate. ILRI can use the facilities to help achieve its global mandate. The Panel suggests that ILRI selects a number of research topics and research partners that are relevant for other parts of Africa and/or for Asia.The field (and possible applications) of biosciences is rapidly developing. It is very important that the BecA Steering Committee and ILRI are current with developments in the international field and the consequences for BecA. In addition to the BecA scientific advisory committee, a committee of international scientists could be a great help in the development of the general strategy for BecA.BecA will increase requirements to train (MSc and PhD level) in the area of biosciences. ILRI recognizes the need to link to countries outside of Africa for research and training. The Panel advises ILRI to establish longer-term collaborations with international universities to ensure adequate training opportunities. In that respect, it is useful to look at funding opportunities in Western countries that support training of people from developing countries.'Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers' (IPMS) is presented as a \"common research-for-development platform involving farmers, livestock producers, the Government of Ethiopia and other centers supported by CGIAR [that] facilitates the testing and application of innovation systems that use global public goods generated by ILRI and its CGIAR partners to enable smallholder farmers/livestock producers to expand their access to and success in markets.\" As such it contributes to the three Themes-Targeting and Innovations, Marketing, and People, Livestock and Environments-and to capacity strengthening in the Ethiopian ARD. Specific objectives include: introducing \"an innovation system in the ARD\" by developing and testing a knowledge system that enables technical adoption, fosters institutional change to encourage a market orientation, introduces small-scale finance, and disseminates the results as a means to expand successes nationally.ILRI has been manager of this large (CAD$19.5M), five-year multi-site program since 2004 on behalf of the Ethiopian ARD and CIDA, including its development aspects. While including the program in its budgets, it is curiously outside the project list in the MTP, possibly because it is managed from the office of the DDG as a reflection of the cross-cutting nature of the project and its non-research components. The rationale for ILRI accepting the responsibility to manage what is ostensibly many development activities is that ILRI can learn of innovation processes as the project is implemented. 30 The Panel questions whether it is necessary to accept the risks of project management to gain this knowledge, and suggests that direct involvement in research in the same or comparable projects would offer similar research opportunities.Currently, the project is studying processes of behavioral change across social, marketing, policy and technical fields to elicit lessons to influence development policy, which seems to be the main expected research impact. It purports to involve ICRAF, ICRISAT, CIAT, IWMI, and World Fish, although this is in fact patchy. The Panel received conflicting opinions as to whether publications will result from the project, and suggests that this be clarified by Theme Leaders, including publication outputs from IPMS activities being included in their planning targets.As the Panel looked at the project, it asked whether the project adds to ILRI's portfolio. It is certainly a major contributor to ILRI's budget, although much of it may not relate to actual research activities and may represent a disproportionate management cost to ILRI for the entire project. ILRI risks being sucked into non-research activities if a subcontractor fails, and of its image as a research organization being compromised among its clients. Through management of the project, ILRI finds its relations with the Ethiopian government complicated by a conflict between regional and national agricultural research. Nevertheless, the pioneering of new development research methodologies and contributing to improved research impact are major advances for which ILRI deserves credit and from which lessons can be learned for future innovative research.Given the risks to ILRI of being perceived as conducting development activities, the Panel recommends that the IPMS project be managed, budgeted and reported in two parts with research allocated to respective Themes and project management done by the DDG's office, and that ILRI decline management roles in future development projects. (Recommendation 8)With each of the research themes and projects discussed separately, the Panel concludes this chapter by summarizing conclusions that are relevant across ILRI's Themes and projects. It is clear that ILRI has made changes in the structure of its research program to reflect its strategic vision, which was adopted in 2002. It adopted a Theme-based structure, which subsequently evolved to reflect its experiences with the structure. The Panel commends ILRI for the fact that it is eager to learn from its experiences and is willing to modify its program and structure in order to achieve its mission.In a number of themes, the Panel questioned whether ILRI was always consistent in finding areas where it has a clear comparative advantage. ILRI recognizes the need for ex post impact assessments both to show accountability and to draw lessons for future endeavors. These ex post impact assessments can also help ILRI gain a clearer picture of the research areas in which it has or continues to have a comparative advantage. The Panel suggests that ILRI regularly conduct SWOT analyses to ensure the congruence of its research activities with its comparative advantage. Such an analysis should start at Theme level and move up to center level. Maintaining a well-defined sense of ILRI's comparative advantage provides it with important information for planning its research activities as well as its staff recruitment.A number of ILRI research staff are posted in other developing regions of the world. The Panel commends the contributions of these activities and staff to ILRI's creating a global presence as part of ILRI's global mandate. However, it is extremely important that these staff operate at full capacity, which requires a critical mass of resources in a strategic location. Virtual meetings are a component of intellectual collegiality but not sufficient by themselves. ILRI needs to evaluate its current experiences to enhance the impact of a greater global presence in the future.The current number of research projects is large and many of the projects are relatively small. The Kenyan Smallholder Dairy Project, IPMS and the recent BecA initiative are three examples of large research initiatives that have functioned or are expected to function as flagships for ILRI's research or its approach to partnerships and collaborations. All of ILRI's research themes would benefit from having at least one large project in collaboration with other organizations that would serve a similar flagship function. Following ILRI's success in facilitating the creation of a large regional initiative (BecA)ILRI's management structure results in research staff shared across themes. This is particularly true for the Markets Theme. Within Themes, the level of staff sharing across projects is even greater. The management structure and the staff sharing arrangements seem to be working at present. However, their impact on actual performance will need to be monitored in order to gauge the limitations as well as the benefits. One goal of this structure is to assure that ILRI has the diversity of scientists and disciplines its needs scientists to meet its mandate; currently, economists form a large proportion (33%) of ILRI research staff, whereas animal sciences and animal health account for 27%, biology for 18 and plant sciences for 10. While the Panel supports the need for a disciplinary mix, it believes that ILRI should carefully monitor the skills it needs and assure itself that it has the diversity and depth required. The Panel suggests that ILRI carefully assess shared staff time and expertise among Themes and OPs to ensure that ILRI maintains the right mix of expertise and makes best use of it.Despite significant achievements with other species, a lot of time and resources have been spent on dairy cattle and small ruminants compared to time and resources spent on other species of importance in poverty alleviation. The Panel suggests that ILRI carefully consider an increased emphasis on pigs and poultry, not only for the sake of market diversification, but also to accommodate different farming systems and different regions.It is always difficult to assess scientific quality in qualitative or even quantitative terms; neither provides a precise measure of quality but both provide important insights into productivity, rigor and results. The task of assessing quality is even more difficult in a research institution like ILRI, in which the work is multi-disciplinary and research projects may engage many actors. Recognizing these challenges, an assessment of the quality of ILRI's science has been conducted using both qualitative and quantitative assessments. The process is also important as monitoring feedback to management and research staff; while also serving to inform donors of the likelihood that research will be conducted according to international standards and produce the projected scientific outputs and intended impacts on poverty, food security and environmental sustainability.The Panel evaluated the scientific quality of the institute by looking at four main contributors to overall quality: 1. quality of research staff; 2. quality of processes; 3.quality of the research facilities and services; 4.quality of research outputs: (publications, other research outputs, international visibility, relevance of products).The Panel analyzed the biographical information of ILRI's research staff to assess academic credentials, principal assignments within Themes and operating projects, and turn over. The Panel asked the 78 IRS on staff in May 2006 to provide biographical information in a standard format, including research merits for a period of five years irrespective of their date of employment. Biographical information was also collected for the 52 research NRS on the research staff in May 2006. The results of the analysis are given below.• Of the 78 IRS, 29 (19%) began their employment before 1994 (when ILRI was formed), 24 (30%) joined during the period 2000-2003, and 25 (31%) joined since 2004. Overall, this demonstrates a regular inflow of new scientists into ILRI. Within each theme, the rates differ. In the Biotechnology Theme, for instance, the percentage of staff joining since 2004 is 16%; for the Targeting Opportunities Theme the percentage is 57%. The level of academic achievement within ILRI is consistently high, and the rate of inflow of new scientists is positive. The Panel was particularly impressed with the academic achievement evident among the Research NRS hired in the past six years over which time PhDs have tripled in number.An analysis of publications showed that ILRI IRS staff authored or co-authored an average of 1.9 publications in peer-reviewed journals per year during the last 5 years irrespective of their date of employment with ILRI. The number of peer-reviewed publications per year was 2.4 for Targeting Opportunities (n=14) and for Biotechnology (n=19), 1.5 for People Livestock and the Environment (n=17), and 1.0 for Innovation (n=7) and for Markets (n=16). Differences in publication rates between themes seemed to reflect differences in publication strategies and in the degree of seniority of particular staff. The overall publication rate compares well with other CGIAR centers and seems average or slightly above average when compared to ARIs. However, the Panel notes that 13 IRS did not publish any articles in a peer-reviewed journal in the last five years, compared to 22 IRS who published more than three peer-reviewed papers per year and three who published more than 5 papers per year.Although the number of publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals may not be a good measure of impact, their frequency of publication is important for building ILRI's influence, for peer recognition, and for attracting partners and funding. Peer recognition can also be gauged by the level of staff with editorial responsibilities, either as members of editorial boards or as regular reviewers, which in ILRI's case involves 30% of IRS.The Panel notes that more than half of IRS (58%) have supervised students (on average 1.3 students per year). In assuming this task at this level, a large proportion of the staff makes an important contribution to capacity strengthening through mentoring, and ILRI benefits from feed-back, relationship building, and the flow of ideas to the Center.ILRI has created a Science Advisory Panel comprised of internationally respected scientists. This establishment of the advisory Panel is an important indicator of ILRI's efforts to assure the quality of its research. The Panel also functions as a neutral but low risk mechanism for research staff to seek informal, outside evaluation of its work and is a positive manifestation of ILRI's desire to renew its intellectual capital, open itself to constructive criticism, and position its work and thinking in a forward looking direction. The Science Advisory Panel is designed to be an adjunct resource to management and functions effectively in its role. The Panel commends ILRI for creating a Panel of this nature and believes other Centers could learn from it. ILRI commissioned ten Commissioned External Reviews (CCERs) between the 1 st and 2 nd EPMRs. A CCER on Partnerships was refocused as a study and is ongoing -the study is discussed in the partnership section. Of the nine completed CCERs, four dealt with research; one was an external review of the SLP jointly organized by ILRI and TAC, the predecessor of the SC; and four dealt either with research support, capacity strengthening or management.CCERs can be an important part of the Centers self-assessment process; a tool that the Board can use for its oversight of scientific and management matters, both to obtain validation about past performance in specific areas of Center operations and to gain strategic advice for future direction.ILRI itself considers the CCERs an essential research management tool which project and team leaders use to assess quality and evaluate and redesign research. All the CCERs, except the one on Partnerships, were conducted by teams of three or more external experts. The terms of reference were generally clear and mostly focused on relevant and strategic issues. In some recent CCERs, a member of the eventual panel has been involved in formulating the CCER's terms of reference. This has had the benefit of using panel expertise to refine the focus and objectives of the CCER before work begins.The Panel looked at the CCER reports and the responses by ILRI and concluded that the recommendations are taken seriously. The Program Committee of the board has a responsibility to provide input into the form and Panel membership of CCERs as well as receive and comment on the CCER reports and the staff response to them. On reviewing how CCERs are both planned and commissioned, the Panel considers that the board, although active in discussing the reports from CCERs may be more passive than is desirable at both the beginning and in follow-up to the process. The Panel commends ILRI for its effective use of CCERs and concludes that they have assisted ILRI management in making important strategic decisions.ILRI places considerable effort on strengthening the links between strategy, planning and research implementation at all levels. It has redesigned its annual planning meeting by engaging staff in debates about key issues in research, and including a marketplace where research and development partners meet. The annual planning meeting has been moved from October to March to link it more closely with the medium-term planning cycle. ILRI has also implemented a more thorough planning cycle that brings together research, financial and staff requirements. Although there have been improvements to research planning, the Panel feels that there is room for improvement in reporting scientific achievements and documenting the reasons for changes to priorities in the MTP.As noted in the section in this report on HR, ILRI understands how important it is to invest in professional development. As ILRI address its staff development needs, the Panel suggests there could be more attention paid to strengthening staff capacity in supervision of graduates.In reviewing facilities and services, the Panel concentrated on those issues with particular importance for research quality and productivity. In addition to looking at communications and library resources, the Panel looked closely at technology overall, and notes the anticipated positive impact of BecA on research facilities and quality.The development of the BecA Hub in Nairobi implies that ILRI upgrades its laboratory and office facilities. This provides ILRI and partners in the BecA network with an up-to-date infrastructure to conduct genomics research, a critical requirement for sustaining the quality and relevance of its research in biotechnology. The BecA Hub also provides excellent facilities for capacity strengthening of scientific and support staff from NARS.The quality of ILRI's communication strategy and material is excellent, and it was no surprise to the Panel that ILRI has won several awards in this area. ILRI values the ability of its communications strategy to support the dissemination and perception of its work among many stakeholders. It has developed guidelines for ILRI publications that provide clarity and support to research staff as they develop material for publication.The traditional library functions at ILRI have been subsumed within the broader mandates of Information Centers at both the Nairobi and Addis Ababa campuses. For the research staff, the underlying value of the Information Center is to provide easy and adequate access to publications, reference materials and a wide-range of scientific and professional journals, with much of the material available online. The Information Centers participate in a range of CGIAR Systemwide programs that consolidate technical information needs and provide cost-effective access to subscriptions and other online services. In addition, ILRI collaborates with individual Centers to achieve comparable benefits in making information resources of various kinds available to the research staff. The Information Center in Addis Ababa plays an important role in capacity strengthening by its easy access to students and others. The Panel commends the openness and accessibility in Addis Ababa and encourages similar developments in Nairobi.For ILRI as for all research institutions, research and, increasingly, capacity strengthening relies on high-speed internet access. All internet connections out of Kenya and from most countries in Africa are limited to satellite links. Currently ILRI is working on kilobits connectivity while institutes in the North are connected at gigabytes connectivity at low cost. The Panel concluded that ILRI has a seriously deficient capacity to use the internet in support of its research function. Some of the resources required by ILRI scientists working on GIS, genomics and bioinformatics are now available on the fast Advanced Research Network (ARN). Direct access to these highspeed networks is not presently possible from East Africa. ILRI has commissioned a CCER on IT which is expected to take place in the remaining months of 2006. This will review the existing capacity for internet connectivity and recommend changes and improvement. The Panel believes that facility development associated with BecA provides a strong impetus and rationale for moving the technology issues forward at ILRI, and anticipates substantial improvements as a result. The Panel suggests that ILRI ensure that the CCER is completed quickly in order to be able to implement changes as early as possible in 2007.In a related area of research support, ILRI and ICRAF have created a common Research Management Group that will enable both Centers to have access to research support at a higher level than before and with greater efficiency. This responds to a need expressed by ILRI's scientists for increased support on up to date methods of statistical analysis in areas including genomics, spatial statistics, meta-analysis and integration of qualitative and quantitative methods. This development of this unit and the alignment are discussed in the partnership section of the report. The Panel anticipates an increase in the demand for high-level statistical support. The Panel suggests ILRI to carefully monitor the demand for statistical support by their staff to ensure that the unit is able to meet the needs of ILRI research staff.ILRI scientists have produced (as author or co-author) 368 papers in peer-reviewed journals during 2003-2005. 31 The distribution of these papers over years and Themes is given in Table #1. The average productivity per full-time equivalent (fte) is calculated by dividing the number of papers by the number of fte present in 2006. 32 The number of scientific papers showed a significant decline from 2003 to 2005. It is not clear to what extent this decline is due to the reorientation of the Institute or to an increased demand on the time of researchers. The statistics on productivity in Table 4.1 do not take into account the number of research NRS neither the number of MSc or PhD students active in the different Themes. This might also account for the 31 In this number, papers are counted only once, irrespective of the number of authors from ILRI. In the productivity figure given in 4.1.1, all publications were counted per author and a paper with multiple authors from ILRI was included in the number for each of the authors. 32 Information on number of fte per theme per year was not available to the panel. differences between Themes. The Panel suggests that ILRI implements a system that allows closer monitoring of its research publications and their scientific quality.Publishing productivity is highest in Biotechnology Theme and People Livestock Environment Theme and is lowest in the Themes Targeting and Innovation. These differences are in line with the differences generally found between biological and social scientists. However, the Panel encourages scientists in Themes Targeting and Innovation to increase their publishing productivity for reason given earlier, and scientists in some OPs of the People Livestock and Environment Theme to focus their publications on livestock-related research.CGIAR performance measurement data shows 2.1 journal articles per ILRI scientific staff in 2003 which is the highest among CGIAR Centers (an average of 85 journal articles). The CGIAR performance measurement data shows 0.8 journal articles for ILRI scientists in 2005 which is surprisingly low compared to the 2003 figure and the trends in Table 4.1. The Panel found no explanation for this discrepancy. Papers were published in 171 different journals. In five journals more than 10 papers were published in 2003-2005, and in 14 journals between five and 10 papers were published. 33 Most papers appeared in journals published in Europe or the USA. Some of the papers were published in very high-impact journals such as Science (2) and PNAS. The quality of the journals in which papers in the Biotechnology Theme are published stands out. The Panel concludes that journals are generally well chosen.Between 2003-2005, 11% of the papers in peer-reviewed journals were authored solely by ILRI scientists; 60% were co-authored with NARS scientists; and 53% were co-authored with ARI scientists. 34 The first author on the papers was 36% from ILRI, 37% from ARI, 26% from NARS and 2% from others. The frequency with which ILRI is a co-author is an indication of the level and frequency of ILRI's collaborations with partners in the South and North.Other evidence of scientific outputs the Panel wanted to note includes:• • Electronic training resource on FAnGR developed by a joint ILRI -Swedish Agricultural University team.• Over 1500 accessions in Forage Diversity gene bank tested for seed quality.• Re-launched website to share information on crop-livestock systems globally.The Panel concluded that the level of academic achievement is consistently high. The academic qualifications of the research NRS joining ILRI have improved significantly in recent years. The rate of publication is uneven but generally good. The Panels suggest that management carefully evaluates those IRS involved in research who have not published papers in scientific journals in recent years. Analysis of the authors on the peer reviewed paper showed that ILRI staff typically publish jointly which demonstrates clearly that ILRI scientists actively interact with partners from both developed and developing countries. ILRI uses good program management and review practices and it has implemented a novel way to involve staff and stakeholders in its planning activities. The Panel is pleased with the practices used. Procedures can be improved by implementing a system that allows closer monitoring of its research publications and the scientific quality of Themes and research staff.The quality of the facilities and services to support research generally meet the standards needed for ILRI's research, and some are soon to improve markedly. In addition, and in the interests of continuing to improve the quality of its research output, the Panel recommends thatThe Panel concluded that ILRI maintains a high scientific standard in its work overall and noted the opportunities for improvement.Research projects are aimed at outputs and outcomes that impact on institutions, target population and other stakeholders. Impact can be assessed ex ante (i.e. prior to intervention) or ex post (i.e. an ample time after intervention).Along with the change to a systems-oriented research structure, ILRI assumed an ex ante impact orientation through its Themes of Targeting Opportunities and Enabling Innovation. ILRI also shifted its ex post work more toward monitoring outcomes through 'outcome mapping'. 35 Monitoring of outcomes that may indicate the plausibility of longer term impacts is used at ILRI as a mechanism to get feed-back into on-going projects.ILRI has traditionally undertaken also ex post studies and since 1999 has completed some major ex post impact studies, including: dual-purpose cowpea impact assessment in West-Africa; foodfeed maize impact assessment; impact of graduate fellowship program; role of broadbed-maker plough in the Ethiopian farming systems; ex post economic impact assessment of planted forages in West Africa; and ex post impact assessment of smallholder dairy systems in Kenya. ILRI has also published its ex post impact assessment work in refereed journals (nine between 2000-2004). The Panel considers that these studies are of good quality.The importance of documenting actual impacts is apparently acknowledged at ILRI, but it appears that there has recently been limited appreciation by ILRI leadership of the demand for such studies and their importance to the institute. Management does not seem to endorse the continuous need for ex post impact assessment.The Panel appreciates that the assessment of ex post impacts from systems research -including integrated natural resource management, policy and capacity enhancement-is challenging and there are no on-the shelf methods available. However, ILRI needs to be involved in developing suitable ex post impact assessment methods and it needs to document the evidence of its research having actual impact on the ground.The Panel considers that the shorter term monitoring of outcomes from projects complement but do not substitute to ex post impact assessment. The latter is necessary for both accountability and to document what impacts actually occur. Despite time lag between the research and when its impacts can be evidenced among the ultimate beneficiaries, ex post impact is needed also for guiding new research directions. The results of ex post impact assessment can be used to guide decision making by various stakeholders, including donors, policy makers and research managers.With an acute sense of the need to leverage both its resources and its relationships, ILRI focuses on partnerships as an important part of its strategy. Partnerships are particularly important with those who adopt ILRI's research and apply it for direct development goals. The change within ILRI to a systems approach in its research and the demand by donors and other stakeholders to have impact on the ground combine to increase ILRI's need to develop and use these partnerships in a strategic way.Recognizing this, ILRI initiated a process to improve its approach to forming and using partnerships by commissioning a CCER in 2005. The consultant identified key issues and characteristics in ILRI's current management of these relationships. After this initial analysis the study focused more closely on internal processes. Three products are emerging: • a more explicit framework for the partnership strategy;• improved operationalization and management of partnerships;• alignment of institutional structures and systems to support partnerships; Among the conclusions from the initial analysis work, it was found that since operationalizing its new strategy, ILRI had pursued partnerships pro-actively and adapted its work to meet the demands required for successful partnerships, including providing incentives for research managers to engage partners wherever possible. The study revealed that one result of the strategy to date has been a large number of partners that do not always add value and may result in high transaction costs. These are among the issues that the new partnership strategy will address. The work on partnerships underway is intended to help ILRI manage partnerships at three levels: political, strategic and project; the latter involving the day-to-day management of the collaborations. The strategy will also include monitoring of the efficiency and effectiveness of partnerships.The Panel considers ILRI's efforts to develop a partnerships strategy and the Center's commitment to making it as effective as possible commendable for strengthening the Center's overall strategy.It is evident from the Panel's discussions with ILRI researchers and partners and stakeholders in Asia and Africa as well as from reviewing recent MTPs that ILRI has an extensive set of partners, particularly in Africa, and elsewhere where it has a critical mass of researchers and projects. The nature and extent of its partnership with the NARS is reflected in the relatively high number of publications co-authored with NARS scientists.In Africa, ILRI should enhance permanent links with the pan-African umbrella organization FARA through the sub-regional organizations (CORAF, ASARECA and SADC/FANR). In addition, ILRI should strengthen collaboration with the regional research centers like ITC and CIRDES. 36 In some cases, ILRI will continue to work with NARS such as KARI (Kenya), ISRA (Senegal), INREA (Mali). This suggestion should be read in conjunction with ILRI's ongoing need to be engaged in capacity strengthening -see later in this Chapter.In Asia, ILRI has formed partnerships with a range of institutions to varying degrees. In China, following CGIAR practice, ILRI partners with CAAS, with which it has co-created the Beijingbased Livestock and Forage Genetic Resources laboratory. This provides ILRI with access that would not otherwise be possible. Having begun with CAAS and achieved this level of cooperation, it would not be productive to suggest other partnerships at this stage. In India, ILRI has partnered with the Indian Agricultural Research Council to some effect, but its partnership with the National Dairy Development Board has been less dynamic. The potential for deeper relationships in India may be realized with a larger ILRI presence in the country. For SE Asia, partners have been project-based, usually involving NARS such as PCARD, but partnerships have dissipated when projects ended. Recognizing the cost of maintaining relationships in Asia, ILRI has joined regional groupings such as APAARI and APHCA, although this is a low level means of maintaining contact and cannot be considered as active partnership. Partnerships in SE Asia may be expected to expand with increased ILRI activity in the region, probably building on existing partners of SLP projects and of CGIAR Centers when ILRI staff are co-located with them, as recommended by the Panel. ILRI has a large number of partnerships with ARIs in the North which provide ILRI access to research facilities and expertise as well as funding. The large proportion (53%) of the papers in peer-reviewed journals is evidence of the productivity of these partnerships. One example that illustrates these partnerships is the long lasting collaboration ILRI has had with the University of Liverpool, involving a joint appointment of senior scientist, for joint research on Trypanotolerance in mice and cattle, a project currently funded by the Wellcome Trust. This 36 ITC: International Trypanosomosis center in Gambia, CIRDES: Center international de Recherche-Développement sur l'élevage en zone subhumide. partnership has recently expanded to include the Roslin Institute which provides access to gene expression analysis.ILRI has also established partnerships with commercial partners in the area of vaccines and diagnostics. The optimization of a Trypanosome ELISA Test involves a partnership with a Swiss diagnostics company. Research on the development of ECF vaccine is being conducted as part of an international research consortium involving 11 organizations, including the private sector.A recent SC study showed that ILRI was the second most common CGIAR Center partner for its sister Centers. This high level of collaboration was also reflected in the responses received from the DGs of other CGIAR Centers, who were, overall, uniformly positive in their assessments. The following highlight some of ILRI's collaborative research with other CGIAR Centers:• CIP, ICRISAT -animal feed related research.• CIP -NRM including modeling; collaboration with CIP in SE Asia ceased at the time of the second phase of the CASREN project.• IFPRI -livestock market opportunities including animal health control as it relates to health and contract farming; this collaboration involves joint appointments.• ICRAF -integration of trees and shrubs into livestock systems; institutional innovation and smallholder incentives; livestock feeds (for ILRI-ICRAF alignment see later in this chapter).• IITA (that houses an ILRI office) -crop-livestock systems and animal feeds, including dual-purpose cowpea research.• IPGRI, ICARDA and FAO -joint research on policies for conserving farm animal genetic resources.• CIAT -forages and forage genetic resources.• IWMI -collaboration on livestock and water issues including a joint appointment.In addition to these specific examples, the SLP has also enabled a significant amount of inter-Center collaboration in crop-livestock systems.ILRI took on a task to facilitate an extensive process to create a sub-regional MTP that aims at bringing together the scope and variety of CGIAR Center work in eastern and southern Africa. The sub-regional MTP describes the structures, behavioral modes and areas of potential synergy in programs and platforms that are expected to enhance research collaboration involving all relevant regional partners, such as ASARECA. The BecA platform is of direct relevance for ILRI. As a matter of strategy and organizational culture, ILRI has systematically engaged with the Centers and others as partners throughout its work in Africa. The impact of this process on ILRI's MTP in terms of changes to ILRI's research projects or its allocation of resources was not yet evident. Therefore it is too early for the Panel to judge whether the sub-regional MTP will help uncover substantial new opportunities that would be relevant for ILRI's mandate. Some skepticism about the benefits of this process was expressed by persons consulted by the Panel outside ILRI. The Panel observed the high amount of time this process demanded of ILRI, including the ongoing requirements for planning and consultation during the subsequent iterations of the regional planning process. The Panel therefore is doubtful whether the investment of time will be rewarded by substantial improvements to ILRI's work in the subregion.Of the three well established Challenge Programs (CP), ILRI has been involved only in the noncrop focused one, the CP on Water and Food, in which it collaborated in three out of the CP's seven Projects. For the Sub-Saharan CP, currently at its inception phase, ILRI, together with IITA, provided the tools -statistical, data, process -that culminated in the mapping of key criteria for selecting three research Pilot Learning Sites.In addition to convening the SLP, ILRI participates in a number of other systemwide programs. With the SWP on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis, ILRI works on mainstreaming GA and gender audits, and conducts institutional assessment of PR and GA at ILRI. The project involves a joint appointment. ILRI is an active member of the Urban Harvest SWP and referred to as a partner in specific activities in the MTPs of the Global Mountain Program, Central-Asia and Caucasus program and the Inland Valley Consortium in Sub-Saharan Africa.ILRI's collaboration with FAO is based on a Letter of Agreement between the two institutions, which outlines areas of mutual interest. These collaborations with are of longstanding nature but can be enhanced. Ongoing collaboration includes:• DAD-IS, the FAO database for domestic animal genetic resources, has involved ILRI experience with its DAGRIS database, which includes phenotype descriptions and performance, genetic data from conventional and grey literature, and distribution and threat status commentary. The cross-country utility of DAGRIS for researchers makes it a valued complement to the country-based DAD-IS.Mapping in Agricultural Systems) and EXTRAPOLATE (ex ante tool for ranking policy alternatives).• ILRI and FAO are jointly developing alternative scenarios of the livestock sector in the developing world under the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment using ILRI's livestockpoverty and system change projections.• ILRI is sub-contracted by FAO to implement aspects of the Pro-poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI). From October 2006 ILRI is hosting the PPLPI Horn of Africa Hub at its Addis Ababa campus.• ILRI and FAO participate in Avian Influenza discussions, to the extent it is within ILRI's mandate.• ILRI actively participates in the FAO Livestock, Environment and Development (LEAD) project which operates as a virtual center.Closer collaboration seems warranted and from experience may be best encouraged at project and Theme levels.ILRI has established good working relationships with both Kenya and Ethiopia, the countries in which it has a significant physical presence. The host-country agreements with each conform to the standards that govern agreements with international organizations and provide levels of immunity and independence from various restraints that enable ILRI to pursue its work without concerns for unnecessary legal liability or comparable impediments. Host country ties are enhanced by the appointment of country representatives to the board who are both active and engaged and serve as effective ambassadors for ILRI within their respective governments and with individuals and organizations of value to the Center. ILRI's research agenda and priorities as well as its contributions to capacity building also consolidate its relationship with its host countries and with organizations based in those countries. In addition, the CGIAR Centers hosted by ILRI in Nairobi and Addis Ababa benefit from and contribute to the quality and tenor of ILRI's host-country relationships.The capacity strengthening program (CaSt) of ILRI is designed to build and strengthen the scientific knowledge and technical capacity for NARS scientists and technicians in developing countries. Past ILRI CaSt activities were focused mainly on individual higher degree training for post-graduate students, but activities have now broadened to focus on institution strengthening. Current ILRI CaSt activities consist of three main categories, namely; degree training for graduate fellows, non-degree training for research fellows, student associates, technical associates, and attachment associates and group training for scientific and technical staff from the NARS of developing countries.The ILRI graduate training program is primarily intended for NARS employees undertaking MSc or PhD studies. Secondary targets are early career scientists of developed countries who wish to pursue a career in international livestock research. Graduate fellows are assigned an ILRI supervisor and stay for a period of three months to four years. All graduate fellows, irrespective of the source of their funding or length of stay at ILRI, are subject to the guidelines and conditions of ILRI's fellowship program.ILRIʹs Training Policy Manual describes the procedures in place for supporting fellows while at ILRI. 37 This manual was produced in 1996 and the Panel urges that it be updated as soon as possible. In 2006, ILRI and ICRAF started a Graduate Fellows Induction Course to orient new fellows to research in the CGIAR, and to equip them with the basic skills required to conduct quality research for development in agriculture and natural resources management. This course, which attracted 37 graduate fellows from CGIAR centers (including 10 from ILRI), will be conducted twice a year.During 2000 to 2005, 38 graduates completed their MSc training at ILRI, while 54 graduates completed their PhD training. Of the MSc graduates, 21% were female; of the PhD graduates, 24% were female. Ninety percent of the MSc graduates came from the two host countries, Kenya and Ethiopia. 38 Sixty three percent of the PhD graduates came from the two host countries, 37 Training policy and procedures manual. ILRI, August 1996. Kenya and Ethiopia, 22% came from other developing countries 39 and 15% came from developed countries. 40 The large proportion of graduates from the two host countries reflect the lower costs (travel and accommodation) of the local candidates and the greater awareness among Kenyan and Ethiopian universities and candidates of what ILRI has to offer. In the future ILRI will seek fellows from a broader geographic spread within Africa and Asia.Most of the MSc students obtained their degree from universities in the two host countries. The picture, however, is very different for PhD students where the majority of the PhD degrees (66%) were awarded by universities 41 in 10 countries in the North of which Wageningen University had the largest single contribution (10 PhDs). 42 PhD degrees were awarded by eight universities in five developing countries of which the University of Nairobi had the largest contribution (nine PhDs). 43 To ensure that ILRI was well positioned in the landscape of capacity building organizations, ILRI commissioned a CCER on capacity strengthening in 2004. The results of this and the 2006 CGIAR Systemwide Evaluation of the Impact of Training in the CGIAR will be used by ILRI to redesign its CaSt under the management of a new unit manager. ILRI believes that while the total number of graduates could be slightly increased, the major change should be increasing geographic representation and advancing the strategic goal of building relationships between NARS and ILRI. In order to realize this broader spread, ILRI will need to find additional funding for the fellowship programs. The CCER report contained a number of good suggestions on how to realize additional funding which ILRI should follow up after the arrival of the new CaSt unit manager in December 2006. 44 Ex-graduate fellows interviewed in 2001 45 expressed a high degree of satisfaction with the supervision and research environment provided by ILRI. The EPMR Panel interacted directly with the graduate fellows present at ILRI in May. The Fellows also expressed a high degree of satisfaction with the training environment offered by ILRI, and the Panel was impressed by their motivation.ILRI does not currently require specific training for those supervising graduate fellows arguing that supervisors are engaged in research and not teaching. The Panel points out that good supervision of graduates also requires skills which may not come naturally to all researchers but which can be improved by training. The Panel suggests that ILRI explore opportunities to improve these skills. Experiences elsewhere demonstrate that such an investment is of benefit to both the graduate fellow and the supervisor.In 2001 ILRI conducted an impact study with a view to assessing the value of its post-graduate fellowship program for scientists from developing and developed countries. 45 The study used retention of ex-graduate fellows within the NARS as the principal indicator of impact. The authors of the report acknowledged that this is not a true indicator of impact but it is an indicator of capacity strengthening. A large proportion of the fellows (86%, n=50) were employed before the fellowship and remained employed six months after completion. ILRI can assist in the retention of ILRI alumni within NARS by maintaining collaborative research links, by ensuring the alumni are linked to ILRI's information systems and research facilities, and by periodic invitations to attend workshops and conferences. ILRI maintains contact with former graduate fellows by ensuring they are on the distribution list for 'ILRI e-news', are part of ILRI's publications distribution list and have access to the ILRI website. The Panel commends ILRI for these activities. The Panel suggests that ILRI implement an on-line mechanism to monitor the careers of former ILRI alumni as a resource for establishing partnerships.The recent CCER pointed out that the training programs were not directly related to the needs of the NARS programs but rather based on ILRI research projects. ILRI does not have the resources for an independent training function and it has, therefore, been ILRI's policy to conduct CaSt activities within its research mandate. The Panel supports this policy which is in the interest of ILRI as well as of the graduate fellow who is seeking the best environment for his or her training.A good example of ILRI's commitment to capacity building is its collaboration with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences to strengthen the skills of scientists teaching students in animal breeding and genetics at least up to MSc level. This three-week Training of Trainers courses was conducted for Eastern and Southern Africa, for Western and Central Africa, and for Southeast Asia. Since 2000, 94 scientists (16 of them women) from nearly 30 countries have participated in this course. The evaluation of this activity revealed that the linking of universities from the North to those of the South, with ILRI playing both a facilitating and catalytic role, was beneficial. As described under OP2/3 of the Biotechnology theme, this course also provided an excellent opportunity to establish relationships with scientists at NARS. The Panel suggests that the experiences gained from this course are used to design similar courses in other areas where ILRI has a comparative advantage.The poverty mapping project provides another good example of ILRI capacity strengthening. In this project, 22 researchers from NARS and 20 government employees of national services participated in the project which enabled them to adopt innovative methodologies to conduct poverty mapping in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.The two Information Centers of ILRI have been used for training on information retrieval using software packages that facilitate access to a large number of scientific journals free of charge for NARS and universities. The Information Centers have also been the distribution point for hard copies and other information materials for NARS and other interested partners. The Information Center in Addis Ababa currently alerts individual scientists in NARS in 21 countries in SSA and Asia on new publications in their area of research through the Selective Dissemination Information Service.• ILRI is an active member of the virtual library project of CGIAR to which it has contributed its collection of 120,000 references.• Collaboration in research is important for capacity strengthening. In 2003-2005, 60% of the papers in peer-reviewed journals were co-authored with NARS scientists; and 53% were co-authored with ARI scientists. This clear indication that ILRI uses joint research in capacity strengthening.• Training courses where delivered by ILRI on a large number of subjects. From 1994 to 2004, 583 participants in 22 sessions received training in various topics, including dairy technology, forage seed production, milk hygiene and processing, and diagnosis of tickborne diseases.• ILRI website includes several products that can be downloaded, such as manuals and training course on animal genetic resources and CD-ROMs.The comparative advantage of ILRI with respect to CaSt activities lies in ILRI's expertise and the value of its research projects and outcomes. Increasingly, ILRI orients its CaSt activities increasingly to 'changing institutions' by 'changing individuals', rather than the latter alone as has been the case in the past. In this way CaSy activities are embedded in most ILRI projects and thus increasingly shape the nature and the focus of livestock research and development agendas. The Panel supports this evolution which requires that ILRI engages in longer-term collaborative arrangements with NARS but reminds ILRI that 'changing individuals' is likely to remain more effective in some countries.The BecA Hub provides excellent facilities for capacity strengthening for support staff from NARS in the area of biosciences. This will facilitate the use of more advanced bioscience technologies in NARS.In the most recent MTP (2007-2009), CaSt activities are disconnected from research. Graduate fellows play an important role in capacity building as well as in ILRI's research program. The MTP, however, does not provide some information on the role of graduates in the different Themes. The Panel determined that post-graduates form a multifaceted input to CaSt by their multinational background, coming from a range of countries in both the South and the Norththe next expected couple are from Finland -and supports an increase in post-doctoral graduates in its development of North-South relationships. Nevertheless, ILRI is less clear on how and for whom it plans to achieve that.Members of the EPMR observed the board at its April 2006 meeting, interviewed a substantial cross section of board members, and reviewed board minutes, policies and the results of periodic self-assessments to form its conclusions and recommendations.Overall, the ILRI board is effective by CGIAR standards, and has organized itself to govern well and provide guidance to the Center as it navigates a complex and challenging environment. The board meets at least twice a year and begins each of its meetings with a full day retreat. The retreat enables the board to explore larger issues that will influence ILRI's programs and operations as well as to master contextual information that facilitates the business portion of the board meeting. The nature of the discussions during the retreat-low key, informative, inquisitive-and the informal style of the event provide the full board with an opportunity to connect on a personal and social level. For newer members of the board, the retreats also provide a valuable orientation to the work of the board, and the strategy and program of the Center.Board members appear to take their assignments seriously. Attendance at board meetings is high and board members provide substantive feedback on ways to improve the focus and effectiveness of their work through an annual self-assessment. Based on the meeting observed by the EPMR Panel, the quality of the board benefits from the interest and engagement of its individual members as well as the overall tenor of their work together-discussions are constructive and not overly circumspect; and no single voice dominates or expects to prevail. Board members are comfortable raising issues and questions, and staff seems to value the board's expertise and engagement. The chair's style encourages participation, which has the important effect of building a productive and a congenial board culture. The board's relationship with the staff also shows evidence of being well balanced and respectful. The primary relationship is clearly between the DG and the board, but the interaction between the management team and the board reflects an organizational culture within ILRI that espouses teamwork, openness and collaboration. Responding to a recommendation in ILRI's first EPMR, the board has defined the boundaries between governance and management and carefully differentiates between its work and the work of the staff. The confidence and trust the board exhibits toward the staff do not appear to preclude the board's exercise of its responsibility to question performance and shape and evaluate strategy.Although the EPMR Panel's overall assessment of the board and governance function is positive, the Panel identified the following as areas of board structure and practice that offer significant opportunities for the board to strengthen its role and performance.• Improvements to the board's financial oversight and stewardship, including a more thorough orientation of new board members to financial issues and trends, the recruitment of specific expertise in financial management, and a heightened focus on audit functions.• Improvements to the preparation and structure of board and committee meetings, including strengthening the role of the Board Secretary.• Improvements to the annual performance appraisal of the DG.• Board leadership succession planning.• A multi-year recruitment strategy for new board members to bring critical expertise to the board as well as to reflect and advance ILRI's global mandate.A number of these issues were identified by board members themselves in an assessment that was undertaken at the close of the April 2006 meeting, and the chair has recommended potential remedies and adjustments to board policy and practice. The board also endorsed a board development strategy designed to sustain the board's capacity to be both a forward-looking leadership body and a good steward of the Center.While the credentials and professional profile of board members provide assurance that they will quickly grasp ILRI's mission, programs and strategies, grasping the complexity of ILRI's financial structure, the history and pattern of the CGIAR Centers' financing generally, or the trends that influence resource stability as well as resource mobilization cannot be taken for granted. The contextual and strategic dimension of ILRI's financial life is a critical component of both its management and governance, and needs to be mastered early in a board member's tenure in order for him or her to provide the level of stewardship and oversight that is increasingly expected within the CGIAR System.The ILRI board has placed a priority on identifying a new board member with specific expertise in financial matters, a recruitment goal consistent with recommendations in the CGIAR Governance Stripe Review. 46 The addition of such a person might enhance the board's capacity to tap specific expertise on these matters, but it would not exempt the full board from bringing a confident grasp of ILRI's financial life to its work.Although ILRI states that it provides new members with a half-day orientation to the Center and board service, the orientation does not provide a sufficiently comprehensive orientation to the Center's financial structure or assist the board to fulfill its strategic and stewardship role in this area. ILRI also encourages its newer members to participate in CGIAR training for boards, but these are often attended well after the first round of board meetings and provide only a general introduction to financial stewardship in Centers.The best time to assist board members to develop confidence in interpreting the Center's financial data and trends as well as to share a common capacity to fulfill the board's fiduciary responsibilities is through a well constructed orientation to these matters organized by ILRI when members first join the board.An important adjunct to the board's financial oversight responsibilities is the Finance and Audit Committee. The combination of two related, but very different, oversight functions in a single committee is increasingly being replaced on CGIAR Center boards with two separate committees.The separation reflects the adoption of a practice common in corporate governance designed to reduce the potential for conflicts of interests between those on a board (or staff) who approve and oversee budgets and financial transactions, and those who scrutinize these activities for their integrity and compliance with existing policy directives and prevailing standards of practice.The current structure of the Finance and Audit Committee, the extent of its terms of reference, and the infrequency of its meetings given its scope of work no longer provide management or the board with the level of oversight each requires. In spite of the relatively small size of the board and challenge of populating two committees rather than one, the Panel suggests the creation of a separate audit committee with a chair and a majority of its members drawn from outside the membership of the finance committee. Further, the Panel suggests that the Audit Committee and the Finance Committee meet by phone or electronically at least once between meetings of the board.Given the importance of a Center's board meetings, their relative infrequency, the time pressures experienced by everyone involved, including the staff, and the impact of meetings on the budget, the board's time together should be as effectively organized as possible.In the board's assessment of its April 2006 meeting, board members identified a number of shortcomings: • An imbalance in the time allocated for consideration and discussion of important matters versus interesting matters.• Ambiguous framing of agenda items that left the board unclear about either the issues involved or the actions required of the board.• Not enough time for committees (other than Program) to complete their work.The Panel has focused on two specific actions that would strengthen the board's work and enable it to focus its time together more productively: more effective meeting planning and preparation, and modifications to the practices of the Program Committee.Boards begin their work with what is in front of them. The way an agenda is organized, the manner in which issues are framed and the clarity of the documents provided in advance contribute significantly to board effectiveness. During the board and committee meetings observed by the EPMR Panel, the board frequently struggled to decipher what action an agenda item called for-decision or advice, an update or substantive input-and to differentiate between important matters versus merely interesting, and budget its time accordingly. This was particularly evident for two agenda items: the future of Theme 2, one of ILRI's five strategic areas, and the approval of outside investment counsel for the management of ILRI's substantial cash reserve. The first issue foundered in the Program Committee/board meeting; the second foundered in the Finance Committee. In both instances, the board was either given choices that made little sense, or could not clearly determine what they were being asked to approve or recommend. In the absence of a clear directive from the board, management subsequently proceeded to integrate Theme 2 into Theme 1, and was required to delay to a later board meeting the decision to retain investment counsel. These examples offer compelling support for re-evaluating the role of the Board Secretary, which is currently a more passive function within ILRI than is useful to management or healthy for the board. Fortunately for ILRI's board, the Board Secretary is a member of the senior management team. This has the advantage of placing the assignment with a member of the staff who has both a nuanced grasp of organizational matters and a level of authority among his peers that assures that the staff preparation for meetings enables the board to work effectively. The latter is critical in insuring that board members have useful, crisply framed materials that not only enable them to be well informed but also allow them to focus their attention on the right issues in an efficient fashion.Like many Centers, ILRI convenes the Program Committee as a committee of the whole. This is commonly considered a useful strategy for engaging the full board in the core business of a Center, but becomes a less useful strategy when the Program Committee's work is completed and the full board convenes to \"hear\" its report. Current practice, which is not unique to ILRI, sustains the fiction that the committee is like other committees-a subset of the board, rather than what it is-the full board.Consequently, as the committee reports to the board, the board has in effect the same meeting twice, putting inordinate pressure on the time other committees have for their work and the time the full board has for the balance of its agenda. The time problems are intensified by the irresistible temptation the current practice presents to re-open issues or re-visit committee recommendations when the board adjourns as a committee and re-convenes as the board to receive the committee's report.If ILRI wishes to use its board meeting time more effectively and also continue to treat the Program Committee as a committee of the whole, current practice must be modified. A number of solutions present themselves, including clear ground rules on formal board action on committee recommendations that discourage returning to issues that achieved consensus, or the use of a consent agenda in which multiple recommendations arising from committee deliberations are presented in a single motion for formal board approval. Alternatively, the board could conflate the two meetings by adopting the parliamentary procedure of re-convening and adjourning the board's business meeting through the course of the Program Committee meeting to endorse and record decisions and recommendations as they are reached.The EPMR Panel suggests some adjustment to the practice of the Program Committee to preserve the ability of all the board's committees to function effectively and to make more time available for the board's deliberative work.The annual evaluation of the DG is a critical part of effective governance and an important opportunity for the board, not only to provide good oversight, but also to provide constructive feedback to the DG. Neither goal is served by the board's current practice of placing the evaluation at the end of a long meeting (and usually the end of a long and compressed day) when board members are tired and organizing themselves for their flights home. Board members may read over the necessary evaluation materials before the board meeting begins, but the current practice does not provide adequate time for reflection before the actual discussion begins nor does it carefully protect time within the agenda for the discussion itself. Under these circumstances, it is difficult for the evaluation to have the focus and depth needed to be useful either to the board or the DG.The Panel suggests that the board review its current practice with respect to the annual evaluation of the DG's performance to assure itself that the content, format and, in particular, the placement of the evaluation provide the board and the DG with a sound process.While ILRI has a vice chair, this position has not functioned as a deliberate part of leadership succession (the current vice chair's term expires before the current chair's term concludes), nor does the board have a position that functions as the equivalent of a chair-elect, or that provides a formal role for the immediate past chair. Center chairs have multiple leadership roles-on the Center's board and in the CGIAR System. It is a challenging assignment and takes time and ability. Although the board considers the potential of prospective board candidates to serve as chair and has recruited candidates with this role specifically in mind, there is a strong potential to be disappointed. Candidates may be unwilling to join the board when the invitation is attached to the obligation to become chair, or a designated successor may find himself or herself unable to assume the leadership role at the necessary moment. The lack of a structure that clearly identifies an orderly process for succession or that enables the board to cultivate more than one potential candidate for chair at a time is a missed opportunity to provide the board and the Center with continuity and sustained leadership within the board and the CGIAR System.With the authority in the bylaws to have a total of 15 members, the ILRI board has decided to maintain its size at 10 or 11 members, including its three ex officio members (the DG and two host country representatives). This reflects a desire to create a more nimble and tightly organized governing entity (and, although not the goal, has the incidental benefit of reducing the annual cost of governance). A smaller board places pressure on board composition. In addition to the three ex officio members, ILRI's board includes three CGIAR nominees. As a result more than half of ILRI's ten to 11 seats are \"occupied\" in some of fashion, leaving the board with limited discretion over its composition, and facing a challenge in creating a profile that reflects the Center's global mandate, brings critical expertise to the board's work, and maintains a careful balance of genders and disciplines as well as the representation it desires from developed and developing countries.Compounding this challenge is the alignment of research support and corporate services with ICRAF, which calls for creating a joint board appointment. This puts further pressure on the discretion that ILRI's board has to shape its composition with ILRI's needs foremost in mind.The CGIAR nominee process is collaborative but cumbersome, and to use those positions strategically to maintain the board's profile requires planning. The board currently ranks financial expertise and sophisticated experience with human resource management as priorities in its new members. More generally, in a highly competitive and dynamic research environment, it needs to recruit for board members with the ability to place ILRI's research strategy in a forward looking global context.Although the board is fortunate in the quality and commitment of its current members, it is not clear that the ILRI board systematically looks for or cultivates prospective board members far enough in advance of board vacancies or with a longer strategic focus in mind. In 2003, the board's regular retreat focused on governance issues and analyzed the board's recruitment needs as that time. This exercise needs to be completed again and updated frequently. Looking forward a few years in advance and recruiting assiduously are the only ways to make the most of seats controlled by the CGIAR nominee process and those within ILRI's discretion. More important, these are the only ways to guarantee that the board quality remains high.Management can be characterized as both structure and function. The EPMR Panel focused on the aspects of ILRI's management with the greatest potential to advance or hinder the Center going forward. ILRI's organizational chart presents a conventional structure at the upper management levels, and a less conventional and more challenging management and operational structure below these levels. This reflects the cross-cutting, theme-based nature of its strategic framework, which demands that staff work across projects and periodically across themes. ILRI's overall management structure also reflects the strategic value placed on partnerships and collaborations, which are made easier to implement with a more flexible approach to staffing. ILRI's management complexity is amplified both by the distribution of its scientific and administrative staff and functions across what amounts to two headquarters (which are distant yet proximate) and by the geographic distribution typical of CGIAR Centers of staff engaged in research at locales distant from its headquarters.Management as a function at ILRI requires that all staff with supervisory roles, but particularly those managing at the theme and operating project levels, move beyond mastery of conventional management skills linked to productivity, efficiency and excellence of results to proficiency in \"soft\" management skills, such as team building, communication, facilitation, collaboration and enterprise, particularly in mobilizing relationships and resources.Given the scale and complexity of its management structure and function, the EPMR Panel observed a high degree of investment in the quality and effectiveness of management, and noted the value placed by the DG and the Management Committee on developing and maintaining a positive organizational culture.The principal planning and decision making body at the staff level is the management committee. It comprises the DG, the Deputy DG for Research, the Director of Human Resources, Finance and Administration, the Director of Partnerships and Communications, a senior advisor to the DG, and the four theme directors. (A decision to recruit for a director-level head of the human resources function may alter the composition of the management committee.) The members of the management committee effectively backstop the DG, who must balance internal and external demands on his time.Although this committee provides critical collective leadership around strategy, priority setting, annual planning, resource allocation and resource mobilization, the DG provides strong leadership within the Center in setting direction and shaping organizational culture. He has a powerful and persuasive vision for ILRI and a good grasp of the managerial and financial complexity of the Center as both a scientific enterprise and a complex operating entity.At the adoption of the new strategic plan, which reorganized staff into a theme-based structure, the DG recruited a new leadership team using an open and competitive hiring process. The team that resulted at that time included three directors chosen from among ILRI staff and three directors selected from outside the Center. The process assured the DG of having a cadre of senior managers fully committed to implementation of the plan; the result balanced the injection of new perspectives and professional networks with the preservation of continuity and institutional memory.The staff leaders who currently comprise the Management Committee appear to be a strongly collegial group, collaborative in their planning work, willing to be rigorous in assessing programmatic results and potential opportunities. The terms of reference for the committee, which were initially drafted in 2002 and emphasized shared decision making, mutual accountability, and personal responsibility, appear to continue to animate its work.ILRI's research agenda is substantially implemented through four strategic themes and within each theme three to five operating projects, each of which is lead by a project leader and implemented by a team. Because of the cross-cutting nature of the strategic themes, scientific staff is expected to work across themes and projects, although each staff is assigned a \"home\" within an operating project or theme where approximately 50 percent of his or her time is dedicated. The assignment of a home project or theme is designed to create a single place within which a staff member's time can be effectively and rationally allocated, and to give each staff member a single supervisor for the resolution of potential conflicts over time and prioritization, for annual performance evaluation, and for mapping professional development. (Organizational chart is attached as Annex 9.) If this structure is difficult to grasp in theory, it is equally, if not more, difficult to achieve in practice. The benefits of the structure are evident-it provides a way to implement a strategic framework that was designed to be multi-disciplinary and global, and that engages partners and collaborators to achieve results; it minimizes the territoriality of more traditional structures that can contribute to disparities in influence and power within the management structure; and it demands high levels of internal collaboration and consensus throughout the Center. It also makes it more possible at a practical level to fill senior management and scientific appointments with joint and part-time appointments because such flexible approaches to attracting expertise and leadership can be accommodated and make sense.The challenges are equally evident. Effective management within this structure does not come naturally. It is a break with more clearly hierarchical management systems and depends for effectiveness on a combination of organizational and temperamental adjustments that must be developed, and then nurtured to be sustained. ILRI's senior staff, with few exceptions, have not trained to be managers or business leaders yet find themselves at the center of a complex and nuanced structure that requires very particular skills to succeed. As the management function widens beyond the Management Committee, the difficulty of making it work effectively becomes amplified.In recognition of this fact, the DG and the Deputy DG commissioned a multi-source evaluation of ILRI's directors and operating project leaders. The report on the 360• feedback process that was used identified substantial managerial strength, but also highlighted critical shortcomings that handicap the manner in which the management structure contributes to the successful implementation of ILRI's strategy. Among the most serious self-criticisms to emerge: • Work planning that is time consuming but not very effective.• Lack of effective delegation combined with excessive control of details (micromanaging).• Organizational climate characterized by constant pressure to achieve goals.The EPMR Panel acknowledges the value of a management structure that provides flexibility to the implementation of ILRI's strategy and also appreciates the DG's efforts to cultivate within ILRI's management team new skills linked to facilitation, collaboration and resource mobilization that might not have been needed in the past. It is therefore critical that every effort be made to support managers in their role and increase their effectiveness.With this in mind the Panel endorses efforts underway to enhance managers' proficiency in the specific management skills that ILRI requires. In addition, given the feedback on the leadership and management survey concerning delegation and excessive control of details, the Panel suggests that the DG and the management committee assess how to improve and refine their own contributions to ILRI's management.Human Resource (HR) Management is an extremely important function at ILRI and one that has faced challenges in the last few years. In recognition of this, ILRI's management has been working to strengthen the HR function and to improve the staff's perceptions of the department and satisfaction with its performance. While the alignment with ICRAF will enable ILRI to approach the reform of the HR function in ways that allow for the adoption and implementation of a wide range of best practices in HR, and potentially create a more fully staffed HR function, management has proceeded with a range of efforts that signal a commitment to having a responsive HR function in place as soon as possible. This has become a priority area for the board, through its Human Resource Committee, and progress is carefully monitored. At the time of the EPMR, ILRI was in the process of recruiting for a new director of the department.Even with these positive developments, there are a number of issues in HR that need to be addressed in order for ILRI to sustain the quality and continuity of staffing it needs to meet its goals.ILRI does not currently have a strategic staffing plan which would set out anticipated requirements and competencies for the scientific and management staff for the future. With higher levels of restricted support, there is the risk that the research staff ebbs and flows in ways disruptive to long term research goals and the ability to capture and hold specific expertise over time. The strategy for staff retention and succession is not clear-is it focused on finding and cultivating younger talent, recognizing that ILRI becomes a stepping stone to other assignments; or is its goal to attract and retain more experienced research leaders who will provide direction, leverage influence and support, and provide continuity to the research agenda. It is unlikely that ILRI would choose to do one or the other, yet having a sense of what the future will demand and approaching the staffing plan strategically are useful not only to projecting budgets but also to structuring the working environment and HR policies that will support the strategy.The policies relating to performance assessment and career development and are important for encourage strong performance, ensuring transparency and equity, and staff motivation. ILRI management is in the process of reviewing the content and methodology of staff performance appraisal and is training supervisors to us the annual process effectively. As part of the 2006 cycle of performance assessments, the assessments were analyzed by HR to identify development and training needs among staff and devise an appropriate staff development strategy. An effective, well focused staff development and training program is a key element for maintaining staff skills and quality assurance and should be subject to regular evaluation for opportunities to strengthen it.The most recent data on staffing indicates relatively good diversity in terms of nationality and room for considerable improvement in terms of gender. At the time of the EPMR, there were 91 IRS staff (a number that has increased rapidly from 74 at the end 2005). The geographic distribution of IRS staff indicates the following by region: Africa: 33 individuals (36.3%); Asia, 6 (6.6%); Latin America, 5 (5.5%); and Australia, Europe and North America, 47 (51.6%).Approximately 21% of the IRS staff is female; for NRS staff, women comprise approximately 12%. Among the membership of the Management Committee, three of the nine members are women.As a general rule, but also as ILRI's research portfolio expands geographically, the Panel considers it important that ILRI increase the number of staff from developing regions other than Africa, and also that it place a priority on increasing the number of women on the Center's research staff.The Panel notes ILRI's efforts to maintain high levels of dialogue and communication between board, management and staff through the IRS and NRS staff councils, and to improve their overall function and value. The Panel recognizes that the staff councils are an important if imperfect mechanism for improving internal communications and identifying staff concerns. Two important efforts are underway that are designed to improve the councils-to clarify the role of the councils, and to bring the two councils together into a single entity. This latter effort is designed to emphasize the values and goals that ILRI staff have in common, however they may have been recruited, and embodies within it an effort across ILRI to reduce unproductive distinctions between IRS and NRS staff.Through various staff-led committees, a broad range of staff is tasked with providing advice and monitoring on a range of programmatic and administrative concerns. It was evident that efforts are made to balance membership on these committees, to make efforts to overcome the challenges of participating from multiple sites and to use the committees effectively to build participation and ownership in decision making.ILRI and ICRAF, both with headquarters in Nairobi and a substantial number of research projects and activities centered in eastern and southern Africa, have initiated a formal alignment process focused primarily on research support and corporate services. To this end, a common plan between the Centers was developed in September 2006. The alignment is one of several efforts within the CGIAR to encourage collaboration, reduce duplication of effort and streamline and economize common functions. The regional MTP for east and southern Africa, submitted in June 2006 and which ILRI helped facilitate, is another.The agreement between ILRI and ICRAF envisions that at the end of the alignment process, estimated to take three years to fully implement, there would be:• A common research methods group • Common HR strategy, systems and policy • Common IT platforms and systems • Common financial policies and processes • Rationalized and common procurement and operations services • Appointment of a joint member to the boards of both organizations and the harmonization of board meetings to facilitate more coordinated governance Some aspects of the alignment are in place and provide insights into the benefits and limits of the plan. A director of the Research Methods Group has been retained by ICRAF and the two small units that existed at each of the Centers have been integrated with staff located at each Center. The benefits of this are clear-programs too small to be effective as separate units in the individual Centers achieve critical mass; the new group can expand the range and sophistication of its services and support; and with these advantages, the centralized capacity might at some point be able to contract with other Centers working in the region for services, making the RMG an increasingly economic solution not just for ILRI and ICRAF but for other Centers as well.Similar progress has already been achieved in the areas of information and communications technology, where the Centers have had a common IT manager since 2001, and additional benefits linked to the alignment are anticipated. Both Centers will jointly commission a review of IT in 2006 to explore the best strategies for more comprehensive alignment, including, for instance, integrated IT systems architecture across various functions of the Centers (grants management, HR, finance and bioinformatics).The staffing pattern for the RMG and IT functions, with staff having a formal employment contract with one or the other but working for both, with a single program of work and a single management structure is likely to be the prevailing model as other functions are aligned.While the EPMR Panel sees the obvious advantages of this alignment, it also sees the difficulty such deep collaborations and shared functions present to the Centers. One is the disparity in existing policies and functions between ILRI and ICRAF-in biometrics, for instance, but particularly in HR. Classification systems, pay scales, the rationalization of benefits and terms of employment, the flexibility to convert employees from one system to a new system in ways that minimize disruption and will be perceived by staff as neutral if not advantageous will be difficult to resolve without leadership and a whole-hearted commitment on both sides to the process of change.Another challenge is the differences in the current financial flexibility of each Center to invest in a process that may achieve savings in some areas but at the outset will clearly demand significant upfront investment of resources as well as a commitment to ongoing investment in order to preserve value (when combined, RMG and IT may provide efficiencies and economic value that could not be experienced if separate, but the need to step up investment in technology infrastructure on an ongoing basis may only slow the growth of expenses in these areas rather than reduce them, even in the short term.) ILRI at the moment has somewhat greater financial flexibility than ICRAF in this regard. Nevertheless, it is unrealistic, not to mention imprudent, to expect that it invest more in the alignment process because it can. This circumstance also creates a brake on the pace of the alignment (a request to the CGIAR is designed to mitigate this problem).The Panel was impressed with the progress that has been made in completing the proposed alignment. Overall, the alignment is a positive development for the two Centers and could provide a case study for similar alignments throughout the CGIAR System. In addition, it was clear to the Panel that the alignment, like the sub-regional MTP, offers a strong and viable alternative to the pressure within the system and among some donors to pursue more aggressive alignments, including possible mergers of Centers in Africa.The Panel commends ILRI for exploring as full an alignment as it has with ICRAF, and for the progress made to date.The communications function at ILRI comprises a wide range of activities, including management of ILRI's presence on the web, ILRI-net (the internal online communications system), the Information Centers in the Nairobi and Addis Ababa which incorporate the former libraries on both campuses, publications including electronic multi-media training material, and public awareness. The communications unit is overseen by the Director of Communications and Partnerships.The communications strategy and function at ILRI are sophisticated and well articulated. In 2003, the Center commissioned a study of this aspect of its work, which included a number of useful recommendations, most of which ILRI implemented. ILRI's current strategy carefully differentiates between the information needs of different stakeholders and networks of influence from scientific experts, development professionals, policy makers, and \"end users\" (trainers, extension agents, livestock farmers and local knowledge networks) to the media and the public, and develops communications vehicles and dissemination strategies tailored to each.The results are impressive. Particularly with its published materials, ILRI has produced a distinctive graphic identity that is visually alluring and highly effective. It makes exceptionally good use of photography to capture interest and build a strong corporate identity for ILRI.A prevailing goal of the communications strategy is building participation and engagement. The published material does this exceptionally well, but the goal can also be seen in the organization of the libraries as Information Centers, the architecture of ILRI's web-based products, and the development of ILRI-net. The Information Centers make a concerted effort to lower the threshold to using them. In the Addis Ababa Information Center, where more than 1,000 students and members of the immediate community have registered to use the facility, including its internet café, this was particularly evident and successful. The physical configuration of the Nairobi campus and security concerns make this a more difficult objective to achieve, but the Panel hopes that ILRI will make every effort to make the Nairobi Information Center equally accessible.A comparable desire to broaden access and participation is evident in the degree to which the research staff is encouraged to post material, including training materials, on the web, and the ILRI-net is kept current by staff and routinely accessed by them to stay informed.Not surprisingly, the ILRI/ICRAF alignment does not include alignments for either communications or resource mobilization. A significant objective in both activities is to establish and reinforce a distinct and effective corporate identity, which is realistically achieved only with a strong sense of advocacy and ownership, something shared staffing and coordination with another Center can not achieve.The Panel commends ILRI for its communications strategy and the effectiveness in helping ILRI to advance its goals.Because ILRI owns and operates large campuses in Nairobi and Addis Ababa, owns a farm on the outskirts of Nairobi, and manages a substantial facility in Debre Zeit, the Panel considered ILRI's responsibilities in this area to be a demanding aspect of its management responsibilities, and because of the costs involved a significant factor in ILRI's financial planning and flexibility. As of early 2006, ILRI staff numbered 303 in Kenya and 419 in Ethiopia. Later in the report, the Panel makes a recommendation with respect to the sites themselves. In this section it looks at ILRI's employment obligations and management strategies with respect to its facilities. ILRI's current obligations to employ a substantial workforce to operate its facilities cannot wholly be discussed in the context of corporate services. Among the goals management seeks to achieve are the control of costs, the preservation of asset value, and a positive relationship with employees drawn from the local community. For many reasons, ILRI is attempting to shift an assumption by local staff of life time employment by the Center. ILRI provides consistent support for its local staff to learn new skills and develop their personal capacities, not always linked necessarily to a work-related benefit to ILRI. In addition, ILRI has encouraged the formation of cooperative businesses by former employees through modest investment in start up costs, technical assistance and by serving as the new businesses' first clients and customers. This has been an effective strategy in Nairobi, where the economy, culture and the regulatory climate reward this level of enterprise and initiative. This initiative has been slower to take root in Ethiopia, which has only recently begun to encourage wide scale private enterprise.Aligned with its goals in facilities management, ILRI has also outsourced many services at its two campuses, including subcontracting with Johnson Controls to manage significant aspects of its Nairobi campus. In doing this, ILRI achieves cost savings, quality assurance and accountability, but more important, assures that it has garnered a level of expertise in facilities management that it could not effectively achieve through internal management of these functions, and reduces further the scale of its management obligations.The EPMR Panel recognizes both the prudence of ILRI's approach to this sizeable set of management tasks, and the fairness of its efforts toward its local employees.ILRI has responsibility for the management of substantial real estate in Kenya and Ethiopia. These include the headquarters in Nairobi, a ranch in Kapiti (which is structured as a separate corporation), a residence in Nairobi, the principal campus in Addis Ababa, and a research station at Debre Zeit. The total value of these properties is estimated at US$27.7M (at historical costs). These are unusually extensive holdings for a CGIAR Center and are the most concrete legacy of the 1994 merger.Given the substantial resources required to manage and maintain these holdings, the Panel could not fail to look beyond the current uses of the facilities for research-related activities and comment on the role of these facilities in ILRI's future. In addition to extended stays at the Nairobi campus, members of the Panel visited the Ethiopian facilities in Addis Ababa and Debre Zeit as well as the ranch at Kapiti, and while in Addis met with representatives of the other CGIAR Centers who are hosted there.In 2002, ILRI commissioned a CCER on its Ethiopian facilities and proceeded to implement its recommendation to create a regional campus of excellence, principally by actively accommodating research staff from other CGIAR Centers and comparable organizations, and building collaborative research projects between ILRI and the Centers that benefit both from common research interests and proximity. This has been done with considerable success. At the time of the EPMR, 11 organizations, nine of them CGIAR Centers, were being accommodated at Addis, including IFPRI/ISNAR, which is based there. In 2005, rental income covered approximately 25%the cost of maintaining the facility. Additional revenue at Addis totaled US$345,000, which included incoming from housing, workshops and seminars held on the campus, and reimbursement of direct costs associated with the use of the facility and support services by hosted institutions in connection with specific research or activities.ILRI is presently assessing ways to enhance the use and mitigate the cost of Debre Zeit. A staff committee is framing the scope of a study that management will commission. In the meantime, ILRI has taken intermediate steps to reduce expenses.The Panel raised the following issues:• Whether there is an opportunity to restructure the management and \"ownership\" of the Addis campus in a way that would spread the responsibilities and risks more broadly with other CGIAR Centers.• Whether the residence in Nairobi could be sold.ILRI's financial performance is shown in the financial statements given in Table 1, Annex 10. Overall, ILRI's financial position is strong and its management of financial resources has been sound. In recent years, revenues have increased in nominal terms after a period of no growth, and expenditures have been carefully controlled. The effectiveness of cash management for restricted operations indicator is the restricted accounts receivables as a proportion of the restricted payables which at 0.79 was below the average of 0.9 for all CGIAR Centers. This indicates that ILRI is managing its cash flow from restricted operations effectively. Additionally, the efficiency of operations indicator, which measures the ratio of indirect costs to direct costs of restricted projects, is 17%; also better than the average of about 22% for the other Centers.The Panel commends ILRI's management for its strong performance in financial management and for the financial security it achieved during a period of significant change and uncertainty in donor contributions. Looking ahead, ILRI faces challenges. As discussed below, when ILRI's current budget levels are adjusted for inflation, ILRI's budget is effectively smaller in 2006 than it was at the time of the ILCA/ILRAD merger by 18%. Its budget today also reflects a higher percentage of restricted project support, a trend likely to continue. ILRI faces significant financial constraints relative to the breadth of its mandate, and consequently, ILRI's management and board must take a longer view toward positioning its financial and management strategies if it is to achieve its vision and goals.The resource allocation across themes and the administrative and management costs are set out in Table 1. Financial allocations should support the research objectives as well as enable efficient operations. In 2002, the total expenditures on themes amounted to US$19.8M ($21.6M if research support is included) or 66% of total expenditures. In 2005, the expenditure on themes had decreased somewhat but still amounted to US$19M or 56.7% of total expenditures. However, in 2008, expenditures on themes are projected to total US$17.8M ($20.4M if research support is included) or 46% of the total. This is about 20% lower than 2002 in absolute terms, and would be lower in real terms if the figures were discounted by the rate of inflation. (Substantial line item allocations appear in the table for BecA and IPMS and distort somewhat the overall budget trend as well as the levels of ILRI's expenditures on research. Although, the majority of funds in both projects effectively \"passes through\" ILRI to partners because of the nature of the projects themselves, some part of the funds in BecA and IPMS will flow to ILRI's research themes. This is not reflected in the totals allocated to the themes as presented in Table 5.1). In the Panel's view, ILRI management needs to assess the trends in funding the Center faces (both the decline of resources in real terms and likely increases in donor restricted funding), clarify its priorities in terms of research and its global mandate, and in view of the long gestation periods in achieving results in livestock research, develop in a longer term approach to its strategy development and operational planning (see Chapter 2).Despite recent increases in ILRI's revenue, performance is less positive if viewed in real terms and in the context of the increasing shift to restricted funds. In 1994, at the time of the ILCA-ILRAD merger, total revenues amounted to US$26.1M, grant income from various donors was US$24.8M, and restricted funds amounted to 19%. By 2000, total revenues were US$25.1M, of which the grant income was US$23.3M (lower in each case in absolute terms than in 1994), while the restricted funding had increased to 51%.There The situation on funding and revenues when viewed in real terms presents a more realistic perspective of the constraints ILRI faces. Using the average rate of inflation (CPI for all items) of all OECD countries as an approximate indicator, and using 1994 as the base with revenues of US$26.1M, the real value of ILRI's revenues in 2005 amounted to US$21.5M in1994 dollars or a decline of 18% (funds for BecA and IPMS were excluded from the 2005 revenues to calculate these results). Financially, ILRI was a smaller organization at the end of 2005 than it had been 10 years earlier.This is not unique to ILRI; other CGIAR Centers are facing a similar situation, but the situation itself and its implications have import for the current EPMR.As noted earlier, 55% of ILRI's budget now comprises restricted funds. The increase over time in the amount of support that now comes with donor restrictions is a trend that may stabilize but is unlikely to reverse itself. ILRI's responsibility is to minimize the impact of such funding on priority setting, and on its capacity to sustain a long-term research agenda with short-term financing. To make the most of current reality, it must position itself to be as strategic as possible, as competitive as possible and as efficient as possible in pursuing and managing donor support.ILRI's resource mobilization plan appears to provide a reasonable framework within which donors will be cultivated and grants will be pursued. Shaped by the priorities identified in the MTP, it emphasizes the preservation of support from existing donors who provide unrestricted funding and creates a hierarchy from there that tests each potential source of support for both the length of the potential commitment and the degree of potential latitude or restriction that will accompany support.Resource mobilization is a shared responsibility that engages all of the Center's key players, from the DG and board to theme directors and OP leaders. While this may contribute to an enterprising culture and shared ownership of success, it requires a fairly uniform level of competence in fund raising by staff who may have little real talent for it. The Panel understands the contemporary reality that dictates that everyone take responsibility for garnering resources, but the Panel also sees the value of having more professional fund raising capacity in place on an ongoing basis. ILRI was in the process of recruiting a resource mobilization manager at the time of the EPMR to address this need.The recruitment of a resource mobilization manager is a positive step toward bringing ILRI's efforts in this area to a more effective and better supported level. This step needs however, to be complemented with a more comprehensive resource mobilization plan.ILRI has made strides in the area of grants management, with good cost recovery practices that are subject to ongoing improvement, and the ability to keep its receivables low with respect to restricted donors. It has increased capacity within the finance and administration division to support the budget development process for grants, which helps to assure that grant requests have budgets that accurately capture all costs and that costs are characterized in a standard fashion. Staff in the same department also generate donor reports (approximately 190 a year), which provides substantial efficiencies.The analysis that appears below (Table 5.2) shows the duration of restricted grants in ILRI's portfolio as of May 2006. Knowing the percentage of grants with life spans greater than two years and the value of those grants with maturities above and below two years are useful indicators. When positive, they enable ILRI to plan with a measure of certainty and security. At 46 percent, the percentage of grants with life spans greater than two years is relatively neutral; as is the dollar value of grants that match that life span (US$10.4 mil.) Less positive indicators may be the total number of grants under management (142), and the distribution of smaller grants as a percentage of the total number of grants. ILRI figures, also for May 2006, show 39% of the grants had a value of US$50,000 or less and 50% had values under US$100,000. Although the size of grants may not always be within ILRI's control, the costs associated with applying for and managing grants are relatively fixed; too many small grants are fundamentally uneconomic for ILRI and the percentage of such grants needs to be monitored to minimize this effect. ILRI has two categories of reserves: designated and undesignated reserves. The designated reserves are for investments in fixed assets; undesignated reserves function as ILRI's cash reserves. The Board approves the allocation between these two categories. As of 31 December 2005, the designated reserves amounted to US$13.9M and the undesignated reserves amounted to US$18.2M.This level of undesignated cash reserves is intentional ILRI's part and has been achieved by controlling and reducing costs, including capital expenditures. The size of the undesignated cash reserves acknowledges the long term nature of live stock research and the need to provide continuity to existing projects in the event project support is reduced or eliminated. The cash reserve also enables ILRI to seize opportunities quickly in the absence of timely donor support, and gives ILRI the flexibility to meet donor matching requirements when necessary.A forecast of net assets is given in Annex 2. The forecast indicates that by the end of 2006 ILRI will have reduced its undesignated reserves to US$10M, largely because of renovations of its facilities that coincide with investments in the BecA Hub, and the recruitment of new research staff.By the end of 2008, ILRI's reserves are projected to be at 81 days. The Panel, therefore, suggests the board carefully monitor the level of undesignated reserves to ensure that these are maintained at levels consistent with the needs of ILRI, and to mitigate the financial risks inherent in pursuing long term livestock research.The investment policy of ILRI was established in 2000 and has not been revised since. The current policy lacks a well articulated strategy for preserving long term value and provides no guidance in terms of types of investments, allocations across financial institutions or an assessment of risk in relationship to returns. ILRI funds are, therefore, invested in maturities of 12 months or less, in current accounts and bank deposits mostly in US dollars, Euros and pounds sterling. The returns were 1.28% in 2004, and 3.27% in 2005. These returns could be improved with a revised investment strategy.ILRI management is in the process of recommending to the board the hire of a professional fund manager. The manager will be asked to propose an appropriate investment strategy to ILRI management and board.ILRI management is also considering partnering with ICRAF on the management of reserve funds to provide greater leverage in dealing with the investment management firm and save on management fees.Any changes to the current approach to managing ILRI's cash reserves need to be based on a prudent set of investment policies and approved by the board. The policies should define carefully the level of risk that is acceptable for ILRI in order to achieve sound results. The Panel strongly encourages the board to adopt appropriate policies in this area and encourages management to hire professional expertise as well as explore the possibility of joining with another Center or Centers to achieve savings and improve results. This is part of the recommendation made by the Panel relating to finance matters that appears at the end of the chapter.With the appointment of the current Director of Finance, Human Resources and Administration, ILRI has undertaken significant efforts to strengthen budgeting, accounting and control systems within the Center. The internal control systems work effectively, and the finance staff are experienced and well motivated. The Panel's judgment is that ILRI has developed good mechanisms for financial accountability. These include the role of the board's Finance and Audit Committee, financial reporting mechanisms, and external and internal auditing.The Finance and Audit Committee provides oversight of the finance and audit functions, and assists the board with its responsibilities in this area. The Governance section of the EPMR recommends a number of steps to improve the performance of this committee and the board overall with respect to financial stewardship. The Committee approves the selection of the auditor, reviews the terms of reference and meets with the external auditor to review the results of the audit and the contents of the management letter prepared by the auditor. It also reviews the plan of work and results with the internal auditors. This committee should take the lead in recommending investment policies and reviewing investment strategies and results.The external audit of ILRI is carried out by the Ernst and Young, an international firm of public accountants. The Panel reviewed the audit reports and the management letters of the auditors. There are currently no major weaknesses cited with internal controls, though a number of issues are highlighted. These are being followed up by management.The internal auditing function in ILRI is well established and reports to the DG. It has the necessary independence and authority to carry out its review work. The unit prepares an audit plan based on risk management for ILRI covering the Nairobi and Ethiopia offices. The Panel believes it is important that the Finance and Audit Committee assess annually whether internal audit resources are adequate to carry out the mandate of the unit, and that the committee review both the adequacy of the plan of work and the ability of the internal audit unit to address it. It may be necessary for ILRI to retain outside expertise in areas of the internal audit beyond the scope of the unit, particularly with respect to investment management and performance, the management of field offices, and travel services.The Panel recommends that ILRI continue to improve its financial management through adoption of a new investment strategy, a more comprehensive resource mobilization plan, and more efficient grants management. (Recommendation 18)Reviewing an organization as diverse as ILRI and one that operates so well requires that the reviewer look at both the direction in which the organization is moving and any deficiencies that will hinder its progress. In the case of ILRI, the Panel identified a number of areas where, despite its innovative approach and its successes, ILRI needs to improve. The Panel introduced a number of questions in Chapter 1 that it used at a starting point for its work. In the conclusion, we want to return to those questions and present some summary responses from the analyses presented in the main document.Is it the international livestock research center or the cattle center for Africa? ILRI today is indeed the international livestock research center, having widened its portfolio of activity beyond cattle and beyond Africa. Its progress is the basis for further expansion, giving the opportunity to build on its own experience and that of other CGIAR Centers. With staff reallocations, co-location with CGIAR Centers and continuation of the current mode of multi-country projects, ILRI will become an even more international center.ILRI's approach to its global responsibility has served it well in establishing for itself its own identity and strategy as an institution. For the most part, it has resolved the complexity and disruptions of the merger that brought it into existence. It can now determine whether it follows the route of large regional programs or pursues selected nodes of research in strategic locations. This Panel has clearly indicated that the latter is to be preferred, and to do it ILRI must increase its presence in Asia and West Africa. For ILRI to reach these regions requires not only physical presence but also strategic partnerships to build substantial and critical mass. ILRI already produces IPGs of broad applicability to Africa and the approach may be expanded into West Africa through interaction within the West and Central African sub-regional MTP, without an excessive additional burden. In Asia the focus on India is appropriate and should be strengthened; SE Asia requires rethinking, a concentration of more resources and better exploitation of other CGIAR Centers' networks and regional relationships. Currently ILRI has hardly any presence in Latin America, and it cannot be expected in the near future to increase its physical presence and direct project involvement. Its relevance to Latin American livestock research and development will be by actively disseminating appropriate training materials, tools and methods and research results.The antecedents of ILRI have all but passed on and ILRI is a new and independent organization that has shown itself to be visionary and dynamic. Its holistic systems approach, while sometimes confusing to those who prefer discipline-based approaches, has proved itself efficient in covering complex scenarios of poverty alleviation where livestock are involved. It has done this in a manner that could not have otherwise been considered by including non-technical factors of research. The trend that has been established by the systems approach, with appropriate strengthening of global coverage and management and planning systems, may well position ILRI as a leader in management of development research.Is ILRI able to determine its research agenda or is it formed or overly influenced by the funding environment? As with all Centers, ILRI faces limitations imposed by the donor community. It addresses this through planning processes that are expressed in the MTP, which because it is revised each year allows it to re-examine its priorities and opportunities within its agreed strategy. The Panel has recommended a refinement of the planning process to include a more comprehensive business plan, ahead of any external requirements for such planning. The Panel believed that with a more comprehensive plan that looks at resource and capacity requirements more broadly and over a longer period, ILRI will be a powerful institution that will be better able to engage donors in their research-for-development plans in areas concerning livestock.Is ILRI creeping into development activities or is it engaged in insightful research designs suited to development outcomes? Overall ILRI has maintained a tight focus on research, including economic, policy, markets and technical research. In the view of the Panel, its only project with a large development dimension should be a one-off experience, used to stimulate activity in innovations research. With the continued refinement of its approach to identifying and studying constraints, ILRI will become a source of knowledge for the adoption of improved research outputs without having to be directly involved in managing development projects.The question of development also relates to the balance between research conducted by ILRI, such as research framework design, and biophysical research, and process research with its connotations of managing knowledge as much as creating it. ILRI's approach is one of knowledge creation and management across systems that include biophysical research as part of process research. This is demanding in itself and made more so by the Thematic program structure with its overlapping elements. However, the management cost of this approach is beginning to show returns and appears the only viable choice for a global livestock center with such a relatively small budget. The alternative, to focus on a few biophysical subjects, would be a return to the past, which did not work even when ILRI's predecessor organizations were limited to one continent. At the same time, there is a need for continuous vigilance in IPG creation when engaged in local or regional processes. ILRI is balancing these matters reasonably well, although it can improve by expanding IPG outputs beyond Africa and making a physical commitment to other regions where it can operate using the same systems approach. While some donors seem inclined to demand that ILRI conduct its own research or increase biophysical research, these are minority views.Does ILRI overemphasize the assumption of a \"revolution\" that may trickle down to the poor, or is it reorienting itself to an emerging marginalized livestock sector? The ILRI focus on a \"revolution\" is more than an observed trend and the sole pillar of ILRI's work. In ILRI's case, the 'revolution' is used as shorthand for the critical and complex roles of markets in livestock development and the need for integrated research to determine the major constraints before allocating other research efforts. ILRI's research is structured around both the negative effects and opportunities of the \"revolution\" on the poor and poor livestock keepers, as well as on those who are remote from these changes. The Panel has suggested that ILRI both correct misconceptions and demonstrate clear linkages between the context of ILRI's work and its projects. In general, the economic arguments used to make major and necessary changes are appropriate to ILRI in the way it has been structured. As it moves on to become a truly global center, a more refinement and a broader perspective will become evident as a consequence of a systems approach that incorporates all disciplines.If ILRI did not exist, the needs of the poor that are the concern of livestock research would not be addressed. The Panel strongly endorses ILRI's role in and approach to research for the poor as the most viable means of tackling systems as diverse as marginalized and landless livestock keepers, pastoral communities, persons beyond market opportunities, and integrated crop-livestock farms. It may be facile to say that if the world did not have an ILRI, we would have to create one, but it is not facile to ask how we may continue to improve the efficacy of ILRI, as is the Panel has tried to do in this review.The 20 System Priorities that CGIAR has formulated to drive its research agenda for the coming decade clearly recognize the importance of livestock research to improving livelihoods of the poor. In several areas, such as crop-livestock systems, policies and institutions, and capacity strengthening, ILRI collaborates with other Centers to implement these priorities. The Panel concludes that most of ILRI's current research, including the SLP, addresses CGIAR priorities, although some research while contributing to a priority is actually focused on another goal formulated before the SPs were conceived. Any necessary adjustments or reorientation will undoubtedly be made in future iterations of the ILRI planning process.Continuous improvement is part of responsive management, and as ILRI has proved itself responsive to challenges of mandate and budget. We are confident that our recommendations for enhanced performance will be well implemented. As the Panel looks forward, we imagine an ILRI that follows a dynamic, fully resourced and fully costed business plan, which management uses for decision-making and a balanced and well-qualified Board uses as a reference for its reporting, monitoring and guidance. We see ILRI's governance and management supported by quality systems as the Center's leadership oversees scientific managers and scientists operating across the multi-disciplinary fields of livestock, and located in the poor regions of the world where livestock are important. When is that day? We believe it to be achievable within the decade with dynamic and resourceful management maintaining the momentum of a vision already in place and building on the changes recommended in this report. Recommendation 2) Considering the need to orient livestock research more closely towards the requirements of rapidly changing animal agriculture in developing countries, and the need to define and operationalize ILRI's global mandate more precisely, the Panel recommends that ILRI revisits its vision, strategy, and priorities and redesign its planning processes to position the Institute compellingly at the core of the international animal agriculture research agenda.The assessment and suggestions of the Panel provide valuable input to improving the planning process. Review of ILRIʹs research agenda and vision, revision of the strategic plan and development of the MTP 2001-2003 are major activities for ILRI in 1999. ILRI has taken steps to strengthen its priority setting and planning processes. ILRI has refocused its strategy emphasizing how livestock contributes to poverty reduction, and related global public goods, e.g. changing market requirements, new diseases and environmental concerns. This is continuously done by close communication with partners. SC has explicitly recognized the importance of livestock issues in the recent priorities document. ILRI aligns itself with this agenda.A-13 2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: ILRI has addressed the aspects of this recommendation that refer to strategic planning, but has not yet fully 'operationalized ILRI's global mandate'; this EPMR, recognizes that the 1 st EPMR recommendation is softened by the appended 'more precisely', yet nevertheless observes that ILRI has not positioned itself 'at the core of the international livestock agenda' outside East and Central Africa.Recommendation 3) Since policies established by the Board over the years, particularly in the program area, have not been made widely known, the Panel recommends that past policies be retrieved from the records and disseminated in such a way that they are available for reference as needed both by current and newly recruited staff, and that those approved in the future be similarly and promptly made known.Agreed: Action has been taken to implement this recommendation. A Policy Decisions Document in electronic form (as a key component of the Operations Manual), that is fully searchable by topic and key words, will be accessible through the internal network. New staff will be informed on policies through a summary brochure as part of their orientation kit.ILRIʹs intranet ILRINET has become the main repository for all policies. A range of policies have been revised in the recent past and more will be addressed in the near future. Particular effort is on harmonization within the CGIAR and particularly with ICRAF. Indicators • Refer to ILRI policies and procedures which are posted on ILRINET 2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: This recommendation has been fully addressed. The intent would also include maintaining a physical archive for these documents, similar to the compilation of board minutes, and retained as part of consolidated corporate documentation that allows for easy access to both current and past policies.Recommendation 4) Because the line between the responsibilities of Board and Management appears to be inappropriately drawn at ILRI, the Panel recommends that the Board clearly focus on its policy formulation and oversight functions, and establish a sharper distinction between its responsibilities and those of Management.Partly Agreed: Board and Management agree to the recommendation to review and re-state the principles that define the responsibilities of the Board and Management in the definition and implementation of policy decisions. We are committed to a strong and functional partnership between Board and Management and believe this is reflected clearly in our deliberations and actions. Board-Management relationships were the subject of comprehensive discussion during our retreat in 1997. One basis for deliberation was the article entitled \"The New Work of the Nonprofit Board.\" The following table from the report illustrates key points. This has been fully implemented as seen from agenda and minutes of BOT meetings. An authorization table clearly defines division of responsibilities between Board and management. (See attached at end of document). Indicators • Report from ILRI Board Retreat in April 2000 to define Board responsibilities. • Authorization matrix.2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: ILRI has fully addressed this recommendation. The balance between board and management roles is also dynamic and enhanced or handicapped by the temperament and style of the chair and DG but practice and policy currently combine to maintain a healthy and appropriate balance.Recommendation 5) To ensure strong scientific A-14 leadership and incisive decision-making, the Panel recommends that ILRI modify its organizational structure to include the following elements (see Figure 5.2): i) A new office of Deputy Director General (Research) to act in the absence of the Director General, oversee ILRI's research agenda, take a primary role in planning and priority setting exercises, promote inter-program collaboration, and provide independent analysis of the resource needs of research programs.The DDG (Research) would also oversee the Research Support Units.Agreed: ILRI Management and Board fully concur that the organizational structure should enable strong scientific leadership and decisive decision making. Recruitment for a Deputy Director General responsible for program will be initiated with immediate effect. The terms of reference for the position were discussed and approved by the Board. ii) The current research and research-related agenda consolidated into five programs as follows: Animal Genetics and Genomics; Animal Disease Control; System Science, Impact, and Policy Analysis; Production Systems and Animal Nutrition; and International Cooperation.The concept of a consolidated project and program structure is agreed in principle, although the final configuration may differ from that presented by the Panel depending on the outcome of the strategic planning process in 1999. Options for program and organizational structure will be presented for Board approval in September 1999.The spirit of this recommendation was implemented in 2002 by creating five interdisciplinary issue rather than discipline driven themes, the rationale for their choice is derived from the 2002 revised strategy Indicator • New program structure created based on strategy.• See document on ILRI organizational structure.The recommendation was not implemented and ILRI arguments that 'the spirit' is evident in the Themes of the current ILRI structure are not convincing. It seems that the earlier EPMR intended to retain a largely discipline organizational base, which implies a different worldview to the systems approach adopted by ILRI. As the objective of the recommendation was 'to ensure strong scientific leadership and incisive decision-making', the Theme structure is not a clear contribution to the recommendation.iii) The programs consisting of projects as at present, though with a different configuration (as proposed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8).Agreed: Plans for those projects which will be continued, as well as for new initiatives, will be evaluated in the strategic planning process leading to the development of the MTP (2001-2003) as stated above.The evolution of programs following the 2002 revision of the strategy is reflected in the subsequent MTPs. Indicator • Annual 3 year rolling MTPs.2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: Ongoing projects were assigned to the new structure. Precise location of projects in the new configuration is difficult to discern. iv) One unit --the office of External Relations --in a staff relationship to the Director General to continue coordinating the Institutes fundraising and publicThis Deeper integration of the admin at both campuses has been achieved. New processes and procedures are supporting this integration. Indicator • Refer to ILRI policies and procedures.In view of the changed environment and the need for specialist expertise, a separate department for HR is being set up.• For recommendations 6 -11, these are contained in the ILRI strategy which contains the new program structure. Recommendation 6) To ensure research quality and productivity by having project co-coordinators and their research teams work together on a daily basis and thereby achieve cross-fertilization of ideas, catalyze critical thinking, and design cutting-edge research and research proposals, the Panel recommends that Project 1 (Characterization, conservation and use of animal genetic resources) and Project 2 (Development of disease resistant livestock) be managed at the Nairobi campus.We share the Panel's view of the importance and value of the animal genetics research, and agree with the recommendation to manage Projects 1 and 2 together. We will manage this research as one Project, under a Project Coordinator based in Nairobi. This action is consistent with the Panel's recommendation to consolidate animal genetics and genomics (Chapter 5).Both areas presently are under the same Theme Director based in Nairobi. The molecular work on identification of the genetics of disease resistance has been linked with the broader application of genetic characterization of animal genetic diversity. The animal breeding aspects of delivering identified disease resistance traits and optimizing the use of genetic diversity have also been linked together. We are also trying to better link the animal genetics and genomics work with research on vaccine development. unrealistic timescales have led to a lack of credibility in the area of ILRI vaccine research, the Panel recommends that the research on vaccine development (ECF and Trypanosomosis) be critically reviewed with the aim of clearly defining a strategy and program for developing further antigens for the ECF vaccine and evaluating whether a vaccine against trypanosomes is a viable prospect.define a more strategic approach to antigen development for the ECF vaccine, and will strengthen links with ARIs in areas where ILRI lacks comparative advantage. This approach is also in accordance with the Panel's support for maintaining a critical mass of scientific expertise in biotechnology and knowledge of the parasite genome. We note the Panel's concern about the slow pace of vaccine research. The results from current field trials with the p67 sporozoite vaccine against ECF, and current laboratory trials with congopain to validate its efficacy in reducing the pathogenic effects of trypanosomosis in cattle, will inform critical decisions about future research in these areas, and the possible involvement of the commercial sector in vaccine production. development stopped after thorough external review. ECF vaccine strategy significantly evolved involving broad partnership with ARIs and private sector. Major progress on antigen identification. Current challenge is to find delivery systems to induce consistent cellular immune responses. We are working closely with ARI and private sector partners on this.The recommendation was fully implemented.To integrate a systematic global evaluation of forages, crop residues and other feeds with the nutritional evaluation of dietary options to increase animal productivity and net economic returns, the Panel recommends merging Projects 8, 9 and 10 (Feed utilization improvement for improving livestock productivity; Rumen microbiology for feed utilization enhancement; and Characterization and conservation of forage genetic resources) into a cohesive Ruminant Nutrition Management Project.Agreed: We accept this recommendation and have taken steps to merge the projects. Terms of Reference for a Project Co-ordinator to lead this area have been prepared. We will review which elements of these projects constitute laboratory-based and which constitute field-based ecoregional research. This analysis will guide decisions about which elements are managed within the strategic biological research projects and which are more appropriate to the ecoregional systems projects. The linking of the strategic components to regional applications and utilization will be emphasized to ensure effective delivery of new technologies and products to NARES. This recommendation was implemented in 2000 by creating the Livestock Feeds and Nutrition Program. As ILRI's strategy was revised in 2002 this recommendation was further implemented by integrating a more focused and coherent research program on feed resources and animal nutrition into Theme 5 and the SLP. Feeds and nutrition research in Theme 5 is conducted under the Operating Projects PL03 (Mitigating feed scarcity) and PL04 (Forage diversity), which aim at delivering options to increase the supply and efficiency of utilization of feeds within a broad context of rural livelihoods. These two projects are closely linked to the SLP, which serves as a mechanism to conduct a global research program on feed resources bringing together the expertise and resources of crop-, natural resource-and policy-oriented centers. The SLP is also a mechanism to disseminate globally the outputs of research on feeding strategies for crop-livestock systems.The recommendation has been implemented and subsequent modification of the organizational structure has probably further A-17 strengthened part of its intent. However, ILRI's management of the 'global' part of the recommendation by allocating it to the SLP does not meet the 'systematic' intent of the recommendation and raises the question of demonstrable ILRI commitment to its global mandate.Recommendation 9) To stimulate income growth and food security for farm families, to help alleviate poverty, and to conserve natural resources, the Panel recommends that ILRI strategically orient the production systems research program, and establish an ecoregional or global consortium for market-oriented crop-livestock systems. To accomplish this:Partly Agreed: We are increasing emphasis on market-oriented systems which provide for asset building and income generation for resource-poor smallholder farmers.This research on marketoriented systems directly addresses the CGIAR goals of poverty alleviation, building assets, improving livelihoods of rural households and helping to meet the expanding demand for livestock products, especially in urban areas of developing countries.This has now evolved further. SDP was completed in Kenya, achieved significant outputs and is being scaled out to other African and Asian countries. ILRI has been involved in a number of transregional analyses of livestock systems including dairy that have provided lessons on opportunities and issues for targeting research in smallholder systems. Currently we have developed a much more strategic program in improving market access for the poor in a joint program with IFPRI (Theme 3) focusing on smallholder competitiveness, institutions and other innovations to improve market access and address health and safety issues. i) Project 19 (Market-oriented smallholder dairy systems) should be broadened beyond dairy to constitute a transregional or global research project that is especially aimed at enhancing economic growth of rural households by developing more profitable and sustainable market-oriented crop-livestock systems.The market-oriented smallholder dairy project will provide a model for research on other marketoriented crop-livestock systems projects. This project will continue to work on transregional analysis of smallholder dairy systems in selected ecoregions of the world. However, any expansion of the systems covered by project 19 will be critically evaluated because we have concerns that diluting the focus on smallholder dairy will reduce the commended effectiveness of this project.2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: This recommendation has been fulfilled. Besides the various scientific awards (e.g. the 2004 CGIAR Communication Award , which was based on this project) and the influence on pro-poor policy formulation in Kenya, ILRI has completed the dairy-systems research work in Kenya and has now started upscaling of the outcomes in one province in India, in close collaboration with other partners.ii) Scientific staff in Project 13 (Crop-livestock systems in the highlands of SSA and Asia) be re-assigned, possibly to Project 19, to increase the critical mass of scientists focusing on transregional research objectives and market-oriented systems.The research in Project 13 has substantially changed to integrated natural resource management. This research is strategic in nature, and links natural resources, livestock production, poverty alleviation, human nutrition and health. Methods, experience and results will have transregional This program has evolved to focus on livestock water issues, which we feel is a crucial research area. Because of lack of resources and a need to focus, we are no longer directly engaged in the global mountain program. Over the next year we plan to better align our livestock-water research with the operating project on iii) refrain from reporting the SLP as part of ILRI's research portfolio.Not Agreed: ILRI follows TAC and CGIAR guidelines for reporting system-wide programs as part of the Institute's portfolio.Following the guidance from the SC, ILRI submits plans and reports for the SLP as part of the instituteʹs Medium Term Plans and Annual Reports. All centers identify in their plans and reports the activities that are conducted under Systemwide Programs. To maintain its identity as a Systemwide Program and for accountability purposes, the SLP also submits bi-annual technical and financial reports to the CGIAR members and its donors.The recommendation has been superseded by the MTP guidelines.Recommendation 12) To maintain and enhance ILRI's scientific reputation, the Panel recommends that the Institute develop and use explicit mechanisms for ensuring scientific quality and the effectiveness and utility of its outputs.Agreed: ILRI was pleased with the assessment of our research against the Panelʹs criteria of good science. The overall quality and output of 88% of ILRIʹs projects were assessed as good or better. ILRI will improve and strengthen existing mechanisms to ILRI has established the position of the DDG research, one of his responsibilities is to monitor science quality. Biometrics also reports to the DDG-R. Given the breadth of disciplines involved in ILRI and the related small number of internal peers for each scientists, ILRI A-21 ensure relevant quality science is brought to bear on priority problems identified with partners and stakeholders, including expanded use of logical frameworks, CCERs, impact assessment, peer review, annual workplans and progress reports with clear milestones, and publication review.stresses the value of external sources of feedback such as peer reviewed journals and a scientific advisory panel of 5 eminent scientists from scientific fields of strategic importance for ILRI, who continuously engage with the scientists at ILRI and provide feedback to management and board on the quality of ILRIʹs science. ILRI has strengthened the planning of the science from the institute and theme level to the individual scientist workplans. A staff development program is providing training opportunities for ILRI research staff to upgrade their research skills. Indicators • Appointment of DDG-Research.• Peer review articles.• CCERs.• Science Advising Panel.The Panel feels that maintaining quality is a continuous obligation. ILRI has established processes to monitor quality.Recommendation 13) Because ILRI does not have an adequately defined and transparent system with which to classify internationally recruited staff (IRS), determine salaries, and ensure equity in compensation, the Panel recommends that: i) the categories of scientist, program specialist, and administrator be expanded to differentiate positions with differing levels of responsibility, authority, knowledge, and skills; ii) a salary range for each IRS level be developed and applied in all cases; iii) where in infrequent instances, market values to particular skills necessitate payment of a salary higher than that of equivalent positions, a market supplement be given to attract and retain suitable candidates; and iv) information on the policies and procedures of the Agreed: Categories for IRS will be expanded to differentiate positions with differing levels of responsibility, authority, knowledge and skills with a salary range for each category. We acknowledge the Panel's recommendation that market supplements could be used to attract and retain suitable candidates. The Personnel Policy and Procedures Manuals are given to all IRS and placed on the Local Area Networks in principal sites. ILRI agrees with the principle of equal pay for equal work. We will reassess compensation practices taking in account the This has been addressed by the IRS job classification and compensation study undertaken by Hewitt Associates. ILRI engaged Hewitt Associates to develop a classification scheme for IRS positions at ILRI. This system was later adopted by the CGIAR for a systemwide compensation study Each band has a range which allows management to deal with differences between markets for different disciplines and skill sets. IRS classification and compensation framework was presented to and discussed with staff. It is used when slotting new A-22 classification and compensation system is provided to all IRS staff. requirements of local, regional and international markets and develop pay levels accordingly. positions into our salary scale. Indicator • ILRI staff classification system.• Policies and procedures on ILRINET.2 nd EPMR PANEL COMMENT: i) This recommendation has been addressed by the Hewitt study and adoption by the management. ii) This has been done as part of the Hewitt study implementation.iii) The management has the discretion within a salary range to decide appropriate pay. iv) The recommendation has been implemented.To ensure implementation of the proposed restructuring and integration of ILRI's research program, and to utilize cost effectively the valuable research infrastructure, the Panel recommends the following action plan for achieving proper utilization of ILRI's facilities in Ethiopia. i) in close consultation with the Government of Ethiopia, ILRI redoubles its efforts to accommodate international agricultural research-and trainingoriented programs on its Ethiopian premises; the conditions of such accommodation, which may also include technical and administrative support, are to be guided by the ILRI-GoE host country agreement and to be based on full cost-recovery; Agreed: ILRI Board and Management are committed to the most cost effective and best programmatic use of research infrastructure at all sites. We believe the infrastructure in Ethiopia is a valuable resource for the CGIAR system, especially for activities oriented to sub-Saharan Africa, as well as for ILRI. Building on the IFPRI/ISNAR presence on the Addis campus our Innovation systems theme is mainly based there and creating an inter-institutional hub also involving UNU Innotech. Leadership of theme 5 is based in Addis and many of their strategic efforts e.g. livestock-water relations, feeding strategies and forage gremplasm management are housed on the Addis campus.     Note: The table is being revised but the cost and revenue trends would remain the same.A-32  ","tokenCount":"45401"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14fe46256214e63947a783c1fd2d0187","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8dccb736-e1ac-4779-bf1e-6762c10f6205/retrieve","id":"-1759253606"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"74dec3ae-3136-4730-a947-2d24511f504c","pagecount":"2","content":"There were 44 participants from over 29 national, regional and international institutions.Remote sensing as a monitoring tool for cropping area determination in smallholder agriculture in Tanzania and Uganda Where are we working? Limited by the difficulty in getting permits to fly UAVs in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda, the field missions in 2016 were conducted in Kilosa, Tanzania, together with the district statisticians. Crop statistics are important tools for planning, policy making and timely interventions to address food insecurity. Therefore, many countries go to great lengths to gather crop statistics data from all farmers. The most common conventional source of data for crop statistics is the Agriculture Sample Census carried out at regular intervals (for example, every five years in Tanzania). However, this method is costly and the information is not frequently updated. It also relies on farmers' often inaccurate recollection of the crops they grew, the area that they planted and their yields. Many smallholder farmers, especially in developing countries, do not keep written records of their farming activities or plot sizes.  Visit the Sweetpotato Knowledge Portal www.sweetpotatoknowledge.orgThe theory of change for the innovation was based on the creation of a community of practice, involving stakeholders from research organizations (international, national and universities); public institutions in agriculture, extension, and statistics; the private sector; and farmer organizations, all contributing with multiple perspectives that could inform and shape the development and delivery of the products for smallholder agriculture in Africa.Inception and final workshops (Fig. 1) were organized to learn from the diversity of stakeholder groups, their perspectives on the usefulness of the innovation, their concerns and expectations, as well as how each envisioned change happening to enable UAV-based remote sensing system (RS) as a tool in support of smallholding farming in Africa. The latter included a technology fair, organized for hands-on learning on UAV-RS technology and to share communication products developed in response to identified needs such as training videos. During the project period, the regulatory framework for UAVs emerged as a key factor enabling or hindering the testing and use of the innovation. The majority of countries do not have a regulatory framework in place. Some countries have regulations that differentiate use for research from use for commercial purposes.Other countries have banned use of UAVs because of security concerns in the country.The first achievement was to build the capacity of young professionals in East Africa to assemble, modify, and repair drones and multispectral cameras; and to use them with other field equipment such as radiometers as well as for processing field data. The second accomplishment was the formation of an active community of practice.The third was the completion of the reflectance library for most important crops and conducting of several field missions in Tanzania -guided by district statisticians; the most comprehensive being the monitoring of 100 ha of agricultural fields in Kilosa. The pixel resolution of the mosaic registered with the UAV-RS system was around 5 cm (Fig. 2). The complementarity between imageries taken with UAV-based sensors and 10-m resolution Sentinel 2 imageries are shown in Fig. 3. We demonstrated that images from the UAV determine area under specific crops with an error of <2%. Given this low error, the actual error is fully dependent on the classification error-i.e. confusion among crops with similar reflectance properties -that ranged from 5-15%. Crop statistics in over 1.5 ha in Morogoro showed that sweetpotato comprised 6% of the cropped area.To promote learning exchange, we established a community of practice on UAVs for agriculture in three countries (Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya) and a web-based platform has been created to facilitate discussions (refer to https://dgroups.org/groups/uav4ag to join). The membership has grown exponentially.We are seeking funding to transfer the developed technology to Bureaus of Statistics in the Region and other interested institutions.Clearly, in the next phase, advocacy among policy makers and a concerted effort to inform and facilitate the development of regulations that permit full use of the technol-ogy for agricultural purposes is of high priority.","tokenCount":"659"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f7b1c862c6c169ff16186124d01fd966","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/33debc97-91f9-4dd0-8cc8-7dc19594568c/retrieve","id":"1323710448"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9e5fb359-c5e6-4417-87bc-a41db4a52847","pagecount":"39","content":"Cette note de cadrage sur le financement du conseil rural a été élaborée par un groupe informel de représentants d'agences de coopération bilatérales et multilatérales impliqués dans le développement de l'agriculture des pays d'Afrique subsaharienne et d'autres continents.Le groupe «Initiative de Neuchâtel» s'est constitué en 1995 et comprend des représentants des agences de coopération d'Autriche, du Danemark (Danida), de France (MAE), d'Allemagne (GTZ), des Pays-Bas (DGIS), de Suède (Sida), de Suisse (DDC), du Royaume-Uni (DFID) et des Etats-Unis (USAID), mais aussi de la FAO, du Fida, de la Commission européenne (DG Développement), du CTA et de la Banque mondiale.Dans une Note de cadrage conjointe sur la vulgarisation agricole (1999), le groupe de Neuchâtel s'était accordé sur six principes et six engagements pour la réforme des services de vulgarisation agricole dans les pays en développement. Il a ensuite été décidé d'entreprendre un travail plus approfondi sur les mécanismes de financement pour compléter cette vision commune sur l'avenir de la vulgarisation agricole. Les conclusions de plusieurs études réalisées en Afrique et en Amérique latine ont été débattues lors d'une réunion à Neuchâtel en novembre 2000. De cette réflexion conjointe est née une première version de cette note de cadrage soumise à discussion puis complétée à l'occasion de la réunion annuelle du groupe à Londres en novembre 2001 pour déboucher sur le document actuel.Cette note s'inscrit dans le contexte général de réforme des appareils publics de vulgarisation mais aussi plus globalement de la transformation du paysage des services ruraux. Elle propose quelques principes et options concernant des mécanismes de financement innovants à adapter à chaque contexte spécifique. Ces nouveaux processus ont en commun de chercher une combinaison de financements d'origines différentes (publics comme privés) tout en améliorant le fonctionnement d'organismes de service contribuant à renforcer le poids des usagers dans les décisions.Cette note de cadrage ne propose pas des recommandations standards applicables automatiquement. Elle doit être utilisée comme un guide pour animer les débats et les négociations entre acteurs au moment de concevoir de nouvelles modalités de conseil agricole et rural 1 . Les opinions contenues dans cette note reflètent des points de vue de bailleurs de fonds et doivent aussi faire l'objet de discussions et de négociations avec des organisations de producteurs dans les pays concernés. Un second document plus étoffé, en anglais uniquement pour l'instant, Guide to Decision Making for Financing Extension complète celui-ci en présentant plus en détail des exemples concrets de nouveaux mécanismes de financement du conseil agricole et rural.Une efficacité et une efficience discutables. La qualité, l'efficacité et l'efficience des services de vulgarisation sont souvent remises en question. Par qualité des services, on entend la capacité de l'organisme de vulgarisation à identifier les besoins réels des usagers ( producteurs, ruraux …) et à y apporter des réponses qui leur sont utiles. Même si les services apportent de réelles améliorations au niveau de la production agricole ou de l'utilisation des ressources naturelles, les changements dépendent également des décisions prises par les agriculteurs et de l'environnement économique. Une bonne qualité des services est nécessaire à leur efficacité, mais cela ne suffit pas toujours. L'efficience suppose que les services de vulgarisation atteignent leurs objectifs de qualité et d'utilité à un coût raisonnable, ce qui est rarement le cas des systèmes de vulgarisation actuels.Des contraintes financières. Jusqu'à présent, la plupart des services de vulgarisation agricole et rurale dans les pays en développement sont financés sur fonds publics ( internationaux et nationaux ). C'est le cas pour les services publics de vulgarisation mais aussi pour la plupart des actions de conseil conduites par les ONG et les organisations paysannes. Les bailleurs de fonds ne pourront pas indéfiniment couvrir les charges de fonctionnement de ces organismes et les gouvernements ont rarement les moyens ou la volonté de le faire. Beaucoup d'organismes de vulgarisation et de conseil sont loin d'être financièrement autonomes.Changement de politique générale. Dans beaucoup de pays en développement, de nouvelles politiques commencent à avoir un impact sur le revenu des ruraux et l'utilisation des ressources naturelles. Le rôle de l'Etat est remis en question et parfois redéfini. La décentralisation, la libéralisation, la privatisation et la démocratisation sont les axes principaux de ces nouvelles politiques qui ont forcément des conséquences sur la vulgarisation agricole.Pourquoi de nouveaux mécanismes de financement ?La question du financement de la vulgarisation agricole et, plus largement, du conseil dans le domaine de la gestion des ressources naturelles, est régulièrement débattue au Nord comme au Sud pour différentes raisons: une efficacité discutable de ces services, des contraintes financières plus fortes et des changements de politique générale, en particulier a propos du rôle de l'Etat.Dans le contexte actuel, rapidement résumé ci-dessus, la justification du bien-fondé de financements publics pour la vulgarisation et le conseil en milieu rural se pose de manière accrue. Certains estiment que le conseil sert surtout à ceux qui le reçoivent, les producteurs, et qu'à ce titre, le marché peut à lui seul réguler aisément l'offre et la demande de service de conseil agricole et rural. Nous pensons cependant qu'il existe de nombreuses situations où cette démarche remplit une fonction en partie d'intérêt général, ce qui justifie le fait qu'on y consacre des fonds publics.Le conseil rural est un élément important et peut jouer un rôle substantiel dans les nouvelles stratégies de développement des Etats et des bailleurs de fonds. Le défi reste de concevoir des services utiles et efficaces, capables de mobiliser des fonds privés, quand c'est justifié et nécessaire, tout en valorisant pleinement les investissements publics.Des services de conseil agricole et rural bien conçus peuvent contribuer à améliorer la production et l'usage des ressources naturelles, à réduire la pauvreté rurale 2 et à atteindre une stabilité économique et sociale en :• accompagnant la diversification des activités économiques des ruraux,• facilitant l'accès aux marchés des produits agricoles,• favorisant une gestion durable des ressources naturelles,• renforçant les capacités de gestion des producteurs, des ruraux, des communautés et des autres acteurs du secteur agricole et rural.Dans cette optique, les services de conseil rural peuvent aider les ruraux à mieux tirer parti des opportunités existantes, contribuant ainsi à sécuriser leurs revenus tout en assurant une bonne gestion des ressources naturelles 3 .Les systèmes de vulgarisation sont en profonde transformation actuellement, tant au niveau des dispositifs institutionnels que de la nature des services. Pendant longtemps l'affaire de l'administration au niveau national, les services de conseil agricole et rural sont maintenant fournis par une grande diversité d'organismes (organisations de producteurs, ONG, entreprises privées, organisations décentralisées …) selon des modalités institutionnelles et financières très variées.Les systèmes publics nationaux de vulgarisation font l'objet de réformes combinant le plus souvent privatisation et décentralisation. Auparavant qualifiés de bénéficiaires, les producteurs sont de plus en plus en situation de clients, de gestionnaires ou de partenaires des organismes de services. L'implication des producteurs dans les dispositifs institutionnels de service en renforce souvent la qualité et la pertinence. Les services sont de plus en plus orientés par la demande des producteurs et parfois par d'autres acteurs, comme les intervenants dans une filière de production (entreprises de transformation, de commercialisation Il est important de faire la différence entre celui qui finance un service et celui qui le dispense. Des fonds publics peuvent très bien être utilisés pour financer des services fournis par un organisme privé. Une institution publique faisant du conseil peut compléter ses ressources par des apports privés grâce à la contribution de ses clients. Dans le cas de services fournis par un organisme privé, une attention particulière doit être portée à la qualité et l'impartialité du service, qui peut faire l'objet de contrôles par une entité indépendante.4. Quels défis pour de nouveaux mécanismes de financement ?La finalité première de cette note n'est pas de promouvoir des mécanismes ayant pour seul objectif de réduire les dépenses publiques en s'assurant d'une participation financière des usagers. Il s'agit plutôt de concevoir des mécanismes de financement en mesure de :• garantir des services efficaces et orientés par la demande,• renforcer le pouvoir des clients et des autres acteurs, en particulier ceux qui ont rarement leur mot à dire,• investir des fonds publics pour préserver l'intérêt général,• promouvoir une offre diversifiée de service dans le domaine du conseil agricole et rural,C'est la combinaison des éléments suivants:Plusieurs acteurs impliqués. Ils peuvent être regroupés selon la fonction qu'ils assurent (on notera qu'un même acteur peut remplir plusieurs fonctions, parfois au même moment) :• les sources de financement (bailleurs de fonds bilatéraux et multilatéraux, organismes gouvernementaux, collectivités locales, organisations de producteurs, entreprises privées),• ceux qui fournissent le service (organismes publics, ONG, organisations de producteurs, acteurs économiques d'une filière, entreprises privées),• les usagers ou les clients (producteurs ou leurs organisations, communautés locales …),• les bénéficiaires indirects (consommateurs, communauté nationale ou internationale). Dans le schéma de gauche, le paiement du service provient uniquement d'une source publique : l'organisme de conseil rend des comptes à cette source. Dans le schéma de droite, le paiement du service provient en partie des clients : l'organisme de conseil est alors obligé de rendre des comptes à ses clients.N'importe quel fournisseur de service cherche à obtenir la reconnaissance de ceux qui le payent : dans le cas des services de conseil rural, ce sont la plupart du temps l'Etat, les bailleurs de fonds ou les ONG qui payent ceux destinés aux agriculteurs.Si une part du paiement du service provient des usagers, celui qui l'offre est obligé d'être à leur écoute et de chercher à les satisfaire, en particulier si une part du paiement dépend de la satisfaction de celui qui le reçoit. La participation financière des usagers fait que celui qui offre le service ne doit pas seulement rendre des comptes à celui qui le finance majoritairement mais aussi à ceux qui en bénéficient.Forts de leur participation financière, les producteurs sont en droit de contribuer à la définition des contenus du conseil rural, d'en évaluer la qualité et de sanctionner les conseillers. Les producteurs peuvent réellement exercer ces droits, soit en participant aux instances de décision des organismes de conseil, soit, dans le cas d'une compétition réelle entre plusieurs structures de conseil, en choisissant celle qui leur convient le mieux.Le principe de la participation financière des producteurs est envisageable dans les zones économiquement dynamiques et pour ceux qui sont engagés dans une agriculture marchande. Mais on peut aussi promouvoir la participation financière dans les zones plus marginales et pour des groupes plus vulnérables.En général, les producteurs, même les plus pauvres, acceptent de payer pour des services de conseil s'ils sont sûr d'en retirer un bénéfice réel dans une période de temps acceptable.Pour les producteurs, la volonté de payer ou non est largement dépendante de la perception qu'ils ont de la valeur du service et de son coût, plutôt que de considérations purement monétaires (ou de l'intérêt général ou particulier du service proposé). La volonté de payer se trouve renforcée quand les producteurs ont un contrôle réel sur le service mais aussi quand les modalités de paiement ont été négociées avec eux.La volonté de payer dépend aussi, bien entendu, de la nature du service.Les producteurs sont plus enclins à payer quand le conseil proposé apporte un réel avantage par rapport a ceux, plus classiques, qu'ils recevaient en général gratuitement. C'est le cas particulièrement pour les conseils liés aux cultures commerciales, en revanche, c'est plus difficile pour ceux à effet différé, par exemple des conseils liés à l'amélioration de pratiques sur le long terme ou des activités de facilitation et de contacts.Le paiement des services par les clients renforce leur position mais aussi celle de ceux qui les fournissent car leur statut professionnel s'accroît dans la mesure où ils peuvent montrer qu'ils ont des choses tangibles à apporter à leurs clients.Mise en oeuvre de la participation financière : argent «chaud» et argent «froid» La participation financière des clients peut être organisée de différentes manières :• paiement direct pour les services,• paiement indirect à travers un droit d'adhésion ou une contribution à une organisation paysanne,• paiement indirect par le biais de taxes à la livraison sur les produits transformés ou commercialisés (en général via une organisation parapublique de filière ou une entreprise privée),• paiement indirect par le biais de taxes «affectées» (allocation de financement provenant de taxes prélevées en aval de la filière, à l'export par exemple, ou lors du transport). En général, seule une contribution financière partielle des clients est réaliste et souhaitable. La majeure partie des services de conseil rural sont financés avec des fonds publics (internationaux, nationaux ou locaux). Dans ce cas, le fait d'allouer les fonds publics aux usagers afin qu'ils achètent les services contribue à renforcer leur position face à ceux qui les fournissent.De tels mécanismes sont appelés «financement de la demande» (demandside financing) ou «transfert de pouvoir d'achat» (car les producteurs, en l'absence de tels transferts, n'auraient sans doute pas accepté de payer le service).Ce mécanisme de financement de la demande avec de l'argent public peut aussi être mis en place dans des situations où sont impliquées des sources de financement privé provenant d'entreprises de transformation ou de commercialisation : le financement public contribue ainsi à renforcer la position des producteurs face à ces acteurs privés souvent puissants.Les services de conseil gérés par des organisations paysannes : une logique de renforcement des capacités Même dans les agricultures commerciales des pays industrialisés, seule une partie du coût des services de conseil rural est financée directement par les agriculteurs eux-mêmes. De plus, les agriculteurs de ces pays continuent de bénéficier de soutiens publics importants inconcevables pour les agriculteurs des pays en développement.Le tableau ci-dessous donne un aperçu des acteurs qui peuvent contribuer au financement du conseil rural et des modalités de collecte de ces fonds.Dans la plupart des cas, le producteur qui reçoit le conseil rural n'est pas le seul à en bénéficier réellement. D'autres bénéficiaires indirects peuvent exister :• les consommateurs sont gagnants si les producteurs utilisent correctement les pesticides,• la communauté locale est gagnante si les pâturages ne sont pas épuisés,• une institution de microfinance est gagnante si ses clients tirent profit de l'activité pour laquelle ils ont contracté un crédit,• une entreprise de transformation est gagnante si les agriculteurs lui livrent un produit de qualité,• un pays a avantage à ce que les agriculteurs produisent pour l'exportation,• la société dans son ensemble (au niveau d'un pays mais aussi la communauté internationale) a intérêt à ce qu'un nombre croissant d'agriculteurs pauvres touchent un revenu décent,• la communauté internationale est gagnante si la biodiversité est préservée. Le degré de participation financière des usagers. La part du coût qui doit être payée par les clients ne doit pas être déterminée arbitrairement, mais de manière transparente, par une négociation. Cette négociation doit se baser sur le coût réel du service, l'importance et la valeur que lui donnent les usagers mais aussi le bénéfice qu'ils peuvent en tirer, comme le degré d'intérêt général conféré à ce service.Les services qui entraînent assez directement un accroissement des revenus des agriculteurs (à l'exception des plus pauvres) peuvent être largement considérés comme relevant de l'intérêt particulier. On peut citer par exemple :• les formations pour les productions commerciales,• l'appui à l'élaboration d'une étude de faisabilité pour obtenir un crédit,• les soins du bétail.Les services qui génèrent à la fois des bénéfices pour les agriculteurs mais aussi pour un public plus large peuvent être considérés comme mixtes (combinant intérêt général et intérêt particulier) :• formation et suivi ciblés sur les pauvres pour les productions commerciales,• promotion de l'intégration au marché pour des zones marginales,• vaccination du bétail contre des maladies contagieuses,• adaptation d'innovations aux conditions locales (innovations techniques mais aussi agroéconomiques ou commerciales, nouvelles formes d'organisation, etc),• amélioration de la production de cultures d'exportation qui contribue ainsi, par les taxes, à apporter des ressources aux pays.Les services qui bénéficient principalement à un public large (à différents niveaux géographiques) peuvent être considérés comme d'intérêt général. Il s'agit par exemple :• promotion d'un usage raisonné des pesticides (entraînant une réduction de la pollution et une diminution des résidus de pesticides dans les cultures),• conseil pour faciliter la conservation de la biodiversité,• augmentation des produits agricoles de bases (céréales locales par exemple) en vue d'améliorer la sécurité alimentaire du pays.La participation financière des autres acteurs. Si d'autres acteurs bénéficient des services, directement ou indirectement, ils doivent alors y contribuer financièrement à la hauteur du bénéfice qu'ils en retirent.La participation financière et le conseil rural fournis par le secteur privé privilégient le développement de services permettant un bénéfice économique rapide pour les clients et favorisent des services immédiatement rentables pour l'entreprise privée. Les services à bénéfices différés (promotion de pratiques respectueuses de l'environnement) et les services destinés aux pauvres ou aux zones marginales ne rentrent pas dans cette logique.Au moment d'introduire de nouveaux mécanismes de financement, les représentants des pouvoirs publics doivent donc chercher à évaluer les effets de ces mécanismes et la prise en compte réelle de l'intérêt général.Certains se demandent si des actions de conseil rural sont utiles pour les pauvres et les groupes vulnérables. On peut dire qu'ils en tirent parti si les services proposés tiennent compte de leurs contraintes et de leurs besoins particuliers. Par exemple, la formation de femmes dans le domaine du maraîchage a amélioré l'état nutritionnel de beaucoup d'enfants, celle d'ouvriers agricoles dans des domaines spécifiques peut les aider à sécuriser leurs revenus.L'introduction d'une participation financière soulève la question complexe de l'accès des services pour les pauvres et les groupes vulnérables, en particulier dans les zones marginales. Si la société et le gouvernement d'un pays ont pour objectif de réduire les inégalités, il est alors justifié de financer avec des fonds publics la majeure partie du coût du conseil rural pour les groupes et les régions désavantagés. Il est préférable que ces fonds soient utilisés pour encourager et financer la demande de services.Dans les régions dynamiques, les fonds publics peuvent être alloués de manière ciblée sur les groupes désavantagés mais dans les régions défavorisées, ils doivent couvrir la plupart des services nécessaires. Cela suppose que les pauvres et les groupes vulnérables soient bien identifiés et que soient renforcées leurs capacités à définir et négocier les services dont ils ont besoin.On dit souvent que les pauvres ne peuvent pas payer pour le conseil rural. Plusieurs expériences montrent cependant que les plus démunis sont prêts à payer une partie du service si celui-ci leur est vraiment utile. De plus, cette participation financière, même dans le cas des pauvres ou des groupes vulnérables, contribue à renforcer leur pouvoir.Les modalités et le niveau de la contribution financière doivent être adaptés aux ressources de ces clients. Il existe des options qui permettent de s'assurer que la participation financière au conseil rural n'augmente pas la vulnérabilité des groupes ou ne dissuade pas l'accès aux personnes désavantagées : paiement différé des services (après récolte), paiement en nature ou fractionné, répartition des coûts au sein d'un groupe … Les mécanismes de collecte de taxes ou de cotisations indexées sur les volumes de production ou sur les surfaces cultivées sont une méthode pour répartir plus équitablement le coût du conseil rural entre des producteurs de taille économique différente.Ceux qui conçoivent les mécanismes de financement doivent être conscients qu'une participation financière peut exclure certains producteurs pauvres de l'accès au conseil rural et qu'elle vient s'ajouter aux autres sollicitations dont les producteurs font l'objet : participation aux coûts de la santé et de l'éducation. Il faut parfois envisager des mesures pour atténuer ce type d'effets.Articuler les nouveaux mécanismes de financement à la réduction de la pauvreté suppose de s'interroger sur les processus de redistribution au sein du secteur agricole, entre différentes filières, mais aussi entre catégories de producteurs, entre régions, mais aussi entre le secteur agricole et les autres (commerce et industrie). Ces formes de redistribution sont envisageables dans la mesure ou l'Etat défend une politique pour plus d'équité.En favorisant des dispositifs de conseil à bénéfices économiques rapides, de nouveaux mécanismes de financement risquent de promouvoir des pratiques agricoles peu respectueuses de l'environnement. Il y a un intérêt local, national et même international à ce que les pratiques agricoles contribuent à une gestion durable des ressources naturelles. Pour y veiller, des mesures doivent être prises au moment de mettre en place de nouveaux mécanismes de financement : par exemple, une législation adaptée mise en application au niveau local mais aussi par des services financés par des fonds publics qui s'efforcent de promouvoir des pratiques d'agriculture durable, d'améliorer les connaissances et la conscience des problèmes écologiques.Payer des agriculteurs pour des actions contribuant à améliorer l'environnement, avec un bénéfice pour la communauté locale mais aussi globale, est un moyen efficace de soutenir les agriculteur dans les zones marginales tout en renforçant leur sentiment de contribuer, par ces services environnementaux, au bien-être de la société dans son ensemble. On peut penser par exemple à des services comme les pratiques de conservation des sols dans les terrains en pente pour réguler le fonctionnement des bassins versants, ou à la régulation de la collecte du bois et de la chasse dans les zones de forêts protégées afin de préserver la biodiversité. Les principaux mécanismes de financement et les situations dans lesquelles ils sont applicables sont présentés dans cette partie. On notera que, dans la pratique, il est souvent nécessaire de combiner plusieurs mécanismes de financement 1 .Cette pratique se justifie quand les services comportent une part importante d'intérêt particulier.L'entité qui fournit le service peut être aussi bien privée que publique. Les usagers en sont les clients. Le paiement direct des services, même s'il ne couvre qu'une partie du coût réel, oblige le fournisseur à rendre compte de la qualité des services rendus : les clients ne paieront pas pour des services médiocres.Le conseil individuel risque d'être trop cher pour des producteurs, surtout si le paiement du conseil doit couvrir la majeure partie du coût des conseillers.Des mécanismes de répartition des frais peuvent permettre de réduire le prix pour chaque producteur tout en assurant une couverture significative des coûts d'ensemble (par exemple en fournissant le conseil à des groupes de producteurs ou en réalisant des formations de groupes).Lorsque le service comporte un degré significatif d'intérêt général, il est normal que le paiement du service ne couvre que partiellement son coût. En revanche, si le service correspond à un intérêt particulier évident, une facturation trop basse, couplée à des subventions, peut nuire au développement d'entreprises privées de service.Les membres d'organisations de producteurs spécialisées par produit (coton, café …) paient en général une cotisation annuelle. Les fonds récoltés contribuent à financer les activités de la structure. De telles organisations ont parfois un service interne de conseil. Le financement d'une activité par les contributions des producteurs (cotisations) renforce le sentiment d'appropriation de cette activité dans la mesure où l'organisation de producteurs concernée fonctionne de manière transparente et démocratique.La force des dispositifs de conseil gérés par des organisations de producteurs ou d'autres organisations de la filière réside dans le fait que le conseil répond, a priori, directement aux intérêts des producteurs ou des autres organisations de la filière impliquée.Ainsi, si ce type de dispositif est en partie financé par des fonds publics, les représentants des pouvoirs publics doivent veiller à ce que le montage réponde, au moins partiellement, à l'intérêt général.Le financement par le biais de taxes suppose que le coût du conseil soit déduit du prix qu'obtient l'agriculteur pour son produit. Ce mode de financement est possible pour toute organisation ou entreprise qui assure la commercialisation ou la transformation de produits agricoles (organisations de producteurs, entreprises de transformation, etc.).Ce type de mécanisme fonctionne bien quand il existe un goulot d'étranglement (point de collecte, de stockage obligé) dans la filière qui facilite une collecte des taxes. Le financement par des taxes peut être assez opaque, ce qui peut créer chez les producteurs le sentiment d'être exploités. Un système transparent de taxes, dans lequel les producteurs sont conscients de ce qu'ils paient, peut en revanche conforter leur position. Des organisations de producteurs fortes ont plus de chances de promouvoir des systèmes de taxes plus justes que de nombreux petits agriculteurs face à de grandes compagnies privées qui achètent ou transforment leurs produits.Le choix de l'institution responsable de la gestion du système des taxes (une organisation de producteur, une firme privée, une société publique) va largement influencer la confiance des producteurs et leur perception de la qualité de son fonctionnement.Les taxes prélevées sur un produit agricole sont généralement utilisées pour financer des services directement liés à l'amélioration des conditions de production, de commercialisation ou de transformation de ce produit. On peut cependant allouer une partie des taxes prélevées sur un produit en direction de filières moins avantagées ou de régions plus pauvres Financement du conseil par les taxes pour y financer des services. Des taxes peuvent alimenter la constitution d'un fonds de développement agricole. Dans cette optique, les taxes sur les produits deviennent un outil qui permet une redistribution des ressources pour plus d'équité.Les taxes à l'exportation, au commerce ou les taxes routières collectées par les pouvoirs publics peuvent être affectées au financement du conseil agricole. Un tel mécanisme doit être transparent pour que les producteurs et les autres acteurs perçoivent ce qu'ils financent réellement dans le service et puissent ainsi avoir leur mot à dire. Ce système peut, à l'instar des taxes sur les produits, être utilisé comme mécanisme de redistribution.Un gouvernement établit un contrat avec une organisation de conseil et la mandate pour fournir un service spécifique à une clientèle donnée (ce peut être une zone particulière ou un type de population).Ce mécanisme de délégation de services est ordinairement utilisé avec des organismes privés -entreprises, ONG, organisations de producteurs ou communautaires. Il peut aussi fonctionner entre une administration publique et des organismes publics indépendants ou décentralisés.Ce mécanisme de délégation permet l'usage de fonds publics (pour promouvoir des pratiques agricoles soucieuses de l'environnement, par exemple) sans nécessairement entretenir un appareil public de conseil agricole. Cela améliore en général l'efficacité des organisations publiques de conseil.Le système de délégation de services est particulièrement adapté à ceux comportant un haut degré d'intérêt général. Si le service favorise plutôt des intérêts particuliers, il est nécessaire d'obtenir une contribution financière des clients. Dans ce type de système, l'existence de contrats entre le secteur public et le secteur privé peut être source de corruption.En faisant transiter des financements publics par les usagers, le financement de la demande (demand-side financing) encourage le pilotage des services par la demande et améliore a priori leur efficacité.Ce type de mécanisme est approprié pour le financement de services ou de conseils comportant un degré important d'intérêt privé en complément d'un intérêt général évident: par exemple des conseils pour la production ou la commercialisation pour les petits agriculteurs. Avec ce mécanisme, on renforce la position des clients (les producteurs) et on leur donne la possibilité de demander des comptes aux conseillers. A priori, ce système ne perturbe pas trop les relations commerciales entre producteurs et conseillers : les entreprises privées de service ne sont pas tenues à l'écart et cela stimule le développement d'un marché du conseil agricole.Le financement de la demande doit s'accompagner d'une participation financière, même modique, des usagers. Ce mécanisme nécessite des procédures de contrôle pour s'assurer d'un bon emploi des fonds et limiter les tentatives de corruption.Quelques problèmes ont été rencontrés dans la mise en place de tels mécanismes :• Dans la mesure où les fonds doivent être distribués à de nombreuses personnes réparties sur un vaste territoire, l'administration et le contrôle de ce type de mécanisme est souvent complexe. Il est souvent plus facile de faire transiter les fonds extérieurs à travers une ou plusieurs structures locales (ONG ou autre) et d'en vérifier l'usage, plutôt que de multiplier les niveaux d'intervention.• Le transfert de pouvoir d'achat aux producteurs s'accompagne de fait par le renforcement de leur autonomie, ce qui peut gêner certains gouvernements qui perdent alors le contrôle d'une ressource financière.Il existe différentes modalités pour mettre en place ce principe du financement de la demande de service. Les plus connus sont les subventions de la demande et le système des «bons» (voucher systems). 1. L'introduction de nouveaux mécanismes de financement suppose des actions de renforcement institutionnelDes mécanismes de financement renforçant l'autonomie des producteurs nécessite que ces derniers soient en mesure de formuler précisément leurs demandes en terme de service. Cela suppose aussi que les structures de conseil agricole soient capables d'offrir les services demandés par les producteurs. Ces capacités font souvent défaut.La mise en place de nouveaux mécanismes de financement doit donc être accompagnée d'investissements importants pour renforcer les capacités institutionnelles des producteurs, des conseillers agricoles et de leurs organisations respectives mais aussi des institutions publiques en charge de superviser et de réguler les services agricoles. La diversité des contextes, du type de service et des montages institutionnels suppose une pluralité des mécanismes de financement. Localement ou à l'échelle d'un pays, cette diversité ne doit cependant pas conduire à des incohérences entre pratiques de financement de nature à fragiliser l'une d'entre elles. Le maintien de services gratuits pour tous peut empêcher la mise en place et le fonctionnement de nouveaux mécanismes de financement.Ainsi, la conception et la planification de programmes de service agricole doivent s'assurer que les mécanismes de financements développés dans un même espace ne génèrent pas d'incohérence dans les pratiques.Les fonds communs (basket funds) sont un moyen pour s'assurer de la cohérence de mécanismes de financement des services agricoles: à travers ce type d'instrument, différents bailleurs de fonds mettent en commun des moyens pour financer une ou plusieurs fonctions (conseil, recherche agricole, formation professionnelle …) . Les organisations bénéficiaires de ce type de fonds (organisations paysannes, entreprises de service, institutions de recherche …) y accèdent par appel d'offres.3. Adapter le rythme de l'aide extérieure aux objectifs de l'actionLes bailleurs de fonds financent souvent des fonctions ou des activités pour une période limitée, à l'issue de laquelle ils transfèrent au gouvernement ou à d'autres institutions locales la responsabilité de les financer. Or, ces institutions sont rarement à même d'assumer ces financements dans la durée. Cette situation menace la durabilité des changements obtenus à travers les interventions extérieures. Les bailleurs devraient donc financer en priorité :• Des fonctions qui ne sont que provisoires. Pendant une intervention, certaines fonctions sont mises en oeuvre afin d'accompagner le changement, mais ne sont plus forcément nécessaires une fois les objectifs atteints.• Des fonctions pour lesquelles des financements locaux sont assurés dans la durée. Beaucoup d'expériences montrent que de nouvelles fonctions introduites à l'aide de subventions extérieures ont de fortes chances de disparaître si ces subventions cessent.• Des fonctions qui permettent d'explorer de nouvelles méthodes ou pratiques (actions pilotes). Dans ce cas de figure, les bailleurs de fonds doivent garder à l'esprit que leurs initiatives ne seront pas forcément reprises par les décideurs locaux.• Des fonctions pour lesquelles il existe un intérêt à long terme pour la communauté internationale. Dans ce type de situation, les engagements financiers à long terme sont nécessaires et il ne sert à rien de s'obstiner à vouloir transférer la responsabilité financière aux acteurs locaux et nationaux.Pour les fonctions qui doivent à terme être financées par des sources locales ou nationales, le transfert de responsabilité financière doit avoir lieu dès la fin de la période d'essai. Sinon, il est probable que les acteurs nationaux ou locaux ne prendront jamais en charge leur financement.Promouvoir des changements dans les systèmes de conseil agricole nécessite d'importantes ressources financières pendant les périodes de transition. La réussite de cette évolution suppose un rythme adapté aux contraintes et conditions locales. La construction de systèmes de conseil agricole viables financièrement et pilotés par la demande nécessite un processus d'apprentissage et des changements souvent profonds.De la même manière, la généralisation d'expériences réussies de conseil agricole requiert de nouvelles logiques d'apprentissages et pas seulement de la réplication à plus large échelle. Tous ces changements ont besoin de suivi et d'accompagnement en terme de méthode, ce qui nécessite souvent une assistance technique. Une fois la transition terminée, le niveau de financement peut atteindre son rythme de croisière. Ainsi, les processus d'évolution et de changement d'échelle nécessitent en soi des coûts que les bailleurs de fonds doivent prendre en compte.Investir dans le conseil rural, même si l'action est bien adaptée aux clients, ne suffit pas. Il ne peut jouer un rôle réel que si plusieurs conditions sont réunies :• les politiques agricoles et foncières doivent être adéquates,• le système de recherche doit faciliter les innovations techniques,• les producteurs concernés doivent avoir accès aux moyens de production et aux marchés,• le système de formation doit être adapté aux nouveaux besoins des producteurs mais aussi à ceux des conseillers agricoles. ","tokenCount":"5401"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5ef1764029644725935a28438ab501bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/41af8d2f-b300-4f75-8a39-285bf57d51bf/content","id":"584251714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3cc3dc0a-3535-43dd-894d-88ab1e6f41be","pagecount":"16","content":"The Local Climate Advisory Committees (LTACs) are spaces for inclusive dialogue between a diversity of local stakeholders such as farmers, extension services, representatives of the public, private and scientific sectors that seek to understand the possible behavior of the climate in a locality and generate recommendations to reduce the risks associated with expected climate variability.In Guatemala, following this dialogue, the agroclimatic bulletin is produced that comprises the weather forecast provided by the National Institute of Seismology, Volcanology, Meteorology, Meteorology and Hydrology. This report not only details the weather forecast, but also its possible influence on crops under specific weather and site conditions. It also offers recommendations to guide decisions within each regional production system.In Mexico the MTA methodology, arrived in 2019 starting in the state of Chiapas and with the accompaniment of the Bioversity Alliance -CIAT and CIMMYT, with the participation of different institutions leading actions such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (SAGYP) of the government of Chiapas and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (SADER) at the federal level. From 2019 to 2023 the SADER, led by the Climate Change Directorate has taken the AWM methodology to 12 states in Mexico. One of the bottlenecks that has been identified (cf. scaling workshop in Innovahubs 2022) in this methodology is the dissemination of information to a greater number of producers, specifically the agroclimatic bulletins that are generated through the MTA sessions. Therefore, a survey was constructed to learn how partners in Guatemala have shared agroclimatic information during the year 2023. And for Mexico, support was provided to SADER to implement a survey to find out the main problems, usefulness and means of dissemination that users recommend improving the dissemination and scope of the bulletins.During the hubmeetings in Guatemala and Honduras in 2022, many farmers mentioned not to have access to the information and often did not completely understand. For this, during 2023, work was done to better understand the dynamics of how the information is spread and who uses the generated bulletins, with the objective to amplify its reach and function with the Innovahub members. This document reports on this analysis, showing that indeed mostly farm advisors and technicians consult the information. The bulletin is mostly distributed to users by WhatsApps groups or during local workshops. IN conclusion, it appears that the diffusion in Guatemala remains quite limited to certain regions, but people, as well in Mexico, report that the information is especially useful for planning the upcoming production cycle.Las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (MTA) son espacios de diálogo inclusivo entre una diversidad de actores locales como agricultores, servicios de extensión, representantes del sector público, privado y científicos que busca comprender el posible comportamiento del clima en una localidad y generar recomendaciones para disminuir los riesgos asociados a la variabilidad climática esperada.En Guatemala, después de este diálogo, se elabora un boletín agroclimático que comprende la predicción meteorológica proporcionada por el Instituto Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrología. Este informe no solo detalla el pronóstico climático, sino también su posible influencia en los cultivos en condiciones específicas de tiempo y lugar. Además, ofrece recomendaciones destinadas a orientar las decisiones dentro de cada sistema productivo regional.En México la metodología de la MTA, llego en 2019 iniciando en el estado de Chiapas y con el acompañamiento de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT y CIMMYT, con la participación de diferentes instituciones liderando acciones como la Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca (SAGYP) del gobierno de Chiapas y la Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (SADER) a nivel federal. A partir de 2019 al 2023 la SADER, liderada por la Dirección de cambio climático ha llevado la metodología de las MTA a 12 estados de México. Uno de los cuellos de botella que se ha identificado (cf. taller escalamiento en los Innovahubs 2022) en esta metodología es la difusión de la información a mayor número de productores, específicamente los boletines agroclimáticos que se generan a través de las sesiones de la MTA. Por lo tanto, se construyó una encuesta para conocer cómo los socios en Guatemala han compartido la información agroclimática durante el año 2023. Y para México, se apoyó a la SADER para implementar una encuesta para conocer las principales problemáticas, la utilidad y los medios de difusión que recomiendan los usuarios para mejorar la difusión y alcance de los boletines.Objetivo Conocer el aporte que genera la intervención de los hubs en los procesos de difusión de la información agroclimática generada en las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, y las áreas de oportunidad para mejorar el proceso de difusión, para que mayor número de productores fortalezcan su capacidad de tomar decisiones ante desafíos de la variabilidad climática.El instrumento desarrollado para Guatemala consta de 10 preguntas, las cuales fueron dirigidas a los técnicos de nuestros socios implementadores, el objetivo principal es conocer sí los socios comparten la información agroclimática y en que municipios específicamente se realiza, estas encuestas estuvieron coordinadas por la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT.Para el ejercicio en México, el diseño y la implementación de las encuestas estuvo a cargo de la SADER, con la participación y apoyo de CIMMYT, se enfocó en los estados de Chiapas, Estado de México y Yucatán. Se busco entrevistar por estado a 8 productores y 8 técnicos que han participado en las MTAs y a 8 productores y 8 técnicos que no han participado. En total se pretendió realizar 32 encuestas por estado y 96 encuestas en total. Las encuestas están integradas por 21 preguntas, y se distribuyó a través de WhatsApp y el formato utilizado fue Google forms.Socios que participaron en la encuesta Dentro de la ejecución de AgirLAC 2023 se trabajó con cuatro socios implementadores, para la región de Oriente se trabajó con la Asociación Regional Campesina Chortí -ASORECH-y la Asociación de Desarrollo Integral de la Parte Alta de Zacapa -ADIPAZ-, y para la región de Occidente trabajamos con la Asociación de Organizaciones de los Cuchumatanes -ASOCUCH y la Asociación de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Rural de Occidente -CDRO-. De nuestros cuatro socios se tuvo una participación del 45% de ASORECH, el 30% de ASOCUCH, 15% de CDRO y el 10% de ADIPAZ. Es relevante destacar la participación continua de los socios ASORECH y CDRO en las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas desde su establecimiento inicial (Figura 1). Asimismo, se destaca que CDRO ha desempeñado el rol de coordinador de la MTA en Totonicapán. En contraste, nuestros otros dos socios, ASOCUCH y ADIPAZ, se integraron recientemente a las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas durante el presente año.Conocimiento del espacio de las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas El 100% de los técnicos conocen las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (MTA). Su participación y conocimiento del funcionamiento de éstas indica una comprensión profunda de su importancia y relevancia en el ámbito agroclimático. Este nivel de familiaridad demuestra un compromiso compartido entre los técnicos para aprovechar y difundir de manera efectiva la información generada en estos espacios hacia sus respectivas comunidades y ámbitos de trabajo.La presencia predominante de las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas se distribuye principalmente en distintos departamentos: Chiquimula, donde ASORECH tiene un 40% de participación; Huehuetenango, con un 30% representado por ASOCUCH; Totonicapán, con un 10% en el que participa CDRO; Zacapa, donde ADIPAZ está involucrado, abarcando otro 10%; y finalmente, un 5% de presencia en Quetzaltenango, donde también participa CDRO (Figura 2). El rol que cumplen los socios en las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas El 85% de nuestros socios desempeñan el rol de participantes activos en las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, lo que garantiza que la información producida en este espacio cuenta con una visión local. Por otro lado, el 15% restante, como se refleja en la gráfica, muestra que uno de nuestro socio CDRO tiene un papel de coordinador en la MTA de Totonicapán. Esta representación destaca la importancia vital de la coordinación en este espacio, subrayando su papel clave para facilitar la efectividad y la eficiencia en la gestión de la información y la toma de decisiones (Figura 3).Figura 3. Rol que cumplen los socios en la MTA Acceso a la información agroclimática El 80% de los técnicos encuestados tienen acceso directo a la información agroclimática generada por la Mesa Técnica (MTA), lo que les permite aprovechar y utilizar la información generada. Por otro lado, se observó que el 20% restante no ha tenido acceso a esta información, principalmente debido a que están en proceso de incorporación reciente a este espacio. Este porcentaje refleja a técnicos que se están integrando de manera más reciente a las actividades y dinámicas de la MTA, por lo que aún no han tenido la oportunidad de recibir y utilizar la información agroclimática proporcionada por este órgano técnico (Figura 4). Identificación de los principales medios de comunicación en donde se reciben la información agroclimáticaEl principal medio a través del cual los técnicos reciben información agroclimática es a través de grupos de WhatsApp, representando un 87.5% de la preferencia de los encuestados. Este canal de comunicación se destaca como la vía más utilizada y efectiva para acceder a información agroclimática. Por otro lado, un 12.5% restante de los técnicos mencionó que reciben esta información a través de boletines, lo que indica que un grupo minoritario utiliza este medio más tradicional para mantenerse informados sobre aspectos agroclimáticos (Figura 5).El principal medio a través del cual los técnicos reciben información agroclimática es a través de grupos de WhatsApp, representando un 87.5% de la preferencia de los encuestados. Este canal de comunicación se destaca como la vía más utilizada y efectiva para acceder a información agroclimática. Por otro lado, un 12.5% restante de los técnicos mencionó que reciben esta información a través de boletines, lo que indica que un grupo minoritario utiliza este medio más tradicional para mantenerse informados sobre aspectos agroclimáticos. ¿Los técnicos socializan la información agroclimática que reciben?De los técnicos que tienen acceso a información agroclimática, el 100% comparte activamente la información con los agricultores, lo que permite que puedan tomar decisiones informadas y capacidad de respuesta a las condiciones climáticas. Esta práctica demuestra un esfuerzo conjunto y consistente por parte de los técnicos para promover una agricultura más resiliente y sostenible, fomentando así un intercambio efectivo de conocimientos que beneficia directamente a las comunidades agrícolas, fortaleciendo su capacidad para afrontar los desafíos climáticos.Mecanismos que utilizan los técnicos para socializar la información agroclimática El análisis de los mecanismos de socialización de información agroclimática revela una diversidad de métodos empleados por los técnicos encuestados. Los talleres destacan como el principal mecanismo, siendo elegidos por el 31.25% de los participantes. Los boletines también tienen una relevancia similar, también seleccionados por el 31.25% de los encuestados. Los grupos de WhatsApp, con un 18.75%, y los afiches, con un 6.25%, complementan la gama de herramientas utilizadas. Además, otros mecanismos identificados incluyen la divulgación durante visitas de asistencia técnica y diálogos directos con los agricultores, lo que subraya la importancia de estrategias multifacéticas para garantizar una difusión efectiva y completa de la información agroclimática hacia los agricultores (Figura 6).Figura 6. Mecanismos utilizados para socializar la información agroclimática ¿Cuántos agricultores reciben información agroclimática? Dentro de AgriLAC, se ha observado un esfuerzo considerable por parte de los socios en la socialización de la información agroclimática, alcanzando a un total aproximado de 3,493 agricultores. En este contexto, ASORECH se destaca por haber compartido con la mayor cantidad de agricultores, llegando a aproximadamente 3,244. ASOCUCH ha alcanzado a 130 agricultores, seguido por CDRO con 70, y ADIPAZ con 49. Estos números reflejan el compromiso y la labor activa de los socios para difundir la información agroclimática a una cantidad significativa de agricultores, contribuyendo así a fortalecer la capacidad de adaptación y toma de decisiones informadas frente a las condiciones climáticas cambiantes (Figura 7). Principales municipios en donde se socializa la información agroclimática Los cuatro socios han socializado la información agroclimática, ASORECH ha destacado en el proceso de difusión, principalmente en los municipios de Camotán, Olopa y Concepción las Minas. ADIPAZ, su principal foco se ha centrado en el municipio de Zacapa. Por su parte, ASOCUCH ha socializado la información principalmente en los municipios de Aguacatán, Chiantla, Concepción Huista y Huehuetenango. Finalmente, CDRO ha difundido la información en los municipios de Santa María Chiquimula y Totonicapán. Estos esfuerzos específicos en municipios particulares demuestran la estrategia focalizada de cada socio para alcanzar y beneficiar a comunidades agrícolas específicas, adaptando la información agroclimática a las necesidades y particularidades de cada región (Figura 8). En total, 215 personas respondieron la encuesta, la distribución de esta se puede observar en la siguiente Tabla 1.Tabla 1. Total de personas por categoría que respondieron la encuesta realizada en los tres estadosNo. de entrevistadosTécnicos no asistentes 36Productores no asistentes 32Principales problemáticasEs importante identificar cuáles son las principales preocupaciones de los agricultores, para los ciclos agrícolas relacionados con el clima y sus principales cultivos. Como se observa en la Figura 9, el 86% menciono que la falta de lluvia es el principal, esto puede estar relacionado con el efecto del fenómeno del niño que en 2023 afecto con severidad en varias regiones el país. El 55% de los encuestados comentó que plagas y enfermedades, es otra preocupación para ellos, principalmente porque existe una alta relación entre menos lluvia, alta temperatura y mayor incidencia de plagas, y en tercer lugar el 40% de los encuestados menciono que las temperaturas extremas, son otro factor importante de preocupación, que de manera conjunta los tres factores afectan en gran medida el desarrollo del cultivo y los rendimientos finales a cosecha. Fuentes más comunes de consulta además de las Mesas AgroclimáticasSe les pregunto a los productores de donde obtienen la información climática para tomar decisiones en los ciclos agrícolas demás de la MTA, en la Figura 10, se presenta la respuesta tanto de productores que asisten a la MTA como a los que no. Para los productores que asisten a las MTA, sus principales fuentes son: pronósticos en televisión, aplicaciones de celular y las cabañuelas, mienta que los que no asisten a la MTA sus principales fuentes son Fases de la Luna, cabañuelas y usos y costumbres. Los productores relacionados con la MTA utilizan más fuentes de información. En cuanto a los técnicos que están relacionados con la MTA, la principal fuente de información climática además de los talleres y los boletines, son las aplicaciones de celular con el 71% de mención, seguido de pronósticos en televisión con el 42%. Mientras que, para los técnicos no relacionados con la MTA, mencionaron que su principal fuente de información son las fases lunares (Figura 11). Principal uso de la información AgroclimáticaEn cuanto la utilidad de la información climática, tanto a productores como a técnicos se les preguntó cuál era el principal uso, ambos coinciden en cuatro principales, planificación de cultivos (fecha de siembra y variedades a sembrar), manejo de cultivo (fertilización, manejo de plagas, malezas, riegos, etc.), buscar la optimización de recursos y prevención de sequías.Figura 12. Usos principales de la información agroclimática proporcionada en las MTA´s, para técnicos y productores. (fuente: AGRICULTURA, 2023 -ver anexo)Los socios juegan un rol importante dentro de sus regiones en la socialización de información agroclimática, tienen focalizados claramente los municipios han trabajado, utilizando diversidad de métodos para la difusión, como lo son los talleres, boletines, grupos de WhatsApp y otros medios identificados, identificando la necesidad de estrategias variadas para alcanzar a agricultores y técnicos de manera efectiva. Algo importante de resaltar es el compromiso activo de los socios, el cual se refleja en el significativo número de agricultores alcanzados, lo que demuestra un esfuerzo continuo por fortalecer la capacidad de adaptación y toma de decisiones informadas frente a las condiciones climáticas cambiantes.En México puede considerarse reciente la metodología de las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, sin embargo, han sido aceptadas por los diferentes actores, principalmente por atender una problemática general, dar respuesta en base a datos la incertidumbre del ciclo agrícola. Es necesario fortalecer los procesos de difusión de la información agroclimática generada y las recomendaciones agronómicas a partir de estas. Retomando un comentario de un productor encuestado participante de las Mesas Agroclimáticas, menciona que para los productores que no han participado en los talleres de las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, para ellos el boletín \"agroclimático es mudo\". Refiriéndose que ante la falta de capacidad de interpretar la información no le sirve de nada. Lo que sugiere trabajar tentativamente en dos líneas. La primera en fortalecer capacidades en los participantes para interpretar la información y después comunicarlas de formas más entendibles, y la segunda en generar boletines vivos, a través de videos con lenguajes claros para entender la situación climática que se pronostica y las recomendaciones practicas a seguir.","tokenCount":"2745"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e9ea86aa9eb0a2938ba407d37977bcbe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/edb77065-c1eb-43ac-a0c8-7f4eb3f53381/retrieve","id":"279052520"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b3a55985-75cc-44b6-854a-885a848453f2","pagecount":"1","content":"Policies relating to agriculture, water, energy, biodiversity, climate change are mapped on ACT tool along with principles of Agroecology. Eighty-six polices were mapped.Using conceptual framework based on case studies examining the involvement of women in the realm of agroecology, elucidating gender-specific constraints impeding their participation. Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are conducted to delineate women's roles within agroecology-supportive policies and to identify the impediments they encounter.International Food Policy Research Organisation.To what extent do Indian policies align or diverge from agroecological principles?What is the status of women within agroecology-conducive policies and their outcomes?What deficiencies exist within comprehensive gender-sensitive agroecological policies?Most of the agricultural policies have a single focus like soil, water management. Policies fail to recognize participatory and multi stakeholder approaches, rather have a top-down approach. Although most of the policies mention women in their objective but do not establish pathways for integration in food systems. Role of women in policies with regard to sustainable or regenerative agriculture policies in India is only limited with phrases such as 'women will be promoted' or 'adequate representation of women' with no clear goals. Policies advocating for subsidies on chemical fertilizers and the intensification of commercial crop production stand in direct contrast to and significantly impede the agroecological transition in India.From Seeds of Change to Harvesting Equality:","tokenCount":"214"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"129aa327c7a0fb28dc0fe818f3b97aa6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c094b41-430a-475a-9c4f-6b79c90bacaa/retrieve","id":"-912163356"},"keywords":["Female political representation","women's political participation","fragility","conflict","climate shocks"],"sieverID":"d8d3c183-8dcd-438e-a7c2-8eaad6a81ebf","pagecount":"50","content":"The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), a CGIAR Research Center established in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Enhancing the resilience of vulnerable populations, including women, against the negative effects of conflict and climate change is critical to achieving inclusive and sustainable development. One necessary and often under-studied aspect of building women's resilience amid these challenges is ensuring that women have voice and influence in local governance, where key decisions are being made to prepare for and mitigate the effects of shocks and crises. If women's needs and priorities-including how they may be affected by conflict and climate change, and what policies and programs would best help them to prepare for and recover from these shocks-go unspoken or unheard, then any unique needs they have which are not shared by men are unlikely to be integrated into development policies and approaches. Including women's voices can help ensure that public sector policies improve rather than erode gender equality.One longstanding and prominent hypothesis is that the presence of additional female political officeholders will help to close gender gaps both in individual-level mass participation and in political representation by empowering more women to vote and participate in politics and inspiring more women to run for office in the future (see Dolan, 2006 for a review). In other words, more women in office could spur a virtuous cycle of greater individual-and elite-level participation in politics which helps to ensure that women's voices are heard in policymaking. Quasi-experimental findings from India have bolstered this view, including that the election of additional female officeholders improves perceptions of female leader effectiveness (Beaman et al., 2009) and improves the chances of other women running for office and winning elections in the future (Bhavnani, 2009). Having women in office, in sum, can send the signal to the public that politics is not a \"man's domain,\" and foster greater women's political engagement in ways that promote gender equality.Despite the compelling idea that more women in office would empower individual women citizens to participate politically, there are good theoretical reasons to doubt that it would have an effect. Deeply ingrained cultural views on leadership may be too difficult to disrupt through a modest improvement in female leadership (Duflo, 2012). In countries with strong gender norms against women's participation in politics, introducing female candidates could even create backlash effects within communities (Clayton, 2015) or lead women themselves to set limits on their own future civic participation (Gottlieb, 2016). Alternatively, it is plausible that if women perceive female officeholders to represent their interests well, they may see less of a need to directly engage in politics. In this case, lower engagement could come from greater satisfaction with women's job performance and representation rather than disillusionment or restrictive gender norms.Most existing work on this question has focused on a relatively small set of countries, with a large share of the existing knowledge base coming from the United States, Western Europe, and India. Expanding the knowledge base-even in an exploratory way-into Africa can shed light on the more general hypothesis that getting more women into political office will \"trickle down\" into greater women's mass political participation. We thus aggregated data across 13 African countries on women's local political representation for as many years as possible and matched these data with geo-referenced survey data from Afrobarometer (Afrobarometer 2023;Ahlerup et al. 2016) on political participation.At the same time, both men and women across Africa increasingly face conflict and climate shocks which may be shifting both their abilities and their incentives to participate politically. Our data show that 50 percent of the localities in our study experienced either an extreme climate shock 1 or a violent event in the 12 months prior to their being surveyed about their political participation. Given this high degree of exposure to shocks, and ensuing fragility, we investigate whether women's political representation may protect individual women's voice and agency in their communitiesi.e., their political participation and collective actionfrom the typically negative immediate impacts of shocks. This is an important and relatively unexplored channel through which women's political representation could shape individual-level behaviors.This paper presents new evidence on the intersections between women's political representation, climate and conflict shocks, and women's mass political participation in the context of Africa South of the Sahara, focusing on the local level. We examine women's representation in local political office as a potential pathway to greater equality of political participation between women and men within their communities. While it is difficult to separate the causal impact of electing women into local office from the pre-existing characteristics of places that tend to elect women, focusing on the local level and using country × year fixed effects enables us to control for differences in culture and gender norms across countries to understand the implications of differences in subnational variation in women's political representation in subnational offices.Even within Africa, where women's representation is generally quite low compared to other regions, there is significant within-country variation in the share of women in local offices. For example, Nigeria ranks 142 out of 146 countries by the Global Gender Gap Report for the Political Empowerment subindex, based primarily on the paltry 3 and 4 percent of women representatives in national Senate and House of Representatives, respectively (Nkereuwem, 2023). Nonetheless, at the state level in Nigeria, women's representation ranges from 0 up to 15 percent in state legislatures. This is nowhere near gender parity to be sure but signals the value in examining whether subnational variations in women's representation are associated with lower gender gaps in individual-level political participation. Nonetheless, we interpret findings with caution, as we lack an experimental or quasi-experimental design that would enable us to test the causal effects of women's representation.We find that great representation of women in local political offices across the African countries in our sample is associated with a higher tendency for individual women living in those localities to participate in the public affairs of their own communities, including attending community meetings, joining with other community members to raise issues at community meetings, and joining voluntary social and civic associations within the community. We also find that these positive associations vary with degree of exposure to violent conflicts; while conflicts are associated with reduced political participation overall, these negative associations are to some extent diminished by greater local female representation. Further, this finding appears to be driven by women rather than mensuggesting the potential value of women's political representation for narrowing the gender gap in participation in the politics and public life amid conflict events.The article is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature examining how exposure to female representatives in political office affects individual women's engagement with local-level politics and, in turn, how female representatives may mitigate the effects of conflict and climate shocks on women's engagement. Section 3 then outlines our empirical approach. Section 4 describes the data and descriptive statistics, while Section 5 presents a series of results examining the association between female political representation and individuals' political participation, including how this varies with gender and exposure to conflict and climate shocks. While the analysis in this section is cross-sectional, a case study on Nigeria using difference-in-difference analysis over time enables us to estimate causal effects more plausibly. The final section concludes.How does women's formal political representation link to gender equality in settings where conflict and climate shocks are prevalent? With women's equality in political leadership positions emerging as one of the measures for Sustainable Development Goal 5 on gender equality, raising the number of women holding formal public office has been an increasing focus internationally. Yet, much of the focus has been on the adoption of gender quotas for leadership positions and getting women into these positions. There is much more to be explored and understood about how greater gender equality in political representation can link with gender equality at the individual level across different contexts.While it seems self-evident that more women in political office is important for gender equality, there is a need to understand whether and how this transmits down to increased political participation by individual women in society, in what contexts, and under what conditions. Many proponents of greater women's leadership tout the ability of female candidates to offer positive female role models for all women. Seeing a women run for and win office sends a signal that politics is not just a man's game and can change ideas about politics being an appropriate space for women (Bauer, 2012;Karp and Banducci, 2008). Some studies have found that exposure to women's political leadership increases women's interest and engagement in politics (Beauregard, 2018;Campbell and Wolbrecht, 2006) and their aspirations for running for office (Brown et al., 2022). However, context can play an important role in mediating the way in which individuals react to seeing women in leadership roles. In countries where gender disparities are vast, seeing one woman or a small number of women in office may not be enough to really help ordinary women envision themselves as full participants in political life. One-off female candidates may indeed be seen as so exceptional that they prove the exception rather than the rule-i.e., that women do not generally belong in politics. For example, Foos and Gilardi (2020) find that exposure to female politicians can increase interest in politics for young women, but does not raise their participation or political aspirations, as female candidates were often frank about their struggles as women in politics in ways that may have been discouraging for young women to hear.In a study across South and Southeast Asian countries, Liu (2018) finds that female parliamentarians generate a backlash effect on women's political engagement, lowering rather than raising political engagement. Clayton (2015) finds in Lesotho that a reservation policy designed to bring women into local office similarly generated a backlash effect, lowering women's political engagement. She attributes the backlash to negative perceptions around how the reservation policy brought women to power, rather than to female representation in general. The potential for backlash to greater female political representation makes the connection between women's political representation and individual women's broader political engagement well worth testing in Africa, where there has generally been less work on these questions.Women's representation could also have substantive effects if women use their power in office to influence policy choice toward outcomes that benefit women. In this vein, research has found that greater shares of women in public office often contribute to higher public investment and public expenditures that women prefer (Bolzendahl & Brooks, 2007;Kosec et al., 2021), including public health (Clayton & Zetterberg 2018), education (Svaleryd, 2009;Clots-Figueras, 2012;Beaman et al., 2012), childcare (Bratton & Ray, 2002), drinking water (Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004), as well as more stringent climate change policies (Mavisakalyan & Tarverdi 2019), among other policy areas. In a broader sense, when political representation becomes more gender equal, this can also facilitate more inclusive development (Chattopadhyay & Duflo 2004;World Bank 2012;Kalsi 2017;Hessami & da Fonseca 2020;Takeshima et al. 2022a). Accordingly, higher women's political representation has been associated with outcomes such as reduced gender gaps in health outcomes (Reeves et al. 2022), more infrastructural development (Nchofoung et al. 2023), more inclusive financial development (Ekoula et al. 2023), better quality of institutions (Dollar et al., 2001;Swamy et al., 2001), greater transparency (Iyer et al. 2012), and higher rates of economic growth (Jayasuriya & Burke, 2013).Beyond pursuing different substantive policies, women leaders may also behave differently than male leaders in ways that matter for women affected by crises. For example, female leaders could have different risk preferences or approach governing through crisis differently. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many media outlets suggested that women leaders were managing the COVID-19 crisis better than male leaders, with quicker and more transparent communication, although this did not appear to be systematically true (Aldrich & Lotito, 2020).In the African context, both climate change and conflict shocks may be independently shifting women's political engagement. Climate change and persistent conflicts can affect women's ability to exercise voice and agency beyond the household through their impacts on resources, capital, and economic opportunities. For one, both conflict and climate shocks can increase women's already high domestic work burden (Denton 2004;Goh 2012;MacGregor 2010), limiting any time they could contribute toward political engagement and making it more difficult to leave their homes for community meetings given care responsibilities. Shocks can also reduce access to resources, including to natural resources (Arora-Jonsson 2011) and asset holdings (Goh 2012), as well as nutritional and psychological outcomes (Dankelman 2010;Bryan et al. 2017). More generally, shocks of many forms can affect intra-household bargaining power (Boittin et al., 2021;Djoudi et al., 2016), women's workloads and economic participation (Kosec et al. 2021;Kosec et al. 2023), the ability to escape from poverty (Masika, 2002), as well as women's ability achieve economic independence, enhance their human capital, and maintain health and wellbeing (Eastin, 2018).These channels can each raise the costs of political participation, as individuals have less time and fewer resources to invest in political activity. Consistent with this idea, a number of studies find that economic shocks lower political engagement (Emmenegger et al., 2017;Guiso et al., 2017). Negative shocks can also lower individuals' internal sense of efficacy-their belief in their ability to make competent political choices-reducing their willingness to engage politically (Marx & Nguyen, 2016). Further, they can lead individuals to aspire to achieve less in the future-contributing to fewer investments in the future (Kosec and Mo 2017). Supporting this line of evidence, De la O (2013) also finds that positive income shocks increase political engagement.Another possibility is that shocks motivate individuals' political action. Shocks increase economic needs as well as coordination needs, and individuals may need to approach political leaders and engage with other citizens to address them. Collective action may be a needed response to a shock, and citizens may further seek collaborative agreements and a plan for rebuilding or otherwise addressing a shock. This could lead individuals to attend community meetings and contact political leaders at higher rates in the immediate aftermath of shocks. Additionally, if political leaders fail to protect individuals through adverse shocks, individuals may grow frustrated and be motivated to increase their political participation in order to support an opposition party or otherwise express dissatisfaction and demand change (Ahlquist et al., 2020;Margalit, 2011).There are also important timing dimensions to the potential effects of shocks on political engagement. Where the negative effects of shocks could prevail in the immediate aftermath of shocks when both time and resources are most severely constrained, both conflict and climate shocks can launch longer-term social transformations that alter both political participation in general as well as women's political participation specifically. Conflict can drive long term societal change, including in gender relations. Women are not just victims of conflict; they can be important actors addressing and responding to conflict, and conflicts can open opportunities for women to take on new leadership roles, including in political leadership (Yadav, 2021). Climate shocks can similarly spur social transformations by motivating women to mobilize politically to advocate for policy reforms and changes in resource allocations to respond to vulnerabilities (Brule, 2023). 2   A final question is how women's political representation may condition the effects of shocks on women's political engagement. Having female political leaders could shift how women as citizens adjust their political behavior during shocks. If female leaders can substantively direct policies to benefit women's needs and priorities during normal times, they may be able to do so during crises in ways that better protect women's ability to maintain their engagement in communities. Having a female leader could also provide incentives to women to participate during crisis: if new needs arise and women feel their needs will be better heard or received by a female leader, they may be more likely to reach out than if their leader were male. This is consistent with findings by Kosec et al. (2021) in Ethiopia about the gendered consequences of decentralization policy: because so many local leaders are men, decentralization can increase the gender gap in interactions with local leaders. The flip side of this logic is that having local female representatives during a crisis could mitigate the discouragement effects of crises for women.The literature reviewed above point to several testable hypotheses. This paper investigates three hypotheses at the intersection of women's political representation, individual women's political participation, and conflict and climate shocks in Africa South of the Sahara (H1-H3): H1: Greater women's representation in local political office is associated with greater political participation by individual women. H2: Conflict and climate shocks are associated with reduced political participation by individuals in the short term, with greater negative impacts on women compared to men.H3: Greater women's representation in local political office mitigates the negative effects of conflict and climate shocks on political participation by individual women.We aim first to test these hypotheses using data from a range of diverse African countries. Many African countries have both environmental and social fragility, providing relevant contexts for our study. Most rely heavily on the agrifood system for employment, which is vulnerable to climate change and has generally low levels of adoption of climate-smart infrastructure that would improve resilience to shocks. The African continent has also been the home of most conflicts in recent years (Hughes & Tripp, 2015). Questions about the effects of women's political representation in Africa are also relevant given its recent growth, albeit from a low base (Hughes & Tripp 2015). Contrary to common descriptions of highly restrictive gender norms in Africa, recent increases in women's representation suggest that further enhancement of women's representation is viable in many African countries, and that it could be an effective means of increasing resilience and spurring broader social transformation.We also focus our analyses on a variety of contexts within Africa rather than on one or a small number of specific localities since substantial variations in women's representation, conflicts, and climate shocks may occur in relatively wider geographic areas. Our focus also enhances the generalizability of our results despite Africa's significant internal heterogeneity in agroecological and climate change patterns (Emediegwu et al. 2022) and ethnographic backgrounds (Nunn & Wantchekon 2011), among others.Women's political engagement across Africa is important normatively and as a means of better integrating women's needs into the social and policy agenda in development (Njuki et al. 2022;Clapp et al. 2021;Ragasa et al. 2022). Understanding the nexus of women's political representation, women's participation and engagement in politics across society, and both conflict and climate shocks is important for the goal of developing more gender equal societies across Africa.This study contributes to various strands of literature. It contributes to the literature on women's voice and agency (e.g., World Bank 2012; Clapp et al. 2021;Paganini et al. 2021;Njuki et al. 2021;2022) by providing how relevant elements of women's voice and agency are affected by conflicts and climate shocks. It contributes to the literature on micro-level impacts of conflicts and climate changes on gender (e.g., Dankelman 2010;Goh 2012;Buvinic et al. 2013;Bryan et al. 2017) by extending their linkages with voice and agency. And it contributes to the broader literature on women's political representation (e.g., Chattopadhyay & Duflo 2004;Bolzendahl & Brooks 2007;Kalsi 2017;Mavisakalyan & Tarverdi 2019;Hessami & da Fonseca 2020;Kosec et al. 2021) by providing evidence on how women's political representation can improve these elements of women's voice and agency, partly mitigating the adverse effects of conflicts and climate shocks.We first estimate the following empirical specification, using a probit model:= Φ(\uD835\uDEFC 0 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 ).(where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is an outcome of interest (explained in more detail below) for respondent \uD835\uDC56 in locality \uD835\uDC57 in country \uD835\uDC50 in year \uD835\uDC61; \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is a measure of female political representation (FPR)specifically, the share of elected officials at subnational levels that are female; and \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 = 1 if respondent \uD835\uDC56 is a woman. \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is a vector of control variables, \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is a vector of country dummies, and \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is a vector of year dummies. \uD835\uDEFC's are estimated parameters of interest while \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is an idiosyncratic error term. Φ is the standard cumulative normal distribution function.Equation (1) tests hypothesis H1; it is concerned with whether individuals' political participation and collective action outcomes are predicted by their gender and FPR, and whether the effects of FPR vary by gender. We next estimate two additional probit models:= Φ(\uD835\uDEFC 0 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 ).(2)Prob(\uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 = 1) = Φ(\uD835\uDEFC 0 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 ).(where \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 is a set of proxy variables capturing two types of shocks: conflict intensity and weather shocks (rainfall and temperature), described in more detail below. Other variables and parameters are as defined in Equation (1). Equation (2) tests hypothesis H2; it is concerned with whether shocks predict individuals' political participation and collective action outcomes, and whether these associations vary with respondent gender. Equation (3) provides a partial test of H3 -pooling individuals of both genders, and considering whether individuals' political participation and collective action outcomes are predicted by FPR and shocks, and further whether the coefficients on shocks vary with FPR. However, to consider how this relationship looks not only for all individuals pooled together, but for women specifically (and thus a more proper test of H3), we estimate a fully-interacted probit model that flexibly allows all of the coefficients in Equation (3) to vary with respondent gender: (4)Using the estimates from Equations ( 1) through (4), we compute average marginal effects of each variable on the probability that outcomes take on a value of 1. These are computed as sample averages of marginal effects which vary across observations in the case of probit. For example, the average marginal effect that correspond to coefficient \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43 iswhere \uD835\uDC41 is the number of observations, \uD835\uDF19 \uD835\uDC56 (⋅) is the value of standard normal density function evaluated for each observation \uD835\uDC56 given the estimated coefficients inside the parenthesis (⋅) in corresponding equation. The expression ( 5) is equivalent to the average marginal effect of \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 on the probability that the outcome takes on a value of 1 for men in the absence of any shocks.Similarly, the average marginal effect for other coefficients are obtained by replacing \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC43 with each coefficient. For example, for \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC4A , it is interpreted as the average marginal effect of the interaction variable \uD835\uDC4A \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61 on the probability that an outcome takes on a value of 1. 3 It measures on average how a unit change in the shock affects the marginal difference for women (compared to men) in the probability that the outcome takes on a value of 1. Average marginal effects of other interaction variables can be derived in a similar manner.Our key outcome of interest is women's local political participation (i.e., participation in politics and public life, including collective action), captured by a set of dummy variables. First, we construct a dummy variable which takes on the value of 1 if the respondent contacted their local government councilor at least once in the last 12 months, and 0 otherwise. Second, we construct a dummy variable for having attended a community meeting in the last month. Third, we code a dummy for having joined others to request government action in the last 12 months. Fourth, we construct a dummy for having joined others in the community to raise issues at a community meeting in the last 12 months. Finally, we construct a dummy for being a member of a voluntary community-level association or groups, which could indicate broader potential for collective action and political engagement. These capture various ways in which women and men might participate in politics and public life.The vector of control variables \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 captures key characteristics of respondents, including their age, years of education completed, sector of primary employment, and indicators of their living standard including: the number of adult household members, housing conditions, and access to water. They also include nighttime light intensity and a measure of agricultural productivity proxied by satellite-based measures of plant biomass. \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 also includes a proxy of ethnic diversity in the locality \uD835\uDC57 (described more in section 4). Ethnic diversity has been considered a particularly important factor affecting behavior of both political parties and voters across Africa. Unlike other variables, ethnic diversity variable is time-invariant in our data; therefore, we interact it with time dummies to control potentially different trends in outcomes over time according to ethnic diversity.Our political participation and collective action outcome data come from various rounds of the Afrobarometer, which has collected individual-level survey data in over 30 African countries since 1999 (Afrobarometer 2023;Ahlerup et al. 2016). These data measure public opinion about democracy, governance, the economy, and society and have been widely used in the literature (e.g. Nunn & Wantchekon 2011;Buzasi 2015;Ahlerup et al. 2016).Specifically, we focus on the 13 countries in Africa South of the Sahara which have rounds of Afrobarometer data in addition to data on other key constructs (to be described in more detail in sub-section 4.2) from Equations ( 1) -(3): Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Republic of South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. These together comprise about 45% of the total population of Africa South of the Sahara. Table 1 summarizes the specific survey rounds for each country. While it contributes to uneven sample sizes for each country, our approach is to always utilize all Afrobarometer rounds we can for each country.In addition to Afrobarometer data, we also employ various other datasets, described in detail below.Data on FPR at the local level are compiled for various years from various sources (Table 1). In all cases, we look to the most recent election preceding the year to which our outcome data correspond-such that it captures FPR at the time the outcomes were measured. For most countries (Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, and Zambia), data come from Anderson et al. (2018). Anderson et al. (2018) provides information as of February 2017 based on the latest local election (typically, elections of local councilors from the administrative units described in Table 1). For Malawi, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, data are extracted from other sources. Zimbabwe data for the 2013 election are from Zvaraya et al. (2013); we match these with Rounds 6 and 7 Afrobarometer data, which correspond with 2014 and 2017, respectively. For Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda, information is directly compiled from Electoral Commission websites. For Nigeria, additional data for the 2007 and 2011 elections were obtained from Ibrahim & Ibeanu (2009) and Salihu (2011). Many of these sources provide the number of male and female elected officials, permitting computation of the share that are female at the subnational level. When such information was not provided, we determined who was female based on their name, using the Gender-API tool-one of the most accurate tools to detect gender by name (Sebo 2021). 4   Violent events data Our primary measure of conflict is an indicator for there being any reported incidence of \"violent events\" over the 12 months leading up to the timing of the Afrobarometer survey for that geography, extracted from the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED) (Raleigh et al. 2010). Violent events include battles, explosions/ remote violence, and violence against civilians. 5 ACLED records each event with its geographic coordinates and timing. In our analysis, we identify whether violent events are reported in the subnational administrative area used as sampling units by Afrobarometer during the 12-months period leading up to the month of the Afrobarometer survey year, regardless of whether there was any fatality or not, and use it as our primary measurement of conflict. In the robustness check section, we also use alternative measures: one variable based on whether violent events are reported, but only considering violent events with at least one fatality, and another capturing intensity of conflict using the number of violent events per square kilometer.Historical monthly average temperature data are obtained from WorldClim (Fick et al. 2017). Historical monthly cumulative rainfall data are taken from the Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS) by Funk et al. (2015). From these historical data, we constructed rainfall and temperature shock indicators during the 12 months leading up to the Afrobarometer survey month and year, proxied by standardized deviations from the historical averages over the period between 1980 and 2007 (one year before the first year of Afrobarometer data in the entire sample is used). In other words, they are captured as the absolute values of zscores, with larger values indicating greater shocks. Previous studies have used similar approaches (e.g., Mueller et al. 2014;Kosec and Mo 2017;and Takeshima et al. 2020).Average nighttime light density data are extracted from Elvidge et al. (2021) for each survey year. Continent-wide spatial data on agricultural productivity are extracted from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on the NASA Earth Observing System (ES) Terra satellite, computed by the Earth Observing System Data Information System (EOSDIS). The data are available at the 1 km 2 resolution annually for each survey year. The measure has been validated and applied by various studies, including Turner et al. (2006), Zhang et al. (2008), andStrobi &Strobi (2011), among others. Local ethnic fragmentation data are extracted from the Ethnographic Atlas (Murdoch 1967;Nunn & Wantchekon 2011).To estimate Equation (D1), described in further detail Appendix D and analyzed in Section 5.4, we use state-and local government area (LGA)-level public expenditure data for all of Nigeria's 37 states and 774 LGAs, following Takeshima et al. (2022b). These data are from annual statistical bulletins/ reports from the Central Bank of Nigeria and annual surveys conducted jointly by the Federal Ministry of Finance, the Central Bank of Nigeria, the National Bureau of Statistics of Nigeria, and the Nigerian Communications Commission, and are available quarterly for the period 2008-2015 (Government of Nigeria, 2015 and previous years). The data include information on expenditures by type (recurrent and capital) and function, including agriculture, health, education, and social welfare. Public expenditures (PE) for agriculture are classified as part of the PE on economic affairs for both recurrent and capital expenditures. While the exact classifications of PE vary considerably between years, agriculture, health, education, and social welfare (social security and social protection) were consistently categorized for all years, allowing us to include them in our panel data analyses.Table 2 summarizes our outcome variables, which indicate gender gaps in individual women's political participation. Overall, across the sample, 33 percent of men and 23 percent of women reported contacting a local government councilor in the last 12 months. There is also a significant gender gap in community meeting attendance (67 percent of men vs. 56 percent of women). Men and women report joining with others to request government action at different levels, with 34 percent of men and 24 percent of women reporting doing so in the last 12 months. Similarly, 57% of men, but only 44% of women, reported joining with others to raise issues at a community meeting during the last 12 months. Gender gaps are also evident in participation in voluntary associations and community groups, though at lower rates: about 36% of women are members of voluntary associations or community groups, while 42% of men are. Table 2 additionally summarizes the frequency with which those doing one of these activities report doing it often, a few times, or only once in the last year.Table 3 summarizes individual and household characteristics by country, for all rounds utilized for that country. Exactly half of respondents are female in every country. On average, respondents are 38 years old, with 10 years of formal education, and living in households with four adult members. About 12% of respondents are employed full-time in the nonfarm sector. About 54% have the formal type of housing (stand-alone house that is other than hut, shack, flat in a block of flats, single room in a larger dwelling structure, hostel in an industrial or a farming compound), while 61% have improved roof materials and 16% have a water source inside the house. Nighttime light, agricultural productivity, and ethnic diversity exhibit substantial variation across countries.Table 4 through Table 6 summarize violent events reported by ACLED (total number of events, and total number of fatalities, per 1000 square kilometers during the 12 months leading up to the Afrobarometer survey's timing), rainfall shock (annual total) and temperature shock (annual average) variables, and female political representation (FPR) by country and year.Importantly, violent events (Table 4) and climate shocks (Table 5) exhibit significant spatial and temporal variations, which we exploit to assess their effects. In Table 5, temperature has been commonly higher than historical norms between 1980-2007, and particularly so for Western African countries. In Eastern and Southern Africa, weather patterns are less extreme, with the exceptions of Botswana, Kenya, and South Africa.Table 6 reveals that, across countries, FPR at the subnational level has generally ranged between 1 and 45%, on average, with East African countries (Kenya, Malawi, and Uganda) generally showing the highest rates and West African countries showing the lowest.Table 7 through Table 9 summarize the key results from estimating equations (1) through (3), respectively. These analyses allow us to test hypotheses H1 and H2. We display the key coefficients of interestspecifically, those for FPR, gender, shocks, and all of their interactions.Coefficients indicate the average marginal association between the probability that each outcome takes on the value of 1 and our independent variables. In other words, coefficients presented measure average marginal effects, calculated by first obtaining the marginal effects of the corresponding variable (or interaction term) for each observation and then taking an average of these marginal effects across all observations. Our measure of FPR (\uD835\uDC43) is scaled by 10, so that its coefficients refer to associations between our outcomes and a 10 percentage points increase in the share of elected subnational leaders that are female. In all cases, bolded coefficients are those for which significance is preserved when correcting for multiple hypothesis testing within each table (pooling all of our key coefficients of interest across all outcomes), following Benjamini and Hochberg (1995).Table 7 suggests that women are less likely to participate politically than men in this context, across all measures of political participation (always significant at the 0.01 level). Specifically, in the absence of any women in office, during the last 12 months, women are, on average, 10 percentage points less likely than men to have contacted a local government councilor, 12 percentage points less likely than men to have attended a community meeting, 8 percentage points less likely than men to have joined others to request government action, 14 percentage points less likely than men to have jointed with others to raise issues at a community meeting, and 8 percentage points less likely than men to be a member of a voluntary association or community group. However, with a 10 percentage point increase in FPR, the negative association is statistically significantly smaller in magnitude (i.e., less negative) (at the 0.05 level or higher) for three of our five outcomes (community meeting attendance, raising issues at community meetings, and group membership), as indicated in the row \"FPR*Female.\"Notably, there is no statistically significant association between FPR and individual men's political participation, but the association between FPR and individual women's political participation is statistically significant for community meeting attendance, raising issues at community meetings, and group membership (see row labeled FPR for female (=FPR + FPR*Female)). Consistent with H1, being represented by women at the local level is linked with higher political participation for individual women. Despite the statistical significance of these estimates, however, the magnitude of the associations between FPR and political participation outcomes for women are relatively modest. For example, a FPR rate that is 10 percentage points higher predicts the probability of the woman attending community meeting is 0.007 percentage points higher, which is about 6% of the overall gender gap in this outcome (= 0.007/0.121), and thus arguably modest.There are many structural and normative barriers to women's full and equal participation in public life, and having more women local representatives cannot mitigate all of these. The range of FPR is also relatively low in our sample; it may be necessary to attain a \"critical mass\" of women in office in order for female representatives to really make a difference as women leaders and drive policy outcomes in ways that would be motivating and credible to female voters (Funk et al, 2022). There can be important timing dimensions to consider as well. Being exposed to female representatives may matter more at certain critical periods in a woman's life, like adolescence and young adulthood (Campbell & Wohlbrecht, 2006;Dassonneville & McAllister, 2018), or take a long time to materialize if women were not previously accustomed to seeing women in power. Observing a positive and significant association between women's political participation and FPR for women in this context is encouraging, and future work should further probe what is the appropriate functional form as well as timing to better understand its role.One concern raised in the literature is that higher FPR in contexts with highly restrictive gender norms could set off backlash effects. It is encouraging both that no backlash effects were found for women, as Liu (2018) found in South and Southeast Asia, but also that women's greater political participation is not coming at the expense of men's. Indeed, we find no evidence that FPR matters for men, and it is positive for women's political participation and collective actionsuggesting it has the potential to reduce the pervasive gender gaps in political participation we showed in Table 2.Table 8 tests H2, analyzing whether individuals' political participation is predicted by conflict and climate shocks, and whether these associations vary with respondent gender.Overall, only for violent conflict do we find a consistently statistically significant association with political participation; violent conflict tends to predict less political participation, and in some cases, this negative association is statistically significantly greater for men compared to women. We find much less evidence of climate shocks mattering for individuals' political participation. For men, having at least one incidence of violent conflict in the locality reduces on average by 2.3, 2.1, 3.7, and 2.3 percentage points, respectively, the probability of having contacted a local government councilor, attended a community meeting, joining with others to raise issues at the community meeting, and being a member of a voluntary association or community group. For women, in contrast, only for their likelihood of having attended a community meeting do we find a statistically significant association with violent conflict (a 2.7 percentage point decline due to having a violent event in the locality that we cannot statistically distinguish from the coefficient for men) as is seen in the row \"violent events for female.\" For climate shocks, associations with political participation are less pronounced than for conflict; while coefficients on these shocks are generally negative for both women and men, they rarely reach conventional statistical significance levels. Lone exceptions are that rainfall shocks significantly reduce men's (but not women's) likelihood of contacting their local government councilor, while temperature shocks significantly reduce women's (but not men's) likelihood of joining others to request government action.Overall, conflictand not climate -seems to explain individual citizens' political participation, with men being the most sensitive. This is only partly consistent with H2, which correctly predicted that conflict shocks are associated with reduced political participation by individuals, but incorrectly predicted that the negative relationship would be stronger for women compared to men. While this may be because women's political participation is already low even in the absence of conflicts, and thus challenging to move from a low base, it may also indicate that women have sources of resilience. We assess whether FPR is partly playing such roles in subsequent analyses. H2 further incorrectly predicted that this relationship would hold for weather shocks as well, and not only conflict shocks. One possibility is that heavy rainfall or drought increase the need for community deliberation around solutions (e.g., due to damaged infrastructure in the case of a flood or need for coordination around irrigation in the case of drought) whereas violent conflict lowers the feasibility and raises the costs of such coordination.If conflict shocks predict lower levels of individuals' political participation, can FPR help offset this relationship? Table 9 reveals that, in the absence of FPR, violent events in the past 12 months (having at least one violent event in the locality) are negatively associated with respondents' political participation. For example, in the absence of FPR, having an incidence of violent conflict is associated with a 2.7, 7.5, 3.6, 6.3 and 5.3 percentage points lower likelihood of contacting a local government councilor, attending a community meeting, joining others to request government action, joining others to raise an issue at a community meeting, and being a member of a voluntary association or community group during the last 12 months. These strong negative associations, consistent with what we predict in H2, are likely due to the short time period we consider in our analysis. In the time period immediately surrounding a violent conflict event, individuals may be dealing with displacement and security issues which make political participation more dangerous and less feasible. It is also possible that during these time periods, local leaders themselves are displaced or difficult to contact, or cease to hold community meetings at all, as local leaders can often be targets of violence. This could make it difficult for individuals to participate politically even if they wanted to. In contrast to our findings for conflict shocks, however, in the absence of FPR, the associations between weather shocks and political participation are generally negative but usually statistically insignificant. In the absence of FPR, temperature shocks are only significantly (negatively) associated with political participation for two of the five outcomes, and rainfall shocks are only significantly (negatively) associated with political participation for one of the five outcomes.Importantly, the consistent and strongly negative association between violent events and political participation is significantly reduced in areas with higher FPR. Indeed, the interaction term between FPR and the violent events shock is positive and statistically significant for all outcomes except whether one contacted a political leader in the last 12 months. Table 9 therefore suggests potentially heterogeneous roles of FPR depending on the local incidence of violent events; this is consistent with H3, which held that greater women's representation in local political office will mitigate the negative effects of conflict and climate shocks on political participation by women.Nonetheless, Table 9 pools together both genders and it is possible that the estimates are driven by men. Thus, for a more proper test of H3, we estimate equation ( 4), which interacts with gender all of the coefficients from Table 9 (equation ( 3)). Given the large number of variables, we illustrate key results by gender in Figure 1, while showing full results in Table A1 in Appendix A. Specifically, Figure 1 illustrates, for women and men separately, associations between FPR and our political participation outcomes in the absence of any shocks (first panel), in the presence of at least one violent event in the last 12 months (2 nd panel), in the presence of 1 standard deviation (SD) higher rainfall shocks (3 rd panel), and in the presence of 1 SD higher temperature shocks (4 th panel). Figure 1 shows point estimates as well as 10 percent significance level confidence intervals adjusted for multiple hypothesis testing (taking into account the large number of estimates (75 = 5 outcomes times 15 independent variables)).In the absence of shocks, FPR is generally not a significant predictor of political participation outcomes. Further, there are not statistically significant differences across genders in the tendency for FPR to predict individuals' political participation. However, in the presence of violent events (2 nd panel), FPR becomes significantly more positively associated with political participation outcomes for women, though not for men (and these differences across genders are furthermore statistically significantly differentwhich can be seen by considering the triple interaction term between FPR, gender, and exposure to violent conflict events). There are less stark patterns for weather shocks; for women, for no political participation outcomes does greater FPR significantly moderate the relationship between shocks and their political participation outcomes. For men, FPR actually predicts a lower likelihood of being a member of voluntary association or community group in the presence of rainfall and temperature shocksthough such a relationship does not hold for any of the other four outcomes.Overall, Figure 1 suggests that FPR plays a critical role in encouraging political participation (or mitigating discouraging effects of shocks), particularly among women. Further, this role becomes increasingly critical in fragile environments that are prone to violent conflicts.Appendix Figure B1 through Figure B4 summarize the robustness of Figure 1 when using slightly different measurements of shocks and alternative regression methods. In each of Figure B1 through Figure B4, the top panel corresponds to each of our four original results in Figure 1, while the 2 nd through 5 th panels correspond to the results based on alternative specifications.Our primary measurement of conflict variable S is a binary variable based on whether any violent conflict event was reported or not in the locality during the previous 12 months, as described above. In this section, we re-estimate equation (4) using two alternative measures: one that only considers violent events with at least one fatality instead of including all violent events, and another that captures the intensity of violent events. For the latter, we constructed the total count of violent events per km 2 of the local administrative areas and applied a zero-skewness natural log transformation to reduce their excess skewness so that the coefficients on the conflict variable are stable. 6 Results are summarized in the 2 nd and 3 rd panels in each of Figure B1 through Figure B4. Results based on these alternative conflict measurements are largely consistent with our primary results from Figure 1.Our primary measures of weather shocks are absolute values of z-scores. We re-estimated equation ( 4) using weather shocks based on percentiles (absolute deviations of percentiles from the 50 th percentile). Results are summarized in the 4 th panels in each of Figure B1 through Figure B4. Results based on these alternative shocks measurements are again largely consistent with our primary results from Figure 1.We also conducted robustness checks by re-estimating equation ( 4) through ordered probit regression, given the ordinal nature of the outcome variables shown in Table 2. Results are presented in the 5 th panels in Figure B1 through Figure B4. Results based on these alternative shocks measurements are again largely consistent with our primary results from Figure 1.Our main models from equations ( 1) through ( 4) show the non-causal associations between FPR, conflict/ climate shocks, gender, and individuals' political participation outcomes. For policy recommendations, however, it is useful to have more causal models. 7 While causality is challenging, we attempt to obtain indicative evidence of the causal effects of FPR and conflict/ climate shocks in a subset of our sample, taking advantage of data for Nigeria for which we have FPR information for sufficient rounds of data (as described in data section) and thus can check for parallel trends in outcomes of our interests. 8 We include a detailed description of the estimation methods we employ in this section in Appendix C.Table 10 summarizes the results of repeated cross-section difference-in-differences (DID) models, utilizing only Nigerian data for which we have sufficient rounds to test the assumption of parallel trends. We focus on checking the robustness of key results in Figure 1, i.e., the roles of FPR on average, as well as their relations with violent events and respondent gender.The top rows in Table 10 presents a set of five regressions showing that a relative increase in FPR has statistically significant positive effects on two of the five outcomes in Nigeriaspecifically, whether the respondent joined others to request government action, and whether they joined others to raise issues at a community meeting, in the last 12 months.The bottom rows of Table 10 from a separate set of ten regressionsalso show that, in Nigeria, the areas that experienced a relative decrease in FPR between earlier rounds and Round 7 (based on the average FPR for Rounds 4 -6, and FPR in Round 7) had experienced adverse effects of violent conflict events on attending a community meeting or joining with others to raise issues at a community meeting. This contrasts with areas that experienced a relative increase in FPR during the same periods, where much of these effects had been mitigated. Similarly, while violent conflict events did not affect whether the respondent contacted their local government councilor in the area with relative decrease in FPR, violent events actually induced more respondents doing so in the area with relative increase in FPR. While the differences in the estimated coefficients between the former and the latter areas are not statistically significant, they still offer qualitative indications that relative increase in FPR may have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of violent conflict events.One observable implication of women having more voice and agency as a result of greater political participation and engagement with collective action is that policy decisions should also be more reflective of women's preference. To consider if this is the case, we next conduct supplementary analyses using the case of Nigeria, where we have additional data on local public expenditures. Specifically, we assess the associations between FPR and public expenditures in social sectors which are often considered important by women, considering additionally how these estimated relationships vary with exposure to conflict and climate shocks. We include a detailed description of the estimation methods in Appendix D.Table 11 summarizes the results. Results in Table 11 generally validate existing evidence cited earlier. A higher FPR in a local government area is generally associated with greater shares of recurrent or capital expenditures in agriculture, education, and social protection. (Though we do flag that it is negatively related to recurrent expenditure shares for the health sector.) Furthermore, coefficients on shocks variables (conflict and climate) are broadly negative and in many cases statistically significantly so. FPR interacted with shock variables is in many cases statistically significantly positive (at least for conflict and rainfall shocks), suggesting that a higher FPR, in the face of these types of shocks, can mitigate their negative impacts on these types of spending.These results are consistent with the hypothesis that observed positive associations between FPR and individual women's political participation, particularly in the face of conflicts, indeed give rise to increased influence of women, in the form of greater expenditures is sectors of importance to them.Enhancing voice and agency among vulnerable population including women is critical for achieving inclusive and sustainable growth. Promoting policies like gender quotas has become an increasingly popular tool for enhancing women's voice and agency and closing gender gaps in the political sphere. However, there is still limited evidence on whether greater women's political representation can facilitate greater individual level political participation in the presence of conflicts and climate shocks in fragile environments. We aimed to partly fill this knowledge gap using data on women's representation in political office at subnational levels, Afrobarometer data on individuals' political participation, as well as data on conflicts and various climate shocks from 13 African countries that are collectively diverse in terms of development levels and geography.We find, first, that living in an area with more women in local political office is linked with higher likelihood of individual political participation, even in this context of high gender participation gaps. Not finding immediate evidence of backlash effects as has been found in other contexts is a welcome sign that policies like gender quotas may be an effective way to enhance individual participation. Although country fixed effects control for differences in gender norms across countries which may simultaneously predict women's representation and women's participation, there is still potential that localities with more favorable gender norms are more likely to elect women in the first place and to have higher levels of women's political participation. Future research could look for quasi-experimental approaches as has been fruitfully done in India to better assess causality.Second, we find that conflict shocks in particular depress political participation for everyone, although this is especially true for men in the 12-month period that we examine here. More women in local office tend to mitigate the negative associations between conflict and political participation for women. Supplementary analyses through repeated cross-section difference-in-difference for Nigeria support the cross-country panel analysis. Similarly, further supplementary analyses focusing on Nigerian data indicate that increased public expenditure shares on social spending (health, education, social protection) also tend to rise with FPR, especially when shocks are present. We take this as an observable implication of individual women having higher levels of political participation and collective action; their preferences further seem to emerge in expenditure patterns. Altogether, the results indicate that higher FPR can generally enhance voice and agency, particularly among women in Africa South of Sahara, and mitigate the damage of conflicts and climate shocks.Our results generally emphasize the importance of policies dedicated to enhancing women's voice and agency beyond the households in fragile environments, including increased female political representation at the local level. It remains important to promote local female political leaders through affirmative action like quotas, proportional representation system, and democratization (Fallon et al. 2012), carry out measures to foster and train future women leaders, and involve women more in groups such as trade unions and professional associations (World Bank 2012). Such efforts can be supplemented by instituting laws that favor women's political participation and ratifying international conventions that favor women's inclusion (Nchofoung et al., 2023). Importantly, conflict-induced fragility and social disruption can be an opportunity in disguise, as these shocks are also often associated with significant changes in perceptions and understanding of women's roles in society (Hughes & Tripp 2015). At the same time, it is equally important to promote female political representation through the longer-term trickle-up process through social institutions such as education and promotion of female labor force participation (del Campo 2005;Fallon et al. 2012;Viterna et al. 2008).Lastly, as is shown in our results, the effects of shocks, especially violent events, on political participation and collective action outcomes are negative in the short term for both men and women. Even if greater female political representation can mitigate the adverse effects of conflicts and climate shocks for women to some extent, addressing underlying fragility is critical.        Benjamini & Hochberg (1995). Critical values of t-statistics for 10% significance in this table is 1.95 instead of non-adjusted 1.65, when correcting for multiple hypothesis testing.      ","tokenCount":"9300"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0f248c0a06647cf21470cf2f6843b42a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9fe819ab-91a0-40da-9ef2-594905260522/retrieve","id":"1769840229"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"477bb1a2-1cfa-451d-a29d-85776649af5d","pagecount":"24","content":"All proposals for CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) and Platforms comprising the 2017-2022 CGIAR Portfolio, which were approved by the System Council in 2016, incorporate effective intellectual assets management strategies designed to maximize global access and impact.Strategic management of intellectual assets by Centers and their partners is essential for realizing CGIAR's global access and impact. The 2017-2022 CGIAR Portfolio seeks to promote more effective intellectual assets management practices through better integration and planning. Specifically, CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) and Platforms address the following: In 2016, CGIAR representatives actively participated in a variety of international fora addressing the access to and use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and Farmers' Rights. This primarily involved the various working groups and committees of the International Treaty pursuant to which CGIAR manages the materials in its genebanks and breeding programs.In 2016, Bioversity published a number of articles highlighting its initiatives to promote and strengthen Farmers' Rights; 4 to support community seedbanks; 5 and in relation to community-based agricultural biodiversity management. 6 The International Potato Center (CIP) organized decentralized meetings in potato growing communities in support of a national consultation by the Peruvian government to ensure that farmers' interests were directly taken into account in the review process. Additionally, a number of webinars were organized by the System Organization to raise awareness of Farmers' Rights under international treaty frameworks, including perceived tensions and sui-generis options for regulatory systems that allow greater flexibility to accommodate informal seed systems, and regarding the rights of farmers to save seed. 7Article 3 of the CGIAR IA Principles recognizes the indispensable role of farmers, indigenous communities, agricultural professionals and scientists in conserving and improving genetic resources. Furthermore, Centers are required to respect national and international efforts to protect and promote Farmers' Rights, as envisaged by the International Treaty, and toThe International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (International Treaty) creates a framework for farmers, research organizations, NGOs, plant breeding and seed companies and governments to coordinate activities conserving, improving and sustainably using Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) and to equitably share benefits derived from the use of those resources. CGIAR is committed to fully implementing and complying with the International Treaty. 3 The Genebank Platform of the 2017-2022 CGIAR Portfolio contains a policy module, which is co-led by senior staff of Bioversity International (Bioversity) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), which is responsible for coordinating CGIAR activities concerning genetic resource policy issues in international fora, including the activities discussed in the subsections below.At its 6 th meeting in 2015, the Governing Body of the International Treaty extended the terms of reference of an Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group to Enhance the Functioning of the Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing (WG-EFMLS), and expanded its mandate to consider issues concerning genetic sequence information and access and benefit-sharing.The WG-EFMLS's ongoing deliberations -which were further discussed at the 7 th meeting of the Governing Body of the International Treaty on 30 October -3 November 2017 and will continue into the next biennium -could profoundly affect the day-to-day operations of the CGIAR genebanks and breeding programs.3 At its 6 th meeting in 2015, the Governing Body issued a resolution instructing the Meetings of the WG-EFMLS in 2017, leading up to the Governing Body's 7 th meeting, have been particularly important for CGIAR, and submissions by CGIAR to the WG-EFMLS are anticipated to focus on a number of evolving issues being discussed in this fora, including: legal certainty and transaction costs associated with modifications to the SMTA; expansion of the coverage of the MLS; elements of a subscription system including termination of subscription and obligations; viability of a subscription system with upfront payment obligations alongside an accessed-based system with deferred payment obligations; differentiated mandatory payment rates and exemptions from payment obligations; access and benefit-sharing concerning genetic sequence information.Development, and to explore ways of facilitating implementation of the obligation under Article 6.5 of the SMTA to identify material received from the MLS in Annex 1 to the SMTA. The Secretariat has since conducted a survey to gather this information from Centers and submitted a report 9 of their observations to the 7 th meeting of the Governing Body of the As these income-generating activities continue to be considered by Centers as an additional source of funding, and as they potentially increase, it will be important to ensure that the Centers have a mutual understanding of the conditions under which fees or royalties can be charged, and that communications in this respect are carefully managed.The SC IP Group recommends that the net income derived from Centers' business activities continue to be used in a way that is consistent with the CGIAR vision, and recommends general increased vigilance and monitoring by the System Management Board of the Centers' commercial activities to ensure that:1.1 Net revenue from commercial activities is used to further the CGIAR vision;1.2 Centers provide dissemination plans demonstrating how commercial activities reach poor, smallholder farmers, and that their access to the technologies is not limited in any way; and 1.3 Potential reputational risk issues are appropriately anticipated if possible, and proactively addressed.The topic of resource mobilization is particularly relevant at this time, given the uncertain budgetary environment in some donor countries. Consistent with the CGIAR IA Principles, the SC IP Group does not consider the Centers' intellectual property (IP) related commercial activities to be mutually exclusive with the CGIAR vision. The Centers' ability to generate revenue arguably furthers the CGIAR System's sustainability, if that revenue is used strategically to continue funding CGIAR activities. However, commercial activities should not limit poor farmers' access to and use of CGIAR technology, or detract from Centers' primary missions. In addition, resource mobilization may trigger reputational risks, depending on the nature of the activity and the sensitivity surrounding the intellectual assets at issue. This may particularly be the case for Centers seeking patent protection related to the collections of PGRFA that Centers hold in-trust for the benefit of the international community, which is discussed in more detail below in Section 2.The CGIAR IA Principles require that Centers carefully consider whether to register/apply for (or allow third parties to register/apply for) patents and/or plant variety protection ('IP Applications') over the Centers' respective Intellectual Assets. The CGIAR IA Principles state that \"IP Applications shall not be made unless they are necessary for the further improvement of such Intellectual Assets or to enhance the scale or scope of impact on target beneficiaries, in furtherance of the CGIAR Vision\".In the 2015 CGIAR Intellectual Assets Management Report, the former Fund Council Intellectual Property Group made several recommendations on the justifications to be provided by Centers with regard to their patent applications. Centers followed up on these in their 2016 intellectual asset reports, as furtherOf the six provisional patent applications reported in 2016, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) reported one PCT application, ICRISAT reported one provisional patent application in India, and IRRI reported two provisional patent applications in the USA 18 and two PCT applications. 19 In addition, IRRI reported non-provisional applications in the form of two PCT applications advancing to national filings (one in USA and Australia; 20 one in USA and Brazil 21 ). Furthermore, IRRI reported on the discontinuation in 2016 of a provisional patent application, two PCT applications and a US utility patent application, each of which had been previously reported by IRRI with accompanying justifications.The justifications for the patent applications reported by Centers in 2016 were deemed acceptable. However, as experienced in previous years, follow-up was required by the System Organization in some instances detailed in the section Implementation of recommendations from the 2015 CGIAR Intellectual Assets Management Report below. 15 In their 2016 intellectual asset reports, Centers reported a total of six provisional patent applications 16 and two non-provisional patent applications. 17 No plant variety protection applications or registrations were reported. These are consistent with the number of filings observed in recent years, as illustrated in Diagram 1.to obtain sufficient information to reach this conclusion. This was in part due to different views on the extent to which Center justifications in support of patent applications should include development, dissemination and communication plans for the technology in question, particularly regarding technologies that are at an early stage of development.There was also a difference of opinion as to the extent to which such reports are required to include coverage of patent filing costs and actual and anticipated research and/or commercial licenses, irrespective of whether they are non-exclusive, as well as ongoing yearly updates on such licenses and costs. The System Organization is working with the SC IP Group and Centers to clarify expectations in this respect, and to set a precedent for reporting that strikes an appropriate balance between the priorities and needs of Centers and CGIAR's funders.The SC IP Group recommends that Centers:Publicly disclose all published patent applications on their website once they are registered in the applicable patent database(s), including information on how the patent protection will further the CGIAR vision.Provide the required justifications for any patent application to the System Management Office and SC IP Group, including information on: the nature of the technology; the purpose of filing for patent protection, pursuant to the requirements in Article 6.4 of the CGIAR IA Principles; a. b.2)Track the scope of impact of the technology and sharing of benefits to advantage the poor, especially farmers in developing countries.Flag potential reputational risk issues for patents that move into the national phase for the Management Board, so that they are proactively addressed.3) 4)In line with the CGIAR IA Principles, the SC IP Group takes the position that Centers should only seek patent protection strategically when it furthers the CGIAR vision, and that prompt public disclosure should follow the publication of non-provisional patent applications. Patent protection, particularly if related to the collections of PGRFA that Centers hold in-trust for the benefit of the international community, triggers issues of reputational risk, which are particularly sensitive given the range of funders' policies and stakeholders' interests and views. Such timely public disclosure is in line with the Open Access policy and global access principles, and furthers CGIAR's commitment to transparency. By getting ahead of funder and public scrutiny and telling the compelling story of how the patent protection will further the CGIAR vision, it also raises public awareness of the strategic importance of IP and mitigates the potential reputational risk to the System.Overall, the SC IP Group is satisfied with the justifications provided by the Centers in support of their patent applications filed in 2016. It has, however, notified IRRI that future reporting related to some of its four 'early stage' provisional and PCT patent applications (specifically the provisional patent applications, when moving into national applications), will warrant further justifications and a proactive public communications strategy, in light of the sensitive nature and potential reputational risks, and taking into account the nature of the technology involved. An example is the patenting of traits derived from wild species. Reputational risks only increase over time, as a Center decides to continue with national phase applications for specific country patents, and as a patent protection become more robust.The two national phase patent applications relate to GM/gene editing technologies. IRRI explained that these patent applications protect GM/genome editing applications and allow for future revenue generation in the countries where the patents are filed (i.e. Brazil and the USA). Given that these patents are entering the national phase, the SC IP Group expects more detailed justifications and information on dissemination strategies (as per the Fund Council IP Group recommendations in the 2014 and 2015 CGIAR Intellectual Assets Management Reports). This information has, so far, not been received. In response to the SC IP Group's follow-up questions, IRRI has indicated that it is presently working to establish a strong proof of concept and is not able to provide more detailed information at this stage, given that there are still many unknowns about the technology and its potential market penetration. In an effort to accommodate the SC IP Group's requests, IRRI has also shared its draft Intellectual Property, Commercialization and Communication Policy. The SC IP Group has reviewed this draft and supports its current contents. 22 c. the foreseen dissemination and global access strategy to ensure that they are consistent with the CGIAR IA Principles for national patent applications and, where possible, for provisional and PCT applications.System Organization 2016 reflections Centers and their partners typically disseminate the outputs of their research and development activities as international public goods. Use by Centers of the dissemination pathways permitted under the CGIAR IA Principles, which involve limited restrictions to global accessibility designed to maximize impact, remain relatively infrequent.In 2016, only four Limited Exclusivity Agreements were reported, and no Restricted Use Agreement was reported. These small numbers are consistent with the equally small numbers observed in the years 2012 through 2015, as illustrated in Diagram 2.The justifications for the Limited Exclusivity Agreements reported by Centers in 2016 were deemed acceptable by the System Organization. However, as experienced in previous years, follow-up was required by the System Organization in some instances to obtain information to reach this conclusion. The SC IP Group is pleased to note that the Centers provided appropriate justifications and comprehensive information with respect to the four Limited Exclusivity Agreements signed in 2016, including descriptions of the project, the exclusivity arrangement, and the rationale for how the target beneficiary markets were reached. It is important to note that some of the Limited Exclusivity Agreements reported include options to grant limited exclusivity in the future if the improved technology is commercially viable. The SC IP Group also welcomes the Centers' reporting of these 'conditional' Limited Exclusivity Agreements. While at this stage, these agreements do not directly limit exclusivity, they do include contractual terms that may govern future use, license and exclusivity. The SC IP Group therefore commends the Centers for reporting on these more indirect limitations on exclusivity. In any event, Centers also need to ensure that the terms of any options they grant comply with the CGIAR IA Principles, i.e., limited scope of the exclusivity in terms of geography, duration, etc.The System Council is pleased to see that some Centers have increased IP capacity. However, the IP capacity of the System Organization appears to have decreased to one part-time IP lawyer in 2016, apparently as a result of the legal demands created by the transition. The SC IP Group is concerned whether this decreased IP capacity may affect future work at the System Organization in support of the IA Principles and System-wide IP leadership. This section provides updates on the five recommendations of the SC IP Group presented in the 2015 CGIAR Intellectual Assets Management Report.Part 1: \"That all Centers -and IRRI in particulardevelop and report on their market and dissemination strategy plans in line with the CGIAR Vision as part of the 'justifications' for any patent application and, where possible, for any provisional or PCT patent application in the future.\"The System Organization updated the Q&A tool that provides best practice guidance to Centers to clarify expectations regarding the justifications to be provided by Centers in support of patent applications. All Centers that reported patent filings or registrations in 2016 included information concerning their market and dissemination strategy plans as part of their justifications.In its 2015 report, IRRI reported national stage filings in 7 countries on its previously reported PCT application regarding a method for producing a rice plant with improved grain yield, specifically replicating the gene SPIKE 24 -a gene that IRRI identified from a rice landrace. While the 2015 CGIAR Intellectual Assets Management Report explained why IRRI's justification was satisfactory at that early stage of patent protection, the report strongly encouraged IRRI to pursue a transparent and proactive communication strategy with respect to this patent, given the sensitivities surrounding the protection of a method related to a 'native trait'. In response to this, IRRI initiated discussions at senior management and board level to consider an appropriate balance between disclosures for transparency and operational needs for managing confidential or commercially sensitive information. As part of this process, it established a specialized committee of IRRI's board of trustees to develop policies and protocols governing IRRI's management of IP and commercialization. In addition, after IRRI's patenting of the SPIKE gene triggered questions from donor countries, members of FAO and civil society organizations, representatives of IRRI, the System Organization and Bioversity coordinated a response which satisfactorily addressed the issues raised, and IRRI posted information on its general approach to intellectual asset management on its website. 25 This was recently updated to include an Intellectual Property, Commercialization and Communication Policy approved in October 2017 by IRRI's board of trustees. 26 In its 2016 report, IRRI provided the following updates regarding the SPIKE gene patent: IRRI shared the final executed agreement with JIRCAS concerning the ownership and management of the IP involved in the SPIKE trait. Additionally, IRRI provided updates regarding the development of the technology, including the research and commercial license agreements that it had concluded, or was in the process of negotiating.Management Agreement with the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Science (JIRCAS), its co-owner on the technology and IP, was signed in February 2017. IRRI decided to a) pursue the SPIKE gene patent application only in Japan (JIRCAS), India, the Philippines and the USA because those countries provide better environments in which to conclude commercial licensing agreements; and b) let the patent applications lapse in Thailand and Vietnam. IRRI signed several non-exclusive R&D licensing agreements with third parties.2)3)The SC IP Group is pleased to confirm that the terms of IRRI's IP Management Agreement with JIRCAS protect dissemination pathways of the technology to reach target beneficiaries and preserve ample latitude for IRRI to advance the CGIAR vision and strategy of providing broad access to IRRI's intellectual assets. The SC IP Group regrets that IRRI, despite the recommendations given in the 2015 IA report, did not pursue a pro-active communication strategy regarding this patent given the sensitivities surrounding the protection of a method related to a 'native trait'. The SC IP Group continues to insist that IRRI provide more public information on how this patent will further the CGIAR vision, and to share with the System Office and SC IP Group a more detailed dissemination plan and/or global access strategy.\"That as part of the annual reporting process, the System Organization provide in its consolidated report a section on all patent protection sought by Centers.\"The System Organization provided the SC IP Group with access to a register that it maintains and periodically updates, which tracks patent applications, registrations and updates reported by Centers.\"That Centers continue to share their IP related policies, best practices and effective IP strategies and models with the System Organization and other Centers.\"The System Organization continued to update the online portal and repository it maintains to facilitate sharing by IP Focal points of their Center's IP related policies, best practices, templates, models, etc.\"That the System Organization's report include a section on how the Centers and System Organization have implemented the SC IP Group's recommendations included in the prior year's review.\"The inclusion of this section in the current report addresses this recommendation.\"That Centers are strongly encouraged to include in their annual Center IA Reports, a status report of their IP Portfolio, material updates concerning the progress of the Limited Exclusivity Agreements, Restricted Use Agreements and patents/PVPs they have previously reported (i.e. as part of their Part 1 general reporting concerning partnerships or dissemination pathways, or in Part 2 if the update contains confidential information). Such updates should include progress against any development, dissemination, risk management and/or communications plans (or other material attribute) that forms part of the justifications approved by the System Organization and the SC IP Group, and should also include public communications made in this regard.\"The System Organization updated the Q&A tool to clarify expectations on the provision by Centers of updates regarding previously reported arrangements. Some Centers included updates in their 2016 reports. The System Organization is currently developing a tool to assist Centers in providing periodic updates in a more consistent manner.The CGIAR IA Principles have recently been the subject of a review carried out by the Independent Evaluation Arrangement (IEA), the purpose of which is \"to assess whether the [CGIAR] IA Principles and their implementation is advancing the achievement of their intended purpose to maximize the global accessibility and impact of CGIAR research\". 27 The review assesses the appropriateness and effectiveness of the policy, as well as the efficiency and transparency of its implementation. It also assesses the oversight exercised by the System Organization, the SC IP Group and the System Council. The System Organization looks forward to considering and responding to the findings and recommendations of this review in consultation with Centers.There is an opportunity to look into, and potentially adjust, the role of the SC IP Group, taking into account the revised governance structure of the CGIAR System and, in particular, the function of the standing committees of the System Council and System Management Board. In this respect, it will be important to understand how oversight of compliance with the CGIAR IA Principles fits into the Risk Management Framework which is being developed for the CGIAR System. This is particularly relevant considering the reputational risks involved in IP commercialization or patent protections, and the appropriate linkage of the SC IP Group within the principle of providing 'combined assurance'.These potential adjustments to the oversight role of the SC IP Group should be done in consultation with the SC IP Group members and more importantly with donors, and should adhere to the principles of independence and access to Centers' information. These principles guided the donors' creation of the SC IP Group to ensure proper oversight and transparency. The SC IP Group welcomes the opportunity to provide comments on alignment of the SC IP Group's oversight function with the CGIAR System Risk Management Framework.The role of the System Council Intellectual Property Group (SC IP Group) is to facilitate coordination between the System Council and the CGIAR System Organization (System Organization) by working in cooperation with the System Organization with regard to implementation of the CGIAR IA Principles, and advising the System Council in order to enable it to provide adequate oversight of intellectual asset management in CGIAR.The SC IP Group receives all 15 Centers' intellectual asset reports, which include information and justifications about the Centers' Limited Exclusivity Agreements, Restricted Use Agreements, and patent and plant variety protection applications.In order to safeguard the sensitive or confidential nature of the material contained in these reports, or of additional information requested by the SC IP Group, this information is received on an in-confidence basis by the SC IP Group. The SC IP Group then filters this internal information to produce high level observations and strategic recommendations to both the System Organization and the System Council.Through to 31 December 2017, the SC IP Group comprises the following three members, who serve in their personal capacity and not as representatives of their affiliated organizations:-Paul Figueroa, USAID (Chair) -Aline Flower, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation -Bram De Jonge, Wageningen University SC IP Group members are appointed by the System Council for a two-year term on the basis of demonstrated expertise and practical experience in the management of intellectual assets and IP rights. They may serve for more than one term.the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (International Treaty). Pursuant to these agreements, Article 15 Centers hold and manage these collections in trust, for the benefit of humanity.Center (full name) Working Group to Enhance the Functioning of the International Treaty's MLS Further information regarding these activities is available in a CGIAR report submitted to the Governing Body for its 7th meeting on 30 October -3 November 2017, in Kigali, Rwanda.The findings, opinions and recommendations discussed in more detail hereafter represent the SC IP Group members' professional views in their advisory role to the System Council and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or entities with which the members are affiliated.Article 7 of the CGIAR IA Principles.The agreement concerns a joint breeding project where both parties contribute their gene pool and know-how to develop new varieties adapted to sub-tropical conditions. The objective is to have new varieties available to farmers via commercialization, with a benefit-sharing scheme which will involve monetary returns to HZPC, CIP as well as the Benefit-Sharing Fund of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. A press statement about the collaboration is available at https://cipotato.org/press-room/blog/experts-link-improve-south-asias-potatoes/.See Recommendation 1.Provisional patent applications lock in a priority date and require an additional filing to mature into a patent registration (e.g. PCT applications and national level provisional applications as are available in certain countries such as USA and Australia).  given the sensitive nature of the patent, i.e., seeking protection of a method related to a native trait derived from a landrace, the FC IP Group strongly encourages IRRI to a) share its final agreement with JIRCAS with the Consortium upon execution, along with any other licensing agreements concerning the patented method that may be signed in the future; b) promote and track the scope of impact of the technology and sharing of benefits to advantage the poor, especially farmers in developing countries; and c) pursue a transparent and pro-active public communications strategy with respect to its IP management in this regard\".The application sought to patent a method described as follows: a) providing a first rice plant comprising a gene SPIKE; b) transferring a nucleic acid encoding gene SPIKE from the first rice plant to a second rice plant; c) analyzing the second rice plant for the gene SPIKE; d) identifying and selecting a second rice plant comprising the gene SPIKE and exhibiting improved grain yield when compared to the second rice plant prior to the transfer.Available at http://irri.org/our-impact/technology-transfer Available at http://irri.org/images/downloads/Approved-IPC-Policy-291017.pdfThe terms of reference of the IEA's review are available at http://iea.cgiar.org/evaluating/review-ofintellectual-assets-principles-of-cgiar/","tokenCount":"4316"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c07808402a3628652962dd1cf64bf376","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46c0535a-3125-456d-b32e-ff5576a6b55e/retrieve","id":"2071581765"},"keywords":["multi-stakeholder processes","networks","experiential learning","scaling","innovation platforms","innovation systems","social movements","food security Koerner, J., Thornton, P. & Klerkx, L. 2024. Outcome-oriented multi-stakeholder network design: four innovation spaces to accelerate food system transformation"],"sieverID":"991232f7-d1c2-4c9f-b38e-4bd170c93db8","pagecount":"37","content":"Multi-stakeholder networks fulfil crucial functions for transforming our food systems in the face of climate change and other global crises, as the COVID pandemic has shown. However, there is scant research on how the form of these networks is connected to particular aims. Based on interviews with leaders or founders of 14 multi-stakeholder networks, we build a framework on outcomeoriented network design: We identify four different network designs, which emerge from a framework of ten design variables, each with different characteristics. We coin these network designs 'innovation spaces' and observe the main challenges and trade-offs among and between different sets of design variables. These, as well as the networks' main trajectories over time, lead us to introduce a simple innovation space grid model along the axes of structure and permeability. Each space accommodates a different type of stakeholder interaction which leads to the desired change dynamics and network goals. The concept of innovation spaces provides a differentiated view with regard to how multi-stakeholder networks innovate and learn. We also identify a space for an as yet neglected group, self-organized social movements. The innovation spaces concept can cater for long-term as well as short-term multi-stakeholder initiatives, and can contribute to reflections on inclusivity and addressing power inequalities. It can help designers and leaders of new and existing networks to take improved decisions on how networks could complement their respective innovation processes, thus accelerating food system transformation.We need to provide food security for up to 9 billion people in 2050, in the face of climate change and other systemic crises. The needed technologies exist or are rapidly developing (Nayyar, de Cleene and Dreier, 2018;Barrett et al., 2020;Herrero et al., 2020b), but in addition to technologies deep changes in the component parts of the food system are needed, fundamentally reformatting our social and institutional set-ups (Gaitán-Cremaschi et al., 2019;Woltering et al., 2019;Weber et al., 2020). The COVID pandemic, in many ways paralleling the climate crisis in an accelerated way (Manzanedo and Manning, 2020), adds to the urgency of transforming our food systems. How to make such transformative changes happen (Fazey et al., 2018) in an inclusive and sustainable way (Barrett et al., 2020), is a question currently being debated in many global dialogues. There is consensus, however, that the systemic changes needed will require multi-stakeholder cooperation in networks for accelerated learning and change, transcending geographic, administrative or thematic boundaries (Béné et al., 2020;Klerkx and Begemann, 2020;Loboguerrero et al., 2020), and involving societal key actors from research, policy, business domains and social movements (Conway, Masters and Thorold, 2017;Barrett et al., 2020;Herrero et al., 2020b;Klerkx and Begemann, 2020).The last decade has featured different approaches to multi-stakeholder cooperation in networks, going under different names. For example, from agricultural innovation studies the term agricultural innovation platforms emerged, which link agricultural research to development actors and outcomes, spanning local to national levels (Pérez Perdomo et al., 2017;Sartas et al., 2018;Schut et al., 2019), inducing coupled social, technical and organizational innovations (Kilelu, Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2013) or what has been referred to as 'socio-technical bundles' (Barrett et al., 2020). From the field of socio-ecological system studies, 'transformative spaces' such as Living Labs are increasingly being fostered to support food systems transformation (Gamache et al., 2020;Pereira et al., 2020). These networks emerge mostly at local levels, but often increase their impact by interacting with national innovation systems (Lamers et al., 2017;Sartas et al., 2018) or by connecting with larger, supra-national agricultural innovation systems (Yazdizadeh et al., 2014;Klerkx and Begemann, 2020). With increasing mission-orientation towards agricultural transformation, there is a need to orchestrate strategic portfolios of innovations beyond geographic or administrative boundaries (Klerkx and Begemann, 2020). They thus resemble what have been called global solution networks and cross-sectoral partnerships in business sciences, which promote global governance and capacities for collective change (Glasbergen, 2010;Waddell, 2012;Tapscott, 2014), negotiating with and enacting new roles and responsibilities for governments, private sector, civil society and individual citizens (Tapscott, 2014), for example through inclusive business partnerships (Danse et al., 2020).As collaborative environments, these multi-stakeholder initiatives provide spaces for experimentation, learning, action and change (Schut et al., 2019;Pereira et al., 2020), in which innovations are seen as interactive multi-stakeholder learning processes (Hekkert et al., 2007). So far, the research community has concentrated on the nature of stakeholder interactions (Glasbergen, 2010) to bring about desired outcomes (Johnson, 1998;Yazdizadeh et al., 2014;Lamers et al., 2017;Sartas et al., 2018;Schut et al., 2019), the types of change they would aspire to (incremental, reforming or transformational) (Waddell, 2012), and the different forms of governance (Provan and Kenis, 2008;Pérez Perdomo et al., 2017), terms of engagement, institutional arrangements, and facilitation of partnerships (Hartwich and Tola, 2007;Manning and Roessler, 2014;Dentoni, Bitzer and Pascucci, 2016;Lamers et al., 2017;Gliedt et al., 2018).The right type of governance particularly matters: inconsistencies in networks' objectives with their design can hamper effectiveness by creating tensions (Provan and Kenis, 2008) and trade-offs (Yazdizadeh et al., 2014). Furthermore, multi-stakeholder networks are prone to reflect the same dilemmas and inequalities as the organizations that use them, in terms of dominating paradigms (Pereira et al., 2020), power dynamics (Chavez-Tafur et al., 2020) and inclusion (Provan and Kenis, 2008;Sartas et al., 2018); yet food system transformation is said to require a shift in power structures (Béné et al., 2020;Herrero et al., 2020a;Klerkx and Begemann, 2020;Loboguerrero et al., 2020). Many of these patterns are already inscribed by the design of a network's structure (Pugh and Prusak, 2013), which connects outcomes, dynamics and member behavior to the network's underlying design dimensions. Similarly, Glasbergen (2010) distinguishes between 'psychological spaces' that frame the interaction of members, and 'transaction spaces' that define the rules. However, despite accumulated insights on functions and structures of multi-stakeholder networks (Sartas et al., 2018;Schut et al., 2018), there are still knowledge gaps related to network design, such as how different facilitation methods and stakeholder engagement models play out with respect to a network's objectives. Although there is consensus that multi-stakeholder networks can induce structural changes in agricultural innovation and food systems and thus facilitate the design and scaling of appropriate socio technological bundles (Kilelu, Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2013;Lamers et al., 2017;Barrett et al., 2020), we lack an overview of the relationship between network design and achieving a specific mission (such as increasing yields, alleviating poverty, or making food systems circular and climate smart) within food system transformation in an effective and inclusive way (Klerkx and Rose, 2020). We also lack information on how network design affects specific activities aimed at fostering systemic change, such as demand articulation, prioritization and agenda-setting, knowledge generation and brokering, capacity building, resource mobilization and institutional support, market formation, and creation of legitimacy (Hekkert et al., 2007;Glasbergen, 2010;Kilelu, Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2013;Lamers et al., 2017). Furthermore, we do not know which make-up of stakeholders in a network is most effective in bringing about specific changes (Muñoz-Erickson and Cutts, 2016), how a network learns and innovates, and how it can work most effectively with other networks. At the same time, networks are rarely static but take on different forms at different stages (Pereira et al., 2020;Reypens, Lievens and Blazevic, 2021), either in an iterative, short-term mode (Setola and Leurs, 2014;Lamers et al., 2017) or as a longer-term transformation as part of their maturation process (Creech and Ramji, 2004;Provan and Kenis, 2008). This all calls for more insights into outcome-oriented network design, which ideally would inform networks' complete lifecycles (Creech and Ramji, 2004) from the design stage (Meyer, 2013;Bourouni, Noori and Jafari, 2015) to its evaluation (Yazdizadeh et al., 2014).Here we unpack the design of several multi-stakeholder networks to examine their workings. We apply an iterative theory-building approach, in which each research question builds on the findings of the previous one. We introduce the term 'innovation spaces' for the different network designs, according to their respective objectives. The detailed research questions were:• Which different network designs emerge in view of different objectives of multistakeholder networks for supporting food systems transformation?• Which are the respective trade-offs and challenges that need to be considered in designing multi-stakeholder networks in food system transformation?• How do these network designs change over time, or for short-term purposes?In answering these questions, we reflect on what network design implies for shifting power dynamics and social inclusion, and how different multi-stakeholder networks connect to facilitate widespread transformative change across actors, levels and themes. The paper is structured as follows. We describe our iterative theory approach in section 2. In section 3, we present our findings related to the three research questions. In section 4, we discuss the usefulness of our findings in the context of food systems transformation. In section 5, we summarize the contribution of our study, highlight its limitations, and outline possible next steps.Our study followed the principles of grounded theory about a continuous iteration between theory with empirical findings (Timonen, Foley and Conlon, 2018). In the first phase, we identified the ten crucial design variables and their main characteristics in multi-stakeholder networks related to food systems transformation. To do this we interviewed leaders or founding members of 14 multi-stakeholder networks related to food systems transformation or transformational change. With the study taking place as part of the CGIAR research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), half of these multistakeholder networks were suggested by CCAFS' partners, based on a first research proposal (Koerner, Dinesh and Nagano, 2020). The other cases were identified via the snowball system, recommended by the first interviewees. The interviews were conducted between March and May 2020. Preliminary results were supposed to feed into regional policy dialogues jointly organized by CCAFS and FAO in June 2020, which limited the scope (number of interviews) of our study. For selecting the case studies, however, we sought representation across sectors, themes, geographic areas and reach (see Table 1). The interviews were recorded with the participants' permission and transcribed.To structure the interviews, we used the framework of network design of Pugh and Prusak (2013), which represented the most comprehensive and actionable concept available at the time of this study. Pugh and Prusak (2013) suggested that networks' outcomes would be rooted in the networks' design, with eight crucial design dimensions evoking particular dynamics and thus influencing members' behaviour. These eight design dimensions were originally developed to apply to knowledge networks, but we deemed them useful for structuring our interview guide (Table 2). To move from these open questions to concrete design variables, we applied a process of theme building, as also described in detail by Haman and Hertzum (2019). We clustered responses into recurrent themes, by grouping key statements and related topics on different PowerPoint slides. This allowed us to view the emerging main themes. In contrast to the framework of Pugh and Prosak (2013) that outlined eight design variables, we identified ten recurrent themes (i.e. design variables). We then did a cross-interview analysis of how these identified ten design variables played out in the different networks. For grouping and naming these different observed characteristics, we searched for existing terms in literature, which we found mainly in the domains of organisation design and management. Inspired by a similar approach by Dinesh et al. (2018), we present in table 3 the ten identified design variables and their characteristics, contextualized with the respective literature.In the second phase, we looked at the main compositions in which these characteristics occurred. For this purpose, we applied the ten design variables to the 14 studied multistakeholder networks, collated their respective observed characteristics into an Excel table, and sorted these for matching values (see complete table in the annex). Thereby, we observed that certain sets of variables were either correlated to the networks' structure (how rigid or flexible it was), their permeability (the ease with which members could enter or leave), or members' interaction. More precisely, it became visible that members' interaction played out in four different compositions of networks' structure and permeability (table 4). We term these four compositions 'innovation spaces' which we present with examples in section 3.1.At the same time, not all networks featured all of the characteristics that we would have expected according to their respective main innovation spaces. In section 3.2, we observe trade-offs, and respectively relationships, between different sets of variables that determined the networks' structure, permeability and members' interaction. We also observed movement between these innovation spaces: networks would develop in time, or would break out into temporary groups, along a certain trajectory, as further described in section 3.3. These findings then led us to visualize related design variables and trajectories in a simple model that accounts for both multi-stakeholder long-term (network) or short-term (break out group) aims, in section 3.4. We shared the results of our study together with a detailed write-up of the respective case studies with all interviewees, and incorporated their feedback, mainly consisting in clarifying details to the respective case studies. These findings fed into a discussion on the theoretical implications of our study (section 4.1), which lead us to reflect on how actors in the different innovation spaces can more effectively work in concert (section 4.2), and how and when multi-stakeholder networks are susceptible for power inequalities (section 4.3).The four innovation spacesan outcome-oriented design framework When we applied the ten design variables to the 14 multi-stakeholder networks, four main compositions emerged (table 4). As the study took place in the context of food system transformation, and all studied networks had an explicit mandate for collaborating towards change, we titled each composition with an association of every-day collaborative spaces for Network's objectives, or functions, should be determined at the very early stages of its establishment (Yazdizadeh et al., 2014). Winter, Bijker and Carson (2017) identify three types of multi-stakeholder networks functional types, that would develop and drive solutions through defined systems or sectors, integrate these across sectors, or convene for sharing and learning. Pettinicchio (2017) further distinguishes social movements into policy-making ones, and the ones that mobilize, thus paving the ground for action.Commitment as a form of behaviour that underlies individual or groups' performance can take on different forms. In task groups, effective behaviour will include task-behaviour or -commitment (Gladstein, 1984). Other forms include commitment to the topic (being able to do the same thing elsewhere) or the organization (strong commitment to the group) (Krajcsák and Gyökér, 2013). Perceived self-efficacy, finally, is related to commitment with rather intrinsic benefits (Lin and Hwang, 2014).The theory of change visualizes how engagement and learning can enable change towards development outcomes (Thornton et al., 2017). Change is brought about by key intermediaries, that can be linked to different phases of transition (Kivimaa et al., 2017). There are different ways to enact change: Successful innovation teams combine the roles of champions (development of the solutions) and promoters (supporting and advancing the innovation) (Mansfeld, Hölzle and Gemünden, 2010). The adaptation and uptake of the innovations might happen by pioneers first, then by their followers (Wurzel, Liefferink and Torney, 2019). In public sector organisations, change management will range from advocacy and institutional analysis, and imply facilitation and communication of the change processes, while social mobilization rather requires activists that reach a critical mass (Fuchs, 2006). Shared vision A shared vision can be achieved in different ways. For heterogeneous teams that shall solve a complex problem, a shared understanding of the task is crucial (Bittner and Leimeister, 2013). In situations where multiple interpretations are feasible, a shared vision is rather a constructing process that adopts and modifies tools and concepts to fit the different contexts (Grossman and Pupik Dean, 2019).In turn, when a group develops a shared identity, individuals provide more support to each other and perceive a higher sense of collective self-efficacy (Dick, Ciampa and Liang, 2017). With the aim of empowerment, however, it is equally important to recognize stakeholders' autonomy (Doten-Snitker et al., 2021) for a shared vision of change. Learning style Kolb (1984) identified four different learning styles, that sequenced as phases of experiential learning would have the strongest learning impact. Janus (2016) further associated a variety of learning tools and methodologies to the different learning styles:Accommodating (experience and skills), diverging (reflection, taking time for listening, using emotion and imagination), assimilating (analysis, concepts and models), converging (practical application of concepts and ideas). (Setola and Leurs (2014) used Kolb's concept to visualize creative learning spaces.With increasing complexity, collective action is more unlikely to emerge spontaneously and voluntarily, it has to be managed by a third party (Jagers et al., 2020). In turn, brokering is rather about bridging existing, different types of knowledge and actors, while navigating the urgent with foresight, and negotiating competing claims (Cummings et al., 2019). The facilitation of social cohesion, again, builds on creating safe spaces with a sense of collective identity and mutual support and tolerance (Fonseca, Lukosch and Brazier, 2019), while an empowering leadership rather builds on passion and self-efficacy (Hao, He and Long, 2018). Reypens, Lievens and Blazevic (2021) further coined the term 'hybrid orchestration' for switching between different facilitation styles.The strengths of groups are often measured in the members' closeness to each other, the frequency of their interactions, the transitivity of members' relations, and the how easily non-members can (or not) join this group (Mamadouh, 1999).As Sartas et al. (2018) stated, allocation decisions of funding can play a crucial role in the development context. In cross-functional teams, competition for resources can be a major impediments (Holland, Gaston and Gomes, 2000), which can be solved by inbuild funding sources. Philanthropic foundations are private entities that increasingly take on prominent socio-political roles (Jung, Harrow and Leat, 2018). Spaces for knowledge exchange and learning are also increasingly created by the private sector, though these do not necessarily act in public interest (Chavez-Tafur et al., 2020). Self-financing, especially of non-profit organizations, enables independence from bi-and multilateral donors (Sande, 2005) and private sector interests.Governance model can be divided into more hierarchical or more collaborative ones (Creech and Ramji, 2004). Especially for goal-directed networks accommodating members of distinct identities, strong forms of governance are needed (Provan and Kenis, 2008). The core-peripheral structure has a dense, cohesive core and a sparse, unconnected periphery, and is often used for projectbased organisations or initiatives, that still need to transfer knowledge from individuals outside the network (Bourouni, Noori and Jafari, 2015). In the hubs and spokes model, in turn, it is rather one organization managing the daily operation, with different partnerships and for a under one umbrella (Creech and Ramji, 2004).Self-organization would be at the other end of the spectrum, with individuals organizing their communal behaviour to create global impact by interactions amongst themselves, rather than through external intervention or instruction (Martela, 2019). This governance form is often overlooked in literature, but becomes more important in the concept of social movements, and in the context of an increasingly stratified knowledge society (Fuchs, 2006).A task force, as examples of goal-oriented team to develop specific solutions, is structured to maximize efficiency and productivity. Thus, the members develop their own plan of action and are responsible for its implementation (Moore and Kovach, 1988). In turn, networks that have been set up and funded with the explicit mandate to contribute to the global agenda, like the SDG or the Paris 2015 agreement (Winter, Bijker and Carson, 2017), will be expected to report on the related impacts. Achievements of peer networks and social movements are more difficult measure. Recent attempts rather use assessments as an internal tool for improving performance (Chen and Karbowska, 2018).Source: The authors experimentation, learning, action and change. We provide a detailed, practical definition of these innovation spaces in section 3.4.In the following, we describe the four different innovation spaces that emerged from the design variables' compositions and give examples of how networks either embodied these in the long term, or used them partially in the short term (e.g., as working groups).The lab space composition was mostly used to analyse knowledge gaps, address these by experimentation, and turn the results into actionable concepts, which could be applied in a timely way for a new learning cycle or shared among external stakeholders for wider use. The groups that worked most effectively in the lab space had a closed or targeted membership profile, with members being chosen for complementarity. These typically joined up for a shared task, which also required continuity throughout a determined time span. The members' inter-disciplinarity lend itself to groups to innovate and/or demonstrate change across defined systems such as landscapes or value chains. At the same time, forging the collaboration of heterogeneous partners required a strong structure: membership was often formalized by the members' organizations and institutions, with assigned roles and responsibilities of each member. Success was defined with objectively measurable outputs, often laid out in a road map or a protocol to follow. Groups in lab spaces were often organized in a core-periphery model, with an efficient management style for collective action at the core group and a more networked periphery for mandating and sharing. They also often counted on an inbuilt funding mechanism or were organized around one, which seemed to be another decisive factor to keep members' commitment to their task of innovating and demonstrating possible change.In the short term, lab spaces were used rarely by the interviewed networks. The most prominent example stemed from Grow Asia, which realized a disconnect between the digital sectors and farmers and organized a design thinking curriculum in which 'digital magicians', corporates and start-ups spent a week living with farmers in an Indonesian village. Members for developing and demonstrating new business cases. 'Really exciting breakthroughs happen when you get two silos to work together.' Networks could also be set up as lab spaces in the long term. For example, the Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Environment (SAFE) Platform was formed in 2016 as an initiative of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Lab for improving the sustainability of coffee and cocoa landscapes in Latin America. The 21 partner organizations were chosen for their different contributions and have access to IDB funding on different learning levels, provided that they comply with the Platform's rules. The SAFE Platform's knowledge management system ensures that data are collected, analysed and usable for the respective next project funding cycle.The market space composition was often used to showcase innovations, which could be experimented with and adapted by the more pioneering members while the majority waited for the results, for later application, experience and mainstreaming. Like a 'big tent', members could participate in a multitude of different activities in changing groups. Market spaces attracted a large and wide-spread audience of stakeholders. Thus, typically, membership was open or screened for basic alignment. The shared vision or narrative was subject to continuous negotiation, as cross-sectoral cooperation evolved. At the same time, market spaces were often expected to contribute to goals set by the respective societal or global agenda. For this purpose, they often received (multi-lateral) public funding, tied to delivering measurable impacts on scale. Achieving these across sectors required a formalized membership, endorsed by the members' organizations. Further, market spaces often offered a diversified portfolio of activities, for which they accessed additional mixed funding from foundations, contributions of the financially strong members, renting out services, etc. Accordingly, groups operating in market spaces were often organized in hubs and spokes, with the hubs consisting of the most active, but also financing and agenda-setting members, and the spokes consisting of the more intermittent or 'consuming' members. This set-up required a brokering facilitation style between members that were committed to the topic, not necessarily to action.Market spaces were often frequented by the different networks in the form of short-term cooperation initiatives or long-term cross-membership. Networks that embodied market spaces often contained a large proportion of different-sized private sector actors. For example, the multi-stakeholder partnership platform Grow Asia provided a pre-competitive space for its 50% private sector members. Launched in 2015 by the World Economic Forum and ASEAN Secretariat, and coordinated by a regional secretariat in Singapore, Grow Asia was set up to contribute directly to Sustainable Development Goal 17 (Partnerships for the Goals), aiming to reach 10 million smallholder farmers by 2020 through inclusive and sustainable valuechains.The peer space composition was mostly used for policy incidence or peer learning, and characterized by a reflective and conceptualizing learning style: Groups that inhabited peer spaces had a strong lean towards reflection and dialogue, building an atmosphere of shared identity and long-term personal relationships. Accordingly, groups using the peer space mostly had a closed or targeted and continuous membership profile, facilitating social cohesion and a commitment from each member to the group. Groups in peer spaces ewre often informal or semi-informal, with collaborative governance structures. Success hinged largely on the capacity of the peers to become change agents for and within their respective institutions. Thus, these processes were rather result-open, with a bottom-up agenda, and measured by anecdotal outcomes. Probably related to that, peer spaces were often supported by foundations or by a stable group of donors with a shared interest in the processes.Peer spaces were often used by short-term working groups for curating new knowledge products, thus ensuring balanced stakeholder representation andconsensus. They were also the preferred spaces of networks for policy incidence and local translation, as exemplified by the ASEAN Climate Resilience Network (CRN). The ASEAN CRN was founded in 2015 as knowledge exchange network of the research arm of ten ASEAN member countries, to promote climate resilience in the region by building governments' capacities and elaborating shared positions. The facilitation emphasized creating an atmosphere of ownership, trust and fun ('happy family'), in which country representatives were comfortable to learn from each other and take time for consensus building. As an unofficial arm attached to a formal working group of the ASEAN, its members needed to be change agents to navigate and influence national and regional priorities.The open space composition was characterized by an experiencing and reflective learning style. Members acquired and practiced skills based on their own, often individual, experiences and share these experiences with their peers. As the name implies, these spaces were openly and intermittently accessible by individuals or groups that were not necessarily connected. Rather, members were aligned by their intention and seek action support for social mobilization. Accordingly, the use of these spaces was rather informal and self-organized, with facilitationif anyaimed at enhancing members' agency and empowerment. Hosts of open spaces often declined external funding offers to remain independent. Members contributed in kind or with their own funds, with occasional fundraising. Accordingly, success was defined in an autonomous way and often not measured systematically. Open spaces were often used by movements, supporting activists to move a critical mass. However, it depended much on the individual's commitment to the cause how much action follows the involvement.Open spaces were largely used as virtual platforms that made knowledge products publicly accessible, or as online discussion fora. However, we also found one example of a network that fully embodied the design variables of an open space: Fridays for Future (FFF) was initiated by Greta Thunberg and a handful of young activists in 2018 and quickly developed into a global climate strike movement. Its central demands are to achieve the '1.5 °C goal'. FFF joint activists around its core values and supported them to self-organize their own activities, towards mobilizing the critical mass. FFF offered demand-based tool kits and training for developing knowledge and practical skills. Members connected with each other in open, non-curated channels. FFF emphasized that it is 'not an organization', and therefore did not need structures and external funding.The main trade-offs or challenges within the four innovation spaces At the same time, we found that not all networks featured all of the characteristics of one of the four main compositions. In a complex setting, multi-stakeholder networks often had to navigate the given conditions of their context. We observed trade-offs and relationships between different sets of variables and their characteristics: variables that determined the networks' or groups' structure (how rigid or flexible that was), variables that determined the permeability (the ease with which members could enter or leave), and variables that described members' interaction (table 5). We explain these relationships in the next subsections. How successfully members could enact the respective theories of change was strongly related to the degree of members' individual and institutional commitment, which hinged strongly on the shared vision and the buy in of members' institutions.Groups in the lab spaces chose their members for certain attributes or contributions. Thus, members inherently shared a vision around the task at hand. However, it was also important that members had the buy in of their organizations, to provide the necessary institutional leverage. As the SAFE management put it: 'These new, game-changing forms of doing things also require new leadership strategies that often challenge existing structures. We need to demonstrate new ways of managing these.' Similarly, the Netherlands Food Partnership (NFP) saw a challenge in institutionalizing its learnings across the different ministerial entities of its consortium. Good practice in both cases was to clearly agree and formalize the roles and responsibilities of each consortium member.In case of the market spaces, members came from different sectors and had to continuously negotiate their shared vision. For example, private sector corporations which formerly had not seen a stake for themselves in the concept of agro-ecology were enticed by the framing of climate smart agriculture to join the large multi-stakeholder platforms on climate change and agriculture, such as GACSA and Grow Asia. Although membership in these was formal and reserved for organizations with a credible stake in the topic, the commitment of the individual member organizations was not further specified. Especially in business-oriented networks like Grow Asia this led to a dynamic in which some members pioneered, and the others 'leaned back and watched'. The pioneers, in turn, 'in terms of their career' had to 'take on the risk to prove the value of their investments towards their own organizations', these often being shareholder-driven private-sector companies.For the peer-networks, the challenge was not so much an internal one, since members had been targeted, and over time even built a shared identity around their vision. It was rather the necessary translation to the external stakeholders that required reframing. For example, the North American Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance (NACSAA) had to first get into 'a conversation about repurposing, revaluing agriculture' in the national, climate changedenying debate, to be able to interact on the policy stage. This was easier for the ASEAN CRN, as network for building capacities of governments and bridging science to policy. Set up as informal arm of a formal body, they could count on the endorsement of members' respective governments but at the same time 'escape the strict protocols' and offer the needed emotional and peer support for their members to become institutional change agents.In turn, membership in open spaces was rather informal and often on the individual level. For example, FFF explicitly welcomed anyone as an activist, merely 'suggesting some values that are helpful'. How much action followed the involvement depended very much on the individual's commitment to the cause. However, activists shared a strong intention, often expressed by a network's slogan such as FFF's 'I want you to panic!'The extent and intensity of members' interaction also depended largely on the innovation spaces' governance models, which in turn also determined the groups' efficiency. For example, the formal core-periphery set-up of the SAFE platform was praised as being highly efficient by a recent evaluation, because day-to-day decisions could be taken by the small core group with the respective mandate. In turn, members of the periphery stated that they wished for more communication and interaction among each other, which was mostly happening at special occasions organized by the consortium.A hub-and-spoke structure, as usually featured by market spaces, allowed for frequent member interaction at numerous occasions, but equally allowed the less active members to hibernate. For example, the GACSA had to invest quite some effort to regularly reach out to dormant members. This might also be linked to the GACSA's explicitly 'not having a mandate for action', which GACSA tries to compensate for by 'forging more action-oriented partnerships at regional levels'.In peer networks, member interaction was at the heart of the business. This put quite some emphasis on the collaborative involvement of all members, which could present a bottleneck if the member-base was growing, for example. The NGO peer-network Participatory Ecological Land Use Management Association (PELUM) solved this issue by using a lab space to develop 'value chain models' that were tested and 'certified by the members' throughout their country chapters (using PELUM as a market space), now being able to offer this model for use by all its members (in the open space). Some of these collaborative networks also had an informal character, which could both increase or hinder efficiency. For example, when NACSAA built their membership base, they first reached out to farmers organizations. This tied NACSAA up in 'long bureaucratic loops', so that the strategy was changed to reach out to key farmers directly. Informality could thus help as a short-cut to avoid bureaucratic delays. It could at the same time reduce the networks' scope for collective action. For example, the Scale Up Community of Practice (COP) is a professional network open to all individuals and/or organizations across different sectors. Its informality allowed easy access for individuals and organizations alike. On the downside, it did not offer mechanisms for members to cooperate with each other, so that joint action was impeded by member institutions' administrative barriers. As a result, '(…) it has to remain informal, at the goodwill of people, but then there's just so much you can do with that. ' The more open networks tended to be efficient just because no collective action was needed. Driven by intent, however, informal and direct lines of communication facilitated selforganized action. For example, FFF members used group chats in Telegram, where 'you can talk to each and every people or chapters', but 'it is harder to find time in our schedules to go out and find each other. So, we either meet at big strikes, or we are just doing them (ourselves).' However, if self-organization is required in a more formal setting, this can become a bottleneck. The NGO-Resource Center of the Vietnam Union of Friendship Organizations (VUFO) maintained working groups with rotating chairs, which required selffunding by the chairing organizations. The current chairing organization already had to take three turns because of difficulties in finding a successor.All interviewees agreed that the facilitation style was instrumental in having social norms 'instilled into the networks' DNA', which would require a lot of emotional intelligence from the facilitators. The most important outcomes of good facilitation were trust between the members and their ownership. In lab and market spaces that featured substantial representation of the private sector, facilitation emphasized navigating different interests in pre-competitive spaces. The most important personal traits of facilitators here were being honest, 'speaking the language of the different sectors', and being able to 'wear different hats.' However, facilitation also needed to allow for the different learning styles. Here, time and continuity were the crucial aspects. In particular, groups in lab spaces relied on their own learning results to feed into action and usually operated in rather tight time frames. For example, the SAFE platform experienced how 'prolonged data collection and reporting delayed the possibility of having data analysed, processed, and insights extracted before the next round of project design and development.' Good practice was to follow a road map or protocol, combined with a facilitation style aiming at collective action. Leaders of market spaces with intermittent and less time-bound member involvement featured more of a brokering role among their most active members. At the same time, these networks often had to demonstrate significant and quantifiable impact to the international community, and many of their leaders intentionally applied additional network or management science to increase the networks' efficiency.The peer networks, in turn, needed a lot more time to build social cohesion and agree outcome expectations from the bottom up. Facilitation was needed to provide safe peer spaces for the open dialogues and reflections needed, with the specific requirements that the facilitator be non-judging, responsive, and averse to personal or organizational 'grandstanding'. For example, the Scale Up COP thrived especially with the 'friendly and welcoming personalities' of the initiators, which 'did not appear like they want to be the professor. They appear as peers'. However, for these networks' informal membership, ensuring the continuity needed could be a challenge. For example, the ASEAN CRN had to deal with an initially high turn-over of members until the 'trust was earned and the first results delivered', which resulted in a more stable group, which in turn again increased the group's social capital. In contrast, groups in open spaces were neither time-bound nor dependent on individual members' continuity. Their facilitation style emphasized empowering individual members' agency so that these could make their own experiences and reflect on these in an individual or self-organized way. For example, FFF facilitated tool kits and trainings to develop practical skills 'to help you set up your group or chapter. At national level, we're just here to help with some resources.' As a trade-off, this learning-and facilitation style involved ceding control. For example, one of the most important traits of FFF was that they 'no one has power over any other'. For networks that are accountable towards donors, this could be a challenge. The NACSAA, for example, aims to help farmers to set up and lead their own networks, while at the same time needing to report its outcomes. Its response is to invest strongly in farmer leaders' facilitation training and to stick to their 'formation principle to make sure that the leadership is clearly with the farmers, all our conversations are farmer-owned and through the lens of what they need.'Networks' funding was strongly correlated with their respective definition and measurement of success, with a strong trade-off between the networks' independence and members' inclusion. Lab spaces often inherently included a funding member or an inbuilt funding source. Access to that funding was equal for all members, set out in a memorandum of agreement. This and the ambition to advance the topic as laid down in a road map entailed the need for strong output monitoring and reporting. Market places had been set up with especially high impact targets, contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals or the Paris 2015 Agreement. They were thus accountable towards the international (donor) community, which also required strong monitoring and evaluation frameworks and structure. Most also a diversified portfolio with mixed funding from donors, foundations, and contributions from their more affluent members. These were also the ones most actively involved in agenda-setting.Peer networks and open spaces had a more bottom-up or even autonomous agenda. Whether they accepted donor funding or preferred to run on donations or membership fees depended largely on the trade-offs between their independence and the inclusion of economically weak members. For example, the Planetary Health Alliance (PHA) decided against membership fees to 'enable participation from the global South.' The World Farmer Organization, as 'the only advocacy organization bringing farmers of the global North and South together', explicitly relied on member fees to protect its 'freedom of expression without consequences'. To ensure inclusion, they set the fee according to countries' income levels. The PELUM again, as agro-ecological peer network with a strong orientation to empower its members, ran purely on membership fees but explicitly offered a service to help members with their own programs' fundraising. In contrast, the movement FFF was completely independent of any funding structure, with activists participating in open spaces on their own accounts: 'We really pride ourselves on the fact we don't need money to do what we do!'In any case, networks needed to formalize when they received donor money (for example the VUFO, PHA) or when the membership contribution was monetary (for example WFO, PELUM). Only networks like FFF and the Scale Up COP, which ran purely on in-kind member contributions, could afford to remain informal. On the downside, peer networks and open spaces mostly had no rigorous monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems, so that, as FFF put it, 'sometimes it's hard to keep track of everything that's going on'. This also put more weight on the facilitation style, keeping people engaged by generating and communicating anecdotal outcomes. For the ASEAN CRN, for example, it was one 'manifestation of success' when they managed to 'finally bring agriculture to the UNFCCC international arena (…) and the countries in South Asia are saying: We want to experience what you have, we want to learn from you!'The study revealed that networks were making a continuous effort to keep their members engaged. This required not only knowing their members' needs but also providing appropriate incentives. The motivation to engage and remain in the different networks was closely linked to the networks' permeability, being the degree of ease with which members could enter or leave the networks.Closed spaces with targeted members provided intimacy and continuity. This was important for both lab spaces and peer networks, but for different reasons. Members in lab spaces were motivated by being small groups of forerunners that had the opportunity to 'dive into core issues in the industry, such as how to define and promote innovation'. At the same time, this space also required considerable commitment of all members. With everyone having a defined role, the space needed to be closed in the sense that members should not leave the group before the experimental cycle was finished. By grouping around a funding agent or funding source, these networks provided the needed incentive. Impacts at scale, however, would 'depend on the ability to connect to and influence larger, sectoral stakeholder groups.' Members in peer networks were said to be motivated by a strong sense of belonging and by being heard. As the NACSAA related from its early days: 'So, we asked rural sociologists how we could have a more constructive conversation with the farm community, and they told us we should not talk about these crises affecting the whole planet, but really talk about how farmers are doing. How are they experiencing these real, climate-related challenges?'. The required continuity to achieve consensus by dialogue, combined with an informal set-up, could be a challenge. Members could be motivated, however, by a growing sense of selfefficacy. For instance, in the ASEAN CRN, '… they [the members] were scientists, and now they are transforming into policy makers, they are very excited in seeing how they can make policies …' Good practices, however, were also important here to provide linkages to 'more action-oriented other networks.'These could be market places or open spaces, which both were openly accessible for members but featured rather intermittent member involvement. However, their strategies to keep members engaged differed. Market places hosted pioneers that were 'driven by purpose', providing and needing an 'awful lot of emotional and personal support', but also needing to prove actionable and low-risk business cases. Less active members were attracted by the 'networking opportunities with the big players' and the potential to 'take home new knowledge that maybe we can apply even beyond [a certain context].' That required network leaders constantly to entice its members to 'provide new inputs, maintaining the network alive'.Open spaces incentivized their activists to take action by 'encouraging them to do just whatever they want'. As FFF put it, '… a lot of people really resonate with that because they're like, I don't need money, I don't need to be able to work on social media, really? Well. I just need to have the passion to do stuff. I just need to care …' To do so, FFF tailored their support offer to the demand of its activists. For example, they engaged scientists directly in their communication channels and organized expert webinars to socialize climate change science among its activists, with simple and usable messages. In a useful webinar, the scientists 'did a great job of explaining … that was like amazing and super helpful to know honestly'.The main trajectories of network development During our study, it was repeatedly stressed that 'form followed function': Most networks had a lead time of one to three years, from their initial spark to their official launch. During that time, and also during their life cycle, the networks interviewed were highly responsive to their members' needs, regularly sought their members' feedback, and adapted accordingly. This led to networks changing their course and compositions especially in the early years. We observed two main trajectories:As an example, the Sweet Potato for Profit and Health Initiative (SPHI) was set up and funded with high impact expectations from the very beginning. However, in its first five-year phase, it operated rather in the lab space, focused on the breeding of a sweet potato variety rich in vitamin A. For the second phase, SPHI transitioned toward the market space, where the achievement of high impact was possible. The major changes were related to increasing the permeability of the network, which also included negotiating a new narrative. Following an assessment that recommended 'women and nutrition as scaling pathway', the SPHI reframed its focus towards income and health.PELUM, as network for non-governmental organizations (NGOs), acted simultaneously as an advocacy organization for its 40% international members and provided action support for its 60% national members. The PHA, in turn, which because of being hosted by the Harvard University was not allowed to act as an advocacy organization, saw its theory of change in supporting 'social mobilizers', although in many other aspects they rather resembled a peer network. As a third example, the Scale Up COP developed a degree of social cohesion that was surprising considering its high permeability. At the same time, members displayed a high intentionality, with many of them having action-oriented backgrounds in the health and education sectors. This was also reflected in the high level of self-organization of the COP's breakout groups.In turn, trajectories that would change the network structures' flexibility seemed to require more efforts, with rare examples. E.g., the Sustainable Rice Landscapes Initiative (SRLI) was able to function like a peer network in a lab space, drawing on existing good relationships of its six founding members. Broadening their funding -and national member base, however, posed the challenge to upgrade their M&E systems 'without losing the networks' spirit'.The innovation space grid -a simple model As shown in the previous sections, networks respond flexibly to their respective contexts, and will feature different design compositions for their respective long-term outputs, or short-term outcomes. Hereby, they will rarely display all characteristics that are associated to the different innovation spaces. However, when we depict the related sets of design variables in a simple model (figure 1), we can visualize the main design decisions that multi-stakeholders need to consider for interacting effectively and being outcome-oriented, along the two intersecting axes of 'structure' and 'permeability'. We define these innovation spaces as spaces that facilitate different forms of multistakeholder interaction, which are determined by the space's structure and permeability, and bring about the change dynamics that lead to the desired outcomes.Our study aimed to understand how networks can be designed in an outcome-oriented way in the context of food system transformation. Our objective was to understand which different network designs emerged in view of different objectives of multi-stakeholder networks for supporting food systems transformation, what were the respective trade-offs and challenges, and how did these network designs change, over time or for short-term purposes. We now tease out some theoretical and practical implications of our study.Innovation spaces as a way to enable differentiated networks to support food systems transformation Our study identified four innovation spaces, based on the main design compositions in which multi-stakeholder networks innovate and learn in pursuit of their different objectives. These innovation spaces are defined as different forms of multi-stakeholder interaction, determined by the spaces' respective structure and permeability, which bring about the respective change dynamics that finally lead to the desired objectives. Our study confirms earlier research, which already established that the different functions of innovation platforms and systems would be a result of the interaction of their components (Hekkert et al., 2007;Lamers et al., 2017), and that a network's design will engender a certain dynamic and members' behaviour (Pugh and Prusak, 2013). More precisely, the innovation spaces combine what Glasbergen (2010) called 'psychological spaces' for member interaction through 'transaction spaces', defining the rules.Our study added to this a framework of ten design variables and their respective characteristics for each innovation space. Thus, we establish the link between networks' structural compositions, their facilitation, stakeholder engagement and governance models, and their functions in relation to their respective objectives, which hitherto has not been addressed in the same way in the literature on multi-stakeholder network design (Lamers et al., 2017;Muñoz-Erickson and Cutts, 2016;Sartas et al., 2018;Schut et al., 2018), providing a more differentiated view with regard to different modes of learning and innovation. Each innovation space requires, and/or is required by, radically different facilitation, management and learning styles. These come with trade-offs between sets of variables that define the networks' or groups' structure, their permeability, and the corresponding types of interaction. In the complex reality of food systems transformation, networks will need to adapt to given situations, sometimes involving lobbying, enhancing knowledge sharing, or co-innovation for establishing 'socio-technical bundles' (Barrett et al., 2020), for example. Our suggested framework for outcome-oriented network design helps unpack the tensions and trade-offs that scholars have anticipated in cases where network leaders need to deal with preconditions in the networks' design that might lead to a clash with set objectives (Provan and Kenis, 2008;Yazdizadeh et al., 2014). Below we discuss the main trade-offs identified to illustrate how these could make the participation for different sets of stakeholders less appealing or more challenging.'You manage what you measure' Spaces with high output or impact obligations feature more effective governance and management styles and M&E systems. However, these structural variables can be applied quite rigidly or with a lighter touch. For example, in lab spaces, members are expected to achieve a certain output in a limited time. The required commitment to high-intensity interaction will rather be invested by stakeholders with 'skin in the game', as can be found within a certain sector or value chain, for instance. Otherwise, participants run the risk of burn-out (Provan and Kenis, 2008). Market spaces, in turn, accommodate a wide range of actors who have very different individual pathways of pioneering and trendsetting. Their management ensures achieving the collectively shared long-term outcomes by offering a large range of different, often short-term, activities. We thus corroborate the need for more reflexive forms of monitoring (Kilelu, Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2013) in response to filling knowledge gaps about the M&E mechanisms best suited to networks (Sartas et al., 2018;Schut et al., 2018).'Nothing substitutes personal interaction' Spaces with low permeability feature a continuous membership, which in literature is associated with trust, often in connection with the groups' size (Provan and Kenis, 2008). Applying the innovation space model allows a more differentiated observation. While both lab and peer spaces feature low permeability, trust might be related to the absence of stakeholder competition rather than to the groups' size. Lab spaces, while often including competitive and for-profit actors, select members for complementarity, thus providing at least 'safe enough' spaces (Pereira et al., 2020). Peer spaces in turn consist of homogeneous members, either of different professions, or positioned at similar levels, with no apparent reason to compete. This did not change when peer networks grew to the point that personal interaction was not feasible anymore. In comparison, the more permeable market spaces were often populated by highly competitive sectors, but by nature of their facilitation and management style never required any kind of exposure or disclosure incompatible with their members' competitive nature.'Form follows function' Resonating with Provan and Kenis' (2008) notion that a governance structure cannot be 'both stable and flexible', we add that it also cannot be permeable and un-permeable at the same time. Observing the networks' trajectories, as stipulated by Creech and Ramji (2004); Pereira et al. (2020); Reypens, Lievens and Blazevic (2021), we found these are indeed predictable from their respective starting points, as stated by Provan and Kenis (2008), in that they changed their permeability (e.g., opening up their membership) rather than their structure. This can pose a challenge when innovation or transformation processes require strategic stakeholder engagement at different points of time or phases of co-development, and with differing intensity (Lamers et al., 2017;Pereira et al., 2020). Once a rigid structure is established, it will be difficult if not impossible to change back (Provan and Kenis, 2008). However, we observed that the spaces with high permeability (market and open spaces) allowed their members to break out into innovation spaces with different structural modalities for short-term tasks. As such, we confirm that hybrid orchestration between consensus-based and dominating modes (Reypens, Lievens and Blazevic, 2021) is possible, but only for a short time and for a well-defined task.In the quest to answer our research questions, we built a framework for outcome-oriented network design and modelled a simpler innovation space grid. We found that these also provided useful insights for two important additional questions, which we discuss below: how can networks work in concert for food system transformation, and in a more inclusive way?Orchestrating a portfolio of innovation spaces for different elements of food systems transformation As discussed earlier, different phases of innovation processes can require different sets of actors and functions to be fulfilled (Lamers et al., 2017;Pereira et al., 2020), as innovations need to be bundled with the respective different technological and social changes (Meynard et al., 2017;Barrett et al., 2020). Also, change can have different drivers: a supply push (e.g., by policy or business networks) or a demand-pull (e.g., by social movements and civil society actors) (Klerkx and Begemann, 2020). The COVID pandemic, in many ways paralleling the climate crisis (Manzanedo and Manning, 2020), has shown that transformative change needs to be addressed at many levels, simultaneously designing disruptive solutions (Cankurtaran and Beverland, 2020), engaging local, national and regional governments, civil society organizations and businesses in local experimentation and learning. and getting citizens on board with clear messages (Klenert et al., 2020). We can now associate these processes with lab, market, peer and open spaces.Our study has shown that it is difficult for networks to move flexibly between the different innovation spaces, unless for short-term purposes. Instead, we have observed that networks are often aware of their limitations and some have connected to other networks that provide complementary functions to support food systems transformation. A complex mission like food system transformation implies strategic portfolios of innovations (Klerkx and Begemann, 2020), and our study shows this can be done successively or synchronously through these different innovation spaces. Lab spaces, designed to develop or demonstrate innovations, could then be associated with living labs (Schaffers et al., 2007) or innovation niches (Kivimaa et al., 2017;Meynard et al., 2017;Pigford, Hickey and Klerkx, 2018). Thus lab spaces can initiate transitions but need to connect to (or develop into) a larger group of sector stakeholders to achieve impact (Schut et al., 2018). The innovations can be negotiated, tested and adapted in market spaces, which need a constant fresh input of demonstrated, actionable innovations, such as low-risk business cases. In turn, they provide the 'big tent' in which to adapt innovations to different contexts and to set trends across sectors. Peer spaces can level the playing field for policy engagement or local translation. In turn, these benefit from examples of 'what works' in the different contexts. Actors in open spaces need reliable facts, simple messages and actionable models for social mobilization. In turn, they can influence or reflect public opinion by demanding, shaping or resisting change, thus providing the 'demand pull' for policy engagement in both the public and private sector networks.Designing innovation spaces for inclusiveness Networks are inherently political (Glasbergen, 2010), and if the problem solvers in those networks are the same as the problem creators, solutions tend to be repetitive and narrow (Waddock, 2013;Manning and Roessler, 2014) and will remain stuck in current dynamics and paradigms (Chavez-Tafur et al., 2020;Pereira et al., 2020).By breaking down multi-stakeholder networks into innovation spaces with different sets of design variables, we can identify some design decisions that impact on members' inclusion or exclusion. As already suggested by Sartas et al. (2018), a critical factor is the networks source of funding, which can lead to a dilemma of either crowding out non-affluent members by requiring membership fees and contributions, or alternatively compromising the networks independence. Another important factor is members' capacities, e.g. for securing formal contracts (Lamers et al., 2017). Both factors will affect the innovation processes in all phases and across all innovation spaces, although in different forms. While lab spaces additionally need to watch possible exclusion of poorer country members for a lack of complementing competencies, market spaces are highly susceptible to being ruled by the major agenda-setting and/or funding partners. Breaking out in peer spaces can provide opportunities to mitigate the funding dilemma, for example by actively seeking contributions from and consensus among all participating members, and by keeping ownership of the agenda setting and framing. At the same time, capacities for successfully acting in peer spaces often have to be formed, which again takes time and resources. Open spaces that provide otherwise excluded or unheard actors with the means to connect and act appear under-researched currently.Such matters of inclusion and exclusion will impact strongly on the power inequalities that are inherent to any multi-stakeholder process (Cummings et al., 2017;Lamers et al., 2017) and that need to be addressed to arrive at inclusive and sustainable food systems (Barrett et al., 2020;Béné et al., 2020;Herrero et al., 2020a;Klerkx and Rose, 2020;Loboguerrero et al., 2020). However, while in the scope of our study we addressed the inclusion of resourcepoor members, the scope of our study did not allow deepening on the inclusion of groups such as women, indigenous people, or others who did not have access to the internet at the time when many of the multi-stakeholder initiatives moved to online spaces because of the COVID pandemic. We acknowledge this as a limitation and potential further area for study in section 5.As multi-stakeholder networks have become increasingly important for accelerating inclusive, equitable and sustainable food system transformation, insights are needed on outcome- First, these four innovation spaces come as compositions of ten design variables and four main characteristics each, which form a novel framework for outcome-oriented multistakeholder network design. Although not all characteristics can and need to be fulfilled in each case, this framework can help to identify possible challenges and trade-offs that may emerge, especially with regard to power inequalities and social inclusion. This can assist leaders of emerging or existing networks in working towards inclusive and equitable system transformation.Second, with the innovation space grid, we have provided a simple model that can be applied not only to the networks themselves but also to any shorter-term multi-stakeholder cooperation, such as when networks facilitate breaking out into smaller working groups. This model visualizes how the innovation spaces intersect along the axes of structure (how rigid or flexible these are) and permeability (the ease with which members can enter and leave), allowing different types of stakeholders' interaction to happen. Because each innovation space requires and enables different facilitation, management and governance styles, which may in turn evoke different change dynamics towards food system transformation, it is not easy for networks or even short-term initiatives to change their form according to any chosen goal. Our study has shown, however, how the different networks and actors in the different innovation spaces may complement each other's respective innovation processes, thus working more efficiently and effectively towards concerted action. Future research could usefully explore in more detail how these complementarities are realized and how multiinnovation space interaction is effectively governed.A limitation of this study was that we interviewed only the multi-stakeholder networks' leaders or founding members, which was mainly due to the time constraints noted above.Another limitation was that we interviewed only one network that acted as a social movement in the purely open space. Because in the context of food system transformation, social movements are increasingly recognized as critically important actors, we suggest further research and action to explore the considerable potential of open spaces to work towards food systems transformation. Finally, while we were able to address the inclusion of resource-poor members and link it to the trade-off between external funding and independence, the scope of our study did not enable us to go deeper on the inclusion of groups such as women, indigenous people, or others who did not have access to the internet at the time when many of the multi-stakeholder initiatives moved to online spaces because of the COVID pandemic. (Koerner, Dinesh and Nagano, 2020), with initial funding by ACIAR and the Ministry of Nature, Agriculture and Food Quality of the Netherlands, and in partnership with the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Jana Koerner and Philip Thornton acknowledge support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements.For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. ","tokenCount":"10154"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1693a9e524fe12cb2bf7c107bc8c72e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/81357642-aa51-4fa7-a9ae-0475cfb1f8b0/retrieve","id":"-193593757"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8db8c4f7-6dba-46b9-ad93-9df6314b495d","pagecount":"25","content":"The electronic revolution at CIAT CIAT has greatly benefited from the revolution in information and communication technologies (ICTs). Much of the in-house communication is now electronic, as well as most of the exchange with national and oversees dependencies and other local and intemational counterparts. Reporting and publishing processes are electronic, many scientific and most administrative databases are electronic, many publications are available on-line in full text or in some electronic meta-form and all projects maintain and update their web based information provision. Presentations are made using electronic tools. Electronic information bulletins (newsletters) and ad hoc messages reach out to networks and user lists of many thousands of professional and technical contacts as well as lo rural dwellers and their representative organizations.While e-mail services have been around for somewhat longer, the now extensive web based services have sprout up in no more than a handful of years. Relatively slowly as this process may have been in the eartier years, growth has been exponential recently as reflected in virtual visitar numbers to web pages, registered by almos! all CIAT dependencies.CIA rs potential audiences coming on-line On the one hand, these virtual visitar numbers reflect CIA rs recen! efforts in offering information electronically. On the other hand these numbers are due to the fact that CIA rs users and potential users are now massively coming on-line: thousands of researchers, decision makers and university staff, tens of thousands of development professionals and extensionists, hundreds of thousands of students, NGO staff and farmer representatives. And presumably -in the not too distant future-huge numbers of farmers and other rural dwellers will come on line, be this through local representatives or shared infrastructure (such as !ele-centres), be this through more independent means.As connectivity is on an exponential increase, these new methodologies promise great potential advantages to CIAT. CIA T can reach out to hitherto unattended and potentially larger audiences, cost of travel and accommodation of students and staff can be reduced or eliminated, the relationship between research staff and target audiences can be enhanced, the networks created through difieren! modes of computer mediated communication can give valuable feedback to the institute and the presentation and sale of its products may benefit from this new outlet.CIArs objective as stated in the \"lnformation and Communication for Rural Communities\" (lnfor-Com) Project \"Strengthen rural communities' capacity for innovation by better enabling them to obtain, generate and share information and knowfedge, with the aid of modem ICT's\", can be furthered through a host of difieren! activities, such as:• • translating research results into development resources;• improving access to global information and knowledge; • fomenting local use of ICrs for rural innovation; • developing local information and knowledge systems with rural communities.Several different enhanced communication facilities can stimulate a two-way communication, enabling leaming both by distant audiences and by CIAT itself. E-mail based systems (newsletters, forums, discussion lists) and web based systems both allow for bi-directional exchange, be it synchronous (chal in real time) or a-synchronous (leaving messages lo be responded later).Having these characteristics, these different technologies can be used in different modes with the objective to provide distan! audiences with services while learning at the same time from the impact these services have at the local level. Production expert systems for instance used in an electronic distance extension service for farmers or their representatives can provide advice on crop management. Local information on yields obtained from the farmers that applied the advice given through the expert system may at the same time be used to improve that system. Likewise, electronic geographic information systems can receive, elaborate and include knowledge from local information systems (such as knowledge on local soil characteristics for example) and provide the cominunities with the information once it is consolidated. Newsletters, electronic lists and forums are particularly importan! instruments in the creation and maintenance of networks of professionals, technicians and other stakeholders with common interests and/or experiences and in the provision and distribution of new information. Web based information systems are essential in providing these communities with permanently available information. Bibliographic information and full texts, multimedia on-line and on CD, product and process information, price and market information, etc., etc. may all form part of an integrated strategy of two-way communication with local communities and distan! clients. All these modalities of exchanging knowledge intensive information potentially contribute to outscaling CIA rs services on a scale not seen befare, promoting potentially, the prosperity of rural communities in a two-way learning process, in a form, never seen befare.The creation of a new type of Distance Education lt is in the context of these many different and mutually enforcing services and communication techniques, that we must place the role of a new form of distance education. The establishment of the Wor1d Wide Web in 1994 allowed for the creation and development of this new type of distance education based on the communication through the Internet. The didactic methodologies of this Computer Mediated Distance Education (CMDE) have since been tested and are now coming of age. Well-designed courses allow distan! students to learn when and where they want, allowing for continuous and on-the-job training in a bi-directional synchronous or asynchronous way.Although the technology perfectly allows for individual learning through courses hosted exclusively on web pages for instance, most scholars and practitioners now agree that -from a didactic point of view-it is particular1y attractive to create and maintain learning communities of students with similar interests and/or experiences. Especially in the case of courses directed at adults on professional themes that these adults already work with, these on-line communities contribute greatly to the effectiveness of the training and the interactive learning experience of the distan! students. The experience of CMDE the last years moreover shows that a-synchronous communication -in which the students have the time to think about the questions, answers or comment they contribute to the learning community-generally enhances a more profound exchange, then if they would only exchange in real time. A-synchronous communication stimulates thoughtful exchange, leads to so-called \"threaded arguments\" between students •amongst each other and tutors and is particular1y effective in the learning of concepts.Depending on the audience, the theme to be taught and the available teaching material, different modes of Computer Mediated Distance Learning may be relevan!. The a-synchronous community learning modality however is one that has preven its effectiileness and will be suitable in many instances, be it as an introduction to other services (virtual extension for instance) or as a parallel tool or as an instrument for its own merits.In the past, the counterparts ot CIArs activities and the natural recipients ot CIArs output were researchers at national research institutions and at universities and -possibly to a lesser degree-representativas ot different agricultura extension services. Face to tace courses given at CIAT headquarters tor example in the past generally catered tor research staff at a postgraduate leve l.In spite ot the tact that this tradition continuas to be importan!, CIAT has long ago adopted parallel objectives and embarked on strategies that focus the lnstitutes' attention on the needs ot small tarmer communities. This strategic decision was taken against the background ot the privatization and reorganization ot national and international research and agricultura! extension systems and in a period in which national budgets tor these services generally continue to be reduced, diminishing the attention given locally to the search on how to improve the livelihood and weltare ot rural communities.The provision ot different electronic services by CIAT such as !he ones mentioned in earlier paragraphs, and not in the leas!, !he possible adoption ot CMDE in particular, is a decision that is certainly not neutral to the question on who should be the audiences ot CIArs services. Although differential levels ot connectivity limit today's potential audience ot CMDE, the exponential increase in the adoption ot the new ICrs will potentially allow CIAT in sorne years time to reach out lar beyond traditional audiences and institutions, including to rural tolk in the field, potentially bypassing national extension services.Many different audiences can benefit from the opportunities ot Computer Mediated Distance Education organizad from CIA T. Potential audiences include the different categories listed in annex 1.One importan! audience is CIAT's own staff both at its headquarters in Palmira as well as the staff at its dependencias in tour different Colombian cities, in Central America, in Africa and in Asia. lt CIAT were to embark on distance education tor its own personnel, it would in fact tollow a trend set by many organizations. Many universities for instance attend their own en-campus students increasingly by way ot different distance education tools. Outposted CIAT personnel and personnel that have to travel trequently could likewise be attended through distance education.CIArs personnel could tollow courses provided by outside organizations, but the Human Resource Department at CIAT could also play an active role in this service and stimulate the preparation ot courses and pul on-line certain relatively popular courses tor the lnstitute's staff. Depending on the contents and the language ot these courses, these could eventually be offered to staff at the other Spanish-speaking CGIAR institutions (CIMMYT, CIP) or other Spanish speakers.In the case ot English language courses, these could be offered system wide or in fact in a modality open to a more general public.While it is relatively easy to do needs assessments tor interna! audiences of distan ce '. education, this may be more difficult in the case of extemal audiences. Establishing the ~1. d~l!la~d for a certain course, the size and characteristics of the audience and the ability to reach out to -this audience are essential questions to be answered betore embarking on any training program and this is even more true in the case ot distance education, where initial preparatory ~11estments may b!lr~?la!iy~ly_lligh .. The answers to these questions will help to choose the nio.dality 1n which a course may succeed in satisfying the needs ot the target audience.Needs assessments can be made applying many different methodologies. Personal knowledge ot CIA T staff or ot other specialists on the needs ot different stakeholder groups in key poor countries such as Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, the Brazman-NonneasC Bolivia and other Añaean countries can be used as well as existing joint research on training needs that has resulted in national atlases and other documents on local training needs. Local offices in Africa and Asia as well mus! play an importan! role in assessing !he needs tor certain courses in !he regions they cater tor. Existing networks ot institutions and people that the different departments at CIAT work with are also an importan! means of \\lStablishing needs and can usually be consulted directly. Additionally, it is also possible to pul questionnarres on weB'\"pages, distribute them by newsletters or do needs assessments through rural tele-centers, etc.Considering the more than ~ 5 different JlOiential audiences of distance education mentioned in annex 1, it is natural that thoughts would iñTiially-go.iiüf to seiving relatively traditional clients that are known lo have a clear demand for certain courses that CIA T can readily provide, courses for which teaching materials are available (or can be made available at short notice). These target audiences moreover can be expected to have a relatively good access to the Internet and these colleagues can be expected to have few problems with the use of the options that this medium offers. National researchers and different types of development professionals for instance, form such an audience and attending these colleagues by way of CMDE is all-the more attractive as the restructuring processes that we mentioned earlier and the diminishing funds have often torced national institutions to reduce their services to these essential intermediaries.When rather sophisticated audiences such as these are attended that have preven connections to the Internet of a good quality, different tools could potentially be used such as the ones that are being tested by CIAT\"s Systems Department: streaming videos, real time on-line conferencing, etc. lf appropriate lo the audience and the object of learning of a particular course, other computer technologies such as power point presentations combined with video and or audio, multi-media CD's and interactive programs on CD or on-line may be useful or more traditional technologies such as audiocassettes and radio (digital and analogue), video, etc. In spite of all these -and other-alternatives in reaching out to distant audiences, printable.texts_continue to form the ~ostwidely used, often easiest and most versatile ways of communicating with learners.When courses attend people with lesser quality connections, such as colleagues that connect through simple modems and long distance telephone communications, the standard technology used in a CMDE course should allow for these students to work off-line, limiting their online time to a mínimum and teaching materials should consist in small easily downloadable files or should be sent to them through different means: CD • s, mail, etc. Whenever sophisticated technologies are offered, the potential audience will diminish and this is also true if more than one technology is offered in a compulsory way. lf more than one technology is offered in a facultative way, we must expect our distant students to opt for the apparently easiest one, leaving the other aside, which may have strong pedagogic consequences.While the great majority of the existing teaching materials at CIAT are geared to professional and intermediate audiences, quite sorne material has been designed in the past with farmers themselves in mind (sorne of theses are called \"cartillas\"). Sorne of these materials could be reused in courses directed at intermediaries in rural communities that could be taught how to use these materials directly with farmers. As CIAT has developed importan! experiences with rural tele-centres in recent projects and has direct contacts with \"Somos Telecentros\" and \"Fundación Chasquinef', a very valuable research experiment could be to test whether rural youths and their families could be reached by way of CMDE through rural and agricultura! schools or by way of carefully chosen intermediaries at rural tele-centres.Especially in the case of this particular audience, it would be most importan! to tailor the use of parallel communication channels such as community and rural radios (scripting messages that have to be interpreted locally rather than offering pre-fabricated materials), public transport, community assemblies, church and school meetings, bulletin boards and the like. Written materials (or even rather pictionaries in the form of comic strips as is the case of most of the \"cartillas\") could be maintained in clear black and white forms and offered over the web so that they could easily be printed, photocopied and distributed locally.Many tens or even hundreds of existing CIAT documents and publications can form the basis for teaching materials prepared to serve the special needs of students participating in distance learning supported by the web. ~udio tl!)O~'!IS available in CIA rs Library could serve this purpose as well as the many training maíerials registered by CIArs Training Department and the \"cartillas\" mentioned earlier.Whenever materials are prepared for distance education however, it is essential to bear in mind that although a student may participate in network learning and may be a me mber of a learning community, he or she is, in last resort, a student that has to learn on his/her own without having tace to tace contact with tutors and fellow students. The auto-didacticism of this distan! student must therefore be supported in the best way possible by \"learniñg maierials that are well written and illustrated, well organized in clear modules, indicating overall learning objectives, learniñg objéctíves of ihe individual mcidu.les, etc. The modules may include exercises or questions that allow the auto-evaluation of the distan! student or may contain discussion questions in order to stimulate the group exchange in the learning community, etc.CIAT has in fact a long standing experience in the preparation of materials that atta in the high standards that distan! education materials require, a template for the design of course material is readily available and specialized personnel can assizt and has offered to assist in the process of the preparation of teaching material by the different departments.Specialized CIAT staff lt is no secret that CIA T can count on a versatile staff that includes (former) educators, (former) tutors, communicators, web designers, information specialists, system designers, course designers, course administrators and others that can potentially play essential roles in a distance education that is increasingly characterized by tendencies of Fordist specialization where different tasks in the educational process are executed by different specialists.Computer Mediated Distance Education -in the context of other new information serviceswill allow CIAT to potentially reach out to new and larger audiences well beyond its traditional training audiences. The decision of whether and how to do so will influence the perception the world has of the institute, will strengthen sorne rather than all of CIA rs core objectives, will reshape its relationships with national counterpart institutions and with local communities. CMDE is expected to establish itself firmly and successfully in the next few years. CIAT will want to leam by doing distance education in the very short run. lt therefore seems advisable that the lnstitute would do so in collaboration with other institutions that are embarking on this endeavor such as WB, CARE, GFAR, IFAD, IRRI and REDCAPA. CIAT could launch a series of tests and pilot courses that could be almos! self financing or could be supported by agencies such as IDRC, USAID, NORAID, SIDA, DIFID and the Kellogg Foundation particularly in the case of testing the effectiveness of CMDE in reaching out to rural end users. CIArs own Strategic Research Fund may be instrumental in drawing scientific conclusions trom the different experiments that may be launched, but it also seems advisable that CIAT and REDCAPA prepare and execute a joint project on CMDE that could be co-financed by one of the organizations mentioned. However this may be, an importan! number of CIAT (including sorne IPGRI and CLAYUCA) courses have been identified that can potentially be prepared to be offered within the next year Of so. The list of these potential courses can be found in the next chapter JI.This new form of distance education allows for the specialization of tasks. As CIAT has a • clear comparative advantage in the creation and registration of new knowledge, it could focus on the preparation of course materials .. Through collaborative relations with other institutions, it could outsource the administration of the courses and it colóld also aim to limit the involvement of its own core staff by stimulating the tutoring of CIAT courses by outsiders. REDCAPA is in that sense a very logical counterpart as it not only has a long-standing experience in the technical and administrative coordination of courses, but also because -through its university member institutionshas a very amph:i access to specialized potential tutors. This possible collaboration between CIAT and REDCAPA is\\elaborated upon in chapter 111.Preparation costs of CMDE are relatively high and usually higher than that of face to face courses but the execution cost of this type of courses can in fact be lower than that of the class room courses. As i::osts of travel and lodging are lower or non-existen!, the actual cost of distance courses to individual students and institutions may be very favorable indeed. lt is in this context that it may be interesting to consider the possibility of putting these aspects of CIATs CMDE on a business footing in the medium term. After having experimented the effectiveness and viability of CMDE during 2 or 3 years, CIAT may wish to consider the creation of a local Distance Education partner organization in its Science Park.--Below is a list of courses that could tentatively be given by way of Computer Mediated Distance Education or in a combination of this technique with others. Course materials are ready or will be updated te serve not only as individual learning packages (apt for auto-didacticism) but also specifically lo serve in distance community learning by a-synchronous communication.Courses 1 lo 4 and 11 through 18 were explicitly analyzed with ene or more specialists responsible for their preparation and/or execution. Due lo the temporary absence of their creators (or for other temporary reasons), courses 5 lo 10 and 19, 20 were discussed only with an education specialist that has collaborated in their preparation. Course 22 was discussed al sorne depth and has an importan! potential, but was not thought of as a distance course yet. Courses 23 through 32 are mentioned in different documents and have been given in the \"face lo tace\" modality but could not be researched in more depth.Essential aspects of the courses are registered below such as the existence of a demand and of a target audience, the ability lo reach out te this audience, the state of development of the course material and the capacity te bring it up te standard, the availability of professional tutors, the estimated time of preparation, estimated costs involved in the preparation and execution of the course and possible funding of these costs.The possible impact of course number 1 is described in somewhat more detail; the rest of the courses are presented in sequen ce of their tentative earliest execution dates. Potentially, a total number of 9 courses are in principie ready te be given as early as September of 2003. One course could be offered in October. Eight courses would in principie be ready in March 2004; another could be scheduled for June 2004 and one more for October 2004. The earliest execution date of the remaining courses was not analyzed although several might be ready for execution in this same time trame. Over the years, the Genetic Resource Unit al CIAT has developed a number of procedures and relatively easily applicable methods and standards that greatly enhance the capacity and quality of its services, allowing for the improved storage of additional genetic infomnation. Well documented, these methodologies can be shared with colleagues all over the globe that can improve their facilities accordingly and can interchange their contributions in an online leaming community.-Target audlence: Approximately 1300 official gene banks exist around the world as well as possibly more than 500 unofficial enes al universities and non-government institutions, that can potentially benefit from this knowledge. Participation in the course could include managers and coordinators or more technical personnel as pathologists, etc, depending on the focus of (different modules of) the course.-Means to reach out to the audience: An e-mail database of the 1300 institutions apparently exists.-State of the material: In progress. Support lo this process and monitoring of the material may be helpful.-Language/s: The documentation will be provided in English and in Spanish. The Spanish version may be the first lo be ready by the end of 2003.-  -Observations: This is a very creative way of community mapmaking that can be used as a tool in many natural resource and rural development projects at the regional level. lt could be applied specifically in a regional GTZ project on Andean watersheds.  The preparation, administration and execution of Computer Mediated Oistance Education (CMOE) directed al A-synchronous Network Leaming requires the management and execution of a series of activities that can be characterized according lo the following 15 headings. This Fordism (specialization of tasks and possible massification of output) allows the allocation of different tasks to different units or institutions. As an institute dedicated lo knowledge development, CIAT could concentrate on the design of course materials, could support its preparation or could in fact take charge of that task (task 1 mentioned bellow). Extemal institutions such as universities could also participate in the preparation of teaching material, supervised by CIAT staff. Although CIAT could dedicate itself lo the tutoring of a course (task 11 mentioned below), it could also share this task with another institute or could in fact outsource this task entirely.As www.REDCAPA.org.br has a long-standing experience in the administration, monitoring and practica! execution of Computer Mediated Distance Education directed al A-synchronous Network Learning, it could take charge of tasks 2 through 1 O and 12 through 15. Although it is usually perceived that the creation and maintenance of the actual electronic virtual campus is the core business of CMDE, experience shows that this task only fomns a relatively minar part of the many tasks that require several years of experience lo dominate efficiently.As distance education always has lo cater for auto-didacticism on behalf of the students that participate at a distance, teaching material has to be prepared providing the best stimuli possible lo enhance this type of leaming. While relatively simple adjustments to existing materials might suffice in sorne cases, others may require the involvement of complex techniques and teamwork lo create material based on multimedia. As Network Learning is pursued and leamers will have lo follow certain time schedules in arder to allow for group exchange, materials have lo be structured in clear modules.Teachers, tutors, monitors and administrators have lo be prepared for attending virtual students that do not necessarily behave as would be expected of class room students. Virtual environments geared to Network Leaming have to be carefully created and administered by this staff.As Distance Education potentially caters for new, distan!, possibly bigger and probably somewhat different audiences, new types of marketing may be required lo reach out to this public. A number of tools that provide the most effective and/or most economic access to this audience must be pul in place and adapted over time as new technologies and opportunities arise. REDCAPA basically uses its own electronic infomnation bulletins (10.000 readers), a database on emails of professionals in Latin America (50.000) and the contacts with over 50 friendly networks.Computer mediated Distance Education is usually announced through web pages that contain all the infomnation on the course contents, the CV's of the resource personnel, the course procedures and requirements, in short, all the infomnation for the student to take best advantage of the course.The on-line registration of students with specially prepared forms allows for a number of advantages: The procedure may be used as a first test of the candidate's access to web-facilities and his ability to prepare and send a simple message in that environment. The fomn itself requires the students agreement with the procedures of the distance course. 11 may also reveal valuable infomnation on the student that enhances the selection process and can provide the distan! resource staff (and possibly fellow students) with valuable infomnation on the future participan!, his academic and professional background and his particular experience and expectations with respect to the course. Importan! for course (computing) system administrators is also that the form can check on the equipment that the student has available and the type and quality of his/her connection to the Internet. In the case for instance in which he/she uses a modem and long distance telephone calls, he/she can be explained how to work off-line, most of the time.In arder for Network Learning lo be successful, students must be able to communicate between themselves. This communication depends on an array of factors but is greatly enhanced when students have joint interests, experiences or visions and when their levels of knowledge are not too diverse. A well-tuned selection process that may involve difieren! actors must cater for this.As new audiences in difieren! countries may be attended and students may not physically show up al the administration office, new payment arrangements must be pul in place involving international bank accounts, bank accounts in difieren! countries, credit card facilities, etc. Even if courses are free of charge, it may be advisable -with a view to enhancing commitment-to charge a limited lee, which may be returned to the student, once he/she has completed the course satisfactorily.Distan! students usually require much more written feedback information on the course they are about to follow or have already embarked upon !han classroom students. They may also have to be guided through the installation of certain software, may have to be provided with particular courseware and have to be instructed with respect to the functioning of the on-line environment in which they will act. Students are provided with identification numbers and passwords to have access to (parts of) the virtual environment. Manuals for the use of the virtual campus have to be provided and students have to be taught how to use the system and have to be assisted especially during their initial experiences with the new medium. Help menus and answers to frequently asked questions have to be provided to them. 9. Design of the virtual campus.The virtual campus has to be designed and set up, including the academic platform with the \"classroom\", the virtual library and possible regional and thematic groups, areas for debate and chats and possibly a joint calendar. Additional features may include a \"cafeteria\" and/or an exclusive conference for resource staff, etc. 10. Technical support on and off campus.Once students are functioning on-line, they are given technical support, instructions, practica! advice and they are provided with stimuli or may be called/ written in case of absence or delays. 11. On-line tutoring.The academic tutoring consists of a host of tasks ranging from providing the course program and time table to giving stimuli to the leaming network, correcting exercises, answering individual questions and preparing and executing exams.12. Academic moniloring.Especially in the case of inexperienced tutors, academic monitoring must• be provided in arder to guide the tutor/s in the construction of the Learning Network Environment and the attendance of student participants. Advice is provided in the case of both insufficient as well as excessive academic exchange in this environment.Support is provided at the time of (final) examination of the students. Exams can be taken presentially (lace to face) or on-line, in real time or allowing the students to hand in their exams alter a certain period. Special examination conferences can be provided on virtual campus.  ","tokenCount":"4941"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab6c1e30f0d8d00cf9e5e3f35ce0e750","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f622b726-3657-4989-a92a-c71f655b7609/retrieve","id":"-1066809761"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"27797759-aa3f-43f3-9bee-12f6d7a41890","pagecount":"62","content":"Dormant bud cryopreservation • Slow (classical) freezing • Encapsulation-dehydration • Droplet freezing • Fast Preculture (+ dehydration) • Vitrification (PVS2 , PVS3,…) • Encapsulation-vitrification • Droplet vitrification • V-cryo-plate procedure • D-cryo plate procedure Methods for cryopreservation Thawing and rehydration in damp peat at 2°C (2 wks) Chip budding After 6 wks After 1-2 wks -196°C Winter collection of scions and cold harde ning at -5°C (8 wks) Slow cooling up to -30°C (-1°C/hour) Uni-nodal sections, cold hardened at -4°C and dehydrated up to a MC of 35-26% (6-8 wks) -5°C Dormant bud cryopreservation (credits Maurizio Lambardi)• Slow (classical) freezing Towill and Jarret, 1992 (First \"droplet vitrification\" on sweet potato)Combination of the Classical vitrification (with PVS2 or PVS3 or….) and the application of ultra fast freezing and ultra fast warming (to avoid respectively crystallization and cold crystallization).HOW? A closer contact between the tissue and the cooling agent.• Cryotubes (about 6°C/sec )• Semen straws (about 60°C/sec)(potato)• Droplet vitrification (about 130°C/sec) • (DNA Banks)Major difficulties and constrains After cryopreservation suspension cells need to be :viable able to give rise to an embryogenic cell suspension true-to-type (Côte et al., 2000) retain their characteristics (transformation competence)Current situation: 2200 cryotubes with embryogenic cell lines stored in LN","tokenCount":"202"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f8e99075423a32db5067d70501977514","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f350e0e1-6790-405f-b234-89330cac0534/retrieve","id":"2023504256"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a086fb0-8176-4853-9af1-521516ddbe34","pagecount":"58","content":"Aguacate (E,I) 1995 Almond (revisada) * (I) 1985 Apple (I) 1982 Apricot * (I) 1984 Bambara groundnut (I) 1987 Banano (revisada) * (E,F,I) #Preparó la lista de Descriptores para el té (Camellia sinensis) el Dr. Samresh Dwivedi cuando trabajaba como fitomejorador (té) en el Centro del CSIR, Palampur (conocido actualmente como Instituto de Tecnología de los Recursos Biológicos del Himalaya, Palampur). Para preparar la lista se estudiaron más de 250 accesiones de las tres subespecies (sinensis, assamica y cambodiensis). El Dr. Dwivedi trabaja actualmente en el Instituto Central de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas (Lucknow, India). Posteriormente se envió un borrador en el formato del IPGRI, aceptado internacionalmente, a varios expertos conocidos a nivel mundial para que comentaran y modificaran esta lista. Los nombres y direcciones de los expertos que intervinieron figuran en la sección «Colaboradores».El IPGRI promueve la recolección de datos sobre las cuatro primeras categorías de esta lista -Pasaporte, Manejo, Sitio y medio ambiente, Caracterización -y ha establecido que los datos contenidos en estas categorías son los que deberían estar disponibles para cualquier accesión. Sin embargo, el número de cada tipo de descriptor correspondiente a la sección de sitio y medio ambiente que se utilice dependerá de la importancia que tenga para la descripción del cultivo. Los descriptores que se encuentran en la categoría de Evaluación permiten una descripción más detallada de las caracteres de la accesión, pero generalmente requieren repetidos ensayos de tiempo y lugar.Si bien este sistema de codificación no debe considerarse definitivo, este formato representa un importante instrumento para un sistema de caracterización normalizado y el IPGRI lo promueve a nivel mundial.Esta lista de descriptores tiene la finalidad de ser general para los descriptores que contiene. Este enfoque ayuda a la normalización de las definiciones de los descriptores. No obstante, el IPGRI no pretende que cada encargado realice la caracterización de las accesiones de su colección utilizando todos los descriptores dados. Estos se deben utilizar cuando son útiles para el encargado en el manejo y la conservación de la colección y/o para los usuarios de los recursos fitogenéticos. Los descriptores esenciales que son altamente discriminantes aparecen señalados en el texto con estrellas ( « ).Esta lista de descriptores se presenta en un formato internacional, y por ello proporciona un «lenguaje» comprensible universalmente para los datos sobre los recursos fitogenéticos. La adopción de este sistema para la codificación de los datos, o por lo menos la producción de un método de transformación para convertir otros sistemas al formato del IPGRI, permitirá disponer de un medio rápido, fidedigno y eficaz para almacenar, recuperar y comunicar la información y ayudará en la utilización del germoplasma. Por lo tanto, se recomienda el uso de los descriptores especificados al registrar la información, tomando en cuenta: el orden y número de los descriptores, y utilizando los especificados, así como los estados recomendados.El Anexo I contiene descriptores de pasaporte de cultivos múltiples, preparados conjuntamente por el IPGRI y la FAO, a fin de suministrar sistemas coherentes de codificación para los descriptores de pasaporte comunes de los distintos cultivos que sean compatibles con las futuras listas de descriptores de cultivos del IPGRI y el Sistema de información y alerta mundial (SIAM) sobre los recursos fitogenéticos.Cualquier sugerencia o modificación sobre esta lista será bien recibida por el IPGRI.Actualmente el IPGRI utiliza las siguientes definiciones en la documentación de recursos fitogenéticos:Descriptores de pasaporte: proporcionan la información básica que se utiliza para el manejo general de la accesión (incluido el registro en el banco de germoplasma y cualquier otra información de identificación) y describen los parámetros que se deberían observar cuando se recolecta originalmente la accesión.Descriptores de manejo: proporcionan las bases para el manejo de las accesiones en el banco de germoplasma y ayudan durante su multiplicación/regeneración.Descriptores del sitio y el medio ambiente: describen los parámetros específicos del sitio y ambientales que son importantes cuando se realizan pruebas de caracterización y evaluación.Pueden ser importantes para la interpretación de los resultados de esos procesos. Se incluyen también en esta categoría los descriptores del sitio de recolección del germoplasma.Descriptores de caracterización: permiten una discriminación fácil y rápida entre fenotipos. Generalmente son caracteres altamente heredables, pueden ser fácilmente detectados a simple vista y se expresan igualmente en todos los ambientes. Además, pueden incluir un número limitado de caracteres adicionales considerados deseables por consenso de los usuarios de un cultivo en particular.Descriptores de evaluación: muchos de los descriptores de esta categoría son susceptibles a las diferencias ambientales, pero son generalmente útiles en la mejora de un cultivo, y otros pueden involucrar la caracterización bioquímica o molecular. Incluyen rendimiento, productividad agronómica, susceptibilidad al estrés y caracteres bioquímicos y citológicos.La caracterización es generalmente responsabilidad de los encargados de las colecciones, mientras que la evaluación debería hacerse en otra parte (posiblemente por un equipo multidisciplinario de científicos). Los datos de evaluación se deben enviar al banco de germoplasma donde se mantendrá un archivo de datos.Los descriptores esenciales altamente discriminantes están señalados en el texto con una estrella ( « ).Las normas aceptadas internacionalmente para la toma de datos, codificación y registro de los estados de los descriptores son las siguientes: a) se utiliza el sistema internacional de unidades (Système International d'Unités, SI). b) las unidades que han de aplicarse aparecen entre corchetes al lado del nombre del descriptor; c) se recomienda vivamente el uso de escalas normalizadas de colores para todos los caracteres de color, como la Muy alto es la expresión de un carácter. Los autores de esta lista a veces han descrito sólo una selección de los estados, por ejemplo 3, 5 y 7, para dichos descriptores. Cuando ha ocurrido esto, la gama completa de códigos está disponible para su uso, utilizando la ampliación de los códigos dados o mediante la interpolación entre ellos, por ejemplo, en la Sección 9 (Susceptibilidad al estrés biológico, 1 = susceptibilidad muy baja y 9 = susceptibilidad muy alta); e) cuando se registra un descriptor utilizando una escala del 1 al 9, como en (d), se registrará «0»: i) cuando el carácter no esté expresado; ii) cuando no sea aplicable un descriptor. En el ejemplo siguiente, se registrará «0» si una accesión no tiene el lóbulo central de la hoja:Forma del lóbulo central de la hoja 3 Dentado 5 Elíptico 7 Lineal f) la presencia o ausencia de caracteres se registra de la siguiente forma:Presencia/ausencia de la hojuela terminal 0 Ausente 1 (o +) Presente g) se reservan espacios en blanco para información aún no disponible; h) en las accesiones que no son generalmente uniformes para un descriptor (por ej. colección mezclada, segregación genética) se registrará la media y la desviación estándar cuando la variación sea continua, o varios códigos en orden de frecuencia si el descriptor es de variación discontinua. Se pueden utilizar otros métodos publicados, tales como el de R.S. Rana et al. (1991) o el de van Hintum (1993), que establecen claramente un método para registrar las accesiones heterogéneas; i) las fechas se deben expresar numéricamente, usando el formato AAAAMMDD, donde: AAAA -4 dígitos que representan el año MM -2 dígitos que representan el mes DD -2 dígitos que representan el día.1. Descriptores de la accesión 1.1 Número de accesión Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando la accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense).Nombre del donante Nombre de la institución o la persona responsable de la donación del germoplasmaNúmero del donante Número asignado por el donante a una accesiónOtros números relacionados con la accesión Cualquier otro número de identificación utilizado en otras colecciones para identificar la accesión en cuestión, por ejemplo el número del inventario de plantas del USDA (no es el número de recolección, véase el descriptor 2.3). Se pueden añadir otros números, como 1.4.3, etc. Designación registrada u otra designación oficial que se da a la accesión (por ejemplo, \"Nanda Devi\" para el lote de semillas Tocklai biclonal nº TS.378).Idioma en el que se da el nombre de la accesión Número de recolección Número original asignado por el recolector o los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por el nombre o iniciales del recolector seguido de un número. El número del recolector es esencial para identificar los duplicados mantenidos en colecciones diferentes, deberá ser único y siempre debe acompañar las submuestras, dondequiera que se envíen.Fecha de recolección de la muestra original [AAAAMMDD] 2.5 País de recolección Nombre del país donde se recolectó la muestra. Utilizar las abreviaturas de tres letras del Código para los nombres de países, nº 3166, 4 a edición., de la Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO). Se pueden solicitar copias de esta lista a DIN: Deutsche Institut für Normung e.V., 10772 Berlín, Alemania;Tel. 30-2601Tel. 30- -2860;;Fax 30-2601-1231, Tlx.184 273-din-d. Provincia/estado Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa primaria del país en el que se recolectó la muestraDepartamento/distrito Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa secundaria (dentro de una provincia/estado) del país en el que se recolectó la muestraUbicación del lugar de recolección Distancia en kilómetros y dirección desde la ciudad, la aldea o el punto de referencia cartográfica más cercano (por ejemplo, CURITIBA 7S, significa 7 km al sur de Curitiba)Latitud del lugar de recolección Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S).Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W). 1 Vástago axilar 2 Callo 3 Suspensión celular 99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 3.5 Notas)1 Organogénesis 2 Embriogénesis somática 99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 3.5 Notas)(Número de duplicados) Sitio (instituto de investigación)Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S).Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo, 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W).(Metros sobre el nivel del mar) Pendiente estimada del sitioDirección en la que está orientada la pendiente donde se recolectó la muestra. Describa la dirección con los símbolos N, S, E, W (por ejemplo, una pendiente orientada en la dirección sudoeste tiene un aspecto SW) (Adaptado de FAO 1990) A continuación se presentan dos listas de ejemplos de material y rocas de procedencia. La fiabilidad de la información geológica y el conocimiento de la litología local determinarán si se puede dar una definición general o específica del material de procedencia. Se utiliza saprolita si el material meteorizado in situ está completamente descompuesto, rico en arcilla pero aún mostrando estructura de roca. Los depósitos aluviales y coluviales derivados de un mismo tipo de roca se pueden especificar según el tipo de roca (Adaptado de FAO 1990) A ser posible, se debe indicar tanto la profundidad en el momento de la descripción como la fluctuación media anual aproximada en profundidad de la capa freática.El máximo ascenso se puede deducir aproximadamente de los cambios de color del perfil en muchos suelos, pero naturalmente no en todos. 1 0 -25 cm 2 25,1 -50 cm 3 50,1 -100 cm 4 100,1 -150 cm 5 >150 cm  Especificar la media estacional y la temperatura mínima de sobrevivencia Indicar la mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, máxima, mínima)Indicar en la sección Notas correspondiente CARACTERIZACION 6. Descriptores de la planta 6.1 Parte vegetativa Para todos los descriptores de colores se dan entre paréntesis al lado del estado del descriptor los códigos de colores de la RHS. Salvo indicación en contrario, los descriptores se deben registrar en el primer año de producción de hojas Distancia entre la 5ª y 6ª hojas desde la cima de un brote. Promedio de 10 brotes expuestos totalmente a la luz solarDeterminada en la estación principal y fuera de estación 0 Ausente 1 (o +) PresenteColor de las hojas inmaduras (Hojas abiertas recientemente) 1 Amarillo 2 Verde oscuro 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)1 Verde claro (grupo verde 138 A) 2 Verde (grupo verde 138 B) 3 Verde grisáceo (grupo verde-grisáceo 191 A) 4 Amarillo grisáceo (grupo amarillo-grisáceo 160 A) 5 Verde-amarillo (grupo verde-amarillo 147 B) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)Observada en la 5ª hoja por debajo de la yema terminal de un brote expuesto totalmente a la luz solar. (Véase la Fig. 3) 1 Oval 2 Oblonga 3 Elíptica 4 Lanceolada 99 Otra (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)1 Liso 2 Rugoso 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas) « «Registrada en la 5 a hoja de un brote expuesto totalmente a la luz solar 1 Agudo 2 Obtuso 3 Intermedio 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)Observado en la 5 a hoja de un brote expuesto totalmente a la luz solar 1 Inclinado hacia abajo (recurvado) 2 RectoObservada en la 5 a hoja por debajo de la yema terminal de un brote en plantas expuestas totalmente a la luz solar. (Véase la Fig. 4) 1 Atenuada (aguda) 2 Redondeada 3 Obtusa 99 Otra (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)6.1.17 Medido en plantas expuestas totalmente a la luz solar 1 Pequeña (<5 cm de largo/3 cm de ancho) 2 Mediana(5-10 cm de largo/3-7 cm de ancho) 3 Grande (>10 cm de largo/>7 cm de ancho) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)Longitud de la hoja madura [cm] Medida en la 5 a hoja por debajo de la yema apical. Promedio de cinco hojasMedida en la 5 a hoja desde la yema apical del brote, en el punto de anchura máxima. Promedio de cinco hojas Entre la 5 a hoja y el entrenudo superior 1 Agudo 2 Recto 3 ObtusoNervio medial/nervadura. Especialmente en relación con los nervios laterales 1 Indistinta, fundida en una lámina 2 Diferenciada con vesículas Medido en la tercera hoja desde la yema apical del brote. Promedio de cinco hojasEn arbustos maduros durante dos años (o bien correlación entre el arbusto maduro y el clon seleccionado) 1 Baja (< -4) 2 Intermedia(5 -9) 3 Alta (> -10) Medida en la parte más larga. Promedio de 10 frutosMedido en la parte más ancha. Promedio de 10 frutos3 Fina 5 Intermedia 7 GruesaPromedio de 10 frutosRegistrado en la madurez 1 Generalmente pardo (grupo pardo 200 A) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas)1 Gris-naranja (grupo naranja-grisáceo 166 A) 2 Verde grisáceo (grupo verde-grisáceo 197 B) 3 Naranja grisáceo con moteado (grupo naranja-grisáceo 177 A) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 6.5 Notas) Como técnica para la clasificación de especies y cultivares y en la verificación de la pureza de las especies o la determinación de la condición de híbrido En el caso del té ortodoxo, CTC y distintos grados de té ulong En el caso del té ortodoxo, CTC y distintos grados de té ulong 1 < 0,1 2 0,1 a 0,3 3 > 0,31 < 0,1 2 0,1 a 0,3 3 > 0,3 a 1 4 > 1 El IPGRI desea manifestar su agradecimiento a las numerosas personas que trabajan con el té que han colaborado directa o indirectamente en la preparación de los Descriptores para el té.Adriana Alercia supervisó los borradores y la versión final del texto hasta la fase de prepublicación y proporcionó asesoramiento técnico y científico. Linda Sears preparó la disposición del texto. Patrizia Tazza realizó el dibujo de la tapa y los dibujos del texto. Susana Moraleda realizó la composición. Paul Stapleton supervisó la producción de la publicación. Tom Hazekamp supervisó la producción en general.Se agradece el asesoramiento técnico del siguiente personal del IPGRI: Dres M. Diekmann, F. Engelmann y T. Hodgkin y, particularmente se agradece el apoyo y cooperación del Dr R.K. Arora durante todo el proceso de elaboración de esta publicación.La FAO y el IPGRI han elaborado conjuntamente esta lista de descriptores de pasaporte para cultivos múltiples con objeto de proporcionar sistemas de codificación uniformes para descriptores de pasaporte comunes de los diversos cultivos. Se trata de que estos descriptores sean compatibles con las futuras listas de descriptores de cultivos del IPGRI y con los descriptores que se utilizan en el Sistema de información y alerta mundial sobre los recursos fitogenéticos (SIAM) de la FAO.La lista NO debe considerarse como una lista mínima de descriptores, puesto que para la descripción de los cultivos es fundamental la utilización de otros muchos descriptores de pasaporte, que hay que registrar. En el presente documento se enumera una serie inicial de descriptores de pasaporte comunes para cultivos múltiples. Más adelante se podría ampliar la lista con descriptores adicionales. Por ejemplo, ahora no se han incluido los descriptores relacionados con el uso del germoplasma, pero se investigará su idoneidad con vistas a incluirlos para los cultivos múltiples. Incluso se podría producir una futura ampliación mediante la preparación de listas más especializadas de descriptores comunes para grupos de cultivos.A continuación figura la última versión de la lista (1997), que contiene dos secciones. En la segunda (DESCRIPTORES DEL SIAM DE LA FAO) se enumeran varios descriptores opcionales utilizados en el SIAM de la FAO. La lista contiene descripciones del contenido y los sistemas de codificación, pero propone también (entre paréntesis) nombres de campos que pueden ayudar en el intercambio informatizado de este tipo de datos.1. Código del instituto (INSTCODE) Código del instituto donde se mantiene la accesión. Los códigos están formados por el código de tres letras de la ISO 3166 del país en el que está situado el instituto, más un número o una sigla especificados en la base de datos del instituto, que proporcionará la FAO. Los códigos preliminares (es decir, los códigos que todavía no se han incorporado a la base de datos de institutos en la FAO) comienzan con un asterisco, seguido del código del país de tres letras de la ISO 3166 y una sigla.(ACCENUMB) Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando dicha accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense).(COLLNUMB) Número original asignado por el recolector o los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por el nombre o iniciales del recolector seguido de un número. El número del recolector es esencial para identificar los duplicados mantenidos en colecciones diferentes, deberá ser único y siempre debe acompañar las submuestras, dondequiera que se envíen.(GENUS) Nombre del género con fines taxonómicos. Hay que escribirlo con mayúscula inicial.(SPECIES) La parte específica del nombre científico escrita con minúsculas, seguida de la indicación del autor del nombre 1 . Se permite la siguiente abreviatura: \"sp.\"(SUBTAXA) Se pueden utilizar subtaxones para conservar cualquier identificador taxonómico adicional, más la indicación del nombre del autor 1 . Se permiten las siguientes abreviaturas: \"ssp.\" (para subespecie); \"var.\" (para variedad); \"convar.\" (para convariedad); \"f.\" (para forma).(ACCNAME) Cualquier otra designación (oficial o registrada) que se da a la accesión. Se escribe con mayúscula inicial. Los nombres múltiples se separan con un punto y coma.(ORIGCTY) Nombre del país donde se recolectó u obtuvo originalmente la muestra. Utilizar los códigos ampliados de la ISO 3166 (es decir, los códigos actuales y antiguos de tres letras del país de la ISO 3166) 9. Ubicación del lugar de recolección (COLLSITE) Información sobre la ubicación, en un nivel inferior al del país, en la que se describe dónde se recogió la accesión, comenzando con la información más detallada. Puede incluir la distancia en kilómetros y la dirección desde la ciudad, la aldea o el punto de referencia cartográfica más cercano (por ejemplo, CURITIBA 7S, PARANA, significa a 7 km al sur de Curitiba, en el estado de Paraná) 1 El autor del nombre sólo se indica en el nivel taxonómico más detallado de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense). Pueden añadirse varios números, que deberán separarse con un punto y coma.(REMARKS) El campo de observaciones se utiliza para añadir notas o completar datos de los descriptores, con el valor «99» (=Otro). Se indica el prefijo de las observaciones con el nombre del campo al que se refieren y dos puntos (por ejemplo, COLLSRC: borde de la carretera). Las observaciones relativas a campos diferentes se separan con un punto y coma.1. Ubicación de los duplicados de seguridad (DUPLSITE) Código del instituto donde se mantiene un duplicado de seguridad de la accesión. Los códigos están formados por el código de tres letras de la ISO 3166 del país en el que está situado el instituto, más un número o una sigla especificados en la base de datos de institutos, que proporcionará la FAO. Los códigos preliminares (es decir, los códigos que todavía no se han incorporado a la base de datos de institutos de la FAO) comienzan con un asterisco, seguido del código del país de tres letras de la ISO 3166 y una sigla. Pueden añadirse más números, que deberán separarse por un punto y coma. 5. Tipo de adquisición de la accesión (ACQTYPE) 1 Recogida/obtenida originalmente por el instituto 2 Recogida/obtenida originalmente por una misión/institución conjunta 3 Recibida como reserva secundaria 6. Tipo de almacenamiento (STORTYPE) Tipo de mantenimiento del germoplasma. Si hay maneras diferentes de mantener el germoplasma, puede haber elecciones múltiples, separadas por un punto y coma (por ejemplo, 2;3). (Véanse detalles sobre el tipo de almacenamiento en las Normas de la FAO/IPGRI para los bancos de germoplasma de 1994) ","tokenCount":"3672"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69fc8b2848968e3c48430514a3389795","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb5aa323-be5c-4a57-8d01-3a6c17c88ff2/retrieve","id":"-910356480"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8c5df7d1-f032-42e5-84b7-ec63fd128132","pagecount":"43","content":"La degradación de los suelos es un problema a escala global que limita la producción de alimentos, la competitividad y la seguridad alimentaria, en particular en los países pobres, que dependen en gran medida de la agricultura como fuente de alimentos y de empleo.Se estima que en el mundo existen aproximadamente 2 billones de hectáreas, casi una cuarta parte de los recursos de tierras disponibles por el hombre para usos productivos, afectadas de alguna manera por problemas de degradación.En muchas oportunidades la degradación de los suelos, solo se aprecia a largo plazo, ya que la incorporación progresiva de mayor cantidad de insumos (fertilizantes, correctivos, etc.) disimula temporalmente sus efectos negativos, conservando el nivel de los rendimientos, pero incrementando los costos de producción y deteriorando la competitividad. En la Orinoquia nacional se tiene una enorme extensión de áreas de sabana con un gran potencial productivo, pero muy susceptibles a la degradación física, química y biológica, tan pronto se establecen cultivos comerciales.Dentro del marco del Convenio de Cooperación Técnica y Científica MADR -CIAT, el Proyecto de Suelos del CIAT y varias instituciones nacionales colaboradoras, han diseñado nuevas alternativas para el manejo y la conservación de los suelos de esa región. Estas técnicas, giran alrededor del concepto de \"construcción de una capa arable\", que busca transformar suelos frágiles y de baja productividad, en recursos de alta calidad, mediante prácticas planificadas de mejoramiento físico, químico y biológico.Este estudio evalúa la rentabilidad económica a escala micro, de tres alternativas de construcción de capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental del país. Las secuencias de actividades de las alternativas evaluadas se estructuran así:Alternativa 1: 1) Siembra y establecimiento, durante un año, de una pradera compuesta por una gramínea y una leguminosa. 2) Ciclo de pastoreo de 2 a 3 años, durante el cual se desarrollan actividades de ceba de novillos y 3) Establecimiento de un sistema de rotación semestral de cultivos maíz -soya, durante un año. Transcurrido un lapso de 4 a 5 años, la capa arable queda construida.La Alternativa 2 es similar a la primera, con la diferencia que su primer componente, el establecimiento de la pastura, incluye adicionalmente un cultivo, en este caso se establece una gramínea + leguminosa + arroz. El período de construcción de la capa arable va de 4 a 5 años.La Alternativa 3 se inicia con una serie de rotaciones semestrales de cultivos (arrozmaíz) por un lapso de dos a tres años, para posteriormente establecer una pastura asociada con un cultivo. (maíz) Se estima que la formación de la capa arable tarda entre 3 y 4 años.La información de costos, inversiones, rendimientos, fue aportada por el Proyecto de Suelos del CIAT con base en los trabajos de campo desarrollados por este grupo en la Altillanura colombiana.El estudio simula un ciclo de 10 años de producción para cada una de las alternativas evaluadas. Con el fin de determinar su conveniencia económica, se calculan dos indicadores de rentabilidad: Valor presente neto (VPN) y tasa interna de retorno. (TIR) Las opciones consideradas son atractivas desde la óptica económica, no obstante la tercera opción presenta los mejores indicadores de rentabilidad: 57% de retorno anual, frente 20 y 37% de las alternativas 1 y 2, respectivamente.Se efectuó un análisis de sensibilidad de los índices de rentabilidad frente a condiciones adversas tales como bajas en los precios de los cultivos y del ganado y reducciones de la capacidad de carga de las pasturas y de los rendimientos de los cultivos.Se concluye que los cambios no deseados en las variables relacionadas con los cultivos (precios y rendimientos), tienen mayor incidencia sobre la rentabilidad, que las variaciones asociadas con el componente ganadero. Esto implica que los primeros constituyen la principal fuente de riesgo. Adicionalmente, el establecimiento de pasturas asociadas con cultivos, otorga una clara ventaja a las alternativas 2 y 3, en términos de rentabilidad económica. No obstante el establecimiento de cultivos requiere el empleo de maquinaria, que es escasa en la zona, por lo cual los productores de pequeña escala, que no tienen maquinaria propia, afrontan riesgos de no obtenerla oportunamente en los períodos críticos de siembra y de cosecha. Otra limitante es la escasa disponibilidad de capital de trabajo para el establecimiento de los cultivos por parte de productores pequeños y sin acceso al crédito.La estructura de los costos de establecimiento tanto de las pasturas como de los cultivos, muestra una elevada participación de la fertilización y la maquinaria, dentro de los costos directos totales. (entre 72 y 83%) En consecuencia, toda estrategia dirigida a bajar los costos de establecimiento, debe enfatizar en éstos dos elementos de costo.Los proyectos de formación de capa arable en las fincas de la región, deben enmarcarse dentro de una perspectiva de mediano y largo plazo. Si se estiman los indicadores de rentabilidad, considerando solamente el período exacto que se requiere para la construcción de una capa arable, se encuentra que las alternativas 1 y 2 no resultarían rentables. Esto indica que una vez mejorado el suelo, la actividad productiva debe continuar, para recuperar la totalidad de los fondos invertidos.Se evidencia que la opción 3 resulta ser la más sólida, ya que aparte de mostrar niveles de rentabilidad mayores, presenta la particularidad que los fondos invertidos en su implementación se recuperan más rápidamente.Las rotaciones de pastos y de cultivos generan mayor eficiencia en el uso de los insumos, particularmente de los fertilizantes, ya que el aprovechamiento de la fertilización residual conduce a reducciones significativas en los costos de establecimiento. La implementación de la tecnología de capa arable a gran escala en la Altillanura del país, representa un cambio técnico de gran magnitud con significativos efectos económicos y ambientales. En el contexto micro los efectos económicos esperados se manifiestan en avances de la productividad, diversificación de la producción e incrementos de los ingresos y la rentabilidad de las inversiones. A escala regional y nacional, la adopción masiva de éstas tecnologías conservacionistas implicaría la ampliación y diversificación de la oferta agregada de alimentos y materias primas, con impactos positivas sobre los niveles nutricionales de la población, el ritmo de crecimiento económico general y la preservación del capital nacional en recursos naturales y biodiversidad.Análisis económico de una estrategia para su conservación y mejoramiento: Construcción de la capa arable L. Rivas, P Hoyos, E. Amézquita y D. L Molina 1 .La pérdida de recursos de suelos debido a su degradación es un tema importante a escala global, por sus efectos negativos sobre la productividad y la competitividad agrícola, el medio ambiente y la seguridad alimentaria. Se trata de un tema de especial relevancia para los países en desarrollo, ya que su crecimiento poblacional pone cada vez mayor presión sobre los recursos de tierra y los recursos naturales en general.La degradación de los suelos es un problema que a largo plazo, afecta significativamente la base de recursos naturales, la capacidad de producir alimentos y la seguridad alimentaria en el planeta, en particular de los grupos poblacionales de menores recursos económicos.La evaluación global del deterioro de los recursos de tierras, inducido por la actividad humana muestra que el 15% del área disponible ha sufrido mermas en su capacidad productiva. De ese total, el 13% confronta problemas de degradación en el rango de ligera a moderada y en el 2% restante, la gravedad del problema se cataloga como severa o muy severa (ISRIC -UNEP -FAO, 1996)De otra parte, el estudio GLASOD (Global land assessment of soil degradation) estima que en el planeta, de un total de 8.7 billones de hectáreas de tierras con potencial agrícola, aproximadamente 2 billones (23%) están degradadas. El 3.5 % (0.3 billones) presenta un daño tan severo, que solo puede revertirse con fuertes inversiones en obras de ingeniería. El 10% (0.9 billones) presenta moderada degradación, reversible mediante inversiones significativas en el ámbito de las unidades de producción y el 9% restante (0.8 billones) ha sufrido degradación leve, que se puede corregir mediante cambios en las practicas de manejo y de uso del suelo.El resultado final del deterioro de los suelos es la caída de los rendimientos, que en casos extremos resulta en la pérdida definitiva de la tierra como factor de producción. En muchas oportunidades los efectos de la degradación tan solo se aprecian a largo plazo, ya que la incorporación progresiva de más insumos (fertilizantes, correctivos etc.) disimula temporalmente los efectos negativos, manteniendo el nivel de rendimientos pero incrementando los costos de producción.Si bien aparecen tierras degradadas en todos los continentes, los impactos económicos negativos de mayor magnitud se aprecian en los países que dependen en mayor medida de la agricultura, como fuente de ingresos y de empleo.La creciente expansión de la población, particularmente en los países más pobres, pone una gran presión sobre los recursos de tierras. Aproximadamente 5.5 billones de personas, en la actualidad utilizan el 10% del área de la tierra, para desarrollar cultivos y actividades ganaderas. (Erosion and Soil Degradation, 2004) En Colombia, la Orinoquia es una vasta reserva de recursos de tierras, energéticos mineros, agrícolas, pecuarios y de biodiversidad, de importancia estratégica para el desarrollo del país en las próximas décadas. Este enorme territorio cuenta con aproximadamente 26 millones de hectáreas, de las cuales más de la mitad (53%) corresponde a Altillanura bien drenada, en tanto que una quinta parte es Altillanura mal drenada. (Mejía, 1984) Estos recursos de tierra son muy frágiles dada su alta susceptibilidad a la degradación física, química y biológica, tan pronto se establecen en ellos cultivos comerciales. Los especialistas en el tema han encontrado que la labranza con rastra de discos está causando altos niveles de compactación en los primeros 10 -20 centímetros de profundidad. El uso de implementos inapropiados, asociado con la intensa precipitación típica de la región, deriva en severos daños de la estructura física del suelo que conducen al sellamiento de la capa superficial y la consecuente reducción drástica de las tasas de infiltración, flujo de aire y agua, afectando la disponibilidad de nutrientes, de por sí bajos en éstos suelos.Bajo condiciones naturales, los suelos de sabana en el trópico colombiano, no ofrecen un medio apropiado para el desarrollo agrícola sostenible. En este ambiente, el monocultivo continuo presenta un pobre desempeño, debido al rápido deterioro de sus rendimientos, como resultado de la alta susceptibilidad a la degradación de los suelos, agravada como ya se anotó, por el uso de maquinaria inadecuada. (Amézquita et. al, 2000) Las particularidades de los suelos de la Altillanura han sido estudiadas por un amplio grupo de investigadores (entre otros, Spain 1993;Aristizábal et. al, 1999;Almanza y Argüelles, 1998;Rippstein, 1993;Amézquita, 1998Amézquita, , 1999Amézquita, , 2002;;Phiri, et al, 2003) quienes en general los catalogan como poco fértiles y muy propensos a la erosión y a la degradación estructural.No obstante la alta probabilidad de degradación de los suelos de la Altillanura, éstos problemas pueden ser prevenidos, controlados y/o revertidos, mediante diversos estrategias de manejo y uso de los mismos.Entre 1994 y 1999, dada la precaria sostenibilidad de los suelos de la Altillanura, se enfatizó en los estudios sobre física, química y microbiología, que dieron lugar a un diagnóstico más preciso de los suelos de sabana nativa, bajo múltiples usos. Esto derivó en el desarrollo de indicadores de degradación en términos físicos, químicos y biológicos.A partir de 1999 y hasta 2003, con base en los indicadores anteriores y a través de diferentes proyectos interinstitucionales, con participación de Colciencias, Corpoica, Pronatta, Ministerio de Agricultura y Unillanos, se diseñaron las estrategias para la construcción y mantenimiento de las capas arables, de acuerdo con metas preestablecidas de mejoramiento del suelo, en función de los requerimientos de los sistemas de producción a implementar. (Hoyos et al, 1999y Amézquita et al, 2004) La formación de la capa arable incluye el mejoramiento físico del suelo mediante la labranza vertical con cinceles, aplicación de enmiendas de fertilización para mejorar sus condiciones químicas y la siembra de material vegetal, adaptado a condiciones de acidez y baja fertilidad, para la impulsar la actividad biológica. El desarrollo de germoplasma mejorado de pastos y de cultivos, actualmente disponible y con los atributos señalados, es el resultado del trabajo conjunto del CIAT, CORPOICA y el CIMMYT en la Altillanura colombiana.La viabilidad económica a escala de finca de las nuevas alternativas de recuperación, mantenimiento y uso del suelo, depende de sus costos y de los niveles de productividad que se alcancen.El propósito de éste documento es evaluar la conveniencia económica en el contexto micro, de la adopción de las nuevas metodologías de formación de capa arable en ésta región colombiana, El estudio evalúa tres alternativas técnicas para la construcción de una capa arable, que implican diferentes secuencias de los componentes de pastos y de cultivos, en la construcción de la misma.La Alternativa 1 se estructura de la siguiente forma: 1) Siembra y establecimiento durante un año de una pastura mejorada. 2) Ceba de novillos durante un lapso de 2 a 3 años, aplicando fertilización de mantenimiento. 3) Rotación de cultivos semestrales, arroz y soya, durante un año. Transcurridos 4 a 5 años, la capa arable queda construida.La Alternativa 2 incluye: 1) Establecimiento de una pastura asociada (pasto + arroz), la cual al cabo de un año está lista para el pastoreo. 2) Ceba de novillos durante un lapso de 2 a 3 años, efectuando rotación de praderas y fertilización de mantenimiento. 3) Siembra rotacional de cultivos: maíz en el primer semestre y soya en el segundo. En el lapso de 4 -5 años la capa arable está disponible.La Alternativa 3 presenta la siguiente secuencia: 1) Rotación durante un período de 2 a 3 años de cultivos semestrales, iniciando con maíz y terminando con soya. 2) Establecimiento, durante el tercero o cuarto año, de una pastura asociada con maíz, la cual al año puede ser pastoreada. Esta alternativa implica que la capa arable queda construida al tercer o cuarto año. La Figura 4 ilustra las secuencias de pastos -cultivos de las alternativas consideradas.Dado que algunos productores de la Altillanura han comenzado a utilizar prácticas conservacionistas de uso del suelo, el estudio incluye un sondeo rápido efectuado en fincas de la zona Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán en el Departamento del Meta, para identificar y entender las principales tendencias y facetas de éste incipiente proceso de cambio técnico. Este esfuerzo representa un primer paso hacia un seguimiento y evaluación más rigurosos, de los procesos de adopción tecnológica en ésta parte del país.La Altillanura colombiana se extiende desde el municipio de Puerto López, sobre la margen derecha del río Meta, hasta la desembocadura del Orinoco, estimándose que contiene un área con potencial agrícola de aproximadamente 4.5 millones de hectáreas. En este territorio predomina una sabana herbácea extensa y continua, presentándose también especies leñosas, aisladas o agrupadas en bosques de galería, que bordean los cursos de agua. Sus suelos se caracterizan por la elevada acidez ( ph 3.8 -5.0), alto contenido de aluminio (frecuentemente mayor del 80%), baja capacidad de intercambio catiónico y pobre fertilidad, por el bajo contenido de materia orgánica que resulta en escasa disponibilidad de nutrientes para las plantas (P, N, Ca, Mg y K)La actividad económica predominante en la región es la ganadería extensiva de cría y levante de vacunos. La producción de cultivos presenta limitaciones originadas principalmente por la pobreza de los suelos y la saturación de aluminio (Al). Los problemas de infraestructura vial y de servicios de apoyo a la producción constituyen serios cuellos de botella para la producción agrícola en la Altillanura. Sin embargo, esta región por sus ventajas comparativas, es estratégica para la expansión de la frontera agrícola nacional, encaminada a incrementar y diversificar la producción de alimentos y materias primas, en un país con alta dinámica demográfica y amplios sectores de la población marginados y con graves carencias alimentarias.Los sistemas de producción tradicionales son extensivos con énfasis en la ganadería vacuna. En la medida en que nuevas opciones de producción aparecen en la región, en particular germoplasma mejorado de pastos y de cultivos, adaptado a las condiciones edáficas y climáticas de la zona, los sistemas de producción tienden a intensificarse y a diversificarse. Un estudio de Cadavid (1995), documenta que la introducción progresiva de pastos mejorados, particularmente del género Brachiaria, en las fincas ganaderas de la Altillanura fue muy dinámica en el período 1986 -1997. En dicho lapso, en el área de los municipios de Puerto López y Puerto Carreño, la superficie en pastos mejorados creció mas del doble, pasando de 89 mil a 173 mil hectáreas. Se destaca la aparición de nuevos materiales de Brachiaria: B. humidicola, B. brizantha, B. dictyoneura, sembradas como monocultivo o asociados con leguminosas tales como S. Capitata, D. Ovalifoliumy A. Pintoi (Cadavid, 1995). Una estimación hacia el 2000, basada en las cifras reportadas por Cadavid, señala que el área total en pasturas en la zona es aproximadamente 1.1 millones de hectáreas, de las cuales el 22%, corresponde a pasturas mejoradas (Rivas, 2004) Tradicionalmente la agricultura se ha desarrollado en las vegas de los ríos, estimándose que las áreas agrícolas no superan las 20 mil hectáreas, casi la mitad de ellas dedicadas al cultivo de arroz y el resto a maíz, yuca, plátano, cítricos y palma aceitera. La escasa disponibilidad de germoplasma de cultivos, adaptado a las condiciones particulares de la Altillanura, ha sido una de las principales causas que explican el lento avance de la agricultura en ésta zona de Colombia. Los nuevos desarrollos técnicos que implican ampliación de la oferta de germoplasma de pastos y de cultivos adaptado y los novedosos enfoques integrales de producción que integran el germoplasma mejorado con nuevas prácticas de manejo y uso de los recursos de suelos, abren una perspectiva muy promisoria para el despegue de la producción agropecuaria en la Altillanura.La distribución de la tierra en el municipio de Puerto López (Meta) sirve para ilustrar el tema de la tenencia de la tierra en el área objetivo. El Cuadro 1, muestra que hay un número significativo de explotaciones agropecuarias menores de 50 has (56% del total), que controlan una fracción muy baja de la tierra total disponible (6%). Un poco más de la mitad del área total se ubica en las fincas del rango 200 -500 has, que agrupa el 23% del total de fincas. Lo anterior evidencia un alto grado de concentración de la tierra, tal como se observa en la Figura 2, que muestra la curva de Lorenz. Se espera que los nuevos esquemas de producción que mejoran la calidad del suelo e incrementar su productividad, como es el caso de la construcción de capas arables, tengan un impacto significativo sobre el grupo de pequeños y medianos productores, con fincas menores de 50 hectáreas, que poseen limitadas cantidades de tierra, y que constituyen un poco más de mitad del total de productores. Las nuevas alternativas tecnológicas permitirían diversificar la producción, reducir los riesgos económicos y biológicos y aumentar los ingresos, haciendo más viables, rentables y sostenibles las explotaciones de pequeña escala.El impacto potencial de las tecnologías de conservación de suelos en la región de interés, tiene diferentes implicaciones según la escala de los productores. Para los de pequeña escala, que son numerosos pero que controlan una pequeña fracción de la tierra total disponible, el mayor impacto se genera a través de la equidad, al mejorar sus ingresos y nivel de vida. En el caso de los agricultores de gran escala, que son pocos y controlan la mayor parte de la tierra disponible, los beneficios esperados se originan principalmente en la conservación del recurso suelo y la generación de empleo, ingresos y producción, que impulsen el crecimiento económico general.Desde hace varios años, con el apoyo del Ministerio de Agricultura de Colombia y dentro del marco del Convenio de Cooperación Técnica y Científica MADR -CIAT, se viene trabajando en el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías de manejo y uso de los suelos de Figura 3 Fases del proceso de construcción de capa arablela Altillanura, para establecer modernos sistemas de producción eficientes y sostenibles. Las tecnologías propuestas giran alrededor del concepto de \"construcción y mantenimiento de una capa arable\" en esos suelos pobres, para posteriormente establecer sistemas de pastos y de cultivos, de alta productividad sostenibles en el tiempo. Esta se define como una capa de suelo, en la cual las limitaciones físicas, químicas y biológicas sean mínimas (Amézquita, et al, 2000(Amézquita, et al, , 2001(Amézquita, et al, , 2004) ) La idea central es transformar suelos de baja productividad en recursos altamente productivos, mediante prácticas planificadas de mejoramiento físico, químico y biológico (Figura3). Las condiciones físicas del suelo se mejoran mediante la labranza vertical con cinceles rígidos a profundidades no mayores de 30 centímetros, lo cual permite fraccionar el suelo y superar limitaciones físicas como alta densidad aparente, sellamiento superficial, tasas de infiltración bajas y dificultades para la penetración de las raíces de los pastos y de los cultivos (Amézquita et al., 1998;Amézquita 2000b)  Se efectúan enmiendas químicas al suelo (cal + fertilizantes) para incrementar su fertilidad y reducir los problemas de acidez. El uso de material vegetal, gramíneas y leguminosas forrajeras, genéticamente adaptado a elevada acidez y baja fertilidad, capaz de producir sistemas de raíces extensos, fuertes y fibrosos, apunta a incrementar la actividad biológica y a mejorar la cantidad y calidad de la materia orgánica.La tecnología de capa arable es un enfoque holístico para enfrentar la problemática de los suelos de la Altillanura. En el pasado reciente, las soluciones propuestas se enfocaban exclusivamente a superar los problemas físicos y/o químicos. Las nuevas alternativas involucran también al germoplasma, como mecanismo para el mejoramiento y la conservación de los suelos.Los científicos que trabajan en el tema, plantean que la formación y mantenimiento de una capa arable, es un proceso con una secuencia claramente definida en el tiempo. En su fase inicial, el trabajo de formación se orienta a la preparación y enmienda del suelo, de tal manera que mejore su aptitud para el crecimiento de los pastos y de los cultivos.(Figura 3)Una vez agotada ésta fase, se establecen los cultivos cuyas raíces se desarrollan y sus hojas caen, lo cual es beneficioso para el suelo. En la medida en que se repiten los ciclos de cultivos y pastos, se observa un mejoramiento progresivo del suelo, que permite el establecimiento gradual de germoplasma con mayores requerimientos nutricionales y más productivo. Lo anterior resulta en una espiral ascendente de interacción de factores bióticos y abióticos, que conduce finalmente a la obtención de una capa arable con condiciones físicas, químicas y biológicas, que permite el desarrollo de una agricultura sostenible y eficiente. (Ciat -Colciencias -Corpoica, 1998) La evaluación económica efectuada supone que la construcción de la capa arable se inicia a partir de una sabana nativa que se incorpora a la producción. Los investigadores consideran que no habría una diferencia significativa en términos de costos, si se parte de un suelo degradado, previamente usado con cultivos o con pastos.Los datos para la evaluación económica de tres alternativas para la construcción de la capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental, fueron suministrados por los técnicos del Proyecto de Suelos del CIAT, quienes basándose en experiencias de campo, aportaron la información sobre las inversiones, gastos y rendimientos de cultivos, involucrada en cada una de las alternativas consideradas.La alternativa 1 se inicia con el establecimiento de una pradera mixta, una gramínea mezclada con una leguminosa, la cual está lista para su utilización al cabo de un año. Luego de pastorearla, se establece un sistema de rotaciones semestrales de cultivos, en este caso maíz y soya (Figura 4) La información de costos se expresa en $ colombianos del año 2002. La inversión inicial de establecimiento de la pastura asociada (gramínea + leguminosa), supera ligeramente el millón de pesos por hectárea. (Cuadro 3) Los costos directos (fertilización, semilla, maquinaria y mano de obra), representan el 65% de la inversión inicial.Los de mayor relevancia son los de fertilización al establecimiento, casi 30% del costo total, y el de maquinaria para la preparación del suelo, 17%. (Figura 5)El Cuadro 3 presenta los costos de siembra de la rotación maíz -soya. El costo de establecimiento del maíz en el primer semestre casi duplica al de la soya del segundo semestre. Esto obedece a que el último cultivo aprovecha la fertilización residual del maíz, por lo cual sus costos de fertilización se reducen sustancialmente. En otras palabras, algunos costos efectuados en el primer semestre, benefician al cultivo del segundo. Aunque el margen bruto/ha para soya, resulta significativamente mayor que el del maíz, la evaluación económica de los componentes individuales no tiene mayor sentido, dadas las interacciones existentes entre ellos, lo que obliga a la evaluación económica del sistema de producción en su conjunto . En la alternativa 2, la construcción de la capa arable se inicia con el establecimiento de una pastura mixta, conformada por una gramínea y una leguminosa, asociada con arroz.(Figura 4) Después de efectuar el pastoreo, se establece la rotación semestral de cultivos.El costo de establecimiento de la asociación pastura -cultivo, supera ampliamente al de la pradera sola. Este efecto negativo es contrarrestado por el hecho de que al finalizar el primer semestre, se reciben los ingresos por la venta de arroz. En el presente caso, esos recursos monetarios financian totalmente el costo inicial de establecimiento. (Cuadro 4) Los rendimientos de arroz, 4.0 tm/ha, están casi al nivel del rendimiento de equilibrio, 3.9 tm. -cantidad de arroz por hectárea que es necesario producir para cubrir totalmente el costo de establecimiento de la asociación pastura + arroz -Los costos de instalación de la rotación maíz -soya de la segunda alternativa, son exactamente iguales a los de la primera y corresponden a los que se presentan en el Cuadro 3.En la alternativa 3, el proceso de formación de la capa arable comienza con un sistema rotacional de cultivos semestrales (maíz -soya) por un lapso de dos a tres años, luego del cual se establece una pastura mixta asociada con un cultivo, en éste caso maíz. Las rotaciones de cultivos, previas a la siembra de la pastura, ayudan a reducir sus costos de fertilización de establecimiento. Nuevamente, al asociar la pastura con un cultivo (maíz), se obtienen ingresos que permiten financiar el costo total de instalación de la asociación.Cuadro 2 Costo de establecimiento de una pastura mixta, gramínea + leguminosa en la Altillanura Oriental de Colombia ('000 $ de 2002/ha) Para obtener un equilibrio de ingresos y de costos, dado un precio de $430 mil por tonelada, se requiere lograr un rendimiento del maíz, no inferior a 3.5 tm. por hectárea. Por otro lado, dado un rendimiento de 4.5 tm./ha, obtenido a escala comercial, el precio recibido por el productor no puede bajar de $333 mil pesos por tonelada, para poder cubrir totalmente el costo de establecimiento, con los ingresos por la venta del maíz. (Cuadro 5) La formación de capa arable es un proceso de mejoramiento gradual de un factor de producción como lo es el suelo, que finalmente conduce a incrementar su capacidad productiva. Desde el punto de vista de la teoría económica, el precio o remuneración a un factor de producción está en relación directa con su productividad, por lo cual se espera que una vez efectuadas las inversiones para la formación de la capa arable, el precio o el arrendamiento de la tierra se incrementen, dada su mayor productividad.Partiendo de ésta base, la evaluación económica a nivel micro se plantea como un análisis de las inversiones que un productor privado debe efectuar a través del tiempo, para construir la capa arable. Para conocer la bondad y conveniencia económica de tales inversiones, se estiman dos indicadores de rentabilidad, tasa interna de retorno (TIR) y valor presente neto. (VPN)A partir de la información básica de costos de establecimiento de pasturas y de cultivos, se simulan, a través de un ciclo de 10 años, las distintas secuencias productivas involucradas en cada alternativa evaluada. (Cuadro 6)Para la evaluación del componente ganadero, se asume que las pasturas mejoradas se utilizan en actividades de ceba, en donde el productor compra animales flacos de 300 Kg los vende para matadero con un peso de 400 Kg al cabo de un año.Se supone que estas praderas soportan una carga promedia de 1.5 animales por hectárea, a través del período de evaluación.El costo anual de manejo, drogas, sales etc., de la producción ganadera, se estima como una proporción del precio inicial de compra del ganado flaco, siguiendo la metodología usada por Rivas, et al, 1990.Para cada alternativa se construye un flujo de inversiones, costos e ingresos, sobre el que se calculan los indicadores de rentabilidad de los recursos invertidos en la construcción de la capa arable.Los flujos monetarios se expresan en $ constantes del 2002. Los precios de los insumos se ajustaron por el costo de transporte hasta la Altillanura, a una distancia de 150 kmts. de Villavicencio, el principal centro económico de la región.El Cuadro 7 resume los principales supuestos económicos y técnicos empleados. En cuanto éstos últimos, cabe anotar que sus niveles se fijaron por debajo de los observados a escala experimental y aún de finca, con el propósito de evitar la sobrestimación de los beneficios económicos. La evaluación muestra que las tres opciones consideradas de formación de capa arable en la Altillanura, son atractivas desde el punto de vista económico, dado que el valor presente neto en todas ellas es positivo y las tasas internas de retorno resultan superiores a la tasa de interés real de oportunidad (aproximadamente 16% anual) -Cuadro 8.Indicadores de rentabilidad de tres alternativas técnicas para la construcción de una capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental de ColombiaValor presente neto ('000$/ha) Tasa interna de retorno (%) 1 295 19.9 2 1330 37.4 3 1716 57.4Las tres alternativas se evalúan para un horizonte de 10 años y la secuencia de sus actividades productivas se muestra en el Cuadro 6. Se aprecian diferencias económicas importantes entre ellas. La alternativa 1 presenta los menores índices de rentabilidad, siendo superada ampliamente por las opciones 2 y 3. (Cuadro 8) La alternativa 1 se inicia con el establecimiento de una pastura mixta de gramínea y leguminosa, pero sin incluir un cultivo. Al comenzar el sexto año, previos tres ciclos de pastoreo de novillos en engorde y dos años de rotaciones de cultivos semestrales, se establece nuevamente una pastura mixta, pero ya asociada con un cultivo de maíz. Una vez establecida la pastura, se efectúan tres años continuos de pastoreo de novillos para ceba. La TIR resultante es de 19.9% anual. Al analizar esta alternativa, se puede apreciar la importancia de los cultivos como generadores de rentabilidad al sistema de producción en conjunto. Si la pastura plantada en el año 6 no incluyera un cultivo, la TIR se reduciría a 14.3%.La importancia crítica de los cultivos en términos de rentabilidad, se evidencia una vez más al evaluar la alternativa 2, que es muy similar a la 1, pero que incluye el establecimiento de pasturas mixtas con un cultivo asociado y en la cual se elimina un ciclo de pastoreo de un año y se lo sustituye por uno de rotación de cultivos. Esto tiene un impacto considerable sobre la rentabilidad que sube de 19.9% a 37.4% (Cuadro 1.4)La alternativa 3 a diferencia de las anteriores, se inicia con un ciclo de 3 años de rotaciones de cultivos semestrales, seguido del establecimiento de una pastura mixta asociada con maíz y culmina con un largo ciclo de pastoreo que cubre 6 años. El inicio de la construcción de la capa arable con el establecimiento de rotaciones de cultivos, aporta liquidez y rentabilidad al sistema. En este caso la TIR se sitúa en 57.4%Sin embargo, la alternativa 3 parece ser menos viable para pequeños y medianos productores que no poseen maquinaria propia y que no disponen de los fondos adecuados para el establecimiento de cultivos. La falta de maquinaria representa un serio obstáculo para adelantar actividades agrícolas en la región, dado que en los períodos críticos de cosecha y de siembra, quienes no tienen maquinaria propia, enfrentan la posibilidad de no conseguirla, ya que en esos cortos períodos se concentra la demanda.La implementación de bancos de maquinaria y la organización de los productores de menor escala en cooperativas, que adquieran maquinaria y presten el servicio a los afiliados, pudieran ser alternativas para viabilizar la adopción de los productores que trabajan en fincas pequeñas y medianas.Los resultados confirman el hecho de que en el establecimiento de las pasturas, la inclusión de un cultivo asociado mejora sustancialmente la viabilidad financiera y la rentabilidad económica. Este hecho ya ha sido ampliamente demostrado y documentado en estudios previos sobre el tema. (Sanint et al 1990, Botero et al, 1990, Cadavid, 1995) La opción 3 presenta la mayor liquidez. Durante los dos primeros años muestra un flujo de ingreso neto acumulado positivo de $ 11 mil /hectárea frente a la alternativa 1 que, en el mismo período, genera un flujo de ingreso neto acumulado negativo de $ 2 millones por hectáreaEn términos de rentabilidad la mejor secuencia de actividades para construir una capa arable en la Altillanura, sería iniciar con una serie de rotaciones de cultivos semestrales de aproximadamente 3 años, al cabo de los cuales se establece la pradera mixta de gramínea y leguminosa la cual se pastorea en ceba de novillos por un período de 6 años.Para productores con limitaciones de maquinaria lo más apropiado sería establecer pasturas al inicio, las cuales son menos intensivas en maquinaria que los cultivos.La rentabilidad de las actividades agropecuarias frecuentemente es afectada por riegos de tipo biológico y económico. Los primeros lesionan directamente la productividad de la agricultura. Los segundos inciden sobre los precios de los productos e insumos agrícolas, afectando los ingresos y la rentabilidad.La presencia de plagas y enfermedades, actúa negativamente sobre los rendimientos agrícolas y en consecuencia sobre el desempeño económico de los proyectos productivos. En los cultivos se presentan variaciones estacionales (a través del año) de la producción y los precios, que obedecen principalmente a oscilaciones climáticas tales como el exceso de lluvias, las sequías, y heladas, etc.A su vez los precios del ganado presentan oscilaciones estacionales y cíclicas, que afectan la rentabilidad del negocio ganadero. En Colombia durante el primer semestre debido a la sequía en la Costa Norte disminuye la oferta de ganado gordo de esa región, aumentando la demanda y los precios en otras zonas como el Caquetá y los Llanos. (Rivas & Seré, 1985) En el segundo semestre ocurre el fenómeno inverso. La Figura 6 muestra las variaciones estacionales del precio del ganado \"costeño\" y del \"calentano\" y de la oferta total de ganado en la plaza de Bogotá 2También a través de los años los precios y la oferta ganadera presentan oscilaciones cíclicas, ampliamente analizadas por diferentes investigadores y que obedecen a razones técnicas y económicas. (Jarvis, 1986) -Figura 7.Dado lo anterior, es importante analizar los cambios en la rentabilidad de los proyectos agrícolas cuando se presentan condiciones adversas, tales como bajas de los precios recibidos por los productores, alzas en los costos, caída de los rendimientos, etc. Este análisis de sensibilidad muestra la solidez económica de una alternativa en evaluación, cuando aparecen situaciones críticas y aporta una idea de su vulnerabilidad frente al riesgo.El Cuadro 12 muestra los cambios en las tasas de rentabilidad de las opciones evaluadas, en situaciones hipotéticas alternativas, tales como reducciones de 10, 20 y 30% de los precios del ganado y de los cultivos. Las fluctuaciones de los precios del ganado, tienen relativamente poco impacto sobre el retorno económico, dado que en éste caso específico se simuló una actividad de ceba, en la cual se compran novillos flacos y se venden gordos. Esto implica que al bajar los precios vacunos, se reducen los ingresos del productor, pero también el valor de compra del ganado flaco.La alternativa 3, que tiene un fuerte énfasis ganadero, presenta gran estabilidad de sus rendimientos económicos, en situaciones de precios del ganado a la baja. Las otras dos alternativas consideradas exhiben un buen nivel de solidez, aunque ligeramente menor (Cuadro 11)Al analizar la conveniencia económica de emprender un proyecto de construcción de capa arable en la Altillanura, el nivel de los precios de los cultivos en el caso analizado, es más crítico que el del ganado. Una reducción simultánea del 30% del precio real de los cultivos (arroz, maíz y soya) provocaría que un proyecto de ésta naturaleza no fuera conveniente, ya que las tasas de retorno bajarían dramáticamente a niveles inferiores a los del costo de oportunidad del capital. En la alternativa 1 caería de 19.9 a 8% y en la 3 de 57 a 8.7%. Reducciones de precio de esa magnitud colocarían a las opciones 1 y 3 casi en el mismo modesto nivel de rentabilidad.La alternativa 1 que presenta el menor retorno económico, también es muy vulnerable en situaciones de bajas en los precios de los cultivos. Una caída de un 10% de los precios de éstos, deterioraría gravemente su retorno económico, tornándola inconveniente. La respuesta de las tasas de rentabilidad ante reducciones porcentuales de la capacidad de carga de las praderas, es totalmente simétrica en cuanto a sentido y magnitud, a la de una baja porcentual igual en los precios del ganado. Esto se explica porque el ingreso bruto del componente ganadero se estima como:es el ingreso ganadero bruto IGB el precio por kilogramo del ganado en pie PG CA la carga animal y el peso vivo de los novillos. PV Esto implica que un cambio porcentual de igual magnitud, en cualquiera de los factores que conforman el lado derecho de la expresión (1), tiene el mismo efecto porcentual sobre el ingreso ganadero bruto. Por la misma razón, los cambios porcentuales en los precios de los cultivos tienen un efecto similar y de igual proporción, en los indicadores de rentabilidad, que las variaciones porcentuales de los rendimientos físicos de los productos agrícolas. (Cuadro 12) La construcción de la capa arable en las fincas de la región deberá enfocarse desde una perspectiva de mediano y largo plazo. Si se estiman los indicadores de rentabilidad de las opciones examinadas, considerando el período exacto que se precisa para formar una capa arable, se observa que las alternativas 1 y 2, no resultarían rentables. (Cuadro 13) Lo anterior evidencia que transcurrido el tiempo de formación, la actividad productiva debe prolongarse por unos años más, para poder recuperar la totalidad los fondos invertidos en el proyecto.La opción 3, aparte de mostrar niveles de rentabilidad superiores a los de las otras alternativas, presenta la particularidad de que los fondos invertidos en su implementación, se recuperan mucho más rápidamente, por lo cual sus posibilidades de adopción son mayores, para aquellos productores que disponen del suficiente capital de trabajo para el establecimiento inicial de los cultivos y que además tienen maquinaria propia.Los productores de pequeña escala, con limitadas posibilidades de acceso al crédito y que no poseen maquinaria, se ajustarían mejor a las opciones 1 y 2 que inician con establecimiento de pasturas, menos intensivas en el uso de capital y de maquinaria. Es imperativo encontrar esquemas que permitan una apropiada disponibilidad de maquinaria en las épocas de siembra y de cosecha, para que los agricultores de todos los tamaños de finca, puedan efectuar las rotaciones de pastos y de cultivos, cuando lo consideren necesario.Cuadro 9 Flujo de inversiones, ingresos y costos de la formación de una capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental de Colombia: Alternativa 1 19.9 1/ FM: Fertilización de mantenimiento de la pastura. 2/ Se supone que la pradera sembrada en el año 6, tiene una vida útil de 7 años. Asumiendo una depreciación lineal, se incluye como ingreso el valor de salvamento de la pastura en el año final de evaluación.Cuadro 10 Flujo de inversiones, ingresos y costos de la formación de una capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental de Colombia: Alternativa 2 ('000 de $ de 2002/ha) 1/FM: Fertilización de mantenimiento dela pastura 2/ Se supone que la pradera sembrada en el año 7, tiene una vida útil de 7 años. Asumiendo una depreciación lineal, se incluye como ingreso el valor de salvamento de la pastura en el año final de la evaluación. 29 Cuadro 11 Flujo de inversiones, ingresos y costos de la formación de una capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental de Colombia: Alternativa 3 1/ FM: Fertilización de mantenimiento de la pastura. 2/ Se supone que la pradera sembrada en el año 3, tiene una vida útil de 7 años. Asumiendo una depreciación lineal, se incluye como ingreso el valor de salvamento de la pastura en el año final de la evaluación.   Cuadro 13 Indicadores de rentabilidad considerando el período exacto de construcción de capa arable en la Altillanura de Colombia Indicadores de rentabilidad 1/ Alternativas Tiempo de formación de la capa arable (años) Valor presente neto ('000$/ha) Tasa interna de retorno (%) Alternativa 1:1 año de establecimiento de una pastura sola + 3 años de pastoreo + 1 año de rotación de cultivos-958 -9.9Alternativa 2:1año de establecimiento de una pastura mixta asociada con un cultivo + 3 años de pastoreo + 1 año de rotación de cultivos 5 -82.6 13.2Alternativa 33 años de rotaciones semestrales de cultivos + 1 año de establecimiento de una pastura mixta asociada con un cultivo 4 1258.3 61.3 1/ Estimados para los períodos de tiempo que aparecen en la columna 2.La tecnología de uso y manejo de los suelos de la Altillanura con base en la estrategia de construcción de capas arables, ha comenzado un proceso de difusión y adopción en las fincas de esa región de Colombia, el cual se encuentra en una fase temprana. El CIAT y Corpoica, en los últimos años y dentro del marco del Convenio MADR -CIAT, han efectuado un importante esfuerzo de capacitación y difusión de los resultados de la investigación efectuada, a través de cursos y eventos de capacitación de profesionales, técnicos y productores que trabajan en los Llanos colombianos. En el período 1995 -2003 un total 203 profesionales colombianos recibió adiestramiento en técnicas conservacionistas de manejo y uso de los suelos. En la región se efectuaron varios talleres de divulgación de los nuevos conceptos sobre el manejo de los suelos de esa región de Colombia, al que asistió un total de 164 personas, entre profesionales, asistentes técnicos y estudiantes universitarios. (Rivas, 2004) Dado que se trata de un enfoque novedoso que vincula estrechamente el manejo del suelo con la producción de pastos y de cultivos y su secuencia en el tiempo, es preciso efectuar un seguimiento de la adopción para conocer su evolución y los factores positivos y negativos que la afectan e identificar las acciones de carácter técnico y de política agropecuaria, que ayuden a fortificar y ampliar la adopción. Como parte de este seguimiento se efectuó un sondeo rápido en fincas de la región, mediante entrevistas informales con un grupo de productores, técnicos y expertos de la región, para obtener información relevante referida a:Tamaño de las fincas.Extensión de los lotes en proceso de mejoramiento. Orientación económica de las explotaciones. Prácticas de labranza y manejo de los suelos. Tipo y secuencia de las rotaciones de cultivos y de pastos. Tiempo estimado de duración de las diferentes clases de rotaciones. Limitaciones, internas y externas, más importantes percibidas por los productores, para aplicar esquemas de mejoramiento de los suelos.Ventajas del mejoramiento de los suelos, identificadas por los productores. Planes y objetivos futuros a escala de finca, en el área de conservación de suelos.Los estudios de seguimiento de la adopción son importantes porque aparte de ayudar a entender dichos procesos, aportan información crítica para el diseño de estrategias tecnológicas y de política económica, que impulsen la adopción. Adicionalmente, la información generada en éstos trabajos, constituye la base para la cuantificación del impacto socioeconómico ex post del cambio técnico.Se entrevistó un total 18 productores en el área de Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán en el Departamento del Meta. De ellos, 13 están empleando actualmente las técnicas propuestas de manejo de suelos y 5 aún no lo hacen. (Cuadro 14)La información obtenida evidencia el hecho de que la adopción en la región, se encuentra en una fase muy temprana. Se trata de productores que tradicionalmente han sido ganaderos, que están introduciendo rotaciones de cultivos para establecer posteriormente rotaciones más complejas con componentes de pasturas y árboles.Cuadro 14 Resultados del sondeo sobre adopción de la tecnología de capa arable en Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán en la Altillanura Se anota que se trata de desarrollos tecnológicos en fases tempranas de adopción, en donde quienes están trabajando con cultivos llevan máximo 4 años de labores, en tanto que la generalidad de los entrevistados, se ubica en el rango de 1 a 2 años de haber iniciado la agricultura. Actualmente se cosechan las siembras del primer semestre ( Abril -Agosto) e inmediatamente se siembra (siembra directa) lo que se cosechará en Diciembre -Enero.Está entrando a la región el sistema de cosecha a granel, que es un esquema donde una combinada descarga la producción sobre una tolva tirada por un tractor, que a su vez la descarga directamente en camiones especialmente acondicionados, evitando el uso de costales.La disponibilidad de tiempo es una seria limitante (\"la ventana de trabajo\" como algunos señalan es muy estrecha) De tal forma que la falta de algún insumo clave como maquinaria, fertilizantes, transporte etc., que impida establecer los cultivos o cosecharlos en el momento oportuno, tiene implicaciones negativas muy fuertes sobre los planes de producción a escala de finca.La rotación básica es una gramínea en el primer semestre y una leguminosa en el segundo: maíz -soya o arroz -soya. El arroz Línea 30, aún no liberado abre grandes expectativas, como componente de éstas rotaciones.1) Los entrevistados, trabajen o no con cultivos, mostraron gran interés por mantener y mejorar la calidad de los suelos, dado que en la Altillanura el empleo de prácticas conservacionistas, tiene una alta y rápida respuesta en términos de rendimientos de los cultivos y de las pasturas. Los agricultores que en el pasado intentaron establecer cultivos, sin el manejo apropiado de los suelos y sin el germoplasma de pastos y de cultivos adaptado, experimentaron grandes fracasos económicos. En la actualidad la utilización de metodologías conservacionistas de manejo y uso de los suelos, impulsados por CIAT y Corpoica, y los nuevos materiales adaptados de maíz, soya, arroz y de pastos, según los productores, han mostrado grandes ventajas en términos de productividad y de retorno económico de las inversiones efectuadas.2) En todos los casos en los que se realiza agricultura, los productores han disminuido el empleo de maquinaria, usando labranza vertical con cinceles, encalando, incorporando material vegetal, efectuando siembra directa en el segundo semestre, control químico de malezas y en casos puntuales control biológico de plagas. Algunas fincas hacen labores de preparación del suelo cuando es absolutamente necesario, estableciendo varias secuencias de cultivos bajo el esquema de siembra directa.3) Existe un gran interés del gobierno nacional y del sector avícola por reubicar la producción de granos en la Altillanura colombiana y ya existen fincas productoras de granos de propiedad de avicultores y procesadores de granos (Avensa Mac' Pollo, Molinos del Cauca, Avícola el Guamito, etc.) Esta circunstancia le da solidez al proceso de expansión de los cultivos, ya que la demanda de maíz y soya, está jalonada por el dinamismo del sector avícola.4) Los productores que introducen cultivos en sus fincas, tradicionalmente han sido ganaderos y lo siguen siendo. La mayoría planteó que están introduciendo cultivos, para mejorar los suelos y sembrar pastos de alta productividad. Esta circunstancia permite visualizar un alto potencial de demanda del nuevo germoplasma desarrollado por el Proyecto de Forrajes, por ejemplo el cv. Mulato y los nuevos híbridos de Brachiaria con resistencia a salivazo, próximos a ser liberados. Se observaron casos de recuperación de praderas degradadas, mediante la introducción de un cultivo.5) Las ganancias en productividad constituyen el principal beneficio percibido por quienes adelantan actividades agrícolas. En general los rendimientos en la primera siembra son más bajos, pero se incrementan por efecto del mejoramiento del suelo, en las siembras subsiguientes. En soya se habla en términos generales de rendimientos iniciales de 1.5 -1.9 tm/ha, que se han elevado a 2.5 -3.0 tm/ha. En maíz evolucionan desde casi 4 tm/ha hasta 5 -6 tm/ha. Un productor señaló que obtuvo un rendimiento excepcional de 7.2 tm/ha en la actual cosecha.6) Si bien es generalizada la idea de que el motocultivo continuo degrada los suelos y provoca mayor presión de plagas y enfermedades, razones económicas pueden conducir al rompimiento de las rotaciones técnicamente más apropiadas. Esa situación ocurrió en el primer semestre de este año. Al inicio del 2004 había muy buenas perspectivas de precios altos para la soya y los productores venían de sembrar ese cultivo en el último semestre del año pasada. Desde el punto de vista técnico, lo indicado era cultivar maíz o arroz en este primer semestre, pero no lo hicieron atendiendo las expectativas de precios altos de la soya.7) Como el proceso de producción agrícola es tan incipiente, los productores aún no tienen claridad sobre la duración de las rotaciones de cultivos antes de entrar a sembrar los pastos. Algunos hablan de 4 -5 años de rotaciones de cultivos, otros plantean que el cambio de cultivos a pastos, se dará cuando la productividad de los primeros comience a declinar. Unos pocos señalaron que sería conveniente tener algunos indicadores de la evolución de la calidad de los suelos, para tomar ésta clase de decisiones.8) Las limitantes para aplicar técnicas conservacionistas, desde la óptica de los productores, se pueden clasificar en dos grandes grupos: económicos y de infraestructura e insumos.1) Las grandes fluctuaciones de los precios agrícolas, generan bruscas oscilaciones de los ingresos. 2) Algunos productores plantearon temores acerca de los posibles impactos negativos del TLC sobre los precios agrícolas, lo cual podría frenar la expansión de los cultivos en la Altillanura. 3) La escasa disponibilidad de capital para el establecimiento de los cultivos y para compra de maquinaria. En el caso de arroz, la estrechez del mercado interno, el cual se satura muy rápidamente, genera situaciones de sobreoferta y precios bajos al productor. En el momento hay productores que cosecharon arroz y tienen dificultades para comercializarlo, ya que los molineros no lo están recibiendo. La Costa Norte comprador de la producción, este año recibió un gran abastecimiento procedente de Venezuela. 4) Los altos precios de la cal y su escasa disponibilidad. 5) La mala calidad en algunos casos de la semilla disponible, que genera pobres rendimientos. 6) La muy limitada disponibilidad de maquinaria para productores pequeños 1 , quienes deben esperar a que los propietarios de la maquinaria siembren y cosechen sus propios lotes, para tener acceso a la misma. Dada la estrechez de los periodos de siembra y cosecha en la zona, esta situación genera grandes riesgos de pérdidas económicas.El deplorable estado de las carreteras en el área de Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán (tanto las principales, como las de acceso a las fincas) provoca constantes alzas en los fletes, lo que sube los costos y reduce la competitividad de la producción agropecuaria de la región.Se escucharon algunas críticas a las actuales modalidades de crédito, ya que las líneas de crédito están diseñadas bajo una perspectiva de corto plazo, en una situación en la que los productores están adelantando proyectos de mediano y largo plazo. 9) Se vertieron conceptos muy favorables al trabajo del CIAT y de Corpoica, en relación con el diseño de germoplasma adaptado de alto rendimiento y en la difusión de criterios conservacionistas para el empleo productivo de los suelos de la región. El Comité de ganaderos del Meta, realiza capacitación para un mejor manejo de las pasturas, a través del adecuado manejo de los suelos.10) De las entrevistas con productores ganaderos que aún no trabajan con cultivos, se infiere que las razones para no hacerlo aún, son variadas: a) Falta de tierra, en fincas pequeñas y a plena capacidad, no tienen posibilidades de destinar áreas para los cultivos. b) Carencia de capital financiero y de equipos para establecer cultivos. c) Sus habilidades están en la ganadería y no tienen conocimientos sobre agricultura. d) Esta actividad requiere mayor y más constante permanencia en la finca. Algunos productores o no disponen del mismo o no están dispuestos a viajar más constantemente a la finca. e) Alta proporción de la finca en áreas de serranía, no apta para adelantar cultivos.11) La percepción es que el área de impacto más inmediato es la zona de Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán, aproximadamente 180 mil hectáreas. En la medida que se penetra Llano adentro, las restricciones de infraestructura vial y de comunicaciones, maquinaria, insumos, asistencia técnica y de personal calificado se multiplican, por lo cual la viabilidad de los cultivos disminuye rápidamente.12) Con la expansión de los cultivos algunos problemas crecerán, aumentarán los flujos vehiculares para el transporte de mayores cantidades de productos e insumos y de combustible por la apertura de dos nuevos pozos petroleros en la zona. La malla vial actual no fue diseñada para un flujo vehicular pesado e intenso. La inversión estatal en vías es crítica para el desarrollo productivo de ésta región. Adicionalmente, con la expansión de las áreas cultivadas, está latente el peligro de una mayor incidencia de plagas y enfermedades.Surgieron opiniones en el sentido de que la región ya cuenta con tecnología para adelantar un desarrollo productivo eficiente y sostenible y que las restricciones para un uso conservacionista de los suelos, se concentran en aspectos económicos y de infraestructura.13) En la medida en que se consolide la expansión productiva en la zona, se requiere un monitoreo más formal de los aspectos técnicos y económicos, como base para posteriores estudios de evaluación del impacto ex post.14) Los actuales problemas de comercialización del arroz, sugieren que iniciativas encaminadas a buscar usos industriales alternativos, pueden representar un importante aporte, para ampliar la demanda y aliviar los problemas de comercialización.La evaluación económica de tres alternativas de formación de capa arable en la Altillanura Oriental de Colombia, muestra que éstos desarrollos tecnológicos, constituyen nuevas herramientas para que los productores de esa región y de otras con características edáficas similares, hagan un uso más sostenible y conservacionista de los suelos, a través de inversiones en la construcción de capa arable de forma productiva y rentable. Considerando la enorme extensión de la altillanura y sus innegables ventajas para desarrollar en ella sistemas agropecuarios sostenibles y de alta productividad, se infiere que la incorporación a la producción agropecuaria, de parte de éstos recursos ubicados en la frontera agrícola colombiana, tendría un impacto económico y ambiental de gran magnitud.A escala de productor individual aparece una amplia gama de beneficios si se implementan estrategias de uso y conservación de los suelos, mediante la aplicación de tecnologías basadas en el principio de capa arable: 1) Incrementos de los ingresos y de la rentabilidad de las inversiones, 2) Diversificación de la producción agropecuaria, lo que permite estabilizar ingresos y minimizar los riesgos propios de la agricultura. 3) Conservación de la capacidad productiva y del valor real de los recursos invertidos en la compra de tierra. A escala más agregada, de región o país, los beneficios esperados son de tipo económico y ambiental. Los primeros están asociados con la ampliación de la oferta agregada de alimentos y de materias primas, que propicie bajas en el costo de la canasta de alimentos básicos y mejoras en el nivel nutricional de la población. Se espera que ésta expansión productiva dinamice a otros sectores de la economía y ayude a incrementar el ritmo de crecimiento económico del país.Figura 7 Índice de ciclicidad y precios reales del ganado en Colombia 1980 -1994 1/Un estudio previo sobre el potencial económico de las tecnologías de capa arable a escala regional, estimó que si en el lapso de 10 años, un área de 100 mil hectáreas actualmente en sabana nativa se incorpora progresivamente a la producción, usando el concepto de capa arable, el valor presente de las ganancias en productividad con respecto a las tecnologías tradicionales, llegaría a US$ 294 millones. (Rivas L, 2004) Gran parte de la crítica a los sistemas agrícolas basados en el monocultivo y a la ganadería extensiva, en áreas como la Altillanura colombiana, es su impacto negativo sobre la base de recursos de tierra, que resulta en el abandono de áreas degradadas y en la creciente ocupación de otras nuevas, colocando gran presión sobre los ecosistemas más frágiles. Las tecnologías propuestas son útiles tanto para el manejo de suelos en peligro de degradación como para suelos ya degradados. De esto se desprende que el impacto de la adopción en gran escala de éstas técnicas, tendría un efecto ambiental positivo de gran relevancia para el país.La recuperación de enormes extensiones de suelos degradados actualmente en producción y la utilización de otros aún no incorporados, empleando este tipo de tecnologías conservacionistas, presenta indudables ventajas ambientales en términos de reducción de tasas de deforestación y de conservación del patrimonio forestal y de biodiversidad de Colombia. En el futuro, y a medida que avance el proceso de adopción, estos aspectos deberán ser cuantificados y documentados.Las tres opciones evaluadas son rentables y financieramente viables. Sin embargo, la alternativa 3 resulta más ventajosa, por su mayor rentabilidad, su robustez frente a condiciones económicas desfavorables y la rápida recuperación de los fondos invertidos.La evaluación de la construcción de una capa arable, debe enmarcarse dentro de una perspectiva de mediano y largo plazo, ya que se trata de un proceso de transformación de un activo de baja e inestable productividad en otro con características opuestas. Dado lo anterior, cualquier evaluación económica de corto plazo puede conducir a conclusiones erróneas, sobre la conveniencia de aplicar esta clase de tecnologías.La siembra asociada de una pastura mixta (gramínea + leguminosa) con un cultivo, es un aspecto clave para mejorar la viabilidad financiera y la rentabilidad económica de las alternativas de construcción de una capa arable. Los ingresos por la venta de la cosecha, financian totalmente el costo de establecimiento de la pastura asociada. Este hecho ya ha sido ampliamente demostrado y documentado en otros estudios económicos sobre el tema. (Sanint et al 1990, Botero et al, 1990, Cadavid, 1995) Por ésta razón la alternativa 1, que incluye una pastura sola sin cultivo, resulta ser la menos atractiva desde el punto de vista económico. Pero si en su última fase se incluye una pastura con un cultivo asociado, su retorno económico mejora considerablemente.Las rotaciones de pastos y de cultivos para la construcción de la capa arable generan economías en el uso de los insumos productivos ya que se incrementa su eficiencia. El caso más claro es el de los fertilizantes, en donde el cultivo del segundo semestre aprovecha la fertilización residual del primer cultivo, lo cual implica significativas reducciones en su costo de establecimiento.Dentro de la estructura de costos de establecimiento, tanto de las pasturas como de los cultivos, los de mayor relevancia son los de fertilización y de maquinaria. De tal manera, que cualquier estrategia orientada a reducir estos costos, debe enfatizar en esos dos factores de producción (Cuadro 15)Las fases más avanzadas en la construcción de capa arable, posibilitan progresivamente la utilización de germoplasma con mayores requerimientos nutricionales y de mayor productividad, que aumentan el grado de complejidad de los sistemas agropecuarios, por ejemplo frutales, caucho, árboles maderables etc. En el futuro, es conveniente elaborar estimaciones económicas, considerando ésta clase de componentes.Cuadro 15 Participación porcentual de los costos de maquinaria y de fertilización en los costos directos de establecimiento de pastos y cultivos en la Altillanura En la presente evaluación, se utilizaron parámetros técnicos conservadores, por debajo de los observados tanto a escala experimental como de finca, para evitar la sobreestimación de los beneficios económicos. Los resultados indican que se trata de opciones tecnológicas con un amplio potencial de impacto económico y ambiental, no solo en la Altillanura Oriental sino en otras regiones del país y del mundo, que confronten circunstancias similares.El uso y manejo de los suelos a gran escala en el área objetivo, bajo el enfoque de construcción de capas arables, representa no solo un gran cambio de tipo técnico, sino que precisa modificaciones significativas en la mentalidad del productor tradicional, que siempre se especializó como agricultor o como ganadero. El empleo de éstas nuevas alternativas para la utilización de los suelos en ésta región de Colombia, requiere el desarrollo de unidades productivas muy diversificadas, que incluyan múltiples componentes de cultivos, de ganadería y aún de forestería. El reto es generar en la región una dinámica de cambio a través de procesos participativos y de divulgación de información, que ayuden a romper esquemas y prácticas tradicionales.El estudio incluye un sondeo rápido en la zona de Puerto López -Puerto Gaitán sobre el estado de la adopción temprana de la tecnología de capa arable. El trabajo incluye agricultores que adoptan y que no adoptan tecnologías de conservación de los suelos, en un intento por identificar factores positivos y negativos que condicionan la adopción.Factores de diversa naturaleza, económicos y de infraestructura, afectan el nivel de adopción de las tecnologías propuestas: Grandes fluctuaciones de los precios de los cultivos, escasez de insumos críticos como semillas de alta calidad y cal dolomita, inadecuada oferta de maquinaria en las épocas críticas de siembra y cosecha y deficiente red vial, que ocasiona enormes sobrecostos a la economía regional.Para 2005 se planea continuar el monitoreo de este proceso, visitando nuevamente la zona y entrevistando a los agricultores que se contactaron en el primer sondeo y a otros que paulatinamente se incorporen al proceso de mejoramiento de los suelos en la Altillanura.","tokenCount":"10187"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23d22fabee51cc6141fc9ac503fbf000","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/5CXCLX/LNS9OM","id":"-1151556451"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dfba0c6d-1389-4fbd-a8c3-2e74cbfa08b5","pagecount":"18","content":"17 ID_CHILD Child identification number 18 AGE_CHILD Child's age (in months) 19 AGE_CHILD_4C Child's age in 4 classes 1 [24-35] 2 [36-47] 3 [48-60] 4 >= 5 ans 20 APPETIT Appetite on the day of the recall 1 Less 2 Normal 3 More 21 MALADE Health status (sick or not) on the day of the recall 1 Yes 2 No 22 WEEKEND Did the recall append on a weekend day ? 1 Yes 2 No 23 CODE_PERIOD Time period during which the food was consumed 1 Morning 2 Midmorning 3 Noon 4 Afternoon 5 Evening 6 Night 24 CODE_GRP Food group 1 Grains and grain products 2 Other starchy staples 3 Cooked dry beans and peas 4 Oils and fats 5 Vitamin A-rich oils and fats 6 Nuts and seeds 7 Milk and yogurt 8 Cheese 9 Organ meat 10 Eggs 11 Small fish eaten whole with bones 12 Large whole fish, dried fish, shellfish and other seafood 13 Beef, pork, veal, lamb, goat, game meat 14 Chicken, duck, turkey, pigeon, guinea hen, game birds 15 Insects, grubs, snakes, rodents and other small animals 16 Vitamin A-rich dark green leafy vegetables 17 Vitamin A-rich deep yellow, orange, red vegetables 18 Vitamin A-rich fruits 19 Vitamin C-rich vegetables 20 Vitamin C-rich fruits 21 Other vegetables 22 Other fruits 23 Coffee, tea, herbal tea 24 Alcoholic beverages 25 Condiments 26 Sugar and sugar products 27 Soybeans and soy products","tokenCount":"237"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3721d5aae45f750f1a00648791642a3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/Analysis_Of_The_Soil_and_Water_Conservation_Structural_Design.pdf","id":"1908524840"},"keywords":["Community Based Participatory Integrated Watershed Management CMM: Community Mass Mobilized DAP: Diammonium Phosphate DN: Digital Number ENVI: Environment for Visualizing Images EPA: Environmental Protection Authority ERDAS: Earth Resource Data Analysis System ET: Evapo-Transpiration FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Government FFW: Food for Work GEI: Google Earth Imagery HH: Household IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISDR: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature IWM: Integrated Watershed Management Land Sat 5 (™): Land Sat Thematic Mapper Land Sat 8 (OLI): Operational Land Imager LDNR: Land Degradation Neutrality Report LLPPA: Local Level Participatory Planning Approach MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment xiv MERET: Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transition MoARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development NIR: Near-Infrared Radiation OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PSNP: Productive Safety Net Programs REDD: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SBD: Soil Bulk Density SLMP: Sustainable Land Management Programme United Nations Educational","Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WMO: World Meteorological Organization xv Design of Conservation Structures","Land Use and Land Cover Change","SWC guideline","Soil Erosion","Soil property"],"sieverID":"d75b3699-c11d-4ecf-abdd-9f92a8f32efd","pagecount":"184","content":"First and foremost, I have no words to thank the Supreme God for giving me direction, strength, and protection in all my way to success. I would have been nowhere without the provision of God. My special and deep gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Amare Bantider, Dr. Abiyot Legesse, and Mr. Malesu Maimbo, for their useful guidance, valuable suggestions, support, and positive assessment, and critical comments throughout my study. I am very pleased to work under their supervision. Without their diligent advice, this achievement would not have been possible. I learned a lot from their rigorous comments and suggestions.Also, I am indebted to Ayenachew, Edilu, Hashim, Nigatu, Salahadin, and others who supported me in collecting data, organizing local people, and translating language.In addition, my deepest appreciation goes to Dr. Mekuriaw and Mr. Yaregal Mulu for their precious time in editing the dissertation.Moreover, I would like to take this opportunity to thank German Academic Exchange Services (DAAD), world agroforestry (ICRAF) as well as Dilla University for the financial and material support that enabled me to pursue and complete the study. Related to this, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all Dilla University staff for the moral support that they gave me. Furthermore, my very sincere thanks go to my mother, Mulunesh Donlando, and father, Hassen Abadico. I have no word to express their effort since my childhood to bring me up. May you rest in peace! I thank you for what you did. What is more, I am grateful to my wife, Yetimhager Haile. She deserves a lot of recognition for the support, affection, and encouragement she gave me to achieve what I have today. She is very special to me. My two lovely sons, Yabets Getahun and Yuhan Getahun should deserve my appreciation for their tolerance during my absence.1 Proximate and underlying drivers of LULCC (land use land cover change)..10    the Neolithic period (first agricultural revolution) (Smith & Zeder, 2013;Lambin et al., 2006). Though LULCC happens due to natural or human factors, human activities are the primary forces of the change (Kabba & Li, 2011). According to Zahara et al. (2016), the extent, intensity, and rate of LULCC are more significant and complicated than they were in the past. LULCC has been occurring rapidly, involving the conversion of forestland to agricultural land, rangeland, grassland, and woodland to bare land and vice versa (Lambin et al., 2003). The change is faster and more noticeable in developing countries (Ellis, 2013;Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011).In Africa, the conversion of forest to agriculture and pastureland accounted for about 75 million hectares between 1990 and 2010 (FAO, 2010).Ethiopia is one of the African countries that have experienced rapid and progressively noticeable LULCC since the second half of the 20th century (Mintaet al., 2018). LULCC has both positive and negative impacts on socio-economic and environmental conditions (Lambin& Meyfroidt, 2011). Many research reports indicated that the LULCC that was not supported by the physical and biological conservation work has a higher probability for the adverse impact of LULCC. According to Kindu et al. (2018), LULCC is one of the significant factors in natural resource degradation, threatening biodiversity (Yirsaw et al., 2017), deforestation (Rands et al., 2010), environmental disasters such as intensive soil erosion and landslide (Meshesha et al., 2014) and climate change (Bringezu et al., 2014).The Ethiopian environmental protection authority (EPA) report (2012) showed that the Ethiopian ecosystem is beyond carrying capacity primarily due to the high population growth, LULCC, cultivation on steep slopes, deforestation, soil degradation, and climate change. Particularly, LULCC is the major factor for socio-economic and environmental problems of the country (Bekele et al., 2018). According to Yesuf et al. (2008), 1 billion m 3 fertile top soils were lost per annum in the country which is mainly caused by a land cover change (deforestation), poor agricultural system, poor land management, and high population growth. LULCC and related factors caused environmental disasters such as intensive soil loss of cropland that is about 20,000-30,000 tons/ha/yr, and about 2 million hectares of land that had been extremely degraded and was unsuitable for crop production (FAO, 1986).Therefore, it is important to understand the past through research on historical LULCC, which in turn helps to manage the present and predict future land use (Nigatu (2014).According to Alemayehu (2009) data of the past on land use and cover patterns are means to evaluate the complex causes and responses to the future trends of human activities and LULCC. In this regard application of tangible and continuous conservation actions on the protection of soil, water, and other natural resources and measuring the effect of conservation work has got higher recognition to guarantee food security to many people (Obalum et al., 2012;Pender et al., 2006). According to Mango et al. (2017), after World War II (WWII), the introduced soil, and water conservation (SWC) measure has been a widespread development program in many developing countries to tackle land degradation through soil erosion.The government of Ethiopia has given high attention to the SWC measure to be used as a leading natural resource conservation strategy. In Ethiopia, the traditional natural resource conservation activities hold very old age (Hurni et al. 2016). However, institutional-based and large-scale SWCs such as soil or stone bunds, trenches, and exclosures began in the 1970s and 1980s under the practices of integrated and participatory watershed management (Assefa & Hans-Rudolf, 2016;Haregeweyn et al., 2015;Mekonnen et al., 2014). Though modern conservation had been introduced before the 1970s, still now, the conservation work could not be fully achieved in many areas as long as its age (Elias, 2002). Therefore, intensive and systematic research on the effectiveness of SWC practices in response to LULCC and soil fertility at specific watersheds is a timely and relevant issue.The Gidabo River sub-basin is found in the rift valley region of Ethiopia where farming activities have a long history and residents would continue farming (Kippe, 2002). Moreover, the area has an exemplary indigenous agroforestry system and source of water for the multi-billion birr invested Gidabo dam. The area has been affecting by problems such as reduction of productive capacity of agroforestry, and expansion of commercial farming (Bishew 2013); slow transformation of indigenous knowledge and partly migration to the urban area (Legesse,2013), reduction of indigenous knowledge (Maru et al., 2019;Gashaw et al.,2014); expansion of land degradation (Gashaw et al., 2014;Alemayehu, 2003); less productivity of the cropland (Ademe et al., 2017); increment of the annual mean base flow and reduction of percolation (Aregaw et al,.2021); and high population pressure (Ketema, et al.,2020;Temesgen et al.,2018).As a result, the majorities of inhabitants' in the region cultivates marginal lands, suffers from food insecurity, and are forced to migrate partly from their residence (Alemayehu, 2003). Different studies indicated that SWC practices undoubtedly have a significant role in increasing agricultural production in the areas where agriculture is hindered by erosion, drought, low soil fertility, and moisture stress (Ademe et al., 2017;Mekonen & Tesfahunegn, 2011). In the Gidabo River sub basin traditional SWC practices have been implemented for several years (Beshah, 2003;Kippe, 2002). But the data from the local community and development agents showed that watershed based SWC work has been introduced in the area following the community-based SWC approach and the Safety Net program of 2005 in a way to support agroforestry systems.In recent years, there has been an increasing recognition for the need for assessment of watershed-based SWC practices of the area, because the area is very dynamic, fragile, and densely populated (Assefa et al., 2018). Despite various researches being carried out on the LULCC, SWC practices, and related factors at the national level, to the best of my knowledge along with the agroecological variation of the Gidabo river sub-basin such studies are very limited. Moreover, evidence of the causes of soil erosion and the success or failures of SWC conservation efforts was not sufficiently studied. According to Harden, (2014), the local-level study about the complex and immediate causes and indirect driving forces of LULCC is important before any policy intervention.In this regard, the author used interdisciplinary approaches and analysis of remote sensing along with the perception of local communities to examine the LULC dynamics and its drivers, appropriateness of the design/layout of the SWC technologies, acceptance of SWC work as well as success and failure of SWC structures on soil property improvement. Such a study is vital to understand human-environmental interaction, the responses to the environmental change, and the future sustainability issue of the area.The overall objective of this study was to assess the design/compatibility, acceptability, and constraints of physical SWC work to curb the adverse impact of LULCC in the Gidabo River Sub-basin of the Ethiopian rift valley region.Specifically, the study intended to:• Assess the status, rate, drivers, and implications of LULCC• Assess the design of SWC in respect to the national guideline• Identify the constraints to adopt/ adapt the of SWC practices• Investigate the effects of physical SWC practices on soil property in respect to different agroecologyThe research questions were:1. How LULCC trend is occurring in the study area?1.1 What are the major drivers of LULCC in the watershed?1.2 What is the adverse effect of LULCC?2. What are the major introduced SWC technologies used to control the adverse effect of LULCC in the area?2.1. How does the applied SWC practice are preventing/reducing the adverse effect of LULCC in the study area? 3. What are the effects of physical SWC practices on the soil's physical and chemical properties?This study includes Spatio-temporal dynamics of LULCC and population-environment interactions in the study of design/compatibility, acceptability, and constraints of physical SWC work to curb the adverse effect of LULCC in the Gidabo River sub-basins. Thus, the result of this study has a significant contribution to the land users, policymakers, practitioners, and scientific community in:-1. Providing options to understand the trend, implication, and driving forces of LULCC.2. To keep the standard design and layout of the introduced SWC structures in respect to the standard.3. Providing a better opportunity to identify the positive and negative effect of LULCC in the area 4. To give an option to readjust the future LULCC and conservation planning in a way to avoid or narrow the adverse effect of LULCC and the constraints of SWC practices for sustainable development in the river basin.5. Creating a chance to explore the success & failure of the prevailing SWC measures.6. Predicting the trend, magnitude, and effect of the future LULCC of the study area.7. Providing significant recommendations for well-organized, farmers' friendly and effective technologies on the future SWC work in the region.8. Overall, the study is very significant in providing empirical information available on the nature of SWC in response to LULCC in Gidabo River sub-basins, related factors to it, and ways that are helpful to improve land management practices, improve the productive capacity of indigenous agroforestry system, ensure food security and advance livelihood.This research was conducted in the South Eastern rift valley region of the Gidabo river sub-basin. It focused only on examining the dynamics and implications of LULCC from 1986 to 2019 and its driving forces, evaluating the appropriateness, compatibility, and acceptability of the implemented SWC, identifying farmers' constraints to adopt/adapt the SWC activities, and assessing the effect of SWC practices on the physical and chemical fertility of the soil in the river basin.In the course of data collection, problems were encountered.The major challenges encountered during the study period were political uncertainty (tribal conflict) and the COVID 19 pandemic affected the data collection process through interview and focus group discussion because it was difficult to secure the required number of participants.Also, the respondents were showing insecure feelings due to the nature of the disease.Moreover, during the pandemic the lockdown enforced the researcher to stay at home.The other challenge of the study was poor access of transportation to the peripheral study that made it difficult to transport the sampled soil to the urban area. However, the problems encountered were managed in a way it has no significant impacts on the quality of the research.This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter one presents background information, problem statement, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, and limitation of the study. Chapter two presents a literature review that focuses on the interaction between humans and the environment; land use and land cover change over time, drivers of the change, land degradation, and conservation approach over time. Chapter three presents the methodology of the study. It includes physical, societal, and economic settings of the study area, research approach and method of fieldwork, laboratory activities, data type, tools, and methods analysis used. Chapter four refers to that result and discussion part of the research. That was focused on data related to the first, second, and third objective that deals with the spatial and temporal dynamics of LULCC and the driving forces of the study area; type, design, and constraints of physical SWC structures in respect to the standard; the effect of physical SWC structures on the chemical and physical soil fertility at different topography. Chapter five refers to the summary, conclusion, recommendation part of the study, and scope for further research.2. Review of Related LiteratureThe theoretical perspectives of LULCC refer to the time when human and environmental interaction has changed. History depicts that the first LULCC started during the Neolithic age that was carried out in Mesopotamia about 11,500 years ago, which refers to the beginning of the first agricultural revolution (Bowles & Choi, 2019;Smith & Zeder, 2013, Lal, 2008;Lambin et al., 2006). This refers to LULCC occurring since humans have controlled fire and domesticated plants and animals to satisfy the demand for high production with modification/conversion of the land cover (Lambin et al., 2003). The factors such as populations' pressure and the adverse climatic conditions forced the foragers to start farming in a way to improve their living standards (Bowles & Choi, 2019). Since that time the relations between human society and its environment have changed that addresses how the human community has adapted to or changed its surrounding environment to satisfy its needs and how much the environment affects people driving new innovations and techniques (Mortazavi & Negari, 2010).Though the concept of land use has high variability in time and space in biophysical environments, socioeconomic activities, and cultural contexts, it is defined by the purposes for which humans exploit the land cover (Lambin, et al, 2003). In the last few decades, the land use concept has been defined as the activities undertaken on a surface that induce land cover transformation and the purpose (function) underlying that transformation (Ellis, 2010;Lambin, et al., 2006). Land cover is the physical material on the Earth's surface, such as water and vegetation (Lambin et al., 2006). Therefore, LULCC is commonly divided into two broad categories: conversion; that is, from forest to grassland, and modification; from natural forest area to planted forest area (Veldkamp & Lambin, 2001). Earlier land use and cover change have normally been considered as a local environmental issue but it is becoming a force of global importance (Foley, et al, 2005).Thinking about the patterns of LULCC has increased significantly over the last decade (Turner, 2002). The major thinking about human impact on LULCC is 1/Classic surpass the capacity of an environmental system to support it, an ecological crisis will erupt (Blanco & Lal, 2010). According to this school of thought, the LULCC and the related problems are associated with population growth and poverty. It refers to a high population number that creates stress on land resources and the cultivation of marginal lands (Blanco & Lal, 2010).The scholars under this theory believed that since local knowledge is unreliable, unreasonable, and nonscientific for natural resources management, it should be replaced by the technocratic solutions that are expert-led knowledge and innovations (top-bottom approach) (Blaikie, 2000). They also recommended the need for population control to reduce the adverse effect of LULCC and manage natural resources (Stephenson et al., 2010).The second paradigm is referred to as the populist/Ester Boserup theory. This theory was more familiar in the late 1965s. Scholars argued that the land-use change such as increased productive agricultural land was driven by the population growth and scarcity of land (Darity, 1980;Boserup & Chambers 2014). This school of thought further advocates decentralized and community-based approaches as a key strategy to manage the adverse effect of LULCC. This view stresses the positive role of local technologies, experience and emphasizes bottom-up stakeholder participatory interventions in land management practices (Mazzucato & Nineijer, 2000).The third paradigm is the neo-liberal approach. This theory integrates both classic and populist views. The scholars under this theory advocate adopting or adapting both approaches to reduce the undesirable impact of LULCC through understanding the existing approaches, policies, institutional setups, and regulations of the constraints of the local people to adopt/adapt conservation technologies (Adger et al., 2001). According to Murniawaty (2019), the human land use process needs to be based on environmental ethics, in a spirit of mutual respect between humans and the natural world. Therefore, this study followed the neo-liberal approach as it favors various technologies available for SWC practices. Because wise use of the environment is necessary in order to keep the ecosystem and sustain the biodiversity in the Gidabo river sub-basin.According to Hassan et al. (2016), the cause, extent, intensity, and rate of LULCC are more complicated than they were in the past. It is a dynamic and complex process, which can be the product of human activities and/or natural processes (Leh et al., 2013). Land use decision is driven by the physical, social and economic preferences which have an influence at global, national, regional, and local scales (Brown, et al., 2014;Lambin, et al., 2003). In the same way, LULCC drivers are obviously different at different times, landscapes, and regions (Hassen & Assen, 2018). Though LULCC happens due to natural or human factors, human activities are the primary forces of the change (Kabba & Li, 2011).A number of research reports depicted that the major human-induced LULCC is related to population growth (Meshesha et al., 2014), agricultural expansion (Mustard et al., 2012), global market forces (Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011), urbanization (Wang et al., 2016) and pasturing (Wassenaar et al., 2007). According to Harden (2014), the natural drivers of LULCC are volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide, and climate factors.LULCC were further classified as proximate and underlying drivers (Table 2.1). The proximate or direct human-induced drivers of land-use change originate from intended land use at individual farms, households, or communities level and directly affect the physical land cover (Turner et al., 1994). Underlying or indirect drivers support the proximate (direct) causes of land cover change which is the result of the socio-economic and physical condition of human environments (Geist & Lambin, 2002). The underlying drivers of LULCC may operate at the regional or global levels but it operates more at the local level (Lambin & Geist, 2007). In general, the main categories of LULCC causes are biophysical, socio-economic, political, and cultural forces (Lambin et al., 2003;Luck & Wu, 2002).  (Wischmeier, 1976). Climate factors Barrow 1991), Soil (Bonilla and Johnson, 2012), Pest and disease /Pests (Sternberg, 2008).Unsustainable land management / land clearing, overgrazing, cultivation on steep slopes, bush burning, (Nkonya, et al., 2011;Pender and Kerr, 1998), agricultural expansion and Infrastructural development (Geist and Lambin, (2004).Population density and urbanization (Grepperud, 1996),Market access (Scherr and Hazell, 1994), Land tenure/ Insecure land tenure (Brasselle, et al., 2002), Poverty and food insecurity (Nkonya, et al., 2008;Scherr, 2000), access to agricultural extension services (technology) (Paudel and Thapa, 2004), strong local institutions or policies and nonfarm employment or alternative livelihoods.Source: Mirzabaev et al., (2016) LULCC has been occurring rapidly, involving the conversion of forestland to agricultural land, rangeland, grassland, and woodland to bare land and vice versa (Lambin et al., 2003). The change is faster and more noticeable in developing countries (Ellis, 2013;Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011). Ethiopia is one of the African countries that have experienced rapid and progressively noticeable LULCC since the second half of the 20th century (Minta et al., 2018).Many research reports indicated that LULCC has direct or indirect interactions with land (soil), climate, hydrology, and other variables of the specific environment. According to Lambin & Meyfroidt, (2011) LULCC has both positive and negative impacts on socioeconomic and environmental conditions. If LULCC is not carried out scientifically, the negative impacts on the environment and the socio-economic settings of the present and future generations will not easily be measured (Gete, 2000).Moreover, the LULCC that was not supported by conservation work has a higher probability of the adverse impact of the change. For instance, LULCC is one of the major factors in natural resource degradation (Kindu et al. (2018), threatening biodiversity (Yirsaw et al., 2017), deforestation (Rands et al., 2010), environmental disasters such as intensive soil erosion and landslide (Meshesha et al., 2014) and climate change (Bringezu et al., 2014). In general, LULCC interrupts the ability of natural systems to support human needs and increases the exposure of people and resources to climate change, socio-economic crises, and political uncertainties (Lambin et al., 2001).LUCC is the leading issue and hot topic of global change research (Chang et al., 2018).Because it is more complex terms that describe how people use the land, they include several activities that will cause land degradation (Fisher, et al., 2005). Detecting the change is necessary for the assessment of potential environmental impacts (Nigatu, 2014). Most of the earth's surface is already modified except those areas that are inaccessible (Turner et al., 1994). Land cover changes do not always occur continually and gradually but they may show periods of rapid and sudden change that will harm land resources (Lambin et al., 2003).According to (Sharma 2010) LULCC has significant impacts on regional or local land degradation, including soil erosion, soil acidification, nutrient leaching, and organic matter depletion. In general, LULCC is considered to be the primary force in determining human impacts on land degradation and the climate system (Martínez & Mollicone, 2012). According to Lambin et al. (2003), concerns about LULCC emerged in the research at the global level several decades ago with the realization that land surface processes influence soil, climate, ecosystem, and hydrology. In connection with the point previously mentioned in recent years, environmental changes including LULCC and their impacts on climate, natural resources (hydrology and soil) have gained increased attention (Nigatu, 2014).The impacts of LULCC on water resources are the result of complex interactions between diverse factors (Kassa & Gerd, 2007). Land cover has various properties that help to regulate water flows both above and below ground (Kassa & Gerd, 2007). LULCC affects the degree of infiltration, interception, surface runoff, evaporation, ground flow and stream flows, annual and seasonal water yield of the watershed (Mengistu et al., 2009).In this regard changes in vegetation cover have significant impacts on the surface water budget through evapotranspiration from the land surface and the transpiration from plants into the atmosphere (Aghsaei et al., 2020). High evapotranspiration may intensify or weaken the water cycle that may affect the runoff or hydrological cycle. According to Odongo et al. (2019), forestry plantations determine the catchment hydrology and related water resource management of the specific area.A study by Lin and Wei (2008) indicated that forest harvesting increased the annual mean and peak flows in the spring periods. Changes in vegetation cover have significant impacts on the surface water budget, especially for evapotranspiration (ET), which is an important component of the terrestrial hydrological cycle (Gaertner, 2019). According to Oki et al. (1999), excess water from land is released into the oceans that use to change the water salinity, temperature, and thermohaline circulation. According to Degife et al. (2019), the canopy structure and diversity of plants of the agroforestry system helps to maintain the hydrology of an area by reducing runoff and erosion.Change in watershed hydrology is one of the major impacts of LULCC, and it determines the socio-economic and environmental condition of the area (flows of rivers and soil erosion) (Zhou, 2014). For instance, better land use land cover is useful to regulate the flow of waters to the dame. It also reduces the amount of deposition. So, land use and land cover of the Gidabo river sub-basin have a significant impact on the sustainability and productivity of the Gidabo dam in the lower basin. Studies reported by Teklay et al.(2019) and Gashaw et al. (2018) showed that the expansion of agricultural land at the expense of vegetation cover increases the runoff potential in a given watershed that will contribute to soil erosion. The above pieces of the literature indicated that the correlation of land cover and water resources for natural resource conservation.According to Chang et al. (2018), studies on LULCC play important role in the effort of soil and water conservation. Therefore, soil and water resources conservation is an essential aspect for sustainable socio-economic and environmental development (Kumar et al., 2019). Among land degradation types, soil erosion is the most severe problem at the global level, which has different types and forms depending on the erosive agents and processes of erosion (Bantider et al., 2021).Various scientific literature showed that the negative impacts of soil erosion problem on agronomic productivity that was globally understood since human beings started agricultural practices (Lal, 2008). For instance, the recorded archaeological evidence was showed many of the ancient civilizations in Greece, Mesopotamia, Rome and Axum were adversely affected by soils erosion (Montgomery, 2012). According to Dotterweich (2013), agricultural terracing used for irrigation began around 6000 BC that was spread to different parts of the globe.Among the major historic indicators of SWC work were the ancient terraces constructed for soil erosion control and other purposes in China, Nepal, Africa, Peru, Italy, Spain, Greece, and others (Bantider et al., 2021). For instance in China, terracing for agricultural practices date back to 7000 BC, the Caracol \"Garden City\" of Belize, which is a terrace in Yemen constructed in the 4th Millennia BC (Wilkinson, 2003;Vogel, 1987), and the ancient Mayan landscapes were constructed between AD 562 and AD 680 (Zhao et al., 2013).Before several millennia, soil and water conservation practice have begun in Africa, by the indigenous people. Some of the soil and water conservation structure in Africa are the Aksumite Kingdom from 400 BC to 800 AD of the Konso bench terraces (Amborn, 1989), the Chencha-Dorze terraces in Southern Ethiopia (Engdawork & Bork, 2014), Gojam ditches systems, soil bund in Tigray and Hararge highland, North Shewa and to some extent, in Wondo Genet area (Hurni, 2016). The 17thc and 18thc terrace in the Mandara Mountains of North Cameroon (Riddell & Campbell, 1986), Jebel Marra in Darfur Sudan and the Nyanga hills in South Africa, Nyanga hills of the Central and Northern Nigeria, eastern Zimbabwe, and Engaruka in northern Tanzania (Critchley et al., 1994).The modern soil and water conservation work have started based on systematic research on soil erosion in Russia in the late 19th century (Golosov & Belyaev, 2013) and in Germany in the 18th Century (Dotterweich, 2013). According to the soil and water conservation society report (1941), Hugh Hammond Bennett, the father of soil conservation began a discussion about the need for support for those working in conservation. In this regard, the first meeting of the soil conservation society of America was held in Chicago in 1946 (Helms, 1985). The scientific knowledge about soil erosion and conservation work attracted the attention of the European countries.In the early 20th century, much advancement have been made on soil and water conservation technologies that focused on innovations, planning, decision making, institutions, and policies. For instance, the 1994 international soil and water conservation congress was a milestone to advance the soil and water conservation approach and philosophy such as interdisciplinary approach, adaptive, innovative and sustainable land management approaches integrative and participatory approach, and bottom-up approaches (Bantider et al., 2021). In the year 1930-1962, the colonial countries introduced the modern soil conservation work at the district level for their raw materials in their colonized countries (Gichuki, 1991). In Ethiopia, in the 1970s and 1980s, among the introduced structural conservation methods Fanya juu and normal bunds are the most common, which aimed to control soil erosion by shortening the length and minimizing the gradient of the slope (Tegegn, 1992).The concept of the watershed has various meanings based on physical, social, economic, and political perspectives which offer life support services to the people (Wani et al., 2008). A watershed can be defined as an area in which all water down a slope to the lowest point/outlet (Darghouth et al., 2008). It also includes the people, their land use, planning and management, environmental management, and productivity (UN-ESCAP, 1997). From the hydrological point of view, the different phases of the hydrological cycle in a watershed are dependent on the various natural features and human activities (Wani & Garg, 2009;Wani et al., 2008).Watershed-based conservation is the implementation of natural resource management systems for improving livelihoods and promoting beneficial conservation, sustainable use of natural resources (Chisholm & Woldehanna, 2012). SWC practices are the primary step of a watershed management program (Wani & Garg, 2009). The practice of watershed-based conservation dates back to 5000 years when humans were manipulating water and slopes to benefit cultivation and control floods and drought (Darghouth et al., 2008;FAO, 2006). In Europe, the potential of watershed technology started to be fully used at the beginning of the modern era between the 16th and 17th centuries and after WW II, which became an important element of development policies (FAO, 2006).Between 1950 and 1970, big irrigation schemes and hydropower dams were constructed in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to support agricultural development and economic growth (FAO, 2006).The issue of watershed-based conservation has been gaining increasing significance following a warning from the scientific community in the UN Conference of 1972, 1992, 2002, and 2003, which promote integrated watershed development and alternative livelihood opportunities (Wachs & Thibault, 2009). The watershed-based conservation approach became prominent in developing countries in the 1970s and 1980s typically targeting livelihood improvements, poverty reduction, and resource conservation (FAO, 2006;Darghouth et al., 2008;Tyler & Fajber, 2009). Researchers argue that a watershed development program is considered an effective tool for addressing the global problem of poor infrastructures, scarce resources, high population growth, land degradation, climate change, poverty, malnutrition, and food insecurity (Wachs & Thibault, 2009).Therefore, watershed-based SWC has evolved and passed through several developmental stages, initially it was the subject of forestry and related hydrology and at this stage, the focus was on \"participatory and integrated\" watershed conservation. The new generation of watershed-based SWC work is still in its infancy, or at best its adolescence stage in relation to constraints different at the local levels (FAO, 2006).In this regard, soil and water conservation practices are the principal steps of the watershed management program.Soil and water conservation work refers to the in-situ management such as the construction of contour bunds, graded bunds, field bunds, terraces, broad bed, furrow practice, and other soil-moisture conservation within agricultural fields. The ex-situ management includes the construction of check dam, gully control structures, pits excavation across the stream channel, and farm ponds that protect land degradation, improve soil health, and increase soil-moisture availability and groundwater recharge (Wani, & Garg, 2009).Watersheds are dynamic systems that are characterized by diverse interactions and spatial relations between humans and the environment that manifest as mixtures of different land-use systems, socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental relationships, flows, and conflicts between the upper and lower parts of a watershed (FAO, 2017). Watershed management is a practice that involves management of land, water, biota, and other resources in a defined area for ecological, social, and economic purposes that institutional, social, economical, and biophysical interaction among soil, water, and land use and the connection between upland and downstream areas (Wang et al., 2016;Folliott et al., 2002). The principle of watershed-based SWC is an important part that integrates the component of watershed-based conservation.According to Heathcoat (2009)  . Announce a flexible, adaptive, and long-term approach to planning and financing.The modern natural resource management issues are the underlying uncertainty regarding both cause and effect of resource degradation (Olsson et al., 2019). These uncertainties are the cause for the growing different long-term conservation approaches such as multiscale, integrative, and participatory resource management (Stankey et al., 2005). One of the approaches for SWC practices is watershed-level conservation. In this regard, any soil and water conservation plans should take into account different principles and adoption approaches that are based on socio-economic and socio-cultural forces before introducing soil and water conservation technologies to create awareness, integrate new technologies with indigenous measures and involve farmers in any decision making processes (Morgan, 2009). The primary goal of soil conservation is erosion control, safe runoff disposal, water retention, fertility improvements, restores the degraded land, and obtaining the maximum and sustained production from a given area of land (van der Esch, 2017).Erosion is a consequence of how the land is used and is not itself the cause of soil degradation. Therefore, soil erosion should be prevented before it occurs rather than attempting to develop a cure afterward (Danano, 2002). Maintaining the natural rate of soil erosion to the rate of soil formation is the ultimate goal of controlling soil erosion by water including reducing raindrop impacts on the soil, reducing runoff volume and velocity, and increasing the soil's resistance to erosion (Troeh et al., 1980;Morgan, 2009). Adoptions of the SWC process have different phases such as the acceptance phase, the actual adoption phase, and the adoption phase. The actual adoption phase has technical principles and approaches such as a barrier approach to check runoff and soil removal using contour-aligned barriers. This approach is commonly introduced to many new areas of Ethiopia and has been practiced traditionally for a considerably long period (Young, 1997).The concept of integrated watershed-based conservation is a holistic approach for environmental planning, management, and wise use of natural resources, which has been introduced in the 1980s and is now widely accepted with the active participation of stakeholders within the respective watershed (UNDP, 2013). According to Wani and Garg (2009), watershed-based conservation is the combination of technologies within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water, and plant resources to meet the basic needs of people and animals in a sustainable manner or it is the process of advancing the living standard of the community by offering all facilities required for optimum production (Singh, 2000).For watershed-based conservation, one size does not fit all: different regions of the country can have watersheds that function in very different ways. Even, neighboring watersheds can have major differences in geology, land use, or vegetation that may need very different management strategies (FAO, 2017). Different communities vary in the benefits they want from their watersheds. Therefore, watershed-based conservation principles advocate adopting SWC practices, minimizing or controlling soil loss, harvesting water, and recharging groundwater, applying an improved variety of seeds, integrating nutrient management, and integrating pest management practices. In this regard, integrated watershed management could benefit different watershed management efforts through the provision of contextual integration, better understanding, and opportunity for management of the specific watershed (Heathcote, 2009).Stakeholders represent all those who have been involved in the utilization and management of resources at different levels, ranging from local to international delegations such as farmers, administrators, researchers, and development agents (Hurni, 2000& Grimble, 1995). Multi-stakeholder brings together individuals with different views, interests, and positions have the potential to slow the implementation conflict (Vogler et al., 2017). Watershed-based SWC management requires multidisciplinary skills and competencies, which lead to enhanced awareness of the farmers and their ability to consult with the right people when problems arise (Wani & Garg, 2009).According to Lange et al. (2015), many efforts at SWC fail because they pay insufficient attention to the different stakeholders involved and their particular interests. Multi-level stakeholder approaches are the leading approach to address effective SWC (Lange et al., 2015). A trade-off arises when stakeholders have several objectives towards conservation work that cannot altogether be achieved, which is balancing conflicting objectives or sacrificing cost in terms of benefits inevitable (Grimble et al., 1995). In this approach, since degradation of soil and water resources is a multifaceted problem, 'multistakeholders are vital to finding ecologically sound, socially acceptable, and economically viable solutions at the local level, which is difficult to achieve at the individual level (Zeleke et al., 2006;Hurni, 1993).There is no universal model for participatory planning and implementation of watershedbased SWC activities (Achouri, 2002). Participatory watershed-based SWC work may be defined as a process whereby users define problems and priorities criteria for sustainable management, evaluate possible solutions, implement programs, and monitor and estimate impacts (Singh, 2017). In general, participatory integrated watershed-based SWC is a process of conservation, development, and optimal utilization of natural resources in a watershed on a sustained basis, with a multidisciplinary approach (Winnegge, 2005).In recent years, interest in watershed-based SWC approaches is gaining popularity in the continent of Asia, Latin American, and Africa in response to the problem of soil and water resources (German et al., 2013).In Sub-Saharan Africa, high population pressure, reliance on agriculture that is vulnerable to environmental change, fragile natural resources and ecosystems, high rates of erosion and land degradation, and low yields have increased vulnerability to the degradation of soil and water resource as well as poverty (Liniger et al., 2011).Watershed-based SWC is serving as a framework for enhancing livelihoods through more efficient and sustainable use of water and soil resources in rain-fed areas and upper catchments (Turton & Farrington, 1998). Despite this increase in interest in watershedbased SWC work, the large range of projects and approaches falling under this umbrella has led to confusion in goals, lack of consistency in approaches, and limited success in putting the concept into practice (Rhoades, 2000).Approaches for operationalizing watershed-based SWC in ways responsive to local natural resource management concerns and focused on multiple interests are greatly needed (German et al., 2013). Moreover, the time-space interactions between plots and common-pool resources, lateral flows of materials, and interdependence between users in terms of resource access and management require decision-making and intervention strategies beyond the farm level (Johnson et al., 2002).Latter, the issue of watersheds based SWC on \"participation\" and \"integration\" become an important element of conservation works (German et al., 2013). Participatory integrated management of soil and water resources at watershed scale provides various benefits in terms of increasing food production, improving livelihoods, protecting the environment, and addressing gender and equity issues along with biodiversity concerns (Rockstorm et al., 2007). Though the value of soil differs, traditionally, soil conservation has been targeted in controlling land degradation and keeping the soil in place for crop production. Nowadays, soil conservation is evaluated in terms of increasing crop yields, reducing water pollution, and mitigating greenhouse gases (Blanco-Canqui, 2010).The overall aim of watershed-based SWC practices is to avoid soil degradation, restore soil productivity, improve the standard of living of the population, and ensure sustainable natural resource use within the watersheds (Alemayehu et al., 2009). So, watershed-based soil and water conservation practices are the primary steps of watershed management programs (Wani & Garg, 2009). Similar studies made by Liu et al. (2008) and Nyssen et al. (2008) have shown that SWC practices have controlled soil erosion, improved hydrology and land productivity of the watershed. Thus, the effects of SWC are various and more subjective. Some conservation practices may have an immediate effect, some may delay and some may produce no monetary impact or value but may have aesthetic effects (Troeb & Donahue, 1991cited in Dmda, 2001). Soil conservation has become an integral part of land use and receives support within environmental, social, and economic impacts, which is conducive to the maintenance and improvement of soil capital (Dudal, 1981).The physical effect of SWC measures can be classified into short-and long-term, in-situ and offsite areas, based on the time needed to become effective against soil erosion (Nyssen et al.2007). According to Nyssen et al. (2007), short-term effect of stone bunds is the reduction in slope length and the creation of small retention basins for run-off and sediment. These reduce the quantity and erode the capacity of overland flow. Such effects appear immediately after the construction of the stone bunds and reduce soil loss. The medium-and long-term effects include the reduction in slope angle by formed bench terraces, development of vegetation cover on the bunds and gullies, and change in land management (Seid, 2010).The social effect of SWC are the foundations for any successful and sustainable land management that often depend on the adaption and social acceptance of that system by the communities (Benstone et al., 1998cited in Motavalli et al., 2013). The factors such as knowledge, education, geographic variation, social relationship, and time determine the social acceptance/effects of soil and water conservation technology (Gusti, 2016).Social effects of soil and water conservation practices are also reflected through improving crop yield, increasing total cultivable area, ensuring food security, and improving livelihood.Productivity and conservation objectives are highly complementary because conservation of soil, water, and natural vegetation leads to higher productivity of crops and livestock and thus improvement of livelihoods and social stability (Wolka, 2014). According to Ellis-Jones and Tengberg (2000), assumption without any soil and water conservation crop yields will decline approximately by 1.5% year-1, being equivalent to a 30% decline over 20 years, which is thereat for the farmers' livelihood.The economic effectt of SWC is occasionally overlooked because economic uses of the conservation are not readily identifiable. After all, soi1 conserving practices often provide long-term benefits in exchange for the immediate cost. It needs wise thinking to balance the obscure costs of operation against the obvious costs of acting to conserve soil (Troeh & Donahue, 1991cited in Dmda, 2001). Therefore, the use of conservation practices in agricultural production is determined by the different income-earning strategies themselves, and in combination with some of the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions (Jansen et al., 2006).This shows the value of soil conservation for preserving productive potential may vary for different parts of a single field; hence the value of soil loss due to erosion may also vary because the value of the soil itself varies over space (Dmda, 2001).However, the present problem of land degradation indicated that SWC is the issue of ensuring ecosystem services and survival (Morgan, 2009). A conservation technique may be regarded as successful if it reduces the rate of soil loss (Young, 1997;Morgan, 2009).According to Rosevelt (1937), a nation that destroys its soil destroys itself; therefore, investment in soil conservation is not just for farmers (land users), policymakers, experts, or other individuals but for all life on earth.Though there is a lack of standardized global assessment and monitoring systems various studies are indicating the impacts of past, present, and potential future of LULCC (Brovkin et al., (2013).The report by Ellis et al. (2011) and Shevliakova et al. (2009) showed that about one-third of the global land surface has already been altered by land use and land cover changes (LULCC) primarily through deforestation and replacement of natural vegetation with cropland and pastures). According to Lambin et al., (2003), the magnitude of LULCC is large. Estimation shows since the 1850s 6 million km2 of forests/woodlands and 4.7 million km2 of savannas/grasslands/ steppes have converted to croplands. According to, FAO (2010) estimation in the 1990s the world's natural forests decreased by 16.1 million hectares per year.After the second half of the 20th LULCC and the related problem are significantly affecting the global people that have been a serious concern of the world (Nkonya et al., 2011). On a global basis, land degradation through soil erosion is caused primarily by the land surface activities that lead to LULCC, such as overgrazing (35%), agricultural activities (24 %), deforestation (30 %), fuel wood (7%), and industrialization (4%) (UNCCD,1994). For instance, land degradation mainly caused by LULCC is affecting about 16% of the world's agricultural land (UNDP, 2002). According to UNDP (1992), the adverse impact of LULCC affects the productive, physiological, cultural, and ecological functions of land resources such as soil, water, plants, and animals of the global community. Moreover, the problem is stronger in developing countries (Gedion, 2000).Understanding how land cover and land use conditions vary in space and time is challenging because it requires more local information that can be estimated using remote sensing techniques and socio-economic data (Sleeter et al, 2018). In Africa, the conversion of forest to agriculture and pasture land accounted for about 75 million hectares between 1990 and 2010 (FAO, 2010). Research confirms that Africa is the most vulnerable continent to the land cover change caused land degradation in the world (Reed & Stringer, 2016;Stringer & Dougill, 2013). The most frequently mentioned causes for land degradation in Africa include high deforestation, overgrazing, cultivation of marginal land, high population growth, and poor land management, which are among the majors (Liniger et al., 2011;Kiage, 2013). According to (FAO, 2005) in the past few decades, the conversion of grassland, woodland, and forest into cropland and pasture has risen dramatically, especially in developing countries where a large proportion of the human population depends on land (soil) for their livelihoods.The problem of land degradation becomes a critical socio-economic and environmental challenge in Africa that was related to the conversion of forest or grassland to cropland (UNDP, 2013).Though Eastern African (Sub-Saharan) region contains 60% of the global uncultivated arable land the LULCC of the area comprises the conversion of woody natural habitats to less-woody cultivated land (Bughin et al, .2016). The report by FAO, (2010) showed that in East Africa, nearly 13 million hectares of original forest were lost between 1990 and 2010 and the remaining forest is fragmented and continued to be under threat. This region is believed to be the leading in the problems of land degradation (Kirui & Mirzabaev, 2014). The report by Kirui & Mirzabaev (2014) and Anteneh (2011) showed that the land cover change caused a problem of land degradation contributed to the severe poverty and further marginalization of rural people in sub-Saharan Africa. In this regard, in Sub-Sahara Africa, all inhabited land is prone to soil and environmental degradation (van der Esch et al., 2017;FAO 2004).The report by Harden, ( 2014) showed that regional level study about the complex and immediate causes and indirect driving forces of LULCC is important before any policy intervention. But still, there has been no comprehensive assessment of regional LULCC, long-term trends and implications have not yet been quantified (Bullock et al.).Ethiopia is one of the countries in the Sub-Saharan (East African) regions that have suffered severe deforestation and degradation from increased demand for fuel wood, construction wood, and cropping and grazing land (Wogayehu, 2003).In Ethiopia,LULCC is related to two interlocking human and the natural system (Fitsum et al., 1999).According to Alemayehu et al. (2019), the increasing demand for land and related resources often results in changes in land use and cover of the country. In this regard, the smallholder agriculture and soil degradation problem of the country can be seen as a direct result of the past and present LULCC practices (Nigatu, 2014).Currently, almost all the natural resources of Ethiopia are under pressure due to, increasing population numbers, severe deforestation, and loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services (Wassie 2020). Accordingly, these would cause the loss of forest cover and greater hydrological variability (Kim & Kaluarachchi, 2009). According to the Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study, LULCC factored soil erosion, before 22 years ago, and revealed that 20,000-30,000 hectares of cropland were being uninhibited annually by soil erosion (FAO, 1986). The report by EPA, (2017) showed that the average annual soil erosion rate was estimated at 12 tons per ha. Because once forest land is converted to agriculture, erosion rates increase following the removal of vegetation, overgrazing, and continuous cultivation (EPA, 2012). The report by Tekle, (1999) showed that LULCC and the related land degradation by soil erosion are causing serious consequences of persistent food insecurity, environmental hazards, such as frequent drought, famine, and social crisis in the country. According to Bojo & Cassels, (1995) LULCC related soil erosion caused Ethiopia to lose about US$ 106 million/year. The economic impact of soil erosion is more significant in Ethiopia due to the lack of capability to protect the existing nutrients and replace lost nutrients.One of the implications of the adverse impact of LULCC is land degradation /soil erosion (Cebecauer & Hofierka, 2008). The choices about land use and land management have a significant effect to reduce the negative impacts of the change on the environment and human life (Brown et al., 2014). Particularly natural resource management practices such as soil and water conservation have opportunities to increase the net uptake of carbon from the atmosphere by increasing the amount of area in ecosystems with high carbon content (Brown et al, 2014). According to Vu.Q et al. (2014) Research report indicated that the global efforts to reduce/prevent land degradation with proper conservation practices are promising in the future. For instance, in the past three to four decades, about 2.7% of the world's land areas have been rehabilitated (Le et al., 2016). The IUCN ( 2015) report showed that nature conservation actors should play a leading role in ensuring the use of integrated ecosystem management approaches to achieving land degradation to ensure sustainability at all levels, optimize synergies, and avoid unwanted trade-offs. Since sustainable development has become the motto in international discussions, several approaches to sustainability assessment have been developed (Becker, 1997).According to De Barry (2004), studies on watershed management should give a detailed evaluation of the specific processes, influences, and problems in the watershed. This process includes steps for assessing various resources, investigating the history of the watershed, detecting issues, and describing its features within the watershed (Watershed Professional Network, 1999). The Ethiopian government strongly believes in the importance of environmental protection and water and soil conservation campaigns equivalent to building a green economy because it is a means for sustainable development, restoring degraded lands, creating job opportunities, social well-being, and food security. The adoption of watershed-based SWC in Ethiopia has attracted much attention from policymakers because soil erosion becomes a key problem for agricultural production and national development (De Graaff et al., 2008).In Ethiopia, land conservation has received policy attention particularly following the 1970s famine, and targeted to the improvement and conservation of the biophysical environment and ensuring sustainable development in the agricultural sector and its economy at large (Demeke, 2003). Planning the development of watersheds for Ethiopia has started in the 1980s that aimed to the rural land rehabilitation, natural resource conservation, and development programs but large-scale efforts remained mostly unsatisfactory due to several factors, such as the government-led, top-down, poorly planned watershed, and incentive-based (food-for-work) approach, that focused on engineering measures (reducing soil erosion) (Gebregziabher et al, 2016).The approach also lacks active community participation, the reluctance of stakeholders, and a lack of manageable planning (Habtamu, 2011). As a result, the minimum planning and sub-or micro-watershed approaches were familiarized and tested at the pilot stage through FAO technical assistance under MoARD from 1988-1991. This was the first step in the advancement of the participatory planning approach to watershed development in Ethiopia. The local Level Participatory Planning Approach (LLPPA) has been approved by the government, NGOs, and bilateral organizations to cope with land degradation and food insecurity in several regions (MoARD, 2005). In the early 2000s, community-based integrated watershed development was announced to realize broader integrated natural resource management and livelihood improvement objectives (Gebregziabher et al., 2016).The overall objective of community-based participatory watershed development is to improve the livelihood of communities or households in rural Ethiopia through comprehensive and integrated natural resource development (Lakew et al., 2005). The management also aimed at productivity enhancement measures for improved income generation opportunities, enhanced livelihood support systems, and high resilience to shocks; optimize the use of existing natural resources and untapped potentials in both already degraded areas and the remaining potential areas in the country (Lakew et al., 2005).In the present day, in Ethiopia, SWC occupies a very important place because, in some parts of the country, the problem of land degradation has gone beyond all limits of setback and the problem is growing very fast (Hurni et al., 2016). Studies have indicated that biological and mechanical soil and water conservation measures can help to reduce soil loss, regenerate vegetation and increase agricultural production particularly in the arid and semi-arid areas where agriculture is hindered by drought, erosion, low soil fertility, and moisture stress (Gebrekidan, 2003). In 1987, the Ethiopian government has prepared the first SWC guideline in Amharic for the development agents, and the second guideline has established in 2016, which organized region-wide campaigns of SWC (Habtamu, 2011). The conservation activities have been carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture, in the past five decades, on cultivated land with contour (level) bunds, afforestation, and terraces on degraded hills (Habtamu, 2011).The government of Ethiopia is promoting various conservation technologies and approaches to achieve the national development goal such as agricultural productivity, household food security, and rural livelihoods (Demeke, 2003). Institution-based SWC projects and programs have been implemented in the past 50 years in the country, these are Food-for-Work (FFW)  repaired and adopted by farmers (Haregeweyn et al., 2015;Amsalu & de Graaff, 2007;Demeke, 2003).The choice of the most appropriate conservation measures in a particular situation will be determined by local stakeholders based on the local topographic, soil, and vegetation conditions and socioeconomic context (Namirembe et al., 2015). Effective soil and water conservation practices have considerable benefits for attaining and sustaining food security in smallholder farming through the successful rehabilitation and management of natural resources (Wolka et al., 2013). At the same time, continued use of soil and water conservation is mainly determined by the actual socio-environmental benefits and economic profitability to the land users (Gebrekidan, 2003).A major requirement in watershed management is establishing soil and water conservation technologies but a selection of the appropriate technology for ecological and socio-economic conditions has not been readily available to farmers and field officers (Namirembe et al, 2015). Ethiopia has great climatic variety; therefore, selecting the right conservation technology for the right place is a key problem for farmers in soil erosionprone areas (Namirembe et al, 2015).According to Bantider et al. (2021), the choices of soil and water conservation technologies are determined by the driving forces and intensity of soil degradation of the specific area; such as physical, social, cultural, institutional, and economic factors.Traditional conservation measures are well-known in some parts of Ethiopia. For instance, the Konso people's terracing is a very old practice (Hurni, 2016). In the past half-millennium, large-scale modern conservation work has been implemented such as soil bunds, stone bunds, grass strips, cut-off drain, trees planted at the edge of farm fields, contours, and irrigation. Both soil and stone bunds are structures built to control runoff, thus increasing soil moisture and reducing soil erosion (Bantider et al., 2021;Hurni, 2016). Grass strips reduce runoff velocity, allowing for water to infiltrate and trap sediments. Waterways help to direct precipitation flows along specified pathways in farm fields. Water-harvesting structures include dams, ponds, and diversions used to ensure water availability during the dry season (Haregeweyn et al., 2015).Farmers' willingness to adopt /adapt SWC practices is mainly determined by socioeconomic, institutional, environmental, and personal factors (Amare & Simane 2017;Atnafe et al., 2015). For instance, the factors that determine the farmers' willingness to adopt/adapt SWC are awareness of soil erosion problem (Pulido et al. 2014); acess to the markets, and better prices for their products (Jones 2002); educational level, the distance of the plot from residence, labor requirement, plot ownership type, the slope of farm plot, contact with extension workers, participation on conservation work, conservation technology, an incentive for conservation, financial source, knowledge to conservation technique and institutional organization (Moges et al. 2017 andTeffera andSterk 2010).In this regard, a better understanding of the factors that influence the adoption of SWC practices has become an important concern of the soil erosion problem (Alemu et al., 2019). Because, natural resource conservation planning failures could threaten the sustainability of conservation work and lead to complete rejection of the measures by the local community (Alemu et al., 2019). Hence, critically considering the short and longterm benefits, success, failure, and constraints of SWC work are very important (Mango et al., 2017).In recent years, more holistic and integrated landscape approaches that go beyond resource conservation towards improved land husbandry and SWC have been promoted using national guidelines known as Community-Based Participatory Watershed Development/CBPWD (MoRAD, 2005). However, the commonly observed problems among the farming communities for SWC programs are lack of genuine participation, reluctance to maintain conservation measures, and unwilling to take responsibility for maintaining development activities on their own (Danano, 2002). The Ethiopian government is currently encouraging landless youths to organize and own a degraded area to rehabilitate and utilize it in a sustainable manner, which enables to ensure the participation of communities in sustainable management of natural resources (MoRAD, 2005). But still in many areas lack of repair and poor adoption of SWC by farmers is a serious challenge for the newly implementing conservation practices (Abebe & Bekele, 2014).The problem of land degradation through human-induced factors of LULCC in the world is as old as the history of agriculture. Though conservation of natural resources is not fully effective when compared to the extent of resource degradation, now there is a promising condition to prevent the failure of resource conservation work, particularly in the present scenario. According to Birhanu (2014), one of the promising conditions for successful SWC practices in Ethiopia are the existence of environmental policies (green economic policy), experiences in community-based watershed management of SWC, better institutional setup, and research systems, availability of indigenous knowledge, and scientific technologies, the existence of donor support as well as development partners of soil and water conservation.Regarding indigenous knowledge, Ethiopian farmers have been aware of soil erosion problems and managing techniques to control soil erosion and conserve land resources as parts of agricultural systems (Metiku et al., 2006). Also, some empirical studies confirmed that the SWC intervention in Ethiopia is increasing crop productivity and considerable improvement of water discharge levels in streams and springs, improving water table levels and reducing sedimentation problems in the water harvesting ponds and reservoirs, and enhancing income to reduce food insecurity of smallholder farmers (Haregeweyn et al., 2008cited in Wolka et al., 2015;Kassa et al., 2013).The Ethiopian government understands the essence of watershed management for soil and water conservation approaches as evidenced by successfully implemented pilot projects that appear promising (Wolka et al., 2015). Significant effort is occurring to repeat 'community-based participatory integrated watershed management' activities in various regions (Wolka et al., 2015). A very recent good example for the positive result of implementing SWC activities in Ethiopia is the Tigray region experiences, which has won Gold and received the certificate of the 2017 Future Policy Award for the world's best effort for tackling land degradation and improving the fertility of dry lands (Daniel, 2017).Tigray region's achievement in restoring land on a massive scale is an interpretation of Ethiopia's development strategy focused on food self-sufficiency and economic growth by conserving land and promoting sustainable agriculture (Fig 2 .1).Also, the \"Tigray region conservation success shows that restoration of degraded land can be a reality; the model provides hope for other parts of Ethiopia and African countries to follow suit,\" (Daniel, 2017). at analyzing the cause-effect relationships between interacting components of complex social, economic, and environmental systems, and reacting to the problems (Pillman, 2002).Many nations have adopted Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response to identify the various causal chains of links between human activities and environmental degradation.The model distinguishes several categories of indicators to explain how the state of the environment is changed due to human activities and how human activities increase or mitigate pressure on the environment (Niemeijer & de Groot, 2008). According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report (1994), the DPSIR framework is composed of five basic issues and combines environmental processes and states with human actions in general.1. Drivers (D) driving forces are the factors that cause changes in the system. Drivers of land degradation are numerous, complex, interrelated, and predominantly local (von Braun, et al., 2013).2. Pressures (P) are the effects of driving forces that represent processes affecting the resources (land, soil, vegetation, water) by producing substances or emissions through physical and biological agents, which consequently cause changes to the state or the resources.3. State (S) is the resource itself such as land, soil, vegetation, water resources, and socioeconomic system. Depending on the changes of state, positive or negative consequences for society may occur.4. Impacts (I) are the consequences that are identified and evaluated to describe using assessment indices and conservation itself.5. Response (R) is the measures that are important to adopt or mitigate the stimuli, such as the application of watershed management for soil and water conservation activities (Smeets, & Weterings, 1999).The DPSIR model shows how a driver or driving force exerts pressure on the land resources and as a result, changes the state of the environment or land. The state of the environment or land can have impacts on people's health, ecosystems, and natural resources. These impacts can result in responses in the form of management approaches, policies, or actions that alter the driving forces, pressures, and ultimately, the state of the environment (Bottero & Ferretti, 2010). The model has rapidly become popular among interdisciplinary researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders for structuring, communicating, and assessment of relevant environmental policy, research works, and different kinds of management issues.Conceptually, the causal-chain framework makes a lot of sense because it helps to categorize and structure environmental indicators and to highlight the causal relationships between humans and the environment (Niemeijer & de Groot, 2008). In other words, the  The data gathered during the qualitative phase of the study inform the findings of the quantitative review. Similarly, the quantitative results demonstrate the outcomes related to perceptions and experiences shared by participants in the findings of the qualitative data. Therefore reason the researcher used mixed research method and concurrent triangulation design. This method in many situations provides multiple stakeholders and the type of information that they have the most confidence in for use in decision-making (Chelimsky & Shadish, 1997).The concurrent triangulation design was used to give equal priority to the concurrently collected qualitative (QUAL) and quantitative (QUAN) dataThe mixed method is important to increase reliability and credibility through the triangulation of different but complementary data on the same topic to better understand the research problem (Morse, 1991). Or it helps to bring together the differing strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses of quantitative methods or it allows cross-validate or substantiates the findings within a study (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Fig3.1: Location map of the study areaTopographically, the Gidabo river sub-basin landscape can be characterized as one of the rugged topography in the country. The highest altitude of the river sub-basin is about 3029 m a.s.l in the south and the lowest point is 1205 m a.s.l in the west part of the subbasin. The highland occupies a narrow strip in the eastern part of the catchment forming a flat to the undulating landscape that is slightly dissected with some depressions characterized by seasonal drainage. The escarpment is very steep and marked by major border normal faults. The mountainous escarpment is highly dissected terrain with a dense drainage system. The rift floor is strongly deformed by faults and characterized by rough morphology with narrow uplifted blocks, valleys, and swampy depressions (Mechal et al., 2015).The geological feature of the Gidabo sub-basin is part of the geological construction of the Ethiopian rift valley, which was formed during the Miocene-Quaternary period. It is mainly the product of different episodes of volcanic eruptions accompanied by tectonic events and sedimentation processes (Mechal et al., 2015). According to Bekele et al. (2018), the area has been highly affected by the late tertiary rifting activity and erosion processes. The report by Ayenew and Becht (2008) showed that the geological and geomorphologic features of the region are related to the volcanic rock (rhyolites, ignimbrites, trachytes basalt, and pyroclast) and lacustrine sediments.The lithologies of the area can be divided into three major groups: one pre-rift volcanic rock situated mainly in the escarpment, highland and to a lesser extent, in the rift floor which represents the oldest rocks in the area, two the rift volcanic rocks, which are mainly exposed in the rift floor and dominated by silicic volcanic rocks. The volcanic sequences and sediments in the area are densely dissected by extensional fault systems resulting from the rifting process. The major fault types are normal faults having generally similar strikes but some dip to the east and others to the west. Chronologically, they can be grouped into two distinct fault systems. The older, Oligocene-Miocene, NE-SW trending fault system, which characterizes mainly the rift margin and the younger, Quaternary-present, NNE-SSW trending set of faults affecting the rift floor. The drainage system of the basin is strongly influenced by the morphology, which in turn is dependent on the geological phenomena. The stream networks commonly show dendritic drainage patterns that flow from east to west. However, in the southern and northern rift floor, the flow deflects to the northwest and southwest direction, respectively, finally flowing towards Lake Abaya and displays a sub-parallel pattern in the down course sections.There seems to be a strong relationship between the mainstream course and geologic structures in the area.According to Mechal et al. (2016), the average annual recharge for 1998-2010 revealed a remarkable decrease from the highland (410 mm/year) towards the rift floor (25 mm/year). The research report by Behailu et al. (2020) showed that in the period from 1985-2018 the surface runoff and evapotranspiration were increased in the study area.Both the spatial and temporal recharge variability is mainly controlled by the climate and land cover. In the rift floor, recharge is found to occur only when annual precipitation exceeds a threshold of approximately 800 mm. A sensitivity analysis reveals that annual recharge is very sensitive to variations in precipitation and moderately sensitive to temperature changes. The relative sensitivity increases from the highland to the rift floor across the watershed. Increases in both precipitation and temperature, as suggested by climate change projections for Ethiopia, appear to have an overall positive impact on recharge in the majority of the catchment (Mechal et al., 2016).The climate of the Gidabo river sub-basin ranges from humid to sub-humid in the highlands of the escarpment to semi-arid in the low land, which is characterized by warm and wet summer and dry, cold, and windy winter (Mechal, 2015). In May (Bekele et al., 2018). According to the information from the meteorological station, the average rainfall of the study area ranges from 900 to 1400 mm in the dry and rainy periods respectively, whereas the average monthly temperature of the area varies from 210C to 250C in the lowland and from 120C to 180C in the highland. The topographic variation of the area caused economic variation of the people along different agroecology. Though the main economic activity of the river basin is forestbased agriculture (agroforestry), mixed farming (livestock production and cultivation of crops) is the principal occupation of the people in the highland and lowland area of the river basin (Shanka, 2017). Nowadays, agroforestry-based economic activity is highly dominating the river basin that is caused by population growth and variability of climate.The increment of the human population, livestock growth, limited resource, and unsustainable farming techniques in the area forcing farmers to expand their land by clearing bushes and scrubs for crop cultivation, agroforestry, construction purposes, and for fuel as energy resulted in topographic variation (Wolde et al.,2021).Specifically, in the highland agroecology, farmers are mainly dependent on the production of enset, livestock husbandry (sheep, cattle, and horses), and production of cereal crops and vegetables (potato, ginger, taro, chives). In the midland area, the major livelihood of the community is agroforestry-based agriculture such as enset, banana, coffee, avocado, mango as well as homestead livestock production. Also, fuel wood collection and daily labor in the urban areas are additional livelihood options for the community. The farmers in the lowland are more dependent on annual crop productions such as maize, teff, haricot bean, root crops, collecting fuel wood, charcoal production, and daily labor in the urban area.In the past few decades, the decline in agricultural production and productive capacity of the agroforestry system increased the food insecure people. Due to this, the Safety Net program, production of fuel wood, charcoaling, and daily labor in the nearby urban area is an increasing livelihood option for survival. A recent report by (Debelo et al. 2017;Degefa 2016;and Legesse 2014) showed that the dominant source of livelihood of the community that depends on agroforestry-based agriculture is losing its productivity due to climate change, high population growth (above carrying capacity for the area), soil erosion, and poor SWC practices. The major sources of income for the households are coffee, enset, fruits, tree products, animals, and animal products (woreda agricultural office, 2020).According to the data collected from the household survey, group discussion, interview, and statistical offices, the area is comparatively better in food self-sufficiency from the surrounding areas because the economy of the inhabitants in the watershed is mainly based on traditional agroforestry systems. The inhabitants obtain most of their feed from the farmland. Research finding indicates that the productivity of the agroforestry system of the area is decreasing due to socio-economic and environmental factors, such as high population density, small land size per household, declining soil fertility (soil erosion), climate variation, heavily (reliance on rain-fed agriculture), and expansion cash crops (Bishaw, 2013). According to the Woreda agricultural and rural development office (2020) report, besides the above factors, political unrest and insecurity exacerbated the problem of food insecurity and people in certain Kebeles of the midland and lowland area depend on food aid to fill the food deficits. Because the farmers couldn't properly cultivate their land, rather they stay at home.Regarding the infrastructural development of the area, significant changes have been noticed in the study area. The report by Legesse (2013) showed that social infrastructures such as roads constructed, the number of schools established, and health centers built have been increasing. The construction of a road that connects the rural parts to the nearby town is believed to be started in the 1940s following an increase in the demand for coffee in the world market. In this regard, the majority of the people in the rural parts of the study area have access to at least dry weather roads. The commercialization of coffee, fruits, and vegetables appears to be the major motive behind the construction of roads in the area. In the past decade, people are using motorbikes to transport every item from their house to the market center.In addition to increasing access to primary schools, there has been improvement in access to health facilities. Though two hospitals are found close to the community, Dilla and Yirgalem hospital, access to health stations is increasing in the rural area, which influenced a significant number of people to rely on modern medication. Besides, improvement in road and health care there has been a remarkable development in the number of schools established. For instance, the development of access to primary schools in most parts of the zone helped the majority of children to attend primaryeducation. Yet, most of the secondary schools are found at a far distance from the rural area, the young people attending the school in two ways either travels to schools on daily basis or to stay nearby the schools by renting houses.Addressing the complex trends of LULC dynamics and describing the underlying drivers is compulsory to combine biophysical and socio-economic information with remotely sensed data (Lambin et al., 2003). For this research, the study materials such as satellite image, GPs, soil sample collecting materials (hammer probes, plastic bucket, augers, soil sample information sheet, and core rings), note books, pens, topographic map, parkers and camera was used. The satellite image or geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing data tools (RS) are important materials to obtain data used to compare the historical and current status of LULCC. Also, it is fairly accurate in representing the trends of land cover dynamics than other indicators (Lambin et al., 2006).To attain the research objectives, satellite images were obtained from Landsat 5 (™) andLand sat 8 (OLI) (Table 3.1). Land sat images (1986, 2000, 2011, and 2019) were downloaded from (https://glovis.usgs.gov/). The criteria to select the year for Land sat images were based on historical events which significantly influenced the LULCC. For The fourth image for 2019 was used to assess the effect of the second community-based watershed managed practices of 2010/2011. This period was known for the 30 days of free labor and massive social movements on watershed management. Also, the 2019 image presented a cut point for the overall effect of the federal government conservation movement from 1991 to 2019. The satellite data selection has been fixed to the dry season, which has a clear sky for the specific years with no cloud cover. Selections of the lowest cloud cover period minimize the cloud effect and associated reflectance (Jensen, 2009). The downloaded images were stacked with all band combinations in the dataset.These data are essential in order to identify the different land use and land cover change dynamics. To address the formulated objectives, the researcher used both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data sources were field observation, field measurement, photographs, soil analysis, household survey, focused group discussion, and key informant interview whereas secondary data sources were published scientific articles, journals, and unpublished literature and reports such as climate, satellite image, demographic and other related data.The study area is one of the densely populated areas in the southern region that holds a large number of populations. According to the reports from agricultural offices and The household survey result also showed that household size in the highland mainly ranges from 3-8 people, in the midland 2-12 and the lowland it is from 2-7 persons.Among the household members whose ages are between 15 and 65 on average is close to half, who are economically active populations per household. The people under the age of 15 are about 46.4% of the total population. The dependency ratio of the households was found to be 93%, which was almost every member of the household except the very young (below 6 to 7 years) and the old above the 70s has to participate in some household tasks, who are economically active and useful for that specific household member. According to field observation and household survey, children the age above 7support their families in housekeeping and rearing livestock.The household sampling was carried out with multi-stage sampling techniques. This technique is important to represent sampling in which larger clusters are further subdivided into smaller, more targeted groupings for surveying. Also, it is easier to implement and can create a more representative sample of the population, reduce costs of large-scale survey research and limit the aspects of a population which need to be included within the frame for sampling. In this regard, three stages were used to select HH respondents (Fig 3 .3). In the first stage, stratification based on altitude three agroecological categories were selected (low land, midland, and highland), which are different terms of slope steepness and farming system. The agroecological difference can be defined as a spatial classification of the landscape into area units with similar agricultural and ecological characteristics (Altieri, 1995).In mountainous countries like Ethiopia, the topography, particularly altitude, steepness, and slope characteristics play an important role in agroecological zonation (Gorfu & Ahmed, 2012;Hurni, 2016). In the second stage, different woredas ((in Ethiopia local administrative group that forms a district/zone) were selected from the identified agroecology. In the third stage, different watersheds were selected from the identified woredas that were used to select sample households. A total of 280 sample households were selected proportionally using a random number table from the identified watersheds.As to the sampling techniques, both probability and non probability sampling were used.Probability sampling was used for household surveys and non probability was used for focused group discussion (FGD) and key informant interview (KII).  The larger geographic coverage of the study makes it difficult to cover the whole population. Hence, the researcher decided to select the specific sample households to work with. Then, the sample size determination is carried out based on the representativeness and reliability of the data from the selected watersheds that help to understand the study population and sampling methodologies. The household sample selection was carried out by the Krejcie and Morgan (1970)  For this research, the selection of a plot was carried out using the judgment/targeted sampling method which mainly focused on historical information, visual inspection, and professional judgment (IAEA, 2004;QA, E. 2002). According to Landon and Manual (1991), judgment/targeted sampling is the best option to select representative plots/sites or locations for sampling that are a larger area, critical areas, or high impact sites specifically targeted. In this method, the researcher judged the plot site based on the similarity of the conservation structures, age of SWC structures that has six years along different agroecology/altitudinal belts that were considered as slope variation. SWC within the six years was purposely considered as the commonly distributed SWC technologies are found at different agroecology/altitudinal belts, such as fanya juu, and soil bund and stone bund.Certain conservation structures that are above six years have lost their design/layout because of cultivation and lack of maintenance. Using the zigzag method a total of 36 composite soil samples were collected from 3 agroecological (altitudinal belt), 3 conservation structures, 3 replicates, and 1 soil depth (0-20 cm) = 27 for treated. The same procedure was carried out for non-treated land of 3 altitudinal belts x 3 replications x 1 soil depth = 9, which is 27+9 =36.The treatments used for comparison were cultivated land treated by SWC structures, and adjacent non-conserved cultivated land, along different agroecological belts. The sampled soil was mixed thoroughly. Then, it was divided into four parts. From the four parts, one part with an average weight of 1 kg was collected in a plastic bucket to form a composite sample. Though there are 17 to 20 essential elements required for plant growth, from a management perspective the primary macronutrients are most often limiting crop production. They serve to increase the yield, growth, and quality of various crops (Morgan & Connolly, 2013).According to Bhaduri et al. (2014), Morgan andConnolly (2013), andRowley et al. (2012), the primary macronutrients (N, P, and K) are required in relatively large quantities by plants. The secondary macronutrients are needed relatively in smaller quantities than the primary categories; and therefore, are not often limiting for crop growth (Parikh & James, 2012;Korb et al., 2005). According to Yadav and Meena (2009), micronutrients are needed in far smaller quantities than any macronutrient to plants. Therefore, for this study, the soil fertility indicators such as primary macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and other important physical soil properties(clay, silt, sand and soil bulk density), organic carbon, soil pH, cation exchange capacity, and electro-conductivity were analyzed using ANOVA to test the distribution of physicochemical properties of soil along with different agroecology and soil conservation.Soil bulk density (SBD) is the mass of dry soil (105 0 C) per unit of bulk volume, including the air space (FAO, 2006). It can vary substantially among different soil types and be affected by management practices that determine soil fertility through soil compaction and soil resistance to root growth (Grossman & Reinsch, 2002). For this research, the SBD sample was collected from different agroecology/altitudinal belts, conservation structures, and non-treated land. Soil bulk density was measured with the core rings of 5 cm height and 5 cm diameter using the core method described by (De Vita et al., 2013). The fresh weights of soil samples were recorded and oven-dried at 105°C for 24 h after which the dry weights were also recorded. The volume of the core was determined using the following formula V=π r 2 h (cm 3 ).Where V = volume of core (cm 3 ). Focus group discussants of the study area were purposefully selected from the sampled watersheds, with a maximum of five to six participants, making it easy to manage the discussion. Based on the variation of population size the number of watersheds was selected proportionally from different agroecology. For instance, Folde, Semanya, and Beluga watershed were selected from the highland agroecology. In the midland Elemo, Mariyam, Legedara, and Lenano watersheds were selected, whereas from the low land Rega, Shepe, and Ulaula watershed were selected.In the sampled watershed about 14 group discussions were carried out, which is eight FGD in the midland and three for each in the highland and lowland.FGD participants included model farmers, experts, administrators, and development agents from the highland, midland, and lowland agroecology. FGD participation aimed to obtain important qualitative information concerning the perception and knowledge of the participants about the dynamics and driver of LULCC, technologies, and design of SWC, acceptance, impacts, and constraints of the SWC work.Participants for key informant interviews were purposefully selected from the sampled watersheds at different agroecology/altitudinal belts. For the interview, 9 to 11 key respondents were selected considering gender proportionality, age (above 45 years) who perceived better information about historical data on LULCC, resource conservation experience, and social recognition. Based on this arrangement 70 interviewees were carried out in the whole agroecology. The interview mainly focused on the perception, knowledge, and experience of the community on driving forces and characteristics of LULCC of the study area for the past 33 years, SWC technologies, acceptance of the community for the introduced SWC work, constraint to adopt/ adapt the SWC and perception of the farmers on the effect of conservation work.Priority was given to the elderly informants and development agents because the elders were thought to have sufficient information about the LULCC of the study area as they had lived long enough to witness the changes exhibited. Development agents were thought to have sufficient information about the environment concerning their work and closer interaction with the local community. They also contributed in addressing the appropriate informants who are considered to be knowledgeable and can explain briefly about the issues. In this data collection method, the theoretical framework is given by Turner et al. (1994) and Geist and Lambin (2002) used to categorize the participants' responses about the forces as underlying and proximate drivers of LULCC in the three agroecological zones (Table 4.7).According to Morgan & Harmon (2001), observation is one of the most common forms of data collection approach. In the research, initially, a reconnaissance survey was conducted in different agro-ecologies that were used to characterize and understand the biophysical and terrain features of the study area, such as topography, economic activities, land degradation, soil type, soil and water conservation practices, and land use and land cover. Based on the survey result, LULCC such as agroforestry, degraded land, shrub/woodland, forest land, farmland, grassland, settlement land cover, and different SWC work were identified to be studied.To make a household survey, primarily ten randomly selected households were selected from each watershed to test the validity and clarity questionnaire before launching the real survey. Based on the feedback obtained during the pretesting, an adjustment was made on the flow, consistency, and clarity of the questions. A household survey was carried with close follow-up from the researcher. The survey questionnaires covered a range of information which included farmers' socio-economic and demographic condition, perception on drivers of LULCC, design/dimension of conservation structures, participation in SWC, acceptability of SWC work, and constraints of conservation practices.For this part, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to describe/investigate the dimension of SWC structures, acceptability, and constraints of SWC practices in comparison to the national soil and water conservation guideline. The standard guideline tells the measures and approaches that are considered best for the different watersheds at local conditions in Ethiopia (Hurni et al., 2016;Lakew et al., 2005;MoARD 2005).Based on the multistage sampling method, the field measurement was carried on the slope gradient, distance, structural embankments (berm), depth, width, and the vertical interval between SWC structures (Fig 3 .4).The slope gradient was measured with the water level method. A thin plastic rope with 10 m long and 4 m long wooden Poles were used for marking on the ground. Then, the slope was identified with the value variation of the vertical interval and horizontal distance multiplied by 100. Finally, the result on conservation structures from field measurement was compared with the standard prepared for development agents and experts at the Woreda level for different soil characteristics, topography, agroecology, and rainfall conditions (MoARD, 2005). The accuracy assessment of the images was carried out using ArcGIS 10.4 software, which identifies the truth on the ground and is represented on the corresponding classified image. A simple random sampling method was used to collect a total of 280 reference data to ensure that all seven LULC classes were adequately represented depending on the proportional area of each class. The confusion matrix of LULCC was estimated from Land sat 8 of 2019 and Land sat 5 of 2011; corresponding to the reference data from Google earth imagery (GEI) and GPS collected ground-truthing data. However, the accuracy assessment for the years 1986 and 2000 was not conducted because of the limitation of obtaining ground-truthing data, from aerial photos and historical Google Earth imagery. The accuracy assessment was determined using the Kappa coefficient, overall accuracy, producers, and user's accuracies derived from the confusion (error) matrix adopting the methodology described in Congalton and Green (2009) and Jensen and Cowen (1999).According to the information in Table 3.2, the diagonal matrix indicates sample point classes that are correctly classified whereas off-diagonal elements represent commission or omission errors (Foody, 2002). The error matrix was computed for the overall accuracy of seven ( 7  Source; Landsat 8 of 2015 and Google earth imagery (GEI)Using ENVI software, the radiometric correction was carried out using the dark-object subtraction method. This method combines the sun and view angle effects and the sensor calibration with the atmospheric correction. Then, image classification was carried out using both supervised and unsupervised classification. The unsupervised classification was done only to get the spectral characteristics of features on the image whereas the supervised classification method was carried out using the decision rule of maximum likelihood classification algorithm on the ERDAS images 2014 software.The maximum likelihood algorithm provided a consistent approach to parameter estimation and was developed for many estimation situations with training samples.Then, all satellite data were studied by assigning per-pixel signatures and distinguishing the land area into seven classes based on the specific Digital Number (DN) value of diverse landscape elements (Im & Jensen, 2005). The major delineating classes of the study were cropland, forest land, settlement, grazing land; agroforestry, bush/shrubland, and bare land (Table 3.3). For each of the predetermined classes of the study site, the researcher used a minimum of 10 training samples for settlement and 15 training samples for bare land. Then, 30-75 training samples were randomly selected for cropland, forest land, grass land, agroforestry, and bush/shrub land.A satisfactory spectral signature ensures that there is minimal confusion among the land covers to be mapped (Gao & Liu, 2010). For this research, pixels enclosed by these polygons were used to record the spectral signatures for the respective land cover types derived from the satellite imagery. As stated by Foody (2002), there are better resultswith large samples representing each land cover class. However, the required number of training samples to train classifiers depends on the classifier going to be used, the number of features considered and the landscape structure of the classes considered. Since the landscape structure of the present study area consists of a little area for settlement and bare land considered to other classes, few points were randomly selected during an assessment of class labeling which might be equal to the weighted proportion of the landscape.Accordingly, using ground-truthing sample polygons and online Google earth imagery data visualization and interpretation, the spectral signatures for the respective land cover types were collected. Then, each class was given a unique identity and assigned a particular class testing the spectral distinctness of the training area. Moreover, to enhance signature reparability between forest and agroforestry classes and minimize uncertainties of classification, more GPS-based ground-truthing data of natural forest were georeferenced coupled with analysis of these feature classes using the human brain (texture, tone, size, shadows, and shape) from the image.The data collected from both primary and secondary sources were analyzed and presented using quantitative and qualitative methods. The structured household survey data such as demographic, socio-economic characteristics, and farmers' opinions were analyzed and interpreted with appropriate statistical tools (Fig 3.5). Secondary data sources such as climate, official reports, and published materials were used to triangulate with the data from key informant interviews and group discussions. Among the statistical tools chisquare, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) were employed.The chi-square was used to test the association between constraints of SWC and different agroecology. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the difference of mean among different SWC practices, and agroecology. Content analysis was used for qualitative data to compare the design of the implemented SWC structures with the standards as well as other descriptions.The physical data analysis was carried out using remote sensing, geographic information system data processing. The magnitude of change for each land use and the land cover class was calculated by subtracting the area coverage of the second year from that of the initial year. The percentage share of gain or loss for each land-use class in the studied periods was then calculated by the formula shown in equation [1]  (Shiferaw andSingh, 2011and Puyravaud, 2003).   5 Shrubs/woodlands Shrubs/woods refer to bushes and young tree species codominant with herbaceous plants in terms of coverage (Jensen, 2005) 6 Bare land lands Land which is unproductive or not used for cultivation or grazing (Ludi & Hurni, 2000) 7 Settlement It is simply a community where people build houses and live together (Ludi & Hurni, 2000) Sources: Generated from a different source The soil EC (soluble salts) was determined in an extract of a known quantity of solids or liquids. The methods commonly used are the EC on the saturated paste 1:10 soil: water ratios. For 1.1 extract part of the water was added for one part of the soil and so on. For the saturated paste extract, water was added to a soil sample until a given mechanical property of the soil is attained: the liquid limit. The electrical conductivity of an aqueous salt solution increased with an increased in temperature (about 2% per uC). Hence, EC should be referenced to a standard temperature of 25°C by adjusting with temperature correction factors. The CEC determined by measuring the total amount of a given cation was needed to replace all the cation from a soil exchange site and it was expressed in centimoles per 100 g of soil (cmo1/100g soil). The ammonium acetate method was suitable for slightly acidic to neutral soils.The sodium acetate method was used for calcareous soils and the barium chloride triethanolamine method was used for estimating CEC in acid soils as well as for the estimation of exchangeable hydrogen. Available phosphorus was determined using Bray methods. The Bray method was suitable for acid soils and the Olsen method was used for both acid and non-acid soils. Analysis for AK was primarily used for the determination of potassium in acid soils with cation exchange capacities of less than 20 meq/100g. Under this procedure, the sample was extracted with Morgan's solution and K in the extract was measured by a flame photometer. The data analysis was made to test the significant difference of soil biophysical and chemical indicators along different agroecology, and conservation technologies. Ethics refers to moral principles that govern the conduct of an individual or group. The protection of human subjects through the application of appropriate ethical principles is important in all research studies. Based on this, different ethical issues were considered in the course of the study. Before the actual beginning of research activities, a support letter was received from the postgraduate office of Dilla University. Then, the letter was given to the regional and local (district or zonal) offices to get site permission. After permission had been obtained from the regional and local kebeles (lower administrative level) officials, groups were contacted to support the study. The zonal and kebeles officials assigned concerned experts and development agents to facilitate the data collection process. Then, a transect walk was made with the expertise to collect physical data of the study area. Also, informal discussions were carried with concerned district officials, agricultural experts, DA's, and key informants to get information about the culture, norm, and way of life of the community. Before the interview and discussion, an introduction was made to participants (respondents) about the objective of the research to develop confidence among interviewees and group discussants. Then, oral consent was obtained from all participants because most respondents may not understand written consent forms. In addition, clarification was made about their rights and privacy to abstain from answering the questionnaire which they were not happy with. On the contrary, the land with agroforestry, settlement, forest, and bare land showed an annual increment of about 443.7 ha, 65 ha, 33.6 ha, and 4.5 ha respectively. For instance, in the past 33 years, the highest rate of the land cover increment (14%) was recorded on agroforestry and the highest rate of loss (10%) occurred on shrub/woodland (Tables 4.1. 1,4.1.2,and Fig 4.1.1). The image analysis also showed that consistent increment was observed on agroforestry and settlement land classes whereas grassland covers were consistently reduced in the study period. On the other hand, inconsistent change was recorded on the land use class such as cropland, forest land, and bare land cover that mainly related with the driving forces mentioned in section 4.2.7.    (Mariyea et al, 2019).The second category of LULC trajectory refers to the period from 2000 to 2011. In this period, about 1.8% of cropland, 2% grassland, and 0.5% of shrub/woodland cover showed a reduction. The interview and FGD participant explained that the population number for each household was highly increased; land fragmentation was accompanied with an agroforestry system that reduced the cropland. In the study area, the people have a culture to apply multiple products (agroforestry), such as planting crops such as banana, fruit trees, livestock, and woody biomass together in a small plot of land. The report by Ketema et al. (2020) showed that population growth and landholding size (land fragmentation) were considered to be the main drivers of LULC changes in humid agroecological zones of the East African Rift. Therefore the change in the cropland of the study area implies that the high population growth causes farmers to shift from extensive mono-cropping to multiple cropping or agroforestry system. For instance, about 2.9% of cropland, 2% of grassland, and 1.7% of forest land were converted to agroforestry. The highest gain, about 3.8%, was detected in agroforestry and the highest loss, about 1.9 %, was recorded on grassland land cover (Table 4 showing a remarkable expansion due to smallholder farmers' preference for its fastgrowth, coppicing ability, easy silvicultural management, poorly palatable to animals, the demand for its wood products with reasonable prices, and their adaptations to a wide range of ecological conditions. The report by Bowman et al. (2001) that forest coverage increased from 5.03% to 9.91% in the study area and coverage of grassland decreased from 6.70% to 2.47%. In the same way in the highland area of Blue woreda, a large area of the grassland cover was converted to plantation forest (Eucalyptus Trees), which has higher economic value than the cost for acidic soil treatment of the area.The fourth category of LULCC trajectory refers to the period from 1986 to 2019. In these years, about 10% of shrub/woodland, 6% of grassland, and 1% of cropland showed a remarkable reduction. Conversely, about 14% of agroforestry, 2% of settlement land, 1% of forest land, and 0.14% of bare land showed expansion. The reduction of cropland was related to high population growth and the expansion of agroforestry. For instance, the LULC transition of the fourth category depicted that about 8.8% of shrub/woodland and about 6.35% of cropland was added to agroforestry. Also, about 1.4% of shrub/woodland and 1.3% of cropland were converted to settlement and forest land respectively (Table 4. 1.6). The change in agroforestry, grassland, shrub/woodland, and bare land classes is similar to the report by (Ketema et al 2020;Worku et al 2014). The result depicts that the LULCC of the area was driven by the interplay of biophysical, socioeconomic, and institutional factors.   Many farmers in the lowland and highland agroecology said that the climate variability increased farmers' insecurity about cultivating a similar type of crop (monocropping), fruits, or vegetables. Consequently, they favored using multiple types of cultivation; that is, the agroforestry system. Farmers' sense of insecurity for climate change created the chance to consider the agroforestry system as the best option to adapt to climate change.This perception was confirmed by the satellite image analysis that showed the expansion of agroforestry land cover in all agroecology from the period 1986 to 2019. This result is in line with the findings of Temesgen et al. ( 2018), in which drought/RF variability was perceived as a driver of LULCC in the study area.The Ethiopian economy is highly dependent on agriculture. Due to its reliance on rain, it has faced less productivity and fewer unsustainable products. In the midland area, similar to the demographic factors an economic driver has a significant impact on the LULCC of the past more than three decades. According to Table 4.7, about 90% of the participants in the midlands reported that small farm size caused frequent cultivation in the cropland and reduced productivity due to soil loss. The high population growth, diminishing landholdings, landlessness, and lack of on-farm technological innovation has a significant contribution to the decline in productivity per household (MOFED, 2012). According to the report by Legess ( 2013), increasing pressure of rapid population growth of the study area diminishing the land is shared among successive family members eventually leading to poverty.In the midland agroecology that is closer to the zonal town and who had formal education favored engaging in different off-farm activities such as daily laboring, riding a motorbike, shoe shining, charcoaling and commercial farming (Fig 4.1.3). According to the local development agents, off-farm works adversely affected the farmers' land management activity, which undesirably affected the LULCC of the area. Consequently, farmers were unable to feed their families. In this regard, many farmers were trying to get fertile soil from grassland, shrub/woodland, and other marginal lands which, in return, contributed to soil erosion. This finding is in line with the report by Ketema et al. (2020) that showed the economy dependent on agricultural land expansions was the proximate driver of rapid LULC dynamics in many areas. This study agrees with the reports by Zondag and Borsboom (2009) and Lambin (2006) that showed a widespread application of biocide (pesticide, fungicide, and insecticide)  More than 80% of the participants told that the culture of tree planting, inside the Enset and Coffee plantations and rotating one's own house in the Gedeo and Sidama communities has a significant impact on the LULCC of the area. The statistical result showed that the cultural role of the community is among the top-ranked drivers that significantly affected the LULCC in midland agroecology. According to the report by Shiferaw and Singh (2011), culture is a determinant factor in the issue of LULCC for instance, the indigenous knowledge of tree conservation (Songo and Baabbo), and soil treatment (Mona) in the Gidabo river sub-basin. In the study area, there are cultural institutions named 'Songo', Baabbo', and 'Mona' system that were significantly contributed to the expansion of agroforestry and forest land cover.Songo is a sacred place where trees are reserved for ritual and cultural purposes and Baabbo is a traditional way of tree conservation for various socio-economic purposes (Alambo et al., 2019;Maru et al., 2019). Mona is a traditional acid soil treatment approach with animal dung using a circular fence constructed from bamboo plants to herd domestic animals (particularly for cattle and horses (Maru et al., 2019). Farmers were using several agricultural practices in the treated soil such as the production of enset, cereal crops and vegetables (potato, ginger, taro, chives), and livestock husbandry (sheep, cattle, and horses) side to side of eucalyptus trees, which contributed for the expansion of agroforestry system (Fig 4.1.5). This result is in line with the report by Legesse (2013) and Kippie ( 2002) about the cultural role for the expansion of the agroforestry system of the study area. The report by Yeshaneh et al. (2013) showed that the 1975 land proclamation of Ethiopia took away all lands from the landlords and distributed them to the landless, which in turn caused large deforestation for agricultural expansion. The government policy that is related to urbanization and infrastructure development causes LULCC through conversion of land use classes such as farmland and forests to built-up areas and infrastructures (Anteneh, et al., 2018).In this regard the government policy has significantly contributed to the LULCC of the study area (Fig 4.1.6). The change observed on agroforestry and forest land is desirable from the perspectives of environmental management. The report by Brown (2018) suggests that LULCC that encourages agroforestry can improve the agricultural systems and mitigate the impact of climate change. Conversely, the area is manifesting several socio-economic and environmental problems, such as expansion of bare land,settlement loans, food insecurity, farmers partly migrating to urban areas or shift to non-agricultural activities (daily laboring), and less productivity of the cropland.Moreover, previous research indicates that the indigenous agroforestry system of the area is gradually declining because of the prevailing dynamics such as loss and modifications of some element of the agroforestry system, abuse of the socio-cultural system, and nonfunctional indigenous institution (Maru et al., 2019;Legesse, 2013), decline productive capacity of agroforestry and prevalence of food insecurity (Bishew 2013), and the increment of annual mean surface runoff and soil erosion problem (Aregaw et al, .2021).Though the theory of resilient environment and sustainable development are independent, several links between the two concepts can be found in the literature (Lew et al., 2016;Derissen et al., 2011). According to Redman (2014), a resilient environment and sustainable development can be considered complementary approaches. This is maybe the fact that a resilient environment is important to the long-term sustainability of livelihood outcomes that interact with multiple factors (Harris et al., 2020;Espiner et al., 2017). According to Bekele et al., (2019), there are different interacting biophysical, socio-economic, and institutional factors responsible for the LULCC of the specific area.Hence, the driving factors of LULCC in the study area such as demography, economy, culture, high rainfall or drought, policy, and agricultural intensification significantly determine the LULCC and sustainability issue of the study area along different agroecology. According to Table 4.7 the chi-square result showed that demography, economic and cultural factors have a significant impact on the LULCC of the midland area. For instance, the high population density in the midland area increased the demand for more settlement land and diverse agricultural production in response to its socioeconomic and environmental benefits, whereas availability of agricultural inputs (agricultural technology) has a significant impact on the LULCC of the highland area.For instance, the availability of lime is very important to treat the acidic soil in the highland area that is used for the expansion of the agroforestry system. Though the existing SWC effort is essential and timely in the study area it should be more scientific and well organized in a way to support the productivity of the agroforestry system and sustainability of the area.Valley RegionMeasurement of the physical design of SWC in the study area was carried out on the introduced SWC technologies. Among the introduced SWC structures the most widely adopted conservation structures in the selected watersheds are soil bund, fanya juu, and bench terraces in the highland agroecology; micro basins, soil bund, and fanya juu in the midland and low-land area (Fig 4.2.1,4.2.2,and 4.2.3). For this research work about 601 SWC structures were evaluated for the bottom and upper width, height, vertical interval, spacing between bunds, and length of bunds that were used to be evaluated against the minimum technical standards.In the selected plot site about 10% of the physical SWC design/layout of the conservation structure that was implemented in agricultural land was measured and compared with the standard recommended for different agroecology, soil depth, and slope gradient as reported by (Hurni et al.,2016;MoARD, 2005)  (Table 4.2.1 and 4.2.2). The efficiency and effectiveness of SWC measures are a matter of both the dominant agroecology, the type of conservation measures, and its compatibility (Haregeweyn et al., 2015). During SWC practices several technical mistakes will be committed by experts and these problems become worse when it comes to drainage control structures (Tesfaye et al., 2019). Therefore, the design and dimensions of SWC structures are very much dependent on the runoff rate to be generated from a particular area/watershed (Belayneh and Getachew 2002).In this regard, the proper design of SWC structures is important for their effectiveness in protecting the soil from raindrop impact and hydraulic forces of runoff (Tesfaye, et al., 2019). Guidelines were prepared to help development agents and various experts at the Woreda (District) level with minimum practical information on work norms and technical standards that support the effect of conservation work (Table 4.2.1 and 4.2.2).Table.   In this agroecology, the sampled structures were selected from the sampled watersheds such as Bulelega watershed which has a total area of 522 ha, from this 52.2 ha was degraded and 25.3ha was treated with SWC structures. The Folde watershed has a total of 311 ha, from this about 37.3ha is degraded and 11.1ha was treated. The third is the Semaniya watershed that has a total area of 364 ha, from the total land the degraded area accounts for about 64 ha, while 35.2 ha was treated with SWC structures.From the total treated land, 10% of the structures were measured for this study.Accordingly, the total sampled structures in the highland agroecology are 114, which are 40 for Bulelega, 18 for Folde, and 56 is for the Semaniya watershed. The sample indicated that the average number of structures is 16 per hectare because the average distance between consecutive structures is 12m and the horizontal distance is50m. The sampled SWC structures layout/design were evaluated from the bottom and upper width, height, vertical interval, and distance of the ditch to the berm that focused on the minimum technical standards. The measured numerical value of different SWC structures compared with the recommended standard.The total lengths of the SWC structures in the highland area are 5.7km. The length of the structures showed that 37 out of 42 soil bunds are not constructed according to the standard, whereas 39 out of 44 fanya juu structures were not constructed according to the standard. The minimum and maximum length of the structures is 40m and 60m, which has greater horizontal distance than the recommended. According to (Table 4.2.3), more than 70% of soil bund and fanya juu structures are constructed on a slope greater than 16%. Though the availability of natural waterways or suitable boundaries between farms are major factors to determine the length of the structures most farmers did not want to construct a waterway on their plot since it takes out a large area of land. The longer distance of the structures than the recommended has a risk of overflow or overtopping and breakage during high run-off in fragile soils. A similar result was reported by (Engdayehu et al., 2016).The space between the consecutive soil bund and fanya juu ranges from 10 to 14 m with an average of 12m. In both structures (soil bund and fanya juu) the space between consecutive structures is larger than recommended. The result is in agreement with the report by Tesfaye et al. ( 2019); Ademe et al. (2017);and Simeneh (2016) in that most of the SWC practices did not follow the site-specific design criteria. The major challenge to the farmers to keep the standard space on the structures is the small land size caused by high population density. When mechanical SWC structures are implemented with a less spacing large area of land can be lost and farmers are not interested in implementing the structure (Engdayehu et al., 2016). The SWC structures with large spacing can lose the ability to hold peak discharge then more runoff can be generated causing overtopping.This may initiate rill or gully erosion, which requires more labor and budget to overcome the problem (Tesfaye et al., 2019).In the highland area the maximum and minimum bottom width ranges from 60 to 40 cm for both soil bund and fanya juu structures. The maximum and minimum height ranges between 80 to 40cm for soil bund and 65 to 45cm for fanya juu. About 95% of the selected SWC technology, soil depth, and slope gradient of this agroecology are similar to the standard, while the size of embankment height, bottom width, and distance of the ditch to the berm is below standard in the range of 2 to 10 cm. In addition, the embankment width of the structures is below the standard on average of 58 cm from the recommended 1m. The result in this agroecology implied that about 43% of the embankment width of the structures failed to meet the standard. This result is in agreement with the report by Tesfaye et al. ( 2019) and Engdayehu et al. (2016).The failures of the structures to follow the standard dimension (depth, width, and height) minimize the capacity of the structures to hold the peak discharge generated and to remove the excess runoff at a non-erosive velocity, which may hurt the effect of SWC work. Though the major challenge to follow the standard depth, width, and height of the structures are small land size, during the interview and group discussion the researcher also understood that farmers have lack of skill and knowledge about the standard size of conservation structures. A similar result was reported by Engdayehu et al. (2016).The overall result of the design/layout of the structures in the highland depicted that the local farmers should get knowledge and skill on the standard SWC guideline, farm material support, agricultural extension services such as training, accessing the supply of inputs timely, frequency of contact with Das, frequency of participation in extension planning, farm demonstration and giving various marketing information are fundamental for the success of natural resource conservation effort of the area.  According to (Table 4.2.4), the total horizontal length of the measured soil bund and fanya juu structures is 9.7 km. The length of all structures is on average 25 m longer than the standard. In table 4. Simeneh (2016) in that most of the SWC practices did not follow the site-specific design criteria.The SWC structures with large spacing can lose the ability to hold peak discharge then more runoff can be generated causing overtopping, which initiates rill or gully erosion. A similar result was reported by Engdayehu et al. (2016). In this regard the SWC dimension (length and vertical interval) that failed to meet the standard in this agroecology should be corrected in consultation with the land user that will give win-win benefits, otherwise, it will not be easy to maintain once gully is formed. Prevention is better than cure, which is more economical than the expensive cost for structural protective measures (Assessment, 2010).The depth of the ditch has a deviation of 8 cm below the standard in more than 90% of the structures, whereas 75% of embankment height for soil bund and fanya juu structures has a deviation of 7.5 cm below the standard. Regarding embankment width, about 70% of the soil bund and fanya juu structure is below the standard with an average value of 50cm compared with 1 to 1.5 m of the standard (Hurni et al., 2016;MoARD, 2005).The overall result on evaluation of design and compatibility SWC in the midland indicated that comparatively standard value was observed on the selection of SWC technologies, slope gradient, a distance of the ditch to the barn and bottom width, whereas in more than 95% of the conservation structures the vertical interval, horizontal distance and soil depth are failed to meet the standard.This finding is in agreement with the report by Ademe et al. (2017);Tesfaye et al. (2019 andEngdayehu et al. (2016) in that most of the physical SWC structures were not constructed according the guideline.Failures of the structures to keep the standard dimension will reduce the capacity of the structures to hold the peak discharge generated and to remove the excess runoff at a nonerosive velocity.In the midland agroecology, the most favorable SWC structure by the farmers was the micro basin, because they assume it did not consume more land than soil bund and fanya juu. About 97% of the participants on a household survey, FGD and KII of the midland argued that the shortage of land, hard clay nature of the soil in certain field, the longlasting monetary impact of the conservation work, poor agricultural product, and food insecurity were the major constraints to adopt/adapt the standard design. Mainly small parcels of land size (0.2 ha-0.02 ha) for each farming family were challenging to apply the narrower vertical interval between structures.According to the central statistical data of 2013, the density of the population in most watersheds of the midland area is > 850 persons/km 2 . This value is the highest population density at the national level. Therefore, land users were resistant to applying the standard design of conservation structures that consumes more land. In this regard, the standard design will be possible by controlling the high population growth, awareness about the advantages of the standard design of SWC, support to participate in SWC planning, frequent contact with Das, access agricultural inputs timely and expanding the SWC structure that is favored by the farmers. In this agroecology, the commonly implemented conservation structures are soil bund, and micro-basin, but in a few sloped areas fanya juu structures are implemented. The sampled structures were selected from the Rego watershed which has a total area of 154 ha, out of this 62 ha was degraded and 30 ha were treated. The Shepe watershed has a total area of 8 ha, out of this 5 ha is degraded and 2.6 ha were treated. The third and biggest watershed in this agroecology is the Ulaula watershed that has a total area of 422 ha, from this about 130 ha was degraded and 58.5 ha was treated with SWC structures.From the total treated land, 10% of the structures were measured for this study.Accordingly, the total measured structures in the lowland agroecology are 164 which are 105 for Ulaula, 54 for Rega, and 5 is for Shepe watershed. The sample indicated that the average number of structures is 18 per hectare because the average distance between consecutive structures are 11m and the horizontal distance is 50 m.The technical result of the structures in the lowland showed that the total length of soil bund and fanya juu structures is 8.2km. The average length of the soil bund and fanya juu  4.2.5). More than 70% of the structures have an average of 30 m longer than the standard. The maximum and minimum length refers to 60 m and 40 m for soil bund and fanya juu. The maximum and minimum vertical interval of the soil bund and fanya juu structures is 13 m and 9 m, which has an average of 11m higher than the standard. Regarding the micro-basin structures, the mean vertical interval is 5 m. In all structures the higher mean value of vertical interval was recorded compared to the standard.In the lowland, the maximum and minimum depth of the ditch is 60 cm and 20 cm, whereas the bottom width ranges from 60 to 30 cm respectively. From the measured conservation structures about 75% of the depth of the ditch is an average of 10 cm lower than the recommended, whereas, more than 80% of the structure has standard bottom width that may be related to the need to collect more water. In the case of embankment width, the maximum and minimum value ranges from 60 cm to 30 cm. That refers to about 70% of the embankment width being below the standard that should be 1m to 1.5 m.The overall result of the structures in the lowland showed that selection of SWC technologies, and bottom width of the ditch was carried out according to the standard.But about 80 % of the vertical interval between structures, horizontal distance, and embankment height failed to meet the standard (Fig 4. According to Bashir et al.(2018) andAbraha, (2008) the design and dimensions of conservation structures are very much dependent on the risk of erosion, climate, soil type, runoff control, construction materials, labor force, and improved soil productivity of the specific area. In other words, constructing the standardized dimensions of conservation structures are important to make them capable of holding the generated peak discharge and increasing soil fertility (Hurni et al., 2016). According to Tesfaye et al. ( 2019), the physical limitations of conservation structures have adverse impacts when it comes to drainage control of structures. Therefore, the implemented conservation structures in the sampled watershed that failed to meet the standards cannot be capable of holding the runoff and that will adversely affect the soil fertility and livelihood of the community.    Though the listed constraints are found in all agroecology there is a variation on the degree of constraints of SWC along different agroecology. According to the chi-square result at alpha level 0.05, there was a significant association between land size, access to fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, construction materials, technical skill, and maintenance of the conservation structures versus different agroecology.On the other hand, no significant association between food security, interest of the young generation in farm work, lack of frequent maintenance, field guidelines, interaction among stakeholders versus different agroecology. For instance, the constraints such as small land size or landlessness are more constraining factors to follow the standard SWC guideline in the midland, because the population density in the midland was higher than the lowland or highland agroecology. Whereas, in the highland, the constraints such as access to fertilizers, pesticides, seeds, and skilled manpower were serious challenges to adopt the standard SWC structures that may be related to the remoteness of the areas from the woreda or zonal towns.The result implies in the lowland areas, the constraints related to poor access to infrastructures, construction materials, and lack of frequent maintenance of SWC structures were serious constraints of SWC work. Reports by Biratu and Asmamaw (2016) and Dawit ( 2014) indicated that the level of community participation on SWC was determined by the social facilities (transportation and communication). The local farmers also listed other constraints of SWC that challenged the implementation of standard SWC work (4.2.7).These were the complex design of SWC technology and the intensive labor force demanded during the implementation of SWC structures. In the study area, almost all schooled young farming families were migrating to the urban area for nonfarm work, which adversely affect the standard conservation work. The same result was reported by Legesse (2014) in that young people who could attend school was no longer interested in becoming farmers in the study area. This condition harms access of the labor force for SWC and constraints to apply the standard design of SWC work. showed that sand soil has no significant difference along different agroecology, and SWC treatment, whereas silt and clay had significant differences across various SWC treatments but no difference along with agroecological variation. For instance, the greater mean value of silt soil was recorded in conserved land and clay in non-conserved land of the study area (Table 4.3.1;4.3.2).The high concentration of silt soil in the conserved land was attributed to the comparative effect of SWC, which increased the deposition of fine soil particles. Similar results were reported by Belayneh et al. (2019)    The soil bulk density value of the study area showed that relatively higher SBD was observed in non-conserved plots than in conserved plots. The SBD refers the mass of dry soil (105 0 C) per unit of bulk volume, including the air space (FAO, 2006). However, the ANOVA result at p ≤ 0.05 showed that the differences in the mean bulk density of the soil along with different soil treatment, and agroecology were not statistically significant (Tables 4.3. 1; 4.3.2). Statistical results of the study area showed that variation of soil treatment and agroecology had no significant impact on the soil bulk density of the study area. This might be due to similarities in the density of the soil minerals and the packing arrangement of the soil. This study agreed with the report by Belayneh et al. (2019 andNegasa, et al. (2017) in that the soil bulk density was not statistically significant variation across different soil conservation practices.The chemical property of the soil in the Gidabo river sub-basin at the different altitudinal belt, and SWC treatment practices were assessed from the soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil pH, soil electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, available phosphorus, and available potassium. Soil chemical properties are the most essential factors that govern the nutrient supplying power of the soil to the microbes and plants.The two ways ANOVA at p< 0.05 showed that significant variation of SOC across a variation of agroecology (midland, lowland, and highland) and SWC treatment. The study result indicated that the distribution of SOC was significantly affected by agroecology with different climatic characteristics and soil management (Table 4.3.3).For instance, the soil management variation showed that in the midland, the mean SOC had greater value in the land treated with SWC structures than in the non-treated land. In contrast, in the highland and lowland agrology, the mean value of SOC had no significant difference between treated and non-treated land. Furthermore, irregular distribution of SOC was observed between treated and non-treated land of the highland and lowland altitudinal belt (Table 4.3.3).The result depicted that, certain conservation structures were not successful in improving the SOC which might be related to constraints limiting the effectiveness of the conservation structures in section 4.2.7.The report by Elias (2002) and Gashaw et al. (2017) showed that the effectiveness of SWC could be determined by the type of land management, slope characteristics, climate, cropping system, soil types, and access to resources. For example, soil organic carbon is highly determined by the level of land management practices (Pathak et al. 2009 andMotsara andRoy, 2008).Regarding to the agroecological variation the value of SOC was higher in the highland agroecology than midland or lowland. A similar result was reported by Sevgi (2003) the SOC increases as altitude increases. This might be due to the change in the climatic condition at a higher elevation. The other contributing factor may be better land cover with grass, less tillage, and land rotation in the highland area, whereas in the midland and lowland frequent cultivation and less land cover expose the SOC to erosion and contribute to the reduction of SOC. According to Vos et al. (2019) permanent grassland cover topsoil's, which are less disturbed get larger C-inputs than non-grass-covered areas.Also the report by Chan (2008) showed that the SOC is higher in the land with less tillage and better land cover. Therefore, land tillage, grassland cover, and application of manure/ household waste could contribute to the variation of soil organic carbon along different agroecology of the study area.The value of TN in Table 4.3.3 indicated that a significant difference was observed across various agroecology and soil management. In this regard, agroecological differences showed that higher TN is found in the highland and the least is in the lowland. High nitrogen content at high altitudes may be due to wet conditions, which enhanced the activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The low agroecology soil was drier than at high agroecology that limit the nitrogen fixation process. A similar result was reported by (Ram et al., 2015).Regarding variation of soil conservation, a relatively greater value of TN was recorded in the soil treated with SWC structures of the highland and lowland area (Table 4.3.3).However, in the midland, irregular distribution of TN was observed among different soil conservation practices. For instance, the mean value of TN in the FN and STB structures was lower than in the land not treated with SWC. Nevertheless, the mean value of TN in soil treated with SB structures was greater than in non-treated land. The result on a higher mean value of TN in conserved land of SB structure than non-conserved is in line with the report by Belayneh (2019), Ademe et al. (2017), Hailu, (2017), Asfaw andNeka (2017), andMillion (2003) that showed the mean total nitrogen of the soil was greater in conserved land than non-conserved.The high mean value of TN in the soil treated with SB structure than FN and STB structures in the highland and lowland area indicated that the conservation structures such as FN and STB have failed or did not succeed in improving the total nitrogen content of the soil. It might be due to failure to select the right conservation technology and/or poor design/layout of the structures to keep soil erosion. According to the report by Namirembe et al. (2015), appropriate conservation structures for ecological and socioeconomic conditions are necessary for effective conservation work.According to the data in (Table 4.3.3), the two-way analysis of variance at p ≤ 0.05 showed a significant difference in soil pH across different agroecology and soil management practices. The result illustrated that variation of agroecology and SWC treatment has a significant impact on the distribution of soil pH of the study area. For instance, agroecological variation showed a lower pH value in the highland than midland or lowland. The result is in agreement with the report by Ram (2015) that showed lower elevation had the highest pH value, which decreased with altitude. According to Ashton (2011), there is higher relation between temperature and soil pH. The increment of temperature causes high molecular vibrations, which results in the ability of water to ionize and form more hydrogen ions. As a result, the soil pH will decrease. In line with this, studies conducted by Zhang et al. (2019) reported that soil pH is highly sensitive to changing natural environments and the presence of heavy rainfall, which results in the leaching of basic cations (remove nitrate contents). As a result, soils of the uplands have lower pH and relatively acidic behavior. Also the higher organic decomposition that release carbon has higher probability to increase hydrogen ion that will reduce the soil pH.Regarding different soil management, the highest mean value of soil pH was observed in the treated land than in the non-treated land of all agroecology. The result on the distribution of soil pH along different soil management indicated a significant impact of conservation work. The high content of soil pH in the conserved land might be associated with the reduction of the loss of soil organic matter and exchangeable bases through soil erosion and runoff. A report by Gadana et al. (2020), Wolka et al. (2011), andTugizimana (2015) showed that soil pH was significantly higher in the soil with management practice than in soils with no management practices. farmland that gradually increase soil EC. Though the higher value of the soil EC in the lowland was found in the treated land, statistically, the difference was not significant among various soil conservation practices.The study also showed the overall mean value of soil EC in the highland was lower than the midland or lowland. This might be due to temperature variation. According to Butros et al. ( 2010), when temperature decreases, soil EC decreases slightly because when the temperature is below freezing, soil pores become increasingly insulated from each other and overall soil EC declines rapidly. The report by Bai (2013) showed that the soil's electrical conductivity increases with the increase of temperature. This might be the cause in the study area for the value of soil EC was relatively lower in the highland compared to the amount in midland/lowland.The total number of exchangeable cations a soil can hold is called its cation exchange capacity (CEC). Statistical results of soil CEC showed significant differences of soil exchangeable cations along with the variation of agroecology/altitudinal belt and soil management practices (Table 4.3.3). For instance, in all agroecology, the mean value of CEC was greater in conserved land than non-conserved land. The result indicated that the SWC practices significantly affected the soil CEC in the study area. The high CEC observed in the conserved land might be caused by conservation work that generates high biomass and control of erosion, consequently increasing CEC in the soil. A study reported by Gadana et al. (2020), Muktar et al. (2020), and Emiru & Gebrekidan (2009) showed that the mean value of CEC content in soils under un-conserved farm plots was lower than the value recorded in conserved farm plots.The agroecological difference of soil CEC showed a high mean value in the highland and the least in the lowland. The high CEC value in the highland might be due to the high contents of clay soil in the highland that holds or stores cation. But in the midland and lowland agroecology, the sand content of the soil is higher than the highland that has a low holding capacity of the soil CEC. According to Efretuei (2016) and Agronomic Fact Sheet Series (2007) when the soil particle is negatively charged (high clay contents) they attract and hold to cation and reduce leaching down the soil, while the soils with low CEC have low ability to hold water (e.g. sandy soils). Also, the cation exchange capacity of the soil can be lower in heavily weathered kaolinite clay (Brady and Weil 1999).Climate variability may be the other factor that has contributed to the lower CEC in the lowland agroecologyof the study area. For instance, an increase in soil temperature decreases organic matter through combustion, which leads reduction in clay size fraction and the cation exchange capacity of the soil (Úbeda et al., 2009 andRengasamy, &Churchman 1999).The result in (Table 4.3.3) revealed that the available phosphorus was significantly different in the study area at p ≤ 0.05 along different agroecology and soil management practices. For instance, the mean value of available phosphorus (AP) of the soil was greater in conserved land than in non-conserved. The statistical result showed that the SWC structures significantly contributed to the improvement of phosphorus in the conserved soil than in non-conserved soil. These results agree with the finding by Dagnachew et al. (2019), Tanto and Leakemariam (2019), Hailu et al. (2012), andTolera (2011) in that the physical SWC measures caused the higher amount of available phosphorus on conserved land.In the study area, the application of both organic and inorganic sources of AP was important for amending the agricultural land for better land productivity. The high concentration of AP in the treated land could be attributed to the application of compost, manure, and household wastes and chemical fertilizers (urea, CO, NH2), and diammonium phosphate (DAP). Similar findings in the study area were obtained by Ademe et al. (2017). They argued that high AP in the conserved land may be due to the application of organic sources of AP for better land productivity.The data in (Table 4.3.3) show that, the lower mean value of AP in the midland area than lowland might have resulted from the variation of temperature. The report by Gahoonia et al. (2003) showed that soils with low temperatures have low availability of phosphorus because the release of phosphorus from organic material is hindered by low temperature.The results of this study were comparable to the report by Shara et al. (2021) that showed available phosphorus in the soil increased with decreasing altitude for (p<0.05). But the contrary result was observed in the highland agroecology because there is high AP with low temperature than the midland or lowland area.This result implies the controlling factors for AP in the highland are not related to temperature. As noted by Solomon and Lehmann (2000) the presence of a sufficient amount of AP in the soil is due to management factors. Therefore, the factors that contributed to high AP in the highland agroecology of the study area may be related to soil conservation and less tillage that reduced the removal of AP. Or the high rainfall drop per unit time in the soil surface made the soil crushed to increase the surface area of soil particles, which adsorbs more adsorbed phosphorus.The statistical result showed a significant difference in available potassium (AK) was found among different soil soil management practices in the highland and lowland agroecology but not in the midland (Table 4.3.3). The result also depicted that the soil AK was significantly different along with different agroecology/altitudinal belts. For instance, the mean value of soil AK is high in the lowland and least in the midland. The exact mechanism by which factors influence the reaction of potassium in soil is not clearly understood. The lower value of AK in the midland might be related to the variation of land management, soil particles, or soil temperature in the area.According to Butros et al. ( 2010), the potassium nutrient of the soil has shown variable distribution along different agroecology due to its greater mobility. The least value of AK in the midland may be related to frequent (over) cultivation of farmers in small plots of land that lead to both soil degradation and erosion of available potassium of the soil.According to Nisha, (2018) continued cultivation of the crops on the same soil without additional input reduces the marginal productivity of the soil due to exhaustion of nutrients, thus the land depreciates.Exceptional to other chemical properties, AK did not show significant differences in various soil management practices. Though the irregular distribution of AK was recorded within different soil conservation practices of the midland and lowland agroecology, in the highland area, the greater value of AK was recorded in conserved land. The value of (AK) in the highland area was in line with the report by Asnake and Elias (2019) and Wadera (2013), in which higher soil potassium was observed on the treated land than in the non-treated one. The high concentration of AK in the treated land of highland agroecology might be related to the application of plant cover in the treated land.However, in the midland and lowland area, plant material was frequently removed for household energy consumption and it might have facilitated leaching problems. This might contribute to the lower value of AK in the midland and lowland compared to in the highland agroecology of the study area.guidelines (MoARD, 2005). However, the application of the national guidelines for SWC remains challenging on the ground.In pursuant of the second objective, an attempt was made to assess the type of SWC technologies, design, acceptability, challenge, and the level of community participation based on the national standard. The study also considered farmers' interests and constraints to adopting/adapting the SWC practices. From the study, it was concluded that the farmers are implementing the SWC technologies, such as soil bund, fanya juu, bench terrace, and micro basin. However, the data from field measurement, FGD, interview, and a household survey showed that many of the physical SWC structures in the sampled watersheds failed to meet the standard design/dimensions (depth, distance, width, height, length, and vertical interval).This means that in the highland area the SWC structural designs such as embankment width, embankment height, bottom width, a distance of the ditch to the berm, and the vertical interval between structures are below the standard. In the midland, in all measured SWC structures the vertical interval, horizontal distance, and soil depth failed to meet the standard. Also in the lowland area the vertical interval, horizontal distance, and embankment height of the structure failed to meet the standard. The study showed that besides the technical problem, the sampled conservation structures did not fulfill the sound principle of SWC such as the application of supportive (biological) measures, hilltop to downhill conservation approach, and active participation of stakeholders in all phases.The major constraints to adopt/adapt the standard SWC structures and principles are related to the socio-economic and environmental conditions of the area that were significantly varied along different agroecology. For instance, small land size is a more constraining factor in the midland, than the lowland or highland agroecology. While, in the highland access to fertilizers, pesticides, seeds, and skilled manpower was a serious challenge. Whereas poor access to infrastructures, construction materials, and lack of frequent maintenance of SWC structures were significant constraints in the lowland area.The physical conservation structures that failed to meet the standard SWC work harm the soil property. Therefore assessment of the soil quality was carried out from the perspective of SWC practices along different agroecology. The study result showed that no significant difference was observed in soil particle distribution along different agroecology. However, a significant difference in silt and clay soil content was observed along with various soil management practices. For instance, a high concentration of silt content was observed in the conserved land that was attributed to the comparative effect of SWC, which increased the deposition of fine soil particles. While high clay content was found in non-conserved land that might be related to the resistant clay soil in the eroded land. Concerning soil bulk density (SBD) no significant difference was observed at all, along with different altitudinal belts, and soil management.On the topic of soil chemical properties, the statistical result showed that soil properties such as OC, pH, TN, CEC, EC, and AP showed significant differences across various agroecology/altitudinal and soil conservation practices; while AK showed irregular distribution along with different SWC work. Though the effect of SWC on soil property was not satisfactory and unevenly distributed, relatively better soil property was found in conserved land that may be attributed to the reduction of runoff, increment of soil deposition, and retaining the moisture of the soil. Also, the agroecological variation that has different rainfall and temperature significantly affected the soil properties of the study area.Based on the study result and the above summary it was concluded that however agroforestry-based agriculture and forest land is increasing for the study period contrary there is an expansion of settlement land, bare land, soil erosion, reduction of grassland, shrub/woodland, and high population pressure on the limited resources. This is evidenced by the irregular distribution of physical and chemical soil properties, increment of food insecurity, high demand for agricultural inputs, increasing dependence on external aids, marginal land cultivation, forest encroachment, youth migration to the urban area, and the limited success of SWC efforts among others. Though the newly introduced SWC practices are implemented in a sense of supporting the agroforestry system the conservation work is not fully successful compared to the existing socio-economic and environmental problems of the area.According to the study result, the constraints such as small land size, lack of labor force, lack of interest for agricultural work among the youth, food insecurity, lack of technical skill, poor maintenance of conservation work, limited community participation on SWC, and lack of agricultural inputs threaten the sustainability and productivity of the agroforestry system. Because these problems caused the implemented SWC works wholly or partially failed to follow the national SWC guidelines and principles in a way to support the agroforestry practices of the area. Hence, the issue of soil erosion and its consequences continued to adversely affect the socio-economic and environmental conditions of the area.In this regard, it is impossible to ensure the sustainability of the agroforestry system given that the current dynamic change on bare land, settlement land, shrub/woodland, grassland, and population pressure continues. The stakeholders, particularly land users, government leaders, experts (development agents), and researchers should work together to enhance the productivity of the agroforestry, and forest land cover by managing the principal driving forces behind the LULCC and soil erosion that adversely affect the agroforestry system in the area. Moreover, the national SWC guideline and principle should consider the local condition of the specific area, particularly the culture, environmental, economic, and social aspects of the community. That is important to increase the effectiveness of the conservation work, and reduce the pressure on the limited natural resources in the study area.The findings of this research reveal that the observed change on agroforestry and forest land cover have promising conditions that could significantly contribute to future natural resources conservation work. But the sustainability and productivity of the changes were challenged by the multifaceted and complex socioeconomic and environmental factors.Such complex problems cannot be mitigated if concerted efforts are not in place. What is important in this regard is supporting the agroforestry system with well-organized and integrated SWC work, as well as supporting the agricultural production by technology and improved seeds. It is hoped that the following recommendations will be a means to the problems prevailing in the study area.I. Apply the national SWC guideline and principles in a way to support the traditional conservation practices and the existing agroforestry system of the areaThe ministry of agriculture in Ethiopia prepared the national SWC guidelines and policies for sustainable land management with a sound scientific base. Though traditional SWC work has been implemented for a long time in the study area, the problem of soil erosion and its impact were increasing over time. Among the major factors the traditional SWC practices alone were not successful to conserve the limited natural resources, and also the introduced SWC work failed to follow the standard design and principles of conservation. Therefore, the application of the national SWC guideline in a way to support the agroforestry system of the area is a timely issue. Also the introduced SWC practices should consider the local condition of the study area, particularly the culture, environmental, economic, and social aspect of the community that is useful for food security and sustainable development.Diversifying the livelihood options of the community in the study area is a very important step because it will reduce the pressure on agroforestry, marginal land, scarce resources, and control the expansion of undesirable LULCC (bare land, and settlement land). For instance, parallel to cropland agriculture production of poultry, animal fattening, and producing raw material for the newly planted agro-industry is advantageous to reduce the pressure created on the natural resources by the high population growth and climate variability. In this regard, the regional agricultural office, universities, and other stakeholders can play an important role. This means that a strong linkage should be created between industries and farmers' products. Also improving farmers' climate adaptation capacity is necessary to improve agricultural production through the application of improved seed, pesticide, fertilizers, irrigation, and modern farming tools/technologies. In addition, access to services such as roads, health centers, and education is important for effective SWC work. For instance, provision of road transport for the farmers creates opportunities to access agricultural inputs, increases farmers' markets for their products, and increases the number of non-governmental organizations, which contribute to natural resource conservation via finance, instrument, or skill transfer. Access to schooling is also helpful to transfer knowledge to the farmers and their families. Health center keeps farmers healthy to be active participants in conservation work. To this end, the researcher recommends that all stakeholders (policy designers, policymakers, political leaders, experts, researchers, and farmers), should work closely to minimize or avoid the local constraints in a way to enhance the performance of the SWC work in the area.1. Detailed investigation is necessary about the productive potential of the expanding agroforestry system in a way to sustain socio-economic and environmental development of the study area.2. The cause and consequences of the high population growth of thearea should be investigated from the perspectives of limited natural resources.3. Further investigation should be carried out on how to apply the standard SWC practices in densely populated and small plots of land.     The community actively participate during problem identification 2The community actively participate during prioritization of technologies 3The community actively involve during the decision making on the date of conservation work. 4The community actively participate to decide the number of days that everyone should participate in watershed management 5The community actively participates in managing the SWC practices. 6The community only participate for advise 7The community participate only to introduce about SWC practices 8The community involves only in the stage of decision 9If other mention  ","tokenCount":"24024"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"84e196e3a08e72c0287ba003c77cb01c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/151b24a0-8682-4cf2-ae78-f982964fb295/retrieve","id":"-185977709"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"66af75d4-e964-4bfa-aa6e-628798227213","pagecount":"4","content":"In the Mekong region, increasing power demand and growing interest to capitalize on the region's inherent hydropower potential have led to a surge in hydropower development. In 2010, more than 3,200 MW of hydropower capacity, about a tenth of the region's total potential, had been installed on the Mekong River's tributaries. 1 Many more dams are either planned or currently under construction.While the development of hydropower is expected to have irreversible impacts on both communities and the environment, dam developers and governments often fail to consider and inform about the full costs and benefits of hydropower. As a result, communities, local government The CPWF project MK2-On Water Valuation (2010-2013) was designed to estimate the costs and benefits of different water uses at the reservoir and catchment levels at study sites in Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In Cambodia, the project team conducted fieldwork in Stung Treng province, the location of the proposed 400 MW Lower Se San 2 hydropower dam.A series of consultation meetings revealed that the provincial and local authorities in Finally, a household survey conducted by the CPWF project team in 2011 highlighted how community members were concerned about losing access to the riverine and forest resources that they depend on.Considering both the findings from the survey and the experiences during the exchange visit to Lao PDR, community leaders in Stung Treng province have decided to stop their campaign against the construction of the Lower Se San 2 dam and instead look for ways to approach the company to discuss better compensation packages and benefit sharing.The CPWF project has improved the knowledge of stakeholder representatives in Cambodia and Lao PDR, leading to a shift from reactive to proactive attitudes towards dam construction. A shift in attitude may be a small outcome, but a case like this is a positive sign that the dam development process can be adjusted to include all stakeholders and take into consideration the full range of costs and benefits of hydropower.","tokenCount":"327"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0ff0d458dd94b411cb26bebac50ca340","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8503cffc-11a3-4c22-9fea-e6e634cb4a4c/retrieve","id":"-1763553299"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a3988a6e-1e0c-4118-afcf-c439a89b6336","pagecount":"72","content":"• A bacterial zoonotic disease caused by spirochetes of the genus Leptospira• Pathogenic:-L. interrogans and L. kirschneri• More than 200 serovars• Zoonotic disease -Transmitted to humans from a variety of wild and domesticated animal hosts -Most common reservoirs: rodents (rats), wild animals and farm animals in the US -Occupations that involve animal handling are more likely to contract disease• Transmitted through damaged skin or mucus membranes of exposed humans and animals  Objective of study   Seasonality of VE in humans between 2004 and 2013 (Dien Bien, Hoa Binh, Lai Chau and Son La)*Previous study showed that 17~71% of VE were caused by JE in VietnamScreenshot (R package)Exercises (15 mins)• VE monthly incidence rate from 2004 to 2013• Open file: seasonality_VE and R_code_VE• Import into R:• Run the modelTransmission to Humans -Data collected on a monthly basis:  The ARIMAX model is an extension of ARIMA (autoregressive integrated moving average) model Ŷ t = ARIMA [Constant + Y t-1 + ϕ((Y t-1 -Y t-2 )) -θ e t-1 ] +AR[ β t-1 X t-1 + β t X t ..] Methods ]• Conducted simulation intervention scenarios (50% and 75% reductions in cattle cases) Monthly incidence rates of brucellosis between 2005 and 2010 in both human and cattle ","tokenCount":"204"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e92b42aaac5c82714adcb2d65b621b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74510226-51f5-40b1-badb-41db7e6ed0c5/retrieve","id":"-1272559737"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ef6ed779-0b13-467d-ba8d-d288c7bfb654","pagecount":"3","content":"Este documento se ha preparado con la contribución y aportes de diversos grupos relacionados con la investigación, comercialización y conservación de las frutas tropicales. El intercambio de ideas se dio a través de reuniones individuales y en talleres con grupos de trabajo multidisciplinarios, cuyas ideas se han plasmado aquí.El documento describe las áreas en las que el grupo de Frutas Tropicales del CIAT, en cooperación con socios nacionales e internacionales, enfocará sus esfuerzos de investigación para:Mejorar la competitividad de los pequeños productores de frutas tropicales y proveedores de servicio a través de información y tecnologías que resulten en prácticas y sistemas de producción sostenibles, mejoren el acceso a mercados e incrementen sus ingresos familiares.Es absolutamente claro que el impacto que se busca lograr no se alcanza solamente a través de una agenda impuesta por los centros de investigación. Por lo tanto, el uso de enfoques participativos, teniendo en cuenta las demandas de los usuarios finales y de los socios, y usando un enfoque de solución de problemas y potencialización de las oportunidades de la cadena de valor, serán parte operativa de la agenda aquí descrita.Para multiplicar el impacto de la investigación, el CIAT trabajará con otras agencias de investigación, de educación, con el sector privado y con organismos de desarrollo. La gran diversidad de frutas en la región de América Latina (>1200 especies) representa retos importantes, pero igualados o sobrepasados por las oportunidades. Por lo tanto, el CIAT no hará una selección de especies sobre las cuales se desarrollarán las agendas temáticas propuestas, pero éstas serán definidas por los usuarios de los países donde este conocimiento se requiera.Las áreas temáticas bajo las cuales se desarrolla la investigación del Programa de Frutas Tropicales son:En esta área de investigación buscaremos entender los sistemas productivos mixtos, de tal forma que nos permitan diseñarlos para reducir pérdidas poscosecha, disminuir la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades, incrementar la resiliencia del sistema y que actúen como una estrategia de mitigación al cambio climático, generando oportunidades reales de ingreso para los agricultores.Las frutas tropicales se cultivan en sistemas de producción que varían en complejidad ecológica y socioeconómica, incluyendo desde monocultivos hasta sistemas agroforestales multiespecies, donde las inversiones pueden ser mínimas o millonarias por parte de los grandes productores/inversionistas. Igualmente, los niveles de tecnología usada son aún precarios, especialmente en los cultivos menores, en donde la información disponible, en muchos casos, no existe. Esto hace que los pequeños productores dependan de otros para obtener material de siembra, para tener acceso a información sobre el manejo del cultivo, sobre el manejo poscosecha e información de mercados. Mucha de la asistencia técnica recibida para el manejo de plagas, enfermedades y nutrición del cultivo proviene de representantes de ventas de las casas de agroquímicos. El estado actual de la producción de frutas en América Latina y el Caribe causa preocupación por la ausencia de inocuidad de los alimentos, debido al uso excesivo de pesticidas, y por la huella ambiental, especialmente en relación con el uso del agua y del aire, conservación del suelo y el uso de químicos deletéreos para la salud humana. Las pérdidas poscosecha son extremadamente altas (30-50%), y nuestro conocimiento de los sistemas de producción como un todo (aspectos agronómicos, ambientales y socioeconómicos) es limitado.¿Qué se requiere para responder a estos retos y oportunidades?• Cimentar el enfoque y desarrollar la experticia en sistemas productivos, atendiendo un enfoque agroecológico. • Fomentar la reconversión agrícola del sector frutícola, a través de la búsqueda y desarrollo de alternativas para reducir la acumulación de residuos químicos deletéreos en el ambiente y en los productos finales que van al consumidor. • Investigar soluciones a problemas fitosanitarios de amplia incidencia y distribución que causen grandes pérdidas económicas, a través de germoplasma resistente o variaciones en el sistema de producción que disminuyan su incidencia y reduzcan los efectos negativos en el ambiente. • Utilizar los mejores modelos de cambio climático disponibles para diseñar y recomendar sistemas de producción resilientes, incluyendo la selección de especies o variedades, y estudiando la distribución de plagas y enfermedades que afecten los cultivos de frutas. • Desarrollar indicadores de sistemas de producción eco-eficiente, teniendo en cuenta la huella ecológica de los cultivos de frutas.• Promover sistemas de producción que contribuyan a la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático.América tiene la más alta diversidad de frutas tropicales en el planeta. Por lo tanto, en esta área temática buscamos que se aproveche esa diversidad genética para mejorar los sistemas productivos existentes, la nutrición de los consumidores, y facilitarle a los productores el acceso a mercados.La producción de frutas, conjuntamente con la diversidad genética, se presenta en sistemas de producción localizados desde los trópicos calientes y húmedos, hasta los sitios fríos y secos. Esta situación ofrece oportunidades de desarrollo a poblaciones vulnerables en ambientes ecológicos diversos.La región latinoamericana y el Caribe es el centro de origen de más de 1,200 especies de frutas, muchas de las cuales contribuyen a la generación de ingresos en los mercados locales y, algunas, a través de mercados de exportación. Sin embargo, la urbanización y la falta de recursos financieros para conservar el germoplasma, tanto in situ como ex situ, amenazan seriamente la diversidad genética. Esta amenaza se ve acentuada con la creciente globalización de los mercados y la tendencia a la especialización en los mercados de exportación, poniendo en riesgo la sobrevivencia del germoplasma y disminuyendo el potencial de desarrollo de otras especies menores, pero muy valiosas.El potencial de la diversidad genética, en relación con la adaptación para tolerar la presión de plagas y enfermedades, la diversidad en calidad (valor nutritivo, apariencia, sabor, vida poscosecha) y la adaptación al cambio climático, no ha sido explorado y requiere atención multiinstitucional.¿Qué se requiere para responder a estos retos y oportunidades?• Desarrollar metodologías eficientes para evaluar germoplasma, incluyendo la búsqueda de herramientas moleculares o técnicas in vitro para acelerar la identificación de fuentes de resistencia a las principales plagas y enfermedades. • Desarrollar métodos para facilitar el acceso a mejor germoplasma, y metodologías para la propagación segura, rápida y económica del material del germoplasma deseable. • Desarrollar una estrategia que promueva la caracterización y uso de la diversidad genética para responder a los retos del cambio climático. • Entender las causas que promueven el consumo y uso diferencial de germoplasma seleccionado. • Investigar las propiedades funcionales y organolépticas de especies de fruta cultivadas, considerando los beneficios para la salud y las demandas de los mercados.Además del papel esencial en la nutrición humana, las frutas representan un vehículo para la generación de ingresos y el desarrollo rural. Por lo tanto, en esta agenda el CIAT utilizará los mecanismos pertinentes con asociaciones y entidades socias para facilitar el desarrollo de mercados (nuevos y existentes) y el acceso a los mismos por parte de los pequeños productores.El acceso de los pequeños productores a los mercados es esencial, si queremos que el potencial de las frutas tropicales cumpla su objetivo de aliviar la pobreza. La producción estacional de muchas especies de frutas tropicales impone restricciones serias a la rentabilidad de la producción, sobre todo cuando el pico de producción satura los mercados. Los pequeños productores tienen un poder de negociación limitado, y el flujo de fondos para operar es bajo o nulo. La evolución de los mercados y el desarrollo de grandes superficies en las zonas urbanas han hecho que los mercados informales y las galerías sean menos atractivos en los países en desarrollo.Los estándares de calidad de los mercados nacionales y regionales están implementando adaptaciones de las condiciones de mercados más rigurosos y sofisticados o de exportación. Por lo tanto, los pequeños productores tienen que mejorar la calidad del producto, el poder de negociación, las estructuras organizativas y comerciales y su habilidad para insertarse en los nuevos mercados.Igualmente, los grandes compradores necesitan estrategias para asegurar el suministro de productos de calidad por parte de los pequeños productores, y adoptar decisiones socialmente responsables de incluir a los productores pequeños como proveedores regulares.¿Qué se requiere para responder a estos retos y oportunidades?• Utilizar metodologías participativas [ejemplo, Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local (CIAL), Gestores de Innovación en Agroindustria Rural (GIAR), valoración de mercado rápida, mapeo de resultados, manejo adaptativo colaborativo] ajustándolas debidamente a frutas tropicales, para identificar nuevos mercados, mejorar la competitividad de las asociaciones de productores y desarrollar su capacidad de innovación. • Establecer alianzas colaborativas con el sector privado, las organizaciones internacionales no gubernamentales, donde se analicen las cadenas productivas de frutas específicas para identificar los puntos de intervención y desarrollar tecnologías necesarias para optimizar los sistemas de producción y el acceso a los mercados.","tokenCount":"1421"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"19567f4e45ac9abdc643379b218a3123","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d082e7c-7a0c-475d-8abd-1ac6c649ede9/retrieve","id":"-484541363"},"keywords":["Planning","adoption","M&E","institutionalization"],"sieverID":"acbac050-0fc3-4953-86de-daac13458ee4","pagecount":"3","content":"I used to think that reporting was only about capturing successful stories, positive lessons, or productive experiences. I also never pictured the target audience in my head when I was writing, and didn't really plan what I was trying to disseminate. To be fair, I found writing to be a tedious process. Consequently my writing was plain, unsynchronised, and uninspiring.However, my entire understanding of the purpose of writing changed once I was introduced to the different steps which are part of the experience capitalization approach. I learnt many things at the workshop. The most prominent of these, in my opinion, are the clear steps, or processes, which one can follow to create a well-articulated and interesting document. It is with pleasure that I admit that I can now follow the capitalization steps -such as setting the objectives, selecting the case study, setting boundaries, gathering information, organising the information, analysing, and concluding -and my reports are much easier to write and, dare I say, more satisfying to read.Similarly, through EC, I now understand that it is equally important and valuable to capture those cases and activities which didn't turn out well; writing up these experiences means that others can avoid similar outcomes in future activities. Moreover, I don't find it difficult to write up our experiences anymore. The EC process is clear: my work heads in the right direction from the start. In fact, I now make a note of every little thing, no matter how apparently inconsequential, because often the consequences become apparent later. I credit this new practice to EC, and the team of facilitators at the workshop where I learnt the various techniques I now use.In the past, Monitoring & Evaluation in our country has been all about \"facts and figures.\" We had to concentrate on gathering and reporting the data, and the data, and then more data. Standard M&E is generally concerned with the quantitative information available; the number of beneficiaries, or the length of the irrigation network, the area under citrus cultivation, and so forth. It only records the physical coverage of any activity or an intervention. My personal feeling is that standard M&E lacks something when it comes to capturing the essence of a project or event.I think that Experience Capitalization is the best approach that I've so far discovered to address these shortcomings. With EC, the raw data is better analysed, which gives it more weight: where you My first introduction to the experience capitalization approach came out as a blessing; I was in dire need of a concrete, or at least, more structured system to guide my documentation process. When I started on the exercises in the workshop organised by CTA in Goa, I had been writing several case stories. But, because I didn't have a proper framework to guide me, I'd left much of my work half-finished. I was unhappy with it; it was incomplete because most of the papers I was writing were started on an ad hoc basis, somehow unplanned, so their quality was compromised.Cover CARLEP staff attending a regional \"writeshop\" previously had only simple facts, you now have explanation. As an example, an M&E report might report that a total of 50 farmers can access irrigation water after a project. We can now highlight whether those 50 farmers are actually deriving any benefits; or how the water has affected their livelihoods; and so on.Honestly speaking, my colleagues and our organisation haven't yet been able to institutionalize the EC approach that we've learnt. This is because new things take time to be adopted -especially when it comes into writing and documenting. Many of us find that report-writing is a difficult habit to get in to; this may be due to a lack of a culture of proper writing, or not having a standardised system, which makes it difficult to balance reporting with the fieldwork we do.Here in Bhutan, for example, more people are responsible for implementing projects and only a few are asked to write and share the results. Sometimes it can be a bit challenging to train colleagues in new trends, or new philosophies of writing, when they already feel overwhelmed by their other responsibilities.However, a journey of a thousand miles starts under your feet -and we are slowly making progress. Our field staff and some of the office-bound project implementers are gradually getting to grips with this new trend in informative writing. I am hopeful that within a year, or two at most, EC processes will have been institutionalized in our organisation. Right now, we're only talking about baby-steps. But I will be on hand to help anyone who wants to know more about the processes, and they'll be able to rely on me -and my own work-related writing will highlight EC processes. It is a great concept for promoting and capitalising on any experiences, lessons, and teachings.The adoption of Experience Capitalization by our organisation is, like many new techniques, catching on slowly. We are planning new ways to encourage the adoption and institutionalization of these processes. We are implementing an annual \"writeshop\", where all the field staff will get together to write stories about the work they are doing and, importantly, about the people with whom they are working. Ultimately, our organisation will adopt these well-founded principles, and we'll write informative and illuminating reports and stories: and I am grateful to CTA for introducing me to it all.Karma Wangmo works for CARLEP in Bhutan as a Gender and Knowledge Management Officer. Her article, \"The institutionalization of an online reporting system\", was published in 2018, together with the other case studies from India and Nepal. E-mail: kwangzz506@gmail.com","tokenCount":"939"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9890bde72afad8ed1504093d923532da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96362aa7-c5a5-4363-a9b9-159927dfeb09/retrieve","id":"-1308988094"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cb45bf76-01ad-46ed-9fea-560ff97e6009","pagecount":"133","content":"The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP).The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,Paolo Ranalli, Director of the Istituto Sperimentale per le Colture Industriale (ISCI), hosting the meeting, welcomed the participants and wished them a nice stay in Bologna. He thanked Lothar Frese, Lorenzo Maggioni and Giuseppe Mandolino for their help in the organization of the meeting and wished the Group a fruitful meeting.Lothar Frese, Chairman of the ECP/GR Working Group on Beta, opened the meeting and welcomed the participants of the ECP/GR Working Group and World Beta Network meeting. He thanked P. Ranalli and G. Mandolino who had agreed to host the meeting and to take care of the local organization. He also thanked the ECP/GR Secretariat for the financial support and the excellent assistance during the planning of this meeting. He stressed that the planning of the meeting was initiated by the BAZ Gene Bank in Braunschweig but finally executed by ISCI and the ECP/GR. Thanks to the excellent communication between the three institutions the organizing team experienced no problems.In contrast to the previous meetings, the organizing committee and the Beta Coordinating Committee of the World Beta Network decided not to actively search for additional funds to facilitate the participation of experts from non-European countries. As a consequence countries from outside Europe were under-represented. On the other hand, five European countries (Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine and F.R. Yugoslavia) had been invited for the first time to confer with the Group. Three countries sent representatives and were specifically welcomed by the Chairman (Hungary, Slovenia and Ukraine). The Chairman expressed the wish to include a broader range of European countries, especially those located in the main distribution area of the genus, and experts from North Africa and Asia. It has always been ECP/GR policy to involve non-European countries as observers in ECP/GR Working Groups discussions and activities. The Chairman suggested that FAO/IPGRI should provide easily accessible funds to facilitate the participation of these experts.L. Frese regretted the absence of other invited participants -representatives from Azerbaijan (Z. Akparov), France (B. Desprez) and USA (L. Panella) -who were unable to attend.In 1999 the Group received offers from Poland and Italy to host a meeting. The Chairman, together with a group of sugar beet breeders, decided to convene the meeting in Italy, where research on breeding for resistance is ongoing. In addition, investigations into the genetic diversity of the sea beet populations growing along the northern part of the Adriatic seashore are currently under way at the host institute and the Group was eager to learn about the research results at first hand.The Chairman said the purpose of the meeting was to improve the management and utilization of Beta genetic resources. Meetings are necessary to review the workplan approved in 1999 and to develop a new workplan for the next period. He emphasized that the Working Group contributes to the global efforts for the sustainable management and use of plant genetic resources. Beta is a genus native to Europe. Europe is therefore specifically obliged to maintain the genetic resources of cultivated beets and their wild relatives. The ECP/GR Beta Working Group along with the World Beta Network partners have to support the genus Beta as there is no other institution interested in the genetic resources of Beta. This emphasizes the importance of the Group.Lorenzo Maggioni, ECP/GR Coordinator, welcomed the participants to the second joint meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group on Beta and the World Beta Network and briefly summarized the objectives and mode of operation of the cooperative programme. He then mentioned the activities carried out during Phase VI of the programme (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003) within the framework of the Industrial Crops and Potato Network. These included two meetings of the Network Coordinating Group and two meetings respectively of the Potato and Beta Working Groups. Ad hoc meetings were also held on two occasions to discuss Beta core collections and flax genetic resources in Europe. He then gave a brief account of the outcomes of the mid-term meeting of the ECP/GR Steering Committee, held in St. Petersburg, Russian Federation, on 14-17 October 2001. In this occasion, a task force working on the definition of a model Material Transfer Agreement for the European region was encouraged to continue its effort and a statement was made recommending that an extended list of crops be considered for the establishment, by the FAO Commission on PGRFA, of a multilateral system for access and benefit-sharing. Regarding sharing of responsibilities in Europe for the conservation of genetic resources, the Steering Committee recommended that the possible practical options be analyzed in more detail and that the definition of genebank quality standards receive careful attention.In order to develop a strategy for the next Phase (VII), two task forces composed of a few Steering Committee members were established to discuss (1) the impact on PGR of recent developments in science, technology and international policy; and (2) how genebanks might implement relevant international agreements and their impact on their operation. A questionnaire sent to all Working Group Chairs and National coordinators is being used to sound out opinions on the future priorities and mode of operation of ECP/GR, to be defined during the Steering Committee meeting planned for October 2003.A brief account was also given on the progress of the EU-funded project EPGRIS for the establishment of a plant genetic resources infra-structure. The objective is to establish a European Internet Search Catalogue (EURISCO) with passport information of plant genetic resources maintained ex situ in Europe. Before the end of 2003, the first version of EURISCO is expected to be launched on-line and to contain a combination of data available from the existing national inventories and from the existing CCDBs. EURISCO is expected to gradually develop and become the most complete and reliable source of passport data in Europe. 1 The catalogue will carry an important minimum set of passport data, frequently and automatically updated from the national inventories. These data will be based on the revised version of the FAO/IPGRI Multicrop Passport Descriptor List (MCPDv2), finalized in December 2001 (http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=124).The Chair reported on the six fields of activities discussed by the Working Group (WG) during its first meeting held at Broom's Barn, United Kingdom in 1999. A major recommendation was to redesign the International Data Base for Beta (IDBB) following the concept introduced by C. Germeier. This work is completed to a large extent and the debugging work is in progress. Characterization and evaluation data of the GENRES 1 Update at time of publication: EURISCO was launched officially at the Final Conference of the EPGRIS Project, 11-13 September 2003, Prague, Czech Republic. A demo version of the catalogue is available at http://eurisco.ecpgr.org/ material; evaluation of disease resistance; exchange of data between breeders and international organizations and development of methods for routine work.A report was received before the meeting from Zden k Stehno, Vera Chytilová and Iva Faberová on \"Beta collection in the Czech Republic in the period 2000-2002\". During the last three years, attention has been paid to increasing seed availability, especially of garden beet, characterization and evaluation. Few accessions of Beta vulgaris var. altissima (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Sugar Beet Group) 3 were multiplied in the framework of the EU-and ECP/GR-funded project GENRES CT95-42. Evaluation of 118 accessions of salad beets (Beta vulgaris var. vulgaris) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Garden Beet Group) showed a great variability in the shape and colour of the beet root, with the following root shapes observed: flat (cultivar 'Egyptska plocha'), circular (cv. 'Detroit'), cylindrical (cv. 'Cylindra') and conical (cv. 'Dobbie's Purple'). A different intensity of skin and root flesh colour could also be found as well as some cultivars with orange skin colour ('Severnaja oranzevaja'). Cultivar 'Nutting's' has an interesting nut flavour when eaten fresh. The collection of 27 accessions of Swiss chards (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Leaf Beet Group) includes cultivars with various leaf colours from yellow-green ('Gelber Krauser'), light green ('Lyoner') to dark green ('Poise Verte A Carde Blanche') and red colour ('Rhubarb Chard'). The surface of the leaf blade, length and colour of petiole also show high variability.Ute Wehres presented the situation in Germany on behalf of L. Frese. The Convention on Biodiversity became national law in 1993. On the basis of the CBD as well as the Global Plan of Action a National Programme for Plant Genetic Resources has been approved by the Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture and published in September 2002. As a consequence of this programme the whole ex situ holding of the BAZ Gene Bank including Beta will be transferred to the IPK genebank at Gatersleben. From October 2002 users are requested to order Beta accessions from the IPK genebank only. The IPK genebank will work on the optimization of ex situ management procedures, including the search for duplicates and the development of a \"molecular passport\" for outcrossing species.The German Beta holding amounts to 2293 accessions (section Beta 76%, section Corollinae 21%, section Nanae and Procumbentes 3%). The collection is being characterized and evaluated using the IPGRI Descriptors for Beta. The characterization and evaluation data of the BAZ Gene Bank Beta holding form a subsample of the data documented by the IDBB. Currently the IDBB contains 16397 characterization and 5248 evaluation data items.After the merger of the two holdings and the respective databases is complete the BAZ Gene Bank will assume new tasks in the field of plant genetic resources management. The BAZ will continue to manage the IDBB and will provide input into the ECP/GR Working Group on Beta and the WBN as in the previous years.One of the new tasks consists of the development of germplasm management strategies that complement ex situ activities. The Institute of Ecology, Ecotoxicology and Ecochemistry 3 For clarity and consistency, where necessary the nomenclature proposed by Lange et al. (1998) and adopted by the WBN has been inserted in the text. Lange, W., W.A. Brandenburg and Th.S.M. De Bock. 1998. Proposal for a new taxonomical classification of the cultivated forms of beet, Beta vulgaris L. Pp. 16-22 in International Beta Genetic Resources Network. A report of the 4th International Beta Genetic Resources Workshop and World Beta Network Conference held at the Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Izmir, Turkey, 28 February-3 March 1996. International Crop Network Series 12. (L. Frese, L. Panella, H.M. Srivastava and W. Lange, eds). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.of the RWTH Aachen started with a GMO risk assessment study in 1993. Within this framework the institute has made an inventory of Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima populations growing on the Baltic Sea shore in Germany. The research results can be used as a baseline required to establish in situ management activities. The states of the Federal Republic of Germany have the formal competence to run in situ management programmes. The BAZ will have the responsibility to initiate activities, develop methodologies and to assume a coordinating role.In reply to a question from G. Poulsen, L. Frese explained that the concept of a molecular passport proposed by the IPK genebank involves the possibility of describing populations with molecular markers and therefore to use molecular techniques to check the genetic integrity of individual accessions after seed multiplication.G. Poulsen remarked that the definition of acceptable natural levels of genetic variation and drift during seed multiplication was a very important issue and recommended that it be dealt with by a task force of the Working Group on Beta.Attila Simon (Institute for Agrobotany, Tápiószele) presented general background information on the Institute and genebank activities. The Hungarian Beta collection held at the institute includes 301 accessions, including 133 of Hungarian origin. All the Beta accessions are stored in the active collection, while 21% of the samples (63) are kept in the base collection. Beta landraces total 88 accessions (34%) and are maintained in the base collection. The accessions in the collection were received from 15 countries, with most (219) coming from Hungarian institutes. Passport, evaluation and genebank management data of the PGR maintained by the Institute are computerized. Hardware and software have been updated regularly. The database structure is based on genebank standards and takes into account the recommendations of FAO/IPGRI. The volume of Beta field multiplication and regeneration varies from year to year according to the changes in the collection resulting from introduction or collecting activities. During multiplication special attention is paid to isolation. In the case of landraces multiplication is also carried out according to a \"backyard multiplication system\". Characterization and evaluation are based on the Descriptors for Beta published by IBPGR/CGN in 1991, complemented by a few additional traits. Almost half of the Beta collection has been characterized. Characterization data are available for 57% of the landraces.Mohammad Nasser Arjmand (Iranian Sugar Factories Syndicate, Tehran) presented a report on the collection and characterization of beet landraces and in situ conservation of Beta lomatogona in Iran.The collection and evaluation of Beta germplasm has recently received increased attention in Iran owing to the need for biotic and abiotic resistance/tolerance genes and concern about loss of germplasm due to gradual elimination of natural habitats. The Sugar Beet Seed Institute (SBSI) holding the Beta Gene Bank in Iran carried out a national project in 1998-2002 to collect and characterize Beta germplasm, with expeditions programmed each year. During the past five years, Beta germplasm, especially landraces, was collected in different provinces. Characterization of beet landraces was carried out and the results showed a great variation both between and within the populations. Cytological analysis revealed that all accessions studied were diploid. Each year multiplication of about 25 accessions was conducted.The population size of wild beet (Beta lomatogona), surveyed several times in the past years, is apparently decreasing in a number of localities due to severe drought, land management changes and overgrazing, suggesting the need for protection of this species. The exploration mission could not find any plants of B. lomatogona in 1999 and drew attention to this. To establish in situ conservation, pericarp caps of fruit balls of B. lomatogona were removed manually and sown in April 2000 in the greenhouse in Karadj in one-litre pots filled with sterile soil. 150 well-developed plants were transported to Ardabil and transplanted to the prepared plot. Seeds were harvested in bulk in August 2002. The plants are kept in the research station of Ardabil. This project is funded by the Scientific Research Council.Rima Tamoši nien (UAB Agrofirma \"S klos\") indicated that there are three institutions responsible for the national Beta collection in Lithuania: the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture (LIA, Akademija) (long-term storage), the Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture (LIH, Babtai), and UAB Agrofirma \"S klos\" (headquarters in Vilnius, breeding laboratory in Akademija).The long-term storage genebank currently contains 9 red beet accessions (all Lithuanian varieties and 3 new stable breeder's lines) and 7 accessions of fodder beet. The working collection of red beet (Beta vulgaris var. conditiva Alef.) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Garden Beet Group) is located at LIH. Since 1999 it has increased by more than 40 accessions. The red beet accessions maintained in the working collections includes breeder's lines (characterized by high yield, earliness and bigermity) and foreign varieties (sources of earliness, root type, monogermity, etc.). The accession of red beet landraces collected in 1996 near Vilnius in the village of 40 Totoriu was found to be a valuable source of bolting and disease resistance.Since 2001 the collection, evaluation and use of sugar and fodder beet accessions are based at the UAB Agrofirma \"S klos\". This company is also responsible for pre-breeding work, breeding activities and primary seed production of the registered Lithuanian fodder beet varieties and landraces. In 2000-2001 the working collection of fodder and sugar beets included 30 accessions. 17 accessions were obtained from VIR. In 2002 the collection consists of 26 accessions (5 of them sugar beet with CMS) for further selection and use in the breeding process.Gert Poulsen (Nordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, Sweden) indicated that NGB's mandate on Beta species includes Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla (Swiss chard) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Leaf Beet Group), B. vulgaris subsp. maritima (wild beet), B. vulgaris var. alba (fodder beet) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Fodder Beet Group), B. vulgaris var. altissima (sugar beet) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Sugar Beet Group) and B. vulgaris var. conditiva (beetroot) (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Garden Beet Group). The NGB Beta collection currently includes a total of 105 accessions, including 60 accessions accepted for long-term conservation (44 from Denmark and 16 from Sweden). The distribution of accessions according to type of sample is as follows: 91 cultivars, 6 breeding lines, and 11 wild types. The region is located on the northern limit of growth (limes borealis) of wild beets. A diversity study on these populations is being carried out in collaboration with Risø Research Centre in Denmark.Accessions are stored in the base collection and in the active collection at -20°C after drying to 5-7% moisture content. Safety-storage is subject to natural conditions at -4°C. Characterization data are available for most of the material and 40 accessions of fodder beets have been characterized using isozymes. All material can be found on the NGB homepage (www.ngb.se). Characterization data have not been fully published yet. The IDBB contains 272 records from Nordic material. NGB material is presently available without any restrictions to bona fide users.On behalf of Leonarda Dalke (Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Research Division Bydgoszcz), Kamilla Kuzdowicz presented an overview of the Polish Beta collection, located in Bydgoszcz. It consists of wild Beta species, old varieties, breeding material and cultivated beets from Poland and abroad, material received from international expeditions, and local populations. The collection comprises 300 accessions (112 sugar beet, 156 fodder beet and 32 wild forms of accessions of sections Beta, Corollinae and Procumbentes).Collecting of beet materials aims to save the genepool of old multigerm cultivars. The use of hybridization methods based on CMS lines led to the narrowing of the genetic base in the new cultivars. Wild species and local populations are important sources of resistance to disease, pest and abiotic factors.Evaluation is carried out in Konczewice for agricultural characters and in Bydgoszcz for morphological, cytological features, seed quality and seed germination tests. It follows the Descriptor List for Beta. Part of the collection is evaluated in vitro for two economically important beet diseases (Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechsler and Cercospora beticola Sacc.)Passport, characterization and evaluation data are documented and stored in the collection and sent to the National Centre for Plant Genetic Resources in Radzików. Part of the data has been sent to the IDBB.The Beta collection is kept in long-term storage in Radzików, in glass jars at -15°C and 5-8% moisture content. After 10-20 years long-term storage the accessions revealed still very good germination and need no multiplication.Some of the accessions are stored in Bydgoszcz under medium-term storage as a working collection. Information and seed samples are distributed freely. A quarantine certificate is necessary for sending samples abroad. The collected and evaluated germplasm is used in sugar and fodder beet breeding and in several research programmes.Ioan Gherman (Research and Production Station for Sugar Beet and Sweet Substances, Bra ov) reported on the Romanian Beta collections. Holders are the Research Institute for Potato and Sugar Beet Bra ov, Sugar Beet Research Station Roman, Breeding Beet Laboratory Fundulea and Agricultural Research Station Lovrin. Most of the germplasm is preserved in working collections. A small part is kept as safety-duplicates at Suceava Genebank under medium-and long-term conditions. The Beta collection consists of indigenous and foreign sugar beet monogerm and multigerm varieties; breeding materials (diploid and tetraploid monogerm and multigerm); indigenous and foreign fodder beet and garden beet varieties; breeding material of fodder beet; and wild species. Only two wild species are represented: Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima L. (annual) and Beta trigyna Wald (perennial). There are also landraces of garden beet and fodder beet in farmers' gardens in the hills. The collection currently consists of 858 accessions.The short-term collection is preserved as seeds in breeding centres where morphological, physiological and biochemical studies and evaluations are conducted. Biochemical descriptors are used for secondary evaluation. The existing germplasm is used for gene stocks maintenance; creation of resistant genitors, especially to Cercospora beticola and Rhizomania; and creation of new highly productive varieties (high sugar content and high juice purity).Conditions for long-term storage are not available. After 4-5 years' storage, the germination rate is reduced and 20% of the collection needs to be regenerated each year.Financial resources allocated to the Beta germplasm resources programme are insufficient to allow evaluation and characterization. There is no standardized national database. Each holder has evaluated its own breeding material according to its own priority objectives and therefore some of the descriptors used differ.Breeding for disease resistance, especially for Cercospora beticola and Rhizomania is one of the major objectives. Breeding lines and hybrids that combine tolerance to Cercospora and Rhizomania have been selected by screening in heavily infested fields. Selection of germplasm tolerant to drought and scorching heat is also important because of the very high summer temperatures and drought conditions in southern Romania.Objectives for the expansion of the Beta collection include: acquisition of newly registered varieties; evaluation of the collection and its preservation as duplicates in medium-or longterm conditions in Suceava Genebank; collecting of leaf beet and garden beet and fodder beet germplasm from farmers' vegetable gardens; and collecting wild species in the southern part of the country.Tatiana Piskunova (VIR, St. Petersburg) reported on the VIR Beta collection started in 1924 from material collected by N.I. Vavilov. It currently comprises a total of 2882 accessions including wild species, primitive forms, landraces, cultivars, hybrids, mutant forms, selfpollinated lines, accessions with marker characters, genetic sources with identified genes and donors.Most of the accessions are characterized for 24 descriptors according to the international Beta descriptor list and evaluated for major commercial traits. Characterization and evaluation of the collection has been carried out in three experiment stations situated in different geographical zones of the country. Evaluation is carried out for three years. The data obtained are then compared to estimate the accessions' ecogeographic variability and to determine their genetic potential.Four sources of the most important characters (monogermicity, bolting resistance and resistance to diseases) have been identified.VIR Beta databases currently contain passport and conservation data. Characterization and evaluation data need to be computerized. The results of tests for resistance to black root (258 accessions) and bolting resistance (535 accessions) are published in special catalogues.Every year about 200 accessions are distributed to Russian research institutes, national breeding centres, foreign genebanks and breeders. Requests from foreign users are fulfilled according to the availability of accessions. The distribution of small seed samples of new breeding lines, donors of most important commercial traits, is restricted.Regeneration of the beet accessions is carried out when seed viability decreases to 50-60% and multiplication when seed stock is below 1000 seeds. Regeneration takes place at five experiment stations (585 accessions every year).The base collection is preserved in medium-term storage at +4°C in the National Seed Storage at the Kuban experiment station (Krasnodar region) and in long-term storage at -10°C in the VIR genebank. The active collection is stored at room temperature in St. Petersburg at the Department of Vegetable and Cucurbit crops. A duplicate active collection is placed for storage at +4°C in a special room.Three collecting missions were organized on the territory of Russia in 1996-2002, resulting in a total of 28 collected samples of beet accessions.Activities planned for the future include: multiplication of collected accessions for longterm storage; screening of the collection and identification of genetic sources of the most important characters; creation of evaluation databases; collecting and exchange.Vladimir Megli (Crop and Seed Science Department of the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana) gave an overview of the organization of PGR activities in Slovenia within the Slovenian Plant Genetic Resource Programme (SPGR). The institutions participating in the SPGR are the Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana, the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia (AIS) and the Institute for hop and brewery in Zalec. The AIS maintains a fairly large ex situ collection of vegetables, winter wheat, grasses and clovers, fodder crops, small fruit, grapevine and grain legumes. The Beta collection is part of fodder and vegetable crops and consists of 46 accessions including Beta maritima (2)   (5). Efforts for the broadening of the Beta collection with fodder and wild species are ongoing. Regarding documentation, an initiative was taken up to establish an information and database management system for the Slovenian Gene Bank. Each institution holds a database for its working collections on a crop basis. With a need for a uniform and centralized documentation and information system, a computer program was used to unite four separate databases that will enable easier and faster access to the complete information for all users, better management of germplasm resources in the Central Plant Gene Bank and exchange of information with other ECP/GR and EUFORGEN genebank databases. Beta accessions are documented for IPGRI minimum passport descriptors.The current area cultivated under Beta in Slovenia is 10 000 ha for sugar beet, 1800 ha for fodder beet and 150 ha for red beet and mangold. The EU quotas would make Slovenia a net importer of sugar.Ayfer Tan (Aegean Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Menemen, Izmir) reported on the activities related to Beta genetic resources in Turkey, which are part of the National PGR Research Programme (NPGRRP). The wild species of Beta sect. Beta and Beta sect. Corollinae are widely distributed in Turkey. Landraces of beet (leaf and root beets) are also still widely grown by farmers. The beet genetic resources project deals with both wild and cultivated local races of beet. The AARI, as the national coordination centre, coordinates activities on beet genetic resources (survey, collection, ex situ and in situ conservation, characterization/evaluation, multiplication/regeneration and documentation). While previous activities were mostly focused on ex situ conservation of wild beets, present activities are mainly collection, conservation and keeping an inventory of local races of vegetable beets and in situ conservation of wild and local races, and identification of a beet core collection using molecular markers (biochemical characterization).Breeding programmes are increasingly using the existing collections. The national ex situ collection is stored at AARI national genebank and the safety-duplicates are stored at the Field Crop Central Research Institute in Ankara.Oleh Slyvchenko (Institute for Sugar Beet, Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Science (ISB-UAAS), Kiev) indicated that Beta germplasm research activities in the Ukraine are carried out by UAAS as part of the National Plant Genetic Resources Programme. The ISB collection currently contains more than 360 accessions representing 12 species of Beta. Six sugar beet breeding stations also have their own local Beta germplasm collections with a broad spectrum of accessions (950) obtained from conventional breeding programmes. However until today Ukraine seemed to be \"unknown territory\" as regards national Beta genetic resources. For example, only one accession of Beta trigyna from the Crimean Peninsula was present in the collection and no detailed information was available from scientific literature. A new project started in 2001 within the framework of the European Science Foundation Programme \"Assessment of the Impacts of Genetically Modified Plants\". Germplasm collection and local wild beet habitat examination have been carried out in the Black Sea region. As a result, the ISB collection increased by 7 new Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima and 10 B. trigyna accessions from the Crimean Peninsula. Some weed beet infestation has been identified, probably as a result of gene flow between cultivated and wild beet accessions. The problem has occurred during 20 years of conventional sugar beet seed production in Crimea and the Odessa region.A recent study examined wild beet accessions of Ukrainian origin. Allozyme diversity was assayed on 7 accessions collected in 2001 and compared with other beet accessions. The first conclusion from the allozyme analysis is that Ukrainian sea beets are genetically quite distinct from European sea beets. The results clearly revealed significantly greater genetic diversity among Ukrainian sea beet accessions in comparison with other European accessions. Based on the genetic diversity statistics, gene flow within Ukrainian accessions seems to be higher than in other accession groups. However, more data on the local distribution of wild and weed beet accessions in the Ukraine are necessary in order to support monitoring and conservation programmes.Christoph Germeier introduced the topic of the identification of duplicates as a pre-requisite for rationalization of collections and sharing of responsibilities, which needs to be based on a wealth of information including knowledge developed by the holding genebanks and international crop experts. In the new version of the IDBB, accession data have been collected in an ACCESSION table, listing accession-specific data such as \"holding institute\" and \"accession number\", along with original passport data provided by the holding genebanks. By manual or computer-assisted duplicate searches, accessions have been combined into duplicate groups. Duplicates are defined by their common origin, which may be known from data documenting transfer between genebanks or may be due to similarities A framework of concepts and definitions for recording the sharing of responsibilities for probable duplicate accessions within the IDBB was presented. Parts of the concept, such as management duties of the holders of primary responsibility and of the holders of safetyduplicates had already been defined in the 1999 meeting report. 4The IDBB original passport data (ACCESSION table) should be completely updated in order to fulfil the standards of the recently released EURISCO/MCPDv2 passport list.Beta germplasm curators are invited to assign responsibility, restriction and storage status to all their accessions on the basis of definitions outlined in Table 1, and register their decisions in the IDBB according to the procedure described in the workplan.By no later than the end of March 2003, Working Group members and WBN participants will ensure that curators provide the IDBB manager with their passport accession data in the EURISCO/MCPDv2 format (the document containing the list of EURISCO descriptors was distributed during the meeting and is available from C. Germeier). Descriptors tracing the transfer of accessions between genebanks (DONORCODE, DONORDESCR, DONORNUMB and ACQDATE) or referring to the origin of an accession COLLCODE, COLLDESCR, COLLNUMB, COLLDATE, BREDCODE, BREDDESCR are especially important for duplicate tracing and should be given special attention. This also applies to stock numbers for breeding material (BREDNUMB), which are not yet included by MCPDv2, but should be added to the list when available.After having provided their passport update, curators will receive from the IDBB manager a Windows application displaying duplicate groups and enabling them to fill in their agreements regarding responsibility, restrictions and resulting storage status for their accessions. Definitions are given in Table 1.The result of the first round of decisions on sharing responsibility will be made available online via the IDBB by the database manager. It will be possible for responsible curators to edit these data on-line. 4 Germeier, C.U. and L. Frese. 2000. International Database for Beta -state of the art. Pp. 55-64 in Report of a Working Group on Beta. First meeting, 9-10 September 1999, Broom's Barn, Higham, Bury St. Edmunds, United Kingdom (L. Maggioni, L. Frese, C. Germeier and E. Lipman, compilers). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. C. Germeier reported that users of central crop databases increasingly demand to have access to characterization and evaluation data. Documentation and presentation have to fulfil practical (breeding) as well as scientific purposes. Within the framework of the GENRES projects a wealth of characterization and evaluation data has been accumulated. Concepts and recommendations for documentation of characterization and evaluation data have been presented and database applications newly available for the IDBB on-line and off-line have been demonstrated.The scientific community and beet researchers are invited to send their characterization and evaluation data to the IDBB manager, according to the procedure described in the workplan.Working Group members and WBN participants will encourage the scientific community and beet researchers to provide the IDBB manager with additional characterization and evaluation data, following the guidelines indicated below. Data should be delivered to the IDBB in a state as original as available but in columns with clearly defined data format (numeric or text). Acceptable file formats are DBase or Excel. Implementation of XML is under consideration. Measurement data in SI units are generally preferred. They should not be transformed into scores. The database will have algorithms converting original data into universal scores (ranges from 0 to 9 as indicated) and will provide these to the user, together with the original data and descriptive statistics. Suggestions to improve these algorithms are welcome.It is preferable to send raw data rather than already aggregated data. The database is able to extract and present simple descriptive statistics from the raw data and to import a wide range of statistical parameters for aggregated data. Raw data should be accessible for more advanced biometric analysis. It is considered important to indicate the date of evaluation and the development stage of the evaluated plants for all delivered observations. Transforming qualitative observations (colours, habit descriptions, site descriptors, etc.) into numbers only makes sense if this is intended as a step to quantification, e.g. along scales from bright to dark, low to high, sparse to intense soil cover or on a scale of economic value. The definition of the scores should be consistent with these rankings. Thus the figures would be amenable to meaningful algebraic and sorting procedures. In any other case use of short words instead of scores avoids confusion and unintended quantification.Scores should be restricted to figures (preferably 0-9) and not contain characters or special signs (0, 1 instead of +, -etc.).All data provided to the IDBB should be delivered on an experiment-by-experiment basis especially if they refer to field observations. An experiment is defined by its dates (usually the growth period of the crop) and its location and the data should be accompanied by a detailed description of experimental site, design, descriptors and methods used for data acquisition.The Chair also mentioned the need for updating the existing \"Descriptor list for Beta\" which is incomplete, e.g. regarding viruses. Possibilities for the elaboration of an updated version should be discussed with IPGRI.Definition and implementation of specific quality standards for the conservation of Beta genetic resources is considered a pre-requisite to establish a reliable mechanism for responsibility sharing. The meeting split into two working sessions. A sub-group chaired by Loek van Soest addressed the task of elaborating elements of a quality concept for Beta conservation. The second sub-group, chaired by Lothar Frese, focused on regeneration guidelines.Loek van Soest reported that the Dutch genebank is trying to obtain an ISO 9001 quality certification for what is called at CGN \"the genebank quality management system\", as requested by the government as a pre-requisite to obtain public funds. This is a lengthy process that requires the preparation of a handbook describing in detail all the genebank operations and the obtention of the official certification is not expected before end 2003. This is considered a useful exercise to ensure that new staff would know how to continue to run the genebank after older staff retired. The whole process is also useful for improving genebank operation as a result of the necessary reconsideration of all internal procedures. A similar experience was said to also be under way at the Nordic Gene Bank.On the basis of the Dutch experience, the sub-group listed a number of operations that should be considered for a quality concept, with distinctions made for cultivated or wild materials, monogerm or multigerm seed, modern or old varieties. These are:The number of plants from which seed is obtained should take into consideration basic concepts of sampling strategies discussed by Jain (1975) and Marshall and Brown (1975). 8 The actual number of sampled plants should be documented.Acquired material should be assigned a specific status (such as \"accepted for conservation\" or \"rejected\"). This could be reflected by the assignment of specific coding, such as preliminary numbers to all material and acquisition numbers only to accepted material.(see below, discussion on seed regeneration guidelines)Operations affecting quality are drying, seed cleaning and the quantity of seed to be harvested.Germination testing should be described, with specific details for the various wild Beta species.To be defined for wild and cultivated material.These usually differ in the active and base collections.It is recommended that expertise present in the Group for the development of a quality concept be channelled to L. Frese. Collection holders in Europe are recommended to follow the quality concept once agreed by the Group and/or to publish the details of the procedures adopted.The Group will develop a specific quality concept for Beta genetic resources conservation, following the scheme outlined above. By the end of November 2002, L. Frese will send a draft document to all WG members for comments and revisions, to be sent back to him by the end of December 2002. A revised document will then be circulated to the Group by L. Frese for final endorsement.L. Frese introduced the session by referring the members to the background document on \"Seed increase protocol\" prepared for the GENRES project and suggested using it as a basis for comments and revisions. It was felt that since local conditions and available facilities differ between genebanks, curators should not be forced to adopt standardized seed multiplication procedures. As seed production procedures largely determine the genetic integrity of accessions and the quality 8 Jain, S.K. 1975. Population structure and the effects of breeding system. Pp. 15-36 in Crop genetic resources for today and tomorrow (O. Frankel and J.G. Hawkes, eds). Cambridge Univ. Press, New York. Marshall, D.R. and A.H.D. Brown. 1975. Optimum sampling strategies in genetic conservation. Pp. 53-80 in Crop genetic resources for today and tomorrow (O. Frankel and J.G. Hawkes, eds). Cambridge Univ. Press, New York. and longevity of seeds in long-term storage, the Working Group agreed that each Beta curator should produce a description of his/her seed production procedures. The following aspects should be considered: methods for breaking seed dormancy (physiological as well as physical); sowing and planting; effective population size; isolation methods; seed harvest (aliquots, bulk); seed threshing, cleaning, drying and storage. The descriptions should consider the different requirements of the various species.It was agreed that publication of the protocols would enhance transparency and mutual trust in the collection management work. It would also allow curators to crosscheck and critically revise and improve their own standard procedure. It was stressed that a publication of the seed production protocols would facilitate the implementation of the concept of sharing of maintenance responsibilities. In particular, Beta section Corollinae species are difficult to regenerate outside of their natural distribution area. This problem was mentioned by the Turkish and German curators. A solution could be to increase these accessions in a region with ecological conditions similar to the original collecting sites.A description of basic elements for successful plant and seed production is not only of interest to curators. As wild species require quite different growing conditions compared to sugar beet, a publication of seed multiplication procedures would also be very useful for researchers in charge of screening exotic material. For that specific purpose, a publication should be made available on the Internet and/or included into the International Data Base for Beta.Using the seed multiplication manual drafted by the BAZ Gene Bank as an example, curators should document their own seed production procedures. To facilitate a standardized documentation L. Frese will provide curators and/or WG members with a base document that can be completed by the Beta curators in accordance with specific local conditions. The base document will be circulated by 15 November 2002. Curators and/or WG members will be requested to return their contributions to the BAZ Gene Bank by 30 November 2002. Individual reports will be compiled and published on the Web page of the ECP/GR Beta Working Group. 9Priorities for Phase VII of ECP/GR L. Frese informed the Group that a reply was sent on its behalf to the questionnaire prepared by the Steering Committee task force for Phase VII of ECP/GR. He mentioned that the reply reflected the few comments received from WG members, but encouraged the Group to continue to express opinions on priorities for the WG and the expectations from the future Phase of ECP/GR. L. Frese reported the recommendation made by the Industrial Crops and Potato Network Coordinating Group on 22 October to the ECP/GR Steering Committee (see Appendix I): \"Maintain in existence the WG on Beta to facilitate the formalization of responsibilities on a decentralized basis, as well as to address specific issues such as the complementary conservation strategy for Beta genetic resources in Europe, with special attention to the conservation of the wild populations.\"He specified that the WG on Beta would be competing for ECP/GR funds with the other WGs.Among the possible options for future funding he mentioned the WG meetings, ad hoc thematic meetings, small projects (such as to close collecting gaps, recommended in 1993 but never implemented due to lack of funds).A. Tan commented that the WG should become proactive and coordinate work so as to propose collaborative international projects. She also recommended that news and information from the national programmes be provided to the Secretariat for uploading onto the ECP/GR Beta WG Web page. This would ensure timely exchange of information among the members, thereby reducing the need to use meetings for this purpose.G. Poulsen said that the Group ought rather to hold more frequent meetings since the preparations for the meetings are useful to renew and reconfirm each member's cohesion and commitment.M. Asher asked about the prospects for EU funding in the field of plant genetic resources. L. Maggioni reported that a new EU regulation, as a continuation of the former 1467/94, was expected to be launched very soon, although its finalization by the EU Commission suffered a long delay as a result of the process of negotiation with the member countries.The Group recommends that during Phase VII of ECP/GR (which is expected to span the years [2004][2005][2006][2007][2008] funds be assured to hold one meeting of the WG, as well as additional funds to be managed with considerable flexibility as a \"Beta fund\" for small technical meetings and ad hoc actions.L. Frese introduced the discussion by expressing concern that the role and function of the Chair has been too centralized in the past and therefore too dependent on the initiative and health of one individual. He therefore suggested that it would be appropriate to define areas of activity for which the initiative would be delegated to \"thematic moderators \" as new driving forces. Proposed areas such as evaluation and pre-breeding, in situ and on-farm conservation, international core collection and molecular techniques should be encouraged.The names and designations of the future sub-working groups should allow sufficient flexibility to cope with future developments.Experts from very different research disciplines are attending Beta meetings, representing only a fraction of the interested fellow scientists Subgroup chairs would function as theme specialists Their role would be to disseminate information on Beta Working Group meetings through mailing lists and to collect the information required to plan the next Beta Working Group meetings from their fellow colleagues This would facilitate more communication between the Beta Working Group and the much larger user community of Beta genetic resources as well as assisting in taking highpriority actions It would also allow work to be done within the group to speed up implementation of Beta Working Group recommendations Subgroup chairs would contribute to the mid-term report of the WG to be delivered to the ECP/GR before ECP/GR Steering Committee meetings.The Group approved the role and functions defined above and recommended that L. Frese should contact potential \"thematic moderators\" who could initiate and lead several group activities. 10Scientific basis for in situ management of Beta  B. intermedia to the key as there is no way of determining these taxa correctly. He said that there is no formal taxonomic link between the wild form of section Beta and the cultivated types. The description of the cultivated types is therefore presented in the guide without a determination key. He explained that we first have to develop a reliable key to the taxa that enables field botanists not familiar with the genus to determine the correct taxon, on the basis of what they see in nature. The on-line key should be considered as a working document. Experts are invited to review and improve the guide. Christoph Germeier remarked that the taxonomic system for cultivated types used by the Vavilov Institute is very informative. As this key is not consistent the WBN decided in 1996 to apply the biological species concept for Beta. C. Germeier suggested that users of a central crop database (CCDB) should be enabled by the database manager to use any taxonomic key they are used to. A CCDB should therefore document different taxonomic systems.The guide was developed within the framework of the GENRES CT95-42 project on Beta after the ad hoc meeting of the International Beta Core Collection working group. The ad hoc group had recommended promoting in situ management of Beta. L. Frese explained that he had tried to provide a first assessment of the risk of genetic erosion for some of the species on-line so as to encourage local authorities responsible for nature preservation in the 10 The following sub-working group names and chairpersons were suggested. Dr Brian Ford-Lloyd, Dr Eric Ober and Dr Ayfer Tan agreed to chair the groups during the next three years. Ayfer Tan (Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Menemen, Izmir, Turkey) presented the in situ programme of Turkey, based on the notion that in situ conservation is a complementary strategy to ex situ conservation. This strategy involves the preservation of genetic variation of plant taxa at the site/location, either in traditional farming systems or in the wild. The programme started in 1993 with a project called \"In situ conservation of genetic diversity\". Two additional projects were initiated in 1999 on \"Conservation of land/local races on-farm\" and \"Ecosystem conservation and management for threatened plant species\". The project on \"In situ conservation of genetic diversity\" aims to conserve in situ the progenitors and wild relatives of cereals, legumes, wild fruit and forest species. Several gene management zones (GMZs) were identified for each target species in different ecosystems and the associated species, including wild beet species (e.g. Beta lomatogona) were defined and listed for each GMZ, and GMZ management plans were prepared.The in situ on-farm conservation project involves conservation of common and coccineus bean, lentil, chickpea, and hulled wheat land races grown in the northwestern transitional zone. During the project implementation phase, an inventory of other landraces, including vegetable beets (leaf beet and beetroot) has been created from the ecogeographical and socioeconomic survey.The objective of the third project (\"Ecosystem conservation and management for threatened plant species\") is to conserve some of the threatened species which are listed in the Appendix of the Bern Convention for Turkey. Twenty-three species from the list are found in the wetland ecosystem under study. The endemic and endangered beet species B. adanensis is one of the target species of this project. For each species the important plant areas (IPAs) will be identified and management plans prepared.The presentation discussed the components of the in situ conservation programme (both wild and on-farm), selection criteria of target species, factors influencing conservation value, factors of environmental threats, criteria for selecting the GMZs and IPAs, with emphasis on the beet species.The sea beet of the Po delta as source of resistance for sugar beet Piergiorgio Stevanato (ISCI-Rovigo, Italy) presented a historical review of the studies carried out in Italy on resistance to cercospora leaf spot (CLS) and rhizomania obtained from sea beet. Sea beet populations are arousing ever greater interest as sources of resistance from which to improve the cultivated species. In 1909, Munerati had already begun crossing the sea beet of the Po delta with sugar beet. After several years this led to the production of the first varieties resistant to cercospora leaf spot. Recent work supports the speculation about the common origin of both cercospora and the different types of rhizomania resistance. More recently, genes from sea beet have been used for conferring resistance to cyst nematodes. Because of the importance of this genetic resource, wild populations of sea beet should be catalogued and conserved to safeguard them from genetic erosion and from the risks of gene flow.L. Frese informed the Group about the funding opportunity offered by the imminent launch by the European Commission of the Sixth Framework Programme for Research (www. cordis.lu/fp6). He also outlined the details of the \"Expression of Interest\" for the preparation of an integrated project, which was recently submitted by N. Maxted and B. Ford Lloyd, University of Birmingham, UK. The project is called \"Understanding and managing change in European Genetic Resource Conservation and Use\" (with the short title \"GRACE\", standing for \"Genetic Resources and Changing Ecosystems\") and is expected to involve 80-120 partners, including all relevant stakeholders in the EU and other countries. With a funding request of Euro 30-35 million, it aims at contributing to the assessment and prediction of change in European animal and plant genetic resources within ecosystems, and to enhancing their conservation and sustainable use. The intention is to bring together the European animal and plant genetic resource conservationists and their user communities with socioeconomists, policy-makers and environmental legislative experts. The project would be implemented through a series of interrelated \"work packages\" and case studies.L. Frese had sent to the project coordinators a specific expression of interest for the involvement of the Beta WG in the project, since research on wild Beta species could cover one of the proposed case studies. He thought that the Group could get involved in two work packages, WP1 and WP6. WP1 consists of \"Diversity and economic assessment\", which includes taxonomic, ecogeographic and genetic assessment, current conservation assessment, and identification of the economic drivers of genetic resource loss. WP6 is concerned with \"Implementing conservation and use\" with gap analysis, establishment of in situ methodologies, targeted in situ and ex situ conservation, production of European animal and plant genetic resources key taxon conservation and use action plans, and public education of the need for diversity in European domesticated species and their wild relatives.The Group recommended that L. Frese follows the events leading to the launching of the Sixth Framework Programme (expected for November 2002) and keeps interested partners of the Group informed about the necessary steps to prepare a Beta component for the GRACE project (first call for proposals expected for the end of 2002/beginning of 2003). 11Mitchell McGrath (USDA-ARS, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA) gave an insight on the likely future impact of genomic technologies on germplasm conservation and the incorporation of novel Beta germplasm into improved crop types. The amount of allelic diversity present in wild beets may exceed that in sugar beet 10-fold or more and if only 1% of the allelic variation in the wild species would enhance the agronomic performance of cultivated beets, then efforts to introgress this diversity should be attempted. Over 2500 Plant Introduction accessions in the US National Plant Germplasm System and over 10 000 accessions stored in the decentralized Beta collections, both ex situ and in situ, are held in trust for the preservation of genetic diversity. Current applications of these technologies have allowed massive scaling to look at hundreds and thousands of genetic elements simultaneously or over a short time period, leading to massive amounts of data being collected about individual biological processes. However, the tools have not been sufficiently developed in sugar beet and related species to make these applications become obvious or routine. One of the tasks ahead is to identify molecular processes in beets that are similar and those that have diversified between plant lineages and within Beta populations. For Beta species, the entire genome sequence is unlikely to be obtained soon, but progress in developing other genomic tools for beet may accelerate this process.Mike Asher (Broom's Barn Research Station, Bury St Edmunds, UK) reported on the results of the evaluation of ca. 600 Beta accessions from the BAZ Gene Bank for resistance to eight diseases of major economic importance in the European sugar beet crop, carried out under GENRES CT95-42. Results obtained from the 11 collaborating institutes showed that highly resistant (category 1: no detectable infection) accessions occurred at a frequency of between 0.2 and 5.0% depending on the disease. If category 2 (trace of infection) accessions were included, the proportion of resistant accessions increased to between 2.0 and 21.0%.Published information on the identity and location of disease resistance genes in Beta vulgaris is extremely sparse, compared to most other major crop species. Only six major genes, governing resistance to curly top virus, cyst nematode and rhizomania (BNYVV), and located on three chromosomes, have been mapped to date. To improve our understanding of the distribution and inter-relationships of major disease resistance genes in the sugar beet genome, mapping populations have been developed from resistant B. vulgaris sources identified in the GENRES programme.For the diseases caused by beet mild yellowing virus (BMYV), beet yellows virus (BYV), Erysiphe betae and Aphanomyces cochlioides, individual plants from each resistant accession were selected following evaluation. Resistant plants (mainly B. vulgaris subsp. maritima) were crossed with a common genetic male-sterile sugar beet line to develop F 1 hybrid populations for analysis.Twenty-five individuals from each F 1 generation were screened for resistance using established artificial inoculation techniques under controlled environmental conditions. Segregation was observed in many of these test populations, indicating that the parent had been heterozygous for resistance, and that the F 1 generation was suitable for mapping. In cases where no segregation was observed, indicative of a homozygous resistant parent, highly resistant F 1 individuals were selected for selfing and simultaneous backcrossing to the male-sterile line to produce the segregating F 2 and BC 1 generations required for mapping.To date, approximately 450 F 1 or F 2 mapping populations have been produced, covering sources of resistance to seven diseases. Preliminary screens are being carried out on all of these populations to identify resistance that appears to be under relatively simple genetic control. Future work will involve the genetic analysis of mapping populations, where single genes of large effect have been implicated in the resistance, utilising AFLP and microsatellite markers to locate genes to chromosomes.Eric Ober (Broom's Barn Research Station, Bury St Edmunds, UK) presented the work done in the UK on the screening of 46 genotypes to identify drought tolerance among Beta germplasm obtained from genebanks and plant breeders. Field and controlled environment screens were developed for this purpose. Controlled environment screens may be more useful for phenotyping mapping populations than for pre-breeding in a crop improvement programme. There are possibilities for improving the drought tolerance of crop plants through transgenic manipulation. However, for Beta vulgaris, in the short and medium term, the resources for genetic improvement exist within germplasm collections. There is now progress toward identifying those materials.E. Ober offered to coordinate exchange of information between researchers working on drought stress and the Group welcomed this initiative.The section Discussion and Recommendations of the report was presented to the participants and was approved with minor modifications.ECP/GR Working Group on Beta / World Beta Network L. Frese reminded the Group that he was both the Chair of the Beta WG and member of the BCC. The BCC of the World Beta Network had been defined in 1999 as consisting of the IDBB manager and representatives of the major sugar beet production areas and the distribution area of the genus. L. Frese noted that participation in the meeting was mostly from Europe and discussion was mainly focusing on European interests and there was a risk of losing contact with experts outside Europe. He suggested establishing a Coordinating Committee consisting of the Chair and Vice-Chair of the ECP/GR Working Group and two members from American and Asian countries. This committee would help organize meetings and look for funds.The Group agreed with the suggestion and elected the representatives of the Coordinating Committee. M.N. Arjmand, recently retired from SBSI, declined the offer to stand as Asian countries representative but proposed Dr Mahmoud Mesbah to replace him, indicating that he would however remain as WBN member to help Dr Mesbah and other members as needed. The composition of the Coordinating Committee was therefore agreed upon as follows:Lothar FreseBruno Desprez America MemberMahmoud MesbahL. Frese thanked the local organizers for the excellent organization of the meeting and the ECP/GR Secretariat and hoped to meet again at the next occasion. He indicated some opportunities for the venue of the next meeting that can be expected to be held in 3 years, to be confirmed by the ECP/GR Steering Committee. Córdoba (Spain) and Quedlinburg (Germany) were suggested as possible options.The participants thanked L. Frese for his efficient chairing of the sessions and the meeting was officially closed.The International Database for Beta Scientific Presentations Introduction Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) has been cultivated in the Republic of Belarus for many decades as a traditional crop for sugar production and as a fodder and vegetable crop. Cultivation and breeding activities in our country are mainly carried out in the public sector -collective and state farms -and in households. The sugar beet producing area covers 50 000 ha, fodder beet 80 000 ha, table beet more than 10 000 ha. There are five sugar-producing factories in the country. Seed production and local breeding are developed at the following institutions: Belarusan Regional Experimental Breeding Station for Sugar beet near Nesvizh (BREBSS); Institute of Genetics and Cytology in Minsk (IGC); Belarusan Research Institute of Farming and Fodders in Zhodino (BRIFFC); and Belarusan Research Institute of Greengrocery (BRIG) in Samohvalovichi. Thus, there are few working collections of beets with sub-collections for sugar beet (BREBSS and IGC), fodder beet and table beet.Activities on Beta genetic resources in Belarus include germplasm collection, characterization and evaluation, ex situ management and some safety-duplication. Different organizations are involved in the management of beet genetic resources: state organizations (Ministry of Agriculture and Food, State Committee for Science and Technologies) and professional organizations (Institutes of the Belarus National Academy of Sciences).Beet germplasm collections are divided between three institutes (BRIFFC, BRIG and IGC) of the Belarus National Academy of Sciences and the Breeding Station and include:-populations and some old cultivars originating from former USSR (mainly from the Ukraine, Russian Federation and Latvia) cultivated in recent decades on the territory of our Republic; -commercial cultivars and components for commercial hybrids arising from local breeding activities in Belarus; -germplasm of wild species (mainly sources of genes for disease resistance) from the N.I. Vavilov Institute for Plant Industry (VIR, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation); -material arising from existing breeding programmes; -germplasm produced by biotechnological methods: doubled haploid (DH) and dihaploid lines.According to the catalogue of Varieties included in the State Compendium for 1998-2001(Starovojtov 2001)), the following cultivated varieties are currently distributed in Belarus:-sugar beet: 14 triploid monogerm hybrids, including three of joint production -'Beldan' and 'Danibel' of IGC and Danisco Seed (Germany); 'Kavebel' of IGC and KWS (Germany). The other 11 triploid, as well as 4 diploid monogerm hybrids, are of foreign origin; -fodder beet: 13 varieties in total, mono-and multigerm, triploid, diploid and polyploid of foreign origin (German KWS, Danisco Seed and Polish HBP) and one diploid variety 'Darinka' of Belarusan origin; -table beet (all red): 5 multigerm varieties, including four introduced and one local, 'Pryhazhunja'.The IGC working collection of sugar beet DHs consists of 30 lines. Seeds are available for six of them.The Belarus National Programme entitled \"Creation of the National Genetic Fund for economically-important plants\" started in 2000 with funding for six years. Ten research and educational institutions joined the programme. The following tasks regarding beet genetic resources management were assigned: -creation of the National Genetic Centre for plant genetic resources (cereals, industrial, fodder and grain crops), with the subtask for 2000-2001 to perform a complete national inventory of the genepool of cultivated crops and their wild relatives within each crop group, and to guarantee reproduction of the collection and its short-term conservation (this Centre was created on the basis of the Belarusan Research Institute of Farming and Fodders); -creation of a genebank of sugar beet germplasm with the subtask to develop the system of identification and passporting of sugar beet genetic material, and to carry out the inventory of sugar beet germplasm collection (responsibility of BREBSS); -development by genetic methods and biotechnologies of a new germplasm bank of economically important plants to be used in breeding work, with the subtask to develop the system of identification and passporting of new genetic material of economically important plants (responsibility of IGC, Belarus National Academy of Sciences).The responsibilities for evaluating, utilizing and storing genetic resources of sugar beet are concentrated mainly at the Belarusan Regional Experimental Breeding Station for Sugar beet, where working collections include monogerm and multigerm diploid and tetraploid fertile populations, diploids with CMS, and corresponding O types. Tetraploid lines pollinators and a collection of haploid and doubled haploid lines of gynogenetic origin are maintained at the IGC, with the best accessions to be safety-duplicated at the Breeding Station. The Belarusan Institute of Farming and Fodders is responsible for characterization and evaluation of fodder beet germplasm and the Belarusan Institute of Greengrocery for that of table beet.The evaluation of the collection is carried out according to the descriptors recommended by the State Committee for Trials and Conservation of Plant Varieties. For cultivars/hybrids they are as follows:1. Name, producer 2. Botanical traits: family, species, subspecies, cultivar 3. Breeding method (technology) 4. Biological traits: M trait (form of seeds), ploidy level, percent of ploidy, 1000-seed weight 5. Morphological traits: hypocotyl colour 6. Root traits: form, position (depth) in soil, colour of overground part, colour of underground part 7. Leaves' traits: distribution, percent of total weight, colour, petiole colour 8. Agronomical traits: yield, sugar content, K/Na content, amino-N content, growth period duration, resistance to bolting 9. Disease resistance to Cercospora, Ramularia, powdery mildew, Rhizomania 10. Possible agricultural application of a cultivar.Biennial material is vernalized in cold stores and chilling chambers at 4°C. To multiply beet accessions, isolation in greenhouses, spatial isolation in the fields and isolation with cereals (rye) are used at the Breeding Station and in experimental fields of the institutes. Seed stalks are dried in isolated parts of greenhouses for a few weeks. The seeds are threshed in threshing machines, sieved and sorted in sorting machines. At the IGC a polishing machine has been used for seed processing. Seeds of biennial accessions are sown in May. One hundred seeds are commonly taken for the germination tests. Seeds are put into moist sand at 28°C in the dark (thermostatic chambers) and the number of germinated seeds is recorded twice: on the third day (\"energy of germination\") and on the tenth day (\"germination rate\"). Seeds are stored at low temperature (4-10°C) without moisture content control.Research activities include investigation of genetic problems related to the utilization of germplasm in breeding, study of the Beta genome and relationships between species. Project proposals can be submitted to a number of national or international funding agencies. The group of researchers from the Institute of Genetics and Cytology was given two grants by the Belarusan National Fundamental Foundation (1994)(1995)(1996)(2002)(2003)(2004), and in order to initiate molecular biology research (Svirshchevskaya and Dolezel 2000) it received two more grants from the International Atomic Energy Agency (1999,2002). In the coming years we plan to evaluate newly arisen haploid and doubled haploid sugar beet lines for disease resistance, quantitative traits and molecular genome studies (AFLP markers).The Belarusan Regional Experimental Breeding Station for Sugar beet maintains contacts with German, Polish and Swedish breeding companies (KWS, Strube-Dickman, Danisco Seed, HBP, PNOS, Novartis AB) which provide its working collections with material for obtaining hybrids. Since 2000 the IGC has cooperated with the USDA-ARS Research Unit in Fort Collins, Colorado in the testing of gynogenetic lines for resistance to cercospora and rhizoctonia diseases and in relevant germplasm exchange (susceptible and resistant checks for the above-mentioned diseases).Ilia Uchkunov 1 , Rada Koeva 2 , Siyka Angelova 2 and Jordan Angelov 2   1 Agriculture Research Institute (ARI), Shumen, Bulgaria 2 The Bulgarian Beta genetic resources include 680 accessions, mainly from the following two species: Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris and B. trigyna. There are also a small number of accessions belonging to the wild species B. lomatogona and B. corolliflora.A small part of the material is kept in long-term storage in the genebank of the Institute for Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR) in Sadovo, but most of the accessions obtained through exchange are in medium-term storage (+4-5°C). Working collections are located only in the Agriculture Research Institute (ARI) in Shumen, where breeding activities are also carried out (Table 1). Owing to difficulties in the maintenance and evaluation of Beta collections, together with a lack of funds, the regeneration and conservation of all accessions was not possible. The main activities on Beta were restricted to the creation of collections of valuable breeding materials and cultivars, suitable for the climatic conditions of Bulgaria.Organized breeding activities with sugar beet started in 1921-1922 in Bulgaria, based on cultivars of foreign origin. The first Bulgarian cultivar 'Endje' was registered in 1934; it has a high sugar content and comparatively good resistance to cercospora leaf spot. 'Endje' was grown for more than 25 years in Bulgaria.During the period 1959-1980, the available sugar beet cultivars were exchanged. The cultivar 'Endje' was replaced by more productive polygerm diploids such as 'Beta C-242/53' and 'Beta K-91' introduced from Hungary. Very soon these were also replaced by more productive polyploid foreign cultivars: 'Beta poli 3' (Hungary), 'Maribo PA' (Denmark), 'Janash poli 2' and 'Janash Polikama' (Poland).The Bulgarian polygerm polyploid cultivar '22x10 poli' was created in 1964. Its cultivation started in 1969 and owing to its productivity and excellent technological characteristics, the cultivar covered more than 70% of the crop cultivated area.The second polygerm polyploid cultivar 'Hybrid 9 poli' was introduced in 1973, intended for irrigated areas; it is characterized by increased sugar content and resistance to cercospora leaf spot.Breeding activities with sugar beet monogerms started in 1958 in Bulgaria. The first monogerm male-sterile hybrid, 'Hybrid poliE-1', was created in 1973.Bulgarian polyploid cultivars are characterized by intensive root growth and a favourable combination of yield and sugar content. Cultivar 'Ticha' was introduced after 1980, the year of registration of cultivar 'Hemus'.Since 1990, the following sugar beet cultivar groups have been created and registered:-Group I = cultivars tolerant to rhizomania virus disease: 'Radnevo' (1990) and 'Peshtera' (1994);-Group II = cultivars with high productivity and high sugar content: 'Shumen' (1994), 'Elit' (1995), 'Hybrid 917' (1996), ' KI-1216' (1997) and 'KI-1239' (2000).During the following decade (1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000), 10 sugar and fodder beet cultivars, including 2 cultivars tolerant to rhizomania, were registered and cultivated in Bulgaria.Presently about 157 accessions are maintained in ex situ breeding collections in Shumen, grouped as follows:This material can be used as sources of new \"O\" types. Some of them are included in backcrosses with polygerm diploids for enrichment of their genetic heredity, others have a high sugar content and are resistant to cercospora leaf spot.In spite of their rather limited utilization, they are used mainly for enrichment of the Beta germplasm, included in different breeding programmes to develop sustainable monogerm materials through the high ploidy levels.From a total of 80 currently available accessions, only 33 are included in breeding programmes. Work on CMS started in the 1970s in Bulgaria. The sterility of most of the materials is over 93-95%. They have good agronomic characters such as root yield, sugar content, and high resistance to disease (cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew and rhizomania).The sterility of these lines is about 70-90 % and they are used to obtain tetraploids (MS 4x x 2x MM). The cultivar 'Endje-316' was created this way. A great number of crosses with dihaploids were carried out.This group contains 123 accessions, kept at the Agriculture Research Institute-Shumen, but only 36 are included in collections. Some have a good productivity and high resistance to cercospora leaf spot and powdery mildew; others are very tolerant or entirely resistant to rhizomania and other diseases. Breeding lines with very high sugar content were identified.This is the main group of sugar beet accessions, distinguished by a great genetic diversity. The 4 x MM accessions are used as male parents. They are maintained through different breeding schemes and permanent cytological control.The pollinators, tolerant to rhizomania, are maintained through permanent selection in the experimental fields of the village Draganovo (Veliko Tarnovo region). There are two cultivars tolerant to rhizomania cultivated in Bulgaria. They are no worse than the common cultivars in terms of yield and disease resistance.A detailed study conducted by IPGR-Sadovo on the current distribution of wild Beta species in Bulgaria indicated that B. trigyna is still widely distributed, as described in the Flora of Bulgaria (Stojanov et al. 1966). The species B. vulgaris subsp. maritima was not found at the sites referred to.The species B. trigyna Wadst. & Kit. is a Mediterranean plant, widely distributed in Bulgaria. First records about its distribution mention only a few sites in the country (Velenovsky 1891(Velenovsky , 1898)).During the period 1924-1966, the Bulgarian botanists Stojanov, Stefanov and Kitanov recorded the distribution of the species: \"almost all over Bulgaria\" or \"mostly in southern and eastern Bulgaria\". A detailed distribution by floristic regions was presented in 1966. Later the species was found in all parts of the country (Bondev 1991;Dimitrov 2002).Through expeditions carried out during the period 1995-2001 in the Thracian Plain, southern and northern Black Sea Coast, Rhodope Mountain and Dobrudja region, a considerable number of sites of subsp. trigyna were identified and marked. Later on, reproductive material was collected from some of the sites mentioned. The next stage of IPGR's activities is the creation of ex situ collections in the Botanic Garden, which are to include the whole plant genetic diversity in Bulgaria.The species Beta vulgaris L. subsp. maritima (L) Arcang. is a submediterranean plant, rarely occurring in Bulgaria. There are only herbarium specimens from two locations -the Bourgas and Sofia regions. It is reported in the town of Sozopol, but plant samples are not available. A collaborative programme, aiming at investigating species habitats reported in the Flora of Bulgaria or other published sources, is planned with the Institute of Botany in Sofia.Long-term storage contains 11 accessions of Bulgarian cultivars. About 230 accessions are kept in medium-term storage in the genebank of IPGR-Sadovo. The main part of the collection (90%) consists of foreign cultivars and hybrids. Plants of local origin represent only 10%, consisting of old seed materials collected during expeditions (Table 2).The rest of the accessions are kept at the Agriculture Research Institute-Shumen. They include breeding lines, hybrids, populations and all Bulgarian cultivars (11). One of these is used in pre-breeding and breeding, the others are stored as seeds. Three cultivars which are currently cultivated in Bulgaria are used as standards: 'Endje 316', 'Elit-Radnevo' and 'Radnevo'.An integrated collaborative programme between the ARI-Shumen and IPGR-Sadovo is ongoing, but, owing to lack of significant funds, the maintenance and enlargement of the beet collection are limited. The establishment of contacts with international and national partners is of utmost importance for the elaboration of cooperative projects to protect and conserve the available sugar beet plant genetic resources. During preparation of seed samples for their storage in the genebank, their moisture content is reduced to 6-7% at a temperature not higher than 25°C. The samples are maintained in glass jars with vapour-proof lids. The active collection is maintained at a constant temperature of -5°C.Within the Beta collection, salad beet (Beta vulgaris var. vulgaris) is represented by 118 accessions and Swiss chard (B. vulgaris var. cicla) by 27 accessions. In the past, mixed pollination occurred between cultivars owing to poor isolation. Using repeated regenerations and perfect isolation in isolation cages covered with glass or with a thick net, we succeeded in gradually cleaning these cultivars and stabilizing their respective characteristic traits.The group of salad beets (118 accessions) shows a great variability in the shape and colour of the beetroot (Fig. 1).The following root shapes are observed: flat (cv. ´Egyptska plocha´), circular (cv. ´Detroit´), cylindrical (cv. ´Cylindra´), conic (cv. ´Dobbie's Purple´) and also various intermediate types.Various intensities of anthocyanin coloration of the skin and root flesh can also be found; some cultivars have an orange skin colour (e.g. ´Severnaja oranzevaja´).Cultivar ´Nutting's´ is interesting because of its nut flavour when eaten fresh. The group of Swiss chards (27 accessions) comprises cultivars with various leaf colorations, ranging from yellow-green (´Gelber Krauser´) to light green (´Lyoner´), dark green (´Poise Verte A Carde Blanche´) and red colour (´Rhubarb Chard´).The leaf blade surface also shows great variability according to the cultivar: smooth, moderately wavy or very curly.The petiole of the Swiss chard is a very interesting part of this plant. It sometimes reaches 40 cm-length and 5.5 cm-width (e.g. in the big cultivar ´Blonde d'Hiver de Genève´). The petiole colour can be white, light green, yellow, orange or red.The acreage of arable land in Germany is 11 805 ha of which 3.8% is used for sugar beet production, equalling 451 410 ha in the period 2000-2001. The production of fodder beets has dramatically dropped from 152 000 ha in 1980 to only 9000 ha in 2001. Garden beets were produced on 602 ha in 2000, an increase of almost 100% compared to the period 1994-1999.Leaf beets are not mentioned in easily accessible statistics; however, this vegetable has been described as a winner in the group of neglected vegetable crops. Leaf beets are produced by hobby gardeners but can also be purchased on local markets and small, mostly Italian or Turkish, vegetable shops. Breeding research on Beta genetic resources and the development of improved commercial varieties focuses therefore on the sugar beet crop.Fundamental research and breeding research on sugar beet is conducted by universities (Kiel, Halle), the Max-Planck-Institute at Köln, the Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK, Gatersleben) and the Institute of Sugar Beet Research (Göttingen) in close cooperation with breeding companies. Research projects are often co-funded through the Association for the Promotion of the German Private Plant Breeding (GFP). Aspects of management of native Beta genetic resources are investigated by the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH).Beta genetic resources collections are maintained by two public institutions:The BAZ Gene Bank, as part of the research sector of the Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture (BMVEL) currently manages 1887 accessions (1999: 1837 accessions) of the German-Dutch Beta collection within the framework of an agreement signed by the German and Dutch Ministries for Agriculture in 1984. The BAZ holding consists of both cultivated types and wild species of all four sections. No Beta collecting missions have been implemented by the BAZ Gene Bank since 2000. The increase in the number of accessions held by the BAZ Gene Bank is due to the integration of new material into the publicly accessible collection after successful seed increase.The IPK, with its genebank, operates under the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF). The IPK genebank holds 406 accessions (1999: 365) of the genus Beta,. almost exclusively belonging to section Beta (Table 1). Forty-one new IPK accessions originate from plant explorations. Today, the total national Beta germplasm holding consists of 2293 accessions (Table 1 and Fig. 1). The four sections of the genus Beta are represented in a well-balanced way if the size of their distribution areas is taken as a criterion.The BAZ Gene Bank is the successor of the Braunschweig Genetic Resources Collection (BGRC) also known as \"FAL genebank\" which was founded by the former Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry (BML) in 1970. The genebank was established by the Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL). In 1996 the responsibility for the genebank was assigned to the BAZ. As a result of difficult negotiations between the responsible Ministries, the BAZ Gene Bank will be closed and the germplasm as well as data linked with the accessions will be transferred to the IPK in [2003][2004]. The total ex situ collection will be managed by the IPK genebank from next year onwards.From October 2002, users of the German Beta holding are requested to send their seed orders to the IPK genebank. The seed transfer from the location Braunschweig to Gatersleben has commenced and the BAZ Gene Bank can no longer provide users with germplasm. The species-specific seed production methods are described in a BAZ manual which is considered an element of a genebank quality management manual. The BAZ Gene Bank mainly uses small greenhouses and hemp strokes for controlled pollination. The IPK genebank uses almost exclusively isolation greenhouses. Table 2 compares the seed production methods used by the BAZ and IPK for section Beta species. The BAZ Gene Bank uses the \"Descriptors for Beta\" (IPGRI 1996) for characterization of accessions. In general, observations are recorded during seed increase on a limited number of traits (male sterility, multigermicity, seed maturity, seed shattering, seed yield, stem betacyanin coloration, stem colour, stem number, growth habit, growth height, leaf hairiness, leaf thickness, bolting, flowering start, flowering end, annuality). The IPK genebank uses its own descriptors to record shape, colour, flesh colour, ring formation, leaf shape and colour, petiole colour, and beet position in soil. The growth habit of wild beets is also recorded. All cultivated forms are photographed by the IPK genebank and photos are kept as slides (old ones) in an archive or as files (new ones) on a PC.Evaluation The decision to establish a central national collection of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) at IPK by merging the BAZ Gene Bank collection with the IPK collection was facilitated by the a priori agreement to share tasks between the BMVEL and BMBF genebanks. Except for the Vitis and fruit genetic resources collection, IPK will be responsible for the national PGRFA holding while BAZ will investigate and develop genetic resources management procedures that complement ex situ activities. Complementary germplasm management concepts cover a whole range of possible measures, activities and crop species.A basis for the in situ management of native B. vulgaris subsp. maritima populations has actually been created in the framework of GMO risk assessment studies conducted by the University of Aachen. The Institute of Ecology, Ecotoxicology and Ecochemistry has conducted biosafety research since 1993. Before the onset of these studies a single B. vulgaris subsp. maritima population was known to exist in Germany on the North Sea island Helgoland. A search for further populations along the Baltic Sea coast has shown that additional populations exist south of the Danish distribution area of this wild beet. Monitoring of the population is currently done by the RWTH Aachen. However, as to date there are no management plans to protect the sites and to preserve the populations. The need for a nationwide agreed concept and plan for in situ management of native wild PGRFA has been recognized only recently. First a framework programme and principles for in situ management of wild PGRFA needs to be developed. Then detailed measures can be derived from the programme for species like the sea beet.Studies on in situ management of PGRFA and GMO risk assessment studies have interests in common as they are dealing with the same populations. The common interests are the inventory of populations, data documentation and the aim of safeguarding the genetic integrity of natural populations. The Institute of Ecology, Ecotoxicology and Ecochemistry currently runs two projects:In 1993, genetically modified sugar beet with resistance against infection by the BNYVV (beet necrotic yellow vein virus) were released for field tests. Monitoring the spreading of transgenic traits is a point of emphasis in ecological research. It can be subdivided into two types: specific and general monitoring. Specific monitoring comprises the direct evidence of cause-effect relations, in this case investigations about hibernation, potential advantages in succession, etc., using direct comparison of transgenic and non-transgenic plants. For general monitoring, analyses of population dynamics and gene flow between wild, weed and sugar beet populations will elucidate potential ways of distribution and help evaluate the danger of outcrossing of transgenic traits into wild beet populations or closely related cultivated plants like Swiss chard (B. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris, Leaf Beet group) or garden beet (B. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris, Garden Beet group). The investigations focus on the potential influence of transgenic sugar beet on wild beet populations located in Italy, where the main proportion of seed for the European market is being produced.The likelihood of outcrossing of transgenic traits into wild and cultivated subspecies has been proved by several crossing experiments (Bartsch and Pohl-Orf 1996).The range of pollen has been examined by Saeglitz (2000) -CompetitivenessThe competitiveness against arable weeds was evaluated in field experiments in 1993-1999 (Bartsch et al. 1996;Pohl-Orf et al. 2000).Tests for the hibernation of non-transgenic and transgenic sugar beet have been conducted. General survival in relation to weather has been tested (Pohl-Orf et al.The succession of conventional sugar beet in a typical fallow as well as succession of wild beet/sugar beet hybrids and weed beet as modelling organisms for potential degeneration have been investigated in 1993-1996 with non-transgenic plants.Experiments have been extended to transgenic individuals.Population structures and dynamics of wild beet populations of the Po delta and the Adriatic coast were examined during three collection trips in the years 1993-1996 (Bartsch and Schmidt 1996). The collected material will now be subjected to molecular analysis.The BNYVV infestation in wild mesohaline habitats has been compared within and between different wild beet populations using the ELISA test (Bartsch and Brand 1996).For general monitoring, molecular methods are applied to reveal diversity within wild beet populations and mechanisms of genetic interaction between wild and sugar beet and their hybrids (weed beet). First results are published in Mücher et al. (2000).Transgenic resistance traits against fungi or nematodes would offer a better performance to cultivars, but at the same time wild beet would profit by gene flow in natural habitats where a disease has a significant influence on population fitness. Gene flow from conventional sugar beet to wild sea beet can hardly be avoided and has been documented for several areas in Europe and USA. Whether resistance traits offer an ecological advantage to sea beet populations depends both on the distribution of the pathogen and natural tolerance alleles.The first preliminary data of German and Danish sea beet that have been screened in 1999 for fungi infestation symptoms suggest that diseases are common, but found only in a low frequency in coastal habitats. Data from beet germplasm collections screened for resistance alleles revealed that strong pathogen resistance is rare. Future biosafety research has to deliver data on the demographic co-occurrence of pathogen and resistance, as well as the ecological performance of transgenic and isogenic sugar beets hybridized with wild beets.The objective of this project is to provide detailed evaluation of the two sources of potential genotypic impact that could result from large-scale cultivation of virus-resistant transgenic plants, and particularly those expressing viral sequences. Genotypic impact could result from two types of gene flow: one involving recombination between viral sequences transcribed from the transgene and the genome of an infecting virus, and another due to the potential for sexual outcrossing between the transgenic plant and a compatible wild species.In both cases, this requires not only close examination of the interaction of the transgenic plants, on the one hand with the genome of other viruses, and on the other hand with related plant species, but also requires establishment of baselines on the role of these same processes in a non-transgenic context. Thus, the idea of impact as used here only concerns additional, i.e. above borderline, novel effects that could be caused by interaction of the transgenic plants with their biological environment. In order to address these interlocking concerns, the VRTP IMPACT project has been divided into four work packages. Each of these will involve collaboration among several participants, and as a result, most of the participants are involved in more than one work package. The first two work packages (WPs I & II) are organized in a parallel fashion to evaluate the impact of recombination between transgene sequences and those of the genome of two particularly important groups of plant viruses, the potyviruses and the cucumoviruses, which are extremely different in both their biological and molecular properties, and thus may have different aptitudes for recombination in transgenic plants. WPs I & II will focus on comparisons of the outcome of recombination in transgenic plants with that in non-transgenic ones. Since our knowledge of the prevalence in nature of recombinant virus genomes is extremely sparse, this question will be addressed in a separate work project (WP III) that will involve molecular epidemiology studies of virus populations in Spain and France. In WP IV, we will examine the impact of plant-to-plant gene flow from two major crop species where this is known to occur, canola seed and beet.In both cases, this will involve field and glasshouse studies to evaluate if a virus resistance gene could confer a fitness advantage on the receptor wild or weedy species.Around 1900 a large diversity of fodder, garden and leaf beet landraces existed in Europe (Vilmorin 1923;Dahl 2000). These local varieties were selected and managed by individual farmers or so-called breeding associations of local farmers. The selection of local fodder beet varieties ceased in the 1960s. By chance a unique example of a farmer-selected fodder beet variety was detected at the Vogelsberg, an area close to Frankfurt. The example has been described by Frese and Efken (2002) mainly to provide a historical record. Since the management of fodder beet germplasm is not at all done for economic reasons but for tradition only, we expect that the locally used germplasm will become extinct soon.Especially in sugar and fodder beet there are little or no economic incentives that would persuade German farmers to manage germplasm on the farm.The situation with garden beet and leaf beet differs from that of sugar and fodder beet. Garden beet plays a role in organic farming. Members of associations such as the \"Kultursaat e.V.\" select garden beet varieties for organic farming and by doing so they contribute to the broadening of genetic diversity in the agricultural system.The use of traditional germplasm by consumers plays an essential role in on-farm management of PGRFA. The consumption of genetic resources is promoted by the \"Slow Food\" association as a method that assists the marketing of underutilized crops and traditional varieties. By developing and disseminating specific cooking recipes the consumer's demand for old varieties is stimulated. This in turn can result in a larger production of specific varieties and hence to an enlargement of genetic diversity in agricultural production. The Slow Food organization has repeatedly demonstrated that the consumer's interest in new products (often in the high price sector) can be used to change consumption behaviour. The Slow Food branch at Hamburg has succeeded in stimulating interest in white and yellow garden beets. Slow food has screened parts of the BAZ garden beet holding and has chosen two garden beet types with white and yellow flesh, respectively, to develop specific recipes. The white fleshed garden beet, previously unknown in the German cuisine, is now produced for a restaurant on a limited scale. The use of specific garden beets has little impact on agriculture on the whole. Yet it is an interesting case, showing how genetic diversity could be increased in the agricultural system.The Institute for Agrobotany was founded by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1958 with the following responsibilities: \"...collection, maintenance and taxonomic, botanical, physiological, biochemical as well as plant pathological examination of domesticated plants and world collections of cultivated crops\". After several reorganizations, the Institute for Agrobotany was reestablished on 1 January 1993.The Institute for Agrobotany (ABI) is responsible for the development and maintenance of field crop and vegetable genetic resources collections. It performs overall genebank activities, including the following \"classical genebank activities\":-Exploration and collection of genetic resources of field and vegetable crops with special emphasis on local, Hungarian material -Medium-and long-term conservation of seed samples in cold stores and with the use of meristem cultures in the case of vegetatively propagated crops -Multiplication and regeneration of accessions aimed at obtaining sufficient quantities of high quality seeds for medium-and long-term conservation, evaluation and distribution -Isoclimatic regeneration of Hungarian landraces, ecotypes and populations on the site of their places of origin (in situ, on-farm and backyard garden multiplication) -Characterization and evaluation of plant genetic resources (PGR) collections according to internationally accepted descriptor lists -Development and maintenance of the National Base Collection for seed-propagated crops -Documentation of passport and evaluation data for the PGR maintained by ABI and other partners in Hungary (National Database) -Distribution of seed samples together with relevant information to users -Nationwide responsibility for the technical coordination of Hungarian PGR activities -Participation in the ECP/GR and other international and national programmes.The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development also provides funds for the maintenance of collections. This support is available for all institutes carrying out genebank activities if they meet the following requirements:-The applicants should possess unique germplasm, not duplicated in existing germplasm collections; -The material should be made freely available; -A basic set of passport and/or collecting information should be supplied to the NGBAB (Hungarian National Gene Bank Database); -After multiplication of the accessions, the applicants should arrange for long-term preservation of the material in the National Base Collection; -Supported genetic resources activities should be conducted in accordance with international standards (FAO/IPGRI Genebank standards, IBPGR/IPGRI descriptor lists).This year (2002) 94 institutes, universities etc. submitted applications for funding, but there was only one application including accessions of Beta (nine accessions of fodder beet).More than 59 000 accessions are available to Hungarian and foreign breeders and other users in the collection of Institute for Agrobotany, which represents more than 800 species of 250 genera. The more than 25-year-old National Beta Collection with its 301 accessions, of which 96% belong to Beta vulgaris L., is part of that collection.The Beta collection of the Institute for Agrobotany shows a wide range of diversity where sugar beet (47%), garden beet (24%), fodder beet (17%) and mangel (13%) represent the highest percentage, but also contains accessions of mangold, sea beet and other wild beet (Table 1). Following the recommendations of the first UN Conference on the Environment (Stockholm, 1972), cooled seed storage rooms were built and seed samples are stored in the active and base collection chambers at the Institute. All the Beta accessions are stored in the active collection at 0ºC. The chambers of the base collection (-20ºC) hold 21% of the samples (63 accessions) (Table 2). The total number of accessions of Beta landraces is 88, of which 34% are maintained in the base collection (Table 3). The proportion is much higher for Beta accessions of Hungarian origin (44%): 45% of fodder beet, 29% of garden beet and 62% of sugar beet accessions are maintained in the base collection chambers (Table 4).   The Beta collection is increased through seed exchange with Hungarian and foreign institutes and collecting.Most of the accessions are of Hungarian origin ( 133), but information about origin is lacking for 27% of the collection (Table 5). Several accessions are of German (27), Dutch (14), Danish (10), Swedish (8) and Russian (8) origin. The total number of accessions of Hungarian origin is 133, including 30% fodder beet, 38% garden beet, and 32% sugar beet.The 301 Beta accessions were received from 15 countries; only one accession lacks information about its donor country (Table 6). The largest part of the collection was obtained from Hungarian institutes (219), but the contribution of formal Soviet (29) and German (23) institutes to the development of our Beta collection is also considerable.A valuable part of the Beta National Collection is represented by the 88 accessions collected by the Institute (30 fodder beet, 48 garden beet, and 10 sugar beet) (Table 7). Collecting was most intensive in the period 1981-1985, when 48% of the landraces (13 fodder beet, 25 garden beet and 4 sugar beet) were collected. The documentation of the passport, evaluation and genebank management data of the PGR maintained by the Institute is computerized and the hardware facilities and software systems have been updated regularly. The database structure is based on genebank standards and takes into account the recommendations of FAO/IPGRI (1994). It has some specific features essential for the effective daily database management. The central passport database of the Institute (Table 8) shows considerable similarity with the structure of FAO/IPGRI multicrop passport descriptors, which facilitates conversion into that format (Table 9). The software used for passport and genebank data management is dBase.  For multiplication and regeneration of accessions the Institute has nearly 145 ha of arable land, of which 15-20 ha are used for genebank nurseries and other field trials each year. The general volume of Beta field multiplication and regeneration varies from year to year according to the changes due to introduction or collecting, and is basically defined by the needs of genebank regenerations in the given period. During multiplications special attention is paid to isolation; in the case of beet space-isolated nurseries are used for this purpose. Besides ex situ conservation, in case of landraces the multiplication is carried out according to a \"backyard multiplication system\", where the locally adapted populations are multiplied in selected districts where the ecological conditions (soil type, climatic conditions etc.) are similar to those of their places of origin.On-farm conservation is also carried out: the Institute participates in the project \"Strengthening the Scientific Basis of In situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity Conserved On-farm\". The on-farm project is currently targeted only on bean and maize landraces and only three environmentally sensitive but ecologically different agricultural regions are involved in this project. In the future we would like to expand this programme to other parts of the country and to as many genera as possible (including Beta).The characterization and evaluation of PGR collections are carried out using internationally accepted descriptor lists. The basis for the characterization and evaluation is the \"Descriptors for Beta\" (IBPGR/CGN 1991), complemented by a few additional traits. The evaluated characters are listed in Table 10. Almost half of the Beta collection has been characterized. Garden beet, with 59% characterization data, is outstanding among the other cultivar groups, but all cultivar groups have a high level of characterization, except for \"other wild beets\" (Table 11). The Hungarian accessions give a favourable picture: 85 accessions (64%) are characterized (Table 12). Most of the landraces (57%) have also been characterized: 40% of the fodder beet, 69% of the garden beet and 50% of the sugar beet accessions collected by the Institute have already been characterized (Table 13). The collection and evaluation of Beta germplasm has recently received increased attention in Iran due to the need for resistant/tolerant genes to biotic and abiotic stresses and concern about loss of germplasm due to gradual elimination of natural habitats.Factors threatening or causing extinction of local populations included overgrazing, industrialization, war, natural disasters and land management changes. Therefore it is essential that such germplasm be conserved for future use.Due to severe drought, our agriculture (farming and pastures) suffered very badly in the past few years. Fortunately we had an abundant rainfall this year (2002).The Sugar Beet Seed Institute (SBSI) holding the Beta Gene Bank in Iran carried out a national project in 1998-2001 with the main aims of collecting, characterizing and regenerating Beta germplasm.Expeditions were conducted each year to collect the existing Beta genetic resources, especially landraces in different provinces.Beside sugar beet germplasm, the SBSI Beta Gene Bank holds a total of 342 accessions, including 274 fodder and table beets (B. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris), 41 sea beets (B. vulgaris subsp. maritima) and 13 B. lomatogona. The remainder is constituted by other species received from the BAZ Gene Bank.The evaluation of morphological and agronomic characters was carried out on the field plots after the cold weather occurring in early May each year in Karadj. During the growing season, characters such as hypocotyl colour, morphological foliage characters and annuality of the genetic material were recorded. Root shape, skin and flesh colour of roots, yield and technological characteristics of the collected landraces were recorded (Tables 1-3). Much variation was found both between and within the populations (Fig. 1). All accessions were a mixture of different root shapes and colour. Cytological analyses revealed that all accessions studied were diploid.    Each accession is planted in a 10 m-long plot of 3 rows and thinned to 18-20 cm in the row in early May. This provides between 150-200 roots per accession. Originally, collections do not have sufficient seed for the next evaluations, therefore seed increase is essential to maintain the genetic variability of the parent population. For this reason the harvested roots are overwintered in suitable silos according to the traditional two-year cycle system. In spring the damaged roots were discarded and the healthy roots were transplanted in the isolation plots, separated by screens of tightly woven fabric before flowering, with proper distances apart to prevent pollen contamination. There was a wide variation in the quality of the seed produced, maybe due to the wide genetic variability of the germplasm multiplied.Each year multiplication was conducted for about 25 accessions depending on facilities and possibilities. The multiplied accessions are available for evaluation of resistance/tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. It is strongly recommended that this programme be continued, as it not only provides seed for evaluation purposes but also replenishes seed as it is used.The wild beet species Beta lomatogona Fisher & Meyer (Beta section Corollinae) is native to Ardabil (Iran). Hobenacker (1838) detected the species in the Talysch Mountains at Tatuni. Buttler (1977) considered B. lomatogona as a model plant for the Irano-Turanian flora because the limits of distribution of this wild beet species are almost congruent with the oriental Turanian geobotanical area. This species has its main distribution area in Turkey. Its abundance decreases from eastern Turkey to northwestern Iran and Azerbaijan.B. lomatogona used to grow among different field crops, in pastures and alongside streams and orchards in Ardabil. Due to severe drought, land management changes and overgrazing, populations of this species have suffered badly, so that the collecting mission could not find any plant of this species in 1999. In fact, the population size of B. lomatogona, surveyed several times in the past few years, is apparently decreasing in a number of localities, suggesting the need for protection of this natural reservoir of potentially useful traits. The collecting mission drew attention to this and strongly suggested establishing in situ conservation to rescue this wild beet (Frese et al. 2001). SBSI agreed to establish in situ conservation in Ardabil Research Station.The pericarp caps of fruit balls of B. lomatogona, collected in Gardeh, were removed manually and sown in April 2000 in the greenhouse in Karadj in one-litre pots filled with sterile soil. Some seeds did not germinate due to damage during cap removal. Seedlings were maintained in the greenhouse until reaching a well-developed stage. 150 plants were transported to the research station of Ardabil in 2001 and transplanted to the prepared plot. These plants survived the winter conditions of Ardabil. Seed stalks appeared in late May and seeds were harvested in bulk in August 2002. The plants are kept in the research station of Ardabil.Danut Ona Petronien 1 and Rima Tamoši nien 2   1 Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture (LIH), Babtai, Lithuania 2 UAB \"NATURlitA\", Babtai, Lithuania Four institutions are responsible for the national Beta collection in Lithuania:-Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture (LIA, Akademija) (long-term storage), -Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture (LIH, Babtai), -UAB Agrofirma \"S klos\" (headquarters in Vilnius, breeding laboratory in Akademija), and -UAB \"NATURlitA\" (headquarters in Babtai).The long-term storage collection currently contains 9 accessions of red beet (all Lithuanian varieties and 3 new stable breeders' lines) and 7 accessions of fodder beet (Bartkait 2000).The working collection of red beet (Beta vulgaris var. conditiva Alef.) is maintained at LIH. Since 1999 it has been enriched with more than 40 accessions. The red beet accessions maintained in the working collections include breeders' lines (characterized by high yield, earliness and bigermity) and foreign varieties (as donors of earliness, root type, monogermity, etc). The accession of a red beet landrace collected in 1996 near Vilnius in the village of 40 Totoriu was found to be a valuable donor of bolting and disease resistance (Petronien 1998).Since 2001 the collection, evaluation and utilization of genetic resources of sugar and fodder beets are based at the UAB Agrofirma \"S klos\" (Breeding Laboratory in Akademija). This company is also responsible for pre-breeding work, breeding activities and primary seed production of the registered Lithuanian fodder beet varieties and landraces.In 2000 the working collection of fodder and sugar beets included 30 accessions. In 2001 the collection contained the same number of accessions. 17 accessions were obtained from VIR. In 2002 the collection consisted of 26 accessions (including 5 of sugar beet with CMS) for further selection and use in the breeding process.Since 2004 evaluation and utilization of genetic resources of sugar and fodder beets are based at the UAB \"NATURlitA\". carried out in collaboration with the Risø Research Centre in Denmark. Table 2 also shows the responsibility for the accessions in storage. Table 3 shows the distribution of the material according to the accession type. The NGB accessions are stored in the base collection and the active collection at -20 C after drying to 5-7% moisture content (FAO/IPGRI 1994). The safety storage is subject to natural conditions at -4 C. Generally, we store 4000 viable seeds in the base collection, 10 000 in the active collection and 500 in the safety store. After 15 years' storage seed germination in the safety storage ranges between 75% and 94%. Viability tests are performed after 10 years and regeneration is initiated when germination drops below 70%.The official descriptions of the material are available for most of our material and 40 accessions of fodder beets have been characterized using isozymes.All our material can be found on the NGB homepage (www.ngb.se). The characterization data have not been fully published yet. The material in the NGB is presently available without any restrictions to bona fida users. In the future we will adapt to international legislation.Reference FAO/IPGRI. 1994. Genebank Standards. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.The Beta collection in Poland is located in the Research Division Bydgoszcz of the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (headquarters in Radzików). This collection is a unit of the National Centre for Plant Genetic Resources (NCPGR), based in Radzików, which coordinates, finances and provides storage facilities for crop genetic resources in Poland.The Beta collection consists of wild species, old varieties, breeding material and cultivated beets from Poland and from abroad. The material received from international expeditions and local populations is also of great interest.The collection contains 300 accessions: 112 of sugar beet, 156 of fodder beet and 32 wild forms belonging to sections Beta, Corollinae and Procumbentes. Species of the Corollinae section (perennial species) grow in the field. Male-sterile ecotypes of subsp. maritima are kept and regenerated in in vitro cultures.The main aim of the conserved beet materials is to save the genepool from old multigerm cultivars because of the use of hybridization methods based on CMS lines which led to the narrowing of the genetic background in the new cultivars. Wild species of the genus Beta and local populations are also important as a source of resistance to diseases, pests and abiotic factors.Evaluation is conducted according to the \"Descriptors for Beta\" (IPGRI 1996). Evaluation for agricultural characters is carried out at the Experimental Station in Konczewice, on 10 m 2plots in two replications with standard check varieties, over a 2-year cycle. Evaluation for morphological and cytological characters, seed quality and seed germination tests are carried out in Bydgoszcz.Passport characterization and evaluation data are documented and stored in our collection and sent to the NCPGR in Radzików. Part of the data is sent to the International Database for Beta. Each year about 25 accessions are evaluated and statistical data analyzed and documented.For several years some of the accessions have been evaluated for two economically important beet diseases: Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechsler and Cercospora beticola Sacc. in in vitro tests, using a modified version of the method of Stähle-Csech and Gisi (1991).There are no wild beets, local populations or landraces in natural habitats in Poland.Seed is multiplied when the seed amount available from expeditions or other sources is insufficient. Seed multiplication is carried out in field conditions under strict isolation.Our Beta collection is conserved in the Long-Term Storage Laboratory in Radzików as seed samples kept in glass jars at -15°C and 5-8% moisture content. Some of the accessions are stored in Bydgoszcz in medium-term storage (0-4°C) as a working collection.Last year some of the beet accessions stored during the period 1981-1991 were evaluated for seed viability (germination test according to ISTA rules). All tested materials revealed good germination and therefore need no multiplication.Information and seed samples are distributed freely. A quarantine certificate is necessary to send samples abroad.The collected and evaluated germplasm is used in sugar and fodder beet breeding and in several research programmes.The characterization descriptors (morphological and physiological) are based on measurements and observations made on 10 plants per accession, from which the average is calculated (for instance the length of the leaf or of the petiole).Biochemical descriptors are used for the secondary evaluation and are determined by the specialists of the breeding centres. For instance, the sugar content is determined polarimetrically in laboratories; a minimum of 10 roots per accession is analyzed and the average is calculated.The seeds of each accession in the collection are processed, shelled and dried before being stored. Each accession contains a minimum of 1000 seeds.The existing germplasm sources are used for:-maintenance of the gene stocks; -creation of resistant genitors, especially to Cercospora beticola and Rhizomania; -creation of new highly productive varieties, with high sugar content and high juice purity.Because the germplasm collection holders do not have appropriate conditions for longterm seed storage, after the accessions have been stored for 4-5 years, the germination is reduced and there is a need for regenerating 20% of the collection each year. In practice 60-70 accessions are multiplied each year, but this number is not sufficient.For the moment, we do not have the necessary financial support for the Beta germplasm resources programme and it is very difficult to evaluate and characterize these resources, because the research institute and station owning this germplasm do not have adequate resources.There is no standardized national database on Beta because each holder has evaluated its own breeding material according to its own priority objectives and the descriptors used differ according to these objectives.We have not used isoenzymes or AFLP markers to identify different accessions of sugar beet, fodder beet, garden beet or wild beet.Breeding for disease resistance is one of the major objectives, especially for Cercospora beticola and Rhizomania. Breeding lines and hybrids combining tolerance to Cercospora and Rhizomania have been selected through screening in heavily infested fields.We try to select germplasm that is tolerant to drought and scorching heat, because in the south of Romania summers are very hot and dry.The planned expansion of the Beta germplasm collection has the following objectives:-acquisition of newly registered varieties; -evaluation of the germplasm collection and conservation of a duplicate collection in medium-or long-term conditions in the Suceava Gene Bank; -collecting of leaf beet and garden beet germplasm from the farmers' vegetable gardens; -collecting of fodder beet germplasm from the farmers' fields and gardens in the hilly part of the country; -collecting of wild species in the southern part of the country.The purpose of the collection is to preserve valuable gene stocks and making valuable germplasm sources available to breeders to achieve their specific aims.The collection Beta genetic resources activities in Russia started in 1924 with N.I.. Vavilov's collecting missions. At present, the VIR Beta collection contains 2882 accessions, including 1602 accessions in the basic catalogue and 1380 accessions in the temporary catalogue. The material includes 10 groups of accession types collected all over the world, except tropical countries (Table 1). Basic research trends include enrichment of the collection, evaluation, multiplication and utilization of the accessions in breeding.Most of the accessions have been characterized for 24 morphological characters according to the international Beta descriptor list and evaluated for main commercial traits. Characterization and evaluation of the collection have been carried out at three experiment stations, situated in different geographical zones of the country. Evaluation of the accessions is carried out for three years; the obtained data are then compared to estimate the accessions' ecogeographic variability and determine their genetic potential. The level of genetic evaluation of the Beta collection is presented in Table 2; the most important breeding characters are \"growth type\" (annual, biennial, etc.) and variations in the reproductive system (self-incompatibility, cytoplasmic male sterility, monogermicity, etc.). The genetic collection includes 200 accessions: 54 of table beet, 24 of fodder beet and 122 of sugar beet. Evaluation of the genepools has helped selecting and identifying four donors of the most important characters: monogermicity, bolting resistance and resistance to diseases. These experimental data are very important for effective and objective utilization of initial breeding materials. Utilization of the collection materials is determined by the main trends of breeding. Every year about 200 accessions are distributed to Russian research institutes, national breeding centres, foreign genebanks and breeders. Requests of the foreign users are fulfilled according to the availability of accessions. Availability of the materials depends on the seed quantity and the type of accessions. Small seed samples, new breeding lines, donors of most important commercial traits are limited for distribution.Regeneration of the beet accessions is carried out when seed viability decreases to 50-60%, and multiplication when the seed stock is below 1000 seeds. The collection materials are regenerated at five experiment stations situated in different ecogeographical zones within the country. They regenerate 585 accessions every year.Isolation cabins and houses, spatial isolation and individual isolation are used for the multiplication of Beta accessions.At present, the base collection is preserved in medium-term storage at +4°C in the National Seed Storage at the Kuban experiment station (Krasnodar region) and for long-term storage at -10°C in the VIR genebank.The active collection is stored at room temperature in St. Petersburg at the Department of Vegetable and Cucurbits crops. The duplicate active collection is placed for storage at +4 °C in a special room.Seed samples for long-term storage are dried until seed moisture content of 2-6% is reached and packed in laminated aluminium bags.Seed viability monitoring of the working and active collection is carried out when necessary; for the base collection, after 10 years of storage.Three collecting missions were organized in Russia in 1996-2002: Altai region (southwestern Siberia), Mordovia, Voronezh, Tambov and Lipetsk provinces (Central Chernozem zone). A total of 28 samples of beet accessions were collected, including 17 samples of sugar beet, 10 of table beet, and 1 of fodder beet.Multiplication of collected accessions for long-term storage at -10°C; Screening of the collection and identification of genetic sources of the most important characters; Creation of evaluation databases; Collecting and exchange.Slovenia belongs to the Mediterranean and European centres of diversity. Slovenia can be considered as a gene centre for some Brassicaceae (cabbage, turnip), Alliaceae (onion, garlic), Asteraceae (lettuce, chicory), Valerianaceae (corn lettuce) and some fruit and grapevine species, grasses, clovers, medicinal and aromatic plants. In the wild we can find relatives of crop plants like Mycelis muralis, Lactuca serriola and Cichorium intybus that are species of the Asteraceae. Due to extensive grassland area in Slovenia, many different ecotypes of grasses and clovers are found. In addition many landraces appear in crops which were introduced more than a century ago from other parts of the world. From America, maize, beans and potato were spread at the time of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. In different ecological conditions of Slovenia, farmers selected many different populations adapted to less favourable growing conditions. Early projects to collect Slovenian autochthonous populations, ecotypes and landraces of agricultural species with the goal of breeding new and improved cultivars were initiated about 40 years ago. In the former Yugoslavia during the late 1980s a programme was started to collect plant genetic resources for the Yugoslav genebank. After the independence of Slovenia, the Slovenian Ministry of Science and Technology financed the genebank of vegetables, potato, fodder plants, grasses, clovers, small fruits and grapevine from 1992-1994. In 1996 the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food started financing the Slovene Plant Gene Bank Programme with the goal to maintain, evaluate, regenerate and preserve Slovenian autochthonous species, ecotypes, populations and landraces of agricultural, medicinal and aromatic plants, forest trees and other woody plants from Slovenian forests. They include Slovenian cultivars, old cultivars, landraces, various populations, clones and lines bred from autochthonous plants and ecotypes from the natural habitat important for food, agriculture and forestry ( erne et al. 1998).The germplasm collection at the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia is one of the three working collections within the Slovene genebank system. It maintains a fairly large ex situ collection of vegetables, winter wheat, grasses and clovers, fodder crops, small fruit, grapevine and grain legumes. The Beta collection is part of the fodder and vegetable crops and consists of 46 accessions (Table 1). Seed samples and passport data were obtained with the help of local elementary and agricultural schools, the Agricultural Advisory Service, newspaper ads, seed companies and farmers. Most of the people who sent us samples filled out a questionnaire which provided necessary data and some additional information on local names and growing practices. All accessions were inspected, sorted and numbered. Efforts are being continued for the broadening of the Beta collection with fodder and wild species.The Agronomy Department of the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, the Institute of Hop Research and Brewing and the Slovenian Forestry Institute form the Slovenian Plant Gene Bank (SPGB) and work with species used in agriculture, forestry and for food. These institutions are responsible for ex situ germplasm collections stored in the form of seeds, in vitro and in vivo collections. Recently an initiative was taken up to establish an information and database management system for the Slovenian Gene Bank. Each institution holds a database for its working collection. With a need for a uniform and centralized documentation and information system, a computer program was used (Žitnik et al. 2000) to unite the four separate databases. This will enable easier and faster access to the complete information for all users, better management of germplasm resources in the Central Plant Gene Bank and exchange of information with other ECP/GR and EUFORGEN genebank databases. Beta accessions are documented for IPGRI minimum passport descriptors.Ex situ conservation activities have been undertaken since 1964 and are still continuing within the framework of NPGRRP. Ex situ conservation is implemented in seed genebanks and field genebanks. The national collection consists of landraces and wild and weedy relatives (both as seed and vegetative collections). The main users of the material are the plant breeders and researchers from both Turkey and abroad. The storage facilities of the AARI Gene Bank have been designed for the needs of long-term (-18°C) and medium-term storage (0°C) for both base and active collections, respectively (Tan 1992). For temporary storage aluminium laminated foils are used. All the conditions in the genebank comply with internationally recommended standards. For the safety-duplicates of the base collection other storage facilities are available in Ankara at the Central Research Institute for Field Crops (CRIFC).The beet collections are part of the National Plant Genetic Resources Collection. Therefore all beet accessions are maintained according to the same procedure as other materials.Three projects were initiated to conserve the priority species in situ. These projects are directly or indirectly related to in situ conservation of beet species. They are summarized below:In situ conservation of wild species: in situ conservation activities began in 1993. The \"In Situ Conservation of Genetic Project\" of Turkey aims to maintain the wild crop genetic resources in their natural habitats. This project considers both woody and non-woody crop relatives with an integrated multi-species and multi-site approach (Firat and Tan 1995). This has been done through conducting ecogeographical surveys and inventories to provide a basis for establishment of in situ Gene Management Zones (GMZs) in selected pilot areas that are rich in target crop wild relatives. The project has initiated and developed a mechanism to foster the ongoing National Plant Genetic Resources Research Programme for identifying, designating and managing the areas specifically for in situ conservation of nationally and globally significant wild crop relatives which originated in Turkey (Tan 1998). The project also aims at integrating in situ conservation complementary with the existing ex situ conservation programme of Turkey. The highest priorities have been given to globally significant non-woody crop species, which are in the first genepool of cereals as well as important woody species and selected forest species. Although priority has not been given to Beta species, some of the Beta species which have been found in the GMZs as associated species of target plants will be conserved in situ. Beets have also been included in the priority list of the National Plan for in situ conservation.In situ (on-farm) conservation of landraces: Turkey has initiated a project on \"In Situ onfarm conservation of landraces from the transitional zone in Turkey\" in 1999. This project is involved in the in situ (on-farm) conservation of local crops, cultivars (or landraces) with active participation of farmers. Socioeconomic and ecogeographical surveys were conducted in the northwestern transitional zone adjacent to northwestern Black Sea, northeastern Aegean and central Anatolian Regions to determine the distribution of landraces and the socioeconomic status of landraces cultivation. A database of the information compiled from the surveys has been established. During the surveys, existing landraces have been collected and maintained ex situ which will be complementary to in situ (on-farm) conservation. Landrace(s) of hulled wheat, bean, chickpea and lentil were selected as target species and agromorphological variation analyses were conducted. The candidate Gene Management Zones (GMZs) were determined for the possibility of in situ (on-farm) conservation of target species. Data compiled from surveys and genetic analysis has been analyzed using Geographical Information Systems (GIS); maps are prepared to better understand ecogeographic and agromorphological variation of targeted landraces throughout the region. Since beet landraces are cultivated in the region where the project was conducted, the inventory of beet landraces was also identified within the framework of the project.Ecosystem conservation and management for threatened plant species: the overall objective of this project is the conservation and management of wetlands of steppe ecosystems, which are important plant areas (IPAs) for endangered herbaceous plant species listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. Beta adanensis is one of the listed species. Therefore this endemic wild beet species is one of the target species for conservation and management for sustainable protection. This project started in 2000 to initiate a collaborative work between the Ministry of Environment (MOE) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) and the Turkish NGO \"Association for the Conservation of Nature\" (member of the World Conservation Union, IUCN) for conservation and management of wetlands of steppe ecosystems. Goals to achieve the overall objectives mentioned above are: a) identification of IPAs in the project area, b) data management, c) raising awareness and public participation, d) managing the designated IPAs for sustainable use by management plan, d) monitoring the selected areas.The multiplication and regeneration procedures are similar for all Turkish collections. The regeneration of beet genetic resources collections is undertaken when the viability has dropped below 80%. Multiplication of the accessions is carried out when the quantity of the accessions decreases to a certain level. The multiplication or regeneration sites are chosen, wherever possible, according to similarity of ecology to those of the sites from which the accessions were originally collected. To avoid contamination (gene flow) the breeding system and reproductive biology of the species are taken into account during the multiplication/regeneration of accessions. Eighty percent of total Beta accessions have already been multiplied/regenerated.Characterization/evaluation programmes are conducted within the framework of NPGRRP. The data resulting from evaluation carried out by users of the samples are returned if the evaluation and/or characterization work are planned in cooperation within the NPGRRP. An annual report of the characterization/evaluation project provides the results. If the material is distributed to external users, they are requested to provide feedback information to AARI when the research is completed. For the effective and intensive use of genetic resources collections by the breeding programmes, NPGRRP usually cooperate with evaluation/characterization programmes aiming at using this valuable material for breeding.Characterization and evaluation activities started in the late 1980s for beet species. The IBPGR/IPGRI descriptors (IBPGR/CGN 1991) are used with some modifications. The Beta and Corollinae sections' samples collected from Turkey were evaluated for 23 characters and were interpreted with Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Samples of the sections Beta and Corollinae were evaluated and grouped according to the observed characters. The research was supported with meiotic chromosomal behaviour studies on the broadly variable samples. Among section Beta, continuous variation was observed in pigmentation, hairiness, plant habit, flowering, flower and seed clusters, pollen fertility and leaf types, whereas the Corollinae section samples exhibited broad variation in flower and leaf characteristics. Two groups of wild and cultivated types were observed in section Beta samples by PCA analysis. The wild type group consisted of B. maritima, B. trojona and B. adanensis. The section Corollinae samples were grouped with the Beta lomotogona complex, which consists of B. lomatogona, B. intermedia, B. trigyna, B. corolliflora and B. macrorhiza. Both sections were grouped as species complex, not at species level (Tan et al. 2000).Another project, started in 2001, deals with the \"Determination of isozyme variation of beet collection\". Its goal is to identify the isozyme variation, compare the isozyme and morphological variation and interpret this comparison in order to establish a core collection of beet accessions.Documentation is one of the main functions of the NPGRRP for both ex situ and in situ activities. A Database Management System exists for documentation of both ex situ and in situ conservation information. Since the in situ conservation programme is complementary to ex situ conservation, the two databases are linked and complementary to each other. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is available to evaluate the quantitative and spatial data gathered especially from survey and inventory activities. Beta genetic resources data from survey, collecting and characterization activities are documented in the central NPGRRP Database Management System (Tan andTan 1998a, 1998b).The Black Sea coast and Thrace (European part of Turkey) regions will be explored to collect the existing wild species and landraces. Multiplication/regeneration and documentation are the routine activities for beet collection, to be continued in the near future. Further evaluation will be conducted for old collections which were already characterized. Characterization of the new accessions will be undertaken.Approximately 1 million ha of sugar beets are grown by farmers from year to year for sugar production in the Ukraine. In addition, about 9000 ha are seed production areas that are mainly concentrated in the Black Sea region using direct planting methods and some areas in the Central part using an indirect method of steckling cultivation. All research activities on beet, including a Beta germplasm collection, are managed by the Institute for Sugar Beet (ISB). Practical breeding work is carried out by six breeding stations located in different climate zones of Ukraine.Beta germplasm research activities in the Ukraine are maintained by the Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Science (UAAS) as a part of the National Plant Genetic Resources programme. Currently there are more than 361 accessions in the ISB collection that represent 12 species of Beta. The largest part consists of 275 Beta vulgaris accessions that were added from breeding programmes. Some of them as well as wild Beta accessions are being obtained from the collections abroad and breeding companies worldwide. Seeds are packed in airtight foil bags and stored in separate rooms. All accessions are available for distribution. Moreover all Breeding Stations have their own Beta germplasm collections with a broad spectrum of accessions obtained from conventional breeding programmes.The main task of the ISB collection is to provide breeders with a sufficient quality and quantity of seeds. Therefore accessions with low germination capacity or seed number must be multiplied. The work is usually carried out on the experimental plots or greenhouses of Breeding Stations linked to the ISB system. The process of multiplication includes two steps: 1) seed germination and steckling production on experimental plots or in a greenhouse; 2) seed beet cultivation from stecklings in isolation cages.Until today, Ukraine seemed to be \"unknown territory\" as regards national Beta genetic resources. For example, only one accession of Beta trigyna from the Crimean Peninsula is present in the ISB collection and no detailed information is available from scientific literature. A new project started recently within the framework of the European Science Foundation programme \"Assessment of the Impacts of Genetically Modified Plants\". Both German and Ukrainian scientists examined the potential impact of gene flow from transgenic beet on wild and weed beet populations in Ukraine, a task that started in 2001. Germplasm collection and local wild beet habitat examination have been carried out in the Black Sea region. As a result, the ISB collection increased by new 7 Beta maritima and 10 Beta trigyna populations from the Crimean Peninsula. Some weed beet infestation has been identified, probably as a result of gene flow between cultivated and wild beet accessions. The problem has increased during 20 years of conventional sugar beet seed production in Crimea and the Odessa region (Fig. 1).Legend: stars = Beta maritima; dots = Beta trigyna. Filled symbols (stars and dots) represent accessions that were used for isozyme analyses for this study (accessions 77-82 = sea beets, 100 = Beta trigyna). The local sugar beet seed production area is surrounded by a dotted line Beta vulgaris constitutes a highly variable group, in which it is often difficult to distinguish between cultivated and wild forms (Bartsch and Ellstrand 1999). This is mainly due to the extensive use of sea beet (B. vulgaris subsp. maritima Arcang.) gene resources in conventional breeding programmes. Sea beet is largely a coastal taxon, with a wide distribution from the Canary and Cape Verde Islands in the west, northward along Europe's Atlantic coast to the North and Baltic Seas. It also extends eastward through the Mediterranean region into Asia where it occurs in Asia Minor, in the central and outer Asiatic steppes, and desert areas as far as western India. Sea beet varies from self-compatible annuals to self-incompatible, iteroparous perennials with a life span between one and more than eight years (Desplanque et al. 1999). Cultivated B. vulgaris, including Swiss chard, red garden beet and sugar beet, are biennial. The latter is partially self-incompatible due to the extensive use of male sterility genes in sugar beet breeding. All cultivated and wild subspecies of B. vulgaris are mostly wind-pollinated, although some insect pollination has been noted.In our latest study we examined wild beet accessions of Ukrainian origin. Allozyme diversity was assayed on 7 accessions collected in 2001 and compared with other beet accessions (Table 1) according to the methodology of Bartsch and Ellstrand (1999). We found that Crimean wild beets belong to two different taxa: B. trigyna and B. vulgaris subsp. maritima (Fig. 2). The results clearly revealed significantly greater genetic diversity of Ukrainian sea beet accessions in comparison with other European accessions (Fig. 3). Based on the genetic diversity statistics, gene flow measured as N m within Ukrainian accessions seems to be higher than in other accession groups (Table 2). Gene flow between wild and cultivated accessions is difficult to control and must be minimized in seed production areas. The genetic distance of Ukrainian sea beets is relatively far from European sea beets (Fig. 2). As a first conclusion of our allozyme analysis, Ukrainian wild beet should be regarded as a valuable plant genetic resource. However, more data on the local distribution of wild and weed beet accessions in the Ukraine are necessary in order to support monitoring and conservation programmes.     A project studying gene flow amongst natural populations of B. vulgaris subsp. maritima in the UK (in collaboration with Dr Alan Raybould) is now nearing completion. New SSR markers were developed and used in a high throughput system employing the ABI 3700 DNA sequencer. A set of six microsatellite markers for sea beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima) have been developed as well as three universal chloroplast CAPS markers to study gene flow between ten natural populations of sea beet around Poole Harbour, Dorset, UK. Four out of the six microsatellite markers were used in the study, all of which were highly polymorphic with between eight and 40 alleles being present across all of the populations. None of the universal chloroplast CAPS markers were found to be polymorphic. Fis estimates for each of the populations were significantly different from zero, which has been shown to be due to small allele dominance of the microsatellite markers and due to low levels of inbreeding. From sequencing data it was found that the microsatellite alleles did not differ in size simply by repeat number and so both Rst and Fst were estimated. Fst and Rst both showed isolation by distance although despite our markers not following a strict stepwise mutation model, Rst showed a much more significant correlation with distance than Fst. These new results will be used in a comparison with data obtained from the same populations ten years ago (Andy Cureton).Six microsatellite markers derived from sugar beet have been used to study the population structure of natural populations of sea beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima) from polluted (Sand Bay, area 1) and unpolluted areas (Combe Martin Bay, area 2; Morte Bay, area 3) of the North Somerset coast. High levels of polymorphism were detected (on average 9.5 alleles per locus). Areas 1 and 3 showed the highest number of alleles. In area 2 a high level of homozygosity was detected. Cluster analysis and principal coordinates analysis based on percentage similarity matrix revealed a clear genetic differentiation between plants from Combe Martin Bay and plants from Sand Bay and Morte Bay. The analysis did not allow a separation of the sea beet populations from Sand Bay and Morte Bay and it is therefore possible that gene flow might be occurring between areas 1 and 3. Area 2 appears to be genetically different from areas 1 and 3, which have a similar allele frequency. Interestingly, in the polluted area (Sand Bay) one specific allele was observed at an extremely high frequency when compared to the two unpolluted areas. Via undergraduate research projects there will be continued monitoring of both the spread of the various populations (via GPS) and their genetic makeup.In 1991-1992 Dr Richard Hannan, Horticultural Crops Curator at the USDA-ARS WRPIS, grew 10 accessions of Beta vulgaris L. for the beet curator, Peter Lundeen, at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Ames, IA. That Plant Introduction Station had been contracting beet increases in Utah, but the quantity and quality of the seed produced were suspect. Following successful seed increases at WRPIS in the 1992 and 1993 seasons in terms of seed quantity, discussions ensued for the transfer of the Beta collection to WRPIS. Contingent on funding, the entire Beta collection was transferred to WRPIS in 1994 and was assigned to Dr Alan Hodgdon to curate. In 1995 Hodgdon and Hannan designed and constructed new cloth pollination cages for field production.Preliminary studies had shown that WRPIS could provide good pollen exclusion by using these new cages during the flowering and fruit set period of growth. However, from 1996 to 1999 there were mixed results at the Central Ferry, Washington location. In 1997, 1998, and 1999 a few lines were planted at the Pullman, Washington location as well, but there were significant amounts of roots frozen in the plots. While trying to get a reliable and reproducible field production programme going, Dr Hodgdon established a greenhouse programme that continued to produce seed from the accessions that were too vulnerable to put into field production.Because of the increasing backlog of accessions needing increase, in 2000, Dr Hannan conducted a preliminary trial to modify the field increase programme fall planting and the use of simple cold frames to protect the plots through the winters. Results from the 2001 crop looked promising and a replicated trial was conducted at both the Central Ferry and Pullman locations. Seed yields from this study at the two locations differed significantly. There was excellent survival of the plants through the 2001-2002 winter, but the heat in the controlled pollination cages at Central Ferry reduced fruit set and seed yield significantly at that location. In contrast, seed yield at the Pullman location appears to have been excellent. At this time, the seed still has not been cleaned and weighed, but the differences between the two sites will not only be significant, it will be exponential. However, the results of seed germination tests will be critical. For the 2002-2003 season, caged beet field plots will only be planted at the Pullman location.Seed increase issues (see Table 1)The backlog of seed needing increase exceeds our capacity to grow it all under greenhouse conditions. So, a high quality, reliable field increase programme needs to be developed. Most accessions of all of the wild species of Beta need increase. At Pullman, these must be done under greenhouse conditions. Almost 25% of the Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima need increase. These may or may not be able to be done in the field. This must be investigated.The GRIN system has 2447 Beta accessions, the majority of which are Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris (Table 3) and represent improved germplasm early open-pollinated varieties developed in the United States and throughout the world (Table 4). Some of the most interesting accessions are those in the taxon, Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima, which are a rich source of disease resistance genes and are being aggressively evaluated -23 419 evaluations through 1999 (descriptors x accessions evaluated -see Table 5). The USDA-ARS NPGS Beta Core Collection (Hannan et al. 2000) consists of 110 accessions from B. v. subsp. maritima (68 accessions of the 572 in the collection) and B. v. subsp. vulgaris (42 accessions). The improved sugar beet germplasm, which makes up the bulk of the 1667 B. v. subsp. vulgaris accessions, has not been integrated into the core collection at this point.Evaluations of selected germplasm accessions from the USDA-ARS Beta Collection have been coordinated by the U.S. Sugarbeet Crop Germplasm Committee since 1985 and, therefore, each year that the collection has been housed at WRPIS. In addition, starting in 2001, digital images have been acquired for each accession being increased at WRPIS and these images have been loaded onto GRIN. To date, images of 239 accessions have been loaded onto GRIN from WRPIS and by other evaluators. Dr Hodgdon at WRPIS has compiled descriptions of 584 accessions as they have been increased in the field and greenhouse. These data are being loaded into GRIN. This information can be found in GRIN at the NPGS Web home page (http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/) and the specific site of the Beta germplasm descriptors (http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/desclist.pl?49) where rhizoctonia, cercospora, root maggot, curly top and rhizomania are accompanied in \"code values\" list by photographs that illustrate the values. The International Database for BetaFederal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) Gene Bank, Braunschweig, GermanyA. Passport Modules -Identification of duplicates, rationalization of collections and implementation of a database concept for sharing of responsibilities 1. Data resources for identification of duplicates, rationalization of collections and sharing of responsibilities The potential benefits, the requirements and the possible mechanisms for sharing of responsibilities have recently been described in a more general context by Frison et al. (2002). With rising costs and diminishing resources, especially working capacity, it became evident that rationalization of collections will be a prerequisite to maintain high standards of conservation. Within the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) this resulted in an upcoming discussion on rationalization of collections by searching for duplicates within the collections held at the multitude of European genebanks and sharing of responsibilities for duplicate groups. After many years of discussion of this issue, concrete actions have to be undertaken to obtain the potential benefits of the concept. Three basic approaches have been considered for rationalization of collections and sharing of responsibilities (Gass and Begemann 1999):Sharing of responsibilities on a crop-by-crop basis; Sharing of responsibilities on a regional or subregional basis; and Sharing of responsibilities on an accession basis.Sharing of responsibilities on an accession basis is the current practice within the ECP/GR programme. Gass and Begemann (1999) outlined the pivotal role of central crop databases in the process of sharing of responsibilities, especially on an accession basis.Savings resulting from sharing of responsibilities on an accession basis are based on the idea of a differential and hierarchical seed stock management as outlined by Bücken and Frese (1999). This is based on the following experiences and paradigms:-In most cases requests are the main reason for the decrease in viable seeds in genebanks. -Most seed requests are unspecified.-\"Just in time\" delivery of germplasm availability has to be abandoned.-The \"one-to-one philosophy\" of active to base collection has to be abandoned.-Regarding regeneration of accessions, a priority system has to be established.The conceptual framework has been further refined and a database design treating duplication, sharing of responsibilities and rationalization of plant genetic resources collections has been presented by Germeier et al. (2003). These concepts have been implemented in the International Database for Beta (IDBB) since 1999 (Germeier and Frese 2000).Sharing of responsibilities on an accession basis and the search for duplication in collections which is its precondition have to be based on a wealth of information including knowledge of the holding genebanks and international crop experts. Fig. 1 gives an overview of basic modules necessary for a comprehensive documentation of plant genetic resources. The IDBB began with collection of passport data from 28 collections, including non-European ones, in 1989 (Frese and Hintum 1989). Since 1996 a standardized multicrop passport format (Hazekamp et al. 1997) has been agreed on for the transfer of accession data (accession passport data) from the various genebanks to the ECP/GR central crop databases. These \"multicrop formatted passport data\" are located in our current databases within an ACCESSION table listing accession data as accession number, donor, donor number and information on the status of an accession in the holding collection along with original accession data provided by the holding genebank.By manual or computer-assisted duplicate search, accessions are collected into duplicate groups. Treating the problem of duplication within the genebank network in central crop databases has to take into account the following facts:1. Passport data describing the origin for a set of duplicate accessions (duplicate group) should be identical. According to the normalizing concept in relational database theory, these common data should be extracted into a new table with only one entry for each duplicate group. 2. Compilation of duplicate groups is often highly hypothetical (Hintum and Visser 1995) and based only on similarities (not even identities) in passport data. Thus the database design has to allow for changing the classification into duplicate groups without loss or change of original information.These items have been treated in the IDBB by dividing passport information into two major tables (Fig. 2): GENOTYPE, which describes the origin or genetic identity of a duplicate group, and ACCESSION, which describes individual accessions of a \"genotype'\" stored in different genebanks. Referring to a common origin -see table ORIGIN in Germeier and Frese (2000) -we now prefer GENOTYPE as the name for this table. It indicates that genetic entities are assumed to be represented by the duplicate groups. Yet the term \"genotype\" does not imply genetic homogeneity. Depending on the breeding system, sample status and scope of the collection, genotypes may be inbred lines, cultivars or wild material of self-pollinating or outcrossing species as in the case of the genus Beta or even heterogeneous populations as in the cases of landraces or multilines. Nevertheless they are genotypic entities defined by their common genetic origin as indicated in their passport descriptors. Further normalization of the data suggests additional modules for taxonomy and pedigree, each with its specific functionality. Modules for documenting eco-and ethnobotanic data such as habitats, geographic distribution, plant associations (flora), local names and utilization as crops have already been implemented as table structures into the IDBB, but not yet filled in with data. These modules will be of special interest for the in situ conservation of plant genetic resources. Central modules for managing addresses (donors, holders, collectors and breeders of accessions), geographic locations, and projects (collecting missions or evaluation projects) connect the two major parts of a genetic resources documentation system, passport and characterization/evaluation data. The latter will be discussed in a separate section below. A literature base refers to any kind of object in the database. In future, genome data will additionally span over passport, characterization and evaluation data.A central European Internet Search Catalogue (EURISCO) will be implemented and hosted at IPGRI (http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/epgris/index.htm) within an EU-funded documentation project (EPGRIS). It will be based on a revised flat file FAO/IPGRI Multicrop descriptors list (EURISCO/MCPDv2). Centralizing the acquisition of original genebank data and providing regularly updated passport information on an accession level, it will be able to feed or replace the ACCESSION table in our current IDBB architecture (Fig. 1). Nevertheless the central crop databases will also play an important role in identification of duplicates and resulting activities such as rationalization of collections and sharing of responsibilities and fulfil additional important tasks in genetic resources documentation.There is a strong wish in several crop networks and working groups to include non-European data, especially from the United States and Canada, into the central crop databases. Duplication is evident between European and American collections. The IDBB, since its initiation, has included 2255 accessions from the US collection (Beltsville Agricultural Research Centre, Plant Genetics and Germplasm Institute). We explored the possibility of including these accessions in a regular update procedure. We forwarded further data (evaluation and characterization data) to the IDBB in discussions with database managers in Beltsville in summer 2000. There are no general obstacles for doing so, but several major data warehousing problems have to be solved. The GRIN system used in the US and Canada is designed at a higher level of granularity than the IDBB. Especially in the field of passport data it deviates largely from the concepts implemented in European databases and the ECP/GR MCPD format. Identification of accessions, with the aim of searching for duplication, was not seen as a priority task when designing the GRIN system. Instead it has been optimized for easily finding any kind of identifiers irrespective of their types as accession numbers, donor numbers, collecting numbers, stock numbers, accession or cultivar names.Table 1 gives an overview of MCPDv2 descriptors and their representation within normalized concepts of the IDBB and within the GRIN system. It is evident that entities in the IDBB concept are often represented by multiple entities in GRIN. On the other hand, accession and donor numbers, breeding stock numbers and collecting numbers are all entered as plantid into the AN (annotate names) table. Donors, breeders and collectors are found as cno into the SMBR (source member) table. Qualifiers identifying types of both entities (idtype, srctype) are implemented but often not filled with data.Providing a framework for storing corrected, harmonized and normalized data as well as original data provided by holding genebanks for their accessions within duplicate groups Update of passport data up to now has been achieved from Dbase files containing a list of accessions provided by each genebank in the MCPD format. Besides new entries, these update lists frequently contain alterations in data sets already present in the database. In a complex relational database system, a mere replacement of the old data with new ones is not possible due to violation of integrity constraints set up by foreign keys from other tables during the replacement process. Furthermore it is not even feasible to simply replace older information. Not all alterations really improve the correctness of the data set, and attributes relating e.g. to taxonomic systems undergo frequent modifications related to changing taxonomic concepts. Recourse to the most original information and the history of changes would be feasible in many of these cases. Fig. 2 shows a database design for passport data, providing corrected, harmonized and original information at various levels.Passport information held in GENOTYPE and related tables (SITE for collecting sites and several tables for breeding and pedigree data) is compiled for a whole duplicate group in a standardized and corrected manner from all information provided by the genebanks holding the individual accessions (see above, section 1). Thus duplication can also be a chance for broadening the information base for a group of duplicate accessions. Normally these tables start out with taking over passport information from the best informant genebank for each duplicate group, whereby \"best\" means the most complete and correct passport data set. Further standardization, correction and completion are achieved gradually by the central crop database manager and compilation algorithms in the database.The ACCESSION table gives information about duplicate status, responsibility of genebanks for accessions of a duplicate group, assignment of accessions to a core collection, number of user requests and similar information specific to a duplicate accession in a certain genebank. It also holds all original passport information contributed by the various genebanks holding the duplicate accessions in the original MCPD format. The apparent redundancy of information in GENOTYPE and related tables is necessary to provide original as well as standardized and corrected passport information. The latter is presented to the user, while original information should be provided on special request and in cases of doubt and disagreement.Incoming database updates will be first checked against the original information in the ACCESSION table, which will be updated with changed original information. Alterations of original data provided by holding genebanks are automatically detected by the database application and logged, if considered important by the database managers, in a table named ACCESSIONUPDATE. This guarantees that information referred to in (older) scientific literature will not be lost by database updates.In cases of alterations to already existing accession data, the database manager will be prompted to check whether the new information could also improve describing information in the tables representing the harmonized genotype information. Alterations to genotype entries are logged in a table GENOTYPEUPDATE (Fig. 2).Updating and importing passport data should generally be accomplished with a duplicate search comparing the newly introduced or updated accessions with already existing entries in the database (Fig. 3). Scanning databases with several thousands of entries for duplicates manually would be very time-consuming and ineffective. Nevertheless many duplicate groups in the IDBB have already been established this way by Frese and Hintum (1989). During future updates of passport data from information provided by EURISCO or the holding genebanks, additional duplicates may be detected with the help of automated procedures. Fig. 3 gives a flow diagram of procedures for duplicate check and logging implemented in the MCPD update procedures of the IDBB. A common definition of duplication in genetic resources collections refers to a common origin, which may be known from data documenting the exchange between genebanks (accession information) or may be assumed by similarities in passport data referring to the origin of an accession (collecting or breeding information/genotype information). Table 2 gives an overview of these types of information and resulting strategies for searching duplicates.Algorithms implemented in the IDBB for searching duplicates compare the numeric parts of accession identifiers (accession numbers, donor numbers, collecting numbers, accession names) and make an in-string search for finding accessions with similar accession names. Biological duplication categories have been described by Hintum and Knüpffer (1995). These are listed in Table 3 with 3-letter codes, which will be found in the descriptor \"duplicate type\" within the ACCESSION table. It will not always be possible to assign a sample to one of the biologically meaningful categories shown in Table 3a, as the origin of a sample and its maintenance history, both of which have a great influence on the genetic composition of a duplicate accession, can be obscure. But if details of the sample's history are known, it can facilitate decisions on the maintenance responsibility (Table 3b). Decisions on sharing of responsibilities will be agreed upon in forthcoming discussions within the working group and will be documented in the descriptors \"responsibility\" and \"restriction\" within the ACCESSION table. Primary responsibility is assumed by a partner genebank for primary genetic resources (PGR), which may be most original samples (MOS) in the biological sense or for political reasons (sovereign rights over national genetic resources). But primary responsibility is defined not necessarily from biological or geographic criteria. It rather describes the duty of fulfilling certain standards of maintenance of and access to the germplasm, which includes holding a base sample and an available active sample of the accession as well as storing samples as safety-duplicates at partner genebanks. Thus the responsibility agreed on for an accession determines its status in the store and the maintenance efforts that have to be provided by the holding genebank (Table 4). Relevant for trusteeship in sharing of responsibilities are responsibilities for primary genetic resources (PGR) and safety-duplicate samples (SDS), which were agreed on during the first meeting of the Working Group on Beta (Discussion and recommendations, pp. 1-14 in Maggioni et al. 2000). Genebanks are free to store further samples if they wish, for example if a specific sample is frequently used and quick users' access has to be guaranteed. Reference samples (REF), project or working (PRO) and demonstration samples (DMS) can be held even if from the global point of view they are superfluous as they belong to a duplicate group for which a partner genebank has accepted primary responsibility. Reference samples (REF) may remain as duplicates in the base collection because they have been referenced in scientific publications or are considered valuable for other reasons, project samples (PRO) may be held as an active working collection for project purposes, demonstration samples (DMS) for public awareness raising projects. Decisions on responsibility for certain duplicate accessions may be pending (PEN). If a genebank rejects (REJ) the responsibility after consulting its partners, the accession can be returned to the original donor, reside inactive in the collection or be discarded.Several restrictions may be applied to accessions of different responsibility type. Normally accessions belonging to a genebank's primary responsibility have to be kept available and public (PUB). They belong to the active collection (ACO). Access to others may be restricted (RES) or even embargoed (EMB), especially if there is no primary responsibility of the holding genebank.There is no access to the safety-duplicate collection which thus is also embargoed (EMB) and belongs to the base collection (BAS) of a genebank. Accessions may be temporarily out of an active collection (TOC) for technical reasons or if important information such as taxonomy is unclear.Characterization and evaluation data form an important part of genetic resources documentation. Much more than passport data, they are characterized by great heterogeneity, which is a result of the various potentially useful traits, of different methodological approaches and the scientific and methodological progress in characterizing and evaluating crops.Resulting from projects initiated in the framework of the Council Regulation 1467/94 of the Commission of the European Countries (\"GENRES\"), a wealth of characterization and evaluation data has been accumulated, which must be documented and made available on the Internet. More than 20 000 observations have been entered into the IDBB as a result of the project GENRES CT95-42, which is about half of all characterization and evaluation data currently available from the database (44 750). They deal with 689 evaluated accessions of a larger core collection and 577 accessions which were characterized mainly during seed multiplication. In total, 44 descriptors were applied within this project: they were evaluated using 50 methods in 54 experiments.This contribution gives an overview of database structures handling characterization and evaluation data, as currently implemented in the IDBB, with special reference to practical considerations relevant for contributors of data. Fig. 4 gives an overview of basic modules interacting for documentation of characterization and evaluation data and for providing important interfaces to passport and breeding data. The single observation conceptThe observation table (ACCESSIONOBSERVATION) represents the core of the characterization and evaluation module within the IDBB. As early as 1992 a design principle was introduced to the IDBB (Hintum and Hazekamp 1992), which is also used in the GRIN databases (http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/aboutgrin.html, USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network) and denoted there as the \"single observation concept\". This means that different descriptors are not presented in a spreadsheet-like manner as attributes (columns of a table, see Table 5a), but as foreign keys within tuples (rows) relating to descriptive tables (Table 5b). Each row (tuple) represents exactly one observation regardless of descriptor, method and experiment. These are explained by reference to descriptive tables (Fig. 5). All tuples (observations) have a common set of attributes giving observation details such as date of observation, development stage of the crop observed, various dimensions of observation results (measurements, percentages and scores), descriptive statistics (mean, median, maximum, minimum), distribution parameters, etc. (Table 8).   -High flexibility in accepting any information.-Little or no need for methodological standardization and data abstraction. -Heterogeneous populations and peculiarities describable in a more (Hintum 1989) or less formalized way. Characterization and evaluation data from project GENRES CT95-42 have reached the database as aggregated data (means of field replications). Several project partners also sent additional descriptive statistics, such as minimum, maximum, standard deviation, standard errors or additional frequencies (e.g. of infected plants) to the database manager. Table ACCESSIONOBSERVATION and the importing procedures were originally designed to deal with such data. For enabling re-evaluation or additional statistical analysis, it would be preferable that the database stores single plot or single plant results (\"raw data\"). For this purpose an additional table RAWDATA has been included in the characterization and evaluation module of the IDBB (see Fig. 5).The database application generates aggregated data (mean, standard error, range) from the raw data automatically and writes them into the tables ACCESSIONOBSERVATION and STANDARDOBSERVATION. The latter table keeps experimental results for genotypes explicitly used as standard cultivars apart from the accession results. This makes algebraic operations involving comparisons with standard cultivars easier to perform.Special problems are related to heterogeneous populations as often found in accessions of landraces or wild populations. Heterogeneity can be indicated by distribution parameters (range, mean, median, skewedness, kurtosis) if the principle of one row (tuple) per observation is adhered to. Another, more complicated approach would be using the percentage field for relating scores or measurement results to frequencies within one plot.Hintum (1989) described a coding system facilitating description of heterogeneity in field work. It implies use of characters and special signs and thus is not very appropriate for automatic analysis but is very useful as an easy-to-use standard text format for describing heterogeneity in field work. Procedures for automatically extracting numeric data can be easily made available. With slight modifications, this coding system is generally suggested for communicating heterogeneity observed in characterization and evaluation plots to the IDBB. It follows the procedure listed below:1. Put the scores of the separate fractions in decreasing order of frequency. The most frequent score(s) should be in the first position(s), the rarest in the last position(s). 2. If there are two fractions of similar size, put an '=' sign between their scores. 3. If the ratio between a (group of) fraction(s) and the dominating one(s) is between 1.5 and 5.0 put one 'x' before this (group of) fraction(s); if the ratio is larger than 5.0, put 'xx' before it. This allows for differentiating three fractions. Example: A=BxC=DxxE=F=G means: Two major fractions A, B (30-35%) , two minor fractions C, D (5-25%) and three rare fractions E, F, G with less than 5%.Algorithms have been implemented in the database application, extracting a mean value and the range from inputs, keeping these conventions and storing them in additional numeric fields, which facilitates look-up and sorting procedures within these data.IDBB Importing mechanisms for evaluation and characterization data to the IDBB are now implemented for importing data from various Excel data sheets. The database automatically generates descriptive statistics as means, standard errors, coefficients of variation, minimum, maximum etc. It would be preferable if all raw data, not only aggregated data (means) were delivered to the database (see above, section 3). Also, data would be better explained if respective development stages of the crop, or at least the date of the observation, could be provided. Repeated measurements or scores can be imported from multiple columns as well as from multiple rows. Naming of columns is not of importance (only names should be understandable to the database manager) because the import facilities allow for separately defining the relationship of each column in an Excel sheet to the database objects. Experimental and methodological details should be provided separately to the database manager as in the \"Materials and methods\" section of scientific papers. As seen in Fig. 5 they can be stored in tables EXPERIMENT, SITE (not shown in Fig. 5), TREATMENT, DESCRIPTOR, METHOD and KEY.From experience with the implementation and testing of importing procedures for Excel sheets, some suggestions can be made for further data transfer to the database. Keeping to certain standards within the Excel files, whose data need to be imported into the database makes this task easier to automate:-Data in Excel sheets should be atomized, which means that only one number or code should be entered into one cell of the Excel sheet. Different information should not be merged or intermingled in one column. -Absolute values for measurements and counts are generally preferred.-Mixing of different data types (number, character) in one column should be avoided.-Coded scores should keep to the standards of the descriptor lists (scores 1-9 or 0,1 in most cases). Additional codes like '+', '-', 'plus' etc. should be avoided. Blank (NULL) should exclusively indicate missing observations and vice versa. -Heterogeneity in observations of one plot can be coded as described above (section 4).The database is able to store these data in their original form as well as extract a mean, minimum and maximum value.Table 9 shows an example of a worksheet optimized for easy gathering of detailed data in the field and automated import into the database The general philosophy used in the documentation of characterization and evaluation data in the IDBB is outlined as follows:1. Store all data in its original form as far as possible.2. Measurement data in SI units are generally preferred. Algorithms to generate easy-toread scores from measurement data can be made available more or less easily. Algorithms leading back from scores to measurements will never be available. 3. Offer the user an easy-to-read universal score (1-9) for initial guidance, but also allow him to access the original data.To achieve these tasks, several procedures for harmonizing original data, which are first stored in the field OriginalScore and which can generate a universal score, are implemented in the database application (Fig. 6). For easy interrogation of the database and to provide a quick overview of data, universal scores (1-9), which make the data easily comparable regardless of descriptors, methodological or experimental details, should be provided for all data. They imply a major simplification of the original data and a great loss of information. Thus they should not be the primary way to store data in the characterization and evaluation module, but an additional feature assisting the user to gain a quick overview of the data.Algorithms for generating universal scores may be based on distribution parameters for an experiment, on regression models taking into account environmental and agronomic experimental information or on standard cultivars. Some approaches for generating universal scores and some advantages and shortcomings are listed in Table 10. These algorithms and resulting entries in the field \"UniversalScore\" are capable of regular improvement and adaptation to descriptors and methodology. Standard cultivars should be defined within descriptor lists and method descriptions and should be used in all evaluation and characterization work.Algebraic and statistical analysis greatly improve the usefulness of characterization and evaluation data. This should be kept in mind when designing methodology, especially scoring systems. The suggestions listed below for the design of rating keys lead to a more consistent quantification of scoring results: -Transforming qualitative observations (colours, habit descriptions, site descriptors, etc.) into numbers makes sense, if this is intended as a step to quantification and the figures are open to meaningful algebraic and sorting procedures. In other cases, use of short words instead of keys avoids confusion and the possibility of unjustified quantification. -Quantification of qualitative traits is feasible if it leads to a meaningful ranking, e.g. using scales from bright to dark, low to high, sparse to complete soil cover or indicating economic value. The design of rating keys should strictly follow such rankings. -Rating keys should be restricted to figures (preferably 0-9) and not contain characters or special signs (0,1 instead of -,+ etc.) -The availability of example cultivars greatly facilitates the use of rating keys. Example varieties are defined for rating keys of several descriptors by UPOV descriptor lists and the German BSA (Federal Office of Plant Varieties).    The sea beet, classified Beta vulgaris L. subsp. maritima L. Arcang. by Lange et al. (1999), is quite common along the Adriatic coast of the Po delta (Barstch 1999). The species, considered to be the progenitor of cultivated beets (McGrath et al. 1999), is characterized by a remarkable genetic and phenotypic variability. Its adaptive ability allows it to grow even on salty soils and in conditions of limited availability of water. This genetic variability may be an adaptive response to environmental stresses (Hanson and Wyse 1982). Besides being a source of genetic resistance to sugar beet diseases such as cercospora and rhizomania, the sea beet is also arousing great interest as possible source of resistance to abiotic stress (Luterbacher and Smith 1998).Hybridization between sugar beet and sea beet is easy due to their genetic affinity (Hjerdin et al. 1994). Experiments in transferring useful traits to the cultivated varieties began toward the end of the 19 th century in different countries, but only the work carried out by Munerati brought significant results (Munerati et al. 1913).In the summer of 1909, this author collected seed on the right bank of the Po di Levante river (Fig. 1), close to its mouth at the Adriatic sea (Munerati 1946).Mass selections from the plants sown in cultivated soil were followed by several cycles of inbreeding with the objective of fixing the biennial trait. Using predominantly biennial lines, he began to cross it with sugar beet, continuing by a number of backcrossings to eliminate the negative traits of the wild parentage (fangy and fibrous root, tendency to bolting, etc.). Munerati does not mention the specific programme to improve the resistance to cercospora leaf spot (CLS), to which even the sea beet of the Po delta is normally susceptible. Around 1925, he selected genotypes able to reduce or delay the development of the fungus on the leaves. Some lines were forwarded to the breeders working for the US Department of Agriculture (Coons et al. 1955).Further selections improved bolting resistance and after ten years it was possible to release the line R 581, which was considered to show the first substantial progress against the disease (Coons et al. 1975). The line was distributed to public and private breeding stations, and was used directly for a number of commercial varieties classified as CLSresistant.Presently, the increased effort of the breeding companies has produced several improvements in sugar yield and bolting resistance, which only a few years ago were the main disadvantages of the resistant varieties. With the recent breeding progress, the sugar yield of these varieties is today similar to that of the varieties susceptible to CLS (Skaracis and Biancardi 2000). Even with the protection given by genetic resistance and fungicide, the control of the disease is not complete (Stevanato et al. 2002), and a lot of breeding activity is still necessary, especially to reduce the use of fungicides on the crop.The origin of rhizomania resistance, recently reviewed by Biancardi et al. (2002), is probably to be sought in Italian CLS-resistant materials derived from the above-mentioned crosses with sea beet. The authors confirm the hypothesis of the common origin of the supposed qualitative (monogenic) rhizomania resistances well known as \"Rizor type\" and \"Holly type\". The Italian sea beet genotypes, from which CLS resistance was obtained, probably also provided the quantitative (multigenic) resistance to rhizomania shown by the multigerm variety 'Alba P'. Other authors confirmed the presence of rhizomania-resistant genes in sea beet biotypes collected in many parts of the world (Whitney 1989).  populations and identify possible crosses with cultivated beets. Two or three young leaves were sampled from each plant. The DNA was extracted from each leaf using the methods of Doyle and Doyle (1987) and analyzed using the AFLP technique (Bartsch et al. 2002).In order to determine the extent of genetic variation of the morphophysiological characters involved in the mechanisms of response to water and nutritional stress, the parameters \"root length\" and \"sulfate uptake rate\" were measured after water/nutritional stress in 30-day-old sea beet seedlings grown in hydroponics. The objective of this research was to study the mechanisms of adaptation to water/nutritional stress with the aim of identifying the morphological and physiological markers useful for the selection of genotypes tolerant to abiotic stresses (Saccomani et al. 2002).The wild populations must be catalogued and conserved in order to avoid genetic erosion and the risks of gene flow from cultivated to wild beet. Gene flow is possible in the current situation, but it would be more worrying if transgenic varieties were to be grown. As is known, transgenic varieties of sugar beet resistant to herbicides, nematodes and rhizomania are currently under advanced field experimentation (Wenzel 1998). Several researchers pointed out the risk of gene flow caused by the transfer of transgenes from the commercial seed breeding centres in Emilia-Romagna and Veneto to the Adriatic coastal areas. The diffusion of transgenes carried by pollen within the wild populations would probably confer a selective advantage on the hybrids, and therefore it could modify the genetic structure of the populations themselves (Bartsch et al. 1999).The ISCI-Sezione di Rovigo has begun collaboration with the Po Delta Regional Park in order to preserve the natural populations of sea beet. Owing to the decreasing number of plants in the main area concerned (Barstch et al. 2002), the cultivation of plots located in more isolated sites was initiated. The aims of such activity can be summarized as follows: i) identification of the different populations of sea beet and recording of their geographical coordinates; ii) evaluation of the dimensions and phenotypic variability of each population and monitoring of the numeric variation over time; iii) collection and conservation of the seed of populations under genetic erosion. The inspections will permit a complete mapping of the localities and characterization of the factors that determine genetic erosion. The longterm storage of the seed will allow the conservation of the various populations and, if necessary, the restoration of their numbers.The sea beet of the Po delta is of great interest as a source of genetic resistance useful for the cultivated varieties. Because of the land reclamation works and the expansion of the tourist facilities, the number of plants of sea beet is declining in various localities. The main populations were mapped and AFLP analysis of the genetic structure has been performed. In order to preserve this resource, it is necessary to analyze the biodiversity in order to determine the genetic structure of each population. This should allow the detection of any possible future modifications caused by gene flow. It is also necessary to reconsider the policy of in situ conservation of sea beet germplasm in this area.Wild species of cultivated crops often contain genetic variability that is likely to be useful in breeding programmes. If the specific genes are known or can be easily identified, the task of introgressing such genes into crops is straightforward. For the majority of accessions in germplasm collections this is not possible, since we are not aware of the specific genes that control and influence agronomic and horticultural characters. Thus, plant breeders are generally reluctant to introgress wild germplasm into elite genotypes because of the loss of agronomic performance associated with such crosses, unless the specific solution requires the effort needed to backcross for acceptable performance that often adds years to varietal release. Although exact numbers are not known, the amount of allelic diversity present in wild beets may exceed that in sugar beet by 10-fold or more. An assumption is that most of this diversity is not useful, but if only 1% of the allelic variation in the wild species would enhance the agronomic performance of cultivated beets, now or in the future, then efforts to introgress this diversity should be attempted.Introgression of Beta germplasm in varietal development is an enormous task given the number of accessions collected, the number of genes in beet, and the number of environments where beet is grown. Over 2500 Plant Introduction accessions in the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System, over 10 000 Plant Introductions in the BAZ Gene Bank, and germplasm collections throughout the beet growing world, both ex situ and in situ, are held in trust for the preservation of genetic diversity. Part of the justification for collecting and maintaining Beta germplasm is that genes present in wild species, local landraces, alternate crop types, public germplasm releases, and obsolete varieties may contribute to future enhanced germplasm to meet unforeseen genetic crises. Since these are impossible to predict, a balance between the breadth of germplasm collections and the cost of their maintenance requires wise choices of germplasm to include or exclude from collections.All germplasm should be saved by default, but this is impractical. Stratification of collections based on taxonomy, geographic location, representative subsets (e.g. core collections), crop end use, molecular markers and phenotypic characterization (e.g. crop descriptors) are useful in stratifying collections, assessing the depth of collections, and choosing promising accessions for specific genetic deployment. This information will remain the best predictor for germplasm utilization. In the near future, germplasm curators, breeders, and others will have access to additional information that may positively impact germplasm conservation and the practice of its utilization. This paper seeks to identify some of those trends, how they might be important, and how activities related to germplasm conservation may help facilitate incorporation of novel Beta germplasm into improved crop types.Genomic technologies represent the current opportunity to investigate biological form and function. These technologies have evolved from methods developed to investigate the action and inheritance of single genes and genetic elements, but current applications have allowed massive scaling in to look at hundreds and thousands of genetic elements simultaneously or over a short time period, leading to massive amounts of data collected about individual biological processes. Costs of an individual data point have declined dramatically, and this trend is likely to continue to the point where many programmes will be able to apply these technologies locally.The application of these tools to germplasm conservation and germplasm enhancement is receiving high priority. However, the tools have not been sufficiently developed in sugar beet and related species that these applications have become obvious or routine. Reasons for this lack of tools include the rapid, continuing development of the industrial aspects of genomics, which presents a moving target of opportunity for those wishing to make costly capital investments in instrumentation. Also, insufficient time has elapsed for the sugar beet community to have embraced the scale and magnitude of these technology changes and their potential to reveal fundamental and practical information. Further, few examples have been published in sugar beet that might illustrate where and how this technology might best be applied.Perhaps the most compelling reason for adopting these technologies is the ability to survey global gene expression during development or contrasting environments. This ability has never been available routinely to plant breeders, and this change could be profound. Genes cannot and do not work in isolation because the sum total of all genes operating in a plant represent the phenotype, visible at the macrobiotic level but invisible at the molecular level. Parallel gene expression analyses of all, most, or an interesting subset of genes under sets of contrasting conditions can provide a molecular phenotype. Learning to interpret such phenotypes is a challenge, but once known they can be used as any other selection or germplasm characterization criteria. Learning to read the molecular phenotype will be facilitated by extension among all plants, as vascular plants are a monophyletic lineage, and in general and on average, molecular processes will be common in beets and other species. One of the tasks ahead is identify molecular processes in beets that are similar and those that have diversified between plant lineages and within Beta populations.Few crops are in a position to apply molecular phenotypes at present. Investment in gene sequences is required, and this work has just begun for sugar beet. The task will be to obtain sufficient nucleotide sequence information on as many expressed genes as possible, assuming the majority of work in building a plant is accomplished with proteins. With as many as 25 000 identified and putative genes in diploid species such as Arabidopsis and rice, two plants whose entire genomes have been essentially sequenced, a similar number of genes in the sugar beet might be expected. Ideally, all expressed genes will be sequenced but this may also be impractical as some genes may be expressed at extremely low levels or for an extremely short time period or under very specialized conditions. To be able to confidently declare completion of a sequencing effort is virtually impossible with this strategy. The complete genome sequence of sugar beet would be required to begin to address this issue. For Beta species, the entire genome sequence is unlikely to be obtained soon, but progress in developing other genomic tools for beet may accelerate this process.Characterization of the allelic nucleotide sequence diversity at agronomic loci in germplasm collections would be one application in germplasm characterization. Expected decreasing costs in the analyses of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), for example, would make this practical, at least for alleles with reasonably high frequency in germplasm accessions. SNP analyses may better predict phylogenetic relationships between accessions since their genomic locations within the Beta genome(s) would be known (by their virtue of residing in a gene of agronomic importance as identified by functional and inheritance data), and the distribution of different SNP-detected loci could assure reasonable coverage of linkage groups in these phylogenetic studies. Allelic synteny relations, if any, between accessions could also be assessed. This information could be valuable for predicting, for instance, whether sufficient allelic variation exists in any given accession in the case where a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) has been identified but the underlying gene(s) have not yet been identified.Deploying Beta germplasm resources may be facilitated by technological innovations but it cannot supplant agronomic evaluation. This will continue as the most challenging aspect of effective and efficient utilization of germplasm resources. An approach for efficiently deploying germplasm is to specifically introgress wild-type alleles for agronomic traits into cultivated germplasm. These alleles would have been identified at the molecular level by expression profiling as above, or otherwise known through genetic mapping of SNPs, for instance. Once polymorphisms have been identified, generating inbred lines from crosses between the accession(s) carrying the desired allele with a male-sterile, self-fertile tester will be relatively straightforward, and the phenotypic effect of the transferred allele, if any, could be examined. Such an approach would be complemented by gene expression profiling at the molecular phenotypic level, as many genes introgressed in this manner could have subtle effects on expression of other genes at unlinked (or linked) loci but may not have gross phenotypic effects. In particular, genes whose products perceive, transmit, or effect response to stress may show this kind of behaviour.A reasonable alternative in the meantime may exist if, in every seed multiplication, a selffertile and male-sterile plant was included to capture the genetic diversity present in the increase. Seed from such hybrid plants could be grown under field conditions, vernalized if necessary, and self-pollinated by bagging single plants. The actual number of hybrids to be selfed would depend on the cooperators, but a target number of 10 F 2 populations for each accession might be a reasonable compromise. Each of these F 2 populations would then enter into an agronomic evaluation, and promising genotypes would be selected for further inbreeding or outcrossing as desired. Characters normally masked in the wild species, for instance, may surface in later generations and some of these characters could be advantageous for beet breeding. A limitation to this approach is that a sample of genetic diversity from the donor accession will be present in the hybrids chosen for selfing: in the case of 10 hybrids, only 10 donor gametes will have been sampled and rare alleles will be unlikely to be transferred in most instances.The game of germplasm utilization is one of numbers; of accessions, of genes, and of environments. The challenge is to assure that only the most promising materials are used, and developments in functional and structural phenotyping of populations can assist in making wise germplasm deployment choices.Broom's Barn, Higham, Bury St Edmunds, United Kingdom The evaluation of ca. 600 Beta accessions from the BAZ Gene Bank for resistance to eight diseases of major economic importance in the European sugar beet crop was carried out under GENRES CT 95-42. Results obtained from the eleven collaborating institutes showed that highly resistant (category 1: no detectable infection) accessions occurred at a frequency of between 0.2 and 5.0%, depending on the disease. If category 2 (trace of infection) accessions were included, the proportion of resistant accessions increased to between 2.0 and 21.0%.Published information on the identity and location of disease resistance genes in Beta vulgaris is extremely sparse, compared to most other major crop species. Only six major genes, governing resistance to curly top virus, cyst nematode and rhizomania (BNYVV), and located on three chromosomes, have been mapped to date. To improve our understanding of the distribution and interrelationships of major disease resistance genes in the sugar beet genome, mapping populations have been developed from resistant B. vulgaris sources identified in the GENRES programme.For the diseases caused by beet mild yellowing virus (BMYV), beet yellows virus (BYV), Erysiphe betae and Aphanomyces cochlioides, individual plants from each resistant accession were selected following evaluation. Resistant plants (mainly B. vulgaris subsp. maritima) were crossed with a common genetic male-sterile sugar beet line to develop F 1 hybrid populations for analysis.Twenty five individuals from each F 1 generation were screened for resistance using established artificial inoculation techniques under controlled environmental conditions. Segregation was observed in many of these test populations, indicating that the parent had been heterozygous for resistance, and that the F 1 generation was suitable for mapping. In cases where no segregation was observed, indicative of a homozygous resistant parent, highly resistant F 1 individuals were selected for selfing and simultaneous backcrossing to the male-sterile line to produce the segregating F 2 and BC 1 generations required for mapping.To date, approximately 450 F 1 or F 2 mapping populations have been produced, covering sources of resistance to seven diseases. Preliminary screens are being carried out on all of these populations to identify resistance that appears to be under relatively simple genetical control. Future work will involve the genetic analysis of mapping populations, where single genes of large effect have been implicated in the resistance, utilizing AFLP and microsatellite markers to locate genes to chromosomes.Drought limits sugar beet yields in regions such as the UK where seasonal rainfall is insufficient or too erratic and where irrigation is usually not an option. However, to improve the drought tolerance of commercial varieties, sources of drought-tolerant germplasm must be identified. To provide this information, we have developed three controlled environment (CE) screens and one field screen to evaluate diverse Beta germplasm obtained from genebanks and plant breeders: 1) young, pot-grown plants were subjected to a series of stress/recovery cycles -primarily to evaluate shoot growth during and recovery from water deficit; 2) growth of seedlings during four days in vermiculite at high or low matric potential -evaluating ability of roots to grow in dry soil; 3) growth of seedlings for 20 days in sand at high or low penetration resistance -evaluating ability of roots to penetrate hard soil, which usually accompanies soil drying; 4) plants grown to maturity in the field and subjected to a terminal drought -evaluating the yield response and ability of plants to access soil moisture and maintain growth.594 accessions were screened as part of the GENRES CT95-42 project. The genotypes with extreme (high and low) drought scores identified in this study will be studied in greater detail. Also, this method is now being used to test genotypes that have been characterized in the field screen (screen 4) to assess the relationship between the two types of screens. The limited number of genotypes (35) tested so far indicates poor correlation between the drought Susceptibility Index (SI) observed in the field and SI observed in the CE screen. However, the CE screen may be used to identify physiological traits expressed differentially in contrasting, divergent genotypes. This information could be used to explore the genetic basis of specific traits.Preliminary results from 12 genotypes indicate significant genotype x matric potential interactions, indicating that the screen was able to differentiate between genotypes exhibiting different growth responses to dry soil. In particular, the seedling root:shoot ratio increased under dry conditions, and there were large genotype differences in this partitioning of growth.Preliminary results from only 7 genotypes showed that the screen was able to differentiate between genotypes in terms of total root length in packed versus loose sand. Work is still needed to adapt the method to large-scale screening of numerous genotypes.A diverse set of 46 genotypes have been tested in the field over 3 years. There were significant differences in drought SI and other yield parameters. The data also showed","tokenCount":"30418"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"34b69bd36ed2c3e62703548230cebb4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65361afc-ad28-417b-82c3-770f34944393/retrieve","id":"2109311440"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3f9b2796-40b4-42dd-883d-00326270ae71","pagecount":"9","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-The training of selected animal health care workers on herd health management in Uganda was part of the CGIAR Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender inclusion (SAPLING) Initiative herd health interventions under work package one (WP1). SAPLING's primary objective in Uganda is to enhance livestock productivity, income generation and sustainability among women, men and youth smallholder farmers.Pig farming plays a crucial role in the livelihoods of rural communities in Uganda, contributing significantly to both food security and income generation. However, pig health, management practices and disease prevention are significant barriers to realizing the full potential of pig farming in the country. These challenges were raised in co-creation workshops held in Mukono, Wakiso Mpigi and Masaka districts with key stakeholders (pig farmers, district veterinary officers, animal health care workers, academics and researchers) in September 2022.To address these and other productivity constraints in the pig value chain in Uganda, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), in collaboration with district local governments and other partners, is implementing the SAPLING Initiative. As a pivotal component under SAPLING's WP1, a comprehensive herd health training program was organized for animal health care workers (veterinarians and paraveterinarians) from Mukono and Wakiso districts.The two-day training at Floral Hotels in Wakiso District on 26-27 July 2023 aimed to equip veterinarians and paraveterinarians with up-to-date knowledge and skills to effectively enhance pig herd health. Focusing on critical aspects of pig herd health management such as biosecurity, special care of piglets, creep space, care for the sow, welfare and pen hygiene, this training also enabled trainees to evaluate the impact of the herd health innovation package on pig productivity in the participating districts. It was conducted by subject matter specialists from ILRI and Makerere University, as shown in Table 1.Pig production is a sensitive venture which requires detailed understanding of critical elements required for optimal productivity. However, the knowledge of herd health management (HHM) is often lacking or inadequate among animal health workers, which limits their effectiveness in the delivery of animal health care services to farmers. Enhancing the capacity of veterinarians is intended to create a ripple effect that ultimately improves the overall health, productivity and welfare of pig herds within the communities. Participants at the training of animal health care workers workshop at Wakiso Floral Hotels (photo credit: ILRI/Yusuf Nsubuga).The training was designed to: 1. Impart skills and knowledge to trainees on HHM in farms; 2. Share experiences and brainstorm on the practical applications of HHM principles; and 3. Prepare participants to implement and evaluate herd health interventions in the field i.e. train farmers on herd health management, organize farmer exposure visits to model farms and evaluate impacts of herd health interventions.These objectives were achieved through sessions that involved presentations, visual aids, experience sharing and interactive plenary discussions. The training agenda (Annex 1) and materials were developed from a training manual on herd health management developed by ILRI's herd health team. The manual covers key elements of HHM that can be adapted to different production systems, in this case the smallholder setting in Uganda.The training workshop was attended by 11 animal health care professionals and paraprofessionals from Wakiso (6) and Mukono (5) districts' local governments at the subcounty and town council levels, as shown in Table 1. The participants were identified in collaboration with respective district veterinary offices and represented subcounties where the evaluation of the impact of the herd health package on pig productivity study will be conducted. Gender as well as the capacity to transfer knowledge to farmers and colleagues were other key considerations while selecting participants. The following interactive and participatory training methods were applied during the two-day training workshop:1. Lectures and PowerPoint presentations by trainers; and 2. Sharing of field experiences.The training adopted an interactive approach, emphasizing peer-to-peer learning through shared experiences.Participants engaged in open discussions, exchanging insights and solutions to pig farming challenges and experiences in persuading farmers to implement good herd health protocols. Facilitated by trainers, these conversations offered practical solutions and innovative ideas.This approach promoted open sharing and problem-solving among participants, which can be leveraged during knowledge sharing with pig farmers. Through experiential learning, attendees expanded their knowledge and drew inspiration from fellow participants' achievements. The experience-centric training strengthened collaboration, equipping practitioners to overcome field challenges and ensure effective knowledge transfer to farmers.1. Participants gained skills and knowledge and appreciated the concepts and principles of herd health management and how to implement them on farms. 2. Attendees shared field experiences and practical applications of herd health management principles. Participants shared the challenges they had encountered while implementing HHM practices on farms, and those they anticipated to encounter following the training. These included:Financial constraints: One of the major challenges encountered in implementing HHM on farms is limited finances. An example was given of a pig farm that occasionally missed routine deworming due to financial constraints, which resulted in the pigs becoming cachectic.Mindset change and resilience: Effects of HHM often require patience as they take time to manifest. An example was shared of a farmer who had to endure delayed animal cycling while upgrading livestock buildings, including floors, roofing and feeding practices, alongside adopting silage and planting pastures. Their efforts yielded positive results within 2-3 months.Non-involvement of vets by farmers and entrepreneurs: The prevalence of enterprises initiated without professional consultation presents an ongoing challenge. A case was shared from Bukasa, where youth farmers initiated an indigenous microorganisms (IMO) without seeking expert guidance. The result was a failure of the IMO system. The trainees (HH champions) were advised to encourage farmers to seek expert input / technical advice to ensure effective and informed decision-making in HHM practices.Lack of awareness: Farmers lack awareness on various factors that influence productivity. For instance, a farm in Bukalango had a sow that was hostile towards her piglets, hindering lactation.Excessive solar heat was identified as the cause and a water spray effectively addressed the issue.Absentee farming and non-compliance with suggested herd health interventions: Absentee farmers, who coordinate farm activities remotely via phone, often struggle to effectively carry out recommended practices, hindering the comprehensive application of HHM strategies.Enforcement and lack of codes of conduct: Enforcement of veterinary standards is a complex challenge, particularly given the inefficient policing of contemporary codes of conduct. This aspect could affect the overall regulatory framework necessary for the successful implementation of HHM practices, especially where untrained individuals purporting to provide vaccination against African swine fever continue to fleece farmers.Structural transformations: Altering established pig sheds to align with HHM practices often requires comprehensive planning and investment, making it a complex aspect of implementation for farmers.Recommendations and suggestions from participants Peter Oba (P.Oba @ cgiar.org), Emmanuel Hasahya (E.Hasahya @ cgiar.org), Ronnie Ahumuza (R.Ahumuza @ cgiar.org), Michel Dione (M.Dione @ cgiar.org), and Emily Ouma (E.A.Ouma @ cgiar.org)","tokenCount":"1164"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f3670fd9d9a532b305c26343b333503","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e3d65df-db75-4650-b0a5-24636c51dca7/retrieve","id":"665638204"},"keywords":["Cracking and self-mulching Vertisol","Functional groups","Entrobacteriaceae","Nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria","Phosphorous solublizing microorganisms","Soil bacteria","Soil fungi"],"sieverID":"1500a636-0d39-44b1-9ce4-2318bd76d0f7","pagecount":"10","content":"The impact of grazing on physical properties of Vertisol was studied from 1996 to 2000 in the Ethiopian highlands. The study was conducted at two sites with 0-4 % and 4-8 % slopes at Tero Jemjem watershed in Ginchi, 80 km west of Addis Ababa. The main objective of this work was to study effect of livestock on soil microorganisms of the cracking and self-mulching Vertisol. The stocking rate was moderate grazing 1.8 animal-unit months per hectare (AUM) ha -1 , heavy grazing 3.0 animal-unit months per hectare (AUM) ha -1 (3.0 AUM) ha -1 and a control treatment with no grazing. Soil bacterial content was high in medium grazed treatments at 0-4% slope in alls sampling seasons. In contrast the soil fungal content was high in non-grazed plots. Soil nitrifying bacteria was high in clipping treatments as compared to the rest of the treatments. The soil fungal quantity differed significantly with sampling seasons; highly significant correlation coefficient was observed between soil fungal quantities and sampling seasons.There was also highly significant correlation between soil fungal and soil bacteria quantity.Vertisols occupy about 105 million ha in Africa and about 12.6 million ha in Ethiopia. Previously Vertisols were regarded as primarily suited for pasture. However, due to drastic population increases and high demand for cereal crops they have turned into cereal cropping land.Changes in the physical properties of cracking Vertisols occur with changes in water content because of swelling and shrinking (Bridge and Ross 1984;Coughlan 1984;Grismer 1992;Girma 1998;Girma et al., 2002). During the heavy rainy season when Vertisols are under waterlogged condition, grazing is often shifted from gentle slopes, to steeper slopes.The effect of grazing is not simply the removal of herbage from grass plants (Manske, 1998), grazing also changes physiological processes in all parts of the plants; alters the plant community microclimate; the climatic conditions around parts of a plant or within a small area of a plant community by changing light transmission, moisture relations and temperature; and changes the soil environment, thereby affecting soil organism activity.Low water availability can inhibit microbial activity by lowering intracellular water potential and thus reducing hydration and activity of enzymes. In solid matrices, low water content may also reduce microbial activity by restricting substrate supply. For the soil-microbial system the substrate limitation was the major inhibiting factor when soil water potentials were greater than -0.6 MPa, whereas adverse physiological effects associated with cell dehydration were more inhibiting at water potentials of less than -0.6 MPa (Stark and Firestone, 1995).The inherent physical properties of Vertisol could be improved through better livestock grazing and crop production. Thus it is important to study the soil microorganism activities of the grazing land. Though the primary role of fungi and some soil bacteria is to break down organic matter, other bacteria help make nitrogen available to plant roots. When moisture and temperatures are suitable, bacteria convert the ammonium nitrogen into nitrate nitrogen, the form of nitrogen that most plants use (NGA, 2006).Bacteria in soils live in a film of water around plant roots or other particles, and their activity is dependent on the temperature and the amount of available moisture. In general, bacteria concentrations in surface water is 10 6 cells/ml, and 10 9 cells/ml in soils and sediments.Fungi secrete enzymes that can break down cellulose into glucose. Fungi are the only known organisms that degrade lignin completely. Cellulose and lignin are structural materials in plants that are difficult to degrade. The fungi do not use the breakdown products of lignin, but instead they use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize lignin in place. The breakdown products diffuse away, exposing the cellulose to enzymatic attack. As climate changes occur, bacterial populations in the soil could be significantly impacted. As temperature increases, bacterial numbers could increase, resulting in greater immobilization of nutrients in their biomass, causing greater nitrogen limitation of plant growth (Colman 1985;Colman et al., 1992).In all grassland and most agricultural soils have ratios of total fungal to total bacterial biomass is less than one (F/B < 1). In the most productive agricultural systems, however, the ratio of total fungal to total bacterial biomass equals one (F/B = 1) or the biomass of fungi and bacteria is even. When agricultural soils become fungal-dominated, productivity will be reduced, and in most cases, liming and mixing of the soil (plowing) is needed to return the system to a bacterial-dominated soil. Bacteria also represent an important supply of inorganic and organic nutrients under nutrient limiting conditions (Jurgens, 2000; http://www.rain.org/~sals/ingham.html).Decomposition releases the mineral nutrients (e.g., N, P, K) bound up in dead organic matter in an inorganic form that is available for primary producers to use. Without this recycling of inorganic nutrients, primary productivity on the globe would stop. On land, most of the decomposition (also called \"mineralization\") of dead organic matter occurs at the soil surface, and the rate of decomposition is a function of moisture and temperature or too little or too much of either reduces the rate of decomposition.Fungi are the most important decomposers of structural plant compounds; cellulose and lignin -but lignin is not broken down when oxygen is absent. The only organisms capable of removing N2 gas from the atmosphere and \"fixing\" it into a useable nitrogen form (NH3) are bacteria. Oriana et al., (2005) reported that the distribution of 207 taxa of fungi revealed that the elevation was the main factor of fungal variability; the effect of grazing and slope position was associated with less variability. Biologically effective grazing management can stimulate activity of a second type of beneficial soil fungi. These fungi improve soil structure. Ectomycorrhizal fungi previously unknown in the mixed grass prairie were recently found in association with roots of grass plants managed with the twice-over rotation grazing system, which coordinates grazing periods with grass growth stages when defoliation resistance mechanisms are stimulated.The study was conducted from 1996-2000 at Tero Jemjem watershed (2190-2440 m a. s. l.) in Ginchi, 80 km west of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (38 ο 13′ 9′′ E and 9° 1 ′ 5′′ N). The annual rainfall is 1150 mm and the rainy season starts in June, peaks in August and tails off in September. The mean annual temperature is about 17 o C with insignificant seasonal variation, however, the period from October to March is slightly warmer and June to September is cooler.The soils at the experimental site belong to Eutric Vertisols, with very high clay content (55-78% clay). Due to high smecitite clay content, these soils have marked swelling-and -shrinking properties (Kamara and Haque 1988). The treatments were no grazing (NOG, control), where animal grazing was excluded using 10 m by 10 m fenced enclosure, moderate grazing (MDG, 1.8 animal unit month per hectare) and heavy grazing (HVG, 3.0 animal unit month per hectare). The grazing pressure at MDG was regulated by opening flexible fencing around the plots for 3 days a week to allow free access for farmers' animals. There was no fencing around plots subjected to heavy grazing (HVG). The NOG plots were fenced and kept closed to livestock grazing through out the experiment. The number and type of animals and duration of grazing in the MDG and HVG treatments were recorded daily to determine the stocking rate and grazing intensity. Similar cultural practices as used by surrounding farmers were imposed; manure was collected from grazed plots by the herders and used as source of fuel. Stocking density was expressed as animal units per hectare (AU/ha) and calculated as proposed by Scarnecchi (1985). An animal unit (AU) is defined as a 450 kg steer at 30 months of age (Edwards 1981;Le Hou′erou 1989). The grazing animals were local zebu cattle, donkeys and horses, sheep and goats that belonged to the farmers in the watershed.Statistical Analysis was done using General Linear model of SPSS. 11Changes in light transmission, moisture relations and temperature; and changes in the soil environment affect soil organism activity (Manske, 1998). Provided that the dry wet soil condition affects the microorganisms in cracking and self-mulching Vertisol. Thus the dry-cool, dry-wet and wet sampling period was set for soil microorganisms investigation. The result showed that the soil bacterial quantity in medium grazed treatment at 0-4 % slope was higher than the rest of the treatments in all sampling seasons (Table 1a). On the other hand in dry-cool season the soil bacterial content was high in medium grazed plots at 4-8% slope. In contrast in dry-wet and wet season soil bacterial content was high at 4-8% compared to 0-4% slope. In general, bacterial concentrations in surface water is 10 6 cells/ml, and 10 9 cells/ml in soils and sediments (Colman et al., 1992).Fungi secrete enzymes that can break down cellulose into glucose. Cellulose and lignin are structural materials in plants that are difficult to degrade (Colman et al., 1985). Often the soil fungi are active where grass covers is abundant under suitable moisture and soil temperature conditions. Apparently, the soil fungal quantity was the highest in non-grazed plots in all sampling seasons in both slope categories (Table 1b). Similar trend in soil fungal quantities was measured at 4-8% slope. The favorable season for fungal activity was wet season in all treatments, and decomposition releases the mineral nutrients (e.g., N, P, and K) bound up in dead organic matter in an inorganic form that is available for primary producers to use by microorganisms (Llewellyn, 2004). Biologically effective grazing management can stimulate activity of a second type of beneficial soil fungi (Ectomycorrhiza). These fungi improve soil structure (Oriana et al., 2005). Girma et al., (2002) reported water infiltration was low in heavily grazed plots and compaction was high on the same plots.The only organisms capable of removing N2 gas from the atmosphere and \"fixing\" it into a useable nitrogen form (NH3) are bacteria. Grass clipping from grazed plants changes the botanical composition and improves annual legumes to dominate, which can easily produce root nodules for nitrogen fixing bacterial development. As a result, the soil nitrifying bacteria was high in clipping treatment than the rest of the treatments particularly, in dry-wet and wet seasons (Table 2). When moisture and temperatures are suitable, bacteria convert the ammonium nitrogen into nitrate nitrogen, the form of nitrogen that most plants use (NGA, 2006). The nitrifying bacteria were a bit higher at 4-8% slope as compared to the 0-4% slope. Similar trend was measured in heavily grazed plots for nitrifying bacteria. According to Jurgens's (2000) report all grassland and most agricultural soils have ratios of total fungal to total bacterial biomass less than one (F/B < 1). Low water availability can inhibit microbial activity by lowering intracellular water potential and thus reducing hydration and activity of enzymes (Stark and Firestone, 1995). In such condition denitrifying bacteria could release Nitrous oxide to the air, which is a loss of nitrogen. The quantity of nitrifying bacteria in non-grazed and medium grazed treatments showed similar trends. However, the denitrifying bacteria in heavily grazed treatments were a bit high as compared to the rest of the treatments (Table 2). The Entrobacteriaceae content was high in heavily grazed plots in dry-cool and wet seasons at both slope categories. There were no significant differences in phosphorous solublizing microorganisms in all sampling seasons and at both slope categories.   The data in Table 3 showed that soil fungal quantity was statistically significant with sampling seasons. The correlation coefficient between season and soil fungal quantity was highly significant, and the correlation coefficient between soil fungal quantity in and soil bacterial quantity was highly significant (Table 4). Soil bacterial content was high in medium grazed treatments at 0-4% slope in alls sampling seasons. In contrast the Soil fungal content was high in nongrazed plots. Soil nitrifying bacteria was high in clipping treatments as compared to the rest of the treatments. The denitrifying bacteria and entrobacteriaceae are dominant in heavy grazing pressure. There were no significant differences in phosphorous solublizing microorganism content among the treatments. The soil fungal quantity differed significantly with sampling seasons; highly significant correlation coefficient was recorded between soil fungal quantities and sampling seasons. There is also highly significant correlation between soil fungal and soil bacteria quantity.","tokenCount":"2012"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"891254b7613a9ddfd1e640de3a2432b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/734f9882-744f-440d-b6a7-fcf51c73c123/content","id":"145840012"},"keywords":["GWAS","MTAs","Nitrogen","SNP markers","Wheat","Yield","synthetic wheat introgression lines"],"sieverID":"d81cc38b-d2a3-4d23-a470-fd923f798020","pagecount":"24","content":"Nitrogen is one of the most important macronutrients for crop growth and metabolism. To identify marker-trait associations for complex nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)-related agronomic traits, field experiments were conducted on nested synthetic wheat introgression libraries at three nitrogen input levels across two seasons. The introgression libraries were genotyped using the 35K Axiom ® Wheat Breeder's Array and genetic diversity and population structure were examined. Significant phenotypic variation was observed across genotypes, treatments, and their interactions across seasons for all the 22 traits measured. Significant positive correlations were observed among grain yield and yield-attributing traits and root traits. Across seasons, a total of 233 marker-trait associations (MTAs) associated with fifteen traits of interest at different levels of nitrogen (N0, N60, and N120) were detected using 9,474 genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Of these, 45 MTAs for 10 traits in the N0 treatment, 100 MTAs for 11 traits in the N60 treatment, and 88 MTAs for 11 traits in the N120 treatment were detected. We identified putative candidate genes underlying the significant MTAs which were associated directly or indirectly with various biological processes, cellular component organization, and molecular functions involving improved plant growth and grain yield. In addition, the top 10 lines based on N response and grain yield across seasons and treatments were identified. The identification and introgression of superior alleles/donors improving the NUE while maintaining grain yield may open new avenues in designing next generation nitrogen-efficient high-yielding wheat varieties.The global demand for nitrogen currently stands at about 117 million metric tons with a projected annual increase of approximately 1.5% expected in the near future (FAO, 2019). Farmers generally apply high doses of nitrogenous fertilizers to ensure good yields. The high input of commercially available fertilizers has led to the degradation of air, soil, and water quality (Hickman et al., 2014;Russo et al., 2017). In addition, when the supply of nitrogen (N) is in excess of crop N demand, it increases the susceptibility of plants to various diseases and insect pests (Reddy, 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to optimize and improve the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of cereal crops to maximize yield in addition to minimizing the negative impact of increase in N use on the environments and natural resources. Identification of marker-trait associations (MTAs) can be used to make effective targeted introgressions and is one possible genetic method to address the challenge of developing N-efficient wheat varieties with stable yield under N-limited environments.Wheat varieties that maintain yield under moderate or intense N deficiency can adapt to low input systems. To breed such varieties, genetic variation for adaptation traits to N deficiency is required. To date, limited quantitative trait loci (QTL) for both yield and its response to N deficiency in wheat under field conditions have been documented. Detection of genotypes and underlying QTLs for maintaining yields at low N levels are of value in wheat breeding programs designed to increase N-deficiency tolerance. Some QTLs influencing N uptake have been genetically mapped in wheat under different doses of fertilizer application using biparental populations (An et al., 2006;Laperche et al., 2008;Xu et al., 2014;Mahjourimajd et al., 2016;Deng et al., 2017). A number of genetic loci for agronomic traits related to N use and grain yield have also been mapped to the chromosomal regions containing the GS2 gene in wheat and rice (Prasad et al., 1999;Yamaya et al., 2002;Obara et al., 2004;Habash et al., 2007;Laperche et al., 2008;Fontaine et al., 2009). This suggests the role of the genomic region surrounding GS2 (Pritchard and Wen, 2004) is favorable in breeding wheat and rice varieties with improved agronomic performance and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Other genetic regions associated with N uptake have also been detected in rice (Wissuwa et al., 1998;Ming et al., 2000), wheat (Su et al., 2006(Su et al., , 2009)); maize (Zhu et al., 2005), common bean (Liao et al., 2004;Yan et al., 2004), and soybean (Li et al., 2005;Liang et al., 2010). The NRT2.1, NRT2.2, and NAR2.1 genes have been reported to be the important contributors to the high-affinity transport system in Arabidopsis roots (Orsel et al., 2006). Sixteen genes were identified in wheat homologous to characterize the low-affinity nitrate transporter NPF genes in Arabidopsis, suggesting a complex wheat NPF gene family (Buchner and Hawkesford, 2014). The regulation of wheat NPF genes by plant N-status indicated the involvement of these transporters in the substrate transport in relation to Nmetabolism.The phenotypic traits reported to be associated with NUE in cereal crops so far include root number, length, density, and branching (Morita et al., 1988;Yang et al., 2012;Steffens and Rasmussen, 2016), dense and erect panicle (Sun et al., 2014), plant height (Gaju et al., 2011), and leaf width (Zhu et al., 2020). The collocation of QTLs for N-uptake and root architecture traits have suggested that breeding for better and efficient root systems is a way to improve NUE (Coque et al., 2008;Sandhu et al., 2015).Diverse accessions, landraces, breeding populations, and nextgeneration mapping populations, including nested-association mapping (NAM) and multi-parent advanced generation intercross (MAGIC) populations have shown a potential for mining novel genetic variation in rice (Zhao et al., 2011;Sandhu et al., 2019;Subedi et al., 2019), wheat (Mackay et al., 2014), maize (Yu et al., 2008), and soybean (Xavier et al., 2015). The NAM and MAGIC populations have proven advantageous over biparental populations as they capture additional recombination breakpoints, thus increasing the allelic diversity and improving the power of QTL detection (Yu et al., 2008;Scott et al., 2020). Further, the availability of high throughput genotyping platforms to generate uniformly distributed genome-wide molecular markers is critical for the high-resolution genetic dissection of polygenic traits, and the tracking of favorable alleles in breeding populations (Pandey et al., 2012(Pandey et al., , 2016;;Varshney et al., 2013). To date, a series of high-density wheat single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays, such as the Illumina 9K iSelect SNP array (Cavanagh et al., 2013), Illumina 90K iSelect SNP genotyping array (Wang et al., 2014a), 15K SNP array (Boeven et al., 2016), Axiom R 660K SNP array, 55K SNP array, Axiom R HD 820K genotyping array (Winfield et al., 2016), 35K Axiom array (Allen et al., 2017), and 50K Triticum TraitBreed array (Rasheed and Xia, 2019) have been developed and their utility has been demonstrated across a range of applications.In the present study, we developed nested synthetic wheat introgression libraries capturing novel genetic variation. The libraries were genotyped using a high-density SNP array and phenotypically assessed for root traits and agronomic performance under three N input conditions in the field. Genome-wide association mapping was used to identify MTAs for the root and agronomic traits, and lines carrying favorable genetic combinations were also identified for use in future breeding for improved N use.A total of 31 cultivated and 12 synthetic wheats were evaluated at 6 nitrogen (N) levels (N0, N40, N80, N120, N160, and N200) in 3 replications in 2015 and 2016 during the rabi seasons at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. The synthetic wheats, PDW233/Ae. tauschii acc. pau 14135 and PBW114/Ae. tauschii acc. pau 14170 produced high-grain yields as well as high agronomic efficiency at low fertilizer N doses (unpublished data). Nested introgression line libraries developed from the synthetic wheats, PDW233/Ae. tauschii acc. pau 14135 and PBW114/Ae. tauschii acc. pau 14170 (N-SHW) constituting a set of 352 lines were used in the present study. The N-SHW library was made up of subsets from four populations (Pop1: 75 lines from PDW233/Ae. tauschii acc. pau 14135 amphiploid//2 * BWL4444; Pop2: 106 lines from The N-SHW library, six parents, and two synthetic hexaploid wheats were assessed under field conditions at the experimental farms of School of Agricultural Biotechnology, PAU Ludhiana (30 54' N latitude, 75 48' E longitude, and 247 m above sea level) over 2 years in 3N levels (6-year x N combinations). The soil analysis of experimental plots showed soil pH: 7.3; EC: 0.157 ds/m; organic content: 0.29%; N: 99 Kg ha −1 , P: 69 Kg ha −1 ; K: 116 Kg ha −1 , Zn: 4.77 parts per million (ppm), Cu: 1.73 ppm, and Fe: 7.30 ppm. The N-SHW libraries were evaluated in rabi seasons of 2018 and 2019. Details of the number of lines tested and experimental design is provided in Table 1. The breeding material was sown on 21 st of November and 18 th of November in 2018 and 2019, respectively. In both the years, the experiments were conducted at three N levels [i.e. zero N (0 Kg ha −1 ), half N (60 Kg ha −1 ), and full N (recommended, 120 Kg ha −1 ),] referred to as N0, N1, and N2, respectively. The recommended dose of phosphorus, potassium, and manganese was applied at the time of sowing. Half of N was applied at the time of sowing while the other half was applied in two equal splits, the first at crown root initiation stage and the remaining at the maximum tillering stage in both the N1 and N2 experiments. N0 was treated as a control. Recommended fungicides and insecticides were applied to control stripe rusts, brown rusts, and aphids at jointing, booting, and 10 days after anthesis to prevent diseases and pests. Weeds were controlled manually.Under field conditions, a total of 22 traits were assessed in all experiments across both seasons except the maximum root length and root angle which were measured in 2018 only. The details of the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)-related traits, root and plant morphological traits, grain yield, and yield attributing traits are presented in Supplementary Figure 1. Destructive sampling of six plants per plot was done at 60 days after sowing (DAS) to evaluate early root and shoot traits (Supplementary Figure 2). Shoots were separated from the roots, and the fresh root weight (FRW; g) and fresh shoot weight (FSW; g) were measured. The root and shoot samples were dried at 70 • C in an oven until constant dry root weight (DRW; g) and dry shoot weight (DSW; g) were observed, while the roots were cleaned thoroughly and stored in 70% alcohol at 4 • C for root trait evaluation. The maximum root length (MRL) and root angle (RA) were measured using ImageJ software. total root length (TRL), total root surface area (RSA), total root diameter (RD), total root volume (RV), number of forks (NF), and number of tips (Ntips) were recorded using WinRhizo STD4800 (Supplementary Figure 2). The roots were then dried at 70 • C in the oven until constant DRW was observed. The data on N-uptake related traits were recorded using a chlorophyll meter, Soil Plant Analysis Development Meter (SPAD502) and leaf color chart (LCC). The LCC provides a decision-support system to the farmers for sustaining the high yields with optimum N dose in the field crops. It measures the leaf color variations of 6 SPAD units comprising 3, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, and 6.0 and provides N recommendation in the field crops. Flag leaf length (FLL) and flag leaf width (FLW) were recorded using a centimeter scale. Days to flowering (DTF) rate of about 50% was recorded when 50% of the plants in a plot exerted their panicles. Spikelets per spike (SPS) were counted manually from five random plants. The number of productive tillers (NPT) was counted manually in 0.5 m row length and shoot biomass (SB) at harvesting was measured from 0.5 m row length. The plant height (PHT) in cm was measured as the mean height of five random plants for each entry measured from the base of the plant to the tip of the panicle at the maturity stage. The plants were harvested at physiological maturity or when 80-85% of the panicles turned to golden yellow and the panicles at the base were already at the hard dough stage; harvested grains were threshed, dried, and weighed to determine the grain yield (GY). The shoot biomass (SB) was recorded at harvesting.Analysis of variance, and experiment-wise mean for each season was calculated using a mixed model analysis in PBTools V 1.4.0. for augmented design and in STAR Version: 2.0.1 for the split plot design. In the split plot design, the N levels were considered as the main plot and the breeding lines as subplot. Fisher's ttest was used to determine the significant difference among the breeding lines, treatments, and to estimate the interactions. The correlation analysis among traits was performed in R. v.1.1.423.To evaluate the phenotypic stability and GY adaptability of the breeding lines across seasons and treatments, the genotype and genotype × environment (GGE) biplot analysis was performed, considering the effects of genotype (G) and genotype by environment (GE) as random. The best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) values of the G and GE effects were calculated. The multiplicative model in PB tool version 1.3 (http://bbi.irri.org/) was used to explain the relationship between G and the seasons.High-density genotyping was performed using the 35K Axiom R Wheat Breeder's Array (Affymetrix UK Ltd., United Kingdom). The quality pre-processing of 35,143 markers obtained from the 35K chip was done using PLINK software (Purcell et al., 2007). A total of 9,474 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with minor allele frequency (MAF) of >5%, maximum heterozygote proportion of 0.1 and missing rates <0.1 were used to estimate the genetic relationships and for the mapping of MTAs for different traits associated with plant growth, yield, and yieldrelated traits. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to detect and correct for population structure.The model-based STRUCTURE V. 2.3.4 software was used to test K values from 1 to 10, with a burn-in period of 10,000 and 1,000,000 Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) reps after burnin in order to assess the population structure in the 352 breeding lines using a total of 9,474 SNPs. The consistency and accuracy of the results were validated across 10 runs for each K. The K value with maximum likelihood over the 10 runs was used to estimate the most appropriate number of clusters (Pritchard and Wen, 2004). The population structure was determined by plotting the proposed number of subpopulations against the delta k (Earl, 2012). The PCA was performed in Genome Association and Prediction Integrated Tool (R/GAPIT) and added iteratively to the fixed model, ranging from PC1 to PC10.Significant marker-trait associations were identified using a compressed mixed linear model (CMLM)/P3D (population parameters previously defined) in GAPIT executed in R. Identity by state (IBS) values and a relatedness matrix were used to estimate the random effect and genetic similarity of the accessions, respectively. The statistical power of the association studies was further improved by considering the population structure (Q value) and kinship matrix (K) estimated from the genotyping data. The Bonferroni correction method was used to correct for false positives in the analysis, using the stringent pvalue benchmark. The Bonferroni multiple test correction was performed (0.05/9474; significance level of 5%/total number of markers used in analysis) and the calculated threshold value was found to be 5.28 × 10 −6 . The allelic effect of all the significant markers associated with the measured traits was determined by comparing the mean phenotypic values and the significant allelic variants for the trait/s using a Kruskal-Wallis test in R.Single nucleotide polymorphisms that exhibited a false discovery rate (FDR) corrected p < 0.05 for a particular trait of interest were evaluated as markers for the potential putative candidate genes. A window of 1 Mb adjacent to each significant SNP was examined for candidate genes and annotations were identified through the Ensembplants database (http://plants.ensembl.org/index.html).The functional annotation and gene ontology (GO) of the identified putative candidate genes were performed using OMIX box software. Blast (E ≤ 1 0 −5 ) was performed using the CloudBlast tool against Triticum (nr_subset) [monocots_triticum, taxa:4564] and NCBI non-redundant database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), followed by the InterPro using CloudIPS, followed by GO mapping, and annotation configuration. The GO terms were then used to generate the semantic similarity-based scatterplots/interactive graphs/tag clouds by using REVIGO (http://revigo.irb.hr/).The genotypes that showed more or equal/stable GY with the minimal application of nitrogen fertilizer when compared to the recommended or standard N fertilizer application were considered as the N irresponsive (NIR) genotypes or the top grain yielders across seasons and treatments. On the other way around, the genotypes that were low yielding or not able to maintain the GY with the minimal application of N fertilizer when compared to the recommended or standard N fertilizer application, were considered as the N responsive (NR) genotypes or the poor grain yielders across seasons and treatments.The 352 N-SHW lines, six parents, and two synthetic hexaploid wheat donors were screened for 22 traits in six growing conditions (2 years x 3 nitrogen levels). The ANOVA revealed significant genetic variation for the root, plant morphological, and agronomic traits among genotypes, treatments, seasons, and their interactions (genotype x treatment, genotype x season, treatment x season and genotype x treatment x season) (Table 2). The detailed information on trial means, least significance difference (LSD), and heritability for all the traits measured are presented in Supplementary Table 1. The results revealed significant genetic variations across genotypes, treatments, and their interactions in 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 seasons for all the traits measured (Supplementary Table 2). The phenotypic data of the traits measured in the present study were averaged across two seasons and are presented as mean values in Supplementary Table 3.Grain yield increased with applied N level. In the N0 treatment, the average GY of the tested breeding lines across seasons was 2,022 kg ha −1 and it ranged from 564 to 4,092 kg ha −1 (Supplementary Table S3). In the N60 treatment, the GY varied from 882 to 4,685 kg ha −1 with an average GY of 2,357 kg ha −1 and, while in N120 treatment, the GY varied from 1,332 to 4,270 with an average of 2,579 kg ha −1 (Supplementary Table 3). Across seasons, N in the limited conditions (N0) resulted in the 14% and 22% GY reduction compared to N60 and N120 treatments, respectively. The N application also significantly increased the shoot biomass (SB) by 8% in N60 and 52% in N120 treatment across seasons. The average NPT across experiments was higher in N120 (28) compared to N60 (24) and N0 (22) (Supplementary Table 3). Under the N0 treatment, the average value of the leaf color chart (LCC) varied from 3.3 to 4.8, from 3.5 to 5.1 in the N60 treatment, and from 4.1 to 5.3 in the N120 treatment (Supplementary Table 3). The response of lines in terms of average dry shoot weight (DSW) across seasons increased from 3.28 in N0 to 3.62 in N60 to 3.75 in N120 treatment (Supplementary Table 3). The minimum and maximum values of dry root weight (DRW) under N0 were 0.187 g and 2.425 g; 0.298 g and 2.001 g under N60, and 0.338 g and 2.333 g under N120, respectively (Supplementary Table 3). The average root diameter was the highest under N60 (0.610 g) compared to N0 (0.560 g) and N120 (0.409 g) (Supplementary Table 3). Across seasons, the average flowering was delayed by 2 days under the N0 treatment compared to the N60 and N120 treatments. Average plant height (PHT) was lower (92 cm) in N0 compared to N60 (95 cm) and N120 (99 cm).We calculated the Pearson's correlation coefficients between all the traits measured in N0 (Figure 2A), N60 (Figure 2B), and N120 (Figure 2C) treatments. The Pearson's correlation coefficients across all treatments considering pooled mean data for all the traits measured in the present study is presented in Supplementary Figure 3. The strongest and most  The population structure of the N-SHW lines was assessed to understand the genetic structure of the 352 lines based on 9,474 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) distributed across all 21 wheat chromosomes. The most appropriate K explaining the population structure was K = 3 at minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 5% (Figure 3A). The kinship heatmap indicated a weak relatedness in the panel (Figure 3B). The first three principal components (PCs) were the most informative and gradually decreasing (Figures 3C,D) until the tenth PC. The kinship and PCs were considered during the genome-wide association study (GWAS) to correct for population structure. The appropriate number of subpopulations was determined from the largest delta K value of 3 (Figure 3E).Genome-wide association study was performed exploiting the phenotypic variability in the 352 N-SHW lines using 9,474 SNPs from the 35K Axiom R Wheat Breeder's Array. Using thelog(P) ≥0.001 at 5% significance level, a total of 233 marker-trait associations (MTAs) were detected across seasons associated with fifteen traits of interest at different N levels (N0, N60, and N120; Table 3). Of these, 45 MTAs were associated with 10 traits in the N0 treatment, 100 MTAs were associated with 11 traits in the N60 treatment, and 88 MTAs were associated with 11 traits in the N120 treatment (Table 3). Across seasons and N treatments, a total of 53 MTAs associated with more than one trait/treatment were detected (Table 3). In addition to these 53 MTAs, another 41 MTAs associated with a single trait only were detected across seasons (Supplementary   (Burkhead et al., 2003); signal transduction (Arnesano et al., 2003); nitrogen regulatory response in bacterial and eukaryotic chloroplast (Ninfa and Atkinsonm, 2000;Arcondéguy et al., 2001) AX-94735141 2D N60 (DRW,DSW, FSW); N120 (FRW,DRW, FSW,DSW) Regulates Pi uptake by modulating PHT1;1 expression in Arabidopsis (Wang et al., 2014b); age-triggered leaf senescence (Chen et al., 2017); Benzothiadiazole-inducible blast resistance (Shimono et al., 2007); resistance against F. graminearum in wheat (Bahrini et al., 2011); broad-spectrum resistance to wheat powdery mildew (Cao et al., 2011) AX-95190381 2D 591027900 N0 (FSW,DSW); N60 (FRW, DRW); N120 (DRW,FSW)2.11E-07 0.18 0 TraesCS2D02G493700 591031752 591027189 Serine-threonine protein kinaseRegulates stress-responsive gene expression in rice (Diédhiou et al., 2008), Negative regulator of immune responses in Arabidopsis (Lin et al., 2015); confers durable and broad-spectrum resistance to wheat powdery mildew (Cao et al., 2011) AX-95018936 2D 595159320 N60 (DRW); N120 (DRW,DSW) Response to cold, plant tolerance to salt and ABA stress (Yang et al., 2010) p-value: significance level of marker-trait association; R 2 : percent phenotypic variance explained by the SNP; FDR: false discovery rate, p-value, R 2 and FDR is represented as the mean value across seasons.   levels of N (Table 3). A genomic region on 2D (ranging from 576,749,639 to 702,726,797 bp) contained 25 detected MTAs for a range of traits (FRW, DRW, FSW, and DSW) across seasons and treatments (Table 3 and Figure 5). A cluster of 17 SNPs spanning a 7.7 Mb region on the short arm of 6A showed association with GY at N60 and N120 (Figure 5). Across seasons and treatments, significant association in a 198 kb region on the long arm of Chr 6A were detected for root traits (RSA, RV, tips and forks). The SNP, AX-94565231 at 683.64 Mb on the long arm of Chr 6D showed association with different root traits (RSA, RV, tips, and forks) across seasons and treatments. In the N60 treatment, significant associations for FLW were detected in a 5.6 Mb region (549,799,824-544,201,748 bp) on the long arm of 4A. Interestingly, the association of the trait, DTF with SNP AX-95136655 on Chr 3B at 234.49 Mb was common under N0, N60, and N120 treatments (Figure 5). In the N0 treatment, a significant association harboring three strongly associated SNPs (AX-94593608, AX-94786978, and AX-95134564) spanning the genomic region 76 bp on the long arm of 3A was detected for NPT (Table 3). Further, single SNPs were identified in association with different traits at different N levels. For example, the SNP AX-94914391 (36.43 Mb, 6A) was significantly associated with SB at N0 and with GY at both N60 and N120 (Figure 5). The SNP AX-94705680 (598.80 Mb, 2B) showed association with FSW at N60 and with DRW at N120. The SNP network indicating the significant marker-trait interactions is presented in Figure 6.In order to identify candidate genes underlying the consistent MTAs, we surveyed putative candidates in a 1 Mb upstream and 1 Mb downstream region the identified significant SNPs using EnsemblPlants (http://plants.ensembl.org/index.html). Detailed information on the identified candidate genes is presented in Table 3.The GO term of identified putative candidate genes was categorized into four groups according to their trait relatedness; The NUE uptake-related (LCC, SPAD, FSW, DSW), root morphological [maximum root length (MRL), TRL), RSA, root diameter (RD), RV, NF, N tips, FRW, and DRW], plant morphological [flag leaf length (FLL), FLW, plant height (PHT)] and GY/yield-attributing traits (days to flowering (DTF), SPS, NPT, SB, and GY]. Most of the putative candidate genes in NUE-uptake related traits across treatments were associated with protein phosphorylation/proteolysis, recognition of pollen, molybdoprotein cofactor biosynthetic process, and transmembrane transport (Supplementary Table 6). Some were part of the cellular component organization and molecular functions of binding molecules and ions, catalytic activity, peptidase activity, and transmembrane transport activity (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 6). The putative candidate genes for the root morphological traits were associated with N compound metabolic processes, phosphorylation, proteolysis, catabolic processes, response to stresses, and regulation of flower development by delineating the composition, and architecture of gene regulatory network underlying flower development and carbohydrate metabolism (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 7). The cellular components include chloroplast, ribosome, membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and mitochondria (Supplementary Tables 6, 7). The primary molecular functions related to these genes were catalytic activity (protease, peptidase, hydrolase, transferase, ligase, and oxidoreductase), and binding activity (small molecule binding, ion binding, lipid binding, and carbohydrate derivative binding) (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 7). The putative candidate genes for the plant morphological traits were mainly associated with phosphorylation, response to light-intensity, stress-related responses, and metabolic processes. They were related to the molecular functions of metal ion binding, catalytic activity, kinase activity, and DNA/RNA/ATP binding (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 8). The yield and yield-attributing traits-related putative candidate genes were associated with phosphorylation, metabolic process, protein folding, catabolic process, response to water-stress and light, flower development, and pollen recognition (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 8). The molecular functions include catalytic activity (peptidase, hydrolase, lyase, oxidoreductase, and transferase), binding activity (ion, metal, ATP/GTP, polysaccharide, protein, and DNA), and metabolic activity (Supplementary Table 6 and Supplementary Figure 9).To identify stable breeding lines across treatments and seasons, a GGE biplot method was used. The first two principal components (PCs) explained 77.7% (PC1 = 50.3%, PC2 = 27.4%) of the total GGE variation in the data (Figure 7). The ranking of breeding lines based on their mean GY and stability across seasons and treatments (Supplementary Table 7) was used to identify 20 breeding lines with high and stable yields across seasons and treatments (Supplementary Table 8). The percentage increase in the GY of top 20 breeding lines derived from the nested introgression libraries possessing high and stable GY (kg ha −1 ) compared to the respective recipient parent averaged across two seasons under three different N treatments is presented in Figure 8. Based on GY data across seasons and treatments, the top 10 N-irresponsive (NIR-top grain yielders) and 10 Nresponsive (NR-poor grain yielders) breeding lines were also identified (Table 4 and Figure 9).Further analysis was undertaken to assess the significant differences between the mean values of the allelic classes of MTAs for root growth and GY using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The presence of favorable alleles with significant differences was checked in promising breeding lines. This allowed for the selection of 20 promising breeding lines possessing favorable allele combinations for improving the plant root growth (Figure 10A) and grain GY under N limitation (Figure 10B).An increase in crop production by the development of highyielding varieties is largely dependent on the supply of N fertilizers. Excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizer is becoming very expensive which accounts for the great loss of economic profit to the farmers in addition to the negative impacts on the environment (Hawkesford and Griffiths, 2019). The reliable phenotyping under low nitrogen input is very challenging and affected by genotype (G), environment (E), and the G x E interactions (Rao et al., 2018). Proper understanding of the genotype behavior, identification, and development of Nefficient genotypes without compromising the GY is a paramount need for improving the NUE. Notably, very few wheat breeding programs are targeting the development of N-efficient genotypes. In crop plants, such as wheat, the efforts are constrained due to a lack of variation in the cultivated germplasm for NUE. The narrow genetic diversity and fewer recombination events in the biparental mapping populations may result in poor quantitative trait loci (QTL) detection power (Gangurde et al., 2019). The next-generation high-resolution mapping populations, such as nested synthetic wheat introgression libraries used in the present study may provide a vast and untapped source of genetic variations for the NUE-related traits due to high numbers of recombination events. The use of synthetic hexaploid wheat in the present study presents an effective genetic resource for transferring the agronomically important genes from wild relatives to the common wheat. The introgression of favorable alleles associated with root traits and GY from Ae. tauschii wild accessions to cultivated wheat (Figure 10) indicated the potential of synthetic wheat providing new sources for improving yield potential and NUE when bred with the modern wheat varieties.The different traits associated with N uptake and NUE were studied in nested synthetic wheat introgression libraries at three different nitrogen levels. The ANOVA results revealed the native variation across the genotypes toward the N response which had given the possibility to identify the NUE lines under different levels of N. The genotypic variations purely reveal the phenotypic plasticity of the breeding lines toward traits. The diverse responses have been observed among the breeding lines across different levels of N, despite similar growth conditions and an equal amount of nitrogenous fertilizer application in a given N level as indicated by significant differences among the genotypes within and across treatments and non-significant differences among the replications. Significant G x E, G x S, G x E, and G x T x S interactions indicated that the seasons and environments under different levels of N application were    a critical factor in explaining the genotypic variance for the traits measured in the present study. The results reported in the present study concurred with other reported studies on rice (Srikanth et al., 2016) and wheat (Sial et al., 2005;Belete et al., 2018).In general, the increase in GY was correlated with the increase in the rate of N fertilizer application, which might be due to the availability of sufficient N for the proper growth and development of the plants. Šarčević et al. (2014) reported a 10% reduction of GY at low N condition compared to normal condition in wheat. The significant and positive correlation among different root traits and GY and yield-attributing traits indicated complementary functional roles of the root traits in improving the GY by improving the nutrient acquisition from the soil. The collocation of MTAs for the correlated traits strengthens the significance of MTAs. A significant positive correlation between GY and NUE-related traits in wheat, maize, and oilseed rape (Fageria et al., 2010;He et al., 2017;Belete et al., 2018) signified the importance of NUE-related traits in improving the GY under limited N conditions.Different mapping approaches using nested-association mapping (NAM) populations successfully exploited the genetics of complex traits and facilitated the discovery of candidate  genes in rice (Fragoso et al., 2017), wheat (Hu et al., 2018;Jordan et al., 2018), maize (Yu et al., 2008;McMullen et al., 2009) and soybean (Song et al., 2017;Xavier et al., 2018). For NUE-related traits, significant genetic variations in hybrids, open-pollinated populations, large germplasm panels, backcross, and recombinant inbred line populations in different cereal crops, such as rice, wheat, maize, and oilseed rape were observed (Chen et al., 2014;Li et al., 2015;Vijayalakshmi et al., 2015;Ertiro et al., 2017;He et al., 2017;Rao et al., 2018). Mapping for NUE -related traits using different populations and mapping approaches highlight the complex nature of the trait.In the present study, the nested synthetic wheat introgression libraries were designed for the identification of genomic regions associated with traits related to NUE using genome-wide association study (GWAS) keeping into account, the genetic effects produced in each genetic background. The associated SNPs were used to track the potential candidate genes associated with a particular trait of interest. The presence of high phenotypic variability in the nested synthetic introgression libraries coupled with the high marker density across the whole genome provided a strong base for the association mapping.Interestingly, the genes responsive to nutrient uptake under water stress (Diédhiou et al., 2008;Janicka-Russak and Kabała, 2015;Wang et al., 2017), shoot growth, root and plant development (Wang et al., 2017), nutrient uptake and transport of various nutrients (Takahashi et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2014b;Weng et al., 2020) reported to be collocated with 126 Mb genomic region on Chr 2D constituting 25 MTAs which stood out as hotspot for different traits (FRW, DRW, FSW, and DSW) in the present study. This indicates the positive interactions between root traits, nutrient uptake, and plant growth and development. The 7.7 Mb region on the short-arm of Chr 6A constituting 17 SNPs associated with GY showed collocation with the genes that were directly or indirectly involved in improving the GY in different cereal crops. These include the genes controlling flowering (Kania et al., 1997), panicle, and seed development (Jain et al., 2007;Li et al., 2011), GY (Terao et al., 2010), resistance to pathogenesis (Taniguchi et al., 2014;Wang et al., 2015;Niño et al., 2020) and abiotic stress tolerance (Brands and Ho, 2002;Palusa et al., 2007). The MTAs associated with different root traits, such as RSA, RV, tips, and forks in the present study were located near the earlier reported genes involved in regulating abscisic acid sensitivity and root growth development in Arabidopsis (Rodriguez et al., 2014) and adaptation under water stress conditions in wheat (Singh et al., 2017). Interestingly, the gene accelerating flowering in Arabidopsis (Hwang et al., 2019) was observed to be collocated with the SNP AX-95136655 associated with DTF on Chr 3B in the present study. The collocation of identified MTAs with earlier reported genes controlling the photosynthetic traits, root development, plant growth, nutrient uptake and transport, flowering, resistance to pathogenesis, and stress-responsive genes further confirms the contribution of these identified traits/MTAs in improving the N uptake/utilization and GY under N-limited conditions. The identified nitrogen irresponsive (NIR) breeding lines with favorable alleles in combination with the multiple traits might serve as potential donors for the development of N-efficient wheat varieties.The nested synthetic introgression libraries covering extensive phenotypic variability coupled with huge genome coverage were used to identify the significant MTAs associated with nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE)-related traits in wheat. Significant phenotypic variations for the NUE-related traits, yield, and yield-related traits among genotypes, treatments, seasons, and their interactions (genotype x treatment, genotype x season, treatment x season, and genotype x treatment x season) were observed. Stable marker-trait associations (MTAs) identified for different traits measured in the present study comigrating with various genes associated with nitrogen (N) uptake/utilization and improving grain yield (GY) may help to harness their benefits in genomics-assisted breeding programs. The identification of N-efficient breeding lines may serve as novel donors in genomics-assisted introgression programs. The identification and introgression of superior haplotype improving NUE while maintaining GY using haplotype-based breeding may open new avenues in designing next-generation N-efficient high-yielding wheat varieties.","tokenCount":"5840"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"51f4d8a62718c40411336ea7497a726a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f040d402-6941-46c6-8252-00c4f2750944/retrieve","id":"1500246501"},"keywords":["Climate-smart agriculture","Farmer indicators","Monitoring and Evaluation","Vietnam"],"sieverID":"fe745e19-3670-42b8-81cd-45956d0edb60","pagecount":"29","content":"This Working Paper has been prepared as an output for the project Integrated agricultural technologies for enhanced adaptive capacity and resilient livelihoods in climate-smart villages (CSVs) of Southeast Asia under the CCAFS program and has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of CCAFS, donor agencies, or partners. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source.Introduction 9Monitoring and evaluation efforts Farmers' own assessment of the results of CSA techniques and practices Farmers' observations and measurements: some reflectionsThe Integrated agricultural technologies for enhanced adaptive capacity and resilient livelihoods in climate-smart villages (CSVs) of Southeast Asia project is a flagship project under the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) in Southeast Asia. It aims to provide climate-smart agriculture (CSA) options to enhance adaptive capacity and resilience among climate-smart village (CSV) farmers and other stakeholders. It focuses on integrated CSA technologies and practices which can be applied at scale across crops/farming systems, aiming to improving farm productivity/income generation and food security while conserving natural resources. Through on-farm/ participatory testing of context specific climate smart technologies and practices derived from earlier research of CGIAR Centers and their programs, the project aims to shed light on the process of practical application of introduced technologies, assess their suitability at farm level and from farm to landscape level. The CIAT team in Hanoi coordinates the research in Ma village.Ma village is one of the pilot CSVs where a set of CSA techniques and practices has been introduced and tested as part of a broader set of CCAFS' research and capacity development activities (background information about the village can be found in the baseline studies carried out by CCAFS). Since 2015, Ma villagers have been testing the following techniques and practices:• Cassava-grass strips-cowpea intercropping on sloping lands • Livestock waste management through vermiculture composting • Biological bedding for poultry • Living pen and cut and carry grass production for goat raising • Crop residue management • Integrated home gardening • Climate-smart rice production • Acacia livelihood developmentThe \"new\" techniques and practices are based on a number of ecological principles (Nguyen Duy Nhiem 2016). Animal wastes, agriculture by-products and household wastes can be beneficial inputs to various farming practices like animal raising, home gardens, rice production and fish production. Compost made from animal waste/manure, agriculture byproducts (e.g. rice straw, weeds, sawdust), and household waste can be used as high-quality fertilizer for crops and increase crop yield. It could also cuts down input cost and reduces GHG emissions when compared to the use of chemical fertilizers. Agricultural by-products such as rice straw and sawdust, which Vietnamese farmers usually burn, when mixed with soil in dry form, help recycle soil nutrients and reduces emissions of GHGs (methane -CH 4 , nitrous oxide -N 2 O, and carbon dioxide -CO 2 ). Mạ village has a total land area of about 350 ha, classified according to land use patterns as follows: double-crop rice land (12.34 ha), single-crop rice land (3 ha) other crops' land (over 100 ha), forestry land (220 ha), land for residential and flood plain (about 25 ha). All the agricultural land area is allocated to 176 households for use and management. On average, each household has a land tenure of 0.68 ha. In addition to this land, during the dry season, when the water level in Thac Ba lake is low, Ma villagers also grow some annual crops in the land areas along the lake sides (Cos land). The total area of this land is 1.5 -2 ha depending on the water level. The main crops cultivated here are groundnut and various vegetables.Villagers use Thac Ba lake (about 500 ha) for aquaculture and fishing (Sen et al. 2014).Since 2015, Ma villagers have experimented with the \"new\" techniques and practices. First, only a few villagers took part in the efforts by trying out one practice or technique. Having observed and learned firsthand from the pioneers, a larger number of villagers followed suit, some of them testing more than one technique or practice. Other villagers in Ma, in neighboring villages and much farther away, in other districts (e.g. Van Yen) and other provinces (e.g. Cao Bang) are now also adopting techniques and practices first tested by a few farmers. Farmers themselves have been very important actors in the dissemination of knowhow and practical experiences.Scaling is an important objective of the work done in Ma and of the CCAFS efforts overall. Scaling has two dimensions: upwards to people of authority and outwards to the rest of the farming communities. To realize effective scaling, the involvement of the extension service is crucial (Eisen 2018). The Vietnamese extension service has a national mandate and covers the whole country. In 2016, following the Photovoice contest in the village, Ma villagers set up a communication team to \"spread the CSA word\". This has proven to be very effective (Romero 2017). The Photovoice, Tiếng nói qua ảnh in Vietnamese, is a tool that allows people to identify local issues and problems and work for solutions, and communicate these through images and photos. It is a tool used in participatory action research through which participants reflect and document on community needs visually, promote dialogue and inform and dialogue with policymakers about village improvement (Joven 2017).In order to track research progress and achievements, ensure the production of planned deliverables and outcomes of the project, and learn from the experiences, a M&E plan was designed early in 2015. This M&E plan has two broad dimensions: a more technical one that deals with the biophysical research results and a more social one that deals with how they key actors involved in the research experience progress, costs and benefits, achievements and challenges. A first M&E field mission to Ma village, Vietnam, at the end of 2016 used qualitative methods to assess initial progress of the social dimension of the research efforts. Ma women and men farmers are satisfied with emerging results of most of the introduced climate-smart practices and highly appreciative of the collaborative approach. Full adoption will increase efficiency of resource use within the farm and could contribute to increased farm productivity and income of households. However, the report concluded that in order to promote wide-scale adoption of these practices, a much better well-thought scaling strategy should be designed and implemented (Hoang Thi Lua and Vernooy 2017). The more or less spontaneous out-scaling efforts are laudable, but not enough to bring about change at the scale originally envisioned by the project and by CCAFS.For the biophysical research the CIAT-Vietnam team in Hanoi developed an original analytical framework that depicts how the selected techniques and practices interact and impact on climate change adaptation (Figure 1). The framework is complemented by a set of scientific outcome indicators (table 1) 1 . -Reduced GHG emissions from fresh dung exposed to the atmosphere -Increased use of bio-fertilizer/compost for vegetables and crops (rice, cassava, fruit trees, maize…) -Reduced environmental pollution from the traditional practice Biological bedding for poultry -Improved animal health and growth -Increased use of bio-fertilizer from the bedding material after 6 months of usage for vegetables, fruit trees and crops -Reduced environmental pollution from the traditional practice Integrated crop residue management -Reduced GHG emissions from burning of rice straw -Increased use of bio-fertilizer for vegetables, rice, fruit trees and crops Integrated home gardens -Improved eco-efficiency of home garden components: waste of one becomes input of another/others -Diversified and increased household income -Diversified and improved household nutrition Climate-smart rice production -Input-smart: reduced use of seeds, agrochemicals, water -Increased rice yield by 20% -Improved resilience to climate change due to tolerance abilities (to cold and hot spells) Acacia livelihood development -Improved soil health and restored degraded land -Improved water holding/storing capacity Source: Bui Le Vinh (CIAT-Vietnam office) However, to date, very little scientific measurement according to these indicators has been done in Ma village. The M&E done by the scientists has mostly been qualitative through visual field observations and conversations with farmers about their observations. For example, GHG emissions have not been measured/compared. Nothing has been done to measure changes in soil fertility or soil health. Even yield data have not been collected and compared.In addition, to date, very little has been done to find out how woman and man farmers themselves assess the results of their \"new\" CSA techniques and practices implemented at 1 Other types of indicators are readiness and process indicators. All three types are part of the CCAFS monitoring and evaluation framework (see the manual Climate-smart agriculture 101 produced by CCAFS available on-line). Readiness and process indicators are not discussed here. farm level (so far, none of the new techniques/practices has been implemented at village or landscape level). To fill this knowledge gap, a second M&E field study was designed to learn more about farmers own observations and possible measurements of the changes the \"new\" techniques and practices are bringing about. A simple questionnaire was used to interview a number of selected woman and man farmers in Ma village engaged in six of the techniques and practices adopted in the village (see Annex 1). With the help of the village leader and the NOMAFSI staff five women and four men were identified. Some of them were early implementers, some of them only of recent date (2017). Apart from an interview a visit to the farm was made to observe the chosen technique(s)/practice(s) first hand and to verify the answers as far as was possible. No one was interviewed about the acacia livelihood development initiative given that it only started very recently (second part of 2017). For the rice improvement experiment the NOMAFSI team provided the information, but given that this report focuses on farmers' findings it will not be included here.CCAFS has developed a comprehensive assessment framework for its overall program that includes 32 guiding monitoring and evaluation questions focused on its three CSA pillars: productivity (eight questions), mitigation (10 questions), and adaptation/resilience (14 questions) 2 . The framework includes biophysical and socio-economic indicators. For practical reasons, CSA country studies narrow down this very broad framework. For example, assessment of CSA work in Tanzania focuses on yield, income, soil health, soil erosion, water use efficiency, labour use, women's workload, genetic diversity and diversification (CCAFS No date). Assessment of CSA work in India focuses on labour use, methane emissions, water use efficiency, access to weather service, soil health, soil fertility, energy use efficiency, crop diversification, cost of inputs, input efficiency (CCAFS and CIMMYT 2014). In Nepal, CSA assessment focuses on the results of tillage and crop establishment practices, precision management of water, nutrients and energy, seed and crop residue management, and crop diversification and intensification (CCAFS 2017: 8-9).Technology/practice tested: livestock waste management through vermiculture composting; in some cases combined with controlled chicken raising. There are 15 households now practicing this technique.Brief description: to reduce the impact of emissions from untreated livestock's fresh dung to the atmosphere and produce additional feed to poultry and fish and bio-fertilizer to crops and vegetables, vermicomposting is introduced. The technology includes vermicomposting and composting. For vermicomposting, fresh dung is put in a prepared space of 1.5x3x1m in dimension and a height of 0.5m. One kg of earth worms are then put on top of the dung. Worms feed on digest dung to produce compost. After the first two months, farmers harvest worms twice every week and take away part of the compost to put in their gardens. New worms and dung are added. Through this practice, farmers have extra feed for their livestock and good bio-fertilizer for their crops and vegetables. Compost is made using an effective microorganisms (EM) product. Dung is piled up in layers and an EM mixture is sprayed on each of the layers. The decomposition process of the EM product eliminates weed seeds and diseases that can occur in fresh dung. The final result of the process is organic matter that can be used as bio-fertilizer for crops. This bio-fertilizer can be applied after 30-40 days. Since when is the technology/practice being tested: the first farmers started in 2016; others followed in 2017Who is involved in managing: family members contribute Who is doing the monitoring: family members and CIAT staffThe results so far:• The bad smell of dung around the house has been reduced.• Good quantities of worms are produced.• The weight and health of chicken has improved. Improved health leads to savings on expenditures of (buying) medicines. There are savings on expenditures of (buying) chicken feed.How are these results observed and/or measured?Daily observations and some recording in a notebook of the costs of inputs and the weight of the chicken.Are the results compared to how it was before?• The survival rate of the chickens until the moment of consumption has gone up from 70% to 98%. • The total growth up to the 5 th months has increased from an average of 1.5kg to 2.4kg.• Chicken are laying more eggs than before.• Environmental pollution (air, ground) has been reduced.• Now, safe meat is produced: human health has improved due to less medicine residues in eggs and meat.Are the results being compared with farmers who do not test the technology? Some neighbors bring dung to the rice field; this requires more labor than collecting dung in the farm-yard.Brief description: instead of free roaming and egg laying chicken, a confined space is created, usually in an existing coop, of a mixture of rice husks, sawdust and brewer's yeast. The microorganisms in the mixture decompose the chicken dung quickly keeping bad odors away and maintaining the ground clean. The quality of the environmental health is improved and as a result, the chicken's health as well.Scientific indicators: reduced GHG emissions (household and village levels); reduced environmental pollution compared to the traditional practice of free roaming chicken (household and village level); improved animal and human health (household and village level); increased use of bio-fertilizer (bedding material can be used as compost after about 6 months)Scale: in the farm-yard by individual households; a living bed structure can be of varied sizes depending on the number of chicken (from a few square meters up to 25m² or more)Purpose/purposes:• To decrease air pollution from chicken dung • To produce healthier and faster growing chicken; the number of chicken varies from 50 to 500. Chicken are mainly raised for home consumption of eggs and meat and to some degree for the sale of eggs and meat. The results so far:• The bad smell of dung around the house and yard has been reduced.• The health of chicken has improved. Improved health leads to less disease and savings on expenditures of (buying) medicines. • There are no longer early deaths (of chicks).• The overall death rate has been reduced.• The time to full growth is shorter than before: from 6/7 months to 4 months.• Feeding has become more efficient: there is less waste of feed and this has led to cost savings • Healthier and heavier chicken have a higher market price.• Workload has been reduced: there is no longer need to clean dung every day; dung can be easily cleaned and collected; chicken can be easily observed and there is no longer need to bring them home every day. • Chicken no longer get \"lost\".• The compost resulting from the bedding can be easily applied to crops. How are these results observed and/or measured?Daily observations and some recording in a notebook of the costs of inputs and the weight of the chicken.• There is less disease than before.• The time to full growth is shorter than before: from 6/7 months to 4 months.• Healthier and heavier chicken have a higher market price.• Environmental pollution (air, ground) has been reduced.The disease rate of neighbor's chicken is higher and the growth is slower.Brief description: less effective natural grazing causing high death rates and slow growth of goats is now replaced by a more effective practice, combining living bed (pen) and cut-andcarry system. A bungalow-styled pen is constructed for 15-20 goats with a small fenced yard in front of it for goats to exercise. Forage grass is cut, chopped and fed to goats several times a day. Goat dung is made into compost using an effective microorganism product. The results so far:• The health of goats has improved. Improved health leads to less disease and savings on expenditures of (buying) medicines. • The total weight has increased.• Workload has been reduced: the goats can be easily observed and there is no longer need to \"patrol\" them and bring them home every day.How are these results observed and/or measured?Daily observations and some recording in a notebook of the costs of inputs and the weight of the chicken.Are the results compared to how it was before?• Goats are now healthier and heavier.• Goats produce more meat that can be sold in the market.• Environmental pollution (air, ground) has been reduced on the farm and in the village and surroundings.Are the results being compared with farmers who do not test the technology?To date there is only one farmer practicing these two techniques in the case of goats.Brief description: mono-cropped cassava has been known as the number one soil erosion factor on sloping lands. To mitigate the problem, an intercropping system is introduced.There are three components in this system (grasses, legumes, cassava). Grass strips are planted along contour lines to shorten erosive slope length and mitigate soil erosion. Leguminous cover crops are intercropped with cassava to reduce evapotranspiration, limit the invasion of weed and improve soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation (Vinh Le Bui 2018).Scientific indicators: reduced soil erosion; improved soil fertility (N and moisture); improved resistance to termites in cassava; stabilized cassava yield; additional feed for cattle from grassesScale: at field level; fields can vary in size, but an effective practice requires several \"layers\" of intercropping Photos (credit: Van Yen Extension unit)Purpose/purposes: The results so far:• Cassava yield has been good due to better stem growth, but unfortunately, the prize has gone down in the last few years. • It seems therefore that soil fertility has improved.• There is less soil erosion. Soil has accumulated above the grass strips.• Grasses have been harvested (cut and carry for a cow raised in the farmyard).How are these results observed and/or measured? Through visual observations mostly. CIAT staff is measuring soil accumulation on a regular basis.Are the results compared to how it was before? Before, cassava was grown as a monocrop and soil ran down the slope easily.Are the results being compared with farmers who do not test the technology? This is difficult as there are no neighbors doing the same thing. One neighbor has cassava interplanted with trees, but it seems hard to compare trees and grasses/legumes.Brief description: According to FAO (1995), a[n integrated] home garden can be defined as \"a farming system which combines different physical, social and economic functions on the • The number of cows that can be maintained has doubled (from 5 to 10).• Composting has resulted in the elimination of chemical fertilizer use. The cost saving has been about VND 4,000,000/year (1 US $ is about VND 23,000). • The cut and carry system combined with the modern shed have reduced labor costs.How are these results observed and/or measured? Through direct observations, but no measurements of any kind.Are the results compared to how it was before?Composting has become less smelly and more efficient. Before it would take three months and now only one month.The yield of the trees has improved because they benefit from 20-30kg of compost/year; they did not receive any before.The cows are healthier and stronger because they benefit from 15-20kg of feed/day, which they did not receive before.Are the results being compared with farmers who do not test the technology?The quality of the fruit is better than that of the neighbors. The fruit sells easier.Brief description: rice straw is kept in the field after harvesting and decomposed by using an effective microorganism (product). Such a product activates microorganisms that live in soil and water and maximizes their natural power. Rice plants are transplanted at low density and fertilizers are deeply placed 3-5 days after transplanting.Scientific indicators: savings on seed and fertilizer; reduced fertilizer loss, increased yield and soil fertility maintained. The practice can also reduce or stop altogether the use of herbicides and the burning of rice straw; not burning reduces emissions.Scale: at field level (from very small to very large) Purpose/purposes: However, they hardly do any systematic quantitative measurements nor keep any systematic recordings of any kind. There is no planned quantification of outcomes, although some farmers estimate \"before and after\" differences, comparing their novel practice with the old one(s), e.g. weight increase/month, early death rate/number of births. A few interviewed farmers compare the results with a control technology/practice of a neighbor or neighbors through visual observations. Only recently, some of them have started to put some information in a logbook provided by the CIAT research team. From the interviews it became clear that they most likely are doing this not so much out of own interest, but to please the research team.Second, the interviewed farmers listed multiple indicators for each of the technologies/ practices, from two to five. This does not differ much from what the CIAT research team has come up with. None of the sets of indicators by technology/practice is the same -a useful finding that suggests avoiding the use of a 'one fits all' set of indicators. Some of the farmer indicators are frequently recurring ones: productivity gain and related income gain (mostly in terms of quality and quantity of meat, in the case of the home-garden also of fruits, and in the ICM for rice in grain yield) and savings (cost, labour). Interestingly, savings do not appear in the list of indicators put together by the CIAT research team. The interviewed farmers, women and men alike, mentioned savings eagerly. Although there seems to be no labour shortage in Ma village, the farmers are pleased to reduce labour inputs whenever possible. Concerning cost savings, also eagerly mentioned, interviewed farmers made some calculations when asked for. These calculations indicate that savings are considerable. They were perhaps not given much thought at the beginning of the testing, but they now seem to be an important incentive/pay off.Third, interviewed farmers, women and men alike, mention reduction of bad smell as an important outcome. It indicates improved environmental health/reduced environmental pollution (read emissions). It is the only indicator mentioned by interviewed farmers, which goes beyond the farm level. As farmers observed: \"The village has become cleaner.\" This is an important finding, but not surprising given the nature of the selected technologies/ practices in Ma village. It does of course raise questions about the scale of the results of the majority of the technologies/practices.Fourth, only one farmer mentioned integration of production components (trees, crops, livestock), which could be seen as a process indicator leading to positive productivity, mitigation, and adaptation outcomes. It seems likely that for farmers integrating various farm activities is everyday practice and not something new they have to learn from scratch.Fifth, animals are important for the livelihoods of Ma villagers. Interviewed farmers, women and men alike, expressed great satisfaction with the improved animal health resulting from several of the tested technologies/practices. Improved animal health contributes to productivity, in particular, more and better quality of meat, which contributes to food security and to income generation. It also contributes to adaptation through savings.Sixth, and perhaps surprisingly, interviewed farmers did not say anything explicitly about strengthened farming skills, although from interactions with them it becomes clear that they have become more knowledgeable and skillful in their agricultural profession.Last, directly or indirectly, the farmer indicators speak to the CCAFS assessment pillars of productivity, mitigation, and adaptation, although farmers do not use the terms mitigation and adaptation.This report has documented and reflected on how woman and man farmers in Ma village are assessing the biophysical results of the climate-smart techniques and practices they have adopted. They do this mostly through direct observations, some measurement, \"before and after\" comparison, and some comparison with what neighbours are doing. Their assessment concerns to a very large degree of individual outcome results at the household and/or farm level. The only outcome referred to at the collective level is environmental health. Three outcome indicators that farmers, women and men alike, recurrently refer to are: improved animal health, improved productivity, cost savings (labour, inputs), and improved environmental health (reduction of bad smells and pollution by animal waste).Overall, farmers' assessment appears positive despite the lack of quantitative precision to support their judgement. The lack of quantitative precision makes it very difficult to formulate strong conclusions about the outcomes of the CSA interventions and the overall approach and methodology that inform it. There is therefore still ample work to do for the CSA scientists.","tokenCount":"4147"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fd6f7c281461f614143e632f536ea1e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2859e5e8-238b-4d95-b6f7-bb42c772ac38/retrieve","id":"-1658447902"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dd994296-e45a-46a7-8ab4-1a040ff24ed2","pagecount":"47","content":"Gosling A; Ng'ang'a K; Gichuki L. 2022. Assessing the risk of climate change to select agricultural systems in the world's most vulnerable regions. CIAT Publication No. 531. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Nairobi, Kenya. 44 p.Amanda Gosling, independent researcher with expertise in environmental science. Cape Town, South Africa.International agricultural and rural development programmes are increasingly seeking to mainstream climate action across their project portfolios because of the huge threat climate change poses to the success of such programmes. A wide range of methods and tools exist to incorporate climate risk analysis and adaptation options, but there is no 'ready-to-use' tool that permits project planners and managers to conduct a cost-and time-effective climate risk assessment for specific sectoral approaches and to allow for the articulation of adaptation hypotheses and climate-focused impact chains. Several donors, especially from development finance, have produced tools and methods for climate risk screening of their own programmes. However, the tools and methods are typically not sector-specific and are often not freely available. Furthermore, the tools that are available are often time-consuming, complex to use and rely on extensive stakeholder engagement. Ensuring the appropriate integration of climate risk in agricultural project design can prove challenging as project planners and managers often lack the required resources and expertise.The Climate Risk Planning and Managing Tool for Development Programmes in the Agriculture and Food Sector (CRISP) project, funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)/Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, aims to address the shortfall in climate risk screening tools. The project is a collaboration between Eurac Research (Italy) and the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). The purpose of the CRISP project is to develop a freely available, quick, and simple to use, interactive web-based tool for use by agricultural and rural development project planners and managers. The project is designed to help strengthen national and international agricultural and rural development funding proposals and projects, by making explicit the contribution of these towards adaptation targets as outlined in countries' Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs). This working paper outlines the development of the knowledge base for informing the CRISP tool. It describes the concept of climate risk in accordance with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and how it applies to agriculture. It then introduces impact chains which are useful tools for understanding risk in a system, and the methodology used to research, develop, and validate impact chains for agricultural systems in five of the world's developing regions. The report concludes with descriptions of the agricultural systems, summaries of the associated impact chains and an overview of the climate risks.The IPCC uses the concept of risk to assess and communicate to decision-makers the potential adverse impacts of climate change and how to address them (Reisinger et al., 2020). The climate risk concept is best understood using the IPCC's AR5 framework 1 (Figure 1). When considering climate change impacts, risk is the result of interactions between climate-related hazards with the exposure and vulnerability of the affected socio-ecological system to the hazards. Vulnerability and exposure are mainly the result of socioeconomic pathways, although changing hazard patterns also contribute. Natural and anthropogenic changes in the climate system (left side) and socioeconomic processes (right side) are principal drivers of the core components (vulnerability, exposure, and hazards) that constitute risk (Oppenheimer et al., 2014). • Hazard: The potential occurrence of a climate-related physical event, trend, or impact (e.g., extreme rainfall events, recurring drought, increasing average temperature, rising sea levels) that may damage property and infrastructure, cause fatalities, injuries and other health impacts, disrupt livelihoods and service provision, reduce ecosystem functioning and degrade environmental resources. • Impacts: The effects, outcomes, or consequences of climate change hazards on natural and human systems. Impacts normally refer to the effects of climate change hazards on livelihoods, ecosystems, economies, societies, services, and infrastructure, taking into consideration the vulnerability of the exposed socio-ecological system. • Vulnerability: The predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability comprises a variety of concepts and elements including susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Vulnerability factors can be socioeconomic such as levels of poverty and education, gender inequality, and the effectiveness of governance and policy; or biophysical, including factors such as ecosystem goods and services, landscape, soil and vegetation types, prevalence of land degradation and presence or status of infrastructure. Such factors determine the vulnerability and exposure of a system to climate-related risk. Vulnerability consists of two key elements: o Sensitivity: Sensitivity is determined by factors that directly affect the outcomes of a hazard. Sensitivity includes physical attributes of a system (e.g., vegetation and soil types, landscape gradient) and social, economic, and cultural attributes (e.g., population demographics, poverty levels, inequality). o Capacity: This is the ability of a population or community to prepare for and respond to climate impacts. It includes:▪ Coping capacity: The ability of people, institutions, organisations, and systems, using available skills, values, beliefs, resources, and opportunities, to address, manage, and overcome adverse conditions in the short to medium term (e.g., effective early warning systems). ▪ Adaptive capacity: The capability of systems, institutions, people, and other organisms to adapt to potential impacts, exploit opportunities, or respond to consequences (e.g., knowledge on new sustainable farming methods).• Exposure: This comprises the elements of value that could be adversely affected by one or more hazards. Exposure can be the presence of people, livelihoods, species or ecosystems, environmental functions, services, and resources, infrastructure, or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected (e.g., households and fields located in flood zones).• Risk: Is the potential for adverse consequences for socio-ecological systems, recognising the diversity of values and objectives associated with such systems. In the context of climate change, risks can arise from the potential impacts of climate change as well as human responses to climate change. Relevant adverse consequences include those on livelihoods, health and wellbeing, economic, social, and cultural assets and investments, infrastructure, services, ecosystems, and species.(Sources: GIZ and Eurac, 2017;Oppenheimer et al., 2014;Reisinger et al., 2020) A key point to consider is that risk is not just a result of climate hazards but also the exposure of the socio-ecological system to the hazard and the vulnerability of the system to the effects of the hazard.For example, the industrial activity of a country's economy might lead to emissions that contribute to climate change, which in turn might increase the severity and occurrence of regional drought in an area that is already characterised by water scarcity. A socioeconomic system that encourages water harvesting and storage infrastructure, implements a variety of drought defence and mitigation measures, and invests in activities such as climate-smart agriculture would be less impacted by the drought events. Such a system reduces exposure to the climate hazard, decreases the vulnerability of the economy and rural communities to drought, and thus has a lower climate risk. However, a country with a different economy, exposed to the same severity and intensity of drought, but without appropriate drought adaptation and mitigation measures, would likely face very different climate risks and challenges due to the differences in exposure and vulnerability.What is an agricultural system?An agricultural system is defined as 'a population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate. Depending on the scale of the analysis, a farming system can encompass a few dozen or many millions of households' (Dixon et al., 2001).The classification of agricultural systems by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) is focused on six main regions of the developing world namely, Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands and Latin America and the Caribbean, and is based on the following criteria:• Available natural resources -comprising water, land, grazing areas, and forest; climate and altitude; landscape and gradient; farm size, tenure, and organisation; and• Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods -including field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities; and the key technologies used.Essentially, biophysical factors define the types of agricultural system that are possible, whilst socioeconomic factors determine the actual agricultural system observable at a given time (Dixon et al., 2001).There are eight overarching agricultural system categories:• Irrigated agricultural systems,• Wetland rice-based agricultural systems,• Rainfed agricultural systems in humid areas of high resource potential,• Rainfed agricultural systems in highland areas,• Rainfed agricultural systems in dry or cold low potential areas,• Dualistic (mixed large commercial and smallholder) agricultural systems,• Coastal artisanal fishing, and • Urban-based agricultural systems.Agricultural systems do not function in isolation; they are influenced by a variety of external socioeconomic factors such as policies, institutions, public goods, information, and markets (Figure 2). For example, market stability affects the prices obtainable by farmers and thus their decision making on crop types and input expenditure. Additionally, a lack of access to credit or financial support may limit the farmers' purchasing of inputs (e.g., fertilisers and pesticides). Other factors that influence agricultural systems include the households' access to climate information and educational services and their associated strategies and decision making. Internal factors comprise the adoption of technologies, which determine the type of production and processing; and the available resources (e.g., natural, physical, financial, human, and social). Climate change is an external biophysical driver or input of agricultural systems.Figure 2. Schematic representation of agricultural systems (Dixon et al., 2001).Why is it important to consider climate risk in agriculture?Weather and climate are the main drivers of agricultural production and a continuing source of disruption to ecosystem services (Selvaraju, 2012). Developing regions are heavily dependent on resilient agricultural systems and a healthy natural resource base. Climate hazards such as drought, flooding or extreme temperatures can result in loss of lives, but also in the long-term loss of livelihoods through loss of productive assets, poor health, and damaged infrastructure. Climate variability is a disincentive for risk-averse farmers to invest in modern agricultural technology and market opportunities, as they favour traditional, precautionary strategies over new practices that have the potential to enhance productivity, improve or maintain the integrity of ecological systems, and increase incomes.Studies show that climate change is adversely affecting staple crop yields (e.g., maize and wheat) and food security in many lower-latitude regions. For example, agricultural productivity is declining in the vulnerable African drylands and mountainous regions of Asia and South America (Mbow et al., 2019).Reduced agricultural productivity will have severe consequences for food security. According to global crop and economic models, a 1-29% increase in cereal prices is projected by 2050 (RCP 6.0). Lowincome consumers are particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices, with models projecting increases of 1-183 million additional people at risk of hunger (Mbow et al., 2019).Therefore, there is a need to understand climate risk in agriculture to prepare for future impacts by streamlining climate change in development plans and interventions. The delineation of agricultural systems provides a useful parameter to achieve this.Climate risk assessments offer a structured means for identifying potential adaptation and mitigation measures as well as appropriate locations for the implementation of disaster risk reduction planning.Climate risk assessments can be applied by a range of stakeholders working across agricultural systems to enhance the resilience of their proposed plans and interventions to future climate uncertainties thereby securing the livelihoods, health and food security of millions of farmers whilst improving or maintaining the ecological integrity of the systems within which they operate.This paper outlines the research process and findings from assessing climate risk in select agricultural systems located in five developing regions worldwide.Climate risk assessments should provide relevant information on the climate-related risks of societies, economies, and ecosystems, along the dimensions of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. In the context of the CRISP tool, the connections and interdependencies between humans, livelihoods, ecosystems, and their services need to be taken into consideration, focusing on the agricultural system as the main unit of analysis.For the purposes of the CRISP tool, the agricultural systems chosen to investigate were selected according to data on land area (percentage of the region), agricultural population (percentage of the region) and prevalence of poverty, obtained from Dixon et al. (2001). These variables give a high-level indication of the exposure and vulnerability of the system to climate change, the potential for agricultural development and the opportunity to alleviate poverty and food insecurity. A total of 22 agricultural systems were selected. These selected systems are from the five regions most often targeted with agricultural development projects and represent more than 50% of the agricultural populations in those regions.Table 1. Agricultural systems chosen for impact chain development (Dixon et al., 2001). Developing impact chains for the agricultural systemsImpact chains are analytical tools that can be applied to better understand, systemise, and prioritise factors that drive risk in a system of concern (GIZ and Eurac, 2017). The Risk Supplement to the Vulnerability Sourcebook by GIZ and Eurac (2017) applies the climate risk concept as introduced in the AR5 by the IPCC Working Group II. The risk concept and approach outlined in the Sourcebook were used to develop the agricultural system impact chains for the CRISP tool. Five steps and associated key questions adapted from GIZ, Eurac and UNU-EHS (2018) guided the research process:(1) Identify potential climate impacts and risks -Which major climate impacts and risks affect your agricultural system of concern? (2) Determine hazard(s) and intermediate impacts -Which climate-related hazards pose a risk to the agricultural system of concern? Which intermediate impacts link the hazard(s) and the risk(s)? (3) Determine the vulnerability of the agricultural system -What are the main drivers of vulnerability of the agricultural system? Which aspects contribute to susceptibility of the system to harm, and which factors determine the social capacities to cope with hazards or to adapt to changing conditions in the agricultural system? (4) Determine exposed elements of the agricultural system -Which elements of the agricultural system are present in places that could be adversely affected by the hazards? (5) Identify potential adaptation options to address the vulnerabilities of the agricultural system -Which adaption options are suited to the context of the agricultural system and affected stakeholders?A desktop literature search was conducted using key words e.g., climate change, climate hazards, impact, climate risk, the name of the agricultural system and the region within which it was located. Once a general understanding of the climate risks, hazards and impacts was reached, more focused searches could take place. Peer-reviewed journal articles were the predominant research material used. Articles published within the past decade were given preference, however, for underresearched agricultural systems this was waivered. Other important resources included: Climate hazards were linked to the relevant biophysical and social impacts, with impact-to-impact connections also defined. The agricultural system vulnerabilities were linked to the impacts and the adaptation options and exposure factors were linked to the identified risks. As agricultural systems are complex, comprising a variety of commodities and are located within multiple, biophysically, and socioeconomically diverse countries, to develop simple yet sufficiently informative impact chains required a level of generalisation. However, detail was retained in descriptive text passages for each factor and connection.The agricultural systems encompassed several different countries, so some vulnerabilities such as poverty and education levels tended to vary by location. For such cases, a tag 'location specific' was allocated with a link to an external database, such as World Bank Data, for the CRISP tool user to gather additional country-specific information. Furthermore, to ensure the adaptation options were easily accessible to the tool user, they were tagged according to the scale of implementation e.g., farm-, community-or policy-level, the type of practice recommended (e.g., climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture, ecosystem-based adaptation), and whether the actions required capacity building, and were network or partnership dependent.The impact chain information for each agricultural system was then organised using a software programme called Kumu. The Kumu programme develops relationship maps from complex data, providing the user with visuals to better understand the system's internal connections.The development of a simple impact chain is illustrated in Figures 3 and 4 below. In this example the climate hazard is drought which causes the direct physical impacts of soil water deficit and depletion of irrigation water. This leads to a sequence of intermediate impacts (i.e., reduced crop yields or failure and loss of income), which when taken in the context of the system's vulnerabilities of inefficient irrigation systems, weak institutional setting for water management and high water demand of crops in conjunction with the size of the agricultural system's population (exposure), leads to the risk of a loss of livelihoods for smallholder farmers. The adaptation (and mitigation) options identified to reduce the climate risk included moving affected farming communities out of drought zones, using renewable energy such as solar to reduce atmospheric carbon emissions, adopting water harvesting and storage infrastructure, establishing water user associations and planting drought tolerant crop varieties. Impact chains are typically developed using a participatory approach with experts and key stakeholders to ensure the inclusion of concrete adaptation options. In this light, a virtual workshop was held with experts in the respective agricultural systems. The CRISP tool and impact chain concept were presented to the experts to provide context to the workshop and the required output. The experts then reviewed the impact chains that had been developed and suggested modifications and inclusions based on their professional knowledge and experience. The impact chains were updated accordingly.This section of the paper outlines the key characteristics of ten of the researched agricultural systems and provides descriptive summaries of their associated impact chains. This information will feed into the creation of impact chains which will be used in the development of the CRISP tool. The highland mixed farming system is predominant in the north-western, eastern, south-western, and southern African highlands at an elevation of more than 1,700 metres above sea level (masl). It covers regions in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). The highlands are home to 73 million people on about 53 million hectares of land (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). The average farm size is about 1.6 ha per household and about 0.3 ha per person, however the farm size varies with Lesotho and Cameroon reaching 3 ha per head (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Shiferaw et al., 2013).The highland mixed system is characterised by a subhumid climate and mountainous, rugged terrain. The average annual rainfall is 1,155 mm and temperatures range from 8-22°C at lower elevations and 10-12°C at higher elevations (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). However, Lesotho has a temperate climate with temperatures ranging from −12°C to +35°C (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). The highlands are considered good for agricultural production owing to the favourable soils which are mostly young, well drained, and deep.Crop and livestock production are the dominant livelihood practices. Subsistence crop and livestock practices are common in most areas and only few pockets are commercially oriented (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). The system is sub-divided into four sub-systems namely, highland livestock-cereal, highland wheat-pulse, highland maize-based and highland mixed North African which are differentiated by socioeconomic and agroecological factors (Amede and Lemenih, 2020).Despite the high agricultural potential, the system is characterised by limited human and financial capital, low input use, poor market access and inadequate infrastructure (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Herrero and Thornton, 2012). Other constraining factors include high population density and growth, severe soil erosion, farm fragmentation, a declining land holding per capita, declining soil fertility and overstocking (Amede and Lemenih, 2020).Table 2. Key characteristics of the highland mixed agricultural system (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Shiferaw et al., 2013;Herrero and Thornton, 2012).Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe Total population (m)44.5 Total area (m ha)Tropical cool subhumid Cultivated area (m ha); % of total area 13; 24 Irrigated area (m ha); % of cultivated area 0.2; 2 Cattle population (m head) 32In Africa, agricultural productivity growth has declined by 34% since 1961 due to climate change. This decline is greater than in any other region worldwide (IPCC, 2022). The highland mixed agricultural system in particular has yield gaps, despite its relatively well-endowed water and land resources. Between 70% and 96% of the agricultural system's population depends on traditional farming practices and is faced with limited inputs and resources (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). The system's productivity is vulnerable to both climatic and non-climatic factors.Increasing seasonal variability has affected rainfall onset and cessation predictions which are changing farm management strategies and operations (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Tesfaye et al., 2016). The short rains which used to produce 30% of the system's food and 40% of the feed have repeatedly failed in most countries. Subsequently, farmers are shifting towards short-maturing varieties, and crop species which used to grow in warmer climates are now grown in the mountainous areas (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). Rainfall variability is also affecting water availability in reservoirs that used to satisfy irrigation needs and livestock drinking downstream.Another climate hazard of concern is extreme rainfall events, which are predicted to cause flash floods and storms that destroy downstream infrastructure, cause soil erosion and damage crops. These negative impacts result in poor agricultural yields, food insecurity, conflict, and urban migration (Amede and Lemenih, 2020).In addition, temperature increases of 2°C -3°C could cause a higher prevalence of pests and diseases in the highlands, including an increase in malaria (Alemayehu and Bewket, 2016;Tesfaye et al., 2016). However, the livestock-cereal sub-system is likely to achieve positive impacts in crop yields and pasture productivity if mean precipitation and temperature continue to rise (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Tesfaye et al., 2016).The highland mixed agricultural system is vulnerable to climate change due to poor market infrastructure, low coping strategies, weak institutional and policy environments, and limited access to human and financial capital (Amede and Lemenih, 2020). Enhancing system adaptation strategies would require greater investment in improved infrastructure, land restoration, market-oriented strategies, and diversification of livelihoods (Amede and Lemenih, 2020;Echeverría et al., 2016).The maize mixed agricultural system extends from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania to Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho with low altitude extensions into central Africa (including the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)) and Madagascar. The system is found on plateau and highland areas at altitudes of 800 to 1,500 metres and covers an area of 361 million hectares (Blackie et al., 2020;Dixon et al., 2001). The main agroecological zone is tropical subhumid. The climate ranges from dry subhumid to moist subhumid. The dominant rainfall pattern is monomodal, however some areas receive bimodal rainfall (Dixon et al., 2001).The agricultural population totalled 107 million in 2015 and the population density is moderately high (Blackie et al., 2020). Farms are typically small, on average 2.1 ha (Blackie et al., 2020;Dixon et al., 2001). Irrigated land is uncommon and the irrigation schemes that do exist are mostly small-scale.Harvest occurs once a year unless the farm is in an area of bimodal rainfall where farmers benefit from two cropping seasons. Maize is the staple crop, but other income sources are generated through livestock sales, and cash crops such as tobacco, coffee, cotton and groundnuts and vegetables (Blackie et al., 2020;Dixon et al., 2001). Most smallholder farmers earn off-farm incomes and are net purchasers of food grains; staples are sold at harvest time to meet immediate household cash needs (Blackie et al., 2020). Links between communities and markets are reasonably well developed but market volatility is a challenge (Blackie et al., 2020;Dixon et al., 2001).Agricultural productivity is limited by poor farm management as well as biotic and abiotic constraints. The productivity of the system is also adversely affected by shortages of seed and affordable fertilisers and agro-chemicals. Despite the system being referred to as the food basket and a driver of rural economic growth, poverty prevalence is higher than in other farming systems in Africa, with 56% of the rural population living in extreme poverty (Blackie et al., 2020).Table 3. Key characteristics of the maize mixed agricultural system (Blackie et al., 2020;Dixon et al., 2001). Agriculture in southern Africa is difficult due to climate variability and climate extremes; climate change is expected to magnify these challenges. Projected temperature increases, more extreme weather, and uncertain rainfall are likely to result in crop losses, crop failures and increased outbreaks of pests and diseases. Climatic hazards, particularly increasing average temperatures and declining precipitation, are associated with reduced yields of maize and other crops (Blackie et al., 2020;USAID, 2016;Verhage et al., 2018). The climate change impacts vary by location, for example, agriculture in eastern Zambia will mainly be affected by increased rainfall variability, while the western part of the country will face higher temperatures as well as water and temperature variability challenges (Verhage et al., 2018).The maize mixed agricultural system is vulnerable to climate change due to the presence of degraded land resulting from poor management practices and prolonged use of inorganic fertilisers. Agricultural intensification and diversification as well as an improved policy and institutional environment can potentially enhance the productivity of the system (Blackie et al., 2020;CIAT and World Bank, 2017).Means of adaptation vary according to the key climate risk, for example, adequate access to water may be addressed via improved water use efficiency and water management and temperature related risks could be addressed by adopting heat tolerant maize varieties or different heat/drought tolerant crops altogether, e.g., sorghum and millet. Other means of adaptation include improved climate and agricultural advisory services and better access to agricultural risk insurance and credit (Verhage et al., 2018).Small-scale farmers are particularly vulnerable to changes in the climate as they rely on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. Furthermore, as maize is a staple crop in the region, these negative climate change impacts will affect food systems by reducing food availability, creating local production shortfalls, and thereby contributing to a rise in commodity prices. The dryland mixed agricultural system of the Middle East and North Africa region covers an area of 42 million hectares and is located in the semi-arid subhumid agroecological zone which receives an annual rainfall of between 150 mm to 300 mm (Dixon et al., 2001). The agricultural area of the system is 3.8 million hectares (Hyman et al., 2016). Drought is a frequent occurrence in the region and food insecurity is particularly challenging (Dixon et al., 2001;Hyman et al., 2016). Soils in the region's more arid areas are susceptible to wind erosion (Dixon et al., 2001; OECD/FAO, 2018).Crop production is rainfed and vulnerable to inter-annual and seasonal variation (temporal and spatial). Barley and wheat are the predominant crops and are grown in rotation with an annual or twoyear fallow period (Dixon et al., 2001). Indigenous barley varieties are becoming increasingly popular and frequently replace wheat production. The cultivation of higher value crops, such as fruits and vegetables, tends to be constrained by low rainfall and poor market linkages (Hyman et al., 2016). Legumes (lentils and chickpeas) are grown in areas with higher rainfall.Livestock production, including cattle and small ruminants, is integrated in cropping systems (Dixon et al., 2001). When yields are good, barley is produced for grain and sheep are grazed on the stubble of the harvested crop. However, if rainfall is low and the crop does not reach maturation, the whole crop may be used for livestock fodder. Sheep breeds are typically hardy, small, and able to withstand adverse conditions and survive on sub-maintenance diets (Mohamed et al., 2019). Farmers are reliant on livestock production for subsistence and cash income.The population density of the agricultural system is lower than those in more arable systems and farms are typically small (Dixon et al., 2001;OECD/FAO, 2018). Poverty is extensive amongst small-scale farmers. Land and water are scarce in the region and the environment makes agriculture a challenging pursuit, thus migration to urban areas is increasing with remittances crucial to food security in rural communities (Dixon et al., 2001;OECD/FAO, 2018).Table 4. Key characteristics of the dryland mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001;Hyman et al., 2016). Climate change threatens the viability of agriculture, ecosystems and rural livelihoods in the Middle East and North Africa region. The region is the most water-stressed in the world (Govind, 2022).Droughts have become more frequent and intense and are considered the region's most significant climate hazard (Dixon et al., 2001;OECD/FAO, 2018;Hyman et al., 2016;IPCC, 2022;Jobbins and Henley, 2015). The dryland mixed system has a Potential Drought Impact Index of 104,013, with Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia increasingly recognised as global drought hotspots (Hyman et al., 2016;Jobbins and Henley, 2015).Dryland mixed agriculture is practised in the coastal areas of Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya which are vulnerable to sea level rise. Furthermore, projections indicate an increase in aridity, with the Levant and North African coastlines likely to become 20% drier (Jobbins and Henley, 2015).Regional projections of extreme precipitation events are inconsistent (Govind, 2022;Jobbins and Henley, 2015). However, there is a significant trend of declining annual precipitation in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Jordan, and Syria (Govind, 2022). As the rainfed agricultural system is vulnerable to reduced precipitation, it is projected that the demand for irrigation will increase, and some areas will revert to rangeland (OECD/FAO, 2018).Heat waves in the Middle East and North Africa region will be more frequent and intense by 2030 and will continue to increase to 2100 (Jobbins and Henley, 2015). Summer temperatures are expected to increase by 1˚C to 1.5˚C across the region with increases of up to 2˚C in some parts of Iran, Iraq, and Algeria. These trends are likely to intensify into the future with increases of up to 3˚C across the region by 2065 (Govind et al., 2022;Hyman et al., 2016;Jobbins and Henley, 2015).Regional agricultural production is already impacted by the changing climate, as well as system vulnerabilities such as a high prevalence of degraded land due to wind and water erosion, a loss of biodiversity and unsustainable farming practices. Further increases in temperature and reduced precipitation will cause a decline in rainfed crop yields which already have below average productivity (OECD/FAO, 2018). By 2100, it is projected that total agricultural production in the region could decrease by up to 21% (2000 baseline). Wheat yields in Tunisia have already declined as higher temperatures have shortened the growing season by ten days (Jobbins and Henley, 2015). Furthermore, farmed soils are severely degraded in the region, resulting in declines in productivity of 30%-35% of their potential (OECD/FAO, 2018).Climate change also affects the types and severity of pests and diseases in the region, which negatively impacts agricultural productivity, for example, a 2˚C increase in average global surface temperatures is projected to cause wheat yield losses of 46% (Durrell, 2018). Extreme events such as droughts and floods result in outbreaks of pests, and prolonged leaf wetness increases the likelihood of diseases.Higher temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns lead to the spread of vector-borne diseases, ticks, and macro-parasites, as well as the emergence of new diseases in livestock (Durrell, 2018).Agriculture (both crops and livestock) is a critical source of employment in the region. Smallholder farmers in remote areas of the dryland mixed agricultural system are particularly vulnerable to increasing climate hazards and are at risk of chronic poverty (Govind, 2022;Jobbins and Henley, 2015).The adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers is affected by limited access to improved crops and varieties, poor access to markets and services and few opportunities for off-farm income (Dixon et al., 2001;Jobbins and Henley, 2015). These challenges are compounded by regional post-war geopolitical complexities (OECD/ FAO, 2018;Govind, 2022).Climate change has influenced migration patterns in the region and displacement is expected to increase as conditions become hotter and drier. By 2015, over six million refugees worldwide originated in the Middle East and North Africa (4.9 million from Syria alone), and the region accounted for 40% of the world's Internally Displaced People (Durrell, 2018).Key climate change adaptation options for the dryland mixed system include the adoption of drought tolerant crop varieties, conservation agriculture practices, wind erosion control through windbreaks, water harvesting and storage, crop stubble mulch, optimised cropping systems, integrated farming systems and the farming of improved livestock breeds combined with good animal management practices (Govind, 2022;Devkota et al., 2022;Mohamed et al., 2019).There is scope for poverty reduction through improved access to off-farm income generation and better regulatory measures to secure smallholder farmers' access to land, water, and technology (Dixon et al., 2001). Furthermore, extension services need to improve dryland farmers' access to improved crop varieties, build their capacities in conservation agriculture practices, reinstall traditional water management techniques, and promote intercropping and the application of appropriate technologies (Dixon et al., 2001).Current policy encourages the modernisation of agriculture, involving the promotion of large intensively cultivated private farms. Small farms are typically excluded from policy and subsequently do not benefit from public support or bank loans, thereby restricting their access to modern technologies and improved practices (OECD/FAO, 2018). There is a need for policy reform that supports smallholder farmers.Regional climate change research is lacking, but can be improved through institutional collaboration, network development, database building and capacity development (Govind, 2022). The evidence generated needs to inform policy and institutional reforms for climate-smart reconstruction, resilience, and stabilisation. There is potential to reduce conflict in the region by strengthening institutions, improving natural resource management, and reducing land degradation induced by climate change (Govind, 2022). Focus is also needed on supporting frameworks for successful water management and seed governance. Research and development need to be participatory, involving smallholder farmers and women in particular. On-farm research on crop-livestock integration, resource conservation and system sustainability will be key.East Asia and Pacific Islands The upland intensive mixed agricultural system covers an area of 314 million hectares in East Asia and the Pacific Islands. It is the most widespread and heterogenous agricultural system in the region (Dixon et al., 2001). The system is found in upland areas and hilly landscapes with moderate altitudes and modest to steep gradients. The agro-ecological zones are classified as humid and subhumid (Dixon et al., 2001).The natural environment is fragile with steep slopes, high rainfall intensity, seasonal dry periods, and shallow erodible soils of low fertility (Schreinemachers et al., 2013). Irrigation is uncommon, with less than 25% of the land irrigated (Dixon et al., 2001). To counter the steep gradients, simple terracing is used, although in some areas, such as the Philippines and Indonesia, the terracing is better developed. Soil and water conservation structures are typically absent (Dixon et al., 2001).The system comprises a wide range of largely permanent crops such as rice, pulses, sugarcane, oilseeds, maize, wheat, cotton, fruit, and vegetables. Home gardens with vegetables and fruit trees are established for household consumption and extra income. Livestock husbandry is an important component of the system, contributing draught power, meat, cash income and savings (Dixon et al., 2001). However, livestock productivity is generally low due to poor animal husbandry and animal health practices. Aquaculture is practiced in areas with water availability, mainly in combination with rice production (Dixon et al., 2001).Farms within the system are typically remote with limited to no road infrastructure and poor access to goods and services. Rural credit and risk insurance is typically unavailable, rendering households vulnerable to natural disasters and crop failures. As farmers tend to operate semi-subsistence production systems, average incomes are low contributing to high poverty levels and food insecurity. Off-farm work is an important alternative income source.Currently, farmers are transitioning from rice-based subsistence cultivation to commercial marketoriented systems. For example, in Thailand and Vietnam, subsistence farmers growing upland rice with long fallow periods have adopted commercial farming systems and are using external inputs to intensively grow cash crops such as maize, vegetables, fruits and flowers (Schreinemachers et al., 2013). The movement is due to demographic pressure, improved access to global markets, land use policies, and is encouraged as a means of poverty alleviation (Hepp et al., 2019).Table 5. Key characteristics of the upland intensive mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Taiwan, China, South Korea, North Korea, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam Total area (m ha) 314Humid and sub-humidThe East Asia and Pacific Islands region is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its extensive coastlines, seasonal monsoon patterns and a heavy reliance on agriculture, fisheries, forestry and other natural resources (Diana et al., 2022). Data indicates that extreme climatic events have occurred more frequently in the last twenty years (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018) than the previous two decades (Bell and Taylor, 2015;Hellin et al., 2020). Climate change impacts on crop productivity are significant in the region and are especially pronounced under the RCP8.5 scenario (ASEAN, 2021).The productivity of the upland intensive mixed agricultural system is being adversely affected by climate hazards such as increasing average temperatures, drought events, extreme rainfall events, erratic rainfall, and tropical cyclones. For example, higher average temperatures cause a decline in rice yields due to increased spikelet sterility and shortened growth duration. A 2°C increase in temperature could result in a decline of rice yields by 1 t/ha. In Malaysia, rice yields are projected to decline in the range of 5.9% to 30.9% by 2050 (Diana et al., 2022). In Vietnam, spring rice yields may decline by 717 kg/ha, and 795 kg/ha in summer-autumn rice. Oil palm production decreases from 2% to 5% for each 10°C increase in temperature. In Thailand, sugarcane yields are projected to drop by 23.95% under RCP4.5 and 33.26% under RCP8.5 (Pipitpukdee et al., 2020). For maize, soybean and cotton, yields increase up to 29°C, 30°C and 32°C, respectively, but temperatures above these thresholds are damaging (Taylor et al., 2016).Drought stress has a significant impact on crop yields in the upland intensive mixed agricultural system (Mar et al., 2018;Stuecker et al., 2018;Taylor et al., 2016). Dry spells, even of short duration, can cause substantial yield losses particularly if they occur during the crop's flowering stage. For example, El Niño induced droughts in the Philippines result in substantial declines in rice and sugarcane yields (Stuecker et al., 2018).Heavy rainfall leading to flooding can delay farming operations, destroy entire crops over wide areas, damage seedling availability and restrict access to planting material and markets. Rice can thrive with periodic flooding, but it cannot survive prolonged submergence (Hellin et al., 2020). Sugarcane is very vulnerable to flooding which leads to a loss in yields. For example, the 2009 floods in Fiji cost USD 13 million in sugar losses (Taylor et al., 2016). Pulses are very sensitive to torrential rain, especially during the early vegetative stage and at flowering (Mar et al., 2018). Furthermore, due to the steep slopes associated with the agricultural system, an increase in high-intensity rainfall can lead to landslides and soil erosion through the removal of fertile topsoils, thereby impacting upon crop productivity and sedimentation of surface water resources (Carandang, 2010;Dixon et al., 2001;Hellin et al., 2020;Taylor et al., 2016).Sudden changes in weather conditions result in outbreaks of pests and diseases causing a loss of yields (Carandang et al., 2016;Landicho et al., 2019;Mar et al., 2018). For example, an increase in minimum temperatures and increased humidity provide conditions conducive to the spread of taro leaf blight (Taylor et al., 2016). Population growth is a key driver of land use change in the upland areas leading to increased land scarcity, the need to intensify land use and to shorten traditional fallow cycles. Shorter fallow cycles and intensive tillage of steep gradients leads to soil erosion and a loss of soil fertility, particularly with heavy rainfall events. Such practices are therefore unsustainable in the longterm.Within the agricultural system, the capacity of smallholder farmers to adapt to climate change is affected by the small size of farms (< 5 ha), insecure land titles and associated limited access to formal credit, poor road infrastructure and inaccessibility of markets, a lack of climate change awareness, and inadequate support from extension services (Dixon et al., 2001;OECD/FAO, 2018;Hepp et al., 2019;Mar et al., 2018). Furthermore, due to the remoteness and widespread poverty within the agricultural system, farmers have limited access to agricultural inputs, with women farmers the worst affected (Oxfam, 2019).Adaptation options to enhance the climate resilience of the farmers include off-farm income sources, climate change awareness campaigns, the promotion of sustainable soil and water management with a focus on practices such as agroforestry, planting of multiple crop types, integrated pest and weed management and diversification to livestock value chains (Carandang, 2010;Dixon et al., 2001;Hellin et al., 2020;Landicho et al., 2019;Schreinemachers et al., 2013). Capacity building of farmers requires access to extension agents with experience in participatory approaches (e.g., training of trainers) and demonstration plots. Policy issues surrounding land tenure and gender inequality need to be addressed to improve the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, enhance agricultural productivity, and reduce poverty in the upland areas (Dixon et al., 2001;Oxfam, 2019).The temperate mixed agricultural system is found in moist and dry sub-humid agroecological zones in Central-Northern China, Mongolia, and a small area in North Korea. The agricultural system covers an area of 99 million hectares in total (Dixon et al., 2001). The transitional boundary between this system and the lowland rice agricultural system in Central-Eastern China is not clearly defined, and the system also blends into the extensive cereal-livestock agricultural system of Southern Siberia and parts of Central Asia.There are two main farming sub-systems, the Loess Plateau Sub-System, involving mixed farming of both summer and winter crops; and the Northern Sub-System, in Northeast China, North Korea and restricted parts of Mongolia, where the climate only permits cropping during the summer months. Both sub-systems are characterised by summer rainfall and severe frost incidences in winter, particularly in the northern areas. Average farm size ranges from as small as 0.3 ha in the Loess Plateau of China to several hectares further north, where it gradually blends into the pastoral agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).In the Loess Plateau of China, wheat and rape are the main winter crops and maize, rice, cotton, soybeans, and sweet potato the primary summer crops. Cropping intensity is approximately 150%. Crops are grown under both irrigated and rainfed conditions.As cropping is only possible during summer in the Northern Sub-System (Northeastern China, North Korea, and Mongolia), wheat (0.5 million hectares in North Korea and Mongolia) and other cereals are grown concurrently and compete for cultivated land. Yields are lower in these zones due to adverse climatic conditions, and cereals may be supplemented by cold-resistant crops such as potatoes and cabbage. The higher yields achieved in China are due to crops being grown with high organic and inorganic fertiliser inputs and intensive pest control practices. In this sub-system, overall cropping intensity is high and scope for expansion of land area is limited.Livestock are an important component of the system particularly cattle for draught power, and pigs, small ruminants, and poultry for meat. Livestock are reared and managed under extensive conditions in most countries. However, more intensive production systems are found in China, especially for pigs and poultry (Dixon et al.,2001).The prevalence of poverty in the agricultural system is moderate. The average household size is approximately four to five persons and the preferred staple food throughout the region is wheat noodles (Dixon et al., 2001).Table 6. Key characteristics of the temperate mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).China, Mongolia, North Korea Total area (m ha) 99Moist and dry sub-humidDeveloping countries in the East Asia and Pacific Islands region are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The poor are especially at risk, given their heavy dependence on agriculture, strong reliance on ecosystem services, rapidly growing and dense populations, and relatively poor health services. Developing countries in the region are characterised by insufficient capacity to adapt to climate change impacts due to inadequate infrastructure, meagre household income and savings, and limited support from public services.The temperate mixed agricultural system is faced by several climatic hazards such as increased rainfall, drought, and frost events; salinisation; shorter growing season; rising sea levels; and an increase in strong winds, tropical cyclones, and hailstorms (Finlayson et al., 2019). These hazards result in different biophysical and socioeconomic impacts on the system, affecting key agricultural crops such as wheat, maize, livestock, and pulses. The biophysical impacts include land degradation, reduced crop productivity, flooding, and increased incidences of bushfires. The socioeconomic effects include an increase in food prices, food insecurity, poverty, and increased migration.The agricultural system is highly vulnerable to climate change due to moderate poverty levels, livestock and crop susceptibility to pest and diseases, and an over-reliance on rainfed agriculture. Institutional vulnerabilities such as inadequate climate information, low access to markets, and unstable commodity prices present further challenges. Moreover, there is a high prevalence of land degradation caused by multiple forces including extreme weather conditions, such as drought, and human activities that pollute or degrade the quality of soils and land utility (ESCAP, 2018).To cope with climate change impacts, there is a need to develop and scale adaptation strategies such as reforestation practices, investments in irrigation infrastructure and research and development, creation of climate change awareness, diversification of livelihoods, and the implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices and disaster recovery strategies (Roy and Basu, 2020). According to Dixon et al. (2001), further intensification of crop production will occur due to the promotion of higher-yielding (particularly hybrid) varieties, a more balanced use of fertilisers, increased water availability and improved water use efficiency.Greater emphasis should be given to small-scale intensive livestock production (mainly pigs) and to growing vegetables and fruits, as market demand for these higher-value products will increase with rising urban incomes. Furthermore, government research and extension services are needed to provide the appropriate technical advice and support for improving cattle feed in the production system.The Asian Development Bank (ADB), in collaboration with the Regional and Sustainable Development Department and other operational departments of the ADB, have put in place integrated adaptation solutions to address the causes and consequences of climate change in the East Asia and Pacific Islands region, including areas engaged in temperate mixed agriculture. Small-scale producers need to be included in the implementation of these adaptation options and there is need for financial and market inclusion (ADB, 2008).Figure 8. Map of agricultural systems in South Asia (Dixon et al., 2001).The rice-wheat agricultural system extends from Northern Pakistan, through the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Terai region of Nepal, the Gangetic Plain in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, and culminates in Northwest Bangladesh (Dixon et al., 2001). Around 85% of the agricultural system is located within the Indo-Gangetic Plain (Dhanda et al., 2022). It is the largest agricultural system in the world, occupying around 12.3 million hectares in India, 0.5 million hectares in Nepal, 2.2 million hectares in Pakistan and 0.8 million hectares in Bangladesh (Bhatt et al., 2016;Mishra et al., 2021).The system is characterised by a summer (monsoon-season) wetland rice crop and a winter (cool, dry season) wheat crop, which is occasionally followed by a short springtime vegetable crop. The agricultural system also contains large populations of cattle, sheep and goats which graze on crop residues and return to the uplands during the cropping season (Dixon et al., 2001). Rice-wheat production is an important livelihood source for millions of farmers in the region and feeds over a billion people (Arshad et al., 2016).Rice is conventionally grown by manually transplanting seedlings (aged 25-30 days) into puddled soil during the wet season (June to October). Puddling requires 200-250 mm of water (Rashid et al., 2018).In winter (November-March), wheat is grown with repeated dry tillage and broadcasting of wheat seeds (Paudel et al., 2020). After the wheat crop is harvested, fields are left fallow for summer (April-June). Summer ploughing is undertaken to destroy weeds (Mishra et al., 2021). Residue from the rice crop hinders tillage and sowing operations of the successive wheat crop, and so farmers typically burn it.Irrigation using groundwater is common in the agricultural system. The rapid expansion in the number of private tubewells in conjunction with difficulties surrounding the regulation of water use has led to depleted aquifers and the lowering of groundwater tables (Bhatt et al., 2021;Dixon et al., 2001;Mishra et al., 2021). For example, in some parts of Pakistan and India, groundwater tables are declining by 1.0-3.5 m and 6 m/ annum, respectively. The rice-wheat agricultural system is water, labour, and energy intensive (Ullah et al., 2021).Within the agricultural system, poverty and food insecurity are widespread, affecting mainly landless agricultural workers and sharecroppers (Dixon et al., 2001). For example, smallholder farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plain generate per capita incomes of USD 835 per household per annum (national (India) average of USD 1,256) (Mishra et al., 2021). Poverty and food insecurity are expected to worsen as the yields of the rice-wheat agricultural system are declining. The declining yields have been attributed to unsustainable farming practices, slow maturing traditional varieties, soil degradation, decreasing groundwater levels, increasing average temperatures, high prevalence of invasive plant species and outbreaks of pests and diseases. Due to the high demand for labour, water, and energy, the sustainability of the rice-wheat agricultural system is now under question.Table 7. Key characteristics of the rice-wheat agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Countries India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh Total area (m ha) 97 Agro-ecological zone Dry subhumidThe rice-wheat agricultural system occupies approximately 15.8 million hectares of cultivable land in South Asia, mostly in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal (Bhatt et al., 2016;Mishra et al., 2021).Rice and wheat are the principal calorie sources for over a billion people in the region, providing food security and livelihoods for the growing population. Over the past ten years, the rice-wheat system has seen a decline in productivity due to receding groundwater tables, soil degradation, frequent and widespread pest infestations and climate change (Bhatt et al., 2021).The predominant climate hazards affecting the system are increasing average temperatures and an increase in extreme heat. It is projected that the annual average maximum temperature in South Asia will increase by 1.4-1.8 °C by 2030 and 2.1-2.6 °C by 2050, and thus, heat-stressed areas in the region could increase by 12% in 2030 and 21% in 2050 (Arshad et al., 2016;Aryal et al., 2019;Zacharias et al., 2014). Above-optimal temperatures directly harm the physiological processes of rice and wheat crops, reducing biomass production. Rice yields are projected to decline by 3.2%-22% with an increase in air temperature of 1-4˚C by 2100 and almost half of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the major food basket of the South Asian region, may become unsuitable for wheat production by 2050 due to heat stress (Aryal et al., 2019).Another climate hazard of concern is increasingly erratic rainfall which also reduces crop yields. For example, rainfall variability was noted as one of the main reasons for low crop yields in Nepal (Aryal et al., 2019;Mishra et al., 2021). Higher temperatures and changes to precipitation are exacerbating the spread of insects, pests and diseases contributing to a loss in crop yields. New insect species (resistant to insecticides) have appeared over the last few decades (Arshad et al., 2016;Bhatt et al., 2016;Venus et al., 2022). Furthermore, invasive plant species are already problematic in the agricultural system, reducing crop productivity by competing for light, water, and nutrients.The agricultural system is vulnerable to climate change as traditional crop management practices are unsustainable, for example, wet tillage has led to the structural degradation of soils and the burning of rice residues has depleted soil nutrients (Bhatt et al., 2016;Bijarniya, 2020;Mishra et al., 2021). Furthermore, water use efficiency is low in the agricultural system with approximately 35% to 55% of irrigation water lost before reaching the fields (Bhatt et al., 2016). Groundwater levels are declining as the number of private tubewells have increased significantly and water use regulation is insufficient (Bhatt et al., 2021;Dixon et al., 2001;Mishra et al., 2021). Higher transpiration rates due to increasing average temperatures and extreme hot days are expected to exacerbate water scarcity in the region.Poverty and food insecurity are widespread in the agricultural system and are expected to worsen as rice and wheat yields decline further (Dixon et al., 2001). Key adaptation options to enhance the resilience of rice-wheat farmers and improve crop yields include wider adoption of conservation agriculture and climate-smart agricultural practices. There is a need to build the capacity of extension agents on these sustainable land management practices to increase adoption (Pokharel et al., 2018). Integrated research approaches are needed to measure the components of local and regional water balance and quantify regional hydrology outcomes over a large temporal scale. This will allow for the development of appropriate water management policy (Mojid and Mainuddin, 2021). Policy that promotes the cultivation of crops that have lower water requirements than rice such as cotton, maize or legumes could improve the water productivity of the agricultural system.The rainfed mixed agricultural system covers nearly 30% of the land in South Asia. The system is almost entirely within Central and Southern India, with a small area in Northern Sri Lanka. This agricultural system occupies 147 million hectares of land within the sub-humid agroecological zone (Dixon et al., 2001).Relatively small areas of land are irrigated from tanks to reduce vulnerability to drought and to permit dry season cropping. This traditional tank-based supplemental system has evolved in recent decades to the use of tubewells (Dixon et al., 2001).Livestock are an important part of the agricultural system, which supports the largest share of cattle, sheep, and goats in the region. Livestock contribute a large portion of farming households' cash income, particularly through animal sales, since most areas are too remote for commercial milk production. However, dairy production is becoming more important in areas with improved infrastructure. Cereals, legumes, and livestock fodder are the dominant crops in the agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Table 8. Key characteristics of the rainfed mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Countries India, Sri Lanka Total area (m ha) 147 Agro-ecological zone Sub-humidThe main crops grown within the rainfed mixed agricultural system include wheat, barley, vegetables, and fodder crops in the cooler northern areas, with maize, sorghum, finger millet, vegetables, chickpea, pigeon pea, green gram, black gram and groundnuts more common in the warmer climates of Southern India (Dixon et al., 2001). Smaller areas of soybean, rapeseed, chilli, onions, and sesame are grown mainly as cash crops. Double cropping is possible only where irrigation is available. In Southern India and the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, where land holdings are smaller, farmers prefer to grow wetland rice where irrigated land is available, as well as in the poorly drained valley bottoms during the wet season. Coarse grains, pulses and oilseeds are grown in the upland areas of the landscape (Dixon et al., 2001).The major climate change hazards impacting on the value chains in the agricultural system include floods from extreme rainfall events, tropical cyclones, and drought, which lead to reduced crop yields, livestock loss and damage to infrastructure (Mohanty and Wadhawan, 2021). While the total area covered by the system is larger than the rice-wheat agricultural system, a heavy reliance on rainfed agriculture imposes a much lower population density, about half that of the latter system. A large proportion of the rural population within the agricultural system lives in chronic poverty and are highly vulnerable to periodic drought-induced severe transient poverty.The agricultural system is oriented towards subsistence production, with poor infrastructure and market access. Agricultural extension services in these areas are typically weak, farmers mostly use traditional technology with a strong bias towards risk avoidance. Land tenure presents further challenges, as farmers typically do not hold titles to their land and so are unable to use it as collateral for obtaining institutional credit (Dixon et al., 2001).Farmers engaged in the agricultural system are highly exposed to food insecurity and a loss of livelihoods. There is need for greater implementation of adaptation interventions and improvement of existing strategies to prevent a loss of livelihoods for local communities depending on agriculture as their main economic activity. Some existing adaptation options include improved irrigation practices, integrated pest and disease management, introduction of alternative income generation activities and opportunities, soil and water conservation and the implementation of agroforestry practices (ADB, 2014;Department of Science and Technology, 2020;Mohanty and Wadhawan, 2021).Figure 9: Map of agricultural systems in Latin America and the Caribbean (Dixon et al., 2001) Maize-beans agricultural systemThe maize-beans agricultural system covers predominantly upland areas from the Panama Canal to the highland plateau of Guatemala and Central Mexico, extending over an area of approximately 65 million hectares (Dixon et al., 2001). The elevation of the agricultural system typically ranges between 400 -2,000 masl but reaches 3,500 masl in the Guatemalan highlands. Annual precipitation varies from 1,000 mm to 2,000 mm (Dixon et al., 2001). Soils are of volcanic origin and relatively fertile, but the prevalence of soil degradation and erosion is high, particularly on steep gradients and cleared land. The system is characterised by high levels of deforestation, for example, forested areas in Guatemala and Honduras steadily decreased between 1990 and 2015 and Nicaragua lost half of its forest cover in the last half-century (Gourdji et al., 2015;Waddick, 2017). The decrease in forested areas (especially in Honduras) is mainly attributed to agricultural expansion.Farms are typically small, less than two hectares in size. For example, in Guatemala, Costa Rica and Honduras, the average coffee production area is 1.41 ha, 0.92 ha for maize and 0.57 ha for beans (Harvey et al., 2018). Yields tend to be low, with rainfed maize averaging 1.5 t/ha and beans 0.7 t/ha (Dixon et al., 2001;Eitzinger et al., 2012).Maize and beans form a vital component of the diets and culture of the agricultural system's population and smallholder farmers are key contributors to the national output of these crops. Onfarm consumption is high, as noted by Harvey et al. (2018) who determined that less than a quarter of smallholder farmers sell their produce. Poverty is prevalent throughout the agricultural system (>30% of the population in Nicaragua and Honduras, 25% in Guatemala, and 20% in El Salvador), especially in the period before harvest (Dixon et al., 2001;Eitzinger et al., 2012). Coffee farmers typically experience higher incomes per unit of land than maize and bean producers. Coffee and smallscale vegetable production provide important income sources.Public infrastructure is sparse or completely absent away from local administrative centres and road networks are largely inadequate. In El Salvador, the road network is usable only during the dry season, greatly restricting access to land and markets (Eitzinger et al., 2012). However, the rural access index (RAI) varies by country, for example, Bolivia's RAI is 48%, Costa Rica at 82% and Nicaragua at 28% (Perez, 2020). Similarly, the availability of education, health care and other services is generally poor. Although, levels of education vary between smallholder farmers in different landscapes. For example, Costa Rican farmers generally have higher levels of education than farmers in Guatemala and Honduras, and El Salvador has lower education levels than Honduras (Eitzinger et al., 2012). Most smallholder land ownership is by customary arrangement, making access to formal credit difficult. To compensate, rural communities rely on social cohesion, enabling community mobilisation for a wide range of activities (Dixon et al., 2001).Table 9. Key characteristics of the maize-beans agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001). Central America is highly exposed and vulnerable to climate change with extreme events already impacting the region and projected to intensify (IPCC, 2022). Climate projections suggest increases in temperature across Latin America by 2100 (medium confidence) and reduced precipitation and altered rainfall seasons are already impacting rainfed subsistence farming in the Dry Corridor in Central America (CDKN, 2014;Thomas et al., 2018). Global Climate and Earth System Models indicate that the region is projected to become distinctly drier in the future with rainfall changes ranging from between -22% to +7% by 2100 (CDKN, 2014). The region also faces increasing incidences of hurricanes and extreme rainfall events (Harvey et al., 2018;Pacillo et al., 2022).Smallholder coffee and maize and bean farmers are highly vulnerable to climate change as their crops are sensitive to rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns (Harvey et al., 2018). Rising temperatures, decreases in annual rainfall and drought conditions have negative impacts on the biomass production, flowering and yields of maize and beans. It is projected that by 2025, bean production in Central America could be reduced by more than 20%. Nicaragua and Honduras, the main bean-producing countries, can expect yield losses of 14%. El Salvador will suffer a reduction of 7%, but Guatemala might increase its overall production because of its highlands. In Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua, and in poor soil simulations, maize yields are expected to decline by more than 15% by 2025 (Harvey et al., 2018). Furthermore, flowering in coffee plantations is triggered by the first rains but if the season becomes too dry or too wet the coffee flowers and fruits may dehisce or not grow to full size. Higher ambient temperatures speed up the ripening of coffee berries, contributing to poorer produce quality (Imbach et al., 2017). Climate change is likely to alter the areas suitable for smallholder coffee and maize and bean production across the region (Gourdji et al., 2015;Harvey et al., 2018;Imbach et al., 2017). Although, Mexico may preserve some optimal and medium suitability areas. While pest and disease control are not a new concern for farmers, changing precipitation patterns and increasing average temperatures are worsening the issue by altering the distribution, population dynamics and frequency of incidence, this is evident in outbreaks of fall armyworm and diseases such as tar spot complex in maize and leaf rust in coffee (Eash et al., 2019;Harvey et al., 2018).Smallholder farmers in the maize and bean agricultural system are particularly vulnerable to climate change hazards due to widespread poverty, weak land tenure, poor infrastructure, a general lack of access to inputs, finance and extension support, and low levels of education. These vulnerabilities are further compounded by a high prevalence of degraded soils and high rates of deforestation, as farmers intensify and expand their agricultural production to adapt to climate-induced yield reductions (Gourdji et al., 2015;Waddick, 2017).Climate change is already having significant adverse impacts on smallholder coffee and maize and bean farmers across the region and could undermine national and regional efforts to alleviate poverty, achieve food security, and enhance economic development. Facilitating smallholder farmers' adaptation to climate change will require a combination of policy, technical and research solutions, improved access to extension services and climate information, and the creation of incentives, credit, and other financing mechanisms to support farmers' adaptation efforts (Harvey et al., 2018).The dryland mixed agricultural system in Latin America extends from the northeast of Brazil and the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico to the northern Peten zone of Guatemala. Annual precipitation in northeast Brazil varies from 400 mm to 600 mm in the drier west area of the Brazilian system, to 1,000 mm in the east. In the Yucatan, the average precipitation range is 600 mm to 1,500 mm (Dixon et al., 2001).In both Brazil and the Yucatan, soils are typically shallow and stony with areas of low forest vegetation and elevations are low to moderate. Good quality agricultural land is scarce, and few erosion control measures are implemented. The dryland mixed system has a well-established economic and productive structure but faces severe moisture and soil quality constraints (Dixon et al., 2001).Despite frequent droughts, irrigated agriculture is poorly developed; partly as a result of low water availability, partly due to poor soil conditions, and partly because of investment requirements beyond the means of most small-scale producers. The dryland mixed system is characterised by extensive and severe poverty amongst small-scale producers, who exist alongside large-scale extensive ranchers, and often depend on seasonal migration and wage labour for survival. Land degradation is a serious challenge in the dryland mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Table 10. Key characteristics of the dryland mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001). Projections for the Latin America and Caribbean region show increasing mean temperatures of up to 4.5°C by 2100, compared to pre-industrial levels (World Bank and USAID, 2017). The dryland mixed agricultural system is affected by climate related challenges such as altered precipitation regimes, an increase in extreme heat, drought and increasing aridity. These climate hazards adversely affect the productivity of farmers without access to supplemental irrigation (Dixon et al., 2001). A projected increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones, as well as the frequency of storms, and sea level rise (0.2-1.1 mm) will present further challenges. These climate related hazards cause biophysical and socioeconomic impacts such as reduced maize and cassava yields and reduced livestock productivity.Livestock, cassava, and maize are major components of the dryland mixed system and key contributors to the regional economy and food security, but as indicated by Prager et al. ( 2020), have lower yields and output due to the impacts of climate change. There is also evidence that human health and energy systems are negatively affected. Biophysical impacts include soil erosion, soil salinisation, increased soil water deficits and livestock mortalities.The physical and biophysical climate change impacts affect human livelihoods through decreasing incomes which leads to higher levels of poverty and inequality. The regional poverty rate in 2018 was 30.1% of the total population (185 million), with extreme poverty at 10.7% (66 million) (ECLAC, 2019). Furthermore, these impacts have contributed to trade deficits, suggesting increased exposure to food insecurity for most countries in the region (Prager et al., 2020).Some of the vulnerabilities to climate change in the dryland mixed agricultural system include a reliance on rainfed agriculture, inability to interpret climate information, susceptibility of crops and animals to pests and diseases and demographic pressure on land. Adaptation options include the creation of alternative livelihood opportunities to sub-marginal farm families, incentives for the development of agro-industry and other rural occupations, such as training of workers and tax benefits. Other strategic approaches consist of diversification into higher value crops and the dissemination of technologies that improve productivity in relation to moisture constraints, including the development and dissemination of drought resistant varieties and species, promoting the replacement of maize, the adoption of conservation agriculture technologies appropriate for small producers, and small-scale irrigation where feasible. Land use planning should be given priority to improve the identification of areas at risk. Region-wide meteorological research would also be valuable. In addition to these major strategic approaches, public financing must be shifted away from emergency drought relief and similar programmes into activities that provide hope for future avoidance of these conditions (Dixon et al., 2001).Organisations, such as the United Nations Environment Programme, are working in the region with governments, civil society, and the private sector to address climate change priorities and to achieve a greater understanding of the causes and impacts of climate change on the economy and human wellbeing. There is a need to strengthen local and national capacities to address the impacts of climate change; develop adaptation and mitigation strategies such as diversification of livelihoods, soil erosion control measures, policy reform, and improve early warning systems for integrating climate change in development planning and investment; and the implementation of pilot projects to catalyse action on climate change (Ngigi et al., 2021;UNEP, 2010).The high altitude mixed agricultural system extends over 121 million hectares from Cajamarca in Northern Peru, through Bolivia into Northern Chile and Northeast Argentina. An estimated 40% of the territory of Peru and Bolivia falls within the system's boundaries, as well as smaller portions of Chile and Argentina. This agricultural system falls under the semiarid-dry subhumid agro-ecological zone.Soil types vary greatly and the extreme changes in altitude are accompanied by dramatic changes in temperature, humidity, and rainfall. The mean daily temperature is generally below 10°C and frost is common, especially during the dry season. Precipitation is concentrated within a single wet season of variable length and ranges from 150 mm -1,000 per annum from west to east. Although the soils, as well as their capability for agricultural production, are extremely diverse, their fertility is typically low. All the lands in the system are affected by severe soil erosion.In the Peruvian Sierra, there are three major production systems which are delineated according to altitude (i) the valley floor where maize, quinoa and potatoes are grown, and where water is available, small-scale traditional irrigation systems are used for horticultural production; (ii) in the intermediate slopes, the drier western terraces are dedicated to barley and grains and the eastern slopes are dominated by tuber cultivation; and (iii) the high hills where cultivation of more frost-resistant crops is combined with pastoral activities (Dixon et al.,2001).Table 11. Key characteristics of the high altitude mixed agricultural system (Dixon et al., 2001).Chile, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia Total area (m ha) 121 Agro-ecological zone Semiarid-dry subhumidThe high altitude mixed agricultural system is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, with seven of the nine vulnerability characteristics recognised in the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) namely, low coastal zones; arid and semi-arid areas; exposure to floods, droughts, and desertification; zones prone to natural disasters; areas of high urban pollution; fragile mountain ecosystems; and significant economic dependence on the production and export of fossil fuels (USAID, 2012).Major agricultural value chains in the high altitude mixed system include tubers (e.g. potato), sheep, and grains (e.g. cañihua, quinoa, maize and wheat). Climate hazards affecting the system include heavy precipitation with associated flooding, heavy snow and frost, drought, occurrence of unpredictable rainfall patterns, shorter growing season, retreating of glaciers and cold surges along the Andes corridor (Stäubli et al., 2018;USAID, 2017;WMO, 2020;World Bank, 2014).Climate hazards have had major impacts on the agricultural system including flooding and flash flood events, landslides, reduced crop and livestock productivity, emergence of new pests and diseases, increased food insecurity, loss of income, increase in migration and an increase in poverty (Fiebig-Wittmaack, 2011;USAID, 2017;World Bank, 2014). Climate change impacts directly affect the food security and livelihoods of farmers. This is particularly concerning for countries such as Peru, where 80% of producers practise subsistence farming (Bergmann et al., 2021;Mächtle, 2016;USAID, 2017).Major system vulnerabilities to the climate hazards include a heavy dependence on rainfed production with predominantly small-scale subsistence farming, high poverty levels, emergence of new pests such as the Andean potato weevil, poor water use efficiency and management, and unsustainable agricultural practices and natural resource use (SINAGERD, 2014;USAID, 2017;World Bank, 2014). There are also institutional and policy challenges such as weak land tenure and access rights for women, inadequate climate information services and inconsistencies in policy implementation (SINAGERD, 2014;USAID, 2017). Other major factors that contribute to a lack of capacity to cope and adapt include low levels of education, a lack of road infrastructure and unequal opportunities for women (Bergmann et al., 2021;UNDP, 2018).Adaptation options include reforestation practices, investing in irrigation, investing in water harvesting and storage infrastructure, implementing efficient water management and diversifying livelihoods (Bergmann et al., 2021;Fiebig-Wittmaack, 2011;USAID, 2017). Furthermore, it is recognised that women have a profound knowledge of their environment and often play a greater role than men in the management of natural resources. Therefore, they should be a primary resource for implementing adaptation measures and their roles need to be strengthened by government (Schoolmeester et al., 2016).The agricultural systems and the regions within which they are found are socioeconomically and biophysically diverse. However, the impact chain summaries highlight commonalities in their exposure and vulnerability to climate change. The projected increases in the occurrence and intensity of climate hazards such as heavy rainfall events, flooding, landslides, frost, sea level rise, tropical cyclones and drought as well as trends such as increasing average temperatures and declining rainfall, have an adverse impact on agricultural productivity.The impacts of climate change on agricultural systems are compounded by system vulnerabilities such as inequality; poverty; population growth; unsustainable land use practices (leading to deforestation, degradation and associated loss of biodiversity and ecosystem goods and services); poor water management; soil erosion and infertility; and a heavy dependence on natural resources. The capacity of farming communities to adapt to climate change is further limited by poor governance systems, weak policy and institutions and financial deficits. This is evident in the lack of access to extension services, weak land tenure and access rights, poor market linkages, inadequate infrastructure, low availability of climate information and insufficient data and research.Key climate risks to farmers working within the agricultural systems include chronic poverty, food insecurity and a loss of livelihoods. Climate change induced reductions in agricultural productivity will affect the abilities of vulnerable countries to meet their poverty and food security goals.Some important adaptation options identified include livelihood diversification for off-farm income generation, sustainable land and water management practices such as agroforestry, climate-smart and conservation agriculture practices. The capacity building of farmers on sustainable practices and modern technologies through on-site demonstration plots and champion farmers (farmer-to-farmer learning) have proven successful. Local and indigenous knowledge systems are crucial to the provision of locally appropriate adaptation options and to improve decision-making processes and reduce maladaptation. There is a need for improved access to extension services, modern technology, and credit at the farm-level. Furthermore, climate change awareness, climate information services and early warning systems need to be enhanced to reduce climate risk.Participation of all social groups, particularly the most exposed and vulnerable, in policy development and action will be critical to enhancing climate resilience and 'leaving no one behind'. Cross-sectoral approaches, national exchanges and regional partnerships are needed for knowledge sharing and upscaling of adaptation practices.","tokenCount":"12163"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"75c54668640a6ce5301762e49d68271c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d006858-7d6b-4751-976e-edda0bf131ea/retrieve","id":"1927456576"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7bc44fa-d90f-4951-ae54-f813c8956c11","pagecount":"2","content":"This study was conducted in Metema district, Amhara Region, Ethiopia to characterize the existing feed resources and recommend their enhanced utilization for animal production. The major feeds were pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3%). The estimated annual feed supply was 833,531.2 tons DM and 94% came from natural pasture. About 33 herbaceous species and 20 woody species that are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable were identified. The total dry matter biomass and the high proportion of desirable species could be effectively utilized to support market-oriented ruminant production in the district and beyond.Ethiopia has the largest ruminant population in Africa. The lowlands (<1500 masl) cover 78 million ha, and support 12% of the human and 26% of the livestock population (Beruk and Tafesse 2000). The Amhara Region owns 35% of the national livestock population (Befekadu and Berhanu 2000). The lowland district of Metema, in North Gondar Zone bordering the Sudan, has a dominant cattle and goat production system. It is sparsely populated and has underutilized surplus feed during the rainy season (Elias et al., 2007). Farmers from neighboring highland districts practice transhumant cattle production from May to October and use the surplus feeds. However, the human population and crop production has been increasing in recent years, creating conflict over resources between the highlanders and lowlanders. This study was, therefore undertaken to a) characterize feed resources and utilization practices, and b) to recommend options for wider and efficient utilization of feeds for market-oriented animal production.A single-visit formal survey, group discussions and visual observations were used to collect primary information and data from secondary sources were collected. A total of 140 respondents from 7 villages were selected by stratified random sampling and interviewed. Feed samples were collected from communal, roadside and enclosure areas, and in each site herbaceous and woody biomass, grass species composition, basal cover, litter cover, soil erosion, soil compaction, seedling count, age distribution and woody density enumeration, canopy cover and hedging were recoded. For the height classes <0-1m, >1-3 M, >3-4.5 m and >4.5 m was used. Feed samples were stratified by season and types and subjected to chemical analysis. Data were analyzed using SPSS and SAS.About 82.9 % of the respondents practiced crop-livestock mixed farming system. The mean ruminant livestock holding per household was 12.52±6.23 cattle, 0.80±0.40 goats and 0.13± 0.07 sheep. Natural pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3 %) were the major feed resources. The total estimated annual feed supply (tons DM) was 833,531 and 94% came from natural pasture. Of the identified 33 herbaceous species, 14 and 19 were different grasses and non-grass species. From the non-grass species, 6 legumes and 13 sedges were recorded. Of the grasses, 23.1%, 38.5% and 30.8% were highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. Of the identified 20 woody species, 15%, 35% and 50 % were highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. The largest proportion of woody vegetation was contributed by different species of Acacia (20%) and Commbretum (10%). The total dry matter biomass, dry matter biomass of grass and highly desirable grasses, and legumes were higher (P<0.05) in the enclosure followed by communal grazing areas than the road side grazing.Considering all grazing livestock in the district, it was estimated that there is an annual surplus of 598,258 tons DM. These results are in agreement with Sisay (2006). There are also potential irrigable areas that could be developed for production of improved forages in the district.Seasonality in feed availability and lack of knowledge on feed conservation have created feed shortage both in the highland and lowland ecologies of Ethiopia. Meat production in the lowlands and meat and milk production in the highlands offer great opportunities for market-oriented ruminant production. The population pressure and expansion of crop land calls for alternative ways of feed production, conservation and utilization. The seasonally surplus total dry matter biomass could be effectively utilized to support market-oriented ruminant production in the district and beyond.","tokenCount":"657"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9593bb236ce8b0059ba513b631f6a219","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d8708599-702c-489c-bb1a-3589bfc6c6bb/retrieve","id":"59431156"},"keywords":["Gumbu community seedbank members united","Credit: Bioversity International/R","Vernooy"],"sieverID":"1698511e-30f9-4588-ac70-370cc337d990","pagecount":"8","content":"The establishment of two pilot community seedbanks in Gumbu, Limpopo and Sterkspruit, Eastern Cape, and recently, the newly formed community seedbank in Jericho, North West province (photo 1); 3. Increased access to and availability of: diverse, good quality seed, knowledge, and seed exchanges among community seedbanks and between the NPGRC and community seedbanks (photo 2); 4. The publication of two training manuals (one for technical staff, one for farmers)Smallholders' seed and food production systems in South Africa are threatened in the face of growing food demand, global warming, climate change, declining land and other resources and environmental degradation. In addition, as a result of agricultural modernization, farmers are increasingly purchasing more seed and losing locally-adapted varieties along with the associated traditional knowledge and skills for selection and seed storage.There is an urgent need to conserve and sustainably use existing plant genetic diversity. The establishment of community seedbanks is critical for communities to be able to safely store farmers' seeds. These seedbanks function as an emergency backup seed supply when farmers experience seed shortages due to failure or destruction of crops as a result of floods, droughts, pest and disease attack. They also provide a means to restore 'lost' varieties to the communities they serve.Since 2013, the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) and BioversityInternational have been working together to establish and support community seedbanks as a means of strengthening farmers' seed systems, supporting conservation and sustainable use of traditional farmers' varieties, and maintaining seed security at district and community levels. To date, the main results include: The efforts started in 2013 with an analysis of the existing seed system in the two pilot sites using a number of methods and tools (photo 3).The main results included findings that farmers were facing reducing crop diversity in their communities, while simultaneously having very limited opportunities to access (new) seed and related knowledge from each other. Based on the results of the analysis, the team held several discussions with farmers about how to organize an effective and sustainable community seedbank.One of the year's highlights was the celebration of local crop diversity through the organization of a food fair, during which farmers displayed and then tasted traditional dishes based on locally available crop diversity.In 2015, the team trained farmers in Gumbu and Sterkspruit in the many practical aspects of running a community seedbank.  It is most unlikely that these are all unique varieties, given that farmers who donate seeds to the community seedbank might be growing the same variety. For example, in Gumbu some farmers do not distinguish varieties by name, e.g. they name all yellow-coloured maize \"yellow maize\". A more in-depth analysis with the help of molecular analysis would be required to find out the exact number of unique varieties. Notwithstanding this caveat, the amount of diversity now available to farmers has increased significantly compared to before a community seedbank was established.In Sterkspruit, farmers use a temporary facility to store seed, established on the terrain of the district farmers' association. In Gumbu, farmers use a solid and spacious new physical structure built on a piece of land donated by the village headman, which was officially inaugurated in March 2016. Gumbu farmers are very pleased with this new facility, which is equipped with a convenient meeting area they can use when working together. In Jericho, an existing structure was renovated and will be inaugurated in June 2019.In 2017, the Gumbu farmers managed to harvest some quantities of seeds from the first regeneration plots set up on the land of the community seedbank. Farmers managed the whole process collectively and this brought some good results. A challenge was the irregular supply of water, which affected some crops and resulted in lower than expected harvests.  strategy whereby they multiply priority crop stored in the community seedbank on their own farms. This makes regular monitoring much easier. After the harvest, the farmers will bring new quantities of seeds to the community seedbank for storage and possibly, exchange. This new strategy includes sowing, weeding, harvesting, cleaning and storage of seeds. Selected crops included Bambara groundnut, cowpea, maize, pumpkin, sorghum, watermelon and wheat. In addition to the existing inventory of 2016, the farmers brought 17 more accessions to the community seedbank. The Sterkspruit community seedbank has a large number of maize varieties -more than any other crop-which underscores its high importance. One of the community seedbank's farmers maintains a wealth of maize diversity on his farm, which he backs up in the community seedbank. The 2017-2018 season was also affected by drought, but farmers managed to produce some small amounts of seed, maize in particular (photo 5).Notwithstanding the progress made, the team considered the need to learn more about community seedbanking, and strengthen and expand the work done so far.  2. Introduce some of the simple technologies, such as: a permanent diversity wheel to monitor crop and variety trends in space and time, solar power, a seed dryer, a storage space for farmer household or 'family' seeds;3. Strengthen the engagement of the extension departments;4. Address some of the challenging policy issues, for example; concerning the implementation or upholding of Farmers' Rights.5. With the collaboration of CTDO, train farmers, genebank officials and extension staff from South Africa in Zimbabwe;6. Explore future collaborative activities with CTDO and other Zimbabwean institutions, including at the sub-regional level, e.g. promotion of farmer seed production and marketing.In   With regard to the farmers from Gumbu and Sterkspruit, overall, they expressed satisfaction about the work done by the community seedbanks so far (photos 8 and 9).In their own words, the most important benefits they have received are:• Our seeds are stored safely.• We have learned new seed conservation and storing techniques.• More seeds are stored in our community.• We have harvested some seeds of our landraces from our seed reproduction plot and stored them in the community seedbank.We have planted some of the seed on our own farm.• We have exchanged useful information about seeds.• We have enjoyed good times together.• It has improved my livelihood.Crops conserved in Gumbu: Bambara groundnut, calabash, coriander, cowpea, finger millet, groundnut, maize, melon, mung bean, pearl millet, pumpkin, sorghum, Tapary bean, watermelon, wheat. Tree species conserved: moringa.Crops conserved in Sterkspruit: bean, calabash, cowpea, maize, melon, pea, pumpkin, sorghum, watermelon, wheat. ","tokenCount":"1040"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e050e5ed4985bc7d89932bb50043a4e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f026925a-2cd1-4178-bcfb-b721709bc317/retrieve","id":"-1403261731"},"keywords":["Ethiopian highlands","land redistribution","management and productivity"],"sieverID":"7873abdd-6219-420c-919f-7451f9d2ed06","pagecount":"19","content":"LPAP working papers contain results of research done by ILRI scientists, consultants and collaborators. The author(s) alone is (are) responsible for the contents.Reducing environmental degradation is a major challenge in the Ethiopian highlands. Land degradation, especially soil erosion (averaging 42 t/ha per year on cultivated lands (Hurni 1988)), low and declining soil fertility, soil moisture stress and deforestation are critical problems contributing to low agricultural productivity (which is reflected in cereal yields averaging less than one tonne per hectare), poverty and food insecurity in these areas (Fistum et al 1999;Lakew et al 2000).Several government policies and strategies have been implemented, both in the past and present, to solve these problems. One of the major ones was the redistributive land reform in 1974, when the military government (Derg) took power and ended all forms of tenancy, nationalised all rural lands and redistributed land to the tillers. Individual land rights were restricted (i.e. land sales and leasing, using land as collateral and hiring labour were prohibited) to ensure that the tillers remained the beneficiaries of agricultural production. Land redistribution by the government was then established as the only means to improve access to land and reduce landlessness. Since the fall of the military government in 1991, the new Ethiopian government has allowed land leasing and hiring labour, but the prohibition on land sales has continued, codified in the new constitution. The increasing problem of landlessness has put pressure on regional governments to frequently redistribute land. For example, in 1997 and 1998, the Amhara regional government undertook a major land redistribution exercise. While the impacts of such land redistributions have been hotly debated in Ethiopia and elsewhere, little empirical evidence has been available concerning the actual impacts of land redistribution, however.Although redistributive land reform is sometimes utilised as a deliberate policy instrument to improve agricultural productivity and reduce poverty, 1 it is argued that land redistribution erodes tenure security and that farmers will not undertake land-improving investments since they may not be able to claim fully the returns on their investment. Thus, to the extent that investments in land are required for conservative purposes and to increase productivity, land redistribution will further promote land degradation and reduce farm output. Currently, the Amhara regional government is considering a land policy that will end land redistributions. A critical question then is whether abolishing land redistribution will improve investments in land that will in turn reduce land degradation and increase productivity.1. This policy stems from many case studies that show an inverse relation between farm size and productivity (Berry and Cline 1979;Prosterman and Riedinger 1987). The underlying argument is that by giving land to the actual tillers, the high transaction and monitoring costs associated with tenancy and using hired labour are eliminated.In this paper, we present evidence and policy implications of the impacts on land management and productivity of land redistributions in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. We also investigate other factors (including agricultural potential, market access, population density, credit and extension programs, and education) that may affect land management and agricultural productivity.The study is based on analysis of a community-level survey conducted in 98 villages (gots) in the highland areas (above 1500 metres above sea level (masl)) of the Amhara region in 2000. A stratified random sample of 49 Peasant Associations (PA's, usually consisting of three to five villages) and two villages randomly selected from each PA were selected from highland areas of the region. Using district (wereda) level secondary data, the stratification was based upon indicators of agricultural potential (whether the wereda is drought-prone or non drought-prone/higher rainfall, as classified by the Ethiopian Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission), market access (access or no access to an all-weather road) and population density (1994 rural population density greater than or less than 100 persons per sq km). Two additional strata were defined for PA's where an irrigation project is present (in drought-prone vs. higher rainfall areas), resulting in a total of 10 strata. Five PA's were then randomly selected from each stratum (except the irrigated drought-prone stratum, in which there were only four PA's), for a total of 49 PA's and 98 villages. Weredas predominantly (more than 50% of total area) below 1500 masl were excluded from the sample frame. Information were collected at both PA and village level using group interviews with about ten respondents from each PA and village, selected to represent different genders, ages, occupations and in the PA level survey, different villages. Information collected includes changes in land investments, land management practices, input use and agricultural production since 1991 (the year when the current government replaced the former Marxist government). The data were supplemented by secondary information on population from the 1994 population census, georeferenced maps of the boundaries of each sample PA and geographic attributes, including altitude and climate.The next section of this paper examines the institution of land redistribution in Ethiopia and the Amhara region. The conceptual framework for examining the impacts of land redistribution and hypotheses are presented in Section 3. In Section 4, we present the empirical approach, results and discussion. Conclusions and policy implications are presented in Section 5.Land redistribution has been carried out in many developing countries, often as part of land reform in the wake of social and political revolution. Sometimes, however, land redistribution is utilised as a deliberate policy instrument to capture the efficiency benefits of the family farm, decrease urban food prices and reduce poverty (Prosterman and Riedinger 1987). The 1974 redistributive land reform in Ethiopia shared many similar attributes (e.g. prohibiting farmland sales and other transfers and hiring of labour to ensure that the actual farmers remained beneficiaries of the land) to Land-to-the-Tiller programmes implemented in other countries (e.g. Philippines in 1972). However, in the case of Ethiopia, redistribution of farmland was undertaken regularly (in many cases as often as every one to two years during the Derg regime; (Fistum et al 1999) to reduce landlessness and to equalise land holding and quality. Thus, those with larger fields had part of their land taken away and given to others that do not have land or have smaller fields. Local administrations, known as Peasant Associations, were set up and charged with the responsibility of land redistribution.After the fall of the Derg in 1991, the new government constitutionalised state ownership of all rural lands. The new constitution, drawn in 1994, however, allows temporary leases and guarantees the rights of peasants of free access to land and the right to improvements they make on land including the right to bequeath, transfer, remove or claim compensation for such improvements when the right to use the land expires. In principle, farmers now have the right to use the land indefinitely, lease it out temporarily to other farmers and transfer it only to their children. However, they still cannot sell or mortgage their lands. Although the constitution has resolved some issues, it seems to create other ambiguities and does not address some important issues (Fistum et al 1999). For example, given land scarcity, it is not clear how farmers' rights of free access to land can be assured in practice and how much land they are entitled to. 2 Regional governments have been charged to resolve those issues and there have been significant differences across the regions with respect to development of a regional land policy and redistribution of land.For example, in the Tigray region, land redistribution was stopped in 1991, and the policy of no future redistribution was made official by a new land policy in 1997. In the Oromiya region too, there has not been a land redistribution for more than 10 years (Bezuayehu et al 2000), although the regional government has not made any official statement about abandoning it.In the Amhara region, however, land redistribution has been very common, with a recent and major one undertaken in 1997 and 1998. Although there is no regional land policy per se, administration and use of land in the region have been guided by the provisions made in the national constitution. In 2000, the regional government passed a land policy document that will determine the administration and use of rural land in the region. The document is yet to be made public or proclaimed, however. The provisions in that document are similar to those provided in the national constitution, including: the right of peasants to free and indefinite use of land, transfer to dependents, consolidate holdings and rent out; right to use, sell, exchange or transfer the wealth cultivated on their land; but not the right to sell or exchange the land. Other important issues such as registration of the timing and limitations of renting out land, maximum land holding and plot size to be used for rainfed and irrigated agriculture have been relegated to by-laws that will be decided in the future. On the issue of land redistribution, the draft document states:So long as giving a land free to farmers is maintained, land redistribution shall not be effective unless otherwise the land division does not affect the productive capacity required by the community and unless decided by law (ANRSC 2000: Section 3, Article 10).Although the document is yet to be proclaimed, the above statement suggests that land redistribution in the future is not completely ruled out.Examining the incidence of land redistribution in the Amhara region, the survey conducted in the region shows that every community has experienced at least one redistribution since 1974, and nearly half have had a land redistribution since 1991, mainly in the recent redistribution in 1997 and 1998. The average number of land redistributions is three, with one village experiencing as many as fourteen since 1974. About four-fifths of the communities expect redistribution in the future; most within the next few years. Informal discussions with some of the farmers in the region revealed that although they do not fully support land redistribution, it is seen as a necessary tool by which landless farmers gain access to farmland, especially since land sales are prohibited and other transfers are restricted.In the next section, we examine the conceptual framework for analysing the impacts of land redistribution on land investments, land management, input use and productivity.The conceptual framework and hypotheses about how land redistribution may influence landimproving investments, land management, input use and productivity draw from the literature on property rights and investment incentives (Barrows and Roth 1990;Migot-Adholla et al 1991;Feder and Feeny 1993;Place and Hazell 1993;Besley 1995;Gavian and Fafchamps 1996;Quisumbing et al 1999;Pender and Kerr 1999;Place and Swallow 2000). Although land redistributions cause tenure insecurity, they may have mixed impacts on farmers' land management and productivity, through short and long term effects of redistribution. On the one hand, expectations of land redistribution may undermine farmers' incentive to invest in land improvements and soil fertility, since farmers' ability to reap the benefits of such investments are undermined (Feder and Feeny 1993). On the other hand, redistribution may improve access to land of households that have relative surpluses of other important factors of production, such as labour, oxen or cash to purchase inputs, particularly in the context of prohibited land sales and restricted lease markets as exist in Ethiopia. Therefore, land redistribution may increase input intensity, which may in turn increase productivity. Furthermore, the threat of redistribution may encourage farmers to invest if investments reduce the perceived likelihood of losing access to a given piece of land (Snyder 1996;Quisumbing et al 1999). Thus, land redistribution may either increase or decrease investments in land improvement, the intensity of land management, use of purchased inputs and productivity. Econometric analysis was used to investigate the effects of recent (1997 and 1998) land redistribution and expectations and of future redistribution on:1. Farmers' land investments (construction of stone terraces, soil bunds, check dams, drainage ditches, waterways and irrigation canals; and planting of trees and live barriers) since 1991; 2. Farmers' land management practices (use of burning to prepare fields, traditional fallow, improved fallow, contour plowing, crop rotation, mulching, manuring, composting, plowing in crop residues, soil burning and minimum tillage) in 1999; 3. Farmers' use of purchased inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides and improved seeds) in 1999; and 4. Crop yields (barley, wheat and teff) in 1999.Summary statistics of these variables are presented in Table 1. With the exception of drainage ditches, which seem to be part of normal cultural practices, the other investments since 1991 have been undertaken by less than 50% of the households. Most of the management practices have not changed since 1991, except for fallowing and soil burning, which have declined by more than 50%. Use of fertilisers, herbicides and improved seeds have increased by more than 50%, with use of improved seeds almost doubling. Although yields of local varieties of barley, teff and wheat are less than one t/per hectare, they have declined between 1991 and 1999, while yields of improved varieties of wheat has increased by about 40%.The analysis also investigated other factors that may affect these responses and outcomes, including indicators of agricultural potential, access to markets, population pressure, credit and extension programs and adult literacy. Agricultural potential, access to markets and population pressure are hypothesized to be especially important in determining comparative advantages (Pender et al 1999). We estimate the econometric model given by: where g n is the proportion of farmers in village n that have invested in land conservation and improvement since 1991, undertaken land management practice or used purchased inputs in 1999 or g n is the average crop yield in village v in 1999;c 1 v is a dummy variable equal to one if there was a land redistribution in village v in 1997 or 1998; c v is a dummy variable equal to one if land redistribution is expected in village n in the future; z n is a vector of observed factors that affect g n ; and e are unobserved factors that affect g n .Table 1 also shows a description of the explanatory variables and their means and standard errors. About 45% of the villages have had land redistribution in 1997 or 1998 and slightly more than 80% expect redistribution in the future. Agricultural potential is measured by average annual rainfall (with a mean of 1218 mm), altitude (2182 masl), proportion of area irrigated in 1999 (0.02%), and proportion of farmland with good soil (38%). Access to markets is measured by distance to the wereda town (37km). The other factors are population pressure, which is measured by the number of households per hectare in 1991 ( 35) and proportion of landless households in 1999 (17%), proportion of households obtaining credit and associated extension in 1999 from the Bureau of Agriculture (BoA) (25%), Amhara Credit and Savings Institution (ACSI) (9%) and other formal sources (19%) and proportion of adult literates in 1999 (53%).An econometric problem to address in this model is that land investment and management and input use dependent variables are censored, since they are based on proportions data. For example, if the proportion of households using fertiliser was either 0 or 1, then the dependent variable was left or right censored, respectively. We, therefore, used a maximum likelihood censored regression model (or 'two-limit Tobit model') to estimate the model specified in equation 1 for these three types of dependent variables, taking into account both left and right censoring. Ordinary least squares was used to estimate the model for cereal yields.There is also a conceptual problem with the model as specified in equation 1 in the sense that it may bias the estimate of the impact of recent land redistribution in 1997 and 1998. That is, equation 1 does not control for dynamic processes such as changes in agricultural potential, market access, population pressure, access to credit and extension and education that may be important in influencing investment in land management and input use, which may in turn affect agricultural productivity. This is because these dynamic processes influence the awareness, availability, risks, costs and benefits associated with investment in land improvement and input use. Therefore, we also estimate the first difference model given in equation 2: 3where Dg n represents the dependent variable in village n , c n is a dummy variable equal to one if there has been land redistribution in village n since 1991; z 1 n1 is a vector of observed time-varying factors affecting Dg n ; z 2 n is a vector of observed fixed factors affecting Dg n , and e nt is a vector of unobservable factors affecting Dg n . The observed fixed factors, z 2 n , will have an impact only if the marginal effect of such factors has changed over time.3. The first difference model eliminates unobservable fixed factors as a source of omitted variable bias.The dependent variables in this model are: 1) proportion of farmers undertaking land investments since 1991; 2) changes between 1999 and 1991 in proportion of farmers adopting land management practices; and 3) change between 1999 and 1991 in proportion of farmers using purchased inputs. 4  The time-varying factors are changes between 1999 and 1991 in the proportions of area irrigated, farmland with good soil, landless households and households obtaining credit and extension from BoA, ACSI 5 and other formal sources and households per hectare and adult literacy. The fixed factors are average annual rainfall, altitude and distance to the wereda town.4. The change in average cereal yields between 1999 and 1991 could not be estimated due to insufficient number of observations, as cereals were not grown in both years in some of the villages.5. ACSI started operating in the Amhara region in 1995 and so we used the proportion of households participating in 1999 to represent the change.The problem of censoring associated with the dependent variables, as discussed with the previous model, also applies here and so maximum likelihood censored regression is used to estimate equation 2. Another econometric problem to address in equation 2 is that the time-varying explanatory variables may be endogenous. Population growth and changes in participation in credit and extension programs, proportion of area irrigated, proportion of farmland with good soil and adult literacy may respond to or be affected by changing opportunities in agriculture and changes in land management and productivity. We therefore tested for exogeneity of those potentially endogenous explanatory variables using a Hausman test (Hausman 1978;Greene 1993). 6 We failed to reject exogeneity of those explanatory variables in the regressions, except the ones for changes in proportion of households undertaking drainage ditches and using herbicides. Nevertheless, we report the robustness of the significant coefficients to using predicted values of those potentially endogenous variables.6. The instrumental variables used to predict the potentially endogenous explanatory variables, in addition to the exogenous variables in the regressions, include the values of each those endogenous variables in 1991, walking time to nearest bus station in 1991 and change since 1991, walking time to the nearest grain mill in 1991 and change since 1991, walking time to the nearest primary school in 1991 and change since 1991, walking time to the nearest all weather road in 1991 and change since 1991. The instruments predicted most of the potentially endogenous variables fairly well: R2 = 0.87 for change in proportion of landless households, 0.65 for change in proportion of households obtaining credit from BoA, 0.61 for change in household density, 0.55 for change in proportion of households obtaining credit from other formal sources, 0.40 for proportion of households obtaining credit from ACSI, 0.32 for change in proportion of farmlands with good soil, 0.32 for change in adult literacy and 0.22 for change in proportion of area irrigated.The results of both model estimations are corrected for sample stratification and clustering. We present only those results in which the overall estimated model was statistically significant at the 10% level of significance. Tables 2 and 3 show results of the cross-section model given in equation 1 while Tables 4 and 5 show results of the first-difference model given is equation 2.    We find that land redistribution and expectations of future land redistribution have a statistically insignificant and usually small association with land investments since 1991 (Tables 2 and 4). Of the other explanatory variables, we find that increased use of credit and extension from other formal sources is associated with higher and increasing investments in drainage ditches. Increased use of credit from ACSI, however, has mixed impacts: it is associated with lower investments in irrigation canals, but increasing investments in waterways. Increase in the proportion of poor soils is associated with more investments in stone terraces, drainage ditches and waterways. This is probably because the returns to soil and water conservation are higher on more degraded soils (Herweg 1993).As expected, increase in the proportion of area irrigated increases investment in irrigation canals and waterways. Poor market access (increase in distance to the wereda town), however, is associated with lower investment in irrigation canals and waterways. This is probably because the profitability (through increased output) of investment in irrigation is reduced by the high transaction costs associated with distant markets. More densely populated areas are associated with higher investments in live barriers, but lower investments in drainage ditches. In addition, increase in proportion of landless households is associated with lower and declining investments in drainage ditches. Landless households also tend to renters and sharecroppers and so they may not have incentive to invest in land improvement, especially given the short leases (usually one season long) as exist in most of Ethiopia.With the exception of traditional fallow, we did not find any statistically significant association between land redistribution or expectations of future redistribution and the proportion of farmers undertaking land management practices. The reduction in the proportion of farmers practicing traditional fallow where there has been a recent redistribution (Table 2), suggests that farmers may be farming more intensively to compensate for the reduction in plot sizes (usually less than one hectare per household), as farmers cannot afford to fallow part of their already small fields.Of the other explanatory variables, we find that the practice of traditional fallow increases with altitude and declines with rainfall (Table 2), while the practice of burning to clear fields increases with altitude (Table 4). Higher altitude areas tend to be more degraded and may require more fallow to replenish lost nutrients, due to more burning and/or lower use of fertility-improving technologies. Participation in credit and extension programs has mixed impacts. Higher participation in credit from ACSI is associated with lower practice of traditional fallow, due probably to ACSI offering credit in the form of fertiliser, whose use reduces the need for fallowing. Higher participation in credit from other formal sources, on the other hand, is associated with higher practice of traditional fallow. This is probably because there are several non-governmental organisations in the region providing credit for small enterprises that generate non-farm income, which may allow more farmers to fallow their fields. We also find that increase in participation in credit and extension from BoA and ACSI is associated with more practice of burning to clear fields. With increase in use of credit in the form of fertilizers, more farmers can afford to burn their fields as a quicker and cheaper method of clearing, and then utilise the fertilisers to replenish the lost nutrients from burning.Higher incidence of landless households is associated with higher and increasing practice of traditional fallow, but associated with declining practice of crop rotation. Landless also tend to be renters and sharecroppers who may mine the soil, requiring more fallow to replenish lost nutrients. Furthermore, with short leases of one season long, there is little incentive and opportunity for practicing crop rotation. Increase in adult literacy is associated with declining practice of traditional fallow. It may be that better educated people are more likely to employ other fertility-improving technologies (i.e. fertiliser) and engage in more intensive agriculture. This hypothesis is discussed further in the next sub section relating to use of purchased inputs.In contrast to the limited impacts on land investment and management practices, increased use of fertilisers in 1999 is strongly associated with recent land redistribution in 1997 or 1998 (Table 3). It might be hypothesised that this is because the credit and extension programs focused more attention on areas where the land redistribution occurred. However, we find a negative and relatively small correlation between the presence of extension and credit programs and where land redistribution has occurred. Thus, it appears that land redistribution has contributed to greater input intensity by increasing access to land among households with greater proclivity or ability to use inputs. This may be because the younger farmers who gain access through redistribution are more educated or have access to off-farm sources of income with which to finance input purchases. Increased use of fertilisers is also consistent with our finding of a reduction in the practice of fallow where there has been recent land redistribution. With more intensive and continuous cropping, there is the need to maintain (or improve) fertility through fertilisers and other fertility-improving practices. We do not find any statistically significant association between expectations of future land redistribution and use of purchased inputs.We also find that land redistribution since 1991 has a statistically significant positive impact on change in proportion of households using fertilisers and herbicides (Table 5). This finding reinforces the discussion above.Of the other explanatory variables, we find that higher participation (and growth) in credit and extension programs have statistically significant positive association with use of most of the purchased inputs. The only exception is the use of herbicides, which declines with increased participation in credit and extension from other formal sources, although the coefficient measuring this impact is not robust (Table 5). As expected, increase in area irrigated is associated with higher use of pesticides, and increasing use of fertilisers, pesticides and improved seeds. Higher altitude areas are associated with lower use of pesticides, probably because of the lower incidence of pests at higher altitudes. Rainfall and population density have mixed impacts on use of purchased inputs. While higher rainfall is associated with higher use of pesticides, it is associated with lower and declining use of fertilisers. The latter may be due to the active promotion by the government of fertilisers in the lower rainfall areas under the previous extension system within the last decade.More densely populated areas are associated with higher use of fertilisers and improved seeds (Table 3), but population growth is associated with a decline in use of improved seeds, although the coefficient measuring this impact is not robust (Table 5). More densely populated areas also tend to have smaller plots and thus, farmers here may need to farm more intensively. On the other hand, land-labour ratios may be low enough to induce more labour-intensive, modern cultural practices (Boserup 1965). We also find that areas with higher proportion of landless households are associated with lower use of fertilisers, but higher use of pesticides. As mentioned earlier, landless households also tend to be renters and sharecroppers and so they may have little incentive (given short leases) to use fertilisers, which may have long-term fertility improving effects of which they may not be able to reap the benefits.Consistent with the positive impacts of land redistribution on fertiliser use, we also find that yields of barley, wheat and teff in 1999 are higher in communities where there has been a recent redistribution (Table 3). Yields of local varieties of these crops are about 400 kg per hectare higher and yields of improved wheat are about 600 kg per hectare higher where there has been a recent redistribution.We also find that expectations of future redistribution have a positive association with yields of the local cereal varieties (although it is statistically significant in the case of barley only), but a negative association with yields of improved varieties of wheat. The positive association may indicate soil mining on those plots that farmers anticipate will be redistributed in the future. On the other hand, it may indicate that farmers increase their productivity if they believe that higher yields will prevent their plots from being redistributed. Further research is needed to test these hypotheses. The negative association between expectations of future redistribution and improved wheat yield is not apparent. Therefore, while the impact of redistribution on the yields of the local varieties is uniformly positive, that on the improved varieties is not and depends on expectations about the future. 77. We estimated a Probit model of expecting land redistribution in future as a function of recent redistribution (with a positive and significant coefficient), number of redistributions in the past (negative), population density (positive), proportion of landless households (positive and significant) and proportion of households that have their land registered (negative).Of the other explanatory variables, we find that areas with higher rainfall, better, soils, and higher participation in credit and extension programs have higher yields in one or more of the cereals. While more densely populated areas are associated with higher yields of local varieties of teff, they are associated with lower yields of improved varieties of wheat. The model for the change in average cereal yields between 1999 and 1991 could not be estimated due to insufficient number of observations, as the cereals were not grown in both years for some of the villages.Overall, these results suggest that the recent land redistribution in Amhara has had a positive impact on land productivity, at least in the near term, by increasing access to land of farmers who are more interested or able to use purchased inputs such as fertilisers. This does not mean that land redistribution must be continued and used as a tool to improve access to land, as the longer-term impacts of such redistributions depend upon how these may affect farmers' perceptions of tenure security and incentives to invest in land improvement.Nevertheless, it is difficult to continue to use redistribution as a tool to address landlessness because of the very small size of farm holdings in the Ethiopian highlands. Improving access to farmland through other means such as development of land rental markets may present a more sustainable and only strategy to improving agricultural productivity, especially since land sales are prohibited and other transfers restricted.For the most part, however, our results do not show much effect of land redistribution or expectations of future redistribution on land improvement. In addition, almost all farmers expect future redistributions. Although the regional government is considering a policy that may end land redistributions, we find that respondents' expectations of future redistributions are also significantly affected by landlessness, which also tend to negatively affect use of several of the land-improving technologies analysed here. Thus, to the extent that investments in land improvement are necessary for conservation purposes, it appears that as long as landlessness is prevalent, the intended policy change to end redistributions is unlikely to have a substantial impact on reducing land degradation in this region of Ethiopia. However, since landless households tend to be renters and sharecroppers who have little incentive in investing in rented land, improving land rental markets, especially to encourage longer leases, will have a positive impact on land management by reducing soil mining and by increasing use of fertilisers and crop rotation.Furthermore, given that other factors such as participation in credit and extension programs were more important determinants of land investment and management, these factors may present better strategies for reducing land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands. For example, improving credit for non-farm income generating activities will allow more farmers to fallow their (marginal) lands or provide them with cash to purchase and use fertilisers.","tokenCount":"5243"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4e2bd651c09cc21f99723004d308e418","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1d76924-6a37-4d09-b951-137a8df775d5/retrieve","id":"-1524000916"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7df2f47-4792-4e55-acd3-294065eb5c4e","pagecount":"4","content":"Farmers in semi-arid regions of Central Tanzania face critical food shortages emanating from erratic rainfall resulting in crop failure. Over 60% of farmers in the region practice cereal-legume intercropping. Intercropped pigeon pea accounts for 70% of the total pigeon pea area. The local and long-duration varieties for sorghum and pigeon pea in these intercrops and the planting patterns used do not provide sufficient returns on investment. The new varieties available and good agricultural practices are key to ensuring food security in these semi-arid ecologies.Intercropping is the growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land at the same time. There are many forms of intercropping, in patterns and crop combinations.Crops selected for intercropping often have different abilities to use the resources available for growth, leading to better yield advantages than sole crops. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.Moench) intercropping is a common practice in the semi-arid regions of Dodoma and Manyara. The alternate planting pattern (one row of medium duration pigeon pea (Ilonga-14-M2) followed by two rows of medium duration sorghum (IESV 23010) fits best in these sub-ecologies with optimal benefits.  Productivity: Based on our evaluations, intercropping IESV 23010 and Ilonga M2 at an alternate pattern gave Land Equivalent Ratios (LER) > 1.2 (Table 1). The combined yields for these improved varieties gave higher yields than landraces in the intercrops. IESV 23010, a new sorghum variety in the intercrop with pigeon pea, yields up to 4200 kg/ha. It is tolerant to diseases of economic importance such as Gray leaf spot Cercospora zea-maydis), rust Puccinia spp), anthracnose, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and head smut. Ilonga M2, the newly introduced pigeon pea variety, has a potential yield of up to 2,000 kg/ha, representing a 70% yield advantage over local checks. It is tolerant to fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum), a soilborne pathogen. Combining the two varieties in a 1:2 planting pattern gives better returns than the farmers' practice. The sorghum and pigeon pea intercrop can reduce soil erosion by 45 %.Intercropping IESV 23010 and Ilonga-14-M2 has >50% gross margin compared to the farmer practice (local sorghum (Lugugu) + long duration pigeon pea), US$462.58 and 241.87 per hectare, respectively (Table 1).Food and nutrition security: Sorghum and pigeon pea are chief sources of calories in the dryland ecologies of Central Tanzania. Sorghum grains are nutritionally rich, whereby 100 g grain contains 329 Kcal, 10.62 g protein, 3.46 g fat, 72 g carbohydrate, 1.43 g ash, and 6.7 g fiber. When consumed, pigeon pea grain provides a rich source of dietary protein (21.7 g), energy (343 Kcal), micronutrients Table 1. Land Equivalent ratio and gross margins for improved intercrop system vs farmers' practice: 2020-21 season, source: Africa RISING ESA Technical report, Sept 2021.(calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium), dietary fiber (15 g), and vitamins. The farming families that grow sorghum and pigeon pea will have more access to crop-based nutrients, having more than 40% energy, 58% protein, and 45% dietary fiber of recommended daily values to a family in a household.Soil fertility: Ilonga-14-M2 leaf fall, when incorporated in the soil, can add up to 40 kg of nitrogen per hectare. The variety can also mobilize phosphorus from the soil and make it available to subsequent crops, together with other deeply leached nutrients. It meets a good proportion of its N-requirement through biological N-fixation. It is a good crop to be intercropped with any cereal as it provides minimum nutrient competition.Agroecological conditions: The sorghum and pigeon pea intercrop thrives under dry and fragile ecological conditions where producing other crops and most cropping systems is difficult. The intercrop can easily be grown on soils characterized by low nitrogen. Both crops are well adapted to drought and high temperatures. It is well adapted to semi-arid agroecologies (average annual rainfall of 200-700 mm) since it can access water from deep in the soil profile. There is minimal competition for nutrients, especially N, for the two crops as pigeon pea can meet a good amount of its N-requirement through biological Nitrogen fixation and its ability to extract Iron-bound phosphorus. This technology is versatile with minimal resource requirements and thus can be implemented by households with low to high resource endowments. Farm productivity is enhanced by using associated farming inputs. However, poor farmers with limited access to mineral fertilizers can still benefit from this technology from the nutrients achieved via biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). The households would benefit from the crop residue as fodder after harvest, though croplivestock conflict might occur, particularly between those with and without livestock.Land preparation:• Plow land early, preferably immediately after harvesting. This gives enough time for crop residues to decompose and break the disease cycle.• Harrow the field if it has big soil clods to facilitate easy planting of the small-size sorghum seeds.• Drill seed in furrows or plant in hills following a 1:2 intercropping pattern, i.e., 1 row of improved pigeon pea (Ilonga M2) alternated with 2 rows of improved sorghum IESV 23010.• A seed rate of 7-10 kg/ha (3-4 kg/acre) is recommended for IESV 23010, and dry planting depth should be 5.0 cm, while for moist soils is 2.5-4.0 cm. Studies were conducted in the semi-arid regions of central Tanzania in Dodoma, Manyara, and Iringa. On-station trials were done at the Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute, Hombolo (TARI-Hombolo), with on-farm evaluations undertaken in the districts of Kongwa (Mlali, Moleti, Laikala, and Chitego villages); Kiteto (Njoro and Kiperesa villages) and Iringa (Igula village). Trials were conducted between 2016 and 2020 to assess the adaptability and suitability of the technology to these environments and cropping systems through on-farm testing, participatory variety selection, and demonstration plots.Kongwa district lies 1120 masl and has an average yearly rainfall of 556 mm and average temperature of 28 °C. Kiteto district lies 1087 masl. It has weather conditions varying from semi-arid to sub-humid, with an average annual precipitation of 682 mm and average temperature of 19.5 °C.illustration here• The intra-and inter-row spacing of sorghum in the intercrop should be 25 cm and 100 cm, respectively; while that for pigeon pea is 50 cm and 100 cm, respectively.• The sorghum crop needs fertilization with NPK fertilizer (20:20:20) at planting at 100 kg/ ha and top-dressing with calcium nitrate at the same rate.• Where organic manure is available, application of 10 t/ha of organic matter at plowing is recommended or 45 kg NPK/ha in combination with 2 tons of cow manure/ha• Fertilizer is not applied to the pigeon pea crop since it can extract minerals from deeper soil zones and make its nitrogen through biological N-fixation.• The first weeding should be done within two to three weeks after emergence. Common insect pests include the shootfly and stem borer; therefore, Marshall or Dipterex insecticide should be used at 3 kg/ha.• Pests (pod borers (Lepidoptera), pod-sucking bugs (Hemiptera), and seed-feeding pests (Diptera and Hymenoptera) are among the key constraints facing pigeon pea production• Pesticide application must be done at the peak time (90-100 days after planting) when the pods are developing.• Two or three systemic pesticide applications (based on the pest load, e.g., a pyrethroid such as cypermethrin) are effective.Use of fertilizer: Most farmers in dry ecologies do not invest much in inorganic fertilizers due to fear of losses associated with the frequent drought occurrences. As such, sorghum yield will be low since fertilizer is critical for its growth and development.Livestock damage: Once sorghum is harvested, the pigeon pea is left as the only crop on most farms and is prone to livestock damage as they feed. This would translate to irreversible losses.Increased labor: Since pigeon pea is left in the field after harvesting sorghum, extra labor is needed to control livestock damage for at least two months.Other crops: Sorghum can be intercropped with other legumes such as groundnut adapted in the same agroecology. Similarly, pigeon pea can be intercropped with other cereals such as drought-tolerant maize in the same agroecology.$ $","tokenCount":"1312"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d91b833f4ecf36ca378253bcbdf1b6f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6cf7b0a4-3521-4fda-8544-0991e2e535c5/retrieve","id":"1161461117"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bd8fcd60-9eee-4e9c-b865-e033cd574176","pagecount":"1","content":"In Uganda, root rots of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) in the past were commonly known to be caused by Pythium spp. and Fusarium solani f.sp. Phaseoli. However, in recent field visits, researchers observed an increasing number of wilting plants, showing fungal outgrowths such as fluffy white mycelia and white to creamy fruiting bodies (sclerotia) at the base of the plants. These plants were confirmed to be infected by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., the pathogen that causes southern blight of common beans. A survey by the Legumes Programme at NaCRRI and CIAT reported wide spread distribution of southern blight in all bean agroecologies within Ugandan, with an incidence and severity of 100% and 84%, respectively in the worst hit district (Bugiri).     After identification of common bean germplasm that is resistant to S. rolfsii, resistance markers will be developed. Mapping of QTLs that confer resistance to S. rolfsii will be done in collaboration with the University of Reading, UK. QTL-linked markers will be identified using Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. At NaCRRI, we shall improve preferred market class varieties by pyramiding resistance genes for root rots (Pythium, Fusarium and Sclerotium), angular leaf spot and anthracnose diseases.","tokenCount":"194"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5508684536.json b/data/part_5/5508684536.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7d6677cfbfbfdf9c8863f2e57dd5c32212adaa20
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0b354a840402b5bd5096be27939feb84","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0459395-7528-4928-b744-10d3ebcdcebe/retrieve","id":"1370584022"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aeef5b84-62ab-4a1a-8ef7-6f37e4422c9d","pagecount":"29","content":"La Iniciativa Global del CGIAR Agroecología para transformar los sistemas alimentarios promueve un enfoque transdisciplinario, participativo y orientado a la acción para diseñar opciones de desarrollo que apoyen la resiliencia de los sistemas alimentarios, la equidad y la sostenibilidad. A nivel de territorios denominados \"Paisajes Vivos Agroecológicos\" en siete países (Burkina Faso, India, Kenia, RDP de Laos, Perú, Túnez y Zimbabue), cada uno abarcando un sistema alimentario especifico, la Iniciativa busca articular a los diversos actores que los conforman, adaptando soluciones al contexto local, integrando conocimientos tradicionales y científicos, y fortaleciendo el ecosistema social e institucional con miras a una transición agroecológica. Dichos actores son agricultores y sus asociaciones, comunidades indígenas, investigadores de múltiples disciplinas, empresas del sector privado, organizaciones no gubernamentales locales, nacionales, e internacionales, así como formuladores de políticas desde la escala local hasta la nacional.En el corredor agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía, ubicado en la región de Ucayali, centro-oriente amazónico del Perú, se viene estableciendo desde mediados del año 2022 un Paisaje Vivo Agroecológico que reúne a los diversos actores del territorio para, primero, identificar sus desafíos de índole socioeconómica y ambiental, y, luego, codiseñar las innovaciones tecnológicas e institucionales que propicien su transición agroecológica.Es en este contexto que, desde marzo de 2023, se han desarrollado una serie de talleres multiactor, con la finalidad de conjuntamente alcanzar una visión compartida del territorio o Paisaje Vivo Agroecológico futuro, identificar las acciones necesarias hacia esa visión, y poner en práctica un marco de evaluación que nos permita tomar el pulso de nuestros avances a lo largo de esa ruta de transición agroecológica.Contexto: Corredor Agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía El 26 de julio de 2021 se aprueba la Estrategia Regional para el Desarrollo Rural Bajo en Emisiones en el Departamento de Ucayali al 2030 (ERDRBE Ucayali 2030) 1 como política pública regional, con la finalidad de reducir y detener la deforestación y mejorar la calidad de vida de la población con énfasis en el ámbito rural y comunidades indígenas. En el marco de su implementación, con un enfoque de sostenibilidad, inclusión social, y competitividad, el Gobierno Regional de Ucayali (GOREU) estableció cinco espacios geográficos denominados Unidades de Desarrollo Territorial (UDT), entre los cuales se encuentra la UDT que comprende la provincia de Padre Abad y parte de la provincia de Coronel Portillo (Figura 1). Esta abarca una superficie de 14 064.11 km², que representa el 14% de la superficie total del departamento de Ucayali y la totalidad de la subcuenca del rio Aguaytía y sus tributarios. Tratándose de un territorio que registra la mayor tasa de deforestación a nivel de Ucayali en las últimas dos décadas, con el 40% de sus bosques perdidos por la ampliación de la frontera agrícola y la construcción de infraestructura (vías y carreteras), el GOREU lo ha priorizado como 'corredor agroforestal' con potencial de desarrollo de actividades alternativas que sean económica y ambientalmente sostenibles y que contribuyan a la resiliencia al cambio climático (GOREU, 2020;MINAM, 2021). La actividad agrícola que actualmente predomina en el corredor se basa en el monocultivo de cacao, café, palma aceitera, plátano, papaya, piña, camu camu, arroz, y pastos para la crianza ganadera, con implicancias en función de perdida de la biodiversidad, empobrecimiento de suelos, y fragmentación de bosques. Sin embargo, con una población que es 40.9% rural, su alto potencial forestal, acuícola, y turístico, y una política pública que lo respalda, el corredor reúne las condiciones para el diseño de innovaciones agroecológicas y su escalamiento, apoyándose en la articulación de los múltiples actores institucionales, públicos y privados, que reúne el territorio. En vista de lo anterior, la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú ha identificado este corredor como su área de influencia e intervención.1 Fuente: https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2010749-1 Iniciativa de Agroecología WP2 -Reporte de Taller Figura 1. Mapa de ubicación del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa -Aguaytía en Ucayali. El taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\" tuvo el objetivo principal de generar, junto con los actores locales con quienes viene interactuando la Iniciativa de Agroecología en el corredor Pucallpa-Aguaytía en Ucayali, indicadores contextualmente relevantes para monitorear el desempeño agroecológico a través de múltiples escalas en el territorio, desde la parcela hasta el paisaje. Estos indicadores no solo atienden una necesidad de generar evidencia del impacto de la agroecología desde la Iniciativa, sino que también sirven, a largo plazo, para tomar el pulso de los alcances reales de los proyectos y programas de investigación y desarrollo que los diversos actores institucionales, socios de la Iniciativa, realizan en el corredor.Los objetivos específicos del taller fueron los siguientes:• Socializar con los actores locales el marco general de la herramienta Holistic Localized Agroecology Performance Assessment (HOLPA);• Motivar la reflexión sobre indicadores de desempeño agroecológico en función de la teoría de cambio que fue elaborada por los mismos actores en talleres previos;• Definir indicadores locales que aborden los impactos esperados de la teoría de cambio, agrupados en las cuatro dimensiones de HOLPA (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social).¿Quienes participaron?El taller contó con la participación de 12 personas, 5 mujeres y 7 hombres, representando a 10 instituciones que han sido parte de las actividades de indagación previas de la Iniciativa de Agroecología en el corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía, que desde julio de 2022 han incluido entrevistas a actores clave y talleres en torno a la teoría de cambio para la transición agroecológica en el territorio. En la Tabla 1 se expone el perfil de los actores institucionales que participaron en el taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\". 3 Dos representantes del mismo sexo.4 Un representante de cada sexo.De impactos a elementos clave de la transición agroecológicaEl ejercicio enfocado en la generación de indicadores locales con los actores institucionales del corredor Pucallpa-Aguaytía se enmarcó en la teoría de cambio, u hoja de ruta para la transición agroecológica, que fue concebida para el territorio a través de los talleres multiactor que se realizaron entre julio de 2022 y marzo de 2023. El anclaje de esta actividad con la teoría de cambio establecida para el corredor fue indispensable para encajar la propuesta de indicadores de desempeño contextualmente relevantes con los temas prioritarios que fueron previamente identificados por los actores locales en función de los impactos (largo plazo) y resultados (mediano plazo) esperados a lo largo de esa ruta de cambio.Sobre la base de lo reportado en el documento Teoría de Cambio -Ucayali, se extrajeron los \"elementos clave\" que guiarían la reflexión sobre indicadores para el monitoreo periódico de nuestros avances hacia los (4) impactos. Los \"elementos clave\" refieren a temas específicos anidados, ya sea explícita o implícitamente, en los resultados o alcances intermedios esperados en el corredor (véase procedimiento detallado en Metodología).HOLPA como marco de evaluación del desempeño agroecológico La herramienta de Evaluación Holística Localizada del Desempeño de la Agroecología, o HOLPA por sus siglas en inglés, fue desarrollada por la Iniciativa de Agroecología del CGIAR para generar evidencia sobre la eficacia de los enfoques agroecológicos para proporcionar medios de vida y sistemas alimentarios sostenibles, resilientes e inclusivos en todos los contextos. Asimismo, la herramienta permite comparar el desempeño, desde una mirada holística, entre parcelas, fincas, paisajes, y sistemas alimentarios en diferentes etapas de transición hacia la agroecología. Esta evaluación comparativa de desempeño se apoya en una lectura de la sustentabilidad que integra las dimensiones agrícola, ambiental, económica, y social (Figura 2).El marco de evaluación HOLPA define la agroecología como un enfoque para lograr sistemas alimentarios sostenibles mediante la \"aplicación de conceptos y principios ecológicos que optimizan las interacciones entre plantas, animales, humanos y el medio ambiente... tomando en cuenta los aspectos sociales que deben abordarse para un sistema alimentario sostenible y justo\" (FAO, 2021). HOLPA se basa en los 13 principios agroecológicos consensuados y sintetizados por el HLPE (2019) para guiar el diseño y la gestión de sistemas agrícolas y alimentarios (Wezel et al., 2020). El \"nivel de transición agroecológica\" y el \"contexto socioecológico\" son, además, dos conceptos clave del marco de evaluación HOLPA. El nivel de transición agroecológica refiere al grado de adherencia a los 13 principios agroecológicos, considerando aquellos principios más relevantes para la evaluación según el contexto (por ej., los principios que aplican para el sistema alimentario en su conjunto pueden no ser relevantes para una evaluación a nivel de finca). Por otro lado, el contexto socioecológico refiere a los factores sociales, económicos y ecológicos, dentro y fuera de la escala de análisis, que pueden permitir u obstaculizar una transición agroecológica. Dichos factores pueden incluir la estructura de hogares, el acceso a mercados, y el entorno regulatorio.Figura 2. Marco conceptual de la herramienta HOLPA, donde las 4 dimensiones (círculo exterior) y los 18 temas (círculo interior) proporcionan el marco para la selección de indicadores de desempeño. De la agrupación macro a nivel de dimensiones (4) y temas (18), HOLPA propone un total de 19 indicadores \"globales\" que son medibles y comparables a través de los diversos contextos, o territorios socioecológicos, donde interviene la Iniciativa de Agroecología a escala global. Cada indicador consta de un método especifico y replicable en cada territorio (Figura 3). Co-creación de indicadores locales Siendo la co-creación un principio clave de la agroecología y situando la evaluación de desempeño agroecológico en un contexto local, el desarrollo de la herramienta HOLPA contempló la integración de indicadores que fuesen, según los actores de cada territorio, significativos para su contexto y aspiraciones. Mas allá de los indicadores globales consensuados, como los 13 principios agroecológicos, por una comunidad de practica a nivel internacional, los indicadores locales servirían para captar las características y matices de desempeño más finas en el territorio. La generación de estos indicadores locales fue posible mediante un proceso participativo involucrando a los actores clave del territorio (véase procedimiento detallado en Metodología).Identificación y agrupación de elementos clave La Teoría de Cambio -Ucayali elaborada con los actores del territorio fue la base para la identificación previa de los elementos clave de la transición agroecológica que orientarían la generación de indicadores localmente relevantes durante el taller.  2), y sus elementos clave correspondientes, luego fueron agrupados en la categoría \"Agrícola y Ambiental\"; y los impactos (3) y (4), y sus elementos clave correspondientes, en la categoría \"Económica y Social\". Se procedió de esta manera debido a la predominancia de las dimensiones del ámbito \"natural\" versus \"social\" entre los impactos (1) y (2) e impactos (3) y (4), respectivamente, y para facilitar la reflexión sobre indicadores a ser posteriormente realizada con los actores locales.Para la realización del ejercicio fueron preidentificados los actores institucionales que formaron parte de etapas anteriores (i.e., mapeo, entrevistas, y talleres multiactor) del proceso de establecimiento del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía como territorio de intervención desde la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú. Sin embargo, dado el objetivo específico del ejerciciogenerar indicadores medibles para el monitoreo del desempeño agroecológico local-fue necesario enfocar la selección de actores de acuerdo con los criterios siguientes:• Conocimientos técnicos sobre los aspectos de índole agrícola, ambiental, económico, y social que fueron priorizados en la teoría de cambio;• Representatividad de una diversidad de perfiles: agricultores y sus organizaciones, academia, instituciones gubernamentales, oenegés u otras entidades de desarrollo a escala local, nacional o internacional;• Interés o potencial de las instituciones representadas en aplicar la herramienta HOLPA, integrándose los indicadores locales, para evaluar el desempeño de sus proyectos o programas de desarrollo en el corredor;• Disponibilidad para participar en el taller, considerando las actividades que se iban desarrollando en paralelo desde otras instituciones con los mismos actores.Basándonos en estos criterios, fue recopilada una lista de 20 actores idóneos, inclinándose la mayoría ( 14) a las áreas de experiencia agrícola y ambiental. Se procedió a extender las invitaciones al Taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\", a realizarse el 6 de septiembre de 2023 en el Hotel Manish, Pucallpa, Ucayali, por correo electrónico o presencialmente por mesa de partes (gobierno regional). Véase la agenda del taller que acompañó las invitaciones en el Anexo 2 (p. 21).Paso a paso del taller 1. Distribución de participantes según área de experiencia De los 20 actores que fueron invitados, 12 confirmaron su participación. Para la realización del ejercicio se consideró trabajar con dos grupos, cada uno con al menos 6 integrantes. Previo al taller, cada participante fue asignado a uno de los dos grupos de trabajo según su área de mayor experiencia, apoyándonos en los conocimientos del equipo local de la Iniciativa sobre dichos actores en el territorio. El primer grupo (Grupo 1) fue asignado la tarea de desarrollar los indicadores relacionados a los impactos 1 y 2, con sus 8 elementos clave, enfatizando las dimensiones agrícola y ambiental; y el segundo grupo (Grupo 2) fue asignado la misma tarea para los impactos 3 y 4, con sus 8 elementos clave, enfatizando las dimensiones económica y social. Véase la Tabla 2 como referencia de la agrupación de elementos clave y dimensiones por impacto que orientaron dicha preasignación. Durante la recepción y registro de los participantes, cada uno/a recibió una etiqueta detallando su nombre e indicando con un punto de color verde su asignación al Grupo 1 y con un punto de color azul al Grupo 2.Se contextualizó la actividad -el desarrollo de indicadores locales -en el marco de la Iniciativa de Agroecología y su objetivo, específicamente desde el equipo de trabajo Paquete 2 (WP2), de generar evidencia científica del impacto de prácticas agroecológicas en distintas escalas para proponer mejoras o soluciones hechas a la medida del contexto local, y asimismo orientar la toma de decisiones de los actores con miras a la transición agroecológica del territorio. Luego se hizo un repaso de HOLPA como herramienta para la Evaluación Holística Localizada del Desempeño de la Agroecología, sin ahondar en el listado de indicadores globales y más bien destacando las cuatro dimensiones (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social) que esta integra. Se presentó el objetivo específico del taller: generar indicadores locales para su posterior integración a HOLPA y aplicación desde nuestros proyectos y programas de desarrollo en el corredor de Pucallpa-Aguaytía, Ucayali. Por último, se expuso el programa del taller, que transcurriría desde las 9 am hasta las 12:30 pm.Se recapituló con los 12 participantes los impactos y elementos clave de la teoría de cambio, o ruta de transición agroecológica, que resultaron de los talleres multiactor previos (laminas 9 y 10, PPT -Taller LISP) y que guiarían el desarrollo de la actividad. Se especificó que se trabajaría sobre los 16 elementos clave, clasificados estos en dos grupos según las áreas temáticas o dimensiones generales (agrícola-ambiental; económica-social) que más los identifica según el marco de evaluación HOLPA.4. ¿Como sabremos que estamos avanzando?Se introdujo el concepto de \"indicador\" a partir de la pregunta ¿cómo sabremos si vamos por buen camino, o que estamos avanzando, hacia esos impactos que esperamos en el corredor? Esta reflexión nos ayudaría a aterrizar una definición y función de indicador a modo de instrumento para \"tomar el pulso\" del desempeño agroecológico a lo largo de esa ruta de transición, partiendo del statu quo hasta alcanzar, a largo plazo, los cambios deseados (laminas 12 y 13, PPT -Taller LISP). Se expusieron las cualidades de un \"buen indicador\", es decir, que sea especifico, medible, alcanzable, y relevante en función de los impactos esperados en el territorio:• Especifico: claramente definido, con un significado claro, permite evaluar con mayor precisión;• Medible: cuantificable, tiene una unidad de medición clara, como porcentajes, números o tasas;• Alcanzable: puede medirse con los recursos y datos disponibles dentro de un marco temporal factible;• Relevante: significativo y tiene una relación clara con los cambios esperados.A continuación, se compartió con los participantes un ejemplo de indicador concreto y relevante para el territorio, aquel utilizable para evaluar la \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", que es un área de desarrollo priorizada por el gobierno regional de Ucayali. Luego se explicó la actividad grupal a la que nos dedicaríamos el resto de la mañana: la generación y priorización de indicadores locales.Previa asignación a cada uno de los dos grupos de trabajo -Grupo 1 (impactos 1 y 2, agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (impactos 3 y 4, enfoque económico-social) -los participantes fueron ubicados, según el color del punto que recibieron durante la recepción de invitados, en una de dos estaciones de trabajo, con 6 integrantes por estación. En cada estación (Grupo 1 y Grupo 2) fueron colocados sobre un papelógrafo y en tarjetas de cartulina los impactos y elementos clave correspondientes. Los impactos sirvieron como marco global de referencia, pero fue en base a los elementos clave especificados que se motivó la lluvia de ideas de indicadores. Una facilitadora guio la lluvia de ideas en torno a los elementos clave con cada grupo. Se incitó la reflexión con las preguntas: ¿Qué indicador sería importante para medir el impacto en este territorio? ¿Como monitoreamos nuestros avances hacia ese impacto? La facilitadora iba registrando sobre tarjetas de cartulina en limpio las ideas que los participantes proponían como indicadores. Estas se pegaban al costado del elemento clave al que refería. Durante el ejercicio, cada facilitadora retomó las cualidades de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante), poniendo énfasis en que los indicadores deberían de ser lo más específicos posibles. En esta etapa del ejercicio no se restringió el número de indicadores propuestos, puesto que el objetivo era reunir, en cada grupo de trabajo, las ideas sugeridas por todos sus integrantes para luego evaluar y priorizarlas.Después de una pausa de 15 minutos, se emprendió el ejercicio de priorización de indicadores con cada uno de los dos mismos grupos de trabajo. En cada estación de trabajo fue pegada en la pared una hoja impresa con los atributos de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante) a modo de criterios de selección de los \"top 4\" indicadores que surgieron de la lluvia de ideas. Asimismo, en cada estación se colocó un papelógrafo con 6 columnas etiquetadas con tarjetas de cartulina \"Indicador\", \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", \"Relevante\", \"Total\". Debajo de la columna \"Indicador\" se ubicaron los indicadores generados durante la lluvia de ideas. En cada grupo, la facilitadora explicó a los integrantes que la tarea ahora consistiría en calificar cada indicador mediante un sistema de ranking, atribuyéndole un puntaje de 3 (alto), 2 (medio), o 1 (bajo) por criterio --especifico, medible, alcanzable, y relevante. Tomando como ejemplo el indicador \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", este podría calificar como altamente especifico (valor de 3), medianamente medible (valor de 2), bajamente alcanzable (valor de 1), y altamente relevante (valor de 3), con un puntaje de 9 sobre el máximo posible de 12.Considerando que ambos Grupo 1 (enfoque agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (enfoque económico-social) generaron una extensa lista de indicadores durante la sesión de lluvia de ideas -34 indicadores en el Grupo 1 y 33 indicadores en el Grupo 2 -se tuvo que agregar un paso de pre priorización antes de pasar a la calificación por puntaje. De sus 34 indicadores, el Grupo 1 identificó sus \"top 9\", considerándolos de mayor importancia para el territorio. Luego procedieron a calificar estos 9 indicadores según el ranking de 3 a 1 por criterio.Los 33 indicadores generados por el Grupo 2 no solo atendieron los elementos clave correspondientes a los impactos 3 y 4 con enfoque económico-social (refiérase a Tabla 2), sino que también resultaron de una innovación metodológica. Los integrantes del Grupo 2 observaron que los impactos y elementos clave que les tocó abordar a través de indicadores alcanzaban niveles amplios y complejos de la transición (por ej., articulación institucional, cooperativismo) que serían difícilmente medibles.Optaron por bajar el nivel del ejercicio a la unidad de producción familiar y enfocar el desarrollo de indicadores en los ámbito económico y social a ese nivel. Fueron 13 los indicadores generados específicamente teniendo en cuenta la unidad de producción familiar. Luego, este subgrupo de indicadores fue calificado según el ranking de 3 a 1 por criterio.Al finalizarse el ejercicio de priorización grupal, se pasó a una sesión de exposición de los resultados en plenaria. Cada facilitadora resumió el proceso -donde se tuvo alguna dificultad para derivar un indicador u otras observaciones de su grupoy compartió los indicadores elegidos como finalistas tras la calificación según ranking por criterio. Se abrió el espacio para preguntas y comentarios de todos los participantes del taller.Indicadores por impacto y dimensiones HOLPA En la Tabla 3 se presentan los indicadores que resultaron de la lluvia de ideas inicial en cada grupo de trabajo: Grupo 1 (impactos 1 y 2, enfoque agrícola-ambiental) y Grupo 2 (impactos 3 y 4, enfoque económico-social). Cada indicador corresponde a un impacto, dimensiones de HOLPA, y elemento clave de la ruta de transición agroecológica (teoría de cambio). Numero de medios de comunicación a los que acceden los miembros de la familiaEn la Figura 4 se presentan los resultados de la priorización de indicadores que cada grupo de trabajo, el Grupo 1 enfocado en las dimensiones agrícola-ambiental y el Grupo 2 enfocado en las dimensiones económica-social, calificó según los criterios de selección \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", y \"Relevante\". Obsérvese en la Tabla 4 que los indicadores calificados bajo la dimensión económica-social registraron un puntaje máximo de 5. Esto se debe a que el Grupo 2 adoptó un sistema basado en votos para seleccionar sus indicadores finalistas, una vez que todos los que pasaron a la fase de calificación por ranking según los cuatro criterios obtenían un puntaje entre 11 y 12 (Figura 4B). Cada uno de los seis integrantes del Grupo 2 eligió sus \"top 4\" indicadores prioritarios mediante una etiqueta adhesiva en forma de circulo, llegándose de esta manera al puntaje entre 1 y 5 para este grupo de indicadores.En la Tabla 4 se incluye una columna que especifica si el indicador era o no abordado por la encuesta global HOLPA. Esto sirvió para orientar, ya en gabinete, la selección de aquellos indicadores locales priorizados que (1) aun no eran atendidos por la encuesta HOLPA, (2) agregarían valor a la encuesta, y (3) eran alcanzables en función de recursos y practicidad. Por ejemplo, a pesar de que el indicador \"Índice de desnutrición infantil\" recibió uno de los puntajes más altos bajo la dimensión económicasocial y de que no estaba contemplado en la encuesta global HOLPA, no fue integrado a HOLPA debido a su complejidad y a los recursos (tiempo, monetario) que supondría el levantamiento de tal información.Por otro lado, hubo indicadores como \"Número de agricultores que hacen manejo en selección y conservación de semillas de especies nativas\" y \"Tipos de uso del suelo\" que motivaron la formulación de preguntas nuevas y especificas al caso de especies nativas y uso del suelo con respecto de áreas naturales (sin producción), a pesar de que ambas temáticas eran parcialmente abordadas en la encuesta global HOLPA.Indicadores locales integrados a HOLPA Los indicadores locales generados y priorizados por los actores locales que fueron integrados a HOLPA, la justificación de su selección, y como fueron incorporados a la encuesta global HOLPA figuran en la Tabla 5. En el Anexo 4 (p. 27) se muestran las preguntas especificas con respecto de los indicadores locales.Tabla 5. Indicadores locales integrados a HOLPA Indicador Dimensión HOLPA Justificación Como se incorporó Tipos de uso del suelo y tenencia de la tierra Agrícola-ambiental Se especifican los tipos de uso del suelo más allá de los sistemas de producción, incluyendo áreas de bosque, purma, u de otro tipo de cobertura natural. Esta especificación se hace para cada categoría de tenencia de la tierra (dueño, alquilada y derecho de uso).Incluyendo las opciones \"Cultivos, Pastizales, Purma baja/joven (<10 años), Purma alta/antigua (≥10 años), Bosque, Tierra en descanso, Otros\" y en cada opción se registra el área en hectáreas Origen de los productos de la dieta familiar Económica-social Complementa el indicador \"diversidad de la dieta familiar\" especificando la proporción de la comida que la familia produce dentro del predio familiar y que alimentos de los más consumidos en el hogar son comprados Incluyendo las preguntas \"¿Qué cantidad de la comida que consumen en su hogar proviene de su propio predio?\" y \"¿Cuáles son los 3 alimentos que más se consumen en su hogar y cuáles de ellos se compran? Cada pregunta tuvo opciones de respuesta Manejo de semillas Agrícola-ambiental Se agrega valor a las preguntas de la encuesta global HOLPA sobre procedencia de semillas, especificando las prácticas de manejo, almacenamiento y conservación de especies nativasIncluyendo preguntas que instaron a precisar las (1) prácticas de selección y conservación de semillas y (2) prácticas de almacenamiento de semillasEl taller \"Desarrollo de indicadores locales para la evaluación del desempeño agroecológico en Ucayali\" no solo alcanzó sus objetivos, sino que también corroboró la cantidad y calidad de conocimientos que reúnen los actores del territorio a quienes convocamos para la realización de la actividad. Agricultores, ingenieros, académicos, profesionales de desarrollo del ámbito público y privado, estas personas comparten con la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú la preocupación por el bienestar ambiental y social del corredor agroforestal Pucallpa-Aguaytía y el interés en articular capacidades en pro de una transición agroecológica.Del ejercicio colectivo que se desarrolló se pueden rescatar las lecciones siguientes:• La gran mayoría (92.5%) de los indicadores propuestos por los actores del territorio ya eran abordados por la encuesta global HOLPA, lo cual sugiere cuan comprensiva es la encuesta concebida por el liderazgo global de la Iniciativa de Agroecología del CGIAR.• La generación de indicadores locales en el ámbito económico-social supuso desafíos al exigir una reflexión tanto a nivel macro del ecosistema institucional como a nivel micro de la unidad de producción familiar. En este sentido, considerando la complejidad y envergadura temporal de los procesos de cambio a nivel institucional, los participantes consideraron más práctico y prioritario empezar por la formulación de indicadores capaces de evaluar y monitorear cambios a nivel de la unidad de producción familiar.• A pesar de no haber incluido los indicadores que refieren a elementos clave como \"Asociatividad y cooperativismo\", \"Comercialización local con baja intermediación\", o \"Educación y difusión de información sobre oferta local a consumidores\", todos importantes desde la perspectiva agroecológica, serán referentes críticos y útiles en etapas futuras de la Iniciativa de Agroecología en Perú.• Los ejercicios de índole participativa suelen tomar más tiempo del que se anticipa según las agendas que concebimos en gabinete. Fue necesario, para no interrumpir la dinámica y riqueza de los trabajos grupales, acotar los alcances del taller, por lo que no se abordaron métodos, frecuencias y escalas para la medición de los indicadores priorizados por los actores durante el taller. • Recapitulación de los impactos y elementos clave de la ruta de transición agroecológica que fueron identificados en los talleres multiactor previos.Poner énfasis en la necesidad de \"tomar el pulso\" o monitorear el desempeño agroecológico durante esa transición.Notas facilitadores:-Se proyecta 1 lámina con los impactos y elementos clave de la transición AE que fueron extraídos de la ruta de transición, o teoría de cambio.-Indicar, en una segunda lámina, que durante el ejercicio se trabajará sobre los 16 elementos clave (8 por grupo) según las áreas temáticas y dimensiones globales HOLPA que representan.Alejandra PPT (2 láminas) 9:50 am -10:10 am 20 min ¿Como sabremos que estamos avanzando?• Hacia esos impactos esperados, ¿cómo sabremos si vamos por buen camino (o que estamos avanzando)?Se introduce el concepto de indicador. Desde la Iniciativa de Agroecología nos apoyamos en ellos para evaluar el desempeño agroecológico en un territorio.Se exponen las cualidades de un buen indicador: especifico, medible, alcanzable (temporalmente) y relevante en función de los intereses compartidos y procesos de cambio a los que aspira el ALL.Se presenta un ejemplo concreto relevante para el ALL (indicador de seguridad alimentaria: \"diversidad de la dieta en el hogar\", que es un área prioritaria para el GOREU).Se explica a los participantes la actividad grupal a continuación: generar indicadores que midan los impactos que queremos alcanzar.Notas facilitadores:-Para la actividad del próximo bloque, los impactos y elementos clave de la transición habrán sido organizados en 2 grupos: Grupo 1 integrando los impactos 1 y 2 con enfoque agrícola / ambiental, y Grupo 2 integrando los impactos 3 y 4 con enfoque económico / social. Cada participante habrá sido previamente asignado a uno de los 2 grupos según el área de experiencia (agrícola, ambiental, económica, social) que Alejandra PPT (4 láminas) tendremos como referencia en nuestra lista de invitados. Dependiendo del número y composición de quienes participan del taller, algunas áreas de experiencia y por ende impactos pueden estar sub o sobre representados. En cuyo caso se solicita a los participantes ubicarse en el grupo que mejor lo identifica.-En el salón se ubicarán dos estaciones de trabajo: una para el Grupo 1 que trabajara los impactos 1 y 2, y otra para el Grupo 2 que trabajara los impactos 3 y 4. En cada estación figurarán los impactos correspondientes en tarjetas de cartulina y al costado de cada uno los elementos clave de la transición, también en tarjetas de cartulina. Los impactos sirven como marco global de referencia, pero es en base a los elementos clave de la transición que se motivará la lluvia de ideas de indicadores.-En cada estación de trabajo, colocar tarjetas con definiciones de cada uno de los 4 criterios de evaluación (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante) para orientar la priorización de indicadores en el ejercicio siguiente. -El/la facilitador/a enfatiza cualidades de un buen indicador (especifico, medible, alcanzable y relevante). Los indicadores que resulten de este ejercicio deben de ser lo más específicos posibles. Por ejemplo, si quedara algún indicador muy general como seguridad alimentaria o salud del suelo, ahondar en el aspecto especifico de mayor interés (desnutrición infantil, anemia, carbono en el suelo, compactación del suelo, acidez del suelo, etc.).-El/la facilitador/a va escribiendo los indicadores propuestos sobre tarjetas de cartulina y los va ubicando al costado de su(s) elemento(s) clave correspondiente(s). Cada estación y facilitador(a) contará con una hoja impresa de indicadores auxiliares como \"back up\" para incitar la reflexión si a los participantes les costase iniciar la lluvia de ideas. Sin embargo, nos apoyamos en esta lista \"back up\" como último recurso. -En cada estación de trabajo, tener listo un papelógrafo con 6 columnas etiquetadas con tarjetas de cartulina: \"Indicador\", \"Especifico\", \"Medible\", \"Alcanzable\", \"Relevante\", \"Total\". Ubicar los indicadores que surgieron de la lluvia de ideas bajo la columna \"Indicador\". Selección de indicadores por medio de ranking: altamente \"…\" = 3; medianamente \"…\" = 2; bajamente \"…\" = 1. Por ej., un indicador de seguridad alimentaria que resulte bajamente especifico, pero altamente relevante.Se califica cada indicador, preguntando al grupo su importancia según cada uno de los 4 criterios que figuran sobre el papelógrafo. Los facilitadores escriben \"3\", \"2\", o \"1\" bajo la columna que corresponde a cada criterio. Una vez terminada la calificación de todos los indicadores, por cada fila donde figura un indicador se suman las cifras y se escribe su puntaje bajo la columna \"Total\".Serán priorizados los 4 indicadores con mayor puntaje. Si algunos indicadores reciben el mismo puntaje, el grupo tendrá que llegar a un consenso sobre el más importante según el vacío de información que este es capaz de atender y practicidad.Notas facilitadores:-Mantenemos las 2 mismas estaciones de trabajo (Grupo 1, Grupo 2), cada una con el papelógrafo y materiales que habrán sido preparados durante el break.-Cada facilitador(a) tendrá la tarea de orientar la selección de los top 4 indicadores por grupo (mínimo 1 por dimensión HOLPA), considerando que estos atenderán los impactos y elementos clave según áreas temáticas de HOLPA (Grupo 1 = agrícola, ambiental; Grupo 2 = económica, social). [OPCIONAL] Se pregunta: ¿Qué experiencias han tenido en la medición de este indicador? El enfoque de esta pregunta es ahondar, si el tiempo lo permite, en escala, método y frecuencia de muestreo. Si no tienen experiencia, enfocar la reflexión en escala y posibles métodos.-Mantenemos las 2 mismas estaciones de trabajo (Grupo 1, Grupo 2). Cada estación tendrá, sobre su papelógrafo, sus 4 indicadores prioritarios resaltados con otro color de plumón o asterisco. Notas facilitadores:-Se exponen, en total, los 8 indicadores que fueron priorizados por los 2 grupos de trabajo junto con sus escalas, métodos, y frecuencias de muestreo.Alejandra 2. Origen de los productos de la dieta familiar (a) ¿Qué cantidad de la comida que consumen en su hogar proviene de su propio predio?Seleccionar la opción que mejor representa las condiciones de su hogar:Se muestra las siguientes opciones (solo seleccionar 1 opción):-Casi toda la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio.-La mitad de la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio.-Una pequeña parte de la comida de mi hogar es producida dentro de mi predio.-Nada de la comida de mi hogar se produce dentro de mi predio.(b) Por favor dígame cuales son los 3 alimentos que más se consumen en su hogar y cuáles de ellos se compran.Se muestran 3 espacios para escribir los 3 alimentos más consumidos. A continuación de cada alimento debe marcarse una de las siguientes opciones: \"Compra\" o No compra\".3. Manejo de semillas (a) ¿Cuáles de las siguientes prácticas de selección y conservación de semillas usted emplea?Seleccione todas las opciones que apliquen.-Descarte de plantas enfermas en parcela -Descarte de plantas enfermas o dañadas en almacén.-Cosecha en condiciones de baja humedad (evita propagación de enfermedades)-Secado de semillas por exposición al sol -Limpieza de semillas postcosecha (eliminación de residuos de tierra, polvo, insectos vivos o muertos)-Adquisición de semillas de parcelas distintas / vecinos -Otros (dejar abierto para que el agricultor mencione otra) (b) ¿Cuáles de las siguientes prácticas de almacenamiento de semillas usted emplea?Seleccione todas las opciones que apliquen.- ","tokenCount":"5541"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c64068493c0baebc977c8c7fe9801953","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e706d5d-512a-4f99-9298-7aa6b18c62ab/retrieve","id":"1574737624"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"63994957-6171-44e5-be8a-fa995e566d3b","pagecount":"40","content":"La collection Pro-Agro est une coédition d'Ingénieurs Sans Frontières Cameroun (ISF Cameroun) et du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA).Arbuste de 1 à 4 mètres de hauteur environ, il est cultivé pour ses tubercules et ses feuilles. Les tubercules sont très riches en amidon. Les tiges sont quant à elles utilisées comme matériel de plantation. Consommé tant pour l'alimentation humaine qu'animale, le manioc est très utilisé dans l'industrie alimentaire (pâtisseries, tapioca, pâtes alimentaires, cossettes, …). Avec plus de vingt produits dérivés, le manioc sert également dans l'industrie textile, la production du papier, de colles, d'alcool ou d'amidon.Sa culture procure des revenus importants aux petits producteurs à travers le monde. Les tubercules de manioc, ainsi que ses sous-produits, s'écoulent partout sans difficulté. Les tiges des variétés améliorées sont également vendues comme matériel de plantation.Ce guide permettra aux vulgarisateurs de mettre à disposition des producteurs de la filière manioc des techniques simples et améliorées de production, de stockage et de transformation.De son nom scientifique Manihot esculenta, le manioc est l'une des cultures vivrières les plus cultivées et les plus consommées dans de nombreuses régions du monde.Le manioc est un arbuste ligneux, vivace et ramifié pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 5 mètres de hauteur. Il produit de larges feuilles fortement lobées et spiralées de formes très variables. Lors de leur croissance, les arbrisseaux produisent plusieurs racines tubéreuses de réserve contenant jusqu'à 35% d'amidon, pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 1 mètre de long, et peser collectivement jusqu'à 40 kg. Le manioc produit des fleurs régulières femelles et mâles aux dimensions réduites réunies en petites grappes. L'arbuste produit un fruit de forme de capsule non charnue. Le manioc connaît une meilleure croissance dans toutes les zones proches de l'Équateur : une altitude inférieure à 1500 mètres, une pluviometrie variant de 1000 à 1500 mm/an, et une température comprise entre 23 et 25 o C. Hormis les sols lourds et inondés, il peut se développer sur tous les autres sols ; le manioc préfère néanmoins les sols légers, bien drainés, profonds et riches en matière organique. Il apprécie les situations bien ensoleillées et pousse dans les conditions de hautes températures et d'ensoleillement des régions tropicales et subtropicales. Exigeant en matière d'ensoleillement, le manioc préfère un climat chaud et humide et tolère les longues saisons sèches (6 à 7 mois), ainsi que les précipitations réduites.Le manioc peut être planté seul ou en association avec d'autres cultures telles que le maïs, la banane plantain, les légumes ou les légumineuses. La culture du manioc ne requiert pas beaucoup de main-d'oeuvre, soit généralement 75 à 125 hommes-jour par hectare, de la préparation du terrain à la récolte. Les tubercules de manioc doux peuvent être récoltés au bout de 8 à 10 mois après la plantation, alors que pour les variétés amères, la récolte commence à partir du douzième mois.Par sa résistance aux températures élevées, à la sécheresse, à l'augmentation des teneurs en gaz carbonique atmosphérique, le manioc est très adapté au changement climatique. • Un terrain plat ou légèrement en pente pour éviter l'érosion capable de détruire la terre arable riche en humus. • Des antécédents culturaux favorables : tirer des leçons des maladies rencontrées, de la présence de termites ou autres ravageurs, des mauvaises herbes difficiles à gérer. Ces informations peuvent guider quant au choix du site et aider à mettre en place un programme adapté de protection du manioc.Elle varie selon le climat, la nature du sol, la végétation et le relief. Il s'agit d'ameublir la surface du sol, de l'enrichir en matière organique, et de réduire le développement des mauvaises herbes.• En culture manuelle, il faut procéder au défrichage de la parcelle et labourer le sol. Il s'agit ensuite de procéder à un buttage ou un billonnage dans le cas de sols lourds. • En culture mécanisée, gyrobroyer, labourer et billonner dans le cas de sols lourds.Les bonnes variétés de manioc à planter sont celles riches en matière sèche, conservables en terre, et bien adaptées à la zone de production. Il s'agira de variétés à tubérisation précoce et faciles à transformer.Les boutures de manioc sont généralement collectées dans les champs, en cours de récolte. Les variétés améliorées peuvent également être obtenues auprès d'organismes de recherche ou de développement appropriés.Prélever les boutures de 20 à 30 cm de long sur les parties centrales brunes des tiges saines, âgées de près de 12 mois. Éviter les parties fortement aoûtées ou tendres. On reconnaît les pieds sains par la vigueur des tiges et des rameaux, le feuillage luxuriant, les tiges et les feuilles peu abîmées par les maladies et les ravageurs.En culture intensive, il est conseillé d'alterner la culture de manioc avec un repos sous couverture de légumineuses.En culture associée, il est préférable de planter le manioc en fin d'assolement, juste avant la jachère, car il épuise énormément le sol.Bonnes boutures de manioc Boutures de manioc à éviterAfin d'assurer une reprise homogène, récolter les tiges environ une semaine avant la mise en place et les conserver à l'ombre, dans un endroit bien aéré. On découpera les boutures au moment de la plantation, ou plutôt la veille. Chaque bouture doit posséder 5 à 7 yeux dormants. L'entretien consiste à :• Remplacer au fur et à mesure les plants manquants. Enlever à la fin du 3 ème mois les pousses fragiles et ne conserver que les plus vigoureuses. • Lutter contre les mauvaises herbes en procédant à deux, voire trois sarclages :-premier sarclage : 3 à 4 semaines après la plantation -deuxième sarclage : 1 à 2 mois après le premier sarclage -troisième sarclage : au début de la deuxième année. • Butter dans le cas du semis à plat sur une hauteur de 10 cm, 5 à 6 semaines après la plantation.Sur un terrain vierge ou une jachère de longue durée, la fertilisation n'est pas nécessaire. En culture intensive ou continue, la fertilisation permet de compenser les exportations d'éléments minéraux par la plante.Pour la production de boutures, la fertilisation minérale est privilégiée. Lors de la préparation du sol, apporter de la dolomie à raison de 100 kg par hectare. Deux mois après la plantation, apporter de l'engrais NPK (10 18 18) à raison de 300 kg par hectare, pour un objectif de production d'au moins 25 tonnes par hectare, ou de l'urée (150 kg par hectare), du phosphate tricalcique (100 kg par hectare) et du KCl (250 kg par hectare), pour un objectif de production d'au moins 30 t par hectare.Pour la production de tubercules, la fertilisation organique est recommandée. Lors de la préparation du sol ou au moment de la plantation, apporter de la litière de volaille ou tout autre fumier animal à raison de 10 t par hectare, voire 15 ou 20 t par hectare si le sol est appauvri.Le manioc étant largement planté comme culture de subsistance, le traitement chimique doit être très limité. La lutte culturale devrait toujours être privilégiée.Traitement chimique• Feuilles déformées et présentant des taches jaunes ou vert pâle.• Appareil végétatif réduit.Virose ou maladie de la mosaïque africaine du manioc, causée par un virus transmis par la mouche blanche (Bemisia tabaci) qui pullule en début de saison des pluies et disparaît en saison sèche. La mosaïque est causée par l'emploi de boutures infectées.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Chancre sur les jeunes tiges et dessèchement de leurs extrémités.• Nécrose brune sur les feuilles.La maladie est aussi transmise par des boutures contaminées.• Utiliser des boutures saines.• Éliminer les débris de récolte.• Taches anguleuses sur le limbe.• Brûlures foliaires avec production d'une toxine.• Flétrissement des feuilles.• Lésions sur tiges avec production d'exsudat.• Défoliation des rameaux. • Petites taches chlorotiques jaunes sous forme de piqûres observées sur la face supérieure de la feuille.• Rétrécissement des feuilles.• Destruction des feuilles terminales qui tombent, donnant aux extrémités des pousses un aspect de \"cierge\".Les acariens (Mononychellus Tanajoa) sont de minuscules créatures non ailées qui apparaissent comme des taches à l'oeil nu, mais peuvent être vues clairement à l'aide d'une loupe de poche. Vertes au départ, les nymphes (acariens immatures) prennent par la suite une coloration jaunâtre. L'acarien vert du manioc suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des tiges de manioc.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Entre-noeuds plus courts.• Mise en touffe des feuilles donnant un aspect buissonnant.• Déformation de la tige (torsion).• Dessèchement des feuilles.• Pieds de manioc défoliés.La cochenille du manioc (Phenacoccus manihoti) apparaît sur les extrémités des tiges de manioc, la face inférieure des feuilles, et les tiges. Ces cochenilles se couvrent d'une sécrétion abondante de cire blanche et sont caractérisées par l'absence d'ailes, une couleur rose, une forme ovale, et de très courts filaments corporels. La cochenille du manioc pique et suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des pousses du manioc. En se nourrissant, elle leur inocule une toxine qui induit de sévères perturbations du développement des plantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.• Noircissement des feuilles qui s'assèchent et tombent.En se nourrissant de la sève des feuilles de manioc, l'aleurode (Aleurodicus dispersus) sécrète d'importantes quantités de miellat qui favorisent le développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.Les adultes, de couleur blanc clair, et les nymphes de l'insecte apparaissent en masse sur la face inférieure de la feuille de manioc, laquelle est couverte d'une abondante sécrétion cireuse.• Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Pieds de manioc defoliés.Le criquet puant (Zonocerus variegatus) mâche les feuilles, les pétioles et les tiges vertes du manioc. Il défolie les pieds de manioc et débarrasse les tiges de leur écorce.• Ramasser à la main ou détruire les bandes de larves avant leur dispersion.• Repérer les zones de ponte à proximité de la culture et détruire les oothèques.• Piéger les larves et jeunes imagos en utilisant des perches enfoncées obliquement sur lesquelles ils vont se rassembler. Ramasser et détruire les criquets rassemblés sur les perches.• Utiliser des appâts empoisonnés avec un insecticide.• Utiliser des extraits de neem. • Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines. Les variétés précoces parviennent à maturité entre 6 et 8 mois en moyenne après la date de plantation, tandis que les variétés tardives nécessitent entre 12 et 18 mois dans des conditions optimales, comme en zone de forêt humide. En zone de savane humide, la récolte des variétés tardives se situe entre 20 et 24 mois après la date de plantation. Le manioc se développe plus rapidement dans les bas-fonds humides que dans les régions de haute altitude.Le rendement varie de 20 à 30 t par hectare pour les varietés locales, et de 25 à 70 t par hectare pour les variétés améliorées. En milieu hostile où d'autres cultures échouent, le manioc est capable d'offrir un bon rendement. Dans des conditions classiques, le rendement peut varier entre 8 et 15 tonnes de tubercules par hectare.Deux à trois jours après la récolte, on assiste à un processus rapide de pourrissement des tubercules. La récolte se fait généralement lors de son utilisation, incluant une petite durée de conservation à l'air libre. Plusieurs méthodes permettent de prolonger de quelques jours la conservation :• Le stockage dans des silos-fosses recouverts d'un toit de chaume.• Le stockage dans de la sciure humide.• L'immersion dans un fongicide à base de Thiabendazole (ex : Mertect SC) et la mise en sacs de polyéthylène. • Le stockage au froid et la congélation.• Le stockage sous bâche en plastique de racines trempées dans de l'eau.La méthode de conservation au champ est la plus utilisée dans les exploitations familiales, mais elle diminue la productivité de la terre qui ne peut être utilisée pour de nouvelles cultures. Les tubercules, facilement attaqués par les rongeurs, insectes et nématodes, deviennent plus fibreux et liquéfiés, entraînant une baisse des propriétés nutritives du manioc.Le manioc est conservé sous forme de cossettes (morceaux de manioc découpés, défibrés ou non). Les cossettes stockées constituent un milieu favorable au développement de nombreux insectes tels que les coléoptères. Parmi les insectes nuisibles, il y a le grand capucin du maïs (Prostephanus truncatus), certaines espèces du genre Dinoderus, le capucin des grains (Rhyzopertha dominica), le tribolium rouge de la farine (Tribolium castaneum), le charançon du maïs (Sitophilus zeamais), la bruche du café (Araecerus fasciculatus), etc. Le grand capucin du maïs est le plus destructeur, pouvant occasionner des pertes de 70% après 4 mois de stockage. Il peut être maîtrisé par la pratique de la lutte intégrée, et surtout biologique, à l'aide du prédateur Teretrius nigrescens.Pour ce faire, il faut au préalable sécher rapidement les cossettes, et dans de bonnes conditions d'hygiène. Les cossettes doivent aussi être conservées dans des structures de stockage offrant une protection suffisante contre les insectes nuisibles et la réhumidification. Les greniers construits en argile ainsi que les sacs et tonneaux en plastique sont les mieux adaptés.Il faut les contrôler régulièrement pendant la période de stockage. En cas d'attaque, il faut les étaler au soleil pour provoquer la fuite ou la mort de la plupart des ravageurs. Il est ensuite impératif de procéder immédiatement à la mouture et à la consommation, afin d'éviter des pertes subséquentes.Dinoderus spp.Bruche du café Charançon du riz Tribulium rougeÉcraser les feuilles à l'aide d'un mortier afin d'obtenir une masse très fine.Faire bouillir de l'eau, ajouter du sel et les feuilles écrasées. Remuer constamment jusqu'à ce que les feuilles soient cuites (15 minutes au moins). Mettre de côté.Frire les oignons, ajouter le lait de coco ou le beurre d'arachide. Quand le mélange commence à bouillir, ajouter les feuilles de manioc cuites. Remuer encore quelques minutes et retirer du feu. Servir avec du riz ou un autre plat principal à base de céréales.Pour rendre les feuilles comestibles, une cuisson des feuilles préalablement hachées ou broyées permet d'éliminer une grande quantité de cyanogènes.• 1 kg de feuilles de manioc fraîches et tendres • 1 boîte de suc de noix de palme (800 g de sauce graine) • Tubercules de manioc ou de macabo (facultatif) Préparation Dans une grande casserole à fond épais, mélanger le suc de palme avec les feuilles de manioc pilées. On peut y ajouter des morceaux de tubercules de manioc ou de macabo préalalement épluchés, coupés et nettoyés (facultatif).  Le manioc peut être transformé sous différentes formes. Une dizaine de sous-produits sont présentés ci-dessous. Avant toute opération de transformation, sélectionner des racines de manioc saines, mûres, fermes, fraîchement récoltées, ce afin d'obtenir un produit de qualité.La transformation du manioc part de 2 produits semi-finis, à savoir la pâte de manioc (fermentée ou non) et les cos settes.Éplucher et laver les tubercules de manioc. Puis, les tremper dans l'eau pendant trois jours afin de les ramollir. Une fois fermentés, les nettoyer en retirant la partie centrale, puis récuperer le manioc. La pâte obtenue est pressée et écrasée pour obtentir une pâte de manioc fermentée servant à la fabrication du bâton de manioc.La pâte de manioc non fermentée sert à la fabrication de plusieurs autres produits : pâtisseries, couscous, semoule, amidon, etc. Éplucher les racines fraîches. Les laver avec de l'eau propre. Puis, râper le manioc. Le râpage est fait soit manuellement, en frottant le manioc contre une feuille métallique perforée, soit mécaniquement, grâce à un broyeur.6.1 Fabrication artisanale de la pâte de maniocLe bâton produit dépend du type de conditionnement utilisé.Quelques types de bâtons de manioc (Cameroun)La pâte de manioc fermentée est déposée sous forme de ficelle d'environ 27 cm de long, sur la longueur d'un ou deux morceaux de feuilles de jonc ou de bananier plantain. Laisser 1 à 2 cm à chaque extrémité, puis rouler la feuille et rabattre les extrémités. Ficeler le tout.La pâte de manioc fermentée est moulée dans une ou deux feuilles d'halopegia azurea, sous forme de fil d'environ 40 cm de long, en laissant 1 à 2 cm aux extrémités rabattues.La pâte de manioc fermentée est assaissonée avec de l'huile de palme, du sel, quelques épices locales et du piment, si souhaité. La pâte jaune obtenue est conditionnée sous forme de pain de mie d'environ 20 cm de long et 5 cm d'épaisseur, et moulée dans un ou deux morceaux de larges feuilles de maranthacées.Pour obtenir 250 kg de cossettes, il faut prévoir 1 tonne de tubercules de manioc frais. Les cossettes sont obtenues après épluchage et découpage en morceaux du manioc. Il s'agit ensuite de tremper les racines pendant 3 à 6 jours, en fonction des saisons. Cette opération dure moins longtemps en saison sèche.Puis, retirer les fibres et faire sécher les cossettes au soleil avant de les conserver dans des sacs propres.Après le conditionnement, les pâtes conditionnées sont cuites pendant 45 minutes.La fabrication de la farine de manioc est faite soit à partir de cossettes séchées, soit à partir de la pâte de manioc non fermentée. Dans les deux cas, le produit est séché, broyé finement, puis tamisé avant d'être emballé.• Piler ou meuler les cossettes pour produire la farine.• Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).À partir de la pâte de manioc • Presser la pâte obtenue après le râpage des racines épluchées et soigneusement lavées. • Sécher au soleil sur une toile propre, disposée sur une pente douce.• La pâte est séchée jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit farineuse. Moudre ensuite la pate séchée au mortier ou dans un moulin, pour produire la farine. • Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).La toile doit être placée sur un support surélevé et non directement sur le sol.L'amidon de manioc est produit à base de pâte de manioc non fermentée.• Malaxer la pâte de manioc dans une bassine d'eau, à raison de 5 litres d'eau pour 1 kg de pâte. • Tamiser le mélange et récueillir le lait d'amidon dans une bassine. Laisser l'amidon se décanter pendant 1 heure. • Recueillir la pâte qui s'est déposée au fond et la sécher au soleil. On obtient de l'amidon. • Moudre l'amidon et tamiser la poudre obtenue, puis conditionner dans des sacs.La semoule fermentée et cuite, couramment appelée « attiéké », est issue de la fermentation du manioc épluché et broyé. La fermentation est assurée par des ferments traditionnels appelés « magnan ». Les semoules sont obtenues après essorage de la pâte. Elles sont séchées, tamisées, calibrées et cuites à la vapeur pour donner un produit acidulé et légèrement collant appelé attiéké frais. Pour obtenir 100 kg d'attiéké frais, il faut prévoir 200 kg de tubercules de manioc frais.• 70 kg de pâte de manioc non fermentée • 15 kg de tubercules de manioc • 150 ml d'huile de palme raffinée• Éplucher les tubercules de manioc. Les laver, les faire cuire et les laisser refroidir. • Envelopper ensuite dans un sac en polypropylène. Laisser au repos 2 à 3 jours pour obtenir le levain. • Enlever les fibres et laver les racines couvertes de mycélium au moment de l'utilisation.• Préparer 70 kg de pâte de manioc et 7 kg de levain. Mélanger la pâte et le levain et y ajouter environ 150 ml d'huile de palme, puis malaxer le tout. • Mettre le mélange dans des bassines en fibres végétales tressées pour la fermentation, avec égouttage pendant 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte contenue dans les sacs, à l'aide de blocs de pierre.• Émotter à l'aide d'un tamis à grosses mailles carrées de 1 à 2 mm de côté, tout en éliminant une partie des fibres.• Semouler les mottes en réalisant les granules à la main dans une large cuvette, et conférer aux particules une forme lisse plus ou moins sphérique. • Exposer la semoule au soleil pour une déshydratation partielle.• Vanner pour éliminer les fibres. Puis, faire cuire dans un couscoussier.• Conditionner l'attiéké frais dans des cuvettes, des sachets ou des paniers.Le gari est une semoule sèche qui se conserve très longtemps. Une tonne de tubercules de manioc peut produire 200 à 300 kg de gari.• Préparer la pâte de manioc, l'ensacher dans des sacs, et laisser fermenter 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte à l'aide de blocs de pierre ou d'une presse, jusqu'à ce que l'eau cesse de s'égoutter. À noter que la surface du sac doit rester humide.• Émotter la pâte essorée à l'aide d'un tamis tout en éliminant une partie des fibres. • Griller ou rôtir la semoule dans une poêle ou un plateau chauffé.• Après la torréfaction, tamiser le gari afin de retirer les gros morceaux qui persistent, et le calibrer au moyen de tamis en fibres de bambou tressés de mailles différentes qui vont donner ainsi différentes qualités de gari. • Le conserver dans un récipient propre, en sac ou en sachet, pour la commercialisation.Il faut se débarrasser de la bonne quantité d'eau pour éviter que le gari forme des grumeaux lors de la torréfaction. Si l'on presse trop la pâte, le gari ne cuira pas convenablement et deviendra farineux. Pour 20 litres de bière, prévoir 40 kg de tubercules de manioc.• Tremper les tubercules de manioc dans de l'eau pendant 7 jours.• Éplucher les racines et broyer la pulpe.• Ajouter 20 litres d'eau à la pâte obtenue et mélanger. Laisser au repos pendant 3 jours. • Filtrer le jus fermenté. Conditionner la bière dans des jarres ou autres récipients adaptés.Ingrédients pour 4 litres d'alcool à 45%• 4 kg d'amidon de manioc • 1 kg de grains de sorgho • 20 à 30 g de levure de bièrePréparation du malt de sorgho • Trier, nettoyer les grains de sorgho.• Les faire tremper dans l'eau pendant 4 jours afin de les faire germer.• Faire sécher ensuite les grains germés au soleil pendant 2 à 3 jours.• Ôter manuellement les plantules.• Broyer les grains entiers (à savoir l'écorce et l'albumen) pour obtenir la farine de sorgho malté. Le manioc offre des avantages considérables en matière de sécurité alimentaire, avec des rendements stables et élevés, même sur des sols marginaux et dans des conditions pluviométriques incertaines. Les coûts de production requis tels que l'achat des engrais, des produits phytosanitaires et du matériel de reproduction sont minimes.Lorsque les feuilles de manioc se referment sur elles-mêmes, les pieds de manioc peuvent être laissés à l'abandon. Ce qui permet d'optimiser l'utilisation de la main-d'oeuvre sans mettre en danger la production de manioc.La production de racines de manioc est une activité rentable. Ci-dessous, le compte d'exploitation d'un hectare de manioc sur 3 ans : Pour une plantation d'environ 10 000 pieds à l'hectare, avec un rendement potentiel de 30 tonnes, le revenu net s'élève à 840 000 FCFA, à raison de 28 FCFA/kg. En Côte d'Ivoire, la camionnette de 2,5 tonnes se négocie entre 100 000 FCFA et 200 000 FCFA (transport compris).Compte tenu de sa faible durée de conservation, c'est à partir du 10 ème mois qu'il faut rechercher des clients (transformateurs, revendeurs) pour obtenir des commandes fermes avant la récolte (prévue au 12 ème mois).Le gari est un produit très consommé au Bénin. Sa production est donc une source de revenus assez stable. Le tableau suivant présente un compte d'exploitation pour la production et la commercialisation de 825 kg de gari par semaine.C'est une activité rémunératrice qui procure un revenu supérieur au SMIG pour un groupe de 4 personnes. La production et la commercialisation de l'attiéké peuvent générer plus de 5 000 000 FCFA de bénefice annuel. Production et transformation du manioc","tokenCount":"3902"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"082b920ce64fa2319f58a2010417fb33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a89a4a80-47ab-4555-b924-29429b763cfe/retrieve","id":"-346458949"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a4dd593-81f2-475f-9253-16f784e1e978","pagecount":"4","content":"and customs, which put them at a disadvantage compared to men. However, dairy goats are suitable for smallholder farmers -including women -as they provide food and income, reproduce regularly each year and require little feed. In a previous study in Tanzania, keeping dairy goats was shown to be profitable, contributing 25% of total household income (Jackson et al., 2012). In addition, goat milk is rich in vitamins (A and B2), proteins and carbohydrates, and these nutrients are easily absorbed by the body. Goat milk is therefore particularly beneficial for infants, sick people and the elderly.As a means of boosting household food security and nutrition in resource-constrained, semi-arid areas of Tanzania, a system of integrating dairy goats (Toggenburg and Norwegian breeds) with production of cassava and sweet potato is being studied. The research is focused on finding ways to enhance the adaptation of the goat breeds in the area, while also testing and promoting four improved varieties of drought-tolerant and nutrient-rich cassava and sweet potato for human consumption and dairy goat feed.The project has specifically targeted women and female-headed households in Kongwa and Mvomero districts, in central and eastern• Introducing dairy goats in semi-arid regions of Tanzania has led to farmers earning US$160 from milk sales during the first lactation, as well as an increase in household milk consumption. • Female heads of households and women in male-headed households now own dairy goats, control income from sales of milk and make joint and independent decisions on overall management. • Cassava and sweet potato leaves are a significant feed supplement, providing better feed-to-live-weight conversion rates (a 15-28% increase) than traditional alternatives. • Diets have diversified among project farmers, to include cassava, sweet potato and goat milk.Tanzania; malnutrition rates in these areas are among the highest in the country. However, as well as aiming to support food production for both people and goats, the project also aims to increase income from the animals and from sales of root crops. The methodology applied also addresses gender roles, access, control and ownership of resources, and decision-making among smallholder farmers.In any intervention, increased workload can result, and in most cases women carry a higher burden. In this project, a systematic approach was used, coupled with intensive training, in order for men, women and youth to share roles and responsibilities in feeding, watering, cleaning, milking and general management of dairy goats and farm activities relating to the introduced technologies. As a result, women are now involved in goat breeding, including heat detection and supervision of the mating process, and record-keeping on production and reproduction parameters. The sharing of household chores, such as collecting water, fodder and fuel wood and cleaning of the \" \" \" \" household surroundings, has resulted in a reduction in women's workload.Since we started keeping goats my husband and my children take turns in collecting water for them. Last week I came down with malaria and my husband cleaned the barn, fed the goats and brought water not only for the goats but also for home use.Previously, women had limited access to, and ownership of, resources. However, through the project, 45 female-headed households (out of 111 households in total) now own dairy goats. Women in male-headed households also own many of the 224 dairy goats supplied through the project, controlling sales of milk and making joint decisions on overall management and sales.or sugar and even some small stuff for myself.In the past, women did not realize the importance of providing goat milk to children. Following the introduction of this project, farmers are diversifying their diets by including goat milk, which is fed to children and sick people and also included in families' daily meals, contributing to a balanced diet and improving their nutritional status. For example, women are making goat milk yoghurt, which is consumed with staple foods. During the first lactation, farmers have been able to earn US$160 from milk sales from two dairy goats. However, it is anticipated that this income will increase as production increases from the current 600 ml per goat per day to an expected 1.5 -2 litres per goat per day as the animal matures. Women control the income earned from milk, which they use to purchase small household items such as salt, soap, cooking oil and exercise books for children.Women and men have accepted the four improved root crop varieties and adopted best practices such as planting on ridges. Field trials show that both cassava and sweet potato leaves have higher protein and are significantly better feed supplements, with a better feed-to-liveweight conversion ratios compared to traditional alternatives such as sunflowers.I drink goat's milk although not every day. At the beginning I did not like its taste because I was not used to it. But now I take it with tea twice per week before I go to school.With time, increased income and consumption of root crops will also be expected as more farmers adopt the improved varieties; the additional consumption will lead, in turn, to improved nutrition.Integrating root crops and dairy goats has changed and improved gender relations in terms of women's participation in project activities, division of labour, access, control and ownership of resources and shared decisionmaking. Project interventions are also leading to dietary diversification that will improve the nutritional status of families, particularly women and children.During 2014, over 100 goats will be passed on to new groups of farmers. A large number of farmers have already shown great interest in obtaining dairy goats, which is a testimony to the advantages of keeping them. In view of this, it is likely that the dairy goat system will be adopted and adapted by farmers after the project ends.The Women are controlling sales of milk","tokenCount":"949"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5e9eaa1655f64f265ae7b6a8dc4484c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0279d109-7d1c-49df-89c0-ecf3e4ae2294/retrieve","id":"-1849229294"},"keywords":["Drought stress","Polymorphism","Red clover","RNA-Seq","Transcriptome assembly","Trifolium pratense"],"sieverID":"a8711822-0e5c-4532-bb2f-853c06c02fe1","pagecount":"33","content":"Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is a versatile forage crop legume, which can tolerate a variety of soils and is suitable for silage production for winter feed and for grazing. It is one of the most important forage legumes in temperate livestock agriculture. Its beneficial attributes include ability to fix nitrogen, improve soil and provide protein rich animal feed. It is however, a short-lived perennial providing good biomass yield for two or three years. Improved persistency is thus a major breeding target. Better water-stress tolerance is one of the key factors influencing persistency, but little is known about how red clover tolerates water stress.Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is a versatile forage crop legume, which can tolerate a variety of soils and is suitable for silage production for winter feed and for grazing. The benefits of red clover to farming include nitrogen fixation, soil improvement and high nutritive value in terms of protein-rich feed for livestock. Like other legumes, nitrogen fixation is facilitated by nodulation via symbiosis with the soil microbe Rhizobium leguminarosum [1,2]. The nutritional benefits are attributable to easy digestibility, high voluntary intake by livestock and high protein content during ensiling [3]. Red clover can be grown alone or in a sward mixed with grasses and other legumes, where it has been shown to be more productive than monocultures [4]. Red clover is a short lived perennial that usually persists for two to three years, although more persistent varieties are available. Improving its longevity is a major breeding target [2,5]. Persistency is a complex trait, and both biotic and abiotic stresses are known to have a major effect on longevity in the field [2]. Red clover has a tap root system in the first year, but in subsequent years a more fibrous root system develops at the expense of the tap root, which senesce [1]. This is believed to increase susceptibility to diseases of the crown, such as crown rot [1]. Abiotic stresses are other factors considered to be of major importance for persistency [1,3,5]. Cold and drought stresses are important components of abiotic stress [6][7][8][9][10]. Even temperate forage crops are exposed to periods of drought that have adverse effects on yield and persistency [11]. However, little is known about its genetic basis in red clover. Two studies have identified quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for traits related to persistence in red clover. Using full sib mapping families [12] found a major QTL for all persistency indices measured on linkage group 3, with heritabilites varying between 0.28 and 0.66. Klimenko et al. [13] found QTLs related to disease resistence and winter hardiness particularly on linkage groups 3 and 6. These studies are useful for future marker assisted selection. RNA-Seq approaches have potential to provide further valuable information about the molecular mechanisms underlying plant responses to abiotic stresses.Effects of drought on gene expression have been studied using microarrays in rice [14], wheat [15] and Arabidopsis thaliana [16]. These and other studies have provided information about the signalling pathways involved in the response to water stresses [17][18][19]. A typical response to water stress is to prevent water loss by closing the stomata, and producing abscisic acid (ABA). ABA initiates a signalling cascade which modifies the transcriptome and up-regulates genes encoding a number of proteins and enzymes involved in drought response [20,21]. These can be divided into signalling and response proteins. Signalling proteins include transcription factors, protein kinases and ubiquitin ligases. Drought response proteins include dehydrins, heat shock proteins, aquaporins and scavengers of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [17,[22][23][24][25]. Additionally, metabolic pathways can be modified to compensate for reduced water and CO 2 uptake [26]. Osmolytes such as proline and pinitol are often produced to lower the osmotic potential in order to maintain water uptake and protect against build-up of toxic ion levels [17].Next generation sequencing (NGS) can provide a depth of sequencing that is sufficient to cover the transcriptome of an organism many fold and allow quantification of the detected transcripts. The Illumina platform has been used for transcriptome analysis in several plant species [27][28][29][30][31][32]. An Illumina HiSeq2000 instrument can produce hundreds of millions of paired end reads per flow cell [33][34][35]. Gene expression is quantified by counting the number of reads per kilobase of transcript per million mapped reads (RPKM), enabling quantitative comparisons to be made [36]. A complication arises with short reads if there is no reference sequence to map the reads onto. In the case of model organisms extensive genomic and transcript sequence data are available, but for non-model organisms the amount of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and other transcript sequence data available to use as a reference can vary dramatically. Paucity of data in the reference transcriptome can potentially undermine the unbiased potential of NGS transcriptome analysis. Fortunately, software specifically designed for de novo reconstruction of the transcriptome from short reads, is available. A variety of methods using short read assemblers have been described in a number of plant species including Eucalyptus [30], Sonneratia alba [37], chickpea [27], sweet potato [38], alfalfa [28] and lupin [39].The primary aim of this work was to use NGS technology to study changes in transcriptome patterns in pooled samples of red clover genotypes, contrasting in their phenotypic response to drought. Previous examples of transcriptome analysis have often described effects on seedlings [14,16,40] or other shorter term drought treatment. In this work we used mature plants in an experimental set-up designed to mimic field conditions as closely as possible. The plants were F1 progeny of a full sib mapping family. Based on growth rates and relative water content (RWC) we identified two bulks of genotypes contrasting in their response to drought stress. The Illumina platform was used to sequence four pools of RNA samples, two from the drought tolerant bulk before and after drought stress, and two from the sensitive bulk. It enabled us to assemble de novo a transcriptome library of red clover from paired end reads. As this study was made on genotypes from a mapping population, it also provided an opportunity to mine the pooled samples for putative SNP and SSR polymorphisms. Finally, information about differentially expressed genes informs our understanding of the fundamental aspects of drought response and identifies potential targets for improved abiotic stress tolerance. As part of this study we have also measured the concentration of a few key metabolites, known from other studies to undergo major changes in concentration in response to water stress.The mapping family described in Methods was used to select a subset of genotypes that contrasted phenotypically in their response to drought stress. Leaf material from the two contrasting pools were used as a source for RNA-Seq data to generate a comprehensive library of transcript tags, and to explore how the two pools responded to drought stress in terms of differences in transcript expression patterns.Classification of drought tolerant and sensitive genotypes was based on growth rate (mg dry weight (DW) day -1 ) and RWC at the end of a two month drought treatment (DW2). Drought tolerant genotypes were selected by identifying plants which exhibited the highest RWC and growth rate at DW2. Sensitive genotypes were chosen from plants with the lowest RWC and growth rate. The relationship between the two phenotypic parameters among 64 genotypes from the mapping family is shown in Figure 1, and the ten plants selected from each group are highlighted. Statistical analysis of the phenotypic data from all genotypes measured under control conditions (DW0) revealed no significant differences between the two groups (Table 1A and B). The growth rate was significantly higher in the tolerant pool at the mid drought point (DW1), and at the end of the drought treatment (DW2). The reason for the increased growth rate at mid drought (DW1) in both pools is partly that the soil water content was still 42% compared to 52% at the start of the experiment (Additional file 1), so the plants did not yet suffer appreciably from drought stress. The other reason is the increasing number of daylight hours and increase in average temperature, during the period of the experiment. The continued increase in growth rate of the tolerant plants even at the later stages of the experiment shows their resilience to this stress. This is also illustrated in the difference in RWC and osmotic potential (OP) between the two sets of genotypes at DW2 (Table 1A and C, Additional file 2).  109.6 (99.7-120.5) A: Plant growth rate and 95% confidence intervals (CI) (in brackets) in the sensitive and tolerant pool. DW0 is growth rate at the onset of the drought stress treatment, DW1 is after 16 days, DW2 is at the end of the drought period (~40 days), and DW3 is growth rate 29 days after the end of the drought stress treatment (recovery). B: ANOVA table for the growth rate data (log 10 transformed data). The analysis was performed as a repeated measures design with the DW0 (control) as a co-variate. The P value next to the DW0 data indicates the significance value for the co-variate only. C: Mean values and 95% CI for relative water content (RWC) (%), osmotic potential (OP), and 6 metabolites mg (gDW) -1 ; ND -below detection limit.The total RNA from both the drought and control treatments for individual plants of the two selected groups was extracted and quality checked. Out of the 40 RNA samples, two failed RNA quality check, one from the sensitive control pool and one from the sensitive drought treatment pool. The RNA samples which passed quality check were then combined in equal amounts in their respective pools and sent to Eurofins Ltd Genomic Service for sequencing. Over 100 M of 100 bp paired end reads were generated after quality checking by Eurofins. De novo transcriptome reconstruction of the data was made using RNA-Seq reads and publically available red clover EST sequences. Given the mixed sequencing data, i.e. the short reads produced in this work and the publically available red clover EST sequences (mostly Sanger sequences), this constitutes a hybrid assembly. This approach generated 45181 contigs (denoted 'transcript tags' hereafter) constituting 42 Mbp. This Transcriptome Shotgun Assembly project has been deposited at DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession number GAOU00000000. The version described in this paper is the first one, GAOU01000000. The full list of all transcript tags with their annotation and assignment to GO terms is available in Additional file 3. Other relevant statistics include an average transcript tag length of 933 bp, N50 of 622 bp, 196.4× coverage (actual number of reads mapped/transcriptome length) and longest sequence of 13855 bp. To further evaluate the quality of the assembly, all of the reads were mapped back to the assembled transcriptome using CLC Genomics Workbench v4.0.0. Using a paired end distance of up to 1000 bp 69% of the reads mapped back. A total of 34534 transcript tags (75%) were assigned a functional name by BLAST against Medicago, Arabidopsis or UNIPROT, and 29189 transcript tags (63%) were assigned at least one GO term.In total, 6262 transcript tags were differentially expressed (>2 fold) between treatments and pools. The number of transcript tags with increased expression after drought stress were 3546 and 1903, while the number with decreased expression (>2 fold) were 2255 and 1015, in the sensitive and tolerant pool, respectively (Table 2). The full list of differentially expressed transcript tags can be seen in Additional file 4. The results are also summarised in Figure 2, which shows a heatmap (using Pearsons correlation co-efficient). The overall variation in levels of expression was estimated by recording the coefficient of variation (CV) of each identical transcript tag from the sensitive and tolerant samples. The average of the CV for all the pairs of transcript tags was 26.1% before drought (DW0) and 20.2% after drought (DW2) after filtering out tags with < 2 RPKM.Analysis of enriched gene ontology terms derived from differentially expressed transcript tags after drought stress revealed GO terms that were common between the drought tolerant and sensitive pools, and GO terms that were unique to each pool. Figure 3 illustrates the GO terms of transcript tags with differential expression. The number of enriched GO terms in common between sensitive and tolerant genotypes was 162, while 38 and 83 unique GO terms were different from the expectation for the tolerant and sensitive pools, respectively. Figure 4 shows the number of transcript tags which were over-and under-represented in various GO terms. The sensitive pool has a larger number of differentially expressed transcript tags in almost all GO term compared to the tolerant pool. Cellular homeostasis (GO:0019725) indicates changes in the steady state physiology of the plants. A total of 20 transcript tags were over-expressed in the sensitive pool compared to 8 in the tolerant pool, and 42 and 30 were under-expressed in the sensitive and tolerant pools, respectively. In the photosynthesis related categories, the following GO terms are highlighted in Figure 3: photosynthesis (GO:0015979), pigment metabolic process (GO:0042440) and plastid organization (GO:0009657). A significant number of transcript tags was down-regulated in all these GO terms. In the metabolism category the highlighted terms represent regulation of metabolic process (GO:0019222), glucose metabolic process (GO:0006006), carotenoid and terpenoid biosynthetic process (GO:0016177, GO:00016114, respectively) and proline biosynthesis process (GO:0006561). Additionally, the following transporter GO terms were found: Myo-inositol, lipid and ion transport (GO:0015798, GO:0006869 and GO:0006810). A number of stress-related GO terms were found in all pools including response to high light intensity (GO:0009644) and cell death (GO:0008219). However, we found that programmed cell death-related terms were specifically enriched relative to expectation in the tolerant pool after drought stress (GO:0012501). Differential expression in response to drought was identified specifically in the tolerant pool for transcript tags relating to GO terms for coenzyme catabolic process, secondary metabolic processes, glycosinolate metabolic processes (GO:0009109, GO:0019748 and GO:0019757, respectively). In the sensitive pool differentially expressed transcript tags related to unique GO terms included proton transport (GO:0015992), starch biosynthesis process (GO:0019252) and leaf development (GO:0048366), as well as a number of abiotic stress GO terms including response to water stimulus (GO:0009415) and response to heat (GO:0009408). Specifically, a transcript tag encoding the key ABA biosynthesis enzyme 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED1) (RC.21240) was over-expressed in response to drought stress in both pools. Another notable result is that most leucine rich repeat receptor kinases were under-expressed in both pools in response to drought (Additional file 4). These proteins are known to be involved in signal transduction pathways for a range of developmental and defence-related processes, including hormone perception and wound response [41].  While the effect of drought on gene expression was the main focus, we also looked at differences in gene expression between tolerant and sensitive pools under control conditions. The results are shown in Additional file 4 in the 'control' tab. The tolerant pool overexpressed 163 (>2 fold) transcript tags compared to the sensitive, which in turn had 436 upregulated transcript tags. We inspected the data manually for gene functions or pathways and in the tolerant pool we found no consistent patterns in the data and interpret this as natural variation due to transcriptome plasticity. In the sensitive pool we identified eight senescence related proteins (RC.3083, 4561, 7070, 7319, 7433, 10857, 19071, 40938), which were upregulated compared to the tolerant genotypes prior to drought stress.To confirm a few of the results from the RNA-Seq work four transcript tags were selected for qRT-PCR analysis. These included three transcript tags, which were differentially expressed (RC.5535 (Matrix metalloprotease), RC.44391 (unknown), and RC.21240 (9-cisepoxycarotenoid dioxygenase)) and one transcript tag which was expressed constitutively (RC.31500, (ATP synthase delta chain)). The results are shown in Figure 5. For two transcript tags (RC.5535 and RC.44391) the results from the qRT-PCR closely matched the results from the RNA-seq. In the case of RC.21240 the results show a similar trend towards up-regulation, but the fold change in expression is a magnitude higher in the qRT-PCR analysis. The expression level of RC.31500 did not change between treatments in the RNA-Seq experiment, while the qRT-PCR showed a down-regulation as a result of the drought treatment. SNP analysis identified 27922 bi-allelic SNP in 7178 transcript tags. This represents on average a SNP per 1.5 kb of transcriptome. The mean distance between SNPs in the 7178 transcript tags containing SNPs was 240 bp. The distribution of SNPs is shown in Figure 6. A total of 462 transcript tags had more than 10 SNPs within them and they accounted for 28% of the total number of SNPs identified. The 10 SNP-richest transcript tags totalled 17429 bp, and contained 519 SNPs, which is about one SNP per 34 bp. The high number of SNPs thus is not due to increased length of the transcript tags. We cannot exclude the possibility that some of them represent paralogous genes, which have been erroneously merged in the assembly process. Transcripts containing single, double or triple SNPs amounted to 2377, 1387 and 859 respectively, accounting for 27.7% of the total number of SNPs. Details of the putative SNPs are shown in Additional file 5. It should be noted that stringent criteria were used to identify these SNPs (see Methods). This means that SNPs were detected in transcript tags with high expression levels. This stringency means that the number of SNPs reported here is likely to be an underestimation of the total number of SNPs in the transcriptome. On the other hand the confidence level in the SNPs listed in Additional file 5 is high. The SNPs will still need to be validated, but their annotation indicate potential polymorphisms in drought and cold regulated transcript tags, as well as ABA responsive elements, and numerous other potential abiotic stress candidate genes (Additional file 5). The fact that the polymorphisms have been identified in genotypes from a full sib family makes genetic mapping of them easier. The transcript library assembled here also represents a rich source of material for potential transcript-anchored SSR markers. The MISA Perl script (http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/misa) was used to search for such sequences in the assembly. The results are summarised in Table 2. In total, 3127 SSRs with 2-6 repeat units were identified in 41.9 Mb of transcript sequence data, which amounts to one SSR per 13.42 kb. The number of SSR containing transcripts represented approximately 6% of the total. The largest proportion of SSRs (60%) consisted of tri-nucleotide repeats, with about half as many di-nucleotide repeats. The higher complexity nucleotide repeat SSRs were present in progressively smaller, but still significant, numbers (Table 3). Additional file 6 provides a list of the transcript tags containing SSR motifs, and Additional file 7 is a list of primer pairs designed for amplification of 2193 of the 2744 transcript tags containing SSRs. The metabolite analysis data summarised in Table 1C show that pinitol, proline and malate all increased in concentration following exposure to drought, while glucose, fructose and myo-inositol remained unchanged. Particularly pinitol concentration rose dramatically from a little over 1.5% of dry matter to over 10% during the course of drought exposure. While proline concentration also rose significantly, it was from a very low base (undetectable), and the overall concentration of this metabolite was much lower than pinitol. Malate concentration was also measured. It can be formed by combining CO 2 with phosphoenol pyruvate under conditions of limiting CO 2 availability, such as stomatal closure [42,43]. In C 4 plants malate is shuttled between mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, where it is decarboxylated, and recycled. Given that water stress leads to stomatal closure and decreased CO 2 availability, it seemed reasonable to look for changes in malate concentration in response to drought stress. While the concentration of malate increased (Table 1C), we did not observe convincing evidence for significant changes in expression of transcript tags encoding any of the key enzymes in CO 2 metabolism which would be necessary for a malate shuttle. This includes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, NADP-dependent malic enzyme, malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate-orthophosphate dikinase.This work has generated a large amount of sequence data with NGS technology in a nonmodel crop species. Although red clover previously had a number of resources available, such as an EST database [44] the work described here, has greatly increased the number of transcript sequences available. The high number of sequenced reads resulted in significant coverage of the transcriptome in leaves, allowing gene discovery, quantification of transcripts in four pools and the identification of putative SNPs and SSRs.In this experiment we used mature plants in a long term (60 days) experiment to simulate the effects of drought as realistically as possible in a greenhouse environment. Many drought experiments described in the literature involving transcriptomics have used seedlings and/or short term drought treatment which minimises variation due to environmental factors (e.g. [14,16]). While long term experiments are likely to introduce more variation between genotypes and replicate plants, it may also provide potentially novel information on how the plant responds to prolonged periods of water deficiency. A large number of transcript tags were differentially expressed in response to the drought stress in both the sensitive and tolerant plants (Table 2), but variation in expression levels (the average CV of RPKM values of pairs of tags from the sensitive and tolerant pools) was slightly larger before than after drought. We used a pooling strategy to reduce within and between pool differences. This approach has been widely used in RNA-Seq experiments to study for example cell wall composition in Alfalfa [28], berry development in Vitis viniferia [29], tissue specific expression in Eucalyptus [30] and floral sex determination in cucumber [31]. Barcoding of the four pools enabled multiplexing libraries on a single lane of the flow-cell. This reduced possible confounding effects arising from between-flow-cell differences [45]. It is also interesting to note that expression levels before drought were similar in both pools for 99% of the transcript tags. This suggests that the differences in gene expression which we observed in the two sets of genotypes at the end of the drought stress period are likely to represent a response to the drought stress rather than a difference between the two pools per se.In the qRT-PCR experiment three out of four of the transcript tags tested showed similar changes in expression as was observed in the RNA-Seq experiment. The reasons for the discrepancy between the two methods for RC.31500 are not clear to us. While our data represent a small sample, the results are however of a similar nature to those reported in [29]. They found that 12 out of 15 genes matched the expected RPKM values when quantified using qRT-PCR.The results reported here represent a platform for further examination of candidate genes with a potential role in plant response to drought stress. The total size of the transcriptome assembled was 42 Mb. This constitutes around 10% of the predicted genome size (440 Mb) [44]. Approximately 46 k transcript tags were generated in the transcriptome reconstruction. This is similar to those found in Medicago truncatula (44124 gene loci) [46], Soybean (46430 protein coding genes) [47] and Arabidopsis (37019 gene models) [48]. The number and total size of transcripts naturally vary for de novo assemblies of other species, such as in chickpea (55 k) transcripts (28 Mb) [27], Sonneratia alba, 30 k transcripts (18 Mb) [37] and Eucalyptus, 18 k transcripts (22 Mb) [30]. An 8 fold coverage filter on contigs was used in Eucalyptus, and a 2× minimum coverage in S. alba. This would explain the smaller numbers found in those transcriptomes. Using the same filters for RPKM a similar number of transcript tags would be realised in the present experiment. Due to the heterozygous and allogamous nature of red clover it is likely, that there is some redundancy in our transcriptome assembly. The transcriptome size may thus be over-estimated. On the other hand, erroneously merged assemblies would lead to underestimation of the transcript numbers. The SNP detection process showed that 462 transcript tags had greater than 10 SNPs (Additional file 5), which may suggest that the assembly process in those cases merged paralogues or that the reads could be miss-aligned. The allogamous nature of red clover and the pooling strategy used in the experiment makes it challenging to distinguish with certainty between allelic variants and paralogous genes. Therefore it is reasonable to assume there are a few inconsistencies in the assembled transcriptome. Nevertheless, the majority of the transcript tags do have high coverage and have high similarity to known transcripts.In this experiment the level of water stress as measured by soil water content was identical across bins at the time of sampling during the drought treatment (Additional file 1). Nevertheless, the sensitive and tolerant plants showed contrasting responses to the same level of soil moisture. The sensitive genotypes had a RWC of approximately 43% (Figure 1). In contrast, the tolerant genotypes had a RWC of 78%, which is only slightly below what is found in non-droughted plants (~85%) (Table 1C). This difference manifested itself by the observation that more than twice the number of transcript tags was differentially expressed in the sensitive pool compared to its control, than was the case in the tolerant pool compared to its control. It would be difficult to infer which differentially expressed transcript tags qualify as genes directly involved in response to the drought stress, and as candidates for targeting in genetic improvement programmes. Nevertheless, the results do provide a comprehensive overview of gene expression changes after drought stress. The number of differentially expressed transcript tags which were detected as a result of the drought treatment (Additional file 4) are similar to those reported in other species such as rice (3097 up, 2391 down) [14], wheat (3056 differential) [15] and Arabidopsis (2059 up and 2075 down) [16], albeit for shorter term drought stress.There was a large degree of overlap between GO terms of differentially expressed transcript tags between the sensitive and tolerant pools in their response to drought. The main difference is that a larger number of transcript tags from the sensitive pool with the same GO terms were either up-regulated or down-regulated in response to the drought, compared to the tolerant pool (Figure 4). The reason for this is not clear, but could simply be a consequence of the degree of severity of the stress experienced by the plants in the two pools. Downregulation of the photosynthetic apparatus also involves more genes in the sensitive pool than the tolerant, possibly also caused by the difference in sensitivity to the stress (Figure 4). The results contrast with those of [49], who found that more genes were up-regulated in tolerant barley genotypes than in sensitive. Comparisons with short term drought experiments are however, difficult to make. The gradual onset of drought conditions in the present experiment may elicit the differential expression of more genes to counteract the severity of the stress. Nevertheless, even the relatively modest reduction of ~10% in RWC observed in the tolerant pool, elicited a significant transcriptome response albeit after prolonged water limitation.Another finding is the high number of senescence-related transcript tags that were upregulated in the sensitive pool in non-droughted plants. Perhaps the sensitive plants have a predisposition for reduced growth and less stress tolerance [50]. Chaves et al. [19] suggested that plants not predisposed to early senescence may be of value for breeding purposes. Identification of molecular markers or other biomarkers associated with these differences could potentially assist in the removal of such sensitive plants from the gene-pool in a population-based breeding programme. In two of those transcripts (RC.7319 and RC.19071) SNPs were identified (Additional file 5).The transcript tags which were differentially expressed are similar to those from other drought studies where large transcriptome profiling was used [14][15][16]. They can be divided into three main groups: functional, regulatory and photosynthesis related genes. Functional drought response genes include protection enzymes (LEA, heat shock proteins, ROS scavenging), osmolyte biosynthesis (proline, trehalose, pinitol/ononitol), transporters (aquaporins, sugar transporters). Regulatory proteins include transcription factors (MYB, NAC, DREB and zinc finger), and those involved in post-transcriptional modification (splice factors, DEAD-box) and post-translational modification, (ubiquitin ligases, protein kinases) and epigenetic factors (histones) [15][16][17]. When plants are unable to use or dissipate absorbed light energy, the excess energy leads to production of ROS which can cause oxidative damage to the photosynthetic machinery [19]. Under prolonged drought stress, the photosynthetic machinery is down-regulated [51]. This is also the case in this study, where particularly transcript tags encoding Rubisco and polypeptides involved in PSII and PSI were down-regulated (Additional file 4). The rate of recovery of the plant after drought is tightly linked to photosynthetic recovery [18]. Therefore plants which maintain larger portions of their photosynthesising apparatus would have an advantage over those with a lower portion once the stress is alleviated.Three metabolites known to accumulate in plants in response to drought were measured in this work. Pinitol accumulation was most dramatic and statistically significant (Table 1C).We therefore tried to identify a candidate gene likely to represent the O-methyl transferase activity required for the key step in the biosynthesis of pinitol from myo-inositol [52]. The greatest homology with the orthologue in the ice-plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) was RC.4122, but when we did a BLAST search with that as the query, most of the best hits were to genes annotated as caffeic acid-O-methyl transferase. Furthermore, expression of RC.4122 did not increase in response to drought. One explanation could be that the accumulation of pinitol took place early in the drought stress period, and expression of the gene had declined by the end of the drought period. That seems unlikely, since transcript tags annotated as two of the key enzymes in proline biosynthesis were over-expressed in both the sensitive and the tolerant pool in response to drought (e.g. RC.34920: pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P ≤ 7.99 × 10 -5 ), and RC.35692: ∆ 1 -pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P < 10 -200 ) (Additional file 4). However, the similarity between most O-methyl transferases makes accurate annotation more challenging. It is surprising to us though, that this gene does not appear to have been identified in any legume despite the high concentration of pinitol and other polyols in this family [53][54][55].This work makes available the first transcriptome library of red clover using next generation sequencing technology. The library was constructed using two pairs of pools of ten genotypes from an F 1 mapping family. RNA from the two pairs of pools (drought sensitive and drought tolerant, as determined by phenotypic analysis) was extracted before and at the end of a 60 day period of drought. The RNA-Seq analysis provided a total of 45181 transcripts longer than 200 bp. A large number of transcript tags involved in the photosynthetic apparatus were down-regulated in both the sensitive and tolerant pools, but particularly in the former. A great many transcription factors, genes involved in protein modification and degradation were upregulated in both pools after drought, but again, particularly in the sensitive pool. As expected, a number of genes involved in ABA biosynthesis and abiotic stress signal transduction were also up-regulated. The general trend was that a larger number of genes were up-regulated in the sensitive pool than in the tolerant. Despite the highly significant increase in the concentration of the compatible solute pinitol, we were unable to definitively identify the gene encoding the O-methyl transferase responsible for the key step in pinitol biosynthesis from myo-inositol. We recognise the limitations of the quantitative aspects of this work, and that further validation of the assembly is needed, but the results presented here provide a valuable resource for future work in terms of SNP identification, and annotation of genome sequence assembly currently in progress.The mapping family used throughout consisted of progeny from a F 1 pseudo-testcross derived from a single genotype from each of two varieties, Milvus and Britta. The plant material was generated initially using a clonal cutting method from the original plant material involving excision of stem regions with nodes followed by auxin treatment and rooting in soil. Subsequent clones were generated by clonal splitting [56]. We made use of 64 genotypes from the mapping family. Three blocks were used in the experimental design, where each block constituted one clone of each of the 64 genotypes. Each block consisted of two drought bins in a randomised block design, i.e. 32 plants per bin and 64 plants per block. The 'drought bins' measured 80 cm by 110 cm, with a depth of 80 cm. The bins were filled with gravel up to 30 cm: the remaining 50 cm was filled with John Innes Number 3 compost. Prior to the start of the experiment the bins were watered to field capacity.Plant material was grown to mature size in 15 cm pots before transfer to drought bins on 06/03/2010. Plants were then allowed to adjust 2 days to the new environment before cutting back to approximately 6 cm height above soil level. Then the bins were watered daily to maintain field capacity (~55% soil moisture content) until the plants reached a mature size on 15/04/2010, at which time they were sampled for multiple phenotypic traits as described below. This was designated as DW0. From then onwards all watering ceased. Plants were cut again on 05/05/2010, and dry weight was recorded. This was designated as DW1. The subsequent sampling time for individual bins (designated DW2) was done when soil moisture content was down to 14% (see next section for details). This happened between 13-18/06/2010. All phenotypic traits were sampled at this point. Subsequently, the bins were fully hydrated and continually watered until the last cutting on 16/07/2010. This was designated DW3. Growth rate was quantified as dry weight divided by the number of days of growth since the previous cut.Two access tubes for Delta-T PR1 Profile probes were inserted into each drought bin. They were placed equidistant from the edge and 30 cm apart. The soil moisture content was measured using Delta-T PR1 Profile probe and Delta-T HH2 moisture meter at soil depths of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm. The mean of the 4 measurements was used to indicate the water content of the soil in the bin. In addition, five plants per bin were sampled randomly at 8:30 am for measurement of relative water content (RWC). A single leaf sample was excised from each plant and placed in a sealable zip-lock bag on ice before quantifying RWC using the method described by Smart and Bingham [57]. The soil moisture content and RWC were used as indicators of the drought status of the bins and plants, respectively. The final sampling was done when the soil moisture average fell below 14% and/or the RWC was below 60%.Samples for measurement of osmotic potential (OP) were collected between 15:00 and 16:00, by excising mature leaf material and storing at -20°C. OP was then quantified using a Wescor vapour pressure osmometer 5520 (Wescor Inc., USA) as described by the manufacturer.Samples for RNA extraction were collected between 13:00 and 15:00. The youngest fully open trifoliate leaf was used for this. The excised material was stored in 2 ml safe-lock Eppendorf tubes and then flash frozen in liquid N, before storing at -80°C. The leaf sample was ground to a fine powder using a Retsch MM300 mixer mill. RNA was then extracted using the Trizol (Invitrogen, USA) method as described by the manufacturer, with an additional chloroform extraction step added. Total RNA was solubilised in 50 µl DEPCtreated H 2 O. A 2 µl aliquot was taken and diluted 1:5 in DEPC treated water and used for RNA quantification. Quantification was done using BioRad Experion Automated Electrophoresis System with RNA StdSens chips (Bio-RAD Laboratories Inc., USA), as described by the manufacturer using 3 µl of the diluted RNA extract. The data were analysed using Experion™ Software System operation and data analysis tools, version 3.2.243.0 copyright © 2010 Bio-Rad laboratories. Four pooled samples were generated (see Results section), two consisting of 9-10 drought sensitive genotypes sampled before and at the end of the drought treatment, and two consisting of 9-10 drought tolerant genotypes exposed to the same treatments. For each pool, 2 µg of total RNA from each sample was included. Then 500 µl of 100% ethanol was added to each pool, and kept at -20°C during transport.The four RNA pools were sent to Eurofins Genetic Services (Eurofins, Germany), for sequencing. This included preparation of 4 barcoded libraries, which were multiplexed on a single flow-cell of an Illumina HiSeq2000 (Illumina, USA). The sequencing was done as paired-end reads, 2x100 bp in length. The data was quality checked at Eurofins and provided as four libraries in FASTq format. Sequence quality controls were applied by Eurofins and the read libraries were checked using fastqc (http://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/). After assembly the contigs were checked for adaptor sequences and none were found.For the initial construction of the reference transcriptome Velvet [58] was used. Assemblies were created using k-mer sizes of 31, 41, 51 and 61. The 61-k-mer length assembly was chosen for further use because it gave the largest N50, the largest average scaffold size, the largest size of any single scaffold, and the smallest number of scaffolds. This generated 93.4 k contigs. To increase the length of contigs and reduce the number of redundant contigs the Velvet assemblies were combined with existing sequences from the databases from the publically available Trifolium pratense EST library, downloaded from http://www.plantgdb.org/download/download.php?dir=/Sequence/ESTcontig. The red clover ESTs were combined with the Velvet assemblies by using a second de novo assembly on CLCbio Genomics Workbench version 4.0.0 (31 k-mer). This created 47229 contigs of at least 200 bases in length. In order to retain polymorphism data, conflicting bases found during the assembly process were called 'ambiguously', rather than using the 'vote' option. Next, bacterial contigs were removed, by compiling over 4000 bacterial genomes from the NCBI RefSeq database. Then the transcriptome contigs were mapped against the bacterial genomes and un-mapped (non-bacterial) contigs were retained. This led to the removal of 634 contigs. However, to remove the ambiguity for submission to NCBI the reads were mapped back to the contigs to give a 'vote' scoring.Transcript tag expression was determined using the method described by [36] and executed in CLC. For identification of differentially expressed transcript tags statistical analysis described by [59] was used. A false discovery rate (FDR) of 0.05 was used as the threshold for significance.BLASTX was used with minimum E-value 1e-15 for annotation of transcript tags. Sequentially, contigs were searched using BLASTX against the following protein databases Medicago truncatula (v3.5, [46]), Arabidopsis thaliana (TAIR10, [48]) and the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt, [60,61]). From each BLAST output the best match was used to annotate the transcript tags. After each BLAST search annotation tags with no matches and ones with 'hypothetical', 'predicted' or 'unknown' annotations were extracted for next sequential BLAST search (order: Medicago -Arabidopsis -UniProt). For GO assignment corresponding GO terms were downloaded from relevant databases. A small number of tags annotated as fungal were removed by manual curation.TopGO from Bioconductor in R (http://www.r-project.org/) was used to identify enriched GO terms. This was done for all differentially expressed genes, split between over-and underexpressed transcript tags identified by CLC, for each pairwise comparison. The Fishers test implemented in TopGO was used to identify enriched GO terms relative to its expectation. GO terms with a P-value < 0.01 were selected. Both common and unique GO terms were identified by intersection of the data, including those unique to individual pools. Cytoscape [62] was used to visualise the selected GO terms. The GO map for A. thaliana was downloaded and installed in Cytoscape, the enriched GO terms were selected and a subnetwork was created for visualisation of the GO network.Aliquots of the RNA extracts were DNAse treated with the Ambion DNA-Free™ kit (Ambion, USA), according to the manufacturer instructions. The cDNA synthesis was done using Invitrogen™ Superscript™ II reverse transcriptase (RT) (Invitrogen, USA) as described by the manufacturer using an Oligo(dT) 25 Primer with 50 ng total RNA. Samples were then treated with RNaseH (Promega, USA) and stored at -20°C. All qRT-PCR work was done using an Applied Biosystems (USA) 7500 Real time PCR system. The 7500 system sequence detection software version 1.2.3 was used for analysis including auto Ct/CP (cross threshold/crossing point), mean CP and outlier removal at 95% confidence). All samples were run in triplicate using the following PCR concentrations in a volume of 10 µl: 5 µl SYBR Green master mix (Applied Biosystems, USA), 900nM forward and reverse primers (Biolegio, Netherlands), and 1 µl 10× diluted cDNA. All primers were designed using the Roche Universal ProbeLibrary Assay Design Center at https://www.roche-appliedscience.com/sis/rtpcr/upl/index.jsp?id=UP030000. The following amplification program was used: 95°C for 10 min, 40 cycles at 92°C for 15 s, annealing temperature for 30s, 72°C for 45 s followed by a final elongation at 72°C for 10 min. The specific annealing temperatures and nucleotide sequence of the primers are shown in Additional file 8. The relative expression software tool (REST-384) was used to calculate the relative fold change in gene expression (http://www.gene-quantification.info/) [63] using the mathematical model described by Pfaffl [64]. Primer efficiencies were measured using a serial dilution of stock cDNA at 1:1, 1:10 and 1:100. Every plate included three negative controls for detection of contamination. RC.44146 was used as the reference gene. This was the Actin gene, which was found not to be differentially expressed in the RNA-seq data analysis. For comparison between RNA-seq and qRT-PCR data, the fold change in expression of drought stressed samples was calculated relative to control samples for both RNA-seq and qRT-PCR data.The SNP detection tool in CLC was used to identify SNPs. All reads were included in this process. The minimum count for the variant allele was 200 and window length was 17 bp. For identification of SNPs inherited from one heterozygous parent and one homozygous parent, the minimum variant frequency was set to 20% to allow variation from the expected haplotype frequency of 25/75%.The MISA (Microsatellite) Perl script (http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/misa) was used for identification of SSRs. The settings for minimum number of repeats were as follows: Dinucleotide 8; Tri-nucleotide 6; and Tetra, Penta and Hexa-nucleotide repeats 5. For compound SSRs the maximum distance between two SSR runs was 50 bp. The BatchPrimer3 programme [65] was used to design primers pairs for amplification of the SSR motifs. The default settings were used except for the annealing temperature, which was set for an optimum of 60°C.Whole young trifoliate leaf samples were collected for metabolite quantification between 11:00 and 13:30. They were stored on ice in re-sealable plastic bags, until an amount of 20-60 mg was weighed. This was stored in 2 ml safe-lock microfuge tubes (Eppendorf, Germany) before they were flash frozen in liquid N 2 and then stored at -20°C. Before extraction a metal ball bearing was added to each tube. During this process the samples were kept frozen by brief exposures to liquid N 2 . This was also the case when the samples were homogenized to a fine powder in a Retsch-mill MM300, mixer mill (Retch, Germany) for 2 min (20 impacts/s). Afterwards 300 µl of 100% ethanol was added and mixed for a further 15 minutes (20 impacts/s). Next, 200 µl of chloroform (CHCl 3 ) was added and mixing continued for 5 minute (20 impacts/s). Then, 400 µl H 2 O was added and the samples were mixed by vortexing, before centrifugation for 5 min at 14 k rpm to separate the aqueous ethanol phase from the chloroform phase. The total volume of the aquous ethanol phase was approximately 525 µl. Two 75 µl-aliquots were transferred to new microfuge tubes (1.5 ml). The aliquots were dried using a speed vac concentrator for four hours (without heating), with the lids open under vacuum. All samples were then stored at 4°C.Prior to derivatization of the samples two internal standards were added: castanospermine (Enzo life sciences, USA) (20 mg) and cyclo-leucine (Sigma-Aldrich, UK) (20 mg). The samples were dried down completely before derivatizing. Derivatization of the samples was achieved using a 2-step process. First, 30 µl of freshly prepared MOX solution (Omethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride in pyridine, Sigma-Aldrich, UK) was added to the dried samples, and kept at room temperature for 2 hours to allow solubilisation. The samples were then transferred to crimp sealed 0.3 ml GC vials (Chromacol/Fisher, UK), and the vials were heated for 15 minutes at 90°C to convert ketone groups to the oxime derivative. The vials were then de-capped and 20 µl BSTFA (N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide) (Sigma-Aldrich, UK) was added. The vials were recapped and heated for a further 15 minutes at 90°C to convert remaining polar groups to their trimethylsilyl derivatives. This method is similar to those described by Parveen et al [66].Analysis was carried out using an Agilent GC-MS system (Agilent Technologies UK Ltd.) comprising a 5973 network Mass Selective detector, an 6890 Series GC and a 7683 series autosampler. The GC was fitted with a Varian FactorFour™ VF-5 ms capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 µm film thickness). The injection volume was set to 1 µl with a 1:50 split ratio. The oven was set at an initial temperature of 80°C and increased to 280°C at a rate of 10°C per minute. The inlet temperature was set to 280°C and the transfer line to 320°C. The mass spectrometer was set to scan between 50 and 600 m/z. For quantification of metabolites standard curves were prepared using standards (Sigma-Aldrich, UK with the exception of pinitol which was purchased from ACROS Organics, Belgium). Quantification was achieved using Enhanced Data Analysis software (ChemStation 1701 CA version 00.00, Agilent Technologies UK Ltd.). Additional file 9 shows the metabolites that were quantified and relevant information for quantification. The quantification of glucose, fructose, myoinositol and pinitol in non-droughted samples required standard curves ranging from 1-50 µg. In droughted samples the higher concentrations of pinitol required the range to be increased to 500 µg. An additional standard curve was set up for pinitol concentrations above 200 µg since the curve was non-linear in the high range.The plant growth data were analysed using a repeated measures ANOVA approach with the control data (DW0) as a co-variate. The data were log 10 transformed. Because there were only two timepoints for the RWC, OP and metabolite data, we used a split-plot in time ANOVA design for the analysis of those data. The data for glucose, fructose, myo-inositol, malate and pinitol were log 10 transformed. The analysis was performed using Genstat, 15 th (VSN International Ltd (http://www.vsni.co.uk)).","tokenCount":"7699"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7bac32d83b0503f0404bf8b68a88d6db","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://awm-solutions.iwmi.org/Data/Sites/3/Documents/PDF/publication-outputs/learning-and-discussion-briefs/uneven-relationships-in-small-reservoir-projects-in-subsaharan-africa.pdf","id":"2028411307"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"63a11500-7bac-4024-8b4e-3f539fde148a","pagecount":"2","content":"Those who invest in small reservoir projects or initiatives and wish to challenge or alter what they see as 'undesirable practices' need to start by recognizing their underlying complexity.What some people call 'corrupt' practices are most of the time and in many places standard practices that make it possible for people to complete projects, however far they may fall short of the desired speci cations. Rehabilitation and construction of small reservoirs 1 in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is characterized by such 'anomalous' practices and structural impediments related to tendering, supervision and administration of contracts. Donors, line ministries, local authorities, contractors and communities all face di culties that result in spiraling costs, delays in implementation, poor construction and the failure of small reservoirs to perform as planned.Wherever anomalous practices and structural impediments are found, the actors involved generally rely on each other as they operate within the same political economy. A broad understanding of the 'dynamics of irregular transactions' is timely, given the renewed interest in small reservoirs as an agricultural water management intervention from the international community and national governments.Emergency situations, such as the destruction of scores of dams in the north of Ghana during the 2007 rainy season, can lead to rapid assessments and appraisals that become the basis for rehabilitation programs. Line ministries seldom have the personnel, the data or the funds needed to carry out all but the most cursory assessments. Pressure from donors eager to disburse funds only adds to the sense of urgency that characterizes emergency situations. In these circumstances, contractors often cite the need to raise 'variation orders' as unexpected work is frequently required. In many cases, these may be warranted, but the situation breeds opportunities for collusion between o cials and contractors in the eld leading to sometimes excessive cost overruns.Political patronage is part of the social fabric, even in developed countries. The awarding of contracts is largely perceived and accepted as a political action rather than a bureaucratic one. Contracts can easily be awarded to 'preferred' contractors on any number of outwardly justi able grounds. Often, but not necessarily always, unquali ed or unsuitable contractors are selected.A case study in one West African country revealed that o ering bribes in return for government contracts occurred in up to 40% of all contracts, with the average value of a bribe being in the range of 8% of the transaction. However, the di erence between a gift and a token of appreciation or a bribe may be construed di erently in di erent cultural contexts. In many SSA countries, 'gifting' is considered the norm.A common legacy of numerous World Bank and 'big money' donor programs is policy and procedure statements on procurement processes and public fund management that look good on paper. It is not uncommon for such procedures to stipulate that contractors must submit a capacity certi cate, bid security, tax security, proof of ownership or access to adequate machinery, and describe their workload These ndings and recommendations are preliminary and are reproduced here for the purposes of discussion. The AgWater Solutions Project welcomes all comments and suggestions. These should be directed to AWMSolutions@cgiar.org, please write \"Small Reservoirs\" in the subject line.and past records to qualify. Few government and donor agencies have the resources needed to enforce full compliance. Some would argue that it is the degree of willingness that determines the level of resources, but enforcing rules is made doubly di cult in a system where most of the actors know and interact with each other in multiple ways. Most civil engineers have, for example, been trained in the same university departments and often wear multiple hats (contractor, consultant, public servant). It is not uncommon to nd contractors hiring former or current government employees as advisors, designers or quantity surveyors to increase their chances of winning a contract or to circumvent policies and procedures.Delays in payments are a major threat to the cost and sustainability of rehabilitation and construction works, particularly when small contractors are involved and high in ation is the norm. Unrealistic time demands, procedural complexity and lack of transparency are frequent complaints on the part of contractors who feel they have no choice but to o er 'speed money' to facilitate processes. This adds to the transaction costs of contractors, which o ers incentives to recoup these costs by compromising the quality of work.Rehabilitation and construction work on small reservoirs requires signi cant supervision and monitoring capacity on the part of responsible government agencies or, in some cases, donor agencies acting as project managers. A typical set up is to mandate site supervisors in local o ces to conduct on-site monitoring and supervision visits. In reality, few of these o ces are properly equipped or sta ed to carry out their supervisory roles. Supervisors must, as a necessity, rely on contractors to conduct their work. This is an invitation to 'leniency', but seen as 'reciprocity' not lack of integrity. Low salaries, lack of experience and high sta turnover pose additional challenges to monitoring and supervision. Conscientious supervisors can easily nd themselves transferred at the behest of well-connected contractors.It is not unknown for central government authorities to commission investigations or boards of enquiry into irregular practices. The typical response is to claim that such investigations are politically motivated. Civil servants consider them \"as routine and generally grounded in fraud allegations from jealous contractors who feel they have been side-lined by civil servants on political grounds when the other party was in power.\" Should that claim not stick, the scope of the investigation can be questioned or the integrity of the investigators challenged. Largely for these reasons, studies have shown that top-down anti-corruption measures tend to be largely ine ective and do little more than create a new layer of o cials without modifying the incentive structure.'Breaches of integrity' are a reality of small reservoir projects in many countries. These breaches are not an essential characteristic of a particular government or its development partners, but are sustained through their interdependency with broader social and cultural dynamics, structural challenges to the workings of the state and the broader political economy of development. Those who invest in small reservoir projects or initiatives and wish to challenge or alter anomalous practices need to start by recognizing their underlying complexity.A good starting point is to map the 'exchange relationships' that prevail in a particular situation to gain some understanding of the incentives of the various actors, the potential con icts of interests and the hot spots that are most vulnerable to capture. This may help to identify possible ways of enhancing the planning and implementation process of small reservoirs.Creating accountability can make a di erence","tokenCount":"1109"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"76e1faa85bacc379a4388c350bad2916","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/39fcd005-9ab2-42b0-9fbf-0fae0c165fd7/retrieve","id":"1501164786"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"119f17d3-75e3-4658-bd67-12b6eb75bfd4","pagecount":"2","content":"Adult HIV prevalence rates (percentage of adults (aged 15 -49) who are infected with HIV) Adult HIV incidence (percentage of uninfected adults (aged 15 -49) who become infected in each year) rural urban Regional 0.9 10.5 0.37 National 0.9 7.7 0.28 Source: Ministry of Health/HAPCO (2007) Single Point HIV Prevalence Estimate HIV prevalence data from ante-natal clinics in or close to PLW (Ministry of Health (2004) AIDS inRich and middle wealth households: seek medical treatment during sickness, employ or share labour, raise money by selling animals and grain. After some time, bereaved spouse will remarry. Rich households may hire out animals, exchange oxen ploughing for human labour. Some middle wealth households may lease out their land. Poor households: seek medication, work as labourers and food for work programmes to raise cash. Widow unlikely to remarry; widower may remarry but children likely to work as animal herders. Share crop their land (mostly with 50% share). Debt repayment: family members are responsible for repayment of loans from Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution in case of death of the borrower. Female-headed households: around 35% of total households. ","tokenCount":"184"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5637312126.json b/data/part_5/5637312126.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d62de1a2aa3b19b6347994e15d13a7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H043759.pdf","id":"-1675909692"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f517b8b5-9906-407b-ba75-7c7bfec433a3","pagecount":"17","content":"Agricultural income occupies significant share of rural households' income. Only ample and reliable supplies of surface irrigation water can guarantee its improvement. As poverty is inversely correlated with improvement in incomes, provided other factors remain the same, the policy makers can use irrigation as a tool in poverty reduction programs. The inequity in surface water distribution not only affects the rural households across different irrigations but also influences the distribution of income and poverty situation in different reaches of each irrigation system. Since long, it is asserted that households in the tail reach areas have relatively poor access to irrigation water as compared to those situated in the head and middle reach areas. It is evident that more distance from irrigation source brings more households in the poverty trap are located at the tail reach area. Here, the intensity of poverty would be higher than in the head and middle reach areas. This paper tests this hypothesis with results showing that poverty increases in the tail reach areas as compared to head and middle reach areas. This calls for the need to address current hurdles exercising equity and reliability in irrigation supplies in order to provide this vital input for increasing agricultural productivity of the tail end farm households.Agriculture sector is a dominant sector of Pakistan, which contributes 25 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) by employing around 44 percent of the country's labor force. Around 67 percent of Pakistan's population resides in rural areas (GoP 2001). Uplifting the living standards of the rural area means improvement for majority of the country's population.Agriculture sector is essentially the producer of food and fiber requirement of the population. With constant population increase, this sector is facing stress regarding to optimally use of available resources for higher production. Yet, this objective can only be achieved through efficient use of land and water resources. With very limited options of expanding the agricultural land, the burden is shifted on efficient use of available irrigation water to increase productivity through most efficient use of every drop of available irrigation water for uplifting the welfare of the rural population.Surface water plays vital role in increasing the productivity of farmers while the deficiency is met through extraction of groundwater when and where it is needed to augment the irrigation water supplies. However, groundwater quality does not allow the farmer to explore the full benefits of ample and reliable water supply by relatively lower productivity gain through its use as compared to the surface water supplies. It is already established that surface water supply is experiencing inequities and unreliability which hinders the farmers to exploit its benefits in a fully efficient manner. However, in the face of all these problems, the surface water supplies play a significant role in achieving higher productivity standards.As higher productivity is synonyms to higher income and increasing capability of the farm households to spend more on fulfilling the basic necessities of the family members, irrigation water plays crucial role in ascertaining the welfare level of the households. It has been experienced that incidence of poverty is higher in rural areas of Pakistan (Arif et al. 2001). The inequity in surface water supplies has increased the scarcity of irrigation water across different irrigation systems as well as at different reaches within each system. This resulted in variation in agricultural productivity, income, and poverty incidence.Poverty has diverse dimensions. In depth, exploration of these dimensions is always useful in understanding the phenomenon of poverty and differentiating between myths and realities attached with it. Incidence of poverty is directly dependent on income/expenditure of the households, which are not constant over all the months in a year. Moreover, good or poor harvest in different years is due to various agro-climatic and management factors. Income/expenditure dimension fluctuates over times and so does the incidence of poverty. It is also empirically established that incidence of poverty varies across different areas. Keeping in view of these facts, incidence of poverty and its relationship with variation in access to surface water supplies is explored in this paper for better comprehension of the phenomenon, which would lead to suggestions/policy implications for poverty reduction.The paper is divided into six parts. General results are discussed in part III of the paper while in part IV, concentration is made on assessing the determinants of poverty. Part V comprises the conclusions and implications made on the basis of the current study.The study is being conducted in sample areas of the Upper Chaj Doab (comprising Gujrat and Mandi Bahauddin districts) irrigated by Upper Jehlum Canal (UJC), Lower Chaj Doab (comprising Sargodha district) irrigated by the Lower Jehlum Canal (LJC), Rechna Doab (comprising Jhang and Toba Tek Singh districts) being irrigated by the Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) East and tail part of the Hakra irrigation system (comprising Bahawalnagar district) irrigated by the Hakra canal system (Figure 1). The total geographic area of the Chaj Doab, Rechna Doab and Hakra area is reported to be 1.2 million hectares, 2.98 million hectares and 20,000 hectares, respectively. The salient features of irrigation system in the study area are shown in Table 1.A stratified random sampling design was used to select the sample households in the study areas. The irrigated areas were divided into the following 5 irrigation systems:1. UJC System 2. Gujrat System 3. LJC System 4. LCC System 5. Hakra System  These systems were irrigated through Upper Jehlum Canal (UJC), Gujrat System, Lower Jehlum Canal (LJC), Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) East and Hakra 4-R, respectively. Since there were variations in irrigated systems in terms of cropping patterns and nature of perennial and non-perennial irrigation water supplies, therefore at the second stage, distributaries were selected on the basis of the agro-ecological characteristics based on cropping patterns, nature of water supplies (perennial/nonperennial) and location of the watercourses across head, middle and tail of the distributary. The selected areas of distributaries were homogenous in terms of these characteristics. The Upper Jehlum Canal (UJC) sub-system was divided into six distributaries, with two distributaries (9-R and 10-R) having rice-wheat as dominant cropping pattern with perennial irrigation supplies, and 13-R and 14-R having ricewheat pattern with non-perennial supplies. Sugarcane, rice and wheat were main crops grown in command areas of Kakowal and Phalia distributaries. Irrigation supplies in these distributaries were perennial in nature. Lalian, Khadir and Khikhi distributaries had mixed-wheat cropping pattern and received perennial irrigation supplies. The Hakra 4R distributary had cotton-wheat cropping pattern and received perennial irrigation system. While each distributary was fairly homogenous within its boundaries in terms of above characteristics, however, there could be intra-distributary variations especially in terms of access to water (head, middle and tail) due to differences in availability of water resulting from location differences. These intra-distributary variations were captured through sampling across head, middle and tail within a distributary.Households from each of the selected watercourses were selected through systematic random sampling from a complete sampling frame for each watercourse (i.e. list of all households on the watercourse). Landless households were drawn from the voters' list through systematic random sampling based on their proportion in total number of households on each selected watercourse. Equal allocation method was adopted for selecting distributaries and watercourses across head, middle and tail reaches of the selected distributaries and the sample households across each of the selected watercourses. A well-represented sample of 1224 households was selected for collecting information from the field through a well-designed pre-tested questionnaire. In case of first six distributaries in Gujrat and Mandi Bahauddin districts altogether, 540 households were selected along 36 watercourses located on the head, middle and tail areas. In each of the first six distributaries in irrigated areas, about 90 households were selected from every selected distributary in a way that equal number of 30 households from head, middle and tail reaches of the distributary was attained. In the case of last four distributaries (i.e. Lalian, Khadir, Khikhi and Hakra 4-R), about 171 households were selected from each distributary in such a way that equal number of households was interviewed from three watercourses of the head, middle and tail reaches of distributaries.Different measures of poverty are: 1) specification of an indicator of well being such as income or expenditure 2) specification of an income level or threshold below which a person or household is considered poor -the poverty line; and 3) construction of poverty measures. Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of measures is the most commonly used measure of poverty, which captures three aspects of poverty: incidence, depth/intensity and severity of poverty. These measures are more commonly known as the Head Count Index, the Poverty Gap Index, and the Squared Poverty Gap Index.1. Head Count Index is defined as the share or proportion of the population which is poor, or whose income is below the specified poverty line. This is a measure of incidence of poverty. Suppose in a population of size n, there are q number of poor people whose income y is less than the poverty line z, then head count index can be defined as: Head Count Index HC = q/n 2. Poverty Gap Index is defined as the mean distance separating the population from the poverty line. This can be interpreted as a measure of depth of poverty. Non-poor are given a distance of zero. This measure can be mathematically represented as follows:Poverty Gapwhere z is the poverty line, y i is the income of the individual i or household i, and the sum is taken only on those individuals who are considered poor (below poverty line).The poverty gap can also be defined as the product of the income gap and the Head Count Index ratio, represented as follows: 3. Squared Poverty Gap Index is a measure of the severity of poverty. The poverty gap takes into account the distance separating the poor from the poverty line, while the squared poverty gap [PG] 2 takes into account the square of the distance. The squared poverty gap index gives more weight to the poor by taking into account the inequality among the poor-greater weights are given to larger gaps and the weights are simply the poverty gaps. It is represented as follows:Squared Poverty Gap ( )Both Poverty Gap Index and the Squared Poverty Gap Index put more emphasis on those who are further away from the poverty line. The general formula for all three measures is given below, which depends on parameter α, which takes a value of zero for the Head Count Index, one for the Poverty Gap Index and two for the Squared Poverty Gap Index.The above measures can be analyzed for various socio-economic groups and for different geographic locations (within irrigation systems).For the poverty analysis, a rural poverty line of Rs. 676.31 per capita was used, which was established by Qureshi and Arif (1999) by using HIES survey data in 1998-99 prices on basic need basis. This was inflated to the prices of 2001, which resulted as inflated poverty line of Rs.730.78 per person. It should be noted that this poverty line in terms of money is almost equal to official poverty line as announced by the Government of Pakistan. Additionally for sensitivity analysis, another poverty line was used as Rs. 530.78 per person.Monetary measures of poverty were estimated for the study area, which constitute ten distributaries spread over five different districts of Punjab, representing different physical, hydrological, agricultural, socio-economical, and institutional characteristics. The poverty head count, poverty gap, and squared poverty gap estimates were employed in order to fully analyze the current status, depth, and severity of the poverty across different reaches of the individual distributaries as well as for the study area as a whole. The analyses were aimed at understanding the extent and distribution of poverty due to variation in irrigation water supplies. For this purpose, two different poverty lines were used to estimate poverty, i.e. Rs. 730 per capita per month (PL-I) and Rs. 530 per capita per month (PL-II). Poverty estimates were computed on the basis of household expenditure instead of income due to generally accepted opinion that expenditure is a better reflector of the household's financial and economic position than income. The household expenditure approach is also used to circumvent under-reporting problem of income, which raises more concerns than exaggeration on the part of expenditures.It is important to analyze the various dimensions of poverty across different irrigation systems and reaches in order to develop in depth understanding of why poverty is high in command areas and reaches of some distributaries and less in others. Since the income of rural farm households is directly dependent on efficiency and reliability with which surface water is supplied by the irrigation systems, poverty is expected to vary across different reaches (head, middle, and tail reaches) of individual irrigation systems.Table 2 indicates that by using poverty line-I, overall comparison of poverty incidence at different reaches of the distributaries revealed that lowest number of poor households resided in the middle reach of the distributaries while highest head count poverty estimates were computed for head reach of the distributary. The overall incidence of poverty was estimated as 55, 58.9, and 62.9 percent for middle, tail, and head reach areas, respectively. Higher incidence of poverty in the head reach was due to high dependency ratio. At the head reach, highest poverty incidence is shown at Khikhi and Khadir distributaries where 81 and 77 percent of the household were poor, respectively. Across the head reach, the lowest poverty incidence was 37 percent, which was estimated for Kakowal distributary. In the middle reach areas, the highest incidence of poverty was 70.2 percent, again for Khadir distributary, while lowest was 37 percent, computed for 14-R Maggowal distributary. In the tail reach, highest head count poverty estimate was 86 percent in case of Khadir distributary while lowest was 27 percent for 10-R Dhup Sari distributary. By using PL-II, it was found that overall incidence of poverty was estimated to be 39.6 percent for the households at the middle reach areas while it was computed 45 percent for both head and tail reach areas. In the head reach, highest poverty incidence was estimated to be 68 percent for Khadir distributary while lowest (16.7 percent) was found in 13-R Saroki distributary. In the middle reach, lowest incidence of poverty was computed to be 20.7 percent for 9-R Khoja distributary while highest was 58 percent in case of Khadir distributary. Similarly, lower head count estimate was calculated for 10-R Dhup Sari distributary (10 percent) while a higher estimate was observed in the tail reach areas of Khadir distributary as 80 percent.The comparison of estimates based on PL-I and PL-II shows that at head reach, the highest decline in head count poverty was observed 26.7 percent in case of 14-R Maggowal distributary while lowest reduction of 8.8 percent was estimated for Hakra 4-R distributary, indicating that more households at 14-R Maggowal distributary close to the poverty line would be able to shift above the poverty line if a productive push is provided to them. In the middle reach areas, the comparison of PL-I and PL-II estimates showed the probability of the highest decline in poverty to be 32 percent in case of 13-R Saroki distributary while lowest was computed to be 5.3 percent for Lalian distributary.Similarly, in the tail reach areas by comparing the estimates computed through PL-I and PL-II showed that the highest decline of poverty is possible (26.7 percent) for the command area of 14-R Maggowal distributary while lowest estimated (5.5 percent) was found for Khadir distributary. Overall comparison of incidence of poverty across head, middle and tail reach areas is shown in Figure 2 and spatial distribution of head count poverty across distributaries is revealed in Figure 3 and Figure 4 by using poverty line I and poverty line II, respectively.Table 3 compares the poverty gap across different reaches of the distributaries by employing poverty line-I. It shows that depth of poverty was higher in tail reach areas (44.1 percent) while the lowest was prevailing in the middle reach areas (38.9 percent). However, there was significant variation among different distributaries at head, middle and tail reach from their respective overall estimates as a whole. At head reach, the highest poverty gap was estimated to be 51.2 percent for Hakra 4-R distributary while the lowest was computed to be 26.5 percent for 13-R Saroki distributary. Head Middle T ail while the lowest was estimated to be 25.7 percent for the tail reach at 9-R Khoja distributary.Estimates of squared poverty gap indicated that the severity of poverty was lowest at middle reach and highest at the tail reach areas. At head reach, the highest squared poverty gap estimate was computed to be 29.4 percent for households at Hakra 4-R distributary, which was 8 percent higher than the average squared poverty gap for overall head reach households. On the other hand, the lowest estimate was reckoned to be 10.2 percent for 14-R Maggowal distributary and it was 11.2 percent lower than the overall estimate for households at head reach area. At the middle reach area, squared poverty gap was estimated 19 percent for all the households in study area. The highest severity of poverty appeared at Hakra 4-R distributary with a squared poverty gap estimate of 25.5 percent, which is around 6.5 percent higher than the overall estimate for all middle reach households. In the tail reach area, severity of poverty was estimated to be 23.9 percent for the households in that area. The highest and lowest estimates of squared poverty gap were estimated to be 33.4 percent and 10.8 percent for Kakowal distributary and Phalia distributary, respectively. Figure 5 reveals the comparison of poverty gap and squared poverty gap across head, middle and tail reaches for the whole study area by using poverty line-I (PL-I) while Figure 6 shows the poverty gap across different reaches of the selected distributaries by using PL-I.   4 reveals that the depth of poverty was highest (35.8 %) at tail reach while the lowest (29 %) was prevailing at the middle reach area. At head reach, poor households required about 34 percent of additional expenditure to fill the poverty gap. The lowest depth of poverty was estimated to be 17.2 percent for the households at 14-R Maggowal at the head reach while the highest estimate was 39.5 percent for households at Hakra 4-R distributary.Poor households at the middle reach required an additional 29 percent of average expenditure to fill the poverty gap. Relatively higher estimates of poverty gap were found for poor households at 3 out of 10 distributaries than overall estimate of 29 percent in the middle reach. The highest estimate was computed for Hakra 4-R distributary (37.5 percent) while the lowest estimate was worked out for 13-R Saroki distributary (13.3 percent). About 36 percent additional expenditure was required by tail reach households to bridge the gap from the poverty line.Severity of poverty was estimated lowest at middle reach (11.8 %) and highest at the tail reach (17.3 %) areas. Highest squared poverty gap estimate (19.1 %) was computed at head reach of Hakra 4-R distributary while lowest 4.9 percent was worked out for the head reach of 14-R Maggowal distributary. In the middle reach area, the highest severity of poverty was found in Hakra 4-R distributary (18.5 %) while the lowest was 2.7 percent at middle reach of 13-R Saroki distributary. Similarly, in the tail reach area the lowest and the highest squared poverty gap estimates were calculated as 3 percent and 22.2 percent for 13-R Saroki distributary and Hakra 4-R distributary, respectively.Figure 7 shows the comparison of poverty gap and squared poverty gap across head, middle and tail reaches for the study area while Figure 8 shows the poverty gap across different reaches of the selected distributaries by using poverty line-II.  In order to determine the effect of differential access to ample and reliable surface irrigation water on poverty, Logit modeling was employed. Logit modeling technique is used when dependent variable is binary with values 1 or 0. The coefficients of independent variables tell about the probability of happening or not happening of one of the two possibilities of dependent variable.From the estimated coefficients of the model, marginal effect of each independent variable was calculated. The marginal probability is defined as the partial derivative of the probability that dependent variable assumes a value of 1 with respect to that independent variable. The marginal probability is defined by:B is the slope of the coefficient. X is the independent variable while f() is the density function of the cumulative probability distribution function[F(BX), which ranges from 0 to 1). The marginal effect could be interpreted as the change in the probability of household being poor with a one-unit increase in the explanatory variable. The marginal probability values were estimated at the mean values of the explanatory variables.The model specifications are as follows: It was expected that higher the family size, higher would be the probability of the household to be poor. Due to this fact, with increase in family size, higher amount of money would be required to meet the basic needs all the members of household. It was expected that coefficient of family size would be positive with respect to sign.Dependency ratio was defined as the ratio of number of household members below 16 years and above 60 years divided by family size. It was expected that with increase in dependent members in the household, probability of being poor would be higher due to higher amount of money demanded to fulfill the basic needs of the households. Moreover, as these dependent members did not earn any money, it would be hard for the household to be above the poverty line. A positive sign for the coefficient of dependency ratio was expected, indicating an increased probability of the household to be poor with high dependency ratio.More education simply leads to higher earning potential by better management of the household resources, and thus has negative effect on poverty. Consequently, more education of household head would lead the household out of vicious circle of poverty. Therefore, expected sign for the coefficient was negative.The occupation of more landholding was expected to result in more crop production leading to higher agricultural income. It was expected that increase in net landholding would decrease the probability of the household to become poor. So, a negative sign was expected for the coefficient of net landholding indicating inverse relationship with poverty.Gross value of production was indicative of performance of individual farm households.Higher land productivity would result in higher annual income of the household that would eventually improve the ability of the household to provide all the basic needs to the members of the households by spending more. It was expected that with increase in gross value of production per hectare, poverty should decrease. Therefore, a negative sign was expected for the coefficient of gross value of production per hectare.The location of the households along the irrigation system reflected the farmers' access to irrigation water in presence of inequities prevailing in distribution of this vital input of agricultural production. It was expected that households at the head reach of the irrigation system would better agricultural production and income leading to decreased probability of head reach households to become poor as compared to households at middle and tail reaches of the distributary.The results of the Logit regression are presented in Table 6. Signs of the explanatory variables were in conformity with the a priori expectations. All the coefficients except dummies for middle and tail reaches were found significant at 99 percent level. It was found that one member increase in family would increase the probability of being poor by 0.026. It indicates the positive correlation with poverty. It was also estimated that one unit increase in dependency ratio would increase the probability of being poor by 0.246. Keeping in view the positive correlation of increase in family size and dependency ratio, an inclusion of new born or exclusion of a family member from the category of working member and inclusion into dependents would increase the probability of the household to become poor. One more completed year of household head's education would decrease the probability of household being poor by 0.017. Similarly, one-hectare increase in net landholding would reduce the probability of being poor by 0.035. An increase of one thousand rupees in gross value of production per hectare would diminish the probability of being poor by 0.009. It was also found that probability of being poor increases by 0.012 and 0.96, if households were located at middle and tail reach areas, respectively, instead of head reach. It clearly indicates that the probability of increase in poverty in the tail reach area was higher than in the head and middle reach areas. • Incidence of poverty was highest in the head reach area while it was lowest in the middle reach area. • Higher proportion of the poor population in the head reach area was found sensitive to change in poverty line as compared to middle and tail reach areas. • The highest poverty gap was estimated for the tail reach area while the lowest was found in case of poor households in the middle reach area. • In case of change in poverty line, the highest decline in poverty gap estimate was experienced for poor households in the middle reach areas as compared to head and tail reach areas. • The severity of poverty was higher in the tail reach areas as compared to the head and middle reach areas. • In case of using lower poverty line, the highest decline in severity of poverty estimate was observed for households at the middle reach area as compared to head and tail reach areas. • Though slightly lower incidence of poverty was estimated for tail reach areas, the depth and severity of poverty was higher in tail reach areas as compared to head and middle reach areas. • Family size was found an important determinant of poverty. A rise in family size was expected to increase the probability of household to become poor. • An increase in dependency ratio was expected to increase the probability of the household to become poor. • Increase in net landholding was found capable of decreasing the probability of household to become poor. • More education for all the family members, especially for the head of the household, would enhance the ability to fight against the poverty. • Improvement in agricultural performance of household as reflected through gross value of product per hectare decreases the probability of household to become poor. • Household located at the head reach of the distributary had lower probability of becoming poor as compared to households at the middle and tail reach areas of the distributary. • The more investment in population planning and new round of land reforms for the creation of viable economic land units is necessary for poverty reduction. • The improvement to surface irrigation water access would decrease the probability of the household to become poor. • Measures to decrease the inequity and unreliability in surface water supplies should be addressed to decrease the chances of rise in poverty in middle and tail reach areas as compared to the head reach areas.Ahmad ","tokenCount":"4527"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c2a7ee060ee0a09b6de63053586cd03e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d611f767-24ac-4001-ac89-514b9bb32746/retrieve","id":"-942445638"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5824f9a8-b7b5-4c15-bcf6-839cc979dfcb","pagecount":"35","content":"d'administration du Centre du riz pour l'Afrique (AfricaRice) est satisfait de l'amélioration continue de la santé et de la stabilité financières du Centre au cours de l'exercice clos au 31 décembre 2009 malgré la faiblesse continue du dollar américain et les effets de la crise économique globale au cours de l'année. Le Conseil en profite pour louer les efforts de la direction pour la bonne gestion budgétaire des ressources du Centre conformément aux objectifs du Conseil d'administration. En effet, le total du budget de base au cours de l'année a augmenté de 9,35 millions de dollars US passant à 22,46 millions de dollars US, contre 13,11 millions de dollars US en 2008. Les dépenses nettes ont connu une augmentation de 8,61 millions de dollars US, passant à 19,83 millions de dollars US contre 11,21 millions de dollars US en 2008. Cela a entraîné un excédent de 2,6 millions de dollars US et a amélioré l'actif net. Les réserves de fonctionnement du Centre sont passées de 5,97 millions de dollars US à la fin de 2008 à 8,60 millions de dollars US à la fin de 2009. Cette augmentation est principalement due à une combinaison de trois facteurs qui sont : l'augmentation du recouvrement des charges indirectes liée à l'augmentation du nombre de projets, l'introduction d'un système de recouvrement total de coûts, l'augmentation du revenu et la prise en compte en 2009 des souscriptions (arriérés et contributions courantes) des États membres. Les niveaux des liquidités et des réserves du Centre ont subi une baisse et sont passés de 181 jours en 2008 à 152 jours en 2009 malgré l'accroissement considérable des réserves. Cela est dû à l'augmentation du niveau journalier des dépenses de fonctionnement résultant du haut niveau du budget de l'année 2009. Cet indicateur est supérieur pour la quatrième année consécutive aux niveaux recommandés par le GCRAI. Dans le cadre de son rôle d'évaluation de la gestion du risque, le Conseil d'administration a approuvé une déclaration sur la gestion des risques lors de la réunion tenue en mars 2006. Il réaffirme son intention de superviser et de gérer ces risques dans l'intérêt des activités du Centre.Le Conseil reconnaît sa responsabilité dans l'élaboration des états financiers de même que dans la définition et la mise en oeuvre d'une stratégie globale du centre conformément aux politiques et objectifs retenus.Au nom du Conseil d'administration, j'aimerais remercier la direction et le personnel pour leur dévouement et leur persévérance à continuer de fournir les services de support à IITA et à Bioversity International au cours de l'année. J'aimerais également saluer l'installation du bureau du CIP, au cours du 2 e semestre de l'année 2009, au sien de notre station de recherche à Cotonou, dans le cadre de ses activités en Afrique de l'Ouest. Nous voudrions aussi exprimer formellement notre reconnaissance aux pays membres, aux donateurs, aux institutions nationales et internationales collaborant avec nous ainsi qu'à nos partenaires du GCRAI pour leur soutien continu et leur coopération en vue de l'accomplissement de la mission louable du Centre, qui vise la réduction de la pauvreté et l'amélioration des revenus des paysans pauvres en Afrique.• Un faible niveau d'impact de la recherche (et par conséquent non pertinente) ;• Une mauvaise répartition des efforts scientifiques par rapport aux priorités fixées ;• Une perte de réputation pour manque d'excellence et de l'intégrité scientifiques ;• Une rupture des activités et l'échec du système d'information ;• Les problèmes de trésorerie ;• Les échecs du traitement des transactions ;• La perte des ressources, y compris les ressources d'information ;• L'incapacité de recruter, de maintenir et d'utiliser efficacement du personnel qualifié et expérimenté ;• Les échecs des systèmes de santé et de sécurité du personnel ;• L'échec dans l'exécution de responsabilités légales, fiduciaires du Centre et ;• Le niveau insuffisant des subventions des donateurs pour soutenir la recherche.Le Conseil d'administration a adopté une politique de gestion du risque qui a été communiquée à l'ensemble du personnel. Cette politique inclut un cadre par lequel la direction du Centre : identifie, évalue et classe par priorité les risques et les opportunités dans toute l'organisation, développe des stratégies de réduction du risque qui établissent un équilibre entre les avantages et les coûts, supervise la mise en oeuvre de ces stratégies, et communique périodiquement les résultats au Conseil d'administration. Ce processus s'appuie sur l'analyse des risques préparée par le personnel de l'Unité des finances du Centre, les auditeurs internes, les réviseurs externes commandés par le Centre et les auditeurs externes. Les analyses des risques incluent aussi les résultats des évaluations des risques en collaboration avec d'autres centres du GCRAI, les composantes du système GCRAI et d'autres entités par rapport aux risques partagés qui découlent de la gestion conjointe des activités. Le cadre de gestion des risques cherche à s'appuyer sur les meilleures pratiques promues dans les règles et normes promulguées dans bon nombre de pays membres du GCRAI. Il est soumis à la revue permanente dans le cadre des efforts d'amélioration continue du Centre.Les stratégies de réduction des risques incluent la mise en oeuvre des systèmes de contrôles internes qui, de par leur nature, sont conçus pour gérer plutôt que d'éliminer les risques. Le Centre s'efforce de gérer les risques auxquels il fait face en s'assurant que les infrastructures, les contrôles, les systèmes et les personnes appropriées soient en  Les comptes annuels ont été préparés sur la base du principe du coût historique. Les principes comptables les plus significatifs appliqués de manière permanente par rapport à l'exercice précédent sont indiqués ci-après.Les états financiers sont établis et préparés conformément aux dispositions de la Directive Financière du GCRAI Série N° 2 : Principes comptables et Manuel de Reporting (mars 2004 -mis à jour en février 2006) qui sont elles-mêmes en ligne avec les Normes Comptables Internationales (IAS) relatives aux organisations à but non lucratif.Les comptes annuels d'AfricaRice sont présentés selon la méthode de comptabilité d'engagement, sauf pour les contributions des États membres qui ne sont enregistrées en revenus qu'au cours de l'année suivant celle pendant laquelle elles ont été encaissées.Toutes les subventions, qu'elles soient à usage restreint ou non, sont reconnues en produits à la réalisation des conditions posées par le donateur, ou lorsque le donateur a explicitement levé les conditions.Les subventions sont classées par type de restrictions imposées par les donateurs : La monnaie de référence d'AfricaRice étant le dollar américain, les comptes annuels de l'AfricaRice sont exprimés en dollar américain. Les opérations effectuées par AfricaRice dans les monnaies locales des États membres ainsi que celles d'autres pays sont enregistrées en dollars US au taux de change en vigueur à la date de la transaction.Les dons réceptionnés dans des monnaies autres que le dollar américain sont enregistrés au taux de change applicable à la date de réception ou, s'ils demeurent en suspens, au taux de change de fin d'exercice.Les actifs et passifs monétaires en devises autres que le dollar américain sont actualisés au taux de change applicable à la fin de l'exercice. Les différences de change sont comptabilisées dans les états de revenus et de charges par origine de fonds.L'introduction du manuel de reporting et des règles comptables du GCRAI revisé N° 2 et mis à jour en février 2006 a abouti à un changement dans le traitement des immobilisations acquises sur des fonds restreints. Ces immobilisations doivent être enregistrées à l'actif du Centre et dépréciées à 100 % au cours de l'année de leur acquisition. Les dépréciations doivent être affectées directement au projet restreint ayant financé leurs acquisitions.De même, les nouvelles immobilisations données par les pays hôtes ou les constructions qui doivent revenir aux pays hôtes si AfricaRice cessait ses activités dans le pays doivent être enregistrées dans les comptes du centre. Cette nouvelle règle est effective depuis l'exercice 2005.Les taux annuels appliqués pour l'amortissement des immobilisations sont les suivants : Une provision pour indemnité de réinstallation est constituée par personne, pour le personnel bénéficiant d'un contrat dit international. Le Conseil d'administration a adopté au cours de l'exercice sous revue de nouvelles conditions qui stipulent que ces indemnités ne sont pas dues avant une année d'ancienneté. Les indemnités sont dues au prorata temporis entre la première et deuxième année d'ancienneté.Les stocks de matériels et de fournitures sont déterminés à la valeur la plus faible entre le coût d'acquisition et la valeur nette de réalisation. Le coût d'acquisition est déterminé à partir de la méthode du coût moyen unitaire pondéré. Les matériels en transit sont évalués au montant de la facture.Conformément Les subventions en nature ne sont pas enregistrées dans les comptes annuels.Les pays suivants ont manifesté leur soutien en fournissant à AfricaRice du personnel de recherche pendant cette année. Les coûts financiers ont été supportés par les donateurs sur la base d'une juste valorisation des services rendus par ces personnes comme présentée ci-dessous, tandis qu'AfricaRice a fourni les services d'appui et de fonctionnement nécessaires. La méthode de calcul du taux d'imputation de charges indirectes est conforme aux recommandations du « CGIAR Financial Guidelines No. 5 » (c.f. annexe 4).Les taux de charges indirectes sur les projets spécifiques peuvent varier selon les taux acceptés dans les termes et les conditions pertinents des accords de financements. ","tokenCount":"1516"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"50602d6a92ed189b563b8756603fbb8c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0b72024-7713-4c1d-b8f9-5e0c5c3bede9/retrieve","id":"1928301430"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ef950bb2-5504-4e71-b918-cbb9431e7e1a","pagecount":"1","content":"Poultry play an important role in the agriculture of Ethiopia. Indigenous chickens tend to be well adapted to their local environment.• Infectious diseases have a major impact on productivity since there is limited use of prophylactic medication and vaccination.• Salmonellosis, a zoonosis caused by a gram-negative enteric bacterium, and Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), a highly contagious immunosuppressive viral infection (caused by Infectious Bursal Disease virus (IBDV) have been identified as two of the most important infectious diseases in Ethiopian poultry. • There is evidence of genetic variation associated with resistance to Salmonella in different chicken lines, but nothing is known for IBDV resistance.• Breeding chickens resistant to Salmonella and IBDV provide an under-exploited, cost-effective and permanent approach to control these diseases.• Previous studies in inbred and outbred exotic chicken lines using whole genome microsatellite markers have identified QTLs (Quantitative Trait Locus) for Salmonella resistance. • Our hypothesis is that there are QTLs for Salmonella and IBDV resistance circulating among indigenous Ethiopian chickens.• Using two important indigenous chicken populations and high density whole-genome SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) arrays we will try to identify SNP markers for increased resistance to Salmonella and IBDV infection.Phenotypes: ELISA data for Salmonella and IBD Genotyping with 620K Affymetrix array GWAS using PLINK and GEMMA software• The multidimensional scaling analysis showed that Horro and Jarso populations were genetically distinct.• In Horro chickens, the genome-wide scan revealed 9 SNP with chromosome-wide significant association with Salmonella resistance and 7 SNP with genome-wide significant association with IBD resistance. • In Jarso chickens, the genome-wide scan revealed 1 SNP with genome-wide and 2 SNP with chromosome-wide significant association with Salmonella resistance and 1 SNP with genome-wide and 3 SNP with chromosome-wide significant association with IBDV resistance.Different QTLs for Salmonella and IBDV resistance were identified in the two indigenous Ethiopian chicken populations; this is consistent with the MDS analysis which showed that the two populations are different genetically.Almost all the markers identified for resistance were located close to candidate genes involved in the immune response.Results of this study are encouraging for breeding for Salmonella and IBDV resistance in indigenous Ethiopian chickens. However, a different genomic selection programme should be developed for each of the two populations.Searching for genes of interest using Ensembl","tokenCount":"370"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c2b63416c1fa3d3dd8c12b2731a6e5b3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/26fac0e6-41b7-450a-9d7b-d8306102c195/retrieve","id":"-643308512"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9dae4c11-cd2f-4caa-816f-e0f187392e0c","pagecount":"2","content":"CIAT is a living and adaptive organization of excellence that contributes to capacity strengthening, stimulates learning, and shares knowledge in agricultural and related sciences.T raining and related efforts to strengthen institutional capacity are fundamental for achieving more effective use of knowledge in research for development. Over the past 40 years more than 12,000 professionals from Latin America, Africa, and Asia have benefited from training at CIAT, whether through specialized courses, group events, individualized training, or thesis work. In 2010 this was the case for more than 1,100 professionals (almost 400 in Colombia, 240 in Africa, 280 in Asia, and 230 in Central America).CIAT is one of various CGIAR centers which originated and promoted participatory research and learning approaches. Participatory principles and methodologies now play key roles in agricultural partnerships for innovation and for strengthening the capacities of farmers, researchers, and stakeholders. Examples of CIAT and partner initiatives are: • The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA). Through its thematic working groups, PABRA ensures that the Alliance responds to demands, and that quality is maintained in development and in the delivery of outputs from research and development. The working group themes are seed systems, nutrition, bean breeding, integrated crop management, markets, and monitoring and evaluation. • Learning Alliances in Central America and Africa. These alliances involve international, regional, and national research organizations; donors and development agencies; policymakers, and private business. They seek to identify, share, and adapt good practices in research and development in specific contexts. The practices thus become more widely applied, with increased benefits to society, despite differing geographical and cultural contexts.We offer training opportunities to the technical and scientific personnel of a broad range of local, national, and international institutions, whether public, private, or mixed. CIAT also welcomes personnel from development and nongovernmental organizations, preferably those involved in agriculture-related areas. Special preference is given to those who work in the areas of research carried out by CIAT and other CGIAR Centers. (1) Integrated Soil Fertility Management, which emphasizes nutrient management for enhanced agronomic efficiency and production at the plot and farm scale; and(2) Sustainable Land Management, which looks at the management of soil biological resources at the landscape scale.How to become a visiting researcher at CIAT headquarters If you, or your institution, would like to participate in a training modality offered by CIAT, please consult our blog at http://ciatcapacity.cgiar.org/en/category/capacity, or contact:CIAT headquarters: Eleonora Izquierdo (ciat-capacity@cgiar.org) Asia: Rod Lefroy (r.lefroy@cgiar.org) Africa: Rachel Muthoni (r.muthoni@cgiar.org)The employing institution and/or university where the student or professional is enrolled must present a request for capacity strengthening. CIAT will then assess suitability.Please note that CIAT's Capacity Strengthening Initiative does not provide direct funding for any individual or group training programs, or for any scholarships, internships, or fellowships.Prospective applicants must arrange their own funding and sponsors.Visiting Researchers must bring international medical and accident insurance that will cover them during their stay at CIAT.The Visiting Researchers must arrive with a valid visa or, on arrival, process his or her visa through the Training Office.• Soil research networks: The TSBF-CIAT established the African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility (AfNet) in 1988 to exploit the advantages of networking. The goal was to build the capacity of African institutions to conduct interdisciplinary and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) research at regional and international levels. AfNet is adopting participatory and gender perspectives in research, technology testing, and adaptation; and conducts process research. • Thematic capacity strengthening platforms for Latin America and the Caribbean. The initiative's objective is to respond to demands through alliances that strengthen our strategic partners. Current themes that have been addressed include Seed Systems, Participatory Research, and Climate Change.If you would like further information on other aspects brought up by this brochure, check our website at http://ciatcapacity.cgiar.org","tokenCount":"620"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5c8c2ed358a73a18a77e0c788446e6f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/506d7f1a-c6d6-4d3a-a182-fc5d537a1f5f/retrieve","id":"1048827726"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"47ca52f5-a5e3-4b2a-973c-cfe4c00e730f","pagecount":"41","content":"Business transactions in agriculture have been transformed by the digitisation of the value chain. The first big impact came with barcodes, which made it possible to track items through a value chain. Mobile data collection devices, more affordable sensors to track conditions, followed by the internet to transform links with consumers brought new applications.Mobile phones now take over many of these roles. Barcodes have been replaced with RFID and QR codes. However, there are still many challenges relating to the traceability of products and transparency in supply chain management, especially the fact that database systems managing transaction records were managed in isolation, they were not open to all the other stakeholders in the chain making transactions difficult to record and verify. While in many cases data had been recorded it was not possible to guarantee that these entries were not misleading either because of manual entry or the possible to change the database after data was entered.Blockchain is an emerging digital technology which has the potential to address these gaps. 1 A blockchain is a digital transaction ledger, maintained by a network of multiple computing machines that are not relying on a trusted third party. Individual transaction data files (blocks) are managed through specific software platforms that allow the data to be transmitted, processed, stored, and represented in human readable form. Every transaction is disseminated through the network of machines running the blockchain protocol and needs to be validated by all computer nodes. The key feature of a blockchain is its ability to keep a consistent view and agreement among the participants (i.e. consensus). 2 A blockchain is composed of immutable blocks of data, each block containing a list of transactions and a unique reference to its predecessor block. Strong cryptographic techniques are employed to maintain integrity between each block and its predecessor. This allows blockchains to be shared and corroborated by anyone with the appropriate permissions. Blockchain may also be referred to as a distributed ledger, which is also commonly considered to be a specialised form of a distributed database. Distributed ledgers (DLT) are a multi-purpose technology in the digital world that are specifically designed to be shared across a network of multiple sites, geographies or institutions. Records are stored in a ledger that continues to grow. Often, as in the case of the Bitcoin blockchain, the underlying assumption is that the nodes forming the network are not implicitly trusted, i.e. they need mechanisms in place by which all parties in the system can reach a consensus on what the status of the ledger is. 3 Blockchains are distributed ledgers, with additional characteristics that make them distinctive:-Cryptographic functions are used, including hashing algorithms -Peer to peer synchronisation mechanism -Consensus: algorithms that determine the sequence and validity of transactions -Ledger: list of transactions that are bundled together in cryptographically linked blocks -Validity rules: the network rule set determines what transactions are considered valid and how the ledger gets updated, etc.-Crypto economics: a combination of cryptography and economics (game theory) that makes sure all actors in a decentralised system are incentivised to remain honest 4 Information stored on the ledger is protected by a type of cryptography that gives each user two 'keys' -one key is kept private, and the others are made public -which work together like the two-key system used to access a safety deposit box. The private key, like a password or PIN, let the user 'lock' or 'unlock' their information and control when, and by whom, it is accessed.Other trusted 'nodes' on the network can then be given a public key so they can then read the unlocked information and double-check that it actually comes from that user.Once an entry has been made, the record is time-stamped and given a 'hash' -a unique, mathematicallygenerated identifier that automatically ties each new record to the entry that came before it. This means that it is impossible for any user to amend, delete or duplicate a single entry in the blockchain without noticeably affecting all of the entries that are part of the chain, making fraud immediately visible to the others on the ledger. This simple innovation guarantees the integrity of the data stored on the blockchain, and allows users to reach a unanimous consensus that every record is authentic and unchanged. 5There are three major types of blockchain networks, each having their own characteristics are consortium blockchain, private blockchain and public blockchain.Public permissionless systems are those in which anyone can read/write data and make/validate transactions.In public permissioned networks, everyone can view the data but only individuals with permission from its owner can edit transactions. In permissionless blockchains (private permissioned), the public is restricted from accessing the data in addition to the fact that only individuals with the owners' permission can make changes. Permissionless blockchains are gaining traction as a foundation for businessto-consumer (B2C) and consumer-toconsumer (C2C) use cases. Depending on what their needs are, an individual or organization can choose which type is most appropriate to deploy in their food system. 6 A consortium blockchain is formed by a group of members control this blockchain.Verifying and adding records to the blockchain is based on a consensus mechanism by a pre-selected set of nodes.Given that no central governance is an important feature of the network, for participants to be incentivized to run and trust the network, transparency is paramount.Governments can improve efficiency in such areas as contract execution, social services, customer service and ¬experience, risk management, transparency, and fraud. Blockchain enables a wide variety of transactions, including collecting taxes, delivering welfare benefits, issuing documents, and recording properties.The company Goldman Sachs estimates that blockchain could facilitate global savings of up to US$6 billion per year in business transactions. 7 The World Economic Forum estimating in a study conducted in collaboration with Bain & Company that the removal of barriers due to Blockchain could result in more than US$ 1 trillion of new trade in the next decade. 8 The reductions in trade costs that the use of blockchain technology could potentially permit open particularly interesting opportunities for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), which face proportionally higher fixed costs than bigger companies, in particular when they are small producers from developing countries.Known primarily for its connection to bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies and digital payments, blockchain has far more potential, especially for agriculture.While other technology options exist to help manage supply chains, blockchain can bring together different parties that have not directly established trusted relationships with one another through the transparency it provides and its tamper-evident nature. Blockchain stores every transaction or exchange of data that occurs in the network, potentially reducing the need for third parties and/or intermediaries by providing a means by which all parties in the network may share access to the same data, including what is added to the data, by whom, chronologically. Data cannot be removed. By enabling each party to see the same data, in near real time, and assure that 'you see what I see' from a data perspective, blockchain can help eliminate complex and costly data reconciliation required by most systems in the world today. 9As any technology, DLT has a certain power of disruption across industries and applications.Many of current legislative frameworks can apply to blockchain technologies (i.e. in finance, traceability).Many institutions and authorities, however, apply precautionary monitoring and experimentation, rather than pre-emptive regulation; e.g. in Japan the Financial Services Agency (FSA) announced a \"FinTech Proofof-Concept (PoC) Hub\" designed to make it possible for financial technology companies, financial institutions, and others to evaluate issues in the areas of compliance, supervisory response risks, and the interpretation of legislation, etc. In the UK, the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has set up a regulatory sandbox to provide innovative initiatives with a safe space to develop without worrying about regulatory constraints. Across the world, more than 25 governments are actively running blockchain pilots supported by start-ups. 10 Experts interviewed, and many European institutions, are of the opinion that DLT and blockchains are an implementation choice and specific legislation and regulations are not needed. Certainly, outside of the remit of financial applications, blockchains, and distributed ledgers more generally, are regarded as a net positive development rather than a threat to the position of major financial players and even official currencies themselves. At this stage, it seems there is need for more innovation, research, development, piloting and proof of concepts, unencumbered by specific additional legislation and regulation. Some experts feel that existing data protection law and guidelines (such as the EU General reliance on an intermediary bank to verify transactions and distribute funds and create secure profiles for each refugee. This allows the management of identity data by the individual using iris scans. The blockchain provides WFP with a permanent, real-time record of every transaction, verifiable instantly on the blockchain, allowing WFP to make payment to merchants as frequently as desired. Building Blocks has also eliminated the need to advance funds to a bank, reducing finical risk. 31 WFP now plans to test blockchain for the tracking of food delivery in East Africa(ref coindesk https://www.coindesk.com/un-foodprogram-to-expand-blockchaintesting-to-african-supply-chain). Specifically, the new project will monitor the movement of food from Djibouti's port, where the WFP receives shipments, to Ethiopia, where much of its food operations are located.The Complexity of Food ChainWhile the investments in improving the sustainability of the food industry has been increasing, one of the challenges remains the traceability, accountability and transparency of supply chains. The blockchain technology can address this by connecting digitally the dots. It can help food companies mitigate food fraud by quickly identifying and linking outbreaks back to their specific source. Improved data traceability provided by the IBM platform reduced the time it took to trace a mango from the store back to its source from seven days to 2.2 seconds (Walmart). 32 By increasing the transparency in the market. visibility and reliability of transactions and the real-time traceability, businesses canThe observatory features details on nearly 400 blockchain initiatives.gain in efficiency, cost savings and achieving product premiums. Reliable data can also optimise business and investment decisions. Improved trust in product provenance contributes to brand enhancement.Consumers can know where their food comes from, how it was produced and by who. Product provenance is particularly important, and it can increase consumers' trust and loyalty.Traceability programmes could become a standard in the food industry.There are numerous examples of companies, start-ups and initiatives aiming to improve food supply chain integrity through the blockchain technology. 33 Walmart and Kroger were the first companies to embrace blockchain and include the technology into their supply chains, working initially on Chinese pork and Mexican mangoes.This initiative documented the producer of each specified food product so that Wal-Mart can easily address any case of contamination.The test put mechanisms in place to identify and rectify the improper care of food throughout the journey from farm to store.The highest profile food traceability initiative is the IBM Food Trust which connects growers, processors, distributors and retailers through a permissioned, permanent and shared record food system data and has grown into a global consortium with companies such Dole, Driscoll's, Kroger, Nestle, Tyson, and Unilever.Transaction processing and storing blockchain data to trace products can be expensive. OriginTrail in Slovenia, found a way to store only \"fingerprints\" of data on the blockchain, which reduces the cost to only cents per item. It has also created the Trace Alliance, a consortium of companies who are using blockchain for supply chain traceability (Deloitte, HalalTrail, Oregon Tilth, Phy2Trace).Cargill is one of the USA largest suppliers of fresh turkeys. In 2017, it launched a pilot programme to trace 60 000 turkeys from the shop to the farm. In 2018, the programme sourced more than 200 000 traceable turkeys from more than 70 farms and 3 500 retail stores and other markets across the country. They are also sold on Amazon.com.The program allows consumers to visit the Honeysuckle White website, enter a package code and trace their turkey back to a specific farm, view photos from the farm, and learn more about the farm's history and the farmers who raised the animals. The program allows the consumer to receive a text with this information, as well.This farm-to-table connection is building consumers' confidence about where their food comes from, while giving farmers an opportunity to share their story.  42 The company plans to use facial recognition to monitor life journey of chickens in organic farming using blockchain. 43 Spain is the world's largest olive oil producer. Two of the biggest problems in the commodity supply chain are price volatility and quality control.Olivacoin ensures the traceability of the olive oil and uses smart contracts for payment. In January 2018, the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) announced the Blockchain Supply Chain Traceability Project, to eliminate illegal tuna fishing, tracking fish from vessel to the supermarket, in the fresh and frozen tuna sectors of the Western and Central Pacific region to strengthen supply chain management. 45 A simple scan of tuna packaging using a smartphone app will tell the story of a tuna fishwhere and when the fish was caught, by which vessel and fishing method. Accenture is aiming to enrol small farms across the world and allow them to register their certificates of ecologically conscious practices on a blockchain as a part of their digital identity, allowing consumers to see who produced the goods they are buying and how the business is managed.The company is also working with farmers' associations in Africa and South America that might want to participate in the system. The associations will be responsible for maintaining cloud-based nodes on behalf of their farmers. 57 The Trace Alliance is a non-profit association which connects businesses, the public sector, academics and technology companies in the field of blockchain research and the creation of practical solutions primarily for supply chains. The collaborative effort of the alliance aims to resolve a variety of challenges and come up with solutions for a wide range of use cases through achieving increased supply chain integrity, data governance, transparency and trust.Belfast-based arc-net has incorporated DNA information into their blockchain platform. They begin by taking a tissue sample of an animal early in the supply chain and uploading part of the genetic code with other information being stored. When importers and others further along the supply chain receive the meat, they can then test a sample and confirm that the DNA matches that which they were expecting.Provenance, a UK-based blockchain company with an overt social and environmental impact focus, provides transparency for both food and clothing companies, allowing customers where the products comes form but also confirm that the people who helped make the product were fairly compensated and that it was made in a manner that is environmentally responsible.It conducted a pilot in early 2016 using blockchain, along with mobile and smart tags, to track tuna from catch to consumer. Their pilot enabled Indonesian fishermen to convert physical tuna into codified assets linked to a digital identity that can be verified on an open registry. As a result, suppliers along the value chain as well as consumers can freely access a suite of proofs that certify a product's quality standards. 58 Provenance is working with Coop, the largest UK consumer cooperative, to track the journey of fresh products from source to supermarket in real time to increase consumers' trust in food retail. At each point of the journey, data on the product, supplier, location, as well as on the environmental and social impact of each business, are collected and added to the blockchain, creating a digital history of the product that is accessible to all, from the farm to the consumers. BlocRice is a blockchain project implemented by Oxfam to empower organic rice growers in Cambodia.Oxfam is working with small-scale rice farmers in Preah Vihear province, Central North of Cambodia. These farmers produce on average 2.5 to 3 tons of organic rice per year on 1 to 2 hectares. The project looks at whether farmers having more information about the supply chain are more empowered and whether they are better served by digital verification of their contracts.The project is introducing cashless payments to several farmers and will use a digital contract between primary producers organized in an Agricultural Cooperative, a Cambodian rice exporter and a manufacturer in The Netherlands. The project is designing an application providing full value chain transparency and traceability to the cooperative, exporter, importer and end consumers. Therefore, the consumer will see that farmers have been paid correctly for their rice. This is expected to provide small rice farmers with more influence and more control in securing their own livelihoods. Three aspects of the project use blockchain:-The project introduces blockchain technology to the organic rice value chain by registering all chain actors with unique identification codes on blockchain.-It also introduces a smart contract between farmers, their agricultural cooperative, exporting companies and manufacturing company.-There will also be a consumer communication component from the Cambodian countryside to the retailer.In Africa, Blockchain has the power to transform the way businesses share information, track assets and deliver their services. There is a real appetite for public and private organisations alike to seize the blockchain opportunity. However, standards or regulations need to be in place for the technology, and new skills are required in the workforce to support its rise. 62 Technology is particularly relevant in the African context because it presents the potential to overcome trade finance and cross border payment issues. and selling with cooperatives and other third parties, as well as managing their incomes using the in-built digital wallet. AgUnity is also in the process of facilitating access to micro-loan services from their online 'Marketplace' within the app.The impact of unpredictable weather is significant for farmers who are encouraged to have a crop insurance. However, processing and verifying claims is a long process and it is not an incentive for farmers adoption.Removal of risk through insurance can increase smallholder investment and income.For the insurance, it is key to verify that claims are not fraudulent or report beyond the actual damage to limit the losses in their companies.With the introduction of Blockchain technologies and Smart Contracts, the crop insurance industry has new opportunities for improvement. Smart Contracts will create major improvements in the claims processing system. The Internet of Things (IoT) devices can be used on major equipment possessionsThe use of smart contracts for processing insurance claims can improve turnaround time, reduce costs, and provide seamless claim processing experience. 70 To feed data back to the smart contracts in the event of disaster for verification purposes. 71SmartCrop is an Android-based mobile platform leveraging smart contracts and intelligent weather prediction to help farmers hedge against crop volatility. Through the use of weather APIs, SmartCrop provides farmers with the option to initiate crop insurance pay-outs before natural disasters strike.The solution is a win-win for all stakeholders in the value chain.SmartCrop's mobile solution enables users to purchase insurance policies for their valuable crops and monit or weather conditions for proactive insurance pay-outs.SmartCrop uses a Smart Contract architecture to power the claims process. Smart contracts are computable legal contracts that automatically execute when a set of pre-programmed conditions set forth in the contract are satisfied.They can be stored in the blockchain ledger and are secured using cryptographic key pairs to make them tamper resistant. Smart contracts will trigger automatic payments upon the occurrence of certain weather trigger events. If SmartCrop detects that there is a 90% chance that a natural disaster will occur within a certain timeframe, a Smart Contract condition is triggered to give the user the option of an early pay-out under the insured amount. The insurance claims process is dramatically streamlined by reducing the staff needed to verify and distribute the claims. As a result, insurance companies save on back office expenses. Also, insurees will receive immediate payment of the policy value through the blockchain infrastructure, enabling them to quickly use the capital to plan for the upcoming natural disaster. 72 African farmers pay a high price because of climate-related disasters. More than 20,000 farms in Ghana, Kenya and Uganda have access to simple and affordable crop insurance via their smartphones. The policies or \"smart contracts\" currently under development are based on blockchain, removing paperwork and facilitating pay-outs. The system uses highresolution satellite images to detect rainfall and plant growth data.Payments can be made using mobile money transfer services such as M-Pesa. The use of smart contracts could foster efficiencies in official processes related to registering land, like purchase, sale, subdivision, or inheritance. It could make it more difficult to register one plot of land to multiple owners or overleverage financing from different sources on the same plot, and it could prevent illicit sale of already-owned land to new parties.In Georgia, GIZ has been commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), to work with the Georgian Government to reform the legal system. Blockchain is playing an important role as a means for the national public registry to make land register entries available digitally.Integrating the entries into the data record chain verifies their authenticity.Around one million processes have already been registered. 79 The bigger problem being untrusted information, challenges in using blockchain for land registries is that it requires digitizing, geo-referencing, and harmonizing maps in remote parts of the world which is a huge and costly work.For The complexity of trade finance with many manual checkpoints, multiple disintegrated platforms, regulation leads to both payment and shipment delays and higher costs.The banking industry have started to test the blockchain technology a few years ago with cryptocurrencies and other assets represented in a form of tokens that can be exchanged on blockchain directly without involvement of a third party that would normally charge for services. Atlas is a start-up launching a mobile peer-to-peer application to give to communities in the developing world access to savings and credit through a decentralised solution built on blockchain technology. The app aims to create a network of people from local communities, which in turn will create and cultivate trust while boosting financial inclusion. In addition, access to capital through savings accounts and loans are offered through the Atlas platform. The blockchain shows proof of origin for the money and all transactions, ensuring users know exactly where their money is and the latest transactions on their account. 89 Other organizations are focusing specifically on the financial component, specifically in leveraging blockchain technology to increase smallholder farmers' access to finance.Coin22 is an Amsterdam-based technology company that has developed a blockchain-based Agriwallet, currently being implemented in agricultural supply chains that ultimately end up in Kenya (with a reach that spans Europe and North America). The interface is simple, operating through SMS messages and based on the already widely-used MPesa mobile money platform. Four thousand farmers are currently using the AgriWallet, and Coin22 is working toward scaling up to 100,000 farmers across Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda.Because the platform is blockchainbased, it can easily be scaled across different countries, without needing to adapt the platform in each country based on varied financial regulations or restrictions.ICS, the parent company of the East Africa-based agricultural social enterprise Agrics, is exploring a blockchain-based savings product, utilizing Coin22's Agriwallet, that will enable farmers in Kenya to purchase \"drought coins.\" Depending on weather conditions and satellite data, the virtual coins can be cashed in at the end of the season and transferred to farmers' mobile wallets.MicroMoney is using a combination of Blockchain and AI. Their neural network uses 10,000 data points from a person's mobile phone to generate a credit rating. They can then be issued with micro-loans -progressively larger as they prove their creditworthiness.Users' credit rating is stored on the Blockchain, updated to reflect their repayments, a score which can be used with other business'. The hope is that the unbanked can use MicroMoney to enter the global financial system without jumping through the traditional hoops. Transporters must deal with a lot of administration -large amounts of paperwork to be filled in, signed and sent to a number of different locations around the world -which requires the organisational capacity to deal with all these processes. Blockchain has the potential to ease this process by making it an automated system to prove the integrity of documentation throughout the transport. It can record and track assets as they move through the chain. This will decrease the administrative burden for SMEs in logistics. 99 A distributed ledger technology, blockchain establishes a shared, immutable record of all the transactions that take place within a network and then enables permissioned parties' access to trusted data in real time. By applying the technology to digitize global trade processes, a new form of command and consent can be introduced into the flow of information, empowering multiple trading partners to collaborate and establishing a single shared view of a transaction without compromising details, privacy or confidentiality.Israel-based ocean carrier company ZIM has conducted a pilot to digitize the actual bill of lading, one of the most important documents in ocean shipping, and it acts as a receipt and a contract for the goods being shipped.The information stored on a bill of lading is critical as it contains all necessary details such as the shipment description, quantity and destination, as well as how the goods must be handled and billed. During the trial of a blockchain-based system developed by Wave, ZIM and pilot participants issued, transferred, and received original electronic documents successfully through the decentralized network. 100 The containers, shipped from China to Canada, were delivered to the importers (i.e., consignees) without a problem. Although still in pilot phase, industry adoption of a digital bill of lading would be significant. It could greatly support supply chains in reducing costs, enabling error-free documentation and fast transfer of original documents. 101 In the first quarter of 2019, ZIM plans to focus on the Asia-South Africa and North America-Mediterranean trades. These trades were chosen due to their diverse activities and involved players.Founded in August 2017, the Blockchain In Transport Alliance (BiTA), has quickly grown into the largest commercial blockchain alliance in the world, with nearly 500 members in over 25 countries that collectively generate over $1 trillion in revenue annually. BiTA is a member-driven organization; members are primarily from the freight, transportation, logistics and affiliated industries. Alliance members share a common mission of driving the adoption of emerging technology forward. We accomplish this by developing industry standards; educating members and others on blockchain applications/ solutions and distributed ledger technology (DLT); and encouraging the use and adoption of new solutions. Thousands of companies have applied for membership. 102 BiTA has offices in Chattanooga, TN, USA (Global/USA/Canada); Sydney, Australia (Asia-Pacific), and London, United Kingdom (Europe).In June 2018, an Australian bank moved 17 tons of almonds from Australia to Germany using the Ethereum blockchain network. The transaction involved \"five domestic and international supply chain leaders\" and combined various software and hardware elements to track the whereabouts, contractual status (including payments, documents, and operations), and physical attributes (such as temperature and humidity) of the shipment every step of the way. 103 There are some problems in the transport, shipping and logistics (TSL) industry that could be solved with blockchain-based platforms:-Transportation payment and dispute resolution in reducing payment delays and disputes.-Administrative costs reduced (cost of document processing and administration reaches 20%2 of the costs of transportation according to Maersk and IBM).-Freight monitoring and quality control, i.e. cold chain monitoring -Transparency and trust Cargo: thefts alone are estimated to $30 billion annually worldwide. Blockchain implementation leads to a significant reduction of dishonest behaviour and its identification along the supply chain.- Waltonchain (WTC), a project which targets the trade and transport niche with a specific focus on using RFID chips and hardware to help track a wide range of products like clothing and electronic components.Waltonchain has chosen the clothing industry as the first test for its platform, as part of Phase 1.0 of their release. The clothing industry already makes use of RFID tags, which gives the team an enormous amount of data to work with.The project has already teamed up with industry partners in China, and the development will act as a proving ground for Waltonchain's combination of distributed ledgers and RFIDs, allowing them to refine it before they move onto other industries.CargoCoin, plainly describing its intent as \"blockchaining logistics,\" is one of the newer entrants in the space. It has a general agenda for the supply chain industry, specifically wanting to replace its paper-processing systems with smart contracts and escrow payments to ensure efficiency and security in the shipment of goods.CargoCoin's plan for blockchain logistics extends to all layers of transport and trade, including inland transportation, air cargo, pipeline transport and the inter and outer city shared lines.Although there are clear benefits and opportunities in the use of blockchain technology to enhance the efficiency of several processes and cut costs, it is not a panacea. There are a number of challenges for the companies in digitizing their supply chains.Challenges to be addressed include:Coordination process and digital transformation across multiple, disbursed, and often disconnected supply chain actors is challenging.Global supply chains are more and more complex and involve many actors-producers, brokers, transporters, processors, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers-who may not trust each other and be reluctant to share data, hence limiting the level of collaboration. Value and incentive for each actor are important to have a successful collaboration. In addition, the technical solution often requires different companies to work together to deliver a solution.Blockchain technologies require internet connections and digital literacy for widespread adoption; this remains a challenge in some emerging markets, as well as in rural areas of developed countries, where many farmers and producers are located.Close to 80 per cent of Europeans use the internet, compared to less than 20 per cent of Africans, and the digital gap between Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and least-developed countries (LDCs) has been growing sharply since the beginning of the millennium, with a slight improvement since 2013 (ITU).More worrisome is the growing bandwidth gap. Having more powerful telecommunications installations and a stronger bandwidth speed will support blockchain development.As businesses expand into multiple facilities and countries, it can be difficult to keep track of inventory and manage the numerous data and regulatory requirements. Efforts are needed in the tracking and reconciliation of data for a single transaction from numerous data in different regulatory environments. In many cases, these reconciliation processes are still manual andBlockchain and smart contracts could help administer border procedures and national single windows in a more efficient way and improve the accuracy of trade data. The real challenge will be settling interoperability issues and standardization but also political will to create a regulatory framework that is conducive to paperless trade.Many observers point to the limited scalability of blockchains due to the predetermined size of blocks and energy consumption issues. While scalability is a serious issue for public blockchains, it is less so for consortium permissioned ones, which do not face the same limitations.Although blockchains are highly resilient compared to traditional databases due to their decentralized and distributed nature and the use of cryptographic techniques, they are not completely immune from traditional security challenges, and advances in technologies.Need for a regulatory framework that recognizes the legal validity of blockchain transactions, clarifies applicable law and liabilities, and regulates the way data can be accessed and used. The most critical issue relates to the legal status of blockchain transactions. Legislation that recognizes the validity of e-signatures, e-documents and e-transactions, in particular blockchain transactions, is crucial.Another potentially challenging legal issue is the question of data privacy and data localization, restrictions on cross-border data transfers and data privacy, with a growing number of countries adopting measures that impose requirements or restrictions on data flows.Two key provisions of the GDPR seem a priori incompatible with Blockchain, namely the \"right to rectification\" and the \"right to be forgotten\" -i.e. the right to rectify or obtain the erasure of personal data (Articles 16 and 17 of the GDPR). The immutable nature of blockchains makes it very difficult to update, erase, change or correct data. Some in the community argue that a possible solution is to keep personal data off the chain, with only its evidence (cryptographic hash*) exposed to the chain, thereby maintaining the integrity of the transaction while making it possible to erase the transaction itself. The deletion of the data stored externally would mean that the hash stored on the blockchain would point to a location which has been deleted. Others note, however, that hashed data qualifies as personal data under EU law. 107However, careful consideration needs to be given to the costs of transiting to and maintaining a blockchain-based system. Establishing a blockchain platform is a complex endeavour that requires complicated integration processes. In fact, a large part of the cost reductions to be derived from a blockchain may not be linked to the technology itself, but rather to the integration and streamlining work that is necessary to move to a blockchain system.Limited scalability of blockchains due to the predetermined size of blocks and energy consumption issues. This is particularly true for public blockchains, but less so for consortium and private blockchains, which do not face the same limitations. The number of blocks connected on the blockchain.A form of incentive for the miner who successfully calculated the hash in a block during mining. Verification of transactions on the blockchain generates new coins in the process, and the miner is rewarded a portion of those.A ledger maintained by a central agency.Consensus is achieved when all participants of the network agree on the validity of the transactions, ensuring that the ledgers are exact copies of each other.Also known as tokens, cryptocurrencies are representations of digital assets that use cryptography to control key processes including creation of additional units and transfer of assets. Decentralised control is achieved through distributed ledger technology. In this way, cryptocurrencies operate independently of central authorities, such as banks.A method for securing communication using code. The main example of cryptography in cryptocurrency is the symmetric-key cryptography used in the Bitcoin network. Bitcoin addresses generated for the wallet have matching private keys that allow for the spending of the cryptocurrency. The corresponding public key coupled with the private key allows funds to be unlocked. This is one example of cryptography in action.A decentralised application (Dapp) is an application that is open source, operates autonomously, has its data stored on a blockchain, incentivised in the form of cryptographic tokens and operates on a protocol that shows proof of value.Organizations can be thought of as corporations that run without any human intervention and surrender all forms of control to an incorruptible set of business rules.A digital commodity is a scarce, electronically transferrable, intangible, with a market value.A digital identity is an online or networked identity adopted or claimed in cyberspace by an individual, organization, or electronic device.A digital code generated by public key encryption that is attached to an electronically transmitted document to verify its contents and the sender's identity.Ethereum is a blockchain-based decentralised platform for apps that run smart contracts, and is aimed at solving issues associated with censorship, fraud and third party interference.Distributed ledgers are a multi-purpose technology in the digital world that are specifically designed to be shared across a network of multiple sites, geographies or institutions. Records are stored in a ledger that continues to grow.A type of network where processing power and data are spread over the nodes rather than having a centralised data centre.The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a Turing complete virtual machine that allows anyone to execute arbitrary EVM Byte Code. Every Ethereum node runs on the EVM to maintain consensus across the blockchain.A hash is the result of a function that transforms data into a unique, fixedlength digest that cannot be reversed to produce the input. It can be viewed as the digital version of a fingerprint, for any type of data.A network of 'smart' devices (typically involving sensors) that can communicate over the internet, collecting and sharing data.Mining is the act of validating blockchain transactions. The necessity of validation warrants an incentive for the miners, usually in the form of coins. In this cryptocurrency boom, mining can be a lucrative business when done properly. By choosing the most efficient and suitable hardware and mining target, mining can produce a stable form of passive income.A node is a computer running specific software which allows that computer to process and communicate pieces of information to other nodes. In blockchains, each node stores a copy of the ledger and information is relayed from peer node to peer node until transmitted to all nodes in the network.Oracle are trusted providers of external data. By design, a smart contract is not aware of any outside data or events. It resides inside a blockchain and knows only about the data stored on that blockchain.Oracles facilitate an interface between the distributed ledger and the outside world. They can range from IoT sensors, weather stations or trusted information providers supplying relevant data.Peer to Peer (P2P) refers to the decentralized interactions between two parties or more in a highlyinterconnected network. Participants of a P2P network deal directly with each other through a single mediation point.A closed platform, built to allow an organisation or network of organisations to exchange information and record transactions. Participating organisations manage permissioned blockchains; only preapproved entities can access and interact with them.Decentralised and distributed platforms that have no central governance. No single entity or government can bring the network down and participants must be incentivised (through tokens) to run and trust the network -transparency is paramount.A public address is the cryptographic hash of a public key. They act as email addresses that can be published anywhere, unlike private keys.A private key is a string of data that allows you to access the tokens in a specific wallet. They act as passwords that are kept hidden from anyone but the owner of the address.A consensus distribution algorithm that rewards earnings based on the number of coins you own or hold. The more you invest in the coin, the more you gain by mining with this protocol.A set of rules that dictate how data is exchanged and transmitted. This pertains to cryptocurrency in blockchain when referring to the formal rules that outline how these actions are performed across a specific network.A QR code (quick response code) is a type of 2D bar code that is used to provide easy access to information through a smartphone. In this process, known as mobile tagging, the smartphone's owner points the phone at a QR code and opens a barcode reader app which works in conjunction with the phone's camera.Signing a message or a transaction consists in encrypting data using a pair of asymmetric keys. Asymmetric cryptography allows someone to interchangeably use one key for encrypting and the other key for decrypting. Data is encrypted using the private key and can be decrypted by third-party actors using the public key to verify the message was sent by the holder of the private key.Smart contracts encode business rules in a programmable language onto the blockchain and are enforced by the participants of the network.Tokens are a type of digital asset that can be tracked or transferred on a blockchain. Tokens are often used as a digital representation of assets like commodities, stocks and even physical products. Tokens are also used to incentivise actors in maintaining and securing blockchain networks.A tokenless ledger refers to a distributed ledger that doesn't require a native currency to operate.Transaction are the most granular piece of information that can be shared among a blockchain network. They are generated by users and include information such as the value of the transfer, address of the receiver and data payload. Before sending a transaction to the network, a user signs its contents by using a cryptographic private key. By controlling the validity of signatures, nodes can figure out who is the sender of a transaction and ensure that the transaction content has not been manipulated while being transmitted over the network.A collection of transactions gathered into a block that can then be hashed and added to the blockchain.All cryptocurrency transactions involve a small transaction fee. These transaction fees add up to account for the block reward that a miner receives when he successfully processes a block.Turing complete refers to the ability of a machine to perform calculations that any other programmable computer is capable of. An example of this is the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM).Validator nodes are specific nodes in a network that are responsible for constituting blocks and broadcasting these blocks with the network. To create a valid new block they have to follow the exact rules specified by the consensus algorithm. ","tokenCount":"6772"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"03beb24fa0787309c627a63f5bdfcc1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89b3d904-df5b-4691-a9da-63e9d6bd3d1f/retrieve","id":"-1133262605"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1ce8ad5d-db7c-483d-ba18-39b3f3b6a621","pagecount":"18","content":"This report documents Africa RISING's efforts to assess the gender knowledge, skills, and needs of its research partners; and to use the results for tailored capacity building. It shows how an assessment in 2015 (East and Southern Africa project, West Africa project) led to the development of a training concept that matches the project's farming systems and action research approach. After four gender analysis training sessions in 2017, a manual was completed and published on CGSpace to make the training contents accessible to a wider audience. At the same time, a follow-up investigation with the training participants revealed where gender support could be further strengthened.This report focuses on project-wide gender capacity building measures. It does not document individual learning (for instance through interdisciplinary research the gender person took part in or through feedback the gender person gave on a variety of tools). Also, it does not mention shorter training sessions offered to individual teams or at larger project meetings.Assessing the gender capacity and training needs of Africa RISING partners (2015/2016) Africa RISING's overall objective of improving the livelihoods of especially female smallholders and their children emerges from a clear vision of gender equity. It can only be achieved if project partners are invested with well-developed gender capacities. For this reason, Africa RISING (IITA-led West Africa and East and Southern Africa regions) conducted a gender capacity assessment in 2015. The evaluation aimed to direct attention to the importance of gender capacities for the success of the project, provide an outline for a capacity development plan, enable the management to prioritize areas for increased efforts, and set a baseline against which continuous capacity building can be measured.A framework for the assessment was designed by combining elements from the \"Gender Capacity Assessment and Development Guide\" of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish (2015) and the UN Women \"Gender Equality Capacity Assessment Tool\" (2014). It resulted in an investigation on three levels: an evaluation of agricultural policies in Africa RISING countries in terms of their conduciveness for gender-sensitive research for development (environmental level); a focus group discussion with management members about delineated gender core capacities (organizational level); and a survey about the same core capacities among individual staff (individual level).At the environmental level, all Africa RISING countries follow the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program's (CAADP) principle of gender mainstreaming but at varying degrees of national elaboration and implementation. The Governments of Ghana, Malawi, and Zambia emerged as more committed to gender-sensitive agricultural research and extension work and the development of relevant capacities in their staff than their counterparts in Mali and Tanzania. At the organizational level, management members recognized \"gender analysis\" (including the use of its results for research programming) and the application of \"gender transformative approaches\" as areas in which efforts should be increased. \"Effective partnerships\", \"gender and leadership,\" and \"knowledge management and gender-responsive M&E\" were perceived as well-developed capacities. Some findings at the individual level support the management's self-assessment, especially the proposition that skills, experience, and knowledge of \"gender analysis\" and \"gender transformative approaches\" are low among research staff. Other data show that areas the management considered as well-developed were considered to be as less-developed by individual respondents. \"Gender and leadership\" emerged as a capacity where management viewed itself as very committed; however, a larger number of respondents indicated a lack of mandate for gender mainstreaming. Similar assessment gaps appeared for \"knowledge management and gender-responsive M&E\" and \"effective partnerships\". Overall, majority of individual respondents regarded gender as significant to their everyday work, but at the same time indicated a need for higher capacities to effectively include gender aspects into the research process. The capacity assessment report identified starting points for leveraging gender mainstreaming within Africa RISING. For the full report, see: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72524The report especially recommended the offering of gender analysis training to research partners. Therefore, the Africa RISING gender person teamed up with an experienced international trainer (responsible for the didactic approach and methodology of the training) and a junior gender expert to draft the concept and contents of a \"gender analysis in agriculture\" training. While waiting for the completion of the capacity assessment and the Training Africa RISING partners in gender analysis in agriculture (2017) In 2016 and early 2017, the gender team developed a draft training manual for gender analysis in agriculture. In June and September 2017, four training sessions were conducted in Mali, Ghana, Tanzania, and Malawi. The manual is based on a training concept that resonates with Africa RISING's farming systems and action research approach and puts a focus on gender transformation. The following table (Table 1) provides an overview over the four two-day training that reached a total of 60 Africa RISING researchers. Participants self-assessed their knowledge and skills at the beginning and after completing the training. The following figure and table provide an overview of their perceived learning outcomes. Figure 1 aggregates results for all four countries as well as sub-questions, while Table 2 presents more detailed and disaggregated information. Table 2 also includes results to the question of whether participants have identified entry points for an inclusion of gender analysis in their research together with social scientists.    • To maintain participants' competence and confidence in integrating gender analysis into research activities; and • To identify and (where possible) solve challenges that limit the application of knowledge and skills acquired during the training.A list of questions was discussed with participants in individual face-to-face interviews at regional review and planning meetings or sent to them via email. Twenty participants (out of 60 in total) responded (13 male, 7 female). Responses covered all countries (Mali 6, Ghana 5, Tanzania 5, and Malawi 4). Questions sought qualitative feedback and suggestions for further support. The sections below summarize the responses received, including direct quotes from some participants.Responses to this question varied depending on the focus of respondents' daily responsibilities. Several researchers reported to have conducted surveys (design, sexdisaggregation, sampling) in a more gender-sensitive manner since attending the training. One scientist had found participatory tools (daily activity clocks and seasonal calendars) useful. Those more engaged in community mobilization and extension cooperation emphasized that their skills had improved in gender-aware targeting of farmers for R4D activities and in understanding men's and women's differential needs, priorities, and roles. Generally, responses indicated an increased understanding of gender concepts and terminology, as the following two quotes illustrate:The training made me more aware of the gender-terminology and I was able to better evaluate 'gender-statements' in publications. Furthermore, the training was useful in that it made me aware of the fact that I was already having 'gender'-elements in my ongoing research (participant from Ghana).understanding roles and responsibilities of people in a household or community (participant from Tanzania).Participants shared various aspects of the Africa RISING training with colleagues:• Four participants trained other researchers in the application of participatory gender tools such as activity profiles, daily activity clocks, seasonal calendars, linkage diagrams, or matrix scoring. The last tool, matrix scoring, is based on the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF) Africa RISING uses for technology assessments. One participant mentioned that learning and using the matrix scoring tool had improved his understanding of the human and social domains of SIAF, which again had helped his co-researchers to become more aware. • Six participants indicated to have shared their knowledge of gender concepts (intersectionality, gender roles and relations). One researcher noted that gender concepts are now included in brainstorming with colleagues when planning activities. Another person reported that concepts were useful in developing work proposals with co-researchers. • Three participants shared their knowledge on principles for gender-sensitive surveys (including standards for sex-disaggregation) with co-workers. • One participant had intended to organize a \"small workshop\" to train research partners on the most important aspects of the Africa RISING gender training. However, some of her colleagues were not immediately interested and doubted the workshop's usefulness. Therefore, the workshop did not take place. • Two respondents communicated with partners about strengthening a gender transformative approach in R4D activities, especially a closer collaboration with local stakeholders to support sustainable changes in gender relations.The majority of respondents had feedback conversations with supervisors ranging from a short exchange to detailed discussions on how to further include gender aspects in activities.Several researchers attended the training with their supervisors, which, they indicated, catalyzed the integration of the newly acquired gender knowledge and skills in their work.One woman used the discussion with her superior to improve a participatory tool they had planned to employ.  Looking at the gender concepts introduced during the training, many of the participants felt confident to consider gender roles and gender relations in their research (Table 3). However, only few applied the concept of intersectionality. Three responses revealed that the concept itself and its operationalization in research were not yet clear. Among the gender tools the training focused on, participants most frequently applied activity profiles and seasonal calendars, while a smaller number also employed linkage diagrams and matrix scoring (Table 4). Some respondents had not applied the tools for lack of opportunity or because they could not fit them into ongoing activities. Some responses also conveyed a sense of insecurity in terms of how to exactly use the tools. Many of the training participants had used the standards for gender-sensitive surveys (Table 5). This may be due to the fact that surveys constitute the most common method to elicit socioeconomic information in agricultural research (as compared to qualitative or participatory methods). In terms of sex-disaggregation, reporting requirements to donors have further promoted its widespread use. One participant commented that a gendersensitive research set-up could not be established since his superior decided otherwise. This underlined the importance of providing training not only to junior researchers but also to lead scientists. Most respondents simply indicated \"no\" to this question. Three wrote that they were still in the process of experimenting with the new tools and concepts and would need time to fully include them into their work. One participant requested more training on the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF) and the related matrix scoring tool. Another said that results of gender analysis must be integrated into subsequent interventions -a process he saw as not manageable without further support. He wrote:Once gender analysis is complete, we need to iron out identified problems before moving forward. The needed support for interventions to address differences (e.g., access to productive resources and decision-making) identified in gender analysis does not appear to be readily available (participant from Ghana).A person from Tanzania further supported the observation that when less gender-aware superiors design research activities alone, it becomes at times difficult for young scientists to apply their gender knowledge. His comment:Nothing was hard to consider. The only challenge is when someone else has already done the overall study and you are just needed to collect data in the field (participant from Tanzania).Participants suggested the following to improve the training and subsequent support:1. Offer annual or biannual follow-up sessions for participants to promote networking and sharing of field experiences with gender analysis. ","tokenCount":"1827"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"361e89492e556698e5feb4ba2f192058","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/70d324c7-3a06-4d73-a0f6-6d9e006c7b2f/content","id":"592498718"},"keywords":["genetic mapping","haplotype analysis","heat stress tolerance","gene deletion","TaHST1","wheat +","+","+","+","+ A","+","À","+","À TraesCS4A02G499000 Receptor-like kinase +","+","+ À","À","À TraesCS4A02G499100 Terpene cyclase/mutase family member +","+","+","+","+ +","À","À","À","+ TraesCS4A02G499200 RING/U-box superfamily protein +","+","+","+ +","À","A","À TraesCS4A02G499300 Methyltransferase-like protein +","+","+","+ À","À","À","À TraesCS4A02G499400 Receptor-like kinase +","+","+","+","+ +","+","+","A","A TraesCS4A02G499500 Plastocyanin +","+","+","+ +","À","À","À TraesCS4A02G499600 ARF GAP-like zinc finger protein + + TraesCS4A02G499800 Oxoglutarate/Fe(II)-dependent oxygenase +","+","+","+ À","À","À","À"],"sieverID":"e7d3603a-b87f-4596-b70c-810ccc38f7a6","pagecount":"14","content":"Heat stress (HS) causes substantial damages to worldwide crop production. As a cool season crop, wheat (Triticum aestivum) is sensitive to HS-induced damages. To support the genetic improvement of wheat HS tolerance (HST), we conducted fine mapping of TaHST1, a locus required for maintaining wheat vegetative and reproductive growth under elevated temperatures. TaHST1 was mapped to the distal terminus of 4AL chromosome arm using genetic populations derived from two BC 6 F 6 breeding lines showing tolerance (E6015-4T) or sensitivity (E6015-3S) to HS. The 4AL region carrying TaHST1 locus was approximately 0.949 Mbp and contained the last 19 high confidence genes of 4AL according to wheat reference genome sequence. Resequencing of E6015-3S and E6015-4T and haplotype analysis of 3087 worldwide wheat accessions revealed heightened deletion polymorphisms in the distal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL, which was confirmed by the finding of frequent gene losses in this region in eight genomesequenced hexaploid wheat cultivars. The great majority (86.36%) of the 3087 lines displayed different degrees of nucleotide sequence deletions, with only 13.64% of them resembling E6015-4T in this region. These deletions can impair the presence and/or function of TaHST1 and surrounding genes, thus rendering global wheat germplasm vulnerable to HS or other environmental adversities. Therefore, conscientious and urgent efforts are needed in global wheat breeding programmes to optimize the structure and function of 4AL distal terminus by ensuring the presence of TaHST1 and surrounding genes. The new information reported here will help to accelerate the ongoing global efforts in improving wheat HST.Heat stress (HS) is a major and constant threat to crop production (Lesk et al., 2016). As global warming continues, HS is expected to become more frequent and more severe (Reinman, 2013). Consequently, substantial worldwide efforts are being devoted to study and improve the genetic basis underlying HS tolerance (HST) in crop plants (Driedonks et al., 2016;Singh et al., 2019). As a typical cool season crop, wheat (Triticum aestivum, AABBDD) is vulnerable to HS, particularly at the flowering and grain-filling stages (Asseng et al., 2015;Cossani and Reynolds, 2012;Kaur et al., 2019;Stratonovitch and Semenov, 2015;Zampieri et al., 2017). Many experiments have shown significant yield losses associated with HS in wheat (Balla et al., 2011;Li et al., 2019;Lizana and Calderini, 2013;Telfer et al., 2018;Wardlaw et al., 2002), and it is estimated that worldwide wheat yield may decrease by 4.1%-6.4% with each increase of 1 °C in global temperature (Liu et al., 2016a). Clearly, urgent efforts are needed to understand the mechanisms underlying wheat HST and to develop HS tolerant cultivars for maintaining global wheat production at present and trying to increase it in the future (Kaur et al., 2019;Posch et al., 2019).To date, several approaches have been used to characterize the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying wheat HST. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping and genome-wide association study (GWAS) suggest that wheat HST is under polygenetic control and affected by environmental conditions (Guan et al., 2018;Hassouni et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019;Mason et al., 2010;Maulana et al., 2018;Paliwal et al., 2012;Sall et al., 2018;Shirdelmoghanloo et al., 2016;Tadesse et al., 2019). For example, Li et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive GWAS analysis and uncovered 27, 65 and 30 chromosomal loci controlling the tolerance to heat, drought and combined heat and drought stresses, respectively. Meanwhile, reverse genetic studies have revealed the involvement of a number of genes in wheat response and tolerance to HS (Kaur et al., 2019;Ni et al., 2018). Many of these genes encode regulatory proteins that participate in heat shock signalling and responsive pathways, for example TaHsfA2d, TaHSF3, TaHsfA6f, TaHsfC2a, Hsp16.9 and sHsp26 (Agarwal and Khurana, 2019;Chauhan et al., 2012Chauhan et al., , 2013;;Comastri et al., 2018;Duan et al., 2019;Garg et al., 2012;Hu et al., 2018;Liu et al., 2020;Xue et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2013), while others code for various types of proteins with different functional specificities (Agarwal and Khurana, 2018;Fu et al., 2008;Guo et al., 2015;He et al., 2016;Li et al., 2018;Qin et al., 2015;Singh and Khurana, 2016;Tian et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2014;Zang et al., 2017aZang et al., ,b, 2018;;Zhang et al., 2017a). Consistent with the findings made in above research, transcriptomic and proteomic studies disclosed diverse genes and proteins whose expression is altered by heat treatment (Ni et al., 2018;Su et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2017b).Despite the progress outlined above, further efforts are still needed to better understand the genetic and molecular processes controlling wheat HST. To achieve this goal efficiently, it is desirable to isolate the genes that function directly in wheat HST by forward genetic analysis, which has proved to be highly effective in characterizing plant genes controlling important biological processes and agronomic traits (Bettgenhaeuser and Krattinger, 2019;Schneeberger and Weigel, 2011). However, it is challenging to isolate wheat genes controlling HST by positional cloning because heat response phenotypes are difficult to score, varying among genotypes and growth stages and requiring substantial inputs of time and labour (Li et al., 2019). Moreover, the hexaploid genome of wheat is both large (~16 Gb) and complex, with three subgenomes and ~85% repetitive sequences (IWGSC et al., 2018). Additionally, complicated chromosomal alterations, for examples large indels, translocations, inversions and alien introgressions, are frequently found among wheat cultivars (Cheng et al., 2019;He et al., 2019). These difficulties may explain why HST controlling genes have not been isolated by map-based cloning in wheat despite the fact that heat tolerant wheat mutants were reported nearly 20 years ago (Mullarkey and Jones, 2000).A major challenge in dissecting the genetic factors controlling HST is phenotypic characterization of a large number of genotypes (or individuals) in a short period of time. One convenient method is to conduct HST test at seedling stage in controlled growth chamber (Maulana et al., 2018;Mullarkey and Jones, 2000), but the results obtained may not reflect HST at adult plant stage or under field conditions. Consequently, many researchers have evaluated wheat HST at adult stage in the field by covering flowering plants with heat stress shelters (Hassouni et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019;Tadesse et al., 2019). In this work, we conducted HST test under both growth chamber and field conditions to identify TaHST1, a chromosomal locus required for wheat HST at both seedling and adult stages. Following the scheme outlined in Figure S1, TaHST1 was fine-mapped to a genomic region in the distal end of 4AL chromosome arm, which was ~0.949 Mbp according to the reference genome sequence of Chinese Spring (CS) (IWGSC et al., 2018). Further analysis revealed an unexpectedly high level of deletion polymorphisms in the terminal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL, which was validated using genome sequence information generated by the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project (http://www.10wheatgenomes.com/). Our findings provide new information on the genetic basis of wheat HST, shed light on the structural variation of 4AL distal terminus and suggest the necessity to improve wheat HST by enhancing the structure and function of 4AL distal terminus.E6015-3S and E6015-4T were two BC 6 F 6 spring wheat breeding lines derived from a cross between the Chinese cultivar Longmai 20 and the Canadian cultivar Glenlea (Figure 1a). To systematically characterize their difference in HST, we compared their responses to elevated temperature treatment at both seedling and adult plant stages. For the test at juvenile stage, the seedlings (at three-leaf stage) were subjected to heat treatment (38°C) for three days followed by recovery at 20°C for three days. At the end of the recovery period, the leaves of E6015-3S seedlings, but not those of E6015-4T individuals, generally showed a pronounced wilting phenotype (Figure 1b), and while these seedlings apparently recovered to some extent after transferring to normal growth conditions, seed setting was substantially decreased. Physiological analysis conducted on the second day of recovery showed that E6015-4T had a higher value of maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II photochemistry (F v /F m ratio, 180.2% higher, P < 0.0001), more chlorophyll pigments (SPAD value, 386.4% higher, P < 0.0001), and better membrane stability (electrolyte leakage, 93.7% lower, P < 0.0001) than E6015-3S, while in control seedlings (before HS) E6015-4T and E6015-3S did not differ significantly for the three measured parameters (Figure 1c).In field test, E6015-4T and E6015-3S plants were covered with manually constructed thermal stress tents since the heading stage at early May, with uncovered individuals grown alongside as controls (Figure 2a). In a typical clear day in late May, the temperatures inside the tents became higher than those outside from 8 to 18 h, with the highest temperature differences occurred from 12 to 13 h, which were approximately 10-13 °C (Figure 2b). Compared with controls, the thermo-stressed plants exhibited earlier leaf and spike senescence, which was considerably more severe in E6015-3S (Figure 2c). No significant differences were found in plant height (PH), spike length (SL) and spikelet number (SN) between E6015-3S and E6015-4T under either thermo-stressed or control conditions (Figure S2). However, E6015-3S had significantly lower values of grain number per spike (GNS), grain weight per spike (GWS), thousand grain weight (TGW), grain length (GL) and grain width (GW) than E6015-4T under either thermo-stressed or control conditions (Figure 2d). Heat stress decreased GNS, GWS, TGW, GL and GW in both lines, with the percentages of reduction found for E6015-3S being generally larger than those for E6015-4T (Table S1). Clearly, E6015-3S was significantly more susceptible to HS than E6015-4T in both vegetative and reproductive growth.The F 1 seedlings, produced by E6015-4T 9 E6015-3S, exhibited a medium level of HST (Figure S3a). A subsample of the F 2 population (272 seedlings) was phenotyped, which showed three types of HS responses, with 64 being tolerant (as displayed by E6015-4T), 73 being sensitive (as shown by E6015-3S), and 135 being intermediately tolerant (as exhibited by F 1 seedlings). These values fitted well with a segregation ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 (v 2 = 0.610; P > 0.05), suggesting that the HST displayed by E6015-4T was conditioned by a single chromosomal locus. This locus was designated as TaHST1 to facilitate further analysis.Five steps were taken to achieve fine mapping of TaHST1 locus (Figure 3). In the first step, E6015-3S and E6015-4T were comparatively analysed using the Affymetrix 55K SNP chip contained 66 835 SNP markers (Liu et al., 2018). Of the 64 905 SNPs with successful genotype calling, 64 557 (99.46%) were non-polymorphic, with only 348 being polymorphic between the two lines (Table S2). Genome-wide mapping of SNP marker positions using the genomic sequence of CS (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0, 14.789 Gb) (IWGSC et al., 2018) showed that the total physical distances covered by the 64 905 and 64 557 SNP markers were approximately 14.055 and 14.003 Gb, respectively. Among the 348 polymorphic SNPs, 250 were located in six contiguous polymorphic chromosomal segments, that is 1A.  3a; Table S2). Thus, E6015-3S and E6015-4T were 99.46% similar in the assayed SNP markers, and about 99.63% similar in their genomes.In the second step, E6015-3S and E6015-4T were scanned with 756 genome-wide simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers; the resultant 26 polymorphic markers were used to analyse 93 F 2 plants with known heat response phenotypes. This mapped TaHST1 to a location very close to the distal end of 4AL (Figure S3b), which was 744.588 Mbp according to IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 (IWGSC et al., 2018). Although five SSRs (Xbarc78,  (SPAD value), and electrolyte leakage between E6015-3S and E6015-4T seedlings before or after HS. The assays were executed either just before HS or at the second day of the recovery after HS treatment. The values, presented as means AE SE (n ≥ 10), were analysed using one-way ANOVA and LSD multiple comparison method, with those marked by different letters being statistically significant (P < 0.05). The data shown were representative of three independent experiments.Xwmc776, Xwmc219, Xwmc497 and Xwmc722) were anchored upstream of TaHST1, we failed to identify downstream DNA markers (Figure S3b). Of the five upstream SSR markers, reliable physical position information was obtained for only Xbarc78 (723.841 Mbp) and Xwmc219 (732.903 Mbp) by searching CS reference genome sequence (Figure S3b). Thus, TaHST1 locus was assigned to the distal terminal region of 4AL (from 732.903 to 744.588 Mbp) after this step (Figure S3b).In the third step, 272 F 2 plants with known heat response phenotypes were genotyped using 27 SSR markers residing in the distal portion of 4AL (719.178-744.529 Mbp), 14 of which were newly developed and validated in this work (Table S3). TaHST1 co-segregated with the 10 markers located from 739.708 to 744.529 Mbp, thus placing TaHST1 into a physical interval of 4.880  Mbp) (Figure 3b). Notably, the recombination frequency was quite low, being 0.26 cM/Mbp for the 25.351 Mbp region bordered by markers XB1g-50220.1 and Xhau114, which was further decreased to 0.10 cM/Mbp for the very distal end region (5.21 Mbp) delineated by Xhau-108 and Xhau-114 (Figure 3b).In the fourth step, 88 F 2 recombinants, selected from 1006 F 2 plants using the SSR markers XB1g-50220.1 (located at 719.178 Mbp), XB1g-2000.2 (732.789 Mbp) and Sun-140 (744.411 Mbp) (Figure 3c, top panel), were genotyped using the Affymetrix 55K SNP chip. This analysis validated the 137 polymorphic SNPs initially found for the 4A.2 region (Table S2), and these SNPs allowed classification of the 88 F 2 recombinants into 28 types (Table S4), for which F 2:3 families were obtained and phenotyped for HS responses. Combined analysis of the genotypic and phenotypic data of the 28 types of F 2 recombinants (Table S4) reduced the physical interval of TaHST1 to 2.021 Mbp (742.567-744.588 Mbp) (Figure 3c, top panel). We also selected 466 F 2 heterozygotes in this step based on the genotyping information of XB1g-50220.1, XB1g-2000.2 and Sun-140, which were selfed and yielded 21 024 F 3 plants for further mapping of TaHST1.Lastly, 42 F 3 recombinants were identified by screening the 21 024 F 3 plants with the DNA markers Xhau-111 (located at 742.548 Mbp) and Xhau-128 (744.528 Mbp) (Figure 3b). The 42 F 3 recombinants were divided into 24 types after genotyping with 40 DNA markers (including 38 newly developed) located in the 4AL region from 742.548 to 744.531 Mbp (Table S3), with their heat response phenotypes determined using derivative F 3:4 families (Table S5). By integrating the genotypic and phenotypic data of these F 3 recombinant types (Table S5), the physical interval of TaHST1 was narrowed down to 0.949 Mbp (743.639-744.588 Mbp) (Figure 3c, lower panel). According to CS RefSeq v1.0 (IWGSC et al., 2018), this region harbours the last 19 high confidence (HC) protein-coding genes of 4AL (Table 1). To gain a deeper insight into TaHST1 containing genomic region, we conducted two further analyses. First, the 2.043 Mbp terminal region (742.545-744.588 Mbp) of 4AL to which TaHST1 was mapped was analysed using 176 diagnostic SSR markers (Table S3), the majority of which were newly developed according to CS genome sequence. Of the 154 markers polymorphic between E6015-3S and E6015-4T, 109 (70.78%) were dominant and yielded PCR amplicons in E6015-4T but not E6015-3S; the remaining 45 co-dominant markers tended to distribute in discrete patches (Figure 4a). This result indicated possible occurrence of nucleotide sequence deletions in the 4AL distal terminus of E6015-3S as compared to that of E6015-4T.Second, we conducted genome resequencing of E6015-3S and E6015-4T to check probable nucleotide sequence deletions in the 4AL distal terminus of E6015-3S. The clean reads obtained for the two lines, being 18-209 coverage of common wheat genome (Table S6), were mapped to CS genome sequence. From Figure 4b, it is clear that the reads from E6015-4T covered 4AL distal terminus extensively, indicating high similarity between E6015-4T and CS in this region. However, the reads from E6015-3S covered the examined region poorly, with many locations devoid of coverage (Figure 4b). Regarding the 19 HC genes located in the terminal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL, the reads from E6015-4T covered 17 of them (Figure 4c). In contrast, the reads from E6015-3S covered only ten of the 19 genes (Figure 4c).TraesCS4A02G498000 and TraesCS4A02G498100 were poorly covered by the reads from either E6015-3S or E6015-4T (Figure 4c). Bioinformatic analysis revealed that TraesC-S4A02G498000 and TraesCS4A02G498100 were single-exon genes, and they had three and two highly identical homologs (>97% identity), respectively, on other wheat chromosomes according to CS reference genome sequence (Table S7). Therefore, poor coverage of TraesCS4A02G498000 and TraesC-S4A02G498100 by the reads of E6015-3S or E6015-4T may be caused by the presence of multiple closely related homologs. To investigate this possibility and the status of the remaining 17 genes in E6015-3S and E6015-4T, we performed PCR analysis using 69 DNA markers specific for the 19 genes (Tables S3 and  S8), with CS as a control. The 69 markers all yielded anticipated amplicons identical between E6015-4T and CS (Table 1; Table S8). But in E6015-3S, only 15 of the 69 markers yielded the expected amplicons, four of them produced amplicons with altered size, and 50 of them did not show positive amplification (Table 1; Table S8). Based on these results, we deduced that the 19 HC genes were all and similarly present in E6015-4T and CS, but at least 17 of them were affected by sequence deletion, alteration or both in E6015-3S (Table 1; Table S8).Since we used CS reference genome sequence to design the PCR markers for investigating nucleotide sequence and gene deletions in 4AL distal terminal region in E6015-3S, there was a possibility that lack of amplification for certain markers in E6015-3S may be caused by SNP polymorphisms and small indels in E6015-3S genomic DNA, which prohibited efficient primer binding and thus PCR. To examine this possibility, we aligned the primers of all 264 PCR markers, designed for 4AL distal terminal region (Table S3), to the genome resequencing reads of E6015-4T and E6015-3S using Blastn (Figure S4). In E6015-4T, perfect matching between PCR primers and resequencing reads was found for 257 markers (~97% of the 264 markers used), with imperfect matching observed for only seven markers (Table S3). Of the seven cases, four were caused by SNPs in E6015-4T reads and three by the lack of matching resequencing reads (Figure S4, Table S3). This indicated high nucleotide sequence similarity between CS and E6015-4T in 4AL distal terminus. However, in E6015-3S, the corresponding figures were 60 (perfect matching), Receptor-like kinase +, +, +, + À, À, À, ÀThaumatin-like protein +, +, +, +, + À, À, À, À, ÀLate embryogenesis abundant proteinTerpene cyclase/mutase family member +, +, +, + À, À, À, ÀCytochrome P450 protein +, +, + À, À, À TraesCS4A02G498400 WD repeat-containing protein +, +, +, +, + À, À, À, À, À TraesCS4A02G498600 PHD zinc finger proteinU-box domain-containing protein + +Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase +, +, +, + À, +, À, À 131 (imperfect matching due to the lack of corresponding resequencing reads), respectively (Table S3). Thus, compared to CS, abundant nucleotide sequence and gene deletions did occur in the 4AL distal terminus of E6015-3S. The diagnostic PCR markers we used were effective in revealing these deletions.Presence/absence of the last 19 HC genes of CS 4AL in other genome-sequenced wheat cultivars Apart from CS, the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project also sequenced nine other diverse common wheat cultivars (http://www.10whea tgenomes.com/). To gain more insight into the deletion polymorphisms of 4AL distal terminus, we examined the presence/absence of the last 19 HC genes of CS 4AL in the nine genome-sequenced wheat cultivars. Of them, ArinaLrFor carried all of the 19 HC genes, while Jagger having only six, making them most similar to or divergent from CS, respectively (Figure 5; Table S9). Gene losses in the remaining cultivars varied from three to five (Figure 5; Table S9). This result, plus the findings depicted in Figure 4 and Figure S4, indicated the occurrence of extensive nucleotide sequence and gene deletions in the distal end of 4AL in many wheat genotypes including E6015-3S.A panel of 3087 common wheat accessions, including 1852 spring and facultative lines and 1235 winter entries (Table S10) and representing a subset of the global common wheat germplasm core collection (Bulli et al., 2016;Maccaferri et al., 2015), was analysed with five DNA markers (Xhau-1, Xhau-2, Xhau-3, Xhau-4 and Xhau-5, Table S3) that were distributed in the 0.949 Mbp interval harbouring TaHST1 (Figure 6a). Based on marker amplification patterns (Figure 6b), a total of 15 haplotypes were distinguished, with four major ones (Hap1 to Hap4) covering 2703 accessions (Table 2). E6015-4T, CS and Longmai 20 belonged to Hap1, while E6015-3S, Glenlea and Cadenza were assigned to Hap2 (Figure 6b; Table 2). Of the five DNA markers, Xhau-1, Xhau-2, Xhau-3 and Xhau-5 were dominant whereas Xhau-4 was either co-dominant or dominant depending on the haplotypes compared (Table 2). All five markers showed positive amplifications in Hap1, but there were one or more markers that failed to amplify in the remaining 14 haplotypes (Table 2). The finding of four unamplified markers in E6015-3S conformed to the occurrence of multiple deletions in its 4AL terminal region (Figure 4; Table 1).Globally, Hap2 was the most frequent haplotype (45.64%), followed by Hap3 (15.91%), Hap1 (13.64%) and Hap4 (12.38%) (Table 2). Because E6015-3S and E6015-4T were spring wheat, we thus performed a more detailed analysis of haplotype frequencies in the 1827 spring and facultative lines for which there are latitude information (Table S11), with the  emphasis on Hap1 and Hap2. Among the ten latitude intervals, Hap1 frequencies were clearly elevated (18.46%-36.11%; Table S11) in the four latitude intervals (0°-10°N, 0°-10°S, 10°N-20°N and 10°S-20°S) with tropical or subtropical climates, with the highest frequency (36.11%) found for the interval 0°-10°N (Figure 6c). In contrast, Hap1 frequencies in the remaining intervals were comparatively low (Figure 6c), varying from 7.83%-12.05% (Table S11). Hap2 frequencies were substantially higher than those of Hap1 for all ten latitude intervals, and tended to rise as latitude increased towards the north or the south, with very high frequencies detected for the intervals 50°N-60°N (67.05%) and 30°S-41°S (68.12%) (Figure 6c; Table S11). The highest and lowest Hap2 frequencies were found in the latitude intervals 0°-10°S (69.23%) and 30°N-40°N (35.53%), respectively (Figure 6c; Table S11). Further inspection showed that haplotype diversity was lowest in the interval 0°-10°S (with only five haplotypes found) but highest in the interval 30°N-40°N (with all 15 haplotypes detected) (Table S11).We next evaluated Hap1 and Hap2 frequencies in the winter wheat lines from three latitude intervals in the north globe (30°N-40°N, 40°N-50°N and 50°N-60°N) and one interval (30°S-42°S) in the south globe (Table S12). The frequencies of Hap2 were generally higher than those of Hap1, and both Hap1 and Hap2 frequencies were inclined to rise as latitude climbed towards the north or the south (Figure 6d). Hap1 and Hap2 frequencies were lowest for the interval 30°N-40°N (Figure 6d), which was correlated with considerably increased frequencies of Hap3, Hap5 and Hap7 in this interval (Table S12).Regarding the haplotypes of TaHST1 containing genomic region in the accessions from ten major wheat producing countries, the frequency of Hap2 was much higher than that of Hap1, except in the winter lines from China and Germany where Hap1 frequency was larger than that of Hap2 (Table S13). Remarkably, Hap2 frequencies in the spring wheat from eight countries were all much higher than the global frequency of Hap2 (i.e. 45.64%), which was particularly evident for Russia (73.33%), Canada (72.97%), India (72.09%), United States (67.74%) and China (60.00%). In winter wheat, Hap1 frequency was low in Russia (0.00%), Ukraine (5.56%) and United States (6.19%), but was relatively high in China (22.22%) and Germany (45.45%); Hap2 frequency was exceptionally high in France (75.86%) and fairly high in United States (61.86%) (Table S13).In this study, we identified a novel chromosomal locus (TaHST1) required for wheat HST and mapped its location to the distal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL. Furthermore, we discovered heightened deletion polymorphisms in the distal end of 4AL, a phenomenon that has not been reported before. Our findings have important and immediate implications on further study of TaHST1 and ongoing global efforts in the genetic improvement of wheat HST.In the era of global warming with increasing incidences of heat waves, the type of HST that is active at both vegetative and reproductive stages is highly valuable for maintaining plant growth and final yield level. However, no prior studies have reported the identification of a wheat HST locus that is active at both seedling and adult plants stages and its fine mapping to a sub-megabase level. From the data generated in this work, it is clear that our HS tests, conducted at both seedling stage and in the field as described previously (Hassouni et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019;Maulana et al., 2018;Tadesse et al., 2019), are effective in revealing HST differences between E6015-3S and E6015-4T, and that TaHST1 is required for wheat HST at both vegetative and reproductive stages. Lack of TaHST1 not only causes pronounced sensitivity to elevated temperatures at the seedling stage under laboratory conditions, but also leads to significant decreases in multiple yield-related traits, that is GNS, GWS, TGW, GL and GW, in the field. Furthermore, TaHST1 is also likely required for maintaining efficient grain production in normal growth environments, because E6015-3S showed lower values of yield-related traits than E6015-4T under control field temperatures. This may be due to the multifunctionalities of TaHST1 or the gene(s) tightly linked with TaHST1 locus (see also below).First, the terminal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL shows a very low recombination rate, which was estimated to be approximately 0.10 cM/Mbp using the F 2 population derived from E6015-4T 9 E6015-3S (Figure 3b). A recent study employing the SynOpDH92 population suggests that recombination frequency is uneven along wheat chromosomes; although the average recombination frequency of chromosome 4A is 0.21 cM/Mbp, the frequency drops sharply to nearly zero towards the far end of 4AL (Gutierrez-Gonzalez et al., 2019). This low recombination rate might explain our inability to map polymorphic DNA markers downstream of TaHST1.Second, the 4AL distal terminus exhibits heightened deletion polymorphisms in wheat. Judging from the haplotype analysis data (Table 2), the great majority of global common wheat lines (86.36%) may contain one to five deletions in 4AL terminal region, with only a small proportion of them (13.64%) lacking the observed deletions. As exemplified by our analysis data on E6015-3S (Figure 4; Table 1), these deletions can negatively affect gene composition in 4AL terminus, thus disrupting important wheat processes and traits including HST. The high gene deletion polymorphisms in 4AL distal terminus were also seen in the diverse cultivars sequenced by the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project (Figure 5), thus confirming our findings made using E6015-3S, E6015-4T and the 3087 common wheat accessions.Finally, the intact 0.949 Mbp terminal region of 4AL, as annotated in CS and detected in E6015-4T, is gene-rich and carries multiple genes likely involved in stress tolerance. For example, the three genes (TraesCS4A02G497900, TraesC-S4A02G499000 and TraesCS4A02G499400) encoding predicted RLKs, as well as the two genes (TraesCS4A02G498700 and TraesCS4A02G499200) specifying putative proteins involved in protein ubiquitination (Table 1), may regulate tolerance to various stressors including high temperature. This proposition is inferred from the improvement of thermotolerance in rice and tomato by overexpressing the ERECTA RLK (Shen et al., 2015), regulation of thermotolerance in African rice by OsTT1 that is a component of the ubiquitin/26S proteasome system (Li et al., 2015), and a positive role in rice seedling tolerance to heat stress played by OsHTAS that has a ubiquitin ligase activity (Liu et al., 2016b). Thus, the terminal 0.949 Mbp of 4AL may well play active roles in wheat responses to environmental stresses, which is consistent with the mapping of TaHST1 to this important region.The distal terminus of present-day 4AL of hexaploid wheat was originally derived from 7BS through translocation (Devos et al., 1995;Dvorak et al., 2018;Hernandez et al., 2012;Ma et al., 2013;Miftahudin et al., 2004). This chromosomal rearrangement event might confer instability to the translocated 7BS segment, thus leading to frequent deletions that may vary in number, size and location in different genetic backgrounds. Although this kind of phenomenon has not been studied in depth in plants, it is well known in animals that chromosomal rearrangements (including translocation) can accelerate the evolution of the segments involved and the genes carried by them, resulting in enhanced sequence polymorphisms and mutation rates (Bacolla et al., 2016;Marques-Bonet et al., 2007;Navarro and Barton, 2003).Environmental and breeding selections of Hap1-type of TaHST1 locus Elevation of Hap1 frequencies in the four latitude intervals (0°-10°N, 0°-10°S, 10°N-20°N, and 10°S-20°S) with tropical or subtropical climates (Figure 6c; Table S12) is indicative of possible environmental selection of Hap1-type of TaHST1 locus in spring wheat. The much higher Hap1 frequencies (22.22%-45.45%, Table S13) in the winter wheat from China and Germany are probably the result of breeding selection. Consistent with this idea, an additional analysis of 270 Chinese modern wheat cultivars and advanced lines developed by intense breeding selection in recent years showed that the mean Hap1 frequency was increased to 35.93% (Table S14).Despite potential environmental and breeding selections of Hap1-type of TaHST1 locus, the frequencies of Hap2-type of TaHST1 locus were alarmingly high, especially in the spring wheat from Russia (73.33%), Canada (72.97%), India (72.09%), United States (67.74%) and China (60.00%) and in the winter wheat from France (75.86%) and United States (61.86%). We speculate that this may be caused by the lack of vigorous selection of Hap1type of TaHST1 locus in past wheat breeding programmes. The likely hazardous effect(s) conferred by Hap2-type of TaHST1 locus and surrounding gene deletions might have been compensated by homoeologous genes located in the terminal regions of 7AS and 7DS. However, this compensation may not be highly effective because the yield traits of E6015-3S, which lacked TaHST1 and carried extensive deletions in 4AL distal terminus, were decreased under control conditions in the field relative to those of E6015-4T (Table S1). In line with this proposition, a recent study in tetraploid cotton shows that the functional deficiency of two glycosyltransferase genes, caused by a terminal deletion in the short arm of chromosome 18, could not be compensated by their homoeologs, thus leading to a defective short fibre phenotype (Patel et al., 2020). From this finding and the contrasting performance of E6015-3S and E6015-4T under field conditions (Figure 2), we reckon that the deletions in 4AL distal end should be corrected timely so as to enhance wheat tolerance to more severe HS episodes that are likely to occur in the coming years because of global warming (Lesk et al., 2016;Reinman, 2013).The findings in this work have several implications for further research. First, because of low recombination rate in the distal terminus of 4AL, it is difficult to isolate TaHST1 by continuously decreasing its map interval. However, there are other ways that can be followed to isolate and characterize TaHST1. For example, potential candidate genes may be selected using publically available wheat gene expression data, which can then be validated by genome editing (GE), particularly multiplex GE (Chen et al., 2019).Second, E6015-3S may be used to identify and clone additional new genes controlling HST in common wheat. Briefly, heat tolerant wheat lines identified under field or laboratory conditions are firstly screened using the five diagnostic markers (Figure 6a), which excludes the genotypes with a Hap1-type of TaHST1 locus from further analysis. A non-Hap1 heat tolerant genotype is then crossed with E6015-3S, with the resultant F 2 seedlings treated according to the procedure depicted in Figure 1a. If a new HST locus is introduced from the non-Hap1 heat tolerant genotype, the F 2 seedlings would segregate monogenically for heat tolerant or sensitive phenotypes. Then, the new HST locus can be finely mapped, with the acting gene isolated by positional cloning. Moreover, E6015-4T seeds may be mutagenized, and the resulting M 2 (or M 3 ) families are subjected to heat treatment, followed by more detailed analysis of heat sensitive mutants. Hence, appropriate utilization of E6015-3S and E6015-4T may enable more systematic dissection of the complex genetic basis of HST in wheat.Third, wheat lines from the latitude interval 30°N-40°N showed unique haplotype characteristic in the terminal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL, with all 15 haplotypes detected in the spring wheat accessions (Table S11). This may be due to the fact that the 30°N-40°N latitude interval encompasses many Fertile Crescent (FC) countries (e.g. Turkey, Iran and Iraq). It is well known that common wheat evolved in FC, and wheat germplasm from the FC countries often show enhanced genetic diversity (Balfourier et al., 2019;Venske et al., 2019). These haplotypes may be useful for studying the origin and evolution of TaHST1 locus in further research.Finally, we suggest that from now on more rigorous efforts should be taken to raise the frequency of Hap1-type TaHST1 locus in wheat breeding materials because of its associations with heat tolerance and a structurally intact 4AL terminal region. To this end, the wheat lines identified to carry Hap1-type TaHST1 locus by this work may be used as donor materials. The PCR markers developed in this work may speed up the breeding processes involved.Phenotyping HS response HS responses of wheat seedlings were tested as described in the preceding section. Physiological assays and HS phenotyping were carried out before HS (as control) as well as at the second day of the recovery period. Chlorophyll fluorescence (F v /F m ) and content were evaluated as reported previously (Rosyara et al., 2010). Electrolyte leakage was quantified as detailed by Shan et al. (2015). The adult plants of E6015-3S and E6015-4T were examined for high temperature responses in the field using thermal stress tents (Figure 2), which is an effective method for simulating terminal heat stress under field conditions (Hassouni et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019). For both E6015-3S and E6015-4T, three different plots were covered by thermal tents from heading stage. The shelters remained in place until seed harvest. Adjacent replicates were uncovered as controls. Temperatures inside and outside the thermal tents were recorded using Mini T data logger (TL100, Zoglab, Hangzhou, China). No rainfall occurred after the application of heat stress tents. But two irrigations were provided at the middle and late grain-filling stages, respectively. PH, SL, SN, GNS, GWS, TGW, GL and GW were assessed using 10 plants from each plot (Zhai et al., 2016(Zhai et al., , 2018)). The field experiment was conducted in two wheat crop years (2018 and 2019, respectively) with similar results obtained.Genomic DNA was extracted from plant materials using the Trelief TM Plant Genomic DNA Kit (http://www.tsingke.net) and quantified with a NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, Wilmington). The resulting DNA samples were genotyped using the 55K SNP Array, which was designed to analyse 66 835 SNPs, by CapitalBio Technology Company (Beijing, China) as described previously (Liu et al., 2018). The physical positions of SNP markers were obtained by blasting their flanking sequences against the IWGSC RefSeq assembly v1.0 with the following parameters: e-value ≥ 1e-10, identity ≥ 95%, mismatches ≤ 5.Briefly, the initial mapping used 26 polymorphic SSR markers (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov), which included 93 F 2 plants and was executed as described before (Somers et al., 2004;Zhai et al., 2016). Subsequent mapping necessitated the development of new DNA markers (i.e., Xhau markers, Table S3) in the 4AL terminal region (719.178-744.588 Mbp) according to Chinese Spring genome sequence. The various populations used in the mapping were developed as follows. First, 20 F 1 hybrids derived from E6015-4T 9 E6015-3S were selfed to produce 1278 F 2 individuals, 272 of which were used in the initial mapping. Second, the remaining 1006 F 2 individuals were searched for recombinants and heterozygotes occurred within the 719.178-744.411 (Mbp) interval with the markers XB1g-50220.1 (719.2 Mbp), XB1g-2000.2 (732.8 Mbp) and . The resultant 88 F 2 recombinants were genotyped with the 55K SNP chip and selfed to produce F 2:3 families. Third, 466 F 2 heterozygotes obtained in the previous step were selfed to produce 21 024 F 3 individuals, which were screened for recombinants by genotyping with the markers Xhau-111 and Xhau-128. The resulting 42 F 3 recombinants were further genotyped with 40 DNA markers, followed by selfing to produce F 3:4 families. The F 2:3 and F 3:4 families were evaluated for HS phenotypes as described above.Whole-genome resequencing of E6015-3S and E6015-4T About 10 lg of genomic DNA, extracted from the young leaves (Murray and Thompson, 1980), was used to construct a pairedend sequencing library for each genotype following Illumina's standard pipeline. The insert size was approximately 350 bp, with the read length being 150 bp. The libraries were sequenced on an Illuminaâ HiSeq X Ten platform. The raw reads were processed with Trimmomatic (version 0.36) (Bolger et al., 2014), with the resultant clean reads (~209 genome coverage for each line) aligned to CS genome sequence (IWGSC RefSeq assembly v1.0) using BWA-MEM (version 0.7.17-r1188) (Li and Durbin, 2009). Duplicate reads were removed using MarkDuplicates in GATK tools (version 4.0.10.1). Reads with low mapping quality (Q < 40) or multiple hits were removed with Samtools (version 1.9) (Li et al., 2009). The read mapping depth was approximately 209 genome coverage for both lines.The last 19 HC genes annotated for CS 4AL were examined for their collinear counterparts in the nine wheat cultivars sequenced by the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project (http://www.10wheatge nomes.com/). The MCscan package [https://github.com/tangha ibao/jcvi/wiki/MCscan-(Python-version)] was used with default parameters for this investigation.Xhau-1, Xhau-2, Xhau-3, Xhau-4 and Xhau-5, located in the terminal 0.949 Mbp region of 4AL (Table S3), were employed for ª 2020 The Authors. Plant Biotechnology Journal published by Society for Experimental Biology and The Association of Applied Biologists and John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 19, 1038-1051 haplotype analysis (Zhai et al., 2016). A total of 69 gene specific markers were designed for the 19 HC genes annotated for the terminal 0.949 Mbp of 4AL of CS (Tables S3 and S8), with their 4A chromosome specificity confirmed using CS and the nullitetrasomic line N4AT4B (Yu et al., 2010). They were then employed for analysing the 19 genes in E6015-3S, E6015-4T and CS as described previously (Zhai et al., 2018).Numerical values were presented as means AE SE. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA and LSD comparison installed in the SPSS software package (SPSS version 19.0 for Windows; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).","tokenCount":"6297"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd3b07671504f703dfdfedc829e72d51","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9995f359-6bd9-4b26-9d62-28dbf276c4fc/retrieve","id":"-2096996501"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c24892b8-9040-42f1-91fb-3425d8aaef75","pagecount":"1","content":"• Combining local knowledge and technology to develop a cost-effective approach for gathering critical information at high frequency from communities• Developed self reporting approach for households to provide information on their nutrition and food security• Sentinel zones set up to track acute nutrition and food security indicators• Innovations to improve livestock productivity should result in improved nutrition of pastoral communities• Significant lack of evidence to track changes in nutrition, especially in hard-to-reach community• Climate shocks are increasingly impacting livestock production in drylands -not much understanding on how these shocks impact household nutrition and food securityResearch Associate W.Lepariyo@cgiar.orgWatson LepariyoNext steps• Developed and tested a self reporting approach in four locations (Samburu, Marsabit, Kilifi and Eastleigh)• Disseminated pilot findings through stakeholder engagements ","tokenCount":"120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"508075bb463b145aeea71f8ff3d930e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/071b7ca3-e9c4-475e-a130-02dcc5ca355a/content","id":"-1720368777"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"be2c2f23-4335-4ff2-829a-dd1a9b0c5191","pagecount":"235","content":"1 IntroducciónComo resultado del proceso de globalización e inserción en el mercado mundial, los países de Centroamérica enfrentan una serie de dilemas y cambios entre los cuales es importante mencionar i) La eliminación de restricciones no arancelarias, ii) Una menor intervención del estado en la comercialización de productos agropecuarios; iii) La entrada en vigor de los acuerdos de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC), en donde se destaca el Acuerdo sobre la Agricultura (ASA); iv) La reactivación del proceso de integración económica y modernización de los instrumentos para facilitar el comercio intra y extra regional; y v) El aumento de la liberalización comercial hacia terceros mercados a través de tratados de libre comercio con México, República, Dominicana, Panamá, Chile, ALCA y potencialmente con el MERCOSUR (Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano, 1999).Como consecuencia de estos procesos, los gobiernos de la región han impulsado, desde mediados de la década de los años 80, un proceso de transformación o modernización de la agricultura centroamericana cuyo objetivo principal es el volverla competitiva en el ámbito internacional. En este proceso, la política económica de los gobiernos hacia la producción de granos básicos, pasó de un objetivo general de obtener la seguridad alimentaria a través de la autosuficiencia de la producción doméstica de alimentos, a un enfoque más integrado que involucra la diversificación de la producción agrícola, la promoción de las exportaciones de productos no alimentarios y la compra en el mercado mundial de granos básicos (Sain y López Pereira 1997).Esta política lleva en forma implícita o explícita dos grandes supuestos o hipótesis importantes para el desarrollo de este trabajo. En primer lugar supone que la producción doméstica de granos básicos en general, y de maíz, en particular, no es competitiva, por lo que no tiene cabida dentro del concepto de una agricultura moderna. En segundo lugar se apoya en la hipótesis de que no es posible solucionar el problema de pobreza del pequeño agricultor mediante el aumento de la productividad de los granos básicos.Basadas en estos dos argumentos, las políticas de reconversión productiva y modernización, ofrecen incentivos implícitos o explícitos a los agricultores que cambien la asignación de la tierra de granos básicos a otros productos de mayor competitividad. Por ejemplo, en el caso de Panamá el incentivo consiste en un pago fijo de 150.00$/hectárea reconvertida de maíz a cultivos no tradicionales para la exportación; así como un financiamiento no reembolsable por el 60% de la infraestructura de riego a utilizarse en estos cultivos (Pereira de Herrera 2000).Quizás el ejemplo más claro de la importancia del esfuerzo concertado sobre el rumbo de la agricultura en Centro América está dado por el programa denominado: \"Agenda Centroamericana para el Siglo XXI\", establecido por los Presidentes de Centro América en 1996. Este programa es financiado por el Banco Centroamericano de Integración Agropecuaria (BCIA), la Fundación AVINA y el Instituto Centroamericano de Administración de Empresas (INCAE) y tiene por meta, promover el desarrollo sostenible mediante la implementación de una agenda común para el desarrollo de la competitividad y el crecimiento económico. Es decir que, en este programa, la agricultura se visualiza como un sector productivo, eficiente y generador de divisas.El posicionamiento de la agricultura de Centro América (CA) en el mercado mundial estuvo basado en tres elementos: 1) CA como puente geográfico, logístico, económico y cultural entre regiones y países, 2) Diversidad biológica y recursos ambientales únicos y 3) potencial de producción agrícola y forestal durante todo el año. En este contexto se identificó a la agricultura y a la agroindustria de exportación como sectores con potencial para el desarrollo de altos niveles de competitividad. En este contexto, se define la competitividad como la capacidad de innovar y mejorar continuamente la productividad de los procesos. Tomando tres requisitos: el potencial de crecimiento en el mercado mundial, la factibilidad de producción eficiente, y la posibilidad de agregar valor, se identificó un conjunto de productos en cada país para realizar un estudio de diagnóstico sobre su potencial competitivo. El maíz resultó elegido en dos países: Guatemala y El Salvador (Tabla 1). Los resultados de estos estudios arrojaron resultados mixtos; por ejemplo, el análisis de la competitividad y sostenibilidad del sistema agroindustrial del maíz en Guatemala, señala que podrían existir condiciones favorables para la producción del grano pero que el sector enfrenta enormes desafíos ante el reto de la importación proveniente de México (Herrera 1999).Adicionalmente a estos esfuerzos, algunos países han organizado foros de discusión con representantes de los sectores interesados para analizar la situación de la competitividad de distintas actividades agrícolas. Estos grupos, denominados \"clusters\" se organizan por actividades, por ejemplo el \"Cluster del Maíz\" o el Cluster del Fríjol, y dentro de estos foros se han llevado a cabo estudios para analizar la cadena agroindustrial relacionada al cultivo, y evaluar el estado de los factores en los que se apoya la competitividad. Estos estudios también arrojan resultados mixtos respecto a la habilidad competitiva de la producción de maíz. Por ejemplo, en Guatemala, el reporte de la comisión de seguimiento concluye que la desventaja competitiva del sector es superior al 100%. El reporte atribuye esta situación, entre otros factores, a la falta de apoyo del estado en términos de servicio básicos, infraestructura vial, falta de acceso al crédito, poco acceso al mercado por parte de los pequeños agricultores y al establecimiento de políticas macroeconómicas que llevaron a la desprotección de la producción a partir de 1992.La poca competitividad de la agricultura en general y de los granos básicos en particular en CA se refleja también en los resultados de un estudio reciente, basado en un análisis de las tendencias pasadas y proyecciones futuras de las cuasi-rentas (diferencia entre el valor de la producción y el costo total variable) de un gran número de actividades del sector en América Latina (Hertford y García 1999). Los resultados de este estudio muestran que el maíz no aparece como competitivo en ninguno de los países de la región centroamericana (Hertford y García 1999).La política seguida por los gobiernos hacia el sector de producción de granos básicos tiene implicaciones directas e indirectas sobre distintos sectores. Por ejemplo la inversión en I&D de nuevas tecnologías disminuye drásticamente y el remanente se reorienta hacia actividades de mayor interés. Como consecuencia, los países de Centro América han comenzadon a cuestionar la importancia económica y social de la inversión en investigación agrícola en granos básicos, de manera que la investigación pública ha visto declinar sus presupuestos en forma dramática (Sain y López Pereira 1997).En este trabajo, se cuestiona el supuesto de que la producción de maíz no es una actividad potencialmente competitiva en Centro América. Para apoyar el argumento se reconoce desde el comienzo la diferencia entre maíz blanco y maíz amarillo. Para los propósitos de este trabajo esta diferencia es fundamental. Aunque en algunos de los estudios mencionados, se reconoce en términos generales la diferencia en producción y consumo, entre ambos productos, a la hora de realizar el análisis esta diferenciación no queda clara y se confunde el mercado para el cual el maíz blanco es evaluado en su capacidad de competir. En general, los estudios previos evalúan la capacidad de competir del maíz domésticamente producido en el mercado de la industria de alimentos balanceados en donde el maíz amarillo importado es el principal sustituto.Para plantear claramente los objetivos y la importancia de este trabajo, es necesario examinar primero cuál es el estado actual de la agricultura centroamericana, después de aproximadamente 15 años de implementación del proceso de modernización. Interesa conocer que respuestas ha dado a dos de los grandes desafíos, planteados por la situación mundial, en que se desempeña la agricultura centroamericana, tales como el combate a la pobreza y la seguridad alimentaria.La agricultura continúa siendo el principal sector de la economía regional en muchos aspectos claves tales como contribución al ingreso nacional, generación de divisas, y fuente de empleo (Tabla 2).Tabla 2. Indicadores de la importancia de la agricultura en la economía regional Sin embargo estas cifras, consideran solamente la contribución directa del sector de producción, y por lo tanto esconden la verdadera importancia del sector agropecuario. Por ejemplo, aunque la contribución del sector a escala regional se sitúa en el orden del 20%, esta cifra no considera las aportaciones de la industria agroalimentarias que de ser consideradas podrían subir este aporte hasta el 40 o el 50% del PIB. Otro aporte que no se refleja en los números de la Tabla 2 es la contribución del sector a la alimentación o seguridad alimentaria. Los granos básicos y la carne son importantes en la seguridad alimentaria de la región y además ocupan una porción importante de la superficie agrícola.El sector genera alrededor del 70% de las divisas por concepto de exportaciones, con una dinámica muy fuerte. Para CA como un todo las exportaciones han crecido a un ritmo de 12%/año durante el periodo 92-97. Costa Rica y Guatemala son los principales países exportadores siguiendo en orden de importancia El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua (Figura 1). Sin embargo es este último país el que muestra mayor crecimiento durante el período con una tasa de crecimiento de 21% seguida por El Salvador. Mientras Costa Rica y Guatemala se mantienen en el promedio regional, Honduras permanece estancada (Figura 2). Un indicador de la evolución de la modernización del sector es la composición de las exportaciones agrícolas el cual ha cambiado profundamente en los últimos 10 años. En el pasado casi el 100% de las exportaciones agrícolas de la región se componía de cinco productos primarios, conocidos como productos exportables tradicionales: café, banano, azúcar, algodón y carne. En 1997 la canasta exportable contiene mas de 1500 productos en su mayoría exportados con un cierto valor agregado donde los productos tradicionales solo forman el 57%. El volumen de las exportaciones de tradicionales se mantiene mas o menos estable gracias a muchos años de experiencia y un buen control de calidad. Los productos del sector pesquero han ido en aumento gracias al cambio tecnológico en técnicas de pesca pero particularmente en el área de procesamiento del producto. Sin embargo existen debilidades en el sector como son las regulaciones sanitarias y el daño al medio ambiente. Quizás el ejemplo más conocido de crecimiento y consolidación de la exportación de productos no tradicionales lo componen el sector de frutas, como piñas y melones. Costa Rica, Honduras y Guatemala llevan la delantera en estos productos que han desplazado en superficie a los granos básicos en general, pero al arroz en particular en las tierras planas y fértiles de los valles. Centro América es el principal exportador de piña del mundo. Lo contrario a esta tendencia creciente ha ocurrido con la carne bovina, cuya participación en las exportaciones ha disminuido de forma constante después de ser en la época de los 70 y 80 el cuarto producto en importancia. En este caso, los principales exportadores son Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Honduras.Otro indicador de la transformación de la agricultura se encuentra en los precios implícitos de exportación los cuales aproximan el valor agregado relativo de las exportaciones. Más aún, en una comparación entre países y productos la capacidad de obtener mayores precios y mantener la participación en el mercado es un indicador de la competitividad. En general, entre 1992 y 1997 existe una tendencia creciente de los precios implícitos lo que indica un mayor valor agregado en las exportaciones centroamericanas. El Salvador es el país que recibe los mayores precios implícitos.Los cambios en la composición de las exportaciones inducidos por el proceso de modernización de la agricultura se reflejan en un cambio en el uso del suelo. Desde 1985 cuando comienzan las políticas de promoción a las exportaciones la importancia relativa en términos de superficie de los granos básicos y de los productos tradicionales de exportación decrece, siendo sustituidos por los productos de exportación no tradicionales. Esta tendencia ha sido más marcada en países como Guatemala y Costa Rica países que encabezan la lista en importancia como exportadores de productos agrícolas en la región (Arze Carrión et al. 1999).Para el caso del factor trabajo, la evolución de la productividad de la fuerza laboral agrícola en el periodo 1970-1990, sin ajustar por la calidad de la mano de obra (nivel de educación), muestra que, con excepción de Costa Rica, que tuvo un modesto crecimiento del 1% anual, los países de América Central presentan tasas negativas, destacando Nicaragua con una gran disminución (-4.2% anual) de la productividad de la fuerza laboral en ese período de veinte años (Prasada Rao 1993). Hacia fines del período Costa Rica ocupa un lugar destacado y los demás países de la región se ubican muy levemente por encima del valor promedio para el mundo.En resumen, aunque el proceso de transformación y modernización de la agricultura centroamericana ha mostrado avances significativos, , en los últimos años han surgido algunos elementos de discusión que reflejan la aparición de algunos efectos no previstos en el proceso. Ello sería un indicio que el camino no se encuentra consolidado, y todavía quedan algunas preguntas importantes sin resolver, por ejemplo:i. Aunque la canasta exportable está compuesta por 1500 incisos arancelarios, sólo 20 productos, en 1977, abarcaron el 77% del valor de las exportaciones, siendo estos mayormente productos primarios o intermedios y no productos de consumo final.ii. La inestabilidad de los mercados mundiales es otro problema que se debe enfrentar. En su mayoría la diversificación de las exportaciones se ha basado en los denominados \"productos postres\" cuya demanda final es muy dependiente de los vaivenes de la economía en los países importadores, lo que provoca un aumento en la volatilidad e incertidumbre en los precios internacionales y por lo tanto, en el valor de las exportaciones de la región.iii. Otro problema con este tipo de producción es su vulnerabilidad a la aparición de problemas técnicos provocados por plagas y enfermedades.iv. Quizá la cuestión pendiente más importante se refiere a cuál es o cuál será el papel de los productores de granos básicos de la región en este proceso de modernización. Este vasto sector de la producción agrícola abarca aproximadamente 2.0 millones de pequeños agricultores caracterizados por una estructura productiva donde predominan fincas pequeñas, generalmente localizadas en tierras frágiles de laderas altamente susceptibles a la degradación del suelo por erosión. Por otro lado, este sector coexiste con un sector comercial con fincas mayores, localizados en suelos fértiles de los valles con buen acceso a recursos y usando una tecnología de producción moderna de alto rendimiento. Aproximadamente entre el 25% y 30% de la producción total de la región proviene de este sector.v. La crisis de las existencias mundiales de granos de los últimos años, ha hecho reflexionar a los gobiernos sobre la seguridad y los precios del abastecimiento de alimentos básicos.vi. El hecho de que casi el 80% de la producción de granos básicos en la región es realizada en pequeñas fincas campesinas con niveles bajos de tecnología y productividad, ha traído la preocupación sobre los efectos de las políticas en la distribución del ingreso (Scherr et al. 1996) vii. Al creciente deterioro de los recursos naturales (Pagiola 1994;Tisdell 1991; Vosti y Reardon 1996), la mayor parte de los pequeños campesinos productores de maíz se ubican en tierras de laderas, las cuales son, generalmente, las más frágiles y susceptibles a las altas tasas de degradación si no se manejan adecuadamente (Sain y Barreto 1996).viii. Los niveles de pobreza rural se han mantenido y/o aumentado en casi todos sino en todos los países de CA.Se puede afirmar que, el proceso de modernización de la agricultura ha tenido un éxito parcial. Aunque, por un lado ha promovido el surgimiento de un sector moderno y exportador de productos no tradicionales con un nivel de valor agregado mayor que el caso de las exportaciones tradicionales, también ha generado algunos efectos tan inesperados como indeseables tales como el aumento de la pobreza rural, el alto grado de vulnerabilidad existente en la región y un grado mayor de inseguridad alimentaria en la población rural.2 Objetivos y organización del trabajoDe estas consideraciones ha surgido la necesidad de contar con políticas diferenciadas para cada uno de los dos sectores de producción de maíz. Por un lado, se necesita de políticas dirigidas a fomentar la eficiencia económica en la producción con el fin de permitir al sector comercial competir tanto en el mercado interno como en el externo (Porter 1985 y 1990; Everlin y Mendoza 1996). Por otro lado, es necesario también implementar políticas dirigidas a paliar los costos del ajuste y la globalización sobre el sector campesino, donde el énfasis debe estar sobre el aumento de la productividad (ingresos), la distribución de la riqueza y la reducción del deterioro de los recursos naturales, particularmente suelo y agua (Tripp y Sain 1994).Una política diferenciada para ambos sectores implica la hipótesis de que en América Central existen zonas donde es posible producir maíz en forma competitiva, en términos de su eficiencia económica incluyendo los costos y beneficios de los recursos naturales y de las externalidades.Uno de los objetivos de este trabajo es el de presentar evidencia que permita verificar la hipótesis de que la producción de maíz blanco en Centro América puede ser socialmente rentable y competitiva en el mercado nacional y, potencialmente al nivel del mercado mundial, si se toman las medidas de política adecuadas. Si la hipótesis es cierta, entonces, la política de inversión en investigación que tiende a desincentivar la producción de granos básicos debe ser revisada. La competitividad de la producción de maíz se basa en la eficiencia de los diferentes sectores que componen la industria de producción y transformación del maíz de manera que se puedan poner en manos de los consumidores mayor diversidad de productos derivados del maíz blanco a los menores precios posibles. Para eso se necesita una política gubernamental que apoye al sector de manera que, sea posible una reducción de costos sostenible.Para verificar esta hipótesis es necesario identificar y caracterizar estas zonas o áreas donde la producción de maíz puede ser competitiva y sostenible, y este proceso es otro de los objetivos perseguidos en este trabajo. Dado que existe la posibilidad de competir con el mercado externo en la producción de distintos tipos de maíz para consumo humano (maíz blanco para grano, maíz dulce para elote y elotillo para procesamiento) y para industria (maíz amarillo para alimentos de pollos y cerdos) y sustituir importaciones (Sain y López Pereira 1997), en la identificación de estas zonas debe identificarse claramente el mercado donde se quiere competir.La identificación de zonas con potencial de producción de maíz en f orma competitiva y sostenible proporciona una herramienta para la toma de decisiones y el diseño de políticas relacionadas con el establecimiento de prioridades y la asignación de recursos en investigación y extensión, y la promoción del cultivo en zonas m ás o menos competitivas. Una vez identificadas las zonas, esta información puede ser utilizada para el diseño de políticas diferenciadas: una dirigida a promover la eficiencia económica ,privada y social, otra dirigida a fomentar la equidad (sector campesino y de laderas), ambas con objetivos de conservación o mejora de la base de recursos.Complementariamente, es necesario evaluar las tecnologías de producción de maíz necesarias para alcanzar posiciones competitivas y sostenibles, al mismo tiempo que se contribuye a combatir la pobreza rural. Los métodos de evaluación usados, normalmente no contemplan aspectos de la tecnología, relacionados con la importancia de que la eficiencia económica privada en las zonas, a ser identificadas, no se logre a costa de sacrificios sociales y ambientales. Para garantizar esto, la tecnología a ser utilizada en la producción de maíz en las zonas debe ser evaluada desde estos tres puntos de vista: 1) Privado: buscando mayor rentabilidad para la unidad de producción, 2) Social: teniendo en cuenta las distorsiones del mercado por las políticas y la equidad (tasas de descuento, el papel de la mujer, salud y nutrición) y 3) Ambiental: valorando los efectos sobre los recursos naturales y algunos efectos fuera de la finca.Resumiendo entonces, el objetivo general del proyecto es contribuir con la asignación eficiente de recursos para la investigación y extensión agropecuaria en América Central. Específicamente el proyecto intenta identificar en los países de la región centroamericana áreas con potencial para lograr altos niveles de productividad de maíz, de una manera competitiva y sostenible, mediante un conjunto de tecnologías y políticas apropiadas.El nivel de la competitividad de la producción de maíz se analiza en dos niveles de agregación. En primer lugar se realiza un análisis de la situación competitiva de la región centroamericana como un todo. A este nivel de agregación las unidades de análisis son los países que componen la región: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panamá. El análisis a este nivel utiliza la metodología de los conglomerados desarrollada por M. Porter Posteriormente, se realiza un análisis más detallado del potencial de competitividad de regiones específicas dentro de países seleccionados. Para ello se realiza una adaptación de la metodología de las cuasi rentas, propuesta y utilizada por Hertford y García (1999). En este caso se desarrolla una propuesta metodológica que se ilustra en detalle para los tres países que han contribuido con FONTAGRO, al momento de la realización de este trabajo: Panamá, Costa Rica, y Nicaragua. Adicionalmente, el CIMMYT contribuyó con fondos para la aplicación de la metodología en El Salvador. Para los casos correspondientes a Honduras y Guatemala la metodología se aplica basándose en información secundaria de estudios ya realizados a nivel de campo.Los informes se organizan de la siguiente forma siguiente. La segunda parte presenta la metodología propuesta para medir las condiciones de competitividad, a escala regional y al nivel de las regiones dentro de los países.Esta parte comienza estableciendo una definición de trabajo de la competitividad y revisando algunos indicadores propuestos en la literatura para su medición. La segunda sección presenta, en forma breve, el método de los conglomerados utilizado para analizar la posición relativa de Centroamérica en el mercado mundial. La tercera, cuarta y quinta sección explican en detalle la metodología propuesta para medir la competitividad de la producción de maíz en áreas específicas. El método propuesto se basa en el análisis de simulación de las cuasirentas unitarias al nivel de área.La tercera sección del informe, presenta el análisis de la competitividad al nivel agregado, y se analiza la posición de Centroamérica y de los países que la componen respecto a la competitividad en el mercado mundial de maíz. En la primera sección de esta parte se utiliza el método de los conglomerados para analizar los factores claves que inciden en la competitividad de la producción de maíz blanco en CA y en cada uno de los países que la componen. Siguiendo el método del diamante, y después de una pequeña introducción, la segunda sección analiza las condiciones del mercado mundial de maíz: evolución y tendencia d e la demanda mundial, de la oferta mundial y de los precios internacionales. La tercera sección presenta las tendencias tanto en el consumo como en la producción de maíz en CA y se realiza un análisis detallado de los determinantes de la superficie cultivada con maíz. La cuarta sección presenta un análisis de la evolución de la productividad actual y potencial de la tierra. La quinta sección analiza los sectores de apoyo más importantes en la determinación de la productividad: ID&T de tecnologías, mercado de semillas mejoradas y fertilizantes. La sexta sección presenta la estructura del sector productivo de CA, como un paso intermedio hacia la cuarta parte, donde se presentan los casos de los países en forma individual. La sétima sección presenta el ambiente de política económica e institucional en que se desarrolla la producción de maíz. Finalmente, la octava y última sección de esta tercera parte presenta un resumen de las condiciones de competitividad de la región Centroamericana para la producción de maíz blanco, expone algunas conclusiones e implicaciones de políticas y realiza algunas recomendaciones.La cuarta sección del informe presenta los reportes por país en donde se analiza la competitividad potencial de las diferentes regiones productoras en cada uno de los tres países miembros de FONTAGRO: Panamá, Costa Rica y Nicaragua. Adicionalmente se presenta el caso de El Salvador, cuya ejecución fue financiado por el Programa de Economía del CIMMYT a través de fondos de la Unión Europea.Finalmente, la quinta sección del informe presenta un resumen ejecutivo de los resultados y conclusiones, y presenta recomendaciones de políticas dirigidas a obtener un sector de producción y procesamiento de maíz blanco competitivo y moderno, e integrado a la economía del país.1 Competitividad, definición y evaluaciónAunque el concepto de competitividad es central en la teoría económica moderna, es a partir de hace unos años, que el concepto ha pasado al centro de la atención como consecuencia de la creciente tendencia hacia una economía globalizada, donde el intercambio entre naciones juega un papel fundamental en el esquema de desarrollo económico. En la literatura actual hay diferentes acepciones y definiciones de competitividad que revelan distintas escalas de pensamiento. Por ejemplo, aplicado a las naciones el concepto intenta explicar el intercambio comercial entre países (Porter, 1990). También ha sido aplicado para explicar la competitividad de una determinada industria o sector en un país determinado (Porter, 1982(Porter, , 1985; Longmire y Moldashev, 1999).Los países de América Latina no han permanecido ajenos a la corriente y, en los últimos años, se han realizado y se siguen llevando a cabo númerosos estudios de la competitividad de distintas industrias. Dado que el sector agrícola juega un papel importante en la economía de la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos, muchos estudios se concentran en el análisis de las denominadas cadenas agroalimentarias. El lector interesado en una discusión más profunda sobre el tema puede consultar la red virtual de trabajo que tiene el IICA (competitividad@infoagro.net) y consultar las publicaciones y referencias que se allí se encuentran.El interés de este trabajo va orientado a conocer la habilidad de las firmas agrícolas ubicadas en ciertas zonas geográficas, dentro de un país, que reúnan condiciones agroecológicas (clima, suelos, etc.) y socioeconómicas (tecnología, infraestructura, vías de acceso, etc.) que les permiten producir maíz blanco y sus derivados y competir favorablemente con sustitutos y sus derivados provenientes de otros países.Con este propósito, en este documento adoptaremos la siguiente definición de competitividad, sin pretender que esta sea la adecuada para todos los propósitos.Esta definición es compatible con las siguientes consideraciones enunciadas por Oster al abordar el tema de competitividad: (1) La competitividad de una firma en la colocación de un determinado producto en el mercado no es una característica absoluta, sino que depende de lo que otras firmas hacen dentro y fuera del mercado, del producto en particular; (2) El mercado no es estático, por lo que la competitividad de la firma tampoco lo es, sino que para mantenerse en el mercado la firma debe implementar los cambios que la dinámica del mercado requiere y (3) Las decisiones involucradas en una estrategia competitiva se hace en el contexto de información limitada y fricciones del mercado (Oster 1994). Estos tres puntos son fundamentales para tratar el tema de la competitividad del maíz en la región centroamericana. Así, más específicamente, la competitividad del maíz en los años venideros dependerá (1) de lo que hagan otras regiones del mundo productoras y consumidoras de maíz, (2) del comportamiento de los mercados -dentro y fuera de la región -y (3) de la cantidad y calidad de la información conque se diseñe una estrategia regional de competitividad, es decir, del grado de incertidumbre asociado con la toma de decisiones.Para darle contenido práctico a la definición adoptada de competitividad es necesario identificar cual será la unidad de análisis (firma, región o industria) y el punto de comparación. La Figura 1 muestra en forma esquemática la estructura de la industria de producción, procesamiento y distribución del maíz blanco producido localmente en un país de Centroamérica. La industria se compone de cinco sectores:1. Sector de producción de grano. Compuesto por los agricultores productores de excedentes y agricultores productores para el mercado (comerciales).Compuesto principalmente por los pequeños comerciantes que compran los excedentes a los pequeños agricultores y los transportan a un centro de acopio temporal o a un centro de almacenamiento.Compuesto principalmente por molineros y tortillerías que toman el grano como materia prima y lo transforman en harina de maíz y tortillas.Compuesto por las industrias de transformación del grano en alimento para el consumo animal (principalmente aves y cerdos) y para el consumo humano.Compuesto por los consumidores finales, tanto rurales como urbanos.Sector de producción de grano (n)Agricultores subsistencia (n 1 ) Agricultores comerciales (n 2 )Sector de procesamiento Para darle un contenido geográfico se asume que los dos primeros sectores ocurren en una misma región geográfica por lo que a su asociación se la denominará: Zona de Producción y Acopio. De la misma forma se considera que el sector de transformación y el de consumo final tienen lugar en una misma región geográfica, por lo que a su asociación: Zona de Transformación y Consumo.En la figura se han identificado tres Puntos de Competencia (Pc) 3 potenciales. El primero de ellos ( Pc1) se refiere al mercado de la industria de alimentos balanceados para animales. En este punto el principal sustituto en este mercado es el maíz amarillo importado. El segundo, (Pc2), corresponde al mercado de la industria de producción de derivados industriales de maíz para el consumo humano (fritos, tortillinas etc.). Este es un mercado relativamente pequeño pero en continuo aumento, de gran potencial para la producción local en donde el producto sustituto es también el maíz importado blanco o amarillo. Finalmente, el tercer punto de competencia ( Pc3) es el mercado del consumidor local, principalmente el consumidor urbano, en donde la harina de maíz y sus derivados (principalmente tortilla) deben competir principalmente con la harina de trigo y sus derivados (principalmente pan). En este trabajo se toma a los dos últimos sectores como el Punto d e Competencia central para establecer la hipótesis de la competitividad de la producción domestica de maíz blanco.El objetivo central del proyecto puede ser entonces expresado como la de identificar aquellas regiones de producción y acopio con la mejor capacidad de poner el producto final en las manos de los consumidores (Pc2 y/o Pc3) a un precio inferior al de sus competidores. En este caso, la palabra competidores se refiere a otras áreas del mismo país o del extranjero que pueden poner el producto (maíz blanco o sus derivados) en el mercado. El análisis de la competencia por las preferencias de los consumidores, aunque importante, se encuentra fuera del alcance y objetivos de este trabajo. Por esta razón el análisis de la competitividad de las regiones asume que los niveles de consumo de maíz blanco y sus derivados en el punto de comparación se mantienen constantes o aumentan. Este supuesto se puede mantener siempre y cuando el nivel de precios, calidad y variedad de productos derivados de maíz blanco mejoren las preferencias de los consumidores. Para ello es necesario el desarrollo de una agroindustria eficiente, basada en la obtención de materia prima de calidad homogénea y barata. Esto requiere producción de materia prima (grano) de forma eficiente y la ayuda del gobierno con políticas que apoyen y promuevan el desarrollo de la industria de transformación.Resulta claro entonces que la competitividad del sistema depende de la competitividad y niveles de eficiencia de cada uno de los sectores que lo componen. Sin embargo, dada las restricciones de presupuesto y el tiempo en que se desenvuelve el proyecto el esfuerzo mayor se pondrá en el análisis del desempeño del sector de producción.Una amplia gama de indicadores de la habilidad de competir ha sido propuesta y por supuesto, que la conveniencia de cada uno de ellos depende, entre otras cosas, de cual es el objetivo y el nivel de análisis buscado. Por ejemplo, para una industria es posible aplicar el modelo de diamante de Porter que estipula que las diferencias de rentabilidad en una industria están dadas por i) La intensidad actual del nivel de competencia; (ii) La presencia de productos substitutos; (iii) El poder de los compradores; (iv) El poder de los vendedores y v) Las barreras de entrada (Porter 1980).Sin embargo, este es uno de los posibles enfoques que pueden ser usados para determinar el nivel de competitividad de la unidad de análisis. En la literatura el concepto de ventajas competitivas o competitividad es usado en forma intercambiable con el concepto de ventajas comparativas. De hecho, muchos indicadores usados para medir las ventajas comparativas o las distorsiones de políticas son también usados como indicadores de la competitividad. Ante la diversidad de indicadores usados, Hertford y García proponen cinco criterios que un buen indicador de la competitividad debería cumplir: 1) que el indicador sea comprensivo e integral, 2) que sea comprensible y cuantificable, 3) que tenga validez teórica y 5) que tenga una naturaleza dinámica (Hertford y García 1999). Después de revisar y evaluar los indicadores mas comúnmente propuestos en la literatura respecto a los cinco criterios, los autores concluyen que la mayoría de ellos fallan en alguno de los cinco requisitos mencionados, y proponen entonces un indicador alternativo basado en el concepto de las cuasi-rentas (CR) definidas como la diferencia entre los ingresos brutos y los costos variables (Hertford y García 1999).El concepto de conglomerados (clusters) fue desarrollado por M. Porter como base para explicar la competitividad y el intercambio comercial internacional (Porter 1980(Porter , 1985(Porter , 1990(Porter , 1997(Porter y 1998)). En forma simplificada, un conglomerado es una concentración geográfica de empresas e instituciones ligadas entre sí. El concepto de conglomerado es crítico para obtener una ventaja competitiva. La productividad de un determinado sector en la producción de un bien, depende no solo de la eficiencia (costos mínimos) del sector, sino que además depende de la eficiencia de otros sectores que le proveen con insumos y servicios (incluyendo mano de obra) a costos bajos y del medio ambiente político e institucional (mínimos costos de transacción) en el cual la industria se desenvuelve.Por ejemplo, si la empresa es parte de un conglomerado productivo es probable que la misma tenga un mejor acceso a insumos, información y tecnologías que otras que no forman parte del conglomerado.De acuerdo con este concepto, la competitividad depende de cuatro factores que forman el llamado Diamante de la Competitividad:1) Condiciones de los factores. No es la abundancia relativa de los factores básicos, tierra, trabajo y capital, sino el desarrollo de factores especializados creados en cada país como los son la cultura, la infraestructura, el conocimiento, etc. lo que determina la competitividad. Son estos factores los que ayudan a un país a crear ventajas competitivas que no son copiadas o replicables en otras áreas o países. En el caso de la agricultura, los factores básicos determinados por la tierra (por calidad) y por el clima deben ser complementados por factores especializados que permitan valorizar estos recursos básicos, tales como recursos humanos, investigación y desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías (I&D), mecanismos de utilización del conocimiento, infraestructura, política, mercados etc.2) Condiciones de la demanda. La globalización pone al mundo como un mercado potencial. Pero las empresas necesitan de una demanda local exigente que fomente la eficiencia y el mejoramiento de la calidad. La exigencia en calidad es fundamental y puede proceder de los consumidores (industria de transformación, tortillerías etc.), pero también puede provenir de regulaciones y apoyo por parte de entidades públicas (reglas ISO).3) Industrias relacionadas de apoyo. Un conglomerado de industrias de apoyo eficientes que provean insumos y servicios a bajo costos, y en forma confiable, es una condición importantísima para obtener una ventaja competitiva. En particular, para la agricultura se necesita la presencia de sectores que provean insumos (fertilizantes, semilla, pesticidas, etc), maquinarias, servicios (crédito, almacenamiento, transporte, etc.), mano de obra, e I&D de calidad, en el momento adecuado, y a un bajo costo.4) Estrategia y estructura competitiva de las empresas. La competencia lleva a la especialización en la cadena agroindustrial. Es necesario que el agricultor tenga y vea las ventajas de seguir una estrategia de una mayor intervención en el mercado.La interacción entre los cuatro factores dentro del diamante es otro factor importante para alcanzar la competitividad. Esto se produce porque una vez formado el conglomerado, el grupo se refuerza mutuamente bajando los niveles de costos con el tiempo.Finalmente, el modelo cierra considerando el medio ambiente bajo el cual se desarrolla el conglomerado. Los factores 1-4 son influenciados por el azar o hechos fortuitos, tales como nuevos inventos, nuevas tendencias en el mercado, eventos naturales, etc. y por el gobierno por sus políticas y regulaciones; por ejemplo el estado de las leyes relacionadas con la propiedad intelectual. El medio ambiente hace más o menos costosa la participación de las firmas en el mercado aumentando los precios que las empresas pagan y reduciendo aquellos que reciben por sus productos.El enfoque de los conglomerados se usa para analizar la posición competitiva de Centroamérica en el mercado mundial del maíz blanco (Parte III). En primer lugar se examinan las condiciones relacionadas con la demanda y oferta mundial de maíz en general y del maíz blanco en particular. La metodología es descriptiva y dirigida a ubicar a CA en el mercado mundial de maíz blanco tanto como región productora como consumidora. Seguidamente se examina la evidencia existente respecto a las tasas de crecimiento pasadas en la producción y el consumo de maíz en la región. Aquí se combinan técnicas descriptivas con técnicas econométricas dirigidas a ubicar la situación actual y futura de la actividad maicera dentro de un contexto más dinámico.El análisis continúa con un examen de la productividad actual y potencial de la tierra (rendimiento) para la región como un todo y para cada país en particular. Usando resultados experimentales se analiza la variabilidad histórica y espacial de la productividad potencial para diferentes tipos de materiales genéticos (variedades de polinización abierta y materiales híbridos) y se las compara con aquellas obtenidas de encuestas a agricultores y otras mediciones de los rendimientos al nivel de la finca.El nivel de productividad es relacionado con dos sectores de apoyo. Por un lado, con el sector de la oferta de insumos particularmente de semilla mejorada y de fertilizantes y en segundo lugar con el sector de investigación y desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías. El enfoque concluye con un análisis de la estructura del sector de producción y del entorno de la política económica en la cual se desenvuelve el sector en los países y en a la región como un todo.En todo el estudio la unidad de análisis la conforman los países de la región centroamericana, de esa manera se puede realizar un análisis comparativo de las condiciones de competitividad en cada uno de ellos.Aunque la habilidad o capacidad de competir está asociada a una diversidad de factores externos e internos (Porter, 1997), es indudable que la eficiencia física y económica de la unidad son dos factores determinantes de la competitividad. El nivel de eficiencia física y económica se refleja en los costos unitarios de producción y, por lo tanto en los precios a los cuales la unidad puede ofrecer el producto en el mercado (precio de oferta).Un indicador sugerido para medir la competitividad de una industria se basa en el concepto de cuasi-rentas (CR) definidas como la diferencia entre los ingresos brutos y los costos variables totales (Hertford y García 1998):Donde, el primer término del lado derecho de la ecuación representa los beneficios brutos (BB) obtenidos de multiplicar el precio recibido por el productor (P) por la cantidad producida y vendida (Q), menos el total de costos variable (CVT) entendidos estos como los costos que se pueden evitar si se decide no producir.Esta ecuación equivale al área DP2BC sombreada en la Figura 1 y mide los retornos a los factores fijos de producción tales como tierra, infraestructura, mano de obra familiar y manejo. En la Figura, si el precio recibido por el agricultor es P2 entonces el producirá Q2 , donde el ingreso marginal (P2) es igual al costo marginal. El beneficio bruto esta dado por el rectángulo 0P2BQ2, y el costo variable total por el área ODCQ2. En su estudio de la competitividad de la agricultura latinoamericana, Hertford y García estiman las CR de una empresa promedio, o representativa de un grupo o agregado, para un año en particular, y para un periodo de tiempo hacia delante y hacia atrás. Si las CR se mantienen positivas en el tiempo, quiere decir que el grupo o industria representado tiene una ventaja competitiva en la producción del bien cuya producción se está estudiando y viceversa; si las CR declinan o son negativas o muy fluctuantes estarían indicando que la industria no es competitiva en la producción de ese bien. Es decir que el criterio para declarar una empresa como competitiva es:y que la diferencia sea lo suficientemente grande y permanezca en el tiempo para permitir a la empresa pagar a los factores fijos y permanecer en el mercado 4 .El concepto de CR esta íntimamente relacionado con el indicador usado por Posada para medir la competitividad, él propone como indicador de la competitividad, la relación entre el precio de competencia o precio equivalente (PE) y el costo unitario (CU) de producción (Posada 1995). Si el indicador es mayor o igual a 1, es decir si el PE (ingreso marginal) es mayor o igual que el CU entonces quiere decir que existen rentas no negativas (cero o positivas) y la empresa o región es competitiva. Si por el contrario el PE es menor que el CU, existen pérdidas y la producción no es competitiva. Los productores deben ajustar la eficiencia en producción de manera que el CU disminuya si quieren permanecer en el mercado. Es decir que la condición de competitividad es:Esta expresión es equivalente a estimar las cuasi-rentas por unidad de producto o cuasi-rentas unitarias (CRU) y es similar al indicador propuesto por Hertford y García si se considera que el PE es aquel que recibe el productor (PE=P). Sin embargo, la introducción del concepto de precio equivalente (PE), permite introducir en este indicador algunos conceptos relacionados con el ambiente económico en que se desenvuelve la producción y analizadas cuando se realizó el examen de los conglomerados.El concepto de las CRU se adopta como indicador de la competitividad de una determinada región dentro de un país de Centroamérica. Bajo este concepto, una región es competitiva en la producción de maíz si las CRU son positivas o equivalentemente si los costos unitarios de producción en la región (CUr) son menores que el precio equivalente que la región enfrenta (PEr): [ 4] CVUr < PEr Este criterio es entonces usado para la comparación entre regiones. Se dice que la región i tiene una ventaja competitiva relativa sobre otra unidad j ((VCRij), si las CRU de la región i (CRUi) son mayores que aquellas de la región j (CRUj). Es decir, si se cumple con la siguiente condición:Si se asume que ambas regiones enfrentan el mismo nivel de precios equivalentes, entonces la condición es equivalente a que los CVU de la región i sean menores que los CVU de la región j. Esto permite entonces, ordenar las regiones comparadas de acuerdo con los valores de las cuasi-rentas unitarias en cada una de ellas.La especificación completa del modelo de las CRU para una región determinada requiere de la especificación de sus dos componentes, los costos variables por unidad de producción (CVU y del precio equivalente (PE).tanto P como W son determinados por condiciones de la economía, generalmente, fuera del control del sector bajo consideración, por lo que CR* dependerán esencialmente del nivel de productividad R.El CVU resulta del cociente entre costo variable total por unidad de superficie (CVT)y el nivel de productividad de la tierra (Y):Se debe dejar en claro, desde el principio, que la estimación se hace sobre los costos económicos de producción, cuya estimación requiere de la estimación de la estructura tecnológica de producción prevaleciente (decisiones sobre cómo producir) y de la información sobre precios pagados por el agricultor por los insumos y servicios.En la práctica la especificación de los CVT requiere de tres pasos:El CVT se define como la suma de cinco componentes: el costo de preparación del suelo para la siembra (CPS), el costo de siembra (CS), el costo de la fertilización (CF), el costo del control de malezas (CCM) y el costo del control de plagas (CCP). El costo de cosecha y transporte que generalmente se expresan por unidad de producto y se realizan al final del periodo productivo se consideran en el cálculo del precio equivalente (CIMMYT 1989). El paso siguiente es reconocer que, en una región determinada, existirá una variación en la forma con que cada uno de los cuatro componentes es realizada.Por ejemplo, algunos agricultores realizarán la preparación del suelo mediante chapea y quema y otros mediante la aplicación de herbicidas. Cada forma diferente de llevar a cabo el componente generará un costo diferente. El costo al nivel regional de realizar cada componente dependerá entonces de la proporción de la superficie que se realice con cada una de las diferentes formas.Es decir que para estimar el costo de cada componente requiere identificar las principales formas o técnicas con las que se realizan cada uno de los componentes (niveles técnicos) y las proporciones (porcentajes) de la superficie total en la región que es cultivada con cada una de ellas.De esa manera la expresión para la estimación del CVT esEn esta expresión αi , βj , ηk , λl y µm indican las proporciones de la superficie cultivada en la región que se realizan con diferentes formas (técnicas) que se indexan como i, j, k, l, y m. Esto quiere decir que en la región existen i=1...I técnicas diferentes para preparar el suelo, j=1...J técnicas diferentes para sembrar, k=1...K formas de fertilizar, l=1...L formas de control de plagas y m=1...M formas de control de malezas.Se debe notar que los niveles técnicos estarán correlacionados entre sí para formar diferentes niveles tecnológicos, que a su vez estarán correlacionados con el nivel de productividad. Por ejemplo, si se distinguen dos tipos de semillas: local y semilla híbrida (j=2) y dos niveles de fertilización (k=2): bajo y alto, es muy probable que los agricultores que usen semilla híbrida de maíz también usen niveles altos de fertilizantes y que obtengan mayores niveles de productividad que aquellos que usen semilla local con bajos niveles de fertilización. Como se verá más adelante estas correlaciones deben tenerse en cuenta para llegar a conclusiones robustas.Para terminar la especificación de los CVU es necesario especificar los costos de cada una de las diferentes formas técnicas de realizar cada componente. Como se trabaja con costos variables, se consideran dos clases de generadores de costos: el costo de los insumos y servicios usados y el costo de la mano de obra.El costo de los insumos se obtiene mediante el producto de las cantidades de insumos requeridos por unidad de tierra y el precio que el agricultor paga por el insumo. El costo del servicio es simplemente el precio que el agricultor paga por el servicio por unidad de tierra. El costo de la mano de obra se calcula mediante la multiplicación de la cantidad de jornales (días hombre) por unidad de tierra necesarios para ejecutar la tarea por el salario o precio del jornal.Es decir que el cálculo del costo de cada alternativa técnica requiere la especificación de los requerimientos o coeficientes técnicos (cantidades de insumos, servicios y jornales) y de sus precios al productor.Resumiendo, la especificación de los CVU al nivel regional requiere conocer el valor de: i)Las formas alternativas de realizar cada uno de los componentes del costo, ii) La proporción de la superficie que se realiza con cada una, iii) Los coeficientes técnicos por unidad de superficie para realizar cada una de las técnicas, iv) El precio de los insumos, de los servicios y de la mano de obra.Las formas alternativas de realizar cada uno de los componentes se muestran en la Tabla 1. La última columna determina la intensidad de uso de cada forma.Se debe notar que las alternativas enlistadas en la Tabla son categorías exhaustivas de manera que, la suma de las proporciones de la superficie debe sumar la unidad. Es decir, para cada región el trabajo de estimación se reduce bastante. Por ejemplo, en caso de que haya sólo dos alternativas, únicamente se necesita estimar un coeficiente, en caso de tres, se necesitan dos y en caso de cuatro se necesitan tres. En todos los casos se procede a estimar la alternativa tecnológica de máxima. Así, en el caso de semillas se estiman las proporciones de la superficie cultivadas con VPL y con materiales híbridos, obteniéndose la superficie con variedades criollas por diferencia. En el caso del tipo de siembra sólo se estima el porcentaje sembrado con tracción mecánica (β1) y se obtiene la siembra manual por diferencia. De la misma manera se procede con los demás coeficientes. El concepto de precio equivalente o precio de competencia se explica con la ayuda de la Figura 5. Considérese una región cualquiera con un costo unitario de producción representado por CUr ($/Kg) y que los costos de poner una unidad de producto en el centro de consumo este representado por la distancia económica a este centro (DE2). En ese punto, el producto de la región compite por las preferencias de los consumidores con un equivalente importado, el cual tiene un precio en el puerto de entrada del país representado por el precio CIF (Pi) y los costos económicos de internar el producto para ponerlo en el centro de consumo viene dado por la distancia económica del puerto al mercado (DE1). La condición de competitividad requiere que el costo unitario más el costo de poner la unidad en el centro de consumo sea menor que el costo de una unidad de producto sustituto importado en ese mismo centro. En la figura se muestra que esto es equivalente a requerir que el costo unitario de la región sea menor que el precio equivalente que enfrenta la región (PEr) definido como el precio internacional del producto sustituto, (Pi), más la distancia económica de ponerlo en el centro de consumo (DE1), menos la distancia económica de llevar la producción de la región al centro de consumo (DE2):Nótese que si la distancia económica de ambos productos fuera aproximadamente igual, estas se cancelarían y el precio equivalente sería aproximado por el precio CIF del producto importado.El precio internacional (Pi) captura el medio ambiente en el mercado mundial del producto (maíz blanco) como alternativa a la producción doméstica en un determinado país. Este precio es común a todas las regiones dentro del país. La distancia económica del puerto al centro de consumo del maíz blanco importado (DE1), incluye los costos de transporte y los costos de transacción (aranceles y otros costos administrativos) de llevar el maíz al centro de consumo. La distancia económica de llevar el producto de la región al centro de consumo (DE2) involucra el costo de transporte y los costos de transacción.Los costos de transacción reflejan la dificultad de comerciar a los precios del mercado (De Janvry et al., 1991, Renkow 1998). En este caso, reflejan el impacto de las políticas comerciales, (tarifas, aranceles, regulaciones) y de factores estructurales que hacen que, los precios que los agentes económicos deben pagar por servicios o insumos sean mayores que los precios existentes en el mercado, y que aquellos que reciben por sus productos sean menores que los prevalecientes en el mercado. Los costos de transacción trabajan, entonces, estableciendo una cuña que separa los precios de oferta y demanda en un mercado. Cuanto mayor sea el nivel de dificultad en el sistema nacional de comercialización y transformación, mayores serán estos costos y menores serán las condiciones de competitividad del país en general y de una región en particular.A su vez, el costo de transporte es una función de la distancia entre el puerto de entrada o región de producción, y del costo de transporte por unidad de distancia que debe reflejar el estado de las carreteras.La Tabla 4 resalta algunos aspectos relacionados con la estática comparativa relacionada con el concepto de distancia económica y precio equivalente.4 La estructura estocástica de las cuasi-rentas unitariasTradicionalmente, el criterio de comparación explicado en la sección anterior es aplicado a un sector, industria o región usando valores promedios o más frecuentes de los parámetros y variables necesarias para estimarlo. Este procedimiento es un enfoque determinante en el sentido de que, no hay una medida de la variabilidad ni de la incertidumbre asociados con los parámetros en una región determinada. En ese sentido, la condición puede ser demasiado exigente en el sentido de eliminar regiones donde los datos promedios esconden el hecho de que existen grupos de agricultores con un alto nivel de eficiencia económica y bajos costos unitarios, y otros con baja eficiencia y altos costos unitarios. Frecuentemente, el análisis es mejorado a través del análisis de sensibilidad considerando diferentes escenarios. Los escenarios que usualmente se consideran son, además del caso promedio o modal estimado, que pasaría en el peor y en el mejor de los casos. Aunque las conclusiones mejoran, el análisis todavía no dice mucho de cuan frecuente es la ocurrencia de cada uno de los escenarios considerados.El análisis probabilístico o análisis estocástico propone una alternativa para solucionar esta limitación al considerar explícitamente, la variabilidad de los parámetros tecnológicos existente en la región y la incertidumbre en el conocimiento de algunos de los parámetros involucrados en su estimación.La base del análisis probabilístico se encuentra en las variables aleatorias que lo componen. Sin entrar en detalles técnicos, se puede considerar que una variable aleatoria se caracteriza por considerar no solo el rango de valores posibles sino que también se le adjunta a cada uno de ellos la probabilidad de su ocurrencia 5 .. El valor de una variable aleatoria es un resultado de un experimento y en general no se conoce con anticipación mientras que la probabilidad de que la variable aleatoria tome cierto valor determinado (o un rango predeterminado) sí se conoce por anticipado.Las variables aleatorias pueden agruparse en discretas o continuas. En el primer caso la variable puede tomar valores específicos dentro del rango, mientras que una variable continua puede tomar cualquier valor dentro del intervalo. Por ejemplo, el número de aplicaciones de herbicidas en una región es una variable discreta ya que puede tomar sólo números enteros: 0, 1, 2, mientras que la dosis de aplicación de nitrógeno es una variable continua. El rendimiento del maíz en una determinada región es otro ejemplo de una variable aleatoria continua. La función que caracteriza la probabilidad de que una variable discreta tome un determinado valor se denomina \"función de masa de probabilidad\", mientras que en el caso de una variable continua se la denomina \" función de densidad de probabilidad\" (fdp). Sin embargo, y a modo de simplificación, se usará solo fdp para referirse a ambos tipos de variables teniendo en cuenta que, para aquellas variables discretas, el término se refiere a la función de masa de probabilidad.En el caso de las variables continuas, la probabilidad se define para un intervalo y no para un valor determinado. De esa manera, conociendo l a fdp del rendimiento de maíz en una región determinada se puede conocer, por ejemplo, la probabilidad que el rendimiento este comprendido entre 1,200 y 1,300 kg/ha. Sin embargo, no se puede conocer cual es la probabilidad de obtener exactamente 1200 kg/ha.Una función relacionada con la fdp es la función de distribución acumulada (fda) y, como su nombre lo expresa, acumula la probabilidad de manera que, a través de esta función, se obtiene la probabilidad de que la variable de interés sea igual o menor que un valor asignado. Por ejemplo, si se conoce la fda se puede obtener la probabilidad de que el rendimiento en una región sea igual o menor a 1,200 Kg/ha y la probabilidad de un intervalo se obtiene entonces mediante la diferencia entre la fda correspondiente al valor más alto (por ejemplo 1,300 kg/ha) y el valor inferior del intervalo en cuestión (1,200 kg./ha.)A diferencia del análisis determinístico que sólo produce como resultado un valor único, el análisis probabilístico produce la función de densidad de probabilidad acumulada (fda) de la(s) variable(s) de interés (Pouliken 1970, Reutlinger 1971, Anderson and Dillon 1992). Por ejemplo, si la variable aleatoria de interés es el CVU, entonces la fda expresa la probabilidad de que los CVU en esa región sean menores que un valor k determinado que, en el caso del criterio de competitividad elegido, es igual al PE. La Figura 6 ilustra este concepto que es la base del criterio de comparación para determinar la competitividad en el caso del análisis estocástico. La importancia de la estructura tecnológica se refleja en la distribución del CVU, mientras que aquella del medio ambiente económico en que se desenvuelve la región, se representa por el PE. La importancia relativa de cada una en la determinación de la competitividad, se puede apreciar en la Figura 7. En la parte superior de la figura se muestra la fda del CVU de dos regiones de producción denominadas R1 y R2. La Región 2 muestra una ventaja competitiva sobre la Región 1 ya que para cualquier nivel de PE la probabilidad de que el CVU sea menor que el PE es mayor en la 2 que en la Región 1. Sin embargo, el PE que enfrenta la Región 2 es significativamente menor que el PE que enfrenta la Región 1 (quizás por mayores costos de transporte), por lo que la situación de competitividad se revierte. A esos precios diferenciales la Región 1 tiene mayor probabilidad de tener un CVU menor que el PE que enfrenta la Región 2. Es decir, la R1 tiene una probabilidad mayor de ser competitiva que la R2 a pesar de que su estructura tecnológica y de costos de producción no le favorece. En otras palabras, para ser competitivos no basta producir a costos bajos sino que, además, se debe tener la infraestructura necesaria para comerciar el producto en forma eficiente y ponerlo en manos del consumidor al menor costo posible.. La diferenciación entre ambos componentes es importante para el establecimiento de políticas relevantes. En el caso de la R2, estas deben estar dirigidas a mejorar los precios equivalentes que enfrenta la región en vez de dirigirse a la mejora tecnológica. Para obtener la FDA de los CVU se usa el análisis de simulación. El método obtiene la FDA de los CVU a través de un proceso simulado de muestreo de cada una de las FDA de las diferentes variables aleatorias especificadas en el modelo analítico especificado.A modo de ejemplo ilustrativo, se supone que interesa conocer el beneficio bruto por hectárea de maíz, calculado como el rendimiento del maíz multiplicado por el precio recibido por los agricultores (BB = R * P). Se considera que tanto el rendimiento, como el precio son variables aleatorias, con FDA conocidas, entonces el método consiste en extraer repetidamente un número grande de muestras de la FDA de rendimiento y multiplicar cada una por el valor obtenido de la muestra de la FDA correspondiente al precio del maíz. De esa manera se obtiene la FDA de la variable de interés que, en este ejemplo, es el beneficio bruto. Este proceso se repite una cantidad grande de veces con el fin de obtener una estimación robusta de la FDA de la variable de interés.La construcción del modelo de simulación para cada región,requiere de la ejecución cuidadosa de un procedimiento en etapas las cuales se describen a continuación.El primer paso en la construcción de un modelo de simulación consiste en la especificación del modelo analítico, es decir, determinar qué es lo que se pretende simular. En este caso, este paso ya fue realizado con la especificación del costo variable unitario (CVU).Una vez especificado el modelo analítico, la segunda etapa en la construcción del modelo de simulación consiste en dos pasos importantes:1) Identificar aquellos parámetros del modelo que son constantes y conocidos con certeza, es decir que pueden ser representados por un solo valor y aquellos parámetros que tienen una cierta variabilidad en el sistema representado por el modelo analítico y/o no se conoce su valor con certidumbre.2) Caracterizar las variables aleatorias mediante la especificación de la fdp y de los parámetros que caracterizan a dicha forma. Por ejemplo, se puede postular que el rendimiento se distribuye como una variable normal (forma funcional) con una media de 1.5 T, y una varianza de 0.650 T (la media y la varianza son los parámetros que caracterizan a la distribución normal)A continuación se describen ambos pasos.La lógica para diferenciar la incertidumbre de la variabilidad es diferente para cada uno de los tipos de variables que presenta el modelo.Se debe recordar que el modelo de costos unitarios regionales reconoce la variabilidad existente en la tecnología usada en la región. Aunque en teoría y bajo supuestos, bastante restrictivos, como información perfecta y homogénea entre todos los agentes involucrados y cero costos de transacción, la tecnología usada debería ser la misma para todos los agricultores; en la práctica esto no se cumple y existe una amplia variabilidad. De hecho, se puede llegar a pensar que no existen dos agricultores que produzcan el cultivo exactamente de igual manera. Sin embargo, los factores que influyen los costos de transacción y por ende los precios e información que manejan los agricultores son bastante homogéneos, para ciertos grupos de agricultores, de manera que se pueden identificar conglomerados o por grupos de agricultores que tienen una tecnología y, por tanto, costos similares.El modelo captura la variabilidad de la tecnología en una región determinada y considera la incertidumbre en el valor de los parámetros de la forma que se describe a continuación.La variabilidad de la tecnología se captura de dos maneras: i) a través de la identificación de las diferentes formas de realizar cada una de las tares y las proporciones de la superficie con la cual se realiza cada una y ii) en la intensidad con que se realizan las tareas.La variabilidad se recoge en las diferentes formas en que se puede preparar el suelo y en intensidad de las labores.En principio, se postulan cuatro formas agrupadas de acuerdo con la combinación de ,si laborea o no el suelo, la forma de tracción que se usa y que se hace con el rastrojo (Tabla 2). Para cada una se debe determinar la proporción de la superficie cultivada en la región. Estas categorías son exclusivas y debieran ser exhaustivas en términos prácticos por lo que la suma de las proporciones debe sumar la unidad (100%).La incertidumbre se captura, a través de la opinión de los expertos, sobre el valor mínimo, más probable, y máximo de la proporción de la superficie cultivada que se realiza con cada una de las cuatro formas. Se espera que el verdadero valor de la proporción se encuentre dentro de los rangos mínimos y máximos pero que con mayor probabilidad alrededor del valor más probable. Y esta información es la que le pasamos a la simulación.La lógica para separar la variabilidad de la incertidumbre es similar al caso anterior de la preparación del terreno. En cuanto a la variabilidad se reconocen dos formas de siembra y tres tipos de semilla (Tabla 2). La intensidad se captura a través de la densidad de siembra con cada una. La incertidumbre se introduce en la estimación por los expertos de la proporción de la superficie sembrada con cada forma y en la estimación de la densidad correspondiente.En este caso sólo se toma la variabilidad en la intensidad del componente, ya que la ausencia de fertilización corresponde a una dosis nula de N y P. Entonces, la variabilidad y la incertidumbre se confunden en la estimación de los expertos sobre la intensidad (densidad) de la aplicación de fertilizantes.Se reconocen dos formas que capturan la variabilidad tecnológica regional, mientras que la intensidad está determinada por el número de controles. De esa manera, la incertidumbre se captura en la estimación por los expertos de la proporción de la superficie que se realiza con cada forma; mientras que la estimación del número de controles confunde variabilidad con incertidumbre en una misma estimación.Este caso es similar al de la fertilización donde solo intensidad en el uso ilustra la variabilidad tecnológica. La ausencia de control corresponde al nivel cero y la estimación de los expertos del número de controles confunde la variabilidad con la incertidumbre.Una vez determinadas las variables aleatorias presentes en el modelo analítico, la pregunta es ¿cómo se determinan las fdp de cada una de ellas?. Existen varios métodos sobre cómo especificar la distribución de probabilidad de una variable aleatoria; sin embargo, el conocimiento de los valores que puede tomar la variable (rango), y de las características del fenómeno aleatorio, son elementos importantes para minimizar la posibilidad de cometer un error de especificación.Cuando hay disponibilidad de información sobre la ocurrencia de la variable bajo estudio, como por ejemplo series de tiempo o datos de encuestas, existe un conjunto de técnicas que se pueden usar para especificar la forma funcional de la distribución. En el caso, más frecuente en el cual no se tiene información empírica suficiente sobre el fenómeno y que no se cuenta con el tiempo ni el presupuesto para generar estos datos, se deben usar distribuciones flexibles, generales, no paramétricas 6 que no imponen demasiadas restricciones y que se pueden considerar como aproximaciones de las verdaderas distribuciones de probabilidad. En este trabajo se usará una de las distribuciones más usadas particularmente en el contexto de recabar información de expertos: la distribución de probabilidad triangular.La distribución de probabilidad triangular está definida por tres parámetros: el nivel mínimo, el máximo y el más probable. Es decir por el rango de valores que la variable pueda tomar y por el valor mas frecuente o de moda. La Figura 8, muestra las formas posibles de la distribución de probabilidad triangular. La función de densidad triangular es muy usada cuando la cantidad de información que se tiene sobre los verdaderos valores de la variable es escasa o nula y cuando no existen recursos (tiempo y dinero) para obtener información más detallada. En estos casos es posible recurrir a obtener información de \"expertos\" y \"conocedores\" sobre los valores mínimos máximos y más probables. Los dos primeros señalan el rango sobre la cual cada experto opina que la variable de interés puede tomar, mientras que el más probable es el equivalente del más común o moda de la distribución. Nótese que no necesariamente el valor más común o más probable va a coincidir con la media (serán iguales sólo en el caso de distribuciones triangulares simétricas). Se debe notar aquí que es posible que el nivel más probable coincida con el nivel mínimo o con el nivel máximo. En el primer caso la variable se distribuye con una distribución triangular izquierda, mientras que en el segundo lo hace con una distribución triangular derecha (Figura 5, segundo y tercer paneles). Un ejemplo del primer caso puede encontrarse si se define la variable aleatoria x como el número de aplicaciones de herbicidas en una región donde la mayoría de agricultores no realiza ninguno (predomina el control manual). En ese caso, el valor más probable y el valor mínimo sería, para ambos, igual a cero.El paso siguiente en la metodología es obtener, para cada región, la información sobre los valores, de los coeficientes descriptos en el paso anterior, y sobre cada uno de los componentes individuales del costo. Para ello se procede a la consulta con expertos en dos etapas o rondas.En el Anexo se muestra el cuestionario usado para la toma de información. Además de los coeficientes técnicos aleatorios, se recabará información sobre los insumos (herbicidas, fertilizantes y pesticidas) más comunes usados en cada aplicación. Todos los demás coeficientes técnicos necesarios para estimar los costos, tales como números de jornales para realizar diferentes tareas, dosis de herbicidas, insecticidas y otros, se obtendrán de información secundaria como catálogos y costos técnicos o de encuestas realizadas en la región.Para recabar la información que se lista en el cuestionario del A nexo, se procederá a entrevistar a expertos o conocedores de las condiciones de producción prevalecientes en la región política de que se trate. Para cada región se realizarán entrevistas con 15 a 30 expertos o conocedores provenientes de diferentes grupos: investigadores, extensionistas, agricultores, vendedores de insumos (agroservicios y semilleristas) y otros que se consideren pertinentes.Una vez que se han llenado las boletas para cada una de las regiones, se debe proceder a consolidar la información en una sola boleta por región mediante el cálculo del promedio para variables continuas y de la moda para las variables discretas. Una vez que se tiene la información de los expertos consolidada en una sola boleta, se procede a su validación y discusión de los resultados a través de su análisis en grupos donde participan los expertos consultados.La metodología a seguir para consolidar la información inicial es sencilla: En una primera fase, los expertos miembros de cada grupo revisan la información inicial presentada y la discuten brevemente entre ellos. Posteriormente, y usando las hojas de ayuda distribuidas, el grupo procede a realizar los ajustes correspondientes, hasta llegar a un consenso. Durante el proceso, si no se alcanzara un consenso, el grupo pondrá a consideración la posibilidad de dividir la región con el fin de llegar al consenso.4 to PASO. Identificación de correlaciones relevantes y de niveles tecnológicos.La especificación del modelo todavía es incompleta, en el sentido de que no considera la posible relación existente entre diferentes componentes tecnológicos ya sea entre sí, como el caso de variedades y fertilización, con el nivel de rendimiento.Es muy importante tener en cuenta en el análisis de simulación este tipo de correlaciones ya que, de otra manera, se corre el riesgo de obtener resultados totalmente sin sentido. Por ejemplo, podría existir la posibilidad de que, bajo las mismas condiciones, altos niveles de nitrógeno se asocien a niveles bajos de rendimiento y viceversa bajos niveles se asocien con niveles altos de rendimiento, o en forma s imilar que la semilla híbrida produzca bajos rendimientos y la tradicional altos. Para evitar este tipo de resultados, en desacuerdo con las leyes biológicas, las variables deben asociarse entre sí mediante correlaciones. Los coeficientes de correlación representan la asociación entre las variables de acuerdo con los niveles ordinales.A menos de que se tenga información de encuestas o datos experimentales es difícil obtener la correlación entre variables tecnológicas en forma directa de la opinión de expertos.Es necesario entonces, usar una aproximación mediante la identificación de tres \"niveles tecnológicos\". Un nivel más común o modal, un nivel tecnológico bajo, y uno alto. Esta clasificación puede pensarse como una división de la población en tres categorías. En un momento determinado, se encuentran en una región aquellos agricultores de avanzada, usualmente con buena dotación de recursos que usan la tecnología de punta y obtienen altos niveles de productividad (adoptadores tempraneros). La gran mayoría de la población, sin embargo, sigue usando una mezcla de tecnologías que representan decisiones anteriores de adopción y prueba, y representa la tecnología modal. Finalmente, se encuentran en la cola posterior de la distribución, los agricultores que, por diferentes razones, no han podido adaptar las nuevas tecnologías disponibles que usarían en la tecnología tradicional, o sea, el nivel bajo.Este procedimiento es consistente con la práctica usual en análisis experimental (Fournier 2000) y con el conocimiento común en el área sobre la existencia de estos tres niveles tecnológicos (Sanders y López Pereira 1996, Sain y López Pereira 1997).Los expertos definen para cada uno de los componentes del costo los tres niveles tecnológicos. Esta descripción permite identificar componentes asociadas entre sí como aquellas que cambian en forma simultánea entre niveles; por ejemplo, semilla mejorada y niveles de fertilización y su asociación con el rendimiento. El grado o nivel de asociación entre los componentes y, entre componentes y rendimientos se puede obtener o corroborar de información de encuestas realizadas en el área. Como se trata de parámetros que no cambian mucho con el paso del tiempo, la encuesta no tiene que haber sido realizada en ese año. En caso de que no hubiera información secundaria, para estimar la correlación, esta debe ser estimada en forma mas o menos arbitraria por el ejecutor del modelo.Una vez que el analista se encuentra satisfecho con las formas funcionales postuladas, con el valor de los parámetros que caracterizan a las fdp, y de las correlaciones entre las variables, el paso siguiente es ejecutar la simulación con el fin de obtener la FDA de la(s) variable(s) de interés. En este proyecto la simulación se realiza usando una hoja de cálculo (Microsoft Excel) y @Risk, un programa diseñado especialmente para el análisis de simulación (Palisade).En el Anexo 2 se presenta un ejemplo de todo el proceso el cual también se presenta en una hoja de cálculo titulada Simulcostos que se encuentra en el disquete que acompaña a este documento.Una vez obtenida la FDA de los CVU para una región determinada, es necesario estimar el nivel relevante del precio equivalente (PE). D e acuerdo con la definición establecida, la estimación del precio equivalente que enfrenta una región determinada requiere de: i) Estimación del precio internacional (CIF) del maíz blanco en el principal puerto del país (Pi).ii) Estimación de la distancia económica de internar el maíz blanco importado desde el puerto hasta el principal centro de consumo / procesamiento (DE1)iii) Estimación de la distancia económica de llevar el maíz blanco producido en la región hasta el principal centro de consumo / procesamiento (DE2) iv) Estimación del costo de cosecha y transporte del producto del campo al punto de venta local (CCT). Estos costos, que usualmente dependen del nivel de rendimiento y se expresan por unidad de producto, se sustraen del precio equivalente. No se los considera con los demás costos ya que se realizan al final en periodos diferentes y por ello no devengan costos de capital (CIMMYT 1992). Estos costos, que se expresan en unidades de producción serán debitados del precio internacional.El costo de transporte se estima como el producto de la distancia física en kilómetros multiplicada por el costo de transporte por kilómetro, ponderada por un factor que estima el estado de las carreteras. En el caso de la DE1, se estima la distancia entre el puerto de entrada a la capital (centro de consumo y procesamiento), mientras que en el caso de la DE2 se estima el costo de transporte desde la región a la capital.La ponderación del costo de transporte tiene en cuenta tres características de la carretera: topografía (plana o de ladera), tipo (de tierra, asfalto, grava), y accesibilidad (accesible todo el año o solo en época seca). Esta última característica estará, obviamente, correlacionada con las dos anteriores; es decir, que una carretera de tierra en laderas tendrá una alta probabilidad de ser intransitable durante la época lluviosa.El costo de transporte se calcula tomando lo que cobra el tipo de camiones que predominen en cada región para el transporte del grano.El costo de transacción es más dificultoso de estimar y se realiza en forma diferente para el costo de internar el producto importado que para el caso de llevar el producto de la región al mercado.En el primer caso, el costo de transacción estará dado por el nivel del arancel impuesto sobre el maíz blanco, y otros costos de internar el producto.Para el caso del costo de transacción relacionado con llevar el producto de la región al mercado, este debe capturar la facilidad o dificultad del sistema de mercado para operar. En este caso, se recurrirá a indicadores a nivel del país y a estimar los márgenes de comercialización netos del costo de transporte como indicador de la eficiencia del sistema de mercadeo.En casi todos los países centroamericanos, el valor de la producción de maíz no se reduce sólo al grano sino también al valor de la biomasa; cuyo uso principal es el de servir de alimento para el ganado en la época seca (Sain y Barreto 1996, Choto de cerna y Sain 1994).Cuando hay más de un producto, el cálculo del CVU no se puede realizar en la forma descrita anteriormente y se debe apelar entonces a estimar directamente las cuasi-rentas por unidad de superficie. En este caso, el criterio de competitividad estará dado por la probabilidad de obtener cuasi-rentas positivas. Para ilustrar los conceptos, sean Yg y Yr el rendimiento de grano y rastrojo de maíz, mientras que Pg y Pr el precio del grano y del rastrojo. Entonces Beneficio bruto: Dado que la biomasa es un subproducto de la producción de grano, el costo variable total es el mismo, salvo los costos de cosecha y comercialización del rastrojo que se deben considerar en el precio del rastrojo Pr. Por eso el nivel de cuasi-rentas es: Dado que ahora existen dos productos, no es posible dividir por el nivel de producto. Sin embargo, si se divide por Yg.[ 12] CRU = Pg + Yr/Yg *Pr -CVU Si se reconoce que Yr = a* Yg, donde a es un coeficiente asociado al índice de cosecha (partición entre grano y biomasa)[ 13] CRU = Pg +a*Pr -CVU Que será la fórmula que se use en el caso de la producción de rastrojo como subproducto del proceso. El valor de a depende del tipo de material genético que se use en la región. (me parece recomendable arreglar la redacción para que lea mas claro)Y la condición de competitividad es: CRU>0.Este procedimiento se usará solamente para el caso de El Salvador d onde la producción de rastrojo es importante y se reconoce un precio por este subproducto.5 Cambio tecnológico y dinámica de la competitividad.De la definición de las cuasi-rentas unitarias (CRU = PE -CVT/Y) y, considerando al PE como exógeno, resulta claro que existe una relación inversa entre el nivel de costos y las cuasi-rentas unitarias (CRU) y una relación directa entre el rendimiento (productividad de la tierra, Y) y las CRU. De esa manera, un cambio tecnológico que aumente la productividad del cultivo en forma más que proporcional al cambio en los costos variables totales (CVT) lleva a una disminución de los CVU y por lo tanto, a un incremento en la probabilidad de que la región sea competitiva para un valor dado del PE.Para ilustrar el concepto, en la Figura 9 se muestran dos funciones que relacionan el nivel de productividad de la tierra (rendimiento) con la cantidad de mano de obra por unidad de tierra usada en dos regiones diferentes. En la región 1 se usa una variedad tradicional (Vt) mientras que en la región 2 se usa una variedad mejorada (Vm) con una productividad mayor que aquella de la Vt para todos los niveles de mano de obra. El impacto sobre la productividad se refleja en el hecho de que para cada nivel de mano de obra usada es posible obtener una mayor productividad. Por ejemplo, en la región 1 con 40 jornales/ha, se obtienen 1.5 Tm/ha con la variedad vieja, mientras que en la región 2 se obtienen 3.0 Tm/ha. Para ver el impacto sobre los costos unitarios basta con dividir la cantidad de mano de obra usada por el nivel de producción. Así, en la región 1, con la variedad vieja, cada tonelada producida cuesta 27 jor/Tm. Resultante de dividir el costo variable 40(jor/ha) por la productividad alcanzada con ese nivel de trabajo, 1.5 (Tm./ha). De la misma manera se puede ver que en la región 2, con la nueva variedad, el CVU es de solo 13 jor/Tm. En el ejemplo, y para fines didácticos, se asume que el precio del jornal es igual a la unidad en ambos países.En este ejemplo, la región 2 tiene una ventaja competitiva relativa a la región 1 ya que los CVU serán menores en la región 2 que en la 1 para todos los niveles de trabajo. Por lo tanto, mayor será la probabilidad de que el nivel de CRU sea mayor en la región 2 que en la 1, si ambas regiones enfrentan precios equivalentes (PE) similares.Sin embargo, las ventajas competitivas son dinámicas debido, principalmente, al impacto del cambio tecnológico sobre los costos unitarios de producción que pueden hacer variar las posiciones de competencia entre regiones. En el Ejemplo que se da a continuación (Tabla 3), se comparan dos regiones (A y B). Inicialmente la región B tiene costos unitarios de producción más bajos que los de la región A. Sin embargo, mediante la difusión de una nueva variedad, la región A reduce sus costos unitarios por debajo de aquellos de la región B. Es decir que, A ha revertido la situación y ahora producir maíz resulta más barato, en términos del factor trabajo, en A que en B (A tiene ventajas absolutas sobre B). Este resultado se obtiene; sin embargo, bajo el supuesto de que el país B no tiene un cambio tecnológico autóctono ni que tampoco usufructúa los beneficios de la variedad mejorada obtenida en A (no hay efecto de desborde tecnológico entre ambos países).El impacto del cambio tecnológico o de otros factores sobre la estructura competitiva de una región, se examina en el modelo mediante un análisis de sensibilidad. Para ello, una vez que se ha obtenido la fda del nivel de CVU o de CRU, el análisis de sensibilidad responde a la pregunta: ¿que pasa si cambia un determinado factor? Obviamente, no se tiene interés en cambiar todos los factores usados en la construcción de modelo, sino examinar aquellos que sean más importantes en la determinación del nivel obtenido de CVU o de CRU. Los factores más importantes son identificados en el modelo de simulación mediante el llamado gráfico de tornado. Usando estas variables se puede realizar un análisis de sensibilidad corriendo la simulación varias veces para distintos valores de estas variables claves (hay que tener cuidado de fijar la \"semilla\" de la simulación para que las diferencias se deban realmente a los cambios en las variables de interés y no a cambios en la simulación en sí misma.En este trabajo se realiza un análisis de sensibilidad utilizando diferentes escenarios tecnológicos como que haya una masiva adopción de ciertos componentes de la tecnología moderna tales como, semilla híbrida, fertilizantes, y una reducción en los costos de herbicidas e insecticidas por la adopción de técnicas como variedades y transgénicas resistentes a insectos (maíz Bt).Como se indico anteriormente, la condición de competitividad de una región determinada en un país fue definida como: la capacidad de vender en el centro de consumo a un costo unitario tal que le permita obtener cuasi-rentas positivas. Sin embargo, para que el estudio sea completo se debe hacer un análisis aunque sea somero, del nivel de competitividad a nivel del consumidor. Las preguntas relevantes en esta sección del mercado se refieren a ¿cuáles son los productos que compiten por las preferencias de los consumidores?, ¿Cuántas formas de presentación existen, y a qué precios? ¿Cuál es la calidad y diversidad de productos de maíz blanco y de la competencia, el trigo y sus derivados?Por el lado, de la industria se obtiene un estado del número de empresas que existen, los productos que producen así como el estado de la tecnología en el sector.Se ejecuta una corta entrevista usando un formulario estructurado a nivel de industria y al nivel de supermercados. En este último caso se pone cuidado de incluir establecimientos que se ubiquen y sean frecuentados por estratos sociales de niveles de ingresos contrastantes.Nombre del experto entrevistado__________________________________________Sector o institución ____________________________________________________ Identificación de la región.Departamento (Provincia):____________________ Municipio: ______________________ Región: _________________________ Ciclo de cultivo: Primera ___ Segunda ____ (elija el ciclo más importante en la región) Sistema de producción: Monocultivo ___ Asocio ____ (elija el sistema más importante en la región). Si el sistema es en asocio especifique el cultivo asociado:_______________ Identificación del nivel tecnológico. El horizonte temporal de referencia para las variables son los últimos cinco años. Es decir, los niveles de las variables reflejan el estado actual de la tecnología y productividad.PREPARACION DEL TERRENO 1-Uso de tracción mecánica (%)2-Uso de tracción animal (%)3-Chapea y herbicidas (%)4-Pases de arado (número) 5-Pases de rastra(cualquier tipo) (número)6-Herbicidas pre emergencia (número)7-Herbicida más común en la primera aplicación 8-Herbicida más común en la segunda aplicación SIEMBRA 9-Siembra con máquina (%) 10-Densidad siembra máquina (unidad/sup) 11-Densidad siembra manual (unidad/sup) 12-Híbridos (%)13-VPL (%) (2) Uso de tracción mecánica. Porcentaje de la superficie total cultivada con maíz en la región cuya cama de siembra se prepara con tracción mecánica. (3) Uso de tracción animal. Porcentaje de la superficie total cultivada con maíz en la región cuya cama de siembra se prepara con tracción animal. (4) Chapea y herbicidas. Porcentaje de la superficie total cultivada con maíz en la región cuya cama de siembra se prepara mediante la chapea y la aplicación de herbicidas. (5) Pases de arado. Número de pases de arado que se realizan (6) Pases de rastra. Número de pases de rastra de cualquier tipo (de discos, de dientes, etc) que se realizan. (7) Herbicidas de pre emergencia. Número de aplicaciones de herbicidas antes de la emergencia del maíz. Indicar el nombre del herbicida más común usado en la región. (8) Herbicida más común en la primera aplicación. Nombre del herbicida mas común usado en la primera aplicación de pre emergencia. (9) Herbicida más común en la segunda aplicación. Nombre del herbicida mas común usado en la segunda aplicación de pre emergencia. B) Siembra (10) Siembra c/máquina. Porcentaje de la superficie total cultivada con maíz en la región que se siembra con máquina. (11) Densidad siembra máquina. Densidad de siembra en número de plantas por unidad de superficie o en peso de semilla (kg. o lb.) por unidad de superficie cuando se siembra con máquina. (12) Densidad siembra manual. Densidad de siembra en número de plantas por unidad de superficie o en peso de semilla (kg. o lb.) por unidad de superficie cuando se siembra en forma manual. (13) Híbridos. Porcentaje de la superficie total de la región cultivada con semilla de materiales híbridos de 1 ra generación (especificar el nombre del material más común). ( 14) VPL. Porcentaje de la superficie total de la región cultivada con semilla mejorada de polinización libre (especificar el nombre de la variedad mas común). (15) Densidad híbridos.. Densidad de siembra en número de plantas por unidad de superficie o en peso de semilla (kg. o lb.) por unidad de superficie cuando se siembran materiales híbridos (16) Densidad VPL.. Densidad de siembra en número de plantas por unidad de superficie o en peso de semilla (kg. o lb.) por unidad de superficie cuando se siembran semillas de VPL. (17) Densidad criollos.. Densidad de siembra en número de plantas por unidad de superficie o en peso de semilla (kg. o lb.) por unidad de superficie cuando se siembran materiales locales o criollos. Ejemplo de estimación de las CRU en una regiónEl uso de hojas de cálculo en las computadoras personales facilita y automatiza el cálculo del costo variable unitario y del nivel de las cuasi-rentas unitarias. Sin embargo para su ejecución correcta se debe proceder cuidadosamente.El ejemplo que se describe a continuación hace uso de la hoja de calculo Excel de Microsoft, pero puede realizarse perfectamente en cualquier otra que se quiera usar. El archivo ejemplo.xls tiene dos hojas de cálculo: la primera de ella \"Ej.Costo\" se usa en este ejercicio. La segunda, \"Ej. Simulación\" será usada más adelante.Para el cálculo se ha dividido la hoja de cálculo en cuatro áreas. La primera, comprendida entre las celdas A3 y B40 (Figura A1), describe los niveles o alternativas tecnológicas predominantes en la región para cada uno de los cinco componentes en que se divide el costo, más el nivel de productividad y de inserción en el mercado. Tal como se reproduce en la figura, muchos de los valores de los parámetros se obtienen por diferencia usando la propiedad de que su suma debe ser igual a la unidad.La segunda sección de la hoja de calculo, abarca de la celda A42 a la B61 y corresponde a la identificación de los coeficientes técnicos, es decir a los jornales necesarios para realizar diversas tareas y a las dosis de herbicidas, y pesticidas usados. Aquí también se ha dividido de acuerdo a los cinco componentes del costo (Figura A2).Nótese que los valores relevantes de los coeficientes técnicos pueden variar de región en región. En algunas habrá necesidad de incorporar algunos valores adicionales y/o eliminar algunas categorías.La tercera sección corresponde a la especificación de los precios de insumos, servicios y del precio de venta del producto y abarca de la celda A89 a la B115.(Figura A3).Esta tercera sección completa las necesidades de datos para el cálculo del CVU y de las CRU. Nótese que no se hace mención de cómo se obtienen los valores usados para el cálculo, tema que se trata mas adelante, simplemente se asume que estos valores son valores promedios o valores más comunes que representan a la región. Así mismo, el precio pro grano de maíz representa el promedio del Precio Equivalente que enfrenta la región.Finalmente en la cuarta sección del ejemplo comprendida entre las celdas F3 y J38, es donde se realizan todos los cálculos necesarios para la estimación del CVU y de las CRU (Figura A4). Valor promedio Cant/ha Chapea (jornales/ha) 15 Quema (jornales/ha) 1 Aplicacion herbicida preemergencia (jornales/ha) 8Siembra manual (jornales/ha) 5Fertilización (jornales/ha) 3 La columna denominada Proporción ¿ (columna H) reproduce el porcentaje de la superficie que se realiza con cada una de las formas identificadas pero en forma de proporción. Es decir que toma los valores expresados en la columna B y los divide por 100.La columna titulada Costo del componente, estima el costo del componente como la suma de las distintas formas ponderadas por la correspondiente proporción de la superficie que se realiza con cada una. Aquí se hace uso de la función de Excel SUMPRODUCT , que es una función matricial correspondiente al producto interno de dos vectores. Una vez calculados los costos por unidad de superficie para cada componente la celda I 32 calcula el costo total variable de producción como la suma de los cinco componentes: Finalmente la Celda I34 calcula el nivel de cuasi-renta unitaria de acuerdo a la definición como la diferencia entre el precio equivalente (B117) y el CVU:De acuerdo a este ejemplo la región es competitiva. Enfrenta un precio equivalente que es superior al costo unitario de producción en 6.7 centavos por Kg o sea 67 $/Ton.Este análisis determinístico se puede mejorar mediante un análisis de sensibilidad, considerando diferentes escenarios para reflejar la incertidumbre en los parámetros.La construcción del modelo de simulación requiere de dos modificaciones importantes al modelo determinístico estimado en el ejemplo anterior. En primer lugar la primera sección se debe modificar para incorporar los valores de los parámetros de la variables aleatorias y en segundo lugar se debe incorporar las correlaciones relevantes.La Figura A5 muestra la primera sección de la hoja de cálculo Ej_Simulación en donde se han incorporado las columnas correspondientes a los valores mínimos más probables y máximos obtenidos de las opiniones de los expertos y posteriormente validados por ellos. La ultima columna bajo el cabezal llamado Media, muestra el valor calculado de la media de la distribución triangular especificada.Si se tiene información al respecto no es difícil obtener las correlaciones entre variables. La Figura A6 muestra la relación entre ambas variables y su coeficiente de correlación lineal de .99 que indica claramente que ambas variables se encuentran ligadas entre sí a través de la tecnología.La Tabla A1 ilustra las correlaciones ficticias que se usaran en este ejemplo. Mas adelante se describen los diferentes métodos que se pueden usar para obtener estas correlaciones en el modelo real. Es decir el nivel de adopción de la labranza de conservación está correlacionado con el control químico de malezas y con el número de control de plagas, pero no directamente con el rendimiento. El nivel de adopción de la semilla híbrida está asociado con la aplicación de nitrógeno y fósforo y también con el rendimiento. La aplicación de N y P se encuentran altamente correlacionadas entre si y con el nivel de rendimiento Finalmente el control químico de malezas se encuentra asociado al control de plagas, pero no directamente asociado con el rendimiento.La ejecución del modelo de simulación del costo variable unitario para una determinada región se realiza utilizando el programa @Risk versión 4.0 de Palisade Corp. La mejor manera de explicar el procedimiento es describir paso a paso como se corre el ejercicio descrito antes (se asume que el programa se encuentra bien instalado y funciona sin problemas).Paso 1. Corra el programa @Risk 4.0 de la manera que Ud acostumbra a hacerlo con cualquier otro programa del ambiente de Windows. El Programa abre una hoja de MS Excel normal pero en la barra de comandos aparecen los íconos adicionales pertenecientes a @Risk 4.0.Paso 2. Se abre en forma normal el Workbook \"Ejemplos\" y se abre la Hoja de Cálculo Ej.Simulación. Se debe recordar que en la hoja de cálculo ya se han especificado las variables aleatorias correspondientes al modelo estocástico.Paso 3. En este paso se comienza a especificar la simulación en el programa @Risk 4.0. Para ello lo primero es decirle al programa cual(es) es(son) la(s) variable(s) de interés, es decir la(s) variable(s) especificadas como resultados de la simulación. En este caso solo interesa la variable \"Costo Variable Unitario\" cuya formula de calculo se encuentra en la celda: I33. Para ello se coloca el cursor sobre la celda I33 para volverla activa y se presiona el icono correspondiente a Add Output (Agregar Resultado). Note que en la barra de edición de Excel aparece la siguiente leyenda:Leyenda que indica que la celda I33 es el resultado de la simulación e indica la formula implícita en la celda.Con esta simple operación ya se ha especificado todo un modelo de simulación de costos ya que todas las variables estocásticas han sido especificadas de antemano y las fórmulas de cálculo del costo hacen referencia a ellas. Esto se puede ver presionando sobre el icono: \"Display List of Outputs and Inputs\" (Despliegue la lista de resultados e insumos\" Haciendo esto se abre la ventana del Modelo de @Risk conteniendo todas las variables especificadas como resultados y la lista de las variables especificadas como insumos.Paso 4. El paso siguiente consiste en introducir en el modelo las correlaciones especificadas. Para ello, se activa la ventana de correlaciones de la manera siguiente. En la ventana del Modelo de @Risk se presiona el botón de insertar (Insert) y se elige abrir la Ventana de Correlación (Correlation Windows). De esa manera se abre la ventana que tiene dos paneles. En el panel; de la izquierda se encuentran listadas todas las variables del modelo (resultados e insumos) y en el de la derecha una matriz con celdas vacías salvo la diagonal que tiene el valor 1 para indicar que la correlación de una variable consigo misma es la unidad. Para introducir las correlaciones, se arrastra cada una de las variables correlacionadas desde el panel de la izquierda a una celda en la primera columna de la matriz (sombreada). Cuando se han introducidas las variables se procede a llenar las celdas interiores con los valores de las correlaciones correspondientes. Se debe notar que solo se llena una celda, @Risk se ocupa de llenar la celda correspondiente en la parte superior de la matriz (recuerde que la correlación entre la variable x1 y x2 es exactamente igual a la correlación entre x2 y x1 por lo que la matriz de correlación es simétrica).Paso 5. Aunque el modelo de simulación esta listo para ser ejecutado, antes de hacerlo conviene cambiar algunos parámetros que se especifican en el programa @Risk por \"default\". Para ello en la ventana de Modelo de @Risk, se presiona el botón Simulación (Simulation) y luego Condiciones (Settings). En la ventana correspondiente al Número de iteraciones (# of iterations) se cambia el valor de 100 (default) por 1000 y se dejan las demás condiciones como están. Por ultimo se vuelve a apretar el botón Simulación y luego Comenzar (Start). Luego de unos segundos, aparece la ventana de Resultados con un Resumen de la Estadísticas (Summary Statistics) de la simulación.De acuerdo con el marco metodológico del diamante de la competitividad (Porter 1985(Porter , 1990)), la ventaja competitiva de Centro América (CA) estaría determinada por las condiciones e interacciones de cuatro fuerzas: (1) las condiciones de la demanda, (2) las condiciones de los factores especializados, (3) las condiciones de las industrias relacionadas y de apoyo, y(4) la estructura de las empresas. Además, el conglomerado debe estar apoyado por un entorno de política económica e institucional que favorezca el accionar de los mercados con un mínimo de fricciones o costos de transacción.En este parte del trabajo, se examinan los aspectos más importantes relacionados con estas fuerzas tomando a la región como un todo y a los seis países de la región centroamericana como las unidades que componen la industria. Esta desagregación permite extraer lecciones al nivel de región y comparativas entre países.En la sección 2 se examina el contexto de política económica en que se desenvuelve la industria de producción de maíz blanco en Centro América. Este análisis se presenta al comienzo por la fuerte influencia que el ambiente de política ha tenido y tiene en los diferentes sectores.La sección 3 analiza las condiciones del mercado mundial de maíz y se establece la diferenciación entre maíz blanco y amarillo como un factor determinante para la competitividad de la región. La sección finaliza con un análisis de las tendencias del consumo y de la producción de maíz en CA.La sección 4 presenta un análisis de las principales características de la estructura del sector de producción de maíz. Se pone atención a la relación de la estructura con tecnología y productividad identificando la influencia de factores de índole estructural como el tamaño de finca, nivel de educación, el patrimonio de suelo y de capital. Como tal, los resultados que se presentan en esta sección son importantes para una m ejor comprensión de los factores que limitan la productividad y justifican la intervención de la política económica. Dentro de este mismo concepto, la sección 5 presenta un análisis de los componentes de la producción: la superficie cultivada y la productividad. Se analiza la tendencia y factores que determinan la superficie cultivada con maíz y se realiza un análisis de los niveles de productividad actual y de la brecha entre la productividad actual y potencial.La sección 6 examina el sector de investigación y desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías en general y del mercado de semilla mejorada en particular. Este sector es de primordial importancia para el fomento de la productividad y menores costos unitarios de producción.La sección 7 presenta un análisis de los costos unitarios de producción de maíz en Centro América. La distribución de los costos unitarios de producción es simulada para cada uno de los países y para la región como un todo.Finalmente la sección 8 elabora sobre los resultados, presenta las principales conclusiones sobre las condiciones actuales y potenciales del sector de producción de maíz blanco para competir en el mercado de consumo humano y propone un conjunto de recomendaciones de política dirigidas a la implementación de una estrategia para que el sector de pequeños campesinos productores de maíz tengan alternativas para aumentar de forma significativa sus ingresos y oportunidades.2 La política económica e institucionalEn general, las economías de Panamá, Costa Rica, Guatemala y El Salvador, fueron las más estables durante el período 1980 -2000, mientras que la economía nicaragüense fue la más afectada.En general, los efectos positivos de la finalización de los conflictos armados internos han ayudado al crecimiento de las economías de El Salvador y Nicaragua y se espera que con la firma de los últimos acuerdos para poner fin a la guerra interna que ha azotado a Guatemala, este país también pueda entrar en una etapa de estabilidad política y social.A pesar del conflicto, Guatemala ha sido tradicionalmente una de las economías más fuertes de la región. El conflicto interno de Nicaragua parece ser el que más afectó a la economía, la cual presenta un período de casi 15 años de retroceso. Solo en años recientes es que la economía nicaragüense parece haber salido de ese estancamiento. Es interesante notar que Honduras, que no tuvo conflicto armado interno directo, presentó niveles de crecimiento aceptables hasta principios de la década de 1990. Luego vinieron los primeros programas de ajuste estructural en 1990 y 1994, y la crisis de energía de 1994, que han afectado mucho a la economía. Posteriormente, el Huracán Mitch vuelve a afectar severamente los esfuerzos de crecimiento económico del país.En la actualidad, un factor que está afectando a todas las economías de la región es el peso de la deuda tanto interna como externa. Los países con mayores problemas en este rubro son Nicaragua, Honduras y Panamá, en los cuales la deuda externa es mayor que el PNB. En contraste, la deuda externa de El Salvador parece estar bajo control, ya que representa solamente el 28% del PNB, lo cual le permite disponer de recursos valiosos para el desarrollo de la economía. El efecto primordial de este servicio de la deuda en el sector agrícola, especialmente en la producción de granos básicos, es que obliga a los gobiernos a reducir la inversión en programas sociales y en apoyos a la producción de productos para consumo interno.Como fuera explicado en la primera parte de este trabajo, en las últimas décadas tanto la producción como el consumo de maíz en Centro América han sido fuertemente afectados por dos importantes eventos en la política económica: la implementación de los Programas de Ajuste Estructural (PAE) y la creciente apertura de las economías domesticas al mercado internacional (Globalización).Durante la década de los 70, la política económica estuvo dirigida a promover la producción de granos básicos dentro del contexto de la seguridad alimentaria.En particular, se creó la banca de fomento que proveyó créditos a tasas de interés subsidiadas (muchas veces negativas), se fomentó la participación del estado en la comercialización de insumos y productos mediante los cuales se compraban los productos a precios de garantía (superiores a los equivalentes internacionales) y se vendían insumos a precios subsidiados. Sin embargo, al mantener una moneda sobre valorada (precio de la divisa por debajo de su nivel de equilibrio) los países favorecieron las importaciones y desincentivaron las exportaciones agrícolas. La década de los 80 se caracterizó por la grave crisis económica que debieron enfrentar los países como consecuencia de los desequilibrios estructurales de sus economías. En este período los países centroamericanos comienzan a implementar una serie de medidas de política económica destinadas a corregir las deficiencias estructurales conocidas como programas de ajuste estructural (PAE) y programas de ajuste sectorial (PAS). En forma simplificada, los PAE y PAS, tienen como principales objetivos corregir los desequilibrios en la balanza de pagos, reducir o eliminar la inflación interna, fomentar una mayor eficiencia económica, y un mayor crecimiento económico con equidad y distribución del ingreso (Pomareda Benel, 1992). Para ello, los programas ponen énfasis, entre otras, en tres tipos de políticas: i) disminución o eliminación de las tarifas y controles en el comercio internacional; ii) disminución o eliminación de los subsidios a los consumidores; y la equiparación de los precios domésticos pagados a los productores con los equivalentes mundiales; y iii)devaluación de las tasas reales de cambio (Byerlee y Sain 1991).La implementación de estos programas se realiza en tres fases (Wattel y Ruben 1992). La primera, una fase de financiamiento donde se pone énfasis en cubrir el déficit en las balanzas de pago de los países mediante el otorgamiento de créditos. La segunda, una fase llamada de estabilización monetaria y cambiaria, que se caracteriza por la devaluación real de las tasas de cambio, la reducción de la masa monetaria para reducir la tasa de inflación, y la reducción del crédito privado y público. La tercera fase, denominada de estabilización fiscal, tiene como objetivos principales, la reducción del déficit fiscal (deuda interna), la mejora en la recaudación impositiva; y la mejora de la eficiencia económica global mediante la reducción de la intervención estatal en la economía.Esta última fase, también se caracteriza por el comienzo de la apertura comercial y los intentos para la integración regional en una zona de libre comercio. Todos los países de la región son signatarios de los acuerdos de la Ronda Uruguay del GATT y miembros de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC). Como tales, los países se han comprometido a eliminar gradualmente las barreras no arancelarias para el comercio, establecer tarifas claras de importación y exportación, eliminar subsidios a la producción y, en general, abrir sus economías al libre comercio.El Tabla 6 muestra el grado de avance en la ejecución de las fases de los programas de ajuste estructural en CA. Aunque todos los países comenzaron con la primera fase del ajuste al comienzo de la década de los 80, El Salvador, fue el primer país en CA donde se implantó la fase de estabilización monetaria y cambiaria. Los demás países implementaron esta etapa entre 1984 y 1988. Sin embargo, todos los países de la región se encuentran en una etapa relativamente avanzada de los procesos de ajuste a sus economías. Los gobiernos parecen estar más conscientes de la necesidad de hacer los aparatos públicos más eficientes y de controlar las variables macroeconómicas a niveles realistas y sin distorsiones. Las consecuencias principales de las reformas han sido: i) la eliminación de casi todos los subsidios a los insumos, ii) la eliminación de precios de garantía de los productos, iii) una orientación exportadora de productos tradicionales y no tradicionales, iv) la reducción de barreras al comercio internacional, y iv) la retirada del estado del sector de granos básicos tanto de la comercialización como en la fijación de precios. En este último caso el comercio internacional está controlado por bandas de precios para la importación.En las secciones siguientes se hace un breve análisis del estado de las reformas y sus consecuencias. Sin embargo durante todo el trabajo cuando se examinan los factores que afectan la competitividad se hace referencia al impacto que la política ha tenido sobre el sector.Durante los años 70 y 80 los países de CA mantuvieron una política de precios internos del maíz por arriba de los precios internacionales. La Tabla 7 muestra que a comienzo de los 80 todos los países de la región mantenían un nivel de protección a la producción interna de maíz vía precios es decir mantenían un coeficiente de protección nominal (CPN) 8 para el maíz superior a la unidad. La protección se mantenía aun cuando el CPN se ajusta por las distorsiones en la tasa de cambio (CPNA). El esquema de protección vía precios fue eliminado mediante la eliminación de barreras no arancelarias y la corrección de las distorsiones en la tasa de cambio. Mediante estos mecanismos se buscaba obtener una mayor eficiencia en la asignación de recursos mediante la ligazón de los precios internos a los precios internacionales. Además los gobiernos montaron mecanismos para minimizar los impactos de la variabilidad de estos últimos sobre los precios domésticos los gobiernos como el establecimiento de precios internos máximos y mínimos y la regulación de las importaciones. El resultado de esta política en el mercado interno depende fuertemente de la tendencia de los precios del maíz en el mercado internacional. Como la tendencia ha sido y sigue de precios a la baja, los precios internos de maíz recibidos por los productores declinaron.La globalización de las economías centroamericanas ha llevado a los países centroamericanos a integrarse más al mercado mundial a través de la remoción de las barreras no arancelarias y a seguir un esquema paulatino de reducción y consolidación de las tasas arancelarias. La Tabla 8 muestra la evolución de los aranceles para el maíz blanco y amarillo durante 1995 -99 y las metas comprometidas ante la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) para el 2004.Reconociendo que la producción domestica consiste de maíz blanco, los países centroamericanos con excepción de Panamá han adoptado un arancel diferente para ambos tipos de maíz. La reducción de los aranceles para el maíz amarillo hace más difícil la competitividad del maíz blanco en el mercado de la elaboración de alimento balanceado. Sin embargo, es el argumento e hipótesis central de este trabajo que la competitividad de la producción de maíz blanco en CA no se debe buscar en el mercado de maíz amarillo para consumo animal sino en aquel del maíz blanco de consumo humano. Es en este mercado en donde el maíz blanco puede ser competitivo al nivel del mercado nacional y, con apoyo del estado, al nivel del mercado mundial. Es decir que CA podría ser un importador neto de maíz amarillo para la fabricación de alimentos balanceados y un exportador neto de maíz blanco y sus derivados. Otro aspecto importante de política que los estados han llevado adelante tiene que ver con las regulaciones de los derechos de propiedad intelectual. Estas regulaciones, imprescindibles para a integración en los mercados y para la inversión en tecnologías y el desarrollo de la innovación, han sido foco de atención y de profundas reformas en CA. La Competitividad global, e índice de libertad económica Un indicador del clima competitivo de un país es el Índice Global de Competitividad (IGC) elaborado por el Foro Económico Mundial (WEF). Este índice está basado en la premisa de que un país será más competitivo cuanto mayor sea su potencial de crecimiento, por lo que el índice intenta medir este potencial a mediano y largo plazo. La base conceptual para la construcción del índice esta dada por el diamante de la competitividad de M Porter y se construye a partir de datos cuantitativos y de información cualitativa (opiniones de empresarios) agrupados en 8 factores o subíndices de competitividad (Tabla 10). Para la construcción del IGC se le asignan diferentes pesos a cada uno de estos factores. Apertura, Gobierno, Finanzas y Mercado Laboral son los que tienen más peso al estar más correlacionados con las tasas de crecimiento de la economía.Tabla 9 resume la situación de los países de América Central en 1997 con respecto al establecimiento de regulaciones para la protección de los DPI. Con excepción quizás de Honduras, todos los países de América Central han dado pasos importantes en la dirección de proteger las obtenciones vegetales y así cumplir con los acuerdos internacionales. La mayoría de los países de la región seguirán las reglas de la UPOV con la excepción quizás de El Salvador, cuya legislación sobre patentes no excluye a las variedades vegetales.Dados los avances en la materia, los países de la región cumplirán en forma holgada los plazos otorgados por los convenios internacionales y para la primera década del próximo siglo estarán en vigencia las regulaciones sobre la protección a las obtenciones vegetales. Estas regulaciones tendrán un impacto importante sobre el mercado de semilla mejorada el cual es un elemento fundamental en la búsqueda de la competitividad como se verá más adelante.La oferta o disponibilidad de crédito público al sector de producción de granos básicos se redujo drásticamente. No solamente se eliminaron los subsidios al crédito, sino que los fondos públicos se redujeron y aquellos que quedaron fueron dirigidos a los sectores del sector incluidos en la política de modernización y transformación productiva (productos exportables tradicionales y no tradicionales).Como consecuencia, la disponibilidad de crédito público para los pequeños agricultores productores de maíz se redujo en forma drástica a partir de la segunda mitad de los 80. Dado que el crédito está muy asociado al uso de insumos que los agricultores deben comprar al comienzo del período de producción, tales como semillas mejoradas y fertilizantes, su reducción trajo aparejada una disminución en el uso de insumos como semilla mejorada (Choto et al. 1996, Sain y Barreto, 1996).Un indicador del clima competitivo de un país es el Índice Global de Competitividad (IGC) elaborado por el Foro Económico Mundial (WEF). Este índice está basado en la premisa de que un país será más competitivo cuanto mayor sea su potencial de crecimiento, por lo que el índice intenta medir este potencial a mediano y largo plazo. La base conceptual para la construcción del índice esta dada por el diamante de la competitividad de M Porter y se construye a partir de datos cuantitativos y de información cualitativa (opiniones de empresarios) agrupados en 8 factores o subíndices de competitividad (Tabla 10). Para la construcción del IGC se le asignan diferentes pesos a cada uno de estos factores. Apertura, Gobierno, Finanzas y Mercado Laboral son los que tienen más peso al estar más correlacionados con las tasas de crecimiento de la economía. Tabla 10. Los ocho factores que influyen en la competitividad.Apertura: evalúa el grado en el cual los mercados de bienes y financieros unidos a los mercados globales, contribuyen a la competitividad.Gobierno: evalúa el impacto del gasto gubernamental, los impuestos y las regulaciones en la marcha de la economía.Finanzas: evalúa el desarrollo y eficiencia del sector bancario y bursátil y su aporte a la competitividad.Infraestructura: evalúa la contribución a la competitividad de los sistemas de transporte, comunicaciones, energía y otros servicios.Tecnología: evalúa la capacidad del país en el campo de ciencias básicas y aplicadas.Gestion empresarial: evalúa la capacidad de los lideres de los negocios y de las empresas para responder a nuevas oportunidades de mercado.Trabajo: evalúa el alcance de las restricciones gubernamentales sobre la flexibilización laboral, la distorsión generado por impuestos en el trabajo y la calidad de las relaciones industriales.Instituciones: evalúa el grado en que el sistema político y legal obtiene costos de transacción bajos en los contratos escritos y defendidos y en la protección de los DPI.La Tabla 11 muestra la posición de los países centroamericanos durante 1998 y 1999. A fines comparativos se listan también los primeros 3 lugares y la posición de México.Para 1998, los resultados indican a Costa Rica en primer lugar, seguido por un grupo compuesto por Guatemala, El Salvador y Nicaragua. Honduras cierra la lista en el lugar 52 sobre un total de 59 países incluidos. Para 1999, la situación relativa de los países centroamericanos empeoró con excepción de El Salvador que subió del puesto 4t a 44 sobre un total de 62 países incluidos en la muestra. Tabla 12, colocan a El Salvador como el país con mayor libertad económica dentro del Istmo en la misma categoría de países libres en la cual se encuentran los primeros en el ranking como Hong Kong y Singapur. Le siguen en la categoría de mayormente libres Panamá Costa Rica y Guatemala, mientras que Nicaragua y Honduras se encuentran en el fondo de la tabla como países mayormente controlados y por lo tanto con mayores fricciones en el funcionamiento de los mercados.En primer lugar, a escala mundial, el crecimiento del sector agrícola durante las últimas décadas fue posible gracias a incrementos en la productividad a través de la adopción de nuevas tecnologías. Por ejemplo, los niveles de rendimientos del maíz y otros cereales se han casi duplicados en el período 1960-1994. Estos aumentos de productividad se atribuyen principalmente a nuevas variedades, riego, fertilizantes y otras tecnologías mejoradas para el manejo de cultivos y recursos. Es decir, el crecimiento de la agricultura mundial se debe, en buena medida, a la investigación que realizan los sistemas nacionales y los centros regionales e internacionales de investigación agropecuaria (FAO 1996). Sin embargo las políticas económicas no han sido totalmente satisfactorias para la agricultura de los países centroamericanos. Muchas veces el proceso ha llevado a frustraciones e inclusive a pérdidas económicas Las políticas económicas seguidas por los países centroamericanos han perjudicado la productividad y por ende la competitividad de la producción domestica de maíz blanco, perjudicando de esa manera a los segmentos más pobres de la población rural. Se necesita un cambio de rumbo urgente con el fin de reactivar el sector proveyendo tecnologías que permitan incrementar la productividad del cultivo.La demanda mundial de maíz crece de manera explosiva. De acuerdo a las proyecciones del IFPRI, para el año 2020 el maíz se convertirá en el segundo cultivo en importancia en los países en desarrollo desplazando de esa manera al trigo (Pingali y Pandey 2001). De acuerdo con estas proyecciones, la demanda en América Latina crecerá en un poco mas de 60% mientras que en regiones de Asia y África la demanda casi se duplicará (Tabla 13). Estas condiciones de la demanda mundial por maíz no pueden ser más favorables para un desarrollo de una producción competitiva de maíz en CA. Una demanda en rápido crecimiento presenta oportunidades para los países productores para aumentar la producción y contribuir al bienestar de los países más pobres.La Tabla 14 presenta la superficie cultivada con maíz por región política y medio ambiente y muestra que el 66% de toda la superficie cultivada con maíz se cultiva en ambientes tropicales de baja altura en donde América Latina tiene un papel importante con un 42% de la superficie cultivada total.Sin embargo, el análisis de las tendencias en producción y consumo debe reconocer la diferencia entre el maíz blanco y el maíz amarillo. Por un lado, el maíz amarillo, es producido principalmente por los grandes países productores de clima templado y su destino principal es la industria de alimentos balanceados para la alimentación de aves, vacunos y cerdos. Por el otro lado, el maíz blanco, se produce en su gran mayoría en los trópicos y su destino principal es el consumo humano directo en forma de tortillas, harinas y otros derivados.Aunque más del 90% del maíz blanco se produce en países en desarrollo, la superficie cultivada en estos países se distribuye aproximadamente igual entre ambos maíces ( Tabla 15). Esta proporción contrasta fuertemente con la asignación de tierra en climas templados donde casi la totalidad de la superficie se siembra con maíz amarillo. La Tabla 16 muestra la importancia de la región mesoamericana (CA y sur de México) en la oferta mundial de maíz blanco. Esta región es la segunda en importancia después de África, aportando casi un tercio de oferta mundial. Dadas las condiciones de la demanda en el continente africano estas cifras ponen de relieve el potencial de la región para volverse un actor importante en el mercado mundial de este producto.Por su parte la La diferenciación entre maíz blanco y amarillo también se refleja en los precios. Tomando como referencia los precios de maíz blanco y amarillo (Grado 2) en el mercado de Kansas, se observa que en los últimos treinta años la cotización del maíz blanco es superior al del amarillo por un porcentaje variable que ha alcanzado niveles máximos superiores al 40% (Figura 10). Sin embargo en los últimos 10 a 12 años la tendencia de esta diferencia o premio por calidad ha sido decreciente alcanzando un promedio de 18% en el periodo 1990-96 (Figura 11).Tabla 17 presenta el nivel de producción de maíz blanco en varias regiones del mundo y su tasa de crecimiento. América Central presenta una tasa de crecimiento superior al 4% anual por arriba del promedio mundial y de los países productores de África, solamente superada ligeramente por la tasa de crecimiento de la producción en México.Los datos presentados en la sección anterior indican la existencia de una demanda de maíz en expansión lo que representa una oportunidad para los países productores del grano. Sin embargo, la evolución de los precios internacionales de maíz muestra una tendencia decreciente en los últimos 10 a 15 años que revela que la tasa de crecimiento de la oferta mundial del producto ha superado a la tasa de crecimiento de la demanda. De esta manera, la capacidad de los países en vías de desarrollo a responder a la demanda creciente se ve amenazada por precios mundiales deprimidos.  Fuente: Datos de FAO-CIMMYT 1997Una de las tendencias más notables en Centro América es la creciente brecha que se observa entre la producción y el consumo ( Figura 12). Desde 1960, hasta mediados de los años 80, tanto la producción como el consumo total de maíz en Centro América crecieron a una tasa similar de casi 3% por año. Sin embargo, a partir de 1985, el consumo creció a una tasa del 3.5% por año mientras que la producción creció a solo 1.8%. Es decir que durante los últimos 15 años el consumo total de maíz creció a una tasa de casi duplica aquella a la que creció la producción. La brecha resultante fue llenada con importaciones, principalmente de maíz amarillo, cuya tasa de crecimiento casi se triplicó entre ambos períodos (Figura 13). Es decir que, en la región centroamericana a diferencia de la tendencia mundial la producción doméstica no creció al mismo ritmo que lo hizo la demanda.El estancamiento de la producción de maíz en la región también se refleja cuando se examina la tendencia en la producción por habitante (Figura 14). Hasta 1985-86 ambas variables crecieron prácticamente al mismo ritmo, sin embargo a partir de ese año la población crece a un ritmo mayor que la producción de maíz por lo que la producción per-cápita comienza a descender. Estudios previos sobre las posibles causas del explosivo crecimiento de la demanda de cereales en general y del maíz en particular, identifican tres factores determinantes: i) el crecimiento de la población, ii) el crecimiento del ingreso percápita y iii) el crecimiento de la urbanización de la población (Byerlee 1986, Huddleston 1984, CIMMYT 1984). A medida que aumenta el nivel de ingreso, el consumo de proteínas de origen animal aumenta mas que proporcionalmente y por lo tanto la demanda derivada de maíz para la producción de alimentos concentrados, es decir aumenta el consumo indirecto de maíz. Adicionalmente, hay un efecto de sustitución en el consumo humano por productos derivados del trigo (harina y pan) el cual también es ayudado por la urbanización. La Tabla 18 muestra la relación entre la tasa de crecimiento del consumo per-cápita directo e indirecto de maíz y del trigo y la tasa de crecimiento del ingreso per-capita (Yotopoulos, 1985) estimada para el período 1970-1989. Los resultados muestran el impacto diferencial que tiene el aumento del ingreso per-cápita sobre el consumo de maíz y trigo. En el estrato de altos ingresos (más de $2,000) el aumento del ingreso conlleva un aumento mas que proporcional en el consumo indirecto de maíz como consecuencia del aumento de su utilización en la alimentación animal. Al mismo tiempo, el consumo directo disminuye a medida que aumenta el ingreso. En contraste en los países más pobres, un aumento en el ingreso conlleva un aumento proporcional en el consumo directo y tiene un impacto muy pequeño en el consumo indirecto.Otro factor que modifica la estructura de la demanda domestica por alimentos es el aumento en el nivel de urbanización que resulta del proceso de desarrollo. Como consecuencia de la migración creciente del campo a áreas urbanas, los productos derivados del trigo como el pan son preferidos por su conveniencia sobre alimentos más tradicionales (Byerlee, 1983).La demanda y oferta mundiales muestran condiciones favorables para el desarrollo competitivo de la producción de maíz blanco en Centroamérica. Por un lado la demanda mundial de maíz en general se encuentra en expansión, y por el otro lado, la región de CA y México tiene un porcentaje importante en la producción mundial de maíz blanco y también muestra tasas de crecimiento en la producción relativamente mayores que otras regiones productoras. Sin embargo, un análisis un poco más profundo de los componentes del crecimiento de la producción muestra algunas debilidades y que requieren un análisis más detallado particularmente en lo que al estancamiento de la productividad se refiere. A nivel latinoamericano, el crecimiento en la producción de cereales durante las tres décadas pasadas, se ha debido principalmente a cambios tecnológicos que han producido mayores rendimientos (71% del crecimiento total), más que a la expansión del área cultivada (29%). Sin embargo, en América Central la tendencia ha sido contraria ya que el crecimiento de la producción se debió más al incremento de la superficie cultivada que al crecimiento de la productividad.Las posibles razones para esto y las posibilidades de aumentar los rendimientos son examinadas más adelante. En las próximas secciones se analiza la evolución de la producción, y consumo de maíz blanco en Centroamérica. Se analizan también los componentes básicos de la producción: el área cultivada y la productividad de la tierra. También se analizan las diferencias regionales en cuanto al consumo de maíz blanco en forma directa e indirecta. Se examina también la importancia relativa de Centroamérica dentro del contexto del mercado mundial de maíz blanco.4 La estructura de la producción de maíz en Centro AméricaEn esta sección se establece un perfil de las circunstancias internas y externas a la finca bajo las cuales se lleva a cabo la producción de maíz en CA. Las circunstancias que se describen se relacionan con factores estructurales que efectivamente afectan la adopción de nuevas tecnologías y por ende la productividad del cultivo. Se debe resaltar que algunas de los factores o circunstancias que se describen en esta sección son aproximaciones de otros factores, quizás más relevantes pero que no son observables en forma directa.Por ejemplo, el nivel de ingreso o riqueza de los agricultores es difícil de obtener, pero se lo puede asociar con indicadores tales como tamaño y forma de tenencia de la finca.No es fácil encontrar cifras actualizadas sobre la estructura de las fincas en CA, tal como numero de productores, tamaño y tenencia de las fincas, uso de crédito, etc. ya que los últimos censos agropecuarios se realizaron en la mayoría de los países en los años 70 o comienzos de los 80. Aunque existió alguna intención de realizarlos en los 90, solo Honduras pudo llevar a cabo un censo a escala nacional. Sin embargo, a fines de los años 80 y durante los 90, hubo varios intentos de clasificar a los productores de granos básicos en Centro América (CA) y caracterizar su situación social y económica (Dévé 1990, CEPAL 1994, PRIAG 1996b-g, 1997 a,b). En esta sección se usará la información provista por estos estudios como base para la identificación de las circunstancias estructurales bajo las cuales se desenvuelven los productores de granos básicos en CA en general y de maíz en particular. Esta información se complementa con aquella de otros estudios específicos y de encuestas y sondeos realizados en áreas específicas.De acuerdo a un estudio de CEPAL, en 1989 un 78% (aproximadamente 1.3 millones) del total de agricultores en CA están involucrados en la producción de los cuatro granos básicos: Maíz, fríjol, arroz, y sorgo (CEPAL, 1994). Del total de la superficie dedicada a los granos básicos el maíz es el cultivo más importante ocupando más del 60% del área cultivada, mientras que el restante 40% se divide entre los otros tres granos aproximadamente en partes iguales.Sin embargo, existen diferencias entre países que reflejan la importancia de cada uno de los granos básicos en la dieta. Por ejemplo en Costa Rica solo un 40% del total de agricultores producen granos básicos. En Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua el maíz es el grano más importante, mientras que en Panamá y Costa Rica este lugar lo ocupa el arroz.Es decir que en términos generales si se habla de las circunstancias bajo la cual se desenvuelve la producción de granos básicos en CA estas condiciones se pueden aplicar al sector de producción de maíz.La estructura del tamaño de las fincas de los productores de granos básicos en CA es muy similar a la que sigue el total de productores agropecuarios. En 1989 y para CA como un todo, el 63% de los productores de granos básicos pertenecían a la categoría de microfincas y 16% a fincas sub-familiares (Dévé 1990).Las microfincas se definen como fincas que no logran a cubrir las necesidades de consumo familiar básico, principalmente por falta de tierra, y el campesino tiene que buscar otras fuentes de ingreso. Las fincas sub-familiares, a su vez, se definen como fincas que logran satisfacer sus necesidades básicas de subsistencia pero no generan excedentes económicos. En la década de los 70 las microfincas tenían en promedio entre 0.3 y 0.6 ha, mientras que las fincas sub-familares tenían una superficie promedio entre 2.1 y 2.5 ha, aunque en ambos casos existían diferencias dependiendo del país.Sin embargo la importancia de cada una de este tipo de fincas varía entre países reflejando de esa manera diferencias estructurales importantes. En Costa Rica y Nicaragua predominan los productores en la categoría sub-familiar, mientras en El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras predominan los productores de microfincas, particularmente en estos dos últimos países (Tabla 19). Resumiendo, del total de agricultores de CA las categorías de microfincas y subfamiliares se especializan en la producción de granos básicos, mientras que los productores familiares, medianos y grandes se involucran más en la producción de cultivos de exportación y en la ganadería. La distribución entre numerosos agricultores de subsistencia de escasa superficie que producen granos básicos y relativamente pocos de superficie mediana a grande orientados a la ganadería se refleja en la estructura del uso de la tierra. En 1985 el 14.1% de la tierra en CA se usó para la producción de alimentos básicos, mientras que 63.7% fue dedicado a praderas y pastos y casi un 10% a cultivos industriales (IICA/FLASCO, 1991).Es decir que para los productores de maíz de CA la tierra es un recurso escaso, lo que significa que muchos de ellos necesitan alquilar tierra para garantizar la producción de alimentos para la familia. También, muchos de ellos usan tierras públicas, abandonadas o de tenencia desconocida. Alternativamente o en forma adicional, los miembros de la familia pueden trabajar fuera de la finca como jornaleros para complementar el ingreso familiar.Esta escasez de tierra respecto a la mano de obra se pone de manifiesto en los tres países productores de maíz más importantes (Guatemala, Honduras, y El Salvador) donde aproximadamente 90% de las fincas tienen una estructura donde no existe suficiente tierra para satisfacer las necesidades básicas de la familia, o para permitir el uso de la mano de obra familiar en la finca durante todo el añoCentro América es una región montañosa, en donde mas del 75% de la superficie total en cada uno de los países que la componen se encuentra en zonas de laderas (Leonard 1987, cita en Sain y Lopez-Perreira, 1997). Como resultado de la poca disponibilidad de sabanas o bosques extensivos, y de las altas densidades de población predominantes, no es posible desarrollar la agricultura, o desarrollar las áreas forestales sin involucrar a las laderas (Pachico et al.1994). Las regiones de laderas son especialmente predominantes en El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras. Además, una proporción considerable de la tierra arable de estos países se encuentra en las zonas de laderas, especialmente en El Salvador (40%) y Guatemala (30%), indicando que grandes áreas de laderas están bajo cultivos anuales y especialmente granos básicos. (1) Una finca con tierra abundante indica que la familia tiene más tierra de la que puede trabajar con la mano de obra familiar y que puede contratar mano de obra agrícola.(2) Una finca con suficiente mano de obra y tierra, indica que tiene suficiente tierra para sostener a una familia a un nivel de vida satisfactorio, con el uso de la mano de obra familiar.(3) Una finca con mano de obra abundante indica que no tiene suficiente tierra para satisfacer las necesidades básicas de la familia, o para permitir el uso de la mano de obra familiar en la finca durante todo el año.Adicionalmente, en la región predominan los suelos superficiales o pobres. Por ejemplo, en países como Guatemala y Honduras casi la mitad de los suelos son catalogados como superficiales (Tabla 21). Solamente El Salvador tiene suelos profundos y con alta fertilidad en casi tres cuartos de su área. Nicaragua tiene principalmente suelos profundos pero con una baja fertilidad, mientras que en Costa Rica la mitad del área tiene suelos profundos con buena fertilidad.El desarrollo de una agricultura tecnificada se hace más difícil en estas áreas marginales que en aquellos ambientes mas favorecidos en términos de recursos naturales. Respondiendo a factores de topografía y clima, la producción de granos básicos en Centroamerica se caracteriza por dos sistemas bien diferenciados (Sanders y López-Pereira 1996). En el primer sistema, agricultores de mediana y gran escala producen granos básicos en los valles y otras zonas de alto potencial productivo, normalmente como parte de una operación diversificada. Estos agricultores normalmente usan niveles elevados insumos comprados tales como semilla mejorada, fertilizantes inorgánicos y otros. En contraste, en el segundo sistema, agricultores de pequeña escala participan en la producción de granos básicos en las regiones de laderas, normalmente en sistemas asociados de dos o más cultivos, especialmente maíz -sorgo y maíz -frijol.. Estos agricultores usan muy pocos insumos comprados, y prácticas tradicionales de manejo de los cultivos. Los insumos más importantes en estos sistemas de cultivo son la mano de obra (casi siempre familiar), la tierra, la semilla t radicional, y en algunos casos la tracción animal. Dos características importantes que distinguen ambos sistemas son: el tamaño de la superficie cultivada y el destino de la producción. En el primer sistema o sistema comercial, la escala de producción es relativamente grande y el producto se destina principalmente a la venta. En el segundo sistema o sistema de producción campesino, la superficie de la finca y de producción es pequeña, usualmente de alrededor de 1 ha de maíz, y el producto se destina principalmente al consumo interno, y se vende el excedente. Se debe notar sin embargo, que esta clasificación no tiene límites definidos, por el contrario tanto dentro del sector campesino como del sector comercial existe una variabilidad suficiente como para que la clasificación en ciertos casos se vuelva imprecisa. Por ejemplo, existe un sector campesino medio cuyas características respecto a calidad de tierra, insumos comprados y dependencia del mercado lo podrían clasificar también como perteneciente al sector comercial. Este tipo de agricultor fue el foco de atención de muchos programas gubernamentales en el pasado.Aunque no se cuentan con cifras precisas sobre el porcentaje de agricultores y de la producción total dentro de cada una de estas categorías, si existe consenso de que en toda Centroamérica la mayor parte de los pequeños productores de granos básicos pertenecen al sistema campesino y aproximadamente la mitad de la producción de maíz, sorgo, y fríjol, proviene de este sistema tradicional de cultivo. Es decir que la estructura de producción de maíz en CA se caracteriza por una distribución dual donde un gran número de pequeños agricultores (aproximadamente un 70%) con baja productividad, coexiste con un número menor de agricultores comerciales que mantienen un nivel alto de rendimiento (30%). Estas cifras deben interpretarse sin embargo, solo como indicadoras de tendencias de los promedios a escala nacional existiendo en todos los países una amplia variabilidad regional.En general los bajos rendimientos en el sector campesino se asocian a un nivel tecnológico bajo. Por ejemplo, el nivel de mecanización en la preparación del terreno o para la siembra es bajo, la gran mayoría usa semilla de variedades mejoradas recicladas a menudo por varios años (\"acriollas\"). El tipo de siembra predominante es a \"chuzo\" con un arreglo espacial conocido como \"al cuadro\" en donde se siembran en promedio 4 semillas por golpe a una distancia de 1mt entre golpes con lo que resulta en densidades de siembra bajas (40,000 plantas/ha). El control de las malezas se realiza en forma manual con machete y normalmente no se utilizan insumos químicos, y los niveles de fertilización son bajos. El uso del crédito para la producción es bajo, la cosecha se realiza en forma manual, y la practica de la dobla o almacenaje en el campo es común en la región.En resumen, en la región Centroamericana se pueden encontrar dos niveles tecnológicos predominantes entre los productores de maíz. Por un lado existe un sistema tradicional, no tecnificado predominante principalmente en las microfincas que coexiste con un sistema semi-tecnificado que es practicado principalmente en las fincas subfamiliares (Dévé,1990). La Tabla 22 describe en forma concisa ambos niveles tecnológicos para el maíz. Mas adelante cuando se analice la productividad y los factores que la determinan se vuelve sobre este tema con mayor detalle.Otra variable listada que también diferencia al sector de producción de maíz es la inserción en el mercado medida por el porcentaje de la producción total que se destina al consumo interno de la finca. En general, la producción de los pequeños productores de maíz y fríjol es destinada principalmente al consumo directo en la finca, existiendo una relación inversa entre el tamaño de la finca y el porcentaje que se destina al autoconsumo: cuanto más pequeña sea la finca mayor el porcentaje de autoconsumo ( Casi la totalidad del maíz producido en Centro América se cultiva en un ambiente tropical o subtropical en alturas que van desde el nivel del mar hasta los 500 mts de altura (Dowswell et al. 1996). Solo un pequeño porcentaje del total del maíz se puede considerar de altura principalmente en el altiplano Guatemalteco. Las altas temperaturas que se registran (25 a 28 o C ), las altos niveles de humedad relativa, los altos índices de precipitación, y la relativamente corta duración de la radiación solar, dan al ambiente de producción de maíz en CA unas condiciones únicas para el desarrollo de factores bióticos como abióticos que limitan la productividad del cultivo.Entre los factores bióticos más importantes para CA se deben mencionar los siguientes:• Crecimiento rápido y agresivo de las malezas que obliga a ejecutar dos o más controles durante el ciclo de cultivo, • Crecimiento rápido y agresivo de hongos tales como Perenosclerospora spp., pudrición de l tallo y mazorca, Helmynthosporium maydis, corn stunt, y otros que obligan a realizar controles preventivos y a dirigir recursos para obtener tolerancia genética al ataque de estas enfermedades de manera de reducir al mínimo las pérdidas • Presencia de insectos del suelo y de la planta como gallina ciega, gusano barrenador • Entre los factores abióticos mas importantes se encuentran:• Cantidad limitada de radiación solar que limita el rendimiento potencial con relación a ambientes templados.• La falta de agua es un problema que tiene dos dimensiones. Por un lado, existen ambientes como el norte de El Salvador y Sur de Honduras donde la precipitación es crítica durante el periodo de crecimiento del cultivo, y por otro lado la sequía recurrente que se presenta en forma cíclica en CA.Respondiendo a factores de topografía y clima, la producción de maíz se caracteriza por dos sistemas bien diferenciados. En el primer sistema, agricultores de mediana y gran escala producen granos básicos en los valles y otras zonas de alto potencial productivo, normalmente como parte de una operación diversificada. Estos agricultores normalmente usan niveles elevados insumos comprados tales como semilla mejorada, fertilizantes inorgánicos y otros. En contraste, en el segundo sistema, agricultores de pequeña escala participan en la producción de granos básicos en las regiones de laderas, normalmente en sistemas asociados de dos o más cultivos, especialmente maízsorgo y maíz -frijol.. Estos agricultores usan muy pocos insumos comprados, y prácticas tradicionales de manejo de los cultivos. Los insumos más importantes en estos sistemas de cultivo son la mano de obra (casi siempre familiar), la tierra, la semilla tradicional, y en algunos casos la tracción animal.Tres características importantes distinguen ambos sistemas: el tamaño de la superficie cultivada, el nivel tecnológico (productividad) y el destino de la producción. En el primer sistema o sistema comercial, la escala de producción es relativamente grande, se cultiva con sistema semi-tecnificado y el producto se destina principalmente a la venta. En el segundo sistema o sistema de producción campesino, la superficie de la finca y de producción es pequeña, usualmente de alrededor de 1 ha de maíz, la tecnología es sencilla (baja productividad) y el producto se destina principalmente al consumo interno, y se vende el excedente.Esta diferenciación por sistemas de producción aunque simple, es importante ya que las oportunidades para aumentar la productividad e ingresos difieren para ambos sistemas.Tabla 24 se resumen las principales circunstancias que caracterizan la estructura del sector de producción de maíz en CA. 5 Determinantes de la producción de maíz en Centro AméricaLa superficie cultivada con maíz en CA, creció de forma constante durante todo el período 1961 -1996, sin embargo este crecimiento se acelera ligeramente en los últimos 15 años (Figura 15) y compensa parcialmente por el estancamiento de la productividad en ese periodo. La superficie cultivada con maíz en un determinado país y año depende de factores complejos. Si la actividad se realiza con fines comerciales, el precio del maíz relativo a otros cultivos que compiten por el recurso tierra, juega un papel importante, mientras que en el caso de las fincas que cultivan principalmente para el consumo interno, factores estructurales tales como las necesidades internas de consumo, y disponibilidad de recursos resultan más importantes que el precio. Además, en países relativamente pequeños como los centroamericanos, la política macroeconómica tiene una gran influencia sobre las decisiones que se toman al nivel de sector. Por estas razones se postula que el área cultivada con maíz en un país y año determinado es una función de dos grupos de variables: Los precios relativos y factores estructurales y macroeconómicos.[14]En esta ecuación, Pit es un vector de precios de actividades que compiten con maíz por tierra expresados en términos relativos al precio del maíz que es tomado como numerario. Xit representa un vector de variables macroeconómicas y estructurales que modifican la respuesta del área cultivada a los precios del maíz. El subíndice i= 1,2,...6 indica el numero de países o regiones incluidas en el análisis; y el sub-índice t = 1,2,...,28 es el índice de tiempo para los años 1967 -1995.Esta especificación, denominada de efectos fijos (Judge et al., 1988,), permite que varíen entre países los parámetros que identifican el origen y aquellos que especifican la respuesta a los precios relativos mientras que el impacto de las variables macroeconómicas y estructurales permanece fijo entre países. Esta especificación permite capturar la diferencia en la importancia del maíz entre los países centroamericanos y aquella entre los diferentes usos competitivos del suelo.Para estimar el modelo se elige una forma funcional lineal en el logaritmo de la variable dependiente e independientes de manera que los coeficientes asociados a cada una de las variables explicativas representa la elasticidad del área cultivada respecto a dicha variable. El modelo estimado es: Ait Es el área en hectáreas cultivada con maíz en el i-ésimo país en el año tPCCt-1 Es el precio relativo de el cultivo anual competitivo en el i-ésimo país en el año anterior (t-1). Esta es la especificación más sencilla de las expectativas de precios agrícolas, que postula que los agricultores realizan sus expectativas basados únicamente en el precio más reciente de sus cosechas y que la expectativas será que el precio de la temporada pasada prevalecerá en la siguiente (modelo de expectativas estáticas, Askari y Cummings, 1977). Además de elegir la forma de la formación de las expectativas el modelo permite que la actividad competitiva cambie de un país a otro. En Panamá, Costa Rica y Nicaragua, se toma al arroz como cultivo competitivo, mientras que en El Salvador, Honduras, y Guatemala se toma al sorgo. El signo esperado de los coeficientes asociados con esta variable es negativo.PGt-1 Es el precio relativo del ganado vacuno en el i-ésimo país en el año anterior (t-1). Se considera que los pastos para alimentación del ganado (para carne y leche) es una actividad competitiva del uso de la tierra con los granos básicos. También se espera en este caso que los coeficientes tengan un signo negativo.DTCt-1 Es el grado de distorsión en la tasa de cambio en i-ésimo país en el año anterior (t-1). Esta variable se calcula mediante la diferencia porcentual entre el ajuste realizado anualmente en la tasa de cambio nominal (TCN) y aquel que debería realizarse si la TCN se ajustara por el diferencial de inflación entre el país en cuestión y la inflación del principal socio comercial que en este caso es Estados Unidos. En el caso del maíz blanco, un bien importable, una moneda sobrevaluada (una distorsión negativa) favorecerá las importaciones del producto competitivo desde el exterior, y por lo tanto reducirá la oferta doméstica y viceversa, una moneda subvaluada (una distorsión positiva) hará mas caras las importaciones y por lo tanto favorecería la oferta doméstica. Es decir que se espera un signo positivo del coeficiente asociado con esta variable.CPNt-1 Es el Coeficiente de Protección Nominal (CPN) en el i-ésimo país en el año anterior (t-1) .El CPN refleja la distorsión entre el precio doméstico prevaleciente en el país y el precio equivalente internacional en un punto de la cadena comercial en donde la oferta doméstica y la internacional pueden competir. El coeficiente se calcula mediante la relación entre el precio doméstico al productor del maíz y el precio internacional del maíz (CIF). Para poner ambos precios en una misma moneda se uso la tasa de cambio real (TCR). El precio internacional fue aproximado por el precio del maíz en Estados Unidos más el costo promedio del flete marítimo a Rotterdam desde los puertos del Golfo de EU (Byerlee y Sain 1991) para obtener el precio CIF en cualquier puerto de Centro América. Posteriormente el precio CIF fue ajustado por el costo de transporte desde el puerto a la ciudad capital. Se uso el precio del maíz amarillo grado 2 ya que no se encontraron series tan larga del precio del maíz blanco. En aquellos períodos en donde existen ambas series se puede ver que ambos se encuentran fuertemente correlacionados con un premium al maíz blanco de aproximadamente 40% (ver sección anterior, para un análisis de los precios internacionales de maíz blanco y amarillo). Se espera que cuanto mayor sea el CPN, mayor será la diferencia entre los precios domésticos y los precios internacionales (protección) y por lo tanto mayor será la oferta domestica. Es decir que también se espera un efecto positivo del coeficiente asociado con en esta variable.PPit Es la presión de la población sobre la tierra arable en el i-ésimo país en el año t. La variable se calcula como la relación entre la tierra arable disponible y el total de población en cada uno de los países. Es decir que cuanto mayor sea la población por unidad de tierra, mayor será la presión de la población y menor será el valor del indicador. Se usan las series de tiempo de Tierra Arable (ha), y población en los seis países disponible en la base de datos de la FAO. De acuerdo a un estudio reciente la presión de la población sobre la tierra arable afecta significativamente la capacidad de los agricultores de cambiar la tecnología, para ajustar la producción (De Groote 1999). Sin embargo, este factor afecta también la capacidad para asignar más tierra a un cultivo. Se espera que cuanto menor sea la PPAL, más difícil será la resignación de nuevas tierras a la producción y por lo tanto menor la respuesta a los cambios en los precios. La Tabla 20 resume las variables, su signo esperado y algunas estadísticas de la muestra sobre la cual se realiza la estimación. En todos los casos las variaciones entre países de los promedios en el periodo bajo estudio se mantienen en rangos normales con excepción de la distorsión en la tasa de cambio y del coeficiente de protección nominal donde el promedio de Nicaragua se ve afectado por los valores extremos que ambas variables tuvieron durante el periodo del gobierno Sandinista en ese país. Para tener en cuenta este efecto se introdujo en la ecuación estimada una variable indicadora que toma el valor 1 para Nicaragua en el periodo 1980 a 1990. Con ese mismo espíritu se incorporo una variable indicadora para El Salvador durante el periodo 1984 -1995.La Tabla 26 presenta los resultados de estimar el modelo descrito anteriormente más un término autoregresivo de orden 1, necesario para corregir la autocorrelación presente en el modelo original 10 .Los resultados muestran la importancia de las variables macroeconómicas y estructurales sobre el área cultivada con maíz.Protección vía precios. Una política de protección del cultivo vía precios inducirá una mayor superficie cultivada. Dada la tendencia a la reducción de las distorsiones entre precios domésticos e internacionales impulsada por la nueva política comercial adoptada por los países centroamericanos, se debe esperar que el impacto de esta política sea la de empujar hacia abajo la superficie cultivada con maíz (una reducción del 10% en el valor de l CPN, conlleva una reducción de casi el 1% en la superficie cultivada. tendencia general seguida por los países de la región ha sido hacia una eliminación de la sobre valuación de las monedas, en los últimos años la situación macroeconómica y la política antiinflacionaria ha llevado a una cierta sobrevaluación de las monedas centroamericanas. La tendencia hacia el futuro, no es clara.Presión sobre la tierra. Los resultados confirman la importancia de los factores estructurales en la respuesta de la superficie cultivada. Un aumento del 10% en el costo de oportunidad de la tierra, representado por el número de habitantes por unidad de tierra arable, induce una reducción en la superficie cultivada del orden de 1.1%. Dado que la tierra arable es una cantidad que en el mejor de los casos se puede considera como fija, la presión de la población sobre ella esta directamente relacionada con el crecimiento de la población, la cual en CA crece a una tasa bastante acelerada entre el 2 y 3% año, por lo cual se debe esperar que esta variable siga presionando hacia abajo sobre la superficie con maíz en la región.Precio relativo del cultivo competitivo. El precio del cultivo competitivo no fue un factor muy importante en la mayoría de los países centroamericanos, solo en el caso de Guatemala y Honduras, el precio relativo del cultivo competitivo resultó significativo y con el signo negativo esperado. En ambos casos un aumento del precio del sorgo relativo al del maíz, induce una reducción de la superficie de 2% y 4% respectivamente en ambos países. En los restantes la superficie cultivada parece inflexible a modificaciones en los precios relativos.En los dos países donde el sector ganadero ha cobrado mayor importancia, Costa Rica y Nicaragua los resultados muestran que existe una reasignación de la superficie cultivada ante cambios en los precios relativos. Un aumento en el precio relativo del ganado en estos dos países induce una reducción en la superficie cultivada con maíz de 5 y 2% respectivamente. En Honduras, El Salvador y Panamá, el precio relativo del ganado no parece afectar el área cultivada con maíz, mientras que en Guatemala, el coeficiente resultó significativo pero con el signo contrario a lo esperado, ambas actividades se comportan como complementarias respecto al uso de la tierra.Las variable indicadora de períodos especiales de violencia o disrupción política en Nicaragua, resultó significativa y relevante indicando, tal cual se esperaba, que las circunstancias especiales que predominaron durante el sandinismo afectaron negativamente la superficie cultivada con maíz. En el caso de El Salvador, la variable no parece afectar en forma significativa la superficie sembrada con maíz en ese país.La productividad de la tierra (rendimiento) definida como la cantidad de producto que se obtiene por unidad de superficie, es una pieza fundamental en la determinación de la competitividad. El modelo de costos unitarios postulado en la metodología establece que el nivel de competitividad de una región está relacionado con la productividad a de la tierra 11 través del cociente entre el costo de producción (CP) por unidad de tierra y la productividad de la tierra (CU = CP/Y). No cabe ninguna duda entonces que el nivel de productividad y la capacidad de mantenerla o aumentarla en el tiempo es fundamental para el establecimiento de ventajas competitivas al nivel del sector productivo.Un concepto relacionado al de productividad es el de eficiencia física o eficiencia técnica que mide la relación entre la productividad real o actual con aquella potencialmente alcanzable con la tecnología disponible. Este concepto, también conocido como brecha tecnológica, es importante para el análisis del potencial competitivo de un país o región si las condiciones o factores que mantienen la existencia de estas ineficiencias (brecha) cambian.El promedio regional del rendimiento del maíz en CA creció desde niveles inferiores a 1 t/ha en los años 60 a una tasa superior al 2% anual hasta mediados de los años 80. A partir de esa fecha, la productividad permanece estancada alrededor de 1.4 t/ha ( Figura 16). Las razones para este estancamiento son complejas y abarcan desde el uso de tierras marginales, menos fértiles, factores económicos, sociales y de política económica e institucional, causas que son examinadas más adelante. g = 2.3 g = 0.9 11 Aunque es posible medir el nivel de productividad para cada uno de los insumos y factores usados en la producción, los resultados presentados en esta sección se refieren solo a la productividad de la tierra.Los datos al nivel de país, indican que ninguno de los países de Centro América ha superado la barrera de rendimiento de las 2 t/ha y, en algunos casos como Nicaragua y Panamá, el rendimiento apenas supera 1 t/ha. Sin embargo, en todos los países de la región existe una amplia variabilidad en los niveles de rendimiento con áreas con niveles de productividad muy por arriba del promedio nacional. Por ejemplo, en el área de Guaymango, en el occidente de El Salvador, el promedio de los rendimiento al nivel de campo supera las 3 t /ha mientras que el promedio nacional reporta 1.9 t /ha y en Azuero, Panamá, los rendimientos oscilan entre 4 y 5 t /ha mientras que el promedio nacional reporta 1 t /ha (Pereira de Herrera, y Sain 1999).Estas cifras estarían indicando la existencia de una brecha tecnológica importante entre la productividad actual y potencial de la tierra. Ya que la productividad potencial se evalúa bajo la tecnología disponible, esta brecha en productividad podría cerrarse en el corto plazo con medidas de política tendientes a liberar las barreras existentes que impiden la adopción y difusión de la tecnología disponible a los agricultores. Este tema se desarrolla en detalle más adelante.A los niveles actuales el nivel de productividad relativo a las demás áreas competidoras, muestran a CA en una situación promisoria ( Figura 17). CA supera la productividad media en África por un porcentaje que va desde 13 a 42%, se encuentra a casi al mismo nivel de la región andina y es superada por México, un importador neto, en 29% y por el sudeste de Asia en 41%.Figura 17. Comparación del nive l de rendimiento en diferentes regiones. Promedio regional para 1995-97 El nivel de productividad potencial es un elemento central para examinar la capacidad de la región de reducir en el corto o mediano plazo el costo unitario de producción mediante la adopción de medidas que permitan cerrar la brecha entre el rendimiento actual y el potencial.La brecha en productividad se define como la diferencia que existe entre el rendimiento que actualmente alcanzan los agricultores y la que podrían alcanzar si adoptaran la tecnología disponible. El tamaño de la brecha es un indicador del nivel de eficiencia física del sistema de producción y su importancia radica en que la remoción de los factores que impiden alcanzar la productividad potencial se vuelve un elemento fundamental en el objetivo de alcanzar la competitividad.El rendimiento potencial se define como el nivel de productividad máxima alcanzable con la tecnología disponible. Para tener una medida aproximada de esta capacidad se analizan los rendimientos experimentales obtenidos en el ensayo regional que el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) lleva de forma anual en los seis países de CA. Este ensayo se usa para evaluar diferentes materiales mejorados tanto públicos como privados bajo diferentes localidades a través de CA y el Caribe. Los materiales se evalúan bajo condiciones uniformes de manejo y en todas las l ocalidades se introduce un testigo local que usualmente representa el material más usado por los agricultores del área. En ese sentido este material no puede asociarse necesariamente al rendimiento de los materiales locales o criollos. La Figura 18 muestra la localización geográfica aproximada de las 32 localidades involucradas en el experimento.La Tabla 27 muestra el promedio del nivel de rendimiento por tipo de material y país para el periodo 1991 -1996. Para CA como región el rendimiento potencial se coloca ligeramente por arriba de 5t/ha en el caso de materiales híbridos y casi 4 t/ha en el caso de variedades de polinización libre (VPL). En términos de países individuales y tomando el rendimiento de los materiales híbridos, Honduras y Costa Rica y presentan los niveles más altos de productividad potencial con rendimientos superiores a 5,5 t /ha mientras que El Salvador muestra la productividad potencial más baja con un nivel de casi 4 t/ha. Una medida de la brecha tecnológica existente en CA la proporciona la magnitud de la diferencia de los rendimientos en el experimento regional entre la variedad que usa el agricultor en el país y aquel que podría obtener al usar variedades mejoradas. Los datos experimentales muestran que, para la región como un todo, la brecha va desde un 27% en el caso de cambiar del testigo a una VPL, hasta un 70% si se cambia el testigo por un híbrido comercial. Estos niveles de ganancia en productividad que los países pueden alcanzar son consistentes con estimaciones previas basadas en resultados de experimentos realizados en fincas de agricultores (Sain y López Pereira 1997).Otra estimación de la brecha parte de la productividad media al nivel nacional observada en cada país. La Tabla 28, muestra el tamaño estimado de la brecha para Centro América para dos sistema de producción (comercial y campesina) y para dos tipos de semillas (híbridos y variedades mejoradas de polinización abierta). Las cifras muestran un nivel medio de la productividad actual de casi 3 t/ha para el sistema comercial (que coincide con el nivel d el testigo en el experimento regional) y de 1t/ha para el sistema campesino, mientras que la productividad potencial se sitúa en 5 ton/ha para los materiales híbridos y de 4 ton/ha para las variedades mejoradas de polinización libre, lo que también concuerda con los resultados experimentales. Notas: (1) El rendimiento potencial de los materiales híbridos y de las variedades de polinización libre (VPL) es el promedio de los rendimientos de 9 cultivares del PRM evaluados a través de 11 localidades en CAyM (Bolaños 1993).(2) El rendimiento actual del agricultor comercial es el promedio de 28 observaciones en campos de agricultores o parcelas de validación a través de CA (Bolaños et al. 1993).(3) El rendimiento actual del agricultor en el sistema campesino varía enormemente entre regiones y países, sin embargo el promedio de 1.0t/ha refleja adecuadamente el bajo nivel de productividad del sistema.El tamaño de la brecha depende entonces de las alternativas tecnológicas que se comparen. En el sistema comercial ubicado en áreas más favorecidas la productividad puede incrementarse entre 50 y 85% con la tecnología que se encuentra disponible mientras que en el caso de la economía campesina las posibilidades son t odavía mayores ya que los incrementos relativos son del orden de 300 y 400%.La situación de productividad absoluta y relativa de CA debe verse en términos comparativos a otras regiones productoras del mundo. Un estudio reciente muestra que la posición de la región es relativamente buena Estas cifras comparativas, deben verse como amenazas y oportunidades para la región centroamericana. Por un lado el rendimiento potencial es bajo relativo al reportado para el ambiente calificado como de altura media y subtropical, particularmente en América Latina y Asia, sin embargo casi todo el maíz que se produce en estas regiones es maíz amarillo cuyo destino final es la fabricación de alimentos balanceados. Al mismo tiempo, si se considera el ambiente del trópico bajo donde casi la totalidad del maíz que se produce es blanco para consumo humano, la región presenta el segundo mayor nivel de productividad potencial, solo superada por la región del este y sureste de Asia. También presenta un nivel de incremento potencial relativo importante solo superado por la región del África al sur del Sahara.Aunque las cifras revelan grandes oportunidades para aumentar la productividad del maíz en la región, se deben reconocer las dificultades para hacerlo, particularmente en el caso de las economías campesinas, donde impedimentos de orden estructural como la calidad de la tierra, la falta de recursos financieros, y los altos costos de transacción que afrontan son barreras difíciles de superar.Tabla 29muestra el tamaño de la brecha en productividad, para cuatro regiones del mundo y tres ambientes de crecimiento. La brecha estimada para Centro América corresponde a la casilla de la América Latina con ambiente de trópico bajo y se estima en 3.5 toneladas por hectárea con un rendimiento potencial de 5 ton/ha y una productividad actual de 1.5 t/ha. Estas cifras coinciden con la estimación del rendimiento promedio agregado, es decir como un promedio entre los sistemas campesino y comercial considerados en la tabla anterior 12 .Estas cifras comparativas, deben verse como amenazas y oportunidades para la región centroamericana. Por un lado el rendimiento potencial es bajo relativo al reportado para el ambiente calificado como de altura media y subtropical, particularmente en América Latina y Asia, sin embargo casi todo el maíz que se produce en estas regiones es maíz amarillo cuyo destino final es la fabricación de alimentos balanceados. Al mismo tiempo, si se considera el ambiente del trópico bajo donde casi la totalidad del maíz que se produce es blanco para consumo humano, la región presenta el segundo mayor nivel de productividad potencial, solo superada por la región del este y sureste de Asia. También presenta un nivel de incremento potencial relativo importante solo superado por la región del África al sur del Sahara.Aunque las cifras revelan grandes oportunidades para aumentar la productividad del maíz en la región, se deben reconocer las dificultades para hacerlo, particularmente en el caso de las economías campesinas, donde impedimentos de orden estructural como la calidad de la tierra, la falta de recursos financieros, y los altos costos de transacción que afrontan son barreras difíciles de superar. (*) El rendimiento potencial se refiere al máximo rendimiento alcanzable al nivel de la finca con el uso de variedades mejoradas de alto rendimiento, y tolerantes a plagas y enfermedades, con niveles apropiados de nutrimentos, adecuada humedad y control de malezas. La separación de la brecha por tipo de agricultor es importante ya que los factores que limitan el aprovechar la tecnología disponible para cerrar la brecha dependen del tipo de sistema que se trate y de los objetivos de las políticas sectoriales para cada uno de ellos. Por ejemplo, es probable que se obtenga una respuesta más rápida y de mayor impacto sobre el nivel agregado de producción si los esfuerzos de investigación se dirigen a cerrar la brecha en el sector comercial que si se dirigen al sector campesino. Mientras que por el contrario, medidas de política dirigidas a este último sector alcanzarían a un mayor número de beneficiarios ubicados en los estratos más bajos de la distribución del ingreso. Es decir que en general, las perspectivas de aumentar la tasa de crecimiento de la productividad del maíz son más inciertas en el sector de producción para el consumo humano particularmente en las fincas de subsistencias en ambientes marginales que en el caso del sector comercial.¿Cuáles son los principales factores que determinan el nivel de productividad de cada país y su tendencia? ¿Cuales son los factores que determinan las diferencias en productividad entre los países centroamericanos? En forma simplificada se puede pensar que el nivel de productividad en un país y año determinado (Yij) está determinado por dos factores: el nivel y calidad del stock de recursos naturales, y el nivel de manejo y tecnología disponibles (Figura 19).  La calidad de los recursos naturales, en particular la calidad del suelo es difícil sino imposible de medir a escala agregada. Al igual que en el caso de la superficie cultivada acá también es razonable pensar, que la presión de la población sobre la superficie agrícola (la relación entre la población total del país y la superficie agrícola) se encuentra inversamente correlacionada con la calidad del recurso suelo y puede servir de variable de aproximación (proxy 13 ).La Figura 20 muestra que la calidad del stock de suelo (S) 14 aproximada por la presión de población, podría explicar las diferencias entre países en el nivel de rendimiento potencial. De hecho, no solo el coeficiente de correlación entre ambas variables resultó estadísticamente significativo sino que la regresión entre ambos variables tomando el promedio de los años 1990 -97 indica que un aumento en una unidad en la presión de población impulsaría hacia abajo el rendimiento potencial en casi 800 kg por hectárea En lo que respecta a los factores relacionados con la tecnología, tres factores son fundamentales en determinar el nivel de rendimiento: el tipo de variedad usada (germoplasma), la densidad de siembra, y el nivel de fertilización (Bolaños 1997).No existen cifras a nivel de país del nivel de uso de fertilizantes desagregadas por cultivo y tampoco es posible obtener este tipo de cifras para la densidad de siembra por lo que se debe recurrir al uso de variedades mejoradas para medir la importancia de la tecnología sobre el nivel de productividad.La importancia de mejorar el uso de variedades mejoradas surge del hecho de que cuando se habla de un país, el nivel de productividad promedio estará determinado en gran medida por la proporción de la superficie cultivada que se realice utilizando variedades modernas de alto potencial de rendimiento. Por ejemplo, a escala mundial tomando los datos de área con VMC y productividad media se observa que existe una correlación significativa entre ambas variables (r = 0.47). La Figura 21 muestra la relación entre ambas variables. En términos generales, un aumento de 10% en la superficie cultivada lleva asociado un aumento en el rendimiento promedio de 131 kg/ha 15 . Los dos componentes esenciales de la producción: área cultivada y productividad siguen un patrón de cambio durante la década de los 80. Sin embargo es notorio el estancamiento de la productividad en la región centroamericana a partir de esa fecha.Respecto a los factores determinantes de la superficie cultivada, los resultados muestran que además de los precios relativos de las actividades competitivas por tierra, la política de apertura de la economía, a través de la reducción de la protección de precios domésticos, y de la corrección de la distorsión en la tasa de cambio, influye de manera significativa en la tendencia de la superficie cultivada. Una variable estructural importante en la determinación de la superficie cultivada es la presión de la población sobre la tierra. Esta variable, usada como una aproximación a la calidad del recurso suelo, influye de manera significativa y negativamente sobre la superficie cultivada. El futuro estará determinado por los vaivenes de la política macroeconómica que seguirán los países y el papel que esta política le adjudique a la producción de granos básicos en general y a la de maíz blanco en particular.En lo que respecta a la productividad, la región tiene un nivel potencial muy superior al nivel actual de rendimiento que puede llegar hasta el 400%. Los niveles de productividad se encuentran estancados desde mediados de los años 80 principalmente por factores estructurales: reducción de la calidad del suelo, y la estructura de producción (mas adelante se dan mas detalles sobre este punto).En el corto y mediano plazo, la tecnología es la respuesta para incrementar la productividad, principalmente el uso de materiales mejorados y mejores técnicas de manejo del cultivo.En términos generales, el nivel de productividad está determinado por el progreso técnico el cual a su vez es generado por la inversión pública y privada en investigación y desarrollo (I&D) de nuevas tecnologías. Como resultado de esta inversión se generan nuevas tecnologías y procesos que una vez incorporados en el proceso de producción aumentan los niveles de eficiencia física (productividad) y económica (costos). Sin embargo la inversión en I&D es una condición necesaria pero no suficiente. El sistema debe tener la capacidad de traducir en forma eficiente el conocimiento generado por la I&D en información útil en forma de tecnologías y procesos que sean usados por el productor e manera que reduzca el costo unitario de producción.En esta sección se presenta un breve análisis de la situación y tendencia de la inversión pública en I&D. La inversión privada no es importante tanto por los volúmenes de inversión, como por el tipo de productos y productores involucrados. Para ello, se utiliza información proveniente de fuentes oficiales y de importantes esfuerzos realizados en los últimos años para tener una caracterización de la estructura de las instituciones de I&D en América Latina (Medina Castro y Jiménez Rivera 1994, Anderson, Pardey y Roseboom 1997). Se pone atención en la evolución de la inversión realizada por cada país en I&D de nuevas tecnologías agrícolas y en la medida de lo posible se hace referencia a los granos básicos o al maíz.Posteriormente se describe en forma más específica las principales características del sector de I&D dirigido al maíz. Finalmente el análisis se concentra en uno de los productos más importantes que el sistema de I&D genera que es la semilla mejorada.El sector de I&D de tecnologías agropecuarias en CA es un sector con una institucionalidad relativamente joven.En Guatemala, luego de un proceso de cambio institucional que comienza en 1944 con la creación del el Instituto Nacional Agrícola (INA), se crea finalmente en 1972, el Instituto de Ciencias y Tecnologías Agrícolas (ICTA), que comienza sus funciones en 1973 y se mantiene vigente, aunque con muchas reformas, hasta el presente.En El Salvador, se crea en 1966 el Centro Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (CENTA) el cual pasa, al igual que la mayoría de los INIAS centroamericanas, por varias etapas de reformas a lo largo de su vida institucional que lo han llevado a que en la actualidad tenga niveles mínimos de actividad en investigación.En Honduras, la actividad de investigación agrícola comienza en instituciones internacionales privadas como la United Fruit Company y no es hasta la década de los 60 cuando se consolida la estructura administrativa de la Secretaria de Recursos Naturales (SRN) del Ministerio de Agricultura (MAG). Durante los años 70 y 80 ocurren varios procesos de reorganización de su estructura creándose varias dependencias. En 1994 se crea la actual Dirección de Investigación Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria (DICTA) y más tarde en 1997 la SRN se vuelve Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG). Otras agencias que realizan investigación agrícola en Honduras son: la Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA), fundada en 1984, la escuela Agrícola El Zamorano, y el Colegio Universitario Rural de La Atlántida (CURLA) de la Universidad Nacional.En Nicaragua, h asta 1990 las actividades de i nvestigación agropecuarias en Nicaragua estuvieron a cargo de del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDINRA), posteriormente este Ministerio se dividió en tres estructuras administrativas hasta que en 1993, se crea el Instituto Nicaragüense de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) cuya principal finalidad es la de investigar y transferir tecnologías a los pequeños y medianos productores agropecuarios. A partir de su creación y hasta el presente el INTA ha sufrido varios procesos de reforma tendientes a su consolidación institucional.En Costa Rica la investigación pública en granos básicos, particularmente en arroz y maíz se realiza principalmente en el MAG y en la Universidad Costa Rica (estación experimental F. Baudrit). En el 2001 se aprueba la ley de creación del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Otra universidad que realiza investigación agropecuaria es la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Heredia (UNAH).En Panamá, El Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias de Panamá (IDIAP), creado en 1975, es quizás el Instituto de investigación agropecuaria más estable de toda la región en función de su estructura y permanencia del personal profesional.La Figura 22 muestra la evolución del presupuesto real total y de investigación del ICTA, el CENTA y el IDIAP.En la Figura se aprecia como los gastos reales totales y de investigación en el ICTA y el CENTA caen a tasas cercanas al 10% anual durante casi todo el periodo comprendido entre 1980 y 1998. Estas figuras estarían mostrando un patrón de política económica de reducción de la inversión pública constante durante los pasados 30 años, pero un patrón cambiante de la importancia de la investigación pública.  1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 Años Presup Inv y Ext (miles de col) g = = 7.3% g = 15.7% El caso del IDIAP, en Panamá es interesante ya que es el único en la región que muestra una tendencia positiva en su presupuesto real total y operativo, el cual creció a una tasa anual del 6.7% durante el periodo 1989 a 1997. Durante los primeros 8 años de la década de los 80 el presupuesto real del Instituto creció durante los primeros cuatro años y luego volvió a descender para quedar con una tendencia neutra.La explicación de estas tendencias declinantes en la inversión publica en I&D en los países centroamericanos pueden encontrarse en los procesos de ajuste en sus economías realizados como consecuencia de la profunda crisis económica que los afecta cuando finaliza la década de los 70. Como parte del proceso de reestructuración de los aparatos de gobierno y de la tendencia a la privatización de muchas de las actividades que éstos han realizado tradicionalmente, los sistemas públicos de generación y transferencia de tecnología comenzaron un proceso de ajuste que comienza en la década de los 80, pero que se acelera durante la década de los 90 cuando comienza la tercera fase de los programas de ajuste estructural en la mayor parte de los países centroamericanos. Como consecuencia de estos procesos, la inversión pública en I&D de nuevas tecnologías disminuye de forma dramática y muchos de los servicios que prestaba el estado pasan a ser responsabilidad del sector privado. Las explicaciones para este comportamiento van desde la búsqueda de una mayor eficiencia en la los servicios que estas instituciones proveen, hasta la necesidad de ajustar el déficit fiscal mediante la reducción del gasto público. Independientemente de la causa lo cierto es que la evidencia empírica disponible indica que los países centroamericanos han disminuido notablemente la inversión pública, tanto en términos absolutos como en términos relativos (Anderson, Pardey y Roseboom 1997).De acuerdo con la información disponible, los Institutos Nacionales de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIAS), crecieron en función de los recursos humanos y financieros durante la mayor parte de los años 70. Este crecimiento dio lugar a estructuras burocráticas poco operativas. Por ejemplo, la Tabla 30 muestra que en CA la inversión en investigación aumentó entre 1971-75 y 1981-85 en un 52% pero el número de investigadores aumento en 111%. Como consecuencia, la inversión por investigador se redujo en 28% lo que estaría indicando que existen menos costos operativos disponibles. La Figura 23 por su parte, muestra que a comienzo de la década de los 90, los gastos en salarios en los INIAS de los cinco países analizados, alcanzan en promedio el 69% del total del presupuesto. La diferencia entre países refleja el nivel de avance de los procesos de reforma en los países. Costa Rica y Honduras muestran procesos más lentos de ajuste y por lo tanto cifras demasiados altas, mientras que otros como el INTA de Nicaragua y el ICTA de Guatemala tienen mejores promedios reflejando un grado más avanzado en el proceso de ajuste del sector. La evidencia empírica muestra también que la reducción de la inversión pública en I&D es particularmente fuerte en la asignación del presupuesto a los granos básicos y entre ellos, por supuesto al maíz. Por ejemplo, la Tabla 31 muestra que los recursos asignados a la investigación y extensión sobre granos básicos en Guatemala y El Salvador declinaron drásticamente en términos reales entre 1970 y 1990. El sector de I&D específicamente dirigido al maíz aunque inmerso en la crisis del sector público tiene características especiales que vale la pena resaltar:De hecho se puede afirmar decir que la investigación científica agropecuaria en Centro América se origina en la instigación en maíz como parte de un esfuerzo internacional para la obtención de variedades mejoradas por parte de la Fundación Roquefeller en los años 50 (una de las variedades mejoradas y posteriormente acriolladas mas viejas es conocida como Rocamex, nombre que sale de la conjunción de los vocablos Roquefeller y México).Aunque en general el gasto público real en I&D siguió una tendencia declinante, cuando se considera el presupuesto real asignado a la investigación en maíz la caída es aun más pronunciada como resultado de la política de modernización y reconversión productiva llevada a cabo en los países centroamericanos. Por ejemplo en Guatemala, el presupuesto asignado al maíz declinó durante el periodo de 1979 1 990 a una tasa de 12.8% por año (Figura 24), lo que indicaría el sesgo desfavorable hacia los granos básicos en la asignación de los recursos públicos. Esta última tendencia es consistente con aquella reportada en un estudio reciente donde se reporta que los gastos reales en investigación y extensión en maíz se redujeron de aproximadamente 370 mil quetzales por año en 1981 a solo 130 mil quetzales en 1990. Es decir que en solo 9 años el nivel real de inversión pública en generación y transferencia en maíz se redujo en términos reales en 65% o aproximadamente 7.2% por año (Reyes Hernández ,1996).A fines de la década de los 70 se establece formalmente el programa de colaboración entre el CIMMYT y los países centroamericanos y el caribe para la colaboración en investigación. El programa tiene tres componentes: mejoramiento, agronomía y economía y tres grandes productos: materiales mejorados, métodos de investigación y capacitación. Posteriormente, a fines de los 80, el programa se consolida institucionalmente en una red regional de investigación denominada Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) compuesta por representantes de los programas nacionales de los seis países centroamericanos y tres países del caribe (Cuba, República Dominicana y Haití).La importancia de la inversión proveniente de la colaboración regional dentro del sector de investigación y desarrollo nacional ha aumentado con el tiempo. La situación en 1996 se muestra en la Tabla 33. En algunos casos la inversión proveniente de la colaboración, que es exclusivamente para operaciones, supera al total de costos operativos disponibles en los países y solamente en Costa Rica, la inversión proveniente de la colaboración tiene una importancia relativamente pequeña.La Tabla 34 presenta la proporción de recursos humanos y financieros asignados a la I&D en maíz por área temática. La Figura 25 ilustra esta información en donde se han agrupado las áreas temáticas: nutrición, manejo y protección general bajo el nombre genérico de agronomía. En promedio los INIAS en la región asignan 65% del presupuesto al mejoramiento genético y 35% al manejo del cultivo. Esta asignación de los recursos en el ámbito nacional se refleja también en el ámbito regional. El PRM ha asignado históricamente un 60% de su presupuesto operativo al mejoramiento genético, un 30% a la agronomía (incluyendo conservación de suelo y agua) y 10% a la investigación socioeconómica. En los últimos 4 a 5 años, con el deterioro de los recursos canalizados a la investigación regional, ha aumentado la proporción asignada al mejoramiento, ha disminuido aquella de agronomía y desapareció la asignación hacia el área de socioeconomía. Con excepción de Nicaragua y Panamá, el mayor esfuerzo ha sido asignado al mejoramiento genético. Aunque no se tienen datos, se estima que el caso del CENTA en El Salvador sigue una distribución similar con más el 80% del esfuerzo dedicado al mejoramiento genético y producción de semillas mejoradas.Ha sufrido profundas modificaciones como consecuencia de los procesos de reforma del estado, ajuste estructural y globalización de la economía Es en este último sector en donde se han producido los cambios más importantes como consecuencia del proceso de ajuste estructural y reforma del estado. Tradicionalmente, todo el proceso de investigación y obtención de semilla mejorada estuvo a cargo del sector publico. Sin embargo, ya a fines de la década de los 80 el sector privado había capturado mas del 80% de la venta de semillas mejoradas. Así, en El Salvador la participación del estado en la comercialización de semillas mejoradas declinó de aproximadamente un 8% en 1980 a 0% en 1994 (Choto, Sain y Montenegro 1996), mientras que en Guatemala disminuyó del 30% en 1978 a solo el 1% en 1985 (Veliz 1993). Ha tenido un importante impacto económico y distributivo en la región La evaluación del impacto económico del PRM muestra que la colaboración en investigación en mejoramiento ha sido socialmente rentable con benéficos netos de 71 M de dólares de los cuales el 70% son atribuibles a esquemas institucionales de colaboración.La evolución de los recursos y financieros asignados para la cooperación en investigación también lleva un patrón declinante a partir de fines de la década de los 80. Así, el CIMMYT asignó durante buena parte de estos años 4 a 5 científicos internacionales a la región. A principios de los 90 la asignación bajó a 3, para finalmente llegar a 2. la asignación de los recursos operativos sigue aproximadamente la misma importancia que los programas nacionales: 50% para mejoramiento, 40% para agronomía y 10% para estudios sociales y economía.Uno de los factores más importantes en la determinación de la productividad lo constituye el potencial genético imbuido en la semilla de maíz. En esta sección se examina fundamentalmente la evolución de y el estado actual del uso de semilla mejorada en los países de Centroamérica y se la compara con otras regiones productoras del mundo. Posteriormente, se analizan algunos factores que influyen sobre el uso de este importante insumo como se precio relativo al del maíz, y la disponibilidad y acceso al crédito.Con el fin de evitar confusiones bastante comunes en la literatura sobre el tema se definen los conceptos siguientes:Híbrido comercial (HC) e híbrido reciclados (HR).. Se refiere a la semilla comercial y reciclada de un material híbrido. La siembra del material híbrido de segunda generación implica una pérdida sustancial en la productividad, que para los materiales centroamericanos se encuentra en alrededor del 35% por lo que su uso es bajo y en general no pasa de la segunda generación.Variedad de polinización libre comercial (VPLC) y reciclada (VPLR). . Se refiere a la semilla comercial y reciclada de una variedad mejorada de polinización libre.Con buen manejo de la semilla el agricultor puede mantener la pureza de la variedad y sus características deseables incluyendo la productividad por lo que su uso está bastante expandido en la región centroamericana particularmente entre los pequeños agricultores de escasos recursos con un alto grado de consumo dentro de la finca.Términos generales que se refieren a la semilla de materiales híbridos o variedades de polinización abierta que es adquiridos comercialmente o reciclados (primera generación). En el caso de VMC, es posible obtener una estimación de la superficie sembrada con este tipo de materiales a través de la información sobre la venta de semilla y la densidad de siembra. En general las VMR se refieren a las VPLR ya que el uso de materiales híbridos reciclados es bajo.Se refiere a variedades indígenas o autóctonas que no han sido sujetas a un proceso de mejoramiento comercial pero si pueden haber sido sujetas a mejoramiento por parte de los agricultores. Son variedades altas, usualmente de mas de 3 m. de altura y por definición solo pueden ser propias o adquiridas de otros agricultores.Obtener series de tiempo de la proporción de la superficie cultivada con maíz que s e siembra con variedades mejoradas es difícil ya que los países, con excepción de El Salvador, no llevan este tipo de estadísticas en forma regular. Por lo que la serie se debe estimar y para ello se debe recurrir a diferentes fuentes de información. Al nivel de país la fuente de información más confiable la constituye las encuestas realizadas por el CIMMYT en 1985, 1992 y 1996 (CIMMYT 1986(CIMMYT , 1994(CIMMYT , 1999, Morris y López Pereira 1999).Los datos de las encuestas de 1992 y 1996 se muestran en las Tablas 27 y 28. De acuerdo con estas cifras en ese lapso la superficie cultivada con maíz disminuyó en 63,000 has, mientras que el porcentaje cultivado con VMC disminuyó en un 9%. Ambas tendencias son consistentes con la situación económica del sector de producción de granos básicos y las políticas implementadas en la región.Por otro lado, la información arrojada por algunos estudios al nivel de campo en áreas especificas indican que el nivel de VC existente es bajo y circunscripto a regiones pequeñas mientras que el uso de VMR es alto particularmente cuando se trata de OPV. Por estas razones, las cifras bajo la columna \"VMR y VC\" de la Tablas 27 y 28 se refieren mayormente a materiales reciclados o acriollados. Es decir, que la adopción y uso de materiales mejorados en Centro América es muy superior al 30% y 21% que indica la columna VMC en las tablas.La Tabla 36 muestra que a partir de 1985 la proporción con VMC sigue una tendencia decreciente con excepción de Costa Rica y Panamá donde la superficie total sembrada con maíz no es importante y ha mostrado una reducción sustancial durante el periodo considerado. Es decir que, desde comienzos de la década de los 70 cuando comienzan a liberarse las primeras variedades el proceso de difusión ha seguido una dinámica caracterizada por una fase de crecimiento, hasta llegar a un techo para luego seguir una fase declinante. Este patrón de uso de semilla mejorada es característico de fenómenos de uso y reemplazo de tecnologías y procesos.Para estimar el patrón histórico de uso de VMC en los países de CA se modificó la curva logística estándar para permitir que la tasa anual de crecimiento varía en forma lineal con el tiempo (Banks 1994). De esa manera la expresión de la tasa de difusión es:donde St y S0 representan el porcentaje de la superficie que se cultiva con VMC en el año t y al inicio del periodo bajo estudio, a0 y c son parámetros a ser estimados y t es tiempo en años. Se debe notar que en punto tmax el coeficiente de crecimiento a(t) cambia de signo de positivo a negativo.De las formulas anteriores resulta claro que conociendo algunos de los parámetros es posible recrear la curva para los países en donde no existe suficiente información como para realizar el ajuste estadístico. En ese caso, si se tiene información sobre el punto de inicio del proceso (t0, S0), y el punto de máxima (tmax, Smax), se puede calcular el valor de c y a0 como sigue: c = 1/tmax; a0 = Ln(Smax/S0) * 2*c;Para posteriormente obtener el valor de a1 como se lo hizo anteriormente.La estimación del punto de inicio se realiza a partir de la información sobre la historia de la investigación en mejoramiento genético del maíz en el país mientras que la el punto máximo se toma de la información disponible en las encuestas del CIMMYT, si no hay otra estimación mejor.En el caso que la información disponible permita la estimación estadística se la realiza mediante OLS usando la ecuación [4].Los resultados de aplicar este procedimiento a los países centroamericanos, se pueden observar en la línea punteada continua en cada panel de la Figura 26. La Figura muestra patrones diferenciados por países. En los cuatro países donde el maíz es un importante componente de la dieta (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua), el proceso tiene un máximo y una fase descendente, mientras que en Panamá y Costa Rica el porcentaje de la superficie con semillas mejoradas se mantiene creciendo durante periodo considerado. Sin embargo se debe recordar que en estos dos últimos países la superficie cultivada total es pequeña en relación con los otros países. El porcentaje máximo y el momento de obtenerlo también varia considerablemente. El Salvador con un máximo estimado de casi 71%, es seguido por Guatemala que reporta un 60% en 1985. Honduras también con el máximo en ese mismo año solo alcanza el 20%. En Nicaragua el punto de máximo uso se obtiene un poco mas tarde, casi al final de los 80 comienzo de los 90 con un 25%. Finalmente en los dos países en la fase ascendente el máximo reportado en la encuesta de 1996 alcanza a casi 30% en Costa Rica y 45% en Panamá.Además de conocer el nivel absoluto de uso de semilla mejorada, es importante conocer cual es la situación relativa de Centro América respecto a las demás zonas productoras de maíz blanco en el mundo. La Figura 27 muestra el nivel relativo de uso de variedades mejoradas en 1996 en 8 regiones tropicales productoras de maíz blanco para consumo humano. Se puede observar que la posición relativa de CA en el concierto de naciones productoras no es la mejor.La región requiere mejorar el uso de VMC con el fin de mejorar y afianzar su nivel de productividad y reducir costos unitarios de producción.El patrón temporal del uso de VMC en los diferentes países de CA indica la existencia de factores estructurales que inciden en el porcentaje máximo de uso, como así también de factores que regulan la dinámica de adopción en el corto y mediano plazo.A nivel agregado, dos de los obstáculos que más se mencionan en la literatura se relacionan con problemas estructurales en la industria de semilla que se traducen a nivel de campo en la falta de una disponibilidad oportuna de la semilla para los agricultores y problemas de calidad y adaptabilidad de la semilla (López-Pereira y García 1994, Sain y Martínez, 1997, Kosarek, Garcia y Morris 2001). Estos factores están relacionados con el tipo de productor y los ambientes predominantes en la región para la producción de maíz.Al nivel de finca, no cabe duda que la rentabilidad del cambio de semilla es una condición necesaria para que el agricultor realice el cambio. La rentabilidad a su vez depende de cuatro factores: el precio de la semilla relativo al precio del grano, el incremento en productividad obtenido, el costo del capital (incluyendo el costo de transacción) y las características percibidas por el agricultor del grano de la nueva variedad.El análisis de los precios relativos de la semilla y de las ganancias en productividad son muy favorables. La Tabla 37 muestra que el precio relativo de la semilla mejorada en CA se encuentra entre los más bajos del mundo (CIMMYT, 1988). En promedio se necesitan alrededor de 4 Kg. de grano para comprar un Kg. de una VPL y alrededor de 6 Kg. de grano para comprar semilla de materiales híbridos (generalmente se trata de híbridos dobles o triples).  Estos datos aunados a las ganancias en productividad ya documentadas dejan a factores como el alto costo del capital por falta de acceso al crédito, la aversión al riesgo de los pequeños agricultores, la falta de información sobre las características de la semilla mejorada, y / o la percepción del agricultor sobre las características de la semilla mejorada como posibles explicaciones para la falta de una mayor uso de VMC en CA. Explorar la validez de estas hipótesis esta fuera del alcance de este trabajo. Sin embargo con la poca información disponible se puede establecer una clara asociación entre el uso de SMC y la disponibilidad de crédito, y el uso de programas de política que reducen el precio relativo de la semilla a la unidad.En los países centroamericanos, a investigación y desarrollo (I&D) de nuevas tecnologías agrícolas dirigidas a la producción de granos básicos (GB), incluyendo al maíz, es una actividad relativamente reciente, y principalmente en manos del sector público. Aunque se reportan actividades de investigación agrícola desde principios del siglo XX, no es hasta la década de los años 40 y 50 que se consolida la estructura pública de investigación agrícola basada en los Institutos Nacionales de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIAS).Entonces, la larga tradición de los programas nacionales de investigación en maíz de la región, la gran cantidad de materiales desarrollados y comercializados en esos programas, y los bajos precios de la semilla mejorada son indicativos de la existencia de factores estructurales que condicionan un mayor uso de semilla mejorada comercial al nivel de la gran mayoría de los pequeños agricultores centroamericanos.Resumiendo, la estructura del sector de I&D de nuevas tecnologías agrícolas dirigidas a la producción de granos básicos en CA, ha sido y todavía es una responsabilidad del sector público, esto quizás como una respuesta a la estructura del sector de producción caracterizado, como ya se vió, por pequeños productores no comerciales y localizados en los estratos mas pobres de la población rural de la región.La estructura institucional es relativamente nueva, con problemas de ingerencia política, la inestabilidad del personal, la falta de incentivos adecuados que fomenten la investigación y la promoción de las tecnologías, la separación institucional entre la investigación y la extensión, la falta de contacto entre la población de pequeños agricultores y la masa de investigadores y extensionistas, que llevaron a varios experimentos metodológicos: PROGETAPPS en Guatemala, la IFA, la proliferación de ONG etc. todos dirigidos a llenar la brecha entre generación de tecnologías y los pequeños campesinos productores de GB.La inversión en I&D de nuevas tecnologías dirigidas específicamente hacia los pequeños agricultores se encuentra presionada por una pinza. Por un lado la política de ajuste estructural y ajuste fiscal presionan para una reducción del monto global en I&D con los objetivos de reducir el déficit fiscal y de mejorar la eficiencia (estructura del gasto) de las instituciones. Por el otro lado de la pinza, la política de modernización del sector y de la inserción del país en los mercados mundiales (globalización) empuja aun más hacia abajo los gastos destinados a los granos básicos. Estos productos son vistos como sinónimos de pobreza, falta de competitividad y por lo tanto sin cabida dentro del modelo de un sector moderno y competitivo que genera riqueza y excedentes hacia otros sectores de la economía. Como resultado de esta pinza, la tasa de ajuste en el presupuesto público destinado a la I&D en granos básicos es mayor que la tasa promedio general.Un elemento determinante en el sistema de I&D en maíz es la red de cooperación establecida, conocida como PRM. Sin embargo y aunque la eficiencia e impacto de la cooperación ha sido establecida y documentada, la cooperación se encuentra amenazada por diferentes causas: i) la política nacional de reducción en la importancia de los GB y de percibir erróneamente los beneficios como los costos, ii) Falta de flexibilidad del PRM para ajustarse a la época y el ambiente cambiante, y no incorporar los nuevos actores dentro de su estructura lo que trajo como consecuencia aislamiento y elitismo iii) El efecto ii se vio reforzado por la reducción en gastos operativos que conjuntamente con la falta de reglas establecidas acerca de la pertenencia o no al PRM, llevo a un esquema de aislamiento para defender sus intereses y privilegios iv) Aunque el PRM tuvo cofinanciamiento particularmente a través de proyectos específicos a las actividades de economía, no fue percibido así por el principal donante que entonces también se sintió aislado y solo en la aventura llevando a un cierto cansancio.v) Falta de una política clara del CIMMYT hacia la región por detrás de la mera retórica vis a vis otras regiones del mundo (Asia África) y otros centros internacionales como CIAT, IFPRI e ISNAR que aumentaron la presencia en el área tanto en términos de visitas gerenciales e intercambio con NARS y organizaciones regionales IICA, CATIE, El Zamorano etc. como en términos de proyectos y recursos humanos y financieros en la región.La metodología propuesta para simular la competitividad de una región en un determinado país propuesta en la primera parte, se usa en esta parte para estimar la competitividad de la región centroamericana y de cada uno de los países que la integran. Para eso se estima la estructura de costos unitarios de producción de cada país y de la región en su conjunto y se la compara con el precio prevaleciente en el mercado internacional. La metodología requiere de ciertos supuestos simplificadores acerca de la composición de la oferta y la estructura tecnológica en los países centroamericanos. La próxima sección presenta un resumen de la situación del mercado de maíz en cada país y los supuestos adoptados en términos de la estructura de la oferta doméstica. En ese sentido los resultados que se presentan deben ser tomados como aproximaciones. Datos más detallados sobre los países involucrados en el estudio (Panamá, Costa Rica y Nicaragua) se encuentran en el reporte por país.A continuación presenta la metodología seguida y los parámetros adoptados para simular la estructura de costos de los países. Posteriormente se presenta una situación general de la estructura del mercado de maíz en los países centroamericanos y se determinan algunos parámetros claves para la simulación. En las secciones restantes se presentan los resultados de la simulación y se analizan políticas que se podrían implementar para mejorar la competitividad a la luz de los resultados del modelo.El costo unitario de producción del país i -ésimo (CUi) se calcula como el promedio ponderado de los costos unitarios de producción de los diferentes sectores que componen la oferta doméstica.En esta expresión las ponderaciones q ij representan el porcentaje de la producción total del país i-ésimo (i =1,2,...,6) que proviene del sector j-ésimo (j= 1,2,..J). Mientras que CUij representa el costo unitario de producción que tiene el sector j-ésimo.A su vez, el costo de producción unitario de cada sector se calcula mediante el cociente entre el costo de producción por hectárea y el nivel medio de rendimiento que enfrenta el sector:En esta expresión CPij y Yij representan el costo de producción por hectárea y el nivel de rendimiento que el sector j-ésimo enfrenta en el país i-ésimo.Reemplazando la expresión [ 19] en la [ 18] se obtiene la expresión final para el cálculo del costo unitario para cada país i-ésimo:Finalmente la estructura de costo unitario para la región centroamericana viene dada por el promedio ponderado de los costos unitarios de cada uno de los países donde las ponderaciones están dadas por la importancia relativa (proporción) de cada país en la producción agregada.Los sectores de producción que conforman la oferta domestica en cada país están formados por la combinación de tipos de productores y nivel de tecnología usada.Con respecto a los tipos de agricultores y a modo de simplificación, se reconocen dos tipos de agricultores: subsistencia o tradicional y comercial. El primer tipo comprende a las categorías de microfincas y productores sub-familiares reconocidas en el trabajo de la Unión Europea sobre el tema (Devé 1990). Con respecto al nivel tecnológico, es común encontrar en la literatura y en las estadísticas oficiales de los países dos o tres niveles: un nivel tradicional, un nivel intermedio y un nivel tecnificado o alto.La combinación de tipos de agricultores y niveles tecnológicos resultaría en 6 sectores potenciales. Sin embargo las combinaciones de pequeño agricultores y nivel alto de tecnología, y de agricultores comerciales con tecnología tradicional pueden ser descartadas. Esto deja en este modelo simplificado a tres sectores con una representatividad real en la oferta doméstica (Tabla 38).Es decir, que la producción total de cada país proviene básicamente de tres tipos de sectores: uno denominado de Subsistencia tradicional (ST) formado por pequeños agricultores de subsistencia que usan un nivel tecnológico bajo o tradicional, un segundo sector denominado de Transición Semi tecnificado (TST) formado por pequeños agricultores que usan un nivel tecnológico semitecnificado o intermedio y por último un tercer sector, denominado Comercial Tecnificado (CT) que agrupa a agricultores más grandes, localizados en tierras lo suficientemente planas como para permitir una cierta mecanización del cultivo, que usan un nivel tecnológico alto aunque no optimizado. Nótese que en el sector de transición no se diferencia por tipo de agricultor. El siguiente problema, es estimar la importancia relativa de cada uno de estos sectores en la producción doméstica. Tal cual fuera expresado anteriormente no existe información al respecto por lo que debe recurrirse a la información disponible a la contribución relativa por sector tradicional y comercial presentada en el anexo anterior. Sobre esta estimación se asume que la contribución del sector de transición se compone de un 5% proveniente del sector tradicional y un 10% del sector comercial. De esta manera, la contribución relativa a la producción de cada sector queda tal como se presenta en la Estas cifras son compatibles con algunas estimaciones presentes en estudios previos (Tabla 40), y con la afirmación generalizada de que el sector tradicional aporta aproximadamente un 50% del total de la oferta domestica en Centro América. Tabla 39.Estas cifras son compatibles con algunas estimaciones presentes en estudios previos (Tabla 40), y con la afirmación generalizada de que el sector tradicional aporta aproximadamente un 50% del total de la oferta domestica en Centro América. Se debe remarcar que estas cifras se refieren a la contribución en la producción y no en términos de superficie o número de agricultores. Por ejemplo en Honduras se estima que el 60% de los pequeños agricultores tradicionales son los que aportan el 35% de la producción. Resta entonces determinar el nivel de productividad de cada uno de estos sectores. Tampoco existe información sistematizada por nivel de tecnología, en muchos casos la información se presenta por tamaño de finca. Bajo el supuesto, muchas veces acertado, de que los pequeños agricultores usan tecnología tradicional se hace una asociación entre tamaño, tecnología y productividad. La Tabla 41 resume algunos resultados que se presentan en diversos estudios y estadísticas nacionales durante los años 1991 -2000. Sin embargo la información disponible en estos trabajos previos no provee una medida de la variabilidad espacial ni temporal de los niveles de productividad. Para obtener la distribución de los rendimientos medios representativos de los diferentes sectores se recurrió a la información disponible a través del experimento del PCCMCA. Para ello, se ajustó una distribución normal en logaritmos 16 a los resultados experimentales en cada país, correspondiente al testigo local, a la serie de Variedades de Polinización Libre y a la serie de materiales híbridos. De esa manera se obtuvo el valor medio y error estándar de cada distribución. Posteriormente los valores medios fueron ajustados por hacia abajo por un 15% para representar los resultados que obtendrían los agricultores bajo sus condiciones (CIMMYT 1999). Los valores de la desviación estándar también fueron ajustados por el mismo porcentaje de mantener la dispersión relativa (coeficiente de variación) de la distribución sin cambios.La Tabla 42 presenta los rendimientos medios y la desviación estándar (entre paréntesis) para cada sector.Comparando el nivel promedio de rendimiento en ambas Tablas puede suponerse que aquel registrado para el testigo local puede considerarse representativo del sector semi tecnificado, mientras que aquel registrado para las VPL puede considerarse representativo del sector tecnificado. El nivel de rendimiento de los materiales híbridos se acerca mucho al nivel potencial de 5.0 t/ha ya mencionado en el texto y puede ser usado para identificar las ganancias potenciales en la adopción y difusión de la tecnología disponible, es decir en el corto plazo. El sector de tecnología tradicional no estuvo representado en el experimento por lo que su distribución se asume que sigue una distribución triangular simétrica alrededor de un valor medio correspondiente aquel de la Tabla 41.Estos resultados son consistentes con aquellos presentados por Bolaños, 1999 quien usa un modelo sencillo para predecir los niveles de productividad del maíz bajo diferentes niveles tecnológicos. En este modelo, la productividad depende del tipo de germoplasma (tiempo a maduración, e índice de cosecha), y de la interacción entre el manejo y el ambiente capturados por el porcentaje de radiación solar captado por el cultivo y por la eficiencia de uso de la energía capturada. Estos parámetros dependen no solo de la cantidad de radiación percibida pero también de factores de manejo particularmente del nivel de nitrógeno disponible. Por ejemplo el porcentaje de radiación capturada varía de un limite superior de 60% bajo condiciones de buen manejo sin estrés hasta un piso de 20% bajo condiciones de mal manejo, y estrés, mientras que el grado de eficiencia en uso de la energía varia de un mínimo de 0.5 g/MJ en condiciones de bajo N y un follaje pobre, a un limite superior de q,2 g/MJ con alto N y follaje saludable). En un ejercicio considerando valores constantes de duración (120 días) y radiación (20 MJ/m 2 /día) Bolaños obtiene un valor de productividad de 1.0 T/ha para una tecnología baja (19% de radiación interceptada con una eficiencia de 0.6 g/MJ y un germoplama con un índice de cosecha de 0.35). Para una tecnología alta la productividad alcanza las 5.8 T/Ha mientras que con un nivel intermedio la productividad alcanza las 2.5 T/ha (Bolaños, J.).Resta entonces describir las prácticas de producción que realiza cada sector que explicarían las diferencias en productividad. Para ello se recurre a los numerosos resultados de trabajos de investigación en maíz en CA 17 conjuntamente con el trabajo de Bolaños ya citado. En ellos se documenta que, las diferencias en los niveles de productividad del maíz dependen fundamentalmente del tipo de germoplasma utilizado, del arreglo espacial y densidad y del nivel de fertilización nitrogenada.La Tabla 44 presenta en forma simplificada la forma más común de producción y los valores de los parámetros que caracterizan las distribuciones usadas en la simulación.Para determinar la contribución de cada país a la oferta regional se tomaron las cifras de producción entre los años 1995 y 2000 y se estimó la importancia relativa de cada país. Luego se calculó el promedio durante ese período. La Tabla 43 muestra los resultados. De acuerdo con estas cifras los países del llamado triángulo del norte (Guatemala, El Salvador y Honduras) producen 83% de la oferta regional y si se les suma Nicaragua entre los cuatro abarcan el 95% de la oferta. Guatemala es el productor líder mientras que El Salvador y Honduras siguen detrás produciendo aproximadamente 20% c ada uno.La información sobre los coeficientes técnicos (jornales, servicios y cantidad de plaguicidas por unidad de superficie) se tomó de aquella disponible en los reportes de costos en cada país. En este modelo simplificado los valores de los coeficientes técnicos se mantienen constantes para todos los países. La Tabla 45 muestra los valores usados.Los precios de insumos y servicios pagados por los agricultores se calculan como precios de tendencia o largo plazo tomando el promedio para los años 1990 -2002. Los precios se toman en moneda nacional, una vez estimado el costo de producción incluyendo el costo del capital de trabajo, este valor es puesto en dólares americanos transformados a la tasa de cambio oficial. Así mismo, para estimar el costo del costo del capital que enfrenta el sector campesino tradicional se duplicó el costo del mercado para el sector comercial para reflejar los mayores costos de transacción que enfrenta el campesino en este mercado. La Tabla 46 muestra los precios en cada país.El conjunto de indicadores que se presentan intentan caracterizar de forma estilizada la estructura del mercado de maíz en cada país. Estos indicadores serán usados posteriormente en la simulación de los costos unitarios de producción para cada país y para la región.Este análisis se basa sobre la amplia información secundaria disponible en Centro América 18 . La caracterización del mercado de maíz en cada país sigue un esquema simplificado como el que se ilustra en la Figura 28. El sector de producción doméstica se encuentra formado por dos sectores: un sector tradicional de producción formado por pequeños agricultores, que usan una tecnología tradicional y un sector de producción comercial que usan tecnología moderna (en casi todos los países se puede reconocer un tercer sector que representa una transición entre ambos, sin embargo el argumento no se modifica sustancialmente). La oferta domestica total Q se estima como el promedio de la producción interna del país reportada por la FAO (FAOSTATS) para el período 1995 -2000. Las cantidades absolutas que cada sector contribuye a la oferta interna (Qt y Qc) deben ser estimadas. Para ello se estiman primero las contribuciones relativas de cada sector a partir de fuentes secundarias existentes y de estadísticas nacionales.Las contribuciones relativas son usadas entonces para estimar las contribuciones absolutas de cada sector a partir de la oferta total.Para estimar el consumo directo rural y urbano se toma la estimación del promedio del consumo directo per-capita para el período 1995 -2000 y se lo multiplica por el tamaño promedio de la población rural y urbana para el periodo 1991 -2000.De esta manera se obtiene un balance entre la oferta y el consumo rural, el cual genera un excedente que se consume total o parcialmente en forma directa en el sector urbano. En caso de que el consumo urbano sea menor que la disponibilidad, entonces se genera un excedente, el cual se dirige generalmente a la industria de alimentos balanceados en forma de una cantidad fija. Esta no es suficiente para abastecer la demanda de este sector que suple sus necesidades a través de la importación de maíz amarillo.Para cada país, estas cifras se reportan en una tabla donde se reportan para los indicadores relevantes, los valores medios para el periodo 1995 -2000, que caracterizan al mercado, y las tasas de crecimiento para el periodo 1991 -2000, que ilustran la tendencia de los indicadores en los últimos 10 años.Producción Doméstica por SectorGuatemala tiene una superficie de 108,890 km 2 , de los cuales el 12% corresponde a tierra arable. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 11.28 millones de habitantes con un índice de crecimiento de 2.48%. El PNB per capita en 1996 fue de 3,300 dólares / año.Guatemala es el principal productor de maíz en la región centroamericana con una participación promedio del 43% de la producción total de Centroamérica. La producción predominante es de maíz blanco (80%) destinada al c onsumo humano directo (principalmente como tortilla) cultivándose en dos sistemas: monocultivo (75%) y asociado (25%).La producción promedio de maíz durante el periodo 1995-2000 fue de 1,020 miles de Tm./año cantidad producida por alrededor de 500,000 fincas. Alrededor de 88% ellas pertenecen a las categorías de microfincas y fincas subfamiliares (de menos de 1.4 y 7 hectáreas de superficie total respectivamente) las cuales componen el sector denominado \"tradicional\". Este sector produce un 53% de la oferta total lo que equivale a 540,000 t/año.La producción doméstica muestra una clara tendencia negativa durante el periodo 1991 -2000. (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica.Aunque el maíz es un componente fundamental no solo en la dieta sino también en la cultura de la población guatemalteca, su consumo directo per cápita descendió a una tasa de mas del 4% /año durante 1991-00. Aun así, la producción doméstica media durante el periodo, no fue capaz de suplir el consumo directo total resultando en un déficit de aproximadamente 25,000 t/año. Este deterioro ha llevado a que las importaciones netas con el fin de suplir las necesidades de consumo directo como así también aquellas de la industria de alimentos balanceados crezcan a una tasa que casi llega al 12% para el periodo 1991 -00. El maíz amarillo importado, principalmente de los Estados Unidos, es consumido por la industria de alimento destinado a la alimentación animal.Estudios previos sobre el nivel tecnológico de producción en Guatemala reconocen dos niveles tecnológicos predominantes en el país: a) Cultivo mecanizado y b) Cultivo manual.El territorio salvadoreño tiene una superficie de 21,040 km 2 , de los cuales el 27% corresponde a tierra arable. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 5.83 millones de habitantes, con un índice de crecimiento de 1.81%. El PNB per capita en 1996 fue de 1,950 dólares / año .El Salvador es el segundo país productor de maíz de Centro América, la producción promedio de maíz en el periodo 1995-2000 fue de 599,000 t, lo que representa casi un quinto (21%) de la producción regional. Durante el periodo 1991 -2000 la producción doméstica permaneció casi estancada con una tasa anual de crecimiento de0.3%/año. Aunque se reconocen diversos sistemas de producción: sistemas de autoconsumo; familiares; propiedades de tamaño medio; granos básicos con ganadería; y cooperativas de la reforma agraria, diferenciados por su acceso a la tierra, utilización de la mano de obra, y utilización de insumos e implementos agrícolas, las estadísticas nacionales reportan la producción de acuerdo a dos orígenes diferenciados por la tecnología: maíz nacional (tradicional) y maíz híbrido (comercial). De acuerdo a las cifras oficiales casi el 60% del total de la producción proviene del sector comercial y el restante 40% del sector más tradicional. Estas cifras ponen a El Salvador en la vanguardia dentro de la región en el uso de tecnología para la producción de maíz. (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica.El consumo per cápita de maíz para el periodo fue de 97 Kg/hab./año con una tasa de crecimiento de 1.7% /año. El alto grado de urbanización que experimenta el país 19 hace posible la generación de un excedente de oferta del sector rural que supera el consumo medio urbano produciendo un excedente medio hacia la industria de aproximadamente 22,000 t/año. Sin embargo, siguiendo con la tendencia en todos los países de CA, la demanda de la industria por este insumo es mucho mayor por lo que se abastece principalmente de la importación de maíz amarillo, la cual creció durante la década de los 90 a una tasa cercana al 12%/año.La extensión territorial de Honduras es de 112,090 km 2 , de los cuales el 14% corresponde a tierra arable. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 5.61 millones de habitantes, con un índice de crecimiento de 2.6% anual. El PNB per capita en 1996 fue de 1,980 dólares/año.Honduras es el tercer país productor de Centro América siguiendo muy de cerca a El Salvador. La producción promedio de maíz durante 1995 -2000 fue de 571 mil t /año, lo que representa un 19% de la producción regional. Al igual que en el caso de Guatemala registra una tendencia decreciente durante la década de los 90 con una tasa negativa de -1.4%/año.La participación relativa del sector tradicional es un reflejo de la distribución de la tierra (ingresos) en el país. En este caso, el 63% de las microfincas y subfamiliares (menores de 7 has) producen solo el 36% del total mientras que el 37% restante produce el 64% de la oferta domestica.El consumo directo per capita de maíz fue en promedio de 80 Kg/hab./año en el periodo 1995-00, pero mantuvo una tendencia negativa durante los años 90. La fuerte urbanización que registra el pais durante los 90, y las tasas declinante de consumo per capita llevan a que el excedente rural supere al consumo urbano medio generando un excedente medio hacia la industria de 83,000 t/año. Las importaciones netas de maiz amarillo hacia ese sector crecieron a una tasa ligeramente superior al 20%/año durante la década de los 90. (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica.Las modalidades de producción de maíz en Honduras reconocidas en estudios previos son tres: a) tradicional, b) semi-tecnificado y c) tecnificado.El territorio nicaragüense tiene una superficie de 129,494 km 2 , de los cuales el 9% corresponde a tierra arable. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 4.27 millones de habitantes, con un índice de crecimiento de 2.67%. El PNB per capita en 1996 fue de 1,700 dólares/año .Nicaragua experimentó cambios importantes en la tendencia de su producción de maíz registrando un notable aumento a partir de la segunda mitad de la década de los 90. Como consecuencia, la producción promedio de maíz durante 1995 -2000 alcanzo a casi 600 mil t/año y registró un crecimiento anual durante la década de los 90 que supero el 13% / año.El consumo medio per capita durante el periodo 95-2000 fue de 121 kg/hab/año, el mas alto de la región, registrando una tasa de crecimiento anual superior al 11%. Al contrario de los demás países del istmo, la tasa de crecimiento de la población rural superó notoriamente a aquella de la población urbana, aun asi el sector rural genero un excedente de oferta que supera al consumo urbano en aproximadamente 22,000 t/año que van a la industria. Sin embargo, Nicaragua no se diferencia de los demás países respecto a las importaciones netas de maíz amarillo a la industria, las cuales crecieron a la tasa de 45.3%/año. (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica.En este caso, se reconocen tres niveles tecnológicos diferenciados por la disponibilidad de capital: a) tradicional, b) intermedio, c) alto.El territorio costarricense tiene una superficie de 51,100 km 2 , de los cuales 6% corresponde a tierra arable. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 3.46 millones de habitantes con, un índice de crecimiento de 2.06% anual. El PNB per capita es de 5,400 dólares/año.La producción media en el periodo 1995 -2000 fue de 27,000 t/año lo que pone a Costa Rica como el país con menor participación en la oferta regional con solo el 2% de la oferta centroamericana. Durante la década de los 90 la producción registró una tendencia negativa, decreciendo a una tasa anual de casi el 9%/año. Casi tres cuartas partes (73%) de la oferta provienen del sector tradicional.El consumo directo per capita también registra una fuerte caída durante los 90 cayendo a razón de 28.4%/año, hasta llegar a un promedio para el periodo 1995 -2000 de tan solo 6 kg/hab./año.El reducido consumo hace posible que los balances entre sectores sean positivos. El excedente rural supera al consumo urbano generando un excedente medio de 7,000 t anuales que abastecen a la industria la que sin embargo registra un crecimiento en las importaciones netas de 10%/año.Las modalidades utilizadas en la producción de maíz reconocidas en la literatura son: a) espeque completo, b) espeque reducido y c) técnicas mecanizadas (semimecanizada). (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica.Panamá tiene una extensión territorial de 78,200 km 2 , de los cuales el 6% corresponde a tierra arable y el 54% a bosques. La población estimada en julio de 1996 fue de 2.66 millones de habitantes, con un índice de crecimiento de 1.64%. El PNB per capita en 1996 fue de 5,100 dólares/anuales.La producción media durante 1995 -2000 fue de 195,000 t/año, cifra que representa aproximadamente el 3% de la producción total de Centroamérica. El 60% de la producción proviene del sector tradicional o \"a chuzo\" mientras que el 40% restante es generado por el sector comercial o \"mecanizado\".El consumo medio per capita para el periodo 1995 -2000 alcanzó los 31 kg/hab./año manteniendo una ligera tasa decreciente durante la década de los 90. Aunque la población urbana registro una tasa de crecimiento superior a la rural, las diferencias no son tan marcadas como en otros países del istmo. El sector rural genera un excedente ligeramente superior al consumo medio urbano generando un excedente hacia la industria de aproximadamente 10,000 t/año. Al igual que el resto de los países centroamericanos, la industria se abastece principalmente de maíz amarillo importado por lo que las importaciones netas registran una tasa de crecimiento superior al 14%/año durante 1991 -2000.Las tecnologías utilizadas en la producción de maíz en Panamá son a) chuzo tradicional, b) chuzo mejorado y c) mecanizada. (1) Tasa de crecimiento anual estimada por medio de regresión semilogarítmica. Fuente: FAOSTAT 20 Tasas de crecimiento anual estimadas mediante regresión semilogarítmica.La Figura 29 muestra la distribución de los costos unitarios de producción de maíz en Centro América. El punto importante para resaltar de la figura es que por debajo de 115 $/t, la región como un todo no tendría posibilidades de producir maíz en forma de cubrir los costos variables unitarios de producción con la estructura técnica y de precios vigente. A un precio de 177 $/Tm., sin embargo existe un 50% de posibilidades de que la región produzca maíz de forma competitiva. Sin embargo, se debe tener en cuenta que la simulación se realizo valorando la mano de obra familiar a los precios de mercad. En países donde la estructura campesina predomina los costos que realmente enfrentan los agricultores son mucho mas bajos ya que el costo de la mano de obra familiar permanece escondido (subvaluado).La Figura 30 por su lado muestra la distribución del costo unitario para cada uno de los países centroamericanos. Honduras, El Salvador y Guatemala, en ese orden, son los países que muestran una estructura de costos unitaria más baja. De hecho si el precio de competencia estuviera situado en 150 $/t, Honduras tendría un 53% de presentar costos unitarios por debajo de ese valor, mientras que para El Salvador y Honduras las posibilidades serian de 43 y 32% respectivamente. La Tabla 54 resume algunos valores de la distribución del costo unitario para los países y para la región centroamericana. Los valores medios de costos unitarios de producción en Centro América se encuentran fuertemente correlacionados con el nivel tecnológico, el cual a su vez se encuentra correlacionado con la estructura de oferta domestica y con el nivel de los salarios agrícolas. Las Figuras 21 y 22 ilustran claramente estas relaciones. La primera de ellas expresa que cuanto mayor sea la proporción de la oferta doméstica que es producida por el sector tradicional campesino, mayor será el nivel de costo unitarios y por ende menor la probabilidad de ser competitivos en un mercado determinado. La segunda expresa la misma relación pero respecto al nivel del salario agrícola (la relación entre el nivel de salario y la composición de la oferta es de 0.28). Honduras claramente tiene una buena posición competitiva basada en salarios bajos y una estructura de producción donde buena parte de la producción es provista por el sector moderno. Lo mismo se puede aplicar al caso de Guatemala y El Salvador. Nicaragua es un caso especial porque aunque muestra el nivel de salarios agrícolas más bajos de la región, la e structura productiva todavía no se ha recuperado y la estructura de la oferta domestica se encuentra muy dominada por el sector tradicional. Costa Rica y Panamá, muestran la combinación más adversas en términos de costos, salarios agrícolas relativamente altos y estructuras de oferta dominadas por sectores tradicionales, lo que hace que obtengan niveles de costos medios relativamente altos.Es claro entonces que la capacidad competitiva de Centro América está basada en un modelo favorece a la pobreza, salarios bajos y distribución desigual de la tierra tienden a reducir el costo unitario medio del país y viceversa. Nicaragua presenta por otro lado la mejor oportunidad para mejorar los niveles de costos unitarios a través de la innovación tecnológica. En esta tercera parte se presenta la estructura estocástica de costos unitarios para las áreas o zonas productoras de maíz identificadas en los tres países involucrados en forma directa en el estudio: Panamá, Costa Rica y Nicaragua. Los resultados, presentan la estructura de costos para cada una de las áreas identificadas en cada país y se analizan principales factores que influencian la competitividad regional. Dado que con excepción de los precios de tendencia, la información usada en la simulación fue obtenida de manera independiente, los resultados de esta parte permiten validar los resultados al nivel nacional estimados anteriormente.La metodología sigue aquella desarrollada en la primera parte consistente en la estimación de la estructura estocástica del costo unitario de producción (CVU) para así obtener la condición de competitividad que requiere que las cuasi-rentas unitarias sea mayor o igual que cero. Esta ultima condición equivale entonces a que el CVU sea menor o igual que el precio equivalente (PE) que la región enfrenta en un mercado determinado. Para la determinación de la estructura de costos en cada región se siguieron las etapas que se listan a continuación: i) Un diagnostico rápido (rapid rural appraisal) de las condiciones de producción en cada una de ellas.ii) Una encuesta formal con un grupo de expertos seleccionados para obtener una estimación inicial de los valores de los parámetros que reflejan la variabilidad tecnológica en cada una de las regiones identificadas iii) Una reunión formal con los expertos para revisar las estimaciones iniciales y llegar a valores consensuados iv) Con los valores consensuados y los precios de tendencia se procedio a formular el modelo de simulación de los CVU v) Simulación del modelo.Siguiendo los argumentos expuestos e n la segunda parte, la matriz de correlación entre los diferentes componentes tecnológicos del costo sigue una estructura similar para todos los países y toma la forma que se ilustra en la Tabla 1.Existe una asociación fuerte entre la siembra con maquina y el uso de materiales híbridos. La siembra manual se practica en parcelas pequeñas de agricultores de menores recursos que usan VPL, mientras que aquellos que siembran a máquinas en parcelas grandes tienden a usar materiales híbridos. . Se postula una asociación fuerte entre el uso de materiales híbridos, la densidad de siembra y el nivel de fertilización nitrogenada.Número de aplicaciones de fertilizantes. Esta variable esta fuertemente asociada a la dosis de nitrógeno aplicada, ya que este fertilizante se utiliza en la segunda y tercera aplicación.Se postula una asociación fuerte entre las dosis de ambos nutrimentos y con el rendimiento. Es decir que existe una respuesta significativa a la aplicación de nitrógeno y fósforo en el área.Los precios de insumos y servicios usados en la simulación de la estructura de costos de las regiones identificadas en cada país, son los mismos precios de tendencia usados en la segunda parte. Los coeficientes técnicos son estimados también al nivel de país a través del diagnostico rápido y de fuentes secundarias salvo en casos que los expertos señalen diferencias importantes para una determinada región.En las próximas secciones se presentan los resultados alcanzados en cada uno de los tres países. La ultima sección presenta algunas reflexiones finales.En Panamá los técnicos del proyecto identificaron tres grandes áreas de producción de maíz: Azuero, San Andrés (Chiriquí), y Darién. Las Figuras muestran la localización geográfica de las tres regiones identificadas.Las Tablas 2, 3 y 4 presentan los valores de los parámetros estimados por los expertos para las tres areas mientras que las Tablas 5, 6 y 7 presentan los coeficientes técnicos y precios usados en la simulación.Azuero es una región relativamente pequeña y bastante homogénea en términos de la tecnología usada y tipo de agricultores que predominan. A diferencia de otras áreas productoras de maíz de Panamá o del resto de Centroamérica, los productores que predominan son agricultores comerciales cuyo principal objetivo es vender su producción al mercado. La topografía plana a ondulada que predomina en la región, la diversidad de casas comerciales, la infraestructura de comunicaciones y servicios de investigación de IDIAP y de extensión del MAG y de casa proveedoras de insumos favorece la producción mecanizada, con altos niveles de uso de insumos y relativamente homogénea.Los cambios tecnológicos más importantes ocurridos en los últimos 10 años se refieren principalmente a la difusión y adopción de la labranza cero y mínima al ajuste de las dosis de fertilización con la incorporación de azufre y la incorporación de nuevos materiales híbridos por parte de las casas comerciales. En la actualidad se realiza investigación sobre la generación de nuevos materiales tolerantes al achaparramiento, la incorporación de leguminosos en el sistema de cultivo para mejorar la fertilización y la alimentación del ganado en los meses secos y la calibración de las dosis de fertilizantes con el fin de reducir los costos de producción.La región de Azuero registra un nivel alto de tecnificación donde la mayoría de los agricultores posee un elevado nivel de mecanización del manejo del cultivo, registrando también un elevado uso de materiales híbridos y otros insumos como fertilizantes y herbicidas. El maíz es producido casi exclusivamente para la venta al mercado externo lo que evidencia el tipo de productor comercial que predomina en la zona. El nivel de rendimiento medio se sitúa en 3.7 t/ha, es decir al nivel de lo que se denomino tecnología media en la segunda parte.La región de San Andrés representa una región intermedia entre Azuero y Darién. Localizada en la Provincia de Chiriquí y cercana a la frontera con Costa Rica, San Andres muestra Por su parte la región de Darien, localizada en la arte oriental de Panamá, limitando con Colombia a través del conocido Tapón del Darien (Mapa), es un a zona de frontera agrícola, de colonización reciente y que todavía recibe importantes flujos de inmigrantes de otras regiones de Panamá pero principalmente de la zona central.El maíz es el primer cultivo que sigue a la apertura del bosque, se realiza con una tecnología de bajos insumos dada la fertilidad natural del suelo y de forma bastante uniforme en la región. Su producción es un ejemplo producción para ventanas con una clara especialización y diferenciación del mercado. Casi la totalidad del maíz que se -produce en la región es de una variedad criolla denominada \"Calilla\" destinada a la producción de \"maíz pilado o chicheme\" y \"crema de maíz\". Siendo la única región que la produce y la preferencia de los consumidores panameños por esta variedad, la región de Darién tiene una posición privilegiada en el mercado nacional. Las Figuras 1, 2 y 3 muestran los resultados de la simulación de la estructura de costos en las tres regiones. De acuerdo a estos resultados, la región de Darién con un CVU medio de 105 $/t muestra las mejores condiciones para la producción de maíz seguida por Azuero y San Andrés con CVU medios de 136 y 171 $/t respectivamente. El gráfico de la distribución de densidad muestra que la oferta de Darién podría enfrentar con ventajas precios equivalentes de 140 $/t y todavía seguir produciendo. Esta ventaja se ve fortalecida además por el tipo de maíz muy particular que la región enfrenta. Azuero por su parte necesita precios equivalentes de 180 $/t o superiores para mantener el 95% de su oferta, sin embargo con niveles razonables de 150 -160 $/t más del 60% de la oferta resulta todavía competitiva.El análisis de la sensibilidad no presenta sorpresas. Además de la productividad del cultivo, la reducción de costos de preparación e la tierra es importantísima en Azuero, mas aun en una época donde el precio del combustible muestra una tendencia al alza. En Darién y San Andrés, el costo unitario esta fuertemente influenciado por los factores tecnológicos que afectan la productividad. En el caso de Darién el paso de la quema a la labranza cero influye negativamente en el CVU, pero es de esperar que en el largo plazo mejore la competitividad a través del impacto sobre la calidad del stock de suelo. En Costa Rica se identificaron tres grandes áreas de producción de maíz: la región Brunca, la Chorotega y la Huetar Norte. La Figura siguiente muestra la localización geografica de las zonas.Las Tablas 8, 9 y 10 presentan los valores de los parámetros estimados por los expertos para las tres regiones mientras que las Tablas 11, 12 y 13 presentan los coeficientes técnicos y precios usados en la simulación. Las condiciones de costos en las áreas identificadas en los tres países confirman en general los resultados encontrados en la segunda parte donde Nicaragua presenta condiciones propicias para la producción competitiva de maíz blanco. Sin embargo y siguiendo los argumentos esgrimidos anteriormente, se necesita una estrategia diferente e integral enmarcada en un cambio de política respecto a los granos básicos en general y al maíz en particular.Los resultados de la simulación de la estructura de costos muestran que en general los países centroamericanos con el nivel tecnológico y de productividad actual requieren de un PE de entre 150 y 200 $/t para que la mayor parte de su oferta sea competitiva, es decir que se cumpla que el CVU sea menor o igual a dicho PE.Dada la tendencia de los precios internacionales y de los avances tecnológicos futuros en los principales países productores de maíz en las áreas templadas, obtener dichos niveles de PE requieren de la política establecida anteriormente basada en la diferenciación del producto, un mayor valor agregado preferiblemente obtenido al nivel local o regional, un mayor uso de los derechos de propiedad, tales como reglas de origen de manera de mantener la diferenciación del producto a los diferentes niveles de la cadena, una mayor inversión en mejorar la calidad, presentación y comercialización del producto y el concurso del gobierno a escala nacional y local para facilitar el accionar de los mercados de insumos y servicios y productos de manera que se puedan reducir los costos de transacción y que todos los agricultores tengan un mejor acceso a ellos.Al iniciar el siglo XXI, la agricultura centroamericana enfrenta tres grandes desafíos: (1) Producir alimentos para satisfacer una población creciente, (2) contribuir a la reducción de los elevados índices de pobreza rural, y (3) cumplir con los desafíos anteriores sin deteriorar la base de recursos naturales. A su vez estos desafíos se presentan en una época en la cual, como resultado del proceso de globalización e inserción en el mercado mundial, los países de Centroamérica impulsaron, desde mediados de la década de los años 80, un proceso de transformación o modernización de la agricultura con el objetivo principal de volverla competitiva en el ámbito internacional.Para cumplir con estos objetivos, los gobiernos centroamericanos adoptaron en mayor o menor medida, a partir de la década de los 80, una serie de medidas de política económica de carácter tanto macroeconómico como sectorial que cambiaron de manera fundamental la estructura de producción y consumo de maíz en la región. El principal objetivo perseguido por los gobiernos fue la búsqueda de la competitividad de la agricultura a la luz de la inserción de las economías en el mercado mundial (globalización). Con ese fin, se implementaron una serie de medidas tanto macroeconómicas como sectoriales, entre las cuales se destacan:i) La eliminación de restricciones no arancelarias;ii) La menor intervención del estado en la comercialización de productos agropecuarios;iv) La reactivación del proceso de integración económica y modernización de los instrumentos para facilitar el comercio intra y extra regional; v) El aumento de la liberalización comercial hacia terceros mercados; y vii) La reducción de la inversión pública en investigación y desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías agropecuariasSin embargo, el modelo, aunque bien concebido, se ejecutó de manera incorrecta. Así, la implementación de un modelo donde el sector agropecuario sea competitivo, moderno y generador de riqueza, es incongruente con la marcada reducción en la inversión en I&D de nueva tecnologías que se manifiesta en la región. Esta política lleva a que las ventajas competitivas en la producción doméstica deban ser alcanzada mediante el ajuste hacia debajo de los precios de los recursos domésticos, de los cuales el más importante es la mano de obra y la capacidad gerencial de los pequeños campesinos centroamericanos.El modelo, tampoco incorporó elementos de política dirigidos a reducir la pobreza o mejorar la equidad en forma específica. Se trabajó bajo la premisa de que el ingreso generado por la modernización del sector desbordaría los límites de los efectos directos y se desparramaría a través de los efectos indirectos hacia sectores más pobres. La información disponible sobre los niveles de pobreza no avala esta hipótesis: no solo los niveles de pobreza aumentaron sino que también ha empeorado la distribución de la riqueza y ha continuado el deterioro de los recursos naturales de la región.Bajo la premisa de que \"cultivar maíz es perpetuar la pobreza\" el modelo adoptado deja pocas posibilidades para buscar las oportunidades de volver a la producción de maíz blanco competitiva en América Central a pesar de las grandes oportunidades que tiene el cultivo en la región.La introducción de nuevos cultivos y la importación de la forma o técnica de producir sin una adecuada transferencia de conocimiento sobre las consecuencias de un mal manejo ha tenido costos altos en términos de salud pública directa e indirecta al aplicarse dosis enormes de herbicidas y plaguicidas que contaminaron fuentes y ríos. Aunque no existen medidas del impacto económico de la reducción en salud, estimaciones realizadas en Asia estarían indicando que pueden ser substanciales. Mas aun, la falta de nuevas tecnologías que reduzcan los costos unitarios de producción, lleva a que la única forma de ajuste viable sea a través del ajuste hacia abajo del costo de los factores domésticos, y en particular sobre los salarios empobreciendo aún más a un sector ya de por sí empobrecido.Como consecuencia, después de aproximadamente 20 años de reformas tendientes a la modernización del sector agropecuario las políticas implementadas han tenido resultados mixtos ( Tabla 74). Aunque el modelo adoptado ha promovido el surgimiento de un sector moderno y exportador de productos no tradicionales, no ha sido capaz de dar respuesta satisfactoria a los desafíos planteados, particularmente en lo que se refiere a la reducción de la pobreza y a la degradación de los recursos naturales.  El programa de transformación o modernización del sector agropecuario ejecutado ha tenido impactos significativos en los diferentes sectores relacionados a la producción de maíz blanco en CA y al mismo tiempo deja algunas lecciones y recomendaciones.a. Sector de producción.• En el sector de producción el modelo ha producido un fuerte desequilibrio al aumentar los índices de pobreza rural descuidando completamente al sector más pobre y marginado del sistema.• La estructura dual del sector, con productores medianos y grandes (comerciales) fuertemente involucrados en actividades dirigidas a la exportación versus pequeños campesinos productores de granos básicos para el autoconsumo, se acentuó generando una brecha más amplia entre ricos y pobres.• Tanto la producción como la productividad del cultivo se estancaron.• La baja rentabilidad relativa a aquella que se obtiene de la producción de cultivos alternativos de exportación motivó una política económica de desincentivo a su producción.• El modelo tampoco incorpora elementos de política dirigidos a reducir la pobreza o mejorar la equidad en forma específica.• Se trabajó bajo la premisa de que el ingreso generado por la modernización del sector desbordaría los límites de los efectos directos y se desparramaría a través de los efectos indirectos hacia sectores más pobres. Sin embargo, la información disponible sobre los niveles de pobreza no avala esta hipótesis: no solo los niveles de pobreza aumentaron sino que también ha empeorado la distribución de la riqueza y ha continuado el deterioro de los recursos naturales de la región.• Bajo la premisa de que \"cultivar maíz es perpetuar la pobreza\" el modelo adoptado ignora las posibilidades para buscar las oportunidades de hacer competitiva la producción de maíz blanco en América Central a pesar de las grandes oportunidades que tiene el cultivo en la región• Tanto en el sector moderno como en el de granos básicos el producto final se sigue vendiendo con muy poco valor agregado. En el caso de productos alternativos perecederos como frutas, verduras y flores el problema es más grave porque obliga a vender la producción en forma adelantada para disminuir los riesgos de tener que \" tirar la producción al agua\" (Figura 42). • En el caso del maíz blanco se necesita una política de apoyo a la formación de agroindustrias de transformación de la materia prima (maíz en grano) para que deje la localidad/región con algún grado de valor agregado. Se debe organizar asociaciones de agricultores con el fin de que estos participen en la captación de los ingresos adicionales de ese mayor valor. Es necesario invertir en comercialización (promoción) del producto local/regional con el fin de obtener un producto diferenciado en el mercado elegido.• La introducción de nuevos cultivos y la importación del germoplasma (semilla) y la forma de producir (técnica) tiene dos consecuencias nefastas. Por un lado lleva a que la única forma viable de ajustar los costos relativos a otros países productores que también importaron la semilla y la técnica sea a través de bajar el costo de los factores domésticos, en particular los salarios, empobreciendo aún más a un sector ya empobrecido. Es decir, se busca la competitividad del país donde la mano de obra es la más barata (agricultura de maquila).• La segunda consecuencia negativa se refiere a que la falta de una adecuada transferencia de conocimiento sobre las consecuencias de un mal manejo de los nuevos cultivos ha tenido costos altos directos e indirectos en términos de salud pública al aplicarse dosis excesivas de herbicidas y plaguicidas sobre los nuevos productos (frutas y hortalizas) que van directamente a los consumidores.• Es necesario implementar una política de fomento a la producción de maíz blanco con un alto estándar de calidad uniforme que permita, además de su consumo directo en la finca, una alta calidad en la industria alimenticia local o regional. El plan del proyecto debe partir entonces desde la determinación del mercado para proyectarse hacia abajo y decidir cómo se va a producir. Las demás actividades de apoyo deben estar dirigidas hacia ese fin.b. Sector de I&D de nuevas tecnologías.• El sector público ha disminuido peligrosamente la inversión en el desarrollo y transferencia de nuevas tecnologías agropecuarias en general, pero particularmente en lo que respecta a los GB.• Dada las características de bien público que tienen muchos de los productos de la investigación y el poco atractivo que tiene la clientela por su pobre poder adquisitivo y sus hábitos de manejo de la finca, el sector privado no ha llenado la brecha dejada, por lo que el sector se encuentra en la actualidad peligrosamente debilitado.• La implementación de un modelo donde el sector agropecuario sea competitivo, moderno y generador de riqueza es incongruente con la marcada reducción en la inversión en I&D de nuevas tecnologías que se manifiesta en la región.• Esta política lleva a que la ventaja competitiva en la producción doméstica deba ser alcanzada mediante el ajuste hacia abajo de los precios de los recursos domésticos, de los cuales el mas importante es la mano de obra y la capacidad gerencial de los pequeños campesinos centroamericanos.• Se necesitan planes de inversión de largo plazo en I&D de tecnologías asociadas a la producción de GB con el fin de ayudar a su competitividad.c. Crédito.• En forma coherente con la política económica de ajuste fiscal y de modernización del sector, el crédito cayó en términos reales para todo el sector agropecuario, pero particularmente en forma relativamente mayor aquel destinado a la producción de GB.• La restricción del crédito aunada a una suba en los costos de adquirir capital de corto plazo restringe en forma efectiva el uso de tecnología moderna y la productividad del cultivo.d. Derechos de propiedad intelectual.• La restricción del crédito aunada a una suba en los costos de adquirir capital de corto plazo, restringe en forma efectiva el uso de tecnología moderna y la productividad del cultivo.• La región ha avanzado mucho en la puesta en marcha los DPI respecto al sector de innovación en el abastecimiento de insumos con el ánimo de incentivar una mayor inversión del sector privado.• Sin embargo, la estructura altamente tecnificada de la industria de producción y comercialización de semilla mejorada provee suficientes barreras de entradas como para que la inversión sea mínima y solo se trabaja mediante costos variables de distribución y m ercadeo de compañías internacionales.• La región está muy rezagada en el uso de DPI para la protección y diferenciación del producto. Es necesario una política más agresiva para diferenciar el producto y protegerlo en el orden nacional e internacional.Entonces, el gran desafío actual para la agricultura en la región es el de revertir estas tendencias de manera que se puedan compatibilizar los objetivos de:• Tener una agricultura competitiva en el largo plazo, y• Reducir los niveles de pobreza rural sin deteriorar el ambiente de manera que el proceso sea sostenible en el tiempo.La Tabla 75 muestra las Debilidades/Amenazas y Fortalezas/Oportunidades que enfrenta actualmente la producción competitiva de producción de maíz blanco en Centroamérica. Obviamente existen diferencias entre países, pero éstas se pueden considerar como tendencias generales.En estas reflexiones finales se plantean algunas ideas sobre una posible estrategia para estimular el desarrollo a escala local (regional, comunal) de conglomerados de producción competitiva de maíz blanco con alto valor agregado.General: Contribuir a la disminución de los niveles de pobreza rural en Centroamérica.i. Promover la formación de conglomerados competitivos de alto valor agregado en localidades/regiones para la producción de productos derivados del maíz blanco con alto valor agregado.ii.Promover la formación de capital social mediante la participación activa de los diferentes sectores de la sociedad al nivel local y regional.iii.Fomentar el aumento de la participación del agricultor en el valor final del producto. iv.Fomentar un aumento en el bienestar local /regional mediante el aumento en el empleo e ingresos.Proteger y recuperar el ambiente y la calidad de vida al nivel de las comunidades involucradas La base de la propuesta esta en la formación de conglomerados competitivos locales basados en la conjunción de Gobierno-Empresas y Comunidad (GEC).La estrategia en cada conglomerado está basada en cinco pilares:1. Búsqueda de la competitividad basada en factores adquiridos, difíciles de copiar y basados en el conocimiento y experiencia de los agricultores.2. Producción local con mayor valor agregado y mayor participación del agricultor.Fortalecimiento del sistema de innovación de cada país y regional mediante el aumento de la inversión pública y privada en investigación y educación tanto formal como informal.4. Mercados agropecuarios transparentes y abiertos para todos, mediante la reducción de los costos de transacción.Participación activa de todos los sectores involucrados.En términos generales, por competitividad se puede entender a la habilidad de competir en un determinado mercado. Esta habilidad de competir en un mercado de forma sostenible está determinada fundamentalmente por la capacidad para producir un producto único, difícil de copiar, mediante procesos eficientes y también difíciles de copiar. Para ello se requiere que la ventaja competitiva esté basada sobre tres factores: factores adquiridos difíciles de copiar, identificación correcta de nichos de mercado, y diferenciación del producto.1. Factores adquiridos difíciles de copiar.La agricultura centroamericana cuenta, en sus millones de pequeños agricultores, con un gran capital humano cuyo caudal de conocimiento, experiencia, cultura, y sabiduría local forman un conjunto de características difíciles de duplicar en otras partes del mundo.Esta capacidad no ha sido usada a pleno hasta el presente y por el contrario el modelo aplicado en vez de valorizar este conocimiento, lo desvaloriza. Cuando la búsqueda de la competitividad se realiza mediante la copia de productos y procesos, entonces la habilidad de competir y permanecer competitivos depende de ajustes en los precios de los servicios (generalmente mano de obra) y o en los precios internacionales de los productos. Esto lleva a la competitividad fluctuante y de corto plazo que tanto conocen los agricultores centroamericanos.2. Identificación de tendencias y nichos de mercado. La identificación de productos únicos y nuevos debe responder a la demanda de los consumidores. Se debe entonces anticipar los cambios en las tendencias de consumo a medida que van surgiendo nuevos productos, y nuevas preocupaciones de los consumidores tales como aquellas concernientes a la salud, nutrición, ambiente, etc.La gran inmigración de latinoamericanos a Estados Unidos, Canadá y en menor medida a Europa, presenta una gran oportunidad de identificar nichos de mercado para productos derivados del maíz blanco. Los tratados de libre comercio de la región con estos países y áreas presentan oportunidades para tener mayor acceso a estos mercados.3. Diferenciación del producto. Una vez identificado el nicho de mercado es importante diferenciar y proteger el producto. La diferenciación del producto es un factor clave para lograr la ventaja competitiva en forma duradera. El productor debe apelar a su creatividad para construir un modelo de diferenciación siguiendo líneas como la de utilizar recursos únicos e inexplorados anteriormente, y garantizar calidad y uniformidad del producto. Además el producto debe ser protegido a través del uso de los derechos de propiedad intelectual a escala nacional e internacional como son las marcas de origen. Por ejemplo, el nombre \"Harinas de Opico\" debe identificar unívocamente a la harina de maíz blanco con ciertas características específicas respecto a calidad, nutrición y otras, producida en el área de Opico en El Salvador bajo ciertas reglas de calidad.Es importante distinguir entre conceptos tales como valor agregado (VA), competitividad, y el porcentaje o participación que recibe el productor del valor final del bien.Una firma, una región o un país pueden ser competitivos en mercados donde el producto tiene diferente valor agregado. La Figura 43 ilustra ambos conceptos. En general, la política agropecuaria de Centroamérica ha llevado a movimientos indicados por la flecha horizontal, es decir, ha promovido la producción de productos competitivos pero de bajo valor agregado.El desafío para competir de manera sostenible de manera de generar una mayor riqueza a escala local es producir localmente productos con un mayor nivel agregado. Es necesario moverse hacia productos que se ubiquen en el cuadrante C de la Figura 43.Esta estrategia persigue no solo vender productos de mayor valor agregado sino también acercar el productor al consumidor, de tal forma que el productor tenga una mayor participación en el valor del producto final. De esa manera se pueden compatibilizar los objetivos de buscar una mayor competitividad de la agricultura y al mismo tiempo reducir los crecientes niveles de pobreza rural.La importancia de este tipo de iniciativas, radica en que a medida que el agricultor obtiene un mayor porcentaje del valor del producto final, produce una renovada actividad económica local que eventualmente llega a crear un cluster o conglomerado competitivo.De esta forma, el desarrollo a escala local o regional de proyectos de producción competitiva, de productos derivados de maíz con valor agregado, traería como consecuencia no solo un aumento del empleo y de las inversiones a escala local, sino también una reducción de los niveles de pobreza rural y mejores condiciones para enfrentar los desafíos ambientales. No hay duda que la competitividad es un concepto esencialmente dinámico y el componente que le da dicha característica es la innovación tecnológica. Es por eso que la existencia de un sistema de innovación fuerte, dinámico y eficiente tanto al nivel local, nacional y regional, es indispensable para obtener estos conglomerados de producción competitiva con valor agregado.Para ello, el agricultor debe estar innovando constantemente su proceso de producción, alimentándose de la información sobre nuevas técnicas y adaptándolas a su ambiente. Para que esto sea posible es necesario:1. Mayor inversión en I&D de tecnologías. Los países Centroamericanos han disminuido en forma notable el apoyo a la investigación agrícola en general y aquella relacionada con el maíz (granos básicos) en particular. La red regional de investigación, financiada con fondos externos, no ha tenido el apoyo político ni financiero que requiere para funcionar, a pesar de haber documentado un impacto económico de considerable importancia en términos de beneficios a los países.De seguir esta tendencia, una derivación lógica es que los países deberán importar (copiar) la tecnología y procesos tecnológicos (semillas, fertilizantes, formas de producción) con las consecuencias mencionadas de que para lograr ser competitivos deberán ajustar el valor de los recursos domésticos, principalmente el trabajo.Los países Centroamericanos necesitan en forma urgente y prioritaria formar y fortalecer sistemas de innovación a escala local con la participación de instituciones públicas y privadas, fortalecer la investigación a escala nacional y apoyar la investigación regional con el fin de disminuir costos, no duplicar esfuerzos y aprovechar economías de escala.La investigación nacional y regional a su vez debe estar dirigida a apoyar específicamente la producción de productos específicos de cada uno de los conglomerados que se formen. Así, por ejemplo, si \"Harinas de Opico\" tiene como una de sus características que es \"harina orgánica\" o de \"alta calidad proteica y fuente de vitamina\", entonces la investigación para Opico debe ir dirigida hacia ese fin.La investigación no se debe circunscribir solamente a la producción sino también a la transformación y comercialización del producto en derivados de mayor valor agregado.2. Mayor inversión en educación. Un sistema de innovación fuerte y dinámico requiere del fortalecimiento a escala nacional y local del capital humano mediante una mayor inversión educación formal e informal de todos los miembros.3. Fortalecimiento institucional. Se debe fomentar también la creatividad individual y colectiva, mediante el establecimiento y fortalecimiento del sistema de protección de los derechos de propiedad intelectual y fomentar la ejecución de proyectos que promuevan el desarrollo local.Uno de los factores más importantes que atentan contra la competitividad de los pequeños agricultores en Centroamérica son los altos costos de transacción con que operan los mercados agropecuarios de productos, insumos y servicios. La falta de acceso a los mercados mantiene fuera de ellos a un porcentaje importante de la población rural. El sistema es perverso en el sentido que atenta contra las oportunidades de los más pobres.Es por eso que es muy importante para los países de Centroamérica, tomar medidas para mejorar el acceso a los mercados para todos los agricultores. Reducir los costos de transacción no es una tarea sencilla, sin embargo, hay medidas en esa dirección que se pueden implementar en forma más o menos rápida como es la de hacer disponible información relevante para todos los sectores involucrados de una manera fácil y oportuna. Es aquí donde el estado, tanto al nivel nacional como local, juega un papel importante en el fomento de la competitividad y la obtención de mayor valor agregado.La clave del éxito de este tipo de programas es la participación activa de todos los segmentos de la sociedad. Es decir, que promover conglomerados de producción competitiva de productos de maíz blanco con valor agregado es realmente una responsabilidad compartida de la sociedad. En forma breve:Agricultores y agroindustria. Deben ser creativos a la hora de producir y comercializar productos sanos y de calidad, mantener altos valores éticos de operación, y proveer la mayor cantidad posible de información a los consumidores.Sociedad civil (como consumidores). Debe usar la información disponible para hacer sus elecciones de compra, debe seleccionar las mejores opciones de acuerdo a sus preferencias. De esa manera se tendrá una demanda exigente en términos de calidad lo cual es una condición necesaria para poder conquistar mercados externos Gobiernos nacional y local. Deben implementar políticas y regulaciones que lleven al, 1) Establecimiento de condiciones para que todos tengan igual acceso a los mercados,2) Fomento y fortalecimiento del sistema de innovación tecnológica 3) Apoyo y promoción de la agroindustria a escala local (conglomerado) que le agregue valor a la producción de grano y que presione por una demanda exigente por calidad y estabilidad de la oferta.4) Negociación de aranceles y subsidios con los principales socios comerciales. Los subsidios agrícolas y los aranceles escalonados que castigan más a los productos con mayor valor agregado siguen siendo escollos serios para las exportaciones centroamericanas.Fomento y uso de los DPI, particularmente los relacionados con la diferenciación de los productos regionales (reglas de origen).","tokenCount":"42256"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4e4aaefccb0c36cbf52c50acce8addd4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/98167e58-5403-4695-9fd2-a0a95b8b9a11/retrieve","id":"1773627811"},"keywords":["NIR","maize","Aspergillus"],"sieverID":"98873ecc-d677-4753-a039-e64f41e20deb","pagecount":"13","content":"Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus spp. produce carcinogenic metabolites that contaminate maize. Maize kernel absorbance patterns of near infrared (NIR) wavelengths (800-2600 nm) were used to non-invasively identify kernels of milk-, dough-and dent-stage maturities with four doses of Aspergillus sp. contamination. Near infrared spectrometry (NIRS) spectral data was pre-processed using first derivative Savitzky-Golay (1d-SG) transformation and multiplicative scatter correction on spectral data. Contaminated kernels had higher absorbance between 800-1134 nm, while uninoculated samples had higher absorbance above 1400 nm. Dose and maturity clusters seen in Principal Component Analysis (PCA) score plots were due to bond stretches of combination bands, CH and C=O functional groups within grain macromolecules. The regression model at 2198 nm separated uninoculated and inoculated kernels (p < 0.0001, R 2 = 0.88, root mean square error = 0.15). Non-invasive identification of Aspergillus-contaminated maize kernels using NIR spectrometry was demonstrated in kernels of different maturities.Aflatoxins, first identified in the 1960s after the infamous aflatoxicosis outbreak termed \"Turkey X\" disease [1], are produced primarily by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus [2]. Since the 1960s, aflatoxicosis epidemics have also been reported in India, Kenya and recently in Tanzania [3][4][5]. Management is a critical strategy for aflatoxin reduction. Aflatoxin management strategies include biological control [6,7], predictive modelling [8], innovative storage techniques [9], breeding efforts [10,11], aflatoxin reduction strategies [12] and detection [13]. However, detection plays a key role in aflatoxin management because many intervention methods hinge on the ability to monitor the production of the toxin [14,15]. Rapid and early detection is important for prompt intervention. Current detection methods include high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA, fluorometric assays and lateral flow assays [16][17][18][19]. However, these methods are invasive, require specialised skills and are weak for real time assessments. Therefore, rapid, non-invasive methods, including the use of near infrared spectrometry (NIRS), have become increasingly sought after [20], especially because of their potential for real-time applications.The discovery of infrared light by William Herschel in the 19th century [21] unlocked a great potential in the use of infrared science and its subsequent applications to cereal science from the 20th century [22][23][24][25] NIRS has been explored for the identification of mycotoxigenic fungi [26] and contaminated crops [27,28]. In crops like peanuts, near infrared wavelengths have been used to identify mycotoxigenic fungi with >94% classification accuracy [29]. This study with peanuts was conducted with grains completely colonised by the fungus. The fungal consumption would have resulting in substantial light scattering effects caused by reduced content within the grain matrix from extensive fungal feeding. Also, the classification of mould and toxin contaminations of figs have been achieved with 100% classification accuracy [26]. In this recent study on figs, it was suggested that the NIRS method of classification was safer and more efficient than the currently used ultraviolet (UV) light [26]. The UV and near infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging have also been successful in classification of contaminated maize with a similar accuracy of >90% achieved for both [30]. Contamination of maize with pure aflatoxin has also been demonstrated with >90% classification accuracy [20], and a similar observation was made with field kernels inoculated with aflatoxigenic Aspergillus [28]. In these instances, the levels of aflatoxin concentrations in the grains utilised reached 1000 ng/g (for surface contamination with pure aflatoxins) and 3800 ng/g (for field contamination with toxigenic A. flavus). These high levels of aflatoxin contamination were important for classification accuracy since these levels are not common in natural contamination and wavelength absorbance from low aflatoxin levels are easily masked by the compounds within the grain matrix. Furthermore, with surface contamination with pure aflatoxin, this is not the natural contamination method. Therefore, this model would have excluded naturally occurring biochemical and biological changes that occur with natural aflatoxin accumulation that could have influenced the spectral signals. In a study where aflatoxin contamination was induced by two aflatoxigenic species on almond kernels, species-specific aflatoxin contamination was differentiated by NIRS [31]. Moreover, within the same species of A. flavus, strain-specific classification has been demonstrated [32]. These studies demonstrated the ability of NIR to identify aflatoxin contamination and unique NIRS fingerprints of fungi. However, more studies are necessary to better understand how NIR can be used to detect grain changes that occur with natural aflatoxin contamination. Previous NIRS investigations have utilised maize grains at physiological maturity [28,33,34]. However, aflatoxin contamination precedes physiological maturity. In gene expression profiles, Reese et al. [35] identified that genes for amino acid transport, carbohydrate and protein metabolism were active during aflatoxin metabolism at different stages of grain maturity. Also, Dolezal et al. [36] identified expression of genes associated with starch metabolism and hexose mobilization genes during aflatoxin metabolism at different stages of crop maturity. These studies demonstrate that aflatoxin contamination occurs at different stages of grain maturity. However, the inclusion of maize grains of different maturities in NIRS models is sparse. This paper makes an important contribution to the understanding of NIRS for aflatoxin detection by using maize grains at different maturity levels of crop development. To our knowledge, this is the first report that utilises maize grains of different maturities in this manner for NIR modelling in aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. contamination of single maize kernels.A white Zea mays (Linnaeus) variety, 33v62, (Pioneer Overseas Corporation, Johnston, IA, USA) was planted at a temperature-controlled glasshouse at the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia. The average glasshouse temperature was 26.2 • C ± 4 • C. Seeds were planted in UQ23 potting media (University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia) comprising 70% composted pine bark and 30% coco peat and other augments. Basal fertilizer application was done with Osmocote ® slow release fertilizer. Thirty-six plants were grown, corresponding to a 4 × 3 arrangement for dose × stage of crop development, respectively, in three replications. Five detached kernels were used for each replication unit, bringing the total number of experimental samples (kernels) to 180. Stages of crop development used were milk (R3), dough (R4) and dent (R5) stages [37]. At the different stages of maturity, cobs were detached from the plants. Uniformly aged kernels were detached by carefully removing kernels between 10 and 20 rows from the bottom of the cob quickly and placed on ice to limit physiological alterations. Detached kernels were lyophilised using a freeze drier custom built by CSK Climatek (Brisbane, Australia) at vacuum of 10 −1 to 10 −2 atm following the manufacturer's instructions. Lyophilization was done to reduce physiological modifications that could occur in vitro.Fungal spores used for inoculation were from a strain of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus parasiticus (Speare) isolate (F75) available at the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries laboratory culture collection (QDAF, Brisbane, Australia). Fungal spore suspensions were prepared for grain inoculations by dispensing 8 µL of F75 from the agar-plug stores in sterile water. The spores were dispensed in the centre of 5 cm petri dishes containing V8 juice media. Inoculated petri dishes were incubated unilluminated at 25 • C for 5 days. At the end of the incubation period, fungal spores were gently rinsed off the surface of the agar plate with 0.1% Tween 80 solution. Fungal doses: control, low, medium, high were prepared. The control, low, medium and high fungal doses were achieved by rinsing spores from none, one, four and sixteen 5-cm petri dishes (respectively) into 9 mL of 0.1% sterile Tween 80 solution. These qualitative dose levels were used for assessment as spore concentrations were not determined quantitatively.Lyophilised detached kernels were surface-sterilized with 70% alcohol and rinsed in three changes of sterile distilled water. Each experimental unit was a kernel. Five kernels in each experimental unit served as replicates. Kernel inoculation was conducted by completely immersing five surface-sterilized maize grains into the 9 mL suspension of the respective doses for 1 min. After the 1 min contact time, the kernels were placed (without surface contact with each other) in sterile (9 cm) petri dishes. Petri dishes were completely randomized in the incubator where they were incubated unilluminated at 25 • C for 72 h. After incubation, kernels were lyophilised again to halt post-incubation physiological changes to the kernels.The NIR spectral information was collected from the lyophilized kernels prior to grain colonisation and after grain colonisation. Individual kernels were scanned using the Bruker MPA (MPA Spectrometer, Bruker Optics, Ettlingen, Germany) and absorbance readings generated by the instrument were used. A choice was made to use absorbance values rather than transmission because previous studies with single kernel analysis suggest that transmission optics is less preferred for single kernels because of noise signals generated [38,39]. Single kernels were placed in 20-mm vials with stopper supplied by Bruker used to block external light interference [40]. The Fourier transformed data provided information at averaged 64 scans (equipment generated). Spectral data was at increments of 8 cm −1 (an equivalent of 0.5 nm). Spectral absorbance of single kernels was measured in wavenumbers corresponding to wavelengths between 800 and 2700 nm. Due to a spike of absorbance at the higher wavelengths, 100 nm was truncated and wavelengths up to 2600 nm were used. Kernels were scanned in germ-up and germ-down orientations-with the germ-up orientation having the endosperm directly facing the detector and the germ-down orientation having the germ directly facing the detector. Averaged spectral data from both were used for data analysis to ensure that kernel orientation therefore did not unduly influence the model.Spectral data was exported from the Bruker MPA into Unscrambler 10.3 for spectral analyses. Unsupervised exploratory analysis via principal component analysis (PCA) was done. Categorical variables were sample categories defined for stage (milk, dough and dent), dose (control, low, medium and high) and stage-dose. Model inputs for PCA were non-linear iterative partial least squares (NIPALS) algorithm with equal weights assigned to the variable and sample inputs. Data was mean centred and outliers were identified in random cross-validation. Hotelling T2 was set at 5% to define a confidence limit of 95% in the PC scores plot and for outlier identification [41]. Selected outliers were confirmed from line and influence plots and removed from the data set for subsequent analysis. Data pre-treatment was conducted using Savitzky-Golay first derivative (1d-SG) transformation and multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) in Unscrambler. A single wavelength for modelling was investigated using the multiple linear regression feature in Unscrambler prior to spectral pre-processing. Class requirements were determined as control or inoculation and binary values of 1 and 0 were assigned for groups that met and did not meet class requirements, respectively. Global model characteristics were used to identify the most suitable model at p ≤ 0.05 and the line of fit was observed for model fitness by comparing the closeness of the calibration and validation lines to the target line. This detection of single wavelength might be important for applications with laser technologies or machinery with LED devices that utilise single wavelengths rather than a spectrum of wavelengths.The silk (R1), blister (R2), milk (R3), dough (R4) and dent (R5) stages of crop development were reached at 68, 76, 90, 97 and 105 days after planting, respectively. From visual observation, the milk-stage kernels were smaller than the dough-and dent-stage kernels that were of similar sizes. Of the total 180 kernels, five outliers were identified and excluded from the model to avoid undue influence on the model.Generally, NIR spectral patterns for the milk, dough and dent stage kernels were identical prior to grain inoculation, but varying in absorbance intensities (Figure 1). Raw spectral data showed milk stage was distinct from the dough and dent samples which were overlapping in the line plot before spectral treatment (Figure 1a). After spectral pre-treatment by 1d-SG + MSC, the differences in spectral absorbance were more distinct (Figure 1b). The 1400 nm and 1940 nm peaks are associated with wavelength absorbance in the second overtone and first overtone regions, respectively. These peaks are typically associated with water. However wavelengths around this region have also been associated with water carbohydrate-associated changes caused by fungal deterioration by Fusarium sp. [42] Agriculture 2017, 7, 77 4 of 13technologies or machinery with LED devices that utilise single wavelengths rather than a spectrum of wavelengths.The silk (R1), blister (R2), milk (R3), dough (R4) and dent (R5) stages of crop development were reached at 68, 76, 90, 97 and 105 days after planting, respectively. From visual observation, the milkstage kernels were smaller than the dough-and dent-stage kernels that were of similar sizes. Of the total 180 kernels, five outliers were identified and excluded from the model to avoid undue influence on the model.Generally, NIR spectral patterns for the milk, dough and dent stage kernels were identical prior to grain inoculation, but varying in absorbance intensities (Figure 1). Raw spectral data showed milk stage was distinct from the dough and dent samples which were overlapping in the line plot before spectral treatment (Figure 1a). After spectral pre-treatment by 1d-SG + MSC, the differences in spectral absorbance were more distinct (Figure 1b). The 1400 nm and 1940 nm peaks are associated with wavelength absorbance in the second overtone and first overtone regions, respectively. These peaks are typically associated with water. However wavelengths around this region have also been associated with water carbohydrate-associated changes caused by fungal deterioration by Fusarium sp. [42]   Similar to the observation with the line plot before spectral pre-treatment, in the PCA scores plot, the proximity of the dough and dent stage kernels was observed (Figure 2). The first two principal components (PC1 (77%), PC2 (17%)) explained most of the variation in the raw spectral dataset. Loading plots (Figure 2b) identified CH (2nd overtone, combinations), OH (1st overtone, combinations), NH (combinations) and C=O (2nd overtone) functional group vibrations as important for clustering.(a) Similar to the observation with the line plot before spectral pre-treatment, in the PCA scores plot, the proximity of the dough and dent stage kernels was observed (Figure 2). The first two principal components (PC1 (77%), PC2 (17%)) explained most of the variation in the raw spectral dataset. Loading plots (Figure 2b) identified CH (2nd overtone, combinations), OH (1st overtone, combinations), NH (combinations) and C=O (2nd overtone) functional group vibrations as important for clustering. Similar to the observation with the line plot before spectral pre-treatment, in the PCA scores plot, the proximity of the dough and dent stage kernels was observed (Figure 2). The first two principal components (PC1 (77%), PC2 (17%)) explained most of the variation in the raw spectral dataset. Loading plots (Figure 2b) identified CH (2nd overtone, combinations), OH (1st overtone, combinations), NH (combinations) and C=O (2nd overtone) functional group vibrations as important for clustering.(a) Data pre-processing using 1d-SG analysis (using five smoothing points), followed by MSC improved separation of the dough and dent samples in the line plot (Figure 1b) and PC clusters (Figure 3). Also, a V-shaped cluster pattern indicative of the time influence [41] was observable after data pre-processing (Figure 3). This earlier hidden spectral feature in the raw data was revealed in the transformed data. Most of the variation was explained by the first two principal components, PC1 (93%) and PC2 (3%). Separation of the dough and dent stages occurred more along the PC2 axis, whereas the milk stage separation from both groups was more along the PC1 axis.  Data pre-processing using 1d-SG analysis (using five smoothing points), followed by MSC improved separation of the dough and dent samples in the line plot (Figure 1b) and PC clusters (Figure 3). Also, a V-shaped cluster pattern indicative of the time influence [41] was observable after data pre-processing (Figure 3). This earlier hidden spectral feature in the raw data was revealed in the transformed data. Most of the variation was explained by the first two principal components, PC1 (93%) and PC2 (3%). Separation of the dough and dent stages occurred more along the PC2 axis, whereas the milk stage separation from both groups was more along the PC1 axis. Data pre-processing using 1d-SG analysis (using five smoothing points), followed by MSC improved separation of the dough and dent samples in the line plot (Figure 1b) and PC clusters (Figure 3). Also, a V-shaped cluster pattern indicative of the time influence [41] was observable after data pre-processing (Figure 3). This earlier hidden spectral feature in the raw data was revealed in the transformed data. Most of the variation was explained by the first two principal components, PC1 (93%) and PC2 (3%). Separation of the dough and dent stages occurred more along the PC2 axis, whereas the milk stage separation from both groups was more along the PC1 axis.  The line plot revealed an observable divergence in the absorbance of NIR spectra by control and inoculated samples in spectral patterns (Figure 4). It was observed that between 800 and 1134 nm, spectral absorbance increased in inoculated samples relative to control samples. Conversely, there was generally higher absorbance of NIR wavelengths by the control samples compared to the inoculated kernels from around 1400 nm (Figure 4). This pattern was consistent regardless of the growth stage with dosage as the main effect. The lower absorbance values with contaminated are indicative of higher scattering effects in caused by changes in the grain matrices during fungal growth.Agriculture 2017, 7, 77 7 of 13The line plot revealed an observable divergence in the absorbance of NIR spectra by control and inoculated samples in spectral patterns (Figure 4). It was observed that between 800 and 1134 nm, spectral absorbance increased in inoculated samples relative to control samples. Conversely, there was generally higher absorbance of NIR wavelengths by the control samples compared to the inoculated kernels from around 1400 nm (Figure 4). This pattern was consistent regardless of the growth stage with dosage as the main effect. The lower absorbance values with contaminated are indicative of higher scattering effects in caused by changes in the grain matrices during fungal growth. The PCA score plot revealed two main clusters-Cluster A and Cluster B (Figure 5). Cluster A comprised the inoculated while Cluster B was the control samples. Within Cluster A, the data points for the dough stage samples were seen interspersed between milk and dent stages. A similar observation was made within Cluster B. The PC1 and PC2 accounted for most of the variation of 85% and 14%, respectively. A separation of samples according to dose in Cluster A was also observed. Using a line to represent the separation, many low-dosed samples occurring to the right of the line, many high-dosed samples occurring to the left of the line and medium-dosed samples which interspersed along the centre (Figure 5) were noted. With increased fungal deterioration of the grains, the spectral data of dough samples bore close similarity to milk kernels, suggesting compositional similarity.Pre-processing of data by 1d-SG + MSC highlighted the peak signals at specific wavelengths without loss of spectral definition. The PC1 accounted for 59% of the variation, while PC2 accounted for 30% of variation in the data (Figure 6). Data points from low-dosed dough samples were proximate to high-dosed dent kernels. Peaks associated with the variation in PC1 and PC2 were around 1220, 1400, 1420, 1690, 1890, 2030, 2250 and 2450 nm as shown in the PC loading plots (Figure 6). The PCA score plot revealed two main clusters-Cluster A and Cluster B (Figure 5). Cluster A comprised the inoculated while Cluster B was the control samples. Within Cluster A, the data points for the dough stage samples were seen interspersed between milk and dent stages. A similar observation was made within Cluster B. The PC1 and PC2 accounted for most of the variation of 85% and 14%, respectively. A separation of samples according to dose in Cluster A was also observed. Using a line to represent the separation, many low-dosed samples occurring to the right of the line, many high-dosed samples occurring to the left of the line and medium-dosed samples which interspersed along the centre (Figure 5) were noted. With increased fungal deterioration of the grains, the spectral data of dough samples bore close similarity to milk kernels, suggesting compositional similarity.Pre-processing of data by 1d-SG + MSC highlighted the peak signals at specific wavelengths without loss of spectral definition. The PC1 accounted for 59% of the variation, while PC2 accounted for 30% of variation in the data (Figure 6). Data points from low-dosed dough samples were proximate to high-dosed dent kernels. Peaks associated with the variation in PC1 and PC2 were around 1220, 1400, 1420, 1690, 1890, 2030, 2250 and 2450 nm as shown in the PC loading plots (Figure 6).In seeking a single wavelength model, 2198 nm was identified as superior for classification into control and inoculated classes using raw data. Model classification of wavelength absorbance at 2198 nm placed samples into '1' or '0' depending on absorbance values satisfying or failing to satisfy class requirements, respectively, for both control and inoculated classes. At p value < 0.0001 for the global regression model, R 2 = 0.88, (root mean square error = 0.15). This indicated a low error, high coefficient of determination (R 2 ). From the plots of predicted values against the reference values, a good line of fit was achieved (Figure 7) and was close to the target line. The single wavelength model was attempted with the four-dose classification of control, low, medium and high doses but was weak and did not provide good model properties (not presented). The physical or chemical basis for this wavelength in the samples suggest changes in amino acid content within the grains, as this wavelength is associated with absorbance by N-H bonds in the combination band region.  In seeking a single wavelength model, 2198 nm was identified as superior for classification into control and inoculated classes using raw data. Model classification of wavelength absorbance at 2198 nm placed samples into '1' or '0' depending on absorbance values satisfying or failing to satisfy class requirements, respectively, for both control and inoculated classes. At p value < 0.0001 for the global regression model, R 2 = 0.88, (root mean square error = 0.15). This indicated a low error, high coefficient of determination (R 2 ). From the plots of predicted values against the reference values, a good line of fit was achieved (Figure 7) and was close to the target line. The single wavelength model was attempted with the four-dose classification of control, low, medium and high doses but was weak   In seeking a single wavelength model, 2198 nm was identified as superior for classification into control and inoculated classes using raw data. Model classification of wavelength absorbance at 2198 nm placed samples into '1' or '0' depending on absorbance values satisfying or failing to satisfy class requirements, respectively, for both control and inoculated classes. At p value < 0.0001 for the global regression model, R 2 = 0.88, (root mean square error = 0.15). This indicated a low error, high coefficient of determination (R 2 ). From the plots of predicted values against the reference values, a good line of fit was achieved (Figure 7) and was close to the target line. The single wavelength model was attempted with the four-dose classification of control, low, medium and high doses but was weak    This study agrees with the findings of others that NIRS is useful for the separation of crops contaminated by aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus [33,43]. The separation of the milk stage from the dough and dent stage kernels observed could be attributed to the difference in path length within the grain; this is associated with presentation effects due to its smaller size [44] and difference in chemical compositional properties [38,45]. By applying spectral pre-treatment, the variation due to particle size was thus corrected [46], and a clearer separation of the maturity stages, including the dough-and dent-stage kernels, were observed (Figures 1b and 3). This demonstrated that the spectral pre-treatment corrected for the differences due to path length alone and highlighted the differences in chemical composition [44,47]. The accumulation of free amino acids are reported in the less mature kernels compared to the more mature kernels [36,48]. Also, there is increased starch accumulation as the kernels mature [49,50]. However, the milk stage kernels being more separated from the dough and dent stage kernels (Figure 3) indicated the latent variables along PC1 were more related to the milk stage kernels than the dough-and dent-stage kernels. It is possible that PC1 characteristics are likely inclusive of absolute absorbance by chemical constituents. Changes in PC2 may be related to the accumulation of starch in the more matured dent kernels and less in the dough stage kernels and other compositional changes related to changes in carbohydrate, protein and lipid content associated with changes in grain maturity.The changes associated with the dose variations suggest that the increase in absorbance with dose at wavelengths preceding 1400 nm are due to an increase in functional group vibrations in the third overtone region of NIR vibrations. The decrease in absorbance intensity after inoculation from 1400 nm suggested a depletion in grain constituents, corresponding to decrease in the functional group vibrations after sample inoculations. The wavelengths in the region beyond 1400 nm corresponded to the first overtone, second overtone and combination band regions. The high peak intensities in the first and second overtone regions were related to the CH, OH, NH and CO functional groups. The separation in absorbance was most distinct in the combination bands region due to NH combinations, NH + OH combinations, CH + CH combinations and CH + CC combinations. This suggests important changes in this region of the spectral data (Figure 4). These wavelength regions, as reported by others in aflatoxin contamination [26,43], are associated with changes in the macromolecules of the maize grains including starch and proteins and the fungal structures [51].The proximity of the data points the high-dosed dough samples to the milk kernels (not shown) suggests that the expected depletion of the grain nutrients in the inoculated dough stage samples could have resulted in an inclination towards compositional similarity with the milk-stage samples. This may be due to an increase in the sugar content as the fungus increased amylase activity and catabolised complex carbohydrates [36]. Similarly, the minimal catabolism of the dough samples were close in features to the dent stage samples. These attested to the validity of the global model demonstrating that modelling did not occur by random variation.The correlation coefficient (r) was 0.92 and R 2 was 0.85 for both control and inoculation groups. This indicated the model was able to separate samples into both groups with good accuracy. With this model, the offset of control kernels was slightly improved at 0.03 over the inoculated kernels (at 0.11) and fit more closely to the target line (Figure 7). It would have been valuable to assess the fungal load after spectral collection for each kernel. However, as the same individual kernels were to be used in a separate experiment requiring different sample processing techniques, this was impracticable for this experiment. In the future, it would be useful to collect information on fungal load at the different doses by determining the colony forming units or quantitative PCR. However, the calibrations in this model indicated wavelengths relevant for deterioration of maturing kernel, and thus suggested spectral regions of interest in future calibrations and for additional investigations.The reported study has highlighted functional group changes that occur with grain maturities detected by NIRS, including time-lapse changes that may be latent in spectral data prior to spectral processing. Also, non-invasive separation of maize kernels was possible via NIRS-chemometric techniques. Additionally, using single-wavelength regression modelling, the potential of single wavelength calibrations was demonstrated. This study has provided for the first time, information of NIR spectral behaviours in maize kernels of a single variety at different stages of crop maturity preand post-inoculation with aflatoxigenic fungi. Additionally, for the first time, a single wavelength model that was useful for the classification of control and inoculated single kernel maize samples has been reported. The insights from this study would provide increased information on the NIR spectral attributes in maize-Aspergillus relationships in maturing grains. There is potential for model improvement with more factors, including field contaminated kernels of different maturity stages and diverse varieties to be included in the model.","tokenCount":"4664"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e41a947af52448b24ae7bc9bc47370cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41078f0e-efe4-4d2a-a6e6-4ec6ab9a8a83/retrieve","id":"-1068767170"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e705dd9c-4845-442e-ab9a-a0e5452d9ed6","pagecount":"6","content":"Initial steps towards outcome-focused monitoring, evaluation & learning (MEL) on communication and engagement can be small, but they must be systematic. To achieve broad participation, MEL needs to be lean and do-able. Well-designed MEL adds value by feeding information and lessons into future work and decision-making.  Adequate time must be devoted to embedding MEL into the initial activity plan and following it throughout the communication engagement activity and afterwards.  MEL is easier when it is done more often. It is helpful to draw upon resource persons.  Preparatory work and capturing feedback through mechanisms built into the communicationengagement activity is more informative than soliciting responses afterwards.  Peer exchanges about MEL practices and adaptable templates are beneficial.  Aligning specific communication activities with the established impact pathway can ensure more strategic and focused activities and products that contribute to outcomes and impact. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) utilizes a resultsbased management system based, in part, on monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL) of research activities and their impacts on desired outcomes. An integrated MEL system tracks outcomes within formalized theories of change and impact pathways to address the needs of key next-users. A forthcoming MEL support pack will include tools and methods to evaluate research for development efforts. Results-based management requires communication and engagement activities that demonstrate measurable contributions and are monitored and evaluated similar to research for development activities. Since the boundaries among communication, engagement and research for development activities are sometimes blurred (e.g. workshop activities), close collaboration among researchers, communication and engagement, and development experts is necessary. In CCAFS phase one (2011-2016), the CCAFS communication team conducted some MEL efforts, mostly focused on outputs. They sometimes missed documentation of contribution to outcomes. For example, CCAFS systematically tracked the number of publication downloads and page views of products to indicate general interest in CCAFS products in phase one, but CCAFS did not track information about use of the products or changes in skills, attitudes or practices among key nextusers, making it difficult to demonstrate tangible development outcomes.In phase two (2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022), CCAFS communication and engagement products and activities are developed with key next-users in mind and evaluation of progress towards desired outcomes. Capacity building within the team is needed to conduct valuable and relevant MEL work. For this purpose, a range of outcome-focused MEL approaches were adapted to examine effectiveness beyond tangible outputs. This Info Note presents some piloted tools. A related CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement\" provides detailed example templates.CCAFS has piloted outcome-focused monitoring mechanisms that allowed evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of communication activities. The mechanisms were adopted with the goal of collecting evidence of both output use and subsequent behavior changes, and they can complement output-oriented indicators like number of unique page views, average time on page, Altmetrics, social media interactions, media coverage, downloads and number of participants.In this Info Note we summarize selected add-on monitoring mechanisms and how they were used in a range of communication activities to capture effectiveness in changing people's knowledge, attitude, skills, and practices. The tools are not new: they were adapted and tailored for the targeted audiences and for a focus on the behavioral change, i.e. outcome perspective, causedat least in partby the communication and engagement activities. In some cases, the mechanisms have been used in combination.Table 1 presents an overview of the tools we tested, when they were used in the process (for example, of an event), requirements for additional resources, and an assessment of their effectiveness. These indicative assessments were collected from the communication teams who trialed the tools through a survey and are based on the team's subjective reflections and insights. In this Info Note, the term 'event' covers a range of communication and engagement activities undertaken by CCAFS, including trainings, webinars, workshops, seminars, and conferences. In order to ensure that communication and engagement activities reach intended next-users, we started mapping our next-users specifically. Section 1 of the CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement\" describes the mapping tools we explored. Analysis of power dynamics and attitudes helps communicators prioritize efforts and resources and outline ways to connect with existing and new next-users. A simple starting point for this analysis is a document listing key people, contacts, platforms, email lists, and Twitter-handles.We followed three key steps suggested by MindTools: 1) Brainstorming who are the next-users; 2) Plotting next-users' influence on a power/interest grid; and 3) Identifying what motivates the next-user (supporter or critic) (e.g., money, funding, research, blockages) During the CCAFS regional portfolio-building workshop series, CCAFS used this mapping exercise to identify synergies and collaboration opportunities for projects implemented in regional portfolios. This increased integration and strategic planning on how the region works in a coordinated way, particularly in cases when more than one project plans to work with the same organization or even the same person. A rapid next-user analysis helped the CCAFS regional and flagship communication and engagement team prioritize activities that deliver outcomes, influencing how resources were spent. Built-in M&E tools -Reflective check-in -Foot-voting -Synthesizing go-around2) BENCHMARK BEHAVIOR SURVEY -RAPID KNOWLEDGE -ATTITUDE -SKILLS -PRACTICEThe PACCA project also trialed benchmark behavior surveys with stakeholders to learn more about the effectiveness of engagement processes within the project. For example, is engagement leading to changes in knowledge, attitude, skills or practice (KASP), either in relation to the conducted workshops, or in general? Professionals should conduct these types of surveys to ensure that rigorous data is available to underpin evidence-based decision-making. If not done properly, the information collected might be less robust and more anecdotal in nature (Communication Handbook -Factsheet 4). CCAFS will explore the minimum budget needed to conduct such behavior change studies.The Scenarios Central America Project used a simple tool to capture self-assessments of participants' level of confidence in KASP-defined areas after a training of stakeholders and the launch of the \"Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) Field Manual: A step-by-step guide to using PICSA with farmers.\" Section two of the CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement\" shows an example format and questions.Behavior surveys may also be paired with an assessment of the level of importance or relevance by asking what participants rate as most useful to them. This can be used before and after the event or only after the event. Of course, if used only after the event, participants rate any perceived changes in hindsight. The scenarios team embedded the KASP survey in the end-of-event evaluation and asked participants how they perceived changes in their KASP due to the event and their views of how useful the content of the event is to their work (practice change). The survey confirmed that some attendees were skeptical about climate-smart agriculture and that the engagement began an exchange of ideas and increased understanding of terminology. Combining the KASP survey with the end-of-event evaluation worked well; it ensured that participants were not overburdened with surveys but solicited information about how the event incentivized behavioral changes/outcomes.While end-of-event evaluation formats vary (e.g. a more elaborate questionnaire or a rapid strengths-weaknessesopportunities-threats analysis), it is most important that they address areas of potential outcomes/behavioral changes and are tailored to capture participants' changes in KASP. After-event questions could address the relevance of the sessions, takeaway lessons, technical challenges to be addressed in the future, and usefulness of the information provided to the participants' work. Sections 3 and 4 in the CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement\" illustrate questions used by the Scenarios Central America Project following a workshop and by the Climate & Agriculture Network for Africa (CANA) following a webinar on climate-smart agriculture tools for Africa. Through an end-of-event evaluation we collected qualitative feedback on presentations, including inquiries for information and resources. It was valuable to learn that webinars can be very powerful avenues in spurring dialogue with stakeholders around certain key topics. We also learned how to improve our messages and where follow-up and additional information were of interest. Following-up with participants after the conclusion of an event can be difficult. It may be more practical to ask participants to take the evaluation after the conclusion of the discussions and before ending the event, as opposed to sending the survey after ending the event. Changing the timing may address the challenges of low response rates and the resulting need to remind attendees multiple times. We received emails from some participants (of their own initiative) giving feedback on the event. In some instances, they requested slots in future events. This was highly appreciated and included in the event report where appropriate.Collecting qualitative feedback and conducting targeted follow-up interviews with participants on their perspectives is a relatively new practice within communication and engagement protocols in research for development. Following are examples of how this was done by the CCAFS communication and engagment team: a) Post-training evaluation was used 6 or 12 months after a workshop for journalists conducted by CCAFS in the Latin America region. See section 5 of the CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement\" for brief example questions. b) One flagship used a survey to evaluate the utility, timeliness, content, and visual presentation of the flagship newsletter. c) A three-page survey was taken both pre-and post-event for a webinar on agriculture in the UNFCCC negotiations. The survey can be found in section 6 of the CCAFS Info Note \"Selected outcome-focused monitoring tools for communication and engagement.\" d) As part of the PACCA project, after-activity evaluations on capacity building sessions queried the extent of learning and how the information was going to be used. Regarding the workshop for journalists, participants shared some of the stories and write-ups that they published post-workshop. It was useful to see that they had a) assessed it as an important topic and b) showed a good understanding of it. In the case where a survey was used to learn about the effectiveness of a flagship newsletter, the turnout of responses was very low and thus required further investigation and possible alternative tools. However, analysis of MailChimp, the email marketing service used for all CCAFS newsletters, showed that the newsletter was opened by 41.3% of the total distribution list and that 16.1% of people receiving the newsletter clicked on individual articles, demonstrating that the newsletter has a very focused audience that appreciated the content. An additional follow-up survey was deemed unneccesary.  By piloting online searches, CCAFS developed a useful template to report on research products, their use and subsequent analyses. The pilot informed the standardization of a reporting template for the CCAFS' flagship and regional communication and engagment teams to document evidence (collect, capture, document and verify) and the contribution of communication and engagement activities to the program's outcome delivery. Standardization of reporting is a first step to building and pooling data, allowing for systematical analysis over years for patterns that can inform strategic decision-making, including decisions about where to allocate resources.We also used simple built-in MEL tools during CCAFS events. These include: Reflective check-in, i.e. at the beginning of the day asking participants to share key insight/s they had from the previous day, what went well, what went poorly, what can be improved, and how these observations can inform the agenda and subsequent events. Foot-voting, i.e. asking participants to position themselves on a spectrum or in between opposite statements and explain why they chose their respective positions. Synthesizing go-around, i.e. asking participants at the end of the day for one thing they learnt in the course of the day, one thing they found useful for their work, or one sentence about what that they would like see improved the next day. The questions are key and need to be well thought-out to ensure that they trigger outcome-focused responses. Through built-in MEL tools, facilitation and organizing teams can adjust their session plans and formats as well as logistic details. Foot-voting nicely captures participants' attitudes and reveals changes that people observed in themselves, esp. when both a before and after foot-voting exercise was carried out. Box 1 describes insights gained by using built-in MEL tools on the implementation of learning alliances.In addition to the six tools summarized above, we identified other outcome-focused M&E tools suitable for communication and engagement activities; we hope to present these in a follow-up learning note in 2017 or 2018. One additional tool is a media and message analysis. A media analysis could help capture the change in discourse, attitude, action or behavior, or level of knowledge around climate-smart agricultureand make the change more explicit. While acknowledging other influences, media analysis tries to capture the contribution of research for development. For example, it may quantitatively and qualitatively compare coverage of certain terms or issues in 2010-2011 with 2013-2014, or it may conduct a survey among various audience groups to see if they understand core CCAFS messages. Generating attention and buzz do have a value in themselves: It can make more people turn their attention to listen to the messages and can help build trust. As this is essentially a rigorous analysis, it can be timeconsuming. It should be done by a consulting firm to avoid biases. We began increasing MEL of communication and engagement activities by using and adapting a series of relatively simple tools. It did not overburden involved colleagues, partners, or participants. Tools and methods may be added to the forthcoming MEL support pack, which will support communication and engagement activities to reach outcomes. It will be aligned with the impact pathway, focus on key next-users and allow for better evaluation of research for development efforts. Deeper analyses on the use of CCAFS publications, communication and enagagement products and activities, with key next-users in mind, will capture lessons learned and changes in attitudes/practices among next users. The CCAFS communication team aims to document and report on their activities, which may show contributions to development outcomes. Substantiating actual changes in behavior requires additional resources if done properly. Continued capacity development in valuable and relevant outcome-focused MEL for the CCAFS team is planned. This includes the interpretation and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data. Use MEL tools for communication and engagement in combination with planned evaluation activities, e.g. embedded with a training needs assessment before the event and/or end-of-event workshop evaluation, so that the MEL tool is not a standalone effort. Provide feedback to people who contribute systematically to evaluations or regularly provide insights. e.g. provide information beyond number of unique page views on blogs to projects or people that engage in communication and engagement activities. This can incentivize continued contributions. Introduce simple mechanisms that allow for systematic follow-up and capturing data that feature efforts and results, e.g. through sharing an annual report or special case studies with selected audiences or providing feedback to game-changers. Generate an overview of available tools and methods with descriptions of the data, information and insights they provide. In CCAFS, this will be done in the MEL Support Pack. This may include simple examples and templates that can easily be adapted, descriptions of which tools generate what information, links to online tutorials, names and details of contact people, and a feature that allows users to share experiences. Reach out to intermediaries, if that is the only way to reach certain key people. When reaching out to  Learning alliances are meetings on sustainability that are hosted and facilitated by districts. Districts were chosen as hosts due to their high connectivity with other partners. A majority of development partners report to like the approach, mentioning that it is working well for knowledge sharing. Because climate changeand how to address itis a relatively new concept in some districts, the knowledge being shared helped to put climate change in perspective or in people's minds. The concept of a learning alliance took a while to be understood and embraced by its members. Now, many meetings have been co-organized by different agencies, and there is more knowledge sharing and increasing invitations among members to attend climate change fora. National learning alliances, in particular, serve as climate change stakeholders fora. Initially, there was a misunderstanding that the learning alliance was 'a development project.' Although the need to clarify this delayed the pace at which activities were implemented, it is now understood that this was a necessary step for building confidence in the long-term strategy. Multi-stakeholder processes need to be sustained on a continuous basis. When members do not meet often, they disengage and cohesiveness reduces, so reconvening for action takes more effort.intermediaries, it is recommended to be specific about what you are trying to achieve, how you want your product to be used and to include a feedback mechanism (contacts). This can be as easy as asking, \"If you use the manual, please get in touch and let me know how it was used and what you thought of it.\"It is crucial for outcome-focused delivery in research for development work to examine relevance and impact beyond output delivery. Such examination requires the CCAFS communication and engagement team to use and further develop awareness, knowledge and skills in MEL.Theories of change and impact pathways thinking have helped with this, but additional MEL and related analysis is needed.Through a series of pilots over one year, CCAFS became more systematic and standardized in the outcomefocused MEL of our CCAFS communication and engagement activities. We acknowledge that scoping suitable tools and then implementing and testing some of them were good steps in the process and served to increase awareness and interest in CCAFS. Results encouraged further MEL.Communication and engagement is closely related to research outcome delivery. To provide evidence, CCAFS has begun a second set of pilots, which were chosen from short proposals for communication and engagement activities. This second set of pilots will access additional resources, both in terms of budget and back-stopping by a MEL expert. ","tokenCount":"2973"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be8d79199fd4e98362f58891524fac99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dbd752fa-a3c4-41c7-97d2-d5baab664db4/retrieve","id":"-1631431295"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca4cbac3-f273-4e80-998f-126430a10fe4","pagecount":"36","content":"30D,------------------------------------------------, ,,:-411 -'\" , .~ , \" \" \" , ; -;:,,' '\". ,. ,,' l \" \" 20 -, '; \" s:  -,--._-_.      Establecimiento de pastos z.a)Establecimiento con cultivos para reducir C05toS (ciclo corto -friiol)(ciclo largo re~istente a sequía -yuca) 3.~:c~,o a ganado por nedio del FGV r FUNDAEC.Crédit~ par. ~anadD entidades bancarias. 12 jorn.les/ha     Productividad de gra.íneas en parcelas (cortes) 3.Estableci.iento de canavalia, zapallo, ??praderas con yuca, fríjol, Prueba de pasturas en fincas (~rachiaria d)'ctroneura, ovalifolium, Brachiaria decumbenji, Desmodjus t::.!!JltroseJ1la lIacrocarpu!l)Evaluación participativa de opciones con agricultores ó.Distribución de materiales a productores interesados.Región del Cauca/VallelColombia Las ~ctivldade~ princip~les incluyeren: \" ) DurC\\l\"'Iti? 1988 y el pr imer seme'S'tre de 1989 se entregaren a 1\"'~ -'-usu~rios un tota.l de 1986 bul tos de If¡(lterlal vl?get.Uvo de las gra.míneas Brachiari a dictloneura COr\"l un 7;: ~; del t o la 1 • ª\"~ hUI1\\idicol. con <.n 25~; y !l.. decumbens con un 3~ (Cuadro 1 ) .Debido a que 1~ demand~ por materi~l vegetativo de las le~uminosas DesI1\\odium o\".llfollum CIAl 350 y A.achis ointoi CIAl 17q3q sIgue siendo baja, como ya se mencionó en el Informe Anual de 1988, e~ el semillero de Mondomo se asociaron con leg~minosa (~. ovalifolltlm CIAT 350) todos los lotes de los que se distribuye el mate.i.l vegetativo de qramineas con el fin de que dichos mater,ales vayan mezclados hacia. las fincas de los productores r COl1\\O tal sean sembrados por ellos.Se continuó el establecimiento de praderas puras r dsoci~das ccn legum,nosas (Cuadro 2) en las fincas donde S~ habian establecido las praderas iniciales. A estas praderas iniciales se les introdujeron leguminosas (Centresema y Desmodiuml dos meses después de l. siembra vegetativa de la gr •• ,nea y debi~o a ello y. que S2 s.mbr.ron a fin de época llUVIosa no fue pasible establecer I.s leguminosas dentro de las praderas de gramineas. Esto se viene haciendo con el fin de medir directamente en fincas la produCCión de leche en ambos tipos de pradera; 1 mot'var la .Iembr. de prader~s ~sociadas cen leql,.inosas si se obtuviera l:na m~yor p~cducción dnual o est~(ioncl de leche en ellas.Otra utiliHtie:> de l. leguminosa Arachis pintei, que se 2SU promoviendo en la zona, es su uso como clJltivo d2 cobertura 9\" plantaCiones de c~f~.Esta ccntrclaria mctlez~s, det~ndrí~ la erosión y fijar id nitrógeno par~ el cultivo, sin competir con la prodllcciór: de grano, CO/!'JO y21 fue i!t€'cido por E'l Centro Na,-\"\"\" ,,,.,1. de .s   Silvia Sar'\"l\"i,.:¡;2.0 -L.Q.  ~st~ c~r~~ e5ti~.d~ es ~ltd d~das l~s cc~~i:i:~?s ~~ ~c~,o~r~f~a quebrada, infeFtilidad d? svel~ y !~~ ~c~ ~?~:= :-:':5 ¡:\\.\"el'\"t'!~ 8(\" ,;f:;t:ia CC'.Irri:;QS nO\"\"rral~2ntc d'\\r~\"\"\"I~r? 1' ::' : ;¡;:-,~.~~IS j~:slifi~rl l~ ~~i~tp~ciJ d2 C.2: t¡a:~ir:~ ~, ;~~t:s !? =:;'.'? .l~i:i::;;;.~::s ,:':;:1'0 suplemer,ta, ,;¡;ui:q:.:e 1\", '!'s ,~?:'.?! '!~ ¡:,~ :;:1:;::-  propósito.","tokenCount":"456"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21f179944f8ca10f45d8e39ddbb14e7d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7cde8ce6-0aee-40e3-be46-b6547d54eb8c/retrieve","id":"-1903291461"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ed390471-93d0-4bb2-8e21-40b67b2c3348","pagecount":"12","content":"Sustainable intensification (SI) is at the forefront of food security discussions as a means to meet the growing demand for agricultural production while conserving land and other resources. A broader definition of SI is emerging that takes into account the human condition, nutrition and social equity. Next steps require identification of indicators and associated metrics, to track progress, assess tradeoffs and identify synergies. Through a systematic, qualitative review of the literature we identified SI indicators, with a primary focus on African smallholder farming systems. We assessed indicators and metrics for which there is consensus, and those that remain contested. We conclude that, while numerous metrics for evaluating SI systems exist, many often-cited indicators lack strong sets of associated metrics.Food security is threatened by rising food demand, a degrading resource base and a changing climate, all at a time when nearly a billion people suffer from malnutrition and even more experience nutrient deficits (Godfray and Garnett, 2014). In order to ensure future food security and meet current needs, sustainable intensification (SI) has been put forward as a key approach. Godfray et al. (2010) define sustainable intensification as the process of \"producing more food from the same area of land while reducing the environmental impacts\". Many resource-limited smallholder farms have a great potential for increased productivity (Herrero et al., 2010;Pretty et al., 2011). Given that many smallholder farmers suffer from malnourishment and rely largely on their own agricultural production (Garrity et al., 2010), SI of these systems has the potential to increase human wellbeing while strengthening the foundations of future food security. Though there is widespread agreement on the need to increase productivity and sustainability in smallholder agroecosystems, SI is an evolving concept that has been the subject of debate. Initially SI was presented as a collaborative project between researchers and farmers to increase food production while paying attention to environmental, social and economic sustainability (Pretty, 1997). Since then, some authors have expressed concern that SI has come to be used in a productionist sense, with concerns for sustainability and equity taking second place (Loos et al., 2014;Tittonell, 2014). This has prompted the use of 'ecological intensification' as an alternative term suggesting a greater focus on ecological principles and environmental sustainability (Cassman, 1999;Petersen and Snapp, 2015). However, in the view of many, SI has a strong focus on ecological integrity, social sustainability and the human condition (The Montpelier Panel, 2013). Given this contention, it is necessary to define boundary conditions for what can be placed under the rubric of SI (Tittonell, 2014). These boundary conditions, in turn, are defined by the metrics that we use to measure and evaluate SI systems.In recent years there have been many calls to define and elaborate metrics of SI in order to lend the concept greater clarity and bring increased coherence to the field of SI research (Struik et al., 2014;The Montpelier Panel, 2013). Our objective is to report on a literature review that considers the current state of thinking on SI indicators and concrete metrics used to assess them, highlighting areas of consensus and contestation. This is an important next step in efforts to develop context-appropriate metrics and improve understanding of SI in smallholder systems.We searched the scientific literature using Web of Science and Google Scholar for references to SI and smallholder agriculture systems. Additionally, we searched for literature that employed related terms, namely, ecological intensification, climate-smart agriculture and eco-efficient agriculture. From these searches, we identified publications that focused on SI indicators and metrics appropriate to smallholder systems at the field, farm/household, and landscape or community scales. Papers that did not explicitly refer to SI or related terms, but that focused on both intensification and sustainability in smallholder systems were regarded as valuable and eligible for inclusion. Literature referenced in this review includes peer-reviewed journal articles, academic books and book chapters, academic conference proceedings, and public reports by well-known international agricultural research organizations. Agronomic studies of smallholder agriculture in Africa receive a strong emphasis in this review due to the authors' areas of expertise, and the focus of SI literature on agricultural development.Two general classes of publications were identified: I) publications defining SI and presenting a range of SI indicators or described metrics appropriate to SI systems (46 publications), and II) publications that describe and evaluate SI efforts in the field (60 publications, see Table 1). We applied the following criteria for inclusion of publications in our review:• The study must have been conducted in a smallholder system or define SI indicators relevant to this system. This includes on-farm research trials, but excludes trials performed on agricultural stations. The size criteria regarding what should be considered a smallholder system varied from one study to the next, as this criterion is dependent on bioregion and farm type.• The study must have explicitly evaluated both productivity and at least one aspect of sustainability.• The study must have employed and clearly described SI-relevant metrics. These metrics must go beyond simply crop yield or adoption of a technology.Overall, we included 104 references describing and evaluating SI efforts in the field. These publications dealt with themes of productivity, economic, environmental and social sustainability, and human wellbeing in both crop and livestock systems. Table 1 presents a summary of the papers and the themes, related to the systems (crop, livestock, and integrated crop livestock) that they covered. Of all the publications we reviewed, only 22% originated from the same group of authors. To test if our literature review captured diverse views, we assessed if publications originated from the same author group: this was scored as a yes if they shared two authors in common (or shared a single author in the case of works with one or two authors). 82% of reviewed publications evaluating SI efforts in the field dealt with work in Africa, 8% dealt with work in Asia, and 10% dealt with work in the Americas.This paper assigns specific meanings to the terms \"indicators\" and \"metrics.\" We use the term \"indicator\" to denote a quality or concept that is cited in the literature as an essential component of sustainable intensification. \"Metric,\" on the other hand, refers to a specific property of a cropping system, farm system, household or community that can be directly measured. Indicators can have numerous metrics associated with them. For example, for the indicator biodiversity, a wide range of measurable properties are employed-the metrics. Among these are species richness, relative abundance of species, and functional diversity..We organized SI indictors identified in literature into five domains: productivity, economic sustainability, environmental sustainability, social sustainability and human wellbeing. Indicators within each of the domains are disaggregated by frequency of appearance in the scientific literature. While many SI indicators have quantifiable metrics, there are some exceptions (Tables 2-6). A key goal of this paper is to present SI metrics that can be broadly applied in different contexts. Indicators of sustainable intensification can be grouped into three main categories: indicators with limited application, indicators that communicate adequately, and indicators that can be applied broadly to evaluate system performance. In the following section we describe some of the most broadly applied indicators and the metrics associated with them. A complete list of indicators and their associated metrics is presented in Tables 2-6.Yield is by far the most common indicator used in the SI literature (Table 2). In cropping systems, yield refers to the production of crops per unit land area (Mg grain ha −1 ). In livestock systems, yield is measured as the production of animal products (milk, meat or eggs) per livestock animal per day (Chigwa et al., 2015;Lusigi, 1995), or the production of milk per animal per lactation period (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). Livestock yield is also measured as the conversion efficiency of grain into meat, in kg meat kg −1 grain as feed (Herrero et al., 2010). Farmer-assessed range condition is a participatory approach to assessing yield applied only to livestock systems, which could be modified for use in integrated crop-livestock systems (Klintenberg et al., 2006).One variant on crop yield that is highly relevant to the mixtures of species commonly grown on many smallholder farms is the land equivalent ratio (LER) (Altieri, 1999;Valet and Ozier-Lafontaine, 2014), used to measure the yield of intercrop systems relative to monocrops. An LER greater than 1 indicates that the intercrop is more productive than when the available land is devoted to sole cropping of the crops involved. This is currently only applied to cropping systems, but potential could be of value as an approach to consider for mixed livestock systems.An associated SI productivity indicator is the yield gap, or the difference between the actual yield of the cropping system and the attainable yield (Mueller et al., 2011;Tittonell, 2013). The attainable yield is the yield that could be achieved under existing soil conditions, water availability, solar radiation and temperatures if all nutrient stresses and pest pressures were removed (Table 2). There are numerous methods for determining attainable yield. One commonly used approach involves simulating crop growth using crop growth models parameterized with local soil and historical climate data (Wani et al., 2003). As an alternative metric appropriate to resource-limited farms, Tittonell (2013) propose a locally attainable yield, based on the highest yields actually achieved by farmers in a given region.Efficient use of inputs for production is a critical goal in SI, and input efficiency is therefore a commonly proposed SI indicator (Keating et al., 2010;Pretty et al., 2011). There are numerous metrics of input efficiency in the literature, appropriate for different purposes. Partial factor productivity is the most commonly used metric, consisting of kg grain yield/kg of a single nutrient (usually N or P) applied (Chikowo et al., 2015;Snapp et al., 2010). For livestock systems a common metric is kg animal product yield/kg dry feed intake (Tarawali et al., 2011). An alternative metric of input efficiency is the eco-efficiency score where the performance of each individual cropping system is contrasted with an eco-efficiency frontier (Keating et al., 2010). This frontier is determined using data on inputs and outputs for a range of cropping systems representative of the region Linear programming SI indicators of productivity with their associated metrics, organized by scale. Indicators in normal font are cited by 3-7 sources, indicators in bold are cited by 8-14 sources, and indicators in BOLD CAPS are cited by 15+ sources. Indicators that are associated with contention in the SI literature are underlined. Citations in normal font refer to evaluations or descriptions of SI systems in the field that involve only crops, while underlined citations refer to publications that involve livestock, or both crops and livestock. Citations in italics refer to methods papers or overviews that are not specific to any single cropping system.Field scale metrics Farm / Household metrics Community metricsYield effects of alt pest mgt. (Thrupp, 2000;Zhu et al., 2000) % farmers using alternative pest mgt. (Schreinemachers et al., 2011) Disease incidence (Lusigi, 1995) Farmer-reported condition (Klintenberg et al., 2006) Growth rate (Chigwa et al., 2015;Lusigi, 1995) Mortality rate (McDermott et al., 2010) Biological inputs kg chemical inputs replaced (Powell et al., 2004;Oikeh et al., 2012) Farm-generated inputs used (Powell et al., 2004;Pretty et al., 2011) % farmers using biol. Inputs (Fungo et al., 2013) Biomass production kg / ha biomass produced (Myaka et al., 2006;Ojiem et al., 2007) Conversion efficiency kg meat/kg grain consumed (Herrero et al., 2010) Crop genotype richness (Zhu et al., 2000) Crop species richness (Altieri, 1999) Crop species richness (Valet and Ozier-Lafontaine, 2014) Cropping intensity # of crops/unit time (Tilman et al., 2002) R factor (cropping frequency) (Morse et al., 2002) Farmer-assessed range condition (Klintenberg et al., 2006) Primary production of rangeland (Lusigi, 1995) T fodder produced/ha (Boval et al., 2014) Nutritional content of fodder (Lusigi, 1995) Consumption of legumes (Powell et al., 2004) Presence of toxins (Bekunda, 2012) Efficiency equivalent ratio of nutrient inputs (Valet and Ozier-Lafontaine, 2014) Eco-efficiency score; all inputs (Keating et al., 2010;Gadanakis et al., 2015) Partial factor productivity of nutrient inputs (Chikowo et al., 2015;Snapp et al., 2010;Tarawali et al., 2011) Energy efficiency analysis; all inputs (Tyedmers and Pelletier, 2006) Capital intensity in $/ha (Shriar, 2000) Intensification index (Shirar, 2000) Energy intensity in Mj/ha (Giller et al., 1997;Tyedmers and Pelletier, 2006) Fertilizer rate in kg/ha (Tittonell et al., 2007) Irrigation mm irrigation water applied (Wani et al., 2003) % farmers irrigating (Graciana, 2006) Farmer reported pest pressure (Snapp and Silim, 2002) # pests/plant or sample (Ndemah et al., 2003;Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014) # pest species suppressed (Ratnadass and Barzman, 2014) % crop plants damaged (Khan et al., 2008) Weed infestation score (Tittonell et al., 2007) Relative crop loss due to disaster (Holt-Gimenez et al., 2002) Ability to maintain yield under a range of future scenarios, modeled (Rosenzweig and Tubelo, 2007) Stocking rate # animals/ha (Lusigi, 1995) T live weight / ha (Boval et al., 2014) WATER EFFICIENCY kg grain/m 3 water applied / ha (Wani et al., 2003) $ animal products/m 3 evapotranspiration (Descheemaeker et al., 2011) Yield/mm rainfall (Anderson et al., 2006;Chikowo et al., 2015) kg total products/m 3 water on land used to grown feed (Kahinda and Masiyandima, 2014) Yield/mm evapotranspiration (Anderson et al., 2006) YIELD $ product/ha (Kamanga et al., 2014;Zhu et al., 2000) kg product/ha (ISPC, 2014;Rai et al., 2011) kg product/animal/day (Chigwa et al., 2015;Lusigi, 1995) Land equivalent ratio (Altieri, 1999;Valet and Ozier-Lafontaine, 2014) Yield gapAttainable yield-actual yield (Keating et al., 2010;Wani et al., 2003) Locally attainable yield-actual yield (Tittonell, 2013) Coefficient of variation (Morse et al., 2002;Rosenzweig and Tubiello, 2007) models are then used to identify the existing frontier of optimal net resource use (Gadanakis et al., 2015).Water use efficiency is employed as a metric of productivity and sustainability in agricultural intensification efforts, particularly in rainfed smallholder systems (Garrity et al., 2010;The Montpelier Panel, 2013). Water use efficiency measures include grain yield/mm rainfall (Anderson et al., 2006;Chikowo et al., 2015), and the increase in crop yield due to irrigation/m 3 irrigation water applied per hectare (Wani et al., 2003). In integrated crop-livestock systems, efficiency of water at the farm scale can be measured as the monetary value of animal products produced per m 3 over total evapo-transpiration from land used to grow feed crops during the growing season (Descheemaeker et al., 2011).Animal health is frequently cited as an SI indicator in systems that include livestock (Herrero et al., 2010;McDermott et al., 2010). Animal nutrition, the first dimension, can be measured in terms of livestock growth rate (Chigwa et al., 2015;Lusigi, 1995). Incidence of disease, the second dimension of animal health, can be measured as the proportion of the herd displaying disease indicators (Lusigi, 1995). Finally, mortality rate is sometimes used as a metric (McDermott et al., 2010).Several metrics of agricultural income are used in the SI literature (Table 3). Agricultural income is most frequently measured as net income from agriculture (i.e. income from agriculture minus agricultural expenses) (Sanginga et al., 2003;Twomlow et al., 2006). It can also be measured in terms of disposable income, or the agricultural income remaining after expenditures on agricultural inputs and household necessities (Altieri, 1999). Losses of agricultural income due to a natural disaster can be measured by estimating the total market value of crops destroyed by the disaster (Holt-Giménez, 2002). Changes in total agricultural income due to adoption of an agricultural practice can be measured using the benefit/cost ratio (BCR) (Snapp et al., 2010;Tenge et al., 2006).  Crop value is a commonly cited indicator of economic sustainability in SI systems (ISPC, 2014;Vanlauwe et al., 2014). Several metrics are used to determine the value of crops at the field level. Crop value is most frequently measured as profitability of a crop (income from the crop minus input costs) (Kahinda and Masiyandima, 2014;Silici, 2010). Estimates of labor required to grow a particular crop may be difficult to obtain in smallholder systems. However, factoring in the value of labor is essential to capture the true costs of growing a crop (Kahinda and Masiyandima, 2014).  (Altieri, 1999;Oikeh et al., 2012) Reduction in kg chemicalfertilizer (Fungo et al., 2013) or pesticide (Schreinemachers et al., 2011) applied Reduction in (continued on next page) A subset of authors in the field of SI emphasize the importance of smallholder households being able to meet their own food needs (Altieri, 1999;Remans et al., 2013). This can be measured in terms of the net production of nutrients on the farm relative to the food needs of the farming household. Food production relative to food needs can be measured simply in terms of calories produced by crops versus calorie requirements (Kamanga et al., 2010). Similar analyses have been conducted using a wider range of nutrients, such as protein, calcium and vitamin A (Altieri, 1999;Remans et al., 2013). Human nutrient requirements and food nutrient contents are typically obtained from the literature (Kamanga et al., 2010) or reported by farmers (Remans et al., 2013). The household's ability to meet their own food needs can also be measured in terms of nutrition efficiency, or the consumption of nutrients per unit of agricultural input (The Montpelier Panel, 2013).While we have chosen to place risk among indicators of human wellbeing, the concept of risk actually encompasses multiple domains of sustainability. In the context of SI, risk is generally measured as either production risk or perceived risk. Production risk can be quantified as the probability that crops will produce sufficient yield to meet the food or nutritional needs of the household (Dorward, 1996;Kamanga et al., 2010). Production risk can also be assessed economically as the chance that income will exceed expenses (Dorward, 1996), or standard deviation in the economic returns from a cropping system (Keating et al., 2010). Perceived risk was measured by Smith et al. (2000) using participatory risk mapping. Respondents to a survey assessed risk in two stages -first identifying factors they worry about, then assigning a severity to each. This information was used to score the breadth and severity of perceived risks in a community.Biodiversity is a broad indicator of SI, and many metrics of biodiversity have been employed. Biodiversity may be measured on the farm itself (Thrupp, 2000) or in the surrounding landscape (Phalan et al., 2011). Functional diversity has been employed as a metric of biodiversity based on the richness and abundance of organisms representing key functional groups in a biological community (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014;Giller et al., 1997). The specific functional groups that should be included depend on the type of community under consideration-for example, in a soil community the relevant functional groups might be ecosystem engineers, litter transformers, micro-predators, and decomposer microbes (Giller et al., 1997). In order to measure the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity across many communities, Phalan et al. (2011) recommend measuring biodiversity based on the presence or absence, and abundance, of a number of indicator species. This approach measures alpha diversity (i.e. biodiversity at the local level). In order to determine beta (landscape level) diversity, separate measurements must be conducted for each contiguous area under a distinct type of land use. Other metrics of biodiversity focus on species of special conservation concern, such as population counts of large mammals for a study of intensification effects on an adjacent wildlife reserve (Lewis et al., 2011).Carbon sequestration is an important indicator of the climate change mitigation potential of agricultural ecosystem (Rai et al., 2011;The Montpelier Panel, 2013). In annual cropping systems consideration is typically restricted to belowground C stocks whereas in perennial systems, C sequestration can be measured as a combination of aboveground and belowground C stocks (Demessie et al., 2015;Rosenzweig and Tubiello, 2007). Aboveground C stocks are typically derived from estimates of standing tree biomass (Asase et al., 2008). To maximize relevance to climate change mitigation, Rosenzweig and Tubelo (2007) recommend calculating the C sequestration rate, a highly data intensive exercise.Metrics of erosion generally focus on the field or farm level, with the rate of erosion expressed in tons of soil lost/ha/year (Valet and Ozier-Lafontaine, 2014). The erosivity of a cropping system (i.e. how prone it is to erosion relative to other cropping systems) can be measured using  et al., 2013;Owenya et al., 2012) Test on SI practices (Rusike et al., 2006) Farmer reported adaptation in responses to challenges (Owenya, 2012) Costs of recovery from disaster (social and monetary) (Béné, 2013) Farmer reported conflict intensity (Kisoza, 2014) Community risk mapping (Smith et al., 2000) Connectivity to social networks (Hoang, 2006) Community social capital index (Silici, 2010) Social network structure at community level (Hoang, 2006) Membership in organizations (Swinton, 2000) # of social connections (Swinton, 2000) the C-value (Clay et al., 1998). Alternately, erosion caused by a discreet event such as a hurricane can be measured based on the volume of gully erosion, area of rill erosion, and area of landslides present following the event (Holt-Giménez, 2002). Tenge et al. (2006) present a participatory metric of soil erosion at the community level where a catchment map is drawn by a community assembly, and indicators of erosion are identified. Estimates are validated by the community, and also validated against biophysical measurements taken by researchers.When nutrients are cycled within an agroecosystem, farmers gain access to fertility that would otherwise have to be supplied via purchased inputs. Therefore, the degree of nutrient cycling within an agricultural system is frequently cited as an indicator of both productivity and environmental sustainability in SI systems (Garrity et al., 2010;Vanlauwe et al., 2014) (Table 5). The most simple metric of internal cycling is the use of farm-generated biological inputs such as leaf litter, manure and compost (Powell et al., 2004;Rufino et al., 2009). The rate of N mineralization in the soil can be used as a metric of internal nutrient cycling (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014;Myaka et al., 2006). Some metrics capture multiple stocks and flows of nutrients across the agricultural system, and evaluate the balance between inputs and outputs. In participatory resource mapping, farmers identify all sources, stocks and flows of fertility, into, within, and out of their farming system (Tittonell et al., 2007). This allows farmers to perceive opportunities to increase internal cycling of nutrients.Soil biological activity is often proposed as an indicator of ecosystem function in SI (Garrity et al., 2010;Rai et al., 2011). Soil biological activity metrics include soil microbial biomass (Bommarco et al., 2013;Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014) and soil respiration rate (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014). Decomposition is a central biological function in soils, and therefore the decomposition rate is commonly employed as a metric (Asase et al., 2008;Demessie et al., 2015). Additionally, the rate of N mineralization in the soil (part of the decomposition process) is sometimes measured directly (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014). Biological N fixation is another critical biological function, particularly in association with legumes and other N fixing plants. One commonly used metric of biological N fixation is the percentage of legume N biomass derived from the atmosphere is one metric of N fixation (Oikeh et al., 2012;Ojiem et al., 2007), but many other metrics are also used in the literature.Soil quality is one of the most commonly cited SI indicators. Soil quality generally refers to the capacity of the soil to support and sustain agricultural production (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014;Rai et al., 2011). Water infiltration rate into the soil (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2012;Thierfelder et al., 2013) and the related porosity (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014;Rai et al., 2011) are common physical metrics related to soil quality. Soil aggregate stability, which is related to the soil's capacity to resist erosion, can also be employed as a soil quality metric (Clermont-Dauphin et al., 2014).One of the most commonly employed metrics of soil quality is soil organic matter (Bommarco et al., 2013;Rai et al., 2011), or the closely related metric soil organic carbon (Chikowo et al., 2015;Demessie et al., 2015). Soil organic matter influences the capacity of the soil to retain nutrients and water, as well as multiple other properties. Other chemical properties that are often measured include nutrient status, such as total soil N (Demessie et al., 2015;Gelaw et al., 2015), inorganic N and mineralizable N (Myaka et al., 2006). Other nutrient metrics in the assessment of soil quality include extractable P, Ca, Mg and K (Mhango et al., 2013;Tittonell et al., 2007). The most common metric of nutrient holding capacity is cation exchange capacity (Mhango et al., 2013;Tittonell et al., 2007). Soil pH is also frequently measured in the assessment of soil quality.Farmers' access to information about agriculture is frequently cited as a sustainability indicator (Rai et al., 2011;Tilman et al., 2002). One metric of farmers' access to information is their level of connectivity within the agricultural knowledge network, consisting of farmers and local experts (Hoang et al., 2006). Access to information about agriculture can also be scored by farmers (Kimaru-Muchai et al., 2013;Owenya et al., 2012). Farmers' knowledge of a specific SI technology or practice can be measured as the percent of farmers reporting knowledge of a practice, and the percent reporting interest in experimenting with the practice, or teaching it to others (Degrande et al., 2013). It can also be measured quantitatively by administering a test to farmers regarding a set of agricultural practices (Rusike et al., 2006).Organizations promoting SI frequently point out the need to foster gender equity and create opportunities for women (ISPC, 2014;The Montpelier Panel, 2013). Gender equity has been assessed in the SI literature either in an absolute sense, or in relation to a particular SI effort (Table 6). An absolute metric of gender equity, spanning both the household and community levels, is the women's empowerment in agriculture index (WEAI) (Alkire et al., 2013). The WEAI is computed based on a set of farmer-reported indicators where each indicator is assigned a positive or negative value based on survey responses, and a numerical value is calculated using a set of standard weights. Gender equity in a given SI effort can also be measured as the percent of farmers participating in the project or adopting an SI technology who are women (Degrande et al., 2013;Sanginga et al., 2003). Furthermore, equity in the impacts of an SI effort can be reflected in the distribution of labor, or the proportion of SI-related work performed by men relative to that performed by women (Powell et al., 2004).Sustainability is a very broad concept, and definitions of sustainability are continually being proposed (Bosshard, 2000;Pretty, 1997). Therefore, it would not be possible to present a single metric of sustainability applicable to any situation. However, a number of authors have proposed frameworks for measuring sustainability of smallholder systems. The most common frameworks for measuring sustainability are based on the \"pillars of sustainability\" approach (McCune et al., 2011;Steiner et al., 2000). The pillars are individual indicators with associated metrics which are selected to represent different domains of sustainability. Steiner et al., (2000) suggests that pillars be chosen to represent natural capital, social capital and economic capital. However, the approach has also been employed using only biophysical indicators (McCune et al., 2011), or biophysical and economic indicators (Snapp et al., 2010). Regardless of the pillars of sustainability employed, the pillars are depicted as spokes radiating from a central hub, connected by a web diagram. The area and symmetry of the resulting sustainability polygon indicate the sustainability of the system (Steiner et al., 2000). A somewhat different but related approach is the sustainability score employed by Moore et al., (2014). To compute this score, farmers were asked questions related to production, economic sustainability, ecological sustainability, and social sustainability. The researchers assigned a degree of sustainability to each response, and scores were averaged to generate an aggregate sustainability score.Tradeoffs between aspects of sustainability and intensification of agricultural production require close attention, as efforts to achieve large gains in yield can negatively impact production potential in the future through resource exploitation. Intensification of agriculture has been linked to decreased biodiversity (Asase et al., 2008;Phalan et al., 2011), negative impacts on the surrounding environment (Gadanakis et al., 2015;Klapwijk et al., 2014), and increased GHG emissions (Asase et al., 2008;Struik et al., 2014). Conversely, intensification of production on a limited land area can free land for the conservation of species that do not thrive in an agricultural setting (Lewis et al., 2011). Increasing agricultural production in the short term can undermine the long-term basis of productivity through adverse impacts on soil quality, or have the opposite, synergistic effect (Powell et al., 2004;Valbuena et al., 2012). There can be tradeoffs between different types of agricultural productivity, as when dedication of resources to fodder production leads to decreased food security through the displacement of food crops (Herrero et al., 2010). Efforts to increase production can also come into conflict with social values such as the protection of animal welfare (Fraser, 2008;Godfray and Garnett, 2014). Tittonell (2013) presents a framework for evaluating tradeoffs in SI systems. Tradeoff curves are constructed by plotting values achieved for one SI objective against values achieved for a second objective. The shape of the tradeoff curve reflects the degree of complementarity between these objectives Tradeoff curves are closely related to ecoefficiency frontiers employed in eco-efficiency analysis (Gadanakis et al., 2015;Keating et al., 2010) presented under \"input efficiency.\" In the analysis of tradeoffs, it is essential to know which properties of the agroecosystem are most important to farmers and other stakeholders. Therefore, Klapwijk (2014) advocates participatory identification and analysis of tradeoffs. In addition, Klapwijk cautions against an excessive focus on optimization, as optimization models are unable to represent all factors that are relevant to the community. Instead, tradeoff curves can be used in a \"discussion support\" rather than a \"decision support\" capacity (Klapwijk et al., 2014).While there have been recent calls to define a set of metrics for evaluating SI efforts (Struik et al., 2014;The Montpelier Panel, 2013), there is considerable disagreement in the research community over which indicators and metrics constitute relevant criteria. The meaning of food security in relation to associated concepts such as food equity and distributive justice is contested. Some address food security through gains in production to improve synch with market demand (Keating et al., 2010). Others argue that a focus on market demand privileges those with more purchasing power over those with less, and that an explicit focus on food self-sufficiency and equity is required (Loos et al., 2014). Several SI authors argue that in areas with limited market linkages, farming households' ability to meet their own needs is a key component of food security (Remans et al., 2013;The Montpelier Panel, 2013).There is also disagreement within the SI literature on the precise meaning of intensification. Some SI theorists equate intensification with increased yield (Godfray and Garnett, 2014). Others define intensification as \"more output per unit input\", or the increased efficiency of net resource use (Rai et al., 2011;The Montpelier Panel, 2013). While increased resource use efficiency and improved yield frequently coincide, there are situations in which they do not. For example, deficit irrigation programs generally decrease yield, but greatly increase water use efficiency (Rai et al., 2011).The meaning of ecological sustainability and the indicators appropriate for its evaluation are debated. Ecological sustainability can be viewed as the reduction of environmental costs associated with each unit of agricultural output with no cap on productivity per-se, an input efficiency approach (Keating et al., 2010). Other authors maintain that impacts must remain bounded by definite ecological thresholds (Shriar, 2000). These thresholds are primarily interpreted as levels of disturbance that would cause the ecological system to transition to an alternate, less productive stable state (Walker et al., 2010).It should also be kept in mind thatas Bosshard (2000) suggestssustainability is a discursive paradigm. The precise meaning of sustainability is context dependent, and emerges from the ongoing discussion and engagement of researchers and practitioners working in the field of sustainable agriculture. The structure and goals of any SI effort will depend on the context in which it is carried out, and the actors involved (McDermott et al., 2010;Steiner et al., 2000). According to this view, researchers must continuously define the boundary conditions within which a given set of indicator or metrics is applicable (Tittonell, 2014).In this section we assess gaps in the SI literature for each of the domains. Indicators of productivity and economic sustainability are associated with strong collections of metrics, but there are some significant gaps. We were able to locate only a small number of metrics of farmers' access to capital (Graciana, 2006;Owenya et al., 2012), access to agricultural inputs (Fungo et al., 2013;Mhango et al., 2013) and household purchasing power (ISPC, 2014;Owenya et al., 2012). Finally, metrics of market access often focus on distance to the nearest market (Clay al., 1998;Owenya et al., 2012), and do not consider farmers' ability to competitively participate in markets (The Montpelier Panel, 2013).Indicators of human wellbeing in SI systems generally lack strong sets of metrics. In the SI literature we found little attention paid to food safety (Bekunda, 2012;Schreinemachers et al., 2011). Food safety concerns appear to be growing within civil society, and it will likely be necessary to develop food safety metrics from the public health literature. Metrics related to quality of life are also scarce. Only a few authors have measured reduction in overall agricultural labor requirements due to SI efforts (Altieri, 1999;Owenya et al., 2012), or impacts on farmers' overall quality of life (Morse et al., 2002). It is also worth noting that none of the cited publications dealing with livestock systems employ metrics of human wellbeing.Nearly all indicators of environmental sustainability are associated with adequate or strong sets of metrics. One exception is ecological thresholds, which refer to the degree of disturbance that will cause an ecosystem to shift to an alternate, less productive stable state (Walker et al., 2010). The only metric for an environmental threshold that we could locate in the SI literature concerned the carrying capacity of rangeland systems (Lusigi, 1995). To date ecological thresholds have primarily been discussed in the conservation literature, where they are generally conceptualized as the point at which incremental habitat destruction causes a population to go into precipitous decline (Huggett, 2005). It may be advisable to draw on metrics from this literature as we seek to assess ecological thresholds in agricultural systems.Indicators of social sustainability in SI systems are often associated with few or no concrete metrics in the SI literature. The effects of SI efforts on farmer empowerment have been measured in only a few studies (Alkire et al., 2013;Rusike et al., 2006), and metrics concerning social equity are equally rare (Graciana, 2006;Hoang et al., 2006). Similarly, few metrics of gender equity that go beyond simply counting the women involved in SI efforts have been employed (Alkire et al., 2013;Powell et al., 2004). There are also very few metrics employed to date in the SI literature having to do with social stability. We could only locate a single metric of resource conflict (Kisoza, 2014), though conflict is often a major concern in resource-limited situations. While social metrics are scarce, we should also note that the literature on livestock and crop/livestock systems is rich in farmer-participatory, community-level metrics on subjects ranging from technology prefer-ence (Maas et al., 2013) to risk (Smith et al., 2000) to resource conflict (Kisoza, 2014).Farmer participation and integration of SI efforts with local knowledge systems represent a major gap in the literature (Bosshard, 2000;Kimaru-Muchai et al., 2013). We could find no concrete metrics of the degree of farmer participation in SI efforts ( Van de Fliert and Braun, 2002). Criteria for meaningful participation in agricultural research have been defined in the social sciences literature (McDougall and Braun, 2003), and could be used as a basis for quantitative assessment following the model of the WEAI. Addressing this gap in the SI literature is crucial, as farmer participation is central to the SI concept (Pretty, 1997) and there are claims that meaningful participation has been sidelined in the SI agenda (Tittonell, 2014).Finally, our review of SI indicator literature found that indicators and associated metrics were overwhelmingly static. This allows snap shots in time to be assessed along SI trajectories; however, we think that a more dynamic view is essential.The sustainable intensification literature to date contains a rich array of indicators and metrics for evaluating SI efforts. SI indicators define concepts relevant to sustainable intensification and allow for the articulation of goals in SI efforts. Metrics provide critical tools for assessing progress towards these goals, and evaluating tradeoffs between them. Some often-cited SI indicators currently have few metrics associated with them, particularly in the domain of social sustainability. As the discourse around SI continues and gaps in the literature are filled, it will remain the responsibility of researchers and stakeholders to select indices and metrics that are appropriate to the goals, constraints, and ecological setting of each individual SI effort.","tokenCount":"6090"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ef737545fb372995f15a48cccecfd447","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f043c70f-685b-47c9-af45-f89db5637faf/retrieve","id":"2123021351"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"25f38035-175a-4091-9249-25561c700c07","pagecount":"65","content":"From being members of the FFS we gain in confidence. We get to know our strengths and weaknesses. Everyone in the group participates, even the quiet ones. As a result of being a member of an FFS, I have attended a lot of training courses. At these courses everyone thinks that I must be from the Ministry because of the knowledge I have acquired and share. Now when I disagree with some point an 'expert' is making I even have the courage to correct him! I am a happy farmer who has gained much from FFS. FFS is the only project I know that has no gender bias. FFS makes women feel they can be good decision makers and teaches them that they can present their views. FFS is the best project so far I've been involved with.Before I joined FFS, if somebody asked me what I do I used to say \"nothing\". Now I proudly answer : \"I am a farmer\".The Farmer Field School (FFS) is an innovative, participatory and interactive learning approach which was developed with assistance from FAO in the 1980s in South East Asia as a way for small-scale rice farmers to investigate, and learn for themselves, the skills required for, and the benefits to be obtained from, integrated pest management (IPM) practices in their fields.The aim of the FFS is to build farmers' capacity to analyse their production systems, identify problems, test possible solutions and eventually adopt the practices most suitable to their farming system. The knowledge acquired during the learning process enables farmers to adapt their existing technologies to be more productive, profitable, and responsive to changing conditions, or to test and adopt new technologies.The FFS approach, which was first introduced in Kenya in 1996, is now widely applied in the country and is used in a broad range of enterprises including crop, horticulture, livestock production and soil management. Currently there are over 1,000 FFSs on-going in Kenya under the coordination and funding of various agencies, and the approach is quickly gaining in popularity. At the same time, not all national institutions and collaborators are well informed on FFS activities and on what the FFS approach entails.Having realised this, FAO, KARI and ILRI together with MoALD held an FFS stakeholders' forum where different FFS initiatives in Kenya were presented to a wide range of institutions, NGOs, projects, government officials and the private sector. The objective of the forum was to inform the different stakeholders about the FFS approach and existing activities in Kenya and discuss its role in the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development's extension policy. The aim of the forum was to assist in lifting some of the misconceptions that are common about the approach and build a foundation for increased collaboration among the different actors involved in extension, research and development at community level, as well as inform the donor community of future opportunities to support FFS activities.The MoALD sees the FFS as one of the methodologies that we would like to see incorporated into the Kenyan extension system to help solve some of the problems farmers are facing. Farmers' technical knowledge is sometimes inadequate and we are trying to bridge the gap. But there are other factors constraining small-scale farmers, who increasingly need to intensify their production. Inputs need to be acquired on credit, which is not always available, but structures are being put in place to overcome that problem. Infrastructure is of course important. And finally farmers need a market for their produce. We may have to reorient our thinking and start from the marketing end rather than production. Labour is also crucial to farms and HIV/AIDS represents a major problem with many farming communities devastated by this disease. These different challenges need ways and means developed to solve them.The extension service has experienced several failures as different approaches have been tested. Previous approaches had one thing in common; the farmer was told what was right and what to do. With liberalisation things had to change and extension needs to change to fit the new order. In the past farmers simply delivered their maize to the NCCB. Now they need to look for a market themselves.The FFS approach is one that has been adapted to solve these problems. FFS is intended to incorporate farming communities in the development and dissemination of technologies and in identification of problems and possible solutions. This represents a major shift from the past. FFS gives farmers choices through discovery based learning, so we need researchers here too. FFS builds farmers' capacity.FFS was developed in Asia in 1989 and is now being adapted to Kenyan conditions and needs. For example, the method was developed under a monoculture system of rice production. Here farming is very different, with mixed agricultural enterprises on small plots. First introduced in Western Kenya and the Coast, FFS is now implemented in various parts of country for different enterprises.So far FFS has had various degrees of success. Kenyan society is full of different cultures, and cultural norms may not permit some practices, e.g. it is generally desirable to plant with the first rains, but in polygamous societies in Western Kenya the first wife must plant before the other wives may do so.FFS methodology has proved useful. It has a cost implication, but all extension methods have costs associated with them. The issue is, how best can we reduce the cost so they are bearable to the systems we are working with?We are pleased that the FFS methodology has been adopted by a number of organisations. Now we expect to see yields increase. But the challenge then becomes, what does the farmer do with bumper yields when existing marketing infrastructures are not adequate? 2A typical FFS is one or two crop seasons or a livestock production cycle. It consists of a group, usually 20-30 farmers, who set up a group study field on the crop(s) or livestock of their choice. The group is responsible for the care and maintenance of the study enterprise from soil preparation to harvesting/post harvest or egg to egg, etc. The approach is a season-long trainingGodrick S. Khisa MoALD 3The term Farmer Field Schools came from an Indonesian expression sekolah lapangan meaning field school. The expression reflects the educational goals; that the course takes place in the field, and the field conditions define most of the curriculum. Real problems are observed and analysed from planting through to harvest. A Farmer Field School (FFS) is described as a platform and 'school without walls' for improving decision making capacity of farming communities and stimulating local innovation for sustainable agriculture. It is a forum where farmers make regular field observations, relate their observations to the ecosystem and apply their previous experience and any new information to make a crop or livestock management decision with the guidance of a facilitator. According to Kevin Gallagher, a leading advocate of the FFS approach, 'the Farmer Field School is not about technology; it is about people development'. Pretty (2002) considered the five key principles of the Farmer Field School to be:! What is relevant and meaningful is decided by the learner and must be discovered by the learner. Learning flourishes in a situation in which teaching is seen as a facilitating process that assists people to explore and discover the personal meaning of events from them.! Learning is a consequence of experience. People become responsible when they have assumed responsibility and experienced success.! Cooperative approaches are enabling. As people invest in collaborative group approaches, they develop a better sense of their own worth.! Learning is an evolutionary process and is characterised by free and open communication, confrontation, acceptance, respect and the right to make mistakes.! Each person's experience of reality is unique. As they become more aware of how they learn and solve problems, they can refine and modify their own styles of learning and action.Source: J. Pretty Regenerating agriculture In: Ten years ofIPM training in Asia, FAO, 2002, p.6 following a crop phenology or livestock cycle. The field is the 'teacher' and its conditions define the curriculum while the plants/animals form the most important learning material.As an extension approach, it is a dynamic, hands-on, innovative and participatory discovery learning process built upon the principles of adult education. Every learner is a potential trainer and the facilitators must be technically strong. FFS enable farmers to discover and learn about their own agro-ecology and integrated management. On the basis of this knowledge, they become independent and confident decision-makers; experts in their own fields.The FFS approach complements existing research and extension activities through shortening the time it takes to get research from station to adoption on farmers' fields by involving farmers in experimentation of their own; enhancing the capacity of extension staff to serve as technically skilled and group-sensitive facilitators of farmers' experimental learning; increasing the expertise of farmers to make logical decisions on what works best for them, based on their own observations of experimental plots in their FFS and establishment of coherent farmer groups that facilitate the work of extension and research workers, providing the demand for a demand driven system.The cornerstone of the FFS methodology is agroecosystem analysis (AESA). This is the establishment by observation of the interaction between crop/livestock and other biotic and abiotic factors co-existing in the crop/livestock field. It is the main decision making tool used in FFS and involves regular (usually weekly, fortnightly or monthly depending on study activity) observations of the crop or livestock, although the frequency may vary based on the field conditions, study enterprise characteristics and growth stage. The process is holistic and farmers work in sub-groups of 4 or 5 under the guidance of a trained facilitator to enhance the participatory learning process.AESA is a four-stage process starting with field observation. During this stage the small groups learn to sample the crop or livestock and carry out their structured observations of their crop/livestock. Growth stage, beneficial or pest insect abundance, weed status, crop health, weather conditions, soil condition, and any other others factors that have a bearing on the crop/animal performance are all recorded in the field observation. The facilitator's role is to assist in recognition and identifying ecological roles of organism found in the field.The next step in the agro-ecosystem analysis is detailing the field observations on a presentation sized sheet of paper. This step reinforces field observations and creates a record of field activities. Each group prepares their presentations with a summary of data, pictures of the field situation, and decisions from the group as to the interventions required in the field. The facilitator's role is to move from group to group, asking questions and making observations.The third step is where each small group presents their results and conclusions back to the full FFS. This presentation by participants strengthens presentation skills and requires group to defend their decisions with ecological arguments.The last step is where the whole group synthesise the presentations for collective implementation of the decisions arrived at. The facilitator's role during this stage is to guide farmers to arrive at informed decisions and help farmers harmonise the different decisions from different sub-groups. Farmers own experience is incorporated in all stages of the analysis. Drawing and self-presentation during this process reinforce learning. This is done throughout the season as the problems and decisions being studied overlap with similar issues in participant's fields, and there is a strong 'learning readiness' element. The AESA is a 2 to 3 hour process. In addition to the field analysis, there are two other activities each learning week. One of these is on group dynamics leading towards team building and organising skills for the group itself. The other activity is a concept-based activity of the farmers' choice (commonly known as 'special topic'). These could include study on a specific topic, e.g. a pest or disease, discussion on crop varieties in the community that are doing well, or preparation of other activities such as a rat management scheme. These two activities are typically 1 to 2 hours so the entire FFS session is 4-5 hours long.8.00 -8.15am Prayer, roll-call, recap & briefing on day's activities Host team leads the other farmers in prayer, finding out who is present, review of previous activities and briefing of the activities of the day.Farmers in small groups make observations of the whole field, and then examine 5-6 plants per plot, recording the height, number of leaves, number of trusses per plant, number of fruits per truss, the type and number of insects, and any other relevant details.Each group prepares drawings of their field observations including information on the condition of the plants, pests and diseases, natural enemies of insect pests, weather, soil and water conditions, etc.Each group presents their outcome and discusses their observations and conclusions.The whole group reaches a consensus about the crop management practices that they will carry out during the coming week.This activity aims to stimulate attention and participation, as well as strengthen group communication and increase solidarity.The facilitator guides the group in experiments, lessons, exercises and discussions on a 'special topic' related to what is actually occurring in the field or community.Farmers evaluate activities for the day and plan for the following session, identifying the activities and special topic to be addressed.Farmers as experts: Farmers 'learn-by-doing', i.e. they carry out for themselves the various activities related to the particular farming practice they want to study and learn about. This could be related to annual crops, or livestock/fodder production. They key thing is that farmers conduct their own field studies. Their training is based on comparative studies of different treatments and field studies that they, not the extension/research staff, conduct. In so doing they become experts on the particular practice they are investigating.The field is the learning place: All learning is based in the field. The maize field, banana plantation, or grazing area is where farmers learn. Working in small subgroups, they collect data in the field, analyze the data, make action decisions based on their analyses of the data, and present their decisions to the other farmers in the field school for discussion, questioning and refinement.The role of the extension worker is very much that of a facilitator rather than a conventional teacher. Once the farmers know what it is they have to do, and what it is that they can observe in the field, the extension worker takes a back seat role, only offering help and guidance when asked to do so. Presentations during group meetings are the work of the farmers not the extension worker, with the members of each working group assuming responsibility for presenting their findings to their fellow farmers in turn. The extension worker may take part in the subsequent discussion sessions but as a contributor, rather than leader, so the group arrives at an agreed consensus on what action needs to be taken at that time.Scientists/subject matter specialists work with farmers, rather than lecture them: The role of scientists and subject matter specialists is to provide backstopping support to the members of the FFS and in so doing to learn to work in a consultative capacity with farmers. Instead of lecturing farmers, their role is that of colleagues and advisers who can be consulted for advice on solving specific problems, and who can serve as a source of new ideas and/or information on locally unknown technologies.The curriculum is integrated: Crop husbandry, animal husbandry, horticulture, land husbandry are considered together with ecology, economics, sociology and education for a holistic approach. Problems confronted in the field are the integrating principle.Training is related to the seasonal cycle of the practice being investigated. For annual crops this would extend from land preparation to harvesting. For fodder production it would include the dry season to evaluate the quantity and quality at a time of year when livestock feeds are commonly in short supply. For tree production and conservation measures such as hedgerows and grass strips, training would need to continue over several years for farmers to see for themselves the full range of costs and benefits.Regular group meetings: Farmers meet at agreed regular intervals. For annual crops such meetings may be every 1 or 2 weeks during the growing season. For other farm/forestry management practices the time between each meeting would depend on what specific activities need to be done, or be related to critical periods of the year when there are key issues to observe and discuss in the field. Training includes building communication skills, problem solving, leadership and discussion methods -all skills that farmers require. Successful activities at the community level require that farmers can apply effective leadership skills and have the ability to communicate their findings to others.Farmer Field Schools are conducted for the purpose of creating a learning environment in which farmers can master and apply specific land management skills. The emphasis is on empowering farmers to implement their own decisions in their own fields. The Farmer Field School (FFS) approach was first introduced on a small-scale in Kenya in 1995 by the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) of which Kenya was one of 15 pilot countries. Due to the limited knowledge and experience in the country and in Africa in general about the approach, five Kenyan MoALD extension workers were selected and supported by FAO for 3 months FFS training of trainers in the Philippines, to build up the national FFS capacity.The approach had been developed in Asia for small-scale rice farmers to investigate and learn for them selves the skills required for, and the benefits of adopting, integrated pest management (IPM) practices. Even though there had been efforts made to apply the approach for other farming situations, the experience was still quite limited outside the fields of rice and IPM. Bringing the approach to Kenya therefore required a range of adaptations and modification of the approach in order to make it applicable for the specific farming systems of Africa, with its wide diversity of crops grown and where pests are not necessarily the major production problem. The Kenyan context also provided specific challenges, different from those in Asia, such as long distances between farming communities, limited national funding for public extension system, and highly unpredictable weather patterns with frequent droughts.Since 1995 the FFS approach has been tested and adapted for a wide range of crop and livestock enterprises and, compared to Asia, FFS in Kenya has been applied more as a production tool rather than just for IPM. In 1999, the FAO Global IPM Facility launched an East African sub-regional pilot project for FFS on Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM) covering three districts in Western Kenya. With IPPM as the entry point, the FFSs have included other aspects that have a bearing on production and livelihoods in general.Following With increased demand for FFS in programme areas, an increase in self-funded FFSs have been emerging. The approach has further been taken up by MoALD within the national extension programme and without external funding in a number of districts, such as Bomet, Tana River and Nandi. The various donors of FFS in Kenya can be seen in Figure 1.  The main implementing agency of FFS initiatives in Kenya, as well as in other parts of the world, has until recently been FAO. However, as more and more institutions and agencies pick up the approach, and more experiences on FFS are gained by others, this trend is changing and in the coming years the role of FAO in FFS implementation is expected to be reduced. Most of the FFS initiatives in Kenya are implemented in very close collaboration with MoALD and FFS facilitators are in most cases district/divisional extension staff. In Figure 2 the FFS implementing agencies can be seen.Most of the FFSs in the country have been carried out through a grant system, where farmers receive an initial grant to pay for costs related to the group farm trials and to pay for extension services (usually in form of lunch and travel allowances). The groups open a bank accounts and money is transferred to the groups after a detailed work/study plan has been prepared by the group. In most cases the level of the grant has been $300 for farmerled FFS and $600 for extension-led FFS.Farmer-led FFSs have proved to be a powerful way of rapidly scaling up and scaling out. Since the numbers of extension staff in the field is limited, and costs are high for transport due to large distances, farmer-led FFS has been an integrated part of FFS implementation in Kenya. Farmers who have graduated from a staff led FFS have received brief training and then been supported to run their own FFS.Preliminary data show that FFS is an effective and comparatively cheap tool for speeding up the uptake of improved technologies at community level, improving rural food security and income generation, and empowering farmers to find solutions to their livelihood problems.The efforts by various agencies and institutions to adopt and test the approach for various topics have proved that the FFS approach can be successfully applied for a very wide range of crop/livestock/natural resource management enterprises.The direct funding to farmer groups, for payment of extension services in FFS, has drastically improved the performance of extension delivery and accountability of extension providers and introduced farmers to a demand driven extension system where farmers are empowered to choose the extension activities they are involved in.  up to 2003, and about 34,000 farmers taken part in FFS activities. This has meant that through the FFS approach each extension worker has managed to reach many more farmers than is possible in most other extension approaches.FFS experience show strong empowerment impacts at community and district level, demonstrated though strong and cohesive FFS networks and associations pushing on marketing and policy issues. These FFS networks have proved to emerge without external support and have considerable potential in acting as a platform for community based extension activities.On average about 70% of FFS participants in the country are women. The approach is highly appreciated by both sexes but women seem to especially value the approach due to the practical, field based, learning focus and the social value of the FFS groups.Through the efforts of the IPPM project in western Kenya, a model for a self financed FFS system has been developed and tested. Starting in 2004, a large majority of the grants for UNDP and IFAD funded FFS will be given on a cost recovery basis whereby groups borrow the amount necessary for running their FFS and repay the amounts at the end of the FFS cycle. This is an encouraging development to reduce the costs in FFS implementation, but poses a big challenge of putting in place the institutional architecture needed for managing such revolving funds.In many of the FFS initiatives it has proved clear that a stronger focus is needed on input supplies and produce marketing in FFS initiatives. This has led to an increasing focus on these issues in new and emerging FFS initiatives.Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of FFS impacts and achievements have been poor by all FFS initiatives in the country. There is a need for development of M&E frameworks and tools for FFS and for analyses on cost effectiveness, sustainability, empowerment and impacts of FFS on rural food security and poverty reduction.There is a need to support the development of an FFS-related skill base beyond that of FAO, to establish a national institutional capacity for FFS training and implementation, and to ensure quality control and coordination of FFS activities in the country.As the interest for FFS expands, there is a rapidly growing demand for literature on FFS, facilitators' manuals and FFS curricula for various topics and enterprises.There is a need to support the emerging apex organisations, FFS networks, farmer associations, etc., in their efforts to provide services to their members. Such topics as leadership skills, fund management, savings and credit systems and organisation management have proved to be in especially high demand.The opportunities to apply the FFS approach in a pastoral context with semi-nomadic or nomadic communities have yet not been explored due to the inherent challenges in operating an extension system in such contexts. However, there is a growing demand by the dryland districts of Kenya for the approach and, with the increasing interest by the Kenyan government to assist pastoral communities, these opportunities should be explored further. When FFS was first introduced in Asia about 20 years ago the focus was on integrated pest management in rice. Most exercises and guidelines for group trials where thereby developed for FFS on rice. However, with time the FFS methodology has been applied for a wide range of other crops. When FFS was first introduced in Africa there was a need to adapt the approach to crops important in the local context, and the first FFSs that were started in Kenya were thereby focusing on maize production. Due to the highly diverse farming system found in Kenya, the FFS study focus quickly grew to cover a whole range of different crop enterprises, varying from subsistence crops such as cassava to export crops such as French beans. Overall, the FFS methodology has been found successful in development and dissemination of most seasonal crop based technologies. It has been slightly more difficult to adapt the approach for perennial crops, due to the long cropping cycle involved. Various FFS initiatives are starting to apply the approach for other enterprises than crops, such livestock or focused on soil fertility. However, the majority of FFSs in the country are still focusing on crop based enterprises.The various crop enterprises undertaken as FFS study topics in Kenya include:! Food crops -maize, millet, sorghum, etc. ! Legumes -beans, green grams, cowpeas, etc. ! Vegetables -kales, tomatoe, cabbage, okra, onions, etc. ! Root crops -potato, cassava, etc. ! Fodder crops -napier grass, desmodium, etc. ! Fruit crops -passion fruit, coconut, etc. ! Industrial crops -cotton ! Export crops -snow peas, French beans, etc.The training in FFS seeks to assist farmers in developing their ability to make critical and informed decisions that will render their crop production system more productive, profitable and sustainable. Analysis and action in the FFS revolve around three basic principles:! Grow a healthy crop through the use of improved varieties, better seed selection processes, efficient nutrient and water management; ! Conserve beneficial predators and parasites; and ! Observe fields weekly to determine management actions needed to produce a profitable crop.In FFS, farmers go through a season long training covering all aspects of the cropping cycle, from land preparation, through planting, weed control, pest and disease control, harvesting, post storage to marketing of produce. By following the whole cycle of the chosen enterprise farmers gain skills and learn to make management decision applicable to any stage in the crop development cycle.Every week farmers practice agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA), which includes crop, water, weed, insect pest, disease and nutrient management, as well as observation and collection of insect pests, beneficial predators and parasites. The purpose of the exercise is for farmers to learn to make regular field observations and analyze problems and opportunities encountered in the field. Through observation, drawing and discussion, farmers analyze what is observed in the field and come up with management decisions bases on these findings. This helps improve farmers' decision making skills. By doing this exercise regularly in the FFS, farmers develop a mental checklist of indicators to be observe when monitoring their crops. The FFS groups establish trials on a common group plot to study and evaluate different 2 management practices. These study plots usually vary in size from 500-2000 m . The group decides together which aspects they want to investigate in the farm trials, after a series of problem identification and priority ranking sessions. At the establishment of the trials farmers decide on which indicators to monitor in the trials. A whole range of indicators are identified, often very different from the indicators researchers would choose to monitor. The most commonly types of crop trials carried out in FFS are can be seen in Table 1. Rate the performance of local crop varieties against various improved varieties in order to learn to make informed and critical decisions in the farms as regards to which crop varieties are best suited to local conditions.Subjecting selected crop varieties to different levels of fertilizers/manures and other soil fertility options in order to learn to make decision on suitable treatments for improving soil fertility and their proper use in terms of rates and timing of application.Evaluate various options for pest and disease management and compare the pros and cons of chemical pesticides against biological options, in order to learn how to grow healthy crops as cost effective as possible.•Time to maturity KPM3 was rated the best overall due to early maturity, tolerance to bird damage, ease to thresh and grain size as draught tolerance. However, with good rains KPM3 could potentially yield more. KPM2 matured early but yielded poorly. KPM3 was renamed \"Kasati\" due to shiny appearance of its head and ability to fight hunger. Most concluded they would be planting mostly KPM3 and less of the other varietiesVarieties comparison: Rose coco, Mwitemania, KB1, Wairimu KB1 was rated best overall, due to early maturity, good cooking quality and tolerance to diseases. It was followed by Mwitemania, local and Rose coco. Most farmers opted to plant more KB1 followed by Mwitemania. A few would, however, plant a bit of Rose coco due to good market price as it is known by grain traders.Varieties performance: Local, KS20Although local gave better grain yield, KS20 was rated higher due to its early maturity, larger grain size, and good cooking quality. Out of every 1 kg of KS20planted, 30 kg were obtained. Farmers decided to sell to FFS members a kg of KS20 at 10 KSh above market price of local green grams for further multiplication. The farmers also concluded that in future they would commercialize the production by planting more of KS20 for marketing within and outside Mwingi. Below are some of the results or recommendations made by FFS farmers in Eastern Province as a result of their group trials evaluating crop varieties.There is often pressure to get the field school implemented. However, it is important to synchronise the FFS with the planting season. The FFS is designed to run parallel with the growing season so that farmers can observe field ecology issues through all stages of plant growth. If start-up of the FFS does not mesh with the planting seasons, two things happen. First, as the season wears in it becomes more difficult to establish study plots for the FFS. Secondly, starting late means that participants are not given an opportunity to study the enterprise at all stages of plant growth.Value adding and marketing of produce is an integrated topic in crop based FFS as well as the concepts of \"farming as business\". The farmers are trained on marketing and in how to increase the value of their produce by local level processing in order to take advantage of available market opportunities. FFS groups are also encouraged to engage in a commercial enterprise alongside their study topic that can give some extra income for group activities.FFS with a focus on crop production have to a high extent attracted private sector collaborators. Various seed companies have worked together with FFS groups to test and evaluate new varieties development and marketed. Bayer E.A. collaborated in the supply of gaucho-treated cotton seed to FFS in Kitui. Farmchem has been doing promotion of their seed products by supplying demonstration vegetable and maize seeds to FFS groups in Kitui. Pioneer seeds have been tested and evaluated by several groups in Nakuru among other.Experience has shown that it is important to handle partnerships with private sector with cautiously in order to avoid unintended promotion of specific products. The agenda of the proposed collaboration should be determined by farmers and the aim should be to provide farmers with the opportunity to test and evaluate for themselves a wide range of farming options and technologies in order to determine which is most suitable for their specific needs.The FFS pilot project commenced in March 2001 and aimed at incorporating the FFS approach in the Soil Management Project (SMP) and Legume Research Network Project (LRNP) of KARI. The SMP and the LRNP were initiated in 1994 to combat declining soil fertility in smallholder farms in Kenya. The SMP was implemented through two KARI Centers: the National Agricultural Research Centre at Kitale and the Regional Research Centre at Kisii. The SMP adopted the Farmer Participatory Research (FPR) approach to implement research activities so that farmers and other stakeholders could participate actively in technology development and transfer. In addition to decline in soil fertility, farmers identified lack of suitable crop varieties and livestock feed as important constraints limiting smallholder agricultural production that the project needed to address. The LRNP was began as a legume screening network primarily to screen suitable green manure legumes in eleven sites spread across the country at altitudes ranging from 15m to 1900m above sea level. The Network expanded its activities to include coordinated studies in legume residue management, evaluation of legume green manure as a component of integrated soil management and livestock feeding studies based on selected legumes.The first phase of these projects ended in year 2000 after being on the ground for six years. At the end of the phase about ten technologies were identified as being ready for scaling up (i.e. wide scale dissemination in neighbouring villages and regions with similar agro-ecological characteristics to the study sites). These technologies were:! Improved preparation, management and use of organic manures to improve soil fertility. ! Different combinations of organic and inorganic fertilizers for maize, finger millets, forages and vegetables (kales and cabbages).Soil improving green manure legumes. ! Low-cost soil conservation structures. ! Bean varieties tolerant to beanfly infestation and root rot. ! Food legumes other than beans for intercropping with maize. ! Suitable forages for waterlogged soils. ! High yielding forage species for milk production. ! Suitable crop varieties for different agro-ecological zones. ! Plant extracts for control of crop pests.The FFS approach was one of the scaling approaches adopted by the two projects to disseminate the technologies. Others included conventional group extension approach and Farmer Research Committees (FRC) as dissemination agents. It was adopted on a pilot basis for three years beginning March 2001, by five KARI centres: Kitale, Kakamega, Kisii, Embu and Mtwapa (Figure 1). Each of these activities is briefly described below:th This workshop was held from 6-8 March 2001 in Western Kenya. Its primary objective was to sensitize senior managers of KARI and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD), researchers and extensionists implementing SMP and LRNP, and farmers on the FFS approach for information transfer and scaling up of agricultural technologies. About 90 participants attended the workshop. The workshop covered: genesis of FFS approach and its principles and concepts; FFS ToT course and running FFS in the field; development of FFS training curricula; monitoring and evaluation of FFS; and FFS for integrated soil fertility and nutrient management and conservation. Country experiences on FFS approach from Philippines, Indonesia and Kenya were shared during the workshop.22 The aim of this course was to equip the SMP and LRNP staffs with methods, skills, attitudes and knowledge to design, facilitate and implement FFS in their project mandate areas.  1 gives details of the FFS that were formed and when they were terminated.The FAO trainers provided technical backstopping and visited Kitale every first Monday of the month and Kisii every third Thursday of the month.During part one of the ToT course participants developed draft training curricula for the FFS they were to initiate in their respective project areas. These draft curricula formed the basis for preparation of weekly lessons for the FFS. The ToT participants met once a week to prepare the lessons for the following week and also improve the contents of the lesson of the previous week using feedback from farmers. At the end of the ToT, the weekly lessons were compiled into a farmer training curricula for each of the technologies to be scaled up. Participants were encouraged to document different stages of the technologies being demonstrated which were to be used to enhance the quality of the curricula. This was to be done during the methodology development workshop and by four MSc students who were expected to undertake research to refine the FFS process and test some tools developed during the workshop.The aim of the workshop was to jointly develop tools/frameworks for participatory monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of FFS as an approach to scaling up soil management technologies and information. This workshop is the gist of this paper and is discussed in greater details in the later sections.The MSc training was included in the project so that the students could undertake research that would contribute to the development and refinement of M&E tools for the FFS process. They were also expected to evaluate the rate of technology spread and the impact it is has on smallholder farming. Tentative titles of the MSc Research work are:i) Factors influencing group effectiveness in FFS approach for up-scaling agricultural technologies: A case study of Kisii District ii) Effectiveness of FFS in validation and dissemination of soil management technologies among small scale farmers in Trans-Nzoia District, Kenya iii) Economics of using FFS an extension approach iv) Evaluation of the effects of farm-yard manure, phosphorus and potassium on the growth and tuber yields of Irish potato using the FFS approach.So far a total of 30 new FFSs have been initiated in three KARI centres (Table 2). Nine of them are farmer-led and one extension-led. The farmer-led ones are near the old sites and are technically backstopped by researchers and extensionists. Conventionally, scientists are primarily involved in generating new information and are rarely involved in the dissemination of their results other than to fellow scientists. Although the socalled \"baskets of options\" are actually full with technologies, most research programmes record very poor adoption rate and insignificant impact. The challenge facing the research and extension services in the livestock sector of developing countries is to help farmers to increase productivity while sustaining and enhancing the productive potential of the available natural resources. Unfortunately, conventional information dissemination projects or programmes have also very poor success rates in changing or improving animal health and production practices. Dissemination has traditionally been seen by research and extension as finding effective ways of transferring technology, and passing on relevant, usable information to farmers. In complex situations, where farmers need to adjust to a changing situation, such as animal health and production, this approach has been shown to be inadequate because farmers are generally insufficiently involved in identifying problems, or in selecting, testing and evaluating the possible solutions.Farmer Field Schools (FFS) are based on an innovative, participatory and interactive learning approach. The aim of the FFS is to build the farmers' capacity to analyse their production systems, to identify their main constraints, and to test possible solutions, eventually identifying and adopting the practices most suitable to their farming system. The knowledge acquired during the learning process can be used to build on existing knowledge enabling farmers to adapt their existing technologies so that they become more productive, more profitable, and more responsive to changing conditions, or to adopt new technologies. The current ILRI/DFID-AHP/FAO livestock FFS project is developing the methodology for similarly complex situations found in animal health and production. The purpose of the project is to adapt and test FFS methodology for animal health and production, focussing upon smallholder dairy farmers. The approach is applied to developing integrated methods to control vector-borne diseases and helminth infections and to improve the efficiency of utilization of available feed resources and the management of nutrients within the crop-dairy system.Ten The PTDs are implemented to empower participants (both farmers and facilitators) with analytical skills to investigate cause and effect relationships of problems in farming practices.Since the main objective of the PTD is to develop farmers learning skills rather than just increase knowledge of a particular technical issue, record keeping and accurate observation are an important component. For this the AESA technique (agro-ecological system analysis) is an integral component of the PTDs. The AESA technique is used to record and observe the results of the PTD experiments and is designed to improve observation skills and to develop decisionmaking skills, through analysis of a field situation. It is the establishment of an understanding, through observation, of the interactions between livestock and other biotic and abiotic factors co-existing in the field, as they relate to the problem or technology being studied. For example, where the subject is expected to have a direct outcome on the animal, such as a feeding or health management practice, the AESA is focused on the animal. Practically, farmers are divided into small groups and observe an animal from one of their farms. Observations are guided by a check-list including general information, the life history, parameters defining the level of production and observations describing the health status of the animal. Each group presents their results in a standardized format to the rest of the school, where the findings are discussed allowing farmer-to-farmer information dissemination as well as evaluation of progress as part of the PTD.The establishment of PTD is one of the biggest challenges for livestock FFS. Indeed, while it is relatively easy to design a comparative study for crop integrated pest management, the high economic value of cattle does not allow any experiment involving any risk or even short-term losses in animal productivity. Therefore, one of the objectives of the on-going livestock FFS project is to establish what type of PTDs could be performed without any risk or detrimental effect and still allow farmers to experiment with new technologies. Three types of PTDs have emerged from on-going activities:1) Classical PTDs Although livestock are the focus for the FFS, a lot of activities of the livestock keeper are crop related. This is particularly the case for fodder production and grazing improvement and PTDs include: Establishment of alternative sources of fodder. A range of fodder crops are planted using different planting methods, treatments and/or different fertilizer regime. ! Preservation of fodder using different techniques, such as silage making and the box baler for hay.!! Tick control: comparison of efficacy of different acaricides and/or of different application regimes. ! Vaccination efficacy: comparison of disease incidence in immunised and nonimmunised animals. ! Comparison of milk quality and losses due to milk spoilage in relation to the quality of the milk parlour infrastructure.3) Ex-post PTD analysis In ex-post analysis, farmers compare actual experimental results with practices that were used before. Results may be quantitative if records are available from the past or from similar situations, or qualitative where farmer perceptions are evaluated. This also include the \"Stop and Go\" method, where the treatment is stopped and re-introduced several times to show its effect using an animal as its own control. Those tested include: Water availability: the amount of water available to the dairy animal is changed according to the calculated needs. Milk production on the new regime is compared with previous records of production on the old regime. ! Genetic material: artificial insemination is used to compare calf birth weight with other calves or with the expected weight. ! Prophylactic programme: a prophylactic programme is applied to a group of cattle and their performance is compared with previous productivity and with neighbouring herds. This could include deworming, trypanocide and/ or vaccination against prevalent diseases.Not every problem can be easily dealt with by a \"learning by doing\" approach. Some problems, dealing with contagious diseases, for example, are not suitable or too dangerous for experiment. Others may be too abstract to be demonstrated physically, such as the importance of epidemiological status or immunological reactions and these can be addressed in special topic sessions where issues are discussed. Since the facilitator cannot be an expert in every subject, he will help the farmer group to invite the right person to talk about the subject chosen by the farmers. This empowers the FFS group to contact other organisations such as NGOs, national or international research institutes. Special topics can also include livestock and non-livestock related issues, giving the opportunity for farmers to access information responding to their priority at a particular moment. For example, talking to the community about trypanosomiasis when the village is threatened by a cholera outbreak is unlikely to be addressing a priority issue; advice about cholera control would clearly be more relevant.If scientific research is to achieve real impact on farm productivity and livelihoods, new methodologies for dissemination of information have to be developed. Participatory approaches, which facilitate farmer demand for knowledge, give the opportunity to the end users to choose, test and adapt technologies according to their needs. Through participation in FFS, farmers develop skills, which allow them to continually analyse their own situation and adapt to changing circumstances. The ILRI livestock FFS project, funded by the DFID Animal Health Programme, is testing and adapting a participatory method to create a sustainable relation between farmers, extension officers and research institutes. These relationships are thought to be a fundamental tool for scientists to collect appropriate data and to transform developed technologies into products adapted to the end user needs.Using the FFS approach, the project is developing an innovative process through which farmers adapt existing technologies and try out new ideas, which are developed through interactions between farmers, scientists and extension workers. This unique relation is an excellent platform for epidemiology studies using participatory methods to disseminate information on diseases prevalence, to design relevant participatory technology development, and to introduce more successful disease surveillance and control strategies.Due to the highly diverse farming systems of Africa and the need for context specific solutions, Farmers Field School (FFS) initiatives in East Africa have sometimes faced problems in finding appropriate technologies for testing and dissemination. It has also proved a challenge to integrate indigenous knowledge at all stages of the FFS approach and to ensure a dynamic blend of technologies developed by research agents and practices evolved by local farmers. At the same time Africa has an enormous resource of untapped traditional knowledge and promising innovations and initiatives that could bring substantial benefits for other smallholder farmers if more widely applied. Despite this, there sometimes tend to be a bias in agricultural extension activities and FFS towards technologies based on 'western science' and farmers' initiatives are often invisible (Chambers, 1990;Simpson and Owens, 2002).The integrated approach for 'Promoting farmer innovation in Farmer Field Schools' (PFI-FFS) was evolved by blending and modifying two existing methodologies for participatory extension: 'Promoting Farmer Innovation' and the classical FFS methodology. PFI-FFS, is a 2-year UNDP funded initiative. The project started in 2001 under the coordination of FAO and the Government of Kenya.The objective of the project is to increase the role of indigenous knowledge and promote farmer innovations in extension activities. This is achieved by ensuring dynamic interactions between innovators and FFS farmers. Currently the project, which has a focus in semi-arid regions, operates in seven districts in Kenya (Kitui, Mwingi, Narok, Nakuru, Bomet, Kilifi and Taita Taveta). During 2001-2003, 630 extension-led and farmer-led FFSs are being implemented within the project, focusing on a wide range of crop and animal enterprises.The identification of innovators is done by screening for potential innovators by collecting information from various stakeholders such as farmers, extension staff and NGOs. Verification is then done by following up on this information through visits to the suggested innovators for confirmation on whether the innovation is genuine and important in terms of its potential for bringing benefits to other smallholder farmers. Characterisation takes place in the form of recording and documenting some basic information about the innovator and the innovation. A short, 1-2 day training session is held for the farmer innovators in order to enhance their presentation skills, so that they can be more effective when training other farmers. It is also important for the innovators to meet and interact with each other in order to stimulate and inspire each others experimentation. Throughout the regular FFS activities, which includes learning sessions, on-farm trials, experimentation and discussions, farmer innovators are facilitated to interact with FFS groups in a variety of ways. Farmer exchange visits are a highly effective mean of facilitating sharing of ideas and improved practices among farmers or 'releasing creativity' among community members. These visits can be done between innovators, between different FFS groups or between FFS and innovators. Exchange visits are also where the foundation for farmer networks are created, when individuals or groups interact with each other. The PFI-FFS project has aimed at combining the two approaches in order to capture the most positive aspects of both. The combined PFI-FFS methodology, as developed by the initiative (Figure 1), includes most of the steps and activities of the normal FFS process, but with added elements of PFI.The definition adopted by the PFI-FFS project for innovators is: 'Farmer innovators are farmers or \"land users\" who innovate, test and try new methods of conservation or production, on their own initiative, often using ideas from various sources.' (Critchley et al, 1999). At the start of the process of identifying innovators, a set of guidelines was set up for the initial screening of potential innovators and these criteria serve as a rough description of 'who' the innovators are. Through the PFI-FFS project a total of 224 innovators have been identified, up to January 2003.The general definition of an 'innovation' adopted by the project is: 'Better or modified traditional or introduced systems or initiatives or something new, tried and tested or currently under experimentation.' By September 2002, 252 innovations had been identified and verified in the PFI-FFS project. Some innovators have developed several innovations. There is a very wide diversity in the types of innovations identified, ranging from crop production to animal health and agro processing. A big proportion of the innovations (37%) relate in some way to efficient use of water resources. In Figure 2 the number and types of innovations identified can be seen.The integration of farmer innovators or innovations in the FFS process can take place in different ways. Various options for interactions between innovators and FFS groups are being tested and evaluated in the PFI-FFS project:The innovators are regular members of the FFS and take part in all activities through out the season just as any of the other members. In the groups the ! 33  innovators will be important resource persons on their specific area of expertise and on the ideas and procedures for on-farm experimentation and local technology development.The innovators are invited once or several times to the FFS as guest trainers to facilitate on their innovation, as part of the regular FFS curriculum or as facilitators during special topic sessions.The FFS groups are taught and showed the innovation during study visits to the innovators' farms.By documenting the innovations they can be spread in the FFS without necessarily requiring personal interaction between the innovator and the FFS members.Many innovations have to be taught on the site of the innovation (such as soil and water conservation, land management options, etc) for the technology diffusion to be effective, where the visitors can see the innovation in its right context. Other innovations, such as herbal concoctions used for pest control can be disseminated by documentation of the innovation.In order to 'market' the innovations among the farmer groups 'farmer innovator catalogues' are prepared in each district. In these catalogues the innovators are presented and the innovations described, together with contact details of the innovator. Through the catalogues the farmer groups can choose the innovators they would like to interact with or the innovations they want more information on.Establishment of FFS groups is much quicker than the development of a sufficiently big community pool of innovators and innovations. This means that if these activities commence at the same time, a constructive integration of innovators and innovations in the FFS can not take place until later in the project and the first set of FFS might miss out on these interactions. Ideally the process of identifying innovators should be initiated in good time before the establishment of FFS, in order to ensure fruitful interactions throughout the whole FFS process.Implementation of FFS is involving and time consuming for the field staff (extension staff and farmer trainers). This means that activities related to identification and documentation of innovations by field staff easily get left on the side, causing delays in the development of a community pool of innovators.Innovators tend to be very busy individuals who are highly involved in their own farm activities. This means that they sometimes find it hard to get the time to be involved in the training of other farmers or to be a member of a FFS. Further, some innovators easily become very popular among the FFS and thereby tend to be over-visited, or over-used as facilitators. This problem can be avoided by detailed monitoring of the FFS-FI interactions, and based on that information restrict the number of visits to popular innovators. The time an innovator is willing to dedicate to this kind of work is usually limited to two days per month. To avoid over-use of certain innovators there has to be a critical mass of innovators available for interactions with FFS.However, in cases of being involved in training events frequently, farmer innovators often request for some financial compensation for the lost working time on their own farm. Generally, the innovators coming to the FFS groups as guest trainers have been paid the same amount as the farmer facilitators of the FFS, which is approximately twice the going rate paid by small farmers to agricultural day labourers. However, when groups visit an innovators' farm during a study tour or exchange visit the innovator has not been paid.Due to the organizational structure and funding of the PFI-FFS project it tends to be skewed towards FFS. The project document was developed as a regular FFS project with a component of PFI. However, not all activities in a combined PFI-FFS approach can be combined and integrated. Some of the preparatory activities, such as identifying innovators and characterizing innovations, require more time and funding than a regular FFS project will allow.Some of the local innovations identified are outside the technical knowledge of the field staff. Further, some innovations might include unapproved substances or for other reasons may be questionable as to whether the project wants to support a diffusion of them or not. For this reason it is important that researchers and subject matter specialists are involved in the verification of the innovations to make sure that the innovations truly have a positive contribution to offer other farmers.By recognizing innovators and appointing them as facilitators they receive increased status in their communities. This increased status results in enhanced interest in the community for the process of innovation and discovery, and leads to an increased respect for indigenous knowledge among both community members and service providers.Experience from the PFI-FFS initiative show that there is a real possibility for having a constructive fusion of external and indigenous sources of knowledge in the FFS. Many of the innovations identified are highly elaborate and of high value for other farmers. There is no doubt that local innovations can be as effective, if not more so, as research generated technologies in improving livelihoods of rural poor. Local innovations are thereby a valuable contribution to the basket of technologies to be tested, evaluated and disseminated in the FFS and the process of harnessing innovation should be seen as supplement to the FFS approach to boost its relevance and potency.There are indications of higher level of adoption when new technology options are introduced by fellow rather than by external agents. Often when technologies are taught or demonstrated in a community by external agent, the focus is on the actual technology and even if the farmer appreciates the benefits of the new practice she/he might be too worried about risks such as not finding a market for the product or storage, etc. Since the innovators are ordinary community members who most likely are benefiting from the innovation, other farmers can easily follow the whole chain of actions and consequences, from technology to money in the farmer's pocket and are thereby more likely to adopt the technology.The PFI-FFS methodology has made a positive contribution to furthering the development and sustainability of the FFS approach and has especially improved the adaptation of the approach to east African farming conditions where the diversity in the farming system result in a need for context specific solutions. Ensuring a focus on locally developed/adapted technologies increases the possibility for successful farmer-led FFS and sustainable farmer-to-farmer extension.Indications show that individual farmers or FFS groups have continued seeking assistance from local innovators introduced to them through the FFS, even outside project activities. This gives hope for a sustainable farmer-to-farmer continuation of the interaction between farmer innovators and other community members. The PFI-FFS initiative has not created these interactions, but can be seen to have 'speeded up' the natural diffusion of ideas and creativity that since the beginning of humankind has always been the backbone of survival and livelihood.The PFI-FFS project in Kenya has made rapid progress and laid a firm foundation. However it is important to remember that the final results of the initiative have not yet been seen. There is as yet no final data on the adoption of innovations, or of the number of interactions, or information on the extent that the innovators and the FFS members feel the interactions are beneficial to development of the area. These aspects are being carefully monitored and will be the subject of a final review and assessment by the end of the initiative, and the lessons learned from the PFI-FFS project will be important for the development of similar initiatives in the future.Financing of Farmer Field Schools (FFS) has been a critical question that has been raised several times. How does the self-financing mechanism work? The activities leading to the self financed FFS model were initiated in 1999 with the introduction of the grant system (semi self financed) where farmer groups write simple proposals for grants to run their FFSs. The first step is for a local sponsoring group or newly formed group to submit a grant proposal in response to an announcement that a grant is available. Grant forms include prerequisites, guidelines and applications for groups. Currently FFS grants require that the group have bylaws, have a multi-signatory account, agrees to record keeping and audits, and that the grant be used for FFS activities. An indicative budget is provided for partial guidance, but also states that extension staff should be paid based on officially published rates (although these can be negotiated). The grant form provides space for background, justification for grant and activities, workplan, budget and should include signatures of all members and the local agriculture office.The next step is transferring grants to groups. The size of the grant for FFS is typically US$100 to $600 per season of study. The grant reporting must include book-keeping, maintaining receipts and accepting an audit. Grants can in some cases be transferred to accounts electronically and in other cases in cash. The handling and control of funds has in many cases led to farmers providing co-financing as well.Payments to field school facilitators are made directly by the field school at pre-agreed rates. If the facilitator lacks technical skills, is a poor facilitator or even has inappropriate social skills (arrogance and top-down approaches are leading problems), the group may \"release or fire\" the facilitator (and indeed this is known to happen). Facilitators receive important feedback from this! If the facilitator does not show up or shows up in an inappropriate state (e.g. drunk, late, etc.), the group will not pay. On the other hand, the facilitators usually receive payment on the day they travel -a far better situation, they feel, than the filling out of paper work and waiting for a delayed payment typical of most extension travel allowances. Groups may also request special topics to be delivered by specialised staff (e.g. soils, nutrition, environment etc.) for whom they use the grant to pay transport.The FFS participants also arrange their own field study plots where various educational studies such as comparative trials between IPPM and conventional practices, fertility management methods and newSelf-financing Farmer Field Schools variety testing are conducted. In addition FFSs have 'commercial plots' which are larger As a result of this grant process, groups have shown a very high level of ownership of the FFS process and many field schools enjoy a high level of matching funds, material inputs provided by the community and participants and an increasing ability to manage funds and activities ontheir own. Groups become independent of extension while extension has better partners. The process of grants (making work plans, budgets, organising fields, paying facilitators and managing funds) also allows groups to organise themselves to continue on their own. Although FFS grants are intended to support a group for study purposes for a time bound period, many field school participants go on to develop longer-term associations due to their cohesion, trust and joint fund-raising ability, developed during the field school period. The grants capitalise groups and catalyse new ways of working together. Case studies from various beneficiary selffinanced groups indicate that, if well guided, the groups are able to recover the whole grant after a couple of seasons.Although semi self-financed FFS partially solve at least one issue of farmer group sustainability, extension officers need a new set of funds each season of FFS to keep the programme expanding year after year. As a result, self-financed FFSs have emerged where the grant has been transformed into an educational revolving loan (see Figure 1). The basic difference with this model and the semi self-financing is that the group is in receipt of revolving funds, not a grant. The loan-requesting group must agree by group contract that they will return the operational costs of the field school with interest at favourable rates to the revolving fund. The concept is similar to revolving seed funds in which one kilogram of seed provided at the beginning of the season is repaid with one or more kilograms of seed at the end of the season. In the self-financed FFS case, operational costs are pre-financed and the group returns the operational fee at the end of the season through funds raised in the field plots and through educational fees. This model allows very resource poor areas that the group manages together in order to raise more funds. It is the responsibility of the participants to provide the land and the labour for the study fields and commercial plots. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to provide a profitable educational activity including bringing in socially important issues such as HIV/AIDS, womens' reproductive health and soil fertility management.Finally, proceeds from the FFS plots (study and commercial plots) are re-invested in the group's own account. The funds are used by the group for further study, purchase of animals or other activities, re-hiring extension facilitators to support their group, etc. Farmer Field Schools -The Kenyan experience farmers to participate as they are able to help generate funds for the FFS fund through contributing their labour through parts of the season.Operational guidelines are still being developed by the core facilitators, farmer facilitators and representatives of the FFS networks on how best the educational revolving fund can be implemented taking into consideration key concerns like the security of the revolving fund from local 'leakage' and the problem of payback during drought or flood.The self-financing FFS study programme opens the door to many farmers that would otherwise be left further behind. It is breathing new life into the extension service and to communities that have found new ways of working together, first through study and then action.As a member of an FFS I am not used to having walls around my meeting place we meet in the open air -and so I will not be using projectors like the other presenters at this stakeholders meeting.The extension workers we work with in our FFS help to sensitise our communities and help us to manage time effectively. Our FFS starts promptly at 8.00am and finishes at 12.00 noon. We start with prayers and then move on to other activities like AESA. You have to be very organised to attend FFS and to use time as an effective resource. Some people think we are wasting our time attending the FFS, but if we apply what we learn we can not only help ourselves but also act as good examples to others. As the objectives of FFS are clearly stated when the groups are started, we members have a clear idea as to what was the starting point and the direction of movement, and we can clearly see the end result, which is going to have an impact on our lives. I was involved in a French bean project back in 1992. They taught us to plant the beans and to harvest them. But there was no monitoring, unlike in the FFS where we monitor and evaluate our crops on a weekly basis. I attended the 'Farming as a Business' seminar last year. True, I learned very useful ideas, but no materials were issued to help in disseminating the information or putting it into practice. The FFS approach is more useful, as when we write our project proposal the cost of materials for our own practical trials are provided for.We don't give answers to non-members, but we encourage them to join FFS. FFS farmers become informed decision makers. It is not the facilitator who tells us what to do. We share experiences with each other and come out with answers. Previously we didn't know we had that resource within ourselves! We learn by doing. If I attend a seminar, I would just listen to the theory, but there would be no follow-up. Although the FFS activity 'special topics' is theory based, the rest of the weekly programme is highly practical.In my FFS we have 10m plots planted with different varieties of maize and we also have different fertiliser treatments. Form our own trials we come out with result. Names like 'KARI' or 'ILRI' are just words to us; we do our own research, we are the researchers! At harvest we obtain our own results. We are now trained to differentiate between different crop diseases we don't need to go to KARI to find out what disease our crops are suffering from. Now we are proud to be farmers. I discovered that even the crop officers at the Ministry don't know AESA like we do! AESA is about studying plant in their environment.The FFS methodology is the best method to get rid of extension officers who just visit and don't try it out for themselves. As farmers who have joined FFS, we are in the best position to say what to do, not someone who just learnt from books! For example, DAP fertilizer was routinely used for a long time, but we discovered that our crops did better with TSP. After using TSP we learnt that if we can't afford to buy it a certain plant which is locally available Farmer Field Schools: A farmer's perspective contains a lot of phosphates and it can be used as a natural fertiliser to boast our maize yield.From being members of the FFS we gain in confidence. We get to know our strengths and weaknesses. Everyone in the group participates, even the quiet ones. As a result of being a member of an FFS, I have attended a lot of training courses. At these courses everyone thinks that I must be from the Ministry because of the knowledge I have acquired and share. Now when I disagree with some point an 'expert' is making I even have the courage to correct him! I am a happy farmer who has gained much from FFS. FFS is the only project I know that has no gender bias. FFS makes women feel they can be good decision makers and teaches them that they can present their views. Farmers feel empowered by being given a chance to share experiences and test new technologies and they are made to realise that what they already know, the traditional methods of farming, are also valuable. Due to better yields from using the recommended practises, FFS members will be in a better position to undertake non-agricultural profit generating activities as a method of re-investing their profits, thus avoid the cost and problems of taking out credit.FFS is the best project so far I've been involved with. I thank everyone who has been involved in FFS in Kenya. Long live FFS! I am a Dairy Officer, a facilitator for Livestock FFS and coordinator for Livestock FFS in Ol'Kalou, which is in Nyandarua District. I am also attached to the ILRI-DFID FFS project.I had my introduction to FFS through attending a training of trainers course, organized by the ILRI-DFID project. The course lasted two weeks and took place at Mabanga FTC, Bungoma District in September 2001. The objective of the ILRI-DFID project is to translate the FFS approach that has been used successfully for crops to livestock FFS groups.My duties before the introduction of FFS were training farmers in dairy related subjects such as fodder production, calf rearing, clean milk production and housing, and also reporting to the Ministry on all dairy related activities in the division. The method used in the old extension system was visits to individual farms, although this happened only rarely and on request from the farmer. Other methods included field days, barazas and demonstrations.After the introduction of FFS, the methodology of training was changed. The FFS groups I now work with consist of approximately 35 members. The major differences between the FFS and former approach to extension include: ! extension staff stopped being the source of information and became facilitators; ! facilitators also learns from the community; ! members of FFS learn from each; ! the facilitator backstops, e.g. on points missed by the farmers; ! the facilitator is empowered to seek other sources of information and knowledge; ! farmers pay for services offered by facilitator, i.e. they pay transport and lunch allowances for extension officer/facilitator; ! facilitator's morale is boosted. ! extension officers/facilitators and farmers enjoy a cordial relationship; and ! FFS members pay more attention since what they learn is what they are interested in.An FFS group can be either an existing or a new group of farmers who have a common interest. If it is an existing group, for the ILRI-DFID project the groups common interest has to be focused on livestock.FFS groups have to be registration by social services, they have to establish their own by-laws to guide them, and they have to open a bank account, decide on the most appropriate day of the week for the FFS meetings and select a host farmer at whose homestead they can meet. All members should feel part and parcel of the group right from the initial stages.John C. Njoroge MoALD, Ol Kalou, Central Province.Activities within an FFS group are often held in small sub-groups of 6 to 8 people. It is found that all members participate more fully in such small groups. Synthesis of results, for example from the AESA, is done within the sub-group. Presentation of the results to the entire FFS group is done by one member of sub-group, with all sub-group members eventually taking their turn over the course of an FFS. Verification of the results presented is done by the wider group. Members visit different FFS member's farms for AESA.Factors that contribute to the success of the FFS approach include: free interaction of members irrespective of age or social status; members come to understand more of their own environment; members exchange ideas/knowledge and experiences; members assist one another, e.g. welfare assistance; FFS members 'learn by doing' and so illiteracy is not a hindrance; members become more inquisitive and choose what they need to learn; FFS offers extension services beyond the immediate focal area; facilitators are challenged to look for up-to-date literature; Facilitators and members are both active participants.We believe that adoption rates for technologies covered by Livestock FFS are between 40 and 75%, but monitoring and evaluation is still on-going.Information about the Ol'Kalou Livestock FFS was disseminated in a number of ways. Two farmers' field days were held, in October 2002. and 190 farmers who weren't FFS members attended. FFS members acted as facilitators during the field days. Two members from each of two FFSs from Ol'Kalou also participated in a District field day, again acting as facilitators th this took place on 14 November 2002 and about 150 people attended. In addition, the local community is getting seedlings of newly introduced fodder crops from the member's demonstration plot.Livestock Farmer Field School can work though it requires more intensive training of members.Other GoK field staff should be introduced to the FFS methodology so they can also act as assistant facilitators.Regular weekly FFS group meetings make the farmers more committed.The workload of FFS facilitators can be too much especially where the facilitator is also involved in NALEP. FFS groups that have members with very low incomes may not be sustainable unless income generating activities are started.In order to implement the National Agriculture and Livestock Extension Programme (NALEP) in the six divisions of Bomet District, an approach has been developed that borrows from the approaches of both FFS and the NALEP-SIDA implementation framework. The major steps of the approach were:! Selection of the focal areas ! PRA/ ground working ! Group formation ! Develop group specific action plans ! Capacity building through AESA approach ! Result demonstrationIn order to implement the approach, staff from the divisions had to be taught the FFS methodology. In total, sixteen extension officers from Sigor, Siongiroi, Ndanai, Bomet Central, Mutarakwa, Longisa and Narok were trained.Community mobilization was done after training the extension staff. The methodology used was decided by the different divisions; these could be either the Participatory Rural Appraisal process as used in NALEP or ground working processes as used in FFS.Baseline data was also collected at this time.During the community mobilization phase the focal problems that will be addressed are identified and the Focal Area Development Committee (FADC) is formed.Promotion of opportunities is carried out after the PRA has been completed in order to address problems of the focal area. Common Interest Groups (CIG) or commodity groups are then formed. These groups become Farmer Field Schools, each with a membership of 20 to 30 farmers. The groups develop a specific Action Plan to address the commodity they have chosen and a host farmer is selected by the members of each CIG.Following on from the presentations, topics for discussion were selected by asking participants to submit written questions. These were reviewed by the meeting organisers and clustered into three broad areas captured under the following headings:1. Sustainability and cost 2. Monitoring and evaluation and impact 3. Marketing issuesThe available time was therefore largely utilised to discuss these topics. First an overview of the background and issues falling under that topic were briefly presented by the participant best equipped to do so, and then workshop participants discussed the topics in plenary session.Godrick Khisa of the MoALD first provided some background information and then chaired the following discussion. The average cost of FFS in Kenya was given by FAO as $35 per trained farmer. This amount includes training of trainers (ToT) costs, actual costs for running the field schools and the hiring of field coordinators. ToT is usually residential and costs around Ksh10,000 per person per week. The funds channelled directly to the Field Schools as a one-off grant vary from $250-600 per group. The amount is about twice as much for extensionled FFS compared to farmer-led because of the additional cost of transport and allowances for extension officers. There is also a cost at the district level to allow district personnel, such as the DALEO, to be involved in implementation, monitoring and backstopping the FFS. This amount varies in the range $400-1000 per district per month.The grant provided directly to the FFS covers expenses such as stationery, field days and transport and allowances for the facilitator. Funds provided to the district enable district personnel to be mobile and reach the FFS sites. The grants to FFS groups cover only one production cycle but activities often continue after graduation without further injection of external funding.Q: In Southeast Asia, how much did FFS cost and how sustainable is it there? Who funds FFS?In Southeast Asia, as in Kenya, FFS started with donor funding, but now the approach has been mainstreamed into the government system and local and central governments provide the funding.Q: Are NGOs in Kenya interested in supporting FFS?NGOs are currently funding and implementing FFS in Kenya, for example PLAN International.In Kwale District the success of FFS has been due to support from NGOs and 41 people have been trained as facilitators. There is good collaboration between NGOs and district staff. In Kwale District there are 41 FFSs of which six have Regarding what to do it the event of crop failure, this is still being debated. ! In the case of a FFS focused on cotton production, the FFS in question linked up with the private sector, working with Bayer EA, who wanted to promote an agrochemical product. Bayer did not finance the whole FFS but contributed some of the materials. ! To exploit agri-business opportunities it is necessary to engage the private sector. ! FAO is exploring the issue of cost sharing arrangements with the private sector but discourages the private sector from running their own Field Schools. There is a risk of loosing the objective of FFS, with the emphasis on promotion of specific products rather than 'learning by doing'. No schools are totally free; there is always a cost that someone has to bear.Dr. Mureithi of KARI first provided some background information and then chaired the following discussion. Adoption can include adoption of the FFS approach and also adoption of specific technologies. Impact may not be as simple as increased production or productivity. It may, for example, be production at a lower unit cost.KARI recently held a workshop to develop a participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) framework. Although there are many manuals and courses dealing with this topic, the solutions are still at a very general level. The objective of the KARI workshop was to develop PM&E tools specifically for the FFS approach.The FFS approach consists of several steps leading to graduation and beyond. •As FFSs develop they need to develop effective networking and systems for information flow. In 1995 in central Kenya, an FFS was piloted in a coffee/horticultural vegetables collaborative project. Use of milk came up as a treatment for blight. After the FFS had graduated, a proper scientific evaluation of the farmer's technique was carried out with KARI. The results showed that milk does not control blight, but it does delay its onset. For blackrot in kale, a combination of liquid manure with a mulch reduced the disease incidence. Preparations based on chilli, widely used as a pesticide in Kenya, showed no effect in trials. There is a need to share this type of information within the FFS family. FFSs can also be used as a forum for upstream research; FFS members are the clients for whom solutions are being developed.Q: The goal of an FFS is to increase productivity. For crops, such as cabbages this can be evaluated in one growing season. But for livestock, what is the cycle to measure any increase in productivity?To measure increase in productivity, we need to develop tools to collect base line information, so we can compare before and after FFS to show any impact.•For livestock the cycle is generally much more difficult than for most crops. In the case of poultry, where the production cycle is short, it is possible to measure impact on productivity within a reasonable timescale. With cattle it is much more difficult, e.g. if working on aspects of fertility it will take a long time, even many years, to measure any impact. The Livestock FFS has just started looking at technical and social impacts of the FFSs. Social impacts deserve special emphasis. If a farmer is now accessing information that she didn't before, such as writing to KARI, this should have an impact on productivity. For technical issues, e.g. housing of cattle, one can assess how the farmers improved their animal's housing. But increased productivity is not down to just one factor. We shouldn't only look at conventional parameters, but also indicators that will lead to higher production. Protection of assets is important as well as increasing productivity.Livestock can cause poverty if they all die; how is FFS giving tools to farmer to protect their assets? Need to also look at social benefits. An on-going study in Western Kenya has examined social aspects and a draft report is now available.Q: Whose agenda are we following is it donor or research organisation led?! Generally the FFS approach is not donor led. We have the idea first, then look for donor support. ! In the case of the DFID supported Livestock FFS it was donor driven. The donor was keen to answer the question, can FFS work with livestock? But we all share common goals; to help alleviate poverty and to see how extension can be most effective. As implementers of livestock FFS, ILRI is not only looking at Kenya but is interested in seeing how this approach can work elsewhere and how it can be scaled-up.What is FFS doing about marketing? What are the specific activities? Titus Mutinda of MoALD first provided some background information and then chaired the following discussion. It was not a surprise that this issue came up. This is a real concern with the farmers themselves. Representatives from some crop-based FFSs in Kenya have received training on marketing, delivered by the Coast Development Authority. ToT training has also been undertaken in three regions under the UNDP's FFS programme. This includes exposure to marketing techniques; if one has a product how can one address appropriate markets? Added value is one aspect, e.g. processing citrus fruits to make juice and milk to make yoghurt; both add value to address a specific market.Where farmers form networks this can enhance market information flow; farmers in region A are linked to region B and exchange market information. In several parts of Kenya FFS networks have been formed which are able to gather information on what other regions are producing. The Kenya Commodity Exchange links farmers in Western Kenya with the major supermarket chains based in Nairobi. Farmers can exchange marketing information with other networks, e.g. that there is a high demand for green grams in Western Kenya.In Mwingi an FFS network has just been launched with a main objective of marketing green grams. In the past farmers derived little benefit and suffered at the hands of middle men, who were able to offer low prices. Now farmers can sell the produce through the network. The network has also written proposals to donors for obtaining credit to finance their operations.A network in Nakuru sent representatives to survey markets in Nairobi. Seasonality of markets is important to determine when would be the best time to sell product. By doing so, farmers from the Rift Valley were able to time their production of tomatoes to benefit from a seasonally related premium price, which enabled them to buy a pick-up vehicle to further improve marketing of their crop. ! In the case of the farmers growing green grams, they were assisted by FAO to obtain credit. However, it is not desirable to make support too sophisticated, since it is important that these farmer networks are managed and 'owned' by the farmers themselves.! When Kilifi farmers formed a network they requested the district office for office space and were allocated an empty office by MoALD. Each FFS makes a financial contribution to fund the running of the network. Networks can become strong, e.g. One •has 70 FFSs as members and is now registered as a CBO, which makes it easier to approach donors for funding. The network has acquired 13 motorised sprayers, which are hired out to members and the proceeds used to make the network self-sustaining. Bayer provided chemicals for the network to test. Once a network takes root, it can even evolve into an NGO.! Most of these things are farmer driven and external agents shouldn't try to speed up the pace of development. Networks evolve and addressed problems as they arise: need for funds, offices, etc. Farmers drive the process and ask themselves questions such as, where can we get a computer?! In regard to networking and the potential for partnerships and collaboration, there is a gap between what FFSs are doing now and what could be done.Q: Can identification of areas for FFS experimentation be influenced by facilitators?! Farmers grow with their enterprises and it is a process. Facilitators have been incorporating post-harvest techniques, such as shelf life; in this respect local varieties may be better than exotics.! In Livestock FFSs, neither animal disease nor marketing emerged spontaneously as issues. However the technique of participatory epidemiology, introduced by trained facilitators, resulted in problems being raised that hadn't been considered by the farmers previously. Quality of facilitation is vital; a good facilitator will help farmers improve their perception of their problem. However a key principle of FFSs is to tackle problems as they are raised as a priority by the farmers.! There is a huge opportunity for FFS collaboration with agri-business. Well organised farmers producing good quality produce is exactly what agri-business needs. As the FFS numbers grows, and information about FFS is disseminated wider, agri-business will become more interested in interacting with them.! We should be careful about relying solely on participatory approaches. A judicious mix of farmers' knowledge with that of researchers and extension staff is best. It is not wrong for other stakeholders to make suggestions to the FFS group; participation should not be confined just to the farmers.51Participants were urged to spread the message about FFS and the lessons they had learned today to their colleagues who could not attend.! Marketing of agricultural produce from small-scale farms is a problem because of the small-scale production from the individual units. One answer is to aggregate commodities from FFS members and sell them together; one dairy FFS is turning into a small cooperative to market members' milk.! There are opportunities that could be exploited by FFS groups. For example KENDAT has developed and promotes conservation tillage which has advantages in terms of labour saving. In mixed livestock/crop systems draught animals are often a neglected technology.Q: Resource poor farmer are hard to work with. Are there mechanisms to make FFS responsive to needs of the poor?! In some communities, e.g. Lesotho, there is a huge problem of AIDS orphans, with teenagers having to take responsibility both for their younger siblings and running the farm. Perhaps FFSs could aim to have an 'orphan balance' as well as a gender balance amongst their members? A general feature of FFSs is that they can be very flexible.The objective of the workshop was to help us to understand how FFSs work and how we can integrate them into our systems. This has been achieved. We all agree that farmers need information to succeed. Farmers operate in complex environments and need support to access information to enable them to make the right decisions. We need to build up their capacity to apply the information they acquire. This is a demanding task. Farmers have to ask themselves lots of questions: what enterprise should be pursued, what technologies are appropriate? Unlike academic exams, where one can answer just some of the questions, the farmer has no choice but has to attempt all the questions! Historically, extension advice has been applied with varying degrees of success. Certain attributes are needed to improve the success ratio: services need to be demand driven; extension agents need to be accountable to the farmer for the services they provide; it is important to collaborate with others as no-one can meet all the needs from production through to marketing; and participatory approaches to planning and implementation are desirable. FFS has all these characteristics and therefore appear to be a good approach to extension. Any extension approach used should be efficient and effective in empowering farmers to run their farms as businesses.Farmers need to understand more about the principles of agriculture and seek more information and knowledge. It is a human trait that one always wants more training; if you have an MSc you want a PhD. Providing farmers with information lets them make informed decisions. The limitation is the cost and time factors.FFSs are still evolving, and will become more and more refined. KARI's ongoing work of observation and research activities will contribute to improved delivery at least cost and in the shortest time. Already efforts are being made to integrate FFS into the mainstream extension service. Other service providers are perhaps trying the same approach with the common objective of making the delivery system as effective as possible.We appreciate the effort to which the organisers of this meeting have gone to bring us together. The overall goal is to help farmers become better farmers. The backbone of the country is agriculture and the backbone of agriculture is the farmer. We need to keep on focussing on empowering the farmer.Mr Kamau, MoLAD, Senior Assistant Director of Agriculture (Extension Division)bkimoro@yahoo.com mburucnd@yahoo.com pdaleembu@salpha.co.ke danitap@africaonline.co.ke; evanmbinga@hotmail.com imulagoli@yahoo.co.uk; gtzespc@nbnet.co.ke jsolekina@yahoo.com ","tokenCount":"14945"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"64c0cdcadd136b17974c619f75d95f8d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a62b3b2-f3bf-49aa-8e9d-b8ba2f3d6e23/retrieve","id":"-1698644077"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2b45e82c-9ba3-403c-baa6-d3e4b2f303d6","pagecount":"2","content":"Understanding pathogen, livestock, environment interactions involving bluetongue virus: the PALE-BluThe International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) recently received funding from the European Union (Horizon 2020), in partnership with scientists from 19 different research institutes and universities around the world, to investigate the prevalence and the diversity of circulating BTV serotypes in key regions of sub-Saharan Africa. ILRI's part of the study is to collect samples from different animal species present in different countries of Africa where BTV data is lacking. Emphasis will also be placed on an in-depth understanding of the prevalence of the virus in different agroecological zones in Kenya.Analysis of the samples will include ELISA to measure anti-BTV antibodies indicating prior exposure to the virus, quantitative PCR (qPCR) to assess the level of ongoing infection, and molecular typing by qPCR to identify the most prevalent circulating serotypes in these regions. BTV isolation on insect cells will also be attempted from positive field samples to eventually generate a biobank of BTV field isolates from the sub-continent. These virus strains can then be used for further characterization by next-generation sequencing, or for pathogenesis, transmission and vaccination studies at ILRI and with international partners.The data generated from this study will shed more light on the status of BTV in sub-Saharan African and will hopefully lead to strategies for a better control of the disease in the future.Bluetongue virus (BTV) is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and causes a disease that mainly affects sheep. Bluetongue (BT) can cause substantial economic losses due to fatalities of livestock, or due to ban on the livestock trade between countries.A better understanding of the circulating serotypes in Africa, spread dynamics of the virus, and the development of a multivalent vaccine towards BTV will allow for a better control and prevention of future outbreaks. The clinical signs of the disease manifests within 5-10 days post infection and include fever; swelling of the face, lips and tongue; breathing difficulties; and sores on the muzzle and gums. Reddening will also be observed on the mucosal membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth. The severity of the disease varies depending on the viral strains, the animal species and the environment.To date, there are 27 serotypes of BTV that have been identified and new types are still being discovered. This virus is transmitted by Culicoides biting midges and is thus rightly called an arbovirus. However, some serotypes are transmitted without the help of the arthropod vector.In sub-Saharan African BTV has been shown to be present in Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa. However, information is still lacking on BTV prevalence in other neighboring countries of eastern, central, and southern Africa. Past and recent studies have indicated the high level of antibodies to BTV in sentinel cattle in Western Kenya, reaching nearly 90% of cattle sampled being positive, indicating high exposure to the virus. Moreover, PCR positive cattle indicated that nearly 50% of them had an ongoing subclinical infection. Fortunately, BTV does not infect humans and therefore does not pose a threat to food safety. But it does pose a threat to food security since sheep are one of the largest livestock population in sub-Saharan Africa, arriving only second to cattle, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).Understanding the dynamics behind what drives BTV spread can prevent new outbreaks. Several factors such as changes in climate can influence the spread of the virus. For example, rain and wind directions can significantly influence midges' distribution over large territories. The high prevalence and diversity of the BTV serotypes circulating in sub-Saharan Africa poses a high risk of introducing BTV to neighboring regions where BTV is controlled or absent, including Europe. A recent BT outbreak in Europe is believed to have originated from a serotype only detected in sub-Saharan Africa.The only effective way to control the disease is through vaccination. Several vaccines are available for BTV, however, they are serotype specific. This poses a challenge as the vaccine will only protect against one serotype and will not provide immunity to the other circulating serotypes. Current research at partner institutions include developing multivalent vaccines that will protect against several serotypes at the same time.","tokenCount":"696"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5787185804.json b/data/part_5/5787185804.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"83fd3e160e812431c6cfd5166c3d7930","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eab56856-07d9-4def-938a-1239af003fec/retrieve","id":"-2146329346"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"83a2ace5-ad33-4f93-87d6-d0adc7abe909","pagecount":"1","content":"With the constant development of transgenic technology for a wide variety of major and minor crops, there is a need for comprehensive, easily accessible baseline information to evaluate the potential of gene flow and introgression between crops and their wild relatives, particularly in centres of crop origin and diversity. Thanks for financial support:Comprehensive baseline information to assist the evaluation of the gene flow and introgression potential of 20 crops and their sexually compatible crop wild relatives (e.g., Fig. 1 and 2)World maps per crop, identifying \"hot-spots\" for gene flow between the crop and its wild relatives to assist the decision on further risk assessment by analyzing other determinant factors (e.g., Fig. 3 and 4)Knowledge and research gaps that need to be addressed for adequate risk assessment Publication in form of a book, consisting of an introductory chapter (overview of hybridization, gene flow, introgression, ecological impact, risk assessment etc.) and 20 crop-specific chapters (relevant factors for assessing the risk of gene flow and its ecological implications and impact), including coloured world maps to identify at a first glance regions with high, moderate and low gene flow potential. ","tokenCount":"186"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5792272714.json b/data/part_5/5792272714.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d3c3e41ae4a8e893622f2d841e4f85940682c1ad
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1b3d2550a27068e9712477232c03b76b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/242edbc1-4fad-4f0d-a587-ccaef10041f9/retrieve","id":"-1263292927"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"daa89b5e-0007-4c81-a1d9-43290db6ce67","pagecount":"2","content":"Despite the significant progress made in addressing food insecurity and malnutrition in Kenya, the problem remains pervasive in Turkana. At the same time, threats of climate change and other risk like Covid-19 have worsened the bleak situation beyond its adaptive limits. Therefore, a genuine need for building interventions that are both responsive to local contexts and resilient to ensure long-term development is apparent. The approach builds on participatory methodologies that promote the collaboration between the different stakeholders to co-create, implement, and evaluate interventions and actions. The approach recognizes beneficiaries of a project as experts and together with other stakeholders engages them in identifying and recognizing their problems, identifying, and prioritizing context specific solutions and implementing the identified solutions. in Loima and Turkana South, subcounty, Turkana County, Kenya Communities that participated in the project are more resilient to the impacts of extreme droughts. The intervention had a positive significant effect on the dietary diversity of women and children of 0.84 and 0.85 food groups respectively. The wild foods of TurkanaOne in seven people worldwide consume wild foods daily in one way or the other. In Turkana, wild edible plants (WEPs) are valued as 'safety nets' during hunger periods and have been part of Turkana culture since time in history. In fact, many names of people and places including towns in Turkana draw their origin from wild foods. However, they remain largely underexplored in Turkana.Using a mixed method research approach the project investigated the potential of Turkana's WEPs in addressing the food insecurity and malnutrition.  ","tokenCount":"253"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5797292950.json b/data/part_5/5797292950.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..0a52d9dfcb639134a3291c9362ed8eab42b3870e
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"13869ea070abaf01643a010a04677141","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e3641b9-6148-4472-a506-64ad2e4abd2c/retrieve","id":"851995584"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f8063adf-59eb-4386-9761-510075e52fc3","pagecount":"5","content":"Palabras clave: Cadena de valor, Comercialización, Pérdidas pos-cosecha, Producción. Área temática: Socio-economía. Presentación oral.Las pérdidas alimentarias se definen como las pérdidas de masa comestible no intencionales destinadas al consumo humano, mismas que pueden ocurrir a lo largo de la cadena de abastecimiento desde la etapa de producción hasta la etapa de distribución final (Cederberg et al., 2011). Aulakh y Regmi (2013) argumentaron que no existe acuerdo en referencia a las metodologías para medir de manera consistente las pérdidas pos-cosecha de alimentos. Los problemas en la uniformidad de la medición se derivan de diferencias sociales, económicas, medioambientales y de políticas entre las diferentes regiones del mundo.En la cadena productiva de la papa en Ecuador se ha implementado un estudio sobre pérdidas de pos-cosecha desde el 2015 impulsado por el Inst. Internacional de Investigación en Políticas Alimentarias (IFPRI) y el CIP, junto a la Consultora Oficinas para Estudios del Agro (OFIAGRO Ltda.). El estudio se enmarca en los esfuerzos de investigación del programa \"Políticas, Instituciones y Mercados\" del CGIAR.El estudio responde las preguntas centrales de investigación que conforman el mapeo de las pérdidas pos-cosecha: ¿Cuáles son las pérdidas pos-cosecha en las cadenas de valor de la papa en Ecuador?, ¿En qué se traducen las pérdidas pos-cosecha?, ¿Quién asume las pérdidas poscosecha identificadas? ¿Cuáles son los factores determinantes de las pérdidas pos-cosecha?Las preguntas centrales de investigación se desarrollaron en primer lugar mediante métodos cualitativos que permitieron definir las 4 categorías de pérdidas pos-cosecha percibidas por los actores identificados de las cadenas. Luego, mediante métodos cuantitativos se levantó información de una muestra de 300 productores en la provincia de Carchi, 52 comerciantes mayoristas en la ciudad de Quito, 130 comerciantes intermediarios y 147 transformadores en la ciudad de Quito.Las categorías de pérdida en el caso de la cadena de la papa en Ecuador tienen relación con las prácticas de manejo pos-cosecha, así como los mecanismos de comercialización (Reducción de precio -mecanismo de negociación, Remate o donación-practica de manejo que minimiza las pérdidas de calidad, pérdida de peso netopobres condiciones de almacenamiento, descartepráctica de saneamiento que evita mayores pérdidas).El levantamiento de datos se desarrolló bajo una metodología de cuantificación desarrollada por IFPRI bajo una adaptación de otras cadenas de valor como maíz y fréjol en Honduras.Las encuestas a los eslabones de la cadena de la papa en Ecuador fueron adaptadas al software SURVEY CTO por IFPRI con información específica del rubro papa en Ecuador como las circunscripciones territoriales y otra información referente a unidades de medida, categorías de calidad en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y tipos de daños, levantados durante el estudio cualitativo de pérdidas en la cadena ejecutado por Ofiagro.Las pérdidas pos-cosecha en la cadena de valor de la papa se pueden distinguir entre las pérdidas del valor comercial y las pérdidas de masa comestible que son evidenciables en las brechas en la calidad de los diferentes usos de la cadena de valor. Estas brechas de calidad se agrupan según su origen en enfermedades y problemas fisiológicos de origen (Rizhoctoniasis, agrietamiento fisiológico, corazón hueco, deformidades, azurcares reductores, palidez de color de piel), las plagas que se originan en la etapa de cultivo y continúan en la etapa pos-cosecha (Gusano blanco, polilla de la papa y babosa), y las prácticas de manejo cosecha, pos-cosecha y comercialización (Daños mecánicos, madurez de tubérculos a la cosecha, mescla de variedades y calibres, pesos incompletos, etc).Las pérdidas pos-cosecha se traducen en pérdidas económicas que se registran a lo largo de la cadena en los momentos en los cuales hay un procesamiento y en la negociación entre actores de la cadena. La relación entre las brechas de la calidad y las pérdidas económicas son influenciadas por el nivel de precios en el mercado.Los actores asumen en diferentes grados las pérdidas identificadas. Los productores absorben las pérdidas en precio y el remate de los tubérculos en una mayor proporción, mientras que las reducciones de masa la experimentan los eslabones finales. El poder en la negociación se reportó como clave en la apreciación de la calidad. Los comerciantes y procesadores pueden verse afectados por las deficiencias de origen manifestadas en las brechas de calidad a lo cual se protegen con la oferta de precio trasladando las pérdidas al eslabón de la producción.Los factores determinantes de las pérdidas pos-cosecha identificados se atribuyeron al manejo pre-cosecha, cosecha y pos-cosecha y factores incontrolables como el clima y la fluctuación del precio de la papa. En los factores de relevancia encontrados en la estimación cualitativa, el proceso de selección determina en gran medida las posibles pérdidas en el valor comercial y de masa. Así como también el manejo agronómico y de la cosecha en el cual el método de trabajo manual genera daños.Las afectaciones y pérdidas sucedidas antes de la cosecha constituyen la principal fuente de pérdidas en el eslabón de la producción con el 76% del volumen perdido, que representa el 16% de la producción promedio de las fincas. Estas pérdidas resultaron en un 71% por plagas y enfermedades, y éstas a su vez son influenciadas por eventos climáticos extremos, con un 29% de casos, junto a la calidad deficiente de semilla en un 14% de casos, impactaron la calidad y cantidad de papa producida en las fincas investigadas.Las afectaciones y pérdidas en eslabón de comercialización promedian el 1% de las compras de papa al mes, distribuidos de manera diferente al comparar al eslabón de intermediarios y mayoristas. Para los primeros el transporte es la fuente principal de afectaciones y pérdidas, mientras que para los segundos fue el almacenamiento durante la comercialización. La siguiente fuente de pérdidas en importancia para ambos eslabones de comercialización, fueron las brechas de calidad heredadas del eslabón de la producción.En la cadena de valor de la papa en Ecuador refleja una variabilidad de prácticas de manejo pos-cosecha y las relaciones comerciales que pueden existir entre los actores. También es evidente que los casos comparten los mismos actores en el eslabón de la producción y","tokenCount":"987"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/5799120933.json b/data/part_5/5799120933.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..34b6cfb4c515a2d3d45ea3a667443c362c763262
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f9ee348f810f28f86bff79fa7f336707","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65becc2e-e7f4-4d86-8521-7540082b1541/retrieve","id":"-260090203"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"10f11d1f-070d-4628-b0c0-9fe3b4609594","pagecount":"5","content":"At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, many researchers and international organizations voiced concerns about the resilience of food value chains amid lockdowns and border closures, particularly in low-and middle-income countries (Laborde et al. 2020;Reardon, Bellemare, and Zilberman 2020;Resnick 2020). This chapter explores the pandemic's effects on dairy and vegetable value chains in Ethiopia's capital through mid-2021. Despite early fears about the pandemic's impacts, survey data show that these urban value chains quickly rebounded after an initial period of fragility, demonstrating resilience over the research period. Amid tremendous uncertainty and market volatility, most value chain actors also indicated that the pandemic had not negatively affected their business activities.In Ethiopia, the first detected COVID-19 case was confirmed on March 13, 2020. Just three days later, schools were closed, public gatherings and sporting activities were banned, and bars were shuttered. The government encouraged physical distancing and began major public awareness campaigns across the country. A federal state of emergency was declared on April 8, 2020. Land borders were closed, except for the transport of cargo. Facemasks were made compulsory. The government declared restrictions on local and long-distance public transportation, which included halving transport capacity. Early on, the government pledged to protect the most economically vulnerable segments of the population, and therefore lockdowns that severely restricted movement were not imposed (France-24 2020). Some administrative regions adopted stricter measures by closing restaurants and limiting movement between rural and urban areas. The state of emergency was lifted on September 6, 2020: transportation restrictions were repealed, bars reopened, and facemasks were no longer compulsory. Schools reopened on October 19, 2020.To understand how major dairy and vegetable value chains in Ethiopia functioned amid the pandemic, we combined in-person survey data collected before the pandemic with periodic phone survey data collected during 2020 and 2021. With a focus on the main dairy and vegetable value chains connecting farmers in major production zones to consumers in Addis Ababa, we applied cascading survey approaches in which we collected data at all levels of the value chain (including farmers, wholesalers, and urban retailers). Pre-pandemic interviews with vegetable value chain actors were conducted in person in February 2020 and with dairy value chain actors in February 2018. Follow-up phone surveys for the vegetable value chain took place in May 2020, March 2021, and August 2021, while follow-up phone surveys for the dairy value chain were conducted in June and September 2021.Between March and May 2020, we also conducted informal and non-representative rapid assessments of the situation in both value chains by interviewing key stakeholders, including small-scale farmers, large-scale investors, brokers, processors, agro-input dealers, and extension agents.Our rapid assessment with the vegetable value chain actors in the first weeks of the pandemic revealed worrisome signs of disruption (Tamru, Hirvonen, and Minten 2020). Demand for fruit and vegetables in Addis Ababa was declining, partly driven by a fear that COVID-19 infections were linked to the consumption of raw vegetables. Because of confusion around the imposed travel restrictions and fears of contracting the virus, traders were less willing to travel to production areas. At the farm level, producer prices were declining but farm inputs were unavailable, or their prices were on the rise, indicating a double blow for the vegetable farmers. In the dairy value chain, the apparent negative impacts of the pandemic were more moderate (Tesfaye, Habte, and Minten 2020), possibly because the rapid assessment took place somewhat later, about two months into the pandemic. As with the demand for fruits and vegetables, urban demand for liquid milk declined, in part because of the misperception that milk consumption was associated with an increased risk of COVID-19 infection. Retailers reported an increase in powdered milk sales as consumers believed that the processed product was less risky than liquid milk.Our vegetable value chain survey in May 2020 focused on changes in prices and marketing margins since February 2020 (Hirvonen, Mohammed, Minten, and Tamru 2021). 1 During this period, we documented large and heterogeneous changes in retail prices for different vegetables. For most vegetables, these changes were driven by fluctuations in farmgate prices, leading to winners and losers among local vegetable farmers due to pandemic-related international and regional trade disruptions. While traders and retailers reported substantial hurdles in domestic trade, increases in marketing margins or transportation costs were not the major contributors to overall changes in retail prices. In fact, the marketing margins declined for half of the vegetables that we studied. In contrast to the widespread fears at the onset of the pandemic, these findings indicated relatively high short-term resilience for domestic value chains during the early months of the pandemic in Ethiopia.Data from our extensive phone survey, which was conducted more than one year after Ethiopia's first recorded COVID-19 case, suggest that the disruption caused by the pandemic had minimal impacts on the urban (Addis Ababa) vegetable and dairy value chains in Ethiopia (Hirvonen, Habate et al. 2021;Hirvonen, Mohammed, Tamru et al. 2021).In the vegetable value chain, access to credit, labor, and extension services did not markedly change for vegetable farmers between February 2020 and March 2021. The main concern for vegetable farmers was the soaring price of key inputs, with prices of fertilizers and agrochemicals increasing by more than 40 percent in just 12 months. Among many other pandemic-related policy adjustments, the wholesale vegetable market was relocated from a crowded area in the center of Addis Ababa to the city's outskirts to reduce spread of the virus. Most wholesale traders felt that while the pandemic itself had a limited effect on their business activity, the relocation of the wholesale market had a considerably larger negative impact. Most wholesale traders reported trading fewer vegetables and having fewer clients than in February 2020. Nearly all wholesale traders blamed the decline in sales and clientele on the relocation of the wholesale vegetable market. Many of the urban vegetable retailers reported also being negatively affected by the relocation of the wholesale market. In March 2021, nearly two-thirds of retailers reported that there were fewer transport choices from wholesale markets than in February 2020. Nearly 80 percent of retailers who reported a decrease in transport availability said that the change was due to the relocation of the wholesale market, while 19 percent said it was due to the COVID-19 pandemic.Using three rounds of vegetable price data collected at all levels of the value chain, we further document considerable volatility in vegetable prices and marketing margins. For instance, onion prices soared during the first months of the pandemic when imports from other regions of Ethiopia and from Sudan were halted. Encouraged by these price increases, many farmers began allocating more land to onions. This, together with the closure of major markets due to instability and conflict in some parts of the country, led to a considerable oversupply of onions in Addis Ababa. In turn, this oversupply resulted in a sizable decline in farmgate and final consumer prices between May 2020 and February 2021. Combined with increasing input costs, the decline in onion prices likely led to considerable losses among farmers.In the case of the dairy value chain, sales patterns and sales destinations (farms, collection centers, markets, and others) among dairy farmers remained similar between 2018 and 2021. Evidence suggests modest declines in credit availability and access to extension services. The availability of daily workers also decreased, although hiring external help is relatively uncommon among dairy farmers. The main concern for dairy farmers was the soaring price of feed, which nearly doubled between February 2020 and June 2021.At the wholesale level, there were no dramatic changes in dairy procurement and sales destinations between 2018 and 2021. Traders reported that competition in their sector had increased since February 2020. The availability of labor at the midstream segment of the value chain remained the same over the 2018-2021 period. A comparison of the data collected in 2018 and 2021 reveals that the quantities traded in the dairy retail sector increased. However, when traders were asked to compare their current situation to the period just before the pandemic began, most reported selling less and having fewer clients. There is little change in labor use at the retail level across the survey period.In line with high general inflation in Ethiopia over the last three years, prices of liquid milk increased considerably during this time. However, when expressed in US dollars, prices of milk have remained surprisingly stable (US$0.92 /liter in 2018 and US$0.91/liter in 2021). A comparison of the farmgate and retail prices reveals that the farm share (that is, the share of the final retail price received by the farmer) increased slightly between 2018 and 2021. Compared to 2018, there is more quality testing of milk along the value chain. However, there is no evidence that quality testing has increased postharvest losses. The physical quantities wasted appear to be very low, in line with the analysis conducted by Minten, Tamru, and Reardon (2020). If anything, losses at the wholesale and retail levels have declined during the pandemic. However, it is important to note that we did not assess losses in terms of value or quality. It is an encouraging sign that the testing of milk quality with lactometers and alcohol tests has become more common since 2018, particularly in the mid-and downstream segments of the dairy value chain.Overall, it is unclear whether the changes documented in both value chains are linked to the pandemic. For example, our qualitative interviews with key stakeholders in the vegetable value chain in 2019 revealed that the industry was characterized by considerable volatility before the pandemic. Moreover, when value chain actors were asked in 2021 to rate the seriousness of the COVID-19 pandemic for their businesses on a scale of 1 to 10 (with \"1\" indicating no negative effect and \"10\" indicating significant negative effects), actors from both chains responded with an average rating of less than 5, with farmers being the least concerned about the pandemic (Figure 1). However, value chains may have been indirectly affected by pandemic-related changes, such as through the relocation of market centers and disruptions in regional and international trade due to COVID-19, with the latter contributing to observed increases in input costs (Baffes and Koh 2021).FIguRe 1 Negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on farming and trading activities, as reported by value chain actors Note: Respondents were asked to report, on a scale of 1 to 10 (\"1\" indicating no negative impact and \"10\" indicating significant negative impacts), how much the COVID-19 pandemic was currently affecting their farming or trading activities. ","tokenCount":"1748"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"897812f10524d1f059c0937e35ed32fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/35b1f6c1-89b2-495e-b2ce-65bedc876958/content","id":"1602164168"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4688afb-f981-4f10-859c-bf7a22b331ae","pagecount":"26","content":"Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreaks are recurrent, occurring at irregular intervals of up to 15 years at least in East Africa. Between outbreaks disease inter-epidemic activities exist and occur at low levels and are maintained by female Aedes mcintoshi mosquitoes which transmit the virus to their eggs leading to disease persistence during unfavourable seasons. Here we formulate and analyse a full stochastic host-vector model with two routes of transmission: vertical and horizontal. By applying branching process theory we establish novel relationships between the basic reproduction number, R 0 , vertical transmission and the invasion and extinction probabilities. Optimum climatic conditions and presence of mosquitoes have not fully explained the irregular oscillatory behaviour of RVF outbreaks. Using our model without seasonality and applying van Kampen system-size expansion techniques, we provide an analytical expression for the spectrum of stochastic fluctuations, revealing how outbreaks multi-year periodicity varies with the vertical transmission. Our theory predicts complex fluctuations with a dominant period of 1 to 10 years which essentially depends on the efficiency of vertical transmission. Our predictions are then compared to temporal patterns of disease outbreaks in Tanzania, Kenya and South Africa. Our analyses show that interaction between nonlinearity, stochasticity and vertical transmission provides a simple but plausible explanation for the irregular oscillatory nature of RVF outbreaks. Therefore, we argue that while rainfall might be the major determinant for the onset and switch-off of an outbreak, the occurrence of a particular outbreak is also a result of a build up phenomena that is correlated to vertical transmission efficiency.Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an emerging zoonotic disease with pronounced health and economic impacts, particularly to vulnerable African communities with low resilience to economic and environmental challenges [1][2][3]. Studies have shown that the disease has two distinct cycles: the epizootic/epidemic and the enzootic/inter-epidemic or endemic [4]. During the inter-epidemic cycle, disease transmission occurs at low levels in nature during periods of average rainfall. The virus is thought to be maintained through transovarial transmission from the female Aedes mosquito to her eggs and by occasional amplification cycles in nearby livestock [5]. The epidemic activities have been found to be highly correlated to heavy rainfall and flooding (in particular in eastern and southern regions of Africa) that stimulate hatching of Aedes mosquito eggs, resulting in a massive emergence of both uninfected and infected Aedes mosquitoes [4,6]. The infected ones if feeding on nearby vulnerable ruminants/livestock, would then trigger virus amplification, leading to an epizootic. An epizootic is mainly driven by the subsequent elevation of various Culex mosquito populations, which serve as excellent secondary vectors if immature mosquito habitats remain flooded for a long enough period [6,7]. These disease epidemic activities occur at very irregular intervals of up to 15 years in the southern and eastern regions of Africa as well as in the horn of Africa [1,3].This characteristic temporal pattern of disease outbreaks adds an additional complication towards efforts for understanding and predicting occurrence of outbreaks. Findings from a pioneering empirical study in Tanzania on the subject of disease temporal and spatial patterns [7] suggest that continuous endemicity of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) may lead to periodic disease outbreaks. Similar observations have also been reported in Kenya [3] and South Africa [8,9]. Although correlation between RVF outbreaks and the warm phase of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena which lead to abnormal rainfall has been reported [10], there have been instances where no outbreaks were recorded following seasons of exceptionally above normal rainfall [7]. Moreover, in some Sub-Saharan regions, such as West Africa RVF outbreaks are not known to be correlated with above average rainfall [2]. In Senegal, it is reported that disease outbreaks have occurred during drought and normal rainy seasons [11,12], and have been attributed to human-induced movement of livestock and trade and loss of herd immunity over time [11,13]. However, a common situation could be the mechanism that lead to virus endemicity during dry season which is also suspected to be through transovarian transmission in Aedes vexans female mosquitoes [11]. The inter-epidemic period in Senegal is estimated to be 5-7 years, a time length thought to closely correspond to the time it takes for renewal of a domestic herd of ruminants [12]. This suggests that while rainfall might be the major determinant factor for the onset and switch-off of an outbreak, it is likely to not be the only factor responsible for this temporal characteristic pattern of disease outbreaks. Although consensus is yet to be achieved, studies have suggested that causal association between local environment factors, livestock density and movement, and encroachment of mosquitoes into new geographical area might be responsible for modifying temporal patterns of RVF outbreaks [14][15][16]. Findings by recent studies [7,17] suggested that once RVFV had been introduced to a new geographical area, it becomes endemic and also pointed out that these newly established endemic areas constitute a source for future outbreaks once favourable environmental conditions are satisfied. Clearly, here the role of transovarial transmission cannot be neglected because it is essential for infection reactivation and scale of virus transmission in response to climatic conditions. This leads to a suspicion that apart from environmental conditions and other factors disease outbreak may be a result of a build up phenomena that depend on the efficiency of vertical transmission. Therefore, the present research study aims to investigate factors underlying the characteristic temporal patterns of RVF outbreaks and explore possibilities of predicting these outbreak patterns based on disease inter-epidemic activities.Over the past decades mathematical models have been used to translate assumptions concerning transmission and spread of RVF at population level. From the pioneer RVF models by Favier et al. [18] and Gaff et al. [19], several models have been formulated and analysed using deterministic compartmental modelling approach [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. Although these models have potential for examining factors underlying dynamics of the disease, they fail to capture observed fluctuations on the occurrence of RVF outbreaks. Nevertheless, extending these models to include seasonality yielded rich dynamics including chaotic behaviour [28]. Chitnis et al. [24] suggested that seasonality combined with mosquito vertical transmission and/or introduction of new infected individuals after immunity wanes was necessary for the survival of RVF and inter-epidemic persistence. On the other hand a study in [29] used a seasonally forced deterministic model to explore different scenarios of infection persistence including vertical transmission and alternate wildlife hosts, and concluded that RVF persistence is a delicate balance between numerous species of susceptible hosts, mosquito species, vertical transmission and environmental stochasticity. In these situations such dynamics are attributed to climatic variations disregarding the fact that interaction between the deterministic dynamics and demographic stochasticity is central for explaining realistic disease patterns [30]. Deterministic models are typically assumed to be reasonable approximations for infinitely large homogeneous populations, and arise from the analysis of mean field stochastic models, such that if one considers finite populations which is the case of livestock, stochastic interactions even within a well-mixed system may introduce new phenomena [31]. Therefore, it is more likely that these disease characteristic temporal patterns could be captured by fully stochastic models [31,32], which are known to show large oscillations caused by the stochasticity exciting the system's natural frequency [33,34]. Stochastic effects are known to show major impacts whenever the prevalence of infection in either the host or vector population, or both are low and can be highly significant during the period immediately after the introduction of infection into a population [35].In this study we formulate a full host-vector stochastic model which takes into account mechanisms of vertical transmission on the vector population. Our aim is to examine the impact of stochastic effects and virus endemicity on the invasion and persistence of the disease. Stochastic effects can also lead to disease extinction during endemic settings [36]. To investigate these situations we employ branching process theory [37][38][39], which has been successfully applied in vector-borne epidemic models (for more details see [35,40]). Here we extend the analysis presented in [35] to include vertical transmission while implementing infection rates that depend on the sizes of both host and vector populations. Our objective is to examine the impacts of mosquito biting behaviour and host efforts to avoid the biting on the invasion and persistence of the disease in the presence of vertical transmission. Although stochasticity can cause large departures from equilibrium, potentially allowing the number of infectives to fall to low levels [35], it could act passively to kick the system between different deterministic states [41], as well as interacting with the non-linearity to excite the transients [32], leading to either periodic or non-periodic oscillations. Using power spectra analysis we investigate the periodicity of fluctuations of RVF outbreaks as was undertaken for avian influenza in [31]. This is accomplished by formulating the model as a master equation which is then studied using van Kampen's system size expansion [42], to provide a prediction for the dominant period of disease oscillations. Since the macroscopic dynamics can then be viewed as a sum of a deterministic and a stochastic part, this approach provides a unique opportunity to investigate the effects of stochasticity on disease endemicity and outbreaks. The approach has been successfully applied while investigating the effects of stochastic amplification [34,43] and seasonal forcing [32,44,45] on disease outbreaks in particular in childhood diseases and more recently on avian influenza [31]. Our objective here is to test ideas about whether the oscillatory patterns of disease outbreaks can be predicted by simply looking at disease interepidemic activities. Based on historical data of occurrence of disease outbreaks in particular in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa, we suspect vertical transmission and chance events to influence the observed characteristic pattern of disease outbreaks. This analysis provides prediction of the dominant period of disease fluctuations depending on the efficiency of vertical transmission. The results highlight the role of continuous RVFV endemicity driven by vertical transmission on mosquitoes, on the periodicity of disease outbreaks which agree with findings from empirical studies [3,7,9]. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that it could be possible to reduce the frequency and intensity of RVF outbreaks by controlling transovarial transmission efficiency.To analytically investigate temporal dynamics of a RVF model by means of stochastic processes we formulate a simple but realistic stochastic host-vector model that captures all important features of RVF dynamics. The present study does not use primary data (medical records or public records), rather during model development we calibrate the model towards temporal characteristic patterns of RVF epidemic and inter-epidemic activities observed in East Africa and Southern Africa. In particular, the data used reflect patterns observed in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa (see [3,7,9,46,47] and references therein). A description of all model parameters and their respective values, ranges and sources is given in Table 1.We investigate both disease epidemic and inter-epidemic activities in a livestock population where the transmission of the infection is intermediated by Aedes mosquitoes only. Thus, neglecting the presence of Culex species which are known to be the secondary vectors of the disease as in [24]. Aedes mosquitoes are responsible for both initial spread and persistence of the disease since the female can transmit the virus transovarially to her eggs [2,48]. The mosquito sub-model is an SI type model, that is, with only two compartments: susceptible and infectious. This way we ignore the exposed class and mosquitoes once infected remain infected for life. The livestock sub-model is an SIR type model, that is, susceptible, infectious and recovered.Animal hosts enter the susceptible class through birth at a constant rate, μ 2 . When an infectious Aedes mosquito bites a susceptible animal, there is a finite probability, β 21 that the animal becomes infected. Once an animal host is successfully infected by an infected vector, it moves from susceptible class S 2 to infectious class I 2 . After some time, the infectious animal host either recovers at rate 2 and moves to recovered class, R 2 or dies naturally at per capita rate of μ 2 . Female Aedes mosquitoes (we do not include male mosquitoes in our model because only female mosquitoes bite animals for blood meals) enter the susceptible class through birth at rate, b 1 . The term birth for mosquitoes accounts for and is proportional to the egg-laying rate; and survival of larvae [24]. Since most density-dependent survival of mosquitoes occurs in the larvae stage, we assume a constant emergence rate that is not affected by the number of eggs laid; that is, all emergence of new adult mosquitoes is limited by the availability of breeding sites [24]. Susceptible vectors, S 1 are infected when they bite an infected animal with probability β 12 and depending on the ambient temperature and humidity [49] the mosquitoes move from S 1 to the infectious class, I 1 . To reflect the vertical transmission in Aedes mosquitoes a proportion of infected, q 1 newly hatched mosquitoes joins class I 1 . Mosquitoes leave the population through a per capita natural death rate, μ 1 . Although births and deaths are intrinsically distinct events, we assume, for simplicity, that the vector birth and death rates have the same values, which means that the total population size N 1 = S 1 + I 1 is kept constant. A key feature of the model is that the rate at which new infections occur in both host and vector is proportional to both host and vector population. That is, the total number of bites varies with both the host and vector population sizes. This allows more realistic modelling of situations where there is a high ratio of mosquitoes to livestock and where livestock availability to mosquitoes is reduced through control intervention as well as the efforts a host takes to prevent mosquito bites (such as swishing its tail) [24,28]. Thus, the force of new infections in livestock is l 21 ¼ a 1 a 2 b 21 I 1 a 1 N 1 þa 2 N 2 and the force of new infections in mosquitoes iswhere α 1 is the number of times one Aedes mosquito would want to bite a host per day, if livestock were freely available (for details on their derivation see supplementary material section A). This is a function of the mosquitoes gonotrophic cycle (the amount of time a mosquito requires to produce Note that all parameter units are days. The parameter α 1 is a function of the mosquito's gonotrophic cycle (the amount of time a mosquito requires to produce eggs) and its preference for livestock blood, while α 2 is a function of the ruminant's exposed surface area, the efforts it takes to prevent mosquito bites (such as swishing its tail), and any vector control interventions in place to kill mosquitoes encountering cows or prevent bites [24]. The ratio female mosquitoes to hosts 1.5 0-5 [56] doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005167.t001 eggs) and its preference for livestock blood. α 2 is the maximum number of mosquito bites a host can sustain per day. This is a function of the hosts exposed surface area, the efforts it takes to prevent mosquito bites (such as swishing its tail), and any vector control interventions in place to kill mosquitoes encountering hosts or preventing bites [24]. This formalism allow us to evaluate how mosquito biting behaviour and vertical transmission in Aedes female mosquitoes impact both the probabilities of disease invasion and extinction and disease fluctuations. The former is accomplished by employing branching process theory which is central for determining critical epidemic behavioural thresholds [35], and for the later we used system-size expansion technique [57] and Fourier analysis. However, a standard incidence function used in mosquito transmitted diseases usually assumes that mosquitoes bite a particular host at a constant rate irrespective of the number of available hosts. Therefore, for very large N 2 the above forces of infection can be approximated by the following standard incidence functions l 0 21 ¼ b 21 am 0N 2 as the model forces of infections. In this case α is the mosquito biting rate, such that α/N 2 is the rate at which a particular host is bitten by a particular mosquito, m 0 = N 1 /N 2 is the ratio female mosquitoes to hosts and β 21 and β 12 are the probabilities of successful transmission per bite [58,59]. All the transitions of the host and the vector associated with their corresponding rates are illustrated graphically in Fig 1 . Setting the livestock population size to remain constant, we can omit the equation containing R 2 , since it can be obtained when S 2 and I 2 are known. Therefore, the basic ingredients of our new model framework are susceptible livestock S 2 , infected livestock I 2 and infected Aedes mosquitoes I 1 . Unlike in deterministic models the numbers in these classes are no longer treated as continuous varying quantities [35], but instead as integers since individual-based stochastic models consider movements of individuals between classes to be discrete [60]. To be precise, these transitions are assumed to take place in a small time interval (t, t + Δt) with inflows and outflows of magnitude unity. If we denote the numbers in each class as s 2 , i 2 and i 1 respectively, the general state of the system is then written as σ = (s 2 , i 2 , i 1 ). Thus, T(σ 0 |σ) represents the transition probability per unit time from state σ to the state σ 0 . Note that we characterize the events taking place in the system into three distinct groups:Tðs 2 ; i 2 ; i 1 À 1js 2 ; ifor general forces of infections λ 21 and λ 12 , and α 0 = α for standard forces of infections l 0 21 and l 0 12 .For better illustration we summarize all of the processes taking place in the system and their corresponding rates and probabilities of occurrence in Table 2. Note that these rates are the conditional instantaneous stochastic rates of individuals entering or leaving each compartment at time t and also depend on the sizes of each compartment.Using the probabilities in Table 2, we can now construct the master equation in its general form [34,42,61], describing temporal evolution of the probability distribution of determining Table 2. Stochastic model for vector-host disease system. The parameter m 0 = N 1 /N 2 is the ratio mosquitoes to hosts, and a 0 ¼ a 1 a 2 a 1 m 0 þa 2 is for general forces of infections λ 21 and λ 12 , and α 0 = α is for standard forces of infections l 0 21 and l 0 12 . where σ = (s 2 , i 2 , i 1 ) represents the state of the system, P(σ, t) is the probability of the system in the state σ at time t. This can also be referred to as the forward Fokker-Planck (or forward Kolmogorov) equation, which is a differential equation for the probability density function P(σ, t) of determining the system in σ at time t and it cannot be solved exactly. An alternative analytical approach can be the derivation of the moments of the distribution of the state σ. However, for the purpose of our study we analyse the master equation using van Kampen's system-size expansion [42], see Section C.2 of S1 Methods. In the following sections we determine both the probabilities of a major outbreak and extinction after introduction of a single or few infectives into a population that is otherwise susceptible.In any disease model, a question of fundamental interest is to determine conditions under which a disease if introduced into a community with no immunity will develop into a large outbreak, and if it does, conditions under which the disease may become endemic. For this purpose, a key threshold parameter called the basic reproduction number, R 0 is derived and analysed usually in deterministic epidemic models. In this context it is defined as the average number of secondary cases produced by a single infected individual during his or her entire infectious period, in a population which is entirely susceptible. In this regard, it is soon clear that when R 0 < 1 each infected individual will produce less than one infected case and the probable result is that the disease will die out. On the contrary, if R 0 > 1 each individual will produce more than one case and eventually the infection will invade the population. However, in the stochastic models, invasion of an infection into a susceptible population is not guaranteed by having R 0 > 1: stochastic extinction can occur during the period immediately following introduction, when there are few infective individuals [35]. Thus, rather than the major outbreak that would be expected based on the behaviour of the deterministic model, only a minor outbreak might occur. During this early stage after the introduction of the pathogen, little depletion of susceptibles will have occurred and so probabilities of major outbreaks can be derived using the linear model that arises by assuming that the populations are entirely susceptible [62][63][64]. Thus, in the resulting model, the number of infectives can be approximated through a multi-type linear birth-death process [62]. In a multi-type branching process, individuals in the population are categorised into a finite number of types and each individual behaves independently [35]. An individual of a given type can produce offspring of possibly all types and individuals of the same type have the same offspring distribution [65,66]. In our model the disease is spread via two modes of infection transmission: vertical and horizontal. Thus, an infectious mosquito produces an infected animal, and a proportion q 1 of infectious mosquitoes produce infectives of the same type while an infected animal produces an infected mosquito. Therefore, by assuming that secondary infections arise independently and at a constant rate over the infectious period of each infective, then the distribution of secondary infections follow geometric distributions [35], with means R 11 0 ; R 21 0 and R 12 0 for mosquito-tomosquito, mosquito-to-animal and animal-to-mosquito transmission respectively (for more details see subsection B.2 of S1 Methods).In this settings, for horizontal transmission the probability generating functions (PGF) for the joint distribution of the dynamic variables when a single infected mosquito was introduced at time 0 can be obtained and it is given byFor vertical transmission the PGF is simply G 2 1 [67]. Note that {X ij , i, j = 1,2} is the number of infectives of type j produced by an infective of type i. G(s) is the probability generating function of the distribution of secondary infections and Eq (5) can be solved to find the extinction probability if there is initially one infective individual present. Extinction in the linear model is most likely to occur early in the process, so this corresponds to the occurrence of minor outbreaks in the nonlinear model, whereas non-extinction in the linear model corresponds to a major outbreak in the nonlinear model [35]. Eq (5) can be expanded to obtain the following formula [35],where i is equal to 1 or 2. An infective animal only directly give rise to secondary infections in the vector population. Thus, we have that P(X 21 = j, X 22 = k) is equal to P(X 21 = j) when k = 0 and zero otherwise. Consequently the generating functionHowever, when effects of vertical transmission are included, infective mosquitoes not only give rise to secondary infections in the animal population but also to secondary infection in the mosquito population through transmission from mother to eggs. Therefore, the generating function G 1 (s 1 , s 2 ) is a function of s 1 and s 2 ,Extinction probabilities can be calculated by solving the pair of equations,resulting from composition of functions in Eqs (7) and (8). The pair (s 1 , s 2 ) = (1, 1) is always a solution. If R 0 1 it is the only solution, whereas for R 0 > 1 there is another solution with both s 1 and s 2 being less than unity [38], where1 being the number of new infections in Aedes mosquitoes generated by single infected animal andm 1 the number of new infections in animals generated by single infected Aedes mosquito.So far we have formulated a fully stochastic host-vector model with both horizontal and vertical transmission, under well-mixed conditions and constructed the master Eq (4). To analyse the model we apply two methods: one is to simulate the system using the Gillespie algorithm [68], which gives the exact realization of temporal disease evolution. The other is analytical and consists of performing van Kampen's system-size expansion [34,42] of the master equation, which allows for quantitative prediction of the power spectrum of the time fluctuations of each of the system variables, and, therefore, of the dominant period of disease outbreaks [31]. Full details of van Kampen's system size expansion are discussed in Section C of S1 Methods. This method allows us to derive analytical approximate solutions which involves making the following substitutions,where ϕ 1 , ϕ 2 , ψ are fractions of the susceptible livestock, the infected livestock and infected Aedes mosquitoes respectively, with x l (l = 1, 2, 3) describing the stochastic corrections to the variables s 2 , i 2 , i 1 . This expands the master equation in powers of, such that the probability distribution P(s 2 , i 2 , i 1 ; t) can be written in terms of the new variables x 1 , x 2 , x 3 . Then, in comparison to the leading order, yield the following deterministic system in terms of fractions as follows:When integrating the above deterministic Eq (10) with respect to t we obtain trajectories of the mean behaviour which show damped oscillations tending to a fixed point see Fig 2. This is eventually the expected long-term behaviour for realistic parameter values for host-vector models. This further confirm the results of system stability analysis. The stability of the steady state of this system is tractable, and can be obtained by deriving the deterministic limit (see subsection D of S1 Methods). It is easy to verify that these equations have a trivial fixed point, named the disease-free equilibrium E 0 :and a unique non-trivial fixed point named the endemic equilibrium E Ã : 2 þm 2 is the basic reproductive number. From the stability's analysis in Section D of S1 Methods, we know that when R 0 < 1, the disease-free equilibrium point E 0 is stable while when R 0 > 1, the endemic equilibrium point E Ã exists and is stable.A fundamental question is whether the existence of a stable fixed point in the deterministic system generates oscillations and multi-year periodicity in the corresponding stochastic system [34]. In order to investigate this and describe the stochastic fluctuations of the system by an analytical method, we introduce step operators which allow us to express the master Eq (4) in a more compact form which further facilitate the expansion of the system. Details are given in Section C.2 of S1 Methods, where it is shown that the resulting master equation can be written in a power series of N À 1=2 1 and N À 1=2 2 and the step operators in terms of the fluctuation variables x 1 , x 2 and x 3 . Then, at next-to-leading order of the newly formed master equation (??) we obtain a linear Fokker-Planck equation for the fluctuation variables x l (l = 1, 2, 3),This is equivalent to a set of Langevin equations [42] for the stochastic corrections to the deterministic Eq (10) having the formwhere ξ k (t)(k = 1, 2, 3) are Gaussian white noises with zero mean and a cross-correlation function given by hx k ðtÞx l ðt 0 Þi ¼ B kl dðt À t 0 Þ. Note that system Eq (12) combines both the deterministic and stochastic contributions. Given that we are interested in evaluating fluctuations of the system trajectories around the non-trivial fixed point of the deterministic system, we evaluate the entries of the Jacobian matrix A kl and B kl of the noise covariance matrix at this stable fixed point. Explicit expressions for these two matrices are given in subsection C.2 of S1 Methods.The Langevin Eq (12) describe temporal evolution of the normalized fluctuations of variables around the equilibrium state. By Fourier transformation of these equations, we are able to analytically calculate the power spectral densities (PSD) that correspond to the normalized fluctuations, independent of community sizes N 1 and N 2 . By taking the Fourier transform of Eq (12), we transform them into a linear system of algebraic equations, which can be solved. After taking averages, in the three expected power spectra of the fluctuations of susceptible livestock, infected livestock and infected Aedes mosquitoes around the deterministic stationary values we obtain:The complete derivation of these PSDs and detailed descriptions about the way the functions In the absence of vertical transmission, that is, R 11 = 0 the solutions of the equations G 1 (s 1 , s 2 ) = s 1 and G 2 (s 1 , s 2 ) = s 2 are provided in [35] and for the case of introduction of a single infectious vector, it is reproduced here as follows:To obtain the extinction probability requires determining the smallest non-negative root ofwhich is obviously given byNote that this is smaller than 1 if and only if the product R 12 R 21 = R 0,H is greater than 1. Consequently, when R 0,H 1, the relevant solution is 1 and so a major outbreak can never happen [35,63]. For R 0,H > 1, both the probability of extinction and of a major outbreak, are found by swapping the roles of R 12 and R 21 in the preceding elaboration. An interesting observation in host-vector systems is that R 0,H can be greater that one even if either R 12 or R 21 is less than unity. This leads to an asymmetry relationships between either with the probability of extinction or invasion and the reproductive numbers which may stem from the disparity between the sizes of the host and vector populations [35]. To further investigate this phenomenon we compute the probability of extinction and invasion while varying the biting ability of the vector when host ability to avoid a mosquito bite is taken into account. This is accomplished by varying the parameters α 1 (number of bites that a mosquito would like to bite a host) and α 2 (number of bites a host would sustain) when plotting the extinction and invasion probabilities. This is possible since in our approach we generalized the mosquito biting rates so that they can be applied to wider ranges of population sizes. Instead of letting the total number of mosquito bites on livestock depend on the number of mosquitoes as in [35], we set the total number of bites to vary with both the livestock and mosquito population sizes. Results from Fig 3(c) and 3(d) further rephrase the roots of the observed asymmetry highlighting that although the high ratio of mosquitoes to livestock is a major factor, any form of intervention to reduce livestock availability to mosquitoes can lead to such disparity. And disease extinction is only possible if the ratio mosquitoes to livestock is kept at a very low level resulting in values of α 1 less than 0.1 see Fig 3(c). This explains why when environmental conditions are satisfied, that is, during rainy seasons disease outbreaks are expected as a result of the presence of massive numbers of potential vectors, implying large values of α 1 . From Fig 3 (d) we see that for α 1 around 0.5 invasion probabilities are close to 0.8. Hence, if mosquito biting activities are much more frequent disease invasion is expected but it is dependent on the availability of hosts. An interesting feature is that for α 1 1 invasion probability is zero regardless of the availability of hosts. This indicates that any intervention aimed at reducing the appetite of mosquitoes to bite might be a viable control strategy. Note also that the above observation may imply that infection does not die out merely because there are few susceptible hosts but because the number of infective vectors have reduced. Moreover, without virus reservoirs in either host or vector population or virus introduction from the outside even in the presence of optimal climatic conditions, disease activities are almost impossible. Therefore, in the following section we examine the relationships of disease persistence, extinction and spread when effects of vertical transmission efficiency are taken into consideration.In the presence of vertical transmission, determining the probability of extinction requires solving one of the equations in Eq (9) when R 11 6 ¼ 0. In this regard, the extinction probability following the introduction of a single infectious mosquito is given by the smallest non-negative root [63] ofAfter rearranging the above equation we obtainwhich is a cubic polynomial in s 1 . Note that for R 11 = 0 this equation reduces to quadratic Eq (14). It is evident that s 1 = 1 is a solution to Eq (17) and the remaining solutions are found by solving the quadratic equation  feasible solution to Eq (18) given byfor more details see section B.3 of S1 Methods.Studies have shown that in the absence of vertical transmission in mosquitoes RVFV dies out when R 0 < 1 and becomes endemic when R 0 > 1. However, in the presence of vertical transmission the disease may persist even for R 0 < 1 [24,27,28]. This situation stems from the fact that in host-vector systems, R 0 results from a complete cycle of host-vector-host or vectorhost-vector transmission and does not reflect the average number of secondary infections of a specific population type [69]. For instance, R 0 = 0.75 may result from a product of host reproductive number R 12 = 5 and vector reproductive number R 21 = 0.15. Nevertheless, in each generation, the number of host infections is proportional to the number of infected mosquitoes, and decreases proportionally to the vertical infection efficiency. However, if the host reproductive number is high it is likely to boost up new vector infections in future generations. Fig 4 shows the dependency of probability of disease invasion on R 12 , R 21 and vertical transmission efficiency R 11 . The invasion probability increases linearly with increments on vertical transmission efficiency with significant impact when vertical infection efficiency exceeds 20%. Other studies have found that it is only from such levels of vertical transmission efficiency that time of viral persistence is observed [69,70]. Another interesting relationship is that as the invasion probability increases with vertical infection efficiency the horizontal transmission R 0,H = R 12 × R 21 tends to decrease highlighting an asymmetric relationship with R 12 and R 21 as highlighted in the previous section. Since one of the main confounding factors to such asymmetric relationship is the ratio female mosquitoes to hosts, we further investigate this phenomena by examining how both vertical transmission efficiency and ratio mosquitoes to hosts impact both the invasion and extinction probabilities. This is depicted in Fig 5 where we also provide a plot for both numerical and analytical solution of the extinction probability Eq (18) when varying vertical transmission efficiency. The results show that the invasion probability increases exponentially with respect to the ratio mosquitoes to hosts but increases linearly with respect to vertical transmission efficiency, Fig 5(a). However, it saturates when the ratio mosquitoes to hosts is close to α 2 , the number of bites a host would sustain, see Fig 5(b). This indicates that any adequate intervention aimed at preventing ruminants from being bitten is a viable control strategy regardless of the ratio mosquitoes to hosts. Since, Eq ( 18) is a polynomial of degree two its numerical and analytical solutions overlap and the extinction probability decreases quasi-linearly with respect to vertical infection, with the invasion lying above 0.5 Fig 5(c). This stems from the fact that the horizontal basic reproductive number, R 0,H is greater than unity, meaning that there are sustained host-to-vector and vice versa transmission cycles regardless of the efficiency of vertical transmission. A clear effect of the ratio mosquitoes to hosts is observed in Fig 5(b) where for very low vertical transmission efficiency and m 0 = 1.0 the extinction probability is almost certain. This suggests that in the absence of vertical transmission, if every mosquito is for only one ruminant then there is a high probability that the disease will die out. This result from the fact that in such settings the chance of a ruminant being bitten twice in quick succession (once to catch the infection and once to pass it before recovery) is very small [59]. This is also depicted in (a) where for m 0 1 the invasion probability is almost null regardless of the efficiency of vertical transmission, but for q 1 ⋙ 0:8 invasion would be possible. More interestingly is the fact that for high ratios of female mosquitoes to hosts the level of vertical infection necessary for invasion decreases substantially Fig 5(b).RVF is known to be endemic in Sub-Saharan Africa [14] with some differences in temporal patterns. In general it is emphasized that outbreaks occur at irregular intervals of up to 15 years in eastern and southern regions of the continent [7]. However, a closer look at temporal patterns of disease outbreaks in Tanzania and Kenya (East Africa) and South Africa (Southern Africa) shows existence of some possible differences in the temporal characteristic patterns of disease outbreaks.  [7], from 1951 to 2007 in Kenya [3] and from 1950 to 2011 in South Africa [9]. The prevalence shown for Kenya and South Africa is artificial, it is only for representation purposes since real information regarding prevalence of the disease at each year is not available. Although data regarding reported cases for each outbreak during the recent years may exist, it is not complete [2,7]. For instance, in Tanzania, data for the years 1960, 1963 and 1968 is missing. The plots in Fig 6 are based on data reported in [3] for Kenya, in [9] for South Africa and in [7] for Tanzania. According to Pienaar and Thompson [9] during this period South Africa experienced only three major outbreaks (1950-1951, 1974-1976 and 2010-2011) and the remaining are considered smaller or isolated outbreaks. Interestingly the 1974 outbreak lasted for 3 consecutive years, a situation which can be compared to the 1960 outbreak that occurred in Kenya which continued until 1964 [3]. From the time series Fig 6(b) we observe that after each major outbreak including the outbreak in 1985-1986 in South Africa there are subsequent outbreaks occurring nearly each year. According to findings by Murithi et al. [3] during the period 1950-2007 only 11 large scale outbreaks were recorded in Kenya with an average inter-epizootic period of 3.6 years (range 1-7 years). However, for Tanzania an average inter-epizootic period of 7.9 years (range 3-17 years) is reported [7]. These disease post-epidemic activities in ruminants are known to occur without clinical cases and can only be detected where active surveillance is carried out [47,71]. Could it be that these differences in temporal patterns are results of a deficit of surveillance system to cover all remote regions that are vulnerable to the disease or are due to differences in the ecology of the vector? This question takes us to another question which is the driving force of this study. Could it be possible that smaller or sporadic RVF outbreaks occur every year after major outbreaks without noticeable outbreaks or clinical cases due lack of active surveillance? Could the prevalence of  [3,9] and the prevalence indicated in the figure is not real, it is just for representation only since data on prevalence is not available. In (c) the circles represent the prevalence of disease outbreaks in Tanzania [7]. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005167.g006 these outbreaks show multi-year periodicity? If disease prevalence data could be available we would apply techniques of wavelet analysis which performs a time-scale decomposition of a time signal to estimate spectral characteristics of the signal as a function of time [31,72]. This would allow us to predict the dominant period of outbreak fluctuations when varying some model parameters in particular, vertical transmission which is known to be the driving force behind the continuous disease endemicity in these regions [7]. Since reliable information is not available, in the following section we theoretically estimate the power spectra of disease oscillations taking into account effects of demographic stochasticity and vertical transmission.Fig 7 (first row) depicts the power spectrum density (PSD) for fluctuations of the total number of susceptible livestock, infected livestock and infected mosquitoes as derived in Eq (13), when using the standard or simplified version of the forces of infection. Our derivation of exact expressions for the power spectrum of the stochastic variables around the endemic equilibrium, see (Eq (13)) gives additional benefits. Using the expression for the power spectrum density (PSD) for variable I 2 we examine how changes in female Aedes vertical transmission efficiency affects the periodicity of RVF outbreaks. In Fig 8(a) we observe that an increase in vertical transmission efficiency causes a significant increase in the frequency of disease outbreaks. To better illustrate this phenomenon, we show that for vertical transmission of q 1 = 0.05 the dominant period of disease outbreaks is about 10 years while for q 1 = 0.5 the dominant period is about 1 year. These results suggest that with low efficiency of vertical transmission there is a high probability of disease extinction after a major outbreak, followed by a long period without outbreaks. This stems from the fact that the mosquito life cycle is relatively short and vertically acquired infections are multiplicatively diluted with every generation such that the virus is rapidly lost unless there is regular amplification in the host population. This could be only possible if renewal of susceptible livestock would happen with high frequency. Comparison between theoretical predictions of PSD under the simplified and complex versions of the forces of infection. For the complex force of infection the new parameters are α 1 = 0.33, α 2 = 19, m 0 = 9.45 and a 0 ¼ a 1 a 2 a 1 m 0 þa 2 , and R 0 = 1.0074. Note that description and sources of all model parameters are given in Table 1. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005167.g007Since the PSD Formula (13) describes components of the deterministic model we can examine effects of the nature of the basic reproduction number R 0 on outbreaks periodicity. If R 0 is less than or equal to unity, with a high probability the disease outbreak is relatively small. This is the reason why most studies would rather concentrate on the complementary case. However, our analysis (see Fig 8(b) and 8(c)) shows that the most important and interesting case is where R 0 is near unity. We see that as R 0 moves away from unity the PSD surface becomes flatter, indicating that more frequencies are involved in the stochastic fluctuations. This simply means that when increasing R 0 , the dominant period decreases (the dominant frequency increases), however for larger values (R 0 > 2) the PSD becomes totally flat. In this region 'coherence resonance', that is, a phenomenon in which random fluctuations sustain nearly periodic oscillations around the deterministic endemic equilibrium is lost and becomes white noise. Furthermore, we examine the PSD surface for nearly extreme values of vertical transmission efficiency q 1 = 0.05 and q 1 = 0.5. For larger values of vertical transmission the frequency of system fluctuation tends to increase, resulting in continuous endemicity of the disease as has been observed in some of the endemic regions [7]. While for small values of vertical infections the frequency of outbreaks is significantly reduced.We have explored the use of analytical tools to measure and examine effects of demographic stochasticity in host-vector models with two routes of transmissions. Host-vector models are designed to explain the dynamics of diseases in which transmission of the pathogen is mediated by a vector. For our study case which is Rift Valley fever (RVF), the vector is a mosquito of genus Aedes with special ability of transmitting the virus to its offspring transovarially. In disease dynamics, this leads to two modes of transmission: horizontal and vertical. The later is of great epidemiological significance for it allows for investigating the contribution of this mode of transmission to disease spread and endemicity. The analytical tools applied are: branching process theory to examine the impact of stochastic effects on the invasion and persistence of RVF infection when vertical transmission is taken into account and the van Kampen method to investigate effects of mosquito vertical transmission on the characteristic temporal patterns of multi-year periodic disease outbreaks. Using branching process theory we have determined novel relationships among vertical infection, host-to-vector and vectorto-host reproductive numbers with both the invasion and extinction probabilities. These horizontal basic reproductive numbers are found to exhibit an asymmetric relationship with the probabilities of a major outbreak and extinction. Previous studies on host-vector models, using this technique highlighted that the existing asymmetry relationship between the disease transmission potentials from hosts to vectors and from vectors to hosts could stem from the fact that the disease invasion probability starting from a single infective host and the invasion probability starting from a single infective vector can differ significantly, even though the overall basic reproductive number of the infection is the same in both cases [35]. This asymmetry can lead to a situation where the overall basic reproduction number is greater than unity while either the vector or host reproductive number is less than unity, resulting in dramatic implications for disease control efforts. Unlike in previous models, we set the forces of infections to vary according to the sizes of both the host and vector populations. In this settings we further investigated the implications of this asymmetry relationships to disease control strategies by computing the invasion and extinction probabilities when varying the mosquito biting ability α 1 and the host ability to avoid mosquito bites α 2 . Our model predictions suggest that although the ratio of mosquitoes to livestock is a major factor, any form of intervention to reduce livestock availability to mosquitoes can lead to such disparity.Previous studies have shown that in the absence of vertical transmission in mosquitoes Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) dies out when R 0 < 1 and becomes endemic when R 0 > 1. However, in the presence of vertical transmission the disease may persist even for R 0 < 1 [24,27,28]. To further investigate the role played by this mode of transmission, for the first time using branching process theory we derive both the invasion and extinction probabilities on a hostvector model that includes vertical transmission. It has been shown for host-vector models without vertical transmission that in regard to invasion probability the two transmission potentials can show complex relationships, causing the invasion probability to remain almost constant as a given model parameter is varied. However, it is not the case of our model which has two routes of infection transmission. Our results suggested that invasion probability increases linearly with increments on vertical transmission efficiency with significant impact when vertical infection efficiency exceeded 20% as found in other studies of vector-borne diseases [69,70]. Adams and Boots [69] found that vertical infection could only be important in dengue ecology, if the efficiency in nature is substantially greater than that found in empirical studies. On the contrary, vertically acquired infections are multiplicatively diluted at every mosquito life-cycle generation, such that, the virus is rapidly lost unless there is regular amplification in the host population. However, regular amplification of the virus in the host population is not certain for several factors. Recovered ruminants from RVF infection are immune for several days if not months [73], and vaccinated animals may produce a high level of neutralizing antibodies, making them protected against subsequent RVF viral infections [74]. However, how long do these neutralizing antibodies persist and other immune responses such as innate, humoral and cell mediated are not known with good degrees of certainty and require further investigation [2]. Another interesting factor is livestock renewal either through birth or migration, and the livestock viraemic phase whose intensity and duration may vary according to the inoculated dose, the virus strain and the degree of natural susceptibility of the infected ruminant [2]. Also, a factor that could serve as a constraint to regular amplification of the disease during the inter-epidemic period is the ratio mosquitoes to hosts (m 0 ). For the first time we derived an explicit solution translating both the probability of major outbreak or extinction in a stochastic host-vector model with both horizontal and vertical transmissions. Our results showed that for m 0 1 the invasion probability is almost zero indicating that if mosquitoes are fewer compared to livestock, it is almost impossible for the infection to invade the community because sustained transmission may be impossible. An interesting pattern was observed when vertical transmission efficiency was in the range q 1 ) 0.8, the disease could invade even for m 0 1. This finding suggest that the interplay between the two is also a determinant factor for disease spread and if not persistence. This interplay was more paramount for m 0 > 1 where the levels of vertical transmission efficiency decreased substantially. This is another interesting finding in this paper, which highlights how interaction between the ratio mosquitoes to hosts and vertical infection efficiency influence both the invasion and extinction probabilities. In the case m 0 > 1 there is a clear indication that during outbreak situation effects of vertical infection are easily diluted at every generation and this mode of transmission becomes more significant mostly at early stage of the epidemic. However, the invasion probability saturated for m 0 close to α 2 (host availability). Highlighting that if preventing measures targeting the host population are in place, the spread of infection will eventually saturate even for m 0 ) 1 and higher level of vertical infection.Results from experimental studies have indicated that depending on the host's innate susceptibility or resistance the infection may be classified as: severe acute lethal infection, delayed onset of complications or mild to asymptomatic infection [75][76][77]. Low level asymptomatic circulation and host re-introduction from external reservoir populations are also likely to be important factors [24,28,69]. Chamchod et al. [27] concluded that re-introduction of susceptible animals from external sources (either through movement or buying) may lead to a certain probability of some subsequent outbreaks if the renewal takes place every year. Certainly in such a situation if vertical transmission is very low we are likely to observe long intervals with no outbreaks just like the situation in Tanzania tive number tends to decrease, highlighting an asymmetric relationship between the host and vector reproductive numbers. This further highlights the role of vertical transmission efficiency in inducing complex behaviours in the dynamics of RVF outbreaks. Such complex dynamics may partially be explained from the fact that effects of vertical infection are further compounded by effects of the diapause phenomena in Aedes mosquitoes [69], and the ratio female mosquitoes to livestock. In summary, our analysis reveals that higher values of vertical transmission or vertical infection efficiency increase the frequency of disease outbreaks and highlights the importance of the interplay between horizontal and vertical transmission [19,24,27,28] in the spread and persistence of the disease.Previous RVF modelling studies [24,27,28] have relied on the use of seasonal type functions in order to explain periodicity or subsequent waves of RVF outbreaks in endemic regions as well as characterizing the nature of the resulting oscillations when mosquito population varies according to seasons or climatic conditions [24,27,28]. This is the standard paradigm in the framework of deterministic models [31], where seasonal and/ or climatic extrinsic forcing and intrinsic host-pathogen dynamics are both used in order to understand the nature of different types of disease oscillations and system's attractor structures [78]. However, more recently, it has become clear that the interaction between the deterministic dynamics and demographic stochasticity is fundamental to understand realistic patterns of disease outbreaks [30]. To the best of our knowledge this is the first time a non seasonal full stochastic host-vector model is used to explain the temporal characteristic patterns of disease multi-year periodicity depending on vertical transmission efficiency. This was accomplished by performing van Kampen [57] system size expansion, which allows us to derive an approximate analytical solution of the model. This method enables us to further view the population-level dynamics as being composed of a deterministic part and a stochastic part, where the spectrum of stochastic fluctuations is intimately related to the stability of the deterministic level dynamics [32]. Through power spectra analysis we were able to calculate the power spectrum of the stochastic fluctuations analytically and by comparison with simulations we can gain general insights into mechanisms underlying the peaks. Our analysis predicts complex fluctuations with a dominant period of 1 to 10 years for acceptable parameter values, which essentially depends on the efficiency of vertical transmission. Moreover, this dominant period was found to be significantly sensitive to the ratio mosquitoes to hosts and mosquitoes lifespan. These findings are in good agreement with observations, which indicate that in endemic areas RVFV is known to circulate continuously and outbreaks occur at irregular intervals of up to 15 years [3,79], or 10-15 or even 3-7 years [3,80]. Note however, that these periods of disease outbreaks are not known with exact details due to lack of appropriate infrastructure and active disease surveillance.Although, we do not reproduce the exact known patterns of RVF outbreaks fluctuations in every country or region, we provide a plausible explanation, showing that the interplay between the stochastic component and vertical transmission is central to our understanding of the erratic patterns of disease outbreaks characterized by a dominant period of 1 to 10 years. Our results indicated that an increase in the vertical transmission efficiency increases the frequency of disease outbreaks, hence reducing the periodicity of outbreaks to nearly a dominant period of one year. This further confirms our findings through branching process theory as discussed above. When vertical infection efficiency is higher RVFV is likely to circulate every year with virus amplification at every rainfall season leading to yearly sporadic cases of disease outbreaks. This situation can be compared with the observation of disease outbreaks in South Africa as shown in Fig 6(b). According to a review by Pienaar and Thompson [9] since the first outbreak in 1950, South Africa has experienced only three major outbreaks (1950-1951, 1974-1976 and 2010-2011), with sporadic or isolated outbreaks in between. Two interesting temporal patterns can be discussed: (1) the post-epidemic disease activities or disease activities between two major outbreaks are of one year cycle; (2) the second major outbreak lasted for three consecutive years. Could it be that the efficiency of vertical transmission in South Africa is relatively higher, sustaining continuous endemicity patterns? Our analysis provides a simple but one of the most relevant explanations for this situation. An increase in vertical transmission efficiency leads to low frequency of disease outbreaks of nearly one year cycle which is in good agreement with findings from empirical studies [8,9]. The epidemic continued through the winter, spilling over into the next rainfall season. It is believed that such spillover was possible due to warm temperatures and wet conditions during winter, which are conductive for reproduction of mosquitoes maintaining infection through winter. However, other dynamical factors such as susceptible livestock recruitment (or movement), mosquito seasonal abundance and livestock immune responses could play a role on fluctuations of RVF outbreaks [24,27,28]. Perhaps a combination of these factors was responsible for the 1974-1976 and 1960-1964 outbreaks in South Africa and Kenya respectively, which lasted for at least three consecutive years [3,9]. Such 'long-lasting' consecutive outbreaks are not common and their underlying factors are not yet fully understood.On the other hand, our model predicts that for low levels of vertical transmission the frequency of outbreaks becomes very low resulting in a dominant period of disease outbreaks of 10 years and above. These findings suggest that when efficiency of vertical transmission is very low the virus may require a long period of time to build up and eventually trigger an initial phase of the outbreak. This is a reasonable explanation for why there have been instances with no records of outbreaks following seasons of exceptionally above normal rainfall. This is likely to be the situation in East Africa, for example Tanzania (see Fig 6(a)). In this part of the continent outbreaks occur at irregular intervals followed by long periods (inter-epidemic period) without records of disease outbreaks, however, RVFV activities have been detected but with no clinical signs in the mammalian host [46,47,71]. During this inter-epidemic period (IEP) the virus exists but it fails to further amplify within the host during every wet season. Our explanation is that since the mosquito life cycle is very short, in the absence of regular amplification of the virus in the mammalian host population, vertically acquired infections can be rapidly lost. Low virus activities result in lower immunity in the host population and create conditions for large outbreaks whenever the virus may have sufficiently built up. In summary, for low vertical infection efficiency we expect long intervals without outbreaks. This is another contribution of this paper highlighting how our understanding of RVF ecology and epidemiology has been advanced by the work undertaken.For a long time entomological studies have highlighted the relationship between abnormal rainfall and RVF outbreaks [3,4,10,81]. However, optimum climatic conditions and the presence of mosquitoes have not completely explained the epidemiology of RVF outbreaks [82]. For instance, abundant rainfall, which normally correlates with increased number of mosquitoes in East Africa, was not often associated with RVF outbreaks in West Africa [2], and even in East Africa there have been instances where no outbreaks were recorded following seasons of exceptionally above normal rainfall [7]. These observations suggest that while rainfall might be the major determinant factor for the onset and switch-off of an outbreak [7], it is likely to not be the only factor responsible for the characteristic pattern of disease outbreaks. Other factors such as causal association between local environmental factors, livestock density and movement, encroachment of mosquitoes into new areas and livestock immune responses could be responsible for the observed characteristic pattern of disease outbreaks [7]. However, in this study we maintain the focus on the role of vertical transmission, ratio female mosquitoes to livestock and chance event on the oscillation of disease outbreaks and endemicity as we expect our results to be valid even when the above factors have been taken into account. Nevertheless, effects of livestock immune responses and livestock re-introduction or movement deserve their own further investigation.","tokenCount":"9802"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b2d7a1f07b2c2c9d60fa45c5f871b14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2645bc5c-9b65-4b2f-8503-caa189ec3d9a/retrieve","id":"-274360917"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dbfac9b6-8704-4a6c-afae-8891345c0601","pagecount":"6","content":" estudio de Herbarios/ Museos de Historia Natural: 83  Objetivos = preguntas de investigación:• Cuántas especies hay? Cuántas poblaciones hay? Dónde están? En qué estado están?• a partir de la ecología original, es posible inferir sobre el potencial? es posible ganar tiempo en evaluación contra: enfermedades, calor, salinidad?  bioprospecciones en el campo: gradientes altitudinales, zonas de vida Especies de Phaseolus (7/15) conocidas para Costa Rica antes de los 1980sResultados: avances en el conocimiento del número de poblaciones Notas:• P. coccineus: no en estado silvestre, pero como cultivo alimenticio/ ornamental• P. dumosus: como cultivo alimenticio \"cubá\" y como escape/ maleza• P. lunatus: en estado silvestre y como cultivo alimenticio (regresión, aunque domesticado?!) • P. acutifolius: no en estado silvestre, pero como cultivo alimenticio• P. albicarminus, P. angucianae, P. hygrophilus: silvestres, endémicas; de la sección Brevilegumeni• P. costaricensis: silvestre, sólo en Costa Rica y Panamá; resistencia a moho blanco• P. vulgaris: como alimenticio y en estado silvestre; no domesticado en Costa RicaConclusiones:• igualmente el número de poblaciones ha duplicado o más para algunas especies• la búsqueda sistemática ha permitido que el número de especies se ha casi duplicado• la ubicación de las poblaciones da una indicación para orientar las evaluaciones:• contra calor: P. vulgaris # 3339• las especies comunes (excepto P. oligospermus) eran conocidas antes de 1987• se logró un progreso significativo para las especies endémicas• ya no 'raras' (más de 10 poblaciones): P. microcarpus, P. vulgaris• aún 'raras' (menos de 10 poblaciones): P. albicarminus, P. angucianae, P. hygrophilus• contra salinidad: P. lunatus # 3328, #3331• contra frio: P. lunatus # 3304Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Telecomunicaciones de Costa RicaGlobal Crop Diversity Trust Project GCDT, RBGK, Norway","tokenCount":"283"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"735d804f8ccc490c7b35785538ec6938","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c8439020-244b-4af8-9b7f-459bd6bb6d3f/retrieve","id":"515125730"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"13a4eaa4-5db9-4ed3-a348-c7afa679dce6","pagecount":"99","content":"A todos los pequeños agricultores, colegas e instituciones que han trabajado de manera conjunta con el proyecto INCOPA en el desarrollo y aplicación de los diferentes conceptos contenidos en este documento.Agregando valor a las papas nativas en el Perú: Un análisis desde el enfoque de sistemas de innovaciónHace cinco años, el Proyecto Innovación y Competitividad de la Papa (INCOPA) inició la intervención de la cadena de papas nativas en el Perú, generando diversas innovaciones, entre las que sobresale la innovación comercial de papas nativas frescas de calidad que vincula a los pequeños productores con los consumidores urbanos mediante la biodiversidad y que es conocida como el Concepto T´ikapapa.El presente documento sistematiza esta experiencia exitosa reconstruyendo la acción colectiva que se propició para la generación, desarrollo y difusión de dicho concepto de innovación y aplicando la perspectiva de sistemas de innovación para identifi car las etapas de la misma. Estas se inician con los antecedentes que precedieron y aportaron a la defi nición de dicho concepto (entre 1994 y 2002), aportes que fueron recuperados en el desarrollo y difusión del producto fi nal de innovación gracias a la aplicación del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas -EPCP (entre 2003 y 2004), y que culmina con la difusión amplia del concepto T´ikapapa reseñando las evidencias de expansión a nuevos segmentos y nichos de mercado (desde el año 2005 al presente). Estas etapas se caracterizan por la mayor evolución del componente de mercadeo, reforzado por la innovación comercial en marcha, y por una menor evolución de los componentes de biodiversidad y de vinculación de los pequeños productores con los consumidores urbanos, al no impulsarse en igual intensidad las innovaciones tecnológicas e institucionales que requería su evolución, las cuales pueden ser potenciadas en una fase posterior de difusión amplia.Desde esta perspectiva, la evolución histórica del concepto T´ikapapa -entendida como la innovación comercial de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad -es el fenómeno social del aprendizaje colectivo de un grupo de actores de la cadena de la papa peruana y sus entornos, que en diferentes momentos y coyunturas establecen estrategias para garantizar el encuentro entre la capacidad de hacer algo nuevo y la oportunidad de aprovechar dicha capacidad.Resalta en la sistematización, el rol del EPCP como facilitador de las interrelaciones entre diferentes actores de la cadena, con expectativas, intereses y roles muchas veces opuestos y discrepantes, pero que, sin embargo, evolucionó desde generar interés en torno a objetivos comunes, hasta el compromiso en torno a la operación de una oportunidad de negocio, pasando por crear un clima de confi anza que permitió el desarrollo del concepto de innovación, especialmente en su componente comercial de mercadeo, sin dejar de lado, aunque en menor intensidad, otros componentes como el tecnológico e institucional, relacionados al negocio.La perspectiva del sistema de innovación empleado en la sistematización permite comparar las diferentes etapas del desarrollo del concepto de innovación. En los antecedentes que aportaron a T´ikapapa, se identifi ca un sistema poco articulado, realmente débil en comparación al sistema de innovación en el cual operó el EPCP, el que no sólo actuó como facilitador de los eslabones de la cadena, sino que además generó un actor clave para la efi ciencia del sistema: el agente articulador de actores e intereses diversos actuando en diferentes dimensiones institucionales. Cuando se compara este sistema con el que actualmente está operando -luego de haberse transferido la innovación -queda en evidencia la acción de articulador (del sistema) cumplido por el EPCP lo que constituye un punto clave a manejar en el futuro para la sostenibilidad del negocio que hay detrás de la difusión del concepto de innovación ya exitoso en sus etapas anteriores.Las lecciones aprendidas con esta experiencia deben ser adecuadamente recuperadas y aplicadas en el nuevo escenario de crecimiento de la comercialización de las papas nativas frescas de calidad, especialmente para identifi car e integrar al sistema un articulador de los múltiples actores que ya intervienen o están en posibilidad de intervenir en la producción, transformación y comercialización del concepto T´ikapapa. Esta nueva etapa, bajo una perspectiva institucional, puede defi nirse como una etapa de capitalización de buenas prácticas de innovación para gestionar conocimientos que promuevan cambios en las cadenas productivas que involucran a pequeños productores en respuesta a los continuos cambios en la demanda.Sólo en esa medida se entenderá la importancia de los efectos que ya se visualizan con la operación del negocio y que se está consolidando en evidencias de impacto en los ingresos y empleo de los pequeños productores. De la sistematización de esta experiencia se rescata la utilidad de aplicar diferentes instrumentos de intervención: (1) el EPCP, facilitando el encuentro entre oportunidades y capacidades para la generación y desarrollo de la innovación,(2) la necesidad de gestionar diferentes intereses de actores heterogéneos actuando en distintas dimensiones del sistema en torno a uno o más objetivos claros y comunes, (3) la importancia de las plataformas de concertación mediante una adecuada gestión del conocimiento que permita incorporar los componentes tecnológicos en los procesos de desarrollo y difusión de las innovaciones como se puede comprobar al fi nal del proceso, (4) la urgencia de establecer nuevos mecanismos basados en el conocimiento, como los sellos de calidad o sellos de responsabilidad social, y (5) la sistematización de las prácticas exitosas desde una perspectiva de sistemas de innovación que permita capitalizar la articulación de nuevas iniciativas de aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad, algunas ya en marcha y otras ya vislumbradas como posibilidad, pero que deberán plasmarse en cadenas de calidad de nuevos emprendimientos.La gran lección del concepto T´ikapapa es que, al aprovechar la biodiversidad de la papa nativa, poniendo en valor de mercado la oferta de papas nativas a través de una cadena de calidad, se genera oportunidades de participación e ingresos para más de 80 mil pequeños productores andinos del Perú. Si por cada hectárea de papa nativa sembrada y cosechada se requiere alrededor de 40 jornales al año, entonces en sólo 10 mil hectáreas de papas nativas se estarían generando 48 mil jornales anuales, lo que equivale a una tasa de empleo anual de 240 mil dólares, además de los ingresos para los distintos agentes de la cadena por la venta de un producto de calidad.Un padre de una familia campesina en Pazos, ubicado a 350 Km. de la ciudad de Lima, capital del Perú, termina de extraer unas papas coloridas y bien formadas, como resultado de su siembra en un terreno ubicado encima de los 3,700 m.s.n.m. y que en los 8 últimos años no fue labrado. A diferencia de otros años, estas papas, coloridas, no sólo son una esperanza para alimentar a su familia, sino que son el objeto de un contrato anticipado que ya tiene con una empresa agroindustrial y que, luego de ser seleccionadas, limpiadas y empacadas, se exhibirán en un supermercado de Lima. \"Mis papas nativas que antes despreciaban los de la ciudad, las piden porque no hay otras en el mundo que tengan ese color y sabor que a nosotros siempre nos ha gustado\", menciona el pequeño productor. ¿Qué ha pasado en los últimos años para que este campesino afi rme que sus papas nativas, por años conservadas por su familia, ahora le darán ingresos por venderlas en los mercados de las ciudades? Simplemente, que se ha puesto en valor un mayor número de variedades de papas nativas provenientes de la rica biodiversidad de los Andes del Perú. Para explicar esta valoración se presenta la experiencia T´ikapapa (que en quechua signifi ca Flor de Papa) desde la perspectiva de un sistema de innovación, a partir de la intervención del Proyecto Innovación y Competitividad de la Papa (INCOPA) del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), que viene ejecutándose desde el año 2001 con fi nanciamiento de la Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación (COSUDE).T´ikapapa. En los tres siguientes capítulos se relata la experiencia del Concepto T´ikapapa, empezando por su generación en el año 2003 y su lanzamiento en el año 2004 (Capítulo IV), continuando con el relato de su difusión entre los años 2005 y 2008 con la venta de la marca denominada también \"T´ikapapa\" en la cadena de supermercados de Wong y Metro (Capítulo V), para fi nalmente presentar el futuro del uso masivo del concepto T´ikapapa, como una proyección de los nuevos emprendimientos comerciales de aprovechamiento de esta puesta en valor (Capítulo VI).Con el propósito de generar las lecciones aprendidas sobre esta experiencia exitosa de innovación, en el Capítulo VII se da una nueva mirada de la misma desde la perspectiva de sistemas de innovación, de modo que se puedan identifi car los actores, sus interrelaciones y roles, comparando los sistemas de tres momentos clave del proceso: durante el desarrollo de los productos que sirvieron de antecedentes para esta innovación, durante la concepción y desarrollo del concepto de T´ikapapa y, durante la difusión y uso masivo de la puesta en valor de las papas nativas. La aplicación de esta perspectiva nos permite identifi car los entornos del proceso de innovación, de manera que se pueda evaluar el rol del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas (EPCP) en la institucionalización del sistema de innovación, es decir más allá de su aplicación metodológica y su pertinencia. Con esta mirada institucional se rescata la cadena de innovaciones que aún requieren nuevas intervenciones de actores de diferentes entornos, los vínculos que deben establecerse y el vacío que ha dejado el EPCP como facilitador de las interrelaciones entre dichos actores. Planteado de ese modo, los efectos e impactos de la puesta en valor de la biodiversidad de las papas nativas, tratados en el Capítulo VIII, son una mirada del futuro de este mercado de papas nativas frescas de calidad, exclusivas y únicas. Se señalan los efectos en el ámbito de los pequeños productores, de la cadena y de las instituciones que participaron de la innovación, para luego proponer una futura evaluación de los impactos a partir de señales e indicadores de mercado y de empleo que evidencien la posibilidad de cambios importantes en los ingresos de los productores, en la reducción de sus niveles de pobreza y en la mejora de su seguridad alimentaria, contribuyendo, además, a la generación de empleo rural califi cado.Finalmente, en el Capítulo IX se presentan las conclusiones que emergen de la sistematización del proceso de generación, desarrollo y difusión del concepto T´ikapapa. La primera se refi ere al EPCP como metodología, que al estar orientado por la demanda y aplicado de manera transparente y fl exible, permite: (a) generar innovaciones, (b) crear y promover negocios, y (c) el aprendizaje mutuo. Las siguientes conclusiones se orientan a presentar los benefi cios y mejoras tanto de la cadena de papas nativas de calidad como del sistema de innovación que lo sustenta.Una perspectiva desde el enfoque de sistemas de innovación I. DEFINICIÓN DE LA INNOVACIÓN SUJETO DE LA SISTEMATIZACIÓN Este capítulo tiene como propósito defi nir el sujeto de la sistematización a partir de una defi nición general de innovación y de la precisión del marco institucional en el que se desarrolló esta experiencia.Con base en estos dos elementos se rescata el concepto original de la innovación, para luego describir someramente los elementos adicionales que se fueron agregando en su desarrollo y que dieron como resultado el \"concepto T´ikapapa\", que constituye el sujeto de la presente sistematización.En el contexto del presente estudio, innovación es la introducción de lo nuevo en las prácticas colectivas y aparece como el \"encuentro o síntesis entre la capacidad potencial de hacer algo nuevo y la percepción de una oportunidad o necesidad de aprovechar tal capacidad\" (Arocena, R y J. Sutz,   2003. Página 21). Por lo tanto, una innovación comercial, como es el caso que nos toca sistematizar, es la introducción de un nuevo producto en el mercado o la introducción de un nuevo concepto de un producto ya conocido en el mercado y cuya novedad es reconocida como tal por los diferentes agentes del mismo.El Proyecto INCOPA, ejecutado por el CIP con fi nanciamiento de COSUDE a partir del año 2001, incorporó desde un inicio el enfoque de mercado con la aplicación del método de Evaluación Rápida de Sistemas de Conocimiento Agrícola (RAAKS por sus siglas en inglés) en el contexto de las cadenas de valor (Bernet, T., G. Thiele y T. Zschocke, 2006). El resultado fue la creación de la metodología denominada \"Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas\" (EPCP), que a diferencia de otros métodos busca intervenir las mismas 2 . El EPCP toma como punto de partida la demanda, respondiendo a las oportunidades de negocios identifi cadas colectivamente, y contribuye a la generación de confi anza entre los diferentes actores de la cadena, al logro de intereses particulares dentro de un ambiente de colaboración mutua y a la aparición de líderes que empiezan, en determinado momento, a tener mayor protagonismo en el proceso (Ordinola, M. et al, 2007. Página 18).En setiembre del año 2003, INCOPA inicia una segunda ronda del EPCP 3 , enfocada en las papas nativas 4 , buscando promover el uso de éstas mediante vínculos entre la producción y el consumo. Un diagnóstico previo identifi có la comercialización de un número reducido de variedades de papas nativas asociado al poco conocimiento de los consumidores sobre las mismas, valorando sus cualidades de alimento sano, nutritivo, atractivo y de rápida preparación, pero con una negativa imagen comercial.Este diagnóstico, presentado en la primera sesión del EPCP, indicaba que \"mejorando la presentación comercial de las papas nativas, será posible incrementar la demanda y/o lograr un mejor precio en los mercados urbanos, pasando de una presentación mala, descuidada, sucia, a una presentación de papas seleccionadas, de calidad y limpias\" (López, G., 2001, página 53)  5 .El grupo de agentes involucrados en atender esta oportunidad para las papas nativas estuvo conformado por representantes de los productores, investigadores, promotores de desarrollo, comerciantes, empresarios procesadores, personal de supermercados y chefs. Entre setiembre 2003 y marzo 2004 el grupo trabajó en el desarrollo de la innovación comercial, teniendo como marcos de orientación las siguientes estrategias:• Conservar la biodiversidad.• Generar ingresos en las zonas alto andinas.• Mantener valores y costumbres.• Benefi ciar tanto a productores como a consumidores.Finalmente el producto comercial, denominado T´ikapapa por sus creadores, se lanzó en el evento de cierre de la tercera fase de aplicación del EPCP sobre papas nativas, en setiembre 2004, con la asistencia, entre otros, de autoridades públicas (ministros de Estado, funcionarios de alto nivel) y de diferentes medios de comunicación (periodistas), cuando ya se habían realizado los primeros pilotos de introducción en 6 puntos de venta de la cadena de supermercados Santa Isabel. 3 La primera ronda se hizo entre octubre 2002 y junio 2003, con el propósito de generar innovaciones tecnológicas, comerciales e institucionales de la papa peruana en general, dando los siguientes productos: \"Mi Papa\" (marca de calidad de papa seleccionada), \"Papy Bum\" (hojuelas fritas de papa amarilla nativa), \"CAPAC\" (asociación en torno a cadenas productivas de papa de calidad) y Mi Chacra (boletín informativo). 4 Las papas nativas se emplearon como filtro de pobreza tanto en la estrategia de INCOPA como de la Iniciativa Papa Andina. 5 En este estudio de diagnóstico se sondeó el potencial de mercado de las papas nativas preguntando sobre el interés de compra a una muestra de consumidores en 4 ciudades del Perú. Sus respuestas \"significan que existe un mercado potencial dispuesto a acceder a la compra de las papas nativas en una presentación diferente a la forma tradicional de comercialización\" (López,   G., 2001, página 54). El estudio planteaba que \"Así, podemos concluir que el producto a comercializar son PAPAS NATIVAS LIMPIAS, SELECCIONADAS, DE CALIDAD, SUELTAS O A GRANEL, y -eventualmente-en la ciudad de Lima IDENTIFICANDO EL USO CULINARIO MÁS APROPIADO\" (López, G., 2001, página 58). Este diagnóstico recuperaba los resultados de una anterior evaluación hecha en 1995 por el Proyecto MSP -ADEX referido al mercado de la papa en Lima.T´ikapapa (fl or de papa en quechua), se defi nió en un inicio como una marca comercial de papas nativas gourmet, producidas en los andes peruanos y destinada a los mercados de alimentos de calidad de Lima vinculando dos conceptos: a) la revalorización de la calidad de las papas nativas producidas por pequeños productores (en su gran mayoría conservacionistas) de las zonas altas de los andes peruanos; y b) la oportunidad del mercado de alimentos gourmet en Lima asociados a la revalorización de la cocina peruana, incluyendo sus cocinas regionales.En un contexto donde el mercado de alimentos gourmet se diversifi có hacia ingredientes provenientes de la biodiversidad andina y amazónica peruana, interesándose en atributos de inocuidad, calidad nutritiva, sabor y textura específi cos, se generó una oportunidad para que la capacidad de los pequeños productores andinos, que disponían de una gran variedad de calidades, colores y sabores distintos de papas nativas, pudieran satisfacerlos aprovechando su tradición de producirlas en las condiciones naturales de las zonas altas de los andes peruanos.Al unir esta capacidad de los pequeños productores de papas nativas de los andes altos con la oportunidad de diversifi cación del mercado de alimentos gourmet en Lima, se les dio un valor comercial o de mercado a las papas nativas provenientes de la biodiversidad de un país centro de origen de este tubérculo. Aún cuando las papas nativas siempre han sido más valoradas que las papas \"modernas\" por los consumidores locales de los mercados regionales y por los mismos campesinos productores, las calidades y cualidades de las papas nativas no eran conocidas por la gran mayoría de consumidores urbanos y muchas veces eran rechazadas por su mala presentación comercial.De ahí que el encuentro entre la capacidad de los pequeños productores de papas nativas de los andes altos con la oportunidad de diversifi cación del mercado de alimentos gourmet en Lima, fue producto de una intervención creativa en la débil cadena de este producto, haciendo que T´ikapapa no solo sea una \"puesta en valor\", es decir el reconocimiento de la calidad de la papa nativa en los mercados con precios diferenciados que valorizan las cualidades comerciales y culinarias de la papa nativa, ni únicamente una \"revalorización\" de la papa nativa o reconocimiento de sus cualidades intrínsecas -es decir una nueva estrategia de comercialización-, sino que básicamente creó un nuevo concepto comercial.A los atributos de sana y nutritiva dadas por su producción y naturaleza genética, se le sumaron los atributos de \"seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia, lavada, empacada y con marca registrada\" (Ordinola,   M. et al, 2007. Página 10) otorgado por la agroindustria de transformación primaria y, a todo ello, se le agregó el concepto de una nueva imagen de la papa nativa peruana a través de una presentación moderna, convirtiéndola \"en un producto exótico, natural y saludable\" y único (Ordinola, M. et al,   2007. Página 10).Es por todo ello que T´ikapapa, más que una marca comercial, es un nuevo concepto de alimento gourmet fresco en el mercado de las papas peruanas, cuyo posicionamiento está asociado a la biodiversidad de las papas andinas, de manera que su novedad en calidad, sabor, textura y uso la hace exclusiva, nutritiva y saludable. Sin embargo, esta innovación comercial, entendida como un nuevo concepto de alimento fresco exclusivo, nutritivo y sano, no sólo se basa en su presentación y en su estrategia de comercialización, sino que agrega valor a partir del reconocimiento de la biodiversidad de las papas nativas cultivadas en los andes altos del Perú y que requirió de innovaciones tecnológicas e institucionales que se fueron evidenciando en las últimas etapas del proceso que incluye esta sistematización 6 .De aquí en adelante, nuestro sujeto de sistematización es el \"concepto T´ikapapa\", o simplemente \"T´ikapapa\", que se resume como la innovación comercial de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad.Considerando que el sujeto de la sistematización es el concepto T´ikapapa, o la innovación comercial de las papas nativas, es importante explicar el proceso de generación, desarrollo, difusión y uso del mismo. Para hacerlo recurrimos al enfoque de innovación defi nido como un fenómeno de interacción social, cuyo marco permite diferenciar cada una de las etapas del proceso, las mismas que ordenadas de manera cronológica, para un mejor entendimiento, constituyen el marco histórico para la sistematización del concepto T´ikapapa. En este capítulo se identifi can las cuatro etapas de la innovación, las que resumidas en una secuencia de tiempo e ilustradas con sus principales resultados, constituyen la base del análisis de los siguientes capítulos.T´ikapapa, como toda innovación, es un fenómeno de interacción social, donde diversos actores, con valores, intereses, conocimientos, capacidades y pautas de conducta diferentes, confl uyen en un solo esfuerzo de garantizar la implantación de algo nuevo en las prácticas de mercado y que se convierte en un proceso abierto donde el cambio llama al cambio. En este caso, en una primera aproximación, intervinieron actores que generaron una oportunidad al revalorar la cocina peruana, y actores que tuvieron la capacidad de atender un producto comercial moderno de papas nativas frescas de calidad. T´ikapapa, entonces, es una innovación que se caracteriza por ser un fenómeno interactivo y socialmente compartido, es decir de carácter sistémico. Para entenderlo en toda su dimensión, lo adecuado es aplicar un enfoque de sistema de innovación y que, según Edquist y Hommen 7 , sus aspectos más relevantes se sintetizan en que:1. Pone en el centro de atención a los procesos de aprendizaje.2. Adopta una perspectiva de conjunto (holística y multidisciplinaria).4. Enfatiza la interdependencia y las interacciones. 5. Más que defi nir un sistema óptimo compara sistemas entre sí.6. Atiende tanto la tecnología como las transformaciones organizativas y comerciales.7. Destaca el papel central de las reglas, normas y leyes.En el presente capítulo nos centraremos en las tres primeras características, es decir, los procesos de aprendizaje que se dieron desde una visión de conjunto y que son ordenados desde una perspectiva histórica, para luego desarrollar las cuatro últimas características en los cuatro siguientes capítulos.La innovación como proceso de aprendizaje es el resultado de la interdependencia e interacción entre múltiples actores y cuyo proceso de \"producción, difusión y uso del conocimiento nuevo y económicamente viable\" (Lundvall, B.A. 1992. Página 3), se explica a través de las estrategias que garantizaron el acercamiento entre múltiples actores mediante la confrontación y convergencia de conocimientos.Por lo tanto, la producción y desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa vincula a los actores clave de la cadena de la papa con investigadores y representantes de la gastronomía peruana, en diferentes momentos, bajo diferentes circunstancias. Ellos empiezan confrontando conocimientos y convergiendo hacia áreas comunes de conocimiento. Es necesario remarcar que los conocimientos de cada uno de estos actores provenían de diferentes experiencias, convirtiéndose en los antecedentes de la producción de esta innovación.Entonces es posible afi rmar que la producción de T´ikapapa es la continuación de esfuerzos que no sólo incluyen un anterior antecedente de una primera aplicación del EPCP, promovido por INCOPA entre el 2002 y 2003, sino que recogen las experiencias de esfuerzos preliminares aplicados bajo un marco institucional. De este modo, la generación de la innovación está asociada a antecedentes de carácter acumulativo 8 que provienen de la evolución del conocimiento o maduración del estado de arte del conocimiento para la innovación de las papas nativas.Tanto en la etapa de los antecedentes como en las posteriores, se establecieron diferentes estrategias para vincular a los actores con diferentes objetivos, expectativas, roles y formas de comportamiento.En cada etapa se supone que hay una mirada integral y multidisciplinaria en torno a la búsqueda de innovaciones. Sin embargo, la producción de una innovación, como es el caso de T´ikapapa, no sólo debe verse como la suma de esfuerzos sino como la integración de esfuerzos que crea nuevas capacidades y/o redefi ne las oportunidades o necesidades bajo una óptica particular, en gran medida dependiendo de sus estrategias de vinculación de intereses.Desde esta perspectiva, la evolución histórica del concepto T´ikapapa, entendida como innovación comercial de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad, es el fenómeno social del aprendizaje colectivo de un grupo de actores de la cadena de papa peruana y sus entornos, que en diferentes momentos y coyunturas establecen estrategias para garantizar el encuentro entre la capacidad de hacer algo nuevo y la oportunidad de aprovechar dicha capacidad.Para fi nes de este trabajo se han establecido cuatro etapas de desarrollo, como se puede ver en el Anexo 1 (Figura 1.1), ordenadas cronológicamente:1. Los antecedentes acumulativos para la generación de la innovación comercial en términos de esfuerzos por otorgar competitividad a la papa peruana, cuyo período se desarrolla entre el año 2000 al año 2003 9 .2. La producción, desarrollo e introducción del concepto de innovación T´ikapapa, que va desde setiembre 2003 a setiembre 2004, coincidiendo con la duración de la segunda ronda del EPCP implementado por INCOPA.3. La difusión de la innovación a través de la comercialización de la marca T´ikapapa que se inició en el año 2005 y que para fi nes de este estudio llega hasta el año 2008.4. El uso masivo del concepto de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad, cuyo proceso se inicia en el año 2007 y que se orienta a consolidarse a partir del año 2009, para lo cual es necesario crear los mecanismos necesarios para promocionarlo.Ante la pregunta de ¿cómo se generó la innovación del concepto T´ikapapa?, se hace necesario tomar en consideración la etapa de antecedentes identifi cada en el capítulo anterior, entendidos como la acumulación de conocimientos que provienen de intervenciones previas relacionadas a la aplicación del enfoque de mercado en productos de la biodiversidad y a innovaciones comerciales y tecnológicas de la papa en general, y de la revalorización de la papa nativa en particular.En este capítulo se identifi can aquellos antecedentes que aportaron directamente a la innovación comercial surgida de la aplicación de la segunda ronda del EPCP por parte de INCOPA, así como aquellos que de manera indirecta contribuyeron con elementos específi cos a la generación de dicha innovación. Sin embargo, estos antecedentes están restringidos a los que han podido ser reconstruidos de manera institucional, lo que indudablemente implica que pueden existir muchos otros, la mayoría desde los agentes privados, que también han contribuido a la creación de T´ikapapa. De la revisión de antecedentes se rescatan los conceptos de calidad y revalorización de la biodiversidad, al fi nal de este capítulo, los mismos que constituyen los principales componentes del nuevo producto de innovación conocido como concepto T´ikapapa.La tradicional forma de comercialización de la papa \"blanca\" en el Perú 10 ponía en evidencia la poca valorización de este producto. Algunos proyectos e instituciones que identifi caron este problema aplicaron un enfoque de demanda en sus intervenciones, de manera que lograron enfocarse a aquellas prácticas comerciales que afectaban su imagen entre los consumidores. Identifi cando las técnicas de mercadeo de otros alimentos de consumo directo más valorados, se aplicaron estrategias de mercadeo orientadas a mejorar la calidad del mismo. La introducción de este concepto, más claramente visualizado con la aplicación de un enfoque de cadena, toma como punto de partida la demanda, respondiendo a las oportunidades de negocios identifi cados colectivamente, de modo que genera confi anza entre los diferentes actores de la cadena (Ordinola, M. et al, 2007, Página 18). Ese es el caso de los dos antecedentes presentados a continuación.La primera iniciativa por superar la mala imagen de la papa fresca comercializada a través del Mercado Mayorista de Lima, se impulsó en 1995 a través del Proyecto MSP -ADEX/USAID 11 , mediante la introducción del concepto de \"papa procesada\" (aplicando los principios de transformación primaria para generar valor agregado por diferenciación de producto), priorizando el concepto de calidad: \"papa fresca, limpia y seleccionada\", que involucraba innovaciones tecnológicas de proceso a nivel de la producción, cosecha y poscosecha, estableciéndose que el agricultor debía centrar sus actividades en la producción de la materia prima de calidad, mientras que el mayorista debía concentrarse en la distribución, dejando al industrial la labor de procesamiento, selección, limpieza y envase del producto 12 .Según una conclusión de un estudio de mercado realizado en 1996 por el Proyecto MSP -ADEX/ USAID, la papa (blanca y amarilla) habitualmente era compraba suelta o a granel, siendo muy bajo el porcentaje de compradores que solían adquirirla en forma envasada. Esta forma tradicional de comercialización generaba una \"imagen negativa de la papa en cuanto a la calidad del producto (la papa viene malograda, sucia, gusaneada, podrida, con ojos, con huecos)\", de ahí que había la necesidad de escoger la papa, descartando parte de la compra por su baja calidad y se vendía a un menor precio descuidando la calidad 13 . En 1997 se defi ne la presentación del producto de una manera novedosa para aquellos años, es decir \"papa seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia, empacada y con marca\", lográndose introducir la marca Papandina en autoservicios y otros mercados exigentes, de manera que se pone en operación la cadena agrocomercial con la participación de agricultores, procesadores y operadores comerciales, integrando a los autoservicios como distribuidores fi nales.Es una innovación del mercadeo de la papa en general impulsado por INCOPA, aplicando el RAAKS cadena (después denominado EPCP), defi niendo un nuevo concepto de producto comercial con una presentación moderna para el comercio mayorista, cuyo producto es defi nido como sacos de 50 Kg. con tubérculos seleccionados, clasifi cados, limpios y con marca, superando así la mala presentación de este producto como resultado de la comercialización tradicional en sacos de 120 Kg. sin ningún tipo de manejo poscosecha. En este caso, se requirió de una innovación institucional para consolidar las nuevas reglas de estandarización de la cadena de valor de la papa fresca, impulsándose, dentro del mismo RAAKS cadena, la conformación de la plataforma institucional de concertación \"Cadenas Productivas Agrícolas de Calidad\" o CAPAC, con la participación de actores relevantes como representantes del Ministerio de Agricultura, del Mercado Mayorista de Lima, de ONGs de desarrollo y de comités de productores 14 y gestionándose normas para su aceptación 15 .Estas intervenciones tuvieron como objetivo identifi car productos comerciales promisorios que se convirtieran en el punto de partida para incorporar la perspectiva de mercado en la investigación de cultivos provenientes de la biodiversidad. Fue así que a partir del año 2001, se propició la alianza estratégica entre los investigadores del CIP y una pequeña empresa agroindustrial, tratando de fortalecer el enfoque de mercado. El resultado fue un nuevo producto de hojuelas fritas de colores, con marca propia. Según Bernet y Devaux 16 se propició una cadena de conservación -mercado (para más detalles ver Anexo 2).En el año 2002, ya en el marco de las acciones de INCOPA, se integran paulatinamente nuevos actores en la producción de innovaciones y se genera interés entre los actores de la cadena para expandir el mercado de las papas nativas.Tanto la experiencia de 2001 como la de 2002 son esfuerzos pioneros que se orientan a la revalorización de la biodiversidad de la papa nativa a través de innovaciones tecnológicas, que logran vincular a los pequeños productores andinos con consumidores urbanos, además de enfocarse hacia la superación de la pobreza rural mediante la generación de nuevos conocimientos y el desarrollo de tecnologías de transformación a través de la investigación. Estos nuevos conocimientos rescatan el valor nutritivo de estos alimentos y proponen innovaciones de productos novedosos en el mercado de las papas en el Perú.Conducido por el CIP, a través de su proyecto de conservación in situ del Departamento de Recursos Genéticos (actualmente División II), aplicando el enfoque de mercado para la conservación de la biodiversidad (MACAB por sus siglas en inglés) y a partir de una investigación de mercado, específi camente dirigida al nicho nacional de hojuelas de papa, se identifi có que tanto el concepto 14 Los socios fundadores fueron 2 productores, 5 representantes de ONGs, 2 comerciantes mayoristas, 2 empresarios procesadores y 2 investigadores. Ellos recibieron el apoyo del Ministerio de Agricultura, de la Asociación de Estibadores de Papa del Mercado Mayorista N° 1 de Lima, de Mi Chacra (sistema de información de mercados), de PyMAGROS, del Supermercado Santa Isabel y de CERPER (certificadora). 15 Luego de numerosas gestiones, en el año 2007 se promulgó la Ley N° 29088 relacionada al uso de sacos de 50 kilos en la comercialización de la papa a través del mercado mayorista. Aún está en proceso su reglamentación. 16 Cita extraída de las diapositivas de una presentación que realizaran T. Bernet y A. Devaux en el año 2005 sobre \"R & D como el producto 'hojuelas de papas de color' tenían una alta aceptación de consumo y que podría contribuir a que los pequeños productores mejoraran sus ingresos resuministrando la materia prima a los procesadores. El esquema de desarrollo de este producto incluyó la identifi cación de los atributos de mercado con potencial de ser atendidos, el desarrollo de un nuevo producto, la evaluación de su factibilidad económica y social -incluyendo el concepto de mercadeo-y la defi nición de los criterios de selección de empresas interesadas para la posterior transferencia del paquete \"de mercadeo\" a la empresa privada seleccionada.Innovación tecnológica defi nida como un nuevo producto saludable, natural y pigmentado de hojuela frita para el nicho de mercado de snacks de papas fritas (o potato chips) que lo distinguía de los tradicionales chips o hojuelas de papas. Se debe destacar que este nuevo producto industrial es la síntesis entre la investigación desarrollada por el CIP, orientada por el mercado, y el desarrollo de una innovación de producto integrando a la cadena de papas para la industria y cuya marca fue defi nida como \"hojuelas de papas nativas de colores\". Además, vinculó a un grupo de investigadores, a los productores colaboradores y a una empresa agroindustrial de transformación, recientemente integrada al segmento de mercado de las papas 17 .Desarrollado en el marco de las intervenciones de INCOPA a partir del año 2002 y utilizando el enfoque de RAAKS cadena, \"Papy Bum\" es la aplicación del concepto desarrollado en \"Jalca Chips\", pero que al ser trabajado participativamente trató de vincular consumidores urbanos (abastecidos por una agroindustria con estándares de calidad establecidos) con productores abastecedores de papa amarilla. Esto debería permitir la consolidación de la cadena de papas amarillas para el mercado de hojuelas fritas En este caso se vinculaba el concepto de mercadeo con la tecnología, lo que permitiría la incorporación del conocimiento desarrollado sobre la biodiversidad de las papas nativas. El concepto fi nal de innovación es de la de un producto procesado exclusivo, nutritivo, natural y sano 18 .Son dos los elementos clave que posibilitaron la generación y desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa, básicamente aportados por los actores de las cadenas que habían participado de estas experiencias y que también fueron convocados para la segunda ronda del EPCP:1.La introducción del concepto de calidad, defi nido como papa nativa clasifi cada, lavada y embolsada, aportado por las experiencias de Papa Buena, Papandina y Mi Papa.2.La revalorización de la papa nativa, entendida como producto exclusivo y único que vincula al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano a través de la biodiversidad, aportado por las experiencias de \"Jalca Chips\" y \"Papy Bum\", resultantes a su vez de enfoques que articulaban la conservación de la biodiversidad con el mercado.Si bien T´ikapapa fue un producto del segundo EPCP aplicado por el Proyecto INCOPA entre setiembre de 2003 y setiembre de 2004 19 , fue también parte de un proceso de cambios que como antecedentes aportaron en la construcción de este concepto. Da la impresión, al fi nal de la sistematización de esta etapa del proceso, de que fueron los actores de esta innovación, muchos de los cuales habían participado en las experiencias que lo antecedieron, los que llevaron el know how de sus buenas experiencias para incorporarlas en esta nueva innovación, de ahí que el resultado fue un cambio de los cambios ya generados.La producción y desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa fue un proceso ordenado y complejo, favorecido por la aplicación del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas (EPCP), que promueve el intercambio de información para la innovación de productos y procesos mediante la visualización y concreción de un negocio, basados en las señales de mercado que identifi caron las oportunidades o necesidades de la demanda (Ordinola, M. et al. 2007. Página 7). Metodológicamente, el EPCP interviene la cadena en 3 fases evolutivas, convirtiendo a INCOPA en el facilitador de dicha evolución (Figura 1) de manera que se garantiza un proceso participativo de producción y desarrollo de la innovación.Figura 1. Fases del EPCP. 19 El segundo EPCP aplicado por INCOPA como estrategia de intervención de las cadenas productivas, usó como filtro de pobreza a la papa nativa. De ese modo se buscaba responder al propósito del Proyecto INCOPA y de la Iniciativa Papa Andina, que se orientan a contribuir al alivio de la pobreza mejorando la competitividad de los pequeños productores de los andes. Fuente: Ordinola, M. et al. 2007. Página 13.Reconocer a los actores de la cadena, sus ideas, etc.Analizar oportunidades de negocio de manera Considerando que la producción y desarrollo de una innovación abarca desde su creación hasta su transferencia, pasando por el desarrollo del producto en sí, se puede constatar que cada fase del EPCP está relacionada con cada etapa del proceso de desarrollo de la innovación. T´ikapapa se inicia con un encuentro entre oportunidades y capacidades, las mismas que se continúan con el desarrollo del producto mediante un intercambio de información y conocimientos, y culmina con la transferencia de la innovación a los agentes privados del mercado.El EPCP se inició con un evento de presentación de los resultados del diagnóstico de la situación de la papa nativa peruana. El diagnóstico estuvo orientado a conocer los intereses, problemas e ideas para mejorar la situación de las papas nativas de los actores clave de la cadena (Ordinola, M. et al,   2007) e identifi có el potencial de las papas nativas en los mercados nacionales e internacionales de alimentos frescos y procesados, en contraste con la mala imagen y el desconocimiento de ellas por parte de los consumidores industriales y urbanos. Fue en base a esta apreciación que el evento inicial del EPCP comprometió la participación de diversos agentes de la cadena en torno a sus propuestas de mejora de la producción y comercialización, agrupados en dos grandes grupos temáticos: papa nativa procesada y papa nativa fresca.Pero el método EPCP, al proponer el diagnóstico de la situación de la papa como una actividad de identifi cación de los actores clave de la cadena productiva para conocer sus intereses, problemas e ideas para mejorar su situación, lo que hace es facilitar el acercamiento de las oportunidades o necesidades con las capacidades para atenderlos, de manera que logró:• Concentrarse en actores de la demanda capaces de convertir las necesidades del mercado en oportunidades que podían aprovechar las potenciales capacidades de la oferta de papa nativa.Es el caso de los chefs, de los mayoristas de papa en el mercado de Lima y de los pequeños empresarios.• Involucrar a los conocedores de las potencialidades de la papa nativa, como productores e investigadores, pero sobre todo a los que valoran los problemas en términos de oportunidades de articulación con el mercado, como es el caso de los profesionales de las ONGs o los que tienen intereses en generar oportunidades de negocios a partir de dichas potencialidades, como sucede con las pequeñas empresas y agro exportadores.Entre los agentes clave con potenciales capacidades para aprovechar las oportunidades estuvieron productores, pequeños empresarios agroindustriales, agentes de desarrollo, investigadores y funcionarios públicos que habían acumulado experiencia en responder a nuevas oportunidades (ya sea en papa o en otros alimentos provenientes de la agro biodiversidad) y que, por tanto, tenían más posibilidades de aprovechar sus capacidades potenciales en función de nuevas oportunidades.Es el caso de algunos productores de Huánuco que habían participado en la innovación \"Mi Papa\", o de comerciantes que habían realizado nuevos negocios exitosos como \"Papa Buena\", o papa de supermercado (a fi nes de la década pasada) y \"Mi Papa\". También es el caso de pequeñas empresas agroindustriales con experiencia en productos diferenciados, como A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, o de ONGs que habían participado en cadenas agroindustriales, como FOVIDA (que había articulado la siembra por contrato de papa \"Capiro\"); ADR (que había articulado a productores con la empresa productora de \"Papy Bum\"), o PyMAGROS (con experiencia en el desarrollo de la miel de yacón). Pero también se involucraron investigadores del INIA y del CIP, que habían tenido experiencia investigando la genética y tecnología de las papas nativas en términos de materia prima adecuada para la producción de hojuelas de papas de colores o \"Jalca Chips\" 20 .El diagnóstico, al poner en debate los problemas, intereses e ideas de negocios de actores tan diversos, lo que hizo fue concitar el interés de los actores de la cadena en el CONCEPTO de papa nativa fresca seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia y embolsada, para aprovechar la oportunidad de mercado orientado al consumo gourmet. Al emplear a la papa nativa como un fi ltro para la pobreza, INCOPA logró que el EPCP involucrara actores clave comprometidos en articular a los pequeños agricultores con los mercados y también a aquellos actores que promovían la conservación y uso de las papas nativas, quienes agregaron valor al novedoso concepto de mercadeo.Todos, entonces, se unieron en el esfuerzo de contribuir a la \"búsqueda\" de mercados para las papas nativas (la palabra búsqueda estuvo presente en las entrevistas con los actores vinculados a las potenciales capacidades de la papa nativa para atender oportunidades de mercado). \"Búsqueda\" que en el contexto del EPCP se convierte en \"oportunidades de negocio\" y, por tanto, en una acción colectiva.Figura 2. Encuentro de actores por interés facilitado por el EPCP. 20 Esta lista y las que posteriormente se presentan no incluye a todos los actores que participaron del proceso, por omisiones producto de la síntesis que se hace en este documento, por no haber logrado acceder a la documentación que se generó en cada actividad y fase o porque no se logró recuperar dicha información.Plataforma institucional de concertación Investigadores promotores de la conservación y uso de las papas nativas (2)   ONGs articulando pequeños productores con mercados mediante la agricultora por contrato (5)Productos integrados a cadenas de alimentos y cadenas agroindustriales (2)   Comerciantes mayoristas involucrados en innovaciones comerciales (2) Supermercados Chefs promotores de la innovación de la gastronomía peruana (4)Pequeñas empresas agroindustriales innovadoras (3) Figura 3. Acción colectiva del desarrollo de la innovación T´ikapapa.La Figura 3 es la esquematización del desarrollo del concepto comercial T´ikapapa y que, como toda esquematización de la realidad, no expresa toda su complejidad. No obstante, este esquema muestra cuatro aspectos centrales del desarrollo de la innovación: a) Es un proceso de construcción colectiva, muchos actores, señalados en el lado izquierdo del gráfi co, y de mucho aprendizaje e inter aprendizaje. b)Los problemas, intereses e ideas de solución de cada uno de los diferentes actores que intervinieron, estuvieron, desde un inicio, orientado al objetivo de mercado (meta), expresado en forma desagregada en el lado derecho del gráfi co. c) El ajuste a los atributos del producto exigidos por el mercado generó nuevas necesidades de innovación, como lo expresan los problemas escritos en letras rojas en la Figura 3. d)El diseño del paquete mercadológico (nuevo concepto de mercadeo de la papa nativa) fue un trabajo colectivo que se inició desde la evaluación de la biodiversidad, y que se intensifi có en las etapas fi nales.Este abastecimiento a Supermercados Plaza VEA duró aproximadamente 3 meses (entre junio y agosto de 2004). Se estima que la empresa entregó un total de 30 toneladas, que equivalen a dos mil bolsas de la marca \"T´ikapapa\", abastecidas por aproximadamente 98 productores de las localidades de Aymará y Vista Alegre (distrito Pazos, provincia Tayacaja, departamento de Huancavelica, con aproximadamente 10 toneladas), y de Quelloccasa, Quishuará y Chutinsa (provincia de Andahuaylas, departamento de Apurímac, con aproximadamente 20 toneladas) 21 . Las variedades que más se comercializaron fueron Huamantanga, Huayro, Putis, Milagro, Camotillo, Ccompis, Chaccro (mezcla) y Duraznilla.Por primera vez, las góndolas de un supermercado ofrecían un producto novedoso, comercialmente atractivo, con papas nativas seleccionadas, clasifi cadas, embolsadas, garantizando la homogeneidad de su calidad para un mejor aprovechamiento culinario. Si bien en esta transferencia se hicieron ajustes al producto comercial, quedaron en evidencia la urgencia de nuevos cambios:• Los canales de comercialización que empezaban con el acopio de una producción dispersa y atomizada, el transporte de pequeñas cantidades hacia la planta y el abastecimiento en pequeños volúmenes por vez de la planta al supermercado, eran inadecuados para esta forma de abastecimiento al detalle.• Los estándares de calidad no estaban transferidos a toda la cadena productiva, siendo necesario cambios institucionales en la cadena, ya que no se habían cambiado las reglas del negocio entre actores tan diversos.• Las técnicas de cosecha y poscosecha no sólo requerían capacitación de los productores para garantizar que se alcanzaran los estándares de calidad exigidos por los supermercados, sino que era necesario incorporar o desarrollar tecnologías que redujeran la variabilidad en la calidad del tubérculo.• Se presentaron problemas de abastecimiento, ya que el acopio de 1 tonelada mensual por punto de venta, como inicialmente se convino con la responsable de productos perecibles de VEA, no pudo ser satisfecha. Se logró abastecer con un promedio de 500 kilogramos por semana por punto de venta.Se puede observar que estos cambios están asociados a problemas ya detectados en el desarrollo de la innovación comercial. Pero esta experiencia inicial fue necesaria para culminar esta etapa de la innovación con el lanzamiento del nuevo producto, el mismo que se hizo en el evento fi nal de la tercera fase del EPCP en setiembre de 2004, culminando así con la transferencia del concepto de innovación, a través de la marca T´ikapapa, a los agentes privados de la cadena de papas nativas para supermercados.El proceso en su conjunto muestra la importancia del EPCP en el proceso de creación, desarrollo y transferencia de la innovación T´ikapapa, verifi cándose en la Tabla 1 la adecuada correspondencia entre las etapas del EPCP y la evolución de una innovación. Esta correspondencia es de gran utilidad porque demuestra que el EPCP al intervenir la cadena no interrumpe el proceso natural de interacción social en la que se sustenta cualquier innovación.Tabla 1. Evolución del proceso de generación y desarrollo de la innovación T´ikapapa.En resumen, el EPCP ordenó y aceleró el proceso de innovación, facilitando el encuentro entre oportunidades y capacidades al generar interés entre los agentes de la cadena, permitiendo de ese modo un espacio de intercambio de expectativas, intereses y propósitos.Pero el EPCP también aceleró el desarrollo del producto de innovación al contribuir en la creación de un clima de confi anza entre los agentes más involucrados, lo que no sólo facilitó el intercambio de ideas sino que además posibilitó un ambiente propicio para gestionar el conocimiento acumulado de los agentes participantes, cuyas experiencias podían ser refl ejadas en el nuevo emprendimiento.Lamentablemente, la falta de registros de dicho intercambio no nos permite detallar el proceso de gestión de conocimientos que se incentivó en la fase de desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa.Finalmente, el EPCP, al mejorar los niveles de compromiso de los actores clave de la cadena, contribuyó decididamente en la transferencia de la innovación a los eslabones de ésta. En este caso, por haber estado centrada la innovación en el producto comercial, los más comprometidos fueron los actores más cercanos al mercado, como es el caso de la empresa agroindustrial (dueña de la marca) y de la cadena de autoservicios en Lima (comercializadora del producto fi nal), sin haber logrado un mayor compromiso de los productores. Uno de los entrevistados comentó que al momento de defi nir la propiedad de la marca T´ikapapa, los productores invitados expresaron que a ellos \"sólo les interesa producir y no complicarse con otros aspectos\".Primera FaseSegunda FaseTercera FaseA fi nes de 2004, luego del lanzamiento del producto en el evento fi nal de la tercera fase del EPCP, la cadena de supermercados de la Corporación Wong es contactada para la comercialización de papa nativa seleccionada, clasifi cada y embolsada. El interés de este supermercado se da dentro de un contexto favorable de promoción de las papas peruanas 22 . Producto de estas coordinaciones respaldadas por el Centro Internacional de la Papa, esta cadena de supermercados fi rma un contrato de abastecimiento de 50 toneladas semanales con la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, dueña de la marca T´ikapapa.Se inicia así una nueva etapa de difusión y comercialización de esta innovación, previa al uso masivo del concepto T´ikapapa, cuyos resultados si bien han afectado a la marca comercial con que se hizo la difusión, no han tenido el mismo efecto en el concepto de innovación comercial de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad.Considerando que la difusión está defi nida por las prácticas colectivas de consumidores, empresarios y productores vinculados al mercado nicho de la innovación comercial, es necesario considerar, en primer lugar, el negocio, y luego explicar la difusión de cada uno de los contenidos del mismo y, sobre esta base, evaluar los alcances de la difusión de la innovación en el contexto de la cadena de papas para supermercados:• El negocio fue el abastecimiento a los autoservicios de Corporación Wong de la marca T´ikapapa de propiedad de la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC.• Los primeros contenidos de la innovación y reforzados durante la transferencia de la marca T´ikapapa fueron defi nidos como:-Papa nativa fresca seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia y embolsada -Papa nativa exclusiva para consumidores urbanos gourmet • Los contenidos de valor agregado del concepto de innovación y que debería enfrentar la difusión del concepto fueron:-Papas nativas originarias de la biodiversidad del Perú y producidas en condiciones naturales -Papa nativa como ingrediente exótico, natural y saludable de gran valor para la gastronomía de consumidores urbanos -Vínculo entre los pequeños productores y consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad En el presente capítulo se hace un breve resumen de las condiciones de partida del negocio, para luego describir el negocio en sí y la forma en que éste operó dentro de la cadena de papa 22 Hay que considerar que la venta de \"T´ikapapa\" en los Supermercados Plaza VEA coincidió con la celebración del Día Nacional de la Papa y dentro de una fuerte campaña de promoción de este tubérculo liderada por el Ministerio de Agricultura.Celebración que recogía los éxitos de las distintas iniciativas que se venían impulsando desde el año 2002 y que estaban orientadas a promover el concepto de valor de la papa nativa peruana. nativa fresca para supermercados, precisando los mecanismos y limitantes de abastecimiento, cómo se implementó el acopio y cuál era la oferta de papas nativas, una vez que se estableció la cadena productiva, centrándose especialmente en las discrepancias entre la demanda y la oferta.Pero como la marca T´ikapapa es sólo la expresión de un concepto de innovación, este capítulo concluye evaluando la forma en que se difundieron los componentes del concepto T´ikapapa en el marco de este negocio. Esto nos permite proyectar el alcance de la difusión del mencionado concepto centrado en la cadena de valor (o cadena productiva) que lo sustenta, como un medio de verifi car su aceptación en las prácticas colectivas relevantes, es decir, en las prácticas de los agentes ubicados en los diferentes eslabones de la cadena de valor de las papas nativas frescas.El contrato que se fi rma entre la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC con Corporación Wong -uno de los pocos casos verifi cables de introducción de algo nuevo en las prácticas colectivas de los mercados gourmet de alimentos-norma las condiciones mínimas del negocio para la papa nativa seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia y embolsada. El plan de ventas incluía la colocación del producto en 26 tiendas de los supermercados Wong y Metro y proponía algunos cambios mercadológicos que fueron aceptados por la pequeña empresa agroindustrial de transformación primaria:• El envase debería contener 1 kilogramo de papa.• El logotipo de la marca estaría estampado en el envase o iría dentro de la bolsa, eliminándose el cartón empleado para sellar el envase.• La presentación del producto debería refl ejar su orientación al segmento de consumidores de los estratos medio y alto de Lima, que adquieren sus productos en autoservicios.• Las papas nativas frescas embolsadas deberían resaltar el color de la cáscara, por que el consumidor vincula la calidad al color de la misma.Ante estas exigencias fue necesario que el proceso de transformación primaria quedara adecuadamente estandarizado. Ello no fue un impedimento toda vez que en la etapa de desarrollo de la innovación, durante la segunda fase del EPCP, éste había quedado adecuadamente defi nido. El esquema que se muestra líneas abajo resume este proceso vinculado al nuevo diseño exigido para la venta de la marca T´ikapapa en la cadena de autoservicios de Wong y Metro. Una vez que la papa entraba a la planta de la empresa para su transformación primaria y luego de realizar los descartes por calidad y clasifi cación, la empresa agroindustrial asumía sus compromisos con los tiendas de la Corporación Wong, muchos de los cuales se convirtieron en cuellos de botella del negocio. Los principales fueron:• Mantener el abastecimiento semanal para 26 puntos de venta, con un volumen total de 50 toneladas, lo que nunca se logró alcanzar.• Satisfacer los requerimientos de papa selecta, clasifi cada y homogénea mediante un proceso de transformación primaria cuyos costos directos no incluían problemas aún no identifi cados.• Garantizar los volúmenes adecuados de una mixtura de variedades de mayor preferencia por los consumidores que, además, recién se estaban educando en su consumo.• Garantizar la exclusividad del producto a un precio diferenciado, pero que tampoco podría ser muy alto, tal y como lo defi nió el contrato con Wong, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta que el consumidor establece sus compras de papas en base al precio por kilogramo. • Responder a los problemas de anaquel que pudieran presentarse durante la exposición del producto en las góndolas de los supermercados.• Desconocer la frecuencia de compra del producto.A todo ello se sumó el asunto de la oferta del producto. Para el abastecimiento era necesario tomar en consideración las condiciones de producción de las papas nativas. Por ser un producto exclusivo de la biodiversidad, domesticado en los andes altos y producido en condiciones naturales, se requería un adecuado conocimiento de las zonas productoras y un acertado contacto con los pequeños productores. Hay que considerar que las papas nativas crecen por encima de los 3,500 m.s.n.m. en pequeñas parcelas (la mayoría no superior a la media hectárea) ubicadas en las zonas más altas y, muchas veces, distantes de la infraestructura vial.¿Cómo operó en la práctica el negocio? Con fi nes de sistematización, describiremos el negocio como la cadena de eslabones que parte del mercado: (1) las ventas en los supermercados, (2) el abastecimiento del mercado de autoservicios, (3) la transformación primaria, (4) el acopio, y (5) la oferta de papas nativas.Corporación Wong tenía identifi cado un segmento de consumidores exclusivos interesados en alimentos frescos, sanos, nutritivos, naturales y exóticos. Su visión era que este segmento, infl uenciado por el boom de la gastronomía peruana, era un consumidor potencial de papas nativas únicas y exclusivas, siempre y cuando satisfacieran los requerimientos de calidad, sabor y textura.Sin embargo, la estimación de la demanda y rotación del producto no eran aún conocidos, de ahí que, basados en su venta de variedades de papas de color tradicionales (como Tumbay y Huayro, expendidas en sus autoservicios con anterioridad al negocio de T´ikapapa), consideraron que la venta semanal no superaría las 2 toneladas semanales en cada punto de venta, aunque podría haber variaciones según la zona de ubicación de cada autoservicio.Con el fi n de llegar al segmento de consumidores al que estaba orientado el producto y, aprovechando un entorno de difusión favorable, desde fi nes del año 2005 las cadenas de autoservicios de Wong y Metro incluyen las papas nativas marca T´ikapapa en sus encartes de promoción comercial.Igualmente, con fi nes promocionales, estos encartes son acompañados por campañas de degustación de papas nativas, especialmente en la semana del Día Nacional de la Papa que se celebra en el Perú todos los años el 30 de mayo. Estas campañas de promoción resaltaban las características intrínsecas de las papas nativas al enfatizar que eran \"un regalo del Perú para el mundo\" por ser un \"alimento milenario de origen andino llevado al resto del mundo\", pero también resaltaban sus características de contenido de vitaminas, minerales y fi bra, y su gran versatilidad gastronómica (Ordinola, M. et al.   2007, página 18). Otro tema que surge del análisis de los puntos de venta es que no se pueden manejar muchos nombres de variedades, ya que estos podrían confundir al comprador. Es por eso que, A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC en coordinación con CAPAC establecen 4 categorías de papas nativas: 1º.\"Putis\" que identifi caba las variedades de forma alargada, piel negra y pulpa amarilla.2º.\"Camotillos\" que identifi caba las variedades de forma alargada, piel clara y pulpa crema. 3º.\"Duraznillos\" que identifi caba las variedades de forma oblonga o redonda, piel rosada o roja. 4º.\"Chaccros\" comodín para varias variedades de formas y colores indistintos.En concreto, los autoservicios de Wong y Metro reconocen que se generaron expectativas en los consumidores de los puntos de venta ubicados en zonas y barrios residenciales, expectativas que, en su opinión, no han sido aún satisfechas, ya que el abastecimiento en los años siguientes fue irregular, generándose vacíos en los meses de setiembre y octubre. La situación más crítica se vivió precisamente en el año 2008, \"Año Internacional de la Papa\".El contrato entre Wong y A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC estableció 50 toneladas semanales como volumen requerido de abastecimiento. Según el Plan de Negocios de la empresa procesadora, elaborado por un consultor, este volumen también constituía el punto de equilibrio para la empresa, siempre y cuando no sólo transformara T´ikapapa, sino que diversifi cara sus líneas de transformación, consolidando su carga semanal de papas nativas.Al comienzo, A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC entregaba diariamente aproximadamente 570 kilogramos por entrega (500 bolsas) diarias a cada uno de los 26 puntos de venta, lo que indudablemente incrementaba los costos de la empresa, situación que se mantuvo durante los primeros 3 meses. A partir de agosto de 2005 se establece que las entregas se harían a través del centro de acopio de Corporación Wong y sería responsabilidad de Wong distribuir a los puntos de venta de acuerdo a sus requerimientos. Aún así, la distancia entre la planta de A&L y el centro de acopio de Wong era considerable. Además, como Wong asumió el costo de distribución, obligó a la empresa a mantener un supervisor.Lamentablemente, a partir de esta fecha A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC ya no contó con información de los volúmenes de venta en cada local, ni las cantidades vendidas de cada variedad de papa nativa. Esta situación ha incidido mucho en el proceso de difusión del concepto T´ikapapa.Otro problema que tuvo que enfrentar la empresa es que si anteriormente aprovechaba los viajes de entrega del producto para recoger las bolsas con tubérculos brotados o verdeados, para reemplazarlos o reprocesarlos, ahora debía atender estas devoluciones con un costo adicional no incluido en su proceso inicial.La empresa A&L desde un comienzo fue consciente de las exigencias que planteaba un abastecimiento de este tipo (prácticamente un abastecimiento al detalle). Es por eso que desde un comienzo manejó la siguiente estructura de costos para la marca T´ikapapa: Estos costos no incluyen la promoción de la marca T´ikapapa, que el año 2007 alcanzó los S/. 70.00 por día, pero sólo en días específi cos de promoción. Esta actividad por parte de la empresa fue clave para contribuir al posicionamiento del producto.Los costos directos de la mano de obra son por kilo de papa procesada y no incluyen las horas de descarte, las horas de reposición del producto y otras actividades adicionales. Según los propietarios de A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, el mantenimiento de esta operación comercial sólo estuvo justifi cada por el carácter promocional del mismo, sin embargo, al realizarse una contabilidad más detallada se evidenció que se estuvo trabajando a pérdida en muchos momentos de la operación. Por otro lado, el precio pagado al productor en muy pocos casos disminuyó cuando la empresa A&L decidió comprar a abastecedores mayoristas, con el fi n de completar la carga semanal requerida para sus operaciones. El precio histórico que la empresa pagó a mayoristas fue de S/. 0.90 el kilo. Es importante remarcar que dichas compras no se hicieron en ningún momento con fi nes de disminuir los costos ya que estos pequeños lotes tenían problemas de calidad y no eran una solución.Pero la estructura de costos que se presenta líneas arriba, en realidad refl eja un problema mayor de la transformación primaria. Este problema tiene que ver con la selección y el descarte, lo que se convirtió en un cuello de botella de la cadena, generando eslabonamientos hacia delante y hacia atrás, al punto que puso en crisis en muchos momentos el negocio. Según los empresarios de A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, al momento de lavar la papa en Lima se evidenciaban los problemas en los tubérculos, como daños físicos superfi ciales por acción de larvas de Epitrix spp. -una plaga muy común de las zonas altas de los Andes y que labran la piel de la papa afectando su presentación-y manchas en la piel de los tubérculos, cuyo origen no era posible precisar y que podrían deberse a daños mecánicos como a problemas genéticos. Todo esto afectaba la homogeneidad de los tubérculos exigidos para la comercialización en supermercados.Las papas que venían del campo, especialmente las que enviaban los productores individuales, tenían muchos problemas de calidad, los que sólo se evidenciaban después del lavado de los tubérculos en la planta. Es así que se detectaron problemas muy frecuentes como:• Tubérculos con rizoctoniasis (enfermedad asociada a suelos inundables de altura).• Tubérculos con piel labrada por daños de la larva del Epitrix spp. (plaga frecuente en terrenos de altura).• Mezclas de variedades con apariencia fenológica muy similar.Los dueños de la empresa A&L dicen que de algunas zonas tuvieron descartes de aproximadamente la mitad del lote enviado y que, si bien algunos de esos tubérculos podían ser utilizados en otras líneas de producción, el precio a pagar no se justifi caba por la calidad.Además, debido a que se trataba de mantener el abastecimiento de los autoservicios de Wong y Metro por más de 8 semanas (inclusive se llegó a abastecer durante 25 semanas continuas), muchas variedades tenían problemas con la vida útil en anaquel y también en los almacenes de la planta.Esto, debido a que sólo se lavaba inmediatamente una parte del lote ingresado a la planta. El resto, sin lavar, y con mínima manipulación, era almacenado, lo cual también implicaba costos, que no han sido estimados adecuadamente. Después, según la programación de entregas al Centro de Acopio de los supermercados de Wong y Metro, se iban lavando, seleccionando y clasifi cando los lotes restantes, por lo que no toda la papa enviada por un productor era pagada en las mismas fechas. En algunos casos la empresa, basada en la confi anza con el productor, tomó la decisión de saldar las diferencias, aún sin procesarlas, pero esta no fue una práctica común, ya que al momento del proceso se producían mermas y descartes que infl uían nuevamente en sus costos unitarios.Es ahí cuando los problemas de vida útil en almacén se evidencian con más fuerza. Uno de los investigadores entrevistados señala que la conservación es fundamental para garantizar la continuidad del abastecimiento de un producto con cosechas estacionales. Sin embargo, no hay técnicas que aseguren la conservación de los tubérculos, tanto en la planta industrial como en anaquel, más aún si los tubérculos que ingresan tienen diferentes edades fi siológicas.Indudablemente que esto tuvo implicancias en los costos de producción en planta, por más transformación primaria que hubiera, pero más importante aún, tuvo implicancias sobre la confi anza de los productores en la cadena de T´ikapapa. Si el problema se evidenciaba en planta y el productor enviaba un lote de 1,800 kilos, por ejemplo, y tenía un descarte de 800 kilos aproximadamente, sólo se le pagaba el precio convenido de S/. 1.20 por kilo (menos los descuentos por fl ete) sobre los 1,000 kilos. Este productor, que recuerda esta experiencia, considera que fue \"engañado\", ya que el afi rma haber hecho una selección adecuada bajo la supervisión de un técnico de la empresa.Además, relata este productor, que los 800 kilos restantes no le fueron devueltos, sino que la empresa le canceló a mitad del precio convenido. Obviamente, retornar estos tubérculos no era una operación sencilla (¿quién asume los costos?), pero el comentario surge porque las reglas de juego, con tanta distancia entre la zona de producción y la planta de procesamiento, no se trasmitían necesariamente de forma clara y oportuna. Otro ejemplo: en algunos casos la empresa atendió el pedido de los agricultores de devolverles la papa descartada, a pesar del costo y del deterioro que esto generaba, después de haber pasado más de 10 días entre la entrega y la devolución.Esta situación, descrita en términos de los actores, es importante toda vez que la empresa opina que las labores de selección y clasifi cación de los productores son inadecuadas, mientras que los productores opinan que la empresa no respetó sus acuerdos. En todo caso, el origen de este problema se entiende reconstruyendo las actividades que se implementaron en estos últimos 4 años y que se refi eren al acopio de las papas nativas, el cual continúa siendo crucial para el negocio.Los primeros productores contactados para el abastecimiento de papas nativas fueron los campesinos de comunidades andinas que habían sido contactados anteriormente por los programas de investigación y de conservación de la biodiversidad, conducidos por lo general, por entidades locales (públicas y privadas) de la cooperación internacional o por investigadores de algunos proyectos de recursos genéticos del Centro Internacional de la Papa. Es el caso de la comunidad de Aymará (distrito de Pazos, provincia de Tayacaja, departamento de Huancavelica) 24 .Entonces, los pequeños productores de Aymará fueron los primeros abastecedores de papas nativas para la marca T´ikapapa. Ellos ya habían trabajado desde el año 2002 con la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, abasteciéndola de papas nativas pigmentadas para su procesamiento en hojuelas fritas para la marca \"Jalca Chips\". Existe más de una versión sobre este contacto. Algunos productores de Aymará dicen que la Municipalidad de Tayacaja invitó al propietario de la empresa a la zona, a quien conocían por la comercialización de alcachofa. Otros dicen que el propietario de la empresa fue llevado a ver las parcelas de papas nativas sembradas con el Centro Internacional de la Papa 25 . Sea cual sea la verdad, lo importante es que ese fue el primer año en que los productores de Aymará recibieron un ofrecimiento de compra de sus papas nativas \"no comerciales\" para ser empleadas en la industria, tanto para la producción de hojuelas, como para producción de puré.Cuando en el año 2004 se vuelve a establecer un nuevo convenio, esta vez para el suministro de papas nativas seleccionadas para ser comercializadas en autoservicios, los productores se dan cuenta de que sus papas de piel roja, azul o negra, o de piel crema o amarilla, también son compradas por los consumidores de la ciudad de Lima, y que las prefi eren por su color, sabor, textura, por su fácil preparación, por ser naturales y por ser únicas. Este cambio de actitud en el pequeño productor de Aymará se hizo mucho más evidente cuando algunos de ellos viajaron a Lima llevando sus papas a la planta de la empresa y tuvieron oportunidad de ver sus papas exhibidas y a la venta en las tiendas de Plaza Vea o de Santa Isabel.Uno de los productores entrevistados nos comentó: \"nunca olvidaré cuando vi a mis papas tan bonitas y limpias guardadas en una bolsa transparente y con un cartón llamativo, con el nombre de mi papa\". En contraste él, que vendía sus excedentes de papas nativas comerciales en los mercados mayoristas de Huancayo, recordaba también que sus papas nativas no comerciales se vendían mezcladas y guardadas en sacos de yute, apenas dobladas en la boca del saco para ser exhibidas a los compradores, los que \"siempre las limpiaban de la tierra que lo cubría para asegurarse que no estuvieran agusanadas, dañadas o que no sea una variedad diferente a la Huayro roja, que era por la que más precio pagaban\".El primer convenio que realiza la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC con los pequeños productores de las comunidades andinas para garantizar el abastecimiento de materia prima fue con la Municipalidad de Tayacaja, en representación de cuatro comunidades campesinas. En este convenio se defi nen las reglas del negocio para los productores:• Las variedades de papas nativas aceptadas para la venta eran las recomendadas por la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC.• El precio inicial convenido fue de S/. 0.80 por kilo de papa seleccionada y que luego subiría a S/. • El fl ete del transporte de Huancavelica a Huancayo era cubierto totalmente por la Municipalidad (en los dos primeros envíos) y el fl ete de transporte de Huancayo a la planta de la empresa en Lima era cubierto por la empresa. Ambos fl etes eran descontados del precio convenido, una vez concretada la compra.• Posteriormente, el total del fl ete de transporte fue asumido por la empresa y descontado del precio convenido una vez concretada la compra.En estos convenios y acuerdos verbales no existió en ningún momento una defi nición específi ca de calidad y clasifi cación de la papa nativa, sólo se explicaba que deberían estar sanas, es decir sin daños mecánicos ni de plagas o enfermedades y con tubérculos de \"primera\", que probablemente fue entendido de manera diferente por cada agente ya que no se especifi có una clasifi cación según variedad.Debido a que la producción de las comunidades de Huancavelica no completaba el volumen de abastecimiento establecido con la Corporación Wong, se buscaron nuevas zonas productoras y también se intentó identifi car productores en zonas altas que sembrasen algunas de las 16 variedades de papa seleccionadas para este mercado. Para ello, la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC realizó convenios con la ONG FOVIDA, para articularse a los productores de Pomamanta (provincia Jauja, departamento Junín) y con CAPAC, para articularse a los productores de Andahuaylas.Finalmente establece un convenio de abastecimiento con la Asociación de Productores \"Tesoro de los Andes\" de esta última región en el año 2006. Las difi cultades que se presentaron en el acopio, además de los problemas de oferta que se tocarán en el siguiente acápite, obedecieron a la modalidad de la operación comercial, es decir al abastecimiento continuo, en pequeñas cantidades por envío y tratando de prolongar el período de venta a lo largo del año, tal y como lo exigía el mercado.Un primer problema fue la escasa capacidad individual de los productores para satisfacer las exigencias de volumen requerido de cada una de las variedades solicitadas por la empresa. Los relatos de algunos productores que participaron de estas operaciones, especialmente en los años 2005 y 2006, grafi can las difi cultades que se presentaron en el acopio.A pesar de que la empresa A&L intentó contactar con los mejores productores de papas nativas con el objetivo de garantizar una carga de operaciones adecuada, es decir, trabajar con productores que tuvieran mayor escala de producción, estos no pudieron cumplir con suministrar a la empresa 7 u 8 toneladas en un mes, y menos aún proporcionar un mixtura de papas nativas, como puede verifi carse en el relato del productor de Aymará, Testimonio 4.1, Anexo 4. La empresa trató de superar este problema, que surgía por trabajar con productores individuales.Al no poder identifi carse productores con escala de producción que disminuyera los riesgos y costos El número de productores comprometidos en el abastecimiento del año 2005 disminuyó en los años 2006, 2007 y 2008. Además del problema de producción y acopio de una mixtura de variedades de colores y del problema de la calidad expresado en el descarte, existió también un problema de frecuencia y oportunidad de abastecimiento.En los años 2007 y 2008, la empresa crea su propia red de agentes acopiadores para solucionar estos problemas. Sin embargo, no cuenta con información sobre la oferta, zonas, áreas en cosechas por variedad, calidad de los tubérculos, además, enfrenta difi cultades de comunicación y transporte, y una lista de etcéteras que ponen en riesgo el negocio.En el año 2005 se llegó a abastecer con 10 variedades y aún así hubo difi cultades para conseguir una mayor cantidad de las variedades más solicitadas como Camotillo, Huayro Macho, Milagros, Putis, Duraznilla y Chaccro (mezcla). Otras variedades como Yana Imilla, Novia Huajacchi y Wira Pasña, contribuyeron a superar en parte estos problemas de abastecimiento. No obstante, lo enviado por cada productor era muy poco, no mayor a los 2,000 kilos en el mejor de los casos. Si a eso se suma el descarte en planta, entonces fue imposible para la empresa satisfacer la demanda de las cadenas de autoservicios de Wong y Metro.De los testimonios recogidos en campo, se puede vislumbrar algunos problemas enfrentados en los años 2006 y 2007. Uno de ellos está referido a las diferencias de criterios de selección aplicados en el campo por el productor y los técnicos, versus los criterios de selección aplicados en la planta de la empresa. El otro problema es que se conocía aún muy poco sobre las variedades que la empresa consideraba adecuadas para la comercialización de T´ikapapa.Así, los productores aún no diferenciaban las variedades requeridas para el procesamiento (por ejemplo, para la producción de hojuelas de papa pigmentadas) de las variedades para el consumo en fresco, una vez lavadas, seleccionadas, clasifi cadas y embolsadas, como se puede concluir de la lectura del relato del Testimonio 4.3 en el Anexo 4.En todos los casos, si bien los productores aportaron al acopio de manera individual, los esfuerzos por realizar envíos de cargas a las empresas siempre se trataron de hacer a través de sus organizaciones.Cuando se proponía el abastecimiento a través de la asociación o grupo de productores, se encontraban con que no todos tenían papa sufi ciente para enviar a la empresa A&L, de acuerdo a lo convenido, es decir, según variedad y según calidad.Pero aún siendo pequeños los volúmenes que podían enviar a la empresa agroindustrial, los productores y sus familias encontraron en este mercado una buena oportunidad. Es el caso de algunos productores de la zona de Chicchi (provincia de Concepción, departamento de Junín), quienes por años han sido productores de papas nativas destinadas mayormente al autoconsumo y a la venta ocasional de sus excedentes. De ahí que consideran muy positiva su participación en la cadena de T´ikapapa, a pesar de las difi cultades que puedan haber tenido, como lo expresa una productora en el Testimonio 4.4 del Anexo 4.Entonces, a pesar de las difi cultades en los pagos y descartes, entre los productores se creó una expectativa creciente por la venta de sus papas nativas. Los productores que dieron sus testimonios, por ejemplo, informan que ellos hicieron su selección en campo, pero que aún así no toda su papa fue aceptada por la empresa. Por lo tanto, ha sido la falta de una cadena de calidad lo que ha estado afectando el abastecimiento, pero no sus expectativas.Para estos productores, el problema está en su producción: tienen limitaciones de semilla, terrenos y mano de obra para cumplir en forma oportuna y en cantidad sufi ciente con los pedidos de las empresas. Pero además aún su selección en campo no es la adecuada.Es importante partir de la opinión de la empresa con relación a este tema. Según los empresarios, nunca hubo una oferta concreta, cuantifi cada y verifi cable, de tal manera que en cada campaña nunca tuvieron seguridad sobre la cantidad disponible de papas nativas, lo que se complica más cuando se trataba de una mixtura de variedades. En resumen, en los 4 años que se abasteció a los autoservicios de Wong y Metro, no se pudo contar con un dato, por lo menos aproximado, de cuanto habría, por zona y por variedad, de papas nativas.De acuerdo a lo conversado con uno de los técnicos de campo que participó desde el año 2004 en el acopio de papas nativas para las cadenas de papa fresca y de papa procesada, el problema se resume en los altos costos para acopiar un volumen sufi ciente que haga rentable el negocio, porque los pequeños productores de la zona no producen en cantidades sufi cientes las variedades solicitadas.Por ejemplo, en abril del año 2005 este técnico \"articuló\" 2,000 kilos para \"Jalca Chips\" luego de haberse contactado con más de 100 productores.Posteriormente, en el mismo año. logró acopiar 8,500 kilos de más de 200 pequeños productores y debido a que se descartaron 2,000 kilos, entonces sólo pudo \"articular\" 6,500 kilos pero, por diversas razones, se suspendió la carga.Los descartes se incrementaron al articular las papas nativas para \"T´ikapapa\". La empresa, en respuesta a las exigencias de los supermercados, aplicó criterios de selección más rigurosos. Por ejemplo, el daño por Epitrix, que para \"Jalca Chips\" no tenía importancia, sí la tuvo para \"T´ikapapa\".Ante estas nuevas exigencias, hubo un nuevo descarte de aproximadamente otros 2,000 kilos de los 6,500 kilos que ya se habían articulado para la empresa A&L. En consecuencia, sólo se logró articular un poco más de 4,000 kilos. Esto generó desconfi anza entre los productores.Fue cuando se decidió que este acopio estuviera acompañado de una buena selección en campo, pero también manejando fondos de acopio para reducir el plazo del pago. Bajo este nuevo escenario, se espera que el agricultor entregue su papa ya seleccionada, y el representante de la empresa en el campo decidirá la forma de pago según la calidad presentada. Esta estrategia de comercialización ya había sido asumida por FOVIDA con sus productores (principalmente en papa blanca).Esto indica que hay un problema de oferta, vinculado a la dispersión de la producción en pequeñas parcelas, muchas veces aisladas, además de poco conocimiento de la cantidad y lugar de producción de cada variedad, y una estacionalidad tan acentuada de la producción.Usando sólo los casos de Huayro Macho y Camotillo, como se puede observar en la Figura 7, la relación entre la oferta y la demanda tiene vacíos y problemas que deben enfrentarse.Figura 7. Condiciones de oferta y demanda en una campaña de papas nativas Debido a los altos costos de acopio en campo, en algún momento se pensó implementar una estrategia de calidad, acopiando en el mercado de Huancayo. Sin embargo, la empresa no lo llevó a cabo debido a que contradecía uno de los componentes del concepto de innovación de T´ikapapa que es la vinculación de los pequeños productores con los consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad.Pero es evidente que por más selección que haya en el campo, el descarte y merma de lo acopiado en campo y en el mercado de Huancayo llega al 20%. En el caso del campo este porcentaje de descarte puede ir disminuyendo con una buena capacitación, lo que no sucede si se adquiere en el mercado mayorista de Huancayo, donde la mayor parte es merma.Un mayorista de papas nativas en el mercado de Huancayo, nos dijo que no todas las variedades que se quieren en Lima son conocidas en Huancayo, por ejemplo la variedad Cceccorani. Asimismo informó que los compradores de Huancayo también exigen calidad, sobre todo los restaurantes, y no siempre se logra disponer de la cantidad sufi ciente de las variedades más solicitadas.Además, ni los mayoristas ni las empresas agroindustriales conocen totalmente la estructura de costos de producción de las papas nativas. Hay costos que antes no tenían los productores y que ahora son importantes si eligen sembrar las variedades requeridas por las empresas. Algunos de estos costos son:• Semillas de las nuevas variedades comerciales de papas nativas: en Pomamanta, el año 2008 el kilo de semilla de la variedad Cceccorani estuvo a S/. 1.90. Para sembrar una hectárea se necesitan 1,000 kilos.• Arrendamiento de terrenos descansados de 5 a 8 años, conocidos como terreno \"polón\", con garantías de que no tienen gorgojo, y a los que no les afecte mucho la granizada. Tales terrenos son escasos y si no se contratan 'al partir' , entonces hay que pagar.• El transporte en llama desde la parcela hasta la casa o el lugar de acopio, cuyo costo es de S/.3.00 por carga (1 carga = 25 kilos).• Fumigaciones para el control de Epitrix: como mínimo dos aplicaciones con sipermetrinas.• Asesoramiento de los técnicos para garantizar la calidad. Ya es costumbre en la zona que este asesoramiento comercial está alrededor de S/. 0.01 por kilo.Las heladas son otro problema a tener en cuenta pues afectan la producción de las papas nativas en la zona, ya sea reduciendo los rendimientos o afectando el tamaño de los tubérculos: las papas son muy chicas y no son aceptadas ni para T´ikapapa y, menos aún, para hojuelas. Todos estos aspectos ya habían sido considerados por el representante de la Municipalidad de Tayacaja, encargado de la parte técnicaproductiva de la Gerencia de Desarrollo entre los años 2001 a 2006, al vincularse con las innovaciones que promovía el empresario de A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC. Para hacerles frente se implementaron acciones muy localizadas y que no necesariamente se convirtieron en prácticas colectivas.Todas estas condiciones limitan el rendimiento comercial. Uno de los productores precisó que su capacidad de producción de papas nativas es de 18 toneladas por hectárea, pero sólo el 60% es apta para la industria o para el mercado de T´ikapapa. Es decir, si tuviera una hectárea, dispondría de 10.8 toneladas para vender a estos mercados. Pero para eso necesita buena semilla, un terreno descansado en la altura, donde no haya mucho riesgo de helada y, fi nalmente, producir como máximo una o dos variedades en ese terreno, \"porque sólo así se garantiza un buen rendimiento. Todo lo demás depende de uno mismo\", subrayó.¿Qué implicaciones tuvieron las limitaciones en la transformación primaria, acopio de la materia prima y situación de la oferta en el negocio de la papa nativa fresca para la cadena de supermercados de Wong y Metro en Lima? y ¿cuál es la relación de éstas con los componentes del concepto de innovación implícito en \"T´ikapapa\"? Si tomamos en cuenta que la difusión de la innovación no es, por definición un tema de posicionamiento de la marca T´ikapapa, sino un proceso de expansión de un concepto de mercadeo, entonces estos aspectos del negocio tienen que responder a los componentes del concepto de innovación más que a sostener la marca en sí.Es bueno recordar que el concepto T´ikapapa implica un alimento gourmet con calidad, sabor, textura y cuyo posicionamiento está asociado al vínculo del pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano a través de la biodiversidad de las papas andinas, de manera que su novedad en calidad, sabor, textura y uso lo hace exclusivo, nutritivo y saludable. Desagregando, con fi nes de sistematización, este concepto, podemos identifi car tres componentes principales:1.El componente de mercadeo asociado a la papa seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia y embolsada.2.El componente institucional asociado a la vinculación de los pequeños productores con los consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad de la papa.3.El componente técnico asociado a la calidad, sabor y textura que garantiza el valor de mercado de un alimento exclusivo, nutritivo y saludable.Los únicos problemas del negocio, y que no incidieron en la difusión de la innovación, son los costos de la transformación primaria. Como éste fue el componente más trabajado durante el EPCP, los ajustes en cuanto a presentación, peso de la bolsa y clasifi cación de las papas nativas en cuatro categorías, mejoraron enormemente el potencial de difusión del concepto de comercialización de un alimento fresco para un mercado exigente, como es el de los consumidores gourmet.Sin embargo, es importante considerar que, como concepto, T´ikapapa aún tiene espacio en el mercado, ingresando a nuevos segmentos de la demanda, como el de los consumidores urbanos no gourmet (estratos medio, medio bajo) con hábitos de consumo en evolución hacia alimentos naturales y de calidad.Durante la difusión también surgieron demandas de los consumidores urbanos del interior del país, vinculados a cocinas regionales y a los cambios en la gastronomía de los mismos. Estos segmentos son importantes, pues manejan el concepto de alimento fresco, de calidad, homogéneo y limpio.Para este conjunto de nuevas demandas ya sea por segmentación del mercado o por diferenciación de nichos, debe trabajarse el tema de costos asociados a diferentes procesos de estandarización del producto mediante la transformación primaria.El acopio aún sigue siendo difícil y, además de afectar la rentabilidad del negocio, limita la institucionalización del vínculo entre pequeños productores y consumidores urbanos. Se intentaron diferentes estrategias, desde la posibilidad de acopio en el mercado mayorista de Huancayo, hasta la fi rma de convenios con los gobiernos locales para que actúen como intermediarios entre los productores y la empresa agroindustrial, pasando por la intermediación de un articulador de la empresa para el acopio individual, e intentando también contratos con asociaciones de productores o con grandes productores.Pero la estrategia más cercana a una cadena de valor que vincula al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano a través de la biodiversidad, se realizó a través de los gobiernos locales o asociaciones de productores. Ambos reconocían que las papas nativas son originarias del Perú, que fueron domesticadas por los primeros pobladores y que hasta la actualidad son cultivadas con métodos ancestrales que implican un menor o ningún uso de pesticidas. ¿Cómo se otorgó este reconocimiento a los pequeños productores andinos como principales y únicos abastecedores de estas papas? La Municipalidad de Tayacaja, que ya venía trabajando con la empresa A&L desde el año 2002 abasteciéndole de papas nativas para su procesamiento en hojuelas de papa con la marca \"Jalca Chips\", fi rma un convenio el año 2004 con la Corporación Wong para enviar papa nativa fresca seleccionada para ser comercializada bajo la marca T´ikapapa, ena los autoservicios.El contrato se renovó el año 2005 27 .En este convenio se acuerdan las condiciones de envío, se fi jan los precios, formas y plazos de los pagos; pero, a solicitud de la Municipalidad, se incluye una cláusula adicional donde se especifi ca que \"los recetarios que se repartían dentro o con las bolsas de la marca T´ikapapa deberían tener también el sello y escudo de la Municipalidad Provincial de Tayacaja\". Así lo recordó el Ing. Néstor Gonzáles, ex Subgerente de Desarrollo Económico de dicha municipalidad. La idea era que a través del sello de la Municipalidad se reconociera a las comunidades andinas que sacan provecho de los microclimas naturales a los que se adaptan diferentes variedades de papas nativas, impidiendo su desaparición y protegiendo las costumbres y conocimientos ancestrales. Los problemas de abastecimiento, consecuencia de la distribución al detalle, por el tamaño de mercado en que operó el negocio, constituye aún una limitante para la construcción de una cadena de calidad sólida.Durante la difusión existieron diferentes factores que afectaron la posibilidad de construir una cadena de calidad. Un primer aspecto está referido a la conservación en anaquel y en almacén. Un segundo aspecto se refi ere a la selección y clasifi cación que, durante el piloto y durante la difusión se constituyó en un cuello de botella al no poderse superar los porcentajes de descarte que se presentaron.En este aspecto, relacionado a la construcción de una cadena de calidad, los convenios --ya sea directamente con los productores o a través de entidades articuladoras como los gobiernos locales o asociaciones de productores, o articuladores privados vinculados a la empresa agroindustrial--además de incluir los compromisos de compra y venta, de programación del abastecimiento y de precios y calidades, no llegaron a incluir el compromiso de capacitación de los productores y las medidas técnicas o los procesos técnicos requeridos para integrar a la cadena de calidad desde la provisión de insumos y las prácticas de producción hasta las prácticas adecuadas de cosecha y poscosecha.Por lo tanto, la valorización por parte de los consumidores urbanos de un alimento exclusivo y único, de sabor y textura diferente, además de nutritivo y saludable, sólo se consolidará si se superan los problemas de abastecimiento. Esta condición es imprescindible para mantener el nivel de precios en el mercado, más aún ahora que se observa una diversifi cación de destinos y una ampliación de la oferta. En términos simples, la \"revalorización\" de la papa nativa por los consumidores urbanos se sustenta en la consolidación de una cadena de calidad.Queda en evidencia, repasando toda la experiencia de difusión y valorando adecuadamente los cuellos de botella que aún limitan la difusión masiva del concepto T´ikapapa, que los resultados de la intervención de la cadena de papas nativas con el EPCP han sido realmente exitosos y han generado prácticas que son reconocidas por los agentes de todos los eslabones de la cadena:• El consumidor del nicho de mercado al que se dirigió la T´ikapapa diferencia el producto y lo demanda.• La empresa agroindustrial tiene defi nidos los parámetros de calidad y de diferenciación del producto.• Los intermediarios y acopiadores conocen las variedades y las categorías de papas nativas que el mercado demanda.• Los productores se orientan a las demandas del mercado, seleccionando sus variedades y realizando su propia categorización en el campo.Sin embargo, estos resultados deben analizarse también desde la identifi cación de cada uno de los VI. EL USO MASIVO DEL CONCEPTO T´IKAPAPA En el capítulo anterior quedó en evidencia el éxito de la difusión del concepto de innovación, a través de una marca comercial. Pero también queda claro que aún hay debilidades en lograr una difusión exitosa de los componentes del concepto T´ikapapa. Para garantizar el uso masivo de dicho concepto de innovación es necesario considerar dos elementos vinculados entre sí: por un lado la necesidad de superar las debilidades que afectan la difusión exitosa de los componentes del concepto de innovación mediante el encadenamiento de nuevas innovaciones y, por otro, enfrentar defi nidamente la ampliación de los segmentos y nichos de mercado atendiendo al primer efecto de esta difusión, como es el incremento \"espontáneo\" del consumo fresco de papas nativas de calidad, seleccionadas, limpias y provenientes de la biodiversidad.La aplicación del EPCP logró identifi car los mercados para las papas nativas, mediante la identifi cación de nuevos productos, nuevos espacios de comercialización y nuevos consumidores. Pero la identifi cación de estas nuevas rutas de mercado siempre tuvo como objetivo contribuir a mejorar la situación de seguridad alimentaria y a superar la pobreza de los pequeños productores de papa de los Andes.Queda claro, después de reconstruir la operación del negocio con la marca \"T´ikapapa\", que algunos aspectos requieren aún nuevas intervenciones.El Coordinador de INCOPA en los años en que se aplicó el segundo EPCP está convencido que a partir del mercado deberían haberse generado encadenamientos hacia atrás en la cadena de calidad. ¿Cuáles son estos eslabonamientos de nuevas innovaciones que deben incorporarse para consolidar una cadena de calidad de la papa nativa? Usando el gráfi co proporcionado por el ex Coordinador de INCOPA, estos encadenamientos innovadores son tanto institucionales como técnicos. Figura 9. Cadena de innovaciones a partir de la identificación de nuevas rutas de mercado. Basados en este concepto, la difusión del concepto T´ikapapa nos muestra que son necesarias encadenar las siguientes innovaciones:1.Innovaciones institucionales de la cadena de calidad, construyendo:• Nuevas plataformas locales que trasladen y promuevan la confi anza y cooperación a todos los actores, con énfasis en los productores.• Establecimiento de contratos entre productores y empresas, no únicamente concentrados en las condiciones de compra y venta, sino incorporando responsabilidades de capacitación y mejoras tecnológicas (algo muy cercano a un joint venture).• Identifi cación de agentes articuladores que tengan como objetivo la vinculación de los pequeños productores con los consumidores a través del aprovechamiento sostenido de la biodiversidad.• Trasladar parte del proceso de creación del valor agregado a las zonas de producción, implementando centros de acopio, lavado, selección y clasifi cación in situ, de manera que los productores se involucren más en el concepto de calidad.• Técnicas de conservación de los tubérculos cosechados orientados a prolongar la vida útil de los tubérculos en anaquel y en almacén.• Sistemas de producción de semilla de calidad para garantizar los atributos intrínsecos de las papas nativas.• Técnicas de producción vinculadas a las exigencias de productos naturales, nutritivos y sanos, especialmente concentrados en técnicas de fertilización y manejo de plagas y enfermedades. Estos cambios deberán contribuir a consolidar el concepto T´ikapapa superando los problemas de abastecimiento y de calidad, posicionando el producto en el mercado. En relación con la superación de los problemas de abastecimiento, hay que convertir las buenas prácticas en innovaciones institucionales:• ¿Cómo asegurar el vínculo entre los pequeños agricultores y los consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad? Las experiencias de intermediación y articulación con gobiernos locales y asociaciones de productores son temas a considerar en los cambios institucionales que se provoquen en las cadenas.• ¿Cómo garantizar una cadena de calidad con productores dispersos y atomizados? Además del cambio en la articulación, sería importante integrar cambios en la cadena de valor, como por ejemplo, realizar la primera transformación primaria mediante centros de acopio y transformación en las zonas productivas, que abastecerían a la planta industrial de embolsado y distribución cercana a los mercados fi nales.Con relación a los problemas de calidad y que generaron desconfi anza entre los agricultores y la empresa transformadora, es necesario implementar mejoras tecnológicas:• Técnicas de cosecha y poscosecha, incorporando prácticas orientadas a garantizar los estándares de calidad y la categorización de los tubérculos en cada uno de los eslabones de la cadena, empezando con las técnicas de producción de los pequeños productores.• La innovación tecnológica 1 de la Figura 10, cerca del mercado fi nal, se refi ere a las técnicas de conservación para prolongar la vida útil de la papa nativa en anaquel y en almacén.• La innovación tecnológica 2 de la misma fi gura, encadena la recepción en planta industrial con el acopio y la producción a través de la difusión del proceso de selección y categorización de la papa nativa.• La innovación tecnológica 3 de la misma fi gura, al inicio de la cadena y en la base productiva, requiere de semilla garantizada de calidad. Pero no es el único cambio técnico productivo, hay otros asociados como la fertilización y manejo de plagas y enfermedades que también deben resolverse.El uso del mismo concepto ya plantea nuevos retos, debido a que el primer efecto de esta difusión exitosa es la demanda de papas nativas de calidad por nuevos segmentos de mercado. Los nuevos segmentos identifi cados por varios agentes de la cadena son:1.El segmento de consumidores urbanos de ingresos medio/bajo y medios, tanto de Lima como de las principales ciudades del interior, identifi can el producto de calidad pero requieren de nuevas formas de presentación y mercadeo, que garanticen el concepto de papas nativas seleccionadas, limpias y nutritivas. Los supermercados y los mercados municipales en Lima están comercializando papas nativas seleccionadas, enmalladas y a granel, para este tipo de consumidores tratando de abastecerlos con una mezcla de variedades.2.El segmento de consumidores urbanos de las ciudades departamentales y provinciales, se han convertido en consumidores más exigentes debido a su gastronomía regional. Si antes aceptaban una papa nativa de mala calidad sólo por el placer de consumirla, ahora quieren seguir consumiendo estas papas nativas pero seleccionadas, limpias y de calidad. En Huancayo, capital de la provincia de Junín, la mezcla de variedades que se está comercializando es mucho más amplia que la que se comercializa en Lima.3.Los restaurantes, en el segmento de mercado de consumo fuera del hogar, demandan estas papas nativas y, aunque su demanda se caracteriza por ser continua y en pequeñas cantidades, requieren de una cadena de calidad que no sólo satisfaga sus exigencias de alimento gourmet, sino que además garantice su abastecimiento continuo, de modo que se convierta en un mercado sostenible.Concentrándonos sólo en el mercado de alimentos frescos 29 , uno de los aspectos que tiene que tomarse en cuenta es el conocimiento del tamaño del mercado de papas nativas de calidad. Actualmente, 29 Esta expansión a nuevos segmentos de mercado es sólo para la papa nativa fresca, ya que no considera otros productos innovadores de la papa nativa, como las hojuelas fritas de colores, los purés de papas nativas, las papas nativas congeladas (con y sin pre cocido), entre otros, que también se han convertido en un nuevo mercado para los pequeños productores de papas nativas en los Andes del Perú.todos los productores y articuladores comerciales declaran que la demanda por papas nativas se ha incrementado y que no sólo existe la posibilidad de vender a la industria o a los supermercados, sino que han aparecido nuevos compradores o, que en sus mercados locales, los precios de estas papas han mejorado y el número de acopiadores locales se ha incrementado.Además del desconocimiento del tamaño de la demanda, no se tiene aún muy clara la frecuencia de compra de la papa nativa en cada uno de los segmentos anteriormente señalados, ni tampoco se tienen parámetros de la frecuencia de consumo por cada tipo de consumidor, y por ende del tiempo que debe permanecer almacenada la papa y, fi nalmente, ante la mezcla de variedades ofertadas y demandadas aún quedan vacíos sobre sus formas de consumo. Por ahora el concepto de alimento seleccionado, de calidad y nutritivo, está asociado a alimento único y exclusivo, haciéndolo muy atractivo y valorado, pero que aún no logra un posicionamiento claro en el mercado.Un primer elemento que afecta dicho posicionamiento es la estacionalidad de la oferta frente a la continuidad de la demanda a lo largo del año. Los responsables de la cadena de supermercados de Wong y Metro dicen que sus clientes demandan ciertas variedades todo el año y que hasta la fecha no han podido resolver este problema. Pero además, la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC declara no conocer la oferta, ya que al acopiar una mixtura de variedades, se encuentran muchas veces con que no hay sufi ciente cantidad de las variedades más demandadas en los supermercados. Esto ya fue crítico en los años 2007 y 2008. \"No conocemos la oferta por variedad y por zona, lo que eleva los costos de acopio y, por ende, los costos de transformación primaria\", declaró uno de los representantes.El segundo elemento que afecta el posicionamiento es la vida en anaquel de las papas nativas.Si bien la demanda es continua a lo largo del año, no hay una frecuencia de compra establecida, especialmente en los puntos de venta ubicados en zonas residenciales de los estratos medio/altos y altos. \"Hubo semanas donde faltó el producto, pero también hubo semanas donde el producto quedó en anaquel\", declaran algunos responsables de la cadena de supermercados. Pero también los representantes de A&L dicen que \"están aprendiendo recién sobre la vida útil en almacén y en anaquel de cada una de las variedades que comercializan, de modo que de las 17 variedades que inicialmente se trataban, ahora se ha reducido a unas 8 variedades, que muestran mejor respuesta al almacenamiento luego de ser tratadas.Finalmente, si bien el comprador de una papa nativa se interesa por este alimento por su exclusividad y originalidad, tiene aún dudas sobre cómo o cuál es la mejor manera de consumirla. Una preparación inadecuada, según las características de cada una de las variedades que se comercializan, puede desalentar su consumo, de ahí que los supermercados de Wong y Metro hayan continuado con la promoción de las formas de consumo de las mismas, distribuyendo recetarios o proponiendo degustaciones de formas novedosas de consumo.Si la expansión a nuevos segmentos de mercado no toma en consideración estos elementos, el uso extensivo del concepto T´ikapapa puede verse afectado. En defi nitiva, tanto para lograr su posicionamiento en el mercado como para aprovechar la expansión a nuevos segmentos de mercado, se debe tomar en cuenta los aprendizajes colectivos de la etapa de difusión.Sin que aún se hayan generado las alternativas tecnológicas requeridas por esta cadena de calidad, se pueden realizar innovaciones institucionales 30 en la cadena de valor que garanticen la calidad del alimento que exigen o exigirán los consumidores de los segmentos de mercado anteriormente señalados y que en parte han sido sugeridas por algunos actores de la cadena. Estos cambios implican 31 :1.Incorporación efectiva del pequeño productor a la cadena de calidad, mediante la integración de las organizaciones de productores o de sus gobiernos locales con el objetivo de reducir los costos de transacción intermediando en las negociaciones entre los pequeños productores y las empresas agroindustriales. A través de sus organizaciones, o de los gobiernos locales, el pequeño productor dejará sólo de ser un productor de materia prima para la empresa y asumirá nuevos roles en las actividades de la cadena, como el acopio, el transporte y, poco a poco, podrá infl uir en el manejo de la cadena de valor (Peppelenbos, L. and H. Verkuikl. 2006, Páginas 117 -131), como sucedió con el Convenio entre la Municipalidad de Tayacaja y la Empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, y que fue un modelo de plataforma local.2.Mayor integración horizontal en la selección y clasifi cación de las papas nativas, en respuesta a las exigencias de calidad del mercado. Esto implica que la selección y clasifi cación defi nitiva se haga lo más próxima al productor o en su zona de producción, si fuera posible. De este modo se mejoraría la negociación en el precio y en las formas de pago al productor, reduciéndose los costos generados por el rechazo de calidad no aceptada por la planta. Adicionalmente, el productor aplicaría sus criterios de selección y clasifi cación tanto en campo como en planta, garantizando de ese modo una mayor coherencia en las prácticas de cosecha con las prácticas de poscosecha.3.Lo anterior implica que la transformación primaria, actualmente centralizada en una planta cerca del mercado fi nal, se desdoble en dos fases: una primera fase de lavado, selección y clasifi cación, en una planta ubicada en la zona de producción, y una segunda fase de almacenamiento y envasado, en una planta ubicada estratégicamente cerca de los puntos de venta, sean mayoristas o minoristas, de acuerdo al segmento de mercado a atender.4.Por último, siendo una cadena de calidad, hay que institucionalizar las categorías de papas nativas y el origen de las mismas, a través de un sello que lo distinga en el mercado.30 Las innovaciones institucionales se refieren a la superación de cuellos de botella mediante arreglos organizacionales específicos para el negocio, como nuevas formas de contrato, nuevas formas de acopio, normas de calidad, etc. 31 A partir de las lecciones de estas primeras experiencias, se vienen empezando a manejar estos cambios. Para el punto 1, se vienen promoviendo plataformas locales con participación de los productores; para los puntos 2 y 3 se ha realizado un estudio de centros de acopio para viabilizar los ajustes requeridos y para el punto 4 se viene promoviendo la Iniciativa Papas Andinas (www.papasandinas.org) y ahora se cuenta con un sello para el comercio de las papas nativas.Para garantizar el uso expandido del concepto T´ikapapa, sin encadenar aún las innovaciones tecnológicas que siguen siendo necesarias implementar, llevar a la práctica las innovaciones institucionales sugeridas implica una cadena del siguiente tipo: Figura 11. Cadena de calidad con cambios institucionales propuestos.La integración horizontal propuesta en el Figura 11 requerirá de nuevos arreglos entre los agentes de cadena con el soporte de otros agentes del entorno que establezcan reglas y normas que faciliten la concreción de las mismas, sobre todo si el mercado más amplio de las papas nativas frescas deLos roles de los diferentes actores que participaron de esta innovación se pueden entender mejor desde la perspectiva de un sistema de innovación, donde los intereses y expectativas de los agentes de la cadena se relacionan con los intereses y expectativas de otros agentes que actúan en dimensiones diferentes a lo económico y productivo.Con fi nes comparativos se toman los casos de las innovaciones de \"Jalca Chips\" y del concepto \"T´ikapapa\", de manera que nos permita identifi car los actores, defi nir sus roles y entender las interrelaciones que se generaron entre ellas. A partir de dicha identifi cación se esquematiza el sistema de innovación de la papa nativa y su evolución en las tres etapas del desarrollo y uso del concepto T´ikapapa, empezando por una innovación que lo antecedió para la primera etapa, para luego observar la maduración de dicho sistema en la etapa de desarrollo y difusión del concepto T´ikapapa y en la etapa de uso masivo de dicho concepto.Gracias a esta perspectiva, se entiende mejor el rol del EPCP (y por lo tanto de INCOPA) no sólo en propiciar y facilitar el proceso de generación y desarrollo de T´ikapapa, sino en haber contribuido a la identifi cación de un actor relevante de todo sistema, como es el articulador de los intereses y aportes de diferentes actores ubicados en distintas dimensiones del sistema.Tanto en la etapa anterior a la innovación como en la generación y difusión del concepto de innovación T´ikapapa los actores más sobresalientes fueron los:1. Pequeños productores de papas nativas, interesados en conocer mercados para sus productos.2. Empresarios agroindustriales, tratando de identifi car nuevas oportunidades de inversión en los mercados de alimentos.3. Centros de investigación, en este caso, enfocados a la conservación y uso de la biodiversidad.4. Agencias de desarrollo local y nacional, cada vez más interesadas en la integración de los pequeños productores a las cadenas de valor.Las únicas cadenas de papa nativa conocidas antes de las innovaciones propiciadas por INCOPA, eran las de la papa amarilla (vs. Tumbay, Huamantanga y Peruanita) y de la papa de color (v. Huayro, que se regían por la tradicional cadena de la papa blanca comercial para los mercados mayoristas.Cuando INCOPA interviene la cadena lo hace recuperando un esfuerzo que lo antecedía: el suministro de papa nativa para la agroindustria de hojuelas de papas, el mismo que nos permite reconstruir el sistema de innovación previo a la intervención del EPCP que facilitó la generación, desarrollo y difusión de la T´ikapapa de manera comparativa al caso anterior.Los primeros esfuerzos de innovación de la papa nativa estuvieron orientados a generar una cadena de valor para la agroindustria, como fue el caso de \"Jalca Chips\", cadena que tuvo como actores a los agentes ya mencionados, incluyendo esporádicamente a empresarios procesadores, pero con débiles interrelaciones entre sí, a excepción de las agencias de desarrollo, con los pequeños productores que participaban de sus programas.En la Tabla 3 se presentan 4 posibles casos de interrelación entre pares de actores, desde tener ninguna relación (0) hasta una relación simétrica (3), pasando por una relación de aceptante (1) y por una relación de proponente (2). Estas dos últimas expresiones de una relación en un solo sentido.Se pudo observar que en el desarrollo de la innovación \"Jalca Chips\" los pequeños productores fueron receptores de las propuestas de los centros de investigación y que sólo en su relación con las agencias de desarrollo tuvieron la oportunidad de ser proponentes, es decir, de expresar sus expectativas e intereses, pero a su vez ellos recibieron de parte de las agencias de desarrollo las propuestas de éstas. Esto no implicó necesariamente una integración de intereses o un proceso recíproco de intercambio.Los empresarios agroindustriales, por su parte, no estuvieron integrados a la generación de la innovación, sino que participaron en la fase fi nal de su desarrollo, como operadores industriales para la transformación y presentación de la marca comercial.Pero a pesar de estas débiles relaciones, este nuevo producto de hojuelas fritas de papas nativas logró completar su desarrollo como innovación y tuvo una fase de comercialización-difusión, que puso en evidencia las debilidades y limitaciones del producto comercial fi nal. No se puede concluir que la falta de integración de los actores afectó el desarrollo completo de la innovación \"Jalca Chips\", pero sí es posible suponer que el proceso de innovación se hubiese enriquecido si se hubiesen aprovechado los roles de los actores a través de una cooperación más estrecha.Estos mismos actores vuelven a participar de la generación y desarrollo del concepto de innovación T´ikapapa, pero a ellos se suman nuevos actores producto de la experiencia exitosa del primer EPCP que aplicó el Proyecto INCOPA, como ya se ha mencionado. Los actores, identifi cados con un mayor nivel de precisión y que participaron desde la identifi cación del producto hasta el desarrollo del concepto, fueron los:1. Pequeños productores de papas nativas, de las zonas de Pampas (Huancavelica) y de Huánuco, articulados a través de FOVIDA y ADERS, interesados en conocer mercados para sus productos.2. Pequeños empresarios agroindustriales de Lima, como Excel y A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC (este último no trabajaba con papa) interesados en nuevos productos de papa en general y de la papa nativa en particular, con algunas propuestas de productos novedosos para la industria y exportación, en respuesta a las demandas que identifi caban en los mercados.3. Centros de investigación, como el INIA, a través de uno de sus programas, y de investigadores del Proyecto INCOPA, interesados tanto en la conservación y uso de la biodiversidad como en el desarrollo de productos innovadores enfocados al mercado.4. Agencias de desarrollo local y nacional, con experiencias en la agricultura por contrata como FOVIDA y ADERS, con propuestas de aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad de los alimentos andinos y con experiencia reciente en el desarrollo de innovaciones comerciales en el mercado nacional de la papa.5. Comerciantes mayoristas de Lima, interesados en proponer nuevas estrategias de comercialización capaces de obtener mayores márgenes de comercialización y menores costos de transacción, tanto para la papa en general como para las papas nativas.6. Chefs, involucrados en el desarrollo de la gastronomía nacional, deseosos de incorporar ingredientes de la biodiversidad a sus novedosas propuestas culinarias.7. Profesionales de programas del Estado, cuyas entidades o agencias trabajaban en promocionar cadenas productivas como parte de sus políticas públicas, especialmente enfocados a integrar a los pequeños productores de papas.En la Tabla 4 se resumen las interrelaciones entre los diferentes actores durante el proceso de generación y desarrollo de la innovación T´ikapapa, como resultado de la aplicación del segundo EPCP por el Proyecto INCOPA. Es importante precisar que al incluir este Proyecto como uno de los actores, ubicado entre los centros de investigación, no nos referimos a su rol de facilitador del EPCP sino a su mandato de desarrollo de tecnologías.En este caso los niveles de relaciones entre pares de actores van desde no tener ninguna relación (0) hasta establecer una relación de cooperación (4), pasando por una débil relación de aceptante (1)   o una débil relación de proponente ( 2) y por una relación simétrica aunque no de cooperación (3).Los pequeños productores de papa nativa no establecieron interrelaciones de intercambio y cooperación en la generación y desarrollo de la innovación T´ikapapa, como se puede observar en la primera columna y en la primera fi la de la tabla de relaciones entre pares de actores. Cuando se revisan las memorias de las reuniones del grupo temático de papas nativas frescas del segundo EPCP aplicado por INCOPA, se puede comprobar su mínima participación física en las mismas.Sin embargo, sus intereses siempre estuvieron refl ejados en el desarrollo del concepto comercial de esta innovación. Se puede concluir que no siempre la participación ni una estrecha interrelación garantizan un aporte signifi cativo, más si el concepto está basado en atender atributos del mercado.Con excepción de los comerciantes mayoristas, todos los demás actores cercanos al mercado fueron los que lograron relaciones más simétricas o relaciones de cooperación entre pares. En el caso de los comerciantes, no es que no tuvieran interés en la innovación, pero por ser una nueva cadena y porque el desarrollo del concepto de innovación se orientaba hacia los autoservicios, su rol se fue diluyendo y al fi nal sus relaciones, fuertes al comienzo, se debilitaron o desaparecieron.La relación entre productores y comerciantes no logró consolidarse, porque los primeros no estuvieron presentes y los segundos no tuvieron oportunidad de intercambiar sus expectativas e intereses de mercado con las expectativas e intereses de los agricultores dedicados a la producción de los alimentos.Cuando al fi nal del desarrollo del concepto y durante la difusión del mismo, se incorporan las cadenas de autoservicios, los vacíos dejados por la participación de los comerciantes, se retoman delineando con mayor exactitud el mercadeo del nuevo producto.Estos agentes, vinculados a las cadenas de autoservicios, fueron invitados a participar desde un inicio en el EPCP, sin embargo no fue fácil garantizar su participación y compromiso en las primeras etapas de creación y desarrollo del concepto de mercadeo. De ahí que cuando se les contacta con un concepto de mercadeo ya defi nido (en este caso el producto embolsado y listo para ser comercializado) su participación se convierte en una relación de cooperación enriquecedora para la innovación propuesta.Los que jugaron un rol importante en la construcción de los componentes del concepto T´ikapapa fueron los chefs, ya que ellos expresaron los usos potenciales de la papa nativa en la cocina de los posibles consumidores urbanos.Su relación con los actores clave de la innovación se fortaleció y fue de cooperación y fuerte intercambio, toda vez que ellos expresaban una oportunidad que podía ser satisfecha por las capacidades integradas de empresarios, centros de investigación y agencias de desarrollo y promoción, estos últimos vinculados a la oferta de los productores, además de su vínculo étnico con la biodiversidad.Tabla 4. Relaciones entre actores de la innovación en el caso de la T´ikapapa.Se puede afi rmar que el EPCP fue la síntesis o encuentro entre los pequeños empresarios, agencias de desarrollo y promoción y algunos investigadores que tenían la capacidad potencial de hacer algo nuevo y la percepción de los chefs de una oportunidad o necesidad de aprovechar tal capacidad, de modo que contribuyó positivamente a mejorar las relaciones entre agentes con intereses, expectativas y roles muy heterogéneos y, a veces, contrapuestos. A estos actores se sumaron los funcionarios del Ministerio de Agricultura, a través de la Dirección General de Promoción Agraria, quienes se convirtieron en actores clave en las interrelaciones y en las acciones de incidencia política.Los diversos actores anteriormente descritos son parte de un fenómeno de interacción social con valores, intereses, conocimientos, capacidades y pautas de conducta diferentes, y que han confl uido en un solo esfuerzo, que es el de garantizar la implantación del concepto T´ikapapa en las prácticas de mercado de las papas peruanas. Estos actores realizan sus actividades en diferentes entornos: Los pequeños productores y pequeños empresarios actúan en la dimensión productiva, de generación de valor en la cadena de calidad cuyo vínculo directo con el mercado los ubica en el entorno productivo-comercial; los centros de investigación y las agencias de desarrollo trabajan al nivel de la infraestructura de investigación y desarrollo de tecnologías; y las agencias de promoción se ubican en el entorno de las políticas. Un esquema simplifi cado de esta perspectiva de sistema se puede observar en la Figura 12, donde se vislumbran los 3 entornos descritos. Presentaremos los arreglos e interrelaciones que se han dado en tres momentos diferentes, uno primero que ilustra el sistema de innovación de la papa nativa a través del caso de la \"Jalca Chips\", antecedente de T´ikapapa, y los otros dos vinculados a los momentos de generación y desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa y a la difusión y expansión del uso de este concepto de mercadeo de la papa nativa.Entre los cuatro actores identifi cados en la generación y desarrollo de esta innovación, que constituye un antecedente de la puesta en valor de las papas nativas, no existe ningún agente que opere en el entorno de las políticas y fi nanciamiento, de ahí que esta innovación sólo se dio en los ámbitos de la investigación y desarrollo tecnológico y productivo-comercial.Otra de las características de esta innovación es que fueron relaciones en una sola dirección, mayormente originadas en el entorno de la investigación y desarrollo. Los agentes productivoscomerciales fueron actores aceptantes del nuevo producto.Figura 13. \"Jalca Chips\" desde la perspectiva de sistema de innovación.Sin embargo, ya en la etapa de difusión, se observa que hay un ligero cambio hacia relaciones recíprocas entre los actores del entorno de la tecnología y los pequeños empresarios y operadores comerciales del entorno productivo-comercial, resultante sobre todo de la puesta en marcha del negocio.El interés de los actores identifi cados en la Figura 13 no logró plasmarse en relaciones de confi anza y, por ende, la cooperación entre actores fue mínima. La existencia de un centro de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico fue el elemento clave para impulsar la innovación, pese a que no se logró vincular al entorno de políticas y aún cuando sus relaciones con los pequeños empresarios y operadores comerciales fue la más fl uida e importante.De ahí que no sea fácil describir una relación sistémica entre los actores, algunos de los cuales (como las agencias de desarrollo que operan en el entorno tecnológico) sólo se integraron para articular la cadena, sin participar en la innovación en sí.Pero la generación de un nuevo producto en el mercado de snacks de papas fue exitosa. En los siguientes años surgieron nuevos productos bajo el mismo concepto: Papy Bum, generado por la aplicación del método RAAKS o primer EPCP, y nuevas marcas de hojuelas de papas de colores y pigmentadas, como \"Mr. Chips\" de la corporación Gloria, \"Peruanísimas\" de Frito Lay y 2 o 3 marcas regionales sobre el mismo concepto de snack. En todo este proceso el Proyecto INCOPA y sus socios tuvieron un rol clave.Tanto en los casos de Papy Bum (hojuelas fritas de papa amarilla), de \"Mr. Chips\" (hojuelas fritas de papas nativas pigmentadas y de papa amarilla) y de \"Peruanísimas\" (hojuelas de calidad de papa amarilla) los entornos políticos habían cambiado: existía ya una mayor promoción de las papas nativas; orientación de créditos para negocios en cadena de productos con mercado identifi cado y rentable, y políticas institucionales de desarrollo alentando el aprovechamiento y uso de la biodiversidad.Desde la perspectiva del sistema de innovación de las papas nativas, diferentes actores actúan en diferentes entornos, interesados en identifi car nuevos productos, nuevos mercados y nuevas oportunidades de negocios para las papas nativas.En ese contexto, la aplicación del segundo EPCP por el Proyecto INCOPA logra interesar a estos actores en un nuevo concepto de mercadeo, genera relaciones de confi anza entre los actores clave de cada uno de los entornos productivo-comercial, tecnológico y político, y consigue la colaboración de todos ellos para lograr el encuentro entre las capacidades de los pequeños productores y pequeños empresarios con la oportunidad generada por los chefs de aprovechar dichas capacidades.Las relaciones entre los actores de los entornos tecnológicos y productivo-comerciales fueron adecuadamente intermediadas por el EPCP, facilitando su cooperación. Como se observa en la Figura 14, las interrelaciones más fuertes se dieron cerca del mercado y, aún más, se crearon nuevas relaciones entre los actores de un mismo entorno, especialmente entre los chefs y la pequeña empresa agroindustrial y entre la cadena de autoservicios y la pequeña empresa.Lo que no prosperó fue una mayor interrelación entre la pequeña empresa agroindustrial con los pequeños productores, debido a que en la cadena no se dieron los cambios institucionales que contribuyeran a mejorar este componente central del concepto de innovación desarrollado.Figura 14. T´ikapapa desde la perspectiva del sistema de innovación.Otro aspecto importante es que se facilitaron las relaciones entre los actores del entorno de las políticas y los actores de los entornos tecnológico y productivo-comercial, debido especialmente al rol de facilitación que asumió el EPCP. Al revisar el proceso de la innovación es evidente la importancia que tuvo el entorno positivo de promoción de la papa y de su biodiversidad desde distintas instancias:Ministerio de Agricultura, empresarios, etc.En defi nitiva, si bien las relaciones entre los actores de cada entorno mejoraron en confi anza y cooperación, lo más importante de la intervención del EPCP fue facilitar las relaciones de interés, confi anza y colaboración entre los distintos ámbitos del sistema de innovación.Si lo comparamos con el caso anterior de \"Jalca Chips\", el surgimiento de la innovación T´ikapapa fue un proceso social de aprendizaje y acción colectiva mucho más evidente y con lazos muy fuertes de gestión del conocimiento, tanto al interno de los agentes de la cadena, así como al interno de los niveles tecnológico y político.Lo que sí resalta es que esta gestión se amplió, gracias al rol facilitador del EPCP, a mejorar las relaciones entre los tres niveles del sistema de innovación.Se considera esta etapa diferenciada de la etapa anterior de generación y desarrollo de la innovación T´ikapapa, toda vez que el EPCP, según la aplicación de su metodología, alcanzó a transferir todo el proceso al sector privado constituido por organizaciones de pequeños productores, operadores Figura 15. El reto para el encadenamiento de innovaciones desde la perspectiva del sistema.Se puede observar que más que un vacío de articulación entre los actores de cada entorno, lo que existe es un vacío importante en la articulación entre los entornos del sistema, es decir un vacío en las posibilidades de encuentro entre las capacidades de innovar y la oportunidad de aprovechar tales capacidades.¿Qué condiciones han variado para que este vacío se visualice y empiece a ser un problema que debe ser resuelto tanto al interior de la cadena como al interior del sistema de innovación que lo sustenta?Si comparamos las condiciones de los entornos de los sistemas de innovación del segundo EPCP con el actual de uso masivo del concepto T´ikapapa, como se puede observar en la Tabla 5, encontraremos que se está pasando a un nuevo nivel de cambios que requerirá de nuevas capacidades.Tabla 5. Nuevas condiciones de los entornos del sistema de innovación de papas nativas.Si bien el Proyecto INCOPA logró validar el EPCP como una metodología efi ciente de intervención de la cadena productiva partiendo de las oportunidades de mercado, en la difusión y transferencia de la innovación requirió de la aplicación total o parcial de otras estrategias como las plataformas de concertación o cooperación, como sucedió al inicio con el Municipio de Tayacaja, o como las plataformas de calidad, como fue el caso de la intervención de CAPAC. Sin embargo, la transferencia estuvo muy centrada en el producto comercial, lo que infl uyó en que estas prácticas no hayan madurado sufi cientemente para incorporarse a la cadena y, por ende, al sistema de innovación.Pero estos instrumentos son muy válidos en este nuevo escenario. Por ejemplo, la reproducción de semilla de calidad no sólo debe incorporar procesos tecnológicos innovadores (caso de la aeroponía), sino que los puede y debe hacer al interior de las plataformas locales de cooperación, como ya viene sucediendo con la \"Plataforma de Papas Nativas de Pazos\".Otro tema a resolver es la mejora tecnológica de la fase de conservación, no sólo desarrollando técnicas o insumos técnicos para prolongar la vida útil en almacén o en anaquel de la papa nativa fresca, sino también estableciendo normas técnicas de manejo de almacenes y anaqueles para productos frescos con tratamiento primario (diseño de planta, aeración, límites de humedad, temperatura y luminosidad), y que deben ser recogidos y promovidos por una plataforma de calidad, como es CAPAC.En conclusión, desde la perspectiva de sistema de innovación, el concepto T´ikapapa genera lecciones muy importantes y que deberían ser rescatados como lecciones aprendidas de esta experiencia exitosa.La primera evidencia es que el nuevo escenario --cualitativamente distinto a cuando intervino el EPCP--requiere de nuevos actores, tanto para garantizar la operatividad de la cadena de calidad como para aprovechar las nuevas oportunidades. Uno de los actores clave es el articulador entre los distintos actores de la cadena y de la cadena con los otros niveles del sistema de innovación.Se buscó identificar oportunidades para aprovechar capacidadesSe busca desarrollar capacidades para aprovechar las oportunidades de expansión del mercadoSe debe fortalecer el entorno de la infraestructura de la investigación y desarrollo tecnológico para garantizar el desarrollo de capacidades Se debe mejorar la eficiencia de la cadena con nuevos arreglos institucionales entre los actores Se concentró en fortalecer el entorno productivo -comercial como respuesta inmediata a las demandas identificadas Se incentivó el interés de diversos agentes para construir una cadena de calidad b.Selección e introducción de nuevas variedades de papas nativas en respuesta a las demandas del mercado. Como ejemplo se puede mencionar que uno de los productores mencionó que por ahora está comprando semilla de las variedades más exigidas por la industria y el mercado de Lima y que las sembrará con asistencia técnica, ya que nunca las ha sembrado y no conoce como se comportarán.c.Adaptación de sus procesos de producción de papas nativas para alcanzar los atributos de calidad exigidos por el mercado (tamaño y sanidad). Un aspecto clave fue la siembra de un solo cultivar de papas nativas en vez de la tradicional mezcla de variedades), lo cual incidió no sólo en la calidad sino también en los rendimientos 32 .d.Diversifi cación en sus estrategias de acceso a terrenos descansados con el objetivo de producir parcelas exclusivas de papas nativas demandadas por los mercados. Por ejemplo, cuando se articularon a la industria de hojuelas fritas de papas de colores, inmediatamente emplearon sus relaciones familiares o comunales para garantizar su acceso a nuevos terrenos descansados.e.Finalmente, la inversión en tiempo de su mano de obra familiar y en la contratación de mano de obra y servicios que garantizara la aplicación de labores en forma oportuna, o la cosecha y selección en el más corto tiempo, a diferencia de las cosechas parciales y prolongadas que aún siguen haciendo con sus papas nativas para autoconsumo y exclusivamente con mano de obra familiar.3.Cambios en su visión de negocio: Después de la experiencia de los productores de vender papa nativa a la empresa A&L Exportaciones y Servicios SAC, tanto para la marca T´ikapapa o para su transformación en hojuelas, éstos empezaron a tener un referente del precio de mercado de las variedades de papas nativas. De ahí que, decepcionados o no con la experiencia, dependiendo de las difi cultades que tuvieron que enfrentar, ellos continúan produciéndolas pero negociando sus precios en los distintos mercados que abastecen, sean locales, urbanos o agroindustriales, a partir del referente que ya tienen con la experiencia T´ikapapa. Una de las productoras de Concepción, Junín, dijo que cuando lleva sus papas al mercado de su provincia, ya no le pueden engañar, porque ella sabe cuánto vale su papa.No se puede afi rmar que la cadena de papas nativas frescas de calidad para mercados exclusivos urbanos se haya consolidado. Pero sí es posible constatar algunos efectos sobre los agentes y sus instituciones:32 Muchos investigadores consideran que la siembra de una mezcla de variedades constituye una estrategia del campesino para reducir los efectos de los riesgos climáticos en desmedro de aprovechar el potencial de rendimientos de un monocultivo.En los 3 casos que entrevistamos, los productores dijeron que tenían que elegir con cuidado la ubicación de la parcela, que no sólo debería ser un terreno de más de 8 años sin sembrar, sino que además debería garantizarse que las heladas y granizadas no fueran frecuentes en dichos lugares.1.Han surgido nuevos segmentos de mercado, tanto regionales como nacionales: Es el caso del mercado de Huancayo, principal ciudad de la región productora de papas nativas en el centro del Perú, donde antes las papas nativas no eran comercializadas por mayoristas --con excepción de las variedades Peruanita (amarilla), Huayro y Huamantanga--sino que se comercializaban en los alrededores del mercado por pequeños acopiadores o por los mismos productores. Durante la visita a campo en el mes de marzo se constató la existencia de 5 comerciantes mayoristas en el Mercado Mayorista de Huancayo que compraban y comercializaban nuevas variedades de papas nativas como Camotillo, Huayro Macho, Ccecorani y Putis. 3.Algunos gobiernos locales se han incorporado a las cadenas de papas nativas, actuando como intermediarios-acopiadores-transportistas, garantizando de ese modo una mejor negociación del precio pagado al productor. Este resultado se debe a la estrategia que inicialmente se empleó para la T´ikapapa con la Municipalidad de Tayacaja, por tanto no sólo se negocia la articulación de sus productores con las empresas o mercados fi nales, sino que además de busca posicionar el origen de las papas. Dos casos interesantes son el de la Municipalidad de Julcán en Jauja, Junín, y el de la Municipalidad de Paucará en Acobamba, Huancavelica.Las entidades que participaron de la experiencia T´ikapapa han incorporado a sus actividades cotidianas las estrategias, enfoques y herramientas de la cadena de calidad que se implementó con el EPCP.Sin embargo, hay que ser muy cuidadoso, ya que T´ikapapa fue un caso emblemático de incidencia pública política del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) en el entorno del \"Año Internacional de la Papa\". En otras palabras hay que separar la \"moda\" de lo \"sostenible\". Pensando en la sostenibilidad de políticas públicas, hay cuatro efectos que sobresalen:1.La aparición de cadenas especializadas de papas nativas manteniendo los conceptos de calidad, exclusividad y de vinculación de pequeños productores con consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad. Estas cadenas están orientadas a mercados específi cos, como la cadena para hoteles y restaurantes en el Cusco, o la cadena para restaurantes de comida regional en Huancayo.2.Los proyectos de desarrollo de las ONGs que participaron de la experiencia han incorporado los enfoques de mercado a sus actividades. Un caso interesante es el de FOVIDA. \"Siempre estuvimos interesados en la biodiversidad, hasta el punto que nuestro primer proyecto estuvo enfocado a la biodiversidad y se llamó El Color de la Biodiversidad; después de participar del EPCP nuestro enfoque fue conectar al pequeño productor con los mercados de las papas nativas creando nuevas cadenas de calidad\", señalan los profesionales de esta institución.............Las entidades de investigación están buscando nuevas formas de articular sus conocimientos y tecnologías a las cadenas de valor. Por ejemplo, el proyecto que el INIA conduce en la región centro, además de sus componentes técnicos tiene dos componentes de innovación relacionados a mercados y a plataformas de concertación. De este modo, sus actividades de mejoramiento de la producción de semilla se dan en el marco de cadenas y plataformas locales de concertación.Igualmente, los esfuerzos de mejoramiento genético están ajustando las características de contenidos, pigmentación y factores de tolerancia y resistencia biótica y abiótica de las papas nativas a los atributos de los diferentes mercados. Para ellos, T´ikapapa es uno de los casos más evidentes de referencia en la búsqueda de este ajuste entre investigación, desarrollo e innovación tecnológica.4.El Ministerio de Agricultura y los sistemas de información agrícola, desde hace 3 años recogen precios diferenciados de las papas. Si bien esta práctica de precios por variedades tiene varios años, las categorías comerciales incluían variedades de papa blanca como Tomasa Condemayta, Perricholi, Yungay y dos grupos grandes de variedades llamadas amarillas (mayormente Peruanita) y de color (mayormente Huayro). En los últimos 3 años ya se diferencias precios de papa como Tumbay, Peruanita, Huamantanga, Huayro Rojo, Huayro Macho y Camotillo. En el caso del sistema de precios del Ministerio de Agricultura, estos datos son recogidos en los mercados mayoristas de tres ciudades principales de la costa y en más de 75 puntos de venta minorista a nivel nacional.No se hizo una evaluación sobre estos aspectos (ya que es motivo de otros estudios más específi cos).Sin embargo, tanto en las entrevistas a los actores como en el trabajo de campo, se constataron cambios en los niveles de ingreso familiar de los pequeños productores de papas nativas como resultado de la puesta en valor de éstas y de la posible ampliación de la demanda.En el momento en que se inicia la experiencia T´ikapapa, el precio en los mercados locales de la papa nativa sin seleccionar no superaba los 40 centavos por kilo. Descontado el costo de transporte en que incurría el productor, se estimaba en 22 centavos de sol por kilo como precio en chacra, en comparación a los 10 centavos de sol que se pagaba por una papa blanca seleccionada. La empresa A&L negocia la papa seleccionada para 7 variedades en S/. 1.20 y que descontado el transporte implica un precio en chacra entre S/. 0.87 hasta S/. 1.05 por kilo.Los primeros 75 pequeños productores de Huancavelica que abastecieron a la empresa A&L fueron los más favorecidos ya que aún no habían cambiado su base productiva y sus costos directos por kilo de papa no superaban, en esos momentos, el valor de S/. 0.35 como declaró uno de los productores.Su problema era que cada productor sólo disponía de 50 a 250 kilos de las papas solicitadas por la empresa.En los siguientes años los pequeños productores, que ya estaban modifi cando su base productiva, empezaron a incorporar el costo de la semilla a precios de mercado y van estableciendo costos comparativos de sus papas nativas con los costos de sus papas comercializadas tradicionalmente. En esta nueva perspectiva comercial, los productores comenzaron a interesarse en la productividad como un elemento crítico para garantizar la rentabilidad de este negocio. Uno de los productores de Jauja (Junín), nos informó que una siembra adecuada de papa nativa da como rendimiento total unas 15 toneladas por hectárea y que de acuerdo a sus estimados, sólo 8 toneladas serían de la calidad exigida por la empresa. Para estimar sus costos debe considerar:1.Diez sacos de semilla, es decir aproximadamente 1,000 kilos.2.Sus costos se elevan si las \"chacras\" están muy distantes y si están en distintos lugares, ya que tienen que pagar los jornales a un mayor precio, tanto para la siembra como para la cosecha, donde se requiere más mano de obra. Incluyendo el pago en moneda más el pago en especies (alimento, bebidas y coca) el jornal llega hasta los S/. 18.00 diarios.3.Como las \"chacras\" pueden ser visitadas con frecuencia, hay que prevenirlas contra las plagas (especialmente del ataque del Epitrix sp.) con 2 o máximo 3 aplicaciones de Xipermetrinas.4.A todo ello se le deben sumar los costos de transporte; en su zona emplean las llamas, que cargan hasta 40 kilos cada una, con un fl ete de S/. 3.00 por carga.El estimado de costo por kilo para este productor es de S/. 0.80 incluyendo el transporte en llama.Recién entonces tiene que negociar el precio al borde de la carretera o en la vivienda, por lo general ubicada en un caserío con acceso de camiones. Él consideraba que lo justo era que le pagaran por encima de S/. 1.40, de ahí que después de haber trabajado con A&L y al haber aparecido otras opciones de venta a precios superiores, ya no continúo abasteciendo a la marca T¨ikapapa, aunque no desecha nunca la oportunidad de continuar haciéndolo.Pero también se preguntaba: ¿La empresa A&L me compraría los 8,000 kilos de no menos de 3 variedades de papa seleccionada que cosecharía en no menos de 4 días?, pues si las tengo que almacenar entonces mis costos suben.Pero los empresarios de A&L consideran que en los principales meses de abastecimiento a la cadena de autoservicios de Wong y Metro, estas 8 toneladas serían apenas el 10% de los requerimientos, por lo tanto sí estarían en capacidad de adquirirlas, aunque el precio a pagar estaría sujeto a las condiciones de mercado. En los meses de abril y mayo normalmente el precio baja, pero si la papa está bien seleccionada y limpia, entonces es factible negociar un precio \"aceptable\" para ambas partes.¿Qué implica ello en términos de impacto? Si suponemos que la línea de base es la de un productor que vende en los mercados regionales papas nativas mezcladas y no seleccionadas, por las que al momento de la entrevista se pagaba S/. 0.60 --lo que implica un precio en chacra de S/. 0.45--la diferencia de ingresos totales entre ambos sería de S/. 0.95 por kilo. En esa misma fecha, el precio que pagaba el mayorista por papa nativa seleccionada era de S/. 0.80 el kilo, estimándose un precio en chacra de S/. 0.70. Ello hace que quien venda para T´ikapapa tendría un ingreso incremental de S/.0.70 por kilo. Podemos suponer que parte de la papa que no se venda a la empresa agroindustrial se vendería en el mercado local recibiendo un precio en chacra de S/. 0.45 por kilo. En caso de vender el 71% de su papa a este mercado regional, generaría un ingreso total de S/. 2,250.00. Estimando el ingreso total incremental por hectárea, éste sería de S/. 5,600.00 por venta a la agroindustria, a lo cual se sumarían S/. 2,250.00 por venta al mercado regional, con lo cual su ingreso total sería de S/.7,850.00 por hectárea.En esta comparación no hemos incluido los costos, los que en el caso de un manejo tecnifi cado en función del mercado, bordean los S/. 5,000.00 por hectárea. En la papa nativa para autoconsumo, este costo es prácticamente la mitad, si se extrapolan los costos del tercio de hectárea que tradicionalmente maneja un pequeño productor para el autoconsumo.Pero todo este volumen vendido por productor implica un tamaño de demanda que debe precisarse.Al ser entrevistados, los productores mencionaron que ahora hay mucho más compradores para sus papas nativas. Al fi nal de la campaña 2007 -2008 ya se había incrementado el número de compradores, pero en este año, además hay otros compradores de papas nativas en los mercados de las localidades cercanas que acopian para venderlas a mayoristas de los mercados regionales.¿Está incrementándose la oferta? ¿Está creciendo la demanda?Durante el trabajo de campo se pudo constatar un incremento de la oferta de papas nativas comerciales, corroborando de ese modo la información proporcionada por los técnicos de las entidades que trabajan en la cadena de papas nativas.Uno de los profesionales que trabajó desde el año 2004 acopiando papas nativas de las variedades solicitadas por las cadenas de autoservicios, dice que se dieron diferentes etapas:• En los dos primeros años (2004 -2005) la demanda superó a la oferta, especialmente porque no se podía satisfacer la mezcla de variedades que se requería en aquellos momentos. Los volúmenes por productor aceptados por la empresa agroindustrial fueron bajos, en promedio 230 kilos por productor. En aquellos años los costos de acopio eran cada vez más elevados. Aún si se hubiese intentado comprar en los mercados, no había sufi ciente oferta.• El tercer año (2006) se incrementó la oferta de papas nativas de por lo menos 5 variedades exigidas por la cadena de autoservicios. Este incremento de la oferta se debió a que diferentes organizaciones: ONGs, gobiernos locales, el Ministerio de Agricultura y pequeños empresarios agroindustriales, promovieron la siembra de estas variedades. Aún cuando este incremento en las zonas tradicionalmente abastecedoras no fue de grandes proporciones, la empresa dejó de comprar, lo que obligó a muchos productores a buscar nuevos compradores, destinando la mayor parte a las ventas en mercados locales y regionales. Lo interesante es que, en vez de que el precio baje, debido a una mayor oferta, el precio siguió subiendo.• Es así que para la campaña 2006 -2007 muchos productores, los que habían sembrado mayor área en la campaña anterior, decidieron no sembrar. Sin embargo no se notó una disminución de la oferta, porque nuevas zonas (que no habían sido articuladas en la cadena de la T´íkapapa ni en el de las pequeñas empresas procesadoras locales) sí habían incrementado su oferta, aunque no se podría afi rmar que fue porque sembraron mayores áreas con papas nativas. En esos momentos la empresa había disminuido sus compras y lo poco que compraba lo hacía al precio de S/. 1.30 el kilo puesto en planta y seleccionado. En este año la empresa Gloria empieza a comprar papas nativas pagando un precio en chacra realmente histórico: S/. 1.60 el kilo de papa sin seleccionar.Ese mismo año, a través de FOVIDA y CAPAC, la empresa Frito Lay se abastece de papas nativas para su piloto de \"Lays Andinas\" (hojuelas fritas de papas nativas de color y pigmentadas).• En el año 2008 se incrementa signifi cativamente la oferta de papas nativas. No se tienen mediciones de este incremento, pero hubo una mayor oferta. Lo interesante es que el precio por kilo no bajó, sino que siguió subiendo en todos los mercados, tanto para la industria (que llegó a S/.Figura 16. Escenarios del mercado de las papas nativas y posibles impactos.En el primer escenario, con un incremento de la oferta sin crecimiento de la demanda, el precio disminuiría de P1 a P2. Esta situación era común antes del año 2004, de acuerdo a las referencias proporcionadas por productores y por comerciantes de papas. Es posible que esta situación aún se presente en el mercado mayorista de Lima, debido a que la proporción de papa nativa comercializada por los mayoristas es aún reducida, toda vez que se ha constatado que el mayor volumen comercializado de papa nativa no pasa por este mercado, sino por mercados distritales, o va directamente a las cadenas de autoservicios o compradores especializados como hoteles y restaurantes.Pero en general, en las ciudades de Huancayo, Ayacucho, Andahuaylas y Cusco, centros urbanos regionales de gran importancia en la sierra cercanas a las zonas de producción de papas nativas, y en los lugares de acopio de la papa nativa para ser comercializados en Lima, Trujillo y Arequipa, el precio de la papa no ha tenido este comportamiento, a pesar de que hay sufi cientes evidencias de un incremento de la oferta.El escenario más probable, en este caso, es el de incremento de la oferta con crecimiento de la demanda. El tema es que no se tiene información sobre la oferta, tanto en superfi cie sembrada por campaña, en volumen producido por variedad y en localización de los centros de producción.Menos aún se tiene información sobre el tamaño de la demanda a este nivel de desagregación del producto. Probablemente, el incremento del consumo anual por persona registrado en las estadísticas nacionales (que pasó de 40 kilos en 1997 a 70 kilos por persona y por año en 2006) en parte contiene un incremento del consumo de papas nativas.Si se lograra estimar las cantidades de oferta y demanda y establecer su tendencia futura, los impactos en los niveles de ingreso, en la reducción de los niveles de pobreza y en la mejora de la seguridad alimentaria de las familias campesinas de los pequeños productores, lograríamos identifi car impactos sociales y económicos de gran importancia para el país.Un último tema de impacto es el cambio en la valorización social de la biodiversidad. Al poner en valor las papas nativas, que son parte del portafolio de siembras de más de 80 mil pequeños productores andinos, lo que se ha hecho es visualizar su importante aporte en la formación del producto bruto interno del Perú. Si por cada hectárea de papa nativa sembrada y cosechada se requieren alrededor de 40 jornales al año, entonces sólo en 10 mil hectáreas de papas nativas se estarían generando 40 mil jornales anuales, un impacto importante en el nivel de empleo rural. Si se mantuviera el nivel de 18 soles por jornal, una estimación gruesa del potencial de impacto en el empleo estaría valorada en 240 mil dólares anuales.Pero esta es una posibilidad de impacto a futuro, por ahora sólo están involucrados alrededor de mil pequeños productores andinos, lo que implica apenas el 1.25% de este potencial. Las cifras que a continuación se presentan sólo incluyen los abastecimientos de papas nativas dentro de los efectos de los proyectos donde INCOPA participó a través de la implementación del EPCP para identifi car mercados e intervenir en las cadenas de papas nativas.Figura 17. Toneladas de papas nativas acopiadas para T´ikapapa y para Hojuelas Fritas.Durante este proceso de acopio, en el proceso de construcción de la cadena, sin incluir las compras de empresas como Gloria, que según algunos informantes duplicaría esta cantidad, se llegó al máximo de abastecimiento en la campaña 2008 -2009 y con tendencia a seguir incrementándose.En este caso no se incluye la posible adquisición de 800 toneladas por la empresa Frito Lay para su producto \"Lays Andinas\", ni un estimado de 2,000 toneladas por la empresa Gloria para su producto \"Mr. Chips\" en los departamentos de Junín y Apurímac. Esto implicaría un abastecimiento de 3,700toneladas para este último año, que provendría de aproximadamente 500 hectáreas cosechadas con papas nativas de calidad aceptada por el mercado, lo que nos lleva a estimar un total de 1,100 hectáreas sembradas con papas nativas en total.Aún bajo el supuesto de que cerca de 3,000 toneladas serían comercializadas a través de los mercados locales y regionales, a precios 60% menores a lo que paga la agroindustria, el aproximado de ingresos generados ya es signifi cativo.El \"concepto T´ikapapa\" está defi nido como la innovación comercial de papas nativas gourmet de calidad, sabor y textura únicos y exclusivos, que vinculan al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano mediante el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad. El desarrollo de este concepto se da en un marco institucional innovador de un proyecto de desarrollo enfocado a la demanda y comprometido con la mejora de la seguridad alimentaria de los pequeños productores de papa en los andes peruanos, como lo es INCOPA, proyecto que evolucionó desde un enfoque de mercado hasta la gestión del conocimiento para promover cambios en las cadenas productivas que involucraban a pequeños productores.La evolución histórica del concepto T´ikapapa, gracias a la aplicación del método de Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas (EPCP), es un fenómeno social del aprendizaje colectivo de un grupo de actores de la cadena de papa peruana y sus entornos, que en diferentes momentos y coyunturas establecen estrategias para garantizar el encuentro entre la capacidad de hacer algo nuevo y la oportunidad de aprovechar dicha capacidad, y en donde el EPCP no sólo garantiza su maduración sino que además facilita su registro y posterior sistematización por etapas, desde los conocimientos acumulados por los antecedentes, pasando por el desarrollo y la transferencia del concepto de innovación creado, culminando en la perspectiva del uso difundido del concepto en las prácticas sociales del mercado de las papas nativas en el Perú.Los elementos clave que aportaron a la generación y desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa, a través de los actores de las cadenas que habían participado de las experiencias que lo antecedieron, son:• La introducción del concepto de calidad, defi nido como papa nativa clasifi cada, lavada y embolsada, aportado por las experiencias de \"Papa Buena\", \"Papandina\" y \"Mi Papa\".• La revalorización de la papa nativa, entendida como producto exclusivo y único que vincula al pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano a través de la biodiversidad, elemento aportado por las experiencias de \"Jalca Chips\" y \"Papy Bum\", resultantes a su vez de enfoques que articulaban la conservación de la biodiversidad con el mercado.Cuando el EPCP interviene la cadena, empleando como \"fi ltro de pobreza\" las papas nativas, lo que hace es ordenar y acelerar el proceso de innovación de las papas nativas, ya que facilita el encuentro entre oportunidades y capacidades, generando interés entre los agentes de la cadena en torno a objetivos simples y claros, además de contribuir a la articulación de esfuerzos en torno al desarrollo de la innovación mediante la creación de un clima de confi anza entre los agentes más involucrados.Este esfuerzo conjunto contribuye a generar compromisos específi cos entre agentes clave de la cadena de valor, los que asumirán los resultados de la innovación y la operación del negocio una vez que este sea transferida.Sin embargo, considerando que al generar interés y crear un clima de confi anza también se gestiona el conocimiento acumulado por los actores involucrados, es importante que el proceso de intercambio e incorporación de conocimientos quede adecuadamente registrado. Esto no sólo permitirá documentarlo con fi nes de sistematización, sino que además mejorará la metodología y los instrumentos que emplea el EPCP, especialmente en la fase de creación y desarrollo de la innovación.La difusión, que es el proceso de transferencia de la innovación a los agentes privados de la cadena, en términos generales fue exitosa, toda vez que la papa nativa fresca de calidad es valorada y reconocida por los agentes de todos los eslabones de la cadena, desde el productor hasta el consumidor fi nal, pasando por los intermediarios, empresarios transformadores y comercializadores.Pero en la medida que lo que se está transfi riendo es un concepto innovador de la papa nativa y no una marca o un producto, es importante precisar el alcance de la difusión de cada uno de los componentes de dicho concepto. Lo más difundido ha sido el concepto de mercadeo (por ahora asociado a la marca T´ikapapa), lo que se expresa en el posicionamiento del producto comercial. Están en proceso de avanzar hacia una difusión exitosa, la revalorización de la biodiversidad (con base en una cadena de calidad sostenible) y un reconocimiento explícito del vínculo del pequeño productor con el consumidor urbano (mediante nuevas formas contractuales vinculadas a la responsabilidad social). Estos son los elementos principales que se deberán trabajar en el escenario de uso masifi cado del concepto T´ikapapa.Por lo tanto, para garantizar el uso masivo del concepto T´ikapapa hay que superar las debilidades que aún afectan la difusión exitosa de los componentes menos conocidos del concepto de innovación.Esto debe hacerse mediante el encadenamiento de nuevas innovaciones que permitan enfrentar exitosamente la ampliación de los segmentos y de los nichos de mercado del consumo fresco de papas nativas de calidad, seleccionadas, limpias y provenientes de la biodiversidad. Estas innovaciones, institucionales y técnicas, deberán orientarse a asegurar el vínculo entre los pequeños agricultores y los consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad, y a garantizar la cadena de calidad con productores dispersos y atomizados.Si bien el Proyecto INCOPA logró validar el EPCP como una metodología efi ciente de intervención de la cadena productiva partiendo de las oportunidades de mercado, en la difusión y transferencia de la innovación requirió de la aplicación total o parcial de otras estrategias, como las plataformas de concertación o cooperación; sin embargo, la transferencia estuvo muy centrada en el producto comercial, lo que infl uyó en que estas prácticas no hayan madurado lo sufi ciente para incorporarse a la cadena.Esta sistematización nos muestra que el EPCP, como metodología, al estar orientado por la demanda y aplicado de manera transparente y fl exible, ha demostrado que permite: (a) generar innovaciones, (b) crear y promover, y (c) el aprendizaje mutuo.Sin embargo, bajo un nuevo escenario, cualitativa y cuantitativamente distinto, se requiere de la participación de los actores del entorno tecnológico, para que contribuyan tanto a garantizar la operatividad de la cadena de calidad como para aprovechar las nuevas oportunidades.El uso del concepto de innovación dependerá de aprovechar las nuevas oportunidades que se vienen presentando mediante una adecuada gestión del conocimiento, de ahí que los conocimientos y destrezas desarrollados con el EPCP deben ser usados por los agentes privados de la cadena, o por un agente del entorno del sistema de innovación, para despertar interés en nuevos actores, generar confi anza entre ellos y facilitar su compromiso con nuevos cambios.Sin embargo, esta gestión del conocimiento no dependerá únicamente de los actores de la cadena, sino de incorporar nuevos actores del entorno del sistema de innovación, aplicando nuevos mecanismos y enfoques relacionados a los componentes que quedaron débiles durante el desarrollo del concepto T´ikapapa, como la vinculación de pequeños productores con los consumidores urbanos a través de la biodiversidad. La sistematización de esta experiencia en la perspectiva de un sistema de innovación nos orienta a pensar que estos aspectos deberán ser resueltos empleando nuevos instrumentos, como las plataformas de calidad, sellos de calidad o sellos de responsabilidad social empresarial.Por otro lado al sistematizar la generación, desarrollo y difusión del concepto T´ikapapa queda demostrado que este es un caso de innovación que puede ser reconstruido desde su origen hasta su difusión fi nal, ya que existen evidencias de impacto económico debido al cambio en la valorización social y económica de las papas nativas provenientes de la biodiversidad.Si se pone en valor de mercado la oferta de papas nativas de esta cadena de calidad, que son parte del portafolio de siembras de más de 80 mil pequeños productores andinos, lo que se visualiza es un importante aporte en la formación del producto bruto interno agrícola del Perú. Si por cada hectárea de papa nativa sembrada y cosechada se requieren alrededor de 40 jornales al año, entonces sólo en 10 mil hectáreas de papas nativas se estarían generando 40 mil jornales anuales, un impacto importante a nivel del empleo rural. Si se mantuviera el nivel de 18 soles por jornal, una estimación gruesa del potencial de impacto en el empleo estaría valorada en 240 mil dólares anuales.Pero además se ha generado un efecto demostrativo en el sistema de innovación del sector papa, al convertir en éxito una innovación comercial de revalorización de la papa nativa, de manera que se ha convertido en el \"disparador\" de nuevas iniciativas, algunas de las cuales rescatan y rediseñan los tres componentes del concepto T´ikapapa (nuevas marcas de papas nativas seleccionadas para nichos de mercados más diversifi cados), o incorporan algunos de los componentes de dicho concepto a nuevos componentes (por ejemplo, las hojuelas fritas de papas nativas como snacks orientados a estratos de consumidores de mejor poder adquisitivo), o agregando innovaciones institucionales a nuevos productos provenientes de la biodiversidad (como son los sellos de responsabilidad social empresarial).Queda aún camino por hacer. Las metodologías desarrolladas por INCOPA en el marco de la Iniciativa Papa Andina deberán institucionalizarse, reconociéndose como buenas prácticas de intervención de las cadenas de calidad de productos de la biodiversidad y, sobre todo, deberán ampliarse a nuevos instrumentos y enfoques que capitalicen las nuevas iniciativas que han empezado a diversifi carse, al igual que los campesinos andinos, diversifi caron las variedades de sus papas andinas.Anexo 2. Enfoque de Mercado para la Conservación de la Biodiversidad (MACAB).La aplicación del enfoque de mercado para la conservación de la biodiversidad (MACAB por sus siglas en inglés), tuvo como objetivo identifi car productos comerciales promisorios que se convirtieran en el punto de partida para aplicar el enfoque de mercado en la investigación de cultivos provenientes de la biodiversidad del Perú. De ahí que el rol de los especialistas de mercadeo fue fundamental para la mejora del concepto del producto de innovación, como puede verse en el proceso del desarrollo de la innovación.De ahí que el rol de los especialistas en mercadeo fue fundamental para defi nir el concepto del producto comercial, de manera que se logre dar valor a las innovaciones que provienen de la investigación, como es el caso de la investigación en conservación, una actividad relevante de todo proceso de investigación de los recursos genéticos.Impulsado por la alianza estratégica constituida entre el CIP, el Programa de Agricultura de la Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la cooperación en el Perú entre PyMAGROS y la Asociación Nacional de Diabéticos, aplicando el enfoque de mercado para la conservación de la biodiversidad (MACAB por sus siglas en inglés). La alianza partió de asignar las responsabilidades del proceso de investigación buscando garantizar una alta calidad de trabajo, tanto en la investigación del producto como en los estudios de factibilidad económica. El \"proceso de transferencia\" y los criterios de selección del socio privado se defi nieron con participación de las empresas mejor situadas del sector con el objetivo de involucrarlos en el mercado local de miel de yacón.Conducido por el CIP, a través de su proyecto de conservación in situ del Departamento de Recursos Genéticos (actualmente División II), aplicando el enfoque de mercado para la conservación de la biodiversidad (MACAB por sus siglas en inglés). A partir de una investigación de mercado, específi camente dirigida al nicho nacional de hojuelas de papa, se identifi có que tanto el concepto como el producto de hojuelas de papas de color tienen una alta aceptación de consumo y que podría contribuir a que los pequeños productores que conservan la biodiversidad de estas papas mejoraran sus ingresos, proveyendo de materia prima a los procesadores de estas hojuelas. El esquema de desarrollo de este producto incluye la identifi cación de los atributos de mercado que potencialmente pueden ser cubiertos con la producción de los pequeños productores, el desarrollo de un nuevo producto potencial, la evaluación de su factibilidad económica y social -incluyendo el concepto de mercadeo -y la defi nición de los criterios de selección de empresas interesadas para la posterior transferencia del paquete \"de mercadeo\" a la empresa privada seleccionada.    \"alianza\" o \"aljas\", que son papitas coloreadas de azul y crema, que según me explicaron eran para hacer \"T´ikapapa\", aunque después me enteré que las T´ikas eran todas mis papas de colores lavadas y metidas en bolsa y que se vendían en los supermercados de Lima. También, en esta oportunidad, me pidió que le enviara amarilla \"Tumbay\", según él técnico de la Empresa eran para hacer \"Jalca Chips\". Pero a todo esto, recuerdo que el señor Marco Velásquez, que le habían dicho que yo era el mejor productor de la zona y que tenía mi semillero de papas nativas, me propuso que quería que le enviara entre 7 a 8 toneladas en un mes. No estoy seguro si también le propuso a otros, pero yo no pude, así que sólo envié máximo 1,800 kilos al mes en los años 2004 y 2005.El pago siempre fue un poco difi cultoso, me daban en partes o tardaban en pagarme, pero siempre me cumplió sobre el precio conversado que era de S/. 1.20 por kilo. El problema fue cuando empezó a devolverme los descartes. Yo hacía mi propia selección y clasifi cación, porque ya había trabajado con los ingenieros del INIA y de FOVIDA y sabía como hacerlo. Aún así, tanto en mis envíos de 2005 así como los del 2006, me descontó entre 7 a 8% de mis cargas. Esto fue porque el señor Marcos Velásquez me dio orientaciones para seleccionar papas para hojuelas y papas para T´ikapapa.Lo que no pude conseguir con la empresa es trabajar con ellos con semilla, porque tenía semilla para mejorar la producción y así garantizar mi abastecimiento de las papas que quería la empresa. Entonces en el 2007 ya no pude trabajar con el señor Marcos y cuando envió nuevamente a su gente para que les venda papas nativas, decidí ya no enviar a la empresa, porque seguían pagando S/. 1,20 cuando ya había ido Gloria pagando más. Cuando entra Frito Lay nos ofrece pagar hasta S/. 1.80 el kilo, pero seleccionada. Pero también ya en el año 2005 apareció una empresita llamada PAPCOR que pagaba hasta S/. 1.30 el kilo, por eso es que le vendí 5,000 kilos, sin seleccionar. Esta empresa me pagó la mitad contra entrega y me dijo que después nos pagaría la otra mitad, porque fuimos varios los que le vendimos ya que no pedía que fuera seleccionado ni tampoco se preocupó de la variedad, pero hasta ahora no ha regresado y nos sigue debiendo a todos. Otra empresa que también vino ofreciendo comprar nuestras papas nativas fue el dueño de la empresa Mi Chips, pero sólo quería pagar S/. 0.80 el kilo con toda y segunda, según dijo, y se molestó porque no quisimos venderle, ya que en ese año nadie vendía su papa por debajo de S/. 1.60 el kilo. Este comprador nunca más regresó por la zona.Creo que para trabajar con la empresa para T´ikapapa hay que pensarlo bien. Primero quieren un mix de papas, lo cuál ya es un problema, porque los productores no tenemos cantidades sufi cientes. También piden que los envíos de carga sean constantes, lo que no es tan fácil porque cuando vendemos la papa que hemos almacenado, entonces ya tiene otro costo, vale más. Pero también hay que cuidarse mucho desde el campo, es decir las papas que van con \"rancha\" ya no sirven, además no es correcto porque el trabajo de buena papa debe hacerse desde el campo. Fui responsable de los envíos y comercialización de papas nativas de la zona de Pazos entre el año 2002 y el año 2006. Por mi función, me contacté de casualidad con Marcos Velásquez, ya que lo conocía a través de la producción de alcachofa. Después de varias reuniones, Marcos hace el ofrecimiento a la Municipalidad, de comprar papas nativas de pulpa de color al precio de S/. 0.80 o S/. 0.90, cuando en el mercado estaban pagando S/. 0.50 el kilo de estas papas. Pero también nos propone que quiere papas de las variedades Camotillo, Huamantanga, Putis y Duraznillo. De todas estas, después nos damos cuenta que la papa que tuvo más aceptación fue el Camotillo, no sólo para papa fresca sino también para hacer hojuelas fritas.Con el primer envío a la empresa A&L nos fue muy mal, hubo mucho descarte. Entonces en la Municipalidad decidimos trabajar en la producción de semilla de calidad. Para nosotros, atender el pedido de la empresa suponía que nuestras papas cumplieran con los siguientes requisitos: que sus tamaños sean de 9 a 12 cm.; que estén libres de roña; que no tengan rajaduras ni escoriaciones. Por mi experiencia, estos tres requisitos dependen en gran parte de la semilla. Con el apoyo del INIA -Santa Ana, a través de la Ing. Noemí Zúñiga, se construye un invernadero para la producción de semilla pre básica, exclusivo para las variedades de papas nativas que tenían mercado.En los años 2004 y 2005 los productores de Pazos participan enviando sus papas nativas a la empresa A&L dentro del convenio que tenía la Municipalidad. Este convenio establecía que el Municipio asumía el fl ete hasta Lima y que sólo se aplicó para los dos primeros envíos, después el Municipio asumió el fl ete hasta Huancayo en los dos siguientes envíos. Finalmente, en el año 2005 el fl ete fue asumido por la empresa y ya estaba incluido en el precio. De todas las comunidades de Pazos, los que enviaron mayor cantidad fueron los productores de la comunidad de Aymará. El primer envío en el año 2004 fue de 1,200 kilos de 4 productores de Aymará, los siguientes 3 viajes también fue sólo de los productores de Aymará, pero después se sumaron los productores de la comunidad de Vista Alegre, enviando en ese año un total de 10,000 kilos. Hubo un viaje más con 3,000 kilos de otras variedades, pero la empresa hizo un fuerte descarte, es cuando nos damos cuenta que teníamos que enviar sólo lo que el mercado exigía, en este caso nuestro comprador A&L.En el año 2005 hicimos pocos envíos y de cantidades menores. Había cierto desencanto entre la gente que se emocionó porque pensó que toda su papa nativa se podía vender, pero nunca fue así, lo que pasa es que no se explicó a todos, excepto a los primeros, de las exigencias de calidad que pedía la empresa. Por ejemplo, en los tres primeros viajes hubieron muchas mermas, muy fuertes, es decir un alto porcentaje de descarte; esto se debía a que la Municipalidad sólo acopiaba de los productores de las comunidades, pero no capacitaba. Pero yo recuerdo que desde el Municipio hacíamos campañas de sensibilización, destacando la necesidad de hacer una buena selección desde el campo. Aunque según los productores de Aymará, ellos siempre se quejaron que la selección que hacía la empresa A&L eran muy rigurosa. Para la empresa, por ejemplo, si la papa tenía rajaduras, entonces el consumidor recela de su calidad. Como también enviamos para \"Jalca chips\", los descartes de estas papas no servían para T´ikapapa, ya sea porque no tenían buena apariencia una vez lavadas, o no eran conocidas, o eran rechazadas por su tamaño y forma por los consumidores, o porque no servían para estar expuestos en el supermercado o almacenados en el anaquel, según nos explicó la empresa.Debido a estas malas experiencias de descarte, los productores pedían al Municipio que les ayude a viajar acompañando a sus papas hasta Lima, especialmente porque ellos creían que ese descarte de la empresa, se podía solucionar a su favor. Aún cuando yo viajé acompañando los envíos y visité la planta de A&L en Lima, siempre desconfi aron los productores.A&L llegó a pagar en esos años hasta S/. 1.10 el kilo y las liquidaciones eran a la semana, por lo menos así fue mientras estuve en el Municipio. Pero lo más importante es que en el convenio con la empresa se estableció que en los recetarios que iban dentro de las bolsas de T´ikapapa tuvieran el escudo y sello de la Municipalidad de Tayacaja. Mis compañeros y yo trabajábamos con FOVIDA y a través de su ingeniero Martín vendíamos nuestras papas de chalo (regalos) mezcladas. Pero en el año 2006 nos hablaron para enviar a la empresa A&L a través de la empresa comunal. Fue cuando con cuatro de mis compañeros en el mes de mayo enviamos un total de 5,000 kilos de las variedades Huayro Macho, Kallhuay, Camotillo, Huancavelicana (rosada con ojos grandes) y Tumbay al precio de S/.1.20 el kilo. La papa ya iba seleccionada y yo viajé, junto con otro compañero, hasta Lima. Llegamos de noche y no se pudo seleccionar en ese momento, así que estuvimos esperando al día siguiente, pero nos tuvimos que regresar. A los 8 días nos informaron que el producto estaba mal seleccionado y que 1,000 kilos de lo que enviamos no entraban a la fábrica. Del resto nos pagaron S/. 1.00 el kilo porque descontaron el fl ete y como no todo fue para T´ikapapa, nos fueron pagando por partes y el último pago nos hizo al mes y días. Por eso es que en los siguientes años ya no quisimos enviar a la empresa.Esta fue la primera vez que vendí mis papas nativas. Antes eran para mi consumo y de mi familia. Aparte de Huayro Macho y de Kullhuay, que los vendo \"de frente\" en Concepción o en Huancayo, yo tengo otras 7 variedades. En ese año, en Concepción vendí mi Huayro Macho a S/. 0.60 el kilo aunque me dijeron que en Huancayo estaban pagando S/. 0.80 el kilo.Gracias a la Ing. Cristina y al Ing. Raúl aprendimos a cuidar nuestras papas nativas. Por ejemplo yo recibí un saco de semilla de Huayro Negro, que antes no tenía, y saqué hasta 15 sacos de papa, pero había mucha papa menudita. Por eso cuando en el año 2005 nos dijeron para enviar nuestros papas nativas a la empresa A&L, de los 40 socios algunos nos animamos. Entre 3 socios enviamos 3,000 kilos; de una parte la empresa nos dijo que estaba mal y del resto, descontado el fl ete, nos pagó sobre el precio convenido. No recuerdo bien pero fue casi S/. 1.00 por kilo que le pagaron a mi esposo a los 15 días. Antes de eso vendíamos nuestras papas de Huayro Macho en Concepción, pero en montones o por arrobas.En los siguientes años nos han venido a ofrecer la compra de nuestras papas, nos piden Cceccorani, Putis, Huayro Macho, y otros, pero no tenemos semilla ni tampoco tenemos mucha papa. Nos dicen que es para Frito Lay. Otros compañeros han vendido y les han pagado hasta S/. 1.60 el kilo en la chacra. En esa oportunidad, el año pasado (2008) la Asociación ha pagado el fl ete. Pienso que ahora ya no nos conviene vender al mercado (se refi ere a la feria local de Concepción), nos conviene vender a la empresa.Anexo 5. Cambios recientes en el mercado de la papa en el Perú 33 .En el Perú, el sector de producción de papa no es homogéneo y presenta diversas particularidades, de acuerdo al tipo de variedades que se cultivan. Existen tres grandes segmentos: papas blancas, papas amarillas y papas nativas. En el primer caso, en los últimos treinta años se han presentado situaciones de pronunciadas alzas y bajas de precios (aunque con una tendencia decreciente) y, de otro lado, las posibilidades de su industrialización no han sido claramente estudiadas. En el segundo caso, las variedades de papa amarilla se han posicionado de muy buena manera en el mercado local y el producto procesado (pelado, precocido y congelado) se está exportando a mercados como Estados Unidos, España y Japón, aunque todavía en pequeñas cantidades y orientado al mercado \"étnico\" (peruanos que viven en el exterior). Finalmente, en el caso de las papas nativas, existen experiencias recientes que han logrado introducir el producto a mercados locales de autoservicios con un concepto gourmet y se han desarrollado productos procesados, como hojuelas y puré, con buen potencial de exportación.A partir de los trabajos implementados por alianzas público-privadas promovidas por el Proyecto INCOPA se han desarrollado innovaciones a tres niveles:• Innovaciones comerciales: son los cambios en los productos fi nales que permiten mayor y mejor acceso de los pequeños productores a mercados dinámicos con mejor valor agregado. En esta línea se encuentran: \"Mi Papa, Seleccionada & Clasifi cada\" (comercio mayorista), Tunta (Chuño blanco) embolsada (mercado local y exportación); \"Puré Andino\" (exportación); \"T´ikapapa\" (supermercados); \"Jalca Chips\" (exportación). Se debe indicar que tomando como base estas iniciativas se han desarrollado y lanzado recientemente (2008) al mercado nuevas marcas de snacks basados en papas nativas: \"Lay's Andinas\", \"Inca's Gold\", \"Natu Krunch\", \"Nips\", \"Mr. Chips\", entre otras, con las cuales el proyecto tiene trabajo en conjunto.• Innovaciones institucionales: son los cambios en las reglas de juego con las cuales se relacionan e interactúan los agentes de la cadena y otros actores públicos. Pueden ser nuevas instituciones (CAPAC Perú, Alianza Institucional de la Tunta, Iniciativa Papas Andinas) o nuevas normas (Día Nacional de la Papa, Norma Técnica de la Tunta, Ley de Comercio Mayorista de Papa, entre otras). Asimismo, un tema clave es la puesta en la agenda política y sectorial la necesidad de desarrollar de manera sostenible al sector papa en el Perú. • Innovaciones tecnológicas: son los cambios en tecnología requeridos para incrementar la efi ciencia o la calidad de los procesos de producción y transformación en respuesta a las demandas del mercado. Algunos logros en este nivel son los ensayos para defi nir normas y estándares de calidad de \"Mi Papa\", las pruebas de inhibidores de brotes, la difusión de estrategias de manejo integrado de cultivo, las técnicas de almacenamiento y las técnicas de producción de semilla.Estas acciones vienen presentando efectos concretos en los segmentos del mercado de la papa en el Perú, quedando claro el potencial que existe para el desarrollo y posicionamiento comercial de las papas nativas, un segmento que anteriormente no era tomado en cuenta por los diferentes actores de la cadena de la papa. A escala global se vienen produciendo cambios importantes y en los segmentos se pueden apuntar los siguientes resultados como producto de las acciones del proyecto: En las variedades de papas blancas, una de las principales limitaciones es el inefi ciente manejo poscosecha, que ocasiona mermas, y el todavía inefi ciente comercio mayorista, pues se siguen usando envases de 120 kg con el producto sin seleccionar ni clasifi car. Se han comenzado a dar pasos importantes para cambiar esta situación con la ley para modernizar el comercio mayorista de papa en Lima y la introducción de nuevos productos como \"Mi Papa\". Hay que indicar que en el Mercado Mayorista de Lima se comercializan 600 mil t de papa al año. Esta ley, pretende promover un comercio más efi ciente para todo este volumen de producción, generando una cadena de bienes y servicio. A nivel minorista, los autoservicios ya vienen manejando un concepto de producto seleccionado, clasifi cado, limpio, lavado y empacado que facilita el acceso a los consumidores.Las papas amarillas se han posicionado en un segmento de \"exclusividad\" debido a su diferenciación de color y sabor, pero se consumen de manera homogénea en los diferentes estratos sociales, consolidando así un importante mercado de consumo fresco que ha tenido una alta tasa de penetración entre los consumidores en los últimos años. Por el lado de la exportación se vienen implementando importantes experiencias con el mercado \"étnico\", es decir los peruanos residentes en el exterior, inicialmente en Estados Unidos y más recientemente en Japón y España. En 2006, la exportación de este producto creció en un 83%. Un dato interesante es que durante el primer semestre de 2007, las exportaciones de papa habían crecido en un 42% con respecto a lo exportado en 2006 en el mismo período. Hay que considerar que en 2006 las exportaciones de papa ya habían crecido un 16% con relación al año anterior. Quizás podríamos estar en el umbral de un boom de exportaciones de este tubérculo 34 . Asimismo, se han desarrollado opciones para procesar puré elaborado con papa amarilla con y sin cáscara, destinada al mercado de exportación. Al respecto, es oportuno anotar la reciente inauguración de una planta de procesamiento de papa amarilla en Cajamarca. En 2008, el Grupo Gloria, una empresa grande de capital nacional, lanzó una línea de hojuelas de papa amarilla, llamada Mr. Chips Papa Amarilla, mientras que Frito-Lay --una empresa transnacional de snacks con sede en el Perú-a mitad de 2009 sacó el producto Lay's Peruanísimas, también a base de papas amarillas. El reto de los mercados externos en las variedades amarillas es cómo pasar del segmento étnico a otros segmentos en los mercados de destino.Las variedades nativas han empezado a cobrar importancia y visibilidad a partir de los trabajos descritos en los puntos anteriores. En la sierra peruana existe una amplia biodiversidad de la papa que no es sufi cientemente aprovechada en términos sostenibles y la mayoría de variedades de papas nativas eran desconocidas.Por el lado del consumo en fresco, se ha logrado introducir estas variedades en las cadenas de autoservicios con un concepto de \"papa nativa, fresca, seleccionada, clasifi cada, limpia, empacada y con marca\", gracias al cual se han apreciado sus extraordinarias cualidades nutritivas, su diversidad de formas, tamaños, colores de cáscara y de la pulpa, sabores y texturas 35 . Asimismo, se encuentran en el mercado productos procesados con variedades nativas: una presentación de lujo de chips de papas nativas se vende en el duty free del aeropuerto internacional de Lima, y otras marcas han sido introducidas a los autoservicios en Lima y mercados regionales para el segmento de turistas. En mayo de 2008, Frito-Lay lanzó \"Lay's Andinas\", hojuelas de papa elaboradas con variedades nativas, lo que implica un avance sustancial en el desarrollo del mercado para este tipo de variedades. Asimismo, el Grupo Gloria ha lanzado un nuevo producto, \"Mr. Chips Papas Nativas\", también de variedades nativas. De otro lado, una empresa privada ha desarrollado una crema facial con extractos de variedades moradas de papas nativas. El paso siguiente es explorar las posibilidades de los mercados externos para diversos productos procesados a partir de papas nativas.","tokenCount":"29076"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3db05fa232e2c911bd0a6cab67ec45f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fdb0cd8d-dc32-48e0-b7a1-82d372ba79ff/retrieve","id":"2051207509"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e5eb32de-698e-44ae-a8bb-5658da797811","pagecount":"36","content":"Irrigation expansion is a critical development intervention to address food security challenges in Ethiopia. However, only a fraction of the country's irrigation potential has been utilized thus far. Enhanced spatial information on irrigated land can support policy and practice by making agricultural land and water management solutions more effective. Currently, considerable variations exist in the irrigated area estimations undertaken by different government agencies. Furthermore, the irrigated area maps developed as part of global mapping efforts are too coarse for planning and management at the subnational scale. This study aims to develop an irrigated area map of Ethiopia using satellite images to support agricultural water management practices in the country, using multitemporal, multi-resolution data sets from 2015 to 2016.The identification of irrigated areas was achieved by analyzing seasonal changes in the biomass and dry season moisture status of agricultural areas. As an initial step, a country-wide agricultural area map was developed using Landsat 8 images to remove non-agricultural land cover types. Subsequently, the seasonal changes in the agricultural areas were analyzed with an annual time series of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 16-day maximum Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) composite data, along with Climate Hazards group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS) rainfall time series for the same period. Landsat 8 data were used to analyze the dry season moisture status.The classification was carried out by combining the temporal correlation of crop growth patterns with rainfall, the number of crop cycles in a year and dry season moisture status. The seasonal variables were derived by Fourier analysis and a time-lagged regression. The dry season moisture index was captured through the Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) data developed using Landsat 8 data.The study resulted in a map of irrigated and rainfed areas with a spatial resolution of 30 m. The total area of croplands was estimated as 21.8 million hectares (Mha), of which only 1.11 Mha were mapped as the irrigated area. This is only around 5% of the estimated total agricultural area. Validation using the geographic coordinates of irrigated areas obtained from the records of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) in Ethiopia showed an agreement of 70% with the results of this study. The results broadly match the recent estimations by MoA based on field information. A comparison of the results with the area estimations by the government agencies is also provided.This study provides the spatial extent and distribution of existing irrigated areas, which can strengthen future efforts to monitor irrigation development in Ethiopia. Further work on irrigation suitability analysis combined with the results of this study can also provide valuable information for decision-makers and investors about future irrigation development in the country.Ethiopia is the second-most populous country in Africa after Nigeria and is one of the fastest-growing economies in the region. However, it remains one of the poorest countries in the world. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for ~85% of the labor force (Welteji 2018). Irrigation expansion is considered critical to increasing agricultural productivity and is consequently of high priority to sustainably intensify agriculture and improve food security (Schmitter et al. 2018). However, only a small portion of the country's irrigation potential is utilized so far (Worqlul et al. 2017).Information about the location and spatial extent of the irrigated as well as rainfed areas is an important requirement for sustainable water resources development and agricultural planning. However, reliable estimates of the geographical extent and maps of irrigated areas are not available for most of Ethiopia. Information about the areal extent of irrigation is collected by various government agencies in Ethiopia. However, major differences exist in the statistics reported (MoWIE 2018;Haile and Kassa 2015). Countrywide maps of irrigated areas are primarily available through various global mapping efforts such as the Global Map of Irrigated Areas (GMIA) (Siebert et al. 2013a(Siebert et al. , 2013b) ) published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the Irrigated and Rainfed Area Map of Africa (Chandrasekharan et al. 2015). The FAO GMIA primarily uses the area statistics reported by the government and other national or international agencies; it expresses the irrigated area as a percentage of a grid cell of approximately 10 km x 10 km resolution. For Ethiopia, FAO mainly uses the statistics reported for the year 2001 with some areas updated with statistics from 2004 (FAO 2016). The Irrigated and Rainfed Area Map of Africa (Chandrasekharan et al. 2015) is based on satellite images with 250 m resolution acquired during the period 2010-2011. The area estimation based on this map has disparities, generally overestimation, as Kiran M. Chandrasekharan, Chandima Subasinghe and Amare Haileslassie compared with the statistics reported by the government as well as popular perception.Most global maps apply generalized classification rules developed for large regions, which would increase the uncertainties at a local scale. The coarse pixel resolutions also contribute to the uncertainty due to the mixed land cover at sub-pixel resolutions present in most Ethiopian agricultural landscapes. An important prerequisite for the irrigated/ rainfed categorization of agricultural areas is information about the spatial extent of croplands corresponding to the study period at an appropriate resolution. Most crop area maps of Ethiopia available in the public domain are from various global land cover mapping products such as GlobCover, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land cover, etc. While most of these coarseresolution products are successful in capturing large continuous agricultural areas, they generally fail to map fragmented agricultural areas and misclassify significant areas of non-crop land cover as crop cover. Because of the coarse resolution of these maps, the smaller non-agricultural areas within the croplands, such as natural vegetation patches, hamlets, smaller grasslands, etc., are usually misclassified as agricultural land. The inclusion of wetlands or evergreen vegetation in agricultural areas eventually leads to the misclassification of such areas into irrigated areas. Therefore, it was essential for this study to develop a more accurate crop area map of the study area to avoid potential large-scale overestimation of irrigated areas.This study aimed to develop a map of irrigated and rainfed areas of Ethiopia using remote sensing data. As an important prerequisite for the irrigated/rainfed categorization, an agricultural area map had to be prepared. The study aimed to develop an agricultural area map and irrigated area identification using satellite images from 2015 to 2016, and provide area estimations at subnational levels.The analysis was performed in two stages. Irrigated and rainfed areas were mapped by analyzing seasonal trends in vegetation biomass and dry season moisture status in agricultural areas. Many non-agricultural land cover types such as forests and wetlands have spectral and seasonal characteristics similar to agricultural lands. As an initial step, an agricultural area map was developed excluding such areas. The agricultural areas identified by this map were further classified as irrigated and rainfed in the subsequent analysis.Remotely sensed images over multiple dates were used for the preparation of the agricultural area map. The mapping of irrigated and rainfed areas in the areas identified as croplands was undertaken by utilizing time series data sets of vegetation indices and satellite-derived rainfall data sets. Apart from the original spectral bands, various spectral indices derived from the imagery were also used for the analysis at various stages. Furthermore, the analysis was supported by ground truth information obtained through field surveys, secondary sources and visual interpretation of high-resolution images.The use of spectral indices derived through different satellite image band combinations is a common practice in remote sensing analysis. Spectral indices used for mapping of agricultural and irrigated areas in this study are described below.Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): NDVI is probably the most frequently used vegetation index derived from remote sensing data. It is strongly correlated with many vegetation parameters such as crown closure, leaf vigor, canopy biomass and leaf area index (Lyon et al. 1998). NDVI is derived from the red (R) and near infrared (NIR) bands of the satellite images using the following formula: .............................where: ρ R is the red band reflectance and ρ NIR is the near infrared band reflectance. NDVI has been successfully used for mapping and monitoring vegetation, including land use and irrigated area mapping at multiple scales, often along with original spectral bands and other spectral indices (Dahal et al. 2018;Pervez et al. 2014;You et al. 2013;Thenkabail and Wu 2012;Thenkabail et al. 2009). NDVI is less affected by various forms of illumination, and atmospheric and topographic effects due to its ratio properties (Matsushita et al. 2007;Huete et al. 2002). However, NDVI values tend to saturate in areas with high biomass; as a result, differentiation of dense vegetation types based on NDVI will be constrained by index saturation at higher values (Huete et al. 2002;Pun et al. 2017;Naser et al. 2020). Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), which is free from the saturation effect, is often proposed as an alternative to NDVI. However, EVI is highly susceptible to the topographic effects (Matsushita et al. 2007) and may not be suitable for many areas of Ethiopia due to the mountainous terrain.The impact of NDVI saturation is most visible during the period with peak biomass, whereas NDVI during the growing season is not affected by the saturation (Matsushita et al. 2007;Huete et al. 2002). It has also been observed that NDVI has a higher range in values over the semiarid areas, but this is at the expense of a lower dynamic range over the more humid forested sites (Huete et al. 2002). An evaluation of seasonal trends in NDVI in several crop types showed that NDVI is suitable for distinguishing the vegetation categories during the growing period, which indicates that the multi-temporal NDVI data are suitable for differentiating vegetation categories (Wardlow et al. 2007).If the vegetation classification is solely based on NDVI, the saturation effect would lead to limited success in distinguishing areas with dense forests from certain irrigated areas or identifying various irrigated crop types during the peak of the growth. However, it has been observed that the use of functionally different indices increases classification proficiency (Pun et al. 2017). In this analysis, multi-temporal NDVI has been used along with other spectral bands, spectral indices and topographic variables to map the crop areas. A time series of NDVI along the entire crop cycle was used for further classification of irrigated and rainfed areas.Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI): NDMI value is an indicator of the moisture levels stored in vegetation. The index is derived based on the absorption of water by the short-wave infrared (SWIR)-1 band compared to the NIR band (Wilson and Sader 2002;USGS 2016). NDMI was derived from the NIR and SWIR bands of Landsat 8 using the following formula: ... .......................... (2) where: ρ NIR is the near infrared band reflectance and ρ SWIR 1 is the short-wave infrared -1 band reflectance.Although the biophysical interpretation of indices that use the SWIR band is more ambiguous than indices that use only red and NIR bands (Wilson and Sader 2002), they seem to account for moisture content in vegetation and soil.NDMI was used at both stages of the analysis. Multitemporal NDMI was used as one of the input layers for thecrop area classification. The index was further used for the identification of irrigated areas in the subsequent stage of the analysis.The analysis was performed using publicly available, free satellite data sets along with geographical coordinates of irrigated areas obtained through primary field surveys and secondary data sets. Satellite images acquired at regular intervals over one year were used to analyze the seasonal trends. An annual time series of MODIS 16-day NDVI maximum value composite data were used to capture the seasonal variation of vegetation. Landsat 8 images were used for mapping the agricultural areas and assessing the dry season moisture status in croplands. The analysis was supported by global open access rainfall data sets and crop area maps. The characteristics of these data sets and use of the data are described below.Landsat 8 images were used to prepare the crop area map and further analyze the irrigation status of the crop areas. Landsat 8 images have 11 spectral bands including one panchromatic and two thermal bands. The panchromatic band has a spatial resolution of 15 m. The thermal bands are acquired with a 100 m resolution but are resampled to 30 m in the delivered data product. The other bands have a resolution of 30 m. Additionally, a Quality Assessment (QA) band, which provides information about the cloud cover and cloud shadows, is also available for Landsat 8 data. The panchromatic band was not used for the analysis. Thus, the analysis involving Landsat 8 images was carried out at 30 m resolution.Two different Landsat 8 data products were used for this study. The crop area classification was performed using the Landsat 8 Collection 1 Tier 1 8-Day Top of Atmosphere (TOA) Reflectance Composite imagery available in Google Earth Engine. 1 These mosaics are created from all the scenes in each eight-day period beginning from the first day of the year (Google Earth Engine 2017). Spectral indices for the analysis of irrigation status of the agricultural areas were derived using the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager/ Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI/TIRS) Surface Reflectance product available from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer 2 satellite data archive (USGS 2016). The geographical area of Ethiopia is covered by 59 Landsat 8 scenes (Figures 1 and 2). The satellite images acquired between January 2015 and September 2016 were used at various stages of the analysis. Images of the same period were not available for the entire country because of cloud cover. Scenes with more than 20% cloud cover were not used for the analysis. Multi-season images for each scene were used for the classification to reduce the impact of clouds. The identification of irrigated and rainfed areas within the agricultural landscape was carried out through a time series analysis of intra-annual vegetation indices. The MODIS NDVI data product MOD13Q1 was used to represent the seasonal changes in vegetation. The MOD13Q1 NDVI data set is a 16-day maximum value composite derived from daily satellite data (Didan 2015) with a spatial resolution of 250 m. The time series image data set for this study was developed from the MOD13Q1 data products from April 2015 to March 2016. Four MODIS scenes were required to cover Ethiopia, and for each scene, 23 images were required to create the time series data set for the study period. The MODIS data set distributed by USGS through the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earthdata Search 3 system was used. The data set is available with sinusoidal projection in Hierarchical Data Format (HDF). The images downloaded were converted to ERDAS Imagine format and re-projected to the geographic (latitude/longitude) coordinate system. Geographic coordinates of sample locations for this study were obtained through field surveys, high-resolution images in the Google Earth platform, 5 and from past studies and government records.Field data collection: Geographical coordinates of irrigated and rainfed areas were collected from different parts of the country using a hand-held global positioning system (GPS). The survey was conducted in 2017. Coordinates were collected from within plots with relatively uniform land use. Additionally, the survey team interacted with field-level officials from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) at different locations to gather descriptive information about irrigation patterns and extents. GPS coordinates collected for earlier projects of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in 2010 and 2015 were also used. The data collected during 2015 and 2017 were used for the irrigated and rainfed area classification of agricultural areas. The 2010 data were used for validation as the irrigation status of those locations has not changed over the years.Google Earth images: Sample locations for the crop area classification were obtained through visual interpretation of the high-resolution (up to 0.65 m) images available in the Google Earth platform. Google Earth images were also used for visual cross-verification and correction of the classification results. Although the images are of high resolution, it is often not possible to determine the irrigation status of crops using Google Earth alone. Therefore, this resource was not used for the irrigatedrainfed classification of agricultural areas.Coordinates from secondary sources: Coordinates of irrigated areas from several locations in the Oromia and Tigray regions were available from the records of MoA. Additionally, irrigated site polygons digitized over Google Earth imagery were available for two districts of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR). These data sets were used for both the classification and validation of the results.Detailed metadata of these data sets were not available. The Oromia ground truth data set was generated through partial site visits and secondary data available at the district level from past surveys or studies (OIDA 2018). Data collection methods used for other data sets are not available at the time of writing this report.The classification of remote sensing images and validation of results require GPS coordinates collected from within the plots to enable pixel-to-pixel comparison. Ideally, the coordinates should be obtained from areas with relatively uniform land cover. Location coordinates collected for other purposes often do not meet this quality criterion. The available coordinates from the secondary sources were plotted on Google Earth images and were visually verified for their suitability for the use in the classification and validation. Some of the points seem to have been taken at adjacent locations of agricultural lands, presumably from an easily accessible location or at the diversion/ abstraction location of the irrigation scheme. Wherever the irrigated areas represented by those points could be clearly identified visually, these points were manually moved to the irrigated area. Since the modified locations are visually interpreted data, these were used only for the purpose of classification and were not included in the validation data set.The crop area map of Ethiopia was prepared as an initial step to exclude the non-agricultural areas from the analysis. The mapping was carried out using the satellite data archives and classification procedures available in Google Earth Engine. Google Earth Engine is an advanced, cloud-based geospatial processing platform facilitating access to a wide range of raw and derived satellite data products and classification algorithms. The classification was performed using the Landsat 8 Collection 1 Tier 1 8-day TOA Reflectance Composite imagery as input (as mentioned in the section Data Sources). An initial classification with single date imagery for a sample area did not produce the desired result. The separation of cultivated savannah and bushlands from natural savannah and bushlands was particularly challenging. However, the seasonal changes occurring in cultivated areas and natural vegetation are likely to be different in most situations. These changes can be captured through images acquired on multiple dates for each scene and can be used as input to improve the classification (Krishnaswamy et al. 2004;Senf et al. 2015). In addition to the original bands from the multi-seasonal images, spectral indices such as NDVI, NDMI and topographic data sets were also used for the classification (Morton and Rowland 2015). The list of Landsat scenes and the dates of the images used for the classification of crop areas are shown in Table 1. An overview of the classification process is presented in Figure 3.Table 1. List of Landsat 8 scenes and dates of the images used for the crop area classification according to the Landsat WRS 2.The following data set was constructed for each Landsat 8 scene as the classification input.• Bands 1 to 7 of multi-date images from Landsat 8 sensor: The images were selected from the period January 2015 to September 2016. The number and dates of images used for each scene are different due to the availability of cloud-free images. The images that were least affected by the clouds were selected as inputs for each scene. The clouds and cloud shadows of the selected images were removed using masks generated from the Landsat 8 QA band.Since the analysis used images from multiple seasons, cloud-free pixels from at least one of the selected dates were available for the cloudmasked areas.• NDVI: Derived for each of the Landsat 8 images selected for the analysis.• Mean NDVI: Mean value of the NDVI data from multiple dates selected for the analysis.• Standard Deviation of NDVI: Derived from the NDVI of multiple dates selected for the analysis.• NDMI: Derived for each of the Landsat 8 images selected for the analysis.• Mean NDMI: Mean value of NDMI data from multiple dates selected for the analysis.  Even though the objective was to develop a crop area map, all major land cover categories had to be included in the classification process to avoid possible misclassification of various land cover types as an agricultural category due to spectral reflectance similarities to croplands. The signatures for classification were developed for several subcategories of croplands, such as standing crops, harvested/fallow lands, agricultural plantations, woodlands with cultivation and bushlands with cultivation, and nonagricultural land uses, such as forest, woodland, dense bushland, bushland, grassland, bare land, marshland, water and urban areas.The signatures were developed from training samples selected from the high-resolution images available through the Google Earth Engine interface. The training samples, selected from the areas where the respective land use is prominent, were spatially well distributed over the map region. The primary purpose of developing signatures for non-agricultural classes is to provide a suitable category to accommodate the pixels belonging to those classes to avoid them being misclassified as agriculture. Hence, the fine distinction between those categories was not addressed for the development of signatures and the remaining classification process.We used both Random Forest Classification and Classification and Regression Tree (CART) algorithms for the classification of the input data set. Parametric classification approaches such as Maximum Likelihood Classification are often less efficient in heterogeneous landscapes, where it is difficult to obtain a sufficient number of normally distributed sample locations. Nonparametric approaches, such as CART (Breiman et al. 1984), and ensemble learning algorithms, such as Random Forests (Breiman 2001), have been producing better results for such landscapes. The Random Forests method is considered to be one of the most effective algorithms for satellite image classification (Iverson et al. 2008).The classification outputs were visually compared with the high-resolution images and the more accurate results were selected for further processing. The results were downloaded from the Google Earth Engine as tiles with 30 m spatial resolution. The output layers were compared with high-resolution images available in Google Earth and manually edited to improve the accuracy of agriculture categories. The tiles were mosaiced and a 3 x 3 majority filter was used to remove the image speckle in the output map known as salt and pepper noise effect resulting from high local heterogeneity in pixel values (Ouma and Tateishi 2008). Finally, the non-agricultural classes were removed to create the crop area map.The agricultural areas were further classified into irrigated and rainfed areas. Conventional methods of satellite image classification heavily rely on the spectral reflectance properties or signatures of distinct land use and land cover types. The spectral signatures derived from multispectral satellite data for the irrigated and rainfed areas did not show significant differences to enable segregation of these two categories. However, the rainfed and irrigated areas did exhibit significant dissimilarities in the intra-annual changes in green biomass. The growth and decline of green vegetation in rainfed areas are closely linked with the rainfall season, while the changes in irrigated areas show less temporal correlation with the rainfall season. It was also noticed that the moisture levels captured through spectral indices during the dry season are higher in irrigated areas compared to rainfed areas. The irrigated area identification was achieved by analyzing the seasonality properties and dry season moisture status.Time series analysis of annual NDVI and rainfall data was used to explore the seasonal changes and the temporal correlation of the growth/decline cycle of green biomass in agricultural areas to differentiate/identify irrigated and rainfed areas. The period for the time series data definition and analysis was determined according to the annual crop calendar of Ethiopia. While there are regional differences in the rainfall pattern, the major rainfall season for most regions of Ethiopia begins from May/June and continues until August/September. Accordingly, the major cropping season also begins during this period for most of the country. Some areas receive a second rainfall during March/April, and many such areas have a second cropping season too. Thus, the crop calendar year for this analysis was defined as April 2015 to March 2016 to ensure that it covers the major crop cycles in most parts of Ethiopia.The 16-day MODIS NDVI and CHIRPS rainfall data sets, as described earlier, were used to create the time series data sets for this period. We assumed the relationship between rainfall patterns and seasonal changes in vegetation to be different for irrigated and rainfed agriculture. The NDVI and rainfall trends of several locations were explored to understand the differences in the patterns of biomass change between irrigated and rainfed areas. These locations were selected based on available ground truth information from various sources described earlier.As evident from the NDVI-rainfall profile plots (Figures 4 and 5), both rainfed and irrigated areas exhibit significantly different temporal relationships with the rainfall patterns. Irrigated area profiles were developed from sample locations identified using a subset of available geographic coordinates. Locations for the rainfed crop trends were identified through visual interpretation of Google Earth images. These locations were mostly dry season fallows, which are most likely rainfed areas in the Ethiopian context. The growth and decline of green vegetation in rainfed areas closely follow the rainfall pattern of those areas. Since the irrigated areas do not directly depend on the rainfall patterns of the area, these areas show less correspondence with the rainfall patterns.  The NDVI-rainfall trends and the information about the crop calendar and irrigation patterns gathered from various sources show that the following characteristics would be useful to distinguish between irrigated and rainfed areas:• Most irrigated areas have multiple crop cycles in a year, whereas most rainfed areas have only one crop cycle per year. However, since some areas have a second crop cycle utilizing the remaining moisture of the first crop season or having a second rainfall season, the number of crop cycles alone cannot be used as an identifier of irrigated areas.• A second or third crop during the January-March period indicates a higher probability of irrigated areas.• Vegetation growth periods in rainfed areas have high temporal correspondence with the rainfall season. This correspondence is much weaker in irrigated areas.Both the NDVI and rainfall data sets for the period were analyzed using the time series analysis techniques. Fourier analysis was used to analyze the crop cycle frequency while time-lagged regression techniques were used to analyze the NDVI-rainfall relationships. Figure 6 provides an overview of the data inputs and classification methods used for identifying irrigated and rainfed areas.The seasonal vegetation change in agricultural areas follows a cyclic nature over time. The green biomass in crop areas gradually increases during the growing season and declines during the dry or harvest seasons. The process of vegetation growth and withering repeats through the crop cycles during the year. As a result, the NDVI growth trajectory attains the form of a harmonic wave over time in areas where multiple cropping cycles are practiced. The harmonic wave characteristics of the biomass change can be analyzed using the NDVI time series for the corresponding time period. We used the Fourier analysis technique to analyze the harmonic wave pattern of the NDVI curve.Fourier analysis permits a complex curve to be expressed as the sum of a series of cosine waves (terms) and an additive term (Jakubauskas et al. 2001). The additive term represents the mean NDVI and each successive harmonic term explains a percentage of the total variance in the time series. High amplitude values for a given term indicate a high level of variation in temporal NDVI; the term in which that variation occurs indicates the periodicity of the event (Jakubauskas et al. 2001). The first harmonic term represents the annual cycle, the second harmonic term represents the biannual cycle, and so on. The prominence of one particular harmonic over others explains the cyclic nature of the curve. For example, if the amplitude of the second harmonic is higher than other harmonics, it indicates a strong biannual vegetation cycle in the time series. However, often, identification of the prominent harmonic is not straightforward. It is also dependent upon the amount of variance in original data that is contained in a specific harmonic term. Percent variance explained by each harmonic term can be computed by dividing the individual variance for each term by total variance (Jakubauskas et al. 2001).A pixel-wise Fourier transformation of the time series for each MODIS scene was performed to produce the amplitude and phase images (Figures 7 and 8). Further, the number of crop cycles in each pixel was determined by identifying the dominant harmonic. The agricultural areas were classified into single-, double-or triple-crop areas. Percent variance explained for each harmonic term was also computed on a per-pixel basis to assign a level of confidence for the single/double/triple crop categorization. Three confidence levels-high, medium and low-were assigned to the crop cycle classification. The NDVI profiles of the medium and low confidence areas were further manually explored to determine the number of crop cycles.The Fourier analysis provides the approximate time period (phase) of the peak NDVI for each component. It was found that the phase value of the areas where two crop cycles are present can offer information for an initial separation between rainfed double crops and irrigated double crops. The phase angle value of the double-crop cycle in areas depends on the remaining moisture of the first crop or, in regions where a second rainfall season is present, is different from irrigated double-crop areas. The phase angle value of double-crop areas was explored to arrive at thresholds to separate rainfed double-crop and irrigated double-crop areas.  Since many areas in Ethiopia have more than one crop cycle depending on the remaining moisture of the first cropping season or the occurrence of a second rainfall season, the information on the number of crop cycles alone cannot be used as an identifier of irrigated areas. To determine whether an area is rainfed or irrigated, further information was required about the dependence of agriculture on rainfall.The rainfall patterns affect the trends of plant growth in agriculture and other natural vegetation types. At the same time, the NDVI-rainfall trends (Figures 4 and 5) show that irrigated and rainfed areas exhibit varying levels of dependence on rainfall. Further analysis was focused on the quantification of the dependence of agriculture on rainfall. More specifically, the analysis was intended to explore the temporal relationship between the growth of green vegetation in croplands and the rainfall season. The analysis assumes that rainfed agriculture should have a strong positive correlation with the rainfall period, while the irrigated areas will have a weaker correlation. Other forms of water management should exhibit varying levels of correlation between these two extremes.The temporal relationship between the intra-annual NDVI and rainfall time series was quantified using a time-lagged regression between these two data sets. Rainfall was considered as the independent variable and NDVI as the response variable. It has been observed that the vegetation response to rainfall has a time lag (Ji and Peters 2005), and therefore time-lagged regression was performed to assess this relationship. A time lag of one step in the time series (16 days) was used for the analysis, and the lagged correlation coefficient r was estimated for each pixel (Figure 9).While the r values range from -0.92 to 0.96, the values of the agricultural areas range from -0.85 to 0.93. Broadly, the correlation estimates derived from the lagged regression demonstrate that the rainfed areas are positively correlated with rainfall and areas that show a high negative correlation are irrigated. Areas with various other forms of water management exhibited either low positive or low negative correlations. While this describes the general nature of the NDVI-rainfall relationship, it was observed that factors such as the presence of a large number of trees, period of cultivation, etc., also impact this relationship. Apart from supplementary irrigation and spate irrigation areas, most irrigated areas in Ethiopia receive irrigation during the dry season. Dry season moisture status in the croplands was identified as a potential variable to distinguish irrigated and rainfed areas. We used NDMI derived from Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS Surface Reflectance images to assess the moisture status.During the dry season, most irrigated landscapes might have a higher level of moisture content compared to the rainfed areas, but this may not be true in the case of wetlands, riverbeds, valley bottoms and areas where various forms of water management exist. Additionally, the moisture levels estimated through satellite images may be affected by several factors such as the proximity of dates of images and the period of irrigation, variations in the intensity of irrigation, soil type, crop type, etc. As these factors have significant variability across the country and since there is no ground truth information available for moisture status, it was not possible to use this variable alone as a quantitative measure to enhance the classification. Therefore, NDMI was used as a complementary variable along with the measures derived through the seasonality analysis.We used NDMI images from January 2016 for the analysis of moisture status. Wherever images from January were not available due to cloud cover, images from February 2016 were used for the NDMI calculation (Figure 10). Images from the other months had significant cloud cover and were thus not suitable for the analysis. The agricultural landscape was categorized by combining the following variables to describe crop cycles, landscape mixture, rainfall dependence and dry season moisture status.• Time-lagged correlation between NDVI and rainfall time-series. The Landsat-based agricultural area map as a mask to exclude non-agricultural areas.The classification was performed by developing suitable thresholds for each of these variables to ensure optimal separation of irrigated and rainfed categories. The available ground truth information and high-resolution images available in Google Earth were used extensively to explore a large number of pixels to develop these thresholds. Thresholds were identified regionally to account for the spatial variations in rainfall and irrigation patterns. The results were examined visually with ground truth data and Google Earth data, and thresholds were iteratively refined locally to improve the results. The individually categorized layers were combined through an overlay analysis. The outputs were visually compared with ground truth data, Landsat images and Google Earth data, and corrections were made to improve the results.An ideal accuracy assessment procedure requires ground verification of randomly generated sample locations during the period from which images were used. Since such a data set was not generated for this study, we utilized existing secondary data sets obtained from the government departments and past studies described in the section Data Sources. A set of 1,100 points, which were not used in the classification process, were used for the validation of the final map. The points were selected after ensuring the suitability of the points for a pixel-to-pixel accuracy assessment, as described earlier. Only locations from irrigated areas were available for validation. Coordinates of rainfed areas were not available in this data set for the accuracy assessments. The proportion of the number of points correctly classified as irrigated was calculated to arrive at an estimation of the accuracy of the results.The outcome is a map of agricultural areas of Ethiopia classified into irrigated and rainfed categories, with a pixel resolution of 30 m. As described in the section Materials and Methods, the crop area classification and irrigated area identification were performed in successive stages of the analysis. The results of each step are discussed below.The crop area map (Figure 11) is the result of a rapid classification of 59 Landsat 8 scenes using the cloud computing facilities offered by Google Earth Engine. The classification of agricultural areas requires the sampling of non-agricultural landscapes with sampling intensity similar to agricultural areas to exclude possible misclassification of these areas into agriculture. However, the focus of the analysis was to separate agriculture from various other land cover categories. Except for the agriculture class, all other land use categories were removed from the final map. The crop area map includes areas with standing crops, harvested crops and fallow lands that may not have been cultivated during the study year. The total area of croplands, including all these categories, is 21,845,290 ha (Table 2).The analysis was performed using the images acquired between April 2015 and March 2016. The final map consists of the following two categories:1. Irrigated agriculture: Includes areas with at least one crop cycle using irrigation as a water source.2. Rainfed agriculture: Areas where water requirements are met directly from rainfall.The crop area map was produced solely using the Landsat 8 images with 30 m resolution; the resolution of the final output also remains the same. The irrigated/rainfed area classification was performed using the crop area and NDMI layers with 30 m resolution and phenological variables with 250 m resolution. The final maps of agricultural area and irrigated/rainfed areas are produced at 30 m resolution (Figure 11 and 12).The extent of irrigated and rainfed areas in different regional states is provided in Table 2. These statistics for zones and woredas 6 (districts) are provided in the Appendix.  The results show that only around 5% of the estimated agricultural area in Ethiopia is under irrigation in 2015-2016. The total area under irrigation estimated by this study is approximately 1.11 Mha. The extent of rainfed agriculture was estimated at 20.7 Mha. The large regional states, such as Oromia and Amhara, have the largest areas under irrigation. Together, these two regions cover ~67% of the entire irrigated area in the country (Table 2). However, the percentage of irrigated areas within croplands is highest in Afar (63.2%), followed by Gambela (33.7%) (Figure 13). Afar region is characterized by an arid and semi-arid climate with low and erratic rainfall patterns (Melese et al. 2018). As a result, rainfed farming is not feasible in most areas of the region. On the other hand, the availability of water sources and private investments in commercial farms would have aided irrigated agriculture in Gambela (Degife et al. 2018).The accuracy assessment of the results based on the GPS coordinates of the irrigated areas obtained from MoA shows an agreement of 70% with the classified output. The validation data set contains only irrigated area locations, and hence only the error of omission (exclusion) could be estimated from these data. Since the MODIS NDVI data have a relatively coarse pixel resolution of 250 m, it is likely to include multiple land cover types in many areas. This has been observed as being a major contribution to errors in area estimation using coarse resolution mapping. By combining the Landsat-derived NDMI with a pixel resolution of 30 m, the results were spatially better refined. One of the limitations of this study is the possibility of limited success in identifying isolated small-scale irrigated plots. Even though one of the variables (NDMI) used for the analysis has a resolution of 30 m, the seasonality variables derived from the MODIS data have a pixel size of ~6.25 ha. The coarse pixel size may result in mixed pixels, including various land cover types in many areas, and this might have had an impact on the regression analysis. In a pixel-based classification, the pixels are generally allocated to the dominant land cover category present within the pixel. Therefore, any irrigated area which occupies a minor portion of the MODIS pixel needs to be identified only with a single variable-dry season NDMI. As described in the section Dry Season Moisture Status, NDMI alone would not be sufficient to identify irrigated areas because of the variations in moisture levels due to several factors, such as crop type, irrigation intensity, rainfall period, etc. The effect of mixed pixels can be reduced by utilizing higher resolution images. However, the availability of cloud-free, multi-spectral imagery required for the time series analysis is limited in most areas of Ethiopia. It may be worth considering the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, such as Sentinel 1 data, to develop the crop growth profiles.Another limitation might be distinguishing areas with high soil moisture such as wetlands and valley bottoms from irrigated areas. These areas, with an abundance of soil moisture, are likely to show less dependence on rainfall for the crop growing season, and might exhibit similar crop growing and moisture patterns of irrigated areas. Integrating a map of wetlands and valley bottoms, and developing separate thresholds for analysis of these regions might help to improve the results in such areas.The intra-annual rainfall time series derived from the CHIRPS rainfall product is one of the most important data sets used for the analysis. The results of the time series regression particularly rely upon the accuracy of rainfall estimates in the CHIRPS data product. While the CHIRPS data can replicate rainfall patterns reasonably well, it may have certain performance issues in higher elevation areas (Kimani et al. 2017). This study presents the results of remote sensing-based mapping and area estimations of the irrigated and rainfed areas of Ethiopia in 2015-2016. Irrigated areas are mapped by analyzing the temporal relationship between remotely sensed vegetation and rainfall data sets and dry season moisture status estimated using remote sensing data. The results indicate that irrigated areas in this region can be identified reasonably well by analyzing seasonal variations in biomass and moisture levels.While the analysis was reasonably successful in identifying irrigated and rainfed areas, improvements are required in identifying isolated small-scale irrigated areas, and the separation of irrigated areas and soil moisture-based cultivations in wetlands and valley bottoms. It must also be noted that the ground truth points used for validation only include irrigated areas.Better quantification of uncertainties may be achieved using more representative sample data sets such as rainfed area coordinates for validation, if available.The study estimates that an area of approximately 1.11 Mha is currently irrigated, which is only around 5% of the total agricultural area in Ethiopia. These results broadly confirm the available regional estimates of irrigated area extent by government agencies. Except for Afar and Gambela, all other regional states have a very small percentage of croplands under irrigation (< 10%). The high dependency on rainfed farming makes the food security of the region vulnerable to rainfall variability. The results of this study provide important information about the spatial extent and distribution of existing irrigated areas. The methodology presented here could be used for future monitoring of irrigation development in the country. A detailed irrigation suitability analysis combined with these results will provide valuable information for policy makers, decision-makers and investors about future irrigation development in Ethiopia.","tokenCount":"7096"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ceac5ff5f4ea8ef6ef96a5e7d2022339","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f66e9d2d-a839-45be-8772-492c18d91349/retrieve","id":"1918211165"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d44c6639-012c-4ba2-ba34-ef483d3922c2","pagecount":"1","content":"Lulo or naranjilla (Solanum quitoense) (Figure 1) is a fruit with commercial potential for food processing in Colombia. It is attacked by a disease known as machorreo, which causal agent has to be determined. The disease is a serious constraint to lulo production in the country, generates losses of up to 80%Typical disease symptoms (Figure 2) are stunting, phyllody, virescence and floral abortion. The objective of this study is to detect presence of phytoplasmas in lulo attacked by machorreo. PCR. DNA, isolated from symptomatic plants, was used to amplify 16S ribosomal DNA fragments by PCR, using two pairs of universal primers. The products were reamplified by using nested PCR and employing other primers to detect and confirm that phytoplasmas were associated with machorreo (Table 1).1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Figure 3. Amplifications with nested PCR, using specific primers. Lanes 1, 1kb marker; lanes 2-5 = lulo phytoplasma sampled from different village districts, Colombia; lane 6 = coffee phytoplasma; lane 7 = healthy lulo plant; lane 8 = vinca phytoplasma; lane 9 = negative control.This study is the first to report a phytoplasma associated with machorreo in lulo. We detected the presence of a phytoplasma in association with machorreo in lulo, using phylogenetic analysis and homology with the sequence of the 16S rRNA region and the gene tRNA. We identified the phytoplasma as belonging to the 16Sr III group (Xdisease; 97% homology). For future studies, we recommend identifying possible vectors through samplings of crop insects, particularly of the order Homoptera.Through molecular techniques, crop weeds should also be evaluated for their potential as hosts to the phytoplasma. Finally, as a possible management practice, resistance of promising lulo hybrids to machorreo should also be evaluated.  2. The last primers were specific to all the phytoplasmas of the 16Sr III group (X-disease) (Figure 3). The expected sizes in base pairs were obtained for each primer in the lulo samples and the vinca and coffee controls. Primers of the X-disease group amplified only phytoplasmas obtained from lulo and coffee controls. The vinca controls did not amplify this region, suggesting an approximation to the group to which the lulo phytoplasma would belong.To identify the phytoplasma group on the basis of patterns of RFLPs, the nested-PCR products (1.2 kb) were digested with enzymes AluI, MseI, RsaI, and TaqI. Results were verified by re-amplifying R16F2/R16R2 products (0.8 kb), using a group-specific (16Sr III) primer pair.rDNA sequences. The 1.2-kb and 0.8-kb fragments were cloned and sequenced. Analysis of 16S rDNA sequences determined that the phytoplasma was similar to GenBank accession no. AF147706 of the 16Sr III X-disease group, with a 97% sequence homology.Transmission by grafting. We grafted buds and petioles from both diseased and healthy lulo plants onto plants of Catharanthus roseus cv. Vinca. The grafted plants were then kept in the greenhouses at ICA's Palmira Experiment Station until symptoms appeared.The lulo phytoplasma was placed in the 16Sr III group (Lee et al. 1993) (Figure 4).The phytoplasma analyzed in this study presented high levels (97%) of homology with the sequences of the 16Sr III group (X-disease). (Table 3)Transmission by grafting indicated that the disease is contagious. The C. roseus cv. Vinca plants, grafted with buds and petioles from     ","tokenCount":"532"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"096a0419d60bc32f91c877f6bd9a62be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27cf18a9-5d49-4e5e-aeb1-d87c27ef102f/retrieve","id":"-630809691"},"keywords":["alternative host","banana","Canna spp.","maize","millet","sorghum","Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum","Xanthomonas wilt"],"sieverID":"f1ca20b7-4f29-4c99-8402-ba5377108c2a","pagecount":"15","content":"Alternative Hosts to Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum through seed. Understanding the interactions of a crop pathogen with other plants is thus important when diversifying agroecosystems. The study findings also suggest other factors such as cultivar composition and management of the disease at farm and landscape level to be important in the perpetuation of XW disease.Alternative host plants are important in the survival and perpetuation of several crop pathogens and have been suspected to play a role in the survival of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) and perpetuation of Xanthomonas wilt (XW) disease of banana and enset. This study determined the potential risk posed by two weeds (Canna spp. and wild sorghum) and common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, taro, and sugarcane) as alternative hosts to Xcm. The study employed screenhouse experiments, laboratory procedures and diagnosis of banana fields in XW-affected landscapes. Typical XW symptoms were only observed in artificially inoculated Canna sp., with an incidence of 96%. Leaf lesions characteristic of xanthomonads occurred on millet (50%) and sorghum (35%), though the plants recovered. No symptoms occurred in maize, sugarcane, taro or wild sorghum. However, Xcm was recovered from all these plant species, with higher recoveries in Canna sp. (47%), millet (27%), sugarcane (27%), and wild sorghum (25%). Only isolates recovered from Canna sp., millet, sorghum and wild sorghum caused disease in banana plantlets. The presence and incidence of XW on-farm was positively associated with the presence of susceptible ABB Musa genotypes and negatively with number of banana cultivars on farm and household access to training on XW management. Only 0.02% of field sampled Canna spp. plants had Xcm. Risk posed by Canna spp. on-farm could be limited to tool transmission as it has persistent floral bracts that prevent insect-mediated infections. Given the high susceptibility, perennial nature and propagation through rhizomes of Canna sp., it could pose a moderate-high risk, thus warranting some attention in the management of XW disease. Sugarcane could offer a low-moderate risk due to its perennial nature and propagation through rhizomes while risk from maize, millet, and sorghum was deemed zero-low due to their annual nature, wind-mediated mode of pollination and propagationXanthomonas wilt (XW) disease of banana (Musa spp.) and enset (Ensete ventricosum) caused by the bacteria Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) has severely affected the production of banana and plantain in the east and central African (ECA) region. Host range studies have shown all the edible Musa spp. and enset cultivars in this region to be susceptible, though the level of susceptibility has been observed to vary with genotypes (Michael et al., 2006;Ssekiwoko et al., 2006b;Kebede and Gemmeda, 2017). Only Musa balbisiana, a wild Musa sp., has been reported to be resistant (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006b). The potential inoculum sources of Xcm have been reported to include infected plants, infected planting materials, infected plant residues, traded banana products (fruits and leaves) and contaminated soils and water (Eden-Green, 2004;Karamura et al., 2008;Nakato et al., 2014). Efforts to manage XW disease in ECA have mainly focused on the banana crop, yet banana grows in association with other crop and weed species. Weed fallows and some food and/or fodder crops such as common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cassava (Manhot esculent), maize (Zea mays), taro (Colocasse spp.), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), and Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) have also been recommended for breaking the cycle of XW (Mwangi et al., 2006). Some of the weeds and crops in association with banana could potentially influence the XW dynamics either through inhibiting spread and survival of the pathogen or supporting pathogen survival and perpetuation of the disease. Understanding the nature of interactions of plants in the survival of pathogens and disease dynamics are thus important. Field level crop diversification of agroecosystems has been reported as a promising strategy for suppressing pests and diseases (Letourneau et al., 2011;Boudreau, 2013;Poeydebat et al., 2017). Intercrops affect disease dynamics by altering wind, rain, and vector dispersal; modifying the microclimate (mainly temperature and moisture); altering host morphology and physiology; and directly inhibiting the pathogen (Boudreau, 2013). In contrast, other plants in an agroecosystem could exacerbate and perpetuate the diseases of certain crops, especially when acting as alternative host plants.Alternative hosts have been reported to play a crucial role in the perpetuation of several diseases in different crop species. For example, the Indian tomato leaf curl virus was identified in 13 common weed species through symptoms and TAS-ELISA and was effectively transmitted by Bemisia tabaci from these weeds to tomato (Ramappa et al., 1998). Similarly, Ocimati et al. (2017) reported sorghum to be affected by Pythium spp. causing root rots in beans, thus exacerbating the bean root rot problem in southwestern Uganda. In banana, R. syzygii subsp. celebesensis strains that cause banana blood disease, a wilt of banana, is associated with some Heliconia species (Elphinstone, 2005;Blomme et al., 2017a). Ralstonia solanacearum that causes Moko/Bugtok wilt in banana has a wide host range (Belalcazar et al., 2004) and was also isolated from Heliconia species in the Coto valley virgin forests of southwest Costa Rica, leading to the suggestion that Moko could have originally been endemic in these rainforests (Sequeira and Averre, 1961). R. solanacearum strains causing Moko/Bugtok disease are associated with Solanaceous hosts thus compromising the efficiency of fallow periods in disease management. Therefore, the removal of weeds that are alternative hosts is recommended (Romo et al., 2012).Pathogenic Xanthomonas species have also been reported in some crops such as maize (De Cleene, 2008), sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) (Destefano et al., 2003), sorghum (Reddy, 2012), common beans (Mkandawire et al., 2004;Todorović et al., 2008) and sweet potato (Hernandez and Trujillo, 1990), all of which are commonly grown in the banana-based systems of ECA. Xcm has also been shown to be phylogenetically similar to Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (Xvv) that is pathogenic to sorghum, maize and sugarcane (Aritua et al., 2008;Lang et al., 2017).A number of studies have been conducted to understand how other plant species (weeds and cultivated crops) in the environment of banana and enset interact with Xcm (e.g., Yirgou and Bradbury, 1974;Ashagari, 1985;Ssekiwoko et al., 2006a;Aritua et al., 2008;Karamura et al., 2015;Chala et al., 2016). Whereas studies consistently report Canna spp., a common weed, to develop XW characteristic symptoms similar to those in banana after inoculation with Xcm (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006a;Chala et al., 2016), they give a mixed and less clear picture regarding the interaction of Xcm with the cereals, especially with maize. Yirgou and Bradbury (1974), Ashagari (1985), and Ssekiwoko et al. (2006a) observed no symptoms in cereals after inoculation with Xcm isolates from enset and banana. In contrast, Aritua et al. (2008) reported a hypersensitive response (pathogenic reaction) at the inoculation points of maize while Karamura et al. (2015) reported characteristic XW symptoms in sugarcane but not in maize. These two studies were able to isolate Xcm from the maize plants 5 weeks after the inoculations. Rutikanga et al. (2016) reported the isolation of Xcm from maize, beans and sweet potato plant parts and soils around these crops, and mixed weed fallow. The most common weed species in the Rutikanga et al. (2016) weed fallow sites included Bidens pilosa L., Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A Gray, Bothriocline ugandensis (S. Moore) M.G. Gilbert, Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R Br, Coleus/Plectranthus kilimandschari Gurke ex Engl, Ricinus communis (L.), Crassocephalum vitellium Benth, Canna indica (L.), Galinsoga ciliate (Raf.) Blake, Commelina diffusa Burm. F., and Crassocephalum montuosum (S. Moore) Milne-Redh. Though the Rutikanga et al. (2016) isolates were confirmed to be Xcm with PCR, they did not cause disease when inoculated into tissue cultured banana plantlets.A more recent study by Chala et al. (2016) using three Xcm isolates obtained from cultivated enset, wild enset and banana reported typical disease symptoms 2-3 weeks after the inoculations with incidences of 40-67% in maize, 25-50% in sorghum, 13% in wild sorghum and 1-17% in millet (Eleusine coracana). However, some of the above studies did not report re-isolation of Xcm from these alternative host plants while Koch's postulates were not reported in all the studies. Yet some plant species can act as symptomless carriers or non-hosts of pathogens (Katan, 1971;Schaad and Dianese, 1981;Gitaitis et al., 1998;Fassihiani, 2000). For example, naturally occurring weeds including Amaranthus sp., Chenopodium album, and aubergines were colonized to various degrees and determined as symptomless carriers of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici that is pathogenic to tomato (Fassihiani, 2000). In addition to clarifying the above observations, the risk posed by these crop species under on-farm situations also needs to be examined.The current study built on to the above studies by (i) determining the potential risk of selected weeds (Canna spp. and wild sorghum) and common banana intercrops [maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro (Colocasia esculenta)] to harbor and/or succumb to Xcm in controlled experiments; (ii) the potential of Xcm isolates from these putative alternative hosts to re-infect banana plants; and (iii) the potential importance of the putative alternative hosts in the perpetuation of XW in banana in farmers' fields. Synthesis of these findings will be helpful in informing the management of XW disease on farms in the ECA region.This study was conducted through laboratory, screenhouse and field studies. Screenhouse and laboratory studies were conducted at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) located at Kawanda in central Uganda in 2015/2016. The screen house and laboratory studies were complemented through farm diagnostic studies in central Uganda, a hot spot for XW disease.A total of eight plant species that included five common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro) and two weeds [Canna sp. and wild sorghum (Sorghum versicolor)] previously reported or suspected to harbor or succumb to Xcm infection under controlled screenhouse conditions were used in this experiment. Two months old east African highland (EAHB) banana cv. 'Musakala' (AAA genome) plantlets were used as the positive control. The choice of the banana cultivar to use was based on availability of tissue culture plantlets, as all banana cultivars in the region are susceptible to XW disease following infection by the Xcm pathogen. For each species, 60 plants were raised from either seed (maize, millet, and sorghum); rhizome/corm bits (taro), cuttings (sugarcane), rhizome (Canna spp.), small plantlets (wild sorghum), or tissue culture plantlets (banana). To rule out any latent Xcm-infection in vegetatively propagated plants, cross sections from the stems and or leaves were sampled, total DNA extracted as described by Mahuku (2004) and checked with PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012). The plants were then grown in small pots (3 L in size) filled 3/4 full with pre-sterilized forest top soil mixed with sand in a ratio of 2:1 over a period of 1-2 months (depending on the crop species) before treatment application. Sand was added to improve drainage and aeration while the plants were regularly watered to provide adequate moisture for growth.Xcm for the screenhouse study was isolated from a fresh sample of a banana pseudostem obtained from a plant that had only recently developed XW symptoms (not older than 2 days) in an infested field at NARL, Kawanda. One gram of the sample was aseptically cut off from the middle and inner portion of the pseudostem tissue and macerated with a mortar and pestle in 3 mL of sterile distilled water, serially diluted fourfold and 10 µL of each dilution plated on Yeast Peptone Glucose Agar (YPGA, Mwangi et al., 2007) media in Petri plates. Plates were sealed and incubated at 28 • C for a period of 72 h. Single colonies with Xcm-characteristics (yellow, mucoid, and dome shaped) were carefully picked, streaked on fresh media and incubated as above. Resultant colonies were confirmed using Xcm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012) using PCR, and a suspension of the bacteria adjusted to 0.5 OD 600 (∼1 × 10 8 colony forming units) using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, United States) for the inoculation of plants.Thirty maize, sorghum, millet, bean, Canna spp., and wild sorghum plants were inoculated after 1 month from emergence or potting while sugarcane, taro and banana were inoculated at 2 months after establishment An equal number of plants served as un-inoculated controls. Inoculations were done by injecting 100 µL of fresh Xcm inoculum using a sub-dermal syringe into the stem tissues at 15-20 cm height. Twelve inoculated plants per species were routinely observed for symptoms typical of XW whereas the remaining 18 plants were routinely sampled for laboratory analysis. An equal number of un-inoculated plants were, respectively, kept for observation and sampling. The screenhouse plants were observed for a 60 days period corresponding to the life span of the annual crops and covering adequately the time period in which XW symptoms in banana plantlets are manifested. Data collected included symptom characteristics, time from inoculation to symptom expression (i.e., incubation period) and symptom incidence. Mean incubation was computed as sum of XW incubation period for the individual symptomatic plants divided by the total number of symptomatic plants, while incidence was determined as the percentage of plants that showed XW symptoms over the study period.The experiment was repeated thrice over the period of the study. Isolates for inoculation of plants in the three screenhouse experiments were obtained from the same field and thus assumed to be homogenous. The Xcm isolates for the first screenhouse experiment could not be used in subsequent experiments due to a possible change in their virulence associated with repeated culturing and long storage in the laboratory (Tripathi Leena, 2017, personal communication).Three inoculated plants per species in the screenhouse were sampled at an interval of 7 days starting at 14 days and ending at 49 days post inoculation for Xcm isolation in the laboratory. Samples were destructively collected in an aseptic manner by sterilizing knives and gloves with a solution of 15% (v/v) sodium hypochloride (NaOCl) between samples to prevent cross contamination. Further precaution was taken to sample the un-inoculated controls first, followed by the potential alternative host species and lastly the already known/susceptible Xcm host (i.e., banana). For each plant species, samples were obtained from the stems/leaves and below ground parts. Samples were stored separately in labeled plastic bags and transferred to the laboratory where they were processed immediately or stored at 4 • C for later isolation.Samples from the field were separately washed in running water, surface sterilized using 15% v/v NaOCl to eliminate any epiphytes and external Xcm contamination, rinsed with distilled water to remove excess NaOCl and blotted dry using paper towels. Approximately 3 g of each plant part/sample were cut and homogenized with a sterile mortar and pestle in 3 mL of sterile distilled water. 1 mL of this homogenate was serially diluted to 10 −3 , from which a 20 µL aliquot was spread plated on triplicate Petri plates of YPGA-containing antibiotics 5-fluorouracil and cephalexin (Mwangi et al., 2007). Plates were sealed, incubated at 28 • C for 3 days and scored for presence or absence of colonies with Xcm characteristics. All Xcm-like colonies were streaked on fresh YPGA media and incubated as above to obtain pure cultures and confirmed through PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012).Genomic DNA was extracted from Xcm-like colonies as described by Mahuku (2004). The integrity (concentration and purity) of DNA samples was determined using the NanoDrop 2000C spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, United States) and adjusted to 50 ng/µL, for PCR. The gDNA extracted from Xcm-like colonies was used as template in a PCR reaction using 265 bp GspDm-specific Xcm primers (Adriko et al., 2012). Amplification reactions were carried out in a 20 µL reaction volume with a final concentration of 0.3 µM of each of the forward and reverse primers, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , 0.2 µM of each dNTPs (Promega, Madison WI, United States), 1× PCR green buffer, 1 unit of HotStarTaq Plus DNA Polymerase (Qiagen, Canada) and 2 µL of genomic DNA (50 ng/µL). The PCR amplification reactions were performed in the Eppendorf Mastercycler (Eppendorf AG, Hamburg, Germany) using the following program: an initial denaturation at 95 • C for 3 min; 35 cycles consisting of 92 • C for 20 s, annealing at 64 • C for 15 s, extension at 72 • C for 15 s; and a single final extension at 72 • C for 3 min before cooling and holding at 4 • C. Amplified PCR products were separated by electrophoresis in 1.5% w/v agarose gel in 1× TAE buffer at 150 V for 45 min. The gel was stained with ethidium bromide (0.5 µg mL −1 ) and the image captured using the GBOX Syngene gel documentation system (SYNGENE, UK). Samples with a 265-bp amplicon were selected and preserved on 2 mm glass beads in 80% v/v glycerol at −80 • C for further studies.Koch's postulate trials were conducted to determine if the Xcm-like bacterial isolates recovered from the potential alternative host plants inoculated with Xcm could cause disease in the original host (banana plantlets). Koch's postulates are a stringent criterion that provides a framework for thinking about the proof of microbial disease causation and are widely used in plant pathology (Liu et al., 2016). The key elements include a specific association of the microbe with the disease state, scientific consistence of microbiological and pathological evidence, isolation of the microbe on culture media, and reproduction of disease following inoculation of the cultured organism into a host. To fulfill Koch's postulate, Xcm-characteristic colonies re-isolated from the alternative host plants in the study that were confirmed positive for Xcm with PCR were sub-cultured and inoculated into 2 months old EAHB banana (cv. 'Musakala') plantlets using the procedures described above. Five banana plantlets of the same age, each having a total of four leaves were inoculated per Xcm inoculum source/isolate. Five banana plantlets inoculated with Xcm isolated from banana plantlets served as controls. All inoculated banana plantlets were regularly monitored for disease symptoms, time to symptom expression and symptom incidence as in the section above. XW severity at a scale of 0-1, 0 being no disease symptom and 1 being the highest severity score, was also assessed for some of the Xcm isolates used for the Koch postulate trials. The severity S for a given isolate was assessed as below.Where: S = severity score for a given Xcm isolate inoculated into a total of \"Np\" plants; sP = XW severity score for a single plant, with the number of plants inoculated with a single isolate varying from \"1\" to \"n\" plants; Np = total number of plants inoculated with a given Xcm isolate; Li = number of symptomatic leaves at the time of data recording; and LN = the total number of leaves per plant at inoculation.Assessment of the Field Risk/Relative Importance of the Potential Alternative Host Plants of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum on FarmThe potential risk and relative importance of crops or weeds that either showed XW symptoms in the controlled experiments or from which active Xcm could be isolated were assessed on-farm through diagnosis of 63 randomly selected banana farms in XW endemic districts (Mukono, Wakiso, Kayunga, and Luwero) in central Uganda and expert knowledge. On farms, data was collected on: XW presence and incidence; presence of Canna spp. and wild sorghum in banana fields; and presence of common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro) in banana fields and or farm. XW incidence on each farm was scored on mat (i.e., an underground banana rhizome from which one or more shoots emerge) basis at a scale of 0 to 100%. Data was also collected on other potential factors that could influence XW presence and incidence, and these included: presence of banana cultivars with ABB genome, the diversity of banana cultivars and presence of agroforestry trees. Banana cultivars with ABB genome are highily susceptible to insect-mediated XW infections (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2009;Blomme et al., 2017a) whereas, a high diversity of banana cultivars and presence of agroforestry trees were anticipated to cause a dilution effect and reduce insect vector access to the susceptible ABB banana types. XW management practices also play a crucial role in influencing disease presence and incidence on farm. Thus information on management of banana fields (e.g., weeding, removal of male buds, and removal of excess suckers), the history of XW, household access to training on XW management, and key XW cultural control practices applied on farm were also collected using farmer interview schedules. The on-farm studies sought to determine if a cause-effect relationship existed between the presence of the potential alternative host plant(s) of interest as an independent variable and (i) the presence/absence of XW and (ii) the incidence of XW on banana farms as response variables. Other possible explanatory variables to the above two response variables assessed on-farm included the time of exposure to XW, key XW management practices [male bud removal, single diseased stem removal (SDSR), and complete banana mat removal (CMU)], number of banana cultivars on farm/field, presence/absence of ABB banana types, presence of agroforestry trees, banana intercropping, access to information on XW and farmer/household access to training on XW management. During field diagnosis, Canna spp. plants were aseptically sampled for laboratory isolation and identification of Xcm as described in sections above. Priority was given to sample Canna spp. plants that exhibited suspicious Xanthomonas characteristic wilting symptoms.Expert knowledge from five scientists with at least 7 years experience on XW epidemiology and management was used to develop XW risk scores varying between 0 (no risk) to 5 (high risk) for the different potential alternative host crops. In addition to the results of the experiments in this study, key plant species characteristics used for assessing the risk from the alternative host plants included their mode of pollination, persistence or non-persistence of floral bracts and male neuter flowers, potential for tool mediated Xcm spread, mode of reproduction and life span (annual vs. perennial). XW is also spread by insects that visit for pollen and nectar, thus plant species pollinated by insects were deemed a risk to XW spread while banana plants with persistent neuter flower and floral bracts have been found to escape the disease. Plants that reproduce through rhizomes can potentially pass the bacteria or disease to subsequent generations while susceptible perennial plant species are likely to offer a higher risk to the banana crop than the annual crops.Data were compiled in MS Excel. The GenStat v. 12 statistical software (VSN International Ltd., 2009) was then used to obtain the analysis of variance ANOVA and to separate means [at 5% Least Significant Difference (LSD)] of the laboratory and screenhouse data. The R-Statistical package (R Core Team, 2013) was used to separately conduct a regression analysis between the response variables and the explanatory variables. A general logistic regression model was used to explore the relationship between the presence/absence of XW onfarm with the above explanatory variables, except the XW management practices and exposure time. XW management practices (SDSR and CMU) were not used as explanatory variables because they can either be introduced on-farm in response to XW presence or influence XW presence. A linear model was used to explore the relationship between XW incidences with the explanatory variables. The explanatory variables for each response variable were reduced to a few that significantly influenced the observed response through a backward stepwise regression process, each step dropping explanatory variables that contributed least to the observed response.Characteristic symptoms similar to those of XW disease in banana (Figure 1B), i.e., progressive yellowing and wilting of leaves were only visible in Canna sp. plants (Figures 2B,C). In most of the cases, leaf necrosis and yellowing in Canna sp. started either in the middle part or edge of a leaf, subsequently progressing to the whole leaf and plant. Severely affected Canna sp. plants also had their leaf margins turning black, progressing rapidly to the entire leaf and plant (Figure 2D). The affected Canna sp. plants collapsed and rotted. Cut symptomatic Canna sp. pseudostems released a yellow bacterial ooze (Figure 2E)  similar to cut XW infected banana stems (Figure 1C). Infections were also observed in some of the attached suckers following the inoculation of the parent Canna sp. plants (see Figure 2D) whereas other suckers from inoculated Canna sp. mats did not show symptoms. None of these symptoms occurred in the uninoculated banana (Figure 1A) and Canna sp. (Figure 2A) control plants.Leaf necrosis (whitish to light green lesions) along the parallel veins were observed on leaves of inoculated sorghum (Figures 3B,C) and millet (Figures 3E,F) plants, 7 days after inoculation. No symptoms occurred in the control plants (Figures 3A,D). However, these symptoms were observed to disappear over time and new emerging millet and sorghum leaves presented no leaf symptoms, suggesting that the plants recovered from the Xcm infection. No Xanthomonas-characteristic symptoms were observed in the controls or inoculated plants of maize, sugarcane, wild sorghum, beans or taro.The mean incubation period (number of days from time of inoculation to first symptom observation) was greatest for Canna sp. and did not differ significantly between banana, millet and sorghum (Figure 4). The XW symptom incidence in Canna sp. was 96%, while banana had 100% of potted plants showing symptoms. Millet had symptom incidence of 50% and sorghum 35%.Xcm-like colonies (Figure 5) were re-isolated from both symptomatic and symptomless Canna sp., sorghum and millet plants and confirmed to be positive with a PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Figure 6; Adriko et al., 2012). Despite the absence of symptoms Xcm was also recovered from wild sorghum, sugarcane, maize and taro and similarly confirmed with the GspDm-specific primers (Figures 5, 6). Adriko et al. (2012) reported the GspDm-specific primers to be specific to Xcm based on a 265 bp amplicon. To our knowledge there are no other published primers other than GspDm reported to be specific for molecular diagnosis of Xcm. However, when we performed an in silico analysis with Primer-BLAST 1 , GspDm primers generated a specific amplicon of 265 bp with Xvv and non-specific amplicons (>3000 bp) with other Xanthomands (non-pathogens of banana). This suggests that the GspDm primers may also amplify Xvv that causes bacterial leaf streak in maize, sugarcane and sorghum. The fact that a 265 bp amplicon was not observed in the genomic DNA of tissues from maize, sugarcane and other plant species used in this study prior to inoculation gives us confidence that the plants used for the screenhouse experiments were Xvv free and amplicons obtained with Gspdm primers were Xcm.The frequency of Xcm presence in the plant parts significantly (P < 0.001) varied between the crop species (Figure 4B). Xcm was recovered in 83% of the banana plant samples compared with 47% in Canna sp. plants. Xcm incidence in plant parts of the other crops was significantly lower than that in Canna sp. and varied between 6.5% in sorghum to 27% in millet (Figure 4B). For the period of Xcm isolation (13-39 days after inoculation), no consistent relationship was observed between the proportion of plants from which Xcm was recovered and the age of plants or time of Xcm re-isolation.Koch's postulates were performed using the isolates recovered from the different artificially inoculated crop species. Isolates recovered from banana, Canna sp., millet, wild sorghum and sugarcane caused XW symptoms in banana plantlets with incidences of 100% for those from banana, 60% for those from Canna sp., 80% for those from millet, 40-100% for those from wild sorghum and 40% for those from sugarcane. Isolates from maize and taro did not cause disease in banana while isolates from sorghum were not introduced into the banana plants. Finger-prints were obtained for some of the isolates from banana, sugarcane, Canna sp. and taro.Similar finger-print patterns were observed for the banana and Canna sp. isolates that caused disease in banana plantlets, while a different pattern was observed for the taro and sugarcane isolates that did not cause disease in banana plantlets (Figure 7).Four of the Xcm isolates recovered from the potential alternative hosts were compared for their virulence on banana plantlets (Figures 8A,B). One isolate from wild sorghum was highly virulent causing up to 100% incidence with a correspondingly high severity score of 1 (1 being the highest score and 0 being no disease). A second isolate from wild sorghum and the isolate from sugarcane were the least virulent while the isolate from millet was moderately virulent.Xanthomonas wilt was present in 92% of the surveyed farms with a mean mat disease incidence and time of exposure to XW of 21% and 4.7 years, respectively. The number of Musa cultivars on farm varied between 1 and 11, while the ABB types were present on 95% of the banana farms (Table 1). Agroforestry trees and intercropping were practiced on all the surveyed farms. Between 32 and 84% of the farmers practiced different XW control measures while between 5 and 76% of the farmers reported to have accessed information and or training from different sources. Farmers were the main source of information (75%) on XW disease (Table 1). Canna spp. was observed on 59.5% of the farms surveyed in central Uganda (Table 1). The abundance of Canna spp. on farms could not always be easily ascertained as most farmers had cleaned their fields using mainly hand hoes and/or herbicides in a few cases. In some farms (see example of Figure 9B),  ;2,3,and 8,banana;4,5,10,and 11,sugarcane;6 and 7,taro;9,maize;12,positive control;and 13,negative control. On gel B,1,2,[7][8][9]and 13,wild sorghum;3,4,5,and 16,maize;6,10,12,[17][18][19][20][21]Canna sp.;11 and 14,sorghum;15,sugarcane;22,taro;23,negative control;24,positive control. Gel C,1 and 2,sugarcane;3,[5][6][7]18,and 21,wild sorghum;4,16,and 20,taro;[8][9][10]12,13,15,17,and 19,banana;11,Canna sp.;14,sorghum;22,negative control;and 23, positive control. On gel D, 1-18, millet. \"M\" on all the gels denotes the DNA ladder. The experiments were conducted at the Kawanda laboratory in central Uganda. Canna spp. are very abundant. Out of 46 Canna spp. samples analyzed in the laboratory, only one plant (∼0.02%) had colonies characteristic of Xcm that were also confirmed positive using Xcm specific primers. The other samples either had no Xcm-like colonies or were negative on PCR with the specific primers.A logistic regression model of XW presence/absence on farm only selected farmers access to training and the presence of ABB banana cultivar types as explanatory factors that significantly influenced disease presence/absence on farm. Access to training had a negative and significant (P = 0.009) influence on XW presence on farm, suggesting that the 8% of the farms without XW were also those that had received training on XW management. In contrast, 92% of the farms with XW had a high likelihood of having the susceptible ABB banana cultivar types (P = 0.029) (Table 2). A linear regression model for XW plant incidence on-farm selected the number of banana cultivars, as the key factor influencing XW incidence on a farm (Table 2). The number of cultivars on farm and the application of SDSR, one of the recommended control practices led to a decline in XW incidence, while incidence was increased on farm by the presence of the susceptible ABB banana types. However, only the number of cultivars had a significant effect at P = 0.05. The logistic regression and the linear regression models, respectively, explained 29.3% (null deviance: 2.7569 on 36 degrees of freedom (d.f.) and residual deviance: 1.9503 on 34 d.f.) and 18.1% (model p-value of 0.083) of the variation in XW presence/absence and incidence on farm, suggesting likely landscape effects not explored in this study played an important role in XW incidence on farm. Table 3 summarizes the different risk criteria and how they ranked across the crops in this study based on laboratory, screenhouse and field observations; and expert knowledge. In the screenhouse pot trials only Canna sp. was found to be highly susceptible whereas other crops were resistant (Table 3). The risk to/from Canna sp. and sugarcane could be increased by their perennial nature and propagation through the rhizome. Overall, the risk from Canna spp. could be ranked as moderate-high while low-moderate for sugarcane and none-very low for the other crop species in this study.Alternative host plants play an important role in the spread and perpetuation of several plant pests and diseases. Several crop and weed species have been suspected to potentially play a role in the spread or survival of the XW disease-causing pathogen, Xcm.In the current study, Xcm caused symptoms similar to those in banana in 96% of Canna sp. plants. This confirms the findings of Ssekiwoko et al. (2006a) and Chala et al. (2016), who observed  Commercially oriented farms (%) 13.5In parenthesis are minimum and maximum values of the variables. A total of 63 farms were surveyed.symptoms in Canna spp. after inoculation with Xcm. The longer incubation period in Canna sp. plants could be attributed to the fact that fully grown Canna sp. plants were used in contrast to the other plants species. In the current study, Xcm was successfully re-isolated from 47% of the Canna sp. plants in the screenhouse study and confirmed with Xcm specific primers, a component not present in previous studies. Given the high symptom incidence in Canna sp. (96%), the observed level of Xcm recovery/re-isolation (47%) in Canna sp. was relatively low, a fact that could be attributed to the growth of saprophytes in the severely affected and decomposing plants which were assessed at later stages of sampling. Isolation of Xcm from banana plants with advanced disease symptoms has also been reported to be low due to the onset of decomposition and competition from saprophytes (Mwebaze et al., 2006;Were et al., 2015). Koch's postulates showed, however, that the isolates from Canna sp. could induce disease in banana plantlets. These lab and screenhouse findings coupled with the high prevalence of this weed on banana farms in east and central Africa suggests that Canna spp. could pose a risk to the management of the XW disease.Yet, in the field assessment only 0.02% of the field-grown Canna plants had Xcm. Moreover, presence/absence and incidence of XW on the studied farms was not influenced by the presence of Canna spp. on farm. A close examination of the Canna spp. plants in the field revealed that they have persistent floral bracts. In banana, cultivars with semi or persistent male/neuter flowers have been reported to escape insect-mediated infections (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2009; Blomme   et al., 2014). Thus, the risk of Canna spp. on farm is likely to be limited to tool transmission mostly during weeding. The use of farm tools has been reported to potentially spread the Xcm bacteria from an infected banana plant to disease-free plants within or across fields (Ocimati et al., 2013). The weeding/land preparation periods (including banana leaf and sucker trimming) have been reported to be often followed by higher incidences of XW disease (Mgenzi Byabachwezi, 2016, personal communication). Canna spp. can propagate through the underground rhizome and as such Xcm infections can spread from one plant to other attached plants leading to disease persistence on a farm. In the current study, the attached suckers and sprouts in some of the symptomatic or dead Canna sp. plants, for example, were observed to succumb to the inoculation of the parent plants whereas in other pots the attached lateral shoots did not show disease symptoms even after death of parent plants. Based on the above findings we therefore rate the risk of Canna spp. to perpetuate XW on-farm as moderate to high.Among the cereals inoculated with Xcm, symptoms were only observed in millet and sorghum plants, though the plants eventually recovered. The recovery suggests that the resistance mechanisms of these species could overcome the pathogen. Pathogen virulence is often directly correlated with pathogen replication, with higher levels of replication resulting in increased damage to the host (Ebert and Bull, 2008). However, virulence and pathogen replication can be decoupled (Margolis and Levin, 2008), especially if the host mounts an appropriate immune response against novel pathogens (Graham et al., 2005). Chala et al. (2016) also reported typical XW symptoms after Xcm inoculations into sorghum and millet. The appearance of symptoms in cereals and the taxonomic similarity of Xcm to X. vasicola, a pathogen of sorghum, maize and sugarcane should be a source of concern as this suggests a potential risk of a jump from one host to another. We, however, rate the risk of Xcm to these crops and from these crops to banana to be low mainly due to (i) the short annual cycle of these crops and the inability of Xcm to survive in absence of the host, (ii) the lack of infection arising from insects, and (iii) their dispersal through seeds and other criteria in Table 3. These cereals, unlike banana that is exposed to XW spread through insects foraging for nectar and pollen (a key mode of XW spread) are wind and/or self-pollinated. No symptoms were observed in maize and sugarcane. The absence of symptoms in maize and sugarcane is in agreement with earlier findings by Yirgou and Bradbury (1974) or Ashagari (1985) but contrasts findings from Karamura et al. (2015) and Chala et al. (2016) who reported typical Xanthomonas symptoms in sugarcane and maize, respectively, following inoculation with Xcm. No symptoms were also observed in wild sorghum contrary to reports by Chala et al. (2016). Taro a common banana intercrop reported to suffer from wilts by farmers in XW landscapes did not succumb to Xcm inoculation, suggesting that it is resistant.  For the different criteria, rank 0 denotes no risk while 5 denotes a high risk.Differences in results between the above studies could potentially arise from the differences in the varieties used and differences in virulence of Xcm isolates. Karamura et al. (2015) used six different isolates from different sites in the ECA region, while Chala et al. (2016) used three isolates arising from banana, wild enset and domesticated enset. Chala et al. (2016) reports different levels of susceptibility of banana, enset and the potential alternative hosts to these three isolates. This is strengthened by the fact that four isolates recovered from millet, wild sorghum (2 isolates) and sugarcane in this study had different levels of virulence, with a higher virulence observed in one of the isolates from wild sorghum, followed by that in millet and the least in the second wild sorghum isolate (cf. Figure 8). Evaluating a wide range of isolates from different geographical setups would therefore be vital. We rate the risk of wild sorghum and maize to be very low due to their short annual cycle and mode of pollination (i.e., wind pollinated) that prevents insect-mediated infections (Table 3). Sugarcane like other cereals are wind pollinated but are perennial and reproduce through cuttings and the underground rhizomes. Thus, in case Xcm gets adapted to it, it could be of importance in perpetuation of the problem of XW disease in banana. With tool-mediated XW spread and the observed increase in cases of banana-sugarcane intercrops (e.g., Figure 9A), sugarcane could potentially gain importance as an alternative host to Xcm. Based on the screenhouse and laboratory results, the characteristics of the sugarcane plant and its management, would propose a low -moderate risk score from/for sugarcane (Table 3).Xcm was isolated from all the plant species after artificial inoculation with an Xcm isolate from banana in this study, irrespective of presence or absence of symptoms. Xcm re-isolation has also been reported for maize (Aritua et al., 2008;Karamura et al., 2015) and sugarcane (Karamura et al., 2015). In this study, isolates from maize and taro did not cause disease in banana plantlets. Rutikanga et al. (2016) also reported the isolation of Xcm from maize, beans and sweet potato plant parts and soils around the stems of these plants. The isolates though confirmed to be Xcm with PCR did not cause disease in banana plantlets (Rutikanga et al., 2016). The multiplication of bacterial pathogens in planta irrespective of the plant being a non-host or a host has been reported (Canteros et al., 1991;Hodson et al., 1995;Vidhyasekaran, 2002). The bacteria in non-hosts have been reported to, however, remain static or to decline after some time (Canteros et al., 1991;Vidhyasekaran, 2002). Novel host-pathogen interactions have not been under direct selection (Antonovics et al., 2013), and hence the degree of pathogen virulence is likely to be maladaptive for both the novel host and the pathogen. Host phylogeny has been considered a key factor in determining the susceptibility of novel hosts (Gilbert and Webb, 2007;de Vienne et al., 2009) because species closely related to the natural host of a pathogen tend to be more susceptible since the pathogen develops specialized adaptations to its natural host such as binding to host receptors, avoiding immune responses or utilizing host resources, and these break down if the environment provided by the novel host is too different (Longdon et al., 2014). We postulate that the failure of Xcm isolates from non-host plants to cause XW symptoms in banana may be due to loss or modification of key genes involved in virulence in the pathogenicity island of the Xcm genome. The loss of such loci could be attributed to the variation in fingerprint patterns compared to the original isolate (control). The ability of Xcm re-isolations from sugarcane and wild sorghum to cause disease in banana even though they did not show any symptoms in sugarcane or wild sorghum raises a big concern for the management of the disease as several plant species have been reported to act as symptomless hosts to pathogens. Age of plants (time of re-isolation) did not affect the recovery of the bacteria from the inoculated plants.The observation of symptoms in some of the non-host plants in this study and earlier studies could be a cause for concern as several plant pathogens have been reported to evolve by host jumps followed by specialization (Grünwald and Flier, 2005;Raffaele et al., 2010). Species in the Phytophthora clade 1c are reported to have evolved through host jumps and subsequent adaptive specialization on plants from four dissimilar botanical families (Grünwald and Flier, 2005). In the group of xanthomonads, Coutinho et al. (2015) reported a significant host jump of Xanthomonas vasicola from sugarcane to eucalyptus. It is also not known for how long such pathogens need to survive in the non-host plants to warrant concern for management, especially given the reported closeness of Xcm to pathogens such as X. vasicola that are pathogens to some of these non-host cereal plants. For example, Peixoto et al. (2007) isolated Xanthomonas campestris pv. viticola from non-host plants such as Alternanthera tenella, Amaranthus sp., and Glycine max. These plants and grapevine (host) developed typical symptoms of bacterial canker when they were inoculated with the recovered isolates. However, the plant/crop spp. in this study were not reinoculated with isolates recovered from them.Xanthomonas wilt presence and incidence on farm increased with the ABB banana types on farm. The ABB types, in addition to attracting many insect vectors, have floral bracts and neuter flowers that readily fall off leaving open fresh wounds on the rachis/flower stalk that are easily colonized by bacteria accidentally deposited by foraging insects (Blomme et al., 2014(Blomme et al., , 2017a)). XW incidence also declined with increasing number of banana cultivars on farm. Crop or cultivar mixtures have been reported to impede disease and pest spread and damage (Poeydebat et al., 2016;Vidal et al., 2017;Li et al., 2018). High diversity of banana cultivars has been reported to suppress banana weevils, nematodes and black sigatoka in Uganda (Mulumba et al., 2012). The effect of mixtures on diseases can be through a dilution effect/decrease in the susceptible host, change in microclimate, pathogen dispersal rate and vector population and behavior, host alteration, and pathogen inhibition (Boudreau, 2013;Vidal et al., 2017). This study for the first time suggests a possible role of cultivar mixtures in reducing or slowing XW spread on farm. This effect of banana cultivars can be attributed to the effect of dilution on the susceptible ABB types and a reduced insect vector access to susceptible cultivars. XW incidence on farm was also influenced by singly removing diseased stems/plants on farm, i.e., SDSR application. SDSR is one of the recommended practices for managing XW disease on farms. SDSR has been reported to drastically reduce XW incidence and lead to recovery of infected banana fields if regularly and consistently applied (Blomme et al., 2017b). No associations were observed between XW presence/incidence with crop mixtures and agroforestry practices, possibly due to the homogeneity of the farms in the study region. The models only explained between 18 and 29% of the observed variation on-farm. This could be attributed to the fact that other factors responsible for disease spread on farm such as use of contaminated tools and un-certified seed were homogenous across farms. Landscape level factors could have also possibly dominated the studied factors within the individual farms. At landscape level, XW spread, incidence and severity has been reported to be influenced by altitude, temperature, precipitation, trade in diseased fresh products and the level of collective application of disease control measures among others.In the current study, despite a low recovery (0.02%) of Xcm from field-based Canna spp. plants, the high susceptibility of Canna sp. to Xcm in the screenhouse coupled to the pathogenicity of the Xcm isolates recovered from these plants to banana makes them suitable alternative hosts to Xcm. More still, given the perennial nature of Canna spp. and its propagation through the rhizome, even at low incidences, Canna spp. could act as a reservoir of Xcm and perpetuate XW disease, leading to a moderatehigh risk from this weed. Isolates recovered from sugarcane and wild sorghum (another important weed species) also caused disease in banana though these plants were resistant following inoculation with Xcm. Given sugarcane and some species of wild sorghum, e.g., Johnson grass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers] are perennial and reproduce through the rhizome, they could potentially become important alternative hosts if the bacteria gets adapted to them. Efforts for managing XW will thus need to be broadened to management of some of the alternative host plants, especially Canna spp. In contrast, the risk from the grain cereals is deemed as none to very low, given the grain cereals were resistant, are annual in nature and propagate through seed. More still, XW cannot survive in decomposing or dry host tissues. Efforts to diversify agroecosystems therefore need to consider the interaction of pathogens of given crops with other plants in the system. On farmers' fields, XW presence and incidence had no association with the potential alternative hosts, especially Canna spp. but rather with the presence of susceptible ABB Musa genotypes, number of cultivars on farm and access to training on XW management. The models accounted for only between 18-29% of the variation in XW presence on farm, suggesting a possible role of other factors on farm. There is also need for in-depth study of the genomes of the Xcm isolates retrieved from the potential alternative host plants.","tokenCount":"7747"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a602251e68fad37789a4e7776ff81b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d09646b-a71f-458e-bbd4-02cea5e11b1b/retrieve","id":"75022565"},"keywords":["Moukoumbi, Y.D.","Bayendi Loudit, S.M.","Sikirou, M.","Mboj, D.","Hussain, T.","Bocco, R.","Manneh, B. Evaluation of Genotypic rice","genotypes","genetic advance","path analysis","heritability","principal component analysis","selection"],"sieverID":"b321e436-d408-4ac5-9723-61f7f76edfdf","pagecount":"15","content":"Rice is an important cereal crop in many countries, but its production in the Senegal River Valley is hampered by adverse climatic conditions. This study was aimed at evaluating the diversity among genotypes and the association between several phenological and yield attributes of irrigated rice to mitigate the consequences of climate change. During the dry season of 2013-2014, 300 irrigated high yielding oryza sativa indica panel were used in an Alpha-lattice experiment at the Ndiaye research station in Senegal. Results revealed considerable differences between genotypes in yield and yield attributes. Grain yields ranged between 1378 and 9776 kg/ha. There were also substantial differences in the genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability, genetic advance, and genetic advance as a percentage of the mean between evaluated traits. Days to heading (DH) had a higher broad-sense heritability (67.31%), indicating that the chances of transferring this trait for selection purposes will be higher, and genotypes may be used to generate early or late flowering lines. Significant positive and negative correlations were found between the studied traits and grain yield. Path analysis indicated that the maximum positive direct impact was observed with the harvest index (0.256), and the maximum negative direct effect was observed with the days to heading (−0.142). Results showed that 56 accessions outperformed the local check Giza 178, whose yield was 8987 kg/ha. Using principal component analysis and a dendrogram, genotypes were classified into four groups. The plant materials had significant variability and may be utilized to develop desired features in rice-breeding programs.Rice is among the most consumed cereals in West Africa in recent decades, and its consumption has shown the highest increase worldwide, from around 30 kg/year per capita in 1990 to 45 kg in 2010 [1,2]. Its consumption in Senegal has reached higher levels, with around 70 kg/year per capita in 2009 [3]. To satisfy such a gap, the country's imports of rice in the decade 2008-2017 amounted on average to 1,500,000 metric tons, in addition to the average national production of about 580,000 tons [4]. This strong internal demand, as a sneak preview of the global West African situation, also reinforced by the hazardous international rice market, has prompted regional agricultural policies to promote local rice cultivation [5,6]. Nowadays, in Senegal, rice production has rapidly increased based on major infrastructure investments, mainly concentrated in the Senegal River Valley and Anambe Basin. For the last couple of decades, rice farming systems in the region have become increasingly threatened by factors such as decreased precipitation, prolonged droughts and floods, and soil degradation (salinization, acidification, and silting up); this has forced the Senegalese government and fund donors to undertake actions aimed at the recovery of the lowlands to secure rice production for smallholders. In the context of worldwide climate change, Panda et al. [7] and Singh et al. [8] mentioned that, in addition to biotic constraint damages, rice productivity is also considerably affected in rainfed areas due to the prevalence of floods, water deficits, and soil deficiencies. Abiotic stress occurrence is a critical factor that jeopardizes the productivity of rice, and its occurrence, particularly that of drought, is predicted to increase in the future [9][10][11][12]. Rice is extremely susceptible to drought stress [13]. Additionally, global warming is a serious threat to agricultural crop productivity [14]. Temperature fluctuations impact rice growth stages. Higher temperatures can affect rice fertility and cause a reduction in yields [15]. Various rice accessions respond to stresses in versatile ways that indicate their tolerance or susceptibility to the climatic stresses [16]. The availability of suitable and elite germplasm can then help combat the impacts of climate change [17,18]. Hence, it becomes important to explore the diversity and variability among the available germplasms.Climatic fluctuations and stresses cause substantial yield losses depending on their intensity and duration of occurrence [19]. Stress occurrence in midseason can affect grain numbers as well as spikelet fertility, and severe productivity losses occur if stress prevails at heading stages [20,21]. Throughout a paradigm, Liu et al. [22] showed that climate change affects photosynthesis, leaf area, plant phenology, biomass, nitrogen uptake, soil profile, soil water content, fraction of roots waterlogged, and final grain yield. The yield and the performance of yield attributes are highly affected. Elite varieties in this scenario have the potential to sustain yields. For example, Anantha et al. [23] stated that stress-tolerant varieties have stable productivity when compared to susceptible individuals. The exploring diversity, selection, and breeding of resilient rice for stress tolerance are important elements to sustain crop productivity. Therefore, knowledge of the diversity and the genotypic variation regulating the extent of contributing traits on yield is highly essential for plant breeders [24]. The identification of desirable donors or parental lines is also important in crop improvement programs. The selection and identification of rice accessions in breeding trials are laborious and time-consuming processes, but they are essential components. Various agronomic and morphological characteristics need to be exploited under different management scenarios. Following that, accessions can be classified into different categories, groups, and subgroups. According to Chuchert et al. [25], rice crop breeders can classify accessions based on the performance of plant morphological and agronomic attributes. Whereas, according to Khomphet et al. [26] and Ichsan et al. [27], diversity among different attributes is a critical component in a crop population. Enhancing rice yield with broad-spectrum genetic resistance to multiple stresses that strongly inhibit plant growth and development is an economically feasible and environmentally sustainable alternative [28]. There are huge efforts to enhance rice's adaptability and yields under hard climate conditions in Africa. For a few decades, researchers at the Africa Rice Center have continuously exploited the local genetic diversity to improve Asian rice species (Oryza sativa), which do not perform well on the continent. So, several new rice varieties, such as NERICA (New Rice for Africa), are being developed to tackle its hazardous importations and overcome population starvation [29].Exploring the associations among different attributes is highly valuable to figure out their impact on crop yield and performance in rice-crop-breeding programs, which can ultimately lead to the identification of elite traits and accessions. According to Schober and Schwarte [30], the value of correlation or association ranges between −1 and +1, which indicates the positive or negative association among two different plant traits, whereas a zero value indicates no association. Hence, attributes indicating a higher and more positive correlation can be targeted for further yield enhancement. Employing multivariate statistical tools such as path coefficient analysis [31] can help identify the linkages among various attributes, which can assist in the identification of direct and indirect impacts contributing to the actual yield. This can also help in comparing the relative importance of attributes under evaluation. In rice breeding, direct impacting traits are valuable as they are associated with targeted attributes. The significance of the application of path coefficient analysis and its usefulness for the identification of associations between different yield attributes have been witnessed in numerous studies, including rice [11,32], cowpea [33], spinach [34], barley [35], and wheat [36]. Heritability, which is the proportion of phenotypic variance, explains the proportion of diversity that is passed from parental lines to progenies [12]. According to Khomphet et al. [26], it can be used to estimate the deviation or chances of improvement in targeted attributes, whereas it also explains the responses for the assortment. The extent of variability in a specific plant population determines the efficiency of the selection process. Moreover, the greater variability among the cultivars indicates better chances for improvement in the specific crop. Yield attributes usually have low values for heritability and generate difficulties in achieving the desired target for selection purposes. Therefore, Islam et al. [37] suggested choosing attributes that have high heritability and a strong association with yield attributes. For a better understanding of the selection process, variability could be utilized along with heritability, as suggested by Burton and DeVane [38]. Similar suggestions were also made by Johnson et al. [39]. Furthermore, the classification of genotypes into various groups can be performed using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering. In this case, similarly, behaving genotypes can be grouped together, and superior performers can be chosen from the group for further study [11,40].Farmers have long complained that the only way to obtain competitive yields is to select plants that thrive in their difficult local climate. The objectives of this study were to do the following: (i) evaluate the performance of yield and yield components of lowland rice accessions under farming conditions in the Senegal Valley; (ii) determine the contribution of traits to the yield increase; and (iii) identify the ones performing well to be used as donors in breeding programs. Multiple statistical methods will be used to identify yield response, genotypic variability, effects, and associations among studied traits. To our knowledge, it was the first-time researchers assessed such a large number of accessions to combat rice climate change effects in Ndiaye.The experiment was conducted at the Africa Rice Sahel station in Ndiaye during the dry season of 2013-14 under irrigated conditions. The experimental location was at 16 • 14 N, 16 • 14 W, and 9 m of altitude. The research site is located in the delta (Ndiaye) at 35 km inland of the Senegal River Valley, which is characterized by floods and droughts as climate change issues. These aforementioned constraints jeopardize the rice production in the location, and these risks have increased in the past couple of years. Prior to the planting, the soil's physicochemical properties were known from earlier findings [41]. Ploughed A-horizon soil properties are presented in Table S1. Three hundred (300) rice genotypes were used in this assessment, and their descriptions are provided in Supplementary Table S2. The experiment was laid out using an alpha lattice design with three replications, where the local Sahel 108 and elite introduced rice varieties (Giza 178 and NERICA L20) were used as checks. Those aforementioned three rice varieties were the ones adopted and cultivated by the farmers for their organoleptic quality, high yield, and stress tolerance abilities. Giza 178 is known to be tolerant to salinity and occurs in several rice farms. Sahel 108 is a cold-tolerant rice variety released by the ISRA in Senegal. Unlike NERICA L20 which is an interspecific rice variety developed by breeders of AfricaRice, exploiting the interest genes of the African rice Oryza glaberrima accessionTOG5681 (good adaptation to local con-ditions), the rest (295 rice plant materials) consisted of parental lines, landraces, and newly developed progenies, which we are evaluating throughout MET (Multi Environmental Trials) to confirm their agronomic performances. Those progenies were developed using as donors some parents that are tolerant to several rice constraints. Those donors belong to diverse types such as landraces, wild rice species, O. glaberrima, etc. A seed nursery was established, and each genotype was transplanted 21 days after sowing in a plot size of 1 × 2 m having 10 rows with a single plant per hill in a spacing of 20 × 20 cm within and between rows.Irrigation was applied, while the water level in the plot was permanently maintained at 5-10 cm after crop establishment until at least 2 weeks after flowering, including vegetative and reproductive phases. Piezometers (1-12F4 X 14 Stainless Steel Piezometer w/Coupler, Rice Engineering & Operating, 9333 41 Ave Edmonton, AB, Canada) were installed at a depth of 1.75 m in the center of the bunds for daily measurement of water. Fertilizers were supplemented via the top-dress method, where they were broadcast over the entire field at vegetative and reproductive stages in different splits as detailed in Table 1. Recommended crop production practices for insect, weed, and bird control were performed to avoid damage from insect, pest, and disease attacks. Rice plants were manually harvested. All data were recorded based on the rice descriptors for morphological, agronomic, yield, and yield component traits [42]. Days to heading and maturity were counted from the day of planting to those at 95% heading and 95% plant maturity, respectively. Plant height was recorded from the topsoil to the panicles. Total leaf numbers and panicle numbers were counted as the number of leaves and panicles recorded on 10 plants randomly selected and taken as an average. Grain numbers were recorded as the number of filled grains per panicle harvested on 10 plants. Grain yield weight (kg) per 5 m 2 and grain moisture content at 14% for each sample, and total dry matter were recorded by harvesting the plants from the same area. The harvest index was estimated as the ratio between grain yield and total dry matter.Data analysis was performed with the open-source statistical software R version 4.3.1 [43]. Descriptive statistics of recorded data such as days to heading (DH), days to maturity (DM), total leaf numbers (TL), grain numbers per panicle (GN), fertility percentage (FP), grain yield (GY), total dry matter (TDM), and harvest index (HI) obtained from three replications were generated with the 'pastecs' package R version 4.3.1 [44]. An analysis of variance was conducted with the function PBIB.test of the package agricolae R version 4.3.1 [45]. Genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability (H2), genetic advance (GA), and genetic advance as percentage of mean (GAM) for the traits were computed with the function gen.var of the package variability R version 4.3.1 [46]. The coefficient of correlation among the studied variables was calculated through Pearson's correlation analysis with the function corr_coef of the package metan R version 4.3.1 [47]. Path analysis to figure out the direct and indirect effects of studied traits on grain productivity and water-use efficiency was performed as used by the function path analysis of the package agricolae R version 4.3.1 [45]. Principal component analysis was carried out using the function pca of FactoMineR [48]. Hierarchical clustering of the accessions was performed with the function agnes of the 'cluster' package R version 4.3.1 [49]. The Euclidean distance and Ward classification methods were used to classify the tested accessions. The function fviz_dend of the package factoextra R version 4.3.1 [50] was used to plot the circular tree plot.Statistical analysis showed that there was a highly significant difference among the accessions for days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, and fertility percentage (Table 2). The probability density curves showed a unimodal distribution of the aforementioned traits. Analysis indicated that days to heading varied among studied genotypes and were between 92 and 148 days, while the mean value was estimated at 112 days (Figure 1A). Similarly, days to maturity were between 103 and 163 days, with a mean value estimated at 139 days (Figure 1B). The total leaf numbers recorded per accession varied between 10 and 23, while the mean number of leaves per plant was 14 (Figure 1C). Considering the fertility percentage, the 300 accessions exhibited an 8-98% fertility percentage. Therefore, the mean fertility percentage recorded was estimated at 66% (Figure 1D). 4.3.1 [45]. Genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability (H2), genetic advance (GA), and genetic advance as percentage of mean (GAM) for the traits were computed with the function gen.var of the package variability R version 4.3.1 [46]. The coefficient of correlation among the studied variables was calculated through Pearson's correlation analysis with the function corr_coef of the package metan R version 4.3.1 [47]. Path analysis to figure out the direct and indirect effects of studied traits on grain productivity and water-use efficiency was performed as used by the function path analysis of the package agricolae R version 4.3.1 [45]. Principal component analysis was carried out using the function pca of FactoMineR [48]. Hierarchical clustering of the accessions was performed with the function agnes of the 'cluster' package R version 4.3.1 [49]. The Euclidean distance and Ward classification methods were used to classify the tested accessions. The function fviz_dend of the package factoextra R version 4.3.1 [50] was used to plot the circular tree plot.Statistical analysis showed that there was a highly significant difference among the accessions for days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, and fertility percentage (Table 2). The probability density curves showed a unimodal distribution of the aforementioned traits. Analysis indicated that days to heading varied among studied genotypes and were between 92 and 148 days, while the mean value was estimated at 112 days (Figure 1A). Similarly, days to maturity were between 103 and 163 days, with a mean value estimated at 139 days (Figure 1B). The total leaf numbers recorded per accession varied between 10 and 23, while the mean number of leaves per plant was 14 (Figure 1C). Considering the fertility percentage, the 300 accessions exhibited an 8-98% fertility percentage. Therefore, the mean fertility percentage recorded was estimated at 66% (Figure 1D).  Total dry matter, grain numbers per panicle, grain yield, and harvest index were significantly different, as indicated in the statistical analysis (Table 2), whereas probability density curves showed a unimodal distribution of recorded data. Analysis indicated that plants had between 3 and 144 grains per panicle, with an average of 58 grains per panicle (Figure 2A). Based on total dry matter, accessions had 70-8841 kg/ha of total dry matter, Total dry matter, grain numbers per panicle, grain yield, and harvest index were significantly different, as indicated in the statistical analysis (Table 2), whereas probability density curves showed a unimodal distribution of recorded data. Analysis indicated that plants had between 3 and 144 grains per panicle, with an average of 58 grains per panicle (Figure 2A). Based on total dry matter, accessions had 70-8841 kg/ha of total dry matter, whereas their mean value was 1024 kg/ha of total dry matter (Figure 2B). A statistical study showed that maximum plants had grain yields between 642 and 9996 kg/ha, whereas its average grain yields were about 7645 kg/ha (Figure 2C). Similarly, the harvest index of accessions varied between 0.01 and 1.00 of the biomass weight, whereas the mean harvest index was estimated at 0.40 (Figure 2D).Fertility percentage Total dry matter, grain numbers per panicle, grain yield, and harvest index we nificantly different, as indicated in the statistical analysis (Table 2), whereas prob density curves showed a unimodal distribution of recorded data. Analysis indicate plants had between 3 and 144 grains per panicle, with an average of 58 grains per p (Figure 2A). Based on total dry matter, accessions had 70-8841 kg/ha of total dry m whereas their mean value was 1024 kg/ha of total dry matter (Figure 2B). A sta study showed that maximum plants had grain yields between 642 and 9996 whereas its average grain yields were about 7645 kg/ha (Figure 2C). Similarly, the h index of accessions varied between 0.01 and 1.00 of the biomass weight, whereas the harvest index was estimated at 0.40 (Figure 2D). Genotypic variability assessment from the combined data indicated that the utes, including Genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficients of variation, b sense heritability (H2), genetic advance (GA), and genetic advance as percentage of (GAM), were represented differentially for the studied attributes (Table 3), which sh that significant genotypic variability prevailed among lowland rice. GCV was categ as high for total dry matter (27.01) and medium for number of grains per panicle ( grain yield (15.31), and harvest index (16.75), while it was low for days to heading Genotypic variability assessment from the combined data indicated that the attributes, including Genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability (H2), genetic advance (GA), and genetic advance as percentage of mean (GAM), were represented differentially for the studied attributes (Table 3), which showed that significant genotypic variability prevailed among lowland rice. GCV was categorized as high for total dry matter (27.01) and medium for number of grains per panicle (13.20), grain yield (15.31), and harvest index (16.75), while it was low for days to heading (7.50), days to maturity (5.01), total leaf numbers (5.14), and fertility percentage (8.21) (Table 3). The phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was categorized as high for number of grains per panicle (36.09), fertility percentage (20.66), grain yield (38.17), total dry matter (49.42), and harvest index (29.00), while it was low for days to heading (9.14), days to maturity (6.52), and total leaf numbers (9.27) (Table 3).Broad-sense heritability (H2) was categorized as high only for days to heading (67.31) and medium for days to maturity (59.12), total leaf numbers (30.72), and harvest index (33.31), whereas it was low for most of the attributes, including number of grains per panicle (11.71), fertility percentage (15.77), grain yield (16.08), and total dry matter (29.88) (Table 3). Genetic advance (GA) was categorized as high for grain yield (1375.30) and total dry matter (311.46) and medium for days to heading (14.25) and days to maturity (11.00), while low for total leaf numbers (0.82), number of grains per panicle (5.03), fertility percentage (4.46), and harvest index (0.08). Similarly, genetic advance as a percentage of the mean (GAM) was categorized as high for total dry matter (30.43) and medium for days to heading (12.68), grain yield (17.99), and harvest index (20.16), whereas it was categorized as low for days to maturity (7.94), number of grains per panicle (8.62), and fertility percentage (6.71) (Table 3).Correlation analysis indicated a highly significant positive correlation between days to maturity, days to heading, and total leaf numbers. However, the degree of correlation varied among different traits (Figure 3). Similarly, there was a significant positive correlation between days to heading and total leaf numbers, as well as total dry matter. Moreover, days to maturity was positively correlated with total leaf number and total dry matter. There was a positive correlation between fertility percentage and days to maturity, as well as grain number per panicle. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between the harvest index and grain yield. Grain yield exhibited negative correlations with total dry matter, total leaf numbers, days to heading, and days to maturity. The harvest index was negatively correlated with total dry matter, days to heading, and days to maturity. Grain number per panicle was negatively correlated with days to heading.The results of the path analysis conducted for the studied traits showed direct and indirect impacts of the attributes on grain yield. The maximum positive direct impact was revealed on the harvest index (0.256) and grain numbers per panicle (0.019). In contrast, the maximum negative direct effect was exhibited by days to heading (−0.142), total leaf numbers (−0.033), days to maturity (−0.023), total dry matter (−0.018), and fertility percentage (−0.003) (Table 4).Cluster analysis from the principal component analysis classified the examined accessions into four clusters with respect to studied traits, including days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, grain numbers per panicle, fertility percentage, grain yield, total dry matter, and harvest index. PC1 contributed 29.5%, while PC2 contributed 19.6%. The largest clusters, 1 and 2, included 145 and 88 accessions, respectively, whereas the lowest clusters, 3 and 4, included 48 and 19 accessions, respectively (Figure 4). The results of the path analysis conducted for the studied traits showed direct and indirect impacts of the attributes on grain yield. The maximum positive direct impact was revealed on the harvest index (0.256) and grain numbers per panicle (0.019). In contrast, the maximum negative direct effect was exhibited by days to heading (−0.142), total leaf numbers (−0.033), days to maturity (−0.023), total dry matter (−0.018), and fertility percentage (−0.003) (Table 4).Table 4. Path analysis with the direct and indirect effects of examined attributes including days to heading (DH), days to maturity (DM), total leaf numbers (TL), grain numbers per panicle (GN), fertility percent (FP), grain yield (GY), total dry matter (TDM), and harvest index (HI) of rice accessions. Cluster analysis from the principal component analysis classified the examined accessions into four clusters with respect to studied traits, including days to heading, days Table 4. Path analysis with the direct and indirect effects of examined attributes including days to heading (DH), days to maturity (DM), total leaf numbers (TL), grain numbers per panicle (GN), fertility percent (FP), grain yield (GY), total dry matter (TDM), and harvest index (HI) of rice accessions. Considering the studied traits, including days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, grain numbers per panicle, fertility percentage, grain yield, total dry matter, and harvest index, and the groups in the dendrogram, accessions were classified into four different groups, A, B, C, and D, which consisted of 48, 19, 145, and 88 accessions, respectively. Local elite rice varieties Sahel 108 and NERICA L20 are in group C, while the elite rice variety Giza 178, known for its high yield, tolerance to salinity, and grain quality, is in group B (Figure 5).to maturity, total leaf numbers, grain numbers per panicle, fertility percentage, grain yield, total dry matter, and harvest index. PC1 contributed 29.5%, while PC2 contributed 19.6%. The largest clusters, 1 and 2, included 145 and 88 accessions, respectively, whereas the lowest clusters, 3 and 4, included 48 and 19 accessions, respectively (Figure 4). Considering the studied traits, including days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, grain numbers per panicle, fertility percentage, grain yield, total dry matter, and harvest index, and the groups in the dendrogram, accessions were classified into four different groups, A, B, C, and D, which consisted of 48, 19, 145, and 88 accessions, respectively. Local elite rice varieties Sahel 108 and NERICA L20 are in group C, while the elite rice variety Giza 178, known for its high yield, tolerance to salinity, and grain quality, is in group B (Figure 5). Under severe climate circumstances in Ndiaye, Senegal, we investigated the diversity of 300 rice accessions to identify those with desired features in comparison to local elite cultivars Sahel 108, Giza 178, and NERICA L20. A statistical analysis of germplasm was then useful in determining yield-contributing factors that directly affect the performance of rice accessions. This strategy helped enhance the efficiency of the selection process and Under severe climate circumstances in Ndiaye, Senegal, we investigated the diversity of 300 rice accessions to identify those with desired features in comparison to local elite cultivars Sahel 108, Giza 178, and NERICA L20. A statistical analysis of germplasm was then useful in determining yield-contributing factors that directly affect the performance of rice accessions. This strategy helped enhance the efficiency of the selection process and the rice-breeding objectives.We observed that there was significant variability among the accessions and studied traits. We found that the studied cultivars possess a diverse range of plant characteristics and yield attributes. Statistical analysis indicated that DH, DM, TL, GN, FP, GY, TDM, and HI were highly significantly different. The studied accessions were also diverse in their phenology, with early, medium, and late days to heading and days to maturity. Early-and late-maturity plant materials could be utilized for the desired maturity or according to the predicted climate. Early maturity genotypes are capable of avoiding stress intervals [11], triggering drought avoidance phenomena in rice. For Zeng et al. [51], an early maturing attitude could prevent the toxic effects of salinity stress in rice. Days to heading and days to maturity were significantly positively correlated, which indicated that early flowering accessions had shorter maturity durations and vice versa. Based on the leaf number, most genotypes had leaf numbers between 11 and 17 leaves per plant. Higher leaf numbers contribute to higher biomass (total dry matter production). Similar findings have been observed in previous research [52,53]. Furthermore, accessions with higher leaf numbers could be used to develop high dry matter, producing elite lines.Fertility percentage is important to determine the grain yield. A higher fertility percentage contributes to a higher number of grains per panicle, more grain weight, and, ultimately, a higher grain yield [54]. In addition, total dry matter and grain yield exhibited wide ranges of distributions with low, moderate, and high values. Some of the studied individuals performed better than the elite rice varieties, Sahel 108, Giza 178, and NERICA L20, adopted and cultivated in the location by farmers. Grain yield and total dry matter were negatively correlated. Therefore, the harvest index was positively correlated with grain yield and negatively correlated with total dry matter. For breeders, the number of grains per panicle is an important trait to select the best lines for yield improvement. Researchers focused on genotypes with high numbers of filled grains per panicle and the number of primary and secondary branches [55]. According to earlier findings, the ideal plant architecture model with low tiller numbers and a large panicle (200-250 grains per panicle) is the future target for rice breeding [56]. Grain numbers per panicle recorded on the evaluated accessions varied between 20 and 104. Despite several progenies possessing more grains per panicle than the three elite local varieties, we are still far from the plant model described by Khush [56]. The lowest number of grains per panicle recorded in our population could be caused by the soil and the drastic weather conditions in this location.Genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) and phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV)-heritability (H2), genetic advance (GA), and genetic advance as percentage of mean (GAM) among studied traits, including days to heading, days to maturity, total leaf numbers, grain numbers per panicle, fertility percent, total dry matter, and harvest index-were categorized as low, medium, and high. It was found that variability prevailed among the studied traits. The phenotypic coefficient of variation was higher in value than the GCV for all traits, which revealed that the environment had a significant influence on the expression of all traits. Higher PCV than GCV for different agronomic traits has been observed in various studies [11,24,25]. The GCV is a measure of the amount of variation within a population for a particular trait. Genotypic variations are caused by differences in the number or structure of chromosomes or by differences in the genes carried by the chromosomes. It refers to the tendency of individual genetic characteristics in a population to vary from one another. It may also refer to the potential for a genotype to change or deviate when exposed to environmental or genetic factors. Therefore, the phenotypic superiority of selected plants or families over the original population is not solely due to their genotypic superiority. Improvement in the mean genotypic value of the selected families over that of the base population is known as genetic advance under selection. Heritability ranged between 12 and 67% for the studied traits. High heritability indicated that the genetic variability was greater in comparison to the environmental variability, whereas medium heritability indicates that the chances of transfer of the desired trait from parents to progenies will be reduced as compared to traits with high heritability. Therefore, selection and breeding for the desired attributes and further developments for increasing yield potential, such as developing high grain numbers per panicle, along with early and late maturity genotypes, would be beneficial. Similar results have been reported in various studies [11,[57][58][59]. Higher heritability and higher genetic advance for some traits indicated that these attributes were regulated by the impacts of additive genes. Our results were supported by the findings of earlier research [25,60,61]. Genetic advance gives evidence on expected gains resulting from the selection of higher individuals. For Ogunbayo et al. [62], the estimation of heritability along with genetic advance combinations is more useful in predicating the gain under selection than heritability alone. Under these circumstances, our population consisted of accessions adapted to rice production and able to enhance its yield in the area of study.We used path analysis to establish the direct and indirect impacts of the examined traits on grain yield. The results showed that harvest index (0.256) had the most positive direct influence, while days to heading (−0.142) had the greatest negative direct impact. The study indicated the relationship between studied traits and their impacts on grain yield. Directly impacting attributes could be utilized in the selection process in rice breeding for various desired objectives. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis were used to classify accessions into different groups based on the studied attributes, and four groups were identified. Similarly acting plant materials were grouped together, and results were similar to the previous findings [40,63]. Cluster analysis provides a summary of accessions that behave similarly and of those with superior yield features, which can be selected for future trait exploitation and plant development. There is a wide genetic diversity among the population screened for its performance with regards to the local elite checks used by rice producers. Exploring the results can have several beneficial consequences for rice production, nourish the inhabitants, and boost the local economy in the Senegal river valley. Furthermore, high-yield rice accessions noticed to possess good interest traits with positive direct impacts on productivity could be introduced into the farming system or used as gene donors in future regional breeding programs. Tendencies in the results obtained are due to the wide genetic diversity in the population assessed for this study, which offers a panoply of solutions to boost rice cultivation in Ndiaye. We were able to identify 56 rice accessions as performing better than the local check Giza 178, whose yield was 8987 kg/ha. Early research suggested combining genotyping with phenotyping to overcome environmental constraints and swiftly and efficiently achieve the targets in order to better leverage the genes of interest present in potential rice genotypes [64,65].This study highlights the potential of 300 accessions evaluated after screening and examining the diversity among germplasms under the agro-climatic conditions at Ndiaye in Senegal. Some of them demonstrated a remarkable ability to preserve rice yield and resilience during rice-crop-breeding operations in this climate-change-affected region. Our results indicated that there was a significant variation in yield and yield components among genotypes. Grain yields ranged between 1378 and 9776 kg/ha. Fifty-six accessions exhibited yields superior to those of the most productive elite variety, Giza 178, with 8987 kg/ha. There was also significant variability for the genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability, genetic advance, and genetic advance as a percentage of the mean among the studied traits. Higher broad-sense heritability was observed for days to heading (67.31), indicating that the chances of a transfer of heading days will be higher for selection purposes and that accessions could be utilized to develop","tokenCount":"5668"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be3b43d30ff6111ff63e3ceebf05f4a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88c679e2-4047-4552-86f7-859a42b1eabb/retrieve","id":"1168091487"},"keywords":["Photo N1","Cassava plant nutritional disorders","Photo N2","Macronutrient and secondary nutrient (magnesium) deficiency Photo N23","Micronutrient deficiency in leaves","Photo N24","Boron (B) deficiency Photo N42","Manganese (Mn) toxicity","Photo N43","Salinity and alkalinity","Photo N44","Effect of soil salinity and alkalinity"],"sieverID":"64fe1267-df48-4568-bea3-77a4ca9a3ca1","pagecount":"122","content":"Further information about these organizations is available in the above-mentioned book.This resource is best used together with the book. The book comprises information complementary to the handbook that provides a more detailed and deeper discussion over the economic importance, biology, habits, and nomenclature of insects; a comprehensive description of cassava diseases and pathogenic agents; as well as instructions on its integrated pest and disease management (IPM). The book also includes important data about nutrient deficiency in Colombian soils and toxicity levels of other elements contained in some of those soils. The book is, therefore, a must-read complement to the handbook. O P Photo N11. N and P deficiencies (comparison).-N -P Nutritional Disorders Photo N12. Potassium (K) deficiency in cultivar MVEN77, Carimagua, Colombian Eastern Plains.3 kg K 30 t 1 t 90 kg K Photo N13. K deficiency in leaves.Photo N14. K deficiency in leaves.Photo N15. K deficiency in greenhousegrown cassava (comparison).Photo N19. Ca deficiency in roots.-Ca -CaPhoto N20. Ca deficiency in upper leaves. Practical Handbook...Photo N37. Aluminum (Al) toxicity. Brown leaf spot is usually found in warm but not very moist sites. On the upper leaf surface, brown spots appear, with well-defined and dark margins. On the leaf underside, the lesions have less-defined margins and, toward the center, the brown spots have a grayish olive cast. As these circular lesions grow, from 3 to 12 mm in diameter, their shape turns irregular and angular.Depending on the susceptibility of the cultivar, there may appear an indefinite, yellowish, or colorless halo around the lesions. As the disease advances, the infected leaves become yellow, dry, and fall off.It is advisable to dry out excessive moisture from the cultivated area to reduce the severity of the infection. Even though this is not an economically important disease, cuprous oxide-and copper oxychloride-based fungicides, suspended in mineral oil, provide good chemical control. White leaf spot is commonly found in cold, humid cassavagrowing regions. Lesions are white and, sometimes, yellowish brown, and their shape may change from round to angular, ranging from 1 to 7 mm in diameter. Lesions are sunken on both leaf surfaces and extend to about half of the thickness of a healthy leaf blade.White spots are visible to the naked eye. On the leaf underside, lesions often show diffusely colored margins. In some cases, margins may appear as a purplish brown irregular line surrounded by a yellowish brown halo. The spots' centers may have a velvety grayish aspect, especially on the leaf underside. Control practices are similar to those used for the brown leaf spot.  Erysiphe manihotis is the sexual stage of this fungus. This disease usually occurs during the dry season in warm areas.A white mycelium that grows on the leaf surface is the earliest symptom manifested by this disease. The infected tissue becomes chlorotic and forms indefinite yellowish lesions, which inside often show angular necrotic areas forming pale brown spots of different sizes. In some cassava varieties, the disease stops at the stage of indefinite yellowish lesion.The fungus invades the leaf, then the petiole and the green section of the stem, producing defoliation and progressive dieback or death of the affected plant. Disease-control practices include providing an appropriate sowing density and planting healthy cassava stakes by the end of the rainy season. Symptoms may be confused with damages caused by insects and mites. Mature leaves seem to be the most susceptible to the pathogen attack, even though young leaves in some varieties show as well symptoms of the disease. Specific control practices for this disease are deemed unnecessary.The fungus Sphaceloma manihoticola is the causal agent of this disease. The pathogen produces distortion or curling in young leaves, and cankers on nervures (on the leaf underside), Photo E7. Cassava leaf affected by Oidium manihotis, causal agent of cassava ash.petioles, and stems. These cankers are lens-shaped and show different sizes. The affected leaves also show white irregular spots. The exaggerated elongation of the stem internodes is a characteristic symptom of this disease. The affected stem is thin and weak; the diseased plants are much taller than The superelongation disease requires an integrated approach, starting by selecting resistant cultivars, e.g., ICA-Catumare or ICA-Cebucán (ICA is the Spanish acronym of the Colombian Agriculture and Livestock Institute). Healthy stakes should be planted, previously treated by immersion for 5 minutes in a Difolatan (captafol) or copper-oxychloride solution at concentrations of 3 to 5 g/L of commercial product. It should also be grown in rotation with grasses and planted with rainfall at its lowest levels. Spraying copper oxychloride (1 kg/ha) directly onto the foliage has shown good results. Glomerella manihotis Chev., Colletotrichum manihotis Henn.Cassava anthracnose disease is characterized by sunken leaf spots of up to 10 mm in diameter, similar to those spots associated to Cercosporidium henningsii, emerging near the leaf base, subsequently resulting in leaf total necrosis. The pathogen attacks twigs, causing their shriveling and progressive dieback. It also attacks mature stems, producing cankers. Pinkish areas can be observed in the center of these lesions, formed by fruiting bodies of the causal fungus.Leaves newly sprouted at the beginning of the rainy season are the most susceptible. The disease tends to disappear with the beginning of the dry season. Discarding diseased plants and planting healthy stakes by the end of the rainfall stage are two practices recommended in managing this disease.  Management measures to control this disease include the following: selecting appropriate soils of medium depth; draining the land and planting stakes on ridges; rotating cassava with grasses whenever the disease has affected 3% of the plantation area; keeping soils drained for 6 months or more if needed; eradicating diseased plants; selecting healthy plants to obtain stakes for sowing; and using clean planting material. When the disease attacks the crop, it is advisable to apply Aliette (fosethyl-Al) or Ridomil (metalaxyl) onto the plant's basal part. Also, the stakes can be applied Ridomil (metalaxyl) in concentrations of 3 g/L. To keep the stakes clean, it is also recommended to treat them using hot water at a maximum temperature of 49 °C, during 49 minutes.Rosellinia sp.This disease has been reported in many cassava-growing regions whose soils show a high content of organic matter, and in cassava plantations where forestry or woody and perennial species have been previously sown, such as coffee or cacao, on which the fungus causes the so-called Black Spot disease. Initially the root epidermis is covered with white rhizomorphs that later become black. The infected tissues inside the bulky roots are slightly discolored and exude liquid on pressure. The black mycelial bundles penetrate the tissues, where they grow, forming small cavities that contain an offwhite mycelium. The infected roots have a characteristic odor of decaying wood.Even though the disease has not been reported in young plants, still it is advisable to avoid selecting planting materials from infected crops. Other control practices include: rotating with cereal plants whenever the incidence of plant death or root rot reaches 3%; eliminating infected cassava residues and/or litter from perennial trees; planting in loose-textured soils; and improving soil drainage.The causal organism of this disease is the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, which is systemic and penetrates the host through stomas and wounds in the plant's epidermis. The characteristic symptoms are: small, angular, aqueous-looking leaf spots found on the leaf blade underside; leaf spots merge and turn brown; leaf blight or leaf burn appears followed by wilting and dieback; gummy exudation in infected young stems, petioles, and leaf spots; necrosis of vascular bundles in petioles and infected stems, which look as if covered by brown or black bands.To control the disease, integrated management practices should be carried out which involve selecting resistant cultivars, such as ICA-Catumare and Chiroza; planting stakes at the end of the rainy season; using healthy planting materials; treating the stakes by immersing them into a copper fungicide solution, e.g., copper oxychloride or Orthocide (Captan), in concentrations of 3-6 g/L during 5 minutes; rotating cassava with maize or sorghum; planting maize barriers to prevent dissemination by wind; controlling weeds; fertilizing adequately, mainly with potassium sources; eradicating diseased plants; preventing the movement of people, machines, and animals from infected lots to healthy lots; trimming the diseased leaves, and eliminating infected materials after harvest by burning and incorporating them into the soil. Good results have been reported when stakes that will be used as planting material are pretreated with hot water at a maximum temperature of 49 °C during 49 minutes. This disease is important for the damage it causes to the quality and germinability of planting stakes. It is characterized by an aqueous and smelly stem rot or by medullary necrosis of the plant's ligneous parts. Infected plants show bud wilt. The stem's surfaces typically show perforations made by insects of the genus Anastrepha, which act as vectors for the bacterium. These orifices are easy to distinguish by the presence of dry latex, discharged as the stem is perforated. Diseased stakes used for planting will not germinate or will produce weak spindly plants, with a limited number of bulked roots. Management and control practices for this disease include using healthy planting stakes, planting varieties resistant to the insect vector, and burning infected stems. 1. See About the authors section on page iii.Benjamín Pineda L. 1Phytoplasma (previously known as mycoplasmalike organisms or MLOs)The MLO (mycoplasma-like organism) pathogen is currently considered a phytoplasma that causes a disease reported in cassava-growing regions in the departments of Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Tolima, in Colombia. These phytoplasmas transform the floral structures into leaf-like structures (phyllody) (Photo E25) as a result of its spreading action through the phloem (Photo E26).The earliest symptom is virescence in the tepals whose normal creamy-pink color turns green. The next symptom is hypertrophy of the tepals. Later these tepals undergo a metamorphosis and become leaf-like structures that altogether resemble sprouts. The floral racemes lose their normal appearance, manifesting the syndrome known as \"antholysis\". Fertility in both male and female flowers is lost completely, resulting in nonfunctional flowers that abort prematurely. Symptoms of the witches' broom disease (known as superbrotamiento in Spanish) have not been reported in the field, neither the loss of plant vigor nor any other developmental anomaly that could establish differences between diseased and healthy plants. This disease could limit plant-breeding programs or sexualseed production programs for germplasm exchange projects. Benjamín Pineda, Lee Calvert, and Maritza Cuervo 1Cassava common mosaic disease is a viral disease of relatively low incidence, mainly reported in South America. Its characteristic symptom appears in leaves as chlorotic irregular areas intermixing with dark green tissues (Photo E27).1. See About the authors section on page iii.Photo E27. Symptom of the cassava common mosaic disease, in which chlorotic to yellowish irregular areas appear intermixing with dark green tissue.The causal agent is the potexvirus of elongated particles ('flexuous elongated') which are visible under an electron microscope (Photo E28). In severe cases, leaflets become deformed and, in many cases, plants stay short and dwarf. Symptoms observed in foliage can be easily confused with damage caused by some insects (i.e., thrips or whiteflies) or mites.This disease is transmitted mainly by mechanical means, and spreads when stakes from diseased plants are used as planting material or when using contaminated machetes or other farm equipment.It is recommended to use stakes from healthy plants as planting material, remove from the land any diseased plants and burn them, and use disinfected machetes pre-treated with detergents. In severely affected plants (45-60 days after being planted), characteristic longitudinal lip-like lesions can be observed at the callus and basal part of the developing pigmented roots (Photo E32). The naturally-formed cracks in the bark-like root skin, caused by the normal thickening process, are usually superficial and do not cause the formation of corky tissue (suberization). The disease symptoms may be noticeable in the overall radical system (Photo E33) or in just some few roots (affecting the entire root) or a section of the affected root. In the latter, the characteristic lesions appear in the basal, middle, or apical parts of the root (Photo E34).Photo E33. Radical system of a cassava plant severely affected by frogskin disease.Studies conducted on the disease transmission patterns in the field show that this disease propagates from plant to plant, Photo E34. Cassava roots partially affected by frogskin disease. The extension and distribution of the lesions can be observed all along the roots.Symptoms similar to those caused by viruses are frequently observed in the plants' foliage in cases where cassava grows vigorously, the cool rainy season predominates, and there are no attacks from thrips or mites (Photo E35). These are mosaic-like symptoms accompanied by foliar distortions to either a minor or major degree, depending on varietal resistance; and they also result in plant dwarfism.suggesting that the disease is disseminated by an aerial vector.The whitefly (Bemisia tuberculata) has been more frequently associated with this disease.The disease mainly propagates by using stakes or cuttings from affected plants. Therefore, the most effective management practice is to always use stakes from healthy plants as planting material. Whenever stakes or cuttings are intended for planting material, plants must be pulled out without cutting them, roots observed on the outside and carefully examined to detect any characteristic symptom, even minor; finally, any material that may be infected must be discarded.Subterranean pests, in general, are not specific to cassava because they attack many different hosts. Some of them cause damages to planting material (stakes) while others attack roots.The sampling process of these pests should begin while preparing the ground and continue during 'germination' or bud sprouting. These pests usually create focal points of attack, and occasionally attack the entire plantation.Phyllophaga sp., Cyclocephala sp., Anomala sp.White grubs are insects that feed on the roots of several plants. In Spanish they are known as \"gallina ciega\" (blind chicken) or \"mojojoy\". They belong to the order Coleoptera, family Melolonthidae, and various genera, including Phyllophaga, Cyclocephala, and Anomala, attack cassava.They become scarab beetles in their adult stage, and undergo a complete metamorphosis: egg, larva (grub), pre-pupa, and pupa.Description. Larvae are white, with a dark brown head. They are found in the soil in a C-shaped or half-moon position, and measure between 1.5 and 4 cm in length. The grubs of the genus Phyllophaga are the largest ones (compared to the other two genera), being about 3-4 cm long, and are the most harmful to the crop (Photo P1).The grubs of the genus Cyclocephala are of medium size (2-3 cm) while the grubs of the genus Anomala are the smallest ones (1.5-2 mm). These genera mainly differ in the larva size.Damage. White grubs feed on newly planted cassava stakes or cuttings (Photo P2) or on plants of 1 to 3 months old. They eat the epidermis and bark of the stakes, except for the Photo P1. White grubs of the genus Phyllophaga in larva and adult stages.ligneous part. They make tunnels in roots and stakes, affecting their viability, resulting in stakes that will not germinate or young plants that wilt (Photo P3). The genera Heterotermes tenuis and Coptotermes sp. (Photo P8) feed on propagation material (stakes), roots, or young developing plants.The presence of termites is mainly characterized by the galleries they make in the attacked parts, such as roots or newly planted stakes (Photos P9 and P10). When plants survive or they are attacked in their maturity, termites build nests inside the stump or basal part of the plant without causing major damage. Should the roots suffer any mechanical damage or be stressed by an abiotic factor, up to 30% of the yield of the plant may be affected. The nymphs and adults of this bug (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) feed on cassava roots, enabling the entry of pathogenic microorganisms inhabiting the soil, such as Pythium and Phytophthora, among others. Each entry point becomes a brown to black spot or mark, and these entry points altogether form the infectious complex known as root smallpox (Photo P11).The adult female of this insect lays its eggs in the soil. Eggs are white, spherical, and measure less than 1 mm in diameter. Nymphs undergo five instars, are wingless, and their abdomen is creamy white. They have several brown quitinized structures over the thoraxic and abdominal regions. Nymphs are flat and oval-shaped, and about 1 mm long when newly hatched (\"eclosioned\") and up to 7 or 8 mm long during the fifth nymphal instar (Photo P12). The adult insect is black and reaches up to 10 mm in length (Photo P13). Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and MitesThe legs of these insects are short and strong, provided with many spines, enabling their subterranean mobilization. Their presence can be detected by the characteristic repulsive odor expelled when turning over soil near the infested plants.Photo P12. Subterranean burrower bug nymph. Photo P13. Subterranean burrower bug adults (male and female).This group includes the pests that feed, either as suckers or chewers, directly on cassava leaves.These pests reduce the photosynthetic area by causing chlorosis and defoliation; reduce the size of the leaves; break the apical dominance of the plant, producing re-shooting; induce the appearance of sooty mold; shorten internodes; and cause dwarfism. Some pests cause effects such as curling of stems, and rosettes in terminal buds; leaf desiccation and defoliation.Mononychellus tanajoa, M. caribbeanae, Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabarinus, Oligonychus peruvianusMononychellus tanajoa, M. caribbeanae Green mites develop in the apical part of plants (leaf buds, young leaves, and green sections of the stem). Damage begins as yellow stippling which spreads, and tissue takes a mottled, bronzed, mosaic-like appearance. Embryonic leaves grow deformed (Photo P14). Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and Mites Defoliation occurs from bottom to top, hence the plant looks greener in the upper section and drier in the lower section.In cases of heavy infestations, mites also affect the upper third section of the plant and a considerable amount of webbing is observed.Mites of the species Tetranychus urticae have a greencoloured body with a dark spot on each side of their back, whereas mites of the species Tetranychus cinnabarinus have a completely red body (Photo P16, right). The presence of flat mites is identified by the appearance of small web layers (looking as white spots) made by the female on the leaf underside, along the midrib and secondary leaf veins and the leaflet borders.The adult female lays its eggs underneath the webbing (where larvae and nymphs will develop) mainly in the basal and middle leaves of the plant. The off-white spots (delimited by webbing) take a brown or dark brown coloration also noticeable on the leaf upper surface, as a result of the mites' feeding process. This effect is followed by the necrosis of tissue located underneath the webbing. In cases of prolonged drought and varietal susceptibility, plants may appear completely covered by these spots (Photo P17). Nymphs. Juvenile ovoid shapes (nymphs) hatch from the eggs, crystalline or off-white in color, with numerous spinules over their body. These nymphs undergo five instars whose average duration is 16.6 days (Photo P26).Damage. This insect feeds on sap from cassava leaves, and shows preference for the basal and middle leaves of plants. A high population of lace bugs causes foliar damage, such as yellow dots or spots that irradiate resembling small stars. These spots take a reddish-brown color very similar to the damage caused by the mite Tetranychus spp., as they spread along the midribs or central nervures and towards their central convergence point. (Photo P27). Unlike mites, the damage caused by lace bugs is characterized by the presence of black dots which are droplets of excrement left on the leaf undersides (Photo P28). In severe cases, the affected leaves have an almost white appearance.Adults. The morphological characteristics of this insect are similar to those of Vatiga spp., but the adults have a black coloration in body and wings, with the latter having a white horizontal mark (Photo P29). The adult stage ranges between 18 and 22 days. This pest (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) is comprised of the species Phenacoccus herreni, P. gossypii and Ferrisia virgata in Colombia; with F. virgata being also reported in Ecuador, Phenacoccus grenadensis in Brazil, and P. manihoti in Brazil, Paraguay, Africa, and Asia (Thailand and Cambodia).Mealybugs are characterized by their soft body covered in a white powdery wax, as if they were dusted with flour (therefore the common name \"mealybug\").The adult females of this species are apterous and develop a structure called ovisac (a sac containing an ovum or ova) beneath the rear end of the abdomen, in which they carry their eggs (up to 300-500 per ovisac).Eggs. Eggs are white, very small (about 1 mm long), and ovoid-shaped. They are deposited in the ovisac.Nymph and adult. This insect undergoes three nymphal stages, in which its length increases from 1 mm up to approximately 3.5 mm. The fourth instar corresponds to the adult female (Photo P30).The male sexual differentiation takes place during the third nymphal instar of P. herreni. The male nymph takes a pink coloration and forms a small cocoon which hatches into a very small winged adult. This mealybug causes two kinds of damage, one direct and the other indirect:• The direct damage occurs when sucking the sap out of the bud leaves, causing curling, rosetting of the plant's terminal shoots, and stem deformation (Photo P31).• This damage inhibits plant growth and induces dwarfism and, in some cases, destroys terminal shoots.• The indirect damage is caused by the production of sooty mold (black fungus), which might extend to the leaves and petioles, thus affecting photosynthesis.Photo P30. Female nymphs with ovisac, and male adult of Phenacoccus herreni. Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and MitesThe affected leaves grow abnormally. The younger leaves show deformation, yellow spots, and small irregular puncture wounds in leaflets (Photo P33). In the stem's green segment and petioles, there can be observed brown epidermic suberized (corky aspect) wounds caused by the rasping-sucking buccal apparatus of the insect.In susceptible varieties, the plant's growing points dieback, thus inducing side shoots to grow. These shoots are affected with the same intensity and take an appearance resembling the witches' broom disease (Photo P34).The species Corynothrips stenopterus is yellow with black spots on its head and last two abdominal segments. Its body is 1.5 mm long. These insects can be found mainly in the plant's middle and basal parts (Photo P35). Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and MitesLeaf-eating pests (chewers) of cassava plants include, among others, cassava hornworms (Erinnyis ello L.), cassava tiger moths (Phoenicoprocta sanguinea), leaf-cutter ants (Atta sp.), and leaf-eating beetles (Maecolaspis sp.).This lepidopterous insect of the family Sphingidae is the most important chewing pest affecting cassava in the Americas. It may cause defoliation of an entire plantation (100% defoliation, Photo P36).Adults. This insect is a nocturnal moth, grayish in color with 5 or 6 black stripes on each side of the abdomen. Its forewings are gray, whereas its hindwings are rust-colored with black Eggs. The eggs of Erinnyis ello are spherical and relatively large (1 to 1.5 mm in diameter); they are laid individually, and their coloration is usually green or yellow (Photo P38). Their incubation cycle lasts 3 to 5 days.Larvae. The larvae of E. ello exhibit a wide range of colors: green, yellow, brown or dark gray, black streaked with red, or white and orange (Photo P39,A). Larvae undergo five instars Adults. The species Phoenicoprocta sanguinea belongs to the family Amatidae (or Ctenuchidae). These insects are small eyecatching butterflies whose bright colors exhibit metallic arrays of blue, red, and yellow on their body with a black background. Wings are black with transparent spots typical of the family Amatidae. Adults may reach 2.5 to 3 cm in length (Photo P40). reaching a maximum length of 10 to 12 cm; subsequently they transition into prepupal and pupal stages, which take place in the soil or among fallen debris (Photo P39,B).  Pupae. Larvae form cocoons by using their body bristles to transition into pupae inside these cocoons. Pupae are brown in color and about 1.5 cm long by up to 1 cm wide (Photo P42).Atta cephalotes, Acromyrmex sp.These insects (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are very active and live in caste-divided colonies (queen, nurses, workers, gardeners, and soldiers).Damage. They cut out parts of the leaflets in a characteristic circular manner (crescent-shaped) and carry them in their jaws back to their nest (Photo P44). Leaf-cutter ants leave tracks behind marking their pathways to easily find the way back to their nest holes, which can be far away from the site where they cause damages. In severe cases, plants may be completely defoliated and the damage may be confused with those of hornworms.Colaspis or Maecolaspis sp. This pest (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a small beetle about 6-7 mm long (Photo P45). It feeds on cassava leaves and causes small irregular punctures in the leaves, starting from the lower and middle thirds of the plant (Photo P46). In susceptible cultivars, plants may appear in almost skeletal form when many punctures come together. This beetle has green/golden-striped quitinized elytra (hard wings), characteristic to this species. Its abdomen is cream in color and its antennae are filiform. When shaking, even gently, the attacked plant or leaves where they are found, the beetles will dislodge. Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and MitesCassava white scales belong to the order Hemiptera, family Diaspididae and superfamily Coccoidea.White scales are insects protected by a white waxy shell resembling a mussel or a clam, which forms from the exuviae accumulated over the female's body in its transition from one instar into another during its life cycle. Unlike females, males have well-developed legs and wings.They are often found around the leaf buds and later completely invade the stem (Photo P48). When this happens, they cause severe defoliation and, sometimes, dieback of the terminal bud. The attacks of these insects are more severe during dry seasons.This homopteran belongs to the family Coccidae. Its shell is black in color and larger than that of the white scale, being 4-5 mm in diameter (Photo P49). It is often found in longestablished plantations where no economically-important attacks are normally reported, mostly due to good in-place biological control practices. Damages Caused by Pests: Insects and Mites Pupae. When larvae complete their development cycle inside the stem or the fruit, they drill a hole through which they emerge and fall to the ground to pupate. They wrap themselves up in a quitinized covering of 6.3 mm in length by 2.4 mm in diameter, on average.When there are a few fruits in the field (or none at all), females oviposit directly into soft stems. Latex begins to flow out of the puncture made by the ovipositor and a small white hair-like filament can be observed (Photo P51), which serves to spot the egg. The stem tissue surrounding this point starts to decay. When larvae emerge, they immediately begin to bore up and down, causing rot inside the affected stem (Photo P52).The damage caused by Anastrepha spp. is associated to rot caused by a bacterium (Erwinia carotovora). Under environmental conditions favorable to the bacterium, these rot processes may be severe, causing, in many cases, dieback of the plant's buds and terminals (Photo P53).In the field, there can be observed plants whose marrow has a light-brown or dark-brown coloration, an effect caused by the bacterium, which moves from the area affected by the insect toward the non-affected area.A number of dipterans of the family Lonchaeidae affects shoots in cassava plants, stunting growth. The most important species are Silba pendula Bezzi (= Carpolonchaea pendula = Lonchaea pendula), and Lonchaea chalybea. The species Neosilba perezi has also been reported in cassava. Larvae. Stem borer larvae are apodous and creamy in color, and may undergo several instars (6 to 12). Through these instars, larvae form, where the stem is penetrated, a woven structure to protect themselves from the environment and other natural enemies or predators (Photo P58.B). Stems decay during this larval development process.Pupae. The pupal stage takes place also in the stem. It appears as a brown capsule about 2 to 2.5 cm long by 0.5 cm wide (Photo P59.A).Damage. Damage caused by this insect is easily detected due to the presence of webbing and fine residues of sawdustlike excrements or frass (Photo P59.B). As larvae grow larger, the size of the holes increases as well. Initially the sawdust-like frass is creamy white, later it takes a brown to black coloration, when it has been days since the insect initially caused damage. Within the stem, larvae make galleries, often numerous, depending on varietal susceptibility.Adults. The adult of this species (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is a beetle with antennae longer than its body. It has a grayish A B","tokenCount":"4743"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"18f3333b96416d7dfcf609a82f5ce976","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da5b9716-95a2-4724-9e77-6ca4d1083b77/retrieve","id":"-1679591134"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1d891e74-d36b-426f-b7bd-a049c0199292","pagecount":"9","content":"conomic valuation methodologies for animal genetic resources (AnGR) play an important role in guiding resource allocation between biodiversity conservation and other socially valuable endeavors. Likewise, these can be used in various types of genetic resource conservation, research and development. Furthermore, these can assist in the design of economic incentives and institutional arrangements for farmers/genetic resource managers and breeders.Despite its importance, AnGR valuation has, until recently, received very little attention, even though there exists a conceptual framework for the valuation of biodiversity in general.AnGR erosion can be understood in terms of the replacement, not only by substitution but also through crossbreeding and the elimination of livestock. This bias towards investment in such specialized breeds results in the underinvestment of a more diverse set of breeds in a world where human investments are now necessary for the survival of the latter.To the farmer, the loss of the local breed appears to be economically rational. The returns may simply be higher than that from activities compatible with genetic resources conservation. In particular, the latter may consist of nonmarket benefits that accrue to people other than the farmer. This divergence will be further compounded by the existence of distortions in the values of inputs and outputs, such that they do not reflect their economic scarcity.When the activity of biodiversity (and genetic resources) conservation generates economic values, which are not captured in the market place, the result of this 'failure' is a distortion where the incentives are against genetic resources conservation and in favour of the economic activities that erode such resources. Such outcomes are, from an economic viewpoint, associated with market, intervention and/or global appropriation failures.Economics is about choice and the efficient allocation of scarce resources that have alternative uses. Rationally speaking, choices should be made in such a way as to maximize the \"utility\" or \"welfare\" obtained. The large number of AnGR at risk in developing countries, together with the limited financial resources available for conservation, mean that economic valuation can play an important role in ensuring an appropriate focus for conservation efforts.Economic arguments for conservation and sustainable use of AnGR can be an effective means of garnering the necessary public and political support, including development of appropriate policies. In this regard, important tasks include:! assessment of the economic contribution that AnGR makes to various societies and provide economic arguments to help evaluate costs and benefits of conserving the genetic diversity; ! assessment of the impact of agricultural incentive payments, including subsidies on domestic animal diversity;! economic analyses of alternative strategies and actions that might be taken to conserve domestic animal diversity and develop approaches for assessment priorities; ! development of economic incentives to support conservation by individual farmers or communities; ! assessment of the economic contribution of efforts to conserve wild relatives of domestic animals; and ! ensure that projects with direct or indirect implications for the livestock sector include appropriate consideration of economic issues related to AnGR.The burden of being more specific about the value of genetic resources has come from different directions: ! resource conservationists and government planners who need to identify such values in order to justify budgets; ! Farmers' rights activists who want measures of the value in order to calculate compensation to farmers in developing countries; and ! a further source of pressure for establishing such values which gives legitimacy to much of the above is the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) which stresses the importance of the \"fair and equitable distribution of the benefits arising\" from the utilization of genetic resources.A range of valuation methodologies exists. These are categorized into three groups on the basis of the practical purpose for which they may be conducted. Following the identification of a given breed being at risk, these methodologies can be applied in order to justify conservation costs by: ! determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation program costs (i.e., environmental values); ! determining the actual economic importance of the breed at risk (i.e., breed values); and/or ! permitting priority setting in AnGR breeding programs (i.e., consider trait values).In these analytical contexts, unpriced inputs are pervasive obstacles in experimental studies. Therefore, it is of particular interest to have access to methodologies that can attribute values to the unpriced inputs of the household production functions, which are disclosed via the systematic investigation of preferences. Data availability and/or the potential for acquiring relevant data will also be an important determinant. Where such missing markets/imperfections are significant, the resulting impact of any violations of the underlying assumptions of the potential valuation methodologies must be carefully considered. Thus, appropriate measures should be taken. Such violations will mean that much of the required data will have to be collected through specially designed surveys and adequate shadow pricing of relevant inputs/outputs used where market prices do not exist or are distorted.Given that the field of economic valuation of AnGR requires substantial development, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), together with its partners, initiated a project entitled \"Economic Valuation of Farm AnGR.\" Its main objective was to field test potential valuationIn choosing a valuation technique, it is important to note that marginal and subsistence food production systems dominate the peasant economies where much of the world's surviving AnGR diversity can be found.In choosing between methodologies, the analyst will also have to be aware of how different methodologies will be of interest to different actors, which include, inter alia, farmers, breeders and policy-makers in charge of conservation.methodologies to see which ones will work at reasonable costs. Some of the results of this on-going project and the work of ILRI's partners are presented below and show that such methodologies can be used to orient breeding strategies and conservation policy development.! Contingent valuation methodologies (CVM) using a choice experiment (CE) approach, show that such a multi-attribute stated-preference method can be used to value the phenotypic traits expressed in indigenous breeds of cattle (i.e., Kenya and Burkina Faso).Results indicate that CE does not only provide good estimates of trait values. These could also be used to investigate values of genetically determined traits currently not prominent in livestock populations. Furthermore, farmer preferences for specific traits and the trade-offs they are willing to make between them can be quantified.In Burkina Faso, the most important traits for incorporation into breed improvement program goals were identified as: disease resistance; fitness for traction; and reproductive performance. Beef and milk production was less important, despite their being the focus of more traditional economic analyses. In addition, the data permits an analysis of how household characteristics determine differences in preferences. This information can be of use in designing policies that counter the present trend towards marginalization of indigenous breeds.! An alternative CVM, using a dichotomous choice approach, was used to estimate the benefits of establishing a conservation program for the threatened Italian \"Pentro\" horse. A bio-economic model was developed and used to show that a large positive net present value associated with the proposed conservation activity does exist. This approach is thus a useful decision-support tool for policy-makers allocating scarce funds to a growing number of animal breeds facing extinction. It also provides an indication of how existence values (one component of total economic value) for livestock breeds may be significant. Through the use of appropriate mechanisms, they could be harnessed to provide funding for AnGR conservation.! An aggregated productivity model approach revealed that under the subsistence mode of production in Ethiopia, the premise that crossbred goats are more productive and beneficial than the indigenous goats is wrong. The findings challenge the prevailing notion that indigenous livestock do not adequately respond to improvements in management and are always inferior (regardless of production system) to \"improved\" breeds.! The assumption that crossbred animals are always superior is also questioned in a cost-benefit analysis framework which suggests that the net benefits of crossbreeding programs may have been overestimated, leading to the promotion of exotic livestock breeds at the expense of indigenous livestock breeds.Conventional economic evaluations of these programs have often not considered subsidies provided by national governments and international donors.In addition, the mandatory changes in production systems necessary for increased productivity are often associated with higher levels of risk while replacement of indigenous breeds has socio-environmental costs due to the loss of the (usually non-market) values of the indigenous genotypes. A conceptual framework for evaluating crossbreeding programs in Sub-Saharan Africa is under development to take such costs into account.Although some methodologies have already been successfully tested, these and other valuation approaches remain to be applied under differing circumstances for different breeds/ species. The challenge now is to apply them in a context where they can contribute to actual development and planning activities. This requires a combination of stakeholder awarenessraising as to their importance and capacity building to ensure that they can be applied to support the incorporation of the results into actual decision-making frameworks.Mechanisms for translating social values into efficient incentives for farmers/genetic resource managers and breeders are also required as the current divergence of private and social costs mean that the relative costs and benefits of AnGR conservation tend to accrue unevenly at local, national and international levels. Several such mechanisms have been proposed and include, inter alia: ! genetic call options; ! licensing agreements; ! prospecting/royalty rights; and ! Farmers' Rights.The removal of any adverse subsidies, the establishment of environmental funds and public financing, as well as market creation and support for commercialization can also provide incentives. Such mechanisms and policies may even help speed the development of improved valuation models.It is worth noting that despite the importance of the economic valuation of AnGR, it is not, however, an end in itself. Even where it is possible to identify the total economic value of AnGR, mechanisms to capture these values are necessary.","tokenCount":"1613"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2c6550aa26151828caaadd1be19c4853","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9edc688c-01fe-4193-a673-745c0818ad58/retrieve","id":"-829496607"},"keywords":["Benin","gender","innovation","participatory varieties selection maize"],"sieverID":"a0cabbc8-87b5-49ae-9457-d5864b77fd62","pagecount":"8","content":"This study was initiated to contribute to the debate on the relationship between gender and adoption of innovations. It aims, under a participatory varietal selection, to identify the preferences of men and women farmers on maize varieties tolerant to drought in northern Benin. The methodology used is a comparison of two approaches to identify the best varieties according to gender. The first combines criteria weighting and a comparison of varieties. The second is based on the principle of democratic vote. Sixty farmers have participated in this study. The results of this work show two keys points. At the stage of criteria selection, women identified the organoleptic quality as a preferred seed characteristic. By comparing the results of the two methods of choice, it appears that both methods lead to the same results in the case of women's preferences, while in men groups, the results vary according to the methods. It contributes to the literature by showing how distinctly women can prioritize criteria that are not the top concern of the men and by the way, can contribute to increase the adoption of varieties that contains both preferences of men and women.In addressing the issue of adoption of agricultural innovations by women, it is generally admitted that women face more constraints than men. Sethy et al. (2010), in a study of vegetable adoption by women farmers, grouped constraints of adoption of innovations as input constraints, technical constraints, socio-cultural constraints, post-harvest constraints and general constraints. Developing innovations particularly adapted to women's conditions has been proposed to improve innovation adoption among women (Morris and Doss, 1999). In this trend, some authors have come to suggest that innovations can be designated as suitable to men or women (Carr, 2008). Resolving this debate is particularly acute in the context of climate change because the role of innovation in coping with the vulnerability of farmers is becoming increasingly important.In Benin, several initiatives have broadened the portfolio of improved maize varieties. The number of released varieties often categorized by maturity timing: Extra-early (75 days), early (90 days) and intermediate or late (105 days). However, adjusting the maturity rate alone may be insufficient to prevent the negative effects of drought. To remedy this situation, the National Research System in Benin has collaborated with both CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) and IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) on determining Drought Tolerant Maize varieties that may be suitable for northern Benin. A number of the drought-tolerant varieties were tested in northern Benin to assess their adaptability to the agroecological characteristics of the area. This article presents a case study used for determining some selection criteria of maize varieties preferred by women and men in northern Benin. Knowledge of selection criteria and preferences across gender may allow for the development of varieties adapted to gender specific conditions, which may increase the adoption by farmers.The article proceeds with a brief literature review, a discussion of the methodological approach, presentation of the theoretical framework of the study, and lastly, the results and implications of the study are discussed. It contributes to the literature by showing how distinctly women can prioritize criteria that are not the top concern of the men and by the way, can contribute to increase the adoption of varieties that contains both preferences of men and women.\"Gender is a concept that refers to the range of roles and relationships, status, attitudes and behaviors, all determined by the social and cultural constructions of men and women, in a given society at a given time (Serme, 2013). The social construction of norms, tradition, culture or religion of a given society is influenced by gender. In this study, gender is seen as the relationship between men and women farmers who make, according to their socioeconomic characteristics, choices based on complex varietal selection criteria and maize varieties.The complexity of the selection criteria of a variety, and the divergence observed between choices made by men and women is based on separate motivations (Defoer et al., 1997;Mulatu and Zelleke, 2002;vom Brocke et al., 2010). Segmentation of tasks in a household and farm can lead to a dislocation of the motivations of selection between man and woman. In the household, domestic activities such as meal preparation are often the responsibility of the female wives (Dembele et al., 1996). The food preparation responsibility of women often influences women's choices about the seed varieties that are used, with preference for attributes related to processing, consumption and storage.In the case of maize, women's production targets are often aimed toward own-consumption, while more men combine both marketing and consumption based attributes when choosing a seed (Perquin, 1993). Analyzing varietal selection in relation to gender, Defoer et al. (1997), in their analysis of maize varietal choices in southern Mali found that women rarely consider criteria related to productivity. Aspects related to the processing and organoleptic qualities, the set of characteristics that gives food its taste and flavor to consumption, were the most important seed attributes for women (Defoer et al., 1996). Mulatu and Zelleke (2002:14) found that women identified four characteristics as most important: Taste for consumption in the fresh state, earliness of maturity, size of ears and high flour yield. The high yield of flour is recognized through the hardness of the grain, because, according to responses by surveyed women, the more the grain is harder, the more flour it yields (vom Brocke et al., 2010). For men, productivity and marketability are the most important criteria (Defoer et al., 1997). Therefore, they tend to have a preference for varieties that are relatively more productive, regardless of maturity timing. While men may also participate in household food preparation, they are generally more concerned with long-term food availability than the management of short periods of food shortage (Mulatu and Zelleke, 2002).\"Agricultural research is likely to produce several technologies to increase food production while conserving the land, water and genetic diversity. The real challenge is to get them using by producers \" (Crosson and Resenberg, 1989:128). Adoption of innovations by farmers is often more uncertain than their invention (Crosson and Resenberg, 1989). The challenge of encouraging adoption is not new, and researchers continue to try to find effective ways to transfer innovations in rural areas. Although a guaranteed formula is still not found, it is often assumed that the participation of beneficiaries in the process of innovation increases the chances of its adoption. Douthwaite et al. (2001) showed that the need for active involvement of producers within the research team in the process of developing an innovation increases as farm technology and systems become more complex. The observation that innovations developed according to the \"top-down\" approach, with little involvement by producers, were adopted by only a few producers led to increased producer participation in the innovation process. Producer participation has become more common in the field of plant breeding because it is believed that producers have rich endogenous knowledge as well as cultural habits that allow them to better select appropriate varieties that could be used on the farm (Sperling et al., 1993;Witcombe et al., 1996). Some authors try to establish whether a positive correlation between producer participation in plant breeding and adoption rates exists.  (1997), in their analysis of adoption rates in Mali, found that producer participation is an important factor to improving the adoption rate. Mulatu and Zelleke (2002) argued that improving producer participation in the breeding process is a necessary condition for improving the adoption rate because it increases the level of acceptability of new technology among producers. In the same vein, Virk et al. (2005) and Ceccarelli and Grando (2007) identified selection of seed traits by producers as important for accelerating the diffusion and adoption of new varieties. Because women play a key role in the household and in production, they should also be included in the innovation production process. vom Broecke et al. (2010) pointed out that accounting for the contributions of women and men in meeting the household needs can be essential information in the process of plant breeding for identifying varieties that have a high likelihood of adoption.The present study was conducted in northern Benin. Geographically, the study area is between the parallel 09° 45 'and 12° 25' North latitude and meridians 0° 45 'and 3° 20' East longitude. The effects of climate variability are more exacerbated in north than in south due to the single rainy season that characterizes it. This area is characterized by an annual rainfall deficit with a variation range from 900 to 1100 mm rainfall. The Department of Alibori was chosen to conduct this study. According to Agbossou et al. (2010), the departments of Atacora and Alibori are among the departments with high sensitivity and potentially vulnerable to climate change in Benin. Districts of Kandi Banikoara and Malanville were chosen because of their production level of maize in the department and also the fact that maize is classified as the most sensitive food crop to the effects of climate change (Agbossou et al., 2010). One site was chosen in each district for experimentation, and these include: Angaradebou in Kandi district, Kokey in Banikoara district and Tomboutou in Malanville district.In each village, five varieties are tested (Table 1). Four of the tested varieties are drought tolerant, and breeders newly proposed all of the drought tolerant varieties. The fifth, a non-drought tolerant variety that is universally recognized by farmers as the most commonly planted in the village, serves as a control.Producers who hosted the trials were selected in collaboration with the technicians of the National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin (INRAB) on a voluntary basis. At each site, 10 women and 10 men were selected to participate in the trial. Each variety is a treatment, and each treatment has a basic plot of 400 m 2 separated by aisles of 2 m wide. The evaluation tests by farmers (men and women) are fundamental in this research. Two types of assessments were made according to gender. Generally, in the area where the observations were made, men plant maize on four times more area than women. Harvest of women is primarily built into the stock devoted to household consumption, while men expect the largest share of their harvest to be sold on the market.The methodological approach has two phases: the weighting of criteria, and evaluation of varieties with regard to the weighted criteria. In each group of ten men and ten women, farmers were asked to list the selection criteria for maize varieties. The criteria mentioned are represented by symbols or figures chosen by farmers to fully enable participation. N points are distributed on the mentioned criteria. This process of weighting criteria follows the principles of equality and secret choice. The principle of equality is implemented by the choice of an equal number of women and men, and each has one vote. The principle of secret vote for the weighting is justified by the need to avoid the influence of other farmers in the group of participants on the allocation of points. Thus, all producers have assigned their points criteria away from the others in a booth in the presence of an observer who ensures compliance with the conditions of the vote. The results of vote were presented to all producers participating in this evaluation. The weight of each criterion is determined by the formula: wj=Tj*100 / N * k with Tj the total number of points allocated to criterion j, k the total number of women or men who participated in the evaluation and N the total points that each man or woman to all criteria. This number is fixed and in this study (N = 10).The Kendall test was performed to check whether the choices made by women and men within each group allow one to estimate a trend, or whether the choice of each member of a group is an isolated choice. The formula of Kendall's W coefficient is:where K is the number of producer (men or women) and q the number of varieties (q = 5). S is the sum of squared deviation and is obtained by S = ∑ (Ri -m) 2 (2) where Ri is the rank of a producer i and m is the mean rank within each group of producer. By combining ( 1) and ( 2)If W is 1, then all the producers, men or women have been unanimous, and each producer has assigned the same order to the list of objects or concerns. If W is 0, then there is no overall trend of agreement among the respondents, and their responses may be regarded as essentially random. Intermediate values of W indicate a greater or lesser degree of unanimity among the producers.After determining the weight of each criterion, men and women evaluate varieties. The evaluation process results in ranking varieties. The score used for ranking is obtained by multiplying the number N of points for each criterion and for each variety. The score SVi of a variety i is obtained by the combination between the weight of the criterion the point assigned according to the formula: SVi = Σ\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC57 * \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC57 with wj the weight assigned to a variety i for criterion j (Σ\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC57 = 100%) and nj, the number of points assigned to criterion j (Σ\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC57 = \uD835\uDC41 = 10).Direct prioritization is based on a comprehensive assessment that does not clearly specify the criteria, but rather allows the producer to rank his or her preferred varieties directly, from most to least preferred. All participants are invited to rank the varieties in order of preference. The list obtained through direct prioritization is compared to the first assessment to verify consistency of choice by groups of men and women.Table 2 shows the shared and unique criteria chosen during the trials at different sites. Four variety criteria are shared among all men and women in the three sites, which are: Yield, resistance to drought, resistance to striga and length of the production cycle. Women in all three sites preferred the organoleptic quality, or the taste and flavor of the maize, while only the men at Kokey mentioned this as a preferred criterion. Women in at least two of the sites also preferred the criteria mentioned by men as their most important criteria.Women and men chose a similar number of selection criteria. These similarities are related to the number and the nature of the criteria. Men and women chose seven evaluation criteria in each of the sites, with the exception of women in Malanville, who chose 6.The weighting of the criteria of varietal selection at the three experimentation sites varies among men and women (Table 3). In each site, men and women provided different weights for a given criterion. Comparing the same criterion across sites, men and women also provide varying weights. Some criteria were not provided any weight by the men, while all criteria were at least given some weight by women. Women, therefore, better allocated points across the various criteria that related to both production and consumption of maize.The results of Kendall's test show that in each group, a shared behavior among members of the group emerges. All Kendall test are significant at 5%. The rankings obtained by the classifications of the Kendall test are consistent with the weights obtained. We can, therefore, conclude that the importance given to each criterion within each group follows a common decision making process that is likely determined by consumption, production or marketing related factors, such as yield, maturity length, etc.Table 4 presents the results of the ranking of varieties by women and men in the three sites. In Angaradebou, the DTSTR-WsynF2 variety had the highest score among men and women. In Kokey, the varieties, TZEWDT-STRQPMCO and TZEcomp3DTC1F2, ranked the highest among men. Women, on the other hand, ranked the DTSTR-WsynF2 variety highest. In Tomboutou, the highest-ranking varieties were different for men and women, with 2008SynEEYDTSTR having the highest score among men and TZEE-Wpop STR QPMCO with the highest score among women.The results from the direct ranking selection trial, with varieties obtaining the highest scores being ranked first and those with the lowest scores ranked last, are shown in Table 5. The table also shows that the comparison of two methods of prioritization leads to the same results among women, while the results differ across methods for men. This difference is partial in Angaradebou, pronounced in Tomboutou and totally in Kokey. These results reflect the relative coherence and consistency in the choice of new technologies among women when compared to men.Results show that there are some common varietal selection criteria that are preferred by men and women, regardless of the maturity cycle of the variety (early or extra-early) and the site of the testing. These shared criteria are yield, cycle, and resistance to striga and drought. These criteria remind one of the goal of varietal selection which is to provide the household with food in sufficient quantity and quality. Beyond these common criteria for men and women, there is a criterion mentioned by women in each of the three trial sites, which is the organoleptic quality, or taste and edibility, of maize varieties. These results confirm those of vom Brocke et al. (2010), who, in a study on participation in the development of a variety of sorghum, found that the grain quality for culinary aspects, as well as productivity in the form of flour, are important criteria for women. Therefore, we endorse the vom Brocke et al. ( 2010) recommendation that women be included as early as possible in the selection process and evaluation varietal selection in northern Benin. Women and men in the site of Angaradebou both selected the variety DTSTR-WaynF2 as that which best suits their needs. Sometimes they are more experienced than men as it is the case on the site of Kokey. In Kokey, men preferred two varieties simultaneously, while women ranked one variety highest. This variety is one of the two best varieties selected by men, which is consistent with the finding of shared preferences across genders from Angaradebou. In Tomboutou, the situation seems to be more nuanced. The two best varieties by men are 2008SynEEYDTSTR and 2008SynEEWDTSTR, while in women group, it is the TZEE-WpopSTRQPMCO variety, which was ranked fourth out of the possible five among men.Implementing the selection of varieties on the basis of direct choice allows for checking of consistency of choices of preferred criteria among trial participants. It appears that the direct choices, or rankings, of varieties made by women confirm those made on the basis of specific criteria, while men ranked varieties differently in direct choice and specific criteria. In Angaradebou, rankings among men and women give the same results across the choice methods. In Kokey, selection results from direct choice allow for a definitive ranking of the two varieties with the same score in the specific criteria trial. In Tombouctou, the methods provide differing results. The consistency of the results of women at all three sites could be the result of a logical process of choice based on their knowledge of maize varieties. By keeping practice farming and hold keys function as sowing and harvesting, women learn to differentiate the varieties. W of Kendall = 0.14; ddl = 5; p = 0.026 Howard (2003) stated that women are the biggest holders of local knowledge on plants and a simple explanation for this observation is that throughout history, the daily work of women required the most of these knowledge. In this case study, results suggest that women are more experienced in varietal selection than men. The results supplement the findings of several studies that have shown in the past that women have some advances on men in varietal selection and recognition of cultivars. Flickinger (1997) showed that women's knowledge about the usefulness of wild plants is larger than those of men, and they perceive their use differently. Women often have a portfolio of broader criteria than men varietal selection, because they have been found to use plant material more diversely. For example, rice is not only used for consumption. Rice straw is used to thatch roofs, make mats and animal feed, and the husk is used for the manufacture of fuel (Jiggins, 1986). Postharvest responsibility, commonly undertaken by women in developing countries, for treatment and food supply of the family involved that they try to ensure that the varieties used are consistent with the culinary traditions, are tasty and nutritious and meet the requirements of processing and storage. In the Andes, the birthplace of the diversity of potatoes in the world, research shows that agronomic conditions explain only a small percentage of the variation in crop diversity (Zimmerer, 1993). The maintenance of varieties of potato and maize is explained primarily by due to different culinary demands (lyophilization, soup, porridge etc.) (Zimmerer, 1993).This study showed two significant results. The first finding is that women have shown a preference for drought tolerant maize for planting in northern Benin. In all trial sites, women have shown consistency and accuracy in their rankings of both preferred individual varietal attributes and preferred varieties. The second finding is that there appears to be a need to take into account gender-specific varietal selection criteria, justifying the integration of both men and women in the innovation process. Through each stage of the varietal selection, women brought particular valuable options, making them important actors in participatory varietal selection. The results of this work show that it is possible to define technological packages that meet both the divergent interest of men and women. Men tend to seek marketoriented varieties, like with attributes such as yield, color, grain size etc., and women choose varieties with consumption-oriented qualities, such as organoleptic quality, starch content, length of post-harvested conservation etc. Involving women in the process of developing a technological innovation can help to ensure that women's criteria are taken into account in the development of innovations. Moreover, improved varieties which can include both market-oriented and consumption-oriented may be more desirable to ensure food consumption and nutrition while bring significant revenue for household. Preference toward improved varieties among women can lead to achieving desired food security outcomes by improving the quality and quantity of maize consumed from own-production in a country where maize is a staple food.","tokenCount":"3694"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f18e40c072a64bf213f5e1ea75177c49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7dfbb11-d9db-4699-9e1c-5de4081cba1a/retrieve","id":"2109893584"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"23cd9d79-996e-4d5e-b59b-1898a8becdfd","pagecount":"27","content":"Tables Table 1: Sequence of DynMod model GAMS files DynMod is a simple herd growth model spreadsheet that simulates the population dynamics of ruminant livestock herds (Lesnoff 2008). Based on a series of calculations specified using Microsoft Office Excel, Dynmod can be used to derive the number of animals produced over a given period (e.g. a year), population-specific animal live weights, and the production of various livestock products, e.g. meat, milk, hides and skin and manure. These are derived based on user-specified characteristics of the herd (such as fertility and mortality rates) and can be further linked to resource use indicators such as herd-level feed requirements and costs and financial indicators such as production costs. DynMod has a robust history of use at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in integrated/bio-economic assessments relevant to ruminant livestock systems, including recent applications at sector (e.g. Toye et al. 2020) and value chain (e.g. Rich and Wane 2021) levels. Specification of DynMod in Excel, while making the model relatively simple to use and thus widely accessible to specialists and non-specialists alike, presents considerable challenges, particularly in its application to livestock system modeling and policy and investment planning. Most notable of these is the limited ability to incorporate dynamic economic considerations (e.g. changing prices) in management decisions such as offtakes that influence overall herd dynamics. Also of note is the cumbersome process of manipulating numerous lines and pages of formula in Excel to execute the herd dynamics, which makes it difficult to implement appropriate scenario analysis, and lends itself to multiple data and specification errors. Re-specifying the model using flexible mathematical programming software such as GAMS is a preliminary step to addressing these challenges.A model converting DynMod's original specification in Excel to GAMS is reported following. The accompanying model specifications and data files to execute this process are made available on ILRI's open data portal. 1The model developed replicates the DynMod methodology of Lesnoff (2008) in a GAMS format, using Tanzania livestock master plan (LMP) data from the livestock sector investment and policy toolkit (LSIPT) (FAO, CIRAD and ILRI 2020). It computes both monthly and annual herd dynamics based on parturition (birth), fecundity, offtake, and mortality rates. The model has been parameterized for ruminant herd dynamics.The model allows for dynamic exogenous parameters for simulations, i.e. selected parameters can change to different levels during the 20 years. A base GAMS code developed by Karl M. Rich and Sherman Robinson (Version 1.0, 06 November 2019) was extended to include production and financial estimates and implemented for multiple production systems over 20 years to allow for simulations and compiling of a synthesis of the results.The model folder in the repository contains one main GAMS (.gms) file, with several files in include (.inc) format. The include files are modular and must be run in sequence. However, initial include files can be run without subsequent include files. This allows for more systematic changes and checking of different components of the model. The general files (not country-specific) are numbered to indicate the flow. Country-specific files that give the production systems and data for the base and simulations for Tanzania, all start with ILRITanzania. The flow of files is shown in Table 1. In addition, an initial conversion file (0_DynMod_v1) has been included. This file is for reference only and does not run as part of the sequence of other files listed in Table 1. The main .gms file (DynMod.gms) uses, amongst other factors, parturition, mortality, and offtake rates to compute the core herd dynamics over 240 months. Different ruminant production systems are read in via an include file (ILRITanzania-Sets.inc). Annual mortality/death and offtake rates are exogenous data. From these two rates, the monthly hazard rates for each are calculated and then the monthly probabilities. The monthly probabilities are used to estimate changes in the herd population.Herd data for the production systems are read in via an include file (ILRITanzania-input.inc) from the Herddat worksheet in the country-specific Excel file (ILRITanzania-data.xlsx). The Excel file duplicates/initializes the data for each production system's simulation, so at this stage, the base production system and the simulation production system should give the same results over the 240-month period for parameters such as the numbers of births, deaths, offtake, and transitions for different age classes.  For a particular yearResults related to herd dynamics, production, and income The files to produce the baseline estimates of the production systems are discussed in the previous section. Simulation production systems are already declared and initialized at base values in the mentioned files because initially, the same data is read in from the country-specific data file (ILRITanzania-data.xlsx) for both the base production systems and the simulation production systems.Simulations are activated by changing base values of the simulation production systems in three country-specific simulation files (ILRITanzania-Sim2.inc, ILRITanzania-Sim4.inc, and ILRITanzania-Sim5.inc), with the file sim number indicating in which numbered general file the simulation file is included. Since estimations for the simulation production systems are carried out simultaneously as the base production systems, the simulation data should be read in at the same time as the base data, hence the inclusion of the simulations in different files.The simulation files currently contain a few examples of how to introduce the simulations, but the analysts should further populate these simulation files. New parameters values should be specified for each production system as required; otherwise, base values are used.There are two types of production systems: a) production systems for the base, and b) one simulation production system for each base production system, denoted with an s at the end of the name, e.g. B1LG (base) and B1LGs (simulation).Two sets are defined:PS: global production system set that includes all possible base and simulation productions systems.PSCUR: production systems that are included in the current analysis -this set also includes base and simulation production systems.It is useful to select only the production systems that are the focus of a study or simulation in PSCUR and switch off the other production systems until they are needed to reduce the output for more focused checking and/or reporting. The sets and set elements are included in the file ILRITanzania-Sets.inc and called in the main .gms file (2DynMod.gms).The following sets are defined: Last month of a year, e.g. 12, 24, etc.Change only Y when selecting fewer than 20 years for analysis and reporting of base results. The reporting year for synthesis results (comparing base and simulation results) can be set at any year except Y0. The Ecorum files Synthesis worksheet only compares results for Y1.The annual time periods are set to a maximum of 20 years in YAll. If this needs to increase, then adjustments must be made to monthly time periods (T) and mappings of months to years (in the input include file) and month ends (TYend).Monthly time periods (T) can be set for the entire 20 years regardless of the number of years used in the analysis (Y). However, fewer time periods than the number of years will create errors, so it is advisable to keep T set to 240 months even if the number of years is reduced.Mapping sets for time periods are used in the calculations to transition between months and years. Three mapping sets are used, and these are specified in the country-specific Excel file (ILRITanzania-data.xlsx):MTY: The mapping set is used to map specific months (set TYend) to years, e.g. month 12 is mapped to year 1, month 24 to year 2, etc.The mapping set is used to map months to years, e.g. months 1 to 12 are mapped to year 1, etc.MY2T: The mapping set is used to map years to months, e.g. year 1 is mapped to months 1 to 12, etc.One global set and three subsets are used for age classes. The global set A includes the full set of age classes and subtotals for calculations (Table 3), similar to age classes that are used in the Ecorum file Tmp_Projection worksheets that estimate monthly results. F and M, which are subsets of A, include the female and male age classes, respectively. AR, which is a subset of A, consists of the age classes for reporting, as well as subtotals for reporting (Table 4), like age classes that are used in the Ecorum file Projection worksheets that report annual results.  The mapping set for age classes (set MAR) is used in the calculations to transition from the full set of age classes (A), which include births and culls, to the reporting age classes (AR), which exclude births and culls. The mapping set is specified in the country-specific Excel file (ILRITanzania-data.xlsx). When the mapping is implemented, the numbers for births are added to the numbers for juveniles, and those for culls are added to those for adults. Also, all female age class numbers are added together to get the female subtotal, and similarly for males. Finally, all age class numbers are also added together to get the grand total for reporting purposes.The parameter listing for each of the include files are presented in the Appendix.The users of the DynMod GAMS-based model should populate the simulation files for meaningful results comparison. Thorough checks should be conducted to ensure that intended simulations are implemented correctly. It is recommended that changes are introduced systematically so that results can be checked at each stage of adding a change in a simulation file for a production system. Note that the files are set up such that the data for the simulations should be changed only in the simulation include files and NOT in Excel, because the Excel files do not allow for dynamic changes, and it leaves too much room for errors if changes are implemented in two places. Changes can then unknowingly be overwritten by later data statements.Initial checks of model results against Ecorum Excel files are advised, but note that the calculation of births should be corrected first in the Tmp_Project worksheets by using the previous year's parturition rate for the calculation of births in X0 in each year from year 2 onwards (for both males and females), otherwise results will not be consistent if parturition rates change over time. Also, note that since the Excel Synthesis worksheets only report differences in year 1 between the without change and with change scenarios, changes implemented from year 2 onward cannot be directly compared using the Synthesis worksheets. Still, results can be compared using the annual Projection worksheets.In order to use the model for another country, the name of the country should be specified in the global set statement in the main .gms file, and then country-specific file names should contain the same name. The general files can thus be used with other country data if country-specific files are compiled following the same layout and patterns as established for Tanzania.8. Appendix:  For the whole livestock farming system (including the other species) (part of diagnostic sheet section IV) ","tokenCount":"1803"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9a873c992575f0296c5c526651837aab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce2998f3-3bc4-4368-a02c-6512a0323032/retrieve","id":"-1843988417"},"keywords":["genetic variability","heritability","genotype by environment interaction","gari and fufu conversion rate","cassava processed products breeding"],"sieverID":"e78d76b0-2245-413c-90d9-bd81a163e81f","pagecount":"17","content":"and Rabbi I (2022) Genetic variability and genotype by environment interaction of two major cassava processed products in multi-environments.Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is an affordable carbohydrate source for about 800 million people in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Montagnac et al., 2009;Dusunceli, 2019). This clonally propagated starchy root crop is considered a food security or insurance crop for smallholder farmers due to its year-round availability, and its ability to grow in marginal environments characterized by water scarcity and poor soils. More than 90% of cassava produced in Africa is used for human food compared with 50% in Asia and 43% in South America, while the remaining 10% is used for animal feed production (Nweke, 2004).Cassava roots are consumed either fresh or processed into various products. Processing products differ depending on the consumption preference and processing method used. Sweet genotypes with low cyanide content goes through minimal processing such as boiling, roasting or frying while non-sweet genotypes goes through a more rigorous processing which include grating and fermentation before consumption (Lancaster et al., 1982;Nweke, 1994). Various processing techniques are used to add value, extend the shelf life of the products as well as detoxify the roots by removing cyanogenic glucosides (Westby, 2002;Cardoso et al., 2005). Without processing, commercialization of cassava roots for urban markets will be difficult to achieve (Coulibaly et al., 2014). By far, processed products account for the largest proportion of cassava food consumption in Africa absorbing more than 90% of the produced roots (Nweke, 2004).The processed products derived from cassava roots include flour, starch and various forms of fermented products. In Africa, cassava roots are converted into a diverse set of products, the most important of which are gari and fufu, as well as tapioca, lafun, and attieke (Ezemenari et al., 1998). The processing method which may or may not include fermentation or starch gelatinization (Sanchez et al., 2010) and cell-wall disintegration (Eggleston and Asiedu, 1994) results in products with different attributes related to sensory, pasting and functional properties (Sanni et al., 2003;Onitilo et al., 2007). The end products may be categorized as flour, thick paste, or semolina-like particles (Awoyale et al., 2021).Also known as cassava semolina or \"farinha de mandioca, \" gari is the most common processed product of cassava in West Africa due to its long shelf-life and its ready-to-consume characteristic (Oluwafemi and Udeh, 2016). Cassava roots are rendered into gari by peeling, washing, grating, squeezing out water, and roasting on a dry hot surface. The grated mash can either be directly processed or fermented to produce a product with varying degrees of sourness. The resulting product is dry crispy, fine to coarse granular flour. As a result of its pregelatinization property, gari can be eaten in the uncooked form, or soaked in cold water like cereal or added to hot water to produce a thick dough called eba and consumed with vegetable sauce (Sanni et al., 1998).Fufu is the second most common product after gari in Africa (Sanni et al., 1998). It is produced from retted roots after steeping in water for several days to allow for microbial fermentation and tissue disintegration. The raw mash is sieved to remove insoluble fiber (vascular bundles) and cooked directly into doughy meals or dried and milled into flour for longer shelf life (Akingbala et al., 1991). There are different variations to these processing methods depending on region or desired taste (Okpokiri et al., 1985).Product conversion rate, defined as the percentage of final product relative to a unit of starting fresh roots, is an important factor in determining variety acceptability by growers and processors. Although this has increased productivity on a fresh root weight basis, processing traits related to conversion rates have not been adequately addressed by breeders (Wossen et al., 2017). Processing the same quantity of roots from different varieties may result in different quantities of derived products (on a dry weight basis). This has an important efficiency and economic implication given the fixed cost of product processing such as labor, time, energy and other resources such as transportation. Varieties with high conversion rate are more preferable when everything is held constant (Wossen et al., 2017). Additionally, overall product yield in tons/ha, defined as fresh root yield (t/ha) times the conversion rate of the product is an important overall productivity metric that can vary among varieties. There is also a trade-off between fresh root yield and conversion rate as it influences production and processing efficiency. For example, a variety with high fresh yield but low conversion rate may be less preferable than a moderately yielding variety with high conversion.Cassava breeding cycle through phenotypic recurrent selection takes up to 8 years before the release of a new variety (Ceballos et al., 2020). Cassava breeding scheme from botanical seed production to varietal release comprises of six selection stages which include progeny testing (F 1 ) clonal evaluation stage, preliminary yield stage, advance yield stage, uniform yield stage (regional trial) and one multiplication stages which include farm level testing (Ceballos et al., 2012). Historically cassava breeding has focused on yield improvement, increases nutritional content and pest and disease resistance in developing new varieties which have largely been addressed (Hahn, 1989;Okechukwu and Dixon, 2008). Currently, due to increased cassava cultivation and commercialization worldwide and in Africa, there is increased incentive to breed for varieties that are not only high yielding but also high product conversion rate. The lack of prioritization of these traits in breeding programs can often lead to low adoption of modern varieties (Nweke, 2004;Wossen et al., 2017).Trait improvement is highly dependent on the availability of information related to genetic component and trait behavior across environments. Genetic variability, heritability, and stability of expression of root conversion rate traits as well as their correlation in cassava is limited, thereby hindering the ability of breeders to improve them through recurrent selection schemes. Heritability, defined as the proportion of phenotypic variation that is attributable to genetic variance, is important in crop improvement as it influences traits evaluation and selection accuracy (Kempthorne, 1970). Breeding selection is relatively easy for traits with large genetic variance and heritability. The influence of the genotype-by-environment interactions (GEI) in the expression of a trait in different environments also need to be considered by breeders in order to identify superior genotypes and of the location that best represents the target environment. Previous studies on conversion rate of processed products have focused on either the effect of different root storage method before processing, different processing methods or genotype harvesting age (Oghenechavwuko et al., 2013;Adegbola et al., 2014;Oyeyinka et al., 2019). Studies associated with genetic variability are limited, descriptive in nature and assessed a limited number of genotypes in one or few environments (Etudaiye et al., 2009;Bassey, 2018). These studies have been unable to estimate the genetic contribution and genotype by environment interaction (GEI) effect as well as relationship between cassava processed product traits and key agronomic variables.In the present study, we carried out multi-location, multiyear phenotyping trials using advanced breeding lines to:(1) evaluate the genetic variation and heritability of 12 traits related to product conversion rate and overall product yield for two major processed products (gari and fufu);(2) monitor the effect of different environments and to estimate genotype by environment (GEI) interactions; and(3) understand the relationship between processing traits and key agronomic variables such as yield and yield components. We used a collection of advanced breeding clones developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.A total of 62 advanced genotypes and 5 checks from the uniform yield trials (UYT) in the IITA cassava breeding program were used in this study. These genotypes, derived from a second generation of a genomic selection-based population improvement pipeline (Wolfe et al., 2017) were selected based on their performance on fresh root yield, dry matter content, harvest rate, root number. All accessions are resistant to the cassava mosaic disease which is known to negatively influence productivity in cassava (Thresh et al., 1997). The genotypes had white root pulp with moderate to high dry matter percentage. The genotypes were randomly divided into two sets of trials (UYT36setA and UYT36setB). Each set has 31 clonal lines and 5 standard checks in common, making a unique set of clones of 67 genotypes (Supplementary Table 1). The 5 standard checks used for the study include TMS30572 and TMEB419 (most adopted and popular varieties in Nigeria), TMS-IBA000070, a recently released variety, TMS-IBA980581 and TMS-IBA982101 both of which are high yielding and disease resistant varieties.Field experiments were conducted across four unique locations in 3 years, the locations used varied from 1 year to another as did the number of trials making a total of eight unique environment with year and location combined (Table 1). These locations represent two major agro-ecological zones in Nigeria (Table 1) which was selected to represent the major regions where gari and fufu products are produced and consumed (Ezedinma et al., 2007). The agroecological variability of the locations include the humid forest characterized by high precipitation and derived savanna with moderate precipitation (Iloeje, 1965). The selected locations represent the major The trials were established in an alpha-lattice design with two replications. Plot dimension was 6 m × 7 m consisting of 42 planted at a spacing of 1 m × 0.8 m 2 plants between and within rows, respectively. The row and column numbers for each genotype within-trial sets were recorded for spatial trend analysis.The trials were harvested at maturity, 12 months after planting. To reduce the border effect on genotype agronomic performance, only the net plot consisting of 20 plants were harvested for phenotyping. During harvest, plot-level data on root number (RTNO), root weight (RTWT), and root size (RTSZ) were recorded. Harvest index was recorded as the ratio of root biomass relative to total biomass. Fresh root yield (FYLD) expressed as tons per hectare and was calculated from RTWT adjusted by plant spacing of 0.8 m 2 . Dry root yield (DYLD) was derived as a product of Dry matter (DM) content and FYLD. RTSZ was recorded categorically as 3 (small), 5 (average), and 7 (large) as recommended by Fukuda et al. (2010).All data was captured using FieldBook app (Rife and Poland, 2014) and traits recorded using established ontologies from www.cassavabase.org.Marketable roots from each plot were selected for dry matter estimation and processing into gari and fufu products. To access the root dry matter content, 6-8 roots were randomly sampled, peeled, and grated after removing proximal and distal ends to reduce fibrous material. After thorough mixing, 100 g samples of the root grates were oven-dried at 95 • C for 48 h until constant weight and the dry matter was expressed as a percentage of fresh weight. Care was taken to ensure rotted or damaged roots are not included in the sampling.Each product was processed from 20 kg of roots but 10 kg was used when sufficient quantity was not available. The roots from each plot were packed in separate prelabeled bags and transported to centralized facilities to ensure processing is done the same day and reduce post-harvest physiological deterioration.Gari processing was carried out as described in Ukhun (1989). Peeled roots were washed, and grated into fine particles. The grated mash was transferred into woven polypropylene sacks and allowed to undergo spontaneous fermentation for 48 h. Water was pressed out of each sample using a hydraulic method to eliminate about 60 percent of the remaining water. The semi-dried cakes were then sieved and toasted in a hot stainless-steel frying tray to form gelatinized, dry and crispy granules. The temperature of the copper tray before frying ranges between 143.67 • C and 148.87 • C and the final temperature of the fried product is 88.01 • C-90.93 • C. Finally, the gari product was allowed to cool to room temperature and stored in barcoded nylon bags after recording the product weight in kg. Conversion rate was calculated as a percentage of starting fresh root as follows:Gari % = Final gari weight Starting root weight X 100Fufu processing followed the method of Achi and Akomas (2006). This method produces either odorless fufu paste or dried to produce a flour-like product. In this study, we generated dry fufu product for estimating conversion rates. The dry fufu is suitable for long term storage.After peeling, roots were cut into small chunks and soaked in individual plastic buckets using 40 l of water for 4 days to undergo lactic acid fermentation until the roots are softened. After softening, the starchy pulp was separated from insoluble fiber using a 0.3 cm pore size sieve over a clean bucket. The pulp filtrate was washed twice with 20 l of clean water and allowed to sediment for 4 h until the water clears. The water was carefully decanted and the product transferred to a cotton bag followed by straining of the remaining water. Finally, the product was spread on clean flat stainless-steel trays and oven-dried at 60 • C for 48 h to a constant weight. The resulting odorless fufu was allowed to cool to room temperature and stored in barcoded nylon bags after recording the product weight in kg.Processing losses in terms of peel weight and dried insoluble fiber removed from fufu mash were also recorded. Conversion rate is a function of % moisture content and peel waste, which can be up to 35% of root proportion (Omosuli et al., 2017). For fufu, processing losses also includes insoluble fiber that is removed after sieving and placed in a 60 • C oven for a period of 48 h before weighing in kg. Peel loss and fiber content were converted to percentage of initial weight of root used for processing into product as described below:Peel loss % = Peel weight Starting root weight X 100Fibre content % = Dried fibre weight Starting root weight X 100Descriptive statistics per environment and trait were generated and visualized in R (R Core, 2020). The distribution of observed traits using BLUPs was visualized with violin plot with boxplot superimposed and stacked plots across trials using the ggplot2 package (Wickham, 2016) in R (R Core, 2020).In order to estimate variance components of traits, a single trait linear mixed model was fitted using the ASReml-R package version 4.1 (Butler et al., 2017), considering the genotype, replication, environment, and genotype by environment as random effects while sets, rows and columns of each trial as fixed effects of accounting for trial design-related variables.We fitted a model as shown in Eq. [1]:With u ∼ N 0, I σ 2 u and e ∼ N 0, I σ 2 e , where y is the response vector of a trait for a given location, β is the vector of fixed effects with the design matrix X (relating observations to fixed effects which include grand mean, row number nested within set and column number nested within set); u is the vector of random genetic effects with the design matrix Z (relating trait values to genotype, environment, replication nested within environment and GEI) and e is the residual. Test of significance of variance components was done using z-test as done in ASReml-R package version 4.1 (Butler et al., 2017).The BLUP represents an estimate of each individual's total genetic value across environments for the genotype effect. For the sake of correlation analysis, it is important to estimate a single value that encapsulates all the information available on the individual; we estimated the de-regressed BLUPs (D-RBLUPS) by dividing by their reliability deregressed BLUP = BLUP 1− PEV σ 2 i (Garrick et al., 2009) where PEV is the predicted error variance of the BLUP and σ 2 i is the clonal variance component. Correlation analysis of the traits using the D-RBLUPS estimates was determined using the corrr package and visualize using ggcorrplot in core R version 4.1.1 (R Core, 2020).Broad-sense heritability was estimated using two methods. First, the standard method (H2_standard) based on error plot variance across all environments was derived from variance components estimated aswhere σ 2 g refers to the variance of genotype, σ 2 ge is GEI variance, σ 2 ε is the environmental variance, e is the number of environments, r is the number of replicates of genotypes per environment, and other terms were described above. The second broadsense heritability (H_Cullis) proposed by Cullis et al. (1996) was estimated using genotype standard error calculated as;where σ 2 g refers to genetic variance, v BLUP to the average standard error of the genotypic BLUPs.To carry out GEI, we generated table of genotype means by fitting a mixed model with genotype as fixed effect as shown in Eq. [2]:u and e ∼ N 0, I σ 2 e , where y is the response vector of a trait for a given location, β is the vector of fixed effects with the design matrix X (relating observations to fixed effects which include grand mean and genotype); u is the vector of random genetic effects with the design matrix Z (relating trait values to environment, row number nested within set and column number nested within set) and e is the residual.The resulting table of Best Linear Unbiased Estimates (BLUEs) was used to model the GEI using three approaches shown in Table 2; Malosetti et al. (2013)  The first approach was suggested by Finlay and Wilkinson (1963) (FW), a regression analysis which has been widely used to describe stability and GEI in various cultivars (Mulusew et al., 2014;Swanckaert et al., 2020). The Finlay-Wilkinson regression model estimates the heterogeneity of slopes and sensitivity of a genotype by regressing mean phenotypic performance of individual genotypes on an environmental index using withinline ordinary least squares (OLS) regression (Lian and de los Campos, 2016). However, FW linear regression is not sufficient to fully explain the genotype phenotypic stability.Before fitting the FW model (Table 2), trait values were scaled to mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1, following the equation below as:where y ij is the adjusted phenotypic mean value of i th genotype in j th environment and sd (Y) is the standard deviation of the overall mean of the adjusted phenotypic response of all clones in all environments. The scaling allowed the comparison of MSE and sensitivity values across traits that are originally on different scales and units measurement (Falcon et al., 2020).The second and third approaches are Fixed-effect linearbilinear models Additive Main-effects and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) and Genotype Main Effect plus Genotype-Environment Interaction (GGE). Both approaches depend on analysis of variance (ANOVA) for estimating genotype and environment main effect, principal component analysis (PCA) for decomposing GEI structure into Interactive Principal Component Axes (IPCAs) and biplot for graphical presentations. The AMMI model can be further used to delineate the testing environments into mega environments using principal component axes scores. AMMI gives a suitable approach in separating genotypic effect from genotype by environment effect with cultivar ranking in mega-environment (Hagos and Abay, 2013) while GGE is suitable for grouping sites and cultivars without cultivar rank change (Yan and Hunt, 2001). Despite their different approaches, both models complement each other in order to strengthen decision making thereby permitting increased reliability in the selection of superior cultivars and test environments.We assessed stability of genotypes for traits observed using both static and dynamic stability measures. Static stability was measured using Wrickle ecovalence (Wi) as proposed by Wricke (1962) and described W2 where X ij is the observed trait respond (average across replication), Xi. correspond to the mean yield of genotype i, X.j is the mean yield of the environment j and X is the grand means.According to the ranking of genotypes by Wi, stable genotype has lower Wi preferably close to 0. These are genotypes that have smaller deviation from the environmental mean. Likewise, genotypes with high Wi indicates instability in genotype performance across the environments and a large contribution of the genotype to the GEI. Formular Variables Referencesis the mean yield of genotype i in environment j µ is the grand mean G i is the genotypic effect; E j is the environment effect; b i E j is a sensitivity parameters; e ij is the residual.AMMIis the mean yield of genotype i in environment j; µ is s the grand mean. g i is the genotype fixed effect of j th environment.The GEI component is decomposed into K multiplicative terms (k = 1, 2, . . ., K), each multiplicative term is a product of k th eigenvalue (k); genotypic score (ik); and environmental scores (jk); and ij is the residual Gauch, 1992Terms are similar to AMMI model but without g i which is the genotype fixed effect of j th environment. Yan et al., 2000 Geometric adaptability index (GAI) is a measure of the adaptability of a genotype and is classified as a dynamic concept of stability (Mohammadi and Amri, 2008) and described as: GAI = E X1 + X2 + ... + Xl. Where X1, X2, and Xl are the mean yields of the first, second and ith genotypes across environments and E is the number of environments. According to the ranking of genotypes by GAI, genotypes with the high GAI (low ranks) are desirable (Mohammadi and Amri, 2008;Pourdad, 2011), Wi and GAI was estimated using metan package version 1.15 (Olivoto and Lúcio, 2020) in R version 4.1.1 (R Core, 2020).Analysis of variation for cassava gari, fufu, and related yield traits evaluated in multiple environmentsAcross environments and genotypes, a considerable range of phenotypic values was observed among genotypes and trials as shown in the distribution of estimated BLUPs (Figure 1). We observed differences between trials for FYLD which ranged from low performing environment (UB18, 20.18 t/ha) to high performing environment (IB19, 39.22 t/ha) with an average of 33.03 t/ha. In the study population we also observed an average of 36.94% for DM with genotypes ranging from 24.67 to 43.26 across environments. There was also variation in DM among trials used in this study ranging from lowest average DM content in AG19 (31.99) and highest IB19 (32.66). An average of 19.23% was observed for gari% with a variation between genotypes ranging from 11.82 to 25.27% across the eight environments used in this study. Between trials UB20 (20.24%) had the lowest average gari% while IB19 (21.29%) had the highest average gari%. Fufu% also appears to have an average phenotypic variation of 19.68% across the eight environments with genotypes ranging from 13.72 to 25.34%. We also observed trial variation for fufu% with UB20 (19.22%) having the lowest average and AG20 (21.25%) having the highest average fufu%.The results from phenotypic variability for fufu% is not far from what we observed in gari%. In the study population the average peel loss% was 20.80% but can range from as low as 10.75% to as much as 31.97% for some genotypes. Among the trials we had the lowest average peel loss% recorded in IK20 (15.93%) and highest was observed in IB19 (25.58%).Relationship between all studied traits is represented using a correlation matrix (Figure 2). There was a positive significant (P < 0.05) correlation between DM and gari% (r = 0.80) and between DM and fufu% (r = 0.82) as well as between gari and fufu% (r = 0.84, P < 0.05). Interestingly, there appears to be no relationship between yield and the conversion rates as well as DM. We could see from the correlation matrix that DYLD, FYLD, gari yield, and fufu yield (yield traits) were highly correlated among each other. The yield traits correlation is not surprising because all yield traits were derivatives of RTWT. We observed a negative correlation between Fiber content% and fufu% (r = -0.35, P < 0.05). The fiber content% of a genotype is highly dependent on the ability of the genotype to soften during the fermentation stage in processing. Genotypes with high softening ability will produce less fiber which will be desirable for production of high fufu%. The correlation matrix also showed a negative correlation of peel loss% and gari% (r = -0.30, P < 0.05) and FYLD (r = -0.43, P < 0.05).To further understand the relationship between both conversion rates (gari% and fufu%) and processing losses (peel loss% and fiber content%) can be visualized in Figure 3, we observed a 1:1 ratio in average values among genotypes for gari% (19.23%), fufu% (19.68%), and peel loss% (20.87%). This ratio means that the overall performance of a genotype is dependent on peel loss%. We recorded fiber content% which is related to fufu processing to be about 4.5% across trials. Among both processing losses, peel loss% has the highest contribution compared to fiber content%.Because of the observed variation among trials, heritability estimates were computed using the mean of the genotypes within each trial and square of the standard error of the genetic estimates (Figure 4 and Supplementary Table 2). We computed both H2_standard and H2_Cullis estimates were comparable for all 12 traits, ranging from 0.31 to 0.75 and 0.6-0.8, respectively. Gari% and fufu% had a higher H2_standard (>0.70) compared to H2_Cullis (>0.40). We observed a within trial heritability estimated using H2_Cullis method (Figure 4) for gari% ranging from 0.18 to 0.74 with standard deviation (error bars) of 0.19 and fufu% ranges from 0.03 to 0.65 with standard deviation of 0.21. Some traits such as FYLD, DYLD gari and fufu yield had heritability estimates higher than 0.60 using the H2_standard method and higher than 0.40 using the H2_Cullis method. The lower H2_Cullis heritability estimates observed for these traits is due to intertrials variations. The most relevant processing traits (peel loss%) had a heritability estimate of 0.54 using the H2_Cullis method and 0.81 using the H2_standard. The moderate to high levels of heritability observed for gari and fufu% indicates a higher proportion of genetic to total phenotypic variability which is suitable for genetic improvement of these traits through recurrent selection.Results from the linear mixed model fitted to explain the contribution of genotype, environment, GEI, replication within environment and residual to phenotypic variation is presented in Figure 5 and sorted according to the descending H2_standard heritability estimates. We observed that environment had a significant effect on all traits (P < 0.01) ranging from 6.10 in RTSZ to 54.33% in peel loss% and explained the largest percentage of variation for most traits except for RTSZ (6.10%), fiber content% (16.87%) and HI (16.87%). Gari and fufu% had 45.48 and 36.14% of phenotypic variation explained by the environment, respectively, which was higher than what was explained by genotype effect. About 8.59 and 9.37% of phenotypic variation was explained for gari and fufu%, respectively, by the genotype term. The genotypic effect was also found to be significant (P < 0.001) for all traits and explained between 7.09% (DYLD) and 12.76% (DM). The significant genotypic terms suggest that these traits are influenced by genes and not only the environment. Change in relative performance of genotypes across environments is explained by the GEI term. There was a significant (P < 0.001) contribution of genotype x Env term to phenotypic variation observed among genotypes for most of Correlation plot for processed products traits, and yield and root morphological traits using deregressed BLUPS form 8 environments. DM, Drymatter; RTNO, Root number; DYLD, Dry root yield; FYLD, Fresh root yield; HI, Harvest index; RTSZ, Root size. trait in our study population except for fiber content% and explained between 6.03% (peel loss%) to 16.71% (DM) of phenotypic variation. Gari and fufu% phenotypic variance explained by GEI as 12.39 and 8.65%, respectively, which is close to what was explained by the genotype term. The replication nested within the environment which explains the experimental design effect captured the least percentage variation (0.50-11.48%) and was insignificant (Supplementary Table 3). The second-largest source of variation after the environment team accounting for up to 69.27% for RTSZ (Figure 6) is the residual term. This means there are some unexplained variations that could not be explained by the other terms in the model.The genotypic and environmental main effects of the Finlay-Wilkinson (FW) model were highly significant (P < 0.001) for all observed traits (Supplementary Table 4). However, the interaction effect was not significant for all traits except DYLD and RTSZ. According to the partitioning of the total sums of squares (TSS) (Figure 6), the environment term had the largest contribution for most traits ranging from 42.34% (HI) to 61.81% (gari yield). Of all the terms in the FW model, the interaction term has the least contribution to the TSS while the error term contributed almost twice the percentage contributed by genotype term.Significant differences in regression slope (sensitivity) among genotypes on the environmental mean was found for all traits except dry matter content (Supplementary Table 5). In other words, there was variation in genotypic response for all traits but not dry matter with respect to changes in environment mean. Genotype and trait sensitivity to GEI was explained using the variance of the slopes and the variance of the mean square deviation, respectively, which was extracted from the FW regression analysis.The genotypic sensitivity values were ranked from the most stable (low sensitivity values) to the least stable for each trait (high sensitivity values) for each trait (Supplementary Table 6).Using the FW we identified G38, G32, G24, G3, and G17 as top five stable genotypes for gari% and a different sets of genotypes as stable for fufu% which include G19, G35, G32, G39, and G5 except for G32. Traits-specific environmental stability can be approximated using slope of the regression. Traits with narrow tolerance to distribution (higher slope) are more sensitive to the effect of environmental stress. The slope variance observed among traits varied from 0.04 (gari%) to 23.14 (fiber content%) with their corresponding slope median values varied from 1.01 and 0.95, respectively (Supplementary Table 4). The higher variance observed for fiber content% from FW regression analysis makes it a rather difficult trait to phenotype because of the large variation in some environments in comparison with others. Fufu% had a slope variance of 0.16 and median of 1.06. Peel loss had the lowest median MS deviation of all traits (median = 0.21) and the variance of MSE (variance = 0.03). Root size and Fiber content had the highest MS deviation. Among all traits observed, genotypes used as checks did not rank first as stable genotypes.The Additive main effect and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) analysis revealed significant variation in the main effects of genotype, environment and their interactions (GEI) (P < 0.001) for all observed traits (Supplementary Table 4). The partition of total sum of squares (TSS) (Figure 6) showed that the environment main effect accounted for the highest amount of variation varying from 5.72% (RTSZ) to 54.85% (gari%). Traits with high TSS explained by environment indicate the existence of a group of environments sharing the same genotype(s) as best performing with large differences among environmental means (Yan and Rajcan, 2002). In the study population, the genotype contribution to TSS varied between 11.39% (DYLD) and 23.55% (HI). It is interesting to find out that DM (17.44%) had an almost 1:1 ratio of TSS explained by genotypes for gari% (13.75%), peel loss% (16.03%), and fufu% (14.97%). The ratio observed between traits points out the presence of genetic control for gari and fufu% that can be exploited for traits improvement through recurrent selection in multiple environments. We further decomposed the variation due to GEI for gari and fufu% using the first and second IPCAs and found out that both IPCAs accounted for 20.27 and 27.65% the TSS. For all traits measured in this study, the first and second IPCAs accounted for between 20.27% (gari%) and 49.96% (fiber content%) of the TSS due to GEI. Residual term explained between 10.01% (peel loss%) and 24.43% (RTSZ) of the TSS. We Broad-sense heritability estimated for 12 processed product and yield traits based on H2_Cullis method with error bars (standard deviation). DM, Drymatter, RTNO, Root number, DYLD, Dry root yield; FYLD, Fresh root yield; HI, Harvest index; RTSZ, Root size.observed an equivalent proportion of TSS explained by residual and genotype terms for all traits except for HI which had a lower % explained by the residual term.The GGE analysis of variance for 67 genotypes revealed a significant main effect of environment and combined genotype and GEI effect (P < 0.001) for the observed traits (Supplementary Table 4). To discern the contribution of different terms fitted in the model we partition the environment and interaction (first and second IPCAs) sum of squares as percentage of the total sum of squares. After partitioning the TSS we observed that between 5.38% (RTSZ) and 55.06% (fufu yield) of TSS was explained by the environment term and 31.93% (DYLD) to 66.68% (fiber content%) attributed to the interaction term. For gari and fufu%, TSS explained by the environment term was 53.10% which was larger than what the interaction term explained (Figure 6). However, for fufu% both the environment (42.92%), and interaction (41.46%) terms explained a 1:1 ratio of TSS.Comparing the statistical models used in dissecting the GEI effects of traits observed in this study, we observed that most of the phenotypic variation seen in most traits were explained by the environment term. We also noticed that the contribution of interaction varies greatly among all statistical methods, GGE and FW had the highest and lowest contribution of the Interaction terms to traits phenotypic variation, respectively. This may be due to the removal of the genotype term when fitting GGE model and the sensitivity parameter in the FW model. Of all the variance terms measured, the environment had the highest contribution to traits expression, followed by interaction and residual before genotype. However, a single conclusion that can be drawn from the output indicates that the genotypes present different behavior for different traits in all environments used for this study and the environment was the primary source of variation. The significant interaction terms can affect the attainment of genetic advance from phenotypic selection due to differential response of genotypes under the target test environments. GGE biplot which allows the visualization of genotype, environment and interaction based on symmetric scaling was used to understand the type of GEI in this study for observed traits (Figure 7, Supplementary Figures 1-10). The GGE biplot explained about 57.81 and 61.05%, of the total G + GE interactions (PC1 + PC2) for gari% and fufu%, respectively. We recognized a crossover type of GEI for gari and fufu %, which was indicated by the biplot principal component scores (PC1 and PC2) having both negative and positive values. Additionally, the polygon vertices of the biplots are markers for highly projected genotypes indicating performance in environments in the polygon vector. G45, G44, and G55 had the highest gari% above the environmental means in IK18, AG18, UB20, IK20, and AG20 while G56 and G21 were projected as the best performing genotypes in terms of fufu% in IB19, AG18, UB20, IK20, and AG20. Though the projected best performing genotypes for gari and fufu% in all environments were different, the environment seems to be correlated as indicated by the distance of the environment from origin and angle with other environments. The environmental correlation implies that one environment can represent another in screening for gari and fufu% (Solonechnyi et al., 2015;Temesgen et al., 2015). Wrickle's ecovalence According to Wrickle (1962) genotypes with low ecovalence index have smaller fluctuation in performance across environments and are desirable because they are more stable. These genotypes, G13, TMS980581, G40, G47, and G12 had the lowest Wi less than 0.48 for gari while G50, G52, G14 G8, and G18 had the lowest Wi less than 0.17 for fufu% (Supplementary Table 7). These genotype had limited differential response to the different environments used in this study. Among the genotypes that showed low Wi for gari%, G40, G47, and G12 while G50, G14, and G18 for fufu% were above the population mean and can be recommended for wide adaptation (Seife and Tena, 2020). Unstable genotypes for gari% include G3, G39, G31, G6, and G21 while for fufu% include TMS982101, G26, G56, G21, and G31.GAI is used to evaluate genotypes stability based on the geometric mean of genotypes across environments; thus, genotypes with high GAI and low GAI rank are desired (Mohammadi and Amri, 2008;Pourdad, 2011). Results from the GAI (Supplementary Table 7), top 5 genotypes with the lowest ranks for gari% includes G56, G50, G40, G23, and G55 while top 5 genotypes for the lowest ranks for fufu% include G56, G24, G21,TMEB419, and G23. These genotypes had relatively high gari and fufu% above the population mean of 20.10 and 20.93%, respectively. Genotypes with the highest ranks for gari% G45, G44, G49, G35, and G37 while G52, G8, G29, G27, and G30 had the highest rank for fufu%.Accessing genetic variability and heritability, GEI pattern and relationship between processing traits and key agronomic Vector views of PC2 are plotted against PC1 for environment relations, winning genotypes, and environment correlations.variables is an important step in trait genetic improvement through recurrent selection schemes. In this study we assessed 12 traits including processed product and key agronomic variable performance of 62 breeding lines compared with five checks, in multi-environment field trials. The environments used in this study include major areas where cassava is converted into processed products and falls under two major agroecological zones in Nigeria. The study population revealed large phenotypic variation among genotypes in regards to all traits and between trials (Figure 1). The range of genetic variability observed among genotypes in this study for gari% was in range with what (Ibe and Ezedinma, 1981;Achinewhu et al., 1998;Amoah et al., 2010) reported for five genotypes. However, the range of genetic variability measured for gari% (11.82-25.27%) in this study was lower than what was reported for the two traits harvested at different age which ranged from 22.00 to 52.00% (Adegbola et al., 2014). The range of genetic variability observed among genotypes in this study for fufu % was similar with what (Awoyale et al., 2020) reported for ten improved varieties to assess their suitability for fufu production. Therefore, genetic improvement can be done through recurrent selection for conversion rate of processed products.Selection efficiency can be improved with a proper understanding of the relationships between traits. The correlation analysis done between processing traits and key agronomic variables reveal a strong positive correlations between gari and fufu% with dry matter content which connotes that dry matter content could be used as a proxy selection parameter to evaluate genotypes which agrees with the results of Laya et al. (2018). The findings in this study supports  2021) that an increase in dry matter content would increase conversion rates of processed products. The correlation observed between gari and fufu% with dry matter content is not surprising because the final stage of root conversion into gari% (Frying) and fufu% (oven drying) aim to remove moisture for maximum increase in shelf life of products.Contrary to expectations, we did not find any relationship between FYLD and gari and fufu% meaning that genotypes with high FYLD do not translate to high root conversion rate for both processed products in the population used for this study. This finding is in line with what Ibe and Ezedinma (1981) reported for 12 cassava cultivars. However, FYLD is still an essential trait for cassava breeding as it is the first attraction to farmers to a variety before processed products' potential. Another interesting relationship found in this study was the 1:1 ratio between gari% and fufu% with peel loss% (Figure 4) which was similar to what Hahn (1989) reported for 12 varieties. Furthermore, RTSZ may not be directly related to gari and fufu% but it is a strong determinant for peel loss% making root size an essential component for selection when breeding for high Gari% and Fufu%.Both methods of heritability estimates (H2_Standard and H2_Cullis) for traits revealed high to moderate estimates which emphasizes genetic contribution to these traits in the population used in this study. However, we observed low heritability estimates from the H2_Cullis methods for some trials and should not be misunderstood as a consequence of no genetics contributing to the expression of the trait but may be due to the effect of either environment or processing. There is room for improvement on achieving increased heritability estimates for these traits by further optimizing processing methods or high throughput phenotyping methods.According to the linear mixed model, FW, AMMI and GGE analysis of variance, a significant genotype effect was observed for the traits measured; this indicated that genotypes were significantly different, hence genetic improvement could be achieved through hybridization and recurrent selection. Furthermore, we observe a change in genotypic performance in different trials which was confirmed by the largest percentage of total sums of squares and the significant effects of environment in all models for gari and fufu%. Also, a significant effect of GEI was found for these traits, thereby complicating the breeders' quest for developing a stable variety, because neither genotype nor environment effect can effectively capture all variation observed. This will require testing of genotypes in diverse environments before selection can be made. The GGE biplot enables a visual comparison of the locations and genotypes, and their interrelationships and performance potential of genotypes. The biplot (Figure 7) explained 57.81 and 61.05% of the total G + GE interactions of gari and fufu%, respectively, indicating that there is more environment and interaction contribution to performance of a genotype. Genotypes that are above population means and stable must be considered as selection candidates simultaneously to exploit the beneficial effects of GEI and to have a more accurate selection for traits improvement. Based on genotypic performance across environment and traits, different genotypes emerged as stable performers for different traits as shown by the computed Wi and GAI (Supplementary Table 7). The genotype ranking from both stability analyses suggests that there are some generic relationships between traits which supports the correlation analysis done earlier in this study. However, Wi and GAI ranked genotypes differently as their top 5, this is not surprising as previous studies suggest that Wi and GAI are negatively correlated in measuring stability (Mohammadi and Amri, 2008;Mohammadi and Nader Mahmoodi, 2008). Notwithstanding, Wi and GAI ranked G40 as part of top5 genotypes for gari% but there were no overlapping genotypes for fufu% in the study. For plant breeding purposes, the dynamic stability measure is preferred for genotype selection and trait improvement because it assumes that all genotypes responds differently to change in environmental conditions (Changizi et al., 2014). Therefore, genotypes selected as top 5 using GAI for gari% (G56, G50, G40, G23, and G55) and fufu% (G56, G24, G21, TMEB419, and G23) are recommended.There is a measurable degree of genetic variation among genotypes for the root conversion rate for gari and fufu%, making it possible to make progress through conventional selection and advancement of clonal genotypes. However, there is a need for further optimization of the data collection process and introducing high throughput data collection methods. Dry Matter content and Peel loss% had the highest correlation and could be used as a selection proxy for gari and fufu conversion rate. However, the rate of the genetic gain obtained per year might not be the same for as recorded for Dry Matter content and needs further investigation. It would be interesting to know if dry matter and root conversion rate of gari and fufu is controlled by the same genomic region/s in the cassava genome and the influence of dry matter content on quality of processed products. Apart from genetic variation, environment and interaction had a huge role to play in gari and fufu% in this study. Environmental variance is typically the most prominent most significant component of variance in populations in natural conditions. This genotypic performance suggests that a genotype with dual-purpose for high percent gari and fufu conversion rate can be bred for using one or two of the correlated environments in addition to a contrasting environment for evaluation. We have identified genotypes that performed better than the checks used in this study for gari and fufu%.This study was supported by the Deutscher AkademischerAustauschdienst (DAAD) to pursue a Ph.D in Plant Breeding at the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana. We acknowledged the support from Next Generation Cassava Breeding Project (Grant INV-007637) through funds received from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","tokenCount":"7341"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b0743a65f68d2951eee35140bfc14f10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3e3975aa-0043-40d8-a27e-4cdd4143ba0d/content","id":"341469351"},"keywords":["Storage Corn Grain quality Seed quality Postharvest loss Hermetic technologies CRediT authorship contribution statemen Sylvanus Odjo: conceptualization","methodology","investigation","data collection","data curation","formal analysis","visualization","writing -original draft","writing -review & editing. Natalia Palacios Rojas: methodology","investigation","supervision","writing -review & editing. Juan Burgueño: methodology","formal analysis","writing -review & editing. Marina Corrado: methodology","investigation","data collection","writingreview & editing. Tim Ortner: data collection","writing -review & editing. Nele Verhulst: conceptualization","methodology","investigation","project administration","supervision","writing -review & editing"],"sieverID":"ab869088-7725-412d-a3d7-1f34801a3cdb","pagecount":"10","content":"Reducing maize postharvest storage losses is a challenge for millions of smallholder farmers in Mexico. A previous study documented the effects of storage technologies on stored grain losses. The current study follows up on those experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of diverse storage technologiespolypropylene bags with and/or without insecticide, hermetic metal silos, hermetic bags, recycled plastic containers, silage plastic bags, micronized lime, and standard limein maintaining grain and seed quality during 2017 and 2018 at six sites: three agroecologies below 500 m above sea level (masl) and three agroecologies above 2000 masl. Maize samples stored using each of the above technologies were collected before and after six months of storage. Pest-free samples were analyzed for grain composition (starch, protein, oil, ether extracts, polyphenols contents), selected physicochemical parameters (fat acidity, an indicator of biochemical changes during storage; hundred kernel weight; flotation index, an indirect parameter of grain density; color; and germination. Storage technologies did significantly affect macronutrient content, but the quality of grain stored under non-hermetic conditions was reduced, as reflected in significantly increased fat acidity and flotation index. Seed germination was less affected by the type of storage technology at sites above 2000 masl but a significant effect was observed at sites below 500 masl. On average, the germination capacity of seed stored using non-hermetic technologies (polypropylene bags with or without insecticide or lime) dropped 56% at lowland sites, as compared to 2.8% for seed stored using hermetic metal silos or hermetic bags. Airtight technologies also minimized quality losses by reducing metabolic activities. By limiting insect and fungi infestation and reducing quantity and quality degradation in stored maize, hermetic technologies can contribute to Mexican smallholder farmers' food security.Postharvest grain or seed losses generally refer to reductions in quantity and quality throughout the postharvest system and can diminish farmers' food supplies and the safety and market value of grain, causing significant economic losses (Hodges et al., 2011). Food losses in weight or volume are easy to measure but altered grain or seed quality are complex, difficult to assess and depend on whether the grain is for human or animal consumption or for seed. For grain, qualities such as color, flavor, or nutritional value govern consumer acceptance and factors such as possible mycotoxin contamination can affect safety (Ekpa et al., 2019). For seed, germination percentage and seedling viability are the major concerns (Boxall, 2001).Mexican smallholder maize farmers typically harvest one ton per hectare on average (Govaerts et al., 2019), much of it often for home consumption, and they now face warming climates and more erratic rainfall that further reduce yields. At the same time, their typical storage practices, which include polypropylene bags with or without insecticides, do not protect well enough against the main storage pests (García-Lara et al., 2019), resulting in losses as high as 60% of stored grain (Odjo et al., 2020). Many studies document the value of improved storage practices for smallholders' food security and nutrition (Brown et al., 2015;Kumar and Kalita, 2017;Tefera, 2012) and, particularly, the effectiveness of hermetic storage technologies in minimizing insect and fungi damage (Abass et al., 2018;Chigoverah and Mvumi, 2016;De Groote et al., 2013;Odjo et al., 2020).Previous studies also documented storage technology effects on seed viability or visible quality attributes, but there has been little to assess the impact of storage practices on grain quality and nutritional losses (Affognon et al., 2015;Nkhata et al., 2021;Taleon et al., 2017). Further, the few published studies on this topic in Mexico were conducted at single locations, whereas Mexico is characterized by numerous, highly diverse maize farming agro-ecologies (García-Lara et al., 2019). García Leaños et al. (2007) reported a 15% decrease in germination for seed stored for six months in hermetic metal silos, compared to a 50% loss under conventional practices, at a single location in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. According to García-Lara et al. (2020), hermetic storage better maintained grain composition (starch, protein, oil, fiber, and ash content), physical parameters (moisture content, test weight, flotation index and thousand kernel weight) and tortilla-making quality, compared with polypropylene bags, in the state of Mexico, Mexico. Stathers et al. (2020) recorded that insect infestation can lead to some chemical changes in damaged grains, including a decrease in carbohydrate content and a subsequent weight loss. As visibly damaged grain is generally eliminated through winnowing before consumption, the effect of storage conditions on the remaining grain quality attributes requires further investigation. Odjo et al. (2020) reported insect and fungi damage and live insect numbers in stored maize, in controlled experiments led by researchers and side-by-side comparisons managed by extension agents with farmers, over two years. The results showed that polypropylene bags, the most common farmer's storage practice, failed to minimize losses, with grain weight loss reaching 11.4% in tropical conditions after six months of storage. Insect damage with farmer's conventional storage technologies was ten times higher in the lowlands than in the highlands, while hermetic technologies minimized losses regardless of storage conditions with less than 4% of insect-damaged grain.The current study presents grain and seed quality data collected from the controlled experiments reported by Odjo et al. (2020). Samples were analyzed to (1) compare the efficacy of storage technologies in maintaining grain and seed quality attributes of grain without apparent damage, (2) evaluate the effect of weather conditions on that efficacy, and (3) assess the relationship between storage conditions, grain characteristics, grain damage, and grain and seed quality parameters.In 2017 and 2018 the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and its collaborators in Mexico conducted storage experiments at six sites from 36 to 2282 m above sea level (masl) and in temperate, tropical savanna and tropical humid conditions (Table 1; supplementary Fig. B1). The sites are located in important rainfed farming areas for maize and other grains, operated chiefly by smallholders (Fonteyne et al., 2021).At each site, a comparison was made between (1) conventional storage technologies (commonly used by farmers) and innovative storage technologies selected from (2) hermetic technologies, (3) alternative conditioning agents and (4) alternative hermetic technologies. Conventional storage technologies included polypropylene bag (PP), polypropylene bag with aluminum phosphide (PP_AP) at a dosage of 1 tablet per 50 kg (one tablet weighs approximately 3 g and contains 56% aluminum phosphide). Hermetic technologies included hermetic metal silos (HMS), the GrainPro Hermetic SuperGrainbag® Farm, a hermetic bag with a tie-down system (HBT) and the GrainPro Hermetic Super-Grainbag® Premium RZ, a hermetic bag with a zip system (HBZ). Alternative conditioning agents include polypropylene bags with standard lime (PP_SL) and polypropylene bags with micronized lime (PP_ML), both at a dosage of 4 kg per ton. Alternative hermetic technologies include plastic bottles (PBO) and silage plastic bags (SPB). The storage technologies were chosen together with local collaborators, depending on their interest, the locally used practices as well as storage technologies commercially available, so they were not always the same in both years (Table 1). Odjo et al. (2020) describes these storage technologies (see also supplementary Fig. B2) and additional details on experimental conditions, the technologies evaluated and postharvest parameters including moisture content, temperature and grain damage. Depending on the grain available, local collaborators provided a native or a hybrid maize variety to use in the experiment. A total of 8 hybrid and 4 native varieties were evaluated; 10 of the varieties were of white maize and two were yellow (Table 1).In each experiment, researchers randomly collected three representative maize samples using hand scoops before filling the storage containers and stores at − 18 • C. After six months storage, three samples were collected from the top, middle and bottom of each container. Samples were manually cleaned and screened by trained CIMMYT staff using sieves with a 2.5 mm mesh. Approximately 1 kg of maize kernels, without apparent insect, fungi or rodent damage was further analyzed for grain quality parameters. As farmers in Mexico carefully select their grain for food and seed based on visual aspects such as kernel color and visible damage by insects or fungi (Latournerie Moreno et al., 2006;Tuxill et al., 2010), only maize kernel samples without apparent damage were analyzed (see supplementary Fig. B3 for grain description and pictures). As reported by Odjo et al. (2020) The first series of analyses were performed on whole grain. Starch, protein, and oil contents of grain were estimated by near-infrared spectroscopy using a FOSS Infratec™ 1241 Grain Analyser (Denmark) with the manufacturer's calibrations. Hundred kernel weight was determined by weighing in duplicate 100 randomly selected grains per sample (Palacios-Rojas, 2018;Serna-Saldivar, 2012).Flotation index is an indirect parameter of grain hardness and is used in Mexico as an indicator of nixtamalization (alkaline cooking) quality; samples with a high flotation index tend to have lower tortilla yields. This parameter was estimated by counting the number of floating grains after mild stirring to the right three times and to the left three times of 100 grains in a sodium nitrate solution with a specific density of 1.25 g mL − 1 . Color was measured using a portal Minolta CR-410 colorimeter (Konica Minolta, Japan) as an indicator of grain acceptance and preference. The L*a*b* color space of the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) was used for color evaluation. The L-scale represents lightness, from 0 (darkest) to 100 (lightest); the a-scale represents redness, with negative value for green and positive value for red; and the b-scale represents yellowness, with negative value for blue and positive value for yellow. Values obtained were used to calculate a total color difference (ΔE*), which represents the difference of color values between initial samples and samples obtained after storage. It was computed as per Wrolstad and Smith (2010) with the following equation ( 1):where s represents the value for the color parameter of the sample measured after storage, and I represents the value of the same color parameter for the sample collected at the beginning of the experiment.The second series of analyses was performed on maize flour obtained from collected samples without apparent damage, both initial samples and those taken after storage with a Twister Cyclone Mill (Retsch, Germany) using a 0.5 mm mesh. Bound phenolic compounds of grain, total ferulic acids and p-coumaric acid, were estimated for the maize flour as described by Muzhingi et al. (2017) after precipitation with an 80% ethanol solution, hydrolysis with a 2 mol L − 1 sodium hydroxide solution, extraction with a solution of ethyl acetate (1:1 v/v), separation and quantification using a gallic acid solution (100 μg mL − 1 ) as an internal standard, and an HPLC system composed of a Waters 2695 pump, a Waters 2996 PDA detector and the UV-visible detector set at a wavelength of 280 nm. The detection limit for both ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid was 0.01 μg mL − 1 , while the limit of quantification was 0.02 μg mL − 1 (Palacios-Rojas, 2018). Ether extract was determined using petroleum ether with a Soxtec 2050 system (FOSS, Denmark), as a measure of crude fat content. Fat acidity reflects biochemical changes during storage and its increase indicates hydrolysis of triglycerides as a result of poor storage conditions. Fat acidity was determined after a toluene extraction and titration with a 0.0178 mol L − 1 solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and was expressed in mg of KOH per 100 g of dry flour.Germination tests were performed using the rolled paper towel seed germination test of CIMMYT as per Warham et al. (1996). Fifty seeds were randomly selected and placed on the upper halves of moist filter or blotter paper towels (50 × 25 cm) and incubated in a seed incubator at 90% relative humidity, with alternating 12 h at 30 • C in light and 12 h at 20 • C in the dark, for 7 days based on the recommendation of the 1985 rules of the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). Germinated grains were visually checked every day and \"normal seedlings\" counted, indicating that these seeds have potential for development of plants when grown in good soil under optimum conditions. Germinated seeds and normal seedlings were expressed as a percentage.Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 21 as suggested by Field (2005). Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard errors and coefficient of variation (CV) of samples from the same experiment were used to summarize the data. The effect of storage technologies on grain and seed quality characteristics was initially studied for each experimental site, comparing the differences between the grain's initial characteristics and the characteristics after six months of storage under different technologies using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Initial samples of the grain before storage were included in the model as a \"storage technology\". Each storage technology was compared with the initial values using a two-side Dunnett test. In the case of the total color difference parameter, where there is no initial value, a Fisher protected t-test was used to compare samples from different storage technologies. A P-value of <0.05 was used to determine significant differences.Data from the same experiments already published by Odjo et al. (2020) were combined with data collected in the present study to analyze the relationship between storage conditions, grain damage and grain and seed quality parameters. Data considered includes: (1) environmental parameters at the experiment sites (elevation, monthly average minimum and maximum temperature and minimum and maximum relative humidity); (2) postharvest loss parameters (percentages of insect-damaged grain, fungi-damaged grain, total damaged grain, weight loss, numbers of live maize weevils Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and live large grain borers Prostephanus truncatus Horn (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), and (3) grain and seed quality parameters (percentages of germination and of normal seedlings, and data for ether extract, fat acidity, hundred kernel weight, flotation index, total ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid contents, and total color difference). The relationship between these parameters were analyzed through Spearman's correlation. Partial correlations were also computed to examine the relationships between grain characteristics, postharvest loss parameters, and grain and seed quality parameters, by controlling experiments (site and year) and the environmental parameters as conditions varied from site to site and from year to year.Post-storage seed germination varied from 2 to 100%, depending on the storage practice, while the percentage of normal seedlings varied between 0% (polypropylene bag with micronized lime in Peto 2018) and 94% (hermetic metal silo in Yanhuitlán 2017, Table 3). Overall, there was no significant difference in germination percentages before or after storage, at sites above 2000 masl (Texcoco, Yanhuitlán, Zacualtipán), except for Zacualtipán 2018, where seed germination decreased after storage in polypropylene bags. There were significant differences at sites below 500 masl, particularly with grain stored using non-hermetic technologies. Across sites below 500 masl and over the two years of the study, storage in non-hermetic containers led to a 56% decrease in seed germination (polypropylene bags with and without conditioning agents). In contrast, germination of seeds stored using hermetic technologies (metal silos or hermetic bags) showed an average decrease in germination of only 2.8%. For locations where the initial sample was not available, the percentage of seed germination for samples under hermetic storage was higher overall than that of samples stored using nonhermetic technologies (Table 3). Alternative hermetic technologies, including plastic bottles, were also effective in maintaining seed germination levels.The percentage of normal seedlings followed the same trend as for seed germination. Overall, there was no significant difference in normal seedlings rate between initial samples and samples stored using conventional hermetic technologies (hermetic metal silos and hermetic bags) or alternative hermetic technologies (silage plastic bags and plastic bottles). In contrast, there was a significant decrease in the percentage of normal seedlings from samples that had been stored using non-hermetic technologies, particularly for sites below 500 masl.Percentage of non-damaged grain at experimental sites (mean ± standard error; N = 3).The evaluated storage technologies had little impact on the starch, protein or oil contents of grain, compared with initial samples: the coefficients of variation of these parameters were less than 5% over periments (supplementary table A2). The coefficient of variation of pcoumaric acid and total ferulic acid was between 6.4% and 24.1% and 6.2% and 24.3% of the experiments, respectively (supplementary table A3). There were significant differences in those parameters for pre-and post-storage samples, for those parameters even if no clear trend appeared.Ether extract values were similar across years and sites, with coefficient of variation of between 3.8% and 10.4% (Table 4). There were significant increases in fat acidity between initial and stored samples, for grains stored using polypropylene bags, polypropylene bags withEffect of storage technologies on percentages of germination and normal seedlings, after six months of storage at different experimental sites (mean ± standard error).Effect of storage technologies on ether extracts (%) and fat acidity (mg of after six months of storage at different experimental sites (mean ± standard error). aluminum phosphide and polypropylene bags with micronized lime. For grain stored using hermetic technologies, there were cases where the level of fat acidity did not change and some where they increased. In places where the initial samples were not available, samples stored hermetically had lower fat acidity than those stored using non-hermetic technologies. As a general trend, hermetic storage technologies preserved maize fat acidity, while samples stored using non-hermetic storage technologies were more prone to fat oxidation.The hundred kernel weight varied between 16.8 g and 42.0 g for all samples with lower values for maize varieties from sites below 500 masl (Table 5). However, there was less variation among samples from the same experiment (coefficients of variation between 1.8% and 9.7%). The flotation index ranged from 4.5 to 75.3 and was significantly influenced by storage technology (Table 5). Overall, grain stored using hermetic technologies had lower flotation index values.Coefficients of variation for color parameters L*, a* and b* varied between 1.4 and 3.6%, 6.4 and 18.8% and 2.1 and 12.4% respectively (supplementary table A4). Significant increases in total color difference were observed after storage for polypropylene bags with standard lime and polypropylene bags with micronized lime. The total color difference was higher overall for sites below 500 masl than above 2000 masl. At all sites, grain color was less affected over time for samples stored using hermetic technologies (Table 6).The matrix of Spearman coefficient of correlation (ρ) showed significant but low correlations among environmental parameters, postharvest loss parameters, and grain and seed quality parameters (supplementary table A5). Among the highest values, the hundred kernel weight was negatively correlated with the average minimum and maximum temperatures (ρ = − 0.71, P < 0.001; ρ = − 0.59, P < 0.001, respectively) as well as grain temperature (ρ = − 0.66, P < 0.001) while positively correlated with site elevation (ρ = 0.67, p < 0.001). The percentage of total damaged-grain was negatively correlated with the percentage of normal seedlings, germination, fat acidity and flotation index (ρ = − 0.59, P < 0.001; ρ = − 0.54, P < 0.001; ρ = − 0.55, P < 0.001, ρ = − 0.58, P < 0.001, respectively).Partial correlations controlling experiments and environmental parameters, were significant and higher (Table 7). Grain moisture content was negatively correlated with the percentage of normal seedlings and positively correlated with fat acidity and flotation index, while grain temperature was negatively correlated with hundred kernel weight and flotation index. Postharvest loss parameters (percentages of fungi-or insect-damaged, weight loss, total damaged grain, and number of live S. zeamais and P. truncatus) were negatively correlated with seed quality parameters and positively correlated with fat acidity and flotation index (Table 7).This is the first study that compiles data on maize grain and seed quality loss in different Mexican maize agro-ecologies for storage practices. Odjo et al. (2020) demonstrated at the same sites that storing grain in non-hermetic technologies resulted in a high percentage of quantitative loss in lowland conditions, while damage was less significant in the highlands. Grain damage frequently affects grain quality, market grades, and prices (Hodges et al., 2011;Stathers et al., 2020), requiring farmers to winnow and clean before marketing or preparing food. This study assessed whether decreased grain and seed quality go beyond visible damage, analyzing samples of visually undamaged grain and seed, collected from different storage technologies.Data presented here varied among experiments due to varying conditions (elevation and other environmental factors, varieties used). Storing seed in non-hermetic containers substantially decreased its viability, particularly at sites below 500 masl. Similarly, in on-farm experiments in Tanzania, germination rates decreased by around 40% for seed stored for 30 weeks in polypropylene bags (Abass et al., 2018). In contrast, there was no significant reduction in germination for seeds stored using hermetic technologies or alternative hermetic technologies. The reduction in germination capacity is associated with poor storageEffect of storage technologies on hundred kernel weight (g) and flotation index after six months of storage at different experimental sites (mean ± standard error).conditions inside non-hermetic containers (interactions with the environment, oxygen availability, temperature and relative humidity). Harrington (1972) stated that grain moisture content and its relationship with relative humidity and ambient temperature are important factors for seed longevity. Seed stored in non-hermetic containers are exposed to variations in ambient relative humidity whereas relative humidity remains relatively constant under hermetic storage (Baoua et al., 2018). Even though the average moisture content of the seed before storage was below 13%, an increase in the equilibrium moisture content is probable with non-hermetic technologies, which may reduce seed viability (Bradford et al., 2018). Ambient temperature is also important, as seed viability diminishes in warm environments (Harrington, 1972). Another factor in the conservation of dry seed is oxygen availability, which can cause oxidative reactions, rancidity and loss of germination capacity (Bewley et al., 2013;Paraginski et al., 2014). Hermetic technologies preserve seed quality by reducing contact with the environment, maintaining a low equilibrium relative humidity, seed dryness, and limiting the availability of oxygen during storage (Afzal et al., 2017;Bradford et al., 2018;Tubbs et al., 2016).Regarding grain macronutrients composition, there was little variation or effect of storage technology on starch, protein, oil, or ether extract contents of grains before and after storage even for grain stored using non-hermetic technologies. Stathers et al. (2020) recently found no significant change during storage in macronutrient contents of uninfested grain, while carbohydrate, protein, and fat content losses were reported for grain infested with S. zeamais and P. truncatus. The current study analyzed grain samples without apparent damage, in line with farmers' preferences in grain or seed, which could explain why fewer differences in macronutrient composition were found. However, the large percentages of insect-damaged grain (up to almost 60% in lowland conditions) and fungi-damaged grain (up to almost 15%) reported by Odjo et al. (2020) for conventional storage technologies, could result in quality losses that are larger than those found in the samples without apparent damage.Even though no significant effect of storage technologies on macronutrients contents was recorded, significant differences were observed for total ferulic acids and acid p-coumaric contents, although without a clear trend. Previous studies have reported maize grain phenolic content as negatively correlated with weight loss (Arnason et al., 1993). A reduction of phenolic compounds after storage has been demonstrated for black rice (Lang et al., 2019;Norkaew et al., 2017) and sorghum (de Oliveira et al., 2017) and was associated with oxidative degradation, suggesting a possible reduction of phenolic contents during storage using hermetic technologies would be less significant. Recently NkhataEffect of storage technologies on total color difference between the initial samples and final samples, after six months of storage at different experimental sites (mean ± standard error).Partial correlation between grain quality parameters, grain characteristics and postharvest loss parameters (Degree of freedom = 78; significant correlation -P<0.05-in bold).  2021) reported an increase in phenolic contents during storage of biofortified grain in woven bags in comparison with hermetic PICS bags, suggesting an enzymatic release of bound phenolics previously esterified to cell wall components (Ziegler et al., 2018). Phenolic content in maize grain has been found to affect pasting properties, porridge quality and the end-use quality of nixtamalized dough for making tortillas (Del Pozo-Insfran et al., 2006;Herrera-Sotero et al., 2017;Salinas-Moreno et al., 2017). Therefore, further investigation on the effect of storage technologies on maize polyphenol and anthocyanin contents is required, particularly for products such as blue, red and pink maize that have higher polyphenol contents with associated health benefits and recently increased market interest (Blare et al., 2020;Nkhata et al., 2021). Fat acidity increased during storage, particularly in grain stored using non-hermetic technologies and at sites below 500 masl, which suggests hydrolysis of triglycerides. This has been demonstrated elsewhere for maize (Hernández al., 2009;Mestres et al., 2003Mestres et al., , 2009;;Paraginski et al., 2014) and for rice (Genkawa et al., 2008;Park et al., 2012) and is associated with postharvest management as well as storage time, storage temperature and fungal infection-the latter possibly providing enzymes that degrade fat and release fatty acids. Fat acidity is generally an indicator of poor storage and has been proposed as a quality parameter for grain commercialization norms in Mexico. This parameter is linked with fungi contamination, which may provide enzymes for fat degradation and the release of free fatty acids. A positive and significative correlation between fat acidity and postharvest loss parameters was showed in this study, suggesting that poor storage conditions were also associated with grain quality losses even in samples not showing fungal infections.The physical properties of grain are important for processing and they influence varietal preferences. While this study showed no clear effect of storage technologies on hundred kernel weight, an increase in flotation index after six months of storage was found, especially for grain stored using non-hermetic technologies. Flotation index is an indirect measure of grain hardness, used in Mexico to estimate the time required for nixtamalization. Grain with a high flotation index is less suited for conventional nixtamalization, with low yields of cooked grain (Billeb de Sinibaldi and Bressani, 2001; NMX-FF-034/1- SCFI-2002Norma Mexicana, 2002;Rooney and Suhendro, 2001). Samples collected from Peto in 2017 and 2018 showed respective 700% and 200% increases in flotation index, after storage in polypropylene bags with micronized lime, suggesting that the use of non-hermetic technologies can lead to a loss of density in grain endosperm during storage, through exposure to moisture or insect damage. High moisture content has been found to decrease the bulk density and increase the porosity of stored wheat, barley and legume grain (Al-Mahasneh and Rababah, 2007;Altuntas and Demirtola, 2007;Sologubik et al., 2013). Korunic et al. (1998) also reported a decrease in grain bulk density and flow properties due to the addition of diatomaceous earth to grain during storage and a commensurate increase in friction between stored kernels. After six months of storage in non-hermetic conditions, particularly in tropical areas, grain moisture content increased (Odjo et al., 2020), which, together with air uptake during storage, may explain the increase in the flotation index. Internal insect feeding and particularly high levels of insect damage in stored grain were also associated with high flotation index.Total color difference was also affected by storage technology, with significant changes recorded only for grain stored with inert dusts. These higher values of total color difference seem to be related to a decrease in a* and b* values (supplementary table A4). Changes in grain color during storage, which may lower the grain's value on markets, is associated with storage conditions (moisture content, temperature, and duration) (Mohammadi Shad and Atungulu, 2019;Shafiekhani et al., 2018) and polyphenol oxidase activity (Quinde et al., 2004;Salinas-Moreno et al., 2006). The fact that the only significant differences resulted from the use of lime and micronized lime as conditioning agents suggests that the discoloration reported may be associated with moisture uptake during storage in non-hermetic technologies, which may in turn facilitate biochemical reactions such as oxidation. However, discoloration of grain during storage is a complex process that involves many different mechanisms, especially for yellow and orange maize varieties, where carotenoids can degrade during storage with implication in both end-use and nutritional quality (Taleon et al., 2017).The correlation analyses highlighted a positive association between postharvest loss and flotation index and fat acidity of stored samples, and a negative association between postharvest loss and seed germination parameters. Grain and seed quality losses (seed germination, mycotoxin contamination, discoloration) of kernels infested by fungi and insects under storage with similar non-hermetic technologies have been documented in Kenya (Njoroge et al., 2014;Walker et al., 2018). The present study demonstrated that poor storage conditions are also detrimental for grain that may not be infested or infected or show apparent damage. Even though most macronutrients contents in uninfested grain remain stable during storage, moisture content and oxygen availability may promote biochemical reactions that reduce grain and seed quality. These reactions seem to be more important at sites below 500 masl, due to higher temperatures and relative humidity. Regardless of environmental/geographical conditions, hermetic storage limits such reactions and minimizes grain and seed quality losses during storage by cutting-off gas exchanges and maintaining the original grain moisture content. Non-hermetic technologies, including polypropylene bags with or without conditioning agents such as inert dusts, failed to achieve that. The conditioning agents may help protect against insects (Odjo et al., 2020), but tend to favor moisture uptake and quality loss. Generally, smallholders in Latin America discard visually damaged grain or use it to feed animals but, in cases of food insecurity, they may also mix damaged kernels with healthy maize for human consumption (Mendoza et al., 2017). In all cases, postharvest loss reduces smallholders' food security by decreasing the amount of food available and have nutritional and health consequences due to quality losses and increased exposure to mycotoxins. Given smallholders' relatively low awareness regarding these issues, it is critical to promote good grain handling and storage practices throughout the postharvest value chain in Mexico and to facilitate farmers' access to technologies that minimize losses of quantity and quality (Stathers et al., 2020).In conclusion, the current study showed that environmental conditions and storage technologies associated with postharvest loss can also reduce the quality of apparently undamaged kernels stored in the same conditions, increasing fat acidity and flotation index and reducing grain density and seed germination capacity. Farmers' conventional, nonhermetic storage technologies, including polypropylene bags with or without conditioning agents, resulted in a loss of as much of 95% of seed germination after six months of storage, particularly below 500 masl, as well as reduced grain quality based on parameters such as flotation index and fat acidity. In contrast, hermetic technologies, including recycled containers such as plastic bottles, maintained seed quality and minimized grain quality losses, regardless of storage conditions. This study provided additional evidence of the effectiveness of hermetic storage technologies in minimizing quantitative and qualitative losses in smallholder farming systems in Mexico. Additional studies may focus on how to promote these technologies in rural areas while identifying key aspects of the success of postharvest interventions.CIMMYT implemented this study as part of the projects (1) \"Cultivos para México/MasAgro Productor,\" (2) \"Proagro Productivo,\" (3) \"Milpa Sustentable en la Península de Yucatán,\" made possible by the generous support of SADER, Mexico; \"Fundación Haciendas del Mundo Maya\" and \"Fomento CitiBanamex.\"  ","tokenCount":"5151"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2131bea157955ef225c71531b91e1c33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/821db7ce-ef67-46f5-b806-ff495ae33cb8/retrieve","id":"-563067357"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d20ece08-5857-4e5f-8e7f-64372c0e786a","pagecount":"44","content":"The potato crop comes from the highlands of South America.The crop is currently the third food crop in the world, after wheat and rice.Potato produces more calories per unit of area and time than any other crop grown in cool climates.Potato is an important cash crop in Rwanda. The income generated from potato enables smallholder farmers to improve their living conditions. -Duration depends on soil type and moisture, seed age, planting depth and soil temperature. -Plant well sprouted tubers with 3 or more strong sprouts to get more stems and higher yields.-Duration depends on the variety.-Protection against diseases like late blight is very important at this stage.-Short stage coinciding with the flowering stage and the end of leaf growth.-Make sure proper hilling has been done and continue to protect against pests and diseases.-Tubers become bigger and leaves turn yellow and later die.-Chemical applications (fungicides and insecticides) must stop at 3 weeks before harvest.-No more crop growth.-Tuber skins harden. Soil should be deep, well drained and loose for proper development of tubers.Select a site where potato has not been grown for at least the last 2 seasons.Plan a 3-seasons rotation scheme, alternating potato with a season of beans/soybean/peas followed by a season of maize/wheat. Avoid planting maize before potato in fields with a history of infestation by nematodes or low soil fertility.Potatoes should not follow potatoes or other crops of the same family (eggplant, pepper, tomato, tobacco) as they may carry potato diseases.Theme 4: Land preparation Prepare soil early in the season, at least two weeks before planting, when the soil is still partially dry to prevent soil compaction.Prepare land until the ground becomes soft, free from clods, to a depth of at least 30 cm.Ploughing can be done using a hoe, motocultivator or animal-or tractor-drawn plough plough.In case of risk of erosion or poor drainage, ridging should be carried out.Theme 5: Application of manure, compost and mineral fertilizers Ideally, fertilizer rates should be based on soil characteristics and field history. This is called site-specific fertilizer management.Mineral fertilizers should be applied in two applications, at planting and at first weeding and hilling.In the absence of a site-specific fertilizer recommendation, apply 3 kg NPK 17-17-17 per are divided in two applications. In practical terms, apply 1 water or soda bottle cap of NPK 17-17-17 at planting per two seed tubers. Apply 1 more cap of NPK 17-17-17 at first weeding and hilling up per two plants.In addition to mineral fertilizer, apply up to 2 handfuls of well-decomposed manure or compost for each seed tuber at planting (equivalent to 200-300 kg of manure or compost per are).At planting, apply the manure or compost first, then add the fertilizers, and cover with 5-10 cm of soil. Then place the seed potato.After emergence, apply fertilizers in a hole at 10-15 cm of the plant base.Fertilization with high amounts of N depresses tuber growth and yield and should be avoided.If the soil is acidic (below pH 5.5), apply 25-50 kg of lime (travertine or dolomitic lime) per are during land preparation.Ø : 30 mm Ø : 40 mm Ø :Theme 6: Planting techniquesUse certified or good quality seed from known seed producers. Do not use small seeds from the market, they are full of diseases.Ensure the seed tubers are well sprouted with strong, green and short (1-2 cm) sprouts and avoid old tubers with long sprouts.Plant seed tubers of the same size category in one area.Planting can be done in furrows or holes. Planting on ridges can be done in fields with steep slope, high rainfall, and/or poor drainage.Prepare furrows or rows of holes at a spacing of 70-80 cm. But if your variety produces a lot of leaves and/or the slope is steep, go up to 90 cm.Within rows, use a plant spacing of 25 cm when seed tubers are small, 30 cm when seed tubers are medium sized, and 35 cm when they are large.On a sloping terrain, furrows or seed holes should run across the slope.After planting, tubers should be covered by enough soil (10-15 cm). Uncovered holes or furrows should always be avoided.Theme 7: Weeding and hillingWeeding reduces competition for light, nutrients and water, and prevents weeds from harboring pests and diseases.First weeding should be done right after plant emergence.Hilling is mounding earth around the stems of potato plants.Good hilling leads to a higher number of well-shaped tubers of good size, and protects the tubers from pests and diseases.2-3 hilling are required for potatoes planted on flat land, and at least 1 hilling for potatoes planted on ridges.Do the first hilling at first weeding after plant emergence, and the second hilling-up 2-3 weeks later. A third and last hilling may be done after another 2-3 weeks, especially when slope and rainfall are high.The height of the ridge after the first hilling should be about 15 cm, and about 30 cm after the second hilling.Irrigation is one of the best adaptation strategies to climate change.Potato needs between 500 and 800 mm of water per season to grow optimally.Potato water needs are most critical at tuber initiation.It is possible to grow potatoes during the dry season in Rwanda (May to August) if farmers invest in irrigation systems.Irrigation by gravity whenever possible is a reliable and cost-effective method.Water flowing through the field should be avoided when bacterial wilt is present to avoid spread.In areas with steep slope and high rainfall, planting an intercrop in a potato field can reduce soil erosion through increasing soil cover.In hot areas, intercropping prevents the soil from drying and keeps the soil at a lower temperature which is good for tuber development.Intercrops can also help to reduce pests and diseases by providing a barrier between potato plants or trapping insects.Intercropping with high nitrogen-fixing legumes such as cowpea improves soil fertility and is recommended on soils with low soil fertility and when low rates of nitrogen fertilizer are used.Disease 21 Theme 10: The disease triangleIt is important to protect potatoes against pests and diseases because they reduce tuber quality and yield (losses of 100% are possible).Diseases can break out when there is a favorable interaction between the disease causal agent (also called the pathogen), host plants and the environment (the DISEASE TRIANGLE).The development of a disease is stimulated when the pathogen is present, the host plant is vulnerable, and the environmental conditions favor the spread and development of the pathogen.Two factors are extremely important for fighting potato pests and diseases: use of high quality seeds, and crop rotation. -Spray a contact fungicide right after plant emergence when the plants are around 10 cm tall.-Spray a systemic fungicide 40-45 days after planting only if there is a lot of rain and a lot of late blight in the area.-For subsequent sprays, use contact fungicides at 2-weeks interval, except when disease symptoms are visible in the field. In that case, use a systemic fungicide. Once disease symptoms have disappeared, return to spraying with a contact fungicide. Systemic fungicides should not be used more than twice in a season because of high cost and harm to the environment. When using fungicides, always use the dosage that is recommended by the manufacturer. Contact fungicides (such as Mancozeb) should be applied at least 6 hours before it rains to avoid the fungicides to be washed away. Systemic fungicides (such as Ridomil) should be applied at least 3 hours before it rains. The leaves need to be dry before spraying (no dew on the leaves).Bacterial wilt causes partial to complete wilting of a plant even if there is enough water in the soil. When an infected tuber is cut in half, black or brown rings can be seen.The disease can spread via infected seed, water, roots, soil, farming tools, livestock and people.It also affects other crops from the same family such as chili, tomato, tobacco, and eggplant, as well as several weed species.There is no commercial chemical for controlling bacterial wilt.Plant clean seeds of less susceptible varieties in fields free from bacterial wilt.Rotate potato crops with other crops not belonging to the potato family, such as legumes and cereals.Uproot and destroy wilting plants together with soil around roots.Do not use compost with plant material from potato or crops from the same family.Clean and/or disinfect farm tools with fire or Jik before and after use.Soft rot, also known as blackleg, alters tuber tissue into liquid or soft rot and causes black lesions at the base of the stem.Infected tubers rot either in field or in storage and produce a bad smell.Manage this disease by applying the same control measures recommended for bacterial wilt (clean seeds, rotation, uprooting of diseased plants and disinfecting farm tools).","tokenCount":"1436"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"024679f4d00e9bc73279572a2b4c5e78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/32c4ce58-721a-4979-a7a5-9521222afc2d/content","id":"1360369793"},"keywords":["Ongom","P. O.","Fatokun","C.","Togola","A.","Dieng","I.","Salvo","S.","Gardunia","B.","Mohammed","S. B.","& Boukar","O. (2024). Genetic progress in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] stemming from breeding modernization efforts at the"],"sieverID":"66826145-c574-4d94-8654-98793f3bcf09","pagecount":"16","content":"Genetic gain has been proposed as a quantifiable key performance indicator that can be used to monitor breeding programs' effectiveness. The cowpea breeding program at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has developed and released improved varieties in 70 countries globally. To quantify the genetic changes to grain yield and related traits, we exploited IITA cowpea historical multienvironment trials (METs) advanced yield trial (AYT) data from 2010 to 2022. The genetic gain assessment targeted short duration (SD), medium duration (MD), and late duration (LD) breeding pipelines. A linear mixed model was used to calculate the best linear unbiased estimates (BLUE). Regressed BLUE of grain yield by year of genotype origin depicted realized genetic gain of 22.75 kg/ha/year (2.65%), 7.91 kg/ha/year (0.85%), and 22.82 kg/ha/year (2.51%) for SD, MD, and LD, respectively. No significant gain was realized in 100-seed weight (Hsdwt). We predicted, based on 2022 MET data, that recycling the best genotypes at AYT stage would result in grain yield gain of 37.28 kg/ha/year (SD), 28.00 kg/ha/year (MD), and 34.85 kg/ha/year (LD), and Hsdwt gain of 0.48 g/year (SD), 0.68 g/year (MD), and 0.55 g/year (LD). These results demonstrated a positive genetic gain trend for cowpea, indicating that a yield plateau has not yet been reached and that accelerated gain is expected with the recent integration of genomics in the breeding program. Advances in genomics include the development of the reference genome, genotyping platforms, quantitative trait loci mapping of key traits, and active implementation of molecular breeding.Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., Fabaceae (2n = 2× = 22)] is a crucial legume crop in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world and often a principal source of protein and minerals for low-income people in such regions (Abate et al., 2012;Boukar et al., 2019;Ehlers & Hall, 1997). Millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) depend on cowpea as a key food source and income. Consequently, the world's highest production and consumption of cowpea is in SSA, with the top producers being Nigeria, Niger, and Burkina Faso, which together account for about 60% of the global production (FAOSTAT, 2021). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the world production of cowpea in 2021 was estimated to be about 8.99 million metric tons from a harvested area of about 14.91 million ha (FAOSTAT, 2021). In most parts of the world, including Western Africa, the crop is predominantly grown by small-scale farmers under dryland conditions due to its inherent drought tolerance and atmospheric nitrogen-fixing ability that enhances soil fertility (Boukar et al., 2019;Horn & Shimelis, 2020;B. B. Singh, 2014;B. B. Singh et al., 1997). Cowpea is an excellent component of the traditional mixed cropping systems in most cowpea growing areas (Horn & Shimelis, 2020). Cowpea is consumed in different forms including grains, green pods, and leaves that are eaten as leafy vegetable, whereas the vines/haulms are used as animal feed (Boukar et al., 2019;Kebede & Bekeko, 2020;B. B. Singh et al., 2003). Among legumes, cowpea stands out as a potential food and nutritional security crop (da Silva et al., 2018), and this realization has, in recent times, drawn significant research attention to this crop that has been deemed as \"the African orphan crop\" (Murdock et al., 2013). Despite its potential, cowpea productivity has been limited by several constraints, both biotic and abiotic, particularly diseases, insect pests, parasitic weeds, drought and heat stresses, and soil nutrient deficiencies (Boukar et al., 2019;C. A. Fatokun et al., 2002;Horn & Shimelis, 2020;Nkomo et al., 2021). Yields on SSA farmers' fields are still low, varying from 100 to 599 kg/ha compared to potential yields of 1500-3000 kg/ha (Boukar et al., 2018;Horn & Shimelis, 2020). At the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), there have been tremendous efforts to enhance cowpea productivity through the development of improved lines. These efforts have resulted in releases of 80 IITA supported improved cowpea varieties between 1970 and 2018 in SSA (Maria Figueira Gomes et al., 2019). These varieties are characterized by drought and heat tolerance (Agbicodo et al., 2009;C. A. Fatokun et al., 2012;Hall, 2004;Muchero et al., 2013), striga resistance (Boukar et al., 2018;Omoigui et al., 2010;Omoigui, Kamara, et al., 2017;B. B. Singh et al., 2006;B. B. Singh & Emechebe, 1990), insect resistance (Boukar et al., 2020;Myers et al., 1996;Omoigui, Ekeuro, et al., 2017;Ongom et al., 2022;S. R. Singh, 1977;Togola et al., 2020), high protein and mineral contents (Boukar et al., 2011), high yield potential, and early to medium maturity (Boukar et al., 2019;Kamara et al., 2012;Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Oyebode, et al., 2021;B. B. Singh, 2007;B. B. Singh & Ntare, 1985). However, with the impending climate change dynamics and population surge, the genetic gain realized from breeding efforts must be accelerated to meet the ever-increasing global food demands.Genetic gain has been defined as the increase in performance expected or realized annually through artificial selection (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020;Rutkoski, 2019aRutkoski, , 2019b;;Xu et al., 2017). According to Eberhart (1964), when a genetic trend is linear, the rate of genetic gain per year that is realized can be estimated by fitting the least squares regression line of the average breeding value of a trait on the year of genotype creation. Realized genetic gain uses either historical phenotypic data obtained over the years from the evaluation of breeding lines at a specific testing stage as the breeding program evolves or from a set of released varieties evaluated all together in an experiment (era trials). While offering precise estimates of genetic gain, era trials pose logistical challenges (extra costs) and lack real-time monitoring for timely strategy adjustments (Menkir et al., 2022;Prasanna et al., 2022).The realized gain per year is obtained by regressing the phenotypic data to the year of creation of the germplasm used (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020;Mackay et al., 2011;Rutkoski, 2019a). Estimating the rates of genetic gain using historical data allows for periodic monitoring of the program and has been successfully implemented across various crop breeding programs (Khanna et al., 2022;Menkir et al., 2022;Prasanna et al., 2022;Seck et al., 2023). In contrast, expected genetic gain (also referred to as predicted genetic gain) uses the parameters from breeders' equation (heritability, selection intensity, and genetic variance) computed for a single season to estimate the response to selection and infer the rate of genetic gain (Falconer & Mackay, 1996;Rutkoski, 2019b;Walsh & Lynch, 2018). Given its relevance in breeding, regular estimation of the rate of genetic gain has been proposed to monitor the effectiveness of breeding programs (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020;Rutkoski, 2019a). Genetic gain estimation has been conducted in several crops (Ayenew et al., 2021;Bezaweletaw et al., 2006;Karmakar & Bhatnagar, 1996;Tadesse et al., 2018;Yadav et al., 2021).Genetic gain estimation for cowpea cultivars developed in the Sudan Savannas of Nigeria was last conducted in 2011 using data from 1974 to 2004 (Kamara et al., 2011). Since then, there have been tremendous efforts in modernizing breeding programs to accelerate the rate of genetic gain in cowpea, yet the impact has not been assessed. For instance, the cowpea breeding program at IITA has been tapping from recent genomic advances in cowpea (Boukar et al., 2018;Muñoz-Amatriaín et al., 2017) to develop various molecular breeding platforms. Some of these included developing and deploying markers for parental fingerprinting and verifying true hybridity in F 1 populations, thus providing quality control and assurance of the program (Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Salvo, et al., 2021). Molecular markers have also been deployed to understand genetic diversity and structure in germplasm being utilized in the breeding program (C. Fatokun et al., 2018;Gbedevi et al., 2021;Muñoz-Amatriaín et al., 2021). Genome mapping of key traits has been conducted (Agbicodo et al., 2010;Huynh et al., 2015;Kusi et al., 2018;Ongom et al., 2022), and markers associated with some of these traits, especially aphids and bacterial blight resistances, were deployed in forward breeding. In addition to developing genomic tools, the program adjusted the breeding scheme, moving from traditional pedigree to single seed descent (SSD) for rapid generation advancement, enabling at least three generations per year coupled with molecular screening for seed purity and quality. Concurrently, efforts were made toward improving field uniformity and deploying powerful experimental designs to increase the accuracy of phenotypic data. These practices are key elements of genetic gain; hence, positive changes in these practices are expected to improve the genetic progress of a breeding program over time (Gudi et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2017). The breeding program• Historical cowpea yield trial data were exploited to estimate genetic gain realized in the past 12-15 years. • Realized genetic gain estimates for grain yield depicted positive progress in three key cowpea breeding pipelines. • Predicted gain estimates portrayed a future increase in the rate of genetic gain in cowpea. • Accelerated genetic improvement is expected with the recent integration of genomics into the breeding program.at IITA has since deployed some of these practices across three breeding pipelines: short duration (SD), medium duration (MD), and late duration (LD). Given the modernization efforts the program introduced in the past 5 years, assessing genetic progress made due to these changes is paramount. The objective of this study was to elucidate the genetic gain made in the cowpea breeding program across three pipelines, utilizing historical yearly data of genetic materials evaluated in advanced yield trials (AYTs).The genetic materials used in the study were inbred genotypes developed for three breeding pipelines: SD, MD, and LD. These comprised 268, 290, and 251 genotypes in the SD, MD, and LD pipelines, respectively (Table 1). The year of origin of the genotypes (i.e., the year the genotypes became fixed) covered the period from 2006 to 2019 for the SD, 2004 to 2019 for MD, and 2006 to 2018 for LD pipelines. Every year starting from 2010 to 2022, fixed genotypes were tested at AYT, and it is the historical data from the evaluations of these genotypes that were used in the current study to estimate genetic gain.Seventeen environments were used to evaluate SD cowpea genotypes. There were 13 and seven environments for MD and LD pipelines, respectively. The geographical information for all the locations has been summarized in and rainforest-savanna transition zone. Different numbers of lines were evaluated each year, ranging from 10 to 28 lines for SD, 20 to 50 for MD, and 10 to 39 for LD pipelines. All trials were established using an alpha lattice design with three replications. Each plot had four rows, planted at a spacing of 0.75 m between rows and 0.2 m within the row. Grain yield and 100seed weight (Hsdwt) were recorded from the two central rows of each plot after harvest and threshing.Realized genetic gain was estimated following the method described by Mackay et al. (2011) using the historical data collected from the IITA cowpea breeding program's multienvironment trials (METs) covering three distinct cowpea breeding pipelines, SD, MD, and LD. We used \"historical information method\" for the estimation of realized genetic gain as opposed to \"era trial method\" to exploit the existing historical data in the breeding program (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020). Individual-environment analyses were first conducted for each trait to estimate genetic variance components and singleenvironment broad-sense heritability (H 2 se ), as a measure of repeatability. A linear mixed model with random genotypes was used (Cullis et al., 2006):where \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 denotes the observed value of trait for the ith genotype in the kth block within the jth replicate, \uD835\uDC54 \uD835\uDC56 is the random effect of the ith genotype, \uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC57 is the effect of the jth replication, \uD835\uDC4F(\uD835\uDC5F) \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the effect of kth incomplete block nested within the jth replication, and \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the random residual effect associated with the observation of the ith genotype in the kth incomplete block within the jth replicate, ∼ \uD835\uDC41(0, \uD835\uDF0E 2 \uD835\uDC52 ). We computed H 2 se , the single-environment broad-sense heritability (repeatability), using the formula described in Cullis et al. (2006):where \uD835\uDC49 BLUP Δ is the average standard error of the best linear unbiased predictions (BLUP) and \uD835\uDF0E 2 \uD835\uDC54 is the genotypic variance. The estimate of \uD835\uDC3B 2 se provided a measure of experimental repeatability and/or data quality.Then we adopted a two-stage approach following Smith et al. (2001) to estimate the performances of the genotypes across environments. In the first stage, we used the same linear mixed model (Equation 1) but considered genotype a fixed effect to estimate the BLUE (best linear unbiased estimates) and their standard errors for each genotype. In the second stage, we fit the model below (Mackay et al., 2011):where \uD835\uDC32 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the vector of BLUE of the ith genotype in year j at site k derived from the linear mixed models (Equation 1), \uD835\uDF07 is the overall mean, \uD835\uDC3A \uD835\uDC56 is the effect of the ith genotype, \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC57 is the effect of the jth year, GY \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 is the interaction of genotype i in year j, \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the effect of location k within year j, and \uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the residual, due to the combined effects of within-trial error and genotype × location within-year interaction. We considered genotype as a fixed effect and used a weighted-combined mixed model that included the genotype BLUE and their corresponding weights. These weights were calculated as the inverse of the squared standard errors of the BLUE of the genotypes from the initial stage analysis (Smith et al., 2001). We also included year as a fixed effect to separate the effects of agronomic practices or climate changes from genetic factors (Mackay et al., 2011). This enabled us to calculate adjusted genotype means across environments. Using a mixed model with random effects for genotype and year could lead to inaccurate results because of expected and potentially nonlinear trends over time for both genotype and year effects (Mackay et al., 2011). The dispersion of genotypes based on BLUE was visualized using violin plots generated in ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016). Finally, we studied trends (realized genetic gain) using weighted regression analysis of the estimated genotypes adjusted means (BLUE) on year of origin. The form of the linear regression model used is as shown:where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56 is the ith genotype adjusted mean (BLUE) of each trait, \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56 is the year of origin for genotype, \uD835\uDEFD 0 is the regression intercept, and \uD835\uDEFD 1 is the slope of the regression, which is equivalent to the absolute rate of realized genetic gain per year. The weights were the inverse of the squared standard errors of the adjusted means of the genotypes. Percentage change in realized genetic gain (%ΔRG) for each pipeline was then calculated as the ratio of the regression's slope (\uD835\uDEFD 1 ) to the yintercept of the regression (\uD835\uDEFD 0 ) plus the slope multiplied by the first year of origin (\uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56 ) as shown:Predicted genetic gain (∆G) was estimated based on the MET data for year 2022 of genetic materials evaluated in AYT, the stage where recycling usually occurs. Inflated estimates of genetic variance occur when variance components are estimated from single-environment analysis because of the confounding effect of genotype-by-environment interaction effect (Yan, 2014). Therefore, a combined-environment analysis was conducted for each trait to calculate unbiased heritability estimates. The mixed model that was used for variance component estimates and MET broad-sense heritability (H 2 met ) is given as follows:where \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC59 is the observed phenotypic value of trait for the ith genotype in the lth location and jth replication, \uD835\uDF07 is the overall mean, \uD835\uDC54 \uD835\uDC56 is the random effect of the ith genotypes, \uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC59 is the random effect of lth location, \uD835\uDC5F(\uD835\uDC52) \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC59 is the effect of jth replication nested within lth location, \uD835\uDC4F(\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5F) \uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 is the effect of kth block nested within jth replication and lth location, \uD835\uDC54\uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC59 is the random effect of genotype-by-location interaction, and \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC59 is the residual variance. The H 2 met used in the predicted genetic gain computation was estimated based on the following expressions (Yan, 2014):where \uD835\uDF0E 2 \uD835\uDC54 and \uD835\uDF0E 2 \uD835\uDF00 are the genotype and error variance components, respectively, \uD835\uDF0E 2 ge is the variance component for genotype-by-location interaction, and \uD835\uDC59 and \uD835\uDC5F are the number of locations and replications, respectively. The predicted genetic gain (∆G) was then calculated using the Breeder's equation:where \uD835\uDC56 is the selection intensity estimated as the mean of the deviations from the population mean, measured in units of the phenotypic standard deviation of the population (Mackay, 2020), \uD835\uDF0E \uD835\uDC54 is the genetic variance, \uD835\uDC5F is the accuracy (the square root of the H 2 met ), and \uD835\uDC3F is the recycling time, which was 4 years from hybridization to AYT. The same traits as for the realized genetic gain were used for the calculation. All the genetic analyses were conducted on the historical cowpea data in R software (R Core Team, 2023), using ASReml package (The VSNi Team, 2023).BLUE of individual environments were used to examine genotype performance in each testing year, and, therefore, yearly dispersion reflected the effect of environments on Similarly, the distribution of genotype performance using the BLUE for Hsdwt in each year of testing has been presented in Figure 2. The SD pipeline had relatively low Hsdwt values in 2019 and 2018, with ranges of 6-22 g and 7-23 g, respectively, each having a mean of 15 g. However, Hsdwt was relatively high in 2021 (range: 6-24 g, mean: 17 g) and 2020 (range: 6-27 g, mean: 16 g). In the MD pipeline, the year 2017 had the lowest Hsdwt, with the values varying from 12 to 23 g and a mean of 15 g, while the year 2019 registered the highest value, with a range of 11-25 g and a mean of 17 g. On the other hand, the LD pipeline had low performance in 2020, with Hsdwt ranging from 12 to 19 g and a mean of 15 g, while the highest performance in this pipeline was registered in 2019, with values varying from 13 to 26 g, and a mean of 19 g. Overall, when the means of test years were compared, the numerical differences ranged from 14.7 to 16.6 g for the SD pipeline, 15.2 to 17.4 g for the MD pipeline, and 15.4 to 17.8 g for the LD pipeline (Figure 2).In addition, we examined heritability for each test environment to ascertain the repeatability of results. The range of heritability values for environments in each year of testing has been presented in Table 3. Low to high single environment heritability estimates were obtained for grain yield and Hsdwt. In the SD pipeline, environments with heritability estimates below 20% were obtained in 2013 and 2021 for grain yield and 2016 for Hsdwt. Similarly, the MD pipeline recorded heritability estimates of less than 20% in 2011, 2016, and 2022 for grain yield and in 2016 and 2017 for Hsdwt (Table 3). The LD pipeline, on the other hand, depicted heritability for grain yield to be above 20% in all years, while it was only in 2019 where Hsdwt scored below the stated threshold (Table 3). Based on these results, we excluded 18%, 30%, and 14% of F I G U R E 2 Distribution of 100-seed weight by year of genotype testing. Values printed on top of each violin plot are summary statistics presented in sequence, starting with the mean, followed by the maximum and minimum. The values plotted are best linear unbiased estimates (BLUE) from individual locations in a particular year; hence, the range within a year indicates location differences. The panels labeled LD, MD, and SD refer to late duration, medium duration, and short duration breeding pipelines, respectively. The means are also represented by the gray point inside the violin plots. environments in the SD, MD, and LD pipelines, respectively, from the genetic gain estimation as part of data quality control, given that these environments had revealed low repeatability of results.Since each year had independent trials with a unique set of genetic materials in each of the three breeding pipelines, we examined connectivity across trials before the estimates of genetic gain. The results of trial connectivity are presented in Table 4. In the SD pipeline, 67 trials were conducted across 17 environments. In this pipeline, 268 entries were involved; out of these, 260 were test entries, while 8 were common checks across trials.The MD pipeline consisted of 53 trials conducted across 13 environments. In this pipeline, 290 entries were involved; out of these, 281 were test entries, while 9 were checks. For the LD pipeline, 35 trials were conducted across seven environments. A total of 251 entries were evaluated, 239 being the test entries, while 12 were check genotypes. For each of the three pipelines, the number of entries varied yearly, and connectivity was provided by having at least one common check in all the years of testing, except between the year 2022 and the years 2010-2015 for the SD pipeline.Realized genetic gain was conducted for the three breeding pipelines. Regression analysis detected a significant positive association between grain yield and year of origin in all three pipelines (Figure 3). The slopes of grain yield versus year of origin were significantly greater than zero. Grain yield has increased linearly across the three breeding pipelines since the year when the first sets of cowpea lines were developed, in 2006 for the SD and LD pipelines and 2004 for the MD. The absolute realized genetic gain for grain yield in the SD pipeline was 22.75 kg/ha/year, which translates to a rate of 2.65% (Figure 3). The MD pipeline registered the realized genetic gain in yield of 7.91 kg/ha/year, equivalent to 0.85% gain per year (Figure 3), while the LD had a gain in yield of 22.82 kg/ha/year, translating to 2.51% (Figure 3). The regression between Hsdwt and year of origin was not statistically significant for all three breeding pipelines, indicating that no gain was observed.MET data for the year 2022 was used to compute predicted genetic gain by leveraging genetic variance and heritability estimates in the Breeder's equation (Table 5). Genetic Note: N is the number of environments in each year, Hsdwt refers to 100-seed weight (g), H 2 se is the single-environment broad-sense heritability presented as a range of values for the environments in each year of testing, and the symbol \"-\"indicates the absence of data record.Regressions of grain yield and 100-seed weight against year of origin for the short, medium, and late-duration cowpea breeding pipelines. variances were high for all three pipelines, suggesting sufficient genetic diversity to warrant effective selection in future populations derived from these genotypes. Consequently, heritability estimates were high for grain yield and Hsdwt in all three breeding pipelines. The heritability estimates ranged from 0.55 for grain yield in SD to 0.86 for LD pipelines. For Hsdwt, heritability estimates varied from 0.94 in SD to 0.97 in LD. Predicted genetic gain reflecting the progress expected from recycling the best parents at the AYT stage in the year 2022 was different for each breeding pipeline. For instance, the predicted genetic gain in grain yield was 37.28 kg/ha per year for SD, 28.0 kg/ha for MD, and 34.85 kg/ha for LD pipelines (Table 5). In the case of Hsdwt, the predicted genetic gain was 0.48 g/year in the SD pipeline, 0.65 g/year in MD, and 0.55 g/year in LD (Table 5).To develop crop varieties that meet the growing demand for food and feed, in addition to various industrial uses, breeders are confronted with the need to continuously increase genetic gain at even higher rates while they close the gaps that remain between the yield potential in breeders' trials and the actual yield in farmers' fields (Xu et al., 2017). It is estimated that breeding programs in the developing world will need to deliver elevated rates of genetic gain to grapple with the 21 stcentury challenges of more than 50% greater demands for food products, climate change, and natural resource limitations (Genetic Gains Working Group, 2016). Without a systematic assessment, it is difficult to gauge genetic progress in a breeding program to be able to activate changes that can enhance a positive trend. Genetic progress measured through changes in trait performance over time is important in determining the effectiveness of breeding programs (Kumar et al., 2021). This is because breeding programs often generate new test genotypes yearly, motivated by the assumption that the new genotypes will surpass the older ones based on improved performance and the inclusion of desirable features that support farmer productivity and risk mitigation.Since the inception of a cowpea breeding program at IITA in 1970, there has been considerable progress ranging from assembly and characterization of over 15,000 germplasm, development of breeding lines, and release of varieties with improved agronomic traits and farmer preferred attributes (Boukar et al., 2011(Boukar et al., , 2019;;C. A. Fatokun et al., 2012;Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Oyebode, et al., 2021;S. R. Singh et al., 1989;B. B. Singh et al., 1997;Togola et al., 2020). The varieties developed by IITA have been released globally in more than 70 countries, and these have continued to make significant contributions to the food needs of millions of communities, especially in the tropics and subtropical regions where cowpea is considered a major food security and nutritional crop.The genetic gain made in the cowpea breeding program was assessed in three key breeding pipelines: SD from 2006 to 2019, MD from 2004 to 2019, and LD from 2006 to 2018, using historical AYT MET data from 2010 to 2022. In this approach to realized genetic gain estimation, not all the genotypes were evaluated together in an experiment as is commonly done for era trials (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020), rather, historical phenotypic data from time-representative samples of genotypes in AYT were evaluated across many years as the program progresses. The fact that each year of evaluation had new sets of genotypes introduces the challenge of connectivity among time-window entries, which could bias the estimate of realized genetic gain (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020). According to Rutkoski (2019a), the estimates of realized genetic gain require good connectivity between years, and the use of long-term checks can help increase connectivity. In the present study, connectivity was resolved using common checks included in the trials. For all three breeding pipelines, at least one check variety was common across years, except for that between 2022 and the years 2010-2015. Model comparisons revealed that in the event of poor connectivity, the use of pedigree or marker to estimate the breeding values would be recommended, and in that case, data would be connected by genetic relationships that exist in the breeding materials (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020;Garrick, 2010;Seck et al., 2023).Genetic gain assessment of grain yield in the present study revealed that efforts have been successful in increasing yield in the three key cowpea breeding pipelines. The realized genetic gain of 22.75 kg/ha/year (2.65%), 7.91 kg/ha/year (0.85%), and 22.82 kg/ha/year (2.51%) for SD, MD, and LD breeding pipelines demonstrates the success of our breeding strategy implemented during the specified time spans in each pipeline. The results indicate that more progress was achieved in the SD and LD breeding pipelines than in the MD pipeline. An assessment of genetic gain in cowpea was last conducted in 2011 following the era trial approach, in which 15 determinate and 16 semi-determinate breeding lines from 1997 to 2004 were evaluated together for 2 years in a single location (Kamara et al., 2011). The genetic gain assessment was not pipeline-specific; however, the authors reported an annual gain of 2.93% and 4.4% in the yield of determinate and semi-determinate cowpea varieties, respectively (Kamara et al., 2011). The observed difference is not surprising, given that the measured rate of genetic gain highly depends on the productivity of the test environments in which that gain is estimated (Boehm et al., 2019;Rincker et al., 2014). The present study used historical data accumulated from 17 test environments across multiple agroecologies (Table 2), which depicts a representation of genetic gain realized in the West and Central African regions. In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), the genetic gain for black-grained varieties developed by the Brazilian Agricultural Research Enterprise (EMBRAPA) breeding program was estimated at an annual rate of 1.23%, covering a period of 16 years. In soybean, an estimate of genetic gain for a period of 80 years depicted an average annual seed yield gain of 0.88% (17.6 kg/ha/year), 0.68% (13.5 kg/ha/year), and 0.52% (10.3 kg/ha/year) for three respective maturity groups (Boehm et al., 2019). The CIM-MYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) maize breeding program reported a genetic gain of 3.39% for grain yield under managed waterlogging stress and 1% under optimal conditions (Prasanna et al., 2022). The current genetic gain estimates for cowpea show significant progress compared to other legumes, indicating that a yield plateau has not yet been reached. This gain resulted in part from breeding modernization efforts adopted in the past years. These included the adoption of SSD for rapid generation advancement, which helped to reduce the parent recycling period from 6 to 4 years, the use of molecular markers for parental fingerprint and hybridity authentication as part of quality control (Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Salvo, et al., 2021), and the adoption of mechanization including mechanized trial planting and threshing. The program also adopted digital data capture using tablets and data management using breeding management system, coupled with the application of more efficient experimental designs and robust statistical analysis including the use of mixed linear models that allows selection based on BLUP.To gauge the breeding program's projected progress, we conducted the predicted genetic gain based on the 2022 AYT data from multiple locations. Predicted genetic gain, unlike realized genetic gain, utilizes the components of the Breeders' equation calculated for a single season to estimate the response to selection and infer the rate of genetic gain (Burrows, 1972;Falconer & Mackay, 1996;Walsh & Lynch, 2018). This estimate is dependent on measurements of genetic variance, heritability, and length of the breeding cycle. Our study revealed moderate to high genetic variance, reflected in the heritability estimates ranging from 55% to 86% for grain yield and 94% to 97% for Hsdwt. Similar ranges of heritability have been reported for cowpea grain yield and Hsdwt (Nwosu et al., 2013;Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Oyebode, et al., 2021;Owusu et al., 2021). Predicted gain in yield of 37.28, 28.0, and 34.85 kg/ha/year and gain in Hsdwt of 0.48, 0.65, and 0.55 g/year for SD, MD, and LD pipelines, respectively, suggested that parental lines recycled at this stage of the breeding program across SD, MD, and LD genotypes had sufficient genetic variance; hence, effective selection in the derivative populations is possible. It is worth noting that the predicted genetic gain method only indicates the direction in which the program is moving rather than giving an accurate estimate of genetic gain (Covarrubias-Pazaran, 2020). Continuous selection for key traits in a breeding program can compromise genetic diversity and may limit improvement. Breeders are therefore challenged to strike a balance, that is, increasing genetic gain while maintaining sufficient genetic diversity. Predicted genetic gain is useful in assessing residual genetic diversity in the population to allow effective selection. In the present case, the results demonstrated positive progress for both yield and Hsdwt.Genetic gain can be accelerated by reducing the breeding cycle and the recycling of parents having high breeding values in the breeding program. It has been shown that molecular integration into breeding programs is the key to achieving enhanced genetic gain (Biswas et al., 2023). In recent years, cowpea has seen significant advances in genomics, which is projected to have a positive impact on the rate of genetic gain. The latest advances include the development of the cowpea reference genome based on IITA variety IT97K-499-35 (Lonardi et al., 2019). Six additional cowpea genotypes have recently been assembled, together with the IT97K-499-35 The Plant Genome genome, forming the pan-genome of cowpea (Liang et al., 2022). Several genotyping platforms have also been developed, including the Illumina Cowpea iSelect Consortium Array, which has 51,128 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (Muñoz-Amatriaín et al., 2017), Illumina Golden-Gate Assay with 1536 SNPs (Muchero, Diop, et al., 2009), DArTseq that combines diversity array technology with next generation sequencing, and the mid-density genotyping panel having 2602 DArTag SNPs (Ongom et al., 2024). In addition, low-density genotyping panels have been developed based on KASP (kompetitive allele-specific polymerase chain reaction) technology. More genomic resources and tools utilized by the cowpea breeding program have been extensively reviewed (Abdoul et al., 2023;Boukar et al., 2016Boukar et al., , 2018)). These resources are being exploited for quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping of key traits such as aphid resistance (Huynh et al., 2015;Kusi et al., 2018;Ongom et al., 2022), bacterial blight resistance (Agbicodo et al., 2010), heat tolerance (Lucas et al., 2013), drought tolerance (Muchero, Ehlers, et al., 2009), and striga resistance among others (Abdoul et al., 2023;Boukar et al., 2016). Among these QTL, aphid and bacterial blight resistance markers have been deployed in our program for forward breeding while striga, heat, drought, flower thrips, and seed size markers are being validated for utilization in marker-assisted selection. Our breeding program also routinely deploys the low-density KASP panel for quality control and assurance, especially for genetic purity, parental relatedness, and F 1 hybridity assessments (Ongom, Fatokun, Togola, Salvo, et al., 2021). The genomic resources have also been used in the program to assess genetic diversity and population structure (Fatokun et al., 2018;Gbedevi et al., 2021;Ongom et al., 2024) and are also being used in the implementation of genomic selection in cowpea. These developments are expected to improve breeding efficiency and accelerate the rate of genetic gain in cowpea.For a 12-to 15-year period, that is, from 2006 to 2019, 2004 to 2019, and 2006 to 2018, when the three IITA cowpea breeding pipelines were evaluated, positive progress was made for realized genetic gains of grain yield, which was estimated at 2.65%, 0.85%, and 2.51%, respectively. However, no significant changes were detected for Hsdwt. The progress observed in grain yield resulted from past efforts in assembling many cowpea germplasms with sufficient genetic diversity, followed by effective selection methods. This was further reinforced by breeding modernization efforts that were adopted by the breeding program, which included improving field uniformity, using robust experimental designs like row-column, use of mixed linear models in the analysis of trials to estimate BLUP, use of markers for quality control and assurance, and rapid generation advancement through SSD.Considering future breeding direction, predicted genetic gain in yield of 3.0% (SD), 2.2% (MD), and 4.4% (LD), and in Hsdwt of 3.0% (SD), 4.3% (MD), and 3.4% (LD) revealed that the cowpea breeding program at IITA is heading in the right direction. The predicted gain demonstrated that parents recycled at AYT from 2022 trials had sufficient genetic variation to warrant effective selection in the subsequent populations derived from these selected parents. Recent efforts have also initiated marker discovery and deployment including forward breeding for key traits, marker assisted backcrossing program, and genomic selection for complex traits, and these are expected to boost future rate of genetic gain in cowpea. Overall, the positive trend in cowpea yield improvement, coupled with the recent integration of genomics, suggests that there is a high chance to continue increasing the yield of cowpea, thereby generating hopes to meet the future food need. ","tokenCount":"5824"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9890d893e58fccd8bab3bcee40ca94d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e39f9f7f-259f-441f-97c8-a1b1c22531c2/retrieve","id":"-1157921000"},"keywords":["LPS, land preparation services","MMP, Malabo Montpellier Panel","MSS, maize shelling services","MWK, Malawi Kwacha","NAIP, National Agricultural Investment Plan","NGO, nongovernmental organizations","SSA, sub-Saharan Africa","STATA, Statistical Software for Data Science","TRS, transportation services","WTP, willingness to pay"],"sieverID":"625fa71f-e4e2-408d-b7cf-182fd016d706","pagecount":"29","content":"One of the main barriers to adopting smallholder agricultural mechanization in developing countries is the mismatch between the economies of scale of machines and farm size. Private sector-led mechanization services hold a promise to address this challenge, but there is a lack of evidence on demand for smallholder mechanization services. This study estimates the farmers' willingness to pay for mechanization services using the double-bounded contingent valuation method and data from 1512 households. Results show that, on average, farmers are willing to pay 11%, 33%, and 5% more than prevailing market rates for land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation services, respectively. The amounts farmers are willing to pay for the mechanization services vary by sex, age group, size of cultivated land, the value of farmer assets, market access, and agroecology. Men are willing to pay 26%, 25%, and 11% more than women for land preparation, maizecomplementary advantages such as labor savings, reduced drudgery, convenience, increased speed and timeliness of operations, improved ability to manage weather-related risks, and reduced loss of grain during harvesting (Belton et al., 2021). Governments in SSA, such as in Malawi, where hoe culture is prevalent, recognize the need to stop the use of hand hoes which are rudiment, inefficient, and burdensome (FAO-AUC, 2018). Besides, agricultural mechanization can help increase youth engagement in agricultural production, processing, and provision of services to sustainably transform agriculture and reduce youth unemployment (Daum & Birner, 2020).However, there are several challenges in the use of animals and tractors for agricultural power: (a) the decline in the number of draught animals due to diseases and recurring droughts and the high costs of possession and maintenance of the animals; (b) the high costs of possession and running of tractors; and (c) inadequate supply of implements and spare parts (Sims & Kienzle, 2016). Besides, government-run tractor hire service schemes failed due to poor management, lack of financial support, poor infrastructure, lack of incentives for tractor operators to work extended hours, and inefficient utilization of tractors (Baudron et al., 2015;Daum & Birner, 2020;Diao et al., 2014;Sims & Kenzle, 2006).A recent development in agricultural mechanization in SSA and Asia suggests the importance of private sector-led hiring services to provide smallholder farmers with access to tractor hire services in their vicinities from medium and large-scale tractor owners (Adu-Baffour et al., 2019;Asfaw et al., 2018;Belton et al., 2021;Diao et al., 2014;FAO-AUC, 2018;Houssou et al., 2017;Van Loon et al., 2020;Zheng et al., 2022). Different institutions and private enterprises have also promoted small-size and low-cost tractors to encourage smallholder farmers to own tractors for use and hire out to others (Baudron et al., 2015;FAO-AUC, 2018). In Myanmar, the availability of outsourcing services has enabled farmers to mechanize their farms irrespective of tractor ownership and independent of farm size (Belton et al., 2021). However, in Malawi, where human power is the primary source of farm labor and the landholdings are small (less than 1 ha on average), there is a need to assess the demand for tractor hire services. Empirical evidence of the willingness to pay (WTP) for mechanization services can guide the government, service providers, and other institutions supporting the promotion of agricultural mechanization. The study estimates the WTP for two-wheel-based mechanization services for land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation of agricultural produce from farm fields to homesteads. These are the three main power-intensive farm operations (Daum & Birner, 2017). Therefore, this study aims to assess labor shortages related to different farm activities, estimate the WTP for mechanization services, and identify policy options for promoting smallholder mechanization services in Malawi. Previous studies in SSA and Asia showed that smallholder farmers are willing to pay for tractor-hire services for agricultural activities such as land preparation, weeding, harvesting, threshing, and transport (Hodjo et al., 2021;Houssou et al., 2016;Nxumalo et al., 2020;Takele & Selassie, 2018;Takeshima, 2018). To the best of our knowledge, however, no study has investigated smallholder farmers' WTP for agricultural mechanization services in Malawi.This study contributes to the thin literature on mechanization in at least two ways. First, we used nationally representative comprehensive household survey data to assess agricultural labor use patterns and constraints related to major farm operations. This informs policymakers and development actors about the farm operations for which smallholder farmers need mechanization services. Besides, we investigated smallholder farmers' know-how, usage, and ownership of two-wheel tractors (2WT), four-wheel (4WT) tractors, and oxen for agricultural operations. This knowledge helps development actors identify the types of mechanization services to promote and their training needs. Second, we examined the WTP for hiring services of 2WT and their determinants disaggregated by sex, landholding size, agroecology, and market access. Thus, the findings can aid development actors and policymakers in making decisions to enhance mechanization services.We analyze smallholder farmers' demand for mechanization services using the double-bound dichotomous choice (DBDC) contingent valuation method because the services are not prevalent in Malawi. Our results show that farmers are willing to pay 22,211 MWK/acre for land preparation, 467 MWK per 50 kg shelled maize grain, and 2096 MWK per trip within a range of 6 km. For all the services, farmers are willing to pay amounts within the range of the prevailing market rates. The amounts farmers are willing to pay for the services depend on sex, age, landholding size, market access, agroecology, and asset ownership.The following is the organization of the rest of the paper. Section 2 briefly describes agricultural mechanization in Malawi, Section 3 outlines the empirical estimation procedures, whereas the fourth section gives an overview of the survey design and data collection. Section 5 provides variable definitions and discusses the sample households' descriptive statistics. Section 6 presents and discusses labor shortages and mechanization and the results of the econometric analysis. The last section draws conclusions and policy implications.The use of farm machinery (tractors) in Malawi dates back to the colonial era, around 1945 (Pingali, 2007).However, agriculture mechanization in Malawi is very low (Murray et al., 2016;Takane, 2008). According to the world development report, only about 5% of agriculture in Malawi is mechanized (World Bank, 2012).The number of tractors as of 1968 was 692 (Figure 1), and the number increased only to 707 in 2010/11 (Sheahan & Barrett, 2017), indicating little progress over four decades. However, MMP (2018) estimates a 2.69% average annual agricultural machinery growth rate for Malawi. The estimate was in the number of agricultural machinery units expressed in 40-CV (horse-power) tractor-equivalents based on data from 2005 to 2014. The average number of agricultural machinery units from 2005 to 2015 was 1655 (Kirui & Braun, 2018). Malawi also has a National Agricultural Investment Plan that emphasizes increasing the number of hectares under a tractor-hire scheme (e.g., from 2090 ha in 2009/10 to 10,000 ha in 2013/14) (MMP, 2018). Besides, there is an increase in medium-scale farms (5−50 ha), and the size of landholding by medium-scale farms has doubled since 2005 (Anseeuw et al., 2016), which shows potential for tractor-hire services in the country.Recently, NGOs have promoted small-scale machines to smallholder farmers through different projects and programs. For example, drip irrigation lines, V-tractors, walk-behind tractors, grain storage facilities, central pivotal irrigation, and groundnut strippers and shellers have been promoted (Kumwenda et al., 2020;Tsusaka et al., 2017).Moreover, 2WT and rippers are being promoted as a complement to conservation agriculture practices to reduce drudgery from the preparation of planting basins, one of the components of conservation agriculture practices (Jaleta et al., 2014;Sims & Heney, 2017).Trends in the number of tractors in Malawi (source: FAO, 2023).To assess smallholder farmers' WTP for mechanization services (land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation), we use the DBDC contingent valuation method (Hanemann et al., 1991;Lopez-Feldman, 2012). The DBDC format was preferred over a single-bound format because of the statistical efficiency of the former over the latter (Hanemann et al., 1991). In the single-bound contingent valuation format, a respondent is asked only one dichotomous question, that is, if the individual is willing to pay a threshold amount for a good or service under consideration. However, the DBDC format involves a follow-up dichotomous question depending on the response to the first question. If the response to the first question is \"yes,\" the individual is asked a follow-up question with a higher bid amount. If the answer to the first question is \"no,\" the individual is asked a follow-up question with a lower bid amount. The DBDC format thus provides individual respondents with more information concerning WTP than the single-bound format and provides an interval within which the actual WTP for an individual lies.Denoting that b I is the initial bid amount and b F is a follow-up bid amount, an individual's WTP can be expressed (2012), we assume that r i 1 is a response for b I and r i 2 is a response for b F , the probability that the individual's response is \"yes = y\" to b I and \"no = n\" to b F can be expressed as P r r x P y n ( = 1, = 0| ) = ( , )where x i is a vector of explanatory variables. Further assuming that WTP x u2 ), and ϕ (.) is the standard cumulative normal distribution, the probability for each of the four response categories can be given as follows.a. r and r = 1 = 0Using the symmetry of the normal distribution, we can rewrite the last expression asUsing Bayes rule P y yand thereforewhich by symmetry isFollowing Hanemann et al. (1991) and Lopez-Feldman (2012), the likelihood function that comprises Equations 1-4 and that needs to be maximized to find the parameters of the model, β and σ, is:where g i yn , g i yy , g i ny , and g i nn are variables that take on the value of 1 if an individual respondent contributes to the logarithm of the likelihood function and 0 otherwise. Thus a given individual contributes to Equation 5 in only one of its four functions. We can directly obtain estimates of β and σ from the maximum likelihood function (Equation 5) using the \"doubleb\" command in STATA that estimates double-bounded dichotomous choice model (Lopez-Feldman, 2012).We model WTP for agricultural mechanization using a logit model as follows:where Y ij is WTP of farmer i for mechanization service j, β j 0 is the intercept for mechanization j, β ij is the regression coefficient for mechanization service j, and u ij is the error term for mechanization service j, which assumes. The logit model is estimated using the \"doubleb\" command that incorporates the first bid, second bid, first response, and second response, in this order, as dependent variables Y ( ) ij followed by explanatory variables (Lopez-Feldman, 2012). After running the \"doubleb\" command, we estimated the predicted WTP values.Several studies applied the \"doubleb\" method to elicit WTP. For example, \"doubleb\" has been used to analyze WTP for craft cider in the United States of America (Tozer et al., 2015), access to irrigation water in Ethiopia (Mekonnen et al., 2020), acacia hybrid nursery stock in Vietnam (Nguyen, Ariyawardana, & Ratnasiri, 2020), land conservation program in Nepal (Pakhtigian & Jeuland, 2019), index-based crop insurance in Nepal (Budhathoki et al., 2019), and enhanced water security in China (Jiang et al., 2019).This study uses survey data collected from over 1500 households in seven districts of Malawi (Appendix Table A1) under the project \"Understanding and Enhancing the Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Smallholder Farming Systems of Southern Africa.\" We use a multistage sampling technique to select the households. In the first stage, the seven districts were chosen to represent a high prevalence of CA promotion. The districts also represent two agroecologies, lowland and mid-elevation, and two market-accesses groups, low and high. Balaka, Nsanje, and Nkhotakota districts were selected from the lowland 1 agroecology, whereas Chitipa, Dowa, Rumphi, and Zomba districts were chosen from the mid-elevation 2 agroecology.Regarding market access, Balaka, Chitipa, Nkhotakota, and Nsanje represent low market access areas, whereas Dowa, Rumphi, and Zomba represent high market access. We used 2 h of cut-off travel time from the district center to the nearest cities or large regional markets (Mzuzu, Lilongwe, Zomba, and Blantyre) to categorize districts into low market access and high market access (Benson et al., 2016). We selected three extension planning areas (EPAs) per district and three sections per EPA, respectively, based on a high prevalence of CA promotion in the second and third stages. Three villages per section and eight households per village were selected randomly in the fourth and fifth stages. The data comprise demographic, socioeconomic, and biophysical agricultural production constraints, institutional, social capital and networks, labor constraints and mechanization, and WTP for mechanization services.The mechanization services include land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation of farm produce from the farm to homesteads.We use the DBDC contingent valuation data collection format to collect data on WTP for the mechanization services. Initial and follow-up bids were developed using the current market prices for each mechanization service.The initial and follow-up bids for the land preparation services were developed based on the average tractor service hire rate for plowing and ridging. For maize shelling, the bids were developed using the prevailing average cost of shelling 50 kg maize grain as a middle value and subsequently decreasing and increasing by 50 MWK (10% of the median value). The bids for the transportation of produce from the farm to homesteads were estimated based on the average cost of hiring an oxcart per trip as a middle value and decreasing or increasing the subsequent bids by 100 MWK. Based on our assessment, oxen-pulled carts and 2WT 3 carry a similar load. 4 Bid structures for all the mechanization services are in Appendix Tables A2a-A2c. There are 12 initial bid values for all mechanization services and roughly equal questionnaires per bid for all classes. The data were collected using a structured questionnaire programmed in the World Bank's Survey Solutions platform and administered face-to-face by trained enumerators. The face-to-face interview is deemed the best method to collect data on WTP (Guo et al., 2014).During the elicitation, the enumerators informed the respondents to assume that some individuals will provide land preparation, shelling, and transport services using a tractor. The respondents have to pay a certain amount for the mechanization services. The enumerators also informed the respondents that the amounts they pay for the services are based on their need for the service, affordability, and other necessary expenditures needed to prioritize. The enumerators informed the respondents about the unavailability of credit services; instead, they will pay using their own available money to reduce a hypothetical bias (Loomis, 2014). First, the enumerators asked if the respondents would pay a certain amount of cash (initial bid) to obtain the service. The enumerators then asked follow-up questions to determine if the respondents were willing to pay a lower amount for the \"no\" response and a higher one for the \"yes\" response to the initial bids. All initial bids were randomly assigned to respondents (one per respondent per service). Table 1 presents the percentage of responses.We selected the variables included in the analysis based on economic theory and past empirical work on WTP for mechanization services in Africa and beyond (Benin, 2015;Paudel et al., 2019). Table 2 presents the definitions of the variables, expected signs in influencing WTP for the different mechanization services, and the descriptive statistics of the variables. We include variables such as the age of the respondent, sex of the respondent, education level of the respondent, household size, the total number of adult males and females working full time on the farm, size of cultivated land, ownership of different types of assets, experience in the use of draft power for agricultural activities, awareness of the use of 2WT of farming activities, and participation in farmers organization. We incorporated information on the distance of the section to the district capital, the section terrains, and whether the section is waterlogged or not at the section level. We have also controlled for interdistrict differences by using district dummies. We expect the following variables to affect the WTP for mechanization services positively. The variables are the household head's education, the number of adult male members working full time on the farm, the total size of cultivated land, awareness of the use of draft power and 2WT for agricultural activities, and ownership of assets.Household heads with higher education may know the benefits of mechanization services and thus are willing to pay more than their less educated counterparts (Takele & Selassie, 2018). The age of the household head can positively or negatively influence the amount of WTP for all services as younger household heads may have lower income thus their WTP could be less than that of older household heads. Takele and Selassie (2018) found a negative and significant effect of the age of the household head on WTP for tractor hire service in Ethiopia, while Takeshima (2015) in Nepal and Hodjo et al. (2021) in Burkina Faso found positive and significant effects. The sex of the household head had mixed impacts on WTP for hiring agricultural services; for example, being a male household head positively affected WTP for tractor hire service in Ethiopia (Takele & Selassie, 2018), while the same was negative in Nepal (Takeshima, 2015). In Malawi, female household heads usually have less income than their male counterparts (Tufa et al., 2019)    2015) also found that the larger the number of male household members, the lower the WTP, and vice versa for female household members. As expected, the larger the cultivated land, the higher the labor required for the farm operation, entailing the need for mechanization services because of labor shortage (Hodjo et al., 2021;Takele & Selassie, 2018;Takeshima, 2015Takeshima, , 2017)). WTP for households owning oxen could be lower than those without oxen for all services except maize shelling; however, mere awareness of using oxen for agriculture could be related to a higher WTP.The results of the descriptive analysis show that the household heads are 44 years old and attended formal school for more than 6 years, and 36% of them or their spouses were members of farmers' organizations. The surveyed households had more than five persons and had more than two adult males and females working full-time on the farm. They also resided in section trains with flat and medium terrain, 48 km from the district capital, and cultivated 2.3 acres. On average, 96% of the respondents wish to obtain transportation services to transport maize from the farm to the homestead.Agricultural production in the study areas relies mainly on family labor. Howver, 41% of the households reported using hired labor (Figure 2). Previous studies conducted in six villages (two villages per region-Central, Southern, and Northern Malawi) from medium attitude (760−1300 m above sea level) also shows similar results (Takane, 2008). According to Takane (2008), family labor accounted for 74% of total labor used in tobacco production and 88% in maize production (Takane, 2008). These results are consistent with the situation in many countries in SSA, where manual labor is the primary source of agricultural power (Bishop-Sambrook, 2005).Limit access to labor and other sources of farm power such as draft animal power or tractors, limit land productivity in agriculture. According to Baudron et al. (2020), land-to-labor ratios are low in most African farming systems and are projected to decrease. However, as shown in Figure 3, farmers reported labor constraints for farm operations associated with major crops in Malawi. These results are consistent with the previous findings (Wodon & Beegle, 2006). The results show that smallholder farmers face severe labor shortages primarily for weeding, followed by land preparation and transportation of produce from the farm to homestead, implying the need for | 11 mechanization of farm operations. The labor shortage in weeding and land preparation differs between female and male farmers. A higher proportion of male farmers than female farmers reported facing serious labor shortages during weeding and land preparation.Figure 4 shows smallholder farmers' knowledge, usage, and ownership of mechanization options. The results show that draft animal power is the most known agricultural mechanization option, as 86% of the respondents reported being aware of the use of draft animal power in farming activities. However, the usage and ownership of draft animal power are very low. Less than 15% of the sample households reported using draft animal power, and less than 3% reported owning draft animal power. These results are consistent with those of a previous study conducted among women smallholder farmers in Kabudula Traditional Authority in Lilongwe district and Nkhamenya Traditional Authority in Kasungu district (Murray et al., 2016). Most (79% of the respondents) know a 4WT, but only very few farmers reported using it for any agricultural activity, and no farmer in the sample owns it.No farmer also said possessing and using 2WT, but about 38% reported being aware of its use. The findings concur with a study that ranked draft animal power as the second most reliable farm power source in SSA after human that motorized farm machinery is not economically feasible for most smallholder farmers in SSA and thus is not widely used.6.2 | Empirical resultsTable 3 presents the results of the maximum likelihood estimation (Equation 5) of the factors affecting WTP for 2WT-powered mechanization services. The results show that WTP for mechanized land preparation service is significantly and positively affected by age, sex, and education level of the household head; the size of cultivated land; radio, phone, and bicycle ownership; and prevalence of waterlogging. The positive and significant effects of age on WTP indicate that older farmers are more labor-constrained than younger farmers. Older farmers have more income to pay for the mechanized land preparation service than younger farmers. However, the significant and negative coefficient of the squared term shows that, after a certain age, the WTP for land preparation service declines. The results are consistent with results of WTP studies on tractore hire services in Nepal (Takeshima, 2015) and Burkina Faso (Hodjo et al., 2021). The positive and significant effect of the size of cultivated land on WTP for mechanized land preparation service is as expected and in line with the result of another study on WTP for tractor hire services in Nepal (Takeshima, 2015(Takeshima, , 2017)), Ethiopia (Takele & Selassie, 2018), and Burkina Faso (Hodjo et al., 2021). Ownership of radio, mobile phones, and bicycles help farmers to obtain updated information on technologies and related benefits (Aker & Ksoll, 2016;Fu & Akter, 2016;Henriksson et al., 2021). Thus wellinformed farmers are willing to pay more than the less informed farmers.The results show that female farmers have a lower WTP for land preparation services than male farmers, which was also the case with tractor hire services in Ethiopia (Takele & Selassie, 2018). Our study shows that, on average, the value of farm assets for male farmers was double that of female farmers. Farmers in the districts such as Dowa, Rumphi, and Chitipa, where landholding is relatively large, have a higher WTP for land preparation services.The factors that affect the WTP for maize shelling include the sex and education level of the farmers, bicycle ownership, and distance to the primary market. As expected, being a female farmer lowers the amount the farmer is willing to pay for the shelling services. This lower WTP could be due to the difference in the income level between men and women (Tufa et al., 2019). More educated farmers are more likely to pay more for shelling services than their less-educated counterparts.F I G U R E 4 Knowledge, usage, and ownership of draft animal power and tractors.T A B L E 3 Determinants of WTP for land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation (results of logit model). WTP for transportation of farm produce from farm fields to homestead is positively and significantly affected by the respondent's education level, radio, phone, and bicycle ownership, walking distance in minutes from the farm to homestead, and whether the farmer wishes to obtain transportation service for maize. As expected, wellinformed farmers and farmers who have farms farther away from homestead are more likely to pay more for the transportation service than their counterparts. Oxen ownership negatively affects farmers' WTP for transportation services, as oxen owners usually use carts for transportation.Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in Malawi. It contributes to more than 64% of the total employment, 80% of total export, and 30% gross domestic product and will continue to contribute similarly (Malawi Government, 2016). However, agricultural production has to increase to benefit the people relying on it. One of the ways to increase agricultural production is to narrow the gap in agricultural productivity between men and women farmers through increased use of mechanization. In Malawi, women farmers are less productive than men farmers and exhibit lower technology adoption (Kilic et al., 2015;Tufa et al., 2022). Agriculture also needs transformation.Engagement of rural youth in agriculture and agricultural mechanization are among the agricultural transformation agenda of many African countries (MMP, 2018). WTP can also vary due to wealth, market access, and agroecology differences. Therefore, to formulate recommendations for sex, different age structures, and other important variables, we disaggregated WTP for the mechanization services by sex, age structure, wealth, market access, and agroecology. For instance, in a WTP study conducted for direct seeded rice with a drum seeder in Maharashtra, India, women had a higher WTP for the labor-saving attribute while men had a higher WTP for the increase in yield and reduction in seed rate of the drum seeder (Joshi et al., 2019).Table 4 presents the average WTP for land preparation services estimated using the predicted values.The overall average WTP for land preparation services is 22,211 MWK per acre, which is 11% higher than the prevailing market rate (20,000 MWK per acre) for land preparation services using a tractor hire where a tractor is available (Table 4, second row). This result is in line with the result of the study conducted on demand for tractor-hire services among farm households in Burkina Faso (Hodjo et al., 2021), and Zambia and Zimbabwe (Ngoma et al., 2023). The authors found that the WTP for custom-hire tractor plowing was higher by 36% than the rental cost. Men are willing to pay 26% more for land preparation services than women. This result is similar to the results of several studies. For instance, in a WTP study conducted for direct-seeded rice with a drum seeder in Maharashtra, India, men had a higher WTP for the increase in yield and reduction in seed rate of the drum seeder (Joshi et al., 2019). The WTP for land preparation services increases with age, cultivated land size, farm asset value, and market access. High-market access areas exhibit a 9% higher WTP than low-market access areas. The demand curve in Figures 5-7 is constructed using the predicted values of the WTP for the mechanization services. The demand curves for mechanized land preparation service presented in Figure 5 decline with the service price for all categories-sex, cultivated land, market access, and agroecology-the demand curve is generally inelastic. The results show that 40% of female and 90% of male farmers are willing to pay the prevailing market rate (20,000 MWK per acre) for a 2WT-based land preparation service. This result shows a 50% gap between female and male farmers' demand for mechanized land preparation services between female and male farmers. The demand for land preparation services using a 2WT is higher in the high market access and mid-elevation agroecology. The results imply that institutions or private enterprises that promote mechanization services have to consider several factors that enhance the uptake of mechanization for land preparation services. For instance, subsidies can help narrow the gap between males and females in demand for mechanization services for land preparation.Table 5 presents the average WTPs for 2WT-based maize shelling services estimated using the predicted values from the interval regression model. The overall average WTP for maize shelling service is 467 MWK per 50 kg shelled grain, which is 33% higher than the prevailing market rate (350 MWK per 50 kg). A study conducted in Ghana also shows that farmers are willing to pay for maize shelling services (Houssou et al., 2016). The WTP for men for maize shelling services is 25% higher than for women. The demand curves for 2WT-based maize shelling services decline with the service price for all categories-sex, size of cultivated land, market access, and agroecology. In general, all the curves are inelastic (Figure 6). The demand curves' inelasticity shows the demand's low sensitivity to service charges.The crops for which households want to have transportation services from the farm to the homestead are given in the last five rows of Table 2. Ninety-six percent of the sample farmers indicated they wished to obtain transport services for their maize from farm to homestead. A study in Ethiopia also shows that farmers are interested in obtaining transport services for their produce (Workneh et al., 2021). The proportions of farmers that stated the need for transportation services are meager for other crops could be due to the low production quantity.Table 6 presents the WTP for transport service for agricultural produces using a 2WT-powered cart. The overall average of WTP for the transport service is 2096 MWK per trip which is 5% higher than the prevailing market rate (2000 MWK) and depends on the sex of the respondent, age group, and the size of cultivated land, market access, and agroecology. On average, the WTP values are less than the prevailing market price for women and those with low asset endowments, especially in lowland agroecology and low market access areas. The average value of WTP shows no demand for transportation services by female-headed households, households cultivating 1 acre or less, households in low market access areas, households in lowland agroecology, and households with farm assets worth less than 23,000 MWK.Figure 7 shows that the demand curves for 2WT-powered transport services for agricultural produce decline with the service rates for all categories-sex, size of cultivated land, market access, and agroecology. The resultsshow that 48% of women and 73% of men are willing to pay the prevailing market rate (2000 MWK per acre) for 2WT-based agricultural produce transportation from the farm to the homestead. The main objective of this study is to investigate the labor constraints and the farmers' WTP for agricultural mechanization services such as land preparation, maize shelling, and transporting agricultural produce from farm to homestead. Family labor is the primary source of agricultural labor in Malawi. However, more than 40% of households use hired labor, implying a farm labor shortage. The results show that farmers face severe labor shortages for weeding, land preparation, and transporting agricultural produce. The WTP estimates also show that, on average, the WTP are 11%, 33%, and 5%, higher than prevailing market rates for mechanized land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation services. The WTPs vary by sex, age group, cultivated land size, farmer asset value, market access, and agroecology for all the services. Men are more likely to pay higher amounts for all the mechanization services than women. Men are willing to pay 26%, 25%, and 11% more than women for land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation services. Moreover, 40% of female and 90% of male farmers are willing to pay more than or equal to the prevailing market rate for mechanized land preparation services.T A B L E 5 Predicted mean WTP for maize shelling service (MSS) by sex of respondent, size of cultivated land, market access, and agroecology. This study shows the high demand for mechanization services for land preparation, maize shelling, and transportation among men and women farmers, suggesting a need to promote 2WT-based affordable mechanization services. In Malawi, opportunities exist to promote hired agricultural mechanization services. First, the number of medium and large-scale farmers has been increasing from time to time which can be used to promote hire mechanization services. Second is the availability of government initiatives and plans to support and strengthen large commercial farmers that can serve as anchor farms for sounding communities. Promoting mechanization services by introducing low-cost small 2WT through medium-scale farmers who can provide the hiring service while operating their agricultural activities is also possible. However, more works are needed to evaluate the profitability and practicality of hire tractors service in the Malawian rural setup.Finally, our study has a limitation. We used the stated-preference technique that can cause a hypothetical bias, and thus the estimates of the WTP for the mechanization services could be inflated compared to the actual amount.However, we informed the respondents that the amounts they pay for the services are based on their need for the | 21 services, affordability, and other necessary expenditures that they needed to prioritize. Besides, we informed the respondents about the unavailability of credit services; instead, they will pay for the services using their available money to reduce the hypothetical bias.Zhou, X., Ma, W., & Li, G. (2018). Draft animals, farm machines and sustainable agricultural production: Insight from China. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(9), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093015 Zhou, X., Ma, W., Li, G., & Qiu, H. (2020) T A B L E A2a Bid structure and responses of elicitation of willingness to pay for land preparation (MWK per acre) using 2-WT pulled plow/ripper. a NN represents \"no\" response to the initial bid and \"no\" response for the follow-up bid; NY represents \"no\" response to the initial bid and \"yes\" response for the follow-up bid; YY represents \"yes\" response to the initial bid and \"yes\" response for the follow-up bid; YN represents \"yes\" response to the initial bid and \"no\" response for the follow-up bid.T A B L E A2b Bid structure and responses of elicitation of willingness to pay for maize shelling service (MWK per 50 kg grain) using 2WT operated sheller. a NN represents \"no\" response to the initial bid and \"no\" response for the follow-up bid; NY represents \"no\" response to the initial bid and \"yes\" response for the follow-up bid; YY represents \"yes\" response to the initial bid and \"yes\" response for the follow-up bid; YN represents \"yes\" response to the initial bid and \"no\" response for the follow-up bid.","tokenCount":"5658"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ba9de5fdb1b819eb22138cde1ff6942","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d276b87d-139b-4e7a-8255-74abb4f295f4/retrieve","id":"-1676872525"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a093ddff-d539-491b-8ffa-26a195088213","pagecount":"2","content":"Durante más de 20 años, Perú y el CIAT han cultivado una colaboración mutua que ha alcanzado logros como un manejo eficiente del campo, fortalecimiento de capacidades y generación de estrategias frente al cambio climático. Hoy esta alianza se ha renovado gracias al convenio con el Ministerio del Ambiente (MINAM), el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) y el Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP).Este proyecto, adelantado con el apoyo del Gobierno alemán y la colaboración del IIAP y la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM), busca brindar a las autoridades ambientales nacionales y a los agricultores locales en Colombia y Perú evidencia científica que potencie su capacidad para mitigar y adaptarse al cambio climático, mejorando también los servicios ecosistémicos y los beneficios socioeconómicos para los agricultores.Los investigadores aplican un enfoque de paisaje, para trabajar de manera participativa con comunidades rurales locales, autoridades ambientales regionales y nacionales, e instituciones de investigación nacionales e internacionales, para diseñar y validar alternativas productivas de uso y manejo de la tierra. También se evalúa el rol de estas alternativas en las diferentes opciones de desarrollo de la región y sus implicaciones para las prioridades nacionales frente al cambio climático.La Ley 30215 sobre Mecanismos de Retribución de Servicios Ecosistémicos (MRSE), aprobada por el Gobierno peruano en 2014, es resultado de la labor desarrollada por el MINAM y el CIAT en el comitétécnico asesor que elaboró esta ley y su respectivo reglamento, apoyados en el estudio \"Cuellos de Botella para la Implementación de los Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos Hidrológicos\". La aprobación de esta ley dio lugar a tres nuevas acciones estratégicas entre el MINAM y el CIAT:• Desarrollar el Registro Único de MRSE. Un sistema que permitirá identificar y dar seguimiento a todas las iniciativas que existen a nivel nacional.• Construir el MRSE para la cuenca del río Cañete.Cuenca en la que el proyecto se implementó en 2010 con el apoyo del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR sobre Agua, Paisajes y Ecosistemas (WLE).• Dar seguimiento y apoyo en 2016 a la implementación del esquema de retribución, financiado por el Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (FIDA), en el que la población de la parte alta de la cuenca del río Cañete será retribuida por su labor en la conservación y recuperación de los ecosistemas proveedores del servicio hidrológico.El CIAT, junto con el Instituto de Recursos Mundiales (WRI), el Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) y la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN), apoya la Iniciativa 20x20 para restaurar 20 millones de hectáreas degradadas en América Latina hacia 2020. Esta iniciativa fue lanzada en el Foro Global sobre Paisajes, en 2014 en Lima, Perú. El evento contó con la presencia de ministros de seis países comprometidos a restaurar áreas de gran tamaño.Expertos en clima del CATIE y el CIAT emprendieron un nuevo proyecto, con apoyo del Banco Mundial, para desarrollar una serie de perfiles nacionales sobre las condiciones iniciales de agricultura climáticamente inteligente (CSA). Hoy se cuenta con nueve perfiles, entre ellos el de Perú. El objetivo es ayudar a incorporar CSA a través de procesos de sensibilización e iniciar diálogos sobre los puntos de partida para que gobiernos, entidades financieras y otros actores interesados tomen decisiones mejor informadas.Rainforest Alliance, Root Capital, Sustainable Food Lab, el Programa Global de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) y el CIAT se unen para promover procesos de resiliencia a escala en cadenas de valor de café y cacao en Perú, Ghana y Nicaragua. Para Perú el reto es doble: identificar tanto prácticas agrícolas climáticamente inteligentes adecuadas para sistemas de producción de café y cacao, frente al cambio climático, como determinar dónde y cuándo se deberían promover prácticas específicas para lograr mayor resiliencia en condiciones localmente distintas.El CIAT busca contribuir al fortalecimiento de capacidades en el MINAM para el uso de Terra-i, un sistema que permite monitorear en casi tiempo real la cobertura de la vegetación y que ha resultado muy efectivo para evidenciar zonas de alto riesgo de deforestación. Este sistema, que cuenta con casi un millar de usuarios registrados, fue desarrollado conjuntamente por The Nature Conservancy (TNC), el King's College de Londres, la Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Artes de Suiza Occidental, y el CIAT. Entre los resultados más destacados de su aplicación en 2013, se incluye el análisis de un aumento alarmante en la deforestación, como consecuencia de la expansión de la minería en la Amazonía peruana.La certificación de comercio justo en café se había limitado a organizaciones de pequeños productores. Pero desde 2011, Fair Trade USA comenzó a certificar cafetales piloto y pequeños propietarios independientes para mejorar sus medios de vida y las condiciones laborales de los trabajadores agrícolas y productores más vulnerables. El proyecto Comercio Justo para Todos (FT4All) busca conocer los impactos de esta certificación mediante la evaluación de cuatro puntos piloto en Brasil, Nicaragua, Honduras y Perú. Hoy se cuenta con la línea base en donde se destaca la percepción que comparten los pequeños productores de Honduras y Perú, quienes consideran que la certificación podría contribuir a que obtengan mayores ingresos mediante un precio justo, aumente la productividad y calidad del café, así como infraestructura colectiva.El proyecto Evaluación de Servicios Ecosistémicos para la Seguridad Alimentaria y la Salud Nutricional en la Interfase Bosque Agricultura (ASSETS) se lleva a cabo en tres regiones con diferentes grados de deforestación que son blanco de fenómenos climáticos. En el caso de Perú, el proyecto se implementa en Ucayali con apoyo del IIAP. Allí se ha realizado el levantamiento de información a través de encuestas de hogares y la aplicación de métodos participativos, para documentar las relaciones entre servicios de los ecosistemas, seguridad alimentaria y salud nutricional de poblaciones mestizas e indígenas en esta región.Identificar los factores que determinan la adopción de variedades mejoradas y nuevas tecnologías, así como el tamaño del área dedicada a su siembra en la zona arrocera del norte del Perú, desde un enfoque de género, es el objetivo de este proyecto llevado a cabo con el apoyo del Programa Global de Investigación en Arroz (GRiSP). Los resultados evidencian que la decisión de adoptar variedades mejoradas, y definir la intensidad con que se adopten, está determinada por el área destinada para la siembra de arroz, y por aspectos como el género del jefe del hogar, edad y educación que él o ella tengan, y la zona agroecológica de la finca.","tokenCount":"1070"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d06c78e6e0e1a2b577d760c23793d322","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/FTA/WPapers/FAO-FTA-WP-15.pdf","id":"-473692373"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"beeb8330-05e7-4912-bb2e-c92d49364d72","pagecount":"202","content":"The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO, FTA, CGIAR or CIFOR in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO, FTA, CGIAR or CIFOR.The preservation of forests, sustainable forest management (SFM), forest landscape restoration (FLR) and the need to make the most of precious forest resources are priority issues in the policy and sustainable development agenda of the Asia-Pacific region. Innovation will be key in the coming decades to meet an increasing demand for wood and other forest products while halting and reversing deforestation, in line with the commitment taken at COP26 in Glasgow by the international community. However, uptake of innovative technologies has been slow and uneven in the Asia-Pacific region, and there remains a gap between political commitments and the investments -in education, capacity building and infrastructure developmentrequired to put them into practise.As highlighted by the 'Third Asia-Pacific Forest Sector Outlook Study' (APFSOS III: FAO, 2019), the use of innovative technologies -whether digital, biological or processing technologies, new wood-based products, social innovations or innovative finance mechanisms -have the potential to revolutionize forest management and to make critical contributions to sustainable development along forest value chains.Following up on APFSOS III, the present study, co-published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR -the lead centre of the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry or FTA), helps shatter the image of forestry as a low-tech sector. It illustrates with specific examples how innovative technologies can help to: improve forest monitoring and forest management; reduce waste and increase resource-use efficiency, productivity and profitability along forest value chains; enable the development of a bioeconomy contributing to climate change mitigation and SFM; create new skilled job opportunities, making the forest sector more attractive for youth, in particular; provide new products and services, and develop new uses for previously underutilized and undervalued wood species; enhance traceability and transparency along forest value chains; support participation, capacity development and information sharing; and enable new governance and investment models.Innovative technologies are often considered as inherently beneficial, with advantages largely outweighing the risks. However, innovative technologies can also generate significant negative social, economic and environmental impacts, including: the loss of unskilled jobs; the destruction of natural ecosystems; and the loss of access to natural resources. These collateral damages are likely to disproportionately affect the most vulnerable groups and communities, which risk being further marginalized by new technologies and thus need targeted support. When considering the adoption of an innovation, it is essential to consider its potential impacts -whether positive or negative, intended or unintended -as well as all potential synergies and trade-offs with other development objectives. This can support the establishment of environmental and social safeguards or, as appropriate, the design of compensatory or accompanying measures to ensure no one is left behind. SFM involves a series of functions along forest value chains, from monitoring, management and harvesting to transformation and final utilization of forest products and services. SFM also requires stakeholder v engagement and strong governance mechanisms. Innovative technologies may not only perform existing functions better than current technologies but may also provide completely new functions, products and services. The present study suggests a framework to assess the strengths and weaknesses of innovative technologies in performing these different functions, thus helping decision makers to identify the most appropriate technologies to match specific objectives in a given context and address the specific needs and priorities of various stakeholder groups.Based on the evidence gathered in this study, and upon extensive consultations that involved over 425 key regional stakeholders and technical experts (from governments, intergovernmental organizations, the private sector and civil society, as well as from academia and research institutions.), this report suggests a set of 10 overarching evidence-based recommendations with 59 specific options for policy-and decision makers to facilitate the dissemination and adoption of innovative technologies as well as to overcome the two main barriers identified in the study, namely: (i) lack of capacity in infrastructure and equipment, human capital and financial resources; and (ii) rigid legal frameworks (policies and regulations) that often lag behind rapidly evolving technologies. These recommendations and options are organized around the two following questions: (i) Why do we need to harness the potential of innovative technologies? and (ii) How can we overcome the current constraints and support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies in the forest sector? Such broad recommendations can show the direction and delineate the main areas of work for the decade to come. However, the way one technology performs one function, as well as its positive or negative impacts for people and the planet, may vary significantly across contexts in the very large and diverse Asia-Pacific region. Even within one context, impacts may be perceived differently by different stakeholder groups. In addition, the social, economic and technical contexts evolve quite rapidly. Hence, to be useful for policy and decision makers on the ground, recommendations and options need to be actionable and adapted to the national and local contexts. They need to cover the 'how', not only the 'why'. They need to go beyond general principles and consensual objectives, and suggest clear targets, impact-assessment mechanisms, and concrete means of implementation.To address this need, this document also contains two complementary tools that can help governments and other actors to consider these overarching recommendations and specific options develop their own roadmap, adapted to their own context, priorities and needs. First, this report proposes a four-step practical process, suggested to be led by the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) at the regional level, to implement a shared roadmap for innovative forest technologies and articulate it at different scales. Second, a detailed table links the overarching recommendations and specific options to evidence and case studies presented in the study, showing how they can be concretely and successfully implemented in a given context, or how they can be adapted to various situations, as well as to the priorities and needs of various categories of actors.Students and young people involved in forest sector-related activities in the region were given a central role in the collective process of elaborating this roadmap. As technology enthusiasts and forest managers of the future, young people have a leading role to play in the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies. They can bring to the debate their unique forward-looking, 'out-of-the-box' perspectives. A collection of 13 selected youth contributions from Asia and the Pacific on 'innovative forestry for a sustainable future' was published during the Global Landscapes Forum (GLF) hybrid climate conference (Glasgow, United Kingdom, 5-7 November 2021) as part of this roadmap.It is our hope that the publication of the present document will mark the beginning of a collective process, possibly led by the APFC and its member countries, to further support and accelerate the uptake and scaling up  FAO, 2019). In response to this outlook study, FAO and CIFOR, lead center of the CGIAR research programme on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), have developed a roadmap on innovative technologies in support of sustainable forest management in Asia and the Pacific. This roadmap was developed through an inclusive and participative process associating a wide range of key regional forest decision-makers and technical experts, from governments and intergovernmental organizations, from the private sector and civil society organizations, as well as from academia and research institutions.This technical report constitutes the first step of the roadmap. It builds upon the scientific literature, FAO and FTA experience, and the consultation of 425 stakeholders, including regional experts, decision-makers, and youth involved in activities related to the forest sector in the Asia-Pacific region. 1 It examines the potential and barriers for disseminating and deploying innovative technologies for sustainable forest management (SFM) in the region and provides recommendations and options for decision-makers. It delineates and informs the process by which decision makers and actors can identify: the potential of innovative technologies to advance SFM; their potential impacts; the constraints to technology uptake and scaling up and how to overcome these constraints and facilitate adoption. The chapters of this study are organized along these steps. The roadmap is enriched by the results of the technologies workshop (Pingault et al. 2021a) and by contributions from students and young people involved with innovative technologies in the forest sector of the region (Pingault et al. 2021b).Forests have multiple and diverse definitions, reflecting both the diversity of forest ecosystems and the diversity of human perceptions and uses of forests. This study uses the widely recognized FAO definition of a forest, defined as a piece of \"land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ\" (FAO 2018a). FAO further distinguishes two categories of forests: naturally regenerating forests (including primary forests) and planted forests. This study also considers trees outside forests, present in a variety of systems, including agricultural tree crops, agroforestry systems, or urban trees. In line with APFSOS III, this study uses the terms \"forestry\" and \"forest sector\" interchangeably to encompass all economic activities that mostly depend on the production of goods and ecosystem services from forests.Human population and income growth exert strong pressure to convert forests to other land uses to satisfy growing demand for land, food and tree products, leading to a gradual decrease in global forest areaxv over the past decades. This intensifies the pressure on remaining forests, jeopardizing biodiversity, carbon stocks, and the various other ecosystem services forests provide.In contrast to this global trend, Asia and the Pacific have experienced an increase in forest area in recent decades as a result of strong afforestation and reforestation policies in some countries such as China, India or Viet Nam. However, total forest area continues to decrease in other countries of the region. Additionally, primary forests are still decreasing at the regional level: according to FAO (2019) Biological technologies can facilitate the collection, domestication, selection, breeding, propagation, and dissemination of highquality germplasm and genetic material at a reasonable price. Genetic resources (germplasm) are the most important input in any tree production system as the genetic and physical quality of the germplasm determines the upper limit of the system's potential yield, as well as the productivity of other inputs (e.g. labor or agrochemicals). Genetic research and development should prioritize species' disease resistance, drought resistance, growth, and adaptation to climate change, or adapt wood composition to the different possible uses. 3 Innovative tree domestication efforts should expand to include native timber species, non-wood forest species, and other underutilized forest species for local utilization. In the case of these less-domesticated species, the basic selection and use of quality genetic material to improve productivity and income generation is an innovation that requires not only appropriate techniques but also social innovation to effectively deploy improved material to communities and smallholders. DNA profiling can help identify and document the natural and geographic origin of biological samples, thus increasing transparency and traceability along forest value chains and helping track and combat illegal activities and illegal trade.Process innovations can directly improve productivity and cost efficiency, reduce waste and improve resource use efficiency at all stages of forest value chains. This category includes: improved silviculture management, including refined site preparation, planting and post-planting practices; precision forestry based on the use of digital technologies; reduced impact logging (RIL) and winchassisted harvesting; computer numerical control (CNC) machining to optimize product design or wood processing; portable sawmills; spindle-less lathe technology to reduce waste and use small diameter logs; drying technologies that reduce energy use and costs; and microwave plasma technologies to enhance wood properties (e.g. improve appearance, durability and water resistance). Process innovations can also create new uses for previously underutilized and hence undervalued wood species, such as fast-growing small-diameter species. The main drawbacks are that process innovations can be expensive and usually require important upfront investments and strong personal skills.Product innovations have created a new generation of wood-based materials that can substitute non-renewable or more energyor resource-intensive products (e.g. steel or concrete, plastics from fossil fuel) in multiple domains. These products can create new uses for low-value underutilized species, wood scraps from processing mills and other wood waste; greatly increasing wood recovery and recycling rates, thus generating additional economic and environmental benefits. These innovative products include: engineered wood such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), mass timber, medium density fiberboard (MDF), particleboard, oriented strand board (OSB), veneer and plywood; engineered bamboo products; experimental bioplastics; transparent wood to be used as an alternative to glass; bio-based composites and cellulose nanomaterials, with possible applications for paper and packaging, food, health, construction, biosensors and electronics; bioenergy that can reduce xvii greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and dependence on fossil fuels; and biochar that increases soil carbon storage and enhance soil fertility.Social innovations are new forms of organization. They often aim to enhance the provision of services and opportunities to society, seeking to provide equitable access to disadvantaged or marginalized groups.They are often multi-sectoral and multiorganizational. Prevalent social innovations in Asia and the Pacific are the concept of community forestry (CF, also called social forestry and community-based forest management), forest and farm producers associating as a diverse group of land managers, and public-private partnerships (PPP). While established for decades, CF is now more widely used, integrated and recognized. Many governments promote CF as an effective national strategy to empower local communities, enhance gender equity and empower women and girls, reduce poverty, improve food security and livelihoods, and contribute to biodiversity conservation and climate action. Concurrently, CF has evolved as a mechanism for agrarian transformations, the creation of forest-and farm-based enterprises, the commercialization of locally-produced commodities, and integration with private sector investment and PPP. Forest and farm producers, collectively and individually, own or manage 65% of the world's land, including locally controlled forests and associated forest-and farmenterprises. PPP are social innovations that combine private finance and public resources to implement projects for public benefit.Innovative finance. The long-term horizon of forestry operations makes them less attractive to investors as it leads to high biological, climatic, social, market and political risks. Innovative finance mechanisms have emerged over the last two decades that can address these issues. These include: blended finance associating public and private investors with complementary risk and return appetites; impact investment; green, social, climate or sustainability bonds; crowdfunding platforms that open new avenues for small investors and strengthen the link between borrower and lender; payments for ecosystem services (PES); ICT-enabled mobile banking, and financial and e-commerce services that facilitate transactions and access to value chains, credit and markets. These technologies support the development of a viable digital economy where small-scale producers, communities or organizations can directly market products or services to consumers. Such arrangements promote efficient value chains avoiding commissions to middlemen, which can reduce transaction costs, increase margins received by the producer (individual, community or organization), and enable lower prices for the consumer.Sustainable forest management involves a variety of functions that can be grouped in broad categories including: monitoring and forest management, harvesting, processing, distribution and trade, final utilization in different sectors, information sharing and capacity development, community participation and governance. The use of innovative technologies throughout forest value chains affects these functions and the extent to which they contribute to sustainable development in the forest sector.Innovative technologies can not only perform existing functions better than currently utilized technologies but may also provide completely new functions, products and services. The way one technology performs a given function, as well as its positive or negative impacts on people and the planet, may vary significantly across contexts and may be perceived differently by different stakeholder groups even in the same context. In addition, the social, economic and technical contexts are also evolving. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of each innovative technology in performing these different functions will ground an analysis of their advantages and disadvantages in different contexts. The assessment conducted in this study offers a framework to compare very different innovative technologies and helps identify and categorize the most promising innovative technologies for the forest sector in the coming decade.xviiiThe adoption, dissemination and scaling up of innovative technologies in the forest sector come with important opportunities and challenges.The growth in human populations and innovative technologies will likely generate major shifts in wood demand and forest value chains. Despite overall economic growth, per capita consumption of wood is decreasing as a result of technology improving resource-use efficiency and substitute non-wood lignocellulosic materials, reducing the pressure on remaining forests. Concurrently, the increasing use of previously under-utilized species and wood processing residues or co-product, as well as improved productivity and waste reduction along forest value chains, are improving wood recovery rates and reducing pressure on overharvested species. By opening new uses for wood products and improving wood processing, innovative technologies can enable the development of a circular bioeconomy that contribute to and address the challenges of climate change and sustainable development.The accurate, cost-effective and realtime monitoring of forest and other land resources are among the most important and consequential achievements of innovative technologies. Enhanced monitoring and early warning systems based on a variety of digital technologies can facilitate forest management, prevent risks and limit environmental damage. Many of these monitoring technologies are user-friendly and use open-source tools, applications, and platforms, making data and information more easily available for all stakeholders, particularly NGOs and local communities, and facilitating their participation in decisionmaking processes. Enhanced access to accurate data can also strengthen local land tenure and access rights, help track and prevent illegal activities, and mitigate land conflicts. However, innovative technologies can also be misused to facilitate access to resources and their unsustainable exploitation, thus accelerating deforestation and forest degradation and threatening biodiversity. Access to the data generated by monitoring tools, applications and platforms may be restricted by the institution that generated the data or holds the legal rights to the technologies. The use of efficient monitoring technologies could also result in job losses, particularly for low-skill labor and seasonally employed rural residents. The new job opportunities created are likely to require skillsets that favor people with technical training over local residents.The large volumes of data and information generated by remote sensing and other innovative technologies can be used to enhance forest planning and management. This includes identifying threats and implementing mitigation strategies.The concepts of improved silviculture management and precision forestry promote the use of data and information from various sources to refine site preparation, planting and operations to improve SFM. RIL and winch assisted-harvesting can increase productivity, log recovery and profitability, while reducing waste and collateral environmental damage. However, innovative technologies can also have negative impacts on forest management, such as by promoting the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources or resulting in the loss of lowskilled jobs.Many innovative technologies can contribute to reduced waste and improved resource use efficiency, thus increasing the profitability of the forest sector and contributing to the sustainable management of natural forest resources. Innovative technologies can also limit pollution and collateral damage to ecosystems. Combining digital technologies and process innovations, such as through CNC, can further improve resource processing, improving productivity, recovery rates and profitability.The success of any planting operation heavily depends on the genetic and physical quality of the planting material and on the correct matching of the genetic material selected with the local site conditions. This matching xix can build upon the wealth of existing intraand interspecific genetic variation. Genetic improvement programs, however, require time, capital and technical expertise. As a result, genetic improvement activities have often been restricted to a limited number of species, focusing on those of commercial value. Species of local importance have seldom been prioritized. Similarly, improved germplasm is often in limited supply and expensive, which could restrain access by farmers and communities. Participatory multiple-species improvement and delivery programs, conducted with local stakeholders, are important innovations to address those barriers. Additionally, access to genetic material developed by private companies or individuals could be restricted by intellectual property rights (IPRs).Innovative technologies have the potential to generate further income and employment opportunities through the development of new products and services and of innovative, safer and greener skilled jobs, making the forest sector more productive, sustainable and attractive, in particular for youth, who will be the forest managers of tomorrow. However, the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies is likely to lead to the loss of some existing low-skilled jobs. This could negatively impact people involved in traditional labor-intensive management systems, who may have limited human or financial capacity to adapt.The Asia-Pacific region shows very high potential for innovation. However, this innovation potential does not necessarily translate to the forest sector and is mainly concentrated in a few countries, with large divides in innovative capacity across countries within the region. Three broad categories of countries and territories can be identified in the region:• the 'innovation tigers', which show the highest potential, including: Australia, China, Hong Kong (China), Japan, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand and Singapore; • the 'emerging innovators', mainly uppermiddle-income to low-income developing economies, which show encouraging performances on some indicators and promising potential for innovation uptake and scaling up in the coming decades, including: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Nepal, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam; • a third group consisting of countries where particular efforts are needed to build upon the assets they have and develop their own innovation potential that could benefit from regional and international cooperation.Two main barriers to innovative technologies uptake and scaling up were identified during the development of the roadmap: (i) a lack of capacity (in terms of human, natural, physical, financial and social capitals); (ii) unaligned policies and regulations.Technology adoption is highly contextspecific and very uneven across the region. Upfront costs and investments may be too high for many stakeholders. Local communities may need external support to build capacities and physical infrastructure and access the financial resources needed to harness the opportunities offered by innovative technologies. The challenge is to 'adapt innovative technologies to smaller scales and to local needs, priorities and circumstances so that they can also benefit smallholders and local communities, even those with limited human and financial resources and limited capacities to embrace innovation.Demonstration is key to the successful dissemination and uptake of innovative technologies. Full engagement with intended adopters is important to achieve buy-in. Government agencies, conservation organizations, universities and research institutions, the private sector, and communities should also be involved in promoting and demonstrating technologies.Organization and leadership will be essential.xxThe adoption of innovative technologies also requires new operational standards, investment in new equipment, and capacity building in the effective use of the new equipment and implementation of the operational standards. This is a significant investment in capital and time that affects short-term productivity and profitability. The following main areas of interest emerged from this study: monitoring of forest resources; improved productivity and resource use efficiency; research and development; extension and capacity building; infrastructure and finance; access to innovative technologies and safeguards against their negative impacts; international and regional cooperation; governance and policy coordination; network building and stakeholder engagement; and attention to youth, small and vulnerable actors and local communities. These areas were used to structure the roadmap recommendations around the two following questions: (i) Why do we need to harness the potential of innovative technologies? (ii) How can we overcome current constraints and support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies in the forest sector?The results, developed in Chapter 5, provide a framework to facilitate the uptake of innovative technologies and enhance SFM in the Asia-Pacific region. Given the diversity of situations across the region, it is obviously impossible to craft a short set of actionable recommendations that are adapted to all national or local circumstances (context, priorities and needs) at the same time. To be useful for policy-and decision-makers on the ground, recommendations need to be actionable and adapted to the local context. Additionally, the recommendations must go beyond general principles and consensual objectives and suggest clear targets, impactassessment mechanisms and concrete means of implementation. This is why, to facilitate the implementation of these recommendations and associated options at different scales, FAO and FTA propose two complementary tools to help governments and other actors build upon this common framework and develop their own roadmaps adapted to their specific circumstances (context, priorities and needs):Background and purpose of the study A wide variety of definitions of forest and wooded areas are used around the world, reflecting both the diversity of forest ecosystems and of human perceptions and uses of forests (HLPE 2017). The FAO definition is the most widely recognized and used. In addition, as part of its Global Forest Resources Assessments (FRA), FAO has coined definitions of forested and tree-based systems that allow comparative analysis across countries at regional or global levels. This study uses these FAO definitions, as updated for the latest FRA 2020 (FAO 2018a).Forest is defined as \"land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ\" (FAO 2018a). This definition excludes agricultural and urban tree stands. The FRA 2020 (FAO 2018a) further distinguishes the following two main categories of forests:  FAO 2020a). Despite the overall positive trend, regional forests remain under pressure from: population growth, migrations and conflicts, globalization and economic growth, urbanization and infrastructure development, agriculture expansion, and disease outbreaks; with many of these stresses exacerbated by climate change (Laumonier et al. 2021;Oldekop et al. 2020).This regional picture, however, does not reflect the diversity of situations encountered within the region in terms of forest extent (see Figure 1) and trends. China reports an increase of 1.94 million ha/yr between 2010 and 2020. However, over the last three decades, forest areas have decreased in South and Southeast Asia due to significant declines in some countries including Cambodia, Indonesia and Myanmar. These losses have been partially offset in terms of forest area by gains in India and Viet Nam.7 The FRA 2020 figures given in the following paragraphs correspond to the whole region of Asia. | 5Naturally regenerated forest of native tree species, where there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed.Forests regenerated mainly through natural processes after significant human or natural disturbance of the original forest vegetation from a single event or over an extended period; that displaying a major difference in forest structure and/or species composition from the original forest or primary forests on similar sites (Liss et al. 2003).Land that has either a crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of 5%-10% of trees able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity; or a crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10% of trees not able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity; or with shrub or bush cover of more than 10% (FAO 2002;FAO 2018a).A forest established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. A gradient exists among plantation forests from even-aged, single-species monocultures of exotic species with a fiber production objective to mixed species, native to the site with both fiber and biodiversity objectives (FAO 2002;FAO 2018a).Sub-category of planted forest \"that is intensively managed and meet ALL the following criteria at planting and stand maturity: one or two species, even age class, and regular spacing\" (FAO 2002;FAO 2018a).Sub-category of \"planted forest which is not classified as plantation forest\"\"Land not classified as \"forest\", spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of 5-10%, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ; or with a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10%. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use. \"\"All land that is not classified as 'forest' or 'other wooded land' .\"Land classified as \"other land\", spanning more than 0.5 hectares with a canopy cover of more than 10% of trees able to reach a height of 5 meters at maturity\".This definition includes, for instance, agricultural tree crops, agroforestry, trees in agricultural landscapes and trees in urban settings.Sub-category of \"other land with tree cover\" predominantly composed of palms for production of oil, coconuts or dates.Sub-category of \"other land with tree cover\" predominantly composed of trees for production of fruits, nuts, or olives.Sub-category of \"other land with tree cover\" such as urban parks, alleys and gardens.Land use systems in which trees and other woody perennials are deliberately integrated with agricultural crops, animals or both, in some form of spatial arrangement and temporal sequence (Huxley and van Houten 1997).A dynamic ecologically-based natural resource management system that, through the integration of trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels (Mead 2004). Fortunately, over the last 30 years, the rate of forest area loss in South and Southeast Asia overall has decreased by half, from 1.84 million ha yr -1 from 1990-2000 to 941,000 ha yr -1 from 2010-2020 (FAO 2020a).Forest degradation is the change in the structure and functions of a forest that reduce its capacity to provide goods and ecosystem services (Thompson et al 2013). Globally, it is estimated that over 2.0 billion hectares of forest have been degraded (Vásquez-Grandón et al. 2018) The effective utilization of innovative technologies in the forest sector should strengthen and support regional achievements towards SFM, the UN strategic plan for forests, and the SDGs to which forests and trees make important contributions.Building upon APFSOS III (FAO 2019), several domains can be identified where progresses are critically needed to advance SFM in the Asia-Pacific region:Forest science and research. SFM is an increasingly complex multidimensionalForests and trees address poverty alleviation (SDG 1) by supporting livelihoods and providing direct income generation through the main products and services they provision. 10 They also offer a 'safety net' to prevent local communities from sliding into or further into poverty and serve as a pathway out of poverty (Cheng et al. 2017). Forests and trees provide important support to 2.5 billion people depending on smallholder agricultural production for their livelihood (IFAD 2013). A review of meta-analyses confirms that non-wood forest products are important sources of income and improved livelihoods for rural communities (Dawson et al. 2014). Forest and trees contribute directly and indirectly to food security and nutrition (SDG 2) (HLPE 2017;Gitz et al. 2021). Forests and trees provide considerable diversity in plant-and animal-based food resources. Forest and other biodiversity are crucial for an environmentally and nutritionally sustainable food supply, including annual crops, pollinators, trees, other natural vegetation, below-ground organisms, animals, and aquatic organisms (Dawson et al. 2019a(Dawson et al. , 2019b)). Forests and trees also provide wood and other fuels required for cooking. Forests and trees are more resilient to adverse weather conditions than annual cropping systems and thus contribute to household resilience by serving as essential safety nets in times of crisis and emergencies. Women and men often have different yet equally important roles in forest and tree management. Women have unique local knowledge regarding forest and tree products, unknown to men in the community (Colfer et al. 2015;Mulyoutami et al. 2015). Acknowledging these roles and enhancing access to forest and tree resources can enhance gender equality and empower women and girls (SDG 5).Forests and trees are integral to the sustainable management of water (SDG 6) by regulating stream and groundwater flow, facilitating groundwater recharge, and reducing soil erosion and the sedimentation of water bodies. Through evapotranspiration, forests and trees also contribute to cloud generation, precipitation and the atmospheric circulation of water (Ellison et al. 2017;Sheil 2018;Creed and van Noordwijk 2018). The protection function of forest ecosystem services can make poor communities less vulnerable to natural disasters (Shyamsundar et al. 2018). As mentioned above, forests and trees are a major source of fuel for cooking as well as heating for household and industrial needs, making important contributions to affordable, reliable and sustainable energy (SGD 7). It is estimated that one-third of the world's human population rely on fuelwood as a main energy source. As such, providing access to forests for fuelwood collection is seen as an effective strategy to reduce poverty (FAO 2014a). Fuel supply is closely linked to SDG 2 and SDG 5 because of its role in food preparation and women's dominant role in fuel collection and management (FAO 2018b).Forest products and their value chains are critically important to sustainable economic growth, productive employment, and decent work (SDG 8). Forest-based small-to medium enterprises (SMEs) foster prosperity through multiple economic, social and cultural dimensions to rural communities (Sanchez-Bardini et al. 2018). These opportunities are especially important in rural areas, where they represent the majority of off-farm employment prospects. SMEs in the forest sector are often informal, relying heavily on family and casual labor. Forest-based enterprises and employment are strongly connected to both SDG 1 and 15. The establishment and proper management of urban and peri-urban forests (UPFs 11 ) make valuable contributions to making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable (SDG 11). This will be increasingly important as the urban populations continue to expand as a portion of the total population (Endreny 2018). Asia has the world's largest urban population (Borelli et al. 2018), and that number is projected to increase. To fulfill their prospective value for cities and other human settlements, the design, planning and management of UPFs should be fully integrated into urban planning at an early stage.concept, entailing synergies and tradeoffs between competing objectives and requiring a strong scientific evidence-base.Multidisciplinary and participative approaches are increasingly needed to address complex and inter-related challenges, operating at different spatial and temporal scales, such as: climate change, conservation of natural resources (land, water and biodiversity), food security and nutrition and livelihoods of indigenous peoples and/or forest-dependent communities. According to FAO (2019), two major potential areas of interest for future scientific research in the region are bioeconomy and ecosystem resilience.Forest monitoring. The accurate and realtime measurement and monitoring of forest ecosystems and natural resources, their status and evolution, the threats they face, as well as their contributions to the SDGs, is an indispensable prerequisite for their sustainable management. Environmental monitoring can improve our knowledge and understanding of biological processes and ecosystem resilience, particularly to climate change. Real-time monitoring can also help track and prevent illegal activities as well as fires. Accurate mapping of land resources can also improve the management of land tenure and access rights, thus preventing or limiting conflicts over natural resources (FAO 2019).Significant improvements in productivity and in energy and resource use efficiency along forest value chains, including through reduced impact logging, waste reduction, recycling and reuse, will be needed to meet growing demand for wood and other tree products driven by population and income growth, while limiting the volume of virgin roundwood required and alleviating the pressure on the remaining primary forests and natural ecosystems in the region. Innovative technologies can play a considerable role in improving wood processing to further enhance resource use efficiency and value addition. Such improvements could increase the profitability of the forest sector, with positive impacts on the incomes and livelihoods of forest-dependent people and communities. They could also transform the labor market, creating new skilled jobs, thus contributing to maintaining or attracting young people to the forest sector, while marginalizing traditional jobs and unskilled workers (FAO 2019).Renewability, resource efficiency and responsible sourcing of forest products are at the heart of the concept of sustainable production and consumption (SDG 12). The renewable and sustainable nature of most forest and tree products (wood and non-wood forest products, NWFPs), combined with reasonable harvest and management practices, can alleviate the environmental burden of production to satisfy a growing world population. Forests and trees make major contributions to carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems as a means to combat climate change and its impacts (SDG 13). Forests absorb approximately 2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent each year (IPCC 2014). As such, deforestation and forest degradation, which decrease forests' ability to sequester carbon, is a leading cause of climate change. The most cost-effective climate mitigation options for forestry are afforestation, SFM and reducing deforestation, with differences in their relative importance across regions (IPCC 2014(IPCC , 2019)). Agroforestation, which is land rehabilitation through the establishment of a tree-based farming system and intensification of management, also mitigates climate change while contributing to the alleviation of poverty, enhancement of food security, and supporting sustainable economic growth (Roshetko et al. 2007) ) have evolved that show potential for investment in SFM over the last few decades (Louman et al. 2020(Louman et al. , 2021)).The following chapters will consider innovative technologies in light of these needs in order to assess how they can contribute to advance SFM. Incremental innovations are a series of small improvements or upgrades made to existing products, services, processes or methods. The changes implemented through incremental innovation are usually focused on improving the efficiency, productivity and competitive differentiation of existing products, services, processes or methods. 13 Incremental innovations are epitomized as iterative step-by-step improvements and often originate within an economic sector or organization. In the forest sector, an example of incremental innovation is reduced impact logging (RIL), which is a refinement or improvement of traditional logging methods. Traditional tree improvement programs, based on provenance 14 trials and breeding of the best performing provenances, are another incremental innovation, representing step-bystep improvement.Transformative innovations are core concepts, ideas and activities that shift products, services, processes, methods or an entire sector into a new framework that is more viable (efficient, effective or profitable) for the future. Transformative innovations lead to novel products, entirely new value chains, value networks or new ways of doing business, creating new socio-economic trade-offs. These transformations enable and facilitate the exchange of ideas, objects and practices (Loorbach et al. 2020). While transformations can be sustaining innovations providing stability in an organization or sector by supporting their adaptation to external changes, they are more often disruptive innovations creating radical change that revolutionizes (transforms) current systems, an organization or sector. Prevailing principal products, services, methods, firms and alliance can be disrupted and displaced (Christensen et al. 2015).Examples Process innovations are the application or introduction of new technologies or methods for manufacturing products or providing services that assist an organization in retaining or gaining competitiveness and meeting market demands.Product and process innovations can be parallel and complementary, facilitating their adoption and mutually reinforcing their effects; both can also be either incremental or transformative. Process innovations include nursery, cutting garden and tissue culture techniques adapted to mass-produce clones (rooted cuttings, micro-cuttings, etc.) of the superior genetic material developed through tree improvement programs. Such mass production techniques can be cost-effective in producing large quantities of superior germplasm for dissemination to forest sector actors -non-government organizations (NGOs), development agencies, small scale commercial and community nurseries, and farmers. This process can also be seen as a transformative innovation by providing to various actors of the forest sector with superior-quality germplasm that was previously inaccessible to them, making it possible to expedite successful tree planting and forest restoration programs. Biological invasions can affect ecosystems across a wide spectrum of bioclimatic conditions. Therefore, it is often important to systematically monitor the spread of species over a broad region. Remote sensing has been an important tool for large-scale ecological studies in the past three decades, but it was not commonly used to study alien invasive plants until the mid-1990s. The authors synthesized previous research efforts on remote sensing of invasive plants from spatial, temporal and spectral perspectives. They also present a recently developed state-of-the-art image fusion technique that integrates passive and active sensing of energies concurrently collected by an imaging spectrometer and a scanning-waveform LIDAR system respectively. This approach provides a means to detect the structure and functional properties of invasive plants of different canopy levels. Finally, they summarize regional studies of biological invasions using remote sensing, discuss the limitations of remote sensing approaches, and highlight current research needs and future directions.Source: Huang and Asner (2009)The Bhutan has taken positive steps to sustainably manage its national forest resources. The use of innovative technologies, in conjunction with sustainable management principles, ensures the effective achievement of long-term sustainable management goals. This is especially relevant with the increase in local governance and participation, the threat of climate change, and the international agreements to which Bhutan is a member. Key application of innovative technologies applied to the forest sector in Bhutan include the following.Information systems are one area of technology that has a big impact on forest management. SFM relies on timely and accurate information for informed decision making and for national forest monitoring purposes.The databases currently employed in Bhutan include the following:• The Forest Information Reporting and Management System (FIRMS) is an online database system designed to streamline the information management system of the Department of Forests and Parks Services by capturing all information and data pertaining to forest resources and services. This database aims at facilitating planning, monitoring and evaluation of programs and sub-programs within the Department.• The Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) is an interactive interface where management decisions made during SMART patrol planning can be physically implemented by the SMART patrol team at various levels.• The Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) is another interactive interface designed to support a user or group of users in improving the effectiveness of decision making while solving semi-structured or unstructured spatial decision problems which are characterized by many actors, many possibilities, and high uncertainty. This system integrates database management systems with analytical models and expert knowledge, to provide analyses and results that can be viewed through graphical display.All these databases contribute to the central database maintained at the departmental headquarters, which is also the central data repository.The National Forest Inventory (NFI) and the National Wildlife Survey (NWS) involve collecting data and information on forests and wildlife resources for compilation, assessment and analysis to enable appropriate policy and management decisions. The Department has already carried out a first round of NFI and NWS, which provided the quantitative baseline required for sound forest management in the country. The NFI was carried out by drawing national survey grids (2,424 sampling plots) aided by the use of innovative technologies, like the Open Foris collection tool or Trimble GPS, with in-built survey designs using mobile apps for data collection, and subsequent data analysis using the CoCac (R-statistical) Package. 25 The NWS involved the use of radio telemetry and camera traps laid at predesigned grids. Generally, the NFI and the NWS were carried out by field crews and enumerators with minimal use of GIS and remote sensing technologies. However, immense opportunities are foreseen in employing remote sensing and GIS technologies in future assessments and surveys.Source: Dorji (2021)Box 6 Urban tree management system in SingaporeSingapore's National Parks Board manages over 6 million trees. The Urban Tree Management System enhances tree management by leveraging smart technologies and tools through the Remote Tree Management System (RTMS). The RTMS uses LIDAR scans to create a point-cloud model of all managed trees. A machine-learning algorithm is used to map the geospatial location and create digital twins of individual trees. The digital twins are remotely-assessed for tree health using multi-spectral and hyperspectral analyses to identify trees that are chlorotic or low in leaf area index. The tree structures are analyzed using the tree structural model (TSM+) and panoramic photographs obtained during the LIDAR scans. TSM+ considers the load-bearing capacity of tree components, properties of the wood, and the wind load acting on the tree. Sensor networks are also deployed across the parks to monitor tree tilting and movement to evaluate risk of uprooting and collateral damage. The networks are linked to GIS platforms that record historical movement of each tree. Should a tree be flagged for attention, inspectors simulate the effects of pruning or other management measures on tree stability to evaluate mitigation options. Once the remote analyses are complete, the inspectors compile a list of trees and mitigation options for field inspections. The field inspections may involve the use of traditional tools, resistographs, and/or tree inspection drones (TID). In addition, citizen science programs encourage the public to take an active role in their parks by crowdsourcing information and observation. The crowdsourced data is shared on an online platform that is publicly accessible. This high-tech approach to urban forest health is an effective means to identify individual trees which require attention and keep park environments safe.Source: www.nparks.gov.sgLUMENS was developed by World Agroforestry (ICRAF) and tailored to support the concept and context of green growth. LUMENS is a spatially explicit modeling platform of land use science that projects ecological and economics outcomes of land uses and land use changes. The platform can simulate various development scenarios, projecting ex-ante impacts of various management options to provide balanced input for negotiations among policymakers and other stakeholders.LUMENS runs effectively with minimum data inputs, matching conditions in many developing countries where detailed data can be lacking. The LUMENS supports green growth planning and strategies by providing: (i) well-founded accurate information on development options; (ii) integration of those options into existing development and conservation plans; and (iii) inclusive multi-stakeholder approach in the planning process where all stakeholders can express their needs and priorities. It is essential that all relevant stakeholders understand and agree on the outcomes, scope, challenges and opportunities of green growth planning process. LUMENS planning has been used to produce provincial green growth development plans in the Indonesian provinces of South Sumatra, Jambi, Aceh, Papua and West Papua. The Indonesian government has endorsed the use of LUMENS for land-based climate change mitigation for all provinces in Indonesia. LUMENS has also been used in Lam Dong province in Viet Nam for the provincial green growth action plan and will be tested in Sri Lanka.26 Location quotient is an analytical statistic that measures an area's economic specialization relative to a larger geographic unit, usually the nation.27 Segregated landscapes or ecosystems are those where land use is more specialized or monocultural. The end of the spectrum is integrated 'multi-functional' landscapes or ecosystems.ARIES is a collaborative and open-source platform for interoperable models and data, based on the Knowledge Laboratory (k.LAB) technology: an AI-powered and digital software for rapid ecosystem services assessment and valuation. It gives equal emphasis to ecosystem services supply, demand and flow in order to quantify actual service provision and use by society (as opposed to quantifying potential service benefits). It aims to provide a suite of models that support science-based decision-making where nature counts. Beyond ecosystem services, ARIES can be applied to other planning needs including natural capital accounting, agriculture and food security, and renewable energy.Collaborative information is hosted on a network and based on simple user query. ARIES automatically integrates all of the actors involved in the nature and societal interactions, connects them into a flow network and creates the best models for each actor and connection. The system to be analyzed is defined by selecting a spatial context (i.e. bounding box, political jurisdiction, watershed and more) on the map and setting the spatial and temporal resolution. This allows for a detailed and dynamic assessment of how nature provides benefits to people. ARIES has global models for carbon storage, sediment regulation, pollination, crop production, nature-based tourism, outdoor recreation, and the monetary valuation of forest ecosystem services through spatially explicit meta-analysis; with models of riverine flood regulation and water supply in advanced prototype and regional models.ARIES is an operational example of semantically integrated, distributed, collaborative modeling. The ARIES system grows as an international network of scientific collaborators contribute data and models, and each new assessment automatically adopts the best data and models available. In the near future, users will be able to not only develop, but also run models directly from the world wide web, enabling a simple, two-step modeling workflow suitable for non-technical users, such as decision makers and their staff. ARIES has been adopted by the Statistics Division of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) as the SEEA Explorer platform.Sources: https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/aries and https://aries.integratedmodelling.org| 25Photo 3. LUMENS empowers multi-stakeholder negotiation processes that are inclusive, integrated and informed to plan land uses for sustainable landscapes that support livelihoods and development while maintaining and restoring environmental services (© ICRAF).Empowered multi-stakeholder negotiation processes that are inclusive, integrated and informed in planning land uses for sustainable landscapes that can support livelihoods and development while maintaining and restoring environmental services, especially in tropical countries.Inclusiveness in any landbased related activities should be endorsed as early as possible, most importantly at the stage of diagnosis and option exploration.Develops proper zones or planning units within the landscape that suit the purposes to achieve sustainable landscape, from the local perspective, policy perspectives and scientific perspectiveQuantifies the Environmental Services of the landscape in terms of provisioning livelihoods and development, carbon, hydrological and biodiversityAnalysis trade-offs between rural income, regional economics and food security with the environmental servicesSimulates scenarios of land use changes based on use changes based on interventions or changes in land use practicesThe informed principle ensures that land-based planning decisions are made based on knowledge that comes from data, information, and the understanding of processes and functions that are contextual.Underlines the importance of having synergized processes and aligned objectives across conservation, development, and spatial land-used planning.is accompanied with user-friendly, parsimonious and publicly available software to Establishing forest reference levels (FRLs) and forest reference emission levels (FRELs) are an important initial step that countries need to take to benefit from REDD+ (according to paragraph 71 of decision 1/CP.16 28 ).As key components of national forest monitoring systems, FRLs and FRELs provide a baseline against which emission reductions can be measured and subsequent results-based payments can be made. The UNFCCC does not explicitly differentiate between a FRL and a FREL, but a common understanding is:• The forest reference level (FRL) is a benchmark for emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and removals from the sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (all REDD+ activities).• The forest reference emission level (FREL) is a benchmark for emissions exclusively from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD only).Reference levels are expressed as tons of CO 2 equivalent per year for a reference period against which the emissions and removals from a results period will be compared. Thus, reference levels serve as benchmarks for assessing each country's performance in implementing REDD+ activities. Reference levels must be kept consistent with the country's greenhouse gas inventory estimates.Reference levels should be transparent, taking into account historic data, and be flexible to accommodate differences in national circumstances and capabilities, while pursuing environmental integrity and avoiding perverse incentives. Developing country Parties implementing REDD+ can use a stepwise approach to construct reference levels, incorporating better data, improved methodologies and, where appropriate, additional pools. They should also update their reference levels periodically, taking into account new knowledge, new trends and any modification of scope and methodologies.Developing countries aiming to implement REDD+ activities are invited to submit a reference level to the UNFCCC secretariat, on a voluntary basis and when deemed appropriate. The information contained in the submission should be transparent, complete, accurate and consistent with guidance agreed by the Conference of the Parties (COP). The information provided should be guided by the most recent guidance and guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), as adopted or encouraged by the COP.Each submission of a proposed reference level, in the context of results-based payments, shall be subject to a technical assessment, in accordance with the procedures and timeframes established by the COP.The technical assessment process is conducted once a year and is coordinated by the Secretariat. The full guidelines and procedures for the technical assessment of submissions from Parties on proposed reference levels are contained in decision 13/CP.19 29 and its annex.Having an assessed national reference level or, as an interim measure, subnational reference levels in place is one of the requirements to be eligible for results-based payments in accordance with decision 9/CP.19. A link to the final technical assessment report should also be provided in the Lima REDD+ Information Hub. remotely. The database provides essential information for business feasibility studies including the condition of bamboo forests, volume of bamboo per species, quality of bamboo, location, ownership, and transportation conditions. Furthermore, the app can also be used to assess an area's suitability for bamboo establishment and commercial production (Wu 2021a; Trinh  Thang Long, personal communication,  2020 30 ).Experts consulted for this study emphasized two priority categories of biological technologies: (i) innovations around genetic resources and germplasm (including exploration and collection, evaluation and selection, seed source management, breeding, propagation options, multiplication, dissemination and marketing); and (ii) DNA identification and tracking.Genetic resources (germplasm) can be the single most important input in any tree production system, whether forest, plantation, agroforestry or any other systems with trees. Independently of other inputs, the germplasm quality makes significant contributions to productivity (Simons et al. 1994). The genetic and physical quality of germplasm defines the upper limit of the system's potential yield, as well as the productivity of other inputs (agricultural chemicals, labor, management, etc.). After planting, due to issues of governance, access, size and remoteness, there is often little to no management or investment (in fertilizers, labor, etc.) in many tree production systems. This makes germplasm genetic and physical quality paramount. There is significant intra-specific genetic variation regarding site adaptability, growth characteristics, wood properties, fruit production and many performance parameters of many tree species used for commercial or subsistence purposes. The genetic superiority in these traits can be captured through proper selection and/or formal breeding of the right populations and genotypes to improve niche complementarity, 32 productivity, quality and profitability when matched to specific planting sites and user requirements (Dawson et al. 2014).Selection and breeding of plant species are not new: plant domestication to meet the needs of human populations is an ancient process (Harlan 1971;Sauer 1952). However, systematic work to improve tropical tree species is far more recent (Page 2021). In a review of tropical tree research, Simons and Leakey (2004) report that only about 40 taxa have benefited from improvement programs. Efforts to select and improve tree genetic material for local needs are even newer (Leakey et al. 2012;Roshetko and Evans 1999;Page 2021). They generally involve collaboration with communities of farmers and the integration of their livelihood objectives (Box 10). Working on genetic material and germplasm are not only product innovations but also process innovations, as well as social innovations that will go through cycles of modification as the technologies and methods of tree improvement are refined and transformed for a different set of parameters, species, and uses.Experts consulted for this study identified the following priorities for genetic material and germplasm (tree domestication) research and development: enhancing species disease resistance, drought resistance, growth, and adaptation to climate change, or to yield wood with high lignin (to produce cellulosic  derived sugars for bioplastics, biofuels, etc.) or low lignin (for improved pulp). These efforts should continue with species of recognized industrial and high commercial value such as acacias, eucalyptus, rosewoods (Dalbergia spp.), teak (Tectona grandis), and poplars (Populus spp.). Superior genetic material -provenances, varieties, landraces and clones -have been identified for these species. This material should be accessed and multiplied in state-of-the-art research and commercial nurseries to produce highquality planting material to optimize growth and meet product needs. This is possible as reliable efficient nursery, cutting garden and tissue culture techniques have been developed for the mass production of clones of industrial tree species (Monteuuis and Goh 2017;Harwood and Nambiar 2014;Nambiar and Harwood 2014). It may be appropriate to develop genetic material for more production goals. In Malaysia, the forest industry has developed rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) clones both to increase latex yield and to increase timber production (Harun 2021).Simultaneously, it is important that a participatory breeding approach be undertaken with a broad group of local stakeholders (farmer groups, communities, civil society, indigenous communities) targeting locally prioritized tree species, including indigenous species. Low-input and 'tree diversity breeding' 33 encompasses multiple species, with varied improvement objectives for different environments (Urzedo et al. 2022;Graudal et al. 2021;Lillesø et al. 2021;Lillesø et al. 2018). These approaches can focus on timber, fruit, vegetables or other prioritized tree products and services. Research efforts on agroforestry tree domestication were initiated in the mid-1990s to multiply germplasm and develop propagation techniques for fruit and nut species prioritized by farmers. In the first decade, efforts were led by scientists working in humid West Africa. Subsequently work expanded to the rest of Africa, Latin America, Asia (primarily Southeast Asia) and Oceania. While the assessment of species potential and the development and dissemination of techniques for improved germplasm production were the principal activities in the first decade, the second decade was characterized by a growing research agenda that included characterization of genetic variation using morphological and molecular techniques, product commercialization, farmer adoption and protection of farmers' rights. In parallel with this expanding research agenda, there was increasing use of laboratory innovations to quantify genetic variation of the chemical and physical composition of marketable products (e.g. essential oils, food-thickening agents, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compounds, fuelwood). Leakey et al. (2012) predicted that the next decade of applied research in agroforestry tree domestication would focus on rural development agendas to enhance the livelihoods of poor smallholder farmers, including: continuing advancements in genetic and germplasm improvement; post-harvest processing, storage and packaging of agroforestry products; scaling domestication to focus on marketing, income generation and nutrition; the development of producer-trader linkages and greater involvement of the private sector; and the formulation of intellectual property rights (IPRs) to protect the innovations and indigenous rights of farmers and local communities. Their prediction was largely correct as most of these topics have been research priorities over the past decade.Source: Leakey et al. (2012).| 31 2013; Leakey et al. 2012;Nichols and Vanclay 2012). In the case of these undomesticated species, one innovation is the basic selection and use of quality genetic material to improve productivity and income generation, requiring not only appropriate techniques but also social innovation to effectively deploy improved material to communities and smallholders (Page 2021). This work needs to start with the exploration and collection of natural populations and landraces to evaluate and select the best genetic material for the performance parameters of interest.Geotagging superior mother trees can bolster tree domestication programs of priority native species by identifying seed source for management and collection of superior germplasm for multiplication in commercial nurseries (Almoite and Togado 2021). It is essential that the domestication process start with the exploration and evaluation of existing genetic resources, as many reforestation, landscape restoration and tree planting activities are constrained by inadequate attention to matching the available genetic material of the species being planted with site conditions or expected use of the product (Jalonen et al. 2018;Roshetko et al. 2018).As quality germplasm is often in limited supply and not readily available, what steps can be taken to broaden access to quality germplasm at a reasonable cost? What approaches can be used to multiply larger quantities of quality germplasm to facilitate dissemination to users? This is particularly important for farmers, communities and local organizations who often have the least access to quality genetic material and formal germplasm sector and often rely on germplasm of unknown or inferior quality (Pachas et al. 2019;Roshetko et al. 2018;Harwood et al. 1999). Government, research and development agencies that support communities and local organizations with reforestation and tree planting activities can facilitate the dissemination of the highestquality genetic material that match local conditions. Local organizations and farmers can be trained in germplasm production, collection and management to multiply quality germplasm and sustain local supplies of superior material into the future. Farmers have a proven ability to successfully operate germplasm production and supply pathways.However, in most situations this will not develop spontaneously. Leadership and support from technical and development agencies will be required, including capacity building for local communities and organization and facilitation with germplasm business plans and marketing (Lillesø et al. 2018;Lua et al. 2015;Nyoka et al. 2015;Catacutan et al. 2008). Assistance should include the development of simple seedbased propagation methods that fit local conditions (Bertomeu and Sungkit 1999), as well as farmer and community-based systems for the mass production of clonal material of priority species for the support of the commercial forest sector (Page 2021).DNA technologies have emerged as indispensable innovations that use cutting-edge genetic testing to identify and document the geographic origin of a biological sample. DNA identification, also called DNA tracking, profiling or fingerprinting, enables the accurate traceability of forest products and improves the governance of their value chains, contributing to the prevention and prosecution of illicit trade. DNA profiling technology is frequently used in the trade of premium tropical timbers, and can be applied to either natural forest or plantation-grown timber. However, in clonal plantations, it needs to be combined with or replaced by chemical testing linking the timber to the soil where it was grown.During harvest, logs are commonly stamped or documented to identify their geographic origin. However, overharvesting and mixing logs from different origins are common problems. DNA fingerprinting at the forest origin and DNA testing along the value chains can help verify documentation that accompanies timber consignments in the Asia-Pacific region and globally (Lowe et al. 2021). The establishment of origin-specific genetic datasets can support this process. Fingerprinting helps timber suppliers, traders and buyers confirm the integrity of the value chains and satisfy the import regulations of the European Union (EU), North America, and Australia.DNA tracking is used with a wide range of species for which illegal logging is a problem because they have a high market value, are heavily traded or are threatened. Besides timber, DNA profiling is also used to track invasive insects (Lees et al. 2011), wildlife movement (Evens et al. 2020), forest reproductive material (Degen et al. 2010) and bushmeat imports (Kamran 2018). Genetic tracing combined with geolocalization can match specific genetic material to specific local climatic conditions. This facilitates the identification of genetic material that should perform well at sites that are experiencing climate change and have or will have climates similar to the native climate of the genetic material.Wood microscopy is also used to identify tree species and track illegal logging and illegal trade of forest products (Gupta et al. 2021).Several types of process and product technologies were identified that have significant potential to contribute to SFM in the Asia-Pacific region. These various technologies can be categorized under the following broad categories:• process innovations that address forest management, harvesting, processing and manufacturing; and, • product innovations that include engineered wood, bamboo products and nanotechnologies.A principle uniting these technologies is the importance of making more efficient use of forest resources, improving recovery rates and reducing waste and forest collateral damage during harvest. This includes an emphasis on underutilized species that have been largely overlooked but hold huge potential that remains largely untapped. These efforts should build on strong research collaborations and include a focus on moving wood products up the value chain. These technologies, combined with improved varieties or clones of priority and underutilized species, have the potential to Photo 6. Community cutting nurseries (gardens) and plantations of improved genetic material established with assistance from forest sector partners, support farmers in contributing to landscape restoration, the supply of timber resources, and enhancement of their livelihoods (© Tony Page).The Global Timber Tracking Network (GTTN) promotes the use of innovative tools for species identification and to determine the geographic origin of wood to verify timber trade claims. The network and tracking tools are used to curb illegal logging and the illegal timber trade. The GTTN consists of standard protocols and guidelines, a reference database, an expert database, and communication, policy and advocacy activities.The GTTN:• Was formed through the joint vision of all stakeholders involved in global action against illegal logging and associated timber trade, with the network's activities financed through an open multi-donor approach.• Supports researchers who develop the tools, forest and timber industries that exercise due diligence, and law enforcement agencies in the fight against illegal logging and trade around the world.• Includes working groups that elaborate and implement a joint roadmap to reach shared aims, linked to GTTN core activities.Weblink: https://globaltimbertrackingnetwork.org/organisation/about/A common target of illegal logging in the Pacific Northwest of North America is bigleaf maple, Acer macrophyllum Pursch. Its timber is highly valued for its grain and translucent pattern and widely used in string instruments such as guitars. The illegal removal of old growth maple trees from national parks along the west coast of North America is a significant and increasing problem. Motivated by the discovery of a cluster of illegally felled bigleaf maple trees in Washington state, the US Forest Service worked with the University of Adelaide to develop a DNA profiling tool to identify the timber in supply chains back to felled stumps.One hundred and twenty-eight single nucleotid polymorphic (SNP) loci were designed to capture interindividual variation in bigleaf maple (Jardine et al. 2015). Using these markers, a DNA reference database was developed consisting of 394 individuals from 43 sites across the range of the bigleaf maple. The assay was subject to a strict forensic validation procedure based on the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods validation guidelines to ensure reliability for forensic purposes. A range of sample types (leaf, cambium, timber) were analyzed to represent the variety of case samples that may be encountered, and mother trees and seedlings compared to confirm the Mendelian inheritance of the markers. The assay was demonstrated to work effectively at low DNA concentrations (<1 ng/μL) and to have high species specificity.Based on the reference data, the FST 35 -corrected probability of identity (P ID ) was 1.785 × 10 −25 , meaning that the chance of the assay returning a match between samples that did not originate from the same tree (or clone) was miniscule. The resulting publication was the first to apply forensic validation criteria to an assay developed for individualization of timber (Dormontt et al. 2020). Using the developed assay, several pieces of wood seized from a sawmill were compared with samples from illegally felled stumps in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest and a match was detected. In a subsequent legal case in 2016, four defendants pleaded guilty to violations of the Lacey Act 2008, the first domestic prosecution under this legislation.Source: Lowe et al. (2021).In addition to being used to identify illegally logged timber, DNA fingerprinting and genetic profiling can support claims of legality in timber supply chains. A critical timber supply chain in this respect is teak. Teak timbers are sought after the world over and are prized for their durability and water resistance, making it ideal for the construction of super yachts, high quality furniture, veneer, carvings and turnings. The high demand for naturally grown timber, due to its perceived structural superiority over that grown in plantations, has led to a black market in 'conflict teak', where illegally harvested timbers are laundered into legitimate supply chains. These illegal activities are strongly associated with environmental and human rights violations.In Myanmar, forestry systems have management and paper documentation practices introduced by UK and Germany regulators to authenticate the source of teak, but the global movement of illegal timber has made further assurance necessary. One of the primary ways that illegal timber enters the market is by being mixed into legitimate supply chains, accompanied by fraudulent documents. Teak logs confiscated from illegal logging groups are resold into the market rather than destroyed, and the practice has become controversial for customers in the EU, which requires illegal timber to be excluded from supply chains completely. Whilst mixing of legal and confiscated timber can be controlled in certified supply chains, the EU has raised doubts as to the reliability of paper verification.Lowe et al. ( 2021) sought to determine the potential for using genetic profiling to support legal verification in teak supply chains in two ways: (i) through assignment of samples back to their population of origin; and (ii) through individualization of matched samples from the same tree along supply chains. These tests were applied to the supply of teak from natural populations in Myanmar and plantation populations in Indonesia.To achieve these aims, a set of 132 neutral SNP loci (Dunker et al. 2020) were applied to over 1,000 tree samples taken from across the natural range of teak in Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR, and samples from naturalized populations and plantations in Indonesia, Lao PDR and PNG (Dormontt et al. 2019). Population genetic structure across the natural range of teak in Myanmar produced self-assignments that were 69% accurate to the fine-scale collection site level. Assigning the five most likely reference collection sites within a 100 km radius buffer allowed the correct origin of samples to be identified in over 95% of cases. This approach was effectively used in blind samples (not collected from the same specific sites used in the reference data) to verify the claimed origin and support demonstration of due diligence. DNA fingerprinting methods were also used to match blind samples of sawn timber from the log yard to cut tree stumps and accurately traced each piece of timber to its individual tree stump in the forest or plantation.In Indonesia, DNA was used to trace teak timber along a large plantation supply chain from the Perhutani Forest Management Unit at Cepu. The assignment of plantation material back to its population of origin was successful in verifying supply chain integrity.Overall, across the Myanmar and Indonesia case studies, the individualization of matched samples provides the highest level of certainty with respect to the verification of intact supply chains, which is also the most logistically challenging. As such, it should only be used for the most tightly controlled supply chains.Source: Lowe et al. (2021) and Lowe et al. (2016) reduce pressure on natural forests. Finally, there is a need for integration given links and potential synergies with innovations from the other categories (digital technologies, biological technologies, financial innovations and social innovations).Process innovations are relevant to forest management, forest harvesting, wood processing and wood product manufacturing. Improved silviculture management, including refined site preparation, planting and post-planting practices can directly improve SFM and productivity. There are synergies between the digital and biological technologies mentioned above and the process of improving silvicultural management. Geospatial data and analysis is improving decision making and forest management to increase yields, reduce waste and costs, and maintain ecosystem services. Geospatial analysis can be used to automate the targeting of weed and pest control in forests and plantations (Tim Payne, personal communication, 2020 36 ). Additionally, the use of quality genetic material and appropriate matching between site, species and germplasm can enhance the productivity of improved silviculture management and its inputs. recovery rates, productivity and grade yield.Similarly, spindle-less lathe technology for veneer peeling holds potential for reducing waste and allowing utilization of small diameter logs. These examples hold potential for transfer and adoption in other countries across the region.Portable sawmills are a technology of particular relevance to small-scale forestry as smallholder timber production and CF schemes have become widespread and well-established in the last 20 years (Box 29).While not strictly a 'new technology', portable sawmills are linked to institutional and social innovations and an example of technologies that have become available or relevant to new groups of stakeholders. Small enough to be easily moved, portable sawmills can be easily transported to and set up in rural areas. This makes it possible to economically harvest or thin secondary forests, smallscale plantations and smallholder plantings, as well as to harvest small-diameter trees, which are common in all three systems. The technology is particularly important for mature smallholder timber plantings, which are often located in less accessible areas as smallholder timber production was often promoted as an effective land use for underutilized sites. While portable sawmills hold potential, precautions are also warranted: portable sawmills will be a new and potentially dangerous technology in most places and require thorough training with an emphasis on safety. The stress on technical capacity cannot be overstated as improper use can easily result in high-quality logs turning into moderate-to low-value lumber. In some cases, it may be best to sell high-quality logs of premium timber species to the local forest industry, using the portable sawmills for the conversion of fast-growing species, lower-value species and small-diameter logs.Portable sawmills could be owned by villagelevel enterprises, communities or individuals. Regardless, a financial and economic analysis must be carried out before making the investment to ensure it is a viable commercial option.Within the region, there is a great opportunity to engage the forest manufacturing industry in the development of the new generation of wood-based materials. Engineered wood products are a group of wood products manufactured from wood boards, veneers, strands, particles or fibers with adhesives or other fixers to form composite material (Milner and Woodard 2016). Engineered woods are 38 scanning wood and suggesting how to cut/process the wood to maximize value and recovery rates Photo 10. Plantation thinnings and other small-diameter wood can be used by process technologies to enhance resource utilization and economic benefits (© Shengfu Wu).also called composite wood, man-made wood and manufactured board. Specific engineered wood products include crosslaminated timber (CLT), mass timber, glulam (glue laminated timbers), medium-density fiberboard (MDF), particleboard, oriented strand board (OSB), veneer and plywood. While these are not strictly 'new' products, contextually expanding their manufacture and quality represents an innovation in many countries in the region. CLTs, engineered to meet precise specifications, are used in home construction and commercial buildings. Mass timber products are strong building materials that have the potential to replace steel and concrete. The manufacture of MDF and particleboards can use low-value, previously under-utilized species, wood scraps from processing mills, and other wood waste.The manufacture of OSB can also utilizes small-diameter under-utilized species. This is greatly increasing wood recycling and recovery rates while generating additional economic and environmental benefits. All engineered wood products represent carbon sinks with positive climate mitigation impacts. They often increase the lifespan and thus carbon storage of wood scraps and small soft woods that would have otherwise been used for energy production at best.The technology required to produce engineered wood products is compatible with regional wood processing industries. Previous methods of producing this material were highly energy-intensive and used harmful chemicals, but a recent study shows a new method to make wood transparent with far lower energy consumption (Xia et al. 2021).Similarly, there is considerable potential for the production of biochemicals andRubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is an important crop not only to Malaysia but to large parts of Africa, Latin America and the rest of Asia, with 10 million hectares cultivated globally each year. It is predominantly a smallholders' crop for latex production, and 70% of the latex produced is used to manufacture tires. Globally, rubber cultivation supports approximately 40 million families. Upon replanting, rubberwood production can provide smallholders with additional income from harvested rubber trees, which can help improve their livelihoods. Harvested rubber trees can be sold to saw millers, veneer and plywood mills as well as to bio-composite mills for the production of medium-density fiberboard, particleboard and oriented strand board.After 25 years, the economic yield of latex normally decreases and rubber plantations are traditionally replanted. In Malaysia, the logs of rubber trees were initially used for energy or simply removed to clear the site. Intensive research and development (R&D) efforts in the 1980s and 1990s focused on fundamental rubberwood properties (anatomical, physical, mechanical and chemical) as well as its workability in product manufacturing. These concerted R&D efforts enabled innovative uses of rubberwood in furniture manufacturing that are now recognized as suitable due to the high quality and abundant availability of rubberwood. The rubberwood furniture industry has developed rapidly since it took off in the 1990s, catapulting Malaysia into the world's top 10 furniture exporters. Rubberwood furniture constitutes 80% of Malaysia's total annual furniture export, amounting to a value of MYR 40 9.1 billion in 2019. This figure has consistently ranged from MYR 7-10 billion over the past five years. Domestic furniture consumption has an estimated annual value of MYR 5-7 billion over the same period. Major export markets for Malaysian rubberwood furniture include the USA, Japan, the EU, the Middle East, China and Australia.The main components of wooden furniture are currently manufactured based on 'original equipment manufacturing' 41 (OEM) or reproductions. More furniture companies are moving towards ODM (own design manufacturing) and eventually OBM (own brand manufacturing). Both ODM and OBM typically command higher selling prices than OEM furniture.Besides furniture manufacturing, rubberwood and other forest timber species can be converted into building components or builder, joinery and carpentry (BJC) such as floors, moldings, window and door frames. Current trends are gearing towards the use of timber as a load-bearing structure in multi-story buildings. Rubberwood with a density between 500-640 kg m -3 with a light color and high workability can be effectively used for building components and multi-story load-bearing structures in building constructions. R&D efforts are now being carried out on the use of rubberwood in load-bearing construction and using industrialized building system (IBS) technology. In Malaysia, exports of BJC and wood moldings amounted to MYR 1.9 billion in 2019.Bio-composite products such as medium-density fiberboard (MDF), particleboard, oriented strand board (OSB) veneer and plywood have been effectively manufactured from rubberwood trees. Investments in the forest sector stand out from financial opportunities in other sectors due to the nature of forestry activities.The production of timber and other forest resources requires considerable land and long periods of time. There is a long time-span between investments in a new plantation and the first financial benefits.Similarly, if improvements need to be made, such as in genetic material or management practices, the results of such improvements may yield benefits after only one or several tree rotations. This long time-span from initial investment to maturity generates high uncertainties. What will be the future demand for forest products (and services)? How will prices evolve in the future? What will be the future impacts of climate change, extreme weather conditions, fires, pests, diseases, and land conversion? How will future policy and regulatory changes and social and environmental conflicts over natural resources affect the future use of forests and supply of forest products and services? Investors need answers to all of these questions before making decisions on investments in forestry. For investors, these perceived risks are a major obstacle, and when investing in forestry, they want to be compensated for the high risks by high returns or want these risks to be at least partly covered by insurance, guarantees or other forms of third-party involvement that reduce their risk (Louman et al. 2020).As a result of these common conditions, forestry attracts less investment than other sectors. At the same time, there is increasing awareness of the importance of forest products and services as contributing to global climate and environmental agendas. Over the past 10 to 15 years, international initiatives have sought innovative ways to attract finance to the sector. This section highlights some innovative finance options that have become more widely used recently, although they may have been developed previously. In particular, these innovations seek to reduce risks to investor by sharing them with others and possibly in different proportions.A The principles for green, sustainability or climate bonds are similar. The main difference lies in the criteria used to determine the eligibility of the initiatives to be financed. Since most bonds relate to mediumand longer-term loans, they require issuers to be stable and capable of managing funds, i.e. mature organizations, such as fund managers, banks or large corporations. They also require independent third-party certification to monitor the bond and ensure that proceeds are really used for the objectives stated at the time of issuance. Because they promise a fixed return rather than a variable profit based on the economic performance of the• Leveraging private finance to achieve international development goals• Creating an enabling business environment for private investors (reducing risks, covering transaction costs, etc.) beneficiaries, bonds are considered to be less risky but also provide lower returns. An advantage for the beneficiaries is that the initial investment does not have to be paid back until the bonds mature.In 2018, the average size of these types of bonds was USD 100 million, with an average life of 10 years (CBI 2019). This makes these bonds particularly useful for large-scale homogenous forestry operations such as planting fast-growing trees, where initial costs are high and benefits accrue over a long period of time. However, bonds for the land use sector are currently constrained by the lack of high-quality, bankable and scalable projects that meet bond criteria, especially regarding benchmarking on return rate and risk assessment. There is a need for innovative and efficient mechanisms to connect large funds with small projects, and local financial institutions have a key role in identifying projects and managing relationships with clients (Louman et al. 2020). Bonds can also be useful for financing payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes, such as payment for avoided carbon emissions or carbon sequestration (Box 17). One of the challenges for this type of bonds is to define what is green or sustainable, or to determine the climate contribution of the investments.Initial forms of crowdfunding depended on people sharing a common set of beliefs and information on the primary movers of a given crowdfunding initiative. Such efforts were generally limited to higher-income geographic areas where residents earned sufficient income to invest in such initiatives. The digitalization of communications and financial services has allowed crowdfunding to take on new forms and dimensions, making it possible for people from all over the world to invest in | 47 projects anywhere and of any type. However, providing some form of reliable knowledge on the investment initiatives and the borrowers remains a prerequisite for successful fundraising. Several digital platforms have been created to facilitate the transfer of such knowledge and directly connect borrowers with lenders. For instance, the Kiva platform 46 provide funds mainly for individuals, startups or small-scale enterprises through a network of local banks. This reduces the risk of fraudulent fundraisers. In addition, Kiva has started to use a digital verification system to verify the identity and credit history of the borrowers. The Impact Partners platform 47 aims to attract funds from impact investors. 48  This platform, which works more like a fund manager, can raise considerable funds and invests in businesses with a demonstrable positive social impact. Both platforms offer opportunities for investments at different rates of return and risks and ensure the monitoring of these investments.PES are incentives (payments or rewards) offered to communities, landowners or farmers in exchange for managing their land to provide a specific ecosystem service. These payments and rewards are a transparent system for the provision of services through conditional payments to voluntary providers (Tacconi 2012). Following the Kyoto Protocol, PES emerged as innovative mechanisms to promote SFM and natural resource conservation through market mechanisms. PES programs often integrate sustainable management with carbon stocks or sequestration, biodiversity protection or enhancement, watershed protection or enhancement, landscape management for ecotourism and community development (Fripp 2014). The negotiation process for PES must be participatory, transparent and agreeable to all partners. Specifically, providers (community, landowner or farmer) must understand the services they areThe TLFF combines blended finance with the issuance of bond-like notes. It is a recently set up facility that manages funds from a variety of public and private financiers and uses them to make green investments in tropical landscapes with the objective of contributing to the creation of local employment opportunities as well as the conservation of tropical forests. The TLFF involves a multi-stakeholder group (UNEP, ICRAF, investment manager ADM Capital, BNP Paribas and later WWF). Its core objectives are to provide sustainable rural jobs, rehabilitate degraded lands and provide clean electricity. The TLFF grant facility channels public funds to provide technical assistance and (co)funding for the projects at the early evolutionary stage (e.g. to provide enabling conditions for smallholder involvement). The TLFF lending platform provides longterm debt to sustainable agriculture, forest conservation and renewable energy sectors. The TLFF issues medium-term notes (BNP Paribas) for five, seven and 15 years and proposes different risk levels to attract different types of investors. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) offers a 50% guarantee for the USD 30 million tranche of longer-term (15-year) bonds. For example, the &Green Fund 44 blends finance and invests in TLFF through buying notes, whose proceeds can only be used to further invest in jurisdictional projects, while part of the notes are guaranteed by USAID. The TLFF currently finances new rubber plantations (Michelin) and conservation areas in Indonesia in the context of a jurisdictional approach. 45   Source: Louman (2021) 44 https://www.andgreen.fund/ 45 A jurisdictional approach is a type of integrated landscape management where the landscape is defined by policy-relevant boundaries and the underlying strategy is designed to achieve a high level of governmental involvement ( Often a combination of innovative finance options is the most viable choice, with grants important at early stages, followed by concessional loans and blending with commercial money; the latter may be raised through bonds. Crowdfunding is better suited for small-scale initiatives and start-ups and can be used to provide initial funding thatThe Sumatra Merang Peatland Project is a simple example where a fund manager issues carbon bonds, the proceeds of which are lent to a borrower who cedes carbon credits to the fund. The fund uses these credits to either pay back the bond from the bondholders with credits or trade the credits and make cash payments to the bondholders. In the case of this project, Mirova/Althelia (bonds issuer and fund manager fund) collaborates with PT GAL (borrower) and Forest Carbon (adviser). The project:• Complies with the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Standard (CCB)• Reduces the drivers of deforestation by supporting community-selected projects and peatland protection and restoration• Provides climate, livelihood (and gender) and biodiversity benefits• Provides tradable carbon credits and allows bond purchasers to opt for payment in carbon credits or cash.• Helps PT GAL to comply with environmental standards for its pulp-and paper-producing plantations  (Macqueen 2013, Moeliono et al. 2015).As women and men often have equally important yet unique roles, skills and knowledge on forest and tree management, CF programs often integrate practices of gender equality (Colfer et al. 2015;Mulyoutami et al. 2015). This enables CF to address the issues of livelihoods, poverty reduction, SFM and empowerment of women and girls. In CF schemes that include the commercial production of wood or other Forest and farm producers are a diverse group of land managers. Collectively and individually, forest and farm producers, own or manage 65% of the world's land (Verdone 2018). 49 This area includes locally controlled forests, which provide rights to smallholder families, indigenous people and local communities to make decisions regarding forest management and profit from the use of the land, forest and their components.Locally controlled forests overlap with CF. The owners and managers of locally controlled forests are increasingly recognized as important global actors and are targeted recipients of development and technical support. 50 Once empowered and assured of their rights forest and farm producers favor sustainable land and forest management to protect and enrich those assets that are a basis for generating their livelihoods. Forest and farm producers, and their communities, often operate forest-and farm-enterprises that are associated with CF systems and programs.Public-private partnerships (PPP) are social innovations that combine private finance and public resources to implement projects for public benefit. They often take the form of contractual arrangements between the private sector (companies or individuals) and government agencies, to provide public assets or services, in which the private party bears financial risk and operational responsibility in return for payment (profits) from governments (taxpayers) or users of the assets or services provided (WBI 2012).Although commonly associated with the development and operation of infrastructure projects and systems, PPPs can also beIn Nepal, CF was introduced in the 1970s. Under the program, families using a forest form a community forest user group (CFUG), register with the Forest Office and develop and implement a management plan with the support of government and civil society stakeholders. CFUGs collectively manage forests, including harvesting forest products as prescribed by the management plan, distributing these products to the members at subsidized rates, and selling the surplus to markets at competitive rates to provide financial resources to CFUGs. The following key lessons have emerged.• Breaking patriarchy: CFUGs identify both men and women as family heads with the authority to participate in CFUG decision making, including the selection of leadership. This is a significant change in Nepali society, where men are still considered family heads by default. Recognition in families and communities provides an enabling environment for women.• A democratically elected and inclusive community institution: CFUG members collectively select their leaders, ensuring that at least half of the positions are filled by women. The leadership body should include representation of marginalized groups such as poor and ethnic groups.• Adoption of a holistic development model: CFUGs have budgets for forest management as well as for community development. A minimum of 25% of the budget must address forest conservation, while 35% is devoted to address the needs of women and marginalized groups (the poor and ethnic minorities). The balance is for infrastructure such as schools, local roads, and drinking water systems.• A network of communities to safeguard their rights: CFUGs have built a national network, popularly known as FECOFUN (Federation of Community Forest Users Nepal), to safeguard the rights of local communities and promote collaboration. Building upon this network of thousands of CFUG members, FECOFUN provides agency to local communities by helping them engage with government agencies.• A progressive design: CFUGs hold commercial harvest and enterprise development rights, making them viable economic entities.• Strong support from key stakeholders: The Nepali government supports the program as a major part of the forest sector. The donor community provides resources and knowledge to implement and improve the program. Civil society participation fills gaps in support from state agencies.• Sectoral barriers: Despite their contribution to multiple sectors, CF policies and programs are limited to the forestry domain. This constrains the growth of CF, hampering opportunities to address challenges that span multiple sectors and emerging societal challenges.• Limited adaptation: Rural conditions have changed significantly in the last 30 years. However, the CF programs have not been able to fully adapt to these changes, nor to emerging challenges and opportunities.• Diffusion of major structural problems in the overall state mechanisms: Despite its good performance, CF relies on government support and is affected by the fluctuations in state planning and budgeting process. This creates obstacles for long-term SFM.• Weak market linkage and finance: Many CFUGs are not effectively linked to market opportunities. This contributes to Nepal's continued reliance on timber imports, despite domestic resources being sufficient to meet domestic market demand. As a result, many CFUGs have weak financial conditions and rely on external donors, with operation support from donors becoming increasingly difficult to secure.  There is a broad assumption that the deployment of innovations is inherently beneficial, with advantages generally outweighing the risks. However, innovative technologies could have significant negative impacts on social, economic and environmental conditions. Innovative jobs created might favor external people with higher technical skills more than local communities. Moreover, automation might lead to the loss of unskilled jobs and provide limited new employment opportunities for local residents with lower human or financial capacity. Such a downturn in employment would have a carry-over effect to the broader local economy and public sector. This would exacerbate negative social and economic conditions. Improved productivity and profitability facilitated by innovative technologies could drive an increase in demand for forest resources, resulting in unsustainable management, accelerated deforestation, habitat destruction and environmental degradation -resulting in negative environmental conditions. These potential negative impacts of innovative technologies on SFM and society (economic and social conditions) need to be anticipated and plans developed to minimize their effects.This chapter describes the main impacts, positive and negative, associated with the application of innovative technologies. These are summarized for the four innovative technology categories and as economic, social or environmental impacts in Table 5 in Section 3.8. Although not an exhaustive list, the table highlights the key advantages and disadvantages recognized during the study.Recent decades have seen huge shifts in wood demand and forest value chains. Globally, both demand for and production of industrial roundwood has grown. However, despite overall economic growth, per capita consumption of wood is decreasing as a result of population growth, technology improving resource use efficiency, substitute non-wood lignocellulosic materials, and insufficient production. In 2018, Asia had the lowest total roundwood 51 per capita consumption (265 m 3 per 1000 people against 510 m 3 per 1000 people on average at the global level), while consumption in Oceania reached 1109 m 3 per 1000 people (Gitz 2019; see also Figure 3).There are clear reasons for the overall increase in consumption, particularly in the regions where it is the lowest per capita: economic development driving increased pulp, building and furniture demand driven by population growth and urbanization (Gitz 2019). The Asia-Pacific region has become a major producer and exporter of wood products (see Figure 4 and Table 4).To serve this growing demand for wood products, the region imports sawnwood and industrial roundwood for processing (FAO 2019). The main Asia-Pacific woodimporting countries are China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, India and Viet Nam. Key sources of wood from outside the region are Canada and the USA. China has become the regional and global leader in forest product exports (see Figure 5). Wood demand has also grown in the region, with consumption remaining largely stable due to limited availability and innovative technologies that enhance resource use efficiency and recycling. Concurrent to these trends, global demand for fuelwood has decreased, driven by urbanization and preferences of a rising middle class for electricity and petroleum-based fuels (FAO 2019). The new wood products detailed aboveengineered woods, composite boards, bioplastics, biochemicals, pharmaceuticals and bioenergy -are increasing demand for industrial roundwood, accompanied by significant changes in resource use efficiency, processing, recycling, reduction in waste, use of small-diameter logs and acceptance of underutilized species previously considered non-commercial, which can be used by new technologies and markets as part of the development of the circular bioeconomy. These developments have led to the expansion of wood value chains from local to regional and global levels.The circular economy and bioeconomy are separate but complementary concepts. The circular economy seeks to reduce resource consumption by improving efficiency, recycling, reusing, and reducing waste; it targets the development of closed systems and commonly has a local focus. The bioeconomy uses biotechnology and biomass to produce goods, services and energy. It seeks to produce new products and services as well as to substitute the use of fossil fuels and resource-intensive materials (steel, concrete, plastics, etc) in forestry, agriculture, and marine systems and industrial processes (Carus and Damme 2018). The products and services of the bioeconomy utilize bio-based processes conducted by micro-organisms, animal and plant cells or their components. Biological processes and tools include breeding, bioinformatics, technologies and methods for data analysis and production processes for industrial biotechnology (Gomez San Juan and Bogdanski 2021).   Bioacoustics -specifically the recording and analysis of entire soundscapes -is an emerging innovation with great promise for the effective monitoring of wildlife biodiversity in tropical forests.Even forests that appear intact in satellite imagery could have low biodiversity conservation value because of effects such as canopy simplification, understory fires, invasion by exotic species, or overhunting. These parameters are difficult to monitor remotely with satellite imagery, resulting in a common faulty assumption that conserving forest cover equates to conserving biodiversity. While advances in spectral imagery and LIDAR (see Box 4) are identifying progressively finer levels of forest change, they remain a proxy for wildlife biodiversity rather than a direct measure.Measuring wildlife populations and the success of conservation programs used to require detailed onthe-ground surveys. However, repeated surveys are expensive, cover limited areas, and may be affected by collector bias. One possible alternative is the use of bioacoustics, which can detect wildlife species by their vocalizations. Depending on vegetation structure and the vocalizing species, acoustic recorders can detect species calls and song from several hundred meters away. The recorders also detect human activity. Autonomous sound recording devices are now available; as they are small and inconspicuous, they do not alter the areas in which they are placed. The devices can be programmed to record either continuously or at intervals, based on power source and data storage capacity. Multiyear recording studies have been completed.Soundscapes are analyzed in many ways. Indices can be calculated that characterize individual forest types, specific locations and times. Additionally, individual species can be identified by experts, through algorithms, or through deep learning 54 (Stowell et al. 2018). Advances in bioacoustics technology, as well as the increasing robustness and affordability of sound recording devices, are making it possible to deploy sound recorder networks in forest areas to monitor legal requirements, certification, or zero-deforestation commitments. Such networks can be managed by government agencies, conservation organizations, companies, communities or individuals. The Center for Conservation Innovations uses geospatial and mobile technologies to enhance local forest conservation by integrating the interests, knowledge and capacity of local communities. This type of partnership enables communities to contribute to forest conservation and protect their forest-based livelihoods.In many rural areas, particularly in remote locations, there are significant information gaps regarding forest cover, forest health and other spatial features. Information may be found in maps and old reports but is not readily available and has not been digitized. To fill these information gaps, local community members are recruited to collect forest information and trained in the use of geospatial tools like GIS, GPS, as well as mobile and web apps for mapping and image capture. Open-source technologies, such as QGIS (a desktop GIS app), Google Earth Engine, MapIT (mobile GIS app), and Landsat Explorer (a web-based app) are used to facilitate access, utilization, compatibility and cost-effective collection and analysis of forest information. Using this approach, local communities have calculated forest areas, pinpointed coordinates of specific locations, and provided imagery; confirming and documenting the location of roads, rivers and areas where forest disturbance is prevalent or of concern. This skill transfer enables local communities to contribute to the monitoring of reforestation activities, drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, biodiversity and ecosystem services. The availability of touchphones or smartphones, which are versatile gadgets with built-in GPS and cameras, and the development of software have enabled the creation of mobile apps that facilitate field data collection, the identification of species (flora and fauna -with emphasis on threatened species), and patrolling. When a wifi network is available, the data can be sent immediately to central online servers, enabling real-time reporting and analysis. Long-term forest management planning in Asia is ahead of the global average, while Oceania is behind (see Figure 6), with trends in Asia showing an improvement while those in Oceania have remained constant (FAO 2020a). Plans must be implemented to achieve the intended aims, and there remain opportunities for improvement. There are many synergies between forest monitoring and forest management. The large volumes of data and information generated by remote sensing and other innovative technologies can be used to enhance forest planning and management. This includes identifying threats such as fire, pests and diseases, drought, climate change, land conversion, and illegal harvesting and poaching, and developing and implementing mitigation strategies. The concept of precision forestry and improved silviculture management integrate the use of data and information from various sources to refine site preparation, planting and postplanting practices to improve SFM and productivity.Similar to the IPTIM systems mentioned above, the Heureka Forestry Decision Support System (DSS) is a freely available software package developed in Sweden.Its main components are: (i) an interactive stand simulator, (ii) a tool for long-term forest planning, containing an optimization module, and (iii) a simulator for regional analyses. Commercial logging in forest concessions is a vital source of timber for the global market. However, there are concerns regarding sustainability, particularly impacts on biodiversity and carbon storage. Logging intensity greatly influences the characteristics of the residual forest. It has widely been assumed that reduced-impact logging (RIL) diminishes the negative effects of logging. To test this hypothesis, a metaanalysis of selective logging impact studies was conducted, focusing on: (i) residual forest damage; (ii) aboveground biomass; and (iii) tree species richness. The results indicate that RIL appears to reduce residual tree damage when compared to conventional methods. However, changes in aboveground biomass were negatively related to logging intensity. Any effect of RIL, independent of logging intensity, was difficult to discern since it was carried out at relatively low intensities. Tree richness appeared to increase at low intensities but decreased at higher intensities. The direct effect of RIL was difficult to detect. The results support the hypothesis that RIL reduces the negative impacts of logging on tree damage. However, without an emphasis on reducing logging intensity, they do not support suggestions that RIL reduces the loss of aboveground biomass or tree species richness. This lack of support may be a result of the relative paucity of data on the topic. An issue to consider is whether RIL is inherently a low-intensity practice; in which case RIL does reduce the negative impacts on tree species diversity and carbon storage.Source: Martin et al. (2015).Spindle-less lathes are veneer peeling machines equipped with a pressure roller which allows logs to be peeled to a relatively small core diameter, giving the chance to process smaller diameter and lower quality plantation hardwood logs. Spindle-less lathe technology is promoted as an alternative valueadding processing strategy for small-diameter logs. In a study conducted in Australia, spindle-less lathe technology was used to process 918 billets 56 of six commercial hardwood species (Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus cloeziana, Eucalyptus dunnii, Eucalyptus pellita, Eucalyptus nitens, and Eucalyptus globulus). Results demonstrated that green veneer recovery rates were 68%-77% and gross veneer recovery rates were 54%-65%. These rates are two to six times higher than rates commonly reported for processing logs of similar diameter and quality with traditional solid wood processing (sawmilling) options commonly used in the study area. As expected, species, tree age, log quality and silviculture practices affected recovery rates. The study demonstrates that spindle-less lathe technology improves recovery, reduces waste, and increases economic returns. The technology holds potential for improving the value of small-diameter logs thinned from plantations, underutilized species, and logs that might otherwise be processed for lower-value products (pulpwood).56 A small stick of wood, as for firewood.to reduce tree species diversity and aboveground carbon stocks in the residual forest (Martin et al. 2015).Innovative technologies can reduce waste and improve resource and energy use efficiency along forest value chains (from harvesting to processing and distribution), thus increasing the profitability of the forest sector and contributing to the sustainable management of natural forest resources. They can also limit or avoid collateral environmental damages to ecosystems (e.g. pollution, destruction of untargeted organisms or species).An encompassing objective of process and products technical innovations is improved efficiency in the use of forest resources through enhanced recovery rates, reduced waste, and reduced negative environmental impacts. Synergies between digital technologies and process innovations improve the planning and implementation of forest management, harvesting and resource processing.However, some innovative technologies could be associated with challenges and possible negative impacts. RIL, portable sawmills and other harvest-related innovations can make it possible to access areas previously untouched, opening new production potential but with consequences for SFM and/or biodiversity conservation in these previously pristine areas (see Box 21).In processing facilities, CNC can be employed to optimize product design and wood processing, improving recovery. 5G wireless communications, AI, machine learning and their integration can facilitate automation and optimize wood processing. The process of making bamboo pellets is similar to that of other biomass pellets and involves drying, grinding, and extruding bamboo fiber under high pressures and temperatures into pellets of a specified size. The entire bamboo plant, including the stem, branch and its rhizome, can be used to produce bamboo pellets, making it highly resource-efficient, with limited wastage. Residues produced from bamboo products or furniture manufacturing such as sawdust and shavings also serve as an important raw material source. The whole pellet production process is illustrated in Figure 7.  The number of species that have benefited from comprehensive formal tree breeding programs is largely limited to commercial species. Initiatives that plant commercial species will have an adequate diversity of The potential contributions of bioenergy crops to the agricultural sector are manifold. However, questions remain regarding the economies of scale of bioenergy production at the macro level, the availability of suitable lands that are sufficiently near energy markets, and the level of operational and transaction costs. Additionally, planning needs to ensure that bioenergy crops do not compete with agriculture production, which could increase food commodity prices, hunger and food insecurity. Similarly, system designs must ensure that bioenergy production systems are sustainable and do not lead to further land and forest degradation. Bamboo holds huge potential as a source of bioenergy, with the added benefits of restoring degraded land and providing food and livelihoods for local communities. With a calorific value of approximately 4500 kcal kg -1 , bamboo is an efficient fuel and compares favorably with wood biomass. Bamboo affords superior environmental and health benefits, as it has a short production rotation and its fuel produces little smoke or odor. Bamboo can be planted on degraded public lands and underutilized farm niches. At both off-farm or on-farm locations, it also provides raw material for various household needs such as poles, construction, furniture, roofing, and fencing. Son tra, or the H'mong apple (Docynia indica), is a fruit indigenous to South and Southeast Asia. In Viet Nam, it is valued for multiple uses including as a dessert, wine, vinegar and tea. ICRAF, the Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), teamed in 2005 to start son tra domestication in the North West region of Viet Nam. The project included tree selection and domestication for yield and quality, a market analysis and the development of value chains for fresh fruits and transformed products.Over 2,400 trees were screened in 13 locations. Screening involved a sequence of selection processes, first identifying 600 trees with superior fruit yield, then selecting 150 trees with superior fruit appearance, followed by taste trials to identify 10 'candidate plus' 57 trees with high yields, superior morphology, peeling characteristics and taste qualities for fresh fruit consumption; and 20 'candidate plus' trees with high yield, superior fruit morphology and suitable taste for wine production. Son tra propagation trials confirmed a grafting technique success rate of 90% and potential to double current fruit yields. Grafts of selected genotypes have been established in clonal field tests to evaluate performance and adaptability to local growing conditions. Domestication has therefore helped identify genotypes that could be propagated as clones to improve son tra market potential. In parallel, a value chain and market analysis was conducted that revealed the potential for market expansion.The improvement of genetic material, as well as the development of market opportunities helped support the adoption of son tra as part of agroforestry systems that contribute to the reduction of soil erosion from steep areas and improve incomes and livelihoods of smallholders in the Northern region of Viet Nam. A study over a period of seven years comparing agroforestry systems with son tra or longan (Dimocarpus longan) to monocultures confirmed that agroforestry systems generate higher average annual income while enhancing ecosystem services, water and soil conservation, soil fertility, and resilience to extreme weather events.Sources: Tiep et al. (2018), Do et al. (2020).57 'Candidate plus' trees are those that will be used for future tree improvement programs based on their clonal and progeny performance.sustainability in the absence of institutional funding for tree breeding (Page 2021).Planting material must also be adapted to the intended production objectives of the tree planting enterprise. For timber production, these objectives could include: tree (log) height and diameter; straightness and wood density; chemical composition (e.g. low lignin for improved pulp production, high lignin for bioplastics production); or other specific characteristics such as high latex production for rubber. For commercial species, genetic material may have already been identified or bred for these specific objectives. For example, different lines of rubber clones have been developed for latex yield and timber production (see Box 27  et al. 2000). The mean annual stem growth of selected trees is 12.5% greater than that of unselected stock.Farmer growers were provided with seed and seedlings of known provenance, as well as training in woodlot management and identification of the attributes of a good timber/seed tree. This enabled the deployment of seed to growers at the same time as the more formal improvement activities described above. This was important to satisfy household demands for seed, develop capacity to manage nurseries and woodlots and establish local distribution networks for improved seed/clones. Lead farmers were engaged with a view to building their skills in assessing woodlot quality (Page et al. 2016a(Page et al. , 2016b)).Farmer teak woodlots of known provenances were established through low cost bare-root seedling production on family land. The technology was adopted widely, with 38 community nurseries distributing seedlings within their communities. Through this process, 280 farmers planted 22,000 seedlings with the source provenance recorded, while an additional 8,000 seedlings were planted by outside groups. While the rate of adoption may be considered modest, the independence of the growers in establishing these woodlots without cash or other incentives offers a sustainable model for scaling out when local germplasm supply increases.When woodlots were five to six years old, some trees were 20 cm diameter at breast height (DBH). Tree owners were approached by village-based portable sawmill owners to cut the trees for sale. Demand for teak thinnings was significant, with posts sold down to an over-bark small end diameter (SED) of 9.0 cm (mean SED of 15 cm). The posts were sold on a linear meter basis for USD1.42/ linear m which equated to USD 123 to PGK 60 493 m -3 (Jenkin 2019a). This shows the very high demand for timber in the region and demonstrates an avenue for commercial thinning. For final harvest, most landholders are willing to wait until the trees attain a commercial size of around 40 cm (~12-15 years). A community teak estate of 174 ha will satisfy timber demand for local house construction in 20 years (Jenkin 2019b). This will reduce pressure on remaining local forests. The commercialization of smallholder teak timber will however, require reforms to existing legislation and policy to enable smallholders to legally market timber derived from their woodlots (Jenkin 2019c).Tree improvement and the equitable distribution of quality germplasm is an important innovation. In PNG, a base population of genetically diverse teak has been established with institutions and smallholder growers. This forms the foundation for the selection and improvement of teak germplasm, with local networks in place for germplasm distribution to smallholder growers. Smallholder teak plantings are already producing durable posts for the construction of local outbuildings. The timber produced at final harvest will enable the construction of permanent structures. This will improve livelihood outcomes for families that currently have limited access to timber. The wider adoption of teak planting can also reduce regional dependence on timber extracted from natural forests and create opportunities for sustainable domestic commercial timber supply.Source: Page (2021) 58 The introduction of genetic material from specific provenances 59 Non-additive genetic variation results from interactions between genes.60 Papua New Guinea Kina (currency)Box 27 Clones for latex or for wood: tree breeding in the Malaysian rubber sector Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is among the five most important tree commodities in the world. Although native to Brazil, rubber has been cultivated in Malaysia for over 130 years. The national rubber estate is approximately 1.2 million hectares, predominantly owned by smallholder farmers with less than 2.5 ha per family. The Malaysian rubber industry originally focused on latex production. Originally, old trees were cut, burned in the field or utilized as wood fuel when their economic productivity declined. To expand economic opportunities for rubberwood, the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (RRIM) initiated research on rubberwood properties and potential in the 1980s. Research success led to the development of the Malaysia rubberwood furniture industry in the 1990s. The RRIM conducted extensive breeding research to develop rubber clones yielding greater amount and better-quality latex. High-yield clones including the RRIM 600 and RRIM 900 series not only benefitted Malaysia but were also disseminated to Thailand and countries in Africa and Latin America. Thailand is the largest producer of rubber in the world: RRIM 600 clones are cultivated over 60% of its rubber estate. As the lucrative rubberwood industry and markets expanded, demand evolved for high-yielding genetic material. The RRIM, since restructured as the Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB), diversified its breeding program to develop clones for wood production. The new clones yield high-quantity latex, while simultaneously producing larger-diameter and more spherical stems. The best performing latex timber clones (LTCs) are the RRIM 2000 and RRIM 3000 series. LTC are widely planted by farmers and plantations who want to diversify production and market risks.Source: Harun (2021).global challenges, including participatory governance and management, environmental restoration, biodiversity conservation, harnessing biotechnology, demand for tree and forest products, livelihood enhancement, and private sector engagement (Graudal et al. 2021).While germplasm production and dissemination innovations provide broad positive environmental, social and economic impacts to society, there are some potential disadvantages. Genetic improvement programs require time, capital and technical expertise. As a result, genetic improvement activities may be restricted to a limited number of species, with a majority of the selected species being those of commercial value. Species of local importance may not be prioritized. This can lead to limitations in the number of species that are effectively used. There are also risks of a reduction in genetic intraspecific variability, which should be addressed with appropriate conservation plans for genetic diversity. Given the costs of genetic improvement, its benefits could be reserved to actors that have sufficient financial and human capitals unless there are mechanisms in place to facilitate broader use. Improved-quality germplasm is often of limited supply and expensive, which could restrain access by farmers and communities. Additionally, access to genetic material developed by private companies or individuals could be restricted by IPRs.Employment in the forest sector has been on a global decline since the 1990s. Asia has followed the global trend, while the forest sector in Oceania has experienced a large employment gain during this period (see Figure 8). As shown above innovative technologies have benefits that most often generate more positive than negative impacts, justifying their adoption. However, it is important to consider all potential consequences in various domains and on all categories of stakeholders. Such evaluation and precautions will limit negative impacts. It will also help to facilitate adoption and scaling up by mitigating potential opposition from stakeholders who can be exposed to negative impacts from the adoption of innovative technologies.When considering the adoption of innovations, it is essential to consider not only the main objectives for their adoption but also all of their potential impacts, potential synergies and trade-offs with other objectives.This can lead to the broader adoption and scaling up of environmental and social safeguards or, as appropriate, to design compensatory or accompanying measures, such as training plans for laid-off workers or support to enable small enterprises to adopt the technique and avoid being left behind big companies.The key expected positive and potential negative impacts of innovative technologies by technology categories presented in Chapter 2 are summarized in Table 5, along the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental).In Nepal, there has been broad adoption of CF since it was introduced in the 1970s. Over 30,000 CF users' groups (CFUGs) currently exist. Membership and interest in CF are high, with nearly half the country's population -approximately 14 million people -involved in CFUGs. These groups are responsible for managing 43.1% of the national forest area, or approximately 2.57 million ha. Sustainable management by CFUGs is one factor credited with expanding the country's forest area by almost 3.0% between 1986 and 2015, an increase of over 435,000 ha.In the early 1970s, it was predicted that community management would result in degradation and a decline in the supply and growing stock of forest products. Successful piloting shifted this thinking. By the 1980s, CF was seen as a means of halting forest degradation. Studies have documented that CF enhanced the sustainable flows of forest products due to improved management and condition of forest resources.Additionally, the legal reform in forest management, such as through the 1993 Forest Act, have improved community entitlements and their ability and willingness to adopt SFM.CFUGs have created new social forums that facilitate community-level development planning, strengthen social structures and social cohesion. This has evolved into networks and institutions that enable collective actions from community to national levels. The benefits of social cohesion vary by households and individuals but, in general, community members enhance their knowledge on forest use rights, which leads to more opportunities for securing livelihoods. Involvement in CFUG planning and management improves the human capacity and confidence of community members, further strengthening their ability to secure livelihoods.Revenue generated from forests, based on the management plans prepared by the CFUGs, is primarily used to improve forest management and enhance community infrastructure or services. Common priorities for these investments include forest protection, forest restoration (nurseries, plantations), drinking water systems, the construction and maintenance of rural roads, school facility maintenance and development, teacher salaries, the construction of community halls or temples, and community electrification. Generally, these investments reach all community economic classes equally. However, a greater flow of benefits may reach community elites. Concerns that poorer and marginalized households may not benefit from CF are common but unfounded in most cases, as CFUGs generally comply with requirements that 35% of financial resources be focused on uplifting poor and marginalized groups (e.g. women and Dalits). Some community forests generate larger amounts of income based on marketable forest products and a nearby market. Timber and non-timber forest products such as pine resin are common commercial products. In some cases, these funds are used to develop micro-credit schemes to provide financial access at affordable interest rates to CFUG members for income generating activities.Household livelihood opportunities are a key measure of social impacts enabled through CF. Studies have documented a number of direct household income-generating activities established through the community forest management plan, often prioritized for the poorer households. These commonly include the collection and sale of firewood and medicinal herbs, beekeeping, goat rearing, and employment as forest guards, fire watchers and caretakers of tree nurseries. Additionally, CFUGs support household income generation by: (i) supporting the identification and development of SFM activities that support livelihoods (either products for household use or market sales); (ii) capacity building and training in response to livelihood opportunities; (iii) coordinating the livelihood support activities of government agencies or other stakeholders; (iv) creating forest product-and service-based enterprises and marketing opportunities; and (v) developing micro-credit schemes to operationalize forest-based enterprises and marketing opportunities.These opportunities and successful case studies do exist, but their potential is not being fully explored in most communities. This has been a perennial shortcoming of CF in Nepal, which is linked to the weaknesses and challenges summarized in Box 18.Sources: Sapkota (2021), Dev et al. (2003)  The aim of this chapter is to identify, understand and address the technical, economic and social barriers preventing the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies in the forest sector in the Asia-Pacific region. This chapter also considers the institutional changes needed in forest sector governance (land planning, land tenure and other relevant development policies) to overcome these barriers and support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies in the region and to ensure that these technologies can effectively contribute to SFM. Regional cooperation, investment, infrastructure development, education and capacity building are key to supporting technology transfer and dissemination and accompany the populations at risk of being marginalized by these technological advances. This chapter provides insight and discussion towards such collaboration.All sectors combined, the Asia-Pacific region holds an important and rapidly increasing potential for innovation. However, while Asia-Pacific is catching up and quickly becoming a leading region for innovation, huge discrepancies remain across countries and territories within the region. These are illustrated below.  (Dutta et al. 2020).The latest GII ranking, even if still largely dominated by high-income countries in Europe and Northern America, confirms a progressive shift in the global innovation landscape from high-income to emerging economies in Asia. In 2020, the Republic of Korea joined Singapore in the top 10 for the first time, while Hong Kong (China) reached 11 th position. Four countries, all situated in Asia and the Pacific, have experienced the most significant progress over time in their GII ranking: China (14 th ), Viet Nam (42 nd ), India (48 th ) and Philippines (50 th ). In total, 12 Asia-Pacific countries and territories appear in the top 50 (see Figure 9). 64 Some Asia-Pacific countries still do not rank in the top 50 butshow encouraging results on some pillars, 65  with the potential for further progress in the future in terms of capacity development and innovation uptake and scaling up. On the other hand, some countries in the region still lag behind, and some are not yet covered by the GII exercise (Dutta et al. 2020). Overall, these metrics reinforce the perception that the Asia-Pacific region is well positioned as a burgeoning source of innovation.The GII uses the average score of the top three universities in the QS world university ranking 66 (GII indicator 2.3.4) as a proxy for the quality of the tertiary education system in an economy. China is in third position for this indicator, after the USA and the United Kingdom (UK). Four other economies in the Asia-Pacific region appear in the top 10: Hong Kong (China) (fifth), Australia (sixth), Japan (eighth) and the Republic of Korea (ninth). Singapore follows in 12 th position (Dutta et al. 2020). The GII also reflects school enrollment in tertiary education (GII indicator 2. High internet connectivity is an indicator of effective access to information and facilitates the dissemination and adoption of innovative technologies. At the global level, almost all (95%) of the urban population is covered by a 4G mobile network. However, many discrepancies subsist between developed and developing countries. Rural areas still lag behind more connected urban areas, particularly in low-income countries. In the least developed countries (LDCs), 17% of the rural population have no mobile coverage at all, and 19% are covered only by a 2G network. With 94.2% of its total population (100% of its urban population and 89% of its rural population) covered by a 4G mobile network, the Asia-Pacific region has a similar level of coverage to that of developed countries: 97%, 100% and 86% respectively (ITU 2020). The capacity of the population to use the internet is as important as mobile network coverage. Important discrepancies exist across age classes and genders. In 2019, 51% of the world population was using the internet, including 69% of youth aged 15-24; 55% of the male population and only 48% of the female population. In Asia and the Pacific, these figures are 45%, 70%, 48% and 41% respectively (see Figure 10).The gender gap decreases with the level of development: in developed countries, both male (88%) and female (86%) were using the   internet in 2019, whereas in the LDCs, these ratios fall respectively to 28% and 15%. In Asia and the Pacific, 60% of urban households but only 36% of rural households have internet access at home, compared to 87% and 81% in developed countries respectively, and only 25% and 10% in the LDCs, but these figures mask important disparities across countries in the region. In fully connected countries and territories, 68 over 85% of the households have internet access and a vast majority of people (over 75%) use internet. A second group of countries, including Indonesia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Brunei Darussalam, already have high levels of internet access and could attain full connection in the near future.In the remaining countries of the region, however, 69 improving access to the internet should be a major priority to support access to information, credit and markets, capacity development, technology transfer, innovation uptake and scaling up. A lack of ICT skills, as well as the high cost of ICT services, remain a significant barrier to the meaningful digital participation of the most vulnerable groups (e.g. elders, women, rural populations and the poor) (ITU 2020).More specific global and regional data on innovation and related enabling factors in the forest sector are scarce and often incomplete. However, the last FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA2020: FAO 2020) collects national data on the number of students graduating from postsecondary education programs focusing on or related to forests. The data covers 119 countries and territories representing 86% of the current global forest area in 1990, 2000,  2010 and 2015. 70 Students graduating today will support and implement the uptake and scaling up of innovations in the forest sector of tomorrow. Globally, these data show a substantial increase in the number of forestry graduates, which more than doubled at all levels of education between 2000 and 2015.To facilitate cross-country comparison, the 68 i.e.: Australia, Hong Kong (China), Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Republic of Korea, Macao (China), Malaysia, Maldives, Singapore and Thailand.69 In the following countries, less than 25% of the households have internet access at home and/or less than 25% of the population is using the internet: Bangladesh, India, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Pakistan, the Philippines and Samoa.70 For each year, the figure given is based on the average observed over a three-year period.| 83 FRA2020 expresses the number of students per million ha of forest. Asia has the highest ratio by far, with 336 forestry students per million ha in 2015, compared to the world average of 95. Oceania has the lowest ratio, with 4 students per million ha. 71 However, these figures mask important disparities within each region. The very high ratio observed in the Republic of Korea (613 students per million ha) and Viet Nam (504 students per million ha) show the importance given by these countries to innovation and sustainable management in the forest sector. Other countries in the region, show encouraging performance, with a ratio above the world average level, including: Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Nepal and the Philippines.The International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) is a non-profit and non-governmental international network of forest scientists seeking to interconnect forests, science and people, and strengthen global cooperation in forest-related research.Established in 1892, the network now unites over 15,000 scientists in around 650 member organizations in more than 125 countries. 72  The number of IUFRO member organizations in a country can give a sense of the present and future innovation capacity of the forest sector in that country and of its connection with the global scientific community. Twentyfive countries and territories in the Asia-Pacific region count at least one IUFRO member organization. Out of these, six countries or territories host ten or more IUFRO member organizations and are strongly involved in this global research and cooperation network: India, Japan, China, the Republic of Korea, Australia, and Taiwan (Province of China). Six other countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand and the Philippines, immediately follow with four to nine IUFRO member organizations each (see Figure 11).The COVID-19 pandemic has had an unprecedented impact, triggering a global economic shutdown that has slowed many national economies. The crisis hit as research and development (R&D) spending was still rebounding from the financial crisis of 2008-2009, growing faster than global GDP. The impacts of the pandemic on innovation remain under scrutiny. Technology and innovative development continue, particularly in R&D firms in the IT sector, where there is a drive to further enhance digitalization and related technologies, as well as in the pharmaceutical and medical biotechnology sectors. It is anticipated that there will be R&D investment in transportation, clean energy (including bioenergy), tourism, education and retail -all sectors mentioned in this report and that have a direct impact on SFM. However, direct R&D investment in the life sciences is expected to decline. Government investment in R&D has decreased, with some sponsored research efforts slowing to a halt; the exception being R&D support to the health sector (Dutta et al. 2020). This is not a surprise as governments are foremost responsible for the well-being of their citizens and national economies; understandably they have prioritized stimulus packages. The good news is that venture capital (VC) investment remains strong in VC hotspots, specifically China, Hong Kong (China), India, Israel, Luxembourg, Singapore, the UK and the USA (Dutta et al. 2020). Four of these eight hotspots are in the Asia-Pacific region, while two (UK and USA) have strong economic and political links with Asia-Pacific countries and territories. These VC hotspots and their sustained interest in innovation bode well for the region.In summary, this brief overview shows the very high potential for innovation in Asia and the Pacific economy-wide. However, it should be noted that most of the indicators presented here are not forest-specific and that a country's economy-wide potential for innovation will not necessarily translate in the forest sector. There are also specific constraints that are not well reflected in these indicators that often contain national and urban biases. The Asia-Pacific innovation potential is mainly concentrated in a few countries, with large divides remaining, in terms of innovative capacity, across countries 71 However, some countries provided data only for a few levels of education. As a consequence, aggregated numbers are probably underestimated at global level and in some regions, particularly in Oceania (FAO 2020).72 See: https://www.iufro.org/fileadmin/material/science/ divisions/toolbox/iufro-the-organization-en.pdf  74 For instance, huge potential could be unleashed in India and the Philippines by improving internet access, especially in rural and remote areas.within the region. The indicators reviewed in this section allow the identification of three broad categories of countries and territories:• The 'innovation tigers', show the highest potential and are driving most of the innovation uptake and scaling up observed in the region. This group includes Australia, China, Hong Kong (China), Japan, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, and Singapore. • The \"emerging innovators\", mainly upper middle-income to low-income emerging economies, show encouraging performances on some indicators. They are quickly catching up and show promising potential for innovation uptake and scaling up in the coming decades.This group includes: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Nepal, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Priority areas to improve innovation capacities can be identified in these countries by focusing on their weakest performances on some indicators. 74 • The third group includes countries where particular efforts are needed to build upon the assets they have and develop their own innovation potential. International and regional cooperation, including South-South cooperation, will be critical to foster innovation in these countries. The APFC can play a central role in that regards.| 85During the technologies workshop, participants agreed that barriers hindering the uptake and scaling of innovative technologies in forestry can be grouped into two main categories: (i) a lack of capacity (e.g. limited access to natural resources, limited access to information, limited access to credit and markets, limited transparency and limited participation in decision making); and (ii) unaligned policies and regulations lagging behind the rapid evolution of technologies and the rapid shifts in wood demand (Pingault et al. 2020). Capacities are broadly interpreted to include conditions that facilitate and enable individuals and institutions to uptake and scale innovative technologies.Restrictive policies and regulations include both specific enforcement that constrain uptake and scaling up or a lack of germane policies and regulations.A lack of capacity that constrains the uptake and scaling up of technologies includes those related to human, natural, physical, financial and social capital. Limits to human capital include a lack of skills, knowledge and experience with innovative technologies and, in some cases, may involve a wariness regarding innovation. Constraints to natural capital include an actual or perceived lack of access to forests, land, natural resources and their assets and products. Limits to physical capital encompass limited or lack of infrastructure -roads, markets, electrical power, internet, etc. -and of suitable equipment, including equipment and innovations not scaled for use by smallholders, small-scale operators or local communities. Constraints to financial capital include limited access to credit, markets and value chains. Restrictions to social capital include restricted governance and tenure, access and use rights to forests, land and other natural resources and limited access to institutions, networks and information. These different constraints are often combined to restrict innovative technologies uptake and scaling up.Given the costs of developing and adopting innovations and the fact that innovations are often devised for large-scale ventures, there is a risk that disproportional benefits may go to individuals who are already well endowed with the five forms of capital, increasing their competitive advantage and pushing out smaller actors, who are particularly vulnerable to change. This risk needs to be balanced by public measures facilitating the access of small actors to innovation as well as by incentives to design innovations that are adapted to small scale actors.This study finds that in some cases, policy development may lack the needed flexibility and reactivity, hence lagging far behind the rapid evolution of technologies. Relevant policies and regulations may be weak, nonexistent or incapable of adequately addressing the conditions fostered by the use of innovative technologies. Existing policies and regulations do not address current conditions because they were codified before current innovations were developed. Unsuitable policies and regulations are applied purposely or out of caution, in a manner restrictive to the adoption of innovative technologies.Key capacity and policy constraints identified during the study are summarized in Table 6.Many innovative technologies are not scaleneutral. Scaling down innovative technologies may be necessary so that they can also benefit smallholders and marginalized groups, indigenous peoples and local communities, even those with limited human and financial resources and those living in remote areas.Collectively, smallholders and small-scale enterprises are major land managers at the global level and significant suppliers of many forest commodities. Smallholder forest and farm producers, their communities and their families, are estimated to own and/or manage around 65% of the world's land (Verdone 2018). Hence innovative technologies need to be developed, adapted or adjusted specifically to their specific context, priorities and needs. The availability and suitability of the technologies will vary by scale (small to large), species and systems. There are financial and institutional barriers to the adoption and adaptation of the technologies, and thus there is a need for collaboration across the financial, industrial, development and government actors.In other words, technologies should also benefit those who use and manage forests at the local level. Technology development should ensure value addition all along forest value chains and equitable benefit sharing across all stakeholders involved, especially the most vulnerable. To be adopted, a technology must be adapted to the local socioeconomic and biophysical context (e.g. income and education levels, labor market, infrastructure, cultural values, climatic and edaphic conditions). As a result, technology dissemination must follow a decentralized, bottom-up process, starting from local circumstances, priorities and needs and engaging local communities. Upfront costs may be high, with subsequent low operational costs. Investment, access to infrastructure (electricity and the internet) and the modernization of that infrastructure (to assure compatibility with new technologies), education and capacity building will be key not only to facilitating access to innovative technologies but also to supporting workers at risk of losing their jobs because of technology adoption (e.g. older, local, and unskilled workers).During the inception workshop, participants mentioned that the forest sector can have a traditional 'old school' and conservative mentality that may limit the acceptance of new technologies and methods, in line with studies on innovation in the forest sector (Weiss et al. 2020 The development of these arrangements is contextual and benefits from dialogue between the sector, government, research and academia, NGOs, and community actors.A lot of innovation development and adoption is driven by profitability (Kubeczko et al. 2006). As individual companies are often the developers or modifiers of innovative technologies, they are unlikely to 'share' innovations developed through their own financial investment or that contribute to their profitability and competitive advantage. Adequate incentives will be necessary to encourage private companies to share their innovations. Engagement with corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs can be a conduit for mutually beneficial partnerships linked to technology dissemination.Innovative technologies are changing many aspects of forestry and forest management, with more potential transformative changes yet to be realized. There is greater technology uptake in plantation forestry to increase productivity and industrial efficiency than in the management of natural forests. Governments should develop flexible and supportive policies that foster innovation, provide leadership in strategic planning, promote collaboration and coordination across sectors, actors and scales, and facilitate or provide incentives and subsidies in an equitable manner to support the forest sector and the actors involved. This requires foresight and vision, as the deployment of some innovations, particularly those that are transformative and may result in disruptions to the forest sector and negative impacts on employment (Weiss et al. 2020).To facilitate the adoption of innovative technologies, the following factors should be considered: i) the technology and its characteristics; ii) the adopters, either individuals or organizations (private sector, government agencies, civil society, communities); iii) the larger economic, social and environmental context; iv) the demonstrated worth of the technology; and v) communication and dissemination channels that promote the technology (adapted from Rogers 2003).Small-scale operators adopt innovations that fit their needs and provide economic benefits (Innes 2009, Song et al. 2004). Cooperating with other firms, large and small, up and down forest value chains, can enable the adoption or adaptation of innovations by small-scale firms (Hansen 2010;Weiss et al. 2020) Environmentally unsustainable logging practices by industrial forest companies are often cited as a major cause of deforestation and forest degradation. The involvement of local communities in logging is supposed to be more sustainable and to enhance local incomes. During the early 1990s, PNG attempted to mitigate deforestation and forest degradation by facilitating small-scale forest management by indigenous forest landowners. An 'eco-forestry' approach was adopted, involving selective harvesting of timber combined with the milling of timber by Indigenous forest-landowners using portable sawmills. The lumber produced was sold into local and international markets as sustainable timber, certified under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) principles. The use of portable sawmills was also intended to provide landowners a greater financial return compared to the timber royalty payments they usually receive from logging companies.A study of the six cases of eco-forestry found that all efforts were unsuccessful in developing a financially viable model for the management of forests by small-scale local forest landowners. None of the local landowners were able to continue their portable sawmill operations once donor funding of the eco-forestry organizations ceased. In addition, the operators of portable sawmills struggled to produce lumber that met the quality and quantity demands of buyers, who ultimately ceased to purchase the lumber. Furthermore, the local landowners struggled to adhere to FSC principles, resulting in the loss of FSC certification. The study identifies a need for a new small-scale management model for forest in PNG. Future efforts should include collaboration with private sector businesses and professionally trained operators to inform the development of a small-scale forest management model which is financially profitable while also adhering to the principles of eco-forestry.Source: Scudder et al. (2018) Access to knowledge and capacity building are key factors for wider acquisition, adoption and utilization of innovations. An emphasis on rural communities, and particularly youth, will ensure that communities are not left behind and made more vulnerable by technological advancement. Youth of both genders are the forest managers of the future. Even in rural areas, they are often technologically savvy. Addressing their interests is a way to keep them in rural economies and engaged in evolving career opportunities that can compete with labor or service employment in distant urban areas.Besides capacity building in the use and adoption of innovative technologies, training in the safe operation of the technologies will be essential, particularly with process and product innovations, which offer new employment opportunities but can be dangerous to the inexperienced.Opportunities will also appear as local economies evolve to service forest management and forest industry sectors.Training and skill acquisition will be required in a wide range of areas including institutional management, leadership, language proficiency, the integration of indigenous and technical knowledge, value chains, marketing and small business operations. Experience indicates that scientific knowledge and indigenous knowledge are complementary, and efforts to integrate them are synergistic (Urzedo et al. 2022;HLPE 2019; see also Sections 3.1 and 3.7).In the digital age, and particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, many opportunities for education, capacity building and access to information will be virtual, including massive open online courses (MOOCs), dependent on internet access. The Asia-Pacific region has fairly strong internet access (ITU, 2020), and the region's youth are particularly well skilled to engage in and pursue educational, capacity building and information opportunities available via the internet. However, these opportunities favor urban populations over their rural peers. Government agencies, the private sector, development organizations and all stakeholders should take note of this disparity and offer equitable capacity building and recruitment opportunities in rural areas where they are engaged (see Sections 3.3, 3.4, and 3.7).Demonstration to show the effect of innovative technologies is key to their successful dissemination and uptake. Successful demonstration requires adequate knowledge of the innovation, of the local and broader context in which it will be deployed, and of the adaptation required to meet local needs. Specialists with these capacities need to be engaged to assist with demonstrations. Government agencies, conservation organizations, universities and research institutions, the private sector, and local communities should also be involved in promoting and demonstrating technologies. The full engagement of stakeholders is important to achieve buy-in by key stakeholder groups and to comprehend the level of interest and demand for the innovation. Demonstrations can facilitate the creation of communities of practice and peer-to-peer (farmer-to-farmer) networks.There is a role for champions (both individuals and organizations) and extension services in demonstrating the innovation. Photo 17. Women and minorities have unique knowledge and roles in SFM, they should be provided equitable opportunity for capacity building (© James M Roshetko).Digital agriculture service providers in Myanmar offer a range of services including digital procurement, e-commerce for farm produce, access to assets such as mechanization, agronomic and market information services, weather and climate services, and access to digital finance products and services.Greenway Green, 75 developed by Greenovator, provides farmers with practical information on market linkages, extension services, weather information, farming practices, pest and disease management for fish and livestock farming.Village Link offers digital diagnostic services where farmers can upload photos of problems they face with their crops and receive guidance on how to address them. The firm also operates a satellite service through which it aggregates agricultural satellite data and translates it into practical information for farmers and businesses, including localized weather and flood monitoring and tracking of crop performance and growth stages.Golden Paddy by Impact Terra collects from its users' farm data, such as planting dates and crop varieties, to provide farmers with practical advice based on crop models and weather forecasts. The company has also developed a digital credit scoring service to assess whether farmers qualify for microfinancing, based on information such as farm size, machinery, varieties and past yield performance. Based on the data collected, the application can identify what types of loans farmers may need so as to connect them with the right financial institutions.Tun Yat is an online platform that connects farmers to mechanization service providers, including individual owners of tractors and harvesters, to help them access mechanization services. The platform was founded in 2017 and has approximately 1500 users, mainly smallholder farmers owning less than five acres of land. The company has grown its following by organizing regular village visits to present its services to farmers, collecting data and running workshops and training sessions in collaboration with civil society organizations. The company monitors its impacts, including cost and time savings in harvesting and reductions in crop loss.Source: Jalonen et al (2021) 75 https://play.google.com/store/apps/ details?id=greenway_myanmar.org&hl=en_US&gl=US 76 The data for the Pacific is incomplete and thus not included here.A recent review of digital climate services for farmers in Southeast Asia found that the services were driven by foreign investment, while partnerships between national governments and farmers are rare. The study recommends broader engagement to ensure that services address farmers' conditions and priorities and support government efforts to achieve commitments to global climate, biodiversity, and sustainability goals.The effectiveness of digital services can be enhanced if developers integrate farmers' indigenous knowledge and government programs from the design stage (Simelton and McCampbell 2021).A strong cadre of forestry-educated professionals is essential to enable global society and individual countries to achieve SFM and address a plethora of related issues: climate change, sustainable energy, environmental restoration, biodiversity conservation, and adaptation to changing economic, social and environmental conditions. Forestry graduates receive a broad education in field management, science, business and ICT to address these issues. In 2015, 330,912 students graduated with forestry degrees across the world. Asia had the largest number of forestry graduates at 193,623, or 59% of the global total. Of the Asian students, 60% graduated with technical certificates or diplomas, 33% with Bachelor's degrees, 7% with Master's degrees and 1% with PhDs. 76 The number of forestry graduates in China accounted for 82% of the Asian total and 42% of the global total (FAO 2020a). Forestry education in Asia is moving in the right direction, indicating that the region, its countries and their young professionals are and will be well suited to adopting and using innovative technologies to implement SFM.Capacity building opportunities should be available to women, ethnic minorities and marginalized groups to ensure equity. Women now account for 42% of forestry graduates (FAO 2020a), and they will account for an increasing proportion of forestry professionals in the future. In rural areas, women and minorities often have unique knowledge and experience regarding natural resource management. Inclusivity will benefit both sustainable management and local economies. Social equity in capacity building opportunities can be enriched through the following measures: raising the issue in community forums, setting aside an agreed percentage of training slots for the target groups, and holding trainings at times and locations that meet the target groups' availability. For example, as women are generally responsible for household management, capacity building activities should be scheduled at times when women are available. As minority and marginalized groups may live in specific locations, capacitybuilding activities should be organized near those areas. It is beneficial to plan the capacity building outreach strategy with recognized leaders and respected members of the target groups.Forest rents are the contribution of forests (or natural resources) to GDP. They are important components of analytical frameworks for sustainable development. Rents are revenues above the cost of extracting the resources. Natural resources can provide high economic rents because they are not produced in the same sense as manufactured goods. For manufactured goods and services, supply expands until economic profits are driven to zero; for many natural resources, returns (rents) are well in excess of their cost of production. Forest rent is calculated as the difference between the price of forest commodities and their average production cost. 77 The The establishment of climate and green bonds strengthen opportunities to finance the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and other green or climate projects. They offer a vehicle to both access finance from capital markets and deliver climate and green impacts that can be verified against standards. In developing countries, they have been used to implement renewable energy, urban mass transit systems, water distribution and mitigation-adaptation projects. regulations and provides a valuable tool for documenting the legality of forest product value chains and combating illegal trade. However, there are multiple barriers to its use. Prior to 2007, most bamboo and rattan products were mixed with other products of similar materials in international trade statistics. Efforts by INBAR, FAO and the China Customs Authority resulted in the approbation of 24 harmonized system (HS) codes for bamboo and rattan products by the World Customs Organization effective in 2017. The newly produced HS codes identify the majority of bamboo and rattan products, including raw materials, bamboo shoots, bamboo and rattan baskets, curtains and furniture, as well as products such as bamboo panels, charcoal, pulp and paper articles, and construction materials.The new HS codes provide a comprehensive understanding of the bamboo and rattan trade and identify options for strengthening the sector. Equally importantly, the adoption of these new codes recognizes the significance of bamboo and rattan products, encouraging countries to support and stimulate their national enterprises.Bamboo and rattan products generate a trade value of USD 70 billion per year, most of it in domestic economies. UN Comtrade estimates that exports of bamboo and rattan commodities amounted to USD 3.25 billion in 2018. China is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of bamboo and rattan products, with a market share of more than 70%. Current trends indicate this share will increase. Many Asian countries, including Indonesia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, and the Philippines maintain important domestic and international markets. The EU, the USA, Japan and Canada are key importers of bamboo and rattan products in the world.The EU and the USA also export a number of 'processed' bamboo products made from imported materials.The bamboo and rattan sector employs millions of people around the world in an industry valued at USD 700 billion per year -ten times its trade value. Monitoring the trade of bamboo and rattan products is an essential part of supporting and developing the industry. The development of HS codes for bamboo and rattan commodities has positive impacts on the sector and trade. This is a long-term process that will require further development of HS codes and international cooperation to accept, adapt and use them.A barrier to this process is negotiation and discussion within the large diverse global community involved in bamboo and rattan management, production and conservation, including governments, research organizations, NGOs and the private sector (producers, exports and importers). This diverse group of actors may have different objectives and incentives. There may also be opposition from other or sectors (wood or plastic products) with which bamboo and rattan products compete.  The TLFF announced its inaugural transaction in February 2018, a landmark USD 95 million loan to help finance a sustainable natural rubber plantation in two heavily degraded landscapes. The transaction integrates clearly defined social and environmental objectives and safeguards. A long-term sustainability bond arranged by BNP Paribas (BNPP) and issued through TLFF supports PT Royal Lestari Utama (RLU), a joint venture between the Michelin Group and Indonesia's PT Barito Pacific, to develop a sustainable natural rubber plantation in Jambi and East Kalimantan, Indonesia. ADM Capital acts as facility and ESG (environment, social and corporate governance) manager. The project is monitored annually by a third-party consultant against an Environmental and Social Action Plan (ESAP).A nucleus plantation will be established on 28,026 ha of degraded land in Jambi (39% of the total), and 5,974 ha in East Kalimantan (30% of the total). By using high-yield clones and adopting smart rubber production practices, commercial plantations and smallholder plantings aim to reach annual rubber yields of 1.7 tons per ha, double Indonesia's current average of 0.8. tons per ha.Of the total project area of 88,000 ha, 34,000 ha will be planted with commercial rubber, the remaining 54,000 ha is set aside for conservation and community livelihood purposes, which includes a 9,700-ha wildlife conservation reserve. In Jambi, the commercial plantations also serve as a buffer zone protecting the 143,000 ha Bukit Tigapuluh National Park, home to indigenous and endemic biodiversity, including endangered Sumatran elephants and tigers. When the project is in full operation, RLU will employ 16,000 local residents, thus improving the livelihoods of 50,000 community members. This transaction creates Indonesia's first sustainable rubber plantation and is the first corporate sustainability bond issued in Southeast Asia.Challenges to the program include: addressing significant past deforestation and social conflict issues; engaging large rural populations with diverse holdings, conditions, and objectives; and managing the expectations of external stakeholders who may demand the inclusion of additional issues into the program scenario. Additionally, the land allocated for CBFM are often degraded areas where most of the valuable forest resources have been previously extracted.To overcome these barriers and enable the CBFM program to achieve its intended goals, it is recommended that support does not end after CBFM licenses are issued but continues in the long term, assisting communities in develop and implementing comprehensive management plans. During the licensing phase, support should focus on developing an informed, committed, and capable management group and clearly explaining the communities' rights, responsibilities, and limitations under the license. After the license has been granted, technical capacity building should be provided regarding nursery production, smallscale forestry management (including possibly agroforestry issues), harvesting and processing, marketing and small business operations. The specifics of the capacity building program should be identified by the community forest. The capacity building programs can be implemented by extension agencies, research organizations, universities, NGOs, private sector entities, donors or a combination of these stakeholders.Source: De Royer et al. (2018).| 99 can limit the adoption of new technologies and their ability to reach their full potential and effectively contribute to sustainable development.Examples of policy voids include the following. A lack of drone-relevant policies leads to restrictions on drone flights or the use of the data generated by drones (Jones 2017). In this situations, individual agencies may develop their own regulations that are inconsistent between agencies and potentially in conflict with national legislation (Kamran et al. 2021). In these cases, regulations can be applied in a manner to restrict monitoring technologies or use of the data (see Box 36). In another example, existing regulations, created when composite woods lacked their current characteristics, restricted the use of CLT and mass timbers in commercial building and housing, limiting the potential benefits of these innovations (Harun 2021). Timber regulations created in the context of the forest industry inadvertently impose barriers to smallholder and community participation in the forest sector (Sapkota 2021;Page 2021;Smith et al. 2017;Perdana et al. 2012) or access to and production of improved-quality germplasm by smallholders and local communities (Page 2021;Lua et al. 2015). By limiting their rights, these barriers diminish the ability or willingness of local actors to assume responsibility for forest governance and CF schemes (Sapkota 2021;De Royer et al. 2018). Additionally, conducive policies and regulations are needed to support the utilization of biotechnology and biofuels (Pingault et al. 2021a).There are also examples of dynamic policy environments developed to support the use of innovative technologies or to enhance the benefits resulting from those technologies. Government, research and development agencies have individually and collaboratively supported the development of smallholder and community germplasm enterprises to strengthen national supply chains by producing and supplying quality seed and seedlings of priority tree species (Harun 2021;Lillesø et al. 2018;Lua et al. 2015;Nyoka et al. 2015;Catacutan et al, 2008) Satellite and other remote sensing technologies can serve important roles in monitoring compliance with environmental laws, providing real-time data and information (evidence) to regulators and other stakeholders. However, the evidence must comply with laws, regulations, and even recognized legal practices. The use of imagery needs often to be complemented with other evidence and investigative measures. For example, imagery might detect pollution discharges or illegal deforestation without being able to categorically identify the source or offender. In many jurisdictions, proof of a breach of environmental law alone is not sufficient to justify the proactive investigation of various possible offenders. This could be considered intrusive without tangible evidence of involvement; a breach of privacy or other laws. However, imagery could be used to deter environmental crime by alerting regulators and law enforcement of prevailing circumstances, which could prompt useful complementary investigations.In Indonesia, individuals and organizations can be prosecuted for illegal land clearing through the use of fire. Remote sensing imagery have been used as evidence of illegal action during court proceedings. However, in some cases, the legal status of imagery as evidence has been questioned, as such imagery is not specified in laws and regulations. Resourceful judges have arranged site visits with experts to review the evidence in situ to clarify issues and strengthen legal standing.In Pakistan, remote sensing technologies have not reached their full potential due to absent, weak or inappropriate regulatory frameworks. The ownership of UAVs is legal, but the adoption of these innovative technologies is hampered by licensing, utilization and flight pattern restrictions. Security agencies view UAVs with suspicion as potential threats to national sovereignty. There is a risk of privately owned UAVs being confiscated or held in customs even after a permit has been issued and ownership and import duty requirements have been satisfied. Furthermore, there are restrictions on sharing the data and information generated by privately operated UAVs and related digital technologies, limiting the development of a viable private sector that could provide essential domestic services to improve sustainable land management. NGOs, research institutions and the private sector have called for transparency in the application and enforcement of regulatory frameworks and open support for technology transfer to strengthen sustainable resources management and governance for the benefit of the country.In Malaysia, NGOs, researchers and other stakeholders working in the environmental sector have been frustrated by limited access to reliable maps. Data and information may be available but is scattered across various national and local government agencies, NGOs and other institutions -with many of these actors reluctant to share them. Map building tools (e.g. from Global Forest Watch, Google Earth Engine) enable users to amass data from various sources to create customized maps that integrate or overlay their own data. However, when deforestation or degradation is identified by environmental actors, government agencies and concession land managers may be reluctant to accept the input as the information and imagery do not agree with their own records. In some cases, land may be under the jurisdiction of or been transferred to another agency or land manager; requiring greater effort in approaching the pertinent party. Collaborations between government agencies, universities, NGOs and other stakeholders have been initiated to establish an open platform that contains accurate maps that have been accepted and provided by the forestry agencies. Development and testing are in progress.Source: Bahar and Wicaksono (2021), Kamran et al. (2021), Barad and Jamil (2019), EC (2016). Farmers were trained in germplasm collection, seed processing and the marketing of agroforestry tree seeds and seedlings. ATSAL successfully marketed seeds and seedlings of various priority species. It also provided training in seed collection and nursery management to farmers, government technicians, and NGO staff. An evaluation of the association found that during the early years of its existence, ATSAL's market share of priority timber tree species grew rapidly, facilitating the widespread dissemination of germplasm of important species among farmers. NGOs, government agencies and projects became customers, some located in other parts of the country. ICRAF's technical support was an advantage, increasing the association's name recognition and market credibility. Subsequently, ATSAL extended its market to the central Philippines, but the extended market territory could not be maintained due to organizational limitations. Other challenges also evolved, including market competition; a non-member was able to capture and serve a market territory larger than that covered by the association. Nonetheless, ATSAL established a respected name as a viable community-based seed and seedling producer, maintaining a stronghold on some local and regional markets. Collective action by members was important for the association to gain market access, but it could not sustain sales. The members who contributed most to the association began to feel unappreciated and shifted their efforts to private endeavors. Institutional and business capacity building and technical support proved necessary to build ATSAL's market position.Source: Catacutan et al. (2008) development, infrastructure, education, and health. Collaboratively, the agencies should seek to promote transparency and minimize bureaucracy, streamlining technology dissemination and the adoption of technologies for the benefit of individuals, organizations and the country as a whole. At the regional level, the innovation systems concept is also applicable and mutually advantageous. Countries should work together, sharing lessons learned regarding effective strategies for utilization and scaling of innovative technologies and mistakes to avoid. Regional and international cooperation to align and harmonize national priorities, investment plans, policies, regulations and standards on the dissemination and adoption of innovative technologies would benefit all parties. Significant investments in funds, skills and time will be required. Each country's resources will have a greater impact when jointly deployed with those of regional partners, governments and organizations, who confront similar conditions and challenges. A critical issue is research in technology development.Research funding remains low, but regional cooperation can boost the impact of these limited resources (Wang et al. 2019). Additionally, many countries, organizations and sectors may have insufficient capacityknowledge, finances, staff, etc. -to effectively undertake alone the challenge of innovative technology development and utilization (Aerni et al. 2015). The efforts of individual countries, organizations and sectors are often fragmented due to such limited capacity.Collaborative approaches between countries and organizations can present a more coherent approach to the development and deployment of innovative technologies (Wang et al. 2019).Innovative technologies and their potential applications are rapidly evolving. The longtimeframe of tree growth does not match the rapid evolution of technologies, shifts in wood demand and transformation in the forest sector. In this changing context,Bhutan has adopted remote sensing innovations to strengthen forest monitoring, mapping and management. ICT, including online data storage and management, are used to expand the amount and availability of data to enhance planning, reporting and management. The conservation of wildlife and other environmental resources are specifically prioritized to ensure social, economic, and environmental wellbeing and the happiness of present and future generations, which are enshrined in a national principle. Improved forest mapping, planning and access to accurate data has facilitated the adoption of low-impact logging principles and technologies to improve planning and control of timber harvesting, increase log recovery, increase productivity and profitability, reduce damage to residual forests, and improve worker safety. The benefits accrued from the adoption of these innovative technologies have coincided with the design and implementation of SFM and environmental conservation policies that receive strong support from government agencies, the forest industry and the wider public. The national wood processing industries are recognized as underdeveloped and in need of analysis to identify innovative technologies that can enhance the sector's productivity and profitability, achieve competitiveness in international markets, and improve human resource capacity and safety.Source: Dorji (2021) In China, the government promotes a broad array of innovative technologies in the forest sector. Tree breeding and the clonal propagation of industrial tree species are used to expand timber production, reduce pressure on natural forests, restore environmental functions, and support SFM. Innovations in the manufacture of engineered bamboo products have been developed and adopted. Products include bamboo panels, cross-laminated bamboo (CLB), bamboo scrimber, engineered bamboo beams, engineered bamboo flooring, and engineered bamboo veneer. Expanding the utilization of bamboo resources has improved resource use efficiency, strengthened the forest product industry, and reduced pressure on forests. 5G wireless communications are being used to facilitate the use of AI, machine learning, and automation in the forest industry to improve resource use and reduce energy consumption. The adoption of innovative technologies in China does not solely target domestic forest management; the government also promotes a responsible purchase policy and timber legality verification to identify and combat illegal trade of forest resources, supporting regional SFM.Source: Wu (2021b) In Viet Nam, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development issued decisions in 2007 to promote the adoption of innovative technologies in the forest sector. Remote sensing technology is now commonly used to detect land cover changes and facilitate forest planning and management. Key functions conducted through remote sensing include the identification of fire and other threats, monitoring of GHG emissions and timber removals (both legal and illegal), and implementation of the national forest inventory (conducted every five years with ground truthing). Tree breeding and biotechnology are being used and endorsed to developed superior genetic material and germplasm of priority species to enhance forest productivity, strengthen SFM, and conserve indigenous species and genetic diversity.There are approximately 4,500 facilities in the national wood processing sector, with most using traditional technologies. The government is supporting companies are utilizing CNC technology to optimize the design of wood products and improve resource utilization. Other companies are using thermal and microwave technology to modify wood properties to enhance appearance, strength, and durability to meet market expectations for lucrative products, improving profitability. Solar power innovations are being used to improve wood drying processes, reducing energy costs, and reduce pressure on the national power grid. capacities and policies often lag far behind technological advancements.Capacity building in the utilization of innovative technologies will be needed to facilitate and accelerate their uptake and scaling up. Capacity building should include training in the safe operation of the technologies, particularly with process and product innovations which offer productivity enhancement, resource use efficiency and employment opportunities but can be dangerous to the inexperienced. Capacity building will also be beneficial to local economies that service forest management and forest industry sectors. These areas would include institutional management, leadership, language proficiency, the integration of Indigenous and technical knowledge, value chains, marketing and small business operations. Additionally, there will be a need for a strong cadre of young forestry professionals with tertiary educations proficient in the use of innovative technologies as the forest and forest resources managers of the future.Restrictive and unaligned policies limit the use of innovative technologies, restricting their application and potential benefits. These include legal restrictions over drone flights and the use of wood-based products in tallbuilding construction. Strong regulations are also needed to limit the negative impacts of innovative technologies and to facilitate their acceptance and adoption by users and society at large. Regional and international cooperation, including efforts to increase the harmonization and interoperability of national rules, norms and standards, is needed to support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies for the mutual benefit of national and regional economies.This chapter presents enabling conditions that can address these capacity and policy constraints. These conditions, combined with the key expected positive impacts and potential negative impacts from adopting innovative technologies summarized in Table 5, provide a solid basis from which to elaborate overarching recommendations with specific options for decision makers to support the adoption and dissemination of innovative forest technologies in the Asia-Pacific region. These recommendations and options are presented in the next chapter.This chapter provides 10 overarching recommendations with 59 specific options to support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies for SFM in Asia and the Pacific, as well as a practical way forward for roadmap implementation.The recommendations and options emerge from the discussions, evidence and case studies gathered in the previous chapters, as well as from the inclusive and participative process followed during the elaboration of this study, starting from the inception workshop (July 2020) and ending with the validation workshop (November 2021), which involved a wide range of key regional decision makers and technical experts, as well as students and young people involved in the forest sector.In Countries and other actors should work together at the regional level to facilitate technology uptake and scaling up, coordinating their efforts, sharing their experiences, and harmonizing their regulations and standards. Regional cooperation, in a world of limited resources, can be more efficient for technology uptake and scaling up than fragmented action by individual countries, which often lack the technical, human and financial capacities to act. The Asia-Pacific Forest Commission (APFC) could play a central role in strengthening regional cooperation to support the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies in the forest sector.In particular, the APFC and other regional fora/organizations are encouraged to: The process of roadmap implementation can be deployed regionally, nationally, in single sectors or within value chains, following the concept of 'innovation systems' facilitating cooperation, collaboration and coordination between actors, countries and sectors at different scales and contexts. At the regional level, it could be based on the findings of APFSOS III (FAO 2019) and of this study. The APFC could discuss the findings, recommendations and associated options of the present study and set regional priorities. It could also invite member countries to conduct the same exercise at national level and to report back in the next meeting of the APFC. The APFC could then finalize a regional strategy and plan of action. Regional priorities would be adjusted, in each member country, to national circumstances, priorities and needs (5c; 10e 81 ). Regional cooperation, including South-South cooperation, will be paramount at this stage given the very unequal rates of innovation and technology adoption across countries in the Asia-Pacific region (10).National roadmaps would be led by the government in collaboration with a national advisory group on innovative forest technologies gathering all relevant actors (from public and private sectors, civil society, and research institutions; from researchers to final users) (5a). As appropriate, plans of actions would be attuned at sub-national levels, in different sectors and forest value chains.Lessons learned from the elaboration and implementation of these national roadmaps could be periodically discussed at national and regional levels to foster exchanges in experience across sectors, actors and countries. Based on this feedback, national and regional strategies and plans of action could be revised and adjusted as appropriate.At the broader global level, the recommendations and roadmap implementation support the FAO Science and Innovation Strategy (CL 168/22), 82  which foresees a world free of hunger and malnutrition, where science and innovation contribute to overcoming complex social, economic and environmental challenges of agriculture, food and natural systems in an equitable way while maximizing synergies and minimizing trade-offs and risks. Identify research priorities, including priority areas for action and investment, as well as priority transformations needed in policies and regulations (5a; 5c), focusing on:• the most promising innovative technologies given the identified challenges and needs (5c); • the most vulnerable groups of actors (e.g., indigenous peoples, local and rural communities, small-scale producers, women, youth); and • the forest ecosystems or forest value chains that are the most fragile, socially, economically and/or environmentally. • Define the roles and responsibilities of the different actors involved (5c). • Develop action plans at different levels (regional, national, local) in different sectors for different stakeholder groups. • Ensure policy coordination across sectors, actors and scales and create innovative governance mechanisms at all scales (5). • Experiment and share the lessons learned.• Adapt strategies and action plans accordingly.Identify the challenges and needs for sustainable forest management (SFM) (5b).• Assess the potential contribution of innovative technologies to SFM: opportunities and challenges (5a). • Identify the actors affected (positively or negatively) by the implementation of innovative technologies in the forest sector (5b). • Identify the main barriers to technology dissemination and adoption.Note: Numbers between parentheses in this figure refer to the recommendations above 84 The forestry functions that can be fulfilled, along the value chain, by innovative technologies are presented in  (Pingault et al. 2020(Pingault et al. , 2021a) ) and the collection of youth contributions (Pingault et al. 2021b) environmental impacts, such as the loss of unskilled jobs, the destruction of natural ecosystems, or the loss of access to natural resources. These forms of collateral damage are likely to disproportionately affect the most vulnerable groups and communities, which face the risk of being further marginalized by technology adoption and hence need specific support. When considering the adoption of an innovation, it is thus essential to consider not only the main objective for its adoption but also all of its potential impacts, as well as all of the potential synergies and tradeoffs with other development objectives. This can lead to linking adoption and scaling up of innovations to environmental and social safeguards or, as appropriate, to design compensatory or accompanying measures, such as training plans for laid-off workers or support to small enterprises in adopting the technology to avoid being left behind large companies.The study also identified two main barriers to the uptake and scaling up of innovative technologies: (i) a lack of capacity (in terms of human, natural, physical, financial and social capitals); and (ii) rigid legal frameworks (policies and regulations) that often lag far behind rapidly evolving technologies. to facilitate the adoption of innovative technologies across contexts and scales. 9. Assess the negative impacts of innovative technologies and establish appropriate social and environmental safeguards. 10. Strengthen regional cooperation.These recommendation topics provide a framework to support innovative technologies uptake and scaling up in the forest sector in Asia and the Pacific. A total of 59 specific options are provided under the 10 recommendations (three to eight options per recommendation). This study highlighted the immense potential for innovation across Asia and the Pacific and specifically in the forest sector, as well as the large divides still persisting across countries in the region. Asia-Pacific's innovation potential is mainly driven by a few countries, referred to as the 'innovation tigers' (e.g. Australia, China, Hong Kong (China), Japan, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, and Singapore). Other countries in the region, the 'emerging innovators', are quickly catching up and show promising potential for innovation uptake and scaling up in the coming decades. A third group consists of countries where particular efforts to foster innovation are needed and that could benefit from international and regional cooperation, including South-South cooperation. This diversity of national situations calls for renewed and strengthened | 143 regional cooperation, positioning the APFC as a central actor to lead the elaboration of a regional innovation roadmap. The framework presented above now needs to be 'scaled down' and adapted to national and local circumstances, priorities and needs.To support this endeavor, FAO and FTA suggest here a practical way forward for the development and implementation of such a roadmap, consisting of four steps: (i) conduct a diagnosis, or initial assessment of the current situation; (ii) develop a strategy and set priorities; (iii) create an enabling environment; (iv) act collectively and individually. This practical way forward can be deployed and articulated at different scales: at regional and national levels, in different sectors and value chains, by different groups of actors. Lessons learned and feedback from these experiences conducted at different scales could foster exchanges of experience across sectors, actors and countries and feed updated national and regional strategies. Evidence and case studies gathered during the development of this study can illustrate how different recommendations and options have been successfully implemented in specific situations. These examples can inspire other actors, showing them practical and solution-oriented pathways that can be adapted to and implemented in their own context (see Table 7).This study has been developed through an inclusive and participatory process that involved a wide range of key regional experts and decision makers from governments and international organizations, from the private sector and civil society, as well as from academia and research institutions. Young students and young professionals were given a central role in this process as they will be the forest managers of tomorrow. This process was launched on 30 July 2020, through an online inception workshop that gathered 89 participants from 29 countries (full list of participants in Annex 2). This workshop showed the high level of interest and enthusiasm shared by many stakeholders in the region for the study. The workshop: (i) presented the regional context and the two aforementioned topics; (ii) presented the participative process of development of the roadmaps; (iii) received feedback on the two corresponding scoping notes circulated as background documents ahead of the workshop; and (iv) launched and organized the technical work on each topic. Pingault et al. (2020) present the discussions held and the main results of this inception workshop in greater depth. Particular thanks to the colleagues who contributed to the preparation of the workshop or served as speakers, chairs or rapporteurs during the discussions: Amos Amanubo, Illias Animon, Anne Branthomme, Stephen Elliott, Vincent Gitz, Thomas Hofer, Rodney Keenan, Yves Laumonier, Yanxia Li, Rao Matta, Mike May, Alexandre Meybeck, CTS Nair, Robert Nasi, Marco Piazza, Nathanaël Pingault, Edmund Leo Rico, James M. Roshetko, Maria Paula Annexes Sarigumba, Vaeno Vigulu, Shengfu Wu and Makino Yamanoshita.A second online technical workshop on innovative technologies was organized on 30 November, 1 December and 3 December 2020 to take stock of the progress made in the study and pursue more in-depth discussions among experts. The workshop was by invitation. It gathered 52 participants from 19 countries (full list of participants in Annex 3). During this workshop, participants: (i) identified the main promising innovative technologies for the forest sector in the region; (ii) explored the different functions they can perform along the value chain; (iii) illustrated their associated challenges and opportunities in different contexts with some specific case studies; and (iv) discussed the main technical, socioeconomic and institutional bottlenecks to technology dissemination and adoption and the needed transformations. Based on these very rich discussions, participants collectively suggested possible recommendations for decision makers, directed specifically to four different stakeholder groups: (i) public actors; (ii) private actors; (iii) civil society and local communities; (iv) research and academic institutions. Detailed results of this workshop are gathered in Pingault et al. (2021a). The following colleagues, who actively contributed to the success of this workshop as organizers, speakers, chairs or rapporteurs, deserve particular thanks: Illias Animon, Lyndall Bull, Oliver Coroza, Lobzang Dorji, Vincent Gitz, Jalaluddin Harun, Thomas Hofer, Shahrukh Kamran, Yanxia Li, Bas Louman, Andrew Lowe, Rao Matta, Alexandre Meybeck, CTS Nair, Tony Page, Marco Piazza, Nathanaël Pingault, Annex 1. Process for the development of the study","tokenCount":"29701"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"869eb843699de63b798f0188489f876b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87076141-63c7-4bb2-9de6-cf56a9f06224/retrieve","id":"79634060"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"04129633-9ce3-40b9-85ee-48838d81350f","pagecount":"28","content":"sharing development models.If you were a farmer in Europe or the US, you would have an open line of credit with your bank to use for buying inputs or even equipment. If you were a Brazilian farmer, and wanted to buy inputs on credit, you could issue an 'I owe you' note to your supplier, who in turn would redeem it at the bank. Some Indian banks have introduced products, such as warehouse receipt finance, that permit them to issue (as one advertised) \"commoditybacked loans in an instant, at unbelievable rates.\" But, in most African, Caribbean or Pacific countries, farmers face difficult financing conditions. The vast majority of smallholder farmers have no access to commercial bank lending, and the share of agriculture in banks' loan portfolio tends to be in the low single digits. In countries like Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda, less than 10% of farmers have access to formal credit. In Ghana and Nigeria, less than 4% of commercial bank loans are for agriculture.But it need not be that way. Reasons given for denying credit are often mere excuses. If best practices in ICTs, loan products, risk management methods, and in regulatory policies were applied, ACP farmers would be able to convert their control over productive assets into easy access to credit. The private sector, government decision-makers and international development partners should join hands to upscale these best practices. To catalyse this process, CTA and its many partners will gather delegates from around the world from 13 to 18 July 2014 in Nairobi to decide how to 'Revolutionise Finance for Agri-Value Chains'. You too can be part of the revolution.Director -CTA O ver the last decade, rising food and fuel prices, coupled with increasing pressure on water resources, has resulted in large-scale land acquisitions by nations that have traditionally depended on imports to meet their food needs. According to global estimates by the International Land Coalition, 57 million ha of land have been leased in Africa to foreign investors since 2007. Referred to as 'land grabbing', the trend has sparked a passionate debate in media and academic circles, and prompted considerable research on the implications for human rights. In contrast, however, relatively little attention has been paid to how land acquisitions impact on water access for those living nearby or further downstream.The issue of 'water grabbing' is a not a simple one. Water flows from one place to another and its availability varies, affected by the seasons, human use, or climate change. In addition, rights, access and uses are complex and varied. Who has the right to the water in a river: the people who live near it; the farmers who use it for irrigation; those living upstream or downstream; or all of these?It is well documented that need for water is one of the prime drivers of the global rush to acquire land. Even a cursory look at the global 'water stress index' (published annually by risk analysis firm Maplecroft), shows clearly why countries such as China, India and South Korea, along with oil-rich Gulf states, are racing to buy land in developing countries and grow crops abroad. Yet despite the fact that land without water is generally useless, most land deal contracts do not explicitly mention water usage. \"With the land comes the right to withdraw the water linked to it,\" writes former CEO of Nestlé, Peter Brabeck-Letmathe in the magazine, Foreign Policy. \"In most countries [this is] essentially a freebie that increasingly could be the most valuable part of the deal.\"In cases where foreign investors do make an explicit demand for water rights, a study by the International Institute of Environmental Development has found that governments generally comply without the consultation of the land owners. In other cases, where investors pay to use water, they are often charged according to how much land is irrigated rather than how much water is used.Often, the boundaries between legality and illegality, when claiming rights to water, are obscure and questions of jurisdiction unclear. In Ghana, according to research by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the separation of land and water rights has resulted in pre-existing customary water rights being abolished and ownership, management and control of water being placed under the authority of the State. As a result, wATer GrABBinGWith the recent rise in foreign investment for land in Africa, is greater insight and policy intervention needed on the impact on water access and rights for local communities?As a result of water grabbing for largescale irrigation, the predicted drop in water levels will leave this part of Lake Turkana dry large-scale land acquisitions have resulted in poor farmers being displaced, with very little compensation paid, and losing access to both land and water, a pattern that IWMI has also observed in Mali.Land deals and water usage not only impact on local communities but also on downstream users. In Ethiopia, the Gibe III dam, due to be completed by the end of 2014, will enable irrigation of 150,000 ha that the government has allocated to investors. Downstream, however, lies Kenya's Lake Turkana, on which half a million people depend. According to a 2012 report by the African Studies Centre at Oxford University, reduced water flows caused by the damming project could lower the level of the lake by 8 m within 10 years. \"Ultimately, the 6,400 sq km lake could shrink to two small lakes,\" says Sean Avery, a Nairobi-based hydrologist who studied the impact of the dam project for the African Development Bank. Writing in the UK's Guardian newspaper, he continues, \"The picture that emerges from these predictions bears a striking resemblance to the Aral Sea, which was once the world's fourth-largest inland water body. And yet, no feasibility studies or social and environmental impact assessments have been published.\" (The Aral Sea in Central Asia is reported to have shrunk by 90% over the last 50 years as a result of diverting river water to irrigate and increase Soviet cotton production). Reduced water levels will impact not only on the people dependent on Lake Turkana but also the remaining wildlife, which are already in serious decline.In response, Berhanu Kebede, Ethiopian ambassador in London, also quoted in the Guardian, strongly refuted the University of Oxford study, stating that Lake Turkana will not lose a considerable amount of water and that the dam will permit the rational management of water in the Omo River basin.The Tana Delta, an estuarine region of Kenya, is home to subsistence farmers, fishers and pastoralists who have traditionally shared its fragile land and water resources through delicately balanced agreements. In recent years, however, the flood plain has been marked by the Kenyan government as 'unused' and included in Kenya's national development plan for expansion of large-scale, irrigated agriculture. The recent unrest in the Delta region, as local people fight against the selling of their land and resettlement of communities, has highlighted the risks when governments ignore complex social realities and arrangements that may have evolved over generations to maintain a wide diversity of water-dependent livelihoods.what needs to be done?From a legal perspective, while a complex array of national and international laws governing water allocation currently exists, investors frequently target African countries where national legislation on water rights is either non-existent, vaguely defined or weakly enforced. Yet, without adequate regulation and enforcement, the bargaining power of local communities is nearly always less than that of the foreign investor, who is generally supported by the government.To ensure that future land acquisitions adequately consider crop water requirements and likely impacts on the livelihoods of smallholder users and the ecosystem, new institutional arrangements are needed, says Tim Williams, IWMI's Africa director. \"For these arrangements to be effective and workable, they must be based on social, political and economic realities, which requires integrated and coordinated input from the different land and water agencies, rigorous water use impact assessments and a recognition of the rights of existing land and water users,\" he adds.In addition, local water management should be promoted, with African governments and donors investing in sustainable water management systems. These would include water harvesting, storage, use of wastewater and small-scale irrigation that would benefit smallholders while managing land and water resources in a sustainable way. According to Citigroup chief economist Willem Buiter, \"Water will eventually become the single most important physical commodity-based asset class, dwarfing oil, copper, agricultural commodities and precious metals.\" Given the accelerating pace of land -and wateracquisition, securing access to water for rural communities will therefore become an increasingly urgent priority.A n FAO study was conducted in two areas: the Bla region of southern Mali, where FAO established a farmer field school programme in 2003, and a second area, Bougouni, where the programme was not yet active. While only 34% of cotton farmers in the area participated in the programme, pesticide use on all of Bla's cotton farms -more than 4,300 households -dropped a staggering 92%.Alternative methods of pest control proved to be three times more cost-effective than purchasing and using synthetic pesticides, according to FAO's analysis. By refraining from applying more than 47,000 litres of toxic pesticides and shifting to alternative 'biopesticides' like neem tree extract, growers in the Bla study group reduced their average individual production costs, saving nearly half a million dollars over the study period. The study further found that the move away from pesticide use had no negative impact on yields. For the full article see: http://tinyurl.com/pkayvzj.ver 130,000 t of maize is lost each year in Benin due to poor storage conditions, equivalent to a loss of €30 million. However, the adoption of new storage and preservation techniques -effective at combating insect attacks and reducing the risk of contamination -is reducing postharvest losses by at least a third. In northern Benin, the best technique for storing maize involves placing the crop in polyethylene bags after shelling. The bags are then stored in blocks of mud with sheets made from a local plant -banbassou -reducing grain loss to nearly zero. In the south of the country, the best options used are granaries made from plant matter, primarily neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) and bags treated with the insecticide Phostoxin. The adoption of these new storage techniques has reduced the loss rate to less than 2% in the north, with a financial gain of 1.5 billion CFA (€2.28 million). In the south, the loss rate has been reduced to 5%, generating a profit of around 3 billion CFA (€5.56 million).New techniques for storage and preservation reduce postharvest losses urBAn AGriCulTureAround 342 urban farmers in Antananarivo growing watercress on small plots are producing 80% of national production. The popularity of the crop has been driven by its low market cost for customers and tolerance to growing in contaminated urban water. nuTriTiOnThe italian-based slow Food Foundation intends to help African young people plant 10,000 food gardens and promote seed exchange; the organisation has so far supported the establishment of 1,000 gardens in more than 350 communities in 38 countries worldwide.Adopting improved potato and banana varieties has led to farmers doubling annual incomes to €200 per farmer. Training on no-till agriculture, drip irrigation, fertiliser application, antierosion techniques, and compost-making has also reduced soil erosion.New technologies double yields using disease-resistant, high starch varieties and best-bet practices, farmers in southwest nigeria have increased yields from 12 t/ha to 22 t/ha. Over 8,000 farmers supply cassava to Allied Atlantic Distilleries ltd., Africa's biggest ethanol producer from cassava.T o increase the skills of farmers and their output, Benin's federation of producers, Fédération des unions de producteurs du Bénin (FUPRO-Benin), introduced two management tools in 2005. The family farming consultancy (Conseil à l'exploitation familial, CEF) includes elements such as writing accounts and evaluating production costs and margins. A second tool, the management consultancy (Conseil de gestion, CdG), includes stock management, allocation of inputs and planning.Since their introduction, these methods have become highly successful and widely used: 87% of food producers are CEF members and use the cashbook, stock sheet and monthly accounts table. These tools help producers control production-related expenses. Over 1,000 female food producers regularly use the management tools to ensure the profitability of their incomegenerating activities and to manage their accounts better. Nearly 3,000 food producers are currently using stock sheets to monitor inputs and to determine the quantity of food needed to feed their family, ensuring sustainable production investment.T siperifery is a wild pepper native to Madagascar. It is a rare commodity with significant added value potential, and has a strong reputation in international gastronomy, leading to high demand and overharvesting. A combination of factors is threatening the survival of tsiperifery including increased human settlement in forest basins, the disorganised nature of the sector, and extremely destructive and uncontrolled harvesting practices: wild harvesting involves cutting down trees on which pepper vines are growing.However, researchers at the French agricultural research centre, CIRAD, and the University of Antananarivo are working in close collaboration with village communities to introduce more sustainable harvesting methods. There are two aims: preserving forest resources and providing higher revenue for the local population. Sustainable harvesting primarily consists of domesticating the wild pepper by cultivating and then selecting varieties with desirable traits. In addition, communities are encouraged to diversify their income-generating activities through market-gardening, fish farming or beekeeping, in order to reduce pressure on wild pepper.Producer performance improved by access to simple management tools The launch of agro-industrial parks (commercial farms, support for small marginal farmers and development of agricultural cooperatives) in the Democratic republic of Congo is causing farmers to fear becoming mere labourers. instead, the creation of agricultural villages is proposed.As part of its 3n initiative (nigeriens nourish nigeriens), the government will be offering 1,500 tractors made by Chinese company DTe half-price by March 2015. This programme also provides for the training of 1,500 operators and 300 maintenance workers. weather and market data is being collected in each sub-county by 75 agents, entered into mobile phones, and transmitted to a server at the meteorological department in Kampala. The data is used to produce a 10-day forecast and a 3-month seasonal forecast for farmers and herders in local languages and in English. Livestock and crop prices are also aggregated for different markets on a weekly basis.\"Forecasts in January predicted rain for January 15 and 25,\" explains Paddy Seddinda, who lives in Wabinyoyi subcounty. \"The rain came on those days. This enables me to plan. For example, in the dry period when we are drying sweet potatoes, on the days I expect rain I make sure people are around to quickly remove them so we don't lose them.\" The project also enables farmers to submit questions to a team of experts, providing a two-way information loop for communities. This is improving understanding of climate change impacts and providing evidence to policymakers to help them make informed decisions.A new forest monitoring and alert system for better forest managementUgandan farmers are benefitting from timely climatic information wirelessThe Mawingu initiative (Kiswahili for 'cloud') is providing cheap, wireless broadband to previously unserved rural areas through solar-powered base stations in Kenya.Microsoft aims to roll out this initiative to other sub-saharan countries in 2014. viDeOA new educational video, called sMArT valleys, details a participatory and sustainable approach to developing inland valleys for rice-based systems in sub-saharan Africa. The approach makes extensive use of farmer knowledge and focuses on construction of low-cost water control infrastructure.A new FAO database (Global land Cover sHAre) collects previously scattered and unharmonised land cover information into one centralised database. By standardising measurements and recording methods, it will be possible to monitor the use of land according to soils and impact of climate change.The Ges Touch and Pay (TAP) system is targeting 500,000 farmers in nigeria. it is an offline technology that records farmer's details and their photo. After registering, a TAP card is issued which is used to redeem subsidised inputs.ENVIRONMENT F our wind farms, installed on four Cabo Verde islands, provide an annual savings of 20,000 t of imported heavy fuels, resulting in savings of more than €12 million for the country.Together, the four wind farms produce more than 25.5 MW of electricity, equalling around 25% of the country's demand. In addition, they reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 67,440 t per full year of operation. The first wind farm was inaugurated on Santiago Island in 2011. It supplies 20% of local energy consumption, while the Boavista, São Vicente and Sal farms fill 25%, 35% and 31% of local demand, respectively.The planned progress in renewable energies on the archipelago over the next 7 years will save around €40 million annually in fuel imports (approximately 75 million litres of fuel and diesel) and create more than 800 direct and indirect jobs, in addition to cutting carbon dioxide emissions by 225,000 t.The programme was developed by Cabeólica, a Cabo Verdean public-private partnership which, in 2013, won the Ashden Award for Small Island Developing States, backed by the World Bank.and dams are being used to turn dry valleys into productive horticultural plots along the Ikangaani river, in Kenya's Makueni county. \"The sand dams initiative, locally known as Ngome or Ming'eto, has reduced famine relief dependence by 70%, as the farmers are now capable of producing enough food for sale and for domestic use,\" explains Damaris Muia, the chair-lady of Ikangaani self help group. By producing vegetables and drought-tolerant crops, including kale, tomato, onion, green grams, cowpea and sorghum, farmers are improving their food security and increasing their income.The small dams are constructed across the bed of seasonal streams, just below or at the height of the river bank, allowing high water to flow over the top. As sand builds up behind the dam, an artificial aquifer is created. \"This place used to be too dry for anything to grow,\" says Esther Katiwa, who now earns between 80,000 and 120,000 Ksh (€650-1,000) per year growing tissue culture banana. With the support of local NGOs, Sasol Foundation and Utooni Development Organisation, over 2,500 sand dams have been constructed in Machakos, Makueni, Kajiado and Kitui, benefitting about 100,000 people.winD FArMsCabo Verde moves ahead in renewable energies wATer HArvesTinGArtificial aquifers in Kenya are stimulating horticultural productionOver 50,000 subsistence Kenyan farmers have planted over 7 million trees in five districts since 2005. For example, fruit trees (avocado, mango and orange) provide farmers with alternative income and help to combat poverty and climate change.By the end of 2015, an estimated 1 million eastern African farmers will be insured and protected from losses due to unpredictable weather. Over 180,000 farmers in Kenya, rwanda and Tanzania are already benefiting from index-based weatherlinked crop insurance. reFOresTATiOnKenya's government and the Kenya red Cross plan to support the planting of 10 billion trees by 2030 across the country to increase forest cover. Over 2,300 volunteer youths have already been trained to establish and manage tree nurseries.wanda Organic, a Kenyan organic fertiliser company, plans to establish fertiliser facilities in eastern Africa to reduce costs of importing fertiliser. Farmers are being trained and demonstrations conducted on the benefits of organic fertiliser in order to build demand. Improved Cowpea Storage). The triplelayer technique consists of packaging cowpeas in two polyethylene bags, which are themselves placed in a woven, protective, polyethylene bag. Each bag costs 1,100 CFA (€1.68), which is 300-400 CFA (€0.45-0.60) more than traditional methods. However, with this method, the cowpeas are preserved better and bags can be reused several times.Implementation of the PICS technique began in 2008 and has been spread through much of the country by researchers, farmer associations and NGOs active in the cowpea sector. In addition, since 2010, the government of Burkina Faso has ordered large numbers of bags, in order to make them widely available for producers.A group of Nigerian scientists from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have made a breakthrough: they have succeeded in growing yams without soil, using aeroponics. The plant roots are suspended in mid-air, using supports, and are provided with nutrients via constant spraying of nutrient solutions containing mineral salts. Although the method is widely used by seed potato growers, this is the first time it has been used for yams.According to the researchers, a properly managed aeroponics system could provide yam producers with their own seed yams. Dr Robert Asiedu, IITA director for West Africa, believes the results are impressive, saying, \"Yam is an important crop in Africa and addressing the seed constraints will go a long way in improving the livings of farmers who depend on the crop for their livelihood.\" This technique could, the researchers suggest, breathe new life into yam growing. The tuber is vitally important for over 250 million people in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, where it is a common part of the daily diet.With triple-layer bagging system PICS, the cowpeas are much better preservedCOwPeA sTOrAGeThe triple bagging technique improves cowpea storage without adding chemicals yAMsAn aeroponic system provides yam producers access to clean seedBAMBArA GrOunDnuTResearchers from Burkina Faso have been working on the Bambara groundnut (Voandzoia subterianea), a nutritious pulse for those unable to afford meat which is primarily grown by women. Ten of the best performing varieties have so far been selected.OPen ACCessTo improve access to research data, a new website has been launched which tags information according to various criteria. Other features include subject-based update subscriptions and social media sharing options (http://exploreit.icrisat.org).The first certified and diseasefree cassava planting material is to be released in sub-Saharan Africa, opening the way for greater commercialisation. Millions of seedlings are to be propagated to benefit 30 million farmers and combat disease losses of US$1 billion annually.inCOMe FOr DrylAnDsThe Kenya Forestry Research Institute is teaching farmers sustainable ways of collecting and domesticating indigenous fruits. Communities are also learning to add value to Vitex payos, baobab and other fruits by making flour, jam and juice.ince 2010, Malagasy fruit and vegetable processors and honey producers have been promoting their products by packaging them in jars. With better presentation, the products sell better. \"Now, we sell 6 t in a year compared with 1 t before,\" says the president of the Regional Network of Beekeeper Associations. Before, honey was sold in reused plastic bottles or in large bowls. The current challenge is making the jars available in rural areas, which is now being tackled under the PROSPERER programme, which supports rural microbusinesses and regional economies.The programme aims to promote systematic use of standardised packaging, to allow producers to expand their markets and ultimately generate additional revenue. Producers receive training in entrepreneurial skills, and technical supervision in adhering to storage, packaging and hygiene standards. To date, over 2,220 micro-businesses have been supplied with jars. With the creation of a producers' network and a collaboration and support platform, people in rural areas can be supplied with other types of packaging in order to better meet consumers' needs.B aoré, meaning 'granary' in Burkina Faso's Mooré language, is a customised savings system that allows producers to receive high-quality fertiliser at better prices, when they want it. Through transfers of a minimum of 1,000 CFA (€1.50) for men and 500 CFA (€0.75) for women, producers save money between December and May, without a fixed schedule, to cover at least 60% of the cost of the fertiliser they want to buy. At the end of the farming season, after harvest, the producer pays off the remaining 40%.The system was created under the initiative of the Coopérative agricole du Passoré (CAP), located in Yako in northern Burkina Faso. Last season, 3,000 producers adopted the Baoré savings system, a little over half of whom were women. Thanks to this system, 190 t of fertiliser was purchased, worth around 69 million CFA (€105,000). Producers received competitive prices: a 50 kg bag was sold to them for 18,500 CFA (€28), slightly less than the local market price of 19,250 CFA (€29). In addition, the fertiliser was delivered to their homes. \"The operation owes its success to rigorous and transparent management,\" claims CAP President, Noufou Sankara.Centre: Madagascar honey packed in a glass jar. Left: Jars used to package jam and green peppersThe benefits of saving A customised savings system is helping producers buy inputsOnline market place for young farmers young Kenyan farmers are using a digital hub to trade their produce (crops, livestock, fish fingerlings and seed). Mukulima young, set up by entrepreneur joseph Macharia, has almost 14,000 agribusiness members; 95% of members are aged 32 years or below.envirOnMenTAl PrOTeCTiOnPartnership between Gabon's national parks agency and an energy and water company, seeG, will allow sites located in the Crystal Mountains national Park to be redeveloped. An environmental learning teaching centre will be created and ecotourism will also be developed.niCHe MArKeTsThe Australian Centre for international Agricultural research, Australian chocolatiers Haigh's Chocolates and Bahen, and American company Guittard, are working with cocoa farmers in vanuatu to test the quality of their beans and suggest techniques to access niche markets.To increase coffee revenues, rwanda is aiming to increase the proportion of fully washed coffee that is exported to 71% by 2018. last season, 33% of exported coffee was fully washed, generating 45% (€17 million) of total coffee revenue.These 6 pages were produced with contributions from: M Andriatiana (Madagascar), B H Carreon (Palau), M Issa (Benin), e D Karinganire (rwanda), j Karuga (Kenya), M A Konte (senegal), A lawson (Gabon), I Maiga (Burkina Faso), C Muasya (Kenya), A C Santos (Cabo verde), P Sawa (Kenya) and M Waruru (Kenya).How is Evergreen Agriculture different to agroforestry?Evergreen Agriculture re-branded what had been known as 'tree-crop intercropping'. Agroforestry has too often been considered a type of forestry and the agricultural community has tended to ignore the potential of trees when grown in association with crops. But when grown among crops and properly managed, trees provide a source of biofertilisers, reduce temperatures, conserve rainwater in the soil, and produce abundant wood for cooking fuel and construction and nutritious fodder for livestock.Evergreen Agriculture is a type of more intensive farming that integrates trees into crop and livestock production systems, to sustain a green cover on the land throughout the year. It is a matter of choosing and incorporating the right kinds of trees with crops, and managing them for optimal benefits. There are three main types of Evergreen Agriculture: farmer managed natural regeneration (farmers select trees that come up naturally in their cropland), conservation agriculture (zero tillage) with trees, and incorporating trees within conventional agriculture.What are the main obstacles and drivers of success for this initiative?Evergreen Agriculture is an underappreciated but truly ecological approach.It is all the more relevant when climate change endangers world food security and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The main challenges are conventional attitudes and technical constraints. Models of 'modern' agriculture typically promote a trend toward monoculture, which goes in the opposite direction to an ecologically-sane agriculture for the future.How can the approach be scaled up and what support will be needed? About 1.2 million farmers in Niger have established Evergreen Agriculture systems across 5 million ha of farmland. Evergreen Agriculture is also practised in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Senegal and Zambia, amongst others. Inspired by these successes, many international and national organisations, NGOs and governments are now working to scale-up Evergreen Agriculture systems. The research community is working to fill knowledge gaps and provide practical recommendations for this. Due to climate change, the world is realising that it needs to rethink how agriculture will be practised in the future. The most favourable option to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture is to sequester much more carbon in agricultural systems, and the expansion of trees on farms is an obvious option to do this while achieving production, profit and environmental co-benefits.Can Evergreen Agriculture increase food and nutrition security?  The growing presence of emerging countries on the world stage is driven primarily by economics, but geopolitical and diplomatic aspirations are also high and South-South cooperation is one way of achieving them. With the exception of Brazil, the agriculture sector is not overlooked but is by no means a priority sector for these new players. South-South cooperation therefore has a long history, but recent economic growth in some of these countries since the dawn of the new Millennium, in addition to changes in the cooperation framework, has given it a new dimension. \"The policy challenges facing Brazil, China, India and Russia, not forgetting South Africa, are to reshuffle the cards and take the lead diplomatically, economically and financially on the international scene. It's very clear that these donors are not altruistic, they're defending their own interests,\" says Jean-Jacques Gabas, economist and researcher at the French research centre, CIRAD. These new stakeholders -in addition to striving to claim a place in global governanceshare common values, such as non-interference in the domestic affairs of countries benefiting from their assistance. Developing countries consider themselves to all be equal and they generally make little distinction between factors pertaining to their cooperation policies, trade and investment.In the agricultural sector, Brazilian, Chinese and Indian interventions in Africa clearly highlight a willingness to share experience, especially on enhancing food security, which these countries have had some success in improving. These initiatives have been gratefully received by African countries at a time when aid from industrialised countries is drying up. Funding for agriculture in Africa has been following a bell curve pattern: from a steady US$5 billion in 1975, aid rose to US$8 billion in the 1980s, to drop to US$5 billion in 2006-2007, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC). There was a slight upward trend in 2008, but this was marginal in the light of the higher increases forecasted by OECD member countries. entrusted to a non-subsidised Chinese company. The centre thus becomes autonomous and operates under a purely economic rationale where everything is sold, including products and services. \"How viable is this Chinese so-called 'public-private partnership' model?\" asks Gabas. It is still too early to say. Assessments are under way and problems have already been highlighted, such as the lack of links with local research. Contrary to common opinion, Chinese public and private companies have not been acquiring much land in Africa, i.e. only around 300,000 ha according to Land Matrix, an online interface that offers access to data and analytical tools concerning land deals. Most Chinese acquisitions are focused in a few countries like Benin, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali or Mozambique. These include sugar production projects such as SUCOBE, run by the Complant company in Benin and Madagascar, and N'Sukula in Mali. Most agricultural projects promote the production of food crops for local and regional markets.After Lula da Silva took office as President of Brazil in 2003, there was a marked rekindling of political,Launched in 2003, the Fome Zero (zero hunger) strategy has been successfully implemented in Brazil -40 million Brazilians have been rescued from hunger and poverty in 10 years. Fome Zero has become a global reference, a model that the country now exports and tailors to specific local situations via the Food Acquisition Programme (PAA) and the National School Food Programme. The Centre of Excellence Against Hunger was founded for this purpose in Brasilia in 2011, in partnership with the World Food Programme (WFP), to share this Brazilian expertise.PAA aims to combat food insecurity and strengthen domestic food markets. This involves stockpiling or purchasing foodstuffs produced by smallholders, which are then distributed to foodinsecure families or schools. This programme was launched in 10 African countries in 2012 and has already been successful in Kédougou region in Senegal: in 200 school canteens, children eat rice that has been produced locally by around 1,000 smallholders. Brazil provides funding, FAO supplies seeds and support on improved agricultural techniques, while WFP buys 50% of the rice that is distributed to the canteens.Brazil is also testing the Mais Alimentos (more food) programme in Africa. The aim is to enhance productivity and food security by improving access to technology. A credit facility of around US$100 million was set up by the Bank of Brazil to enable farmers to buy Brazilian machinery and other equipment. Credit lines have been negotiated with Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Senegal and Zimbabwe.  measure their impacts in the field. Brazil was until very recently an aid recipient and the Brazilian Cooperation Agency has just started allotting aid funds, which is why few development-oriented projects have been undertaken to date. Note also that Brazil, like India, serve their relatively long-term interests by focusing on creating markets for their capital goods. Within the framework of the Mais Alimentos programme (see box on p.15 Brazilian models applicable in Africa), credit lines are subject to the purchase of Brazilian machinery.Drawing on its Green Revolution experience, India is keen to promote agricultural development in Africa through technology transfer and research. India, with the support of the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa, has introduced innovative platforms and agribusiness incubators in agriculture-specialised universities in five African countries, i.e. Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Uganda and Zambia.One feature regarding Indian cooperation is that private companies were the forerunners to the Indian government's involvement. Some Indian companies such as the Kirloskar Group, a leading global pump manufacturer, have long been active on the African continent. This pattern changed in 2008 when the first India-Africa Summit took place. Unlike other emerging countries, India has targeted eight priority countries and formed the Technico-Economic Approach for Africa-India Movement which, besides India, includes Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Mali and Senegal.In February 2013, Sharad Pawar, the Indian Minister of Agriculture, declared at the first Asia-Africa Agribusiness Forum, \"As land in Asia is under pressure from population growth and urbanisation, there is an opportunity for responsible investment by Asian countries in Africa to promote agriculture.\" Many Indian companies, such as the Karuturi Group which is active in Ethiopia and Kenya, have already invested in the agricultural sector for the production of sugar, palm oil, sugar, and flowers, part of which is targeted for export.Could South-South cooperation be a way to overcome the known limits of North-South cooperation? \"We shouldn't consider this strictly in black-and-white terms. Very little is really being done by China and Brazil in the agricultural sector,\" says Gabas. But this is just the beginning of the process. The future would seem to be in favour of tripartite cooperation involving one industrialised donor country or international organisation, an emerging country and a beneficiary country or regional entity. \"We need converging views,\" says Gabas, while also establishing a dialogue with these new cooperation players and DAC member countries. Emerging countries seem ready.Tripartite projects are now under way. Some OECD countries, such as Germany, the UK and the US, are already involved with the support of multilateral agencies such as the World Bank and private foundations.Anne Guillaume-Gentil DOSSIERJean-Joseph Boillot, a professor of economics and social science, is an advisor to CEPII, the French research centre in international economics, on large emerging economies.Why do emerging countries intervene in the agricultural sector in Africa?Policies, market security and technical cooperation are the three components of the intervention logic of China and India, to which I would also add an agro-industrial component for Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. The common denominator between emerging countries is that Africa is clearly viewed as a potential agricultural giant. This drives the intervention strategy of emerging countries towards Africa.There is a fundamental difference between the North and South. The North does not need to invest in African agriculture since it is basically in a surplus situation from an agricultural standpoint. Its intervention logic is focused on the export of finished products or raw materials to Africa, while providing technical assistance to promote agricultural development.For the South, partnerships are much more balanced because emerging countries need to tap Africa's agricultural potential, which in turn is developed through large-scale agro-industrial farms, or serves to secure agricultural supply. This last point is especially relevant for China, with its growing import market, and India, which is addressing two major challenges concerning saturation of available land and high pressure on water resources. For political reasons, the two countries are also developing real technical agricultural cooperation regarding seeds, equipment and cropping methods under a genuinely balanced partnership logic.Basically, yes! China and India implemented initiatives -most of which were successful -to deal with a major food crisis affecting them during 1960-1980. They are now readily able to feed their people. China and India have different experiences that are both useful for Africa. In India, the Green Revolution is focused on small-and medium-scale rural farms, while being highly labour intensive, and water/input efficient. This process is combined with agricultural research on new varieties, including 'made in India' GMOs that fulfil the need to save resources.In contrast, Chinese agricultural development is based on the management of cash crops using highly efficient technologies. When China and India propose technical cooperation in Africa based on their experience, they speak the same language and are fully able to understand the problems facing African farmers. upgrade their cultivation practices. \"I have now changed my old cassava planting habits, where I didn't respect the required distance between cuttings, which had an impact on production,\" says Christian Tsama, a successful trainee. Georgette Maboumou, another trainee, noted that once the language barrier was overcome, \"These courses helped me understand, in simple terms, the origins of some plants and their crop cycles.\" The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock encourages farmers to participate in these CDTA training sessions and Paul Rafael Ongouala, managing director of CDTA, says that the training costs are borne entirely by the State.A showcase of Chinese technology and expertise, this demonstration centre, like others set up elsewhere in Africa, operates completely independently without links to local research centres and irrespective of national agricultural policies. According to the agreement signed between China and the Congo, the centre is authorised to operate for 15 years, which is renewable. Knowledge transfer from Chinese experts to Congolese farmers is planned during the first 3-year implementation phase. At the outset of the second 12-year phase in 2016, a Chinese state-owned enterprise will take over administration and management of the centre. The agreement stipulates that this company will not be accountable to Chinese or Congolese authorities and will generate its own source of revenue for its operations, focusing primarily on farming and sustainable development.The centre's autonomy is clearly outlined in the agreement, but a Chinese state-owned company holds the keys. This is one way for China to shape the agricultural future of the Congo -a country with substantial potentialwith crop varieties, production techniques and equipment.From the Congolese standpoint, \"What is interesting [...] is the new range of skills and expertise. This will boost research on aspects of production and productivity throughout our food production chain, which is essential because we are also seeking to achieve food sovereignty,\" declares Rigobert Maboundou, the Congolese Minister of Agriculture and Livestock. China represents an invaluable alternative opportunity for the Congo as funding for ambitious development programmes is otherwise currently hard to acquire.A senior staff member at the Congolese Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock is, however, more reserved. He considers that, \"Chino-Congolese cooperation, which is firmly established in the Congo, is not consistent with farmers' needs because the projects are designed elsewhere and imposed on them. Certainly Congolese farmers require new agricultural practices, but they should be based on their different training needs,\" he says, before adding, \"whereas North-South cooperation is often participatory and followed up, which is more effective.\" aro is an important starchy staple throughout the tropics, including Asia, the Pacific, Africa, and the Caribbean. The leaves, stems, and root are all edible, although taro is toxic when fresh and has to be cooked to be edible. In 2010, an estimated 9 million t of various taro species was grown and consumed worldwide. West Africa is by far the largest taro producing region (known here as cocoyam), with most consumed locally, according to FAO. However, the crop is a particularly important part of traditional food systems in the Pacific, and is one of the few fresh commodities for which Pacific Island States have been able to achieve a significant level of exports, particularly to Australia, Japan, New Zealand, and the US.Of the 10,000-12,000 t exported annually (worth approximately €4.3 million), Fiji currently accounts for 95%, with Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu making up the rest. And while there has been little growth in recent years, taro exports have the potential to more than double if the product could be made more competitive in terms of price and quality, states a 2011 study by the European Union-funded Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) project.However, whilst the FACT study highlighted that, \"increased taro exports would result in significant benefits for large numbers of lowincome rural people in the Pacific\", the study also determined that the market for fresh taro in Australia, in particular, may not be economically viable. This is due to the current quarantine requirement for devitalisation (topping and tailing to prevent propagation), which affects shelf life and greatly restricts market expansion. In contrast, Japan and the US, which have larger taro industries than Australia, have no requirement for devitalisation of taro. No scientific basis has been found to justify the devitalisation for taro and the study states that reform of quarantine import protocols is a necessary requirement for expanding Pacific Island taro exports but that substantial improvement in production, postharvest handling practices, and export certification systems are also required.To In the Caribbean, an innovative, ICT-based approach has been used in St. Vincent for exporting taro (known here as dasheen) to the UK. With support from FAO, the Eastern Caribbean Trading and Agriculture Development Organization set up a taro value chain between farmers and buyers. With smallholder farmers reluctant to join a cooperative, consignments for European buyers are filled by using SMS to connect with 200 small farmers. Informed of the price and volumes required, farmers are then free to choose whether or not to supply. With export prices higher than in the local market, the initiative has proved very successful, and growers have increased their revenues by up to 100%. Farmers have also learnt to grade and pack their own dasheen to add further value.One of the world's oldest domesticated plants, taro, is consumed worldwide and is of particular cultural importance in the Pacific region. Demand for the root crop in western markets is also providing increased opportunities for export with breeding research and use of ICTs making the product more competitive in price and quality. Their studies also provide detail on the mechanisms by which ICTs can support households, for example by reducing costs for travel, giving access to assistance during times of need, and providing information, such as on health or agriculture. In general, households reported that ICTs 'made their lives easier'. The studies also considered how policy can impact on ICT access; the competitive market in which mobile phone provision and FM radio operate was found to stimulate greater access, compared, for example, to national monopolies in landline provision. This study focuses on the opportunities for livestock development to enhance food security in West Africa through aid and trade, and discusses win-win strategies and trade-offs between aid and trade. Small animals (goats, sheep, grasscutters) are highlighted as an underrated resource to improve the food security of poorer households. Reducing disease, identifying niche markets and encouraging local sourcing are also identified as opportunities, provided a flexible and creative approach is taken. This report states that over the last five decades, human diets have grown more similar -by 36% -and suggests that growing reliance on a few crops may accelerate the rise in obesity, heart disease and diabetes. To improve nutrition and food security, increase genetic diversity and reduce the vulnerability of the global food system to climate change, the researchers have called for increased promotion of a wider range of varieties of the major crops, enhancement of the nutritional quality of major crops, and promotion of alternative, neglected and underutilised crops. Ready to work ■ While many young Africans might disagree, evidence suggests that job opportunities in the continent are growing, whether in export oriented manufacturing, high productivity agriculture or profitable small enterprises. Enabling young people to take advantage of those opportunities, however, presents a major challenge for governments in the region. Customised, country-specific strategies are needed, say the authors, to address youth unemployment. Such strategies are likely to involve: ensuring that primary school leavers have the basic skills they need to be productive adults; giving young people stronger access to land and credit to start their own businesses; and improving the prospects of university leavers to find rewarding careers in the private sector, through courses that have practical relevance to a modern, commercial economy.Based on a comprehensive analysis of youth employment in Africa, this report provides an update on how countries are creating new jobs, and examines some promising new directions for the continent. It also highlights what policymakers can do to help young people enter the labour market, whether in waged jobs or the informal sector. The need to empower communities at the local level, in order for them to identify the obstacles they face and the solutions that suit them best, is a first step in eradicating hunger and malnutrition. This is the conclusion of the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Olivier De Schutter, in his final report to the UN Human Rights Council. De Schutter also highlights the necessity of supportive policies, an enabling international environment, and the promotion of food sovereignty to allow communities to choose which food systems to depend on and how to reshape those systems. Presumably intended for the shelves of school and college libraries, this attractively presented publication aims to promote careers in farming and the agri-food value chain to youngsters in the Caribbean. Traditionally regarded as the last resort for those unable to enter more glamorous professions, jobs in farming and food are changing and offer bright prospects for those with the passion and entrepreneurial spirit to pursue them. Innovations in technology and trade have widened business options in the farming sector, while the crises in food and fuel prices, combined with a slowdown in tourism due to global recession, are making governments rethink their strategies when it comes to food security and financial stability.Choices mostly comprises short, personal case studies of those who have chosen to make a go of it in agriculture. These include young people, women and men, a few of whom may be well known to Caribbean readers, while most will not be. National initiatives (including primary school programmes) to encourage new farmers are also covered, along with efforts to make farming more environmentally sustainable.■ Despite the global development of ethical sourcing, including schemes such as Fair Trade, debate persists about the injustice that can be embedded in market-based approaches to improving smallholder livelihoods. Is ethically traded consumption truly providing the kinds of outcomes that farmers in the developing world need or desire? And for policymakers, how might ethical sourcing standards, and their associated processes and institutional structures be improved?In attempting to answer these questions, Kiah Smith decided to ask those whose voices, she contests, are rarely heard in international dialogue and research on ethical sourcingthe farmers themselves. In Machakos, Kenya, she met with over 180 'shamba ladies' and industry representatives. Some of the farmers had already begun supplying vegetable crops for export markets; others were subsistence farmers. Meeting with them in their homes and fields, Smith reveals how these women experience ethical standards, and the extent to which those standards reflect their own values, their local culture, and their priorities for achieving sustainable livelihoods.Poor farming practices, climate change and the spread of invasive alien plant and animal species are waging a three-pronged attack on the Caribbean's vulnerable agricultural resource base. For soils, farming practices are both responsible for degradation and potentially the solution. Soilless production methods, such as hydroponics, could be an answer but are likely to be unaffordable for most farmers and consumers. As a more realistic alternative, the author outlines policies, good practices and appropriate technologies that have the potential to reverse the degradation and rebuild the Caribbean's soils.Meanwhile, the state of forests will play a key role in determining the region's capacity to adapt to, and mitigate, climate change. Countries are urged to integrate forest management into national development plans, and to take part in international schemes for forest protection, such as REDD+. Integrated management systems, including surveillance, prevention and control, are also recommended in the context of invasive alien species, which currently pose a significant threat to agriculture in the region. Using 10 case studies, this publication illustrates the International Fund for Agricultural Development's experience in closing the 'gender gap' in climate change adaptation. In addition to outlining how to do this, the report reveals that gender-sensitive adaptation results in better livelihood options and incomes, improved yields, greater food security and reduced workloads for women and their families. The latest issue of ICT Update looks at emerging innovations in mobile finance that are revolutionising the agricultural value chain, creating alternative ways of making payments to farmers, giving them greater access to financial services, and reducing or eliminating supply chain credit risk. The electronic money service, SmartMoney, which has more than 20,000 subscribers in Eastern Africa, is just one intervention this issue covers. Tackling hungerThe Global Food Policy Report is the third in an annual series that provides an in-depth look at major food policy developments and trends from the past year. It offers an overview of the food policy developments that have contributed to or hindered progress in achieving food and nutrition security, examines key challenges and opportunities, describes the rising political commitment to food and nutrition security, and sets an agenda for action for 2014 and beyond. While not intended to offer a comprehensive strategy to achieving such a vision, this weighty book offers action agendas in areas that the authors believe will have a decisive impact. These include agendas for education, reducing conflict, private sector development, jobs, agriculture, extractive industries, and cities. \"Almost all important changes -in policies, institutions, investment, relations with others -require a long-term perspective, strategy and action agenda,\" they write. Reconciling such a longterm view with political realities may be the hardest challenge of all.■ Sustainability, the watchword of the Rio+20 summit, is now widely recognised as a paramount consideration in the development of the global food system. Constructing a new 'paradigm' for food production, however, is a complex task that will demand informed dialogue between policymakers, researchers and practitioners, including farmers. Several key driverssocial, economic and political -will be at play, around a number of themes: regulation and governance; sustainable supply chains; public procurement; rural restructuring and urban food systems; animal welfare and biosecurity.Building on over 10 years of research, this book critically explores the linkages between social science research and the world's evolving food security challenge. Academic in tone, and focussing predominantly on research conducted in the UK and Europe, it examines how the links between research, policy and practice can begin to contribute to more sustainable, resilient and fair food systems that are better equipped to feed the world by 2050.","tokenCount":"8492"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a4ae04d1590830ed735e9fa3d6597264","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e623abde-628e-45e3-aa99-dec22dce4346/content","id":"1548349504"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"396b8be7-b7e1-4e8c-992b-c469b4f909c2","pagecount":"17","content":"Changing dietary preferences and population growth in South Asia have resulted in increasing demand for wheat and maize, along side high and sustained demand for rice. In the highly productive northwestern Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia, farmers utilize groundwater irrigation to assure that at least two of these crops are sequenced on the same field within the same year. Such double cropping has had a significant and positive influence on regional agricultural productivity. But in the risk-prone and food insecure lower Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (EIGP), cropping is less intensive. During the dryer winter months, arable land is frequently fallowed or devoted to lower yielding rainfed legumes. Seeing opportunity to boost cereals production, particularly for rice, donors and land use policy makers have consequently reprioritized agricultural development investments in this impoverished region. Tapping groundwater for irrigation and intensified double cropping, however, is unlikely to be economically viable or environmentally sound in the EIGP. Constraints include saline shallow water tables and the prohibitively high installation and energetic extraction costs from deeper freshwater aquifers. The network of largely underutilized rivers and natural canals in the EIGP could conversely be tapped to provide less energetically and economically costly surface water irrigation (SWI). This approach is now championed by the Government of Bangladesh, which has requested USD 500 million from donors to implement land and water use policies to facilitate SWI and double cropping. Precise geospatial assessment of where freshwater flows are most prominent, or where viable fallow or low production intensity cropland is most common, however remains lacking. In response, we used remotely sensed data to identify agricultural land, detect the temporal availability of freshwater in rivers and canals, and assess crop production intensity over a three-year study period in a 33,750 km 2 case study area in southwestern Bangladesh. We combined these data with georeferenced and temporally explicitly soil and water salinity information, in addition to relative elevation classifications, in order to examine the extent of winter fallows and low productivity rainfed cropland that could be irrigated by small-scale surface water pumps. Applying observations of irrigated crop sowing dates and yields from 510 wheat, 550 maize, and 553 rice farmers, we also modeled crop intensification production scenarios within the case study area. We conservatively estimate that at least 20,800 and 103,000 ha of fallow and rainfed cropland, respectively, could be brought into intensified double cropping using SWI. Scenario analysis indicates that if 25%-75% of the fallow or lowintensity land were converted to irrigated maize, national aggregate production could increase by 10-14% or 29-42%, respectively. Conversion to wheat would conversely boost national production by 9-10% or 26-31%. Irrigated rice is however unlikely to contribute >3%. In aggregate, these actions could generate between USD 36-108 million of revenue annually among farmers. Intensification therefore has important land use policy and food and income security implications, helping to rationalizei SWI investments. Crop choice, water resource allocation, and water governance will however remain crucial considerations for irrigation planners.Global food requirements are projected to increase for at least four decades before they plateau, with a doubling of staple crop production required by 2050 (Godfray et al., 2010). In South Asia, average wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea mays), and rice (Oryza sativa) yields have however increased by only 2.2%, 1.4%, and 1.3%, respectively, since the 1960s (FAOSTAT, 2013). Rather than raising yield, crop production can be increased by expanding cultivated land area, though conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural land uses is at odds with sustainable development goals (UN DESA, 2016). The potential for agricultural expansion in South Asia is also limited because most arable land is already cropped for at least part of the year (FAO, 2014). Farm area per capita in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, for example, has shrunk by an average of 63% since 1961, to approximately 0.1 ha person −1 (World Bank, 2015).Sustainable intensification (SI) has been proposed as an alternative to agricultural area expansion (Godfray et al., 2010;Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). SI aims to augment land productivity by increasing resource use efficiency while minimizing environmental externalities (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Although critiqued as placing more emphasis on intensification than sustainability (Petersen and Snapp, 2015), the approach has gained considerable popularity among researchers, international donors, and policymakers. An important SI strategy entails increasing the number of crops grown per year on the same land, thereby raising yield per unit of area-time, while also minimizing land expansion and consequent biodiversity loss (Krupnik et al., 2015a;Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Achieving such 'double cropping' will often require irrigation. Concentrated in the western IGP, India ranks among the globe's most intensively irrigated countries (AQUASTAT, 2016), leading to the perception that much of the potentially irrigable land in South Asia is already double cropped (cf. de Fraiture and Wichelns, 2010;Godfray et al., 2010). Most research efforts have consequently focused on closing yield gaps under relatively favorable irrigated conditions, primarily in the western IGP. Less emphasis has conversely been placed on investigating the ways in which dry season fallowed or rainfed land can be intensified.By moderating the risk inherent to water-limited crop production, energy-efficient irrigation could provide a solid foundation for SI (Krupnik et al., 2015b;Molden, 2007). The geographical distribution of irrigation development in the eastern IGP is however uneven. In West Bengal and coastal Bangladesh, for example, dry season land fallowing is common. Groundwater irrigation facilities are lacking, especially near the coast where shallow aquifers may be saline (Bell et al., 2015). Where environmental conditions are more permitting, the cost of deep tube well drilling and installation is still out of reach for most resource-poor farmers (Bernier et al., 2016).SI also aims to harness ecosystem services to sustain crop productivity (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). This can include freshwater supply and regulation for irrigation (Aylward et al., 2005;Power, 2010). While groundwater access is challenging, Southern Bangladesh is known for its dense network of rivers and natural canals that comprise part of a tidal ecosystem that conveys fresh surface water proximal to farmland. Southward freshwater flow also pushes back oceanic saltwater intrusion during the dry season. Surface water irrigation (SWI) is also considerably less energy demanding than groundwater extraction, with a lower carbon footprint (Shah, 2009). New surface water pumps in Bangladesh also show up to 51% increased fuel efficiency relative to their conventional low-lift counterparts. This can resulti in both environmental and economic benefits (Krupnik et al., 2015b). The extent of land in the eastern IGP that can be addressed with SWI has however not been quantified or made spatially explicit, providing the central motivating question for this study.The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) recently adopted policy calling for investment of over USD 7 billion to support agricultural development in southern Bangladesh (MOA and FAO, 2013). Approximately 1.7 million farming households in this area fallow their land after the monsoon, contributing to food insecurity and subsistence below the poverty line (World Bank, 2010). An anticipated USD 500 million of the funds requested by the GoB are to be allocated for SWI initiatives to transition farmers from rice-fallow or rainfed systems into intensified double cropping. Further emphasis is placed on increasing dry season boro rice production in southern Bangladesh (MOA and FAO, 2013), partly to offset increasing production and energy subsidy costs in existing boro areas in the north reliant on groundwater irrigation. The viability of this approach has however been questioned given the southern region's soil and water salinity constraints, problems with coordinated water governance, and concerns over the anticipated long-term effects of climate change (Bell et al., 2015;Bernier et al., 2016;Qureshi et al., 2015).SWI can be applied in two ways: through large irrigation schemes and elaborate canal networks, or through smaller, decentralized command areas managed by independent water sellers who channel water to farmers' fields through flexible hose piping or farmer maintained earthen canals (Krupnik et al., 2015b). The decentralized approach builds on models pervasive in Bangladesh's groundwater irrigated areas (Palmer-Jones, 2001), and may provide a more immediate solution for southern Bangladesh. Investments to expand SWI are however complicated by the region's crop, soil, and hydrological complexity. Upstream blockages, diversions, siltation and tidal dynamics complicate year-round water availability. Temporally dynamic water and soil salinity also pose problems in the coastal fringe, as can late-vacating monsoon season floodwaters that delay timely dry season crop establishment (Krupnik et al., 2015a). It is therefore important to geographically assess freshwater availability and target areas and crops that can benefit the most from SWI.This paper responds to this need using a 33,750 km 2 study area in the southwest of Bangladesh. Our objectives were to assess the extent of fallow and rainfed cropland that can be brought into intensified dry season cereal production through SWI. Satellite imagery is now freely available that enables detailed land-use suitability analyses. Additional geospatial environmental data were integrated to identify the land area upon which SWI is most feasible. We also collected data from over 1,600 farmers and modeled a number of intensified production scenarios to examine the potential contribution that SWI could make to Bangladesh's national cereal production.We studied a 33,750 km 2 area (24 • 2 23 N-21 • 46 38 S and 88 • 33 33 W-90 • 52 44 E) in southwestern Bangladesh, encompassing all land to the south and west of the Ganges and Padma rivers, excluding the Sundarbans forest (Fig. 1). Coastal farmers experience soil and water salinity that builds as the dry season progresses, although southward freshwater flow regulates and lowers salinity concentrations (Chowdhury, 2010;Rawson, 2011). Precipitation is unimodal (Fig. 2). The study area encompasses two major hydrological units, including the southwest and southcentral zones.Differences in monsoon season flooding depth and duration are used to define cropland suitability in Bangladesh. Classifications  include Highland (not flooded during the monsoon), Medium-Highland-1 and -2 (maximum monsoon flooding between 0 and 45 and 46-90 cm, respectively), Medium-Lowland (flooding above 90-180 cm), and Lowlands (>180 cm monsoon flooding) (Brammer, 2013). Lowlands may remain waterlogged in the early dry season, complicating field accessibility. When early monsoon season rains begin, lowlands are also prone to flash and stagnant flooding. At higher relative landscape positions, flood depth classifications are generally inversely related to the time at which land can be sown to dry season crops, as these landscape positions tend to drain more quickly. Maize and wheat, for example, require earlier crop establishment and thus tend to be planted on Medium-Highlands and above, while boro rice, which is prepared under wet puddled conditions and transplanted in late January to early February, can be grown on Lowlands and higher relative landscape elevations.The kharif-I and II pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons, respectively, span from April through November/December. Transplanted (T.) aman rice is Bangladesh's most common crop, grown during kharif-II. The winter rabi dry season extends from November/December-April, although rabi crops in the southeast of the study area may be sown as late as January. Such late sowing is primairly due to farmers' preferences for late-maturing T. aman rice varieties, and because of late vacating and deep floodwaters on Medium Highland-2, Medium Lowland, and Lowlands (Krupnik et al., 2015a). Where irrigation is available, major rabi cereals include boro rice, wheat, and increasingly maize. Nonirrigated mustard (Brassica spp.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), lentil (Lens culinaris), and mungbean (Vigna radiata) are also common, though yields tend to be much lower than what is attainable. Grass pea is often relay seeded into the maturing T. aman crop, while lentil is usually seeded as a sole crop, but can also be relayed. Mungbean is conversely sown in late January to early February as a sole crop (Rawson, 2011).Parts of the study area are embanked by 139 polders constructed in the 1960-70s to protect against seawater intrusion and flooding. Both erosion and intentional embankment breaches are common, which can facilitate irrigation but also increase flood risk (Bernier et al., 2016). The area above the Sundarbans forest in the southwest once experienced southward dry season river flow through the Gorai River, but siltation and the 1976 completion of the Farakka Dam in West Bengal disrupted freshwater flow. This resulted in post-monsoon drying and coastal saltwater intrusion that has now become a serious concern (Brammer, 2002). The south-central hydrological zone is conversely characterized by a dense network of active natural canals and rivers, many of which carry relatively fresher water.The geomorphology, pedology and hydrology of Bangladesh are extremely complex. Our evaluation of SWI potential therefore followed a multi-step process followed by crop potential scenario analysis (Fig. 3). 1Available USGS Landsat 5, 7 and 8 images (30 m pixels) were used for analysis (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). The study area was covered by Landsat Path 137-Rows 44-45, and Path 138-Row 44.For the identification of rivers, canals, and water bodies, we used Landsat 5 scenes acquired on October 26, 2009 and November 8, 2011, coinciding roughly with the end of the monsoon. We next applied supervised classification to segmented Landsat imagery using eCognition 9 (Trimble Navigation Ltd., Westminster, CO), creating two classes: (1) rivers and canals, and (2) all other landscape features including forest, settlements, transportation networks, and cropland. Training was accomplished using high-resolution satellite imagery of Bangladesh available through Google Earth 7. 1.5.1557 (Mountain View, California). Attributes used for segmentation included the mean values of bands 1-5. Texture (all directions) was also used (Haralick et al., 1973). After exporting the resulting shape file with spectral attributes, we employed the Random Forest Classifier algorithm in WEKA (Hall et al., 2009). This created a rule set that was subsequently applied to the remaining segments not used for training. Classification errors were visually controlled and corrected.Rivers and canals in the study area do not always experience perennial flow. Where they do, their banks may be obscured in satellite imagery by riparian vegetation. For these reasons, atmospherically-corrected 30 m pixel Landsat 8 images from March 21 and 30, 2014 were used to calculate the Automated Water Extraction Index (AWEI). AWEI sh was used because of its effectiveness in improving water body prediction accuracy under shaded conditions (Feyisa et al., 2014), following Eq. (1):1 All spatial information layers from this analysis are available in an opensource and interactive decision support tool for targeting surface water irrigation in southern Bangladesh (Schulthess et al., 2016), accessible at http://202.53.173.179/ cimmyt/ where stands for reflectance of the respective Landsat imagery bands, with the output containing pixel classes with and without water.We identified agricultural land as described in Section 2.2.2, though with a third set of Landsat 5 scenes acquired on January and 31, 2010. At this time crop and weed cover is at a minimum, and can therefore be easily distinguished from non-agricultural vegetation. Cropland and non-cropland classes were created, the latter consisting of forest, settlements, infrastructure and transportation networks.We utilized enhanced vegetation index (EVI) (Huete et al., 2002) measurements to assess crop productivity. EVI is closely related to leaf area index (LAI) and has previously been used in Bangladesh for yield estimation (Schulthess et al., 2012). EVI does not saturate at high LAI and is relatively insensitive to surface soil moisture, making it an ideal measure. EVI was calculated as:where G is a gain factor, is surface reflectance after atmospheric correction, C 1 and C 2 are coefficients of the aerosol resistance term using the blue band to correct for aerosol derived errors in the red band, and L is the canopy background adjustment to rectify differential, nonlinear radiant red and NIR transfer through the crop canopy. Between 10-35 visually-verified and geo-referenced fields of lathyrus, lentil, mungbean, fallow land, boro rice, wheat, maize and mustard were selected for EVI extraction in each of the 2011-12, 2012-13, and 2013-14 dry rabi seasons from Landsat 7 and 8 imagery acquired between 31 December and 30 March. Twelve Landsat 8 scenes were used to augment the dataset in 2013-14. The near infrared (NIR) band of Landsat 8 has different spectral properties than Landsat 7. Radiance values were consequently cross-calibrated to reflectance using Landsat 7 imagery acquired within eight days of the analyzed scenes. Field number varied across crops because of dissimilarity in year-to-year satellite image coverage and cropping sequences. Fields can also be sown at different dates, resulting in differential phenology even within the same crop species, both within and among years. Repetitive sequential observations were therefore crucial to capture maximum EVI.EVI values for each crop were plotted as a function of the number of days before or after January 1 until the 100th day of the year. This corresponds roughly to the first two thirds of the dry season, prior to the advent of reliable rains, after which irrigation is less necessary. We grouped each of the cropland types into three production intensity classes. These included (1) fallow land and (2) low production intensity cropland cultivated with legumes (lathyrus, lentil, and mungbean). While these crops can be potentially profitable, they are typically not fertilized, weeded, or irrigated, resulting in yields considerably lower than what could be obtained with more intensive management (Dalgliesh et al., 2011). We therefore classified the remaining cropland as (3) high production intensity, including wheat, boro rice, maize, and mustard, all of which are grown with higher levels of intensive management using nutrient inputs and active pest management. Each of the high production intensity crops are typically irrigated with the exception of mustard, which is relay sown into the T. aman rice crop.Maximum EVI (corresponding to maximum LAI as a measure of peak productivity) for each crop was subjected to a one-way ANOVA using JMP 8.0.2 (SAS Institute Inc., San Francisco), for each of the three dry seasons observed. Separate analysis for each season was necessary because peak EVI varied slightly between years. The F-test indicated significance (P < 0.001) between classes within each season analyzed, with Tukey-Kramer's range test (␣ = 0.05) indicating that the fallow, low-intensity, and high-intensity classes were consistently and significantly different (Fig. 4).We next set EVI-based thresholds used to characterize crop production intensity throughout the study area. Thresholds were set as the mid-distance between the lower boundary for the standard deviation of the lowest maximum EVI observation for the high-intensity cropland types, and the uppermost boundary of the standard deviation for the highest EVI observation for the low-intensity crop use types. For example, in the 2011-12 dry season, mustard exhibited the lowest minimum EVI within the high-intensity crop use category, while the EVI of lathyrus peaked as the highest observation within the low-intensity category. The threshold between high-and low-intensity crop use was therefore conservatively set as the mid-distance between the lower and upper boundaries for the standard deviations of these observations, respectively. This process was also used to distinguish low-intensity from fallow agricultural land use for each season studied. Employing these thresholds, we classified the maximum EVI value for each cropland pixel of the calibrated Landsat scenes for the entirety of the 33,750 km 2 study area into one of the three crop production intensity classes.Studies of 12-16 horsepower SWI pumps (Krupnik et al., 2015b) indicate that water can be conveyed from surface sources up to 400 m from river and canal banks where flexible hose piping is used to reduce losses. We therefore created a 400 m buffer around polygons depicting the perennially available water identified in Section 2.2.3. In addition to influencing riverbank erosion, intensive agricultural practices can result in sedimentation and nutrient loading of watercourses. Riparian areas planted with deep-rooted species harness ecosystem services (e.g., nutrient extraction and bank stabilization) to mitigate these negative effects (Power, 2010). We consequently excluded a 15 m strip adjacent to rivers and canals to account for riparian conservation measures.The regulation of water salinity is an important freshwater ecosystem service that contributes to irrigation potential (Aylward et al., 2005). Salinity concentrations in Bangladesh's tidal estuary increase as the dry season progresses, a result of the gradual reduction of southward freshwater river and canal water flow after the monsoon. This results in the increased intrusion of brackish oceanic water that can influence surface water salinity and shallow groundwater tables, in turn affecting soil salinity (Brammer, 2013).To map the spatial extent of soil salinity and freshwater availability, we assembled surface water salinity readings (n = 4,821) from 58 Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) sampling stations. These data covered major rivers and natural canals for the period from 2002 to 2012. We analyzed the first 14 weeks of each calendar year, corresponding to the critical period for dry season crop growth. Observations from each station were grouped into eight half-monthly periods. We then extracted the 90th percentile of these observations as a conservative index for water salinity, and assessed the temporal progression of saltwater intrusion into the delta through Kriging. The resulting maps indicate increasingly poor water quality with the progression of the dry season, especially in the lower southwestern hydrological zone (Fig. 5A-D). Conversely, water quality remains high throughout much of the south-central hydrological zone.Salinity typically builds during the dry season and is flushed from the soil profile when precipitation commences (Krupnik et al., 2015a). To provide a conservative basis for identifying conditions suitable for cropping, maximum soil salinity measurements at the end of the dry season were utilized. We compared digital maps and metadata for soil salinity in Bangladesh, and selected the SRDI (2000) coastal salinity map as the only resource for which the methodological procedure used to interpolate data was sufficiently clear and robust. This shape file has five 'mixed' and eight 'mostly' salinity classifications. For example, a 'mostly' classification could have included mostly 4-8 dS m −1 , with some 2-4 dS m −1 data. To simplify interpretations, we reclassified data into three classes including <2, 2-4, and >4 dS m −1 using the highest reported value for each unit as the basis for reclassification.Flood inundation classes provide an indicator of relative landscape elevation which strongly influences crop suitability (Brammer, 2013). Inundation class shapefiles were collected from BARC (2015) and overlaid on the preceding datasets. Lowland and very Lowland, which tend to be poorly suitable for rabi cropping, and which were not observed as cultivated in our subsequent crop cut study (see 2.3) were removed.Shapefiles of dry season water salinity in April were overlaid with those depicting soil salinity to create Fig. 5F. Both this layer and the inundation class shape files were then intersected with cropland polygons. EVI layers within the 400 m buffer (excluding riparian conservation zones) showing surface water availability throughout the dry season were intersected in ArcGIS for the 2011-12, 2012-13, and 2013-14 rabi seasons. We then applied a soil and water salinity index to assess the suitability of SWI within the resulting buffered area.Crop species vary in their ability to withstand soil and water salinity. In order to limit analytical complexity given the range of species included in this study, we created three irrigation water salinity classes based on Ayers and Westcot (1989), including 0-2 and 2-4 dS m −1 , which we labeled as high-and medium-quality water. Low-quality water >4 dS m −1 was assumed to be unsuitable for repetitive rice, wheat, and maize irrigation. The same approach was applied to soil salinity data (Table 1).Soil and surface water salinity layers were joined with flood inundation land types. This resulted in a geospatial database from which statistics could be extracted regarding the extent of fallow and low-intensity cropland suitable for SWI. We derived the land area falling into each classification by administrative district and hydrological zone, and averaged the results across the three years of observations (Table 2). We also computed the proportion of cropland that could be intensified using surface water irrigation within 10 × 10 km grids imposed over the study area. In accordance with Table 1, non-suitable marginal potential croplands were excluded.To evaluate potential land productivity resulting from conversion from fallow or low-intensity crops to surface water irrigated maize, wheat, and boro rice, we measured yields achieved by farmers on their own fields and in farmer-managed demonstrations implemented by the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) project. These three crops are among the most important cereals grown in Bangladesh from a food security and income generation perspective. Crop cut measurements and data were collected throughout the study zone during each dry season from 2011 through 2015. In total, 510, 550, and 553 irrigated wheat, maize, and rice crop cuts were made. Yields were obtained from a minimum of 10 m 2 and were moisture corrected.We collected additional data from farmers on sowing dates and the labor and monetary requirement for all major crop management operations. These included costs for land preparation, sowing, pest management, fertilizer and irrigation application, as well as harvest activities. Prices for inputs and grain and straw outputs were assigned as the average of three observations from independent dealers and buyers in local markets. These data were combined with farmers' reported local wage rates to calculate labor costs. We then conducted cost-benefit analyses for each farmer and crop observation, converting Bangladesh Taka (BDT) at 77 BDT to 1 USD.Farmers' observed yields and profits were next geospatially categorized according to the soil and water index in Table 1. Classified yield and gross margin data were then plotted as cumulative distri- bution functions (CDFs) to identify each crop's performance in high and medium potential index classes at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles. Based on observed data, these percentiles are equivalent to P = 0.75, P = 0.50, and P = 0.25, respectively (Hardaker et al., 1997). In other words, the CDF shows the probability that a variable will take a value equal to or less than x on the abscissa. Our use of CDFs therefore provides a simple method to depict the inter-quantile range of potential production scenarios.The land upon which dry rabi season crops can be grown in Bangladesh is partially governed by monsoon season flood inundation classes that are indicative of their relative landscape elevation, as lower lying land may drain too late to establish dry rabi season crops on time. Wheat is generally suited to Medium-Highland-1 and −2, and higher classes (Krupnik et al., 2015a). Maize, which is sown at similar times, is usually established at the same relative elevation classes. Our data indicated that maize or wheat farmers never established crops on elevation classes lower than these. Observations of boro farmers conversely showed that Medium-Lowland and higher land classifications were used for rice, while Lowlands with >180 cm of monsoon season flooding were not.Modeling the potential for intensification, we assumed that some land that could be double cropped with irrigation would remain in rainfed legume cultivation. We therefore modeled potential productivity with scenarios in which wheat, maize, and boro rice were simulated as if they were established on 25%, 50%, and 75% of the three-season averaged fallow and low production intensity cropland identified as suitable for SWI. Production and profitability estimates were then constructed with data from the CDFs at P = 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 for each resulting land area, but restricted to Medium-Highland-2 and above land types for wheat and maize.Boro rice was conversely subjected to the same constraints, but analyzed on all relative landscape elevation classes excluding Lowlands and very Lowlands, in line with our observations of locations where farmers established rice. The resulting range in aggregate yield results were then assessed in terms of their potential contribution to national maize, wheat, and boro rice production by comparing them to BBS (2013) statistics for 2011-12, the most recent year for which country-wide production data were available.Out of 1.93 million ha of agricultural land in the study zone, 12% and 45% were identified as fallowed and under low production intensity rainfed crops, respectively, during the rabi season (Table 2). In the south-central hydrological zone, most of this land was concentrated in Patuakhali and Barguna districts.Considering land within 400 m of surface water as reachable by irrigation pumps, but also discounting area within 15 m of watercourses for conservation purposes, 47,066 and 132,470 ha were identified as fallow and rainfed low production intensity cropped land, respectively (Table 3). According to the soil and water salinity index (Table 1), 21% of the observed fallows were classified as high and medium potential, with the remainder poorly suited to SWI. Conversely, 78% of the observed low production intensity acreage addressable by SWI was classified as high and medium potential.The largest concentration of fallow land that could be brought under SWI was located in the south-central hydrological zone (Fig. 6A-C), including 8,771 and 6,361 ha under high and medium potential soil and water salinity index classifications (Table 1). Fifty-nine percent was located in Barisal Division, the majority in Patuakhali (Table 3). The same district however also had the highest amount of low and marginal potential land, a result of increasing salinity towards the coast (Fig. 5F).As with fallow land, most (73%) of the low production intensity cropland that could be converted from rainfed to irrigated conditions was found in the south-central hydrological zone. Within this area, Patuakhali district had the greatest land area where soil or water salinity exceeded 4 dS m −1 , indicating low or marginal SWI potential. Crops with an EVI between 25 and 43 were detected  in these areas, indicating the presence of rainfed legumes. In these environments, farmers frequently cultivate legumes using residual soil moisture following rice harvest, supplemented by occasional precipitation, although yields are typically low (Dalgiesh and Poulton, 2011). Similar low production intensity land was detected in the central belt of the south-western hydrological zone. In this area, saline groundwater intrusion and intensive brackish aquaculture production have resulted in increased salinity con-centrations north of the Sundarbans forest reserve (Table 3 and Fig. 5A-D).Across all years of observed data, the range of sowing dates for wheat was November 10 to December 24 (mode: November 21). The range for maize was November 9 to January 28 (mode: January 4). For both crops, later sowing tended to occur in Barisal Division. The range of sowing dates for boro rice was November 24 to January 10 (mode: January 6). Rice was transplanted 34-68 days after sowing (mode: 42). Wheat farmers applied 1-4 irrigations, and between 0 and 245 kg N, 0-89 kg P, 0-152 kg K, 0-51 kg Ca, 0-42 kg S, and 0-2 kg Zn ha −1 . Maize farmers also applied 1-4 irrigations, but with 107-258 kg N, 10-78 kg P, 13-163 kg K, 0-68 kg Ca, 0-56 kg S, and 0-3 kg Zn ha −1 . Boro rice farmers conversely applied irrigation 6-22 times, with 36-171 kg N, 0-39 kg P, 13-101 kg K, 0-30 kg Ca, 0-25 kg S, and 0-3 kg Zn ha −1 . Farmers' use of organic amendments and use of pesticides were limited.The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of the CDF for wheat yields were 3.11, 3.42, and 3.96 t ha −1 , respectively, for observations identified within the high-potential water and soil salinity classification. In medium-potential areas the same percentiles indicated wheat yields of 2.67, 2.87, and 3.19 t ha −1 (Fig. 7A). Resulting gross margins were 422, 548, and 625 USD ha −1 for under the high-potential classification (Fig. 7B), and 431, 483, and, 539 USD ha −1 in mediumpotential classifications. Farmers growing boro showed slightly poorer performance when comparing medium to high-potential soil and water classifications, e.g, 4.83 vs. 5.11, 5.39 vs. 5.93, and 6.12 vs. 6.41 t ha −1 for the same percentiles, corresponding to gross margins of 290, 376, and 508 USD ha −1 for high-potential land, and 314, 440, and 536 USD ha −1 for medium-potential land. The quartile range of maize yields achieved on medium-potential land were 6.05, 6.91, and 8.63 t ha −1 at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles; on high-potential soil and water classifications, observed values were 6.42, 7.27, and 8.32 t ha −1 . Maize profits were on average 547 and 460 USD ha −1 greater than boro rice and wheat, respectively. Higher profits resulted from higher maize yields and favorable market prices, although storm induced crop lodging resulted in poor crop performance and negative returns for ten farmers on mediumpotential land in Barisal (Fig. 7B).We analyzed the aggregate production potential of wheat, maize, and boro rice were they to be established on the combined fallow and low production intensity cropland identified as suitable for conversion to SWI. This was accomplished through scenario analysis using observations from the inter-quartile range of yield data from the CDFs. Based on these distributions, our yield data are reliable at probability levels equivalent to 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75. The resulting data were applied to one-quarter, one-half, and three-quarters of the observed fallow and low-intensity cropland within buffer areas, in order to leave additional area open for alternative land uses. Our estimates however assume full coverage by rice, wheat, or maize in each independent scenario of oneto three-quarters coverage. In reality, farmers would likely cultivate a mixture of cereals and other crops, requiring optimization modeling to assess and target the 'best-bet' configuration of crop allocation for farm-level yields and profits, a subject beyond the scope of this paper. For this reason, we conversely present scenario ranges to delineate the size of the potential production envelope for maize, boro rice, and wheat on an individual basis.Considering the more conservative 75th probability level for yield, the estimated aggregate production potential for maize ranged from 166,659-499,976 tons within one season, assuming the crop were planted on one-to three-quarters of the buffered land area suitable for SWI (Table 4). Were the same areas established with wheat at the same probability level, an estimated 85,671-257,012 tons could be produced, while the range of production for boro rice was 167,659-502,977 tons. Our least conservative estimate used data from the 25th probability level, resulting in an estimated range of 237, 729-713,188 tons of maize, 101,648-304,994 tons of wheat, or 198,126-595,381 tons of boro rice on one-to three-quarters of the buffered land area. Regardless of the estimated coverage area, the majority of the land that could be cultivated using SWI would come from conversion of low production intensity rainfed cropland. Modeling the potential economic consequences of SWI, we estimate that farmers could generate between 9.07-108.2 million USD (at P = 0.25), on one-to three-quarters of the buffered land, depending on the crop chosen, with the order of profitability ranges following maize > wheat > boro rice at all probabilities between 0.25-0.75.During the winter of 2011-12, the most recent season for which national level data are available, a total of 1.72 million tons of maize were produced in Bangladesh, from 232,000 ha of land. Roughly 0.99 million tons of wheat were also produced from 258,000 ha, while boro production was considerably greater, at 18.76 million tons from 4.81 million ha (BBS, 2013). Both the land area and aggregate yield of maize and boro rice were the highest in this season compared to the previous ten-year period. Conversely, wheat area and aggregate yield reached a peak in 1998-99 at 882,000 ha and 1.91 million tons produced, with slow decline thereafter, largely a result of land conversion to maize.Utilizing the aggregated data estimates data in Table 4, we modeled the potential contribution of each crop grown using SWI in the study area to national cereals production in Bangladesh. Although 167,659-594,381 more million tons of boro could be produced on the identified SWI suitable land in the study area, the potential contribution to national production never exceeds 3.2%.This observation is a result of the large quantity of boro already producedFallow and low intensity land intensification scenarios estimating the aggregate production of maize, wheat, and boro rice in observed surface water irrigation suitable areas, on medium-highland and higher landscape elevations for maize and wheat, and on medium-lowland and higher elevation for boro under high-(soil and surface water salinity each remain < 2 dS m −1 ), and medium-(soil and surface water salinity each remain between 2 and 4 dS m −1 ) suitability classifications a .Aggregate crop production (tons) P = 0.25 P = 0.50 P = 0.75 Addressable land area b Addressable land area b Addressable land area b 25% area 50% area 75% area 25% area 50% area 75% area 25% area 50% area 75% area Fig. 8. Modeled results describing the potential contribution of surface water irrigated (SWI) boro rice, wheat, and maize to national aggregate production in Bangladesh. Data depict three high and medium suitability land coverage scenarios with respect to the index shown in Table 1, including projections using one-quarter, one-half, and three-quarters of all fallow and low-intensity crop land identified within riparian buffers. Probability values indicate the probability of contribution from SWI cereals at P = 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 derived from the CDFs (Fig. 7).in Bangladesh. Cultivation of maize on one-to three-quarters of the area identified as suitable for SWI would contribute between 10 and 29% more maize nationally at the 75th probability level, or 14%-42% at P = 0.25 (Fig. 8). Considering wheat, between 9% to 26% more could be produced from the same area at P = 0.75, or 10%-31% at P = 0.25.The achievement of double cropping is an important development objective for the GoB, with USD 500 million of future donor investments earmarked for surface water irrigation initia-tives (MOA and FAO, 2013). We studied the spatial distribution of fresh surface water availability and crop production intensity in a 33,750 km 2 case study area to evaluate the potential of conversion from fallow or rainfed cropland into intensified cereals production using decentralized SWI. We conservatively estimated that there are 20,800 and 103,000 ha of fallow and rainfed cropland that could be brought into double cropping, with considerable potential production gains for maize and wheat. Land use planning policy in Bangladesh conversely emphasizes boro rice to offset increasingly high-energy subsidy and production costs in the country's intensively groundwater irrigated areas (Bell et al., 2015;MOA and FAO, 2013;Qureshi et al., 2015). Our data however indicate that it is unlikely that decentralized SWI could augment national rice production (or conversely offset it in groundwater irrigated areas) at levels above three percent of recent national production. These results therefore have important implications on agricultural land use policies, casting doubt on the often made assumption that SWI expansion in the south of Bangladesh can replace groundwater irrigated boro production in the north of the country.The earliest remote sensing attempt to assess land fallowing for intensification in southern Bangladesh was performed by Poulton (2011), who estimated that 230,000 ha -4% greater than our assessment -were fallowed during the 2006-07 rabi season.. Their study however relied on extrapolation from a smaller 1,592 ha case-study area to all of southern Bangladesh. More recently, Gumma et al. (2016) used 250 m resolution MODIS satellite imagery to estimate rice-fallow rotational area in South Asia that could be converted to rice-legume cropping systems. Their results indicated that 8.7% (1.9 million ha) of the region's rabi season fallowed land is found within Bangladesh, though data were not disaggregrated within country. Others have used survey methods to assess land use and crop production intensity. BADC (2010) reported that 634,000 dry season hectares are regularly fallowed in southern Bangladesh, while the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, or BBS (2013) estimated 240,000 ha. The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and FAO (2014) however placed the number at 136,000 ha. The current paper, however, is the first attempt to map rainfed and fallow land, while also applying biophysical data on land and water suitability, and combining them with a large-scale crop-cut network to assess cereals intensification potential through surface water irrigation.The discrepancies in fallowed land reporting in the above sources may be due to conflicting notions of what constitutes a sufficiently low level of production intensity to qualify as fallow. Although legumes can be considerably profitable, farmers typically cultivate broadcast pulses as an 'opportunity crop', growing them without inputs and using only residual soil moisture, precipitation, and minimal management (Rawson, 2011). Such studies may misclassify such extensive management as 'fallow'. Further inaccuracy may also result from inadequate sampling frameworks. According to Poulton and Dalgliesh (2008), Bangladesh's Department of Agricultural Extension performs quarterly surveys of five large to small-scale farms at the union (lowest administrative) level, combined with cluster-plot rather than random or spatially explicit sampling to estimate total cropped area. The BBS uses a similar approach and subsequently scales these data to the district level, while also conducting separate crop-cut surveys. The dynamic nature of cropping in Bangladesh also poses analytical problems, as fields may be fallow one year but cropped the next. To overcome this constraint, we integrated three years of 30 m pixel Landsat observations to develop a more robust index of crop production intensity.The largest blocks of fallow and low production intensity crops that can be addressed with quality surface water for irrigation are found in the south-central hydrological zone, in the north of Patuakhali and Barguna, and in Barisal district. Compared to the southwest, this zone benefits from active river flow that mediates dry season estuarine saltwater intrusion, while partially regulating groundwater and soil salinity (Brammer, 2010;Brammer, 2013;Rawson, 2011). This area is nonetheless among the IGP's poorest (World Bank, 2010), with farmers' current fallowing practices and extensive approach to dry season cultivation indicating that population and land pressure, as well as market opportunities, still remain below the threshold at which intensification may independently develop (cf. Turner and Ali, 1996).While our analysis focused on the biophysical constraints and opportunities for increased crop productivity, the successful use of surface water irrigation for crop intensification has other socioeconomic barriers that require consideration. Poor water governance in the semi-saline coastal fringe is particularly relevant. Conflicts over water resources allocation have however been more severe in Khulna and Satkhira districts on the western half of the study area, where boro rice farmers compete with wealthier aquaculturists who encourage intrusion of brackish water for prawn production (Bernier et al., 2016;Dewan et al., 2014). Our analysis however indicated that the greatest potential for surface water irrigation is in Barisal and Patuakhali districts, in the south-central hydrological zone, which has comparatively little history of water resources conflict. Appropriate water governance policies are nonetheless likely to be an important prerequisite to build an environment in which intensified cropping is possible at a large scale. Improved grain storage facilities and strengthened input and output markets are also prerequisite to sustainable intensification.Periodic flooding and cyclonic storms in the southern region are anticipated to accelerate with climate change (IPCC, 2014). Combined with high poverty levels, these factors exert a strong influence on vulnerability in coastal Bangladesh, highlighting the importance of adaptation and risk-reduction measures (Akter and Mallick, 2013). Shareholder cropping is also common, as are labor shortages from increasing seasonal migration where farmers seek more remunerative urban employment (MOA and FAO, 2013;Zhang et al., 2014). Wages earned through non-agricultural labor and remittances are an important source of revenue in Bangladesh, and are commonly re-invested in rural communities, which supports their development (Zhang et al., 2014). Turner and Ali (1996) demonstrated that farm labor demand and drudgery limits smallholders' interest in increasing production beyond immediate household needs in Bangladesh. This highlights the need for policy supporting farm mechanization options appropriate for smallholder farmers, which can decrease labor demand while improving the precision of agricultural operations (cf. Krupnik et al., 2013). Programs supporting under-represented, tenure-insecure farmers are also likely to be necessary to address equitable development.While our analysis focused on the potential for decentralized SWI provided by pump owners servicing small blocks of farmers, much of the SWI investment called for by the GoB is aimed at large-scale irrigation schemes in which farmers' participation is assumed on an a priori basis. Experience has however shown that such schemes can entail engineering and managerial inefficiencies. Combined with farmers' lack of interest, suboptimal scheme performance, and low returns on investment have been observed (Brammer, 2002(Brammer, , 2010)). The Barisal Irrigation Project, initiated in the early 1980s, was for example intended to bring 42,000 ha into production. Only 10,000 ha were however achieved. Poor administration and farmers' preference for non-boro crops caused friction with water managers, which negatively influenced performance (Brammer, 2002). The 72,000 ha Ganges-Kabadak project, initiated in 1955, was intended to provide flood protection, internal drainage and irrigation, although most of the allocated land was already double-cropped and thus contributed little to intensification (Brammer, 2002). In these schemes, farmers were initially asked to rent low-lift water pumps from the State, though farmers' lack of autonomy resulted in their unwillingness to invest in SWI (Brammer, 2010;Hossain, 2009).Conversely, the 'irrigation boom' (sensu Shah, 2009) that spurred the expansion of double cropping in northern Bangladesh was achieved not through centralized schemes, but rather by hundreds of thousands of decentralized and small-scale entrepreneurs operating independent pump sets to provide shallow groundwater to farmer-clients (Palmer-Jones, 2001;Qureshi et al., 2015). Today, over 90% of Bangladesh's irrigation is supplied in this way (Chowdhury, 2010). Similarly decentralized irrigation supplied by service providers operating portable low-lift pumps and managing smaller command areas mimics this approach, and may be more feasible for expanding SWI (Krupnik et al., 2015b). Measures to rationalize abstraction will nonetheless be crucial to maintain freshwater availability in the coastal fringe (Bell et al., 2015;Bernier et al., 2016) Bangladesh has achieved near rice self sufficiency using groundwater irrigation in the country's north (Hossain, 2009;Mainuddin and Kirby, 2015). The GoB's emphasis on SWI conversely stems from policy priorities to shift from subsidy-and energy-intensive groundwater irrigation to less costly production modalities using surface water in the south (MOA and FAO, 2013;Qureshi et al., 2015). Shifting boro rice production southward is nonetheless controversial, and may not be as profitable or feasible as anticipated (Bell et al., 2015;Bernier et al., 2016;Qureshi et al., 2015).Accounting for national-level production of pre-monsoon aus and monsoon season T. aman rice in addition to boro, Bangladesh produced over 32 million tons between 2011 and 2012 (BBS, 2013). Using this as a base, our scenario analysis indicates the potential annual contribution from surface water irrigated boro in the study area to national rice production ranges between just 0.5% to a maximum of 1.9%. This comes despite the larger potential production area (3,480-17,665 ha) that included rice grown on Medium-Lowlands, whereas maize and wheat were conversely never established below the Medium-Highland elevation class by the farmers observed in our dataset. Boro rice can also be grown on Lowlands, though none of the farmers in our dataset did so. Yet if the remaining high-and medium-potential Lowland area identified by our analysis were added to our simulations, another 7,842 ha of boro rice could be grown in the study area. Aggregate national boro production would however increase by only 0.06-0.20% compared to our estimates without Lowlands.The energetics and environmental ramifications of surface water withdrawal also require critical reflection. Our field observations showed boro rice farmers using 6-22 irrigations, compared to 1-4 for wheat and maize. High irrigation rates can be costly, even with relatively more efficient surface water pumps (Krupnik et al., 2015b). Our generally lower observations of boro profits were a result of greater proportional irrigation costs, which constituted the largest single expense at 18% of rice farmers' total production costs, followed by fertilizers (13%). The potential for excessive freshwater withdrawal to affect biodiversity and/or to disrupt the ecosystem service of estuarine saltwater regulation has also been raised (Brammer, 2010;Chowdhury, 2010). Increased surface water abstraction from smaller canal systems with limited flow is also a concern, as heightened water scarcity may result. Further research is needed to define environmentally safe abstraction levels, especially in light of the anticipated effects of climate change and sea level rise (Bell et al., 2015).The importance of rice in the Bangladeshi diet however indicates a strong likelihood that farmers would nonetheless respond to greater SWI availability with increased boro production, although crop diversification also has important role to play in rationalizing SWI investments. Seventeen percent of the average Bangladeshi citizen's diet is comprised of wheat, at 25 kg person −1 year −1 . Domestic wheat supply is however less than half of national requirements (Mainuddin and Kirby, 2015). Wheat's low irrigation requirements position it as an energy efficient crop in comparison to boro, with implications for reducing subsidy expenditures (Qureshi et al., 2015). The crop's shorter field duration also means that it can be planted and harvested before the onset of intense premonsoon storms that can cause flooding and crop lodging. Because wheat yield is negatively correlated with sowing date (Krupnik et al., 2015a), further risk-reducing measures are possible where post-monsoon drainage can be supplied to advance sowing dates.Conversely, emerging threats such as wheat blast disease (Magnaporthe oryzae Triticumpathotype), which appeared in Asia for the first time in 2016 and affected 15% of Bangladesh's wheat area, must also be considered (Malaker et al., 2016). Though blast inflicted yield losses were highly variable, Islam et al. (2016) reported a 25% average yield reduction measured across 100 farmers in eight districts. Applying this percentage loss to our dataset, the potential contribution of surface water irrigated wheat to national production would decline by 21,420-76,230 tons across the scenarios analyzed, representing a potential loss of 2%-8% from our baseline scenarios. Although the risk of blast reoccurrence is currently uncertain, the threat posed by the pathogen underscores that action is urgently needed to develop and deploy integrated pest management measures.Maize production in Bangladesh is also 80% below the country's estimated demand of 1.2 million tons year −1 (Uddin et al., 2010). An increasingly important market crop, maize offers opportunities for income generation when sold as poultry or fish feed stock, while also requiring only limited irrigation (Qureshi et al., 2015). Bangladesh's cropped maize area has increased by 98% since 1990, largely by supplanting boro rice in the country's north (BBS, 2013). Maize is however a tall-statured and long duration crop, and is hence at risk of lodging and storm damage in the coastal south (Akter et al., 2016). Efforts are therefore needed to develop high yielding but shorter duration cultivars suitable for the study area.Salinity tolerant crop genotypes are also important, as nearly one-quarter of the observed fallow and low-productivity addressable land fell into the medium-potential category. Although maize and rice are less tolerant, wheat is capable of withstanding water salinity up to 3.8 dS m −1 for pre-or post-sowing irrigation before yield declines (Ayers and Westcot, 1989). Continued application of semi-saline irrigation on soils with shallow groundwater tables, such as in the coastal fringe, could however degrade soil quality and shift their status from medium-to marginal-potential over time. A significant amount of salt may still be flushed from the root profile during the monsoon (Rawson, 2011). Additional efforts are thus required to model the most appropriate allocation of surface water of varying quality to irrigated crops on different land types and salinity levels. By integrating these efforts with information on the proximity of markets and grain prices, bio-economic decision support tools could be developed to advise policy makers, development planners, and farmers on the best-bet mixture of crop species diversity to reduce risk, provide for food security, and increase incomes. In areas with soil and water salinity >4 dS m −1 , shifting from crops to aquaculture may however be a more viable land use strategy, as indicated by the rapid growth of intensive prawn production near the coast of the southwestern hydrological zone (Bell et al., 2015).Bangladesh's estuarine delta is complex; combined with the limitations of publically available data, our work should be interpreted cautiously. Much of the coastal fringe is enclosed by polders, some of which experience post-monsoon waterlogging that delays rabi season crop establishment, resulting in suboptimal crop performance. Our observations of irrigated cropping were made in areas lacking drainage, though farmers achieved relatively acceptable ranges of sowing dates, yields, and profitability levels. Earlier sowing can have a strong effect on yield (Krupnik et al., 2015b); and as such, further geospatial assessment is required to prioritize locations that could be intensified with decentralized SWI, and which would benefit from drainage and improved sluice gate engineering.While we used an automatic water extraction index to identify the availability of surface water, there are currently no reliable remote sensing methods to measure the depth and hence volume of observed water resources. Publically accessible data from a sufficiently dense grid of georeferenced and manually observed river depth observations are also lacking. Physical water scarcity can both hamper and result from surface water irrigation, particularly in smaller and silted canals, though additional research is needed to map and confirm this hypothesis. Conversely, the water extraction index utilized 30 m pixel Landsat imagery such that we were able to detect only wider rivers and canals. Southern Bangladesh has a considerable number of poorly mapped canals less than 30 m wide, indicating that more surface water resources (and hence irrigable fallow and rainfed cropland) may be available than detected in our conservative analysis. We identified the most promising area for intensification as the south central hydrological zone. This area is more hydrologically active than the west of the study area, where upstream damming of the Ganges and shifting channel bed formation causes reduced flow and increased salinity intrusion in the Gorai river network (Brammer, 2013). Lastly, current salinity surveillance lacks sufficient water sampling at the far southern tip of Patuakhali, which may result in slight overestimation of medium-suitability area.The Government of Bangladesh has emphasized sustainable intensification in southern Bangladesh as an important land use policy objective, and is planning considerable investment in surface water irrigation to meet this aim. The desired outcome of these efforts is to move rice-fallow and rice-rainfed crop farmers into irrigated rice-rice double-cropping, in order to shift boro rice from the country's north where production requires overly costly energy subsidies, and to keep pace with increasing national demand. The planned approach focuses on the construction of large-scale, state-sponsored surface water irrigation schemes, although similar approaches have previously had disappointing results. Appropriate location of irrigation facilities is also a concern given soil and water salinity constraints, in addition to the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of quality water availability.This research responded to these problems by examining an alternative model − decentralized surface water irrigation -to augment boro rice, wheat, and maize production on seasonally fallowed and rainfed cropland. To accomplish this aim, we integrated remotely sensed observations of crop production intensity with georeferenced environmental data, including assessment the ecosystem services of salinity regulation and freshwater provision, in order to identify and target where irrigation has the most potential to encourage intensification. We combined this effort with crop cut observations from irrigated rice, wheat, and maize farmers, and performed scenario analyses to assess the potential contribution from surface water irrigation to national cereals productivity.Our findings indicate substantial scope for decentralized surface water irrigation in southern Bangladesh, even in the face of soil and water salinity constraints, although the potential for boro production appears to be more limited than anticipated. Dry season cultivation of wheat or maize cropping could however result in significant production increases, with implications for national food security, while also addressing income generation and minimizing water withdrawals and environmental risks. Our results should however by interpreted cautiously. Further studies into alternative crop and land use options, and best-bet policy mechanisms to align risk reduction, finance provision, market access, and improved water governance are still needed. In northern Bangladesh, dry season irrigation initially expanded through relatively unrestrained shallow tube well installation, resulting in unsustainable energetic costs and pressure on groundwater in intensively cultivated areas. Proper environmental monitoring and conservation policy only began to be adopted after resource extraction problems became evident. Learning from these lessons, surface water irrigation and intensification efforts will require measures to manage withdrawal, especially as the ecosystem services of salinity regulation and freshwater provision are reliant on the maintenance of sufficient southward flow. These issues aside, our results support the targeted use of surface water irrigation, in partial support of Governmental land use policies favoring rice production, though crop diversification options should be seriously considered.","tokenCount":"9267"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"24b2747956004fc704187cdab7691143","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7724cec0-8eef-4adf-8d1a-8473bb22c257/retrieve","id":"-1847604992"},"keywords":["sustainable intensification","soil erosion","mulch","legumes","systems agronomy","climate smart agriculture"],"sieverID":"475000fd-ef54-4eef-9534-6b9533c78d53","pagecount":"14","content":"Global support for Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a pathway to Sustainable Intensification is strong. CA revolves around three principles: no-till (or minimal soil disturbance), soil cover, and crop rotation. The benefits arising from the ease of crop management, energy/cost/time savings, and soil and water conservation led to widespread adoption of CA, particularly on large farms in the Americas and Australia, where farmers harness the tools of modern science: highly-sophisticated machines, potent agrochemicals, and biotechnology. Over the past 10 years CA has been promoted among smallholder farmers in the (sub-) tropics, often with disappointing results. Growing evidence challenges the claims that CA increases crop yields and builds-up soil carbon although increased stability of crop yields in dry climates is evident. Our analyses suggest pragmatic adoption on larger mechanized farms, and limited uptake of CA by smallholder farmers in developing countries. We propose a rigorous, context-sensitive approach based on Systems Agronomy to analyze and explore sustainable intensification options, including the potential of CA. There is an urgent need to move beyond dogma and prescriptive approaches to provide soil and crop management options for farmers to enable the Sustainable Intensification of agriculture.Food production must increase to meet the needs of a growing population whilst minimizing impacts on the environment (Foley et al., 2011). A consensus emerges that this requires the Sustainable Intensification of agriculture (Tilman et al., 2011;Garnett et al., 2013;Vanlauwe et al., 2014a). Conservation agriculture (CA) has been highlighted as a key route to Sustainable Intensification (Hobbs et al., 2008;Pretty and Bharucha, 2014).CA is based on three principles: (1) Minimal soil disturbance or no-till; (2) Continuous soil cover-with crops, cover crops or a mulch of crop residues; (3) Crop rotation (FAO, 2015). The first two principles are inter-dependent-a mulch cannot be maintained when the soil is tilled. \"True\" CA is deemed to be practiced only when all three principles are meticulously applied (Derpsch et al., 2014). Yet farmers have practiced variations of the constitutive CA elements long before the term was coined.The soil conservation imperative, triggered by the 1930s \"Dust Bowl\" in North America (Joel, 1937;Baveye et al., 2011) prompted the development of no-till approaches (Faulkner, 1943).The expansion of no-till agriculture in the 1980-90s in the Americas and Australia was largely driven by a combination of factors: First, effective herbicides (atrazine, paraquat, and glyphosate) were released in the 1960s and 1970s (Unger and McCalla, 1980;LeBaron et al., 2008). Second, direct seeding into a mulch of crop residues was made possible with no-till planters. The elimination of several tillage operations led to fuel savings. Third, government policy incentives supported a transition to no-till in the USA (Fuglie and Kascak, 2001). Fourth, the advent of herbicide resistant, genetically-modified (GM) crops in the mid 1990's enabled the use of highly efficacious post-emergence herbicides and accelerated the expansion of no-till and CAparticularly in the Americas (National Research Council, 2010). To different degrees, this has led to widespread adoption of notill and CA on large farms in Australia (Llewellyn et al., 2012; health\" improvements which will, in time, translate to higher yields, and sustainable agriculture (Kassam et al., 2014). Failure to see yield improvements in the first 5-10 years of adoption (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011) was therefore commonly dismissed as a transition period (Derpsch et al., 2014). Third, the name, which many interpret as meaning a form of low-external-input, biodiversity-enhancing, and sustainable agriculture. Fourth, the apparent mimicking of natural systems in which biomass remains on the soil surface and soils are not often exposed (Altieri and Nicholls, 2004). Some religious protagonists of CA thereby refer to mulch as \"God's blanket\" (Andersson and Giller, 2012). CA has increasingly been endorsed as Climate Smart Agriculture, contributing to both climate change adaptation, and mitigation (Harvey et al., 2013;Pretty and Bharucha, 2014).Alongside the development of no-till technologies, a range of approaches and definitions emerged, such as zerotillage, minimum tillage, conservation tillage, etc. The term \"Conservation Agriculture\" was coined in the late 1990s, just before the 1st World Congress on CA in Madrid in 2001, yet considerable diversity in approaches and understandings persists. While for some CA means resource conserving, low-external input agriculture, others associate it with highly industrial, glyphosate resistant, GM-based agriculture, resulting in unlikely bedfellows such as Charles, Prince of Wales (an ardent organic farmer), and the large agri-business company Monsanto. The diversity of understandings is matched by a great variety of CA practices in the world's diverse agro-ecologies and farming systems (Table 1, Figure 1).Objective measurement of CA adoption is challenging. None of the underlying principles is systematically captured-let alone the combination of the three principles. CA adoption figures are guesstimates-confounded by varying degrees of emphasis on one or more of the principles and interpretations (Derpsch et al., 2010). Often no-till areas are simply counted as CA adoption. Still there is increasing evidence of problems emerging with the practice and adoption of CA across the world-particularly for smallholders and less intensive systems. CA promotion in Africa and Asia often provides adoption incentives (e.g., fertilizer support) to smallholder farmers, thus creating an unwarranted policy success based on misleading yield effects and adoption figures (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014;Whitfield et al., 2015).Despite calls for a more nuanced view in the academic literature on CA's potential benefits and applicability in different agro-ecologies (see special issue of Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 2014 volume 187), CA continues to polarize the global R&D establishment. CA advocates, including FAO, faithfully adhere to the principles and continue to promote CA as a silver bullet that can be made to fit all circumstances (Kassam et al., 2014). Any critique or questioning of CA still   Bolliger et al., 2006 provokes strong reactions from advocates-so strong that it remains impossible to discuss and debate. A common reaction to countervailing evidence-including the recent meta-analysis of Pittelkow et al. (2015a) in Nature-is that the studies have not used a correct definition of CA, that CA is a holistic approach and therefore cannot be analyzed using the tools of reductionist science (Derpsch et al., 2014). For example, questioning of the appropriateness of the widespread CA promotion across Africa in Nature (Gilbert, 2012) led to a strong retort (Buffet, 2012). The 2013 Nebraska Declaration was an attempt to seek consensus among scientists about a widening of the CA concept, but was criticized for its potential to suffocate scientific debate (Andersson et al., 2014).Concern about the gathering momentum and funding allocation to CA among development agencies, donors and governments in Africa despite limited scientific evidence of its suitability and benefits to diverse smallholder farmers, prompted publication of a critical journal article in 2009 (Giller et al., 2009). This \"heretics' view\" paper provoked a storm of protest internationally 2 . Five years on, there is a growing concern about the quality of CA research and the dogmatic application of CA (Stevenson et al., 2014); both in smallholder systems and in largescale mechanized agriculture. It is therefore timely to review the advances made and the current state of evidence.Unfortunately the wall of scientific evidence to support many of the claims made for CA is cracking at the seams-even in largescale agriculture. In this section we analyze each of these claims in turn.Claims that CA increases crop yields do not hold up to close scrutiny. The latest comprehensive meta-analysis of 5463 paired yield observations from 610 studies suggests that no-till in itself results in a yield penalty of around 10% overall (Pittelkow et al., 2015a). Yet, this evidence also shows that a nuanced view is necessary as yield responses of crops and agro-ecologies to CA differ. The yield penalty was strongest for cereal crops: oilseeds, cotton, and legumes gave similar yields under no-till to those with tillage (Pittelkow et al., 2015b). The negative effects of no-till are minimized when combined with mulching and crop rotation in what would be considered true CA (Pittelkow et al., 2015a). Only in dry climates is an increase in crop yields observed with CA (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011;Pittelkow et al., 2015a). Even under dryland conditions in the Middle-East (Jones, 2000;Pala et al., 2000) and in Australia there is little evidence for yield increases (Figure 2)-and certainly not increases related to lack of soil disturbance (Kirkegaard and Hunt, 2010;Kirkegaard et al., 2014a). Nitrogen (N) fertilizer was shown to compensate for the negative effects of no-till in the (sub-)tropics where lack of N is often strongly limiting, but less so in temperate climates (Lundy et al., 2015).Yield benefits of CA under such conditions are mostly due to more timely sowing, early crop establishment, and summer fallow weed control, rather than \"soil health\" improvements, though soil protection and cost-savings are undisputed (Kirkegaard et al., 2014b). In the Great Plains of US and Canada, switching to no-till/stubble retention allowed replacement of fallow with opportunity cropping of oilseeds and legumes (Kirkegaard et al., 2008). In Brazil's Cerrados, land productivity benefits of CA occur through the possibility of growing two crops sequentially in the same growing season (Bolliger et al., 2006).The enhanced timeliness of crop establishment made possible through no-till can enhance yields by better using available moisture and reducing off-season heat stress. Mulch can reduce soil temperatures, which is beneficial in heat stressed environments. By contrast, in wetter and colder climates, tillage  (Kirkegaard et al., 1994) and Wagga Wagga (Heenan et al., 1994)], the yield of wheat under a stubble-retain, no till (CA) treatment suffers a yield penalty compared to minimum-tillage-late burn treatment in wetter seasons (>300 mm), shows little difference in dry seasons (<250 mm) with only two instances of significantly higher yield. Open symbols are shown where treatments were not significantly different (P < 0.05).accelerates warming, and drying of soils thereby extending the length of the growing season (Kirkegaard and Hunt, 2010). This is one of the reasons why few farmers practice no-till in northern and western Europe, whereas its use is increasing in Mediterranean countries (Soane et al., 2012).As the capacity of CA to increase farm incomes is mainly realized through cost reductions (particularly in fuel consumption) and the capacity of large mechanized farms to \"scale-up\" where farming a larger area brings with it economies of scale (Egan, 2014) rather than increases in yields, the farm size, degree of mechanization, and capital investment capacity are key to understanding farmer investment in equipment and herbicides for CA. The cost reductions that can be realized with new CA technologies by-often cash-strapped-small family farms in developing countries are often very small, also because family labor is not usually monetized (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014;Corbeels et al., 2014;Pannell et al., 2014).The UNEP Emissions Gap Report 2013 (UNEP, 2013) repeats many earlier claims that conversion to no-till can mitigate climate change by stimulating C sequestration in the soil (Powlson et al., 2014). There is increasing acceptance that increases in soil bulk density under no-till lead to erroneous estimates of increased soil C stocks (Ellert and Bettany, 1995;Wendt and Hauser, 2013;Olson et al., 2014) and meta-analysis and literature reviews (Govaerts et al., 2009;Palm et al., 2014;Powlson et al., 2014) reveal inconsistent effects of CA. CA leads to accumulation of soil C at the surface due to the lack of soil mixing, but the impacts on increased C stocks are unclear (Powlson et al., 2014;Singh et al., 2015). There remain indications that soil C may be sequestered at depth when legumes are included in the CA crop rotation in Brazil (Boddey et al., 2010). This observation, and other evidence (Rasse et al., 2005;Kätterer et al., 2010) suggests that roots provide a substantial contribution to soil organic matter. In a global meta-analysis of the effects of CA on soil C contents (Luo et al., 2010) no-till did not increase the overall soil organic C stocks in most cases, except for those with increased biomass production and crop residue retention through growing two crops each year. The lack of an appropriate balance of the nutrients N, phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) often limits soil organic matter build-up (Kirkby et al., 2011;Richardson et al., 2014). Part of the observed increases of soil C under CA at field level may be due to decreased soil erosion (Scopel et al., 2005).Increased soil C accumulation in the soil surface layers, together with the presence of mulch, has important impacts on enhancing the soil water supply for crop growth. The enhanced soil structural stability and the protection of the soil surface from direct raindrop impact leads to greater infiltration and capture of rainfall for crop growth. The mulch cover can also lead to reduced soil evaporation which explains why CA shows overall yield benefits in some dry climates (Scopel et al., 2004;Pittelkow et al., 2015a). There are indications that over the long term the accumulation of soil C can lead to excess water retention and declines in crop yield (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011). Long-term increases in soil bulk density due to the lack of soil tillage can contribute to such yield declines.Rather than focusing solely on the use of crop residues as mulch, a more universal approach would encompass the use of fertilizers and N 2 -fixing legumes and pastures to maintain soil organic matter and crop productivity (Da Silva et al., 2014). Maintenance of soil organic matter is a key to sustainability of agricultural soils and has major benefits in mitigation and adaptation to climate change (Harvey et al., 2013). This requires N, P, and S, not just C inputs (Richardson et al., 2014).There are few agricultural systems in the world where productivity can be sustained without import of nutrients. Nutrient import to replace nutrients removed in crops or lost requires the use of mineral fertilizer and N 2 -fixing legumes as there is insufficient organic fertilizer available globally (Connor, 2013). Mineral fertilizers can also play a critical role for the mulch component-both in terms of overcoming the problems of N-immobilization in low input systems and boosting biomass production to reduce biomass use trade-offs (Vanlauwe et al., 2014b). Even organic agriculture requires import of organic manures from other farms in the majority of systems, as well as import of nutrients as rock phosphates or feldspars. In low-external input agriculture, reliance solely on recycling is equivalent to recycling poverty (Dudal, 2002;Lal, 2007).All approaches to maintenance of soil organic matter need to recognize the integration of livestock in mixed-farming systems. Evidence suggests little damage to soil from grazing animals when managed well (Bell et al., 2011). Efficient recycling of animal manures is a key aspect of sustainable nutrient management, both to avoid pollution and to maintain soil organic matter and crop nutrient supply. With the exception of the largely mixed farming systems in Australia (Kirkegaard et al., 2014a), crop and livestock production on large-scale farms are often separated so that competition for crop residues for mulch or livestock feeding is less important.The benefits of crop rotation in controlling pests and disease build-up are well-established and not unique to CA (Abawi and Widmer, 2000;Kirkegaard et al., 2008). In particular, rotations with grain legumes offer the additional benefits of enhancing soil fertility through biological N 2 -fixation (Giller, 2001). Yet rotations with legumes or other crops are frequently less economically attractive and leave less soil cover (Kirkegaard et al., 2014a). Even where the profitability of cereal production is limited, smallholder farmers in developing countries often grow crops such as maize in continuous monoculture for food security reasons and their limited labor requirements (Baudron et al., 2012a).Diverse multiple crop/pasture systems are required rather than crop rotations alone (Franzluebbers et al., 2014). This is increasingly recognized by the FAO, which has adapted their description of CA to refer to crop diversity. Whereas the adaptation of CA principles was relatively easy for dryland grains (cereals, legumes, oilseeds) it has proved much more challenging for roots and tubers, flooded rice, and cash crops like cotton and tobacco. Intercropping is particularly important on small farms in the tropics. A major benefit of multiple cropping is weed, pest and disease management.In the USA, the overwhelming majority of maize is rotated with soybean and approximately a quarter of the maize planted is not rotated but continuously cropped for multiple years. Much of this is managed under various forms of CA. As the rotational diversity decreases, the chemical intensity associated with managing the crop increases (Davis et al., 2012). Where the economy is driven by ethanol-based biofuels (as in much of the Midwestern US) then maize is the most profitable crop. The development of the bio-fuels industry over the past 15-20 years in the US has resulted in major changes in farming practices with a much greater proportion of maize grown and a larger proportion of continuously cropped maize. In most developed economies, monoculture also is strongly driven by local economies and infrastructure investment. For example, in Nebraska, twothirds of the maize is irrigated (USDA -National Agricultural Statistics Service, (NASS), 1970(NASS), -2008)). Farmers have invested in irrigation equipment and the complementary equipment to grow, cultivate, and harvest maize. Maize is the most water responsive crop in the Midwest so yields the largest return on investment.Legume cover crops and short-duration fallows of fastgrowing legume trees can fix substantial amounts of N 2 from the air (Giller, 2001) and improve soil fertility giving strong increases in the yield of subsequent cereal crops (Sanchez, 2002), as well as providing substantial biomass for mulch (Naudin et al., 2012). Despite many claims of adoption of green manures or cover crops by smallholder farmers, these have not outlived the promotion campaigns due to the substantial investment of land and labor required and the delayed benefits to farmers (Douthwaite et al., 2002;Kiptot et al., 2007). Use of cover crops is also very limited (2% on average) on large farms in the USA (Bryant et al., 2013).Tillage has clear benefits in the management of biotic stresses (weeds, pests, and diseases). The repeated reliance on specific herbicides such as glyphosate has led to rapid evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds (Cerdeira et al., 2011;Mortensen et al., 2012;Kirkegaard et al., 2014a). Strategic tillage is one of the main tools that can assist in avoiding or managing such weed problems (Kirkegaard et al., 2014a). In addition to selecting for herbicide resistant weeds, the absence of tillage selects for increasing abundance of difficult to control, perennial weeds (Buhler, 1995;Smith et al., 2011). In less herbicide-intensive systems, tillage is the single most effective tactic for managing perennial weeds.A bulky mulch can constrain crop establishment by reducing optimal seed placement, creating a suitable habitat for seedand seedling-feeding herbivores, and impeding placement of supplemental fertilizers (Mirsky et al., 2012). Lepidopteran larvae and slugs can build up to damaging intensity in such high residue environments (Douglas et al., 2015). Residue retention and the associated increased humidity at the soil surface favor the survival of pathogens until the following crop is planted. For example, surface crop residues infected with gray leaf spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis) provide an early-stage inoculum for the next maize crop resulting in acute infection (Thierfelder et al., 2014). Similar problems arise with retained crop residues increasing infections of important diseases such as tan spot (Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) (Bhathal and Loughman, 2001) and crown rot (Fusarium pseudograminearum) (Burgess et al., 2001) in cereals, sclerotinia (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) in legumes (Simpfendorfer et al., 2004) and blackleg (Leptosphaeria maculans) in Brassica oilseeds (West et al., 2001).Enhanced activity of the soil macrofauna in the absence of tillage, and in particular earthworms, can alleviate excessive buildup of soil organic matter in the surface horizons (Wardle, 1995;Singh et al., 2015). The detritivore earthworm Lumbricus terrestris was shown to reduce the biomass of Fusarium culmorum in wheat straw, thus compensating for the negative effects of no-till due to crop residue accumulation (Wolfarth et al., 2011).A major benefit of CA is the control of soil erosion due to maintenance of soil cover, greater infiltration and reduced runoff (Roose and Barthes, 2001;Erenstein, 2002). Approximately 97% of the soil erosion reduction from adoption of no-till and CA in the US occurred prior to 1996, the year herbicide-resistant crops were first marketed, driven by price supports made possible by the US Farm Bill (USDA -Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2010). However, when no-till is practiced in the absence of effective soil mulch cover, the effects can be disastrous with rapid surface sealing leading to increased run-off and accelerated soil erosion (Guto et al., 2011;Baudron et al., 2012b). Rather than focusing on \"no-till or minimal soil disturbance, \" tillage, and soil conservation measures should be used strategically. Prevention of soil erosion requires a more integrated approach to soil conservation than simply no/reduced tillage and mulch. Where no-tillage is adopted, often it is practiced as non-permanent rotational tillage (Hill, 2001), and the average time out of tillage is approximately 2 years (Hill, 2001;Derpsch et al., 2010). Tillage can be important in loosening the soil and creating a rough soil surface to enhance water infiltration where mulch is not available (Aina et al., 1991). Continuous no-till can lead to soil compaction, which can be overcome by strategic tillage (USDA -Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2010;Wortmann et al., 2010).Although scientific research tends to focus on enhancement of land productivity measured in yield per unit area per season, farmers focus on maximizing productivity of all production factors (including labor and capital) with minimal risk from the whole farm over the calendar year. In particular, for farmers throughout the world their labor or time is of critical importance. Even on large-scale farms in Australia, North and South America, adoption of CA is largely driven by the ability to expand farm size, reduction in input costs, fuel, labor, timeliness of sowing, the farm program and soil protection, with less expectation that yield would necessarily improve (Llewellyn et al., 2012). In developing countries, rural households are often categorized as farmers, although they have a diverse livelihood portfolio. Many such households are net food purchasers, meaning that they spend a considerable part of their time earning money off-farm.For smallholder, \"part-time\" farmers, the adherence of CA principles may imply costly or unpopular changes. One problem is the increase in labor burden, when no-till is practiced without herbicides in manual low-input systems such as in large swathes of Africa (Grabowski and Kerr, 2014). Inversion plowing is an effective means to control weeds. If herbicides are not available the labor burden for hand weeding under CA is strongly increased (Giller et al., 2009;Rusinamhodzi, 2015), limiting the CA area to what can be managed by a farming family without having to hire additional labor (Marongwe et al., 2011). The increased labor burden may be particularly strong for women. The increased drudgery of CA, particularly the form of planting basin technology (Table 1) as promoted by many church-based organizations and FAO in southern and East Africa, has led farmers to reject the technology (Andersson and Giller, 2012;Rusinamhodzi, 2015).In addition to labor, a second problem is the competition for crop residues for soil mulching or livestock feed in smallholder farms across the (sub-) tropics that are commonly mixed croplivestock farms. This results in CA in practice being merely notill, with counterproductive impacts on yields, water retention and erosion control. Livestock are often key in the provision of FIGURE 3 | Evolution of Conservation Agriculture practice, from PAST (conventional to no-till, Conservation Tillage), to PRESENT (Conservation Agriculture) to FUTURE (Systems Agronomy). There is a need to expand CA from PAST and PRESENT (i.e., the gray area) toward a Systems Agronomy (down and to the right), not losing, but adapting the three CA principles.meat and milk, of traction and manure, as well as being a means of accumulating capital and managing risk (Herrero et al., 2010). Smallholders prioritize feeding of crop residues to livestock over soil mulching (Giller et al., 2009;Naudin et al., 2014;Erenstein et al., 2015). Soil cover may be limited due to fast degradation of crop residues or removal by termites (Erenstein, 2002). Where crop productivity is poor due to exhaustion of soil fertility and soil degradation, the amounts of crop residues available are limited (Rufino et al., 2011). The need for increased productivity to produce acceptable grain yields and the crop residues needed for mulch and stockfeed suggests that use of mineral fertilizers is a pre-requisite for the success of CA (Vanlauwe et al., 2014b).There is mounting evidence that claims for (full) CA adoption in Africa have been too optimistic as adoption is often partial (one or two principles only), limited in extent (both in terms of numbers of practicing farmers and area), and frequently temporary in nature as reports on dis-adoption suggest (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014;Arslan et al., 2014). Even CA practices on small farms in Brazil, tend to be partial and on limited land areas at best (Bolliger et al., 2006). In South Asia's rice-wheat systems no-tillage is still largely confined to the wheat season (Erenstein and Laxmi, 2008). As the growing literature on CA shows, such limited and partial adoption of CA is rooted in agro-ecological and socio-economic constraints (Arslan et al., 2014), not only at the plot and farm-level, but also in the wider market, institutional and policy context (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014).Our overall conclusion is that the CA principles are too narrow and restrictive to apply across the world's wide diversity of agro-ecologies and farming systems. CA places emphasis on conservation and thereby implicitly the status quo-in contrast to the inherent dynamism in the current drive toward sustainable intensification. The underlying CA principles also confer a value statement-norms that must be adhered to. As an alternative we suggest a Systems Agronomy approach, which entails a radical shift away from adapting principles or technologies to local circumstances, toward localized agronomic knowledge production (Figure 3).Acknowledging that agronomic knowledge is fundamentally situated knowledge, the role of science is to explore systematically the needs and opportunities of the diversity of farmers in any given region. A Systems Agronomy then, is fundamentally a methodological approach which seeks to understand FIGURE 4 | The DEED approach (Giller et al., 2011) proposes a logical sequence of activities for researchers and farmers to learn together (Co-learning) through ex-ante analysis of the options and the prerequisite conditions (Describe), testing and analyzing options using theory, on-farm experiments and modeling to understand current practices and systems (Explain), analyzing trade-offs, opportunities and constraints to adoption of technologies at multiple scales through scenario analysis (Explore), and proposing and testing new configurations of cropping systems, farm, and farming systems and landscapes (Design).(describe and explain) cropping, farm household, and farming systems-nested systems-and their interactions, to explore and develop (design) a broad basket of options for diverse farming conditions and diverse contexts (Figure 4).The theoretical foundations of a Systems Agronomy approach are the well-established principles of plant production ecology recognizing the defining, limiting and reducing factors for crop production (van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997). Modeling of crop growth in relation to light, water and nutrients was one of the first applications of \"systems biology\" (van Ittersum et al., 2003). While agronomy has tended to focus on the development of technology for crop production at the plot or field level, there is increasing recognition that the tools of systems analysis can be used at multiple levels. They can assist in identifying environmentally appropriate, economically viable, and socially acceptable technologies for farmers depending on their differing availability and access to resources, as well as their production orientations (van Ittersum et al., 2008;Giller et al., 2011;Erenstein et al., 2012).Agronomy, and the identification and validation of new technologies or practices, thus becomes a \"place-based\" science in which general production ecology principles (theory) and agricultural development aspirations (direction) are applied in specific local contexts and systems. For instance, a focus on enhancing resource use efficiency (of capital, land, laborand light, water, and nutrients), is the starting point of a sustainable intensification-directed agronomy. A Systems Agronomy perspective on Sustainable Intensification implies an empirically grounded, adaptive approach that does not merely focus on production and environment, but calls attention to social acceptability and economic viability (benefits vs. costs; private vs. public). Thus, interactions and trade-offs are taken into account between investments in different production units within a single farm and between operations on different farms within a farming system and beyond (e.g., landscape features such as refugia and buffer zones). Agronomists are thus developers of tools and providers of knowledge on farmers' realities at different scales. Such grounded knowledge can help farmers-and those organizations directly interacting with farmers-to identify and apply appropriate management options suited to their circumstances.Current, principle-based approaches to Sustainable Intensification, such as CA, Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM), Integrated Weed Management, or Integrated Pest Management (IPM) address only specific aspects of crop management and vary in the degree to which they consider multi-scale interactions and trade-offs in farming systems. In addition, the potential of CA for intensification-yield benefits-is limited to specific agro-ecologies (Pittelkow et al., 2015a). ISFM (Vanlauwe et al., 2010) aims to increase crop productivity and maximize the efficiency of nutrient use through improved crop varieties, appropriate fertilizer, and organic inputs, all adapted to local farming conditions. Integrated Weed Management relies on multiple approaches to manage weeds that have a firmly grounded basis in ecology (Mortensen et al., 2012). IPM seeks adapted solutions to reduce or eliminate weed, insect, and disease pressure and has gone further to address multiple scales and actors, and to minimize negative environmental externalities (Brewer and Goodell, 2012).Applying a Systems Agronomy approach to the identification of appropriate agronomic management practices to local circumstances will diffuse the emotions engulfing current debates on approaches toward Sustainable Intensification and place the ultimate beneficiaries at the center of activity where they belong.A Systems Agronomy approach goes beyond prescriptive approaches such as CA to create a \"basket of options\" for farmers, suited to their production conditions. Grounded analysis can inform farmers and policy makers of interactions and trade-offs (e.g., between short-term productivity increases and the longerterm sustainability) to support their technology choices. Such approaches can also learn from the ecology of natural systems and ecological theory when appropriate (Denison and McGuire, 2015).Using the metaphor of avoiding to force a \"square peg into a round hole, \" we depict the matching of technologies with farming systems and farmers. Different practices (technology FIGURE 5 | Delineating socio-ecological niches for diverse crop/soil management practices/technologies (inspired by Sumberg, 2005;Ojiem et al., 2006). Using the metaphor of avoiding to force a \"square peg into a round hole,\" the matching of technologies to particular farmer circumstances involves (1) a selection and adaptation process of technology options suitable for the specific agro-ecological and socio-economic environment, as well as (2) a process of understanding the drivers of farmer diversity to establish for which farmers the technical options may be suitable in a given environment. Thus, we move from \"Best Bet\" to \"Best Fit\" options.options-sometimes called \"Best Bets\"), each have their specific requirements for labor, equipment, fertilizer, etc., that are suitable for different types of farmers (and farming environments) (Giller et al., 2011). In general, new, suitable technologies (or \"Best Fits\") will be most rapidly adopted by smallholder farmers with adequate resources of land, cash, and labor, and not by the most resource-constrained groups (Pannell et al., 2014). Systems Agronomy entails a shift from developing \"Best Bets\" toward understanding \"Best Fits, \" grounded in farmers' realities. Farm typologies based on farmers' production orientations and resource endowments (including the importance of farm size) will help in better tailoring of technologies (Figure 5).A consensus has emerged around the need for Sustainable Intensification. The focus of CA is too restricted to address the technology needs for Sustainable Intensification. It is likely that the principles underlying CA will remain a key strategy for a large proportion of farmers who the resources to invest in mechanization, agrochemicals and herbicide-resistant crop varieties, though its implementation in practice will become more pragmatic. If current trends continue this will lead to increasing farm sizes or cooperation among large farms to justify the investment in large-scale, expensive machinery (van Vliet et al., 2015). Yet at the same time, CA will remain beyond the grasp of smallholders who lack the resources to invest in herbicides and (small-scale) mechanization or animal traction. The no-till area can be expected to increase where smallholders can access these labor-saving technologies, but with little mulching and thereby likely detrimental effects on soil and water conservation.A more flexible approach is needed to harness the benefits of \"strategic tillage\" to overcome major problems associated with continuous no-till, such as soil compaction, excessive build-up of soil organic matter in the surface horizons and herbicide-resistant weeds. Herbicide use in smallholder systems also requires effective extension to avoid potential health hazards associated with incorrect use. A key role of science is to support farmers with the knowledge required to make their own strategic choices among the various appropriate technologies that are available.A Systems Agronomy combining the tools of experimentation and simulation modeling to evaluate multi-scale trade-offs and synergies can support the development of the required knowledge. We propose that the focus should move beyond a set of narrow principles, to provide the toolbox and methods to allow informed choices of technology tailored to local conditions, and taking into account the trade-offs associated with technology choice in the short and long-term. Above all there is a need to open up debate and discussion to develop pathways for the Sustainable Intensification of agriculture.","tokenCount":"5500"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"217da7a68785e68d48c2d4f71075cc5e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f24cc3fa-25de-4966-b25e-c2c2242b442b/retrieve","id":"-1847206088"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"04e56f3b-ade0-489e-8946-5ec3eb56505a","pagecount":"15","content":"Streamlining climate change, climate risk management in Agriculture, climate information services, and climate-smart agriculture innovations into undergraduate university curriculum modules in Ethiopia. Workshop Report. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research in Africa (AICCRA).Ethiopia, as is the case for other African countries, is a disproportionately higher risk of adverse consequences of climate change. The country has a high risk of hydrometeorological hazards and natural disasters. Its vulnerability is further exacerbated due to the high poverty level and its dependence on key sectors most likely affected by climate change: agriculture, water, tourism, and forestry 1 . The country is considered a climate hotspot where climate change poses grave threats to human well-being and natural environments. The accelerating pace of climate change in the region is invariably being felt through increased extreme weather and variability, which affects the frequency, intensity, spatial distribution, duration and timing of severe weather and climate events. The changes in the frequency and severity of extreme climate events and the increasing variability of weather patterns result in substantial challenges for both human and natural systems. The major and almost exclusive livelihood activities of rural Ethiopia are crop production, livestock production, natural resource extraction, and only less than a small percentage engaged in off-farm activities.Given the inherent link of these livelihood activities to natural resources, they are largely at the mercy of uncertainties driven by climate change, including extreme events such as flooding and drought. This showed that climate variability and change are having significant direct and indirect impacts on agricultural production, agricultural value chains, food and nutrition security, as well as the overall sustainable growth of the sector in Ethiopia. These changes will have a particularly devastating impact on smallholder agriculture, in which the livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists are subject to the vagaries of the weather.Recent studies show that increased awareness about climate change and associated risks, as well as education on the importance and uses of quality climate information services (CIS) and climate informed-digital agro-advisories help countries and their people to become more resilient in coping with the increasing impacts of climate variability and change by providing the science-based and user-specific information for managing climate risks and the opportunities created by climate variability and change 2 . Hence, it is time to actively consider knowledge creation and skill development via education to tackle climate change rather than only addressing it from a policy viewpoint that entirely leaves governments with the sole responsibility of developing strategies to adapt to its impacts.Universities globally have increasingly recognized their responsibility to prepare students and society to contribute to the mitigation of actively and adaptation to climate change either through adopting a low-carbon operation strategy or through developing curricula and pedagogical approaches to educating students (and, by extension society) about the imperatives of carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation and adaptation (Filho et al., 2021) . According to Molthan-Hill et al. (2019) , university climate change education may take the form of formal and non-formal learning and teaching approaches, including nature immersive field projects, international case studies, and higher degree research. Based on the study conducted on the overview of the extent to which matters related to climate change are tackled within the teaching and research practices at 12 top European universities, Filho et al. (2021) recommended that universities teaching as well as research initiatives should be among other, contribute to addressing climate change, climate risk and climate information services problem, which are global in nature but whose impacts are mostly felt at the local level. The experience gained from Ethiopian Universities is anticipated to be scaled up to the AICCRA core and spillover countries. neutrality and climate change mitigation and adaptation (Filho et al., 2021) 3 . According to Molthan-Hill et al. (2019)  4 , university climate change education may take the form of formal and non-formal learning and teaching approaches, including nature immersive field projects, international case studies, and higher degree research. Based on the study conducted on the overview of the extent to which matters related to climate change are tackled within the teaching and research practices at 12 top European universities, Filho et al. (2021) recommended that universities teaching as well as research initiatives should be among other, contribute to addressing climate change, climate risk and climate information services problem, which are global in nature but whose impacts are mostly felt at the local level. The experience gained from Ethiopian Universities is anticipated to be scaled up to the AICCRA core and spillover countries.As is the case in many countries around the world, universities in Ethiopia recognized their responsibility to create awareness and prepare students and the society as a whole to actively contribute to Ethiopia's effort to build resilience and adaptive capacity in the country and contribute to the mitigation of climate change. The knowledge acquired on climate change, climate risk management, climate information services, and climate-smart agricultural practices and innovations at Ethiopia universities is expected to progressively influence local and national governments, as well as the upcoming workforce and the community on how to better manage climate variability and change in their diverse spheres of influence, including through advocacy, daily behaviors, and professional careers among other things.In this regard, on November 10, 2021, the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) organized a consultative workshop to discuss the relevance of integrating climate change research products and innovations on CIS, climate risk management and climate-smart practices into the existing undergraduate course curriculum. Moreover, the importance of having short courses on the above topics for university staff and undergraduate students was discussed. Subsequently, several Ethiopian public universities showed interest in the proposed areas and signed a memorandum of understanding with ILRI.As a follow-up of this joint collaborative effort between AICCRA -ILRI and the Ethiopian public universities, AICCRA organized a consultative planning workshop on May 13, 2022, to devise a mechanism by which knowledge, research findings, and local data on CIS, climate risk management, and climate-smart agriculture can be streamlined and/or incorporated into climate-related curriculum modules while ensuring the relevance and quality of education.Professor Berhanu Belay of AICCRA Ethiopia gave a welcoming speech to participants who had traveled to Adama from 10 agricultural universities across the country. As a follow-up to a November 10 th , 2021, session, this workshop aimed at integrating climate science in agriculture-centered universities in almost all regions in Ethiopia.• The focus of the workshop, as emphasized by Berhanu, includes:• Implementation of the Memorandum of Understandings signed into action;• Integration of climate-smart agriculture (CSA), climate information services (CIS), and climate risk management (CRM) coursework in the mainstream curriculum; • Identification of gaps and challenges in supporting the integration; and • Networking, experience-sharing, and knowledge exchange among universities AICCRA Eastern and Southern Africa, along with partner institutions and research universities, is gearing up the revision of the current curriculum needs to include concepts such as climate-smart agriculture (CSA), climate information services (CIS), and climate risk management (CRM) in agriculture. Research partnership, teaching and community service are the main pillars of universities in Ethiopia.''Without adequate research and partnership, it is impossible to cascade climate-related knowledge to our students in universities'', according to Prof. Berhanu.A high-level policymaker from the Ministry of Education gave the workshop an opening speech. Dr. Solomon Benor, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Research and Community Engagement Affairs at the Federal Ministry of Education, expressed his enthusiasm for the initiative. He stated that the partnership between international agricultural and climate research institutes and public universities is untapped and needs to be further explored, given the opportunity that arises from the International Livestock Research Institute and its hosted community's presence in Ethiopia. University administration and research personnel must proactively seek joint activities and collaboration to improve research and curriculum delivery.Dr. Solomon Benor (L), along with Prof. Berhanu Belay (R), gave opening remarks Addressing the senior officials from the ten universities, Dr. Solomon highlighted that the proposal to make climate science a mainstream, cross-cutting and mandatory course module would enhance the knowledge dissemination universities engage in climate-related topics. Although postgraduate program integration is much easier than undergraduate, early-stage awareness creation in informal and early teaching should contribute to creating an interest group in higher education. Therefore, the workshop comes at an excellent time to give momentum to climate-related activities in the country.AICCRA Ethiopia and Southern Africa Program Lead, Dr. Dawit Solomon, presented AICCRA's comprehensive strategy as a trigger to initiate, integrate and implement climate science education at the highest level. AICCRA is set on accelerating this partnership in science, research, and academia through knowledge generation, technology and service sharing. In addition, the project feels strong on CIS and CSA technology promotion with an inclusive and accessible delivery strategy.Dr. Dawit further explained some of the key messages from Ethiopia aggregated in the various platforms as follows:• Good enabling policy and investment environment and keen country interest for collaboration on institutional and technical capacity development, co-creation and codevelopment of digital solutions; • Digital climate and ag-advisory services have a key role to play to increase agri-food systems resilience for million of smallholders in the country including women and marginalized groups; • Government is committed and invested significantly to provide farmers with information through digital means to boost resilience and income in an inclusive manner;• Despite positive efforts and improvements in technology, most initiatives lack scale, and numerous infrastructural and capacity-related challenges exist -hampering ability to realize full potential -national capacity building is critical for broad scale adoption; • More investment for digital climate and ag-advisory services from private and public sector is needed and better partnerships are required to achieve the desired impact at scale; • Investment should follow clear impact pathway to ensure solutions delivered are equitable, sustainable and effective in solving real on the ground issues, and should be supported with research for development.Academic and research institutions play a pivotal role in the aforementioned key points in order to advancing capacity and narrowing knowledge gaps that exist in institutional dynamics working in climate change related topics.Dr. Yosef Amha of the African Climate Policy Centre at UNECA engaged participants in the need for climate science integration at the undergraduate level in universities. Realities on the ground, according to Dr. Yosef, demand that future experts, managers, and policymakers be better equipped with CIS, CRM, and CSA knowledge to deliver evidence-backed decision-making. Glance observations and assessments of current course contents in various agricultural, environmental, and natural science related courses lack valuable information on climate. Therefore, it is imperative to include climate science concepts in courses touching on agriculture, agro-forestry, health, water, energy, urban development, infrastructure, engineering, tourism, and the like.As one of the leading universities in agriculture and climate-related studies, Haramaya University led the discussion around university-based initiatives and demands for curriculum reform and/or amendment. Its flagship project, the Africa Center of Excellence for Climate Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation (ACE Climate SABC), is a five-year project that aims at producing skilled human capital through research-based quality postgraduate programs and short-term, skill-based training courses. Leading the project, Dr. Sintayehu Workeneh gave an experiential presentation about Haramaya University's experience with the project.Prof. Berhanu's presentation on updating higher learning institutions' curriculum gave participants the overview of the opportunity and experience that existed with the integration of small ruminant improvement called community-based breeding program (CBBP) and climate products as entry point to update the curriculum. CBBP aims to supports the genetic improvement in farmers' livestock flock under smallholders' settings. Experts in the program approached and created demand in 25 universities across the country for partnership, integration of CBBP, and improve the knowledge gap.In another instance, AICCRA has been supporting the integration of climate products into mainstream higher education curriculum. The climate products consist of 'Climate Information Services', 'Climate Risk Management' and 'Climate-Smart Agriculture'. This comes as the culture of curriculum updating is not given a due attention across the nation due to its lengthy process, teamwork limitation, over expectation and lack of commitment for implementation. The lesson learnt from these two examples show that there is immense capacity in universities to unlock partnership, engagement and community service, in addition to the data availability and its proximity to real-world challenges. Therefore, it is seen essential to forge partnership with universities and co-design a win-win approach to extend the learnt practices to the ground.Discussion among participants and organizers followed with a clear focus on the situational analysis of climate-related curriculum, gaps and challenges faced, and the opportunities at hand. With a configuration that puts reputed agricultural universities with young and emerging ones, three groups were formed to work, collaborate and narrate based on the following guiding questions. Furthermore, a working group nomination was followed up for a committee drawn from universities to carry out gap analysis and recommendation on research, administration, and partnership to promote the climate science integration phase under the support of AICCRA A follow-up communication channel was established with the AICCRA project.A nominated working group consisting of representatives both in administration and research from new, emerging, and established universities across the country. The nominated universities included are as follows:• For the agriculture-focused working group: Hawassa, Ambo, Debre Birhan, Injibara, Wolayta Sodo universities • For the climate-focused working group: Bahir Dar, Wachemo, Mekdela Amba, Jimma and Haramaya universities.Nominated working group members will work on the below, moderated by Professor Berhanu Belay.Term of reference for the committee members Committee members and the AICCRA team• A committee will identify climate-related courses in the UG program.• Gap analyses of the undergraduate curriculum with AICCRA (course description, course outline, reference material; moved into resource material preparation) in relation to AICCRA products and beyond• Committee to recommend Course amendments in the course structure (Course description, course outlines, and reference materials)• Each committee member to lead course structure integration of CIS, CSA, CRM, CC, CBBP• Recommend administrative procedures to amend a curriculum and timelines• Recommend a readymade CRMA short course to Universities on TOT bases• Suggest postgraduate amendment Modalities / M.Sc. and PhD• Documentation and reporting to AICCRA","tokenCount":"2328"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b55de85e7ade947f0b267e88a146102d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7aa8404e-3ea2-4d80-82dc-68e708fce3b2/retrieve","id":"1887790"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"796618cc-de09-4263-a937-b5bc34282988","pagecount":"4","content":"Climate change will have significant impacts on agriculture, particularly in East Africa where there is such variation in topography and climate. Modelling studies can help to show where these impacts may be largest, to help guide adaptations to ensure food security in the coming decades. Results suggest that crop yield reductions may be expected over 50% to 70% of the area simulated. At the same time, highland areas in parts of the region may see increases in yield potential, which could have a positive impact on householders' incomes and food security in these places.The impacts of projected climate change during the first half of the current century will pose a serious problem for development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and will add burdens to those who are already poor and vulnerable1,2. Many of these impacts will be felt in agriculture, which nevertheless will continue to play a crucial role in SSA through its direct and indirect impacts on poverty, as well as in providing an indispensable platform for wider economic growth that reduces poverty far beyond the rural and agricultural sectors3.There is much activity on the part of development agencies and governments to come to grips with these challenges, including the planning and implementation of appropriate adaptation strategies. Development agencies could greatly benefit from information that quantifies the impacts that may arise, so that development assistance can be targeted in appropriate places, depending on the development objectives that are being pursued. There are still knowledge gaps concerning the interacting and multiple stresses on the vulnerability of the poor in Africa, however. One of these is to understand more about how vulnerable households may be affected by increased climatic variability and climate change, to better understand the implications for poverty reduction as well as to be able to assess adaptation initia-tives4,5. Coping with climate variability is certainly not a new problem for African farmers, but existing coping mechanisms may not be up to the challenges that are likely to be faced in the future6.Philip Thornton, Peter Jones, Andrew Farrow, Gopal Alagarswamy, Jeffrey Andresen A considerable amount of work has been done already on quantifying some of the agricultural impacts of projected changes in future climate, but most of it to date has been carried out at low spatial resolutions, such as the globe, region, and country7,8,9. Particularly for organisations that work with a \"pro-poor\" mandate in developing countries, in addition to the relatively broad-brush information that such studies provide, there is a need for more detailed information on the impacts of climate change on agricultural systems, so that effective adaptation options can be appropriately targeted.The work outlined here is part of a larger research project called the Climate-LandInteraction Project (CLIP). This Development and growth processes are influenced by water and nitrogen balance submodels15. For the maize crop, we ran simulations using a short-season Kenyan variety as a proxy for a well-adapted generic maize variety, using typical current smallholder cultural practices such as little or no fertilizer and low planting densities. Bimodal rainfall patterns are common in the study region, and there are quite large areas where two growing seasons occur per year. For these areas, we simulated bean production also, by planting beans after the maize crop had been harvested. As for the maize runs, simulated cultural practices reflect regional management. Details of all the methods used are described elsewhere11, 16. We first ran replicated (multiple-year) \"baseline\" simulations and produced maps that show average simulated maize yields when grown in the primary season under current climatic conditions, and average simulated bean yields in the secondary season, where this is feasible. We than ran the crop models again, but using daily data characteristic of possible future climatologies in 2050. We ran these simulations only for those areas of the study region where maize and secondary-season beans could potentially be grown, on the basis of soil and climatic suitability. Most of these areas lie at higher elevations. In comparing current and future production, we found that if all such areas were indeed cropped, then \"regional production\" would decline by 1-3% for the lower emission scenario, and by 11-15% for the higher-emission scenario used, depending on the climate model used.There are many places in the study region where we found a statistically-significant increase or decrease in mean simulated yield compared with the baseline yield, for primaryseason maize and secondary-season beans to 2050, using one of the climate models and the higher emission scenario. Maize yields are projected to be reduced (often by 20% or more) for large areas in the north-west of the study region (northern Uganda, southern Sudan) and for the more semi-arid areas of Kenya and Tanzania where maize cropping is possible. In contrast, maize yields are projected to increase in some of the highland areas of the region: in the southern Ethiopian highlands, the central and western highlands of Kenya, and the Great Lakes Region. Projected yield losses in secondaryseason beans are rather more widespread, with many parts experiencing yield losses (sometimes of up to 350 kg per ha and more). Other areas, such as the western highlands of Kenya, the Great Lakes region, and northern Mozambique, are projected to see substantial increases in bean yields.The results show that crop yield responses to the changing rainfall amounts and patterns and the generally increasing temperatures projected by climate models vary by crop type and by location. For the range of climate modelscenario combinations that we considered, the modest aggregate production decreases that are projected to 2050 hide a large amount of variability, and under the higher-emission scenario, substantial maize and bean yield reductions may be expected over 50% to 70% of the area simulated. At the same time, the highland areas in many parts of the region may see increases in yield potential, which could have a positive impact on householders' incomes and food security in these areas. We should point out that there are likely to be changes in the type, distribution and severity of crop diseases as a result of the changing climate. These are not taken into account in these model runs, but they may well affect the yields that can be obtained under relatively low-input conditions.We have done other analysis that shows that a substantial part of this heterogeneity in yield response can be explained by temperature effects. In maize, at high altitudes, yields may increase as temperatures increase, but at most lower elevations, yield changes also depend on water availability, and many places will see increasing water stress in the maize crop, all other things being equal. For secondaryseason beans, temperature-driven yield increases will occur at higher elevations or up to average temperatures of about 20-22 ºC. Beyond these temperatures, yields will tend to decline. These results suggest that there may be a future need for various adaptation options: more drought-tolerant maize varieties, for example, coupled with management practices that can make the most of available rainfall such as water harvesting. For bean production, a shift in bean cropping to higher elevations may be appropriate in some situations. These results should be interpreted with caution, as there are various sources of uncertainty associated with them. There are issues associated with downscaling the outputs of climate models, and results depend to some extent on the climate model used (they are all simplifications of highly complex processes) and on the emission scenario used (the future pathway of global development cannot be known with any certainty). Also, the yield simulations are subject to errors of data input and model specification. Nevertheless, this kind of analysis is useful as a first step in identifying possible \"hotspots\" in East Africa where cropping adaptations may need to be implemented. The results also highlight the need to assess impacts at the household level. Yield responses of maize and beans to climate change are different, but many smallholder systems in the region include a range of additional or different crop and livestock enterprises. Maize stover is a key dry-season feed resource for cattle in many places, for example, and any reductions in maize biomass for livestock may need to be made up in other ways. There are some locations in the study region where maize yield reductions may be able to be offset by increases in bean yields, but there are other places where both suffer yield reductions. In general, we do not know what the effects may be of these impacts and their interactions with other farm and non-farm livelihood strategies on household income and food security. Further work needs to be done to assess the likely system-level impacts of climate change in the region, to see where trade-offs are pos-  ","tokenCount":"1436"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce6b2e21c8849bd2cee3186c2c2d0979","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H036182.pdf","id":"114376496"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b8d1a497-96d1-4ff2-bdd6-d8abc03a071d","pagecount":"20","content":"Background of skimming wells and pressurized irrigation systems project Exploitation of groundwater for agricultural, municipal and industrial uses is severely hampered in many parts of the world by the encroachment of brackish groundwater in response to fresh water withdrawals. Examples of brackish groundwater intrusion are common in coastal aquifers, but are sometimes present in inland aquifers as well. Probably, the most important example of the latter case exists in the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS). The IBIS has caused disruption of hydraulic regime due to seepage from extensive water conveyance and distribution system, as well as deep percolation from irrigation and precipitation. The native groundwater that existed in the pre-irrigation period (early 19th century) was saline because of the underlying geologic formation being of marine origin. Now, this native saline groundwater is overlain by fresh groundwater due to seepage from rivers and canals of the IBIS. Thus, shallow fresh groundwater zone occurs between the native pre-irrigation and the present day water tables.Near the rivers and canals, the fresh surface water seepage has improved the quality of the native groundwater to 120 to 150 m depths. However, in sOf'!'le areas, the thickness of the shallow groundwater zone ranges from less than 60 m along the margins of Doabs (area enclosed between two rivers) to 30 m or less in the lower or central parts of Doabs. Recently, it has been estimated that nearly 200 billion m 3 of fresh groundwater (mostly in the form of a thin layer) is lying on saline groundwater. Obviously, if proper technology is applied, the referred thin fresh groundwater layer can be skimmed from the aquifer with minimum disturbance of the saline groundwater zone, In the short irrigation water supply environment of Pakistan. such extractions would become a significant part of supplemental irrigation. The explosion of pumping technology in the private sector, high capacity tubewells of more than 28 Ips discharge are being installed even in the thin fresh groundwater zones. Framers are normally interested to install tubewells of higher discharges to have efficient basin irrigation by redUCing the advance time of water front. This can be regarded as a psychological issue rather than based on techno-economics of tubewells or physical conditions of the aquifer. The discharge of skimming wells might be as low as 3 Ips and thus pressurized irrigation tecnnology is necessary for efficient application of smaller stream size.In such zones, these tubewells are likely to draw a substantial portion of their discharge from the saline groundwater. The primary problem is that the tubewell discharges are too large for the given physical situation of the aquifer. This is particularly true for the tubewells located in the central regions of Doabs in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The exception would be tubewells located adjacent to rivers and large canals where large quantities of seepage are recharging the groundwater reservoir.Thus, if such tubewells are not replaced with fractional skimming wells, there is a serious concern that the pumped groundwater will become increasingly saline with time. Already, many high capacity public tubewells are being shutdown at the request of farmers in these areas, as the pumped water has become saline with time. In addition, there is a high expectation that many private tubewells will have to be abandoned during the next coming years. Therefore, it is imperative to introduce fractional skimming well and pressurized irrigation technology to address these future concerns.Taking into consideration the vital importance and urgent need for developing skimming wells and pressurized irrigation technology, a tripartite institutional arrangement (Water Resources Research Institute, NARC; Mona Reclamation Experimental Project, Bhalwal and the International Water Management Institute) was developed to initiate a collaborative project entitled \"Root-Zone Salinity Management using Skimming Wells and Pressurized Irrigation Systems\" The project was financed by WAPDA under the National Drainage Program and initiated in the Target Area at the Mona Reclamation Experimental Project, Bhalwal during November 1998.In this study, Mona Unit area has been selected covering the gross command area of 44516 hectares with 138 tubewells (Figure 1). The pre project water table was between 0 to 3.35 m during 1965, whereas it varies from 0.61 to 5 m during 1997. The pre-project cropping intensity was 99 %, whereas it is now 152 % during 1997 (MREP 1997).The following three studies were conducted in the Mona SCARP area to develop the methodology and are listed as under:• Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Deep Groundwater in the Mona SCARP area using the historical data of groundwater quality and the Geographic Information System (referred as GIS Study);• Participatory Rural Appraisal of selected thirteen villages of the Target Area of the project (referred as PRA Study);• Diagnostic Analysis Study of seven villages out of thirteen selected under the Target Area (referred as DAS Study). The specific objectives of the methodology development are as under• The GIS study was aimed to conduct spatial and temporal analysis of groundwater quality and water-table depth in the Mona Unit to evaluate changes occurred in the project area during the last 32 years. The long-term geo-referenced groundwater data collected by the MREP were used for GIS analysis. Salinity and sodicity data were used to characterize and classify groundwater quality zones.Methodology was developed to characterize potential locations for design and installation of skimming wells and pressurized irrigation systems.' This methodology can be adopted for sustainable development of groundwater in marginal to hazardous zones.• The PRA Study was aimed to document perceptions of rural communities regarding problems and constraints using interactive processes of participation to prioritize real-issues including ranking of these real-issues as viewed by the community. Verification of potential villages considering the project interventions was based on the perceptions of the farming community. Criteria for installation of skimming dugwells and tubewells was fine-tuned based on the farmers perceptions regarding thin layer of freshwater and follow-up actions were proposed based on the PRA conclusions.• The DA Study was aimed to document farm level land use, farming system, productivity and water 1able behaviour using interactive process of structured interviewing; and to collect samples of groundwater from selected farms representing shallow groundwater for quality analysis and document characteristics of private hand pumps and tubewells. Similar process was used to document• aspects of prime mover and fuel consumption of diesel operated pumping systems and farmers' awareness about research issues. Assessment of farmers' willingness in project interventions and finalization of methodology for the selection of potential villages considering the farmers' perceptions and findings about thin layer of freshwater was the ultimate objective of the study.The criteria for selection of potential locations was developed based on groundwater quality spatial analysis and PRA studies conducted in the Target Area. The criteria was based on the following elements:• The deep groundwater quality of tubewells beyond 30 m should be either saline, saline-sodic or sodic. This can be verified by the quality of SCARP tubewells for which sufficient data are available.In addition to this, hydrogeologic maps prepared by WAPDA and published by Survey of Pakistan can also be used.• The brackish groundwater is overlain by a layer of fresh groundwater having thickness either suitable for skimming dugwells (7.5-15 m) ortubewells (15-30 m).• The location is part of the Target Area (Mona Unit) and part of the cluster but meeting the above mentioned quality considerations• Proximity to the Mona Field Office and accessibility especially during the rainy season to avoid problems associated with waterlogging.• Farmers' willingness to participate in project interventions based on their genuine, needs in relation to skimming wells and pressurized irrigation systems.According to the GIS study, the thirteen potential villages were selected which represent freshwater, marginally saline, marginally saline sodic and hazardous quality of deep groundwater. The freshwater villages were selected to validate whether the SCARP tubewells represent the overall picture of the area or not (Table 1 Freshwater (Very Good)Freshwater (Very Good)Groundwater quality zonation Maps of three parameters of TOS, SAR and RSC were overlapped to characterize and classify groundwater zones (Figures 2 and 3) The classification of groundwater quality zonation indicated that around 12% and 5% area of the very good quality freshwater and marginally saline-sodie zones have been shifted to other zones. There was increase in the area under marginal and hazardous groundwater zones (Table 2 and Figure 4). The areas having freshwater zone have to be given priority so that further deterioration should not occur in these areas. The target for the NOP Project in the Mona Unit should be the marginal and hazardous deep groundwater zones so that the thin layer of freshwater over the marginal or hazardous quality deep groundwater can be pumped. This zonation exercise represents all levels of salinity and sodicity, as it represents all the four classes of salinity and sodicity in terms of very good, good, marginal and hazardous and combinations In total there were 8 groundwater quality zones prevailing in the Mona Unit. The criteria for characterization of TDS, SAR and RSC was defined for four classes of very good, good, marginal and hazardous groundwater. Therefore, this zonation methodology re'presents more practical criteria for selection of potential locations for installation of skimming wells and pressurized irrigation systems.     - ----------------------------   1,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,14,TDS < 500 24,27,54,67,68,69,70,77,42 78,96,97,99,104,105,106,V. Good SAR< 5 108,109,113,114,117,118,RSC <2.5 119,120,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,131  ,3,4,19,20,21,22,42,53, 55,56,57,60,62,63,64,65, 66,71,73,98, 100, 101, 103, 107,110,111,112,115,116, 121,122,130,133,134,135, 136,137,138,140,141,142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148 15,16,17,18,47,59,61,102 Maps of water-table depths were prepared for the pre-and post project periods. Th~ comparison of the temporal data indicated that there was an increase of around 19% in area having water table of less than 2 m (Table 4). Area having water table of less than 3 m is classified as waterlogged. Therefore, there was an increase of around 16.9% in the waterlogged area. This increase is mainly due to the reduced pumping of groundwater because of increased energy prices and abandoning of the tubewells having brackish groundwater. This is a serious concern and an indication of the poor performance of the reclamation projects. 1964 1999---\"-\"- Temporal and spatial groundwater analyses indicated that there was an increase in groundwater salinity and waterlogging in the project area This information is useful for planning of future projects to control waterlogging and salinity.Groundwater quality zonation exercise provided information of potential locations and methodology for conducting research to develop skimming wells to pump shallow freshwater. This will be having higher impact on the control of water-table depth and management of root zone salinity rather than pumping brackish water from deeper depths In addition to this, increase in energy prices requires development of energy efficient pumping systems to maintain water table below the root-zone depth. The smaller discharges of skimming wells can be applied efficiently using pressurized and innovative irrigation systemsThe criteria of water table of more than 3 m need reconsideration in the freshwater zone. Because water table of more than 1 m depth in the freshwater zone is suitable for field crops, except cotton. However, water table should be more than 3 m deep to grow fruit orchards. As farmers are growing quality citrus in the project area, therefore, they want water table sufficiently deep enough to grow good quality citrus.Farmers should be encouraged to grow forest plants having higher water requirements especially in areas having marginal to hazardous quality groundwater.Based on the PRA. the villages were categorized based on the depth of thin layer of fresh groundwater overlain by the brackish groundwater. Five villages out of thirteen included in the PRA study were found slightly suitable for skimming dugwells (Table 5). However, the thickness of the layer of freshwater was less than 7.5 m. Therefore, design of dugwell should be based on the recharge to the well and the drawdown pattern in a given location. These villages thus have low potential for dugwells and discharge has to be limited to avoid intrusion of poor quality groundwater, Two villages out of thirteen included in the PRA study were found highly suitable for skimming dugwells (Table 5). The thickness of the layer of freshwater was less than 15 m. Therefore, design of dugwell should be based on the recharge to the well based on the drawdown pattern in a given location. These villages thus have high potential for dugwells and discharge has to be limited to avoid intrusion of poor quality groundwater.Six villages out of thirteen included in the PRA study were found suitable for skimming tubewells (Table 5). The thickness of the layer of freshwater was less than 30 m. Therefore, design of tubewell should be based on the recharge to the well based on the drawdown pattern in a given location. These villages thus had medium potential for tubewells and discharge had to be limited to avoid intrusion of poor quality groundwater. The farmers' groups in selected thirteen villages of the Target Area identified thirteen problems and constraints (Table 6). The problems and constraints as perceived by the farming community are described as under:1. Shortage of canal water supplies;3. Non-availability and high price of seed, fertilizers and pesticides; 4. Lack of credit availability; 5. In-effective surface drainage and closure of SCARP tubewells;7. Low output prices, insufficient support prices of commodities and delayed payment especially from sugar factories;8. Water conveyance losses;9. In-appropriate Mogha size and location; 10. Higher rates of diesel fuel;11. Unskilled tenants and other related issues;12. Non-availability of government subsidy; and13. Non-availability of services from input delivery and other service channels and insufficient infrastructure.The farmers' groups in different villages identified two to six problems and constraints related to agricultural productivity and production system. Each group was asked to rank the problems. The ranking of problems by different farmers' groups can also be presented for each village. As the objective of the PRA was to identify and select suitable locations for the field research of skimming well and pressurised irrigation technology, therefore ranking of problems per village basis was not provided in this report. However, the percentage of respondents will help to describe weight of different problems and constraintsThe problems identified by the farmers' groups of the selected thirteen villages cover a wide range. The thirteen problems identified in total can be described in the following seven broad areas.Mogha size and location;• Water conveyance lo'sses and canal water supplies;• Waterlogging and salinity;• Drainage and SCARP tubewells;• Input availability and high prices (seed, fertiliser, pesticides, diesel fuel, credit and labour);• Output prices (support price and payments), provision of services and subsidy;• Infrastructure. Some of these problem areas are not directly related to the project objectives. Therefore, these have to be further ranked considering the project objectives.Farmers' perceptions were very clear regarding problems and constraints they faced in farming. About 92% farmers groups indicated that non-availability and high price of inputs like seed, fertilizer and pesticides was a major problem. In addition farmers' groups of 46% villages surveyed indicated that lack of credit availability was another concern for the use of improved inputs. Farmers' groups of 23% villages indicated that low output prices, insufficient support price of commodities and delayed payment from sugar factories were also issues related to the farming. Some of the farmers' groups also highlighted the problem of high price of diesel fuel. Therefore, profitability of irrigated agriculture was a major concern being faced by the farming community and all the above stated problems and constraints are related to profitability.The second major issue relates to the shortage of canal water supplies. Around 77% villages were facing this problem. In addition 23% farmers' groups of selected villages stated that water conveyance losses was a major factor in contributing towards shortage of canal supplies and waterlogging. This is an indicator for the need of additional water supplies from tubewells to meet crop water requirements. The appraisal also indicated that 10 and 67% villages are dependent on tubewells and tubewells plus canal water supplies, respectively. Therefore. tubewell irrigation is an essential element to have reliable and timely supply of water to meet peak irrigation water requirement of crops. Normally, the canal supplies in the peak demand periods of March and September is limited.Farmers' groups of around 31% villages of the surveyed area indicated that waterlogging and salinity were concerns for agricultural productivity. This figure is very much in line with the national average figure of saline and waterlogged area in the IBIS.The three main issues faced by the community based on the participatory appraisal are stated as under:• Profitability of irrigated agriculture as the input prices were higher and farmers were not getting right prices of their produce. The situation becomes critical when they have to face problem in availability of inputs and delayed payment of their marketable products especially the payment by the sugar mills.• Shortage of can2al water supplies and water conveyance losses resulted into reduced surface water supplies at the farm level. Therefore, farmers were forced to use groundwater for supplemental purposes. The use of poor quality groundwater further added to the secondary salinization and sodification of soils. The cost of per m3 of tubewell water was almost twenty times of the canal water, thus it further adds toward high cost of production and reduced profitability.Waterlogging and salinity was a serious concern in certain areas, where productivity and profitability of irrigated agriculture was being affected drastically.The above mentioned three issues seem logical. The first issue is beyond the scope of the project. However, the project can address indirectly the other two issues The analysis by farmers and their perceptions support the research hypothesis to develop technology for skimming fresh groundwater and efficient utilization.Farmers' perceptions for problems and interventions were analyzed (Table 7).Farmers' perceptions regarding interventions in selected villages at the Mona Unit, MREP, Bhalwal. The five major aspects described by the farmers' groups were compared in the thirteen selected villages and are stated as under:1. Need for increasing cropping intenSity and productivity; 2. Willingness of farmers' groups to use groundwater for increased cropping intensity and enhanced productivity:-3, Knowledge on presence of fresh groundwater layer underlain by marginal to brackish groundwater; 4, Need for pumping of fresh groundwater; and 5, Willingness to participate in the project activities, All the farmers' groups supported the need for increasing cropping intensity and productivity, Around 90% farmers' groups were willing to use groundwater to accomplish the task of enhanced productivity and production. About 67% farmers' groups were having the knowledge of presence of fresh groundwater layer underlain by brackish groundwater. Around 83% farmers' groups identified the need for pumping freshwater and had shown their willingness to participate in project activities,Eleven research issues were presented to farmers' groups in seven villages of the Target Area These eleven issues can be grouped into following five major areas:• Thin layer of freshwater overlain by the brackish groundwater;• Intrusion of brackish groundwater into thin fresh layer;• Concept of skimming well and problem of low discharge associated with this concept;• Acceptance of dugwell as a skimming well; and• Advantage of innovative and pressurized irrigation systems for application using smaller discharges, Farmers were aware reasonably well regarding all the first four areas For innovative and pressurized irrigation systems, farmers were well aware about furrow irrigation and its benefits from that of basin irrigation. However, most of the farmers were not aware about sprinkler and trickle irrigation systems, Awareness about sprinkler irrigation (21%) system was relatively higher than trickle irrigation (4%),In general, farmers were aware about research issues as they had access to media (radio and television), The dialogues with farmers' groups indicated that project had addressed some of the real issues faced by the farming community,Project interventions were presented to farmers' groups to document their willingness regarding these interventions, These interventions include skimming wells, sprinkler irrigation and trickle irrigation, The overall percent of willing respondents was 86, 95 and 32 for skimming wells, sprinkler irrigation and trickle irrigation systems, respectively.The higher percent of willing respondents for skimming wells and sprinkler irrigation was mainly due to the issues faced by farmers in relation to secondary salinization and reduced productivity. The lower percent of willing respondents for trickle irrigation was mainly due to less awareness of the system and less area of orchard due to waterlogging. The water-table in the Target Area was high.In general, farmers were willing to participate in the project interventions as they already had long association with the Mona Project. The Mona Project was able to develop rapport with the farming community, therefore they are willing to collaborate in the project activities. Furthermore, project has addressed some of the real-issues faced by the farming community.The overall average of 56 hand pumps in terms of total dissolved solids varied between 242 to 2176 ppm with an average of 778. The pH of shallow groundwater varied between 7.1 to 7.8 with an average of 7.3. Therefore, the shallow groundwater was non-sodic, whereas salinity varied considerably in the Target Area.Probability analysis of total dissolved solids and pH was made for the selected 56 handpumps in the Target Area. There was a wide variability in groundwater quality (Table 8). The probability analysis indicated that there was only 10% chance that total dissolved solids were higher than 1083 ppm. Thus at 90% probability the total dissolved solids were less than marginal quality. There was 25% probability that the total dissolved solid were less than 435 ppm. Therefore, the probability was very high for having good quality of shallow thin layer of groundwater.The probability analysis of pH indicated that there was hardly 10% chance of having pH of more than 7.5. Therefore, there was hardly any chance of having sodic water in the shallow depths (Table 8).The total dissolved solids of private tubewells varied between 155 to 3040 ppm with an overall average of 862. Except one village (Chak #6 ML) the quality of private tubewells in terms of salinity was very good. The pH of these tubewells varied between 7.1 to 7.9 with overall average of 7.4 for the selected 35 tubewells (Table 9).  The probability analysis of total dissolved solids and pH was conducted for the 35 selected private tubewells. The probability analysis was required to have assessment of variability in quality of groundwater (Table 9).There was 80% probability that the total dissolved solids were less than 905 ppm. Thus there was hardly 20% chance of having marginal to brackish quality groundwater. In addition, there was 90% probability that pH was less than 7.5 This showed that there was 80% chance of having non saline and non-sadie water.The average total dissolved solids of shallow groundwater of handpumps in five selected villages were 426, 773, 690, 661 and 415 ppm for Head Faqerian, Jalar Waraichan, Ratho Kala, Chak #1 (Phularwan) and Thathi Noor villages, respectively. All the selected handpumps in these villages were having total dissolved solids of less than 1000 ppm. The pH of shallow groundwater varied between 7.1 to 7.8. Therefore, these villages are suitable for the installation of skimming wells, especially the dugwells. The quality of deep groundwater in these villages as per SCARP tubewells was marginal to brackish.The low level of total dissolved solids and low pH confirmed that thin layer of freshwater was non-saline and non-sodic. Thus if this fresh layer is pumped without disturbing the brackish layer underlain by the freshwater, root zone salinity can be sustained on longer-term basis.The average total dissolved solids of shallow groundwater of private tubewells in four selected villages were 568, 600, 747 and 683 ppm for Ratho Kala, Chak #1 (Phularwan), Thathi Noor and Moza Dohri, respectively (Table 13). All the selected farmers' tubewells in these villages were having total dissolved solids of less than 1000 ppm and only two tubewells of Moza Dohri were having total dissolved solids of more than 1000 ppm. There was 80% probability of having less than 1000 ppm of total dissolved solids and pH of around 7.5 or less. Thus there were 80% chances of having good quality groundwater if tubewells are placed in less than 50 m depth. In the saline water zone, the quality was brackish even in very thin layers of upto 30 m.Thus if the fresh layer of groundwater is pumped without disturbing the brackish layer underlain by the freshwater, rootzone salinity can be sustained on longer term basis. This concept is new and emerging and most of the scientists have difficulty in visualizing the concept, which is almost reverse of the traditional approaches, where we are treating the effect rather than the cause. The real cause of secondary salinization is the use of poor quality groundwater. Actually the concepts of land reclamation, soil management and saline agriculture address the effect. Thus there is a need to have awareness among different stakeholders.The following interventions were identified based on the priority issues and interventions as stated by the farmers' groups and the project objectives:• Installation of dugwells one each in very thin, thin and medium thickness zones of fresh groundwater;• Installation of tubewells in medium thickness zone of fresh groundwater;• Installation of raingun sprinklers systems for crops, vegetables and orchards;• Installation of trickle irrigation system for young orchards; and• Furrow irrigation on permanent furrow-bed system.The DAS results provided sufficient information for the selection of potential locations for the project interventions related to skimming wells and innovative irrigation systems. However, there is a need to conduct detailed survey and design for selected farms to implement the interventions:• Final selection of farmers (for dugwells and tubewells) in the villages selected under the DAS.• Detailed engineering surveys to design and layout the skimming wells and pressurized irrigation systems interventions.• The results of GIS, PRA and DAS will be presented in the workshop to a wider group of scientists/engineers/farmers to finalize the methodology.","tokenCount":"4234"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"48fecc800c2e938209f378d09ff15f2e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee4170b4-5e79-4472-90b7-298330389c5a/retrieve","id":"1296449376"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"618670d3-1098-4052-8750-71f99c82bc77","pagecount":"29","content":"The Feed the Future (FtF) Bridging Activity has two components: (1) Advancing value chain competitiveness and (2) Improving productivity. The objective is to deepen participation in the grain legume value chain by farmers previously assisted by INVC.Component 1 aims to improve the competitiveness of the grain legume value chain by increasing access to business development and financial and extension services, transforming the relationships between value chain actors, and strengthening market linkages. The hypothesis is that the development of efficient value chains and remunerative markets will act as a pull factor for the sustainable production of the different commodities. Priority is being placed on fostering direct agreements among participating producer groups, sources of inputs, and buyers of products that have the potential to be sustained after the conclusion of the Activity.Component 2 aims at increasing the productivity of soybean and groundnut through the efficient use of natural resources (land and water) and the adoption of improved varieties and recommended agronomic practices while at the same time minimizing negative impacts on the environment.A sub-activity of Component 2 is the follow-up extension messages being disseminated to farmers who benefited from Seed Fairs being conducted in three districts (Mangochi, Balaka, and Machinga) as a humanitarian action to ease the shortage of good seeds as a result of two consecutive years of poor harvest due to drought.The objective of the Activity is inclusive agricultural sector growth that will contribute to improved household incomes. The focus on grain legumes has the potential to contribute to increased incomes and a diversified diet with improved protein intake which should lead to reduced stunting and improved nutritional outcomes for women and children. The objective will be achieved through the following intermediate results:(1) improved agricultural productivity, and (2) expanded markets and trade as measures that will also transform the less productive agricultural sector in Malawi.The INVC Bridging Activity is operating in seven districts in FtF's ZOI in Malawi. The Activity's service is targeting up to 39,000 rural households that will benefit from productivity and value chain interventions in five districts (Dedza, Ntcheu, Mchinji, Lilongwe rural, and eastern highlands in Mangochi). In total, the activity will cover 15 EPAs in Mangochi, Ntcheu, Dedza, Lilongwe, and Mchinji. An additional 18,000 will benefit from Seed Fairs in Mangochi lowlands, Balaka, and Machinga during this year.The Bridging Activity has partnered with seven organizations for implementation. Each of the partners has a specific role and/or geographic zone to cover. The six implementing partners are the following:i. Agricultural Commodity Exchange (ACE) is responsible for the implementation of activities to promote value chain competiveness in Lilongwe and Mchinji. They are also providing capacity building to trainers for three partners operating in three other geographic areas.ii.CADECOM is implementing activities in four EPAs in Dedza (Chafumbwa and Kanyama) and Ntcheu (Njolomole and Bilira).iii The main activities during this quarter have been the training of grassroots extension staff and lead farmers in participating farmer groups on best agronomic practices and principles of efficient marketing and the management and governance of farmer organizations, also the field monitoring of crop performance, data collection on technology adoption, and conduct of field days to facilitate wider adoption of best practices in groundnut and soybean production. To ensure aggregation plans are achieved, ACE will is working closely with all implementing partners. The partners are responsible for organizing the farmer groups to aggregate their commodities as envisaged in their respective aggregation plans while ACE is focusing on linking the farmer groups to markets using various marketing options available. Rural Marketing Advisors (RMAs) based at various locations in Dedza, Lilongwe, Mchinji, Ntcheu, and Mangochi are responsible for informing farmer groups what marketing options are available in relation to the volume that will be aggregated by each group.As part of its effort to raise the awareness of ACE services to a larger The trainings were conducted by ACE in consultations with respective partners. Partners were responsible for organizing the trainings for the delivery by ACE of the content of the \"ACE Market School\" module. The trainings are continuing in some EPAs and the number of participants is likely to increase.For the reporting period, ACE had been working with farmer groups in disseminating market information via Champions for Market Information (CMI). They have identified three members from each farmer group (Chairperson, Secretary, and Treasurer) who are receiving market information on behalf of the group. During the reporting period 105 farmers were identified as CMI and they are receiving market information on a weekly basis so that they can share this with other members of the organization to aid in making informed decisions. The process of identifying the CMI was participatory and involved profiling each individual member including the phone number. The farmers are receiving the SMS through their mobile phone numbers. It is anticipated that the number of CMI will increase as the process of profiling the farmers is still ongoing.To scale the ACE Market Information System, ACE is collaborating with all other partners INVC BA in profiling producers and farmer organizations. During the quarter under review additional farmers and farmer organizations were profiled as shown in Table 3 below. The exercise will be completed in the next quarter as all the necessary arrangements have been finalized.During the reporting period ACE RMAs have facilitated trades in the FtF ZOI. During the three month period, ACE has facilitated trades amounting to 44.7 t of soybean in Mchinji and Lilongwe alone.In addition to the funding that was already secured for the 2016/2017 marketing season, during the report quarter, ACE has also secured MK 1 billion from Opportunity Bank of Malawi (OBM) for the warehouse receipt system and negotiations are at an advanced stage to secure MK 3 billion from CDH Bank, MK 2.5 billion from National Bank of Malawi (NBM), and MK 1 billion from FDH Bank, which would bring the total finance available for the WRS to more than MK7.5 billion, if the negotiations are successful.With regard to the disbursed finance for the WRS, during the reporting period, ACE facilitated a total of MWK 1,160,600 (USD 1612.3) in the FtF zone of influence. This disbursement was mainly used to finance the maize enterprise within the FtF ZOI.Generally the rainfall has been good and persistent during the entire cropping season and has been above expectation except for the three EPAs, Bilira in Ntcheu, and Ntiya and Katuli in Mangochi, that experienced a dry spell after the first planting rains, specifically the period between late December and mid-January, affecting the late planted soybean crop. Because of the low soil moisture the rate of germination was lower than expected and farmers had to fill gaps to attain optimal plant density.Monitoring visits were made by FtF INVC Bridging Activity staff to all the EPAs implementing the Bridging Activities with the following observations:The germination rate for soybean seeds was very good except for the two EPAs, Bilira in Ntcheu and Ntiya and Katuli in Mangochi, which were affected by late planting of the crop. However the early planted crop (before 15 December) was not affected because by the crop was well established by the time the dry spell set in. At the time of writing this report, the early planted soybean was already harvested. The later planted crop was also almost ready for harvesting.In general, there was poor germination of groundnut seeds supplied to farmers in all the EPAs that received groundnut seeds. Seed Services Unit (SSU) made a random survey of farmers' plots, counting number of plants on 1 m x 1 m quadrant in 30 farmer plots planted with CG7 groundnut seeds supplied by two contractors. The findings were, on average, that only 50% of the planted stations had plants and the rest of the planting stations did not contain any plants. After thorough investigation it was established that the groundnut seeds had low seed vigor. The shoots were too weak to press through the soil surface and died off before emergence. In the laboratory normal germination of above 75% could be achieved because there was less physical resistance as the seeds are planted in sterilized sand or on paper towels. However, in the field after germinating, the seeds had energy reserves too low to break through the soil crust. When energy reserves are low, although the seeds can germinate they fail to come through to the soil surface and die off under the soil crust.Soybean crop: Incidents of caterpillar attack, mainly leaf rollers and white grubs, and damage on soybean leaves and roots were observed during the vegetative stage. This was more serious in Mitundu, Malingunde, and Chileka EPAs in Lilongwe District and Linthipe in Dedza District. District Agriculture Offices and partner organizations assisted the affected farmers in containing the pests using a pesticide (Cypermethrine). Dry spells in some areas in February and March triggered termite attacks on soybean and groundnut. However this was not on any significant scale.No pests of economic significance were observed in groundnut fields. However, in some fields attacks by termites were observed and encouraged by dry spells.During the monitoring visit a checklist was administered to sampled farmers (15 farmers' plots per each EPA) to assess the uptake of the promoted technologies in the INVC Bridging Activity. It was of particular interest to note that in EPAs where FtF INVC implemented activities for more than one year the double row, flat topped ridges, and one seed per station were observed in 81% of beneficiary fields across the EPAs where seed loans were disbursed compared with 27% among farmers who received seeds through Seed Fairs. The lower adoption rates could be attributed to quantities of seeds. Most farmers felt 4 kg was too small to warrant the adoption of double rows and closer intra-row spacing. Furthermore, there is still low adoption of accurate intra-row spacing and planting of a single seed per station. Farmers cited small seed size and the short spacing interval between stations, making it difficult to hand drop a single seed per hole and accurately space at 5 cm between planting stations. Adoption levels of almost all promoted technologies were lower among farmers who received seeds via Seed Fairs (Table 4). However, it was observed that in groundnut plots, adoption of technology was higher, averaging 72% and 77% respectively, in plots where seed loans as compared with 37% and 55% respectively in plots where seeds were obtained from Fairs; only 3% planted the groundnut in double rows and 5% on flat topped ridges. Trainings on pest and disease management in groundnut and soybean were held in January and February in all the EPAs participating in the INVC Bridging Activity. The training targeted Lead Farmers, field staff from partner organizations and government agriculture extension staff from participating sections of the EPAs. In turn, the Lead Farmers trained follower farmers in their respective communities through demonstration plots. AEDOs and staff from partner organizations backed up the trainings. However ACE preferred to train the participating farmers directly together with Lead Farmers and AEDOs, rather than adopting the trickle-down approach of ToT. The trainings were conducted by MISST in some EPAs and by the Agriculture Productivity Specialist in others. The experience has shown that understanding of technologies was higher in the ACE training approach where whole farmer groups were trained together although the trainings were crowded. At the time of writing the report the trainings on pre-and post-harvest handling had started for soybean growing groups with ACE groups in Mitundu. The early maturing soybean is almost ready for harvest while the late maturing soybean which was planted in November had also matured. The training was aimed at preparing farmers to apply what was taught to how they can harvest their crop and how to handle the harvested crop to attain good quality grain which can attract better prices and minimize aflatoxin contamination. The Agriculture Productivity Specialist and MISST technicians facilitated the trainings targeting all participating farmers. It has been observed that the most effective method in imparting new technologies is by showing pictures depicting a technology using a PowerPoint presentation or illustrated handouts.Mounting of demonstration plots (mother and baby demos) was the responsibility on MISST. DAES was responsible for the identification of the plot sites to ensure they were accessible to the public.Each EPA was to benefit from 20 mother and 100 baby demos for soybean and 20 mother demos and 200 baby trials for groundnut. Land and field management for the demos was a responsibility of the farmer (owner of the land) while MISST provided all the required inputs including seeds. MISST technicians monitored the planting of the demo to make sure that the necessary technologies are applied.Field days showcasing best practices for crops and agronomic practices for disease and pest management conducted at 11 demonstrations, attracted 3225 participants (1786 M and 1439 F; Table 7). INVC BA in collaboration with Michigan State University (MSU) initiated a data collecting exercise using a structured survey questionnaire on sampled farmers in all the EPAs implementing INVC Bridging Activities. The main objective of the survey is to assess the adoption of agronomic practices being promoted by the INVC Bridging Activity for farmers to adopt in order to increase productivity of their crop of groundnut and soybean and the outcome of the technology adoption as reflected in farmer's production practices, yield level, and income. The survey is ongoing; the data are yet to be analyzed and will be reported in the fourth quarter.Rainfall has generally been good this season; however, there were pockets of intermittent dry spells in some areas at the onset of the growing season especially in Bazale, Rivirivi, Maiwa, and Nyambi EPAs.Traditionally, maize has been the major crop and was prioritized during the cropping season with the first planting rain. Legumes come second or third which means after the main rains, hence less moisture.Crop performance varied depending on crop type and geographical location owing to weather patterns as follows:Groundnut: Plant density in most fields is low averaging 62%. In cases where farmers also had planted farm-saved seeds, the plant density was much higher about 80%. This is essentially a reflection of the low germination rate of the seeds planted. However, the crop was performing well in the field in all the implementing EPAs.Pigeon pea: According to field assessment done by CRS, the germination rate was at an average of 81.5% for pigeon pea. At the time of writing the report the performance of pigeon pea was good, at vegetative stage while in other areas the crop had started flowering. Due to the problem of land, pigeon pea had been mostly put as a hedge with other crops (picture below).A field of groundnut and pigeon pea in a double-up cropping system. Genschers Chisanga/IITA.Soybean: Production was not as popular as it was for groundnut and pigeon pea, as reflected in the quantity of seeds obtained by farmers, 53.5 t compared with 71.6 t for groundnut and 69.6 t for pigeon pea, hence the low number of farmers who grew soybean, because it is not a traditional crop in the area where CRS is active.Pest and disease Incidence: The main pest observed in farmers' fields was the elegant grasshopper, particularly in pigeon pea. However with continued rains the infestation eased. Intermittent dry spells triggered termite attacks on the already grown plants in some areas, causing wilting in groundnut and leaf falling in pigeon peas.  3 and  4). Most farmers planted the crop in mixtures with other crops owing to shortage of land and could not afford to plant the seeds in pure stands. Intercropping made application of a full technology package for a specific crop a challenge.Domasi EPA is geographically divided into two zones: the dry hilly zone (on top of Chikala hills) and the lower wet zone (down the foot of the hills to the Lake Chirwa flood plain). Soybean farming is usually done in the dry hilly zone. The foot of the hill and the flood plain are normally used for maize, rice, groundnut and pigeon pea production. The Mlambe Women Group, in GVH Mtambalika, ventured to experiment on the suitability of growing soybean in their agro-ecology as it was thought ro be unsuitable for soybean production. The group created made a test plot where they planted the soybean seeds. To their surprise the crop has responded beyond their expectation and everybody is called to witness the miracle field. From the Seed Fair very few farmers grew soybean in the field but with this observation, it is more likely that more farmers in the area will request soybean seeds because the trial mounted by the Mlambe Group of farmers has demonstrated that soybean can also do well in this area. A data entry clerk was hired on temporary basis to assist in reviewing all data collected to ensure completeness and quality and inputting into relevant computing software packages for analyses. Absence of certified warehouses in the impact areas where farmer groups are located. This will affect the plan for collective marketing. Out of the 11 groups that have shown interest in aggregating their commodities, only four are within the reach of ACE certified warehouses.Groups may be required to rent space for storage or may need to move a commodity quickly from the point of storage to certified warehouses. This is currently being discussed to map the way forward. The major challenge faced during the season was to get to understand the causes of poor germination in farmers' fields when the same batch of seeds had a certification of an abovestandard germination rate and yet germinated very poorly in farmers' fields. A request was made to Seed Services Unit to do further tests, including a vigor test. The remaining groundnut seeds not taken up by farmers failed the vigor test. Even though the seeds germinated they failed to break through the soil crust, thereby dying off under the soil. This result has led to the conclusion that there is great need to review the certification of grain legumes especially groundnut. From these results it is clear that results on the germination rate alone are not enough for grain legumes but have to be accompanied by results of vigor tests and information on year of production. It is common knowledge that grain legumes lose vigor with each generation and the loss of vigor is accelerated if the seeds are stored in warm environments before planting. This finding has triggered to open discussion with relevant stakeholders to review the grain legume certification system.Issues of climate change and effects on the environment and natural resources were highlighted during field days, to underscore the importance of applying best practices such as crop residue incorporation, crop rotation, in legume production of groundnuts, soybeans and pigeon peas, to maintain good soil structure to improve water holding capacity to improve productivity. Farmers were also reminded to resist from using child labor in farm operations.Lead Farmer positions are dominated by men, as evidenced by the statistics in trainings done, where more male lead farmers than female lead farmers attended the training in agronomic best practices. Only 43% of the lead farmers were women compared to 57% men lead farmers. The domination of men was more pronounced in the ACE Groups training. This is not surprising considering established national trends where men tend to dominate in cash earning enterprises, while women are more engaged in food security enterprises. Level of education also plays a role in segregating women in leadership. To be a lead farmer, one is required to be literate. Women in rural areas tend to be disadvantaged in terms of education. However, the trend in the WE EFFECT zone of influence is an exception, because there were more female lead farmers (52%) in the training (Table6). However, even though overall more men attended field days than women, the number of women attending field days was good (43%). In CADECOM and WE EFFECT zones of influence more women attended field days than men (Table 7).","tokenCount":"3315"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4acdb2ce393904e78e56017ae2cc0804","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cdefa6d3-40bb-4791-829f-c2dced4c026f/retrieve","id":"173541235"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"377029e0-e991-479a-ba09-fa023748a0f3","pagecount":"3","content":"In order to make sound recommendations in the face of climate change, and related low-emission farming solutions, a detailed database on fuel consumption has been started through the activity of the present report. This database will provide oversight to fuel consumption, based on tractor horsepower, attach ancillary equipment and field operation duration, and will provide base line data for fuel consumption modelling, to support climate change mitigation recommendations.For this, fuel gauge sensors were installed on two four-wheel tractors to monitor fuel usage during field operation with specific ancillary equipment, and an Excel file was generated to capture the starting values. This database includes the following parameters: tractor used, agricultural activity performed, crop, implement used, fuel consumption, time of the activity performed and location. The database will be expanded during the next year, to include two-wheel tractors and a wider variety of ancillary equipment and different field conditions.","tokenCount":"147"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2386279914deae6e3ec517de970e8107","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14512dd7-2db1-4c15-9e3a-9154bfe49ddd/retrieve","id":"273043438"},"keywords":["Life Cycle Analysis","Food systems","climate change","assessment methodology","sustainable diets"],"sieverID":"1997e776-15e6-4be6-be92-ed5da81e5464","pagecount":"71","content":"Les villes s'étendent, et avec elles augmentent leurs impacts environnementaux, par l' approvisionnement de la population urbaine en nourriture, en eau et en énergie. Le changement climatique menace également nos systèmes alimentaires : la production même, et la capacité des personnes a s'alimenter. Dans ce contexte, cette étude vise à développer une approche méthodologique pour mieux évaluer et utiliser l'information sur la durabilité environnementale d'un système alimentaire. La proposition consiste à évaluer l'empreinte carbone à l'aide d'une méthodologie d'analyse du cycle de vie (ACV) et à la compléter par la méthodologie Ecocrop qui permet de prédire les changements en terme « d'adéquation climatique» de cultures spécifiques dans l'espace et dans le temps, dans le but d' évaluer à la fois les impacts du régime alimentaire d'une ville sur l'environnement, ainsi que les impacts potentiels du changement climatique sur ce régime. L'étude de cas porte sur la ville de Cali, département de Valle del Cauca, Colombie, et se concentre sur les cinq produits alimentaires les plus consommés (par jour) à Cali, déterminés comme le \"caleño typical plate\". Les résultats ont montré que « le plat caleño » émet 431,5 grammes d'équivalent CO2. La portion de viande (volaille) a l'empreinte carbone la plus élevée par kg (2,04 kg CO2eq/kg), suivie du riz (1,46 kg CO2eq/kg), du plantain (0,28 04 kg CO2eq/kg), de la pomme de terre (0,23 04 kg CO2eq/kg) et de la tomate (0,09 04 kg CO2eq/kg). Le modèle Ecocrop a montré que le changement climatique pourrait ouvrir de nouvelles zones de culture pour le plantain (68% de la région sera plus apte à sa culture), alors que la pomme de terre et surtout le riz auront moins de zones adaptées à leur culture régions (perte de 60% de zones cultivables pour le riz au niveau national). Cette méthodologie permet de lier d'un côté la consommation et ses impacts sur l'environnement, ainsi que la production, qui sera elle-même impactée. Cette proposition peut être un outil important pour les décideurs, en particulier pour notre étude de cas à Cali, où une bonne partie des produits est produite dans la Valle del Cauca ou en Colombie.I would particularly like to thank Sara Rankin, the best colleague ever, who has accompanied and supported me throughout my experience at CIAT, it has been a pleasure to work with her, thank you very much! I would also like to thank Mark Lundy and Osana Bonilla for having allowing me to have this experience in CIAT, as well as Guy Henri, facilitator of beautiful encounters.Finally, thanks to Sergio Gutierrez for his daily support, his patience and his motivational and inspiring words. vi Foreword This project is part of CIAT's contributions to the research theme \"Rural-Urban Linkages\" (RUL) of the GCIAR research program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) which combines the resources of FAO, Ruaf and 11 CGIAR centers. WLE focuses on providing evidence and solutions on natural resource management to influence key decision makers, including governments, international development organizations, and financiers. The Rural-Urban Linkages (RUL) Research Theme addresses the interlinked challenges of urbanization (growth, food security, farming system transformation, climate change, among others) from a landscapes and territorial perspective. It assesses the performance of city region food systems and of urban and peri-urban agriculture, analyzes climate vulnerability, sustainability dimensions, resource competition and environmental degradation, while identifying innovative ways to turn challenges into policies, strategies and business opportunities. Within this research theme, CIAT and WLE collaborative work aims at understanding how to improve the resilience of city food systems to feed urban populations in a sustainable way.vii            List of tables Introduction IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) reports these last years have been warning about the threats of climate change, as the later already has caused impacts on natural and human systems on all continents and across the oceans. One of the symptoms of climate change is global warming, caused by the emissions of Greenhouse gases (GHG) from human activities. The AFOLU (Agriculture, forestry and Land Use) sector is responsible for a quarter of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (between 10 and 12 Giga tons of CO2-eq per year) related to anthropogenic activities mainly due to livestock and soil management (IPCC, 2014). These reports (also see Steinfeild 2006, about the environmental impact of livestock) have led to an increasing consciousness 1 on the environmental burden of our food.On the other hand, they have also highlighted the potential effects that future climate changes might have in all aspects of food security including food access, food use and price stability among others. Urban food systems are at the core of this issue, as they condense food demand.Food system is a concept that allows to better understand and analyze dynamics around food. It can be defined as \"an interdependent network of actors, located in a given geographical area and participating directly or indirectly to the creation of flows of goods and services oriented towards the satisfaction of nutritional needs of one or various consumer groups inside or outside the considered area\" (Rastoin, 2010). In the context of its research on Sustainable Food Systems, CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture) had the will to generate new and actionable information and tools to enable local stakeholders and decisions makers from the Cali region to better understand both current and future challenges of its food system in order to foster policy and institutional action. This study builds on the former work done by CIAT on Cali's food system. In the recent years, CIAT has developed projects hand in hand with local actors of the city : the construction of a food and nutritional security policy that was finally adopted by Council in August 2019; the Cali come Mejor project in 2015 to produce more knowledge on nutrition issues in Cali; the creation of an academic dialogue platform in 2016 to support and foster projects; analysis on food issues for the urban poor in Cali, supply chains, public policies related to nutrition etc. So far, the notion of sustainability in those projects was more focused on the social dimension. This study integrates the environmental dimension of sustainability, in the conceptual framework of food systems.recently objective of carbon neutrality by 2050, adopted by 66 countries at the climate summit in New York on 23 September 2019.In the context of growing concerns about environmental impacts of food and resilience of our systems to climate, CIAT formulated a project to develop and field-test a combined methodology of assessing the sustainability of a community's food patterns, using the city of Cali as a case study. The study seeks to answer to the following questions: How to assess the environmental sustainability of food products consumed in a city and put it into the context of a changing climate? What tools and information can be used to assess the environmental sustainability of an consumption of food in a city and how? What is the environmental impact of Cali's food consumption and how could it react and adapt to climate change?The aim of this work was to combine two methodologies in order to assess on one hand the impact of food production and consumption in the environment (focusing only on carbon footprint and global warming potential) and, on the other hand, the potential impact of future changes in climate on food crops production. For the purpose of the study, the environmental assessment will be focusing only on one environmental impact: GHG emissions and Global Warming Potential (GWP). The focus on carbon footprint is important as it can be used as a baseline to determine the degree of environmental sustainability of the current production system of these crops in order to encourage its key actors along the value chain to improve it. The exploration of potential impact of climate change on production areas that currently sustain caleños food habits can provide insight of possible threats to access to food, and the need to develop resilience strategies.Cali is located in the Region Valle del Cauca, in the south east of the country (Figure 1). The city is the capital of the region with a population of slightly more than 2 million inhabitants, surrounded by intermediate cities. A bit more than 80% of the population belongs to low and mid-low social classes. The city has suffered a continuous flow of poor migrants and refugees from the period of violence, as well as an important socio economic crisis in the 90s The strategies developed to face nutritional and food challenges focus principally on malnutrition and hunger issues. However, at the national level, results show there is a strong increase in obesity and overweight in the country. It has reached in 2010 more than half of the population (Dury, 2015). Cali is the city that has the highest overweight rate of the country, especially for women, despite the fact Cali's inhabitants consume less dairy products and more fruits than the rest of the country (ENSIN 2010). However, consumption of fruits and vegetables remains quite low compared to ideal and recommended healthy diets. Malnutrition schemes and access to food are associated to socio-economic conditions, however the low level of fruits and vegetables consumption is also the consequence of a lackof knowledge on how to prepare and eat these products (Peña, 2017) rather than lack of access. In terms of food environments, the \"tiendas\" (little local shops that sells mostly processed products, grains, oils and a bit a fresh products) are the first place where caleños (Inhabitants of Cali) buy their food (Peña, 2017) and thus have a big influence on access to food and quality of diet in the city especially in the vulnerable neighborhoods.With regard to urban policies, the city lacks a cohesive policy to implement strategies with a long-term vision, as well as a more global perspective of what the food and environmental challenges are. The challenges related to food and health issues have been undertaken with short-term goals and assistance-based approaches such as implementing and funding community kitchens. Concerning food sovereignty, Cali and the department suffers from the intensive agricultural specialization of lands into sugarcane monoculture. The El Valle region is a geographical zone crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges (Cordilleras) and a vast valley between the two mountain ranges, following the bed of the Cauca River, has given its name to the region (\"Valle\" means valley in Spanish). As shown in figure 2, the sugar cane industry (intended for sugar and biogas) has invaded the vast majority of the valley areas, and more diversified crops are entrenched on the mountainside or further North in the region. The region counts with approximately 243 000 hectares of sugarcane fields (Assocaña, 2018). As a consequence, the region produces around 20% of the food needed to feed the region capital (Dury, 2015), and the issues of access to land related to sugarcane monoculture that concentrates land use seems to impede the development of peri-urban agriculture.. 2 Methodology developmentTo address the research questions and develop the composite methodology, three steps were followed (figure 3) :Step 1: The identification of the target food products  Step 2: Assessment of their Carbon footprint (from production to distribution)  Step 3 : Modeling of the expected changes in terms of crop-specific climate suitability in the regions currently producing this food.Step 1 included the identification of most consumed products, based on a revision of the existing data on food consumption in Cali and the identification of their geographic production areas and the temporal dynamic of their availability in Cali's main market. Step 1 will be described in 2.1Step 2 included the Carbon Footprint assessment (described in 2.2), based on the PAS 2050: 2011 standard \"Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services\" (British Standards Institution, 2011) which proposes a methodology and specific system boundaries for the analysis of greenhouse gases in the life cycle of goods and services. This standard is based on the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology. Life cycle assessment is a \"cradle-to-grave or cradle-to-cradle analysis technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life, which is from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, and use\" (Muralikrishna et Manickam, 2017). In accordance with ISO standards 14040 and 14044, an LCA investigation must be carried out in four steps:• Definition of the objectives and scope of the study (delimiting with the best transparency what will be the limits of the life cycle we choose to study)• Life Cycle Inventory (Listing each activity operated in the life cycle and input used, and finding/calculating its emission factor for CO2, NH4 or N2O).• Life cycle impact assessment (converting the emission factor in carbon equivalent (CO2eq) and calculating the overall carbon footprint)• AnalysisStep 3 included using the Ecocrop model (Ramirez-Villegas, Jarvis, et Läderach, 2013 ;Hijmans et al., 2005 ) to assess the changes in the crop-specific suitability of current producing regions under projected future climate conditions. Climate parameters defining the ideal environment niche for the crop production are defined and integrated to future climate change scenarios using the Ecocrop methodology with Targeting Tools. This step will be described in 2.3. With the growing concern of the environmental impacts of food and the related nutrition driven health concerns, more research is now focusing on identifying what people eat. However, identifying food patterns is not an easy task. A majority of studies of environmental impacts of diets uses the Food Balance Sheets from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). They are statistics at the national level that show the availability for human consumption of a food item by adding the total quantity of foodstuffs imported to quantity of foodstuffs produced in the country or the region, and adjusting it to changes instocks. These statistics give a first glance on food that is available to human consumption in the country. For Colombia, the balance sheets present a national diet mostly composed of a high quantity of carbohydrates, milk and fruits, and a small quantity of vegetables. Results of Food Balance sheets for Colombia (FAO, 2018) can be seen in figure 4. Nonetheless, the balance sheets give a measure of food consumption from a food supply perspective and does not rely on real food consumption surveys. They can give a good idea of the food available in the country but are not relevant at subnational level. This study though, needed to rely on the available data on food consumption at the municipality level. According to the available data, we decided to establish the most representative lunch meal, composed by the five most consumed products, rather than the full diet. Eventually, identifying such a thing as a \"typical caleño lunch meal\" solely can be theoretical, as it does not take into consideration the diversity of a city in terms of cultures, migrations, socio-economic conditions. Cali is a diverse city where live together afro communities, indigenous, as well as the recent immigration from Venezuela, producing a diversity in terms of culture and way of living, cooking and eating.(Lisa Gerbal | IPAD | 2019 | SupAgro)In Cali, a good amount of studies and surveys have been conducted about nutritional situation and issues of the city's inhabitants (malnutrition, overweight, hunger, especially of mothers and babies). More information is to be found about social interaction and commensality (Quintero, 2008), dietary habits of adolescent students (Piñeros, 2011), dietary patterns of one-year-old children (Ocampo, 2014) and where food is provided in the city (Castellanos, 2009), and real surveys of food consumption of adult population are lacking. However, the national survey of the nutritional situation (ENSIN) 2 generated important content on food consumption in the country, per regions and per city. The ENSIN 2010 gives information on frequency of consumption per food groups, whose results for Cali are shown in figure 5. According to ENSIN 2010, caleños eat on a daily basis rice or pasta, bread, roots and plantains. Chicken meat, legumes and beef meat are eaten on a weekly basis. Surprisingly, it shows that caleños do not eat fast food that often.To further identify the specific products within the food groups, a revision of available data was undertaken. Two academic papers (Peña 2017, Dufour 2015) three surveys were selected (ENSIN 2010, Municipalidad de Cali 2009, FAO 2010). General patterns stand out: Rice seems to be a very important product in Colombia and Cali, as well as potato and plantain as \"the wide variety of preparations of such food products is part of popular gastronomy and embedded in our culture\" (translated from Secretaría de Salud Pública, 2009).  Bread and milk are also consumed on a daily basis, which is not the case for meat such as chicken or red meat.  Vegetables, such as tomato and onion, are frequently consumed however in small amounts.Details of information from the studied data are listed in Appendices 1. The existing data used date from 2009 to 2017. During this large time rate, it is arduous to detect if food habits have drastically changed in Cali over the last ten years. A research (Dufour, 2015) studying food habits of women in Cali between 1997 and 2008 did not observe critical changes during that time period.The survey covered 536 households and the questions focused on groups of food products and on their frequency of consumption. Responses were classified as follows : Daily consumptionwhich included all the products from whom the responses were : \"once a day, twice a day and two to three times a day answers\" weekly consumptioncorresponding to the aggregation of the\"once a week, twice a week, more than 5 times a week \" responses and,  Monthly consumptiongathering the products where the reported frequency was \"once a month, more than twice a month\".Based on the revision of the existing literature described earlier, five products most eaten at lunchtime were identified: Rice, plantain, potato, tomato and chicken meat.For each of the product, a mean of quantity (grams) per person per day was established, based on results from the ENSIN 2005 for the city of Cali (representing the results of 941 inhabitants surveyed). The \"caleño lunch plate\" is presented below (figure 6). During the identification phase, some products were intentionally excluded :-Imported products were avoided, in order to be able to develop the Ecocrop methodology for crops produced in the country.-Fruits were excluded. Fruits are a big part of Cali's diet (in form of juices), but it is very difficult to choose one fruit over another because the consumption strongly depends on crop period and can vary a lot.  2.2 Carbon footprint to assess environmental burden of foodA carbon footprint corresponds to the total of GHG emissions generated directly and indirectly by a product, a service, an individual during all its life cycle (ADEME, 2015). The first step is to draw the system boundaries of the life cycle of the target products (See 2.2.2) to clearly define what will be included and excluded from the calculation. The second step is to identify each activity and quantify its consumption in energy, inputs, fossils fuels as well as the generated waste (see 2.2.3).Each activity has a GHG emission factor, a coefficient that converts the activities into emissions of greenhouse gases. A lot of different GHG are generated by human activities or simply present in soils, air and water. This study focuses on three of them: Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitric oxide (N2O), as they are the three principal GHG emitted by agricultural and livestock activities and most often studied in carbon footprints of food products. All GHG have different Global warming potential (GWP) that corresponds to how much heat can be captured by a GHG. The IPCC published in 2014 (the AR5 Report, IPCC 2014) a list of different GHG and their respective GWP in relation to a reference gas, here carbon dioxide, as carbon equivalent (CO2-eq), allowing to give a common value to all of the GHG emissions estimates. CH4 and N2O has a GWP of 28 and 265 times higher than CO2 respectively.For every activity GHG are directly and indirectly emitted. The PAS 2050 give guidelines on which direct and indirect emissions should be included in the assessment. The list of emissions included in this study is shown below (Table 1). As the study cannot encompass the totality and diversity of production processes, one specific scenario was given to each item (presented in Table 2) in order to communicate with the best transparency about what will be assessed in the carbon footprint analysis. Choices of agricultural practices in the scenarios were set by the data that was collected during the time of the study. The carbon footprint that will be undertaken is not representative of the whole production of a product in a Region, but accounts for the scenario described.Tomatoes produced in open air in the El Valle region, under conventional practices, transported 97 km from farm to to the Cavasa wholesale marketPlantains produced in the El Valle region, under conventional practices, transported through 139 km from farm to to the Cavasa wholesale marketPotatoes produced in the Nariño region, under conventional practices, transported through 440 km to the Cavasa wholesale marketRice produced in the Tolima region, under traditional conventional practices, transformed in Tolima with conventional mills, transported 295 km to the Cavasa wholesale marketChicken broilers grown in the El Valle region, under conventional practices, and processed. The system boundaries define all the processes that are included in the analysis, as well as the geographical and temporal boundaries of the study and the environmental flows taken into account. For the five products identified, the boundaries go from production stage to distribution stage at the Wholesale market Cavasa, and does not include the last mile stage, neither use stage nor end-of-life, due to lack of information and time to cover the whole life cycle. The system boundaries for tomato, plantain and potato are shown in figure 8. The analysis is not a cradle to grave study, but the analysis goes a little beyond the cradle to gate, as it includes the transformation stage for rice and chicken, as well as distribution to the wholesale market. Packaging was not included due to lack of data on the packaging process. System boundaries for rice and chicken are shown respectively in figures 9 and 10.  The Functional Unit is the unit of measurement used to evaluate the service provided by the product (ADEME, 2015). The functional unit for each of the product under study will be one kilogram of transformed product delivered to Cali.The inventory analysis explains how the collected data is used in the LCA model and reveals the assumptions that were made and choices that were taken. For this study, the assessment built on secondary information delivered by institutions and official actors from the sectors, listed in Table 3. The scenarios defined earlier are \"theoretical farms\" or estimates that were built in order to make this assessment possible. Tomato, plantain, potato and riceMechanical operations represent all use of machines in the production phase (land preparation, fertilizing, sowing, application of pesticides, crop). The operations are generating emissions from combustion of fuels (gas and diesel), manufacture and transportation of fuels. Information on mechanical operations use were taken from the production cost analysis for each crop (see table 3). Indirect and direct emissions were taken from the Ministry of Mining and Energy (UPME-Ministerio de Minas y Energía de Colombia, Fecoc 2016) and from World Resources institute (GHG protocol tool for mobile combustion, 2015). Capital goods were excluded from the life cycle analysis, as suggested by the PAS 2050. Seeds production was not considered, as due to their low mass the impacts might be negligible (Bojacá, Wyckhuys, et Schrevens, 2014).The application of nitrogenous fertilizers in the field (synthetic mineral fertilizers or organic fertilizers such as manure) causes nitrous oxide emissions, directly to the field after ground application, or indirectly, after transfer of nitrogen to the water as nitrate (leaching) and via the atmosphere as ammonia (volatilization). Direct emissions of N2O (from the field to the atmosphere) are related to soils' microbial functioning through nitrification (oxidation of ammonium to nitrate) and denitrification (reduction of nitrate to nitrogen) processes. For each N-based fertilizer applied to the field, N2O emissions related to nitrification and denitrification, leaching and volatilization processes were calculated. The emission factors were found in the Ecoinvent 3.3 database.Production costs analysis of each product provided by official actors were used as a base to define how and how much inputs are used in the fields for each crop. Eachdivided into its active ingredient and linked to its CO2eq emission factor found in Ecoinvent 3.3. For pesticides, a generic and unspecified emission factor from Ecoinvent was used for all of the pesticides (10.675 kg Co2eq/kg). For pesticides and fertilizers, the three mains firms commercializing most products in the country were identified as well as the location of their production site in Colombia.A mean of transportation distances from each production site to the production areas was calculated in order to have a global approximate for transportation of inputs, as detailed information on origins of each input was lacking (see Appendice 2). The transportation of compost used in tomato and plantain field was not included due to lack of data.Wetland rice fields are identified as a major source of atmospheric methane (Neue, 1993) and are now said to be a major hotspot in the general GHG emissions related to agriculture . Methane emission is the result of a decomposition of organic matter and is due to long submersion times of crops in water. Irrigated rice fields is a common agricultural practice in the center of Colombia and in the Region (Tolima Region) identified in the scenario. To include methane emissions from rice fields in the carbon assessment, a generic NH4 emission factor was taken from FAOStats (FAOstats, 2017), corresponding to 20.72 grams of CH4 per square meter of rice field in Colombia for 2017.For the transformation process of rice a simplified model was constructed, based on information given by a Colombian agricultural machines vending firm. The transformation process splits into two steps : Drying and milling. It was considered that the drying phase transforms the moisture of rice and temperature from 23 degrees to 13 degrees (from information given by actors involved in the rice sector), and create a subsequent loss of weight of the rice. Electricity (KW/ton of rice) and biomass consumption of the dryer (charcoal, rice husks, firewood) were modeled. The milling phase is divided into different steps (cleaning, hulling, milling, whitening, polishing, sorting) that also require electricity. In our theoretical transformation phase, 1000 kg of paddy rice results in 513 kilos of white milled rice. As the transformation generated byproducts (rice husks, rice bran, broken rice), an allocation method was considered. An allocation method is used to divide the impacts between products and byproducts, and can be done in proportion to the economic value of the products and by-products or in proportion to the mass. The PAS 2050 guidelines encourages the allocation in proportion to the economic value. The allocation economic factor for white rice (85.44%) was found in Rocco Lahr et al, 2015.Final transportation between farms and Cavasa wholesale market was made by calculating a mean of distances between the different production areas to the wholesale market. Emissions factors from trucks were found in Ecoinvent 3.3 . Refrigerated trucks were not considered as it is not common in the country. ChickenBroiler poultry farms use electricity for light and propane for heating. Approximate consumptions were given by the national poultry federation (FENAVI), as well as the ingredients and quantities of the feed during the whole life of the broiler, which is 40 days approximately. Inputs for poultry bedding were taken into account (rice husks and wood chips). Vaccines were not taken into account due to the lack of data available.Transformation, packaging and storageThe energy consumption for transforming the live chickens was modeled. It was considered that a 2.2 kilos live chicken weights 2.125 kilos when dead and eviscerated. Packaging was not taking into account due to lack of data on how chicken is distributed to local shops and how local shops pack it to sell it to consumers. Storage in freezers was included in the model, taking into account an inventory rotation of four days in cold chamber.In the geographical context of El Valle region, the main poultry producer is Pollos El Bucanero S A (second producer of broilers at the national level). Bucanero SA owns 171 poultry farms of different sizes in the region, and broilers are transformed in the central slaughterhouse located few kilometers from Cali. Regarding the difficulty in providing a mean of distances between the totality of the farms and the slaughterhouse, transportation between poultry farms and slaughterhouse was excluded from the assessment model.With the current progression of GHG emissions in the atmosphere, the global warming is changing the seasons and environmental conditions for crops to grow are likely to be altered. The objective of this ultimate step is to show how climate change might affect the crop suitability, or in other words the growing conditions for tomatoes, potatoes, rice and plantain in Colombia in the future.To that end, a modeling tool that predicts suitability of various crops under differentclimatic conditions was used. The Ecocrop methodology is based on a database of environmentalparameters of a wide range of plants created by FAO called Ecocrop database (FAO, 2010), first modeled in 2001 by Hijmans et al. This model determines geographically and theoretically the areas where climatic parameters are optimal for a specific crop (niches) and focuses on two climatic parameters: rainfall and temperature, using a gridded data of temperature and rainfall (minimum, maximum, and mean monthly temperatures, and total monthly rainfall). The algorithm determines climatic conditions by multiplying both variables at a particular place and gives a suitability score (from 0 to 100%) for a defined crop. Eventually, the Ecocrop module can be used in Python ArcGIS to predict the adjustment of a particular crop in the future by changing the climate variables in the studied area. The methodology then consists in defining climate (current and future) data sets (see 2.4.2) and then defining parameters for each crop (see 2.4.3). The objective is to produce maps at the scale of the regions and to show changes in crops suitability in the future.To model the current climate situation, historical climate data that gather means of temperatures and precipitation at the level of the planet were used from WorldClim (worldclim.com). To model future climate situations, Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were employed. The RCPs are \"scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations of the full suite of GHGs and aerosols and chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover\" (Moss et al., 2010). Four RCPs have been developed by an international multi model collaboration (CMIP5) based on a wide number of General Circulation Models (GCM, climate model simulations) built on assumptions about present economic activity, energy sources, evolution of population and political choices. The four scenarios (see figure 11 ) were used in the Fifth and most recent IPCC Assessment (AR5) as a basis for the climate predictions and projections. To assess the suitability of crops in Colombia's regions, scenario 4.5 and scenario 8.5 were chosen as 4.5 refers to a low climate change where many mitigation policies are developed and RCP 8.5 represents the highest GHG emissions and the biggest change where few mitigation policies and implemented (also sometimes referred as the worst-case or business-as-usual scenario). The selection of time horizons differs a lot from one climate prediction study to another. Nonetheless, it has been chosen to present a large time horizon, 2020-2080, to be able to show significant changes. A procedure called downscaling was needed to be able to get a higher resolution at the local scale (scale of Colombia), as the GCM give grid cells of more than 100 km a side and would be inappropriate for analyzing suitability of crops at a smallest scale. A downscaling method called Delta method and first developed by (Hijmans et al., 2005) was thus developed (see Jarvis and Ramirez, 2010 for more explanation of the Delta downscaling method).The ecological parameters for the crops under study then were identified and added to the model. The parameters were taken from the FAO data base Ecocrop and also from local literature and technical guides. Table with parameters per crop is shown in appendices 3. The parameters correspond to an absolute range (minimum and maximum absolute temperatures and rainfall at which the crop can grow) and an optimum range (minimum and maximum optimum temperatures and rainfall). An additional temperature parameter of temperature at which the crop cannot survive the cold was added to illustrate the effect of a season's minimum temperature. There are no suitable conditions when parameters at a specific geographical place are beyond the absolute thresholds. There are suitable conditions (from 1 to 99) when parameters are between the absolute and optimum range of temperature and rainfall.There are highly suitable conditions when parameters are within the optimum range (suitability score at 100%). Results can show suitability levels at a given time (current or 2080)and can show the percentage of suitability changes (no change, gain or decrease) between now and 2080.3 ResultsAll of the CO2, NH4 and H2O emissions factors were added and results divided by yield of crops and weight of dead chicken after transformation to present the carbon footprint per functional unit. Results in kg CO2-eq are shown in figure 12 .The product that has the highest carbon footprint is chicken, with 2.04 kg Co2-eq. The second highest carbon footprint is from rice, with 1.46 kg Co2-eq. Plantain and potato have quite close carbon equivalent emissions (0.28 kg Co2-eq and 0.23 kg Co2-eq respectively) and tomato has a very low carbon footprint of 0.09 kg Co2-eq. To identify the hotspots of GHG emissions, a contribution analysis was conducted and shown in figure 13 and carbon footprint per activity detailed in table 4. Manufacture of inputs is the activity that has the highest contribution for GHG emissions for tomato (60% of contribution), plantain (59%), potato (52%) and chicken (65%). For crop products, manufacture of inputscorresponds to the extraction of raw materials and manufacture of fertilizers and pesticides. Manufacture of input for chicken meat corresponds to the feed of chicken, majorly composed of maize corn, soybean meal and sorghum, produced in the United States and imported to Colombia. Transformation phase is nearly close to no emissions for rice and chicken. One of the explanation could be that the information gathered for rice transformation were given by afirm that sells highly modern and efficient rice mills, thus consumption of energy and biomass required by the machines are probably lower than the average rice mills in Colombia. For chicken transformation, management of water and organic waste was not taken into account due to lack of data, however waste water treatment plants generates methane and nitrous oxide. Direct emissions from use of fertilizers and pesticides are high for rice because of methanogenesis (formation of methane by microbes in the flooded rice fields).In general, results from carbon footprints greatly differ from one study to another, depending on the context, life-cycle activities, and the chosen system boundaries. A quick review of life cycle analysis studies from different countries reveals the wide range of results : a French LCA database (agribalyse®) calculated a total of 3.3 kgco2eq for imported Thai rice, a LCA of rice production in Italy gave a result of 2.9 kg co2eq, and the Ecoinvent database gives an overall approximation of 1.7 kg co2eq per kg of white milled rice. In Colombia, a Life Cycle analysis has been undertaken on rice production in the Huila region and found a carbon footprint of 998 kg CO2eq/hec of paddy rice, (Andrade, Campo, et Segura, 2015), as another study, also for the Huila region gives 4991 kg co2/ha for paddy rice (Meneses, 2014).Results in hectare of paddy rice are difficult to compare to results for white milled rice. However results from these studies from Colombia seem quite low, and the reason might be that they did not include methane emissions from fields. Tomato production under greenhouses in the Boyaca Region in Colombia has been studied by Bojaca, Wyckuys and Schrevens, 2014, whose result was 0.074 kg co2eq per kilo of tomato and highlighted the environmental burden of polyethylene cover from greenhouses due to its short lifespan and absence of plastic recycling. Tomato in northern countries can have a highest carbon footprint due to controlled climatic conditions (heated greenhouses): from 2.2 to 0.1 kg CO2eq according to the French LCA database Agribalyse for example. Results for potato production vary a lot: 0,09 kgCO2eq for France (Agribalyse®), 0.34 kgCO2eq as global footprint given by Ecoinvent 3.3. Carbon footprint results of broiler meat are comprised between 2 and 5 kg CO2eq: 2.6 kgCO2eq from global LCA database Ecoinvent, 3 kgCO2eq for Tunisia (Ibidhi et al., 2017), 2.5 kgCO2eq for brazil (Prudêncio da Silva et al., 2014), to 5.6 kgCO2eq for UK (Leinonen et al., 2012). Eventually, the diversity in the results highlights the diversity of situations but also the capacity of the LCA approach to manage the complexity of a production system where a numerous of different parameters co-exist (Blengini et Busto, 2009)The Ecocrop model generated maps to predict climate suitability of each of the four crop products. Eventually, results will only show the scenario RCP 8.5 (worst-case scenario) for the period 2020-2080 in order to show the possible impacts of climate change if GHG emissions are still on the rise. Maps are showing the percentage of change in suitability, positive or negative, between 2020 and 2080. In this way, it is possible to quickly locate areas subject to change and which will need to implement resilience strategies to face climate change. The scale of the maps was set per region: El Valle region for tomato and plantain, Nariño region for potato, Tolima region for Rice. Results at the country level as well as tables with quantitative results will be found in the appendices 4 to 7.For tomato production, the model predicts a deterioration of climatic conditions in mountain areas (figure 14), and less so in the valley area, which, as mentioned above, is monopolized by sugar cane cultivation. According to the model, 31% of the area would suffer a sustainability decrease of -1 to -25%, and 57% a medium decrease of -25 to -50% suitability (cf appendices 4). In theory, plantain production seems to benefit more from changes in climatic parameters than suffer from it (figure 15) . If part of the territory seems not to change by 2080, another part would see even more favorable parameters for the cultivation of plantain. The current plantain production areas in the north of the region are located in areas that will see their suitability increase. Depending on the model, 68% of the area will benefit from an increase in suitability, including 37% from an increase between 25% and 30%. Figure 16 shows the percentage of change the climate suitability for potato cultivation in the Nariño region. The results are clear: a majority of areas will experience a deterioration in the climatic parameters favorable to potato production, and few areas located in the South of the region (25% of the area depending on the model) have predictions of increased suitability. According to the model, it is predicted that 39% of the area will see its suitability decrease by -1 to -25%, and 33% by more than -25%. Nariño is a mountainous region (Colombian Andes), where a large part of the rural economy relies on potato production. Nariño is the country's leading potato producing region, generating 21% of the national production in 2018 (Fedepapa, 2018). The potato sector in Nariño, therefore, must prevent future changes by implementing resilience and climate change adaptation strategies .. Colombia is a major producer of rice, particularly irrigated rice, but the current cultivated areas are below the country's productive potential (Castro-Llanos et al., 2019). Domestic production does not meet domestic demand and the country is forced to import rice from abroad. The central part of the country, which includes the Tolima Region, represents 60% of irrigated rice growing areas (Fedearroz, 2018). The results of the Ecocrop methodology for the Tolima region (figure 17) are moderate: the northern regions seem to be affected (or even strongly affected), while the areas close to the mountains would logically have more favorable conditions for rice cultivation over time. Indeed, the model predicts 52% of areas whose suitability would decrease (20% would decrease from -25 to -50%), and 42% whose suitability would increase. One could therefore imagine that a decrease in yields due to poor climatic parameters in some areas could be offset by an increase in yields in areas where climatic conditions have become optimal. However, CIAT research (Castro, 2018)   Rice is very important for Colombia's rural economy in general. If the central regions (like Tolima) produce a large amount of irrigated rice, the Northwestern part of the country (Los Llanos), is the major producer of rice (45,3% of cultivated lands according to Andrade et al, 2017, see figure 18). On a national scale, the eastern part of the country will experience a high decrease in sustainability to climate change, only the regions located in the mountains will high their suitability increased. At the national level (figure 19), rice production is predicted to be strongly impacted impacted in a business-as-usual scenario : the model predicts that 25% of the territory will have a decrease in suitability between -1 and -25%, and 45% between -25 and -45%. Only 24% of the territory in the model will have no change or an increased in the suitability. 4 Analysis and discussion 4.1 The burden and vulnerability of the caleño plateThe carbon footprint of the caleño plate has been calculated (figure 20), as well as the changes of climate suitability of crops in the future predicted. Thus, is the caleño plate self-destructing? By multiplying CO2eq emission factors by quantities of product consumed per capita per day, the caleño plate is found to produce 431,5 grams of CO2eq (rf figure 20). It is difficult to appreciate the level of importance of carbon emissions without having a base of comparison. Indeed, all human activity has a footprint, should we know when it could be considered as \"critical\". The majority of diets' carbon footprints compare vegetarian diets to omnivorous diets to show the environmental burden of red meat (Veeramani, Dias, et Kirkpatrick, 2017 ;Hendrie et al., 2014) which, beyond having a high carbon footprint, requires large quantities of available water and lands, thus contributes to the eutrophication and acidification of our ecosystems (de Vries et de Boer, 2010 ;Pimentel et Pimentel, 2003) whose global consumption is constantly increasing. The case of this study is a little particular as it does not include a portionof red meat, and chicken meat contributes to a lesser extent to thedeterioration of the planet. Generally speaking, the caleño plate seems to have a lower carbon footprint than other \"meals\": a meal with a meat portion in India would produce 1110 grams CO2eq (meal composed in accordance with nutritional recommendations for a man) (Pathak et al., 2010), a meal with a portion of chicken in France would produce 1350 grams Co2eq and 505 grams of CO2eq for a vegetarian meal (Agribalyse®). However, these comparisons must be treated with the greatest care, as the techniques for calculating the carbon footprint, or even the methodologies for constructing the typical \"meal\", are all different. There is no harmonization in the methodologies that can actually allow the constructed meals to be compared between different countries. Rice is the first \"burden\" in the caleño plate, a result that goes against the common assumption of environmental burden of meat, hence the importance of integrating quantities of consumption in a carbon footprint. Rice is highly consumed in Colombia, several times a day, and the country will be forced to import even more rice in the future according to the climate change predictions.Is the caleño plate bound to disappear? Results from the sustainability predictions are contrasted. If some parts of the territory will experience a loss of optimal conditions to produce food, other territories will become optimal for cultivation. Out of the four products, tomato and potato are most vulnerable crops in their production regions. Although when looking at the national level (cf appendices 5, 6 and 7 for maps at the country level), rice is the crop who will experience the greatest loss of sustainability in the entire country. However, crop sustainability and the opening of new markets also depend on the land topography, easy access to fields for machines and transport routes to be able to distribute products to cities. Climate change causes increasingly strong climatic events such as heavy droughts and landslides during rainy seasons. Landslides and blocked routes are recurring events in Colombia, whose repetition is increasing, thus it could be interesting to take into account logistics when assessing the sustainability of a food system in an exercise to prevent future changes in a country due to climate change.When analyzing results from both methodologies, we can say that the rice sector should be on the urge to find strategies to change practices in order to avoid a future important loss of cultivated areas and yields. Chicken is the second biggest burden of the plate, and contributes to a larger extend to future loss of suitability for crops like tomato. Potato and plantain, in the Colombian context, contribute to a lesser extend to global warming, however production will be strongly impacted by climate change for the potato sector. Climate change will define the future geographies of food production, as some areas will not be optimal for crops. However, when defining the way we are producing food, carbon emissions and global warming is not ofinterest. It should be the case, as having restrictive policies or rules for food production today could avoid having severe restrictions due to climate change tomorrow.Nutritional recommendations are turning towards dietary patterns that are good for our health but also sustainable for the environment. International institutions such as the Eat Lancet Commission of Food, Planet and Health has launched the \"planetary health diet\" (Willett et al., 2019), an environmental friendly diet recommendations where a smaller meat portion is considered, or even replaced by plant-based proteins and more vegetables. Although, it has been proven that the environmental positive effects of little reductions of the meat portion in Europe is cancelled out by a higher intake of cereal, vegetables and fish, thus do not result in overall benefits (Tukker et al., 2011). For Cali, the challenge may be precisely not to change the typical plate and avoid the nutritional transition towards processed foods or/and a higher intake of meat. Indeed, for Cali the meat portion is small compared to other countries, although could be easily replaced by vegetable proteins such as lentils to decrease carbon emissions. Lentils or beans are typical foods in Colombia, legumes naturally provide nitrogen to soils, and cultivated in rotation with other crops, can reduce the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. However, lentils production in Colombia has dropped sharply, due to the arrival on the Colombian market of lentils produced in the United States and Canada, which are much more affordable, and today, Colombia imports most of the lentils consumed in the country. Another recommendation for a healthy and environmentally friendly diet would be to enhance the consumption of a more diversified diet (changing rice for other cereals for example) but also promote native and ancestral foods. Colombia is one of the countries with the highest biodiversity, and is home to a large mosaic of cultures. However, agriculture has become more homogeneous, and so has the plate. The return to a more diversified diet and the reintroduction of traditional foods would reduce the environmental burden of the plate by promoting local production, and support a more diversified rural economy in the process. However, some studies state that even radical changes in food consumption patterns would provoke quite small environmental impact changes (Sáez-Almendros et al., 2013) and changing consumption habits and preferences is complex and the trade-offs between nutrition, sustainability and enabling consumers to make choices according to their preferences will need to be considered.changing production processesLCA analysis and prediction of potential impacts of climate change on crops and yields are a good information base for implementing strategies to change agricultural production practices. The variability in carbon footprints for one product shows the potential to reduce GHG emissions related to diets through improvements in the upstream agricultural sectors (Friel et al., 2009). Changing agricultural practices today means ensuring the survival of the industry in the future. The productive sectors must themselves be aware of the quantities of NH4 and N2O emitted and try to change their methods towards an agriculture less dependent on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, or by combining cultivation, forestry and pasture so that CO2 emissions could be countered through improved carbon sequestration in soil. Such results from the study also should work as incentive to policy makers to try to diversify the agriculture production in Valle del Cauca for example, where a large part of the land was deforested to grow sugar cane, and intensive monoculture depletes the soil. The assessment predicted a sharp drop of suitability for rice fields. This trend could be altered by both using new varieties and management practices adapted to changing environmental conditions or by moving production to regions of the country likely to be more suitable (Castro, 2018). In addition, the results from the carbon footprint assessment go against the current and strong food-systems research holding that local food systems are preferable to systems at larger scale. Many assume that eating local food is more ecologically sustainable and socially just but \"local\" is not automatically synonymous with environmental sustainability (Purcell, 2006), and real efforts on changing practices should be done.Eventually, one should admit the difficulty in advocating for changes in diets, or agricultural practices, as long as such importance is given to the economic variable. Indeed, price is what determine the presence of a specific product on our plate, not the environmental or geographical variables. Quick interviews at the Cavasa wholesale market confirmed the dynamic as origin of the products depended on prices of crops. To give more credit to the environmental variable, IPCC suggested \"factoring environmental costs into food\" (IPCC, 2019), as previous studies also suggested meat taxes, or subsidized fruit and vegetables. LCA analysis of food products therefore calls for an understanding of sustainability that prioritizes the environmental pillar first (see Figure 18), which involves a change in attitudes and ways of thinking about the systems. Doppelt in the Power of sustainable thinking (Doppelt, 2008)   First, there were a lack of robust data for the identification of the most consumed products in Cali as the study was based on one statistical study and five academic studies. DANE produces a good amount of statistical data, but it is not analyzed by the institutions and takes time to be released (the results of the ENSIN 2015 have still not been published). In addition, ENSIN studies provide information on the frequency of consumption of certain products or groups of products (as in the case of ENSIN 2010), or the frequency of purchase and quantity purchased (as in the case of the ENIG study) Therefore it is difficult to establish food patterns easily and many assumptions have to be made. Second, the choice to focus on five products only can skew the composition of the typical plate, and it should have been better to include more products into the assessment to be closer to reality. In addition, excluding imported products from abroad also distorts the composition of the plate. A real study on the food consumption of Cali's inhabitants, with a 24-hour reminder of a good sample of the population, would be essential in order to update the information in the literature on Cali's food consumption, and could be a basis for further studies on food environments, or link food consumption to the city's nutritional issues.The Carbon footprint requires time and resources to access all the necessary information for all activities of the life cycle. For this study, given the time available, average data were used, that calls into question the representativeness and relevance of the results obtained. Concerning agricultural practices, the production costs analysis provided by official actors were quite general. Information on capital goods (such as the plastic bag covering the plantain bunch, a very widespread practice) was not taken into account as it does not appear on the official documents. Similarly, losses, whether during production, harvesting, processing or transport, were not included because there were no data available, whereas percentages of loss could have had a significant impact on the results. Averages were used for certain activities : methane emissions factor of rice fields, economic allocation for rice sub products, one common emissions factor for all pesticides, exclusion of emissions factor for wastewater treatment from poultry transformation. Nonetheless, the methodological exercise in the time given involved building assessments in approximate information, and despite the mentioned limitations above, the results in the present study are in line with the available literature on carbon footprint of food products.Information on the path of a product from the farm to Cali is also difficult to identify. The travel from fields to city is composed of a multiplicity of traders and intermediaries who extend the supply chain and make it more complicated to have a full transparency on the origin of products. Furthermore, the origin of the products given by DANE is not necessarily the origin of production. By cross-referencing origins of products with data on production areas (Agrimin, Ministry of Agriculture database), results do not necessarily match. A socio-economic study on supply chains from farm to city would be interesting for this purpose. Finally, there is a consensus that a comprehensive understanding of food consumption requires other impact categories to seize the long-term environmental implications of dietary patterns (Heller, Keoleian, et Willett, 2013). Using only GWP provides a limited perspective of the complexity of the environmental implications and trade-offs associated with food production and dietary patterns. It would be worth continuing this work by carrying out a study on water footprint but also on the use of pesticides and their impact on biodiversity, as Colombia is a heavy user of chemicals, and such use of pesticides is a threat to public health and future of our environment.(Lisa Gerbal | IPAD | 2019 | SupAgro)The main limitation of the Ecocrop methodology is that it cannot account for animal products, which have a heavy environmental footprint and represents an important part of current diets. In addition, Ecocrop maps are theoretical; they do not take into account the actual geographic locations of crops, natural parks, land use or soil composition. It is therefore advisable to look at these maps as far back as possible. A step forward would be to cross-reference Ecocrop prediction maps with real land use maps, for example. Finally, Ecocrop is based on two climatic parameters (temperature and precipitation), but the conditions under which a crop can be grown also depend on the composition of the soil, slope of the plots which determines the mechanization of practices, among others.Although efforts are made to homogenize the methodologies and standards ( British standard PAS 2050, ISO 14040 and 14044, the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD), Product Category Rules (PCR)), the implementation the standards is also executed in different ways( different system boundaries, different scenarios, different allocations, different inclusions and exclusions, etc.). Differences in methodologies and approaches make the situation for decision makers even more challenging.The large amount of detailed information required for a carbon footprint with a Life Cycle Analysis approach is the strength of such a methodology but it is also its limitation like it was aforementioned. Life cycle analysis is a meticulous methodology. It illustrates well the complexity of the food system, which is broken down into a multitude of flows that need to be understood. Identifying and assessing each of indirect and direct emissions allows to capture all of the processes that lie behind the production of our food and identify the hotspots, giving us the possibility to seize the scale of our food systems. The carbon footprint methodology, following the international norms (PAS 2050) is also an advocacy for transparency. By looking in detail at the modes of production, processing, origins, transport, companies and actors involved need to give transparent and real data on how the processes are made, companies or sectors are obliged to give transparent insights on how processes are undertaken. Such call for transparency is also a strong challengewhen collecting data for a LCA analysis, as some actors do not tend to communicate on their processes.Assessing the sustainability of a City's consumption gives a territorial perspective, and bring results closer to reality. Linking carbon footprint and climate resilience in a territorial perspective of a city gives an insight on the city's food supply system, its demand for food, the localization of the production zones, the identification of the supply chains, the actors ect; which is a good starting point to mapping logistics of food in the territory.Finally, the combination of current environmental footprint (carbon footprint) and vulnerability to future climate change helps to give an idea of \"the big picture\" (everything that lies behind our daily plate) and introduces a temporal notion that makes it possible to visualize the dangers and to identify the flaws and major weaknesses of our food systems. The Ecocrop methodology is a good way to show what an unsustainable food system means, and calls on food system actors to act to avoid future difficulties when it comes to producing our food. The combined methodology is a gate between today and tomorrow. While a carbon footprint makes it possible to see the environmental impact of a product is, the Ecocrop methodology makes it possible to visualize this impact and to show what this impact could implyin the same food system under study.The proposed methodology, the questions it raises, and the results it brings, act as a basis for thinking and questioning our systems. Next steps for this research will be to disseminate the results in a didactical way to create more awareness around Cali's food and the intricate relation with the environment (to policy makers and consumers). It would be also interesting to communicate on the methodological process through the construction of a guide that allows other cities, regions, communities to produce similar results and make the combined methodology replicable. Cali is already aware of the threats associated to climate change. However, in its Integral Plan to Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change (CVC, 2016), activities related to sustainable food production are very poor. 3 Efforts to producing more knowledge about Cali's food system, integrating automatically the environmental dimension should be continued. For example, the methodology with other environmental impacts (water contamination, biodiversity loss) to underline the critical issue related to the heavy use of pesticides in Colombian agriculture. This study also underlined some gaps that could be subjects to further studies : a socio-economic study on supply chains from farm to city, a study of how food offer is constructed in the city (food environments), a review of mitigation to climate change policies at the municipal, regional and national level and a analysis at the organisation of the institutions to question the ability for institutions to tackle such and intersectionnal subject that is the sustainability of our food systems.The methodology has allowed us to show the impact of the consumption of our food on the production of our food, in a given territorial area. It provides valuable information to actors from the sectors and policy makers: where the productive regions are (areas a city depends on for its food), the activities that emit most GHG and therefore where efforts from the sectors should be focused on, the areas most vulnerable to climate change and therefore the impacts in terms of food supply for the city, the areas that could open up to food production, food consumption dynamics that show the food demand that must be fulfilled. We looked at the environmental impacts of consumption of food, and also look at the production side and implications of climate change on productivity. This methodological proposal is another contribution to the production of knowledge on our food systems whose objective is to help cities and communities to shift towards more sustainability. Cities have the power to set up projects that aim to make food systems more sustainable (the intersectional project of Belo Horizonte, the ban on trans fats in New York, the current wave of pesticides bans from French cities, among many others). As stated in the introduction, food systems are key in the fight against climate change: they are the problem and the solution and policy-makers need to start looking at it. Few efforts are being done, because the issue is cross-cutting and difficult to deal with by institutions that are built on separate departments and are compartmentalized. It is essential that food systems can constantly have an idea of their impacts, and at the same time, a visibility on what might be changed by climate. This type of proposal such as the one we presented rely on a large amount of information thus only can be replicable if the data is available. The methodology needs to be improved, however the scope given by the combination of two existing methodologies can be a strong tool to analysis the threats and opportunities of a food system. ","tokenCount":"10259"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"06eb37c8b7d441db89f14ed481fdbd39","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d6d9005-c3e2-4db5-b229-24db22075061/retrieve","id":"2011324795"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd215754-ef6e-43bd-a3ba-dcba6301856f","pagecount":"1","content":"Cascade Landscape (TCS) National To strengthen the sustainability of the Tank Cascade System as a nature-based solution for enhanced biodiversity, food and nutrition security, rural livelihoods and climate resilience.  • The Thumbikulama tank is in the upper cascade of the Belankadawala TCS and is the third largest tank in the system-it is crucial for recharging tanks lower in the system and as a wildlife water hole• Well water levels in surrounding villages were maintained during prolonged drought (2023-24)• Soil moisture conservation maintains upland (rainfed) farm productivity, despite seasonal droughts• SLM practices minimize soil erosion, and subsequent tank siltation and sedimentation in TCS maintaining tank storage capacity and ensuring proper functioning of the system• The TCS has sustained cascade landscape communities and wildlife for centuries. With its time-tested adaptations to local climate, its rehabilitation and sustainable management are crucial for strengthening climate resilience in Sri Lanka's dry zone.• Field-level activites impact the entire cascade landscape.Considering cascade ecology when planning rehabilitation projects and formulating TCS related policy supports the system's sustainability and its continued provision of ecosystem services.• To be successful, localized strategies for climate adaptation, climate resilience and sustainable land management in cascade landscapes must ensure that local administrations and communities living in TCS are meaningfully engaged and supported to provide input into the formulation, implementation and monitoring of cascade landscape restoration and management.*Cascade ecology describes the interactive relationships between living organisms (flora and fauna), including humans, and their physical environment (soil, water and geo-morphology) within the tank cascade system boundary as well as its surrounding area of influence.• Restored vegetation in ecologically important micro-land uses contributes to ecological balance of the TCS and acts as a filter, improving water quality and safety• CSBs help maintain well-adapted, traditional agrobiodiversity in the TCS, e.g., finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is drought tolerant, grows in degraded soils and is resistant to common pests and diseases• Today, traditional TCS management is replaced by more centralized governance structures, but a large part of the success of TCS related policy implementation depends on local community involvement• Identifying community priorities and perceptions helps formulate improved policies for TCS sustainabilityTank Cascade System Services **This is not an exhaustive list of results, please refer to 'further reading' for further information..Landscape -level impacts","tokenCount":"372"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"726eb2074f1a55952772349fb2d5c144","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b2c41324-02e2-4ad9-bcb8-06481fd446ab/retrieve","id":"-2115393652"},"keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security","PIM -Policies, Institutions, and Markets Contributing Flagships: <Not Defined> Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing external partners:"],"sieverID":"f8e4e580-6d6f-4e44-a004-7e1d2feff25a","pagecount":"4","content":"Recent modeling exercises from the IMPACT model team at IFPRI have contributed to the depth, breadth, and urgency of the global discourse/dialogue on changing diets and their impacts on human health and the environment. This dialogue is taking place in news and social media as well as academic journals and in policy contexts. The attention given to the IMPACT team's work is evidenced by the presentations given in high-profile forums, and by the papers published in high-impact journals.Recent modeling exercises from the IMPACT model team at IFPRI have contributed to the depth, breadth, and urgency of the global discourse/dialogue on changing diets and their impacts on human health and the environment. This dialogue is taking place in news and social media as well as academic journals and in policy contexts. The attention given to the IMPACT team's work is evidenced by the presentations given in high-profile forums, and by the papers published in high-impact journals. ","tokenCount":"155"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"862af5e70f0d7c0490e1a62748b40305","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9cb3479f-ebbb-4d9e-bcc4-90a5826eeeab/content","id":"-240256658"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d18d8195-89fa-4245-a7ee-0e7dafba26a5","pagecount":"9","content":"Countless development projects have piloted solutions that could make a difference if only applied at scale. The reality is that these pilot projects hardly ever reach the intended scale to contribute significantly to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this paper, we argue that two major problems undermine efforts to achieve scale in development projects. First, pilot projects are usually set up and managed in very controlled environments that make it very difficult to transition to the real world at scale. Second, poor conceptual and methodological clarity on what scaling is and how it can be pursued often results in a narrow focus on reaching numbers. Counting household adoption at the end of a grant project is a poor metric of whether these people can and will sustain adoption after the project closes, let alone if adoption will reach others and actually contributes to improved livelihoods. We advocate for a broader view on scaling that more accurately reflects the transformational change agenda of the SDGs: from reaching many to a process aiming to achieve sustainable systems change at scale. Sustainable systems change alters a sufficient number of key drivers (incentives, rules, etc.) such that the system that once perpetuated a \"problem\" now instead perpetuates a \"solution.\" This has implications on the way projects are designed and implemented. Rather than focusing on changing conditions within the project context, projects should serve as vehicles for societal change. This means that projects make most sense if designed as part of a multisector, long-term programmatic approach. Treating scaling as a transformation process helps deal with the necessary coevolution of organizational and institutional arrangements, along with the innovations in a technology or practice. To help address scaling, we present a number of frameworks that guide users to assess the scalability of innovations, design for scale from the onset of projects, and systematically think through key elements, ingredients, or success factors. We conclude that scaling requires different skills, approaches, and ways of collaborating than those required for successful implementation of pilot projects. It calls for development actors to have a mindset that allows them to creatively navigate multiple overlapping systems; likewise, they must develop a clear vision about which elements in the system the actors can and cannot address, and about where they need to collaborate strategically to exert influence. Although it is tempting to hope for the silver bullet solution that changes the world, we argue for an approach that takes scaling serious in its own right and recognizes the complexities involved in facilitating a transition to a new \"normal.\"of which only about 5% is covered by Official Development Assistance (ODA) (Niculescu, 2017). Research and development organizations working on poverty alleviation and food security face growing scrutiny (Easterly and Pfutze, 2008;Hurst et al., 2017;Moyo, 2010) to demonstrate the return on investment of their work.Since a majority of the rural poor depend on agriculture, most solutions are expected to come from innovations within the agricultural sector. Agricultural innovations, such as improved seeds, better farm practices, and new ways of collaborating, are tested in pilot environments and, if deemed successful, are expected to scale to a level matching the size of the problem. Cooley (2018) observes that over the last two decades, while the number of donors and projects has doubled, project durations and budgets have been cut in half. This trend towards a larger number of smaller and shorter projects has increased emphasis on efforts that aspire to \"new technologies,\" \"prototypes,\" and \"pilot projects.\" However, most pilot projects do not scale up to achieve wider impact, cease to exist after a (subsidized) demonstration phase, and fade out after initial funding ends (Billé, 2010;Deiglmeier and Greco, 2018;Monitor Deloitte, 2015;Spicer et al., 2018;van Winden and van den Buuse, 2017;Cooley and Howard, 2019).Despite the central importance of scaling to development outcomes, research on (un)successful transitions from pilot to scale are scarce, and the few existing studies have had little influence on the research agenda and design of development projects. Rather than being seen as a challenge in and of itself, scaling has been treated as something that occurs spontaneously and organically when successful development interventions are identified (Chandy et al., 2013;Wigboldus and Brouwers, 2016). The popularity of the term \"scaling\" is not matched by conceptual clarity on what it actually means, which harbors a major risk for superficial use, disillusionment (Ubels and Jacobs, 2018), and doing more harm than good (Wigboldus, 2018). For example, an internal evaluation of the Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) in 2013 (referred to in GIZ, 2016) concluded that \"there is still no consensus on what key strategies we should be using to achieve scaling up and broad impact,\" \"there is little incentive to implement scaling up,\" and \"lessons learned are not being systematically shared.\" Similarly, in the business (Monitor Deloitte, 2015), urban development (van Winden and van den Buuse, 2017), environmental management (Billé, 2010), nutrition (Gillespie et al., 2015), and health sectors (Spicer et al., 2018), there is strong consensus that the ability to transition from pilots to larger scale projects is markedly limited. Hall and Dijkman (2019) call for breaking the path dependencies of development pathways rooted in twentieth century values and priorities, and transitioning to more sustainable and inclusive trajectories to reach the SDGs.In this paper, we argue that two major problems undermine efforts to achieve scale in development projects. First, pilot projects are set up and managed in very controlled environments that do not reflect the reality at scale. Second, poor conceptual clarity on what scaling is often results in a narrow focus on technical replication and reaching numbers of end-user beneficiaries. We begin the paper by describing the origin and nature of these problems, and in the second part of the article, we propose a better way forward.According to Cambridge Dictionary (2018), a project is a \"piece of planned work or activity that is completed over a period of time and intended to achieve a particular aim.\" Turner and Müller (2003) call projects \"a temporary organization.\" Unlike stand-alone projects, which are relatively small scale and not specifically designed for future scaling, pilot projects are implemented to determine whether something is worth supporting over time and/or at a larger scale. In this paper, we argue that most pilot projects do not mature to the intended scale because they are set up and managed as stand-alone projects, rather than as true pilot projects aimed to test performance at scale. For example, while most pilots test if an innovation works in a particular context, they overlook other factors critical for success at scale, such as testing for ways to improve collaboration or implementing alternative methods to access market finance without project support. Transitioning from the very controlled environments of projects to the \"real world\" at scale comes with the following challenges:1. Reliance on external resources: Projects rely mostly on grants from one donor without significant and effective co-financing from other donors and the local financial market (KPMG, 2016;Ton et al., 2015). In addition, budgets are designed to cover the costs required to show that an innovation works in the pilot context, rather than to understand what it would cost to shape an enabling environment, reach large numbers, and sustain outcomes at scale (Spicer et al., 2014;Gillespie et al., 2015). 2. Fixed time horizons: Projects usually start long after they are designed and last for a fixed period of time. These project timelines may or may not coincide with the intrinsic timelines of transformational processes (Olsson et al., 2017;Leland, 2017). In addition, people (e.g. project team members and collaborators) are willing to endure many things for a limited, known duration that they would not do permanently. 3. Reliance on external leadership: Well-paid, highly educated, and motivated project management teams are hired to drive the pilot project to success (Lamers et al., 2017). However, they can be slow, unable, or unwilling to collaborate with existing local systems (Spicer et al., 2014). 4. Biased collaboration: Partnerships are generally based on a collection of transactions to help the project achieve its objective and use its resources, rather than on building strategic collaborations to tackle a social problem (Jeevan, 2017;KPMG, 2016). Billé (2010) states that stakeholders often have to be persuaded to participate because the ones calling for change are rarely those able to implement it. He further states that it helps to classify a project as lowstake and \"just an experiment\" and to provide financial resources (e.g. travel expenses and per diem) to support participation of those implementers. Pilot projects also tend to work with the most progressive farmers/beneficiaries who may not be representative of the entire target population (Rogers, 2003). Furthermore, project beneficiaries can suffer from the \"Hawthorne effect\" where \"people react positively to the fact that they are being taken care of in order to improve their situation, particularly when they are in a position of weakness\" (Bernoux, 1990). This effect can severely bias the conclusions from a project intervention. 5. Limited incentives to scale: For project implementers, the reward for a successful project is often another project (Cooley, 2018). As a result, their incentives emphasize direct and attributable benefits (Leeuwis et al., 2017) rather than systemic changes, reductions in unit cost, or transfer of responsibility to permanent players or platforms. 6. Shielding from the \"real\" world: Pilot projects are shielded from politics, regulations, market forces, and finance in various ways. This can be due to the experimental/small character of pilot projects, or the strong desire of donors and implementers to make pilots successful (Billé, 2010). Billé (2010) finds that pilot experiments that promote cultural change, change of practices, and innovative organization modes tend to be tolerated by stakeholders who are the bearers of the \"traditional\" and dominant modus operandi as long as they remain pilot ventures. Therefore, they do not have to face the opposition that usually appears in the latter stages, at least not at its full strength or diversity. Or, as Deaton (2010) describes, corrupt officials may be more likely to steal from programs once they reach a certain size. 7. Excessively narrow scope: The lack of cross-sectoral collaboration up to the highest administrative levels influences project design and activities and feeds the misconception that the solution for the adoption of agricultural innovations lies in the agriculture sector alone and comes from your \"own\" organization. Interviews by Spicer et al. (2014) reveal an important challenge to scaling to be the poor harmonization among development agencies and implementers, fueled by competing interests and priorities, competition for donor funding, and pressure to attribute outcomes to programmatic efforts. Project steering committees, teams, and partnerships stay within their disciplinary silos, thus ignoring the complexity of adoption and scaling processes (Olsson et al., 2017;Schut et al., 2016). In addition, \"western\" values such as profit maximization, gender, and equity govern project objectives with little regard for local values such as \"least-regret,\" risk reduction, and the cultural value of agriculture (FAO, WFP, IFAD, and UNSO, 1995).It is as if the first thing a project does is build a glasshouse (controlled environment) in a landscape (real environment), and the above pitfalls represent the foundation, the walls, and roof of that glasshouse. Once the project team \"finishes\" the innovation and ensures it is adopted by direct beneficiaries, the project is regarded as a success and ready to scale. There are two common ways that pilots can scale that are convincing in the eyes of many decision makers and which are often winning arguments in grant applications:-First, by making a bigger glasshouse, or expanding the controlled environment and doing more of the same with more money. The underlying assumption here is that \"best practices\" from one area can be simply transferred to another area. While project implementers and (sometimes) donors like this approach because it keeps funds flowing, this is a very expensive (Spicer et al., 2014) and probably unsustainable strategy, especially if the scale of the solution is expected to match with the scale of the problem. -Second, by removing the glasshouse altogether. The underlying assumption here is that the innovation is so good that it will scale itself. This yields an analogy to a tomato plant that will not survive in the \"real\" conditions after the glasshouse is removed.Nevertheless, this has been a very common strategy, especially in international agricultural research where a \"proof of concept\" is delivered and the funding, shielding, and experts disappear. National extension services or the private sector are left to take over scaling regardless of whether they are actually interested in, fit to, and enabled to scale the project results.Scaling is complex; simply transferring \"best practices\" from one context to another is overly simplistic. Both approaches are very technology-and product-focused, neglecting the softer elements (people, [power] relationships, history, incentives, etc.) that create the (dis) enabling environment surrounding that technology. Scaling an innovation requires attention to the organizational and institutional processes intertwined with that particular technology or practice. Supply chains, markets, financing mechanisms, policies and regulations, professional knowledge, and so forth need to scale in a sufficiently coherent and interrelated way to make the scaling of a technology possible (Jacobs et al., 2018;Koh et al., 2017;Sartas et al., 2017). They cannot just be extrapolated linearly into another context. Hence, irrespective of the technology, practice, or process that is to be scaled, the likelihood of reaching that scale is strongly influenced by the way it is piloted (Hartmann and Linn, 2008;Spicer et al., 2014).There is no single or agreed upon definition of scaling (Frake and Messina, 2018). But, in agricultural development projects, it is often interpreted as reaching maximum adoption of a particular technology or practice by as many smallholder farmers as possible (Gonsalves, 2000). In their literature review of 36 sources, Gillespie et al. (2015) found that most scaling frameworks focus on the quantitative dimension of scaling, or expansion of coverage. A key metric for \"successful\" or \"scaled\" development efforts is the number of end-user households adopting a particular innovation by the closing date of the project. Despite the adoption itself being poorly defined in time and space (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014), it is often directly linked to impact on global development indicators through linear cause-effect chains in project Theories of Change (Abercrombie et al., 2018;Hall and Dijkman, 2019). Buntaine et al. (2013) state that donor impatience to see on-ground results that directly link adoption to impact has negative effects on projects, leading to a focus on what is simple and visible (inputs and outputs), on direct rather than indirect beneficiaries, and on form rather than function (Spicer et al., 2014;Maru et al., 2018). With funding justification tied so tightly to the number of \"direct\" beneficiaries attributable to the project, project implementation teams tend to chase the numbers of end users to please donors. Ubels and Jacobs (2018) found from interviews with 24 project implementers that in many instances the use of scarce resources to reach large numbers of people within limited timeframes was to the detriment of meaningful \"systems work\" (people and relationships). They observed that although strong numbers may be gained through temporary project efforts and outside support, these quantitative outputs do not necessarily build sustainability and ownership (and in the worst cases undermine them). Hall and Dijkman (2019) state that the current narrative is stuck in a productionist and technology-centric perspective determined by linear and component change logics, leading to piecemeal innovation. They call for a new scaling narrative that more accurately reflects the system innovation nature of the transformational change agenda of the SDGs.ODA-funded projects should work towards sustainable solutions for global challenges (poverty, food insecurity, climate change, etc.) at large scale and should always support host-country activities, involving a handover sooner or later. These societal outcomes require considerable shifts in social, political, technical, institutional, and policy configurations. In practice, however, scaling efforts often involve a group of external experts improving the efficiency of a particular, mostly technical, innovation so that it can be \"pushed\" to a maximum number of beneficiaries until the last day of the project. In this paper, we propose a perspective that brings the theory and practice closer together, thus creating the conditions for continued achievement of large numbers and sustainability of a solution or practice beyond the project through a shift in system conditions. We therefore propose to engage with scaling as a process that aims to achieve sustainable systems change at scale. Below, we describe three important dimensions: * reaching many people (\"the scale\"), * sustainability, and * system change and how they relate to each other.Despite the challenges associated with too narrow a focus on numbers, ultimately an enormous amount of people is to be lifted out of poverty or hunger. However, they will not be reached through an ODAfunded project, but through initiatives by the public and/or private sector. ODA funds are only a fraction of the finance available from private capital and remittances, government, and market finance, which are more suitable for financing scaling programs capable of achieving transformative impact (KPMG, 2016;Niculescu, 2017). Cooley and Howard (2019) state that governments and the private sector are the only platforms predicated on operating at scale-that is, delivering services at \"population level\" and sustaining delivery of services over time. Projects can, at best, expose a limited number of direct beneficiaries to an innovation for a short period of time. Enabling intermediaries to (continue to) provide services to the poor increases the number of ultimate beneficiaries reached within and beyond the project context, as for example in projects where service providers for agricultural mechanization are targeted (Baudron et al., 2015;Mottaleb et al., 2016). Although adoption by indirect beneficiaries is more difficult to measure and attribute, it serves as a much better indicator for successful scaling because adoption takes place beyond the project context, in the \"real world.\"Scale can be reached, for example, by giving free handouts of seeds or other inputs to a large number of people. But in the absence of local delivery mechanisms with self-generating and/or perpetual financing, this is not sustainable. The International Development Innovation Alliance (IDIA, 2017) defines sustainable scaling as \"the wide-scale adoption or operation of an innovation at the desired level of scale (exponential growth), sustained by an ecosystem of actors.\" Spicer et al. (2018) frame scaling up as \"the adoption of donor-funded innovations beyond their original project settings and time periods.\" Hence, in the scaling discourse, sustainability refers to a change that perpetuates itself as the \"new normal\" sustained by local actors beyond the project. The scale could then refer to the number of clients required to incentivize suppliers to invest in businesses to respond to long term-demand. Assigning such meaning to the numbers requires a good understanding of the context of the target group, and to appreciate farmers as clients and businesses rather than as beneficiaries (Cooley and Howard, 2019). This calls for projects to use tools for targeting, client segmentation, and demand creation, and to have a solid understanding of actor incentives along the value chains. Management Systems International (MSI) (Cooley and Kohl, 2016) estimates that the average time for scaling a successful pilot to national application is 15 years. With average project durations of two to four years, it is imperative that the development industry shift from seeing projects as complete efforts to framing them as building blocks to achieve long-term change (Linn and Cooley, 2014). To achieve this, projects should be much more explicit about exit strategies and better clarify the gradual transition from externally run efforts to locally adopted ones. This means catalyzing engagement of local stakeholders from the onset, sourcing local financing, facilitating collaborations between actors, and institutionalizing change into routine systems.We define a system as a set of practices, relationships, values, and rules of the game interconnected in such a way that they produce their own patterns of behavior over time (adapted from Meadows, 1999). Systems change aims to bring about lasting change by altering underlying structures and supporting mechanisms that make the system operate in a particular way (Abercrombie et al., 2015). Many of today's food security and development challenges, like those reflected in the SDGs, are systemic in their causes; so too must be their solutions. Introducing a new practice or technology at the individual farmer or household level requires the surrounding system to operate differently. For example, if certain products and services need to be available and accessible, this requires producers, supply chains, demand functions, data and information mechanisms, and enabling policies and regulation that support or accommodate adoption by individual households. Addressing such systemic elements entails a different mindset, one that can creatively navigate multiple overlapping systems-economic, social, ecological, and political (Mang and Haggard, 2016). As challenged earlier in this paper, it is not advisable to use a project to \"push an innovation through the throat of a system\" such that the system is the necessary evil to deliver at scale and where the success of the intervention/project matters most (Jeevan et al., 2019). When taking system success as a starting point-for example, overcoming the root causes of food security in a particular region-one tries to invoke change that stimulates the emergence of innovations that can make the system work better. Change occurs when different developments from distinct sources \"meet\" to gradually shape a new configuration that brings the innovation a step forward. These changes are hardly captured by monitoring things like \"adoption by x farm households.\" Rather, they involve a range of stakeholders across different disciplines (political, financial, sector governance, etc.) willing to change the way they work to shift the status quo keeping the \"bad\" system in place. Muehlenbein (2018) finds that ambitious system change goals (e.g. end poverty, food security) instill a sense of purpose, but that these goals need to be broken down into strategies for targeted system change around a set of innovations (e.g. access to mechanization) to make that vision actionable and provide a sense of focus. In most cases, projects take the promotion of an innovation as a starting point (push) and address the enabling environment for uptake of appropriate innovations (pull) at the same time. This may be a stepwise progression where innovations are adjusted in response to changing system dynamics, scale further, and respond to new system dynamics at a different scale. Many scaling initiatives fail to understand that system sufficiently well, which limits the effectiveness of their efforts (Ubels and Jacobs, 2018). Scaling implies a sufficient number of key drivers and relations such that the system that once perpetuated a \"problem\" now instead perpetuates a solution. Interventions designed to do so need to pay attention to the following:A. Common understanding of the scaling ambition: Project teams and collaborators will have to negotiate where the boundaries of the system lie to come up with a clear and common understanding of the context and boundaries of the scaling ambition. What should be scaled, where, when, how much, for whom, by whom, and why? What is the \"new normal\" that we aim for? It is also important to clarify what lies within the project's sphere of control, influence, and interest.B. Transformation: While Nicolai et al. (2015) suggest that a revolution is required to achieve the SDG goals, one can also speak somewhat more modestly of the need to transform the current \"normal\" to a new, more desirable one. Implied is an approach significantly less linear than the staged approach (discovery, proof of concept, piloting, and scaling) used by most research organizations (CGIAR, 2018). Sector transformation frameworks, as applied by Ubels and Jacobs (2018) and NewForesight (2016), for example, that move from incubation of the proof of concept, demonstration of viability by first movers, crowding in of a critical mass, and finally, to institutionalization help to establish the improved solution/ practice as the \"new normal.\" Each stage requires some form of piloting and maturation towards tipping points to move forward. Furthermore, each of these four stages requires different skills, different financing (from subsidies and grants to market finance), and also a different type of leadership (Deiglmeier and Greco, 2018).C. Scaling is an art as well as a science: Doing scaling is complex because one intervenes into a range of systems (social, economic, etc.) that interact with each other. Only to a certain extent can these interactions be captured by linear cause-effects between tangibles in technical dimensions, as most of the interaction is determined by more concrete relational factors such as motivation, norms, and (power) relations, though such factors may appear to be less tangible to technical professionals (Spicer et al., 2014). The roles and relationships, rules and norms, flows of information, system borders, and mindsets that led to the social problem in the first place have to be dealt with (Muehlenbein, 2018). Addressing these requires insights from social, economic, organizational, and applied technical disciplines to understand and/or influence drivers of change of farm households, local leaders, businesses, researchers, and policymakers. Understanding dynamics of how behaviors and relationships between people can change is thus essential.D. Responsible scaling: Scaling calls for large changes that may have unintended consequences for the population, geography/landscape, value chain, or society concerned, both positive and negative. For example, while an irrigation project may benefit specific farmers, others in the community might suffer from lower water availability or higher pollution levels in the long term. Successful scaling is not necessarily quantitative, and bigger is not always better. Qualitative indicators such as sustainability, satisfaction, and quality of life are also key metrics for success (IDRC, 2018). We need to shift from \"maximum potential scale\" for a few to \"optimal, or responsible scale\" for many (Gargani and McLean, 2017;IDRC, 2018;Wigboldus, 2018). It is therefore important to anticipate the impact of reaching the scaling ambition and the associated risks beyond the geographic, social, and time boundaries set by the project. With these considerations in mind, Jacobs et al. (2018) propose a \"responsibility check\" of scaling's potentially negative side effects on social (gender and age equality, inclusiveness, power equity, resilience) and environmental (use and quality of natural resources and climate change) indicators.As illustrated above, a successful pilot project is no guarantee for success at scale. Given that sustainability and system change are integral parts of scaling, true progress towards food security and poverty may be too complex for any one project to achieve. ODA-supported projects should not try to \"make\" things go to scale, but they can \"help\" things go to scale (Wigboldus and Brouwers, 2016). That is, they can \"help\" the private sector and/or government position themselves to intervene at a large scale. For example, ODA projects can absorb the initial costs associated with awareness building, creating a critical mass of demand, providing training and technical support to early adopters, and introducing financial innovations to improve producers' ability to pay (Kohl and Foy, 2018). A donor project may also work to improve the scalability of the innovation package itself, such as through simplification, bundling it with other products or services, or converting it to a service (Kohl and Foy, 2018).One of the first lessons for successful scaling is to design for scale from the beginning (Cooley and Kohl, 2016;ExpandNet, 2011;GIZ, 2016;Gonsalves, 2000). In practice, this means that key factors necessary for a scaling up decision-with what dimensions, using which approach, along which paths, etc.-should be explored during the pilot phase (Hartmann and Linn, 2008). Based on an analysis of successful scaling cases, frameworks to plan scaling (Gonsalves, 2000) and identify strategies (Gündel et al., 2001), as well as key elements for effective scaling (Menter et al., 2004), have been developed. However, only in 2006 (Cooley and Kohl, 2016) was the first toolkit for practitioners made available; called the Scaling Up Management (SUM) Framework, it was subsequently refined and expanded in Editions 2 and 3, both of which include the MSI Scalability Assessment Tool. USAID adapted the latter in 2018 to the Agricultural Scalability Assessment Tool (ASAT) (Kohl and Foy, 2018). Other donors such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Health Organization (WHO) (ExpandNet, 2011), andGIZ (2016) have also developed toolkits. Most recently, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the PPPLab 1 developed the Scaling Scan (Jacobs et al., 2018). All these frameworks assign the difficulty of scaling innovations to a lack of clarity about what is required to achieve sustained results beyond smaller pilot programs. The tools help simplify and explain the complexities of scaling and guide users to systematically think through key elements, ingredients, or success factors. Or, as McHugh, team leader of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) program, described his teams' experience with the Scaling Scan (personal communication, 2019): \"Breaking down scaling in ingredients helped each member of the project team see aspects affecting reaching our scaling ambition from different perspectives which helped to bring in ideas from many backgrounds and disciplines from the grassroots rather than a top-down, know-it-all perspective.\" The frameworks also rely on management principles, such as clarity of the vision, or scaling ambition, and whether it is matched by available resources, both now and in the future; and they draw attention to the need for the organizations driving the scaling process to be \"fit for scale.\" Table 1 shows the structure and key scalability factors of the MSI, ASAT, IFAD, GIZ, and PPPLab/CIMMYT tools. The SUM, ASAT, and Scaling Scan ask users to address and score scaling elements in terms of a series of questions intended to highlight likely scaling challenges, bottlenecks, and operational priorities. This allows for comparing the views of different stakeholders and for richer and more deliberate choices on what needs to be addressed and done to realize scaling.According to Linn and Cooley (2014), the IFAD Framework is intended primarily for policy and institutional analysis, while the SUM Framework mainly serves as guidance for the design and implementation of specific scaling up strategies and pathways. Following the technology adoption paradigm of Rogers (2003), the SUM Framework and the ASAT tool place strong emphasis on how a technology can be adapted to fit better in an environment. The USAID Bureau for Food Security (BFS) has used the SUM Framework (Kohl et al., 2017) to assess and compare the scaling pathways of five different innovations, each in a different country. In 2018 Kohl, 2018, the BFS tested the ASAT tool as a method to inform decisions on the most \"scalable\" innovations that USAID should invest in. The GIZ and ASAT tools were designed for GIZ and USAID staff but have applicability for a wider range of users. The Scaling Scan can be applied in distinct settings by development practitioners and with stakeholders from different professional backgrounds and levels. It deliberately asks simple but important questions and offers a method to weigh different elements and develop a rich and balanced approach. By testing an early version of the Scaling Scan with 328 extension agents in Mexico, Camacho et al. (forthcoming) were able to identify the lack of knowledge and awareness of innovations as the major bottleneck impeding the scaling of sustainable intensification practices in the Mexican context, which led them to recommend a shift in resources from technology fine-tuning to better communication.The term \"scaling\" is heartily welcomed by development organizations as a new terminology and ambition that reflects the need to address the massive problems of poverty and food insecurity. However, expanding pilot projects to reach more beneficiaries is often unsuccessful, expensive, and unsustainable. Counting households thatOverview of selected tools that help frame scaling. have changed a practice at the end of a project while they get project support is a poor metric or predictor of whether these people can and will sustain adoption after the project closes, let alone whether others will also adopt the practice.In this paper, we show that the more projects try to control the environment they operate in, the harder it is to transition to scale. Shielded from reality and relying on over-proportional external resources, projects often indulge in the changes they provoked within the project context, rather than what the project changed in the real world. Furthermore, we advocate for a broader view and approach towards scaling: from reaching many to a process aimed at achieving sustainable systems change at scale. A systems perspective of scaling requires projects to understand the actor dynamics that determine the present situation, including social norms and technical regulations, market dynamics and the role of service providers, financing mechanisms and conditions, public policy, and the gains with keeping the status quo.Understanding key drivers and rules of the game and finding levers to influence these then becomes essential for pursuing successful scaling.However, scaling in projects is dominated by a \"technology transfer mindset\" that is product, end-user and number focused. This mindset is anchored in processes where donors request project implementers to deliver a certain number of outputs at a particular time, and hold the implementing organizations accountable for their distinct contribution. Project implementers present solutions as relatively straightforward fixes that their organization can provide in a few years. Keeping things clear and simple feeds the systematic resistance to embracing scaling as something more complex and upholds a preference to implement projects in \"glasshouses\" and as stand-alone interventions. In reality, change occurs when different developments from a range of distinct sources and interventions \"meet\" to gradually shape a new configuration that brings the innovation a step forward. Such developments are hardly ever within the scope of one project. Although beyond the scope of this paper, we suspect that projects tend to focus at output level because sustainability and system change are much more difficult to measure, monitor, and attribute. Hence, we question whether \"scaling projects\" really exist and if instead we should refer to projects that pilot certain dimensions required for scaling.We conclude that scaling requires different skills, approaches, and ways of collaborating than those required for successful implementation of a pilot project. Dealing with the complexities of scaling has implications for individuals and institutions. First of all, project designers and implementers need to adopt a mindset that allows them to simultaneously navigate multiple overlapping systems-economic, social, technical, and political. Second, that different mindset goes beyond asking, \"Does the (pilot) project work?\" to asking, \"What happens beyond the (pilot) project, if it works?\" Hence, projects should be designed with clear entry and exit strategies that focus on the use of timebounded, external funding to leverage non-ODA financing and leadership that support scaling beyond the project context. Third, implementing institutions need to be realistic about which parts of the system they can influence and strategic about collaborating with others in ways that take advantage of these organizations' comparative advantages. Finally, the project should be conceived as a building block within an ecology of other initiatives and a bigger (more multisectoral) program, such as sector-or country-development strategies. This involves complementing and reinforcing existing initiatives in the same domain and stimulating supportive interventions that help build a bigger dynamic towards systems change. Although we strongly believe that scaling ambitions can only be achieved if a systems change approach is strongly embedded in the intervention, there is yet little evidence to back this up. As the interconnected nature of poverty and hunger becomes more evident, we have witnessed a growing attention for system thinking approaches in international development cooperation. However, systems thinking remains a young discipline, and such approaches are still the exception rather than the rule (Senge et al., 2015). There is a strong need to find practical application of system thinking approaches in research and development interventions. Scaling frameworks and tools, like the ones described in this paper, can help projects and professionals systematically navigate the multiple dimensions involved in tackling scale. They offer a multidimensional view and allow us to be more deliberate about defining key systemic constraints, identifying possible levers and partners to address these, and allocating attention and resources to the (often nontechnical) issues that really matter for broad adoption and a sustainable systems change.None.","tokenCount":"5960"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9a1d861b8222d2332c6dc2aed1c912f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/52129190-7dca-47a2-8c78-744dd98a33d8/retrieve","id":"-409050762"},"keywords":["African yam bean","ACP ELISA","RT-PCR","Viral infection","Disease incidence and severity"],"sieverID":"9ceaa6cc-75e6-4b05-bf91-720140b58405","pagecount":"8","content":"African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) harms) an underutilized legume that produces nutritionally healthy seeds and tubers in some variety. The low yield of the crop is attributed to production constraints such as attacks by pest and disease-causing organisms such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. In this study, one hundred AYB accessions were evaluated for resistance to viral infection. The AYB accessions were planted using a randomized complete block design on the experimental field at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, Nigeria. Viral disease severity was assessed at 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 weeks after planting (WAP) based on disease symptoms using disease severity index on visual scale of 1-5. Antigen-coated plate enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were used to index diseased leaf samples collected from the field. Result from five virus species (Cowpea mild mottle virus, Cowpea mottle virus, Southern bean mosaic virus, Cowpea mosaic virus and Bean common mosaic virus) were detected in few accessions while mixed infections were observed in some accessions. TSs-552, TSs-577, TSs-580, TSs-560 and TSs-600 were devoid of viruses and could be resistant. There were no significant differences at p < 0.05 in the mean disease incidence (DI) of viral diseases. However, at 18 weeks after planting, TSs-604 had the highest (100%) mean DI while TSs-584 had the lowest (13.33%) mean DI. Cluster analysis based on the AUDPC produced 6 main clusters, the clusters revealed grouping patterns in which AYB lines with similar resistance ratings were shown to form unique clusters. The information generated from this study will contribute to the development of strategies in the management of virus diseases infecting AYB.African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) harms) is a nutritionally important but neglected food crop with several benefits. The crop has the ability to produce bean seed in a pod with varying seed patterns and colours 1 . In addition to the seeds, farmers can also harvest tubers, which resemble sweet potato. The tubers mature in 5 to 8 months 2 . The edible root tubers are rich in nutrients suitable for human consumption 3 . One of the limiting factors to the production of African yam bean is it low grain yield when compared with other legumes 4 . Hence, the low yield of the crop is attributed to production constraints such as unavailability of improved seeds, poor farm practices, attack by pest and disease-causing organisms such as fungi, bacteria and which viruses pose a major concern to African yam bean production. Viral diseases are among the most important pathogens in agriculture and have the ability to cause great economic losses to farmers by affecting the yield quality of the crop 5,6 .Viruses pose serious risks and may restrict the international movement of improved or selected germplasm due to quarantine restrictions 7 . Viral infected plant produce little or no flower buds and pod 8 . Several viruses have been reported worldwide, of which two viruses have been identified serologically infecting AYB 9 . This includes cowpea mild mottle virus (CPMMV) and black eye cowpea mosaic virus (BCMV). Symptoms of viral diseases in AYB include mosaic, distortion, yellow chlorosis and stunting of the plant. Effective management of these viral diseases are quite important to improve yield of AYB. Conventional methods used by farmers to control viruses including broad-spectrum insecticides for the control of vectors that transmit the viruses are inadequate and not cost-effective to the farmers and not environmentally friendly. The use of host plant resistance is therefore considered the most economical and environmentally friendly approach in the management of viral diseases. This study was conducted to evaluate one hundred AYB accessions and to identify the associated viruses using serological and RT-PCR techniques. Detection of AYB virus will be important in developing measures to control the virus infecting AYB.Virus and virus-like disease symptoms were observed on 100 AYB accessions on the field. The symptoms included different symptoms such as mosaic, puckering, stunting, leave curl, chlorosis and mottling (Fig. 1). Over 88.33% of the accessions showed mosaic followed by mottling (40.7%), Leaf curl (39.7%), puckering (20.3%), stunting (17.3%) whereas chlorosis was the least (9%) (Fig. 2). Mean incidence of viral diseases on the 100 accessions of African yam bean is presented in Table 1. Generally, for all 100 African yam bean accessions, the incidence of viral diseases increased from 10 to 18 WAP, with overall mean incidences increasing from 27.01 to 60.39%. ANOVA showed no significant differences in the mean incidence of viral diseases during the 2019/2020 planting season. At the final observation (18 WAP), TSs-601 had the highest mean incidence (93.33%), while TSs-584 had the lowest mean incidence of 13.33%.The results of cluster analysis performed based on the severity of the viral symptoms and area under disease progressive curves (AUDPC) are presented in Fig. 3 the 100 accessions were grouped into six major clusters. Cluster 1 has 8 accessions which are highly susceptible to the observed viral symptoms based on AUDPC. Cluster 5 comprises of 32 accessions that were all moderately resistant to viral symptoms.Five virus species namely CPMMV, CPMoV, SBMV, CMV, and BCMV were detected in the African yam bean accessions using ACP-ELISA. RT-PCR detected BCMV in several accessions and CAbMV was not detected in  the accession. Seventy-five sample out of the eighty symptomatic samples collected was infected with at least one of the five viruses (Table 2). It was observed that some viruses were associated with single or multiple infections in the plant samples. The AYB samples had a high prevalence of single virus infection compared with multiple virus infections. In single virus-infected leaf samples, BCMV was the most prevalent, infecting 73.75% of the samples tested, Co-infection by BCMV + CPMMV was observed in twelve African yam bean accessions. BCMV, CPMMV, and SBMV were observed in two AYB accession. BCMV + CPMMV + SBMV + CMV were observed in one accession of AYB; five accessions of AYB TSs-552, TSs-577, TSs-580, TSs560, and TSs600 were not positive for any of the four antibodies used in this study (Fig. 4).   The success of disease resistance breeding relies on precise identification of pathogen and accurate screening of germplasm lines for a particular disease-causing pathogen. It is preferable to adopt disease management strategies including breeding resistant plants, limiting the movement of plant material, and searching for new variants to lessen the damage that plant-pathogenic viruses can cause 10,11 . This study was conducted to evaluate one hundred AYB accessions and to identify the associated viruses. The AYB accessions exhibited various symptoms, including leaf mosaic, mottling, chlorotic, leaf curl, puckering and chlorosis. The presence of these symptoms suggested that AYB was infected with viruses on the field. Several types of symptoms have been reported on virus infecting leguminous plant [12][13][14] . The symptoms observed in this study on AYB accessions were in consistent with the symptom types that has been previously reported on AYB 9 . The various African yam bean symptoms observed in the field may be due to factors such as the genotype and type of virus, the time of infection of the virus pathogen, mixed infections and environment. Four viruses infecting African yam bean was detected using ACP-ELISA namely CMV, SBMV, CMoV and CPMMV. These viruses can cause great damage on plant. RT-PCR was used for detecting the presence of BCMV. Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) is one of the most prevalent and harmful viruses, affecting both cultivated and wild range of leguminous plant 15 . The viruses identified in this study are among the virus listed by Hughes et al. to be occurring in Nigeria 16 . Fifty-nine accessions out of the eighty symptomatic accessions were infected with BCMV. This suggest that BCMV may be the most common virus infecting African yam bean in the study area. One of the major causes of the reported low yield in AYB could be attributed to BCMV. The study also revealed mixtures of infection within the African yam bean accessions. Several reports have shown that multiple virus infections are usually associated with higher disease severity and yield reduction 17,18 . Virus-symptomatic plants not testing positive to any virus for which diagnostics were used in this study may be due to their low concentrations in the leaf samples 19 .This study demonstrated that leaf mosaic and mottling were the most common symptoms observed in AYB followed by chlorotic spots and the least was stunting. ACP-ELISA and RT-PCR tests detected five viruses in the accessions studied. In contrast, no virus was detected in accessions TSs-552, TSs-577, TSs580, TSs-560 and TSs-600 by ACP-ELISA and RT-PCR which may imply diseases resistance in these five African yam bean accessions for viruses tested. These accessions can be further screened against other African yam bean viruses to confirm their status. Confirmation of the resistance of these accessions may serve as a source of resistant genes for breeding work and planting material for farmers.All methods used in this study were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.The research was conducted at the experimental field of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. One hundred accessions of African yam bean were obtained from the Genetic Resources Center of IITA Ibadan, Nigeria (Fig. 5). Seeds were planted on 5 m ridges, spaced 1 m apart. Each accession was planted on two rows at 1 m intra-row spacing. Initially, two seeds were planted per hill and later thinned to one plant per hill to give 10 plants per accession in each plot. The experiment was prepared in three replicates. Disease assessment was done 14 days interval starting from the fourth weeks after sowing (WAS) until senescence. (Table 3). Data on mean severity scores were used to calculate Area Under Disease Progress Curve for each of the African yam bean lines using the formula of Campbell and Madden 20 . where n was the total number of assessments, ti was the time of the ith assessment in days from the first assessment date, xi was percentage of disease severity at ith assessment.Leaf samples collected from symptomatic and asymptomatic plants were tested with antigen-coated-plate ELISA (ACP-ELISA) using six polyclonal antibodies specific for legumes; Cowpea mild mottle virus (CPMMV), Cowpea mottle virus (CMV), Southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV), Cowpea mottle virus (CPMoV), Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and Cowpea Aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV). The ACP ELISA was carried out as described by Kumar 21 . African yam bean leaf samples were ground at a ratio of 0.1 g ml -1 (1:10 w/v) with a mortar and pestle in coating buffer (Na 2 CO 3 1.59 g, NaHCO 3 2.93 g and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate 10 g in 1 L of distilled water with pH 9.6). Hundred micro liters (100 ul) of p-nitrophenyl phosphate substrate was added to each well and incubated at room temperature for 1 h, and overnight at 4 °C to allow color development. Optical density values were read at 405 nm using a Bio-Rad microplate reader (ELx 800, Universal Microplate Reader). The result was considered positive when the value is greater or equal to twice the absorbance value of healthy control.Samples confirming virus positive were amplified by modified reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) protocol using only two coat protein specific primers (Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) Table 3. Severity scale and its description. The severity of virus on the leaves was scored using the standard disease scale 1-5. − 525bp and Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV)-469bp) RT-PCR was set up for BICMV and CABMV-positive samples in ACP-ELISA, using primers designed to coat protein as follows BCMVF3X 5′-ATG TGG TAC AAT GCT GTG AAG, BCMV B3X TTT CAG TAT TCT CGC TGG TTG. CABMV coat protein gene, CABMV F3X 5′-GTA CTC CAG TCT GAT GGA AAGG, CABMV B3X GTC CGA GAA GTG GTG CAT AA. Total nucleic acid was extracted from African yam bean leaf samples using modified Cetyltrimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) method 22 .The extracted RNA was used as template in RT-PCR to amplify 469 bp of the partial coat protein gene of BCMV and 525 bp corresponds to the CABMV coat protein. One step RT-PCR amplification of viral RNA strands were carried out. Amplification of BCMV RNA was done using 1 cycle of 44 °C for 30 min, 1 cycle of 95 °C for 1 min; 35 cycles of 94 °C for 1 min, 52 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 7 min as final extension and store forever at 4 °C. For CABMV amplification was carried out by 1 cycle of 42 °C for 30 min, 1 cycle of 94 °C for 5 min; 35 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 54 °C for 30 s, 72 °C for 30 s, 72 °C for 5 min as final extension and store forever at 4 °C. The amplification products were resolved on 1.5% agarose gel stained with GR green (5 µl/100 ml) and run in the electrophoretic tank containing TAE buffer pH 8.0 at 120 V for 40 min. The gel result was viewed under a UV transilluminator (EZ imager, Bio-Rad, Inc, USA).","tokenCount":"2185"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2390c7bc052b3dbcc765007cd5b844d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dcff8e01-d0c5-48a9-be1e-89ea074f1e3e/retrieve","id":"-1810721745"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe5d510d-2363-478b-b2cd-b2db8be386bd","pagecount":"248","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was established in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU) Member States. Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement.CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area. CTA's programmes are designed to: provide a wide range of information products and services and enhance awareness of relevant information sources; promote the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensify contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and develop ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate ICM strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. CTA's work incorporates new developments in methodologies and cross-cutting issues such as gender and social capital.This handbook is the result of a collaborative effort by small business owners and advisers of small-scale food processors in ACP countries. The effort was supported by the ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). The information contained in the handbook was gathered by the researchers cited below, and prepared by Midway Technology consultants. The following specialists reviewed the draft publication and made valuable contributions to the text from the perspectives of their own countries:-Dave Harcourt, FOODTEK, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa -Matano Kordawa, Hot Loaf Bakery, Kampala, Uganda -Trevor Marshall, Thomas Danby College, Leeds, UK -Dr Paul Bom-Konde, CIRAD-SAR, Montpellier, FranceWe hope this handbook will meet the needs of small-scale millers and bakers, by providing technical and business information that was previously difficult to find and by helping entrepreneurs to update and improve their businesses for the benefit of their consumers and, of course, their own profitability.If you find this handbook useful, please take a few minutes to complete the feedback form at the end of the book. Your comments and suggestions will be used to improve the later books in this series.Rose Musoke is a designer by profession, but ran a successful bakery business in Kampala for eight years, specialising in high quality cookie production. She has worked as a consultant trainer with Midway Centre, holding practical bakery courses for small-scale entrepreneurs and training bakery trainers for the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation. Research, Lusaka, she has undertaken consultancy work with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the private sector. She has published a number of books and articles on the food resources of Zambia, and is currently working on the fortification of maize meal with large-and smallscale milling enterprises.The purpose of this book is to describe the activities needed to run a successful small-scale enterprise based on processing cereal grains. This can be either:• primary processing to convert the grain to flour, or• secondary processing to convert the flour into a range of more attractive foods such as bread, cakes, biscuits or pizzas.Cereals provide the main staple food for millions of people, not only in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, but also all around the world.Cereals have been processed for thousands of years using traditional technologies -not to preserve them, because cereal grains have a long shelf life when properly dried, but to alter their eating qualities (flavour, colour and texture) and add variety to people's diets. When cereals are ground to flours, they can be processed in a variety of ways and combined with hundreds of other ingredients. A vast range of baked cereal products has therefore evolved, each with a characteristic flavour and texture to suit local tastes.Cereal processing and baking provide a major source of income for millions of people. In recent years, new, non-traditional cereal products have entered the markets of ACP countries in response to the changing demands of more affluent urban populations and visitors. Leavened bread is now widely eaten as a staple, often replacing traditional porridges and gruels or flat breads.Bakery products such as cakes and pastries, and fast foods such as pizzas, pies and fried cereal products (e.g. samosas and doughnuts) also have growing markets in urban centres. Each of these products is considerably more profitable than traditional fare. The range of flours produced by millers is much less diverse than bakery products, but small-scale millers are able to increase their profitability by attracting retail customers with packaged flour, or diversifying into different flours or specialist combinations of cereal and bean (legume) flours (e.g. for weaning foods).The first step towards operating a successful new business is to have a good idea, but this alone is not enough. You also need to find out whether the idea is feasible, and if necessary to convince financial backers (friends, family members, banks or shareholders) to support the idea. A feasibility study is used to find out about the different components of the proposed business. When this information is written down, it is known as a business plan (Table 2.1).It is not always easy to get started, but with persistence, help and determination, almost anyone can start a small bakery or milling business. Don't let another person's success be the criterion for you to go into business. Case studies 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate the value of perseverance and the need to conduct a thorough market and feasibility study.Getting started: ✔ Before setting up, get some basic knowledge and be ready to have additional training if you need it ✔ Do a proper feasibility study; don't take any short-cuts ✔ Be dedicated and believe in what you are doing✔ Ask yourself: why should someone buy your product and not another? ✔ Keep a close watch on sales and be in regular contact with your key customers ✔ Always ask yourself: does my product meet a need? Do I need to improve?✔ Understand the market you are working in ✔ Be flexible and change your ideas if you have to ✔ Negotiate acceptable terms at the start of the relationship and be firm with the retailers ✔ Finally: Read sections 3. 1, 3.3, 4.1-4.3, 4.7 and 9.1-9.4 in Volume 1: Setting up and running a small food business.Background to the Name, address and contact numbers of business business owner, type of product(s) proposed. Any relevant experience of the owner.Overview of the type(s) of market for the flour or bakery products, estimated present and potential demand, market segments to target, competitors, proposed market share. The main assumptions that have been made.Site, factory layout Location of proposed mill or bakery and conditions at the site. and servicesBuilding plans and construction work required, construction timetable. Description of plant layout and service requirements (power, water, fuel etc.). Any environmental impacts (waste production, air/water pollution, noise etc.).Plant and Proposed production capacity, sources and costs of equipment, equipment production inputs (raw materials, ingredients, packaging), other equipment (e.g. vehicles, office equipment). Machinery commissioning plan and timetable.Production and administration staff (number of people and skills required) and training to be given. Staff recruitment plan/timetable.Production plan, Production rates to meet identified demand, advertising and promotion marketing plan to be done, distribution methods, sales outlets, projected increase in demand.Cost of site, equipment and buildings, working capital, (total investment cost), total production costs, sources of finance, cash-flow analysis, balance sheet, profitability calculations (rates of return, break-even analysis, sensitivity analysis).Table 2.1 Main components of a business planThe manager of a Ugandan bakery making bread, scones, cakes, cookies and samosas attended a short course and used this knowledge to write a simple business plan. 'I was hoping to get a bank loan but I was turned down twice for very unclear reasons. My plan was then shelved for eight months. I used this time to do some short bakery courses.' She had a job in government until she was made redundant in 1995. It took her almost two years from coming up with the business idea to actually starting production. The business was financed partly by the redundancy package and partly by a loan from a friend in return for some shares. 'I had no business background prior to this venture, but I was able to start because I believed in myself and in my dream. I did the studies and I was sure I could succeed. This is what I'd always wanted to do and nothing was going to stop me.'Another bakery owner advises: 'Do not despise the days of humble beginnings.' He trained and worked as a mechanic for 15 years, during which time he made various spare parts that were not available in the shops. This gave him the idea of building a cheap charcoal oven, and with accumulated savings and a short-term loan, he started on his first homemade oven. His brother, who has a catering background, encouraged him to take it further and start baking small cakes for sale. He was not yet ready to give up his job, but his brother's idea sounded good so he tried it out. 'I was discouraged at first as the cakes got burnt, but then I learned and was able to make some money in the fourth week of production.'He has never looked back.Mrs L. makes cookies, cakes, meat pies, samosas and pizzas. 'When I was a student in Kenya, I went for lunch at a very nice bakery, so I thought if I ever made enough money I would do it as a side business,' she says. 'I was employed but when my boss was suddenly recalled back home, I had to decide very quickly what was going to become of me. I got a good leaving package, which was enough to buy the basic equipment to start a small bakery.' She had the business idea so approached prospective customers to find out their needs, the types of products they wanted and how regularly they would buy. She also visited suppliers, both for raw materials and for packaging. When she was satisfied that everything could be got locally, she asked a friend to write a simple business plan, for which she paid him.It was about eight months between coming up with the original business idea and actually starting: 'I wanted to be sure that this was right and that it was going to work.' The business was financed partly by herself and partly by a loan from a Women's Finance Trust. She started in 1999 and now has eight full-time workers. The business is a sole ownership but she has just sold some shares to three people.A husband and wife in Kampala advise doing a feasibility study before starting a bakery business: 'It is very important to do this before you go into business, and even if you make the mistake of starting without doing well as to identify the quantities they can buy. This is what we were aiming for when we did the studies.' Their thorough preparation has made them very successful, and they now have a market share of 40% for bread, and slightly lower for cakes, in their local area.Another baker did not do a feasibility study before he started the business, because 'things were done in reverse'. He has now completed his study, which included a market survey. The study suggested that he could do better by introducing other products. As a result he is working on improvements to his packaging, and taking part in trade fairs organised by Uganda Manufacturers Association to better promote his products and the company.The main concept of customer care is that every miller or baker should recognise that their customers 1 are the most important people in their business. A business will only survive if its customers are satisfied with the product and the service. To achieve this, business owners must develop attitudes, ways of thinking and actions that reflect the importance of their customers and they must focus on satisfying them.1 A customer is the person who buys a food and a consumer is the person who eats it -these are not always the same people. Customers can be wholesalers or retailers as well as consumers.For example:• talk to customers and find out what they like and dislike about each product• develop customer-orientated attitudes so the customer feels valued when the miller or baker deals with them• make sure that all actions taken by staff reinforce the idea that 'the customer comes first'.Case studies 2. He found that customers sometimes raised issues with the sales staff, but they were not reported back to the management. He has now introduced a suggestion box and questionnaires so customers can tell him where improvements can be made. 'I think it's important to respond to queries and concerns as soon as they are raised. We visit retailers once a month and check on our products and the way they are displayed; we also compare them with others on the shelves.' He also offers a small commission to people who bring in new customers.A second baker noted that her customer complaints were normally to do with bread not being fresh. It transpired that the retailers were not telling their customers when it was two days old. 'We have now agreed with our most valued customers that we will take back unsold bread and exchange it for fresh -as long as it is returned within 24 hours,' she says. 'We do this because we want fresh bread on the shelves to keep a good reputation with customers. We are able to sell the returned bread at a slightly lower price direct from the factory to customers who know it is not as fresh as they can buy in the shops.'A third baker commented: 'I have encouraged feedback from customers and I have tried hard to give them the products they want. This means providing a product, even if the demand is not so high, because one satisfied customer always means a few new ones. With every supply we make, the retailer gets an extra dozen to cover any losses they might incur from items remaining unsold.'Many small-scale millers and bakers who were interviewed for this book complained about the activities of their competitors. For example, they considered that some competitors use underhand practices to win customers, make false allegations or make substandard products to increase their profits (see Case studies 2.5 and 2.6). It is difficult in a book of this type to describe in detail the ways in which small businesses can compete effectively and honestly but, in summary, the following actions can assist a genuine smallscale baker or miller:• develop good relationships with customers, treat them with respect and deal with them honestly• deliver what is promised and on time• do not make false claims in promotional materials• do not spread rumours about competitors• find out from consumers and trade associations what competitors are doing and saying• identify competitors' strengths and weaknesses• use the information to be 'one step ahead'.It is also necessary to take competitors' activities into account when deciding the price that will be charged for a product. Further details of product costing are given in Volume 1: Setting up and running a small food business, and in Chapter 7.The main competitors for Mr and Mrs L. are small bakeries that are not registered 'so they get away with a lot,' said Mrs L. 'Some concentrate on buns as opposed to loaves, and others make cakes, but only small cup-cakes with basic ingredients and the prices are quite low. Some of these products taste really flat but the low prices are what attracts customers.'Another African baker commented: 'Some of my competitors make substandard goods, but they have been in the business longer and know all the tricks. Some have actually tried to copy my products and the way I pack and label them, which has somehow affected my sales. Consumers think that the products are from the same person who is trying to use tricks to make more money. I have overcome this by increasing my packaging budget and packaging my products more attractively, and this has worked for me.''Supermarkets and groceries around the city are flooded with all kinds of goods in my product category, which means that I have had to be very innovative,' says Mrs E. 'I have tried to find out as much as possible about my competitors and their production routines, their delivery schedules and times so that I plan my deliveries to beat all of theirs. I have personally carried out surveys and asked customers what makes them buy one product and not the other. I have then gone back and tried to make the things that people want. At the start I did a bit of research and I found that my products were being over-priced by retailers wanting to make large profits, so people were not buying them. I then approached the retailers and we agreed on proper prices for each item.'Markets for flours and bakery products -25 -'Most of my competitors compromise on quality; a few have money but no business sense, and so they use some unconventional methods to win customers,' said one miller. 'Others are very big and well established, and some actually have their own plantations, and so have access to cheaper raw materials. I have introduced different kinds of packaging for different customers. I have tried to be competitive in all areas of the business, including packaging, trading conditions and terms and delivery, and so far this is working for me. I did a market study and my market share is 70%. I think I am among the top five producers in the whole country.'Another said: 'There is a lot of bad-mouthing in this businesscompetitors are always discrediting you, but I believe that actions speak louder than words, and so I just show that we have good products. If there is a fault it is not because I am negligent, it's just bad luck, and I say so to my customers.'By developing good relationships with customers and 'staying above' any arguments with competitors, a small-scale miller or baker is likely to continue the business and enable it to grow. Customers will ignore false information and may even pass on information about competitors' activities that can benefit the business. Other ways in which the relationship with customers can be strengthened include:• agreeing contracts with retailers/wholesalers and suppliers• preparing a product guarantee that is written on the label• accepting liability for any substandard products.Details of contracts, product guarantees and product liability are described in Volume 1: Setting up and running a small food business (section 4.7).Some owners/managers confuse marketing with selling, but the two are very different. Marketing is deciding what to do to meet customers' needs, how a product can be made more competitive, and how to produce the correct 'marketing mix' in a marketing plan. Selling is the process that results in a customer buying a product.So good marketing paves the way for successful selling by making a customer ready to buy a product. Do a proper market survey before venturing out, and use it. Research your choice products: good market information helps you to reduce risks.Although most bakeries have a wider range of products than milling businesses, the principles involved in developing a marketing and selling strategy are the same for each. The first thing to consider is the marketing mix.Once a miller or baker has identified their main customers, where they live or work and how they buy their food, information on the quality and price that consumers expect is added and a marketing mix produced (Fig. 2.1). The miller or baker can then use this information to refine their products and the way that they are sold to meet the needs of the customers.This involves:• creating or modifying a product so that it has the appearance, flavour, size etc. required by the customers• where necessary, developing an attractive package• making sure that the places where the product is sold are the ones that the intended customers use• using methods of promotion that reach the intended customers• setting a suitable price.Further details of product development are given in Chapter 4 and pricing is described in Chapter 7.  The marketing mix is not a single exercise done when a business starts. It should be regularly updated and reviewed to improve it or even to change it completely.Producers should be aware of feedback from their customers and retailers, they should notice any changes that competitors make to their products, and they should take account of any customer complaints that are received.The following sections briefly examine each component of the marketing mix for milling businesses and then for bakery businesses.Some small-scale millers, especially in rural areas, think of themselves as part of the agricultural industry with a role in the food production chain that involves turning grain into flour. This attitude focuses on supply rather than demand. More successful millers have a different view: they see themselves as processors who can create products to meet the identified needs of customers.Examples of this approach are described in Case studies 2.8 (page 32) and 4.1 (page 91).The main types of flour produced by small-scale millers are shown in Table 2.2.Details of their production methods are given in Chapter 4. Although wheat flour is an essential ingredient in most bakery products, its production has not been included in this book because it is rarely produced on a small scale 2 in ACP countries. More usually, wheat is milled in large-scale centralised mills or wheat flour is imported.There are four main types of local markets for flours:• custom milling 3 • retail markets• bulk wholesale• institutional markets.There are advantages and limitations to supplying each type of market (Table 2.3). In addition, flour millers can also consider export opportunities to neighbouring countries or regions. However, export marketing is expensive and small-scale millers may be wise to obtain information on markets and negotiate partnerships with foreign investors from international organisations that specialise in this area (Appendix II).Composite flours (soyabean or other legume flour mixed with a cereal flour) Table 2.2 Types of flour produced by small-scale processors 2 Definitions of small-, medium-and large-scale processing are given in the Glossary.3 Also known as 'contract', 'toll' or 'service' milling. Local residents who bring their milling own crop for milling.No expertise or expenditure needed for marketing, packaging or distribution. No skills required for negotiating with suppliers or retailers.Production can be intermittent and production levels are often low. Downtime while the miller waits for customers. A fixed number of customers in a limited area make it difficult for the business to expand.Domestic retail Supermarkets, shops, open markets (each can be different types including up-market, budget etc.). Families can be urban wealthy, rural wealthy, urban poor etc.More profitable than custom milling or wholesale. Good opportunities for business expansion.High levels of competition, more risky/less secure market than custom or wholesale.Food processors, food service establishments, wholesalers Bakers, canteens in large factories or offices, restaurants, takeaways and hotels, wholesale agents. Professional buyers in these establishments; consumers may be workers or visitors. Large bulk orders, often using contracts, help guarantee income and business planning. Cheaper bulk packaging and fewer distribution problems.Lower profitability than retail sales. The loss of a large buyer is more significant.Hospitals, schools, prisons, army barracks. Professional buyers in the government ministries that run these establishments. Consumers may be staff, patients, children, prisoners etc.Large bulk orders, often using a fixed term contract, guarantee income and help business planning. Bulk packaging is cheaper than retail packs and fewer distribution problems. Lower profitability than other sales. The loss of a large contract is more damaging.This is a popular business in rural areas and in less affluent districts of urban centres, where it provides a service to low-income customers who wish to mill home-produced grains and may not be able to afford packaged flour from retailers. Customers bring their grain to a mill and have it ground in exchange for a small fee or a proportion of the flour. In Case study 2.7, custom milling was used as a starting point for the development of a much larger milling business.After graduating as a food technologist, Ms T. started her Tanzanian grain milling enterprise in 1993, operating it as a custom mill. After three years she changed the business and started packing milled sorghum, millet, blended cereal-legume flours, soyabean flour and cassava flour for distribution to bakers and manufacturers of soya drinks. She has a 60% market share in these categories of customers. There are five other main competitors, but these cause no problems, as the market is growing. Her products are well known all over Tanzania, following a big advertising campaign using the radio and television and regular participation at trade fairs and exhibitions. She has also produced a range of promotional items, including leaflets, playing-cards and T-shirts, to advertise her products.The retail market for flours is mainly household purchases for home food preparation. In some countries, flour is sold directly from mills into customers' own containers, but the majority of millers pack their flour into 0.5 kg, 1 kg, 3 kg and up to 10 kg retail bags. The bags may be sold from an outlet at the mill or distributed to retail food stores by the miller (see Case study 2.8).Retail markets are highly competitive, and in countries that have opened their economies as part of trade liberalisation measures, there may also be competition from imported flours, because their long shelf life allows them to be easily transported across borders. In some ACP countries, retail packs also compete with flour that is sold in open markets from sacks, usually at a lower price. The miller must therefore offer potential consumers a reason to buy the more expensive flour in packets (e.g. guaranteed quality, free from stones or other contaminants, and a guaranteed weight). However, in ACP countries that have government price controls on staples such as maize flour, this can significantly affect the profitability of a mill operation.A Ghanaian miller promotes her business through exhibitions at trade fairs, free samples to institutions, public demonstrations of how to prepare products, and occasional free publicity in national newspapers and on Ghana Broadcasting Corporation. She used contacts made by her brother when he lived overseas to supply African supermarkets in Europe and America with maize grits and canned spinach powder for the expatriate Ghanaian community. With the help of her husband, who has a degree in Business Management, she conducted a market study, which showed that she has about 20% of the local market for maize grits. She still has a lot of competition for her products, but her door-to-door sales to customers have proved to be a successful strategy. She has good relationships with her wholesalers and retailers and produces to strict specifications as much as possible. It is sometimes difficult to get prompt payments so she does not over-supply. She only supplies to wholesalers and retailers who have made 50% prior payment and she visits as often as possible to ask for payments to be made.Customers in these markets are more likely to be professional buyers who are experienced at negotiating prices and terms and conditions of sale. Wholesale merchants, institutions, international food relief operations and owners of bakeries or other food companies are valuable customers because they buy flour in relatively large amounts. However, the price that they are willing to pay is usually lower than that obtained through retail sales, and even when the higher packaging costs of retail packs are taken into account, the profitability of the retail market is likely to be higher. Small-scale millers may not have the resources to target more than one or two market segments, but to be successful, a company should aim to supply a mix of both retail and wholesale/institutional customers to spread the risk and obtain the benefits of each type of market.In both wholesale and retail markets, successful millers know their customers, what they want and what they dislike, and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors. They constantly strive to improve their products and the service they offer, so gaining advantage over their competitors.Although the focus of this book is on milling, there are related business opportunities in catering that are worthy of mention when considering the markets for cereal products. These may range from newly introduced 'fast-food' outlets in the capital cities of many countries, to traditional prepared foods that are sold through village markets or roadside stalls.Examples of such products are popped and toasted grains (maize, sorghum, millet etc.) and a wide range of traditional staples such as maize doughs (kenkey, ugali etc.).The following Case study (2.9) shows how this type of business can be highly successful. Details of kenkey production and other cereal doughs are given in section 4.2.As a teenager, Ms X. lived as a house-help with an aunt in Accra. The aunt cooked fermented maize meal (banku) for sale in front of her house. As the aunt did not treat her well, Ms X. left with the little money she had saved. As a means of surviving, she decided to sell fried fish to banku-sellers at a busy bus station in central Accra, where travellers needed to eat before embarking on their journeys. She soon found that the fish business was good, and more and more people who bought her fish also asked for kenkey (steamed fermented balls of maize meal). So she started producing kenkey as well and employed two other women to help her. A few years later, a sister introduced her kenkey to a group of friends at the company she worked for. They liked it so much that they recommended it to the company canteen, which then ordered it. Within three years Ms X. was also supplying kenkey to doctors, lawyers, schools and other organisations including the Ghana Police Service, Prison Service and Army, who are now her biggest clients. She does not sell her products at bus stations any more, but employs 11 other people to cook and sell kenkey and fried fish.She also sells to wholesalers who buy in bulk and sell it to restaurants, traders at bus stations etc.From her humble beginnings, Ms X. has become one of the top three kenkey producers in Accra, and she sets the standard for her competitors. The key for her is quality and so she has employed one person to carry out the daily formulation of the kenkey mixture (aflata), which ensures that her unique quality product is consistent every day. The only major customer complaint arose when she changed the person who mixed the aflata. She quickly took over that part of the process until she could get another employee who had the art of mixing it to the consistency she required.She uses informal methods to promote her business, for example by giving away free kenkey to church organisations, hospitals and children's homes. She was recently given free promotion on national television through a documentary made by the National Board for Small-scale Industry. This resulted in four additional large companies placing orders. One of the secrets of her success is that she endeavours to please all her customers by meeting their needs as much as possible. She does this by selling four different sizes of kenkey to meet all pockets, producing kenkey with a special pepper and freshly fried fish for young men, and smaller kenkey balls to go with soups for school children. In effect she has specific products for each different type of customer.Because flours produced by different millers are superficially similar in their appearance, successful millers must differentiate their product from those of their competitors. They can do this by:• using attractive packaging• offering a better service than competitors when supplying customers• developing new products to create a larger market.Development of new mixtures of flours and pre-prepared weaning foods are described in more detail in section 4.2. Millers may also be able to increase sales by offering buyers special deals, credit, promotional materials or other incentives that encourage them to promote the flour instead of competitors'products. The costs involved in doing this need to be compared with the increased income to determine whether this type of strategy is worthwhile.By definition, custom milling is local in its focus and customer base. Many small-scale millers only supply packaged flour to retail shops and marketplaces in their immediate locality and, similarly, most domestic customers only buy flour from local shops or marketplaces. However, because of the long shelf life of flour, millers have the opportunity to use sales outlets that are located long distances away from the mill, especially when supplying wholesale agents or institutional customers.The types of promotion available to millers include:• newspapers• radio and television Bakery products are much more diverse than flours (Table 2.4) and, correspondingly, their markets are also more diverse (Table 2.5). Within each market there are a number of market segments that can be specifically targeted by a baker.the type of market to target and also which particular segments within it. Breads (leavened and unleavened)Cakes DoughnutsTable 2.4 Types of products produced by small-scale bakersWithin each market segment, there are different identifiable groups of customers that can be described by:• location (e.g. rural, urban, rural town)• income levels (e.g. wealthy, poor)• age (e.g. foods that are mostly eaten by children)• gender (e.g. snacks mostly eaten by men in bars)• special bakery products for festivals, birthdays, ceremonies or religious occasions• employment (e.g. foods eaten by office workers at lunchtime, samosas or sandwiches for meetings, conferences etc.)• nutritional preferences (e.g. diabetic foods, weaning biscuits, gluten-free foods).Supermarkets, shops, open markets, bicycle salesmen, bus/taxi parks, kiosks, street vendors, market traders, straight from the bakery.Women and children from different types of family (urban wealthy, rural wealthy, urban poor etc.). Workers or business people buying food to eat at the workplace.Canteens in large factories or offices, restaurants, coffee/snack bars, kiosks, takeaways, bars, hotels, bus stations, ferry terminals, airports, entertainment venues, sports stadiums etc. (Each can be different types including up-market, budget etc.)Professional buyers in these establishments, although larger hotels and restaurants may employ in-house bakers. Consumers may be factory or office workers, tourists or other travellers.Institutional Hospitals, schools, prisons, army barracks.In some countries, bakery products are bought by professional buyers in the government ministries that run these establishments, but in others the staff in the institution may have this responsibility. Consumers may be staff, patients, children, prisoners etc.Professional buyers (often only for long shelf-life products, but also for bread in some countries).Each group may prefer a particular type of product and may also have different requirements for quality, price, packaging etc. Once bakers have decided who their main customers are, they should then devise promotion and sales methods that suit the selected groups. Customers' perceptions are not just about price and quality, but may also include status, enjoyment, attractiveness, convenience, health or nutrition. Bakers should decide which factors are special for their product (known as its 'unique selling point' or USP) and emphasise these in their promotion and advertising (Case study 2.10).In Ghana, Mrs E. has developed different products for different markets.For example, she produces soyabean milk for vegetarians and children, particularly young children who are lactose intolerant. She produces soya meat for vegans, garlic bread for restaurants, soya milk powder for hospitals and she uses soya flour as a substitute for wheat flour in some recipes.She uses honey instead of sugar for diabetic bread. She is very innovative and has lots of recipes for cakes and bread. Her success in the market has been due to her effective response to customer needs by coming up with new recipes and products. She promotes her business through church fairs, parties and friends, but her customers in the various embassies are her biggest advocates. She has now decided to focus on composite bread and vegan foods, which are in big demand. She tries to use the best combination of product, price, place and promotion to sell her foods.For example, doughnuts, pizzas, buns, samosas and pies are more likely to be consumed as snacks or lunches by travellers, young people or working people. The USP may be freshness, high quality ingredients, novelty, unique taste etc. They should be promoted using posters or giving away samples at popular takeaways, shops or bus stations where there are large numbers of these customers. This type of market is also likely to be more willing to experiment with new products (Case study 2.11).Mrs O. conducted a market survey in Kumasi and found that many people would like to eat fast foods such as pizzas, hamburgers, potato chips, kebabs etc. but there were no restaurants serving this kind of food at the time. So in 1999, she started serving pizzas and kebab dishes in summer huts at the bakery. Her customers include embassies, government and private organisations, professional bodies who require conference lunches and dinners, tourists, expatriates, students, home catering and social events such as funerals and anniversary parties. There is a big market for families who like to take their children out for a special meal, without having to supervise their behaviour in a more formal restaurant atmosphere. WhenMrs O. first started the business, she advertised through letters and on the radio. She modified her existing billboard to make it more attractive. She gives free meals to good customers in return for their comments on new recipes, but her best advertisement is the quality of the food, the reasonable prices, and the good service. The business has been so lucrative that her husband has designed and built a pizzeria with brick ovens. These outdoor facilities have been so popular that other prospective hoteliers and restaurant operators from all over the country, and from neighbouring Burkina Faso, have come to take notes.The market for cakes is broadly divided into two: sales of small cakes and slices of cake eaten as a snack or as a family treat, and celebration cakes for weddings, birthdays, graduation ceremonies or other special occasions. The marketing strategy should differ to reflect the requirements of each group of consumers. For example, small cakes may be bought more often by women and can form part of an attractive display of bakery products in retail outlets,where the USP could be value for money or an attractive flavour. Celebration cakes are usually specially commissioned by the customer and the USP here may be the high quality icing or decoration, high quality ingredients or a unique design (see also section 4.3). Promotion of celebration cakes could include delivering leaflets or cards to individual homes, university noticeboards or places such as government ministries, large companies and embassies where wealthy people work. Personal recommendations are often a main source of business for celebration cake makers.Although some of the small-scale bakers interviewed for this book said that they focused on selling a limited range of bread, most successful businesses realised that this is unlikely to be very profitable because:• they are in competition with larger bakeries that have greater economies of scale and can sell bread more cheaply• there are likely to be many other small bakers in competition, making similar bread. This results in bakers having to reduce either the size of individual loaves (which is illegal in some countries), or the quality of their products by buying cheaper flour or other ingredients.In either case, a limited range of breads makes a profitable operation difficult to achieve.A more successful approach is to diversify production to include a range of cakes, tarts, pies and pastries, as well as bread and buns. Although this is more complex and requires careful planning, it means that a baker is not 'putting all his/her eggs into one basket'.If sales of a particular product are low one day, it is likely that sales of another product will be higher, and overall the level of profitability is maintained. In addition, the profit margins on speciality pastries and pies are higher than for bread (see Case study 2.12).Other advantages of producing a range of products are:• the bakery is likely to attract a wide range of customers. A person may come to buy a particular type of product, perhaps a pie, but will also be attracted by something different (maybe a flan or a pastry) as well• the baker gains a reputation for innovation and attracts customers who are looking for something different• if the quality of products is consistently high, customers will recommend the baker to friends and place special orders (e.g. for birthday or wedding cakes, snacks for parties etc.)• a retail display that contains a wide variety of baked products is attractive to customers, offering them a greater choice. It also demonstrates the skill and professionalism of the baker. The customer then gains greater confidence in the quality of the products. In order to produce a wider product range, a baker should have:• sources of recipes and ideas for new products• technical knowledge and skills to produce different products to a consistently high quality• facilities and equipment to produce the products• a careful market analysis to ensure that each type of product meets consumers' needs• careful production planning to ensure that all ingredients are available when required and that changeovers between different products take place without loss of productivity• detailed product costing for each type of product• detailed analysis of sales data to identify which products are more popular and more profitable.Details of recipes and processing methods for bakery products are given in Chapter 4, production planning is described in Chapter 6 and costing in Chapter 7.In contrast to some other types of food processing, the majority of small-scale bakers have local markets for their products. Most customers only buy baked products from shops and marketplaces in their immediate locality. In some urban areas, all the customers for a small bakery live within a radius of 1 km or less from the plant. This is particularly important when deciding on the site for a bakery (see section 3.3 and Case study 2.13).Kabalagala is a fast-growing neighbourhood on the edge of Kampala, Uganda and Mr B.'s bakery is located here, between a dry-cleaning business and a supermarket. It is small and would not catch your eye until you enter and see the fine display of bread, cakes and other products. Mr B. has been in operation for four years and sees his main business strength as his location in a busy, elitist neighbourhood where consumption of bakery products is high.He has a large volume of sales directly from the premises, selling everything that he makes each day, and there is good potential for further expansion. He also sells to other local retailers. The location was selected because the family already lived there and knew the neighbourhood, the local chiefs and all the important contacts well, 'so we just knew that it was the right place for us'.After 30 years' work as a banker, Mr S. was considering retiring. He decided that a bakery was the type of business investment that would give him a good return and create an income for the family. He carried out a feasibility study before establishing the business and then invested his retirement benefits together with a loan from the Development Bank of Zambia. His study found that the part of Lusaka where he was considering locating was growing, but it had no bakery. He felt that even if several bakeries started, he would still remain in business due to the high population growth in the area and the establishment of other businesses whose workers he could supply. After five years, Mr S. considers that he has a small market share because of many competitors, but he is still able to achieve the level of income he requires.The decision on where to locate a bakery depends largely on the target Another reported that they had advertised once but gave up the idea because it did not work, and sales did not go up. 'But it was not totally wasted as more people got to know us. We have not given up the idea completely and are looking at other options. I know that advertising works but it has to be targeted to a specific market otherwise you sink money into it and don't get any benefit.' Please use this space to make your own notes on Chapter 2. Setting up and running a small food business.In each of the case studies where flour or bakery products are sold directly from the factory, close proximity to busy roads or a location in a more affluent area are the main factors in selecting a site (see Chapter 2 and Case study 3.1).Ms E. wanted a place for her flour mill in a busy, but relatively cheap, neighbourhood with road access and cheap transport. She also hoped to find a place where there were not so many people doing the same thing.'This place I have now doesn't meet all the requirements, but I didn't have to spend much to set it up. The building is rented and I designed the layout and facilities, importing most of the equipment from Kenya and the UK.The factory is quite big and open, so the machines are well spaced. The processing room is not used for storage so there are no rodents. We have also installed window nets in the storerooms to keep out the rodents, which otherwise invade the finished products. We have a licence issued by the City Council so the site is registered for food production.'Mr and Mrs B. set out certain conditions for the location of their bakery in their feasibility study. They wanted premises that would be well supplied with utilities and local council services, although not necessarily in or near the city. 'We also wanted a place that could be expanded if the need arose, and a place that gave us the flexibility to build or renovate without causing any inconvenience. And we wanted to be near a main road, preferably a tarmac road where there are plenty of customers. So we bought some land that was suitable and started construction.'In some countries, industrial buildings are not permitted in residential areas, and an aspiring miller or baker should check with the Town or City Council before purchasing or renting premises. A further factor to consider is the level of rent or cost of land, which is generally higher in a busy or more affluent area. This cost needs to be balanced against the potentially higher prices and increased sales volumes that are possible in such areas, together with better access to services, spares and supplies.3Of the general requirements of all food processing rooms, the three most important factors to consider in the design of mills and bakeries are:• preventing dust• good ventilation• deterring and controlling insects and rodents.It is important to prevent the accumulation of flour dust for a number of reasons:• it contaminates products Processing rooms and storerooms attract animals and insects because they provide a ready supply of food. A rigorous daily cleaning programme to remove food waste is the first way to deter them. A second line of defence is to store ingredients and raw materials in insect-and rodent-proof containers.Where this is not feasible (such as the storage of bulk flour or grain), the storeroom should be made secure against insects and rodents. Doors and windows should be screened, and the joint between the roof and walls should be properly sealed. All storeroom doors should be kept closed when not in use and, if funds are available, insect electrocutor devices should be fitted (Fig. 3.1).Protective gratingElectrified grid Despite one mill owner saying 'I prefer cats to rats', the use of resident cats or poison is not recommended for rodent control because of the risk of contaminating products, but traps that contain the rodents are acceptable.Further details and facilities that are required in a mill or bakery, including provision of toilets and hand-washing facilities, are described in Volume 1:Setting up and running a small food business (section 5.3).Although it is possible to operate a small mill or bakery without electricity, for example using a diesel-powered mill or a fuel-fired oven, this book focuses on larger scales of operation for which electricity is required. All electric wiring should be of the correct type for the intended purpose and should be installed by a competent electrician, especially where a three-phase (440 volt) supply is used. Electric motors should be fitted with isolators and starters. Power points should be used for one application only and multiple sockets should be avoided, as they risk overloading the circuit and causing a fire. Plugs should be fitted with fuses to suit the power rating of the equipment, and the mains supply should have an earth-leakage trip switch. Care is needed when using fluorescent lights above mills, dehullers and other equipment that has moving or rotating parts, because they can make machinery appear stationary at certain speeds, causing a hazard to operators. Although electric ovens (see section 3.3) are popular in some countries, especially where hydro-electricity is cheaper than fuels, most ACP bakers rely on burning fuels and these are described in detail below.Many small-scale bakers and millers buy the equipment that is immediately available and don't look carefully at the alternatives. This can lead to them selecting an inappropriate machine. To maximise efficiency of production, the capacity of each piece of equipment should be matched to the others. This prevents money being wasted on a machine that is larger than necessary, or creating 'bottlenecks' caused by one piece of equipment that is too small. A Ugandan baker has designed everything himself, with a little help from photos he took at a bakery he visited. The factory is set up in such a way that there is continuous flow of materials, maximising efficiency and safety.Stores for the different stages in the process are placed strategically around the building. 'When we were selecting machines, we invited an expert who helped us to choose simple yet efficient equipment that is widely used in Uganda, and would be easy to service and repair. We visited quite a number of suppliers and tested a lot of equipment. We also had the chance to visit some bakeries and see the machines in operation. The bread ovens were fabricated on the premises and the remaining equipment was all bought locally from suppliers in Kampala.'In some countries there are import agents in the capital city who can supply equipment, or information can be obtained on overseas suppliers from manufacturers' associations, international development agencies, university food technology departments or trade sections in embassies of other countries.When ordering imported equipment, it is important to specify the required capacity (in kg, or kg per hour), single or three-phase power supply, the number and types of spares required, and the specific application for which the equipment is to be used. Where possible the model number of a machine should also be given.Production planning in a flour milling business is relatively straightforward because there are few products or ingredients and different flours are made using the same equipment. When setting up a mill, the expected sales are used to decide the capacity of the mill. Other equipment (hullers, bagging machines etc.) can then be selected to match this capacity (Case study 3.3).From discussions with retailers, a miller estimates that possible sales of maize flour in a small town are 400 tonnes per week. If the miller expects to have 2% of this market, the production rate = 2% of (400 × 1000) kg = 8000 kg/week (or 32,000 kg/month).If production takes place for 5 days per week, milling for 6 hours per day (the remaining time is used for packing), the required throughput of the equipment The expected level of production is also used to decide the size of the mill building. A possible layout for a flour mill is given in Fig. 3.2.The mill building should include:• space for weighing incoming grain• space for grain storage• space for flour storage• space for maintenance and repair of equipment• space for customers (customers should not be allowed into the milling area)• cupboard with lock for spares and tools• first aid box• sand bucket or fire extinguisher (kept in a prominent place)• hand-washing and toilet facilities, with space to store workers' clothes.Milling machines require a solid concrete foundation and mills should be securely bolted to the floor using foundation bolts with a minimum length of 45-60 cm. There should be a space around the mill of at least 60 cm for maintenance and cleaning. (Do not allow too much space -it will be used by operators for storage, thereby reducing the amount of space for maintenance.) It is important to have good air circulation to enable the machinery to run at the correct temperature, especially in a mill that uses a diesel engine, to avoid over-heating.In ACP countries, milling equipment is usually made from mild steel and is available from any local engineering company that has the necessary welding skills. If the quality is adequate, local suppliers are the best option, especially for mills and hullers, because spare parts and the skills to maintain and repair the machines are readily available. The principles of hygienic design and methods of construction for food processing equipment are described in Volume 1:Setting up and running a small food business (section 5.3). Although most flours do not have high levels of risk from food-poisoning micro-organisms, the basic principles of hygienic design should apply to ensure the quality of the end product. The equipment that is required for a small flour mill is shown in  To roast some types of grains before milling (e.g. production of some cereal/legume weaning foods)To prepare pre-mixed ingredients for weaning foodsTo grade flour according to particle size Table 3.1 Equipment required for grain milling important that welding is done to a high standard to prevent holes in the weld or small projections that could trap food. All welds should be ground to a smooth finish. Mild steel rusts easily and it is important that equipment is kept dry to prevent rust from contaminating the grain or flour.A good design enables a mill or huller to be easily dismantled for cleaning and maintenance. When this is easy to do, operators are more likely to do it properly without cutting corners.Nuts and bolts that are routinely removed for cleaning/maintenance should be made from high quality steel so that threads do not wear out quickly. Worn At its simplest, a seed cleaner is a table made from perforated aluminium or steel on which grain can be spread out and examined. Small contaminants such as dust and small stones fall through the holes in the table, while larger leaves, stalks, mouldy grains etc. can be picked out. The procedure can be mechanised using an inclined flat screen that is made to vibrate. Grain is fed onto the screen and the vibration assists in separating out any contaminants. These machines may cause serious dust problems, especially at a larger scale, and more modern machines are fitted with an aspirator to remove dust via a Paddy cleaners (Fig.  Grains have an optimum moisture content for milling (see Table 5.2 on page 142), and specialised conditioning equipment is available to moisten over-dried grain. However, this equipment is likely to be too expensive for most small-scale millers. A more common problem is that grain is too wet, and many millers have a dryer to reduce the moisture level before milling.This can be a sun-drying area, a simple solar dryer or, less commonly, a fuelfired dryer. Details of drying equipment are beyond the scope of this book, but sources of information are given in the bibliography. Details of procedures and equipment to measure the moisture content of grains are given in Chapter 5 (section 5.2).Most cereals require removal of the bran, or hull, as the first step in milling (Fig. However, single rubber rollers do not 'polish' the rice (remove the bran)whereas the steel rollers of the Engelberg type both remove the husk and polish the rice. Combined hulling and polishing rubber-roller machines are more expensive and complex than Engelberg machines. The Engelberg huller is also more robust and requires less maintenance, lasting for 20-40 years depending on its use.Traditional stone mills are used in rural areas of some ACP countries, mostly in homes for domestic production. Motorised stone mills are available in a few countries, but they are not widely used in commercial applications and are not included in this book. The types of mill that are used for commercial grain milling can be grouped into two types: plate mills and hammer mills 6 .Plate or disc mills are found most commonly in West Africa, and consist of  remove the seed coat. In both cases the maize is then milled in a plate mill or pounded in a pestle and mortar to make products such as tortillas in Latin America and ugali, banku, kenkey or uji in African countries. Details of these products are given in Chapter 4 (section 4.2). Double-disc mills, which have two discs that rotate in opposite directions, and pin-and-disc mills, which have intermeshing pins fixed either to a single disc and casing or to double discs, are less commonly used by small-scale millers.Both produce greater shearing forces and more effective milling, but are considerably more expensive than single-plate mills.Hammer mills consist of a chamber that is lined with toughened steel beater bars (or a 'breaker plate') with an interchangeable screen at the base. A highspeed rotor inside the chamber is fitted with swinging hammers made from hardened steel (Fig. If a screen with larger holes is used, the hammers still break up a lot of the grain to fine particles, but the larger particles also pass through the screen to produce coarser and darker flour. The size of holes in the screen also affects the output from the mill, which is higher when a screen with larger holes is used compared with a fine screen.These mills cannot be used for wet milling as they readily block with paste.Hammer and plate mills can be operated in two modes: either with a free flow of product through the mill in a single pass, or with the outlet from the mill restricted by a screen. The flour remains in the mill until the particles are small enough to pass through the screen. Under these 'choke' conditions, shearing forces play a greater part than impact forces in the milling process.When this is fitted, the flour is sucked through the screen and transported to the The better the fan suction, the quicker the flour can be removed from the mill.However, many mills have poor suction and the hammers just keep pounding the same flour and wasting energy. The following factors will maximise the amount of suction: • air intake of the correct diameter (it should be one third of the fan diameter. If it is smaller, insufficient air is drawn in, and if it is larger, air leaks from the periphery of the fan intake)• smooth corners to ducting and pipes (Fig. 3.11)• sealed joints to reduce air leakage on the suction side and prevent air blowing out with loss of flour on the pressure side. In most ACP countries, local production of paper bags meets the needs of millers, and local printing companies can print brand names and company logos on the bags. Multi-wall paper sacks or woven polypropylene sacks may have to be imported, or cotton or jute sacking material used instead. A bakery should have space and facilities similar to those described for a mill, and additional space for:• preparing and baking the dough• temporary storage for dough awaiting baking• cooling the baked products• testing ingredients and products for quality assurance• washing equipment.An example of a layout for a bakery is shown in Fig. 3.15.The size of a bakery building and the throughput of equipment depend on the expected sales (determined by a market survey). An example showing how to calculate the size of equipment is given in Case study 3.5 and in Volume 1:Setting up and running a small food business (section 5.3). Case study 3.6shows how to calculate the amount of ingredients from a standard recipe.  The demand for bread was estimated to be 450 loaves per day (each loaf is 400 g and the total is therefore 180 kg per day). However, the amount of ingredients is greater than the amount of end product due to losses during the process (Table 3.2 The basic equipment needed in all bakeries is a mixing bowl, containers for dough or batter, hand tools such as spoons, jugs etc. and an oven. However, except at the smallest scale of production, this level of manual operation will be inefficient, hard work and unprofitable. For most small bakeries the following is the minimum level of equipment needed to maintain a profitable level of production:• weighing scales• electric dough mixer• dough divider (for cutting pieces of dough of equal weight)• oven• prover • work tables.At a larger scale of production the following additional equipment is also used:• ball moulder (or 'umbrella' moulder) used for preparing dough into ball shapes• biscuit moulder for pressing or cutting biscuit dough into required shapes• mechanical dough divider• bowl hoist to raise mixing bowls to the feed hopper of a dough divider• pastry brake for rolling pastry dough into progressively thinner sheets• conveyor belts to transport dough or baked goods between different stages in a process• final moulder for rolling and pressing dough before placing in baking tins• packaging machines• backup generator.The most important items of equipment for a small-scale bakery are described in more detail in the following section. Details of other equipment can be found in references in the bibliography. Bakeries also need to have a selection of the hand tools shown in Table 3.3.Baking   Principles of hygienic design and methods of construction for food processing equipment are described in Volume 1 (section 5.3). Doughs and some types of fillings are able to support the growth of food-poisoning bacteria, and any equipment that is used to prepare these foods should be designed and constructed so that it can be cleaned easily. Any build-up of food in cracks, joints or recesses will rapidly become contaminated and infect subsequent batches with micro-organisms. Because of the regular washing that is needed, preparation equipment cannot be constructed from mild steel, and stainless steel, aluminium or plastic should be used. A potential difficulty for ACP bakers is locating stainless steel equipment because stainless steel welding skills and facilities are often not available locally.All doughs and batters have to be mixed • mixing bowls should have a smooth internal surface without corners, and all welds should be ground to a smooth finish.Dough or paste mixers knead the dough against the bowl wall or fold unmixed food into the mixed part. Planetary mixers (Fig. 3.16) have capacities from 20-50 litres and are commonly found in small bakeries. They have rotating blades that include all parts of the bowl in the mixing action.Another design has fixed rotating blades, which are offset from the centre of a revolving bowl. Gate blades are used for mixing pastes or blending ingredients, hooks are used for dough mixing, and balloon whisks are used for cake batter preparation or for whipping cream.Propeller-type mixers are placed in large tanks and are used for mixing thin liquids such as sugar syrups. Although these mixers are relatively cheap, the investment is not often justified. The small amounts of syrups required in most small bakeries can just as easily be mixed by hand.Kneading by hand can be a tiring task if large quantities of dough are produced, and increasing labour costs in many countries mean that even a small-scale baker must reduce the time spent preparing dough. For many it is no longer economical to prepare dough by hand, however small the business, and a powered kneader is required. After kneading, doughs are divided and moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes. Close control over the size of the pieces is critical to ensure uniform baking to the centre, and to control the weight (for bread this is a legal requirement in some countries, see section 5.4).The method for doing this will depend on the type of product, and there are many designs for dividing and moulding equipment for different products.This section describes the equipment used for bread, biscuits and pies.Bread dividers and moulders are particularly useful for buns and small loaves that take a considerable time to divide and weigh (or 'scale off') by hand.They cut the dough into accurately weighed pieces, and shape it into the required form. Typical small dividers/ moulders can produce 15-36 dough balls round the prover at a pre-set speed to give the required proving time.After proving, bread dough is given a final moulding before being placed in baking tins. This can be done by hand, but at larger scales of production the dough is passed through a machine that has sets of rollers with progressivelysmaller gaps to roll the dough into sheets. The dough is then curled to form the final cylindrical shape. For larger-scale operations, a pastry brake is used to make pastry dough (Fig. 3.18). This has two smooth steel rollers with an adjustable  The most important fixture in a bakery is the oven. Many people who are new to baking think that any kind of oven will do for a start, or they choose one that is cheap to construct without considering whether it is also efficient and economical. It is important to choose an oven carefully, taking account of the required capacity and fuel or electricity usage.In fuel-fired ovens, an arched roof (or 'crown') contains stationary, very hot air that cannot escape through the door. This acts as a reservoir of heat, which maintains the temperature of the crown. Heat is radiated from the crown to bake the products (Appendix I). The more heat that is retained in the crown, the longer the oven can be used before it is necessary to re-fire it.However, the amount of radiated heat that reaches the product is related to the square of the distance between the product and the crown (Fig.There is therefore a compromise to be made in oven design between having a large amount of heat retained by a high crown and a smaller amount of radiated heat reaching the products.When an oven uses a lot of fuel or loses heat quickly due to poor construction, the accumulated cost of wasted heat may turn an otherwise profitable business into one that fails. Although nearly every oven builder will say that theirs is the best, a well designed oven should have the following characteristics:• it should be economical in the amount of fuel or electricity used, and lose little heat• the temperatures at the top and bottom should always bear a steady relationship to each other, and the oven should bake products uniformly without hot or cold spots• it should be possible to produce extra 'top' or 'flash' heat when required• it should have a free flow of air to a firebox or burner assembly, and free discharge of smoke and gases into a suitable flue• the internal design should ensure that soot, smoke or ash from burning fuels does not contaminate products• it should be constructed from materials that can withstand intense heat without cracking or breaking• it should have easy access so that products can be loaded and unloaded without causing burns to operators, and to enable maintenance and repair• if a product with a glazed crust is required, it should be possible to inject either steam or water into the oven.There are two categories of ovens: those that are heated internally, and those that have a separate heat source. Internally heated ovens have the advantages of simplicity and a relatively low cost of construction. However, the smoke and gases from the burning fuel come directly into contact with the food and there is an obvious risk of contamination. The simplest oven In modern directly heated gas ovens, an insulated steel chamber is fitted with a full-width door (Fig. 3.23). Air and heat are re-circulated by natural convection or by fans. The temperature in the oven is controlled automatically by adjusting the amount of air and gas reaching the burners at the base of the chamber. Safety controls extinguish the burners automatically if the temperature gets too high, and pressure-relief panels are fitted to the top of the ovens to protect staff should a gas explosion occur.The simplest design of externally heated ovens involves burning fuel beneath a metal chamber (e.g. an oil drum) that contains the products. The food is separated from smoke and ash. This is also the basis of the hotplate or griddle used to bake unleavened breads and other products (section 4.3).Other The reel oven has a steel chamber and shelves inside, which are rotated horizontally by an electric motor. As each shelf passes the door it is loaded or unloaded. The movement through the oven ensures that the products are baked uniformly. A variation on this design is the rotary oven in which the chamber rotates vertically. A full-height door allows trolleys containing trays of product to be wheeled into the oven. These ovens have a high capacity and high cost, and are suitable for larger-scale bakeries.Electric ovens are fitted with thermostatic controls and safety cut-off switches. They should be fully earthed to prevent the risk of electrocution, and wiring should be properly placed and insulated so that it is not affected by heat from the oven. Three-phase electric ovens should have the load equally balanced across the phases. Most ovens have ceramic tiles as a hearth and the sides and top are insulated with glass wool or a similar material.Modern ovens have energy-saving features and microprocessor controls. For Theoretically, anything that burns can be used to heat a bakery oven, but in practice, fuel needs careful selection. The cheapest source is not always the most economical. Factors to consider when choosing a fuel include the type and amount of ash that is formed, the energy value of the fuel and the bakery location (to prevent smoke becoming a nuisance) (Case study 3.7). 'When we started, we used a locally fabricated fuel-wood oven. But as we are tucked in between two business premises, we had to find ways of releasing the smoke without inconveniencing our neighbours. First we adjusted our baking hours, then I tried to improve the oven but the smoke was still a problem.Then we thought about changing to electric ovens, but our advisors told us that they are not suitable for our kind of business as they are too expensive.So now we are trying to find more suitable premises for our wood ovens.' Specific local conditions in each ACP country determine which fuel has the lowest cost and the greatest availability or convenience (e.g. significant cheap coal reserves, extensive forest cover for wood or charcoal production, hydroelectricity or natural gas reserves). When solid fuels are used, the skill of the baker in controlling the fire is important. A careless or unskilled oven operator wastes large amounts of fuel. Where available, coal is the preferred solid fuel for bakery ovens because it is dense and compact, it has a high calorific (heating) value, it is handled relatively easily and it produces a compact ash that is more easily disposed of than wood ash. Traditionally, wood has been cheap or free and hence widely used in bakery ovens. However, deforestation has resulted in increased cost and legal restrictions on the use of wood in many ACP countries. Wood produces a light fluffy ash that can easily contaminate products, it has a lower calorific value than coal and it requires more labour to prepare it for use in ovens. Charcoal is more expensive than coal, but it produces an intense heat with little smoke. However, restrictions on charcoal burning may apply in areas that are suffering deforestation. The planting of fast-growing fuel-wood trees should be encouraged in such areas. Bottled gas (liquefied petroleum gas, LPG) is available in some urban centres, and where distribution is well established this fuel may be cheap enough to compete with solid fuels. In general, other liquid fuels, such as kerosene or diesel, are not widely used because of the special burners required and the risk of contaminating the product with off-odours. Petrol should not be used under any circumstances to heat bakery ovens because of the risk of explosion.Clearly, it is in the financial interests of both bakers and millers to reduce energy consumption as much as possible (Case study 3.8). This can be done by careful production planning (Chapter 6) so that mills are only switched on when they are needed, or a sequence of different products are loaded into ovens as they cool, in order to use all the available heat (see Chapter 4,   Table 4.8).Other measures to reduce energy consumption include switching off lights when a room is not in use, and reducing vehicle use by co-ordinating deliveries of products with collection of raw materials. Although these measures may seem minor, their cumulative effect can be significant. Bakeries in particular use large amounts of energy, and reductions in energy consumption can also result in national environmental and economic benefits by reducing deforestation and importation of fuels.Mrs P. in Uganda recognises that there is a high level of competition in the bakery industry. 'I have many competitors, and I know that the recent hike in electricity tariffs has forced some of them to cut down on production, while others have given up completely. The price rise calls for a bit of innovation and for people to give up the mentality of earning 300% profit and settle for a little less. This is a difficult time and you have to be very careful, but if you have invested resources and time in your business then there always ought to be a 'Plan B' for the business to survive. I have reduced my costs by saving energy wherever I can and as a result I still have a successful business.'Manual bread slicing using a knife is too time-consuming, even for the smallest bakery, and the slices have a variable thickness. Small electric bread slicers (Fig. 3.25) are the only realistic option for small-scale bakers who wish to supply sliced bread. They produce slices that have uniform thickness and they hold the slices together ready for packaging. Breadcrumbs that are produced by slicing machines do not have to be wasted -they can be collected and sold to domestic customers as a cooking ingredient, or to other food manufacturers as a filling for sausages or a coating for fried products.Most products supplied by small-scale bakeries are not packaged, except to protect them from dust and other contaminants. Simple bags are sufficient for bread, buns, pastries and small cakes, and these are usually filled by hand. Small machines are available to hold open the mouth of a bag while it is filled, and a tape dispenser is a simple but effective method of reducing the time taken to seal bags.Products such as biscuits that require more sophisticated packaging for a longer shelf life can be packed in paperboard cartons that have plastic inserts to hold the biscuits in place and prevent damage during distribution. The biscuits are filled by hand and the carton is then covered with a moistureproof and airtight film, such as cellulose, polyester or polypropylene, and heat-sealed. The other main method of packaging biscuits is to use a tightly fitting film that holds the biscuits together and protects them from moisture, air and light. This type of packaging material is cheaper than cartons, and the production costs are therefore lower. However, the biscuits are filled by hand because of the high capital cost of handling equipment that is needed to prepare the biscuits into stacks ready for packing.Most common ingredients that are used in bakeries can be obtained reasonably easily, especially if a large number of bakeries exist in a particular country. Bakers' yeast, baking powder, shortening, oils, and some types of food flavourings and colours can be obtained from larger supermarkets in are more difficult to find and may have to be imported by a special order.The lack of locally produced plastic films and glass or metal containers is a major constraint on the production of biscuits and other long shelf-life bakery products (Case study 3.9). The only option for many producers is to import packaging from a more industrialised country. However, even when an overseas supplier is located, there is usually a minimum order size that far exceeds the annual production capacity of a small-scale baker, and this effectively prevents the manufacture of these products. In some countries, import agents have begun to stock a range of packaging materials, and are able to sell these in smaller quantities to local bakers.A baker in Uganda uses plastic bags and silver foil to package his biscuits and cakes and obtains his materials locally. 'Sometimes we buy cake cartons from a supplier in town and charge it back to the customer. This is normally for birthday or occasional cakes. I have just identified a good supplier in Kenya, but I am still trying to work out transportation so that I just call and have a delivery when I run out. I am seriously thinking of starting to package my biscuits. I considered using tins, but I have not found a reliable supplier as yet.' ❑ Have you investigated ways to save energy?❑ Is the layout of equipment satisfactory? How could it be improved?❑ Are all guards in place on your equipment and are all safety features operational?Please use this space to make your own notes on Chapter 3.  way the product is made, and an ability to adjust the ingredients and processing conditions to take account of natural variability in raw materials.They must also be able to create the time and resources needed to test out their ideas.The eight stages in product development can be summarised as follows:1  A home economics graduate in Ghana started baking and selling pies, pastries, biscuits, bread and especially cakes, initially for friends' parties. She also baked speciality products for vegetarians and for people on low-fat or gluten-free diets. The demand for her products kept increasing, so in 1994 she decided to bake on a bigger scale and sent samples to up-market supermarkets for their opinions. She was surprised at their demand for her bread and biscuits, so she decided to increase the number of days she baked from two to four days per week. She had a full-time job, but found that she could double the production capacity when she had a day off from her work. To meet the growing demand, she invested US$30 of her savings and bought a bigger second-hand oven at an auction, and started baking 48 loaves a day in her kitchen. She also employed her son and two of his friends part-time. Business was good but she could only produce 60 loaves a day because of the size of her oven.In 1999, some missionaries visiting Ghana bought her wholemeal bread, breakfast cereals and biscuits, and were so impressed with their quality they wondered why she did not produce more. She told them of her need for bigger ovens and the church decided to give her a micro-loan of US$2,000 to buy three large ovens.She now supplies bread, cakes and breakfast cereals to supermarkets, shops at petrol stations, and to families who are on vegan or restricted diets. Most of her customers are wealthy people who care about their diets and are prepared to pay for good food. She is very innovative and is always looking for new ideas or formulating new recipes to out-class her competitors. She has developed different products for different markets (for example, garlic bread for restaurants, honey instead of sugar for diabetic bread, and soya flour as a substitute for wheat flour in gluten-free recipes). Her success has been due to making sure that she produces new recipes and products to meet her customers' needs. She has now decided to focus on composite bread and vegan foods, for which there is a large and growing demand.Although there are fewer opportunities for developing new milled products than for bakery products, product development can still significantly improve the income and profitability of milling businesses. The six main areas in which developments are possible are:1. Diversifying into packing whole grains The types of milled products can be grouped according to the processes that are used (Fig. 4.1). Development of each of the different products is described below. Milling businesses can diversify by simply cleaning and packaging dried whole grains and pulses. They need little additional equipment and, consequently, the required investment is low. However, the products are in competition with the whole grains and pulses that are sold loose in retail markets at a relatively low cost. Because processors incur additional costs for cleaning and packaging, they must use the higher quality as the main selling point to justify the higher price and cover the additional costs. The packaging and promotional materials can place particular emphasis on the product being hygienically produced and guaranteed free from dirt or stones.Value can be added to whole grains or legumes by popping them to make snackfoods (e.g. popcorn or popped sorghum). This can be done on a small scale by heating the moistened grains in very hot sand (at 180-200 o C) and then separating the grains from the sand using a metal sieve. On a larger scale, special 'popping guns' are available. Similarly, parboiling rice in hot water for 4-48 hours, followed by drying, improves the quality and yield of rice grains, and thus adds value to the crop. The process loosens the bran layer and toughens the grain, giving higher hulling efficiency, increased machine capacity, reducing breakage and extending the life of machine components. However, parboiling also changes the colour of rice from translucent white to a cream or yellowish colour, depending on the parboiling time and temperature. The acceptability of the colour change should be checked with potential customers before the process is introduced.Most millers concentrate on one type of cereal flour as their main business. If the demand exists, there are good opportunities to diversify into other types of flours, producing them using the same equipment (see Case study 2.7 on page 31). A range of products can be packaged under the same brand name, and this can help to increase sales of the main product by creating greater awareness among customers and increasing their confidence in the company as a serious producer. Dried skimmed milk 10Fish flour (cook with gruel) 8Groundnut flour or ground sesame seed (omit oil) 20Bean flour (cook for longer) 251 May be adjusted up or down by 20% to achieve the required consistency.can be added using a vitamin-mineral mix.Table 4.1 Some formulations for weaning foods that meet the energy and protein requirements of a 7 kg infant (adapted from Mitzner et al. 1984) The main problem for a miller who wishes to make an infant weaning food is to ensure that the combination of nutrients is adequate and balanced. In particular, the amino acid content of proteins is different for cereals and legumes. Alone, neither cereals nor legumes contain the full range required for a child's healthy growth and development, but by combining them in the correct proportions, it is possible to correct the deficiencies in each. Legumes contain anti-nutritional substances that must be destroyed by cooking, a process that also makes them more digestible.Weaning foods are made from cereal and legume flours by:• weighing the correct combination of raw materials• (for some) toasting cereals and/or pulses to remove anti-nutritional factors and increase their digestibility• milling to produce the required particle size • (for some) blending in a vitamin-mineral mix• packaging as a dry mix.These products are made into porridge by adding water, together with additional nutrients (especially protein) that are not present in the flours in sufficient amounts. Other products can be made by baking the mixture into biscuits, which are then broken up and mixed with water or milk to form a gruel. Another method of producing weaning foods is to use an extruder.Details of extrusion technology are outside the scope of this book and readers should consult references in the bibliography for further information.It is essential to obtain nutritional advice before developing or marketing weaning food products. Any new weaning food must be tested by theto ensure that it is safe to eat and nutritionally balanced to maintain the health and growth of the child.An example of a specification for a high quality weaning food is given in  A wide range of thick porridges and similar products are made from maize, sorghum and other cereals. These are staple foods and are also sold as streetfoods in many ACP countries (e.g. ugali, fufu, agidi, banku and tuwo in West Africa). Some are simply flour and water pastes, whereas others are fermented to produce natural acidity (e.g. balls of Ga kenkey in Ghana and bagone in Botswana), or made alkaline using potash (e.g. Tô in Mali), or acidified using water that has been used to soak tamarind before cooking.The general procedure for making porridges is to mix part of the flour in water and add this to boiling water. It is then cooked to thicken it. After cooling, the remaining flour is added with vigorous stirring and it is recooked for a few minutes. Kenkey is made by wrapping the fermented dough in leaves and steaming it for several hours. It is eaten by tearing off small pieces and dipping them in a sauce. Details of processing these products are beyond the scope of this book, but further information can be found in Kordylas (1990) in the bibliography.Bran is the main by-product produced by milling, and in some ACP countries it has little value and is allowed to accumulate outside the mill. This attracts insects and rodents, and therefore not only creates a health and environmental hazard, but also increases the risk of product contamination inside the mill. Millers often have to pay to have the bran removed to a disposal site, especially in urban areas, which increases the operational costs of the mill. There are a number of options to change this operating cost into an additional source of income. Bran may be sold to local chicken or egg producers to be used in poultry feed, or to livestock farmers as a component of ruminant feed, especially where zero grazing is practised. If a miller is willing to make an additional investment, a separate feed mill can be established to use the bran as a component of pre-prepared and packaged animal feed. Details of the operation of feed mills are given in references in the bibliography.More novel uses of bran include:• making fuel briquettes to replace charcoal for domestic cooking• compressing the bran with glue as an alternative to wood for furniture making• using bran as a reinforcing material to strengthen concrete blocks.Details of these applications are outside the scope of this book, but readers are referred to the bibliography for further information.Flour can be satisfactorily packaged in small amounts in paper or polythene bags, or in bulk in polypropylene, cotton, multi-wall paper or hessian sacks, each of which are available in many ACP countries. Heat sealers are used for polythene bags, while paper, hessian and polypropylene can be sealed using a sack stitcher (Fig. 3.14).Successful and innovative bakers understand the markets in which they  4.7 (page 114) for bread, Table 4.11 (page 126) for flat breads and biscuits and Table 4.12 (page 133) for flans, cakes and pastries. All bakery products are made from a set of basic ingredients, which contribute to their quality and properties in different ways ( Other types of flours include brown flour, which is white flour with some of the bran added back, and granary flour, which is made from a mixture of wheat and rye grains that have been allowed to sprout and then dried. Self-raising flour has added baking powder and is used for cakes, biscuits and scones. However, it is not recommended for commercial bakers because it loses its raising ability when stored for long periods. It is better to use plain flour and blend in the required amount of baking powder for the specific product, as it is needed. Cornflour is a fine white starch made from wet milling maize, which forms an opaque gel when boiled with water. It is used to thicken all types of sauces, glazes and custards, and is also an ingredient in some cake mixes. Arrowroot flour is almost pure starch extracted from the arrowroot plant. It has similar properties to cornflour, but forms a clear gel and is therefore preferred for glazes.Cassava, millet, rice, tef, sorghum or maize flours may be used as a partial substitute for wheat flour, especially in ACP countries where wheat is not grown in significant quantities. Using local resources keeps costs down by reducing use of expensive imported wheat flour. However, as these flours do not contain gluten, they cannot be used to make bread at more than approximately 25-30% of the total weight of flour. At a higher proportion, emulsifiers or changes to the breadmaking process are needed (Table 4.5). Above this level, the loaf volume and shelf life are reduced and differences in taste and texture become very noticeable. Nonwheat flours can be used in cakes and biscuits because these products do not rely on gluten to the same extent as bread for their texture. Sorghum flour is also used instead of maize in more arid ACP countries to make similar porridges and doughs (ugali, uji, chapati, injera etc.) and snackfoods. Soya or composite flour is usually made from maize and soya flour, although other cereal flours can be mixed with the soya flour. A variety of bean flours can also be used in composite flours, including those milled from peas, broad beans or chickpeas.Level of substitution (%) Water must be clean and safe to drink. If there is any doubt about the quality of water, the supply should be analysed by a government laboratory to ensure that there are no impurities that could be harmful. Simple methods for water purification are described in Volume 1 (section 5.2).The water content of dough depends on the water absorbing capacity of the flour, and a simple test for this is described in Chapter 5 (section 5.3). If the water content is insufficient, a 'tight' dough is produced, and the bread lacks volume and has a heavy texture. Hard water may also create a tight dough or slightly slow the yeast fermentation. Bakers therefore need to know the composition of the water to be able to adjust recipes and process conditions when developing new products.Yeast cells ferment sugars in the dough to produce carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. In baking it is the gas that is important, and the small amounts of alcohol are evaporated by heat in the oven. The specific type known as bakers' yeast can be obtained in three forms: as pressed fresh yeast, dried yeast or active dried yeast. Pressed yeast requires refrigerated storage and loses its activity more quickly than dried yeast. Dried yeast should be activated before use. This can be done by mixing it in five times its weight of warm water with a little sugar and leaving it to stand until the water becomes cloudy and gas bubbles are visible, before adding it to other ingredients. Dried active yeast is added directly to the dry ingredients without the need for activation. Because it is easier to store and has a longer shelf life, dried yeast is more likely to be available in many ACP countries.However, even dried yeast cells slowly die, and depending on the storage conditions, the yeast may lose 2-3% of its activity per year. In some countries it is very difficult to obtain good quality yeast, particularly outside urban centres, because the yeast is old and has lost some of its activity. A test for yeast activity is described in Chapter 5 (section 5.3).Adding the correct amount of yeast is critical if good quality products are to be baked. This should normally be 0.3-1.0% of the weight of flour. The other factors that affect the rate of dough fermentation are:• temperature and water content of the dough• time of fermentation• quality of the flour (sugar content and amount of gluten)• amounts and types of other ingredients.An experienced baker can take these different factors into account and produce a consistent dough, but because there are so many variables, it is When there is a delay between removing the dough and baking (for example during hand-moulding), the factor should be reduced by around 10% to take account of the additional time for yeast activity.The temperature of fermentation also affects the amount of yeast that is The relationship between dough temperature and the amount of yeast required is shown in Salt (sodium chloride) should be pure white crystals. Sea salt is more likely to contain impurities, and the more consistent quality rock salt is preferable. Salt easily absorbs moisture from the air, and should be stored in a dry place off the floor. In regions of high humidity it should be stored in moisture-proof containers. Salt has the following functions in bread-making:• it gives flavour• it stabilises and strengthens the gluten• it controls the yeast fermentation which in turn affects the crust and crumb colour• it helps retain moisture and so reduces staling.The amount added to a bread dough depends on the type of product, the flour strength, the water content of the dough and consumer tastes.European breads may contain up to 2500 g per 100 kg flour but ACP breads are typically less salty, containing between 1420 and 1785 g per 100 kg flour.Salt must be distributed evenly throughout the dough to prevent it coming into contact with the yeast and killing it. This can be done either by dissolving the salt in water before adding it to the flour, or by sieving the salt into the flour before mixing.Although flour normally contains 2.5-3% natural sugar, in some ACP countries a further 1.5-2% sugar is added to make the popular sweetened breads. Other bakery products, such as pastries and cakes, may contain substantial amounts of sugar. White granulated sugar is suitable for most bakery uses, but pure sugar is sometimes difficult to obtain in ACP countries due to impurities (traces of molasses giving a pale brown colour) or contaminants. Dissolving the sugar in a little warm water and filtering it through a fine cloth or mesh is a convenient way to remove contaminants. Brown sugars are used in some rich fruit cakes as they contribute to the flavour as well as the colour of the product. For rich cakes made using the sugar-batter method, castor sugar should be used. Different types of malt can be added to bread dough, but great care must be taken to avoid problems of quality in the final product. Diastatic malt has natural enzyme activity: it breaks down starch and softens gluten. High diastatic malt is only suitable for short processes and for use with very strong flour. In other baking conditions it produces a sticky crumb and dark crust colour. Low diastatic malt has a less marked effect on the loaf quality, and non-diastatic malt has no enzyme activity, but contributes sugars, flavour and a darker colour to the dough. When used correctly, malts have the following advantages:• better dough ripening with an increase in gas production and loaf volume• improved crust colour and bloom• a softer, lighter crumb• longer shelf life.Malts can be obtained as dried malt extract (used at up to 250 g per 100 kg flour), viscous malt extract (used at up to 175 g per 100 kg flour) and malt flour (used at 1430 g per 100 kg flour).Fats used in baking include special bakers' fats (or 'shortenings'), butter and margarine. A high melting-point vegetable fat is preferred to animal fat, but vegetable oil is not recommended. Shortenings are produced from a wide range of oils, the most common including palm, sesame, coconut, palmkernel and cottonseed oils. Cocoa butter and a mixture of fat and skimmed milk are also used. These shortenings are used for all short-pastry products, and may be mixed with margarine or butter in cakes to improve the shortness of the crumb. Butter gives a better flavour but has poorer creaming properties than shortenings. If the flavour of butter is required, it is recommended that 50% of the butter should be replaced with good quality shortening. However, because shortenings are 100% fat and butter is only 84% fat, it is important to use only seven-eighths of the weight of butter when substituting with shortening. In some countries, specially formulated margarines can be found, including cake margarine, pastry margarine (for puff pastry) and unsalted margarine (for use in creams). A good quality margarine that has good creaming properties is necessary for making cakes, to hold the air that is beaten into the batter. Lard is used for savoury pastries, where its flavour is valued, but it cannot be used in cakes because of its poor creaming properties. It also imparts shortness in pastry that cannot be matched by other fats. In theory, fat is not necessary in bread production, but the addition of fat, at 0.5-1% of the weight of flour, increases loaf volume and gives a more tender and thinner crust, a better crust colour, a softer crumb and an improved flavour.Fresh whole or skimmed milk, dried skimmed milk, sour milk and buttermilk are used in different bakery products. Dried skimmed milk powder can be reconstituted to liquid milk or mixed in directly with the dry ingredients before the water is added.Although eggs from geese, ducks and other poultry can be used in cakes, it is more normal to use chicken's eggs because they have a less pronounced flavour. They should be fresh (used within a few days of laying) and without visible damage. Whites and yolks should stand bold when removed from the shells. Locally purchased eggs are rarely graded by size in ACP countries, and the egg contents should therefore be weighed to produce a standard recipe.Egg sizes vary widely from approximately 40 g to 60 g. The weight of the yolk is approximately half that of the white. A medium egg (e.g. 53 g) would therefore give approximately 15 g of yolk and 30 g of white after the shell weight is taken into account.If egg yolks or whites are left standing, they should be covered with a damp cloth to stop a skin forming on the surface, and kept in a refrigerator to restrict the growth of micro-organisms. Dried egg powder is available in some capital cities in ACP countries, but it is only used for cheaper, lower quality cakes. This is because it does not hold air as well as fresh egg. It is reconstituted using a ratio of one part egg powder to three parts water, and should be used immediately to avoid any risk of food poisoning.Baking powder contains two ingredients: acidic cream of tartar (acid calcium tartrate) and alkaline sodium bicarbonate, in the ratio two parts to one.When the powder is moistened, the ingredients react to produce carbon dioxide. Baking powder can be bought ready-mixed, but it may have lost some activity if it has been stored for too long at a retailer's shop. More preferably, the two separate ingredients should be sieved together just before they are needed to ensure that they are fresh and uniformly mixed.The blended mixture should be sieved into the flour to ensure an even distribution. The mixture can be stored in moisture-proof and airtight containers for a few days. This type of baking powder leaves no after-taste in the product but tends to react rapidly, so these products should be baked quickly. Substitute baking powders based on acid calcium phosphate instead of cream of tartar react more slowly but leave a slight aftertaste when used in large amounts (e.g. in scones).Flavourings can be grouped into extracts, essential oils and essences. Extracts are derived from natural materials using alcohol as a solvent. They give the most natural flavours and are often the most expensive. Vanilla is obtained from vanilla pods and the essence is a 10% solution in alcohol. Synthetic vanilla is also widely available. Essential oils are made by steam distillation of spices, roots, peels, nuts or flowers. They can withstand the high temperatures of baking to give flavour to cakes or biscuits. Both types have intense colour and should be carefully diluted before use to prevent streaks of colour in the product.Dried fruits, including sultanas, currants, apricots, raisins and mixed fruit peel, are used in buns and cakes and fresh sliced or chopped fruits may be used in tarts and pies. Commonly used nuts include almonds, brazil nuts, groundnuts, dried coconut, pistachio nuts, walnuts and pecan nuts. They may be used whole, as halves or chopped. Marzipan is made by steaming a mixture of one part sugar and two parts almonds and grinding the mixture to a stiff paste.Praline paste is made by milling nuts (usually almond or hazelnut, although any nut can be used) using steel rollers. Both marzipan and nut pastes form a skin when exposed to air and should be stored in plastic bags for a short time before use. They are very prone to mould growth and therefore should not be stored for long periods.Crumb softeners are additives that can be used in bread-making to soften the crumb, although these may not be widely available in ACP countries.Soya flour can be added to wheat flour at a rate of 70 g per 100 kg flour.It softens the crumb and improves the appearance and colour of the crust.Lecithin is an emulsifying agent that reduces the stickiness of the dough and allows more water to be incorporated. It may be available in a pre-mix with fat and flour, which is used at a rate of 1% of the flour weight. Alternatively, lecithin can be mixed with flour at a rate of 90-180 g per 100 kg flour. Other emulsifying agents are glyceryl monostearate (used at 90 g per 100 kg flour)and stearyl tartrate (used at 45 g per 100 kg flour).Pre-mixed ingredients (e.g. where all the dry ingredients in a recipe are rubbed into the fat in bulk) are becoming more readily available to bakers in some countries either from local suppliers or via import agents. It is also possible for bakers to make their own pre-mixes. This gives greater control over ingredient formulation, saves time during production and provides work for production staff during quieter periods. It also reduces the risk of any ingredient being forgotten in a batch of dough.The basic ingredients for making bread are strong flour, yeast, water, fat and salt. In contrast to many Western countries, where bread is eaten with margarine or butter (e.g. as sandwiches with a variety of savoury or sweet fillings), bread and buns are eaten alone in many ACP countries. As a result, consumers prefer a sweeter product than European breads and adjustments to these recipes are therefore required. Sugar is routinely added to make a sweeter product and milk, milk powder or additional fat can also be added to produce a softer texture and richer flavour. White flour is most commonly used, but in some countries there is a small but growing consumer demand for wholemeal or whole-wheat breads. The traditional 'straight dough' or 'bulk fermentation' method of white bread production is described below.Other methods are described in the sources in the bibliography (Appendix III).The manufacture of bread using the straight dough process has eight main stages:• mixing the ingredients to form a dough• kneading the dough to develop the gluten structure• bulk fermentation, usually for three hours at 27°C• dividing and moulding, to form pieces of dough of the correct size, and to reduce the size of gas bubbles• intermediate proving step to allow the dough to relax• knocking back and final moulding• final prove to allow the yeast to gently inflate the dough• baking to produce the shape and colour of the crust and to set the internal structure.These stages are described in more detail below. The same procedures are used for bread rolls and pizza bases and formulations for different types of bread are shown in Table 4.7. Differences in the proportions of ingredients and conditions used at each stage of the process give rise to the wide variety of flavours and textures that can be produced. Even a small change in a recipe or process can produce a completely different product. It is therefore essential to record these details carefully during product development, and to ensure that exactly the same procedures are used for each batch of product.Quality assurance checks for ingredients and baked products are described in Chapter 5 (section 5.3).The temperature of the dough is one of the most important factors controlling the rate of yeast fermentation and this partly determines the amount of bread that can be produced per day. The temperature should be maintained at 25-27°C to allow the yeast to work. If it is too high (above 49°C) it will kill the yeast, and if it is too low (<20°C) the yeast will not ferment the dough quickly enough. One of the easiest ways of adjusting the dough temperature is to add water of a known temperature, and there are two methods that can be used.1. Simple method. Measure the temperature of the flour. Double the required dough temperature and subtract the flour temperature. This method is suitable for large batches of dough that can retain their heat, but the water should be a few degrees hotter for small batches or if the weather is cold.The required dough temperature is 27°C and the flour is at 20°C.  The basic procedure for bread-making is as follows:1. Accurately weigh all dry ingredients into a mixing bowl 2. Dissolve the yeast in warm water (30-34°C). Dried yeast is used at 50% of the weight of fresh yeast The dough is placed in a proving cabinet. The dough is allowed to rise until it has approximately doubled in size. It should then be light to the touch and smell fresh. If it is proved for too long it will smell of alcohol; if it is not proved for long enough it will not have risen sufficiently. When dough is first made, it is tough, but after about three quarters of the fermentation time has passed, it becomes full of gas and the gluten relaxes.The inflated dough is then 'knocked back' to its original size by kneading to expel the gas. Knocking back improves the quality of a loaf because it stretches and conditions the gluten, removes large gas holes and produces a more stable crumb structure.The dough is cut into pieces of uniform size and carefully weighed to ensure that each is the same weight. This can be done by hand, or using mechanical dough dividers (see section 3.3). The dough pieces are then allowed to rest for a short time. Dough loses 10% to 12.5% of its weight when water is lost during baking, and this needs to be taken into account when calculating the required weight of the pieces. The following formula can be used to calculate the weight of dough pieces:  If a finger impression remains in the dough, it is a sign that it is over-ripe or over-proved. It is important that the dough has a smooth and silky appearance in order to produce a good finished product. Any rough edges at this stage will make the final product less attractive. Some doughs are glazed with egg wash before baking to give a golden brown crust colour. It should be applied before both first and second provings. A little salt added to the egg improves the crust colour. Alternatively, a sugar glaze can be applied after baking to give a shiny surface to the product. This is a boiled sugar syrup which may contain a flavouring or essence (e.g. lemon, vanilla etc.). It is applied after baking while the products are still hot.Any baked-on food should be removed from baking tins or trays, but it is not advisable to wash them, as this will destroy the non-stick properties that build up over time. Oil is rubbed in a thin layer or sprayed into the baking tins. When baking rolls, biscuits or other products on baking trays, it is important to ensure that there is sufficient space between the dough pieces to allow for expansion and to permit heat to penetrate the sides. The spaces between pieces should be the same to achieve uniform baking. Baking times and temperatures for different products are shown in Table 4.8. These are for guidance and actual times and temperatures depend on the particular recipe and oven that are being used. As a general rule, the richer the product (the more fat, milk, sugar etc.), the lower the baking temperature.A simple check to determine if a loaf is adequately baked is to lightly tap the underside. A properly baked loaf has a hollow sound. After baking the products are allowed to cool to room temperature on cooling racks. Baking losses are calculated using the following formula:% loss = (weight of dough before baking) (weight of product after baking) x 100 weight of dough before baking  Details of methods for assessing the quality of baked goods are given in Chapter 5 (section 5.3). Types of faults in bread and their possible causes are shown in Table 4.9. (pp. 120 121).1 Baking time depends on the size of the pieces.The term 'fermented small goods' refers to a range of products including buns, plain and fancy rolls, baps and muffins. Buns may also have fruit, spices, essences, egg, milk powder, butter or fat added. Fruit is added after mixing to avoid crushing it and spoiling the appearance and colour of the product.Typically sultanas, currants, cherries or mixed fruit peel are added, but any dried fruit can be used. A small amount of flour and a little sugar (about 10%) and yeast are mixed to a thin batter. The yeast acts rapidly with vigorous gas production, leading to a frothy mass (the ferment). If left long enough the froth will collapse. Some bakers believe that the ferment must collapse before it can be made into a dough, and impatient operators may kick the fermenting tub to hasten the collapse and allow them to get on with their work. Dough ripens more quickly when a collapsed ferment is used, because the acids produced by the fermentation assist the gluten ripening. Most buns are made using the standard ferment and basic dough shown in Table 4.10.  4.10 Basic recipe for a bun fermentThe ferment is added to the dough ingredients and mixed to form the final dough. This is knocked back after 30 minutes of fermentation at 27 o C. The dough is then weighed (or 'scaled'), proved and baked on baking trays as described above for bread. When they are removed from the oven, buns can be washed with a glaze made from one of the following recipes:1. Two parts fresh egg and one part water, whisked together 2. Two parts egg, one part sugar and one part water, whisked together 3. One part sugar and one part water boiled and then cooled. 1.25% powdered gelatine is added as the mixture cools.Lemon essence may also be added to each of the above glazes.   A thin batter is first made with water and yeast, 10% of the sugar and a portion of the flour. It is fermented for 30 minutes and the remaining ingredients are added to form the dough. This is again fermented for 30 minutes, and formed into balls or rings. Ring doughnuts are made by removing the centre from the dough piece with a ring cutter after it has been proved and knocked back. The dough is allowed to rest for ten minutes and then moulded into the final shape and proved at 35°C. It is then fried at 185-190°C, turning to ensure that both sides are golden brown. While still hot, doughnuts may be coated with sugar.Alternatively, when cooled, jam may be injected into the centre using a piping bag, or a slit may be cut in the side and filled with jam and/or cream.Flat breads include fermented doughs such as naan and pizza bread, and unleavened breads that do not require fermentation, such as roti, chapati and tortillas (Fig.  Double-layered breads are made in a similar way, but they are given a second proving of between five and ten minutes before baking. This allows the dough to relax, aerate and develop a thin skin. When they are baked in a hot oven (350-650°C) for 18-100 seconds, the skin forms a crust, and the steam inside the dough, together with carbon dioxide from the proving, force the top and bottom crusts apart creating two layers.Unleavened flat bread doughs are prepared and then rolled thinly before baking, often on a griddle or hotplate. For example, the method for producing tortillas is as follows.1. Water and half of the butter are boiled together, slowly stirring in maize meal until all is absorbed, and then adding the remaining butter and mixing to a smooth paste.2. After cooling, salt is mixed into the flour, which is then added to the paste and kneaded to form a soft dough.3. The dough is divided into equal pieces that are made first into round balls and then each rolled out to approximately 15 cm discs.4. The discs are baked on a griddle for two to three minutes on each side or until the surface is flecked with brown spots. They can then be filled with a variety of savoury fillings.Batter-based breads are made by mixing the ingredients to form a uniform batter, and then pouring a portion onto a hotplate. After a few seconds, the bread is turned over and the other side is baked. Recipes for a selection of flat breads are shown in Table 4.11.Biscuit or cookie dough is made either by adding ingredients in turn to the flour with constant mixing, or by mixing together all the ingredients except flour and then carefully mixing in the flour until it forms a well mixed dough.The dough can be chilled to make it firm enough to roll out. It is rolled out on a floured table to 0.25-0.5 cm thick, and cut to the required shapes with biscuit cutters. Dough pieces are evenly spaced on a lightly greased baking tray, decorated as required (e.g. with sugar crystals, chocolate chips, raisins, nuts, crystallised fruits etc.) and baked until light brown. A selection of biscuit and cookie recipes are given in Table 4.11.Choux paste is used to make éclair type pastries that can be filled with many different types of sweet, savoury or cream fillings. Water, butter and salt are boiled together and then removed from the heat while the flour is added little by little with constant stirring. The mixture is then returned to the heat and beaten until it is smooth and it falls away from the side of the pan. It is allowed to cool and beaten egg is added to the mixture, beating all the time until the paste is smooth and shiny. It is then piped onto trays as 'finger' shapes for éclairs, or 'rounds' for profiteroles.Pastry casings for pies and savoury flans are made from savoury pastes that can be prepared in one of three ways. 1. Cold water paste is used where the paste needs to be rolled out or cut out using a warm cutter (or 'die'). The method involves mixing equal amounts of fat to flour, using the slowest mixer speed. Salt water is added to the mixture until the batter has absorbed the liquid, and the remaining flour is mixed in to form a paste. It should be allowed to rest before rolling out.2. Hot water paste is used for products that can be cut out or hand-raised to form a pie case. The fat and flour are mixed together at the slowest mixer speed until a crumb is formed. Boiling salt water is added to the crumb, mixing until a paste is formed. This can be used either warm or cold.3. Boiled paste is used only for the production of hand-raised pies. The water, salt and fat are boiled together, and the flour is then added slowly with constant stirring and continued heating. It should be used while still hot.Pies can be made by simply folding a square of pastry corner-to-corner to form a triangular shape, with the filling contained inside by pressing the moistened edges together. Alternatively, a pie casing can be used to form the shape of the pie. If meat, fish or vegetables are used as fillings, these should be thoroughly cooked and used immediately to avoid the risk of microorganisms growing. Meat and fish in particular should be carefully selected and processed under hygienic conditions that are strictly enforced. Further details are given in Setting up and running a small meat or fish processing enterprise, another CTA publication in this series.Short (or shortcrust) pastry is used to make a very wide range of flan casings and tarts (see Table 4.12, page 133). The word 'short' means that the pastry is easily broken and should not be at all leathery or tough. It can be kept, uncooked and properly wrapped to prevent it drying out, in a refrigerator for a few days, or up to two weeks when baked. Pastry is made using the sugar/batter or the flour/batter method, described for cakes below. Castor sugar should be dissolved in the liquid or creamed with the fat, but granulated sugar should be avoided because it forms dark spots on the surface during baking, spoiling the final appearance. It is important to keep ingredients cool at all times, using a refrigerator if necessary, and not to overmix, as the pastry becomes sticky. The pastry is used to line a flan dish or a baking tray with a flan ring placed on it, and then baked until golden brown.  Prove dough for 15-20 minutes, roll each piece to a cylinder shape and divide into eight pieces. Roll each piece into balls, cover and rest for 5 minutes. Roll balls out to 20 cm discs. Using moderate griddle, cook each side for 45 seconds until brown flecks appear, brush both sides with ghee. Place roti between two wire racks and hold above high heat for 15 seconds to puff.Table 4.11 Formulations for selected biscuits and flat breadsTart pastry is made by mixing flour and salt, lightly rubbing in fat, and then slowly mixing water into the flour to make a stiff paste. The pastry should not be rubbed too much, as this gives a greasy product, and it should only be rolled out once to prevent toughening. Care is also needed to avoid adding too much liquid and producing a wet paste. Flan pastry is made by sieving the flour and baking powder together, adding margarine, and mixing at a slow speed to form a crumb. Then egg and sugar are mixed together until all the sugar is dissolved, and this is added to the crumb and mixed to a lump-free paste, if necessary adding lemon juice as it forms. Recipes for tart and flan pastry are given in Table 4.15. The pastry is carefully rolled to 0.5 cm thick and placed on a greased baking tray with a flan ring on it, or in a greased flan dish. A circular piece of greaseproof paper is placed on the pastry and weighed down with baking beans or a similar alternative. It is baked at 215°C until golden brown, then filled with a sweet or savoury filling.Puff pastry is made by gradually mixing flour with beaten egg and adding sufficient water to make a stiff paste. This is rolled out thinly and small pieces of butter or margarine are laid on top of the paste. They are covered with the remaining flour, the sheet is rolled into a tight tube and then rolled out flat again. This is repeated two or three times. Then one third of the sheet is folded over and the other third is folded on top. This is repeated three times, folding in different directions. It is refrigerated for one to two hours and then formed into slices or 'horns', or other shapes than can be filled with cream or sweet or savoury fillings (e.g. vol-au-vents). Puff pastry should be baked at 261-275°C until golden brown.Products such as cakes, scones and soda bread are known as chemically raised doughs because they rely on gas produced from baking powder to raise the dough and produce the desired crumb texture. There are two main methods of making cakes: the 'sugar-batter' method and the 'flour-batter' method.Fat, margarine or butter is beaten with sugar to create a cream. Any colouring or essences should be added at this stage. Then egg is mixed into the cream. If a mixer is used, the egg can be added in a steady stream, whereas if mixing is done by hand, the egg is added in four portions, beating each one into the mixture in turn. The sieved flour and baking powder are then carefully added and folded into the batter. The aim is to achieve a smooth, lump-free batter but without toughening it by too much mixing. Other ingredients (fruit, milk, nuts etc.) are carefully blended into the batter and the whole is poured into a greased baking tin and baked at 182°C until cooked through.Sugar and egg are whisked together to form a batter. The flour is sieved to incorporate air, then carefully folded into the egg/sugar mixture, causing as little disturbance as possible to its light structure, until the batter is smooth and free from lumps. Any remaining liquid and any fruits, nuts or other ingredients are then carefully blended into the batter. If the recipe uses margarine or butter this should be creamed with an equal amount of flour before mixing with the egg/sugar. Add the sugar/egg to the fat/flour mixture in about four equal portions, beating each portion together. It is important to keep the two mixtures at the same temperature. The batter is then placed into a greased baking tin and baked at 204°C until the interior is properly baked.The basic ingredients in a cake each have particular functions:• those that provide strength and structure to the cake (flour, egg)• those that open the texture (sugar, fat, baking powder)• those that close the texture and reduce lightness (milk, water).Every cake recipe should have a correct balance of these ingredients. There are hundreds of different recipes for cakes, and a summary of recipes for a small selection of products is shown in Table 4.12. However, each complies with three basic rules for cake-making:• the weight of fat should not exceed the weight of egg• the weight of fat should not exceed the weight of sugar• the weight of sugar should not exceed the weight of total liquid.Based on the weight of flour as 100, a balanced recipe for a plain cake of reasonable quality contains:• fat: between 20 and 60• sugar: between 50 and 60• total liquid: between 80 and 90.Note: the amount of fat must be balanced with the amount of egg and flour.A general rule is to keep the weight of egg equal to the weight of fat or slightly in excess.A high sugar cake could contain:• Flour: 100• Fat: 30-60• Sugar: 100• Liquid: 100-110.The effect of too much or too little of each ingredient is shown in Table 4.13 and Fig. 4.8. Table 4.14 shows the ratio of fruit to batter in different types of fruit cakes.1 This is because the effect of the fat on the gluten is reduced and there is more resistance to expansion of the cake during baking. Steam therefore escapes more violently, tearing its way to the crown of the cake.2 When hot, this space is full of steam and remains expanded, but as it cools the cake collapses.Sweetens cake and lightens the texture. Helps form the crust, develops the colour, improves the flavour of other ingredients and preserves the cake.Causes batter to over-expand and structure to collapse. The crust has brown sugar spots and the crumb is open and sticky.Produces smaller cake volume and a 'pecked' crown. Crust has a lack of bloom and crumb is too closely formed because the gluten is insufficiently softened.Opens the texture, improves the eating quality and carries flavours.Small cake volume, a thick and greasy crust, a crumb that is greasy and collapsed at the base.Poor crust colour, smaller volume and the crumb has tunnel holes pointing to the centre of a peaked top. The cake is tough and will stale rapidly 1 .Moistens the cake and reduces lightness.Tough, rubbery texture. The cake collapses as it cools. A heavy solid core forms at the base with a large hole above it 2 .The cake lacks volume, tastes dry and stales rapidly.Produces carbon dioxide which raises and aerates the batter, to give honeycomb texture in the cake.Produces too much gas, which expands the cake more than the gluten can stretch causing the cake to collapse during baking. The crust is darker and the crumb is open textured and discoloured near the base.Loss of volume (also due to old or badly stored baking powder).Gives structure to the crumb. Tough, rubbery crumb. Not essential -no major effect Egg Fig. 4.8 Cake faultsBirthday cake 50 50Christmas cake 45 55Fruit cake 20 80Wedding cake 55 45Table 4.14 Proportions of fruit and batter in different types of fruit cakeAmong more wealthy  Scones are made by sieving flour and baking powder together and then rubbing in margarine to form a crumb. The remaining ingredients are added to the crumb, mixing carefully to form a smooth dough. If required, fruit is then added carefully so that the dough is not toughened. The dough is dusted with flour, rolled out to the required thickness (e.g. 1 cm), and cut into round shapes of the required size using a biscuit cutter. These are baked on a griddle (or hot-plate) until browned on each side. Scones can also be oven-baked.In general, baked goods have a short shelf life and do not require sophisticated packaging. Bread is usually eaten within one or two days and simple paper or polythene bags are conveniently used to keep the bread clean or to hold sliced bread together.If polythene is used, the bread should be packed after it has cooled to prevent condensation inside the pack resulting in wet spots, which would cause mould growth.Bags can be sealed using a heat sealer, a knot or a plastic or metal tie. Products such as biscuits have an extended shelf life (from a few weeks to several months) and require packaging that prevents moisture pickup from the surrounding air. Biscuits that contain fat should be protected from light, air and heat to prevent development of off-flavours due to rancidity. They may require additional protection against crushing or attack by insects, birds etc. Some types of plastic films (polypropylene, polyester, but not polythene), paperboard cartons covered with film, glass jars or metal tins are all suitable packaging materials. Further details of packaging requirements and materials are given in texts on packaging in the bibliography.The packaging and storage requirements for cakes depend on their moisture content and the humidity of the surrounding air. Each type of cake must be judged by its composition and the intended shelf life. ❑ Do you need further training to be able to make a satisfactory product?Who can train you?❑ Do you know how to assess your products objectively?❑ Are you aware of current trends in the milling and baking industry?❑ Can your equipment handle the products you want to make?Product quality is one of the main features that customers look for. Products must be safe to eat and must also meet consumers' ideas of good quality and value for money. To achieve this it is necessary to have a quality assurance (QA) system. Many smallscale millers and bakers do not have such a system in place; instead problems are simply resolved as they arise. This approach does not ensure consistent product quality. Any failures in processing may pass unnoticed and lead to faults in the product. It is much better to identify where problems may occur and have a plan to prevent them before they arise, rather than trying to correct them afterwards.Not only will this ensure a uniform quality product, but the producer will also save money and the image and reputation of the company will be protected.This chapter describes the steps needed to set up a QA programme in a mill or bakery.A successful milling business will produce flour of consistently high quality.Customers judge the quality of the flour they buy based on three factors:• purity and lack of contaminants • fineness • correct weight in the pack.Commercial customers, such as bakers, also judge the quality of wheat flour by its gluten content (see section 4.3).Preventing contamination is the most important aspect of QA for most smallscale millers. The main contaminants found in grain are:• foreign material (soil, weed seeds, stones, string, leaves etc.)• infestation by insects, excreta, hair from rodents or feathers from birds • mould growth • chemical residues • oil or grease from vehicles or machinery.A well designed QA programme prevents these contaminants from entering the factory or discovers and removes them before they can be incorporated into the flour. The miller should also check for physical damage to grains and for immature grains.In addition to checking the quality of incoming grains, the QA programme should also cover the following aspects of production:• the correct operation of seed cleaners, hullers and mills • the condition of the building • routine cleaning programmes • flour quality and fill weights • correct sealing of bags and sacks.Each of these areas is summarised in Table 5.1 and described in more detail below.1 Details of control points are given in Volume 1, section 10.2. 2 Contract farming is described in Chapter 6, section 6.3. Poor quality grain is one of the most common problems facing millers. The reasons for this include inadequate control by farmers over conditions during harvest, drying, post-harvest storage and transport to the mill, and poor storage conditions in the mill. Most small-scale flour millers buy their grain from farmers or local market traders, and therefore have little control over the way in which the grain is grown, harvested, stored or transported.Contract agreements with farmers can improve the amount of control that millers have over their raw materials. This section describes the quality checks that can be made on grain bought from markets or farmers, followed by a summary of the methods that can be used if a miller has greater control over post-harvest handling and storage of the crop. If possible a sample of grain should be taken to check the quality. A sampling probe (Fig. 5.1) is a convenient tool, although one that is not commonly used in ACP countries. The sample can be checked visually for:• contamination by foreign materials, insects, birds and rodents• excessive moisture content or mould growth• broken or immature grains.Grain may be contaminated by weed seeds, stalks, soil, stones, dead or living insects and it may also be contaminated during transport by metal or wood fragments, diesel, oil, grease etc. When the sacks are opened at the mill, the grain should be spread onto an inspection table and any foreign materials, mouldy or discoloured grains removed. A sorting table can be constructed from metal or plastic mesh. A large mesh size retains large contaminants, but allows grain to fall through into a collection tank under the table. A fan placed beneath the table can be used to blow air through the falling grain to remove dust, animal excreta etc. (i.e. winnowing the grain). Alternatively, a small mesh retains the grain but allows weed seeds, dust, small stones etc. to fall through. After this preliminary cleaning and sorting, some millers wash the grain in a trough or tank to remove sand, small stones and dust. A periodic QA check can be done at this stage to collect and weigh the contaminants that are separated from the grain. The weight can be expressed as a percentage of the batch weight using the calculation:% contamination = weight of contaminants × 100 weight of batchThe weight and type of contaminants in grain supplied by different traders or farmers can be recorded over a period of time to see whether some suppliers have consistently lower quality than others. The evidence from these checks can be used to negotiate with each supplier, either to reduce the price or to improve the quality of future deliveries. Where there is a choice of suppliers, the miller may want to use this evidence as a reason for changing to a new supplier. If suppliers know that such checks are being made, it may encourage them to improve their handling and storage procedures, particularly if the miller is willing to offer a premium price for higher quality grain.Removal of contaminants is essential if high quality flour is to be produced and the mill is to be protected from damage. Several small-scale millers who assisted in preparation of this book indicated that the main cause of damage to their equipment, and hence additional operating costs for repairs, was failure to protect machines against stones in the grain. Others noted that high quality products that had no contaminants attracted customers, and this enabled them to develop their company's reputation and expand their market share.The second QA check should measure the moisture content of the grain. The correct moisture contents for safe storage of grains are shown in Table 5.2. Similarly, if different varieties of grain with different sized seeds are mixed together, milling capacity will be reduced, there will be a higher incidence of breakage, yields will be lower and the end product will be of poorer quality.Each of these factors leads to a reduction in the profitability of the mill.have little control over quality issues and can only negotiate over the price they are willing to pay. Contract arrangements with farmers allow greater control by millers over the quality of their raw material.Contract growing is described in Chapter 6 (section 6.3). It gives a miller more control over the production of the grain, and can ensure a higher and more consistent quality. QA checks (in addition to the ones described above) can be used to ensure: As part of a contract arrangement, a miller can also specify and/or supervise harvesting at the correct stage of maturity, and control on-farm threshing and winnowing to reduce the level of contamination. It is not unknown for farmers to mix inedible and sometimes poisonous seeds with grains to increase their weight. These can be detected at the inspection stage in the mill, but it is obviously better if supervised contract farming reduces the chance of these being added in the first place. Harvesting at the correct stage of maturity is essential for high quality grain. Some farmers harvest grain too early because they need to generate an income from their crop as soon as possible, or they fear theft from the fields. However, immature grain has a higher moisture content and contains more active enzymes, which shorten the storage life of the grain. Immature grain also has poorer milling qualities and produces substandard flour. Conversely, if grain is left in the field for too long after it has matured, it may be repeatedly wetted with dew or rain, and dried each day in the sun. This causes the grain to crack, increasing the risk of infestation by insects and mould.Storing inadequately dried grains leads to a significant risk of mould growth, particularly in crops such as maize that are not shelled before drying.In maize, the mould grows out of sight, and even a small amount of infected grain can spoil a whole store. Moulds give an unpleasant smell to flour, making it unacceptable to consumers, and some moulds are harmful to human health. Certain species produce a range of poisons, known as aflatoxins in cereals (see Appendix I). Aflatoxins have no taste and may be eaten, resulting in long-term damage to the liver, digestive system and kidneys. In one African study 1 , 77% of maize contained aflatoxins, with some samples containing levels nearly three times the FDA 2 recommended maximum. Recommended storage practices for grain are as follows.1. Make sure the storeroom or silo is waterproof by locating it on well drained land, raising it above the ground and fitting a waterproof roof 2. Prevent the temperature in the store from fluctuating by using insulating materials (e.g. brick, mud, clay or wood), painting the outside white and fitting an overhanging roof to keep sunlight off the walls 3. Ensure that the store is insect-proof, rat-proof and bird-proof 4. Make sure that storerooms or silos have been thoroughly cleaned, and all old grain, straw, insects etc. have been removed and burned to prevent them re-contaminating new grain 5. Make sure that grain is properly dried before putting it into a store 6. Traditional insecticides (e.g. wood ash or neem leaves) can be used. If chemical insecticides or fungicides are used, ensure that manufacturer's recommended application dosages are carefully followed 7. Regularly check the grain for infestation, signs of mould or discoloration, and ensure that it is not getting hot (each is a sign of excessive moisture).If these are found, remove the grain and re-dry it.Compared with many other foods, flour is relatively safe from causing food poisoning because of its low moisture content. However, grain is not heattreated during milling and any moulds that are present are likely to be transferred to the flour. Similarly, any aflatoxin contamination will be transferred to bakery products because the poisons are not destroyed by heat.It is therefore essential that good hygienic practices be observed during harvest and storage of grains and throughout the milling process, especially during stages when the grain is moist.1 Kaaya and Muduuli (1992). 2 The embryo in cereal grains (see Fig. 3.5 on page 60) has a high oil content (18-25%) and its incorporation in milled flour reduces the shelf life because of more rapid development of rancidity, compared with flours that have a lower extraction rate (see Chapter 4, section 4.3).Hauliers in ACP countries do not specialise in food distribution, and have little knowledge of food safety or the requirement to protect food against damage or contamination. Although most grain is loaded into sacks for ease of handling during transport, the quality of re-used sacks is often not checked. They may also be inadequately sewn up on the farm. Dirty sacks contaminate grain, and inadequately sealed sacks allow access to birds, insects and rodents, especially if the sacks are left on the farm for a few days awaiting collection. Control over packaging is part of a QA scheme, and it is preferable for millers to supply good quality sacks for collecting contracted grain, and possibly employing a member of staff to weigh and seal sacks on the farm at the time of collection.Grains are often transported with other non-food goods that may cause contamination by oils, metal fragments, other chemicals or wood splinters. Grain can also easily absorb odours from kerosene or diesel fuel, and care should be taken to ensure that these materials do not come into contact with the grain.Transport operators are paid by the weight or volume of goods moved, and do not suffer financially if the quality or safety of the grain is compromised.However, the power of traders and middlemen makes it difficult for millers to introduce changes. A better option is for millers to collect sacks of grain directly from the farmers using their own vehicles, or use contracted hauliers' vehicles that have been inspected to ensure that they are clean (Case study 5.1).'Our only raw material is maize, but the quality is not always consistent. We do a check on receipt of raw materials and have a set standard. We select the supplier depending on the quality received. The biggest problem is not with the packaging itself, but with the damage that occurs during transportation.We are planning to invest in a pickup truck, as I know that when we have our own transport this problem will improve. We will be able to pack the maize properly and transport it by the smoothest means. It is very difficult to dictate to a hired driver how to drive and which roads to take, as they always want to use the quickest routes, which are normally very bumpy roads.'If adequate quality assurance procedures are followed for inspection of grains, operation of the milling equipment, and storage of flour, there are relatively few checks that are needed on the flour itself. The main QA check is to ensure that the weight filled into bags or sacks is not below the weight declared on the label or printed on the sack.Dust is a serious problem in flour mills. Accumulation of flour dust attracts insects and rodents, which in turn contaminate the products. It is therefore essential that the mill building is correctly constructed (Chapter 3, section 3.2), and that routine monthly inspections are made to ensure that floors and walls have not developed cracks, and that windows and ceiling panels are intact and in place. This should be part of the job description for a member of staff, who should tick off each check against a written checklist. A supervisor or mill owner/manager should ensure that the checks are done properly.All spilled grain and flour dust should be cleaned up at the end of each day's production to prevent flour mites and other insects from breeding and contaminating the products. A comment from a less professional miller that: 'It is a flour mill -you expect to see flour beetles!' is not acceptable, and customers now demand higher quality products. If infestation is found it should be treated by spot-spraying, but the best approach is to prevent infestation from occurring by proper cleaning.Care should be taken to ensure that recesses behind machines, ledges and window sills are also properly cleaned. Using brightly coloured brooms, brushes and cleaning cloths ensures that bristles or cloth fragments can be seen and removed easily, thereby preventing contamination of the flour. In larger mills it may be appropriate to use different colours at each stage of the process to allow more accurate identification of any source of contamination. In previous years some millers fumigated their stores or mills once a year with methyl bromide gas. Although this is effective against all types of insects, it is also a chemical that destroys the ozone layer in the atmosphere, and since 2000 it is being phased out under the International Montreal Protocol.Fumigants and sprays that are approved in some countries to disinfest silos and grain stores include lindane, bromophos, malathion, dichlorvos, piperonyl butoxide, pyrethrum or combinations of these. Particular attention must be paid to the manufacturer's instructions, which must be explained to workers and strictly observed.Correct operation of seed cleaners, hullers and mills is necessary to produce high quality flour at the expected feed-rate, and machines should be checked daily to ensure that settings are correct and that there are no loose nuts or bolts. Parts that are likely to wear out should be checked monthly as part of a planned maintenance programme (Chapter 6, section 6.3). Metal fragments, pieces of hardened flour, wire or nylon from sieves or cotton fibres from sacks can all contaminate flour during milling. Sieves should be used at points throughout the process to collect larger contaminants. The sieves should be checked regularly as any sudden change in the level of contamination indicates that a problem has arisen. It should be investigated and corrective action should be taken. It must never be assumed that 'the sieves are doing their job by catching contaminants, so there is no need to worry'. The sieves are there to indicate problems and anything unusual should be investigated.Magnets should be used to protect machinery from metal in the grain and also to remove any iron and steel fragments from the flour before it is packed. Permanent magnets are the preferred option, because electromagnets can drop a mass of filings into the flour if the power fails.Magnets indicate a problem and should be checked regularly. They are not a safety net to be relied upon and forgotten about. Magnets cannot pick up brass, copper or other non-ferrous metals.Tests for flour quality, as used by bakers, are described in section 5.3, but these are rarely performed by millers in ACP countries. However, millers could use the simpler tests as part of their marketing strategy to demonstrate the high quality of their flour.The weight of flour in a sack or bag is controlled by law in most countries and should be routinely checked to ensure that operators are filling them to the correct weight. In larger mills, investment may be justified in a bagging machine (Fig. 3.13 on page 66). Stored flour should be sold using the 'first in first out' (FIFO) system.The main reasons for low quality baked products are faults with the processing room, the process, ingredients, operators or distribution methods.A QA programme should therefore comprise:• ingredient inspection Baked products are rarely involved in food poisoning incidents because the heat of the baking process kills most micro-organisms or reduces their numbers to safe levels. However, products containing meat, fish or vegetables have a greater risk of causing food poisoning if they are not handled and stored correctly. The time that these products spend in the temperature danger zone (10-45°C) during processing must be minimised by efficient handling and effective cooling. Refrigerators for cakes with cream fillings and other cream goods must be properly maintained and operated at the correct temperature. Pies and samosas should be either chilled in a refrigerator or stored in a hot display cabinet (above 63°C).Obtaining high quality ingredients, handling food safely, proper temperature control and thorough cleaning are therefore essential if these products are to be produced safely.In most ACP countries, small bakers either buy flour directly from a local miller or buy imported flour from an agent. Other ingredients, such as special fats, sugar, salt, essences and yeast are purchased from wholesalers, retailers or directly from import agents. Bakers have little control over the quality of ingredients and it is therefore necessary to conduct checks to ensure they are of a suitable quality (Case study 5.2).The following tests are suitable for small-scale bakers because they: Evidence from testing may be used to re-negotiate prices with a miller if the quality is not satisfactory.Test for the presence of flour mites as follows.1. Place about 100 g of flour onto a flat surface and use a ruler to spread it out and flatten it. 1. Mix a sample of flour with petrol in a glass jar and stir thoroughly.2. When the suspension of particles settles, the contaminants may be seen floating on the surface of the petrol. If required they may be filtered out and identified. The sieving test can be used to detect contamination with stalks, stones, string, cigarette ends, leaves etc. as well as measuring the degree of fineness of the flour. However, the cost of specialist sieves is relatively high and the investment can only be justified if there are recurring problems with suppliers.1. Sieve 500 g of flour through a stack of analytical metal sieves, with the largest mesh size at the top of the stack and the smallest at the base. Typically the range of sieve sizes is 1.6 mm to 0.038 mm. A mechanical shaker can be used to ensure a consistent amount of shaking, but this adds further to the cost.2. Weigh the material that is collected on each sieve and express it as a percentage of the total weight. Contaminants are retained on the larger sieves and can be examined if necessary.Testing for moisture content requires accurate scales (measuring to three decimal places, i.e. 0.001 g), a thermostatically controlled oven and a laboratory desiccator.1. Accurately weigh (to ± 0.001 g) triplicate 2 g samples of flour into small dishes and place them in an oven at 104-105°C for two hours 2. Remove, put into a desiccator to cool and re-weigh.3. Replace the dishes in the oven for 30 minutes and repeat the process until their weight does not change.4. Calculate the moisture content using the following formula:% moisture = initial weight -final weight × 100 initial weightIt is also possible to buy a moisture analyser that uses infra-red heat or electrical conductance to measure the moisture content of flour (Fig. 5.2), although they are more expensive than oven drying. If the equipment is too expensive for small scale bakers, samples can be taken to a university food science department or a bureau of standards for testing.Bakers need to know the capacity of the flour to absorb water, so they can adjust the bread-making process accordingly. A good quality bread flour absorbs water to 60-65% of the weight of the flour, while biscuit flour absorbs water to 55%. Too much absorbed water gives a sticky dough, while too little produces a tough, poorly risen product. A simple test is to make a dough using 100 g flour and measure the weight of water that is absorbed.1. Weigh 100 g of flour into a mixer bowl.2. Add water slowly to make a standard dough (judged by the processor to 'feel right').3. Record the amount of water added. This is a comparative test that can be used to indicate a wrong grade of flour or to compare new batches of flour with those procured from an existing supplier.For bread-making, it is important that a baker buys 'strong' flour with a medium to high gluten content. For other products, 'weak' flour (lower in gluten) is normally used. Hard wheat flour is often more expensive and difficult to obtain in ACP countries, and it is not unknown for a supplier to substitute cheaper soft wheat flour, or to make an error when labelling the sacks. The gluten content can be checked simply by washing out the starch from the dough and examining the gluten that remains. With experience, a baker can easily tell which type of flour has been supplied.1. Weigh 10 g of flour into a bowl.2. Add 6 ml of water (5 ml for weak flour).3. Mix into a dough and form the dough into a ball.4. Place the ball in the basin, cover it with water and leave for 45-60 minutes (if a rapid result is needed leave it for at least 10 minutes).5. Wash out the starch under cold running water, squeezing the dough frequently to help remove the starch. When all the starch has been removed the water will run clear and the remaining gluten will be free of lumps.6. Remove excess water with a cloth or tissue paper.7. Weigh the gluten and record this as a percentage of the flour weight (for a strong flour it should be 12-13% and for a weak flour 9-10%).8. Assess the strength and elastic properties of the gluten by pulling the piece apart (Fig.where the breaking point occurs.Gelatinisation occurs when starch granules in flour swell and burst due to moderate heat and moisture (above 56°C for wheat starch). This gives an increase in viscosity of the starch paste. At much higher temperatures the starch granules burst and the viscosity falls. The degree of breakdown of starch granules can be controlled to give different baked products. For example, starch granules are totally broken down to produce wafer biscuits; there can be a mixture of swollen and broken-down granules in bread; or there can be no breakdown, as in shortbread biscuits. If grain has germinated during storage, there is an excess of natural enzymes that break down the starch, and in products that do not require starch breakdown, this produces a sticky dough. The following test is used to decide whether the enzyme activity in the flour is excessive and allows the baker to adjust the recipe, if necessary. The test assesses the viscosity of gelatinised flour by measuring the time taken by a steel ball to drop through it. 1. Mix 100 g of flour with 900 g of hot water in a bowl.2. Heat until the flour has gelatinised and the paste begins to clear.3. Pour the mixture into a tall vessel (e.g. a 1 litre measuring cylinder), which is stood in hot water.4. Drop a small steel ball into the mixture and record the time taken for it to drop 200 ml.5. Compare the time to that for a standard flour.Solid shortenings (fats) are supplied by large companies in simple paper or plastic wrapping, which offers little protection against rodents, insects or birds.The fats can rapidly develop rancidity if exposed to heat or sunlight, and should be checked routinely by smell and taste. Any rancid fat should be discarded as it will impart an unpleasant flavour to the products. Shortenings are expensive ingredients and should be stored in a cool place away from sunlight, preferably in a refrigerator. They should be used as quickly as possible, with strict stock rotation to prevent losses. If necessary (e.g. when a new supplier is used), the melting point of fat can be checked using a thermometer.Oil from a reputable processor is usually delivered in tins, to protect it from air, heat and moisture pickup, and hence prevent the development of rancidity. Provided the tins are kept sealed until use and the store is reasonably cool, there should be few quality assurance problems. If oil from village producers is delivered in glass bottles or other containers, the oil should be checked for rancidity by smelling or tasting it. All oils should be clear and without sediment.Generally these ingredients require little testing, but they may contain dust and dirt. Their purity can be checked by dissolving a small amount in hot water and allowing any dirt to settle. If salt has a pink tinge it should not be used, as this is an indication of bacterial contamination, which occurs in sea salt originating from lagoons.Fruit jams or sauces are used as fillings in some bakery products. If necessary, the sugar content can be checked with a thermometer during boiling (jams have the correct sugar content when the boiling temperature reaches 105°C).Yeast is supplied as dried powder or granules, or as a block of fresh pressed yeast. In either case, it is essential that the yeast is active (alive). Dried yeast has a shelf life of one to two years, provided it is stored in an airtight container and kept in a cool, dry place. Fresh yeast must be stored in a refrigerator if it is to be kept for more than a few days, but even at refrigeration temperatures it begins to lose its activity after only a few weeks.To test yeast activity, a standard ball of dough is placed in water and timed to see how long it takes to float to the surface. The test is based on assessing gas production (or the activity of the yeast to inflate the dough).1. Add 5 g of yeast to 100 g of water to form a suspension.2. Weigh 3 g of flour into a pot and mix in 1.8 g of the suspension.3. Mould the dough into a ball and place it into a narrow pot containing 150 ml of water at 25°C.4. Place the pot in a water bath at a constant temperature of 25°C.5. Measure the time taken from placing the ball in the pot until it floats to the surface.Control points can be identified to help the baker maintain consistent processing conditions. He/she may need to modify a recipe, or adjust the process to take account of natural variations in the quality of raw materials.As an example, the checks required at the main control points for bread production are described in A medium-scale baker said: 'To achieve consistent quality products, our manufacturing must be carried out under controlled conditions and in a specified sequence of operations. Process control is required on all aspects and involves checking all control points and materials, production processes and equipment that are used to make a product.' This baker recommends looking specifically at:• factors (e.g. time, temperature of baking, proving etc.) that affect product quality• accuracy of equipment used to measure the product• skills and knowledge of operators• record-keeping of personnel, processes and equipment.All 'We don't have a problem with rodents as we clean regularly and try to hose down the premises every week. We keep very few baked products on the premises overnight. We always check that the raw materials store is secure and nothing is kept on the floor.' 'Cleanliness and regular maintenance are the key things. We clean daily after each baking session and wash all equipment, wipe the floor and clean all surfaces. We don't keep any food in the processing area and we make sure that the ingredients store is secure. Regular cleaning of machinery also acts as a maintenance check. I don't believe in waiting for machines to break down before calling someone in. Our machines are inspected as they are cleaned.'Customers expect bakery products to have an attractive shape and colour, a crumb that is finely and evenly distributed and a desirable texture.   An adequate loaf volume is one of the most important characteristics to customers, and a baker can assess this using a device that measures the displacement of rapeseed or mustard seed. This method is accurate because the seeds are hard and round and flow easily to fill small spaces in the uneven loaf surface.A given weight of seed always occupies the same volume.The measuring equipment can be constructed and a known volume of seed is poured in so that the seed fills the space around the loaf and levels off in the tube. The loaf volume (in cubic centimetres) is read from the graduations on the tube and a score is given (Table 5.5). In addition to loaf volume, freshness is another highly important characteristic required by customers. The most common method of checking the freshness is a squeeze test. Although assessing crumb firmness is useful, it is easier to measure crumb recovery (i.e. degree of crumb springiness or resilience). This test can distinguish between soft, soggy bread and soft but resilient bread, and assesses how well the loaf returns to normal after squeezing it. Scores are given as follows:>50% recovery 10 points 45-50% recovery 6 points 40-45% recovery 4 pointsCrust colour is assessed against colour standards (e.g. painted cards) as follows:golden brown 15 points pale crust 10 points burnt crust 0 points• preventing airborne dust from entering the bakery from outside• preventing dampness in storerooms• ensuring that bread is cool before packaging.There are several reasons for packaging bakery products:• to keep them clean and protect them against contamination by insects or dirt• to reduce moisture loss or pickup• to hold individual biscuits or sliced bread together• to enhance presentation and aid marketing.Short shelf-life baked goods can be wrapped in paper or polythene film.Newspaper should not be used because the ink is toxic and may dissolve in the fat contained in the product. If protection against crushing is important (e.g. for cakes, pastries pies), products can be packed in cardboard cartons or loaded onto trays for transport. In each case QA procedures should ensure that the packaging is clean and the products are handled carefully (Case study 5.6).'We use cardboard cartons and wooden boxes to transport the bread and it only becomes damaged when it is packed badly and there are gaps left between the loaves. This is not really a result of bad packaging but of careless transportation.'Biscuits require more sophisticated packaging to give a shelf life of more than three to four months in tropical climates. QA procedures for biscuits should ensure:• the packaging is made of the correct type of plastic, and has the required thickness • there are no holes, tears or punctures in the film• the seal is correctly formed and has the required strength.Apart from visual examination, the procedures and equipment for testing plastic films are likely to be too expensive for most small bakeries. Further information can be found in packaging textbooks described in the bibliography.Stores used for baked products should be cool, dry, regularly cleaned and protected against insects and rodents. Mobile racks or steel shelving with adjustable supports are easy to inspect and assist stock rotation. Slotted high-density polyethylene or polypropylene trays are easily cleaned and stacked, and they can store a variety of different products together on the same tray. Similarly, mobile plastic or stainless steel ingredient storage bins keep materials clean, restrict contamination by insects and rodents and can be wheeled to the point of use. Correct stock rotation is needed to prevent unnecessary wastage and to maximise profits. Normally, short shelf-life products are sold within a day or two, but they should be checked daily.Weekly checks should be made on other products and on raw materials.Stock rotation of products is easier to operate using date coding, but most bakery products do not legally require a sell-by date (see section 5.4).Producers can use a date stamp on packages or trays for their own benefit or alternatively adopt their own code (e.g. a blue card for Monday, red for Tuesday etc.) to identify the date of production (Case study 5.7).'We do check the quality of all raw materials when they come in, such as checkweighing on receipt and occasionally taking samples for analysis. Processing has critical points that we take care of, and storage is supervised. We use batch codes and date codes and occasionally take samples to check out the shelf life.'The required frequency of QA checks depends upon the importance to the quality of the product and the likely problem that is being checked for. Checks that are critical to product quality or safety should be done for every batch (e.g. the oven temperature) or every day (e.g. mill settings). Other checks are required less frequently, and a summary is given in Table 5.6.• check weight and condition of raw materials• check processing conditions and machine settings• check for loose parts on machines• check fill weights and quality of seals• clean the production equipment and factory, including toilets and washrooms• check equipment for worn parts that could fall off and contaminate products or damage machines• clean storerooms and other non-production areas• send work clothes for washing• check stocks for signs of damage or theft• clean windows• check and service machinery• check walls and floors for cracks• do a full stock check of ingredients and packaging materials• check testing equipment to ensure it is accurate• review QA procedures, staff training and recording systems to ensure they remain appropriate to the needs of the business Table 5.6 Frequency of QA checksIn most ACP countries there are laws governing the setting up, registration and operation of bakery and milling businesses. Failure to follow the law may lead to punishment by the authorities or forced closure of the business. In most ACP countries there are general regulations that apply to all foods and standards that are specific to particular types of food. Volume 1 in this series contains details of the general regulations concerning labelling, All chemicals used during the production and storage of grains are regulated by international laws, described in detail by the Codex AlimentariusCommission. These laws also specify the maximum residue limits for pesticides etc. in grains. Millers in particular should contact the Bureau of Standards or Ministry of Agriculture to find out which of these international laws has been included in legislation for their country. Flours are normally required to have a maximum 15% moisture content, and in some countries the grade of flour is specified by the size range of the flour particles and the percentage bran that is allowed.Unpackaged flour, sold loose and dispensed into customers' own containers, does not require labelling. Packaged flour should be labelled with the name and address of the miller and the name of the flour i.e. not the brand name but the type of flour (e.g. 'soft white flour', 'wholemeal flour' etc.). The law may require the labelling to describe flour that has a specific extraction rate (see Chapter 4, section 4.3). Legislation in some countries allows for up to 200 mg/kg of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to be added to wheat flour as an improver although, in practice, bakers generally use less (50-100 mg/kg).Flours do not require date marking (e.g. 'best before' or 'sell by') if they are expected to have a shelf life of more than 12 months.Weaning foods made from cereal-legume mixtures (Chapter 4, section 4.2) should conform to specifications of the Protein-Calorie Advisory Group of the United Nations (Appendix II), if the government has adopted these. As a minimum, the label on weaning food containers should have a clear set of preparation instructions in the language spoken by customers, diagrams to illustrate preparation procedures and feeding guidelines (frequency and amount). Label instructions should be fully tested among consumers of all education levels and cultural backgrounds to ensure that they are properly understood (see Mitzner et al., (1984) for further information).In some countries, speciality flours for consumers who have specific dietary requirements are also labelled to indicate the type of nutrients or the composition of the food. For example:Dietary fibre 6%Nutrition information on a label may also include a full list of vitamins and minerals, especially the salt content.A label can be used to make claims about the benefits of the flour, but such claims are illegal if there is a risk that they could give false or misleading information. Claims that are not allowed include those that say a food is 'wholesome', 'healthy', or can 'cure disease'.There are usually no legal limits governing the amounts of flour, shortening, salt, milk or sugar used in bakery products. In some countries standard bread has a required maximum of 38% water, 3% non-wheat flours and 0.25% yeast (each as a percentage of flour weight). Other ingredients, such as soya flour, poppy seeds, caraway seeds, cracked wheat or oatmeal, may be specified to not exceed 2% by weight of the flour. Brown bread may be required to have at least 0.6% fibre. Other speciality breads may be required to have a certain percentage of a specified ingredient. For example:Enriched bread not less than 3% added fat Milk bread not less than 3.6% added whole milk solids or skimmed milk solids Wheatgerm bread not less than 10% added wheat germ Gluten bread not less than 16% and not more than 22% protein High protein bread not less than 22% protein Fruit bread not less than 6% added fruit Malt bread not less than 6% added malt Other additives may have legal limits imposed on their use (Table 5.7), although these are not used often by small-scale bakers. The composition of most chemical additives is also controlled by law, but few small-scale bakers have the expertise or facilities to test their additives for compliance. Unpackaged bakery products or those that are only packaged for direct sale to the consumer do not require labelling. However, the name that is used to advertise these products in a retail outlet should accurately reflect the product. Pies, samosas, flans or pastries should be described with the generic name of the ingredient (e.g. 'fish', 'meat', 'cream', 'fruit', 'cheese', 'nuts' etc.).It is not necessary to indicate the actual type of meat, fish or fruit that is used, although this may help with marketing and promotion. In some countries bread should only be described using one of the following names:• white bread• brown bread• wheatgerm bread• wholemeal bread• soda bread• granary bread.Packaged goods should indicate on the label the name and address of the producer, the type of product and a complete list of ingredients, starting with the largest amount and ending with the smallest amount. It is not necessary to indicate the actual amounts of ingredients used. Water that is used to make biscuit dough does not need to be included as an ingredient as it is less than 5% of the product weight, but may have to be included in other products if it is above 5%. Likewise, any additive that is used only as a processing aid and has no function in the final product need not be included (e.g. carbon dioxide produced by yeast during bread-making, or a bleaching agent in flour, when the final product is bread). Essences do not need to be individually identified, but simply described on the label as 'flavourings'.If there are compound ingredients (i.e. an ingredient composed of two or more ingredients) these can be listed either as a single list:Chocolate biscuits Ingredients: Wheat flour, sugar, vegetable fat, cocoa powder, skimmed milk powder, starch, soya flour, salt, flavourings.or divided into the different ingredients:Base: Wheat flour, water, animal fat, yeast, salt Topping: Tomatoes, cheese, vegetable oil, spices.A compound ingredient need not be named if it supplies less than 25% of the finished product (e.g. jam filling in a sponge cake).If a producer wishes to use the European system of 'E-numbers' to identify additives, the code numbers can be obtained from offices of the European Union or Centre for the Development of Enterprise (CDE) in capital cities, or by contacting UNCTAD (see Appendix II). The ingredient list must show a category name such as 'preservative', 'colour' or 'emulsifier' before the E-additive or number (e.g. 'acidity regulator -sodium citrate' or 'raising agent -E450a').The label must show the net quantity contained in the pack (not including the weight of the packaging). Unwrapped bread is not labelled, but in most countries the weights of standard loaf sizes are controlled by law. For example, in some countries loaves must weigh 400 g or a multiple of 400 g.In other countries the standard weight is 500 g and multiples of 250 g up to 2000 g. Above 2000 g the multiples are 500 g.A date mark is required for products such as biscuits that have a shelf life of less than 12 months, and for products such as pies that are sold in packages and intended to be eaten after a few days' refrigeration. This type of product   Planning is essential, not only when a business is being set up (Chapter 2, section 2.1), but also for daily operation. Good production planning makes the best use of people, materials and equipment, and also helps the entrepreneur to:• think ahead about the business to prevent problems arising during operation• avoid 'bottlenecks' in the process, or running out of an essential ingredient• know if the business is going to make profits in the future• obtain the necessary information for bank loans, suppliers' credit etc.• predict the growth of the business and decide what actions are needed to achieve it.Small-scale millers and bakers often fail to perform adequate production planning and production may cease due to a lack of spare parts for machinery, or the business runs out of labels, or an important ingredient such as sugar. In the authors' experience, these failures in production planning are the most important reason for a business to operate below its expected capacity. Production stoppages and low production rates mean that the fixed costs (see Chapter 7) become a relatively large proportion of total costs. The business simply does not make enough product (and hence does not receive sufficient income) to make a profit or even to pay the bills. The products then become over-priced and uncompetitive. In extreme circumstances the producer reaches credit limits with suppliers, who eventually refuse to provide inputs, and the business fails.The following questions illustrate some of the routine planning decisions that need to be taken in a milling or bakery business:• are enough raw materials available for next week's production and are they of the correct quality?• is the equipment ready for the expected production levels?• are there enough packaging materials available?• are trained workers going to be available, or should extra workers be hired for the week?A bakery or mill manager should ensure that sales and marketing staff discuss with production staff the amounts of products required each week. There are two reasons for this: first to plan the production levels for the near future, and secondly, to monitor long-term trends. Sales people gather orders from customers, and production staff then draw up a production plan showing how much of each product should be made during the next few days. The production manager can then arrange for the necessary amounts of ingredients, packaging and labour to be available to meet the orders (Fig.6.1). Clearly, the more notice that can be given of anticipated sales, the easier it is to plan the production (Case study 6.2).If you have sales staff, ensure that they are properly trained, motivated and managed. 'We monitor our production very closely so that we produce only what is needed for an order or for that day's sales. Time-keeping is very important to us and we make sure we fulfil our agreements and deliver on time. This starts with production and follows through to delivery. If, for some reason, a customer cannot collect products at short notice, we will deliver.' Sales staff should discuss the popularity of each product with retailers and customers, and find out whether demand is increasing or decreasing. Are there enough packaging materials?Are sufficient staff available?Is the machinery working?By doing this, they can get an idea of future sales trends. This type of information allows the owner or manager to draw up long-term plans to cope with expected changes in demand (Case study 6.3). 'We have developed business, marketing and production plans. We are able to meet the production plan target but production has been adjusted down until the marketing plan is fully implemented and sales increase. We meet and compare sales month by month and try to understand the trends. We are confident that the sales targets will be met, but it's going to take more Milling and baking are highly competitive types of business, and good production planning and management are needed to control expenditure and reduce product costs, in order to maintain or increase a company's profitability (Chapter 7). The main considerations are:• locating sufficient amounts of raw materials and ingredients that have an acceptable quality• proper staff recruitment and training to ensure a uniformly high product quality• maintenance of equipment to prevent breakdowns and ensure uninterrupted production• full utilisation of staff and machinery to maximise productivity. Each of these is described in more detail below.In many ways production planning in a flour milling business is more straightforward than some other types of food processing; the range of products is more limited, the same equipment is used for different products, there are few ingredients, packaging is relatively simple and packaging materials are usually available. However, the need to secure a supply of raw materials, often for a full year's production, poses a major constraint and may involve careful negotiations with farmers or other suppliers. Ideally, there should be strong, trusting relationships between farmers and millers. Strong relationships have several benefits:• reduced uncertainty, in both costs to the miller and income for the farmers • increased profitability from an assured supply of high quality raw materials • reduced costs arising from buying activities, better production planning and cash flow management because of guaranteed raw material supplies • better understanding by farmers of millers' quality requirements and increased incomes to farmers from guaranteed sales of crops.A key component of any agreement with farmers is the price offered by the miller. A number of arrangements are possible to determine the prices that are paid for crops. In contract growing schemes, the miller sets a fixed price and the farmers have a guaranteed income, but do not benefit if the market price rises. They are more likely to renege on the agreement under this type of contract and sell their crop to the highest bidder. In contract milling schemes, the miller buys a proportion of the crop at a fixed price and the remainder belongs to the farmer. This places the risk with the farmers, but also gives them the opportunity to get the full market price for part of their crop. For any type of agreement to be effective, both parties must keep their side of the arrangement, and this requires a high level of trust and understanding. Case study 6.4 illustrates four different arrangements between millers and farmers.'Our principal raw materials are maize, sorghum and millet. To ensure that the factory has enough high quality raw materials, we have made contracts with farmers that cover a specified period (usually one year). These contracts emphasise the timely delivery and quality of grains to be supplied. In fact, the owner visits some of the farmers to ensure that the correct varieties are supplied.' 'My biggest cost is transport. I do not own a company truck and this means that suppliers use their own transport and thus the charge for the raw materials is higher. We have budgeted for our own truck and then we will be able to go to the villages and buy the crops ourselves. This will also give us more say in the quality of the materials that we buy, and we will be able to reach more suppliers than can come to us. I know that this is going to cut our production costs tremendously.' 'We don't have any contracts with suppliers. We buy in bulk and always pay cash. We try to buy from the same supplier as long as he can give us a discount and have supplies when we need them. But we do give him advance warning of our need!' 'The quality of the maize I buy is fairly consistent because I go to the areas of production and buy directly from the farmers. To overcome the problem of high cost during the lean season, I stock up during the bumper season, between August and October.Bakers require better production planning skills than millers because a wide range of products are needed for an operation to be profitable.When a baker has decided on the amount of production needed each week to meet the expected demand, the weights of ingredients can then be calculated using the recipe for each product (Table 6.1). All other inputs (packaging, labels, distribution, cartons etc.) can then be scheduled, and orders placed with suppliers to maintain the required stock levels. Because of difficulties in securing reliable and regular supplies of ingredients and packaging materials in many ACP countries, some bakers keep large amounts of stock to protect themselves against loss of production. Also some millers buy a year's stock of grain at harvest time when the prices are lowest. The large expenditure on these purchases may cause cash flow difficulties because cash is tied up for many weeks while stock that has already been paid for is waiting to be used. In addition, holding stocks of materials for a long time may result in wastage, spoilage or theft.The alternative of buying materials more regularly in smaller quantities is often favoured by smaller enterprises to overcome cash flow problems.However, items bought in this way are more expensive than buying in bulk, and there is a constant risk of production stoppage because all the stock of an essential ingredient has been used. The problem can be partly addressed by adequate initial financing of the enterprise, perhaps with a facility to take a loan in phases over several months to meet the planned shortfalls in cash flow, and by periodically buying materials in bulk.Feedback from small-scale millers and bakers revealed that raw material and ingredient costs represent a significant proportion of total production costs (between 30 and 80%, with an average of 52%). Raw material costs therefore have a significant effect on the profitability of the business, and it is important to ensure that materials are correctly ordered and checked upon delivery.(Details of quality assurance checks are given in Chapter 5.) Case study 6.5 illustrates some of the arrangements operated by successful bakers.Recipe to make 30 kg cake (from Table 4 There is sufficient flour in stock, no order required Order to replenish stock Order to have sufficient for production and to replenish stock Order for production, only fresh eggs used so no stocks kept Order to have sufficient for production and to replenish stock Special purchase of pulp from fruit processor Table 6.1 Calculation of ingredients required for a day's production • if sales patterns change, the producer may be left with stock that is not useable• if stock records are not checked it is possible to order the wrong quantities at the wrong time• you won't know if stock is missing, damaged or in poor condition or if the storage life is about to expire.It is therefore important to do regular stocktaking and to keep records of the stock to know when to re-order, what to order and how much to buy.Similar considerations apply to ordering packaging materials. Costs of packaging vary from 5-25% among companies interviewed for this book. Most millers and bakers are able to find a local source of paper or polythene bags to wrap their products (Case study 6.6). However, problems arise if a special film is needed that is not available locally. The need to order large amounts from overseas suppliers, together with the higher cost of specialist films, can have a substantial effect on the cash flow of a small bakery. In some cases, the lack of affordable packaging prevents the production of these products.An experienced baker in Malawi produces a popular type of biscuit that has an artificial cream filling and requires a polyester or polypropylene film to give it the required shelf life of four to six months. He had great difficulty in finding affordable supplies of the film and temporarily ceased production. His eventual solution was to buy a different film that was relatively cheap and easily available, and then modify his product recipe to suit the packaging material. After shelf life testing, he found that the modified product stayed fresh in the new film for six months and he was able to resume production.'We use polythene bags for packing bread and small cakes and boxes for larger cakes. The polythene bags are sold in kilos, and you can select the gauge and level of transparency you need. Plain boxes are easily found in town, but they are expensive if you want them printed.''Our products are packed in paper bags, obtained locally from a contracted supplier.Packaging costs represent 25% of total production costs, but the proportion goes down if bulk orders are made. Unfortunately, there is a lack of competing local packaging companies, giving this one a monopoly, and the prices are high.''Printed labels are expensive, but since that is our way of advertising the products, we get good quality labels despite the price.'Manpower (or human resource) planning means making decisions on the present and future staffing needs of the enterprise. Larger companies have a systematic approach to recruiting and training employees, which has substantial benefits.Such an approach is also likely to benefit small companies, but requires the owner or manager to develop company policies and terms of employment, as described in Volume 1: Setting up and running a small food business.Among small-scale millers and bakers, opinion is divided as to whether it is a good idea to employ friends and relatives (Case studies 6.7 and 6.8). Although friends and relatives can usually be trusted, they may not have the best skills for the job.Depending on the particular ACP country, labour costs can be a relatively high proportion of total production costs. Bakers and millers reported labour costs to be between 5% and 50%, with an average of 17%. The high costs of staff and staff training mean that it is important to keep experienced staff.However, many owners of small businesses refuse to train their staff because they are worried that the staff will ask for higher pay or will move to a competitor. Both attitudes are short-sighted and could eventually cause the business to fail.As  Every entrepreneur has a responsibility to provide a safe and healthy working environment. Many, but not all, ACP countries have laws concerning the health and safety of workers and the safety of equipment, but even if legislation does not exist, the consequences of accidents and illness arising from poor working conditions are far greater than any difficulty in ensuring safety.It is important to have a regular maintenance programme for equipment that would be dangerous if a failure occurred, and all staff should be properly trained to carry out potentially hazardous operations.Unsafe working conditions can also arise due to poorly designed workplaces (e.g. lack of adequate lighting, ventilation, slippery floors or steps) and unsafe actions (such as interfering with safety guards or working double shifts without rest periods). These are all the responsibility of the manager or owner.Simple safety precautions reduce the chance of accidents, and enhance the good name of the company. This increases the confidence of customers in its products, and improves the working conditions and productivity of the staff. Fewer accidents also reduce production losses, repair costs, extra costs of training new staff and medical bills. Simple precautions are listed in Table 6.2.The most frequent causes of accidents in a mill or bakery include:• use of cables without insulation• lack of protective covers on switch gears, fuse-boxes etc.• use of unearthed equipment• unauthorised additions to circuits resulting in overloading and fire risk• bridging over fuses• improper adjustment and maintenance of equipment Water should never be used to extinguish an electrical fire.In bakeries, the main dangers are due to heat and steam and safety measures are needed to protect workers against burns and breathing fumes or smoke.A bakery manager should ensure that workers are provided with heat-resistant gloves to handle hot baking trays. Fire extinguishers should be kept close to the ovens. There are also dangers from moving equipment (as above), especially from mixers. Guards should cover the mixers and they should have a working failsafe mechanism to ensure the mixer stops automatically if the guard is removed.1. Do not allow customers, children, visitors or animals into the mill or bakery building. Ensure that only trained staff enter the premises and operate the machines.2. Prevent staff wearing any loose clothing (e.g. ties, un-buttoned or long-sleeved shirts) that could become caught in running machines. Provide them with overalls.3. Do not allow staff to start a machine unless they know how to stop it. Only one person should operate a machine at any one time.4. Make the layout of machinery logical, and leave sufficient space around it so that there are few chances for operators to get in each other's way.5. Do not try to attract operators' attention by touching or calling them from behind if they are using a machine. Always speak to them from the front, or wait until they have finished what they are doing.6. Train staff to be familiar with potential hazards (e.g. potentially dangerous machines or hot surfaces), and make sure they know what to do in the event of an accident. Use charts hung on the wall near each machine to show safety precautions.7. Ensure that guards are fitted and in place over all moving parts of a machine and alert staff to machines that appear to be standing still when running at high speed.8. Never allow staff to clean, adjust or lean over moving machinery and do not allow them to leave a running machine unattended.9. Encourage operators to report any loose parts on a machine. 10. Do not allow staff to work with equipment that is defective. Put a note on any machine that is under repair saying 'DO NOT TOUCH'.11. Do not allow anyone to touch inside electric equipment while it is connected.12. Regularly check the cords of electrical appliances to ensure that outside covers are not broken and wires are not exposed.13. Prevent staff from running inside a building. Immediately clean up any water, oil or grease on the floor using sawdust, sand, husks etc.14. Ensure that staff who work in dusty conditions protect their mouth and nose with a mask. Clean the building each day.15. Have a first aid box containing sterilised dressings, cotton wool, adhesive plasters and bandages. In many ACP countries, the law requires every factory to have one. The cost of electricity, fuel and water was reported by millers to be 5-10% of total production costs, and by bakeries to be between 10 and 20%. Some had calculated the exact amounts and others simply estimated the costs, but their findings were in very close agreement across the range of business types and sizes. The main problem reported is interruption to the supply of electricity, which stops milling altogether, and even in bakeries with fuel-fired ovens, the loss of electricity prevents mixing and so halts production. If services are likely to be inadequate or unreliable, steps should be taken to find alternatives (e.g. a borehole for water, a diesel powered mill or a backup generator). A number of businesses that were surveyed have taken steps to reduce the cost of services (Case study 6.11).'We plan our production so that our machines are not left redundant.Depending on the required temperature, products go into the oven in sequence and there are no gaps when the oven is left empty. Someone supervises the baking so that we do not use more firewood towards the end of the baking session. We set a time to do cleaning to save on water consumption. Even the phone pays for itself because we use it as a public service.''We bake everything at the same time to utilise all the heat and cut down on electricity costs. We are considering venturing into charcoal-fired ovens, but this is still on trial.'Inadequately maintained machines result from attitudes such as those described in Case study 6.12. Machine breakdowns reduce productivity and increase production costs. Lack of maintenance is one of the most common reasons why small-scale millers and bakers lose money. In addition to posing a potential hazard to operators, poorly maintained machines produce substandard products and can contaminate products with metal fragments.Succesfull operation of a flour mill depends on operating the mill at the correct speed, using the correct motor for the load, and on using a screen with appropriately sized apertures to achieve the required degree of fineness in the flour.Proper maintenance ensures that machinery operates correctly and safely and prolongs its life, thus reducing capital and operating expenditure.Most small-scale processors do not have a programme of planned maintenance, preferring instead to rely on the maxim 'if it is not broken, don't fix it'. Some engineers agree with this and regard planned maintenance as unnecessary. They believe that it is cheaper to allow equipment to break down and then repair it. Others consider that it is cheaper to stop production on a regular basis and replace parts before they wear out. On balance, it is probable that the costs and benefits of planned maintenance depend on the speed at which repairs can be done and the value of the spares that have to be held in stock. And a more sensible approach:'Cleanliness and regular maintenance are the key. I don't believe in waiting for machines to break down before calling someone in. Our machines are inspected regularly. We do daily cleaning after each baking session when we wash and check all equipment and machinery.'The following actions are needed to put preventative maintenance into practice:• identify priority machinery where components wear out more frequently• write a clear description of the procedures and standards for the work of machine operators and maintenance workers (such as lubricating, tightening bolts, making adjustments etc.) in daily, weekly and monthly routine maintenance plans• organise a schedule and train staff to implement maintenance plans • prepare a maintenance budget• record inspection results, analyse the records and evaluate the success of maintenance• update procedures and standards on a continuous basis.Bakery equipment is relatively robust and does not require the same level of maintenance as high-speed flour mills and hullers. In a plate mill, the plates are the main components that require replacement when they wear down.In areas where plate mills are used there is usually an adequate supply of replacement plates made by local metal casting foundries.A detailed description of routine maintenance procedures for a hammer mill is given in Appendix I and summarised in • when a machine is not in use, make sure that power is switched off at the mains and that equipment has not been left switched on. This is very important when power cuts occur, because when power returns a machine that has been left on can injure an operator or cause a fire Housekeeping • store tools and equipment in pre-determined places so they are easy to find and it will be noticed if they go missing • always keep walkways clear of tools and equipment • clean diesel engine cooling fins every day to prevent dust settling and causing the engine to overheat and eventually seize • when re-fuelling diesel engines, pour the fuel through a filter to prevent rust deposits in the fuel drum getting mixed with the fuel and damaging the engine • clean the machinery and floor Weekly maintenance• check hammers for wear and replace if necessary • check the shaft (especially if locally manufactured machines are not tested for strength or alignment)• check that locking nuts on the shaft are tight • check that fan bolts and nuts are tight. If they work loose, the fan becomes very dangerous • check the bearing mountings as this area is prone to cracking • check the engine oil and oil filter on diesel engines and change them every 160 working hours. Change the fuel filter every 320 working hours Monthly maintenance• check the body casting and welds for cracks • tighten floor nuts and look for any cracks in the mill foundation • check the fan key and make sure that the fan is a slide fit on the shaft for easy removal. If the blades are worn always replace with the correct thickness of steel and then check for balance • check that cables are secured and there is no obvious sign of insulation breakdown • check the acid level in batteries that are used to start diesel engines. Keep the terminals clean Maintenance and spares records (Figs 6.5 and 6.6) should be used to provide information on the performance of equipment. Records help to ensure that maintenance costs are included in the cost of running the business, and to plan purchases of spares, making sure they are available when required.Work carried out Parts used Cost The bakery and milling companies that assisted in the preparation of this book ranged in size from two to 124 employees, with the majority employing eight to 15 workers (average of 10). The businesses varied greatly in their productivity; for example a bakery with three workers was able to produce 700 loaves, 1000 buns, 500-700 queen cakes and 1000 doughnuts per day, whereas another bakery with 15 employees produced 160 loaves and 200-300 bread rolls per day. Most bakeries produced a range of products, with only one bakery producing bread and buns alone. A good example of the product range from a bakery employing eight people is 30 kg biscuits, 5 fruit cakes, 1000 cup cakes, 250 samosas and 100 doughnuts per day, with a further 100 pizzas per week. A similar sized bakery produces 200 loaves, 50 doughnuts and 40 pies per day and five to 10 cakes per week.Millers were more uniform in their output per employee, largely because there is a greater reliance on the output of the machinery and less on labour intensive craft skills. For example, a mill that employs two workers produces 3200 kg maize flour per day, another employs four workers and produces 4000 kg/day, and a third employs 11 people and produces up to 8000 kg/day.Productivity can be improved by:• improved efficiency (e.g. lowering operating costs, reducing idle machine time and reducing waste)• better procedures for buying materials• reducing losses of raw materials• improved decision-making and communication• increased output by minimising equipment breakdowns and reducing other causes of lost time• improved organisation, better staff morale and co-operation.In order to assess whether improvements to productivity are taking place, it is necessary to measure and record consumption of materials, amount of labour used etc. These figures can then be used to calculate for example:• amount of packaging per kg of product• labour costs per kg product• energy used per kg product etc.Productivity can also be improved by changing the design of the product or the layout of the production facilities, changing raw materials suppliers or work organisation. Improving efficiency in a process involves reducing wastage of time, materials and space, or unnecessary movement of foods, staff or equipment.Motivated staff will go a long way to increasing efficiency by reducing wastage. The layout of a production unit is another factor that can affect efficiency. When deciding where to fix permanent machinery, care should be taken to plan the layout to allow for a flow of product through the process, sufficient space to avoid congestion and to ensure safe operations (see Chapter 3). Case study 6.13 illustrates some attempts to improve productivity.'Apart from keeping numbers of workers low and making sure they are as productive as possible, there are no short cuts around this one. When we are not busy we let some of them off early. These little savings on wage bills mean a lot over a month. If they are willing to take on more roles then we can employ fewer staff. They are not forced into anything; we discuss it, and if they agree we implement it.' 'I try to reduce costs by maximising the productivity of individual workers.They have to manage their time well and we teach them how, and supervise their efforts. I will not cut any salaries but if we can get four days work done in two, I am cutting costs.' 'I pay by piecework. The more they produce, the more they are paid. This is a kind of incentive and it keeps numbers of workers low and maximises productivity.' 'To increase productivity, we must be capable of adapting to changing markets by being innovative and creative, by differentiating our product and becoming more customer-oriented to compete effectively.'Ideally all bakery products that have a short shelf life should be sold on the day of production when they are at their freshest. This maximises the income and avoids wastage, thereby improving profitability. However, unsold products are still edible for a few days provided that they are stored correctly.They can be used for a variety of other purposes to generate an income and avoid wastage (Case study 6.14).'Any left-over products are taken to an evening market and sold at a reduced rate. If any are left after 9 p.m. they are sold at cost price but this has happened only once or twice.'Although it is possible to sell old products directly from the bakery, this is not advisable for a baker who wishes to maintain a reputation for selling only the highest quality products. Instead the baker should negotiate in advance with caterers, government institutions or cheaper retail outlets to purchase older products at short notice at a reduced price. After two days, any pies, samosas etc. that contain meat or vegetables, or cakes that contain cream, should be discarded or burned because the filling is likely to be unsafe. If bread has developed mould spots it is not edible and should also be burned, taking care to thoroughly clean the shelf on which it was standing to avoid infecting future products. If there is no mould, the bread is still edible, but is not attractive and will not be bought. An alternative source of income is to use crumbs made from bread, cake or scones:• as a filler in meat products• recycled as an ingredient in some bread recipes• dried and sold to caterers for coating fried fish or meats • sold to animal feed producers for poultry feeds.Check what you consider to be waste, it might bring in some unexpected extra income.Maximise the use of by-products to generate income and avoid siting waste heaps around the mill where they attract rodents and birds.Ideas that can reduce energy consumption and save processors money include:• switching off lights and electrical equipment when they are not being used• solar water heating (e.g. for pre-heating process water or washing equipment)• building in the flexibility to use alternative energy sources when installing new bakery ovens so that they can use the most environmentally suitable and cost-effective fuels• buying fuel from local briquette makers rather than using fuel-wood• using local suppliers of raw materials that can be delivered by bicycle or head loads, rather than using a vehicle to collect them. Similarly, making as few journeys as possible to deliver products to wholesalers or retailers.Noise pollution is not often cited as a problem, except for large mills in urban areas. If noisy machinery is used, screens can be built to prevent the noise becoming a nuisance to neighbours. Please use this space to make your own notes on Chapter 6.  'We have negotiated an overdraft facility so we know that if we ever get stuck there will be a way out. I also obtained a small loan from a relative.This helped to boost working capital after we had invested in some small pieces of equipment.' 'I feel that borrowing from the bank does not help. One continues to be in debt because the budget gets eroded by ever increasing interest rates. The Fixed costs (or overheads) include office costs, interest on loans, depreciation etc. and are similar for all types of business, but there are differences in variable costs between bakery and milling businesses. For example, data from mill or bakery owners interviewed for this book indicate that the skill level of experienced bakery workers tends to be higher than for production workers in flour mills. This is reflected in salary costs, which form a higher proportion of production costs in bakeries (Table 7.2). Similarly, bakeries that produce a wide range of products may use more expensive packaging (e.g. cake boxes or biscuit cartons)than the simple paper bags or sacks used for flour. In both types of business, raw material/ingredient costs are the largest proportion of production costs. Other (e.g. maintenance and depreciation) 9 6Table 7.2 Differences in production costs between milling and bakery businessesOnce a mill or bakery becomes operational, its continued success depends on achieving a sufficient profit after all bills have been paid. Achieving profitability depends on maintaining (or preferably increasing) income from sales while controlling (or preferably reducing) costs and maintaining a positive cash flow.Profitability depends on having other aspects of the business operating successfully, such as marketing and sales (Chapter 2) and production planning (Chapter 6). Correct financial management involves:• setting correct prices for products• controlling costs• managing cash flow• accurate book-keeping.The simplest way to work out the price for a product is to calculate the production costs and add a percentage for profit. In milling, product costing is relatively straightforward because:• there is a limited number of raw materials• the same production methods and equipment are used for all products, and hence production costs can be accurately calculated• there is a limited range of packaging • there is little variation in market prices for products.However, there are often limited opportunities for millers to control the price that they charge for products, because of competition from other millers and, in some countries, government price control on flour. The main financial considerations in milling are therefore to reduce costs as much as possible (see below).In bakeries, product costing is more complex because a wider range of ingredients is used. When a variety of products are produced, accurate costing enables the baker to find out which products are the most profitable and where expanded production would benefit the business. Accurate costing can also show which products are the most expensive to produce and where costs could be cut.This method of calculating the cost of a product (based on production costs) is straightforward and suitable for most millers and bakers. The profit margin that is added to the production costs is determined by the amount of competition, any government price controls and the demand for the product.For some bakery products, especially celebration cakes or pastries, there may be fewer competitors and hence more flexibility for pricing. In this situation, the baker should decide the price that the market will bear, based on the quality of the products, among other factors. Research for this book indicated that affluent families in many ACP countries are willing to pay several hundred dollars for a high quality wedding or graduation cake. The cost of ingredients is not much higher than for other cakes, but the time and skill needed for the design and decoration to make a unique product allow the baker a mark-up of 200% or more. Unique or unusual pastries, breads etc. are likewise able to attract higher prices, provided there are affluent people willing to buy the goods and the products have a consistently high quality. This is one of the benefits of product diversification and development (Chapter 4).The main costs in milling are raw materials, labour and power charges.Of these, the raw material costs are the most important and these can be controlled in a number of ways:• bulk purchase of grain during the harvest season when prices are lowest• buying directly from farmers rather than from traders, preferably using a company-owned vehicle for transport • fixing prices for grain through contracts with farmers• price incentives to encourage farmers to supply high quality grain with minimal contamination (reducing processing costs and wastage at the mill).Details of the required quality of grain and contract farming are given in Chapters 5 and 6 respectively. The effect of price variation in raw materials on profitability is shown in  Power consumption can be controlled by:• ensuring that the grain is milled at its optimum moisture content (Chapter 5, Table 5.2) to maximise the efficiency of the mill• ensuring that the mill is correctly set up and regularly maintained (Chapter 6, section 6.3)• ensuring that machinery is switched off when not in use• minimising re-processing due to damaged or broken grains.The profitability of a mill also depends on the productivity of the workers and equipment. Wages and depreciation on machinery are fixed costs, and these cannot be covered by sales income if a mill operates at a small percentage of its capacity. Proper production planning to maximise output for a given number of workers and preventative maintenance to reduce machine downtime (Chapter 6, section 6.3) can both reduce production costs. The effect of operating below planned capacity on the profitability of a flour mill is shown in Table 7.3.In bakeries, the main production costs are labour, fuel and ingredients.Where products such as biscuits require specialist packaging this can also be a significant cost. The main methods of cost control include:• planning the work of production staff to ensure that they are fully occupied throughout the day, and training them to maximise their output and productivity• selecting an oven that can operate using cheaper fuels• maximising the use of heat in a fuel-fired oven by baking a sequence of products, or ensuring that a gas or electric oven is only heated when required• creating or modifying recipes to reduce the amounts of expensive ingredients while maintaining the required quality• reducing stocks of expensive ingredients or materials that are likely to deteriorate quickly and result in wastage• keeping records of inputs and relating these to the amount of products that are sold• looking for changes and trends in consumption.Understanding how cash flows in and out of the business during a specified period (e.g. a month or a quarter) enables a miller or baker to ensure that there is always sufficient money to keep the business operating (i.e. maintain a positive cash flow). Cash flow can be managed by keeping control over the number of debtors and the amount of money that they owe a business, and Accurate record keeping is needed to successfully price a product and to keep control over production costs and cash flow. To calculate the profitability of the business, a miller or baker also needs to know the level of assets in the business (e.g. cash, machinery, stocks of materials etc.) and any liabilities (loans, creditors, taxes owed etc.). These figures should be recorded using a balance sheet.Some of the areas where millers and bakers tend to go wrong are:• treating profits as their income, instead of paying themselves a salary (the profits belong to the business and should be used to develop it)• failing to cost and price products correctly, so they do not make a profit• poor record keeping, so they do not know if they are operating profitably• over-spending or having a loan that is not repayable• having too many debtors or creditors.❑ If you are starting a business, do you know what all the start-up costs will be?❑ Do you have enough money or agreed loans or investment from backers?❑ If your business is operating, do you know all your production costs?❑ Do you record and use financial information to plan the next steps in developing your business?❑ Have you examined different ways to reduce costs?❑ Are the prices for your products competitive and high enough to make a profit?❑ Do you know what your income is going to be this week and whether you will make a profit? If not, why not?The science of milling and baking: understanding the product and processThis section contains a summary of some of the important scientific aspects of milling and baking. Extra technical information is contained in 'Technical Boxes', which do not have to be read to understand the topic. For more detailed information, see the bibliography in Appendix III.Cereal grains contain a complete embryo and all the structural components and enzyme systems needed for the growth of a new plant. Grains have four After harvesting, cereals are normally dried in the field on earthen or concrete slabs, on roofs of buildings or on roads, which can result in contamination by insects, dirt, animal excreta etc. Inadequate capital and poor financial returns prevent farmers from investing in crop driers to minimise contamination.However, other low cost techniques, such as drying grain on raised platforms or covering with netting, provide adequate methods of reducing contamination by insects and birds. If farmers sell inadequately dried crops, there is a significant risk of mould growth, particularly in crops such as maize that are not shelled before drying. The mould grows out of sight under the shell and contaminates the grains. Certain species of moulds produce a range of poisons, collectively material. Further details are given in references in the bibliography; see Kent and Evers (1994) for grain characteristics and Fellows (1997Fellows ( /2000) ) for details of how to calculate the energy required for milling.If a hammer mill fails to grind efficiently the hammers may be badly worn.  Mills and hullers are usually driven by belts connecting the motor to the mill.These come in five sizes (A to E), but 'B-section' or 'C-section' belts are most commonly used on small mills or hullers (Table A1). Pulleys and belts should be as short as possible and should be fully covered with guards. It is important that drive pulleys and V-belts are exactly aligned, in order to reduce wear on the belts and to transmit maximum power to the machine.It is the sides of V-belts (not the bottom) that lock into the pulley and grip it.To achieve maximum belt life and power transmission, the pulleys must be set output of the mill will be reduced. Hammers should be 4-6 mm from the casing. If the gap is larger, power is wasted because flour will build up on the screen, giving a lower output and greater wear on both hammer and rotor plates. Wider hammers have slightly better efficiency than thin hammers.The speed of rotation is critical for efficient operation of the mill, and 80 meters per second is the optimum speed for the hammer to strike grains.The optimum mill speed can be found using Table A2 by measuring the distance between the furthest points on the hammers when assembled on the rotor with the hammers at their maximum extension. Alternatively, the speed of the rotor can be calculated from the motor speed using the following formula:Rotor  The correct designs for these components are described in Chapter 3 (section 3.2).water should be reduced and the salt content increased -thus slowing the rate of fermentation and increasing the strength of the gluten. Longer fermentation times also allow the dough to ripen to a greater extent. With too little salt, the sugars break down more extensively to form gas, and because the gluten structure is weaker, there is more rapid and greater expansion of the dough. This creates an over-large loaf, an insipid flavour and a loose crumb structure. Dough without any salt will have very rapid fermentation and expansion in volume leading to a risk of collapse. As the salt content is increased in a recipe, the rate of fermentation is slowed because the yeast activity is reduced and less gas is produced. This, together with the toughening effect on the gluten, results in progressively smaller loaves until a dark, heavy, rubber-like mass is produced with an overly salty flavour.The main purpose of baking is to alter the eating quality of foods (the texture, flavour and colour). A secondary purpose is to preserve the food, using heat to destroy micro-organisms and reduce the moisture content (Technical Box 1) which in turn prevents re-contamination by moulds or bacteria.Water in a food exerts a 'vapour pressure'. The size of the vapour pressure depends on the amount of water present, the temperature, and the amount of salt and sugar in the food. When dough is placed in a hot oven, the low humidity of the air in the oven creates a moisture vapour pressure gradient.This causes moisture at the surface of the food to evaporate, and moisture to move from inside the food to the surface. When the rate at which moisture is lost from the surface becomes greater than the rate at which it moves from the interior, the surface dries out, its temperature rises to the temperature of the oven, and a crust is formed. Because baking takes place at atmospheric pressure and moisture escapes freely from the food, the internal temperature of the food does not rise above 100°C. Further details can be found in sources in the bibliography.The extent to which a product is dried depends on the type of product and the baking conditions. Biscuits, for example, have a dry crust and a dry crumb, whereas bread and cakes have a dry crust and moist crumb. The shelf life of bakery products is determined mostly by their moisture content and the conditions under which they are stored. Products that have a moist crumb have a shorter shelf life unless they are protected by packaging, or a dry coating of marzipan and icing, or stored in a refrigerator or freezer.There are three types of heat produced during baking (Technical Box 2):• radiation from the oven walls, which is absorbed into the food and causes it to heat up• convection from hot air circulating in the oven • conduction through the baking tin or tray.Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves (e.g. in an electric grill).Conduction is the direct movement of heat energy within solids (e.g. through metal containers or solid foods).Convection is the transfer of heat by molecules that move because of differences in their density (e.g. in heated air) or because they are moved by a machine (e.g. a stirrer in liquids or a fan moving air).In most ovens all three types of heating take place together, but in some designs one type may be more important.A 'boundary film' of air around the food slows down both the rate at which heat is transferred into the food, and the movement of water vapour out of the food. The thickness of this boundary layer depends on the speed at which the air moves inside the oven and whether the surface of the food is rough or smooth. Many commercial ovens are fitted with fans to reduce the thickness of boundary films and heat food more quickly. The fans also produce more uniform heating throughout the oven.Most bakery products are heated internally by conduction, but there are convection currents in cake batters during the initial stages of heating. The distance that the heat must travel to bake the centre of the food, and the time that this takes, depend on the composition of the dough and the size of the pieces of food. It is therefore important to make sure that pieces of dough are formed to the same size to ensure that they all are thoroughly baked to the centre at a particular baking time and temperature. If the size of pieces varies, some will be under-baked and others will be burned.The rapid heating and high temperatures used in baking cause complex changes, especially to the surface of the product. These changes alter the flavour, colour and texture of the food.In the surface layers of dough, caramelisation of sugars, non-enzymic or 'Maillard' browning reactions between sugars and amino acids (Technical Box 3), and changes to fats each take place during baking. These reactions produce a very large number of aroma chemicals that give the characteristic smell of freshly baked bread, cakes etc. The aroma of a particular baked product depends on the combination of fats, amino acids and sugars in the dough, and hence on the mixture of ingredients used.The Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars that are present in dough causes browning and produces different aromas. Depending on the heating conditions, a particular sugar and amino acid react to produce a specific aldehyde that has a characteristic aroma (e.g. the amino acid proline can produce aromas of potato, mushroom or burnt egg when heated with different sugars and at different temperatures). Further heating breaks down some of the aroma chemicals to produce burnt or smoky aromas.Changes in texture depend on the ingredients used in the dough, its moisture content and the temperature and time of baking. In bread, gelatinisation and changes to the structure of starch, together with loss of moisture, produce the characteristic texture of the crust. In steam heated ovens, there is less drying of the dough surface. The crust therefore remains elastic for longer and the dough expands more fully. The crust is smoother and glossier, and Maillard browning reactions give a darker crust colour. During storage of bread or cakes, moisture moves from the crumb to soften the crust. Slower heating allows more moisture to escape before the surface is sealed by the crust, resulting in a drier crumb with a longer shelf life (e.g. biscuits).The characteristic golden brown colour of baked foods is due to Maillard browning, caramelisation of sugars to form brown pigments, and carbonisation of sugars, fats and proteins. The glaze is due to caramelisation, which occurs when the oven humidity is high. Under-ripe dough, which contains a fairly high sugar content, will give a high crust colour, while over-ripe dough gives a pale crust colour. The natural enzyme activity in flour also affects the amount of sugar present in the dough and hence the colour of the crust.Some baked foods comprise a significant part of the diet in many developing countries and are therefore an important source of proteins, vitamins and minerals. Others (e.g. biscuits, pastries, cakes and snackfoods) make up only a small part of the diet, and nutritional losses are less significant. The main nutritional changes occurring during baking take place on the surface. With the exception of vitamin C (ascorbic acid), which is sometimes added to bread dough as an improver and is destroyed during baking, vitamin losses are relatively small. In chemically leavened doughs, the alkaline conditions actually improve absorption of the vitamin niacin, while the fermentation of bread dough adds B vitamins. Thiamine is the most important vitamin in cereal foods that is destroyed by heat. The temperature of baking and the type of dough determine the level of thiamine loss. In bread it is approximately 15%, whereas in cakes or biscuits that are leavened by sodium bicarbonate, the losses increase to 50-95%. During baking, the nutritional value of proteins and fats is not significantly affected, although the loss of amino acids and sugars in Maillard browning causes a small reduction in nutritive value. Higher temperatures and longer baking times increase the losses. Further information on nutritional aspects of bakery products can be found in references in the bibliography.-2 0 -1 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0Setting up and running a small flour mill or bakery -232 -Staling is not caused by bakery products drying out, but is produced by slow changes to the starch in the crumb and crust (termed retrogradation). The starch changes from an amorphous form to a crystalline form and this results in:• toughening of the crust• firming of the crumb• loss of flavour• movement of moisture from the crumb to the crust• shrinking of starch granules away from the gluten 'skeleton' leading to a crumbly loaf.The rate of staling depends on the temperature of storage and is highest at around 4°C (Fig. A3), which is close to the temperature in a refrigerator. It is lowest at freezer temperatures (around -18°C) and above 50°C. Bakery products should not therefore be stored in a refrigerator unless they contain cream, meat or other ingredients that are likely to cause food poisoning, but freezing is acceptable to extend their shelf life. 2) A fermented mixture prior to being made into doughThe stage between final moulding and bakingOpen pastry case with a fillingFierce heat in a coal-fired oven shortly after firing before the heat is absorbed by the wallsChanges to starch during heating in water in which the cells burst and a gel is formedThe oil-rich part of a grain from which the plant developsTo coat with a material that produces a shiny surfaceWheat proteins that give structure to bakery productsFlour made from wheat that contains a high percentage of glutenHeated flat metal surface used to bake products such as sconesThe outermost covering of grainsThe process used to convert liquid oils into solid fats ","tokenCount":"37154"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a91e64d43471d8a51dd3295c3f73273e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22f1c86d-93b0-4e92-af63-aedb43ba67b6/retrieve","id":"-120125924"},"keywords":["Durum wheat","Landraces","Zymoseptoria tritici","Mycosphaerella graminicola quantitative trait loci (QTL)","Gene efficacy","QTL epistasis","Gene pyramiding"],"sieverID":"73ccc78a-d58e-4572-957e-20be2b4ce6a9","pagecount":"20","content":"Background: Septoria tritici blotch (STB), caused by Zymoseptoria tritici (Z. tritici), is an important biotic threat to durum wheat in the entire Mediterranean Basin. Although most durum wheat cultivars are susceptible to Z. tritici, research in STB resistance in durum wheat has been limited.Wheat has been, for centuries, the prime food and feed crop especially in the Mediterranean basin [1]. This staple crop supplies 20% of the human calorie intake, and is thereby a major component for global food security [2,3].The genus Triticum L. comprises several wheat species with various ploidy levels, but global wheat production is almost entirely based on bread wheat, T. aestivum L. em. Thell. (2n = 6x = 42, sub-genomes AABBDD), and durum wheat, T. turgidum L. var. durum (2n = 4x = 28, subgenomes AABB), also known as pasta wheat [4]. Durum wheat accounts for about 8% to the global wheat production, and its cultivation is concentrated in latitudes ranging from 55°N to 40°S [5,6], corresponding mostly to the Mediterranean Basin, the North American Great Plains, India and the former USSR [6]. Durum wheat is also produced in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where Ethiopia is a leading country and considered as one of the biggest durum wheat producers with approximately 0.6 million ha [7], and a center of diversity for tetraploid wheat [8]. Northern Africa has been also the cradle of wheat production for centuries and was the breadbasket for the Roman Empire [9,10] with locations such as Dougga in Tunisia, as exquisite trading zones for wheat and other commodities until the late 500's AD [11]. In Tunisia, durum wheat occupies 725 Mha approximates representing 49% of the total annual cereal area [12], with an average yield estimated at 1.7 tons per hectare between the cropping seasons 2014/2015 and 2019/2020 [13].Alike bread wheat, durum wheat production is significantly affected by abiotic stress conditions-mostly drought-and by the emergence of more aggressive pathogens [14]. Throughout Maghreb region, the foliar blight septoria tritici blotch (STB), caused by the hemibiotroph Zymoseptoria tritici (Desm.) Quaedvlieg & Crous (formerly Mycosphaerella graminicola (Fuckel) J. Schröt. in Cohn), is among the major threats [15]. Estimated yield losses amounted up to 385 kg.ha −1 in 2008-2009, which is more than 30% in most regions [16]. Recent research increased the general understanding of the Z. tritici epidemiology in the Maghreb. Hamada [17] reported the occurrence of the teleomorph of the fungus in Tunisia, despite the arid conditions in the region, and Neddaf et al. [18] determined an equal distribution of both mating types in Algeria, indicating regular sexual reproduction, which likely contributes to the vast genetic diversity in this region. Similar results have recently been reported in Tunisia on durum wheat [19]. The use of fungicides has been more slowly adopted by durum wheat growers as compared to bread wheat producers in Europe, and the first occurrence of strobilurin resistance have been reported in Tunisia and Algeria [18,20].One of the best management strategies for all plant diseases is the generation of new disease resistant germplasm through plant breeding. The huge genetic diversity in wheat and its ancestors has provided new varieties for almost a century [4]. Releasing new resistant germplasm has proven its efficacy and has turned the potential havoc of re-emerging and upcoming threats into a manageable problem [21,22], such as the stem rust caused by the Ug99 strain [23][24][25]. Before modern plant breeding, improved crops frequently resulted from farmers' selections of outperforming genotypes in terms of yield stability. Often, such so-called landraces contained a variety of closely related lines that quenched biotic threats. During the onset of breeding, these landraces were often the starting material for targeted efforts to improve for instance disease resistance [26][27][28].Several studies have revealed that durum wheat landraces are a valuable source of resistance alleles against fungal pathogens [8,12,[29][30][31]. STB resistance sources on durum wheat were identified in many countries such as Tunisia [12], Ethiopia [8], Iran [32] and Spain [33]. Until now, up to 22 septoria tritici blotch (Stb) resistance genes have been identified and mapped [34,35]. However, due to the apparent dichotomy in natural Z. tritici populations for either bread wheat or durum wheat [36][37][38], the presence of these mapped Stb genes in durum wheat cannot be determined using well characterized Z. tritici strains originating from bread wheat. Thus far, the substantial research progress is mainly based on the Z. tritici -bread wheat pathosystem [34,39]. Therefore, and albeit the growing efforts to dissect the durum wheat -Z. tritici interactions [12,33,40,41], resistance breeding to Z. tritici in durum wheat has slowly progressed over the last 25 years compared to bread wheat [34]. This affects many small growers who produce this wheat as a staple crop in an area that is severely struck by septoria tritici blotch.In this study, we have embarked on increasing the understanding of the Z. tritici-durum wheat pathosystem. Here, we have first screened eight durum wheat Tunisian landrace accessions for Z. tritici resistance. Subsequently, we developed a mapping population between the resistant landrace accession ' Agili39' and the susceptible modern cv. Khiar to identify the genetic basis of resistance to Z. tritici and to map the underlying genes under greenhouse and field conditions.The 20 Z. tritici isolates grew successfully under laboratory conditions enabling appropriate inoculum production and phenotyping. None of the tested durum landraces and cultivars was resistant to the entire suite of Z. tritici isolates (Table 1), but the landrace accessions showed a broader efficacy compared to the cvs. Khiar and Karim, resulting in a significant 'line x isolate' interaction, indicating specific gene action (Additional Table 1). Interestingly, necrosis values were high and ranged between 72 and 97% (data not shown). The parents of the developed RILs, ' Agili39' and cv. Khiar showed highly significantly different pycnidia values of 6% and 36%, respectively (Table 1), and henceforward, we selected a set of eight Z. tritici isolates that discriminated between ' Agili39' and cv. Khiar for subsequent phenotyping of the developed F6 RILs population (Table 2).The seedling screening of the RILs with the selected eight Z. tritici isolates resulted in non-symmetric frequency distributions skewed towards the resistance phenotype for all tested isolates (Fig. 1 panel A, Additional Fig. 1). Subsequent analyses of variance of the split-plot design seedling experiment revealed that the 'RIL' term was highly significant for necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC scores at p = 0.0001 (Table 3). This result indicates that the observed variation in the data is accounted for the variable genetic make-up of the tested lines.Differentiation between the isolates was observed for necrosis and pycnidia scores in the RIL population tested at the seedling stage (Table 4). The highest population mean necrosis coverage (60.60%) was registered for RILs inoculated with IPO92003 isolate (Table 4). However, the least population mean necrosis coverage (34.5%) was observed for RILs inoculated with Tun1 isolate. Pycnidia population mean scores were also variable and were high for lines inoculated with Tun6 isolate (23.9%), but relatively low for lines inoculated with IPO95052 isolate (9.4%). For all tested isolates, necrosis scores ranged between 0 and 100%, however a maximum of 90% of pycnidia score was registered for lines inoculated with IPO95052 isolate (Table 4). All seedling phenotypic traits were repeatable with the highest repeatability registered for isolates IPO92003 and Tun6 for necrosis and pycnidia scores, respectively and with an equal repeatability of 0.96 for both seedling phenotypic traits and isolates (Table 4).During all field trials, STB developed well after the inoculations, but only pycnidia coverage was assessed. The susceptible parent cv. Khiar showed high disease severities throughout the trials, whereas ' Agili39' remained free of disease (0 pycnidia) (Fig. 1 Table 1 Percentage of pycnidia on the sprayed-inoculated primary leaves of durum wheat landraces and cultivars with 20 Zymoseptoria tritici isolates at 21 days-post inoculations. Coloured cells indicate least significant differences (LSDs; P = 0.05) with resistant in green (not significantly different from 0% Pycnidia), intermediate in yellow (significantly different from 0% Pycnidia and 100% Pycnidia) and susceptible in red (not significantly different from 100% Pycnidia)The three-way analysis of variance revealed that the 'genotype' , 'isolate' and their interaction 'genotype x isolate' terms are highly significant at p = 0.0001 (Table 5). This result indicates a 'genotype x isolate' specificity at the adult plant. The term 'year' was significant at p = 0.05. However, the term 'block' , the twoway interaction terms 'genotype x block' and 'genotype x year' , and the three-way interaction term 'genotype x year x isolate' were not significant, indicating no variation in the micro-environment and the homogeneity of the field inoculation (Table 5).Overall, adult plants F9 showed the highest average of pycnidia coverage compared to the F7 inoculated with the Tun1 isolate (21.5% of pycnidia for the F9 compared to 15.4% for the F7), and to the F6 and the F8 generations inoculated with the Tun6 isolate (29.9% of pycnidia for the F9 compared to 19.6% and 19.0% for the F6 and the F8, respectively) (Table 4, Fig. 1 panel B). The field disease severity on the F9 generation inoculated with Tun1 and Tun6 isolates was also variable with a higher severity for Tun6 isolate (29.9%) compared to the Tun1 isolate (21.5%), which indicates once more a specific 'genotype x isolate' interaction. Interestingly, average pycnidia coverage was relatively low at the F10 generation inoculated with the IIB-123 isolate (6.5% of pycnidia), with a maximum pycnidia coverage of 19.4% (Table 4).Adult pycnidia coverage heritability (H 2 ) was high for the Tun1 and the Tun6 isolates, with a higher heritability for the adult pycnidia coverage caused by the Tun6 isolate (H 2 = 0.98) compared to the heritability of the pycnidia coverage caused by the Tun1 isolate (H 2 = 0.88) (Table 4). Field data generated by the inoculation of the F10 RIL with the IIB123 isolate were also repeatable (0.97) (Table 4).Low to high correlations were observed between the different traits (Fig. 2, Additional Table 2). Phenotypic scores obtained by the IPO92003 isolate were the least correlated with all phenotypic scores obtained by the tested isolates at the seedling and the adult plant stages (Fig. 2, Additional Table 2). Nonetheless, necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC scores generated by the IPO92003 isolate on the tested RILs at the seedling stage were highly correlated (r = 0.6). Z. tritici isolates IPO95052,  IPO91009, Tun6, IIB-123 and IPO91004 tested at the seedling stage were correlated between each other for necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC scores (0.3 < r > 0.5) (Fig. 2, Additional Table 2). The highest correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9 was registered between pycnidia AUDPC scores generated on lines inoculated by the IPO91004 and the II-B123 Z. tritici isolates at the seedling stage. In contrast, necrosis and pycnidia scores were rather moderately correlated between IPO91018, IIB-123, IPO95052 and IP91004 isolates with a maximum r of 0.5 (Additional Table 2). Field data generated by Tun6 isolate were highly correlated across the F6 -F9 generation (r = 0.8) (Additional Table 2). Interestingly, positive correlations were also observed between adult and seedling disease scores induced by Tun6 isolate (Additional Table 2). Similarly, positive correlations were registered between field scores generated by Tun6, and II-B123 isolates, with a correlation coefficient r = 0.4 (Fig. 2, Additional Table 2).The 'Agili39'/ Khiar linkage genetic map and the identification of QTL for Z. tritici resistanceThe ' Agili39'/Khiar genetic linkage map consisted of 1959 SNP markers assigned to 30 linkage groups representative of the 14 durum wheat chromosomes (Additional Table 3). The total length of the genetic map was  4220 cM. In average, linkage groups consisted of 80.83 SNP markers spanning an average length of 140.7 cM, in which adjacent loci were in average 2.3 cM distant (Additional Table 3). Linkage group sizes ranged from 28.7 cM and 338.0 cM, corresponding to linkage groups 12 and 7, respectively, both representative of chromosome 1B (Additional Table 3).For the QTL analysis, the permutation test used to define the significant threshold LOD resulted into a LOD value of 3.5, hence only QTL with a LOD ≥ 3.5 were considered, which excluded all detected QTL with isolate IPO92003. In total, we identified four significant QTL on three chromosomes 1A, 7A and 2B. None of these QTL was mapped with every tested Z. tritici isolate, which underscores specificity of the interaction between Z. tritici and durum wheat. Two QTL were identified on chromosome 2B (Table 6; Fig. 3) designated as Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2. Qstb2B_1 was effective in both the seedling stage-particularly against isolates Tun6, IIB123, IPO91009, IPO95052 and IPO91004, but not for isolates Tun1, IPO91018 and IPO92003-and the adult plant stage, where it provided resistance to Z. tritici isolate Tun6, but not to Tun1 and IIB-123 isolates. Qstb2B_1 was mapped between the two SNP markers Tag_1056626 and Tag_111757 (Additional Table 4) with a confidence interval ranging between 69.5 and 75.5 cM and explained up to 61.6% of the phenotypic variance at the adult plant stage for Tun6 isolate, and up to 38.0% for IPO91004 isolate at the seedling stage (Table 6). LOD values of the Qstb2B_1 QTL were variable depending on the isolate (Table 6). The highest LOD for the Qstb2B_1 was registered for Tun6 at the F9 generation (33.9) at the adult plant stage, and for IPO91004 isolate for the necrosis score (17.3) at the seedling stage (Table 6).A second QTL, designated as Qstb2B_2, was mapped on chromosome 2B. This QTL was solely mapped at the adult plant stage for isolates Tun1 and Tun6, but not for the IIB123 isolate. This QTL is flanked by the two SNP Fig. 2 Heatmap correlation between the Zymoseptoria tritici isolates tested under field and controlled conditions on the 'Agili39'/Khiar mapping population performed using the \"Corr\" function and visualized using the \"corrplot\" package in the R environment [42,43]. Different traits are named by the isolate followed by the Necrosis (N) or pycnidia (P) development at the seedling stage (S). Isolates tested at the adult plant stage are followed by the term field, and the RILs advanced generation (F6 -F10). Colours gradient is an indication of high (red colour) and low (blue colour) correlation between traits markers Tag_100031118 and Tag_3027184 (Additional Table 4) at a confidence interval of 106.5 and 123 cM (Table 6). The highest LOD and explained variance were registered for the Tun6 isolate at the F9 generation with 32.8 and 54.3%, respectively (Table 6).Comparing the physical positions of the flanking markers linked to the Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2 QTL indicates that these two QTL are 5 Mb apart (Additional Table 4).Two additional QTL with lower LODs and explained variances were mapped on chromosomes 1A and 7As designated as Qstb1A and Qstb7A, respectively and showed specificity for Tun1, Tun6 and IPO91009 isolates for Qstb1A, and for IIB-123 isolate for Qstb7A (Table 6, Fig. 3). These QTL were uniquely detected at the seedling plant stage. Qstb1A was flanked by the two SNP markers Tag_1694925 and Tag_1127081 (62.5 cM-63 cM), and explained up to 16.0% of the phenotypic variance with a maximum LOD of 4.6 for Tun1 isolate (Table 6, Additional Table 4). Qstb7A, mapped on chromosome 7A at 53 cM, was solely detected with IIB-123 isolate at the seedling plant stage for necrosis scores (Table 6). This QTL is flanked by the SNP markers Tag_2277193 and Tag_100009953 (Additional Table 4), with a LOD of 4.0 and explained 9% of the phenotypic variance (Table 6).Overall, Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2 had the widest efficacy compared to Qstb1A and Qstb7A (Fig. 3, Table 6). We also noticed that only Qstb1A and Qstb2B_1 QTL were effective to both necrosis and pycnidia, whereas Qstb7A was only effective to necrosis (Table 6). All four QTL detected for resistance to Z. tritici in the ' Agili39'/ Khiar population were derived from the ' Agili39' parent (Table 6).The QTL interaction analysis has disclosed an epistatic QTL mapped on chromosome 5B, designated as Qstb5B  7). Epistatic interactions were observed between the Qstb5B QTL and QTL Qstb1A, Qstb7A, Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2. Qstb5B was flanked between the two SNP markers Tag_1125523 and Tag_4909926 and was mapped at variable genetic position depending on the pairwise interaction ranging between 45 and 65 cM (Table 7). Interestingly, the epistatic interactions were revealed with several isolates and at both stages (Table 7). Epistatic LODs and explained variances were variable and ranged between 6.8-29.1, and 0.9%-54.1%, respectively. The highest pairwise LOD was detected between Qstb2B_2 and Qstb5B for the IPO95052 seedling pycnidia AUDPC score (LOD = 29). However, the Tun6 adult pycnidia score at F6 generation revealed the minimum epistatic LOD (6.8) among all detected pairwise interactions. Moreover, pairwise QTL interactions were mostly revealed by pycnidia AUDPC scores, except for the Qstb2B_1/Qstb5B interaction that was detected for necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC scores generated on the inoculated RILs by the Tun6 isolate at the seedling stage (Table 7).Finally, we selected the pairwise epistasis Qstb2B_1 / Qstb5B and Qstb2B_2 / Qstb5B showing the highest epistatic LODs for a two-way interaction test to examine pycnidia AUDPC means of the variant allele combinations linked to QTL Qstb2B_1, Qstb2B_2 and Qstb5B (Fig. 4). The first allele refers to the SNP markers linked to Qstb2B_1 or Qstb2B_2, however the second allele refers to the Qstb5B SNP marker (Fig. 4).Pycnidia AUDPC means were reduced when pairing the resistant alleles (RR) linked to Qstb2B_1 /Qstb5B QTL and linked to Qstb2B_2/Qstb5B with pycnidia AUDPC scores of 7.4 and 0.8 for lines inoculated with the IPO91004 and IPO95052 Z. tritici isolates at the seedling stage, respectively (Fig. 4, panel A and B). Lines carrying the susceptible allele linked to the Qstb5B QTL (RS) showed an increase in pycnidia AUDPC scores compared to lines carrying both resistant allele (RR) (Fig. 4, panel  A and B). Lines carrying solely the resistant allele linked to Qstb5B (SR) were rather susceptible showing high pycnidia AUDPC scores for both pairwise interactions Qstb2B_1/Qstb5B and Qstb2B_2/Qstb5B. This observation could be explained by the minor effect of the Qstb5B QTL in controlling pycnidia development, compared to the major effect of the Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2 QTL in reducing pycnidia development.Zymoseptoria tritici is a major threat to European and Mediterranean bread and durum wheat production [44]. Despite the increasing efforts to elucidate the genetic basis of tetraploid wheat resistance to STB [8,40,45], more studies are required for an effective breeding strategy in durum wheat for STB resistance.In our study, all data indicated and confirmed significant 'isolate' and 'line x isolate' interactions as determined in earlier studies [37,38,46,47]; and recently proven in the bread wheat -Z. tritici pathosystem where both Stb6 and AvrStb6 genes were cloned [48][49][50]. Moreover, and comparably to other cereal diseases, namely to rust [51][52][53][54], we determined QTL that are detected for either seedling (Qstb1A and Qstb7A) or adult plant stage (Qstb2B_2), as well as a QTL that was detected at both stages (Qstb2B_1). Our findings confirm that specific plant physiological stage resistances are commonly observed in the Z. tritici -wheat pathosystem [34]. Specific plant physiological stage resistances were also confirmed for other fungal diseases such as the powdery mildew and the leaf rust diseases [55,56]. In fact, some Z. tritici resistance genes are uniquely effective at the seedling stage, such as the Stb7 gene mapped in the spring wheat cultivar ST6 [57], or at the adult plant stage, such as the Stb17 gene [58,59]. In contrast, other resistance genes have proven to be effective at both seedling and adult plant stages alike the Stb4 and Stb5 qualitative genes [60,61].Subsequently, we compared the identified QTL to formerly identified Z. tritici genes using the reported literature. This comparison has revealed that a putative QTL for resistance to Z. tritici was mapped on chromosome 1A at 68 cM at the adult plant stage by Kidane et al. [8] through a genome-wide association study conducted on an Ethiopian durum wheat landrace population. Two other QTL mapped on chromosome 1A were also revealed by Goudemand et al. [62] in the bread wheat Apache/Balance population, and by Risser et al. [63] named as QStb.lsa_fb-1A in the bread wheat bi-parental mapping population Florett/Biscay. These QTL were mapped at the adult plant stage between 56 and 69 cM and could thus colocalize with the QTL mapped in the 'Agili39'/Khiar population. However, and in contrast to the abovementioned studies, the Qstb1A QTL mapped in the 'Agili39'/Khiar population was solely detected at the seedling plant stage.The Qstb7A QTL particularly conferred reduced necrosis values to Z. tritici isolate IIB123 and co-localizes with the major Stb3 gene that was mapped in the bread wheat cultivar Israel 493 [64,65].Two QTL for STB resistance were mapped on chromosome 2B in the ' Agili39'/khiar population. Other studies have also revealed genomic regions on chromosome 2B associated with the STB resistance [8,62,[66][67][68][69].The Qstb2B_1 QTL identified in the ' Agili39'/Khiar population likely co-localized with the known major gene Stb9 that was mapped in the French bread wheat Table 7 Epistatic analysis between quantitative traits loci in the Agili39/Khiar bi-parental mapping population using the inclusive composite interval mapping of digenic epistatic QTL (ICIM-EPI) method in QTL the IciMapping software cv. Courtot [66]; with the qSTB.2 QTL mapped in the Ethiopian durum wheat landrace population [8]; with the QStb.ihar-2B.2 QTL mapped in the Liwilla/Begra bread wheat doubled-haploid population [68]; and with the QStb.lfl-2B.1 mapped in the eight-founder MAGIC population of winter wheat [69]. However, the Qstb2B_1 QTL is different from the QTL mapped at the long arm of chromosome 2B in the Nimbus/Stigg bread wheat mapping population [67]. The Qstb2B_2 QTL likely co-localized with the QTL identified on chromosome 2B in the mapping populations Apache/Balance and FD3/Robigus [62] associated with both necrosis and pycnidia resistance in the adult plant stage. However, due to the unavailability of marker sequences, we cannot conclude that Qstb2B_2 derived from ' Agili39' is the same locus that was mapped in the aforementioned bread wheat mapping populations.Thus, the identified QTL in ' Agili39' co-localized with previously mapped QTL for STB resistance in bread and durum wheat populations, hence we cannot claim a new Stb gene in the ' Agili39' landrace accession. However, we clearly have identified QTL conferring resistance to a wide range of Z. tritici isolates under artificial inoculation conditions in seedlings and adult plants, known as field resistance [70].Thus far, in durum wheat, only partial resistance to Z. tritici was reported [16,71]. Here, we derived Qstb2B_1 from ' Agili39' that provides resistance to five Z. tritici isolates at the seedling stage, and to two isolates at the adult plant stage. Qstb2B_1 explains up to 61.6% of the observed phenotypic variance and was characterized by a high heritability (0.98) with a dual action at the seedling and the adult plant stages. ' Agili39' is also the origin of Qstb2B_2, QTL providing a major adult resistance explaining up to 54.3% of the observed phenotypic variance. Our findings confirm that Tunisian durum landraces harbor highly effective Z. tritici resistance QTL.In fact, the initial screening of the Tunisian landrace accessions showed a remarkable genetic diversity for STB resistance, as claimed also by Ouaja et al. [12] proving that Tunisian durum wheat landraces encompass diverse and valuable sources of resistance to Z. tritici. Eight landrace accessions (Agili37; Agili38; Agili39, Sbei99; Derbessi 12, Mahmoudi101, JK85 and Azizi27) were highly resistant and one landrace showed an intermediate response (' Agili41'). The different ' Agili' landrace accessions reacted differently to the deployed Z. tritici isolates, suggesting a different genetic background, which is in accord with Ferjaoui et al. [72] study hypothesizing that the tested ' Agili' accessions most likely carry different Stb genes combinations. Hence, and alike other durum wheat landrace populations [8], the Tunisian durum wheat landraces uncover untapped allelic diversity that is of a great value to support effective breeding strategies to enhance STB resistance in durum wheat.Our data demonstrated that the broad efficacy of the observed STB resistance in ' Agili39' is due to several stacked QTL, both at seedling as well as adult plant stages, which was also commonly observed in inheritance studies in bread wheat [34,58]. Pyramiding genes for disease resistance has been an effective strategy in preventing boom-and-bust cycles, and is now amenable through marker assisted breeding as a strategy to maintain disease resistance durability, such as for wheat stem rust where various resistance gene combinations have well controlled the disease since the mid-1950s and more recently to the devastating Ug99 race [56,[73][74][75]. A concrete illustration for Z. tritici is the effective resistance to a wide range of isolates in the bread wheat germplasm 'KK4500' and 'TE11' which is conferred by stacking several known Stb genes [76][77][78] and also in other germplasm several QTL have contributed to broad efficacy of resistance [59]. Our data also confirm that stacking QTL in durum wheat results in broad efficacy of STB resistance. This study has identified genotypes harboring diverse resistance loci entailing dual actions at the different physiological stages constituting thus potential effective sources for Z. tritici resistance and will thus support sustainable breeding approach for Z. tritici resistance in durum wheat.Finally, we explored QTL epistasis and identified four significant pairwise interactions of the identified QTL with an epistatic QTL mapped on chromosome 5B, designated as Qstb5B. Hence, the epistasis analysis has revealed other QTL that affects the expression of Z. tritici resistance in the ' Agili39'/Khiar population. In fact, epistatic interactions between QTL are an important factor that affects the phenotypic expression of genes and genetic variation in populations [79][80][81]. Similarly, to many other studies [82][83][84], our data demonstrated interaction between QTL having main effect (Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2) that are involved in epistasis with the Qstb5B QTL affecting the same trait. The epistasis analysis showed an additive-by-additive effect between the Qstb2B_1/ Qstb5B QTL and the Qstb2B_2/Qstb5B QTL, with a major effect of QTL mapped on chromosome 2B (Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2) over the Qstb5B QTL. Interestingly, the epistasis analysis showed that the Qstb2B_2 QTL, proven to control pycnidia development at the adult plant stage by QTL analysis, has also an effect in controlling pycnidia development at the seedling stage when interacting with the epistatic Qstb5B QTL. Nonetheless, the epistasis analysis did not indicate an interaction between the two major QTL Qstb2B_1 and Qstb2B_2 mapped on chromosome 2B.Our study deciphered ancient broad-based resistance to Z. tritici in a durum wheat landrace accession. A positive selection for the QTL linked markers may result in new high yielding durum wheat cultivars with wide resistance to Z. tritici reminiscent of the durable resistance to STB in landraces. Given the overall high susceptibility to STB in modern durum wheat cultivars, our data shed new light on disease resistance breeding in durum wheat.Eleven durum wheat accessions (Table 8) and a bi-parental recombinant inbred (RIL) population derived from a single seed descent cross between the Tunisian landrace accession ' Agili39' and the high yielding commercial cv. Khiar, were screened for resistance to septoria tritici blotch. The RIL population was generated by crossing the resistant parent ' Agili39' to the susceptible Khiar following a single seed descent approach (SSD). The F1 plants were selfed to generate the F2 seeds. One head row of each F2 plants were then randomly selected and sown in one row to produce the F2 derived F3 plants (F3). This procedure was followed for all subsequent generations up to the F10 plants. Therecombinant population (Agili39'/ Khiar) is maintained and available upon request at the National Institute of Agronomy -Tunisia (INAT) and at the CIMMYT gene banks.For STB resistance screening, we performed three experiments (Table 2). The first experiment was repeated three times and comprised the screening of the 11 Tunisian landraces at the seedling stage (Z13.3/21) with a panel of 20 Z. tritici isolates (Table 2). The first experiment was performed to understand overall resistance patterns to STB and to select potential isolates for further screening of the RILs derived from the ' Agili39'/Khiar cross, which consisted of the second experiment (experiment 2), performed thrice at the seedling stage. Finally, in the third experiment we tested the ' Agili39'/Khiar population under field conditions in Oued-Bejá, located in North-Western Tunisia, over a period of five years, 2011 -2014 and 2016 with three different Z. tritici isolates.A first experiment that consisted of the pre-screening of 11 Tunisian landrace accessions with 20 Z. tritici isolates was conducted at the seedling stage. The prescreening assay followed a complete block design in three replicates and included the susceptible parent cv. Khiar, the susceptiblecv. Karim and the resistant parent ' Agili39' as checks (Table 2 and 8). This experiment enabled the selection of eight Z. tritici isolates that discriminated between the ' Agili39' and the cv. Khiar parents and were subsequently used to screen the ' Agili39'/ Khiar derived recombinant inbred lines (RILs) at the seedling stage.For the seedling assay of the RIL population (experiment 2), we followed a split plot design with isolates as whole plots. Each whole plot consists of three neighbouring trays of fifty-four pots. The tested isolates were randomly allocated to the whole plots. Individual pots were the experimental units, and they were randomly arranged for each isolate/replicate combination on separate parallel greenhouse tables. 'Replicate' , 'isolate' , 'line' and the 'isolate x line' interaction were the fixed terms of our split plot model. However, the random term of the model consists of the 'replicate x whole plot' interaction. In all three replicates, eleven checks several checks were included with both parents ' Agili39' and cv. Khiar (Table 8).Five seeds per pot per accessions were grown in VQB 7 × 7x8 cm plastic pots (TEKU ® , Lohne, Germany), whereas 157 F6 RILs of the ' Agili39'/Khiar mapping population were planted in round peat pots (Jiffy, Moerdijk, Netherlands), also five seeds per pot, using a special mixture for growing seeds (Substraat Zaai) provided by the greenhouse facility Unifarm of Wageningen University and Research (WUR), The Netherlands.Pre-cultures of each isolate were prepared in an autoclaved 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 50 ml yeast glucose (YG) liquid medium (30 g glucose, 10 g yeast per litre distilled water). The flasks were inoculated with frozen isolate samples that were selected from different durum wheat growing countries and maintained at -80 °C in a Z. tritici isolate collection at WUR. The inoculated flasks were subsequently placed in an incubated rotary shaker (Innova 4430, New Brunswick Scientific, USA) set at 125 rpm and 15 °C for 5-7 days. These pre-cultures were then used to inoculate two 1L Erlenmeyer flasks containing 500 ml YG media per isolate that were incubated under the aforementioned conditions to provide sufficient inoculum for the seedling inoculation assays at growth stage (GS) 11 [85]. Spores were subsequently collected after overnight settling in static cultures, concentrated by decanting the supernatant medium, adjusted to 10 7 spores ml-1 in a total volume of 40 ml for a set of 18 plastic pots or 24 Jiffy ® pots and supplemented with two drops (µl/ml) of Tween 20 surfactant (MERCK ® , Nottingham, UK).Prior to the inoculation, plant development was allowed for 10 days in a greenhouse adjusted at a temperature of 18/16 °C (day/night rhythm) and relative humidity (RH) of 70%. Inoculations were conducted by spraying the inoculum over the seedlings that were placed in an inoculation cabinet on a rotary table, adjusted at 15 rpm, which is equipped with interchangeable atomizers and a water cleaning device to avoid cross-contamination. Infected plants were incubated in transparent plastic bags for 48 h under 100% RH. Post-inoculation conditions were set at a temperature of 22/ ± 2 °C and RH of ≥ 95%. Light intensity (son-T Agro 400 W lamps) and day length (16/8 h light/dark) were similar during pre-and postinoculation conditions. Ten days after inoculation, seedlings were trimmed for the second and subsequent leaves to enable sufficient light on the inoculated primary leaves for appropriate disease development. Fertilizer (Sporumix PG ® , Rotterdam, Netherlands; 0.5 g.l 1 ) was applied to support plant growth.In the seedling assays, disease severities were evaluated at 15, 18 and 21 days post-inoculation (dpi). These multiple observations enabled Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) calculations for quantitative analyses of temporal differences in disease progress. We estimated the quantitative presence of necrosis and pycnidia on the inoculated seedling leaves in percentages [36,37,86]. AUDPC calculations for seedling scores followed the trapezoidal method, which approximates the time variable and calculates the average disease intensity between each pair of adjacent time points [87].Adult plant assays of the ' Agili39'/Khiar population were conducted at Oued-Bejá, located in North-Western Tunisia (36° 46′ 27.516'' N, 10° 3′ 36.432'' E), for five years, 2011 -2014 and 2016, with Tun1 -Tun6 and IIB-123 Z. tritici isolates, respectively. This region belongs to the sub-humid bioclimatic zone of Tunisia with an average rainfall ranging from 500 to 850 mm and a daily mean temperature between 10-28 °C [72].For the field trials, we adopted an augmented randomized complete block design. Five blocks with 1.5 m width and spaced 1.5 m were linearly drilled with 30 to 35 RILs, parents and four modern durum cultivars per block. Each line was sown as one spike per row of 1.5 m length and spaced 25 cm. We randomized all RILs, the parents and four additional checks modern durum wheat cvs. Karim, Nasr, Maali and Salim, important in Tunisian breeding programs and showing different levels of susceptibility in each block. For the 2016 field trial, we used a complete random block design with three replicates with both parents ' Agili39' and 'Khiar' as checks.Field inoculations were conducted with three isolates (Tun1, Tun6 and IIB123) across the F5:6-F9:10 RILs generations. We used Z. tritici isolate Tun6 for three years to screen the F5:6 (N = 164), the F7:8 (N = 158) and the F8:9 (N = 157) RILs in 2011, 2013 and 2014, respectively and isolate Tun1 to screen the F6:7 (N = 158) in 2012 and the F8:9 (N = 157) in 2014. In 2016, we screened the F9:10 (N = 155) with Z. tritici isolate IIB123. In all field trials and across all generations, plants were inoculated twice. The first inoculation occurred at the tillering stage (GS [21][22][23][24][25][26] in order to initiate the disease infection, and the second inoculation was applied after 25-30 days when all RILs reached approximately the elongation stage (GS37) [85]. The second inoculation was applied to ensure an increase in the disease pressure. Field inoculations were conducted with a spore suspension adjusted to 10 7 spores/ml of the corresponding Z. tritici isolate using a CO2-pressurized knapsack sprayer with a 1 m hand-held boom till run-off.For the field evaluations, we scored pycnidial classes at 28 days post the second inoculation (GS 51) [85] that were later transformed to pycnidia percentages (0 = no pycnidia, 1 = 12%, 2 = 25%, 3 = 50%, 4 = 75% and 5 = 87%) [60,88].Genomic DNA was extracted from fresh leaves using a modified CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) method and quantified using NanoDrop 8000 spectrophotometer V 2.1.0. Whole-genome profiling was performed using DArT-Seq ™ technology by Diversity Arrays Technology Pty Ltd, Australia, as described by Kilian et al. [89]. In brief, the DArT-Seq ™ technology was optimized by selecting the most appropriate complexity reduction method for wheat (PstI-MseI restriction enzymes). DNA fragments digested with restriction enzymes were ligated with PstI adaptors and unique barcodes, and then amplified following PCR. Amplicons were pooled and sequenced in a 96-multiplex on a HiSeq2000 (Illumina, USA) resulting in a total of 5,891 raw DArTSeq SNP markers.The SNP markers were first filtered according to their polymorphism between the parents ' Agili39' and 'Khiar' . A total of 3,459 filtered SNPs was subsequently tested for the segregation distortion that was determined by the calculation of the Chi-Square (X 2 ). Hence, SNPs with a major distortion of p < 0.001 were removed. Moreover, identical SNPs, which should be mapped to the same position on the linkage group, were identified (loci similarity = 1). Hence, only one marker of 'similar loci' was retained on the linkage map to reduce the calculation burden. The final set of filtered SNPs was then used to generate a genetic linkage map using JoinMap ® 4 software [90]. The regression mapping algorithm was used to construct the genetic map. Linkage between markers, recombination rate (Θ), and map distances was calculated using the Kosambi mapping function in JoinMap [91]. Markers were grouped using a minimum independence LOD (logarithm of the odds) score of 10.0 and linkage groups were established at a minimum LOD score of 3.0. Markers were linearly aligned in each linkage group, converting the recombination rates into the Kosambi's map distance in centimorgans. A sequential map builds up strategy was followed to determine the best marker position [92]. The best fitting position of markers was examined based on the goodnessof-fit test (chi-square) for the resulting map. The final map included bin markers that excluded similar SNP markers.Linkage groups were subsequently assigned to chromosomes by aligning the SNP marker sequences of the linkage groups to the reference genome of the Triticum turgidum subsp. durum Svevo.v1 and using the BLASTn function in the publicly available sequence database 'Ensemble Plants'(https:// plants. ensem bl. org/ Triti cum_ turgi dum/ Tools/ Blast? db= core) [93].Pycnidia AUDPC scores (P-AUDPC) of the pre-screening experiment (experiment 1) were analysed for their variance using the 'aov' function in the R environment [42] to test for the effect of 'line' , the effect of 'isolate' and the effect of any 'line x isolate' interactions. The following linear model was fitted to the observed P-AUDPC scores:where Yijk is the P-AUDPC score in the Kth replicate with isolate i and line j. μ is the overall mean. αi is the isolate i main effect. βj is the line j main effect. (αβ)ij is the interaction effect between isolate i and line j and ϵijk is the unexplained error.For the split-plot seedling experiment performed on the RIL population (experiment 2), an analysis of variance for the necrosis and the pycnidia AUDPC scores (N-AUDPC and P-AUDPC) was performed using the sp. plot function available in the Agricolae package in the R environment [42,94].Isolates were the whole-plot factors and RILs were the sub-plot factors. We fitted the observed N-AUDPC and P-AUDPC scores to the following linear model: where Y ijk is the N-AUDPC or P-AUDPC score in the K th replicate of a plot with isolate i and RIL j. μ is the overall mean. αi is the fixed effect of isolate i. ηk(i) is the whole-plot error. βj is the fixed effect of RIL j. (αβ)ij is the interaction effect between isolate i and RIL j and ϵijk is the sub-plot error.Significant differences between isolates were determined using the least significant difference (LSD) of N-AUDPC and P-AUDPC scores and using the Agricolae package in the R environment. 'RIL x isolate' grouping of necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC scores was defined based on the Bonferroni test at p < 0.05. Homogeneity of the seedling replicates was checked and homogeneous data across replications were subsequently averaged and used for the seedling QTL analysis [95].Repeatability was estimated for the necrosis and pycnidia AUDPC generated at the seedling stage as follow:where σ 2 G is the variance component due to genotypes, σ 2 GE is the variance component due to the interaction between the genotype and the isolate, E is the number of isolates which is eight in the seedling experiment, σ 2 ε is the variance component due to the unexplained error Yijk = µ + αi + βj + (αβ)ij + ǫijkr and r is the number of replicates which is three per isolate for all seedling assays.Field pycnidia scores generated by the inoculation of adult plants with Tun1 and Tun6 Z. tritici isolates were tested for their variance to check for the effect of 'genotype' , 'block' , 'year' , 'isolate' and for any two-way and three-way interactions between the independent variable 'genotype' and the independent factors 'block' , 'year' and 'isolate' . A linear model was fitted to the observed pycnidia at the adult plant stage as follow:where Yijk t is the pycnidia coverage score of RIL j inoculated with isolate i in the K th block at year t. μ is the overall mean. αi is the main effect of the isolate i. βj is the main effect of the RIL j. γk is the main effect of the block k. ηt is the main effect of the year t. (αβ)ij, (γβ)kj, (ηβ)tj are the twoway interaction effects of the RIL j with the isolate i, the RIL j with the block k and the RIL j with the year t, respectively. (αβη)ijt is the three-way interaction effect of RIL j with isolate i and with year t and finally, εijkt is the residual.For the Tun1 and the Tun6 isolates tested on multiple consecutive years, a broad sense heritability (H 2 ) was estimated as follow:where σ 2 G is the variance component due to genotypes. σ 2 GE is the variance component due to the interaction between the genotype and the isolate. E is the number of years which is 2 and 3 for Tun1 and Tun6 isolates, respectively. σ2ε is the variance component due to the unexplained error and r is the number of blocks which is five for all adult assays.The least-square means (Lsmeans) of pycnidia coverages were derived from the individual year trials using the SAS software [96]. Transformed field data were subsequently considered for the field QTL analysis.A heatmap correlation matrix was calculated for the generated phenotypes at the seedling and the adult plant stages using the \"Corr\" function and visualized using the \"corrplot\" package in the R environment [43]. The \"Corr\" function was set to calculate the Pearson correlation. Positive and negative correlations were displayed in the heatmap matrix by a color gradient from red, indicating a positive correlation, to blue, indicating a negativer correlation between the phenotypic traits. Frequency distribution figures were generated using the \"hist\" function in the R environment.An inclusive composite interval mapping of additive (ICIM-ADD) functionality in QTL IciMapping v4.1 [97] was used. Additive QTL were detected using a walk speed of 1.0 cM and the probability used in stepwise regression for additive QTLs was 0.001. The logarithm of odds (LOD) value of 3.0 was chosen to declare significant QTL, and the LOD value was calculated from 1000 permutations with type I error of 0.01. The phenotypic variance explained (PVE) and additive effect of individual QTL at the LOD peaks were also obtained. Identified QTL were plotted against their corresponding linkage groups using the MapChart © software version 2.3 [98]. Subsequently and for the identified QTL contributing to resistance, we aligned the linked SNP markers to the reference genome of the Triticum turgidum subsp. durum Svevo.v1 and using the BLASTn function (https:// plants. ensem bl. org/ Triti cum_ turgi dum/ Tools/ Blast? db= core) in the publicly available sequence database 'Ensemble Plants' [93]. Epistatic interactions between QTL were identified by the inclusive composite interval mapping of digenic epistatic QTL (ICIM-EPI) method implemented in QTL IciMapping software v4.1 [97]. The LOD threshold was set at 5.00 to declare significant epistatic QTL and LOD value was calculated from 1000 permutations at the significance level of 0.05.The highest epistasis interactions detected between the QTL (highest LOD) were subsequently selected for a two-way interaction test to examine pycnidia AUDPC means of the variant allele combinations linked to the epistatic QTL. Alleles linked to the detected QTL were named by 'R' and 'S' denoting the resistant and susceptible alleles, respectively. Hence, pycnidia AUDPC means of the four allele combinations 'RR' , 'RS' , 'SR' and 'SS' were examined and Boxplots were generated using the 'ggplot2' package in the R environment [99].","tokenCount":"7221"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ed8bdc543efff34bc91d38c0438cd8ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/667b369f-b56d-4329-bbdb-9cf650efcb35/retrieve","id":"-1798369146"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f71def85-169f-4eba-9e51-1465e37fc4c5","pagecount":"26","content":"CGIAR Technical Reporting has been developed in alignment with the CGIAR Technical Reporting Arrangement. This Initiative report is a Type 1 report and constitutes part of the broader CGIAR Technical Report. Each CGIAR Initiative submits an annual Type 1 report, which provides assurance on Initiative-level progress towards end-of-Initiative outcomes. The CGIAR Technical Report comprises:• Type 1 Initiative and Impact Area Platform reports, with quality assured results reported by Initiatives and Platforms available on the CGIAR Results Dashboard.• The Type 3 Portfolio Performance and Project Coordination Practice Change report, which focuses on internal practice change.• The Portfolio Narrative, which draws on the Type 1 and Type 3 reports, and the CGIAR Results Dashboard, to provide a broader view on portfolio coherence, including results, partnerships, country and regional engagement, and synergies among the portfolio's constituent parts.The CGIAR Technical Report constitutes a key component of the CGIAR Annual Performance Report (APR).OECD DAC Gender equity marker score* Score 0: Not targeted: The Initiative/project has not been found to target gender equality. However, as a minimum requirement for all Initiatives/projects: (i) a gender analysis was conducted; (ii) its findings should be used to ensure that, at a minimum, the Initiative activities/interventions do no harm and do not reinforce gender inequalities; and (iii) data that is collected is gender disaggregated.https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/breeding-resources/ *The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) markers refer to the OECD DAC Rio Markers for Climate and the gender equality policy marker. For climate adaptation and mitigation, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1 = Significant; and 2 = Principal. The CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform has adapted the OECD gender marker, splitting the 1 score into 1A and 1B. For gender equality, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1A = Gender accommodative/aware; 1B = Gender responsive; and 2 = Principal. These scores are derived from Initiative proposals, and refer to the score given to the Initiative overall based on their proposal.CIMMYT Senior Scientist and Cropping Systems Agronomist, Nele Verhulst (blue shirt), shows the benefits of conservation agriculture to visitors at CIMMYT's experimental station in Texcoco, Mexico.Photo credit: Francisco Alarcón / CIMMYT Overall summary of progress against the theory of change CGIAR-NARES breeding networks must proactively breed for changing climate conditions and market demands in addition to yield and nutrition, to meet the complex and multi-trait product profiles demanded by today's end-users. Breeding Resources is an initiative to develop enabling services such that CGIAR-NARES breeding networks can meet those demands, by fully leveraging advances in contributory fields that have revolutionized modern breeding into a data-driven enterprise.Our value proposition rests on the fact that many of the technologies that define modern breeding are crop-agnostic and Center-agnostic. Those technologies are best delivered and scaled as a Section 2 Initiative progress on science and towards End of Initiative outcomes Rice Straw Photo credit: IRRI centrally coordinated service, rather than duplicating the infrastructural and personnel investments required for those technologies across multiple institutions. In some cases, the technologies are commercially sourced. Given the high cost of maintenance, depreciation, and other related costs in a highly heterogeneous landscape of technologies and tools, sustainable operations cannot be achieved without some level of consolidation and standardization.Breeding Resources envisioned six core services in Work Package 2 to support CGIAR-NARES networks. Significant progress was made on the establishment of 4/6 services: genotyping, nutrition testing, genome sequencing, and drone phenotyping. Two of the four (genotyping and sequencing) are in active use. Two services -Breeding Analytics and Bioinformatics -had scope changes (see Section 7), but we plan to still make progress on best practice standardization through the Breeding Analytics process team (launched as a part of Work Package 3). Each service will be fully costed and developed according to a sustainable business model (Work Package 1), with data requirements reflected in the development of the Enterprise Breeding System (Work Package 4), and supported with a capacity development plan (Work Package 5).The high-volume datasets that characterize modern breeding must be actively managed for fast turnaround and data flow, so that major decision points in the breeding process can be supported by the best available data and analyses. In Work We are keenly aware that to achieve lasting changes in breeding operations, access to new technologies is not enough. We must also invest in people and ways of working. In Work Package 3, we delivered institutional innovations for structured change implementation. In 2022, we established the Breeding Process Model, which provides a joint decision-making structure for collaboration, deployment, and improvement of Genetic Innovations processes. Four process improvement teams were launched in the areas of lab, trialing, and nursery support, and breeding analytics, and product development (led by Accelerated Breeding REORGANIZE), each with a core group of representatives across Centers and a mandate to harmonize practices and activities in their respective expertise areas. By building trust through sharing of information and decisions, we have a basis from which to establish validated best practices as institutional knowledge in local settings, raising the bar for breeding and operational excellence across CGIAR and partners.This is a simple, linear, and static representation of a complex, non-linear, and dynamic reality. End hunger for all and enable a ordable healthy diets for the 3 billion people who do not currently have access to safe and nutritious food. Teams from CGIAR's three Action Areas -System Transformation, Resilient Agrifood Systems and Genetic Innovation -worked to develop an improved set of Action Area outcomes in October 2022. Since this was near the end of the reporting cycle for 2022, it was decided not to update the theories of change based on these new Action Area outcomes. The exception to this is Genetic Innovation -for this Action Area, as the new outcomes had already been widely discussed among the relevant Initiatives, and with its advisory group of funders and other stakeholders, the decision was made to update their outcomes in time for the 2022 reporting cycle.1. Sequencing service was established and produced reference genomes to aid the development of standard marker panels for genomic selection.2. Genotyping service increased customer volume 3x and is prepared to scale to support genomic selection in 2023 with an online sample submission portal.3. New services were piloted in drone phenotyping and nutrition testing.4. Process teams in trialing and nursery services, and lab services were established, setting the stage for harmonization of data generation protocols and workflows for consistent and high-quality data.A new data management system went into production usage for the first time, enabling digitization and data workflows for maize, rice, and wheat programs.6. Consensus built around establishing a data lake and catalog in 2023 to facilitate complex analytics and data interoperability, and bilateral funding was approved to support it from Crops to End Hunger. 7. We implemented robust capacity building programs in data management, genotyping sampling logistics, and the application of continuous improvement principles to breeding operations.All these services and technologies support the three EOI outcomes through enabling greater speed in breeding operations, more accurate breeding decisions, and more complex analytics for increased breeding precision to fit market demand.Cost-effectiveness is a ratio of cost to performance. Improvements are achieved by reducing cost or increasing performance of breeding programs. To reduce cost, we centralized data generating services in sequencing and genotyping, and further piloted the shared service cost Center model with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)-HarvestPlus for nutrition testing. For improving performance, process teams in trialing and nursery services, and lab services were established, setting the stage for harmonization of data generation protocols and workflows for consistent and high-quality data. We also ran extensive continuous improvement training for improved breeding operations and increased mechanization.We produced a gender inclusion checklist for farm operations to guide station leaders in their improvement efforts in this area. In 2023, we will develop a performance monitoring system that will include tracking indicators on the Impact Areas applied to internal breeding operations.60% of samples run through the genotyping service came from National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) or NARIS. We also ran extensive capacity building workshops for regional leaders in Sub-Saharan Africa NARES in breeding operations, focusing on farm management, equipment mechanization, and improved phenotyping. Further expansion of services to NARES is expected in future years, but will be subject to constraints from funding limitationsWe coordinated extensively with Accelerated Breeding Initiative (ABI) Work Package leads in the design and prioritization of services, to enable the modernization plans laid out in ABI ACCELERATE. The Work Package originally aimed to guide modernization investment decisions by optimization of breeding programs according to quantitative genetic principles and the development of financial forecasting capability for breeding operations and services. The Work Package underwent changes in 2022 that resulted in a significant narrowing of scope, driven by organizational changes that occurred as the Genetic Innovations departments formed and initiative roles became fleshed out. The changes were also needed as it became clear that pooled funding would not accommodate significant investments in new technologies but must be directed to the day-to-day operational costs of breeding programs.Breeding Resources focused on costing of services (also see Work Package 2), with the goal of establishing these services in sustainable cost recovery mode in collaboration with key funders. We determined a general model for such services wherein one or two Centers would \"host\" the service and vendor relationships on behalf of the CGIAR, and this was piloted with support from IFPRI and International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). We also coordinated investment in new technologies and tools through Crops to End Hunger and will continue to provide portfolio management of those investments through 2025.  17 new reference genomes developed as community resources to support better marker development in musa, yam, cassava, cowpea, and groundnut.Collaboration established with IFPRI-HarvestPlus to launch nutritional services for Zn and Fe using ICP platform with a third-party vendor.Engaged consultant and developed strategy to mainstream high throughput phenotyping with select vendors.Need to confirm mandate for a central service as CGIAR evolves, as unlike the other services the focus is on organizing existing capacity at Centers.Deprioritized due to funding limitations. For new technologies to be adopted, people must also be trained, and new processes and workflows implemented -all in the face of a constantly turning breeding cycle. This Work Package delivers services to help multiple institutions implement change together, through establishing a resilient framework for coordinated and rigorous process management -a prerequisite for consistent and high-quality data generation and decision support in a collaborative breeding network. We led the development of the Breeding Process Model, which provides a joint decisionmaking structure for collaboration, deployment, and improvement of Genetic Innovations processes. Four process improvement teams were launched in the areas of lab, trialing, and nursery support, and breeding analytics, and product development, each with a core group of representatives across Centers and expertise areas. Process teams were equipped with tools and documentation standards for cross-Center harmonization and decision-making. We also launched the breeding data governance network to support process optimization with requirements for data quality and availability. A comprehensive capacity development program was implemented for continuous improvement principles and their application to breeding operations and mechanization, including the publication of a gender inclusion checklist tool for farm management operations. We developed and released two major versions of EBS in 2022, and successfully deployed EBS as a fully operational system at four Centers for three crops -IRRI, CIMMYT, AfricaRice, and IITA for rice, wheat, and maize -working closely with IT teams at CIMMYT and IRRI. The EBS Support Desk was established for effective day-to-day support in usage, resolving more than 1,000 tickets with a 95% satisfaction rating. A comprehensive training program was also implemented that comprised 118 separate trainings of various sizes, with 263 women and 365 men trained to use EBS. For the first time in CGIAR, we took a systematic KPI-driven approach to adoption, tracking a common set of adoption indicators monthly, and used the metrics to adaptively respond when usage stalled. We also supported use of a legacy system (Breeding Management System, or BMS), formalized a data migration strategy for future users of EBS from BMS, and developed a data lake strategy to be implemented in 2023, to facilitate advanced breeding analytics and data interoperability. The Work Package originally aimed to increase adoption of modern breeding innovations by developing a group of regional \"Change Leaders\" with training in change management. These Change Leaders would work with breeding programs to assess demand and capacity for new technologies and develop suitable capacity building and change management plans for adoption. In 2022, we piloted the role of Change Leaders. We assembled a team of representatives from every CGIAR region, defined their terms of reference, provided change management coaching to the team, and conducted a joint project where we mapped demand and capacity for nutritional testing across geographic regions to help the design of services in Work Package 2. The Work Package underwent a large reduction in scope at the end of 2022, as it is a significant personnel investment that could not be prioritized at current funding levels. The regional Change Leader role was eliminated; instead, we consolidated the role into network coordinators from Accelerated Breeding TRANSFORM, who could theoretically perform the same function to some degree. While the cultural elements of change management were deprioritized, we still address institutional innovations for change delivery through Breeding Resources Work Package 3.Going forward, we will prioritize technology adoption support with a narrower scope on the services offered in Work Package 2. Each of these services require significant capacity development to integrate the new technologies and methods into existing operations, and a dedicated coordinator will work across services to support their design, accessibility, and implementation. EBS established as a fully operational system at multiple Centers for rice, corn, and wheat. This foundation enables a long-term, sustainable future for data management in Genetic Innovations through increased consolidation into one enterprise system.If we had retained the original scope and outputs of the work package, we would rate as red. The activity/result contributes in significant ways to gender equality, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.Gender equality is the main objective of the activity/result and is fundamental in its design and expected results. The activity contributes in significant ways to either one of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.The activity is principally about meeting either one of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy, and would not have been undertaken without these objectives. Breeding Resources is aimed at the operational effectiveness of breeding networks led by Genetic Innovations, by consolidating the provision of crop-and Center-agnostic technologies into shared services that benefit NARES and CGIAR breeding operations. It is also an initiative with significant potential to change CGIAR ways of working. Thus, we focus on a small number of partners who can engage deeply with the initiative to demonstrate that consolidating selected functions in breeding operations as shared services brings real value.Breeding Resources partnerships fall into two major categories: NARES and private industry:• NARES are customers of the services, offering valuable feedback as we establish them to be fit-for-purpose. These NARES are breeding programs with strong interest and existing capacity to adopt new technologies. Partnership with these NARES involves not only provision of cost-effective services, but also includes a capacity development element, connecting local researchers to subject matter experts, building relationships and professional capabilities.• Private industry are partners in provision of the services. They may be externally sourced vendors that we contract, consultants providing specific subject matter expertise in areas such as change management, or private breeding companies that advise the Initiative based on their experience with consolidating breeding operations.Note: CGIAR Centres are excluded from the analysis. Partners and edges are sized by the number of results. Labels are shown for the partners involved in 13 or more results.All Strategic modeling of investment scenarios for tools and technologies was cut, as pooled funding must be directed to the day-to-day operational costs of breeding programs and will not accommodate significant investments in new technologies.We retained costing and forecasting support for services already planned in Work Package 2.Package 5.The regional Change Leader role was eliminated, and with it, most of the outputs of the work package, as it is a significant personnel investment that could not be prioritized at current funding levels.Network coordinators from ABI TRANSFORM will instead perform some of the same activities in service demand and capacity assessment.  Economic growth in the agricultural sector is more than twice as effective at reducing poverty as growth in other sectors 1 , and agriculture is already impacted by climate change faster than we expected 2 . In this straitened setting, breeding today for smallholder farmers in Africa, Asia, and Latin 1 https://blogs.worldbank.org/jobs/five-new-insights-how-agriculture-can-help-reduce-poverty 2 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-01/climate-change-to-cut-quarter-off-corn-yields-by-2030-nasa-says?sref=q8seIhDd https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00400-y America requires database infrastructure that can handle large amounts of data with fast turnarounds to quickly produce varieties to fit new market demands. In 2022, rice, maize, and wheat breeding programs at IRRI, AfricaRice, CIMMYT, and IITA successfully deployed the Enterprise Breeding System (EBS), a data management system fit for collaborative network breeding. As part of its commitment to accessibility, EBS is a license-free, cloud-based system which offers end-to-end support for breeding workflows. All operational data is stored in one single place with no need for access to other systems to execute breeding experiments, therefore enabling both data sharing and collaboration. Using state-of-the-art technology, EBS offers a multi-crop platform that is easy to implement and maintain.A detailed change management plan supported the adoption of the system at each Center.Noemí Valencia, Seed Health Laboratory Supervisor, stands in the greenhouse where her team makes sure that seeds are healthy for travel. Photo credit: Alfonso Cortés/CIMMYT A Service Desk under one centralized platform offered the same level of services whenever needed across all of the globe to resolve blockers in daily use of the system. This Service Desk processed more than 1,000 tickets with a 95% satisfaction rating in 2022. For the first time in CGIAR, we also took a systematic KPI-driven approach to adoption, tracking a common set of adoption indicators monthly and used the metrics to adaptively respond when usage stalled. A comprehensive training program was also implemented that comprised 118 separate trainings of various sizes hosted by all four Centers, with 263 women and 365 men trained to use the system.Adoption progress at the four Centers has been impressive, with more and more breeding teams using the system in their daily routines. Since April 2022, c. 2.5 million plot data points have been recorded in the system with c. 350,000 new germplasm records. This is current data, digitized in real-time for direct use by breeders and their staff, unleashing breeder time and putting predictive breeding within reach.With the foundation provided by working software and a comprehensive adoption support process, we are ready to expand to CGIAR legumes at IITA and begin outreach to potential NARES who may be interested to adopt the system in 2023. The system is becoming a cornerstone of the long-term strategy for sustainable data management in Genetic Innovations and has been recognized as a flagship product by CGIAR Digital and Data. As a system that was born within CGIAR in response to breeding program needs, the EBS team practices an iterative user-driven design process guiding its development. As CGIAR's breeding strategy evolves, the EBS software, its supporting team, and its ways of working will ensure that Breeding Resources can adaptively respond in the coming years to support the breeding networks taking shape under Genetic Innovation in their information management needs.\" …we have one primary objective which focuses on implementing improved data management, experimental designs, and breeding methods to accelerate genetic gain and ixmproved breeding efficiency. Therefore, implementing EBS is one of the top priorities for [the] AGG project [Accelerating Genetic Gains in Maize and Wheat for Improved Livelihoods] \" Yoseph Beyene, Regional Maize Breeding Coordinator -Africa, and Maize Breeder -Eastern Africa","tokenCount":"3331"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8026ca297e61b4292c1231e54da2faab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/92044fd7-9183-40f2-8c66-9e0697125f40/retrieve","id":"2012582037"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f26f7e77-666d-4ce6-ab07-bbd3df86aa04","pagecount":"106","content":".¡¿r f~~ ~-Y''''' me del viaje de observación a los países de Venezuela,se realiza en dos sistemas, de riego y secano. En riego, predomina la siembra directa con semilla seca en suelo seco, o con semilla pregerminada en suelo fangueado.Este sistema es completamente mecanizado.Igualmente, en el sistema secano predomina el mecanizado, siembra directa con semilla seca en suelo seco o con semilla pregerminada en suelo húmedo.En el Cuadro 1 se resumen el área de cultivo, producción y rendimiento correspondientes a la cosecha de 1983 para los sistemas de producción Riego, Secano Mecanizado y Secano Manual.El grupo de observación consideró oportuno resumir la información actual sobre los costos de producción en los diferentes ecosistemas de los países visitados. Esta información se obtuvo de agricultores de avanzada y profesionales con amplia experiencia en el cultivo. La información se resume en el Cuadro 2.Los costos más altos en el sistema de riego corresponden a Colombia y los más bajos a Ecuador y Venezuela. En secano mecanizado los costos más altos son para Costa Rica.CUADRO 1. Area, producción y rendimiento de arroz en cinco países de América Latina durante la cosecha [1982][1983] El cultivo de arroz en Venezuela es una de las principales actividades agrícolas. Los principal e s esta dos productores de arroz son Portuguesa, Guarico, Barinas y Coj edes con una extensión total de 220.000 hectáreas (Cuadro 3) • El 79.5% del , area se cultiva e n secano y el 20.5% en riego. El área de secano incluye al sector campesino con unidades de explotación de 20 h e ctáreas, y agricultores empresariales con unidades promedio de 100 hectáreas. El área de riego está en manos de agricultores empresariales con unidades de explotación de 50-300 hectáreas.Los suelos cultivados en arroz pertenecen a l os ordenes Vertisoles, Ultisoles, Inceptosoles y Molis o les con pH d e 5.5-6.5.En los últimos cinco años (1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)  Predominan dos sistemas de producción: riego y secano.Ambos sistemas son completamente mecanizados desde la siembra hasta la cosecha. La siembra de secano es directa con semilla seca al voleo o en surcos, utili zando 120 kg de semilla por hectárea. En riego, la siemb r a es directa con semilla seca en suelo seco al voleo o en surcos, y con semilla pregerminada al voleo en suelo fangueado. Igualmente, ha fijado buenos precios de sustentación (2.600 Bs/ton de paddy) para los productores y a la vez está propiciando un mayor consumo de arroz directo (pastas) e indirecto (harina de trigo más harina de arroz en panificación, cervecería y en concentrados para aves).Actualmente el consumo per cápi ta es de 22 kilogramos de arroz blanco.El programa de arroz produce la semilla genética y básica de las variedades comerciales y nuevas variedades. La semilla básica la entrega al programa de producción de semillas, el cual se encarga de la producción de semilla fundación y de la certificación de semillas registradas y certificadas.El programa de semillas cuenta con tres profesionales a nivel de ingeniero agrónomo y cuatro peritos agropecuarios.En 1983 certif icaron 6.280 hectáreas de Araure 1 y 750 hectáreas de CICA 4, que produjeron en promedio 3.0 ton/ha de semilla certificada.Para 1984 la disponibilidad de semilla certificada fue de 6.309 toneladas de CICA 4, 1.700 hectáreas de Araure 1, 450 toneladas de Araure 3 y 450 toneladas de Araure 4.Para 1985 la meta es certificar 30.000 toneladas de semilla certificada, 12.000 toneladas de CICA 4 Y 6.000 toneladas de cada una de las variedades Araure 1. 3 Y 4.En el arroz de riego, en el ciclo de verano, los principales limitantes son:• Ratas, Holochilus brasiliensis (de pies . palmeados) y Sigmomys alstoni.• Pájaros migratorios, Spiza americana, establecidos en la región.    Se observaron varios cultivos de riego y secano en las etapas de macollamiento a maduración.En la finca \"La Romaña\" del Sr. Doménico Morelli, había 400 hect&reas en riego sembradas con Araure 1 y CICA 4.Ambas variedades estaban afectadas por piricularia, pero el principal problema eran las malezas gramíneas (Echinochloa colona, Leptochloa filiformis) y ciper&ce as (Cyperus ferax).Se visitó la finca de los Hermanos Ruffono en la región Payara, dedicada a la producción de semilla certif icada de Araure 1. Tenían 500 hect&reas en riego en d iferentes estados.Una alta incidencia de piricularia y .escaldado de la hoja se observó en varios lotes. Otros lo t es tenían una severa infestación de malezas, principalmen t e gramíneas.En secano se observaron varios cultivos de CICA 4 Y Araure 1. El principal limitante eran las mal e z as gramíneas (~ colona, L. filiformis, Ischaemum rugosum, Rot-tboellia exaltata), ciper&ceas (Cyperus ferax, C. rotundus) y arroz rojo (Foto 1).La alta incidencia de malezas, según los agricultores, la atribuían a la mala calidad de los herbicidas disponibles en el mercado nacional y a la carencia de nuevos herbicidas por restricción de las importaciones.El grupo de observación también tuvo la oportunidad de visitar la planta de productores de semillas \"Chispa\", en Acarigua.Esta planta tiene capacidad para procesar 12.000 toneladas de semilla.Es una planta que pertenece a 19 productores de arroz que se dedican a la producción de semillas certificadas y producción comercial.Los integrantes del grupo de observación discutieron los problemas encontrados en la producción de a rroz tanto a nivel comercial como de investigación. Esto con el fin de determinar con prioridad los limi tantes de la producción y hacer en cada caso algunas sugerencias o recomendaciones para minimizarlos. Se sugirió como medida de control cultural, una buena nivelación de los suelos y buen drenaje.En cuanto al control químico se deben ampliar las investigaciones con nuevos insecticidas y transferir los resultados a los agricultores.Entre los vertebrados, las pollas o gallito a z ul y las ratas son las principales plagas. Las primeras inciden durante el ciclo de lluvias en cultivos de riego y las segundas en cultivos de riego del ciclo de verano.Para el control de ratas han hecho campañas de erradicación con resultados poco satisfactorios debido p rincipalmente a la falta de cooperación de los agr i cultores. Algunos agricultores usan cebos, destruyen socas, sin embargo, , . , la mayor1a de ellos no lo hace. AS1, e l problema viene persistiendo por varios años, y continuará hasta que las campañas de erradicación sean aplicadas por todos los agricultores de la región.La falta de recursos económicos y personal capacitado son los principales limitantes que afronta e l programa de arroz.Se sugiere a FONAIAP dar los recursos económicos suficientes a fin de que las actividades del programa de arroz se consoliden a escala nacional y la transferencia de la nueva tecnología llegue oportunamente al usuario.El entrenamiento del personal es crítico y éste debe estar enfoc ado en todos los aspectos del cultivo.Una mayor integración del personal técnico de mejoramiento, agronomía, entomología y fitopatología es necesaria 'para aprovechar al máximo los pocos recursos económicos.En Colombia, despu¡s del caf¡, el arroz es el principa l cul ti vo y es básico en la dieta de la pobla c ión. En los últimos 10 años se ha incr e mentado el áre a y productividad debido principalmente a la buena adopc ión po r parte de los agricultores de los resultados de la inve stigación en mejoramiento varietal y mejores t ¡ c n icas de manejo.En 1971 el área cultivada fue 234.591 hectáre as con una producción de 885.438 toneladas de pad dy, y en 1983 se cultivaron 425.490 hectáreas con una producción de 1.813.534 toneladas d e paddy.Estas cifra s indican un incremento de 6.7% en área, 8.7 % en produ cc i ó n total y 1.2% en rendimiento. Estos factores han c o ntribuido a que el inc r e me nto e n la producción total sea s upe rior a l incremento de la población, situa ción que ha fa v orecido a Colombia para autoabastece rse (con un c o n s umo de 36 kilogramos de arroz blanco per cápita) y exportar unos pequeños volúmenes.Los aumentos e n producción y productividad son el resultado del uso de variedades de alto rendimiento y b u e n ma nejo del cultivo. Actualmente se cultivan 8 variedad e s mejoradas, CICA 4, CICA 7, CICA 8, CICA 9, IR 22, METICA  1984.VARIEDAD El grupo de observación visitó las plantas de semillas, Semillano y Fedearroz, el Centro de InvestigacionesAgropecuarias ICA-La Libertad y ClAT-Santa Rosa, en Villavicencio.Es una compañía privada dedicada a la producción de semillas certificadas de arroz y pastos tropicales. Cuenta con una planta moderna de to, clasificación, tratamiento procesamiento (secamieny almacenamiento) de semillas, dispone de 12 silos de plano inclinado con capacidad total de 360 toneladas.Produce anualmente 6.000 toneladas de semillas certificadas de arroz que cubren entre un 20-30% del área del Llano.La comercialización de semillas la hacen entre 30 y 60 días después de su procesamiento. El 80% de la semilla que producen la venden a través de distribuidores y el 20% es por venta directa.Para la producción de semilla en el campo cuentan con dos fincas de 7.000 hectáreas cada una y anualmente siembran 1.000 hectáreas por finca.Semillano compra semilla básica al Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario ( lCA) .Esta semilla la siembran en lotes nuevos fertilizados con 100 kg/ha de P 2 O S ' 80 kg/ha K 2 O, 100-130 kg N/ha + 8 kg/ha de elementos menores -2 kg/ha zinc. mas Los lotes de producción son inspeccionados por e l ICA en 3-4 visitas. Cuando el ICA aprueba el lote, éste se cosecha y el paddy se envía a la planta, en donde se muestrea cada bulto para determinar impurezas y grano ma nchado.Si pasa estas pruebas, el arroz se destina para semilla, de lo contrario, se envía a molinería.El paddy para semilla pasa a procesamiento, pr i mero por una pre-limpieza a una torre de almacenamiento en donde se reduce la humedad de 23% hasta 18%; se deja en r e poso por 20-24 horas y luego pasa a los silos de secami e nto para bajar la humedad hasta 13%. Con esta humedad el paddy pasa a las bodegas de almacenamiento para rompe r la dormancia y para clasificación. La semilla clasi f icada se empaca en bu ltos de 60 kg, se -almacena hasta que el ICA entregue los marbetes de aprobación. Luego pasa a tratamiento con Vitavax.La semilla se vende cuando l a germi-\" naCl.on es mayor del 80%. Este proceso es ig ual tanto para semilla registrada como certificada.Actualmente está produciendo semillas de las v a riedades METICA 1, ORYZICA 1 y ORYZICA 2.Semillano cuenta con 8 ingenieros agrónomos, un Ing.Agr. M.Sc., supervisor y un Ing.Agr., gerente de la c ompañía.Es una asociación de productores de arroz a esca la nacional, reconocida por el gobierno, la cual ve l a por e l bienestar económico y social de sus afiliados. Colabora en la investigación y transferencia de la tecnología a los productores de arroz.Una de las actividades de Fedearroz es la producción de semillas certificadas, para lo cual cuenta con 5 plantas procesadoras de semillas localizadas en las principales zonas arroceras del país.La planta de semillas en Villavicencio, es representativa para la producción de semillas en los Llanos Orientales.Produce la semilla en contrato con productores calificados, supervisados por el ICA, la procesa y distribuye a los productores de arroz.La planta de Villavicencio tiene una capacidad de procesamiento de 9.375 toneladas de semilla.Además, presta servicios de asistencia técnica a nivel comercial, distribuye maquinaria e insumos agrícolas a todos sus afiliados, colabora en investigación y transferencia de tecnología con el ICA y CIAT, y es la entidad que representa ante el gobierno a los productores de arroz, en las políticas de producción, crédito y comercialización del arroz dentro y fuera del país.El Centro de Investigaciones Agropecuarias La Libertad depende del ICA y sus actividades están orientadas a la investigación y transferencia de tecnología, fomento y servicios a los productores y ganaderos. Realiza investigaciones en arroz, pastos tropicales, seis cultivos más de la región, ganadería y producción de semillas. Tiene como área de influencia dos millones de hectáreas en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia. La Libertad está localizada a 25 km al este de Villavicencio, a temperatura promedia de 26 0 , precipitación 2.000-3.000 mm, pertenece a tipo de bosque En riego se observaron los experimentos del programa nacional consistentes en ensayos de rendimiento , poblaciones segregantes, viveros de observación d e riego, hoja blanca, los sets de materiales tolerantes a toxicidad de hierro y ensayos de fertilización y d e nsidades de siembra con un grupo de líneas promisorias (Foto 3).FOTO 3. Ensayo de fertilización en riego con líneas promisorias.Prog rama de Arroz ICA-La Libertad, Villavicencio, Colombia.También se observó el germoplasma para secano-suelos ácidos, 65 días pero no procedente del IRRI. Estos materiales tenían de edad y varias líneas tenían buen desarrollo, se observaron diferencias entre los materiales de parcelas fertilizadas con 60 kg/ha de P y sin P.CIAT-SANTA ROSA Esta estación experimental representa el ecosistema de secano favorecido. Los suelos son aluviales, fértiles con un pH de 5.5-6.0, textura franco-arcillosa. Temperatura promedia 26 0 C y una precipitación de 2.000-2.500 mm.El programa de arroz de CIAT evalúa poblaciones segregantes (F 2 -F 4 ), materiales avanzados en parcelas de observación, ensayos de rendimiento, los materiales de los viveros del IRTP y el banco de germoplasma (Foto 4).En todos los materiales se observó una alta presión de enfermedades principalmente piricularia, escaldado de la hoja y manchado de grano. Esta situación, obviamente permite seleccionar con mayor efectividad los materiales resistentes.Varias poblaciones F 2 tenían buen comportamiento, otras eran susceptibles a piricularia y/o escaldado de la hoja.Los materiales avanzados en observación y e n sayos de rendimiento tenían 96 días de edad.La incidencia de escaldado de la hoja era severa y varias lí n eas eran tolerantes.Se observaron los materiales del banco de ge r moplasma, 737 líneas y/o variedades en total, sembrada s con el propósito de evaluar e identificar resistencia a piricularia (hoja y de la hoja y manchado de grano. ClAT-Santa suelos fértiles Rosa, ecosistema de y buena distribución de lluvia, representativo para el arroz de secano en Venezuela, de América Colombia, Ecuador, Central y México.Bolivia y varias regiones lCA-La Libertad, ecosistema de riego en suelos ácidos, para seleccionar materiales resistentes a toxicidad de hierro, requeridos en Venezuela, Colombia, Brasil, (Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul y otros estados en donde se cultiva en varzeas) y Argentina. lCA-La Libertad, ecosistema secano en sabanas suelos ácidos y buena distribución de lluvias, representativo para las sabanas de Colombia, Venezuela, Per6 y Brasil (Amazonía) .ClAT-lDlAP-Panamá, Rio Hato, ecosistema de secano con suelos moderadamente fértiles y distribución de lluvia errática.Para seleccionar materiales de secano con tolerancia a sequía requeridos en América Central y México.En ClAT-palmira las actividades del programa están concentradas en la evaluación de germoplasma del lRTP, multiplicación de semillas de líneas promisorias para distribuirlas en los viveros del lRTP para América Latina, pruebas de calidad de grano, resistencia a Sogatodes y hoj a blanca. Además, en cooperación con la unidad de investigaciones biotecnológicas, el programa adelanta estudios especiales a través de cul ti vo de anteras para obtener plantas homocigotas tolerantes a toxicidad de aluminio y a temperaturas bajas.Los participantes también tuvieron oportunidad d e dialogar con el Dr. Gustavo Nores, Director Adjunto General de Investigaci6n (arroz y pastos tropicales) y Coopera-ci6n Internacional.Los participantes observaron las diferentes actividades de investigaci6n sobre calidad de grano, pruebas de resistencia a Sogatodes, hoja blanca y las nuev a s investigaciones sobre cultivo de anteras.En el c ampo se observ6 el germoplasma de los viveros del IRTP p rocedentes del IRRI, los materiales del banco de germoplasma sembrados con caracterizar el las prop6si to de variedades. rejuvenecer También se la semilla y obs erv6 la nueva metodología que se está desarrollando pa r a evaluar en estado de plántula (15-20 días de edad) la resistencia a hoja blanca en grandes cantidades de materiales.En cuanto a producci6n de semilla básica, se observ6 escala comercial el sistema de transplante Con base en lo anterior, se sugiere que esta actividad se continúe cada dos años, mejorando su programación para visitar con más tiempo a un menor número de países.El problema de malezas es crítico en secano y en riego en la mayoría de los países visitados. Para ayudar a los programas los participantes nacionales sugieren a minimizar este ampliar la . , aCClon para incluir ensayos sobre control de malezas.El arroz es una de las principales fuentes alimenticias del pueblo ecuatoriano.En 1982 se sembraron 152.500 hectáreas y se cosecharon 129.026 hectáreas con un promedio de 2.93 ton/ha. El 71% dél área correspondió a siembras en época de lluvia y el 29% a siembras en época seca.Las principales zonas arroceras se localizan en las provincias del Guayas y Los Rios, que representan el 90% del área sembrada. El resto se localiza en ciertas zonas de las provincias de Manabí, El Oro, Cañar y Loja.En el Ecuador, el arroz se cultiva en los ecosistemas de riego y secano.El área de riego se concentra en las zonas de Daule, Yaguachí, Samborondón, Balzar y Naranjal (provincia del Guayas), Baba y Babahoyo (provincia de Los Rios).El 38% del área sembrada en arroz pertenece a este ecosistema.El rendimiento promedio es de 4.0 ton/ha. Las malezas se controlan manualmente y en algunos casos con herbicidas.Predomina la cosecha manual sobre la mecanizada con combinadas.Se localizan en Yaguachí, Samborondón, Urbina Jado y Daule (Guayas), en Babahoyo, Pueblo Viejo y Baba (Los Rios).Este ecosistema representa el 34% del área total con un rendimiento de 3.0 ton/ha. La siembra en su mayor parte es a máquina y se realiza entre el 15 de diciembre al 15 de enero.60% del área de la provincia Los Rios es s~mbrada con las variedades mejoradas.En las otras regiones predominan las variedades tradicionales.En este ecosistema, como consecuencia de las lluvias.(21 de diciembre-21 de abril), ocurren inundaciones un mes después de las siembras, en febrero y marzo.El agua cubre las plántulas por varios días y luego baja el nivel.Las lluvias ocasionan dos situaciones críticas para el arroz, primero la inundación reduce la población porque las variedades no son tolerantes a la sumergencia, y segundo, la falta de agua que afecta las variedades tradicionales de ciclo tardío después de la flora- Las pozas veraneras son un sistema particular de producción de arroz en el Ecuador.Son depresiones naturales del terreno en donde se acumula el agua de l luvias e inundaciones y permanecen con agua durante la mayor la época seca.Este ecosistema representa area total, con un rendimiento promedio de parte de el 18% del 3.2 ton/ha. Se localiza en las zonas de Samborondón, Yaguachi, Daule, Urbina Jada (Guayas) y en Babahoyo, Catarama y Vinces (Los Rios).El arroz se siembra por transplante desde marzo a septiembre.Los semilleros los hacen en las par t e s altas, a los 25-30 días de edad, se realiza el primer transplante, denominado tradicionalmente \"claveteo\", que consiste en arrancar las plántulas y transplantarlas a lugares más baj os con lámina de agua de 0.15 m, ésto con el objeto de darles mayor espacio para su d e s arrollo. 20-30 días después, se procede al transplante d e finitivo a los lugares bajos según el ritmo de descenso del nivel de agua; normalme nte transplantan enareas c on lámina de agua de 0.25-0.35 m, colocando 6 a 8 pla ntas por sitio a distancias de 0.40 x 0.40 m. Los principales problemas de la producción d e arroz en Ecuador son los siguientes:• Fal ta de variedades mej oradas para los diferentes ecosistemas de secano con tolerancia a sume r gencia, salinidad y sequía.• Control de agua.• Deficiencias en control de malezas y fertil i zación.• Produoción insuficiente de semilla certifica da.• Incidencia de hoja blanca y piricularia, especialmente en secano. El programa de arroz cuenta con 5 ingenieros agrónomos en mejoramiento y 5 en agronomía. Los técnicos en agronomía sólo trabajan el 50% de su tiempo en arroz.El programa de arroz se inició en 1969 con el objetivo de obtener variedades de alto rendimiento, resistentes a enfermedades y buena calidad de molinería y cocina (grano largo, buen rendimiento de arroz excelso, buena apariencia del grano blanco e intermedias-altas en amilosa) .El mejoramiento varietal se hace a través de hibridaciones e introducciones. En el campo se observaron materiales introducidos, colección de variedades tradicionales, poblaciones segregantes F 2 -F 5 , líneas avanzadas en ensayos de rendimiento y producción de semilla genética.La colección de variedades tradicionales, 11 en total, las utilizan como progenitores en hibridaciones con líneas semi-enanas. Son de porte alto, grano medio y largo y tolerantes a hoja blanca.Entre el material introducido se observó en riego-transplante el germoplasma de los viveros VIOAL y VIRAL-T de 1984.Este germoplasma tenía 88 días de eda d y mostraba una alta afección muy similar a la def i ciencia de zinc.Los técnicos del programa consideran q ue este problema es una toxicidad de hierro. Sin emba r go, las de hierro y a la vez analizar los niveles de hierro en el tejido de la planta.Emplearon 120 kg/ha de N, P Y Zn en las combinaciones de N + P + S, N + P + K, N + P, N + P + Zn, N + K + Zn, N + Zn, N + K, N Y un testigo absoluto. En este experimento no se presentó el problema de hierro. La, unica diferencia observada fue la deficiencia de N en el testigo absoluto.En otro experimento están evaluando el efecto de azolla y la planta acuática \"lentejilla\" (duck weed), sobre el rendimiento. Los tratamientos eran 120 kg de N/ha, azolla 4 kg/ha, lentejilla 4 kg/ha, N + azolla, N + El experimento estaba Lentejilla, testigo absoluto. en floración y no se observaron diferencias entre los tratamientos.En invernadero están evaluando el efecto de materia orgánica sobre el de materia orgánica crecimiento del arroz.Como fuente usan las plantas acuáticas crestilla, mondonguillo, lentejilla y lechuga. Plantas fertilizadas con 40 gms de materia orgánica/pote con 2 kg de suelo, tenían un buen crecimiento en comparación al testigo.Esta granja, localizada en Daule, es del Ministerio de Agricultura del arroz de y Ganadería, en donde el programa nacional este Ministerio ejecuta actividades de capacitación, investigación y producción de semilla certificada.Las actividades de capacitación son para grupos campesinos, personal de nivel intermedio y estudiantes de son para La incidencia era moderada con seve r idad de grado 5.La línea más susceptible (UP 677) t e nía una incidencia de 31% de plantas afectadas con g rado 5, y la menos afectada un 8% de plantas afectadas c on grado 5. INIAP 6 (CICA 4) e INIAP 415 tenían una i n cidencia de 12%, con grado 5.En un ensayo de rendimiento con 36 líneas sel e c c ionadas del VIOAL, 1983 en estado de maduración, que fue a fectado por sales y hoja blanca, sobresalían las línea s P 3081 El Proyecto Jaime Roldós A., tiene el obj e tivo de desarrollar 50.000 hectá reas en el Valle del Daule.El Sub-proyecto de Rieg o América contempla la construcción de infraestructura (canales de riego y drenaj e y adecuación de tierra), para un total de 6.000 hectáreas de suelos arcillosos y a luviales que en la actualidad se utilizan irregularmen t e debido a las inundaciones del Rio Daule.En 1983, la s inundaciones ocasionaron pérdidas en agricultura por un valor de US$20 millones de dólares.Actualmente en la zona de Daule existen unas 80.000 hectáreas en planicie aluvial, de las cuales se utilizan i4.000 hectáreas para arroz.Para 1992 el proyecto contempla la adecuación total de 50.000 hectáreas para arroz.En la zona de Santa Elena existe un potencial de 100.000 Tienen problemas de ratas, hoja blanca, sogata y pudrición del tallo.La explotación es completamente mecanizada, siembra directa al voleo con avioneta, semilla seca en suelo seco, 150 kg/ha de semilla (Foto 7).Las aplicaciones de insumos, herbicidas, fert i lizantes y fungicidas son con avioneta.Las malezas las controlan con pre-eme rgent e s (Goal, Saturno, Ronstar) y post-emergentes (Propanil).La fertilización e s a base de nitrógeno (120-150 kg N/ha ) empleando urea.Las ratas las controlan con c e bos a base de mecanl.CO de Sogata hacen dos apl i caciones de insecticidas sistémicos.La incidencia de hongos en el grano la mini mizan con dos aplicaciones de fungicidas (Kasumin, Hinosa n o Bim), después de la floración.Obtienen rendimientos de 5.5-6. O ton/ha de paddy seco con unos costos de producción de US$480.00/ha.Este sistema de cultivo se observó en varias fincas en el área de Samborondón (Foto 8). Los cultivos estaban en estado de macollamiento con variedades t e mpranas como 1001 y Brasilero. Los cultivos con v a r iedades tardías (Pico Negro) que siembran en marzo y a bril ya se habían cosechado.El grupo de observación discutió los problemas o b s ervados e hizo algunas recomendaciones: ENFERMEDADES Hoja blanca es un problema serio especialment e en la zona de Daule.Se sugirió realizar una serie de cruzamientos con diferentes fuentes de resistencia y evaluar poblaciones en sitios de alta presión.En la e v aluación de los materiales se debe tener en cuenta el g rado de severidad e intensidad.Mientras se obtienen variedades resistentes, s e sugirió determinar a nivel de campo el porcentaj e de insectos vectores, si ¡ste es alto, recomendar a los agr i cultores el uso de insecticidas para su control.Tambi¡n se sugirió diversificar el cultivo con varios g enotipos  El problema de piricularia es más graves en s e cano y se sugiere al programa hacer las evaluaciones y s e lección de materiales resistentes en las zonas de secano , utilizando una tecnología que permita una severa i n c idencia de la enfermedad.Actualmente los agricultores no disponen de la su f iciente cantidad de semillas certificadas y la calida d no es adecuada.Se sugiere al programa nacional de semillas promover en la empresa privada la producción de semillas certificadas y controlar la calidad en las empresas ya existentes.Incentivar al agricultor el uso de semillas cert ificadas de buena calidad.La poca utilización de herbicidas en el control de malezas y el uso de -semillas de mala calidad son factores que pueden solucionarse haciendo demostraciones e n fincas de agricultores con la nueva tecnología. Reali z ar estas demostraciones en días de campo para productore s grandes y pequeños.Actualmente la fertilización que hacen alguos a g ricultores es con base en nitrógeno sin tener en c u e nta las El arroz en Panamá es básico en la dieta de la población con un consumo anual de 70 kg de arroz blanco per cápita.En la cosecha de 1982 se sembraron 106.060 hectáreas, de las cuales el 55.4% correspondió a secano mecanizado, más o menos 5.000 hectáreas de riego, y el resto a secano manual. Del total del área sembrada se cosecharon 99.030 hectáreas (52.967 hectáreas secano mecanizado y 46.063 secano manual), con una producción total de 178.802 toneladas de paddy. El 93.3 % de la producción correspondió a secano mecanizado con un rendimiento promedio de 3.1 ton/ha. Sin embargo, el promedio nacional fue 1.9 ton/ha; indicando que en el ecosistema secano manual el rendimiento fue inferior a 0.5 ton/ha. Los datos reflejan la dificultad de tener buenas estadísticas para el sistema de chuzo.Las principales variedades cultivadas fueron CICA 7 Y CICA 8 que representaron el 53% del área sembrada. En secano manual los agricultores siembran variedades nativas de bajo rendimiento y susceptibles a enfermedades.En los últimos dos años la producción ha sido suficiente para autoabastecerse y generar algunos excedentes. En vista de esta si tuación, la política del gobierno está enfocada al autoabastecimiento, mediante la concen-tración de la producción en áreas de secano me c anizado, sin riesgos de pérdida por sequía, con buena t e cnología (variedades de alto rendimiento y buen manejo d e l cultivo) • LIMITANTES DE LA PRODUCCION Los principales limitantes de la producción son los siguientes:• Enfermedades, principalmente piricularia, e scaldado de la hoj a, helmintosporiosis, añublo de la vaina y mancha ojival.• Carencia de semillas certificadas.• Mala preparación de tierra, inoportuna y s i n nivelación.• Inadecuado manejo del cultivo, especialme nte en control de malezas, fertilización y d e nsidades de siembra.El grupo de observación visitó la Estación Expe rimental de IDIAP en Rio Hato y Chichebre, y campos c ome rciales en la zona de Bayano.En esta estación experimental se desarrollan las actividades de investigación del Convenio IDIAP-CIAT. Esta localidad se caracteriza por tener suelos ligeramente ácidos, pH 5.5-6.0, textura franco limosa a franco-arcillosa y buen drenaje interno. La precipitación anual es de 1.000 mm con distribución errática que varía de En las poblaciones F 4 y F5 la incidencia de piricularia era menor, indicando un avance en la selección de materiales resistentes.Los materiales de los viveros VIRAL-T, VIOAL y VIOAL-SNF y banco de germoplasma tenían 47 días de edad. Se observaron varias líneas susceptibles a piricularia, similares a CICA 4 con una severidad de grado 7-8. local Tocumen 5430 mostraba resistencia.Esta estación está localizada en la zona de Bayano a 50 km al este de Ciudad de Panamá. Los suelos son arci-llosos con un pH de 5.5, bajos en fósforo. La p r ecipitación anual fluctúa de 1.500-2.000 mm, temperatu r a promeo dia de 26 C, 90% de humedad relativa y una r adiación de 300-400 cal/gm/cm 2 . La altitud es de 19 ms nm. La estación experimental tiene una extensión de 20 h ectárea s. .. Las poblaciones segregantes del programa, así como los ensayos de agronomía estaban recién sembrados , tenían 10 días de edad , época inapropiada para observar variabilidad.En la zona de Bayano se visitaron varios campos c omerciales en estado de máximo macollamiento a f l oración.Se obs e rvaron cultivos con las variedades Me t ica 1 y Tocumen 5430. Ambas variedades tenían una alta incide n-cia de escaldado de la hoja, mezclas varietales, principalmente arroz rojo en Tocumen 5430. La incidencia de malezas de hoj a angosta era alta en la mayoría de los cultivos. Promover la producción de semillas certifica d as con empresas para que calidad.privadas, dándoles los incentivos n e c esarios la producción sea rentable y competi t i va por A través del crédito estatal y privado exigi r a los productores un certificado de compra de semilla c ertificada, antes de otorgarles los préstamos po s t eriore s a la siembra.Se c omprobó que la preparación de tierra en la zona de Bayano es inadecuada, principalmente porque se hace cuando las condiciones de alta humedad no permi ten una buena preparación con el equipo convencional. Se sugirió realizar estudios a nivel de agricultor a fin de d esarrollar una metodología adecuada para la zona de Bayano y para otras zonas de América Central con más de 2.000 mm de lluvia.Se observaron deficiencias en control de maleza s , fertilización y densidad de siembra.Para un bue n control de malezas se sugiere d e s a rrollar una metodología integral desde la preparación d e tierra, aplicación oportuna de herbicidas, pre y pos-eme rg e ntes y de calidad comprobada.En cuanto a fertilización se sugiere estudiar la respuesta a diferentes ni veles de N, P y K Y otros elementos y establecer los niveles óptimos para las diferentes series de suelo y variedades. Igualmente, es esencial el estudio de densidades de siembra por variedad y sistema de cultivo.En cuanto a investigación, el grupo observó una falta de integración del programa de arroz de IDIAP entre Chichebre y a la falta Rio de Hato.Se coordinador consideró nacional, que ésto se debe y por lo tanto, se sugiere al IDIAP el nombramiento . de un coordinador del programa a escala nacional, dándole todos los recursos económicos para que actúe como tal.Respecto al Proyecto Cooperativo IDIAP-CIAT, el grupo conceptuó que Rio Hato, principal sede de las actividades del proyecto es •un sitio poco representativo para América Central, y se sugiere dar mayor énfasis a las actividades del proyecto en David, en donde el ecosistema es más representativo para la mayoría del arroz de secano en la región.Se sugiere al IDIAP fortalecer el programa con personal bien entrenado en mejoramiento, fitopatología y agronomía. Dar facilidades al actual personal para que estudie inglés y puedan capacitarse a nivel de pos-grado. Se cultivan las variedades CR 1113, CR 5272 y CR 201 con rendimientos que fluctúan entre 5.0-6.0 ton/ha .• Enfermedades, principalmente piricularia y e s caldado de la hoja.• Malezas.• Producción de semillas.• Preparación de tierra.El grupo visitó la Estación Agrícola Experimental Enrique Jiménez Núñez en Cañas y la zona arrocera de Jacó y Parrita en el Pacífico Medio.Esta e stación está localizada a 10 km al su r o e ste de la ciudad de Cañas, Guanaca ste. Tiene una s uperficie total de 831 hectá reas, de las cuales 159 hectáreas se dedican a la investigación y producción comer c i al.Los suelos del área de investigación son alu v i al e s de textura franco-arcillosa y franco-arenosa con pH 6 .2.El clima d e esta estación se clasifica como bos q ue seco tropical, con una precipitación medi~ anual de 1 .700 mm; dos períodos definidos, uno seco de diciem b r e-mayo, y otro lluvioso de mayo-noviembre.La temperatura media es de 27 0 C. La localización geográfica corresponde a 100 20' 48\" latitud norte y 88 0 08' 52\" longitud oeste, a una altitud de 45 msnm en las instalaciones, y en el campo de 8-12 msnm.La estación cuenta con 75 hectáreas con obras de riego y drenaje, que sirven para realizar investigaciones y divulgación de técnicas de riego en diferentes cultivos.Las obras de riego y drenaje incluyen 15.8 km de canales revestidos para riego y 9.5 km de canales de drenaje. Esta infraestructura fue inaugurada a fines de 1983 y su costo fue de 30 millones de colones con participación de AID, BID Y Servicio Nacional de Electricidad.Los objetivos de investigación agrícola comprenden:• Introducción y evaluación de variedades de arroz, maíz, sorgo, leguminosas de grano, caña de azúcar, algodón, hortalizas y frutales.• Multiplicación de semilla básica de variedades promisorias.• Mejor uso de agroquímicos para una mayor productividad.• Transferencia de tecnología a los agricultores.• Incentivar a los investigadores para desarrollar sistemas integrados de producción.• Servir como escenario básico para investigar diversas alternativas de producción y rotación de culti- Se caracteriza por tener una alta precipitación , 3.000-3.800 mm anuales, suelos aluviales de textura a rcillosa y arcillo-arenosa con pH 6.0-6.2.En Parrita se visitó la finca \"La Ligia\" en donde siembran 900 hectáreas con las variedades CR 1113, CR 5272 Y CR 201.El cul ti vo es totalmente mecanizado y sacan dos cosechas por año, la primera en secano durante el período lluvioso y la segunda con riego durante el período seco. La siembra es directa y al voleo con avioneta usando semilla seca o pregerminada con una densidad de 100 a 130 kg de semilla/ha. El control de malezas es a base de Propanil, sólo y en mezcla con Prowl (2.5 l/ha) en dos aplicaciones y en algunos casos hacen una tercera aplicación para controlar Rottboellia. Para prevenir piricularia en cuello de panícula hacen una aplicación con Hinosan (1.5 l/ha) durante el inicio de la floración (10%). Después de la floración hacen otra aplicación en mezcla con Hinosan y Antracol para prevenir piricularia en cuello, manchado de grano de la espiga.Fertilizan a la y controlar siembra con las plagas En esta finca la siembra fue a máquina en surcos c on una densidad de 80 kg de semilla/ha.El control de malezas fue hecho con aplicaciones de herbicidas, la primera con una mezcla de Propanil + 2-4-5T + Prowl y la segunda con Propanil solo.La fertilización fue a ba s e de N en dosis de 80-120 kg/ha , divididos en 4 époc a s para CR 5272 a los 20, 40, 60 Y 80 días después de la s iembra, aplicando 1/4 parte en cada época, y en tres épocas para CR 201, a los 30,60 Y 80 días, aplicando una tercera parte en cada época.Los lotes de ambas variedades en época de f l oración y maduración mostraban un buen manejo y buena prod uctividad.En esta finca se observó un lote de una hectá rea con la nueva variedad CR 1707, una selección de la variedad CR 201.Esta nueva variedad en 1983 rindió en algunas pruebas regionales hasta 10 ton/ha en condic i ones de secano y buen manej o. ción semi-comercial y La variedad aún está en observa-sera nombrada oficialme nte, si su comportamiento lo amerita.El grupo de observación discutió los limitantes detectados tanto a nivel comercial como en el programa d e investigación.A nivel comercial se detectaron los siguientes l i mitantes:Hay una estrecha base g e nética en un 80% del área sembrada. estabilidad de producción ya de CR 1113, que predomina Esto pone en peligro la que en los últimos años se ha in c rementado la susceptibilidad de esta variedad a piricularia y escaldado d e la hOja.Para afontar este problema se sugi e re al programa revisar el comportamiento d e nuevo s materiales ya evaluados en ensayos de rendimiento y seleccionar las me jore s líneas con diverso genotipo para probarlas en pruebas regionales y selecciona r en c orto tiempo unas dos variedades.También es conveniente disminuir el Se sugiere a la división de investigación del Ministerio de Agricultura aumentar el personal al estrictamente necesario.Para que el programa de arroz cumpla de un fitomejorador, un con sus objetivos se requiere fitopatólogo y un ingeniero especializado en agronomía del cultivo, todos de tiempo completo, dedicados a las investigaciones de arroz.Se sugiere al programa determinar los niveles óptimos de los principales nutrimentos para las actuales variedades y líneas promisorias en las diferentes series de suelo.Se sugiere al programa continuar con el actual sistema de mejoramiento basado en la evaluación de materiales avanzados introducidos y en la selección de las líneas que mejor se comportan.Sin embargo, se cree necesario intensificar la evaluación de materiales segregantes introducidos de CIAT o de otras instituciones.","tokenCount":"6314"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f9e96c855a127ff1fc7e345834bdd7d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bdec893d-843f-44e4-9098-a3d83cfb4cbb/retrieve","id":"-2048985406"},"keywords":["legume","MPLS regression","multiplicative scatter correction","nutrition","standard normal variate with detrending"],"sieverID":"a0c3993c-8f9d-482a-a548-1c4868954b3c","pagecount":"13","content":"Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. (Walp)) is a multipurpose legume, which has good nutritional properties. Nutritional parameters assessed conventionally can be labour intensive, costly and time taking for germplasm screening. Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a rapid and nondestructive method, which can facilitate high-throughput germplasm screening. In our study, estimation of amylose and sugars has been done using NIRS. Two preprocessing methods, that is, SNV-DT (standard normal variate with detrending) and MSC (multiplicative scatter correction), were performed for optimization of the original spectra. Subsequently, MPLS (modified partial least square) regression method was employed to construct the prediction models. In amylose, the best RSQ external (coefficient of determination) (0.962) was found in SNV-DT with mathematical treatment 3,8,8,2. The same result was shown in sugar where the best RSQ external (0.914) was found in SNV-DT with mathematical treatment 3,4,4,1. Overall, in the case of amylose and sugars, SNV-DT was found to be a good preprocessing treatment than MSC. Paired t-test values in all the treatments for both the preprocessing methods were > 0.05 indicating their reliability. High RSQ external values for both the traits imply the applicability of the prediction models. Thus, these models can facilitate high-throughput germplasm screening in different national and international crop improvement programmes focusing on quality traits.the Fabaceae family, which can facilitate to provide sustainable benefits. This crop is well known as a nutrient-rich indigenous vegetable in Africa and has the potential to enhance food and nutrition security in developing nations like India. Originally from West and Central Africa, cowpeas have spread to Latin America and South East Asia through cultivation and production (Ano and Ubochi 2008;Edeh and Igberi 2012). Cowpea is a legume that stands out for its elevated protein content (ranging from 19 to 27.3 g/100 g) (Padhi, Bartwal, et al. 2022) and lowfat content (1 to 1.2 g/100 g) (Jayathilake et al. 2018) along with good amount of carbohydrates, dietary fibre and micronutrients. Among carbohydrates, it has good quantities of amylose and sugars where amylose content affects the physicochemical and processing properties of pulse. Apart from these factors, it also affects the tendency to retrogradation in legume starch (Singh 2017). This property of legume starch leads to their resistance against digestive enzyme activity, which, in turn, causes a decrease in the glycaemic index (Singh, Dartois, and Kaur 2010). Hence, it is helpful for the diabetic patients who consume legume starch. Amylose content in cowpea generally ranges from 9 to 25 g/100 g (Adebooye and Singh 2008;Hamid et al. 2015;Hoover et al. 2010;Padhi, Bartwal, et al. 2022). Sugar plays a vital role in enhancing tolerance to abiotic stress, improving storability and providing energy for the human body. Additionally, it contributes to the desirable taste and texture experienced during cooking. The presence of soluble sugars is closely associated with carbohydrate metabolism, photosynthesis and overall seed development (Wilcox 2001). In previous studies, it ranged from 1.1 to 8.73 g/100 g (Nassourou et al. 2017;Omueti and Singh 1987;Padhi, Bartwal, et al. 2022;Weng et al. 2018). Apart from having these many multiple benefits of sugar, the presence of oligosaccharides limits the consumption. Due to the presence of α-galactosidic bonds, these oligosaccharides remain undigested in the human body, which causes flatulence and discomfort (Singh 2017). The current trend in the consumption of plant-based protein, along with the considerable yield, warrants a closer examination of the other important nutritional factors like sugar and amylose, which generally affects the physiochemical properties and palatability of cowpea. Understanding these aspects can have several advantages, including the ability to develop value-added products with accurate nutritional claims in the food industry and facilitating the selection of cowpea accessions with higher improved quality in cowpea breeding programmes. However, analysing the nutritional traits manually or conventionally is labour intensive, time consuming, costly and sometimes complicated. These factors can become a large drawback for screening huge germplasm in a quality breeding programme.Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) can overcome the above disadvantages for analysing the nutritional composition as it is a rapid, nondestructive, cost-effective, noninvasive, safe, simple method, finding increasing applications across various disciplines and matrices on a global scale and can screen huge germplasm (Hang et al. 2022;Johnson, Walsh, and Naiker 2020). This technique is based on various functional groups and bonds present in the sample absorbing electromagnetic radiation in the near-infrared (NIR) region, specifically within the wavelength range of 780-2500 nm (Osborne 2006). The presence of multiple overlapping NIR absorption bands in biological samples results from a combination of vibrations and overtones of functional groups such as S-H, O-H, N-H and C-H (Tomar et al. 2021). These methods prove valuable in analysing molecular interactions among functional groups and obtaining chemical insights into the material (Shi et al. 2019). An issue commonly encountered in the practical implementation of the NIR technique is the interference caused by various factors during the signal acquisition process, which can disturb the spectra (both baseline shifts and nonlinearities). The various factors are spectral molecular vibration, mathematical treatments and statistical methods. Preprocessing the spectral data constitutes a critical step in developing a reliable prediction model, which results in an improved signal-to-noise ratio, increased signal variation and the elimination of irrelevant sources not related to the property of interest (Rinnan, Van Den Berg, and Engelsen 2009). Given the complexity of samples in food crops and the real measurement conditions, distinguishing interferences from spectra can be challenging. Spectral interferences can be perceived as a blend of numerous additive components, multiplicative elements, polynomial baseline shifts and spectral noise (Bi et al. 2016). Hence, empirical methods like derivatives, multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) and standard normal variate (SNV) are widely used for spectral preprocessing (Barnes, Dhanoa, and Lister 1989;Bellon-Maurel et al. 2010). A comparison of preprocessing treatments has been done for prediction of soil organic matter (Carvalho et al. 2022), soluble solid content in hard kiwi (Sarkar et al. 2020) and soil organic carbon (Dotto et al. 2018). Various types of derivatives effectively enhance the spectral resolution of a biological matrix like cowpea. This enhanced resolution not only benefits signals from regions with responses but also amplifies spectral areas without responses, which could lead to the models becoming over fitted. MSC and SNV possess the ability to eliminate both additive and multiplicative impacts within spectra. In SNV, each spectrum is centred and subsequently scaled by its corresponding standard deviation (Barnes, Dhanoa, and Lister 1989). The transformation via SNV helps reduce the multiplicative effects of scattering. On the other hand, MSC establishes a reference spectrum, often the mean spectrum of calibration data, and aims to rectify baseline and amplification effects concerning the reference spectrum for each individual spectrum (Geladi, MacDougall, and Martens 1985;Marten, Shenk, and Barton 1985). Postscatter correction and different regression methods such as MPLS (modified partial least square), PLS (partial least square) and PCR (principal component regression) are commonly used to correlate the biochemical components with spectral data, and the best model is selected on the basis of coefficients of determination, majorly, coefficient of determination (RSQ), residual prediction deviation (RPD) and bias values.Various NIRS-based prediction models have been developed and reported in multiple crops such as rice, pearl millet, amaranth, buckwheat, mung bean, cowpea and faba bean (Bartwal et al. 2023;John et al. 2022;Johnson, Walsh, and Naiker 2021;Padhi, John, et al. 2022;Shruti et al. 2023;Tomar et al. 2021). However, no literature could be traced concerning the development of NIRS calibration models for total amylose and sugar contents in cowpea. Therefore, the present study includes the quantification of amylose and sugar through NIRS prediction model development, simultaneously assessing two preprocessing methods (MSC and SNV) and their effects on each trait.Based on the statistical results, the constructed models would be efficient in characterising cowpea for its high, low or medium amylose and sugar contents.A total of 475 cowpea accessions was taken from the mediumterm storage of the National Gene Bank at ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, India, comprising both indigenous and exotic collections. The samples in this cowpea diversity panel were derived from various genotypes, exhibiting significant diversity in adaptation and other characteristics. These accessions were cultivated at the Issapur experimental farm in New Delhi, India, following standard agronomic practices using an augmented block design (Padhi, Bartwal, et al. 2022). Once matured, the seeds were collected and thoroughly sun dried to a grain moisture content of 8%-10% and stored at 4°C. All the 475 cowpea accessions were scanned using FOSS NIRS 6500, and the reflectance spectrum was recorded. A novel approach was used by John et al. (2022) where representative samples were selected based on the stratified purposive sampling. Hence, hierarchical clustering analysis was done by Ward's method using Euclidean squared distance of 5, and clusters were made using the reference spectrum. From those clusters and subclusters, 121 diverse cowpea accessions were selected for reference analysis and NIRS scanning. These samples underwent homogenisation, grinding and sieving using a 1-mm sieve in a FOSS Cyclotec machine. The resulting flour was utilised for scanning and wet chemistry analysis.The total amylose content was estimated by iodometric method as described by Juliano et al. (1981) with several modifications (John et al. 2023). Fifty milligrams of the sample was weighed and placed in a centrifuge tube. Absolute ethanol (0.5 mL) was added, followed by the addition of 1-N NaOH (4.5 mL), and the mixture was vortexed and incubated at boiling temperature for 15 min. After rinsing with distilled water, the volume was adjusted to 25 mL, and 0.5 mL of the sample was transferred to amber tubes. To this, 100 μL of 1-N glacial acetic acid and 200 μL of iodine solution were added, and the volume was adjusted to 10 mL. The amber tubes were left in the dark for 20 min. The reactions generated a blue-coloured complex, and the absorbance was recorded at 620 nm.Total soluble sugars were estimated using anthrone reagent method as described by Dubois et al. (1956). Sample (0.1 g) was taken in falcon tubes followed by the addition of 5 mL ethanol, vortexed and kept in water bath at 80°C for 30 min. The tubes were cooled and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 10 min.The supernatant was collected and extracted two more times following the same method. The supernatant was collected in fresh tubes, and the final volume of the supernatant was made to 10 mL. Extract (0.1 mL) in triplicates was taken from the aliquot, evaporated at 100°C and reconstituted with 1 mL of double distilled water. A blank was prepared with the addition of 1-mL double distilled water. Standard solutions containing varying concentrations of d-glucose were also prepared. Ice-cold anthrone reagent (4 mL) was added to each set of test tubes (sample, blank and standards), followed by incubation in a water bath at 80°C for 8 min. The reaction generated a green-blue colour, spectrophotometrically quantified at 630 nm. The total soluble sugars were expressed as g/100 g.The FOSS NIRS 6500 spectrophotometer, operated with Win ISI III Project Manager Software 1.50, was calibrated using a 100% white reference tile. Approximately 5 g of homogenised sample was placed in a circular ring cup with a quartz window (3.8 cm in diameter and 1 mm in thickness) and scanned 32 times at wavelengths ranging from 400 to 2500 nm. The average spectrum was recorded as log (1/R) with increments of 2 nm, where R denotes the respective reflectance.The outlier detection method involved the use of neighbourhood Mahalanobis distance (NH < 0.6) and global H (GH), which represents the spectral distance from the mean spectrum of the population (GH > 2.5). NH calculates the proximity of each sample to all other samples in the population. Samples with scanning errors produce abrupt spectra, making them outliers for any trait. The removal of superfluous spectra from the calibration population was done by GH (Bartwal et al. 2023). Before calibration development, the sample set without having any outliers was carried forward to make calibration and validation set.The spectral data (without any outliers) and data from reference methods of 121 samples were imported in the WinISI III project manager 1.50 (Windows Infra Soft. International, USA), which was used to perform spectral data preprocessing, build calibration and validation models. The samples were arranged in an ascending order, and every second value was taken out to make the validation set. Hence, the calibration and validation set were set in a ratio of 2:1 after the arrangement ensuring uniform variability in the set (John et al. 2022). The samples were divided into two sets, that is, 80 in the training set and 41 in the validation set.The preprocessing of spectral data plays a crucial role in eliminating or diminishing unwanted artefacts in the spectra while maintaining the linear connections between multivariate signals (reflectance) and soil characteristics. These mathematical methods encompass several stages, including data cleansing, weighting, standardisation, scatter correction, elimination of nonlinear trends, smoothing and the calculation of derivatives. During the analytical stage of data processing, the spectra undergo a smoothing process to minimise noise or measurement inaccuracies. Following the removal of the noisy segment, the remaining spectra were then subjected to a smoothing procedure using the Savitzky-Golay transformation (Savitsky and Golay 1964) with a second-order polynomial applied over a sliding window of seven smoothing points. Several preprocessing techniques are there to improve the prediction of calibrated models like MSC, inverse MSC, extended MSC, detrending, SNV, normalisation and so forth. To evaluate which is better, MSC and SNV-DT were compared in our study as MSC followed by SNV is the most widely used preprocessing technique (Rinnan, Van Den Berg, and Engelsen 2009). The MSC preprocessing technique, first introduced by Marten, Shenk, and Barton (1985), alleviates nonlinearities present in spectral data due to the influence of both additive and multiplicative scattering effects caused by particles in the samples. This approach aligns each spectrum with a reference spectrum in a way that ensures consistent baseline and amplification effects, with their averages being identical in each spectrum (Isaksson and Naes 1988). SNV, a technique applied for mitigating scattering effects, achieves this by centring and scaling each spectrum, as outlined by Barnes, Dhanoa, and Lister (1989). In contrast, DT is a transformation designed to eliminate the mean value or linear trends within spectroscopic data.WinISI project manager software v 1.5 was used to develop calibration equations using multivariate analysis by regressing spectral values with reference values. For both the preprocessing methods, MPLS regression was used to develop calibration equation with full spectra. Different mathematical treatments were used for SNV-DT and MSC '1,4,4,1', '1,8,8,2', '2,4,4,1', '2,8,8,2', '3,4,4,1' and '3,8,8,2'. The first digit corresponds to the derivative where the first, second and third derivatives were used. The second digit corresponds to the gap (data calculated by the specific deviation) where the fourth and eighth derivatives have been used. The third and fourth data points correspond to smoothening 1 (S1) and 2 (S2). Various parameters, including coefficient of determination (RSQ internal ), standard error of cross-validation (SEC(V)), standard deviation (SD) and one minus variance ratio (1 − VR), were used to evaluate the developed calibration equations.The validation set contained 41 samples, which were used to evaluate the predictive performance of the calibration equations. The accuracy of amylose and sugar prediction and the effectiveness of various preprocessing techniques were assessed based on the coefficient of determination (RSQ external ), SEP, RPD and bias values.Win ISI III Project Manager software 1.50 was utilised to perform all calibrations and predictions by applying various mathematical treatments to both spectral and analysed data. Coefficient of determination (RSQ internal/external ) for reference versus predicted values of amylose and sugar other than WIN ISI was confirmed separately using MS Excel. To evaluate the prediction accuracy of the model, a paired t-test was conducted using Jamovi software at a 95% confidence interval. The result of the paired t-test was expressed in the form of a p-value.The raw spectra of 121 homogenised cowpea samples are given in Figure 1A over the spectral range of 1100-2400 nm. The absorption phenomena in the NIR region comprise overtone and combination bands arising from various molecular groups like C-H, O-H, N-H, C=O, S-H and so forth (Williams, Manley, and Antoniszyn 2019). The NIR spectrum can be categorised into three distinct regions. The initial region, labelled as Region I, spans from 800 to 1200 nm. This portion, also referred to as the 'short-wave NIR region (SWNIR)', 'near-NIR region (NNIR)' or 'the Herschel region', showcases bands originating from electronic transitions, overtones and combinations of modes. Region II encompasses the range from 1200 to 1800 nm and encompasses the first overtones of XH (X = C, O, N), stretching vibrations and diverse types of combination modes. Lastly, Region III (1800-2500 nm) is characterised by combination modes. Numerous applications make use of Regions II and III for their analysis (Ozaki 2012). NIR spectroscopy effectively demonstrated accurate outcomes concerning the distinct absorption bands of sugars, specifically at wavelengths of 1200, 1437, 2074 and 2320 nm (López, García-González, and Franco-Robles 2017). Distinctive absorption peaks were observed approximately at 1930 nm, indicating the combined effects of bending and stretching of O-H in amylose. Additionally, a peak in the vicinity of 1566 nm corresponds to the combined symmetric stretching of O-H in amylose (Tomar et al. 2021).The statistics and histogram generated by the reference values are given in Table 1 and Figure 2A,B, respectively. In order to establish robust calibrations, Williams, Manley, and Antoniszyn (2019) suggested that an even distribution of chemical measurements is preferable over a Gaussian distribution. This is because an equal representation of all values within the calibration set is deemed more favourable as done by Sánchez-Carnerero Callado et al. (2018). Hence, the effect by which the results of future analyses show to regress towards the mean will be avoided. The histograms of frequencies showed in general a continuous distribution of the reference values across the concentration intervals. Broad range of variability is shown in the statistics ensuring the complete representativeness. The values of amylose ranged from 10.02 to 21.7 g/100 g having a mean value of 15.7 g/100 g. The higher amylose values in our study correspond to the results obtained by Hamid et al. (2015) for red and black cowpea cultivars. Sugar content in our study ranged from 2.54 to 8.13 g/100 g with a mean value of 5.38 g/100 g. The results were in agreement with the work done in 113 cowpea samples by Weng et al. ( 2018) (3.2-8.6 g/100 g).  interference and signal overlap. To mitigate the impact of scattering and systematic noise, various preprocessing methods were employed in the experimental data. Figure 1D presents spectra that have undergone multiple scatter correction (MSC), resulting in a significant reduction of light scattering interferences compared to the original experimental spectra. In Figure 1E, SNV spectra is displayed, where, similar to derivative spectra, most baseline offsets have been eliminated.Notably, the advantage here is that there is no requirement for preselecting a wavelength interval, as is necessary when applying Savitsky-Golay smoothing in derivative calculations. Furthermore, there are no additional peaks introduced, as occurred in the case of the initial and secondary derivative spectra. Consequently, the direct interpretation of spectra is more straightforward for SNV spectra (Figure 1E) in comparison to the first and second derivative spectra (Figure 1B,C). When we visually compare MSC and SNV spectra (Figure 1D,E), we observe a decrease in the slope of the SNV spectra, which is associated with scatter-related multiplicative interferences and variations in particle size, as compared to the slopes of the raw and MSC spectra. Additionally, SNV spectra does not depend on the spectral mean values.Preprocessing of NIR spectral data has become an integral part of NIRS prediction modelling. The objective of the preprocessing is to remove physical phenomena in the spectra in order to improve the subsequent multivariate regression, classification model or exploratory analysis (Rinnan, Van Den Berg, and Engelsen 2009). Several physical factors may involve the size and organisation of the particle causing a variation in the pathlength (Barnes, Dhanoa, and Lister 1989). The application of different preprocessing techniques on spectral data before modelling serves multiple purposes. It not only helps reduce the impact of noise and external interference but also enhances the spectral features associated with the properties of interest. As a result, this improvement in spectral information leads to increased prediction accuracy for calibrated models (Nocita et al. 2015). First derivative can remove a constant baseline (offset), and a second derivative can additionally eliminate slope. To mitigate noise, it is often necessary to apply smoothing before performing the derivation process. While dealing with complicate interferences or if incorrect smoothing parameters are applied, the outcome of the derivative process could become ineffective (Bi et al. 2016). A total of 24 equations for predicting amylose and sugars was generated by combining six spectral derivative mathematical treatments, that is, '1,4,4,1', '1,8,8,2', '2,4,4,1', '2,8,8,2', '3,4,4,1' and '3,8,8,2' along with two scatter correction algorithms (SNV-DT and MSC). Individual MPLS calibrations were conducted for each parameter, that is, amylose and sugar, utilising the calibration set consisting of 80 samples. Several statistics (SEC(V), RSQ internal ) were used to describe the performance of the calibration equation as given in Tables 2 and  3, respectively. For amylose, the highest RSQ internal (0.793) was obtained in the case of MSC in the mathematical treatment of 2,4,4,1 followed by RSQ internal (0.792), which was found in the case of SNV-DT in the mathematical treatment of 1,4,4,1. In both these treatments, the principal components (PCs) were 3 (Table 2). Unlike amylose, for sugars, the highest RSQ internal (0.943) was found in the case of SNV-DT in the mathematical treatment of 3,4,4,1 while in MSC, the highest RSQ internal (0.864) was found in the mathematical treatment of 2,4,4,1 having PCs 8 in both the cases (Table 3). Overall, in calibration set, SNV-DT provided a better result than MSC while  The validation was done on 41 samples for the given traits in two preprocessing treatments. We have tried not to remove any outliers in the validation process ensuring robustness of the model. Different statistical parameters for amylose and sugars were used to choose best fit models like RSQ external , RPD and SEP(C) as given in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. In the case of amylose, the highest RSQ external (0.962) was found in third derivative treatment in SNV-DT (Ano and Ubochi 2008;Bagchi, Sharma, and Chattopadhyay 2016;Callado et al. 2018). Whereas in the case of MSC pretreatment, the highest RSQ external (0.959) was found in the third derivative (Ano and Ubochi 2008; Bagchi, Sharma, and Chattopadhyay 2016;      4). Previous studies have been carried out for amylose prediction in rice with best model in the second derivative using SNV-DT, that is, RSQ external = 0.540 (Bagchi, Sharma, and Chattopadhyay 2016), while Xie et al. ( 2014) found the best equation in MSC than SNV-DT for both brown (RSQ = 0.920) and milled flour (RSQ = 0.920) in the second-order derivative. These discrepancies may be found due to spectral characteristics, the spectral measurement methods, preprocessing techniques and calibration methods.  5).Overall, in the case of amylose and sugars, SNV-DT was found to be a good preprocessing treatment but in higher derivatives. The limitation of MSC lies in the fact that it attempts to match a spectrum to an idealised reference spectrum. This can pose challenges when dealing with spectra from diverse fractions that need to conform to the same reference spectrum (De Groot et al. 2001). Similar studies of comparison of preprocessing treatment have been done by Miloš, Bensa, and Japundžić-Palenkić (2022) in studying soil organic carbon, cation exchange capacity and clay. This study has found DT more robust than MSC in all the parameters as it removes the mean value or linear trends in spectroscopic data of densely packed solids more efficiently than MSC (Barnes, Dhanoa, and Lister 1989). Kho et al. (2020) did a similar kind of study with two regression algorithms, that is, PLS and SVM, and found SNV-DT preprocessing better than MSC along with least LVs, that is, 2. One more reason with respect to reference and baseline correction is that, in MSC, both corrections are applied simultaneously not consecutively. Hence, MSC will generally give a smaller baseline correction than SNV-DT (Rinnan, Van Den Berg, and Engelsen 2009).Detrending is known to reduce the curve linearity of powdered and packed samples along with correction of baseline shifts. Simultaneously, SNV-coupled detrend could also compensate additional baselines shifts. SNV-DT was found to be superior for prediction modelling in the case of sugars. The regression plots of best prediction models for both the traits and preprocessing treatments are given in Figure 3A-D. Only RSQ external would not be sufficient for testing the prediction accuracy, and RPD is used for checking the robustness of the models. Based on their RPD values, it is suggested that values ranging from 2.5 to 2.9 are classified as fair and suitable for preliminary assessment, while values between 3 and 3.4 are deemed suitable for quality control. Those exceeding 3.5 are considered fitting for process control, and those surpassing 4.1 are regarded as excellent (Chadalavada et al. 2022). Conversely, calibrations with RPD values below 2 are labelled as inadequate and not advisable. In this study, for mathematical treatments '2,4,4,1', '2,8,8,2' and '3,8,8,2' in amylose for SNV-DT preprocessing, RPD values were found to be more than 4 indicating excellent prediction models, while, for MSC preprocessing, mathematical treatments '2,8,8,2' and '3,8,8,2' RPD values were found to be more than 4 indicating excellent prediction models while for the rest of treatments, the RPD values exceeds 3.5, which will be considered fitting for process control.However, in the case of sugars in SNV-DT preprocessing for mathematical treatment '3,4,4,1', the RPD value was in between 3 and 3.4, which is deemed suitable for quality control.For mathematical treatments '2,4,4,1','2,8,8,2' and '3,8,8,2',the RPD values come in between 2 to 3.0, which is considered as fair and suitable for screening purpose. For the rest of mathematical treatments, the RPD was less than 2, which was not advisable. While, in case of MSC, the RPD values were not good as SNV-DT in sugars, for mathematical treatments '2,4,4,1' and '3,8,8,2',the RPD values were in between 2 and 3, which is considered as fair and suitable for screening purpose. And for the rest of the treatments, RPD values were less than 2, which is not considered advisable. Clearly in the case of sugars, SNV-DT got excellent results than MSC for prediction.Paired t-test has been done to determine if the average of a dependent variable matches the analytical and predicted values of the tested biochemical parameters, at a 95% confidence level. In our investigation, the resulting p-value exceeded 0.05, affirming the precision and dependability of the models. The p values of amylose and sugars have been given in Tables 4  and 5, respectively. A p-value greater than 0.05 indicates the rejection of the null hypothesis, suggesting that the difference between the means of predicted and reference values is not significantly different, while p-values below 0.05 indicate otherwise.In the present study, the ability of NIRS to quantify amylose and total sugars in cowpea was assessed. Through the course of present study, it can be said that NIRS chemometrics coupled with SNV-DT were proved to be efficient in extracting the spectral features of cowpea spectra. The spectroscopic models of amylose and sugars in cowpea performed well in external validation as evident by their respective coefficients of determinations. Spectral preprocessing proved to be the major contributor in the development of robust prediction models for both the traits.In the future, it will be required to select specific wavelength regions, multivariate regression techniques and coupled scatter correction techniques, which would increase the prediction ability of NIRS models.","tokenCount":"4579"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e25bc734085dcbe9ad650364ad6ebfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12bd3016-c716-4cb9-9c38-8676225b80f4/retrieve","id":"-1272068500"},"keywords":["2011","08","20","CPWF R4D-03","draftv2"],"sieverID":"e3b7fd90-0e52-49d2-a673-ba2a994f8ab7","pagecount":"48","content":"The CPWF R4D (Research for Development) Series is one of the main publication channels of the program. Papers within the series present new thinking, ideas and perspectives from CPWF research with a focus on the implications for development and research into use. Papers are based on finalized research or emerging research results. In both instances, papers are peer reviewed and findings are based on on sound scientific evidence and data though these may be incomplete at the time of publication. The series brings together multi-disciplinary research, global syntheses and findings that have implications for development practitioners at various levels.3.1 Fish price, production and gross value of production in Laos 3.2 Fish price, production and GVP in Thailand 3.3 Fish price, production and GVP in Cambodia 3.4 Fish price, production and GVP in Viet Nam 3.5 Varying estimates of overall production 3.6 Regional and temporal trends in production and valueThreats and opportunities for Mekong fish productionReferences 2011.08.20.CPWF R4D-03.draftv2 iv . GVP of all fisheries as % of GVP of crops, livestock and fisheriesTable 1. Source of capture fish price in CambodiaTable 2. Sources for provincial population data used in the analysisTable 3. Sources for currency conversions to US$ used in the analysis Table 4. Market price of fresh fish in the Lao PDR, average of eight provinces (National Statistics Centre, 2003, 2004a, 2005) Table 5. Fish price in the markets of Vientiane and Luang Prabang (Phonvisay et al., 2005) Table 6. Production and GVP of capture fisheries in Laos according to FAOSTAT (2007) Table 7. Production of fisheries by province based on the LECS survey  Table 8. Average price of fish in the Bangkok auction market The Mekong River and its ecosystems have one of the most diverse and abundant fisheries in the world. The fisheries are a major factor in the well-being and livelihoods of the nearly 70 million people especially in the lower Mekong Basin who derive their livelihood from fishery and also depend on fish and other aquatic animals for nutrition and food security.Fishery production and value have been the subject of many studies and some data are available from national and international statistical databases. None of these, however, offer a reliable, consistent set of data on the spatial and temporal trends at a similar level of resolution across the basin. Because of the shortcomings in the data, there are major uncertainties in estimates of fishery production and its value in the four countries of the lower Mekong Basin: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam. Catch surveys tend to underestimate the production, while consumption-based estimates are regarded as more reliable indicators.We combined official statistics with several consumption-based estimates to examine the spatial and temporal trends in production and value of capture fish and aquaculture. The highest estimates of production range from 42 kg/capita/year in the Lao PDR to 65 kg/capita/year in Cambodia, the latter figure being comparable to consumption in Japan. Production is dominated by capture fisheries in Cambodia (where it is concentrated around the Tonle Sap and the Mekong River), Laos and Thailand. In Viet Nam, aquaculture dominates production and is concentrated around the main rivers in the delta and along the coastal strip.While there are uncertainties in the data, it appears that production until 2005 from capture fisheries has not increased significantly in all the four lower Mekong countries. In aquaculture, there has been a large increase in production in the Mekong Delta region of Viet Nam since about 2000.The highest estimates of value, using consumption-based estimates of production, mainly from capture fisheries, give an annual value of about US$3 billion. Other estimates place the overall value somewhat lower.The value is probably not changing greatly with time. Aquaculture in Viet Nam is rapidly increasing in value, matching the increase in production, and in 2005 was worth over US$1 billion.The contribution of the fishing sector to overall agricultural production (crops, livestock and fish) is small in the Lao PDR and Thailand, but larger in Cambodia and growing in Viet Nam.The demand for fish products will rise in the future, partly as a result of increasing population in the region and partly as a result of increasing incomes. Moreover, there may also be a continuing rise in the export of fish products. The lower Mekong fisheries face threats to production from changed water availability and quality, dams and other barriers affecting fish migration and productivity, and overfishing. If the increased demand is to be met, these threats must be managed so that production, especially of wild capture fish, does not decline.The increasing demand appears unlikely to be met through an increase in production of capture fisheries. The current rapid growth of aquaculture, if it can be maintained, does appear capable of meeting the demand. There are neither quantitative estimates of the limits to growth of this industry, however, nor whether it will pose risks for the capture fisheries since aquaculture needs huge quantities of fish fry as feed. Rice-fish farming may also contribute to increased fish production, but again the impact appears not to have been quantified.The Mekong River basin is a dynamic, productive, and diverse river basin. Over 70 million people live in the Mekong River Basin (Mekong River Commission, 2006), most of whom are rural poor with livelihoods directly dependent on the availability of water for the production of food. Agriculture, together with fishing and forestry, employs 85% of the people living in the basin, many at subsistence level (Mekong River Commission, 2003). Whilst living standards have generally increased markedly across the basin, there remain important areas of poverty.The Mekong River and its ecosystems have one of the most diverse and abundant fisheries in the world (Mekong River Commission, 2003). The lower Mekong River ecosystems with its extensive associated floodplains and wetlands supports important inland fisheries (Baran et al., 2007). The fisheries are a major factor in the well-being and livelihoods of the people who live in the lower Mekong Basin (Mekong River Commission, 2005). Some 40 million people or two-thirds of the basin's population are involved in fishing, at least part-time or seasonally. Not only do they derive their livelihood from fishing, they also depend on fish and other aquatic animals for food security (Mekong River Commission, 2003). Fish and other aquatic animals are the most important sources of animal protein, and thus a major support to food security, in particular for the rural population in the lower Mekong Basin (Van Zalinge et al., 2003).Fishing is important for the basin economics and productivity analysis, particularly for Cambodia and Viet Nam. In the Lao PDR, fish is second only to rice for food security and income (Nguyen-Khoa et al., 2005). However, increasing competition for the use of water resources and high population growth in riparian countries have increased pressure on the distribution of these resources and reduced fisheries production (Chong et al., undated).There are many studies of the fisheries of the Mekong, but there no precise estimates of the total fishery production (Rab et al., 2005). Moreover, there are no studies on fishery productivity for the whole lower Mekong basin below the country level, or at least none that compare the contribution of this sector to overall agricultural production, and even fewer that give trends, and again, none for the whole of the lower basin. Most of the studies provide aggregated, country-level information for a season or for a year. Few examine to what extent the likely increase in demand for fish in future decades might be met by the basin's fisheries. Furthermore, many estimates in the literature, such as those reviewed recently by Baran et al. (2007), appear to use data only up to 2000, and miss the recent developments in aquaculture.This working paper analyses the fishery productivity of the basin both spatially and temporally. We compare the contribution of fisheries to the overall agricultural production with those of the crop and the livestock sectors, and we discuss the level of likely future demand and the prospects for the fisheries of the basin to meet the demand.The remainder of the paper consists of four more sections. In Section 2, we review the available literature and data, including official statistics of production. In Section 3 we discuss the information on fish production and consumption, and the spatial and temporal trends. In Section 4 we review future demand, and the threats to and opportunities for fish production. In Section 5 we draw conclusions.1.1 A note on definitions: production, productivity and the gross value of production Production of fish can sometimes mean biological production, i.e. the total biomass of fish and other aquatic animals. More often it refers to the yield, that is the amount of fish removed from a fishery by fishing (Hortle and Bush, 2003). Here we use production in the latter sense, to mean the amount of fish and other aquatic animals removed from a fishery. Productivity, in general terms, is the ratio between a unit of output and a unit of input. The most encompassing measure of productivity used by economists is total factor productivity, which is defined as the value of all outputs divided by the value of all inputs. However, partial factor productivity is more widely used by both economists and non-economists alike. Partial factor productivity is relatively easy to measure and is commonly used to measure the return to scarce or limited resources, such as land or labour (Barker et al., 2003).In case of river fisheries, the total catch is the output, which in principle is well defined and measurable. But there is no defined or measurable input. Production from river fisheries is influenced by a number of factors of which the most important are water level, the duration and timing of the flood, the regulation of flooding, the characteristics of the flooded zone, migration routes, and dry season refuges (Welcomme, 1985;Baran and Cain, 2001). For aquaculture, the inputs such as water, feed, land and labour are well defined and in principle, easy to measure. Due to lack of data, however, we were unable to estimate the water requirements and other inputs for aquaculture production.In this study, we define fishery productivity as production and gross value of production (GVP) per capita. GVP can be defined as in equation (i): GVP ($) = Production of the fishery (tonne) x Landing price of fish ($/tonne) (i) Fisheries comprise both inland capture fisheries and aquaculture and we have estimated GVP for both. We give all economic data in US dollars.Generally, we distinguish three domains where river fisheries accrue benefits: economic, social and ecological (Cowx et al., 2003). Total economic value of river fisheries can be divided into the value of direct use and the value of non-use/preservation (Cowx et al., 2003). In this study, we consider only the direct use values of fisheries. There are estimates of fish production in the countries of the lower Mekong Basin in statistical databases and in various reports and papers. The databases give production statistics and often economic information. In the case of Cambodia and Viet Nam, these also give a provincial breakdown of the data. The papers and reports, particularly the more recent ones, tend to use different methods of estimation, and give different and often much higher values of production. They generally have fewer temporal and spatial trend data (usually a single production figure for a whole country for one year), and often give production with less attention to economic data.There are three main methods to estimate fishery production (Hortle and Bush, 2003):• catch surveys (catch per fisher multiplied by the number of fishers) may give accurate estimates in fisheries dominated by single species, but in fisheries such as the Mekong, large errors result from the diversity of species, fishers and their gear, and the variability of the fishery temporally and spatially;• trade and marketing surveys, which are problematic in the Mekong because many fish are consumed locally without being formally marketed and traded may anyway be under-reported;• habitat and yield surveys (area of habitat multiplied by the yield per area), which suffer from difficulties in measuring the area flooded (an important factor in fish production in the Mekong), the diversity of habitats, and confounding factors such as fishing intensity; and• consumption surveys, which may be accurate when wild-capture fish are all caught and consumed locally, but which require care in accounting for wastage, imports, exports, and aquaculture production (especially if the latter uses fish from elsewhere as feed).The statistical databases generally are based on catch surveys, and are thought to ignore much of the production (Coates, 2002;Hortle and Bush, 2003). According to Coates (2002) and Sverdrup-Jensen (2002) existing official statistics on inland fisheries grossly under-report catches, are often not based on field work and may not consider small-scale family fishing since these fisheries have always been considered of minor importance to the national economy. Most large-scale capture fisheries data are also inaccurate (Coates, 2002;Sverdrup-Jensen, 2002). In the case of Cambodia, Coates (2002) shows that data before 1999 are effectively meaningless. Much of the earlier literature was also based on catch surveys, often using the database information. More recent literature is based mainly on consumption surveys (e.g. Hortle, 2007;Hortle and Suntornratana, 2008). This has led to production estimates that are higher than in both the older literature and the statistical databases.Notwithstanding the difficulties in the available national statistics, they do give information about spatial and temporal trends, and also about economics, which are generally lacking in the published literature. Therefore, aiming to combine the better estimates of the recent literature with other information from the statistics, we present data from both sources, although we stress the difficulties with the statistics. We shall use figures only from 1999 onwards from the national statistics, since figures earlier than that, at least in the case of Cambodia, are meaningless (Coates, 2002). We shall also make two salient points with the national statistics. Firstly, they appear to be the only source of information that demonstrates quantitatively the recent rapid and large expansion of aquaculture in the delta. Also, while there is agreement that they are underestimates of the true production, and probably gross underestimates, even these underestimates point to a food production that is more important than livestock production in the region. In this section, we list both principal sources of data. In the case of the statistical databases, we also describe our methods of analyzing them.The Fisheries Program of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) is a major source of information. It concentrates on knowledge generation, raising the awareness of fisheries in the Mekong and improving fishery management, particularly promoting community involvement in the management processes. It also has a strong emphasis on implementation, uptake and impact of fishery information into planning and development decisions in the basin (http://www.mrcmekong.org/programmes/fisheries.htm). The programme researches into capture fisheries and produces papers, technical reports, development series reports, fishery newsletters and films and Technical Advisory Body management briefs. The papers and reports are available in the MRC website (www. mrcmekong.org) and in 'Fisheries Information in the lower Mekong Basin Version 1' (CD) published by the MRC. We concentrate on the subset of reports and papers that are concerned with aspects of fishery production.There is no system in the Lower Mekong River Basin for effective collection of basin-wide statistical data on fisheries and therefore very limited data are available on fishery production. To address this, the MRC undertook socio-economic surveys (to estimate production using fish consumption) and catch assessment surveys. According to Van Zalinge (2002), the latest and most comprehensive independent data are largely based on these surveys. More recent reviews include Baran et al., (2007) and Hortle (2007).Although official production data are generally unreliable, Van Zalinge et al. (2000) made estimates based on official data for the inland capture fisheries for 2000 in the lower Mekong Basin. More recent (consumptionbased) estimates include Sverdrup-Jensen (2002), Van Zalinge et al. (2003) (also reported in Hortle and Bush, 2003) and Hortle (2007). Sverdrup-Jensen (2002) and MRC (2005) give estimates of the monetary value of fisheries in the countries of the lower Mekong Basin. Hortle (2007) reviewed estimates for the whole lower Mekong Basin. Phillips (2002) examined aquaculture in all the countries of the Mekong Basin, based on official government statistics and household consumption surveys, and gives the estimated total production and value in 1999/2000. Apart from those reports that discuss fish production across the lower Mekong Basin, several studies discuss aspects in more detail in the individual countries. Phonvisay et al. (2005) and Bouakhamvongsa et al. (2005) describe fisheries in the Lao PDR in more detail, noting the importance of fish both as sources of food and of income, but give no data on production or economic value. Coates (2002) noted the general difficulty with official statistics in the Lao PDR, describing them as relatively meaningless, and reviewed evidence that the actual production was far higher than the official estimates. Bouakhamvongsa et al. (2005) describe a survey of eighteen typical fishers who recorded their daily catches over one year in 2004. However, the data from this programme has not yet been released. Meusch et al. (2003), in a study aimed primarily at nutrition and health, reported the consumption in the Lao PDR of various food groups including fish. The number of farmers involved in aquaculture in the Lao PDR has increased since then (Phimmachak and Chanthavong, 2005). Khumsri et al. (2005), Sjorslev (2001) and Hortle and Suntornratana (2008) discussed the importance of fish for households and communities as sources of food and income in the Nam Songkhram Basin in northeast Thailand and Sjorslev et al. (2000) estimated the catch in the basin. Nachaipherm et al. (2002) studied the fishing activities and made a catch assessment of three reservoirs (Nam Oon, Kaeng Lawa and Huai Muk) to obtain data on which to develop management plans. Nakkaew et al. (2001) reported the fishing activities and catch in Huai Luang reservoir in Udon Thani province of northeast Thailand. Prapertchop (1989) reported fish consumption in northeast Thailand, and Coates (2002) reported both average catch per capita and the estimated total production. Mahasarakarm (2007) gave production figures based on consumption estimates, and also noted the value of fisheries in northeast Thailand. Not all fish consumed in the region are from the local production: they are also imported from other regions of Thailand and from Cambodia (often smuggled) (Van Zalinge et al., 2001;Yim and McKenney, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c;Bush, 2004). Van Zalinge and Touch (1996) and Diep et al. (1998) assessed the Cambodian inland catch based on stratified random sampling of the catch (by species and gear) and provide survey information on fishing gear. Ahmed et al. (1998) undertook a baseline socio-economic survey of households covering eight fishing provinces around the Tonle Sap Lake during 1995-1996, and provided estimates for the total inland catch of Cambodia. Petracchi (1999a), in a study aimed primarily at nutrition and health, reported the consumption in Cambodia of various food groups including fish. Navy and Bhattarai (2006) evaluated the economic cost, profitability and sustainability of small-scale inland capture fisheries of three selected fishing communities in three provinces of Cambodia. Nam (2000) studied the contribution of inland fisheries to the Cambodian economy. Hortle et al. (2004) also studied the value of the catch, and suggested that both its size and value were underestimated due to poor and incomplete figures. Lam et al. (2002) carried out a household survey of inland fisheries activities and fish consumption in Tra Vinh province, Viet Nam, as part of the MRC coordinated surveys. Tien et al. (2005) reported a study that monitored the catches of 13 fishers, carried out as a trial over a one-year period from key sites in the Mekong Delta. Kaufmann (2003), in a study aimed primarily at nutrition and health, reported the consumption in the Lao PDR of various food groups including fish.As discussed in Data Sources in section 2, there are uncertainties in the production data of capture fisheries published by government agencies of the respective countries, and doubts exist as to their usefulness particularly prior to 1999 in Cambodia (e.g. Coates, 2002). However, they are the only source of information that demonstrates quantitatively the recent rapid and large expansion of aquaculture in the delta. Nevertheless, under-estimates as they may be, they still show that fish are a more important source of food than livestock. We shall therefore present the figures from 1999 onwards, but with a caution that the figures do not represent the true production.Lao PDR: The Lao PDR has a weak system of statistical data collection, with information based entirely on estimates, which under-reports the catches at village level (Coates, 2002). Historic country-wide freshwater capture-fish production is available in the FAOSTAT database (FAOSTAT, 2007). Household-level data of fish production (in local currency) by province are available in The Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey (LECS) (National Statistics Centre, 2004b). LECS is the largest and most important survey that the National Statistical Centre undertakes. Its sample size is large, and it also covers a wide range of subjects related to household livelihoods, and is carried out over the whole year. The results in this report are based on data obtained from sample villages and extrapolated to provide an estimate of all households in the Lao PDR.Thailand: Coates (2002) reports that the statistical survey methods in Thailand ignore rivers and wetlands, and are thus biased towards reservoirs. In addition, even those estimates are likely to underestimate the actual production.Fresh water capture fish production for the whole country is taken from the FAOSTAT database (FAOSTAT, 2007). The areas of Thailand within the Mekong Basin are only 36% (Mekong River Commission, 2003) of the total country area. In the absence of the data by province, we consider the country average production per capita as equal to the production per capita of the Mekong region of Thailand.Cambodia: Coates (2002) reports that the collection of statistics in Cambodia is inadequate, with widespread under-reporting. The problem was particularly serious before 1999, after which the extent of the underestimates was reduced, but subsequent estimates are still believed to be significant underestimates.We used historical production data available by province in the Statistical Yearbook 2005 (National Institute of Statistics, 2005) in the analysis. Freshwater fisheries in Cambodia are organized at three levels: (1) family (subsistence) fishing or small-scale fishing, (2) middle-scale (artisanal) fishing, (3) large-scale (industrial fishing) (Department of Fisheries, 2001a). Family and rice field fisheries were not considered in the official statistics until 1998 (Department of Fisheries, 2001b). Therefore the reported total fish production before 1999 was considerably lower than post-1999.Viet Nam: Coates (2002) reports that the statistical surveys in Viet Nam are biased strongly towards aquaculture, and mostly under-report capture-fishery production. There are major discrepancies in capture-fishery production figures amongst provinces, with the extremely unlikely reporting in 1999 that one province accounted for 86% of the total national freshwater capture-fish production. According to Tien et al. (2005), official statistics for capture fishery production cover large commercial gear, for which catches may be under-reported.Viet Nam fisheries production is available from the General Statistical Office of Viet Nam (http://www.gso. gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=469&idmid=3). The database includes different types of fisheries production by province, and the value of their combined output. Fisheries in Viet Nam are divided into two major categories: caught aquatic product and farmed aquatic product. Total fishery production, which is referred to as the total aquatic product, is the sum of caught aquatic product and farmed aquatic product. Caught aquatic product and farmed aquatic product are further classified as follows:• Caught aquatic product = Caught fish from sea + Caught other aquatic product from sea + Inland catch (fish and others)• Farmed aquatic product = Farmed fish + Shrimp + Others (other than fish and shrimp)Cambodia, the Lao PDR and Thailand do not have any costal provinces within the Mekong River Basin. Therefore, for cross-country comparison of the indicators, we did not consider the capture marine fisheries (fish and other aquatic products caught from the sea) of Viet Nam for the main analysis. However, we shall discuss separately the contribution of marine fisheries to the overall production.Lao PDR: Few data are available on the farmed fish or aquaculture in the Lao PDR. Nonetheless, there are aquaculture farms as a large number of cultured fish are sold in the markets in Vientiane from aquaculture farms close to the city or imported from Thailand (Phonvisay et al., 2005). Data on the number of agricultural holdings engaged in aquaculture according to the first agricultural census undertaken in the Lao PDR in 1998/99 (http:// www.maf.gov.la/Census/Aquaculture/aquaculture.html). No other data are available on aquaculture production in the Lao PDR. In the productivity analysis, therefore, we did not consider aquaculture production.Thailand: Aquaculture in Thailand is very well developed. However, data on production were not available at the time when the analysis was done.Cambodia: In the analysis, we used historical production data, which are available by province in the Statistical Yearbook 2005 (National Institute of Statistics, 2005). Presently, small-scale aquaculture is being developed rapidly in Cambodia (Ngeth et al., 2005).Viet Nam: We considered aquaculture production in Viet Nam as the farmed aquatic products available in the website of the General Statistical Office (http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=469&idmid=3).We used fish price estimates to calculate the economic value (gross value of production) from the fish production data, where the gross value of production was not given directly in the data we consulted.Lao PDR: the National Statistical Centre of the Lao PDR publishes market price of fresh and fermented fish with the price of other commodities in the Statistical Yearbook (National Statistics Centre, 2003, 2004aand 2005).There has never been a full study of fish marketing in the Lao PDR (Phonvisay, 2001). Phonvisay ( 2001) conducted an initial fish marketing survey in Thongkhankham and Thatluang markets, but it was only done for one day, and was generalized. Phonvisay (2003) further studied fish marketing operations in Luang Prabang Province, but again, this was just a snapshot survey. Phonvisay et al. (2005) later tried a more systematic approach by monitoring fish sales at the three markets in Vientiane and Luang Prabang in 2004.For the economic analysis of fisheries, we considered the landing price of fish, not the retail market price. In estimating the total value of fisheries based on the FAO production data, we used the following assumptions:• The average of the 8 provinces as described in the Statistical Yearbook published by the National Statistical Centre of Lao PDR;• The retail or market price is 50% higher than the landing price (Van Zalinge 2002);• The landing price given by the National Statistics Centre; and• The price in 1999 was the same as that in 2000.Thailand: Fish Marketing Organization of Thailand monitors the freshwater fish prices auctioned at the Bangkok fish market. These data are available in the Statistical Yearbooks published by the Office of the Agricultural Economics of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative of the Royal Thai Government http://www.oae.go.th/ English/statE.htm. We considered the average price of the common fish species in the markets (snakehead, cat fish, white spotted fish, swamp eel, climbing perch, carp and cat fish) in the analysis.Cambodia: Unlike the production data, there are no data on fish prices in the Statistical Year Books. Official statistics on average monthly market (retail) price of capture fish is available only in a report (Department of Fisheries, 2001a) published by the Department of Fisheries from January 1996 to June 2000. Some more information on fish price is available in different published papers as shown in Table 1.  Fish prices in Cambodia vary from season to season. All species sell for a higher price in the closed season from June to September than the open season (Rab et al., 2006). Among the species, larger species are generally more valuable than the smaller species (Ngor et al., 2005). However, in estimating gross value of production we used the average annual price. Using the data from all these sources, we estimated the average fish price by province based on the following assumptions:• The landing price of capture fisheries in 2000 were estimated from the average price from Department of Fisheries (2001a), taking the retail or market price as 50% higher than the landing price (Van Zalinge 2002). Van Zalinge ( 2002) estimated the landing price of fish in Cambodia as $200 million and the retail price as $300 million i.e. the retail price is 50% higher than the landing price;• The price is same in all the provinces;• The landing price of fish in Kandal, Takeo and Prey Veng provinces for 1999 was assumed to be the same as that in Naret et al. (2000). The price in the remaining provinces was considered as the average of the prices available;• The landing price for 2003 and 2004 in Kompong Chhnang, Kompong Thom, Siem Reap and Pursat provinces was taken from Rab et al. (2006). The price in Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, Oudor Meanchey and Krong Pailin provinces were considered the same as that in Siem Reap. The price in Kampot, Takeo, and Prey Veng provinces were considered the same as that in Phnom Penh. The price in Kompong Cham was considered to be the average of that in Kompong Chhnang and Phnom Penh. The price in the remaining provinces was considered to be average of that in Kompong Chhnang and Siem Reap; and• The price in 2002 was considered equal to the average of the 2001 and 2003 prices.Viet Nam: Details of fish production and output value of fishing are available in the website of the General Statistical Office of Viet Nam. No fish price data are directly available in that site. However, our purpose is to review the total value, so we use the total value data directly.The sources of the provincial population of the countries used in the analysis are given in Table 2. The population of Cambodia and Thailand for other years was estimated from the available data using equation (ii), which is used by the National Statistical Office of Thailand.Where, r = Population growth rate (percent per year) The source of currency conversions to US$ used in the analysis is given in Table 3. We compared the fisheries productivity with the productivity of crops and livestock to see the relative contribution of different sectors to overall agricultural production at the country level. Mainuddin et al. (2008) estimated detail crop and livestock productivity by province for the lower Mekong Basin. We used the results from that report to compare with the fishery productivity.There are many methods of estimating fishery production based on catch surveys, consumption surveys, trade and marketing surveys, and estimates of production per unit area of different water bodies. In the lower Mekong Basin, national statistics, which are generally based on local assessment and reporting of catches, have been shown to be gross underestimates of the true production and often biased towards some fishing sectors, such as reservoir catch in Thailand and aquaculture in Viet Nam. Coates (2002) reported in 1999 that the ratio of the best estimate to the officially reported value was 1.25-1.86 in Cambodia, 5.9-7.8 in the Lao PDR, 0.5-1.4 in Thailand and 8.0-10.6 in Viet Nam. Cambodia corrected the fisheries production after 1998 with better reporting and by including the small-scale fisheries.The better estimates based on consumption surveys are, unfortunately, available mainly based on surveys in 2000 only, and trends in production cannot be gauged from this information alone. The situation is highly unsatisfactory. On the one hand, the trend information, the only information consistently available at province level, is highly dubious. On the other hand, the only information regarded as reasonably reliable contains little trend or spatial content.Faced with this highly unsatisfactory situation, we have elected to consider both main sources of information, the national statistics (but only from 1999 onwards), and the literature-based consumption surveys. We suggest that, notwithstanding the highly dubious nature of the national statistics, one or two observations emerge from them that are much harder to discern from the literature of consumption surveys, in particular the recent rapid rise of aquaculture in the delta.The final key point to emerge simply from a survey of the methods (without even considering the data) is that the estimation of production and its trend is an area in urgent need of more frequent surveys and better data. Fishery management and policy will both benefit from increased effort. In this section, we discuss the price, production and gross value of production by country, and compare the fishery sector to the crop and livestock sectors. We then compare the productivity amongst the different countries of the lower Mekong Basin.3.1 Fish price, production and gross value of production in the Lao PDR Market price of fresh fish, according to the national statistics, is presented in Table 4. Though it looks like the price of fish rose more than tenfold from 1995 to 2000 in local currency, but in dollar terms, the price fell by about 35% between 1995 and 2000 and remained fairly stable since. The change in price in kip reflected inflation of the currency.  2005) aimed at a systematic approach to check fish price by monitoring of fish sales at the three markets in Vientiane and Luang Prabang in 2004. A summary of the data collected during a five-day survey on the sale of fish in main markets in Vientiane from January 12 to 16, 2004 and in Luang Prabang from 2 to 6 March 2004 is given in Table 5. The survey carried out by Phonvisay et al. (2005) also found that fresh fish from aquaculture were considerably more important in the urban markets than wild captured fish from rural areas and the Mekong River. However, wild captured fish are still preferred to cultured fish, as is shown by the higher price of these fish in urban markets (Phonvisay et al. 2005). 12Noting again that the national statistics for production are very doubtful and very likely a gross underestimate, we show in Table 6 the production and GVP per capita for the Lao PDR since 1999 from the FAOSTAT database. The apparent decrease in the gross value of production per capita is mainly because of increase in population while the production remained static and a decrease in fish price in US dollar (Table 6). According to the National Statistics Centre (2004b), the total production value of fisheries for the Lao PDR for 2002-03 was $63 million. The country average per capita production was about $12.0, and ranges from $27.33 per capita in Borikhamxay province to $6.71 per capita in Luang Prabang province (Table 7). Given the uncertainties in estimates, these values broadly agree with those in the FAOSTAT database given above. Baran et al (2007) gave a range of estimates from $48 million to $100 million. Recent consumption-based estimates yield much larger values ranging from 10 to 44 kg/person/year, with a probable best estimate of about 30 kg/person/year (Hortle, 2007). The upper figures give much higher estimates of total fish production of around 183,000 tonnes/year (Hortle and Bush, 2003;Van Zalinge et al., 2003). Baran et al. (2007) review estimates range from about 70,000 to 204,000 tonnes/year. Hortle (2007) also gives an estimate of about 208,000 tonnes/year. The gross value of production implied by the higher estimates is perhaps about $200 million per year. On the other hand, FAO (2003) consumption estimates undertaken for health and nutrition surveys give values of about 10 kg/person/year, although this may be an underestimate (Dyg, 2006) on which we shall comment further below (Section 3.5).Figure 1 shows the comparison of gross value of production (GVP) for agriculture and livestock with the GVP from fisheries using both the lowest estimates from the national statistics and the highest estimate from the literature. The GVP from cropping has gradually increased over the last 5 years, while the contribution from livestock remains static. The contribution from fisheries is, according to the lowest, national figures, at least as important as that from livestock, and seemingly static. The upper figures put the contribution from fisheries as several times that of livestock and as more important than most crops other than rice, with which it was roughly equal in 2000 (Figure 2).  6) and the dark blue point is from Van Zalinge et al. ( 2003)Figure 2 shows the GVP per capita of inland fisheries compared with rice, other crops, and livestock. There is a significant increase in per capita income from other crops while all the other sectors remained static or declined. The GVP per capita from capture fisheries is about 15% of the GVP from rice in recent years, and is similar to that from livestock.Comparison of GVP per capita of different production sectors of the Lao PDR. The low fish estimate is from FAOSTAT (2007) (Table 6) and the high fish estimate is from Van Zalinge et al. (2003) 15204,000 tonnes/year. Hortle (2007) also gives an estimate of about 208,000 tonnes/year. The gross value of production implied by the higher estimates is perhaps about $200 million per year. On the other hand, FAO (2003) consumption estimates undertaken for health and nutrition surveys give values of about 10 kg/person/year, although this may be an underestimate (Dyg, 2006) on which we shall comment further below (Section 3.5).Figure 1 shows the comparison of gross value of production (GVP) for agriculture and livestock with the GVP from fisheries using both the lowest estimates from the national statistics and the highest estimate from the literature. The GVP from cropping has gradually increased over the last 5 years, while the contribution from livestock remains static. The contribution from fisheries is, according to the lowest, national figures, at least as important as that from livestock, and seemingly static. The upper figures put the contribution from fisheries as several times that of livestock and as more important than most crops other than rice, with which it was roughly equal in 2000 (Figure 2).  6) and the dark blue point is from Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Figure 2 shows the GVP per capita of inland fisheries compared with rice, other crops, and livestock. There is a significant increase in per capita income from other crops while all the other sectors remained static or declined. The GVP per capita from capture fisheries is about 15% of the GVP from rice in recent years, and is similar to that from livestock.  6) and the high fish estimate is from Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Fish price, production and GVP in ThailandThe official Statistical Yearbook published by the Office of the Agricultural Economics gives the price of fish in Bangkok (Table 8). The official Statistical Yearbook published by the Office of the Agricultural Economics gives the price of fish in Bangkok (Table 8). Noting again that the national statistics for production are very doubtful and very likely a gross underestimate, we show in Table 9 the production and GVP per capita for Thailand since 1999 from the FAOSTAT database. Production and GVP per capita were available only for the whole country. This leads to difficulties in interpreting the production in the Mekong Basin part of Thailand. Prapertchop (1989) reported a registered production in northeast Thailand of 59,000 tonnes, but gave a consumption-based estimate of 322,000 tonnes, or 5-6 times the production estimate. As with the Lao PDR, we see a consumption-based estimate that is far higher than the official production figures. At a conservative first sale price, of about $1/kg, the freshwater fisheries (both capture fisheries and aquaculture) of the Mekong in Thailand are worth about $700 million per year (Mahasarakarm, 2007). Not all the fish consumed in the region are from local production, but are also imported from other regions of Thailand and smuggled from Cambodia (Van Zalinge et al., 2001).Figure 3 compares the GVP of freshwater capture fisheries production from 1999 with the GVP of crop and livestock for the Mekong part of Thailand. The GVP of capture fisheries for the whole of Thailand, based on the lower national statistics was less than that of livestock from the Mekong Basin areas alone. However, this estimate is both a gross underestimate and leaves out much of the fishery resource (in particular, rivers and aquaculture). The larger, more recent estimates of production in 2000 (see section 2.1.2) of between about 500,000 and 900,000 tonnes for the Thai Mekong capture fishery, and a first-sale price of about $1/kg, gives a much larger GVP of between about $500 and 2011.08.20.CPWF R4D-03.draftv2 15 CPWF R4D 03 $900 million. With this estimate, the capture fisheries sector in the Mekong Basin in Thailand in terms of GVP is larger than the livestock sector, and perhaps about 20-40 % that of the crop sector. Figure 4 compares the GVP per capita of different sectors of Thailand. The higher recent estimates of fishery production lead to a GVP for fisheries greater than that of other crops, and a little less than that of rice. The higher estimate for 2000 is plotted on Figure 4. Aquaculture has expanded significantly over the past 10 years in northeast Thailand (Phillips, 2002). Fish culture in ponds, rice fields, ditches and cages contributed over 38,000 tonnes in 1998 (Department of Fisheries, 2001a). Phillips (2002) argues that these statistics underestimate the contribution made by the large numbers of small-scale producers.There may be more than 200,000 households involved in small-scale aquaculture and annual production from these small scale households is estimated as 30,000 tonnes or more (Phillips, 2002). The total production comes to about 68,000 tonnes per year. 17 about $1/kg, gives a much larger GVP of between about $500 and $900 million. With this estimate, the capture fisheries sector in the Mekong Basin in Thailand in terms of GVP is larger than the livestock sector, and perhaps about 20-40 % that of the crop sector.GVP from different sectors of Thailand. GVP of crop and livestock in this figure is for the Mekong part of Thailand whereas the GVP of capture fisheries is for the whole of Thailand. The low fish estimate is from FAOSTAT (2007) and the high fish estimate (dark blue point) is from Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Figure 4 compares the GVP per capita of different sectors of Thailand. The higher recent estimates of fishery production lead to a GVP for fisheries greater than that of other crops, and a little less than that of rice. The higher estimate for 2000 is plotted on Figure 4.   FAOSTAT (2007) and the high fish estimate from Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Aquaculture has expanded significantly over the past 10 years in northeast Thailand (Phillips, 2002). Fish culture in ponds, rice fields, ditches and cages contributed over 38,000 tonnes in 1998 (Department of Fisheries, 2001a). Phillips (2002) argues that these statistics underestimate the contribution made by the large numbers of small-scale producers. There may be more than 200,000 households involved in small-scale aquaculture and annual production from these small scale households is estimated as 30,000 tonnes or more (Phillips, 2002). The total production comes to about 68,000 tonnes per year.Fish price, production and GVP in CambodiaSeveral studies surveyed the price of fish in Cambodia (section 2.2.3). Hortle et Several studies surveyed the price of fish in Cambodia (section 2.2.3). Hortle et al., (2004) reported the average price of fish as $0.75/kg. Other studies note that the price in Cambodia varies from season to season, and Figure 5 shows figures from Department of Fisheries (2001a).Monthly average catch fish price for Cambodia. Constructed using the data available in Department of Fisheries (2001a)As with the Lao PDR and Thailand, the official statistics seriously underestimate fish production. Referring to data from 1999 onwards, Coates (2002) reports that the official recorded production was about 230,000 tonnes in 1999 (a large increase on the meaningless figures of earlier years, brought about by improved surveys), but the data available from the official websites show this jump to the higher figure only in 2002.Other estimates of fishery production range from similar to higher than the official statistics in recent years. These include: Van Zalinge and Touch (1996) and Diep et al. (1998) -255,000 to 380,000 tonnes; Van Zalinge (2002) -400,000 tonnes in 2000, which was still believed to be an under-estimate, and of which the Tonle Sap annual catch was about 235,000 tonnes; Ahmed et al. (1998) -between 290,000 tonnes to 430,000 tonnes; Van Zalinge et al. (2003) -about 680,000 tonnes for 2000; Hortle (2007) -590,000 tonnes. This estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) assumes consumption (all fish products) at about 65 kg/person/year, which is within the range given by Hortle and Bush (2003). A lower estimate of consumption, of about 10 kg/person/year was given by Petracchi (1999a), based on health and nutrition surveys, but this figure is now superseded by FAOSTAT (2007) which gives consumption that varies from 17 to 29 kg/person/year for 1990-1998 and from 49 to 80 kg/person/year for 1999-2005. Although this includes all fish over all of Cambodia, it is reasonable to suppose the figure is dominated by the Mekong region and so may be taken as a broad indication of consumption of Mekong fish. Thus, the FAO figures, like other figures, have been revised upwards in recent years, by a factor of between 2 and 3 in the late 1990s. The recent figures broadly agree with those given by Van Zalinge et al. (2003).  2004) -$300 million, probably all under-estimates. The official statistics give the monetary value of the total fish catch as between $250-300 million in recent years, and the contribution of the fishery sector as 8% to 10% of the total national GDP of $2,800 million. According to Nam (2000), the contribution of inland fisheries ranges from 5-7% to 9-18% of the total national GDP 18 small scale households is estimated as 30,000 tonnes or more (Phillips, 2002). The total production comes to about 68,000 tonnes per year.Fish price, production and GVP in CambodiaSeveral studies surveyed the price of fish in Cambodia (section 2.2.3). Hortle et al., (2004) reported the average price of fish as $0.75/kg. Other studies note that the price in Cambodia varies from season to season, and Figure 5 shows figures from Department of Fisheries (2001a).As with the Lao PDR and Thailand, the official statistics seriously underestimate fish production. Referring to data from 1999 onwards, Coates (2002) reports that the official recorded production was about 230,000 tonnes in 1999 (a large of $2,800 million. Van Zalinge et al. (2003) did not give a figure for the value of fisheries, but implied the total value to be about $500 m.Figure 6 shows the comparison of GVP for agriculture and livestock and the GVP from fisheries using both the lowest estimates from the national statistics and the highest estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003). The GVP from crop cultivation shows an increasing trend, while the contribution from livestock has decreased up to 2001 and increased to the level of 1999 in 2003. The contribution from fisheries is, according to the lowest, national figures, more important in recent years than that from livestock. The upper figures put the contribution from fisheries as several times that of livestock and as more important than most crops other than rice, with which it was roughly equal in 2000 (Figure 7). The official statistics show the GVP of aquaculture production of Cambodia has increased from $9 million in 1993 to about $25 million in 2004. Phillip (2002) estimated the value of inland aquaculture production for Cambodia at $17.2 million from 14,100 tonne of production for 1998. This gives the average price as $1.22/kg. Sverdrup-Jensen (2002) considered the average price of aquaculture as $1.05/kg. We used the price reported by Phillip (2002) for all the provinces and for all years to estimate the gross value of aquaculture production.Contribution of different sectors to the overall agricultural production of Cambodia. The blue point is the high estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) Figure 7.Comparison of GVP per capita of different production sectors of Cambodia.The official statistics show the GVP of aquaculture production of Cambodia has increased from $9 million in 1993 to about $25 million in 2004. Phillip (2002) estimated the value of inland aquaculture production for Cambodia at $17.2 million from 14,100 tonne of production for 1998. This gives the average price as $1.22/kg. Sverdrup-Jensen (2002) considered the average price of aquaculture as $1.05/kg. We used the price reported by Phillip ( 2002) for all the provinces and for all years to estimate the gross value of aquaculture production. The official statistics show the GVP of aquaculture production of Cambodia has increased from $9 million in 1993 to about $25 million in 2004. Phillip (2002) estimated the value of inland aquaculture production for Cambodia at $17.2 million from 14,100 tonne of production for 1998. This gives the average price as $1.22/kg. Sverdrup- Jensen (2002) considered the average price of aquaculture as $1.05/kg. We used the price reported by Phillip ( 2002) for all the provinces and for all years to estimate the gross value of aquaculture production.Fish price, production and GVP in Vietnam The price of caught and farmed aquatic products in Viet Nam is not given in official statistics, but may be estimated by the total output value by the total production. The average price so estimated is given in Table 10. As with the other countries, the official statistics underestimate production and are biased towards aquaculture (Coates, 2002). Figure 8 shows the officially-recorded overall production in Viet Nam. Being located along the coastline, the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam also has marine fisheries, called \"people's fisheries\", which develop spontaneously (Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, 2006). Its annual contribution to the total GDP has been increasing from 1.7% in 1985 to 4% in 2004 (Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, 2006). The Mekong Delta is one of the major sources of marine fisheries in Viet Nam (Figure 8). In 1999 it was the most important part of the fishery, but by 2005 marine production had, according to official statistics, been superseded by that of the rapidly growing aquaculture sector. FAO (2008) gives a total (shrimp plus freshwater catfish) production of about 600,000 tonnes in the delta in 2004.  As with the other countries, the official statistics underestimate production and are biased towards aquaculture (Coates, 2002). Figure 8 shows the officiallyrecorded overall production in Vietnam. Being located along the coastline, the Mekong Delta of Vietnam also has marine fisheries, called \"people's fisheries\", which develop spontaneously (Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, 2006). Its annual contribution to the total GDP has been increasing from 1.7% in 1985 to 4% in 2004 (Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, 2006). The Mekong Delta is one of the major sources of marine fisheries in Vietnam (Figure 8). In 1999 it was the most important part of the fishery, but by 2005 marine production had, according to official statistics, been superseded by that of the rapidly growing aquaculture sector. FAO (2008) gives a total (shrimp plus freshwater catfish) production of about 600,000 tonnes in the delta in 2004.Production from the different fisheries sectors in Vietnam. The lower dark blue point is the total production estimate, excluding marine fisheries, of Van Zalinge (2003), while the upper dark blue point is the estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) added to the official marine production value.Other estimates of fishery productivity show a similar divergence with official statistics to that shown in the other countries, and include: Van Zalinge et al. Other estimates of fishery productivity show a similar divergence with official statistics to that shown in the other countries, and include: Van Zalinge et al. ( 2000) -190,000 tonnes from capture fisheries; Van Zalinge et al. (2003) -845,000 tonnes in 2000 from capture fisheries with aquaculture production of 171,600 tonnes, and the total fish production of just over a million tonnes being equivalent to consumption of 60 kg/capita/year; Hortle (2007) -850,000 tonnes. Lam et al. (2002), based on a household survey, estimated consumption in Tra Vinh province at 51 kg/capita/ year (fresh fish equivalent of 58 kg/capita/year), of which fresh fish (and other aquatic animals) was 42 kg/capita/ year (inland fresh fish consumed was 31 kg/capita/year). The FAO health and nutrition survey (Petracchi, 1999b) reported fish consumption at about 13 kg/person/year: as in Cambodia, this estimate has been superseded by more recent figures in FAOSTAT (2007), which reports higher consumption estimates rising steadily from about 30 kg/ person/year in the early 1990s to 55 kg/person/year in 2003-2005.However, these figures are for the whole of Viet Nam and include all fish (Viet Nam has a substantial marine fishery), and so should be regarded as indicative only. The figure for 2000 of 45 kg/person/year is somewhat less than the Van Zalinge et al. (2003) figure of 60 kg/person/year, but nevertheless substantially above some other estimates.The aquaculture production reported by Van Zalinge et al. (2003) of 171,600 tonnes is less than the 242,000 tonnes of farmed fish, and 372,000 total farmed aquatic produce, reported in the official statistics. This presumably arises because much aquaculture produce is raised for export, and thus does not show in Van Zalinge et al.'s (2003) consumption surveys.Figure 9 compares the GVP of fisheries production from 1999 with the GVP of crop and livestock for the Mekong part of Viet Nam using both the lowest estimates from the national statistics and the highest estimate based on Van Zalinge et al. (2003). Crop and livestock production shows no trend, whereas there is an increase in the contribution of the fisheries sectors from 1999-2004. This growth in the fisheries sector is predominantly due to the production in the Mekong Delta (figure 10), whereas the contribution of the central highlands is negligible at less than 1% of the total (figure 11). Since 2001, in the central highlands, there is an increase in the crop sector due to the rapid increase of income from non-rice crops (Mainuddin et al., 2008).Contribution of the different sectors to the overall agricultural production of Viet Nam.The blue point shows the high estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) fish consumed was 31 kg/capita/year). The FAO health and nutrition survey (Petracchi, 1999b)  Figure 9 compares the GVP of fisheries production from 1999 with the GVP of crop and livestock for the Mekong part of Vietnam using both the lowest estimates from the national statistics and the highest estimate based on Van Zalinge et al. (2003). Crop and livestock production shows no trend, whereas there is an increase in the contribution of the fisheries sectors from 1999-2004. This growth in the fisheries sector is predominantly due to the production in the Mekong Delta (figure 10), whereas the contribution of the central highlands is negligible at less than 1% of the total (figure 11). Since 2001, in the central highlands, there is an increase in the crop sector due to the rapid increase of income from non-rice crops (Mainuddin et al., 2008). Van Zalinge et al. (2003).   Figures 12 to 14 show the comparison of per capita GVP of different sectors for Vietnam total (delta plus central highlands), and the delta and the central highlands, respectively. The trend is similar to that of the figures showing the contribution of the different sectors. As with the Lao PDR and Cambodia, the low estimate of the official figures still places fisheries, especially aquaculture, as more important than many crops and more important than the livestock sector. The fishery figures are dominated by the production in the delta.  Figures 12 to 14 show the comparison of per capita GVP of different sectors for Vietnam total (delta plus central highlands), and the delta and the central highlands, respectively. The trend is similar to that of the figures showing the contribution of the different sectors. As with the Lao PDR and Cambodia, the low estimate of the official figures still places fisheries, especially aquaculture, as more important than many crops and more important than the livestock sector. The fishery figures are dominated by the production in the delta.   The estimates of the production and value of fisheries vary considerably. Production estimates based on national statistics are known to miss much of the catch, and provide unreasonably low estimates. We believe that consumption-based figures provide much better indications of the overall production, but estimates nevertheless vary as much as fivefold from the FAO health and nutrition surveys (Petracchi, 1999a and1999b) to the figures reported by Van Zalinge et al. (2003). The consumption-based figures have been revised upwards, with the earlier figures reported by Petracchi (1999aPetracchi ( , 1999b) ) superseded by FAO (2007). The van Zalinge estimates are the highest estimates reported for the countries of the lower Mekong Basin, but are generally regarded as the best available (e.g. Baran et al., 2007). The more recent report by Hortle (2007) gives figures similar to, but a little lower than, those of Van Zalinge et al. (2003), but still higher than most other estimates. The Hortle figures may now be the best available estimates. The per capita consumption figures in Hortle (2007) are, however, somewhat lower than those given by Van Zalinge et al. (2003), at 37 (Cambodia), 29 (Lao PDR), 29 (Thailand) and 39 (Viet Nam) kg/capita/ year (Hortle, 2007), compared to 65, 42, 53 and60 respectively by Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Table 11 shows that the difference between the official production estimates and the consumption estimates is greatest in northeast Thailand in absolute terms (about 200,000 compared to 1.2 million tonnes in 2000, a factor of six), but proportionally greatest in Cambodia (about 99,000 compared to 719,000 tonnes in 2000, a factor of about seven). The difference is proportionally less in Viet Nam (factor of about two in 2000), but the production estimate also includes exported aquaculture fish. The table also includes the production estimates for 2005 (Viet Nam) or 2002-4 (average,     Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand), to show that in Cambodia and Viet Nam these estimates increased greatly over those years, and approach the consumption-based estimates. The increase in the reported production in Cambodia after 1998 results from the better surveys and the inclusion of smaller-scale fishing, although the increased estimates appear not to have flowed through for a few years. In Viet Nam, most of the increase is due to aquaculture much of which is exported and, again, this does not figure in the consumption-based estimate.Other factors may confound these comparisons, including:• the export and import of fish (especially from Cambodia to northeast Thailand);• the consumption of marine fish especially in the Mekong Delta region of Viet Nam; and• the differences between the central highlands and Mekong Delta regions of Viet Nam, with the Van Zalinge et al. ( 2003) high estimates appearing to be for the Mekong Delta region only. The production in the central highlands, while it may be seriously underestimated by official figures, is nevertheless likely to be small. The low estimates are from official production statistics, and the high estimate is taken from Van Zalinge et al. (2003).Table 11 also shows the per capita consumption. Most of the estimates based on reported production give values of around 5-10 kg/capita/year. The Cambodian consumption rises in the 2002-4 average to around 23 kg/ capita/year. The Viet Nam consumption figure based on the reported production is much higher, but is biased by the exported aquaculture produce. In contrast to the production estimates, the high estimate from consumption data is 42-65 kg/capita/year. The upper figure for Cambodian consumption at 65 kg/capita/year is comparable to that of Japan. FAO nutrition and health surveys (Petracchi 1999a(Petracchi , 1999b;;Kaufmann, 2003) for Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam reported consumption generally around 12 kg/person/year, whereas FAOSTAT (2007) revises these earlier estimates and gives the higher consumption figures shown in Figure 15 for Cambodia, Thailand, and Viet Nam. These figures are for the whole country and also include marine fish, but they show that the FAO estimates, like other estimates in the Mekong, have risen recently. They also give consumption figures approaching those of the Van Zalinge et al. (2003) estimate for Cambodia, and between that implied by the reported production and the consumption survey figures reported by Van Zalinge et al. (2003) for Thailand and Viet Nam. The values reported in the high estimate of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) were supported by Hortle and Bush (2003) with the following arguments:-Small scale production and consumption surveys show reasonable agreement (no reference or data are given).-Yield estimates derived from the area of floodplain, while viewed as generally unreliable (Hortle and Bush, 2003), do lead to production estimates similar to the consumption estimates. Hortle and Bush quote a yield of 230 kg/ha/year and a floodplain area of 9.69 million ha, giving a yield of 2.23 million tonnes, which is similar to the total production estimate of 3.1 million tonnes. We admit that we do not fully understand this argument, since the bulk of the lower Mekong floodplain is in Cambodia and Viet Nam (the Tonle Sap alone expands by approximately six times during the seasonal flood), so this would imply that the production is mainly in Cambodia and Viet Nam only, whereas the argument is used to support large estimated production in all parts, and particularly in northeast Thailand. So, while not questioning the estimated consumption values, we find this a weak argument.-Consumption in the four lower Mekong countries is similar to that in some developed countries where fish is a small part of the animal protein intake, and less than that in developed countries where fish are an important part of the diet (such as Japan). Again, we do not fully understand this argument, since: 1. There is a general correlation between all animal protein intake, including fish, and income and other development factors such as urbanization (e.g. Huang and Bouis, 1996; York and Gossard, 2004 1 ), which suggests that lower consumption of the Mekong countries is a reasonable expectation; 2. The suggestion that consumption is therefore comparable to Japan, which has a similar proportion of fish in the animal protein intake, is with a country that is free of many of the nutrition problems of the lower Mekong countries, again suggesting that a lower consumption is a reasonable expectation. This does not mean the estimates are wrong, but these comparisons require much care so that the conclusions might be different from those claimed.-Expatriate nationals from the lower Mekong Basin living in Washington, USA, consumed quantities similar to those found in the consumption surveys in the Mekong. However, this does not take account of the correlation between animal protein consumption and income and other factors such as urban living. Again, while not questioning the estimated consumption values, we find this a weak argument.Thus, we do not question the estimates of Van Zalinge et al. ( 2003), but we think the better arguments are in the survey work itself and in the more recent FAOSTAT estimates, not in the other evidence offered by Hortle and Bush (2003).    3.6 Regional and temporal trends in production and valueNotwithstanding the different estimates of production and consumption, the overall picture is of greater and increasing per capita production and consumption in Cambodia and Viet Nam of around 55 and 50 kg/capita/ year respectively if we take the FAOSTAT (2007) estimates as compromise figures, bearing in mind the possible whole-country and marine fish bias. In Thailand and the Lao PDR, the amounts are somewhat lower and more static with time, perhaps around 30 kg if again we take the FAOSTAT (2007) estimates as compromise figures, bearing in mind again the possible whole-country and marine fish bias. The absolute figures change in the different estimates, but all estimates find this broad regional trend. In Cambodia and Viet Nam, consumption appears to have increased, whereas in Thailand it appears to have remained fairly static. Estimates of consumption over several years in the Lao PDR are not available.Reported production estimates are not reliable but, to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall production of caught fish is large in the Mekong Delta, Cambodia and Thailand, and smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Viet Nam, and are not increasing greatly with time (Figure 16). We emphasize again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. Aquaculture production is dominated by the Mekong delta region and is small elsewhere (Figure 17). Aquaculture production has grown dramatically in the delta in recent years (Mekong River Commission, 2007;also USDA, 2007, although the figures are for the whole of Viet Nam). Viet Nam anticipates continued rapid growth, and expected catfish production alone to exceed 1,000,000 tonnes by 2007 (Mekong River Commission, 2007). The total production (caught product plus aquaculture) is greatest in the Mekong Delta (Figure 18). The great growth in production since 2000 is generally missed by other authors including Baran et al. (2007), and only mentioned in passing by Hortle (2007). amounts are somewhat lower and more static with time, perhaps around 30 kg if again we take the FAOSTAT (2007) estimates as compromise figures, bearing in mind again the possible whole-country and marine fish bias. The absolute figures change in the different estimates, but all estimates find this broad regional trend. In Cambodia and Vietnam, consumption appears to have increased, whereas in Thailand it appears to have remained fairly static. Estimates of consumption over several years in the Lao PDR are not available.Reported production estimates are not reliable but, to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall production of caught fish is large in the Mekong Delta, Cambodia and Thailand, and smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Vietnam, and are not increasing greatly with time (Figure 16). We emphasize again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. Aquaculture production is dominated by the Mekong delta region and is small elsewhere (Figure 17). Aquaculture production has grown dramatically in the delta in recent years (Mekong River Commission, 2007;also USDA, 2007, although the figures are for the whole of Vietnam). Vietnam anticipates continued rapid growth, and expected catfish production alone to exceed 1,000,000 tonnes by 2007 (Mekong River Commission, 2007). The total production (caught product plus aquaculture) is greatest in the Mekong Delta (Figure 18). The great growth in production since 2000 is generally missed by other authors including Baran et al. (2007), and only mentioned in passing by Hortle (2007).  amounts are somewhat lower and more static with time, perhaps around 30 kg if again we take the FAOSTAT (2007) estimates as compromise figures, bearing in mind again the possible whole-country and marine fish bias. The absolute figures change in the different estimates, but all estimates find this broad regional trend.In Cambodia and Vietnam, consumption appears to have increased, whereas in Thailand it appears to have remained fairly static. Estimates of consumption over several years in the Lao PDR are not available.Reported production estimates are not reliable but, to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall production of caught fish is large in the Mekong Delta, Cambodia and Thailand, and smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Vietnam, and are not increasing greatly with time (Figure 16). We emphasize again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. Aquaculture production is dominated by the Mekong delta region and is small elsewhere (Figure 17). Aquaculture production has grown dramatically in the delta in recent years (Mekong River Commission, 2007;also USDA, 2007, although the figures are for the whole of Vietnam). Vietnam anticipates continued rapid growth, and expected catfish production alone to exceed 1,000,000 tonnes by 2007 (Mekong River Commission, 2007). The total production (caught product plus aquaculture) is greatest in the Mekong Delta (Figure 18). The great growth in production since 2000 is generally missed by other authors including Baran et al. (2007), and only mentioned in passing by Hortle (2007).   The gross value of production calculated from the reported production estimates are also not reliable but, again to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall value of fish is large and increasing in the Mekong Delta, mainly because of high-value (and largely exported) aquaculture production (Figure 19). Cambodia and Thailand have smaller production, increasing (probably mainly a reporting artefact) in Cambodia, and static in recent years in Thailand. Note again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. The value is smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Viet Nam, and is not increasing greatly with time. Figure 20 shows the gross value of fishery production as percentage of the gross value of rice production. Since 1999, the gross value of fishery production has increased significantly compared to the gross value of rice production. As a result, the contribution from the fishery sector to the total (crops, livestock, and fish) agricultural production has also increased (Figure 21). The value of fish as a proportion of the value of rice value or the total value of agriculture is greater in Cambodia and Viet Nam. Using the higher figures of Van Zalinge et al. (2003) andMekong River Commission (2005), the value relative to rice, or total agriculture, would be significantly greater. The value of fish would be greater than that of rice in both Cambodia and Viet Nam in recent years.Figure 18. Total fish production from official statistics.The gross value of production calculated from the reported production estimates are also not reliable but, again to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall value of fish is large and increasing in the Mekong Delta, mainly because of high-value (and largely exported) aquaculture production (Figure 19). Cambodia and Thailand have smaller production, increasing (probably mainly a reporting artefact) in Cambodia, and static in recent years in Thailand. Note again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. The value is smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Vietnam, and is not increasing greatly with time. Van Zalinge et al. (2003) gave the total value in 2000 as exceeding $1.7 billion. According to the Mekong River Commission (2005), the total value of fish was about $2,000 million in 2000, at about $800 million in Thailand, $750 million in Vietnam, $500 million in Cambodia and $150 million in the Lao PDR. This puts the total value at about two to three times that shown in the figures above.Figure 20 shows the gross value of fishery production as percentage of the gross value of rice production. Since 1999, the gross value of fishery production has increased significantly compared to the gross value of rice production. As a result, The gross value of production calculated from the reported production estimates are also not reliable but, again to the extent that they help build the picture, they show that the overall value of fish is large and increasing in the Mekong Delta, mainly because of high-value (and largely exported) aquaculture production (Figure 19). Cambodia and Thailand have smaller production, increasing (probably mainly a reporting artefact) in Cambodia, and static in recent years in Thailand. Note again that the figure for Thailand is for the whole country. The value is smaller in the Lao PDR and the central highlands of Vietnam, and is not increasing greatly with time. Figure 20 shows the gross value of fishery production as percentage of the gross value of rice production. Since 1999, the gross value of fishery production has increased significantly compared to the gross value of rice production. As a result,  While the available data appear sufficient to establish broad trends, there is clearly much uncertainty. Fish as food and income are very important in the Mekong, as are the rivers and wetlands where the fish breed and grow. There is a clear need for more and better estimates of production (including production for export) and consumption While the available data appear sufficient to establish broad trends, there is clearly much uncertainty. Fish as food and income are very important in the Mekong, as are the rivers and wetlands where the fish breed and grow. There is a clear need for more and better estimates of production (including production for export) and consumption. While the available data appear sufficient to establish broad trends, there is clearly much uncertainty. Fish as food and income are very important in the Mekong, as are the rivers and wetlands where the fish breed and grow. There is a clear need for more and better estimates of production (including production for export) and consumption. The population of the lower Mekong Basin is likely to rise from the present 70 million to perhaps 80 million or more by 2020 and greater than 90 million by 2050 (based on medium variant projection, UN Population Division, 2006). Delgado et al. (2007) suggest that fish consumption in Southeast Asia to 2020 will grow at between 1.4 and 1.7% per annum, partly because of rising population and partly because of improving diets with increasing development (York and Gossard, 2004). Sokhem and Sunada (2006) suggest that an increase of between 0.4 and 1.6 21 million tonnes/year will be required by 2050, based on a production of 3.1 m tonnes in 2003. These increases are roughly proportional to the expected increase in population, and therefore appear not to anticipate increasing fish in the diet. A growth rate of 1.4% per annum, as suggested by Delgado et al. (2007), from the 3.1 m tonne base figure in 2003 would lead to an increase in demand of 0.8 and 2.9 million tonnes/year to 2020 and 2050, respectively, and a growth rate of 1.7% per annum would lead to increases of 1.0 and 3.7 million tonnes/year.At the same time, there are concerns about several threats to the capture fisheries of the lower Mekong Basin (Sverdrup- Jensen, 2002;Mekong River Commission, 2003;Vanhan, 2004;Mollot et al. 2005;Baran et al. 2001a, Baran et al, 2007), viz:-Removal of rapids, siltation, and changes to vegetation result in the destruction of spawning grounds and dry-season fish refuges.-Dam construction and increased river diversions change the quantity and timing of flows for sensitive habitats and especially the annual flooding, which is associated with a large increase in fish populations. Dam development will alter the timing and magnitude of flows, and in particular will decrease flood peaks (Podger et al., 2004) and hence reduce the seasonal expansion of the Tonle Sap and flooding of seasonal wetlands elsewhere in the basin. This will in turn jeopardise fishery production, which is correlated with the magnitude of the flood (e.g. Baran et al., 2001bBaran et al., , 2007)). Although the change in flows may not be large, the impact on fisheries would be considerable (Baran et al., 2007).-Sediment trapping in completed hydropower dams in the upper Mekong has reduced sediment transport downstream leading to concerns that this will limit the supply of fresh nutrients for ecosystems in the lower basin, and hence affect fish production (Kummu and Varis, 2007). Water quality may also be affected by increased sediment load due to deforestation expanding the area of crops.-Dams and weirs present physical barriers, which limits fish migration. Declines in fish production in the lower Mun River after the closing of the Pak Mun dam was largely due to the constraint on migration (Amornsakchai et al., 2000). The proposed Don Sahong dam appears likely to repeat this experience (Baran and Ratner, 2007).-Over-fishing, of large species in particular but also of the whole assemblage (Allan et al., 2005). Baran et al. (2007) suggests that illegal fishing and over-fishing is a problem in the Tonle Sap and Mekong Delta regions.In addition, there is concern about the ability of international institutions and agreements to deal with these issues, and the inadequacy of environmental impact assessments in respect of aquatic habitat and biodiversity (e.g. Sokhem and Sunada, 2006;Hirsch, 2005;Campbell and Parnrong, 2001).Notwithstanding the threats, there has been considerable growth in aquaculture in the lower Mekong Basin, particularly in the delta in Viet Nam. It is the only growth in production that can reliably be established from all the estimates discussed in section 3. The growth was about 400,000 tonnes/year in aquaculture in the Mekong Delta over the five years from 2000. Aquaculture in the delta is thus currently increasing production at a rate sufficient 21 Sokhem and Sunada give the increase to 2050 as 1.29 million tonnes, but in two places state that 4.7 million tonnes will be required, which is an increase of 1.6 million tonnes over the 3.1 million tonne base in 2003. The 1.29 million tonnes is obviously an error.to cope with the anticipated future demand. It is reasonable to suppose that further growth is likely. Much of the aquaculture production was for export, however; continued growth in export will further increase the pressure on future production. Furthermore, the growth in aquaculture cannot be expected to increase indefinitely and does carry environmental costs. Growth of aquaculture depends on wild fish fry or trash fish as a feed and also on the introduction of exotic species (Vu and Bach, 2005;Baran et al., 2007), so the growth may be constrained and may also pose an additional threat to capture fisheries. Baran et al. (2007) argue that the emphasis should be on the protection of the current wild fish resources. Coates (1996) viewed opinions about the prospects for aquaculture growth as being over-optimistic, but having some justification, and also argued for the preservation of current resources.Rice-fish farming systems offer prospects for improved production and livelihoods, but they must be managed with considerable care as integrated systems so that rice farming and pesticide use does not affect the fish production (Berg, 2002;Nguyen-Khoa et al., 2005;Frei and Becker, 2005). In addition, the reservoirs for irrigated rice production also yield extra fish (Sverdrup-Jensen, 2002), and the total fish from a reservoir and rice-fish paddy system may be greater than the loss of fish due to the creation of irrigation infrastructure (Nguyen-Khoa et al., 2005). Baran et al. (2007), on the other hand, caution that aquaculture production is likely to be less than the loss of production from capture fisheries. What is not clear from these studies is how much rice production is accompanied by fish production, although the implication is that current levels are low. Nor is the potential level of production quantified. How much current rice production could be accompanied by fish production? What would be the production of fish if all rice production were so managed? Given these competing factors, what are the prospects for increasing fisheries productivity to meet the likely increased demand by 2020 and 2050? The available information appears inadequate to answer this question fully but we may note that:-If over-fishing is beginning to change the size and composition of the catch, capture fisheries may not be able to meet the increased demand; -In addition, there is no indication of growth in the production estimates of capture fishery, with the national statistics being unreliable and the consumption-based figures being just for one year, again indicating that capture fisheries may not be able to meet the increased demand;-Nevertheless, since capture fisheries are the largest sector of fishery production, the prospects of meeting demand will be seriously jeopardized by any reduction in the current capture fishery resulting from dams and other developments and consequent changes to hydrology. It is therefore crucial that these developments do not impact the ecology of the river and its fisheries;-The reservoir catch may offer scope for increased production, although presumably not at a scale sufficient to meet the demand;-Rice-fish systems may also offer scope for increased production, although the basin-wide impact has not been quantified; -Aquaculture has grown dramatically in recent years, at a rate far above that required to meet future demand (it is nearly doubling every year). It therefore appears in principle to be capable of meeting the demand. We are not aware of any study that quantifies the physical, social or other limits to aquaculture production, however. As mentioned by Baran et al. (2007) growth that relies on wild fish fry may be limited, but the implications of this are not quantified.So, will fishery production meet the anticipated demand? As shown, the current estimates give no means to answer the question quantitatively, and so we can only speculate and offer our opinion. We offer four scenarios; no doubt more are possible. These scenarios are not mutually exclusive. Decline of the capture fishery. As demand rises, there is unchecked over-fishing and illegal fishing of the capture fishery resource, combined with changed flow regimes resulting from upstream dam development and irrigation diversion. The fishery for a while yields extra production with change in the size of individuals and species in the catch, but ultimately declines greatly. This is similar to the experience in Bangladesh (e.g. World Bank, 2006, Chapter 4), and for a similar mix of physical and institutional reasons.Maintenance of the capture fishery. Many dams are built, but mostly well upstream on the main channel and in the tributaries, and the management of releases limits the impact on flows; the Don Sahong in the Lao PDR and other high impact dams are not built by negotiating transboundary agreements. In the main downstream fisheries, the institutions (especially community management and a system of enforced access and property rights) are put in place. Cambodia experimented with community access in 2000, though the system was incomplete and not very successful (Ratner, 2006).Unchecked, export driven rise in aquaculture. The current growth in aquaculture in the Mekong Delta continues, and spreads to areas upstream. While the growth in production is sufficient to satisfy the growing demand, most of it goes for export. The benefits are thus mainly income, and confined to those directly and indirectly employed in the sector and those who own production and marketing facilities. The rural poor outside this sector benefit little, and indeed are disadvantaged by competing for fish at higher prices. In addition, there are largely unchecked adverse impacts on the environment, ranging from destruction of other habitats (including mangroves and wetlands), pollution, pressure on capture fisheries to provide feed, and disease epidemics in the farmed fish.Regulated rise in aquaculture. The current growth in aquaculture is maintained, but the emphasis shifts to rice-fish and small pond systems (as in Bangladesh), with much of the increase being for local consumption. This scenario will only be realized with considerable local extension and education, backed by research into local management factors, species, and social uptake. This scenario, coupled with maintenance of the capture fisheries, is the only one that copes with the projected increase in future local demand.Our main point in describing these scenarios is to emphasise that there are choices, and not all of them lead to outcomes that will maintain the current level of fish in the local diet.Source: Mohammed MainuddinThere are major uncertainties in estimates of fisheries production and value in the lower Mekong Basin. Catch surveys underestimate the production, although recent catch survey estimates in Cambodia report production since 2001 greatly larger than in earlier years probably as a result of taking the non-commercial catch into account.Consumption surveys generally result in higher estimates of production, but nevertheless report a range of values. The highest estimates are from 42 kg/capita/year in the Lao PDR to 65 kg/capita/year in Cambodia. The data and methods supporting the higher estimates are not readily available for evaluation, however.Fishery production is dominated by capture fisheries in Cambodia, where it is concentrated around the Tonle Sap and the Mekong River, and in the Lao PDR and Thailand. In Viet Nam, aquaculture dominates production, and is concentrated around the main rivers in the Delta and along the coastal strip.The uncertain estimates of production make conclusions based on them tentative, but it appears that production from capture fisheries increased relatively little from about 1995 to 2005 in all the four lower Mekong countries.A large reported increase in Cambodia in recent years appears to be a change in estimation methodology rather than a true increase in production. In aquaculture, there is a clear, large increase in production in the Mekong Delta region of Viet Nam since about 2000. Much of the increased production is probably for export.The value of the fisheries is, like the production, somewhat uncertain. The greatest estimates of value, using the consumption based estimates of production, put the value of the 2000 catch at about $3 billion. Other estimates (including those using other consumption figures) place the overall value somewhat lower. The value is probably not changing greatly with time, though again the range of estimates and poor data mean that this conclusion is tentative. Aquaculture in Viet Nam is rapidly increasing in value, to match the increase in production, and in 2005 was worth over $1 billion. Aquaculture is also growing in Cambodia but is still in its infancy.The contribution of the fisheries sector to overall agricultural (crop, livestock and fish) production is small in the Lao PDR and Thailand. The crop sector is the biggest contributor in all countries. The contribution from fisheries is smaller than that of livestock in the Lao PDR and Thailand and bigger than livestock in Cambodia and Viet Nam. While the fisheries sector in Viet Nam has grown in recent years, the crop and livestock sectors remain more or less static.The demand for fish will inevitably rise in the future, partly as a result of increasing population in the region and partly as a result of increasing incomes. Over and above this, fish exports are also likely to rise.The lower Mekong fisheries face threats to production from dams, changed water availability and quality, barriers to fish migration, and over-fishing. If the increased demand is to be met, these threats must be managed in such ways that the developments do not reduce the production of fish, especially of capture fish.The increasing demand appears unlikely to be met through an increase in production of capture fisheries. The current rapid growth of aquaculture, if it can be maintained, appears capable of meeting the demand.There are neither quantitative estimates of the limits to growth of aquaculture, however, nor how and whether it will pose risks for the capture fisheries by taking small fish fry as feed for aquaculture fish. Therefore, doubts remain whether the current growth of aquaculture can be maintained. Rice-fish farming may also contribute to increased production, but again the impact has yet not been quantified.Source: MRC Fish landing, Khong Island, LaosThe Challenge Program on Water and Food was launched in 2002 as a reform initiative of the CGIAR, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. CPWF aims to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production (crops, fisheries and livestock). CPWF does this through an innovative research and development approach that brings together a broad range of scientists, development specialists, policy makers and communities to address the challenges of food security, poverty and water scarcity. CPWF is currently working in six river basins globally: Andes, Ganges, Limpopo, Mekong, Nile and Volta.The Bac Lieu Province in the Mekong Delta is part of the Cà Mau Peninsula and is an important food-growing area in Viet Nam. It has a population of 830,000 with approximately 116,000 farming families living on small parcels of land producing a range of commodities for food security and the export market. These farmers and aquaculturalists (together called producers in this report) are highly dependent on accessing the right quality water, fresh or saline or both, at the right time to grow their crops or raise their shrimp, crabs or fish. This evaluation was intended to identify what contribution the project had made to reducing poverty and food insecurity in the Mekong Delta as a result of an investment by the CPWF. The success of this project, however, can be attributed to its positive interaction with policy development, integrating good science with the tacit knowledge of producers, having the right players at the table at the right time and having built-in evaluative processes so partners could monitor progress. Email: cpwfsecretariat@cgiar.org","tokenCount":"14615"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"93ca1639cffc1cc8017ef2db1b7c8ea2","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/18%20(02)%202011/(34)%20IFRJ-2010-154.pdf","id":"-2082083677"},"keywords":["Rice","quality","parboiling methods","Benin"],"sieverID":"1c61f8c7-d49d-4740-98a5-ff57bc279ebc","pagecount":"7","content":"The efficiency of traditional, intermediate and improved parboilers was compared through their effects on certain physical and cooking quality traits. Two varieties (NERICA 4 and Gambiaka) commonly cultivated and consumed in Benin were used. Results showed that the traditional parboiler had the highest level of heat-damaged grains (90%) with the improved equipment having the least (17%). The improved and intermediate parboiling technology produced grains of comparable hardness (4 kg and 6 kg, respectively, for Gambiaka and NERICA 4) while the traditional method resulted in a sample with the least hardness for both Gambiaka (4 kg) and NERICA 4 (3 kg). The improved method and the intermediate technology using wooden sticks at the bottom of the vessel had higher water uptake (2.97 ml/grain) and grain swelling ratios (5.41) as compared to the traditional and intermediate methods using a container with a perforated bottom.Rice is parboiled in Benin mainly for domestic consumption and to a limited extent for sale. Parboiling is carried out mostly by women in their homes. These women are not aware of the simplicity and technicalities of parboiling (Diop et al., 1997), and heat the paddy in a vessel, either after wetting with water or soaking for a few hours. In some cases, paddy is boiled with excess water and then steamed (Behrens and Heinemann, 2007). When paddy is appropriately parboiled, the required hardness is imparted to the grain. Parboiling results in higher milling recovery, more translucent kernels and increased swelling when cooked to the desired softness (Ali and Ojha, 1976); consumers in most African countries favor these rice grain quality traits (Sakurai et al., 2006). Recently, Houssou and Amonsou (2004) developed an improved rice parboiler for use in Benin that gives a better quality product. In collaboration with the Institut national de la recherche agricole du Benin (INRAB), the Africa Rice Center developed a farmer-to-farmer video on parboiling based on the improved parboiler. The main component of this video was the improved parboiling equipment which is essentially a vat that is placed on top of a larger aluminum pot. The improved rice parboiling process can be summarized in five steps: washing, soaking in hot water, re-washing, steaming and drying.Shows of the video were organized across 80 villages of central Benin to enable women processors to have easy access to the information and to learn how to operate the improved parboiler and its principle of steaming the paddy. Unfortunately, most of the women involved in rice parboiling in central Benin where the new equipment was tested could not afford this improved parboiler, but some instead adapted the learned principle of steaming the paddy to their local system by developing more affordable intermediate equipment for parboiling (Zossou et al., 2009). In follow-up research after video screening, the two most frequently encountered local innovations in rice parboiling were: (1) the use of a pan with a perforated base to steam the paddy and (2) the use of wooden sticks which were covered with a jute sack on which the paddy was then placed for parboiling. The absence of foreign matter (impurities) is an important criterion of choice for a given milled rice product (Tomlins et al., 2005). Many previous studies (Ali and Ojha, 1976;Houssou, 2005;Manful et al., 2008) have shown that changes in the physical and cooking properties such as increasing the percentage of head rice through increasing rice grain hardness, translucency, swelling and elongation ratio, and reducing stickiness can be achieved by appropriate parboiling methods. The above grain quality traits increase consumer acceptability of rice (Correa et al., 2006). The objective of this study is therefore to compare the efficiency of traditional, intermediate (local innovations made by women rice parboilers) and improved parboilers using two varieties: a locally produced rice variety (Gambiaka) and a new high yielding variety (NERICA 4) developed by the Africa Rice Center.Two rice varieties: NERICA 4, an improved high yielding upland variety developed by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and released in Benin and Gambiaka, a commonly grown local variety, were chosen for this study.The parboiling equipment (methods) used were: (1) Traditional equipment (Figure 1): this consisted of one pot or a big barrel in which paddy is soaked, pre-heated and steamed; (2) Intermediate technology equipment (local adaptation): Two types of intermediate technology were used in this study. The first consisted of a pot with wooden sticks at the bottom, which are covered with a jute sac. The second consisted of a pot with a perforated container placed on top of it (Figure 2); (3) Improved equipment (Figure 3): this consisted of a paddy-holding vat and a moulded aluminium pot. The paddy-holding vat is perforated at the bottom and tightly fits on top of the aluminium pot which contains water.Each of the two varieties, Gambiaka and NERICA 4, was parboiled using each of the three different methods.Rice paddy was soaked for 14 hours in cold water (at ambient temperature = ~ 27.8 ºC) without precleaning and washing. After draining, small batches of 10 kg at a time were steamed. About 5 liters of water was placed in the pot, the drained paddy put on top and heated for 45 min. After steaming, the paddy was spread in the sun on tarpaulins for 1 hour and the drying continued in the shade for up to three days.Paddy, which had been pre-cleaned and washed, was soaked in water and heated for up to 30 min to a temperature of about 60°C before being removed from the heat and the paddy left in the hot water for 14 h to cool to ambient temperature and drained. The drained paddy was placed in a pan with a perforated bottom, which was placed on top of a pot. The lower pot contained about 5 liters of water over which the paddy was steamed in 25 kg batches for up to 25 min. After steaming, the paddy was then spread on tarpaulins in the sun for 45 min and the drying continued in shade for up to three days.Paddy, which had been pre-cleaned and washed, was soaked in water and heated for up to 30 min to a temperature of about 60°C before being left in the hot water for 12 h to cool to ambient temperature and drained. The drained paddy was placed on a jute sack covering sticks at the bottom of a pot and steamed for up to 30 min over 5 liters of water. The paddy was sun-dried for 1 h on a tarpaulin and for up to three more days in the shade.Paddy that had been thoroughly pre-cleaned and washed was soaked in water and heated for about 30 min to a temperature of about 60°C before being left in the hot water for 12 h to cool to ambient temperature. The paddy was then removed from the water, washed with clean water and drained in a basket. The drained paddy was then put in the parboiling vat previously placed on top of a pot containing about 10 liters of water. The water in this pot did not touch the bottom of the vat so that the rice was steamed for up to 20 min but not cooked. Steaming was halted when most of the husks on top of the paddy were split open. The paddy was then dried in the sun on tarpaulins for 1 h and in the shade for up to three days.The samples were dehusked in a THU-34A Satake Testing Rice Husker (Satake, Japan). The brown rice obtained was whitened in a BS08A Satake single pass Friction Rice Pearler (Satake, Japan) with the degree of whiteness set between 'Low' and 'Medium' on the equipment.For each rice variety and processing method, 10 whole grains were randomly selected from the milled rice, and the length, width and thickness determined using a micrometer screw gauge. This measurement and all others relating to physical quality were carried out in triplicate.A 20 g sample of milled rice was weighed. The head rice and broken grains were removed. Foreign matter such as dead insects, pieces of wood, dust, stones and unshelled paddy were then weighed. % Impurities = weight of impurities x 100/20 gFrom a 20 g sample of cleaned milled rice, the head rice was manually separated and weighed. Milled rice grains with a length greater than threequarters that of complete grains were classed as head rice, the remainder considered as broken grains. Head rice ratio = Weight of head rice (g) / 20Grain hardness was measured using a Kiya grain hardness tester (Fujihara Seisakusho LDT, Japan). For each rice sample, 10 grains were tested. The handle was initially turned to the left to make room to place a grain on the sample table. The handle was then turned to the right until a cracking sound was heard. At this time, the black pointer returns to the zero point and the \"mother pointer\" (red) remains. The reading of the \"mother pointer\" (kg) indicates the hardness of the grain.Two hundred whole grains were selected randomly and visually assessed for chalkiness. A score of 1 (less than 10% chalkiness), 5 (10 to 20% chalkiness) or 9 (over 20% chalkiness) was given to each sample according to the standard evaluation systems of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, 1996).The whiteness and translucency of the milled rice were determined using a Satake milling meter (Satake Engineering Co. Ltd., MM-1B Japan). The Satake milling meter was calibrated using the \"standard white and brown plates\". The sample case was filled with grains and placed in the sample inlet port. The values of whiteness and translucency displayed on the screen were recorded. This measurement was triplicated.A Grainscope (TX-200, Kett Electric Laboratory, Japan) was used to identify heat-damaged milled grains. Fifty grams of milled rice were weighed in triplicate and observed using the Grainscope. A given grain was considered as \"heat damaged\" when at least 1/10 of its surface area was burnt. The heat damaged grains (HDG) were weighed and the percentage calculated as follows: 100 50A Grainscope (TX-200, Kett Electric Laboratory, Japan) was used to identify cracked grains (CR). Fifty grams of milled rice were weighed in triplicate and observed using the Grainscope. A given grain was considered as \"cracked\" when it had even a small fissure on its surface. The cracked grains were weighed and the percentage calculated as follows: 100 50Five grams of milled rice of each sample were weighed in triplicate and poured into 135 ml of vigorously boiling distilled water in a 400 ml beaker and covered with a watch glass. After 10 minutes of further boiling, 10 grains were taken out every minute with a perforated ladle. The grains were pressed between two petri dishes and were considered cooked when at least 9 out of the 10 grains no longer had opaque centers. The time was then recorded.Eight grams of milled rice was put into a wire mesh cooking basket. The height of the raw rice in the cooking basket was measured using a vernier caliper (H1). The samples were then cooked according to the cooking times determined above. The cooking basket was subsequently removed and stood erect for 2 minutes for the water to drain off. The height of the cooked rice in the cooking basket was measured using a vernier caliper (H2). This determination was carried out in triplicate. Swelling ratio = H2/H1Water uptake ratio Eight grams of milled rice were weighed and put into a wire mesh cooking basket. The initial weight of the cooking basket plus raw rice (W1) was taken. The cooking basket was lowered into 160 ml boiling water in a 400-ml beaker with the regulator of the hot plate switched to \"high\". After 1 minute, the regulator was turned to \"low\" and the beaker was covered with a watch glass. The sample and the cooking basket were then removed just after the cooking times determined above were reached. The sample and the cooking basket were held erect for 2 min for the water to drain off. The final weight of the cooked rice and cooking basket (W2) was then measured. This determination was carried out in triplicate. The water uptake ratio was determined as follows: Water uptake ratio = (W2-W1)/8The lengths of 10 milled grains were measured with a vernier caliper and put into a wire cylinder. The wire cylinder was placed into vigorously boiling distilled water in a 400-ml beaker. After 1 minute, the beaker was covered and the regulator of the hot plate set to \"medium\". Samples were cooked according to the cooking times determined above. The lengths of the 10 cooked grains were then measured. Elongation ratio was examined in triplicate and calculated as follows: Elongation ratio = Average length of cooked grains / Average length of raw grainsThis was determined according to the method of Cagampang et al. (1973). This measurement was triplicated.The data obtained were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) (SAS 9.2) at a 95% confidence level. The individual sensory attribute data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA to determine significant variation among the mean sensory scores.Tables 1 and 2 show the effect of parboiling method on, respectively, the physical and cooked rice characteristics of Gambiaka. Significant differences were found (P<0.05) in the level of heat-damaged grains obtained from different parboiling methods. The traditional method had the highest level of heatdamaged grains, with the improved method having the least. However, at the same levels of damage, no significant differences were found in the milling yield from the different parboiling methods although the improved method gave a slightly higher value of 76.8%. With regards to the cooked rice characteristics, no significant differences were found (P<0.05) in the level of impurities and grain elongation ratios of samples of Gambiaka prepared under different parboiling regimes. However, significant differences were observed in the grain swelling and water uptake ratios of the samples. The improved method and the intermediate technology with wooden sticks at the bottom of the vessel produced higher water uptake and grain swelling ratios than both the traditional method and the intermediate method using a container with a perforated bottom.The effects of variable parboiling methods on the physical and cooked-rice characteristics of NERICA  4 are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Just as with Gambiaka, no significant differences (P<0.05) were found in the milling yield of samples of NERICA 4 prepared under different parboiling regimes. However, NERICA 4 had higher milling yields (80.8% to 81.6%) compared to Gambiaka (76.1% to 76.8%). The trend with regards to heat-damaged grains was also similar, with the traditional method having the highest number and the improved method the least. No significant differences were found in the grain elongation ratios from samples under different parboiling methods. At P<0.05, significant differences were found in the grain swelling and water absorption ratios. The improved method produced grains with the highest water uptake and grain swelling ratios. Accordingly, this method produced grains with the highest degree of gelatinization (Manful et al., 2008) after parboiling. Samples from the traditional method had the lowest water uptake and grain swelling ratios. Table 5 shows the effect of variable parboiling methods on the chalkiness score of the Gambiaka and NERICA 4 samples. All the samples had a chalkiness score of 5 before parboiling and this was reduced for all to a score of 1 after parboiling.The quality of rice is determined by its physicochemical properties which are themselves influenced greatly by genotype and environmental factors such as location, cultural practices and postharvest management (Fitzgerald et al., 2009). Consumer preference for a particular rice grade depends on both intrinsic and acquired qualities (Pillaiyar, 1988). The most appropriate way of assessing the efficiency of rice parboilers is a comparison of the grain qualities of samples from the parboilers.The physical quality of parboiled rice grains tends to decline with increased levels of heatdamaged grains. When the heat-damaged grains are removed from a sample of parboiled rice, the amount of available edible grains is reduced. The improved parboiler had the least amount of heatdamaged grains in this study. This was followed in turn by the intermediate technology using a container whose bottom is replaced by perforated metal, by the intermediate technology using wooden sticks at the bottom of the pot and then by the traditional method. A similar trend was observed with swelling and water uptake ratios of the grains. These findings are consistent with those of Diop et al. (1997) and Houssou and Amonsou (2004).Grain appearance is largely determined by the translucency of the endoderm and this is inversely related to the amount of chalkiness. Though chalkiness partially or totally disappears upon parboiling and cooking, and as a result may have no direct effect on cooking and eating qualities, high levels of chalkiness downgrades the physical quality, reduces milling recovery and can determine whether   a particular rice sample attracts a competitive price on the market (Gayin et al., 2009;Adu-Kwarten et al., 2003, Khush et al., 1979;Indudhara and Bhattacharya, 1982). Raw milled samples of NERICA 4 and Gambiaka had high chalkiness scores of 5. All the parboiling methods studied managed to reduce this chalkiness to a score of 1. This means that even the traditional method was good enough as a way of reducing chalkiness in uncooked rice grains (Table 5). Endoderm translucency is enhanced during parboiling mainly due to the pre-gelatinization of its starch (Kondo, 2006). According to Adu-Kwarten et al. (2003) this trait also greatly influences consumer preference for parboiled rice. Examination of the effect of parboiling on Gambiaka grain translucency from this study (Table 1) shows that the traditional method was significantly different (P<0.05) from the other methods, which were not significantly different from each other. A similar result was observed for NERICA 4 (Table 3). Grain hardness is a very important trait, especially when it comes to storage of milled grains as harder grains are more resistant to insect attack and less susceptible to the development of moulds. The improved and intermediate technology parboiling methods produced grains of comparable hardness while the traditional method produced the sample with the least hardness for both Gambiaka and NERICA 4 (Tables 1 and 3). The ability of a rice variety to swell on cooking is an important quality trait for most consumers in developing countries, and again the improved parboiling method gave the best results. Both intermediate technologies had similar effects. In general, the traditional method appeared to be the least favorable method of parboiling.The improved rice parboiler gave better results for both Gambiaka and NERICA 4 in terms of improving physical and cooking traits. Apart from a reduction in cooking time for the samples, the traditional method appears to be the least appropriate of the parboiling methods assessed in this study. The intermediate technologies, whether using wooden sticks at the bottom of the pot or using a container whose bottom is replaced by a perforated metal, produced comparable results. With regards to the reduction in the amount of heat-damaged grains and the swelling capacities of the grains, the improved parboiled technology and the intermediate technology method using a container whose bottom is replaced by a perforated metal were observed to be preferable to the intermediate technology with wooden sticks at the bottom of the pot.","tokenCount":"3191"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c7d3842373a933337b70e97e244685dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3b7fb4b4-e20d-45c1-90f6-7c9c9fd7d074/retrieve","id":"211248663"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ff6e14f6-53a0-4150-96d6-9931759b26ba","pagecount":"25","content":"who participated in the first workshop in Yunnan. 2 Technician participating in the first workshop in Yunnan. 3 Farmer participating in the study tour in Colombia. 2 Project Leader -IPRA Project -CIAT -Colombia.Project: Exchange and comparative study on managing the resources in hillside communities between the Andean countries and the Yunnan Province in China; The Japan Program through the Inter-American Development Bank, Ecuador, May 17-20, 2004 Second joint workshop on comparative studies on managing community resources, Riobamba, EcuadorResearcher: Carlos Arturo Quirós T. 78The Japan Program was created to increase the exchange of knowledge between Latin American countries and Asia. In this way the people of the Andes will have the opportunity to share and learn the best practices of their Chinese colleagues for managing the hillsides. Thus the hillside communities of the Andes will have the challenge of deciding whether to transform their traditional practices and possibly receive great benefits from the experiments and experiences accumulated by the researchers and farmers from the Yunnan Province, China, on managing hillside resources. Through these Workshops, a study tour in hillside areas in Yunnan, and fieldwork in the Andes, basic collaboration among institutions, researchers and farmers from China and the Andean countries will be in a position to construct new ideas and will have the opportunity to learn from others.From 23-28 of February the first meeting was held in Yunnan (see respective report); and as planned, the second workshop was held in the city of Riobamba, Ecuador from 17-20 May. This workshop was organized to continue with the motivation for a greater exchange of information, taking into consideration the experiences obtained in the different study tours in the aforementioned countries. In all the events there were six technicians and farmers from China as well as six technicians and farmers from the Andean countries of Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia besides other local agricultural and livestock authorities.The project in general seeks the following objectives:• Establish a collaborative association for institutions and individuals in hillside agriculture among researchers and farmers of the Andes (Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia) and Yunnan, China 78 Project Leader -IPRA Project -CIAT -Colombia.• Exchange and better understand experiences and lessons learned about leader communities in NRM in hillsides of Yunnan, China and in the Andean countries • Improve NRM in hillside communities in the Andean countries by means of extension techniques and policy recommendations through studies on NRM in hillside communities • Implement a pilot project in Ecuador and another in Bolivia based on the experiences and the exchange of knowledge with the people of Yunnan.• The pressure due to population growth and the need for food have forced the State to increase agricultural production via the equitable distribution of lands, strong government support and projects for agricultural and livestock innovation. • Leaders elected by their communities and with specific functions in agricultural production make it easier for organizations to establish linkages with the communities and carry out projects with high impact • Projects with strong market links and viable technologies can implement drastic changes in the production of the rural communities.• The great majority has television, but it was not clear whether they are using this mass medium to promote technological changes. • Despite the fact that the regime is quite rigid in its policies, the collective management of forests that they have implemented merits further study in order to obtain greater knowledge that could be replicated in the Andean zone.• It would be easy to initiate participatory processes where the small farmers can contribute much more of what they are doing today, given the Government's openness in this respect.• The system of working with local trained intermediaries has given successful results.• The intensive use of resources is an example for Latin American farmers.• Management and technology for organic production • Learn more about and adapt the system of local intermediaries for the market • Adaptation of the technology for intensifying horticulture • Study, adopt and apply the collective management of natural resources • Application of the management systems and use with terraces for intensive agriculture• The formal research institutions have been extensively involved in participatory research for a long time.• The CIALs combine their methodology with participatory plant breeding.• Rural agroenterprises have been developed.• More women participate in the projects.• The women could express themselves very clearly without any shyness when interacting with the visitors.• The farmers have their own criteria for evaluating their products: plant height, color, cooking time, taste and market demand. • They were efficient in the presentation of their projects to the visitors, using mock-ups (small models of their fieldwork) and with the field practice.• Combine the CIAL methodology with that of the farmers field schools • The MAG should try to influence other institutions so that they implement participatory methods in their rural development work • Introduce new varieties of short-cycle forages and feed with local materials such as potatoes, maize and plantain • Expand the topics for action; e.g., vegetables and medicines • Support microcredit, important for those farmers that have new ideas and motivations • Identify sources for financing microcredit; e.g., the communities themselves and national and international organizationsAspects that require collective action• The control of pests and diseases merits collective action among the neighbors in the community.• The communities are trying to introduce new varieties of vegetables that will enable them to replace the potato crop or to rotate with potatoes. Pilot Project in Ecuador. This would be for implementing in the CIAL community \"11 de Noviembre.\" It is based on the planting of community forest nurseries with native and introduced species. The main objective of this project would be to make available sufficient material for supplying the community for reforestation, planting as windbreaker barriers and recovery of gullies.• Construction of windbreaker barriers with native species in all the farmers' plots in the community • Utilization of exotic species at the foot of the gullies • Sale of plants to the municipalities as part of the mechanism for obtaining resources for the group • Begin with a nursery of 30,000 plants • 10,000 for sale to other communities • 20,000 for sale in the community itself• Identification of the native and exotic species to be used • Learn more about China's experiences to make the necessary adaptations • Sound out the communities and municipalities on species that they would be interested in acquiring • Once the species are identified, we need to know their management and use • Secondary information based on local experiences in this regard: community nurseries and management of the species • Verify the production costs • Send the project proposal to Veronica Yépez with a copy to Carlos Quirós.In this case it is necessary to focus it a little more; nevertheless, taking advantage of the presence of the farmer Juan Rios from the farmers' group in Piusilla, progress was made in this regard. Officials of the Chinese delegation also participated actively. The central topics of the project will be:• Construction of terraces with Phalaris grass in zones where there is irrigation and on the properties of the 13 members of the group • Use of the grass to feed cattle and to be sold to the rest of the community as mechanism of self-sufficiency Actions to be taken. According to information from the Bolivian technicians, there are still various ideas on the topic for the pilot project that need to be worked out with the group of farmers:• Prioritize \"the topic\" for the project; should be relevant for the Japan-IDB project, as well as for the community  The evaluation presented in this paper found that a participatory research and extension (PR&E) approach improved farmers' knowledge of integrated Striga control (ISC) options, changed their perceptions, and led to adoption and adaptation of approaches to control Striga. On average, farmers adopted 3.25 different ISC options from a basket of six. Adoption jumped from 44 farmers in four research villages to more than 270 farmers in 16 villages and hamlets in three seasons. Large differences existed in the adoption rates and modifications made, reflecting correspondingly large differences in the socioeconomic and agroecological conditions among the four research villages into which the ISC options were first introduced. These differences show the value of an extension system that allows farmers to discover what works best for them. Modified farmer field school (FSS) training was essential in explaining the reasons for new management practices. Improved germplasm, in particular a new soybean variety, gave the quick benefits necessary to maintain farmers' interest and participation. Given that farmers are likely to overestimate adoption in questionnaire-based surveys, the construction of land-use maps is a more reliable measure. Adoption rates were highest when the FFS helped farmers learn more about innovations of which they already had knowledge. In this case the project was catalytic in bring about adoption but could not attribute all the impact of that adoption to its investments.79 Submitted to Agricultural Systems. This study finds that integrated Striga control (ISC) technologies and practices have expanded beyond the experimental plots in participating farmers' fields in four research villages in Northern Nigeria. Adopting farmers have enjoyed significant improvements to their livelihoods, largely through selling surplus ISC soybeans in the market. The project's introduction of ISC soybeans contributed to an increase in area planted to this legume. Benefits included new tin roofing, capacity to buy more fertilizer, lessening the burden of sending children to school, reduction in Striga and the labor needed for weeding it, better family nutrition, new clothes for the Muslim festival of Ramadan and other luxuries. Women in most adopting households were selling food products based on soybeans, and the additional production helped their microenterprises. Other ISC components such as ISC maize and cereal-legume rotation contributed to impact, but were less important. Resource-poor and intermediate farmers were more likely to adopt than resource-rich ones. The main constraint to adoption of ISC is the increased labor requirement for planting soybeans and maizes at two or three times the traditional plant densities. Overall, farmers' and researchers' estimates of amount of labor required varied a great deal. More dialogue between farmers and researchers about labor requirements would allow the co-development of new technologies that are much better adapted to real labor constraints. The experiences of the CIALs in Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras and Nicaragua have been recorded and documented since their beginning in 1990 through a database containing the results of the research developed by the farmers and supplied by many technicians from institutions in Latin America.Although the authors and principal beneficiaries of this information are the farmers, they are precisely the ones who have the least access to it due to factors such as their limited access to Internet in the rural areas and the plane, not very didactic design, characteristic of the programs for administering databases, and the lack of training in handling this type of application.In mid-2004 the IPRA Project decided to take all the information stored in its database and convert it into a tool for online consultation that will soon be housed in the CIAT web site. Enl@ceCIAL was born with the purpose of making all the information that small farmers have generated in other Spanish-speaking countries available to their counterparts. This online tool is also a recognition of the rural communities that have believed in the CIAL methodology and through it have developed scientific research of importance for their localities.On the other hand, Enl@ceCIAL is a tool that can help many research and rural development institutions learn about the farmers' criteria for selecting technologies. It can also be a source of information with respect to the generation and adaptation of technologies by the farmers 89 themselves that could be taken advantage of and disseminated by the development programs.This new tool offers a design that combines animation, photographs, testimonies and graphics about the projects and the farmers' research results so that navigating it becomes a clear, simple and inviting experience. The user will find three types of information: institutional, consultations and input.88 Documentation center -IPRA Project 89 It is understood throughout the text that there are both men and women farmers. The menu addresses questions of interest such as: What is a CIAL? and How do the CIALs conduct research? There are also other links such as:A light of hope. The user is invited to support these farmer-researchers economically so that they can continue with their work and continue benefiting their communities. Testimonies. Visitors have the possibility of learning through the live voices of these small farmers about the results reached through their CIALs, and the importance and meaning that it has for them and their communities to have a committee in their locality. Training and consultancies. Offers the visitors training in the form of workshops and theoretical-practical courses, by means of which the CIAL methodology and participatory diagnosis and evaluation are disseminated. Contacts. Provides the visitor to the site with the names of people with whom they can interact in each country, as well as their professions, emails, telephone numbers and physical locations, with the idea of facilitating the process for the user of deciding whom to contact.This information provides a context for a visitor who may not be familiar with the CIAL methodology and the impact of the research done by the committees in their villages. This is where the greater part of the information that was previously stored in the old database is available. It is here where the user has the didactic support of a demo that indicates the different paths for consulting so that they can access the information of their interest. These are: By country. This option permits the users to select the country of their interest from among Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras and Nicaragua; and within these, the province, state or specific locality that they wish to access. Then the tool gives a list of committees that operate in the zone selected by the visitor and also provides detailed information on each CIAL. (Figure 4)  By altitude. Here the user can develop his/her search based on the criterion of altitude, which offers the options warm, temperate, cold and paramo. Depending on their selection, the tool again generates a list with the names and principal characteristics of the CIALs existing in these regions. (Figure 5) By crop. This alternative provides the visitor with the names of the crops being researched by the farmers through their CIALs, organized in alphabetical order. The visitor selects the letter corresponding to the first letter of the name of the crop of their interest so that the tool generates as a result all the crops whose name begins with the letter selected as well as the CIALs that have done research on them. (Figure 6)  By topic. This path offers the user the opportunity of selecting among the different topics that have been researched by the CIALs with the greatest frequency, such as organic manures, adaptation, diseases or small animals. Once the user makes his/her selection, the list of committees with experience in the selected topic is shown. (Figure 7) Advanced search: This option offers the visitor the possibility of using criteria such as country, altitude, crop and topic simultaneously. When the user has selected options in each criterion, the tool generates a list of the CIALs that meet with all the criteria. (Figure 8)  Where is Enl@ceCIAL headed?Initially, this online tool appears to be a product limited by design concepts such as its style of informative, unidirectional communication, where the farmers' participation is limited to consulting it. However, Enl@ceCIAL is an invitation to exchange information, share knowledge, and participate in the generation of the content that feeds into this tool. Proof of this is that this product has a newsroom, called NOTICIAL, where the actors are the farmers and their communities through the opportune online publication of the activities, events, accomplishments and all those new and novel facts that could prove interesting for farmers and institutions in other countries.To publish this information, the farmers can get support from the technicians, paraprofessionals and professionals that work with the communities and who also have the responsibility of inputting the content of their respective country in this online tool.At the moment, this tool has the capacity to consult data referring to the crops that are being studied by the CIALs. In the near future, it will be in a position to offer the users a directory of entities and professionals whom the farmers can consult via email to help them resolve their particular and specific concerns. ","tokenCount":"2752"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2f2458f0594879708e4f1428dc42e1e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ae121f7-898c-42af-a522-72b3c3efaef9/retrieve","id":"2040470211"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"31d261e4-0cc5-41c7-81b8-e2cb1fcc65a0","pagecount":"8","content":"The project covered by this EMP is the 2007 programme of technology packages being introduced in Bure Wereda, Amhara Region, a Pilot Learning Wereda (PLW) of IPMS Ethiopia, that are considered likely to have potential environmental impacts.Three types of potential impact of the programme of intervention are considered in the Environmental Screening and Assessment Report (EASR) for this PLW:  Principal environmental impacts, defined as potential effects directly attributable to the concerned IPMS activity (see Table (i) of the EASR);  Cumulative environmental impacts, defined as the possible long-term effects of the concerned activity, including the accumulated effects of multiple activities that may arise in association with, or encouraged by, the concerned activity (see Section 5 of the EASR);  Impacts of the environment on the performance of the concerned activity (see Section 6 of the EASR).A follow-up program to ensure that the recommended mitigating measures are implemented as required will be conducted by the staff of the Environment and Natural Resources Unit in the Wereda Office of Agriculture, with support from IPMS as appropriate. This EMP provides the basic framework for the follow-up.The following Tables set out the potential impacts and related mitigating measures, and the monitoring to be conducted for each mitigating measure.Table (a) shows the indicators to be monitored for the implementation of mitigating measures designed to address the potential impacts of the following activities: Growing of crops with agrochemicals;  Expansion of Livestock Production;  Soil erosion. It should be noted that the cumulative impacts considered should include those regarded as unlikely but possible. It is important to be able to show that IPMS has looked ahead, and has taken precautions to deal with such eventualities, should they occur, unlikely though some people may consider them to be.   Note that the mitigating measure indicators listed in Tables (i) to (iii), and summarized in Table (iv), are designed to verify that the mitigating measures are being implemented as intended. It is not intended that the long-term effect of the mitigating measures on the environment should be formally monitored within the scope of the IPMS project, particularly as in most cases such 'state of environment' changes will be measurable only in the long-term. Such monitoring is normally the responsibility of the Wereda authorities. However, the IPMS staff concerned will be alert to any significant environmental change that may occur during the implementation of the programme.There may be exceptions to this general rule. In the case of special topics of environmental concern on which IPMS is arranging for special research to be conducted, the monitoring will include actual environmental impacts. In the case of Bure Wereda, The Potential Cumulative Environmental Impacts of the Promotion of Peri-Urban Zero-Grazing is one such topic. Depending on the outcome of this research, additional environmental indicators may in due course be generated for inclusion in the regular monitoring programme outlined in the present EMP.The sources of information used for this Environmental Monitoring Plan are as follows: The data provided in Environmental Assessment and Screening Report, Bure Wereda, October, 2008;  The number visits made by the environmentalist also contributed to this;  Consultation with Dr. Yigzaw Desalegn (RDO) and Yohannes Mehari (RDA).","tokenCount":"528"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5dce3c9f96914f707fe584d6c85a7797","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c65e18a3-e383-49d9-b8c6-c57bd1d809be/retrieve","id":"-491996879"},"keywords":["• P699 -3","2","3 Linking Smallholders to Dynamic Markets • P675 -6","1","1 Methods and Tools to Study Women's Empowerment and Control over Resources OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"26789ffd-1ac7-4bc4-854f-d3b53d81f1b8","pagecount":"5","content":"In the Gulf of Fonseca, Honduras, the NGO Swisscontact applied the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) and WEAI for Market Inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI) to identify and implement actions to improve women's levels of empowerment in the production and processing links of three value chains of significant importance for the economic and social development of the region and country: cashew, dairy and fruits. These actions are included in strategies published and disseminated in 2021.Sub-IDOs:• Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making Several PIM innovations were used: 1) the WEAI family of indices, and especially the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for Market Inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI), and 2) a methodological guide for participatory collection of gender indicators in agriculture, to collect qualitative data on perceptions and household and community dynamics surrounding women's empowerment from producers and processors of cashew, fruits and dairy products.• 381 -Project level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for Market Inclusion used to inform gender strategies for three value chains in Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2kezmj5c)• 1189 -Methodological guide for participatory collection of gender indicators in agriculture used by SwissContact in the Rural Opportunities Project in Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2ftvclt5) Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: PIM has helped develop, pilot and disseminate several tools based on the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture index (WEAI) to measure and increase women's empowerment. In the context of the Rural Opportunities Project funded by Global Affairs Canada in the Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras and with support from the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, the NGO Swisscontact applied the Abbreviated WEAI (A-WEAI, a PIM innovation), the WEAI for Market Inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI, a joint PIM/A4NH innovation) and the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI, a LIVESTOCK innovation) to collect information on women's empowerment across the production and processing links of three value chains of significant importance for the economic and social development of the region and country: cashew, dairy and fruits.Based on these value chain assessments [1] [2] [3], Swisscontact devised a gender and social inclusion strategy for each value chain [4] [5] [6]. The strategies were validated and enriched through stakeholder consultations with diverse local actors, including extension agents and community leaders. Several of the actions proposed in the strategies are being implemented through the Rural Opportunities Project. For instance, kits of pruning tools have been delivered to 60 cashew women's producers to reduce the time they spend in manual activities and reduce their general workload [7], women have been trained in nursery planting techniques [7], and knowledge-sharing tours have been organized to improve women's leadership skills [8]. In addition, Swisscontact has been broadcasting a radio program which covers both technical aspects and gender-related topics such as access to and decisions over credit and income [9].The strategies include actions that go beyond the scope of a specific project and require broader engagement, such as actions to increase women's access to education and training and to provide sources of financing for enterprises led by women, or the creation of awareness-raising spaces on gender issues for extension workers, technical personnel and policy makers. Therefore, the full potential of these strategies lies in their use as a tool for guiding integrated efforts of different actors in the cashew, fruits, and dairy value chains. To this end, the strategies have been presented in stakeholder platforms organized around the different crops.","tokenCount":"559"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0033e862d1bb6a833c99caaeaf5d1a2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bbb8a49b-907f-489f-9dd1-d0c6437bef02/retrieve","id":"929647406"},"keywords":["Climate change","Agriculture","Resilience","Business","Profitability","Risks"],"sieverID":"bd77c8eb-57c2-4544-a7f5-36054f194e71","pagecount":"33","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors.Peter Steward is an PhD ecologist (University of Leeds) and CIFOR-ICRAF associate scientist for the CCAFS Evidence for Resilience Agriculture (ERA) project. He has a breadth of scientific experience in areas such as agricultural and conservation ecology, measurement of biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services, human wildlife conflict, agronomic trials for sustainable agriculture, crop-climate suitability modelling, advanced meta-analysis, agricultural ontologies and concept schemes, niche modelling, and prediction of outcome performance using machine learning.Nictor Namoi is a research fellow at CIFOR-ICRAF in Nairobi, Kenya. He has worked extensively on ERA and on measurement of greenhouse gas emissions from soils. He has a Master of Science from the University of Nairobi and is currently pursuing a doctorate degree in sustainable farming systems. Food production drives climate change. Agricultural production alone contributes nearly a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions [1] and accounts for 80-86% of whole food system emissions [2], [3]. At the same time, agriculture, and particularly smallholder 1 tropical agriculture, which produces 30-34% of the world's food supply on 28-31% of the total agricultural land [4], is more vulnerable to climate impacts than any other sector. As climate change progresses, increasingly high temperatures, unpredictable precipitation, and extreme events will make it even more difficult for these farmers to produce food in sustainable, economically viable ways [5]. In eastern Africa, for example, maize production could decline by as much as 45% by the end of the century under the status quo [6]. Transformation of conventional agricultural production systems is needed [7], [8]; agriculture can no longer simply produce food; it must also protect the natural resources on which it relies and promote human and economic development. Balancing these outcomes in the face of climate change has become the challenge of the century [9].Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) includes any farm-or landscape-level agricultural practice or technology, whether traditional or innovative, that builds in adaptation to weather variability and climate change while sustainably increasing food productivity and, where possible, supporting mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions [10]. Many field-level management technologies are climate-smart, ranging from drought-resistant seed varieties to improved livestock feeds, and from integrated soil and water management to agroforestry. The effectiveness of CSA practices across time scales and agroecological zones is supported by abundant scientific evidence. That said, the most effective suite of CSA practices for any given farm will vary with crop type, geography, and cultures, among many other factors [11]- [13].Moving toward CSA practices is part of the transformation needed to maintain/increase agricultural productivity in environmentally sustainable and economically viable ways [11]. Yet in spite of the seemingly apparent advantages of CSA [12]- [15], the move toward an agricultural transformation is largely unrealized, despite hundreds of millions of US dollars in public funding invested in evidence generation and knowledge creation. This is exacerbated by the fact that CSA is not a silver bullet, but rather a suite of potential interventions that must be tailored to each farm's unique circumstances. As such, the barriers to change are myriad and frequently unique to each individual farm [16]- [19].Ultimately, the adoption of CSA practices sits with farmers, and relies on smart information (relevant and timely) that leads to smart decisions (carefully weighing risks). Like most private sector enterprises, farmers manage resources to optimize performance and meet objectives. For tropical smallholders, the vast majority of whom live in poverty, objectives tend to focus on immediate needs, not medium-to long-term investments. These farmers frequently understand the benefits of CSA in terms of maximizing profits, minimizing potential losses, stabilizing production, minimizing costs, and diversifying outputs, and simply lack secure access to land, labor, and capital to do so without putting their families' immediate wellbeing at risk.This represents a clear opportunity to stimulate adoption and investment through private sector approaches, and there has indeed been a recent shift toward the same [20], [21]. Nevertheless, most key actors in the space remain uninformed or wary of the economics of agricultural transformations. This ultimately hinders the mainstreaming of productive, climate-resilient, low-emissions agriculture. The first step toward effectively supporting and fostering this new approach is to establish the business case for climate-smart investments.Business cases are widely applied in various fields, including financial planning and forecasting, project management, enterprise, and compliance reporting. They are developed to quantify impacts, provide analysis to support and justify selection of specific options and create impetus to take action. In the context of agricultural development, a business case allows investors at different levels-governments, development partners, the private sector and farmers-to anticipate the profitability, riskiness, and societal value of investments in order to strategically allocate resources for optimum impact. The business case for CSA can be particularly highimpact in the context of small-holder farmers, who rely heavily on climate, have limited access to lucrative markets, and tend to be more risk-averse, inhibiting their adoption of climate-smart technologies. Laying out how CSA can be good for farm businesses can have a transformative role for more than 500 million farmers that practice small-scale agriculture worldwide.The scientific community can have an important contribution in the way farm profitability and risk information is communicated, leveraging knowledge from different disciplines and existing farm datasets. In this paper, we present a framework for establishing the business case for CSA, distilling key elements that help highlight CSA as an attractive business model for investors at all levels. To date, few, if any, research efforts have systematically aggregated and communicated the potential profitability of climate-smart investments in practical information ready to be used by the investment community. This paper fills this gap; it draws on agricultural management and economics literature and practice to highlight relevant approaches to assessing benefits, costs, and risks associated with climate-smart investments and suggests a frame for organizing these ideas in a succinct, \"marketable\" format to be used by non-scientific audiences.It also highlights opportunities to leverage existing data for generating new analyses and actionable messages. By doing so, the framework is intended to guide investors, development practitioners and researchers as they seek to create viable business models for de-risking agriculture and take CSA to scale.We first present a guiding framework for establishing the business case for climate-smart investments, including detailed accounts of the scope, data types, and methods for data compilation, aggregation, and analysis. Rather than offering a checklist of themes and indicators that a business case for CSA should contain, the framework lays out key considerations for analyzing smallholder farm profitability from several angles. The extent to which these considerations are included in any given business case will depend on its specific objectives.Second, we illustrate key methodological insights and lessons learned from implementing the framework using data from the Evidence for Resilience Agriculture (ERA) 2 database. Finally, we offer lessons learned from this effort. This working paper is the first of its kind, and we hope it will further catalyze the ongoing dialogue between farmers, scientists, practitioners, and investors and inform the transition to a climate-smart future.Clearly articulating the boundaries of the business case (what is in and out of the scope) helps guide the selection of relevant data required for carrying out subsequent analyses. There are many dimensions to take into account in the scope setting stage. These may refer to the type of farming system considered, the type(s) of investment(s) analyzed, and thematic areas, among others.In general, as the degree of specificity of a business case increases, so does the amount of information, analysis capacity and effort required. As such, the case specificity should be aligned with the scope of the assessment, the degree of detail required for the investment decision, and with the availability of relevant accurate data. For example, a business case for CSA may be designed around broader categories of practices/technologies (e.g., crop management, soil management, agroforestry) or specific practices/technologies (e.g., crop rotations, improved varieties, use of organic fertilizer, etc.); it may also offer granular information that adds context-specificity (e.g., rotating maize with cowpea, alleycropping maize and Gliricidia trees, drought tolerant varieties, etc.). Likewise, a business case may disaggregate information by agroecological zone (AEZ 3 ) to compare performance or account for variations across distinct land, soil, and climate characteristics. While higher levels of aggregation create value to investors who seek to obtain swift snapshots of investment performance in general, more granular information can offer deeper insights into the particularities, the why and the how of investment performance.A business case for CSA looks at investment opportunities from different themes (or subject matters), depending on their relevance for the CSA practice/technology and the investor's objective(s). Specific themes are relevant to specific investors and uses (See Tables 1-2). The themes selected will inform the variables to use in the analysis and may include farm profitability and risks, such as total expenditures, net returns, cost variability, and yields, among others, allowing investors to evaluate the associated opportunities and liabilities. The business case may also expand its thematic scope, and include a focus on areas of critical importance to society and the environment, such as the sustainable development goals (SDGs) [22],specifically those referring to poverty reduction, food security, nutrition, biodiversity protection, and land restoration, among others. This approach is particularly important for understanding the underlying causes of risks, as it helps identify farmers' capabilities and capacities, which, in turn, create risks of different types and degrees.A critical condition for developing a business case for CSA is data availability and quality.Sufficient and reliable information is a prerequisite to showcasing a compelling story and to designing holistic approaches to risk management. Availability of time-series data is critical for exploring how reliable or consistent technology or practice outcomes are between growing seasons. This can be measured, for example, using statistics such as yield stability (a proxy for production risks). If yields are unstable over time this suggests that production is susceptible to environmental stresses or shocks such as bad weather (droughts, high temperatures, storms, etc.)or pest and diseases. As such producers may require capacity to absorb losses in the bad years, this often very difficult for low income households.Additionally, having temporally explicit data is improves the quality of economic statistics when synthesized from multiple publications. For example, cost-benefit ratio calculation combines both benefit (income, employment, etc.) and cost (variable costs, fixed costs, etc.) data;matching the denominator and numerator for time of observation will reduces nuisance variance increasing the signal to noise ratio and providing stronger comparisons and conclusions.The quality of data reported is also critical for ensuring value (relevance, usefulness) of the business case. Good quality data can help investors take informed decisions. Quality may refer to aspects of data accuracy, relevance, completeness, and consistency. For instance, when multiple investment cases (practices/technologies) are considered, the data needs to be consistently reported across investments, otherwise investments cannot be compared.Tables 1 and 2  indicator selection may include: (i) relevance, meaning that it needs to meet the data needs of a certain user group (farm, service provider, policy-maker, etc.), (ii) specificity, meaning that the indicator addresses a dimension of a CSA investment rather than any farm practice; (iii) feasibility, defined as reasonable and affordable data collection; (iv) credibility, meaning that the indicator upholds scientific standards and is trusted by scientists and practitioners; and (v) usefulness, meaning that the indicator captures information that moves investments forward.Indicators presented in Tables 1-2 are not mutually exclusive. Rather, they synergistically build a depth of perspective by analyzing overlapping sets of variables from different angles and degrees of specificity. For instance, Net Present Value (NPV) is based on estimates of investment costs, discount rates 4 , and projected returns, and thus does not account for unforeseen expenditures. Returns on Investment (ROI) offers a slightly different perspective by considering total costs but without accounting for the time period when the costs and benefits will occur.Similarly, there is no agreed upon method for integrating these indicators into an overall evaluation of potential farm profits and risks. Rather, they are meant to be leveraged to create a multi-dimensional model of the potential economic performance, risks, and barriers of a CSA intervention. 4 Discounting is important because the value of benefits and costs now are not the same as benefits and costs in the future and because, in many investment cases, benefits occur in the future, while costs occur at the beginning.Farmers are private actors keen on maximizing profits with available resources. They seek to anticipate the costs and benefits of various agricultural management options and choose the most viable one(s) in terms of their needs. Having economic and financial information can help farmers make more informed decisions on e.g., minimum sale prices required to cover variable costs or make additional investments. For credit and insurance service providers, such information can provide valuable insights into actual farming risks; in the absence of this information, service providers tend to overestimate the riskiness of agricultural endeavors. Data on real risk enables service providers to tailor products to farmers' needs (e.g., small, frequent cash advances) as well as their own. For extension workers, farm data supports strategic use of resources to maximize the impact of productivity programming. Farm data also enable policymakers to consider how to tailor e.g. price and market regulations to benefit smallholder farmers.A common way to quantify the monetary value and estimate the profitability of agricultural investments is a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) [23]- [25]. CBAs calculate the net economic effects of agricultural investments with and without the investment (not before and after an intervention). A CBA can be carried out at different stages of an intervention, including ex-ante (to guide design and implementation), medium-term (for monitoring progress) and ex-post (to quantify results, successes, and failures). Key indicators included in a CBA are NPV and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), explained in Table 1. CBAs have recently been used to estimate the profitability of various soil and water technologies across Africa, Central America, and Asia [26], [27]. When resources for conducting CBAs are limited or when the scope, there are alternative options to look at the riskiness and profitability of an investment, such as costs, margins or social returns on investments (SROI), as illustrated in Table 1. • Cost borne by investors independent of the level of production. FCs are related to the operation of the business and may include rent, taxes, telephone, depreciation 5 , among others. • FC typically represent 6o% of total costs in agricultural enterprises and are more common for commercial farmers.Sum of all fixed costs divided by total land area (in ha)• Should be interpreted in conjunction with the farm revenue.• When FCs equal gross margins (see below), the breakeven point is reached, meaning that there are no profits and no losses. • Year 1 often has high FCs due to initial investments in materials, equipment, etc. but are offset by benefits in subsequent years. • Higher FCs in the production stage means more business risk, especially when revenues are hard to anticipate (volatile prices).• Cost that varies with production, i.e., it increases when production goes up and decrease when production falls. Total VC = cost to make product x nr. of units produced• Should to be interpreted in conjunction with the farm revenue.• Business losses occur when gross profits are lower than VCs.• Decisions on VCs (e.g., input use) influence profitability.• In general, an investor seeks to change the cost structure and turn some of the VCs into one-time costs. However, in reality, farmers decide on input use way ahead of having information on yields, product quality and prices, which makes VC optimization difficult.Labor cost (LC) (value per ha or per activity)• Cost of labor engaged in the farm activities required by the investment. This includes both family and hired labor. • The change in output when an additional unit of a given input or factor of production (e.g., labor, capital, natural resources) is added and all other factors are held constant. • RoFP helps estimate the optimum input efficiency.For returns to labor (RoL): RoL = (Total income -VC)/ Total labor days)• Needs to be interpreted closely with the initial investment costs.• Even if some farm investments may be attractive in terms of yield per unit of labor/land, this requires farmers to make an initial investment ahead of reaping the benefits, which is not always attractive for farmers lacking the initial capital.Gross income (GI) (or value of output) (value per ha)• Sum of all cash (derived from product sales) and non-cash returns (product consumed in the household or stored). • GI can be determined irrespective of the amount of the product that is being sold, consumed or stored. However, insights into amount of product consumed/stored or of byproduct can provide a deeper understanding of the farm's sources of income. • GI is different for annual and perennial crop systems. GI = yield x farmgate price (the first selling point) When the farmgate price is unknown, this is typically replaced with information on transportation or marketing costs.• GI is used as an estimate of farm income but not of profitability (as it does not include insights on costs). • GI is typically used as basis for further calculations of other farmlevel financial indicators (see below Gross Margins)Gross margin (GM) 6  (value per ha, per worker or per person day)• The difference between gross farm income and VCs.• GM is not equal to profit, as it does not account for FC.• However, it is still a relevant and easy to use tool, as its calculations are straightforward and allows valuing nonpurchased inputs such as family labor, manure, draft power, etc. (variable costs).• GM is an indication of the production and economic efficiency of the farm enterprise. Positive GM indicates profitability. An increase in GM means an increase in profit, as FCs do not vary with production. • GM is a planning tool particularly relevant for smallholder farmers (whose FCs are minimal) and for comparing performance of different practices and technologies or two different investments with similar fixed cost structures and similar unit basis (e.g., hectare, labor).• Accounts for total costs (TC), including FCs (depreciation, permanent labor, and other farm operating costs) NR = GR -TC , where TC= total costs (sum of all FCs and VCs)• An indication of investment profitability and riskiness.• Negative net returns indicate losses. Consecutive years of losses suggest the net income is insufficient to cover expenditures.• The amount of cash and assets available to pay for costs in the future. Liquidity is particularly important to farmers for running daily farm operations. • Inflow and outflow of cash varies throughout the year, which is why cash flow analyses need to be considered monthly or quarterly. • Unlike profitability, which typically focuses on business success on the long run, liquidity indicates the ease with which short-term financial obligations can be met. CF = Cash inflows -cash outflows , where cash inflows = money received from the sale of farm produce; cash outflows = money paid out for inputs and materials• CF does not equal profitability. It is an indication that a farm investment may/may not be viable as it does not generate sufficient cash to cover needs.• A cash flow measure that evaluates the financial value (or the benefits) the farmer receives relative to investment cost over a given period of time. It is expressed as a ratio between the gain (or loss) and the total costs (TC) associated with the investment.Multiple formulas: ROI = NR / TC or %ROI = (Total benefits -TC) / TC• ROI is typically correlated with risks, meaning that higher returns attract higher possible risks. • A positive ROI suggests profitability, while negative values indicate net loss (costs exceeding gains). • However, for the smallholder farmer, higher ROI does not necessarily mean a viable investment option if the benefits are• ROI does not account for the factor of time, which stymies comparison between investments with different amounts of time to recover the costs. Therefore, when making comparisons of investments under different time periods, investors opt for the annualized ROI (AROI). • ROI is a purely financial metric and does not account for social or environmental benefits and costs. A common alternative is the Social Return on Investment (SROI) [28], [29], which shows the value of each dollar invested to the individual and society.reaped on the long run. Therefore, ROI is usually interpreted in conjunction with other metrics, such as payback period (See below).• The length of time required for an investment to pay for itself (or to recoup money invested), expressed in numbers of days, weeks, months, seasons, years.PP = Initial investment / Net cash flow per period• In uncertain contexts (climate, market, socio-political), investments with shorter PPs are usually more attractive to smallholders, while longer PPs are riskier. • PP allows investors to make quick judgements on an investment, but it does not account for the time-value of money (i.e., the point in time when benefits may occur).• A cash flow measure often used as a component of a CBA, representing the multiple-year sum of the discounted net economic effects (value of benefits -value of costs). • NPV shows the economic viability of the investment (how much the investment will earn in present value terms) when the private/social discount rate factored is included. • Unlike ROI, it accounts for the time-value of money (i.e., when the benefits and costs occur), allowing comparisons against investment options., where: NR = net returns (or cash flow) expected to be received in each period; i = the required rate of return per period (or the discount rate); n = the number of periods during which the investment is expected to operate and generate cash inflows.• Values above 0 indicate that, when the effect of time is included in the calculation of the value of money, the projected earnings (i.e., benefits) exceed anticipated costs. • A negative NPV indicates net loss.• Like ROI, the metric should be interpreted together with other measures of economic riskiness, such as costs or payback period.• Indicator used in CBA, revealing the overall value for money of an investment. It is calculated as the ratio between the benefits discounted over time (revenue, additional yield, labor savings, reduced soil erosion, etc.) and the costs of the investment discounted over time (e.g., equipment, land, depreciation, water loss, etc.).• A BCR greater than 1 indicates that benefits outweigh costs.• Costs and benefits occur at different times of the investment and typically follow a pattern in which costs are higher in the early phase of the investment and benefits are higher in the later phases. • Ratios may be misleading when comparing two investments with different costs and costs structures.One way to define risk is to describe or quantify poor, variable, or uncertain outcomes. Farming under climate change is an uncertain business, as is farming in a politically unstable environment or for highly price-volatile food markets. Negative agricultural outcomes also result from pests and diseases, inadequate marketing infrastructure, financial constraints, insufficient support services, and socio-cultural dynamics. Farmers nearly always grapple with multiple simultaneous risks, some of which are of greater priority or impact than others. The type and degree of risks that comes with an intervention and farmers' degree of risk aversion often heavily influence farm choices [30]- [32].Historically, peer-reviewed literature has identified five categories of agricultural risks [33]:▪ production (manifested through yield reductions or instability due to weather, climate, pests, diseases, soil salinity, etc.);▪ market (associated with uncertain prices, costs, and inadequate market access due to variable yields, energy prices, international trade, etc.);▪ institutional (related to distortionary or unpredictable changes in policies, regulations, or informal institutions, such as trading negotiations);▪ financial (associated with lack of credit or changing credit conditions, increasing or variable interest rates, etc.);▪ personal (relate to the individual and can be manifested through injuries from using machinery, illness or death from diseases, including diseases transmitted from livestock).Production risks are documented in 66% of studies; market risks are examined in 13%, and the remaining the categories each appear in 2% of the relevant literature. About 15% of studies analyzed two or more types of risk. The preponderance of production risk analyses is unsurprising. Production risks are almost always ranked as most important by smallholder farmers [33], [34]. Importantly, it is also the one they can address directly, whether through informal strategies such as income diversification, management practices, etc., or through formal strategies such as subsidies, insurance, and credit. Compared to other types of risks (such as institutional, personal, financial), production risks are also relatively more straightforward to quantify and obtain data for (See section on Data sources).Production risks are more broadly underpinned by factors outside the farmers' control, including climate hazards (e.g. droughts and heat waves), biological factors (e.g., pests and diseases), financial constraints (e.g., a lack of credit services, and market limitations (e.g., lack of improved seed). Whilst the mean performance of an \"improved\" practice or technology vs a control may be positive for an outcome, it is important to consider how variable this outcome is. Farmers may have minimum acceptable thresholds for seasonal yields that relate to their short-term household needs; if an improved practice is more productive on average, but this is associated with increased variability, the chance of not meeting a minimum threshold for any given year could increase (compared to business as usual). This may be unacceptable for the potential adopter. Time-series yield data allows to empirically explore how risky adopting a practice or technology is. Table 2 details two methods that can be used to explore production risks: 1) lower confidence limit (LCL) and 2) Relative Yield Stability Ratio (CVR).Indicator Definition Calculation/ Formula Interpretation/ Use Lower confidence limit (LCL)• Probability that the technology will give a yield below the minimum acceptable yield. Calculated over a period of at least three years.Risk (confidence interval) = (\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B − (\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC51.\uD835\uDC53. = \uD835\uDC5B − 1, \uD835\uDC5D) (\uD835\uDF0E)/\uD835\uDC5B Where there appear to be overall production benefits for an improve practice, but they appear variable in time or space we can assess if climate is likely to be the driver. Climate hazards can be specified for individual crops via the scientific literature and/or through direct engagement with stakeholders; for example, a farmer might define a hazard as a hot dry spell of more than There are many ways to categorize barriers. Much of the literature focusing on CSA uptake has placed great emphasis on economic barriers [39]. These are tightly linked to the economic performance of the practices/technologies and farmers' short-term priorities and include, among others: high costs (during initial stages and/or implementation of practice), transaction costs (e.g., monetary/non-monetary costs for negotiating prices with a trader), long pay-back periods, uncertain returns, high costs to benefit ratio, etc. Other types of adoption factors discussed in the literature include [14], [40]- [43]:▪ household characteristics (e.g., gender, age, household size, education, farming experience, access to credit/subsidies/safety nets),▪ farm characteristics (e.g., farm size, cropland area, number of livestock, etc.),▪ knowledge and information (market and price information, availability of climate information services, capacity to interpret and use information, access to radio, mobile phone ownership, etc.),▪ institutions (e.g., policies and incentives favorable for smallholder production and commercialization, inter-sectoral coordination, trust in institutions, etc.)▪ markets (e.g., distance to markets, road network, etc.)▪ social and cultural norms (e.g., demand for certain farm products).A business case for CSA typically begins with a standard farm budget, or enterprise budget (EB). An EB includes estimates of income (returns), costs (variable, fixed, and total), and profits (e.g., net returns) associated with a farm investment over a specific time period, ideally multiple years. While EBs are standard in developed economies, tropical smallholder operations that maintain EBs are the exception, not the rule.An EB can be constructed using available literature (see case studies below). Analyzing existing datasets to provide new insights can significantly reduce research costs and maximize the benefits of previous data collection efforts. Nevertheless, some countries and development contexts are better studied than others [45]. Additionally, many potentially promising technologies remain significantly underexplored (such as post-harvest technologies), and some outcomes are rarely analyzed and reported (such as socio-cultural outcomes and institutional risks). The structure of farm budgets varies widely, and studies report economic data inconsistently.Collecting EB primary data is substantially more time-and cost-intensive than leveraging existing data. However, it also facilitates greater control over the populations and samples selected (e.g., the most vulnerable farmers in a dry area), the types of data collected, the methods used to measure variables, etc. In many settings, multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral collaboration will be crucial to obtaining robust data and insights into the multiple facets of farm profitability and risks.Several opportunities also exist for constructing EBs as part of a larger development program, targeting financial literacy for individual farmers, farmer groups, and cooperatives. Concepts such as accurate recordkeeping, transparency, budgeting, investment, savings, and bank services are critical for any small business or organization. One example for building farm literacy is the \"leaky bucket\" model used in asset-based community development approaches [46]. In many countries, digital solutions can support and enable financial literacy learning, good financial practices, and access to financial services 8 .Various tools and extension materials support financial literacy and EB development. FAO's booklet series aimed at agricultural field workers in farmer trainings provide step-by-step guides of establishing cash flow and savings, explain profitability, financial record keeping, how to manage risks and how to use financial instruments [47]. The Michigan State's Crop BudgetEstimator [48] requires access to Microsoft Excel and facilitates farm management decisions.Other examples include the Penn State Extension EB templates [49], or the AgriSETA guide to farm budgets and practical farm information systems [50]. The Handbook on AgriculturalProduction Costs Statistics provides detailed guidelines on collecting, compiling and reporting farm data, including information on survey costs [51].Once an EB is established, risk data is used to build out the business case. Quantitative and qualitative farmer surveys and field experiments will provide the bulk of the necessary production and personal risk data, including farmers' attitudes, responses, and preventative strategies. Market risks are largely quantified using agricultural price data, while financial and institutional risk identification and quantification requires an understanding of the banking/financial environment and the policy/regulatory context. Context-specific insights into barriers to CSA uptake are preferably collected through farm surveys or qualitative interviews but where resources lack and the scope of the assessment is broader, the business case can draw on the literature available on agricultural technology uptake.The business case reports for Kenya and Malawi were developed as part of a collaboration between the United States Department of Agriculture-Foreign Agriculture Service (USDA-FAS) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) to present to decision makers in Kenya and Malawi.The two briefs distill critical information on the benefits, costs, and risks associated with different agricultural management options common to the maize-mixed systems in the two countries from a smallholder farmer's perspective. 9 The reports are available on CG Space CSA practice treatment [52]. Data extracted from ERA included study variables (study code, author, publication year), practice variables (theme, practice name, production system, control and treatment descriptions, varieties used), and outcomes (means, control and treatment results, and percent change). All monetary values were converted to 2010 US$.Risk data included crop yields and minimum and average acceptable values according to smallholder farmers. Risks were expressed in terms of potential for yields below the mean control (0.5). Risk was calculated for a unique practice 11 within a site 12 . For CVR, data from multiple studies were combined [35]. For LCL risk, the same method as above was not feasible.Instead, when combining data, we took the weighted mean of all the LCL values for a practice in ERA. An observation was weighted as:2 * \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60 ) /\uD835\uDC41. \uD835\uDC42\uD835\uDC4F\uD835\uDC60. \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC66 10 For a full list, see https://era.ccafs.cgiar.org/query/app/. 11 A unique practice has everything held the same other than the experimental practice (with some pragmatic exceptions, e.g. in no-till papers it is acceptable to substitute physical for chemical weeding).Basically, an observation was upweighted if it came from a study with lots of replication and downweighted according to the number of other observations contributed by the same study for that practice (e.g., different levels of fertilizer application or different types of manure added).The economic indicators VC, GM, and GR were identified as most relevant for the scope of this business case given the availability of data. NPV, BCR and PP, although highly valuable, were rarely and inconsistently reported, and were thus excluded from these business cases. Reward was calculated as the ratio between VC and GR. Barriers data was primarily qualitative, and thus were presented as narratives.Data from ERA were aggregated at both the study (across years and observations) and dataset (across studies) levels to enable multi-scale analyses. Hence, the business cases represent the average performance of the technologies from multiple studies over multiple timeframes and agroecological zones. Aggregation carries the risk of obscuring details and introducing subjectivity bias [53], but also allows for the synthesis of large volumes of data into practical messages for diverse consumers. Detailed findings can be identified in the business case reports. Here, we distill key insights, in order to showcase the value of the information delivered by such succinct analyses. Table 4 presents sample on economic performance of different farm management practices in Malawi.On average, soil management technologies perform among the best of all major practice categories included in the analysis, as a result of relatively small increases in VCs (otherwise required for herbicide, sprayers and gear for weed control) compared to farmers' practice and of significant growth in gross returns. Relatively low increased costs combined with high relative returns generates the ability for farmers to generate gross margins of up to 50% more than business as usual (BAU).  Accordingly, agroforestry prunings and crop diversification options (intercropping, crop rotations) bring high rewards (higher benefits compared to costs) and have the potential to reduce production risks by up to 29%. However, the benefits and costs vary greatly with types of crops, trees, management practice and agro-climatic conditions, details that this figure does not capture. In areas with poor soils and inadequate replenishment of plant nutrients, the combination of crops, trees and mineral fertilizer has more potential to decrease maize production risks compared to sole maize planting or maize fertilized with tree prunings; however, rewards are not as attractive, due to the high price of fertilizer and tree seeds.  The business cases reports support investors in anticipating the profitability, risks, opportunities, and barriers of diverse farm operations. They further illustrate the potential value of existing datasets to uncover new insights into agricultural investment feasibility from a smallholder farmer perspective. Nevertheless, caution is warranted when interpreting and applying business case results. The performance values presented in the two case studies do not provide definitive, unifying, or globally relevant conclusions. Rather, they demonstrate what farmers and investors could expect, on average, from an intervention under comparable conditions. In reality, farmers may not strictly follow a best practice, and most farmers do not implement and monitor practices as meticulously as researchers conducting controlled experiments do [54]. Even in controlled experiments, there is significant variation between and within studies. Hence, business cases are best considered initial insights into which opportunities warrant additional consideration in a particular setting.More than ten years of research and practice suggest that CSA is a viable approach to transforming the agricultural sector. Ultimately, the adoption of CSA practices sits with the private sector, and particularly farmers. Insight into the economic performance, risks, and barriers of these practices is necessary in order to demonstrate their utility in meeting the goals of enterprise. To date, existing datasets have been primarily used to advocate for solutionsoriented research, development programs, and, to a lesser extent, policy. There remains tremendous opportunity to expand the utility of existing data to establish business cases for CSA interventions. Business cases can be tailored to the user and broadly applied to everything from mixed crop-livestock systems to energy management. This working paper puts forth a general framework for assessing the business case for CSA from a smallholder farmer's perspective.The protocol can be tailored to the unique business needs of any given situation and should be seen as an initial insight into which opportunities warrant further attention.","tokenCount":"6053"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe387a4b060647f8ba7a5d9d3251df66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c8a4d60-4f7d-4078-93ed-84b1b1118711/retrieve","id":"-1670091422"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4f537654-ce0a-4c0d-a59f-4ba51545f5ad","pagecount":"76","content":"Integration at consumption: The role of fish in complementary feeding Evidence suggests that traditional cereal-based complementary foods for infants in many low-income countries can be nutritionally enhanced with the addition of micronutrient-rich small fish and vitamin A-rich orange-fleshed sweetpotato 1 (OFSP). For instance, a fish-based complementary food product, developed in Bangladesh, exceeded 100% of estimated required calcium intakes for all age groups as well as vitamin A, iron and zinc requirements for children 12 to 23 months old. Future projects should develop social and behavior change communication (SBCC) materials that educate caretakers on the nutritional benefits of feeding children these foods in combination.Until recently, nutrition and health outcomes were not considered in the vast majority of agricultural policies, with micronutrient deficiencies receiving limited attention. Despite agricultural growth, undernutrition still persists and has now become a major threat to health in low-and middle-income countries. Nutrition-sensitive agricultural policies are essential in the pursuit of globally agreed nutrition targets. They aim to address the underlying determinants of micronutrient deficiencies by ensuring access to and adequate consumption of a variety of nutritious and safe foods. \"Food-based approaches\" are widely considered economically and ecologically sustainable approaches to agricultural development that could simultaneously alleviate food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty. Such food-based approaches require effective collaboration and co-ordination between sectors across the food systems.This working paper is a collaboration between two CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs): Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH) and Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB). This working paper documents linkages between fish, roots, tubers and bananas (RTB crops) within food systems; identifies opportunities for strengthened integration in production systems, animal feed and nutritional products; and identifies constraints and research gaps, and provides policy recommendations that support nutrition-sensitive food systems. This working paper looks into integrated aquaculture-agriculture (IAA) food systems globally, before focusing on two specific countries: Bangladesh and Nigeria. The research is mostly based on peer-reviewed publications, though it is complemented with illustrative accounts from academic professionals, farmers and consumers.Integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems: Aquatic foods and roots, tubers and bananas Bananas and plantain are the most commonly recorded group of RTB crops grown in IAA systems globally. Fish with cassava, sweetpotato, potato, yam and cocoyam are also documented, though to a lesser extent. A large proportion of the IAA systems identified in this working paper are geographically concentrated in South and Southeast Asia. However, in numerous cases, in which fish-crop farming is featured, authors have failed to specify which crops or vegetables they refer to. As a result, it is difficult to uncover the nature of and extent to which RTB crops are cultivated under such systems.A relatively large and growing body of literature explores the viability of using selected RTB crops and their by-products as fish feed. Much of this research has been conducted in Nigeria, but there is growing interest happening in other geographical regions. Research that explores the use of non-conventional fish feed ingredients is commonly rationalized by the high costs of producing fish feed.The majority of the 27 studies on fish feeds identified were \"production-centric\"-designed to investigate the effects of replacing a proportion of the conventional energy and protein sources with RTB crop derivatives, and the effects on fish growth performance and feed use. When comparing the trial diet to the conventional control diet, replacement was effective in terms of growth performance up to a certain replacement level (10%-75%). Additional and high quality research needs to be conducted to adequately determine the effects of replacement on fish growth performance and feed use.Only a few studies identified in this working paper explore the economic implications of replacing conventional feed commodities with RTB crop residues and leaves. In addition, there is a definite lack of literature that attempts to position this topic within a food systems context and assess the dynamics (i.e. the scale of domestic production, spatial, temporal and technological considerations) that would determine whether these RTB crop derivatives could be effectively integrated as fish feed beyond laboratory trials.As the basis for food production, agriculture obviously makes a contribution to nutrition and is assumed to be a critical determinant of stunting and micronutrient deficiency (Turner et al. 2013;McDermott et al. 2015). Yet, despite agricultural growth, undernutrition still persists and is a major threat to health in low-and middle-income countries (Turner et al. 2013). A historical emphasis on supply-side production of staple commodities in agricultural and food policies is partly to blame (Tontisirin et al. 2002;McDermott et al. 2015). Tontisirin et al. (2002) proclaim that micronutrient outcomes were not considered in the vast majority of these past agricultural policies. Instead, these policies focused on the provision of macronutrients, such as carbohydrates as the energy source and protein provided by staple foods, particularly grains, such as rice, wheat and maize (Babu et al. 2017). The Green Revolution, for example, contributed to rapid growth in food production, poverty reduction and increased household energy consumption. This mostly took place between the 1940s and 1960s and intended to address the challenges of insufficient food faced by many developing countries at the time. But since efforts were mainly focused on increasing the production of staple foods, the Green Revolution often led to a monoculture of rice, wheat and maize. These displaced other nutrient-rich crops and reduced crop diversity in a number of developing countries, with considerable consequences in terms of nutrition outcomes (Headey and Hoddinott 2016;Babu et al. 2017).Today, agricultural policies and programs increasingly seek to address malnutrition through both nutritionspecific interventions and nutrition-sensitive approaches to agriculture (Fiorella et al. 2016), especially targeting women and children in the first 1000 days of life, from conception to 2 years of age. The first 1000 days are a critical period to promote optimal growth and development of infants and young children and to prevent growth faltering, micronutrient deficiencies and childhood illness (Cusick and Georgieff n.d.;Prado and Dewey 2014).Nutrition-specific interventions directly target immediate causes of undernutrition, such as inadequate dietary intake and ill health, through iron or folic acid supplementation to pregnant women, fortification of staple foods with micronutrients and nutrition education (Fiorella et al. 2016;Ruel et al. 2018;Transform Nutrition 2019). Supplementation and fortification are commonly deployed strategies for micronutrient deficiencies because they are cost-effective and, to some extent, relatively easy to deliver (Allen 2003). Much of the progress achieved over the last century in curbing malnutrition is attributed to be through nutritionspecific interventions (Fiorella et al. 2016).On the other hand, nutrition-sensitive agriculture is defined as An approach that seeks to ensure the production of a variety of affordable, nutritious, culturally appropriate and safe foods in adequate quantity and quality to meet the dietary requirements of populations in a sustainable manner ( FAO 2017, viii) Nutrition-sensitive interventions are referred to as \"food-based\" approaches that aim to address the underlying determinants of micronutrient deficiencies-meaning access to and adequate consumption of a variety of nutritious and safe foods (Tontisirin et al. 2002;FAO 2017;Ruel et al. 2018).More recently, collaboration and co-ordination between agricultural sectors and across food systems are increasingly considered instrumental as the international agricultural community, among others, works toward global nutrition targets. Thus, research that seeks to accomplish the following is highly relevant and increasingly important to (1) identify how and to what extent integration, rather than specialization of agricultural subsectors, could relieve the ecological, sociopolitical and economic pressures that farming households face, and (2) help tackle the multiple burdens of malnutrition. Integrated aquaculture-agriculture (IAA) systems such as fish-rice farming and fish-livestock farming are widely considered economically and ecologically sustainable approaches to agriculture development that could simultaneously alleviate food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty (Little and Edwards 2003;Ahmed and Garnett 2011;Ahmed et al. 2014). Since the late 1990s, these systems specifically have received considerable attention in the literature.Integration between fish and roots, tubers and bananas (RTB crops) is described and discussed in this working paper as one area for potential collaboration which has received minimal attention. This working paper has been conducted in the framework of a collaboration between two CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs): FISH, led by WorldFish, and RTB, led by the International Potato Center (CIP).RTB crops, including but not limited to cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweetpotato (Ipomea batatas), potato (Solanum tuberosum), yam (Dioscorea spp.), cocoyam (Colocasia spp. and Xanthosoma spp.), banana and plantain (Musa spp.), have cultural, dietary and economic importance worldwide (CIP FOODSTART+ 2018). Globally, more than a billion people eat potato as a staple, and cassava is considered to be the third-most important food crop in the tropics, after rice and maize (CIP FOODSTART+ 2018;CIP 2018a). Just 100 g of boiled orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) root contains enough beta-carotene to provide 100% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of vitamin A for children (Low et al. 2017). Thus, because of their popularity and nutritional quality, many RTB crops have great potential to reduce the global prevalence of hunger and malnutrition. As a result of their resilience, these crops can also help farmers adapt to climate change and related extreme weather events (CIP 2018a, Prain andNaziri 2020).Fish and other aquatic animal products are also of key nutritional significance. Fish, especially small fish, are an important source of micronutrients including calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin A and vitamin B12, as well as essential fatty acids and protein (Longley et al. 2014;Fiorella et al. in press). Data suggests that at least one billion people globally depend on fish as their main animal-source food (Genschick et al. 2015). In 2015, fish provided about 3.2 billion people with about 20% of their average per capita intake of animal protein (FAO 2018). Yet, while there is much discussion around the impact of agriculture on nutrition, fisheries are scarcely acknowledged within relevant agriculture-nutrition global policy arenas and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The importance of fisheries in local and global food systems, and their contribution to nutrition and health, is overlooked and undervalued (Thilsted et al. 2016).The purpose of this working paper is to document links among fish and RTB crops within agri-food systems and identify opportunities for strengthened integration in production systems, animal feed and nutrient-rich food products. This report identifies constraints and research gaps and provides policy recommendations that support nutrition-sensitive IAA food systems. The research is mostly based on publications, though it is complemented with illustrative accounts from researchers, development practitioners, farmers and consumers.This working paper provides a global overview before directing its focus on two countries, Bangladesh and Nigeria, because there is some evidence that IAA food systems already exist or that work exploring potential collaboration between these two food systems is underway. For instance, cassava has been explored for its potential in livestock and aquaculture feeding projects in Nigeria (Lukuyu et al. 2014). OFSP has been included with small fish in complementary food products for young children in Bangladesh (Bogard et al. 2015), and cultivating fish and OFSP in home gardens has been promoted to improve dietary diversity and the nutritional status of household members in northern Bangladesh (Save the Children n.d.). However, the extent of, potential and challenges associated with IAA food systems in these two countries are unclear and poorly documented.Background: Key concepts and framework for analysisIntegrated agriculture is a specific typology of agriculture, whereby agricultural production is diversified from the landscape level to smallholder plots. The term broadly includes farm management practices such as crop rotation and intercropping, and encompasses the integration of agricultural subsystems, including aquaculture, fruit and vegetable production, and livestock husbandry, which are thought to improve both the use of space and resource management (Hendrickson et al. 2008). The term is used broadly, however, and the concept interpreted variously.Integrated aquaculture-agriculture (IAA) is commonly equated with two-component agricultural systems: fish-rice or fish-livestock (Edwards 1998). Synergistic recycling and reuse of farm-produced organic residues and by-products are commonly cited characteristics of integrated agriculture as well as IAA (Little and Edwards 2003). For many scholars (Edwards 1998;Karim and Little 2018) dynamic interactions like the recycling of outputs from one subsystem, which otherwise might have been wasted, into an input of another subsystem is a defining feature of IAA. For example, using livestock manure directly in fish culture increases the production of phytoplankton, which is a natural source of fish food. In turn, harnessing nutrients from what might be considered agricultural \"waste\" is expected to reduce the need for commercial fertilizers, which are commonly applied to ponds to serve the same phytoplankton-producing function (Edwards 1998). To some extent, the system mimics the way natural ecosystems function. In that regard, IAA also satisfies environmental aims (Hendrickson et al. 2008). Additionally, Edwards (1998) asserts that integrated systems should also function to improve people's livelihoods and their welfare, rather than being solely concerned with production objectives. In light of this, integrated agriculture has also been referred to as \"multiplegoal agriculture\" (Pearson and Ison 1992).A more holistic conceptualization of IAA extends the focus from relatively simple two-component systems to multicomponent systems that include sequential, in addition to concurrent, links between subsystems, (1) the dynamic use of off-farm resources and agricultural by-products, which can be produced at separate locations and by different people, yet be integrated, and (2) links between agricultural and human activities, for example, the reuse of human excreta or sewage in agricultural production, or the culture of fish in heated effluents of power plants (Prein 2002;Little and Edwards 2003;Ahmed et al. 2014).Moreover, integrated systems can operate over a variety of scales, ranging from small-to largescale systems that are fully market orientated (Prein 2002). For instance, large quantities of homogenous wastes produced during the rice milling process, such as rice husk and rice bran, are reused as fish feed (Esa et al. 2013).Thus, IAA can be comprehensively defined as the following:Concurrent or sequential linkages between two or more human activity systems (one or more of which is aquaculture), directly on-site, or indirectly through off-site needs and opportunities, or both.Approaches to understanding integrated aquaculture-agriculture: A food systems perspective A systems approach recognizes that IAA comprises a range of complex systems involving various interrelated factors (Hendrickson et al. 2008). To sufficiently comprehend IAA systems and how they function, it is necessary to study the wider political, social, cultural, economic and environmental context (Edwards 1998), especially as food systems today are increasingly globalized and thus influenced by broader political and economic processes that extend beyond national borders (Ericksen et al. 2010). These processes are not static, as food systems react to trends and change drivers across national and international boundaries (Grant 2015). Therefore, looking Parvin and her family having a meal with small indigenous fish and orange-fleshed sweetpotato leaves, Kadirpara village, Jessore District, Bangladesh.beyond the specific focus area or focus sector is crucial to truly understand the food systems context and, in turn, design effective nutritionsensitive interventions that simultaneously avoid adverse effects to planetary health.This report takes analytical guidance from the conceptual framework of food systems for diet and nutrition (Figure 1) from the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (2017). As Figure 1 illustrates, a food systems perspective incorporates the various stages of the food supply chain: production, processing, marketing and consumption.Source: High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition 2017.  Farmers, indigenous peoples, agribusiness, land and plantation owners, sheries, nancial entitiesPacking plants, food and beverage industry, small and medium enterprisesRetailers, vendors, food outlet owners, traders, restaurants, wholesealerswhere and what food to acquire, prepare, cook, store and eatQuantity Quality Diversity SafetyLiterature review: Search strategy Publications were sourced using the webpages of pertinent government organizations, development practitioners and research institutions, such as WorldFish and CIP, as well as various databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed. Relevant literature was searched for, using multiple key terms (Table 1), which were generally used in combinations, such as \"fish feed\" and \"sweetpotato. \" However, the most appropriate publications were commonly found by consulting the reference lists of key \"springboard\" publications.Reviewed literature was also identified through the \"cited by\" function on many of the databases. This provided more recent publications, which is useful when reviewing knowledge progression.    The review is narrative. It intends to document and discuss the current state of literature on the integration of fish and RTB crops, as well as on-the-ground evidence of such links, through a food systems lens while paying particular attention to food and nutrition security.Papers were reviewed exhaustively until the publications did not contribute to new insights to the topic, or within the demarcated timeframe (since 2000). Available literature on this topic was scarce before the year 2000. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with academic professionals, fish feed manufacturers, fish feed dealers, fish farmers, farmers growing RTB crops, and households in four divisions of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rangpur and Sylhet. Primary qualitative data collection was considered a worthwhile contribution to the literature review findings. It was evident that there was (1) a lack of information on the potential use of RTB crops in fish feed in Bangladesh in comparison to Nigeria (2) a general lack of detail about the crops grown in integrated aquacultureagriculture home gardens, and (3) few publications that evidenced the consumption of fish with RTB crops in traditional dishes, snacks and complementary feeding. Primary data collection was expected to reveal such instances, if any, yet also help to explain why this topic receives comparatively little attention.A total of 22 semi-structured interviews were carried out. All but one were conducted face-to-face during a 2-week field visit to Bangladesh, while the remaining one was conducted via Skype. Market prices for various fish species were also observed and noted during a visit to the Trisal fish market in Mymensingh. Basic details of the interviewees are in Appendix 1, along with the associated reference codes which are used as citations in the text that follows.Each interview was guided by a list of pre-identified, open-ended questions (Appendix 2). Key informants from WorldFish, CIP, the Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) and the Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), for example, were identified using expert sampling strategy, a subtype of purposive sampling, and selected for their topical knowledge (Bryman 2012). Fingerling producers, fish farmers, RTB farmers and project beneficiaries were also purposively sampled, using the critical case sampling method.These respondents were selected because they were known to (1) have integrated fish and RTB crop production; (2) potentially use alternative aquafeed ingredients, including RTB by-products; and/or (3) could provide contextual insight into the fish and RTB food systems in Bangladesh.The various search methodologies produced 46 eligible documents, of which 33 are peer-reviewed journal articles and the remaining 13 documents consist of books or book sections (3), institutional reports and working papers (7), conference proceedings ( 2) and a MSc thesis (Appendix 3). None of the texts was uncovered to be published in so-called predatory journals, and 15 of the 33 journals incorporated were listed in the Scimago Journal and Country Rank database.IAA production systems are not short of literary attention. There is a substantially large body of literature that investigates and mostly promotes this approach to agriculture. Fish-rice farming and, to a lesser extent, fish-livestock farming are notably discussed and presented in peer-reviewed and grey literature (such as in Ahmed andGarnett 2011, andAhmed et al. 2011).However, fish-crop farming, excluding rice, is given comparatively less attention. In addition, in cases in which fish-crop farming is featured, authors have failed to specify which crops or vegetables they refer to (such as Karim and Little 2018). This reduces the contextually diverse array of agricultural products grown under these circumstances to an umbrella heading. As a result, it is difficult to uncover the nature of and extent to which RTB crops are cultivated under such systems. Specific mention was made to RTB crops in 10 documents identified in this review (Appendix 3). However, half of these documents only superficially listed RTB crops as one of the crops grown in the featured integrated production system.On the other hand, if IAA systems are conceptualized more holistically to include sequential, as well as concurrent interactions, which can occur on or off-site, specific interactions between fish and RTB crops become more evident.A relatively large and growing body of literature explores the viability of using selected RTB crops as fish feed. Cassava, sweetpotato, cocoyam and yam, among other crops, are generally regarded by fish nutritionists as highly nutritious, cheap and locally accessible fish feed ingredients. Accordingly, 26 of the papers reviewed explore laboratory-based feeding trials or review other literature on productivity-related outcomes of incorporating cassava peels into farm-produced and commercially pelleted feeds.In addition, 11 documents (eight peer-reviewed journal articles, one conference proceeding, a book chapter and a report) detailing integration between fish and a RTB at the point of consumption were also identified. Four described local dishes that included both fish and one RTB crop (Karuri et al. 2001;Ezeh et al. 2011;Sharma et al. 2016;Talsma et al. 2018). The remaining seven peer-reviewed publications (one review paper and six research papers) broadly detailed the development of \"value-added\" complementary food products (Nandutu and Howell 2009;Bogard et al. 2015) and the nutritional enhancement of traditional snacks, using fish and one RTB crop (Cliffe and Okereke 2010;Neiva et al. 2011;Akonor et al. 2017;Rochimiwati et al. 2017).The content of these texts will be described and discussed in more detail in the sections that follow.Integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems: Fish, roots, tubers and bananasGlobally, \"traditional\" IAA systems tend to share the same basic structure-a pond, garden and livestock. However, the composition is contextually specific. The particularities between and within regions depend on many factors, including the financial resources available to the individual, climatic conditions, ecological attributes, individual and cultural consumptive preferences, market orientation, accessible market opportunities, availability of labor, land tenure, management objectives and agricultural knowledge (Mohri et al. 2013).As Table 2 illustrates, in the documents identified using the search terms featured in Eight out of the 10 selected documents note, and in some cases describe, situations in which mostly bananas, and sometimes plantains, are integrated with fish in the same production system. Cases including cassava, sweetpotato, potato, yam and cocoyam with fish are also documented, though to a lesser extent.In addition, among even the small number of documents identified in this review, a pattern of geographical predominance has emerged in which a larger proportion of the cases of IAA systems featuring fish and RTB crops is from South and Southeast Asia.Bananas and plantains are grown as major cash and/or food crops within IAA systems in Bangladesh (Warburton et al. 2002), Indonesia (Mohri et al. 2013), Thailand (Setboonsarg 2002), Vietnam (Mohri et al. 2013), Malawi (Nagoli et al. 2009) and Nigeria (Miller et al. 2006;Oribhabor and Ansa 2006) (Table 2). In addition, root and tuber crops are also commonly found in IAA systems in Indonesia, Vietnam (Mohri et al. 2013) and Thailand (Pant et al. 2004).In Bangladesh, over 1000 ha of land were used for pulses or fish-potato cultivation in 2011 (Dey et al. 2012). Potato or pulses are grown during the dry season, followed by fish culture in the wet season. (Their cultivation does not have to be simultaneous for the system to be considered as \"integrated. \") This practice more commonly occurs in the Khulna and Rangpur administrative divisions (Dey et al. 2012).On the other hand, in traditional Javanese home gardens, locally known as pekarangan, crops, fish and livestock are concurrently cultivated and reared (Mohri et al. 2013). Banana plants are grown alongside other food and cash crops, including coconut, orange, mango, jackfruit, rice, maize, sweetpotato, cassava, yam and leafy vegetables. Fish and livestock, specifically chicken, cattle, goat and sheep, are also an important feature of Javanese home gardens (Mohri et al. 2013).According to Mohri et al. (2013), 20% of the total area of West Java is occupied by home gardens. These vary in size from a few square meters to several hectares (about 0.4-0.6 ha on average). Figure 2 illustrates a typical Javanese home garden or pekarangan system.According to the literature, IAA farmers similarly benefit from reclaiming, recycling and reusing nutrients and organic \"waste. \" For instance, water from the pond is used to irrigate the various crops (Miller et al. 2006;Nagoli et al. 2009;Mohri et al. 2013). Oribhabor and Ansa (2006) report that interviewed farmers in the Niger Delta have tactically planted valuable cash crops, such as banana and guava, on the perimeter of their ponds to take advantage of the water that seeps from the pond into the surrounding soil. In areas without adequate irrigation and in drought-prone agro-ecological zones, ponds are an especially important source of water (Pant et al. 2004;Mamun et al. 2011). In addition, farmers often use excess pond silt as a fertilizer and apply it directly to boost crop production (Oribhabor and Ansa 2006;Mamun et al. 2011).Furthermore, vegetable waste is, in some cases, reclaimed to assist fish production (Mamun et al. 2011). In northeast Thailand, cassava leaves, banana leaves and stems were just some of the recorded vegetable and crop by-products applied to ponds (Pant et al. 2004). Research from Pant et al. (2004) in northeast Thailand reported that over 50% of the 234 IAA practicing households interviewed applied crop by-products to their ponds. Similarly, in both Javanese pekarangan and Vietnamese IAA systems, vegetables from the garden are used as feed for fish and livestock in addition to being sold and consumed by humans (Mohri et al. 2013).The identified literature suggests that IAA systems, when compared to commercially oriented monocropping, are generally beneficial for soil conservation, biodiversity, livelihoods, household food and nutrition security.The identified articles discuss these benefits, though they refer broadly about the system-based benefits rather than distinguishing the advantages of integrating fish with RTB crops in particular. Just a few of the identified documents outline the suspected nutritional benefits of IAA systems compared to the monocropping of rice. However,Vegetables and spices Fish pond Source: Adapted from Mohri et al. 2013. since this was not a topic of research it is not evidence-based. The following section also draws upon a wider set of published literature to discuss the potential benefits and challenges of integrated fish-RTB systems, though it is limited to discussing the benefits for livelihoods and nutrition at the homestead level.A resource management strategy for increased and more stable agricultural incomes Mamun et al. (2011) position IAA as a \"resource management strategy\" as, according to them, diversifying land use through the integration of aquaculture, crops and often livestock optimizes the per unit production. Mohri et al. (2013) found that in Vietnam, garden-pond-livestock systems were more productive than rice monocropping and generated a collective income almost 15 times higher than rice farming.Increases in income are also likely influenced by reductions in the volume and cost of off-farm inputs-a reduction enabled by the reuse of farm wastes and crop by-products (Nagoli et al. 2009). Dey et al. (2010) attributed IAA-associated increases in productivity and profitability, in southern Malawi, to synergistic interactions between various farm enterprises, specifically the use of pond water for the irrigation of crops. They state that this allowed small-scale farmers to increase cropping intensity and enabled farmers to grow higher value crops. For these reasons, IAA is positioned as particularly appropriate for small-scale, poor farmers (Nhan et al. 2007;Ahmed et al. 2014).IAA also ensures a steady food supply and cash income through potentially year-round or \"offseason\" agricultural production (FAO 2000;Nagoli et al. 2009). IAA farmers may be able to exploit seasonally high market prices of agricultural products by selling produce in lean periods. For poor farmers, especially, diversifying production is said to reduce the risk from diseases, water quality, price fluctuations and low profit margins that are often associated with stand-alone fish farms (FAO 2000;Prein 2002;Little and Edwards 2003;Sibhatu et al. 2015). However, there is a lack of large-scale, quantitative data to triangulate these accounts.In home gardens, IAA is expected to increase the availability of high-value animal protein, improve food security by somewhat addressing seasonal \"lean\" periods in food supply, contribute to dietary diversity, and thus improve the nutritional status of people in farming households.Numerous studies have recorded greater fish consumption associated with the adoption of aquaculture into agricultural systems at the homestead level. Jahan and Pemsl (2011) studied the impact of long-term IAA training in Bangladesh and found that the average per capita consumption of fish, vegetables and potato increased significantly during the project period and that increases in the consumption of these foods were not matched in control households. Similarly, Brummett and Jamu (2011) detail a 208% increase in fresh fish consumption and a 21% increase in dried fish consumption as an outcome of IAA adoption in Malawi. Moreover, Ahmed and Garnett (2011), outlined the dietary benefits of shifting from rice monoculture to integrated rice-fish farming in Bangladesh, and claimed that integrated rice fields contributed to a greater balance in household diets and consumption of fish (Ahmed and Garnett 2011). In addition, Mohri et al. (2013) expressed the importance of the food produced in home gardens during \"lean\" periods when there is a general decrease in the amount of food and financial resources available.Although these studies record an increase in fish consumption, they do not specify important parameters such as the size or species of the fish being consumed. As the nutritional value of a fish depends on the size, species and the way it is prepared, cooked and consumed, the nutritional benefits associated with increased fish consumption are varied.Agricultural diversification is believed to contribute to dietary diversity through both subsistencebased and income-generating pathways (Jones 2017). Dietary diversity is defined as \"the number of different foods or food groups consumed over a given reference period\" (Ruel 2003). Adequate dietary diversity is a key component of healthy diets and is associated with nutrient adequacy as the consumption of a variety of foods is necessary to meet essential nutrient requirements (Ruel 2002). Dietary diversity has been shown to be positively associated with (1) the micronutrient adequacy of the diet of both breastfed and nonbreastfed children, adolescents and adults; (2) the nutritional status of children under 5 years old and women (United Nations Standing Committee on Nutrition: Task Force on Assessment n.d.); and (3) child growth in a number of studies in developing countries (Ruel 2002).A lack of diversity in diets is an issue among poor populations, particularly in low-income countries (Arimond and Ruel 2004). For most poor people in low-income countries, their diet consists predominantly of starchy staples, generally few or no animal-source foods and few or only seasonal fruits and vegetables (Arimond and Ruel 2004). Such a diet tends to be low in a number of micronutrients, and in plant-based diets specifically, the micronutrients present are often in forms that are not easily absorbed (Ruel 2003). As such, various health and nutritionfocused international development organizations, including Helen Keller International (HKI), have designed nutrition-sensitive agricultural programs to encourage homestead production diversity with the goal to improve the consumption of a greater variety of fruits, vegetables and animalsource foods (Helen Keller International n.d.; Olney et al. 2009).IAA systems, specifically diversified production, on smallholder farms are widely perceived as a useful approach to improve dietary diversity, both directly and indirectly (Prein and Ahmed 2000;Sibhatu 2015). In brief, it is hypothesized that a smallholder that produces a greater variety of agricultural products is more likely to \"directly\" consume a greater variety of these products grown on-farm, based on the assumption that households set aside at least a proportion of their agricultural produce for their own consumption.The various food crops, fruits, vegetables and animal-source foods produced in Javanese home gardens, for example, provide households with a diverse source of carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and minerals (Mohri et al. 2013). Expanded income from the sale of a diversified set of agricultural products is also believed to indirectly contribute to increased dietary diversity as households can also purchase diverse foods from the market with this income (Sibhatu 2015).According to Prein and Ahmed (2000), studies to assess the contribution of IAA systems to improved food and nutrition security were initiated about two decades ago, and a number of studies have been conducted since. However, as reported by Sibhatu et al. (2015), empirical evidence on the relationship between production diversity and consumption diversity specifically remains relatively scarce. According to Sibhatu et al. (2015), on-farm production diversity is positively associated with dietary diversity in some situations, and the direction and strength of the relationship is situation-specific. In a relatively recent published review paper, Jones (2017) found that 90% of the 21 identified studies examining the association between agricultural biodiversity and nutritional outcomes observed a positive association between agricultural biodiversity and dietary diversity. However, they note that the magnitude of this association is small-just a one unit increase in crop species richness was associated with a 0.01 to 0.25 unit increase in the number of food groups consumed by households (Jones 2017).Production diversity versus market diversity Sibhatu et al. (2015) suggest that additional factors, such as market access, also have positive effects on dietary diversity-perhaps even a larger effect than on-farm production diversity. They also argue the idea that on-farm production diversity will inevitably lead to increased dietary diversity is too simplistic, because it assumes that the farm provides all, or at least a greater, supply of household food than the market. They also claim that households with higher incomes have more diverse diets than subsistence farms, on average, as they have greater financial access to a diverse range of foods from the market, and the market is believed to provide more diverse foods than any individual household can produce. As a result, Sibhatu et al. (2015) propose that the commercialized production of cash crops and cash earnings from off-farm activities contribute to dietary diversity and that this diversity acquired from the market cannot be fully substituted through diverse subsistence production. In their opinion, increasing the nutritional status of poor households, in low-income countries, more likely requires interventions that facilitate market access rather than promoting further production diversification. However, the role of production diversity versus market diversity is widely debated (Bellon et al. 2016).The adoption of IAA is not without challenges. IAA is widely regarded as \"knowledge-intensive\" as successful application largely requires technical knowledge of the production system (Little and Edwards 2003;Tran et al. 2013;Limbu et al. 2017). This is particularly true for those who do not already have a pond. In addition, introducing fish culture to traditionally crop-based home gardens can potentially increase workloads for certain family members (Little and Edwards 2003). In many situations, women bear a disproportionate burden of on-farm labor, particularly where more labor is required for tasks that are predominantly considered as roles for women, such as sowing, harvesting and fertilizer application, though these vary in different societal contexts (Setboonsarg 2002;Halbrendt et al. 2014). As a result, interventions must consider the potentially uneven labor-related impacts of IAA for women and men.Residues from crop harvests, which can be used as pond inputs, might only be available at specific times of the year, although they are required for the duration of fish production. In addition, the period when the crop residues are available may not appropriately synchronize with fish production cycles or seasons (Prein 2002).As Prein (2002) explains, small-scale rural farms are often fragmented. Homesteads, fish ponds and crop plots can be based at different locations and are not necessarily located within a convenient proximity of one another for easy transport of crop residues, kitchen waste and manure to the pond, or vice versa. This makes dynamic interactions between agricultural subsystems difficult.The following section presents a case study of integrated homestead production of fish and RTB crops in northeast Bangladesh. There are nearly 10 million people living in Sylhet Division, and 68% live below the international poverty line of USD 1.25 a day (WorldFish 2017a).The scale of poverty in this area is just one of the factors believed to contribute to the prevalence of chronic undernutrition and exceptionally high rates of infant and under-5 mortality-55 and 67 per 1000 children, respectively, in 2014 (NIPORT et al. 2016). The limited availability and affordability of land and food also contribute to the poor nutritional status of households in the region (WorldFish 2017a). Even though nutritious foods are available locally, they are not necessarily affordable, especially for the poorest households (Ferdous et al. 2016;WorldFish 2017a). While subsistence-based food production can provide a direct and low-cost source of nutritious foods, there is reportedly little homestead vegetable, fish and poultry production in the division, so households tend to rely heavily on the staple food, rice. As a result, diets are visibly low in diversity and often lack nutritional quality (WorldFish 2017a). However, traditional food habits also restrict diets (Thilsted and Wahab 2014). According to Ferdous et al. (2016), average consumption of vegetables and fruits in Bangladesh, assessed at 126 g/capita/ day, is far below the minimum recommended daily consumption of 400 g/capita/day.Under the Suchana project, consortium partners are promoting the homestead production and consumption of micronutrient-rich small fish and vitamin A-rich OFSP.Fish and vegetable cultivation on homesteads in Bangladesh is of particular significance, with about 62% of farmers characterized as landless (Ferdousy et al. 2018). The size of home gardens in Bangladesh ranges from 0.004 to 0.08 ha.Although relatively small, they can be highly productive and contribute significantly to household food security (Ferdousy et al. 2018). Moreover, as women are the main caretakers of home gardens in Bangladesh, homestead-based interventions are said to have \"empowering\" impacts for rural women, given that they are at least gender-sensitive 2 (Ferdousy et al. 2018).In 2017, during Phase 1, a total of 12,166 households received support on nutritionsensitive fish production and vegetable gardening (WorldFish 2018). The support included skills training, providing inputs such as fingerlings, feed, seeds and fertilizer, facilitating supply chain interactions and market engagements (WorldFish n.d.).In an interview with a project participant, in the Sadar subdistrict of Sylhet, consumption of fish was reported as six times a week (SSUCH17). Mola carplet (Amblypharyngodon mola) cultured in the homestead pond, along with tilapia and various species of carp, are regularly harvested by women for household consumption using a gill net. Mola carplet, when eaten whole, has great potential to reduce micronutrient deficiencies (Keus et al. 2017). However, the market price of micronutrientrich, small indigenous fish species, such as mola carplet, is generally high, in comparison to larger and more commonly cultured species, such as pangas (Pangasius spp.) (MFSHM09). This somewhat highlights the value of nutritionsensitive homestead fish production as a direct and relatively cheap source of micronutrients.Before the implementation of the Suchana project, households in the region mostly produced and consumed a local white variety of sweetpotato (SSUCH15). Through the Suchana project, consortium partners introduced the nutritionally superior OFSP varieties to project households. Planted from October and harvested before the end of April, OFSP mostly grows in sandy soil on riverside embankments locally known as chor land (SBARI13; SSAU14). OFSP, in addition to its nutritional quality, is a relatively low-cost, lowmaintenance and resilient crop (SBARI13; RBARI05; CIP23). That makes it suitable for the home gardens of micronutrient-deficient, poor households.OFSP grown by project households is mostly kept for family consumption, though some of the harvest is gifted to neighbors and relatives (SSUCH15). The OFSP root is commonly consumed boiled, fried, steamed or cooked under hot coals (SSUCH15). The leaves of the plant, which are rich in vitamin, minerals, essential fatty acids and protein, are also consumed. The leaves can be harvested for consumption throughout the growing period (SSUCH16).A wild variety of taro was also observed growing on the dike of ponds among Suchana households, along with some bananas.(SSUCH15; SSUCH17). In fact, this is something that was observed on pond dikes more widely in Rangpur and Sylhet divisions (Plate 1).The stolon, leaves, rhizome and stem of the taro plant are all edible (Kawochar et al. 2014), though the stolon and leaves are more commonly consumed by households and can be harvested starting from about two months after planting (SSUCH15; SSUCH17; SSUCH18; CIP23). One household reported consumption of the stolon and leaves on a weekly basis (SSUCH17), though the plant is consumed less frequently by other households, roughly once a month (SSUCH15).However, papaya trees and winter vegetables, such as gourd, are more commonly grown on pond dikes than RTB crops (MBFRI12). According to a representative from the BFRI and a professor from the BAU, the concept of pond dike cropping is more popular in the Khulna region. In part, this is because a large proportion of the land in this region is saline and unsuitable for agricultural production and that pond dikes provide an elevated growing area unaffected by increasingly saline soil conditions (MBAU10). As a result, most new ponds being constructed, regardless of their size and market orientation, are built with wider dikes to plant crops (MBAU10).Nevertheless When considering IAA as a \"synergistic\" farm system (characterized by by-product recycling and reuse, for instance), the application of this label to all home garden systems in Bangladesh is somewhat problematic. While some households reported recycling cattle dung and kitchen waste for agricultural production, there were less obvious interactions between aquaculture ponds and other farm subsystems.Cattle dung is applied to the land when it is being prepared for planting (SSUCH15). As the quality of pond sediment is deemed inferior, it not used Plate 1. Fish pond with wild varieties of taro and banana growing on a pond dike in Rangpur Division, Bangladesh.Plate 2. Banana leaves laid to protect roots and gourd saplings from pests and heavy rainfall, Rangpur Division, Bangladesh.in the same manner. Kitchen waste, including vegetable peels and cooked rice, is in some cases also used as compost and applied to homestead vegetable gardens (SSUCH17). Alternatively, kitchen waste is fed to cattle, along with excess sweetpotato and banana leaves gathered from plants growing on pond dikes (MRICE08; SOFSP19; SSUCH15; RFING01). In one household, banana leaves were laid over the top of the roots (Plate 2) to protect gourd seedlings and plant roots from heavy rainfall, pests and poultry (SSUCH17). Banana leaves play an additional role as feed in grass carp production. According to one fish farmer in Mymensingh, banana leaves are applied to the pond, with grass cuttings, every 10 to 15 days (MRICE08).Similarly, though not evident through publications, key informants interviewed in Bangladesh reported that farmers occasionally feed potato to fish (RBARI05; CIP23). More specifically, farmers are known to boil old potato, harvested in the previous year and not consumed before the new harvest period and then feed them to fish, poultry and cattle (RBARI05; CIP23). In addition, semiautomated fish feed producers, who produce on a small-scale with basic technologies (mostly for personal use) are said to include potato in the same manner in their fish feed when the market price for potato is low (prices are generally low during the harvesting period in February when the market is saturated (WFMAM22)). Nevertheless, broken rice and rice bran are more commonly included as a source of carbohydrates in the composition of homemade fish feed as they are cheap and can be bought directly from rice mills (WFMAM22).Broadly, it was reported that these \"synergistic\" practices are not as popular as they were 20 years ago (WFBEN21; WFMAM22). People are thought to have acquired better management practices and use improved and more efficient technology and inputs to increase production (WFMAM22).Seemingly, the practice of recycling kitchen waste, garden waste and manure, for instance, is perceived as \"backward, \" a thing of the past, and is actually discouraged by most aquaculture extension officers (WFBEN21; WFMAM22; MBFRI12).The application of kitchen waste, garden waste and manure to homestead ponds is not only discouraged because of their production-related inferiority to compound feed and chemical fertilizers, but also because households are said to use pond water as a drinking water source. There is little information regarding the magnitude of this practice, though Benneyworth et al. (2016) in their study in coastal, southwest Bangladesh found that fish or shrimp pond water was a source of drinking water for 20% of the 200 households interviewed. The application of cattle dung in this case is particularly worrisome as zoonotic pathogens may spread in the treated water, and drinking or bathing with this water may cause illness such as diarrhea (Penakalapati et al. 2017).Semi-automated feed producers are feasibly more likely to include excess homestead produce in their feed because they produce on a much smaller scale than commercial enterprises. However, they receive very little financial and programmatic support to improve the quality of their feed (WFMAM22). Instead, pond owners, regardless of the scale of their aquaculture operations, are encouraged by government and the majority of programmatic extension officers to purchase commercial feed. Although more efficient in terms of fish growth rates, etc., this feed is expensive. In Bangladesh, feed can account for as much as 70% of the cost of production (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013).The increasing popularity of commercial feed in Bangladesh is also influenced by the persuasiveness of the feed sector. According to one key informant, the commercial fish feed sector in Bangladesh is quite domineering and arguably uses its relatively powerful position to influence pond owners to purchase commercial compound feed (MBFRI12). In addition, many feed dealers allow pond owners to purchase feed on credit, which, while perhaps well-intended and beneficial for some, could easily \"lock\" others into an agreement, possibly with unfavorable de facto terms and conditions that may not be optimal in the long term. This practice of fish feed on credit in Bangladesh is recorded by Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al.(2013) and is reported to occur in other countries, such as Egypt (El-Sayed et al. 2015, Kleih et al. 2013).RTB crops are grown in IAA systems globally, but it is difficult to uncover the nature of and extent to which RTB crops are cultivated under such systems. In numerous cases in which fishcrop farming is featured, authors have failed to specify which crops or vegetables they refer to.Nevertheless, the featured literature suggests that IAA systems, when compared to commercially oriented monocropping, are generally beneficial for soil conservation, biodiversity, livelihoods, household food and nutrition security. However, these publications talk broadly about IAA systems benefits, rather than distinguishing the advantages of integrating fish with RTB crops. Further research is required to discern the value of this integration at the homestead level.The literature suggests that synergistic relationships between agricultural systems at the homestead level is common, especially in South and Southeast Asia. In Bangladesh, preliminary evidence suggests that while fish are often cultivated in homestead gardens alongside banana and cocoyam, the characteristic reuse and recycling of agricultural by-products are rare. It is perceived as \"backward\" and actually discouraged by agricultural extension service providers. More rigorous research is needed on the suitability and acceptance of this practice in different contexts.Like other animals, fish require adequate levels of energy, carbohydrates, protein, fiber, fat, vitamins and minerals for metabolism, growth and development (NRC 1993 and2011). Under semi-intensive and intensive culture conditions, naturally occurring food sources such as phytoplankton provide fish, especially those stocked at high densities, with insufficient nutrients. For an aquaculture venture to be viable, it is necessary to feed cultured fish with formulated or compound feeds (NRC 2011).Feeding regimes vary according to the nutritional requirements of the species under culture, the size and age of the fish, and the level of intensity of the production (Lall and Dumas 2015). It is recommended that tilapia feeding regimes follow a feeding rate of 2%-8% bodyweight, depending on the stage of growth (Kenya Bureau of Standards 2015). On the other hand, African catfish cultivated under intensive conditions can be fed up to six times per day (FAO 2007b).Compound feeds allow farmers to increase stocking density, increase yield, shorten cultivation periods by promoting faster growth (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013;Li and Robinson 2015;Solomon et al. 2015), so the importance of compound feeds depends on the desired intensity of aquaculture practice.To function effectively, compound feeds must contain all essential nutrients. According to Lawal et al. (2014, 221), \"The dietary requirements of cultured fish are probably the most important factor influencing the success of any fish farming enterprise. \"Fish diets generally contain variable amounts of carbohydrates, which act as the most inexpensive source of energy (Arthur and Phillips 1972; Lall and Dumas 2015), though carbohydrates are also used for their binding properties (Lall and Dumas 2015). Nevertheless, the amount of carbohydrates included in the diet depends on the fish species and their ability to digest carbohydrates.Digestibility is also significantly affected by the size and age of the fish, even within the same species (Lall and Dumas 2015). Commonly used energy sources in feed formulation include maize, potato, rice bran, wheat, soybean, sorghum, corn and cassava (Boyd 2015).Maize is popularly included in fish feed as it is readily available and easily digested by most commercial fish species (Abu et al. 2010b). In sub-Saharan Africa, maize constitutes about 10%-40% by weight of most commercial aquaculture feeds (Lukuyu et al. 2014). It is widely used, but is problematic because both humans and animals (including livestock) consume these energy sources. This results in competition, which is exacerbated by growing human populations and the increased scope and intensity of the aquaculture industry (Lawal et al. 2014). In several regions of the world, there is a shortage of cereals (Lukuyu et al. 2014). For example, in Nigeria maize is consumed in traditional dishes such as ogi and tuwo (Udo and Umanah. 2017). According to Abu et al. (2010), the cost of maize is increasingly prohibitive and the price fluctuates regularly.Fish require a significant amount of protein and vary according to the species. Carnivorous species such as catfish require higher levels of protein for growth and development (Mertz 1972;Oliva-Teles et al. 2015). Furthermore, the age of a fish affects its protein requirement. Fry and fingerlings require higher levels of protein for optimum development, whereas, \"growers\" and \"broodfish\" require less (Kenya Bureau of Standards 2015). Subsequently, the crude protein content of pelleted aquaculture feed ranges from 25% to 55% (Boyd 2015).Currently, protein for global commercial feed production is primarily obtained from animal sources, mostly fish (Boyd 2015). FAO (2007) reports that the Vietnamese aquaculture industry uses about 62,500 t of fishmeal per year. In most sub-Saharan African countries, aquafeed formulations commonly rely on imported fishmeal to provide the majority of the necessary dietary protein (FAO 2007b). Fishmeal is often composed of fish from marine trawlers or fish processing enterprises and commonly contains small, pelagic, oceanic fish, such as herring, anchovy and sardine (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013;Boyd 2015).According to Gatlin et al. (2007) and Oliva-Teles et al. ( 2015) fishmeal is popularly used because of its high protein quality (amino acid profile) and palatability. As a result, the demand for fishmeal has increased. The use of fishmeal in increasingly intensive aquaculture production systems has also increased and placed additional pressure on already overexploited wild fishstocks, a global concern, and elevated competition with human wild caught fish consumption (Ibiyo and Olowosegun 2005; Boyd 2015). The favorability and increased scarcity of fishmeal have affected its price. In fact, the high costs of fishmeal (up to USD 1210/t, in 2008 (Rana et al. 2009)) is in part responsible for the high costs of fish feed (Lukuyu et al. 2014). Lawal et al. (2012) reported that in Africa, fish feed accounts for about 60% of the total cost of fish production. Moreover, commercial feeds are too expensive for many small-scale aquaculture farmers, which reportedly limits their ability to intensify aquaculture production (Aya 2017).Fats and oils form another major component of aquafeed and affects the quality and palatability of the feed. Fats and oils complement carbohydrates and proteins as an energy source, while providing essential fatty acids for optimal growth and development of the fish (Lee and Sinnhuber 1972).Vitamins are also required, though in smaller quantities for optimum growth, health (disease prevention) and reproduction (Halver 1972). Minerals, also in comparatively small quantities, are necessary for metabolism and skeletal development (NRC 1993).Since the mid-1980s, fish nutritionists have explored the effectiveness of incorporating \"nonconventional\" protein and energy sources into fish feed for use in aquaculture. According to Oliva-Teles et al. (2015), reducing aquafeed dependency on fishmeal and fish oil is important. This research is commonly rationalized by the high costs of fish feed, especially the cost of conventional animal protein such as fishmeal, and commonly used energy sources such as maize, which is an issue seemingly experienced in numerous countries. In aquaculture, feed accounts for 50%-70% of the production cost (Rana et al. 2009;Tshinyama et al. 2018). The price of most common feed ingredients is a function of global availability and exchange rates (FAO 2007b;El-Sayed et al. 2015). As such, according to FAO (2007) the global market price of soybean meal increased dramatically from USD 92/t in 2000 to USD 221/t in just 3 years. The prices of feed commodities are expected to increase even further, in part from climate-induced erratic supplies. Nevertheless, the prices of feed commodities are highly variable among countries and vary seasonally within countries (FAO 2007b).Dependencies on imported feed ingredients and/ or commercially produced feed also influence the prohibitive prices of fish feed. According to FAO (2007), Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Uganda and Zambia were all, at this time, net importers of fishmeal and/or fish oil. In 2000, over 80% of the fishmeal available for use in Nigeria was imported, mainly from Denmark and Norway (Fagbenro and Adebayo 2005), whereas in Egypt, between 50% and 90% of aquaculture feed ingredients are imported (El-Sayed 2015). This shows the importance of finding cheap, optimum performing, regionally available alternatives (Tshinyama et al. 2018).Some non-conventional plant and animal protein sources explored in the literature include groundnut meal (Tram et al. 2011)  (Sutriana 2007) and sweetpotato leaves (Adewolu 2008). Several non-conventional energy sources were identified to replace maize, and they include sweetpotato meal (Olukunle 2006), cassava root meal (Abu et al. 2010), banana peel (Lawal et al. 2014), cocoyam meal (Aderolu et al. 2009), yam peel (Lawal et al. 2012), cowpea, waterleaf, sugarcane fiber and palm kernel cake (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013). Fish nutritionists have selected these feed ingredients for trials based on a variety of desirable characteristics, including their noncompetitiveness, nutritional content, low prices and regular availability in the local context.It has been suggested that many RTB crop residues, by-products and wastes can be appropriately developed as components of aquaculture feeds (Lukuyu et al. 2014), particularly by-products, such as peels and leaves, because they are non-competitive, regularly available and easily accessed at low prices (Lukuyu et al. 2014). Abu et al. (2010b) reported that cassava root meal is of comparable quality as an energy source and also cheaper and more readily available than maize in Nigeria. Furthermore, Solomon et al. (2015) reported that sweetpotato peel contains important micronutrients, such as vitamins B and C as well as iron. In addition, plant leaves such as cassava and sweetpotato leaves, are high in protein, fiber, vitamins and minerals (Olusola and Olaifa 2018). Plant leaves are also said to be the cheapest potential source of protein (Olusola and Olaifa 2018). Sweetpotato leaf meal is reported to have a high protein content, high amino acid score and contains vitamins A, B2, C and E (Adewolu 2008). It can also be harvested many times throughout the year, though it is generally unavailable in large commercial quantities (Gabriel et al. 2007;Adewolu 2008). Moreover, root and tuber crops, such as cassava, are highly resilient.Many can be grown in poor soil conditions and survive long periods of water deficit, which are invaluable characteristics in the face of a changing climate (Mzengereza et al. 2014, Prain andNaziri 2020). The \"hardiness\" of these crops is likely to stabilize their price and market supply, making them more attractive to rely upon than conventional crops, such as maize.Literature review findings: Roots, tubers and bananas as fish feedResearch on the integration of RTB crops in fish feed over the past decade and half has been dominated by quantitative laboratory-based feed trials (16 out of the 27 reviewed papers). The majority of these trials explored the incorporation of cassava or sweetpotato in feed fed to tilapia or catfish (Table 3). These studies were designed to investigate the effects of replacing a percentage of conventional protein or energy sources with RTB crops on primarily growth performance and feed use. The results of the feeding trials are not easily summarized, since most of the studies varied according to the crop, crop part, fish species, age of the fish, or the processing techniques applied to the feed ingredients. In general, however, it seems that maize or fishmeal can, to a degree, be replaced effectively by the trialled RTB crop residues and leaves. In fact, only one study (Lawal et al. 2012) concluded that it was not favorable to replace maize in the diet of catfish fingerlings. However, multiple studies found that replacement was only effective in terms of growth performance, when comparing the trial diet to the conventional control diet, up to a certain replacement level (10%-75%). Adewolu (2008)    2010b) went one step further and conducted a cost-benefit analysis of replacing conventional energy sources with non-conventional whole cassava root meal. They concluded that whole cassava root meal can replace maize in the diet of hybrid catfish effectively, with higher net profits, up to 100%. But the highest profit was achieved by selling fish fed a diet with a replacement level of just 66%. Therefore, while RTB-based replacements in general may not perform as well as conventional feed ingredients, such as maize or fishmeal, they might still make business sense to replace these conventional feedstuffs, in the case of hybrid catfish, according to Abu et al. (2010b). However, the study they carried out was specific to the hybrid catfish species and also specific to conditions in Nigeria. Since commodity prices vary regionally, largely because of the regional availability of a crop, these findings are not universally representative.Further research needs to be conducted in this area before generalizations can be made.Researchers based in Nigeria conducted a large proportion of the identified feeding trials (10 out of 16) (Table 4). The following section attempts to broaden the discussion to understand the motivations for this research by situating this regional focus on non-conventional fish feed ingredients within the Nigerian agri-food systems context. Currently, catfish (Clarias spp.) dominate the aquaculture sector, followed by tilapia (Hemichromis spp. and Oreochromis spp.), and are cultivated on small-to medium-scale 3 farms. The majority of these operations are in the South, South West and North Central regions of the country (FAO 2007a), though there are a few, and a growing number of large-scale intensively managed fish farms (Miller and Atanda 2011).Nigeria is the largest aquaculture producer in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2018). Yet, the scale of production today is still considered low in relation to its potential. According to Igoni-Egweke (2018), less than 1% of the freshwater and just 0.05% of the brackish water identified as suitable for fish cultivation are currently being used for aquaculture. Growth in the sector is still inhibited by the high cost of inputs (feed and fingerlings), lack of affordable credit for fish farmers, poor management skills and ineffective aquaculture extension services (Igoni-Egweke 2018).In Nigeria, the aquaculture industry used an estimated 35,570 t of feed in 2000 (Udo and Umanah 2017). However, poor feed quality, scarcity and the high cost of compound feeds remain major obstacles to aquaculture development (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013).Globally, average feed costs often account for over 50% of the variable costs of an aquaculture enterprise (NRC 2011). In Nigeria, feed costs are reported to vary from 61% to 80% of total production costs, depending on the location and type of production system (Adeoye et al. 2012;Omobepade et al. 2015;Igoni-Egweke 2018).Feed is reported to be an especially costly input in intensive catfish culture because catfish requires a diet high in protein, and conventional sources of protein, particularly fishmeal, are generally expensive (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013).The high reported costs of compound feeds are ascribed to the cost of raw materials, which in some instances are imported (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013). Consequently, fish feed prices often depend on fluctuating international commodity markets (FAO 2007b).Soybean and fishmeal are major sources of protein in commercial feed in Nigeria, and both are mostly imported since national production fails to meet demand. In 2000, over 55,000 t of fishmeal were imported, mostly from Denmark and Norway (Fagbenro andAdebayo 2005 cited in FAO 2007b). In 2004, 550,000 t of soybean meal were imported to meet consumer demand (FAO 2007b). In the same period, Nigeria also imported fishmeal at the cost of USD 870-1350/t (FAO 2007b). The high costs of importing feed ingredients are reflected in high fish feed prices.Over the past decade, the cost of raw materials, particularly fishmeal, maize and soybean have also increased. As a result, the price of fish feed has risen drastically, as much as 80% in Lagos State, according to Udo and Umanah (2017).Commercial feeds are also imported in large volumes. Evidence suggests that over 53% of fish farmers in Nigeria use imported feeds, either in combination with locally pelleted feeds or exclusively (Udo and Umanah 2017). An estimated 75% of the sector's total fish feed requirement is imported (Udo and Umanah 2017).The fish feed industry and technology are still poorly developed in Nigeria, as across most of the African continent (Gabriel et al. 2007). The feed industry is mostly set up for poultry feed production. In 2001, only a few of the 620 feed mills in Nigeria produced compound feed for fish (FAO 2007b). FAO (2007b) reported that there were just 10 feed production plants dedicated to manufacturing fish feed at the time of their study. Many of these plants were located in the southwest of Nigeria, such as Lagos, Ibadan and Ilorin. However, the number of fish feed manufacturers has undoubtedly risen in response to the boom in commercial fish farming (Udo and Umanah 2017), as evidenced by the increased quantity of fish feed produced. An estimated 636,000 t of compound fish feed were produced in Nigeria in 2015 as compared to 35,750 t produced in the 2000-2001 fiscal year (FAO 2007b; Udo and Umanah 2017). More and more domestic animal feed millers are producing fish feeds, and some even offer compounding services to farmers who are prepared to self-formulate their feeds (Udo and Umanah 2017). However, the scale of domestic feed production fails to meet the demand from the rapidly growing aquaculture industry.Because of their prevalence in the Nigerian food systems, RTB crop products and residues, such as cassava peel and sweetpotato, have been identified as priority non-conventional fish feed ingredients for future development.Major root and tuber crops grown in Nigeria include cassava, sweetpotato, yams and cocoyams (Iyagba 2010).  In Nigeria, cassava is processed into a variety of primary and secondary products. Substantial quantities of cassava peels and leaves are rejected as by-products from the growing primary production enterprises in Nigeria (Lukuyu et al. 2014).In Nigeria, cassava is processed to produce garri 6 , fufu, ethanol, flour and starch, which are used in food products such as bread and biscuit as well as non-food products, including adhesives and pharmaceutical products (Onyenwoke and Simonyan 2014). Garri is a quick and easy to cook convenience food in Nigeria, and competes with rice and staple cereals such as maize, because of its low price, convenience and storability (Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). To produce garri, cassava roots are peeled, grated, fermented and roasted. As part of this process, the cassava peels, an estimated 15% of the whole root, are discarded (Agboola 2019) (Plate 3).Similarly, waste products are produced during the stages of ethanol, flour and starch production. In 2015, there were three large-scale processors in Nigeria and over 100 high quality cassava flour (HQCF) processors. The two largest plants are capable of processing more than 45 t of HQCF per day (Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). Presumably large quantities of by-products are also available at these locations.As much as 6 million t/year of cassava peels, leaves and pulp are discarded by the starch and garri processing sectors (FAO 2007b;Lukuyu et al. 2014).There is no more recent nationally representative data on the quantity of cassava by-products generated. This figure is likely to have increased following government efforts to develop the cassava sector and reduce reliance on imported foods (UNIDO 2006).Sweetpotato is still considered a minor crop in Nigeria despite its reputation as the third-largest producer in the world (Ahmad et al. 2014). It is extensively cultivated in the tropical North Central and South West regions (Sanusi et al. 2016). However, the level of production remains relatively low as compared to cassava (Udemezue et al. 2018). According to Adewumi and Adebayo (2008), there is a lack of awareness of the commercial value and nutrition security benefits of sweetpotato, so the crop has not been exploited to its full potential. Unlike cassava, sweetpotato is consumed in limited forms-50% of sweetpotato produced in Nigeria is either boiled or fried for consumption (Odebode et al. 2008). Processing sweetpotato is generally performed by processors at a small-scale level, such as household producers and consumers, so the scale of sweetpotato by-products is very small compared to that of cassava. However, recent efforts to promote the sweetpotato industry have resulted in the development of sweetpotato garri, also known as sparri (Yusuf et al. 2017). If this product is widely embraced, its production could result in a more centralized and perhaps greater availability of sweetpotato peels and rejected roots.In 2017, Nigeria produced over 47 million t of yam and about 3 million t of cocoyam. Like sweetpotato, yam is also predominantly produced in the Southern and the North Central regions of the country (Agboola et al. 2019). Despite the seemingly large volume of yams produced per year, production has not increased with population growth, so demand exceeds supply (Ibok et al. 2015). The culture system for yam is also highly labor intensive, and rural labor is generally scarce and expensive. These two factors have resulted in high market prices, rendering yam a luxury food rather than a staple, especially in urban areas (Toba 2014). Yam production is also reportedly hindered by diseases, limited storage infrastructure, a lack of affordable credit for farmers and insufficient market information (Toba 2014).Similar to cassava, yam is also processed into chips, flour and flakes. Processing the yam tuber into chips is generally done by peeling, washing, chipping and then drying. This increases the shelf life, storability and marketing potential of the crop (Omohimi et al. 2018). Yam chips and flour are commonly sold in markets in the South West zone (Omohimi et al. 2018), though according to Omohimi et al. (2018) yam flakes are mostly found in markets within close proximity to the place of production. Yam flour, which can be purchased directly or produced from the chips, is commonly used to make amala, a porridgelike food mothers in the South West zone use to feed infants (Omohimi et al. 2018). However, processing is mostly undertaken at small-scale level only, so the by-products, such as leaves and peels, that could be used in aquafeed (if households themselves have not already used them) are dispersed among scattered rural yam producers (Omohimi et al. 2018).Banana and plantain production in Nigeria is concentrated in the south (Akinyemi et al. 2017). Plantain in the South West zone are processed into products such as plantain chips, plantain flour, plantain balls and biscuits. Large amounts of peel are likely discarded by the reportedly small-scale processing enterprises, though information on available quantity is unavailable (Adeoye et al. 2013).Available literature suggests that smallholders somewhat use RTB crops or by-products to feed their livestock. Small-scale farmers use cassava, yam, plantain, banana and sweetpotato byproducts-peels, leaves and other residues (often when blended with other ingredients)-to feed sheep, goats and poultry (UNIDO 2006;Agboola et al. 2019). As Adewumi and Adebayo ( 2008) reported, sweetpotato leaves, fresh or in the form of silage, are sometimes fed to livestock.In addition to by-products, livestock keepers and small-scale feed millers also find use for RTB primary products, such as sweetpotato roots, in their operations (Adewumi and Adebayo 2008). These are sometimes cleaned, shredded or sliced and dried before they are fed whole or ground to livestock (Adewumi and Adebayo 2008). Furthermore, Onyenwoke and Simonyan (2014) found that small feed millers use dried cassava chips, which are a primary cassava product, when they are locally available at low prices.Nevertheless, a substantial quantity of cassava peel is discarded because it is considered a low-value feed ingredient for ruminants (Agboola et al. 2019).Although smallholders use RTB crop derivatives to feed livestock, Onyenwoke and Simonyan (2014) report that, at the time of writing, \"no major livestock feed mill uses cassava as a raw material. \" Agboola et al. (2019) suggest that cassava peels sourced locally are also used in aquafeed production, though cassava flour, a primary product, is more commonly used as a source of energy and binding ingredient in farm-made feeds. However, there is a lack of detailed accounts of the inclusion, particularly the scale of inclusion, of cassava primary and by-products in aquafeed.On the other hand, Agboola et al. (2019) report that other RTB by-products, such as cassava leaves, yam peel, cocoyam peel and leaves, are not currently used in aquafeed production. Nevertheless, the current use of RTB by-products in livestock feed is indicative of the potential for the aquafeed sector to make use of these products.Like many low-income food deficit countries, 4  Nigeria has a high prevalence of food and nutrition insecurity (Matemilola and Elegbede 2017). An estimated 58% of households suffer from chronic or transitory food insecurity (Ogundari 2017). In addition, an average of 21.5 million people were classified as undernourished between 2015 and 2017, and 43.6% of children under 5 years of age were classified as stunted in 2016 (FAOSTAT 2017). Nutrient deficiencies can be detrimental to an individual's growth and development, productivity, immune strength, cognitive function and quality of life.Fish is an important animal-source food for many people in Nigeria, because it is often the cheapest and most accessible animal-source food (Bradley et al. in press). Fish consumption is estimated at 13.3 kg/capita/year. This is higher than the regional average for Africa, which is estimated at 9.9 kg/ capita/year, though still considerably lower than the global average of 20.3 kg/capita/year (FAO 2018), so there is space to promote fish consumption to address the aforementioned micronutrient deficiencies. If harnessed, fish can effectively play a key role in attaining food and nutrition security in Nigeria because of its richness in vitamin A, zinc, iron and calcium, essential fatty acids and animal protein (WorldFish 2017b; Bradley et al. in press). However, as is outlined in the previous sections, fish demand currently exceeds supply, and fish production from both capture fisheries and aquaculture is limited by various circumstances, including high cost of production due, in part, to the high costs of fish feed and a reliance on imported fish feed in the aquaculture sector (Miller and Atanda 2011;Omobepade et al. 2015;Igoni-Egweke 2018).Using RTB by-products that are potentially cheap and locally available as aquafeed ingredients could reduce the cost of feed and, therefore, contribute to increasing the accessibility and affordability of fish for human consumption. As the papers reviewed in this report suggest, replacing conventional feed ingredients, such as maize, soybean and fishmeal, with locally available, cheap and comparably nutritious feedstuffs, such as cassava peels could result in greater net profits.In addition, the economic potential and returns might attract additional people to take up fish farming and maybe even prompt the injection of capital, which is another challenge the sector currently faces. A reduction in the cost of fish feed might also allow fish farmers who currently limit their use of high quality commercial feed to the initial stages of cultivation because of financial limitations to extend this period (FAO 2007b). In addition, surplus farm profits could be re-invested to expand operations and ultimately increase fish yield.Protein-rich plant-based feed ingredients, such as sweetpotato and cassava leaves, provide an opportunity to reduce or completely replace the need for fish in fish feed. According to FAO (2007b), approximately 10%-20% of the artisanal and industrial marine and inland fisheries catch is processed into fishmeal along with the waste from the shrimp processing industry (shrimp head and tail). In Nigeria, about 75% of the fishmeal produced domestically is used in aquaculture (Udo and Umanah 2017). For instance, the Clupieds, a small indigenous fish from Lake Kainji, are reportedly sun-dried, pulverised and packaged as fishmeal for commercial use in aquaculture nationwide (FAO 2007a;Akintola and Fakoya 2017). Yet these are one of the most common small fish that people in Nigeria eat, and they are rich in essential nutrients.When eaten whole, they are perhaps more nutritious than the larger fish, such as tilapia, which is popularly stocked in aquaculture ponds. From a nutritional perspective, then, it is better for people to redirect these small fish for consumption rather than for use in the aquaculture industry. Promoting the replacement of fishmeal with protein-rich RTB by-products that do not compete with human consumption would assist with this redirection.It is worth noting, however, that while these changes to the aquaculture sector could theoretically increase the physical availability of fish, this does not necessarily lead to increased consumption. Access to fish for consumption is also influenced by income, geographical location, socioeconomic status and the adequacy of postharvest infrastructure and markets (Bradley et al. in press). Fish consumption is also influenced by complex sociocultural and behavioral factors, including food culture, consumer preferences and perceptions (Onuorah and Ayo 2006). Therefore, a linear, causal relationship between increased production or the physical availability and consumption of fish is difficult to establish.Increased production is just one of a multitude of factors that influence consumption.In addition to the potential improvements to food and nutrition security, exploiting currently underused cassava peel from the cassava processing sector in Nigeria would also have beneficial environmental impacts. Currently, large amounts of cassava peel are carelessly disposed of into the environment, where they are left to rot. These waste heaps emit carbon dioxide, produce a foul smell and may cause surface water pollution (Lukuyu et al. 2014).RTB processing activities are limited by the subsistence nature and seasonality of production. Smallholders grow about 80% of Nigeria's annual cassava yield, and they do so with few technological resources and a heavy reliance on familial labor (Onyenwoke and Simonyan 2014;Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). In southern regions, cassava is sown between March and October and usually harvested a year later. Peak cassava processing periods correspond with these seasons, resulting in a lull in supply between November and February. Mcnulty and Adewale (2015) claim that this inconsistency in the supply of fresh roots limits the scale of cassava processing in Nigeria. This means that most of the medium-to largescale processing sites only operate seasonally (Mcnulty and Adewale 2015), so the production of by-products is likely inconsistent. Government and nongovernmental initiatives could help smooth the supply of cassava (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture n.d.; UNIDO 2006). Among these is the presidential initiative called the Cassava Master Plan, which attempts to improve production technologies, and the efforts of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to develop early maturing and high-yielding cassava varieties. However, further information is needed on the volume of cassava leaves and peels available within the country.Various logistical questions have so far gone unanswered. Currently, poor road and storage infrastructure hinders the distribution of RTB crops from farm to consumer (Onyenwoke and Simonyan 2014;Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). It is unlikely, that the distribution of cassava peel from garri processing sites or cassava leaves from various production areas to feed mills will function without similar challenges. As stated by Agboola (2019), logistics around the collection of relevant cassava by-products need to be organized and should be considered a crucial research action.Conveniently, a large proportion of cassava is grown and processed in the South and North Central zones of the country, which are also where a significant number of fish farms, feed mills and manufacturers is located. This is a favorable circumstance if commercial cassava processors are to be vertically integrated with commercial feed mills or fish feed manufacturers.As suggested by many authors (FAO 2007;Ogugua and Eyo 2007;Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013), it is beneficial to process RTB derivatives, especially leaves, before they are incorporated into fish feed to decrease the fiber content and antinutritional factors. This might require additional or differential technical knowledge, skills, equipment, energy, labor and time resources that are not necessarily locally developed or available. However, manufacturers may consider the additional efforts not worth the savings gained.Additional job opportunities for commercially converting waste to feed could feasibly benefit women who constitute the majority of the workforce in cassava processing units in Nigeria (85% women) (Amole 2016;Okike et al. 2014).Yet such developments should be carefully managed to ensure that working conditions are safe and that women get an equitable compensation for their time and labor.There is also a risk that most of this work associated with the additional processing steps would fall disproportionately on women, especially on-farm operations that rely on unpaid familial labor. More information is needed regarding the role of women in the aquafeed production and supply chain.A brief introduction to aquaculture in BangladeshBangladesh is one of the world's major producers of fish, contributing to the livelihoods and employment of millions of Bangladeshis (Belton et al. 2011). With 4.3 million ha of perennial and seasonal inland waters, 2.5 million ha of coastal lands and a 480 km coastline, Bangladesh has abundant water resources (Zaher and Mazid 1992).For the financial year 2016-2017, over 4.1 billion metric tons of fish were produced in Bangladesh (Department of Fisheries 2017). Aquaculture plays a major and increasing role in total fish production (Hossain 2014), contributing about 56% to total production in 2016-2017 (Department of Fisheries 2017). Commonly cultured fish and other aquatic animal species include Indian major carp species, catfish, snakeheads, various non-native large fish species, small indigenous fish species and crustaceans (Table 6).Aquaculture in Bangladesh started as a low intensity semi-subsistence activity. Over the past 20 years, however, the sector has expanded as a result of rapid commercialization, intensification, specialization and development of input businesses and suppliers-fingerlings and feed specifically (Belton et al. 2011;Belton et al. 2014). At the same time, the use and demand for compound fish feed have increased in reaction to this expansion (Zaher and Mazid 1992). In 1992, the demand for compounded supplementary feeds in aquaculture was very low, between 3000 and 4000 t per year (Zaher and Mazid 1992). Demand for compound feed has increased rapidly since. Between 2008 and 2012, the rate of commercial feed production increased at an average of 32% per year (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013). With increasing demand and market value for fish, more and more farmers are beginning to replace farm-made and raw, unformulated feeds with commercially produced compound feed to increase production (Zaher and Mazid 1992;Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013). In 2012, about 100 commercial feed mills in Bangladesh produced a combined total of 1,070,000 t of formulated aquafeed (Agboola et al. 2019).The intensification of fish production and the subsequent higher demand for compound fish feed have raised a number of issues, including concerns over environmental sustainability, the price of imported feed ingredients, competition between the dominant poultry sector over feed ingredients (particularly maize) and competition between the use of marine fish for human consumption and in aquafeeds (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013).According to Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. ( 2013) Bangladesh produces 50%-55% of the ingredients used in commercial fish feed production, whereas the remainder is imported. Imported raw materials contribute more than 50% to the total cost of commercial feed production in Bangladesh. Feed costs account for 70%-75% of farm operating costs (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013). The main ingredients used for aquafeed production are rice bran, maize, soybean meal, mustard oil cake, fishmeal, meat and bone meal (Table 7) (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013).Rice is the most important crop cultivated in Bangladesh, and rice bran, derived from rice milling, is extensively used for feeding fish because it is cheap and largely available year-round (Zaher and Mazid 1992). Three types of rice bran are used: de-oiled rice bran (a by-product of rice bran oil production), grade A rice bran (which has a high ratio of bran to husk) and grade B rice bran (having a lower ratio of bran to husk than grade A) (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013). Rice bran is derived from the three rice production systems: aus, boro and amon which take place at different times of the year, thereby enabling a continual production of rice and a year-round supply of rice bran (Agboola et al. 2019).The Bangladeshi aquafeed sector has access to large amounts of locally available carbohydrate-high agricultural by-products, which have been successfully incorporated into fish feed. Competition from the poultry and cattle sectors is the only significant threat to the use of rice-based and wheat-based feed ingredients (Agboola et al. 2019).Table 7. Major commercial aquafeed ingredients in Bangladesh.Sources: Agboola et al. 2019;Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013;Zaher and Mazid 1992;Belton et al. 2011;MRICE08;MFEED06. With regard to potentially including RTB crops in fish feed formulations in Bangladesh, potatoand banana-derived by-products present the most practical opportunities, based on the scale of production (Table 8) and associated waste residues. As an energy source, however, they are perhaps not as urgently required in the Bangladeshi context or in comparison to Nigeria.In 2016, Bangladesh produced 9.5 million metric tons of potatoes (Agboola et al. 2019). The crop is extensively cultivated and consumed almost daily by the majority of the population (Sultana et al. 2016). Nevertheless, several metric tons of potatoes are wasted every year because of inadequate storage facilities and oversupply (Sultana et al. 2016;Agboola et al. 2019), and potato peels are often discarded as well.According to Agboola et al. (2019) potato peels contain considerable amounts of nutrients-64.6% total carbohydrates, 13% crude protein, 0.9% crude fat, 12.5% crude fiber and 9% ash -so in theory they could be effectively incorporated into the diets of various fish species. Sultana et al. (2016) previously explored this in relation to the use of potato in poultry rations in Bangladesh and found that potato could effectively replace maize meal with no significant differences in the feed conversion ratio, survivability rate, egg production and egg quality. They also claim that since the annual potato yield in Bangladesh is greater than that of maize (potatoes show higher productivity rates and have a shorter harvesting period) potatoes could play a crucial role in the sustainable development of the poultry sector (Sultana et al. 2016). Strategies such as including unused potatoes and discarded potato peels in aquafeeds needs to be examined (Agboola et al. 2019).According to Agboola (2019), banana peel and leaf could also be included in aquafeed. Bangladesh produces nearly 1 million metric tons of banana annually (Hossain et al. 2016). Substantial quantities of by-products in the form of peel, which make up about 30% of the total banana production, often accompany the consumption and use of banana (Agboola et al. 2019). Ripe banana peel contains 56.5% total carbohydrates, 16.8% crude fiber, 12.1% ash, 7.8% crude fat and 6.8% crude protein (Hossain et al. 2015). This can be converted into chips or other forms before being included into animal feeds, as can banana leaf (another by-product), which can be dried and processed into banana leaf meal and be included in aquafeed (Agboola 2019).Although a substantial amount of the carbohydrate sources in the Bangladeshi aquafeed sector is agricultural by-products and thus do not compete with human consumption, the sector does rely heavily upon fishmeal as the primary source of protein. As such, competition between the use of fish for human consumption and in aquafeeds is likely and problematic, given Bangladesh's human nutrition challenges, but has yet to be explored (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013).  Most feed producers aim to include at least 5% fishmeal, though some companies include much more, such as in floating catfish feed, which is composed of 40% fish. Domestic demand for fishmeal is greater than local supply, so fishmeal is also imported from China, Malaysia and India (Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. 2013;Belton et al. 2011).There is a lack of data available on the quantity of fishmeal produced in Bangladesh and the composition of local fishmeal and its value chain (Agboola et al. 2019). However, local fishmeal is generally said to be manufactured using fish waste, crab and other aquatic animals, though the composition of fishmeal varies greatly, as does the quality (Agboola et al. 2019). According to Mamun-Ur-Rashid et al. ( 2013) chewa (Pseudapocryptes elongates), a small mudskipper that is found in Kuakata, southern Bangladesh and the northern Bay of Bengal, is the highest quality, locally available source of fishmeal, with a 44%-52% crude protein content. Belton et al. (2011) reports that 10 companies use this species as a fishmeal source, though demand for this species exceeds supply.Plant-based feed ingredients, such as mustard oil cake and soybean meal, are commonly incorporated into aquafeed in Bangladesh and are valued for their relatively high protein content as well as total carbohydrate content (Table 9).In 2016, a total of 327,000 t rape and mustard oil cakes were produced nationally, though Bangladesh imported 136,000 t rapeseed meal from India to supplement its local oil cake production (Agboola et al. 2019). Requirements in other feed sectors, poultry in particular, also influence demand for rape and mustard oil cakes (Agboola et al. 2019).There is intense competition between the poultry and aquaculture feed sectors for the use of soybean meal, a by-product of the extraction of soybean oil (Agboola et al. 2019). Bangladesh also relies on imports of soybean to meet domestic demand for soybean meal, which is currently about 1.3 million metric tons (Agboola et al. 2019).Alternative plant-based protein sources: Opportunity for RTBIn terms of protein sources, RTB crops do not currently present any significant opportunities for inclusion in aquafeed production in Bangladesh, unlike Nigeria. Cassava and sweetpotato production in Bangladesh is minimal 5 (CIP23), so the supply of protein-rich leaf meal would be insufficient for commercial usage. Efforts to increase sweetpotato production in Bangladesh are underway, which could open up some opportunities for incorporation in the future (CIP23). However, there are better and more contextually relevant plant-based protein sources currently used in the country's aquafeed production that could be promoted further.In their recent study, Agboola et al. (2019) identified some promising alternative plant-based protein sources that require further investigation: sesame seed cake, groundnut cake and duckweed (see Table 9 for nutrient composition). Sesame seed cake, a by-product generated after removing oil from sesame seeds, is used in domestic aquafeed production, though to a small extent. But Agboola et al. (2019) conclude that because of the nutritional profile of this feedstuff, there is potential for sesame seed meal and sesame oil to become valuable ingredients in aquafeed production.Aquaculture involves raising fish under a controlled environment in which feeding, growth, reproduction and health can be managed. Fish require adequate levels of carbohydrate, protein, fat and oil, fiber, vitamins and minerals for metabolism, growth and development.In semi-intensive to intensive culture systems, it is necessary to feed cultured fish compound feeds to meet these nutritional requirements. Compound feeds allow farmers to increase stocking density, increase yield and shorten cultivation periods by promoting faster growth (Nwokocha and Nwokocha 2013;Solomon 2015).Several authors have suggested that to achieve greater and more sustainable growth in the aquaculture sector, it is necessary to develop the domestic aquafeed industry by (1) regulating the industry through setting quality control standards;(2) training fish farmers and feed manufacturers on how to formulate and produce nutritionally balanced high quality fish feed; (3) increasing the affordability of machineries through provision of subsidies; (4) identifying locally available feed ingredients; and (5) using waste products in fish feed to replace imported feedstuff. There is  the evident interest in comparably nutritious, affordable and locally available non-conventional fish feed ingredients (FAO 2007b;Gabriel et al. 2007;Fayose and Ogunlowo 2012).To a degree, it seems that the trialled RTB crop residues and leaves can replace maize or fishmeal more effectively. A few studies also indicate this could result in positive economic implications for farmers (Abu et al. 2010b;Sine et al. 2017) Although we have identified some RTB crop by-products that could be harnessed as local and cheap carbohydrate sources in aquafeed, more up-to-date information on the cassava peel value chain in Nigeria is needed, and greater effort needs to be directed to identifying and promoting contextually relevant, effective and non-competitive protein sources in both Bangladesh and Nigeria. Reducing the pressure on fish for fishmeal has both nutritional and environmental implications.In a report exploring the market opportunities of cassava-based products, Karuri et al. (2001) identified fish being incorporated in two cassavabased dishes commonly eaten by various people in Kenya. Similarly, in their book chapter on cassava-based products, Sharma et al. (2016) give a detailed account of various, yet quite similar, cassava-based food products eaten by populations in mostly West African countries. As well as describing the processes involved in making these products, Sharma et al. (2016) name the foods that traditionally complement these cassava-based food products. Fish is a common accompaniment in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria.In Côte d'Ivoire, attoukpou is commonly served with sauce, vegetables and fish or meat. It is also one of a number of foods formed using garri. In this case, attoukpou is made by molding garri into flattened shapes before steam cooking (Sharma et al. 2016).Konkonte, a traditional Ghanaian dish is also made with cassava flour ground from sun-dried cassava chips that is then added to boiling water and stirred until it forms a smooth, thick paste. This is served with ground pepper and fish or meat and is considered a customary dish for lactating mothers, particularly among the Krobo people in eastern Ghana (Sharma et al. 2016). In southern parts of Ghana, however, it is considered a \"poor man's food, \" which limits its consumption (Sharma et al. 2016).Cassava fish stew, eaten by people in the coastal provinces of Kenya, is prepared by peeling, slicing and cooking cassava root along with tomato and onion. Fresh fish is either added to the mixture with coconut milk or fried in oil and then added afterward to the boiling cassava with groundnut flour instead of coconut milk (Karuri et al. 2001).In western Kenya, cassava-based ugali is made by peeling, washing, slicing and sun-drying cassava root. The sun-dried chips are mixed with dried maize, sorghum or millet, and then the mixture is milled into a fine flour. Finally, the flour is added to boiling water and stirred into a semi-solid porridge.The dish is commonly served with smoked fish (Karuri et al. 2001).Somewhat similar to ugali, kpokpo garri, which is a variation of regular garri, is often eaten with dried or smoked fish, groundnut and/or coconut kernel in midwestern Nigeria (Sharma et al. 2016). Unlike standard garri, the fermented and dried grated cassava is not sieved before roasting, which results in the creation of shapeless cakes. Kpokpo garri is also traditionally served with roasted maggots and palm wine (Sharma et al. 2016).Across much of Africa, especially in Ghana and Nigeria, cassava is an important root crop and is consumed as a staple food (FAO and IFAD 2005). Cassava or cassava products, such as garri, are consumed almost daily by Nigerians (Onyenwoke and Simonyan 2014). In Nigeria, both rural and urban populations consume cassava root as an inexpensive source of carbohydrates (Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). Garri is popular because it is easy to prepare and has a long shelf life (Mcnulty and Adewale 2015). In its raw state, cassava has a relatively high calcium content when compared to other staple crops and a high vitamin C content.However, much of the nutritional value of cassava root is contained in the peel, so when the root is peeled and discarded, as it often is, a substantial amount of minerals and other nutrients, such as calcium and iron, are lost (Table 10). Processing also has a significant effect on the nutritional value of cassava, as shown in Table 10. Vitamin C is sensitive to heat and most processing procedures employed result in a drastic loss of this vitamin. This means that the nutritional value of cassava root is greatly reduced when it is eaten as garri or cassava flour. Mcnulty and Adewale (2015) suggest that people with a predominantly cassava rootbased diet are at risk of micronutrient malnutrition, which can cause night blindness, stunting and increased susceptibility to disease.Biofortification of staple crops is one of the approaches agroindustry, international development organizations and governments have taken to address micronutrient deficiencies. Biofortification is the processes through which the nutritional quality of a food crop is deliberately improved through conventional plant breeding or modern biotechnology (Oparinde et al. 2014).Evidence suggests this approach is technically realistic and does not compromise agronomic activity (Nestel et al. 2006). As it targets staple food crops (e.g. rice, cassava, wheat, maize and sweetpotato) that low-income households frequently consume, biofortification is said to capitalize on the regular daily intake of a consistent and large amount of food staples by all family members to ensure impact (Nestel et al. 2006).Biofortification examples: Vitamin A-rich yellow cassava  intervention may not reach the intended population-low-income, micronutrient-deficient populations. Perhaps such issues will be discussed as a result of the large-scale efficacy trial, which according to Bouis and Saltzman (2017) is underway.Vitamin A-rich orange-fleshed sweetpotatoIn Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) has introduced vitamin A-rich OFSP varieties in collaboration with CIP and promoted at the household level by various international development organizations, including HKI, through the Suchana project. One small boiled root, roughly 100 g, of most OFSP varieties is said to provide 100% of the RDA of vitamin A for children, or at 400 Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE) (Low et al. 2017). Moreover, over 80% of the betacarotene content in OFSP is retained when boiled, a retention level superior to most other crops (Low et al. 2017). However, unlike cassava in Nigeria, sweetpotato is not a staple crop in Bangladesh, where only a relatively small amount of local white varieties is available. Personal communication with project households, implementing partners and regional academic professionals indicates that organizations working on the introduction of OFSP in Bangladesh have faced some issues regarding consumer acceptance, specifically taste preferences. Although the introduction of OFSP has been accompanied with nutrition information campaigns, the households interviewed prefer the taste and texture of the local white, nutritionally inferior sweetpotato varieties (SOFSP19; SSUCH16; SSAU14; RBARI05; CIP23). Consumers described the texture of cooked OFSP as \"sluggy\" and undesirable, which can be ascribed to its higher moisture content. Steaming the root instead of boiling it was said to reduce the unpleasant \"sluggishness\" (SOFSP19). But the orange varieties are also considered unappealingly less sweet than the white varieties. Consumers are also apprehensive about its orange color (CIP23).Nevertheless, OFSP has received some market traction, particularly in Dhaka's supermarket chains, including Shwapno and Agora (CIP23), that service the urban better-off population. Representatives from CIP in Bangladesh communicated that market-savvy farmers have been selling OFSP to supermarkets in Dhaka for BDT 30 (USD 0.36) per kg.The supermarkets then sell these to relatively wealthy, urban dwellers for BDT 60-75 (USD 0.71-0.89) per kilogram (CIP23). This is 10 times the price of OFSP sold in rural, \"local\" markets, which is about 08 USD) per kilogram (CIP23).The potential of OFSP was recognized in 1995, and today the agricultural community perceives biofortified OFSP as a \"superfood, \" a largely successful example of the role biofortification can play in nutrition-sensitive agricultural production (Bouis and Saltzman 2017;Low et al. 2017). It has been used instrumentally in over 14 sub-Saharan African countries to address widespread vitamin A deficiency (International Potato Center 2018b).White sweetpotato is an important staple in countries such as Burundi, Malawi, Rwanda, and Uganda, with over 80 kg per capita per year consumed (Low et al. 2017).In Uganda, an average of 1,841,667 t of sweetpotato was produced per year, from 2012 to 2014 (Low et al. 2017). Sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa is generally considered a crop of the poor, and production in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa is dominated by women (Low et al. 2017).According to Low et al. (2017)  than it has been in the past (see Figure 3). The production of sweetpotato in Bangladesh is seasonal (Hossain et al. 2018), generally planted in October and harvested before the end of April (SBARI13; SSAU14). Farmers in Bangladesh consider this cultivation period too long (roughly 4 months).Nationally, the ideal cultivation period is 90-100 days, which is met by most other crops commonly grown in Bangladesh (CIP23). Perhaps this is one reason why the popularity of sweetpotato has seemingly decreased over the past 50 years.During a visit to Suchana project households' homestead gardens in mid-February, one woman mentioned how she had decided to harvest her sweetpotato crop early so that she could plant lady fingers (okra) before the raining season (SSUCH16) (Plate 4). Therefore, CIP is collaborating with BARI to increase the dry matter content and developing early maturing varieties of OFSP (Naziri, personal communication, 2019). Although there is a breadth of research on the production and consumption of sweetpotato in Bangladesh, relatively less information exists on other micronutrient-rich, locally produced and consumed crops, such as Indian spinach (Basella alba) (Hossain et al. 2018) and taro.Indian spinach is a low cost, green leafy vegetable available year-round in Bangladesh (Hossain et al. 2018). In their study on the effects of sweetpotato and Indian spinach consumption on total body vitamin A stores in Bangladeshi men, Hossain et al. (2018) concluded that daily consumption of Indian spinach has a positive effect on vitamin A status.While the vitamin A content of OFSP is superior to taro leaves (Table 11), the consumption of taro leaves (100 g) contributes 30% of the recommended daily vitamin A requirement for women (over 13 years old, based on a RDA of 700 µg per day) and 53% for children (based on a RDA of 400 µg per day). Taro leaves contain relatively higher amounts of calcium, potassium, ascorbic acid and folate in comparison to boiled OFSP root and leaf (Table 11). They are eaten on a weekly to monthly basis in Bangladesh (SSUCH15; SSUCH17) and generally consumed with small prawns or dried fish (SSUCH15; SSUCH16; SSUCH17; SSUCH18). Occasionally, the leaves are consumed with large fish (SSUCH18) or jackfruit seed (SSUCH17). However, these accounts are only exemplary. To the authors' knowledge, there is no data regarding the scale and geographical distribution of taro produced or consumed nationally and research on this potentially nutritionally valuable crop is missing.As the literature suggests, fish often accompanies staple cassava products in traditional dishes from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria. Fish are a good source of readily absorbable and bioavailable micronutrients, including calcium, iron, zinc and vitamin A and are rich in high quality and readily digested protein as well as energy (Neumann et al. 2014).In eastern Kenya, Talsma et al. (2018) trialled yellow cassava for its potential contribution to the dietary nutrient adequacy of primary school children. Biofortified yellow cassava was introduced into school lunch to increase vitamin A intake, though yellow cassava is known to be generally poor in other nutrients, including iron and zinc. An assessment of the potential effect of introducing a yellow cassava-based school lunch, combined with additional food-based recommendations on overall nutrient adequacy, was conducted.  dried small fish, two servings a week, to the yellow cassava school lunch best optimized the overall nutrient adequacy of the diet of primary school children.Although all species of fish contain considerable amounts of protein, some have exceptionally high levels of micronutrients and essentially fatty acids (Longley et al. 2014). Small fish species such as darkina (Esomus danricus) and mola, derived from inland capture fisheries in Bangladesh, contain superior amounts of micronutrients and lipids as compared to farmed large freshwater fish such as silver carp (Table 12) especially when eaten whole with heads and bones included (Roos et al. 2007;Belton and Thilsted 2014).While fish unquestionably adds nutritional value to the featured traditional dishes eaten in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria, the degree of value added is undetermined as the species that commonly accompany these dishes are unrecorded. It is also unclear which parts of the fish are consumed.Moreover, the documents identified provide little insight into the commonness or universality of these cassava-based dishes consumed with fish. It is more than likely that socioeconomic status influences the amount and frequency of fish and meat consumed with these cassavabased dishes. In Nigeria, evidence suggests that variation in the frequency of fish consumption based on socioeconomic status is probable.According to a study conducted by IPSOS (2017), 74% of people of high socioeconomic status surveyed consumed fish or seafood twice a week compared to 40% from the lowest socioeconomic group. The species of fish eaten is also likely affected by relative wealth, as the market value of fish varies according to the species. Additionally, the availability, preference and species of fish consumed are often regionally unique and seasonal (Bradley et al. in press).The enhancing factor of fishIn addition to its intrinsic nutrient content, fish, like other animal-sourced food, further contributes to food and nutrition security by facilitating the uptake of nutrients from dietary components of vegetable origin (Belton and Thilsted 2014). Fish, specifically, enhances the bioavailability 7 of nonheme iron and zinc from plant sources (Tontisirin et al. 2002). Even relatively small amounts of meat (about 50 g for adults) have been demonstrated to enhance non-heme iron absorption from a basic meal with low iron bioavailability (Baech et al. 2003), though the exact mechanism through which meat has an enhancing effect on iron absorption has not yet been explained in detail (see Michaelsen et al. 2009). Similarly, Sandstrom et al. (1989) found in their study that small amounts of animal-source food significantly improved the value of a legume-based meal as a source of zinc. They concluded that relatively small amounts of animal-source foods can significantly improve the value of a legume-based meal as a source of zinc.  Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is also an important bioavailability enhancer of non-heme iron (Davidsson 2003), especially in low-income countries, where meat intake is low (Tontisirin et al. 2002). According to Michaelsen et al. (2009), orange, apple and pear can have a similar effect, as meat and fish do, on the absorption of non-heme iron.Unlike plant-source foods, fish and other animalsource foods do not contain iron, zinc and calcium absorption inhibitors, such as phytic acid, polyphenols and oxalic acid (Michaelsen et al. 2009;Gibson et al. 2010;Longley et al. 2014). Cereals, legumes and oleaginous seeds have especially high levels of phytic acid, so on their own they have a low bioavailability of iron (Davidsson 2003;Gibson et al. 2010). Roots and tubers, most leafy vegetables and fruits contain much lower amounts of phytic acid (Gibson et al. 2010). However, green leafy vegetables contain high levels of polyphenols, which can seriously inhibit the absorption of non-heme iron (Michaelsen et al. 2009).In summary, the combination of foods eaten in a meal strongly influences the absorption of micronutrients, but absorption is also influenced by food processing techniques (Tontisirin et al. 2002). For example, fermentation, germination and malting of cereals, legumes and oily seeds increase the absorption of iron by lowering the phytic acid and polyphenol content (Tontisirin et al. 2002).Similarly, the absorption of non-heme iron and zinc in tubers has been shown to be enhanced by mild heat treatment (Tontisirin et al. 2002).Consumption of street foods and affordable snack foods is an important component of the diet of adults and children in developing countries, especially for the urban poor (Steyn et al. 2013). In sub-Saharan Africa, school children are reported to eat a large amount of street foods (FAO and Sokoine University 2006). Steyn et al. (2013) reported that 13%-40% of children's daily energy intake comes from street foods.In low-income countries, traditional snack foods are generally carbohydrate-based. Although they are a good source of energy and perhaps protein (Steyn et al. 2013), the micronutrient contribution of street foods is unknown. However, it is thought to be insignificant (Cliffe and Okereke 2010). Therefore nutritionists have been exploring avenues for enhancing the nutritional value of traditional snack foods. Four articles have been identified here that, primarily with the addition of fish, hoped to develop a \"value added, \" mostly cassava-based snack (Table 13) (Cliffe and Okereke 2010;Neiva et al. 2011;Akonor et al. 2017;Rochimiwati et al. 2017).Three of these studies featured a form of fish cracker (Neiva et al. 2011;Akonor et al. 2017;Rochimiwati et al. 2017). Neiva et al. (2011), for example, aimed to develop sensory acceptable, nutritionally valuable fish crackers using minced low market value species, in this case Southern King Croaker and Sand Drum. This research was driven by a desire to increase fish consumption and the dietary intake of essential amino acids including lysine (Neiva et al. 2011). Rochimiwati et al. (2017) focused on modifying a similar product but with flying fish.Fish crackers, already popular in Asian countries, are traditionally made with cassava-derived starch and are slowly becoming a popular snack in Ghana (Akonor et al. 2017). Unlike the two studies mentioned above, Akonor et al. (2017) explored the sensory acceptability, based on taste, crispiness and puffiness, of replacing cassava starch with HQCF. However, this study was rationalized by a desire to explore commercial market opportunities for HQCF in Ghana rather than by nutritional objectives. As a result, the authors did not compare the nutritional composition of fish crackers made with cassava starch versus HQCF.On the other hand, Cliffe and Okereke (2010) developed a recipe for fish yam/sweetpotato balls. By using contextually undervalued pelagic fish species, cockles and oysters, they intended to produce a cheap, \"value added\" protein enhanced snack product suitable for the Nigerian market. In their recipe, yam or sweetpotato cubes are boiled and mashed into a paste and then mixed with minced fish. The mixture is then rolled into balls, rolled in egg and bread crumbs then deep-fried (Cliffe and Okereke 2010). Unfortunately, they do not include the nutritional composition of these \"value added\" snack balls and do not rationalize their use of yam or sweetpotato. The sweetpotato balls scored well in the consumer preference survey, based on texture, aroma, taste, color and overall appearance (Cliffe and Okereke 2010), though there were only five panelists.Complementary feeding refers to the timely introduction of safe and nutritious foods in addition to breastfeeding. It occurs when the infant is about 6 months of age (World Health Organization 2008). In low-income countries, most infants are given cereal-based complementary foods (Francis Kweku Amagloh et al. 2012).The most effective complementary foods are micronutrient-dense, prepared using a variety of foods and include an animal-source food.Improving complementary feeding practices is considered a \"food-based\" effort to improve the nutrient intake of children during the first 1000 days of life (Bogard et al. 2015). Fortification is the addition of micronutrients at the processing phase, and fortifying plant-based, commercially produced complementary foods to achieve desired nutrition densities is one approach. But not all mothers have the means to buy these products (Bogard et al. 2015). Home-based approaches are a valuable alternative. They include encouraging the addition of local, culturally acceptable, nutrientrich ingredients, as well as animal-source foods, in complementary feeding practices through educational campaigns. Bogard et al. (2015) developed a fish-based complementary food product, targeting improved nutrition in the first 1000 days. The complementary food is based on the traditional rice-based porridge used in Bangladesh. To enhance its nutritional quality, OFSP was added. OFSP was selected because it is a rich source of vitamin A and was found to be acceptable in initial studies (Bogard et al. 2015). Dried darkina fish, a small indigenous fish species, was selected for its high iron, calcium and zinc content (Bogard et al. 2015).The proposed serving sizes exceeded 100% of estimated required calcium intakes for all age groups as well as vitamin A, iron and zinc requirements for children aged 12 to 23 months (Bogard et al. 2015). The fish-based complementary food contributed substantially to essential fatty acid requirements so the potential nutritional contribution of this complementary food may be even greater than the laboratory analyses indicate because of the aforementioned \"meat factor\" associated with the consumption of fish and other animal-source foods (Bogard et al. 2015).Similarly, Nandutu and Howell (2009) used OFSP and skinned fillets of tilapia to develop a nutritionally dense complementary food for infants in Uganda and then compared these products to commercial infant foods (Nandutu and Howell 2009). However, the focus of the research was to compare the digestibility and consistency of the sweetpotato-based complementary food as well as assess the effects of introducing antioxidants to increase the shelf life of the product (Nandutu and Howell 2009), so the micronutrient composition of the OFSP-based complementary food product is not reported in the paper.The literature search did not find compelling examples of commercially produced complementary foods that combined fish and RTB crops, but there is the natural tendency for cultures to combine fish with starch-based products. Fish is a common accompaniment to cassava-based food products in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, and Nigeria (Karuri et al. 2001;Sharma et al. 2016), and the addition of fish to these traditional dishes unquestionably adds to their nutritional value. Evidence suggests that traditional ricebased porridge used as a complementary food for infants in Bangladesh can be nutritionally enhanced with the addition of micronutrientrich small fish and OFSP (Bogard et al. 2015). * Cassava starch here is not a value addition, but part of the original recipe. ** Cassava flour made from the whole root is less processed, so it contains more vitamin C (tapioca is the bleached and extracted starch of the cassava root) is more processed and contains less fewer vitamins.Table 13. Overview of identified research papers on fish-RTB food products.In this working paper, the current and potential role of fish and RTB crops in food systems in Bangladesh and Nigeria are outlined and discussed, focusing on livelihood and food and nutrition security outcomes. Our research has uncovered multiple potential synergies for the co-production and dynamic integration of fish and RTB crops.Firstly, co-production of fish and vegetables is common among smallholders in South and Southeast Asia. Most literature records the co-production of fish with banana. In IAA systems, there are scattered references to coproduction of fish with cassava, sweetpotato, potato, yam and cocoyam. It is difficult to uncover the true extent to which RTB crops are cultivated in IAA systems because most authors fail to report the types of crops planted. Sweetpotato and cocoyam were seen growing on pond dikes in Bangladesh, and they are commonly eaten with fish. Yet, very little published literature exists regarding their co-production and consumption.The literature suggests that IAA systems, when compared to market-oriented monocropping, are generally beneficial for soil conservation, biodiversity, livelihoods and household food and nutrition security. IAA is positioned as particularly appropriate for small-scale, poor farmers and suitable for areas with low availability of agricultural land (Nhan et al. 2007;Ahmed et al. 2014). However, there is a lack of large-scale quantitative evidence to confirm this.The literature suggests that IAA smallholders in South and Southeast Asia benefit from recycling and reusing organic \"waste\" produced on-farm. Examples included the use of RTB by-products as fish feed and the use of excess pond silt as crop fertilizer. However, field work in Bangladesh showed that the use of agricultural by-products by smallholders is rare and perceived as \"backward. \" Farmers noted that Bangladeshi agricultural extension providers discouraged this practice.The literature search reported that RTB by-products for commercial fish feed is a relatively large and growing body of work. Twenty-seven studies were identified that investigated the effects of replacing a percentage of the conventional protein or energy sources in fish feed with RTB crop derivatives. Many of these studies were conducted in Nigeria and were driven by rising costs of fish feed containing imported ingredients. Cassava peel was identified as a priority RTB fish feed ingredient in Nigeria because of the existence of a cassava processing industry to produce the staple garri and therefore the centralization of discarded cassava peel. Leveraging cassava peel for use in aquafeed could help to mitigate the environmental impact of \"waste\" in the food supply chain, as well as create additional job opportunities for converting waste to feed. Since women make up the majority (85%) of the workforce in cassava processing units in Nigeria, they could also benefit from the income-earning opportunities associated with these innovative cross-sector links (Amole 2016;Okike et al. 2014). A similar opportunity was not identified in Bangladesh because of the abundance of cheap, locally available non-RTB carbohydrate sources (e.g. broken rice, rice bran, wheat bran and oil cake) that are already used in commercial fish feed.The literature search did not find compelling examples of commercially produced complementary foods that combined fish and RTB crops. However, there is the natural tendency for cultures to combine fish with carbohydrate-based products. Fish is a common accompaniment to cassava-based food products in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria (Karuri et al. 2001;Sharma et al. 2016). The addition of fish to these traditional dishes unquestionably adds to their nutritional value. Evidence suggests that traditional ricebased porridge used as a complementary food for infants in Bangladesh can be nutritionally enhanced with the addition of micronutrient-rich small fish and OFSP (Bogard et al. 2015).Overall, the co-production and dynamic integration of fish and RTB show great synergistic promise at both the small and large scale. However, more research is needed on contextually appropriate solutions that improve both livelihoods and food and nutrition security.• Using RTB by-products as aquafeed could reduce farmers' use of external inputs and decrease production costs, though evidence is inconclusive. Research is needed to understand how integrated fish-RTB production systems can lead to environmental, social, economical and nutritional benefits. • Opportunities exist to use RTB by-products as aquafeed at commercial scale, to lower the cost of compound fish feed. These efforts should prioritize areas where fish feed costs represent a high proportion of farmers' production costs, and also, where locally available RTB by-products are underutilized, are cheaper than other carbohydrate sources and are less geographically scattered. Further research on replacing traditional ingredients with RTB by-products should prioritize the following:• the effects of replacement on fish growth performance and feed use • economic implications of replacing traditional ingredients with RTB crops • practical issues associated with the seasonality of RTB by-products, such as medium-to large-scale cassava processing sites, which only operate seasonally. • Further research is needed on fish feeding practices of smallholder farmers to identify best practices in using RTB by-products as fish feed in homestead ponds. • Future programs can identify micronutrient-rich combinations of fish and RTB products, such as small indigenous fish and OFSP. SBCC materials and approaches that educate caretakers of the nutritional benefits of feeding young children these foods in combination can be developed and used.","tokenCount":"19039"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd85574322fdc3bd86a21a31e6538acc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b4bb9cc3-2050-48c7-bcb8-e5ae84af4e10/retrieve","id":"849780262"},"keywords":["youth","gender","participation","livestock","ICT","empowerment","traditions and culture"],"sieverID":"32ee58b8-5a37-406b-bcd8-7b6369cc7641","pagecount":"12","content":"Five to seven in every people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are youths. They have significantly low employment rates but are unattracted to agriculture. Recently, the sector has witnessed considerable e orts by African governments to promote youth participation. While these e orts have started to bear fruits, salient gender issues remain hard to address and solve promptly. For example, youth empowerment issues-whether mutual or emancipative, asset ownership, taboos and cultural expectations, perceptions against climate change, and use of technology and ICT significantly influence livestock production among pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. While these problems are partly known and being solved, it is to be understood the extent and the salient gender issues that drive youth participation in livestock production. To understand this, we conducted a systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to thematically synthesize and evidence the youth-empowering interventions in livestock production systems in Sub-Sahara Africa. Peer-reviewed studies were retrieved from online databases (Scopus, Google Scholar TM , and gray literature). The findings show that youth face significant barriers to participating in livestock systems ranging from limited empowerment, limited access to productive assets and land, social-cultural limitations and inadequate youth-focused policy implementation. Despite the hurdles, youths, and other actors are employing various mechanisms to overcome them and enhance their participation in livestock systems. They utilize self-driven approaches such as gifting animals amongst themselves, forming saving groups commonly referred to as merry-go-rounds and belonging to community group formations as a form of social capital to empower themselves mutually. Education is also an empowerment tool for youths in the livestock sector. Emancipative empowerment through participation in political and community-level leadership is taking shape, though still in its infancy. There are opportunities presented by small ruminants and poultry where women and youths are getting a voice in the community by becoming relatively income independent and desisting from waiting for the inheritance of large livestock and assets from men. Opportunities presented by ICT in the field of livestock have been taken advantage of through the use of various apps and internet tools to enhance youth participation in livestock systems.Youths, defined by United Nations and African Union Youth Charter as persons within 15-24 years, 15-35 years, respectively and whose definitions differ by country, such as those between 18-34 years in Kenya, form the largest part of the population in Sub-Sahara Africa (African Union, 2006;Senga and Kiilu, 2022). It is believed that 5 to 7 in 10 persons are under 30 years in Sub-Sahara Africa, thus the \"youth bulge\" phenomenon NEPAD (NEPAD, 2022;United Nations, 2022). This demographic advantage can be leveraged for the economies of Sub-Sahara African (SSA) countries, as seen in the \"East Asian miracle\" that has resulted in more than half of the total economic growth in Asia (Bloom et al., 2000). On the other hand, there is also a prevalent narrative of the \"ticking time bomb\" phenomenon, where an additional billion youths are expected to enter the global job market creating the \"angry young men\" crisis (Kalliney, 2001;ILRI, 2019). Therefore, there is a pressing requirement for boosting agricultural production to generate a surplus of employment opportunities and lead to over a two-fold rise in the output of industrial and service sectors, facilitated by a shift of labor from off-farm to on-farm sectors (Lipton, 2005).Interestingly, studies are also finding that since 2000, crop and livestock production has appealed less and less to the youths (Rhiannon et al., 2014;Diogo et al., 2022). On the other hand, there are counterarguments about youth engagement in agriculture as demonstrated in the case of rural Ethiopia and Zambia where introduction of modern farming practices, low-tech solutions like diversification, use of ICTs, draft animals, use of electricity was reported to induce uptake of farming by the youths (Leavy and Hossain, 2014). Reconciling these two juxtapositions require a revisit to well-evidenced youth engagement in agriculture to the extent of challenging the prevailing orthodoxies and assumed policy proposals about youth participation in agriculture in general and livestock sector in particular. Thus, the livestock sector which is dogmatized with gender and youth issues and that reportedly has potential for creating employment through dairy farming, zero grazing, meat provision is pursued in this study. The sector significantly contributes to countries' Gross Domestic Products (GDP) e.g., 10-13% to Kenyan agricultural GDP and 33% to Ethiopian GDP (FAO, 2019). In Uganda, livestock production is valued at around USD 8.7 million per year (Solomon and Assegid, 2003).To enhance youth participation in the livestock sector, African governments have responded by enacting various policies and developmental programs that would increase production and create employment opportunities for the youths. These efforts are believed to enhance youth empowerment. Youth empowerment can loosely be defined as the process of equipping young people with the right skills, knowledge, and resources with an aim of overcoming developmental barriers (Holden et al., 2004). Some youth empowerment interventions by African governments include: the \"Youth in Agribusiness\" program in Nigeria which is implemented by the Central Bank of Nigeria and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and that aims to empower young people to participate in the livestock sector by providing them with training, mentoring and access to finance (Bello et al., 2021). The \"African Youth Agripreneurs\" program in Ghana implemented by the African Development Bank, is aimed at empowering young people to become agripreneurs in the livestock sector by providing them with training, mentorship, and access to financial services (ADB.AYAF, 2020). The \"Youth in Agribusiness\" program in Kenya, implemented by the government of Kenya and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), aims to support young people to enter the livestock sector by providing them with training, mentorship, and access to financial services (MOALF, 2018). The \"Youth in Livestock Development\" program in Ethiopia, implemented by the Ethiopian government and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), aims to support young people to enter the livestock sector by providing them with training, mentorship, and access to resources such as land, feed, and veterinary services (FAO, 2018). While these programs and policies have achieved tremendous success in the recent past, numerous shortcomings have been observed, including lack of government's commitment, lack of proper project management, lack of funding among others (Ika and Saint-Macary, 2014). One factor that is often neglected is the role of gender and youth issues in livestock production as discussed in Kinati and Mulema (2018).. . The gender-youth nexus in livestock production in Sub-Sahara Africa While revitalization of agriculture in rural areas presents tremendous opportunities for youth employment, gender issues are emerging to be a pain-point to fully maximize these realizations. Indeed, a critical debate is emerging on whether rapid rural transformation efforts through digitalization and \"feminization\" of agriculture and capacity-building efforts will attract youths to boost livestock production especially the adoption of technologyintensive zero-grazing methods (OECD, 2018). Gender pertains to the expectations and social norms that define the roles and identities attributed to individuals as either male or female within a given society or context. Gender roles can be influenced by a variety of factors such as ideology, religion, ethnicity, economics, and culture, and they have a significant impact on the allocation of responsibilities and resources between men and women either young or old. Gender roles are shaped by social constructs and are therefore fluid and prone to change depending on evolving social norms, circumstances among other factors (Quisumbing et al., 2014). Although gender disparities are inherent in every society, these differences can vary greatly across cultures and can shift drastically over time, either within a single culture or across different ones. A particular case of gender disparities exists within the livestock system. Specifically, youths in livestock farming in Africa can face a variety of gender-related issues, including: (a) limited access to land, particularly for young women, making it hard for them to establish and operate their own livestock farms (Rabinovich et al., 2020), (b) inadequate education and training opportunities, hindering their ability to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to effectively raise and manage livestock (Scott-Villers et al., 2016), (c) societal norms and expectations, particularly traditional gender roles, that often restrict young women's opportunities in the livestock sector (Kaba et al., 2013;Moyo, 2014), (d) discrimination and mistreatment due to the perception of being uneducated or \"backwards\", (e) inadequate access to credit and financial services, making it difficult for them to secure the funding necessary to start and expand their livestock businesses (Opiyo et al., 2016), and (f) limited representation in leadership roles, particularly the underrepresentation in leadership positions in the livestock industry, which can hinder their influence on policies and decisions that impact the sector (Afande et al., 2015). Gender and socially imposed roles, along with traditional customs like female genital mutilation and the unequal distribution of assets and leadership positions among youth, have a disempowering impact, particularly on young women (Vincent, 2022). For example, as seen in many communities that keep livestock, it is common for men and boys to be the sole owners of the herds while women are assigned household tasks, constructing temporary dwellings, and caring for the children (Maru, 2017). Another example could be the issues of patriarchy established in culturally contingent systems that limit realization of rights and justice for young girls (Tavenner and Crane, 2019).Currently, youth participation in livestock production, is hard to estimate due to minimal age-disaggregated data-and approximated at only 15% (ILRI, 2019). Besides, most livestock keepers are nomadic pastoralists, a few are agro-pastoralists and only a handful practicing zero grazing. In fact, about 50-270 million pastoralists occupy about 40 percent of the entire Africa's land mass; with a poverty rate of between 70-85% (Gueye, 2017). It has been observed that pastoralists, particularly young pastoralists who have a strong feeling of identity with their livelihood and who are frequently referred to as the \"heirs of the heritage, \" are increasingly shunning the tradition and looking for work in towns (Maru, 2017). Due to their lack of education, youth in pastoral villages are also at a disadvantage in the job market and end up working menial occupations in urban areas, as was the situation with Maasai youth in Tanzania (Munishi, 2013). Besides, traditional livestock keeping is threatened by climate change that has exacerbated drought and livestock keepers and mostly pastoralists are now termed as the highly-at-risk group with disrupted livelihoods and shrinking pasturelands that often cause conflicts and deaths to both humans and animals (Akall, 2021). Therefore, modernizing livestock practices and capacitybuilding the youths who are the heirs-of-the-tradition with ICT knowledge and modern technology-intensive practices would most likely induce their interest in commercial livestock farming and improve commercialization of livestock and livestock products (Leavy and Hossain, 2014).Together with various issues in livestock systems, this study presents a systematic literature review that is arranged thematically, to highlight the gender-youth nexus in livestock systems with a particular focus on evidence of interventions that are facilitating youth participation in livestock systems. This systematic review delivers a meticulous summary of the available research, making available evidence more accessible in a concise manner, to decisionmakers and other researchers working on the same or similar issues. It also highlights constraints and opportunities for particular research questions or research areas. In our case, we are interested in understanding youth participation and engagement beyond livestock production to understand gaps and guide interventions that can intentionally target youths in the livestock value chain within and external to the CGIAR. It delineates from general discussions on the types of livestock kept. It fills the following gaps in literature: Gender equality, youth & social inclusion is one of the impact areas of the CGIAR and the gender impact platform. This is in line with the call for youth inclusion in agriculture and this study contributes to the understanding of the challenges and opportunities in this phenomenon. The interest is to \"synthesize and amplify research, fill gaps, build capacity and set directions to enable CGIAR to have maximum impact on gender equality, opportunities for youth and social inclusion in agriculture and food systems. This systematic review responds to this need to gather evidence and understand the opportunities or entry points for youths in the livestock system, a sub-section of the agri-food system. Secondly, youth inclusion and gender issues in livestock farming practices are critical areas that warrant attention, especially in the context of the \"youth bulge\" and the need to create employment opportunities in the agricultural sector. Therefore, there is a pressing need for an in-depth exploration of the gender-youth nexus in livestock farming, examining themes such as empowerment, education, ownership of assets, societal norms, and adaptation strategies, to address the complexities and opportunities in this area. Evidence gathered and summarized in this review could inform the discourse on the development of policies that target and promote youth participation in livestock production systems in Sub-Sahara Africa. Policy makers can use the evidence to identify salient issues in making agriculture, especially livestock keeping an attractive agribusiness venture that employs the youths.The main aim of this study is to provide thematically synthesized evidence on gender-empowering and youth-targeted interventions/strategies in livestock production among the youths in Sub-Sahara Africa. It presents the variation across studies in the outcomes that concern broad themes and sub-sets through the following research questions: . MethodsWe carried out literature search in electronic repositories with peer-reviewed articles published in the English language only. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria was used to assess the relevance of literature to be included (Maru, 2017). The study specifically employed a systematic review rather than meta-analysis due to its qualitative nature and because of the heterogeneity in the aspects reported by each author, due to different settings and study designs. This, therefore, meant that rigorous risk-biases associated with meta-analysis while comparing similar outcomes from different authors was not a problem. Nonetheless, the review authors independently evaluated all the studies to judge if there were certain elements that would warrant assessment of risk of bias for each domain and agreed that non would be of concern to the current paper as discussed in Page et al. (2021). The recommendations of Page et al. ( 2021), therefore, were followed to the latter (36) as shown in Figure 1. The search was carried out between 15 th -16 th November, 2022 in the Scopus repository, Google Scholar and additional gray literature (documents produced by organizations with non-commercial publishing) from International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and subsidiary CGIAR centers. These institutions carry out large research on livestock across African countries. Limits on the year of publication and the study design were not imposed because of the limited articles that cover the subject on youths with respect to gender issues. Geographical coverage was limited to Sub-Sahara African countries and based on the 2020 survey carried out by Statista (2022).The search phrases used in the Scopus included \"livestock\" AND \"gender\" AND \"youth\" AND Limit-To (Doctype, \"article\" Srctype, \"j\" and interchangeably with OR to join the search string). In Google Scholar TM , the search phrases included allintitle: \"livestock\" OR \"pastoralist\" AND \"gender\" OR \"youth\" and \" [country].\" The search was also augmented with the allintext search criteria for in-text keywords to ensure all texts with relevant search phrases weren't excluded. The intext text search was modified to avoid returning only general \"livestock\" string and synonymous words such as dairy, ruminants, sheep, goats, cows, poultry, chicken, pigs etc. would be used. It was not surprising that this search string always returned the same papers because most authors often start with keyword livestock in their writings. In each successive search, the specific country was iteratively replaced, and the search phrase modified with respect to the theme, e.g., \"youth empowerment\" OR \"education\" OR \"land ownership\" OR \"assets\" etc. in accordance with the pre-defined thematic areas of interest. The searches in both databases yielded 206 articles. We purposively included a few gray literatures from ILRI and other CGIAR centers to maximize the discussions regarding youth and livestock and to mitigate publication bias in articles as discussed in Gusenbauer and Haddaway (2020).Peer-reviewed journal articles from reputable journals and peer-reviewed reports from NGOs promoting livestock systems in Sub-Sahara Africa were included based on the following criteria: (i) the study reported on youth participation in agriculture with a particular focus on livestock; (ii) the study attempted a disaggregated analysis, preferably by gender; (iii) it was written in English; (iv) not an editorial, expert opinion, review or instructive article, blogs (except gray literature), web pages, opinion pieces, and magazine articles. They were excluded because they lacked scientific rigor. Articles included in our final analysis were 30 i.e., 24 peer reviewed articles and 6 gray literature. Data extracted from each article included author's name, year of publication, study interventions, gender issues addressed, outcomes realized among others. The summarized documents are shown in the section for summary of findings (Tables 1, 2).In this section, the study presents various outputs from each selected paper and the specific gender and youth inclusion   1, 2 summarizes the literature that was reviewed in terms of the authors, theme covered by the study, the country of the origin of the paper, the population of youth being targeted and the main findings of the paper.Although the notion of youth empowerment is intricate, vague, and lacks well-defined limits, we adopt the definitions put forward by Úcar et al. ( 2017) that empowerment is essentially about enabling young people to attain optimal growth by acquiring competencies as they overcome specific challenges. Thus, on the theme of youth empowerment in livestock production, discussions are based on general dimensions and (c) transformative/emancipative empowerment-in which empowerment is integrated within the development of abilities for social change awareness of socio-political hierarchies of power and availability of support structures and those conditions that lead to young people being able to act in their own name and on their own terms instead of being controlled by others (Wagaman, 2011). We found very few peer-reviewed articles evidencing mutual empowerment in youth-led livestock farming. One study in Kenya by Mutua et al. (2017), explored group membership and \"merrygo-round\" as strategies for acquisition of livestock by youths and also \"gifting\" of livestock to each other as a mutual empowerment strategy. While such approaches helped male youths in these communities, gender issues surrounding inheritance were still bold as girls could not inherit livestock or any kind of property-because it encouraged insubordination and reduced chances of getting married among pastoral communities such as the Tugen. Even group membership that would encourage mutual empowerment had limitation as it depended on someone's perceived wealth status in the community (Mutua et al., 2017). On the other hand, while a system of indigenous mutual support practices (IMSPs) exists in Ethiopia among pastoralists, youth-led initiatives that encourage belonging to Savings Internal Lending Communities (SILC) would be a great way for overcoming limited access to income and developing mutually-beneficial social capital to help other youths in the livestock sector (Endris et al., 2022). Most discussions on the mutual empowerment from the gray literature discussed potential but not the actual empowerment in farming among the youths (Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organisation, 2011; Rhiannon et al., 2014;Scott-Villers et al., 2016;ILRI, 2019).Educational empowerment with regards to young girls' in nomadic pastoral and agropastoral communities has taken a center stage in most literature and government policies (United Nations, 2004;Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organisation, 2011;Scott-Villers et al., 2016). It is viewed through the angle of educational attainment among youths in livestock keeping communities. For example, while an enabling policy environment has been created in Ethiopia since 1994, enrollment, retention, and learning attainment remain low in the pastoralist areas for girls (Yitbarek et al., 2022). In Kenya, girls who are educated are prone to losing their \"marriageability\" (Scott-Villers et al., 2016). Among the Fulani of Nigeria, educating a girl-child should be limited to \"preparing her for the roles of mother and wife\" (Fareo and Ateequ, 2020). Despite these educational challenges, evidence shows that gender norms and practices contributed to the passing of traditional ecological knowledge from adult to child. This is the case of young girls in Maasai areas in Southern Kenya who had better knowledge of wood species better than boys on their firewood collection duties (Tian, 2017). Evidently, educational empowerment through the governments' affirmative action has also seen rise in youths (both girls and boys) enroll in primary and secondary education among livestock keepers in Kenya (Odhiambo, 2013). In Burkina Faso, schooling has seen reduced child marriages as education offers an alternative pathway for girls beyond marriage (Misunas et al., 2021). In fact, education is viewed as part of the family's strategy to diversify the household income in Burkina Faso and targeted to youths who can no longer be integrated within the livestock systems (Ancey et al., 2020). In Chad, young migrants from pastoralist are often interested in \"evening classes\" in French, as this helps them overcome cultural shocks associated with traditional livestock keeping and adapting to town life (Ancey et al., 2020).Within the domain of transformative/emancipative empowerment, this study provided evidence of youth in livestock production and their engagement in socio-political aspects such as leadership to overcome some gender issues in livestock farming. Breaking free from gender norms requires young people to use empowerment strategies that are not dependent on receiving assets from older generations. For instance, instead of waiting to inherit livestock from their fathers, young girls and women in Kenya have opted for less capital-intensive and more accessible options, such as poultry, as a means of generating income (Sulo et al., 2012;Mutua et al., 2017). Similarly, young people in Ethiopia are taking a similar approach by working in wage positions in small-ruminant food chains, bypassing the traditional practice of older generations owning larger animals and as a means of employment (Mueller et al., 2017). Additionally, young women in Ethiopia can now control income from sale of milk cheese and butter from small ruminants such as sheep and goats (Kinati and Mulema, 2018). Access to livestock can also be strongly gendered. For example, in Kenya, only men can inherit livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats as a customary right, although they can be gifted to both genders. Instead of engaging in traditional milk production methods, evidence from Ethiopia show that a segment of young, educated, and affluent farmers have embraced an upgrade to production of high quality milk production (Ruben et al., 2017).On the other hand, evidence from gray literature shows that youths in pastoral communities are actively engaging in civic education toward increased participation in leadership and political positions-especially the young women in Kenya (Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organisation, 2011). In Ethiopia, the increased political interventions and rights awareness among young men and women in livestock keeping areas has been witnessed among youths participating in registered cooperatives (Hebo, 2014). This evidence is also demostrated by Endris et al. (2022) who argue that youth membership in Savings Internal Lending Communities (SILC) has achieved tremendous youth participation in community-based civic education but would even work better if education among the participants was improved.Whereas entrepreneurial opportunities exist for youth in livestock systems, barriers including the inadequate access to land hinders success among youths agripreneurs in Kenya (Ouko et al., 2022). Notably, research has found a correlation between low youth participation in agribusiness and inadequate access to land (Njeru and Gichimu, 2014;Afande et al., 2015;Lwanga-Ntale and Owino, 2020). Innovative strategies aimed at improving young people's access to resources have been witnessed to yield positive results. Notably, in Malawi and South Africa, land reform initiatives have enabled youth to gain access to land. In Ethiopia, rehabilitated communal land was allocated to youth groups, opening up opportunities for them to participate in agricultural value chains. Additionally, land rentals and leasing programs have also been effective in expanding access to land. These interventions have shown promising potential to empower youth and promote economic growth in their communities (Yami et al., 2019). In Africa, patrilineal inheritance systems are prevalent, where the male line determines succession and property inheritance, with only sons or other males inheriting land from the family estate. This practice excludes daughters from inheriting family land due to the belief that they become part of another family upon marriage. Despite this, Islamic law recognizes a woman's right to inheritance, but her share is often smaller than a male relative's. To combat this discrimination, several countries have enacted family and succession laws that override customary norms, establish community property rights over family land, and grant spouses' equal rights in managing family land. Examples include Ghana's Intestate Succession Law 1985 and Ethiopia's Revised Family Code 2000, though the implementation of these laws remains low (Cotula et al., 2004).Livestock keeping is dogged with numerous culturally underpinned taboos and traditions among which female genital mutilation, early child marriages, labor division (drudgery) and patriarchy are prominent (Mutua et al., 2017;Daum, 2019). Overcoming these have attracted myriad strategies among which ratification of Convention on Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) has resulted in established gender-friendly policies and laws aimed at safeguarding the welfare of girls and women, including affirmative action for higher education (United Nations, 2004). Deeply ingrained social and cultural practices continue to pose a significant challenge and this is particularly true for pastoralist girls and women (Korir, 2018). However, these practices are changing with affirmative action put in place by governments for the livestock-keeping communities as witnessed in the case of Kenya. Evidently, the mandatory admission, attendance, completion of basic education and 100% transition to secondary schools by all youths in Kenya has resulted in reduced rates of FGM among youths in pastoral/livestock-keeping communities (Korir, 2018). In Ethiopia, overcoming traditional practices such as FGM has witnessed increased use of experience-sharing events among livestock-keeping households to curb the tradition (Wondim and Kefale, 2018). These experience-sharing events can be extended to cases of gender-based and child-based violences in which children or adults experiencing these are often witnessed to seek support from a range of people mostly kin and friends in Ethiopia (Chuta et al., 2019). In Chad and Burundi, early child marriages and FGM have been reported in various literature, but evidence shows that well-targeted interventions for the youths put in place and based on Social Cohesion and Community Based Protection Mechanisms; are already reducing child marriages through what is called \"WellBeing of Community Groups\" that protect vulnerable groups (Besada et al., 2014).While patriarchy and clannism also contribute to youth discrimination in livestock keeping communities, in Somalia, for example, youths overcome such by using alternative sources of income such as remittances from the diaspora and forming youth groups to diversify their income and overcome patriarchybased wealth generation system (Lwanga-Ntale and Owino, 2020). Evidence shows that this leads to independence in decision and use of own income to purchase herds of camels and small ruminants. In Kenya, the use of \"sensitizing men\" training modules among livestock keepers and that is targeted to young men has resulted in increased recognition of the negative effects of patriarchy among young men (Tavenner and Crane, 2019). This has resulted into more allocation of resources toward purchasing women produce from small ruminants and poultry in the area, a case of \"leading-by-example\" to overcoming patriarchy among the youths.In some cases, youth participation in livestock production has been enhanced through use of modern technologies. For example, overcoming drudgery associated with intensive livestock keeping has witnessed transition to mechanized zero gazing from nomadic pastoralism. In Nigeria, a proposal for use of Information, Communication Technology (ICT) in livestock keeping areas, especially use of real time and customized information to overcome system inefficiencies and optimize production has witnessed youths using apps to access inputs, finance, training and market their produce such as milk conveniently (Akilapa et al., 2020). In Kenya, the use of ICT services especially DigiCow Dairy App from Farmingtech Solutions and SmartCow have been used to enable youth livestock keepers use ICT services to relay herd data to experts thus improving their management practices (Daum et al., 2022). In Tanzanian youth dairy farmers access the Shambashape up episodes through the website, radio and TV (Okello et al., 2020). This platform gives youths independence in terms of access to livestock production information. The changing access to information also helps the youth overcome barriers to markets and even pricing of livestock. On the other hand, there are evidence of behavioral change on engagement in agriculture due to use of ICT-enabled platforms as has been witnessed in the Songhai model in Benin, and the AFOP program in Cameroon in which youths engaged in transformational agricultural practices have indicated attitudinal change in livestock keeping especially the startups (Eley et al., 2014). Efforts to increase the use of ICT in agriculture that would, in turn, increase youth participation in the sector are being promoted through the National Agriculture Policy of 2013, which was implemented by the then Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative in Tanzania, gives credence to integration of ICT in agriculture (Bernard et al., 2019).Many references in the literature including IPPC 2018 report highlight that women and youth are more vulnerable to climate change in agriculture and livestock keeping, as they often have less access to information, markets, credit, or insurance in addition to already having heavy workloads in the home. However, many governments and organizations recognize that investing in women is often a better return than in investing in men, possibly because women have stronger family ties and stay at home and depend on livestock more.Climate change and the resultant environmental stressors as well as environmental degradation often undermine the resilience of livestock production systems. Youth perceptions, responses and mitigation strategies including climate activism with respect to livestock has received little attention in literature (Mugeere et al., 2021). Climate change and the resultant environmental stressors as well as environmental degradation often undermine the resilience of the lives of pastoralists to climate change is necessary for sustainable mitigation and coping strategies (African Union, 2006;Senga and Kiilu, 2022). Perception is very much likely to influence how agripreneurs respond to risks as well as opportunities that come with climate change. Perception will determine the nature, the course of action and the outcomes of the adaptation strategies chosen. In Kenya, there was reported a positive correlation between the age of the household head and the practice of climate change adaptation activities. In other words, older household heads were more likely to engage in activities to cope with the effects of climate change than younger household heads. This suggests that experience and knowledge may play a role in shaping attitudes and behaviors toward climate change adaptation in this particular context (Opiyo et al., 2016). On the contrary, results from studies on the determinants of adaptation to climate change among agropastoralists in Botswana and Ethiopia show that in terms of the age of the household head, younger pastoralists are more likely to employ climate change adaptation strategies than their older counterparts. This is explained by the view that older pastoralists are likely to be inclined toward preferring conservative methods of adaptation to climate change as opposed to modern and more relevant strategies. In this study, the perception on climate change was based on an increase in annual temperature and a general decline in the annual rainfall received (Kgosikoma et al., 2018;Gebeyehu et al., 2021).This study sought to establish thematically synthesized changes on youth participation in livestock production against the backdrop of \"youth bulge\" and the need to create employment in the agricultural sector to absorb the youths. To assess this, various databases were queried with a realization that limited peerreviewed articles exist on youth and livestock with respect to Sub-Sahara Africa, a matter that was also raised by Vincent (2022). Even this thin literature seems to concentrate heavily on some countries especially Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, Chad, and Ethiopia. This has mostly been attributed to the fact that the search databases are often based on English language (excluding Arabic and Francophone countries) and also on the fact that research is difficult in most areas where livestock keeping is practiced due to conflicts (Mkutu, 2008;Holechek et al., 2017;Gammino et al., 2020). In addition, the literature evidencing youth participation in livestock production is more concentrated among the pastoral communities and only a few concentrates on youth with respect to agropastoral communities and zero grazing. It is our assumption, that perhaps authors prefer to research on the pastoral communities because they are observed to have some of the highest concentrations of gender problems such as early childhood marriages, FGM, inequalities in asset ownership and subjection of women to traditions and taboos that are difficult to change (Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organisation, 2011). Nonetheless, various gender-youth nexus issues have been observed and evidence of how youths in livestock overcome or cope with them have been reported.In the case of youth empowerment, it is observed that they utilize self-driven approaches such as gifting of animals amongst themselves, forming saving groups commonly referred to as merrygo-rounds and belonging to community groups formation as a form of social capital to mutually empower themselves (Mutua et al., 2017;Endris et al., 2022). Education is also an empowerment tool for youths in the livestock sector. For example, even under gender-defined roles, young women in livestock-keeping areas seem to be more knowledgeable on some aspects compared to males; and youths in countries such as Chad and Burkina Faso are taking education as a factor for changing their livelihoods and moving from traditionally \"acceptable\" livelihoods (Odhiambo, 2013;Ancey et al., 2020;Misunas et al., 2021). Evidence shows that emancipative empowerment through participation in political and community-level leadership is taking shape, even though it is still at the infancy. The opportunities presented by small ruminants and poultry is giving women and youths and opportunity to have a voice in the community by encouraging income-based independence and desisting from waiting for inheritance from adult males.While myriad taboos and traditions still plague progress toward a more harmonized and gender-sensitive community where young women and girls have a voice, evidence shows that youths are using various strategies to overcome them. Use of experience-sharing events and the affirmative action on abolishment of practices such as FGM and early childhood marriage has witnessed increased number of enrolled students and changing livelihoods especially for women. The example of \"sensitizing men\" in Kenya established through training modules among youth livestock keepers is a behavioral change approach that will increase the recognition of the negative effects of patriarchy and discrimination against women among young men (Tavenner and Crane, 2019).Besides, the tremendous opportunities presented by ICT in the field of livestock has been taken advantage of through use of various apps and internet tools. Evidence from Kenya suggest that youths can access educational materials through apps. This overcomes the information barrier associated with livestock markets, marketing of products and makes livestock farming attractive. ICT has increased access to modern technologies and already attracting youths in countries such as Zambia and Ethiopia (Osti et al., 2015;ILRI, 2019;Okello et al., 2020;Daum et al., 2022). Perhaps, it will also address the gender issue associated with drudgery among young girls as it will bring in new technologies that solve energy problems such as use of biogas to reduce time taken to fetch firewood by girls in pastoral areas.This study has successfully identified and analyzed various gender-youth nexus issues in livestock farming practices. The study's contribution to literature is a systematic synthesis of existing research on youth engagement in livestock production systems achieved through aggregating and analyzing findings from diverse sources. It contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by youth in this context. The study is valuable to academics, policymakers, development practitioners, and stakeholders interested in opportunities and entry point to youth engagement, gender equity, and sustainable livestock production. It offers evidence-based recommendations and contributes to the broader understanding of youth inclusion in agriculture while aligning with the broader goal of promoting inclusive and sustainable agricultural practices.","tokenCount":"5953"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"628be0e5833653a17c8ff4dedbf53971","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/71636f2a-da64-4005-9740-2c43826eb5ec/retrieve","id":"-1857983213"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"86bccc42-1194-4b3d-bc37-477b68c7b8b0","pagecount":"4","content":"Uninsured risk challenges the more than 3 million pastoralist households who live in northern Kenya's arid and semi arid lands. Whenever drought hits this region, as it did in 2011, households dependent on livestock must cope with large livestock losses (families lost about a third of their animals in the recent drought). When households anticipate droughts such as this, they may tend to shy away from higher return activities in order to pursue safer strategies, keeping themselves poorer on average than they need to be. During and after a drought, cash-strapped households sell off remaining livestock, driving down prices, making it that much harder to cope with the disaster, and again reinforcing the poverty impacts of uninsured risk.In January 2010 the index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) pilot project was launched in Marsabit District of northern Kenya as an effort to help pastoralists manage drought risk, and its pernicious ex ante and ex post effects. The IBLI index insurance contract uses satellite-based measures of vegetative cover to predict average livestock mortality experienced by local communities (see Chantarat et al., 2012 for details). Households receive a payout if the predicted average livestock mortality rate reaches 15%. In October-November 2011 the first IBLI payouts were made to households who had purchased insurance earlier in the year. Households in our study received an average payout of about 10,000 Kenyan Shillings (or roughly $150).As microinsurance products similar to IBLI become increasingly popular in developing economies, an empirical evaluation of the ability of such products to help individuals cope with risk is in high demand. The IBLI pilot was implemented in connection with a rigorous impact evaluation. This long-term research design will allow researchers to explore whether the beneficial effects of insurance (on both ex ante and ex post coping strategies) are large enough to warrant increased development of similar products. While we await those long-term findings, this Brief reports results based on the impact of insurance on households' anticipated changes in their coping behavior after receipt of their October 2011 insurance payouts. By comparing these anticipated coping changes with those of their uninsured peers, we are able to arrive at a preliminary appraisal of the impact of drought insurance on household well-being.At the time of the October-November IBLI payout, a random sample of 924 households from across Marsabit participated in the 3rd round of a panel survey. Every household was asked how they managed to cope with drought in the prior 3 months, and how they anticipated coping in the upcoming three months. Insured households were asked this question after being told exactly how much they would receive as an insurance payment.Table 1 shows the questions posed to both insured and uninsured households. As can be seen, substantial majorities of both insured and uninsured households coped in the third quarter by both reducing the number of meals eaten and relying on food aid. Roughly a third in each group sold livestock from their already damaged herds.These responses allow us to answer several questions. First, have uninsured households been coping differently from insured households prior to receipt of payout? Second, does an insurance payout enable households to cope differently, perhaps in less costly ways?A bit of notation will help sharply frame our answers to these questions. Let p 3 denote the proportion of households saying that they used the particular strategy in the third quarter of 2011, and p 4 be the proportion anticipating using that strategy in the fourth quarter. A superscript I indicates insured households, while a U superscript indicates data from non-insured households. Thus, p 3 I represents the proportion of the insured population who engaged in a particular coping strategy during the 3 rd quarter of 2011, whereas p 4 I represents the proportion of insured households anticipating using a strategy soon, knowing that they were about to receive an IBLI payout. Similarly, p 3 U represents actual behavior in the 3 rd quarter by uninsured households, while p 4 U represents uninsured households' anticipated coping behavior in the 4 th quarter. ! To see if insured households are different from uninsured households, we can compare the percentage of the treated (insured) population who answered \"yes\" to using a given coping strategy in the 3 rd quarter of 2011 to the control (uninsured) population ( p 3 I − p 3 U ). A difference between the two can mean two things: either households are coping differently in anticipation of a payout, or insured households are intrinsically different from uninsured households.We find that there are some statistically significant differences. In particular, insured households are less likely to have reduced the number of meals eaten each day and more likely to have sold livestock in the 3 rd quarter of 2011. These differences hint that insured households may be wealthier.To answer the second question about the impact of IBLI payments on coping, we can now compare insured and uninsured households after controlling for their pre-existing differences by using a standard 'difference-in-difference' impact estimator:The estimator DD controls for biases in second period comparisons between treatment and control groups that could be the result of permanent differences between those groups, as well as biases from comparisons over time in the treatment group that could be the result of trends. 1These difference-in-difference estimates are reported in Table 1 for each coping strategy. The results reveal that insured households anticipate radically reducing their dependence on costly coping strategies relative to uninsured households. According to the DD estimates, IBLI results in a 22-percentage point drop in the number of households reducing the number of meals eaten as a coping strategy (an overall reduction of about one third). Similarly, there is almost a 50% reduction in the number of households who anticipated selling further livestock to cope with the wake of the 2011 drought. This latter change is especially important from an economic perspective as it is the massive sell-off of livestock that makes it that much more difficult for insured and uninsured households to cope with a drought's aftermath. Insured households also anticipate relying less on food aid, and relying less on assistance from others.While these difference-in-difference estimates control for pre-existing and permanent differences between the insured and the uninsured households, they should be treated with caution as they do not control for differences that change over time. The reported results do stand up to at least partially controlling for these differences using other econometric control function techniques. Given the notable size of the impacts presented, we remain confident that the impacts are real reflections of program impacts.Another way to assess coping abilities is to consider how insured households expected to use the IBLI payout they were about to receive. For each household, we calculated an expected IBLI payout based on livestock units they had insured. Every insured household was then asked how they expect to spend the estimated payout.Figure 1 shows the results of the answers to these questions. The vertical axis shows the fraction of a household's payout it anticipated spending on different goods (food, livestock purchases, etc.). The horizontal axis shows the total amount of the payment to be received in Kenyan Shillings. As we would expect, the percentage spent on different categories varies with the size of payout. Notably, a larger share is spent on food when the payout is small whereas a larger share is spent on purchasing livestock or other savings when the expected payout is larger. Combined with the coping strategy results, thisfinding suggests that IBLI shifts households from being net sellers to net buyers of livestock, an outcome likely to have positive spillover impacts on uninsured households, or those who suffered especially large losses. It's also interesting that, regardless of the size of payout, households on average expect to spend 10% of the IBLI payout on purchasing livestock insurance again.Our ex ante empirical analysis suggests that the expectation of insured households' own abilities to cope with drought are distinctly different from uninsured households' expectations. Insured households have reason to expect a payout in the near future. These households intend to use the bulk of their anticipated payouts to purchase food and livestock. By using part of the payout to purchase food, most insured households expect to maintain their current consumption of food, rather than reduce meals like their uninsured counterpart. Similarly, fewer insured households intend to rely on food aid or assistance from others. While insured households were more likely to sell livestock in the past few months, upon receipt of a payout far fewer insured households anticipate using livestock sales as a way of coping in the next 3 months, whereas an increasing number of uninsured households expect to resort to livestock sales in the upcoming months.If these expectations closely follow true behavior, then the highly anticipated positive welfare impacts of IBLI and other microinsurance products are likely to be observed in the near future. While we wait to see if behavior truly changes, these results seem a strong indicator that insurance can be a helpful strategy for households coping with risk in developing countries.Further!reading:!! !","tokenCount":"1506"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4cfd137356a0f42959bdb25f1d2fb015","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a673fcee-2bb3-4a3a-8631-6c6377b8bace/retrieve","id":"-1077117422"},"keywords":["Banana","fertilizer","inoculum concentration and Xanthomonas wilt"],"sieverID":"dc7e78ac-0db6-4bc6-805b-b831a641fdbf","pagecount":"9","content":"Soil nutrient depletion and Xanthomonas wilt (Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum) are major causes of declining productivity in smallholder banana systems in East and Central Africa. This study examined the interactive effect of fertilizer and inoculum concentration on development of Xanthomonas wilt. Fertilization significantly (p<0.01) increased the plant height, plant girth and leaf area in banana compared to control without fertilizer. Despite this, between 9 and 21 days post inoculation (dpi) all inoculated plants had exhibited typical disease symptoms (that is, chlorosis, necrosis and wilting of leaves). No significant reduction (p>0.05) in disease incidence, wilt severity index or mortality could be associated with increasing fertilizer amounts. Interestingly, there was a highly significant (p<0.01) overriding effect of inoculum concentration on the ability of fertilizer to reduce wilt severity index and mortality in banana. Plants inoculated with 10 6 to 10 12 cfu mL -1 developed twice as much disease compared to 10 4 cfu mL -1 inoculations. Average mortality of 9.2% for 10 4 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants provides evidence of the potential to cause latent infections. Low bacterial loads are implicated in recent field resurgence of Xanthomonas wilt in banana orchards where disease had been successfully contained.Banana (Musa spp.) supports the livelihood of millions of smallholder farmers in Uganda, contributing directly to household food security as a major staple food crop and to incomes through sales of raw and ripened fruit or other value-added products (Karamura et al., 1991). With an estimated annual production of 10 million tonnes from 1.5 million hectares, Uganda is the second largest world producer of bananas after India (Nowakunda and Tushemereirwe, 2004). Nevertheless, banana productivity over the past 40 years has been declining across majority of traditional banana areas due to numerous pests and diseases and worsening soil nutrient depletion (van Asten et al., 2004;Gallez et al., 2004). As a result, an unprecedented geographic shift in production occurred towards non-traditional areas in southwestern Uganda (Gold et al., 2000;Bagamba et al., 2010).Majority of highland bananas in Uganda are cultivated on continuous basis on ferralsols and acrisols having low inherent soil fertility (Sanchez et al., 1997). Despite a high annual demand for nitrogen and potash,smallholders hardly invest in fertilizers due to lack of access to inputs and high prices (van Asten et al., 2010;Ochola et al., 2013). Moreover, researchers have shown that low soil fertility generally reduces host plant vigour and leads to increased susceptibility to pests and diseases (Patriquin et al., 1995;Spann and Schumann, 2010). Improved plant nutrition influences the physiology and biochemistry of the plant host, which ultimately affects the microclimate and reduces infection by pathogens (Agrios, 2005). Most vigorously growing plants often offset the most damaging effects of some diseases, since a balanced nutrient supply optimal for plant growth is usually optimal for plant resistance as well (Agrios, 2005;Dordas, 2008). Averting nutrient deficiencies using fertilizers is one way of controlling some of the most important plant diseases in an integrated pest management system (Atkinson and McKinlay, 1997;Oborn et al., 2003). Nevertheless, debate continues about the effects of fertilizers on plant growth and disease development. Notably, a particular nutrient may decrease the severity of one disease but have a completely opposite effect on another disease (Büschbell and Hoffmann, 1992;Hoffland et al., 2000). In addition, certain nutrients bear a more direct and greater impact on plant pathogens (Huber and Graham, 1999;Graham and Webb, 1991).Despite its emergent status, Xanthomonas wilt caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) is now a disease of high economic threat to banana-dependent livelihoods in the Great Lakes region (Tushemereirwe et al., 2003;Karamura et al., 2008;Tinzaara et al., 2009b). The disease indiscriminately attacks all cultivated banana genotypes, with infections often resulting in total yield loss mainly from rotting of edible and marketable fruit and subsequent death of the plant (Tushemereirwe et al., 2006;Biruma et al., 2007;Smith et al., 2008). Most vascular wilt diseases affect the physiology of host plants by increasing resistance to water flow and nutrient uptake (Goodman et al., 1986;Tyree and Sperry, 1989). The impairment of nutrient translocation and utilization due to occlusion of xylem vessels by masses of bacterial exopolysaccharides induces water and nutrient deficiency at infected sites, which ultimately leads to wilting and death of leaves and stems (Hopkins, 1989;Thoquet et al., 1996b;Da Silva et al., 2001). The Xcm bacterium was first isolated forty years ago on enset (Ensete ventricosum)a close relative of banana that is native to the Ethiopian highlands (Yirgou and Bradbury, 1968), but was only reported in Uganda in 2001 on East African highland bananas (Tushemereirwe et al., 2003). Thereafter, its presence was confirmed in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Ndungo et al., 2006), Tanzania (Mgenzi et al., 2006), Rwanda (Reeder et al., 2007) and Burundi (Carter et al., 2010).Due to lack of meaningful host plant resistance against Xanthomonas wilt, cultural practices including destruction and disposal of infected plants, disinfection of contaminated farm tools, use of disease-free planting materials and timely removal of male buds with forked stick are widely recommended to farmers to reduce the disease incidence to acceptable levels (Eden-Green, 2004;Tinzaara et al., 2006;2013). More recently, literature has emerged that exogenous application of potassium, calcium and nitrogen reduces susceptibility to Xanthomonas wilt in banana (Atim et al., 2013). Notwithstanding, these findings have a number of limitations: (1) first of all, manipulation of nutrient concentrations achieved under in vitro conditions though appealing are often elusive under actual field conditions, and (2) inoculating plants with Xcm concentration of 10 8 cfu mL -1 does not account for the phenomena of latency due to low bacterial loads. Nevertheless, a dearth of systematic research confounds our understanding of the natural mechanisms through which fertilizers interact with plants to affect the dynamics of pathogens. Few studies have shown inoculum concentration as an important variable determinant of disease expression (Reddy et al., 1979;Nishijima et al., 1987). Therefore, this study provides an opportunity to advance our knowledge of the interactive effects of fertilizer and inoculum concentration on the subsequent development of Xanthomonas wilt. It is thus hypothesised that the concentration of inoculum at infection has an overriding effect on the ability of fertilizers to prevent or reduce development of Xanthomonas wilt under natural conditions.The study was conducted in Mukono District, a hotspot of banana Xanthomonas wilt in Uganda. The experimental site was located in Kifu Forest Reserve (00°28'N and 32°44'E elevation 1250 m above sea level) the only location designated for controlled BXW epidemiological studies in Uganda. Generally, the thick forest provides perfect seclusion from neighbouring farmers' fields, which minimizes any long-distance vector transmission. Climate at Kifu is warm-humid with average temperature of 25°C and precipitation of 1560 mm per annum distributed in two seasons (March -June and August -November). The experimental site is located on a crystalline basement characterized by metamorphosed granites and soils originating from quaternary alluvial and lacustrine deposits Soils at the Kifu are mainly Ferralsols with Gleysols in the swamps (Okorio, 2000).Disease-free tissue culture plantlets of cultivar \"Mbwazirume\" (EA-AAA genome) were obtained from a private local supplier, Agro-Genetic Technologies Limited. Plants were established in 12 inchdiameter pots containing a mixture of two parts natural forest soil and one part lake sand (2:1) which had been steam-treated for 2 h at 90°C in an indirectly fired cylindrical metallic drum. No further amendment of the medium with dolomitic limestone was done. A total of 504 pots were arranged in a split-plot design with three replications (168 pots each). The composite fertilizer NPK (17:17:17) was used to ensure that all these three essential nutrients ), 125 NPK (125 kg ha -1 ) and 250 NPK (250 kg ha -1). **Significant at p<0.01.were applied in equal amounts. Three fertilizer treatments (0, 125 and 250 Kg ha -1 ) formed the main plots while four Xcm concentrations (10 4 , 10 6 , 10 8 and 10 12 cfu mL -1 ) comprised the subplots. Each fertilizer treatment (56 pots) was randomly assigned per replication. Fertilizer was applied monthly by direct placement of 2.3 and 4.6 g pot -1 in correspondence with the fertilizer treatments 125 and 250 Kg ha -1 , respectively. After three months, 14 pots were randomly allocated per NPK treatment to be inoculated with the four different Xcm concentrations.Bacteria were obtained from fresh bacterial ooze from a symptomatic plant from the study site. The ooze was then cultured and grown at 24°C for 72 h, on a semi-selective growth media, cellobiose cephalexin agar (CCA) (Mwebaze et al., 2006) containing yeast extract (1 gL -1 ), glucose (1 gL -1 ), peptone (1 gL -1 ), NH 4 Cl (1 gL -1 ), MgSO 4 .7H 2 O (1 gL -1 ), K 2 HPO 4 (3 gL -1 ), agar (14 gL -1 ), beef extract, (1 gL -1 ), cellobiose, (10 gL -1 ), cephalexin (40 mg L -1 ), 5-fluorouracil (10 mg L -1 ) and cycloheximide (120 mg L -1 ). Bacterial cells were then harvested into sterile water, the optical density adjusted to 0.5 (c. 10 8 cfu mL -1 ) with sterile water at 600 nm wavelengths on a spectrophotometer (Biomate-3, Thermo Electron Corporation, USA). Ten-fold serial dilution was used to obtain the desired lower concentrations (c. 10 4 and 10 6 cfu mL -1 ). Thereafter, highest concentration (c. 10 12 cfu mL -1 ) was obtained by gradual addition of bacterial cells to 10 8 cfu mL -1 until the optical density was raised from 0.5 to 0.8. Six-month-old plants were inoculated by injecting 1 mL of the Xcm cell suspension into the leaf petiole of the youngest leaf using an insulin syringe (Micro-Fine Plus, 0.33 x 12.7 mm, Beckton Dickinson, USA).Effect of fertilization on plant growth (plant height, plant girth and total leaf area) was determined a day prior to inoculation. Plant height was measured as the pseudostem height from ground level to the tip of the second youngest leaf while plant girth was the circumference of the pseudostem at 15cm above ground level. The estimated total leaf area was calculated based on information of biometric measurements of the third leaf taken from each plant using the formula TLA = L × B × 0.8 × N × 0.662 (Kumar et al., 2002) whereby: TLA is the total leaf area of the plant, L and B are the length and breadth of third leaf, N is the number of leaves on the plant, 0.80 is the proportionality factor proposed by Murray (1960) and 0.662 is a coefficient. Data on incubation period (the time between inoculation and symptom development) and subsequent disease development was collected twice a week, beginning from 3 days post inoculation (dpi). Xanthomonas wilt severity was rated visually using the following scale: 0 = no wilt symptoms; 1 = 1 leaf wilted; 2 = 2 -3 leaves wilted; 3 = 4 leaves wilted; 4 = all leaves wilted; and 5 = plant dead (Winstead and Kelman, 1952). Complete or partially wilted plants were tagged to avoid double counting in subsequent assessments and also to avoid the possibility of missing out those plants that died early during the experiment.Disease development for each treatment was presented using a wilt severity index (%) calculated according to the formula [(0 × a + 1 × b + 2 × c + 3 × d + 4 × e + 5 × f)/(n × 5)] × 100 where: n denotes total number of plants per treatment, 0,1…5 is disease severity scale, and a, b…f denotes respective number of plants in each severity scale (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006). Incidence was determined as the proportion (%) of inoculated plants that subsequently became symptomatic while latency was the proportion (%) of inoculated plants that were asymptomatic (did not display typical Xanthomonas wilt symptoms).The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted using GenStat 11th Edition (VSN International, UK) and means were separated using the least significant difference (p<0.05).Fertilizers treatments were commenced three months prior to inoculation with varying X cm inoculum concentrations. Results show that fertilization contributed significantly (p<0.01) to increased plant height, plant girth and leaf area compared to controls without fertilizer (Table 1). Banana plants to which 250 kg ha -1 fertilizer was applied had the highest means for all growth parameters meanwhile those with 0 kg ha -1 showed the least means (Table 1).Xanthomonas wilt symptoms, that is, chlorosis and necrosis were observed from 9 to 21 days post inoculation (dpi) for across all treatments in this study (Figure 1). Data of Xanthomonas wilt incidence for inoculum concentration showed that 10 4 , 10 6 and 10 8 cfu mL -1 resulted in over 90% incidence in all fertilizer treatments, while at 10 12 cfu mL -1 only the 250 kg ha -1 resulted in 85.7% incidence (Table 2a). On average, 94% incidence was observed across all fertilizer treatments. However, increasing fertilizer amounts resulted in no Fertilizer treatments: 0 NPK (0 kgha -1 ), 125 NPK (125 kgha -1 ) and 250 NPK (250 kgha -1 ). Inoculum concentrations of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum: 10 4 (4), 10 6 (6), 10 8 (8) and 10 12 (12) cfu mL -1 . significant (p>0.05) level of suppressiveness to development of Xanthomonas wilt (Table 2a). Although, plants inoculated with 10 8 cfu mL -1 experienced the highest mean incidence (96%), the magnitude of difference was not significant (p>0.05) from other inoculum concentrations (Table 2).From the data in Figure 2, it is apparent that the wilt severity index between 0 and 21 dpi was not statistically significant (p>0.05) for the inoculum concentrations at the different fertilizer levels in this experiment. However, later (after 21 dpi) highly significant (p<0.01) wilt severity indices were detected for the inoculum treatments 10 6 , 10 8 and 10 12 cfu mL -1 (Figure 2). The results shown in Table 3 indicate that average wilt severity index at higher inoculum concentrations was about twice that of 10 4 cfu mL -1 plants. There is strong evidence of primary inoculum overriding the effect of fertilizer. From data, it is clear that mean wilt severity index increased with increasing inoculum concentration (Table 3). Contrary to findings by Atim et al. ( 2013), fertilizer applications appeared to exacerbate wilt severity index of 10 8 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants. As anticipated, plants inoculated with the lowest bacterial load also exhibited the least (33.7%) wilt severity index, irrespective of fertilizer application (Table 3). Linear regression analysis (r 2 = 0.999) indicated that wilt severity index (y) could be predicted from inoculum concentrations (x) based on the equation y = 2.21x + 16.6. In general, no clear benefit of fertilizer in the prevention of Xanthomonas wilt could be identified in this experiment.Table 4 shows the experimental data on percent mortality collected at 89 dpi. As can be noted, 10 6 to 10 12 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants experienced significantly (p<0.01) higher mortality compared to 10 4 cfu mL -1 inoculations (Table 4). Apparently, none of the differences between 10 6 , 10 8 and 10 12 cfu mL -1 were statistically significant. It is apparent from the data in Table 4 that 10 4 cfu mL -1 is the minimum bacterial population required to elicit infection in banana. On average, 9.2% mortality of 10 4 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants suggests a great potential of causing latent infections in banana (Figure 3). There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in mortality between non-fertilized and fertilized conditions, although the 125 kg ha -1 fertilizer treatment was found to reduce mortality by 22.1 and 26.3% on 10 6 and 10 12 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants respectively (Table 4). Both 125 and 250 kg ha -1 fertilizer treatments were not effective at reducing mortality in 10 8 cfu mL -1 inoculated plants but instead seemed to exacerbate it (Table 4). Data contained in Table 4 is consistent with wilt severity index data in Table 3, which shows that inoculum concentration has an overriding effect on the extent to which fertilizers can effectively reduce susceptibility and eventual mortality due to Xanthomonas wilt. In summary, this study reveals a transient interaction between fertilizer and inoculum concentration that is unlikely to limit further development of Xanthomonas wilt especially in situations were inoculum concentration exceed 10 6 cfu mL -1 . ), 125 NPK (125 kg ha -1 ) and 250 NPK (250 kg ha -1); * Inoculum concentration: 4 (10 4 cfu mL -1), 6 (10 6 cfu mL -1), 8 (10 8 cfu mL -1) and 12 (10 12 cfu mL -1);x Column means for inoculum concentration; y Row means for fertilizer treatments;z Grand mean; Values in the same column or rows followed by the same superscript letter are not significant (p>0.05). ), 125 NPK (125 kg ha -1) and 250 NPK (250 kg ha -1); * Inoculum concentration: 4 (10 4 cfu mL -1 ), 6 (10 6 cfu mL -1 ), 8 (10 8 cfu mL -1 ) and 12 (10 12 cfu mL -1);x Column means for inoculum concentration; y Row means for fertilizer treatments;z Grand mean; Values in the same column or rows followed by the same superscript letter are not significant (p>0.05).  ) and 250 NPK (250 kg ha -1). * Inoculum concentration: 4 (10 4 cfu mL -1 ), 6 (10 6 cfu mL -1 ), 8 (10) and 12 (10 12 cfu mL -1).x Column means for inoculum concentration. y Row means for fertilizer treatments. z Grand mean; Values in the same column or rows followed by the same superscript letter are not significant (p>0.05).Xanthomonas wilt is a serious and intractable banana production constraint responsible for losses worth US$ 500 million in the Great Lakes region of East and Central Africa (Tushemereirwe et al., 2004;Smith et al., 2008). This study provides experimental evidence on the effects of fertilizer-inoculum concentration interaction on subsequent development of Xanthomonas wilt in banana.The application of fertilizer significantly increased growth of banana plants (that is, height, pseudostem girth and leaf area). These results agree with the findings of several studies, in which nutrients are reported to boost physiology of crop plants (Patriquin et al., 1995;Dordas, 2008;Spann and Schumann, 2010). In addition, some authors have maintained that nutritional status can modulate a plant's predisposition to facultative parasites including Xanthomonas, Alternaria and Fusarium (Chase, Inoculum concentrations of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum are: 10 4 (4), 10 6 (6), 10 8 (8) and 10 12 (12) cfu mL -1 .1989; Blachinski et al., 1996;Woltz and Engelhar, 1973). Contrary to earlier findings by Atim et al. (2013), this study provides no evidence of significant fertilizerinduced resistance against Xanthomonas wilt in banana. Though it is difficult to explain this result, it is most likely that crop nutritional status only augments the inherent potential for defence. Unfortunately, exploiting this potential using fertilizer is already confounded by the lack of meaningful resistance in most cultivated bananas (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006).From the disease triangle, it is evident that provision of suitable crop environment (that is, through fertilization) is unlikely to eliminate the development of Xanthomonas wilt, especially when other conditions such as host susceptibility and pathogen virulence are conducive for infection (Agrios, 2005). Some authors have suggested that effectiveness of fertilizer for disease management depends essentially on the attacking pathogen (Büschbell and Hoffmann, 1992;Carballo et al., 1994). Our study produced evidence of the overriding effect of inoculum concentration on the effectiveness of fertilizers for Xanthomonas wilt control. This is most likely due to a multiplicity of pathogenicity factors that function to redirect host metabolism for microbial nutrition and growth. Most bacteria belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas and Ralstonia are known to secrete type three effector proteins (TTEs) for colonizing and parasitizing susceptible plant hosts (Salanoubat et al., 2002;Agrios, 2005;Bretz and Hutcheson, 2004). In many cases, TTEs are reported to interfere with host defence mechanisms by enhancing nutrient uptake by the pathogen and adaptation to host plant environment (Cornelis and Van Gijsegem, 2000;Innes, 2001;Abramovitch et al., 2003;Chisholm et al., 2006). Studholme et al. (2010) found Xcm strains to have the YopJ-like C55 cysteine proteases in its TTE apparatus that is responsible for suppression of innate defences in banana.Another important finding was that direct inoculation of fertilizer treatments with different concentrations of Xcm significantly increases the wilt severity index and mortality. Dickinson (2003) noted that as bacterial population increases in the xylem, a quorum sensing mechanism induces expression of the Lys-R type global regulator, resulting in the copious secretion of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS). Unfortunately, this study provides no direct evidence implicating the copious production of EPS with the rapid wilting and high mortality of banana plants inoculated with greater than 10 4 cfu mL -1 concentrations. Nevertheless, there is agreement with Vidaver and Lambrecht (2004) who found 10 6 cfu mL -1 to be the inoculum threshold required for expression of most infectious bacterial diseases. It is therefore likely that the slow build-up of Xanthomonas wilt noticeable for 10 4 cfu mL -1 plant inoculations is reminiscent of latent infections. Ocimati et al. (2013) found that Xcm bacteria can survive latently without induction of disease in banana mats for a period of up to 2 years. This prolonged duration of latency presents a major concern among researchers, especially in the light of recent resurgence of Xanthomonas wilt in growing areas wherein it had been contained (Tinzaara et al., 2013;Ocimati et al., 2014).A paradox emerging from this study relates specifically to the bacterial load overriding the effect of fertilizer in reducing Xanthomonas wilt. This contradicts the findings of Atim et al. (2013) whereby exogenous applications of potassium, calcium and nitrogen reduced susceptibility to Xanthomonas wilt. The muted effect of fertilizer suggests that a weak link may exist in its interaction with inoculum concentration. This combination of findings has important implications for integrated disease management in smallholder banana systems. Nevertheless, they should be interpreted with caution prior to endorsements against the utility of fertilizers for Xanthomonas wilt control. Epidemiological studies reveal that the greatest degree of Xanthomonas wilt control is achieved when risk of transmission is reduced by the prompt elimination of primary inoculum sources (Eden-Green, 2004;Biruma et al., 2007). Hence, disease eradication requires a strict adherence by smallholders to the timely removal of male inflorescence, disinfection of cutting tools, destruction of infected materials and monitoring of movement of plant materials within and from suspect areas.","tokenCount":"3706"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d1d1a7671cf51fe8534ba6b8a052703","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42e74ac2-29e2-4209-9228-955ba6143b66/retrieve","id":"-490139729"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae144079-8b44-4c93-824c-334d4a1be3c9","pagecount":"15","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.The CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) food safety activity provincial government stakeholder meeting was held at Mongu, Zambia on 4 February 2015. The key findings were: Safety and improved preservation in the milk and fish value chains should be prioritized  Consumption of dead or moribund animals is an issue  Safety of fruit and vegetables, and mangoes in particular, is an issue  General hygiene and sanitation is low Community visits Lealui: 3 February 2015 -on flood plain Main issues: milk and fish preservation and safety; sanitation during the flood season Nembwele, Sifuna and Nalitoya: 5 February 2015 -not on flood plain Main issues: mango and milk safety/preservation; lack of protein in diet; productivity (milk, calves and chickens); Newcastle disease; consumption of dead animals Liangati health centre (small rural health clinic): 5 February 2015 Main issues: Follow up on foodborne and diarrhoeal disease burden data Senanga dairy co-operative: 5 February 2015 Main issues: How safe is fresh and sour milk? Options for preservation including pasteurisation; shelf-life Nasla halal beef company abattoir, Senanga: 5 February 2015 Main issues: What level of contamination exists? Can fly control be improved? Improving quality of cattle supplied; liver rejection rates and wastageNext steps  Investigate the safety of sour and raw milk. Risk profile against time during storage and along value chain from point of production.  Assess safety of fish (microbial contamination along the market chain, starting with markets and after sale). Enquire about the safety of pyrethroids in catching and fly and mosquito nets.  Investigate the safety and preservation options for village mangoes (next mango season).  Consider the safety of consuming dead or moribund animals; would guidelines be useful given that it will happen regardless?  Fly control studies -start with fish (consider meat in the future?) Animal health -Liver fluke and Newcastle disease  Persist with burden of disease data from Ministry of Health Immediate to do  Design fish fly study, fish market sampling strategy and fresh to sour milk safety study  Obtain sampling equipment and sample storage and transport equipment (small freezer?)In 2015-16, food safety activities will be conducted within AAS. These will include a prioritization exercise and evaluation of simple food hygiene interventions. To obtain understanding, ideas and feedback on initial plans, field visits to Mongu were conducted from 2 to 6 February 2015.This included visits to two AAS communities: Lealui, located on the flood plain (3 February), and Nembwele, Sifuna and Nalitoya, a cluster of three villages away from the flood plain (5 February). These communities were fairly different in topography and lifestyle. Also visited were a rural health clinic in Liangati (5 February), a dairy co-operative in Senanga (5 February), an abattoir (Nasla in Senanga on 5 February) and a local government stakeholder workshop in Mongu (4 February).Travel from and to Lusaka was done on the 2 and 6 February, respectively. Participants were asked to make lists to help identify food safety priorities in Western Province.These are tabulated below. People in the communities largely eat what they grow although certain foods with commercial value are not eaten. For example, cattle are only eaten in the villages when they die or are unwell. Cattle are, however, sold to commercial abattoirs. Chickens are sold at markets but not eaten at home unless they die and cannot be sold; eggs similarly are not eaten as they could one day become a chicken. Foods thought to be high-risk and in need of attention are milk (raw and soured), fish (fresh and dried) and fruit and vegetables (mangoes in particular). Risks and consumption rates will vary with season. Reheated, undercooked and contaminated porridge fed to children was also a concern.There was also concern over beef fed to children as it was typically dropped on the floor and consumed regardless of hygiene; diarrhoea in children was thought to be a problem. Concerns were also raised about the consumption of dead animals.Milk is consumed raw and soured. Raw milk is sometimes boiled. Sour milk is preserved and kept for several weeks. Milk is consumed at home, sold directly to local individuals by the farmer or sold at co-operatives or to traders.There were uncertainties over effectiveness of souring in controlling microbes. It would be interesting to profile the physical, sanitary and microbial risk profile of milk from production to souring. Sour milk is widely consumed in Africa and elsewhere. Flies, hygiene (holding containers washed in contaminated water, for example) and storage were also thought to be issues.Fish is eaten in large quantities and is sometimes deliberately allowed to rot as part of the preparation process (bubble fish). Like milk, the time between harvest and sale and consumption can be very long (10 to 15 hours between harvest and landing is not unusual). Chemicals used to catch and preserve fish are also a concern. Oil repeatedly applied to fish in markets to improve its appearance was also a concern. People typically pay more for dried fish although it is considered a poor man's food. Fishers and traders prefer to sell fish as soon as possible; sometimes they may be unaware of or unable to access markets with better prices. Prospects for fish farming were briefly discussed but were inconclusive.Animal-derived food operators Dairy co-operatives in Tukongoti, Mongu and Senanga (visit to Senanga on 5 February 2015) Abattoirs: Dagon Springs, Zambeef, Star beef and Nasla (visited on 5 February 2015)Future plans It was suggested that future stakeholder meetings include representatives from the private sector, including abattoirs, market traders, as well as representatives of the Department of Health and communities (who were invited but unable to attend). A large meeting with many stakeholders was not seen as an effective way of discussing food safety. Individual bilateral workshops could be an effective way of promoting dialogue between stakeholders with difficult relationships.Legislation of food safety and hygiene left aspects open to interpretation. As a result, there are regular disputes about which department is responsible for certain tasks, for example, over meat inspection, although this is less of an issue in Western Province where veterinarians are present in abattoirs for inspection for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. In addition, certain tasks are ignored by all parties and slip through the gaps, particularly in rural areas. Environmental Health Technologists under local councils often have a reactive approach rather than preventative.The purpose of the community visits was to convey information about the proposed AAS food safety work and obtain feedback and guidance on activities. The sanitation of toilets was a concern particularly at flood time (December to June) when people would excrete and draw water from the same flood waters, and latrines would also flood. Most villages had cattle and sold milk daily to the co-operative in Mongu, a two-hour bicycle ride away. Some would milk as many as 100 cattle. Time from milking to refrigeration at the dairy co-operative is a concern, as is general milking hygiene. Fish was also mentioned as an important high-risk food. The importance of proper cooking, cross-contamination, clean water and hand washing were discussed. Mango and milk safety/preservation  Lack of protein in diet  Productivity (milk, calves and chickens)  Newcastle disease  Consumption of dead animals People associated blindness with regular consumption of fish. Apparently, there are many blind people in some parts. It was not known if river blindness is a problem in the area, although this is transmitted by simulean flies living near fast flowing water, not from consumption of fish.Mangoes were reported as causing disease; malaria (maybe due to greater exposure when picking mangoes, time of year or just confusion) was mentioned by communities as was diarrhoea. Villagers eat large amounts of mangoes during the mango season and would like a way of preserving them (potted fruit or dried are options). Issues include general sanitation, cross contamination of raw mangoes, cleanliness of mangoes when picked and harvest hygiene. A similar concern was raised for vegetables including relish (anything eaten with nshima, including meat).Villages have fresh milk when cattle leave the flood plain in February to July. Few own cattle, and those that do sell fresh milk directly to neighbours. Sour milk was preferred over fresh milk because of taste. Some do not like the taste of heated milk. George the community facilitator was the only one out of roughly 15 participants to own cattle (50 heads) and would sell five litres of milk a day; some customers would then re-sell the milk as sour milk. George also produced about 5-10 calves a year.Someone questioned the safety of smoking of fish.Most own chickens (40 per household) although recent mass mortality from Newcastle disease (called Kakuto) killed 95% (starting September-October 2014 and ongoing). Villages knew little about chicken health/medicine, despite its importance as a source of income (15 to 40 Zambian kwacha [ZMW] per bird at market, sold in Senanga). More was known about cattle health (fluke treatment given every six months). Eggs were seldom eaten (possibly when someone was sick) as an egg could hatch into a more valuable chicken.The six foods mostly consumed (in terms of quantity and frequency) were nshima, rice, sweet potatoes, cassava, malaka (squash/pumpkin) and wild fruits. Chickens and cattle were only eaten when they died of disease (even cattle that died of anthrax). Animals were sold for slaughter to generate income.Community members reported that the consumption of dead animals was not nice or safe but was worth it. People did become sick and one person died in recent times from this practice. Animals that died of anthrax are boiled for a long time and not roasted. Extended cooking was known to be sensible to improve food safety.The villages had a good water supply although some reports of dirty water were raised about Sifuna village. Toilet collapse was another problem.This is a small rural health clinic run by a nurse (Simutonga Mulala) and community helpers.Main issue: Follow up on foodborne and diarrhoeal disease burden data Diarrhoea was a common problem, particularly in children and especially in the rainy season due to inadequate toilet facilities and poor water sanitation and food hygiene (contaminated milk and fish were mentioned as important causes). The United Kingdom charity Village Water was working in this area to set up boreholes. The chlorination of water was being promoted.All cases were classified and reported to the district. Data were then aggregated and reported upstream. Diarrhoea was included as a disease category which may signify foodborne disease burden (contact John Mutukwa for more details of Senanga district disease data).Livestock officers Mulako Munalula and Crispin Mweemba were present.Main issues  How safe is fresh and sour milk?  Options for preservation, including pasteurization  Shelf-lifeThe co-operative has 72 members (only 30 supply milk). Members get a better milk price. Most travel up to 10 km (one hour by bicycle) to deliver milk in 20-litre plastic bottles (metal containers reported as used in Lealui). Bottles were cleaned by the co-operative on delivery of milk. Farmers have 3-40 head of cattle (average 20). The vice-secretary Imata Namunda has 19 head of cattle and takes 30-60 minutes for milking; the average milk yield is 1.5 litres per cow. On Sundays, no deliveries are made and milk is consumed at home. Fresh milk for home consumption is first boiled as refrigeration is not available.The co-operative buys fresh milk at ZMW 3.15 and sells at ZMW 5 per litre. When the milk arrives at the co-operative, a trained operative uses a lactometer to test it for water content and alcohol to test for sourness (going off); milk that fails the latter test is sold as sour milk. Farmers should not bring sour milk. Sour milk is more popular. Fresh milk can be kept refrigerated for up to eight days. Sour milk is kept refrigerated for up to one week. Whey is not drained; consumers prefer whey (toya) to be drained. Milk is passed through a filter. Milk is sold to individuals for own consumption rather than resale.In the rainy season, supply of milk outstrips demand (more grass results in greater production, although some people move cattle to grazing points that are too distant-20 km away-to deliver milk to the co-operative). Price may be changed accordingly. Because the co-operative no longer does door-to-door sales, consumers prefer to buy milk locally as they have the right sort of sour milk which is cheaper and more convenient. The co-operative does not pasteurize milk (to our surprise, the local District Livestock Officer reported there was no bovine tuberculosis or brucellosis but that specific surveillance was not performed).Prices of milk were ZMW 5 per litre at the co-operative, ZMW 14 per litre at the supermarket (pasteurised milk) and ZMW 14 per litre when bought directly from local producers.The 1500-litre milk cooler was not turned on and was 80%-full of sour milk which must have been there for a very long time. No cold storage appeared to be available.The co-operative, which was situated on the edge of the town, had an outlet in town. Funding was from the Golden Valley Agricultural Research Trust and the European Union. The co-operative no longer received external funding and appeared to have difficulties.Main issues  What level of contamination exists?  Can fly control be improved?  Improving the quality of cattle supplied  Liver rejection rates and wastageThe abattoir was started in 2009 and is run by lady of Somali origin together with her family. It is competently run. The quality of cattle supplied was an issue; some were emaciated on arrival. Three options for supplied cattle are: (1) bought on dead weight if suitable for immediate slaughter, (2) bought on live weight if finishing required and (3) held at the abattoir until fit for slaughter and a customer is available and paid at that point.The price is negotiable (unlike Zambeef). Zambeef Senaga recently closed. A veterinary inspector is always present during slaughter. Some meat is sent to Lusaka market for major supermarkets. The premises are inspected by purchasers from Lusaka.Cows for slaughter are inspected by the local veterinary officer and rejected if sick or pregnant. The upcoming slaughter is then registered with local police and a three-day wait at abattoir follows due to incidence of cattle theft. The animal is then inspected again at the point of slaughter.Most cattle not branded but recognized on sight. Slaughter takes place approximately twice a week (not on the day of our visit). Meat is kept for 24 hours in cold room; they have their own butcher.There is also an open-air feedlot and hay production; cattle are finished for 90 days outside the rainy season. The abattoir had an independent water supply and power source. Water quality was not investigated.Ninety percent of livers were condemned. The price of liver was ZMW 22 per kg; at 8 kg per liver, this translates to ZMW 176 per liver. Condemned meat is incinerated.The range of live weight of cows is 200-500 kg with an average of 350 kg. On average, one cow yields 120 kg dead weight. The abattoir pays ZMW 16 per kg of meat, which translates to ZMW 1900 per cow.There is no meat grading and the same price per kilogram is charged for all (differential price apparently would cause uproar but might promote better quality). Many farmers keep cattle for numbers rather than to have good quality animals; many farmers have simple lives but would be extremely wealthy in terms of cattle.Flies were reported to be a problem in the abattoir and the butcher shop. Maggots were reported at other abattoirs.Agriserve/Musika veterinary supplies outlet is on the same site; they rent the shop from Nasla.","tokenCount":"2634"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"57fbf00b3212ac9375c8029aa4741eea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01260143-ebae-4b32-aadb-f0555f62b85c/retrieve","id":"508644081"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"79f2c17f-b7d2-4d3d-94ce-f8c682a91047","pagecount":"27","content":"¿Por qué es importante la Sistematización?Con la sistematización se busca rescatar las reflexiones críticas de las personas que han participado en el desarrollo de una experiencia [puede ser un proyecto, una empresa, un proceso, una iniciativa o cualquier otra circunstancia o acontecimiento vivido por un grupo de personas]. Por eso, con la sistematización se exploran las distintas \"versiones\" que existen sobre una misma experiencia para extraer los aprendizajes y así sacar provecho tanto de los éxitos como de los fracasos.Por lo tanto, con la sistematización se escudriñan aquellas opiniones que no se suelen sondear por temor a ser mal evaluados, y se capturan aprendizajes tanto de \"lo bueno\" como de \"lo malo\". Por eso, el ejercicio de Sistematización no es solamente una necesidad para evitar la repetición de errores y potenciar los aciertos, sino que también es una responsabilidad cuando se quieren desarrollar capacidades locales y maximizar los resultados que se obtengan de una determinada experiencia.De tal manera, abrir un espacio en nuestras agendas para sistematizar, para reflexionar, es muy importante y, como hemos visto, tiene un enorme potencial. Considerar detenidamente qué hicimos, cómo lo hicimos, con quiénes lo hicimos, qué resultados obtuvimos, qué hemos aprendido y qué cosas nuevas podemos aprender, es necesario para ampliar nuestros alcances tanto en calidad como en cobertura. Pero la reflexión en sí misma significa reflejar; de manera que la sistematización debe ir más allá de un ejercicio personal o grupal y preguntarse a quiénes se quiere beneficiar con los resultados de la sistematización y de qué manera.En otras palabras, la sistematización como ejercicio es indiscutiblemente útil para aprender, pero sólo cuando los resultados del ejercicio de reflexión se vuelven tangibles en productos -como una historia escrita o un video-es que se cuenta con herramientas poderosas para promover el aprendizaje e inspirar el cambio en otros. Hacia este reto apunta la presente guía… La metodología de sistematización propuesta aquí retoma métodos planteados por diferentes autores.En especial, parte de la Guía Metodológica para la Sistematización de Experiencias Locales de Desarrollo Agrícola y Rural (desarrollada por Berdegué, Julio; Ocampo, Ada y Escobar, Germán.FIDAMÉRICA y PREVAL, 2002), y de las Pautas para Redactar Breves recuentos de Innovación (desarrolladas por Ashby, Jacqueline y Douthwaite, Boru. Instituto de Innovación Rural -CIAT, 2004).Existen diversas definiciones de lo que es la sistematización. La mayoría de ellas son complejas y poco inspiradoras cuando de aplicación se trata, puesto que presentan la sistematización como un ejercicio complicado y dispendioso que requiere un alto nivel de especialidad.Así que en aras de la poderosa sencillez, diremos que el corazón de la sistematización es la reflexión.Por eso, necesitaremos entender claramente a qué nos llamamos \"reflexión\". Una de las definiciones que nos da el Diccionario de la Lengua Española es: acción y efecto de reflejar o reflejarse, lo cual nos lleva al primer principio de la sistematización:Sistematizar implica dejarnos ver de otros. Sesión 2El sistema según el cual ordenaremos la informaciónUn sistema es un conjunto de cosas que relacionadas entre sí ordenadamente contribuyen a determinado objeto. En otras palabras, es la estructura, el esqueleto a partir del cual ordenaremos toda la información que tenemos sobre nuestra experiencia para poder reflexionar sobre ella.Pueden construirse tantas estructuras para ordenar la información como se nos ocurran, pero ya existe una que ha dado muy buenos resultados y es la siguiente 1 :Ésta es una estructura sencilla que nos permite reflexionar sobre cualquier experiencia [concluida o en desarrollo] separando toda la información que tenemos en cuatro grandes bloques:Lo que estaba pasando en el contexto antes de empezar a desarrollar la experiencia 1 J.A. Berdegué, A. Ocampo y G. Escobar. 2002. Sistematización de experiencias locales de desarrollo agrícola y rural. Guía metodológica. Versión 2. FIDAMÉRICA-PREVAL: Lima, Perú.Actual o Final Lecciones AprendidasCómo se desarrolló o se está desarrollando la experiencia, quiénes participaron, cuáles fueron los métodos usados, los logros, las dificultades, etc.Qué resultados se obtuvieron o se han obtenido, qué cambios se dieron, qué ha pasado últimamente, cómo ha sido la distribución de los beneficios, etc.Qué cosas haríamos de la misma manera y qué cosas haríamos distinto, y por qué Estos cuatro grandes bloques, como lo muestra el gráfico, deberán girar en torno a la idea fundamental o tema central, sobre el cual profundizaremos en la sesión 3 y explicaremos cómo definirlo.Sesión 3Una idea puede ser un concepto, una opinión o un juicio sobre algo. Y para el caso de la sistematización, esta idea se convertirá en el cimiento sobre el cual se apoyará toda nuestra estructura de reflexión. Para identificar esta idea, puedo preguntarme: ¿de qué se trata esta experiencia que voy a sistematizar?Ante esta pregunta, podríamos responder cosas como:Es una experiencia de innovación que ha logrado involucrar actores con diferentes intereses y quehaceres para generar oportunidades de mercado para organizaciones de productores Es una experiencia que ha explorado el efecto de la formación en principios y valores en los niveles de productividad de las organizaciones Es una experiencia que puso a prueba la tecnología ABC como mecanismo para incrementar los estándares de calidad del producto tripleD Es posible que nos surjan varias respuestas frente a esta pregunta, pero es indispensable escoger sólo una, ya que, de hecho, la idea fundamental se define para delimitar y facilitar nuestra reflexión. Para definir la idea fundamental podemos realizar una lluvia de ideas en compañía de nuestro equipo de trabajo y después escoger la mejor.Una vez definida la idea central, debemos recolectar toda la información que nos pueda ayudar a reflexionar sobre nuestra experiencia. Pueden ser informes, entrevistas y encuestas, mediciones de campo y otros datos que se haya archivado y ordenado durante la experiencia. Además, necesitaremos información sobre el contexto en el que trabajamos, y para esto pueden servirnos algunos informes o planes de desarrollo que hayan elaborado las organizaciones locales.Ejercicio 1. Definición de la Idea Fundamental Por lo tanto, cuando vamos a contestar la pregunta No. 3 siempre debemos tener en cuenta aspectos[que pueden ser positivos o negativos] como: la situación de los mercados, la política económica, la estabilidad social y política, la dotación y calidad de la infraestructura pública (caminos, sistemas de regadío, etc.), el nivel educacional de la población, las normas legales y administrativas, un suceso histórico de gran trascendencia, etc.No olvidemos tener en cuenta que sólo debemos contemplar aquellos aspectos que han sido realmente relevantes para la experiencia y que tienen una estrecha relación con la Idea Fundamental.Ejercicio 1. Reflexión sobre la Situación Inicial Es importante tener en cuenta que estas conclusiones se convertirán en la materia prima con la que cada grupo escribirá su informe de sistematización al final del taller. Por eso, es recomendable redactar las conclusiones pensando en que habrá lectores que probablemente no conocen nada sobre la experiencia que se está sistematizando y que necesitan una muy buena explicación para entender. Entre más generosa sea la explicación, mejor.1. Para redactar las conclusiones sobre la pregunta Nº 2, cada grupo deberá responder la siguiente pregunta:¿Cómo incidía en la situación inicial de mi experiencia cada una de las causas que acabamos de identificar?Para redactar las conclusiones sobre cada causa, podemos utilizar el siguiente cuadro:Causa ¿Cómo incidía en la situación inicial?2. Para redactar las conclusiones sobre la pregunta Nº 3, cada grupo deberá responder la siguiente pregunta:¿De qué manera, los aspectos del entorno que acabamos de identificar, afectaban el aprovechamiento de la oportunidad o la solución de la problemática?Para redactar las conclusiones sobre cada aspecto del entorno, podemos utilizar el siguiente cuadro:Aspectos positivos ¿De qué manera afecta el aprovechamiento de la oportunidad o la solución de la problemática?Aspectos negativos ¿De qué manera afecta el aprovechamiento de la oportunidad o la solución de la problemática?Sesión 5El Proceso de IntervenciónEl proceso de intervención es la parte más gruesa de la sistematización, porque buscamos recuperar la historia del proceso: cómo se desarrolló o se está desarrollando, quiénes han participado y con qué roles; qué métodos, metodologías o herramientas se han utilizado, qué recursos se han invertido y qué aspectos del entorno han facilitado o dificultado el desarrollo de la experiencia.Para facilitar nuestra reflexión sobre esta fase de la experiencia, utilizaremos dos herramientas que nos ayudarán a representar gráficamente lo que ha sucedido para que podamos observar e identificar los cambios que han tenido lugar durante nuestra experiencia:Nos permite resaltar cronológicamente sólo los principales acontecimientos o actividades desarrolladas durante nuestra experiencia, a los cuales llamaremos \"hitos\" 2 . Para definirlos tendremos en cuenta los sucesos que han sido más resaltados o apreciados por los participantes de la experiencia.2 Berdegué y otros, 2002. Un diagrama es un dibujo en el que se muestran las relaciones entre las diferentes partes de un conjunto. De tal modo, esta herramienta nos ayuda a reflexionar sobre quiénes participaron en la experiencia, cómo intervinieron en ella y cómo fueron sus relaciones. Además, podemos utilizar flechas de colores para diferenciar el tipo de relaciones [por ejemplo:verde para las relaciones de trabajo conjunto en la ejecución de proyectos, amarillo para el intercambio de información y conocimiento, rojo para la financiación, etc.] y también podemos usar flechas en un solo sentido para las relaciones que se dan en una sola vía y en doble sentido para las relaciones que tienen correspondencia. Reflexionar sobre este tema es fundamental para incrementar nuestra efectividad y eficiencia en el manejo de los recursos y para contarles a otros qué necesitan para replicar una experiencia como la nuestra.Igual que en la situación inicial, en esta fase revisaremos los aspectos del entorno que influyeron en nuestra experiencia. Aunque haya aspectos de la situación inicial que se repitan, es necesario reflexionar sobre cómo estos mismos factores influyeron de manera específica en el proceso de intervención.Ejercicio 1. Aplicación de la Línea de Tiempo Cada grupo identificará las actividades y acontecimientos más importantes del proceso de intervención y las representará sobre una línea de tiempo.Después de haber elaborado la línea de tiempo, cada grupo reflexionará sobre por qué cada uno de los hitos representados fue tan importante para el proceso. Les ayudará hacerse preguntas sobre cada hito, como: ¿Cambió el rumbo de la intervención?, ¿facilitó la integración de nuevos actores?, ¿Produjo beneficios para los participantes?, ¿Qué beneficios produjo?, etc.Para redactar las conclusiones sobre cada acontecimiento, podemos utilizar el siguiente cuadro:Sesión 4Ejercicio 2. Aplicación del Diagrama de funciones y relaciones Cada grupo elaborará un listado de los aspectos positivos y negativos del entorno que afectaron el proceso de intervención. Después, los grupos redactarán sus conclusiones sobre cómo cada uno de estos aspectos limitó o impulsó el proceso de intervención.Aspectos negativos ¿Cómo influyeron en el proceso?Sesión 6La Situación Actual o FinalLa situación Actual [si la experiencia aún está en desarrollo] o Final [si la experiencia ya concluyó] responde fundamentalmente a tres preguntas:Para identificar los resultados es muy útil volver sobre las causas que le dieron origen a la experiencia [las cuales identificamos en la sesión 4] y preguntarnos cómo ha cambiado el panorama con nuestra intervención, ya sea positiva o negativamente.Debemos tener en cuenta tanto los elementos cuantitativos [ingresos, rendimientos, volúmenes de ventas, etc.] como los cualitativos [el desarrollo de relaciones de confianza, el cambio de pensamiento de los actores participantes, el intercambio de conocimientos, el aumento de la participación, etc.]Lo que buscamos con esta pregunta es reflexionar sobre la distribución de los beneficios [o perjuicios] generados por nuestra experiencia entre los actores involucrados en ella.Igual que en la situación inicial y en el proceso de intervención, en esta fase miraremos la influencia de los aspectos del entorno, pero esta vez sobre los resultados. Cada grupo elaborará un listado de los aspectos positivos y negativos del entorno que afectaron los resultados. Después, cada equipo redactará sus conclusiones sobre cómo cada uno de estos aspectos contribuyó a los resultados.Aspectos negativos ¿Cómo contribuyeron a los resultados?Sesión 7Las Lecciones AprendidasLas Lecciones Aprendidas señalan \"aquello que es probable que suceda, y/o lo que hay que hacer para obtener [o prevenir] un determinado resultado\" 3 . Por eso, para extraer estos aprendizajes de nuestra experiencia, nos haremos dos granes preguntas:1. ¿Qué haríamos de la misma manera y por qué?Por Ejemplo: es fundamental que el facilitador tenga disposición y convicción respecto al trabajo participativo, el cambio, la equidad de género y el diálogo de saberes, pues esto facilitará el establecimiento de una comunicación efectiva con los beneficiarios.Por ejemplo: Es necesario ser muy claros desde el inicio y advertir que este trabajo requiere tiempo y esfuerzo; de nada servirá que las personas se entusiasmen con falsas expectativas. Si se sienten engañadas, el proceso perderá su credibilidad. Por eso, el facilitador debe encargarse de verificar que las expectativas de los actores de la cadena sean reales.La respuesta a la primera pregunta nos ayuda a reconocer qué aprendimos sobre lo que debemos hacer para obtener los buenos resultados que obtuvimos, mientras que la respuesta a la segunda pregunta nos ayuda a reconocer qué aprendimos sobre lo que no debíamos hacer, ya sea porque nos dio un resultado negativo o porque representará una gran amenaza. Guía para redactar el Informe MaestroEl propósito de esta herramienta es facilitar que se plasmen en el papel las conclusiones obtenidas a partir de la reflexión sobre nuestra experiencia. Recuerde la Idea Fundamental y téngala en cuenta a lo largo de todo el ejercicio de escritura, ya que ésta es la columna vertebral del texto.Imagine desde ahora que su lector no conoce nada ni del contexto de su País, ni de su organización, ni de los actores con los que usted trabajó, ni del proceso. Esto le ayudará a ser más generoso en la primera sección del informe, donde usted deberá situar al lector en el contexto de la experiencia sistematizada.Entre más sencillo sea el lenguaje que usted utilice, más lectores tendrá su informe.Tenga cuidado de caer en una minuciosidad que sature el texto con detalles innecesarios.Al escribir el texto no piense que está escribiendo un informe más. Hágase a la idea de que va a generar un producto trascendental y muy útil tanto para su organización como para otros actores.Esto le ayudará a asumir la tarea de escribir con mayor motivación.El documento no debe tener una extensión mayor a 5 páginas. Esto es fundamental porque le permitirá al lector identificar si el artículo es o no de su interés.Al final de esta sección, señale cuál fue la Idea fundamental que se definió para su experiencia [apóyese en los ejercicios que realizó en la Sesión 3] y explíquele al lector que todo el texto girará en torno a ella.A partir de los ejercicios de la Sesión 4 describa la problemática u oportunidad a partir de la cual surgió la experiencia que está sistematizando, las causas directas de esa problemática u oportunidad y los aspectos negativos y positivos del entorno que influían para que no se hubiera podido resolver el problema o aprovechar la oportunidad [según sea el caso].A partir de los ejercicios de la Sesión 5, escriba la historia reflexiva de su experiencia.Recuerde que los principales elementos para tener en cuenta son: En esta sección es fundamental identificar y resaltar sólo los aspectos más determinantes para la experiencia; así se evita saturar la descripción con detalles innecesarios.Describa los resultados de su experiencia hasta el momento [si no ha concluido] o al final del proceso [si ya concluyó], teniendo en cuenta los aspectos del entorno que influyeron en estos resultados. Para ello, apóyese en los ejercicios de la Sesión 6.Describa las principales lecciones aprendidas con esta experiencia. Recuerde que el propósito de esta última sección del informe es compartir con los lectores sus recomendaciones sobre lo que se debe hacer o evitar en experiencias o procesos similares a este y por qué. Por favor, apóyese en el ejercicio de la Sesión 7.","tokenCount":"2593"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/6387060493.json b/data/part_5/6387060493.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..ac1dbcd959c0277a921fd6bf082d44ca3afa029c
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+++ b/data/part_5/6387060493.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e8a7b69b5e67aefc34fcb38b0d67edf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc0565c3-f411-479f-9880-0447dda2ceda/retrieve","id":"-1123969591"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"40fa9f65-1b58-41e2-ac0e-939f9a429edf","pagecount":"1","content":"A split-plot design with 2 soybean varieties (TGX-1904-6F & Jenguma) as main plots and 5 integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) methods as subplots. ISFM methods used include: Triple superphosphate at 60 kg/ ha(TSP) , Fertizol at 4 t/ ha (F), TSP + F, TSP + F + Boostxtra. Grain and fodder yield were measured and benefit cost (BCR) was estimated.• Soybean variety affected only fodder yield (Table 1).• ISFM affected both grain and fodder yield (Table 2).• Majority of farmers preferred TSP+F+Boostxtra application on soybean N (Fig. 1). • ISFM affected benefit cost ratio (Fig. 2).• Jeguma variety may be grown with TSP at 60 kg/ha to increase yield and profitability.Results from this study can be used for scaling-up activity in Africa RISING phase 2 to improve soybean productivity in in northern Ghana.The   ","tokenCount":"133"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/6403276572.json b/data/part_5/6403276572.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9663216157f18b9c4c164e03fcd117eb1014b13c
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d182b726d2a45ef21ec987d18db4e829","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e7054766-bd91-44e8-ae1e-2f84a0b3356f/content","id":"-95864098"},"keywords":["\\vheat","bed-planting","conventional and zero-tillage","nitrogen fertilizer Paraschivu Mirela* Agricultur. . . d and Development Resei.\"lrch Station Simnic-Craiova","road: Baicesti","no: 54","Cr<liova","Dolj","Romania conservation agriculture","Fusariumgraminearum","Gibberella zcac","Denxynivalenol tillage system","residue manJgement","soil moisture conservation terwah","permanent bcd","crop residue","wheat","tl'ff NARDI Fundulea","\"] Nicolae Titulescu street","Calarasi Country","Romania weed control","tiUage","herbicides g_ \"'}(/nrjT;)","ahoo.cont conservation tillage","no-till","maize","nitrogen fertilizer","soil quality tillage system","soil temperature","soil water","soil nutrient","crop performance CAAS","Beijing 1000fl1","International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CTMMYT)","Apdo. Post(l16-641","06600 conservation tillage","soil organic matter","soil microbial biomass","soil enzyme activities"],"sieverID":"aa053823-bf54-4b89-95f0-c81c90933c0e","pagecount":"60","content":"Internatiunal )' vl ajze a nd \\Vheal Improvem\\;;>nt Center The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT® (,. vww.cimmyt.orgt is an internationat not-for-pro.fit research and training organization. With partners in over 100 countries, the center applies science to increase food security, improve the productivity and profitability of farming systems, and sustain natural resources in the developing world. The center's outputs and services include improved maize and wheat varieties and cropping systems, the conservation of maize and wheat genetic resources, and capacity building. CIMMYT belongs to and is funded by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org) and also receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks, and other publiC and private agencies.This book is the result of the hard work of 8 CIMMYT trainees who participated in the visiting scientist 2008 Conservation Agriculture Course: \"Laying the groundwork for sustainable and productive cropping systems\". During 5 weeks, the scientists received <.1n intense training program that combined mentoring and problem solving <.1pproaches. Each participant had to define a clc<.lr research objective for the period of stay. 111e scientists participated actively in the ongoing cropping systems m<.1 nagement activities of the CIMMYT Mexico-based Cropping Systems Management team at both the experimental stations, located near to Mexico City at EI Batan and Toluca, and in nearby farmers' fields. Emphasis was given to conservation agriculture and resource conserving technologies: conventional and reduced till permanent bed planting for both irrigated and rain-fed conditions, using alternative crop residue management strategies. vVheat, maize, barley c.ll1d dry beans were the crops under study.Strong focus was placed on the importance of interdisciplinary approaches. Breeders helped to provide a better understanding of the nature of crop management by genotype interactions. Similarly, plant pathologists were involved in order to better understand disease interactions with the new tillage and crop residue management practices. An economist shed light on the complex system interactions and market chain development related to conservation agriculture, just to mention some of the numerous interactions of several CIMMYT scientists. Upon completion of the program, the participants presented their plans to initiate activities in their home countries to de research on and to extend to farmers the new technologies encountered in the program. n,ey developed the necessary skills for trial management and plant and soil monitoring as influenced by mc.lJ1agement practices.The main objectives of the program were: • To enhance understanding of the use and application of the conservation agriculture planting technologies and relevant agriculture implements (with emphasis on planters/planter modifications) for irrigated and rain-fed wheat and maize production systems. • To encourage and develop participants' ability to synthesize and use the information and knowledge related to conservation agriculture technologies (seeding methodologies in the different planting systems, irrigation water management, crop nutrient management, weed control strategies, and the importance of crop residue management). • To increase participants' knowledge of (long-term) trial planning and management. • To develop ski lls for monitoring soil and plant parameters as they relate to cropping management systems, as well as their influence on physical, chemical and biological soil quality, their effect on climate change adaptation and mitigation, and their impact on water and nutrient lise efficiency. • To foster positive attitudinal changes, such as improved confidence, increased motivation, and heightened appreciation of the benefits of team work and interdiSCiplinary research. • To create a minimum level of proficiency in order to generate scientifically-sound hypotheses, determine data collection strategies, and interpret data and summarize them into SCientifically-sound conclusions and recommendations.impact for the farmer household, increaSing agricultural production while reducing threats to the The adoption of conservation agriculture environment. Efficient management of the natural technologies has dramatically increased in resource base is the key to these improvements many countries nver the past 25 years. 111eyare (Govaerts et aI.,20(5). characterized by minimal soil disturbance (tillage) bef()re seeding (with the ultimate aim being zero-tillIn Brazil, sizable yield increases and income stability seeding) and by diverse strategies to increase crop for the farmers led to a wide adoption of the zero-till residue retention on the soil surface to ensure full technique (Saturino and Landers, 2(01). Lawrence ground cover (leading essentially to biological tillage) et al. (1994) reported consistent advantages in wheat over time. For example, there are now over 28 million grain yields for ZT compared with conventional ha of zero-till (ZT) seeding in Latin America with tillage (CT) in al14 years of their experiment in the bulk concentrated in the southern cone countries Australia. In a review of crop yield responses to of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. Much of this tillage in western Canada, Lindawall et al. (1994) acreage is zero-till with residue retention. However, reported equivalent or improvement yields with upon closer inspection, the adoption of reduced common spring grain crops. A study in west-central zero-till seeding combined with surface crop residue Saskatchewan, Canada has shown that grain yields re tention in the countries mentioned above, as well can be improved with ZT, prOViding there is an as nther large area adopters such as the United adequate weed control and plant stand (Brandt, 1992). States, Canada and Australia in particular f()r wheat Not all studies in Canada indicate higher yields under pwduction systems, has occurred mainly for rain ZT, compared to CT. Barley grain yields with ZT were fed production systems with a few exceptions where higher than with CT in dry years, less in excessively sprin kle irrigation is used (Sayre et aI.,20(4).wet years and the same in other years (Arshad and Dobb, 1991). In addition to providing higher Farmers adopt resource conserving practices only yields, ZT can reduce production costs: 15-20% by when ncar-term impacts on their well-being can be eliminating the 4-8 tillage operations practised under demnnstrated. Thus, sustainable fJrming systems conventional tillage systems (Landers et al., 2001). need to have an immediate positive economic One of the main constraints for reduced tillage and crop residue retention for surface irrigation, especially for wheat, is linked to the widespread use of solid stand planting on the flat combined with flood and basin irrigation systems that are commonly used thwughout the world, but especially for the major irrigated wheat producers in south Asia and China .In Mexico, 255,000 ha of land are under irrigated agriculture. A big part of them are planted with \\• \"heat from November to May and followed by maize from June to October 2(01). farmers from Mexico have used permanent bed systems for centuries. The origin and use of permanent bed systems has been associated '•\"ith soil erosion and declining soil fertility making agriculture unsustainable (Govaerts et a1., 2007). The only tillage on the permanent beds is the use of shovel or disc tools in the furrow bottoms to reshape the beds. We have looked at the use of miniature subsoiling shanks that operate in the middle of the bed tl~ a depth of about 15-20 cm to shatter potential shallow compaction in the bed that may have developed over time, but without inverting or destroying the permanent beds.Agriculture in the altiplano of central Mexico is practised mainly in the high valleys (1,500-3,000 m a.s.I.). Rain-fed cropping predominates, with rainfall (350-800 mm) occurring during a 4-6 month summer period, followed by dry frosty winters. Crops, dominated by maize (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivunJ L.) but including beans (phaseolus vulgaris L.), barley (l-loldeum vulgare L.) oats (Avena sativa L.) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) are planted at or just before the onset of the summer rains. Most rain events are intense afternoon storms with significant dry spells during the cropping season. The soil is bare for much of the year, with all crop residues removed for fodder, grazed and/or burned. Fields are tilled frequently, using mainly small, tractor-drawn disc plows/harrows and field cultivators. Sloping fields, heavy tillage and lack of ground cover lead to extensive erosion and run-off, resulting in loss of water and production potential (Fisher et aI., 2002;Sayre et a1., 2001;Scherr and Yadav, 1996).The main motivation for initiating permanent bed planting systems has been to develop crop production technologies that can offer marked reductions in production costs and increased yields (Sayre et al.,20(5). Bed planting provides a natural opportunity to reduce compaction by confining traffic to the furrow bottoms. The next step to increJse the sustainability of beds is to make them permanent, reducing or avoiding tillage and retaining and distributing crop residue on the surface, reshJping the beds only as needed. Permanent beds permit the impleme'ntation of crop residue to maintain a permanent soil cover for greater rainwater capture and soil moisture conservation (Govaerts et a1.,20(5). Permanent bed treJtments under rain-fed conditions combined with rotations and residue retention yield the same as the other conservation Jgriculture (CA) practices of ZT on the fbt with residue retention and crop rotation over a period of 6 years (Govaerts et aI., 2005). The extra advantage of permanent bed planting over ZT on the flat is thJt more varied weeding and fertilizer application practices Jre possible by trafficking in the furrow bottoms and the N fertilizer can be banded through the surface residues, redUCing potential N volatilization loss (Limon-Ortega and SJyre, 2002).Farmers who grow irrigated wheat on beds obtain 8% higher yields and save nearly 25% in production costs, compJred with the conventional tillage systems (Aquino, 1998). In addition, for wheat, most farmers apply over 75% of the total N fertilizer (average N rate for wheat is 275 kg N ha) as an incorporated, basal application prior to planting, which results in a law (30-35%) uptake efficiency (Meisner et ai., 1992). At present, most farmers in Mexico have adopted bed planting with two or three rows of the wheat seeded on top of beds 70-80 cm wide (furrow to furrow) with furrow irrigation as opposed to the traditional planting system of flat planting in solid stands and flood irrigation. The adoption of this new planting configuration has reduced the irrigation water requirement by 25%, provided new opportunities for mechanical weed control and afforded new opportunities to reduce tillage in addition to dramatically reducing the incidence of lodging (Sayre and Moreno Ramos, 1997).Until about 35 years ago, farmers in the Yaqui Valley practised basin/flood irrigation for wheat (the principal crop) as well JS for other crops, with extensive use of heavy tillage and burning of crop residues. Occasionally, farmers would hill-up crops like safflower, maize, sorghum, soybeans, sesame and dry beans for subsequent furrow irrigation after these crops had been planted on the flat following a pre seeding flood irrigation. In the middle 1970s, some f<\"lrmers began to p\\Jnt \\, vheat on flat beds raised between irrigation furrows, with the innovations that onlv 2-4 defined rows were planted on top of each bed (referred to as raised bed or bed p\\Jnting). Common bed widths ranged from 70 to 90 cm furrow to furrow, \\</ith 75 cm as the most common width. lise of wider beds was not possible due to irrigation problems associated with wetting across to the midd Ie of the bed for crops like wheat. Once the move to planting wheat on beds in this fashion was adopted, farmers began to plant most other crops on similar sized beds, but still continued to usc heavy tillage and excessive burning of crop residue before tilling, followed by the formation of new beds for each succeeding crop cycle (Sayre et aI.,2(05) Few farmers, however, have ad()pted permanent bed planting, although some have taken the first true step towards the usc of permanent beds, espeCially in the main crnpping systems that involve wheat or barley in the autumn/winter cycle, followed by maize, ~orghl.lm or soybean in the spring /summer cycle. The principal reason that brmers have not yet implemented the system is the lack of SUItable small grain seeders that can readily and reliably pbnt 2-3 rows of wheat or barlev on the untilled top of the permanent beds, espe~ially in the presence of high levels of surface-retained maize or sorghum straw (Savre, 2005). However, the machines have recently be~n made <wailable (Govaerts,personal comm.,20(8).The permanent bed planting system as a form of conservation tillage has been proposed for wheat and maize production in the irrigated areas of north\\vest Mexico in the Yaqui Valley (Ortega et aI.,20(0). This system cnnsists of planting two seed-rows of wheat on the top of raised-beds, and retaining plant residues from the previous crop, which is chopped and left in the field as stubble. Bed planting provides a natural opportunity to reduce soil compaction bv confirmin a traffic to the furrows (Ortega et aI., , 0 b d 20(5). Planting on conventional-tilled e s increases water lise efficiencv and decreases operational costs compared with co~ventional tilled wheat without IlL'ds (Aquino, 1998;Fahong et aI., 2004).Crop production practices such as ti Ilage, plant residue management, N fertilization and crop rotation influence a number of biological and physical soil attributes. Reducing till~ge combined with crop residue retention on the soil surface as stubble can increase water infiltration (Bruce et aI., 1990;Carter, 1992;AZ707. and Arshad, 1996;Elliot and Efetha, 1990;Shaver et aI., 2(02), reduce soil erosion, increase water use efficiency (Johnston et aI., 2002; . , McGarrv,20(2) and reduce water loss by evaporation. Crop rotation, on the other hand, can break soil borne pathogen cycles and reduce weed pressure (Karlen et aI., 1994).Permanents beds and residue retention as \" stubble produced superior wheat gr(,in yields in high-yielding environments; in low-yielding environments, permanent beds with residue bumed produced greater wheat grain yields. The lowest. gr.,in yields were obtained in the conventl()Jlal tIllage bed with residues incorporated (Limon-Ortega et .,1., 2(00). Full retention ,md partied retention of residues had similM yields, indicating that for irrigated systems with ~ssociated high residue yields, substantial 3mounts of residue can probably be removed for other economic uses without causing a yield decline. In addition, although the yields of properly-managed permanent beds are ~ot markedly higher than conventional tillage beds With reSidue incorporJtion, as will be seen, permanent bed production costs are markedly lower (S3yre et <11., 2004).The highest yields were obtained f(~r ~T with crop rotation and full retention in the ram ted areas of central Mexico. The lowest vie Ids were obtained with ZT with rotation and resid~e removal: nearly 37% less than the same m<1nagement with full residue retention. Mixed an<1lysis revealed significantly higher yields for ZT with residue retention compared to conventional tillage with and without residue incorporation. Residue was significant only when practising ZT. The wheat-maize rotation system with ZT and removal of residue performed better than continuous maize treatment with residue retention (Govaerts et aI.,20(5).The permanent beds are promising. Yields levels are comparable tothose of ZT treatments and residue retention is equally crucial. Planting wheat and maize on raised-beds is an innovative option that can help improve rainwater use and reduce soil erosion (Limon-Ortega and Sayre, 2003). Other advantages of permanent beds are that they facilitate weeding and the band application of fertilizers, and they control traffic, limiting compaction to furro~ bottoms (Limon-Ortega and Sayre,20(3). The systems also 3]]OW the use of lower se~ding rates for conventional, flat pl3nting syste~s and reduce crop lodging, especially for small grams (Sayre, 2004). Significant yield differences between the tillage and residue management treatments have been observed for wheat. Higher wheat yields have been obtained with permanent beds combined with residue retention. These yield differences from permanent bed s with burned residue are associated with gradual changes in soil physical, chemical and biologica I pa rameters.The permanent bed treatment with continuous crop residue retention has had, on average, the highest average yield, closely followed by conventional tillage \\vith residue incorporation, then the permanent bed treatments with full removal for fodder by bailing and, considerably inferior, permanent beds \\-\\lith residue burning.Nitrogen application at the 1,t node stage of wheat had excellent potential to produce greater wheat yields. An adequate N fertilizer rate for wheat at the p t node stage should be<300 kg N kg /ha. Nitrogen fertilizer application of 150 and 300 kg n ha at the 1 st node stage of wheat increased grain yields compared with preplant N fertilizer applications (Ortega et al., 2000).The permanent bed irrigated planting systems for wheat and other crops being developed in Mexico and elsewhere may finally provide a coherent technology to extend marked tillage reductions with appropriate management of crop residues for surface-irrigated production systems. Irrigation farmers must realize that some residue retention will be essential if they attempt to adopt permanent bed planting systems even though their primary goal may be simply to realize lower production costs. Both farmers and researchers in Mexico are firmly convinced that permanent bed planting technologies with furrow irrigation offer many improved opportunities. Farmers and researchers agree that permanent bed planting with rational surface residue retention and furrow irrigation offers the next step in improved technology to allow further cost reductions, such as providing more advantageous crop turn-around times and enhancing the soil biological, physical and chemical properties associated with long-term sustainable production opportunities. The implementation of permanent bed systems with crop residues can be considered an alternative practice that improves soil quality and yields with the concomitant reduction in operational costs.Based on wheat and mai ze yield performance, small scale maize and wheat farmers in the subtropical highland regions may expect yi eld improvements from 25 to 30% through adoption of ZT, appropriate rotations and retention of sufficient residues, as compared with the common practices of heavy tillage before seeding, monocropping and crop residue removal. Permanent bed planting with rotJtion zl11d residue retention has the advantage that more varied weeding and fertilizer application practices are possible.TI,e average bed-planting wheat yield is about 10% higher than for flood irrigation.Fa hong, W., Xuquing, W., Sayre, K., 2004  Sayre, K.D., Hoobs, PR, 2004. The raised bed system of cultivation for irrigated production conditions. Sustainable Agriculture and the International Rice Wheat System, pp. 337-345. Sayre, KD, Limon-Ortega, A, Govaerts, B., 2005. Experiences with permanent bed planting systems CIMMYT, Mexico. Evaluation and Performance of Permanent Raised Bed Cropping Systems in Asia, Australia and Mexico proceedings of Workshop, 'Pp.12-25. Scherr, S.j., Yadav, Y, 1996. Land degradation . in  the developing world : implications for food, agriculture, and the environment to 2020. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Pilper 14 . International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA Shaver, T.M., Peterson, G.A., Ahuja, L.R., Westfall,  D.G., Sherrod, L.A, Dunn, G., 2002. Surface soil properties after twelve years of dry land no-till management. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66, 1292-1:103.The impact of tillage, crop rotation and residue management on Fusarium Head Blight in wheat: a review 1. Introduction low relative humidity conditions and FHB is found only sporadically in the Himalayan foothills and in Fusarium head bBlight, commonly known as scab, Bangladesh (Duveiller, 2007).has become em important fungal disease in many wheat growing areas of the world. Gibbcrella zeae (Schwein).PetchJ proved the most is correlated to the contamination of grains with aggressive species towards wheat ears during fungal met<lbolites, mainly dcoxyniv<llenol (DON) pathogenicity tests (Stack and McMullen, 1985; which is toxic for humi.\"ln beings and animals (Dill Mesterhazy, 1978). It is estimated that scab may Macky and Jones, 2000;Meidaner, 1997; Sutton, affect up to 7 million hectares in China, and that 1982). Of 114 isolates of Fusarium srmninearll1l1 2.5 million tons of grain may be lost in epidemic collected from soil or cereals on a world-wide basis, years (Dubin et aI., 1997). FHB is also present in 95% were ci.\"lpi.\"lble of producing DON (Mi rocha et parts of South America, in countries like Argentina, a1., 1989). ApprOXimately 50% of DON in naturally Uruguay and Brazil. In Rio Grande do SuI, Brazil, contaminated wheat remi.\"lins after the milling damage caused by wheat scab is around 12% of the process, in flour DON is vcry stable during baking potential harvest (Casa et aI., 2004cited by Duveiller (Dexter et al., 1996;Boyacioglu ct aI., 1993). In view et ai, 2007). In China, the United States, Canada and of that, many countries have set legal thresholds ()f some European countries Fusarium gmminearum is FusJrium toxin concentrations in food and feed, e.g.the domin,lting Fusarium spl\"cies, causing seedling in Canada DON concentration should be <2 or <5 blight, crown rot, foot rot and head blight in cereals, mg kg-l, in the United States <l or <5 -In mg kg•' in especially in wheat (Gilbert et aI., 1995;Wong et food and feed and in Austria <0.5 mg kg-l in food aI., 1992;Wilcoxon et aI., 1988;Stack and McMullen (Gilgenberg-Hartung, 1999). European Union (EU). Fusarium gramilleamm is also present in South regulation 856/ 2005 establishes a maximum level Asia, but the wheat flnwering there coincides with of 750 !J.g/kg (0.75 ppm) for DON in cereal flour (excluding durum wheilt, oat and maize flour). These kinds of regulations are not established in milny countries and many people eilt the cereal unaware of any danger. Beside the toxicological aspect, the germination percentage of in fested grains is substantially reduced.A widespread epidemic of Fusarium head blight cost wheat (Triticwn aestivum L) producers in Ontario over $100 million in 1996(Schaafsma, 1999). In the United States the cumulate direct and secondary economic losses from FHB in hard red spring (HRS) wheat, soft red winter (SRW) wheat, durum wheat and barley is estimated at $ 7.7 billion from 1993-2001 (Nganje et aI.,20(4). llle states of North Dakota and Minnesnta accoun t for abou t 68% ($5.2 bi II ion) of total losses. Conservation agricultu re (CA), which consists of reduced tillage combined with retention of crop residues on the soil surface (30% or more) is becoming more widely used. This practice helps to reduce soil erosion, conserves energy and increases soil moisture and crop yields (Bockus and Shroyer,199R). All Fusarium species arc capable to surviving saprophytically on host residues (Perry et al., 1995), although FHB epidemiCS arc generally considered to originate from inoculum associated with infested crop residues, mainly of maize and wheat (Sutton 1982). There is considerable evidence that continuous \\, .\"heat cropping or wheat follmving maize in a rotation system significantly increases the incidence and severity of FHB. Potential inoculum for FHB is reported to be mainly ascospores produced on host residues that have remained at or above the soil surface (Khonga et Sutton, 1988). Practices for suppressing initial inoculum, especially rotation of wheat and maize with non-host crops and plowing infested residues, have long been recommended for managing FHB (Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000; Miller et aI., 1998;Wiese, 1987). Crop rotation or residue management may not only reduce the primary inoculum and FHB but also influence the grain yield and grain quality (Lopez-Bellido et aI., 1998).Under fundamentally different conditions, tiIJage systems vary in their effed on the microbial community (Bockus and Shroyer, 1998). The microbial community under no-tillage is altered from that under conventional tillage. The community includes both pL:mt pathogens and the microorganisms that are natural antagonists of these pathogens. Therefore, no-tillage cropping systems have very different pathogen problems than conventional-tillage systems. (Bockus and Shroyer, 1998). The interaction of tillage and Fusarium graminearum infection is a matter of particular interest. Contradictory data on the effect of tillage on Fusarium species are available. Under different depth and type of implement used no-ti llage decreased (Webe et a I., 20(1), increased (Bailey and Duczek, 1996) or had no effect (Swan ct al., 2000;Wildermuth et aI., 1997) on FHB disease.Crop residue placement, which is dictated by tillage practice, has a significant influence on crop residue decomposition (Holland and Coleman 1987). Hubbard and Jordan (1996) observed faster residue decomposition with residues incorporated in the soil than with residues placed on the soil surface. Plowing to reduce Fusarium inoculated crop residues on the soil surface may be a key to reduce the infection risk and protect grain yield and quality, since the efficient control of Fusarium by fungicides is not possible, yet (Mesterhazy, 1997).11le maintenance of soil health increases the biological control of pathogens. Snme Fusarium species are well known plant pathogens, but also in this genus many saprophytic species arc active biological agents (Janvier ct al., 2007) which may be used to reduce or prevent plant disease caused by pathogenic Fusarium strains and other pathogens (Frilvel et al.,20(5). w.e. da LUZ (2004) studied the effect of the combination of bioproteLiants with fungicide to control FHB of wheat, induced by Fusarium graminearum under field conditions. He found that the combination of the biological with the chemical control treatment significantly reduced the intensity of FHB and provided a significant increase in grain yield over the non-treated control in both years.of study, 2002-2003. There is no complete resistance to FHB in wheat, although many sources of partial resistance have been identifjed in a diverSity of germplasm sources that frequently differed with respect to the chromosomal regions governing resistance (Liu and Anderson, 2003;Shen et al., 2(03). Resistance to FHB has different components (Wisniewska et al., 2002;Masterhazy, 1995) and there is a strong influence of environmental conditions in the response of wheat to FHB.Agronomic practices such as tillage, crop rotation and residue management all play important roles in determining the risk of this disease, by influencing the type, amount and location of inoculum. The objective of this overview is to identify agronomic practices, such as tillage systems, crop rotation and residue management options that might be associated with the development of FHB and DON content in \\vheat. Based on the knowledge outline above, the present overview focuses on the main questions: Docs the infection level of wheat crops with Fusarium gramincarum di ffer after infected pre-crops of either maize or wheat?Can we control FHB infection using different tillage systems (conventional versus zero-tillage), crop residue management options (removal versus retention) and crop rotation?Is the reduction of crop residues on the soil surface after maize and wheat pre-crops a sustainable management practice to reduce the FHB disease level and DON contamination of wheat? Which of several methods (technologies, right varieties, etc.) can be recommended for a fast, cheap and reliable assessment of the infection level and the toxin contamination of a wheat crop? The effective crop rotation coupled with reduced tillage or no-tillage, residue management, could reduce the incidence and severity of FHB disease correlated with DON levels, while improving soil quality and system profitability by reducing production costs and increasing wheat yield and stability.The teleomorph (sexual state) of the fungus is Gibbcrella zeae, which belongs in the Hypocrcaceae, a family characterized by brightly colored perithecia (sexual fruiting structure). Perithecia are dark purple or black and form abundantly on wheat and maize stubble. Ascospores (sexual spores) form within sacs called asci and are forcibly discharged from the perithecium through a single small opening known as an ostiole. Each ascus contains eight ascospores that have zero to three septa. Ascospores measure 20-29 x 3.5-4.5 ~m. ll1e ascospores are hyaline to light brown in color and slightly curved with rounded ends. The majority of the isolates of F. graminearum are homothallic, meaning that they are able to sexually reproduce without a partner. Heterothallic isolates, which require a compatible partner for sexual reproduction, are less common. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that many of the homothallic isolates have the ability to outcwss with other compatible isolates. The degree to which this occurs in the field under natural conditions is unclear.TIle anamorph «lsexual state) of the fungus causing FHB is Fusarium graminearum. The asexual state of the fungus produces spores ca Iled macroconidia and microconidia . In agar culture Fusarillm grmninearum appears gray, pink, brown or burgundy. Macroconidia (asexual spores) are derived from conidium-producing cells called phialides. The phialides are clustered together in cushion-shaped masses known as sporodochia. The macroconidia are 41-60 x 4.5-5 !-lm, hyaline, canoe shaped spores usually with five or more septa. Globose chlamydospores arc produced mainly in macroconidia, but may also form in mycelia. Conidia, chlamidospores and ascospores are microscopio sizes.TIle relation between the time of flowerino-of a (J wheat cu Itivar, weather and development of FHB was recognised early in the history of research on this disease. Arthur (891) noted that the time of flowering of a particular cultivar could affect the amount of blight that developed in it.Fusarium graminearum overwinters as chlamidospores or mycelia in the soil or in host crop residues which serve as a source of primary (initial) inoculum in the spring. TIle fungus can also survive on wheat seed. The main source of infection is ascospores formed on crop residues and conidia (Sutton, 1982). New fungal strains with increased pathogenicity may develop as a result ofthe sexual reproductive cycle (Figure 1). Temperature and water in the soil and envir(mment greatly affect sporulation of fusarium graminearum from residues (Garcia-Garza and Fravel, 1998;Wang, 1996). The most suitable temperature for producing conidia and ascospores is 15-20 °C and the most suitable soil moisture is 70-80% of field capacity (Wang, 1996). Bai and Shaner (1996) found that on potato dextrose agar in the dark, Fusarium srnmincarum grew not at all at 4 or 36°C, grew slowly at 8 and 32\"C, but grew rapidly between 12 and 28°C. The maximal growth rate was at 28°C. Wheat heads arc susceptible from anthesis until the soft dough stage, but the infections occuring du ring anthesis cause the most damage, resulting in shrivelled, lightweight kernels, reduced seed germination, seedling blight and poor stands. (Perry et aI., 1995;Bai and Shaner, 1994). During warm temperatures (25 to 28°C) and wet conditions blight symptoms develop within two to four days after infection.Rainfall and wind Me involved in the dispersal of Fusarium spores. Excessive rainfall during the growing season and especiaLly during a one-to-three week period prior to anthesis can lead to epidemics of Fu s<1 rium head bl ight. Strausbaugh and Maloy (1986) found th<lt many more eMS were infected with fusariul1I g mmil1eanlll1 and other Fusarium species in wheat crops receiving overhead irrigation (89%) compared with crops which did not receive irrigation (O' ;'{). Wang (1996) showed that the airborne Fusarium spores in cereal crops were mainly ascospores and that their incidence was closely related to rainfall events. He found that ascospores were released actively only 1-2 cm above the soil surface, but they C<1n be transported long dist<1nces by wind. Conidia were only released and spread und er conditions of ,•.., ind and r<linf<1]l. Other authors assume, from field observations of disease occurrence, that spores of fusariul1I s mmiJlcantm can be disseminated by ,• vind up to 50 m in height and 30 m horizontally from the source (Fernando et a I., 1997).Plant pJthologists use the disease trianglc metaphor to describe the wle of host, pathogen and environmental conditions in the development of a plant diseJse epidemic, but this model could be too simplistic to describe the complex interaction s among these three elements (Leonard and Bushnell,2(03). Leonard and Bushnel I (2003) use the ide<1 of cpidemic credits. For an epidemic to occur, a minimum number of host credits, pathogen credits and enuironment credits must be available. Host credits arc represented by the Jbundance, spatial uniformity and inherent susceptibility of the host plants to the pathogen. Pathogen credits include its abundance, its ability to produce primJry and secondary inoculum, its proximity to the host and its inherent pathogeniCity. Environment credits include the frequency of rainfall or de\"\", the du ration of wetness of plant surfaces and perhaps on the substrate on which the pathogen produces priJllnry inoculum, wind speednnd direction, nnd temperature.The Fusarium species can survi ve on crop residues in the soil for more than 6 years as mycelium, ascospores Jnd conidin or chlamydospores (Haware et a!., 1996;Reis, 1990;Sutton, 1982). The inocululll level is reduced ns stubble decomposition, but even under fJvorable conditions for decomposition the pathogen cnn survive for Jt least one year (Sutton, 1982). Under id en tical environmental conditipns in tW() areas that d i Her in host or pathogen cred its, epidemics of different intenSity will develop, and in a fnvourable environment, an epidemic may develop from only a modest amount of primary inoculum or ,• vith o nly a moderately susceptible host (Leonnrd and Bushnell,2003).  Crop rotation serves to sanitize the soil by utilizing the native microorganisms to weaken and kill residue-borne pathogens (Bockus and Shroyer, 1998). They thought that the single factor for the success of a continuous, reduced-tillage system is the simultaneous adoption of a proper crop rotation scheme, vvhich involves no plant species that arc susceptible to the pathogens. Rotation to non-host crops allows time for pathogen-in fested residues to degrade in the <lbsence of new host tissue. Pereyr<l et a!. (2004) showed that in the Red River Valley, Minnesota, crop rot<ltions that include a host of Gibberella zelle only once every three years may aid in reducing the in-field inoculum under reduced tillage systems. Non-host crops that can be incorporated into rotations in Minnesota include sunflower, beans, canola and forage legumes. Cultivation of maize and other susceptible grasses can have a great effect on the <lbundance and species composition of Fusarium species in soil (Burgess, \"1981). The use of FHB-susceptible crops in rotation with wheat and the short time between crops increases disease risk.Peritecia represent the sexual stage (telemorph) of the fungus, Gibbcrella zeae, and arc produced on \\vheat glumes. Peritecia play an important role in the pathogen'S survival from year to year and coexist with mycelia in residues of the previous crop to constitute the initial inoculum source for scab. In the Red River Valley of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota and the Canadian province of Manitoba, a significant increase in conservation tillage practices in the last 20 years has resulted in greater amounts of crop residues on the soil surface (McMullen et aI.,]9(7). Crop residues in zero-tillage plots can provide a significant source of Fusarium inoculum (Miller et a1., 1998). Fusarium species can produce conidia on blighted spikes; head blight is generally regarded as a monocyclic disease (Bai and Shaner, 1994) and the primary inoculum will considerably influence the intensity of the disease that develops in the field. If residue is the main source of primary inoculum, then the amount of the primary inoculum will probably be related to the density of crop residues on the soi I surface. Abundance of inoculum depends on how long residue remains intact after the harvest of the crop and how well the fungi survive in this residue (Leonard and Bushnell,2(03). fllsllrium graminenrum and other species of fusarium survive not only in the residue of the wheat and barley, but in the residue of maize (Sutton, ]982) and rice (Bai and Shaner, 1994).In the Corn Belt of the USA and in other areas where small grains and mai ze arc grown, maize is probably the more important f'ource of inoculum, because maize residue lasts so much longer than the residues of small grains (Leonard and Bushnell,20(3). In the northern Great Plains, infested residue of wheat and barley is a more important source of inoculum than maize, because not much maize is grown there, owing to the short grO\\ving season (McMullen et a1., 1997). In the north of China, where wheat is sown after rice, rice stubble is a major sou rce of inoculum of Gibberella zeae (Bai and Shaner, 1994). Fernandez et a!. (1993) showed that fusarium graminellrum could survive in the wheat residues, under a subsequent crop of soybeans, maize, or on follow ground, into the summer after the wheat crop. observed that wheat and barley residues produced more ascospores of Gibberella zelle than maize and other gramineous residues. Sunflower residue did not support ascospores production . Wheat and barley residues supported Gibberella zeae colonization longer in no-tillage than in reduced tillage systems. In another experiment, Pereyra et a1. (2004) observed that survival and inoculum production of Gibberella zeae was related to the rate of wheat residue decomposition. Infested wheat residues, including intact nodes, internodes and leaf sheaths were placed in fibreglass mash bags on the soil surface at 7.5 to 10 cm and 15 to 20 cm depths in chisel plowed plots and 15 to 20 cm deep in mouldboard plowed plots in October 1997. Buried residue decomposed faster than residue placed on the soil surface. Less than 2% of the dry matter residue remained in buried treatments after 24 months in the field, while 25% of the residue remained in the soil surface treatment. Surface residue proVided a substrate for Gibberella zeae for a longer period of time than buried residue. Twenty-four months after the initiation of the trial, the level of colonization of nodes in buried residue was half the level of colonization of residue on the soil surface. Ascospores of Gibberella zeae were still produced on residue pieces after 23 months and these spores were capable of inducing disease.In the experiment establ ished at th. e University of Minnesota's Agricultural Experiment Statj~n at Morris during 1994-1996, Dill-Macky and Jones (2000) showed that soil coverage with residues was the lowest in moldboard plow (MP) treatments (9%) and grei1ter in chisel plow (CP) (Tl %) and no-tillage (NT) (65%) treatments. Residues were greater in plots following corn (MP: 9%; CP: 42%; NT: 67%) than wheat (MP: 9%; CP: 34%) except in no-tillage wheat (NT: 83%), where residues were the most abundant of all treatments examined . Soybeans generated less residue (23% coverage) than the other crops tested (maize: 41 %; wheat: 42%). Fusarium gral11inearum was the predominant species isolated from maize and whei1t, while other Fusariul11 species, especially r sporotrichioides, predominated in the soybean residues. Disease incidence and severity were significantly influenced by previous cr;)p and tillage in each year of the study. Disease incidence was greatly increased when wheat was planted on maize residues and least when wheat followed soybean.Disease incidence was lower in mouldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or zero-tillage plots. Among the previous crop tillage combinations, disease incidence was significantly higher in the chisel plow and zero-tillage treatments of maize residues than in any other treatment combination.Disease severity was higher in wheat follmving maize than in wheat following wheat and soybean.Disease severity was lower in mouldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or zero-tillage plots. Dill-Macky and Jones (2000) showed that the percentage of wheat residue pieces infested with Fusarium gramillcarum, which was generally higher than the percentage of infested maize residues, may reflect the use of the wheat cultivar Norm, known to be highly susceptible to FHB, and to the presence of favourable conditions for FHB development in 1994, 1995 and 1996 when the previous crops were established.Although maize and small grain residues are generally implicated as the source of primary inoculum for Fusarium gramincarum, Baird et al.(1997;Fernandez and Fernandes, 1990) found that this species can be isolated from soybean residues under conservation tillage systems. Tn several parts of Brazil, where whei.lt and soybean are commonly in cmp roti.ltion, FusariulIl smminearum could be isoli.lted in high frequency (12 to 65%) from soybean residues (Fernandez and Fernandes, 1990) and from wheat stems from the same fields at frequencies of 35 to 85%. Baird et al. (1997) noted that soybean residues harboured many fungi during subs~quent crops of other legumes or cereals.A greenhouse pot incubation study realised by Yi ct al.( 2()02) showed that the incorpor<ltion depth of crop residues has a significant influence on the growth of Fusarium gmmincarum on the crop residues. The number of fungal units on the residues decreased with increasing incorporation depth. After 90 days of incubation, the burial of crop residues at ]() cm or '15 cm reduced the number of Fusarium colonies by 16-28% or 39-42%, respectively, cnmpared with SlI rfacc incorporation at 5 cm. Under field cond itions a deep burial might conserve pre-crop residues for a long period due to lower soil temperature and less aeration deep in the soil, incorporating crop residues as completely and as early as possible may reduce disease incidence and severity for the succeeding crop to the highest degree (Miller et al. 1998;Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000).Byosinthesis of the mycotoxins depends on many factors, especially the strain of the pathogen, the substrate, the period of colonization of the substrate, temperature, moisture and competing organisms (Sutton, 1982;Cooney et a1., 2001). For instance, it has been suggested that resistance to Fusarium head blight may be controlled by different genes (Bai and Shaner, 1994).Several studies have examined the effect of tillage practices on DON levels (Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000;Schaafsma et al., 2001;Yi et al., 2001), but the findings vary with the impact that tillage and the amount of crop residue had on disease levels and often no difference among tillage systems was observed. Schaafsma et al. (2001) observed that less than 3% of the variation in DON levels ,• vas associated with tillage. The average DON levels in minimum tillage (3.9 ppm) systems were higher than in zero-tillage (3.3 ppm) and conventional tillage systems (2.5 ppm).It was observed that in 1997, which was an epidemic year in Ontario, tillage has evident effects on DON levels. Average DON levels were higher in minimum tillage systems (1.3 ppm) than those in either zero tillage (0.7 ppm) or conventional tillage (0.5 ppm). Miller et al. (1998) observed that tillage in Ontario was not an influential variable for DON accumulation. Miller et al. (1998) suggested that modest inoculum levels from other sources (not from residue on the soil surface) are required for an epidemic, especially when favourable weather conditions occur during susceptible stages of wheat development.Using an experiment during 1994-1996, Dill-Macky and Jones (2000) showed that the deoxynivalenol content was influenced by the previou~\" crop residue and tillage treatments. DON was significantly lower in wheat following soybean than inwheat following wheat or maize. DON levels ,,,,ere higher in wheat following maize, than in wheat following wheat. DON levels were lower in wheat harvested from mouldboard plowed treatments and were higher in grain harvested from zero-tillage treatments than from chise.l plowed treatments for the previous crop reSIdues ot wheat and maize. Schaasma et al. (20(H) found that average DON levels in wheat planted into maize stalk were over twofold higher that those in wheat planted follmving soybean, or in wheat planted after wheat. He observed that crops planted 2 years before wheat had less effect on DON levels than the crop planted in the year before wheat planting. Only 3% of the variability of DON could be attributed to the crop 2 years before wheat. The average DON level in the fields where maize and wheat were grown 2 years before wheat was at least 57% greater than in the fields where soybean was the crop 2 years previous to the wheat. Crops grown 3 years before wheat accounted for less than 1% ofthe variation in DON.Dill-Macky and Jones (2000) showed that grain yields were significantly affected by previous tillage and previous crops. Grain yield was greater in wheat following soybean than in wheat following wheat or maize as in the table. For all wheat on \",;heat and wheat on maize residue treatments, excepting wheat on maize residue in the 1997 irrigated site, yield was greater following mouldboard plowed than in either chisel plowed or zero-tillage treatments Dill-Macky and Jones (2000). The highest test weights were generally recorded either in mouldboard plowed treatments or in treatments where soybeans were the previous crop.Using different treatments, such as rotation (continuous maize or wheat and the rotation of both), tillage (conventional, zero and permanent beds), crop residue management (full, partial or remove), Govaerts et al. (20D5) showed that zero-tillage with residue retention resulted in higher and more stabile yields compared to conventional tillage with or without residue incorporation. Conventional tillage with or without residue incorporation resulted in intermediate yields. Zero-tillage treatments without residue reduced yields significantly, except in the case of continuous wheat which still performed better than other treatments with zero-tillage and residue removal (Govaerts et aI.,20(5). Zero-tillage treatments with partial residue removal gave yields equivalent to treatments with full retention (Govaerts et aI.,2(05). The lowest Yields were obtained with zero-tillage with ra'tation and residue removal, 37% less than the same management with full residue retention. Limon-Ortega et al. (200D) showed that permanent bed (PB) treatments and residue retention as a stubble produced higher wheat yields in high-yielding environments and the lowest grain yields were obtained in the conventional tillage bed with residues incorporated.Disease management employing cultural control options could be a key component in the FHB management strategy. Cultural control options for FHB management principally are focused on crop residues, as the principal source of inoculum.Burying Fusarium graminearum infested crop residues in the soil can reduce the Fusarium graminearum population, but if decomposition is slowed down, the pathogen may survive for longer periods in the soil. Disease incidence and severity is significantlv higher in the chisel plowand zero-tillage treatmel~ts of maize residues than in any other treatment combination. The DON level in minimum tillage is higher than in zero-tillage and conventional tillage systems, but is lower in wheat following non-host crops, than wheat following maize. The highest and more stabile wheat yields are obtained in zero-tillage with residue retention compared to conventional tillage with or without residue incorporation.If there is a move to more intensive maize/cereal cropp'ing or to conservation agriculture, the risk of FHB could increase through increased levels of inoculum, especially under favourable environmental conditions. A move to more resistant cuIt ivars will reduce the risk of FHB and high mycotoxin levels. . Leaving large amounts of residue on the soil surface is a more desirable farming practice (Bockus and Shroyer, 1998). To reduce soil erosion from wind and water, crop residue needs to be maintained on the soil surface. l1:lCre are many benefits from maintaining crop residues i~ addition to soil conservation. These include retaining more moisture, slowing water movement, increasing water infiltration, lowering soil temperature and improving habitat for wildlife. Because of these benefits, it is desirable to manage residue borne disease through methods that do not destroy crop residue. Even plant diseases become a yield. Under those conditions the benefits of conservation agriculture should be promoted. Tn many regions in the world, water is the primary limiting factor for crop production (Johnston et  The CA principles of minimal soil disturb,1llc(', su rface residue retention a nd crop rotation, along with profitability at the farm level, are increasingly recognized as essential for sustainable agriculture.NT alone is an insu fficient condition for CA (Erenstein, 2002, 2003). If NT is used without residue retention and without suitable crop rotation, it can be more harm fu I to agro-ecosystem productivity and resollrce quality than a continuation of conventional practices (Sayre, 2000;Wall, 1999). In the semi-arid and rain-fed areas of central Mexico, positive effects were observed with no-tillage, crop rotation and crop residue retention, compared with common farming practices (Covaerts et aI.,20(6). Besides the struggle to reduce costs and fuel consumption, erosion control and increasing vvater infiltration are still the main driving forces for no-till cldoption. Till<1ge practices and crop residue management affect the way water moves into and through the soil (infiltr<'ltion), as well as the way water moves from the soil into th e atmosphere (evaporation) (Gicheru, 1994).Conservation agriculture (no-tillage with mulch and crop rotation management), can playa major role ill managing soil moistllre conditions. The absence or reduction of soil disturbance in no-till both minimizes soil moistllre loss from the soil's surface <'Ind lll<lXimizes soi l moisture storage. It enhances beneficial soil physical properties such as the increased infiltration rate, the maintenance of soil macropores and the reduction of surface runoff during rainfall, thus increasing soil moisture storage. Crop residues on the soil su rface form a barrier to water loss by evaporation, increasing the amount of moisture stored in the plant root zone which is then available to the crop. Field research has shown higher moisture levels, decreased soil temperatures and more stable soil aggregates (improved soil structure) under zero-tillage (ZT) compared to conventional tillage (CT), (Carter, 1992). Baker and Laflen (1983) reported that the observed effectiveness of no-till for the conservation of soi I and water varies significantly. Runoff from no-till plots was reported to be as great as runoff from conventional tillage plots in some examples (Laflen and Colvin,198]). HO\\vever, several researchers have reported increases in infiltration and reduction in runoff due to no-till practises.From the researcher's point of view, the primary objective of any dry-land farming in marginal . rainfall areas should be a sustainable crop productIOn bv harvesting and conserving rain water. This calls f~r soil management practices that not only improve rain infiltration but also conserve adequate soil moisture for plant growth (Gicheru, 1994). Therefore, the present overview was conducted to answer the following questions: Do reduced tillage and/or residue retention increase moisture in the soil? vVhich is the combination of the technological links that contribute to increased soil moisture conservation and improved crop performance? Vv'hat is the social and economic impact of such management practices? Reduced tillage coupled with residue retention and crop rotation would lead to increased water conservation through soil improvements and would, thus: 1. limit the devastating consequences of drought (tillage techniques are important for increasing and conserving the moisture in soil). 2. reduce soil erosion caused by rainfall (as residues protect soil from intense rainfall). 3. increase physical soil quality (better rainfall water infiltration in soil). Long-term no-till studies indicate that organic matter increases over time, further increasing soil quality.Knowledge of water infiltration under different farming systems i; importam, because water infiltration greatly influences root zone soil water content, runoff and erosion. Reduced soil erosion from tillage systems which leaves crop residue on the soil surface has been demonstrated by several researchers (Laflen and Colvin, 1981). Some research has demonstrated that reduced tillage and no tillage practices increase soil moisture content, lower soil temperature and aggregate stability (Kemper and Derpsch, 1981). ]n Tanzania , some research showed that cereal crops on tied ridges with crop residue mulch performed better than those on open ridges without residue mulch., This performance is attributed to adequate conservation of soil moisture with minimal evaporation water losses (Jones and Mitawa, 1986). With residue mulch, the raindrop impact is absorbed, and erosion and crusting are reduced.The residue mulch slows the runoff, allowing more time for infiltration. Edwards et al. (1990) reported that infiltration could increase bv more than 100 mm yr• 1 in a \\, vatershed farmed with no-till practices, as compared to similar fields that were conventionally tilled. They concluded that the soil's physical properties, possibly macro pores due to earthworm activities, caused. t~e increase in infiltration. Increased earthworm activity has been found by several researchers to be the main reason for increases in infiltration in no-till systems. (Oerpsch et al., 1986).Savabi et al.( 2008) conducted an experiment in 1992 to evaluate the infiltration characteristics of no-till vs. conventional tillage systems in different farms in Indiana and Illinois, and to study the relative importance of surface residues and subsurface macroporosity on infiltration rates for both till~ge systems using simulated rainfall and the pondmg infiltrometer method. In these areas, the results indicated that no-till farms had higher infiltration rates than those of conventional farms when earthworm activitv and/or residue amounts were higher in the no-tillage farm. A current agricultural research effort in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya was focused on intensive and efficient utilization of the limited soil and water resources. In this area the research is aimed at reducing any significant soil and water losses, increasing in situ moisture in the soil profile and, eventually, at increasing crop yields (Gicheru, 1994).In North Dakota, no-till or direct seeding has many moisture conservation advantages over conventional tillage. No-tillage leaves the most stub~le o:,er winter to catch snow. No-tillage does not requIre tillage before seeding with the possible loss of seedbed soil moisture. No-tillage stubble protects the soi I moisture with a mulch cover that limits moisture losses during the growing season. Long-term no tillage studies indicate that organic matter increases over time, further increasing soil quality (Franzen, 1997).To investigate the best way to perform fallow and its effect on soil water content (SWC) and root growth after fallow, an experiment was conducted on two soils in La Segarra, a semi-arid area in the Ebro Valley (Spain). Three tillage systems were compared: subsoil tillage, minimum tiUage and no tillage. Consequently, no differences in total water storage efficiency (WSE) vvere found between tillage systems. During the crop period, the differences in SWC between tillage systems were small. Regarding yields, the best tillage system depended on the ye<lr.No-tillage is potentia lly the best system for eXL'Cuting fallow, but residues of the preceding crop must be left spread over the soil (Lampurlanes, Let ai., 2002). In another semi-arid area in northern Spain, the effects of conservation have been determined. They stud ied no-till, with and without stubble burning (58), and reduced chisel-plow tillage -(RT) versus conventional tillage (mouldboard plmv -(MT» on available soil water capacity (AWC) and related properties throughout 5 years of management on a clay loam calcic soil in rain-fed conditions. Available \\-vater capacity \\vas greater with no-till than with RT and MT. Higher soil w<lter capacity under conservation agriculture systems (no-till, NTSB and RT) than under MT W<lS <lttributed mainly to greater available water capacity and to the mulching effect of crop residues. Crop yield in the driest year of the five-year period was lowest under MT, whereas no differences among treatments were found over the five-year period. Stubble burning did not affect AWC nor crop yield. Tillage had a greater impact on soil properties and on crop yield than crop residue management (Bescansa et aI, 2006).In a study conducted in India, in a sub-humid area, rice residue mulching in barley fields conserved 19 21 mm of moistu re in a deep soil profile, compared \\• 'lith residue removal. (S'lrkar and Singh, 20(7). Since 1991, a rain-fed experiment ha s been conducted by CIMMYT in the central volcanic highlands of Mexico to generate information concerning the enduring effects of tillage/seeding practices, crop rotations and crop residue management on the performance of maize and wheat. The objectives were to determine the effect of different tillage (CT and NT), crop residue m.:magement (removal vs. retention) and different crop rotations on infiltration, moisture content, incidence of root rnt and nematode populations. Water infiltration and soil moisture levels were greater under NT when residue was left in the ficld than when residue was removed. Higher infiltration rates and favourable moisture dynamics supported an up-to-30% yield increase (Govaerts et al ., 2007).In semi-arid areas of Kenya, the low crop yields arc mainly influenced by variable rainfall. In an attempt to meet the increasing demand for food, cultivation has been extended into more marginal areas, leading to increased pressure on soil and water resources an d exposing them to greater risks of degradation. (Gitonga et aI.,20(8). Tillage methods such as mulching can play an important role in improving smallholder crop yield and increasing soil matter resources. (Gitonga et aI., 2008).The residue mulch reduces evaporation in several ways: by reducing solar heating of the soil, by keeping drying winds off the soil surface, by insulating the soil to keep it cooler, and by intercepting some of the water as it evaporates.Research has shown that the residue mulch can reduce water losses from evaporation by 50%, saving as much as 7 to 9 cm per year, increasing yields in dry land production or decreaSing irrigation costs in irrigation production (jasa, 2006).Economics is one of the main considerCltions for acc'epting or rejecting any technology. The results in many places have shown that returns in no tillage exceeded those in conventional tillage (Bhan and Bharti, 2008). Compared to conventional tillage, no-tillage has numerous agronomic advantages (Oerpsch, 1999; Sayre, 1998). Garcia et aI.,(20(11) record, numerous positive assessments of conservation agriculture by both farmers and scientists in many countries, who highlight simultaneous micro-economic advantages (e.g. increased farm incomes and reduced risk), social and envi ronmental advantages (e.g. enhancement of soil resources, improved soil structure, better water infiltration and consequently reduced water runoff and soil loss). No-till increases flexibility in the timing of crop operation and crops can be planted closer to the optimal dates. Net savings in terms of the cost of fuel, herbicides and labour under no tillage in wheat have been reported to be US$35-60/ ha in Uttar Pradesh (Manhanta,2(02).The inclination to use conventional tillage methods is a problem for implementation. Other factors included general lack of information and skills on conservation tillage methods among smallholder farmers and low incomes that hindered the farmers' capacity to access no-till machinery and purchase herbicides. An economic advantage is important. Conservation tillage (no-till) reduces costs by 20-25% compared to conventional tillage, improving the social and economic situation of farmers.The infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration follow, in general, this trend: no-till + residue retention> till + residue retention> till with residue removed. Regarding soil moisture content, in general, no-tillage with residue retention associated with crop rotation had higher soil moisture, even in the deeper layers, than when residues were removed or the other tillage practiced. To improve moisture infiltration rates and soil moisture levels under no-tillage, it is critical to leave crop residue in the field. Farmers should be encouraged to leave the residue in the field after harvest to act as mulch. Residue mulching as a soil management practice would be recommended, despite the problems which can be associated with the time that its available. No-tillage reduces costs by 20% compared to conventional tillage, due to the reduced use of machinery and the increased yield, thereby creating a profit.. Efforts should, therefore, be made to promote conservation tillage among farmers.This paper is a result of conservation agriculture training supported by the UMP-MAKIS program.The author thanks Dr. Bram Govaerts and Antonio Castellano for their support.* I would think that lithe primary objective of any dry-land farming in marginal rainfall areas\" would be the production of a viable crop so the farmer can survive.Tesfay Araya 1 , Jan Nyssen 2 , Wirn M.Cornelis\\ Brarn Govaerts,I, Tewodros Gebregziabher 5 , Tigist Oicha\", Fekadu Getnet 5 , Dirk Raes\", Mitiku Haile\", Jozef Deckers b , Ken D. Land degradation in northern Ethiopia is a great problem, mainly aggravated by ovcrpopulation in the high lands, over cultivation, soi I erosion and an unbalanced crop and livestock production system (Girma,200J). Studies conducted at Dogu'a Tembien showed that the mean annual soil loss rate by sheet and rill erosion in the absence of stone bunds was 57 t ha-1yr-1 (Desta ct al, 20(5). As a cOllsequence of the loss of the top ferti Ie soi I by erosion, there is i1 severe decline in soil fertility. The poor infiltration and water-holding characteristics of the soil makes water a key limiting factor for crop yield in this area .The soil needs to capture the rain WJter that falls on it, store as much of that v\\'ater as possible for future plant usc, and allow for plant roots to penetrate and proliferate for optimum crop yield (FAO AGL,20(4).Constraints due to one or several of these conditions cause soil moisture to be one of the main limiting factors for crop growth.The livelihood of 85 %of the population of Tigray depends on agriculture, mainly on crop production. Small units of land have been extensively cultivated by subsistence farmers for centuries. The rainfed farming agriculture is dominant and ha s low productivity. The rainfall in the region is erratic and insufficient during the growing season (Ermias et al.,20(5). It i:; common to observe both water logging and drought in one cropping season (personal observation). Soil moisture in the vertisols is insufficient due to periodic drought, Imv moisture holding capacity of the soils, high tillage frequency, periodic excess of rain wilter and high runoff rate:; from sloping lands (Mati,2(06). Tillage is done with a breaking plow, known locally as mllrcsha . The custom is to plow frequently before sowing which may resu It in compilction, poor drainage and crllsting in the vertisols. Besides, farmers harvest the straw of crops in order to feed their animals, leaving no residues a:; soil cover. There is also free grilzing of animals on the stubble residue after harvest. 1l1is operation has lcd, in the long term, to reduced soil organic matter content which later increased soil erosion processes (FAO,20(6). Nyssen et al. (2006) reported thilt soil and water conserviltion structures such as stone and soil bunds have been effective. Recent policy in Tigray region favors further in situ water conservation, stubble management and the abandonment of free grazing.Vertisob arc hard when dry, sticky when wet and susceptible to erosion depending on how they are managed ilnd on their top soil structure and texture (Deckers et al., 2001) Tigray is characterized as a cool tropical semi-arid climate, with recurrent drought induced by moisture stress, Total rainfall is 500-800 mm f<1l1ing from June to September. Sowing begins in mid-June and harvesting ends in December, The length of the gruwing period varies generally between 45 and 120 days (Krauer, 1988;CND, 2002).The farming system in the region is mixed, with both crop and livestock. The main crops grown in Adigudern are teff (Eragrostis tefl, wheat CTi-iticum sp.), barley (Hordeum sp.), hanfets (a mixture of barley and wheat), sorghum (Sorghum bieolor (L),Moench), millet (Eleusine coracana.), maize (Zeamays L.) and lentiL The sowing method is generally broadcasting manually.The experiment was conducted under rain-fed and started in 2005 in Adigudem (13 0 14'N, 39 0 32'E) which is located in Tigray northern Ethiopia, The experimental layout was arranged in a randomized complete block design with two replications. The plot size was 5m wide and 19m long. The sowing method was manual broadcasting for both crops (wheat and teff). The slope gradient was 3%. The major limitations for crop production are periodic drought, periodic water logging and water erosion. The soil under the experimentaJ trial was vertisols. The different treatments were: conventional tillJge (CT) plowed three times without residue, terwah (TER) plowed 3 times without residue and furrows made at 1.5m interval s along the counter, and permanent bed (PB) with 30% residue, zero-tilled and 60cm \\vide beds. All the plowing and reshaping of the furrows WdS rnade using mJresha. Fertilizer WJS JPplied uniformly to all treatments. Glyphosate \\-vas JPplied to control pre-emerged 'vveeds in the PB treatment. However, hand weeding was used ,1S pos t-emergence \\veed control in dll treatm ents.ParJn1eters such as runoff, sediment loss and grdin yield were collected. Runoff was measured in Sm \\'.'ide Jnd 19m long trenches, which were loca ted at the down slope end of edch plot and covered with plastic sheets. The runoff amount WJS determ i ned every morning after each rdinfal! thJt caused erosion by measuring the h eight of the wdter level in the middle and at both si~ies of the trench. Prior to the experiments, the trenches were calibrated for their volume by relating a known amolmt of water to the water depth at the same three locations. The collected runoff water was then stirred thoroughly und 4 liters W,1S tuken from edch trench to determine sediment concentration. Tllese were filtered in the lJ bora tory using funnel s and filter papers. The sediment in the filter PJper was oven dried for 24 hours at 105°C and then weighed.The data was analyzed using SAS statisticcll software OMP5) and a standard error of means was used for the separation of treatment means using the Turkey HSD at 5% significance level.  There was d significant difference (P< 0.05) in runoff among all tredtments in the first year (2005) for wheat, with less runoff record ed in PB foll owed by TER. However, there was no significant difference for runoff among all treatmen ts in th e second and third years (2006 and 20(7) when the crop was teff a nd wh ea t, respectively (Fig. 1). Even though nOl1 signifiGlnt, the PB treatment has revealed a reduction in 50% runoff followed by 16~~, in TER. There was a similar trend in 2007 wh~n the crop was wheat, as compared to 2006.There was a significant difference (P< 0.05) in soil loss in 2006 and 2007 in wheat and teff, respectively. The soil loss reduction in 2005 for wheat was 76;;~, in PB while 61% in TER as compared to CT in Adigudem.Similarly, the reduction in soil loss was 86% in PB and 53% in TER as compared to CT in 2006 in teff (Fig. 2).Tllere was no sign i fica nt difference (P< (lOS) be tween treat ments for wheat vield in 200S and 2007. However, there Wus a significJl~t differe nce among treatments in 2006 \\-vith J higher teff yield obtained in CT followed by TER. The lowest tcff yield \\.vas recorded in PB. Although th e difference was not significant, the yie ld of wheat in 2005 and 2007 showed that there was a higher yield record in PB followed by TER. In contrast to thL' 2006 teff yield, the lowes t \\vheat yield in both 2005 and 2007 was recorded in CT (Fig. 3). Soil erosion is one of the most serious environmen tal problems in Ethiopia (Bekele and Stein, 1998)   In contrast with wheat, the yield of teff in 2006 was significantly higher (P> 0.( 5) in CT as compared to PB and TER. Farmers usu2llly plow their teff farms 4-6 ymes before .sow ing to reduce weed damage for whICh thIS crop IS found most su sceptible. As \\. vell, tarmers removed weed s by hand from the teff field s 2~4 times p er season. Teff is th e most frequently ttlled <lnd the most frequently weeded compared to any other crop in Ethiopia, which makes it the most labor intensive before and after sow ing. After frequent till<lge, teff is sown by bwadcas ting on to p of the most recent freshly-tilled fCHm land and cove red with soil by moving branched sh rubs or goats and sheep over the sow n teff.Tigist (2007) reported a higher weed densitv in the PB as compdfed to CT throughout the s-eason \\vhich substantiates the lower vield obtained in PB. Taddesse (1969) expla ined tbe need for well pulverized and smooth seed beds for sowing teff. However, Teklu et al. (2005) found that reduced tillage gave th e highest g rain yield o f teff, compared to broad bed and furrows, green manure and traditional tillage practices with the application of non-selec tive herbicide, <llthough the difference was not sig nificant. ResecHch on the Akaki vertisols of Ethiopia h2lve showed that, with application of roLlnd up, the yield of teff was found to be similar to that of conventional tillage (SC, 20(4).Bilse d on the three yeJrs of dJta, runoff \"vas signifjcantly reduc~d in PB followed bv TER as  Weed control is considered a serious problem in conservation agriculture. One of the primary reasons for tillage is to control weeds. Perennial weed control requires multiple tillage operations to reduce the energy reserves in the roots or other storage organ (Todd and Derksen, 1986;Fawcett, 1987). Annual weeds are controlled with equipment which may encourage germination, bury seeds or sever roots (Holm and Kirkland, 1986; Peeper and Wiese, 1990).Wheat is grown without tiIlage in the double cropping system involving soybeans or other summer crops in Brazil (Petten, 1990), Argentina (Marelli and Lattanzi, 1982), and the USA (Ritter and Kaufman, 1989). Eco fallen• v systems with wheat-sorghum or maize fallow rotations are successfully used in the Central Great Plains of North America. Although zero-tillage production systems occupy 1-2% of the total planted area on the Canadian prairies (Dyck and Zentner, 1990), individual producers are successfully controlling weeds in conservation tillage systems. Crop yields are generally equal for conventional and conservation tillage systems provided that weeds are controlled and proper crop stands obtained (Norwood, 1994).Successful conservation agriculture, regardless of definition, is highly dependent upon effective weed control. In the past, attempts to implement reduced tillage conservation practices have often caused a loss in crop production because the reduced tillage did not adequately control weeds. The development of highly-active post-emergent applied herbicides and crop-tolerant to broad-spectrum herbicides provide for simple effective weed control for conservation tillage practices (Nalewaja and Ahrens, 1998). The use of selective herbicides on the crops and non-selective herbicides in place of primary tillage was the impetus for conservation no-till agriculture. Recently no-till crop productions has increased with the release of cultivars tolerant to herbicides or mixtures of herbicides with effectiveness for a wide spectrum of weed species. In 2000, 60% of the soybeans in Ohio were planted without tillage and no-till maize was planted to 24% in Ohio, 21% in Indiana (Soybean Digest-com, January 20(1). This relatively large area of no-till production was possible primarily because of Roundup Ready and various effective herbicide programs for weed control in maize.Several studies have indicated that conservation tillage (no-till and maintaining a crop residue on the soil surface) has caused an increJse in the density of perenniJI weeds, annual grassesand plants \\• ..,ith wind dispersed seeds (Pollard and Cussans, 1976;Fay, 1990). In spite of these difficulties, conservation ti Ilage is successfu I in large areas.The glyphosate Jnd post-emergence herbicide Jppiicl.ltions decrease \\veed amounts. The development of selective post emergent herbicides greJtly increJsed the potentiJI for conservation agriculture. The edrlier developed pre-emergent herbicides only controlled germinating weed seeds or required a timely rain for efficJcy.Annual weeds h,we the ability to germinate, grow rapidly and produce seeds between seed bed tillage and harvest. Seeds from these plants often remain dormant for several years when they are buried by tillage and may germinate when brought to the surface and exposed to appropriate light, moisture and temperature (Fay, 1990). Populations of annual weeds that are adapted to the conventional tillage system, should decline if these weeds are controlled from the first few years that a no-tillage system is used, because viable seeds are not returned from deep soil layers to the surface by cultivation (Fawcett, 1987). In Brazil, Argentina and Norway annual weeds have declined in the no-till system (Roman and Dinonet, 1990). The same annual weeds are fclVored by the conservation tillage system. TI1e winter annual, Bromus tecfOfll1n, is one example of a weed that is well adapted to continuous winter wheat produced under the conservation tillage system, because its seed germinates and grows successfully on the soil surface (Fay, 1990). Therefore, the use of crop rotations is crucial in order to be able to use herbicides with a different spectrum.Biennial weeds are not well adapted to tillage systems as they are easily removed by tillage. These biennial weed problems may not be intrinsic to conservation tillage, but may be influenced by additional management factors (Derksen et aI., 1993).Conventional tillage, however, can be expected to favor the rhizomatous, stoloniferous and to a lesser extent, the top-rooted perennial weeds. Perennial weeds are often too small before seeding for maximum absorption and translocation of herbicides such as glyphosate. However, conservationJgricuJtun.' and no-till maintain a crop residue on the soil surface th<lt keeps the soil cooler and more moist, increaSing survival of germinating small seeded weeds as compared to cnnvention<ll agriculture (Ball and Miller, 1993).Treatments in the autumn or spring before sowing wheat usually include glyphos\"te or paraquat in combination with 2,40, dicamba, or bromoxinil.Glyphosate is used frequently between crops for the control of perennial weeds,which are a major problem in wheat in North America. Convolbulus ar,lensis, Cirsill1n an'ense can be controlled or suppressed with herbicides such as 2, or suppressed with herbicides such as 2,40, dicamba. Atrazine .vas registered for weed control on fallow for a short period in Canada, but cool dry conditions made the risk of residues damaging the following wheat crop too great and the registration was withdrawn (Brandt and Kirkland,1<;180). Atrazine has been used in the Central and Northern Great Plains in the USA (Wicks and Smika, 1990). Sulfonyl urea herbicides such as chlorsulfuron have provided effective long-term, broad-leaved weed control on summer fallow. Use of these persistent herbicides, has led to the appearance of weed biotypes resistant to sulfonylurea herbicides at several locations on the Northern Great Plains (Holt and LeBaron, 1990).Selective herbicides, by definition, control weeds in crops without injury to the crops. The development of crop cultivars tolerant to herbicides with bro<ld spectrum efficacy in various environments greatly simplifies and assures effective no-till crop production.In the double cropping systems in Brazil, the time and the weather conditions in the interval between the harvest of one crop and the seeding of the next can determine the need for a non-selective herbicide application, especially before seeding summer crops. Under normal weather conditions a long intercrop period produces large weeds that are difficult and expensive to control. This problem is exacerbated when farmers leave fields fallow during the winter. Under fallow conditions, applications of 2,40 are recommended to prevent \\• veeds from reaching advanced growth stages before the seeding of summer crops. The weeds of summer crops are more competitive, difficult and costly to control than those of winter crops (Roman, 1990). In wheat, most of these weeds begin to germinate in the spring and can continue through the summer season when conditions are wet and warm. Control can be achieved by applications of paraquat, paraquat plus diuron or glyphosate alone, or in a mixture with 2,4D (Roman and Dinonet, 1990).Perennial weeds cause major problems in wheat in the Northern Gre<lt Plains. The top growth of Cirsiul1I an'ensis, Con1'oiuu/us arvensis can be controlled or suppressed with herbicides such as 2,4D, dicamba, dichlorprop and metsulfuron. Perennial grasses must be controlled after harvest, before seeding or in an alternate broadleaved crop. Producers are primarily dependent on the herbicide, glyphosate, for control of the perennial weeds in periods between crops.Weeds respond to the environment, and no-till, greatly-reduced root and seed disruption increases soil moisture and decreases soil temperature. All of these conditions will influence the number and type of \\•..,eed species. Thus, effective weed control for various species is essential for successful long-term conservation agricultu reoThe availability of a wide range of selective and non selective herbicides has made conservation tillage, crop rotation systems pOSSible. Weed problems in no-till systems, particularly with annual grasses, seem to be associated mainly with continuous single crop production systems. Tn successful conservation agriculture, the soil is covered with a crop or a cover crop during most of the period that the climate is favourable for weed germination and growth. In conservation agricu lture that includes crop rotations, continuous cropping or use of cover crops, and that limits the application of herbicides for perennial weed control to patches, herbicide use ranges from much less to slightly more than that used in conventional agriculture.Weed scientists must be proactive in determining potential weeds and their control for long-term successful conservation agriculture. The development of herbicide-resistant crops used in conjunction with methods to prevent weed resistance will allow for large long-term increases in conservation agriculture.A reduction in soil quality as a result of human activities can be defined as soil degradation. Water erosion, wind erosion, chemical degradation (including nutrient depletion and loss of organic matter, sCllinization, acidification and chemical pollution) and deterioration of physical properties are the four major types of soil degradation (Kenneth, 1999). Subtle changes in soil properties and subsequent effects on yield and input requirements illustrate the complexity of the relationships between soil quality and cropping system performance. Declining farm productivity resulting from escalating soil erosion and soil degradation in conventional cultivation cropping systems has now reaclled significant proportions. In response to this phenomenon, conservation agriculture has been developing rapidly in many parts of the world (FAO, 2008).Conservation agriculture is a concept for resource-saving, agricultural crop production that strives to achieve ,Kceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment (FAO, 2008). Conservation agriculture is defined as any management system that includes the following characteristics (Wall, 2006): first, a serious reduction in soil movement with the ultimate goal to eliminate it completely except for the disturbi:lnce caused when sowing i.e. no-till; second, the preservation of a permanent or semi-permanent organic cover, i.e. standing crop or a layer of stubble, on the soil; third, the rotation of economically viable crops. In conservation agriculture conditions, traffic on the field decreases, crop residues are not buried and soil structure is not vertically perturbed . It results in reduced compaction layer problems and less physical destruction of the soil structure and fauna habitat (Thomas, 2001, cited by Guedez, 2(01). The highest biological activity and organic matter content on the top horizon results in a very good soil structure, with good porosity, drainage, absorption capacity and structural stability, and better trafficability (Basch and CMvalho, 1996). However, soil structure and compaction problems can still occur, depending on soil type, management and weather, particularly on unstable soils. Moreover, the impact of raindrops on the soil surface is limited by the physical protection offered by crop residues (Thomas, 2001, cited by Guedez, 2(01). As a consequence, soils become much more resistant to crust creation, and the better infiltration rates obtained under conservation agriculture, which are positively correlated to a decrease in runoff speed, allow a huge reduction in global runoff (Lavier et aI., 1997). Other benefits of conservation agriculture include reduced labor, fuel and machinery wear, incre<lsed soil organic m<ltter, improved water and air quality <lnd increased wildlife (McLaughlin and Mineau 1995).Nitrogen (N) input is one of the most important factors in maximizing yields and economic returns to farmers . Of the essential nutrients, N is required in large quantities, and it is the most mobile and dynamic nutrient in soil systems. It is well documented that the soil's physical and chemical properties are spatially variable and affect N dynamics and the mechanisms for its losses. F0f example, N dynamics could vary fmm high denitrification No losses from ponded areas with low drainage to high -N0 leaching losses from coarse 3 gravely .ueas of the field (Khosla et aI, 2(02).Conservation agriculture systems may increase both N immobilization (Gilliam and Hoyt, 1987) and N losses from leaching (Tyler and Thomas, 1977) and denitrification (Gilliam and Hoyt, 1987). Other authors report that synch ronization of residue N mineralization, fertilizer N application time and subsequent crop demand for N can improve N usc effiCiency in crops planted in conservation agriculture systems (Reeves et ai., 1993). Requirements for N in no-till systems differ from those in till ed systems and, depending on how N is managed, the efficiency of the use of fertilizer N may be either lower or higher than with tillage. At present, no significant differences have been found among tillage systems in terms of N application or tools for N management (Christensen, 2002). The N-cycle is linked to the C-cycle: the presence of mineral soil N available for plant uptake is dependent on the rate of carbon (0 mineralization.I n the I iterature, contrasting results concerning the impact of the N immobilization have been reported. Nitrogen release is delayed when residues are left on the soil surface (Bradford and Peterson,2(00). Some authors suggest that the net immobilization phase, when no-till is adopted, is transitory and that, in the long run, the higher but temporary immobilization of N in no-till systems reduces the opportunity for both leaching and denitrification losses of the mineral N (Follet and Schimel, 1989;Lamb et ai., 1985;Rice and Smith, 1984). Jowkin and Schoenau (1998) report that N availability was not greatly affected in the initial years by switching to no-till in the brown soil zone in Canada . Others report that conventional tilling systems accelerate organic matter mineralization, resulting in more nutrient availability than under no-till (Christensen et aI., \"1994;Doran, 1980).Over the past years, various agronomic management systems have been proposed to improve the tillage sys tems and nitrogen management of maize in the context of sustainable agriculture. One proposed solution is no-till, with crop residue retention, rotation and correct nitrogen management, which are essential to maintain mineral nutrients within the soil, stop erosion, and prevent water loss from occurring within the soil, as well as increase N uptake and, thus, maize yield.Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than of any other grain. America produces almost half of the world's harvest of maize and represents over 90% of area under no-till conservation agriculture (wikipedia, 2(08).This review will look at the following research questions: 1) Is no-till better than conventional tillage?2) Can fertilizer N management be greatly affected by changes in tillage?The hypotheses formulated are:1) The slowest plant growth, the lowest grain yield, the lowest proportion of fine aggregates, the highest bulk density and the greatest penetrometer resistance are expected in zero-tillage with residue removal. No-till planting systems with crop rotation and residue retention wou ld lead to yield improvements through: 0) increased soil quality and Oi) increased N uptake. 2) Fertilizer N management can be effected by changes in tillage. Soil moisture and temperature, which are greatly effected by tillage, will impact soil N dynamics.The delay in growth due to low soil temperature associated with the no-till system in the Corn Belt (USA) (Gupta et aI, 1988;Imholte and CMter, 1987;Mock and Erbach, 1977) is not appreciable in the Southern USA. In a long-term study with continuous maize established in Ontario, Canada, on a moderately-drained no-till resulted in a 2 day delay in emergence and a 2-to-4 day delay in silk emergence, compared with fall plow (Vyn and Raimbault, 1993). Earlier studies in Ontario, on primarily warse-textured soils, however, recorded no significant delay in emergence for no-till relative to fall plow (Vyn et aL, 1979). AI-Darby and Lowery (1984) reported no differences in maize emergence in a continuous maize situation for fall ploW, chisel plmv and n()-till on silt loam and sandy loam soils. No-till recorded higher plant heights, leaf area index and leaf numbers, on a Gleyic Luvisol in northern New York, while plow tillage recorded higher per plant leaf area, stem and root biomass (Karunatilake et aL,20(0).On well-drained soils, maize yields were less with no-till than \\• vith tillage in studies conducted in Iowa (ChaRe and DuHy, 1991), Indiana (West et aI., 1996), north-western Iowa (Bakhsh et aI., 2(00), and Wisconsin (Lund ct aI., \"1993). In contrast, yields were greater with no-till in Ohio (Dick et aL, 1991). To further complicate the issue, no differences in yield between no-till and tilled treatments were reported for studies conducted in Michigan (Hesterman et aL, 1988) and Wisconsin (Lund et aI., 1993;AI-Darby and Lmvery, 1986). Maize yield was greater with ridge tiLl than with no-till in Indiana (West et aL, 1996) but not different in Nebraska (Cahoon et aL, 1999) and Wisconsin (AI-Darby and Lowery, 1986). Griffith and Wollenhaupt (1994) summarized these differing results by stating that the probability of a maize yield increase with no-till is greatest on well-drained soil 'vvhen grown in rotation and in southern latitudes of the United States. No-till with crop rotation and residue retention resulted in a stable, high yield of maize compared to conventional systems in the highlands of Mexico (Govaerts et a L,20(5). In Brazi I sizable yield increases and income stability for the farmer led to a wide adoption of the no-till system (Saturnino and Landers, 2001). A study in west central Saskatchewan, Canada, has shown that grain yields can be improved with no-till, providing there is an adequate weed control and plant stands (Brandt, 1992). No-till systems can develop yields equal to or slightly less (3%) than conventional tillage, while maintaining significantly greater residue wverage. Maize growth and yield may respond positively to planting wrn rows on beds (Govaerts et aI., 2005;Limon-Ortega et aL, 2002;McFarland et aI., 1991;Harris and Krish.na, 1989) .Soil water retention was greater under no-till, with residue retention compared with conventional tillage without dramatically altering bulk density due to redistribution of pore size classes into more small pores and fewer large pores. Soil organic C was greater under no-till combined with residue retention than under conventional tillage nearest the s()il su rface. Water-stable aggregation improved under no-till combined \\vith residue retention compared with conventi()nal tillage, perhaps because more soil organic C was sequestered within macro-aggregates under no-till combined with residue retention compared with conventional tillage and that helped to stabilize these aggregates. Steady-state water infiltration was greater under no-till combined with residue retention than under conventional tillage as a result of soil structu ra I improvements associated with surface residue accumulation and lack of soil disturbance (Govaerts et aI, 2007;Arshad, 1999). The lowest proportion of fine aggregates, the highest bulk density, the greatest penetrometer resistance and the worst chemical soil quality (the lowest soil pH in 0-5 em depth, the lowest SOC) resulted in no-till with residue remova I (Vyn, 1993).Rapid acidification of the soil surface when high nitrogen fertilizer rates \"vere used was the most obvious chemical change. Tncreased levels of exchangeable Al and Mg were associated with reduced soil pH. Exchangeable Ca ,vas significantly lower for no-till at depths and all nitrogen fertilizer rates compared with conventional tillage. Exchangea ble Mg in the 0-to 5-cm soil depths declined with increasing nitrogen fertilizer and was lower in no-till soil depth compared with conventional tillage (Blevins et aI., 1983). Duiker and Beegle (2006) observed that tillage did not effect total extractable Ca or Mg levels. Potassium (K) was concentrated in the 0-to 5-cm soil layer under no-till and decreased with depth, where crop roots proliferate (Franzenluebbers and Hons, 19%;Blevins et aI., 1983). Du Preez et al. (2001) observed increased levels of K in no-till compared to conventional tillage, but this effect declined with depth. Follet and Peterson (1988) observed either higher or similar extractable K levels in no-till as compared with mouldboard tillage, but Duiker and Beegle (2006) found no effect of tillage on available K concentrations. Astier et al. (2006) observed a significantly higher total N under no-till compared to conventional tillage in the highlands of Ccntral Mexico. TIle same results were obtained by Borie et al. (2006), Atreya et aI. (2006) and Govaerts et al. (2007).Most comparative field stud ies have shown that no till results in greater accumulation of soil organiC matter (SOM) in su rface layers (0-20 em) than does conventional tillage (Govaerts et aI., 2006;Kern and Johnson, 1993;Lal, 1989;Blevins et a1., \"1983). The higher SaM under no-till was attributed to reducing the amount of tillage and increasing soil water storage, which increases the amount of plant biomass returned to the soi I su rface (Tarkalson,2(06). Soi I under no-till typically has increased soil organic matter content and improved aggregate stability in the 0-to 5-cm depth, but these properties often are not improved in deeper soil with no-till compared with deep tillage (Doran, 1987;West and Post, 2002). Soil compaction is a concern in no-till because of the absence of alleviation through tillage. TIle negative effects of compaction on plant growth (Nevens <lnd Reheul, 2(03), soi I physicalproperties (Botta et al., 200n;Abu-Hamdeh and AI-Widyan, 1999), and maize yields (La I, 1996) have been reported in no tillage systems. TIlerefore, no-till systems h,we to be combined with controlled traffic. On the other hand, long-term use of no-tillage results in increased surface organic matter contents, more stable soil structure, and increased hydraulic conductivity due to worm holes and stable biochannels (Mahboubi et al., 1993;Dick et aL, 1991). Reduced compactability due to high organic C contents in the surface soil suggests a lower su rface-compaction threat in long term no-tillage (Thomas et al., •19%).Most soil physical and chemical properties were improved by conservation agriculture systems, but the rate of change differed due to climatic and soil differences among sites, with the difference due to tillage generally being greater at the more humid sites with loamy soils than at the drier sites with sandier soils (Buschiazzo et aI., •1998). No-till with residue retention and crop rotation resulted in a soil with good physical and chemical qualities, and high, stable yields, compared to conventional tillage and no-till without residue (Govaerts et al., 2005;2006 a;2006b, 2007).The maize response to the fertilizer N application rate is highly dependent on the rainfall conditions: in \\vet years N uptake will be higher in conservation ti Ilage, compared with the conventional ti1lage (Torbert,et al.,2(01). At the six-leaf stage (V6) (Ritchie and Hanway, 1982), maize starts its most active growth and substantially increases N and water consumption. Fertilization at V6 is more efficient than the application at planting, particularly under no-tillage (Wells and Bitzer, 1984;Fox et aI., 1986;Wells et a1., 1992). The greater N uptake and yield in no-tillage maize observed when fertilizer is applied at the V6 stage could be due to the decrease in N losses due to denitrification (Wells and Bitzer, 1984), immobilization (Jokela and Randall, 1997), and leaching (TIlomas et a1., 1973), because of the reduction in soil water cnntent (Linn and Doran, 1984;Jokela and Randall, 1997) associated with crop water cnnsu mption.Maize under conservation agriculture is expected to increase the N application rate, and the fall applicJtion will result in losing yield potential (leaching, erosion, denitrification). In general, fertilizer nitrogen rate up to 168 kg/ ha increased both the biomass yield and N uptake on maize (Torbert et a1.,20(H). Starter fertilizer should be considered an option to optimize maize production on well-drained areas (Jeffrey et a1.,20(2). No benefit was realized from the split application of fertilizer after planting, and the extra expense incurred with time and equipment would not be warranted in no-till systems (Torbert et aI.,2(01).Compared to conventional tillage, no-till has numerous agronomic advantages, when combined with residue management and crop rotation: (i) it limits soil erosion; (ii) it improves water conservation by increasing infiltration and reducing evaporation;(iii) it improves soil quality by increasing organic matter content, improving soil structure, and preventing the formation of a plow-pan; (iv) it improves the mobilization of nutrients in the soil; (v) it improves nutrient management, facilitates weed control and reduces pest and disease incidence; (vi) it result in a higher and more stabile grain yield.. The economic advantage of no-till is: it reduces the cost of labor and fuel, extending the life of machinery. Finally, no-till has several important environmental benefits: the soil cover reduces erosion and favors water infiltration, diminishing the probability of mudslides in hilly areas and reducing environmental pollution. All together, these benefits give a good indication of how no-till is better than conventional agriculture.Fertilizer N management can be affected by changes in tillage. Soil moisture and temperature, which are greatly affected by tillage, will impact soil N dynamics. On adequately-drained soils, nitrogen requirements for no-till maize are similar to those of a tilled cropping system. On imperfectly-to poorly drained soils, nitrogen requirements for no-till will differ from tilled cropping systems. V\\'hen follOWing soybeans, 10 to 15% more fertilizer N is recommended for no-till cnrn. Continuous no-till corn has similar N require ments to those of a tilled system. Adequately fertilized no-till corn responds similarly to nitrogen fertilizer as to a tilled cropping system. There is no need to apply extra nitrogen in no-till and no change in selection of sources; all sources should be placed below the soi I su rface.Crop production depends largely on the complex interactions between dynamic and static soil properties. With sufficient understanding of the response of plants to the environment (soil properties and climate), considerable improvements in plant productivity are possible (Boyer,19t12). However, most crop producing areas are still using inappropriate farming methods, such as frequently-tilled soil left bare for most of the year (with all crop residues removed for fodder, grazed and/or burned), often resulting in extensive erosion and the loss of water and production potential (lsmail et al., 1994;Kinlund, 1996;Cassman, 1999;Lal et al., 20(0). Meanwhile, no till with residues retained or partial residue removal can restrain this trend by s ignificantly improving soil organic matter content and other properties, which current understanding asserts is positively correlated -with soil quality (Pierce et al., 1992;Hussain et 011., 19Y9;v\\fCCA, 20(1) .Enhanced crop yields with conservation tillage systems are commonly reported (Hargrove, 1985;Wagger and Cassel, 1<)92; Wagger and Denton, 1992); hovvever, there are some cases of declining yield trends associated with an increase in soil organic matter (Cassman, 1999). In some soils, porosity under no-till (NT) decreases in the first few years until the soil recovers its natural structure (Kinsella, 1995). In well-structured soils or those in \\-• \"hich biochannels are preserved (as in non-tilled soils), roots continue to extend even with increased soil resistance (greater penetrometer readings) because they can grow in the interaggregate spaces (Ehlers et aI., 1983;Taylor, 1983;Klepper, 1990;Campbell and Hensh<lll, 1991). Larger penetration resistance was found in NT than in subsoil till<lge (ST) Llnd in minimum tillage (MT) in both soils soon after tillage operations. However, root length density profiles sometimes showed greater values for NT than for the other tillage systems, revealing a good soil condition for root growth under NT 20(3)  (Cassel, et ai, 1995). The above mentioned indicate that there are complex relationships between soil properties and crop productivity. With the change of tillage systems, we need to reexamine the production practices under the new tillage systems for producers to obtain maximum yields.There are notable changes of soi I properties between different tillage systems. These soil properties include: physical attributes, such as the size and continuity of pores, aggregate stability, impedance and texture, etc.; chemical properties, such as organic matter content and composition, nutrient stocks and availability, mineralogy and the amount of elements and compounds, etc.; and biological attributes, such as the quantity, ilctivity and diversity of microbial biomass and soil fauna. More or less, all of these soil properties have certain relationships with crop performance and subsequent yields, and there are a lot of relevant articles focusing on the differences between tillage systems. However, most of them paid more attention to the trends of parameters changing by mechanicill description (e.g. \"this increilse and that decrease\"). But what is (are) the most important factor(s) affecting crop performance and subsequent yields for a specific ecological location? Multivariate statistical approaches such as PCA may be an ilppropriate first step towilrd soil quality assessment within regions and cropping systems (Wander and Bollen), 1999) and it is a potential tool to identify the most sensitive soil attributes influencing crop yields (Jiang and Thelen, 2004 ). However, how and to what extent do these changed soil property parameters affect crop performance and subsequent yield? Until now, knowledge about the interactions between soil quality and crop performance using different cropping systems is limited.1am reviewing the hypothesis that tillage systems coupled with residue management can lead to yield changes through: (i) different nutrients and water uptake; (ii) changed soil quality (increased soil organic matter, soil structure, soil aggregates, soil microbial biomass; and optimal soil organic carboni nitrogen (C/N) ratio).The objectives are to review the plant responses (root system ilnd grain yields) and soil responses (soil temperature, water content, nutrients, bulk density and mechanical impedance, etc.) to different tillage systems, to find out what are the most important factors affecting crop performance in a specific ecological location and to discover how these factors effect crop performance.In terms of the complexity of soil property and crop development processes and the interactions between soil and crop, it is impossible to enumerate all of the soil parameters relevant to crop performance even in a specific site. This article focuses mainly on the changes in soil properties and corresponding response roots. TIle main reason is that plant growth and survival rely upon continuous alterations by mot system, in response to the varied soil environments they inhabit. Soil environmental conditions control the rate of extension and respiratory activities associated with root function (Smucker, 1993), and affect the crop growth ilnd subsequent yields. New evidence con firms that root Signals to shoots, including abscisic acid, nitrate flux and cytokinins, modify whole plant growth processes including leaf expansion, stomatal behavior and biosynthesis of photosynthetic enzymes (Aiken and Smucker,19%). Root signals are thought to reflect soil water, nutrient and mechanical attributes, as sensed by roots. Meristematic activities in root tips initiate changes in root architecture, mod ifying the soil volu me subject to root uptake, ilnd may provide multiple sensory and Signaling capabilities (Aiken and Smucker, 1996).TIle adaptation of root systems to soil characteristics is complex, involving the interaction of multiple factors such as water and/or nutrient availability and absorption, aeration and temperature (Smucker, 1993). Here only some of the most important factors were chosen to be expatiated.Plants require a root system that delivers adequate water and nutrients for shoot growth, and to anchor them in the soil. Roots growing in soil encounter physical, chemical and biological environments that influence their rhizospheres and affect plant growth (Watt et al., 2006). The optimum distribution of root length depends mainly on the distribution of water and nutrients in the soil, and root growth in the field is often slowed by a combination of soil physical stresses, including mechanical impedance, water stress and oxygen deficiency (Bengough et aL,20(6). Soil temperatures can also influence seed germination, plant growth, nutrient availability, insect populations and pesticide degradation (Gupta et ill., 1984).2.1. Soil temperature Schneider and Cupta (1985) pointed out th<lt the time to corn emergence was influenced by the independent variables in the following order: soil temperature> 1'oil matric p()tential > soil aggregate size distribution, which means that soil temperature is one of the most important factors for crop growth.Much literature has reported the phenomenon of lower soil temperatures under NT (Vyn and Raimbault, 1993;Rasmussen ct al., '1997;Weisz and Bowman, 1999;Mann ct aJ., 2002;Stone and Schlegel, 2(06). Lower soi I temperature may be due to slo.v soi I warming by the stover cover in NT (Drury et al., 1999;Mehdi et a1., 1999;Stone and Schlegel, 2006[<-not in references]). Johnson and Lmvery (1985) pointed out that the reduction in soil temperatures observed with conscrvati()]1 tillage was attributed to differences in therm<.'11 admittance, heat flux to a greater depth ilnd total heat input to the soil profile. The higher thermal ildmittance and heat flux in the NT treatment produced lower upper profile soil temperature. Soil thermal diffusivity (K') in the 5-to I5-cm zone was 20 to 25% higher in the no-till treatment than in the conventional (moldboard) tillage and chisel treatments, which were not significantly different (Johnson and Lowery, 1985).Changes in root-zone temperature, as well as air temperature, have direct impacts on crop growth (Dehaghi and Sanavy, 2003;Moon et al., 2(07). lllC most profound effect of temperilture on corn development was the rate of root growth (MacKay and Barber, 1984).Cooler soil temperatures in the fall and spring could de\\ily emergence, seedling development and retard tillering, all of which have been observed under NT wheat production (Rasmussen et al., 1997;Weisz and Bowman, 1999). Lower early-season soil temperatures reduce early corn growth and final grain yields under NT (Vyn and Rai m bault, 1993). If 100% of the stover was removed or added, corn emergence increased or decreased accordingly by about 3 d (Stone and Schlegel,20(6). Similar studies in temperate climates have al1'o reported that increased stover cover hinders corn emergence (Mehdi et al., 1999).Lower soil temperatures in NT did not delay the initiation of corn seedling emergence but did reduce the rate of emergence compared with CT plot1' (Beyaert et aI., 2002). Oi fferences in emergence rates among treatments were attributed to differences in cumulative growing degree days (GOD) from planting to the completion of emergence. Lower GOD in the seed zone in NT compared with CT resu !ted in a slower rate of emergence in NT (Beyaert et al.,20(2). Relationships between percent emergence and seed zone growing degree days were approximately the same for three soils and varied with the soil matric potentia J. The wrn emergence model indicated a requirement of 59,62,67 and 7f> seed 7.one growing degree days for 757i} corn emergence at soil matric potentials of -10, -33, -100 and -50n kPa, respectively (Schneider and Gupta, 1985). Menhenett and Wareing (1976) suggested that low soil temperature may reduce the production of endogenous gibberellins important for leaf growth in Dacty/is glomemta. Cytokinins arc probably necessary for growth processes but their level may reflect, rather than direct, the rate of leaf growth.Trials conducted under controlled environments demonstrated that the delav of bud activit v of J ~ Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 1'eedlings occasioned by the low temperature of the soil could be eliminated by the application of gibberellic acid. Analyses of field-grown plants shmvcd a parallel increase in bud activity, in the level of gibberellin-like wmpounds in xylem sap and in soil temperature during February and March (Lavender et a\\., 1973).Delays in the rate of seedling emergence due to lower 1'oil temperature at the planting depth were reported by AI-Darby and Lowery (1987) in a silt loam soil; larger delays in seedling emergence due to slow soil warming in NT have been reported for clay soils (Drury et al., 1999). However, the negative effect of reduced tillage on seedling emergence incr.eases in finer textured soils, but has a small impact on seedling emergence in coarser-textured soils (Beyaert et al., 2002).The trend towards higher growth-parameter values for the CT treatment found earlier in the growing season diminished by tasseling (Stone et aL, 1999).The results agree with previous findings where significant differences in leaf area per plants among tillage systems in the early part of the growing season tended to disappear later (Mock and Erbach, 1977;AI-Darby and Lowery, 1987;Vyn and Raimbault, 1993). Stone ct al. (1999) suggested that soil temperature controlled the rate of development while the meristem was underground and noted that the meri1'tem remained und erground until six fully expanded leaves had appeared. Thereafter, corn development was best approximated by air temperature. This means that, in the early crop levels present, while proper placement of fertilizer K may be critical for optimizing yields (Mallarino and Murrell, 1998). Three years of field research on predominantly medium testing soils confirmed that K needs are indeed higher with less tillage and that K placement can be critical (Vyn et al., 1999). However, the similar or higher crop yields for NT over CT without additional nutrient application implied that it is not the nutrient deficiency in NT; the lower nutrient availability may be mainly due to the lower soil temperature at early season.2.4 Some other soil propertiesOrganic matter plays an important role in nutrient availability and soil aggregate stability. \\t\\'heat yields over all years increased as soil organic matter (SOM) increased (Diaz-Zorita, et al., 1999;Bell, 1993). Soil productivity decreases when SOM declines (Bauer and Black, 1994). Soil organic matter strongly affects soil properties such as water infiltration rate, erodibility, water holding capacity, nutrient cycling and pesticide adsorption (Stevenson, 1994; Campbell  et a I., 1996; Francioso et al., 2(00). Soi I organ ic matter contents have been found to be a reliable index of crop productivity in semi-arid regions because it positively affects soil water-holding capacity (Diaz Zorita, et aI., 1999) and was recognized as a central indicator of soil quality and health (Soil and Water Conservation Society, 1995).Soil organic matter is of primary importance for maintaining soil productivity, and agricultural management practices may significantly influence SOM chemical properties (Ding et al., 2002). However, the soil fertility and SOM becomes stratified, with the highest concentration of SOM in the topmost soil layer under NT (Six et al., 2000). Most of the SOM content differences were observed in the 0-to 7.5-cm soil depth, with little change in the 7.5 to 15 cm, and the short and long-term influences of disturbance on C mineralization are complex and may vary depending on the types of soil and plant residues (Hu et al., 1995;Franzluebbers and Arshad, 1996;Alvarez et aI., 1998). Paustian et al. (1997) found in most cases an increase in C content under NT. They attributed this increase to a combination of reduced litter decomposition and less soil disturbance under NT. Six et al (1998Six et al ( , 1999) ) hypothesized and were convinced that the turnover of aggregates was faster in CT than in NT, resu lting in a greater loss of 53-to 250-J.lm-si zed intramacroaggregate particulate organic matter (POM) inCr.Seed-soil contact, imbibition of water and germination all depend on the size and packing of soil aggregates (Brown et al., 1996). Dexter (1988) concluded that optimal soil structure for maximum root growth depends on the strength of soil aggregates. Increasing the spread in aggregate strength resulted i.n an increase in nutrient availability proportional, mostly, to the presence of small aggregates (Hewitt and Dexter, 1979). Fu rthermore, the effects of aggrega tion and water availability on root growth cannot be clearly separated because these two soil properties are interrelated (Vepraskas and Wagger, 1990). The pore system associated with a particular arrangement of soil aggregates or fragments has major effects on aeration, available water and soil strength, thus, consequently on root and shoot growth, and perhaps ultimately on crop productivity.The pH of a soil is among the most important soil characteristics for crop production. Roots grow in this soil solution and take up nutrients from these layers of water around the soil particles. The pH of the soil water determines the solubility and, therefore, the availability of nutrients found in soil water. No-tillage often results in a higher bulk density (BD) of the soil and, correspondingly, greater soil st~ength (Martino and Shaykewich, 1994), which can impede root growth, stimulate root branching and hinder the growth of the main axes (Goss, 1977;Cannell, 1985;Lumpurlanes et al., 20(H). On the other hand, NT results in a better soil structure and in an extensive system of macrospores (Ehlers et al., 1983;Martino and Shaykewich, 1994), which benefits root growth (Lampurlanes et al., 2001;Martino and Shaykewich, 1994). Some studies found that higher bulk density and higher soil water storage capacity in the long term NT is consistent (Gantzer and Blake, 1978;Zhai ct al., -1990). Blanco-Canqui (2Ot16b) pointed out that stover removal consistently increased bulk density and decreased volumetric water content (ov) across soils (p< O.tH) which might be another benefit for root growth.Root growth decreases as penetration resistance (PR) increases (Taylor, 1983;Atwell, 1993;Gregory, 1994), and can also show a linear (Ehlers et aL, 1983), inverse (Atwell, 1993), or exponential (Hamblin, 1985) relationship. 11,. e reduction in soil void space after the application of mechanical stress has major and mostly negative effects on root growth and has been reviewed extenSively (Bennie, 1996). Penetrometer values greater than 2 MPa arc generally reported to prnduce a significant root growth reduction (Atwell, 1993). However, in well-structured soils or those in \\vhich biochannels are preserved (as in non-tilled soils); roots continue to extend at greate.r penetrometer readings because they can grow in the interaggregate spaces (Ehlers ct al., 1983;Taylor, 1983;Klepper, 1990;Campbell and Henshall, 1991).Soil moisture conservation and a decrease in the fluctuations of soi I temperature with residue retention generally improve the biological activities in the surface layers of the soil (Cattelan et aL, 1997).Water appears to be the primary factor influencing microbial populations; soil pH and organic C and N levels may be as much the result of microbial activity as they are regulators of it (Doran, 1980). The residue treatments affected soil microbial biomass (5MB) in the 0-15 cm soil layer, but not in deeper soil layers and no effects of fertiliser-N application on 5MB were found (Probert and Keating, 1996). Different amounts of beneficial rhizosphere bacteria may be one of the main causes of nutrient availability.Conservation agriculture results in many dramatic changes in soil properties and crop performances. It is impossible to elucidate fully the factors responsible for the crop performances and subsequent yield differences. To understand the complex interaction between soil properties and crop performances, principal component analysis methods were often being used. Changes in soil water content, soil temperature and near-surface soil structural properties, as a result of tillage methods, may explain differences in crop yields. Lower temperatures and limited nutrient availability may be the main limiting factors in the early growth stage for NT and, \\vith the growth of the crops, the negative effects of lower temperatures decrease or disappear, and other factors, such as water shortage and nutrient stresses, may become prominent. Soil properties such as soil organic matter, soil aggregate, soil pH, soil bulk density, penetration resistance and soil microbial communities may indirectly affect crop performances via changing water and nutrient availability. But maybe subtle forms of soil degradation cou Id accou nt for the lack of a positive yield trend in these long term experiments, although, to date, there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis and there has been little effort to investigate it (fsmail et al., 1994). Ding et al (2002) indicated that small changes in the SOM content are significant to the agricultural production of the region. Until now, we know little about the complex interactions bet\\-\\'een soil and crops, ,md further •work is required to quantify the influences on crop grmvth and grain production in short-or long-term tillage systems.The effect of conservation agriculture on the soil biochemical characteristics in a semi-arid area of north China  (Frankenberger and Dick, 1983) and studies have shown that the addition of organic soil quality (Visser and Parkinson, 1992;Dick, 1994). material improves soil physical properties, which enhance root development, resistance to erosion, Ti]](lge and residue management have a di rect effect soil porosity and water infiltration, and decreases on the soil biochemical characteristics. Soil organiC soil crusting (Mando and Miedema, 1997;Fernandes matter distribution, nutrient cycling and microbial et aI., 1997). Organic matter decomposition and activity are USUJlly influenced by the type and degree nutrient turnover in Mable soil are highly dependent of soil tillage 20(2). Research has 011 soil microorganisms (Timo Kautz et al., 2004).shown that soil organiC matter, soil microbia I biomJss The microbial biomass is the living component (lnd activity responds to crop and soil management of soil organic matter and it typically comprises practices such as tillage and residue incorporation t;;)~5% of total organic matter content. Because ,. This chapler has been offered in a reviewed version lo Soil and Tillage Research for ils possibJe publication in the journal. (Drury et al., 1991;Kaiser and Heinemeyer, 1993;Staley, 1999). Traditional extensive tillage (m()uldboard plowing with residues removed or burnt) often causes a rapid loss of soi I organic matter (SOM) content leading to a decrease in soil biological activity. The efficiency of conservi'ltion agricu ttu re systems (reduced tillage with residue retention on the field) reducing soil erosion and impnwing soil quality is universally recognized. Numerous studies have shown that decreasing tillage intensity or increasing amounts of surface residues retained on the soil surface resu 1t in higher organic C and Nand improved soil quality (Bruce et al., 1990;Lal ct al., 1994;Heeman et al., 1995;Salinas-Garcia et aI., J997;Soon et a I., 20(1).Soil degradation is a concern in the semi-arid areas of north China due to serious soil erosion, especially in the agricultural soils. The conventional frequent tillage system has resulted in an increased overall susceptibility of the land to erosion. In recent years, conservation agriculture, as an efficient agricultural resource cnnservation technology (RCT), has been recngnized. Numerous studies in this region have shown that conservation agricu Iture can increase soil water moisture, reduce wind erosion and increase crop yield (Wang et al., 2007;Jvleng et a1.,2006;Fu et al. 2005;Li et al., 2005 ), but most of the research focuses on the change of soil physical and chemical properties associated with different tillage practices.In contrast, information is limited on the biological processes, such as soil enzymatic activities, which mediate nutrient cycling and influence their acquisition during active crop growth stages. TI1Cpurpose of this study is to determine the effect of different tillage systems and residue management on the dynamic of SOC, microbial biomass characteristics and soil enzyme activity, as well as the effect of soil enzymes on the soil micro-organism activity and nutrient cycling under conservation agriculture in a semi-arid area of north China.Results \"vere compared to those obtained under the conventional tillage system. The paper hypothesized that conservation agriculture systems would have a positive effect through improving the SOM and soil fertility, and enhancing soil microbial functionality.The experiment was carried out in Shouyang county, Shanxi province, China (37°32'-38°6'N ,112°46' 113 C 26'E) at 1,300 m above sea level. The experimental area is a semi-<lrid, warm, temperate, continental climate with a mean annual precipitation of 474 mm, most of the rain falling between July and September. The evaporation is 1,714 mm and exceeds rainfall throughout the year. The mean annual temperature is R,2 0c. The mean annual sunshine period is 2,679 h.TIle mean length of the growing period is 130 days. The soil is classified as Cinnamon (Liu et al., 1992). The main crops are maize, millet and sorghum .TIle experiment was started in 2004 and was designed with two different tillage treatments with three replicates: the conventional tillage system (CT) consisting of a 30 cm deep mouldboard plowing with residues removed for fodder (RM) and the zero-ti llage system (ZT) cha racteri zed by no ti llage with the residues kept (RK) for surface cover. The plot area \\vas 380m 2 (19mx20m). No disease or insect pest controls were applied. Every year, 300 kg ha-I urea (46% N) was applied as top dressing. Maize was planted each year in late May.Soil sampling was carried out in October 2007, after harvesting mai ze. Soil samples from each plot were composed from ten sub-samples which were taken with a probe (5-cm diameter core) and divided into layers of 0-5 cm, 5-10 cm, 10-20 cm, and 20-30 cm. After carefully removing the surface organic materials and fine roots, each mixed soil sample was divided into two parts. One part of the soil sample was air-dried for the estimation of soil chemical properties and the other part was sieved through a 2 mm wide screen and adjusted to 50% of its water holding capacity and then was incubated at 25f for 2 weeks to permit unif()rm rewetting and to stabilize the microbial activity after the initial disturbances.Soil organic matter (SOM) was determined by wet oxidation (Black, 1965) and the percentage of organic carbon was calculated by applying the Van Bemmelen factor of 1.73 (Piper, 1950). Soil total nitrogen (STN) was determined by the macro-Kjeldahl digestion procedure (Bao, 2000). Soil total phosphorus (SIP) in soil was measured lIsing the colorimetry method (Bao,2(00). Microbia I biomass C and biomass N were estimated by fumigation-extraction (Brookes et al., 1985;Vance ct al., 1987). Dehydrogenase activity irt soil was determined by monitoring the rate of pn)ductiol1 of tri-phenyl formazon (TPF) from tri-phenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) (Wu et al., 2006). Alkaline phosphatase enzyme activities were determined using the p-nitrophenol (PNP) method (Wu et al., 2006). ~-glucosidase was determined using p-nitrophenylh-D-glucopyranoside (PNG) as substrate. This assay is based on the release and detection of PNP (Wu et al.,20(6). Urease activity was determined using urea as substrate. Activity was determined as the NH.j + released in the hyd rolysis reaction (Wu et aI., 2(06).All statistical work was done using the SPSS 11.0 for Windows. One-way ANaYA was used to analvze means, to the least'significant difference at th~ 5% level.3.1. Soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total N (STN) and soil total phosphorus (STP)Soil tillage and residue management affected soil chemica I properties greatly. Soi I organic carbon under ZT was significantly higher than under CT to 10 cm depth (Table 1). Zero-tillage increased SOC content over CT 12.2% in 0-5 cm depth and 9.1% in 5-10 cm depth. The SOC content decreased with increased soil depth. No significant difference was found in SOC content between ZT and CT treatments in the 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm soil layers. The significant improvement of SaM in the ZT treatment was probably due to increased carbon input from residue retention (Brevik et aI., 2(02) combined with a reduced exposure of the organic input to decomposition because of the ZT system (Verachtert et al., 2008). For the CT, when soils are plowed, some standing wheat stubble is moved into deeper soil layers (10-30 cm), resulting in higher SaM content below the 10 cm depth than under ZT. The higher organic matter in the topsoil layer achieved by ZT are in line with previous studies in other arid regions (Li et aI., 2006;Pang et aI., 2006;Govaerts et a I., 2007;Govaerts et aI., 2006).Soil total N had the same trend as SOC in relation to different tillage treatments (Table 1). Total N is known to be enhanced by increasing soil organic matter content (Salinas-Garcia, 2(02). The total N in the 0-20 cm layer under 2T was significantly higher than under CT. Below the 20 em layer, the STN differences bet\\, veen both treatments were not significant. The results support earlier studies of Chowdhury et aL (2007) and Embacher et a1. (2007), who demo~strated that total njtrogen decreased with increasing soil depth, The higher total N under ZT was consistent with the findings of other researchers (Rasmussen and Collins, 1991;Torbert and Reeves, 1995;Thomas et al., 2(07), Increased total N apparently resulted from the incre<lsed accumulation of crop residues near the soil surf<lce with ZT systems, Long-term ZT management commonly leads to <l stratific<ltion of phosphorus (P) in soils (Zibilske et <11.,20(2), Soil total P under ZT was significantly higher than under CT ilt 0-5 cm depth (Table 1). Below the top layer (0-5 cm), the difference of STP between the two treatments was not signi ficant. The topsoil accumul<ltion of P in ZT is attributed to the limited downward movement of particle bound Pin zero tillage soils and the upward movement of nutrients from deeper layers through nutrient uptake by roots (Urioste et aI., 2006),Microbial biomass C and N were significantly affected by soil depth and tillage system, MBC varied from 136 to 312 mg g.1 in the soil under 2T and from J20 to J66 mg g-1 under CT (Table 2). MBN varied from 25 to 64 mg g-l in the snilunder ZT and from 26 to 47 mg g.l under CT. In the 0-5 Col and 5-10 cm soil layers, MBC and MBN under ZT were significantly higher than under CT In the 0-5 cm layer, microbial biomass C and N were, on average, 88% and 73% higher under 2T than under CT. Microbial biomass C and N decreased with soil depth, particularly under ZT Soil subjected to ZT accumulated crop residues and organic C, which are substrates for soil microorganisms near the soil surface. As a consequence, the soil microbial biomass and various soil microbial processes increased in the soil surface layer under ZT (Roldan,et ai,20(7).Since dehydrogenase activity is only present in viable cells, it is thought to reflect the total range of oxidative activity of soi I microflnra and consequently SO may be considered a good indicator of microbial activity (Nannipieri et aI., 1990). The tillage system had significant effects on soil dehydrogenase activity (TJblc 2). The dehydrogenJse Jctivity ranged from 5 to 45 mg TPF kg-l 24h-] in the soil under ZT and from 14 to 37 TPF kg-I 24h-1 under CT. Zero-tillage resulted in a significant increase in dehydrogenase activity in the 0-5 cm IJyer. Tn the 5-30 cm layer, there WJS no significant difference in dehydrogen<lse activity between tillage treatments. Other authors have reported similar results under ZT or conventional ti lIage in semi-arid cond itions (Madej6n et aI.,20(7). The phosphatases arc a broad group of enzymes that hydrolyze esters and anhydrides of phosphoric acid. Long-term tillage had a significant effect on Alkaline phosphatase activity, particularly in the 0-5 and 5-10 cm soil depths, where ZT significantly improved Alkaline phosphatase activity by at least 54% compared to CT. In the JO-30cm depth, values for both treatments were similar, indicating that ti lIage effects on A I kaline phosphatase activity were pronounced in the topsoil. Kremer and Li (2003) showed that phosphatase activity in soils under organic management was greater than under conventional management.The ~-g]ucosidase activity varied from 186 to 353 mg PNP kg\" h-lin the soil under ZT and from 107 to 257 mg PNP kg-I h-'under CT. Averaged across the depths, ~-glucosidase activity in soil under ZT was 47% higher than under CT. ~-glucosidase, an enzyme already reported as an early indicator of changes in soil properties induced by tillage systems (Ekenler et aI,20(3), catalyses the hydrolysis of various ~-glucosides during the decomposition of organic materials. This fact could indeed explain the increase in ~-glucosidase initially observed as a result of ZT with straw cover treatment.Correlation coefficients (with their level of significance) between the different properties are shown in Table 3. TOC and soil nutrient contents were highly correlated (P< 0.01) with biochemical properties (enzymatic activities, MBC and MBN). Alkaline phosphatase, urease, dehydrogenase and ~-glucosidase were significantly and positively  correlated with Cmic and Nmic. Alkaline phosphatase was the enzyme most highly correlated with Cmic and Nmic. Grego et al. (1996) reported that alkaline phosphatase was the most satisfactory choice for determining the relative activity and mass of microbial population in soils. A positive correlation \\vas found between alkaline phosphatase and protease and urease activities. Madejo'n et al.(200]) found a negative correlation bet\\,veen alkaline phosphatase and available P. However, we found a positive correlation. An explanation could be that the phosphatase activity in our soils was due to enhanced microbial activity,After a 4-year experiment in a semi-arid area of north China, the zero-tillage system and the conventiona I ti llage system had different effects on soil chemical properties, microbial biomass and soil enzymatic activities. SOC, STN and STP in the topSOil (0-10) were higher under ZT than under CT. The zero-tillage system promoted surface accumulation of crop residues and resulted in an improved soil biochemical quality compared to conventional tillage systems. The beneficial effects of conservation agriculture on soi I quality were more noticeable in the superficial layer (0-10 cm depth) than in the deeper layers (> 10 cm depth). In addition, the microbial biomass and enzyme activity showed higher sensitivity to soil management practices than chemical properties. These variables might be used as soil quality indicators once their critical values have been determined for different tillage systems.","tokenCount":"20224"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"de988d03e9fa0b48e7cf6b9a7563ab5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f59d250d-1171-4833-9dd7-b5685c8ecbae/retrieve","id":"1068553071"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8bb6390c-9113-40f6-9420-532a05096feb","pagecount":"84","content":"1.1 Rice plant cycle with phase and froth stages. the curve represents the temporal profile for NDVI (modified after Kuenzer and Knauer (2013); Mosleh et al. (2015)).1.2 Rice-canopy spectral profiles for four severity levels of Helminthosporium Oryzae Rice canopy spectral profiles at various nitrogen rates (Gnyp et al. (2013)). . . .New sources of information are required to support rice production decisions. To cope with this challenge, studies have found practical applications on mapping rice through the use of remote sensing techniques. This study attempts to implement a methodology aimed at monitoring rice phenology using optical satellite data. The relationship between rice phenology and reflectance metrics was explored at two levels: growth stages and biophysical modifications caused by diseases. Two optical moderate-resolution missions were combined to detect growth phases. Three machine learning approaches (random forest, support vector machine, and gradient boosting trees) were trained with multitemporal NDVI data. Analytics from validation showed that the algorithms were able to estimate rice phases with performances above 0.94 in f-1 score. Tested models yielded an overall accuracy of 71.8%, 71.2%, 60.9% and 94.7% for vegetative, reproductive, ripening and harvested categories. A second exploration was carried out by combining Sentinel-2 data and ground-based information about rice disease incidence. K-means clustering was used to map rice biophysical changes across reproductive and ripening phases. The findings ascertained the remote sensing capabilities to create new information about rice for Colombia's conditions.i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the Copyright) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes.ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made.iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the Intellectual Property) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (Reproductions), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://www.campus. manchester.ac.uk/medialibrary/policies/intellectual-property.pdf), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Librarys regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/ aboutus/regulations) and in The University's policy on presentation of Theses.Many have contributed their knowledge and efforts for the consolidation of rice as one of the essential short-cycle crops in Colombia during the last decades. Government entities (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), the National Rice Growers Federation (Fedearroz) and international research institutes (e.g., International Center for Tropical Agriculture) have played a key role in promoting rice research and improving rice production conditions. As a consequence, rice production in Colombia has increased from 2 tons.ha −1 in 1960 to 5.7 tons.ha −1 in 2016 (UNEP (2005)), and the rice production area has increased in 23 out of 32 departments with a total harvested area of 570,802 hectares (Fedearroz (2017)). Such expansion has turned rice into a vital crop for Colombia society (McLean et al. (2013)). Nevertheless, rice crop is exposed to several factors that affect its profitability (Amaya Montoya (2011)). High production cost, fluctuation on rice prices, international trades, disease outbreaks, and overproduction are some of the challenges that Colombian rice growers must face. Rice information is therefore essential in monitoring factors that may affect crop production.Rice crop data is valuable in diverse aspects to bring farmers agronomical decisions tools (Delerce et al. (2016); Jiménez et al. (2016)), to serve as a base in political decisions related with food security (Cihlar (2000); Dong and Xiao (2016)), and to monitor pest and disease outbreaks (Gnanamanickam et al. (2010)). Due to its importance, many efforts have been carried out to get reliable information about rice-ecosystems. One of the most common methods is through surveys. Regardless of its high accuracy, this methodology is time-consuming and hard to implement at a large scale (Mosleh et al. (2015)). After that, new sources of information are required to obtain high-frequency data at low cost. Remote sensing has gained interest due to its capacity to monitor crops at different scales in a cost-effective manner (Dong and Xiao (2016); Kuenzer and Knauer (2013)).During the last decade, several studies have successfully proved the remote sensing capability on monitoring rice, creating valuable data for characterizing rice-crop conditions. Although the method has been widely implemented in countries which rice is extensively sowed (e.g., China, India, Vietnam) (Mosleh et al. (2015)), in Colombia there are few reported studies that have explored the relationship between rice and spectral satellite-derived metrics (Martínez (2017)).The potential for growth phase detection can be further explored to characterise the intravariability on rice fields. New metrics can be derived in order to monitor rice biophysical changes across phenological stages. A comprehensive assessment may link those changes to rice stresses factors such as diseases. This technology can be therefore used to identify and treat rice damages in fields (González-Betancourt and Mayorga-Ruíz (2018); Wu et al. (2018)).The purpose of this study is to establish new methods for monitoring rice growth phase and disease incidence in Colombia. The objective was focused on creating remote sensing metrics to better characterise the rice morphological and physiological changes through its growth cycle.Using ground-based information shared by Fedearroz, a methodology was developed to detect rice growth phases using optical satellite data. Using this to control for the phenological stage of the crop, a method for detecting zones affected by diseases within the rice fields was developed.The remainder of this chapter contains the background information related to remote sensing techniques and general aspects of rice phenology. Chapter two explains the methodology developed for rice growth phase detection by blending Landsat and Sentinel-2 images. Chapter three explores a method for detecting phenological changes caused by diseases during reproductive and ripening phases. Chapter 4 gives a synthesis and future works that must be done in order to validate methodologies.Remote Sensing is a method that measures properties from an object using devices which are not in contact with (Khorram et al. (2012); Mulla (2013)). These devices can be mounted on aircrafts, earth orbiting spacecrafts, or even held by hand (ground-based). The electromagnetic energy emitted or reflected by the object is captured by the devices or sensors. Any object at a given temperature should naturally emit electromagnetic radiation. The amount of energy is proportional to the source temperature (Joshi and Kumar (2008)). The electromagnetic (EM) radiation is the energy that moves at a speed of light in a harmonic wave pattern. The EM waves comprise an electromagnetic spectrum. One property of the electromagnetic radiation is the wavelength; this is a spatial distance from one wave position to the next wave in the same point (Khorram et al. (2012)). This attribute is used to split the spectrum into seven categories: gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible rays, infrared rays, microwaves, and radio waves (Joshi and Kumar (2008)).One of the principal energy sources on earth is the sun. Various types of interactions can occur between EM and matter, such as absorption, reflection, scattering, emission, and transmission. Thus, a material has a characteristic absorbance and/or reflectance to the original EM radiation; this phenomenon is known as a spectral profile. The key of remote sensing is that the devices used can record the spectral profile (Khorram et al. (2012)). The sensors that detect electromagnetic radiation from natural sources are known as passive sensors. In contrast, active systems rely on illuminating the subject with a pulse or beam of radiation and measuring the backscatter. Airborne photography and optical satellites belong to the first group, while Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) and Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR) are examples for the second one.Likewise, remote sensing information can be obtained in two ways: non-imaging, and imaging. Sensors such as spectroradiometers which are commonly used in ground-based applications are in the first category. For the imaging methods, one example is the earth observation data that is captured by the satellites (Martinelli et al. (2015)). The digital images can be stored at different spatial, temporal, spectral, and radiometric resolutions. Spatial resolution is the image grid size. Cadence is the revisiting time on a specific geographical location. Spectral resolution is the sensor ability for registering wavelength intervals. Finally, radiometric resolution characterises the sensor sensitivity (Khorram et al. (2012)). These parameters constrain the applicability of the product.Currently, close to 200 Earth Observation satellites are continuously registering information (Ma et al. (2015)). This amount of data has facilitated the development of applications in many fields such as oceanography, atmospheric, weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, urban structuration, and agriculture.The first studies using remote sensing techniques were focused on characterizing leaf chlorophyll content (Benedict and Swidler (1961); Thomas and Gausman (1977)). This pigment absorbs energy centered in blue and red, while reflects the wavelength in green, yet, these spectral regions are not the only ones related to vegetation. Baret et al. (1987), found that the red edge spectrum provides information related to the leaf area and the percentage of ground coverage. Bannari et al. (1995), mentioned that near-infrared (NIR) is affected by leaf cellular structure.To overall the plant-spectral relationship, the reflectance in the visible spectrum is low mainly caused by photosynthetic pigments. In the red-edge region, retrieval is influenced by chlorophyll content (Ramoelo et al. (2012)). The leaf cellular structure controls the absorbance in the near infrared region. Finally, for short-wavelength infrared, the reflectance is influenced by water, proteins, and other carbon constituents content (Huang et al. (2012); Peñuelas and Filella (1998)).Since the first Earth Observation satellite mission, studies have focused on characterizing radiometric response and vegetation cover using broadband sensors. Among spectral bands, red and NIR especially showed high sensitivity to vegetation conditions. The red band is absorbed by chlorophyll that is essential for the plant photosynthetic process, while NIR is reflected by leaf cellular structures. Thus, the combination of both bands allows identifying vegetation covers from others (e.g., soil, and water) and quantify the vigor of the plant (Bannari et al. (1995)).The quantification metrics derived from spectral band combinations are known as vegetation indices. The first indices were computed as ratios of the green and NIR bands. Although these ratios are used to measure relative greenness, these indices may be affected by atmospheric effects, vegetative density, and study location (Bannari et al. (1995); Tucker (1979)). Rouse et al. (1973), found a way to reduce the negative aspect of existing vegetation indices by calculating the normalised difference between red and NIR bands. Thus, the normalised difference vegetation Index (NDVI) gained notorious importance for plant biophysical properties monitoring. However, the NDVI is sensitive to soil background, atmospheric conditions, and heterogeneous canopies (Rondeaux et al. (1996); Xue and Su (2017)). To adequately assess the plant response using band combinations, many studies have developed different vegetation indices to tackle specific problems (table 1.1). Rice phenology can be divided into three main phenological phases: vegetative (germination to panicle initiation), reproductive (panicle initiation to flowering), and maturity or ripening (grain filling to maturity) (Moldenhauer and Slaton (2001)). Changes in the plant morphology characterise each agronomic stage. The vegetative phase initiates with the plant emergence;during this phase, the main characteristics are the gradual increase of plant height, leaf area, and an active tillering. The phase transition takes place when the tiller number per plant reaches a maximum. The reproductive stage follows maximum tillering. During this phase, the panicle primordia stage starts its initiation. The panicle needs approximately 25 days to achieve the heading stage, which refers to when 50% of the panicles have flowered. After 100% of flowering, the ripening stage takes place. The maturity stage is characterised by leaf senescence and grain filling (Yoshida (1981)). The rice cycle takes from 3 to 5 months; the difference is subject to the conditions in which the crop is developed (Kuenzer and Knauer (2013)). As the rice plant change its growth phenology, the reflectance is affected at different spectral wavelength. Studies have adequately described the rice cycle as a function of vegetation indices.Several indices have shown a strong correlation with rice growth. For example, NDVI is affected by the low percentage of vegetation cover at the early vegetative phase, due to that its values are close to zero (figure 1.1). While the plant is growing, the chlorophyll quantity increases, which exerts considerable influence in the absorbance of light in the red domain. Although the absorbance in the blue region also increments due to chlorophyll content, this domain is also influenced by carotenoids absorption (Peñuelas and Filella (1998)). In NIR region, the reflectance is increased by foliar and tillering development. The NDVI characterises this process as a gradual increment in its values. Finally, NDVI starts to decrease due to biomass reduction (decay and loss of leaves), greenness diminishing (chlorophyll content), and yellowness increase (rice grains filling) (Kuenzer and Knauer (2013); Mosleh et al. (2015)).The growth stage can, therefore, be predicted by the NDVI trajectory in time. Other studies have focused their analysis on satellites with higher spatial resolution than MODIS, such as Landsat or Sentinel-2. Nevertheless, their low temporal resolution compromises data availability. Recent methodologies merge multiple mission to overcome this inconvenience.For instance, Wang et al. (2015) created smoothed vegetation indices time-series by combining two optical satellites, Landsat-8, and HJ-1 CCD. They found reliable performances when both satellites were combined, instead of using only one. They assigned the rice phenological shift for those days when the vegetation index time-series reached a maximum. Wu et al. (2018) used radar and optical data to detect rice in early middle, and late phases for areas located in China.Thus, they summarized Sentinel-1s VH backscattering images taken during the rice plantation period in three layers minimum, difference, and maximum. The imagery stack was compared with the minimum and maximum coefficients, which defined the rice growth stages. Finally, they calculated the Landsat-8's NDVI values for which areas filtered from the Sentinel-1. The NDVI was classified using the k-means approach to differentiate each rice stage. Although the study reported a high level of overall accuracy (98.1 %) in their methodology, they worked under local rice system conditions, for example, assuming a general crop calendar and considering only irrigation ricePlant pathogens are significant causes of yield loss (Huang et al. (2012)). The primary organisms that cause damage to rice plants are bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes (Ahn and Jennings (1982)). Hence, many efforts have risen in order to understand the symptoms caused by the pathogens, as well as to better characterise the specific environmental conditions that facilitate their outbreaks. For example, The Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)and Fedearroz have identified five significant pathogens for Colombia (Correa-Victoria and Zeigler (1993); Fedearroz ( 2014)). These are Pyricularia Orizae, Helminthosporium, Rhizoctonia Solani, Rhynchosporium, Gaemannomyces.Rice blast disease is caused by the fungal pathogen Pyricularia Orizae (teleomorph Magnaporthe Orizae); this is of considerable importance to rice producers (Dean et al. (2012)).The fungus affects all foliar tissues, and the major diagnostic symptoms are lesions on leaves, nodes, and different parts of the panicle (Ou (1985)). Although the disease is reported worldwide, symptoms depend on the climatic conditions, especially relative humidity (Ou (1985)).For example, in Colombia, the rice blast is mainly located in the eastern part of the country due to a suitable temperature and humidity conditions (Correa-Victoria and Zeigler (1993); Fedearroz (2014)). The establishes during early plant stages, tillering and neck emerge stages are susceptible to this pathogen (Venkatarao and Muralidharan (1982)) and is immediately controlled by farmers when symptoms present.Different factors affect the incidence of Brown Spot disease (Helminthosporium Orizae), but, environments with a scarce water supply and lacking in soil nutrient minerals, or with accumulated toxic substances, facilitated the diseases development (Ou (1985); Barnwal et al. (2013)). Indeed, Ou (1985) reported that Brown Spot disease is caused by a deficiency of one or more nutrient elements (nitrogen, silica, potassium manganese, and magnesium), and in practice, disease and deficiency symptoms are often inseparable. Thereby, the Brown Spot is sometimes used as a reference to mineral deficiencies (Ahn and Jennings (1982); Daytnoff et al. (1991); Barnwal et al. (2013)). Plant age is also relevant for disease growing. Although Brown Spot can attack at early plant stages, its damage is commonly noted in dough and maturity stages (Singh (2016)).Diseases modify plant physiology. These changes mostly occur in leaf structure and pigments content. Consequently, the electromagnetic spectrum absorption at different wavelengths varies depending on the level of disease. For instance, one symptom of Magnaporthe Orizae is leaf cell necrosis, which causes pigments degradation; these changes can be therefore spotted by the visible spectral region (Zhou et al. (2019)). Kobayashi et al. (2001) reported that blue and red regions reflectance increases at dough stage, because of the carotenoids and chlorophyll content decrement. Pathogens such as Rhizoctonia and Helminthosporium also have been detected using the visible and NIR regions (Qin and Zhang (2005)). For instance, Liu et al.   2012) firstly characterised yellow rust on wheat using hyperspectral groundbased measurements that then was used as a reference for satellite implementation. Although PlanetScope offers useful information at high spectral and temporal resolutions, their images acquisition prices constrain regional application. These studies show the potential use of spectral reflectance measurements in quantifying the incidence or severity of rice diseases.Chapter 2In this section, a novel approach for identifying rice growth phases using optical satellite images and supervised classification approaches is presented. Sentinel-2 and Landsat data were downloaded and processed for two localities in Colombia. Three state-of-the-art machine learning supervised classification algorithms (random forest, support vector machine, and gradient boosting trees) were trained, validated, and tested using ground-based data shared by The Colombian National Rice Growers Federation (Fedearroz). The analysis showed: 1) clear relationship in various rice growth phases with multi-temporal NDVI data; 2) feasible to obtain a considerable number of optical satellite data by blending Landsat and Sentinel-2 missions;3) training supervised classification approaches allowed applying the methodology in another locality.  2016)). Thus, the agricultural sector is responsible for almost 77% of the municipalities' Gross Value Added (Fedearroz (2010)).The rice annual planting area is nearly 15,390 hectares in both localities. Hereafter the name Saldaña is used to refer to both municipalities.The second site is in the Cesar department. The Cesars climate is classified as tropical wet and dry. The wet season begins in March, and dry season starts in December, with an average annual temperature that ranges from 27°C to 34°C. This region has specific crop management differences compared with Saldaña. The most notable is the farming system. While lowland irrigated rice is the only system implemented in Saldaña, in Cesar the 5% of the system is rainfed rice (DANE (2017)), which means that irrigation only depends on the rainfall duration.The Colombian National Rice Growers Federation (Fedearroz)    Sentinel-2The Sentinel-2 mission is part of the Global Measurement for Earth and Security (GMES) program, which is responsible for delivering data products for environmental and security services (Drusch et al. (2012)). Sentinel-2 reflectance measurements provide essential data for studies of land management, agriculture, and disaster monitoring (Aschbacher and Milagro-Pérez (2012)). Sentinel-2 has two identical satellites with revisit cycle of 10 days. Thus, the mission captures information globally every five days. Each satellite has a Multispectral Instrument (MSI), which is used to monitor the earth surface in 13 spectral bands (table 2.1). The instrument has a spectral range from the visible to the short wave infrared (Drusch et al. (2012)).The spatial resolution varies regarding the wavelength, thus visible and NIR are available at 10 m, while red-edge and SWIR are recorded at 20 m. All data were downloaded directly from the Sentinels Scientific Data Hub (https://scihub.copernicus.eu/ ).The of the pixels of the data are missing since then (Chen et al. (2011)).  2018)).In Sentinel-2, such process is carried through the state version of sen2cor. The module uses two external sources, radiative transfer tables and a digital elevation model (DEM). The tables contain absorbance as a function of the frequency, pressure, temperature, and water vapor (Buehler et al. (2011)). The atmospherically corrected product also contains a Scene Classification Layer, providing a broad classification of the ground cover at a 400 m 2 resolution.Sentinel-2 and Landsat data work with different spatial resolution levels. An image resampling was applied to compare the reflectance of data sources. Considering that 10 meters are the highest spatial resolution available for the data, this was selected as a reference for all products. There are several techniques developed for image resampling purposes. This study used two: bilinear spatial interpolation and nearest neighborhood. The first algorithm takes the nearest cells values and applies them an average. Hence, the new value will be the mean of their neighborhoods. This model was applied on images with continuous numeric data, and for categorical layers (e.g., the scene classification layer) were processed using the nearest neighborhood method. This model, as its name refers, assigns the pixel of interest value equal to its most adjacent pixels.Studies have revealed the existence of misregistration between Landsat and Sentinel-2 products.Some have reported a shift of up to 1.6 pixels at 30 meters resolution. Thus it is advisable to apply a co-registration method to the images (Skakun et al. (2017)). For this reason, many methodologies have been developed for geographic correction. This study uses phase correlation, which was reported in Skakun et al. (2017). The phase correlation algorithm is based on the cross-correlation algorithm that transforms both images into a Fourier space. The peak of the cross-correlation represents the shift that must be applied to the register image (Guizar-Sicairos et al. ( 2008)).One Sentinel-2 image and one Landsat-8 were chosen considering two conditions: 1) the acquisition dates are the same for both images, and 2) the cloud cover over the region is close to zero. Both images were subset for the corresponding area of interest (i.e., Saldaña extension).The final registered imagery had a 10 m spatial resolution. The multitemporal stacked layers were used as input for the vegetation time series creation.The red and NIR bands were extracted from each adquisition image; these bands were used to compute the NDVI layer. Each pixel had information about the vegetation index throughout time. However, values from a multi-temporal sequence can be affected by the presence of noise (e.g., atmospheric, surface reflectance methods, shadows). Therefore, a filtering technique is necessary for handling these errors. The Savitzky-Golay algorithm was chosen, which uses a moving window to smooth values that span into it (Savitzky and Golay (1964); Cao et al.(). The smooth approach has two parameters: the window size and the polynomial fitting degree. To summarize the NDVI time series, five features were calculated.The rice growth phenological phase detection problem has been addressed through characterising in which dates the NDVI time profile has inflection points, these changes may describe the shift into a new growth phase (Shihua et al. (2014)). Thus, the inflection points are obtained from derivatives methods. In this study, two derivatives values were computed at beginning and ending of the smoothed time series. Additionally, five features were obtained aimed at summarizing the NDVI time series.The kernel regression method was applied in order to estimate new values across the time series. The simplest kernel weights average estimation is the Nadaraya Watson form (Hastie et al. (2009)):Where, K λ is a gaussian kernel function for λ which controls the variance of the gaussian density. This regression was performed for every pixel in the multi-temporal stack. Herein, three classification approaches were used and compared in this study: support vector machines, random forest, and gradient boosting machine. The implementation of each algorithm was done through packages that were developed for the software R. Support vector machine, and random forest modes have been widely used in remote sensing studies (Mountrakis et al. (2011); Belgiu and Drgu (2016)). Recently, gradient boosting machine has gained notorious popularity because of its superior performances compared to more traditional machine learning techniques (Georganos et al. (2018)).The support vector machines (SVM) is based on the linear model classification, which uses a hyperplane for class separation. A linear function is suitable for the cases where the data is linearly separable. The optimal hyperplane is one that maximizes the margin width between the nearest classes (figure 2.4). This margin depends on one vector (β) which is perpendicular to the linear function. Therefore, the unknown point classification depends on its location, considering the hyperplane. Thus, to maximize the margin, the algorithm finds the minimum distance from the origin vector (β)Figure 2.4: Example of the separable case for two classes (blue and red dots). The solid black line represents the decision boundary.Although the hyperplane was conceived to separate the classes as best as possible, there are cases where categories are overlapping in the feature spaces. Thus, this scenario is tackled by allowing errors when data are separated (Cortes and Vapnik (1995)). The errors can be expressed as ε i which are greater or equal to 0. The total of errors is also constrained by a constant (C), aimed to regularise the function N i ε i ≤ C. Thus, large C values allow the ε i increment and, as a consequence, the model will tend to overfit, while with small values, the model will be restricted (Hastie et al. (2009)). Adding cost values to all points that violated the constraints, the optimization problem is defined as:Linear separation models work accurately under scenarios where a linear function can separate the data, but for data with a more complex distribution, it is necessary to add new non-linear features. However, the transformation and selection of new features require considerable computational resources that make it challenging to find new solutions (Muller and Guido (2017)). Cortes and Vapnik (1995), found a way to deal with this problem, they demonstrated that it is not necessary to transform the new feature. It is only required to obtain the inner products (e.g., dot product) from a small amount of training data. After that, a non-linear transformation is applied to the vectors. The training points are known as support vectors. The inner product in the new space is found through a kernel function. Two of the more commonly used functions, in support vector machines, are polynomial kernel and radial basis function.Polynomial kernel basis :SVM is sensitive to feature magnitudes, so all features must have the same scale. Although NDVI data ranges from 0 to 1, the other features values oscillate on another scale. For this reason, the min-max normalisation method was used to transform all data on the same scaleRandom Forest is an ensemble model of a finite number of decision trees. The tree models recursively split the data into subsets through a serial of rules. However, when a tree has many splits, it can overfit the data. On the one hand, this model has a straightforward interpretation of the results. On the other hand, the model is unstable, and the final pruning will depend on the primary partition. Breiman (2001) showed significant improvements in reducing overfitting and variance scenario on tree based approaches, through training many trees with random data; thus, each tree casts a class, and the final decision depends on the number of votes.The new training sets are drawn from randomising the original data with replacements (the same point can be picked more than one time). This method is known as bootstrap (Breiman (2001); Muller and Guido (2017)). Using bootstrap, we can obtain multiple datasets that have the same length than the original dataset. The bootstrap aggregation or bagging is the resultsof averaging the models' predictions fitted with the bootstrap samples. This technique reduces high-variances and low-biased obtained from approaches such as trees (Hastie et al. (2009)).Additionally, to ensure that each tree grows independently, a random subset of the features is used in each node. Consequently, the trees can predict based on different features combinations.Therefore, the grown trees are not pruned. Two parameters are needed to construct a random forest model: the number of trees and the maximum number of features used at each node.Gradient boosting is another ensemble model based on trees approaches. However, instead of using bootstrap as a sampling method, it uses the boosting method. Contrasting with random forest, with which predictions are derived from multiple bootstrap samples, gradient boosting machine is a way of combining the performance of many weak classifiers to improve the general performance additively (Friedman et al. (2000); Muller and Guido (2017)). Thus, for the tree based approach, the trees grow in an adaptative way to reduce bias (Hastie et al. (2009)).In general, the learning model aimed to train a function F (x) using a training sample ({x i , y i } N 1 ) that minimises the expected value (E) of some specified loss function Friedman ( 2001) is:In order to find a solution for ϕ(F (x)), Friedman (2001) proposed an alternative where the model is trained in an additive way. Thus, the solution is obtained from the previous approximation, t−1. This strategy is known as stagewise-greedy or gradient boosting procedure.where α is a step size and the function h(x) is a base predictor (or also known as a weak learner) that belongs to the family functions F , which usually are classification trees. One inconvenience in this model is the tendency to overfit the data. This problem has been tackled with multiple algorithms. Among the gradient boosting machine implementations, XGBoost has proved to have good performances in many studies. The method implements stronger regularization parameters that constrain the model (Georganos et al. (2018)). For the purpose of the study, five parameters were modified. The learning rate (eta), col sample (percentage of columns using in each tree), gamma (the loss reduction), max depth (maximum depth of the tree), and sub sample (ratio of the training set) (Chen and Guestrin ( 2016)).The performance of each supervised classification approaches was assessed through metrics that compare predictions to real values. The confusion matrix method is commonly used for binary classification (table 2.3). Although the confusion matrix is an efficient tool to visualise performances, the matrix by itself lacks a metric to evaluate the classification. However, some techniques allow summarising the confusion matrix. Precision, recall, and f1-score are evaluation metrics that are commonly used not only for binary classification but also for multi-class problems (Sokolova and Lapalme (2009)).Table 2.3: Confusion matrix for binary classification.Real Negative Predicted Positive true positive (TP) false positive (FP) Predicted Negative false negative (FN) true negative (TN) Precision is the proportion of samples classified as positive by the model, which are truly positive. Recall measures the ratio of the amount of correct positive classifications to all possible positive values in the data (Lantz (2013); Muller and Guido (2017)). F1-score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. Micro averaging, macro averaging, and per-instance averaging are variations of the three mentioned metrics that are applied to multi-class problems (Lipton et al. (2014)). Micro is the sum of all true positive (TP), false positive (FP), true negative (TN), and false-negative (FN) quantities for all classes. Whereas, macro averaging calculates the parameters per class, and then averages the results. Finally, per-instance averaging assigns weights to each class. Macro averaging is used when the methodology requires to treat all categories as equal, yet in cases when bigger classes must be favored, the micro averaging is computed (Sokolova and Lapalme (2009)). In this study, the macro averaging metric is applied to gauge the model performances.Training machine learning approaches involves tuning several parameters that may impact the final robustness of the model (Verrelst et al. (2012)). A cross-validation method was computed to select the best tuning parameters values. Once the model classified the validation data, the f-1 score macro metric was computed to measure the model performance. Finally, the parameters configuration for which f1-score was the highest was selected. Each supervised classification approach varies in the number of parameters to optimize. For instance, random forest only depends on the trees numbers and features used as input at each node. On the other hand, SVM polynomial kernel has four parameters to modify: regularization (cost), polynomial-degree, γ, and initial coefficient (coef 0 ).Twelve Landsat and four Sentinel-2 images were downloaded (table 2.4). The MSI images were atmospherically corrected using the Sen2Cor module, while for Landsat, the surface reflectance product was directly obtained from USGS. All images were projected to Universal Trans Mercator projection (UTM Zone 18N) and then clipped using a mask that encompassed the Saldaña The geometric registration was achieved using one Landsat-8 image that was taken on 22of December, and one Sentinel-2 product captured on 21 of December. The NIR reflectance band from both images was used because this band is less affected by atmospheric effects (Skakun et al. (2017)). The OLI band image has a spatial resolution of 30-meter; thus, a bilinear interpolation was applied to obtain a 10-meter. Once both layers shared similar spatial resolution and extension. To calculate the shift, the phase correlation method was used and implemented with the Scikit-learn python package (figure 2.6). As a result, the shift in longitude  The five ground survey days were chosen as a reference to extract the NDVI time profile of each field. Each rice field was drawn as a polygon and used to extract the NDVI information per date. the NDVI time profiles were extracted from 130 days prior to the date in which the survey to the survey date. The NDVI profiles was thereafter assigned to each rice field and labeled with the growth-phase stage that was registered by the technician (figure 2.7). Although the rice fields were monitored using growth-stages notation, this phenological characterisation may not be adequately identified by the satellite approach used in this study (Wang et al. (2014)).Therefore, the growth stages were grouped into three major phenological phases: vegetative, reproductive, and ripening. The Savitzky Golay smoothing method (Savitzky and Golay (1964)) was used to smooth the NDVI time profiles (figure 2.8). The method depends on two parameters: window size and polynomials degree. Both parameters were modified according to the number of time points available per pixel. The kernel regression was computed on the NDVI data available in each ranged time. The cross-correlation method was applied to find the bandwidth parameter; the regression was calculated with 70% of the data; the remaining points were used to validate each estimation. Seven different values of the NDVI that describe the pixels multi-temporal reflectance were obtained. Figure 2.8 shows the three different NDVI profiles obtained from the smoothing and fitting steps applied to one pixel data.Figure 2.8: single pixel NDVI time series comparison between initial time series (red), after smoothing (green), and after regression (blue).Although all rice fields were monitored during one crop season, not all of them were sowed at the same time. Thus, some of them started to be monitored at the end of their crop cycle (e.g., rice field 52B002, figure 2.9). This condition affected the number of observations per growth phase. Other limitations were: the number of cloud-free images during the evaluation time, and the rice fields extension.The data were randomly divided into six subsets/folds. The number of groups was chosen considering the total amount of rice fields per stage. Data were split based on the number of rice fields per growth phase, instead of the number of pixels per class. Thus, the pixels within each rice field may share similar NDVI features. The information per fold at each growth-phase was split into two sets: 70% for training, and 30% for validation. Table 2.5 summarizes the number of pixels from each group in each label as well as the pixel amount destinated for validation and training.  The random forest model was computed on 108 different parameters combinations when the number of features sampled at each split, was four (figure 2.10). The increment in the number of trees had no significant relevance in the f1-score. From the SVM radial basis kernel, the best results were obtained using a γ value equal to 0.0001 and a regularization parameter equal to 3600 (figure 2.10).SVM polynomial basis kernel and XGBoost have more than two parameters to optimise; hence, to gauge the influence that each parameter exerts on the model, the f1-scores resultswere grouped for each parameter, and then were averaged.  The SVM polynomial kernel showed scores over 0.915 when γ parameter was equal to 0.05.The second-degree polynomial had better results than three-grade (figure 2.11-a). For the cost and coef0 parameters, there was not a long difference in the f-1score; these values were choosen using a second plot (figure 2.11-b) where polynomial-degree and γ parameters equal to 2 and 0.05, respectively. Thus, the grid search revealed that the parameters for SVM polynomial kernel basis were: γ = 0.05, polynomial-degree = 2, cost = 2, and coef0 = 4.The XGBoost results showed that the score reached a peak for a maximum depth greater than 8 (figure 2.12-a). This value was chosen, considering that at increasing the max depth may cause a model overfitting. For learning rate (eta) and subsample, the best results were obtained at 0.01 and 0.7, respectively. Similarly to SVM polynomial, a second plot was created to choose the best results for colsample and minimum split loss (λ) (figure 2.12-b). The highest f-1 score was found for max depth = 8, eta = 0.01, sub sample = 0.7, colsample = 0.7, and minimum split loss= 4. After parameter grid search, the final classification models obtained 0.94, 0.943, 0.946, and 0.966 in f1-score for the random forest, SVM radial kernel, SVM polynomial kernel, and XGBoost, respectively. Figure 2.13 shows the performances achieved per class in which the best category performance was achieved for vegetative, followed by reproductive. The \"other\" class had the lowest scores.Figure 2.13: f1-score per growth phase for each classification model approach.The Cesar dataset was used to test the machine learning approaches.  The NDVI time series were extracted using the spatial points for each rice field. The series were preprocessed and finally classified using the trained models. The rice growth phase detection approach was applied at different times, aimed at characterising the whole rice cycle.The dates of interests, in which the model was applied, were those acquisition dates where the image cloud percentage was close to zero. In order to compare the model classification resultswith ground based data, the Fedearroz growth stage notation was transformed into growth phase notation. Therefore, vegetative phase was assigned for the time between emergence and maximum tillering. Reproductive phase was referred to as the interval from flowering initiation to 100% flowering. The interval from ten days previous harvest date until harvest day was assigned as ripening phase. The second rice field (TRANQ11) was classified at ten different times. The model found that on 29 May, close to one third parts of the field was at bare soil, and the remaining field was at vegetative phase. After ten days, half of the field reached the vegetative phase. However, the ground data reported that the plant emerged on 26 April and reached maximum tillering on 5th June; thus, model was not able to wholly classify the entire field in this stage. Likewise, the rice field was in reproductive at the beginning of July, but most of the pixels were classified as a vegetative phase. Yet, this rice field suffered a harvest delay due to drought.The rice field growth phase class at a given date was chosen considering the percentage of pixels. Thus, the category with a cumulative pixel classification higher than 50% was assigned to each field. Some fields were harvested in October (e.g., SNIC4), yet there were not cloudfree images for this time; for that reason, the classification approach was calculated until 31stSeptember. To assess the models' performances, the number of cases in which the classification accurately classified the phase period was estimated (figure 2.16). Lastly, the number of true positive classifications were divided by the total of observations (Sakamoto et al. (2005)) (table 2.6).  In this study, a feasibility method for detecting rice stages at 10 meters by blending different optical satellite missions (Landsat-7, Landsat-8, and Sentinel-2) was shown. Although similar studies, Sakamoto et al. (2005) reported classification performances above of 0.8 (using accuracy metric), these results were achieved though a coarser resolution (250 m). The rice phenological identification using low resolution is suitable for areas where the rice is planted on large extensions, but considering Colombia'conditions, where close to 70% of the rice production is taking place on fields in which area extension is less than 10 hectares (Fedearroz (2017)). The low spatial resolution approaches may not be the best solution.The methodology developed in this chapter is highly dependent on cloud conditions. However, recent studies have combined radar and optical derived features in order to map rice fields (Onojeghuo et al. (2018)).These methodologies have proved to improve the rice phenological detection, especially for the early stage. For example, Tian et al. (2018) found a high correlation between rice backscattering and the field when this is inundated by water. The classification process used VH and VV polarisations data to create RADAR features.The Colombia Government and Fedearroz have been delivering bi-semester information related to rice harvested area. This information has been useful for planning decision making.This study aimed to complement national surveys, offering spatial data more detail and additional crop characteristic. Thus, the model could estimate which is the rice phenological area for a given time at a regional scale. For example, for Saldaña, the extension area for each growth phase detection on 21st December of 2015 was mapped (figure2.17). This exercise was done using a rice map and the XGBoost model.Among the state-of-the-art machine learning algorithms, the XGboost model has been reported as a powerful technique for classification tasks. This study was able to validate its potential. However, SVM showed slightly better performances classifying vegetative phase. Previous studies have reported differences among tree-based and SVM approaches (Feyisa et al. (2016)).They referred to classifiers' robustness as the main factor for efficiency in both approaches.From the tuning parameters section, it was possible to note a high range of performances.Using NDVI time series, optical data from two satellites were merged. This approach allows estimating the growth phases at any time. In this sense, the rice fields cycle was progressively  Chapter 3This section aims to present a methodology that uses Sentinel-2 data for detecting diseases areas within productive rice fields. The processes are described as follows: 1) To detect rice canopy reflectance changes during two growth stages. 2) To group pixels that share similar reflectance characteristics. 3) To compare the reflectance profiles with \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" rice canopy profiles reported in previous studies. The study uses ground-based information from the northern region of Tolima.Tolima has the second largest area sowed with rice in Colombia. The department has traditionally led the rice production. The rice crop plays an essential role in the local agricultural sector. Thus, nearly 27% of the Tolima agriculture area is planted with rice (MADR ( 2014)).Lowland irrigated rice is mainly planted in the flatlands at an altitude that ranges from 300 to 1200 meters (Delerce et al. (2016)). Tolima precipitation is distributed in two rainy seasons, the first occurs from March to May, and the second one is from September to November. The annual rainfall is 1450 mm, while the mean temperature varies from 23 to 27°C (Sarmiento (2018)).The department is split into four major regions in terms of rice production. Those regions are characterised by different geographical, soil, and agronomic conditions. One of these is the northern region that comprises the municipalities of Lerida, Ambalema, and Armero. The region annually produces 111,000 tons of rice, which is close to 15% of total department production (MADR ( 2016)). The municipalities mainly plant irrigated rice in flatlands in which altitude ranges from 200 m to 400 m.Fedearroz implemented the phytosanitary brigade program in 2012. This initiative aims to monitor disease distribution on rice fields across Colombia. Such data comes from registers taken by Fedearroz technicians, who annually visited the major Colombian rice production regions. The information has been used for understanding the disease impact in rice production (Fedearroz (2016)).Disease monitoring was carried out in commercial rice fields during the ripening stage, where in each field, the technicians chose at least 25 control points. In each sampling location, the person took a handful of rice stems. The evaluator registered the number of diseased plants.This metric is used to gauge disease incidence. Finally, the disease severity score is evaluated for a single plant. The person scored from 0 to 100, where 0 means no disease affection, and 100 represents total damage over the plant. The breeder registered four features per evaluation point, disease name, number of stems, incidence, and severity (Fedearroz (2014)). The evaluated diseases are Rhizoctonia, Piricularia, Gaemannomyces, Helmintosporiosis, Sarocladium.Additionally, the technician registered the rice field geographic position using a GPS.Sentinel-2 data was used to detect the diseased areas within the rice fields. The growth phase identification was tackled using Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2. For more information, please refer to 2.1.3 section.The rice fields geolocation was referenced as a spatial point which would have constrained the study scope to one pixel. Thus, a polygon delimitation method was implemented per each evaluated field. To effectively assert the polygon with the real field extension, a methodology which involves the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform was used. GEE is a cloud-based platform for global geospatial analysis that brings high-performance computing resources to studies with high impact social issues (Gorelick et al. (2017)). The GEE data catalog offers free information sources like Sentinel and Landsat, among others. The tool access is controlled by an application programming interface (API), this combined with an interactive development environment (IDE), offers a quick visualization of analysis.Each rice field contour was defined using a high-resolution image as a reference. The multitemporal spectral profile for each polygon was visualized from April to November (according to Fedarroz the rice season was held this period) through the GEE platform (figure 3.1). The polygon was assigned as rice field if its NDVI profile had a typical characteristic pattern for rice canopy) otherwise, a new polygon was created or the rice field was removed from the study.The ground base data, that was shared by Fedearroz, offers information about rice disease incidence. However, it does not pin down which zones were affected by the pathogen. Lack of knowledge about evaluation points hampers a correct grasp of the relationship between reflectance metrics with damage caused by diseases. In order to detect those reflectance profiles Although there are no reported spectral studies for rice in Tolima, some studies have successfully assigned spectral patterns for healthy rice conditions in other countries. Zhao et al. (2012) published a spectral characterisation of rice at a different brown spot (Helminthosporium Oryzae) incidence levels. The evaluations were taken on 25 rice fields located in China, in which they characterised the infested rice canopy by using hyperspectral measurements. Registers were thereafter grouped into four categories: D0, healthy canopy; D1, severity index from 0% to 27%; D2, index from 27% to 44%; D3, severity index greater than 44%. The evaluation was carried out during the heading stage.The narrowband measurements were transformed into the Sentinel-2 broadbands. This mission was chosen over Landsat because of its MSI sensor offers information that covers the red-edge spectrum, this spectral region is strongly affected by chlorophyll content (Kobayashi et al. (2001)). The transformation was achieved by integrating the hyperspectral measurements into the Sentinel-2's relative spectral response domain (Zheng et al. (2018)).where, Rs b is the simulated reflectance value for the band b, and λ is the wavelength range for the band b. f(x) is the spectral response function of the Sentinel-2 mission. The simulated reference was constructed for nine broadbands, swir2 region was removed because of its high susceptibility to water absorption (figure 3.2).Diseases damage may accelerate the plant senescence process (Martinelli et al. (2015)). For example, diseases such as Sarocladium and Helminthosporium can cause panicles rotting and the emergence of spots on the leaves tissues. Early physiological changes can be spotted by a continuous monitoring method. In this sense, the goal is to detect spectral changes across the reproductive phase (from heading to ripening stage). A Bi-stage normalised band metric is calculated to identify different spectral patterns within the field. The metric is computed per pixel and is then clustered. As a consequence, groups with similar spectral changes patterns were detected. Finally, the averaged spectral reflectance per group is compared with the simulated reference spectral profile that describes a plant affected by a disease.Rice diseases can affect a plant in different ways regarding the plant growth stage. Thus some symptoms, such as lesions, are not visible until the late stages. The canopy morphological changes can be observed using reflectance when the leaf has reached a specific size (Martinelli et al. (2015)). Likewise, the disease incidence increment can speed up during specific phase stages. For instance, the Rhizoctonia incidence rapidly increases from early heading to grain filling stages, due to chemicals released by plant cells during reproductive phase (Gnanamanickam et al. (2010)). Hence, to correctly characterise the rice reflectance profile for healthy and unhealthy scenarios, the rice fields phenological stage was first detected. The methodology developed in chapter 2 was used to detect the growth phases. Shi et al. (2018) proposed normalised two-stage vegetation indices for characterising rice diseases development. They computed the metric over six different vegetation indices which were selected based on PlanetScope multi-spectral resolution (i.e., blue, red, green, and nir).However, Sentinel-2 mission offers a broader number of spectral bands than PlanetScope. This study used the bi-stage normalised difference (NDRB) metric to characterise the rice phenology changes across the reproductive phase. Thus, the metric was computed over each Sentinel-2 reflectance band, aimed at exploring the whole spectral range, and was fed with the plant reflectance data captured at the beginning and end of the reproductive phase.An unsupervised classification approach was used to find which pixels shared similar spectral reflectance characteristics. The unsupervised transformation methods are applied to understand data better. Among the algorithms that belong to this approach, clustering methods are frequently used in remote sensing applications, e.g., land-cover determination (Duda and Canty (2002)), crop phenology identification (Tian et al. (2018)), or plant stresses detection (Zheng et al. (2019)). One of the most popular clustering algorithms is k-means.The k-means clustering randomly initialises with a given number of centres for which are assigned points closest to them. The algorithm calculates the means of the data that represents each centre, this mean vector then becomes the new centre for the cluster. These two steps are iteratively repeated to minimise the cluster variance (Gareth James, Daniela Witten and Tibshirani (2006)). One common practice is first to adjust the features to the same scale, before applying a clustering algorithm. This procedure was achieved through the robust-scalar algorithm. The method computes interquartile range and median absolute deviation for each feature. This methodology aims to be less susceptible to extreme values (Muller and Guido (2017)). The clusters number were decided based on elbow algorithm, which measures the heterogeneity for each cluster, so k-means is calculated at a different number of groups. Hence, heterogeneity tends to decrease as more clusters are created. The final goal is to choose the number of groups before the reduction reached a minimum plateau (Lantz (2013)).The Euclidean distance norm was used to quantify similarity among the spectral profiles.3.2 ResultsThrough the rice field digitalization was possible to obtain 57 polygons that are located in the northern region of Tolima were visually evaluated (figure 3.3). The remaining points were removed due to inconsistencies such as geographical positions errors, or low quantity of cloudfree images for the evaluation period.  Rice canopy reflectance is not only influenced by stress factors, but also by agricultural practices such as cultivar, fertilization, irrigation, or by external phenomena such as weather, or soil (Thenkabail et al. (2000); Gnyp et al. (2013); Huang et al. (2012)). Although the knowledge of these factors is essential to explain the rice spectral variations, only rice variety was available in the dataset, thus, the study was only focused on one cultivar. Fedearroz 67 was the most frequently sowed cultivar in the region during 2016 and 2017. To assign a disease incidence value to each rice field, the disease incidence scores that were registered for Rhizoctonia, Gaemannomyces, Helmintosporiosis, and Sarocladium Oryzae. The Piricularia registers were not considered in the analysis because of its low values. The technicians only evaluated disease severity for Sarocladium, and therefore, this score was used as a reference for rice damage.Two rice fields were first characterised in order to explore the relationship between spectral reflectance and ground-based observations (table 3.1). Rice fields were selected based on their disease incidence and severity scores. Field 1 was registered with a disease incidence of 20.9% and severity of 9.6%, while Field 8 had an incidence of 44% and severity of 69.6%. Both rice fields were monitored at different years 2016 and 2017, respectively. Hereafter the name \"healthy\" is used to refer Field 1 and \"unhealthy\" field to name Field 8. Rice phenological phases were detected using the methodology described in section 2. Unlike Saldaña region where Landsat-7 data were included in the analysis, this mission was not included in this chapter. In total, 27 optical images were used, in which 10 and 17 were Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2, respectively. XGBoost model was used to classy the NDVI multitemporal signatures belonging to each rice field. The rice cycle was progressively characterised from July to September. The dates of interest were those in which the image cloud percentage was close to 0.The \"healthy\" field growth phase crop was estimated on five different dates. The rice field was in reproductive phase during July 2016 and then changed to ripening phase one month later.For \"unhealthy\" field, the method was applied on eight dates. The field reached reproductive phase on the middle of July, changing to ripening phase at the end of August, and finally, being harvested in October 2017 (figure 3.5).Sentinel-2 images that were taken during reproductive and ripening phases were selected.Therefore, Five and nine Sentinel-2 images were selected for healthy and unhealthy fields,respectively. An additional step was used to select the images. Each image was visualized as a true color composite (i.e., blue, green, and red) aimed at spotting surfaces with noise. As a result, the image acquired on 7 August of 2016 was removed, because a thin cloud partially covered the rice field (figure 3.6) Figure 3.5: Results of Growth phase detection for \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" fields.The spectral information per pixel for each time and field was extracted (figure 3.7). The rice fields were classified into growth phases, but Zhao et al. (2012) characterised rice canopy during heading stage. Hence it was necessary to find which was the time where rice fields were in heading stage. So, the spectral profiles for each image were compared with the simulated spectral references. Euclidean distance metric was used to measure the similarity of both profiles. As a result, the most similar spectral profiles were found for those images captured on 28 of July of 2016 and 18 of July of 2017 for \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" field, respectively (figure 3.8). This result is consistent with growth phase detection, because the dates were within the estimated reproductive phase.Besides the comparison between simulated spectral reference and spectral profiles per time, these were also compared with the spectral characteristics for each disease severity level (figure 3.8). Thus, \"healthy\" field profile was found to be more similar to the spectral profile that characterises a rice canopy without disease damages. Likewise, \"unhealthy\" field profile registered a similar pattern to the spectral profile for the rice canopy with a high level of disease severity.  Figure 3.9 shows the averaged spectral profiles that characterised each rice field, \"unhealthy\" field exhibited a similar trend than the D3 severity level reported by Zhao et al. (2012).Figure 3.8: Comparison between the simulated spectral reference and the spectral profiles for each date and for each field (\"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\"). The colorbar indicates Euclidean distance value, which its low values are colored in dark purple, whereas high values are colored as yellow.Figure 3.9: Comparison between the spectral reference profiles (blue and red lines) and the rice fields averaged spectral profiles (green and orange lines) computed for both fields.To find the date for maturity stage in both fields, the \"healthy\" field images during ripening phase were used as a reference. These images were compared with the images of \"unhealthy\" field ripening phase. The goal was to find in which date both fields had similar spectral profiles in ripening phase. As a result, images were taken on sixth of September and first of September, of 2016 and 2017, respectively, captured a similar spectral pattern for both fields (figure 3.10) Figure 3.11 shows the reflectance profile per pixel for each rice field. The spectral profiles exhibited a similar tendency in each band. Plant senescence process is mainly the cause. The spectral responses found in both stages for each field suggest that the biophysical changes caused by the diseases were mainly located during the reproductive phase. Although no information accurately pinpoints the rice phenological stage, hereafter maturity stage term is used to refer to the highlighted spectral profiles.Figure 3.11: Comparison between the reflectance spectral profiles per pixel for each field (i.e., \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" ) during the maturity stage.The bi-stage NDRb was computed, aimed at gauging the spectral variation within the fields during the transition from heading to maturity stages. Figure 3.12 shows the NDRb values at each spectral band for each field. The most significant differences among both fields occurred in the blue, red, red-edge2, red-edge3, NIR, and narrow-nir bands.The NDRb values were used as inputs for the clustering algorithm. The number of clusters were determined using Elbow method 3.13; thus four and five clusters were selected for Figure 3.12: Boxplots of the normalised bi-stage distributions by rice field disease status.\"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" fields, respectively.Figure 3.13: Number of cluster selected for the \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" fields. The red points highlight which cluster were picked.To determine which group shared similar spectral characteristics to the healthy or diseased references, the pixels spectral profiles belonging to each cluster at heading stage were averaged.Averaged profiles were compared with the simulated spectral reference. For \"healthy\" field, the averaged groups were not shown significant difference across the whole spectrum (figures 3.14For \"unhealthy\" field, it is to point out that there is a tree in the middle of the field (figure 3.16). Pixels belonging to cluster 5 characterise tree reflectance response. For that reason, this cluster was labeled as noise and then removed. Figure 3.17 shows how well the averaged reflectance profiles fitted with the reference profiles that characterise plants with 0 and 44% severity of Helminthosporium. The pixels, which comprise the first cluster, shared similar reflectance characteristics in the infrared portion that the healthy one reported by Zhao et al. (2012). Likewise, second and third clusters registered values close to 0.43 in the red-edge3 band, while the simulated reference reported a value of 0.42 in the same band. The fourth cluster  In order to gain more in-depth insight into the methodology, other rice fields were exposed to the steps before mentioned. Field 2, Field 9, and Field 12 were selected to calculate the zones affected by diseases (figure 3.18). For Field 2, five clusters were picked. For Field 9 and Field 12, four clusters were chosen. Spectral profiles were extracted from the images in which each field was in heading stage. Figure 3.17: Averaged spectral profiles for each cluster that characterised the \"Unhealthy\" field.The three fields showed similar pattern in the near-infrared spectrum, their reflectance values were close to 0.4 (figure 3.18 b,d,f). Unlike, the rice fields exposed in the previous section; the reflectance profiles for the new fields did not present a similar pattern that the described as healthy. Although the unsupervised classification showed differences into the rice fields (figure 3.18 a,c,e), the clusters averaged spectral profiles differ from the simulated reference profile; thus, it was not possible to link which areas were affected by disease presence instead of others stresses factor. The damage produced by diseases may change plant structure at the physiological level (Yang (2010); Martinelli et al. (2015); Zhang et al. (2018)). Degradation in pigments production and cellular structure can modify the light absorption in specific regions. This study explored the feasibility of using Sentinel-2 data for detecting diseased zones within rice fields. It was possible to distinguish different rice canopy reflectances within fields by integrating hyperspectral characterisation, ground-based, and Sentinel-2 data. It was noted that the most significant differences were located from red-edge to near-infrared region. Red-edge portion has been highlighted as a good indicator of chlorophyll content (Peñuelas and Filella (1998)), whereas near-infrared has often linked to being sensitive to rice canopy morphology status (Shi et al. (2018)).The methodology used in this study demonstrated the applicability of detecting rice canopy changes by computing reflectance metrics across rice cycle. To identify the growth stages, the rice phase detection model developed in chapter 2 was used. It was possible to assign reflectances responses to diseases damages by using hyperspectral measurements previously reported (Zhao et al. (2012)). Thus, the narrow band characterisation was transformed into the Sentinel-2 spectral response function. Although, k-means can distinguish different spectral profiles in the fields, it was not possible to precisely pin down, which was the cause of the different rice canopy reflectance. However, the pixels groups shapes showed similar patterns than the spread of pathogens in fields (circular and rectangular) (Zhang et al. (2018)).The rice physiological structure can be modified by several factors such as soil, agricultural practices, weather. The changes can trigger a similar spectral response than damages by diseases. For instance, Gnyp et al. (2013), found that bands located in visible and near-infrared regions were highly sensitive to varies rates of nitrogen fertilizer (figure 3.19). To effectively assert rice detection using remote sensing tools, it is necessary to isolate factors that can influence the spectral response. In this sense, rigorous ground-field monitoring must be held. Plant density, fertilizer applications, weather conditions, and irrigation application are parameters that must be part of the study.Regardless, the methodology was evaluated only in 5 rice fields. The remaining polygons, that were manual digitalized, were shared to Fedearroz. This information is a good source to locate the rice growers fields quickly. Besides, the validation opens a debate about the way that technicians georeferenced fields. This suggestion was transmitted to Fedearroz, which will advise using GPS devices when a worker is inside of fields.Chapter 4The study aimed to explore the benefits of using remote sensing data at monitoring rice growers fields. In this sense, Chapter 2 showed a feasible way to detect rice phenological phases by blending two optical satellite missions. Performances of three machine learning models were compared, where XGBoost algorithms obtained slightly better f1-scores (figure 2.13). Although some signals were more challenging to detect than others (figure 2.15), the proposed method exhibited acceptable performances at implementing it in other localities (figure 2.16). This result allows creating national statics of rice phenological conditions (figure 2.17). Further exploration can derivate on identifying regions that are affected by external factors such as weather (figure 2.18).Chapter 3 explored a method to detect diseased rice zones within fields through Sentinel-2 data; however, these analyses need to be further validated. The rice-field referenced as \"unhealthy\" exposed almost identical spectral characteristics than the created by Zhao et al. (2012) (figure 3.17). But, this result can seem a coincidence without a comprehensive ground data observation. This appreciation is validated when the methodology was applied in other fields, though the method found an intra-variability signal, the spectral profiles exhibited different magnitudes in the near-infrared region (Figure 3.18). Thus, it was not possible to assign the clusters to rice zones that were affected by diseases. In future studies, ground-based data will need to provide agricultural practices, soil and weather conditions, evaluations points with georeferencing in order to get a better idea about the influence that each factor have in the rice-canopy reflectance.","tokenCount":"10717"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce01ad1b10c9127a0dbdfe5d724534b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c12ac19b-d379-4e27-bbb7-77a037cfb6fa/retrieve","id":"1353882454"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bb45e945-b270-458e-9f03-e9f231cd6b14","pagecount":"2","content":"I present global environmental drivers and indicate their relevance to understanding the water resource baseline and future dynamics in basins. Environmental drivers are fundamental and sometimes provide a constraint to development that cannot be managed (i.e. where there is insufficient rainfall). They are highly spatially and temporally variable over time and space. Their influence on basins is filtered through ecosystems that buffer their impacts on populations. This buffering capacity is reduced as ecosystems are degraded and their capacity to deliver ecosystem services reduced.We provide a framework to analyse the impacts of global environmental drivers throughout basins using the WaterWorld Policy Support System and examine climate change impacts throughout the basins using these tools and data. I apply IPCC scenarios using ensemble mean of 17 GCMs to reduce uncertainty. Temperature will likely increase across all basins but the changes in rainfall expected are variable in both magnitude and direction between and within basins. There is great uncertainty in the magnitudes of rainfall change between basins with much disagreement between GCMs. I show how climate might change across the basins and the implications on water balance. Many of the basins show increases in water availability because of increased rainfall and short term inputs through enhanced snowmelt. Some basins and parts of others show drying. In many basins there are climatic flip-flops between 2040 and 2080 with wetting to 2040 (relative to the 1950-2000 baseline) and wetting relative to that baseline afterwards.Coping strategies for such changes will require continuous adaptation into the future and careful Environmental drivers are fundamental in basins. Of the many environmental drivers, climate is probably the one which is most clearly exogeneous to basins. Climate change will be an important climate driver for most CPWF basins over the coming decades and should be considered in long term planning for basin studies.","tokenCount":"302"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3f910bc9ca2eebabfd0c9932b2b36bc7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/68995-EN-sandalwood-as-a-component-of-agroforestr.pdf","id":"-838159827"},"keywords":["Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)","agroforestry component","host parasite","parasitism","competition","WaNuLCAS model"],"sieverID":"85d6b964-2477-4191-b58a-27c476020f69","pagecount":"7","content":"Sandalwood is an important component of agroforestry systems in the drier Eastern parts of Indonesia, although its value to farmers is still limited by existing policies and regulation of marketing. As a relatively slow growing root parasite, sandalwood will interact with other components in a complex pattern of competition and host-parasite relationships, depending on root distribution and rooting depth of potential hosts. We describe a number of modifications to the generic tree-soil-crop simulation model WaNuLCAS, that allow exploration of the transition between parasitism and competition. The key variable in this transition is the effectiveness of formation of the parasitic link for all situations where roots of the host and parasite occur in the same volume of soil. At low values of this effectiveness competition dominates, at higher values sandalwood will weaken the host, until it effectively kills it, leading to an optimum response of sandalwood to the effectiveness parameter. Unresolved questions in the formulation of the model are the lifespan of parasitized roots and the question whether or not sandalwood will allocate energy resources for maintenance respiration of host roots after the formation of haustoria. The 'desk study' reported here was intended to focus subsequent field studies on these unresolved issues.Sandalwood has to rapidly make the transition from an over-regulated 'forest product' (Rohadi et al., 2000) to a commodity grown in plantation forestry or agroforestry context if future supply is to keep up with the demand that is expected to persist. Other forest products, either timber or nontimber, have gone through such a transition before and a number of steps and thresholds have been recognizedWiersum (1997) identified three thresholds: 'controlled utilization' (separating the open-access from the controlled harvesting regime), 'purposeful regeneration' (separating the dependence on natural regeneration from the interventions that generally require control over subsequent utilization) and 'domestication' (into horticultural or plantation style production system). Sandalwood utilization is 'controlled' but the incentive structure may not be conducive yet to achieve 'purposeful regeneration' As evident in other contributions to this seminar, the transition involves aspects of local institutions controlling access to the remaining forest resources, market access, rules and regulations, cultural traditions as well as technical aspects. Technical aspects include the identification and supply of quality germplasm, nurture in the tree establishment phase and interactions with other components of an agroforestry system, assuming the latter provides the most interesting option for smallholders who want to get involved in growing the tree.  1997) In this contribution we will explore how a generic simulation model of tree-soil-crop interactions can be adapted to the specific properties of sandalwood, and explore a range of possible agroforestry systems. Our contribution is a preliminary attempt, not based on any specific knowledge of the tree or the system but aimed at identifying open questions that warrant further research.Sandalwood {Santalum album), along with other members of the Santalaceae is a (nonobligatory?) root parasite, that uses the root system of companion plants to complement its limited own root system and acquire water and nutrients. It is native to open monsoon forest and is a slow grower, despite being evergreen. It can apparently parasitize a wide range of host plants, but little is understood of the reasons why some hosts turn out to be better than others. Effective host plants include:Capsicum spec, Acacia villosa, Desmanthus virgatus, Crotalaria juncea, Alternanthera spec. (Fox et al., 1995a,b). Sandalwood is not shade tolerant, and a vigorously growing host can easily outshade the parasite. Agroforestry systems of potential interest include food crops in early stages and leguminous host trees that yield potentially viable products (fodder) while pruned and regulated in vigour to allow the sandalwood to gradually reach harvestable size. Some income stream in the early years is probably essential to maintain farmers interest in tending the plot, while waiting for the payback through sandalwood in 30-50 year.Simple schemes for analyzing the balance of impact of positive and negative interactions between tree, soil and crop components have contributed to our understanding of agroforestry systems (Ong and Huxley 1997, Sanchez 1996, Van Noordwijk et al, 1997;Cannell et al, 1998). For simultaneous tree-crop systems, such as hedgerow intercropping where most of the direct 3) if we compare relations hosts of the same vigour but different susceptibility to exploitation by the parasite root system. In this scheme the benefits for the parasite are all attributed to resource capture relations: extra water and/or nutrients taken up and less light intercepted by the host. In the literature on parasitism (as in allelopathy) mention is made of other benefits for the parasite, based on its response to specific substances (hormones, growth regulators) derived from the host. This may be the immediate (proximate) effects of a mechanism that is ultimately driven by the resource access it provides.To apply this conceptual scheme to the question of finding suitable hosts for sandalwood in an agroforestry context, we will try to separate the competitive effects of hosts of different vigour from the benefits of parasitism. A priori we expect that the best choice of host should (strongly) depend on the growth conditions of the site, and that general statements on species X or species Y is a suitable host are restricted to the site conditions (resource supply) for which they were derived. We may also expect that the curves in figure 2 and 3 shift over time and that what may be an 'optimum' host in early growth is to vigourous for later growth stages.The WaNuLCAS model (van Noordwijk andLusiana 1999, 2000) was designed to describe water, nutrient and light capture in agroforestry systems, with a high degree of flexibility for defining the temporal and spatial aspects of the way different trees, crops and weeds interact and are managed. The steps required for the development of WaNuLCAS applications for sandalwood agroforestry are: -adapt input files to the climate and soil conditions typical of the sandalwood domain in eastern Indonesia (NTT province), -estimate main tree growth parameters for sandalwood, -modify the model to account for root parasitism, -sensitivity analysis for root parasitism parameters, -explore agroforestry systems with different spacings and companion crops. At the moment we have not done this. This would be for future researchMost of Eastern Indonesia has a unimodal rainfall with a distinct rainy season (2-4 months with rainfall exceeding potential evapotranspiration) and 4 -8 dry months (Monk et al., 1997). Climates classified as D3, D4, E3 or E4 in the Oldeman classification scheme (E with <3 wet months, D with 3-4 wet months, *3 with 4-6 and *4 with >6 dry months) dominate Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and W. Timor.In WaNuLCAS we use an option to generate random rainfall patterns based on a set monthly average, using weather records for P. Sumba with an annual total of 1200 mm.Soils in NTT show a wide range of depths, texture and fertility. We choose a medium textured soil (50% sand, 25% silt, 25% clay) and a depth of 0.6 m. As the available data show a very wide range in P status, we opted for simulation with a low P supply.For sandalwood we model it as a tree with similar characteristics to Peltophorum dasyrmchis, a slow growing tree with rather weak but deep root system, a fairly open but narrower canopy compared to Gliricidia.Based on available tree parameters, we explored how a tree such as Gliricidia sepium would behave as a host: a reasonably fast grower with good N 2 fixation properties and a fairly open canopy, that expands rapidly, with a rather shallow root system. These parameter choices will need further attention in future work.In the WaNuLCAS model version 2.0 water and nutrient uptake is described by up to three trees along with a crop or weed (that can differ from zone to zone), on the basis of the respective root length densities (corrected for mycorrhizal hyphae).The routine first considers the potential combined uptake by the roots of all types of plants from each layer and zone, and then allocates this uptake over the various plant types on the basis of effective root length and demand. A simple representation of root parasitism can be obtained by shifting a certain fraction [0,1] of the host root in each zone to the parasite, leaving all other relations intact. As long as the fraction parasitized is less than 1 and water and nutrient supplies are abundant, both the host and the parasite can grow undisturbed, but if the resources are in short supply the parasite becomes an effective competitor.As a first approach we assume that the fraction of the host roots parasitized and added to the host root system is:The cross product of root length densities represents the need for contact between host and parasite roots to be established by the presence of both within close range, while the effectiveness parameter can attain any value > 0.For the time being we assume that parasitic relationships are established in the topsoil, on the basis of root length densities in layer 1. If there is root parasitism, a constant fraction of the host roots in all layers is allocated to the parasite, as roots in deeper layers can be 'tapped' by the parasite in the topsoil.Figure 4 shows the result of simulations to explore the sensitivity of root parasitism parameters.We simulate sandalwood and Gliricidia grown together as hedgerow in an alley cropping system with maize growing between the alley. We mainly focused on the result of both the biomass of sandalwood and Gliricidia.In figure 4(a) the biomass of sandalwood in the agroforestry setting is expressed relative to the biomass when grown in a monoculture (compare Figs 2 and 3). In the simulation we assume that sandalwood is able to grow without host tree. Similarly, figure 4(b) shows biomass of Gliricidia as host tree relative to Gliricdia when grown as monoculture.As the effectiveness of host tree increases we see a general increase of predicted sandalwood biomass.The opposite results occurred for Gliricidia. When the effectiveness of host is 0, both sandalwood and Gliricidia are growing less than in their respective monocultures, but the competition effect is stronger for sandalwood (-60%) than for Gliricidia (-10%).The break-even point for competition and parasistism is reached for a parasits effectiveness of about 0.2 and beyond those values growth of cendana is promoted by the presence of a host. At a host effectiveness above 1 the simulated results The results of initial simulations presented here may raise more questions than they answer. In developing the model we realize that the information in the literature on how the hostparasite relation functions is rather superficial. The description of parasitism we developed here may serve as a 'null hypothesis' for actual experiments -root parasitism requires the host and the parasite roots to meet and establish contact. Expressing the number of parasite points relative to the root length density of both species would be a first step in quantifying the parasitism.Other factors contributing to our 'effectiveness' parameters are the share of the root system that is actually exploited per infection point and the question for how long such parasitized roots can depend on the energy supply of the host and stay alive and functional. For the parasite there is a continued need to establish new parasitic relations and it needs to invest in roots to do so: for very low root investment it will not find enough hosts, at high root investment it might as well depend on its own roots, so a parasitism benefits probably highest for intermediate root allocation of the parasite. We plan to quantify these factors in existing field experiments with a range of hosts in the near future.Technical aspects are only part of the constraints on successful agroforestry development, as indicated in our introduction. Resolving existing 'parasitic' relationships among the human actors may be a prerequisite for successful agroforestry with this parasitic tree.","tokenCount":"1959"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b3f1924fc572cdce90c5f5700f04ff1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be5ecdd3-27ac-4a26-bf0e-bf55eb3c39b3/retrieve","id":"-2062650621"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"df293476-11ae-44cb-aadc-666fd247bb94","pagecount":"15","content":"The NCIP is to be implemented during the XII Plan and strives to merge existing agricultural insurance schemes in order to serve farmers better. While it provides several new opportunities and addresses earlier constraints, its operation may pose new challenges to government bodies, farmers and the insurance industry. In order to review various aspects of this programme, and from the perspective of different stakeholders, the workshop brought together state and national-level government officials, researchers, and industry representatives to deliberate and discuss key points and recommend suggestions. In all, 36 participants attended the workshop.3. An atlas of thresholds for critical weather elements that trigger crop yield losses in different crop growth periods should be developed for different agro-climatic regions which could be used by the government and insurance industry as benchmarks. Threshold triggers are very critical for weather based crop insurance. Considerable dissatisfaction among the stakeholders, especially farmers, is often related to agreement on threshold values of weather that trigger losses. A scientific agro-ecological zone specific analysis of such critical thresholds for rainfall, temperature and other important weather elements for key crops should be done by the research organisations that can be used as a benchmark by the insurance industry and governments. The suitability of multiple triggers related to weather as well as yield should be further researched.4. Researchers should urgently quantify the optimal number of crop-cutting experiments that must be done for NCIP using appropriate scientific techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. NCIP has proposed changes in unit area of measurement for insurance which has increased the need of crop-cutting experiments several folds. While this can improve satisfaction with the scheme, it poses huge operational challenges in terms of sampling, manpower required, efficiency and costs. Over the years many schemes have been developed in the insurance sector but the problems have remained the same. Insurance must be geared to safeguard farmers' incomes and not just production. The Government is interested in refining operational aspects of risk mitigation. Farmers who are insured are more likely invest in their farms, although moral hazard could also mean that some will neglect to take preventive action knowing that their losses will be covered. Before introducing a new program it is necessary to examine with due diligence current processes to establish how things can work better. Some of the key points: Bundling with other financial products to increase its applicability.Insurance and disaster relief-Coordinated efforts to avoid multiple pay-outs from different sources.Weather Data for Insurance-Opportunities and Challenges: L.S. Rathore, DG, India Meteorological Department Risk characterisation in agriculture is a complex task. To identify critical thresholds of weather parameters, accurate simulation of crop-weather relationship is required. Farmers would ideally like to have weather stations as close as possible, but we need to look at different options. Remote sensing can be used for weather data analysis however there are many challenges. Some of the issues are:  Quality sensors are too expensive; their security at installation sites is a concern.  Although regulatory mechanisms exist, often it is inadequately formulated.  Combining observed data and remote sensing are needed to improve accuracy.  Timely dissemination of weather advisories is very important so decision-makers and farmers can be responsive.This is highlighted in recent climatic events, leading to contrasting outcomesthe Uttarakhand cloudburst and Cyclone Phailin, for instance.Weather Based Insurance Scheme-Identifying opportunities: S.K. Goel, Additional Chief Secretary, Government of Maharashtra  Design: Designing simple products that can be easily communicated to farmers. Ideally, an insurance product should have 60 percent pay-out in 3 years and 80 percent in five years.Establishing reward systems such as bonus/concessions for no-claims can incentivise farmers to opt for insurance.  Research: It is important for researchers to establish relationship of climate with agriculture.We need products that are based on a scientific study correlating weather-index to yield.  Enabling policies: It is not practical to make it mandatory for loan-holding farmers to insure crop. Free markets will automatically enable a good insurance product to sustain itself, provided enabling policies and infrastructure is available. Also, regulatory mechanisms are inadequate in detailing the guidelines, certification and accreditation of insurance schemes.Disaster relief may not cover farmers who are not insured, as farmers need to be encouraged to proactively take risk preventive steps through insurance.  Methodology: Sum insured is often based on cost of production.Correct methodology would be using value of crop as the basis, as this will also cover market risk.  Inclusion: Going forward, we must iron-out operational issues that result in only some insured farmers getting pay-outs while excluding others from the same covererage area. Private sector seems oblivious to agriculture even though agriculture constitutes between 15-17 percent of GDP-government funds are available but companies should come forward with good ideas to utilise these funds.The Modified National Insurance Scheme (MNAIS) was launched on a pilot basis. Some of the main features of this scheme included, actuarial premium rates, reduction in unit size of insurance, more coverage of crops and indemnity amount for sowing and planting risks, among others.In short, MNAIS is envisioned as a comprehensive yield index-based insurance product with various additional features. Because of the reduction in insurance unit size to the village level, crop cutting experiments (CCEs) have increased manifold and handling the operations, data management and regulation of these are the key issues faced by MNAIS. Using technologies like remote sensing for such experiments and analysing new parameters are the major opportunity area for this scheme.There have also been delays in states providing yield data and sharing of funds; hence better coordination between centre and state governments is required. It has also been noted that the scheme requires much more awareness and publicity among farmers and better monitoring mechanisms. Crop-cutting experiments need to be strengthened to improve their accuracy, timeliness and reliability.This workshop is timely given that it coincides with the release of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report. The IPCC report highlights that climatic risks will increase in the South Asia region, and this compels us to take action. Insurance is a potent risk mitigation mechanism and can go a long way in addressing some key issues and safeguarding farmers' incomes and livelihood.The session was aimed at introducing and deliberating on two major insurance schemes of India a) Weather-based WBCIS and b) Yield-based MNAIS. The overarching recommendations were: better use of technology in insurance including, remote sensing, better regulatory mechanisms, easy access to data for research in product design and coordinating between disaster relief programs and insurance programs. Speakers also stressed the need for better coordination between centre and state governments.Chair: A. Bhutani, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture WBCIS-Challenges and opportunities: J.Plappallil, CEO, Agriculture Insurance Company of India Ltd Agricultural insurance is a complex field and it remains a challenge to develop products that find acceptance among all stakeholders. The key is to ensure that there is fairness in the system and all parties act according to agreed guidelines. We need to establish a scientific basis to relate weather to crop productivity, but this is a long-term process. Much more needs to be done to communicate the concept of insurance to farmers as only farmers who receive claims, re-subscribe into the insurance schemes, resulting in anti-selection. India Meteorological Department alone cannot handle operations of all weather stations and proper maintenance of rain gauges and government weather stations is essential in order to record and disseminate data. Lack of regulatory mechanisms in the government and private sector also creates a hurdle in efficient operation of the scheme.It is also imperative to involve private players to make technologies like automated weather stations financially viable.From the private sector's perspective, apart from regulation, lack of adequate redressal mechanisms to settle disputes and litigation is also a major issue.MNAIS-Challenges and opportunities: K.N. Rao, Indian Head (Agriculture), IRICS/Aon Benfield The major lessons from industry experience in the insurance sector are highlighted below:  Insurance products are not demand driven; farmers exercise little choice in choosing different products.  Farmers often view insurance as investments and want pay-outs more frequently, which invariably pushes the premium rates to higher and unviable limits  Insurance agencies are wary of decreasing the insurance unit area size, as crop cutting experiments will also consequently decline in their accuracy.  Insurance agencies have to accept the data given by state government, sharing the data analysis process with them will help in building transparency amongst various stakeholders.  Insurance companies will like to have access to how claims are calculated, as of now industry has to accept the governments version without the possibility for discussion.  Transparency in schemes, although highly desirable, will make the insurance schemes more challenging to implement for companies due to increased paperwork and processes. States have to release their share of subsidies on time.The session gave industry representatives an opportunity to voice the challenges they face, and the opportunities they see in operationalising various national agricultural insurance schemes. IFFCO: Some states don't have village level data. Creating a central repository for data of both weather and agricultural yields will be helpful in conducting research in order to develop products.Most of the products only cater to extreme weather events.Localised events like hailstorms are equally devastating to farmers' income and livelihood security. Bajaj Alliance: Use of technologies can complement insurance in many ways. Lot more awareness campaigns are needed before insurance companies can tie up with rural markets. ICICI Lombard: Transparency in data and data sharing amongst various stakeholders is required.Notifications from the government often appear in different formats, making implementation a difficult task. Swiss-Re: There is a dysfunction between many parameters.3D images and modern technologies can be used to monitor crop yield. Reducing the size and decreasing the actuarial premium rates cannot be accomplished together. Existence of different data sets makes research difficult .A common portal for data is urgently needed. Yes Bank: Various cross insurance products should be studied thoroughly. Private sector needs to look at the business motive and we need to address the viability gap and its implications for agricultural insurance. HDFC-Ergo: Accurate and timely available data at a single portal Session Summary: Availability of credible, easy-to-access, data was the main issue that was repeatedly highlighted by all participants.Industry representatives also called for better use of technology for monitoring yields.Chair: A. Sikka, DDG, Indian Council of Agriculture ResearchThe presentation focused on the existing and proposed network for measuring weather data and its subsequent challenges and opportunities. Apart from 675 traditional automated weather stations, 16 Doppler weather radars are also used to supplement the infrastructure, while many more are proposed. With the use of satellites like INSAT-3D, National Data Centre (NDC) at Pune generates many climate data products for smaller spatial and temporal scales for the user community. Data management is the biggest challenge faced for use of weather data in agricultural insurance.Remote sensing in crop insurance: M.V.R Sesha Sai, Group Director, National Remote Sensing Centre Remote sensing can be used in many aspects of crop insurance, such as spatial-temporal responses of the crop, monitoring and forecasting, quantitative impact and estimation of threshold. It can also be used for in-season crop monitoring. Extreme climatic events such as floods and droughts can also be assessed through remote sensing.However there remain challenges in applying this technology at a small scale, especially at the village level.Modelling triggers: P.K. Aggarwal, CCAFS: Use of crop simulation models, both dynamic and stochastic can play a huge role in insurance sector. They can be used to identify various triggers in weather events which can lead to subsequent pay-offs. Detailed inventory/atlas for state specific triggers will be made available upon sufficient validation.Bundling financial products: R. Chand, National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research: Often farmers' familiarity with insurance is low.Bundling it together with other financial products can increase its acceptability and uptake. Loans for specific purposes like tractor, livestock etc., can be aggregated together and bundled with insurance as a single product.. Revenue insurance is better than output-based insurance because it covers market-risks too.Optimizing crop cutting sampling: U. Sud, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute: Crop cutting sampling using area based approach of yield estimation should be scaled down to gram panchayat levels. Crop insurance problem is generally small area estimation problem and adequate statistical methods should be used. Accessing good quality agriculture data remains a challenge, especially at the local level. Community Insurance-P.K. Joshi, International Food Policy Research Institue: Individual insurance often results in higher transaction costs. More resources are required to regulate and monitor them. Community insurance offers an innovative approach for participatory insurance. Farmer groups can themselves assess their risks and get involved in designing insurance products. IFRI has conducted a study on Dhan Foundation's community insurance program in Tamil Nadu. Few conditions for the success are:  Effective engagement with partners, democratic decentralization of roles  Transparency and fairness in the process  Loyalty bonus for atleast 5 years  Bundling other products with insurance  Incorporating community projects in value chain of agri-business players Supplementary weather data: Jatin Singh, CEO, Skymet: Innovative use of technology can give favourable results, such as: 1) using live data to trigger pay-offs, which should be disseminated quickly; 2) Using Doppler technology and S-band radars. Also, linking El-Nino event and monsoon is essential for forecasting accurately, and it should be done months in advance as this is now possible as early as January or April. Industry participation in formulating guidelines for crop cutting experiments is crucial for building trust and increasing private sector participation in agri-insurance.Session Summary: This session highlighted some specific technologies which have great potential.Radar and Doppler technologies, increasing coverage to localised extreme events, analysing linkage of El-Niño with monsoon and using crop simulation modelling for determining triggers and building an atlas for triggers were some of the key take-away. Data was once again highlighted as a trouble spot. Access to weather data poses significant challenges to research and innovation in agriinsurance sector; despite availability of technology. etc., but also on localised weather events like hailstorms. Linkage of disaster relief with insurance should be analysed further, rather than paying one-off disaster compensation, farmers WBCIS should be instead insured against such events. Episodic extreme weather events can also be provided for as add-ons. Crop-cutting (CC) experiments are never done for crop insurance as the primary goal, but rather insurance is always seen as a secondary use. Better coordination with the state governments was also identified as a key action point. The Central Government has to ensure buy-in from state governments from the onset of the program. In some areas pay-outs are always high so insurers do not want to enter those regions. There is a need to increase capacity in government -national and state levels in order to have better coordination and understanding of technical aspects of the scheme. State governments should not only look to centre for disaster relief but also make budgetary provisions for extreme weather events.They key highlights of the discussion:  Yield estimation needs to have low human interference as possible. Use of technology can overcome this. Mechanical aircrafts can be used for capturing images, 3D cameras can be used to interpret yield.  Crop-cutting experiments need to be undertaken at the block/tehsil level and this can be used to estimate production at the village level.  There are discrepancies in data formats when using historical data, current data and future estimates. There is a need to create a methodology to convert all data in the same format.  Pilots need to be conducted for at least kharif and one rabi season. Yield data is a public good, generated with public money. It should be available in a standardized format publicly, so that all stakeholders have equal access to a central data repository.","tokenCount":"2615"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7002cbdc0bb33ab1213a83119a7c9e3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2527bdce-8911-48d6-9673-1a0e93becdee/retrieve","id":"-1011271756"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"154dce72-f991-47c4-b5e0-25005fd6ae6c","pagecount":"4","content":"Members had confirmed that conflict of interest statements had not changed since the 53 rd meeting of the Board of Trustees, and all noted the confidentiality agreement in place.It was noted that the Board member from Ethiopia, Gebregziabher Gebreyohannes had informed the Board chair that he had moved on from the ministry, but that ILRI has not yet been officially informed of the new Ethiopia board representative.The chair noted that given circumstances precluded a face-to-face Board meeting, this extraordinary virtual Board meeting was held to enable the Board to address matters essential to the continuing good governance of ILRI, with a focus on crucial decisions regarding the transition to One CGIAR unified governance.Centres were informed on 6 July 2020 that 11 affirmative votes were received and, accordingly, the decision below was approved, in line with Article 5.4 of the Charter of the CGIAR System Organization (which provides that an affirmative vote will require a minimum two-thirds majority of all the Centers.).Items approved electronically since the last Board meeting were formally noted as follows.Minutes of the 53 rd Board meeting Minutes of the 53 rd meeting of the Board of Trustees had been circulated and approved electronically.No objections from Board members to approve ILRI's General Assembly vote: Authority to appoint the inaugural One CGIAR Executive Management Team On 23 June 2020 the Board secretary circulated to all Board members information on the vote requested from the General Assembly (GA) of centres by 3 July 2020 requesting that members should indicate any objections to a 'yes' vote before 30 June 2020 (below). No objections were received and the chair accordingly voted 'yes'.The Board chair presented an overview of the current and imminent One CGIAR status and processes.According to the One CGIAR plan, the eight member One CGIAR Board, together with 4 centre-specific members, will constitute the 12 voting members of the ILRI Board from 1 October 2020. While some of the specifics are not yet known in detail (for example, the relationship of the ILRI Board to the Executive Management Team (EMT) and the reporting relationships of the DG), general trends are becoming clearer.The ILRI Board will thus include two discretionary voting members, drawn from the current Board, with the proposal that these be the current chair and the chair of the program committee. The chair-elect would step in as ILRI Board chair when the current chair's term comes to an end in April 2021. Assurance of the latter succession plan has been received from the System Management Office.All centres will be required to modify their constitutions/governing instruments to accommodate the governance changes and the principles for such changes have been articulated in an evolving checklist and associated discussion from the System Management Office. ILRI, as with other centres is also requested to provide to the System Management Office the anticipated dates for drafting and approval of the constitutional amendments.The EMT is to be comprised of three persons who will collectively report to the One Common Board. The centres have agreed that the current SMB can appoint the EMT in July, as indicated in documents circulated to ILRI Board members (and noted above under items approved).The Board reviewed an overview of the anticipated timeline for key One CGIAR processes and decision points in the coming months. Members discussed the timing of decision points for the amendments to the ILRI constitution, which should be approved by the Board by 18 September 2020 assuming all remains on schedule. The Board agreed to an indicative schedule.Given the materials provided over the past months, Board members were asked during the period 13-17 July 2020 to submit questions and comments to the Board secretary. These matters were compiled for discussion, together with matters arising during the meeting itself on 20 July 2020. No further matters were raised beyond those addressed in specific agenda items of the current meeting.Given the present timetable of One CGIAR processes and decision making, it is anticipated that between 20 July and 18 September 2020 an iterative process to draft and finalise constitutional amendments will be undertaken (agenda 2). This means that the final amendments for Board approval will not be available 8 weeks ahead (meaning 24 July 2020) of the final decision (due by 18 September 2020). The Board approved a waiver of the 8-week notice period for constitutional amendments, as provided for in the constitution (Article 19) with the requirement that the Board have adequate time to formally consider proposed amendments.The General Assembly has been requested to vote on the slate of eight voting members of the System Management Board, on the understanding that they will subsequently become the members of the inaugural One CGIAR Board and be appointed to centre boards from 1 October 2020. The General Assembly has also been requested to vote on compensation for the voting members of the System Management Board and inaugural One CGIAR Board who do not also serve as Chair.Members raised and discussed a number of issues regarding the processes as it is current being implemented.Noting that elements of the process suggest that detailed implications of the changes being proposed have not been fully considered, the Board reiterated ILRI's approach to continuing to engage and support the processes while ensuring that livestock research is not jeopardized. This requires continued engagement in opportunities to inform the System of appropriate actions.The DG provided an update focused on staff and staff safety in the context of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, financial situation and advocacy. For ILRI, as with the rest of the CGIAR, the focus has been on (a) ensuring staff safety and (b) assuring business continuity. This has been achieved through the continued work of the interlocking committees 2 , with all-staff communications through weekly Roundup meetings, a sharepoint site with all resources and regular email directives as local situations change. ILRI continues to use a scenario and risk-based analysis developed for CGIAR as a whole and adapted to ILRI's peculiarities, to help guide forecasting, decision making and mitigation actions. The institute has also put in place an Employee Assistance Program providing confidential counselling support.For the period January to June 2020, ILRI's total income was US$ 34.9 million and expenditure US$ 34.7 million, with a burn rate of 34% and leaving a deficit of US$ 0.2 million. However, considering the constrained operating environment due to the deficit is forecast to grow by end of the year. Management will continue to make every effort to keep the resulting deficit as low as possible.ILRI's expertise related to the current pandemic has led to frequent invitations to contribute to webinars and other on-line knowledge events. Together with UNEP ILRI has recently published a high profile publication Preventing the next pandemic: Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission which has attracted considerable media attention. ILRI is also contributing to controlling COVID-19 in many ways through collaborating with our host governments in Kenya and Ethiopia, including with testing.The Board noted that the UNEP-ILRI report is very timely and should be promoted, including stressing the importance of zoonotic disease within One Health (and ILRI's significant global role therein).","tokenCount":"1180"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1738fe54b43ef6fbdad84a1cd3044529","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f9a3e717-2f02-48d0-abea-e5e25ea5263c/retrieve","id":"-1701358992"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5a093169-022c-418f-9e05-69ffd5c3bd32","pagecount":"82","content":"El pr1nc1pal obJet1vo de la 1nvest1gac1on en cult1vos es generar nuevos cult1vares mas product1vos con característ1cas agronom1cas y morfol og1 cas econom1 camente 1mportantes y de sarro 11 ar pract1 cas culturales adecuadas para las cond1c1ones espec1f1cas de cada cult1vo y reg1on Para que el potenc1al d1spon1ble de estas tecnolog1as sea ut1l al agncultor es necesar10 1mplementar una ene de estrateg1as y acc1ones que conduzcan a la obtenc1on de sem1lla de alta cal1dadEn e 1 proceso de obtener y preservar sem11l a de alta ca 11 dad es necesar1o llevar a cabo una ser1e de act1v1dades s1stemat1cas y cont1nuas con base en estandares de cal1dad cuyo propos1to sea preservar las caracter1st1cas de las var1edades gPner das por la 1nvest1gac1on En algunos cultlVos pa1ses reg1ones y aun m1crocl1mas estas act1v1dades se 1mplementan normalmente a traves de elaborados s1stemas de producc1on de sem1llas como la cert1f1cac1on y otros complementados con programas 1nternos efect1vos de control de cal1dad En estos s1stemas se 1ncluyen las compamas nac1onales e 1 nternac10na 1 es de sem1ll a normalmente caracten zadas por ser empresas iecno 1091 camente avanzadas basadas en operac1 ones con grandes 1nvers1ones de cap1tal y d1r1g1das hac1a cult1vos ex1g1dos por el mercado Normalmente los agr1cultores empresar1ales1nsumos o serv1c1os de apoyo -3 -usuar1os de esta tecnolog1a son los qu1enes tamb1en t1enen acceso a otros En contraste con la s1tuac1on descr1ta anter1ormente una gran mayor1a de los agr1cul tores del tercer mundo no se benef1c1an de los avances tecnolog1cos logrados por las 1nst1tuc1ones de 1nvest1gac1on Esta s1tuac1on es mas dramat1ca en el caso de cult1vos tales como el frlJOl la papa, la yuca el malZ de pol1mzac1on ab1erta y los pastos trop1cales Esta s 1 tuac1 on tamb1 en se encuentra en a 1 gunas reg1 ones trop1cales con la producc1on de arroz Los cult1vos ObJeto del mandato del CIAT estan obv1amente comprend1dos entre 1 os que requ1eren estrateg1 as espec1 a 1 es para so 1 uc10nar 1 os l1m1tantes relac1onados con los s1stemas de producc1on de sem1llas que 1mp1den la trasferenc1a de los genot1pos meJorados desde las 1nst1tuc1ones de 1nvest1gac1on hac1a los agr1cultores La trasferenc1a de los avances tecnolog1cos en estos cult1vos es espec1almente compleJa deb1do d las caracter1st1cas econom1cas soc1ales y culturales de los pequenos agr1cultores locallZados en el mas baJO estrato de la poblac1on agr1cola aunque sean los responsables de un alto porcentaJe de la producc1on de al1mentos en Amer1ca Lat1naEsta s1tuac1on motlVo a la Junta D1rect1va del CIAT a 1ncorporar la 1nvest1gac1on en sem1llas en las act1v1dades de la 1nst1tuc1on con los s1gu1entes obJetlvos generales \"Contn bu1 r a aumentar 1 a producc10n de a l1mentos y 1 a product1v1dad de los recursos en Amer1ca Lat1na y el Car1be promov1endo y colaborando conJuntamente y en estrecha colaborac1on con los programas del CIAT y de otros centros 1nternac1onales el desarrollo rap1do y sosten1do de los s1stemas y pol1t1cas nac1onales adecuados para la producc1on y el sum1n1stro de sem1llas en los cult1vos respect1vos para ag1l1Zar 1 a adopc1 on de 1 as van edades meJoradas 11 be radas por los programas nac1onales 'Para lograr este obJetlvo general la Un1dad llevo a cabo una ser1e de act1 v1 da des durante 1988 que en a 1 gunos casos avanzaron e 1 trabaJO real1zado en el pasado fortalec1endo los v1nculos forJados con orgam zac1 ones sem1lll stas y en otros 1 nnovaron e 1 trabaJO buscando estrateg1as y metodolog1as para fac1l1tar la d1fus1on de nuevas vanedades y pract1cas culturales entre la poblac10n rural de baJOS 1ngresos de Amer1ca y el Car1be Venezuela para or1entar el programa de sem1llas de ese pa1s en lo que se ref1 ere a producc10n y mercadeo de sem1ll a de frlJO l caraota Con el fw de hacer un segu1m1ento del proyecto de frlJOl para pequenos agr1cultores el cual ha s1do 1mplementado por la D1recc1on General de Serv1c1os Agropecuar1os (DIGESA) y el Inst1tuto de C1enc1a y Tecnolog1a Agr1colas (ICTA) e real1zo un VlaJe a Guatemala ConJuntamente con 1 os programas local es de sem1llas se def1n1eron las estrateg1as espec1f1cas requer1das para la superac1on de los problemas mas sobresal1entesEl m1smo obJetlVo def1mo el VlaJe a Honduras donde ad1c1onalmente se d1scut1o parte del curso de Capac1tac10n para Capacltadores que rea 11 zo la U m dad de Sem1ll as en su sede en mayo Durante el VlaJe a Costa R1ca se elaboro --conJuntamente con los m1embros del Com1te Tecmco Reg10nal de Sem11las (COTERES)--el programa para la mesa redonda de sem1llas de la Tr1ges1ma CuartaReun1on Anual del Programa CooperatlVo Centroamencano para el MeJoram1ento de CultlVos Allment1c1os (PCCMCA) Se conoc1o el n1vel de desarrollo de la cert1f1cac1on de sem1llas en este pa1s y se detecto la neces1dad de 1mplementar el s1stema de producc1on de sem1lla bas1ca en Costa R1caSe contrato un Econom1sta Agr1cola a med1ados de año para real1zar d1agnost1cos sobre los l1m1tantes que d1f1cultan la adopc1on y uso de sem1ll as de nuevas van edades en 1 os pa1 ses co 1 aboradores y formular proyectos que s1rvan de soluc1ones a los problemas de los pequenos agr1cultores en estos pa1sesIn1 c1 a lmente se el a boro un programa 1 ntegrado de producc1 on y d1str1buc1on de sem1lla para pequeños productores en Colomb1a con enfas1s en sem1lla de frlJOl y yuca c1nco departamentos de la Costa Se real1zaron tres VlaJes aCordoba Magdalena y Sucre) para entrev1star 1nformalmente a profes1onales y tecn1cos de las 1nstltUc1ones reg1onales relac1onadas con los programas de sem1lla de yuca --Inst1tutoColomb1ano Agropecuar1o (ICA) Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI) yCaJa Agrana--y los l1deres de las plantas de secado de yucaComo resultado de este vlaJe se preparo una propuesta de proyecto p1loto sobre sem1lla de yuca para la Costa Norte Esta propuesta se ha d1str1bu1do entre tecn1cos del Programa de Yuca del CIAT y del ICA para recoger comentarlos Tamb1en se preparo un conJunto de recomendac1ones para llevar a cabo un d1agnost1co de la s 1 tuac 10n de sem11l a de yuca en esta zona La U m dad presento estas recomendac1ones en la reumon organlZada por el ICA sobre sem1lla de yuca la cual se real1zo el 20 de octubre en Monter1aCon las sugerenc1as presentadas por los tecn1cos del !CA y del DRI que as1st1eron a esta reumon se preparo una segunda vers10n tanto del cuest1onar1o de d1agnost1co como de la propuesta de proyectos p1lotos sobre sem11la de yuca En esta propuesta se def1n1eron cuatro lugares para 1n1c1ar act1v1dades de sem1llaCh1mu (Cordoba) Betul1a (Sucre) Sabanalarga (Atlant1co) y PlVlJay y Med1a Luna (Magdalena) En cada uno de estos lugares se 1n1c1ara el prox1mo ano un proyecto p1loto v1nculado a una cooperat1va de secado natural de yuca baJO la responsab1l1dad de la ent1dad asoc1at1va La un1dad de producc1on sera una parcela de 1 a 2 hectareas ded1cada excluslVamente a la producc1on de estacas El ICA proveera la as1stenc1a tecmca y el Programa Mund1al de Al1mentos f1nanc1ará a traves de cred1to ulando a las cooperatlVas los gastos de producc1on y de poscosecha de esa un1 dad de producc1 on as 1 como 1 a construcc1 on de un cobert1 zo para el tratam1ento qu1m1co de las estacas en terrenos anexos a la planta de secado de las cooperat1vas que se hagan responsables de conduc1r un proyecto p1loto   los danos mecan1cos La l1mp1eza se h1zo ut1l1zando una venteadora y se complemento manualmente la ehm1nac1on de los restos de cosecha Una vez real1zada la tr1lla todas las submuestras fueron estandarlZadas a un contemdo de humedad del 12-13% ut111Zando para este propos1to el almacen cl1mat1zadoF1nal1zada la fase de campo se proced10 a reahzar la evaluac1on del rend1m1ento estab111Zando la humedad en 12-13% y de los aspectos f1 s 1cos (peso de 100 sem11l as numero de sem1llas en 100 gramos, clas1f1cac1on por tamano, porcentaJe de rechazos) (Cuadro 3) Se h1c1eron pruebas de cal1dad a una de las var1edades la PVA 782 Las tres var1edades restantes estan en proceso de evaluac1on y se espera tener la 1nformac1on para el pr1mer tr1mestre de 1989 Para fac1l1tar su 1nterpretac1on la 1nformac1on se presenta en dos grupos te m en do en cuenta 1 a ca 11 dad f1 s 1 ca y 1 a ca 11 dad f1s1olog1caCa 11 dad f1 s 1 ca Como se puede aprec1ar en 1 a F1 gura 1 el conten1do de humedad de la sem1lla descend1o a med1da que esta fue madurando A los 91 y 101 d1as de cosechada se observaron 1ncrementos en el conten1do de humedad deb1dos a prec1p1tac1ones ocurr1das durante esos d1as Estos 1ncrementos en el conten1do de humedad y su reducc1on poster1or afectaron el v1gor de la sem1lla (Cuadro 4) El rend1m1entototal y la sem1lla selecc1onada presentaron una tendenc1a s1m1lar (ver F1gura 1) En el rango comprend1do entre 73 y 80 d1as se presentaron los mayores rend1m1entos totales de sem1lla selecc1onada con las menores perd1das por rechazo las cuales se presentaron en cosechas Cuadro 3 Efecto de la epoca de cosecha en la cal1dad f1s1ca de la sem1lla de frlJOl (l1nea PVA  prematuras y tard1as cuando la calldad f1s1ca de las sem1llas habla s1do afectada por el amb1ente Como era de esperarse a med1da que se retrazo el t1empo de cosecha los rechazos fueron aumentando deb1do al deter1oro que sufr1o la sem1lla por la acc1on d1recta del cl1ma ( F1gura2) Es te efecto esta muy re 1 ac1 onado con e 1 peso de 1 as semlll as en las pr1meras epocas de cosecha cuando estas aun no han alcanzado su tamano normal y d1sm1nuye a med1da que alcanzan su peso deflnltlVO En relac10n con esta med1da se observo que los camb1os de humedad afectan el volumen de la sem1lla lo que seguramente afectara el peso vo 1 umetn co, e 1 cua 1 se determ1 na ra pos ter10rmenteCal1dad f1s1olog1ca Al anal1zar la 1nformac1on en conJunto se puede observar que los rangos de cosecha comprend1dos entre 59 y 67 d1 as despues de 1 a s 1embra presentaron 1 os mayores porcentaJeS de plántulas v1gorosas y normales y los menores valores de plantulas deb1les (F1gura 3) Aunque los valores obten1dos en este rango son super1ores s1n ser s1gn1f1cat1vamente d1ferentes a los del rango comprend1do entre 70 y 83 d1as que es donde se espera encontrar las sem1llas con las meJores cond1c1ones no es pos1ble recomendar la cosecha en esta epoca deb1do al gran numero de sem1llas que aun no han alcanzado su tamano normal y por cons1gu1ente el rend1m1ento es menor y los porcentaJes de rechazo son altos (ver Cuadro 3) Como se esperaba los resultados de las pruebas de germ1nac1on y v1gor son altos para las sem1llas cosechadas entre los 59 y 70 d1as y buenos para las sem1llas cosechadas entre 1 os 71 y 90 d1as momento en e 1 cua 1 emp1eza a presentarse una d1sm1nuc1on en germ1nac1on y v1gor Basado en estos F1 gura 2 Cal1dad f1s1ca de la sem1lla de frlJOl (llnea PVA 782) con relac1on a la epoca de cosecha 1nvest1gando y probando tecn1cas senc1llas, de costo m1n1mo, para recomendar al pequeno agncultor y as1 est1mular el uso de nuevas var1edades mas product1vas y promover la producc1on y uso de sem1lla de buena ca 11 dad Los problemas mas ser1os de calldad de la sem1lla de frlJOl estan relac1onados con el alto deter1oro que se presenta durante el per1odo de cult1vo la cosecha y el almacenam1ento Este deter1oro resulta en un baJO desempeno f1s1olog1co en la germ1nac1on y en el v1gor y v1ene acompanado de altos 1nd1ces de 1nfecc1on de patogenos lo que a su vez 1nc1de en el desarrollo de la plantula y se const1tuye en la pr1nc1pal fuente de d1sem1nac1on de los m1croorgan1smos causales de las enfermedades que atacan el frlJOl Un alto porcentaJe de agncultores frlJOleros obt1ene la sem1lla a part1r de la selecc1on v1sual despues de la cosecha La efect1v1dad de esta selecc1on es a menudo muy baJa ya que el maneJO de las plantas en e 1 campo se hace pensando mas en 1 a producc10n de grano que en 1 a producc10n de sem1lla Lo antenor determwa que el agncultor no el1m1ne plantas enfermas n1 haga una detemda selecc10n de va1nas prev1a a la cosecha y f1nalmente que la sem1lla se tome de la cosecha mas1va donde se mezclan granos contam1nados cuya apar1enc1a externa a veces no d1f1ere sustanc1almente del grano sano Por otra parte a pesar de que se ha genera 11Zado e 1 uso de fung1c1 das para e 1 maneJO samtano del cu1t1vo esta pract1ca se hace mas con el fw de favorecer el rend1m1ento de grano y por ello, una vez se llega a epocas cercanas a la madurez f1s1olog1ca y se 1n1c1a el secam1ento en el campo 1 os agn culto res suspenden 1 as apl1 cac1 ones Esto perm1 te 1 as re1nfecc1ones de las va1nas y de los granos conv1rt1endo la sem1lla en un ef1c1ente portador de m1croorgan1smos para la prox1ma generac1onHoy en d1a el pequeno agr1cultor esta empezando a entender las bondades de una buena sem1lla y procura real1zar las pract1cas agronom1cas para consegu1r buenos cult1vos y al m1smo t1empo proveerse de una sem1lla de buena cal1dad para el s1gu1ente c1clo Se conoce que uno de los pr1nc1pales factores de mala cal1dad de la sem1lla de frlJOl rad1ca en la alta 1nfestac1on e 1nfecc1on de patogenos que se produce en las cond1c1ones de maneJo trad1c1onal de los cult1vos Este estud10 evaluo un proced1m1ento cultural comun como es la apl1cac1on adecuada y ef1c1ente de fung1c1das a lo largo de las d1ferentes etapas de desarrollo del cult1vo y probo exper1mentalmente los efectos de d1st1ntos s1stemas de selecc1on de plantas de va1nas y de sem1llas en la cal1dad f1nal de la sem1lla produc1da por el pequeno agr1cultorMetodolog1a El arreglo de campo se h1zo en parcelas subd1v1d1das en bloques al azar con tres repet1c1ones donde se d1str1buyeron los 32 tratam1entos de la s1gu1ente manera -El1m1nac1on de plantas enfermas (P) -El1m1nac1on de va1nas enfermas(V) -El1m1naclon de sem1llas enfermas (S) -El1m1nac1on de P + V +S enfermas Los tratam1entos resultan de las comb1nac1ones de los d1st1ntos n1velesde los factores para un total de 32 tratam1entos (2x4x4) La parcela pnnc1pal estuvo const1tu1da por los cultlVares la subparcela correspond1o a los s1stemas de selecc1on y la sub-subparcela al numero de apl1cac1ones de la mezcla de fung1c1das La selecc1on de los penados de apl1cac1on se efectuo de acuerdo con las etapas de desarrollo y las cond1c1ones de prec1p1tac1on durante el ClClO de prodUCClOn del CUltlVO El proced1m1ento de evaluac1on de enfermedades y el1m1nac1on de plantas, va1nas y S\"mlllb enfermas se baso en el s1stema estandar para la evaluac1on de germoplasma de frlJol establec1do en el CIAT Para f1nes pract1cos se establec1eron tres grupos de enfermedades en la evaluac1onResultados y Conclus1ones A la fecha se t1ene 1nformac1on tabulada y procesada estad1st1camente respecto a las var1ables evaluadas en el pr1mer c1clo de s1embra Con base en esta 1nformac1on se estan eJecutando los andllsls de 1nterpretac1on b1olog1ca y agronom1ca del comportam1ento de los efectos en d1chas var1ablesAlgunos resultados destacados se presentan en los Cuadros 5 6 7 8Se presento comportam1ento d1ferenc1al para la vanable 'numero de plantas cosechadas y el1m1nadas en los d1st1ntos tratam1entos En general el cult1var PVA 916 s1empre tuvo un meJor comportam1ento que la vanedad Cal1ma en cuanto a esta vanable Por otra parte los valores para la vanable \"ellm1nac1on de plantas' tend1eron a d1sm1nu1r a med1da que se 1ncrementaban las apl1cac1ones de la mezcla de fung1c1das (ver Cuadros 5 y 6) El PVA 916 tamb1en tuvo el meJor comportam1ento en cuanto a rend1m1ento de semilla pura en todas las combwac1ones de s1stemas de selecc10n y numero de apl1cac1ones Es notor1a la tendenc1a a aumentar el rend1m1ento de sem1lla pura a med1da que se 1ncrementan las apl1cac1ones de fung1c1das El rend1m1ento total s1gu1o un comportam1ento s1m1lar al establec1do en el rend1m1ento de sem1lla pura Se observo una clara tendenc1a a la perd1da de peso de la fracc1on descartada a med1da que se 1ncrementaron las apl1cac1ones Las d1ferentes comb1nac10nes entre los factores evaluados produJeron efectos d1ferenc1ales en cuanto al porcentaJe de germ1nac1on a pesar de que en general la germwacwn estuvo por enc1ma del valor estandar aceptado para la cert1f1cac1on de sem1llasEn general no hubo una tendenc1a clara en cuanto a mayor o menor 1 ncremento de 1nfestac10n o 1 nfecc1 on de agentes patogem cos en 1 a sem11la respecto a la comb1nac10n de los factores evaluados s1n embargo cuando no se efectuaron apl1cac1ones la sem1lla presento una mayor presenc1a de hongos Cuadro 5 Comportam1ento promed1o de los cult1vares de acuerdo con el numero de apl1cac1ones de la mezcla de los fung1c1das El Dar1en-Cal1ma (Colomb1a) 1988A  PRACTICAS CULTURALES T Test1go {no se el1m1naron plantas) P El1m1nac1on de plantas v1sualmente enfermas en el campo V El1m1nac1on de va1nas enfermas durante la cosecha S El1m1nac1on de sem1llas enfermas despues de la tr1lla PV El1m1nac1on de plantas en el campo y va1nas durante la cosecha PS El1m1 nac1on de p 1 antas en e 1 campo y sem1ll as des pues de 1 a tnlla VS El1m1nac1on de va1nas durante la cosecha y sem1llas despues de la tnlla PVS El1m1nac1on de plantas en el campo va1nas durante la cosecha, y sem1lla despues de la tr1lla Estud1ar la 1nfluenc1a de las f1suras sobre el v1gor de la sem1llaMetodolog¡a Para el estud1o se ut1l1zo la var1edad Oryz1ca 1 la cual fue somet1da a cuatro metodos de secam1ento estac1onar1o 1nterm1tente en pat1o y en campo Durante el proceso de secam1ento en cada metodo se obtuv1eron muestras para determ1nar a) el conten1do de humedad de la sem1lla, b) la temperatura de la masa de sem1lla e) el porcentaJe de f1suras, d) la cal1dad de mol1ner1a, e) el porcentaJe de germ1nac1on y f) el v1gor para el cual se real1zaron se1s pruebas d1ferentesLos resultados (Cuadros 11 y 12) se anal¡zaran estad1st1camente de acuerdo con los s1gu1entes cnter1os a) anallZar en forma 1nd1v1dual el efecto de cada metodo sobre la ca 11 dad de 1 a sem1ll a b) Anal1zar en forma global el efecto de los cuatro metodos sobre la cal1dad de la sem1lla e) Anal1zar el efecto de tres amb1entes con d1ferentes temperatura y humedad relat1va sobre la formac1on de f1suras d) Anal1zar el efecto de las f1suras sobre el v1gor de las sem1llas  Just1f1cac1on y ObJet1vos Los rend1m1entos de frlJOl por hectarea alcanzados en cond1c1ones de m1n1fund1o en Colomb1a son muy baJos <: 600 kg/ha)comparados con los rend1m1entos potenc1ales a n1vel comerc1al o exper1mental (1200-2200 kg/ha) cuando se t1ene acceso a tecnolog1a meJOrada y al uso de los 1nsumos requer1dos En esta s1tuac10n 1nc1den var1os factores de orden soc10econom1co y tecmco s1endo uno de los pr1nc1pales la cal1dad de la sem1lla ut1l1zada S1n embargo, no se t1ene suf1c1ente 1nformac10n sobre la cal1dad de las sem1llas de frlJOl ut1l1zadas por los pequenos agr1cultores enCon esta cons1derac10n la Urndad de emprend1o la presente 1nvest1gac1on con el obJet1vo de d1agnost1car la cal1dad de la sem1lla ut1l1zada por el pequeno agr1cultor y poder recomendar algunas tecn1cas de maneJO del cult1vo que le perm1tan meJorar d1cha cal1dadSe reahzaron encuestas entre los agncultores de dos reg1ones de Colomb1a (Caldono y Dar1en) para conocer el maneJo y la procedenc1a de la sem1lla ut1l1zada Se recolectaron muestras en los dos s1t1os propuestos en la epoca en que los agr1cultores estaban sembrando e 1nmed1atamente se determ1naron las humedades que conten1an las muestras Para evitar el deter1oro f1s1olog1co de la sem1lla se redUJO la humedad de las muestras a 10-12% med1ante un secador art1f1c1al se les trato con un 1nsect1c1da y se almacenaron en un cuarto fno Una vez recolectadas todas las muestras se evaluo la pureza de 1 a muestra y se determ1 no e 1 porcentaJe en peso de cada fracc1on Se real1zaron ensayos de germ1nac1on (en arena) v1gor (evaluac1on de las plantulas normales y emergenc1a en campo) y san1dad (detecc1on en el laborator1o de v1rus bacter1as y hongos)Resultados La 1nformac1on parc1al obten1da 1nd1ca que en general los pequenos agr1cultores almacenan la sem1lla de frlJOl con conten1dos  (IBYAN) del 87A El trabaJO se programo con tres etapas a) 1ncremento y un1form1zac1on de la cal1dad f1s1olog1ca y san1tar1a b} selecc1on a traves de pruebas de laboratono (ut1l1zac1on de sustanc1as tox1cas enveJec1m1ento acelerado emergenc1a de campo --veloc1dad y emergenc1a total) que permltan d1st1ngu1r el potenc1al genet1co cuahtat1vo de cada genot1 po y e) conf1 rmac10n de 1 os resultados de 1 as pruebas anter1ores, med1ante la s1embra y evaluac1on de la veloc1dad de emergenc1a en s1embra profunda los danos durante la 1mb1b1c1on y las pruebas de laborator1o (enveJec1m1ento germ1nac1on/ veloc1dad, y s1embra profunda)Resultados y Conclus1ones A la fecha se ha cumpl1do solo con la etapa de un1form1zac1on de la cal1dad Para este efecto se agrupo todo el mater1al en cuatro epocas de cosecha 18 de mayo (103 entradas) 23 de mayo ( 124 entradas) 31 de mayo {230 entradas) y 7 de JUm o (3 entradas) Dentro de este ampl1o rango de epocas de cosecha (reallZadas al alcanzar la madurez f1S1olog1ca cuando un 70% de las va1nas habla camb1ado su color verde a amar1llo) se pudo 1dent1f1car mater1ales precoces normales y tard1os Ad1c1onalmente con el peso de 100 sem1llas se h1zo una clas1ficac1on complementarla con base en el tamaño de 1 a sem1lla (grande, med1ana y pequena) En la prox1ma s1embra (enero/89) se le dara una nueva organ1zac1on a las parcelas en el campo de acuerdo con la anter1or caracter1zac1on y poster1ormente se real1zarán las evaluac1ones de cal1dad de sem1lla Se recom1 enda entonces no almacenar a 1 amb1 ente 1 a sem1ll a escar1f1cada ya que el numero de sem1llas muertas emp1eza a 1ncrementarse S1empre que se vaya a real1zar una s1embra de estos mater1ales es necesar1o escar1f1carlos de lo contrar1o se debe aJustar la tasa de s1embra puesto que ellos no rompen la dureza por med1os naturales Solamente C macrocarpum almacenada en cuarto fr1o mostro una buena respuesta a 1 tratam1 ento de es can fl cac10n S 1 se pretende escar1f1car unos d1as antes de la s1embra es necesar1o tener buenas cond1c1ones de almacenam1ento para la sem1lla 8 Proyecto de Apoyo para el Secado de Sem1llas en COAGRO-SANGIL Las cond1c1ones de temperatura y humedad relatwa prevalec1entesen San G1l Colomb1a no fac1l1tan el secam1ento natural de la sem1llaCons1derando la escasez de recursos de la Cooperat1va de Agr1cultores de esta reg1on y la 1mportanc1a de establecer un plan p1loto de producc1on cooperat1va de sem1lla ut1l1zando metodos no convenc1onales la Un1dad d1seño un secador estac1onar1o para sem1llas y fac1l1to a la Cooperat1va un vent1lador y un calentador de a1re Ad1c1onalmente se br1ndo asesor1a en la construcc1on y operac1on del secador y se capac1to al personal de la cooperatwa y del ICA en el montaJe de un plan de control 1nterno de cal1dad para la Cooperat1va D1seno Construcc1on y Evaluac1on de un Protot1po para la Cosecha de Sem1llas de Brach1ar1aLa Secc1on de Producc1on de Sem1lla del Programa de PastosTrop1cales del CIAT sol1c1to a la Un1dad su colaborac1on en el d1seno de una maqu1na barata y senc1lla para la cosecha de las espec1es de Brach1ar1a La cosecha manual requ1ere mucho t1empo y mano de obra y las comb1nadas convenc1onales son muy costosas y escasas en las reglones productoras de esta sem1lla La maqu1na fue constru1da y su func1onam1ento fue evaluado en Car1magua y V1llav1cenc1o Se encontro que el s1stema de recolecc10n de la sem1lla era aprop1ado pero el s1stema de desplazam1ento de la maqu1na presenta problemas de d1recc1on los cuales se estan corr1g1endo Se espera evaluar el protot1po mod1f1cado en la prox1ma cosecha de Brach1ar1a en 1989 10 D1seno Construcc1on y Evaluac1on de un Secador de T1poEstac1onar1o para Sem1llas de Brach1ar1aAl 1gual que en el ensayo anter10r 1a Seccwn de Producc1on de Sem1lla del Programa de Pastos Trop1cales sol1c1to a la Umdad su colaborac1on en el d1seno de un secador estac1onar1o para sem1llas de Brach1ar1a En los Llanos, la cosecha de estas espec1es co1nc1de con el penodo de 1nv1erno durante el cual el exceso de lluv1as y la humedad relat1va alta hacen d1f1c1l el secam1ento natural Por tanto es necesar1o el secam1ento art1f1c1al cons1derandose el secador estac1onar1o el mas aprop1ado Este cons1ste en calentar a1re y forzarlo a traves de 1 a capa de sem1ll as El secador se d1 seno construyo y se hlZo una evaluac10n prel1m1nar A pesar de que 1 os resultados han s1do sat1sfactor1os se qu1ere determ1nar con mayor prec1s1on el caudal de a1re la temperatura y humedad relatlVa del a1re y la humedad y cal1dad de las sem11las Esta evaluac1on se llevara a cabo durante la prox1ma cosecha de sem1lla de Brach1ar1a11 Efecto de la Humedad en el Almacenam1ento Hermet1co de Sem1lla de frlJOl Just1f1cac1on y ObJet1vos Cons1derando que en Amer1ca Lat1na el 77% del frlJOl es produc1do por pequenos agr1cultores y que uno de los mayores l1m1tantes a la product1v1dad de este cultwo es la falta de tecn1cas senc1llas de almacenam1ento que garant1cen la conservac1on de la cal1dad f1s1olog1ca de la sem1lla se desarrollo este estud1o para determ1 nar 1 as cond1c1 ones de humedad y temperatura requer1 das para preservar d1cha cal1dad en cond1c1ones de almacenam1ento hermet1co acces1bles al agr1cultor de subs1stenc1aSe almacenaron sem1ll as de fn JO 1 var1 edad Ca l1ma durante 32 semanas en empaques hermet1cos a 30° C con 7 mveles de humedad comprend1dos entre 10 3 y 14 2% (base humeda) La cal1dad f1s1ca f1s1olog1ca y samtar1a de la sem1lla fue evaluada cada dos semanas med1ante muestreos a lotes 1ndepend1entes de cada uno de los n1veles de humedad Con los datos exper1mentales de germ1nac1on emergenc1a y v1gor se obtuv1eron modelos matemat1cos con coef1c1entes de regres1on (r 2 ) de O 85 O 93 y O 77 respect1vamenteLos resultados obten1dos perm1ten conclu1r que la sem11la de frlJOl con alta cal1dad lnlClal y con una humedad max1ma del 12% {base humeda) al ser almacenada hermet1camente en un amb1ente a 30 C hasta por 8 meses no sufre perd1das s1gn1f1cat1vas en su cal1dad f1s1olog1ca La F1gura 8 perm1te determ1nar el per1odo max1mo de almacenam1ento en func1on de la humedad de la sem1lla y la F1gura 9 perm1te determ1nar la humedad de la sem1lla en func1on de la temperatura y de la humedad relat1va del a1re12 Construcc1on de una Planta de Benef1c1o de Sem1lla a N1velArtesanal Se esta term1nando la construcc1on de un galpon para el benef1c1o no convenc10nal de sem1llas en la Un1dad Esta 1nstalac1on estara dotada de 1 os equ1 pos necesan os para e 1 benef1 c1 o de sem1ll as a pequena escala, ut1l1Zando tecnolog1a aprop1ada para las cond1c1ones del pequeño agr1cultor Se espera que este protot1po de planta s1rva \\ de modelo para las cooperat1vas agrar1as de la reg1on y se conv1erta en centro de act1v1dades soc1ales y de producc1on de sem1lla La Umdad ut1l1zara estas 1nstalac1ones para benef1c1ar sem1lla bas1ca y para los cursos de capac1tac1on 13 Almacenam1ento Subterraneo de Sem1lla de Ma1zAtend1endo la sol1c1tud del programa de ma1z para la reg1on and1na del CIMMYT en el CIAT se d1seño un exper1mento para almacenar sem1lla de ma1z en tarros plast1cos hermet1camente tapados y enterrados El F1gura 8Max1mo per1odo de almacenam1ento hermet1co perm1s1ble para que la sem1lla de frlJOl mantenga los n1veles de germ1nac1on y emergenc1a 1nd1cados por los 1sogramasm.---------------------------. obJet1vo es evaluar el efecto de la humedad en la cal1dad de la sem1lla pos tenor a 1 a lmacenam1ento buscando hacer recomendac10nes de almacenam1ento para el pequeno agr1cultor que t1ene que guardar su sem1lla durante per1odos hasta de 8 meses Se usa el metodo subterraneo para aprovechar el hecho de que a 50 cm baJo t1erra las var1ac1ones en la temperatura a lo largo del d1a y del año son m1n1mas lo cual fac1l1ta la conservac1on de la cal1dad de la sem1lla Se han ven1do tomando muestras cada mes hasta completar 8 meses con el f1n de determ1nar el efecto de la humedad de la sennlla en su potenc1al de almacenam1ento Se ut1l1zaron 5 n1veles de conten1do de humedad de la sem1lla (10 8 -14 9%) de 1989Las muestras f1nales se evaluaran en febrero 14 Oeterm1nac1on de la V1ab1l1dad en Sem1llas de Fr1J01 a Traves del pH del Exudado Just1f1cac1on y ObJet1vos Uno de los componentes de la cal1dad de sem11las es su capac1dad germ1nat1va que en la pract1ca es la meJor 1nd1cac1on que se t1ene de su comportam1ento na vez sembrada en el campo S1n embargo, como la prueba de germ1nac1on para el caso del frlJOl requ1ere mas de una semana se neces1ta otro t1po de pruebas que perm1tan est1mar rap1damente la germ1nac1on en algunas fases de la produce 1 on y ut 111Zac 10n de sem11l as En consecuenc 1 a, 1 os ObJ et 1 vos de este trabaJO fueron a) Buscar un metodo para determ1nar la v1ab1l1dad de un lote de sem1llas de frlJOl que sea mas rap1do que los actuales proced1m1entos b) Buscar que el metodo sea mas econom1co y tan conf1able como los actualesS1gu1endo la metodolog1a de Amaral y Peske para determ1nar la v1ab1l1dad en un lote de sem1llas de soya a traves del pH del exudado de la sem1lla entera se real¡zaron pruebas en lotes de sem1llas de fr1J01 de ve1nte cult1vares d1ferentes Se h1c1eron evaluac1ones usando soluc1ones de d1ferentes concentrac1ones de carbonato de sod1o-fenolftale1na para med1r el pH del exudado del embr1on ya que este presenta menos v1ab1l1dad que otras partes de la sem1lla Se busco encontrar la concentrac1on que arroJara resultados en la evaluac1on de la prueba lo mas cercanos pos1bles a los resultados de 1 as pruebas rutwan as de 1 aboraton o como son 1 as pruebas de adecuado para e 1 meto do de 1 exudado en sem11l as de fn Jo 1 e) El metodo del pH del exudado es un metodo rap1do y tan prec1so como los actuales proced1m1entos d) El empleo de dos gotas de soluc1on fenolftale1na-carbonato de sod1o fac1l1ta la eval ~e o 1 de la prueba para sem1llas de fnJol deb1do a que ayuda a v1suallzar meJor los colores obten1dos en la ut1l1zac1on del exudado e) Aunque estad1st1camente la concentrac1on mas adecuada es la de 1 8 gramos de Na 2 co 3 por l1tro de agua la mas adecuada para desarrollar la prueba del pH del exudado resulto ser la de 1 3 gramos por l1tro puesto que la evaluac1on v1sual (color1metr1ca) resulto mas aJustada cuando se comparo con los resultados de las pruebas de germ1nac1on y tetrazol1o f) El t1empo de 1mb1b1c1on de tre1nta m1nutos es suf1c1ente para que con el ICA para 1r entregando sem1lla d1rectamente a los productores con la pureza y germ1nac1on m1n1ma ex1g1da para comerc1al1zar sem1llas de forraJeras La Un1dad de Sem1llas cont1nua maneJando d1rectamente var1as hectareas para la producc1on de sem1lla de forraJeras espec1almente en la estac1on CIAT-Qu1l1chao Estas tamb1en aparecen en el Cuadro 19Todas 1 as act1 v1 da des anter10res se han desarrolla do dentro de una estrecha colaborac1on con el Programa de Pastos Trop1calesEn e 1 Cuadro 17 se deta 11 o 1 a sem1ll a de forraJeras actualmente en 1 nventan o y e 1 volumen de forraJeras despachado a 1 os 1 nteresados menc1onados anter1ormente3 Yuca En 1988 la Un1dad de Sem1llas 1ncluyo la producc1on de sem1lla de yuca en sus act1v1dades con el obJet1vo de est1mular el uso de sem1lla de yuca de alta cal1dad como componente de un paquete tecnolog1co que perm1ta meJorar el rend1m1ento de este cultlVo y consecuentemente el 1ngreso de un gran numero de pequenos agr1cultores del trop1co ded1cados a la producc1on de yuca Con este f1n se han reallZado contactos con ent1dades publlcas y empresas pr1vadas que han perm1t1do fortalecer acuerdos de cooperac1on para produc1 r sem1ll a de yuca En e 1 sector pr1 vado se desea apoyar por una parte a 1 as empresas productoras de sem1ll a d1 spuestas a 1n1c1ar la comerc1al1zac1on de estacas y por otra parte a las empresas procesadoras de yuca que 1ncluyen entre sus pol1t1cas de 1ncent1vos a sus proveedores el sum1n1stro y venta de sem1lla de yuca de buena cal1dadEn el sector publ1co el esfuerzo ha estado d1r1g1do a coord1nar un proyecto que perm1ta resolver el problema de abastec1m1ento y cal1dad de sem1lla en la Costa Atlant1ca pr1nc1pal zona productora de yuca en Colomb1a y donde se está desarrollando ex1tosamente un programa de 1ndustr1al1zac1on de este cult1vo desarrollado por el Programa de Yuca del CIAT Para apoyar estos proyectos cooperat1vos se han sembrado alrededor de 20 hectareas con las tres var1edades de yuca que el !CA ha lanzado hasta la fecha y de las cuales se espera obtener durante 1989 aprox1madamente 900 000 estacas de yuca de alta cal1dad (Cuadro 20)Los lotes de mult1pl1cac1on se sembraron en caballones a una d1stanc1a de 1 x 1 metro las estacas se selecc1onaron de plantas aparentemente sanas y de a 1 to rend1m1ento y se trataron durante 15 m1 nutos en una sol uc10n de benom1l a 1 O 5% captan a 1 2 5% d1metoato a 1 O 2% y sulfato de z1nc al 2% El control de malezas se hlZo en preemergenc1a apl1cando d1uron (1 5 kg/ha) mas alaclor (2 5 lltros/ha) y en posemergenc1a con apl1cac1ones de paraquat y gl1fosatoDurante el desarrollo del cult1vo ha s1do necesano hacer algunas apl1cac1ones de pest1c1das para el control de plagas y sulfato de z1nc para correg1r def1c1enc1as de este elemento Ad1c1onalmente se sembraron en un lote ced1do en calldad de prestamo fuera de las 1nstalac1ones del CIAT (ver Cuadro 20) pequenas cant1 dades de plantas que fueron hmp1adas a traves de 1 cul t1 vo de men stemas 1 as cua 1 es seran ut1l1Zadas como sem1ll a bas 1 ca en futuros programas de sem1llas 4 Otros Cult1vosEn el Cuadro 17 se presentaron los volumenes de sem1lla de ma1z y de arroz produc1da despachada y en 1nventano en la Un1dad durante el ano 1988 El Cuadro 21 presenta el 1nventar1o de l1neas poblac1ones y var1edades de sem1lla de ma1z actualmente preservado en la Un1dad 5 Prestac1on de Serv1c1osEl Laborator1o de Anal1s1s de Sem1llas de la Un1dad real1za d1versos anal1s1s de rut1na para determ1nar la cal1dad de la sem1lla que se produce 1nternamente, ad1c1onal a esta act1v1dad se reallZan anahs1s tamb1en para los programas del CIAT y para los proyectos de 1nvest1gac1on que reallZa el personal de la Un1dad de Sem1llas Ad1c1onalmente el laborator1o s1rve a qu1enes reahzan cursos de capac1tac1on en la sede En el Cuadro 22 se detallan los anal1s1s de laboratono reallzados durante el ano 1988 El acond1c1onam1ento (secado l1mp1eza empaque tratam1ento almacenam1ento) real1zado en la Planta de Benef1c1o busca meJorar la apar1enc1a pureza f1s1ca y cal1dad f1s1olog1ca de la sem1llaLa programac1on del proceso de benef1c1o se hace de acuerdo con un ","tokenCount":"5734"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2cd407a25020371212d7ae8c672ee026","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.foreststreesagroforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/From-Tree-to-Fork-Huasai.pdf","id":"2132880807"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5b45b684-935e-4a62-b004-701b00de6dcd","pagecount":"1","content":"Found in the southern Amazonian states of Peru (Madre de Dios), Brazil (Acre, Rhodônia) and Bolivia (Pando).The huasaí fruit is small, round, black-purple in colour and produced in compound racemes of 500 to 900 fruits each. It is most often harvested in wild rainforests and grows in both flooded and non-flooded areas.Although less known and commercialized than its relative, E. oleracea (açai), huasaí has been shown to have the greatest antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the two. In addition, research has shown that açai oil, derived from the fruit pulp, may be used in cosmetics or as a nutritional supplement.Maturity before yieldsProductivity lifetimeWider commercialization of huasaí fruit could generate for many developing communities in the Amazon. The can be eaten raw and is often used to make drinks. Its juice can be added as an ingredient with other foods including tapioca pudding, cassava and porridge.Fruit are edible and are crunchy in texture (similar to an artichoke).Leaves is popularly used for construction.Wood E. precatoria is compatible with agroforestry systems, especially in the south-western Amazon where it grows better and more reliably than its relative, E. oleracea (açai).The young trees prefer shaded conditions for the first few years, making them a good understory crop. After that, the tree is happy in the sun. As a mature palm tree, it does not cast much shade and grows straight.The tree Vitamin C 67 kCal per 100g EPVitamin E for açai -a close relative of huasaíin Western markets means there is already a good potential market for these fruits.","tokenCount":"254"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/6523398822.json b/data/part_5/6523398822.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8cd62968f8c7d56bd6adfec2578775b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/4KCBHF/AOCNNG","id":"766876634"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc40be08-8e24-482f-b3d3-046dd5f6b26f","pagecount":"55","content":"Insert the DREAM CD into your CD drive. Windows should detect the DREAM CD and the following screen will appear. Clicking INSTALL will start the installation. Users with internet connectivity can also browse DREAM website, and all users can view the DREAM manual.Welcome to DREAM. DREAM is designed to evaluate the economic impacts of agricultural research & development (R&D) for a broad range of policy, market, technology, and adoption conditions. The objective is to provide R&D analysts with a practical means of generating relevant and structured information to support strategic decision making. Typically, these decisions relate to agricultural R&D policy formulation, priority setting, and resource allocation.It is impossible to quantify the economic impacts of all kinds of research. DREAM focuses primarily on the evaluation of new technologies or practices applicable at the farm level. But while the immediate impacts of R&D often arise from technology-induced changes in yield potential and production costs at the f arm level, the broader economic effects also depend upon a range of biophysical, social, and market factors, for which DREAM requires the user to provide quantitative estimates. The process of obtaining information on technology and adoption scenarios from scientists, extension workers, and others is critical to the success and reliability of the analysis. A discussion of data-collection methods is, however, beyond the scope of this manual, and we recommend the reader to consult other sources such as Alston, Norton, and Pardey (1995).DREAM can handle very simple to quite complex problems using a standardized interface. Analytical options include multiple regions, supply and demand dynamics, and a range of options to represent technology transfer and adoption. Thus, DREAM provides a framework for exploring various kinds of policy, technology, extension, and trade issues, and, the challenge for the analyst is to develop a clear understanding of the model's capabilities, assumptions, and limitations. Without such an understanding it is difficult to formulate real-world problems in relevant analytical terms and to properly interpret the resulting outputs.We hope DREAM will be a significant contribution to the long-term effort of improving the tools available to research analysts for exploring and explaining the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of agricultural research investments. For this reason, we invite users to contact us with comments, problems of use or interpretation, or any other suggestions that could improve the utility of this package. Through such a dialogue the DREAM might become a successful reality!System Requirements DREAM is designed to run under Windows 95/98/2000 or Windows NT. As a minimum the program requires a 486DX 66Mhz processor (but in practice a Pentium 300Mhz or higher is strongly recommended), a mouse, 16MB RAM and 10MB of hard disk space (allowing for the required program modules and the data directories \"\\database\\\" and \"\\example_database\\\").A minimum screen resolution of 640x480 is required, but 800x600 is preferred, and the display system should be capable of displaying at least 256 colors.The program does not have hardware or software protection.A box will be displayed asking for the name of the user and of the organization. This information is recorded by Windows and will be presented whenever the program is updated. To change the information, the program must be reinstalled.A Setup dialog box will then prompt the user to specify a destination folder for the DREAM installation. The default folder will be \"C:\\DREAM,\" but any other folder can be selected.Note that the installation program will create a subdirectory called DATABASE within the folder selected for the installation of DREAM. The database subdirectory (e.g. C:\\DREAM\\DATABASE) is required to run the program.Clicking over the large button on the Setup dialog box will start the installation process. If the program is being installed from diskettes, the installation will ask for subsequent diskettes as they are needed.Right click anywhere on the Windows desktop, select New and then Shortcut and when the Create Shortcut window appears, select Browse and look for the DREAM.EXE program in the directory you have specified for your DREAM installation. Rename the icon, e.g. DREAM, and then Finish the creation operation. The DREAM globe icon () should appear on your desktop and you may drag it to any convenient location. The next time you wish to run DREAM, simply double-click this icon.When DREAM is running, a bar menu is displayed at the top of the screen as well as a Data Editor window in the center of the screen (as shown). The Data Editor window is divided into \"data pages\" that can be selected simply by clicking on their title tab. In this manual, a page is referred to as Page, and a field as Field. Thus, a complete reference for a data field is, for instance \"Scenario:Product\", the Product field on the Scenario page. Some fields are color-coded. Fields with white background are optional. Colored fields highlight the minimum data that must be provided in order for a DREAM analysis to run correctly. For instance, on the Market data page, the user can provide information to characterize production, consumption or both. If production (or consumption) data is provided, it is necessary to fill out at least the three colored fields Quantity, Price, and Elasticity. However it is also possible that a region contains neither production nor consumption (if the region has been defined only to represent a technology source). In that case, the entire Market page remains blank.DREAM stores and manages data on multiple evaluation \"Studies.\" In turn, each study provides access to groups of related \"Scenarios.\" All this information is included in a single database in a single folder. By default, the active DREAM database is located in the folder \"\\DREAM\\DATABASE.\" It is possible to access other DREAM databases via the main menu, under the menu File and then Change Database (or simply click on the Change Database icon on the main toolbar). This data storage and access interface allows for easy swapping or sharing of datasets between users. This directory is also the default folder for saving and opening files inside DREAM.The discount rule specifies whether the b enefits and costs are considered to occur at the start or the end of a time period. By default costs are incurred at the start of a period and benefits at the end. Change the setting by clicking Discount Rule on the Tool menu. The window shown on the left then appears. Choose the appropriate discounting rules for costs and benefits. This setting remains in force unless changed again by the user or DREAM is reinstalled.In many situations, clicking the right hand mouse button provides access to a variety of data management possibilities. For instance, when the mouse cursor is inside the fields Study:Study or Scenario:Scenario, right clicking provides access to such possibilities as creating, renaming, copying and deleting.Similarly, on the pages Scenario, Market, Technology, Adoption, Costs, and Dynamics right clicking provides access to browse windows that display multiple records to facilitate comparing and editing data. It is also a convenient way to enter or edit large amount of data. A sample browse window for Market page is shown in the following.A progress bar will appear whenever time is needed for a process to be completed.The Market, Technology, Adoption, Costs, Dynamics, and Results data pages have Scenario and Region selection list boxes that allow data for any scenario or region to be selected and displayed on the current page form.• A new database is not empty. By default, a new database contains one study ( Study 1 ) which includes one scenario ( Scenario 1 ) that, in turn, contains a single region, Region 1). These can be renamed by placing the cursor over the name and right clicking.• Colored fields indicate the minimum data that needs to be provided in order to complete a data-entry page (noting that, depending on the type of the region, some pages may be optional).• In many cases, it is possible to create, rename, and delete data using a menu activated by rightclicking the mouse.Step-by-Step Guide to using DREAM Right clicking on an existing region name displays a menu for managing region definitions for the current scenario. The relevant operations will depend upon the market type selected for the scenario. § In the case of a small, open economy or a closed economy, (optionally) rename the single region by right clicking on the region name. § In the case of the vertical model, (optionally) rename the three levels via the rightclick menu. The default names are: Farm, Service, and Consumer. Service implies all post harvest operations between the farm and the final consumer. (e.g. transportation and processing) § In the case of multiple markets, (optionally) rename the first region and then, using the same right-click menu, create additional region. e. Other data Use the spinners to define the Base Year for the analysis (which also corresponds to the year of the initial market equilibrium data entered in the Market data page), the Simulation Period, and the Real Discount Rate (the nominal interest rate, net of inflation).Enter, region by region, the appropriate market data for the defined base year. The range of information required depends on the specific market model defined in the Scenario p age (see 4c above). It is possible to change the currently displayed region using the region navigation box located in the lower part of the Data Editor window. If elasticities, growth rates, taxes, or subsidies are expected to change over time (positively or negatively) the user must select (a) a constant increment every year; (b) a final value attained at the end of the simulation period; or (c) the Manual option, that allows the users to specify unique value for each year using Dynamics page.For regions that will generate new technology during the simulation period, select the Technology data page (again, the navigation button at the bottom of the window allows different regions to be selected). Enter the number of years required to perform the R&D, the probability of R&D success, and the anticipated change in the unit cost of production (relative to the base year) if the R&D is successful and the resulting technology fully adopted (Refer to the Technology page description for further details on entering this type of data).For production regions in which new technologies will be adopted, select the Adoption data page. As a minimum, the user must define the time expected to elapse from the release of a new technology until the maximum adoption level is attained (the adoption lag), and the expected maximum adoption level itself, expressed as a percentage of the production within the region that will be produced using the new technology.If data are available on the costs of research, development, and dissemination of the new technology, this information can be entered in the Costs data page for each region. If no cost data are available, DREAM is only able to calculate the gross benefits of R&D. In order to initialize cost data entry for a region, click the button Label years at the bottom of the page.The Dynamics data page shows the values of the specified market parameters in each year of the simulation period: elasticities, autonomous growth rates, technology-induced supply shifts (K's), and policy distortions (taxes and subsidies). These values can change over time if the user has specified such changes in the Market data page. The Dynamics page allows the user to review and, if necessary, further edit these annual values.Here, the user can specify whether or not the scenario includes region-to-region technology spillover. By default, spillover does not take place. If the scenario is to include a consideration of technology spillover, the user must click on the Spillover check box, and then enter a technology transfer coefficient for each pair of regions (the default values are 0 [zero] between different regions, and 1.0 inside the same region), and the lag time needed for the technology transfer to occur. By default, DREAM considers that technologies spilling into a region from other regions are substitutes, and will choose to adopt the single technology having the greatest local impact. (see Spillover page description for further details).To analyze a DREAM scenario, the user must click the Run button, on either the Scenario or the Results pages. A dialog box will appear in which the user can define the preferred format for the results.There are two scenario output formats. In the The alternative output format is a single text (ASCII) file, which can be reviewed on-screen, named, and saved on the hard disk. This format is useful for examining the detailed scenario results, viewing all the results in a single file, and for passing those data to other packages, e.g., spreadsheet or word processor. An IARC. A \"region\" with no production or consumption that transfers its technology to production regions (such as region types 1, 2, and 8) via technology spillover.Even if a country has been disaggregated into distinct production regions, it may not be necessary to disaggregate consumption. All national consumption can be placed in one region.ü When aggregate production is greater than consumption, an importing (consumption) equilibrium region must be created.When aggregate production is less than consumption, an exporting (production) equilibrium region must be created.Check marks in parenthesis denote optional data. a. It is always possible to disaggregate production or consumption into separate \"regions\" to represent different socioeconomic groups, such as commercial or small producers, or urban and rural consumers.b. Equilibrium regions (Type 7 and 8) are important in multimarket analysis. Aggregate production across all regions must equal aggregate consumption, and equilibrium regions often need to be created to ensure that an overall aggregate balance exists.This is the highest level data page and it allows the user to define \"studies\" that will contain clusters of analyses (\"scenarios\"). Each study, thus, is any logical grouping of related scenarios for analyzing the development, adoption, and impact of new technologies. This page contains information such as the name and a brief description of each study, the physical location of the DREAM database currently in use, the study author, and the value units used to compare costs and benefits across the different scenarios in each study.Name of the study-a set of related scenarios.[RHB]Description Brief description of the study's content, focus, and any other relevant information.Responsible The author of the study.Location of the DREAM database. See Database Selection on the selection of alternative databases.Value Units Defines the units to be used for comparing benefits and costs across scenarios. The default unit is US$1,000. It is important that all the scenarios in a study are defined using the same value units [RHB].The command Create new will generate a blank study (Study n, where n is the next available sequence number), having a blank scenario (Scenario 1) that contains a single, blank region (Region 1).Right-clicking in the Value Units field displays a menu with options to Create new, Rename, and Delete. When choosing Create new or Rename, a dialog box will appear to allow input/edit.This data page is used to specify and provide access to all the scenarios of a selected study. A scenario is defined as a specific combination of: market model, commodity (or production system) and one or more regions in which new technologies are generated or adopted and the commodity is consumed. It is also possible to define groups of regions for which summary estimates of R&D costs and benefits will be generated. R&D evaluation is made on a scenario-by-scenario basis, and each scenario analysis comprises a simulation over a specified time period. The base year and the simulation time period for each scenario are defined on this page, as is the discount rate for calculating the present values of cost and benefit streams.Scenario dropdown selection list. Right-clicking on a scenario name provides access to Create, Rename, Delete, and Run options.[RHB]Text fields to allow the entire scenario and each region to be annotated.The commodity or production system associated with the Scenario.[RHB]The market model to be used. There are four options: Horizontal Multimarket (default), Closed Economy, Small Open Economy, and Vertical Market (three levels).The base year for the analysis. It corresponds to the reference year used for the Market (page) data.The simulation period should include the time required for the generation, dissemination, and adoption of the technology being evaluated. In many cases, the economic benefit of a new technology will be derived over an extremely long period, and the end point of the simulation period must be arbitrarily defined. In practice, discounting renders the estimated present value of benefits negligible beyond, say, 30 years.Real discount rate (nominal interest rate minus inflation rate).Create a new region, or rename or delete existing regions [RHB].Assign regions to a user-specified group (optional). The left section (spinner) assigns a group to the currently highlighted region. The right field defines the name of the group [RHB].Right-clicking the Scenario field displays the menu shown here. Create new will generate a blank scenario ( Scenario n, where n is the next available sequence number), containing a blank region ( Region 1 ), and will display a dialog box to allow the new scenario and region to be named.Copy to a new one will copy all data for the currently selected scenario and will display the Rename dialog box to allow the new scenario to be named. Rename will display the Rename dialog box for the currently selected scenario. Delete will delete the currently selected scenario and all of its related data, e.g., regions, market data, and spillover. Since a study must always contain at least one scenario, it is not possible to delete the last remaining scenario (to do this, the study must be deleted). Run will run a DREAM simulation for the selected scenario.From the menu displayed by right-clicking on the name of any existing region, Create new will create a blank region that the user must name. Copy to a new one will display a naming dialog box after creating a new region and copying all the data from the selected region to the new region. Rename will display the Rename dialog box for the selected region. Delete will delete the selected region and all the lower levels of related data for that region (this option will not be available if only one region exists).When the cursor is located inside the right-hand side of the Region Groups field, right-clicking will display a Group menu. Use this menu to create new region groups or to delete the existing groups. DREAM automatically names the new group as \"Group ##\" where \"##\" is the next group number available in this scenario. Users can highlight and change the group name in the Groups Field directly. The menu works with two restrictions: first, if there is only one group, it cannot be deleted. Second, only the last group on the list can be deleted. For instance, group three cannot be deleted if there is a group four. Group four will have to be deleted first, and then group three.The commodity list is obtained by right-clicking the Commodity field, and can also be accessed using the toolbar button Product Editor on Tools menu.In the Product Editor, commodities can be created or deleted. The editor window has 3 fields, corresponding to the three languages of the current DREAM version.When Run (a scenario) is selected, the report generation window presents two output options. The Table option sends the analysis outputs to a database table containing results for all studies and scenarios. Individual reports can be generated from this table via the Results page. If, on the other hand, the Text file option is selected, a field will appear asking the user for the name of the text file to be generated. The default name for the report file is \"Results.TXT.\" By default, the text file is saved in the same folder as the current DREAM database. If a report file already exists with the specified name, DREAM will provide a warning message. If the file is overwritten, all the original information will be lost. A check box with \"Advanced Options\" also appears. That allows multiple simulations to be made within a single model run. \"Advanced options\" is only available for text-file output and horizontal multi-market.The Units window provides access to detailed data about the value, quantity, and price units for each region. The value unit is the unit specified on the Study page, and it cannot be modified here (it can be changed on the Study page). To maintain the unit consistency, the following identity must hold: scale*quantity*price = value. For example, with value unit 1000US$, quantity unit 1000T, price A$/T (A$: Australian dollar), the scale must be 0.57 if the exchange rate is 0.57 US$/A$. Or with value unit 1000US$, quantity T, scale is 1, then the price unit must be 1000US$/T (which is the same as US$/kg). This window is useful for regions (countries) with different monetary units, or scaling down (or up) the price, cost and benefits. This window also allows users to change region names.In the case of Horizontal Multimarkets, total production and total consumption must be in equilibrium across all regions. If the data entered do not satisfy this condition, a Warning dialog box appears displaying the (unequal) aggregate values. It is advisable to note these differences and revise the market data accordingly. If the differences are small, it is possible to continue the analysis, but the simulation results would only be indicative.This page allows users to temporarily overwrite the data in the Data Editor as well as to set up multiple runs of one scenario. Scenario-wide changes can be made to: initial prices, exogenous growth rates, technology shifts, transmission coefficients, and spillover coefficients. For technology shift options, multiple runs can apply technology shifts (k's) to each region in turn ( one-by-one) while setting all other regions' shifts to zero. The All-but-one option keeps one region without a technology shift while all other regions are allowed to shift.It is possible to prevent the costs and benefits associated with any given region from entering the scenario result totals. This is done by defining those regions with names prefixed by \"X_\" on Scenario page. On the Advanced Option page, check the exclusion field (the last check box on this page)..The Market data page allows the user to define the market conditions prevailing in the base year of the simulation for a selected scenario and region. Prices and quantities are variables, and the simulation will estimate new values for these in each time step of the simulation. The other fields are market parameters whose values are predetermined by the user. However, DREAM does allow the user to specify whether these market parameters change over the course of the simulation period. In the case of Multiple Markets, there are four possible ways in which the Market page can be filled out-1. If the region will only generate technologies, it is not necessary to enter any market data on this page. In this case, R&D impacts will arise in other regions based on t he model's ability to represent technology spillover between regions. (Case five in Table 1.) 2. For a production region, only the left side of the page should be completed. This region may or may not generate technologies. (Cases two, three, four, or eight in Table 1.) 3. For a consumption region, only the right side of the page should be completed. This region may or may not generate technologies. (Cases six or seven in Table 1.) 4. For a region that produces and consumes simultaneously, both sides of the page should be completed. This region may or may not generate technologies. (Case one in Table 1.)The colored fields on this page (green for production and red for consumption) indicate the minimum essential data if production or consumption are to be included in the region specification.In the case of a Horizontal Multimarket model, total production across all regions must equal total consumption across all regions, i.e., there must be an initial quantity equilibrium.The base year observed equilibrium price for the specified region. If there are taxes or subsidies, DREAM calculates net producer and consumer prices.A price transmission elasticity represents the effects of transport and other transaction costs in the transmission of price changes among regions. Its value varies from 0 (no price change transmission) to 1 (perfect price change transmission). The default is 1.0.Specifies the quantity produced or consumed in the region in the base year.Elasticity Supply (production) and demand (consumption) price elasticities. Demand elasticities are negative.Autonomous growth rate, i.e., changes in production or consumption resulting from factors other than research. On the production side, these changes could be explained by factors such as investments in irrigation, roads, or farmer education programs. On the consumption side, they could be related to population growth, changes in real wages, changes in consumer preferences, etc.Taxes and/or subsidies to production or consumption.Within each of the Elasticity, Growth Rate, and Tax/Subsidy sections, there is a second field that allows changes to be made to the base year value of these parameters over time. DREAM takes the left-hand field as the base year value and, depending on the type of change specified, takes the right-hand field as either an annual increase or as the value of the parameter in the last year of the simulation (last year = base year + simulation period). The third option \" manual\" allows users to enter yearly values on the Dynamics page.The price and quantity units used on the Market page are defined in the Units window, accessible by right-clicking in the Regions field in the Scenario page, and must correspond to the value units defined in the Study page. For instance, a value unit defined as US$1,000 could correspond to a price unit of US$ per ton, together with a quantity unit of 1,000 tons.This market model represents a small open economy for which price is determined exogenously. The price field is labeled as world price, but can be considered as any relevant price determined outside of the region of interest and that will remain unaffected by changes within the single market region. However, the user has the option to impose a fixed (also exogenous) change in price over time.World Price Specifies the initial (exogenous) price in the base year.Expected exogenous change in world price (percentage per year). The change can be positive or negative. The default is zero.Quantities produced and consumed in the base year. Unlike the Closed Market and Horizontal Multimarkets cases, it is not necessary for production and consumption quantities to be in equilibrium.Supply elasticity for production and demand elasticity for consumption. Demand elasticity (theoretically infinity) is not needed for technology-induced supply shift.Growth %/yr) Exogenous growth rates in supply and demand. See Market Model -1.Taxes on, or subsidies for, production and consumption.Within each of the Elasticity, Growth Rate, and Tax/Subsidy sections, there is a second field that allows changes to be made to the base year value of these parameters over time. DREAM takes the left-hand field as the base year value and, depending on the type of change specified, takes the right-hand field as either an annual increase or as the value of the parameter in the last year of the simulation (last year = base year + simulation period). The third option \" manual\" allows users to enter yearly values on Dynamics page. Quantity DREAM assumes that the user will provide quantity estimates at the farm level (Q f ) and at the consumer level (Q c ). For instance, 2,000 tons of wheat produced at the farm level and 1,600 tons of wheat flour demanded at the consumer level. At the post-harvest level the user can choose to define the quantity (Q i ) and its units either in terms of the input (2,000 tons of wheat) or of the output (1,600 tons of wheat flour) of the post-harvest process.Price DREAM assumes that prices at the farm level (P f ), e.g., US$120 per ton of wheat, and at the consumer level (P c ), e.g., US$180 per ton of flour, are available. The program computes the implicit unit price of post-harvest services asg., US$30 per ton of wheat or US$60 per ton of flour).Elasticity DREAM assumes that the user will provide supply elasticities for the farm and post-harvest sectors, and uses those to calculate aggregate supply elasticity at consumer level. The user must also provide the demand elasticity at the consumer level.Allows the specification of supply (Farm and Post-harvest) and demand growth arising from factors other than R&D.The elasticity and growth rate values cannot b e specified as time variant. The Region navigation box is not available as all three regions needed to define this kind of market are already displayed on the screen.This market model represents a closed economy, which is a special case of horizontal multimarket with only one region. The fields are the same as Market Model 1 (Horizontal multimarket). There is no price transmission field since only one region exists. In this formulation, the quantity produced must be equal to the quantity consumed.This page contains data related to R&D and its potential impacts (assuming the technologies are fully adopted). The Adoption data page will provide information on how to transform these potential impacts into realized impacts. This screen is fundamental to the entire evaluation process and its correct use requires a good grasp of the concepts, definitions, and limitations of the underlying economic analysis.The DREAM methodology (Appendix 1) expresses the potential impacts of research as being equivalent to a vertical shift ( Shift%) in the supply curve (e.g., a decrease in the unit cost of production that can arise, for example, from lower input costs, or greater yields with the same level of inputs). Another option, having greater limitations in its application and interpretation, is a vertical shift in the demand curve. In both cases, the time required for the R&D must be specified.For a typical analysis it may be sufficient to define a single fixed shift (K f % with new technology) resulting from research, implying that without research there would be no shift (K f % without new technology = 0). The program fills out the field K f % automatically as a result of the computation K f = K f with -K f without . If an estimate of the likely changes in unit costs of production without research is available, it can be entered directly into the appropriate field. As an illustration, consider a four-year research program to develop a new variety requiring a five-percent less inputs to obtain the same yield (if the research is successful). We enter four (years) in the Time Lag field and five (percent) in the Shift% (with new technology) field. Automatically, the field K f % is updated with the same value (five percent). If we know that, after the four years over which the new technology will be developed, yields of existing varieties will probably be three percent less than in the base year (due to factors such as breakdown of pest resistance), we can enter negative three percent in the Shift% field corresponding to the line without new technology. DREAM will then compute the net shift, K f , as 5-(-3) = 8%. The screen also allows the user to provide more detailed information about the sources of the R&D-induced supply shifts, in terms of the breakdown by cost changes or yield changes.The left side of the page is used for R&D impacts that are constant in time, i.e., once adopted the technology delivers the same benefit per ton or per hectare (ceteris paribus) every year. For instance, if a new technology reduces unit production costs by ten percent (relative to current technology), DREAM assumes that producers who adopt the technology will realize the same, fixed unit cost reduction in every year -until the producer introduces another, better technology.The right side of the page allows the user to represent other types of technology that have time varying impacts. Here the R&D impact i s allowed to change cumulatively every year, e.g., it is a K/year or K v (percentage per year). Examples include technologies that affect soil fertility in-situ. If soil is being eroded at a rate of eight millimeters per year without the new technology, and at three millimeters per year with the new technology, then knowing (or assuming) a relationship between soil depth and crop yield, we can estimate the likely productivity loss avoided with the new technology. If the eight millimeters per year soil erosion ( without new technology) translates into a yield loss of 1.5 percent per year, and the three millimeters per year soil erosion (with new technology) represents a loss of 0.5 percent per year, we have an incremental R&D impact of K v = -0.5 -(-1.5) = 1.0 % per year, relative to the old technology.Potential R&D impacts can also be entered in the Dynamics page if the yearly k's are known. However, the shift type (supply or demand) must still be specified on the Technology page.Finally, it is also possible to leave this page blank if the region is not undertaking research, remembering it could still be possible to obtain production-related impact in the region as a consequence of technology spill-in. In Table 1, region types 3, 4, 6, 7, and optionally 8, might not have technology data defined.Defines an R&D-induced shift in supply (by default) or in demand.Time needed to complete the research (in years).Optional. Percentage change in cost of production (per hectare or per animal -holding output constant) if the R&D is successful and the technology is fully adopted (can be positive or negative).Percentage change in the yield (output per hectare or per animal) if the R&D is successful and the technology is fully adopted (usually positive).The net R&D impact from changes in production costs and yield if the R&D is successful, expressed as a net percentage decrease in the cost of producing one unit of output. Users may enter the shift value directly into this field, or enter the component cost and yield changes separately. In the latter case, DREAM calculates the net shift according the following formula: shift = change in yield/ elasticity of supply (see j --> k below) -change in cost/(1 + change in yield/100).The probability that the R&D will be successful.Displays a dialog box to specify the elasticity value used to express a technology-induced, horizontal supply-curve shift (e.g., an increase in production as a consequence of yield improvement) as an equivalent downward vertical shift (reduction in the unit cost of production).The j-->k dialog box allows the user to specify the appropriate supply elasticity value to be used when converting horizontal supply-curve shifts into equivalent vertical supply shifts. As recommended by Alston et al. (1995), the default value here is 1.0.Select the function used to describe technology adoption. There are two possible functional forms: linear and sigmo id.Specify the time lag between the first availability of the new technology and the point at which the maximum adoption level is expected to be reached.The maximum level (percentage) of adoption. Theoretically, this is defined as a percentage of production. In practice, however, the proportion of cultivated area or of producers is often used as a proxy measure.Specify whether or not the analysis will assume technology disadoption.This is the estimated period over which the technology will be adopted at the maximum level (in years). This period is arbitrarily set to 99 years if no disadoption is specified.Years to Abandon This is the time, in years, for disadoption to occur (if specified). The default value is zero (no disadoption).This page specifies the costs associated with the generation, development, and dissemination of the new technology for the selected region. The intention here is to capture all those costs related to the generation and supply of the technology and making it available to farmers. Not included are producer's private costs of technology adoption and use, since these effects are included in the shift definition on the Technology page. Cost units used must be those defined on the Study page, e.g., US$1,000.The year label. This field is filled automatically by clicking on the Label Years button.Annual R&D costs for the new technology in the selected region.Extension Annual costs associated with the extension and dissemination of the new technology in the selected region.Any other expenses associated with the generation, transfer, and dissemination of the new technology in the selected region.Sum of total costs (R&D, Extension, Other). Filled automatically.In some specific cases, such as ex poste analyses, users may wish to enter year specific values of model parameters. This can be a very tedious process for many regions, simulation years and model parameters. To facilitate data entry in such cases, it is possible to import suitably formatted data.Clicking the Import button will pop up the IMPORT window as shown. This window allows users to import dynamic data (i.e., technology shifts, k's, elasticities, growth rates, taxes/subsidies) from other applications. This page contains information governing the conditions under which technology spillover might occur among regions. By default, DREAM assumes that technology does not spillout from innovating regions (those for which a technology shift is defined on the Technology page). There is only one spillover page per scenario. In order to include spillover, the user must specify whether the technologies being transferred should be treated as substitutes for local t echnologies (the \"with spillover\" default) or are complementary to local technologies. For each transfer possibility (between each pair of regions), a transfer coefficient ( Value) must be specified (see Appendix 1 ) and, optionally, the time lag ( Lag) necessary to complete the technology transfer (and perhaps adaptation) between the specified pair of regions.Specify the inclusion (or, by default, exclusion) of technology spillover as part of the Scenario.Specify whether the technologies entering a region are treated as substitutes or complements. In the case of substitutes, the technology with the largest cost-reducing potential (maximum K) is selected.In the case of complements, it is assumed that the technologies can be used conjunctively and the incoming Ks are added. By default, the technologies are defined as substitutes.Region where the technology originates (spillout region).Region receiving the technology transfer (spillin region).The spillover coefficient, 2 ij , the proportion of the unit cost reduction impact in region i, K i , which can be achieved in region j. Thus, K j = 2 ij K i Lag Time, in years, for the technology to be transferred from the source region to the receiving (spillin) region.Delete spillover matrix, and return to the default unit spillover matrix.Create the spillover matrix for the scenario. Before running a scenario for the first time (or if the number of regions is altered), this button must be clicked to (re)generate a spillover matrix.Even when technology spillover has not been selected, a dummy spillover matrix is generated since the matrix is an integral part of a DREAM analysis. The default spillover matrix is a unit matrix, i.e., it contains zeros everywhere except for the leading diagonal, which has the value 1.0 (in spillover terms, this matrix allows a technology to be adopted only in the region for which it was originally defined).This page allows the user to generate and access DREAM simulation, and to display or print them. There are two main report groups-one for the input data (four reports) and another one for the results (five reports). In order to access a report, a scenario must first be Run and the results specified in TABLE output format.Report Type Selects one of the nine types of report.Starts generating a report.Preview/Printer Defines where the report will be displayed. If Preview is selected, a report will be displayed on the screen and a control bar will appear, allowing the user to move between pages, go to the beginning or to the end, print, and exit the Preview mode. If Printer is selected, the program will send the report directly to the printer after displaying the printer selection window to allow the user to specify the printing range, and the number of copies.Generates a new set of results by running a simulation for the currently selected scenario (the actions and options generated are the same as for the Run button on the Scenario page. See Output Option.Rank the simulation results. It is only for There are two scenario output formats. In the Table format (default) the simulation results are added to a database containing the results of all scenarios for all studies. Users can access any results stored in the database using the scenario drop-down box in the Results page. Results can be reviewed on-screen or sent to the printer. Every time a scenario simulation is made with output specified as Table , the new results replace (overwrite) the existing results of the current scenario held in the results database. The alternative output format is a single ASCII (text) file, which can be reviewed on-screen, named, and saved permanently on the hard disk. This format is useful for examining the detailed scenario inputs and results, and for passing those data to other packages, e.g., spreadsheet or word processor.This page allows the results from one or more scenarios to be ranked at different levels of aggregation: scenario, region group, or region, according to the values of different comparison criteria: total, consumer, or producer benefits, government revenues, costs, or IRR (Internal Rate of Return).This field shows all the scenarios in the current study. Double-clicking a scenario selects the scenario for ranking. The scenario name then appears in the right \"Scenario -Selected\" list.Scenarios selected for ranking. Selected scenarios must already have been Run using the Table output format. Double-clicking a scenario deselects the scenario from the ranking list.Allows selection of one of three aggregation levels for which the results will be compared: scenarios, region groups, and regions.Preview the current ranking report on the screen. A control bar will appear, allowing the user to move between pages, go to the beginning or to the end, print, and exit the Preview mode.Close the Rank window.Scenario names to be ranked.Total/Region Total Shows scenario or region group or region names depending which aggregation level has been selected.Producer benefits. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of producer benefits.Consumer benefits. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of consumer benefits.Government revenues. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of government revenues.Total benefits. Clicking the field header will lis t the results in descending order of total benefits.Cost of the new technology. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of cost.Internal Rate of Return. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of IRR.This option allows any two scenarios to be compared with each other at scenario, region group, or region levels. It is designed mainly for sensitivity analysis. For the scenario to be compared at region group and region levels, the group names and region names must be the same. In such cases it is helpful to use the \"copy scenario\" option when creating new scenarios that will later be compared.This field shows all the scenarios in the current study. Double-clicking a scenario selects the scenario for comparison. The scenario name then appears in the right \"Scenario -Selected\" list.Scenarios selected for comparison. Only two scenarios can be selected. The first scenario is the base scenario. Both scenarios must have been Run using Table output format for the comparison to function correctly. Double-clicking a scenario deselects the scenario from the comparison list.Defines the three available aggregation levels: scenarios, region groups, regions.Preview the current comparison report on the screen. A control bar will appear, allowing the user to move between pages, go to the beginning or to the end, print, and exit the Preview mode..Close the Comparison window.Shows scenario, region group or region names from the base scenario, depending which aggregation level is selected.Producer Producer benefit differences. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of producer benefits.Relative benefits/cost expressed in percentage.Consumer benefit difference. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of consumer benefits.Government revenue difference. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of government revenues.Total benefit difference. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of total benefits.Cost difference of the new technology. Clicking the field header will list the results in descending order of cost.consume more of the commodity at a lower price.Although they receive a lower price per unit, producers who adopt the new technology are better off, too, because their unit costs have fallen by an amount, K per unit, that is more than the fall in price. The consumer surplus measure of the consumer benefit is equal to area P 0 abP 1 , i.e. rectangle P 0 aeP 1 (= P Q ∆ × 0 ) plus triangle abe. The producer surplus measure of the PriceThe Basic Supply-and-Demand Model of Research Benefits e producer gain is equal to area P 1 bcd in Figure 1, i.e. rectangle P 1 ecd (=) plus triangle bce. Total benefits are obtained as the sum of producer and consumer benefits. As an approximation, the cost-saving per unit multiplied by the initial quantity, KHQ 0 , is often used.Thus the size of the market, as indexed by the initial quantity Q 0 , as well as the size of the research-induced savings in the per unit cost of production, K, are critical factors in estimating the economic benefits from R&D. Better estimates of K mean better estimates of the benefits from research, and a better basis on which to allocate scarce research resources.Figure 1 is the basic static model for research evaluation. However, evaluations of the economic effects of research involve procedures to account for the timing of streams of benefits and costs, since there may be lengthy lag times between the initial investment in research, the eventual adoption of research results, and the flow of research benefits. Figure 2 represents schematically the timing of flows of benefits and costs from a successful investment in developing a new technology. 3 The vertical axis represents the flow of benefits and costs in a particular year and the horizontal axis represents years after the commencement of the R&D investment.Initially, R&D projects involve expenditure without benefits so that, during the research lag period (say 3 -10 years),only R&D costs (negative benefits) are considered. After the initial 3 Many new technologies are not successful in the sense that they are never developed for commercial use or adopted in the field. The figure refers to a new technology that is successful, and adopted. research lag there may be a further delay, a development lag of several years, involving field trials for testing, certification and approval of the new technology or new variety. Even when a commercial product is available, there are further lags before the maximum adoption of the new technology is achieved. The adoption lag may involve several years. Eventually, as shown in Figure 2, the annual flow of net benefits from the adoption of the new technology becomes positive (at least, for a profitable investment this is true). In most cases the flow of benefits will eventually decline as the new technology is progressively abandoned when it becomes obsolete (e.g., as newer and better technologies evolve) or depreciates (e.g., as pests evolve), or becomes uneconomic for some other reason. A complete evaluation of a particular research investment must therefore take account of the dynamic relationships between investments in research that lead (after some lags) to a stream of future benefits as shown in Figure 2.The DREAM approach is based upon the economic surplus method. DREAM is developed assuming the following conditions: For region i in y ear t, linear supply-and-demand equations for a particular commodity (subscript suppressed) are specified as Supply:Demand:The first subscript, i, refers to a region, and the second subscript, t, refers to years from the initial starting point of the evaluation. The slopes are assumed to be constant for each region for all time periods. The intercepts may grow over time to reflect underlying growth in supply or demand due to factors other than research (i.e., growth in productivity or income). All of the variables are expressed in real terms so that any growth is real growth. One important implication of this is that the discount rate used in subsequent analysis to compare costs and benefits of research over time must be a real rate.The parameters of the supply-and-demand equations are defined by beginning with initial In many cases, the initial values of elasticities would be assumed to be equal among regions (a convenient, but not necessary, assumption). These initial values are sufficient to allow us to compute the slope and intercept of supply and demand in each region for the initial year:Exogenous Growth in Supply and DemandWe incorporate average exponential growth rates to reflect growth in demand (due to growth in population and income) and supply (due to growth in productivity or an increase in area cropped) that is expected to occur regardless of whether the research program of interest is undertaken.whereπ the growth rate of demand (e.g., population growth rate + income elasticity × income growth rate)Q i π = is the growth rate of supply (e.g., area growth rate + yield growth rate not attributable to research)Now we have sufficient information to parameterize the supply-and-demand equations for each region in each year under the no-research scenario.Local effect of research: Let region i undertake a program of research with • probability of success p i , which, if the research is successful and the results are fully adopted, will yield Then it is anticipated that the supply function in region i w ill shift down (in the price direction), eventually, by an amount per unit equal toThe actual supply shift in any particular year is some fraction of the eventual maximum supply shift, MAX i k , defined above. In order to define the actual supply shift, we can combine the maximum supply shift with other information about the shape of the time path of t i k , based on data about adoption and depreciation-cum-obsolescence factors. Assuming a trapezoidal shape for the adoption curve, in order to define the entire profile of supply shifts over time, we need to define the following parameters:• research lag in years -R λ• adoption lag (years from initial adoption to maximum adoption) -A λ• maximum lag (years from maximum adoption to eventual decline) -M λ• decline lag (years from the beginning to the end of the decline) -D λThen we can define the supply shifts (in the price direction) for region i in each year t as follows:Figure 3 shows the trapezoidal adoption curve and shows how the parameters above , , , (and D λ ) may be used to define the entire curve. The S-shaped adoption curve is shown in Figure 4. The detailed derivation and calculation is illustrated in section 5.3.3 and appendix A5.4 of Science Under Scarcity by Alston et al (1995).The spillover effects from region i to other regions, j, are parameterized in relation to the supply shifts in region i, implicitly assuming the same adoption curve applies in every region. 4 The spillover coefficients, , ji θ are defined as if they were constant for all types of research-induced supply shifts and, for a given technological change, constant over time, implying that the relative shifts always occur in fixed proportion. These might not be reasonable restrictions for all problems. Between agroecological zones i and j, the To model the with-research case (denoted by superscript R on all relevant variables and parameters), we take the intercepts from the without-research case (but include the effects of exogenous supply growth), add the effect of the supply shift to them, and include the result in the supply equation:The models for supply and demand that reflect the local and spillover effects of research areThe only substantive difference from the corresponding without-research equations (1a and 1b) is in the supply intercept, but as noted above, the prices and quantities are labeled differently (the R superscript) to distinguish them from the without-research values:• quantity consumed in each region -spillover relationships are very likely to differ among commodities, among types of technological changes for a given commodity, and over time for a given technological change and a given commodity. For some problems, it might be necessary to redefine the spillover matrix for different types of technologies and different times after release of a technology.For all of the scenarios to be considered, there is an overall quantity clearing rule to the effect that the sum of quantities supplied equals the sum of quantities demanded in each y ear.Considering n regions,All of the market-clearing rules express policies in terms of price wedges that permit differences between consumer and producer prices within and among regions consistent with clearing quantities produced and consumed. 5Free trade: The easiest case is that of free trade, where• with-research prices:• without-research prices:are defined for all regions i and j and for any year t.Making this substitution into each of the n regional supply-and-demand equations and then substituting them into equation ( 8) yields a solution for the equilibrium price for each year.To simplify, let us define the following aggregated parameters for each year, t:  5 Transportation costs influence trade among countries and should theoretically be incorporated into the analysis if possible. However, accurate calculation of these costs is often difficult because it requires knowing the transportation differentials for each commodity between the home country being studied and each of its major trading partners, as well as the pattern of commodity flows. If international research spillovers are included in the analysis, either (a) information should be collected on the likely destinations and transportation costs between the home country and each other country involved so that a relatively accurate assessment can be made of the price wedge to be driven between the excess-supply and excess-demand curves or (b) transportation costs should be ignored. When regional analyses within a country are being conducted, regional transportation costs also may be needed. We can substitute the results for prices from equations (9a) and (9b) into the regional supply-and-demand equations to compute regional quantities produced and consumed with and without research and, as we shall see later, then calculate the regional consumer and producer welfare effects.We can define a general solution for a large variety of tax or subsidy regimes by setting out a general model in which a per unit tax is collected from consumers in every region and from producers in every region. ;A subsidy is a negative tax, so it is also possible to use these to represent subsidies on output, consumption, imports, or exports. One way to think about this is to imagine a region with no taxes or subsidies in which the prices to producers and consumers are P t =PC t =PP t and. Thus, P t (expressed in common currency units, either local currency or $US)is the border price for an exporter or an importer whose internal consumer or producer prices will be equal to that price in the absence of any domestic distortions. The arbitrage rules are that the prices in all regions are equal toFor instance, we could violate this condition by setting the autonomous growth rate of supply so much greater than the autonomous growth rate of demand that in some set of future projections a point would be reached where supply and demand did not cross in the positive orthant -i.e., the quantity intercept of supply would become greater than the quantity intercept of demand in either the with-or without-research case., for all regions i and j and for any year t.Making this substitution into each of the n regional supply-and-demand equations and substituting them into equation 9 yields a solution for the equilibrium price for each year. As for the case of free trade, let us define the following aggregated parameters for each year:  In addition, we can define the following aggregated demand-and supply shifts in the quantity direction because of consumer and producer taxes:    To check the signs intuitively, taxes on production in all regions will raise the equilibrium world trading price P t -which is equal to the producer price in any country or region with no producer taxes and the consumer price in any country or region with no consumer taxes.Taxes on consumption in all regions will lower it. 7 Of course this hypothetical price, P t , might not actually apply anywhere.To compute the actual consumer and producer prices in any region, the results of equations (10a) and (10b) are substituted into the arbitrage (market-clearing) rules g iven above (under the heading \"generalized taxes and subsidies\"). Then the individual prices can be used in the individual supply-and-demand equations (equations ( 1) and ( 7)) to compute quantities with 7 A positive value ofT for all i leads to a positive value of Q t T and thus a higher value of P t . A positive value of C i T for all i leads to a negative value of C t T (because the demand slopes 0 , i δ are negative numbers) and a lowering of the price, P t . and without research, and from there to compute surplus effects. Notice that this set of results includes the free-trade model as a special case (i.e., when all of the taxes and subsidies are zero).The small-country case: The small-country case can be represented in this model without modification. However, to do that requires getting information-that is not useful otherwise-on quantities produced and consumed in the rest of the world. The alternative is to define the market-clearing price for equations (10a) and (10b) as an exogenous parameter: It might require defining a growth rate for P t , to obtain a series of exogenous world prices based on a starting value for P 0 . Then corresponding quantities can be obtained by substituting into the relevant supply-and-demand equations.Quantitative restrictions on production or trade can be treated approximately as tax/subsidy equivalents with a little care to distribute \"tax revenue\" as quota rents. The approximation is somewhat unreliable in a dynamic model, but it might suffice for our purposes. A target price, deficiency-payment scheme might involve more work. Conceptually, the approach is to define target price and allow it to determine output in regions where it applies.Then, with that supply as exogenous, supply equations in the other regions and demand equations in all regions would interact to determine price.The following equations for welfare effects should be correct for most (if not all) types of policies (i.e., market-clearing rules ","tokenCount":"9748"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"91c2c74e2a1ca21e63d6bfc895e55283","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8817e7c2-0159-4ba5-aadb-d53c14c5027c/retrieve","id":"490847125"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1ec0e4e-379e-4f1b-8f7e-c8fffc0f60da","pagecount":"1","content":"o Rift Valley fever is a viral disease that affects both humans and livestock (Figure 1). It is associated with severe febrile illness in people and extensive loss of productivity in livestock. The disease is endemic in East Africa (Figure 2).o Livestock vaccination is the most effective way of controlling the disease in both livestock and humans.o ILRI conducts research on Rift Valley fever vaccines and vaccination in collaboration with the departments of veterinary services across East Africa, Wellcome Trust, The Pirbright Institute, Oxford University and other international institutions with an aim to produce:• More efficacious and safe vaccines.• Vaccination strategies which decision makers can use to guide vaccination programs.• Guidelines on how to involve the private sector in the delivery of these vaccines.• Knowledge on intra-household decision making processes regarding uptake of vaccines.• Prototype adenovirus-vectored vaccine for multiple livestock species and humans which is due for field validation • Decision support tools that have been used to target interventions during high risk and outbreak periods  ","tokenCount":"166"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a29efac319a51e282d87f76b201bed75","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4a4e43b2-85c4-4caf-a500-b035acbeabde/retrieve","id":"429800905"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc562364-9861-4eb0-a0e2-f28cfee18eac","pagecount":"7","content":"The last irrigation policy of Nepal (2003) acknowledged that the traditional focus of irrigation development in Nepal has been on run-off river-based surface water irrigation. To counter the problems of seasonal low flows of rivers, groundwater resources were regarded mostly as a supplementary or conjunctive irrigation source that could extend irrigation yearround. However, there have been several new developments in the irrigation sector and water systems of Nepal that now call for a new focus and approach to groundwater irrigation.Climate change led uncertainties have created new barriers to surface water irrigation with recorded greater fluctuations expected in surface water flows and growing insecurity in availability of and access to surface water irrigation (Dahal et.al 2020, Maharjan et.al 2021, Risal et.al 2022, Prajapati et.al 2023) Additionally, migration, urbanization, and emergence of new markets have shifted the focus from farming to nonfarm activities, resulting in a decline in collective action within farmer managed irrigation systems (FMIS). This has led to barriers in operation and the upkeep of community-managed surface water irrigation systems (Khadka et.al 2021).At the same time as the government has undertaken community tubewell projects to provide supplementary or conjunctive irrigation within several surface water irrigation projects, little focus has been given to the private development of groundwater irrigation. Recent data from the National Agriculture Census of Nepal 2021 shows a significant increase in the area under groundwater irrigation and much of this comes from sole use of groundwater irrigation sources and not as mixed/ conjunctive irrigation.While much of this development has come from diesel pumps (Foster et.al 2021), the recent expansion of grid coverage in Nepal is leading to increased role of electricity in agriculture (from providing 6.15% of all agricultural energy use in 2019 to 14.37% in 2022) giving rise to an energy-irrigation nexus in rural areas with higher role of electricity subsidy, pricing and metering, as well as farmer's private investments and access to credits. The potential implication is that this could open up a new cross-sectoral dynamic between food-water-energy in irrigation policy and implementation. As Nepal recently approved its new irrigation policy, the time is ripe to discuss a greater focus on groundwater irrigation with regard to its monitoring systems, institutions, deeper understanding of its access and socioeconomic dynamics, and implications for equity, resource sustainability and commercialization of agriculture.Photo Credit: Abdul MominIn comparing the 2011 and 2021 National Agriculture census data, the percentage of irrigated area under land parcels reporting groundwater (GW) use for irrigation has increased substantially in a decade (Figure 1) from 29.8% to 41.7%, while for surface water (SW) use it has fallen from 63.6% to 48.6% of total irrigated area. At the same time, despite its predominance in (existing) policy narratives, mixed source irrigation (conjunctive irrigation land area), covers just 3.4% of the total irrigated area in 2021. Not only has groundwater irrigation become substantially more significant, clearly the policy environment needs to go beyond its currently limited policy recognition of groundwater as merely a supplementary conjunctive resource.   (2011 and 2021) This indicates the intensification of groundwater extraction in Nepal and increasing deepening of tubewells (providing some indications towards potentially precarious groundwater levels although there is no systematic long-term groundwater monitoring data yet capturing decline in groundwater levels in Nepal). And/or it could mean a greater access to cheap energy. Even in terms of actual number of STWs and DTWs, we find a 178% increase in the number of DTWs between 2011 and 2021 compared to only a 59.9% increase in number of STWs.A regional picture is emerging. Much of this rise and intensification in groundwater use has come from the provinces comprising the Terai of Nepal, which is also closer to major markets in India. The increase in area under groundwater irrigation (Figure 3) is highest in the western region in Sudhurpaschim province (28% to 57.5% of total irrigated area under GW irrigation). But the highest increase in use of DTWs (Figure 4), is seen in the extreme eastern province of Koshi (2% to 48.1% of GW irrigating households), which imply an intensification of groundwater use. It may also possibly indicate declining groundwater levels, although more long-term data on water levels would be needed to confirm this trend. A new irrigation policy is an opportunity for change A new irrigation policy provides an opportunity to call for stronger focus on groundwater irrigation, beyond its current limited role as a supplementary source. This would entail recognition and dedicated efforts towards groundwater resource monitoring, data availability, aquifer mapping, groundwater use, access to tubewells and pumps, source of energy, pricing and affordability, and resource sustainability. Furthermore, it is an opportunity for provisioning closer collaboration of the water sector policy with agriculture to maximize water use efficiency and increasing production in a sustainable and equitable manner thus promoting an integrated approach to food security, water access, and groundwater sustainability. It is also an opportunity for promoting multiple uses of water for drinking, aquaculture-fish ponds, and irrigation to incorporate the essential linkages between different water uses and encourage their integrated management. At the same time, an integrated approach would also enable balancing the needs of different competing water uses to ensure groundwater resources are not depleted while fulfilling multiple water demands. For instance, urban water demand have significant impacts on groundwater levels (Lamichhane and Shakya, 2020, Shrestha et.al., 2018), and compete with agricultural water uses particularly in periurban areas, which would require not only an integrated approach across sectors but also between rural and urban governance.The current institutional system for groundwater development was partially centralised within the Groundwater Resources Development Board (GWRDB), which is now in the process of dissolution with its key mandates on groundwater research and implementation will be redistributed hereafter among the Water and Energy Commission (WEC) and Department of Water Resources and Irrigation respectively. This institutional change creates an approach to groundwater resource development and management that can span the irrigation-energy nexus, rather than a more siloed approach.However, since groundwater irrigation is dependent on smaller and more atomised privatized pumping locations and individual service providers, its monitoring, regulation and support for access would likely benefit from an accompanying more decentralised institutional structure. The new federal governance system in Nepal offers an opportunity for this decentralisation to province levels.Moreover, the FMIS has long existed as an institutionalized community-based irrigation management approach (Water User Associations) for surface water irrigation canals. Expanding the scope of these community-based institutions to include groundwater irrigation management could provide pathways for more decentralised management of groundwater in the future.Since privately developed groundwater infrastructure tends to be capital intensive for farmers, there may be unequal capacity for different categories of farmers to invest in such systems. This often leads to the development of informal water markets. These marketbased institutions also play a significant role in shaping how irrigation supply and access help determine profits from agriculture by different groups. Direct or indirect regulation of these markets to ensure that they do not lead to concentration of resources and power in the hands of larger farmers, requires strong local governance at the village and province levels. Community-based governance can also prove potent in regulation of such markets.While there has been limited policy focus on groundwater, there has been growing interest among civil society organisations and networks for this resource as climate variability may affect access to household water and urban water supplies traditionally sourced from groundwater. This interest and growing capacity in studying groundwater availability, quality and access can be leveraged for research and monitoring in the groundwater irrigation sector. Civil society engagement and integration can also offer significant buttressing of local groundwater governance. Engaging civil society in the design of policy could therefore be a key to future resource sustainability -and policy impact..To strengthen policy and institutions for groundwater irrigation there is a need to first develop a firm foundation of evidence and knowledge about the status and dynamics of the resource in the country. To learn more about TAFSSA, please contact: t.krupnik@cgiar.org; p.menon@cgiar.org","tokenCount":"1323"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82f3070b43980ffa0fb5de35bee4c01f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9eb43078-3815-4338-8a7c-22f0e9db048e/retrieve","id":"-353730864"},"keywords":["enhancing impact Altet","Mariella","Manager for External Relations and International Personnel García","Erika","Office Auxiliary Infantas","Viviana","Visitors Officer Neyra","Gladys","Administrative Assistant Cortbaoui","Roger","Executive Impact Enhancement Division Fuglie","Keith","Economist","Division Leader (until 30 June) 2 -Graham Thiele (since 01 July) Espinosa","Patricio","Agricultural Economist","Representative in Ecuador Campilan","Dindo","Sociologist (CIP-Los Baños)","UPWARD Program Coordinator Labarta","Ricardo","Post Doctoral Economist 1-3 Lozano","María","Database Auxiliary Maldonado","Luis","Economist","Research Assistant 3 Suárez","Víctor","Statistics Assistant Vásquez","Zandra","Bilingual Secretary Genetic Resources Conservation and Characterization Division Roca","William","Plant Cell Physiologist","Division Leader 2 Chujoy","Enrique","Geneticist Campilan","Dindo","Sociologist Ghislain","Marc","Biotechnology Advisor Arbizu","Carlos","Andean Crops Specialist Blancas","Miguel","Systems Assistant 2 Espinoza","Catherine","Biologist","Zschocke","Thomas","Head Alberco","Roque","Audiovisual Technician Echeandía","Edda","Multimedia Developer Huanes","Martha","Training Coordinator Puccini","Alfredo","Multimedia Designer Suito","Mercedes","Bilingual Secretary Library Ferreyra","Cecilia","Head Librarian Ghilardi","Rosa","Bilingual Secretary Lay","Griselda","Library Assistant Valencia","Luis","Library Auxiliary Field Research Support Otazú","Victor","Experimental Stations Superintendent Aguirre","Carlos","Agronomist","Field/ Greenhouse Supervisor 2 Blas","Walter","Mechanic Carhuamaca","Mario","Administrative Auxiliary Cosme","Anastacio","Driver (Tractor) Duarte","Roberto","Agronomist","Field/Greenhouse Supervisor Frisancho","Rebeca","Agronomist","Field/Greenhouse Supervisor 1 Lara","Carmen","Secretary Limaylla","Jenny","Administrative Assistant Piana","Vanna","Administrative Assistant Quino","Miguel","Research Technician Silva","Fredy","Security Chief Campilan","Dindo","Sociologist (CIP-Los Baños)","Program Coordinator Aquino","Mylene","Administrative Officer De los Reyes","Mario","Office Messenger Gallentes","Jaime","Research Fellow Luis","Judith","Project Specialist Nadal","Marietta","Office Manager Sister","Lorna","Project Specialist"],"sieverID":"9d8907de-b24d-43c3-b00a-482b4c670f2e","pagecount":"92","content":"The International Potato Center plays an important role in improving the lives of millions of poor families that depend on growing potatoes, sweetpotatoes and other roots and tubers.Improvements in production systems through CIP technologies have resulted in significant gains in farm productivity throughout the world, especially in Asia, Eastern Africa, and the Andean highlands.The Board is pleased to see that CIP's research program is progressing very successfully, in particular in its impact, as measured in terms of direct benefit to livelihoods and health. It is difficult to balance research work with development, but CIP's staff in headquarters and in the regional offices are proving highly effective in working with collaborators to disseminate the results of CIP's work. CGIAR's Science Council agrees, with CIP scoring high in the Council's annual assessment of the operation, effectiveness and impact of the Center.CIP is a non-profit organization but as a public institution it has a duty of accountability in its use of public funds. The Board is commited to bring the principles of due diligence and open accountability to the management of the Center. To facilitate this process, it has been decided to adopt the Annual Report as a Board document. You will see that the process started last year of including more details of Center governance continues this year. I am pleased to say that the Board finds evidence of very effective governance practice in CIP's operations, for which we compliment Management. Such approaches make the work of the scientists, the heart of the organization, easier and more successful. In future years this process of disclosure will continue.We were notified in late November that due to some technical difficulties the 2006 funding from the EU would not be paid. Despite this, CIP's financial situation remains sound, with a surplus for 2006 and prospects that look promising. However, the Center is not immune to any kind of financial or operational risks. In order to deal with a broad range ofBoard Chair On behalf of the Board of Trustees, June 2007 risks, risk management policy and plans are in place. The Board through its Risk Oversight Committee oversees the way in which management deals with risk. In a much broader sense, the Board oversees Center operations in the interests of donors and stakeholders. CIP would not be able to operate without the support of this valuable group, and we are keen to demonstrate, to them and to all of our collaborators, that their valuable funds are being put to work in the most effective and functional way. Dr. K.K. Kim retired as vice chair and from the Board of Trustees in April 2006. I thank him for his contribution to CIP and I know he will be following our progress. Dr. M. Swaminathan was appointed Vice Chair. I thank all my Board and staff for all their hard work and dedication in making this another successful year for CIP.At the formation of the CGIAR system in the early 1970s, the Malthusian dilemma of rapid population growth and limited prospects for increasing food production provided a strong justification for increasing investment in international agricultural research. By the end of the 20 th century the specter of mass famine had largely faded from view, but abject poverty, malnutrition, high rates of child and maternal mortality and degradation of production systems continued to affect hundreds of millions of the earth's inhabitants. Moreover, research on poverty and its causes has shown that the pathways out of poverty, and the concept of poverty itself, are complex and varied.In an effort to strengthen our research assets and enhance our development impact, we have begun realigning CIP´s work within a new paradigm, which we call the Pro-poor Research and Development Cycle (Figure 1). The components in this paradigm include Targeting; Needs and Opportunities Assessment; Research-for-Development; Partnerships for Scaling Up and Impact Assessment. Our Targeting assumes that to more effectively address extreme poverty, hunger and the challenges of human and ecosystem health, we must understand better the location of poverty and its relationship to our mandate crops. Needs and Opportunities Assessment characterizes the production systems such that we better understand the role that CIP's principal development vehicles (potato and sweetpotato research) play in improving livelihoods in these areas of poverty. Our Research for Development agenda generates research outputs that respond to the needs and opportunities of our clients. CIP has developed, participates in and continues to explore an array of Partnership Progams whose objectives are scaling up research outputs, and creating an enabling environment for outputs to become outcomes which will lead to enhanced development impacts. And, through Impact Assessment we continue to monitor our progress against these ambitious objectives. This 2006 Annual Report presents highlights from the work of CIP scientists and our R&D partners, across the developing world. The presentations are organized around the components in the Pro-Poor R&D paradigm. We are grateful for the continued financial and intellectual support of our donor partners. We are committed to providing efficient and effective stewardship of your investments -in the service of the poor and hungry of the world. sweetpotato is an important crop. There were two objectives of this exercise. The first was to identify the regions of the world where increasing potato and sweetpotato productivity is most likely to enhance the livelihoods of the most disadvantaged people. Secondly, the work examined the many dimensions of livelihood to see how target regions may be affected by moving beyond income-based measures of poverty to include other livelihood indicators such as malnutrition, child mortality and maternal mortality. Given the dynamic nature of poverty and changes in potato and sweetpotato production, we decided that it was timely to revisit this analysis.The initial impact targeting analysis used indicators of livelihood linked to the MDGs. Poverty was measured as the percentage of the population with incomes below US$1 per day, adjusted to purchasing power parity, a widely cited and internationally comparable indicator useful for global analysis.  • Andean South America (Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, and Colombia)• The Indo-Gangetic basin of southern Asia (Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan)• China, with high production found in several interior provinces• Central and western Asia (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan)• The Caucasus region (Armenia, Azerbaijan).For sweetpotato, the regions of highest priority include:• China, which produces most of the world's sweetpotato crop• The relatively humid areas of southern, central, and western Africa (Madagascar, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, Nigeria)• Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea).Some countries of Central Africa rank very high for both crops (though not usually in the same immediate area) and are tragically among the countries which also score highest in priority for livelihood indicators. They include: Rwanda, Uganda, the Kivu District of Democratic Republic of the Congo, and areas of Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique, Angola, and Madagascar.These maps likely do not tell a complete story, as data quality for both factors remains a challenge, but one that CIP continues to address. As we come to understand the challenges of poverty in greater detail, more specific opportunities come into play, for example by alleviating vitamin A deficiency through the use of orange-fleshed sweetpotato. Nevertheless, the updated maps provide a significantly improved framework to guide our R&D program to those areas of the world where we may expect the greatest impact on the livelihoods of poor people.Millions of city dwellers depend on urban agriculture A campaign to reintroduce traditional leafy vegetables into the Kenyan diet increased the consumption of the vegetables in Nairobi by 1900 percent over a period of 2 years. African leafy vegetables are an important element in the diet of many Africans as they are rich in micronutrients. The increased sales also created many new urban market opportunities for poor rural and urban women farmers in Kenya, who produce three quarters of the national production of these vegetables.In the past such vegetables have been harvested from the wild and had a poor product image because of their low quality through bad handling. \"The market had remained small because there had never been any successful efforts to commercialize the crop and many consumers were not aware of the health benefits to be had from eating them,\" said Nancy Karanja, regional coordinator for Sub-Saharan Africa of  Award at the 2006 CGIAR Annual Meeting, used colorful pamphlets with recipe ideas and information about nutrition to increase consumption.Over 60 percent of leafy vegetable producers in the commercial villages are women, who also constitute up to 75 percent of all the value chain players and so get most of the benefit from this project. About 300 smallholder women farmers in Nairobi and in western Kenya are now selling over 10 tonnes of seed annually, valued at US$430,000.The urban trade in African leafy vegetable species such as spider plant, amaranthus and black nightshade, as well as cowpeas, in Nairobi and its environs is estimated to be worth over US$100,000 per month so these crops are important income earners for local producers. About 30 percent of households in Nairobi are practicing urban agriculture. However that is set to grow, making urban and peri-urban agriculture more and more important in the future city economy. \"By 2020, up to 40 million urban residents in Africa will depend on urban agriculture,\" said CIP's Gordon Prain, the Global Coordinator of Urban Harvest. Through these and other efforts, the participating farmers, who form part of the Native Potato Farmers Association of Colomi (known as APROTAC for its Spanish acronym), have been able to tap larger, more demanding markets that buy and pay more for their potatoes. Access to these new, more profitable markets has encouraged farmers to increase their production output. Participants are growing 15 times more potatoes than they did in 2003 as compared to three-fold for non-organized farmers.In an effort to expand their business opportunities, and thus revenue-generating activities, APROTAC farmers recently launched two different native potato chips in the local market. Although both brands are currently sold only in one Bolivian city each, the idea is to offer these products in other cities and villages throughout the country, including the main market in La Paz.While this project has helped highlight the benefits of reaching out and establishing commercial links with different players among the potato market chain, perhaps more importantly it has demonstrated that native potatoes can indeed be used as a vehicle for raising farmer income in poor potato-producing areas like Bolivia. Many different groups are involved in the potato system and introducing new information can be a difficult business. To find the best ways to scale up and improve potato technologies and methodologies used by farmers and institutions, CIP made a thorough study of the characteristics, existing limitations and future possibilities of the potato agricultural knowledge and information systems (AKIS) in Peru, as part of a larger project that included Bolivia, Ethiopia and Uganda.AKIS is a concept that helps explain the way information, knowledge and technologies are used to solve problems among the many groups involved, such as researchers, extension agencies, development groups, private institutions and farmer organizations. Understanding the components of the system, how they interact, and what type of information is exchanged is the first step in defining the best way to introduce CIP's scientific findings.The study involved workshops and surveys in four different provinces. Institutions and farmers that belong to the system were surveyed to establish the type of information they exchange with other stakeholders about potato, the way they transfer that information, and what is needed for improving their work. The work revealed just how complex the potato AKIS is, with 16 to 21 components involving farmer families and organizations, governmental and non-governmental institutions, service providers, input suppliers, market actors and media in the four provinces, as well as CIP.Institutions recognized, among other things, that the main problem in the system is the lack of efficient mechanisms among themselves that could promote exchange and use of knowledge. In addition, more information and training are needed on topics such as potato pest and disease control, seed quality and marketing. Farmers, meanwhile, identified the need to improve market linkages and facilitate their access to better quality seed.The potato AKIS has different degrees of complexity, depending on the relative importance of the potato as well as sources of information. Generally, there is a higher number of actors and interactions in dynamic knowledge systems, where potato production is more relevant for the household economy and where many components take active roles such as coordinating activities between institutions and strengthening capacities of farmer organizations. In a stagnant system, on the other hand, there are usually fewer active components, the market is more limited, potatoes are important mostly for home consumption, and where other knowledge systems, such as that related to livestock management, are dominant.The dynamism of the AKIS determines the interest of institutions in new technologies and methodologies, such as participatory methods, to improve the potato system. The results of the work will be invaluable in stepping up potato production in developing countries where potatoes are a staple crop. In regions where farmers are establishing links with the market, then market or service-related information is of utmost importance. At the forefront of these efforts stands T'ikapapa, a brand name and a concept that markets specially selected and packed fresh native Peruvian potatoes under the T'ikapapa trademark. The idea is to improve the image of native potatoes in Peru and assist small-scale potato growers to access new markets by participating in the potato market production chain, that is, the series of groups involved in bringing the potato from the field to the consumer in the city.The T'ikapapa concept, developed by Papa Andina and INCOPA, its strategic partner in Peru, and implemented in conjunction with the Ministry of Agriculture, used the Today, T'ikapapa is sold in two major supermarket chains in Lima. Formal agreements and contracts have been signed between the processing company and the organized farmer communities to ensure stable prices and a supply of quality raw material. Since its launch in 2004, the project has brought increased revenue to the farming communities involved in the project. Farmers selling their potatoes under the T'ikapapa brand can charge prices 30 percent higher than those they received from traditional market channels during the 2005 pilot action. Equally important, the farmers feel a great sense of achievement and pride. CIPs scientists were looking for a convenient graphical representation that would effectively present the molecular diversity of the whole collection as well as the characteristics of each variety. \"The problem was to graphically illustrate the data collected from analyzing 18 microsatellite molecular markers (SSRs) from each variety,\" said Reinhard Simon, the head of CIP's Research Informatics Unit.Reinhard was inspired by the ancient Inca kipus. In its present iteration (see graphic) each cord represents a specific SSR marker. Each knot on each cord represents an allele found with the specific SSR marker. The position of each knot (ellipse) represents the size of the allele in numbers of pairs of bases; the higher up the string, the higher the number of base pairs. While assisting in correctly identifying the variety in the future, the SSR kipu represents a type of fingerprint or unique genetic code for each variety combined with an estimation of its diversity.Even more information is included in the SSR kipu. The width of a knot indicates its relative abundance in the set under study, for example by comparing data from more than 1,000 varieties analyzed by the department in Huancavelica or a similar set from the Potato Park. The total length of each cord is different according to the minimum allele size analyzed, but all lengths are standardized between 50 and 400 base pairs. The color distinguishes the SSR marker among different chromosomes. The graphic is completed with additional information to identify the variety or genotype, the set and the exact number of alleles for each genotype and marker. Thus, this system represents a way to present complex information on identity and diversity in a very compact package -much like the original kipus probably did. CIP is planning to annotate its germplasm collection with this convenient SSR kipu passport. Such recognition of traditional local technology that relates to its mandate crop seems particularly apt.Although the SSR kipu started out in in situ conservation, it may have further applications as a handy reference for breeders. \"This tool may be seem culturally biased but it still could be useful for other genebanks with similar objectives,\" noted Reinhard. For this purpose CIP is making the program to generate the graphics available as free and open source software (see the project \"KipuMaker\" on http://sf.net). The set of clones emerging from the trials in Peru were then tested to make sure they were free of quarantinable diseases and sent to SSA, where they were planted in different sites in Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda during their cropping seasons, following an accelerated variety selection scheme. \"At this stage we involved farmers and other stakeholders very closely in B. LEMAGALate blight is one of the worst diseases affecting potato. Breeding for resistance to late blight started in the 1920s, but the fungus-like organism that is responsible for the disease, Phytophthora infestans, mutates continuously, so that varietal resistance is rapidly overcome if it has a simple genetic basis. Recent migrations and evolution in populations, climate change, and increased awareness of the necessity to reduce dependence on pesticides contribute to the severity of this disease and the urgency of finding and implementing solutions to combat it. However, the genetic base of cultivated potatoes outside the Andes is very narrow, making it difficult for breeder to develop new varieties with significant resistance.The strategic use of genetic resources, including wild relatives native to regions with year-round pressure from Phytophthora infestans, is a key to improving potato's resistance to late blight. The incorporation of new and different sources of genetic resistance into improved lines and varieties may help breeders and farmers to keep pace with changing P. infestans populations and weather patterns. To maintain a continuous flow of genetic diversity to use in breeding work, a team of CIP scientists is systematically looking for new and different sources of resistance to late blight among the collections of wild and cultivated germplasm that the Center conserves in trust. A broad genetic base of resistance is expected to be more lasting, as it should delay the pathogen's ability to overcome the genes and mechanisms responsible. \"We want to make wild species' resistance more amenable for use in breeding populations,\" said CIP's senior potato breeder Meredith Bonierbale, who is running the project.High levels of late blight resistance had been observed in wild Solanum species. The team selected six wild species of potato, S. paucissectum, S. chiquidenum, S. piurae, S. cajamarquense, S. acroglossum and S. chomatophilum because they are distant from the cultivated potato and have not yet been used in breeding. \"We found that the first four species were rich in resistance while S. acroglossum and S. chomatophilum were generally susceptible,\" said Bonierbale.Despite the success of locating new resistance, transferring it efficiently from wild species to cultivated potato will not be so easy. Initial crosses did not yield any seed, despite the wild species genotypes producing plenty of viable pollen. The team is looking at the reasons for this failure and is optimistic the barriers can be overcome. \"Growth of pollen tubes in the styles of the flowers was poor, only a few grains reaching the ovules,\" said Bonierbale, \"but despite genetic mechanisms that restrict crossability, specific sets of environmental conditions appear to favor crosses with this group.\"In vitro rescue, where fertilized embryos are removed from the plant and grown in tissue culture to obtain whole plants, gave much better results in providing hybrids for upgraded sources of needed traits for further breeding. \"Our interdisciplinary approach to screening and characterization of late blight resistance in these groups represents the essential first step towards efficient transfer of late blight resistance from underutilized wild species to the cultivated Pollen tubes growing down the style of a potato flower potato,\" said Meredith. \"Efforts to improve the efficiency of disease resistance breeding in potato have paid large dividends.\"New sources of resistance to the economically important potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) have been identified among wild and cultivated potato species held in trust in the CIP genebank, again confirming the valuable potential that can exist in a comprehensive collection of genetic resources. One cultivar in particular, of the cultivated Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena, promises to be a very reliable source of substantial resistance.PLRV infections, alone or in combination with other viruses, can decrease potato tuber yield up to 95 percent. Previously, different types of resistance had been described from different sources, \"but no sources of extreme resistance to PLRV had been confirmed,\" said Meredith Bonierbale, CIP's senior potato breeder, who is leading a team of CIP researchers in the work. There are several types of resistance, among them resistance to the aphid that introduces the virus into the plant, in this case aphids, resistance to the virus infection itself and the ability to prevent the virus accumulating in the tissues of the plant and the tuber.To identify new and different sources of PLRV resistance in wild potato species from the CIP genebank, 56 species from regions with high aphid incidence, out of the 151 species conserved in the genebank, were screened. About 30 species showed a resistance reaction. Samples from several of these species had different types of resistance to the virus. For example, 12 accessions were identified with resistance to aphid attack, several of them also expressing resistance to infection and accumulation; six showed high resistance to infection and eleven wild species showed resistance to accumulation. \"These accessions are important new sources of resistance to PLRV,\" said CIP researcher Ana Panta. \"Six genotypes within accessions of S. marinasense showed the highest resistance to virus infection and accumulation, resulting in one of the most promising sources of PLRV resistance.\"Most interesting has been one cultivated variety of S. tuberosum subsp. andigena that has high levels of resistance to all aspects of the virus attack. \"Crossing experiments with the commercial S. tuberosum potato varieties showed that the resistance was transferred successfully,\" said CIP biologist Elisa Mihovilovich. \"Low heritability of this characteristic has been a major problem in the past, but this new source is highly heritable.\"Further research revealed that disease resistance in S. tuberosum subsp. andigena is inherited through a single gene, or a chromosome region with several tightly linked resistance genes, that control a single mechanism that reduces infection and accumulation. This will make the job of breeding new varieties with this strong resistance to PLRV easier in the future.Growing potatoes in midair, with a technique called aeroponics, is showing great promise for the production of seed potatoes. Seed potatoes are very important for potato producers because the success of the subsequent harvest depends on the quality of the seed tubers used.The technique consists of cultivating potato seedlings on specially adapted frames so that the roots, and the tubers, grow suspended in the air. No soil is used in this approach, avoiding the need to disinfect soil with environmentally harmful chemicals and also keeping the tubers healthy. Plantlets with roots are pushed through the top of a table-like structure. The frames are covered with black plastic to keep out the light and the roots are sprayed with a recirculated solution of nutrients to allow them to grow.\"In the greenhouse, seed potatoes were traditionally grown in soil that had been sterilized with methyl bromide, because it was cheap, effective in killing pathogens and weed seeds but it did not alter the characteristics of the substrate,\" said Victor Otazú, the chief of CIP's experimental station of Santa Ana in Huancayo. However, bromine is 60 times more destructive to the ozone layer than chlorine, so methyl bromide was put on the the list of banned ozone-depleting substances of the United Nations Montreal Protocol.Sterilizing the soil with heat is also expensive, so CIP is using looking at aeroponics to improve production and reduce costs. The method is up to ten times more effective than conventional techniques. \"First results have been very successful,\" said Victor Otazú. \"For example, 67 seed tubers were obtained per plant with the variety Yungay; with Canchán INIA, 70 tubers and with Perricholi, 69. With conventional techniques in pots, we get 5 to 10 tubers per plant.\"Another advantage is that the little tubers can be harvested at any size the seed user wants, from 5 to 30 grams. The process also allows stepped harvests. Spraying fertilizers directly onto the roots makes it possible for the growth phase to continue for more than 180 days without interruption, which does not happen with conventional techniques. There is a small investment in equipment needed, but still the tubers work out significantly cheaper.\"The technology is novel in the sense that very few people are aware of it or its potential,\" said CIP virologist and seed system specialist Ian Barker, \"but it has been used in China and Korea for some time.\" Even NASA's long range plans for a visit to Mars reveal that the surface crew will spend 60 percent of their time farming to sustain themselves. Aeroponics is considered the agricultural system of choice because of its low water and power inputs and high volume of food output per sq meter.CIP's Germplasm Acquisition and Distribution Unit is already using the technique to produce optimal seed tubers of first class sanitary quality for researchers. Further work in Huancayo will look at the suitability of the technique for a wide range of genotypes including native varieties.There has also been a lot of demand already for information and training. The Peruvian national research program INIEA is interested and researchers in Ecuador want to install a unit in that country. CIP's Paul Demo sees much promise for southern Africa, especially Kenya, and in 2007, CIP staff will be working with the local collaborators to install a system in Mongolia.Simple plastic barriers placed around potato fields in Peru are as effective in controlling weevil pests as several applications of the toxic insecticide that farmers usually use. Andean potato weevils are the most important potato pests in potato-production systems in the high Andes. Damage can be severe. In extreme cases, all of the tubers in a crop might be damaged, forcing farmers to abandon their fields. A CIP project has been looking for alternatives to chemical sprays, which have the potential to damage people's health, especially if they are misused.Andean potato weevils commonly occur between 2,800 and 4,200 m asl, where potato is usually the most important staple or market crop. The weevils are non-flying insects that crawl into potato fields during the potato-growing season and breed. The eggs they lay develop into larvae that burrow into the soil and feed on the potatoes. No resistance or tolerance to weevil has been identified in potato and all potato cultivars are equally susceptible to attack.Farmers mainly attempt to control weevils using two or three applications of often highly toxic insecticides. However, because of their lack of knowledge the spraying is often ineffective because it is mistimed or the dosage is wrong.\"Short plastic barriers, just 50 cm high and 10 cm into the ground turned out to be very effective in stopping weevil migration to potato fields and consequently tuber damage,\" said project leader Jürgen Kroschel. The studies were carried out with farmer participation in 21 on-farm experiments in two communities in the Central Highlands of Peru. The effect of plastic barriers was compared to farmer practice (one to four applications of insecticide per potato growing season) in fallowpotato and potato-potato cropping systems in which the weevil species Premnotrypes suturicallus is endemic.In the systems where the farmers were leaving the fields fallow for a number of years, then planting potatoes, plastic barriers gave a crop with about the same amount of tuber damage as the usual practice of the farmers, which was to spray the crop between one to four times. No significant differences between the plastic barriers and farmer practice using insecticides could be found.Where farmers were planting potatoes season after season, the plastic barriers only prevent new migration to potato fields. The potato fields had already become their own source of infestation. Generally there was less damage to the crops grown behind barriers, but again there was some variation and in a few fields there was more damage. In potato-potato systems, there Setting pitfall traps inside and outside the plastic barriers in the fields to assess weevil populations is a large buildup of weevils because there is always food available in the form of tubers. To counteract this, the farmers spray the crops up to four times with insecticide. So from the health point of view the barriers would be worthwhile. However, when the researchers used just one application of insecticide at a critical point inside the barriers, most losses dropped dramatically, in one case from 81 percent to just 3.7 percent of tubers lost.\"On farmer plots the infestation continues until the end of March and middle of May,\" said Jürgen Kroschel. \"In contrast, within plastic barriers only one initial population needs to be controlled in potatopotato systems.\" In this system, researchers also found large numbers of carabids, which are natural enemies of Andean potato weevils. Research continues in order to develop synergies between natural control by carabids and the use of plastic barriers.Plastic barriers are much cheaper that using insecticides, which is also a labor-intensive process since water needs to be handcarried to potato fields. Of the handful of health benefits associated with yacon, one of the most promising is the root's high levels of fructooligosaccharides, a particular low-calorie sugar that does not elevate blood glucose and therefore can be consumed by diabetics and weight-watchers. In addition to reconstituting intestinal microflora and preventing constipation, animal studies indicate that fructooligosaccharides promote calcium absorption, reduce cholesterol levels, strengthen the immune system and reduce carcinogen lesions in the colon. Yacon leaves are also rich in strong antioxidants.From 2002 to 2005 CIP and partner institutions in Peru studied the influence of the environment and stresses on yield and fructooligosaccharide content. The underlying goal was to use this information to help farmers improve their income and livelihoods by growing more high-quality yacon and selling more of it at a competitive price. In addition to helping farmers this study would also benefit the yacon processing industry.Currently, most of the companies that produce and sell yacon-based products such as syrup, juice, marmalade and flour, are not aware of the importance of the where the yacon is grown on the crop's content of fructooligosaccharides. Because of the high perishability of the roots, processed yacon products are preferred for commercial sales instead of the traditional marketing of fresh roots. Just one week after harvest, the fructooligosaccharide content of I. MANRIQUEroots can drop by as much as 30 to 40 percent. Furthermore, to obtain products with the highest possible fructooligosaccharide content, roots need to be either processed immediately after harvest or refrigerated.The CIP-led study showed that yield and nutritional traits of yacon are strongly influenced by the environment, locality, fertilization and cultivation period, and to a lesser degree by the interaction between the yacon genotype and the particular growing site. Coastal environments were mostly suitable for foliage yield but unsuitable for oligosaccharide yield; highland environments, on the other hand, were the most suitable for high sugar content, and midelevation valleys, when planted in the winter, encouraged fructooligosaccharide content and leaf growth.The researchers are keenly aware that information gathered from this and other studies is key to further developing and improving the yacon industry, which is comprised largely of unorganized farmers and small-scale production companies. Already, the demand for yacon-based products from Peru, one of the world's top yacon producing areas, is on the rise. Exports of yaconprocessed goods from Peru to the world (mainly Efforts such as these are also set to help yacongrowing farmers in other parts of the world, such as Brazil and Japan, which have the largest yacon production zones outside the Andes.More than 2 billion people worldwide lack micronutrients like iron and zinc. In developing countries, about 50 percent of women and children are affected by anemia, from a shortage of iron, folate, vitamin B12 and other nutrients. Since 2004, CIP has been working with the CGIAR Harvest Plus Challenge Program in the area of biofortification, the process of breeding staple crops with increased concentrations of micronutrients to supply essential minerals and vitamins to the people eating the crops. New varieties of potato with high levels of iron and zinc are health and productivity of over half of the world's population, especially women and children. However, the indications are that biofortified potatoes can indeed play a role in reducing micronutrient deficiency in target populations where potato is an important part of the diet. CIP's VITAA initiative (see story p. 52) is a good example of this approach to biofortification of sweetpotato.Potato is already an important source of energy, vitamins, minerals and protein of high biological value. A 100-g serving of an average potato variety can provide a child with 16 percent of the recommended daily allowance for iron.The advantage of biofortification is that it brings nutritional benefits from locally produced cropsharvest after harvest, with no additional costs once the biofortified varieties are adopted and consumed. Potato has a highly diverse genepool of cultivated varieties, and the full range of bioavailable micronutrients in this germplasm is unknown.\"We measured the mineral and vitamin C concentrations of native varieties conserved in the germplasm collection at CIP,\" said project leader, CIP's senior potato breeder Meredith Bonierbale. Among 100 native cultivars and 150 advanced breeding clones and varieties, they found 12-37 mg/kg of iron and 8-32 mg/kg of zinc. \"Vitamin C concentrations of the native potatoes ranged from 22 to 105 mg/kg,\" added Bonierbale.Women in Huancavelica, one of the poorest departments of Peru, eat about 800 g of potato per day, and mean potato consumption in parts of Rwanda is 400-500 g per head. Such diets lack iron and zinc. The wide range of concentrations observed among the genotypes suggests that suitable iron-dense parents are available for improving iron levels in diets or in new varieties. \"Our breeders estimate that it is possible to reach a concentration of 48 mg of iron/kg and 33 mg of zinc/kg,\" said Bonierbale.CIP's genebank contains around 4,000 native potato landraces, so more varieties will be evaluated in the future. The development, promotion and consumption of stable, resistant and more-nutritious potato varieties in developing countries will help to improve the health of populations at risk of malnutrition, while contributing to increasing incomes and reducing dependence on external inputs such as pesticides. \"Building on pilot experience in Western Kenya,\" said Jan Low, CIP's Regional Leader for Sub-Saharan Africa and one of the project's leaders. \"This project not only aimed to improve child-feeding practices, but introduced a market development component to assure sustained adoption.\" Vitamin A deficiency is a primary cause of blindness in young children in Africa. Food-based approaches to raising vitamin A are complementary to supplementing blood levels with vitamin pills, but they may be more sustainable, although up to now few thorough studies have been done. A key objective of the project was to sustainably improve intake of vitamin A and energy in children under five.Hundreds of households were involved in the study. The children, with an average age of 13 months, showed high levels of malnutrition; 71 percent of them had low serum retinol levels, 25 percent were severely anemic and 54 percent were stunted for their age. The area was extremely poor in resources, drought prone with low productivity. The principal staple was cassava, although 66 percent of the households grew sweetpotato.The team adopted three distinct pathways in the project. First they ensured the supply of CIP-developed orange sweetpotato varieties to the households so that they could produce more energy and beta-carotene per hectare. Second, a demand for vitamin A-rich foods was created by persuading people to plant them and ensure that the most vulnerable household members ate them and other locally available vitamin A-rich foods and sources of protein and fat. Third, project staff worked to develop markets for the new cultivars to ensure rapid and sustained adoption by producers and consumers, and a market for the material. \"These three pathways interacted and reinforced each other,\" said Jan Low.The study lasted for two years and eventually showed that the young children in the households were taking in eight times more vitamin A that the control groups by eating the OFSP. At the end, the study children, average age 13 months, in the intervention households were taking in eight times more vitamin A than those in the control households.OFSP was the main source of that vitamin A. In an environment with extremely poor health services and low formal maternal education, the study demonstrated that a decline of 15 percent in prevalence of low serum retinol in young children could be attributed to the intervention.The research highlights the effectiveness of OFSP in an integrated agriculturenutrition intervention aimed at increasing vitamin A intake and serum retinol concentrations. The challenge remains to ensure sustained adoption and have impact on a wide scale. \"If we can get OFSP into the young child's diet, it makes an impact,\" said Jan Low.Children really like the soft drink that communities in Puno are making from oca as a tasty and nutritious alternative to expensive commercial drinks Farmers in six Andean communities are routinely using the results of a CIP project to reduce oca losses from 90-98 percent to less than 20 percent. The oca or oka (Oxalis tuberose) is a perennial plant grown in the central and southern Andes for its starchy edible tuber, used as a root vegetable, which can be boiled, baked or fried. Its leaves and young shoots can be eaten as a green vegetable as well. Although low-yielding, oca is one of the most important staple crops of the Andean highlands, because of its productivity, easy propagation and tolerance for poor soil, high altitude and harsh conditions. In fact, up to 90 percent of the food of Andean farmers is based on oca, ulluco, mashua (two other Andean roots and tubers) and potatoes. About 10 percent of rural families use oca and ulluco as baby food and they are emerging as a valuable source of income generation, especially in making jams.Cultivating oca faces a number of challenges. Good quality tuber seed is scarce; when cultivated in remote areas, weevils can destroy 98 percent of the tuber. This pest has become a factor in genetic erosion, for example, in Andahuaylas the oca crop has disappeared entirely, and knowledge of oca biodiversity management, either in situ or ex situ, is limited.CIP staff in Peru collaborated with the University of Cusco, the University of California-Davis and six rural communities of the high Andes around Cusco in a project investigating various aspects of oca. The six communities were: Picol, Matinga, Qqueccayoq, Poques, Chumpe and Sayllasaya Communal consultation assemblies and biochemical analyses identified oca biodiversity, revealing four major clusters. Most of the ocas grown in each farming community showed wide distribution in the four clusters, although the Poques community was conserving the lowest oca genetic diversity, while Matinga conserved the highest levels. Six main tuber shapes are grown in the six communities by more than 50 percent of the families; others are rather strange and they are grown by 1-2 families in only 1-2 villages. Such highly localized cultivation is a clue to the origin of the tremendous biodiversity of tuber crops that exists in the Andes.Efforts to protect the tuber crop, and hence the levels of biodiversity conserved, blended traditional indigenous knowledge and scientific research. Staff in the University of Cusco isolated, identified and worked out how to use the parasitic fungus Beauveria basiana against the weevil population, supplemented by traditional methods such as using native plants as pest repellents, rooting oca sprouts to reduce weevil damage, using chickens in the fields to prey on the weevils, early harvesting and plowing the fields immediately after harvest. \"We also improved the traditional storage systems, in small huts called taqu'es,\" said CIP's Carlos Arbizu, part of the project team, \"reducing losses from 15-20 percent down to 3 percent.\"The results of the project have been spread through farmers and children, schools, technical workshops, congresses, seminars and broadcasts by local radio in the native language Quechua and in Spanish. Agronomists, school and university teachers and non-governmental organizations in Cusco and Apurimac Departments have become involved in disseminating and utilizing the project results. These efforts have widened the impact of the research beyond the more than 30 communities in the vicinity of the six target villages and in doing so, protected the biodiversity of this valuable Andean crop. Analyzing the potato diversity managed by the farmers gave some very interesting results that have bearing on the short-and long-term future of the Park. A team of CIP researchers found a high level of genetic diversity in potatoes in three of the communities, with a total of 122 alleles, or DNA sequences that code for a gene, including seven exclusive alleles. \"Interestingly, potato genetic diversity is similar among the communities, suggesting the interchange of genetic material,\" said one of the team, Cinthya Zorrilla.CIP has been systematically contributing potato varieties to the Park, both to restore varieties that the communities no longer have, and to replace existing varieties with clean, virustested cultivated varieties from CIP that have increased potato seed quality and the yield in the Park. New potato products are also under development, to generate more income.The germplasm restored to the Park from CIP has broadened the existing genetic diversity there with over 15 exclusive alleles. This genetic diversity once existed in the area but had fallen from local use for a variety of reasons. \"The communities are microcenters of agrobiodiversity,\" said Rene Gómez, a CIP scientist working closely with the communities. \"The principal reasons for restoring this material is the 'tired seed' syndrome, which is the gradual decrease in viability of the material through the buildup of disease in the planting material, and the broadening of the genetic diversity with the return of potato varieties that were previously collected in these communities and surrounding areas.\"The team has also been documenting the potato diversity and associated knowledge and information in the Potato Park. Researchers found that the total molecular variation between potato cultivars from the Park communities and CIP is less than 1 percent. This means that the diversity held in trust in the CIP genebank represents well the diversity maintained in the communities.Andean communities have arariwas who are hereditary custodians of agrobiodiversity and related knowledge. By working closely with them over a period of three years, CIP staff found that the local nomenclature follows a systematic classification that reveals a detailed knowledge of the complex diversity maintained in the communities. In Kenya, as well as in most developing countries, high quality seed potatoes are not available to small scale farmers. There are limited amounts of quality seed available for a few released varieties, but it is expensive. For popular landraces no seed is available. This makes farmers plant potatoes from their previous crop infected with diseases, resulting in low yields.Farmers groups are being trained on distinguishing between sick Laboratory technicians and scientists have been trained in sanitation procedures to be applied during micropropagation in the laboratory and further multiplication under screenhouse conditions. They have also been learning how to transplant in vitro plants under proper seedbed conditions using locally available substrate, how to perform rapid multiplication techniques, husbandry practices and screenhouse management in general.In Tajikistan, farmers participated in preparing the fields, transplanting in vitro clones directly into the field and other cultural practices. At harvest, their preferences were taken into consideration in selection decisions, as local breeders assessed the yield and quality of the introduced clones and advanced the best selections for subsequent variety trials.The project is also passing along skills in true potato seed technology, which is completely new to the region. Some of the true potato seed families adapted to long day conditions were very productive, showing vigorous growth, an extremely healthy aspect, profuse flowering and yields of up to 35 tonnes/ha in the highlands of Tajikistan at about 2,300 m asl.True potato seed technology is expected to give positive results especially in the marginal areas of the highlands of the region. These areas have the most suitable agroecology for true potato seed because of the difficult access to potato-growing sites, the high price of conventional tuber seed, and the widespread presence of smallholdings with sufficient labor available. \"The high competition from imported clonal varieties puts this technology at a disadvantage in the lowlands,\" says Carlo Carli.farmers in the Andes *Cuenca means \"watershed\" in Spanish. PES schemes are expected to assist in linking farmers' income and environmental conservation in Andean watersheds by providing farmers with incentives to change their current farming system to a sustainable one. The model involves three key groups: the service providers (families in the watersheds), the service users (organizations, companies and districts that use the water for irrigation, human consumption and other uses) and in some cases, a Fund.The Fund, made up of service provider and service user representatives as well as private sector and government delegates, acts as the intermediary for all the members of the payment chain. Through the Fund's management, providers and users agree on a value for the ecosystem service. The Fund arranges all the necessary working mechanisms. Most importantly, it establishes agreement on the amount of money and the services contributed by each player.Project leaders intend to apply the lessons learned from the Moyobamba experience, especially the PES aspect of the project, in other watersheds throughout the Andes, and even in the Amazon region, in hopes of contributing effectively to maintaining the region's natural resources. From 2002, CIP-UPWARD started monitoring and evaluating the outcomes from the project, and the impact of farmers' attending the field schools. Findings indicated that maintaining and using clean seed was the most common practice adopted by farmers two years after a field school. Economic analysis showed that gross and net returns to land and labor significantly increased after training. However, the evaluation also revealed that producing adequate supplies of clean seed remained a continuing challenge for farmers. So in 2006, the content of the field schools was further adapted to focus on producing clean seed using true potato seed, which makes use of botanical seeds rather than whole tubers. With funding from the Japanese government, local Nepal partners conducted a national program of farmer field schools, this time with a curriculum centered on using true potato seed in on-farm seed production.The monitoring and evaluation gave insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the field school approach and suggested ways to improve and scale-up such efforts. As in most participatory research and development efforts, the project team faced challenges associated with scaling up successful experiences beyond the pioneering farmer groups and farming communities.Certainly, the variability in needs, opportunities and conditions requires that agricultural innovations introduced in pilot projects be continually adapted to local conditions when introduced to other communities.Besides the direct benefits to the farmers, the overall output and lessons from the Nepal project have potential for wider application in the South and Central Asia region where extreme poverty exists and where potato is a key livelihood crop. Similar needs and opportunities can be found in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the former republics of the USSR.  This catalogue shows the diversity of native potatoes in a balance between traditional knowledge and the results of scientific investigation. Such a combination makes the catalogue unique, contributing to the understanding of the extensive genetic diversity that the farmers of Huancavalica conserve, as well as blending rich cultural understanding with the results of research. TPS is particularly suitable for use in tropical and subtropical areas where the cost of quality seed is high and the yield of the potato crop is low. These are the main factors limiting potato production.With the specific uptake of this approach, TPS is making a significant contribution to food security and income generation by poor farming households. \"It is a clear example of a complex technology being adopted and used over a sustained period,\" said CIP's geneticist Enrique Chujoy.Because well-established TPS breeding programs are almost nonexistent in some national agricultural research systems, Chujoy set about developing improved TPS parents to increase the number and diversity of TPS material. Using varieties and advanced clones from CIP's breeding program, Chujoy In a small community-run factory in Juli on the shores of Lake Titicaca in Peru, 70 women pack fresh trout fillets for export to Canada and the United States, while to the northeast in Puno a dozen women sit around a spotless white table cleaning organic quinoa for sale to markets in Germany. These apparently unrelated activities are two elements in a complex CIP-run project entitled ALTAGRO*, which is taking a systems approach to raising incomes and increasing food security in the high-altitude plain called the Altiplano between Peru and Bolivia.The Altiplano is one of the poorest regions in the world. Approximately 75 percent of its 6 million inhabitants live in poverty and over half live in extreme poverty. Potatoes are a central element in the lives of the people, many of whom could not exist without the crop. Indeed, the Altiplano/Lake Titicaca area is now considered to be the center of origin of domesticated potatoes. CIP is applying its research technologies, in partnership with a non-governmental organization called CIRNMA (Centro de Investigación de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente) to establish a model for rural development based on a comprehensive view of sustainable agriculture, which encompasses the economic, biophysical, sociocultural and environmental aspects of market-oriented development.For example, 145 km east of the district capital Puno, seven small producers have banded together to develop and market oca, a little-known Andean tuber with high natural levels of antioxidant anthocyanins. CIP technology improved production from 4.5 to 8 t/ ha of oca. With CIRNMA's assistance, the producers formed a company that is making and selling jam and juice from this sweet tuber. The end result is an increase in the income of the families involved, over 300 percent in some cases, an innovative market for the tubers and a new realization of the value of conserving the rich local oca biodiversity. CIP-CIRNMA staff are also showing other communities how to make the juice. Children love it, it is a valuable source of vitamins and minerals, and avoids the need to buy expensive commercial carbonated drinks.Further west, in Vilque, Petronila Neyra Apasa looks out over her property. She still grows a wide variety of potatoes on half her fields, to be sure that she gets something to eat, no matter what the weather does. However, Petronila is also *Andean Agriculture in the Altiplano. the president of an association of 95 quinoa producers, 56 of them certified organic. The association holds monthly meetings to train the members and discuss business. CIP and CIRNMA staff contribute expertise and knowledge; yields double and triple after the training. The quinoa they produce is processed and sold by an affiliated organization. The organic quinoa is profitably exported to the German market, which is so demanding even the plastic sacks are lined with organic material to stop the grains coming into contact with the plastic packaging.\"The Andes and especially the Peru-Bolivia Altiplano make up an area with highly complex climatic, sociocultural and economic conditions,\" said CIRNMA's Roberto Valdivia. \"To achieve development based on research is a long-term task. In some cases, the work we are doing started 10 years ago.\" CIP's long experience in participatory approaches to integrating agricultural technology produced by commodity-oriented research into farming systems combines with CIRNMA's development assistance, supervised credit schemes and organization of microenterprises to make good business. Ask the trout farmers in Lake Titicaca. The fish flourish in the cages floating in the cold, clean waters of the lake. The links have been made from producers to markets, in this case Canada.    The Panamanian government is using software tools developed by CIP to assist in the decision whether to enter into a free trade agreement with the United States. Applying the models gave some good news and some bad news. IDIAP scientists showed that by adopting new technology, especially using mixed grasslegume pastures, farmers could produce beef at competitive prices in a liberalized market, not only for the national but for export markets as well. For milk production, the lowlands would not be competitive, but the upper watershed, if reconverted to an intensive grass-legume grazing pasture, could compete to retain the national market, although full intensification would be costly.A similar analysis was applied to potato, which is one of the most important horticultural crops in the watershed. Potato models calibrated for CIP materials were used to assess The main point is that the approach yielded firm, reliable information that could be used with confidence in assessing the impact and implications of a free trade agreement. On balance the current evidence suggests that a regional or multilateral agreement through the World Trade Organization, rather than a bilateral deal with the United States, would be more advantageous to Panama. Potato and other horticultural crops have been classified as sensitive commodities and will be tariff-protected for a period if any deal is signed.The work has had further benefits and impact. The Ministry of Agriculture has assigned funds to IDIAP to conduct similar analyses in five important watersheds in the country. \"The innovative tools for geospatial analysis used and the modeling to evaluate the competitiveness of agronegotiations and the associated environmental risks, contribute significantly to the analysis of the Pan-American agricultural sector,\" Specifically, an agreement, negotiated in a climate of trust between the farmers and traders, motivated the farmers to invest time and resources in growing and packaging native potato varieties. The marketing chain was completed when Wong, one of the largest supermarket chains in Peru, contracted to sell the product. This created a new market niche and yielded higher prices for farmers' crops. This approach led to the launching of a new native potato product, called T'ikapapa. Farmers produce and package specially selected high quality tubers of native potato varieties for sale at premium prices in supermarkets thus receiving higher farm-gate prices and increased profits. (2005 MTP, Project 7, Division 1 -Output 3 (1-3)).Peruvian consumers, small scale farmers, market chain partners and Wong supermarkets, especially in Lima, used the output.Producing and selling T'ikapapa is yielding a new livelihood and profits for the farmers, distributors and the Wong supermarket chain. Peruvian consumers buy the product, smallscale farmers produce it, market chain partners ship it and Wong markets and sells it.T'ikapapa potatoes have been available in most branches of Wong supermarkets in Peru for many months. Copies of media articles and photographs of T'ikapapa in the supermarket are available, as are data on volume of sales and prices of potato. The United Nations has nominated the T'ikapapa initiative as one of the ten finalists for the Supporting Entrepreneurs for Environment and Development (Seed) Awards 2007 from 230 proposals from 70 countries (see http://www.cipotato.org/pressroom/press_releases_detail.asp?cod=33). The output was adopted by the Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá, MIDA (Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario, and several other organizations in Panama.Panamanian Free Trade negotiators are using the information produced, which identifies agro-ecozones, assesses the vulnerability of the farming systems in a selected watershed, and systematizes research results into simulation models to assess the impact of technology adoption on the competitiveness of selected commodities (beef, milk and potato) in a liberalized market. The analysis was complemented with the assessment of the environmental cost in term of soil erosion and water quality, both under actual practices and future scenarios. The output encouraged Panamanian authorities to conduct similar analyses in other watersheds and use the results as input information for the free trade negotiations. In Tajikistan, local researchers assessed yield and quality of introduced clones and advanced the best selections to subsequent year's variety trials. In Uzbekistan, scientists assessed yield and quality of introduced clones and advanced the best selections to subsequent year's variety trials.In the laboratory of the Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, Dushanbe, Tajikistan, in vitro plants were transplanted into farmers' fields in the highlands of Faizabad district, by researchers of the Research Institute of Horticulture, Dushanbe. Farmers participated in field preparation, transplanting of in vitro clones, and other cultural practices. At harvest, their preferences were taken into consideration. In Uzbekistan, 34 in vitro clones supplied by CIP Lima were multiplied in the laboratory of the Biotechnology Dept. of Tashkent State Agrarian University. A total of 31,210 minitubers were produced, which were planted in the highlands of Tashkent in a research site belonging to the Institute of Vegetables, Melon and Potato, based in Tashkent. In the first food-based efficiency study conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa, vitamin A intake was almost eight times higher among children eating OFSP than control children, and their serum retinol concentrations were doubled. The dietary quality of children and farmers were improved and a third of the households studied were marketing OFSP.Outcome 5: Introduction of sweetpotato as animal feed into the cropping systems in the dry forests in Northwestern PeruNew CIP-developed dual-purpose sweetpotato varieties have been introduced into the cropping system and adopted as animal feed by goat farmers in the dry forests in northwestern Peru. Crop-livestock technologies, dual-purpose sweetpotato varieties and management practices for alleviating poverty and making production systems more sustainable, first identified in the MTP 2003-2005. Small livestock farmers in the dry forests in Piura in northwestern Peru used the output. Dual-purpose sweet potato varieties have been introduced into cropping systems for use as animal feed. This feed source, which is new to the area, benefits the nutrition, health and productivity of the goats, decreases the degradation of the dry forests in northwestern Peru and raises farmer incomes.  (Fuglie, 2007). To help assess these costs we drew upon CIP's ex post impact assessment studies. Costs were highest for knowledge intensive technologies like integrated crop management (about US$80/ha of adoption area), and lowest for varietal change (US $16/ha) while the cost of seed system improvement was somewhere in between (US $50/ha). These costs were included in the benefit-cost analysis which underpins the priority setting, and so influenced overall conclusions about where CIP should direct its research investment. D) Please provide specific examples of establishment of baseline studies to provide counterfactuals for future epIA A baseline survey was carried out in 2006 prior to an intervention to test different strategies for promoting orange-fleshed sweetpotato in Mozambique. Twenty-four numerators and supervisors were trained. The socioeconomic component collected information on: household composition and education level, employment, land possession, farm production and sales, sources of knowledge about farming, food expenditures and consumption, sweet potato consumption, non-food expenditures and consumption, and nutritional knowledge. The nutrition component collected anthropometrical measurements, food frequency with focus on vitamin A and fat sources); 24 hour-recall of food intake, child feeding practices, child immunization, 2-week morbidity recall and fertility history of mother.A baseline survey was carried out in 2006 in five cantons (counties) of Ecuador prior to broad-based interventions to promote healthy and sustainable potato production. Farmers and health personnel were trained in each canton, and 481 households were surveyed with a diversity of potato production systems. Demographic and agricultural production data, several aspects of the FAO Code of Conduct and pesticide-related health outcomes were recorded. Substantial quantities of highly toxic Class Ib and II pesticides were used in 2 of 5 cantons. Less than 50 percent of farmers possessed knowledge of IPM. The pesticide-related health outcome revealed depressed neurological scores.A baseline study of Persistent Organic Pollutant (POPs) Pesticides in Andean farming communities in Peru was carried out in 2006 in five hotspots of pesticide use prior to promoting IPM. 693 farmers and 140 professionals involved in pesticide use were surveyed. Information was collected on pesticide use, knowledge of pesticides and poisonings. Most farmers use pesticides containing highly toxic methamidophos to control potato and maize insect pests. On average, 25 percent of the farmers interviewed in the hotspots have suffered severe poisoning from using pesticides, for the most part organophosphate pesticides and carbamates.   Center governance -internal control and risk managementThe Trustees acknowledge that they are responsible for the Center's system of internal control and for reviewing its effectiveness. The system is designed to manage rather than eliminate the risk of failure to achieve the Center's strategic objectives, and can only provide reasonable, not absolute, assurance against material misstatement or loss. An ongoing process has been established for identifying, evaluating and managing the significant risks faced by the Center. The process has been in place for the full year under review and up to the date of approval of the annual report and financial statements. The Board regularly reviews the process.The Center's key risk management processes and system of internal control procedures include the following:Management structure: Authority to operate is delegated to management within limits set by the board. Functional, operating and financial reporting standards are established by management for application across the Center. The procedures manual sets out, inter alia, the general ethos of the Center, delegation of authority and authorisation levels, segregation of duties and other control procedures together with Center accounting policies. These procedures are supplemented by operating standards set by the local management, as required for the geographical location.The major financial, scientific, legal, regulatory and operating risks within the Center are identified through annual reporting procedures. The internal audit team regularly reviews these risks to ensure that are being effectively managed and appropriately insured, and prepares an annual risk assessment report. The team also undertakes regular reviews of the most significant areas of risk and ensures that key control objectives remain in place and reports its findings to the audit committee.Information and financial reporting systems: The Center's comprehensive planning and financial reporting procedures include detailed operational budgets for the year ahead and a 2-year rolling plan. The board reviews and approves them. Performance is monitored and relevant action taken throughout the year through the quarterly reporting of key performance indicators, updated forecasts for the year together with information on the key risk areas.Investment appraisal: A budgetary process and authorisation levels regulate capital expenditure. For expenditure, beyond specified levels and outside of the approved budget, detailed written proposals have to be submitted to the board for approval. Reviews are carried out after the acquisition is complete, and for some projects, during the acquisition period, to monitor expenditure; major overruns are investigated. Proposals for research and development programs are considered by a team led by Dr. Anderson and proposals beyond specified limits are considered by the board.Audit Committee: The Audit Committee monitors, through reports to it by the internal audit team, the controls which are in force and any perceived gaps in the control environment.The Audit Committee meets with the auditors independently from management. The Audit Committee also considers and determines relevant action in respect to any control issues raised by internal or external auditors.The Board confirms that it has reviewed the effectiveness of the systems of internal control; the key processes used in doing so included the following:• Review of the annual risk assessment report;• Production and regular updating of summaries of key controls measured against Center benchmarks which cover internal controls, both financial and non-financial; • Review of reports prepared by the internal audit team; • Confirms that the procedures set out in the Center's procedures manual have been followed; • The Chair of the Audit Committee reports the outcome of the Audit Committee meetings to the board and the board receives minutes of the meetings; and • Review the role of insurance in managing risks across the Center.  ","tokenCount":"10618"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e6bd6e24e426916a68b87f0ac0f28b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc60c1f7-93b7-4c9d-90b4-465a2efabd76/retrieve","id":"-583799033"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"34bcb5b9-70c7-4a33-9ddf-9c0b0cb919c3","pagecount":"17","content":"From 1983 to 2020, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was an international institution of the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) and the European Union (EU). Its mission was to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. In its project portfolio (2016-2020) of 73 projects, CTA focused on digitalisation, youth entrepreneurship, and climate resilience as its priority intervention areas.CTA came to the end of its mandate as the Cotonou Agreement between the EU and the ACP countries, the legal and financial framework within which CTA functioned, ended on 31 December 2020. As part of CTA's orderly closure, all major projects created project completion reports which are now being made available to the wider public to share lessons learned. These reports specify sections on results, financial information, lessons learned and references.CTA complies with the European data protection legislation, in particular Regulation 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data ('GDPR'). When personal data have been processed in the context of the project in which CTA and project partner are involved, CTA can request from project partner to a) permanently delete the personal data, or b) undertake the Data Controller role by signing the Data Controller Role Transfer letter issued by CTA as an Annex to Project Completion Report.This means that the processing of personal data that project partner eventually continues to perform after the project closure date are under sole responsibility of the project partner, as sole controller.The project partner as the new Data Controller shall have the responsibility to comply with the applicable legislation on the protection of personal data, which it is for project partner to verify, and the obligations such applicable law imposes on the Controller.CTA will no longer bear any responsibility for the processing operations, not towards the data subjects, nor towards the data protection authority.Kenya; Nigeria This project was launched following a call for proposals on information and communication technology (ICT)-enabled mechanisation that CTA launched to support activities of its ICT programme in particular and identify how digital innovations could support mechanisation and youth jobs.The winning proposal selected was the project \"Connecting Smallholder Farmers to Tractors Powered by Hello Tractor\".Knowledge has been generated to inform CTA's programme of activities and stakeholders about digitalisation opportunities to support mechanisation and create jobs for youth.With support from The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA), through a call for proposal, Hello Tractor an agriculture technology social enterprise has been selected to implement ICT-enabled smallholder mechanisation services with the objective to create jobs for youth across Nigeria and Kenya over a one-year period.Hello Tractor has a bold vision to create sustainable value for tractor owners and to radically transform how the smallholder agricultural ecosystem interacts with and derives value from technology. The enterprise connects tractor owners and smallholder farmers in Africa through a digital tractor sharing application. By creating equitable access to tractor services, the enterprise enables smallholder farmers to earn more and grow more, improving livelihoods and food security for their families and communities. The project has been implemented for 15 months from 12/02/2019 (date of signature) to 15/04/2020.The following activities have been implemented in the framework of the project:1. Identifying and training youth to serve as both booking agents and tractor operators 2. Providing youth workers with needed marketing materials such as flyers, promotional guides, installation steps, ID card, t-shirts and caps to make their work with farmers easier and engender trust within their communities 3. Carrying out tractor demo days within rural farming communities to help farmers better understand Hello Tractor and the benefits of mechanisation 4. Engaging Hello Tractor contractors on a weekly basis to ensure that bookings sent by agents are being paired to tractors without delay 5. Knowledge-sharing activities (workshops, articles).As result of this project, more than 5,000 smallholder farmers who needed mechanisation services within Nigeria and Kenya, have been reached and opportunities to earn an income serving as booking agents and tractor operators have been created for over 100 youth. Hello Tractor has also been able to significantly improve on both its technology and its service delivery models to ensure that smallholder farmers are receiving the highest quality of service every time tractors are deployed to provide service.Overall, through partnership with CTA, Hello Tractor has been able to execute a digital transformation strategy coupled with targeted community and farmer outreach, incorporating lessons learned over several years, in order to improve the offer in the market. For the smallholder farmers, they are now better aware of the ease with which they can gain access to mechanisation services because of the increased brand awareness activities the project carried out at the farmer level, while booking agents and operators on the other hand are now better equipped with the skills and tools that they need to deliver quality service to smallholder farmers.Some key resultsAccording to a study, the world food production needs to increase by between 26 to 70% to cover the global food demand by 2050. 1 Least developed countries may need to double their  production. 2 This pressing need is, among others, motivated by the constantly rising population, which in Africa will double by 2050, reaching around 2.5 billion. The current African agricultural productivity levels need to be raised significantly. Improving food production in Africa is also indispensable for attempting to reduce the high food import bill of Africa, which might rise from about US$35 billion in 2015, to over US$115 million by 2050. 3 In parallel to any sustainable crop intensification strategy, there is a need to improve land cultivation practices, for example by leveraging on ICT-enabled mechanisation services. Africa has about 60% of the world's arable land (600 million ha), but this important asset is still largely uncultivated and under-cultivated. The lack of access to farm mechanised machinery is one of the reasons that explain this preoccupying observation. Indeed, while there are, for example, in the UK 883 tractors per 1,000 farmers, in sub-Saharan Africa, this statistic is at 2 per 1,000 farmers. 4 Several reasons may explain the lack of availability of tractors. These include the costs of tractors that is beyond the financial capacity of most smallholder farmers, the lack of technical know-how on the use of these tractors by farmers, just to cite a few.Fortunately, new solutions that can facilitate the leasing of tractors among smallholder farmers and cooperatives, leveraging on ICT use are currently available globally, and on the continent. Digital technologies may favour an improved management of tractors, for example when geolocalisation devices are integrated on the tractors. Opportunities for youth employment may also be generated in the deployment of these schemes.Due the recent end of the project, impacts have not yet been quantified. Meanwhile, according to the description of the project the followings were expected as outcomes and impacts:2 FAO (2009), Global agriculture towards 2050 As result of the execution of the above activities, the following outcomes related to each target beneficiaries are noticed:By carrying out tractor demos and other awareness activities across various farming communities, an increase in the number of farmers requesting for services was noticed, specifically during the dry season where requests for tractor services previously had a tendency to decline since farmers would rely more on animal labour because they have a false impression that it is cheaper compared to the use of tractors and or were just not available to them.Farmers were educated through each demos days on how mechanisation can boost their productivity as well as reduce their costs, and practicalised its usage on the farm, comparing the time it took to complete a harrow job with a tractor to the time it takes animals to complete the same job.For example, after a demo day carried out in a community within Kano State where many of the farmers still depend on manual labour to farm their fields, over 250 of them signed up to receive mechanisation services and expressed excitement at the fact they were able to increase their productivity by planting at least 2 days earlier than they would have should they have relied on animal labour. These farmers have also begun requesting for tractor services for the wet season which indicates a shift from reliance on animal labour.Providing the booking agents with more intensive and tailored training, giving them merchandise to support their work with farmers and connect them to each other via WhatsApp group has caused an overall increase in their levels of engagement. They indicated that they are now a lot more confident entering new communities to speak with farmers who often previously doubted their genuineness because they were not adequately branded. They also share photos from their field engagement on the WhatsApp group from time to time, applauding each other for good work done and asking questions among themselves whenever they are unclear about things.The regular and proactive engagement of the tractor owners encouraged feature adoption and usage. The customers have testified to saving time to deployment of tractors, increase in revenue from the farmers paired to their tractors, and reduced cost of servicing farmers.As an outcome of the increased engagement of Hello Tractor with all contractors, it was experienced customers who are more willing to work with smallholder farmers and deploy tractors to the farmers promptly thereby strengthening the mechanisation ecosystem and increasing agricultural productivity.The project carried out activities under three components which are:• The demos were aimed at helping farmers; understand the need and importance of mechanisation, appreciate the necessity of booking agents in aggregating demand and helping them increase their access to tractor services, as well as getting to know about Hello Tractor and the services it offers through its technology. There were a total of 470 farmers who participated in these demo days, many of whom expressed excitement about the opportunities offered by the project to increase cost savings and speed of farming that mechanisation could potentially afford them. Hello Tractor made sure to have the participating farmers connected to booking agents during each demo to make certain that they have numbers they can easily call whenever they need to request for mechanisation services.Through the network of booking agents trained, the project has been able to reach an aggregate of 9,092 smallholder farmers across Nigeria and Kenya. The vast majority of these farmers served came from Hello Tractor's engagement in Nigeria due to the fact that they have already captured about 80% of all commercial tractors sold into the country, hereby giving them the opportunity to more readily meet the demands for mechanisation services for farmers within the region. By actively engaging contractors on the platform, in the framework of the project, a total of 125 tractors were deployed to service these farmers.To enable the booking agents and operators to engage more effectively with farmers, it was created collateral that was deemed necessary for their success based on feedback received from them on how best the project can support their work. It was printed a total of 200 t-shirts, 250 facecaps, 100 identification cards and 10,000 flyers which were delivered to a total of 456 booking agents.A series of trainings organised, allowed to onboard a total of 456 booking agents and 34 operators, of whom 89% are youth, and are now earning additional income from the job opportunities created for them.At the conclusion of one-year of the project, Hello Tractor organised one knowledge-sharing workshop (instead of two due to the COVID-19 outbreak) themed \"Driving Agricultural Productivity with Cutting Edge Technologies\" that was held on the 4th of February 2020 at Work and Connect Hub, Jabi, Abuja. The workshop, which centred around exchanging knowledge around the outputs and outcomes from the project over the last year and examining the ways through which Internet of Things is enabling mechanisation in agriculture in Africa, brought together 70 participants including key stakeholders and decision-makers, financial institutions, agricultural foundations, mechanisation service providers, booking agents/demand aggregators as well as farmer leaders in attendance.It was a highly engaging event that provided invitees with an opportunity to share, network and brainstorm on the way forward as it relates to improving farmer's productivity on the farm through the use of digital technology. The initiative is fully based on business services of Hello Tractor. Therefore, its business case is fully in place. The project has helped the company to scale-up their services, while facilitating access to mechanisation for farmers and helping CTA to promote the use of digital technologies to support mechanisation, especially land preparation. It is expected that other businesses will emerge in ACP countries, offering this type of services.From CTA's contribution to the project, which is 252 500 euro, 95% of the budget has been spent. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the full amount was not possible to spent. Two final workshops were planned to be held in Nigeria and Kenya but only one has been organised (in Nigeria). The figure below shows a summary of total expenditure.One of key activities for this project was to implement both interactive voice response (IVR) and SMS gateway systems that allow to engage with farmers and booking agents within the networks on-and-off the farming seasons; this would keep them duly informed and updated once they place bookings through the booking app and collect feedback from them on the quality of services they receive from Hello Tractor as well as tractor operators who provide services on the farm. While the project has been successful in implementing the SMS gateway and using it to engage actively with booking agents, it was quickly found out that these digital means of capturing farmer's feedback are not very realistic for the average farmer. The test was done by sending out messages to 100 farmers who received service and asking them to rate the quality of the service they received on their farms on a 1-5 scale. Not a single farmer responded to the message sent even after it was asked their booking agents to give them a nudge to respond. This indicated that collecting any kind of feedback from farmers through digital means might not be the most ideal way forward. To mitigate this, it was decided to instead set up a call centre that will provide a more human approach to feedback collection from farmers and booking agents, to enable capture the needed details that will help improve on the quality of services rendered to the farmer. The project began by utilising the customer service and customer success agents to develop scripts for engaging these customers and provide the initial outreach.When it comes to providing mechanisation services to smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa, one of the major constraints faced has always been the tractor deficit that exists across the sub-continent. In Nigeria alone for example, there's a tractor deficit of over 750,000 with only eight tractors currently available per 100km2 of arable land which is a far cry from the global average of 200 tractors per the same 100km2 of arable land. The implication of this is that during peak planting seasons, there are not enough tractors available to service farmers in a timely manner for them to plant on time. Hence farmers sometimes still have to rely on manual labour in the absence of readily available tractors to work on their farm. The project has experienced situations where the booking agents aggregate demand for farmers but are sometimes not able to get tractors in time to service the farmer's land. This could lead to frustrations on both the farmer and booking agent end, and may sometimes discourage them from wanting to try again the following year. Even though Hello Tractor outlined and implemented a few ways to try to make the available tractors within the markets as much as possible, one of which is through route planning for tractors, that is still not good enough if there's a huge deficit in the number of tractors available. Hello Tractor has been thinking creatively about ways through to solve this constraint and is currently in the middle of piloting a model, coined the \"Pay As You Go\" tractor financing model for tractor ownership, across Kenya and Nigeria. The funding will provide loans to contractors for tractor purchases and auto-deduct their loan repayments from their completed jobs. This approach significantly derisks the loan while reducing the need for tractor down payments. Hypothetically this will deepen the reach into markets, enabling low-income entrepreneurs to obtain financing for tractors to service the smallholders within and outside of their community who are in dire need of mechanisation services. In addition, the management of a few tractors as a pilot is in consideration to better control the supply and deployment of tractor services to farmers.In order to maintain the momentum, the project has built by touching the lives of thousands of smallholder farmers, creating jobs for youth serving as booking agents and tractor operators as well as creating sustainable businesses for Hello Tractor's contractors. The focus will be on two specific sustainability measures: building upstream relationships within supply-side manufacturers and dealers while leveraging strategic partnerships to provide demand-side opportunities through DFIs, NGOs and other social actors. For the supply-side engagement, Hello Tractor already has factory deals in the works with the likes of John Deere and Kubota.The plan is to engage with other top manufacturers such as AgCo, Case, New Holland, Mahindra, TAFE, Claas, LS, Landini, and Steyr whom it believes will help broaden the reach across emerging markets. The enterprise will approach these potential customers by engaging their regional leadership teams and aligning the technology with their growth objectives. Primarily, the enterprise would be looking at ways through which they could scale their payas-you-go model by working with these manufacturers to balance tractor deficits across the markets where they operate. As previously mentioned, Hello Tractor is currently in the middle of piloting the model across Kenya and Nigeria by financing 50 tractors that would be deployed for the planting season. The enterprise anticipates taking the learnings from the pilot to make changes where necessary and scale the model. For the demand-side opportunities, they will continue to work on existing and new approaches to capturing demand and ensuring the productivity and profitability of smallholder farmers, booking agents and tractor operators.Recently the implementation of hub models begun across Kano and Jigawa states in Nigeria, whereby farmers have a central location where they can go to request for mechanisation services or even purchase high quality farm inputs as needed. Positive results are already being seen from doing this alongside mural paintings, bus tours and tractor demos. Hence, the plan is to take this model into farming communities across all the various countries where Hello Tractor works. This will make for a more streamlined demand aggregation process that lets properly plan tractor routes for increased cost savings for farmers and higher profits for tractor contractors.The project directly contributes to the corporate logframe as per following: Hello Tractor partnered mainly with two organisations at national level to access more tractors and to install the devices on those tractors: TechnoServe and John Deere.","tokenCount":"3191"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e36839056e49d4bae4af8cc07a92687b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6abd3904-4379-42e7-9cb9-00c98edc1679/retrieve","id":"633785265"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"77ceb11c-3444-4c06-bbd2-fb43e4dda0c6","pagecount":"20","content":"Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Note technique sur la filière avicole / Avril 2005 1 Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC) Production documentaire et statistique sur le coton, le palmier à huile, le lait, l'apiculture, l'aviculture et le crédit rural en Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre (AOC)Selon les termes de références, les questions à traiter dans ces rapports devaient porter sur les thèmes suivants :  Analyse des problèmes du secteur et nécessité d'y remédier ;  Projets ou programmes déjà réalisés ou en cours de réalisation ;  Objectifs et activités à envisager pour l'avenir ;  Coûts liés à la mise en place de ces activités et de leur gestion ;  Identification des bénéficiaires ;  Résultats et impacts attendus.Au cours des échanges avec la CMA et son partenaire UPA-DI, il a été retenu concernant les trois derniers points de se focaliser plutôt sur les axes stratégiques à poursuivre au niveau régional pour le développement durable des filières agricoles étudiées. Les autres points ont été en partie traités dans le rapport de mission.L'équipe retenue pour conduire l'étude est composée d'une agro économiste et d'un vétérinaire économiste.Dans la stratégie de collecte de données, trois principales sources étaient ciblées: la documentation disponible, les données en ligne sur Internet et les acteurs des filières. C'est dans ce cadre que des missions ont été effectuées au niveau de 6 pays de la zone AOC. L'équipe a séjourné dans trois pays de l'Afrique de l'ouest (Mali, Mauritanie et Burkina) et trois de l'Afrique centrale (RCA, Tchad et Cameroun). La présente note de cadrage concerne la filière avicole.Dans presque tous les pays en développement, l'élevage de volaille, réalisé par des familles pauvres, rurales comme urbaines, participe au renforcement d'une agriculture familiale vitale pour les emplois et la sécurité alimentaire 1 .Selon les statistiques de la FAO en 2003, l'Afrique héberge près de 8% de la population mondiale de volaille et participe pour 4% à la production d'oeufs et pour 6% a la production de viande aviaire.Les pays de l'Afrique de l'ouest et du centre renferme 2,5% du cheptel mondial et contribuent pour moins de 2% à la production mondiale d'oeufs et de viande de volaille.Signalons que l'élevage de volaille concerne essentiellement l'espèce Gallus gallus bien que de plus en plus l'élevage d'autres espèces comme la pintade, la dinde commence à se développer.La filière avicole reste encore embryonnaire dans de nombreux pays avec une exploitation traditionnelle de la volaille. Cependant dans certains pays comme le Cameroun, le Nigeria, la Côte d'Ivoire et le Sénégal, se développe depuis plus d'une décennie une aviculture moderne tournée vers le marché urbain qui s'accroît de façon régulière. En 2004, la production mondiale de viande de volaille s'est chiffrée à 78,2 millions de tec soit une augmentation de 2,4 % par rapport à l'année précédente. Cette croissance masque deux tendances contrastées observées au cours de l'année :  d'une part, un net recul de la production en Asie du Sud-Est touchée par une importante épidémie de grippe aviaire, notamment en Chine (-3% ), en Thaïlande (-31%) et au Japon (-3%) ;  d'autre part, une croissance solide au Brésil (+ 8,8 % ), aux Etats-Unis (+ 2,9 %) et en Russie (+15,9%), due en partie à la croissance de la demande interne et externe. Les échanges internationaux de viande de volaille des principaux pays (6,62 millions de tec) ont enregistré une baisse de 3,7 % (-255.000 tec) à cause de la grippe aviaire en Asie du Sud -Est qui a entraîné la mise en place d'embargos internationaux sur la viande en provenance des pays touchés. Malgré un dollar faible, cette situation n'a pas bénéficié aux Etats -Unis qui ont vu leurs exportations diminuer de 7,4 % (-186.000 tec). Ils ont dû céder leur place de premier exportateur mondial de viande de volaille à la puissance agricole émergente, le Brésil, dont la forte croissance des exportations (+ 24,4 % ; + 496.000 tec) lui a permis de contrôler cette année pas moins de 38 % du commerce mondial.Par ailleurs, quatre pays fournissent 90% des exportations mondiales de viande de volaille: les Etats -Unis (36%), le Brésil (31%), l'UE (15%) et la Thaïlande (8%). L'année 2005 devrait offrir de meilleures perspectives sur le plan mondial, sauf si l'épidémie de grippe aviaire en Asie du Sud-Est se développe à nouveau. La production mondiale pourrait croître de 3,3 % en raison de la reprise de la croissance de la production dans les pays affectés par la grippe aviaire en 2004 ainsi que des bonnes performances des gros pays producteurs (Brésil, Etats-Unis).Les perspectives d'accroissement des échanges internationaux de viande de volaille demeurent également favorables (+ 6 %) dans un contexte de reprise progressive après la crise de la grippe aviaire en Asie du sud-est. La croissance devrait surtout bénéficier aux deux premiers exportateurs mondiaux : le Brésil (dont la croissance des exportations pourrait néanmoins ralentir) et les Etats-Unis encouragés notamment par la faiblesse du dollar 2 .L'Afrique subsaharienne représente à peine 1,5% de la production mondiale de poulet (FAO, 2003).De même, elle ne pèse pratiquement rien dans les échanges mondiaux: seule l'Afrique du Sud développe l'exportation de volaille entière ou découpée, essentiellement à destination des pays voisins (la Tanzanie notamment). En revanche, l'Afrique centrale et de l'Ouest importe de plus en plus de volaille en provenance de l'UE, essentiellement sous forme de découpes congelées.Dans la zone CMA/AOC, la production avicole associe tradition et modernité mais reste largement extensive et peu productive.Filière avicole africaine : les repèresAu plan des principaux pôles de la production sur le territoire de la CMA/AOC (forces et faiblesses)  L'aviculture a commencé un développement dans certains pays, représentés de la 3 ième catégorie (pays à forte production de volailles et d'oeufs de la zone CMA/AOC) où cohabitent différentes formes de production : une aviculture extensive et une aviculture moderne. Ce secteur en plein expansion est aujourd'hui confronté à un sérieux problème de compétitivité qui peut à long terme être préjudiciable à la filière.Au Burkina, l'aviculture extensive ou traditionnelle reste de loin la forme de production dominante.Deux grands systèmes sont présents dans la plupart des pays de l'AOC : un système extensif traditionnel avec une faible productivité et un cycle de production de plusieurs mois et un système moderne hautement productive avec un cycle de production très court.L'aviculture extensive qui représente près de 70% de l'élevage avicole, est généralement gérée par les femmes. Il s'agit d'une production à charges nulles dans laquelle les volailles bénéficient d'un abri de fortune et sont nourris avec des restes ou se débrouillent toutes seules pour couvrir leurs besoins alimentaires. Elle fournit des sujets de poids faible et une production d'oeufs irrégulière servant beaucoup plus au renouvellement de la population qu'à la consommation. Malgré la faible productivité, elle contribue à la formation des revenus en milieu rural et à la couverture des besoins en protéines en particulier lors de cérémonies ou de préparation de mets destinés aux étrangers.L'importance de ce secteur dans certains pays à justifié le choix de ce secteur comme pouvant contribuer à la sécurité alimentaire : c'est ainsi qu'au Burkina, au Sénégal, au Nigeria, en République Centrafricaine, l'Etat participe activement à l'amélioration des performances de ce secteur avec l'appui de la FAO (PSSA : Programme Spécial de Sécurité Alimentaire). Il s'agit entre autres de développer le secteur par :  l'amélioration de l'habitat de la volaille ;  la fourniture des aliments ;  la limitation des pertes occasionnées par les épizooties de peste aviaire ;  le renforcement des capacités des populations pour ce type d'élevage ;  l'augmentation de la productivité à travers l'introduction de gènes : mise à disposition de coqs de races importées ;  la diversification des volailles élevées en intégrant la pintade, la dinde et les canards ; etc.Avec la crise avicole qui traverse de nombreux pays, la production de l'aviculture traditionnelle a encore un avenir dans les pays africains.L'aviculture moderne est plutôt urbaine ou périurbaine, elle contribue à couvrir la demande urbaine en poulets et oeufs. Dans ce système une diversité de producteurs : les populations élevées vont de 50-100 sujets (semi intensif) à 20 000 sujets (intensif) et bénéficient d'un logement spécifique et d'un apport conséquent en aliment, eau et en prophylaxie sanitaire et médicale.La plupart des producteurs investissent dans ce secteur pour gagner de l'argent, ainsi une veille constante existe sur les dépenses et recettes qui conditionnent la rentabilité et la durabilité.Elle est apparue récemment dans certains pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest du centre (Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroun, Sénégal où elle assure 40% de la production domestique). Son développement engendre de nombreux emplois, directs et indirects : élevages de reproducteurs, couvoirs industriels, usines de fabrication d'aliments, fermes de production, abattoirs, etc. Elle est tournée vers l'extérieur pour son approvisionnement en poussins, aliments et produits vétérinaires. Cependant, des élevages de reproducteurs et des couvoirs se sont développés particulièrement dans les pays à forte production de l'AOC. Ce type de production semble connaître un recul du fait des problèmes de commercialisation.Dans la filière traditionnelle, les principaux acteurs sont les femmes qui présentent leurs produits au niveau des marchés primaires. Cette production est rachetée par d'autres femmes pour la reconstitution de leur élevage ou par les marchands urbains.La filière moderne est plus complexe avec une diversité d'acteurs : les importateurs et vendeurs d'intrants (poussins, aliments, médicaments vétérinaires, matériel d'élevage, etc.), viennent ensuite les producteurs de divers calibres, les ouvriers impliqués dans la transformation (abattages et plumage, etc.) et les revendeurs de produits avicoles.Dans la plupart des pays existent des organisations interprofessionnelles de défense des intérêts des acteurs :  Fédération des Acteurs de la Filière Avicole (FAFA) et l'Union Nationale des Acteurs de la Filière Avicole (UNAFA) au Sénégal ;  Le Groupement National des Aviculteurs de Mauritanie (GNAM) ;  Associations Nationale des Groupements d'Aviculteurs Centrafricains (ANGAC) ; etc.Des structures ont été mises en place par les pouvoirs publics pour appuyer la profession (Maison de l'Aviculture au Sénégal, Maison du petit élevage en RCA; etc.)Au plan des importations extérieurs au territoire de la CMA/AOC En Afrique de l'Ouest et centrale, aucun pays ne produit assez de volailles pour atteindre l'autosuffisance. Pour satisfaire les besoins de la population, les produits avicoles importés essentiellement d'Europe inondent les marchés des pays africains. Plus de la moitié de ces produits sont constitués de découpes de volailles.Depuis 1996, dans un grand nombre de pays africains, les importations de poulet congelé explosent.Tableau 4 : Évolution des importations de volailles en tonne Face à cette détérioration de la filière avicole locale, les organisations professionnelles avicoles, appuyées par des ONG cherchent tant bien que mal à corriger les effets pervers de ces importations en sollicitant l'appui des services publics qui prélèvent des taxes et ont du mal à arbitrer entre les différents acteurs : les consommateurs qui veulent des produits à moindre coût, les importateurs à la recherche de profit et les producteurs en détresse.Le Nigeria et Cameroun restent en avance en ce qui concerne la protection de la filière locale, c'est ainsi qu'au Cameroun une mesure de suspension temporaire des importations a été prise au 3ème trimestre de l'année 2004 et la filière reprend du souffle.Les tarifs douaniers sur les importations de produits avicoles ne sont pas assez forts pour relever le prix des produits importés : au Sénégal, ils sont passés de 55% en 1998, à 20% en 2002. Les pays de l'AOC peuvent appliquer des taux plafonds mais ont des marges de manoeuvre limitées en raison du processus d'intégration qui favorise l'application de TEC : Tarif Extérieur Commun.Au plan des échanges intérieurs sur le territoire de la CMA/AOC Les échanges entre pays de l'AOC restent marginaux :Le Sénégal exporte des poussins dans la sous région ouest africaine et réexporte des volailles et morceaux de découpe en Afrique de l'ouest et en Afrique centrale.En Afrique centrale, le Cameroun se positionne en leader du secteur avicole et assure des exportations sur la RCA, le Tchad et le Congo.Il faut également signaler des importations incontrôlées entre pays africains (cas de flux de la Mauritanie vers le Sénégal).Ces échanges concernent également les poussins d'un jour, à ce titre les pays à forte production dotés de couvoirs alimentent les producteurs des pays voisins en poussins. Des flux commerciaux de poussins sont observés à partir du Sénégal, du Cameroun et du Nigeria.La demande en produits alimentaires est en augmentation avec les taux actuels de croissance démographique et d'urbanisation. Cette pression démographique est visible dans les grandes villes de l'Afrique de l'ouest et du centre et accentue la pauvreté urbaine.4.1. En amont de la productionDans l'ensemble de la zone CMA/AOC, la croissance démographique et urbaine induit une augmentation de la consommation de viande blanche face au renchérissement des prix de la viande rouge et une forte demande de produits avicoles, ce qui autorise une bonne marge de progression de la filière avicole.Dans les pays à forte production de volaille de la zone (Sénégal, Cameroun, Côte d'ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, etc.), les acquis suivants peuvent être capitalisés :existence de plusieurs couvoirs dans les pays à forte production ; -présence d'aviculteurs et d'exploitants privés dans les grandes villes et d'organisations interprofessionnelles regroupant les acteurs de la filière ; -maîtrise des techniques de production avicole avec le développement de la privatisation des services vétérinaires ; -certaines zones de l'AOC présentent des conditions agro-écologiques favorables au développement de la production de maïs, principal intrant dans l'alimentation des volailles ; -disponibilité des matières premières et possibilité de fabrication d'aliments sur place en particulier en Afrique centrale où les conditions climatiques sont favorables à la production agricole.Dans la filière traditionnelle, les atouts suivants peuvent être exploités :existence d'une demande spécifique avec la montée du consumérisme; -présences de races rustiques et adaptées ; -etc.Concernant l'aviculture villageoise, des contraintes majeures pèsent sur la filière : précarité des conditions d'habitat et d'hygiène entraîne des pertes importantes (retards de croissance des jeunes, désertion des nids par les couveuses...) d'une part et exacerbe les mortalités d'origine pathologique d'autre part ;  absence de prophylaxie conduisant à des pertes de 75 à 100% des élevages villageois : la maladie de New Castle est la plus redoutée des producteurs;  insuffisance de l'alimentation tant en quantité qu'en qualité ;  la faiblesse de la formation, de l'information et de la sensibilisation des producteurs contribue à les maintenir dans un état d'arriération par rapport aux techniques améliorées de production;  l'inexistence ou l'inadaptation de matériels d'élevage (mangeoires, éleveuses...) ; L'aviculture moderne est confrontée à des contraintes, alimentaires, sanitaires, financières, etc.Contraintes alimentaires L'alimentation qui représente plus de la moitié des coûts de production en aviculture moderne n'est pas maîtrisée et reste tributaire de la production de maïs qui en est sa principale composante, mais aussi du prix et de la qualité des intrants (prémix). Ces produits sont généralement importés. A cela s'ajoute le fait que les unités de production d'aliments qui existent, sont généralement en mauvais état.Les contraintes sanitaires sont de plusieurs ordres :-Insuffisance de couverture sanitaire pour la volaille locale ; -Les Salmonelloses, les coccidioses, la maladie de Gumboro et la maladie de New Castle sont les dominantes pathologiques mais l'application adéquate des programmes de prophylaxie limite leur ampleur. -Les produits vétérinaires sont généralement importés et sont parfois en rupture ; etc.Les banques considèrent l'aviculture comme un secteur à risque accentué par le manque de formation des producteurs, ce qui explique les difficultés d'accès au crédit pour ces derniers.La multiplicité des organisations ne facilite pas la tâche aux pouvoirs publics qui ne trouvent pas d'interlocuteurs valables pour poser et régler les problèmes de la filière.Cette activité permet de dégager des revenus et reste accessible à toutes les couches de la population en milieu rural comme en milieu urbain.L'aviculture traditionnelle présente l'avantage de ne pas être capitalistique.possibilités d'améliorer les races locales avec des races importées : amélioration génétique couplée au renforcement de la protection physique et sanitaire ; le métissage avec des races à haut ; -coûts de production faible à nuls ; etc.Les contraintes de l'aviculture traditionnelle sont essentiellement liées :  aux habitats en banco utilisés à de fortes densité (12 sujets / m2) ;  au faible potentiel génétique des races locales ;Concernant l'aviculture moderne les contraintes relevées portent sur :-les coûts élevés des intrants : poussins, aliments, produits vétérinaires; -la rupture fréquente d'intrants : poussins, produits vétérinaires, aliments volailles, etc.-Faibles revenus des populations et étroitesse du marché ; -taxation appliquée dans certains pays (Cameroun) : 10 FCFA par poulet et 0,5 FCFA par oeuf, 12 % de patente, taxe à l'exploitation 0,1 % ; -Inexistence d'abattoir pour la volaille ; -Concurrence des oeufs et produits congelés importés d'Europe ; -Difficultés de commercialisation : inexistence de contrat de vente.Le développement de cette filière représente un enjeu majeur du fait de la croissance urbaine entraînant celle des besoins en produits avicoles. A ce titre, les axes d'intervention doivent porter sur les systèmes de production et l'environnement de la production.Pour ce qui est des systèmes de production, la filière est dominée par le secteur traditionnel dont l'augmentation de la contribution à la couverture de la demande doit être le premier axe stratégique d'intervention. Il s'agira d'améliorer les performances de ce secteur par le renforcement de la protection sanitaire et l'amélioration de l'habitat et de l'alimentation. L'amélioration des races locales par l'introduction de races exotiques plus performantes peut améliorer la productivité de ce secteur.L'environnement de la production concerne surtout la filière moderne qui garde des chances de développement en particulier dans les pays à forte production. Il sera important : De faciliter l'émergence d'une interprofession avicole assurant les négociations entre acteurs et pouvoirs publics ;  De développer le réseau d'approvisionnement en intrants dont le plus important reste le maïs; l'indisponibilité et la cherté de ce produit expliquent le coût élevé de l'aliment. Dans un court terme il faudra envisager d'exonérer de droits de porte les intrants mais aussi promouvoir l'augmentation de la capacité de stockage et de la production du maïs;  De limiter les importations de produits congelés ou d'appliquer les taux plafonds ;  De développer le secteur de la transformation (abattoir, découpe, conditionnement, etc.) ;  D'appuyer les producteurs en matière de commercialisation ;  de mettre en place un système spécifique de financement de la filière, etc.  La filière avicole dans la zone CMAAOC associe un secteur moderne et un secteur traditionnel. Le secteur traditionnel qui reste le plus important surtout en milieu rural, participe à la formation des revenus des ménages ruraux et contribue à la couverture de la demande en produits avicoles. Au Burkina, il reste le principal pourvoyeur de produits avicoles. Ses performances peuvent être améliorées par l'introduction de matériel génétique, la formation des acteurs et une meilleure conduite de l'élevage en terme d'alimentation, d'habitat et de suivi sanitaire.Concernant la filière moderne, elle garde une marge de progression mais de nombreuses contraintes pèsent sur son développement. Il faudra envisager des actions en faveur de l'environnement socio-économique de la filière par l'organisation des acteurs en interprofession, l'amélioration de l'accès des producteurs aux intrants (aliments, poussins, matériel d'élevage et produits vétérinaires, etc.). Concernant l'alimentation, le développement de la production de maïs qui reste le principal intrant alimentaire est une nécessité, à défaut il faudra lui trouver un substitut, pour arriver à baisser le coût de l'alimentation. Ce secteur reste fortement menacé par les importations de produits congelés qui inondent les marchés des pays de la zone à forte production. A ce niveau des mesures de limitation des importations et de sauvegarde de la filière locale s'imposent à court terme mais dans le long terme, la véritable bataille contre le poulet congelé, c'est le développement de la filière par un mécanisme de financement adapté pour permettre la valorisation de la production par la transformation de la production (abattoirs, conditionnement), et la contractualisation (contrats commerciaux, échanges à l'intérieur de la zone CMAAOC), etc. ","tokenCount":"3496"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"673b7289592c1fab2e1f40acaf4a36be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d00e9c9-a8ed-4fa8-8bfc-9b95d5373ebe/retrieve","id":"197444270"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5d50df84-b9a1-476e-811e-4b6e58a4a3b5","pagecount":"2","content":"en Latino América en la generación, provisión y uso de información agroclimática. Alrededor de instituciones participan a través de 200 agricultores las MTAs en Colombia y Honduras.330 mil con información sobre clima y/o el manejo de cultivos a través de Se está llegando a Usando un análisis de 10 años de datos de clima y cultivos conectados a datos de pronóstico estacional, en 2014 evitaron pérdidas superiores a los siguiendo el consejo de agricultores arroceros colombianos US $3,6 millones en agricultura climáticamente inteligente. Las evaluaciones de riesgos climáticos, utilizando una combinación de métodos participativos con modelos de cultivos y clima han recibido herramientas de modelación de cultivos, ganadería y/o clima para cultivos básicos incluyendo arroz, frijol, maíz, banano, café y ganado.Ayudamos a tomar mejores decisiones en la agricultura, utilizando métodos e instrumentos innovadores y de vanguardia en la ciencia de modelación, con un enfoque en los efectos de la variabilidad y el cambio climático.Un equipo interdisciplinario de investigadores trabaja en el desarrollo y la implementación de herramientas de modelación para ayudar a predecir el comportamiento del clima, los cultivos y el ganado, y los sistemas económicos. Esta información ayuda a evaluar escenarios futuros y determinar respuestas efectivas a desafíos futuros a nivel de granja, sub-nacional, nacional y regional.¿Qué hacemos?La modelación agroclimática se refiere a la creación, mejora e implementación de modelos para crear pronósticos estacionales de tiempo y proyecciones de largo plazo del cambio climático para su uso en modelamiento de cultivos. Este tipo de modelación recopila los datos generados por los modelos de clima y cultivos y muestra escenarios futuros de cómo la economía podría verse afectada, por ejemplo, por un aumento de la temperatura y una disminución en el rendimiento de las cosechas. Algunos modelos son: IMPACT, Surplus y GTAP.La modelación de cultivos y ganado requiere de información precisa del clima (presente y futuro) para comprender cómo se comportarán los diferentes cultivos en condiciones climáticas específicas. Algunos modelos son: ORYZA modelo de arroz, DSSAT (contiene más de 20 cultivos incluyendo nuestro propio modelo MANIHOT para la yuca), GLAM, modelos de distribución de especies, modelos de índices agroclimáticos.Los modelos nos permiten trabajar y encontrar soluciones para problemas complicados y comprender sistemas complejos. Son herramientas que nos ayudan a predecir el comportamiento del clima, los cultivos o los sistemas económicos. La modelación socioeconómica presenta escenarios que contribuye a la toma de decisiones y ayuda a crear soluciones para el futuro.Los modelos de cultivos y ganadería ayudan a determinar la productividad bajo una variedad de condiciones de manejo del suelo, el clima y la agronomía.","tokenCount":"424"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b394bb50d16efc1df1b82faf5b44063f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88b93605-f660-464e-b588-2561e7055e6e/retrieve","id":"2003717398"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1841e99c-8548-495d-a8c0-16d37a7aaed9","pagecount":"12","content":"• The exchange of plant genetic resources is crucial in addressing current food security challenges, climate resilience, and agricultural sustainability.• Nevertheless, concerns exist regarding the mechanisms for a fair benefit-sharing distribution. Initiatives like the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the Nagoya Protocol aim to address this concern. But have they succeeded?• After two failed attempts, in 2024, the Treaty was ratified in Colombia. What are the potential impacts of this ratification?The ITPGRA• Facilitated regulated access to material from 64 species between food and forages.• Since 2009, the benefit-sharing fund has supported 80 projects, with 18 based in Latin America and the Caribbean.Case Studies Analysis:• Surplus Analysis: Estimating net economic benefits (producer and consumer gains).• Estimated Economic Value of Production Losses: Market value estimation under different scenarios.• Literature Review: Gathering qualitative insights and identifying historical precedents.• Focused on past experiences and current challenges to estimate the treaty's potential impact, as direct effects are not yet measurable.• Data sources: FAOSTAT, PestDisplace, Indexbox, International Reports.• Cassava: The 9 th most relevant crop globally, and the 2 nd among root and tuber crops in Colombia.• Case study: Corpoica Thai (Rayong 60), a variety developed in Thailand and introduced in Colombia in 2004.• This case demonstrates the value of international research partnerships in improving cost-effectiveness. • This sector contributed around 7.2% (969 million dollars) of the 2023 agricultural GDP (Augura, 2023).• FOC TR4 is a recent threat affecting the variety Cavendish, the most widely used globally.• A similar situation took place in the mid-20th century due to Panama disease.• Brachiarias species, native to Africa, were successfully introduced in Colombia; by 2019, they represented 32.2% of the forage area.• Recent studies have found evidence that the use of introduced pastures in Colombian significantly increases both stocking rates and revenues (Martinez et al. 2024) 3. Forages: From Africa to the Americas Alliance Bioversity CIAT Genebank -ICA• Between 1978 and 2020, over 64,000 genetic materials were distributed in Colombia, including rice, forages, cassava, and beans, with the majority coming from international sources.• The absence of treaty ratification has limited exchanges with foreign institutions, affecting AGROSAVIA's capacity to store seeds in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault and impacting the conservation of national seeds. Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD)• CBSD poses a serious threat to the primary food source for many rural households in Africa.• Identification of cassava varieties from South America with natural resistance to CBSD offers hope for developing resistant strains.• This case highlights the critical role of genetic material exchange in combating agricultural diseases and ensuring crop resilience. ","tokenCount":"428"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e08018ea7b6f70c96ed9288fb975a5e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b8907308-5f49-4069-a4cc-f53545fbc32f/retrieve","id":"-8418458"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a79c687-ac47-4ef4-9167-2ff43b84224c","pagecount":"22","content":"assistance from university technical staff, The club is self-fínaneed largely throllgh Ihe payrnent of membcr fces and fund-raisíllg evcllts.Although TIP ís a young organization, it is already showing Ihat farmcrs can evaJuate many different taro cultivars and selee! those they prefer. The membership ofthe program has expanded rapidly in its fírst yeaL The program has improved dialogue between researchers, extension staff, and farmers. Evaluation of cultívars is stíll underway and a considerable amount of quantitative and qualitative data have been compiled, This will be analyzed shortly, There are early indíeations that growers are selecting a range of cultivars. Taro Fifí has been included as Ihe preferred resistant cultivar lo date. It is interestíng to note thal sorne growers are showing preferences for cultivars (Toantal, Pwetepwet, Pastora) that were evaluated by MAFFM at the same time as taro Fili but which were not recommended or wídely promoted. Both Pwetepwet and Pastora were previously believed to be of poor quality, although they both have good levels of resistance to TLB and they are both high yielding. One farmer has observed that the quality improves ifharvest ís delayed for a few months. The same farmer has also reported that he likes Pastora despite its tendency to be susu (meaningwet, a quality not liked by Samoans). He removes the top (wet) halfand uses the bottom part ofthis high-yielding cultivar.There has been considerable confusjon in Samoa about Palau cultivars. This has arisen as a result of unauthorized imports ofbatches of rnixed cultivars from nearby American Samoa. There are 12 dífferent cultivars from Palau in Samoa. Sorne are good quality and sorne are considered wet. TIP has been working to address this confusion, and gradually those cultivars of good quality are being identífied. Early indícations are that growers prefer Palau 20 and 10. Reports from American Samoa show that both Palau 20 and lOare most preferred by growers there. Many of the growers have experimented with the harvest date of the Palau cultivars and report that this can sígnificantly influence the corm quaJity. These findings are important. Sorne Palau cultivars are found to be wet ífharvested early (five to six months), but this can be overcome, in some cases, by delaying harvest untíl seven to eight months. Research station evaluations oftaro usually occur after six months.As a result of the impact of TIP on Upulo, MAFFM have initiated a similar TIP program on the other main island of Savai' i. In May 2000, nine extension officers from Savaii spent time on Upulo visiting farmers involved with TIP and took part in the May monthly meeting to observe how the club operated. This should ensure lhat farmers on that island get quicker access to a range of resistant taros.There are sorne aspects of the USP taro•breeders' club that make it different from other clubs like the one at the Universidad Autonoma de Chapingo in Mexico. The University of fue South Pacific ís a regional university, whereas the Universidad is a national universíty. USP draws a student body from over 12 individual counlrÍes dispersed in the Pacific Ocean. This poses one problem for a university breeders' club but it abo has an advantage. Robinson (1997) highlights the positive interaction that may arise between a breeding club and farmer participation schemes. In fue Universidad situation, students come from sUITounding villages. Students can return lO fuese villages with the progeny offue crosses fuey have made and carry out participatory selection with farmers on family farms. Certain selections may become potential cultivars but can also be fed back into the breeding club system to become future parents. Unfortunately, fue majority of student members of the taro-breeding club come from countries other than Samoa and quarantine and unresolved owner-ship íssues preclude taro germplasm leaving Samoa for evaluation on many family farms, The soluhon to this problem is to pool al! crosses together and evaluate seedlings as one population through the TIP programo The advantage of having members from many differen! countries is the high potentíal for similar breeding clubs lo be initíated elsewhere when students retum to their home countTÍes at the completion of studies, The club also plans a regular newsletter to maintaín contact with members who have finíshed their studíes, The breeders' club has been successful as an innovative \"hands-on\" approach to teaching and learning, but club activities place considerable demands on student time. A three-year degree means that students have a packed timetable tha! allows little time for \"extracurricular\" activitíes. One possible solutíon to this problem is a cross-credit system to the conventional degree-Ievel breedíng courses thal are taught at USP. Thís would allow students lo obtaín cross-credits for the breeding activities that they carry out as par! ofthe breeders' club. Likewise, lecturers would also accrue teaching credits fOf their involvement in the breeders' club.After rice, maize is the most important cereal crop in the rainy season for the largely tribal farmers of the Chhotanagpur plateau region of eastem India. However, maíze ís in decline and yields vary greatly from year to year. The Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi has released severa! varieties, but tribal farmers have not adopted them because of theír late maturity, which results in the common end-of-season droughts severely limiting yields. Therefore, a participatory maíze breeding program was initiated ín a collaborative project between Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, and the KlBHCO Indo-British Rainfed Farming Project (KRlBP) managed by KRlBHCO (K.rishak Bharati Co-operative).The major objective was to breed and test early-maturing and high-yielding open-pol!inated varieties and intervarietal hybrids of maize in participation with farmers. An analysís of farmers' constraints showed that farm holdings are very smal! in the area and that shallow, infertile soils on sloping lands give poor yields. The crop is large1y rainfed, and iITÍgation to mitigate the effects of drought is rarely available.Participatory rural appraísals were used lo solidt farmers' preferences in maize varieties. Farmers wanted the following:• early maturity To develop new varieties of malze, two strategies were adopted:• breeding open-pollinated composite varictiesTo breed new open-pollinated composite varieties a base population was initiated in the main season of 1997 by making nine crosses between three yellow-endospermed flint varieties (BM 1, Suwan, and Chandan 3) and three white-endospermed flint varieties (GDRM 187 from Gujarat AgriculturaJ University and KRlBP west, Gujarat [see Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volume]; Shweta, from Uttar Pradesh; and Rudarpur local, from Uttar Pradesh). The parental varieties were either farmer-preferred varieties or had complementary traits. The three yellow varieties are medium-to late-rnaturing and have a higher yield potential when water 1S not limiting than the three earlier-maturing white varieties. By 1999, the population had been randomly rnated for five cycles by using a pseudo-random hill planting plan. In each cycle, 50% ofthe plants were detasseled, and paJe yellow grains were harvested from lhe detasseled plants (Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volurne). At lhe C 3 and C 4 cyc1es, two open-pollinated (C3/98-99 and C4/99) varieties were extracted frorn the base population.The yellow-grained variety C3/98-99 was formed from deep yellow seed harvested from about 200 early-maturing, detasseled plants of lhe C 3 cycle of lhe base population in the post-rainy season of 1998-99. In the rainy season of 1999, lhe random-mating population was grown frorn these seeds. In the post-rainy season of I 999--{)0, farmers were invited lo visit the research station at Ranchi lo select desirable plants. Farmers graded them inlo three categories and the third preferences were rejected. In the rainy season of2000, lhe seIection will be repeated and the population will be tested in research station triaIs. Similar procedures were followed for variety C4/99. A white-endospermed population was also developed by bulking white grains frorn three sources: frorn selected p1ants ofthe C 4 cycle ofthe base population, frorn the C3/98-99 population grown in the rainy season of 1999, and from plants selected for rnaking the C4/99 population. The first random rnating will be carried out in the rainy season of2000, and farmers will be involved in selection before and after flowering.Intervarietal hybrids offer a faster approach to creating new varieties for farmers than generating new cornposites, but they require more complex seed rnultiplication than open-pollinated varieties. However, the seed of intervarietal hybrids is cheaper and sornewhat easier to produce than that of single-cross hybrids based on inbred lines. If intervarietal hybrids were greatly preferred, then KRIBP would attempt to produce seed within project villages, In singIe-cross hybrids, advanced generations from farrner-saved seed are considerably lower yielding tban tbe original F I generation. However, tbe advanced generations of intervarietal hybrids may still yield welL How much hybrid vigor is los! if farmers retain the seed ofhybrids is being evaluated in tbe rainy season of 2000 by using advanced open-pollinated generations from tbe F I intervarietal hybrid, Sorne farrners have preferred tbe open-pollinated varieties Suwan, BM 1, and Chandan 3 to their local varieties. These varieties, along witb Megha, a drought-tolerant and early-maturing variety from Punjab, were used as parents to produce three intervarietal hybrids in the rainy season of 1997: BM I x Suwan, BM I x Chandan 3, and Megha x Suwan.The new open-pollínated varieties developed have not yet been tested for yield on farmers' fields. However, intervarietal hybrids were tested in farmer-managed participatory-research (F AMP AR) trials in !he rainy season of 1998 as well as in research-station trials in tbe pre-rainy season of 1998-99 and the rainy season of 1999.Ofthe three hybrids tested, BM 1 x Suwan yielded tbe mos! in trials conducted in !he pre-rainy season of 1998-99 (rabIe 1). The advantage of!he intervarietal-hybrid approach is clear: the hybrid yields more !han either parent and is earlier tban tbe later, highest-yielding parent (Suwan).F AMP AR trials in tbe rainy season of 1998 showed tbe following: • Farmers preferred BMI x Suwan and Chandan x Suwan because oftbeir yellow flint grains, higher yield, medium maturity, and higher fodder yield .• Hybrid Megha x Suwan was rejected because of a high proportion ofpoorly developed and diseased plants.The two farmer-preferred hybrids were further tesled in the raíny season of 1999 al the BAu-KRlBP farm (figure 1). Hybrid BM l x Suwan, the highesl-yielding entry, yielded more Ihan both parents and was earlier Ihan the highest-yielding parent. Chandan 3 x Suwan was earlier than eilher parent, and although it yielded less than Suwan, the advantage in earliness of 19 days would mean Iha! farmers would prefer il to Suwan. Both intervarietal hybrids had cob placement equivalent lo ¡he best parenl, Suwan (high cob placement protecls from jackal damage). The intervarietal hybrids themselves are certainly promising. What now needs to be done is to look at the feasibility of their seed production-.either with village-based organizations in the development project area or, on a more commerciallevel, wíth the publicor prívate-sector organizations.How important this will be will depend, in par!, on how well the íntervarietal hybríds compete with open-pollinated varieties derived from the composite.Bíhar, a typical eastem Indian state, has 5,4 million ha planted to rice, with yields of, on average, onIy 1.2 t ha-1 of grain. More than half ofthe rice area is rainfed, inc1uding the drought-prone, upland ecosystem. In tbis ecosystem, most farmers grow traditional varieties and productivity is very low. Most farmers prefer to grow traditional varieties. Many of the varieties bred and released by the formal system, both nationalIy and at the state level, have no! been adopted by farmers because they lack traits important to farmers (Virk and Bhasker Raj 1996). However, variety Kalinga I1I, which was promoted by the project in its target area covering mne districts ofBihar, West Bengal, and Orissa, has severa! advantages-excellent grain quality and extreme earliness, which allows it to escape end-of-season droughts. However, because it has weak straw, a major objective of the participatory plant-breeding (PPB) program was to breed varieties to replace Kalinga I1I that díd not have this wealrness.The breeding strategy was to cross a popular, locally adapted cultivar (in this case, Kalínga ill) with exotic, high-yielding cultivars from a centralized breeding program (Witcombe et al. 1996). Varieties IR64 and IR36 were chosen as the high-yielding cultivars since both are grown in large areas in eastem India. A strategy of a few crosses with large populations was used (Witcombe and Virk, in press).At the request ofthe Centre for Arid Zone Studies (CAZS), crosses were made at the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI), in the Philippines. Because only a few crosses were used, more resources could be devoted to each cross, so large population sizes and many progeny rows were employed in lhe breeding programo A large F 2 population was raised al Ranchi in lhe main season of 1997 and the F3 was grown in the off-season at the Central Rice Research Instítute (CRRI), Cuttack, in 1997-98. In the main season of 1998, the crop was grown at lhe collaboratíve research farm of Birsa Agricultural University (BAU) and the KRIBHCO Indo-British Raínfed Farmíng Projeet (KRIBP), Ranehi. Each year since then, two crops have been grown. We describe lhe breeding strategy for the Kalinga 1II x IR64 cross. Two participatory methods were used; they varied according to the main type of particípation employed, Le., consultative or collaboratíve (Joshi and Witcombe 1998).In the consultatíve approach, breeders grew all of the tríals on a research farm wíth moderate applícatíon ofpurch<lSed ínputs. Farmers from villages where lhe KRIBP project was operatíng were brought to the farm to make selectíons. Farmers visited the BAU-KR!BP research station farm on two occasions. There were two groups of farmers: one of 23 men and one of 12 women. F armers observed 177 bulk-pedigree lines at lhe F 4 generation in 10 m 2 plots and 400 single-row plots of2.5 m in length. Farmers selected plots for one offour ecosystems (uplands, medium uplands, medium lowlands, and lowlands) using labels offour colors. Farmers selected 68 plots; and breeders, 23. Of these, 20 were selected by bolh farmers and breeders.The two most preferred entries-Ashoka 228 and Ashoka 238-were multiplied in the off-season 1998-99 at CRRI, Cuttack, and were submitted to formal trials at the F 6 generation in 1999 along with anolher variety derived from the same cross, Ashoka 200F (see below).In lhe collaborative-breeding program, farmers grew segregating generations in theír own fields.Although we believe lhat lhe F 2 generation is usually too early a generation for farmers lo make selectíonefficiently, given lhe availability of seed and as an experiment, two farmers were given F 2 seed in 1997. Neilher farmer, one in West Bengal and one in Orissa, continued with the population. The F3 generation was grown ¡;¡t BAU in lhe main season and further advanced in the off•season of 1997-1998. Ten kilograms ofthe F 4 bulk seed so obtained was given to four farmers in lhe main season of 1998. One farmer in Mehru village, Rajendra Singh, grew 2 kg of F 4 bulk seed and selected earlier-maturing plants of similar phenotype that had slender grains. This gave rise to Ashoka 200F. In Thabrah village, West Bengal, Sakya Singh Mahto, grew 2 kg of the F 4 bulk in 1998 and ils further generatíon ín 1999. He selecled for tan and dwarf types under medium land situatíons. Wíthin lhe tall and dwarf bulks, he produced early and late bulks. These bulks wíll be tested in lhe main season of 2000 on lhe research statíon. The olher two farmers did no! pursue lhe populatíons further.The three Ashoka entries were tested in the All India Co-ordinated Rice Improvement Trials, IVT E (DS), al BAU, Ranchi, in lhe maín season of 1999 (figure 1). They were also tested in another trial al the BAU-KRIBP farm, Ranchi, under direct-seeded conditions. In bolh trials, al! Ashoka entries yielded considerably more lhan Kalinga III (an average ¡nerease of over 50%). Two of them were as early to flower as Kalinga III. Fanner-selected Ashoka 200F was the best entry in the Al! India Co-ordinated trial at Ranchi and the second best for yield in the BAU-KRIBP tria!.A paral!el program was followed for the Kalinga III x IR36 cross. The F 4 bulks of this cross haye been named Sudha and are being eyaluated in fonnal and fanner-field trials in the main season of 2000.  In addition to the two crosses ofKalinga III x IR64 and Kalinga III x IR36, other crosses haye been made for participatory plant breeding (PPB). Modified bulk-population breeding is being used in the cross Kalinga III x Vandana, and the F 6 bulk populations will be grown in the main season of 2000.Eyen though, so far, the products of only a single cross, Kalinga III x IR64, have been tested in fonnal trials, progress has been considerable. A yield increáse of 50% oyer the yariety targeted for replacement, Kalinga !II, in only four years is an annual rate of gain far in excess of mos! conventional breeding programs. Moreover, the gain wíU reaeh farmers more quiekly. The gains have been made without any loss in the quality of grain shape and, in two ofthree cases, without any inerease in length of maturity. It is not possible to apportion these gaíns into the novel components of the breeding program, and it is over simplistic to say that the díffercnce is due to participatory methods.Ihis is only one component, since the hreeding program also employed a strategy of low eross nmnber, high population size, with selection in the target environment, or one very similar to it (Witcomhe, Joshi, and Subedi, this volume).Ihe true sueeess, or otherwise, of the breeding program awaits the results of collaborative participation (the testing ofnew varieties in farmers' fields in the main season of2000), when traits other than yield and maturity will be evaluated. However, even iflhese entries prove to be unacceptable, the high population sizes used mean that there are rnany more entries frorn lhe sarne eross that ean be tested. Ihese entries, like Ashoka 200F, yield more than Kalinga III and have retained the des irable slender grains and early maturity ofKalinga III.Participatory Crop Improvement in Maize in Gujarat, India s.N. Goya/, A. Joshi, and J.R. WitcombeThe Gramin Vikas Trust (formerly the KRIBHCO Indo-British Rainfed Farming Project [KRIBP]) manages a participatory-development project in rainfed areas ofwestern India.1t is financed by the UK. Department for International Development (DFID) and the Government of India. Initial surveys at lhe project planning stage showed that, in cornrnon with many marginal environments in India, lhe adoption of improved cultivars by the resource-poor farmers of lhe project area was extremely low. At lhe inception ofthe project, a program ofparticipatory varietal selection (PVS) was planned. The methods ofPVS employed (Joshi and Witcombe 1996) were designed to identify and overcome the constraints lhat caused farmers to continue to grow landraces. In lhe first three years of lhe project, PVS programs were conducted with several crops, including rice, maize, chickpea, black gram, and pigeonpea. Ti].e PVS program in maize identified varieties lhat were liked by farmers, but none ofthem were suitable for the most cornrnon agricultural environments oflhe project area. Given lhe shortcomings ofthe PVS program, a participatory plant-breeding (PPB) program was initiated early in the project. This paper describes sorne of this programoIn the past, efforts to breed white-endosperm maize have been largely, or even entirely, dependent on lhe progeny of crosses between white-endosperm parents. However, since most maize-breeding programs have concentrated on yellow maize, lhe diversity and yielding ability of yellow maize parents is higher. It is, therefore, desirable that yellow-grained parents be used when breeding white-grained maize. Crossing white and yellow endosperm maize in lhe breeding ofwhite maize is reasonably straightforward because grain color is a highJy heritable trait, affected by xenia (i.e., the pollen genotype is apparent in the seed in the maize cob), which makes the traíl even easier lO select. Not only is access Ihcn gained lo superior yellow maize as parents, bu! crosses between relatively unrelated yellow and white maize varieties create a very broad-based population.Parents were chosen on the basis of adaptatíon to the project area in PVS trials (table 1), Ihe results of which are surnmarized in Joshi and Witcombe (1998). In all cases, Ihe varieties were within the maturity range of Ihe maize grown by furmers in the project area. Selection was done in an appropriate envrronment: low-fertility fields under management typical of local farmers. The traits selected for were those identified by farmers. In sorne of the later generations, furmers were invited to carry out mass selection in Ihe populations. Early in the breeding program, farmers were given Ihe composite to evaluate in Iheir fields, and as soon as varietíes were produced' from the composite, they were included in PVS trials.Several white-endosperm and yellow-endosperm varieties were produced from the composite by selection for grain color afier randorn mating was completed. Three white-endosperm varieties, GDRM 185, GDRM 186,andGDRM 187, were tested in formal trialsandon farmers' fields in participatory trials.GDRM 187 was bred as an extra-early variety ofrnaize. Extra-early varieties, such as Chandan Safed 2, can play an important role in the farming system, particularly for growing in rows Ihat alternate with olher crops. Chandan Safed 2 had been appreciated by farmers in Ihe participatory trials, particularly for intercropping with pigeonpea, as Ihe maize could be harvested before it had a significant competitive effect upon the pigeonpea crop. Moreover, early varieties can escape end-of-season drought and produce a harvest al Ihe time when grain is se arce, thereby fetching a high price. It was assumed Ihat Chandan Safed 2 could be improved because it was a direct introduction from South America. GDRM 187 was bred from al) six parents (table 1), but in Ihe third generation of random mating, selection was made for plants that had Chandan Safed 2 as a maternal grandparent, and these lines were backcrossed to Chandan Safed 2.The white-grained maize varieties were tested by Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) in the system of state trials that is used to identify varieties for release. The mean performance of these entries was superior for grain yield by 7%-29% (depending on the variety) in a multi-year, multilocational trial to lhat ofGujarat Makka I (GM 1), a variety that out-yields the most widely grown locallandrace by 10% for grain. They also silked two to six days earlier than GM l.In lhe rainy season (kharif) 1997, GDRM 185 and GDRM 187 were tested in farmer-managed participatory-research (F AMP AR) trials in Itawa and Bihar (Madhya Pradesh); Smjumi, Bar, and Katarani Palli (Gujarat); and Khundini Rupa, Mathura Khali, and Kunda (Rajasthan). Focus-group discussions showed that both varieties were much preferred by farmers over the local varieties.Both were perceived to be earlier than the local varieties (GDRM 187 particularly so) and to be higher yielding. GDRM 187 was reported lO have much better grain quality than the most widely grown local variety, and GDRM 185 was reported to have somewhat better grain. Both varieties were reported to have fewer plants lhat failed to produce cobs, more plants with two cobs, larger cobs, and, unlike the local varieties, cobs that were filled to the tipo In kharif1998 GDRM 187 was tested in three villages in Gujarat and one in Rajasthan (figure 1). Yield increases in farmers' fields were higher in percentage terms lhan those found in higher yielding research station trials. Overall, GDRM 187 was the variety most liked by farmers. Like GDRM 185 and GDRM 186, it yielded more than the local varieties, but it had the added advantage ofbeing significantly earlier to mature. In addition, farmers cornmented that its cobs were tightl y and completely enclosed by the husk, reducing insect attacks, and they al so cornmented on lhe superior quality of its grain. •,i cJ ''0. The PVS in maize was nol very successful. Perhaps Ihis is nol surprising since mosl oflhe varieties that were tesled were not bred in Ihe target environment. Gujaral Makka 1, the only cultivar tha! was bred in the area, was selected from the locallandrace \"Farm Sameri.\" Although this selection was successful in producing a statislically higher-yielding variety in tríals, the difference was insufficient. On farmers' fields ¡Is 10% yield advantage was not noticed by farmers.Even a PVS program that does not identífY highly successful varieties is of use. In Ihis case, it enabled target traits to be idenlified-for example, the preference for whíte grsín and extreme earliness. Mosl important, it a1Iowed the ídentification of parental genotypes.Biggs (1989) classified participation inlo four types, two of which are collaborative and consultative participation. Collaborative participation by farmers mass seleeting in the populalions in their own fields was attempted, bul failed. It was difficult for farmers to preven! cross-pollination of the composite with locally grown material by, for example, planting the erop in an isolated plor. Farmers were reluctant lo mass seleet by uprooting undesirable plants because ofthe IOS5 ofyield this would entaiL The allemative of delasseling undesirable plants and rejecting them al harvest lime would be possible but difficult However, the breeding program did involve consultative participation-farmers were involved in the identification ofparental material and target traits, and in the evaluations of the breeding generations on the research farm. Of majar importance was the . decentralization ofthe breeding programo Although selection was not in farmers ' fields,.it was in  the largel geogrsphícal area. The composite was grown under lower input levels Ihan normaIly found in a research station and cIoser to the levels used by farmers.The breeding program also had innovative aspects Ihat were not related directly lo farmer participation. Wide crosses were made between yellow-and white-endosperm maize with reselection for white. Quite elaborate designs during Ihe random mating of the composile were employed: hill planting and detasseling was done to increase the pollination between progeny of the original nine crosses and reduce sibbing within them. In the random-mating generations, grains with pale yellow were selecled to advance Ihe riext generalion. Thís color is the mos! probable phenotype ofheterozygotes and selecting for it maximized the possibility of recombination around the locus controlling grain color.It is not possible to know which component was most important in the success oflhe program--<:ollaborative selection of parents by PVS, consultative PPB, decentralization lO the target environment, or innovative breeding techníque5. However, part ofthe breeding philosophy in PPB, argued by Witcombe et aL (1996), is the need lo concentrate on ouly a few crosses or populations, which allowed the required resources for the novel leehníques used in Ihe breeding programoConventional breeding had never produced a cultivar thal was preferred by even a significant minority oflhe farmers in the projecl area, In about five years, PPB had produced al least one cultivar, GDRM 187, that was liked by most farmers for most oftheir fields. It yielded significantly more grain (about 15%-30% more) even though it was significantly earlier to flower (about one week earlier). Ihis combination ofhigher yield and earlier flowering is extremely valuable for farmers and ís nonnally a difficult combínatíon to achíeve in any maize-breedíng programo GDRM 187 al so had other advantages, including improved grain qualíty, that should íncrease íts speed of adoption and íts adoption ceiling. AH this was achieved with modest resourres, since only a single composite was created and only a few varíeties were derived from ir.In most, perhaps all, conventional breeding programs for inbred crops on research stations, breeders deal with many crosses each season. Even with fairly Iimited resources many hundreds, or even thousands, ofF 4 or Fslines can be tested. Unless there is considerable researcher input into the layout oftrials in farmers' fields, participatory plant breeding (PPB) has to employ many fewer crosses and entries than conventional or classical breeding. In farmer-designed, farmer-managed trials, each farmer usually grows only one entry (e.g., Joshi and Wítcombe 1996) and the number of particípating farmers thus límits the number of entries. However, a very large population of any entry can be grown, with líttle or no cost, or even wíth a benefit. In PPB, a farmer replaces hís or her cultivar with a population for PPB on land that would normally have been devoted to the crop. The cost ofthis replacement is any decrease in value ofthe harvest caused by the replacement and the benefit ís any increase in harvest value, In contrast, in classícal breeding all the costs of any increase in the area of the cultivated crop are borne by the breeding program. We briefly review the theoretical evidence on the number oY crosses that are required in a breeding progral11-We describe a rice breeding program in Nepal that is using a low-cross-number, hígh-population-size strategy.The optimum number of crosses required in an inbreeding crop was reviewed by Witcombe and Virk (forthcoming) and only a summary is presented here. To calculate the optimum number of crosses, crucial assumptious are required on the rate ofthe inevitable decline in the potential value of each cross as more and more crosses are made. If the decline is very significant (e.g., a few crosses can be identified as having a higher probability of giving desirable segregants than others), then only a few crosses are needed. Ifthe decline cannot be predicled, then many are required. The lack of quantitative data 10 support assumplions on the rate of decline limits Ihe role oftheory in deciding the optimum number of crosses. However, 10 recover specified genotypes, large population sizes are needed that, given a limit to ¡he overall sizc of any breeding program, willlimit the number of crosses. Whether a high-cross-number or a low-cross-number approach should be used depends greatly on the judgment of thc rescarcher as to whether the value of crosses can be predicted with any certainty. In a decentralized breeding program, the target envíronment and the requíred traíts in a finíshed variety are known, and the knowledge of exísting adapted germplasm is considerable. This allows such predietions to be made, so a low-cross-number strategy appears sensible. Many fewer eros ses than are cornmon in most breeding programs will be used, and for all of them there will be logical reasons as to why ¡he cross should have a hígh probabílíty of producing favorable segregants. There will be many fewer crosses than cornmonly suggested from theoretícal calculations that ínvariably assume there is no prior ínformatíon on the value of illIy cross, Le., that al! cr.osses are considered to have an equal chance of success (Yonezawa and Yamagata 1978;Wricke and Weber 1986;Hueho 1996).In a large-cross-number strategy, population sizes are likely to be limited to a few hundred rather than several thousand. In a low-cross-number strategy, population sizes ean be larger and increase the probability that desirable segregants tha! are an improvement over the best parent are recovered.AH that is needed is that the two parents differ significantly for an important trait (a practical certainty) at sorne point in the genome. A segregant tha! has a genome substitution from the other parent al this point will be superior, providing the sum ofthe rest ofthe genome is equal to the best parent The existence of a eros s that canno! give rise to superior segregants is theoretically impossible, although the population size required to recover desirable segregants may be impracticably large. However, ehoosing complementary parents increases the likelihood Ihat there will be a sufficiently high frequency of desirable segregants for thern to be selected.PPB is ideally suited to the strategy ofrigorously selecting parents, using a small number of crosses and employing large populatiQns. Participatory varietal selection (PVS) is the first step in selecting desirable parents. It allows local and introduced germplasm to be evaIuated using participatory approaches; it identifies candidate varieties having suitable traits and determines their acceptability to farmers.A PPB program in an inbreeding crop can start on the basis of one cross or very few crosses. Even with a low-cross-number strategy, the number of crosses eovered will gradually increase over time if one, or a few, new crosses are made each year. This will help to maintain the farmers' interests by a supply of novel germplasm and allows a continuing incorporation of new genetic material from more centraIized breeding programs.Pedigree breeding generates a large number oflines (the selection units) tha! can only be accornmodated with difficulty in a PPB program. The mosl effective rnethods keep the number of selection units to a mínimum, thus allowing one, or an acceptably low number, of selection units per farmer. However, large population sizes can be used because the marginal costs to the program of increasing population size are very low (figure 1). Hence, bulk-population breeding is ideal for PPB, in either its pure form or modified by dividing the population into sub-populations according to farmer-important traíts. Bulk-population approaches have been used with success in classicaJ breeding, e.g., Carver and Bruns (1993) report that 30% ofwheat releas es from a breeding program resulted from bu1k population breeding that took less than 8% of the resources.We are conducting a PPB program in rice, targeted at a [ange of environments in Nepal. These vary from the Terai (alluvíal, low-altítude, fiat land in the southern part ofNepal at about 150 m altitude) in both the main season (sown in June) and the chaite season (sown in February). The breedingprogram is also targeting a range of irrigaled environments up to 1500 m altitude.  , 1996). Fanners like it for Íls very short duration and, an unusual traíl for an upland rice variety, íts slender grains. Although it is an upland rice variety adapted to marginal conditions, it is widely adapted even though it was rejected from AH-India Co-ordinated Crop Improvement Program multilocational tríals. It was released for raínfed, drought-prone, cold-susceptible environments only in Orissa, on the basis of trials in that state, but is now widely grown in Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. In PVS trials, it performs extremely well as a chaíle rice in the Nepal Temí under partially irrigated condítions and can be grown as a main-season rice in the low hills ofNepal up to 1000 m under rainfed conditions.One of the erosses made at IRRI was Kalinga III x IR64. IR64 is a longer duration, high-yielding variety adapted to irrigated conditions. At one time it was the most widely grown rice genotype in the world and has occupied the majority ofthe rice-growing area in the Philippines and Indonesia. It has also been released in India forTamil Nadu but is widely grown in other states as wel!, e.g., West Bengal and Haryana. It has wide adaptability, multiple pest and disease resistance, and slender, translucent grains.It is clear that in this low-cross-number strategy, an enormous amount of information is available on the parents. Kalinga III has weak straw and a low yield potential. IR64 has complementary traits: a very high yield potential and it is highly resistant to lodging. It can also contribute pest and disease resistance to Kalinga III, even though this variety has few susceptibilities. In targeting highyield-potential environments, Kalinga III can eontribute earliness to IR64, and beca use of its extreme genetie divergenee from IR64, it is reasonable to expect transgressive segregation for yield in these environments. For the chaite season and somewhat higher-altitude, high-yield environments, Kalinga III contributes cold tolerance.In PPB, an essential part ofthe strategy of selecting appropriate parents is that one ofthem is local!y adapted. Kalinga III has been adopted by farmers for partial!y irrigated conditions in the chaite season. However, it is a niche variety and other eros ses have been made involving lhe most popular chaite rice, CH45, and lhe most popular main-season variety, Masuli.In the early stages of creating the bulk populations, the breeding program for the eros s Kalinga III x IR64 was entirely researcher managed on land rented from a farmer. Initial!y 290 F3 lines ofthe cross were grown in the chaite season of 1998. The progeny rows were highly diverse and they were grouped into six bulks based on their height (tal! or dwarf) and maturity classes (early <110 days seed to seed; medium 110-125 days; and late >125 days). The bulks were named as fol!ows: ED = early dwarf; ET = early tal!; MD = medium dwarf; MT = medium tal!; LD = late dwarf and L T = late tal!. Of these, the performance of the early dwarf proved to be unsatisfactory and it was dropped. Ihe performance of the MI bulk was good but highly variable, so it was further divided into four: MIl = earlier shorter; MI2 = earlier taller; MI3 = later shorter; and MI4 = later tal!er (figure 2).After dropping lhe ED bulk and dividing the MI bulk into four, there were eight bulks. Ihree were then advanced without further division (the two dwarfbulks and the late bulk). However, in five of the bulks, further division was made among the F s seed into grain type, i.e., long, intermediate or short in length. In the F 6 generation, the resultant bulks were grown by researchers and evaluated by farmers (consultative participation). Combinations of maturity and grain types were selected and rejected. For example, in later-maturing bulks that more or less matched the maturity ofCH45, only nonslender types were acceptable. For rice ofthis maturity, the harvest ofwhich coincides with the rains, it is only economic to produce roasted, flattened rice, for which only less-slender-grained varieties are suitable. In contrast, in the earlier groups, al! grain types were acceptable.By the F6 generation the bulks were recognizable by farmers, because most of the plants shared cornmon traits, but the bulks still had significant genetic heterogeneity within them for farmers to be able to make selections. In the chaite season of2000, farmers were given the bulks at the F7 stage and lhe results ofthis farmers' selection wil! be evaluated.As wel! as the modified bulk populations breeding approach, we are al so trying variants of single-seed descent (SSD) such as equal-seed deseen!. In classical breeding programs, SSD is increasingly employed to rapidly and cost-effectively produce homozygous lines. It concentrates Figure 2. An example of rice suh-hulks at the F s stage in the cross Kalinga III x IR64, Chitwan, Octoher 1999. Note the large population sizes (the people in the background are working in the same bulk as the one seen in the foreground) and the two bulks-earlier-maturing bulk MT2 (right) and a later-maturing bulk MT3 (Ieft).seleclion in advaneed generations that are highly homozygous and where selection is more efrcetive thanin earlier, more heterozygous generations (e,g., Delzer, Busch, and Hare1and [1995] and Van Oeveren [1992] in wheat; Fahim et al, [1998J in rice), We have modified SSD to retain even more variation by using equal-rather than single-seed deseent in the earlier selfing generations, It also aUows multiplieation so lhat by the F 5 or F 6 generation, large quantities of seed of each bulk (or sub-bulk) can be supplied lo many fanners, The probability of se1ecling desirable segregants is increased when the entire selection process is replicated across fanners, Participatory techniques mus! complement and caunot replace classical breeding. Somc low-heritabilíty traÍts can only be selected under controlled environments, and modero techniques that facilitate wide crossing, such as embryo reseue, are confined to the laboratory. No single participatory plant breedíng program can hope to screen more than an ínsignificant proportíon ofthe germplasm available in collections of genetic reSOllrces or, for example, attempt to create poplllations with novel resistance traits. Classical breeding is a strategic approach that creates improved parents for Ihe cost-effectíve, adaptive approach of participatory plant breeding.","tokenCount":"6514"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"48a0d7ce8f39def207f250b57fffccbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c94cceb0-c5fa-4847-88de-1e61f8a7da8c/retrieve","id":"-2049189742"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"68ddfc4f-2124-48cf-9425-0b1ae17ce60d","pagecount":"24","content":"The purpose of this module is not to train learners to use a technical skill such as contour planting but to teach others how to teach learners, using participatory approaches and action-learning. This is a training module to teach other trainers a way to teach others through interaction and fun activities, and for learners to try new techniques.Everyone can learn; it's just that not all people learn best with the same approach. This module offers a mixture of different teaching approaches to maximize learning by all. This module is written to help you as a trainer or educator, no matter how much you have taught in the past. We want you to consider trying these approaches to teach others how to teach and use these approaches in your own teaching. This way may be a bit more difficult to teach since it requires a teacher to be a facilitator. That is, one who learns alongside the learners and encourages the learners to explore the topic; adding to their understanding based on their experiences and asking why and how. But one teaching method that may be a bit difficult is to be willing to adjust the teaching approaches based on the interests of the learners. This is a form of action learning-not only teaching, but encouraging the learner to see, ask, understand, try, and then you adjust the approach to work in this situation.In our work, whether it is research or extension, we often rely on farmers and other \"laypersons\" to help get messages out to the end-users or stakeholders. Learning how to do something requires a special skill-set that many of us have developed out of the need to \"do better\" in our lives. This understanding is very useful to help others learn how to use knowledge to improve their lives. To get the most out of this module, we suggest you read it through before you teach so you can see how the demonstrations can help teach new teachers. About a facilitator: Helping others to learn something new requires the ability to effectively share what we understand and then \"test this knowledge\". Once the teacher or facilitator has shared their knowledge, they can guide the learners to explore the information through questions, field testing, discussing with class mates and peers as well as trying to use the knowledge in their own home. After the learners experience the approaches, they can share their experiences with one another and build on the knowledge to make it useful to them in their environment. This module offers some guidance on how you, as a facilitator, can educate using this approach. This guide offers an approach to learn an effective way to teach others. It offers a step-by-step program to provide a way for a teacher or facilitator to deliver new information to laypersons (such as farmers) in a fun and effective manner. The module includes activities that invite action learning; learners working together to solve real problems through group engagement and seeing the results, which often leads to stronger outcomes. In a workshop that uses this approach, the participants try out the learning process through drama and team activities-making it fun and more engaging, thus encouraging adoption of this way to teach. Remember that this module is designed to show a teaching method by example that boosts the chance that the learners will retain the information. When the teachers practice these approaches, they will gain confidence so they can use this approach to teach others in other trainings.Class Size: This type of training is best offered to small groups of 10-15 persons up to 50-60 persons. If the class is large (greater than 20), then the class can divide into sections and one section does one activity while the other section works on the next activity. For larger classes, it is helpful to have an assistant for every additional 20 persons. They can help answer questions and check in with the groups as they do the activities. Typically, upon completion of each activity, the groups can share their experiences from the exercise with the whole class. Note that the size of group should not too be large to ensure that all have a chance to participate.• One facilitator for each 20 persons in the group.• Flip charts or paper (Place on easel or wall).• Markers (check they do not bleed through paper if paper is hung on wall).• Tape or nails to secure paper to wall or other upright surface.• Handouts of the exercises for each participant-marked as \"Handouts\" found in this module. • Enough copies of the dramas so each group has the description of one skit.(Five skits are included in this module). Note that you can also follow the format provided to write your own dramas to better fit your learners' interests. • A few props for actors to use in the dramas (e.g., farming items, hoe, bag of seed, planting stick, watering can).Engage with all the learners; provide opportunity for:• Sharing personal experiences that relate to the theme.• Building on their knowledge.• Offering students the chance to try different approaches and share their experiences. • Adjusting teaching or lessons based on learners' experiences and knowledge.Welcome everyone and open with a prayer if relevant (Keep it religious neutral).• Facilitators introduce themselves and share a funny/interesting story about their work that is related to the interests of the trainees. (The purpose is to allow students to get to know each other and you and feel comfortable with you as a teacher). • Ask each participant to introduce themselves. Go around so all have a turn.• Ask participants to share a story about an interesting farming season or crop or something of interest to the group. For example, if you are teaching health workers you can offer stories that talk about health care.Ask participants a few questions to help the learners start thinking about the day. Ask: If there is anything else anyone would like to include or talk about during the day of ways to share new knowledge?Facilitator: Be sure to write down these answers and review them with all at the end of day. Answer them as best as possible as a group. Facilitators demonstrate to the learners a drama that is a type of action learning exercise. As the learners see how this is done, they too can use these approaches when teaching others. To help the learners see how they can use these tools they share examples of how they will teach others in the future, such as farmers or health care workers. Illustrated by: Mosher Chande.Facilitator: Explain that now you are going to ask for volunteers to help demonstrate the value of action-learning.Ask for 4-6 volunteers to prepare a drama presentation to show the others.• Note: While this group is preparing for the drama with a facilitator or assistant, the other learners can do \"Exercise F\" with two persons from each group. • If the group is larger than 30, then have 7-8 persons present the drama.Adjust the roles and numbers of actors depending on class size.The facilitator should ask the actors to go with him/her to a different area or room.Here the facilitators should explain to the actors that the drama will be in two parts to show two different ways to teach and share knowledge (This can be called Act I and Act II).• One person will play the teacher in Act I and another the teacher in Act II. The other actors in the drama will be learners (students participating in the training). The drama should take place in a classroom, field, or garden. • Share the following information with the actors:o Act I: This teacher will act like a typical school teacher telling the students the information and not encouraging discussion or questions by the students. The teacher expects the students to take notes and listen carefully. o Act II: The other teacher will interact with the students in ways to encourage full participation, discussion, and sharing of knowledge and experiences about their approaches (as it relates to what is being taught). The teacher will ask the students to participate in the activity or a demonstration of a new technology.Choose a common technical theme based on what your learners are interested in or the technical theme of your work (such as soil health using a soil pit, comparing different maize varieties that are resistant to disease, eating nutritious food to stay healthy, using a family budget to use money wisely) to demonstrate the two approaches of \"teaching\". The drama can be on any technical theme. The important point is showing how the information can be shared, comparing the different ways to share information and encourage learning.Shown here are two types of learning: Top-down learning on the left and Participatory learning on the right. Note the differences: Top-down learning offers little interaction with other learners or the teacher. The teacher tells the information and the learners take notes. Students ask questions just for clarification, not sharing their knowledge or experiences. Participatory learning encourages learners to participate in an exercise while the teacher guides the students and answers questions. The teacher encourages learners to share their experiences related to the activity. Illustrated by: Mosher Chande.Setting: Students have gathered to learn a new approach to… (the actors can choose about what). Act I. First the \"Top Down\" group presents their drama for all. The facilitator should help them plan the acting. The actors should emphasize the typical \"old-school\" actions such as taking many notes, offering little discussion, requiring students to pay attention, demanding no talking to each other. There should be no hands-on activities in this act.The drama can exaggerate these ideas so the audience clearly sees the differences.Act II. The second act is about a teacher that uses participatory methods, teaching the same technical theme as in Act I. This act should be \"heavily emphasized\" to demonstrate participatory approaches. An example is a student asking the teacher a question and with the teacher's encouragement, other students discuss possible answers to the question. The teacher shows approval as the students engage in conversation to answer the same question. Students explore the question as a group rather than the teacher just giving a quick answer. Another example would be if the teacher asks if any of the students have tried a practice (for example, family budgeting) and if so, ask for a volunteer to demonstrate to the others, then discuss what they saw and how this technology can be used.Review of this demonstration/drama: What did we see?• 1. Top-down This method is when the teachers tell the students how it is and why it is important. There is no room in this method for student engagement.o Students will be told to listen and observe, and ask questions only when they need clarification of what the teacher has said. o No discussion is welcome and the teacher just describes everything without demonstration. • The teacher stresses listening and following directions.o The students are expected to take notes of what the teacher writes on the board.2. The Participatory approach of learning is when teachers share some information and then ask students for their experiences and ideas. • The students are invited to \"see for themselves\" and participate in the action learning-in a hands-on manner. • Students will be asked to participate and be part of the learning experience, all questions and discussions will be welcome, and anyone who knows about the topic can answer, not just the teacher. • It is important to guide the responses so all have a chance to contribute their ideas. If one person dominates, ask tell them to let others have a turn.• Top-down teaching is an approach in which the teacher tells the students how something is done or exactly what it means. Little time is left for discussion and only the teacher's information is valued. There are no demonstrations or hands-on activities. The information comes from the teacher and is passed down to the student: top-down.• Participatory learning is a teaching approach that uses action-learning to engage the students and encourages them to learn through understanding what is meant, rather than just memorizing facts. The students can do this by asking questions, discussing alternative approaches, and discuss why one technology may be better for them than another approach. Discussions are encouraged with the whole class. The teaching is even stronger if it includes hands-on activities. The teacher encourages the students to ask questions, see and try for themselves, and share their experiences that help in understanding. Learning and new ideas often occur through all, even the teacher.• Ask the learners (whole class) what they observed in the two dramas and what were the differences in how the information was taught. • Ask for volunteers to share learning experiences from when they were growing up or more recently that show an example of either type of teaching. They should describe the approach and how they felt. • Ask them how they like to learn and why they prefer this way?The learners should work together to complete this worksheet-Exercise A. Together they choose if the phrases belong to \"top-down\" or \"participatory learning\" columns.Tell students to use the handouts labeled \"Exercise F\". Give them about 5-10 minutes to complete the exercise in their small groups, then invite all to share their answers.Once everyone has finished, go through the list, one item at a time and ask for the correct response. If there is confusion or mixed answers ask a participant to explain their answer.After responses have been shared, ask:• Why is the first teaching method that was shown called, \"top-down\"?• What does participatory learning mean to you?• Which way do they prefer to teach? Share some reasons why?To conclude use a proverb like: You can catch more flies with honey. Ask students to make their own proverb to describe this teaching approach.Goal: Ask participants to raise their hands if they have experienced using participatory methods to teach others, no matter the topic.The participants that raised their hands will take the role as a teacher or facilitator. The remainder of the class will divide into groups of 5-6 participants.Each group of 5-6 works together. The facilitator and assistant should spend a minute or two with each group to be sure they are \"on track\". This activity will allow the groups to practice participatory skills, as they have seen demonstrated in the workshop.Exercise: Drama to demonstrate how to use participatory teaching. Each group should work to develop a plan for this year's group farm demonstration. They should try to include as many participatory learning approaches as possible.Each group decides what the demonstration will be about.Allow 15 minutes for the groups to plan their sample demonstration. The facilitator should go around each group and check with them to see they understand what is expected.Trainer, if participants do not seem to be on track, then share some possible examples.• Remind them that the goal of this activity is to include participatory ways they could use in their teaching. Please remember that these ways will help farmers learn, try, modify, and implement, as being discussed during this training.• After the activity is complete, one person from each group describes their group's plan with the whole class. The facilitator (you) should make a list of all the participatory methods they note (flip chart). • Ask for others to share if they have other suggestions to do that type of participatory learning. Write these down on a flip chart. Use this list to promote discussion. • Do this for each group.Ask the group to divide into five sub-groups. Each group will be asked to share a drama of what is on the paper they will receive as found in Handout 3.This shows an example of a drama. A drama is an effective way to share with groups about a technical aspect. This approach offers a way for learners to be active in the class and share what they know and have learned. Everyone likes to see their friends \"up on stage\". Combining fun with learning improves learners' understanding and helps them to remember the new information. Illustrated by: Mosher Chande.Use the included list of dramas or ones that you have created based on the technical theme (agriculture, health, primary school teaching) of the group. Five dramas are included here, numbered 1-5 on the sheet called \"Short Dramas-Exercise-B\".Cut the sheet of paper into 5 parts, so that each piece includes one drama. Place each piece of paper in a bag and have one volunteer from each group take one piece of paper. That is the drama they will act out with others in their group.While the groups are preparing for their acting, the facilitator should go around to each group to help as needed by listening to each group's discussion and asking the group questions. This will guide them to produce a short drama that follows the theme listed on the paper.• Ask the learners to divide into groups so you have a maximum of five groups (or one group for each drama you created). Each group takes one slip of paper from the bag, which describes a drama. Note that the dramas include different participatory learning methods. • If learners are not freely dividing into groups, you can have them count off 1 thru 5 and all the same numbers (for example, all 1s) make up one group. • Give groups 5-10 minutes to prepare their drama that is described on the slip of paper. • The groups take turns to act out their drama in front of the class. They can use the props you have available. • After the dramas, the class identifies and discusses the participatory learning method(s) they observed in each skit. Prompt them to help them remember each drama. • After all groups have shared, ask if anyone knows of other approaches of action learning. • Ask the group: \"How is this learning approach different from others they have used or know of?\"Goal: To understand why you are encouraging the learners to use these methods in their teaching.Questions to ask learners: From what we have learned so far….Facilitator: Make a list of the answers on the flip chart so all can see them.• Q1. What are the values of these methods?• Q2. What are the challenges of these methods?• Q3. How can you use these methods in your work as a teacher of farmers (or other types of learners)?Exercise: Ask for 3-4 volunteers to explain how they can use participatory learning methods based on the following situation: Ask them to try to use participatory approaches.• When group members do not know each other and you will do a day-long training with them. • You want to encourage farmers to participate in demonstrations (when they don't want to at first). • When you want to get feedback, and encourage sharing by farmers (when they are shy or unsure). • When some learners talk a bit too much and some not at all (you want a balance). • Encourage adaptations (using a technology) and modifications (changing a technology so it works better for that user) of technologies by the learners. Go around the room and ask each participant for an example of an approach of participatory learning:Facilitator: You can write down the ideas of the participants to make a list. Then, ask the learners:• Do you have any questions about how to use this approach in your teaching?Go around the room and ask each person to share a positive thing (value) or negative thing (challenge) for one of the approaches on the list.Then again ask 1. How will using any of these approaches change a program? Ask for a couple of volunteer answers. 2. What difficulties may arise when you use this type of teaching?Ask if there are any questions or comments they would like to share before closing. Consider these questions.• Do they have new ideas of how to teach?• Do they understand how to use these methods (the one they like the best)?• Do they know what is needed to prepare to use this teaching approach?Facilitator: Answer their questions as well as you can. If it's a technical question that you do not know the answer to, tell them you will ask an expert and get back to them (and really get back to them).• Thank all for their participation and willingness to share to make it a much better day. Participatory learning program handouts for learners and facilitatorsThis picture demonstrates how learning from each other offers a way to demonstrate and experience the technical information. Sharing experiences also offers encouragement to others to try on their own. Illustrated by: Mosher Chande.A guide to a better learning experience Classroom: Have participants sit in a circle if possible (instead of rows). Have the classroom as comfortable as possible (good temperature, enough light, enough chairs, water to drink).Introductions: Ask each person to introduce themselves and share something about their farming or teaching experiences. They can stand while speaking so all can see and hear them better.Share day agenda/plan: Give an overview of what is going to happen for the day at the beginning. Ask if there are other things they would like to add to the plan.**Teaching approach: As a facilitator share some stories and a joke to brighten up the teaching. Use simple language when explaining. Use a flip chart if the group wants to see the words. Always ask if there are questions after explaining a new concept.Timetable: Set times for the day based on the agenda. Keep to the times you indicate and try very hard not to go over closing time.Group participation: Round robin-go around in a circle with each person taking a turn to share (this allows everyone to participate).Hands-on: Offer a chance for each person to try for themselves (in field, on paper, on flip chart).Discussion leader: Have the learners take turns being the leader of a discussion or activity.Testing ideas: In addition to field demonstrations, have field testing, such as two maize varieties side by side for all learners to see the differences. Learner-led demonstrations: Someone from the group who has experience on the topic leads a demonstration.Modify approaches: Encourage learners to adjust approaches or technologies to better meet their conditions (physical ability, equipment, crop, land size, labor availability, interest) and try this approach for comparison. This is REAL action learning.Team participation: Offer learners the chance to work in small groups of 2-4 (depending on how many in the whole group). Then ask one person from each group to report back to the whole group after the exercise.Group question and answer: Ask group to ask questions, then let others from the group answer the questions, not just the facilitator (teacher). Host a discussion if there is a debate.Select drama: Each short drama should take 5-10 minutes to present to the whole group. Cut and place the 5 slips of paper that you have into a bag or bowl. Ask for a volunteer from each group to take one slip of paper from the bowl or bag. This is the drama they will act out for the group. The group then works together for 10 mins to prepare for the presentation.Role play: The point of this is to demonstrate a way of participatory learning. Each drama can be done with three or more actors. Note that group actions can be changed if the group has a different idea of how to accomplish the problem using a different participatory action.Farmers have learned about a way to reduce soil erosion by building ridges. They had a training the day before to learn how to build them. After the training, they ate dinner together and discussed the day. They all realize they do not like this approach to control erosion. On the 2 nd day they return and discuss why they do not like this approach and what they suggest instead.Action by group: Start off by asking what they think about the training yesterday. Farmers tell you they do not like building tied-ridges. You need to help the farmers discuss why and other possible ways to reduce erosion. As a group, come to an agreement of a different way to control erosion.Farmers are going to plant a Mother demo. There is enough space for four crop types. You work with the group of farmers to list possible crops they would like to try. Write the list on the flip chart or just read the list to the group during the drama. You need to have more than four crop types on the list to show that choices can be made.Action by group: Once you have a list, ask the farmers to \"vote\" on which crops they prefer. They vote by raising their hands. The four crops with the most votes will be planted in the Mother demo. If there is a tie in the vote, have a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. 3. Farmers are together for training. They do not know each other so well.Action by group: Farmers form a circle, but are very quiet. You realize they do not know each other. You invite each farmer to share their name and something about their farm or family they would like to share. Encourage each one to be free and participate. As a group clap for the person speaking. Some farmers will be shy, but continue to encourage them. You can use any approach you think useful to get the group to be comfortable to speak with each other and confident to share.Farmers are working with the Lead Farmers or Mother Farmers to choose inputs (crop types, fertilizer, planting plans) for the coming year. These inputs will be given to the farmers in small packets, based on their choices.","tokenCount":"4307"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c8095dea5d8555c6719e42413dabb4e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ee3f5af3-8fdb-42ea-aaef-688246324248/content","id":"-1463353415"},"keywords":["Cereals","Wheat","Triticum","Barley","Hordeum","Nematode","Cereal cyst nematode","Heterodera","Root lesion nematode","Pratylenchus","Plant pests","Plant protection","Plant disease","Fungal soil borne pathogens cereals","Heterodera avenae","H. filipjevi","H. latipons","survey Wheat","nematodes","identification","occurrence","frequency Oat","Fusarium root rot","Fusarium equiseti","disease reaction"],"sieverID":"b5cfc200-2e4b-468f-8297-a2588413fafe","pagecount":"502","content":"Background: The International Cereal Nematodes Symposium (ICNS) is an extension to the International Cereal Nematode Initiative (ICNI) that was established in 2006. It aims to create a critical mass of scientific capacity and skills to deliver sustainable solutions by working at both the practical and theoretical level. It was initially founded as the International Cereal Cyst Nematode Initiative (ICCNI) and later expanded to include all-important genera of cereal nematodes (CN).Cereal nematodes including both the Cereal Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera spp.; CCNs) and the Root Lesion Nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.; RLNs) are acknowledged as a global economic problem on wheat production systems in developing as well as in developed countries.During the last 20 years research has been undertaken by a large network of groups including: 1) the ICWIP (ICARDA CIMMYT Wheat Improvement Program) which relates to wheat improvement research in Central Asia, West Asia and North Africa, 2) CIMMYT and the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in collaboration with ICARDA, and 3) our National Program partners from developing countries and several research institutions in Australia and Europe. The objectives of these groups have been to:1. Understand the importance and distribution of CCNs and RLNs, which are widespread in wheat production systems throughout West Asia, North Africa, parts of Central Asia, Northern India and China. 2. Investigate potential control options with a major emphasis on host resistance, through validation and integration of resistant sources (traditional and molecular) into wheat germplasm for global wheat production systems (particularly focused on rainfed or supplementary irrigation systems). Rotation has been partially explored. 3. Provide training for scientists from developing countries. The 1 st ICCNI was held in Antalya, Türkiye and proceedings can be downloaded from the following website: http://www.spipm.cgiar.org/reports. The 2 nd workshop was held in Vienna, Austria and the 3 rd workshop was held in Adana, Türkiye. The 4 th workshop was held in Beijing, China. The 5 th workshop in Ankara Türkiye and the proceeding can be downloaded from the following website: https://www.fao.org/3/i4934e/i4934e.pdf. The 6 th Symposium was held in Agadir, Morocco and the 7 th Symposium was held in New Delhi, India. Those workshops were very successful in identifying the global status of the problem of cereal nematodes and forming networks and partnerships to continue working on these problems.Because of the significant interactions between nematodes and soil borne fungal pathogens of cereals in farmers' fields, this nematode Symposium held in Türkiye included a very specialized session on fungal soil borne diseases. At the end of the meeting, the organizing committee met and explored ideas of changing the symposium name into the International Symposium of Cereal Soil Borne Pathogens (1st ISCSBP) to take place every 3 years. This Symposium will bring together researchers tasked with developing solutions to manage intractable soil borne pathogens of cereals for which there are currently limited on farm management solutions.x CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre) and ICARDA (International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dryland Agriculture) are non-profit International Research Centres with the mandate to improve agriculture in developing countries as part of the Consultative Group of International Agriculture Research (CGIAR). CIMMYT's mandate is to improve the productivity of wheat and maize systems through sustainable management and improvement. The Türkiye office works in West Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa. ICARDA programs are currently coordinated from Lebanon, with technical facilities being coordinated from Jordan. ICARDA works regionally in dryland areas on cereal, legume and animal production systems, once again improving productivity of these through sound management practices. ICWIP (ICARDA-CIMMYT Wheat Improvement Program) is the collective effort of both centres to address food security for cereals in West Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa. CIMMYT and ICARDA are gratefully acknowledged for scientific leadership in research on cereal nematodes, technical input, international capacity building and financial support towards this workshop. For further information see www.cimmyt.org and www.icarda.org.The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations is an intergovernmental organization of 194 member nations plus two associate members and the European Union.FAO has headquarters in Rome, Italy and has staff in over 130 countries. The main goals of the FAO are to eradicate hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition, to eliminate poverty and improve economic and social progress for all, and to foster sustainable management and utilization of natural resources (land, water, air, climate and genetic) for the benefit of present and future generations. FAO has endorsed the Rome Declaration on Nutrition and the Framework of Action, which enshrines the right of everyone to have access to safe, sufficient and nutritious food, and commits governments to prevent malnutrition in all its forms. FAO's support in capacity building throughout the world and particularly for printing this book is recognized. For further information see www.fao.org.Syngenta is one of the world's leading companies with the goal of improving crop productivity in nearly 100 countries.Through world-class science, global reach and commitment to our customers they help to increase crop productivity, protect the environment and improve health and quality of life. Thanks are given for their support towards capacity building and being key sponsor to this workshop. http://www.syngenta.comThe Republic of Türkiye 's Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (MFAL) is responsible for food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy development, and enforcement activities for food and feed safety, animal health, animal welfare and plant health in Türkiye. MFAL is responsible for coordinating agricultural research and development projects in cooperation with the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policy (GDAR). The GDAR is the center of the national agricultural research system in Türkiye, with 49 research stations located to best serve the needs of citizens throughout the Republic. GDAR coordinates research xi on plant breeding and production, plant protection, animal breeding and husbandry, animal health, fishery and aquaculture, food and feed, postharvest technologies, biodiversity/genetic resources, organic agriculture, bio-safety, and soil and water resource management. Thanks is given to MFAL for hosting and financially supporting this workshop. For further information see www.tagem.gov.tr.Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, one of the noteworthy universities in our country, located in an area surrounded by natural beauties between two metropolis İstanbul and Ankara, was founded on 3 July 1992. The university, which has been developing rapidly since its foundation, has campuses in the city center and three districts of Bolu (Gerede, Mengen, Mudurnu). The main campus of the university, namely İzzet Baysal Campus, is located in Gölköy, which is 8 km from the city center and surrounded by a unique natural beauty. The university comprises 16 faculties, 1 institute, 1 schools, 8 vocational schools and 20 research centers. 1.557 faculty members and 1.181 administrative staff in the university are proud to provide a quality and modern educational setting for about 32.064 students.This volume contains papers voluntarily contributed by participants of the 8 th International Cereal Nematodes Symposium, 25-29 September 2022, Abant, Türkiye.Information and views expressed in these papers are entirely those of the authors, whose papers have not been formally peer-reviewed to independently confirm the veracity of the content.Although the editors have taken care to guide contributors, and have assisted in technical editing, nothing in the papers presented in this volume should be taken as representative of the views or recommendations of the publisher, the editors and/or the sponsors who provided support for this Symposium and/or publication.Mention of any proprietary product or service by the authors in this volume cannot be taken as constituting an endorsement and/or recommendation of that product or service. The dominant cereal crop in the western USA is winter wheat produced under rainfed conditions. Other important cereal crops include irrigated winter and spring grains (wheat and barley). Precipitation in the region varies from 200 to 600 mm per year, occurring from autumn to spring. Summers are dry and warm to hot.The most economically important nematodes affecting small grain cereals (wheat, barley, and oats) in the western USA include two species of root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei) and two species of cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae and H. filipjevi). Other species of Pratylenchus and other plant-parasitic genera also occur on cereals throughout the USA but are not well documented for reducing yields of these crops. It should be noted that root lesion and cereal cyst nematodes do not appear to cause serious production problems in the eastern USA, where summer rainfall and a wider diversity of economically viable crops are common. Therefore, most research associating plant damage by root lesion and cereal cyst nematodes on cereals has been reported from the western USA. A summary of previous research is presented in reviews by Smiley (2015Smiley ( , 2016Smiley ( , 2018Smiley ( , 2021Smiley ( , 2022)), Smiley et al. (2017), and Smiley and Nicol (2009). Short reports of cereal nematode research in the western USA were also published by Smiley and his associates in two proceedings of this symposium, in 2009 and 2015.Of eight species in the genus Pratylenchus that are parasitic to wheat, P. neglectus and P. thornei are the species most often associated with yield loss in wheat in the western USA. The greatest level of crop loss occurs in fields infested by P. thornei, but the most land area is infested by P. neglectus. Yield reductions up to 50% and 37% have been documented by P. thornei and P. neglectus, respectively. Economic loss estimates for the three PNW states of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, as reported in 2009, suggested that P. thornei and P. neglectus reduced the annual production value of winter wheat by US$14 and $19 million, respectively, and of spring wheat by $3 and $13 million, respectively. The overall loss from these species is therefore conservatively estimated at nearly $51 million annually. Almost no control measures have been put into practice more than a decade after that estimate was published.Plants that become damaged while growing under drought stress are more likely to suffer yield loss compared to plants having sufficient available water. These Pratylenchus species are not strongly restricted by soil type and may attain damaging population levels even in the very driest rainfed wheat-producing regions (250 mm annual precipitation) where wheat is mostly produced as a crop of winter wheat (10 month growing cycle) alternated with a long, crop-free fallow (14 months). Large population densities have been detected throughout the depth of root growth in deep soils. Pratylenchus species survive in an inactive, dehydrated state (anhydrobiosis) in roots and soil during dry conditions. Populations decline during fallow periods, but high rates of survival have been reported due to anhydrobiosis and possibly also growth of susceptible weeds during the fallow period between crops.Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei often occur as mixtures in the same soil. In view of broad host ranges that vary among these species, identification to the species level is an essential prerequisite for most control strategies. DNA-and protein-based techniques are particularly useful for quickly and accurately differentiating and quantifying P. neglectus and P. thornei, using a single DNA extract from soil. Biological diversity (pathotypes) among populations has not received adequate attention among specimens collected from wheat or barley in the western USA. However, recently, pathotypic specialization was defined for P. neglectus affecting barley in the state of Montana.Few wheat or barley producers actively attempt to manage root-lesion nematode populations in the USA.Theoretically, the greatest long-term production efficiency will be achieved by planting wheat cultivars that are both resistant and tolerant to the most important Pratylenchus species in each field. Dual-species resistance will be needed where both species occur.Research has shown that it is agronomically possible to integrate crop rotations and planting of tolerant wheat or barley cultivars. Resistance is known in regional barley cultivars but not wheat cultivars. Cultivars carrying resistance and/or tolerance traits are seldom also among those cultivars that yield the highest amount of grain at sites where nematodes do not damage the plants. For economic reasons, growers obviously favor cultivars with the highest yields in agronomic trials, which are not specifically conducted on fields known to be infested with these nematodes. Also, cultivars with resistance to P. neglectus are not necessarily resistant to P. thornei, and cultivars tolerant to P. neglectus are not necessarily tolerant to P. thornei. Resistance and tolerance to these species are genetically independent. Very few of the cultivars tested thus far are resistant and/or tolerant to both Pratylenchus species, making it important to identify which species is present in each field. Wheat cultivars exhibiting tolerance and some resistance to P. neglectus and P. thornei have been deployed effectively in Australia but not yet in the USA.Frequent crops of susceptible crops elevate the nematode populations and increase the level of risk to subsequent intolerant crops. Many cultivars of mustard, canola, lentil and chickpea also increase the population of either P. neglectus or P. thornei, or of both species. Crops that restrict multiplication of P. neglectus and/or P. thornei include some cultivars of barley, safflower, triticale, flax, and field pea. These crops can reduce the nematode population and improve the yield potential for subsequent intolerant wheat crops, but these crops are not favored by most farmers because they produce lower economic returns than wheat in the PNW 'wheat belt.' Hosting-ability studies have shown that tolerance is both species-and cultivar-specific, within legumes as well as small grain cereals. It is important to conduct hosting-ability studies using locally available cultivars or breeding lines.Resistance is the most important strategy for reducing populations of root-lesion nematodes. Resistance to these species is quantitative and controlled by at least several genes. Globally, many sources of resistance to these species have been identified in commercial wheat cultivars, Middle East landrace lines, and in wheat relatives such as species of Aegilops. Lines of special interest to agronomists, wheat breeders and farmers exhibit resistance to both P. neglectus and P. thornei. Also of particular interest are lines that convey high levels of both tolerance and resistance to P. thornei or P. neglectus. Almost all research on resistance and tolerance to P. neglectus and P. thornei has been performed in Australian and CIMMYT wheat breeding programs. Limited research has been performed in the USA, as summarized in the review papers cited earlier. An important exception is the development of the recombinant inbred wheat line, LouAu, that enabled identification of quantitative trait loci associated with resistance to P. neglectus and P. thornei. The LouAu population also identified partial resistance to Fusarium culmorum and Rhizoctonia solani AG8. Six major and 16 speculative quantitative trait loci were identified across seven measured traits. Four of the six major quantitative trait loci were found within the same genomic region of chromosome 5A, suggesting shared gene(s) contributed to the resistance. These quantitative trait loci are useful in breeding programs looking to incorporate resistance to soil-borne pathogens in wheat cultivars.Other management practices are less effective in managing Pratylenchus populations. Field sanitation during the fallow phase is as important as during the in-crop phase, because Pratylenchus species have been shown to multiply on many weed species in the genera Avena, Brassica, Bromus, Carrichtera, Emex, Heliotropium, Hordeum, Malva, Raphanus, Rumex, and Tribulis, and on volunteer cereals. The presence of susceptible weeds or crop species between planted crops allows Pratylenchus to increase in population density over a greater time interval of the most prevalent cropping system in the PNW, the 2-year winter wheat-fallow.Tillage has reportedly increased, decreased, or had no effect on populations of Pratylenchus in wheat. Most interpretations of tillage effects on Pratylenchus in the USA were based upon soil samples collected at shallow depth. Peak population densities of these nematodes vary from near the surface to as deep as 60 to 90 cm, with significant densities to a depth of 150 cm in some soils. Therefore, shallow samples (to 20 cm depth) used in most surveys and agronomic research trials are now considered inadequate for accurately characterizing Pratylenchus populations in many deep soils. Reported effects of tillage on these populations needs to be investigated further.Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei are often more damaging to crops in drier than wetter regions. The economic threshold for damage is expected to be lower for rainfed, low-precipitation environments than for crops produced with supplemental irrigation or in areas of greater precipitation during the growing season.Several chemical nematicides are effective and have been widely used in research but are not registered for commercial use due to economic and environmental concerns. Several biological agents have been effective in carefully controlled studies where plant roots were confined within small greenhouse pots.Thus far, those agents have been ineffective in field trials. None of these agents are currently available for application to vast areas of wheat production area known to be infested by Pratylenchus species.Green-manure crops can be used to sanitize soil through bio-fumigation in regions where water is not a limiting factor for wheat growth, such as in higher precipitation regions or where supplemental irrigation is available. Several bio-fumigant crops, such as Sudan grass and some Brassica species, enable Pratylenchus species to multiply. When these crops are incorporated as green tissue into soil, toxic products can reduce the elevated population to pre-plant levels or below. But populations elevated on seedling 'biofumigant' plants may remain high where these crops are grown to maturity for harvesting seed or forage, as is practice throughout much of the rainfed wheat production region in the western USA.Cyst nematodes affecting cereals are placed in the genus Heterodera and more specifically into the 'H. avenae group,' which consists of a complex of 12 species and intraspecific pathotypes that invade roots of cereals and grasses. Of the three species of primary economic importance globally, only H. avenae and H. filipjevi have been detected on cereals in the USA. Only one of these species is generally identified in most fields but mixtures of species also occur. Each species can cause whole-field losses up to 10% in wheat and barley, but production crops have been destroyed in a small number of fields. Economic loss estimates for the three PNW states of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, in 2009, suggested that these species reduce the annual production value of wheat by more than US$3 million. Very few control measures have been put into practice since that estimate was revealed.The presence of H. avenae in the three PNW states were first reported during the 1970s. This species is now reported as occurring in at least seven states. A previous lack of recognition is thought to have been more responsible than recent spread for the greater number of detections during recent years. Identification of cereal cyst nematodes is complex and has traditionally been based on comparative morphology and diagnostic keys. It wasn't until the development of a DNA-based diagnostic procedure, in the early 2000s, that it became known that some populations previously reported as 'H. avenae' are actually H. filipjevi. The more precise identification using molecular-and/or protein-based procedures enabled the differentiation of these two species.\"The International Cereal Test Assortment for Defining Cereal Cyst Nematode Pathotypes\", first described in 1982, underestimates the polymorphism now known to exist for H. avenae populations globally. In the three states of the PNW, the assortment was unable to define virulence groups (pathotypes) of the populations.However, it did establish that the Cre1 gene for resistance was effective for suppressing or preventing reproduction of all H. avenae populations. Less effective but possibly important Cre genes for use in gene stacking were also identified. There is still no published report of the pathotype(s) of H. filipjevi in the USA but current research toward that objective is occurring in Washington.Cereal cyst nematode is not strongly restricted by soil type, but damage is often greatest in light-textured, well-drained soils such as sands. The damage threshold varies with soil type, climate, and cultivar, and with nematode species, virulence, and ecotype characteristics. These variable influences on plant damage make it difficult to directly relate initial populations with reduction in grain yield.To achieve effective control of cereal cyst nematodes it is necessary to reduce the population below the economic threshold for damage. This requires definitive studies on population dynamics and yield losses on representative local cultivars under natural field conditions. Cultural practices based on rotational combinations of non-hosts (non-cereals), resistant cultivars, and clean fallow can effectively control these nematodes. Restricting hosts to 50% of the time in heavier soils and 25% of the time in lighter soils can cause dramatic reductions in the population of H. avenae. However, these management strategies each require a full understanding of the virulence and diapause characteristics for the local nematode populations, and of the effectiveness and durability of the resistance gene(s) deployed against that nematode population.The use of plant host resistance is one of the most effective methods to control cereal nematodes.Resistance is defined as the ability of the host to inhibit nematode multiplication. Ideally resistance should be combined with tolerance, which is the ability of the host plant to maintain yield potential in the presence of the nematode. The use of cultivars that are both resistant and tolerant offers the best control option, in addition to being environmentally sustainable and requiring no additional equipment or cost. As stated earlier, the Cre1 gene has been shown to be highly effective against populations of H. avenae in the USA.However, resistant cultivars will only be used by farmers if the resistant cultivar also maintains a level of yield, in non-infested soils, which is comparable to other commonly cultivated wheat cultivars.Practices other than crop rotation and planting resistant cultivars are less efficient. Nevertheless, components of those strategies are important for integrated management approaches to nematode control. These components may include manipulating the sowing time to minimize the impact of the major hatching period, as when winter wheat is planted during the autumn in the cool, temperate regions where the major hatch of second-stage juveniles occurs during the spring. Winter wheat if far more mature than newly emerging spring wheat or spring barley during the primary period for hatching of infective Heterodera juveniles.The greatest crop loss occurs when nutrients or water become limiting for maximum plant growth potential at any point during the growing season. Crop damage is therefore minimized by supplying optimal plant nutrition and, where possible, supplemental water during intervals of drought.A low rate of nematicide application can provide effective control of cereal cyst nematode in wheat.However, environmental concerns associated with these chemicals eliminate them as a viable alternative for rainfed wheat production. Nematicides are potentially economically viable in irrigated crops where wheat or barley are rotated with higher value crops such as potato or sugar beet. At present, nematicides are primarily used as a research tool for studying yield loss and population dynamics.Surveys have revealed areas where cereal cyst and root-lesion nematodes are present. More intensive surveys are required to define the distribution of species and identity of pathotypes. Experiments are urgently needed to define the magnitude, frequency, and value of yield reductions. Further adoption of existing molecular identification and quantification techniques by commercial soil diagnostic laboratories will facilitate more rapid and effective surveys of these nematode populations. Several commercial labs now provide such diagnostic services but demand for that service appears to be low among growers and advisory personnel.Few wheat and barley improvement programs are breeding for or selecting lines for resistance or tolerance to these nematodes. For cereal cyst nematode, public and private breeding programs in Idaho and Washington are screening wheat cultivars for resistance and/or tolerance to H. avenae or H. filipjevi. Studies in Washington are also seeking to identify the pathotype of the local population of H. filipjevi. The author of this paper is not aware of any current screenings to identify PNW cultivars of wheat or barley for higher levels of resistance or tolerance to P. neglectus or P. thornei. It appears likely that this low level of current research is based upon a relatively low level of commercial acceptance of the importance of these nematodes, which results in limited financial, technical, and institutional support for research on nematodes that affect small grain cereals. This research is relatively difficult and labor intensive and requires extensive searching to identify fields with adequate uniformity of nematode infestation as well as low levels of damage caused by soilborne fungal pathogens (species of Fusarium, Pythium and Rhizoctonia) and other plant-parasitic nematodes. These challenges appear to reduce interest among those who need to conduct this field research.Many years of multi-location field experiments or utilization of rain-out shelters are required to accurately associate field populations with yield loss data. Without such knowledge, it is very difficult to develop management guidelines that associate levels of disease risk with soils, cultivars, climates, and fluctuating weather.Greater collaboration is needed between research institutions in the USA and international organizations such as CIMMYT and ICARDA, as well as between public and private wheat breeding programs. These collaborative efforts will provide a greater understanding of the complexity, economic importance, and control of Heterodera and Pratylenchus populations in the western USA. Results of all research findings also need to be more effectively communicated to farmers and their agronomic advisors. Smiley (2021) reviewed the status and the future role of root lesion nematodes in dryland wheat production systems as the climate changes in the PNW. He summarized by stating that global interest has accelerated for identifying reasons for differences between actual and potentially attainable crop yields. The so-called 'yield gap' in the PNW is far greater for rainfed than irrigated wheat, and the gap has remained static as actual yields have increased. Nearly all yield-gap studies continue to focus on water-use efficiency as the most limiting factor restricting crops from reaching their full yield potential given the total amount of water available. Recognition is not being given to impacts of two chronic root and crown diseases (root lesion nematodes and Fusarium crown rot), each of which greatly suppress the ability of plants to extract water from deep within the soil profile. Smiley concluded that the yield gap for rainfed wheat in the PNW cannot be effectively reduced without addressing the roles of these diseases on water-use efficiency.Incidence of cereal nematodes in the cereal cropping system in CWANA Regions: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan Introduction Wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) is the most important food crop of many countries, contributing nearly onethird of the total food grain production in the world (FAOSTAT 2018). One of the main reasons for the low yield potential may be due to the plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) that are considered one of the most relevant constrains limiting cereal production globally (Dababat and Hendrika 2018). Genera such as Heterodera (cyst), Meloidogyne (root-knot), Tylenchorhynchus and Merlinius (stunt), Ditylenchus (stem), Anguina (seed-gall), Pratylenchus (root-lesion), and Paratrichodorus (stubby-root) can cause significant yield losses (Rivoal and Cook 1993). The cereal cyst nematodes (CCN) are the most widely studied on wheat and have been reported by many researchers worldwide (Subbotin et al. 2010).Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are widespread and one of the most important groups of plantparasitic nematodes due to their wide host ranges and their worldwide distribution (Jones et al. 2013).According to Castillo and Vovlas (2007) and De Luca et al. (2011), the genus comprises 75 nominal species (Zamora-Araya et al. 2016), with Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus being two of the most frequently reported species (Yan et al. 2008;Thompson et al. 2016). The cyst nematode, Heterodera spp. is important obligate parasites and an economically relevant group of harmful plant parasitic nematodes which are found throughout the world (Subbotin et al. 2010 a, b). The main species parasitizing cultivated wheat are Heterodera avenae, H. filipjevi, H. hordecalis and H. latipons (Subbotin et al. 2010). Heterodera filipjevi is the most damaging pest that limits cereals production in the major cereal-producing regions of the world including the Central and West Asia (McDonald and Nicol 2005;Dababat and Fourie 2018).Accurate identification of phytoparasitic nematodes to species level is needed as an initial step in effective control measures. Economically important cereal nematodes: Pratylenchus spp. and Heterodera spp. very highly morphologically and morphometrically similar to each other. Species identification based on the shape and measurement of second-stage juvenile, female, and male species becomes more complex as the number of species within these genera increases (Subbotin et al. 2003;Handoo 2002). However, molecular techniques make it easier to distinguish closely related species in these genera (Subbotin et al. 2003;Castillo and Vovlas 2007). The D2-D3 expansion segment of 28S gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) show a high polymorphism among the species of these genera; therefore, these regions are a useful tool for species identification and phylogenetic analysis of these cereal nematodes. Also, sequencing the 28S gene and ITS-rDNA of undescribed nematodes species, which published or reserved in GenBank (Tanha Maafi et al. 2003), facilitates the accurate identification for most of the root-lesion and cyst nematode species.In CWANA region countries particularly: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, there is also little information on the morphological and molecular characteristics of these root-lesion and cyst nematodes.The aims of the current study were to (i) investigate the root lesion and cyst nematodes densities in the major wheat-growing areas of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan provinces, representing CWANA region (ii) describe the root lesion and cyst nematodes species by morphological and molecular techniques and (iii) evaluate possible intraspecific variation within root lesion and cyst nematodes populations based on the 28S gene and ITS-rDNA regions, respectively.Over the three-year period from 2018 to 2020, a total of 233 samples were collected from Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Prior to the start of sample collection, a systematic sampling protocol was established with sampling by district and parts within the district (no more than one sample per section) subject to road access. Field selection for sampling was based on the criteria that the field was representative of wheat production in that country or nearby region and that field locations were separated by at least 1.6 km (6 to 9 km in most cases). A minimum of 10 cores were taken per sample, then soil was mixed, and a representative of 2 kg subsamples was kept for analyses. Each sample was labelled with sample number, province, coordination, and cultivated crop.Migratory nematodes were extracted from 100 cm 3 of soil by using a modified \"Petri-dish\" Baermann funnel method (Hooper 1986). Extracted nematodes were counted at 100x magnification under the light microscope and identified at genus level. Cyst nematodes were extracted from 250 cm 3 of soil by using Fenwick can (Fenwick 1940). At least 10 full cysts were selected and handpicked from each sample and stored at 4 °C to be used in the molecular and morphological analysis. Cysts were morphologically identified to genus level under a stereo-binocular microscope (Zeiss, Jena, Germany, and V20). The incidence of the nematode [(number of samples with nematode / total number of samples) *100] were calculated for each field.The nematodes were killed in hot water bath and fixed in 2 percent formaldehyde. Nematodes were processed for dehydration by Seinhorst's method and mounted on glass slides in anhydrous glycerin (Seinhorst 1959).Identification of nematode genera and species were based on the morphology with the help of keys (Handoo 2002). The exact number of nematodes in each genus was assessed. The root lesion and cyst nematodes by using morphological traits and molecular markers (ITS, 28 S and 18 S rDNA gene sequences).The incidence of PPN populations per 100 g of soil associated with cereal crops at 233 sites from Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan was calculated. Plant parasitic nematodes was present in 90% of samples, with an average incidence of 960 individuals/ 100 g soil. Eleven genera of PPNs were identified (Table 2).Geocenamus spp. were most prevalent (65%), followed by Trophurus spp. (62.5%) and Pratylenchus spp. (52.5%). The lowest frequency was recorded for Pratylenchoides spp. (20%). Economically important PPNs found in soil cores were Pratylenchus and Heterodera. (Table 1). Heterodera species were found in 30% of the cereal fields. Based on the morphological characteristics and molecular analysis, H. filipjevi was the only species identified. It was found almost in all fields where monoculture system is practiced (Table 2). The fields where cyst nematodes were not detected were generally rotated with other crops. High cyst incidence levels were recorded, e.g. 29 of 82 fields were infested in Kazakhstan. The lowest incidence of infested fields was recorded from Azerbaijan where only 21 out of 74 fields were infested. (Table 2). Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei were found in 22% and 27% of the cereal fields, respectively. Based on the morphological characteristics and molecular analysis, P. neglectus and P. thornei was the two root lesion nematodes species identified. It was found in almost all the fields where monoculture system is practiced (Table 3). The highest P. neglectus incidence levels were recorded, e.g. 23 of 82 fields in Kazakhstan. The lowest P. neglectus incidence of infested fields was recorded from Kyrgyzstan where only 14 out of 77 fields were infested. (Table 3). This survey provides information on occurrence and density of plant parasitic nematodes associated with wheat and barley crops cultivated in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. The results of this study indicate that some plant parasitic nematodes especially the cereal cyst, and root lesion nematodes, the endoparasites, were found widely distributed in cereal fields of the province which are of economic importance and are considered serious pests of wheat and barley crops . The prominence of Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei with high population density in soil as well in roots differed from others. Thirty-one percent of collected cyst nematodes were identified as H. filipjevi (Dababat et al. 2020;Imren et al. 2021).This study highlighted the eco-regional distribution of the main genera of Pratylenchus (P. neglectus and P. thornei) and Heterodera (H. filipjevi) populations in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Global complementation among regional or national research programs has proven to be highly beneficial for identifying and deploying germplasm with higher levels of resistance and tolerance to cereal cyst and rootlesion nematodes. However, these global efforts currently lack effective funding and coordination, limiting the ability to realize the benefits already known to exist. Greater collaboration is therefore needed between advanced research institutions, international organizations such as CIMMYT and ICARDA, and scientists in countries where these nematodes are known to be a problem. These collaborative efforts will provideWheat is one of the most important crops due to its essential role in the human and animal diet, and its importance in food security. Türkiye is the world's top ten producers of wheat and therefore has an important role in global wheat production (FAO 2021). Bread wheat covers 86 % and durum wheat covers 16 % of the total cultivated wheat area in Türkiye (TUIK 2016).Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are one of the important biotic stresses that cause economical level yield losses in wheat-growing regions. On a global scale, there is a 10% loss from PPNs and 7-10% in wheat production (Sasser 1987;Smiley et al. 2017;Whitehead 1998). Also, it has been reported that yield losses from nematodes in wheat can reach up to 35-40% due to population density and abiotic stress factors especially drought (Williamson and Gleason 2003).The CCN H. avenae was first detected in Erzurum (Yüksel 1974), and then Öztürk et al. (1992) in wheat fields in Konya. Rumpenhorst et al. (1996) reported that the species known as H. avenae in the Central Anatolian region is H. filipjevi. Subbotin et al. (2003) and Şahin et al. (2009) reported that only H. filipjevi was found in the Central Anatolian region. Heterodera avenae was detected in the wheat fields of Çukurova region (Gözel 2001;Subbotin et al. 2003) and Aegean region (Mısırlıoğlu 2006). While in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, H. avenae and H. latipons are found in mixed populations (Abidou et al. 2005;İmren et al. 2010;Kılıç 2011;Öcal 2012), the most common species being H. latipons. reported (Imren et al. 2012).Heterodera filipjevi is identified by forming cysts on root systems. It also causes yellowing on the head of plants and helps in the penetration of other root pathogens. Recent studies showed that H. filipjevi causes yield losses of up to 50% in Türkiye (Dababat et al. 2015).The genus Heterodera includes 12 species that adversely affect the roots of cereals and grasses. These species of (CCNs) are designated as the Heterodera avenae group (Rivoal & Cook, 1993). Among these, three species (H.avenae, H. filipjevi, and H. latipons) are the most important cyst nematodes attacking wheat, causing economic yield loss worldwide (Handoo 2002;Subbotin et al. 2003Subbotin et al. , 2010)). Heterodera filipjevi which was identified as H.avenae (Kirjanova and Krall 1971) formerly was first found in 1964 in cereal fields of Tajikistan and described as a new species by Madzhidov (1981). In later studies, it has been revealed that the previous identification of different Heterodera spp. such as H. avenae and H. mani are actually H. filipjevi (Subbotin et al. 1996;Sturhan and Rumpenhorst 1996). Currently, H. filipjevi which has at least two pathotypes (Ha22 and Ha33) from the Ha33group is found in many countries in Europe and Asia (Toktay et al. 2012;Dababat et al. 2015Dababat et al. , 2017)), and in two northwestern states of the U.S. (Smiley 2015). The hosts of H. filipjevi are wheat, rye, barley, maize as well as other grass species (Smiley et al. 2017).In Türkiye, CCNs such as H. avenae was first detected in Erzurum (Yüksel, 1974), and then Öztürk et al. (1992) in wheat fields in Konya. Rumpenhorst et al. (1996) reported that the species known as H. avenae in the Central AnatolianRegion is H. filipjevi. In their study in the Central Anatolia region, they reported that the majority of nematodes from 15 cyst samples and 12 juvenile samples were H. filipjevi, H. latipons in two locations, and H. avenae in one location.The most harmful nematode in wheat and barley growing areas is probably H. filipjevi, especially in semiarid areas, as there is an increase in nematode damage under drought stress conditions (Rivoal and Cook 1993;Nicol 2002).Heterodera filipjevi has economic importance on winter wheat in Central and Eastern Anatolian regions of Türkiye, where it causes significant yield losses and can be found in high densities in these areas (Imren et al., 2016;Şahin et al 2009). Toktay et al 2015 reported that 32.50% of wheat field areas were infected with CCNs in addition, the infestation rates were highest (60%) in Elazığ province. A study by Cui et al. (2017) reported that H. filipjevi was found in 5 main regions of Türkiye (Central Anatolia, Marmara, Aegean, Southeast Anatolia, and Black Sea Region) from samples collected from wheat and barley fields in 21 districts. As a result of the study carried out in 13 provinces representing the most important wheat production areas of Türkiye in 2018Türkiye in -2019, it , it was determined that 42.8% of the wheat cultivation areas of the Central Anatolia Region were infested with H.filipjevi. The highest infection rate with H. filipjevi was detected in Eskişehir (75%), followed by Kırşehir (57.2%), Kırıkkale (56.3%), Konya (54.8%), Kayseri (45.9%), Nevşehir (42.9%), Sivas (37.9%), Yozgat (37%), Niğde (33.4%), Aksaray (26.7%), Ankara (25%), Çankırı (25%) and Karaman (14.3%), respectively (Yatkın et al. 2021).With H. filipjevi being widely distributed in major wheat and barley cultivation areas, the average yield losses caused by the nematode are estimated to be around 42% for rainfed winter wheat grown in the Central Anatolian Plateau in the province of Ankara (Nicol et al. 2006) and has a potential to cause damage and yield losses in wheat cultivation in Bolu Province, Türkiye, up to 40.52% (Imren et al. 2020). Also, it was reported in Türkiye that the threshold density that has a negative economic impact on yield due to H. filipjevi may be in the range of 5 eggs/g soil (Sahin et al. 2009). While Sahin et al. (2008) reported that H. filipjevi has been found to infest wheat and barley crops in several Turkish regions, where the nematode population densities have reached 115 eggs and J2/g soil. In addition, in Yatkın et al. (2021), the highest and lowest egg+J2 of H.filipjevi were determined as 104 eggs+J2 g soil and 2 eggs+J2 g soil in Kırşehir/Merkez and Konya/Sarayönü populations, respectively.One of the most important steps in determining the amount of yield loss brought on by nematode infestation is to analyze the association between the population density of CCNs and wheat production, due to H. filipjevi presence in Turkish cereal production systems. However, little is known regarding the relationship between initial population (Pi) densities and wheat yield response (Imren et al. 2020).Nematode damage is often ignored because they are microscopic and usually do not show any specific symptoms. Also, many farmers are unaware of nematodes and the damage they cause. This situation is more common in cereal production areas. Also, the difficulties in minimizing the damage caused by CCNs are complicated by the refusal of experts to acknowledge CCNs as a significant factor restricting cereal productivity. Because the impact of CCNs on wheat output has not been widely studied, especially in poorer nations, fewer experts are aware of the significance of CCNs (Smiley and Nicol 2009).The survival of CCN second-stage juvenile in the cyst for many years before hatching is the most important factor that complicates the CCN struggle. The survival of the second-stage juvenile for many years before hatching requires long-term management planning. Nematicides, which are the most important means of control for many nematode species, have very limited use in cereal due to their cost. For these reasons, the use of crop rotation and resistant varieties are the most important management tools that are being practiced.Crop rotation, which is another important management tool, is extremely difficult to apply in dry farming areas such as Türkiye. For this reason, the use of resistant varieties are considered one of the best methods for CCN control. However, the fact that resistant varieties do not provide resistance to all CCN species and races, and that resistance sources from single dominant genes do not provide resistance to other important species such as Pratylenchus spp., limit the use of resistant varieties.Cereal cyst nematodes can be controlled by lowering the population below the economic damage threshold.Definitive research on population dynamics and yield losses on representative local cultivars in natural field settings is necessary for this. CCNs can be efficiently controlled through 1) cultural methods based on rotational combinations of non-hosts such as legumes 2) moderately resistant and resistant cultivars 3) clean fallow. The efficiency and longevity of the resistance gene(s) used against the specific nematode population, as well as a thorough understanding of the virulence and diapause characteristics of the local nematode population, are all required for each of these management measures. There are numerous instances where the use of crop rotations, resistant cultivars, and chemical control techniques have successfully managed CCNs. A focused and integrated approach is the best way to control CCNs. When two or more soil-borne diseases are present in the soil at the same time, integrated management which is mostly based on genetic host resistance appears to be the most effective (Nicol and Rivoal 2008).Globally, there are several known sources of genetic resistance in wheat against cyst nematodes, however,we have yet to investigate if these genetic sources will be useable in Türkiye. In order to establish this, we need to clearly understand the nematode species and their reactions to known gene(s). The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) and the joint Soilborne pathogens program (Türkiye CIMMYT ICARDA) have obtained these sources over the past 10 years and have incorporated them into both spring and winter varieties by crossing with high-yielding, adapted wheat for global wheat improvement, which is now in Türkiye. Furthermore, through this international collaboration, CIMMYT has gained access to molecular markers for some of the resistance genes (e.g., Cre1 and Cre3) against H. avenae (pathotype Ha13). Throughout the course of this project access to other markers that were developed by AdvancedResearch Institutions is anticipated and with further assist to the development of cereal cultivars with nematode resistance.In conclusion, CCN species are widespread in many wheats growing area in Türkiye. Research to further determine economic importance and improve resistance varieties against these pathogens because chemical control is not economical to combat these pathogens.Șahin, E, Nıcol JM, Elekçioğlu İH, Yorgancılar O, Yıldırım AF, Tülek A, Ergİnbaș-Orakcı G (2009) Frequency and diversity of cereal nematodes on the Central Anatolian Plateau of Türkiye. In Cereal cyst nematodes: status, research and outlook. Proceedings of the First Workshop of the International Cereal Cyst Nematode Initiative, Antalya, Türkiye, 21-23 October 2009 (pp. 100-105) International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT).Sahin E, Nicol JM, Yorgancilar A, Elekcioglu IH, Tulek A, Yildirim AF, Bolat N (2008) Seasonal variation of field populations of Heterodera filipjevi, Pratylenchus thornei and P neglectus on winter wheat in Türkiye.Nematologia Mediterranea, Sasser JN (1988). perspective on nematode problems worldwide. Sturhan DR J Rumpenhorst (1996) Untersuchungen über den Heterodera avenae -Komplex, Mitt. Biol.Bundesanst. Land -Forstwirtsch. Berlin -Dahlem. Heft 317, 75-91. Yüksel HS (1973) Studies on the morphological and biological differences of Heterodera species (Nematoda:Heteroderidae) in Türkiye. Journal of Ataturk University Agriculture Faculty, 4, 15-20.Root lesion nematodes are ranked third among the most damaging nematode species after cyst and Root knot nematodes (Jones et al. 2013;Janssen et al. 2017). Root lesion nematodes may infect about 400 plant species and are widely found in tropical, temperate and cool climate zones (Castillo and Vovlas 2007;Bernard et al. 2017). Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei are the predominant species (Maafi et al. 2015).P. thornei, P. zeae, P. penetrans, P. coffeae P. neglectus and P. vulnus are the most common species. Many of the RNLs are polyphagous and mostly reproduce parthenogenetically. RLNs can move between cells in the root and cause damage to the roots as a result of their feeding. When the RLN nematodes feed on the roots, water and nutrient intake is restricted, and many soil-borne pathogens may enter from wounds. A total of 13 species including P. penetrans, P. thornei, P. delattrei, P. sefaensis, P. vulnus, P. pratensisobrinus, P. zeae, P. agilis, P. pratensis P. loosi, P. crenatus, P. mediterraneus and P. neglectus are found in Türkiye (Kepenekci et al. 2012).Numerous species (68 species) of Pratylenchus genus (Castillo and Vovlas 2007) are found in the world.Several species of this genus are found in cereals fields such as P. crenatus, P. thornei, P. neglectus and P.penetrans that are distributed in globally (Rivoal and Cook 1993).Root lesion nematodes may infect many plant species (Castillo and Vovlas 2007;Bernard et al. 2017) may cause damage to trees varies depending on biotic stress factors (Dickerson et al. 2000). P. coffeae causes a growth retardation of up to 80% in citrus fruits (O'Bannon and Tomerlin 1973) and P. penetrans causes growth retardation at 30 individuals/100 cm 3 soil density in pear, 80 individuals/100 cm 3 soil density in cherry and 320 individuals/100 cm 3 soil density in plum (Nyczepir and Halbrendt 1993). In addition, root lesion nematode species causes up to 75% damage on peach trees at soil densities in 457 individuals/100 cm 3 (Nyczepir and Halbrendt 1993).Wheat is an important food crop for many countries and plays important roles in food grain production in the world. Wheat has an important place in human nutrition. Wheat is cultivated on an area of 219006893 hectares in the world and 260925831 tons of product is obtained and the average yield is 34744 kg/ha (FAO 2020). In Türkiye, wheat is planted on 6914632 hectares, the average yield is 29647 kg/ha, with a total production of 20500000 tons (FAO 2020).Worldwide crop losses caused by nematodes are estimated at more than a hundred billion dollars per year (Abad et al. 2008). In addition to other plant parasitic nematode genera, the root lesion nematodes, the Pratylenchus genera, may cause significant yield losses (Rivoal and Cook 1993).P. thornei is a major species in both wheat and barley fields (Ahmedi et al. 2015). Root lesion nematodes are found in 35% in wheat fields and 42% of barley fields (Ahmedi et al. 2015). Population densities of root lesion nematodes ranged from 1 to 365 nematodes/g root in wheat fields and 0 to 1334 nematodes/250 cm 3 in barley (Ahmedi et al. 2015).The root lesion nematodes are identified using molecular (Waeynberg et al. 2000), morphological and morphometric characters (Loof 1991). The distributed rate of plant parasitic nematodes genera:Pratylenchus (73.3%), Tylenchorhynchus (37.3%), Helicotylenchus (38.8%), Paratylenchus (26.6%), Pratylenchoides (66.6%), Merlinius (78.6%), and Heterodera (82.6%) are commonly found in Bolu province of Türkiye (Imren et al. 2015).More than 8 species of Pratylenchus are parasitic on small grain cereals (Nicol 2002;Nicol et al. 2003;McDonald and Nicol 2005;Castillo and Vovlas 2007)   Türkiye (Kılıc et al. 2012;Imren and Elekcioğlu 2008;Ocal 2012;Sahin et al. 2009).P.neglectus and P. thornei exist in 82% of the wheat fields (Tanha Maafi et al. 2009). P. penetrans is the most plentiful and prevalent species in Morocco in wheat growing fields (Mokrini et al. 2012). The population density and frequency of Pratylenchus species in cereals fields were found in different localities where host plants grow (Riley et al. 2002). Among the root lesion nematodes P. neglectus is the most significant and widely distributed in the western and southern regions of Australia (Vanstone et al. 2008, Meagher et al. 2015, Riley and Kelly 2002).The yield losses caused by root lesion nematodes ranged from 19-70% in Türkiye (Toktay et al. 2015). P. RLNs population densities and are influenced by cropping systems (Gitti et al. 2015, Riley et al. 2002).Nematicide application on wheat decreases the RLNs population up to 92% and increases the yield of grain by 22.3% (Gitti et al. 2015).Some resistances are available against P. thornei in cereal in Australia (Sheedy and Thompson 2009).Possibly six genes involve in resistance against to P. thornei (Thompson and Seymour 2011;Meagher et al. 2015). The resistance presents to P. neglectus in 6DS and 2BS chromosomes and 6DL, 6DS, 2BS chromosomes to P. thornei (Zwart et al. 2010;Meagher et al. 2015). In addition, RNA interference gene silencing reveals that the reproduction nematodes decrease at 80% when target genes are silenced (Tan et al. 2013;Meagher et al. 2015).The genetic resistance to root lesion nematodes in cereals genotypes and varieties are important. Türkiye has a diverse climate conditions and contains landraces that probable contain resistance genes of cereals against to root lesion nematodes more than was once thought. Comprehensive studies lead to determine management strategies by seeking resistance sources in Turkish cereal landraces and commercial cultivars by using both phenotypic screening and molecular markers. The economic importance of the some common species of root lesion nematodes has not been fully understood. Therefore, determining and researching intensively on crop losses, distribution, biology of common and economically important species of root lesion nematodes are decisively important.  Heterodera avenae, H. filipjevi and H. latipons, the three major species of the Avenae group are common in Türkiye, a country adjacent to Syria. However, the dominant species varies with the region. Heterodera avenae and H. latipons were found in the south-eastern and eastern Mediterranean region, whereas H. filipjevi was prevalent in the Central Anatolian Plateau region (Öztürk et al. 1998;Abidou et al. 2005;Dababat et al. 2014). The three species were also found in cereal fields in Syria (Rivoal et al. 2003;Abidou et al. 2005;Hassan et al. 2010); they are widely distributed, with H. latipons being dominant (Scholz 2001).Wheat and barley growing areas are distributed all over Syria. The annual wheat yield ranges between 3 and 4.5 million tonnes (Anonymous 2010). However, after the year 2011, wheat production in Syria declined significantly, and during 2012 Syria was forced to import flour for the first time, and more than half of the wheat-producing areas in the north and south of the country were out of production. Referring to the economic importance of wheat, increasing concerns about the severity of the damage caused by CCN, and the little-known information about the distribution of the three species of CCN in Syria, the objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the current prevalence, incidence and geographical distribution of CCN in the northeastern region of Syria, and (2) to evaluate their infestation levels and to compare the obtained data with those from previous surveys carried out in the country. The acquired knowledge should guide the development of the nematological research programme for cereals.The survey was performed immediately after the harvest of cereals in 2009. Soil samples were taken in 167 fields (Table 1) spread over five of the major cereal-growing provinces (Aleppo, Idlib, El-Raqqa, Deir Ez Zur and El-Hassake; Figure 1). Ninety-five samples were taken from rain-fed (40 samples) and irrigated wheat fields ( 55samples); the remaining 72 samples were obtained from barley fields (54 rain-fed and 18 irrigated). For each sample, cysts were extracted (Fenwick, 1940) from three 200 g subsamples. Extracted cysts were retained on a 250-µm sieve. For each sample, the vulval cone of 2-5 mature cysts was mounted in glycerine jelly. Identification of Heterodera species was based on the shape of the cyst, vulval slit, underbridge structure, and presence or absence of bullae (Handoo 2002). Samples with fewer cysts were identified molecularly only (Ferris et al. 1993;Toumi et al. 2013a,b). Molecular identification was restricted to about 50% of the samples from each province, because of financial restrictions.The morphological observations resulted in the identification of three species (Table 1). Lemon-shaped cysts with a short vulval slit, clear and crowded bullae, and no underbridge in the vulval cone were identified as H.avenae. Cysts of H. filipjevi were also lemon-shaped, had big bullae, and a distinct underbridge, thick in the middle and thin at the ends. Heterodera latipons cysts were lemon-shaped, and showed a short vulval slit, no bullae and a very strong underbridge with a pronounced enlargement in the middle (Figure 2). Amplification of the rDNA-ITS region was successful for all selected samples; sequencing of both DNA strands of the PCR products confirmed the morphological identification of corresponding samples. According to the results of both morphological and molecular identifications, H. latipons, H. avenae and H. filipjevi were present in 62% of the 104 fields surveyed in the region (Figure 4). Heterodera latipons was the most prevailing species in wheat and barley fields throughout the surveyed sites. The highest population density was found in El-Raqqa (116 cysts (200 g) -1 soil). All fields in El-Raqqa and Idlib were infested only with H. latipons (Figure 5). Heterodera avenae was found in 32 fields (31% of the infested fields). The highest incidence was in Aleppo (53 cysts (200 g) -). Heterodera avenae occurred singly in 21 fields (20%) and mixed with H. latipons or H. filipjevi in 11 fields (11%) (Figure 4). Heterodera filipjevi occurred only in El-Hassake in 9% of infested fields (9 fields) always in a mix with H. latipons and/or H. avenae (Figure 4). High infestation levels of nematodes were found in barley fields (69% of the fields). However, only in three provinces out of the five surveyed, the infestation levels in barley fields were higher than in wheat fields: Aleppo (91%), Deir Ez Zur (56%) and El-Raqqa (43%) (Figure 6). This survey demonstrates that the major cereal growing areas in Syria are commonly infested by three species belonging to the Avenae group. As was reported earlier (Scholz 2001;Abidou et al. 2005;Hassan 2008) H. latipons is the most widely distributed species and occurs in all regions. Heavy infestations of cyst nematodes, especially H. latipons, were found most commonly in barley fields in the dry areas of Syria (< 300 mm annual rainfall). In the last decade, because of the increase in the incidence of drought conditions, farmers prefer to grow barley instead of wheat because, unlike wheat, barley can be grown with limited rainfall. The monoculture of barley further aims at a higher yield to feed a larger number of animal stock (Scholz 2001;Nicol et al. 2004).  The survey also shows that H. avenae and H. filipjevi are more widespread than previously reported (Scholz 2001; Abidou et al. 2005;Hassan 2008). Abidou et al. (2005) described H. filipjevi from only one location, whereas in this survey, the species was detected at nine locations close to the Turkish border. This result suggests a further extension of the spread of H. filipjevi in Syria and Türkiye (Imren et al. 2012). Heterodera filipjevi is common in temperate climates in many European countries; the East European region is considered to be the centre of distribution of the species. The areas we found infested with H. filipjevi are somehow similar in climate to the center of distribution of H. filipjevi, as they were situated at higher altitudes with lower temperatures andSession I: An update on the status of the global distribution of CN more rainfall than areas where H. avenae and H. latipons were detected abundantly. These findings confirm the differences in the ecoregional distribution of the three major species of CCN and their link with the geographic and climate difference, in addition to the suggested early divergence between tropical and temperate heteroderid species. It would be worth developing some phylogeography approaches to establishing the principles and processes determining the geographical distribution of these differentiation lineages. Fields in the other four provinces (Aleppo, Idlib, El-Raqqa and Deir Ez Zur) were not found infested with H. filipjevi.Additionally, all fields in El-Raqqa and Idlib were free of H. avenae. However, due to the relatively low number of collected samples compared with the wide area surveyed, the strict outcome of this investigation regarding the negative samples (e.g. one or two species do not exist in a province) may not reflect the accurate occurrence of CCN. Therefore, an intensive survey of CCN distribution is still required in those provinces.  The morphological identification of the collected cysts was not straightforward because of the presence of species mixtures. Moreover, in some samples, the number of cysts was low and not enough to allow morphological identification. Hence, identification via sequencing was used. However, sequencing is relatively expensive, and time-consuming, and because of the large number of samples, approximately half the number of samples had to be sequenced. Subsequent species-specific PCR assays enabled fast and accurate identification.The wide distribution of CCN species in the surveyed regions and the high numbers of cysts in some samples is probably related to: 1) the monoculture of cereals practised in these regions, where the damage caused by the nematodes is likely to be greater as well (Ibrahim et al. 1999, Smiley andNicol 2009), 2) the fact that farmers are unaware of the existence of resistant varieties, 3) the strong wind in the north-eastern regions in Syria responsible for the aerial spread of soil and cysts to other locations, 4) an irrigation system which is still not well developed but allows water to carry cysts to lower situated fields, and 5) non-use of agricultural practices such as clean fallow, weed control and cleaning machinery. Research by Kerry (1982) showed that after many years of monoculture of cereals, H. avenae populations declined due to the increase in the density of the fungal parasites that totally destroyed females on roots or resulted in the formation of small cysts, which are often empty. It is worth observing whether this phenomenon also happens in Syria and what the outcome might be.To maintain the population densities of cereal cyst nematodes below damaging levels, appropriate management measures such as crop rotation and the use of resistant varieties, are necessary. A number of resistance sources for breeding purposes have been detected in domestic cereals and their wild relatives, acting against both H. avenae and Pratylenchus spp. (Nicol et al. 2004). Preliminary studies indicate that several resistance genes of barley or wheat are, to some extent, also active against populations of H. filipjevi or H. latipons originating from different sites in North Africa, Europe and Asia (Bekal et al. 1998;Rivoal et al. 2001;Mokabli et al. 2002). Further efforts should be made to characterise existing varieties and identify resistance amongst existing cultivars as well as new sources to be used in cereal breeding programmes.To develop a long-term strategy for CCN management, cultivars from other countries or from the local breeding programme should be screened for resistance to the prevailing CCN species. Also, comprehensive and regional surveys in Türkiye, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan are needed for establishing the mapping population densities in order to define potential economic damage rates and determine more accurately the distribution of CCN. Also, to increase the understanding of the geographical distribution of CCN, and clarify the relation with different hosts and different cultivars of barley or wheat. However, However, due to the war, many fields were out of use due to the spread of bombs and explosives in fields. Hence, many farmers left their fields, and that resulted in a shortage of wheat production and yield since 2011, and the year 2022 we had less than one million tons of wheat, while our need is almost 1.7-2 million tons. hopefully, in the coming days will be safer to be able to get back to our field safely and restart the production as before the war. El-Raqqa Tel El-Saman wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Tel El-Saman wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Tel El-Saman wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Tel El-Saman wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa El-Wahda wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa El-Wahda wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Bo Asii wheat rain-fed 19 HlEl-Raqqa Hzima wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Hzima wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Dkhailieb wheat rain-fed 13 HlEl-Raqqa Aien Isa wheat rain-fed -El-Raqqa Aien Isa wheat rain-fed HlEl-Raqqa El-Raqqa wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa El-Raqqa wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Baas wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Baas wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa El-Yarmook wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa El-Yarmook wheat irrigated -El-Raqqa Mazrat Kirtaj wheat rain-fed -El-Raqqa El-Asadia wheat irrigated -  Heterodera filipjevi, Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus on winter wheat in Bolu, TürkiyeWheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is cultivated worldwide and is the second most important (http://faostat. fao.org) and is a major staple food in Türkiye (http://turkstat.gov.tr). Wheat is vulnerable to numerous plant pathogens that adversely affect its production (Nicol 2002). Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN) and Root Lesion nematodes (RLN) are a group of root-feeding plant-parasitic nematodes that infect many kinds of cereals used as food crops and are known to be a major constraint to wheat production (Nicol 2002;Dababat et al. 2014).Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are widespread and one of the most important groups of plantparasitic nematodes due to their wide host ranges and their worldwide distribution (Jones et al. 2013). The genus comprises 75 nominal species (Zamora- Araya et al. 2016), with Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus being two of the most frequently reported species (Riga et al. 2008;Yan et al. 2008). In Bolu Province, Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus were recorded in different cereal-producing regions, representing northern Karadeniz Region in Türkiye (Dababat et al. 2019). The cyst nematode, Heterodera spp. are important obligate parasites and an economically relevant group of harmful plant parasitic nematodes which are found world-wide (Subbotin et al. 2010 a,b). The main species parasitizing cultivated wheat are Heterodera avenae, H. filipjevi, H. hordecalis and H. latipons (McDonald and Nicol 2005). Heterodera filipjevi is the most damaging pest that limits cereals production in the major cereal-producing regions of the world including the Central and West Asia (Dababat and Fourie 2018). In Bolu provinces, H. filipjevi was first reported by Imren et al. (2018). More recently, this species was recorded in different cereal-producing regions of Marmara region (Keçici et al. 2022).Cereal nematodes populations can also be managed via crop rotation or cultivation with nonhost crops and fallows. However, nematode biology and population changes should be monitored for effective management, especially under natural field conditions (Thompson et al. 2010). This study was conducted to investigate the seasonal variation of Root lesion nematodes; P. thornei and P. neglectus and Cyst nematodes H. filipjevi in wheat-growing areas in Bolu Province.The population dynamics of H. filipjevi, P. thornei and P. neglectus were investigated in a naturally infested experimental field located at Yenicepınar village (40° 45′ 32″ N; 31° 45′ 07″ E) in Bolu. The experimental area is defined as continental, wet and cold in winter, hot and dry in summer. The main climatic features of the study area is defined with average winter and summer months temperatures between 3.5 and 15.5 °C respectively, with average annual precipitation of 550 mm, and an accumulated temperature of 2776 °C (≥ 0 °C). In both growing seasons the experiments were carried out in the beginning of November (http://www.mgm.gov.tr/en-us/about.aspx).In the study, H. filipjevi was identified as the only CCN group species present in the research area, based on morphological and molecular PCR/RFLP identification of the cysts (Imren et al. 2020). Identification of P.thornei and P. neglectus was made morphologically (Imren et al. 2020). Experiments were conducted during the 2014-15 and 2015-16 wheat-growing seasons, on wheat cultivar Seri-82. The experiment was set up in a randomised block design with seven replications. Soil temperature was measured at 10 cm depth and the means were recorded throughout the experimental period by using a soil thermometer on a monthly basis.Second-stage juveniles (J2) in the soil samples were counted in one composite sample which was taken from 20 plots on a monthly basis during experimental set up until harvest. All composite samples were mixed and stored in plastic bags at 5 °C until nematode extraction.The number of cysts and second stage juveniles of cereal cyst nematode and the number of root lesion nematodes in the soil samples were assessed. Six plant root samples per plot were also examined for the presence of endoparasitic nematode stages at each sampling time. Multiplication rates of the three nematodes were calculated by the ratio of the final population density in July to the initial soil population density in November. Initial population densities in March were used for the calculation of multiplication rates.Motile stages of both Pratylenchus species and second-stage juveniles of H. filipjevi in the soil were extracted using the Whitehead tray technique (Whitehead and Hemming 1965). The final counts were expressed as numbers of nematodes per 100 g of dry soil for the different species of RLN and per g of dry soil for H. filipjevi.Cysts of H. filipjevi were also extracted, using Fenwick can method (Fenwick 1940), from 250 g soil. After cysts were crushed with a modified revolving grinding mill, the numbers of J2 were determined at minimum dilution of 30 mL and at higher dilutions as if the sample consisted of only one cyst. The viable eggs and juveniles were counted in calibrated counting chambers in 1 mL and then the number was adjusted to 100 g of soil. The reproduction factor (R) was calculated for each plot by dividing the final J2 population (Pf) density over the initial population (Pi) density in November. Numbers of J2 and eggs of H. filipjevi in each sample were compiled for the analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) (SAS Institute, 1985, Cary, NC, USA).The numbers of J2 of H. filipjevi extracted from soil varied for each plot during the experiments. The year round average population density of J2 was 6 J2 in 100 g of soil and root. Second stage juveniles were detected in the soil and roots throughout both growing seasons. The highest numbers of J2 were extracted from roots in April and beginning of May, 22 and 12/100 g soil, respectively; however the lowest numbers were detected in December and January (5 and 3/100 g soil), respectively . Therefore, the nematode invasion and development slowed down during November to January when the mean monthly soil temperatures were low (averaged at 3.5 °C). Then, nematode population increased when the mean temperature raised to 11.9 °C in April and May. Consequently, a strong relationship between J2 emergence and low temperatures was observed during the cold period.The first white females on the roots were observed on May, when the soil temperature was approximately 14.1 °C and greatly increased in June. Afterwards, white females turned into light brown cysts during June and July. The greatest numbers of brown cysts (26 cysts in 250 g of dry soil) were observed in July and August of both growing seasons. These results suggested that the population of H. filipjevi displayed only one peak in each growing season (Figure 1). The quantity of individual P. thornei extracted from root tissues varied. All stages of nematodes were detected in roots throughout both growing seasons, though the greatest numbers of nematodes were extracted from roots during May and June as P. thornei populations increased from early spring (March)to mid-summer (July). Nematode populations tend to decrease from the late summer (August) to the end of winter, before starting to increase again through to May (early spring). There were significantly more P. thornei in the lowest density plots during January and February. However, P. thornei had reached the highest density in plots between June and July. It was determined that there were more P. thornei in the plots as was in the first sampling results. Average P. thornei population density was 115 nematodes in 100 g soil and root, but reached up to 240 nematodes/100 g soil and root in June and July. P. thornei population densities indicated a positive correlation with soil temperature (R² = 0,9515; y = 0,362x2 -0,9692x + 2,7773).Population numbers of P. neglectus were variable and all developing forms of the nematode were observed in root tissues during the experiment. This variation in population numbers may be caused by variable soil temperatures and moisture (May through July) and availability of host plants (September through November). P. neglectus populations were positively correlated with temperatures between 20-25 ˚C (the average value of May); while it was negatively correlated with temperatures lower than 5 ˚C and higher than 25 ˚C. In general, nematode abundance in roots fluctuated greatly, with a distinct high during April-May in both growing seasons (coinciding with soil temperatures of 16. 4-22.1˚C). Despite high nematode abundance in the soil, the population in roots was very low from December to March, which can be attributed to lower soil temperatures during these months. P. neglectus soil population numbers were lowest in March, at 500 and 400 nematodes per kg of soil in 2015 and 2016, respectively. Thereafter, they increased gradually until May, when there could be up to 8440 nematodes per kg of dry soil.The results showed a positive correlation between soil temperature and density of P. thornei and P. neglectus populations. Their population density was low from November to February during the cold snow period, before increasing gradually from March to July and then rapidly decreasing between July and August. Similarly, Sahin et al. (2008) found a correlation between soil temperature and their populations in that nematode populations were low from November to March/April and increased to June/July in Ankara province of Türkiye. Nicol and Rivol (2008) reported that P. thornei completes its life cycle at 27 o C in 40-45 days under natural conditions. Vanstone et al. (1998) also stated that the optimal temperature for increase P. thornei populations was 25 o C. Moreover, Elekcioglu and Gözel (1997) also found that the numbers of P. thornei and P. neglectus in the soil was low until March and then increased during the growing season in Adana province of Türkiye.In this study, the highest number of J2 of H. filipjevi in the soil was detected in April and beginning of May which is similar to the results found by Sahin et al. (2008), being the highest number of J2 of H.filipjevi recorded in March and beginning of April in Ankara Province in Türkiye. Hajihasani et al. (2010) reported that the hatching of H. filipjevi occurred during the cool period from November to March in Markazi Province of Iran. In Bolu Province, the hatching of the J2 started at a temperature of 9.7 °C and was similar to that of Ankara and Markazi populations of H. filipjevi in Türkiye and Iran. It was determined for the Adana's populations of H. avenae that hatching occurred through late autumn until the beginning of spring with the majority of juveniles hatching at 10 and 15 °C in the Mediterranean temperate climate (Imren et al. 2012). In addition, J2 of H. latipons were found in the soil from November to February at soil temperature below 18 °C (Philis 1999). The variation in nematode emergences in CCN species is probably correlated with temperature of the soil in late autumn and winter. It has been demonstrated that proper soil moisture content and temperature are basic factors for hatching of J2 of H. avenae (Sahin et al. 2008;Hajihasani et al. 2010).This study revealed the regional occurrence of Heterodera filipjevi, Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus in wheat growing areas of Bolu, Türkiye. The study results suggest that further studies needed on Heterodera filipjevi, Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus to develop an effective integrated control strategy to maintain nematode populations below economic damage threshold.Grains have been an integral part of human nutrition for thousands of years. They have played an important role in the development of human civilization. Cereal crops represent more than 70% of the area devoted to food crops. In 2017, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is grown on more land than any other cash crop with 218.4 million hectares. It continues to be the main source of food grains for humans (FAOSTAT 2020).Due to the increase in world population, the world demand for wheat is estimated at 860 million t in 2025 (Marathee and Gomez-MacPherson 2001). In Algeria, cereals are grown in semi-arid areas on 3.3 million hectares:40% of the useful agricultural area. In 2017, total cereal production produced 3.5 million t, 17%below the previous five-year average (2012-2016) and 5% above 2016 (FAOSTAT 2020). Unfortunately, this figure is still insufficient to meet the demand of the growing population in Algeria. Cereal production is often confronted with various biotic and abiotic constraints. In addition to the vagaries of the weather and the calcareous nature of the soil, the poor management of crops linked to the lack of mechanization in the preparation of the soil, the lack of fertilizers and the absence of weeding, biotic factors are part of the yield reduction component. (Mokabli et al. 2002).Among the biotic agents that limit cereal production, cyst nematodes of the genus Heterodera CCN, cause considerable losses to this type of crop.In Algeria, studies carried out on cereal cyst nematodes have revealed their presence in several cerealgrowing areas. However, research work relating to this parasite has been limited to its detection in large cereal-growing areas and no study has been undertaken on production losses and consequently on its economic impact on cereal yields (Rivoal and Nicol 2009;Mokabli et al. 2001).Given their bio-ecological and agro-economic importance, we were interested in expanding investigations to other regions of the country, their diversity, their evolution and their reproduction on different varieties of wheat, in order to propose an adequate control strategy.Our research theme on cereal nematodes in certain regions of Algeria aims to focus on the Heterodera group. Based on existing databases, we studied the infestations of the plots to make an assessment of the seriousness of the situation. We have tried to complete the work carried out by different authors on the biological and biochemical characterizations of the different species present in Algeria. Finally, the study of the impact of nematode densities on yield components is essential to quantify the losses estimated on the basis of tests of the nematode in question alone and without any associated pathogen.The survey was carried out during the summer period, after the cereal harvest in 2017-18 and 2018-19. The choice of our study sites focused on 54 plots producing cereals (wheat, barley and oats) spread over 14 wilayas of the North, Center, East and WestThe extraction of Heterodera spp. cysts was carried out at the nematology laboratory of the higher national school of agriculture (ENSA), Algiers by the Fenwick (1940) From each sample, 100 cm³ of soil were used to extract the vermiform stages of Heterodera spp. The soil samples from each plot are placed on 40 µm sieves, themselves placed in containers (large Petri dishes) containing tap water. The nematodes by rehydrating become active and cross the meshes of the sieves. We kept the samples in extraction for 2 days, checking that the samples always remained moist and did not dry out with evaporation. After pouring the suspensions containing the nematodes into graduated beakers, adding water up to 200 µl, we left the samples to stand overnight. The larvae descend to the bottom of the beaker, which allowed us to lower the water level to 100 ml. Using a pipette, the solution was homogenized and 5 μm was taken for counting the larvae using an optical microscope.For each plot studied, the population density (P.D.) of nematodes per 100 cm3 of soil, the frequency of occurrence % (F.O. %) and the prominence value (P.V.) are calculated according to (Norton 1978)  The cysts were crushed and the juveniles released into 10 µl of distilled water. The juveniles were homogenized by a micro-homogenizer, then the whole lysate was placed in a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube, 10 µl 1xPCR reaction mix [75 mM , 20 mM (NH4) 2SO4, Tween 20 0.01% (v/v)] and 2 µl proteinase K (600 µg/ml; Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany) are added to the lysate.The tube was incubated at 60°C for 30 minutes, then 5 minutes at 95°C to remove proteinase K. The tube was centrifuged at 16,000 rpm for one minute. The supernatant was carefully removed without disturbing the pellet, and transferred to another Eppendorf tube and stored at -20°C until further use. The molecular identification was carried out by the PCR method, with primers F194 and F195 (described by Ferris et al. (1994) to amplify the ITS regions, including the ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S ribosomal gene, as well as parts of the 18S and 28S ribosomal genes using a T100 thermocycler (Bio-Rad, California, USA).ITS sequences were used to explore the intra-specific genomic variability of Heterodera species and to determine the phylogenetic relationships between collected populations and representative populations of Heterodera from different countries available in the GenBank database. A total of 24 nucleotide sequences are involved in the phylogenetic analysis performed with MEGA7 (Kumar et al. 2016). Evolutionary history was inferred using the neighborhood method (Saitou and Nei 1987), based on evolutionary distances calculated using the Tamura-Nei method (Tamura and Nei 1993). Bootstrap support was calculated for all analyzes using 1000 replicates (Felsenstein 1985)We conducted a test on the behavior of four varieties of durum wheat (Triticum durum) against a population of Heterodera avenae originating from Ain Defla. to assess the relationship between the population density of H. avenae, the growth and yield of the host plant, as well as the reproductive capacity of these nematodes on the different cultivars.The test was carried out at ENSA experimental station according to a device in blocks in randomization with 4 repetitions per variety, we choose varieties preferred by farmers. The soil used in the test was sterilized in an oven at 120°C for 2 hours, once cooled, it was sieved, then mixed with the soil (1/3 soil + 2/3 soil) to form a mixture of 1 kg per plot (25 cm in diameter, 15 cm long). Each plot received an inoculum of 20 full cysts, bagged in a small 250-micron tulle bag allowing the larvae to exit, placed at a depth of about 3 cm. Each plot was perforated to allow good drainage of irrigation water. Sowing was carried out three days after inoculation at the rate of 5 germinated caryopsis per pot. Temperatures and humidity were controlled during vegetation and the plants are fertilized and even Manual weeding was carried out each time weeds appear in the pots.At the end of the test, the growth and yield parameters are estimated (spike length, stem height, number of spike/plants, Number of grains/spikes, weight of 1000 grains; yield was calculated by the following formula: Yield = Number of grains / plots reported to one hectare based on the surface of the pot.Referring to Namouchi-kachouri et al. (2006), the yield loss (P.R) is calculated by the following formula:The data collected on the population densities of cereal cyst nematodes of the genus Heterodera in the surveyed plots were the subject of the ANOVA analysis of variance in order to test the significance between the tested means. All data are analyzed using STATISTICA software (Version 6).To know the influence of different factors such as: previous crop, climate, geographical origin, on the distribution of Heterodera spp. in the surveyed regions, we carried out a one-factor ANOVA analysis of variance (Region, Previous Cultural, Bioclimatic stage). The groupings according to the means were carried out using the Fisher test (LSD) with a confidence interval at 95% (p<0.05).Hierarchical Ascending Classification of Variables (HAC): was used to identify plateaus where many classes are generated at a close aggregation distance using STATISTICA software (Version 6).The data collected relating to the sensitivities of durum wheat varieties, against the cyst nematodes Heterodera avenae: Growth parameters, yield and its components, were subjected to a one-factor ANOVA analysis of variance: Varieties, by software: IBM SPSS STATISTICS 20. They were processed by Dunnett's test to identify homogeneous and non-homogeneous groups.After calculating the rate of reproduction of the nematodes of each variety, we used a scale established by Valocka et al. (1994), to evaluate the sensitivity of the varieties, and confirm the previous results.Our field surveys, the study of the state of infestation of the plots of some cereal regions by cereal cyst nematodes of the genus Heterodera showed that, except for the region of Boumerdes, all the surveyed areas are infested. This represents a rate of 92.58. Infestation levels vary from region to region and even within the same region. We mentioned that the prospected plots of Tebessa are infested with 0.8 cysts and 2 L 2 per 100 cm 3 of soil (F.O = 33.33%), going as far as Oum Bouaghi where we record 28.9 cysts with 72.25 L 2 per 100 cm 3 where F.O =70%. We reported total infestation rates in Relizane, Ain Defla, Guelma, Mila and Bouira (F.O = 100%).This wide fluctuation of infestations is the consequence of inadequate cultural practices which allow the reproduction of this pest (rotation system, abundance of unploughed fallow land, absence of weeding, varieties used, dissemination by the wind, tillage tools, polyculture, etc.). (Labdelli et al. 2017;Righi et al. 2014).Analysis of variance shows very highly significant and significant differences between nematode population densities expressed as number of cysts/100 cm 3 of soil and number of larvae/cm 3 of soil. They are based on the regions studied and their bioclimatic levels. The results obtained confirm that fluctuations in infestation levels are closely linked to the interaction of many factors such as climate (Smiley and Nicol 2009), rotation system (Al-Hazmi et al. 2015), cultivated varieties, soil type (Smiley and Nicol 2009), which influence the populations of the Heterodera spp.  Regarding the mastery of knowledge and the molecular characterization of the Heterodera group, the molecular identification of some populations of nematodes has provided new information on the distribution and frequency of occurrence of Heterodera avenae, H. hordecalis, H. carotae and H. cruciferae in the main wheat-growing areas in northern Algeria. It appears that H. avenae is more widespread compared to other species. However, the species H. latipons is considered absent in all the plots surveyed.The test carried out on the impact of the nematode in question without any interaction with other pathogenic agents on four varieties of durum wheat (Triticum Durum) against a population of Heterodera avenae from Ain Defla carried out over two consecutive years is carried out at the ENSA horticultural station.Finally, the goal is to assess the effect of this nematode on the growth and yield of the durum wheat varieties tested. We showed that Heterodera avenae is a pathogenic agent harmful to the culture of durum wheat in Algeria more particularly to the cultivars Mohamed ben Bachir and Simeto.The other varieties tested also proved to be favorable hosts for the development of the nematode Heterodera avenae in a less aggressive manner; these are Hedba3 and Ofanto. Yield loss estimates are generally plotted against plot area and reported as a unit area of one hectare. They reveal that under controlled conditions, nematode populations alone can reduce yields by more than five quintals.  Food production and food security are now being severely impacted by biotic and abiotic constraints on a global scale. The importance of both factors in reducing crop yield has increased significantly and will influence how agriculture is conducted in the future and how we feed the world's poor and hungry. These constraints also influence how crop health will be addressed in the future. In the present highly complex social, political, agricultural and ecological environment the topic of root-health management will play an important role in food production and is the topic of this paper.We are running out of time globally with regards to improving yield to feed the masses as influenced by shifts in climate. Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) is a climate hotspot and one of agricultures' most water-stressed ecological zones. It is the region where constraints such as climate variability are having a major limiting impact on rainfed agroecosystems, food production, food security and human livelihoods.Over one third of the earth's land surface is arid or semi-arid, receiving less than 400 mm annual precipitation and supporting over 20% of the world's population. The populations in these regions are expanding at a rate which current agricultural practices cannot adequately support with food using present production systems. Countries in this zone are experiencing prolonged periods of elevated temperatures and suffering through drought conditions that are affecting both yield and human wellbeing. The demand for wheat will double in the next 30 years as populations increase. Therefore, there is an urgent need for more research and development to improve wheat productivity regionally and globally.Wheat production in the semi-arid zones around the world is extremely important and especially true in the countries of CWANA. In Central and West Asia and North Africa, agriculture is characterized by large variations in agro-ecology, farming systems, moisture, temperature, soil types and cultural practices and therefore is hyper-sensitive to biotic and abiotic constraints. Food production in many semi-arid zones is closely related to interrelationships involving the above factors but also to: pest and disease pressure, high post-harvest losses, degraded soils, poor quality seed, lack of fertilizer, non-existent integrated pest management, and importantly a lack of credit for inputs.Human population growth, energy and climate changes are drivers of change that cannot be significantly influenced by humankind. These drivers have a great impact on how agricultural production is conducted and of course on ultimate yields attained. Human population growth continues rise with densities in sub-Saharan Africa alone projected to double in the next 30 years. CWANA has the second highest population growth rates globally, with some countries growing at 3.5% per year. Recent, unpredictable shifts in climate are responsible for serious crop loss due to farmer's inability of react.Constraints, both biotic and abiotic, are limiting factors that can be manipulated by humans to improve food production. The major constraints to production include: pests and pathogens, land degradation, soil fertility, water availability, land ownership, and global and regional markets just to name a few.Drivers and constraints will have a significant influence on the future of food production and food security.The manner in which we manage agricultural production in the future to offset these limiting factors was discussed in detail in a recent open-access book: Transforming Agriculture in Southern Africa (Sikora et al., 2020).Yields in the semi-arid production zones tend to be lower than in other climatic regions because of a number of known agro-ecological limiting factors. In some semi-arid countries, for example, farm size limits production. An estimated 98 percent of the farmers in the world grow crops on less than 2 ha. In most of Africa, India and China farm size is around 1.2 ha and decreasing. Resource limited farmers in these situations often have little to no access to quality seed, IPM, fertilizer, extension services, markets, nor credit.The yield of these farmers is also greatly affected by a lack of knowledge of root-health problems and by their inability to use modern technologies available to larger farmers.These two interrelated elements are now becoming the most important factors limiting food production (Sikora et al., 2020(Sikora et al., , 2022)). This impact can be seen in the recent: droughts, extensive forest fires, high temperatures, human conflicts, and flooding. Long-term climate change and short-term climate variability are and will continue to have massive impacts on agriculture in CWANA and other semi-arid regions of the world.Climate change refers to multi-decadal temperature and precipitation trends associated with anthropogenic warming.There is a need to redesign how crops are grown and how pest and plant diseases are managed to offset the impact of these two drivers. This is especially true with regards to root-health as will be discussed later.Rethinking how crops are grown in the semi-arid zone will be a major objective of agricultural science research in the near future.Available water for crop production in most semi-arid zones including CWANA is becoming scarcer as seen in drastically sinking water tables. In the future the lack of available water for plant growth will affect all crops in CWANA as well as global food production in other countries with semi-arid climates. Therefore, there is a need to change the way crop production systems are designed with regards to water use. Water availability is rapidly declining worldwide not only due to agriculture, but also due to demand from nonagricultural sectors as well as use for environmental protection purposes.Sustainable improvements in crop production can be achieved by maximizing water use efficiency as opposed to just increasing yield per hectare through management of farm resources. An extremely important aspect of crop production that is almost always overlooked when attempting to improve water use efficiency is the presence of nematodes and fungal pathogens impacting root-health. Root-health management is not only about breeding for faster root growth, heat resistance or climate-smart cultivars. Breeding has to include resistance to nematode and/or fungal pathogens otherwise inadequate root growth and depth penetration will not support a healthy crop or produce good yields. Root-health management has to be designed to improve root-health to the major constraints both biotic and abiotic in the semiarid regions.Root-health in CWANA and all other semi-arid regions of the world is negatively impacted by a wide range of both cyst and lesion nematodes as well as important fungal pathogens. The importance of different species of nematodes and pathogens will be covered by other speakers at this meeting and not covered here. Both groups of pests have major root damaging importance on wheat and other crops in the semi-arid regions of CWANA. However, whereas fungal pathogens can often be managed with fungicide seed treatment, the use of nematicide seed treatment for nematode management in cereal crops is a technology of the future. In some semi-arid countries, for example in most of Africa, fungicide treatment of seed is not practiced.It is well known that plant parasitic nematodes and soil borne fungal pathogens, both alone and in combination, cause severe damage to the root system. In some cases nematodes have been shown to break plant resistance to fungal pathogens and in other instances fungal infection increases damage from nematodes. Resource limited farmers around the world are not aware of root-health problems caused by nematodes and fungal pathogens due to the fact that seed treatments are not always used or available .Fungicide seed treatments will prevent most pathogen infections and limit complex interactions. However to date, problems with nematode early root penetration root stunting and subsequent root deformation cannot be managed with nematicide seed treatments.Soil degradation and low levels of organic matter in semi-arid soils negatively affects plant health by reducing nutrient availability and water and nutrient retention. These two constraints also influence root architecture and ultimately yield. In addition, the lack of organic matter reduces biotic suppressive activity in soil by limiting eco-system services that regulate soil-borne nematode and disease.However, extremely important for yield under water stress conditions, is the direct impact of nematode and fungal pathogens on root system architecture. Nematodes and pathogens damage root tips causing a flattening and stunting of the root system thereby reducing root depth penetration. In addition, root lesion nematodes and root-rotting fungi, alone and in combination, weaken root health further by degrading overall root tissue which inhibits nutrient and water uptake.The following points need to be considered in the immediate future in order to offset the impact of the constraints mentioned above on root-health and yield in the semi-arid production zone in both CWANA as well as globally: Climate resilient production systems are urgently needed in CWANA.Climate-smart research must take a holistic approach to solve abiotic/biotic constraints. Abiotic constraints require improved root architecture and healthier root systems.Nematode and pathogen destruction of root architecture needs is extremely important for plant growth.Breeding for root-health is a best-bet approach to deal with abiotic constraints affecting plant growth.Breeding for heat and water stress without including root-health is counter productive. Climate resistant cultivars need to have proven root-health properties.Optimizing crop health requires a vertical instead of horizontal approach to management and breeding. Systemic seed treatments with nematicide/fungicide active compounds will improve root-health. Farmers need additional training in integrated pest management as it relates to root-health. New breeding technologies like CRISPER may have great impact on soil-borne nematodes and pathogens.Nematode and pathogens require long-term research and improved funding.The CG needs to increase research support on root-health integrated management for all major food crops. Urgently required is a One-CGIAR program that supports breeding for resistance to soil-borne pest, pathogen and abiotic constraints for improved on root-health.Cyst nematodes are a hot-spot for the discovery of new nematode antagonistic fungi with potential to be developed into nematode biocontrol agents ASHRAFI S. Nematophagous fungi have been reported to suppress nematode populations in different cropping systems across the world. In the 1980s the concept of suppressive soils was established based on the observation that some agricultural soils under intensive cropping were less conducive to nematode infections of the crops. It was reasoned that this could be due to the build-up of antagonistic fungal and bacterial populations (Kerry 1988). As an example, surveys on Heterodera avenae under continuous cereal cropping systems revealed that a low nematode population density in soil was correlated with high abundance of egg-parasitic fungi (Kerry and Crump 1998). Many fungal species have been isolated from nematode cysts, however only few links could be made between individual fungal species or consortia thereof that could be the causal agents of that observed 'natural nematode control' (Lopez-Llorca et al. 2008).In recent years, Ashrafi et al. (2017a) developed a new isolation technique that allowed the specific isolation of parasitic fungi from individual nematode eggs. This resulted in the finding of several fungal species obtained from cysts of Heterodera filipjevi collected in Turkey (Ashrafi et al. 2017a;Ashrafi et al. 2018;Ashrafi et al. 2017b). These species were all isolated from fungus-infested eggs of cyst nematodes collected in 2013 from fields naturally infested with nematodes, where a sharp reduction on nematode populations was observed during two consecutive growing seasons. Thus, all of these species could also play a significant role in the natural reduction of plant parasitic nematodes in agroecosystems. In addition, all strains that had been isolated by the new technique have fulfilled Koch's postulates using cysts and eggs of H. filipjevi and thus their parasitic nature against cyst nematodes has been confirmed causally in vitro (Figure 1). The same approach was applied to isolate egg-parasitic fungi from the sugar beet cyst nematode H. schachtii collected from naturally nematode-infested fields in Germany. The fungal isolates obtained, also fulfilled Koch's postulates, and showed suppressive effects on nematode population densities in greenhouse experiments (Nuaima et al. 2020). Given the fact that chemical control methods previously used in the control of plant parasitic nematodes are in the meantime banned in the EU and many other countries, biological control methods to directly reduce the nematode numbers in agricultural soils, are highly sought for.Molecular phylogenetic analyses of the fungal strains revealed that most of these antagonistic fungi isolated from nematode eggs represented so-far undescribed species, which we described as new taxa, accordingly, (Ashrafi et al. 2017a;2017b;2018) or which are currently in the process of being described.So far, all isolated fungal strains belonged to three orders of Ascomycota, i.e. Helotiales, Pleosporales and Hypocreales. Furthermore, we found several identical or near-identical DNA sequences deposited in GenBank, which stemmed from endophytic fungi isolated from the roots of wheat, barley and wild grasses, but also from Brassicaceae and different shrub and tree species. This finding suggested that the fungal strains that had been isolated by us as parasites from nematode eggs might also live during a part of their life cycle or alternatively as root endophytes of a variety of plant species including agronomically relevant crops like wheat and barley. To test whether the strains isolated from nematode eggs have the capacity to grow endophytically, a strain of a new pleosporalean species (under species description) was exemplarily tested for its ability to colonise the roots of wheat. The light microscopic studies (bright field and laser scanning microscopy) showed that the fungi could enter the wheat root and grow intercellularly but also enter cortical and even endodermal cells through specialised structures and thus have a more intimate, intracellular interaction with the plant cells (Figure 2). In these preliminary studies no negative effects or symptoms could be detected on the wheat plants, thus fulfilling the classic definition of an endophyte.Because of the discovery of a significant number of so-far unknown egg parasites of cyst nematodes using the new isolation technique in a small geographic setting and with two hosts only we assume that the isolation technique will continue to provide a constant supply of egg-parasitic fungi isolated from various species of cyst nematodes in different geographic regions. All these newly discovered egg-parasitic fungal strains can be regarded as potential future biocontrol strains. To move closer to application of these strains in agricultural practice several aspects have to be evaluated, optimised and established. Thus, a research project was initiated that includes several research groups with special expertise in: 1) isolating and characterising of the strains and their control potential, 2) evaluating the capacity of the fungal strains to produce natural compounds and elucidating the chemical structure of these compounds and their bioactivity, 3) fermenting and formulating of strains, and 4) a company with experience in scaling-up and mass production of fungal strains for use in organic agriculture, respectively. The overarching main aim of the research consortium is to get closer to application of these strains in agricultural practice and identify opportunities and constraints. The results obtained in the project so far will be presented.In project part (1) several new fungal species have been characterised, and it was shown that fungi obtained from eggs of Heterodera filipjevi could also infect H. schachtii. Also, an in vitro population of H. schachtii was successfully established by multiplication of nematodes on oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus) to continuously produce healthy cysts of H. schachtii, which can be used in further infection experiments.After the general proof of parasitism of the isolated strains by fulfilling Koch's postulates in vitro, the control efficiency of the strains is tested in a close-to nature complex tripartite system consisting of host plant, cyst nematode and nematode-antagonistic fungus under controlled conditions in the green house. By doing so the different control efficiencies of the various strains are to be evaluated to pre-select the strains with the highest control effect. First results are available for this step and the system is being optimised to allow robust and repeatable testing of the control capacities of the strains under greenhouse conditions. In project part (2) the fungal strains are screened for secondary metabolites and the compounds isolated are structurally elucidated. These comprised for example chaetoglobosins A and B, cyclodepsipeptides such as arthrichitin B and D, and the new cyclic lipodepsipeptide ophiotine (Ashrafi et al. 2017a;Helaly et al. 2018;Moussa et al. 2020). Some of these compounds showed nematicidal activities and thus could play an important role in the observed nematode-parasitic nature of these fungi. In addition, testing the substances for potential cytotoxicity against human cell lines is important for risk assessment of strains that will potentially be applied in larger quantities in the field. In part (3) of the project the growth parameters of selected strains are optimised to obtain maximum yield comparing solid state and liquid fermentation. The production of the strains must be suitable for the formulation process that is following the fermentation, and this must be adapted to the envisaged application of the strains to the fields. The currently best performing strains were shared with the collaborators of the company responsible for part (4) of the project who are currently trying to further optimise and adapt the growth parameters to larger volume fermenters.Integrating the different expertise of the collaborating partners has allowed for significant progress, by the application of different approaches to the same topic from various angles. It also highlighted where the greatest methodological problems still exist to come closer to the application of fungal strains as biocontrol agents against cyst nematodes in agriculture. By addressing and solving these problems it is expected that a robust pipe line will be available in the near future enabling data-based decisions on each of the steps from the discovery of new antagonistic strains to choosing and applying the best of these strains in a suitable formulation and application technique.  Wheat is main crop for humanity with its 220 million hectares cultivated area, 767 million tons of grain yield of which 184 million tons are subjected to international trade (Anonymous 2021a). The world population is expected to increase exponentially and wheat production needs to be increased by 60% to feed the projected world population of 10 billion by 2050 (Anonymous, 2021b). This increase should come through increasing the cultivated areas on the expense of other crops, which is not realistic, or via improving the cultural practices and genetic gains. Wheat yield increase is hindered by biotic (drought, heat, etc.) and abiotic factors (fungi, bacteria, nematodes, etc.) (Dababat et al. 2018). Plant-parasitic nematodes are considered economically important factors affecting wheat yield and its quality. The main plant parasitic nematodes causing damage to the wheat crop are Heterodera spp., Pratylenchus spp., Anguina tritici, Ditylenchus dipsaci, and Meloidogyne spp., (Dababat et al. 2016, Dababat and Fourie 2018, Tulek et al. 2015).Although wheat gall nematode has been brought under control in many countries, the nematode still exists wherever wheat is grown and remains common in Eastern Europe and in different parts of Asia and Africa (Agrios 2005). The causal agent of wheat seed gall is Anguina tritici which causing ear-cockle disease of wheat turning the seed into seed gall. Wheat seed gall nematode infects aboveground plant parts with symptoms usually appearing in wheat seedlings but are most noticeable prior to heading.This nematode causes both quantitative and qualitative losses in wheat by reducing yield and its acceptability for human consumption due to flour color change. Losses of 50 and 65% were reported in wheat and rye due to infection with the wheat gall nematodes, respectively (Leukel 1924). Tulek et al. (2015) estimated yield losses caused by A. tritici averaging at 55% in wheat cultivars Pehlivan, Selimiye, Gelibolu, and Kate-A (average yields = 3.74 t ha −1 ) as compared to control plots (average yields = 8.38 t ha −1 ). This study was aimed to determine the pathogenicity of Anguina tritici toward bread and durum wheat cultivars and losses in the yield component associated with the nematode.To determine the effect of A. tritici on grain number and the reaction of selected bread and durum wheat cultivars, trials on varietal reactions were conducted at the Trakya Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne, Türkiye, during the 2015-2016 growing seasons.To determine the impact of A. tritici on yield characteristic of wheat, a total of 30 cultivars (25 bread and 5 durum wheat) among the widely cultivated cultivars in different regions of Türkiye were used. The seeds of all varieties used in the experiments were sown by hand in seedbed of 1 m row and distributed in a completely randomized block design with 3 replications. The space between rows was 30 cm and each 1-m long row served as a replicate and was planted with a mixture of 100 healthy and 100-galled seeds. At harvest, each row was manually harvested by sickle and separately threshed by using a threshing apparatus.Grains were separated from glume. For each row, healthy and infected grains were counted and recorded.The seed infection percentage was calculated as per this equation: [(Number of infested seed in plot / Total number of seed in plot) × 100]Seed galls had been collected from the previous year and were used as inoculum. Before sowing, the galled grains were classified according to their size by using the oblong sifter and seeds between the range of ≥2.0 and <2.2 were used. Then, 10-galled grains were randomly selected and mean number of nematode were determined (11.790 A. tririci per grain).Infected seed ratio and measured grain data were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Jump 5.0.1 statistical program. The means were compared by a least significant difference (LSD P < 0.05) if the F value was significant.During vegetative and generative stages, deformations on leaves and spikes were extensively observed on plants in the infested plots. At harvest, galled grains occurred extensively throughout infested plots.The highest infected seed rate among the tested durum and bread wheat cultivars was obtained by Zühre and Kenanbey at a ratio of 24.9% and 71.4%, respectively. Seed gall was formed in all studied cultivars. A.tritici made significant damage on wheat cultivars and it was variable among cultivars (Table 1).The highest infected grain ratio was obtained from the bread wheat Kenanbey (71.4%), whereas the lowest infected grain ratio was revealed in Karahan cultivar (0.2%). Considering the infected grain ratio and healthy grain number, Kenanbey was found to be highly susceptible to A. tritici. The wheat cultivar 'Bayraktar-2000' with a seed gall ratio of 59.2% resulted in 1325 healthy grain per plot. In contrast, the seed gall ratio of 0.2% in Karahan-99 resulted in only 750 healthy grains per plot. The seed gall nematode adversely affected Karahan-99 during the vegetative growth period and reduced tillering, stem elongation, and spike formation. In Çeşit-1252, 3531 healthy grains were obtained and the seed gall ratio was only 0.4% The wheat gall nematode affects the yield in two ways; firstly, galled grains are a direct yield loss and secondly, the deformation caused by the nematode during the vegetative growth stage inhibits stem elongation and decreases spike number/m 2 , the consequences of adversely affecting yield.Infected grain rate generally reveals the cultivar reaction to A. tritici. However, we believe that this should not be the only criterion in determining the susceptibility/resistance or tolerance/intolerance reactions of wheat cultivars to A. tritici. Effects on vegetative growth can impact total yield without affecting the percent of galled seeds. In a pot experiment (Ami et al. 2015), seed galls did not occur in wheat cultivars Abae-95 and Rezgare even though nematode symptom were observed. In some wheat cultivars, resistance is manifested as A. tritici being unable to complete its life cycle after climbing (Taher 2012). Parveen et al. (2003) found wheat varieties HD-2009 and WH-542 were resistant to A. tritici with grains were free from infection although the varieties exhibited symptoms of twisting and crinkling of the leaves which are indicators of the seed gall nematodes feeding. Mohamedova and Piperkova (2013) carried out pot experiments in order to determine resistance to A. tritici with five bread wheat; Enola, Aglika, Crystal, Albena and Diamond and their results showed that the highest number of seed galls was formed on the varieties Enola and Aglika followed by Albena and Diamond; 27, 24, 20 and 19 galls per plant, respectively. Ami and Taher (2014) indicated that the highest infection among durum and bread wheat cultivars were obtained from Arey and Maxipak cultivars (37.12 %), (65.33%), respectively.Wheat seed gall nematode is found in farms where certified seeds are not used and where no seed-cleaning unit is employed. Tülek et al. (2017) found only 13 of 685 wheat seed samples from farmer stocks was infected with seed gall nematode in 2015 in the Trakya Region, Türkiye. The negative impact of A. tritici on grain yield and yield traits cannot be neglected, and the farmers in the region must be trained and encouraged to use certified wheat seeds as well as monitoring the nematode in farmers' wheat stocks. Another approach to manage losses in wheat to A. tritici is to generate resistant or tolerant cultivars using genetic resources that are available within the wheat germplasms.Among cereal crops, wheat (Triticum aestivum and T. durum) is occupying a decent position regarding production, nutrition source, and acreage patterns, especially in developing countries (Nicol et al. 2011).In 2020-21 the wheat global production is estimated to exceed 768.49 million metric tons (USDA 2020).Wheat has prominent adaptability to various geo-climatic conditions as well as dietary traditions as it grows exclusively under both irrigated and non-irrigated areas (Dababat et al. 2015). Around 12.6% of the global annual wheat yield loss is attributed to plant-parasitic nematodes damage, which represents an annual monetary loss of 216 billion US $ (Nyaku et al. 2017). In cereals, plant-parasitic nematodes mostly belong to two groups, viz. root-lesion nematodes (RLN, Pratylenchus spp.) and cereal cyst nematodes (CCN, Heterodera spp.).Root lesion nematodes (RLN) are widespread and considered as one of the most important groups of plant-parasitic nematodes in the world (Castillo and Vovlas 2007). In Morocco, Pratylenchus spp.constitutes the most important group of PPN in different wheat growing areas (Mokrini et al. 2016). Two species of RLN, viz. P. thornei and P. penetrans were identified in different wheat producing regions of Morocco (Mokrini et al. 2016).Many strategies have been developed to manage the RLN occurrence, including chemical control, cultural practices and use of resistant wheat lines (Dababat et al. 2019;Mokrini et al. 2019). The use of resistant and tolerant wheat cultivars is considered one of the most eco-environmental and promising methods for managing RLN in different cropping systems (Nicol et al. 2011;Mokrini et al. 2019).The objective of this study was to investigate the resistance of wheat lines against the root-lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus thornei.Sixty-nine wheat germplasm collection provided by INRA-CRRA-Meknes and ICARDA-Rabat were screened for resistance against the root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus thornei) (Table 1). The set of germplasm represented a collection of 40 lines of durum wheat (CRRA-Meknes) and 29 lines of both durum and winter wheat (ICARDA-Rabat). Seeds were surface sterilized with 3% sodium hypochlorite and rinsed several times in sterilized distilled water, then placed in sterilized Petri dishes with moist blotting paper and left to germinate for 3 days at 23 °C (Figures 1, 2). Seeds were left until 1-2 cm long radicle roots were formed. A single seedling with 3 seminal roots was transplanted in each plastic tube (15 × 20 × 120 mm) containing a potting mixture of sterilized sand, and field soil (70:30 v/v). Sand and field soils were sterilized at 110 °C for 2 h and organic fertilizer was sterilized at 70 °C for 5 h. The experiment was performed to investigate resistance performance against P. thornei. Four replicates of each entry were arranged in a completely randomized design in a greenhouse with temperatures between 22°C and 24°C. Plants were sprayed daily with water using an atomizer. Two standard durum wheat lines, viz: CROC_1/AE.SQUARROSA (224)//OPATA, and Ourgh were chosen as check lines (Lr, Ls) for their recognized resistance and susceptibility to P. thornei, respectively (Mokrini et al. 2018).Figures 1 and 2. Seeds were surface sterilized with 3% sodium hypochlorite and rinsed several times in sterilized distilled water, then placed in sterilized Petri dishes with moist blotting paper and left to germinate for 3 days.Experiments were carried out using one populations of P. thornei, collected from Zaers region of Morocco.This population was extracted from wheat roots and soils collected in 2020 from two wheat fields known for historical RLN infection in Zaers region of Morocco. This population was maintained in vitro on carrot-disc cultures according to Moody et al. (1973) after their morphological and morphometrical identification. The nematodes were extracted from carrot disks using modified Baermann method (Hooper 1986). To obtain a uniform population of P. thornei, the inoculum of this population was further processed using a 20-μm sieve to separate eggs from juveniles. Nematode suspensions, containing all vermiform stages of P. thornei, were prepared using tap water. One week after planting, each seedling was inoculated with a nematode suspension containing 400 individuals of either P. thornei (Toktay et al. 2012). The inoculum suspension was transferred into three 2-cm deep holes 0.5 cm distanced from the seedling. The plants were kept in the growth chamber for 9 weeks. Plants were harvested nine weeks after inoculation and aboveground plant parts were removed. The soil was then removed from the roots by gently shaking the plants. Nematodes were extracted from soil and roots using a modified Baermann method (Hooper 1986). The roots were washed separately for every plant. Nematodes were released from the roots by cutting the root system in 2-cm pieces and macerating them in water for 1 min at high speed in a commercial blender. The reproduction factor (RF) of P. thornei was determined for each line by dividing the final nematode population (Pf) by the initial nematode population (Pi).The final population of each line was determined from the total number of vermiform stages of P. thornei extracted from both the soil and roots of each tube at harvest. The initial population in this study was 400 vermiform stages of P. thornei per tube.The resistant reaction was assessed according to five distinctive groups which were: Resistant (R) = RF equal or less than 1; Moderately Resistant (MR) = RF between 1-2, slightly more nematodes than in a resistant check; Moderately Susceptible (MS) = RF between 2-3, significantly more nematodes than in a resistant check, but not as many as in the susceptible check; Susceptible (S) = RF between 3-4, same nematode numbers as of the susceptible check; and Highly Susceptible (HS) = RF more than 4, more nematodes than in the susceptible check (Dababat et al. 2016).Data were processed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) after being normalized by the Anderson-Darling normality test (Stephens, 1974). Protective Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was adopted to detect significant differences between lines at P < 0.001 via SPSS software V 17.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).Population structure was distinguished by the Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) to determine putative groups of wheat lines based on their resistance, susceptibility to P. thornei.The 67 wheat lines collection provided by INRA-CRRA-Meknes and ICARDA-Rabat were assessed for their host status against P. thornei based on the final population of nematodes extracted from both soil and root (Table 1). Nine weeks after inoculation, the reproduction factor of P. thornei in the 67 lines of wheat ranged from 0.5 to 7.4 (Figs. 1 and 2; Table 1). Reaction attributes ranged from resistant (L3, RF = 0.5; L14, RF = 0.54;L54, Rf = 0.79) to highly susceptible (RF > 4) (Figs. 1 and 2; Table 1). The RF values of both check lines ranged from 0.33 (Lr) to 4.1 (Ls). Lines L3, L14, and L54 were the most resistant, with RF values of 0.5, 0.54 and 0.79, respectively (Fig. 2);  Population structure based on Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) displayed five distinct groups, depicting the resistance reaction against P. thornei among the 67 lines evaluated (excluding both check lines) (Figure 3). The first two groups consist of 3 resistant (R) lines, including L3, L14, and L54, followed by 4 moderately resistant (MR) lines, including L34 and L46. The third group comprises 15 moderately susceptible (MS) lines, including (L1, L5, L9, L11, L16, L18, L19, L21, L24, L27, L36, L39, L43, L44, L66 and L67. Eighteen susceptible lines (S) were determined, followed by 27 highly susceptible lines. In conclusion, three lines of wheat viz., L3 (DW-37), L14 (DW-37), and L54 (USG3535) were resistant to the rootlesion nematodes, P. thornei. This study provides baseline insights for selecting genuine Moroccan wheat lines for future breeding and disease management programs involving resistant and tolerant attributes.However, the field performance of these lines against Pratylenchus thornei attacks should be evaluated before they are released to the farmers to confirm their resistant.  (Sasser and Freckman 1987;Koenning et al. 1999;Chitwood 2003;Jones et al. 2013). Cyst nematodes, as a group of endoparasitic nematodes, cause high yield losses and therefore have been studied intensively. Many studies focus on the interaction between cyst nematodes and their host plant and try to elucidate their biology. Cyst nematodes including the genera Heterodera spp. and Globodera spp. infect a wide range of host plants like vegetables, legumes and cereals. The cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera spp. is the only a pest on the cereal crops and consisting of 12 valid species and with overlapping morphological characters that make them difficult to distinguish from one another (Umarao et al. 2013;Dababat and Fourie 2018). The identification of Heterodera species using morphological and morphometrical characteristics is time consuming and requires great skill and training by the observers. However, there are many other characteristics allowing to discriminate between different species of nematodes e.g. molecular tools. The non-coding internal transcribed spacer sequences, ITS1 and ITS2 including 5.8S region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) has been very useful for the accurate identification of the species and characterization of molecular genetic variation within the species of plant parasitic nematodes (Subbotin et al. 2003(Subbotin et al. , 2018)).In different parts of Turkey, Heterodera spp. populations obtained from different wheat cropping systems have mainly been identified based on their morphology/morphometrics and molecular tools (Sahin et al. 2009;İmren et al. 2012, 2015, 2018;Toktay et al. 2015). However, very little information is available on the diversity and variability of their morphometrics and genetics in Marmara Region especially in SakaryaProvince. Thus, this research has been conducted to study the status of PPNs including the Heterodera spp.in the wheat growing areas in Sakarya Province where an intensive survey was conducted in the major wheat growing areas of Hendek, Pamukova, Geyve, Akyazı and Central districts in Sakarya Provinces, Turkey.The main objectives of this study were to: (a) prove the occurrence and prevalence of the major genera of PPNs (b) identify and compare both cysts and second-stage juveniles (J2s) of populations of Heterodera avenae group using morphological, morphometrical and molecular approaches including species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the ITS-rDNA expansion segments, and (c) determine the phylogenetic relationships between these populations.The survey was conducted in 2018, at the maturity stage / harvesting time of the cereals, from Hendek, Pamukova, Geyve, Akyazı and Central district in Sakarya Province (Figure 1). Surveys had been undertaken at the heading and flowering time of wheat for migratory nematodes and the harvesting time of wheat for sedentary nematodes. Totally 56 soil samples were taken randomly in a zigzag pattern, sampling sites were within a 10-20 km distance from each other. A minimum of 7-10 cores were taken per sample, then soil mixed and a representative of 2 kg soil was taken as a sub-sample for further analysis.Migratory nematodes were extracted from 100 cm 3 of soil by using a modified \"Petri-dish\" Baermann funnel method (Hooper 1986). Extracted nematode was transferred to graduated cylinders which allowed to settle for 8 h, supernatant discarded and the nematodes/debris were poured into 15 ml tubes. Migratory nematodes were counted under a light microscope at 100 × magnification and identified to the genus level.Sedentary nematodes (Heterodera spp.) were extracted from 200 cm 3 of soil by using the modified sievingdecanting method using a 60 mesh (0.25 mm) and a 100-mesh (0.015 mm) sieves (Fenwick 1940;Dababat et al. 2014). At least 10 full cysts were selected and hand-picked from each sample and stored at 4 °C for later use in the molecular and morphological analysis. Sedentary nematodes were morphologically identified to genus level under a stereo-binocular microscope (Zeiss, Jena, Germany, and V20). The incidence of the nematode (number of samples with nematode / total number of samples) was calculated for each field. The nematodes were killed in a hot water bath and fixed in 2 percent formaldehyde. Nematodes were processed for dehydration by Seinhorst's method and mounted on glass slides in anhydrous glycerin (Seinhorst 1959). Identification of nematode genera and species were based on the morphology with the help of keys (Handoo and Golden 1989;Siddiqi 2000;Handoo 2002). All nematodes except the cyst nematode, Heterodera species were identified to genus level based on key morphological features (Siddiqi 2000, Handoo 2000, Handoo et al. 2007). The exact number of nematodes in each genus was assessed. The cyst nematodes by using morphological traits and molecular markers (ITS, 28 S and 18 S rDNA gene sequences).The whole survey area represented 22.6% of the barley and wheat hectarage in Sakarya Province. Plantparasitic nematodes were found in 90% of soil samples. Thirteen genera of plant-parasitic nematodes were identified, including Heterodera, Merlinus, Pratylenchus, Pratylenchoides, Amplimerlinus, Helicotylenchus, Paratylenchus and Tylenchorhynchus (Table 1). Additionally, free-living nematodes were detected in all soil and root samples.Among the plant-parasitic nematodes, Heterodera and Pratylenchus species had a very low occurrence, being found in 22% and 26% of the samples, respectively. Additionally, cyst and root lesion nematodes were found together in the same location in 38% of the sampling areas. Frequency of the other important genera, Merlinus, Pratylenchoides, Amplimerlinus, and Helicotylenchus were 28, 30, 32, and 40%, respectively (Table 1).The results of the present survey confirm that Pratylenchus are among the most important parasitic nematode associated with wheat fields in Sakarya Province. It was also widely distributed, with a mean density of 240 juveniles and adults (range of 400-980) per 100 cm 3 of soil (Table 1). Pratylenchus populations were found in 45% of the soil samples collected from wheat fields in 18 different locations of Sakarya Province. This lesion nematode has a wide host range including cereals, legumes, fruits, and vegetables (Hunt et al. 2005).The extensive nature of agriculture in the study area would therefore favour to build higher populations of this nematode. Pratylenchus spp. is a common pest in agronomic settings and is responsible for significant yield losses worldwide (Castillo and Volvas 2007). In Turkey for example, it is the most important nematode parasite of Turkey, and it has been identified in wheat growing locations in Turkey (Dababat et al. 2014;Toktay et al. 2015). For Heterodera, we found an average of 8 cysts (range of 2-28) in 250 cm 3 of soil. Also, the average eggs/cyst conservatively would be 180, and the range of number of eggs or juveniles of Heterodera would be 22-82 per g of soil. However, Heterodera, was reported in low number and frequency in both root and soil samples in Sakarya province. It is a potential pest of wheat having been reported in Turkey (Imren et al. 2012;2015).Three species Heterodera have been associated with Gramineae family in various parts of the world (Imren et al. 2012(Imren et al. , 2015;;Toktay et al. 2015;Dababat andHendrika 2018, Toktay et al. 2020). This is the first report of a Helerodera species on wheat in Sakarya. This nematode may be H. filipjevi, the cereal cyst nematode which occurs in temperate, and subtropical and is an important pathogen of wheat worldwide (Swarup and Sosa-Moss 1990). In Turkey, H. filipjevi has only been reported from some semi-arid regions of South Anatolia (Toktay et al. 2015) and Central Anatolia (Sahin et al. 2008).Several of the parasitic nematode species found during the present survey are potential pathogens of wheat.The influence of at least the predominant species, especially Pratylenchus and the Heterodera species, on the This study highlighted the eco-regional distribution of the main genera of plant parasitic nematodes with an emphasis on the cereal cyst nematode species Heterodera species in Sakarya Province. Further detailed surveys in the Sakarya Province and comprehensive pathotype studies on the Heterodera species using populations from different regions are still needed. In conclusion, the recommendations of this survey to the policy makers and the researchers are to; diversify cultivated wheat sorts to include durum wheat where the high cysts existing areas with the durum wheat that is more resistant than spring wheat to cyst nematodes; follow cultural practices especially crop rotation, breed for germplasm with high level of resistant to the cereal cyst nematodes and lastly, to train young capacity on building to work on soil borne disease topics in the region.  Kirjanova and Sagitov (1975) and Kirjanova et al. (1976), for their management purpose. Dutbayev et al. (2015) conducted a study to maintain and increase the yield of wheat, and the results revealed that it is necessary to find resistant varieties to control soil-borne pathogens. They also studied hexaploid syntetic wheat for resistance to CCN.Results showed that twelve lines from Kazakhstan included one that was highly resistant, three that were resistant, and seven that were susceptible.In 2019 -2020, survey was conducted to search for PPNs in the main cereal-growing areas in northern Kazakhstan (Dababat et al. 2020) Wheat Cultivars: A total of 176 lines KASIB Spring Durum Wheat nursery (KASIB-DW) with 3 varieties of triticale and 2 from CIMMYT genebank (Mexitol, Triticale T6487 -OMI -OMI) and Kazakhstan -Ukrainian variety (UKAZ) were screened for resistance against the H. filipjevi (Table 1). Four standard check lines Katea (MR), Sonmez (MR), Kutluk (S), and Bezostaya (S) were used in this study.Nematode Inoculum: Experiments were conducted in a growth chamber in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates in two repetitions. All procedures for nematode inoculation were carried out in the CIMMYT SBDp laboratory in Eskisehir, Türkiye in accordance with their protocol.According to Cobb's decanting and sieving method H. filipjevi cysts were extracted (Cobb 1918). The hatched second-stage juveniles were used as inoculation in screening tests. Single wheat seed was planted in standard small tubes (16 cm in height × 2.5 cm in diameter) filled with a sterilized mixture of sand, field soil, and organic matter (70:29:1). The plants were grown in a growth chamber with a 16-h artificial photoperiod and maintained at a temperature of 22 ± 3 °C with 70% relative humidity. Plants were harvested after two months and cysts after extraction from the roots were collected and counted under a stereomicroscope. The genotypes were divided into 5 groups based on the number of cysts per plant, taking into account the reaction of check varieties with known resistance to CCN. The groups were: resistant (R) -as few as or fewer cysts than in the known resistant check; moderately resistant (MR)slightly more cysts than in the resistant check; moderately susceptible (MS) -significantly more cysts than in the resistant check, but not as many as in the susceptible check; susceptible (S) -as many cysts as in the susceptible check and the number of cysts per root system considered damaging; and highly susceptible (HS) -more cysts than in the susceptible check.Data were analyzed according to standard analysis of variance procedures using freely available statistical program for Windows R and RStudio with packages \"agricolae\", \"plotrix\". Differences among treatments were tested using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by the Duncan Test for mean comparison if the F-value was significant (P < 0.05). Significant differences between the genotype were performed based on the Least Significant Difference (LSD). The analyses of phenotypic data indicated the significant differences among the genotypes for resistance to H. filipjevi and showed a range of responses varying from resistant (R) to highly susceptible (HS) response (Figure 1). Three triticale varieties (two from CIMMYT and one Kazakh-Ukrainian) were resistant to the CCN. Observed durum wheat germplasms from both Kazakhstan and Russia countries are equally resistant (3%), 3 R genotypes (3%), and 15 MR genotypes (8%). Sixty seven varieties/lines were MS (40%), fifty six varieties/lines were S (30%), and forty two varieties/lines were HS (24%). Out of 101 genotypes of durum wheat and triticale of Kazakh varieties/lines one (triticale) R (1%), five genotypes MR (5%), 43varieties/lines MS (43%). 73 durum wheat genotypes from Russia showed that 3 varieties/lines R (3%), On average, over two repetitions, there were no moderately resistant lines, but in each of the repetitions, some of the lines/varieties showed moderate resistance to CCN. A comparative analysis of the averages showed that most of the varieties and lines from both countries are moderately susceptible, susceptible, and highly susceptible to H. filipjevi. Based on the results of repeated growth chamber tests, the durum wheat varieties/lines grown in the Eskisehir region of Türkiye were identified as a valuable source of resistance to species of CCN, H. filipjevi, which are distributed in different regions of Kazakhstan in the fields of wheat production. Studies were carried out on pathotypes found in Türkiye since these pathotypes are more common in Kazakhstan and are not yet known at the moment. Triticale lines from CIMMYT can be used for breeding purposes to improve both wheat and triticale. Also, the triticale variety produced in Kazakhstan together with Ukraine can serve as a forage base without crop losses from CCN.Assessment of the KASIB network collection for resistance to nematodes showed that varieties and lines collected from Russia and Kazakhstan have resistant and moderately resistant lines to H. filipjevi, which can be used as parental donors for resistance to nematodes (Tajibayev et al. 2021). Unfortunately, there are not many lines resistant to nematodes. From this it follows that it is necessary to replenish the collection with nematoderesistant lines. To reinforce phenological observations and more accurately determine resistant varieties and lines of this collection, genetic studies are needed to search for Cre gens using the DarTseq, SNP Analysis and GWAS.Wheat (Triticum spp.) is the most produced product in the grain fields of Türkiye. According to 2019 data, wheat is grown on 7.7 million hectares, barley on 2.7 million hectares and corn on 0.7 million hectares of total grain areas in Türkiye. Wheat, which ranks first with a production of 20.6 million tons in cereals with a total production of 35 million tons, constitutes 55.2% of the grain production (Anonymous 2020).Abiotic and biotic stress factors are the most important factors that negatively affect the yield and quality of wheat. Pathogens, one of the biotic stress factors, cause diseases in plants, affect yield and quality significantly and cause economic losses. Among them, soil-borne pathogens constitute the most important group.Root and crown disease agents are generally soil-borne. They are also carried by seeds and plant residues. spikes to take on a white appearance during the planting period in the fields where the disease is intense.Such spikes cannot form grains or form weak grains. Thus, the disease factors cause damage in terms of quality by reducing the hectoliter weight of the grain. It has been determined by some researchers that the grain weight in the ear decreased by 30-60% due to root and crown diseases, which were quite common in Thrace in 1978, and the 1000-grain weight of the product obtained from the diseased field decreased by 17% compared to the healthy ones. Fusarium and Rhizoctonia species are the most common and important soil-borne fungi that cause root and root collar diseases in Turkish wheat fields, and the burrowing disease caused by GGT has also been a problem in recent years.GGT, on the other hand, causes the disease known as \"take-all\" in wheat, barley and triticale. Although its main host is wheat, it causes disease in barley, triticale, rye, other grains and grasses and is considered as one of the most important root diseases affecting wheat yield in many parts of the world (Cook 1992). The fungus can infect plant roots and rot and destroy the entire root system. The root and rhizome turn charcoal black and are easily palpable when the plant is pulled. The fungus invades the stem upwards, causing the plant to collapse. Pathogen lives in the infected root and stem of the plant. Infection persists throughout the growing season. The optimum soil temperature for the disease is 10-20 °C. The disease-causing fungus grows well in neutral to alkaline soils, sloping lands, poorly drained fields, and soils poor in nitrogen and phosphorus (Wiese 1998). It was later reported that it was detected in Sakarya (Aktaş et al. 1996). With the climate change in recent years and the planting of susceptible varieties, the disease has spread to the Central Anatolia Region (Aktaş et al. 1999, Büyük et al. 2018, Tunalı et al. 2008) and Thrace (Hekimhan 2010) and has created serious problems.Chemical control of GGT in the world is limited and difficult. Currently, there is no licensed plant protection product against the disease in Türkiye. It has been reported that the disease causes more than 40% product loss in wheat if it is not controlled (Genowati 2001). Due to the limited chemical control and the harmful effects of chemicals, alternative methods of combating this disease have gained importance. One of the most important of these methods is the use of disease-resistant varieties and alternative methods like biological control.The inhibition and effects of Trichoderma harzianum isolates against wheat root and crown pathogens (F.  (PDA). between), 67 of them were identified as weak antagonist (zone of inhibition <5 mm). Three of the antagonist bacterial isolates were Pseudomonas fluorescens, one was P. putida, and two were Pseudomonas spp. are reported to have been diagnosed. In in vivo trials, it has been reported that none of the bacterial isolates showed antagonistic activity against the pathogen F. culmorum. Using PGPR and bio agent bacteria to control B. sorokiniana and its effect on plant growth were determined and 39 antagonist bacterial isolates, selected considering their antifungal properties, nitrogen fixation and phosphate dissolution properties, were developed in liquid carrier formulation, then tested in terms of its effectiveness on disease development and growth parameters of wheat plants in pot trials using seed coating method. It has been determined that many of the antagonistic bacteria were both effective in suppressing the disease and making important contributions to plant growth. It was concluded that some of the liquid formulations (B. megaterium TV-6D, Brevibacillus choshinensis TV-53D and B. pumilus TV-3C) formed from antagonist bacterial isolates can be used both as bio pesticides in the control of wheat root rot disease and as microbial fertilizer in wheat cultivation (Gökç 2013).The fungi F. culmorum, GGT and D. sorokiniana used in this study were provided by the Cultural Collection of Plant Pathogens from Plant Protection Central Research Institute/Ankara, the antagonistic bacterial isolates were supplied from the previous studies conducted by Dr. Kamil DUMAN essentially isolated from soil, seed and plant tissue samples.of Fungal Agents: The potential of selected candidate BCA bacterial isolates to inhibit (antagonize) mycelial growth of disease agents was determined by double culture tests in petri dishes containing PDA, as previously reported (Soylu et al., 2005). In these tests, the bacterial isolate to be tested is drawn on the tip of each petri dish, and after pre-incubation at 26°C for 24 hours, 5 mm diameter mycelial discs taken from the growth areas of fresh pathogenic fungus cultures developed in PDA medium were formed so that they were equidistant from the candidate antagonist bacterial isolates developed in the medium placed in the middle and incubated at 26°C.No antagonist bacterial isolate was drawn into the control dishes. Upon reaching the 75% in the control plates, the fungal mycelium growth (MGT) directed towards the bacteria was measured (3-7 days after inoculation depending on the development of the fungal agents) and the % inhibition rates according to the mycelial growth (MGC) in the control plates were calculated using the formula given below calculated accordingly.For each bacteria-fungi combination, measurements were made in 3 different petri dishes, and the experiment was repeated at 2 different times.Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis: All trials were set up according to the randomized blocks trial design, without converting the inhibition rates of pathogen development to %, using the SPSS statistical program (SPSS Statistics 17.0), Variance Analysis was performed with one-way ANOVA and the difference between isolates was determined by Duncan's Multiple Range Test. (p≤0.05).In in vitro efficacy studies, especially with Bacillus spp., it is thought that these isolates can be directly converted into a tool (biological preparation) that can be used to prevent the losses caused by disease agents in different crops.Among 141 different candidate antagonist bacterial isolates 27 of them showed significant inhibition performance which is more than 50% and caused mycelial destruction. 114 of them showed less inhibition but the most important factor that caused the separation of the 27 significantly successful bacterial isolate was they sustained the rate of inhibition even after 21 days after dual culture assay. The rest of the candidate bacterial isolates couldn't sustain the inhibition zone; after 7-14 days the inhibition zone has covered by the pathogen fungi.When the effectiveness of the tested candidate antagonists on the inhibition of mycelial growth of F.culmorum was examined, AntB5 isolate was the most effective isolate with 96.1% inhibition rate, which was followed by AntB18 isolate with a 94.9% inhibition rate, the licensed plant protection product based on B. subtilis as a comparative application was placed after these two isolates and caused 94% inhibition.The candidate antagonist isolate that inhibited F. culmorum mycelial growth at the lowest rate was AntB15 isolate with a rate of 56.9% (Table 1).When the effectiveness of the tested candidate antagonists on the inhibition of mycelial growth of GGT was examined, AntB5 isolate was the most effective isolate with 100% inhibition rate, followed by AntB7 isolate with a 99.7% inhibition rate, the licensed plant protection product activated by B. subtilis showed 100%inhibition. The AntB15 isolate showed the lowest rate with a rate of 49.7% (Table 1).The isolate AntB5 showed the most efficacy on the inhibition of mycelial growth of D. sorokiniana with 89.9% inhibition rate, followed by AntB8 isolate with a 89.8% inhibition rate, the licensed plant protection product with B. subtilis basis was placed in third group caused 84.4% inhibition. The isolate AntB15 had the lowest inhibition by a rate of 53.9% (Table 1).Mean values followed by different letters within each column were significantly different according to Least Significant Difference (LSD) test (P≤0.05) Many Bacillus spp., besides producing antimicrobial compounds, have the ability to form spores that are resistant to adverse environmental conditions. These spores can be easily converted into biological preparations with appropriate technologies and used in the control of many plant diseases (Emmert and Hendelsmann 1999). By investigating the in vivo efficacy of these antagonists against the disease agents they are tested for, it will be possible to select the most suitable isolate for use as a biological preparation. In addition, studies need to be carried out on the determination of the mechanisms used by antagonist bacterial biocontrol agents to prevent disease emergence will further increase the widespread impact of the studies.  Nematode inoculum was collected from a naturally infested wheat field with a long history of infestation to H. filipjevi in Hamadan province (35.002306N, 48.131956E), then morphological and molecular identification confirmed the isolated nematode species. The nematicidal potential of four compounds including CP1 and SP2 with 5000ppm of 2 x 10 12 Conidia/Kg, Abamectin®, 6000ppm, Nemakob and Nemakob plus ,40000ppm, and the control with nematodes and without nematicide treatment were tested on J2s of H. filipjevi in in vitro and in vivo conditions. Five replications were considered for each treatment.In in vitro experiment for each treatment 150µl were added before transferring 120 J2s suspended in one ml of tap water to each well in ELISA plates 12*8. Distilled water served as the control. After 48 h of incubation at 23 ± 2℃ juvenile mortality was counted under a stereomicroscope.In in vivo study, germinated seed of Bezostaya as a susceptible cultivar was individually planted into a plastic tube (3 x13 cm) containing sterilized mixture of sand, field soil and organic matter in a ratio of (70:29:1, v:v:v). Then the tubes were arranged in a stand and placed in a white iron tray. A completely randomized design was followed for implementing the experiment containing three replications for each treatment.One day after planting, each plant was inoculated with 500 J2 in 1 ml tap water. Each compound was added to each tube after 24 hours of nematode inoculation. Plants were maintained in growth chamber conditions at 23 ± 2℃, 16 h of artificial light and 65% relative humidity. The plants were harvested after nine weeks and the number of white females on roots were counted. The data were subjected to analysis using the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) in statistical software SAS v9.4. Normalization of phenotypic data was performed using √x+1 formula. Comparison of means was performed by Duncan's Multiple Range Test at p ≤ 0.05.In this experiment among the promising non-chemical nematicides tested against H. filipjevi under in vivo and in vitro conditions, three had fungal and bacterial based, i.e. CP1, SP2, and abamectin ® , and two were plant-based compounds, namely Nemakob and Nemakob Plus. Based on the comparison of the mean percentage of mortality in in vitro condition, the best effect on the mortality percentage of the second stage juveniles (J2), were observed in Nemakob, Nemakob Plus and Abamectin ® , respectively.The percentage of mortality of second stage juveniles compared to control were in Nemakob and Nemakob plus with 64.96% and in Abamectin ® with 62.9%. Two compounds CP1 and SP2 increased the mortality rate of J2 and decreased the white females and cysts numbers almost to the same extent. The mortality rate of nematode juveniles in both treatments was around 23%. In vivo conditions indicated the most effectiveness belonged to plant-based nematicide Nemakob by 100% reduction of white females and cysts compared to the control. The decrease in the number of white females and cysts in CP1 and SP2 promising nematicide compounds compared to the control is more than 77%. The reduction in the number of white females and cysts in Nemakob Plus and Abamectin ® treatments compared to the control was 64.9% and 59.7%, respectively. (Figure 1).Non-chemical compounds with many biological bases have been used to control the cyst nematode H. filipjevi. A variety of microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes have been successfully used as biocontrol agents of nematodes on different crops. Bacteria and their metabolites affect both plant and microbial community. Direct antagonistic effect can be achieved by parasitism, antibiosis, or competition for nutrients or infection sites. Indirectly, bacteria can enhance host defense mechanisms provoking induced systemic resistance (Migunova and Sasanelli 2021).Nematicidal activity against the second stage juveniles (J2) of Meloidogyne javanica and H. filipjevi was demonstrated in in vitro by cultural filtrates of Bacillus subtilis OKB105 (100%) (Migunova and Sasanelli 2021).Bacillus cereus 09B18 showed 76% and 44% reduction of H. filipjevi white females per plant in greenhouse and field conditions, respectively, which were not significantly different from those obtained by Avermectin treatments (Migunova and Sasanelli 2021).Two bacterial strains, Achromobacter xylosoxidans (09X01) and B. cereus (09B18), were isolated from cereal cyst nematodes (H. filipjevi) in Henan, China. The two bacterial strains were subsequently evaluated for their biological control potential. The results showed that the culture filtrate of the two strains caused high mortality of the second stage juvenile (J2) and reduced egg hatching in in vitro (Zhang 2016). Many studies have also been reported the use of Trichoderma spp. to control cyst nematodes such as H. avenae and H. filipjevi (Zhang 2016).Among the plant extracted products, tar and vinegar are used as pesticides and biocides for plant preservative and use of wood vinegar (WV) or pyroligneous acid (PA) increased rapidly in Asian countries including China, Japan, India and Thailand. Due to energetic development of biopesticides, numerous botanical pesticides have an active place in the market since the last decade (Ahmed et al. 2022). A large number of papers described the undeniable efficiency of WA for pest control in pure form or combined with conventional pesticides. The nematicidal action of the WA was demonstrated in the management of root-knot nematode (M. incognita) in lettuce culture, in greenhouse conditions. The 0.5% concentration of PA contributed with a better effect in reducing M. incognita parasitism (Pereira et al. 2020). Meanwhile the benefits of WA application as a nematicide against Scutellonema bradys at different concentrations was also studied (De Farias et al. 2020). Chemical control is widely used for controlling of plant diseases. It is known that pesticides have some negative effects on the environment and consumers. The disadvantages of chemical control are costly in terms of economy and pollution the environment with residues. Apart from this, they remove for creation of resistant races with continuous use against target organisms (Delen 1991). For all these reasons, it is necessary to reduce or, if possible, eliminate the use of chemical pesticides in agriculture. This is possible with biological control agents (BCA). The use of BCA in the control of plant diseases is to minimize the effects of chemicals on the environment (Bora and Özaktan 1998). Recently, many BCAs have been licensed as commercial products and are used in agriculture. Microbial biological control agents can be listed as biopesticides, biofertilizers, growth promoters and natural immunity stimulators. Trichoderma-based preparations are used in the plant protection struggle against some plant pathogens and to increase plant growth or productivity.Corn fungal diseases can be grouped according to the damage they cause to the vegetative organs of the corn. The most important disease factors limiting yield and seen in corn fields in Türkiye are; Fusarium species that cause seed, root, stem, ear and grain rot. In a study conducted in Türkiye, cereal root and root rot pathogens were identified as F. culmorum (14%) B. sorokiniana (10%), Fusarium pseudograminearum (2%), Gaeumannomyces graminis (2%), Pythium spp. (3%) Rhizoctonia spp. (22%) were detected at different rates (Tunalı et al. 2008). Root rot can result in crop loss of 50% or more where disease propagation is appropriate (Wallwork 2000).The use of microorganisms in the control of pests in agriculture is one of the most effective strategies of biological control. The potential of Trichoderma species to be a biological control agent has been known since the 1930s (Harman 2006). Trichoderma interacts with other microorganisms, but especially with pathogenic fungi. These interactions include hyperparasitism, antibiosis, and competition (Küçük and Kıvanç 2004). Trichoderma harzianum isolates are used as an alternative to chemicals against many fungal plant pathogens that cause disease in agricultural products (Vinale et al. 2008). Trichoderma harzianum, which is in this group, is a commonly used agent in biological control (Elad et al.1984, Sivan and Chet 1986, Bora and Özaktan 1998, Küçük and Kıvanç 2003). In a study conducted in Türkiye, in inhibition experiments of T. harzianum isolates, were effective on F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. moniliforme, R. solani, R. cerealis, S. rolfsii, B. sorokiniana, G. graminis var. tritici (Küçük and Kıvanç 2001).The aim of this study was to determine the antagonistic effect of three different Trichoderma species (Trichoderma atroviride, T. harzianum, T. afroharzianum) against four Fusarium species (F. pseudograminearum, F. verticilloides, F. subglutinans and F. proliferatum) in laboratory conditions.The main material of our study was the variety of sweet corn (Zea mays convar. saccharata var. rugosa) obtained from Sakarya Maize Research Institute Directorate.The species of Fusarium namely F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, F. pseudograminearum, F. verticilloides The Fusarium species were grown on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Five mm fungus plugs were prepared with a cork borer from PDA plates, Trichoderma spp isolates and pathogenic fungi were cultured in PDA as a double culture with 5 replicates. Then fungal plugs with a diameter of 5 mm in sterile plates with a diameter of 9 cm containing PDA were cultured at 24 °C for 7 days, with a distance of 5 cm between them. The growth diameters of the antagonists and pathogens were measured and the inhibition rate was calculated by the formula (RI)=(R1-R2)x 100/R1 (RI: Inhibition ratio, R1: Growth radius of the pathogen, R2: Growth radius in the antagonist direction of the pathogen) (Royse and Ries 1978).For the pathogenicity test, Fusarium species were grown purely on PDA at 24 o C under 15 hours of light and 9 hours of dark conditions. Seeds of the sensitive corn variety used in the experiment were soaked in 1% NaOCI for 1 minutes. After surface disinfection, seeds were germinated for a week. After germination five Fusarium plugs (one plug per plate) were placed 1 cm apart from the plantlets. Plates were sealed with parafilm. A single fungal plug and germinated seed were placed in each plate. The procedure was run as 5 replications and 1 control. Only germinated seeds were used as control. Plates were kept at 25°C for 7 days and at the end of the 7th day, pathogenicity was evaluated using scale 0-5 scale, 0: No signs of diseases, 1: 10% of the hypocotyl is infected, 2: 11-30% of hypocotyls infected, 3: 31-50% of hypocotyls infected, 4: 51-80% of the hypocotyl infected, 5: All hypocotyls infected (Ichielevich- Auster et al., 1985).The results obtained from all pathogenicity tests were calculated according to the formula given below and % disease severity grades were found for each isolate:Disease Severity (%) = Σ(nxV/ZxN)x100, n: the number of plants with different disease degrees on the scale, V: scale value, Z: highest scale value, N: total number of plants observedThe pathogenicity tests of Fusarium species on germinated seeds of corn showed the disease severity was 64%, 61%, 65% and 59% for F. verticilloides, F. subglutinans, F. proliferatum and F. pseudograminearum 59% respectively in petri dishes conditions.Results from this study revealed that at the end of the 7th day, the maximum inhibition (31%) was observed in the interaction between T. atroviride and F. pseudograminearum, while the lowest inhibition (61%) was observed in the interaction between F. verticilloides and T. afroharzianum. Moreover, while the most effective Trichoderma species against Fusarium species was T. atroviride, the least effective Trichoderma species was T. afroharzianum. Similar findings were observed by Erdurmuş and Katırcıoğlu (2008). They investigated the inhibitory effect of T. harzianum isolates against wheat root and root collar pathogens (F. culmorum, F. pseudograminearum, Bipolaris sorokiniana and Rhizoctonia solani and found that different isolates were effective against different pathogens.Antibiosis, mycoparasitism and enzymes produced by fungi are thought to play a role in the mechanism of action of T. harzianum isolate used in in vitro studies. Indeed, Monaco et al. (2004) and Küçük and Kıvanç (2003) found similar results and reported that the metabolites produced by T. harzianum have an inhibitory effect on the growth of pathogens. In this study, it was observed that the effects of T. harzianum on the development of different Fusarium species may be different. Fungi growth was observed in F. proliferatum at 51%, F.subglutinans at 67% and F. pseudograminearum at 48%. Similar findings have been reported, for example, by Küçük and Kıvanç (2001) who found that T. harzianum isolates were effective against F. culmorum with 77% inhibition. T. harzianum isolates tested in another study were found to inhibit the growth of F. verticilloides (Cevheri and Küçük 2012).In the T. arthroviride interaction study, fungal growth was observed in F. proliferatum at 45%, F. subglutinans at 54% and F. pseudograminearum at 29% (Table 1). As can be seen in table 1, while the most effective inhibition was observed in F. pseudograminearum, the least inhibition was observed in F. subglutinans.Moreover, in the interaction between T. afroharzianum and Fusarium spp, the inhibition rates were found at an average of 60% in the three Fusarium species (F. proliferatum 61%, F. subglutinans 66%, F. verticilloides 69% and F. pseudograminearum 46% fungus growth). In conclusion, in this study, it was observed that 3 different Trichoderma species significantly affected the growth of 4 different Fusarium species. These results supported the view that Trichoderma spp. could be used as a potential agent to inhibit the growth of pathogens. However, how Trichoderma species can increase their activity in the soil and the mechanisms of protection against future soil-borne pathogens still need to be investigated further. Plant Disease, 92, 99-1306.Wallwork H (2000) Cereal root and crown diseases. SARDI , 58 p., AdelaideWheat is one of the most important plants which provides a basic food source for humans. Parallel to the increase in world population, the need for wheat also increases. It is estimated that the world population, which was 6.1 billion in 2000, will reach 9.3 billion in 2050 (Anonymous 2009). As a result of this increase, the world's wheat demand is expected to increase in parallel. Wheat is one of the most important grains in terms of nutrition in Türkiye. In 2021, the wheat planted area in Türkiye is 6.7 million 446 thousand hectares.The crop obtained from these areas is 17 million 650 thousand tons (TÜİK 2021). Vetch, which is used as animal feed, has an important place in agriculture and animal husbandry in our country. Animal foods are a very effective and important area in the nutrition of human beings. The way to get enough animal food is to increase animal products, the way to increase animal products is to feed animals with abundant and high-quality roughage and improve domestic animal breeds (Anonymous 2010). Vetch, which is an important agricultural product, is used in two different ways as green grass and dry grass. In Türkiye, vetch was planted on an area of 0.3 million 653 thousand hectares in 2021. 3 million 990 thousand tons of green grass production were obtained from these areas (Tuik 2021).The fact that wheat and the vetch plant have an important place increases the importance of pest control.Nematodes have a critical place among these damages in terms of the damage they cause. It is estimated that plant parasitic nematodes cause an average of 7% product loss in wheat worldwide, and its financial value is reported to be 5.8 billion dollars (Sasser 1987). The nematode species determined to cause economic losses in wheat cultivated areas around the world; Cereal cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.), root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), Wheat gall nematode (Anguina tritici), Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) and stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) have been reported (Nicol et al. 2002). In studies conducted in different regions of Türkiye, it has been determined that cereal cyst nematodes and lesion nematodes are common in wheat production areas and cause significant losses in yield (Yıldırım et al. 2007). In another study, Pratylenchus spp. caused a yield loss of 36% in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of Türkiye (Elekçioğlu and Gözel 1997).It has been determined by studies that a life stage of Pratylenchus spp. is completed in 40-45 days at 27°Cunder laboratory conditions and the adults complete their development in 35-40 days under suitable natural conditions, depending on the type of plant, air temperature, humidity, and other environmental conditions (Nicol 1996). The nematode can feed by entering the roots in all juvenile and adult stages. Root lesion nematodes spend the winter inside infected roots or in the soil as eggs, juvenile, or adults under winter conditions. In dry periods when the temperature and humidity are low, it remains stagnant in the soil until the next plant development period (Agrios 1969).Pratylenchus spends all its life stages in the root zone (Kepenekçi 2012). Root lesion nematodes, which are polyphagous pests, have a wide host range including barley, wheat, and chickpea (Handoo and Golden 1989;Castillo and Vovlas 2007). Root lesion nematodes, which can reproduce very quickly, migrate between the capillary roots of the plant and may form brown spots on the root part of the plant as a result of feeding on the roots (Agrios 1997).The most effective control method against root lesion nematodes is the use of resistant varieties. Crop rotation is also an important method of control in terms of pest control. Many studies show that it reduces the damage level of pests and diseases in crop rotation areas. Considering these situations, the importance of combating nematodes increases and makes it necessary. This study was carried out to investigate the responses of root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) found in wheat and vetch fields in Dardanos Campus of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University to wheat-vetch rotation and the effects of different tillage tools on population distribution.This study was carried out to determine root lesion nematodes in wheat and vetch fields in the Dardanos Campus of Çanakkale province and to examine the effect of crop rotation and different tillage tools on the population during two production seasons. This study aimed to determine the population of the nematode, the application of crop rotation, and the effect of different tillage tools on the nematode population. For this purpose, the study was carried out in two ways as soil sampling from the determined plots every month and the preparation and examination of the samples taken in the laboratory.The total area of 0.8 hectares where soil samples were taken consisted of 6 equal parcels of approximately 1000 squaremeter. Wheat and vetch crop rotation was applied in the field. In addition, 3 different tillage tools were used. In the order of naming according to the product pattern and the tillage tool; plow-vetch (PF), plow-wheat (PB), rotatile-wheat (RB), rotatile-vetch (RF), Chisel plow-vetch (CF), andChisel plow-wheat (ÇB) forms. Soil samples were taken from 25 different places of each parcel with the help of a soil auger to represent the parcel homogeneously.Samples were taken from the trial area in October 2019 and the last sample was taken in September 2021, the sampling process continued in both seasons. Soils taken from 25 different parts of a parcel with a soil auger were mixed in a large diameter plastic container and 2 kg homogeneous soil samples were obtained.A total of 6 different soil samples were taken from the area with 6 parcels, each weighing 2 kg. Soil samples were taken from 0-30 cm depth of the soil where plant parasitic nematodes are concentrated. The samples taken were labelled according to the type of plant in the area, the tillage tool, and the date and put in plastic bags. Soil samples were brought to Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Nematology Laboratory in an ice box. The samples brought to the laboratory were stored in climate chambers at +4°C for later analysis.Laboratory Studies: Nematodes were extraced from the soil by the improved Baermann Funnel Method (Hooper 1986). The recovered nematodes were counted in 100 μl of nematode suspension with the help of a micropipette and examined under a light microscope and the density of root lesion nematodes.were determined in soil sample.The population fluctuations of root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) of wheat-vetch rotation and different tillage methods showed time-dependent changes according to rotation and tillage methods (Figure 1). Field was divided into 6 plots, where crop rotation was applied, 3 types of tillage tools were used. The periods with the highest density of Pratylenchus spp. were between March-April-May in both seasons.The periods with the lowest density were determined in the months of July-August-September when there was no vegetation, the temperature was high and there was no precipitation. Also, during the months of November-December-January, Pratylenchus spp. the level was detected as low when the precipitation level was very high and the temperature was at a low level. Studies have shown that root lesion nematodes go into a stagnant period in dry periods when the temperature is high. In the study conducted in the Mediterranean region, it was determined that the population density of Pratylenchus spp. was high in March, and the population decreased during the periods when the temperature increased (Elekçioğlu and Gözel 1997).In April, the Pratylenchus density in the ÇB plot reached the highest density among the plots. In a similar study conducted in Türkiye; Şahin et al. (2008) investigated the effects of Heterodera filipjevi, P. thornei, and P. neglectus populations against seasonal changes in a wheat field in Haymana district of Ankara. In their research, they reported that the lowest density was observed in Pratylenchus species between the snowy and cold months of November-April. Likewise, they stated that there was a significant decrease in the field population in June and July with increasing temperatures. Significant reductions in yield can occur in high root lesion nematode populations in wheat. In another study, in the US states of Oregon and Washington, it was found that if approximately 611.6 P. neglectus is found in 100 cm3 of soil, the yield loss in the winter season is 37%, and in the summer season, when 244.65 P. neglectus is found in the soil, the yield loss was reported as 14% (Johnson et al. 2008).The working depth of tillage tools is important for the transportation of nematodes. Differences can be observed in the densities of nematodes in the soil, depending on the working depth of the tillage tools.Wu et al. ( 2019) followed the population development of P. neglectus in winter wheat growing areas (Jimai 22 and Tainong 18 varieties) for two years (2009)(2010)(2011), in a study they conducted in China. As a result of the study, they found the maximum nematode density to be 464. 00 and 326.66 in the 2009-2010 season, and 199.33 and 339.33 in the 2010-2011 season, respectively, in cultivated wheat varieties. In another study on the damage of root lesion nematodes, it was reported that P. thornei and P. neglectus caused a yield loss of 30-70% in wheat (McDonald and Nicol 2005;Thompson et al. 2008;Vanstone et al. 2008) and they mentioned that the nematode population decreased during the periods of rotation.In this study, the effect of wheat-vetch crop rotation and three different tillage tools on the population growth of Pratylenchus spp. was investigated in 2019-2021. The soil tillage tool with the highest nematode density was the Chisel plow. The parcel with the least nematode population density was determined as the Plow-Vetch parcel. It was observed that the population density was low in the plots cultivated with plows and rotary tillers in both years, even in April when the field population is high. In this study, it was determined that deep tillage tools decrease the current nematode population in the field.Population densities of nematodes in soil may vary depending on soil temperature and weather conditions.In conditions where soil temperature and humidity are low, nematodes move deeper into the soil, and in conditions where soil temperature and humidity are optimum, they find a habitat at a depth of 0-30 cm in the soil. In the months of March-April-May, the nematode density was found to be at the highest level in conditions with average precipitation and temperature. In the months of July-August-September and December-January-February, the density was determined at the lowest levels in the weather conditions where the temperature is the highest and the lowest. Finally, with this contribution, it has been determined that the use of different tillage tools can change the nematode density in soil and it is revealed the importance of crop rotation in the plant parasitic nematode management in wheat growing areas.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is cultivated worldwide and is one of the world's population's primary sources of calories and protein. Wheat is grown in 162 different countries with 760.9 million tons of production and is the second most important staple food after corn in the world and first in Türkiye (FAOSTAT 2020). Wheat production is affected by many pathogens and pests, including nematodes. The damage caused by plant parasitic nematodes is often overlooked because the symptoms of nematodes are often confused with other biotic and abiotic factors. However, there is a 12% loss in total agricultural production in the world caused by plant parasitic nematodes (Stirling et al. 1999). It is reported that plant parasitic nematodes cause an average of 7-10% product loss, at a cost up to $100 billion per annum in wheat production every year (Sasser 1987, Whitehead 1998, Bird and Kaloshian 2003). Damage can reach up to 35-40% depending on biotic and abiotic stress factors such as species, population density, and drought (Williamson and Gleason 2003).Wheat is associated with numerous plant parasitic nematodes, but only cereal cyst (Heterodera spp.), root lesion (Pratylenchus spp.), seed gall (Anguina tritici), root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), and stem and bulb nem-atode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) are considered economically significant (Dababat and Fourie 2018). Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN) are a serious limitation to wheat production, causing large crop losses worldwide. CCN species H. avenae (Wollenweber), H. filipjevi Madzhidov (Stelter), and H. latipons (Franklin) are the most frequently encountered cyst nematode species attacking cereals, particularly wheat and barley (Rivoal and Cook, 1993;McDonald and Nicol, 2005). Heterodera filipjevi, the most harmful species especially under drought stress, has a global distribution in wheat and barley growing areas and it has been observed to affect wheat yield in America, Europe, and Asia (İmren et al. 2020, Bishnoi and Bajaj 2002, Smiley et al. 2008).It was determined that H. filipjevi, which was determined to cause a 48% loss in 20 eggs and J2/ (g soil) -1 density in Iran, caused an average of 42% loss in rain fed winter wheat locations in Türkiye (Hajihasani et al. 2010, Nicol et al. 2004).Plant parasitic nematodes management includes cultural, physical, chemical and biological methods. The use of resistant varieties is one of the most practical and economical methods of controlling CCN. However, the biggest adversity is that limited number of cultivars has resistance and the emergence of populations that break the resistance. Moreover; intensive use of chemicals, in addition to the impact on non-target organisms, leads to increased production costs and serious health problems for farmers and consumers. For these reasons, A.B. (MBTOC 2006;EC Directive 1107⁄ 2009) and as a result of the changes made in Türkiye's legislation, the use of many fumigant and non-fumigant nematicides such as 1,3-Dichloropropene, Aldicarp, Carbofuran, Cadusafos, Ethoprophos, which are widely used in the market, is prohibited (Anonymous 2020). Therefore, developing alternatives to chemical nematicides, which are extremely toxic and dangerous for the environment, is one of the most important priorities for the future of the fight against plant parasitic nematodes ( Barker et al. 1994, Dababat andFourie 2018).The objective of this study was to determine the nematicidal effect of 10 plant essential oils at five different concentrations and at three different application time intervals on the second stage juveniles of cereal cyst nematode H. filipjevi.Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Tanacetum vulgare (Asteraceae), Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae), and Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae) were used in the study. Essential oils were obtained as a result of hydrodistillation of the dried and finely divided aerial parts (100 g) of the plant in a Clevenger apparatus for 3 hours. The isolated essential oil was purified from the water it contained on Na 2 SO 4 and oils were kept in amber vials at -20°C.CCNs were collected from the soil of severely infested wheat fields in Kadınhanı in Konya province in Türkiye, at the end of the wheat growing season. Cysts were extracted from the soil via Fenwick can (EPPO 2013).The cysts were incubated at 4°C for 60 d, then at 16°C to stimulate the hatching of pre-parasitic second-stage juveniles (J2s) (Cui et al. 2015).Stock solutions of essential oils were prepared at 200µl/ml in methanol (MERC-CAS No:67-56-1) and 16-well plates were used in the experiments. Second stage juveniles were added to each well in 990 µl (120-140 J2) distilled water and 10 µl of each essential oil was added. Experiments were carried out with 5 replications and 2 repetitions using 2, 1, 0.5, 0.250, 0.125 µl/ml -1 concentrations of each essential oils. Plates were sealed with plastic films to prevent evaporation and placed in an incubator in dark conditions at 25°C. Dead and alive nematodes were counted after 24, 48, and 72 hours under an invert microscope (Leica DMI 400B). The J2 were considered dead when they did not move on probing with a fine needle (Andre´s et al. 2012, Cayrol et al. 1989).The mortality data were converted to percent mortality and then transformed by arcsine transformation. One-way analysis of variance was used to test the significance, and treatment means were separated by Tukey's multiple comparison test. The statistical analyses were carried out on MINITAB (Release 18) computer program.As a result of the studies in which the nematicidal activity of four different plant essential oils against H. filipjevi second stage juvenile under laboratory conditions, it was concluded that the activity changed depending on the application concentration, application time, and essential oil (P<0.05) (Table 1). The lowest effect was determined in A. absinthium essential oil at all concentrations and times compared to the other three essential oils. In A. absinthium essential oil, the difference was determined between the times depending on the concentrations, however, the difference between the concentrations depending on the time began to be determined after 48 hours. The highest effect was detected at the end of 72 hours with 82.1% at the dose of 2 µl ml -1 . A difference was observed between concentrations from the 24-hour in essential oils of T.vulgare, L. nobilis, and F. vulgare. In T. vulgare essential oil, a 99.7% effect was determined at a dose of 2 µl ml -1 after 72 hours. After 48th hours, 90.2% effect was determined at 0.5 µl ml -1 concentration, while 83.5% effect was determined at 2 µl ml -1 concentration after 24 hours. In L. nobilis essential oil, 100% and 99.4 effects were determined in 2 µl ml -1 concentration after 72 and 24 hours respectively, and 93.7% effect was determined at 0.5 µl ml -1 concentration after 48 hours. In F. vulgare essential oil, where the highest effect.There are many studies on the nematicidal effect of essential oils on plant parasitic nematodes, especially root-knot nematodes (Andrés et al. 2012, Ntalli andCaboni 2012). In many studies on root-knot nematodes, very promising results have been obtained and even EC50 values similar to chemical nematsites have been determined in some essential oils (Onifade et al. 2008, Aissani et al. 2015, Oka 2001). However, there are very few studies on cyst nematodes. There are three studies on Globodera spp. and eight studies on Heterodera spp. that have been conducted so far regarding the nematicidal effect of essential oils on cyst nematodes.No studies were found about H. filipjevi. There is no study on the effect of essential oils on H. filipjevi, and also of plants belonging to the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families on Heterodera spp. (Faria and Vicente 2021).The nematicidal effects of some essential oils on H. filipjevi were examined in this study. The essential oils of T. vulgare, L. nobilis, and F. vulgare exhibited potential nematicidal action against H. filipjevi. However, pot and field trials should be conducted to observe the actions of these essential oils. Furthermore, re-search on the mechanism of action of essential oils on cereal cyst nematodes is required to determine the biological targets of the different components in order to develop more environmentally friendly pest control strategies.  (Kerry et al. 1982). In Peru, Meloidogyne incognita was controlled by the application of the fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus (Thom) in soil infested with this nematode (Jatala et al. 1980). Nematophthora gynophila infests females and inhibits cyst formation. Verticillium chlamydosporium parasitizes immature eggs as well as chained L1 or L2 (Irving and Kerry 1986). The purpose of this study was: i) to isolate and identify potential biological antagonists of H. avenaecysts from different cereal regions of Algeria; ii) to determine the toxicity of Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. with respect to H. avenaeeggs.Soil sampling of cereals naturally infested with H. avenaewas carried out in four regions located in two different bioclimatic stages: Sidi Amar (Tipaza) and Mouzaia (Blida) in sub-humid; Khroub (Constantine) and Dahmouni (Tiaret) in semi-arid regions. These bioclimatic stages are distinguished by average annual temperatures and precipitation. In the sub-humid bioclimatic stage, the annual average temperature is 19°C and the annual average rainfall varies from 600 to 800 mm. In the semi-arid bioclimatic stage, the average annual temperature is 7°C in winter and 27°C in summer with an annual average of 17°C and an annual rainfall of 350mm. Cereal soil samples (durum wheat, soft wheat and barley) were collected between July and August 2018 from twelve plots: four in the region of Sidi Amar, three in the region of Dahmouni, three in the region of Khroub and two in the region of Mouzaia. Sampling was conducted at a depth between 0 and 30 cm using a auger (Rivoal 1986).About ten soil samples were taken from each plot; each sample consists of five basic samples. All samples were carefully packed in plastic bags on which the coordinates of the sample were indicated (date and parcel number) and then stored at 4°C. In the laboratory, the soil was previously air-dried. The extraction of cysts was done with the Fenwick apparatus (1940).The isolation of the fungi was carried out on about fifteen cysts disinfected in a 1% NaOCl solution for five minutes and rinsed three times successively with sterile distilled water (the first rinse at 2 minutes, the second at 3 minutes and the third at 5 minutes). The cysts were then dried for 10 minutes on sterile Wattman paper. They were then placed in 90 mm diameter Petri dishes on agar malt medium (20 g of malt extract, 10 g of agar and 1 liter of distilled water) (Rappily 1968), at the rate of one cyst per box. Fifteen repetitions were therefore carried out for each region. All these operations were carried out under a laminar flow hood in order to avoid external contamination. After 72 hours of incubation at 25°C, the cans were examined under binocular magnification every 24 hours for the first ten days, once a week later. After one month, the percentage of cyst infection by fungi was calculated. The fungi, which developed from the cysts, were isolated and purified on an agar medium. From these isolates, monosporal cultures were made on Malt medium and incubated at 25°C.The identification of isolated fungi was done based on macroscopic and microscopic criteria. Macroscopic observations concerns the color and appearance of the culture. Microscopic observations (Leica BM type optics) were made on culture fragments containing the fructification forms, colored with lactophenol blue, placed between the blade and the slide and fixed by a rapid passage on the flame of the benzene beak.The observations concern the morphology of mycelium, conidia, conidiophores and chlamydospores. The genera of the individual fungi were identified using Barnett and Hunter(1972).Three strains of Fusarium spp. (M2, M9 and M12), two strains of Penicillium spp. (SA5 and SA9) and two strains of Aspergillus spp. (D3 and EK14) isolated from cysts belonging to the respective populations of Mouzaia (M), Sidi Amar (SA), Dahmouni (D) and El Khroub (EK), were assessed for their toxicity to H. avenae. A fragment of each fungal isolate was collected from the growing area and deposited in 250ml vials containing 100ml of YES liquid nutrient medium (composed of 40g sucrose, 20g yeast extract and 1000 ml distilled water). These vials were incubated for 14 days in the dark at a temperature of 26°C. After this time, the culture medium was filtered using Wattman paper of diameter 11 mm, which prevents the passage of all contaminants. The nematicidal effect of the evaluated isolates was tested with aqueous filtrate which is diluted in sterile distilled water at 25, 50 and 75%. Sterile distilled water was used as a control for comparison.The identification of toxic metabolites in the filtrate of fungal cultures was achieved through thin-layer chromatography (TLC) which was based on the differential migration of molecules according to their size, shape, mass, charge, solubility or their absorption properties. After 14 days of incubation, we got rid of the biomass formed by filtering the YES medium through a filter paper. Thus, 50ml of the filtrate obtained was added to 100, 50 and 30ml of chloroform respectively. The whole was agitated for 30 min. We then allow the mixture to settle down using a settling bulb in order to separate the aqueous phase from the chloroformic phase. The three chloroformic phases thus extracted were filtered on a filter paper and then concentrated with a steam rotovator until a volume of 2 to 3 ml was obtained. These extracts were kept away from light at 4°C until use them.H. avenaeeggs were deposited in hemolysis tubes. Each tube received approximately 100 eggs to which we added a 100μl filter suspension to be tested of each strain of Fusarium sp. Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. for all three concentrations (C1: 25%; C2: 50%; C3: 75%). Eggs were therefore subjected to four different treatments (control, Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp.). Each treatment was repeated four times. Egg mortality were estimated after 6, 24 and 48 hours of incubation at 22°C, by periodic Meldola blue coloring at 1‰ which has the characteristic of crossing the cuticle of dead eggs and coloring their contents (Ogica and Estey 1974). Next, colored and uncolored eggs were counted under an optical microscope.In order to study the correlation between the genera of the isolated fungi with the populations of H. avenae studied, we used a multi factorial analysis from statistical software (PAST vers.1.37) (Hammer et al. 2001).Fungi isolated. Forty-six fungi were isolated and identified primarily at the genus genus level. They belong to the class Zygomycetes (Rhizopus spp. and Rhizomucor spp.) and Deuteromycetes (Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Ulocladium spp.) (Figure 1). Based on morphological criteria, conidiophores of Aspergillus spp. ends in a bulge with sterigmas bearing single-celled and globoid conidia chains (Figure 1A).Fusarium spp. was characterized by slightly arched pluricellular macroconidia and ovoid to oblong unicellular microconidia Penicillium spp. was characterized by prolonged conidiophodes of phialids which carry at their apex long chains of unicellular conidia, globoid to ovoid (Figure 1C). For Rhizomucor spp., the hypha has no or few partitions and the zygospores were formed in the round, dark brown to black, aerial hyphae.Rhizopus spp. is characterized by non-septate hyphae, continuous-growing conidiophores that give rise to sporangia. The conidiophore of Ulocladiumspp. was simple and branched and the conidia have a zig-zag appearance, of brown-black color, with a rough and cylindrical wall divided into several cells (Figure 1F). Thin-layer chromatography. The results of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) were positive. Indeed, the reading of the two TLC plates of the different fungal isolates (Figure 2) showed a presence of dark blue and light blue fluorescence which means a migration of metabolites at the silicagel plate. In the absence of standards, it was impossible for us to determine the substances extracted from the migrating fungi.Toxicity of fungal culture filtrates on H. avenaeeggs. In our study, the percentage of mortality of eggs was 100% for all concentrations of fungal filtrates, 6h, 24h and 48h after inoculation. These results were confirmed clearly under a microscope when the eggs of H. avenae are colored in Meldola blue. Indeed, in the treatment with Fusarium spp. (M12) filtrate at the C1 concentration after 6h, the eggs were colored (dark), non-viable and undisturbed (Figure 3A). In Fusarium spp. (M2) filtrate treatment at the C2 concentration after 48h, we observe dead or non-viable colored eggs with one or more vacuoles (Figure 3B).With Aspergillus spp. (D3) filtrate at the C3 concentration after 24h, the eggs were colored (dark) with degraded embryos (Figure 3C). The application of Penicillium spp. (SA5) filtrate at the C2 concentration after 6h resulted in the mortality of embryo eggs which were colored and not degraded (Figure 3D). All these observations were different from those obtained on the controls (distilled water). The latter have no mortality, since the appearance of the eggs after coloring with Meldola blue has an uncolored embryonic content (Figure 3E).Forty-six fungi belonging to different genera were identified from H. avenae cysts populations from four cereal regions. These fungi belong to four orders. The fungi isolated in our study were found all over the world in association with several cyst nematodes (Heteroderidae), suggesting that this microflora is specific to them (Willcox and Tribe 1974;Kerry and Crump 1977;Kerry 1980;Nigh et al. 1980;Ownley Gintis et al. 1983;Crump and Kerry 1987;Crump 1991;Crump and Flynn 1995;Chen et al. 1996). According to Kerry et al. (1982), opportunists such as Penicillium spp. infect only a small number of eggs and colonize only dead females. Note that some of the isolated fungi are associated with cereals.All fungi isolated from the four Algerian regions surveyed have a frequency ranging from 13% to 66% and are considered secondary parasites (Dackman and Nordbring-Hertz 1985;Kerry 1988b). The association of Fusarium spp. with H. avenae suggests that this fungus likely has a role in the natural regulation of populations of this nematode. Its highest frequency in the Mouzaia region could result from bioclimatic conditions favorable to its development and especially from the monoculture of cereals (wheat or barley) practiced there.However, some of them have been the subject of much work. They showed an inhibitory action against the mobility of infesting larvae (L2) gall or cyst nematodes. According to Kerry (1988a), more than 150 species of fungi have been identified on cysts, females and eggs of eight species of cyst nematodes in the soil, while about 20 species have been found on the eggs of Meloidogyne spp. (Chen et al. 1996). The 76% rate of cyst colonization obtained in our experiment corroborates the results revealed by Clovis and Nolan (1983) and Tribe (1980) who estimate that the cyst rate, eggs and females of cyst nematodes colonized by fungi in agricultural soils range from 10% to 90%.The colonization of cysts, eggs or females by these fungi may affect their viability, which may explain the mortality of eggs in the cysts of the different populations studied. For example, Nigh et al. (1980) report that there are reports that indicate that nematode viability was severely reduced after being colonized by some opportunistic fungi.At the soil level, populations of opportunistic fungi associated with nematodes may be significantly higher than populations of obligatory parasitic fungi (Yu 1989). The importance of regulating plant parasitic nematode populations in soil is positively related to the population of all fungal parasites, including opportunists (Kerry 1988b).Under laboratory conditions, we demonstrated the toxicity of three strains of Fusarium spp., two strains of Penicillium spp. and two strains of Aspergillus spp. with regard to H. avenae which causes high nematode egg mortality. The mortality induced by the filtrates of these seven fungal strains is therefore a major potential in the control of this nematode. Indeed, the work of Ciancio (1995), Anke and Sterner (1997), Nitao et al. (2001) showed the toxicity of secondary metabolites produced by endophytic fungi, such as Fusarium oxysporumon Meloidogyne incognita, and toxins from various Fusarium spp.. that can reduce the viability of nematodes. Djian et al. (1991) have shown that it is monocarboxylic volatile fatty acid, which is the acetic acid that occurs abundantly during the growth of telluric fungi such as Paecilomyces lilacinus and Trichoderma longibrachiatum on a liquid medium and inhibits larval mobility infesting and hatching nematode eggs.Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. act either by the toxic action against the eggs of H.avenae, or by the inhibitory or destructive action of the eggs of nematode populations (Ameen 1991;Hall-mann and Sikora 1996;Khan 1999;Sharma 1999;Wang et al. 1999;Costa et al. 2001;Randhawa et al. 2001.Similar results to ours were obtained by Molina and David (1986). Both authors showed that the purified  strategies. Among others, biocontrol methods of PPNs have shown the ability to be used as a management tool and should be studied more extensively and in more detail (Kohl et al. 2019). An example of biocontrol agents is the use of antagonistic fungi against PPN populations (Poveda et al. 2020). New fungal endophytes are continuously being discovered and various fungi have been reportedas natural enemies of PPNs. A group of these fungi infect females and egg contents of endo-parasitic nematodes i.e., cyst and root-knot nematodes (Stirling 2014).Several studies show that endophytic fungi have an influence on plant development and contribute to plant survival (Schouten 2016). Fungi can have an impact on plant population through increasing general plant health. That is by increasing plants tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses and increasing plants biomass (Rodriguez et al. 2009; Schouten 2016). For example, it was shown that numerous plant-associated fungi produce phytohormones i.e., auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins. These phytohormones are involved in plant growth promotion and aid the plant to tolerate abiotic and biotic stresses (Aloni et al. 2006;Rodriguez et al. 2009;Mei and Flinn, 2010). Accordingly, fungi can be explored as a tool for biocontrol and to promote plant growth in the presence of abiotic and biotic stresses such as drought, heat, or plant pathogens like cyst nematodes.The described species Ijuhya vitellina, Monocillium gamsii (Ashrafi 2017a, b) and two Pleosporalean strains JKI72994 & JKI72728 were initially isolated from naturally infected cyst nematodes and examined in vitro, where Koch's postulates were proven, and showed an antagonizing nature against cyst nematodes.Additionally, the Pleosporalean strains JKI72994 & JKI72728 have been reported in independent ecological studies as root endophytic fungi associated with different plant species including wheat and representatives of Brassicaceae (Glynou et al. 2016). These studies led us to propose that these recently discovered fungi may have a bi-functional lifestyle. They parasitize cyst nematode eggs but are also found as plant symbionts (endophytes).Accordingly, the current study was conducted to: (1) examine the antagonizing effect of these fungal strains against the beet cyst nematode (BCN) Heterodera schachtii, (2) evaluate their impact on growth promotion of sugar beet under greenhouse conditions.Pot experiments were established using a sterilized soil substrate. Plants were inoculated with fungal isolates, and infective second stage juveniles (J2s) of H. schachtii with the following treatments: (1) fungus and nematode ( 2) fungus ( 3) nematode alone (control), and ( 4) only plant (no inoculation). Plants were grown in a greenhouse (20°C photoperiod of 16 hours). Each treatment consisted of 10 replicates and the experiment was repeated twice. The experiment was kept for 4 months, then the plants were uprooted, and cysts were extracted from each individual pot. Growth parameters were recorded i.e., plant height, shoot height, root length plant dry/fresh weight and biomass.In addition, the detection of auxin production level of the fungal strains was tested following the Salkowski colorimetric assay (Gordon and Weber 1951) to determine whether they produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) according to Naureen et al. (2022).The preliminary results showed that the total biomass was significantly the highest in plants inoculated with the fungal isolate JKI72994, followed by plants inoculated with the same fungus and nematode, and plants inoculated with M. gamsii. The root biomass was significantly highest in plants inoculated with the fungal isolate JKI72994 followed by plants inoculated with M. gamsii. The antagonizing effect of the fungal strains on BCN and their control efficacy is currently under evaluation.Initial results showed the detection of IAA in 2 of the fungi studied here, namely I. vitellina and M. gamsii. To confirm our finding of IAA production by these fungi, further experiments and tests will be conducted.The preliminary findings open the potential to test these fungal isolates for other phytohormones that may be produced. The constant increase of the human population necessitates that more food must be produced to ensure food security worldwide, while cereal crops are an important source of human and animal food (FAO 2017). Cereal production, reduced by 4.6% in 2019 in comparison to 2018 (FAO 2020) in Africa placing risk to food security in this continent. Production of maize (Zea mays) as the main grain crop in South Africa is hampered by a variety of diseases and pests including plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs). This group of nematodes are a key limiting biotic factor in maize cropping systems (Fourie et al. 2017;Mc Donald et al. 2017). Previous research found that root-knot nematodes caused up to 60% losses in South African maize crops (Riekert and Henshaw 1998). Among other eco-friendly control strategies, crop rotation is one of the methods that could reduce PPN populations in maize-based agriculture systems. However, most crops, particularly legumes that are used in rotation with maize are subjected to the same nematode pest as maize (Fourie et al. 2017;Dababat and Fourie 2018). Therefore, it is critical to identify rotational crops in maize-based cropping systems while suppressing PPN levels. Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) could be a suitable alternative, due to its chemical features i.e. the formation of condensed tannins, which was shown to have anthelmintic effect against ruminant gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes (Novobilský et al. 2013;Mueller-Harvey et al. 2019).This study was designed to evaluate the rotation effects of different legumes with maize on a Meloidogyne enterolobii population, compared to monoculture maize. Different legume cultivars were used to assess their impact on nematode population densities: cultivars of sainfoin including Esparsette, Perly, Taja and Visnovsky), the soybean cultivar, and the alfalfa cultivar BAR7. The maize cultivar P-2432-R was used in all experiments. The tomato cultivar Moneymaker was used as a positive control for nematode infection. Pots (0.5-L capacity) were inoculated with 500 eggs and J2 from an in vivo reared M. enterolobii population. All plants were uprooted five weeks following nematode inoculation. The aerial part and roots of each plant were incorporated into the soil of the corresponding pot (4-8 cm deep) by cutting the plant material into small (2 cm) chunks. One week later, pots were seeded with one maize seed. The tomato pots were re-sown with tomato. The experiments were terminated in five weeks by extracting nematodes from roots. Different criteria such as nematode population density, reproduction factor value of the nematode, and different plant growth parameters were determined. The experiments were repeated twice.Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province is located in southwestern of Iran. The total area under irrigated and rain-fed wheat cultivation in this provinces, is 99000 hectares that about three of quarters of the areas are under rain-fed cultivation. Meanwhile the annual wheat production is estimated 136,680 Tons, about 3,122 and 912 kg / ha in irrigated and rain-fed respectively in 2020 (Ahmadi et al. 2021).Among the cereal cyst nematodes, Heterodera filipjevi is the most common species of cereal cyst nematodes (CCNs) in most cereal growing areas of Iran. Five species belonging to the Heterodera avenae group consisting of H. avenae, H. filipjevi, H. hordecalis, H. latipons and Heterodera sp. were identified and reported from cereal fields and grasslands in Iran (Tanha Maafi et al. 2007).So far, no comprehensive study has been conducted on the identification and distribution of cereal cyst nematodes in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province, especially in tropical regions of the province, although H. filipjevi was reported from the colder regions of this province (Abdollahi 2008). However in the extensive studies conducted in wheat fields of Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari provinces the neighbors of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province were shown severe soil infestation and CCN distribution in both provinces. (Karimipour Fard et al. 2016, 2017a).Trials on assessment of yield loss due to H. filipjevi indicated significant reduction of grain yield by 24.8%, 24.8% and 20.4% in Back-cross Rowshan, Pishtaz and Parsi cultivars, respectively under field conditions (Karimipour Fard et al. 2017b). We studied identification, the spreading of CCN based on the geographic information system (GIS), population density in both irrigated and rainfed wheat fields in cold and tropical regions of the province.A total of 150 composite soil and root samples were randomly taken from wheat fields of different counties of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province during 2017-2020 along with recording the geographical coordinates of the sampled locations using a GPS. The sampling was done during the grain filling period until harvesting time. The soil samples were processed by the Fenwick can for extraction the cyst-forming nematodes.Species was identified based on morphological and morphometric features and molecular characters. To identify the specimens, permanent slides were made by excising the vulval cone region of cysts and mounting them in glycerin jelly, and by fixing J2 from each cyst in TAF and mounting them in glycerin. The ITS-rDNA gene was amplified with the forward TW 81and reverse AB28 primers. Specific primers for identification of H. filipjevi (FILI-COIF and FILI-COIR) were also used (Toumi et al. 2013). The population densities of CCNs and the mean of population densities of samples belonging to each districts were evaluated as well.The results revealed Heterodera filipjevi was the only species of cereal cyst nematodes identified in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province. Amplification of H. filipjevi ITS-rDNA regions produced a fragment of 1000 bp. The results of comparing the obtained sequences with the sequences in the World Gene Bank showed that the sequence of these regions of cereal cystic nematode ribosomal RNA was 99% similar to the sequences deposited in NCBI. Using H. filipjevi specific primers, amplified a fragment of about 250 bp (data not shown), which was consistent with previous results of identifying H. filipjevi using a specific primer (Toumi et al. 2013).Among the 75 soil samples, including 49 soil samples from the rain-fed and 26 samples from the irrigated wheat fields of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province, 42 soil samples (56%) contained cereal cyst nematode, H. filipjevi. The percentage of infested rain-fed and irrigated wheat fields were 55 and 57.6, respectively. The average population of eggs and second stage juveniles (J2s) in cysts was estimated as 2.6 eggs and J2s /g of soil. The minimum population density of H. filipjevi (0.5 eggs and J2s/g of soil) was found in wheat fields of Tal Khosrow region in Boyer-Ahmad county, Bid-Zard region of Gachsaran county, Lirab region of Basht county and Bijgan and karyak regions of Dena county. The rain-fed wheat field (Dehdasht cultivar) of Lirab region in Basht county and the rain-fed wheat field (Azar 2 cultivar) from Chenarestan-Sofla region of Boyer-Ahmad county, with 13.7 and 12.9 eggs and J2s/g of soil, had the highest mean population density of H. filipjevi, respectively. The average population of eggs and J2s in the both rain-fed and irrigated wheat fields infested with the H. filipjevi in all counties of the province were estimated to be 2.6 and 2.51 per gram/ soil, respectively. In total rain-fed and irrigated wheat fields by counties, the highest and lowest mean populations of eggs and J2s of H. filipjevi was 4.9 and 1.18 belonged to Basht and Gachsaran counties, respectively (Table 1). Identification of H. filipjevi, corresponds to the previous report of this species from the cold part of the province (Abdollahi 2008). The results of studies on different initial population density of H. filipjevi on wheat (Sardari cultivar) in microplot trials showed that grain yield reduction occurred even at the lowest population density (2.5 eggs and J2/g soil) and reached a maximum grain yield reduction of 48% with an initial population density of 20 eggs and J2/g of soil (Hajihasani et al. 2010). Therefore, the results obtained from this study indicate that a decrease in grain yield is expected in wheat fields of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province. Also, due to the fact that the existing reports show increased damage of cereal cyst nematodes, including H. filipjevi in rainfed cultivation and under drought stresses conditions in most wheat producing countries (Braun et al. 2009, Karimipour Fard et al. 2015) and also considering the fact that most of the area under wheat cultivation in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad provinces are rainfed, the importance of damaging H. filipjevi in wheat fields of the province becomes more apparent. Conduction of additional research to evaluate the amount of damage and yield reduction caused by H. filipjevi, especially in the rainfed cultivars of the province is recommended.wheat resistance under simulated field conditions LAASLI S.E. Among cereal crops, wheat (Triticum aestivum L. and T. durum Desf.) occupy a prominent position regarding production, nutrition source, and acreage patterns, especially in developing countries (Nicol et al. 2011).Several soil-borne pathogens can negatively impact wheat's agronomic yield parameters, including the root-lesion nematodes (RLN, Pratylenchus spp.) and the crown rot fungus (CRF, Fusarium spp.).The genus Pratylenchus is globally prevalent, with many species associated with wheat (Castillo and Vovlas 2007). They are obligate parasites that can attack different crops, causing significant damage in the order of 190 million US $ per annum in Southern and Western Australia (Vanstone et al. 2008). Fusarium culmorum, known as crown rot fungus (CRF) is one of the soil-borne pathogens that are widely distributed and cause tremendous damage to a wide range of host plants (Nelson et al. 1993;El-Kazzaz et al. 2008). This damage negatively impacts wheat production areas valued at billions of dollars in yield losses (Windels 2000).Resistant and tolerant wheat cultivars are the most eco-environmental and promising methods to manage the RLN occurrence (Castillo et al. 1998;Mokrini et al. 2019;Seid et al. 2021). Many studies have reported several sources of resistance regarding wheat germplasm (Thompson et al. 2008;Toktay et al. 2012;Dababat et al. 2019), and they can be mainly obtained through a screening program of wild wheat relative accessions.The interaction between root-lesion nematodes and Fusarium species has been reported previously (Castillo et al. 1998;Hajihassani et al. 2013) and it concerns different Pratylenchus species. Nematodes tend to increase the severity of diseases induced by the fungus, causing highly significant economic damage and yield losses (Powell 1971).The objectives of this study were to (i) investigate the resistance of wheat lines against P. thornei and F. culmorum alone and in combination, (ii) estimate the effect of co-inoculations of root-lesion nematodes (mainly P. thornei) and F. culmorum under simulated field conditions on growth and yield of spring wheat, and (iii) predict the damage caused by the disease complex when either P. thornei or F. culmorum attacks first.Plant Material: The 150 spring wheat lines were provided by the KASIB network through CIMMYT, Türkiye.Three independent trials were performed to investigate the host suitability of germplasms to P. thornei, F. culmorum, and co-inoculation complex. Each trial was repeated twice for data validation. Standard known check lines (CLs) were adopted for both the nematode and the fungus.Inoculum preparation: Pratylenchus thornei and Fusarium culmorum were extracted from infested wheat fields in Bolu province, Türkiye. The nematode suspension was used to inoculate wheat seedlings 1 week after planting, at a density of 200 individuals per ml of water (Toktay et al. 2012). 1 ml conidial suspension of F. culmorum at a rate of 1×10 6 spore per ml of water was used for inoculation. (3 cm above soil level) (Erginbas- Orakci et al. 2016). Regarding the interaction trial (P. thornei × F. culmorum), both inocula were applied simultaneously at the same individual rates and kept conditioned as previously mentioned.The reproduction factor (RF) and the disease index (DI) were calculated for each trial and classified according to a 1-5 resistance scale (R, MR, MS, S, and HS) (Dababat et al. 2016;Erginbas-Orakci et al. 2016, 2018). In addition, several plant growth variables were measured, including plant height (cm), shoot dry weight (g), root dry weight (g), root length (cm), and grain yield (g tube -1 ).Statistical analyses: Data were processed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) after being normalized by Spring wheat resistance against Pratylenchus thornei and Fusarium culmorum: Population structure based on Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) displayed five groups, depicting the resistance reaction to both P. thornei and F. culmorum among the 150 lines investigated (excluding CLs). Regarding the nematode, we found 48 resistant (R), 48 moderately resistant (MR), 24 moderately susceptible (MS), 16 susceptible (S), and 14 highly susceptible lines (HS) (Figure 1a). As for the fungus, we found 16 MR, 49 MS, 48 S, and 37 HS lines (Figure 1b). Dababat et al. (2019) evaluated 484 CIMMYT's spring wheat varieties for resistance to P. thornei of which 56 lines were classified as resistant under controlled growth chamber conditions, while Hekimhan (2010) stated that only 20% of wheat cultivars were able to resist F. culmorum constraints. The plant growth parameters were significantly reduced compared to the negative control due to the pathogens. Spring wheat resistance against RLN-CRF complex: Significant RF and DI increases were recorded due to the co-inoculation P. thornei × F. culmorum. Interestingly, the prior infestation by RLNs followed by CRF was predicted via resistance attributes to reach 81% (45% P. thornei + 36% F. culmorum) (Figure 2a), while Fusarium culmorum enhanced the virulence of P. thornei to cause up to 100% resistance reduction. Additionally, the fungus also obtained support for enough space to invade plants' roots by increasing its severity by 69%.Hence, the cumulative damage was predicted to be 169% (Figure 2b). The regression analysis has shown that there is a negative relationship between the pathogen indices (RF and DI) and the grain yield. Only four lines (Pavlodarskaya 11, Fiton С 50 ЧС, Lutescens 1519, and Lutescens1082) were able to maintain their resistance to both pathogens alongside their interaction, making them excellent sources for breeding purposes. Powell NT (1971)  Wheat production is facing with different biotic and abiotic stresses around the world. Drought as a shortage of water is a major abiotic stress causing losses in wheat growth and yield. Heterodera filipjevi is one of the most economically important CCN species reported to infect crops across different regions of the world. Fusarium culmorum is another soil borne disease causing root rot and crown rot in cereals particularly in wheat and barley (Ahmadi et al. 2022).Under such situations, plants have to set a series of adaptation mechanisms ranging from cellular metabolism to physiological and developmental responses (Harbaoui 2018). Plant physiology, morphology and biochemistry are genetically controlled by a large set of genes. Expression of these genes is influenced by a number of factors, internal as well as external, including stage of plant development, diseases, drought, salinity, cold, and many others (Ziaf et al. 2016). In this way plant hormones such as salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (ET), and abscisic acid (ABA) play central signaling roles and regulate defense responses in plants (Jiang et al. 2010).ERDs genes have emerged as a new class or group of genes, identified first time by Kiyosue et al. (1994). ERD15is a transcription factor for the up-regulation of the salicylic acid-dependent defense pathway and acts as an important negative regulator of abscisic acid. The negative effect of ERD15 on ABA signaling enhances SA-dependent defense seen as improved induction of PR genes and leading to enhanced resistance to the pathogens (Kariola et al. 2006).PR proteins production immediately after pathogen attack is one of the early defensive responses in plants.PR genes are also responsive to abiotic environmental stimuli, such as drought, salt, osmotic stress, low temperature and light conditions. It can also be understood that a defense gene can interfere in several resistance paths and cause resistance to many stresses.Plant materials, growth and stress conditions: Two hexaploid bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) accessions including accession  (Resistant to F. culmorum) and accession Silverstar (Resistant to H. filipjevi) were used for gene expression analysis. Seeds were surface sterilized and germinated. Seven-day-old plants were exposed to single, dual and triple combinations treatments of drought, nematode and fungus stresses.Drought stress applied in present study included 40% of field capacity (Ahmadi et al. 2022). Cereal cyst nematode, H. filipjevi, sample collected by CIMMYT-Türkiye (Dababat et al. 2014) was used in this study, and each seedling was inoculated with 400 freshly hatched J2 of H. filipjevi (Ahmadi et al 2022). An identified isolate of F. culmorum, causing crown rot, from CIMMYT-SBP collection was used as the third stress factor (Ahmadi et al 2022). Each seedling was inoculated with F. culmorum spores suspended in water (1 × 10 6   spores mL −1 ) (Erginbas- Orakci et al. 2016).The experiment was conducted and analysed as a 2×2×2×2×3 factorial with 6 replicates (two biological and three technical) in a completely randomized design (CRD).Factors include accession , two drought levels (40% stress and non-stress), two CCN levels (inoculated and non-inoculated), two crown rot levels (inoculated and non-inoculated), and sampling time (24h, 48h, and one week after treatment). Mean comparison was performed using the least significant difference test (LSD) (P ≤ 0.05). Each biological replicate sample contained five seedlings. Sampling of wheat root tissue, for RNA extraction and gene expression analysis, was performed three times after exerting stress conditions (24h, 48h, and one week after treatment). These three sampling times are important stages in the early transcriptional response of plants to stress (Kong et al. 2015).RNA isolation, cDNA synthesis and qRTPCR: Total RNA was extracted from samples using the TRIzol Reagent (Dena Zist Asia), and were treated with DNase I. Total RNA samples were used to synthesize first strand cDNA by manufacturer's instructions (cDNA synthesis, Takara kit). Real-time PCR was performed on QIAGEN's real-time PCR cycler, the Rotor-Gene Q. The forward and reverse primers for RT-PCR were designed from conserved domain of Triticum aestivum and Hordeum vulgare in NCBI database.The results revealed that the PR1 gene was up-regulated in response to different treatments in both varieties, but the highest gene expression was observed under combination of drought and fungus treatment after one week and also under triple combination of drought, nematode and fungus treatment after 24h post inoculation in resistant variety to F. culmorum . Also nematode stress interaction with other stresses caused higher PR1 gene expression in resistant variety to H. filipjevi (Silverstar). These up-regulations were significantly higher than gene expression under single stress conditions.Our results revealed that ERD15 gene was up-regulated in both varieties. Combined treatments such as drought/fungus, nematode/fungus and drought/nematode/fungus stresses caused the highest ERD15 gene expression after one week in resistant variety to F. culmorum . Also interaction of nematode and fungus stresses caused extremely high gene expression in resistant variety to H. filipjevi (Silverstar) too.Plants have evolved some defense mechanisms to protect themselves from biotic and abiotic stresses.Cyst nematodes are biotrophic sedentary endoparasites of plants that can establish prolonged parasitic interactions with their host (Zhang et al. 2017), and Fusarium spp. are hemibiotrophs pathogens that incorporate both biotrophic and necrotrophic infection strategies (Ma et al. 2013). Plant resistance to biotrophic pathogens is classically thought to be mediated by SA pathway, and by contrast, resistance to necrotrophic pathogens is controlled by JA and ET pathways (Xiao et al. 2013). ABA is an important plant hormone that plays signaling roles in different processes of plant growth and development as well as in plant responses to various abiotic stresses like drought stress. ABA signaling pathway suppresses both SA and JA-ethylene signaling pathways. Hence, it is expected to activate several paths for resistance to multi stresses (Anderson 2004) (Figure 1 and Figure 2).Results of present study showed that combined treatments either combination of two biotic stresses (H. Interestingly in the present study, combination of drought and each of pathogens attack caused a higher up-regulation in ERD15 compared with up-regulation by each single pathogen stress. Salicylic acid (SA) is involved in the activation of systemic acquired resistance (SAR). The PR1 proteins which exhibit strong antifungal activity are often known as markers of the enhanced defensive state conferred by pathogen induced systemic acquired resistance (SAR). As mentioned above, ERD15 enhances SA-dependent defense by antagonistic crosstalk with ABA signaling and therefore improves PR genes induction. In the present study, PR1 gene showed a higher up-regulation under interaction of drought/pathogen stresses.  The most common genera of plant parasitic nematodes on cereals are Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.),Cyst-forming (Heterodera spp.), Root-lesion (Pratylenchus spp.), Seed-gall (Anguina spp.), and Stubby-root (Paratrichodorus spp.) nematodes. Of these, root-knot nematodes (RKN), cereals cyst nematodes (CCN), and root lesion nematodes (RLN) are the major ones with the most significant impact on wheat production (Jones et al. 2013;Dababat et al. 2016). Even though RKN is the most common one, RLN and CCN are quite common and all three types of nematodes cause an estimated 125 billion USD loss worldwide (Keçici et al. 2022). Each PPN has a very specific host interaction. Fosu-Nyarko and Jones (2016)  The results indicated that 13 bread and 10 durum wheat accessions had a similar tolerance level (low nematode numbers) similar to GS50a, a partial resistant reference wheat line. Thompson (2008) detected lines resistant to RLN from a synthetic hexaploid population when compared to the partially resistant control line GS50a. In addition, new sources for resistance to RLN in T. durum and Aegilops tauschii were obtained (Thompson et al. 2008). In a study on wheat wild relatives and progenitors, 251 accessions were screened from wheat wild relatives (A. speltoides, A. peregrina, T. urartu, T. monococcum, T. timopheevii ssp.armeniacum, T. carthlicum, T. dicoccoides, T. turanicum), hexaploid wheat with disease resistance introgressed from A. tauschii, A. peregrina carrying two CCN resistance genes (CreX and CreY), Iraqi landraces and doubled haploid lines derived from the GS50a. A significantly higher number of resistant lines were reported in the diploid wild relatives of wheat, compared to tetraploid ones (Sheedy et al. 2012). In anoth-er screening study, a total of 274 Iranian landraces were evaluated for resistance against P. thornei (RLN)and 25 landraces from Iran were reported to be more resistant than GS50a (Sheedy and Thompson 2009).An in-depth evaluation of the nematode resistance mechanism was evaluated by Dababat et al. (2016).Accordingly, a total of 126 CIMMYT advanced spring wheat lines were screened for resistance to Heterodera avenae, P. neglectus, and P. thornei, of which 107 lines were genotyped with on chromosomes 1AL, 2AS, 2BL, 3AL, 4AL, and 5BL were linked to putative genes known to be involved in plant-pathogen interactions. In a study, Dababat et al. (2019) found that 56 lines from the CIMMYT spring wheat collection (484 lines) were resistant to P. thornei under controlled conditions. When these 56 lines were examined in terms of resistance/tolerance under field conditions, it was seen that 14 lines maintained their resistance and 16 lines were moderately resistant, and four lines had full resistance. Even though the above reports identified a pool of tolerance/resistance alleles or genetic resources for PPNs, there is a necessity for continuous evaluation of germplasm resources, wild and domesticated accessions, for the continuous fight with current and future PPNs.Another group of PPN is cereal cyst nematodes (CCN), Heterodera spp., which cause significant yield losses in wheat. To cope with CCN, there is a continuous effort for identifying resistance sources. For this purpose, at least nine single dominant resistance genes (Cre genes) have been reported, many of which were derived from wild relatives of wheat (Dababat et al. 2015). Six Cre genes (Cre2 to Cre7) were derived from Aegilops spp. (Jahier et al. 2001); other resistance genes were derived from T. aestivum (Cre1 and Cre8) and rye (Secale cereale) lines (CreR) (Barloy et al. 1996) There is a need for the continuous management of the stress factors with genetic improvement, field applications, and biological and chemical control agents for sustainable and sufficient food production (  etc), as the nematode control methods in the field.Each of these management methods has pros and cons based on application dose, application time, field conditions, plant and nematode species, and soil conditions, however, the economical limitations and some requirements for advanced expertise should not be overlooked. The long-term strategy to deal with PPN as a more widely applicable method and an inevitable priority is to select/breed \"PPN resistant\" cultivars. Moreover, environmentally friendly soil applications and soil amendments by using bio-fertilizers and biological control agents need more attention and support from the international research community. Since complete elimination of nematicides is not possible in the short term, reducing their use is necessary for the agricultural community to approach a sustainable and environmentally friendly PPN control strategy.Even though there is a large number of studies that reported screening, defining, and finding resistance/ tolerance sources, in the end, there is still no sufficient and global method available for the control of Like many other large rainfed wheat production systems Australia also has significant economic yield loss due to Soil Borne Pathogens. These includes the Root Lesion Nematodes -RLN (Pratylenchus thornei and P.neglectus predominantly) and also the fungus Crown Rot -CR (Fusarium psuedograimearum and F. culmorum).The RLNs, P. thornei and P. neglectus are globally important pathogens of both cereal (bread and durum) and legume crops, and often occur together in many farming systems. They have been reported to cause signif-icant yield losses up-to 60% on wheat both in Australia (Nicol et al. 1999, Taylor et al. 1999, Thompson et al., 2021) and globally from Mexico (Nicol & Ortiz-Monasterio 2004a), USA (Smiley et al. 2008) and several parts of West Asia and North Africa (Hajihasani et al. 2010, Nicol et al. 2004b). Former economic analysis by Murray and Brennan (2009)   et al. 2001, Cook 1980& 1992, Chekali et al. 2011, Hollaway and Exell 2010, Nicol et al. 2007, Paulitz et al. 2002, Papendick and Cook 1974). Durum wheat (Triticum durum) is known to be more intolerant (suffer greater yield loss) than bread wheat (Chekali et al. 2011(Chekali et al. , 2013)). A recent study of the economic impact of CR in Australia, based on inoculum levels in 5,993 fields (2015 to 2017) determined using qPCR molecular analysis (PREDICTA ® B), estimated average annual losses of 6% (Australian $404 million) with losses of 8-10% possible across the wheat cropping regions (Hollaway et al. 2022). CR disease is increased in importance with the widespread adoption of reduced tillage, stubble retention practices and intensification of cereals within cropping systems (Burgess et al. 2001, Evans et al. 2010, Paulitz et al. 2002, 2006). Unlike RLN legumes are not known hosts to CR so appropriate rotations are part of an integrated management strategy with cerealsInter-row sowing can dramatically reduce CR damage, which allows farmers to take full advantage of reduced tillage. (Simpfendorfer 2012). Management of CR is difficult due to limited tolerance and resistance in commercial wheat cultivars (Davies pers. comm, Ozdemir et al. 2020, Thompson et al. 2020, Vanstone et al. 2008) and a lack of registered effective chemical options.Previously in Australia the Cereal Cyst Nematode -CCN (Heterodera avenae pathotype Ha13) was also a major economic constraint in the rainfed stressed wheat production systems of the southern region, however this was resolved with the integrated research efforts of geneticists, pathologists and breeders (including molecular biologists) where a number of major gene resistant sources were identified and incorporated into Australian commercial varieties (Vanstone et al. 2008). Even now these sources are continued to be used and confirmed with molecular tools in the corporate sector breeding programs. This is a story of great success in pathology and breeding in Australia in part due to the excellent coordinated research and the fact that only one species and pathotype of CCN is present (unlike many other parts of the world, Nicol et al. 2004b, Toumi et al. 2018).The challenge with RLN and CR is that the resistance (ability of the plant to reduce the multiplication of the pathogen) and tolerance (ability of the plant to yield despite attack of the pathogen) is complex and is controlled by several minor genes. This requires a large effort in exploiting genetic resistance/tolerance and pyramiding this into high yielding adapted wheat lines. Another significant challenge is that frequently in rainfed water stress wheat predominated production systems of the world these Soil Borne Pathogens occur together as a complex (Nicol et al. 2007, Şahin et al. 2008, Sheedy et al. 2022, Thompson et al. 2010, Tunali et al. 2008, Yavuzasanoglu et al. 2012), and an approach of multiple disease resistance breeding should be considered (Nicol et al., 2007).With the advances in molecular biology Australia has pioneered the development of the pre-plant qPCR soil/stubble test (PREDICTA ® B) provides growers with a valuable tool to identify fields at risk of loss due to CR, RLN and CCN and implement available integrated management strategies (Hollaway et al. 2013). PRE-DICTA ® B is also a great research tool for monitoring and assessing SBP and other pathogens for researchers.The CAIGE project offers a great opportunity to exploit the genetic diversity for both SBP resistance and tolerance (and other abiotic and biotic constraints), and with the coordinated efforts of plant pathologists, pre-breeders and breeding programs offers the opportunity to identify, pyramid and combine these genetic sources into high yielding adapted lines for use by the Australian wheat improvement sector and global wheat improvement programs such as CIMMYT and ICARDA and their valued National Program partners.Australia has been working actively in this area, especially for RLN and CR for some time and work has identified many sources of genetic resistance for RLN and significant progress has been made to identify the novelty of these genes and pyramid them (Sheedy et al. 2022, Davies et al. pers.comm). Presently only a limited number of sources are used in commercial breeding programs and some of these have reliable markers to enable them to be selected along the breeding pipeline (Sheedy et al. 2022, Davies et al. pers. comm.).It is important to note that genetic resistance is part of the solution to help control these complex soil borne pathogens of CR an RLN, however effective control required an integrated management approach of which resistance is one component and crop rotation, possible seed treatments and a sustainable production system (with optimal soil health) will ultimately provide effective control of these pathogens (Evans et al. 2010, Owen et al. 2022, Simpfendorfer et al. 2019, Vanstone et al. 2008).The Underpinning all of these, and in collaboration with the International Breeding Platform (IBP), the CAIGE pedigree and phenotypic data are stored in an application of the Breeding Management (BMS) system, which enables collaborators to search and extract relevant data. BMS also provides a platform for GIGWA which stores relevant genotypic data. The CAIGE program has successfully improved the uptake and use of these globally important materials for the benefit of Australian grain growers.Since 2012 concerted efforts screening a subset of CAIGE germplasm and sharing SBP data from CIM-MYT-Turkey and Australia for CIMMYT germplasm have resulted in a number of lines (greater than 15)with confirmed resistance to one or both species of RLN and/or CR. These lines are in high yielding adapted backgrounds and offer potentially new sources of resistance to the breeding community, both in Australia and internationally. Furthermore, these lines also have several other valuable biotic resistances for foliar pathogens (such as rust, yellow spot and Septoria). Further work is necessary to further validate these sources and determine if their resistances to these SBP are novel.One of the outputs of the CAIGE project is to provide collaborators with a 'key disease core' set which provides the valuable lines for resistances to one or more pathogens. This is a public resource which can be shared with the Wheat Improvement Community. This information can be found on the CAIGE website and will be updated every 3 years as the CAIGE project progresses.This paper demonstrates through coordination, collaboration and integration of the key disciplines of pre-breeding and pathology how valuable sources of resistance and yield can be used by the wheat improvement community and ultimately farmers in the form of new varieties or cultivars. This model may also serve useful for other wheat improvement programs.  SBD are likely to cause economic losses comparable or in some cases higher than other above ground plant diseases and pests. By any standards, these substantial losses would warrant major investments in developing resistant and in case of nematodes also tolerant varieties. However, breeding for resistance or tolerance to nematodes and soilborne diseases, have not been made a priority in wheat breeding programs, apart from few exceptions in Australia, where root lesion nematodes resistant wheat varieties were released and new breeding lines with tolerance to crown rot were developed (Trethowan 2021).In theory it is known what is required to control Cereal Cyst Nematodes. Smiley (2022) stated: \"Production of cultivars which are both resistant and tolerant will become the most effective method for controlling CCN.Resistant and tolerance are genetically independent, and all combinations of resistance and tolerance are possible within a collection of cultivars (Smiley, 2022)\". In reality however, there is very little research and even less breeding work on SBD in wheat, in particular in countries of the South. CIMMYT's SBD program inTürkiye is an exception, though even this program has focused on screening germplasms to identify new sources of resistance, surveys and yield loss trials but focused less on developing elite lines with tolerance/ resistance to SBD. This paper discusses some aspects, why breeding for resistance to SBD is so challenging.There is a multitude of reasons for this. First of all, soil borne diseases can be found in many wheat fields, but the damage causing organisms are not easily detected and symptoms are often not obvious and can easily be confused with other problems, e.g. nitrogen deficiency or drought stress. In other words, there is no awareness that SBD as a constraint for wheat production and even less for the economic losses. For example, diagnosing the CCN species and then the dominant pathotype -the equivalent of races in cereal rustsis essential for a meaningful breeding intervention, as this defines which genes should be introgressed, but this information is often not available. In breeding for cereal rust resistance, detecting the dominant and monitoring occurrence of new races is paramount to develop resistant wheat varieties. Dababat (pers.Comm) has conducted surveys in Central and West Asia and North Africa and found crops severely suffering from various SBD in most of the rainfed wheat systems, while there was a general lack of awareness for the losses due to SBD. Once SBD have been recognized and confirmed as a constraint, yield loss trials are usually conducted. These trials indicate generally substantial losses greater 20%. A frequent shortcoming of these trials is that they are conducted in selected fields with a previous record of high infestation or even in artificially inoculated sick plots and do not necessarily represent the conditions in farmers' fields. In short, SBD cause serious yield losses in wheat and often more than one SBD is present and different diseases are dominant over years. Too often, there is not enough information available to help breeders decide on which disease to focus. Since every trait added to the core trait list of a wheat breeding program slows down the genetic gain rate of the other traits, sound data must be produced to justify inclusion of a SBD into a wheat breeding program.Though losses from SBD in wheat are economically substantial and in cases where breeders are aware of the dominant SBD within their region, breeding for resistance to SBD has not been prioritized, apart from a few exceptions, in particular for nematodes and crown rot. SBD pathologists have screened a huge number of wheat accessions, both elite lines and genetic resources and have identified lines with variable levels of resistance / tolerance. However, the reports refer generally to field and lab scores, but often fall short of providing information regarding the genetics, which is paramount to initiate a successful breeding program. The issue is further complicated by the fact that sources of resistance are often in a poor agronomic background and breeders generally stay away from using agronomically poor lines for crossing.The introgression of resistance from unimproved sources with known genetic make-up is best addressed through a dedicated pre-breeding program, where the focus is on transferring the trait of interest into an elite line. However, today there are very few pre-breeding programs operating, and most of those focus on other traits than SBD. A successful example is breeding for resistance to an extremely challenging disease like crown rot, where the known resistance is highly quantitative and many chromosomal regions carrying minor resistance genes need to be combined. Trethowan et al. (2021) have combined 8 regions with resistance genes and through marker assisted recurrent selection pyramided 48 minor genes. This was achieved at the end of a ten-year project using all available most recent technologies and illustrates the significant investments in time and staff needed to tackle such difficult diseases.An obvious but often unrecognized reason is that breeders do not prioritize breeding for SBD resistance, due to the lack of genetic variation and lack of knowledge regarding the genetic make-up of a particular and take all (Gaeumannomyces graminins var. tritici). Only a few wheat genotypes show moderate resistance to these root and crown rot fungal diseases, and the genetic determinants of wheat resistance to these devastating diseases are poorly understood.A further complicating factor are the significant differences between plant resistance to root pathogens and to foliar pathogens (Zhang et al. 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the responses of plant roots to root pathogens and the corresponding defence mechanisms rather than just rely on results of plant leaves to foliar pathogens. Defense mechanisms of plants against SBD that are understood, are highly complex and suggest that resistance is highly quantitative. These highly quantitative traits are also an indication, that single gene solutions are unlikely to be found. If they existed in elite lines, they had been likely detected. Most of the wild relative accessions stored in gene banks still wait to be screened for resistance to SBD and other diseases as well. Recognizing that SBD for wheat are likely to become more important in the future, since the low value crop wheat is likely to be pushed into more marginal areas, where a healthy root system is essential to cope with the abiotic and biotic stresses, it is paramount that more attention is given to developing wheat varieties with better tolerance / resistance to SBD.Smiley (2022) stated, that Cre1 provides best resistance to CCN, but suggests pyramiding Cre1 with otherCre genes to enhance the resistance. This breeding approach is feasible, when good or perfect markers are available, since otherwise it is very difficult to identify the genotypes that carry both genes to be pyramided, when the genes are dominant. Pyramiding genes is a concept used in breeding wheat rust resistance for decades, but due to the difficulties to combine independently segregating alleles, whose effects are not easily detectable, only very few breeding programs applied this breeding strategy. CIMMYT wheat breeders used this approach, i.e. combining genes with minor resistance effects, since the 70s very successfully. But this approach requires long term commitment and funding. A major factor was, that morphological markers could be identified (e.g. tip necrosis is linked with Lr 34, a gene that provides partial leaf rust resistance) that allowed to successfully make phenotypic selections. Progress became faster, when molecular markers became available, as this also allows now to combine major genes. But even then, pyramiding genes, whether recessive of dominant, remained a major challenge for breeders, since many markers are not perfect and developing markers that are reliable across genotypes with different background remains a major task.It is a common observation, that QTLs are identified and published, also for SBD, but the next step, developing and verifying a marker in different genotypes, is not taken, since this is often a time-consuming process with limited scientific credit. An important point to consider is that if both parents do not carry the resistance / tolerance genes, these genes segregate and need to be recombined in every new cross. Without reliable markers, effective selection is a major challenge. In the absence of markers, one approach could be to use Single Seed Descent (SSD) or Speed Breeding, i.e. plants are advanced with minimal selection pressure to a homozygous stage (F5 or F6) and are then evaluated for resistance by plant pathologists.For diseases agents like CCN, where specific resistance genes have been identified, gene stacking would be a powerful approach. The advent of rapid cloning technologies has facilitated the development of stacks with up to 8 rust resistance genes (Luo 2021). While current focus is on stem rust, this approach can be expanded to any other wheat diseases, including SBD, provided the cloned genes are available.The technology used to stack the genes is considered genetic modification (GM), even though the genes used originate from wheat and wheat relatives, i.e. cis-genic. Work is underway, to use genome editing to develop gene stacks, as this technology is not considered GM in some countries.Though for many SBD no complete control through resistant varieties is possible, it is paramount that in regions where SBD are known to be important, lines entering yield trials are screened for their tolerance to the prevalent diseases and susceptible lines are discarded. The release of \"disease suckers\" should be strictly avoided. Such a regular screening would be a big contribution to make IPM more effective, and over time the level of tolerance in the breeders' elite line should increase. This information should also be publicly available to farmers can make a better decision re variety. Hubs as described above, are ideal to provide this information.Soil borne diseases in wheat, though a major constraint for production, are often not recognized as underlying cause for significant losses. While the total losses are significant, breeding for resistance has not been prioritized by most breeding programs. Contributing factors are complexity of the screening and consequent selection process, lack of resistance, insufficient information on which diseases to focus, since SBD often occur in combination and absence of reliable screening facilities. New breeding technologies like speed breeding, marker assistant recurrent selection, genomic selection, gene stacking, or gene editing would allow to make faster progress, provided SBD are prioritized by breeding programs. For this, more data from extensive yield loss trials in farmers' fields are needed. Every breeder knows that adding a complex trait like resistance to a SBD to the list of breeding priorities will slow down the progress for the other traits.Programs with limited resources located in areas where SBD is a serious constraint should utilize hubs to get reliable information about their lines. Giving the restructuring of the One CGIAR; SBD is a common problem and destructive threat for almost all 1CG mandate crops. For example, the root lesion nematodes (RLNs) are multi-host endoparasitic nematodes that have the actual potential to attack all the crops under the 1CG umbrella and obviously controlling RLN in one host crop will definitely lead to reduce its impact on other crops. Therefore, SBD should be given a common priority under the 1CG and not to be excluded. Fusarium culmorum, also known as the crown rot fungus, is a soil-borne pathogen that causes significant damage to a wide variety of host plants (Nelson et al. 1993;El-Kazzaz et al. 2008). They can cause prominent disease symptoms in cereals such as crown rot, head blight, scab, and stalk rot. These symptoms have a negative impact on wheat production areas, resulting in yield losses worth billions of dollars (Windels 2000). F. culmorum is found in soil and plant matrices, including roots, aerial tissues, and organic substrates (Aoki et al. 2003). Cereal root rot symptoms include discoloration, necrosis, or rotting of the roots, sub crown internode, crown, and/or stem base (Stack 1982). Symptoms of severe root rot include stunting and wilting.RGB sensors are known to be useful for monitoring disease infection severity (Sugiura et al. 2016;Tetila et al. 2017;Vergara-Diaz et al. 2015;Feng et al. 2022). For plant phenotyping, RGB images are generally used to calculate NDVI, height, biomass, yield, etc. (Xie and Yang 2020). High-resolution RGB images have been usedfor the first time for wilt disease (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. raphani) detection in radish (Dang et al. 2020).The objective of this study was to reveal the potential of RGB based imaging on the detection of tolerant wheat genotypes to F. culmorum.Seventy-one advanced lines, with two checks, which are repeated 5 times in each replication were planted in Konya, Turkey to determine the yield loss under root rot inoculated conditions. The entries were planted as inoculated with F. culmorum and non-inoculated conditions; the trials were in the same field next to each other. The F. culmorum isolate was obtained from an infected wheat plant. The spore suspension was prepared by adding sterilized distilled water to each Petri dish containing F. culmorum culture. Wheat bran was inoculated with spore suspension. The fungus-colonized wheat bran was dried at room temperature and used for field experiments to inoculate the seeds of genotypes before planting. These calculations were used to assess biomass and leaf area index. SRIs have been used for determining the chlorophyll content, radiation use efficiency, assessing drought, and in-season yield estimation.ANOVA analysis was done for yield and correlations between RGB-based vegetation indexes and yield were calculated in Excel software.The number of entries in Resistance/Susceptible groups were 9, 20, 40, 6, and 6 from 1 to 5, respectively (Table 1). While the average yield was 4766.8 Kg/ha in non-inoculated area it was 4390.6 Kg/ha in inoculated areas, in average, the overall yield decrease was 7.9 % in the inoculated area compared to the non-inoculated area. The percent yield decreases were 12.8, 3.9, 7.4, 11.2, and 13.1 percent in resistance classes of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The highest decrease was observed in the most susceptible genotypes with 13.1 %, the lowest decrease was in score 2 with 3.9%. Correlations between digital images, NDVI, and yield under inoculated conditions are very low, nonsignificant, in the early growth stages of the plants (Figure 1), however it increases in the later crop growth stages. The correlations between yield and EV, GAm 2 , GGAm 2 , and NDVI in the first five measurements were negative, then they were high and positive in the last measurements. The correlations between CSI and yield under inoculated conditions followed a different pattern from the others; although there were not any statistically significant correlations in the first 3 measurements, it tended to be negative in next two measurements and reached the highest positive correlation in the measurement made on April 23 with 0.18. Then, the highest negative correlation was observed in the last measurement made on June 03.  Wheat breeders have been trying to adopt breeding strategies such as shuttle breeding, doubled haploids, and single seed descent (SSD) schemes to rapidly advance segregating and there by shorten the breeding cycle and increase the rate of genetic gain. Recently, speed breeding scheme is being highly promoted for accelerated breeding and higher rate of genetic gain. Speed breeding' technology is the production of up to six generations of wheat per year involving extended duration of light and early harvesting of wheat under glasshouse conditions. This enables effectively to shorten the breeding cycle through acceleration of generation advancement. However, it might be limited in its scope to screen the population for different biotic and abiotic stresses in addition to the difficulty of handling of large number of populations required at F 2 stage. The wheat breeding program at ICARDA uses classical and molecular approaches to develop well adapted high yielding germplasm with resistance to the major biotic and abiotic stresses. The program has adopted a modified speed breeding program where the crosses and F1production are carried out in the plastic houses followed by summer and winter shuttle of the F2, F3 and F4 head rows at Merchuch (Morocco) and Kulumsa/Melkaworer (Ethiopia). The stage 1 (preliminary yield)and stage 2 (advanced yield) trials are carried out during the main seasons at key locations: Merchouch and Settat (Morocco) for drought tolerance, Terbol (Lebanon) for cold tolerance and adaptation, Sids(Egypt) for yield potential, Wadmedani (Sudan) for heat tolerance and Kulumsa (Ethiopia) for resistance to diseases (yellow rust, stem rust, septoria etc). A total of 3000 and 600 wheat genotypes are tested in stage 1 (PYT) and stage 2 (9AYT) trials, respectively across the key locations: Wadmedani (Sudan) for heat tolerance; Merchouch and Sid Al Aydi (Morocco) for drought tolerance and resistance to nematodes and Hessian fly; Sids (Egypt) for yield potential; Terbol (Lebanon) for cold tolerance, adaptation and resistance to sun pest; and Kulumsa (Ethiopia) for resistance to diseases (rusts, septoria). The whole process from crossing to elite germplasm distribution to NARS through international nurseries is completed in 4 years. It should be noted that in this modified speed breeding scheme, we are using elite x elite crosses, selection of spikes for head-rows in the F3 and it requires rouging at the head row, PYT and AYT stages.This method is rapid, efficient and enables to attain fast genetic gain. The protocol is published in the wheat breeding handbook (Tadesse et al 2019).Yield levels of the top yielding elite spring bread wheat genotypes ranged up to 6t/ha at Wadmedani station of Sudan under extreme heat stress, 7t/ha at Merchouch station of Morocco under terminal moisture stress (260 -300 mm) and 11 t/ha at Sids station in Egypt under optimum conditions. Annually, ICARDA distributes more than 400 elite spring bread wheat genotypes to its partners through international nurseries. National programs carry out national or regional variety trials for 2  Using such process, in the last 10 years alone, more than 65 bread wheat varieties of ICARDA origin have been released by National Agricultural Research System (NARS) in the CWANA and SSA regions. Moving forward, variety release by its own will not bring impact unless it is supported by a strong seed multiplication and diffusion scheme. To this end, it is important to strengthen the national breeding programs for continuous variety development and timely supply of breeder seeds for newly released varieties; build the capacity of the national seed enterprises for production of certified seed; formulate conducive policies along the wheat value chain and establish strong public-private partnership.Wheat is grown on 20% of the cultivated land area of the world and is the main food resource for 40% of the world's population (Braun et al. 2010). Among the biotic stress factors, Fusarium species causing foot, crown, and root rots occur in winter cereals worldwide virtually wherever cereal-based farming systems predominate (Burgess et al., 2001). In the drylands of Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) soil-borne diseases (like crown rot) and various nematode species reduce the grain yield by up to 40%.These diseases and pests benefit from higher temperatures when they become more active (Colagiero and Ciancio 2011) Greenhouse Screening: A single wheat seed was sown in each plastic tube (Stuewe and Sons, Corvallis, OR) (21 cm height x 3.8 cm diam.) filled with the same potting mixture as mentioned above and was inoculated with 0.25 g of wheat bran F. culmorum consisted of about 5x10 5 spore per ml. Wheat bran was soaked in 1 ml water to estimate relative spore concentration by using a hemocytometer. The plants were left to grow under the greenhouse from October to June (winter wheat growing season) and harvested at maturity as lined with natural field conditions (Erginbas et al. 2018).Experimental Design: Each treatment was replicated 3 times and tubes were placed in a completely randomized block design (CRBD).Harvest: Nematode-; The plants were harvested 9 weeks after juvenile inoculation. Soil from each tube was collected in a 2-L pot filled with water for cyst extraction, while roots were washed on nested sieves with 850 µm and 250 µm mesh sizes to free cysts from the root system. Cysts from both root and soil extractions were collected on the 250 µm sieve and counted under a stereomicroscope. Crown Rot-; The germplasma were ranked according to the browning/rotting severity on the crown and were compared to the controls used in this study (Erginbas et al. 2013a). In this report, all SBPs screening data of the CAND-IWWYT-IRR&SA generated between 2015-2021 provided by the SBP team is collated and presented. The cyst number ranged from 1 to 41. The tested lines showed a disease severity ranging between 1% and 89%. The lines were categorized into 5 groups based on their reaction ranging from Resistant (R) to Highly Susceptible (HS). The screening of 982 winter wheat germplasm resulted in identifying 13.2% as resistant, and 13.8% as moderately resistant to H. filipjevi in the growth room (Table 1). The screening of 446 winter wheat revealed that 0.9% of germplasm were resistant, and 4% were moderately resistant to F. culmorum in the greenhouse (Table 2). A total of 262 and 22 germplasm selected for CCN-H. filipjevi and CR-F. culmorum were distributed to cooperators (Table 3).  Using resistant lines with high yield is the most effective and economical way to control SBPs, especially in drought-affected areas where cereals are cultivated and monoculture cropping systems exist (Erginbas- Orakci et al. 2013b). The performances of wheat lines tested in field trials in Türkiye and CWANA have indicated that some of them combine resistance to CCN and Crown Rot with competitive grain yield and resistance to yellow and stem rust. These lines have been extensively used as parental lines the most competitive lines may be released cultivars. Particular attention must be paid to managing SBPs through the introduction of resistance genes in widely grown cultivars, since an evaluation is needed regarding the persistence of the genetic pool introduced, on a scale of decades or years. Breeding for SBPs is extremely still a bottleneck and should be given more attention. More information about breeding challenges can be found in Braun's paper in this book. The wheat microbiome and soil health-making the connections Introduction Soilborne plant pathogens do not exist in a biological vacuum in the soil. The soil is one of the most complex (and least understood) ecosystems in the world. Besides large populations of bacteria, archaea, algae, and fungi, there is a complex of microfauna (protists, ciliates, paramecia, rotifers, amoeba, flagellates, nematodes) and soil invertebrates (collembola, insects, mites, millipedes, earthworms and other annelids, ants, and termites).Thus, a soilborne pathogen propagule or hyphae in the soil may encounter all of these soil community members, but how do they affect the success of the pathogen? Except for research on biological control and suppressive soils, which focus on one or a few species of antagonist, the answer to this question is mostly unknown. As plant pathologists, we tend to focus on the plant pathogen and often do not consider the rest of the soil community. Over the last decade, the topic of soil health has become one of the hottest topics in soil science and soil microbiology. In the last 5 years, over 21,000 papers have been published on soil health. But what does soil health mean, and how can it be measured? This is a controversial topic still not resolved. Until the development of high throughput DNA techniques, soil microbiologists measured soil quality indicators such as organic matter, aggregate stability, porosity, C, N, available permanganate oxidizable C, or readily mineralizable C through short term microbial activity measured by CO 2 release. A number of enzyme assays quantify key components of the C, N, and P cycling, such as N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase, β-glucosidase and acid/alkaline phosphatase. But none of these methods can distinguish individual taxa. Phospholipid fatty acid profile (PLFA) fatty acid methyl ester profile (FAME) have been used the last 30 years and are based on quantifying specific fatty acid profiles in the membranes of bacteria and fungi.However, these techniques only provide broad resolution snapshots -i.e. gram positive or gram negative bacteria, fungi, AMF fungi, etc. The development of next-generation sequencing methods, first pyrosequencing and now Illumina MiSeq, PacBio, nanopore, now provides the ability to identify thousands of taxa of fungi and bacteria from a single soil or plant sample. The details can be found in the reference papers. To summarize, total DNA can be isolated from soil, rhizosphere and roots using extraction kits, and amplicon sequencing can be used with ITS or 16S primers, which target a taxonomically informative section of the ribosome. This PCR reaction specifically amplifies fungi or bacteria sequences, and thousands of short sequences can be generated from a single sample. Using standard bioinformatics pipelines, these sequences can be identified to various taxonomic levels using sequence databases, usually to the family or genus level. In this paper, we will summarize some of our findings on dryland wheat microbiomes in the Inland Pacific Northwest of the US over the last 15 years.Who is present: the wheat core microbiome Schlatter et. al. (2020a) examined the bulk soil collected from four precipitation/cropping system zones over two years in eastern Washington, both cropped and adjacent non-cropped land. They grew wheat plants in the greenhouse and extracted bulk soil and rhizosphere DNA. In the bulk soil, location was a major driver of diversity of bacteria. But in the rhizosphere, location had less of an effect, and the plant selected a narrower set of core taxa. The core set of bacteria found in >95% of rhizosphere or bulk soil samples were including members of Bradyrhizobium, Sphingomonadaceae, Massilia, Variovorax, Oxalobacteraceae, and Caulobacteraceae. There was a stronger rhizosphere effect with bacteria than fungi and fewer core fungal taxa. Core fungal taxa in the rhizosphere included Nectriaceae, Ulocladium, Alternaria, Mortierella, and Microdochium. Co-occurrence networks identified Sphingomonas, Massilia, Microdochium and Knufia as key hub tax. Fig. 1 shows the phylogenetic placement of the core bacteria taxa in the rhizosphere-actinobacteria, betaproteobacteria (primarily Oxalobacteraceae) and alphaproteobacterial (especially Sphingomonas). This work shows that the wheat rhizosphere can select a core microbiome from the surrounding soil. There is increasing evidence that the previous rotation crop can affect the following wheat microbiome.We completed a 6-year rotation study with spring wheat following winter canola, winter wheat, winter triticale, spring barley or continuous spring wheat. This research was initiated to explain why there were yield decreases in wheat after winter canola, contrary to the dogma that rotation crops increase yield of the following wheat crop (Schillinger and Paulitz 2018). Fig. 2 shows that winter canola significantly changed the microbiome of the following wheat crop. In addition, canola suppresses AMF (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) in the following wheat crop, because canola is non-mycorrhizal. Besides knowing what taxa make up the community, it is important to know the spatial variability-across landscapes, geographic areas, and within a field. One of the most important factors structuring microbial communities is soil depth. Schlatter et al. 2020b sampled at the Cook Agronomy Farm across a topographically variable landscape at 0 cm, 10 cm, 25 cm, 50 cm, 75 cm, and 100 cm, and used amplicon sequencing to define the bacterial and fungal communities. Because of direct-seeding and placement of ammonia fertilizer in the seed zone for over 20 years, there was an acidified layer at 10 cm that contained less diversity and richness and a unique community composed of Rhodospirellaceae and Koribacteraciae. The shallower upper layer was dominated by copiotrophs and root associated taxa in the shallow layer-Flavobacterium, Oxalobacteria, Caulobacteria, Sphingobacteria. The lower depths have decreasing C and increasing pH and were dominated by oligotrophs-actinobacteria (Gaiellaceae) and Nitrospira. Fig. 3 shows an NMDS plot of the communities in the different depths, each with a distinct community. In the lower depths, a greater portion of taxa were not able to be identified, indicating novel taxa that have not been described.  Due to cost limitations, most studies tend to just look at a small number of sampling times. To shed light on temporal dynamics of soil microbiomes, we conducted a three-year experiment of sampling every two weeks during the growing season at the Cook Farm LTAR (Long Term Agricultural Research Site) (Fig. 4). Temporal dynamics varied among taxa. For example, Sphingomonas abundance is highest in the early spring, when moisture is highest, and then declines over the summer as the soil dries. This location in Eastern Washington State has a Mediterranean climate, with most precipitation as rain in the late fall, snow during the winter, and rain in the spring. During the summer months and main growing season (May, June, July, and Aug), rainfall is scarce, and plants rely on stored soil moisture in the deep loess soil profiles. The differences between the two years for Mucilaginibacter and Blastococcus may reflect the previous rotation crop (wheat in 2017 and chickpeas in 2018). Muciliganibacter is a well-described rhizosphere bacterium of wheat.Out of the thousands of bacterial and fungal species, can we identify those that increase or decrease yield?Let the field tell us. At the Cook Agronomy Long Term Agricultural Research (LTAR) site, we have over 25 years of data from GPS sites around the approximately 30 ha of each farm. Cook East is an aspirational, directed seeded farm for the last 25 years (Figs. 5 and 6). Cook West is a business as usual, with a reduced tillage chisel plowed practice. Fig. 5 shows the organic matter levels of the two farms. Twenty-five years of no-till (direct seed) has resulted in about a 1% increase in OM. But pH is lower in the direct seed farm (Cook East) because of nitrification from applying ammonium to the 10 cm layer and not mixing the acidified soil into the soil profile. Do these tillage systems affect the microbial communities? We sampled both farms at sites indicated by the crosses, at 0-10 and 10-20 cm and defined both the bacterial and fungal communities at each location. Figure 6.We also correlated the abundance of all the individual taxa with soil chemical and edaphic factors and the relative yield. Fig. 7 shows the NMDS ordination of the bacterial communities. In the upper layer (red), we could separate out the two cropping systems. But at the deeper levels, cropping systems had less of an effect on community composition. What taxa are most predictive of yield? We had hypothesized that PGPR such as Pseudomonas or Flavobacterium would be positively correlated with yields, but in most cases there were negative relationships. In contrast, a number of fungal families such as Clavicepitaceae and Sordariaceae showed strong positive correlations (Fig. 8). These fungi are probably involved in residue degradation and carbon cycling. Phaeosphaeriaceae, a family which contains plant pathogens, showed negative correlations, along with Glomeraceae, arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi. This was surprising, because AMF fungi are usually beneficial to plants. One possibility is that AMF fungi in wheat are parasitic, because with high P levels already in the soil, they take carbon but do not provide a benefit. The other possibility is that low yielding sites are low yielding because of soil and edaphic factors-i.e. are poor soils. In these situations, the stressed plants may recruit more AMF fungi and beneficial bacteria, thus they show a negative correlation. But the real test to separate out correlation from causation, is to isolate specific bacteria and fungi from the soil, and test them individually in greenhouse assays to see if they increase plant growth, and protect against drought stress or root diseases. We have started a collection of bacteria from wheat, but have a more extensive collection (3000+) isolates from camelina, a biofuels brassica.Wheat and camelina share many rhizosphere bacteria, so we can also test these on wheat. Understanding the microbiome of wheat is critical for optimizing wheat health, because of the role individual communities may play in suppression of soilborne pathogens. In the past, we focused on just a narrow subset of the microbes. But the entire community may act to provide resiliency to wheat by protecting against abiotic stress such as drought, by increasing the efficiency of uptake of limiting nutrients, especially P which is not renewable.Fusarium crown rot (FCR), caused by the fungal pathogens Fusarium pseudograminearum and/or F. culmorum, is an important disease of all winter cereal crop species in Australia. This disease has increased in importance with the widespread adoption of stubble retention practices and intensification of cereals within cropping systems (Burgess et al. 2001). FCR is more severe in seasons with low spring rainfall (i.e., a dry finish to the season) (Hollaway and Exell 2010). Management is difficult due to limited tolerance in commercial wheat cultivars and a lack of registered effective chemical options. A pre-plant qPCR soil/stubble test (PRE-DICTA ® B) provides growers with a valuable tool to identify fields at risk of loss due to FCR and implement available integrated management strategies (Hollaway et al. 2013).This paper reports on a major study undertaken to estimate losses to the Australian wheat industry due to FCR. Information on the distribution of the causal agents of FCR, based on 5.993 qPCR test results (2015-2017) from commercial fields, were combined with relationships between inoculum level and yield loss in a range of seasons and production regions to determine yield and economic losses from FCR. This is the largest study of impacts of FCR of its type internationally and relied on extensive research conducted nationally during the previous decade into the impact and management of FCR in wheat to estimate disease impacts nationally.Data on the distribution and level of FCR across Australia over the three-year period 2015-2017 were collected from 5.993 soil samples with added stubble when present taken from fields in wheat growing areas and tested by the commercial qPCR testing service, PREDICTA ® B. The presence of FCR in a sample was based on a positive detection from one or more of three tests (tests 1 and 2 for F. pseudograminearum and a third test for F. culmorum/F. graminearum) conducted on each sample.For the purpose of this study, as shown in Figure 1, Australia's grain production area was divided into three regions: North (Queensland and New South Wales), South (Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania) and West (Western Australia) as defined by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC). These regions were further broken down to agro-ecological zones (Figure 1) so that calculations of economic impacts could be made at a level that allowed for differences in soil types, yield potential and varieties grown within different parts of each region. The zone-level impacts were aggregated to Regions and then to national estimates of the overall impacts. Information on FCR distribution and levels within each region was combined with estimates of yield loss based on inoculum level, frequency of yield loss based on regional climatic condtions, relative tolerance of varieties grown within a region, regional grain yield and price to determine the economic impacts of FCR within a region and nationally.Wheat production data were sourced from the Australian Bureau of Statistics averaged over five years 2013-2017. The average area of wheat was 12.2 million hectares, with an average yield of 1.99 t/ha, giving an average national production of 24.3 million tonnes. At an average unit value of wheat grain over the five years of $A282 per tonne, the total gross value of wheat production averaged $6.87 billion per year.Yield losses in varieties with different FCR resistance ratings, in different zones within each region and in different seasons were made by researchers from each region for each of four pre-sowing FCR risk categories (not detected, low, medium and high). These loss estimates were informed by multiple field experiments conducted in a range of seasons and environments, including those reported by Hollaway et al. (2013).Within these experiments, different pre-plant inoculum levels were established in the field and quantified pre-sowing using qPCR (PREDICTA ® B). The field experiments were then planted to cereals and subsequent disease development and grain yield measured. This allowed yield loss estimates for different pre-plant inoculum levels in different environments and different seasons to be calculated across Australia.Wheat varieties, rated for their resistance to FCR infection, were grouped into three broad categories: \"Very susceptible\" (VS/S-VS); \"Susceptible\" (S/MS-S); and \"Moderately susceptible\" (MS). The highest level of resistance currently available in wheat varieties is MS. The distribution of varieties planted by growers within these different FCR resistance groups within each Region was determined from grain deliveries over this period (Table 1). Seasons were characterised as having been conducive, intermediate and non-conducive to FCR in relation to long-term averages of end of season rainfall. The proportion of each of these seasons within each zone was estimated by local researchers. As an example, the frequency of occurrence of conducive, intermediate and non-conducive varied from 0 to 70%, 10 to 30% and 10 to 90%, respectively in the different zones that make up the southern region.Fusarium crown rot was widely distributed and present in approximately half of all samples tested nationally (Table 2). The incidence of detection ranged from 39% in the Western region to 64% in the Southern region (Table 2). Nationally, high levels of inoculum were detected in 17% of samples tested, while in the Southern region 26% of samples had high FCR levels at sowing from 2015-2017. Using data from multiple experiments conducted nationally, including those reported by Hollaway et al. (2013), yield losses in varieties with different levels of FCR resistance under varying FCR pre-plant risk categories were estimated for each zone within each of the three regions under three seasonal scenarios. Example yield loss estimates for zones within the Southern region are shown in Table 3. This highlights the important interplay between inoculum levels, seasonal conditions, and variety tolerance in determining losses due to FCR. The average annual percentage yield loss and the economic value of such losses from FCR in each of the three regions and nationally were estimated (Table 4). The weighted average figures for loss (%) and total loss (A $ millions) takes into account actual levels of FCR inoculum measured in each region, the frequency of different seasons and the reaction of the cultivars grown to FCR. b Seasonal loss weighted by frequency of the season types. For example, the frequency of occurrence of conducive, intermeidate and non-conducive varied from 0 to 70%, 10 to 30% and 10 to 90%, respectively in the zones that make up the southern region.The average annual loss from FCR was estiamted to be 6.2% worth $A404 million, which is considerably more than the 1.7% loss worth $A79 million estimated in 2009 (Murray and Brennan 2009). There has been an increase in cropping intensification and stubble retention practices across Australia since 2009 with the adoption of stubble retention practices being a major driver of increasing FCR levels (Simpfendorfer et al. 2019). Since the control of cereal cyst nematode in the Southern region (Vanstone et al. 2007), it has become possible to intensify cereal production. In the Western region, FCR has increased with tighter cereal rotations and stubble retention practices from an estimated $5 million in 2009. However, it is also possible that the methods used to assess yield losses in previous studies, which were based on opinions of a limited number of plant pathologists, potentially under estimated losses. The approach used in this study, based on unbiased measured levels of FCR inoculum in grower fields, provides a more robust assessment of disease losses.Current recommendations in Australia for wheat growers are to test fields (e.g. PREDICTA ® B testing) before sowing to identify those at risk of yield loss. Where yield limiting levels of FCR inoculum are present and it is economic to do so, rotate to non-cereal crops (Evans et al. 2003). However, where cereals are the only viable option, avoid varieties that are intolerant, plant early in the sowing window, avoid excessive application of nitrogen early in the season, use inter-row sowing to limit contact with previous standing cereal stubble and ensure adequate crop nutrition, especially zinc. Further research into the use of fungicide seed treatments within integrated management strategies and the breeding of wheat cultivars with improved tolerance is warranted.Wheat (Triticum spp.) is the most cultivated cereal around the world under very diverse climatic conditions. In 2020, more than 760 million tons of this cereal were produced on 219 million hectares worldwide, for the same period, more than 3 millions tons of wheat were produced on 1.8 million hectares in Algeria (FAOSTAT 2022).In Algeria, wheat occupies a strategic place in the food system and in the national economy. Unfortunately the national production of wheat does not cover the needs of the population. Algeria can only meet 34 to 36% of those wheat needs. Wheat is subject to many abiotic (drought, salinity, unfavorable temperatures) and biotic stresses which limit production. Among the biotic stresses, crown rot (CR) is a major disease in most cereal growing regions worldwide (Liu and Ogbonnaya 2015). CR is a chronic problem where dry climatic conditions are present and when continuous wheat cultivation is adopted (Obanor and Chakraborty 2014) In this conference paper, we present the current status of the occurrence and the distribution of wheat CR in the cereal provinces of Northern Algeria as well as the identity of the associated species which is a key step in the disease management. We present also data related to the antagonistic activity of some native Trichoderma species against F. culmorum, the main species associated with CR in Algeria, as well as the Trichoderma effect on biochemical parameters associated with resistance in wheat to F. culmorum. These investigations aimed to use these antagonistic agents within a disease management framework. Data presented in this conference paper are based mainly on previous published data.Surveys were carried out during April and May over two years 2014 and 2015. Nineteen (19) provinces in northern Algeria were surveyed for wheat sample collection with typical symptoms of crown rot (Figure 1). After isolation, identification of the pathogenic species was based first on morphological characters as described by Burgess et al. (1994) and Leslie and Summerell (2006). In order to confirm the morphological identification, a PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) was carried out by testing the isolates with speciesspecific primers for more details see Abdallah-Nekache et al. (2019). The pathogenicity tests of the main isolated pathogens were carried out by two inoculation methods by in vitro seed inoculation according to a modified method of Mesterhazy (1983), where aggressivity was expressed as percentage of coleoptile growth retardation compared to the uninoculated control seedling. Pathogenicity on the crown was assessed by soil inoculation carried out according to the protocol described by Demirci and Dane (2003).  The ability of T. atroviride (Ta.13) on the induction of total protein, and polyphenol as well as the antioxidative enzymes (peroxidase and catalase) on three wheat varieties durum wheat (Waha and Vitron) and bread wheat (Ain Abid) commonly cultivated in Algeria were evaluated. These varieties were chosen based on the fact that Waha and Ain Abid varieties showed the largest disease index reductions when wheat plants were co-inoculated by both T. atroviride and F. culmorum (unpublished data), and also on that cv. Vitron is a sensitive variety to crown rot under Algerian field condition. Chemical changes were evaluated in both the infection zone (basal part) and in leaves after 15 days post inoculation. Wheat seed treatment by Trichoderma was performed according to Harman et al. (1989) method, and wheat inoculation by F. culmorum was done following the protocol described by Dermici and Dane (2003). The experimental trial consisted of (1) the uninoculated control (2) wheat inoculated with F. culmorum alone(3) wheat inoculated with Trichoderma (Ta.13) alone and ( 4) the co-inoculated wheat with both Ta.13 and F.culmorum. For each treatment, there were (3) replicates performed, a replicate being a single pot (1-liter) in which 16 seeds were sown. Fifteen days after sowing, the plants (three-leaf stage) were pulled up and transferred into liquid nitrogen and were stored at −80°C until analysis. The analysis of the biochemical parameters mentioned above were done on two parts of each of the three sample plants: the basal part (collar and part of the root) and the apical part of the leaf of one plant randomly selected from each pot;for more details see Belhadj Benyahia et al. (2020).Surveys carried out in northern Algeria have shown that crown rot was present in the 19 surveyed provinces of the humid, sub-humid and semi-arid bioclimatic stages of the central, eastern and western regions (Figure 2). Based on morphological criteria pathogen isolates were assigned to two fungal genera Fusarium and Microdochium with a preliminary identification of Fusarium species.Microdochium isolates were initially distinguished from Fusarium isolates mainly by the presence of annelledic conidiogenous cells instead of phialide and the absence of conidial foot cells, as reported by Samuels and Hallett (1983) and Hoshino et al. (2009).The use of species-specific PCR showed that  and the second one includes isolates of Microdochium spp. It was also noted that there is no significant difference between the aggressiveness of the three groups FCC, FCE and FP (p = 0.21). However, on the crown interspecific variability of crown rot indices and significant difference (p < 0.001) between the four groups studied were detected. The most aggressive group was FP followed by FCC, then by FCE and the least aggressive group M. A significant difference was also noted between the two species F. pseudograminearum and F. culmorum (p < 0.05). A positive and significant correlation r=0.70 (p<0.05)between the disease indices assessed by the in vitro seed inoculation and the soil inoculation method was noted for the FCC isolates group of F. culmorum.The biocontrol assay carried out on wheat plant showed that T. atroviride (Ta.09), T. orientale (To.15), T.afroharzianum (T af. 17 and T af. 37) and T. gamsii (T g. 39) performed well against F. culmorum the main crown rot pathogen of wheat in Algeria. This finding is based on the significant decrease in disease severity compared to the control (>82%). Data have also shown that T. atroviride Ta.09 recorded the highest percentage of disease reduction (97.28%)Data has shown that T. atroviride induced important biochemical parameters related to disease resistance, such as total phenol accumulation, catalase, and peroxidase activities. This induction was systemic and depended on the wheat variety. A significant difference for each studied parameter between varieties for each treatment was recorded, with levels being lowest in uninoculated control plants, followed by plants inoculated with F. culmorum alone, plants inoculated with T. atroviride (Ta.13) alone, then plants inoculated with both T. atroviride and F. culmorum.Wheat crown rot occurs in all cereal provinces surveyed, in the different bioclimatic locations F. culmorum A M ha of the agricultural land, about 63% of farmers are smallholders, each with land areas of less than 10 ha (Bachta 2011). Cereals are sown between October and December in most of the rain-fed farms. The rainfall in the grain belt varies from more than 600 mm in the northern region to less than 300 mm in the southern region. Cereal production may be affected severely by plant pathogens especially in short rotations and monoculture, which are common practices in Tunisia. Soilborne pathogens are among the most underestimated of the factors which affect crop production. They cause important diseases, resulting in stand reductions, rotting of root, crown, sub crown, and lower stem tissues of seedling and mature plants, white-heads and grain yield and quality losses. Some pathogenic species are also responsible for mycotoxin accumulation in cereal tissues that are harmful for food and feed. Soil-borne diseases are often referred to as intractable diseases, due to their broad host ranges, difficulties of targeting the pathogen population in the soil with chemistry and the slow progress when breeding for genetic resistance to infection. In the field they often occur as mixed populations and their combined effect on crop production is likely variable across the diverse cropping environments. In Tunisia, continuous efforts are dedicated to foliar diseases especially in the national breeding program, whereas very little work has been focused on soil-borne diseases in the past. This work focuses on the dominant soil and residue-borne diseases: Fusarium foot and root rot (FFRR), take-all (TA) and eyespot (ES).FFRR has been reported since the 1970's in Tunisia (Gargouri et al. 2001). The different cereals, including wheat, barley and oats, can be infected with durum wheat being the most susceptible (Wallwork et al. 2004). The disease is caused by a complex of Fusarium species. The most important are F. culmorum and F.pseudograminearum (Smiley and Patterson 1996;Paulitz 2006) that may vary in importance according to the geographical areas and the agronomic factors.These two pathogens produce lesions on the coleoptiles, roots, and sub crown internodes of host plants, and cause browning of the stem bases at or near the soil surface, from soil-or residue-borne inoculum.Infection is favoured by wet conditions shortly after seeding, and disease severity increases and yield reductions become significant when infected plants are subjected to water stress and/or high temperatures late in the growing season (Paulitz et al. 2002;Chekali el al. 2016). These species are able to biosynthesize mycotoxins in grains but also in stem tissue that have strong acute and chronic toxicity.Take-all of cereals caused by the soil-borne fungal pathogens, Gaeumannomyces tritici and Gaeumannomyces avenae, is also a common disease worldwide. Gt causes take-all of wheat, barley, and rye and is the most economically important take-all pathogen, whereas Ga is less common and can also infect oats (Wallwork et al. 2004). Take-all is more common where cereals are grown under moist conditions, which enhances root infection during the winter and early spring. Symptoms are most obvious near heading and include poor tillering, blackened roots and crowns, premature ripening, and white heads with few kernels. Root systems of severely diseased plants may be sparse and brittle. Lateseason drought stress causes the entire diseased plant to ripen prematurely further reducing yield (Wallwork et al. 2004).Eyespot, caused by Oculimacula yallundae and O. acuformis, is an important fungal disease of the stem base of cereals grown in temperate regions (Lucas et al. 2000;Crous el al. 2003) Eyespot forms lesions on the leaf sheaths and culms near the soil level, and their elliptical shape gives rise to the name of the disease, which is also known as strawbreaker foot rot. Infection takes place at the lower stems of plants, resulting in stem breakage, lodging and yield reduction. These pathogens have a wide host range including cereals and grass species (Lucas et al. 2000). Wheat, barley, rye, oats, and other related grasses can be affected, with wheat being the most susceptible (Chapman et al. 2008).Aerial symptoms caused by these diseases are non-specific and may be confused with other stressors including abiotic stressors such as drought. Their effect often goes unnoticed until the end of the season and there are few in-season management options. In this work we report on the occurrence of the soil-borne diseases of cereals in the different climatic regions of Tunisia, and the impact of management strategies to control these diseases.difenoconazole and sedaxane+fluodoxinil. Non treated seeds were used as control. In-vitro and in the greenhouse, the emergence, plant and root length, the incidence and the severity of the disease were evaluated. In the field, the agronomic performance including emergence, tillering, number of ears/ m 2 , thousand kernel weight (TKW) and grain yield were measured. The incidence and the severity (stem discoloration and white heads) of the disease were evaluated at seedling-early tillering stage then at dough stage. Mycotoxin accumulation in the stem tissue was also measured.Host range: grass weeds were collected from cereal and non-cereal fields. Visual assessment and isolation of pathogenic fungi were carried out on roots and stems.Conservation on residue. The population F. culmorum was monitored in the residues of four cereal crops (oat, barley, durum wheat and bread wheat) stored at two depths of soils in two climatic areas (sub-humid and semi-arid). The survival of F. culmorum on the crop residues was estimated by classic isolating and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) at four dates over a 29-month period.Rotation. Rotation trials were conducted in experimental stations and farmer's fields. Faba bean, fenugreek and oat were used as break crops following farmer's practices. Data on the incidence and severity of the diseases were collected from these trials as well from the surveys. Inoculum level in the soil was estimated in some of the trials.Foliar fungicide application. Field experiment were set up to test the effect of fungicide treatments (epoxiconazole, epoxiconazole +metrafenone, metrafenone, prothioconazole+tebuconazole, tebuconazole +prochloraz , cyprodinil) on eyespot. Fungicides were applied at stem elongation. The incidence and severity of the disease and percentage of lodging were evaluated at grain filling. Grain yields was also assessed.Several lines from a specific crown rot international CIMMYT nursery and from the national durum and bread wheat breeding program were screened using a modified CIMMYT protocol under greenhouse conditions, against F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum isolates over 3 years.Biological control. Assays of wheat seed coating with Trichoderma harzianum strains, rhizospheric and endophytic bacteria were conducted to evaluate the direct antagonist activity against F. culmorum and the indirect bio-promotion of plant growth in-vitro and in the greenhouse.Surveys conducted across years and in different climatic regions indicated that at early stages, Fusarium and Pythium species were the dominant pathogens, later Fusarium, Gaeumannomyces and Oculimacula species were the most frequent. In many fields more than one pathogen was recovered from cereal crop. The incidences of the diseases varied among years and climatic regions. Fusarium foot and root rot is by far the most widespread disease occurring in more than 70% of the fields each cropping season with incidences reaching 100% in many fields (Khemir et al. 2020, Guermech et al. 2022). The highest incidences were recorded in the semi-arid regions. However, recent surveys showed an increase in the incidence of FFRR in more humid regions. Eyespot and take-all are more restricted to wet areas where annual precipitation is higher than 500 mm (Gargouri et al. 2020, Gargouri et al. 2021) which in agreement with other studies (Kwak and Weller 2013). It should be noted that these surveys focused only on dryland crops. Take-all and eyespot diseases may be more severe and responsible for considerable yields loss in irrigated crops (Paulitz et al. 2010). The surveys also revealed that the number of fields affected with eyespot as well as the incidence and severity of the disease increased significantly over a 5-year period. In South Australia, eyespot has been causing increasing problems, the change being attributed mainly to changes in farming systems (Evans and Wallwork 2019) An increase in eyespot incidence has also been observed in central and northern Italy (Covarelli andNicholson 2002, Innocenti et al. 2013).Identification analysis demonstrated that among Fusarium pathogenic species, F. culmorum was the most important species associated with FFRR similarly as in Europe. Whereas, F. pseudograminearun the dominant species in the Pacific North West and Australia is rarely isolated being more restricted to arid regions (Gargouri et al. 2011). For eyespot, only O. yallundae was recovered from characteristic symptoms so far (Gargouri et al. 2021). In other regions such as Eastern Europe, both species O. yallundae and O. acuformis coexist. G. tritici was also the only species isolated from blackened root tissue. These results were further confirmed by quantitative PCR analysis of soil samples. Among the 7 wheat fungal pathogens analysed, two were not detected in the soil samples (G. avenae and Rhizoctonia solani AG8), two were infrequent (F.pseudograminearum, Bipolaris sorokiniana) and the most common were F. culmorum, G. tritici, and Pythim spp. clade F. Globally, all plots surveyed were infested by at least three fungal pathogens and/or nematodes and up to eight were detected in the same sample. More than 50% of soil samples analyzed indicated a level of medium to high risk for at least one disease. There was also a positive correlation between the level of inoculum before sowing and the incidence of the disease the year after (Khemir et al. 2017).Globally these pathogens induced their respective disease on all cereal crops including durum wheat, bread wheat, barley and oat, with durum being the more susceptible. All commercial varieties were susceptible compared to resistant lines under inoculated conditions. Assays of screening for resistance suffered from the lack of correlation between greenhouse and field conditions and reproducibility among years (Gargouri et al. 2009).These pathogens were also isolated from grassy weeds such as Lolium sp., Phalaris sp., Hordeum spp. and Avena sp. collected from legume crops which negates their value as break crops (Gargouri et al. 2013).The damage caused by these diseases has not been extensively studied previously in Tunisia. Assays conducted in farmers' fields and under inoculated conditions showed that FFRR reduced wheat yield as much as 30% with a mean of 10% (Gargouri et al. 2007), and inoculation induced yield losses up to 40% over that caused by the native pathogen flora (Chekali et al. 2013, Guermech et al. 2022). Eyespot fungicide application in naturally infested wheat fields increased the grain yield by up to 25% (personal data). Yield losses however depend on seasonal conditions, especially during grain filling. The damage caused by these diseases may be further accelerated in areas where water stress and monoculture practices dominate.Global warming is expected to be particularly intense in the Mediterranean region (Varotsos et al. 2021), thereby suggesting that drought will have a growing impact on wheat production and quality in MENA region during the years ahead.Soil-borne pathogens may affect also the quality parameters such as a decrease in starch content and an increase in protein content, yellow berry percent and pasta cooking time (Sfayhi et al. 2022).In addition, some Fusarium species may be responsible for mycotoxin accumulation in wheat stem tissue. High concentration levels of deoxynivalenol were detected in wheat stems in inoculated fields (Guermech et al. 2022). One of the features of the Tunisian farming system is that sheep owners have the right to graze on cereal residue. In the dry areas the baled straw may be even more valuable than the grains. Whether mycotoxin accumulation in residue may affect animals under Tunisian conditions needs further investigation. Translocation of DON to the grain as reported in our studies may further decrease grain quality (Guermech et al. 2022).In terms of disease management, introducing a one-year break crop such as faba bean or fenugreek resulted in reduction of take-all and FFRR incidence of up to 70% and severity up to 80% (Gargouri et al. 2020, Sfayhi et al. 2022). This was confirmed by the significant decrease of inoculum level of F. culmorum and G. tritici in the soil. The effect of the previous crops was also demonstrated for FFRR from the survey conducted in permanent sites over three years. The benefit of the break crop to control eyespot was controversial. The survival of F. culmorum was studied under different climatic conditions, on different cereal residues and at two depths. Isolation and qPCR revealed that there was a significant decrease in inoculum levels after 3 months. Neither isolation nor qPCR could detect the pathogen after 22 months (Khemir et al. 2020). Thus, rotation with a grass-free break crop is a key strategy to control these soil-borne diseases.The benefit of seed treatment to reduce fungal growth and disease incidence and severity and to improve plant growth was clearly demonstrated in-vitro and in the greenhouse. In the field, these findings were Wheat is the most important crop in Iran and is attacked by a number of fungal soil-borne pathogens (FSBP) that cause wheat yield losses every year. In Iran, research on the diseases including identification of causal agents, as well as evaluation of cultivars and genotypes to find resistant ones and the effect of antagonistic agents for biological control of FSBP, began in the 1990s. The results of various research have shown that some different fungi and fungi-like organisms are associated with root and crown rot of wheat. Among them, the most important genera causing major losses are Gaeumannomyces, Fusarium, Bipolaris and Rhizoctonia. It was revealed that some cultivars and lines have partial resistance against some FSBP. Also, the use of microbial antagonists against FSBP has had varying results. Although in Iran, some useful research has been done, there is a wide gap between what has been done and what should be done to achieve suitable management of soil-borne fungal diseases of wheat. This review was prepared with the aim of informing about research that have been done on FSBP and the research needed in the future to fill the gaps.Incidence of fungal soil-borne diseases in wheat farms in extensive regions, and on the other hand increase of plant pathologists in agricultural research centers and universities have resulted in conducting more investigations on these diseases in Iran since 1990s (Foroutan et al. 1989, Foroutan et al. 1995). At first, research was concentrated on the identification of the causal agents. Then the management of the diseases was pursued by evaluating the resistance of wheat cultivars and genotypes (Foroutan et al. 2002, Mohammadi kohnehshahri et al. 2019, Razavi et al. 2017) , as well as testing the effectiveness of antagonistic agents for biological control (Khezri 2017, Zafari et al. 2008).To estimate percentage of FSBP-infected wheat plants, wheat fields were sampled randomly, and nonrandom sampling was used for monitoring and identifying possible species (Safaee et al. 2008). General and semi-selective culture media (Singleton 1992) were used to isolate FSBP. Recognition of the fungi was completely based on morphological criteria of anamorph and/or teleomorph in primary research and then molecular methods gradually combined with them to achieve more accurate diagnosis. It has been demonstrated that a lot of species of fungi and fungi-like organisms cause root and crown rot in wheatgrowing regions of Iran. Also on the basis of pathogenicity tests and frequency of isolation, it was revealed that the genera inducing major losses to wheat production are Gaeumannomyces, Fusarium, Bipolaris and Rhizoctonia (Amini et al. 1998, Amini 2006, Arjmandian and Darvishnia et al. 1998, Babadost 1995, Darvishnia et al. 2006, Eskandary et al. 1998, Foroutan et al. 1998, Golzar and Ershad 1994, Kazemi et al. 2008, Mansoori 1995, Ravanlou and Banihashemi 1999, Safaee et al. 2000, Safaee et al. 2000a, Safaee 2004, Safaee et al. 2012, Saremi 2004, Zare and Ershad 1997, Zamanizadeh and Foroutan 1993).Testing wheat cultivars and genotypes to appraise their resistance to FSBP has been conducted in greenhouse and/or field conditions (Mahdavi et al. 2022, Razavi et al. 2017) by adding the pathogens to pot or field soil then cultivation of wheat seeds into infested soil. Effectiveness of microbial antagonists was evaluated in laboratory and/or greenhouse conditions (Hashemi et al. 2013, Khezri 2017, Zafari et al. 2008).The major research that have been done on each of the above genera related to wheat plants in Iran are mentioned as follows:Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici: Gaeemannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt) was reported from Mazandaran province (Foroutan et al. 1989) then it was isolated from root, crown and foot of wheat in the other parts of the country (Arjmandian and Rohani 1998, Fassihiani 1999, Ghalandar et al. 2000, Kazemi et al. 2008, Safaee et al. 2010). Crop rotation, fertilizer-balanced nutrition, using ammoniacal and slow-release forms of nitrogen in soil, biological control and resistant cultivars have been suggested to manage take-all disease (Paulitz 2010). Foroutan et al. (2002)  disease severity and increased 27 to 59% dry weight of shoots and 23 to 58% dry weight of roots compared with control (plants inoculated by Ggt and treated by Trichoderma). Disease reduction due to seed coating method was more than soil treatment applications. It is mentionable that shoot and root dry weight of all treatments was significantly lesser than healthy plants (non-inoculated and non-treated plants). In another research, potential of 27 bacterial antagonistic strains of Bacillus subtilis was evaluated for biocontrol of Ggt in the laboratory and greenhouse conditions. In dual culture experiment, all strains had inhibition zones against growth of the pathogenic fungus and they prevented fungal growth between 39.48-96.29%.Volatile metabolites of some strains reduced fungal growth up to 87.62% while for some others was less than 20%. Eleven strains with different potential in antagonistic effects and biofilm formation were selected for the possibility of disease biocontrol in the greenhouse conditions. All 11 strains decreased the disease between 20-100% (Khezri 2017).Fusarium spp.: Many Fusarium species have been isolated from all wheat growing areas of Iran (Amini et al. 1998, Amini 2006, Arjmandian and Darvishnia et al. 1998, Babadost 1995, Darvishnia et al. 2006, Eskandary et al. 1998, Foroutan et al. 1998, Golzar and Ershad 1994, Mansoori 1995, Ravanlou and Banihashemi 1999, Safaee et al. 2000, Safaee et al. 2000a, Safaee 2004, Safaee et al. 2012, Saremi 2004, Zare and Ershad 1997, Zamanizadeh and Foroutan 1993) A research was conducted to evaluate resistance level of 70 cultivars/advanced lines of bread wheat and durum wheat obtained from CIMMYT, SPII and DARI, to a mixture of five F. culmorum isolates in Karaj and Kermanshah locations under field conditions. In addition, the reactions of these genotypes were evaluated against F. pseudograminearum and F. culmorum at the seedling stage in greenhouse conditions. The resultsshowed that the cultivar Burbot-6 from CIMMYT and advanced line C-87-18 from SPII had a very good level of resistance to both fungal species under field and greenhouse conditions in both locations. These genotypes have the potential to be used directly by farmers in the infected areas of Iran or incorporated into the breeding programs at the national or international level (Razavi et al. 2017).The genus Bipolaris has several species among which B. sorokiniana is distributed worldwide and is an important pathogen of wheat in many regions, causing root rot, leaf spots, seedling blight, head blight and kernel blight (Stein 2010).Bipolaris spp. on wheat crop mainly cause common root rot in Iran conditions (Ershad et al. 1996, Darvishnia 1998, Safaee et al. 2000b, Safaee 2004). The results of a research in Kermanshah province demonstrated that the percentage of diseased plants was 0-24% whose average was 3.2%. from wheat roots in most parts of Iran (Foroutan et al. 1995, Arjmandian and Rohani 1998, Darvishnia et al. 1998, Safaee et al. 2000c). Based on the above review, in order to achieve a more effective management of FSBP, the following issues are suggested as research perspectives in Iran: Further investigations in order to reveal dominant species of FSBP in sub-region scales.Evaluating resistance of more wheat cultivars and genotypes against FSBP.Testing resistance of plants in Poaceae family other than wheat to find resistant sources for possible resistance transfer to wheat. Continuing research on mycorrhizae and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for getting more effective isolates and combinations for biological control agents against each of FSBP or a group of FSBP.Improving formulations of biocontrol agents for the long-term sustainability. Multiple grass inhabiting fusaria are capable of causing seedling blights and root rots in crops, and ifFusarium communities change as a result of proximity to agricultural production, there may be an impact on natural host communities. (Zhang et al. 2016;Yang et al. 2018;Fulcher et al.2020). The Turkish grassland has multispecies communities and is an important source for feeding of livestock animals. Wild relatives of wheat in Türkiye show great diversity (Karagöz and Özberk 2010;Cabi et.al. 2010). The major grass species are grown in pasture are Aegilops spp., Lolium spp., Hordeum spp., Elymus spp., Triticum spp., Secale spp.and Festuca spp. in Türkiye (Davis et al. 1994). In North America and Europe, many Fusarium spp. have been isolated from many different cultivated cereal and wild grasses (Sprague 1950;Katan 1971;Jenkinson and Parry 1994;Inch and Gilbert 2003). Crown rot is most economically important in the bread and durum wheats, barley and triticale. However the host ranges includes many temperate cereals and grasses. It is therefore important to control grass weeds in rotations and fallows (Burgess et al. 2001).According to study on wild grasses in Türkiye, Fusarium equiseti and F. oxysporum were isolated at high frequencies from all three agroecological regions. Fusarium culmorum was associated with half of the grass species examined, indicating that it is present in non-cropped grasslands as well as in cropping systems and it is speculated that F. culmorum is endemic in northern Türkiye. This is further supported by the isolation of F. culmorum from Aegilops umbellulata, which occurs predominantly in Türkiye (Bentley et al. 2006).However, no study has been found the relationship of Fusarium species seen in grass plants and wheat plants in the spread of the crown rot disease. The objective of this investigation was to compare wild grass plants and wheat for the presence of Fusarium spp. and wild grass hosts that may have important role in the survival and spread of pathogenic Fusarium spp.Wild grasses plants were randomly collected from thirtheen provinces of central, east-western and northern Anatolia regions of Türkiye in 2012, 2014 and 2015 summer seasons (Figure 1). The grasses examined were collected from areas adjacent to commercial cereal crops. The plants, at 20 km from the selected routes, each one emphasizing a randomly collected wild grains encountered in the road to the right and left of 10 to 15 plants were collected, numbered, and brought to the laboratory in envelopes. By the end of June and the beginning of July 2012, 2014 and 2015, besides wild cereals, wheat plants were taken randomly and brought to the laboratory. Two pieces of crown parts randomly selected from five plants were surface sterilized in sodium hypochlorite (1% and then rinsed twice in sterile distilled water) and placed on tissue paper. Then, crown parts were plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA, Sigma) medium and two replicates were incubated under 24•C, 12 h NUV+daylight/12 h dark conditions, in an incubator for a period of week.Fusarium spp. were transferredto synthetic nutrient agar (SNA) medium for identification. The diagnoses were made under the stereo-microscope and light microscope some of the fungi to the genus-level.Identification at the species level was carried out according to the identified criteria found principally in publications by Gerlach andNirenberg, 1982 andSummerell et al., 2006. Identification was confirmed by PCR tests for 11 species with species-specific primers. Some Fusarium isolates that could not be identified were recorded at genus level (Table 1). On the other hand wild grasses were identified according to the diagnostic criteria of Davis, 1968 (Table 2).During the three-year surveys, Fusarium spp. was determined in 53 (39%) out of a total of 136 locations and one or more Fusarium isolates were obtained from these locations. A total of 187 Fusarium isolates were obtained and identified at the species level. As a result of the study, 17 Fusarium species were identified morphologically.In addition, eleven of the seventeen species were identified molecularly with species-specific primers (Table 1).As a result of the survey study, it was determined that the most common Fusarium species was F. equiseti with a rate of 43.4% in 23 of 53 locations in wild grasses and wheat plantations. F. culmorum, among all Fusarium species, was found in 17 of the 53 locations which was the second common species, F. poae in nine locations, F. graminearum in four locations, F. avenaceum in two locations in investigated wild grasses and wheat plants.F. culmorum was obtained from wheat fields found in 9 locations and also found in 13 locations from wild grasses. It was found in both grown wheat and wild grasses of the four locations. F. oxysporum, which, is the third most common Fusarium species in wheat cultivation areas that was isolated from six locations in wild grasses and 12 locations in wheat plants. F. graminearum was isolated from A. cylindrica, Aegilops sp., and L.rigidum without any symptoms. F. poae was isolated from wild grasss at 7 locations and isolated from wheat plants at 6 locations. However, F. poae was isolated from only one of the same locations from wild Hordeum sp. and wheat plants. (Table 1). On the other hand, there is a difference in the distribution of Fusarium species between agro-ecological regions (Figure 1). For example, while F. culmorum was more isolated from the Thrace region, F. equiseti was most common in Middle East Anatolia and F. proliferatum in Midwest Anatolia. F. tricinctum and F. inflexum were detected only in Thrace region.Isolates of F. equiseti from A. cylindrica, A. triuncialis, E. elongatus, Festuca sp., L. multiflorum and L. perenne are a common colonizer of aging or dying plant tissues. It is also considered to be a primary colonizer of sorghum roots by Reed et al. 1983. This species produces group A and B trichothecenes as well as metabolites such as fusarochromanone, beauvericin and equisetin. F. semitectum was reported the most common species in Malaysia were studied by Nur Ain Izzati et al. (2009). It was most common in their study, while F. equiseti were found to be the most frequent species in our study. Different climatic conditions and the presence of different grass plants are thought to play a role in these differences.F. equiseti, followed by F. culmorum, F. oxysporum, F. acuminatum. F. equiseti and F. oxysporum were isolated at high frequencies from all three agroecological regions (Figure 1). Burgess et al. (1981) found that the isolation of these species except F. culmorum from randomly selected healthy, diseased or senescing tissue is consistent with their classification as cosmopolitan saprobic Fusarium species. F. culmorum was associated with half of the grass species examined, indicating that it is present in non-cropping grasslands as well as in cropping systems, and it is speculated that F. culmorum is endemic in northern Türkiye. This is further supported by the isolation of F. culmorum from Aegilops umbellulata, which occurs predominantly in Türkiye (Bentley et al. 2006), and is the contributor of the common to U-genome all polyploid species in the section Aegilops (Kawahara 2002) including A. tauschii Coss., a progenitor of modern hexaploid bread wheat. These preliminary data are significant as wild species of the wheat group are useful sources of economically significant genetic material, such as disease resistance genes, for cultivated wheat breeding programs (Kawahara 2002). We found the isolation of F. culmorum from Aegilops geniculata, Lolium perenne, Aegilops sp., Hordeum sp., Bromus hordeaceus, Bromus japonicus, Lolium multiflorum, Triticum aestivum in northern Türkiye (Table 2).F. oxysporum, which is not considered to be a pathogen of plants of the family Poaceae, was a species that was frequently isolated from the roots and lower internodes of the ornamental grasses. In this study, F. oxysporum and F. solani were found frequently on both grasses and wheat plants. In contrast, Szecsi et al.(2013) surveyed a large number of grasses but none of t he grass species had any F. oxysporum isolates. In the study, species such as F. solani and F. oxysporum were found in abundance in Minnesota prairie soils but were not found in the above-ground parts of grasses (LeBlanc et al. 2017). Tunali et al. (2006) has demonstrated F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. subglutinans and F. acuminatum isolates are generally weak pathogens of wheat, however, it was also determined that there were differences in virulence among the isolates. Kroon et al., (1991) also reported that pathogenic F. oxysporum species are further classified into opportunistic parasites, true pathogens and obligate pathogens, which are dependent on the specialization of fungal-plant interactions.Isolations were made from the stem-bases of 1346 plants representing 15 weed species collected from three sites of fallow land; one following a crop of potatoes and two following wheat crops. Two hundred and twenty-six Fusarium isolates were obtained from 14 of the 15 weed species of which 114 (50  (Jenkinson and Parry, 1994). In our studies, it was determined that any symptoms were observed due to Fusarium spp. on the grasses.There is a difference in the distribution of Fusarium species between agro-ecological regions (Figure 1). For example, F. culmorum was more isolated from the Thrace region, while F. equiseti and F. proliferatum were more isolated in midwest Anatolia. F. tricictum and F. inflexum were determined only in Thrace region. Some authors have proven that plant pathogens isolated from weeds are often more pathogenic compared to ones isolated from cultivated plants. Akinsanmi et al. (2007) determined that passage through alternative hosts changes the fitness of F. graminearum and F. pseudograminearum. They concluded that one passage through alternative hosts reduces pathogenicity, but at the same time provides better ability for colonisation of primary host. This could explain the lack of symptoms on alternative hosts. It is important to emphasize that their samples were surface sterilized and that weed did not exibit disease symptoms, which could mean that isolated Fusarium species live inside these plants as endophytes (Barrow et al. 2008). In another study, it has been reported that F. graminearum specis complex (FGSC) were found be present without showing symptoms in uninoculated flowers of Elymus plants in the glasshouse. FGSC strains were isolated from seed lots of Elymus and other native grass species (Chehri et al. 2011). In Manitoba Canada, wild grasses harbor several species of Fusarium, including F. graminearum, the predominant species causing fusarium head blight in cereal crops in Manitoba (Inch and Gilbert 2003). However, in our study. F. graminearum has been identified at only three locations in A. cylindrica, Aegilops sp., and L. rigidum (Table 2).In conclusion, the prevalence of F. equiseti in both wild grass and wheat plants suggests that more attention should be paid to this fungus in terms of both endophyte, pathogen or mycotoxins producers. In addition, since F. oxysporum is frequently found in plants as an endophyte and can be used in biological control with its antagonist feature, its presence in both wild wheat and wheat plants is important in terms of control.In particular, the presence of F. culmorum in both wild grasses and wheat in the same area strengthens the opinion that weeds may have a role in the spread of root rot and head blight diseases in wheat for our country. These results showed that wild grasses are an important host for Fusarium species and have a partial role in the spread of cultivated plants. Correlation between wild grasses and cultivated cereal interactions on Fusarium spp. need future works. Fusarium sp.  In both experiments, clean and inoculated seeds were used. The inoculum used was prepared by using Drechslera sorokiniana, Fusarium culmorum, and Fusarium avenaceum which had been reported in earlier studies as widespread pathogens in the region. For the determination of resistance-tolerance sources, 1329 genotypes of wheat, barley, and triticale originating from national and international programs were used.Of 1329 entries, 269 were found to be tolerant. The ratio of tolerant genotypes in national germplasm was 44% while 15% in international germplasm. In international germplasm, the ratios of tolerant genotypes were 23% and 7%, developed for rainfed and irrigated areas, respectively. In yield trials, 10 genotypes ( 5bread wheat, 2 durum wheat, 2 barley, and 1 triticale) were tested. On average, root rot pathogens caused a 34% yield reduction. The highest yield reduction, 54%, occurred in durum wheat cultivar Kızıltan-91 while the lowest, 13%, was observed in triticale cultivar Tatlıcak-97. In terms of tolerance, the species had the order of triticale> barley>bread wheat>durum wheat from the highest to the lowest. Demirci (2003)   . Major progress has been made with the spring wheat material, where a number of crosses (Sunco/Pastor) provided a higher level of resistance and yields. Materials have been specifically bred to develop multiple disease resistances, such as GS50AT34/Sunco which combines crown rot with root lesion nematode. Some of the preliminary yield data from the winter wheats indicated that some of the materials with a high level of resistance, for example, the released Turkish variety Dağdaş 94, also had a high level of tolerance, which is equivalent to the more tolerant triticale, Tatlıcak 97 and barley, Erginel 91. Another widely grown variety Gerek 79, offered some resistance, but unfortunately no tolerance (Nicol et al. 2004). Hekimhan et al. (2004) investigated the tolerance of 20 winter cereals to the dryland root rot complex (F.culmorum, F. pseudograminearum, and B. sorokiniana) for 3 consecutive years through inoculated field trials in Çumra, Türkiye. The data clearly indicated that significant yield loss occurred. The degree of intolerance was greatest with durum wheat > bread wheat > triticale > barley.Mert-Türk et al. ( 2004) investigated the antifungal activity of oat root extract against soil-born cereal fungal pathogens. The growth of fungal colonies was observed until control plates covered the medium. The researchers found that the reaction of fungi to the extract varied greatly not only among the species but also against different concentrations, too. Compared to control plates, there was no difference in the growth rate of Pythium ultimum. However, the growth of Rhizoctonia solani, Curvularia sp., and Fusarium nivale was restricted to 10%-30% of the control plates. F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. poae, and F. graminearum also exhibited reduced growth rates which varied between 30%-60% depending on the species. Uçkun and Yıldız (2004) investigated the pathogens causing root and crown rot diseases in wheat areas of Denizli, İzmir, and Aydın provinces of Türkiye. The incidence and intensity of the diseases were 58.28% and 25.07%, respectively. The most commonly isolated fungi from root and crown were Fusarium spp., Dreschlera sorokiniana, Rhizoctonia cerealis and Alternaria alternata. The pathogenicity range of R. cerealis and Fusarium spp. isolates showed differences among 26% to 76% and 0% to 72%, respectively. The most pathogenic species were found to be F. culmorum and R. cerealis. Bentley et al. (2006) conducted a survey of Fusarium species associated with wheat stem bases in northernTürkiye. The Fusarium species associated with stem bases of 6 grass species were also studied. From wheat stem bases, fifteen Fusarium species were isolated. Three of these species and 2 additional species were isolated from the grasses. The species isolated included the important pathogens F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum, as well as a number of saprobic species and secondary colonizers. Fusarium culmorum was the most prevalent pathogenic species, and isolated from 28% of sites surveyed. Another pathogenic species, F. pseudograminearum was isolated from 8% of sites.  Hekimhan et al. (2007a) investigated the effect of seeding rate on dryland root and foot rot disease in selected winter bread wheat varieties. The results indicated that disease inoculation had a highly significant effect on both grain yield and disease intensity. There were significant differences between varieties for disease intensity. The researchers found some differences from year to year in seed rate and disease intensity and yield. However, there was no clear relationship (2 or 3 way) over the years between seeding rate, disease intensity, and/or grain yield. Hekimhan et al. (2007b) investigated the effect of some fungicides for bunt and smut diseases on root and foot rot diseases in Selçuklu-97 and Seri-82 wheat varieties. The seeds were inoculated with Bipolaris sorokiniana, Fusarium culmorum, and F. pseudograminearum two days before sowing, and the fungicide applications were done one day before planting. Statistical differences were determined for grain yield, fungicide application, disease intensity, application rate, and the effect of fungicides on disease intensity. The averages for grain yield were 3.84 tons/ha for Seri -82 and 3.02 tons/ ha for Selcuklu-97, and the combined average was 3.43 tons/ha. Disease intensity was 55% for Selcuklu-97 and 50% for Seri-82. Averaged over both varieties was 56% for 150 g fungicide rate and 49% for 200 g rate.The effectiveness of fungicides was ranged as difenoconazole (36%>carboxin (33% > triticonazole (31% > diniconazole (20%). respectively. In the field experiment, no statistical difference has been found in fungicidal seed treatments but the combination in which the plants that fertilized CAN plus ammonium nitrate and sprayed with tebuconazole gave the most successful results. Tunali et al. (2008) determined the fungi associated with wheat crowns and roots in cereal-producing areas of Türkiye. More than 26% of the fields had one or more of the fungal species commonly reported as part of the dryland root rot complex, F. culmorum (14%) > B. sorokiniana (10%) > F. pseudograminearum (2%). The fungi considered to be part of the high rainfall root rot complex were found at very low frequencies: 3% for Pythium spp. and 2% for Gaeumannomyces graminis. Rhizoctonia species were found in 22% of the fields. SeveralFusarium species considered to be less or nonpathogenic to cereals were also found in high frequencies at 11% (F. oxysporum, F. chlamydosporum), 10% (F. sporotrichioides), and 8% (F. avenaceum and F. solani). The authors reported that crown rot caused by Fusarium culmorum was the dominant causal species in Türkiye.A nursery of 121 diverse spring and winter wheat lines with susceptible and resistant checks for crown rot (CR) were screened under inoculated field and greenhouse conditions for two consecutive years. Twentyeight lines were promising and were further evaluated in both fields and in the greenhouse. The variables assessed both in the greenhouse (root and crown score) and field (white head development and crown score) were found to be correlated, and the variety effect was significant for these variables. Out of the 28 lines assessed over multiple years, two originating from the joint Türkiye-CIMMYT-ICARDA InternationalWinter Wheat Improvement Program and two spring wheat lines from Australia were identified to provide resistance equivalent to or better than the best known published resistance sources, 2-49, and Sunco. These 4 wheat lines may be useful in breeding for resistance against CR (Erginbaş et al. 2009). Erkan and Yılmaz (2009) determined Polymyxa graminis ribotypes in wheat production areas in Samsun province of Türkiye. Wheat (Kutluk 94) and barley (Tokak) plants were grown in these soil samples using the bait plant technique. Polymyxa graminis, the vector of soilborne wheat mosaic virus, barley mild mosaic virus, wheat spindle streak mosaic virus, and barley yellow mosaic virus, was analyzed using stained root samples. P. graminis was found in 4.8% (6 samples) of wheat samples and 3.2% (4 samples) of barley samples.According to host range studies, ribotypes of P. graminis were determined using soil samples containing each of ten P. graminis isolates. Ten different plant species (wheat, barley, rye, corn, oat, triticale, pearl millet, rice, poa, sorghum) were grown in these soils and maintained at 13-19 o C. P. graminis cysts (resting spores)were visualized in the roots of these plants by staining with acid fuchsin and using microscopy. Ribotype I (temperata), of which host is known to be only barley, was identified in the Havza district while other isolates were found to be ribotype II (tepida) in samples collected from the Bafra, Alaçam, and Kavak districts, which infects wheat as well as other cereals. Besides this, it was determined that P. graminis isolates found in the roots of wheat can infect corn, oat, barley, triticale, pearl millet, poa, and sorghum.With the aim of determining root and foot-rot diseases, a study was carried out on 18 various cultivars of wheat in 4 districts of Sakarya province of Türkiye (Araz et al. 2009) Fusarium redolens (Gebremariam et al. 2015) and Fusarium hostae (Gebremariam et al. 2016) have been reported as the causal agents of crown rot on wheat (Triticum spp.) in Türkiye.Gebremariam et al. ( 2018) determined the diversity and pathogenicity of Fusarium species associated with crown rot of wheat in Türkiye. The isolates were identified as F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. pseudograminearum, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, F. hostae, F. brachygibbosum, F. redolens, F. oxysporum, F. avenaceum, F. proliferatum, F. torulosum, F. flocciferum, F. incarnatum, F. solani, F. tricinctum, and F. reticulatum. Fusarium equiseti was the most commonly isolated species. Among the damaging species, F. culmorum was the most predominant species being isolated from 13.29% of sites surveyed while F. pseudograminearum and F. graminearum were isolated from limited areas. All the 342 isolates belonging to the 17 Fusarium species were tested for pathogenicity on susceptible durum wheat cultivar Kızıltan-91. Seven out of the 17 Fusarium species tested for their pathogenicity caused crown rot in different levels of severity. Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum and F. pseudograminearum caused severe crown rot disease in cv. Kızıltan-91.Fusarium hostae and F. avenaceum were moderately pathogenic. Fusarium redolens and F. acuminatum were weakly pathogenic. On the other hand, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. reticulatum, F. incarnatum, F. tricinctum, F. flocciferum, F. torulosum, F. brachygibbosum, and F. proliferatum were non-pathogenic. Fusarium culmorum isolates differed in their aggressiveness on the susceptible durum wheat cv. Kızıltan-91. The most aggressive Fusarium culmorum isolate Fc2 was used as inoculum to screen 165 spring wheat lines for their reaction (Gebremariam et al. 2020). Thirteen percent of the lines tested showed promising and consistently resistant/moderately resistant reactions to Fusarium culmorum.In order to determine root rot diseases surveys were carried out in wheat and barley fields of Kırıkkale and Kırşehir provinces of Türkiye (Yeğin 2015). From diseased plants Rhizoctonia solani AG3, Rhizoctonia solani It appears that there is a wide variety of fungi causing root and crown rots of wheat and barley plants.However, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Bipolaris species seem to be more common and important. Research should focus on important pathogens and control methods should be developed. Crown and root rot disease (CRR) is an important disease that damages wheat and its products. CRR is caused by a soil-borne fungal pathogen, Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker (Pleosporaceae) that is common in some tropical and temperate regions (Zolfaghary et al. 2021) Expression of PR-1 and PR-5 (a stress-responsive multifunctional pathogenesis-related family), and other genes is known to be associated with the salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway (Kaur et al. 2021;Moatamedi et al. 2018). Despite the importance of PR genes in providing disease resistance, the role of these genes in wheat resistance against B. sorokiniana is not well studied (Li et al. 2021;Tehrani et al. 2020). However, the overexpression of PR genes has potential to confer a certain degree of resistance to fungal infections in many plant species (Kaur et al. 2021;Li et al. 2017).Therefore, considering the importance of finding a control measure to combat this devastating disease, 33 universal wheat genotypes were screened for resistance to B. sorokiniana in the field and greenhouse to identify novel resistant sources. However, the findings regarding local (roots) molecular defense responses compared with systemic (leaves) defenses before and after B. sorokiniana inoculation in wheat is scarce.To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate changes in the activity of novel candidate gene expression patterns in contrasting wheat cultivars upon soil inoculation with B. sorokiniana, and also to provide a valuable resource for future functional genomics studies to understand the simultaneous resistance to other diseases in wheat cultivars.Thirty-three wheat genotypes, including domestic, exotic cultivars, and inbreeding lines were provided by the Seed Institute, and Plant Improvement Karaj, Iran. The genotypes were screened previously against B.sorokiniana under both greenhouse and field conditions as described by Arabi et al. ( 2019 Total RNA was isolated using BioFACT™ Total RNA Prep Kit (Biofact, Korea), in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. RNA concentration and purity were assessed using a Nanodrop NP80 spectrophotometer (Implen Germany). The cDNA was synthesized from 5 μg of total RNA using the cDNA Synthesis commercial kit (BioFACT™ 2X RT Pre-Mix) according to the manufacturer's instructions (Bagheri et al. 2020;Tehrani et al. 2020). Gene-specific primers were designed using LinRegPCR program (version 2012.3) were used to determine Primer efficiencies (E) for all primers and Ct values, and relative gene expression ratio computed based on Pfaffl method (Pfaffl 2001). The EF1-α gene (accession number NM_001288491.1) was used as the internal control to normalize the data (Bagheri et al. 2020;Moghaddam et al. 2019;Wei et al. 2018).To confirm the results obtained from the greenhouse and field experiments, the resistant 'Bam', 'Mehregan' and 'Alvand' as well as the susceptible 'Karkheh', 'Heidari' and Behrang' were re-screened three times in the greenhouse. Highest disease severity in the three respective experiments was in 'Karkheh' with 100, 85 and 85% (mean= 90%), followed by 'Roshan-Beck-Cross', 'Shabrang' and 'Heidari' with 80, 77 and 77 %, respectively. The lowest disease severity was in 'Alvand' and 'm909', with an average of 23 and 14%, respectively (P = 0.01) (Table 1).Variance analysis of transcriptional changes in Cre3 showed a significant increase in infected leaf and root tissues of resistant cultivars in all three times after soil inoculation. The highest increase in Cre3 gene expression was in the second time (2 wpi), in 'Alvand', 'Mehregan' and 'Bam' with 2.06, 1.24 and 1.44 fold higher than the control, respectively. There was significant positive correlation between relative Cre3 expression level in roots and leaves (r =0.781**) (Fig. 1A). EDS1 expression was in both tissues in 'Alvand' with 1.56, 1.89 and 1.78-fold at wpi after inoculation in leaves, and 1.54, 1.79 and 1.63-fold in the roots, respectively. There was significant positive correlation. EDS1 expression was in both tissues in 'Alvand' with 1.56, 1.89 and 1.78-fold at 1, 2 and 3 wpi after inoculation in leaves, and 1.54, 1.79 and 1.63-fold in roots, respectively. Also, significant positive correlations were recorded for relative EDS1 expression level in leaves and roots (r =0.812**) (Fig. 1B). Highest increase in LTP5 gene transcription was in 'Alvand' on 2 wpi with 2.17-fold in leaves and 2.91-fold in roots. There was significant positive correlations between expression levels of this gene in both leaves and root tissues (r = 0.791 **) (Fig. 1C). Among resistant cultivars, 'Alvand' showed the highest increase in expression level of PGIP1 gene, with 2.25, 3.03 and 3.31-fold in leaves at three time points, and 1.94, 2.92 and 2.47-fold in root tissue, respectively. Moreover, significant positive correlations were recorded for relative PGIP1 expression level in leaves and roots (r =0. Variance analysis of transcriptional changes in UGT gene in 'Alvand' showed the highest increase in leaf and root tissue, with 1.66, 2.22 and 2.01-fold in leaves at three time points and 1.74, 1.82 and 1.65-fold in root tissue, respectively. Increase in gene expression level in root tissue of 'Heydari' was significant only at 2 wpi. Stb6 transcripts were up-regulated in infected roots and leaves of resistant cultivars at three time points after soil inoculation. Whereas, a very low level expression of Stb6 was detected in susceptible cultivars compared to controls (Fig. 1). 'Mehregan' had the highest increase in expression at 1 wpi, 2 and 3 wpi. Whereas, 'Alvand' and 'Bam' showed a gradual increase in infected leaves that reached the highest expression level at 3 wpi , with 2.19-fold in 'Alvand' and 2.09-fold in 'Bam' compared to the controls. The correlation between the expression levels of this gene in both leaves and root tissues in 'Alvand' and 'Heydari' was significantly positive (r = 0.845 **). Transcriptional changes in PFT gene had a significant upward trend compared to controls, and reached its maximum at 3 wpi. Also, significant positive correlations were recorded for relative PFT expression level in leaves and roots (r =0.775 **).Resistant cultivars can be a useful tool in reducing the disease below threshold levels (Qostal et al. 2019).Genetic resistance is not only having environmental impacts, but also is widely applicable and economically feasible to reduce pesticide application. In this study, reaction analysis of wheat genotypes to CRR disease, B. sorokiniana, showed that the lowest CRR disease severity was on 'Alvand', 'Baharan', 'm90-9' and 'Bam' as the resistant wheat genotypes. Similar trials by Samiei et al (2008) on a few Iranian wheat genotypes to CRR disease indicated that wheat genotypes react differentially supporting our results except the 'Alvand' genotype. In Samiei et al (2008) the 'Alvand' genotype was considered as moderately susceptible, whereas in our trails, 'Alvand' genotype was introduced as a resistant one. The reasons might be due to the use of fungal isolates of B. sorokiniana that may cause variable disease levels.Furthermore, these genes exhibited different levels of transcript accumulation in investigated cultivars and the higher levels of expression of these genes was observed in 'Alvand' and 'Bam'. All these results strongly indicated that under B. sorokiniana stress conditions root and leaf tissues of different wheat cultivars employed the same mechanisms to cope with B. sorokiniana. In addition to the significant variations in resistance, the expression pattern of ten candidate defense-related gene markers regulated significantly at a higher level in both tissues of resistant wheat cultivars upon inoculation with B. sorokiniana. Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a primary source of calories and protein (Shiferaw et al. 2013), grown on 219 million ha and yielding 760.9 million tons (FAOSTAT 2022). Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (T. durum Desf.) provide a major contribution to the diets of humans and livestock in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, with an average annual production of about 1.82 million tons in a planted area of about 0.59 million ha and with 14.3 million tons produced on 12.1 million ha, respectively.Especially, Kazakhstan's wheat yield (1182.5 ton/ha) falls far short of the global average (3474.4 ton/ha) due to biotic and abiotic stressors.A variety of root and stem base rot complex diseases frequently hinder wheat yields, stands, and grain quality in wheat-growing countries (Kumar et al. 2002, Kazan and Gardiner 2018, Su et al. 2021). The complex fungal species attacking the crown and root tissues of wheat causes a serious problem, including damping-off, blight, necrosis, and dry rotting of the root, crown, sub-crown, and lower stem tissues, along with wilting and stunting of seedlings and mature wheat plants (Bockus et al. 2010), resulting in significant yield reductions in the major wheat-producing regions of the world (Gonzalez and Trevathan 2000).Although most dominant species in this complex can change yearly in wheat production areas, several  (Cook and Veseth 1991;Gonzalez and Trevathan 2000;Hill et al. 1983;Laraba et al. 2017;Moya-Elizondo et al. 2011;Paulitz et al. 2002;Smiley and Patterson 1996;Smiley et al. 2005;Tunali et al. 2008). These fungi have complex population dynamics and interact with one another in crop residues, soil, and seed to survive between wheat crops. Multiple fungal species frequently co-occur at the same time and may interact in synergistic or competing ways, influencing their development and disease-causing capabilities (Grudzinska-Sterno et al. 2016). To combat the disease, a thorough understanding of pathogen biology and populations, as well as the epidemiological factors that contribute to disease exacerbation, is required. The first step in this process is to collect data on the distribution and prevalence of wheat pathogens associated with this phenomenon, especially since these data could be beneficial in predicting future changes in disease distribution patterns.Fusarium crown rot (FCR) is caused by numerous Fusarium spp.; however, several surveys conducted to investigate the species causing FCR have revealed that the most common and devastating species are F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum in many wheat-growing regions of the world (Backhouse et al. 2004;Cook 1981;Moya-Elizondo et al. 2011;Shikur Gebremariam et al. 2018;Smiley and Patterson 1996;Tunali et al. 2008). Although F. culmorum prefers lower temperatures than F. pseudograminearum, summer temperatures in the dryland area increase the prevalence of both pathogens (Cook 2010;Dyer et al. 2009).These species have been frequently isolated from infected plants but a complex etiology of FCR has been demonstrated by several studies (Backhouse et al. 2004;Fedel-Moen and Harris 1987;Laraba et al. 2017;Smiley and Patterson 1996).Little is known about the distribution and prevalence of pathogens of underground parts of winter wheat in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. In this study, a detailed survey study was conducted to assess the distribution of pathogen the country to generate information and understand disease dynamics, as well as to test the pathogenicity of the obtained species on a susceptible wheat cultivar.Extensive surveys were conducted to collect samples showing typical symptoms of crown and root rot from 76 wheat fields in the main wheat-growing regions of Azerbaijan in 2017 and 65 wheat fields in 2019 at the crop's maturity stage and harvesting time. The surveyed fields were arbitrarily chosen, with a distance of 5-15 km apart. From an area of 5-ha, 20-30 symptomatic wheat plants were randomly sampled in a zig-zag pattern, with each plant being 20 m apart and placed in paper bags. Samples were brought to the laboratory and kept at 4 °C until fungal isolation.Collected plants were cut approximately 25 cm above the base of the stem. Before examining the stems for lesions, the crown, root, and stem base tissues were washed thoroughly under tap water for 15 min to remove soil particles. Small portions of necrotic and discolored crown, sub-crown, and root tissues of sampled plants were superficially disinfested for 1 min with 1% sodium hypochlorite solution, rinsed with sterile water, and blotted dry. The dried sections were chopped into 1 cm lengths and placed on 1/5 strength potato dextrose agar (PDA; diced potato tubers (40 g) were cooked in water for 15 min, the strained broth was brought to 1 L, and dextrose (4 g) and agar (15 g) were added and then autoclaved) fortified with streptomycin (0.1 g/L) and chloramphenicol (0.05 g/L) to inhibit bacterial contamination. Fungal colonies isolated from the sections were sub-cultured on new full-strength PDA (200 g diced potato tubers, 20 g dextrose, and 15 g agar) plates and purified using the hyphal tip or the single spore isolation method after five days of incubation in the dark at 23 °C. Fusarium-like colonies were also transferred to Spezieller Nährstoffarmer Agar (SNA) medium (1 g KH 2 PO 4 , 1 g KNO3, 0.5 g MgSO 4 •7H 2 O, 0.5 g KCl, 0.2 dextrose, 0.2 sucrose, 20 g agar, distilled water to 1 L) and incubated at 23 °C for 10 days to enhance conidia and chlamydospore production (Leslie and Summerell 2016).Isolation frequency and field incidence of species were estimated after species identification of each isolate.Isolation frequency was determined by dividing the number of fungal isolates per species by the total number of isolates obtained and expressing the value as a percentage. The incidence of individual species in the fields was calculated by dividing the number of locations from which fungal species were retrieved by the total number of fields surveyed and expressing the value as a percentage.Template DNA was extracted from 50-100 mg of fungal powder using a DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF1-α) gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA were amplified with EF1/EF2 (O'Donnell et al. 1998) and ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990) primer sets, respectively. The PCR products were bi-directionally sequenced by Macrogen Inc. (Seoul, Korea) with the same primers. The DNA sequences were edited, and consensus sequences were computed manually using Mega X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across computing platforms (Kumar et al. 2018). All sequences were compared against the GenBank database, National Center for Biotechnological Information, using the BLASTn algorithm, and representative isolates for each species were deposited in GenBank.Following species identification, representative isolates of identified species were chosen from various locations to ensure geographic representation and pathogenicity testing on wheat seedlings under growth room conditions of 12/12 h light/dark regime and at 23 °C. Common bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv.Seri 82 seeds were sterilized for 2 min in 1% NaOCl and then placed in plates containing a piece of sterile filter paper saturated with water to enhance germination. Plastic pots (15 cm diameter and 17 cm height)were filled with a potting mixture of peat (KTS 1, Klasmann-Deilmann, Germany), sterile vermiculite, and sterile soil (1:1:1, v/v/v). Five identical seedlings were placed on the soil surface of each pot. For inoculation of Fusarium spp. isolates, mycelial plugs (9 mm diameter) were cut from the margin of a growing PDA culture of representative isolates and placed onto the mixture substrate in the pots; then, the seedlings and the mycelial plugs were covered with the same potting mixture (Özer et al. 2020). A sterile agar plug was used as a control treatment. Each seedling was placed on a mycelial plug and covered with the mixture substrate. Five seeds were planted in each pot, and three replicated pots were employed for each isolate. All experiments were conducted twice. Plants were evaluated six weeks after incubation at a 12 h photoperiod at 23 °C. The index system with a 1-5 scale of Nicol et al. (2001) was used to assess the disease symptoms.Disease severity scores obtained from the pathogenicity were analyzed for significance by analysis of variance, followed by Fisher's least significant difference test at P = 0.05, with the Statistical Analysis System (SAS version 9.0; SAS Institute Inc.; Cary, NC, U.S.A.).In total, 630 fungal strains were isolated from symptomatic wheat samples collected from 76 fields in the wheat-growing regions of Azerbaijan during the 2017 growing season. As a result of the classification of species based on morphological and molecular tools, 443 isolates of Fusarium spp. were identified (Table 1). Meanwhile, 1221 fungal isolates were isolated during the 2019 growing season from symptomatic wheat samples collected from 65 fields in Kazakhstan's wheat-growing regions. Based on morphological and molecular tools, 537 of Fusarium spp. were identified (Table 2).   algeriense were found less commonly, whereas F. brachygibbosum was the least predominant.The pathogenicity of Fusarium species were tested for their ability to cause disease. Fusarium culmorum, F.pseudograminearum, and F. graminearum isolates caused severe disease on crown and root of wheat plants with means of 3.52, 3.49, and 3.23 disease severity scores, respectively, and were considered to be highly virulent species. Some isolates of these species caused severe damage and resulted in the death of whole plants in some pots. Fusarium avenaceum, F. algeriense, and F. hostae produced moderate disease severities.Fusarium acuminatum, F. incarnatum, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. brachygibbosum, and F. proliferatum isolates exhibited no significant differences from control plants and were determined to be nonpathogenic.In the Kazakhstan isolates, Fusarium isolates comprised 43.98% of the total number of isolates and were classified into 10 Fusarium species by comparing them to the published descriptions and DNA sequencing.The EF1-α gene sequences of Fusarium spp. isolates ranged in length from 636 to 693 bp, with 100% identity matches to corresponding Fusarium species (except Fusarium sp.) in the GenBank database. Fusarium acuminatum and F. equiseti were the most frequent Fusarium species, accounting for 46.37% and 23.09% of Fusarium spp. isolates, respectively, followed by F. culmorum and F. oxysporum, which accounted for 10.80% and 9.31%, respectively. Fusarium redolens, F. pseudograminearum, F. flocciferum (Corda), F. cf. incarnatum, and Fusarium sp. were found less commonly, with frequencies of 5.40%, 1.68%, 1.68%, 0.74%, and 0.56%, respectively, whereas F. torulosum was the least predominant (0.37%), and two isolates could be identified in one field from Karagandy and one field from East Kazakhstan. Except for F. flocciferum (4.62% incidence), Fusarium sp. (3.08% incidence), and F. cf. incarnatum (3.08% incidence), other Fusarium species could be found in each of the three surveyed regions, but the incidence of individual species varied among these regions.Concerning individual species, F. acuminatum was found in 66.15% of the surveyed fields, F. oxysporum in 41.54%, F. equiseti in 35.38%, F. culmorum in 18.46%, F. redolens in 9.23%, and F. pseudograminearum in 7.69%.The pathogenicity tests revealed that F. pseudograminearum and F. culmorum isolates proved to be the most and equally virulent pathogens (p < 0.05) and had a mean crown rot severity of 3.55 and 3.42, respectively.Several isolates of both species caused substantial damage, with entire plants dying in some pots. Fusarium sp. isolates were moderately virulent on the crowns and roots, inducing necrosis or rot at similar levels.Likewise, F. redolens isolates showed a mean crown rot severity of more than 2 and were moderately virulent but not as severe as the species. Fusarium acuminatum, F. oxysporum, F. flocciferum, F. torulosum, F. cf.incarnatum, and F. equiseti were non-pathogenic on wheat seedlings, displaying no significant differences from control plants.Accurate identification of isolates and analyses of pathogenic variabilities within the pathogen populations provide critical information for control strategies and breeding schemes. Species identification of the genus Fusarium based on morphological characteristics are time consuming and laborious and pose difficulties such as high morphological similarities and difficulty to induce sporulation. To overcome these bottlenecks, molecular phylogenetic analyses based on ITS and EF1-α sequences have been widely used for the identification of different species in this genus. The EF1-α locus was used to identify Fusarium spp.obtained from diseased wheat plants in Türkiye and China (Shikur Gebremariam et al. 2018;Xu et al. 2018).The sequences of ITS and the largest subunit of RNA polymerase (RPB1) sequences were necessary for the precise identification of F. algeriense isolates.In all, 11 of 17 fungal species determined in this study were identified as Fusarium spp. F. culmorum was found to be the most predominant species occurring on crown and root tissues of wheat with 192 isolates and was detected in 57.9% of the fields surveyed. Among the complex of Fusarium spp. associated with FCR, F. culmorum has also been reported as the most frequently isolated species in the United States (Moya-Elizondo et al. 2011;Strausbaugh et al. 2004), New Zealand (Bentley et al. 2006), eastern Australia (Burgess et al. 1981), Türkiye (Tunali et al. 2008), Norway (Kosiak et al. 2003), Latvia (Bankina et al. 2013)  and Wyoming (Fernandez et al. 1985;Gonzalez and Trevathan 2000;Hill et al. 1983;Specht and Rush 1988).Similar to F. culmorum, there are many reports that this fungus prefers cold weather, which is a common climatic condition in the survey area (Hall and Sutton 1998;Pettitt et al. 2003). F. pseudograminearum and F. equiseti were represented with 43 and 32 isolates, respectively. F. pseudograminearum (formerly known as F. graminearum group I) was isolated from 14.5% of the fields surveyed in the wheat-growing area of the country. The prevalence of this fungus has been reported to increase especially in arid and low-rainfall areas and years (Poole et al. 2013;Smiley and Patterson 1996), which explains why fungi were mostly obtained from Ujar and Kurdamir. F. equiseti has been reported as a dominant fungus associated with crown and root rot of wheat in Saskatchewan (Fernandez andJefferson 2004), Mississippi (Gonzalez andTrevathan 2000),Italy (Rossi et al. 1995), Canada (Fernandez et al. 2014), and Türkiye (Shikur Gebremariam et al. 2018), which confirms our results.Global food production continues to be challenged by an alarmingly growing population, a finite amount of arable land, and conflicts between the countries that are important in the world wheat trade. Wheat is severely threatened by rapid climate change, which affects the world's abiotic and biotic components.In an effort to address some of these challenges, field assessments of the crown and root rot pathogens on wheat, which harbors an array of pathogenic species, are reported on a regular basis in the world's largest wheat-producing countries. This is the first detailed survey on pathogens of underground parts of wheat in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. The identification of species was conducted with morphological and molecular techniques. Pathogenic characterization was employed with Seri 82 to reveal the aggressiveness of the pathogens to wheat. The findings of this research will be useful for the development of management guidelines for root and crown rot fungi in wheat across Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan.Durum wheat is considered as the most important food crop in Tunisia as up to 50% of the total cultivated cereal areas is devoted to this crop (Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture 2022). It is mainly grown under irrigated environments and rainfed climate of north west regions. Currently with the frequent climatic changes in these regions, soil borne disease, including Fusarium foot and root rot (FFRR) is becoming the most important and devastating challenging durum wheat production through its effects on grain yield (Daniel and Simpfendorfer 2008;Chekali et al. 2013).The disease is mainly caused by Fusarium pseudogramiearum (O'Donnell and T. Aoki; group I) (= Gibberella coronicola) and F. culmorum (W.G. Smith) Sacc. (Burgess et al. 2001;Miedaner et al. 2008;Hogg et al. 2010;Moya-Elizondo et al. 2011). F. culmorum which is characterized by a higher virulence vs F. pseudograminearum (Papendick and cook 1974;Cook, 1981;Ozdemir et al. 2020) is the most common species in Tunisia (Gargouri et al. 2001;Boughalleb et al. 2008;BenSassi et al. 2011). This constitutes an additional challenge for the disease management. Furthermore, no source of resistance has been identified in durum wheat. In fact, several works have shown that there is no absolute resistance against Fusarium, and the term 'resistance' used in this context refers only to 'partial resistance'. this partial resistance, was identified in several bread wheat germplasm (Erginbasorakci et al. 2018;Yang et al. 2019;Jin et al. 2020 ;Pariyar et al. 2020 ;Jun e al. 2021;Yang et al. 2021) but not on durum wheat (Wallwork et al. 2004;Hollaway et al. 2013;Kemal et al. 2018;Jin et al. 2021).Investigation for the resistance to FFRR is complex and seems to be closely linked to environment as well as agro morphological plant characters. In Tunisia, except for Gargouri et al. (2009) and Chekali et al. (2013) there is not much information on the behavior of durum bread wheat germplasm to FFRR. Recently, a study on the behavior of commercial durum and bread wheat varieties was carried out over two years and showed that bread wheat is more resistant than durum wheat (results not published). In this context, the current study was set up to highlight the performance of old durum wheat accessions, bread wheat and commercial durum wheat varieties to FFRR.Experimental site description. The trial was conducted at the Experimental Station of the Tunisian National Agronomic Institute (INRAT) in Kef. The station is located in northwest of Tunisia (36°7'N; 8°43'E), at 780 m elevation. The soil is clay (50%), loam (30%) and sandy (20%). The climate is Mediterranean, with cold humid winter and very hot dry summer.A number of 100 old Tunisian durum wheat accessions issued from the Tunisian national breeding program were compared to one commercial bread wheat (Haidra) resistance positive check and five commercial durum wheat (Selim, Maali, Karim, Dhahbi et INRAT100) susceptible negative check. Inoculum was produced on sterilized oat colonized with three isolates F. culmorum (FC3, FC4, FC8) of Pôle Regional de Recherche Developpement du Nord Ouest Semi Aride (PRRDANOSA). Grains of oat were soaked in water overnight and then excess water was drained off. One liter Erlenmeyer flasks were filled with 250 ml of oat grains, sealed with cotton wool and covered loosely with aluminum foil. The flasks were autoclaved at 120°C for 20 min twice over 2 days. After cooling, the oat grains were inoculated aseptically with 8 segments (1 cm × 1 cm) from a 9 cm plate of each isolate of F. culmorum grown on PDA and incubated for 14 days at 25°C. The colonized grains were air-dried on filter paper, ground in a laboratory mill and passed through a 2 mm sieve.Experimental trial. The trial was set up as an Augmented block Design with five blocks during 2020-2021 growing season. For the seedling stage test, 130 pots with a capacity of 10 g each, were filled with soil inoculated at 1% (0.1 g of inoculum per 10 g of soil). The pots were filled to ¾ of their capacity, then two seeds of each variety were placed and then covered with the rest of the soil. They were placed outdoor and watered regularly. For adult stage test, conducted in open field, 130 twin rows of 1 m spaced 0.17 m apart were sown by 10 seeds/m ×2, for each variety and at the Zadoks 21 stage, 1.25 g/m of inoculum was sprinkled directly at the base of the plants.Disease assessment. Plants were moved from soil and the disease severity was estimated at Zadoks stage 13, for the seedling test and Zadoks stage 55, for plant mature test according to scale ranging from 0-7. For seedlings, Index 0: no symptoms on the roots with a clear stem ; index 1: light browning on the stem base ;Index 2: light browning on the stem base and beginning of brownish of the first leaf; Index 3: light browning on stem base, the first leaf and beginning on the second leaf ; Index 4: light to dark browning on the stem and first leaf, and extends on the second leaf; Index 5: intense browning of the stem and total necrosis of the first leaf and the second leaf; Index 6: total necrosis of the seedling with total destruction of the roots; index 7: no plant emergence. For mature plants, Index 0: no symptoms on the roots with a clear stem; index 1: slight browning on the stem base; Index 2: slight browning on the first internode; Index 3: Extension of the browning on the second internode with a more intense browning on the first internode; Index 4: extension of browning to the third internode; Index 5: extension of the browning towards the fourth internode; Index 6: intense browning from the first to fourth internodes with a puny appearance of the plant; Index 7: total browning of the plant. Besides, whiteheads parameter was evaluated by heads sensing prematurely.Agro-morphological plant assessment. the heading date was estimated after 50% emergence of the plant's heads and the plants height average were measured at plant maturity plants stage (Zadoks 89).Statistical analyses. Data were analyzed using ANOVA to test the significance of main effects using R software. The old durum wheat accessions and the controls were considered as main factors. Means comparisons was performed using Duncan's LSD tests (P = 0.05 or 0.01).In terms of DS, data analyses, showed that difference between the positive and negative controls was almost significant (P < 0.07) at seedling stage and significant (P < 0.01) at mature stage. Besides, difference between positive control and the old durum wheat accessions tested was a highly significant (P <0.0001) at seedling stage and almost significant (P < 0.07) at mature stage. At seedling stage, the five old durum wheat accessions (71,83,42,40,89), behaved globally better vs the positive control with accessions 71 expressing the lowest DS. In addition to these accessions, five others (86,91,97,54,5) expressed lower DS vs all negative controls (Figure 1).At maturity stage, on 14 old durum wheat, two accessions 4 and 6 had significantly lower DS vs the positive control while 64,81,84,53,56,17,18,35,77,78,80,99 expressed a similar behavior. These 14 varieties and 17 others (49,51,60,1,12,16,20,9,33,65,68,71,79,93,95,96,97,98) had better behavior than all durum wheat negative controls (Figure 2).Regarding white heads, parameter evaluated at adult stage, 32 of old durum accession (39,38,36,35,33,32,27,25,24,9,7,6,4,3,20,2,18,17,16,12,11,1,98,97,96,95,93,92,91,84,82,81) didn't show this symptom vs positive control. In addition, seven accessions (4,6,35,18,17,84,81) showed increased resistance vs positive control based on both DS and the WH parameters. Based on HD and PH plant, the resistant positive control headed early and was shorter compared to susceptible negative control. However there was no interaction between these two parameters and the superior reaction found on the 14 old varieties of durum wheat accessions screened at mature stage.Investigation of wheat resistance to FFRR is a challenging process. In this framework, some Tunisian bread wheat lines are resistant in pots (Gargouri et al. 2009) and are more tolerant to the disease vs durum wheat in dry conditions (Chekali et al. 2013). However commercial durum wheat varieties are globally susceptible (Chekali et al. work not published). To find out additional information, the present work has focused on the behavior of 100 old Tunisian durum wheat accessions vs bread wheat and some commercial durum wheat controls at seedling and mature stages. The behavior between controls used in the present work, confirms that bread wheat has a superior resistance to the Tunisian commercial durum wheat varieties at seedling and mature stage which is in accord with several finding such as those of Wallwork et al. (2004), Kazan and Gardiner (2018) and Yang et al. (2021). This work has also shown that screening for resistance against FFRR does not give the same results at the seedling vs maturity stage of plant. Indeed, on the 100 old durum wheat accessions tested, the few accessions which showed greater resistance vs positive control at the seedling stage were not the same as at the maturity stage. This may suggest that the resistance found in durum wheat is probably multigenic, dependent on other factors. In light of this, relation between resistance vs height and heading date of plants were investigated. It was found that bread wheat positive control was shorter and more resistant to the disease and heads earlier vs the five susceptible durum wheat controls. This is in agreement with Liu and Ogbonnaya ( 2015 surprisingly, this has not been confirmed on durum wheat old accessions expressing a higher resistance vs bread wheat. The resistance of some old accessions of Tunisian durum wheat obtained in this work seem to be interesting and deserves to be confirmed over more years by taking into account the agro-morphological or environmental factors linked to this resistance. In addition, the unavailability of correlation between screening resistance to FFRR at the seedling and adult stage, must be taken into account in national breeding programs.Wheat (Triticum spp.) is the most produced product in the grain fields of Türkiye. According to 2019 data, wheat is grown on 7.7 million hectares, barley on 2.7 million hectares and corn on 0.7 million hectares of total grain areas in Türkiye. Wheat, which ranks first with a production of 20.6 million tons in cereals with a total production of 35 million tons, constitutes 55.2% of the grain production. The wheat yield in 2019 was 25-30 kg/ha (Anonymous 2020).Abiotic and biotic stress factors are the most important factors that negatively affect the yield and quality of wheat. Pathogens, one of the biotic stress factors, cause diseases in plants, affect yield and quality significantly and cause economic losses. Among them, soil-borne pathogens constitute the most important group.Root and crown disease agents are generally soil-borne. They are also carried by seeds and plant residues. It is very difficult to combat these factors due to their ability to survive in the soil for many years. It is possible to encounter root and crown rot diseases in all development stages of the plant. While most of the disease factors can originate from seeds and soil, their importance increases even more because they cause different diseases in leaves and spikes other than the root and crown of the plant. For example, Fusarium spp. cause head blight and Dreschlera spp., Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp. can also attack above ground parts. They can also cause embryo darkening (black spot) disease.Root and crown rot diseases are the leading pathogen groups affecting wheat and barley yield in terms of quality and quantity. In order for the plants to develop normally and give the best yield, they must have a healthy root system. Disease agents can cause damage to most of the grass crops. These include wheat, barley, triticale, oats and rye. Generally, root and crown rot disease factors in wheat and barley plants reduce the number of plants per square meter, the number of heads per plant, the length of the spikes, and therefore the number of grains per spike. These factors, first of all, are effective in the root and crown parts of the plant, thus reducing the nutrient and water absorption capacity of the plant roots. Root and crown rot disease agents such as Fusarium culmorum and Gaeumannomyces graminis (GGT) cause some spikes to take on a white appearance during the growing period in the fields where the disease is intense.Such spikes cannot form grains or form weak grains. Thus, the disease factors cause damage in terms of quality by reducing the hectoliter weight of the grain. It has been determined by some researchers that the grain weight in the ear decreased by 30-60% due to root and crown diseases, which were quite common in Thrace in 1978, and the 1000-grain weight of the product obtained from the diseased field decreased by 17% compared to the healthy ones. Fusarium and Rhizoctonia species are the most common and important soil-borne fungi that cause root and root collar diseases in Turkish wheat fields, and the crown disease caused by GGT has also been a problem in recent years.GGT, on the other hand, causes the disease known as take-all in wheat, barley and triticale. Although its main host is wheat, it causes disease in barley, triticale, rye, other grains and grasses and is considered as one of the most important root diseases affecting wheat yield in many parts of the world (Cook 1992). The fungus can infect plant roots and rot and destroy the entire root system. The root and rhizome turn charcoal black and are easily seen when the plant is pulled. The fungus invades the stem upwards, causing the plant to collapse. The pathogen lives in the infected root and stem of the plant. Infection persists throughout the growing season.The optimum soil temperature for the disease is 10-20 °C. The disease-causing fungus grows well in neutral to alkaline soils, sloping lands, poorly drained fields, and soils poor in nitrogen and phosphorus (Wiese 1998). It was later reported that it was detected in Sakarya (Aktaş et al. 1996). With the climate change in recent years and the planting of susceptible varieties, the disease has spread to the Central Anatolia Region (Aktaş et al. 1999, Büyük et al. 2018, Tunalı et al. 2008) and Thrace (Hekimhan 2010) and has created serious problems.Chemical control of GGT in the world is limited and difficult. Currently, there is no licensed plant protection product against the disease in Türkiye. It has been reported that the disease causes more than 40% product loss in wheat if it is not controlled (Genowati 2001). Due to the limited chemical control and the harmful effects of chemicals, alternative methods of combating this disease have gained importance. One of the most important of these methods is the use of disease-resistant varieties and alternative methods like biological control. Erdurmuş and Katırcıoğlu (2008)  antagonistic bacteria against the pathogen F. culmorum in petri dishes containing Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). 67 of them were identified as weak antagonists (zone of inhibition <5 mm). Three of the antagonist bacterial isolates were Pseudomonas fluorescens, one was P. putida, and two were Pseudomonas spp. In in vivo trials, it has been reported that none of the bacterial isolates showed antagonistic activity against the pathogen F. culmorum.Gökçe (2013) did a master's study named \"Investigation of biological control possibilities under controlled conditions by using PGPR and bio agent bacteria against Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.)\", which causes wheat root rot. Using PGPR and bioagent bacteria, the control of wheat root rot disease B. sorokiniana and its effect on plant growth were determined. In the study, a total of 212 antagonist bacterial isolates belonging to 25 different species identified by Microbial Diagnosis System (MIS) were used, isolated from underground or above-ground parts of wild and cultivated plants in different previous studies. These antagonist bacteria were tested in vitro to determine their antifungal properties against the pathogen. 39 antagonist bacterial isolates, selected considering their antifungal properties, nitrogen fixation and phosphate dissolution properties, were developed in liquid carrier formulation. They were tested in terms of their effectiveness on disease development and growth parameters of wheat plants in pot trials using seed coating method.It was determined that many of the antagonistic bacteria were both effective in suppressing the disease and making important contributions to plant growth. As a result, it has been determined that some of the liquid formulations (Bacillus megaterium TV-6D, Brevibacillus choshinensis TV-53D and Bacillus pumilus TV-3C) formed from antagonist bacterial isolates can be used both as bio pesticides in the control of wheat root rot disease and as microbial fertilizers in wheat cultivation. The potential of selected candidate BCA bacterial isolates to inhibit (antagonize) mycelial growth of disease agents was determined by double culture tests in petri dishes containing PDA, as previously reported (Soylu et al., 2005). In these tests, the bacterial isolate to be tested was drawn on the tip of each petri dish, and after pre-incubation at 26°C for 24 hours, 5 mm diameter mycelial discs taken from the growth areas of fresh pathogenic fungus cultures developed in PDA medium. They were placed in the middle so that they were equidistant from the candidate antagonist bacterial isolates and incubated at 26°C. No antagonist bacterial with active with B. subtilis (AntBKU) as a comparative application caused 84.4% inhibition. The candidate antagonist isolate that inhibited F. culmorum mycelial growth at the lowest rate was AntB15 isolate with a rate of 53.9% (Table 3).    and Hendelsmann 1999). By investigating the in vivo efficacy of these antagonists against the disease agents they are tested for, it will be possible to select the most suitable isolate for use as a biological preparation. In addition, studies to be carried out on the determination of the mechanisms used by antagonist bacterial biocontrol agents to prevent disease emergence will further increase the widespread impact of the studies.  Oat (Avena sativa L.) ranks 3th among the cool climate cereals in terms of cultivation and production in the world. It is the fourth placed in Türkiye. In recent years, oats have increased their importance in human nutrition in the world and started to be used in industry, which has led to an increase in the production areas of oats. In addition to abiotic factors, biotic factors adversely affect the yield and quality of oats.Root and crown disease agents are generally soil-borne, such as Fusarium spp. Rhizoctonia spp., Dreschlera spp., Pythium spp. pathogens. As a result of root and crown diseases in cereals, the plant grows poorly, and empty and white ears are formed. However, the spike is weakened, causing a decrease in hectoliter weight and 1000 grain weight. The weight of the grains in the spike decreased by 30-60% due to root and crown diseases that harmed wheat in Thrace in 1978 and the 1000-grain weight of the product taken from the diseased fields was 17% lower than the healthy ones (Finci, 1979).In 1986, Fusarium nygamai Burgess & Trimboli was first diagnosed in Australia (Burgess and Trimboli, 1986) and later reported in Africa, China, Malaysia, Thailand, Puerto Rico and the United States. It has been reported that F. nygamai is found in plants such as sorghum, millet, beans, cotton and in soils with colonized plant residues. Also, F. nygamai has been reported to be a pathogen of Striga hermonthica (Del.)Benth. Fusarium spp., which causes seedling blight and root rot of rice in Sardinia (Oristano, S. Lucia) region of Italy, (F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum, F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. compactum and F. equiseti) were isolated with F. nygamai together with other Fusarium species (Fisher et al. 1982). Balmas et al. (2007) inoculated isolates of F. nygamai and F. moniliforme from Arboria rice cultivar in the study they conducted in Sardinia. As a result of the study, it was observed that both F. nygamai and F. moniliforme reduced the emergence of rice seedlings, compared to the uninoculated control, with F. nygamai 33% to 59% and F.moniliforme 25% to 50%.The most common species are Bipolaris sorokiniana, Fusarium nygamai, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.subglutinans, Periconia macrospinosa, Phoma macrostroma and P. medicaginis from the fields where wheat and barley were grown in 3 different parts of Tanzania. It was observed that fungal species were obtained and F. oxysporum and F. nygamai were dominant in fungal isolates obtained from roots (Van DYK, 2003).In of the pathogen population (Xue et al. 2019).Some studies on oat fungal diseases have been carried out in our country. Studies on Fusarium spp. in wheat, barley, rye and oats were carried out in Türkiye (Özer and Soran, 1991) and it was reported by Bremer (1948) that he found Fusarium oxysporum, F. equiseti and F. culmorum in our country. In the province of Antalya in 2015-2016, disease reactions were observed for stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae), crown rust (Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae) and powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. avenae) on 164 local oat genotypes collected from Antalya, Isparta, Burdur and Muğla provinces under natural infection conditions. In this study, Sarı, Kahraman, Fetih and Yeniçeri oat cultivars were more resistant to stem rust disease than other genotypes.With powdery mildew disease, Faikbey oat cultivar with 15 genotypes was more resistant than other genotypes. It was observed that genotypes 9, 33 and 37 and Sarı oat cultivar were more resistant than other genotypes against crown rust disease (Çalışkan et al. 2017). In 2016, 40 oat leaf samples collected from İzmir, in the Foça and Menemen locations, were examined and isolated from these samples. It was reported thatAlternaria longipes, which causes leaf blight in oats, was determined as a result of both classical and molecular diagnosis (Hekimhan et al. 2020).The main material of the study was Fusarium nygamai, which was obtained from the roots of the oat plants in the Edirne province, seven oat varieties (Diriliş, Faikbey, OTAG, Katmerli, Seydişehir, Yazır and Yeniçeri),Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium used for the isolation and growth of the fungus,In the study, infected parts of the oat root were cut in the laboratory from oat plant samples sent from Edirne province in 2021. They were surface disinfested (GIVE METHOD). Cultrues were then transfered to PDA and placed in the incubator at 25±2 °C. The identification of growing Fusarium species was made using classical and molecular methods.Genomic DNA extraction was carried out in accordance with the Qiagen Plant Mini Kit (Madison, WI, USA) protocol from the mycelium of the fungi grown in PDA, which morphologically resembled Fusarium nygamai, obtained from the pure Fusarium species obtained as a result of the isolation study. The total DNA obtained was subjected to PCR programs using EF1-986R (5-TACTTGAAGGAACCCTTACC-3) and EF1-728F (5-CATCGAGAAGTTCGAGAAGG-3) primers (Elongation factor). In the PCR cycle program, 1 cycle for 5 minutes at 96 °C; 36 cycles were completed at 94 °C for 30 seconds, at 52 °C for 30 seconds, at 72 °C for 1.5 minutes, and finally at 72 °C for 7 minutes. The obtained PCR products were run on a 1.5% agarose gel. Then, the bands in the gel were visualized with the help of a transilluminator and sent for sequencing. Sequence analyzes of PCR products were performed by a commercial company. After the analysis, the raw sequence data were analyzed using Bioedit (Version 7.0) programs and the sequence data of these fungal isolates from NCBI were compared with the isolates of Fusarium species in the database by BLAST analysis.For the pathogenicity test, F.nygamai was grown on PDA at 24°C under 15 hours light and 9 hours dark conditions. Surface disinfection of the seeds of seven cultivars was done separately for each cultivar. Then, these seeds were germinated in sterile germination cups in an incubator at 25±2 °C. Discs with a diameter of 5 mm were taken from the fungus. The fungus disc and the germinating oat seed were placed in a 90 mm diameter Petri dish containing PDA with a distance of 2 mm between them. F. nygamai and germinated seed on the PDA medium. A single fungal disc and germinated seed were placed in each petri dish. Each variety was studied separately in 3 replications and as a control. Only germinated seeds were used for the control study. Petri dishes were kept in a 25°C incubator for 7 days. At the end of the 7th day, seeds were evaluated for pathogenicity using the 0-5 scale (Ichielevich- Auster et al., 1985) (Table 1) (Figure 1).  The results obtained from all pathogenicity tests were calculated according to the formula given below and % disease severity rates were found for each.% Disease Severity : Σ(Each scale value x number of samples in scale value) x 100Maximum scale value x Total number of plantsOat seeds in this study were disinfested separately 4-5 days before fungal inoculation. These seeds were germinated by placing them in a humidity chamber (nearly 60%) at 25-27 °C, with 12 hours of daytime/12 hours of night. In seed inoculation, petri dishes of F. nygamai, which were grown in PDA, were covered with sterile distilled water. Spores were transferred to the water with the help of a brush. Then a few drops of Tween 20 were added. The spore density was determined on a haeomcytometer slide to be 17 x 10 5 spores/ml. For inoculation of seven varieties of oat seeds with a fungal solution of this density, 30 ml of spore solution was put into sterile beakers and pre-germinated oat seeds were placed on it. These seeds were soaked in spore solution for 2-3 hours. Each variety was performed in 3 replications. One seed was used for each replication. For the control , one seed was kept in distilled water. Disease assessment was performed on germinated oat seeds 45 days after inoculation according to a modified 0-5 scale (Wildermuth and McNamara, 1994) (Table 2) (Figure 2). The plant is deadAfter the disease evaluation, sections were taken from the roots of the plants and reisolation were made. The sterilized soil, which was soil:peat:sand (1:1:1) mixture, was placed in the sterilized jar. Approximately 15-20 fungal discs were placed in these jars and sterile distilled water was placed in order to provide moisture for the growth of the fungus. These jars were placed in an incubator at 23-24°C and incubated for about 20 days for the spread of the fungus in the soil. Sterile cotton was placed under the pot, and a sterile soil: sand: peat mixture was placed on top. Then, some soil inoculated with F. nygamai was added. Oat varieties, which grown for one week, were sown in 3 replications, with one oat seed in each replication of soil infested with F.nygamai. Disease assessment of germinated oat seeds on a modified 0-5 scale was performed 45 days after inoculation (Wildermuth and McNamara, 1994). (Table 2) (Figure 3). After disease assessment, reisolation was made from the roots of the plants. As a result of the pathogenicity test, pathogenicity was evaluated in seven oat cultivars of Fusarium nygamai isolate according to the 0-5 scale of Ichielevich- Auster et al. (1985) (Table 3). According to the results of the pathogenicity test, Diriliş variety was susceptible with 100% disease severity among oat varieties, followed by Yazır (53.33%), Katmerli (46.67%), Yeniçeri (46.67%), OTAG (33.33%), Seydişehir (26.67%) and Faikbey (13.33%).  Reaction studies with planting F. nygamai infested seed and planting sterile seed into soil infested with F. nygamaiIn the study, the disease was evaluated according to the blackish-brown color changes in the oat root according to the modified 0-5 scale (Wildermuth and McNamara, 1994;Köycü and Özer, 2019) in 45 days after inoculation (Table 2). According to the results of the trial of planting seed infested with F. nygamai Katmerli cultivar, which had 100% disease severity among the oat cultivars, was the most susceptible oat cultivar. It was followed by Yazır (80.00%), Seydişehir (73.33%) and Yeniçeri (73.33%), OTAG (53.33%), Diriliş (46.67%) and Faikbey (26.67%). It was observed that Faikbey cultivar was the most resistant among these cultivars (Table 4). In terms of disease average, Katmerli oat variety had the highest average (5%) and Faikbey oat variety had the lowest average (1.33%) (Figure 4).According to the results of planting sterile seed ino soil infecsed with F. nygamai', Diriliş variety, which had 53.33% disease severity among the oat cultivars, was the most sensitive oat cultivar among these cultivars.It followed by Yazır (46.67%), Yeniçeri (40.00%), OTAG (33,33%), Seydişehir (26.67%), Katmerli (26.67%) and Faikbey (26.67%) and among these varieties Faikbey, Katmerli and Seydişehir varieties were observed to be the most resistant among these varieties. In terms of disease average, Diriliş oat variety had the highest average (2.67%) and Katmerli oat variety had the lowest average (1.5%) (Table 4 and Figure 4).As a general result of the study, it was revealed that the Yazır variety, followed by the Yeniçeri variety were susceptible according to the results of planting F. nygamai infested seed and planting sterile seed into F. nygamai infested soil. In addition, while the disease severity was found to be lower with 46.67% on Diriliş variety using infested seed, , it was observed that this oat variety was the most sensitive variety (53.33%) among the examined oat varieties whenplanting sterile seed into infested soi. On the other hand, while in the study with infested seed with this fungus on Faikbey variety, the disease severity was found to be lower with 26.67%, the most resistantamong the examined oat varieties.Planting infected seed with F. nygamai Planting sterile seed to infected soil F. nygamai In this study, the sequence data of this fungus isolate from NCBI was compared with the isolates of Fusarium species in the database by performing BLAST analysis, and it was observed that F. nygamai had a 100% similarity rate among Fusarium species (Anonymous, 2022). As a result of this study, F. nygamai was detected from oat roots for the first time in our country, both morphologically and molecularly.In this study, Çalışkan et al. (2017) found that while Yeniceri oat variety was resistant to stem rust, Faikbey variety was moderately sensitive; Faikbey variety is moderately susceptible to crown rust disease, Seydişehir variety is medium resistant, and Yeniçeri variety is resistant; While it was seen that Faikbey andSeydişehir cultivars were moderately resistant to powdery mildew disease, but the Yeniçeri cultivar was in the susceptible group. In addition, our study found that whenplanting seed infested with with F. nygamaiFaikbey was resistant compared to other cultivars, but the Yeniçeri cultivar was between moderately susceptible to moderately resistant group and the Seydişehir cultivar was in the moderately susceptible group. Moreover, our study found that whenplanting sterile seed into soil infested with F. nygamai, it was observed that Faikbey cultivar was more resistant to F. nygamai compared to other cultivars. In this way, the results of both our study and Çalışkan et al. (2017) study were similar.As a result, genotypes known to be more resistant to soil-borne pathogens can be cultivated for oat cultivation. It has been concluded that promising genotypes can be evaluated in breeding programs.In recent years, because of the increase in its importance in human nutrition of oats in the world, the industry has increased in the production area. In the world culture of oats, 2/3 are of white oats (Avena sativa L.) and 1/3 are red oat (Avena byzantina Koch.) (Forsberg and Reeves 1992).Compared with other grains, oats need cool, rainy climates and fertile soils with low marginal cultivated areas (Hoffmann 1995). In addition, oats under long-day regimes and short seasons, blossoms and matures quickly. Therefore, in the Nordic countries, oats are an important plant (Buerstmayr et al. 2007). In recent years, the consumption of oats has increased, thanks to the nutritional value of oats in human nutrition (Food and Drug Administration 1997).Oats (Avena sativa L.), is a grain that is used in the world for human nutrition and animal feed. Animal feed is the most extensive use of the oat area. Oats are used as green grass, silage, grain and straw in animal nutrition. Also legume forage crops (forage pea, vetch, etc.) support the plant as it is located in mixtures.Stalks are soft and plentiful leaves are preferred by the animals (Anderson 2000).In recent years, quite a lot of oats and oatmeal are used at breakfast in the human diet. Oats are rich in protein, in addition quantities of fat, vitamin B1, phosphorus, iron and many minerals (Geçit 2016).In Türkiye, both dry and irrigated agriculture in the areas has been used for cultivation of oats. The Since oats have low temperature, high humidity and high water requirement in cool climate cereals, they may be more susceptible to fungal diseases. The most important fungal diseases are root rot, rust, powdery mildew and leaf disease. Fusarium, which is the causative agent of root rot, is one of the known pathogens of oats. One of them is F. equiseti. This pathogen adversely affects yield and quality.One of the ways to increase the product yield per unit area is the determination and dissemination of highyielding and high-quality varieties that are suitable for the environmental conditions in which oats can be grown, resistant to root rot diseases. The effects of this disease should be determined in the places where oat production is made in our country and necessary precautions should be taken.A study was made to determine the contribution of fungi of the genus Fusarium to the infection of oat seedlings grown under the conditions of central Poland as well as to determine the pathogenicity of F. graminearum to seedlings of several oat genotypes under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. It included 39 oat genotypes. At the six-week seedling stage, the percentage of plants with root and leaf sheath necrosis symptoms was evaluated. In 2010 the percentage of seedlings with disease symptoms ranged from 6.5% to 25%, in 2011 it ranged from 17% to 34.5%, whereas in 2012 from 10% to 25%. In 2010 the disease index ranged from 1.4 to 5.7, in 2011 from 4.5 to 8.8, while in 2012 it was between 2.0 and 5.4 (Kiecana et al. 2013). Xue et al. (2019)  For the pathogenicity test, 7mm diameter fungus was taken from pure F. equisti cultures. Each oat cultivar germinated in the incubator was taken separately in 3 replications and put into PDA and F. equiseti with a diameter of 7 mm was placed next to it. These petri dishes were placed in a 24-25 °C incubator to develop for a week. At the end of a week, Ichielevich- Auster et al. (1985) was evaluated for pathogenicity using a 0-5 scale.(Table 1) The reaction tests on seed infested with F.equiseti 4-5 days before fungal inoculation to seed, each cultivar was sterilized separately by immersing it in 5% sodium hypochlorite for 3 minutes and passing it through sterile distilled water 2 times. These sterilized seeds were germinated by placing them in an incubator at 25-27 °C, with 12 hours of daytime/12 hours of night. Then, for seed inoculation, pure F. equiseti spore suspension was prepared by adding 20-30 ml of sterile distilled water to the petri plate and removing the spores. The density of the spore suspension was measured with haemocytometer slide as 17x10 5 spores/ml. Then a few drops of Tween 20 were added to the suspension. The prepared fungal inoculation was carried out by adding 30 ml of the spore solution to the germinated oat seeds separately. Then seeds were soaked in spore suspension for 2-3 hours. Each cultivar was made in 3 replications. One seed was used for each replication. Seed soaked in distilled water was used as a control.The sterilized soil:sand:peat (1:1:1) mixture was placed in a jar and approximately 15-20 fungal discs were placed in it, and very little sterile distilled water was added for the growth of the fungus. The jars were placed in an incubator at 23-24 °C and incubated for 17-18 days for the development of the fungus in the soil. Sterile cotton was placed at the bottom of the pots, sterilized soil:sand:peat mixture was placed on top of it, then soil was placed from jars with fungal growth. Oat cultivars showing one-week growth were sown with 3 replications and 1 oat seed in each replication.Disease assessment was performed on a modified 0-5 scale 45 days after inoculation. (Table 2). Against root rot F. equiseti one cultivar (Diriliş) was susceptible and six cultivars (Faikbey, Katmerli, Otag, Seydişehir, Yazır, Yeniçeri) were moderately susceptible. This study showed that there are cultivars that can be evaluated in terms of resistance to the diseases. The maize plant, Zea mays L., is one of the six cereal crops that feeds the world population. It is the most produced grain in the world with its versatile usage area, adaptability and efficiency. The maize plant has many uses and each part has separate economic value. The main usage areas of maize are; fresh consumption (boiling and roasting), canned food, maize flour, starch, chips, snacks, baby-corn grains and animal feed (green parts), oil, sweetener, confectionery, chocolate products, baby foods, salad dressings, alcohol, high fructose maize syrup, toothpaste, ethanol (as an additive to gasoline) and automotive industry, cleaning materials, textile and cosmetics industry. It is estimated that 60% of world maize production is used as animal feed, 20% as human food (direct consumption), 10% as processed food and 10% as seeds with other consumptions (Özcan 2009). Although significant increases in production can be achieved with various methods, there are many factors that lead to significant product losses. Maize diseases and fungal diseases of root and crown, stalk and ears are among the most important factors restricting yield (Miller 1994).In our country in maize fields; we see various Fusarium species that cause seed, root, stalk and ear rots.Although seed spraying is effective for root and crown rot caused by Fusarium species, there is no effective control method for the control of stalk, ear and grain rot seen in later periods. For these reasons, these diseases, especially seen in ears and grains, directly affect the yield (Anonymous, 1995). In addition to the loss of yield, in recent years the toxic effect of the mycotoxins created by Fusarium spp. in maize grain and products on animals and humans have become important. For this reason, an effective control against mycotoxin-forming disease factors becomes even more important in terms of food safety in maize, which is important for both human and animal nutrition. For this reason, the only management applied in practice in the world is to use resistant varieties (Reid et al., 2002).It is important that root rot diseases can be controlled in an environmentally friendly and effective management in the long term. Studies have been carried out on Fusarium species in maize in the world and in our country, and the most common species in maize was F. verticillioides. In maize ears F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum and some other Fusarium species cause the formation of a toxin called fumonisin, which is known to be carcinogenic in humans and other animals.Fusarium ear and grain rot is shown as the most important disease of maize in Canada, USA and Europe and it is reported that F. verticillioides (moniliforme) is the most common species in all regions (Miller, 1994). It was determined that ear rot disease was seen at a rate of 58% in 1997 in Aydın and the casual agents causing the disease were F. moniliforme and F. graminearum. In Çukurova, the disease incidence was found to be 26% (Benlioğlu and Yıldız, 1998;Tatlı, 2002). Reid et al. (1999) reported that cultivating resistant host-plants is effective for the control of ear rot (Fusarium spp). In Gürsoy and Biçici (2003), a total of 73 maize samples were examined between 2000-2003 and the Fusarium spp. was isolated from 61.5% of the samples. It was reported that the most isolated Fusarium species were F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum, F. solani and F. culmorum. Demir et al. (2005) found fumonisin B1(FB1) in 52 of 100 samples and fumonisin B2(FB2) in 25 samples in a study samples taken in Samsun and also found that 94% of the samples taken had F. moniliforme.In a study of 20 different genotypes from early and hybrid maize lines in 2003 and 2004, disease severity was found to be 10% in genotypes resistant to Fusarium ear rot in Iran. While KE 76009/1-2-1-2 was the most resistant and KE 77005/1-5-1 was the most susceptible genotype, K SC 500, K SC 302 and K SC 400 K were found to be moderately resistant hybrids (Zamani and Mohseni 2006). In 2003, Uçkun and Yıldız (2007) took 66 samples for Fusarium stalk rot disease in the Southern Marmara Region and the disease rate was found to be 75%. In 2004, 149 samples were taken and they state that the disease rate in the region was 85%, while the disease rate for ear rot was 51% in 2003 and 56% in 2004. The most common cause of stalk and ear rot diseases was determined as F. moniliforme, followed by F. graminearum. Uçkun (2009) carried out a survey study to determine the status of stalk and ear rot diseases. He reported that while 48 genotypes tested in reaction trials against stalk and ear rot showed a susceptible reaction to stalk rot, 7 genotypes were in the resistant group, 11 genotypes were in the moderately resistant group against ear rot in 2007, 18 genotypes were in the moderately resistant group in 2008.Ashnagar et al. ( 2012) investigated the resistance of 14 maize cultivars to ear rot infection against Fusarium maize rot infection (Fusarium verticilloides) in their study in Iran. They are divided into resistant, tolerant and susceptible groups. KSC700 and DS499 were evaluated as resistant, Kardura 630 as very susceptible variety. Yıldırım et al. (2016) tested 30 lines with the toothpick method for artificial inoculation of stalk rot and the syringe method against ear rot. As a result, they found 1 line moderately resistant (MR) and 6 lines moderately susceptible (MS) against Fusarium stalk rot. In addition, 12 genotypes were found to be resistant to Fusarium ear rot, and 12 genotypes were found to be moderately resistant.In our study, in the Marmara region, resistance tests carried out by artificial inoculation against Fusarium verticillioides, on important and promising maize material, in order to develop varieties resistant to diseases.In this way, it is possible to reveal the disease resistance properties of the material in question and to select the cultivar candidates from among the resistant materials.The main material of the study consisted of 60 genotypes including different genotypes and some commercial varieties developed by the Maize Breeding Unit of the Maize Research Institute in 2021. Fusarium verticilliodes isolate, which was determined to be the most common species in the region, was isolated from diseased ear rot samples collected in the previous year for use in reaction studies. After the samples were sterilized, they were plated on PDA and then a single spore was taken from the inoculum and 30 petri dishes containing SNA were incubated for 2-3 weeks. Then, a spore suspension was prepared by adding 20-30 ml of sterile distilled water and removing the spores. The density of the spore suspension was measured with haemocytometer at 5x10 6 spores/ml. (Jeffers et al., 1994). The prepared spore suspension was injected into the first emerging ear of each plant 7-10 days after the tassel was opened, with a 1 ml syringe (Jeffers, 2003).At the harvest time, the ears were collected by peeling, the disease was evaluated according to the rot and mycelial growth rates on the grains. The infection type was determined by using a 0-5 scale for ear rot (Jeffers, 2002) (Table 1). There is no infection, the ear is 100% clean and the infection percentage is 0  According to the flowering times of 60 genotypes before the color of the tassels turned pink and purpleFusarium ear rot was established on the plants by artificial inoculation on 06.08.2021 and 17.08.2021. In order to determine the reactions of the genotypes, one ml of inoculum by a syringe was given to each inoculated ear with a density of 5x10 6 spores/ml of spore suspension, and 1 ml of distilled water by syringe was given to control plants. At the harvest time, the ears were collected by peeling, the disease was evaluated according to the rot and mycelial growth on the grains. The disease severity, which was determined by using a 0-5 scale for ear rot, was calculated according to the Tawsend-Heuberger method. According to the results, the reactions of the genotypes were determined by considering the reaction type scale. If the disease severity was 10% or less it was identified as resistant (R), if it was 11-25% moderately resistant (MR), if it was 26-50% susceptible (S), and if it was more than 50% highly susceptible (HS). One genotype (Samada 07) was R-resistant, three genotypes (DKC 6664, Andromeda, Kolosseus) were MR-moderately resistant, 41 genotypes were S-susceptible, 15 genotypes were HS-highly susceptible to ear rot disease, (Table 3). This study showed that there are genotypes that can be evaluated in breeding programs in terms of resistance to the diseases.  (Abugaliyeva et al. 2016).The main aim of this study was to identify varieties colonized by different genera of fungi that are found in different parts of plants and infected by including nematodes. Samples were randomly taken from different fields and varieties of the Almaty region. Plant samples and soils were kept in paper bags labeled with relevant sample information and transported to the laboratory of Eskisehir (Türkiye).The trials were performed during the spring grain cycle of a 1-year rotation of green manure, soybean, and spring cereal. The seed was planted soon after the soil thawed following the winter freeze. Fields were cultivated by disking after the cereal harvest.Crowns/stem bases were washed with running tap water to remove soil particles that adhered to the surface and placed on paper towels for drying (Figure 1). Crown and stem base tissues showing symptoms of discoloration were sectioned into pieces (approx. 1-2 cm in length); surface disinfested in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3 min, rinsed three times in sterile distilled water, and plated to Potato Dextrose Agar (Shikur Gebremariam et al. 2018). Cultures were incubated under alternating 12 h of light at 25 °C and darkness at 20 °C for 7 days under cool white and black fluorescent lights (Leslie and Summerell 2006). Cultures were transferred to Spezieller Nährstoffarmer Agar (SNA) and kept for 10-14 days to initiate spore formation. Once spores were formed, conidial suspensions were made in sterile distilled water and transferred to water agar (WA) for single spore isolation (Shikur Gebremariam et al. 2018). H. avenae cysts were extracted according to Cobb's decanting and sieving method (Cobb 1918) and by using the Fenwick Can technique (Fenwick 1940). Cysts were collected and surface sterilized with 0.5% NaOCl for 10 min and rinsed several times in distilled water. The cysts were kept in a refrigerator at 4°C for 4 months before being transferred to room temperature (10-15°C) to induce hatching. The freshly hatched second-stage juveniles (J2) were then used as inoculum in screening tests.Soils were washed on nested sieves with 850 µm and 250 µm mesh sizes to free cysts from the root system.Cysts from both root and soil extractions were collected on the 250-µm sieve and counted under a stereomicroscope (Cobb 1918). In a further internship, the molecular properties of the isolates will be described using species-specific primers and sequence analysis of the ITS and GPDH loci of genomic DNA.  For nematodes, methods were taught to extract nematodes from soil using various techniques (Cobb decantation and sieving method, use of the Fenwick Can method, and in vitro preparation for nematodes on carrot disks according to Moody et al. (1973)).In recent years, crown rot has occurred in many wheat-growing areas of China and became a serious issue in the wheat industry (Xu et al. 2018). In China, crown rot of wheat is mainly caused by F. asiaticum, F. graminearum, and F. pseudograminearum, (Deng et al. 2020;Zhang et al. 2015). The yield loss of wheat caused by crown rot and the affected yield components have been assessed. Considering the differences in pathogen species, disease severity, wheat cultivars, environmental and climatic conditions, the yield loss and affected yield components differ between regions and over years (Smiley et al. 2005). An important characteristic of the Fusarium species associated with wheat diseases is that they produce a range of mycotoxins that accumulate in crops and threaten the health of humans and animals (Nelson et al. 1994).Among the mycotoxins, type B trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol (DON), the acetylated derivatives of DON (e.g., 3-ADON and 15-ADON) and nivalenol (NIV), are commonly found in cereal grains and products (Champei et al. 2004;Foroud et al. 2009). DON is a virulence factor and plays an important role in disease development when wheat is infected by Fusarium species (Bai et al. 2001;Mudge et al. 2006). The maximum tolerable limits of DON in cereals and cereal-derived products have been set in different regions and countries. In China, the government has set the maximum tolerable limits for DON in cereals and their products to 1.000 μg/kg. The toxic effects of NIV, including immunotoxicity and hematotoxicity, have been determined (Dewa et al. 2011;Kubosaki et al. 2008).Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat causes trichothecene contamination in wheat grain (Foroud et al. 2009). However, whether crown rot of wheat, which is also caused by Fusarium species, will expose such a risk of trichothecene contamination in wheat grains should be clarified.In Jiangsu province of China, the first massive occurrence of crown rot of wheat was observed in the coastal area of Lianyungang City around 2014, and since then, this area has been infested with the disease in successive years and became a typical place of crown rot occurrence in wheat (Deng et al. 2020). By using the samples collected from commercial fields in this area, this study aimed to investigate the influence of crown rot on yield components and trichothecene accumulation in wheat grains.In 2017, 250 spikes from disease-free wheat tillers and 250 spikes from crown rot symptomatic wheat tillers (with white head and crown stem base) were collected from a commercial field in Lianyun District, Lianyungang City of Jiangsu Province, which is near the China's Yellow Sea coast. The wheat cultivar was Yannong 19. The incidence of crown rot-diseased tillers was approximately 18%, and the incidence of tillers with FHB was less than 0.5%. In 2018, 250 spikes from healthy wheat tillers, 250 spikes from wheat tillers with crown rot symptoms, and 100 spikes with FHB symptoms were collected from the same field as in 2017, where the wheat cultivar was Lianmai 7, the incidence of crown rot was approximately 11%, and the incidence of FHB was approximately 1.2%. In both years, the samples were collected at GS 87 (hard dough stage) on the Zadoks scale (Zadoks et al. 1974).Each spike was individually threshed, and its grains were placed into a paper envelope. All the envelopes containing wheat grains were placed in an oven at 60°C for approximately 24 h until constant weight was obtained. The grains were counted and weighed. The difference significance of the yield per spike, grain number per spike, and kernel weight between disease-free and crown rot-diseased wheat were analyzed using two-sample t-test in DPS V 15.10 (Science Press, Beijing, China).The aggressive F. asiaticum isolate CF0915 and wheat cultivar Yangmai 158 were used in artificial infection experiments. The surface-disinfected wheat seeds were germinated for 2 days at 25°C in Petri dishes. For inoculation treatment, the newly germinated seedlings were immersed in the spore suspension with 10 5 conidia per ml for 1 min (Li et al. 2008). For the control, the newly germinated seedlings were immersed in sterile water for 1 min. Five seedlings were planted in a pot 12 cm in diameter containing autoclaved soil. Three replicates, each containing 12 pots, were used. When the wheat grew to GS 87, the incidence of white head was investigated. The spikes from crown rot symptomatic tillers (with white head and crown stem base) in inoculation treatment and from healthy tillers in the control group were collected and threshed. The grains were dried as described above. For the field samples of each cultivar, the grains from the spikes in the same grade were mixed together and ground using a grinder (CT293 CyclotecTM, FOSS Analytical Co., Ltd., Denmark). Trichothecenes were extracted from the wheat flour and purified as previously described (Zhang et al. 2015). The concentration of DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON, and NIV was analyzed using an LC-MS/MS system equipped with the Agilent 1290 UHPLC, AB Sciex 6500 Qtrap. Three replicates were employed for each sample. The difference significance of trichothecene concentrations between samples was analyzed using one-way ANOVA in DPS V 15.10.For the cultivar Yannong 19 investigated in 2017, the grain number per spike of crown rot-diseased tillers was not significantly different from that of disease-free tillers, but the kernel weight and yield per spike of diseased tillers was significantly lower than that of disease-free tillers (P < 0.05, Table 1). The same performance was observed from the cultivar Lianmai 7, which was investigated in 2018 (Table 1). Therefore, in the experimental field, crown rot will decrease the yield per spike of wheat, and the key affected yield component is kernel weight. For Yannong 19, the DON concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers ranged from 50 μg/kg to 61 μg/kg and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers ranged from 97 μg/kg to 166 μg/kg (Fig. 1 A). For Lianmai 7, the DON concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers was 77-133 μg/kg and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers was 223-270 μg/kg. Although the DON concentrations in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers of the two cultivars were higher than those from disease-free tillers, they were still far lower than 1.000 μg/kg, which is the standard limit of China.For Yannong 19, the 3-ADON concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers ranged from 16 μg/kg to 19 μg/kg and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers ranged from 14 μg/kg to 16 μg/kg; the 15-ADON concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers ranged from 18 μg/kg to 24 μg/kg and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers ranged from 17 μg/kg to 22 μg/kg. For Lianmai 7, trace or no 3-ADON and 15-ADON was detected in the grains from disease-free and crown rot-diseased tillers.For Yannong 19, the NIV concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers ranged from 13 μg/kg to 14 μg/ kg and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers ranged from 39 μg/kg to 318 μg/kg. For Lianmai 7, the NIV concentration in the grains from disease-free tillers was 10-13 μg/kg, and that in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers was 213-373 μg/kg. For both cultivars, the NIV concentration in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers was much higher than those from disease-free tillers.The concentrations of DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON, and NIV in the grains from FHB-diseased tillers were 17.733, 400, 167, and 5.600 μg/kg, respectively, which were many times higher than those in the grains from crown rot-diseased tillers.The concentrations of DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON, and NIV in the grains from tillers with crown rot in the artificial inoculation treatment were 90, 3, 0, and 10 μg/kg respectively, which were close to those in the grains from disease-free tillers in the control, and no significant difference was observed between the inoculation treatment and the control (P > 0.05, Fig. 3).In this study, for two consecutive years, wheat samples collected from a commercial field in the coastal area of Lianyungang City, China were used to investigate the influence of crown rot of wheat on yield components and trichothecene accumulation in wheat grains.Results show that the yield per spike of wheat was reduced by crown rot, and the root of the reduction lay in the reduced kernel weight rather than the grain number per spike. Therefore, at the sampling site, the crucial period when yield was affected might be grain filling stage. Crown rot of wheat causes the xylem and phloem tissues to be colonized by hyphae 16 weeks after planting (Knight et al. 2016). Moreover, it was also found in our previous observation that, at grain filling stage, the roots of the crown rot-diseased wheat were easily torn away from the stems. Therefore, we infer that crown rot weakens the water conveyance system of wheat. Grain filling stage is the most critical period for water requirement (Liao et al. 2008), and the drought stress during this stage will lead to the decline in grain yield (Lu et al. 2020). We assume that, as a result of the conflict between the high requirement for water and the reduced capacity in water absorption and transportation, the symptoms of premature senescence such as white-head and reduced kernel weight become inevitable when wheat was infected with crown rot.Several previous studies had explored the mycotoxin contamination in wheat with crown rot. Mudge The present study showed that naturally infected crown rot would lead to increased DON concentration in wheat grains, but the rise was relatively moderate, and the level of DON was in a safe range. In addition, trace or no derivatives of DON  were detected in the grains. Therefore, the risk of wheat grains being contaminated by DON caused by crown rot is small, which is consistent with previous finding (Fan et al., 2021). However, for NIV, different situations were observed. In comparison with heathy wheat, much more NIV accumulated in the grains of diseased wheat.At the experimental location, crown rot and FHB of wheat were caused by almost the same pathogens, namely, Fusarium asiaticum and Fusarium graminearum, except that crown rot was partially caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum (Deng et al. 2020;Shen et al. 2012). Even so, for the samples collected from the same field, the DON and NIV concentrations in the grains from FHB-diseased tillers were approximately 86 and 23 times of that from crown rot-diseased tillers, respectively.Notably, in the present study, the concentration of trichothecenes in the grains of naturally infected wheat was higher than that in artificially infected, which was identical with the result of Fan et al. (2021). Fan et al. speculated that the higher level of trichothecenes in the grains of naturally infected wheat might have resulted from the stimulation of mycotoxin production by sublethal dosage of fungicide. It may be a rational explanation, but more detailed and reliable evidence is needed to support this opinion.Moreover, in the present and previous studies (Fan et al. 2021, Mudge et al. 2006), from the grains of wheat without any symptoms in infected field and in the control in inoculation experiment, a certain amount of trichothecenes was detected. Further research should be carried out to explore the origin of the trichothecenes.This study was financially supported by the funding earmarked for the China Agricultural Research System (CARS-3-1-17). We thank the technicians and the students who helped in sample collection and preparation. Soilborne pathogens associated with cereals cause significant yield losses throughout the world (Cook 1992). The dryland root rots (foot rot, crown rot) caused by Fusarium culmorum, and F. pseudograminearum (formerly F. graminearum Group 1) are important diseases of cereals around the globe and occur especially under drought conditions in rainfed and wheat monoculture systems. Crown rot (CR), caused by F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum, is one of the most destructive diseases of wheat throughout the world. It has been reported in West Asia, North Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco), the USA, Canada, Australia, and Türkiye (Smiley et al. 2005;Tunali et al. 2008;Chakraborty et al. 2010). Yield losses due to this disease have been recorded up to 35% in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) region of the USA (Smiley et al. 2005) and 25-58% in Australia (Chakraborty et al. 2010). The most important sign of the disease is the browning of the roots, crowns, and stems of the infected plants. Honey brown necrosis can be observed on the leaf sheaths, crowns, and sub-crown internode parts of the plants. Pink-colored hyphal growth can also be seen in plant parts under humid conditions. The disease can also be distinguished in adult plants by the presence of whiteheads (Burgess 2001). Plant infection can occur at all developmental stages starting from germinating seeds to vegetative tissues (Navi and Yang 2008). Drought-stressed plants are more prone to be affected especially during anthesis (Liddell et al. 1986) Many of these germplasms have been identified as promising for resistance to SBPs (Erginbas- Orakci et al. 2013;Erginbas-Orakci et al. 2018). Recent research within the SBP program of CIMMYT has focused on germplasm screening, the potential of this germplasm as a source of resistance, and how to incorporate the new sources of resistance into breeding programs. One of the subtitles in this program is dedicated to CR resistance due to its impact on agricultural productivity. Screening of germplasm, yielded a number of resistant sources, which were reported in the following studies. In these studies, a number of new sources of resistance, and previously unreported QTLs have been identified through association mapping (Table 1). The new sources of resistance to the CR may be useful for selecting parents and deploying resistance into elite germplasm adapted to regions where it is a problem (Dababat et al. 2018). This review reports the QTLs associated with of the most destructive SBPs, CR, in wheat identified by the SBPs program.Fusarium crown rot (CR) is one of the most destructive soil-borne pathogens worldwide for the wheat.Efforts to control CR are numerous, while finding resistance is a must follow approach. There have been several studies reporting resistance resources against CR. For this purpose, Erginbas- Orakci et al. (2018) evaluated a total of 126 spring bread wheat accessions for CR resistance, which were classified into three groups (resistant to susceptible) according to their CR resistant reactions under growth room, greenhouse, and field conditions. Erginbas- Integrated management such as the combination of biological control, rotation, resistant germplasm, and deployment of QTLs and chemicals are the major strategies to control soil-borne diseases. There have been significant efforts to improve plants' performance against pathogens, however, there is no complete success due to ever-changing and evolving pathogens. Therefore, there is a continuous need for tools and novel approaches to control these diseases. Even though pesticides are the most common and straight forward method to control soil-borne pathogens, one of the environmentally safest ways is the selection or breeding of tolerant or resistant genotypes. Tools of genetics allow us to screen large numbers of germplasm, cultivated varieties, and wild relatives of crops for the mining of novel alleles of the target disease resistance. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) and Genome Wide Association (GWAS) are two recent approaches that are utilized for the allele mining of such traits. Discovery and utilization of a resistance gene against CR would therefore be the environmentally safest and most sustainable approach. With this objective in mind, we have been screening a large pool of accessions against CR. Our results revealed that pyramiding two or more QTLs would enhance the performance of resistance (Pariyar et al. 2016). The main focus of the SBPs program is to find new sources of resistance in wheat germplasm and associated QTLs for resistance associated with SBPs. The QTL and marker-trait associations are quite valuable. However, most of them are neither validated nor utilized in breeding programs. There are plenty of results available on QTLs but most of them are still not validated. After validation, the newly identified resistant sources/genotypes could be exploited by breeders to be incorporated into breeding programs. Therefore, identification of marker trait associations or QTLs solves only part of the puzzle. These QTL would have to be validated, gene associated and utilized in the wheat breeding worldwide. and root rot (common root rot), restricting wheat production (Misra 1973;Aktaş and Bora 1981;Duveiller and Garcia Altamirano 2000).It is reported that B. sorokiniana is one of the most important disease factors in many regions as a factor of leaf spot and root rot in barley and wheat cultivation areas in the world. The agent is common in temperate and subtropical areas all over the world and causes significant economic losses (Nelson and Klime 1962;Duveiller et al. 1998;Saari 1998). It is reported by researchers that if the disease is found in wheat fields, it causes losses from 15% to 100% in wheat production (Mehta 1994;Saari 1998).In the area of wheat and barley grown in different climate regions in Türkiye a number of different outcomes about the epidemiology and disease severity have been reported, B. sorokiniana about the epidemiology and disease severity with different rates have been reported. Aktaş and Bora (1981)   (Eken and Demirci 1998).In a study by Berbee et al (1999) to determine the phylogenetic distribution of virulent plant pathogens within the genus Cochliobolus, 65 species and isolates belonging to this genus, partial gene sequences, 54species and isolate and gpd (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) used the full gene sequence and investigated genetic differences between the species in this genus.Accordingly, in the results of genetic difference analysis based on gene sequences in which many plant pathogenic species including C. sativus are included in Cochliobolus Group 1, 1.7% difference between the species in the ITS and 5.8S regions and 5.1% in the gpd gene region were been reported.The main objectives of this study are confirmation of Bipolaris sorokiniana isolates identified by speciesspecific PCR conditions and comparing of genetic variability based on ITS region included 5.8S of these isolates from wheat roots in different agro-ecological region of Türkiye.Bipolaris sorokiniana isolates from wheat roots different agro-ecology of Türkiye were stored in -80 o C refrigerator within 15% glycerol vials in Plant Mycology Laboratory of Agriculture Faculty of Ondokuz Mayıs University. These were refreshed on 9cm petri dishes include Potato Dextose Agar and morphologically confirmed as B. sorokiniana species by Ellis (1971).The single spore isolates of Bipolaris sorokiniana were developed on PDA, developing mycelia were collected with a spatula and taken into vials. Mycelium samples were lyophilized with an air vacuum freeze dryer (LABCONCO®)device. The mycelia mass, whose water was change blown away to evaporated blown away and frozen, was PCR was carried out in a total volume of 25 µl with 10 ng genomic DNA content. The reaction mixture was adjusted to be 1.6 mM dNTP mixture, 0.2 mM (COSA_F / R: 5'-TCAAGCTGACCAAATCACCTTC -3 '/ 5'-TCTCACCAGCATCTGAATATGA -3') and 1U Taq polymerase for each primer. In addition, the reaction solution (10X) was prepared by mixing with 75 mM TrisHCl, 20 mM (NH 4 ) 2SO 4 and 3 mM MgCl 2 (Matusinsky et al., 2010). The annealing temperature was set at 66°C for the first 5 cycles, 64°C for the next 5 cycles, and 62°C for the remaining 30 cycles. While the annealing time was 20 seconds for each cycle, it was determined as 95°C 30 seconds for the first denaturation and 45 seconds for the extension (72°C). In the last extension step, 72°C 5 min. samples were left to cool at 10°C. The PCR products obtained were visualized with 2.5% agarose gel electrophoresis and recorded with the imaging device (BIORAD GEL DOC®).Genomic DNA from B. sorokiniana isolates was amplified using universal primers from fungi designed to amplify ITS1 and ITS2 regions (White et al. 1990). PCR replications were performed with the ITS4 and ITS5primer pairs of the specified region (ITS4: 5'-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3 'and ITS5: 5'-GGA AGT AAA AGT CGT AAC AAG G-3'). PCR reactions were prepared in a total volume of 50 µl, by mixing 10 ng template DNA, 5 U / µl Taq polymerase, 50 mM, 2 mM dNTPs and 10 × buffer from each primer pair. PCR conditions were 30 cycles at 95 ° C, 30 seconds at 58 ° C and 1 minute at 72 ° C for a total of 25 cycles; It was applied as a final elongation of 10 minutes at 72 ° C (White et al, 1990). 5 µl of the PCR products obtained were visualized with 1.5% agarose gel electrophoresis, the remaining PCR products of the isolates showing approximately 450-500 bp band in the visualizations were purified with the help of the QIA quick PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN®).1 µl of the amount obtained was imaged again with the aid of 2.5% agarose gel, and each product belonging to the samples with clear and clear gel images was sent to the company where the reaction sequences prepared for ITS4 and ITS5 primer pairs will be taken.The sequences obtained were sorted and arranged using the Clustal method using Dnastar (Lasergene, Wisconsin, USA) and comparison and verification of the specified gene region of the isolates was made according to the GENEBANK database. All phylogenetic analyzes were performed using PAUP 4.0 b10, Unweighted parsimony analyzes were performed using heuristic options with 100 additional random sequences, individually tree bisection-reonnection (TBR) branching swapping. Kalde constant 1000 bootstrap was evaluated as repetitive. Alternaria alternata (KP131535) and B. spicifera (JN695636) as outgroups were used in phylogeny.Thirteen isolates of B. sorokininana were identified by morphology of this species on PDA. Except four isolates, totally eight isolates had performed by species-specific primer, COSA F/R, and had positive results.Additionally, all isolates of this species were sequenced by ITS region and amplified totally more than 500bp of this region (Table 1).A total of nine representative isolates as one or two isolates from wheat plants in each agro-ecological zones of Türkiye and two different species from this species were used for the phylogenetic tree and two main branches included one isolate in a branch and eight isolates in other were obtained by phylogeny of B. sorokiniana.The demand for biofertilizers and biocontrol agents is expected to grow to meet the need for the plantbased foods like wheat. The genus Trichoderma includes several species that are soil borne fungi with mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species. Some species of this fungus have well known antimicrobial and insecticidal activities. Several species of Trichoderma were reported to have nematicidal activities (Dababat and Sikora 2006, Jindapunnapat et al. 2013, Naserinasab et al. 2011, Pandey et al. 2003, Sharon et al. 2007). Some strains of Trichoderma species were found to be potential biofertilizers (Mahato et al. 2018, Mastouri et al. 2010, Windham et al. 1989). Information on new beneficial traits in biofertilizer and biocontrol strains of species of Trichoderma such as the application method and time of application are of great importance. Soil drenching, pre or post planting, is the most published method of application of Trichoderma. On the other hand, pre-sowing seed treatment with a pesticide is a well-established practice for most agricultural crops. This treatment is widely practiced to protect the crop from seed and soil-borne diseases. In this context we aimed in this study to evaluate pre-sowing wheat seed treatment with a local Jordanian isolate of the fungus T. viride-Jo to enhance growth and suppress root knot nematode (RKN), M. javanica.The RKN was isolated from infested roots of cucumber grown in uplands area in Jordan. The isolate was identified as M. javanica based on morphological characters (Hartman and Sasser 1985, Jepson 1987, Nickle 1991). Egg masses were handpicked and used as the nematode inocula in the different assays. A local isolate of the fungus T. viride-Jo recovered from the fungal growth on the trunk of a date palm tree grown in an orchard in Wadi Al-Rayyan/Jordan Valley was used in this study. The fungus T. viride was characterized morphologically, enzymatically, and molecularly (Abu Zahra unpublished). This fungus also showed some insecticidal and fungicidal activities (Abu Zahra unpublished).The efficacy of the fungus T. viride on hatching of second stage juveniles (J2s) of M. javanica was evaluated in vitro. A disc of T. viride was excised from a pure culture petri dish and placed on a new potato dextrose agar (PDA) petri dish. A total of three eggmasses of the RKN M. javanica were placed around the fungal disc.PDA petri dishes having only RKN eggmasses or fungal discs served as check controls. Each treatment was replicated three times. Petri dishes were checked periodically to monitor the growth of the fungus and the hatched J2s of the RKN (M. javanica). Numbers of hatched J2s were recorded after one week.A growth chamber experiment was conducted on 12 cm open tubes to investigate the pre-sowing seed treatment with the fungus T. viride. The spore suspension of the studied strain of Trichoderma spp. was prepared following the method described by Xue et al. (2017). A 10-day old pure culture of T. viride-Jo grown on PDA was washed with sterile distilled water containing 0.01% Tween 20, then the conidia were dislodged by scrapping using a sterile microscope slide. Finally, the scraped conidia were filtered through two layers of cheesecloth.The concentration of the resulting conidia suspensions was determined using a haemocytometer. Wheat seeds of the cultivar Acsad 65 were treated with a conidia suspension of T. viride strain containing 10 7 conidia/ ml at the rate of 5.0 ml/ kg seeds (Xue et al. 2017). Seeds were treated with the fungal conidia suspension in The In vitro assay showed that hatching of J2s of RKN M. javanica was greatly reduced (80%) when egg masses were exposed to the fungus T. viride compared to non-exposed egg masses. Moreover, the exposed eggs had many vacuoles while the control eggs did not have vacuoles and mostly, they hatched.Pre -sowing seed treatment of wheat with T. viride-Jo resulted in enhancing the growth of the feeder roots compared to the untreated seeds; however, it did not enhance the plant height and foliage weight over the control (Table 1). Mahato et al. (2018) showed that the soil drenching with T. viride (2x10 7 conidia/ml) enhanced some wheat plant parameters (plant height, root weight, leaf length, panicle weight, number of grains, grain yield, biological yield, and biomass yield) and had negative effects on other parameters (root length, number of leaves, tiller number, panicle number, panicle length). However, they found that the wheat growth and yield parameter showed the highest value when this fungus and NPK fertilizers were accompanied with farmyard manure.The wheat seeds that were inoculated with 5 egg masses of the RKN M. javaica did not succeed to reach the seedling stage and both seeds and roots were deteriorated. It is well known that high initial population of RKN can kill its host plants, especially when these plants have small roots. Interestingly, when wheat seeds were treated with the fungus T. viride before sowing and inoculated with RKN they succeeded to the seedlings stage and roots had few galls (Table 1). Previous reports indicated that the soil drenching with the fungus T. viride reduced root galling of many crops (Dababat andSikora 2006, Pandey et al. 2003). Up to our knowledge, this is the first report of investigating the efficacy of pre-sowing wheat seed treatment with the conidia of Trichoderma to suppress the effect of RKN. Xue et al. (2017) reported that seed treatment of spring wheat with a novel strain of T. harzianum significantly improved emergence, dry weight, yield of wheat, and reduced root rot severity.Our findings are preliminary and more laboratory experiments are needed to optimize the process of using pre-sowing seed treatment with T. viride. Further field trials have to be done to confirm the results of our laboratory and growth chamber experiments and to prove that this isolate of T. viride can be used as a biocontrol agent and as a biofertilizer. F. culmorum had negative effects on most of studied parameters. The AUDPC standard parameter showed that 14 out of 25 genotypes were found to be tolerant, four moderately susceptible and seven were highly susceptible. Using the three colonized grains assay at the seedling stage, only four genotypes were found to have moderate tolerant against FCR, while seven genotypes had moderate tolerant when the colonized grains soil mix assay was used. Results of the genotypes reaction under natural infected field identified a wide range of variability and effect of Fusarium on agronomic traits at adult stage that varied among genotypes. Out of the nine genotypes tested including the two checks, two genotypes were found to be moderately tolerant and Fusarium infection had a little effect on agronomic traits especially on total kernel weight (TKW). The reaction of these two genotypes were semi-consistent at the three stages (germination stage, seedling, and adult). Therefore, these two genotypes could be utilized to develop new FCR-resistant genotypes in durum wheat breeding programs and for the mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with FCR resistance. Rice root knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola is a significant pathogen of rice and has spread in South and South East Asia. M. graminicola has been equally distributed in different rice cultivated regions of the globe (Fig. 1A) (Bridge et al. 2005). This nematode causes typical hook-like galls at the tip of the roots, chlorosis and lowers the number of tillers and eventually prompts stunted development, empty panicles and low paddy yield (Rahman and Taylor, 1983). Root knot nematode M. graminicola is predominant in the United States, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Thailand (Yik and Birchfield 1977). In Pakistan, M. graminicola was first time found to be associated with rice roots from Sheikhupura in 2003 (Munir et al. 2003). Recently, it was reported in Pakistan as an emerging threat to rice and wheat cultivation because if effects both these crops (Jabbar et al. 2015;2021). The consequences of the prevalence of this nematode could be more amplifying in the regions where wheat is sown after rice i.e. rice-wheat cropping pattern. Wheat is the staple food for the people of Pakistan and the national food security program is largely dependent on wheat production (Ali et al. 2015). Similarly, rice is one of the main agricultural commodities which are not only highly consumed at the national level but also exported to earn substantial foreign exchange. By keeping the importance and impact of these crops in national scenario, the emerging challenge of M. graminicola must be addressed by studying its prevalence, distribution and investigation of resistance level of local rice and wheat germplasm.Three districts in the central Punjab, Pakistan namely Faisalabad, Hafizabad and Sheikhupura which particularly follow wheat-rice cropping pattern were surveyed for the distribution and prevalence of M. graminicola in rice. of Agriculture Faisalabad for further processing. Additionally, the root samples of some weeds and sorghum showing hook-like galls were also collected. Roots were washed gently with running water to remove soil and plant debris. Identification of M. graminicola was carried out on the basis of perineal pattern of female nematodes (Chitwood 1949;Taylor et al. 1955). Nematode prevalence was determined by using following formula according to Norton 1978. The locations are marked on the map of these 3 districts by using latitude-longitude coordinates. On the map given in Fig. 1C, the green arrows point the location with no incidence of M. graminicola whereas the red arrows demonstrate the coordinates of locations with nematode infection. The prevalence results from the survey of these 3 districts revealed the distribution of M. graminicola in all the districts. The percentage prevalence was maximum in Hafizabad district (35.71%) followed by Faisalabad (29%) and Sheikhupura (21.43%) (Fig. 1D). Recently, in the districts of Chiniot and Faisalabad, we have reported 20 and 27.5%prevalence respectively and these results were supported by molecular identification of M. graminicola (Jabbar et al. 2021).Resistant cultivars could be an important intervention to manage rice root-knot nematodes in rice and wheat. Sixty rice germplasm accessions were assessed for resistance to M. graminicola using However, rest of the rice accessions were tending toward the susceptible range. It was reported that all rice cultivars of Nepal are vulnerable to M. graminicola and insert a constant yield loss danger in rice nurseries and fields (Pokharel et al. 2007). Soriano et al. (2000) and Rao (1985) reported that few IRRI varieties are found to be resistant to M. graminicola and proper management with the help of non-host crop rotation significantly decreases its population. Very strong negative correlation was observed between number of galls and grain yield per plant (Fig. 3D). This obviously suggests that increasing number of galls will lead to reduced grain weight in rice.The wheat germplasm used for resistance study against M. graminicola did not demonstrate substantial diversity that is quite obvious from radar and bar diagrams given in Fig. 3 E   Cereals are one of the most important sources of food for humans in the world. Wheat, corn, and rice have a large share of the annual cultivated area (about 58%) among cereals and also supply about 50% of the calorie's humans need. The world's population will reach 8 billion people by 2030, and the food need for cereals will increase with the growing world population (Fischer et al., 2009). Wheat is known as the most important strategic product in Iran. The cultivated area of 4.5 million hectares and the production amount of 13.3 million tons is reported in the crop year 2017-2018. Khuzestan province ranks first and second in Iran regarding production and cultivated area, respectively (Ahmadi et al., 2019).Cereal cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.) and root lesion nematodes, P. neglectus and P. thornei are widely distributed in cereal fields in Khuzestan Province southwestern part of Iran. The findings show that root lesion nematodes in 38% of wheat fields in Omidiyeh, Andimeshk, Ahvaz, Baghmalek, Behbahan, Dezful, Ramshir, Ramhormoz, Shadeghan, Shush, Shushtar, Gotvand, Lali, Masjed Soleyman and Hoveyzeh. The average population density in these areas was determined (1-365) 39 nematodes/ gram of root and (1-1334) 101 nematodes /250 cm 3 of soil (Ahmadi et al., 2015). The common species of root lesion nematodes in addition to causing direct damage to wheat plants, provide a suitable conditions for the activity of other fungal pathogens involved in root rot. One of the most important management methods to control these nematodes is the use of resistant and tolerant wheat cultivars.For this purpose, initial works were started in Khuzestan province. The goals of this study were to investigate the response of wheat cultivars and lines to root lesion nematodes to obtain adequate information on management methods to prevent yield reduction.Seeds preparation and cultivation of wheat genotypes: In this research, 53 wheat cultivars and lines from Khuzestan province (Table 1) were prepared along with GS50a and Warigal as the relatively resistant and susceptible control lines for P. thornei respectively, while VP5053 and Trident were included as relatively resistant and susceptible control lines respectively for P. neglectus. After preparing the required seeds, they were treated with 2% sodium hypochlorite solution and sterilized 2 times at 5 minutes intervals in distilled water. Their germination was done on moist paper in a petri dish, and germinated wheat seeds were planted inside polyethylene pipes 3 cm in diameter. These pipes contained sterile soil composed of one part sand, 29 parts farm soil, and 70 parts organic matter.Soil and root samples containing root lesion nematodes were collected from the wheat fields. The gravid females of P. neglectus and P. thornei extracted from the samples were then cultured on carrot discs (Muddy et al., 1973). After successfully propagation the nematodes were extracted and used as inoculum for the experiments.Inoculum procedures: One week after planting the seeds, each of the experimental units in 7 repetitions was inoculated with one ml of a suspension contained 400 of different developmental stages of RLN, either P. neglectus or P. thornei. This experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design in 7 replications maintained 9 weeks at greenhouse conditions at a temperature of 25 C with alternating of 12 hours of light and darkness.The plants were removed from the soil after 9 weeks of inoculation. Then, the nematodes from root and soil were isolated using the tray method. Counting the nematode population in soil and roots was done three times separately for two species in a volume of one ml using microscopic slides.Calculating nematode reproduction factor (Rf) and data analysis: Reproduction factor was calculated for all the cultivars and lines by the final nematode population (Pf) which consists of the sum of nematodes in the soil and root for each line/cultivar divided by the initial population (Pi=400).This experiment was repeated twice. Finally, the tested lines and cultivars were statistically grouped (Toktay et al., 2015).The results showed that 11, 10, and 32 cultivars and lines of wheat were susceptible, moderately resistant, and resistant to P. thornei, respectively. The wheat cultivar Dena and S-78-11 and SS-85-20 lines had the lowest Rf and the highest Rf was observed in the susceptible control cultivar (Warigal) and Chamran with 5.3 and 6.6 respectively. Also, there were similar results for P. neglectus species, 3, 10, and 40 cultivars and wheat lines showed susceptible, moderately resistant, and resistant reactions to this species, respectively.The D-84- Twenty-three wheat cultivars and lines had different responses to both species, so that their response was susceptible to one species and resistant to the other. For example, the Chamran cultivar was susceptible to P. thornei and resistant to P. neglectus. The response of the Sarang variety, S-83-3 and SD-84-10 lines, was moderately resistant, and the Yavarous cultivar was susceptible to both species (Table 1). were resistant to both nematode species, which was consistent with the results of the present study (Fayazi et al. 2012). In the present study, there were differences in the response of 23 tested wheat cultivars and lines to P. thornei and P. neglectus species, which were similar to the research conducted in Morocco in the response of 25 wheat lines to Hererodera avenae and P. penetrans (Mokrini et al. 2015) and in Türkiye in the response of 74 cultivars of commercial wheat and wild Emmers to P. thornei and P. neglectus species (Toktay et al. 2015). The results of this research provide promising prospects for utilizing these sources of resistance in wheat improving program in future.Whitehead AG, Hemming JR (1965) Comparison of some quantitative methods of extracting small vermiform nematodes from soil. Annals of Applied Biology, 55, 25-38.Wheat is one of the most important food products required for human nutrition in the world. However, wheat production is adversely affected by many biotic and abiotic factors. Among the fungal diseases in wheat, Bipolaris sorokiniana (teleomorph: Cochliobolus sativus) is an economically important fungal pathogen causing spot blotch and common root rot on wheat plants, especially in winter wheat varieties.The pathogen affects seed, seedlings, roots, leaves, leaf sheath, and spike and causing serious losses in yield and quality of wheat under favorable conditions. The use of resistant varieties is considered the most beneficial and eco-friendly for managing spot blotch disease, although the pathogen can be controlled using several management strategies. This study evaluated host sensitivity of 55 wheat cultivars, widely grown in Türkiye against B. sorokiniana. Plants were spray inoculated with spore suspension of 1×10 4 conidia/mL until run-off. Disease severity of wheat plants was evaluated using a 1-9 scale 12 days after inoculation. The results revealed significant differences among the responses of wheat cultivars to the pathogen. The cultivars Anafarta and Koç-2015 were the most resistant with disease index of 1.63, while the cultivar Kırik was found to be the most susceptible cultivar with disease index of 7.97, followed by the cultivars Lancer and Doğu-88. Disease index of the other cultivars varied from 2.17 to 7.5. The results indicated that resistant wheat cultivars could serve as useful sources of genetic resistance in breeding studies for Bipolaris sorokiniana.In Morocco, wheat is the most consumed cereal, its consumption is estimated at 258 kg/year/person. Fungal diseases are one of the most important constraints for its production. Among them, fusariosis, which affects the yields but also the sanitary quality of the harvest by the presence of toxins in the grains. This disease causes damage and significant yield losses of up to 89% (Ma et al. ,2012).In order to reduce the impact of this disease, various control methods have been advocated, but biological control remains the most environmentally friendly. Thus, the essentials can act by inhibiting spore germination, mycelium elongation, sporulation and toxin production (Chami, 2005). An isolate of Fusarium culmorum that has shown its virulence was chosen for the control tests. It was isolated from infected wheat crown and root samples.The extraction of the essential oil was carried out by following the technique of hydro distillation which is ensured thanks to an apparatus of the Clevenger type during 2 hours. Water and oil are separated by density difference. The essential oil obtained is kept at 4°C and in the dark. The yield of essential oil is determined in relation to the initial green matter.The antifungal activity of the essential oil of O. compactum and Salvia officinalis was evaluated according to the method reported by Adjou et al. 2012.To the PDA medium, different initial concentrations (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1 µl/ml) and (0.8, 1, 1.5, 3 µl/ml) of essential oil of O. compactum and S. officinalis respectively were added with 2% Tween 80. Discs of 5mm diameter taken from the culture of a Fusarium isolate were deposited on the medium containing the EO. Controls containing only the PDA medium were also seeded in the same manner.Three replicates were made of each concentration for the three isolates and then the set of replicate plates were incubated at 25°C and in the dark for 7 days.The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is relative to the concentration of the essential oil that inhibited the growth of the fungus. In order to determine the MIC of O.majorana and S. officinalis, PDA culture media at different concentrations were prepared and harvested in petri dishes. The dishes were submerged and incubated at 25°C for 7 days.The PICD is calculated according to the formula developed by Chang et al. in 1999 Gas chromatographic analyses were performed using a Perkin-Elmer autosystem GC apparatus, equipped with a splitter injector, two columns (50 x 0.22mm i.d. film thickness: 0.25 μm), apolar (BP-1, polymethylsiloxane) and polar (BP-20, polyethylene glycol) and two flame ionization detectors. The amount of sample injected was 0.5 µL from a solution containing 50 µL of mixture (essential oil or hydrolate extract or microwave extract or chromatography fraction) in 350 µL of CCl4Biological control with O. majorana essential oilThe evaluation of the percentage of inhibition for the Fusarium culmorum isolate is shown in Figure 1. It is noted that the degree of effectiveness of the essential oil of O. majorana on mycelial growth increases as the concentration of the essential oil increases (Fig. 1and Photo 1)The study of the mycelial growth of the tested isolate of Fusarium culmorum in the presence of the essential oil of Salvia officinalis, shows a decrease of the mycelial growth synchronized with the increase of the oil concentration.(Fig. 2 and Photo 2)These results clearly show that the 2 parameters studied (minimum inhibitory concentration, percentage inhibition of diametral growth) are strongly influenced by the addition of an extract rich in active substances in the cultureThe chromatographic analysis of the essential oil of Origanum majorana revealed the dominance of Terpinene-4-ol or 4-terpineol (28.62%), gamma-terpinene (12.87) and 4-carene (6.76). The antifungal effect may be due to its predominant compounds (thymol and/or carvacrol) and dominant (terpene-4-ol and sabinere hydrate) (Busta et Jetter 2018).(Fig. 3)Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) of the essential oil of Salvia officinalis has identified as major elements alpha-thujone (31.38%) and L-Camphor (15.13%). (Fig . 4)Other works have highlighted the inhibitory effect of an oxygenated monoterpene highly concentrated in the essential oil of sage (1,8-cineole) against pathogenic strains (Filipowic and al. 2003)Generally, the degree of antifungal activity is proportional to the concentration of the oil. In this study, the doses used were very effective in reducing the mycelial growth of the tested isolate.Normally, the diameters, speed and antifungal index of mycelial growth decrease each time the concentration of essential oil is increased until the total inhibition of the tested isolate, this is confirmed by  A : 0µl/ml, B : 0.4 µ /ml, C :0.6 µ/ml, D:1µ /ml, E :1.1µ/ml, F :2µ/ml, G :4µ/ml, H : 4.2µl/ml.   RLNs are internal parasites, polyphagous and migratory. FRCR, specially F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum, are the main agents of wheat root and crown rot in Iran. It was found that inoculation with both pathogens, RLNs and FRCR, increased the damage severity to wheat in all experiments. The disease severity was observed to be higher in treatments where both fungus and nematode were combined together. Increased symptoms of root rot indicated synergistic interaction between nematodes and fungi under studied, in their simultaneous and sequential inoculation. Therefore, a positive interaction between nematodes and fungi was proved and this finding was consistent with the report of Taheri et al. (1994). The greatest damage to the plant was observed with sequential inoculation of agents, nematode one week before the fungus, which can be attributed to biochemical and physiological changes caused by nematode activity and providing more nutrition suitable for fungal activity. Indeed, RLNs aggravated root rot and these symptoms were more severe in sequential inoculation (nematode one week before the fungus). Decreased nematode population in sequential inoculation of agents, fungus one week before nematode, can be due to secretion of antinematode chemicals by fungus and/or infected plant (Gommers 1981). The results of our study are consistent with the findings of other researchers (Chandel and Sharma 1989, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Hajihassani et al. 2013).In conclusion, it was shown that both FRCR and RLNs cause significant damage or yield loss in wheat fields, so it is important to consider both pathogens when designing integrated disease management (IDM). The crop rotation with non-host crops and use of resistant wheat varieties in field, can be very important and key methods in IDM program at areas where root rot diseases complex are present and cause yield losses. Entomopathogenic nematodes, belonging to the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis are soil organisms adapted to most climatic conditions in hot, temperate, and cold zones (Bhat et al. 2020, Steiner 1996, Stock et al. 1999). In nature, EPN are obligate parasites that attack wide range of soil insects (Kaya and Gaugler 1993). Currently several strains of EPN species are being used commercially to control insect pests because they are effective and environmentally safe to be used.In addition to its insecticidal effect, EPN are recorded to suppress plant parasitic nematodes including root knot nematodes (El Aimani et al. 2022, Bader 2013, Grewal et al. 1999, Perry et al. 1998, Smitley et al. 1992, Tsai and Yeh 1995). It is of great importance to use safely and friendly control means such as these EPN to suppress several pests (insects and nematodes). The EPN S. feltiae was recorded to control wheat pests such as wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctusow and fruit fly, Oscinella frit (Portman et al. 2016, Imperiali et al. 2017). The aim of this study was to investigate the suppressive effects of a Jordanian isolate of the entomopathogenic nematode S. feltiae on root knot nematodes, M. javanica attacking wheat.A Jordanian isolate of the EPN species, S. feltiae, was used in this study. This isolate was originally recovered from oak plantings in Malka, Irbid area (Stock et al. 2008). This isolate was reared on wax moths to maintain the EPN culture. The IJs of the studied EPN was recovered from infected insects by using white trap and the recovered IJs were collected and stored at 10-20 ºC (Orozco et al. 2014). Fresh IJs was used in this study.While the root knot nematode (RKN) was isolated from infested roots of cucumber grown in uplands area in Jordan. The isolate was identified as M. javanica based on morphological characters (Jepson 1987). Hatched second stage juveniles (J2s) and handpicked eggmasses were used as the nematode inocula in the different assays.In vitro experiment was conducted to investigate effect of the entomopathogenic nematode, S. feltiae, on penetration of J2s of the root knot nematode, M. javanica, on wheat roots grown on water agar. Seeds of the wheat cultivar Acsad 65 were surface sterilized using 1.5% sodium hypochlorite, and were seeded on 2.3% water agar. After three days of incubation, some root tips were either inoculated with only RKN M. javanica (100J2s, or three eggmasses), 100 IJs of the EPN S. feltiae and three eggmasses of M. javanica simultaneously, or 100 IJs of S. feltiae precede (3 days) 100 J2s of M. javanica. Each treatment was replicated five times. Each replicate was completely randomized in an incubator at 24 ºC. Roots were observed hourly for 8 hours, then every 24 hours up to one week when root galls were obvious.Growth chamber experiments were carried out to study the effect of time of EPN application on galling of wheat roots and on reproduction of RKN. Two wheat cultivars, Horani Nawawi and Acsad 65 were used in this study. One inoculum level, 200 IJs of EPN were added to the 12 cm open tube and five eggmasses/ pot of the RKN M. javanica was used. Both inocula, EPN and RKN, were applied as soil drenching to 12 cm open tubes filled with soil and planted with wheat seedlings. The EPN was applied either preceding RKN inoculation by one week or simultaneously with the RKN inoculation. Wheat plants alone or inoculated only with RKN served as check controls. Each treatment was replicated five times. Wheat tubes were maintained under optimum conditions and were checked periodically to monitor the growth of the wheat. Plants were harvested four weeks after RKN inoculation and plant parameters and root galling were scored.Our observation revealed that whenever IJs of EPN, S. feltiae stayed around the roots and roots tips, the J2s of the root knot nematode, M. javanica, were away from root tips and did not enter the roots in most cases and thus no galls were formed. Similar results were noticed by other researchers and they speculated that both EPN and its symbiotic bacteria repelled the J2s of RKN by producing toxins (Bader 2013, Bird and Bird 1986, Grewal et al. 1999, Perez and Lewis 2002). When EPN were absent, J2s of RKN reached root tips and penetrated the roots and eventually the root galls were formed in wheat cultivar. However, no or very few galls were found on all other treatments whether IJs of EPN were added preceding or at the same time of RKN inoculation.The growth chamber experiments showed that application of the 200 IJS of the Jordanian isolate of the EPN S. feltiae increased foliage and root growth of the two wheat cultivars even when plants were inoculated with RKN. Similarly, Bader (2013) and Hussaini et al. (2009) also reported that strains of EPN increased the root, shoot and yield weights of cucumber and tomato plants while, RKN decreased growth and yield of plants. This enhancement of plant parameters might be explained by EPN species that are associated with symbiont bacteria that may colonize plant roots and enhance plant growth.Results also showed that the application of the 200 IJS of the Jordanian isolate of EPN S. feltiae inhibited or reduced the galling of wheat roots. This inhibition or reduction varied with wheat cultivar and time of application whether IJs of EPN were added preceding or at the same time of RKN inoculation. Suppression of RKN effects on different crops by the use of EPN was reported from growth chambers, glasshouse, and field studies (Bader 2013, El Aimani et al. 2022, Grewal et al. 1997, Grewal et al. 1999, Hussaini et al. 2009, Ishibashi and Choi 1991, Lewis et al. 2001,). Fallon et al. (2002) conducted a greenhouse experiment and showed that the penetration of M. javanica was suppressed in soybean by S. feltiae. Lewis et al. (2001) demonstrated that S. feltiae reduced the number of galls in roots of tomato, egg production per plant, and egg hatch of M. incognita. Bader (2013) showed that both S. feltiae and H. bacteriophora suppressed penetration and egg production of both M. javanica and M. incognita in addition to the inhibition or reduction of root galling in cucumber.In conclusion, field experiments will be conducted to confirm laboratory and growth chamber findings.Further studies should be implemented on other wheat pests including cereal cyst nematode, root lesion nematodes, and insect pests to augment the efficacy of this Jordanian isolates of EPN and to be included as a component in wheat crop management. RNA isolation, cDNA synthesis and qRTPCR: Root of plants were sampled at 24 h, 48h and 8 day post treatments. Total RNA was extracted from samples using the TRIzol Reagent (Dena Zist Asia), and were treated with DNase I. Total RNA samples were used to synthesize first strand cDNA by manufacturer's instructions (cDNA synthesis, Takara kit).Real-time PCR was performed on QIAGEN's real-time PCR cycler, the Rotor-Gene Q. The forward and reverse primers for RT-PCR were designed from conserved domain of Triticum aestivum and Oryza sativa in NCBI database.The results revealed that fungus and nematode treatments caused increase in CERK1 expression The results of mean comparison showed CERK1 expression in Silverstar variety was higher than gene expression in ʻ2-49ʼ variety. The highest gene expression in roots of variety ʻ2-49ʼ was observed under nematode-fungus combination 24h post treatment and in second rate under single fungus treatment while the lowest gene expression was under drought-nematode combination and under single drought stress.The highest CERK1 expression in Silverstar variety was observed under combination of fungus and nematode in 24h post treatment while the lowest gene expression was under single drought stress and single fungus stress.Up-regulation of CERK1 in resistant variety to F. culmorum, ʻ2-49ʼ was higher than up-regulation in Silverstar when were exposed to fungus stress and its interaction with other stresses. Also gene expression in resistant variety to H. filipjevi, Silverstar was higher than gene expression in ʻ2-49ʼ variety under nematode stress and it's interaction with other stresses.During evolutionary processes, plants have developed sophisticated mechanisms of defense against pathogens. In pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), conserved virulence factors such as chitin, the main building block that makes up the cell wall in pathogenic fungi, are recognized by the host plant. The wheat genome contains one gene encoding CEBiP and two genes encoding CERK1. Chitin elicitor-binding protein is a membrane protein that has been first identified in rice. The lysine motif in the extracellular domain of CEBiP recognizes and binds chitin, but CEBiP does not have an intracellular signaling domain, and it is unable to initiate an immune signal. The CERK1 transmembrane protein comprises an extracellular domain with a lysine motif and an intracellular kinase domain, and it is capable of inducing a signal transduction cascade (Duba et al. 2018). CERK1 played potential roles in defense responses to CCN (Kong et al. 2014) and Fusarium. Spp. (Bertini et al. 2003 andDesmond et al. 2006).The results of present study showed that CERK1 gene has an effective role in early defence response to soil borne pathogens. The highest gene expression was observed 24h after stresses. One of the typical time points in cereal cyst nematode virulence is penetration stage (24h), in this stage parasitic juvenile 2 (J2) penetrates to root and migrates through cortical cells in 72h (3d) (Kong et al. 2015). Fungal hyphae had extensively colonized both the rhizodermal cell layer 24h post infection and the first layer of cortex cells by inter-and intra-cellular growth. Colonization of the cortex continued and by 48 h post infection a dense mycelial network was present inside the lumen of cortical cells in the region adjacent to the inoculation point. However, the fungus did not penetrate the endodermis, the last layer of cortical cells, and was absent from the protoxylem and metaxylem vessels in the stele. (Beccari et al. 2011). Kong et al. (2015) reported that the CERK1 gene under infection of wheat roots with H. avenae was up-regulated, with the highest upregulation in 24h after inoculation. They reported that CERK1 played potential roles in defense responses to CCN. Shimizu et al. (2010) reported that OsCERK1 is a key component for chitin elicitor signaling in rice. The OsCERK1 knockdown cell lines mostly lost the ability to generate ROS, to induce the expression of defense genes and to synthesize phytoalexins in response to chitin oligosaccharide elicitor.In this present study, combination of drought/pathogen caused reduction in CERK1 expression compared with expression under each single pathogen stress, indicating the antagonistic effect of abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathway on salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA)-ethylene signaling pathways.ABA is an important plant hormone that plays signaling roles in different processes of plant growth and development as well as in plant responses to various abiotic stresses like drought stress. Plant resistance to biotrophic pathogens such as cyst nematodes is classically thought to be mediated by the salicylic acid (SA) pathway, and by contrast, resistance to necrotrophic pathogens such as Fusarium spp. is controlled by jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene (ET) pathways. Abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathway inhibits salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA)-ethylene signaling pathways (Anderson et al. 2004). Many genes and regulatory elements are involved in the plant resistance and tolerance pathways (Ahmadi et al. 2022). Different environmental stress interactions elicit an exclusive complex cellular and molecular response. In this way, different gene expression patterns can be created. WRKY transcription factors (TFs) consist of a large gene family, spread widely in plants. These genes have key roles in the regulation of plant growth, development, metabolism, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses (Chen et al. 2019). WRKY TFs, DNA binding proteins, have a positive and negative regulation effect on gene expression by binding to the W-box (TTGACC/T) sequence in promoters (Huang et al. 2019). In wheat, 174 WRKY proteins are identified (Ning et al. 2017).It is important to study the effect of simultaneous stresses because of the complexity of the plant reaction in different conditions for example co-occurrence of CCNs and root rot fungi may cause more yield loss and root damage than the occurrence of each pathogen alone (Hassan et al. 2012), Cereal cyst nematodes reduce water uptake and nutrient flow by attacking host plant roots and intensify the drought stress effect (Nicol 2002), or first pathogen attack may induce plant defense response and change their basal susceptibility to other pathogens and increase defense ability as well as drought tolerance (Van Hulten et al. 2006). Also, an antagonistic interaction can occur between fungi and nematodes where the fungus reduces the hatching of nematode cysts and eggs, thereby reducing the invasion of plants by the juveniles (Hassan et al. 2012, Ahmadi et al. 2022).Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate the expression pattern a transcription factor gene, WRKY29, under both biotic and abiotic stress conditions.Plant materials and stress treatments: Two wheat accessions were studied for gene expression analysis. These accessions were 2-49 (resistant to Fusarium) and 'Silverstar' (resistant to Heterodera). Through primary studies by the Soil Borne Pathogens program at the CIMMYT-Türkiye office, a set of wheat germplasm with differing levels of resistance/ tolerance to CCN, crown rot, and drought was treated by H. filipjevi, F. culmorum, and drought, independently and simultaneously (Ahmadi et al. 2022).To test the level and pattern of gene expression under simultaneous biotic and abiotic stresses and compare the plant's response to independent stress conditions, these two accessions were treated on the seven days old seedling. Drought stress applied in this study included 40% of field capacity (Ahmadi et al. 2022). Cereal cyst nematode, H. filipjevi, sample collected by CIMMYT-Türkiye (Dababat et al. 2014) was used in this study, and each seedling was inoculated with 400 freshly hatched J2 of H. filipjevi (Ahmadi et al. 2022). An identified isolate of F. culmorum, causing crown rot, from CIMMYT-SBP collection was used as the third stress factor (Ahmadi et al. 2022). Each seedling was inoculated with F. culmorum spores suspended in water (1 × 106 spores mL −1 ) (Erginbas- Orakci et al. 2016).Experimental design and sampling: Sampling of wheat root tissue, for RNA extraction and gene expression analysis, was performed three times after exerting stress conditions. These three sampling times are important stages in the early transcriptional response of plants to stress (Kong et al. 2015).Sampling subtended six replicates (two biological and three technical). Each biological replicate sample contained five seedlings.We run a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) in this study. The experimental design consists of five factors include genotype , two drought levels (40% stress and non-stress), two CCN levels (inoculated and non-inoculated), two crown rot levels (inoculated and non-inoculated), and sampling time (24h, 48h, and one week after treatment). Mean comparison was performed using the least significant difference test (LSD) (P ≤ 0.05).RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and qRT-PCR: Total RNA was extracted from cleaned root tissues, using RNA Isolation Kit (S-1010 DENA list ASIA). Thermo Company DNase was treated to remove DNA contamination from the extracted RNA samples. To verify the concentration and purity of extracted RNA, using the ratio of absorbance at 230 nm, 260 nm, and 280 nm in a spectrophotometer. Single-stranded cDNA synthesis was done using PrimeScript TM RT reagent Kit from Takara, following the manufacturer's guidelines to design gene-specific primers, the gene sequence of transcription factors was obtained from https:// www.ncbi.nlm.ni,h.gov, and primers were designed by online software (http://www.bioinformatics.nl/ cgibin/primer3plus/primer3plus.cgi). Quantitative real-time PCR analysis was performed on a StepOnePlus Real-Time PCR System (Rotor-GeneQ, QIAGEN Company).Gene identification: Recent studies have indicated that WRKYs, one of the largest families of regulators, are very important components of the plant signaling web. These DNA-binding transcription factors regulate specific transcriptional pathways during plant growth, development, and defense response to a variety of biotic and abiotic stimuli (Ahuja et al. 2010, Bakshi and Oelmüller 2014, Rushton et al. 2012).The obtained results identified WRKY29 gene seems to be involved in transcriptional response to stress factors. There are one WRKY domain and one zinc-finger-like motif in each of these proteins. Based on the structure of their zinc-finger-like motif, WRKY29 belongs to group III. WRKY29 gene, located on wheat chromosome arm 2BS, produced protein has 293 amino acids with 31.1185 KD molecular weight. This protein includes conserved domain WRKYGQK and C2HC zinc-finger-like motif (C-X7-C-X23-HTC) (Ning et al. 2017).The obtained results showed that the relative expression level of the three targeted gene increased in all stress conditions during the three sampling times in both accessions; 2-49 (resistant to Fusarium) and 'Silverstar' (resistant to Heterodera), and the highest gene expression level was obtained in 'Silverstar'. Generally, the rate of relative gene expression was incremental and reached the maximum level after one week.Drought stress caused the most intensive reactions WRKY29 gene. Nematode was the second factor to induce WRKY gene expression. Overall, the relative gene expression level for WRKY29 gene in 'Silverstar' was statistically higher than 2-49 accession. At the same time, the expression level of WRKY29 in 'Silverstar' (resistant to Heterodera) were higher than the expression level in 2-49 accession against nematode invasion, but against fungal attack, the expression level of gene in 2-49 (resistant to Fusarium) was higher than 'Silverstar' and caused early resistance in these accessions.Analysis of variance showed that the main effects of drought stress, nematode stress, sampling time, and genotype cause significant changes in the expression level of gene WRKY29. But the effects of double and triple simultaneous stresses did not differ significantly. Triple simultaneous stress conditions increased the gene expression levels not more than others.Wheat is an essential global food crop. Considering its importance, efforts have been made to identify the entire genome of wheat. Genomic and transcriptomic resources of wheat were used to study the WRKY gene family. Earlier studies have confirmed that the WRKY transcription factor plays a fundamental role in regulating different physiological processes, such as plant growth, development, plant senescence, signal molecule delivery, biotic or abiotic stress responses, and synthesis of resulting metabolites (Wang et al. 2021).Many studies show that a large portion of WRKY genes is responsive to pathogens, elicitors, and defenserelated phytohormones such as salicylic acid (SA) or jasmonic acid (JA), implying a major role for the WRKY gene family in plant immunity. WRKY TFs also regulate plant response to stress through abscisic acid (ABA) and ROS-related signaling pathways. During drought stress, the amount of ABA is increased in plants, and to reduce transpiration rate leaf stomata are closed, thus regulating water balance in plants (Wang et al. 2021).Drought stress is the main reason in the world that reduces wheat production significantly (Keating et al. 2014). Preservation of grain yield under water stress can be achieved first by maximizing soil water capture through the root system (Blum 2009). Many root pathogens, like nematodes, use the xylem of root to obtain nutrient material, this can disturb water transport and cause water-deficient stress (Stirling and Stanton 1997). Co-occurrence of drought and nematode stress can exacerbate the effects of water scarcity. So, any drought stress tolerance mechanism also could be effective for nematode stress resistance too. Second, grain-filling, an important process in yield formation, is mainly sustained by the photosynthesis of flag leaves and spikes under drought treatment (Jia et al. 2015). It is shown that different TaWRKY genes are preferentially expressed in specific tissue during the grain-filling stage under water-deficit conditions.As found in this study drought stress was the most effective factor in increasing the expression level of WRKY gene. Since this up-regulation occurred highly in the resistant genotype (Ahmadi et al. 2022) it can be concluded that this gene has a positive effect on regulating the expression of drought tolerance genes and is up-regulated under abiotic stress conditions. Due to the nematode stress that can increase the severity of drought stress, the highest level of gene expression was obtained at the simultaneous double stress drought/Heterodera condition.Maize, rice and wheat are the major staple food crops in the world. Maize is one of the most important and high yielding grains with nutritional importance, which has the highest production among the three mentioned cereals. Maize hosts a large number of pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and plant parasites nematodes (PPNs). Over 120 nematode species were reported in association with maize in different regions of the world, which root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) and cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.) are addressed as the major parasitic groups. Several studies have been reported the most common PPNs genera associated with maize as Pratylenchus, Helicotylenchus, Xiphinema, Ditylenchus, Meloidogyne, Criconemella, Heterodera, Paratrichodorus, Rotylenchulus, Scutellonema, Longidorus, Radophulus, Trichodorus, Tylenchorhynchus, Globodera, Hemicriconemoides, Haplolaimus and Scutellonema in the world (CABI 2020).Various PPNs were sporadically reported from maize fields in Iran which belonged generally to the family of Tylenchidae Örley, 1880, subfamily Merliniinae Siddiqi, 1971 andPratylenchidae Thorne, 1949, mostly from soil around the roots and rhizosphere (Kheiri 1972, Niknam andKheiri 1997).Regarding the importance of maize cultivation in Iranand the study of biotic agents involved in the damage and crop reduction, the incidence of plant parasitic nematodes was surveyed amid a national project in five main maize producing regions, i.e. Tehran, Khuzestan, Qazvin, Fars and Kermanshah in Iran.A total of 216 composite root and soil samples were collected from the maize fields of Fars, Ghazvin, Kermanshah, Khuzestan and Tehran provinces. The samples were processed by the centrifugal flotation and Whitehead tray method (Whitehead and Hemming 1965). The abundance of plant parasitic nematodes was numerated in the extracted nematode suspension under a microscope. For morphological studies, the nematodes were fixed then transferred to dehydrated glycerin for mounting. The morphometric features were measured using an Olympus BH-2 microscope. For some molecular studies the total DNA were extracted from 4-5 females through worm lysis buffer, the procedure for PCR and sequencing were followed the protocol described by Tanha Maafi et al. (2003). The D2-D3 expansion segments of the 28S rRNA gene were amplified with the forward D2A and the reverse D3B primers (Subbotin et al. 2006).In this study the following genera and species of plant parasitic nematodes were identified: Amplimerlinus sp., The results showed root lesion nematodes (RLN) species possessed the maximum population density and frequency (average 54%) as the most dominant nematodes in root and soil samples in maize fields. Their abundance was determined 78%, 55%, 53%, 50% and 32% in maize fields of Qazvin, Tehran, Kermanshah, Khuzestan and Fars provinces, respectively.Pratylenchus mediterraneus was found in a maize field in Andimeshk, Kuzestan. To our knowledge, it is the first report of maize infection by P. mediterraneus in the world. The sequence of the partial 28s D2-D3 region of P. mediterraneus was deposited in the GenBank database under the accession number MW959145. According to references, root lesion nematodes are one of the main destructive agents causing yield loss in maize, as well as their contribution for the predisposition of the host plant to invasion with other soil borne pathogens indicates more destructive role for their pathogenicity in crops (McDonald and Nicol 2005;Kimenju et al. 1998).In addition to the RLNs, species of cereal cyst nematodes, Heterodera avenae group were also found in the soil samples showing 40%, 32%, 22%, 7% and 3% abundance in maize fields of Tehran, Fars, Khuzestan, Qazvin and Kermanshah provinces, respectively. Presence of CCN group in corn fields implies two principal important points, the rotation program which maize is a rotational crop with wheat for wheat growers in the surveyed areas, and the second assumption the potential pathogenicity of these nematodes on this grain crop that needs intensive research.Pratylenchoides ritteri close to Pratylenchus with paired genital tracts belonging to subfamily Radopholinae Allen & Sher, 1967 was only identified from the samples collected from Kermanshah province where the species is widely distributed in wheat farms, and frequently reported as a major parasite of wheat from this region. The occurrence and host suitability of P. ritteri on maize has already been studied in some corn fields in northern Iran, Mazandaran province as the first report of its damage on maize (Majd Taheri et al. 2013).The incidence of polyphagous, migratory endoparasites of two devastating genera of root lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus and Pratylenchoides in the main maize producing regions in Iran, definitely requires much attention and as a threat in maize production needs intensive studies. globally and implicated in significant economic yield loss (Dababat and Fourie 2018). Diversity and soil-related functions have recently led to the concept of \"soil quality\" defined by its ability to function within a given ecosystem to sustain organic production, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant health (Doran 2002). The knowledge of the structure of the nematode community provides information related to the different processes performed in the soil, the food web in the soil, and the state of stability of agro-ecosystems and soil biodiversity (Bongers 1990;Villenave el al. 2009). The set of nematode characteristics as bio-indicators of agricultural soils is relevant for the study of environmental changes (Ferris et al. 2001).In Morocco, most research has focused solely on PPNs communities, and to our knowledge, data on other nematode communities and their use as bio-indicators for assessing soil quality have not been reported yet. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) investigate all soil nematode communities in South Moroccan wheat agro-systems, (ii) evaluate the potential of nematodes as potential bioindicators of soil quality and health in wheat fields, and (iii) predict the spatial contribution and succession of each nematode trophic levels in regards of soil health attributes.Nematode Sampling Design: An intensive survey was established to investigate the diversity of nematode communities in different wheat agro-systems in the Southern regions of Morocco. The surveyed fields were selected based on their contribution to total production, soil type, and geographic distribution. Samples were taken during the wheat heading growth stage from 10 provinces accounting for 80 representative fields.Nematode Processing: Nematode extraction was carried out via a modified Baermann technique for both soil (100 cm 3 ) and root (20 g) matrices. Nematode suspension was collected and processed under a stereomicroscope (Olympus CH-2; Japan) after 72 h of incubation. Nematodes were killed and fixed.Soil nematodes were identified to genus level using dichotomous keys based on morphological features including body traits, stylet type, lip region, head shape, pharyngeal overlap, tail type, spermatheca shape, and vulva position. Species of root-knot nematodes (RKNs) were identified via the establishment of the perineal patterns. For cereal cyst nematodes (CCNs), vulval cones were established for identification.Soil Physico-Chemical Analyses: Soil physico-chemical analyses were performed at the soil laboratory of INRA-Agadir, using regular methods. Soil texture proprieties including clay (0-2 µm), silt (2-50 µm), sand (50 to >200 µm), and Limestone proportions were thoroughly analyzed. The electrical conductivity (μS/cm) and pH were determined via the 1:2.5 soil: water ratio technique. As for the mineral content, the rates of potassium (K), manganese (Mn), and magnesium (Mg) alongside the exchangeable acidity were distinguished via atomic absorption spectrometry.Diversity Assessment of Nematodes Taxa: Nematode incidence was determined by determining the prevalence and maximum density for each nematode feeding type. For more advanced biodiversity screening, several ecological and biomonitoring indices were measured to assess nematode diversity and structure in each locality surveyed. These indices included Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H'), maturity index (MI), plant-parasitic index (PPI), channel index (CI), Enrichment index (EI), and structure index (SI).To explore nematodes' community and soil physical-chemical patterns from different wheat agro-systems surveyed, principal component analyses (PCA) were conducted. Food web and metabolic footprints analysis was conducted using NINJA (Nematode INdicator Joint Analysis) software.Advanced heatmap analysis (heatmap-2) was adopted to visualize correlations between nematodes and soil physical-chemical properties, based on Ward's algorithm of R software. Nematode spatial contribution and parsimony mapping network (PMN) analyses were conducted using BioPython matplotlib library.The obtained results showed that 33 nematode genera were identified from this survey. Plant-parasitic nematodes (herbivores) were accurately represented in all localities with 40% of occurrence, followed by bacterivores (30%), fungivores (20%), both omnivores and predators (10%). The maturity index (MI), which focuses on free-living taxa was significantly different between the localities surveyed. The channel index (CI), which implies the decomposition aspects of both fungivorous and bacterivorous nematodes showed significant differences between wheat fields from different areas. It was indicated by the heatmap analysis that all nematode taxa identified were significantly correlated with calcium, Mn content, and total organic matter (Tom). Interestingly, soil texture patterns (sand, clay, and silt content) were also positively correlated with many soil nematode taxa.The Shannon-Weaver diversity index was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in Oulad Dahou, Ait Melloul, and Sidi Boushab (2.91, 2.7, and 2.49, respectively), compared to the other localities. The lowest index value was reported in Ait Amira province (1.2). There was no significant difference in evenness between all localities. The potential of nematodes as effective soil health bio-indicators in wheat fields was assessed using food web diagnostics. Four localities (Massa, Sidi Bibi, Belfaa, and Ait Melloul) were distinctively highly enriched and matured with a high abundance of bacterial feeders. Furthermore, fertile soils were accurately presented in Oulad Dahou, Temsia, and Biougra provinces. Soil disturbance in wheat fields was highlighted mainly in Ait Amira, Laqliaa, and Sidi Boushab provinces (Figure 1).For a better understanding of soil health bioindication potential embodied within soil nematodes, spatial contribution analysis was conducted via projecting the ANOSIM and SIMPER analyses outputs. The succession of nematode functional guilds (FGs) and trophic levels (TLs) was channeled through a machine learning-related analysis for a better understanding of its affiliation with soil disturbance attributes observed throughout the surveyed wheat regions (Figure 2). The Venn diagram depicts the possible combinations that might occur in soils. Successions started with plant feeders (PFs) were shown to be consistently associated with fungal feeders (FFs) (WSRP = 60%; P < 0.001) compared to other TLs linkages. Furthermore, bacterial feeders (BFs) had prominent relationship with omnivore organisms (Os) (WSRP = 50%; p < 0.001).Tripartite successions were not much anticipated in the sense that low WSRP values were recorded. On the other hand, 30% of all FGs (PF-FF-BF-O-P) have occurred in the same frame (soil or rhizosphere platforms).Climatic or geographic factors can be a crucial indicator of many plant-related organisms' distribution, such as nematodes. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was conducted to evaluate the relationship between nematode trophic levels represented by several taxa identified and climatic/geographic factors attributed as MAP (mean annual precipitation), MAT (mean annual temperature), LA (latitude), and LG (longitude). Across all localities studied, multiple correlations were detected. For instance, plant parasites (PP) were significantly related to the MAP patterns (P < 0.01), while bacterivore and fungivore nematodes were mostly dependent on MAT (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively) (Figure 3). Moreover, geographical attributes (latitude and longitude) were predicted to be affecting omnivores and predators, respectively. Nielsen et al. (2014) reported that the rise of nematode abundance might be due to an increase in annual temperatures and Imren et al. (2017).   To sum up, this study provides new insights into genera diversity, incidence, and distribution of soil nematodes associated with the wheat crop in southern Morocco, with their contribution as potential bio-indicators for soil health aspects. Nematodes from different trophic groups were differently distributed in all localities surveyed. Herbivorous taxa dominated by Pratylenchidae and Heteroderidae families alongside bacterivores represented mainly by Rhabditidae and Cephalobidae families were the most pronounced. Soils from Ait Melloul, Belfaa, Oulad Dahou, and Sidi Boushab were more diversified. On the other hand, few localities (e.g., Ait Amira and Lqliaa) were shown to be disturbed. Therefore, an equilibrium between taxa was observed in all surveyed areas. Possible soil quality patterns were thoroughly analyzed, and soil nematodes proved to be promising indicators. To our knowledge, the explicit spatial relationship of all nematode taxa from different functional guilds predicted by multidimensional contribution analysis is the first to be conducted and will add a needed finding to parasitic-saprophytic interactions. In addition, the soil networking embodied within microorganisms puts nematodes as the main actors for many biodiversity-related patterns. Due to climate change, the within soil nematode communities tend to fluctuate due to many factors (temperature and precipitation), which significantly affect soil health. More research is required to expand survey areas in all Moroccan cereal growing areas to identify all nematode taxa at the species level and study the possible nematode communities' responses to agricultural practices and environmental constraints for a better understanding of their role as soil health bioindicators. This will be helpful to farmers to establish adequate management and cereal soil processing strategies against potentially related pests.Cereal cyst nematodes (CCNs) are among the most important nematode pests that limit production of small grain cereals (Smiley et al. 2017). Heterodera filipjevi has been recorded in many countries such as China, Estonia, India, Iran, Libya, Morocco, Norway, Pakistan, Russia, Sweden, Tadzhikistan, Tunisia, Türkiye and USA (Rumpenhorst et al. 1996;Holgado et al. 2004;Smiley et al. 2008;Riley et al. 2009;Nicol et al. 2011). The cereal cyst nematodes (CCNs) are a group of closely related species that have been documented to cause economic yield losses, especially in non-irrigated wheat production systems in North Africa, West Asia, China, India, Australia, the United States, and parts of Europe (Nicol and Rivoal, 2008). Losses in wheat yield in research trials of up to 20, 50, 50, and 90%have been reported from Pakistan, Australia, Türkiye, and Saudi Arabia, respectively (Imren et al. 2015;Riley and McKay 2009). One of the most effective strategy is to use resistant germplasm for cereal cyst nematodes, if available. Crop rotation, different tillage techniques are offered to control cereal cyst nematodes. In this study a collection of wheat lines also good for rust diseases have been tested for Heterodera filipjevi for genetic resistance.A total of 130 wheat germplasm (Table 1) with good rust resistance background have been screened for cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera filipjevi) under controlled growth room conditions at the Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute (TZARI) in Eskisehir-Türkiye. The wheat germplasm provided by TZARI-Eskisehir breeding program. Nematode Inoculum: Screening tests were carried out using a population of H. filipjevi collected from naturally infested field in Kırsehir, Türkiye (39º 39' 709\" N, 32º 37' 14\" E) (Peng et al. 2013).Growth Room Screening: Single pregerminated wheat seed was planted in standard small tubes (16 cm in height × 2.5 cm in diameter) containing sterilized mixture of sand, field soil, and organic matter (70:29:1 v/v). The field soil and sand were sieved and sterilized at 110 °C for 2 h for 2 successive days, and the organic matter was kept at 70 °C for 5 h. At the sowing date freshly hatched 300 juvenile/ml were inoculated on the soil around the stem base. The plants were grown in a growth chamber with a 16-h artificial photoperiod and maintained at a temperature of 22 ± 3 °C with 70% relative humidity.Experimental Design: Each treatment was replicated 3 times and tubes were placed in a completely randomised block design.Harvest: The plants were harvested 9 weeks after juvenile inoculation. Soil from each tube was collected in a 2-L pot filled with water for cyst extraction, while roots were washed on nested sieves with 850 µm and 250 µm mesh sizes to free cysts from the root system. Cysts from both root and soil extractions were collected on the 250-µm sieve and counted under a stereomicroscope.The grouping was performed based on cyst number per plant compared to that cyst numbers on the known checks. The following ranking was followed; 1= resistant (R), 2= moderately resistant (MR), 3=moderately susceptible (MS), 4= susceptible (S) and 5= highly susceptible (HS) (Dababat et al., 2019).The cyst numbers ranged from 1 to 36 and 1 to 38 in bread wheat and durum wheat, respectively. A total of 21 wheat germplasm showed promising resistance for cereal cyst nematode -Heterodera filipjevi under growth room conditions ( Use of host-plant resistance and tolerance against CCNs is one of the most cost effective and prominent approaches to minimize crop losses below the threshold level (Trudgill et al.,1991). Wheat germplasm with good resistance to the cereal cyt nematode (Heterodera filipjevi) in combination with high yield is various host plants and were recorded (Maqbool and Zarina 1988;Maqbool and Shahina 1988).This aim of this study was preliminary observation of incidence, distribution, and association of root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) with a historical set of wheat varieties in agroecologies of Pakistan. These wheat varieties were cultivated in different wheat agro ecologies.All soil and wheat seedlings were taken after winter planting from December to March 2022. Three replicate samples were taken from each wheat variety to form a historical set. The bulked soil samples were placed in a soil collection bag and properly labeled accordingly. The soil samples were processed by Whitehead tray method (Whitehead and Hemmings 1965). For each soil sample, nematodes were extracted from 100 g of flesh soil over 48 h at 20 °C using 1 liter of tap water. Extracted nematodes populations were examined for the presence of root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.). The nematode suspension (2 ml) was placed into a counting dish and the nematodes were counted using stereomicroscope Nikon SMZ1.In 2022, Pratylenchus spp. were identified in all 57 soil samples of the wheat varietal historical set grown in agro ecology of NARC (Table 1). The population of P. neglectus was prominent in all the extracted nematodes from soil. The population densities were found in Margalla variety with maximum nematode population (2033/100 g) of soil, followed by Markaz-19 (1446/100 g), Bakhtawar (1320/100 g), Suleman-96 (1140/100 g), Johar-16 (1053/100 g), Pastor (1040/100 g), Zinkol-2016, a zinc fortified wheat variety (1026/100 g) and WL711(1000/100 g) (Table 1). Stunt nematodes were also isolated and recovered from all samples examined among the nematode population.Results of 2022 make up the first assessment of root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) affecting wheat in the fields of NARC. Pratylenchus spp. were found primarily within the central winter wheat growing regions of Pakistan. These results will further be investigated for the next wheat crop in 2023 for the similar historical set or other wheat genotypes at NARC.Crown tissues were disinfected and analyzed. They were rinsed for 5 min in 2% sodium hypochlorite solution, rinsed three times in sterile distilled water then dried on sterile filter paper. The disinfested fragments were put on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated at 22 °C for 5-7 days; subcultures from the margin colonies resembling to Fusarium or Microdochium were transferred on PDA medium. Single-spore cultures of the fungal strains were identified morphologically based on criteria cited by Leslie and Summerell (2006) and Hoshino et al. (2009). To confirm the morphological identification, molecular identification by use of species -specific primers was done.For DNA extraction, fungal isolates were grown on potato dextrose agar medium (PDA) for 7 days. The mycelia were freeze-dried and ground to a fine powder. DNA was extracted by using a method adapted from Lamprecht et al. (1992). The DNA samples were amplified by PCR using the species-specific primers (Table 1).Amplification products were separated by electrophoresis (80-90 V, 60 mA, 100 W, 30 min) in 1% agarose gels in 1X TAE buffer stained with 4 μl/ 100 ml of Clear Sight DNA Stain (Euromedex), and then photographed over a transluminator (UV BIORAD). Tm: temperature of hybridization for primers n: number of cycles F: size of fragment (kb) 1 Nicholson et al. 1998;   3 Aoki et O'Donnell (1999); 4 Turner et al, (1998).Pathogenicity tests: 16 Fusarium isolates representative of the species F. pseudograminearum, F. culmorum (differing in DON/3-AcDON production), Microdochium spp., F. sporotrichioides, F. verticillioides and F. oxysporum were tested for aggressiveness towards the susceptible durum wheat cultivar Vitron. Seeds were planted in an autoclaved potting mix (1 part sand, 1 part peat, 1 part compost) at a depth of 2 cm in each pot and were grown in a greenhouse at 25 °C. Seedlings were inoculated with an agar plug at the two-to three-leaf Zadoks's growth stage (Zadoks et al.1974). An agar plug (1 cm diameter) with mycelium was cut from the periphery of a 5-day-old culture grown on PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar). The agar plug was placed next to the stem base of each plant and covered with soil. Controls were inoculated with a mycelium free agar plug. There were three replicates per isolate with three seedlings in each replicate in a completely randomised design. All plants were watered daily with tap water and grown in a greenhouse at 25 °C and 16 h photoperiod. Twenty-one days after inoculation, each of the plants was pulled out and washed. Disease symptoms for each individual plant were assessed by calculating the proportion of the length of stem discoloration and plant height and rated using a 0-5 scale (0 = no discoloration; 1=trace to 25%; 2= 25% to 50%; 3 =more than50% to 75%; 4=more than75%; and 5=dead plant) as described by Tinline (1986). All experiments were carried out in triplicate. For each replicate, a disease index (DI) was calculated as the mean of disease scores of the seedlings. Disease severity data also were subjected to an analysis of variance. The statistical analysis of aggressiveness was based on the disease index (DI).The morphological identification of the fungal isolates (n=100) obtained from symptomatic crowns was first based on the morphological criteria reported by Leslie and Summerell (2006).To confirm species identity and to formally distinguish some morphologically similar wheat pathogen species such F. graminearum; and F. pseudograminearum, species specific primers of mainly associated pathogen species of crown rot of wheat were used. Based on molecular identification, 3 fungal species were identified from symptomatic crowns: F. culmorum (25%), F. pseudograminearum (21%) and F. avenaceum (8%)during the 3 years.However, isolates were identified as F. sporotrichioides (15%), F. verticilloides (6%) and F. oxysporum (5%) based on morphological identification. For technical reasons these isolates could not be confirmed FCR was present in all the surveyed areas. F. culmorum, the predominant species of FCR; was distributed in most provinces in most regions south of Algeria. Also F. pseudograminearum and Microdochium spp. were distributed in most regions in the south of Algeria.Aggressiveness tests. All of the isolates were pathogenic, discoloration and browning of the coleoptiles were observed on all inoculated wheat seedlings, but aggressiveness among the isolates varied significantly.The most aggressive isolates belonged to F. pseudograminearum (ISO1, ISO4, ISO6, and ISO3) with 47.10%, 43%, 43.83% and 31.22% of the disease severity respectively. The least aggressive were Microdochium spp. (ISO5, ISO7), and F. culmorum ISO2, with 33.83%, 19.44% and 31.22% disease severity, respectively.The results of the crown inoculation showed that F. pseudograminearum group was the most aggressive, followed by the group Microdochium spp. then by the group F. culmorum. The analysis of variance gives highly significant results, aggressiveness among the isolates varied significantly, the F1 * F2 interaction (p< 0.0001). The multiple comparison of means (CMM) for (DI) using the Newman -Keuls test at 5% shows that ISO1, ISO6 and ISO4 are the most aggressive, while the ISO9 was the less aggressive.The eight other strains of Fusarium spp. were pathogenic towards the variety but the aggressiveness varied greatly among the isolates in the severity of the visual disease symptoms induced (See, Disease Index (DI)). Data showed that the groups F. verticillioides isolates caused the disease by more than 30%, while F. sporotrichioides and F. oxysporum were the least aggressive with 20%, 5% of the disease severity respectively.The analysis of variance gave significant results, aggressiveness among the isolates varied significantly, the F1 * F2 interaction (p< 0.004).  Within the last four years, there have been serious outbreaks of Fusarium crown root of wheat in Algeria.Previous studies identified F. culmorum as the dominant species present (Abdallah et al. 2019). This study was carried out to identify the fungal species causing FCR of wheat in south Algeria and characterize their aggressiveness. For that, diseased crowns of wheat were collected from south Algeria in 2012, 2013 and 2014. A total of 100 Fusarium spp. isolates originated from different regions were assayed by PCR with species specific primers. Results obtained show a diversity of species isolated from crown.F. culmorum were the dominant species isolated from crowns of wheat in south Algeria provinces (2012, 2013 and 2014). These results are in agreement with those found by Gargouri et al. (2001). Abdellah et al.(2019) reported that in Algeria, F. culmorum was constantly present throughout the monitored period Majidov (Majidov, 1981(Majidov, , 1985;;Subbotin, Mundo-Ocampo, Baldwin, 2010). At present, it is impossible to confirm or refute this hypothesis, due to the lack of an acceptable amount of up-to-date data on the distribution of these types of cereal nematodes in Russia. In addition, there is a possibility that the populations of cereal nematodes found earlier in the Volga, Ural, and East Siberian regions may be mixed. For example, in the USA (Oregon), H. filipjevi occurs in mixed populations with H. avenae (Smiley et al., 2008;Smiley, 2009).In the \"State Register of Breeding Achievements Approved for Use\" there is a sufficient range of nematoderesistant varieties of both domestic and foreign selection. However, the majority of cultivated wheat varieties (95.4%) are descendants of such most successful varieties as Bezostaya 1 (67%) and/or Mironovskaya 808 (31%), i.e. cultivar resistance genes are not diverse. One of the promising directions in breeding for resistance to cereal nematodes is the use of wild relatives of modern wheat as resistance gene donors.The wide distribution and high level of harmfulness of cereal cyst nematodes of the genus Heterodera are found in agronomic zones where the saturation with grains in the crop rotation is more than 60-70% (Popova, 1975). Grain yield losses from a complex of cereal nematodes in the agronomic and climatic conditions of Russia can reach 8-11 centners/ha (up to 70%) for wheat and 3-4 centners/ha (up to 25-30%) for barley (Mamonova, 1969). Losses of wheat in the Novosibirsk region reached 4-8 centners/ha (Zhuk, 1967;Shiabova, 1969). The yield of wheat infected with H. avenae in the Tyumen region was 2 times lower than usual (Safyanov and Skripnik, 1968). Rye and corn are more resistant to the oat nematode (Tikhonova, 1968).Thus, the share of cultivation of the main grains (wheat, oats, barley) in comparison with other crops of crop rotation (rowed, industrial and fodder) has increased in the country in general by more than 10% (from 47.4 to 58.40%) from 1992 to 2010. As mentioned above, the wide distribution and high level of harmfulness of cereal cyst nematodes of the genus Heterodera are found in agronomic zones where the grain saturation in the crop rotation is more than 60-70%.At present, in the Volga region, the share of grain according to Rosstat for 2010 ranged from 45.94% (Saratov region) to 63.57% (Samara region). In the Urals region, this figure is also approaching a critical level (from 55.96 to 79.10%). Suchwise in the Chelyabinsk region, the share of grain in 2010 was 68.86% (in some types of farms up to 93%)The Russian Federation has increased grain production in recent years. Most of this volume is wheat grain.Russia has significant areas of agricultural land. The possibilities of increasing the sown area in each of the regions of the country (including chernozem soils) are far from being fully realized. Also, to increase the volume of grain production, a more rational selection of varieties and technologies can be used in accordance with the climatic characteristics of the regions.To reduce crop losses associated with cereal nematodes, monitoring of these pathogens is essential.And taking timely measures when the site of infection is detected. The main method of regulating the abundance and harmfulness of the complex of cereal nematodes, if it is impossible to reduce the share of cereal crops in the crop rotation, is the use of resistant varieties and hybrids of wheat, oats and barley.Agrotechnical methods are remaining the dominant methods for regulating the number and harmfulness of cereal nematodes, in conditions of the absence of registered nematicide both in the Russian and European markets.Among them: the use of multi-field crop rotations to reduce the share of cereals in the total volume of cultivated crops (the least profitable method in modern economic conditions); and the use of crop varieties that are resistant to these types of pathogens. Successful implementation of this approach requires regular monitoring of cereal nematodes, as well as the selection of new varieties with the involvement of new resistance genes.Zhuk OM (1967) Materials on the distribution, harmfulness and biology of the oat nematode (Heterodera avenae) in the Novosibirsk region. Nematode diseases of agricultural plants, Moscow,. Preparation of soil reclamation projects. Preparation of the land cadastre. Creation of a land market in the country. Simplification of procedures for registration of ownership rights, use and lease of land plots.State support for agricultural producers:1. According to the decree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan dated January 23, 2007, producers of agricultural products are allocated 50 USD per hectare from the state budget for the use of fuel and motor oils on sown areas;2. In addition, an additional USD 50 is allocated for sowing wheat and rice for each hectare of sown area.3. Mineral fertilizers are sold to agricultural producers with a 50% discount;4. For the products sold to seed farms and nurseries, additional funds are allocated from the state budget for seeds and seedlings of the first reproduction 40% above the realized price, for seeds and seedlings of the second reproduction -30%;5. For the production of original, super elite and elite seeds, farms are allocated 100% of the funds spent;6. At the expense of the state budget only in 2005, 9467 pieces of agricultural machinery were purchased, including 990 combine harvesters, 2494 tractors, 140 excavators, 5483 agricultural machinery and equipment for various purposes. All of them are leased for a period of 10 years to legal entities and individuals with partial prepayment of the cost of machinery and equipment (initial payment of 20%);7. In order to improve the pedigree composition, 770 heads of breeding heifers were purchased, which were sold to livestock producers by leasing on preferential terms;8. The purchase of breeding cattle and their sale to local entrepreneurs at a discount of up to 50% will continue.Static studies of the last 25 years show that as a result of the above measures taken in the structure of crops, the share of cereals, legumes, potatoes, vegetables and melons has sharply increased, and the share of grapes, cotton and tea has decreased.As a result of the consistent deepening of agrarian reforms, the directions of production in agriculture, the volume of production gradually changed, and the formation of a crop assortment based on competition began. In such conditions, the economic efficiency of agricultural production technologies and their compliance with modern requirements are becoming important for farmers.In order to increase the role of science in the agrarian reforms carried out in the republic, eliminate the lag, The main purpose of agricultural science is to conduct scientific research in the regions of the republic in priority areas of agriculture, the formation of thematic plans in the interests and at the request of farmers and peasants, the introduction of research results in farms and the organization of a system for the dissemination of these results, strengthening the human potential and material base of science. To achieve this, it is necessary to improve the planning and financing of scientific research. Here the key role is played by the choice of topics that meet the requirements of farmers and peasants. The obtained scientific results should form the \"purchase and sale\" market.In order to consistently address the issues posed to the agricultural research system and further deepen reforms in the field of science, the activities of the Agrarian Innovation Center were aimed at improving agricultural research, determining their priorities, training personnel, forming regional scientific structures for the dissemination and implementation of scientific results, etc. The Agrarian Innovation Center has carried out some work to establish scientific cooperation between research institutes that are part of the Ministry of Agriculture and with other research institutions of the Republic of agriculture. First of all, the coordination of research topics was carried out in order to avoid parallelism.As a result of the integration of Azerbaijan's agricultural science into international scientific organizations, there are certain innovations in improving research methods. An example of this is the collection of genetic resources of plants and animals that meet international standards, the creation of joint varieties, etc. In connection with the organization of agricultural production in accordance with market economic relations and the need to solve important agricultural problems on a scientific basis, the Regional Agricultural Innovation Centers are tasked with: the introduction and dissemination of the results of research work in different natural and economic zones by laying demonstration experiments of new varieties of crops; holding exhibitions of new breeds of animals, new agricultural machinery; selection of new high-yielding varieties of agricultural crops, breeds of farm animals, planting materials that most correspond to the soil and climatic conditions of the zone, determination of the need for them; identification of issues that farmers urgently need to solve.Since 1994, more than 20 projects have been implemented in the country's agriculture by various international organizations and states: 7 TACIS programs (19947 TACIS programs ( -2000)), 2 World Bank (1997-2001)  (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002), 1 of the Islamic Development Bank, 3 of Germany, 2 of the Netherlands, 1 of Japan.On the basis of the TACIS program for planning and reorganization of agriculture, projects were implemented to strengthen the capabilities of the Ministry of Agriculture, create private farming groups, assist them in the production of food products for self-sufficiency and marketing, support the private sector in the food industry in the regions, establish political means that give impetus to agrarian reform, reorganize trade agriculture, ensuring food security, supporting the private agricultural sector, creating a grain exchange, assistance in creating credit unity in villages, assistance to commercial and professional farms in Azerbaijan, etc.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in Azerbaijan financed the processing of the medium-term policy of the development of the agricultural sector, the improvement of legislation on phytosanitary, inventory of land use and vegetation cover by funding from a long distance. The International Fund for the Development of Agriculture (IFAD) and the International Bank (WB) in Azerbaijan have implemented projects to organize the provision of advisory and information services in relation to all branches of agriculture to farmers operating in the territories of former collective farms and state farms, the privatization of land and property, the formation of new entrepreneurs in villages, the preparation of a mechanism for their credit, preparation of political and economic strategies that serve to increase incomes and yields in agriculture.On the basis of the protocol concluded between the European Commission and the Government of Azerbaijan, funds were allocated to improve the extra-budgetary financial structures of the agro-industrial complex, loans were issued to producers of agricultural products.The Islamic Development Bank has allocated a loan for the construction of the Milo-Mugan collector. According to the memorandum on financial and technical cooperation between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Government of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the projects \"Agrarian Policy\" and \"Support for regional cooperation and stability, food security in the South Caucasus\", the project \"Agriculture of Ganja\", financial support of the Embassy of the Kingdom of Norway in the Republic of Azerbaijan were implemented.The Governments of the USA, Great Britain, Türkiye, Switzerland, Denmark, Belgium, Japan, Austria, Holland, Israel, Italy, Brazil, Germany, China, France, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, India, Egypt, Bulgaria, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Estonia and other countries have signed agreements providing for cooperation in the agricultural sector. The Agricultural Innovation Center and the Research Institute of this system cooperate with many international organizations (ICARDA, CIMMYT, CIP, ILRI, IWMI, FAO, ECO, TIKA, Bioversity International, etc.) on research, collection and storage of genetic resources, the creation of new varieties of crops and their environmental testing, also in the field of research in animal husbandry, the introduction and dissemination of advanced technologies in agricultural production, as well as on other problems of agricultural research. Since 1995, the Azerbaijan Research Institute of Agriculture","tokenCount":"79298"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"024a17e041bd4dae61a02de5592c90ae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8486f059-fcfc-41b6-8d7e-defa443fde2d/retrieve","id":"-26620552"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5bd9bef-52e2-4e6d-8a31-a8ce2b85e274","pagecount":"2","content":"O distrito de Tororo é uma das áreas mais pobres do Uganda, com mais de 60 por cento de agregados familiares vivendo abaixo do limiar de pobreza absoluta. Um diagnóstico participativo realizado em 2003 pela ONG Africa 2000 Network (A2N) e pelo CIAT, revelou a importância da disponibilidade de alimentos para o gado caprino e bovino leiteiro de raça cruzada e melhorada, especialmente durante a segunda época seca que vai de Dezembro a Março. Em 1997 criou-se um consórcio de organizações de investigação e desenvolvimento (I&D) distritais denominado Iniciativa Integrada de Produtividade do Solo através de Pesquisa e Educação (INSPIRE), com o fim de superar a insegurança alimentar e a pobreza através da melhoria da fertilidade do solo. Os agricultores avaliaram inicialmente o desempenho de várias culturas leguminosas de cobertura como a Mucuna e a Canavalia usando principalmente critérios agronómicos, mas mais tarde incluíram o uso de leguminosas para a alimentação dos animais como um critério adicional. Em 2003 o CIAT e a A2N seleccionaram dois grupos de agricultores interessados, Kamata e Umoja, para avaliarem as forragens melhoradas para o seu gado leiteiro. Os membros destes grupos já estavam a receber gado leiteiro de empréstimo através de um esquema de distribuição da A2N. O primeiro objectivo deste estudo foi identificar as espécies e as variedades de forragem mais adequadas que proporcionassem grandes quantidades de alimentos de alta qualidade durante a época seca usando uma combinação de critérios dos agricultores e cientistas. O segundo objectivo foi desenvolver uma abordagem para a avaliação participativa de forragens em África.Embora os agricultores estivessem familiarizados com espécies de árvores forrageiras, nomeadamente a Calliandra e Sesbania, e com o capim elefante, tinham um conhecimento limitado sobre o uso e a gestão de forragens herbáceas.Os agricultores e os investigadores concordaram com as espécies e variedades de forragens a testar (Tabela 1) e com uma concepção comum para cada parcela de viveiro. Os critérios dos agricultores relacionados com o rendimento eram: o crescimento e vigor, a altura da planta, o rendimento da forragem e a resistência à seca. Eles mencionaram também a germinação, altura da floração, produção de semente, resistência a pragas e doenças e palatabilidade para o gado. Concordouse que os membros dos grupos de agricultores iriam recolher a maioria dos dados (excepto dados de biomassa da forragem) e que depois de cada época de cultivo os dados seriam analisados e os métodos de recolha dos dados seriam revistos em conjunto com os facilitadores de investigação. Os investigadores geriram a recolha dos dados da produção de biomassa da forragem, já que necessitavam de dados rigorosos para compararem a produção da forragem entre as espécies e acessões.Durante o primeiro ciclo experimental os agricultores adquiriram conhecimentos sobre a aparência das novas plantas forrageiras, padrões de germinação e crescimento inicial. A recolha dos dados quantitativos pelos membros dos grupos usando os seus próprios critérios provou ser um desafio, especialmente porque um dos grupos teve problemas de liderança. Para facilitar o processo de investigação, os membros reduziram o número de parâmetros a serem medidos. Com entusiasmo renovado, os membros realizaram testes de paladar. A Brachiaria híbrida Mulato, Brachiaria var. Toledo, Panicum maximum e P.coloratum ocuparam as posições mais altas em termos de preferência para o gado local, enquanto que o gado leiteiro melhorado comeu todos os tipos sem preferência aparente. Durante a época seca seguinte as duas variedades de Stylosanthes guinesse; Brachiaria híbrida Mulato; Brachiaria var. Toledo e Chamaecrista rotundifolia demonstraram a sua superior capacidade de permanecerem verdes durante a seca.A expansão das forragens dos viveiros para outros lugares nos campos de produção dos membros dos grupos teve lugar lentamente e em pequena escala. Por exemplo, os agricultores usaram a divisão de raízes das ervas a fim de expandir o cultivo de forragem. As grandes variações em termos de compromisso dos produtores com o processo de experimentação foram consideradas relacionadas com o programa de distribuição do gado leiteiro, em que os que receberam uma vaca estavam mais comprometidos com o processo. É claro que a selecção das áreas para experimentação das forragens deveria depender do nível de desenvolvimento dos serviços associados ao sector de lacticínios nessas áreas. Na ausência de bons serviços de lacticínios, a melhoria da produtividade podia ser alcançada com gado local ou de raça cruzada, cabras ou ovelhas. O projecto ampliou-se agora a outros 11 grupos de cabras e gado leiteiro em Tororo, onde a variedade e o híbrido de Brachiaria são cultivadas em filas e parcelas nos campos de cultivo.Os grupos de agricultores estavam envolvidos em ensaios agrícolas simultâneos para os quais desenvolveram planos de monitorização e avaliação participativa. A integração dos ensaios de forragens nestes planos facilitou o processo de investigação.Os processos internos dos grupos foram um factor importante para a continuidade e empenhamento na experimentação com forragens. Na ausência de coesão de grupo a gestão das parcelas funciona melhor numa base individual.A Brachiaria híbrida Mulato, Brachiaria var. Toledo e Stylosanthes tiveram melhor desempenho do que as outras forragens e atingem rendimentos comparáveis aos do bem conhecido capim elefante. Sob condições similares, sem o uso de fertilizantes, o capim elefante pode produzir até 40 toneladas de forragem fresca (10 toneladas de matéria seca). As brachiarias são resistentes a doenças tais como a ferrugem e o atrofiamento, que constituem uma grave ameaça para os sistemas de produção de lacticínios baseados no capim elefante na África Oriental. A Brachiaria é originária da África Oriental, mas a variedade e o híbrido de qualidade superior usados neste ensaio foram examinados e melhorados pelo CIAT e pelos seus parceiros na América Latina. A Stylosanthes, uma leguminosa exótica, proporciona proteínas baratas para suplementar as dietas pobres dos animais durante a época seca.Embora a investigação aqui descrita esteja ainda num estágio inicial, foi possível identificar as forragens que se adaptam bem e que podem ser expandidas para outras áreas similares. Quando as forragens estiverem integradas nos sistemas de produção, haverá vantagens claras em termos de geração de receitas, gestão de recursos naturais (GRN) e outros benefícios socioeconómicos. Por exemplo, nos sistemas de produção de pequenos agricultores do sudeste da Ásia as tecnologias das forragens aumentaram a receita dos agregados familiares proveniente do gado em 30 por cento, resultando também no aumento da produção de estrume e na poupança de tempo e de mão-de-obra que de outra forma seria usada para tomar conta do gado ou na procura de forragem para cortar e carregar.Porém, o uso das forragens pode, de muitas formas, ser mais complexo que o de outras culturas. A forma mais provável de adoptar as forragens é através de integração com outras culturas, em vez de cultivadas isoladamente. Há uma grande diversidade de espécies e variedades de forragens, cada uma delas com os seus requisitos de adaptação ambiental e gestão específicos. Estas características inerentes das tecnologias de forragens prestam-se, e na verdade exigem, a experimentação por pequenos agricultores, para experimentarem as \"melhores opções\" de espécies e variedades e inventarem estratégias locais que tornem as forragens lucrativas, sustentáveis e compatíveis com as outras culturas.","tokenCount":"1161"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/6661380205.json b/data/part_5/6661380205.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..68ee0a06e75134fb49c8fc81d4ef5a3f170adaab
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69d7b6a63d1e3ceb9ed4614ecacd455e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e34f5573-48e0-4915-8f66-4783290e2c32/retrieve","id":"1752594573"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b0afdf24-b98e-48bf-8d1c-d1cf5347256b","pagecount":"1","content":"The study compared 24 F 1 hybrids from crosses between West Africa elite genotypes crossed to genotypes introduced from East Africa or Latin America along with two check landrace cultivars (TMEB419 and TMEB693). Uniform yield trials were conducted in Ibadan, Mokwa, Ikenne, Ubiaja and Zaria in 2014/2015 cropping season using RCBD with four replications. Data generated were analyzed using SAS. Yield data were subjected to (GGE) biplot 2 to identify high yielding and stable genotypes (Table 1).ANOVA showed significant GEI (P<0.001) for all traits studied (Table 1).Genotypes had highly resistant to cassava mosaic (CMD) and bacterial blight diseases (CBB) (table 1). GGE biplot identified G19 (IBA090574 (7.17 tha −1 )), G12 (IBA090521 (7.31 tha −1 )) and G22 (IBA090590 (7.52 tha −1 )) as high yielding and stable (Fig 1 and 2). Ikenne (E2) was identified as the best among tested environments for selection of hybrids (Fig 3)Cassava is an excellent food security crop in Africa 1 . Genotype by environment interaction (GEI) becomes an important problem during cultivar recommendation. Genotypes performance were tested in five environments in Nigeria for agronomic performance and we select those with high dry root yield (DYLD) and stability of performance.","tokenCount":"196"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/6691100440.json b/data/part_5/6691100440.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b28cb0ed59c986cc573cf9ea5ac77b36c3539c92
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f4ef462088287bb49852a3785d81f15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a8d1b399-ea69-436f-aec7-d3b45011a196/retrieve","id":"-1490948247"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"446b1346-8697-4f87-bb8a-922ccffe157f","pagecount":"4","content":"Problems caused by eating unsafe food are a major health issue in many countries. Contamination by bacteria or toxins can cause these health risks, particularly for young children whose bodies are still developing. It can be difficult to know which foods are risky because you usually cannot tell by looking if food is contaminated. The goal of this research was to see whether giving consumers in Kenya information about one of these contamination risks would make them choose to purchase different products.We focused our study on aflatoxin, a common food safety hazard in Kenya. Consuming foods very high in aflatoxin can cause liver disease and even death. Over time, lower levels of exposure to aflatoxin increase the risk of liver cancer and may have negative effects on children's immune system function and growth.For one year, we purchased different types of maize flour every two months at different locations in Kenya. We found that throughout the year, posho flour -whether from the consumer's own farm, the miller's supply, or purchased grain -was much more likely to be contaminated above the regulatory limit of 10 parts per billion than packaged unga. Extra-sifted posho flour was about as safe as packaged unga. During processing of both packaged unga and extra-sifted posho, the parts of the grain where aflatoxin tends to be concentrated are mostly removed. Unfortunately, these are also the components of the grain that contain most of the fibre, vitamins and minerals in maize.MARCH 2023 We interviewed members of 1450 households in low-income neighbourhoods of Nairobi and Athi River to get information about how consumers think about food safety risks and about the types of foods they consume. We randomly chose some of these households and provided them with information about the higher aflatoxin risk of posho flour at the end of the interview.We also gave these households a poster with the information on it as a reminder. We came back to do another interview two months later to see if households who got the information changed the type of maize flour they purchased, compared to households in the control group, who did not receive this information.The poster given to randomly selected householdsWhen the research team revisited the same households two months later, half of households who received information were now consuming safer packaged maize flour, compared to one in three people who were not given information. Those given information also showed more understanding of food safety risks. We also found some evidence that people had shared information with their neighbours.Simply providing consumers with information led them to make safer food choices. Conducting regular food safety surveillance, and then providing the public with information about relatively safer versus riskier foods, can have a big impact on food choices. This approach has the potential to help consumers avoid risky foods. By expanding the market share of food businesses providing safer options, provision of this type of information can also increase the average safety of the food supply and create incentives for businesses to invest in food safety.For more information about this study, please contact Dr. Sarah Kariuki at s.w.kariuki@cgiar.org or Michael Murphy at m.murphy@cgiar.org.  ","tokenCount":"521"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5c85241fba70feec8483cb755c9dcc8c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01f982b8-b17b-429d-be81-deb4af95050b/retrieve","id":"-1383590595"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e9cae559-de1a-4467-9edf-90159ab8b61d","pagecount":"11","content":"This report seeks to identify and gather more information regarding the current players in the forage seed systems in Zambia as well as some of the various aspect associated with the forage seed industry in the country.The most important constraints to improving livestock production in Zambia are related to animal nutrition (Kulich, 1987).In Zambia has about 20.3 million hectares of rangeland (Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 2020). Cattle contribute at least 61% of the meat and 95% milk consumed in the country. In view of the above, the livestock sector has tremendous potential and capacity in contributing to poverty alleviation, increasing the socio-economic status of most people and, consequently, contributing significantly to the economic growth of the country (Daka,2007) The need for increased productivity and food security in the country has stimulated a lot of interest in the quest to provide improved nutrition to livestock in order to increase productivity. One area which has drawn a lot of attention is the need to improve the countries natural pastoral grazing lands and adoption and cultivation of superior forage/fodder species.In the initial stages of development of the seed industry in Zambia, the Zambia Agricultural Research institute (ZARI) began the pasture and fodder industry which provided the pasture seeds for government run farms. ZARI provided most of the seeds to the then commercial farms and this led to the start of the pasture industry in Zambia. The Seed Control and Certification Institute (SCCI) was running forage breeding programmes, especially through the Zambia Seed Company (Zamseed). Owing to lack of appreciation of the importance of forage production and pasture development by the majority of smallscale livestock farmers in the country, very few smallholder farmers attached monetary value to growing of forage grasses and legumes as a source of livestock feed. The main challenges faced by the forage seed subsector during the past two decades are summarized as follows:i) Low market demand for forage seed, especially for legumes, following market liberalization in the 1990s, during which period most private seed companies found it uneconomical to invest in forage seed production and marketing; ii) Lack of expertise and skills in forage, worsened by 'brain-drain' of forage specialists. iii) Research in seed was reduced to varieties of field crops and research work on forage crops had stalled.There are five identified seed systems predominant in Zambia, which include 1) farmer-saved, 2) NGOs and cooperatives, 3) Public-Private, supported by ZARI and local seed companies, 4) Private, supported by international seed companies, and 5) Private, supported by out-grower schemes for export commodities.In the informal farmer-saved system, farmers themselves multiply and exchange seed locally, both through barter and sometimes for cash. This system has no quality assurance measures for the landraces that are multiplied. In the second system, NGOs are assisting community groups or farmer cooperatives in seed multiplication and marketing. Smallholder farmers in Zambia who grow crops other than maize are nearly always acquiring seed through these two systems.With the current rising demand for forage seed, a few private companies are involved in forage seed production and marketing, such as Klein Karoo (K2), Hygrotech, Advanta and Afriseeds. However, the seed for most forage species (particularly perennial legumes) is scarce and when available, it is expensive and therefore not affordable for most smallholder farmers.According to the Baseline study/survey on the seed sector of Zambia (Miti, 2015) forage seed growers will be required to register with SCCI, either through an authorized seed company or a legitimate Seed Growers' Association. The seed crops are subjected to field standards which include rotation, isolation and off types and successful seed crops are harvested.The data collected to document this study of the forage seed systems in Zambia was mainly through phone calls, online research and one-on-one discussions with various stakeholders. The impact of COVID 19 and its associated movement restrictions did however negatively affect the ability to freely collect data. we do however believe that this report gives a pragmatic overview of the current forage system situation in the country.The seed industry in Zambia includes the active participation by both the private and public sectors in seed quality control and a licensing scheme. Seed systems can be either formal or informal (local seed systems). Formal systems generally consist of public sector research institutions, such as ZARI, public and private sector agencies producing and marketing seed, and organizations responsible for seed certification and quantity control (for example the SCCI). ii. Private sector model: Private seed companies, to which smallholder farmers are linked, play an important role in seed multiplication and marketing. Researchers (public sector) provide breeder seed (released varieties) to private seed companies to be multiplied into parent and commercial seed (certified seed). Forage seed production, processing and marketing is done by private companies and/or farmer cooperatives.There are six major companies that are currently either producing, distributing or both. Here is an outline of each of these companies, their contacts and what types of forage seeds they are handling. Some of the information may not be conclusive as we respect the right of reservation to information as each company's policy dictates.It would be important to note that some small scale farmers dotted around the country were also trained in forage seed production through a project entitled Enhanced Small Livestock Investment Programme (E-SLIP). The company has seen an interest in Brachiaria and Rhodes grass from farmers. Their clients are mostly commercial farmers who buy in large volumes with a small percentage being smallholder farmers. The high interest from farmers was observed in 2019 but this did not translate into sales. However, in the year 2020, the company saw an increase in sales. Among the notable varieties that Agriserve sales include; Afriseed is a company that has been trading cereals and legumes for human consumption. In the recent past the company has incorporated the production of forage legumes as a protein source to address the dry season challenges that farmers face in Zambia. The main clients who buy seeds from the company are smallholder and medium scale farmers. The company is reporting increased seed sales due to increased interest from emerging farmers. Currently the company is reporting demand to outstripped supply. Among the legumes being sold include; 1. Dolichos lablab 2. Velvet beans 3. Cowpea Due to the increased demand for forage legumes, the company has focused on capacity building their staff in pasture production of both legumes and grasses. The company has focused their effort establishing demonstration plot of different pastures and legumes as a way of building the pasture section. Among the pastures the company is focused on include;1. Rhodes grass 2. Siratro 3. Desmodium 4. Stylosanthes 5. Bana grassAdvanta Seed has been supplying and selling seeds through Klein Karoo over the past 5 years but the company intends to start selling the forage sorghums as Advanta Seed. The seeds that are being traded include; 1. Nutrifeed 2. SugargrazeLivestock Services Cooperative Society is a nonprofit making organization which was established by the Zambian farming community in 1991. Its aim is to become the leading Livestock & Agricultural Cooperative in Africa through the provision of quality products at the most competitive prices. This organization is the largest retailer and wholesaler of Livestock products in the country. They stock various seed dependent on the market demand and seed availability (Table 3).The Ministry of Fisheries through the Enhanced Smallholder Livestock Investment programme trained 55 farmers in seed production principles. The 55 seed growers are smallholder farmers who are located in 22 districts across 9 provinces. The seed growers were trained on a contract-based buyback system. The Objective of training the 55 seed growers was to; 1. Make forage seeds available to smallholder farmers across the country 2. Make the forage seeds Accessible to smallholder farmers across the country 3. Make forage seeds affordable to smallholder farmers across the country The contract buy back system has been implemented over 3 seasons so far and the production has seen an increase in production from one season to another. This concept has led to the creation of 55 rural fodder seed banks. The 55 seed growers are broken down as 35 males and 20 females and 1 youths.At institutional level, 2 livestock breeding centers namely Chipompo in Northern province and Mukulaikwa in Central province produced forage seeds. From our study, it was obvious that the majority of livestock farmers (majority being small scale) do not have readily access to quality forage seed and neither do they have sufficient knowledge on the establishment of improved pastures. The seed and the agronomical and economical information that move in tandem were available only for the minority commercial sector. The challenges facing the forage seed system in Zambia can be looked at from four main levels; Production, Distribution, seed regulation and adoption.a. Production -No national forage seed breeding institution functional to establish the most ideal forage species for specific areas -Inadequate knowledge on forage establishment (farmers and extension officers) -Poor irrigation infrastructure as a back up to impacts of climate change -Low accessibility to quality seed b. Regulation -Insufficient knowledge from seed control authorities on the modalities regarding determining the quality of forage seed. The focus has been food crop seeds so there is need for sensitisation -Due to the above point, the process of importing quality seed is very rigorous and often very time consuming. -Informal seed sale is the norm and as such the quality of the seed is not certain and this often leads to poor performance of the forages.c. Distribution -Most of the seed suppliers are retail outfits situated along the railway line as such, rural livestock farmers do not have access to the few seed suppliers in the country -High cost of packaging equipment and material often compromises the packaging which reduces the seed viability by the time of planting.d. Adoption -Many farmers utilise local grass (such as Hyparrhenia rufa) for dry season feeding despite the low nutritional quality of the hay. -High cost of certified seed makes it unaffordable to many farmersThe opportunities for development and scaling up of the forage seed system in Zambia are numerous some of these are listed below: -Increasing demand for forage seed. There is a huge demand for forage seed and this is evident by the inability of the seed suppliers to meet local market demand especially for the grasses (Rhodes grass, Brachiaria and Panicum maximum) and increasingly for the legumes as well -Zambia currently has one of the best milk prices in the region (USD 0.50 -0.60/ Lt). This price has made farmers realise that sustaining milk production throughout the year is more profitable than most other farming ventures. As such there is more willingness for uptake of pasture improvement. -The Government has made deliberate policy to ensure that the livestock sector is highly prioritised. One example is the creation of a directorate office for rangeland and pasture development at the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries. -Cattle disease control efforts are seeing livestock numbers increasing and as such creating demand for improved rangelands. -The climate in Zambia is ideal for the establishment of most tropical forages.-The geographical position of Zambia is strategic as a forage seed producing hub that can supply the sub-Saharan region and beyond.We can deduce from this study that the forage seed system in the country is still in its infancy. there is need for the formal sector to play a much bigger role in the development of the sector so as to meet the growing demand for forage seed. There is also a need to have a holistic forage/fodder training component in extension staff curriculum in order to have a stronger knowledge base concerning cultivated forage.The need to strengthen research in selection and breeding of relevant forage species and upgrading existing research centers is imperative to reduce the knowledge gap.integrating forage seed in the Farmers Input Support programme (Government subsidized agro support program). By so doing, a clear data base of forage seed consumers would be established for easy monitoring of seed quality and forage crop performance. Specifically, designated agro-dealers and community groups would be used to ensure that forage seed reaches the end-users at the correct time. Rural shops, Groceries, 'Tumtembas' and Veterinary Drug retail outlets are promising channels for disseminating information about availability of forage seed to customers. This would greatly improve the distribution channels and ensure that the most ideal forage species are distributed specific to the area within and outside Zambia.","tokenCount":"2065"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"73a49274ac2590b07e736746ecde5eef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99155250-035f-4064-80db-6e0d134d74aa/retrieve","id":"-2123955775"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"221a6da8-d75f-4f0b-928b-eabc4c38c80c","pagecount":"99","content":"Field evaluations of ELISA, using monoclonal antibodies produced by ILRAD to diagnose trypanosome infections in livestock, were begun this year. This work is being carried out in collaboration with FAO, the International Atomic Energy Agency and scientists in the Gambia,The International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) was established by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) in 1973 with a mandate to conduct intensive research leading to improved control of livestock diseases. The Laboratory's research and training activities concentrate on immunological and related aspects of two diseases, theileriosis and trypanosomiasis, that seriously limit food production and rural development in Africa and other developing regions of the world. ILRAD's research is focused on two virulent forms of these diseases, East Coast fever and tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis.ILRAD occupies a modern complex of research laboratories and supporting units at Kabete, on the outskirts of Nairobi, and has a cattle breeding ranch on the Kapiti Plains, about 50 kilometres from Nairobi. The Laboratory is governed by an International Board of Directors with 12 members. In April 1988 Professor I. Månsson (Sweden) was elected Chairman of the Board in succession to Professor H. Jahnke (West Germany). Dr. D. Chavanduka (Zimbabwe) and Professor E.N.W. Oppong (Ghana) retired by rotation after completing six years of service and were sums by Dr. L Mpelumbe (Tanzania) and Professor I. Abdulkadir (Nigeria).In 1988 ILRAD was staffed by 59 senior scientific and administrative personnel, 25 specialized technicians, 50 advanced technical support staff and 282 general support staff. The nationalities of the staff comprise 15 countries, including Kenya. During this year ILRAD was particularly sorry to lose the services of Dr. R. Rowe, Director of Administration and Finance, and Ms. S. Westley, Information Services Editor, each of whom made major contributions to the development of the Laboratory over periods of more than seven years. The appointments of their successors, Mr. K. Geerts and Ms. S. MacMillan, respectively, and that of Dr. M. Tour, as Head of the restructured Department of Cooperative Programs, Training and Information, was warmly welcomed.The Foreword to the 1987 Annual Report summarized changes in the management of ILRAD's research programs that were introduced in response to recommendations made by the External Program Review and Management Review team, which completed their work in 1986. Program management was further strengthened in 1988 by the work of a Research Review Committee comprising the Director of Research and the Coordinators of the theileriosis and trypanosomiasis research programs.The Research Review Committee oversees the general needs of ILRAD's two principal research programs, allocates resources, reviews research progress and works closely with the Program Committee of the Board of Directors on general research policy matters and with staff scientists who serve as Project Area Leaders on more applied aspects of the programs. Following approval by the Board of Directors, ILRAD published in the middle of the year an updated version of the Laboratory's long-term plan, entitled, Meeting the Challenge of Livestock Diseases: ILRAD in the 1990s, which gives an account of the structure and objectives of ILRAD's research program.ILRAD instituted in this year a regular review of its research programs by panels of experts drawn from the international scientific community. One of the institute's research areastrypanosome biology and biochemistry-was reviewed in November; in December the Program Committee of the Board of Directors examined the report and recommendations made by the Review Panel.At the mid-year a new building donated by the Netherlands Government was completed. The building houses a much-expanded Department of Cooperative Programs, Training and Information in Africa and is already well-used. Towards the end of 1988 ILRAD signed an agreement with Swiss Development Cooperation for the construction of a laboratory in 1989 and 1990 to accommodate staff engaged in epidemiology and socioeconomics research. The completion of this laboratory will fulfil the recommendations of a recent publication of the Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR, Review of Training in the CGIAR Institutes, as well as recommendations of the External Program Review and Management Review teams, which were to reduce an increasing congestion in the laboratories and to provide better training facilities. We are most grateful to the donor nations which are providing these muchneeded and much-welcomed facilities.A full account of the activities of the research and training programs in 1988 comprises the bulk of this Annual Report. The comments that follow highlight the achievements and other matters regarding the year's work that warrant emphasis.In the theileriosis research program, ILRAD's knowledge of the epidemiology of East Coast fever and its expertise in immunizing livestock by the infection-and-treatment method continued to be in demand locally and internationally. Good progress was made during the year in cloning T. parva stocks. This should greatly facilitate the development of diagnostic DNA probes to differentiate species and strains. The gene that carries a code for the production of a sporozoite antigen that induces immunity to East Coast fever has been sequenced. The gene for another antigen shared by both the sporozoite and the schizont forms of the parasite is being scrutinized. The project has built up an armoury of techniques for examining infection-related antigenic changes in lymphoblastoid cells and for using genes and other materials related to parasite antigens that might induce immunity. The techniques are being used to elucidate features of the cellular immune response to theileriosis.The trypanosomiasis program is now testing and evaluating antigen-trapping technology using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to diagnose tsetse-transmitted bovine trypanosome infections in the field. There appear to be valuable spin-off benefits of this procedure for improving the diagnosis of infections with human sleeping sickness and nontsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis in Africa and other regions of the world. Research into treating animals with chemotherapeutic drugs to prevent or cure trypanosomiasis is being conducted in close collaboration with scientists at neighbouring institutes. This program is making use of trypanosome culture systems and advanced chromatographic and fluorometric technology to measure drug levels in bovine body fluids as well as drug-sensitivity in parasites. Research on natural livestock tolerance to trypanosomiasis has moved ahead both in the laboratory and in the field and 24 N'Dama calves have been produced using embryotransfer techniques for in-depth studies. Results of ILRAD's basic studies on the biology and biochemistry of trypanosomes, including findings on the parasitic cell parts involved in the uptake of nutrients and in molecular sorting, were evaluated by experts in the field at an international workshop on protein traffic in parasites and mammalian cells, which ILRAD conducted at the Laboratory in September with financial support from the United Nations Development Program. A team working on humoral immune responses to trypanosomes was reorganized and expanded during the year and a group working on the severe anaemia produced in livestock suffering from trypanosomiasis produced interesting results in pioneering work that is being conducted on long-term bovine marrow cell culture.The epidemiological and socioeconomics group has prepared papers on the impact of East Coast fever and trypanosomiass and the implications of their control in Africa, and has begun to monitor and map the distribution of these diseases in Africa and to assemble and evaluate epidemiological data in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Program. The group is also participating in cooperative field research studies with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Part of the objectives of this relatively new research unit is to address aspects of  Theileria is a genus of protozoan parasites transmitted by ticks predominantly to domestic and wild ruminants. Theileria annulata and Theileria parva are two species of this parasite that cause debilitating and often fatal diseases in cattle. Theileria annulata occurs over a broad area, extending from Asia to India, southern Russia, the Middle East and northern Africa. In eastern, central and southern Africa the most important species is T. parva, which restricts the distribution of cattle and hinders the development of beef and dairy production on the continent. The disease caused by T. parva, a virulent form of theileriosis, threatens the lives of about 25 million cattle in Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The aim of ILRAD's theileriosis research program is to develop improved methods to control T. parva infections.Three subtypes of T. parva, all of which are transmitted by the brown ear tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, have been identified. Theileria parva parva and Theileria parva bovis are both transmitted between cattle: T. p. parva produces an acute, usually fatal disease called East Coast fever (ECF); T. p. bovis produces a milder form of theileriosis. Theileria parva lawrencei also causes an acute disease and is transmitted principally from Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) to cattle. The buffalo acts as a carrier of the parasite and does not normally suffer from clinical disease, which is severe and usually fatal in cattle. No clear evidence exists that these three parasites represent true subspecies and T. parva is used in this report for all three subtypes.All these parasites have a complex life cycle of development in the arthropod vector and mammalian host. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus is a three-host tick, feeding on an animal during each of the three stages of its life cycle-larva, nymph and adult. The larvae and nymphs that ingest parasites on one host are in turn infective as nymphs and adults, respectively, when they feed on another host during the next stage of their development. The parasites are transmitted most commonly when ticks feed on infected animals as nymphs and then on susceptible cattle as adults.Theileria parva ingested by ticks first develops in the tick gut. The parasite then migrates to the salivary glands, where it develops further, forming infective sporozoites, which are injected into cattle in tick saliva when the tick feeds. Inside the host, the sporozoites attach to and enter lymphocytes, white blood cells of the bovine immune system (Figure 1). Within two to three days of invading the lymphocytes, the sporozoites begin to develop into multinucleate bodies called schizonts. The infected lymphocytes are transformed into enlarged lymphoblasts, which begin to multiply. As each lymphoblast divides, the parasite inside the cell also divides, so that both daughter cells produced by a dividing bovine lymphocyte are infected. This process causes the population of parasitized cells to increase rapidly and the infected cells spread throughout the lymphoid system of the animal. Virulent forms of the parasite eventually cause widespread destruction of the host's cells, which usually kills the animal within three to four weeks of its becoming infected. During the later stages of the infection, some of the Theileria schizonts differentiate to merozoite forms. The merozoites are released from the lymphocytes into the bloodstream, where they invade red blood cells, in which they develop into piroplasms (Figure 2). Ticks become infected when they ingest red blood cells containing piroplasms as they feed, and this initiates a new cycle of parasite development. East Coast fever is controlled principally by dipping or spraying cattle with substances that kill ticks, but this is expensive and the cattle remain fully susceptible to the disease; any interruption of the acaricide regime may be disastrous. Furthermore, ticks are developing resistance to the acaricides in use and most acaricides damage the environment. Two curative drugs have been developed to treat ECF, but they are relatively expensive and the disease must be diagnosed early for the treatment to be most effective. For these reasons alternative methods of ECF control are urgently needed.Cattle that recover from ECF thereafter show long-lasting immunity to the disease, which suggests that the prospects of controlling ECF by immunization are good. However, antigenic diversity exists among strains of Theileria and immunity against one strain does not necessarily protect cattle against another. In view of the shortcomings of present control methods, new approaches must be developed to immunize livestock against ECF.Cattle can be immunized against T. parva by infecting the animals with the sporozoite form of the parasite while at the same time treating the cattle with a long-acting formulation of the antibiotic drug oxytetracycline. This infection-and-treatment method is the only practical and effective form of immunization against T. parva in use today and is being tested in field trials in several countries in Africa. Because immunized cattle, as well as animals that recover naturally from infection or following treatment, are carriers of the infection, most field immunization trials are carried out using parasite populations that have been isolated from the regions in which the immunizations will be given.ILRAD's epidemiology program helps national governments to evaluate the epidemiology and economic impact of theileriosis and to establish immunization programs based on the infection-and-treatment method. ILRAD advises national governments, trains personnel who will carry out the infection and treatment, provides reagents to national government laboratories for diagnosing the disease and characterizing the parasites and in some instances helps to characterize in the laboratory the parasites that will be used in the immunization procedure. Immunological characterization of T. parva parasites still relies heavily on costly and time-consuming cross-protection experiments in cattle. An important part of ILRAD's epidemiology program, therefore, is research on the development of laboratory methods to characterize Theileria parasites.In 1988 the theileriosis program increased its technical and advisory help to national governments in the ECF endemic region. ILRAD scientists took part in discussions at a meeting organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) that brought together representatives of five organizations that fund national and regional ECF immunization projects in Africa. ILRAD staff also participated in a national theileriosis seminar held in Zambia. ILRAD collaborated with FAO and the Organization of African Unity in organizing the third in a series of workshops on ECF immunization. At this meeting, held in Lilongwe, Malawi, participants from 12 countries discussed the epidemiology of theileriosis, the use of the infection-and-treatment method to control the disease, problems of infecting and treating animals in the field and methods used to assess the costs and benefits of immunizing cattle. ILRAD also conducted a four-week course on the control of tick-borne diseases with emphasis on immunization against theileriosis. The course was attended by veterinarians responsible for tick-borne disease control in six countries..Staff from the theileriosis program worked directly with national governments during the year on conducting immunization trials in Zanzibar and Zimbabwe. An ILRAD team assisted a project funded by the Overseas Development Administration and the Zanzibar Government to immunize cattle against ECF on Zanzibar's Unguja Island. An immunization trial against Theileria parva using a local Zanzibar stock of the parasite was completed successfully in cross-bred cattle, which have been targeted for immunization by Zanzibar's Department of Livestock Development. Other tick-borne diseases on this island, particularly those caused by Theileria mutans and Cowdria ruminantium, must also be controlled and ILRAD is helping to prepare and characterize isolates of these parasites that will be tested in preliminary immunization trials.The Zimbabwe Government, FAO and ILRAD have collaborated in conducting immunization trials in Zimbabwe in both the laboratory and the field using two stocks of T. p. bovis. Field trials using one of these stocks will be conducted during the next seasonal challenge, when the tick numbers increase after the rains. On a government experimental farm in Zimbabwe, studies are also being carried out on the transmission of T. p. bovis parasites from immunized carrier cattle through tick populations to susceptible cattle. ILRAD is studying the benefits and costs of various tick control strategies and the influence of these strategies on the endemic stability of tick-borne diseases in a variety of ecological zones to help policymakers in Zimbabwe choose the most appropriate tick control strategies to put into practice in given areas.Cattle that are immune to one population of Theileria may not resist infection with another, indicating that different, immunologically distinct, groups of parasites exist in the field. If a vaccine against ECF is to protect cattle against infection, it must stimulate immunity against the different populations of T. parva parasites the animals are likely to encounter. Practicable and reliable laboratory methods need to be developed with which to differentiate the antigenic groups of Theileria parasites. Regional and national veterinary and research institutes in Africa also need improved methods of characterization to define the Theileria parasites in their countries and to assess the results of their disease control programs. The epidemiology of theileriosis is complicated by the presence of two other Theileria species, T. mutans and T. taurotragi, which infect cattle but are much less pathogenic than T. parva. Rapid and reliable methods to distinguish these Theileria species are also needed.Two highly sensitive tools are being used at ILRAD to distinguish species and strains: parasite-specific monoclonal antibodies and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) probes. The DNA probes are sequences of DNA that can be used in hybridization procedures to detect the parasite-specific DNA sequences in DNA prepared from parasitized cells in the blood of infected cattle. Six T. parva stocks that have been well-characterized with respect to virulence, cross-protection and reactivity with existing monoclonal antibodies and DNA probes are being used to develop and refine new reagents for detecting antigenic differences that might characterize Theileria strains.The occurrence of mixed parasite populations within the stocks of T. parva greatly complicates the interpretation of results of cross-protection experiments. To define immunological differences among parasite populations, it is essential to obtain parasite clones, which are cell populations each derived from a single ancestor parasite. Parasite clones that stimulate protection would provide more standardized material for cross-immunity trials. Such clones are also required to explore the possible role of genetic recombination in the antigenic diversity that occurs in T. parva parasites.Cloned populations of the sporozoite form of the parasite are obtained by infecting bovine lymphocytes in the laboratory with T. parva sporozoites at ratios that ensure that the infection of each lymphocyte is initiated by a single sporozoite. Infected lymphocytes are then cloned from the resultant cultures and a cloned population of parasitized cells is inoculated into the animal from which the lymphocytes were taken. The infection established within the animal is then transmitted to ticks from which stabilates of sporozoites are prepared. Using this approach, cloned parasite populations have been derived from two Kenyan T. parva stocks (Mariakani and Boleni). Results of experiments with the two cloned populations indicate that the monoclonal antibody profiles of the clones resemble those of the parent stocks.Experiments are being carried out to determine whether these populations remain genetically stable after further passage through ticks; comparisons of the cross-protective properties of these populations with those of the parent stocks will also be made.A great deal of work on the characterization of Theileria stocks in vitro has been based on the recognition of parasite antigens by monoclonal antibodies, detected by the indirect immunofluorescence antibody test. Monoclonal antibodies are produced from hybrid cells formed by the fusion of mouse spleen cells that are primed to produce specific antibodies and mouse tumor cells that are capable of growing and multiplying in vitro. Whereas sera from infected cattle can be expected to react with a wide range of parasite antigens, each monoclonal antibody, being derived from a cloned antibody-producing cell, detects a single antigenic determinant, the part of the antigen's surface that combines with an antibody.Monoclonal antibodies can thus be used as reagents to detect antigenic differences in parasite proteins from different parasite populations.Over the last several years a panel of monoclonal antibodies that reacts with T. parva schizonts has been developed. When used in an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test, these antibodies detect antigenic differences among parasite stocks. Although no obvious correlation is observed between the antigenic differences and the crossprotective properties of the parasites, the monoclonal antibodies have nevertheless proved to be useful reagents with which to characterize parasite populations. Both the reagents and the technology used at ILRAD in monoclonal antibody characterization were provided during the year to tick-borne disease control projects in Zimbabwe and Kenya.Experiments to identify the parasite antigens recognized by the monoclonal antibodies show that most of the antibodies recognize different determinants on the same antigen. Moreover, when the antibodies were tested on lysates of parasitized cells, differences in the molecular mass of the antigen that these antibodies recognize were detected in different parasite populations. Much of the antibody response in mice and cattle to parasite schizonts is directed against the antigen that these monoclonal antibodies recognize. Efforts are being made to devise immunization procedures that will make it possible to produce monoclonal antibodies to other schizont proteins.Parasite proteins have also been analysed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. This technique involves purifying schizonts that have been labelled with radioactive isotopes and separating solubilized schizont proteins into groups according to their molecular weight and electrical charge. Five protein spots observed in gels prepared from a T. parva lawrencei parasite were absent in gels prepared from several T. parva parva stocks. Attempts will be made to isolate these proteins with the aim of producing antibodies that can be used as reagents to type parasite strains in the field.Studies were begun in 1985 to identify DNA sequences that could be used as cloned probes to identify T. parva subspecies and strains. Specific fragments of DNA from any source can be amplified by cloning. In 1986 and 1987 DNA sequences present as multiple copies in the Theileria genome were cloned from Theileria parva DNA. Used as radioactive probes, these repetitive sequences hybridized with DNA from T. parva but not with DNA from T. mutans or T. tauratragi. These sequences can thus be used as species-specific probes. In 1988 a repetitive DNA sequence specific for T. mutans was cloned from a T. mutans genomic library and the nucleotide sequence is being determined and tested against DNA from other T. mutans isolates. A genomic library has also been constructed from T. taurotragi and is being screened for species-specific DNA sequences.Differences in DNA sequences that might be used to identify Theileria strains may also be detected by digesting the DNA with restriction enzymes and resolving the fragments by gel electrophoresis. Differences in the sizes of DNA fragments are known as restriction fragment length polymorphisms. When the T. parva repetitive DNA probes are hybridized with DNA from different stocks of T. parva and digested with various restriction enzymes, they detect restriction fragment length polymorphism. Similar differences in DNA have been detected in cloned parasitized cell lines derived from the same parasite stock, indicating that such stocks contain mixtures of genetically distinct parasites (Figure 3). These DNA probes are proving to be valuable reagents for defining parasite stocks and characterizing cloned populations of T. parva. But because the probes are difficult to use in the field, there remains a need to develop DNA probes that will provide a positive or negative signal on blots of DNA from field isolates of T. parva.Two approaches to the development of such probes are being pursued. The first involves further screening of Theileria DNA libraries for stock-specific sequences. This has been done with DNA from four stocks of T. parva. After carrying out several screenings, two useful sequences have been identified. Both were isolated from T. p. bovis (Boleni). When hybridized with parasite DNA, these sequences hybridized only with the Boleni parasite. The results of these experiments suggest that the potential of this approach for identifying stock-specific repetitive sequences may be limited.A second approach to developing stock-specific DNA probes seeks to exploit the polymerase chain reaction. This involves identifying in the Theileria genome the short conserved sequences of DNA that do not change among parasite populations and that flank variable sequences. These conserved sequences can be used as primers in a polymerase chain reaction that is used to amplify the adjacent variable sequences of DNA. Oligonucleotides containing different variable regions can then be used as probes to identify particular variable sequences. This should be a highly sensitive method for detecting specific parasite populations. Work on this approach is being carried out in collaboration with scientists at the University of Cambridge and is initially concentrating on the repetitive DNA sequences that are already available.Genetic recombination, which involves the exchange of genetic material between parasite populations, may occur in T. parva populations during the parasite's development in the tick and contribute to the antigenic diversity that occurs in T. parva parasites. To study this, a series of DNA probes must be available that will hybridize with different sequences distributed throughout the parasite genome. The parasite genome has been analysed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, a technique that separates large fragments of DNA according to their size.When the restriction enzyme Sfi-1, which cuts DNA into large fragments, digests parasite DNA, 30 to 40 fragments are produced, some of which differ in size among parasite stocks, indicating that the sites of enzyme cleavage, and thus the sequences around these sites, differ among stocks. The existing repetitive DNA probes for T. parva hybridize with only a few of these fragments. To obtain probes that hybridize at different sites in the genome, experiments are being conducted to clone DNA sequences spanning the Sfi restriction sites. Several such clones were isolated in 1988 and are now being characterized.Cattle that have been immunized against T. parva by simultaneous infection and treatment and then challenged with large numbers of sporozoites produce antisporozoite antibodies. When these antibodies are added to suspensions of sporozoites, the antibodies neutralize the ability of the sporozoites to infect lymphocytes. A characteristic of these antibodies that is important to ILRAD's sporozoite research is that the antibodies react with sporozoites from antigenically different strains. This indicates that it may be possible to induce broad protection against ECF by using sporozoite antigens.The aims of the sporozoite research project are to identify the antigens on the surface of the sporozoite that induce the host's immune system to produce neutralizing antibodies, to clone the genes that code for these antigens and to test the ability of the gene products to induce immunity.Sera from cattle immunized with sporozoites to produce high levels of antibodies have been used to probe Western blots of solubilized sporozoite proteins to identify sporozoite antigens that may induce immunity. These experiments led to the identification of four protein antigens against which most of the activity of the antibodies are directed (Figure 4). The molecular masses of the intact forms of these antigen molecules are approximately 104, 85, 67 and 43 kilodaltons (kDa). The 85-kDa antigen is also found in shizonts and in this stage has been shown to vary in molecular mass (69-104 kDa) among parasite populations. In the shizont, this antigen is immunodominant with regard to induction of antibody responses and is therefore referred to at ILRAD as the polymorphic immunodominant molecule (PIM). Mouse monoclonal antibodies have also been produced against sporozoites and all the mouse antibodies specifically recognize the 67-kDa antigen. The 67-kDa molecule, which comprises a loose surface coat over the sporozoite surface, is involved in the initial binding of the sporozoite to a lymphocyte, after which the sporozoite enters the lymphocyte. Some of the monoclonal antibodies that specifically recognize this molecule strongly neutralize the ability of the sporozoites to infect lymphocytes. At least part of the antigen molecule is shed from the sporozoites as they enter the lymphocytes, and the specific monoclonal antibodies no longer react with sporozoites after they have been internalized.Until recently the location of the 105-kDa antigen molecule in the sporozoite was not known because of lack of antisera or monoclonal antibodies that specifically recognized the antigen. Then, in 1987, the gene carrying the code for this molecule was cloned and the sequence of the gene's DNA was determined. In the last year a specific antiserum against the protein product of this gene has been produced. Electron microscopic examination of sections of sporozoites exposed to antibody labelled with colloidal gold localized the antigen to micronemes and rhoptries, cell organelles within the cytoplasm of sporozoites (Figure 5). Ongoing studies in 1988 showed that these structures discharge their contents shortly after the sporozoite invades a lymphocyte. Structural observations indicate that this event triggers the disintegration of the host cell membrane, which surrounds the parasite immediately after it invades the host lymphocyte. The antiserum to the 104-kDa antigen had no neutralizing effect, suggesting that this antigen is unlikely to be a target of antibody-mediated immunity.The PIM antigen was first identified in schizonts using monoclonal antibodies produced against parasitized lymphocytes. The antigen was thought to be confined to the schizont stage, but experiments carried out in 1988 demonstrate that it is present in sporozoites as well (Figure 6). One of the specific monoclonal antibodies has been used to purify the antigen from sporozoites and schizonts in order to produce antisera and provide material for amino acid sequencing. Studies of Theileria antigens recognized by cattle sera have been carried out in collaboration with the international Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Nairobi) on Rusinga Island, in Lake Victoria. Although ECF is endemic on this island, control of ticks and tick-borne diseases has not been practised there for the last ten years or more. Antibodies reactive with sporozoites, schizonts and piroplasms were found in sera from pregnant cows and from milk produced immediately after calving (colostrum). Of the calves born to these dams, at birth 56% had antibodies to sporozoites, 80% to schizonts and 84% to piroplasms. Approximately 60% of the sera from dams and calves showed neutralizing activity against sporozoites.The major sporozoite antigens identified in experimental studies were also detected by sera from dams and their calves, which demonstrates that under conditions of natural challenge, cattle produce antibodies to these sporozoite antigens (Figure 7). The antibodies may contribute to an acquired immunity in these animals and may also provide protection in calves that take in colostrum containing the antibodies. These findings also imply that in cattle vaccinated in the field with these antigens, natural challenge would boost the specific antibody responses of the animals. The results obtained from studies of the sporozoite antigens recognized by sera of immune cattle suggest that both the 67-kDa and the PIM antigens are likely candidates for inducing protective immune responses, the latter antigen being of potential value against sporozoites and schizonts.Efforts to clone genes encoding sporozoite antigens are thus focused on these two antigens.The isolation of a DNA copy (cDNA) clone that codes for a part of the 67-kDa molecule was reported in the 1987 Annual Report. In an attempt to obtain a DNA clone containing the fulllength gene, a genomic DNA library was prepared from T. parva piroplasms and screened by hybridization with the cDNA clone. A genomic clone 6.3 kilobases in length was isolated. This clone was sequenced and shown to contain an 'open reading frame-a length of DNA capable of encoding a protein-sufficient to encode about 50 kDa of protein. Two amino acid sequences, previously determined by sequencing fragments of the 67-kDa protein, were identified within the predicted amino acid sequence encoded by the clone. The DNA sequence of the gene has now been completely determined. The gene contains a short 'intron', a noncoding piece of DNA. A construct of the gene that lacks this intron is being prepared. Future studies will investigate the ability of the expressed product of the gene to induce immunity.Antiserum containing high levels of antibody to the PIM antigen has been used to screen a T. parva genomic DNA library. Several genomic clones have been isolated and are being characterized.The cells responsible for inducing immunity are white blood cells known as lymphocytes. The immune system can respond to infection by stimulating two kinds of lymphocytes. B lymphocytes make antibodies that circulate in the bloodstream and bind to the foreign antigen that induced them. T lymphocytes are responsible for what are called cell-mediated immune reactions. A subclass of T cells, called helper T cells, helps B cells respond to antigen.Before using the 67-kDa and PIM antigens for immunization, it must be determined how effective the molecules are at inducing helper T-cell responses in cattle and to what extent genetic variation among individual animals determines the ability of the animals to respond to the antigens. The 67-kDa antigen is being used to search for answers to these questions.Helper T-cell cultures were established by stimulating T cells from immunized cattle with antigen added to monocytes, white blood cells that ingest antigens. Helper T-cell clones specific for the 67-kDa antigen were then derived from these cultures. These cloned T cells will be used to map the sites on the antigen molecule that are recognized by T cells and to investigate possible genetic variation in these T-cell responses.The third component of ILRAD's theileriosis research program, after studies of the epidemiology of ECF and immunization against the sporozoite form of the parasite, concerns the schizont stage of parasite development. When cattle develop immunity to ECF-following either natural infection and recovery or immunization by the infection-and-treatment methodevidence suggests that what helps to control the infection at the schizont stage are cellmediated immune responses, which, as described above, involve T lymphocytes.Unlike antibodies, T cells do not react with free antigens but rather recognize fragments of antigen that have been processed in host cells and presented on the surface of those cells. These antigenic fragments, or peptides, on the cell surface are associated with major histocompatibility molecules, a family of glycoproteins encoded by a complex of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). An antigen receptor on the surface of a T cell recognizes a foreign peptide on the surface of another cell only when the foreign peptide is associated with MHC glycoproteins.Broadly speaking, there are two types of T cells. When exposed to antigens, regulatory and helper T cells produce soluble mediators that help generate antibody responses or other T cell responses, whereas cytolytic T cells are stimulated to kill cells expressing a specific antigen. Evidence suggests that both types of T-cell responses are induced by the schizont stage of T. parva.The schizont research program aims to elucidate the role of T lymphocytes in bovine immune responses to T. parva and to identify parasite antigens that are recognized by T cells; these antigens could be used to immunize cattle against ECF. The program continues to study normal elements of the bovine immune system, which are important to understanding the immune mechanisms induced by T. parva.To study the T-cell responses that play such an important role in immunity of cattle to T. parva, it is essential to be able to identify functionally important populations of T cells. The method applied most commonly at ILRAD is to use mouse monoclonal antibodies specific for molecules on the surface of T cells. Over the last three years ILRAD has produced and characterized mouse monoclonal antibodies that react with bovine T-cell surface molecules analogous to CD2, CD4, CD5, CD6 and CD8 differentiation antigens in man. These mouse antibodies are now being used to define immature and mature bovine T cells, and to distinguish two major subpopulations of mature T cells based on expression of the CD4 (regulatory) or CD8 (cytolytic) T-cell antigens.Experiments carried out in 1988 in collaboration with the Agricultural and Food Research Council (AFRC) Institute for Animal Health (UK) demonstrate that the CD4 and CD5 bovine Tcell antigens vary within a cattle population. In each instance, two codominantly expressed, allelic forms of the T-cell molecule have been detected with monoclonal antibodies. In the case of CD4, the two allelic forms differ in molecular mass. One of the CD5 alleles is predominantly associated with Bos taurus cattle and the other with Bos indicus, whereas the frequencies of the CD4 alleles are similar in the two cattle subspecies. These differences could be used as genetic markers in studies of the inheritance of genetic resistance to disease.None of the monoclonal antibodies produced against bovine T cells recognize the T-cell antigen receptor complex. In other species, this complex is made up of several invariant polypeptides, collectively known as CD3, and two variable chains, alpha and beta, which constitute the antigen receptor.In 1988 a study was initiated to clone the genes encoding the bovine T-cell receptor. This work was done in collaboration with scientists at the Dana Farber Cancer Institute (Boston, USA). Screening a cDNA library prepared from bovine white blood cells with cDNA probes for the human T-cell receptor proteins has resulted in the isolation of full-length cDNA clones for the gamma, delta and epsilon chains of CD3 and the variable alpha and beta receptor chains. Analyses of nucleotide sequences obtained for the 3' and 5' ends of the clones have demonstrated significant homology with sequences of the equivalent human and mouse genes. These cDNA clones will be used as probes to examine the expression of T-cell receptor components in different populations of T lymphocytes and to analyse T-cell receptor gene rearrangement in Theileria-specific T cells. Expressed products of the genes or selected synthetic peptides will also be used to produce specific monoclonal antibodies.Two main types of specialized cells are capable of ingesting foreign proteins and presenting processed antigen to T lymphocytes: monocytes, which in cattle are obtained from the blood, and dendritic cells, which are obtained from afferent lymph draining from various tissues into peripheral lymph nodes. Several monoclonal antibodies that react with monocytes and/or dendritic cells have been characterized (Figure 8). The dendritic cells can be distinguished from monocytes by their reactivity with these monoclonal antibodies. Dendritic cells have been shown to express much higher concentrations of MHC molecules on their surface than monocytes.These two cell types have been compared for their efficacy in presenting soluble antigen to helper T cells by using T cells from cattle immunized with purified Trypanosoma brucei variable surface glycoprotein. Dendritic cells were found to present antigen 10 to 100 times more efficiently than monocytes. These findings indicate that the dendritic cells play an important role in the induction of immune responses in cattle and suggest that antigen delivery systems used in vaccines should attempt to target the antigens to these cells.The group of genes known as the major histocompatibility complex, or MHC, has been found in all mammalian species studied. These genes play an important role in the induction of both humoral and cellular immune responses. As mentioned above, both helper and cytolytic T lymphocytes can detect foreign antigens only in association with the glycoprotein products of host MHC genes. The MHC gene products fall within two major groups, called class I and class II, which are distinguished on the basis of their molecular nature, function and cellular distribution. These products-the MHC antigens-are integral components of cell membranes.Major histocompatibility complex molecules that present antigenic peptides to T cells display marked variation among individuals of a species. The functional significance of this variation is that T cells that recognize antigen presented by the host's own cells do not recognize the same antigen presented by cells of a genetically unrelated animal. This phenomenon is known as MHC restriction. Antigens may also vary in their capacity to associate with different MHC molecules. The variation in MHC molecules may thus have qualitative or quantitative influences on immune responses.Class I MHC molecules present antigen to cytolytic T cells (CD8) and class II MHC molecules present antigen to helper T cells (CD4). Major histocompatibility complex molecules are encoded by a cluster of closely linked genes. In most species there are at least two gene loci each for class I and class II molecules, both genes at each locus being expressed. In view of the central role in immunization played by MHC gene products, it is important to be able to define different bovine MHC molecules and understand their function. Work on the bovine MHC at ILRAD falls into two areas: typing individual cattle with antibody reagents specific for MHC molecules and conducting experimental studies to define MHC genes and their products.Cattle are serologically typed at ILRAD for MHC antigens using a panel of reagents consisting of 180 antisera and 20 monoclonal antibodies. The majority of these reagents react with class I MHC molecules. Serological typing continues to play an important role in the identification of animals with MHC phenotypes suitable for experimentation. An important component of this work is the use of embryo transfer techniques to produce full sibling families and identical twins of desired MHC phenotypes. The hormonal treatment regimes that successfully induce superovulations in Bos taurus cattle have been modified at ILRAD to optimize embryo transfer techniques in Boran (Bos indicus) cattle.The organization of the bovine MHC gene region has been studied using the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis technique. This involves digesting bovine DNA with restriction enzymes that cut the DNA into large fragments and then separating the fragments in pulsed-field gels.Human class I and class II cDNA probes were then hybridized with the fragmented DNA. By using several restriction enzymes, it has been possible to construct a restriction map-a map that shows the location of each cutting (restriction) site in relation to its neighbours-of the class I and class II regions in one animal. From these data, the size of the class I region was estimated to be at least 750 kilobases and that of the class II region at least 300 kilobases. These are comparable to the sizes of equivalent regions in other species.Studies to determine whether there is more than one functionally important class I gene locus in cattle were continued in 1988. Although serological typing of cattle appears to identify class I molecules encoded predominantly by one locus, biochemical evidence suggests that these molecules are encoded by at least two loci. During 1988 the existence of two distinct class I molecules encoded by the same MHC haplotype (the set of MHC genes inherited from one parent) has been confirmed using transfection technology.The experiments were conducted using the offspring of a brother-sister mating. DNA from this animal, which is known to be homozygous for the MHC, was transfected along with a selectable marker into mouse fibroblasts. Cells expressing bovine class I MHC molecules were selected using a fluorescence-activated cell sorter following the staining of the cells with a fluoresceinated class I-specific monoclonal antibody. Positive cells were cloned and analysed with monoclonal antibodies and cytotoxic T-cell clones specific for the class I antigens of this animal. Two different types of transfected cell, expressing distinct bovine class I molecules, were identified (Figure 9). These findings provide strong evidence that there are at least two functionally important class I loci in cattle. One of the class I molecules identified in the transfectants is known to present Theileria antigens to specific cytolytic T cells. The transfectant expressing this antigen is therefore suitable for further transfection experiments involving Theileria genes to identify antigens of the schizont stage of the parasite that will induce protective immune responses. Few reagents exist to define different class II MHC molecules. For a variety of reasons, it is difficult to produce useful antisera or mouse monoclonal antibodies against the class II molecules. An alternative approach was explored in collaboration with the AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research (Cambridge, UK) to produce bovine monoclonal antibodies. These were produced in 1988 by fusing bovine antibody-producing cells, obtained from the lymph nodes of immunized cattle, with a mouse tumor cell line and then selecting clones. Although on initial screening a large number of antibody-producing hybrids were identified, only one stable hybrid producing an anti-MHC monoclonal antibody was obtained following cloning. The monoclonal antibody produced by this hybrid specifically recognizes class I antigen. Further experiments will be carried out to explore this technique for producing monoclonal antibodies specific for class II molecules. Experiments aimed at cloning class II MHC genes were initiated in 1988 in collaboration with scientists at the AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research (Edinburgh, UK).An understanding of how Theileria parasites regulate the growth of host cells might lead to new methods for treating infected animals or reducing the pathogenicity of the parasites.Research in this area is aimed at defining the role of different types of lymphocytes in infections with T. parva and at identifying parasite molecules that may be responsible for activating host lymphocytes.Past experiments show that the majority of parasitized cells in infected cattle are T lymphocytes and that most cell lines established from peripheral blood lymphocytes are T lymphocytes. Nevertheless, when purified populations of B cells are infected with T parva, they readily give rise to cell lines.In 1988 cattle were inoculated with purified populations of their own T or B lymphocytes that had been exposed briefly in the laboratory to sporozoites. These experiments showed that T lymphocytes produced lethal infections whereas B lymphocytes gave rise to mild self-limiting infections. Purified populations of CD4 or CD8 T lymphocytes gave rise to lethal infections. On examination of the phenotype of infected cells from the lymph nodes of these animals, no transfer of the parasite to other cell types was detected. Further experiments are in progress to determine whether the differences between T and B lymphocytes are due to a superior immunogenicity of the B cell or to differences in the way in which the growth of the cells is regulated.Studies of factors that regulate the growth of parasitized cells are currently focused on protein kinases, enzymes that phosphorylate proteins. These enzymes modify proteins by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group to specific amino acids in host cell proteins. The phosphorylation in turn regulates the activity of these proteins.Work carried out in 1986 and 1987 showed that several phosphorylated proteins were detected only in infected cells. The kinase activity has been shown to be specific for serine/threonine residues and has properties similar to casein kinases described in other mammalian cells and in insect cells.Recent evidence suggests that part of the enzyme activity is derived from the parasite. A cDNA probe for the alpha subunit of Drosophila casein kinase has been used to identify and clone a homologous gene from a Theileria genomic DNA library. The gene, which is full length and free of introns, contains several short sequences characteristic of casein kinase genes.Attempts will be made to produce antibodies to the expressed product of this gene in order to determine whether it is associated with other polypeptides and where it is located in the infected cells.The results of studies carried out over the last five years indicate that T lymphocyte responses against parasitized lymphoblasts are important in mediating immunity against T. parva Both class I restricted cytolytic T-cell responses and class II restricted helper T-cell responses have been detected and in some instances both types of T cell exhibit parasite strain specificity. These findings suggest that the T cells recognize processed parasite antigens on the surface of infected cells. Studies continued in 1988 to elucidate the role of these responses in immunity.It is important to determine if the specificity of cytolytic T-cell responses correlates with patterns of cross-protection among parasite stocks. Work in this area is still focused on two Kenyan stocks of the parasite, T. p. parva (Muguga) and T. p. parva (Marikebuni). Cattle immunized with the Marikebuni stock are protected against challenge with Muguga, whereas some animals immunized with Muguga are susceptible to challenge with Marikebuni. It has become apparent that the analysis of strain specificity of cytolytic T-cell responses is complicated by the presence of mixtures of parasites within parasite stocks. Experiments in which cloned parasitized cell lines were examined with parasite-specific monoclonal antibodies and DNA probes revealed at least four distinct parasite populations within the Marikebuni stock. Cytolytic T-cell clones generated from animals immunized with T. p. parva (Muguga) have been tested for their capacity to kill cell lines infected with the different Marikebuni parasites. The clones were found to kill some Marikebuni-infected cell lines but not others, and clones derived from different cattle showed different patterns of killing of the different parasitized cell lines.Similar differences in the pattern of killing were observed with cytolytic T -cell clones derived from the same animal but restricted by different class I molecules (Figure 10). These results indicate that the restricting MHC molecule exerts a strong influence on the antigenic specificity of the cytolytic T-cell response. Such variation in specificity may well explain the observed differences among individual cattle in the degree of cross protection induced by the Muguga stock of the parasite. To answer this question, cloned parasites will be used in studies of immunization and cross-challenge. A limiting dilution analysis assay for cytolytic T cells has been developed for examining directly from the blood of immunized cattle the frequency and specificity of the cytolytic cells. Experiments using helper T-cell clones specific for Theileria-infected cells have revealed two types of T-cell. Both types proliferate in response to stimulation with parasitized cells from the same animal. One type responds to glutaraldehyde-fixed parasitized cells, to purified schizonts and to membrane fractions of schizonts only when antigen-presenting cells are added to the cultures. The second type of T cell responds to fixed parasitized cells in the absence of antigen-presenting cells and to a soluble antigen fraction from parasitized cell lysates, in the presence of antigen-presenting cells. Helper T cells thus appear to recognize two different types of antigen in the infected cell. Since the latter type of T cell appears more efficient at recognizing antigen on the surface of infected cells, this type may be more important in immunity.Although it is clear that parasite-specific T cells can kill Theileria-infected cells, it is possible that soluble mediators generated during the induction of T-cell responses also help to control the parasite. One such mediator, produced by activated T cells, is gamma-interferon. An assay for gamma-interferon using Semliki Forest virus and bovine fibroblasts has been established. Cultured Theileria-specific T cells of both the CD4 and CD8 subsets were found to produce readily detectable levels of gamma interferon. Moreover, production of gammainterferon in vivo was demonstrated by examining supernatants of short-term cultures of lymph node cells derived from cattle undergoing immunization with T. parva by infection and treatment. However, recombinant bovine gamma-interferon, provided by Ciba-Geigy (Basel, Switzerland), had no detectable effect either on the growth of established parasitized cell lines or on the establishment of infected cell lines.Evidence exists, however, that soluble factors can act directly on the schizont. Anti-schizont activity, which is not antibody, has been detected in the serum of some cattle immediately after spontaneous recovery from infection with T. parva. This serum activity causes the intracellular death of schizonts in culture, apparently without damaging the host cell.Experiments are planned to fractionate these sera to identify the active component or components.In 1988 a major emphasis was placed on the identification of the antigens recognized by Theileria-specific T cells. Other studies of antigen processing and presentation indicate that soluble antigens internalized by antigen-presenting cells are readily recognized by helper T cells, whereas cytolytic T cells usually recognize only antigens that are being synthesized within presenting cells, such as a virus or intracellular parasite. Therefore, different strategies must be adopted for identifying antigens recognized by Theileria-specific helper and cytolytic T cells. Three approaches are being taken at ILRAD.The first approach is to try to identify and purify from parasitized cells antigenic fractions that, in the presence of antigen-presenting cells, will stimulate parasite-specific T cells. This approach shows promise for antigens recognized by helper T cells but not for those recognized by cytotoxic T cells. A soluble antigenic fraction that stimulates parasite-specific helper T cells at concentrations of less than 10 ng/ml has been identified by column chromatography and high pressure liquid chromatography fractionation of infected cells (Figure 11). Efforts are being made to raise specific antibodies to this fraction with the aim of using them to screen parasite DNA libraries in order to identify the genes encoding these antigens. The second approach to identifying antigens recognized by Theileria-specific T cells is to use antisera and monoclonal antibodies that recognize schizont antigens in order to identify proteins that, based on their location within the host cell and on their variation among parasite strains, are considered likely target antigens. Work in this area in 1988 focused on the PIM antigen that is expressed in sporozoites and schizonts and that shows variation among parasite strains. It has been shown that this antigen is expressed on the surface of schizonts. The antigen can be biosynthetically labelled with myristic acid, which indicates that it may be anchored to the schizont membrane by a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol linkage. As discussed above, experiments are in progress to clone the gene encoding this parasite antigen. When fully characterized, this gene will be expressed in mammalian cells to determine if the product is recognized by parasite-specific T cells. Several other schizont antigens of potential interest are also being studied.The third approach, initiated in 1988, is to screen parasite cDNA expression libraries with T cells. The technique for purifying schizonts has been refined and cDNA is being prepared from purified schizonts. Attempts will be made to screen the expressed products of a cDNA library in an 'expression vector', a vector in which the protein gene product is expressed, with parasite-specific helper T cells. The trypanosomiases are a disease complex that affects man and his livestock in Africa, Asia and South America. ILRAD is concerned with those trypanosomiases transmitted by tsetse flies, which threaten the lives of some 30% of an estimated population of 150 million cattle in 37 countries of Africa, as well as comparable numbers of small ruminants. Annual losses in meat production alone are estimated at US$5 billion. This economic deprivation is exacerbated by losses in milk production, tractive power, waste products that provide natural fuel and fertilizer and secondary products such as clothing and hides. In addition, 50 million people are currently exposed to the risk of contracting human trypanosomiasis, known as sleeping sickness.Trypanosomiasis is caused by blood-dwelling protozoan parasites called trypanosomes, which infect man, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and camels. Wild animals can also be infected and serve as reservoirs of infection. Trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetse flies (Glossinidae) and other biting insects, which ingest the parasites in blood meals taken from infected animal hosts (Figure 12). In the tsetse fly the parasites multiply in the midgut or in the proboscis and undergo a developmental cycle culminating in the generation of metacyclic trypanosomes, which are infective to the mammalian host. Metacyclic forms are introduced into a new host through the saliva of the tsetse fly during feeding. In the mammalian host the parasites develop in the tissues and blood, causing anaemia, reduced productivity, reproductive disorders and death. Trypanosoma simiae, which is closely related to T congolense, is primarily a parasite of pigs but is frequently found in trypanosome isolates taken from ruminants and tsetse flies in the field. Two further subspecies of T. brucei-T. brucei rhodesiense and T. brucei gambiense -infect man and are reservoirs of infection in various types of wild animals.In addition to there being many species of trypanosomes, a phenomenon called antigenic variation exhibited by each species helps to induce chronic infections in the hosts the parasites infect. Trypanosomes are covered by a dense coat made up of glycoprotein molecules, called variable surface glycoproteins (VSGs) (Figure 13). A trypanosome population causing infection in a single susceptible host animal can vary these surface antigens in a matter of a few days.Although the host usually generates a good antibody response to trypanosomes expressing a particular variable antigenic type (VAT), the large number of VATs that can be expressed within a single infection, estimated to be 300-1000 for T. brucei, causes chronic infections.Long-term infections in turn help ensure the transmission of the parasites to other animals and increase the severity of the pathogenesis, particularly anaemia, caused by trypanosome infection. It was initially believed that study of the antigenic variation displayed by trypanosomes would best elucidate how trypanosomes maintain themselves in the host animal. This information could then be used to develop vaccines to control or prevent the infection. But detailed studies of antigenic variation carried out at ILRAD and elsewhere over the last several years suggest that the number of VSGs expressed by trypanosomes is too great to make a vaccine based on the administration of a single, or even a few, VATs broadly effective. The total number of antigens expressed by any stock of trypanosomes, called a repertoire, is very large. These antigenic repertoires vary not only among but also within species: isolates in one area of Africa often differ in their antigenic repertoire from isolates in other areas. These distinct antigenic repertoires of a single species are known as serodemes. The existence of serodemes considerably enlarges the number of VATs encountered in the field.Traditional management of trypanosomiasis has relied on chemotherapeutic drugs to treat infections in livestock and on insecticides to control the tsetse vector. Because the widespread use of insecticides is environmentally damaging, attempts have recently been made to control the disease by combining the strategic use of insecticide-impregnated traps and screens, to reduce the tsetse populations, with chemotherapeutic treatment for the animals that succumb to the lowered challenge. This approach, when followed by close monitoring of the tsetse population and the disease status of livestock, has successfully controlled trypanosomiasis in a few trial areas, but these methods are too difficult to apply in most parts of Africa. Furthermore, relying on one or two drugs to treat infected livestock increases the possibility that the parasites will develop resistance to the drugs.ILRAD is therefore taking an alternative approach and is seeking primarily immunological solutions to the problems posed by trypanosomiasis. The complexity of the antigenic variation exhibited by the parasite has necessitated that the research goals of the trypanosomiasis program be divided into short and long term. In the short term ILRAD is studying ways to develop more accurate tests to diagnose trypanosome infection in livestock, new ways with which to use the currently available trypanocides that will reduce the possibility of inducing parasite resistance to the drugs, and the reasons why some breeds of cattle are able to withstand trypanosome infection better than others. In the long term ILRAD is conducting research in two main areas. It is studying the responses ruminant hosts make to trypanosome infection, with the aim of enhancing normal mechanisms of resistance in livestock, and it is scrutinizing molecules and processes of the parasite in a search for key elements or activities that can be attacked with drugs without adversely affecting the host.To detect and identify trypanosome infections in tsetse flies, domestic livestock and man, ILRAD scientists for several years have been developing diagnostic tests that use monoclonal antibodies in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Reagents are also available to identify trypanosomes of the subgenera Trypanozoon, Nannomonas and Duttonella. In 1988 new monoclonal antibodies were developed to identify protein rather than carbohydrate epitopes of T. vivax and T. congolense membrane proteins. These antibodies will reduce the likelihood of the ELISA giving false positive results. Furthermore, by detecting target proteins, the antibodies will enable scientists to identify fragments of DNA encoding the trypanosomal antigens in libraries of complementary DNA-DNA copied from messenger RNA-of the various trypanosome species. Recombinant antigens could then be synthesized in great quantity for use in inhibition ELISAs, which may be more sensitive in detecting infections than the technique presently used. In 1988 the trypanosomiasis program began to investigate the synthetic production of the diagnostic antigen for T. brucei.The assays in their present form are now being tested for accuracy and sensitivity in national laboratories in ten African countries in collaboration with the World Health Organization and a joint division of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Work conducted in collaboration with the University of Brussels and national laboratories in Africa and Asia has shown that the test to diagnose T. brucei can also be used to diagnose T. evansi infections in domestic livestock. Trypanosoma evansi is an economically important pathogen in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The efficacy of this assay in detecting T. evansi infections in buffalo, pigs and horses will be tested in Indonesia in a collaborative program run by ILRAD and research institutes in Indonesia and Australia.Our understanding of the epidemiology of both animal and human trypanosomiasis is improved by an ability to identify more precisely the trypanosome species carried by tsetse flies. To this end ILRAD has produced DNA probes to detect differences among parasite species and subspecies at the genomic level. These highly sensitive probes can be used in the laboratory to distinguish repetitive DNA sequences that recognize specific species and subspecies of pathogenic trypanosomes. The probes also distinguish differences among trypanosome populations of the same species collected from different areas. When the probes were tested on field materials collected in Kenya in collaboration with the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Nairobi), it was discovered that although the probes are species-specific and detect low numbers of trypanosomes in infected tsetse flies, the probes do not detect all isolates of a given species. These results demonstrate that genetic differences occur within species; attempts will now be made to identify DNA sequences common to all populations of a given trypanosome species.All the genetic probes in use today are radioactively labelled. Because most laboratories in Africa lack radioisotope facilities, these probes are not widely employed. Their use would be greatly promoted if the radioisotope were replaced with simple chemical groups that could be detected immunologically. ILRAD scientists have addressed this problem by producing derivatives of the probes with dinitrophenol so that positive hybridization using the repetitive sequence DNA probes can be revealed by an enzyme-labelled anti-dinitrophenol antibody.Although the reproducibility of the derivatization depends critically on the purity of dinitrobenzaldehyde, the initial labelling agent, dinitrophenol-labelled probes can detect as little as 1-5 pg of purified DNA, which demonstrates a sensitivity similar to that of the radiolabelled probes and probably sufficient for detecting trypanosomes in tsetse.Future work at ILRAD in this area will attempt to validate the diagnostic assays and to increase their sensitivity where that is desirable. ILRAD staff will also work with scientific organizations to develop forms of the tests that can be widely and easily used in the areas of the world affected by trypanosomiasis.One of the principal objectives of the work conducted at ILRAD on chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis is to develop assays to quantify the levels of drugs in the blood and tissue fluids of treated livestock. Two kinds of such assays-chemical and biological-have been produced. The former, which requires sophisticated chemical techniques, will be used to quantify biological assays based on trypanosome culture systems. The simpler biological assays should prove useful to national laboratories.ILRAD scientists have shown that incorporating drugs in culture medium can inhibit the growth and development of trypanosomes in vitro, depending upon the sensitivity of the trypanosome population to the drugs used. Cultures of the bloodstream forms of the parasite were used in the first experiments in this area. Clear differences in Berenil-induced growth inhibition were observed (Figure 14). Bloodstream forms of fresh field isolates, however, are difficult to adapt to cultures. Cultures of procyclic forms of the trypanosome-the noninfective, multiplying forms of the parasite equivalent to the forms found in the tsetse midget-of T. brucei and T. congolense seem to be established more reliably, and tube assays have been developed for isolating and testing T. congolense and T. brucei for drug sensitivity. Blood samples containing trypanosomes are mixed with a culture medium and incubated overnight at 27°C in a plastic centrifuge tube. The trypanosomes in the supernatant are removed and transferred to culture flasks to allow the procyclic forms to develop and grow further. All trypanosome stocks were successfully isolated by this procedure in a medium based on the composition of tsetse haemolymph to which supplements had been added.The growth of procyclic forms of drug-sensitive trypanosome stocks was inhibited when these were propagated for ten days in the presence of 1 ng/ ml of isometamidium chloride. In cultures of sensitive trypanosomes, the drug induced an increase in cell size, degradation of the kinetoplast and multinucleate forms to develop. Differences in growth inhibition of procyclic forms between resistant and sensitive stocks also occurred after incubation for 48 hours with 1-100 ng/ ml isometamidium chloride. Only minor differences, however, were observed when procyclic forms of resistant and sensitive T. b. brucei were cultivated with diminazene aceturate. Thus, whereas inhibition of the growth of procyclic forms can be used to test trypanosome stocks for their levels of resistance to isometamidium chloride, the same assay appears to be inappropriate for diminazene aceturate.An alternative method of testing trypanosome populations for resistance to both isometamidium chloride and diminazene aceturate is the drug incubation infectivity test. Cultures of trypanosomes are incubated at 37° C in 4% carbon dioxide in air for 24 hours in the presence of a drug or plasma from drug-treated animals. Control cultures incubated with 1 % distilled water instead of a drug are incubated under the same conditions. After incubation, an aliquot from each culture is inoculated into mice. The mice are then screened for 30 days for trypanosome infections.None of the drug-sensitive trypanosome stocks were able to infect the mice after incubation with 1 ng/ ml isometamidium chloride, but all resistant stocks were able to do so. Two of the isometamidium-resistant trypanosome stocks retained their infectivity after incubation with 10 or 50 ng/ ml of the drug. But when used at higher concentrations on resistant trypanosome populations, the drug increased the period between infection and the appearance of parasites in the blood of the mice.Higher concentrations of diminazene aceturate were necessary to inhibit the infectivity of T. b. brucei. Differences in infectivity occurred when trypanosomes were incubated in the presence of 0.05-1.00 µg/ ml of diminazene aceturate. The drug-resistant trypanosome stocks retained infectivity after incubation with 1 µg/ ml of the drug. Thus, by using the drug incubation infectivity test it is possible to distinguish isometamidium-and diminazene-resistant trypanosome populations from those that are sensitive to these drugs. The test has been validated for T. brucei, T. evansi and a rodent-infective stock of T. vivax.The stability of the drug-resistant trait has been further examined in vitro: a T. brucei stock resistant to diminazene, isometamidium, quinapyramine and mel B was grown in vitro and its sensitivity to these drugs was compared to that of a drug-sensitive trypanosome stock. There was little change in sensitivity after propagation for up to 275 days of bloodstream forms in vitro or after transformation of bloodstream forms into procyclic, epimastigote and, finally, metacyclic forms. These results suggest that drug resistance is a relatively stable characteristic even when trypanosomes are maintained in vitro in the absence of drugs.Significant progress was made in cultivating certain stocks of the Trypanozoon group without feeder-layer cells. This has enabled researchers to conduct several new studies, including an evaluation of trypanocides in the absence of feeder-layer cells.The development of resistance in trypanosomes to the trypanocidal drugs currently available threatens our ability to continue to control trypanosomiasis. In collaboration with the departments of Veterinary Parasitology and Physiology at the University of Glasgow, ILRAD is conducting studies to determine new ways of treating livestock that are infected with trypanosomes known to be resistant to recommended doses of trypanocidal drugs. Reports from the field have suggested that intravenous administration of isometamidium chloride has a curative effect on cattle infected with trypanosome populations that are resistant to the drug when it is administered intramuscularly. In experiments at ILRAD, however, the intravenous administration of high levels of isometamidium chloride failed to cure cattle infected with cloned populations of T. congolense that were resistant to this drug when it was administered intramuscularly.Using highly sensitive radiochemical and chemical techniques, a relay toxicity study, carried out in 1988 by the Department of Veterinary Pharmacology at the University of Glasgow in collaboration with ILRAD and the manufacturers of isometamidium chloride, Rhone-Poulenc (UK), showed that isometamidium chloride cannot be absorbed into blood and body fluids from the gastrointestinal tract of animals that were either dosed with the drug by mouth or fed with tissues of an animal given the drug intramuscularly one week previously. This makes it unlikely that human consumption of meat from animals treated with isometamidium chloride is a significant health hazard.Male Glossina flies sexually sterilized by gamma-irradiation carry trypanosomiasis as efficiently as fertile males. However, when tsetse are given a blood meal containing 8-12µg/ml of isometamidium chloride before a blood meal containing trypanosomes, infection of the flies by mature T. vivax, T. congolense and T. b. brucei was completely suppressed. It is therefore recommended that the flies used in the sterile insect release method of tsetse control be fed on blood containing isometamidium chloride.Various other factors were investigated to determine their influence on the maturation of the three major species of trypanosomes and their transmission by tsetse. These parameters included the species of the wild mammalian hosts and tsetse vectors of the parasites and the occurrence of pre-existing trypanosome infections in the hosts and rickettsia-like organisms in the vectors (Figure 15). In ILRAD experiments, G. m. centralis appeared to be largely unaffected by these parameters and proved the most efficient vector of trypanosomiasis. Further entomological research at ILRAD shows that the developmental cycle of T. vivax in tsetse, thought to be confined to the proboscis of the fly, may extend to the cibarialoesophageal region, the most anterior part of the digestive tract of a tsetse. Tsetse proboscides were excised at intervals beginning one hour after an infected feed and transferred to culture dishes. Parasite multiplication and full cyclical development were observed only in proboscides excised four or more hours after the infected blood meal. It thus appears that in some tsetse, development of T. vivax through its vector stages is initiated in the cibarial/ oesophageal region, from where the parasites migrate to the food canal of the proboscis, where maturation to the metacyclic forms completes the life cycle of the parasite.Early In a search for genetic markers of trypanotolerance, two polymorphic systems of bovine lymphocyte antigens were studied in 1988 in collaboration with ILCA. These systems are the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and a more limited polymorphic system of common leucocyte antigens, which was detected in cattle only recently. The first objective of the study was to survey the MHC and common leucocyte antigen phenotypes of populations of N'Dama cattle in Zaire and the Gambia and to compare these phenotypes with corresponding profiles of trypanosensitive Boran cattle in Kenya. The second objective was to look for associations between these MHC and common leucocyte antigen phenotypes, trypanotolerance and the productivity of N'Dama cattle. Significant correlations have been found between the two classes of lymphocyte markers and the degree of resistance shown by trypanotolerant cattle exposed to trypanosomiasis by natural challenge. These provocative results, which suggest that there is a genetically selectable marker for the trypanotolerant trait, are being investigated further using larger numbers as well as family groups of cattle. The results also indicate a central role for immunity in the manifestation of the trypanotolerant trait.ILRAD's embryo transfer experiments continued in 1988. N'Dama heifers produced at ILRAD from frozen N'Dama embryos brought in 1983 from the Gambia have since 1987 been regularly induced to superovulate using Folltropin or follicle-stimulating hormone derived from pigs. By implanting the best of the N'Dama embryos in Boran foster mothers, ILRAD has produced 24 N'Dama calves, which are used in studies of trypanotolerance and bovine genetics. ILRAD hopes to produce twin N'Dama calves by using these techniques so that research may be carried out on genetically matched animals.The African Trypanotolerant Livestock Network will continue to evaluate the performance of trypanotolerant livestock in tsetse-infested areas of Africa, to seek ways to exploit the genetic resistance to trypanosomiasis in such livestock and to determine the most economic ways of improving the productivity of these livestock by nutritional and breeding strategies.The biology of the trypanosomeThe current methods used to control trypanosomiasis in cattle breeds other than N'Dama are highly susceptible to breakdown. The search for novel and more sustainable control measures for these breeds therefore forms the basis of ILRAD's long-term trypanosomiasis research program. Emphasis in this program is put on finding immunological ways to control the disease. Research is being conducted on the biology of the parasite in an attempt to discover processes unique to the parasite that could be the target of interventions. The aims of research on host-parasite interactions are to elucidate host mechanisms involved in controlling and destroying the parasite and then to enhance these mechanisms so as to reduce or alleviate the pathogenic manifestations of the disease. Research projects on basic parasite processes, such as the uptake of nutrients and the control of differentiation, were consolidated during the year and methods to cultivate trypanosomes were improved.The variable surface glycoproteins (VSGs), which make up the surface coat of the trypanosome, bear a complex lipid-containing structure at their carboxyl end called the glycosylphosphatidylinositol, or GPI moiety. Part of this structure is responsible for anchoring the VSG molecules in the plasma membrane of the trypanosome. Unlike the protein part of VSG molecules, which differs from one VSG to another, the hydrophobic GPI anchor is similar in many of the surface coat molecules examined from T. brucei and T. congolense. Antibodies can be raised in rabbits that will react with virtually all VSGs from these trypanosome species because the antibodies bind to a cross-reacting determinant (CRD) within the hydrophobic anchor and not to the variable, protein part of the VSG molecule.It has been suggested that the lipid portion of the anchor must be removed from membraneform VSG (mfVSG) by an endogenous VSG-specific phospholipase C (GPI-PLC) before antibodies will bind to the CRD. Using T. congolense metacyclic forms from culture and substantiating their findings with bloodstream forms of T. congolense and T. vivax, workers at ILRAD have shown that the method of sample preparation is extremely important: the anti-CRD antibodies will bind to suitably prepared VSGs without prior removal of the lipid. However, the addition of dithiothreitol, which causes the protein part of the VSG molecule to partially unfold, was crucial in these experiments (Figure 16). It would seem, therefore, that a conformational change in the protein part of the VSG molecule is needed to expose the CRD to the antibodies before the antibodies can bind to the CRD. Using density centrifugation of subcellular fractions of T. brucei, the enzyme responsible for removing the lipid from the hydrophobic anchor (the GPI-PLC) has been tentatively localized in a vesicle that contains both an internalized protein (bovine serum albumin) and an enzyme of the trypanosomal flagellar pocket (adenyl cyclase). The co-localization of these three reagents suggests that the GPI-PLC may reside in a vesicle near the flagellar pocket and that it may play an important role in recycling VSG.At the molecular genetic level, metacyclic VSG genes of T. congolense IL 3000 have been cloned and expressed in the bacterium Escherichia coli. This has provided nucleotide sequence data for the VSGs of genuine metacyclic trypanosomes. The only material previously available for examination comprised bloodstream-form trypanosomes expressing cross-reactive VSGs. The genetic context in which these metacyclic VSG genes are expressed is now being examined. This is important because metacyclic trypanosomes express a constant but smaller set of VSGs than bloodstream forms belonging to the same repertoire.Differences have already been observed between the two metacyclic VSG genes that have been cloned, mVSG1 and mVSG2. Only one copy of mVSG1 is conserved in all the developmental stages examined; at least two copies of mVSG2 exist in the metacyclic trypanosomes. Each of the metacyclic VSG genes is expressed at a different locus on chromosomes that are 2 megabases in size. One gene, mVSG1, is activated in situ; the other, mVSG2, is rearranged when it is expressed.Work is in progress to determine the amino acid sequence and ancillary moieties of two VSGs from rodent-infective T. vivax clones. No peptide homology between the two VSGs has been demonstrated by using serological techniques and little information on the amino acid sequence has been obtained from analyses of purified VSGs. However, the importance of this work was manifested in 1988 with the discovery that, unlike the little antigenic cross-reactivity observed among geographically different populations of T. brucei or T. congolense, extensive antigenic cross-reactions occur among the variable antigen repertoires of cloned T. vivax populations derived from parasite populations isolated from widely different geographical locations across Africa. The cross-reactivity may be due to variable antigen genes shared among serodemes or to shared epitopes on the variable surface antigen molecules themselves. The assay used to analyse this cross-reactivity was immune lysis of bloodstreamform parasites. The assay demonstrates that the cross-reactivity occurs at the cell surface of living trypanosomes and not just between isolated molecules. Use of this assay has strengthened the view that the occurrence of cross-reactive antigens in T. vivax stocks contributes to the induction of immunity to this parasite species.Although antigenic variation is the primary pathway used by the trypanosome to ensure its survival in the mammalian host, physiological mechanisms in the parasite that limit the numbers of parasites in the mammal also ensure trypanosomal survival by ensuring that some parasites are transmitted onward to the parasite's intermediate host, the tsetse fly. One of ILRAD's trypanosomiasis research areas focuses on genetic and biochemical work to identify the mechanisms in the parasite that control the parasite's proliferation and differentiation.The change in bloodstream T. brucei trypanosomes from actively dividing slender forms to non-dividing stumpy forms (Figure 17) is of particular interest to ILRAD since this switch may provide a clue to the regulatory genes and sequences responsible for the differentiation. The aim of research in this area is first to understand the mechanisms involved in the differentiation process and then to design artificial mechanisms that mimic the process. A non-VSG gene in bloodstream form T. congolense, which is amplified and developmentally regulated, has been identified. A detailed analysis of this gene may lead to the first identification of a trypanosomal promoter of transcription.At the protein level, two T. brucei proteins, having molecular weights of 42 and 37 kDa, have been shown to increase their degree of phosphorylation during differentiation from long slender to stumpy forms. The two proteins appear to be phosphorylated by different enzymes, both enzymes being similar to casein kinase II but distinguished by their relative sensitivities to the inhibitors heparin and spermine. These enzymes, which differ from mammalian kinases in that they are inhibited rather than activated by polyamines and polycations, will be studied further.Efforts were begun in 1988 to demonstrate whether metacyclic trypanosomes have a characteristic metabolism. Metacyclics of T. congolense derived axenically are, in terms of mitochondrial respiration, a stable metabolic intermediate between procyclic/epimastigote forms and bloodstream forms and may in some respects differ from metacyclics derived from tsetse. Preliminary evidence from T. brucei metacyclics, derived from feeder-layer cultures, suggested metabolic differences from T. congolense metacyclics.ILRAD recently purified trypanosome intermediate filaments, a class of structural proteins, and then produced antibodies to the filaments so as to study both the distribution of this class of filaments in trypanosomes (Figure 18) and the possible developmental regulation of filament production and organization. Encouraging progress has been made in developing a system for transfecting genetic material into trypanosomes in order to study the function of a given trypanosome gene. A series of vectors has been constructed to allow either transient or stable expression of the transfected DNA. Transient expression of transfected DNA has been detected and studies are under way to determine if stable expression of transfected materials has also been achieved.Another powerful technique in the search for single-copy genes, or their transcripts in low number, is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This procedure makes it possible to amplify DNA present in very low copy number if information is available concerning the context of the gene, that is, the sequence data from the sites at either end of the gene. The PCR technique has been used successfully at ILRAD in trial experiments using VSG genes.The purchase of a PCR machine by ILRAD will greatly enhance investigations into the area of differentiation by facilitating the study of single-copy genes and their regulation.Host factors that trigger or support parasite multiplication or differentiation are being identified.Host transferrin (an iron-carrying molecule in serum), high and low-density lipoproteins and a group of as yet unidentified factors in plasma have been shown to be essential for parasite multiplication.Using horseradish peroxidase and colloidal gold coupled to serum proteins, the process by which cells take up nutrients or reagents-called endocytosis-can be demonstrated, and the organelles involved in the endocytotic pathway can be revealed. The uptake of nutrients by trypanosomes is of interest to ILRAD's researchers because in the flagellar pocket, through which nutrients enter the parasite, receptors may exist that specifically bind to nutrient molecules; if such receptors exist, they could perhaps be exploited in chemotherapeutic or immunological attacks on the parasite.The uptake of lipids by trypanosomes from lipoproteins in their hosts was studied intensively during the year. Lipid uptake appears not to be mediated by receptors, as proposed by researchers in other laboratories. There is evidence, however, that trypanosomes ingest iron through a process of transferrin-receptor-mediated endocytosis. The amount of iron accumulated by cells at 37° C was quantified and the results suggest that the putative transferrin receptors either turn over extremely rapidly or shuttle back and forth from the cell surface to an intracellular location (Figure 19). Morphological studies have demonstrated that most reagents internalized by trypanosomes accumulate in a distinct region between the nucleus and the flagellar pocket. Vesicles that appear to be the first in a series of intracellular organelles involved in endocytosis have been purified from African trypanosomes, and antibodies to a 70-kDa protein appear to identify endosomes or lysosomes, two organelles in the endocytotic pathway (Figure 20). The demonstration of these structural markers has been complemented by advances in enzymatic characterization of the endocytotic process. Lysosomal thiol-dependent proteases have been identified and partially purified from both T. brucei and T. congolense. The T. congolense enzyme, which has been characterized in more detail, shows inhibitor and activator profiles suggestive of the cysteine class of proteases. These enzymes, as well as hydrolases in the flagellar pocket, may thus identify compartments in the endocytotic pathway of trypanosomes as well as potential targets for inhibitors of nutrient processing in the parasites. The flagellar pocket and its associated enzyme-containing, intracellular, endocytotic structures will continue to be studied closely to determine the roles these structures play not only in the metabolism and turnover of variable surface antigens, but also in the metabolism and endocytosis of vital nutrients and other molecules required for trypanosome multiplication and differentiation.The basic studies of the trypanosome undertaken at ILRAD are supported by refinements in the systems used to cultivate the three major parasite species through all stages of their life cycles. Good progress was made particularly in growing trypanosomes in simplified systems, without supporting feeder-layer cells or with a reduced concentration of added serum.For several years cultures of the vector stages (epimastigote and metacylic) of various T. vivax stock and a West East African T. vivax stock and a West African T. vivax stock were established as vector-stage culturs in the above manner and then subcultured in Eagle's modified Minimum Essential Medium, supplemented with 20% foetal bovine serum, Lglutamine, hypoxanthine and non-essential amino acids, but without feeder-layer cells. More importantly, vector-stage cultures of another East African T. vivax stock were established directly from bloodstream forms and without feeder-layer cells (Figure 21). Metacyclics from these T.vivax cultures were shown to be infective for mammals.After testing a number of commercial serum substitutes, it was found that serum substitutes, it was found that Serum Plus TM (a medium supplement containing very low levels of serum proteins) adequately supports the growth of bloodstream forms of T. brucei in vitro. The medium supporting highest density of trypanosomes (2.2 × 10 6 bloodstream forms/ml) used modified Minimum Essential Medium containing 20% Serum Plus, 500 µM bathocuproine disulphoric acid. This may prove useful in the development of a serum-free medium, but from a practical point of view, Serum Plus is an economical alternative, reducing the cost to less than one-third of that of using foetal bovine serum.A different system has been used to grow T. congolense IL 3000 in vitro for the production of metacyclic forms in numbers sufficient for research purposes. The introduction of Nunc Cell Factories, each 'factory' having a surface area of 600 cm 2 , has led to single harvests of up to 5 × 10 9 metacyclic trypanosomes of this clone and has greatly facilitated the biochemical and molecular biological studies of the parasite.Further refinements of existing culture systems have increased the yield of T. brucei metacyclic forms and up to 107 can now be harvested from 40 T25 flasks. Studies employing bovine haemoglobin have suggested a role for this reagent in the switch from the long slender to the stumpy form of T. brucei in vitro. Procyclic trypomastigotes could also be generated in the presence of this reagent even at 37°C, indicating that trypanosome differentiation may depend on a number of signals.ILRAD's trypanosomiasis research continues to focus on immune responses of ruminants to the disease because studies of these responses could lead to the development of new immunization methods or techniques that would improve host resistance. This emphasis on host immune responses is now aided by the wide range of reagents that ILRAD has developed over the last decade to define the elements of the ruminant immune system.An antibody molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains-two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains. To facilitate studies of humoral responses of susceptible and tolerant breeds of cattle infected with trypanosomes, ILRAD has produced monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that specifically detect bovine light chains of the following classes of immunoglobulins (Ig): IgM, IgG, IgG 1 , IgG 2 and IgA. To determine whether any MAbs detected allotypic determinants, each pair of MAbs was tested on 50 to 100 Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle. Only MAb ILA50 (speck for IgM) was shown to recognize an allotypic determinant.These MAbs have been used to develop a sandwich ELISA to measure changes in total immunoglobulin levels and trypanosome-specific immunoglobulin levels during infection. An inhibition ELISA has also been developed to measure low amounts of immunoglobulin secreted during in vitro assays.ILRAD researchers are now well equipped with MAbs that can distinguish various bovine Tcell subsets, but our ability to recognize B cells and their maturation to antibody-producing plasma cells rests principally on the possession by these cells of surface immunoglobulin.Studies were undertaken in 1988 to obtain markers for bovine B cells. A mature B-cell marker, of 150 kDa under reducing conditions, was detected by three different monoclonal antibodies (Figure 22). All three MAbs stained the B-cell areas in sections of lymph node, tonsil and spleen and did not stain thymocytes, peripheral T cells, null cells and monocytes. Although the MAbs detected different epitopes (they did not inhibit binding of one another to the B-cell surface), they precipitated the same 150-kDa membrane molecule. Furthermore, precipitation of the antigen with one antibody removed all activity of the other MAbs.  A surprising observation was that expression of this antigen was correlated with membrane Ig but the MAbs did not bind to serum Ig or other serum proteins, nor were they inhibited by different anti-Ig antibodies. The marker may be homologous to the human CD21 antigen (a complement receptor), which has a similar molecular mass and cell distribution, although it has not been reported whether the expression of CD21 is correlated with that of Ig.There was no evidence for the existence of a δ chain on the surface of bovine lymphocytes. Precipitations of iodinated bovine peripheral blood monocytes and spleen cells with a MAb that detects Ig light chains (which precipitated all the Ig classes from serum) revealed only one heavy chain, identical in molecular mass to the µ chain of IgM. To eliminate the possibility that the bovine δ chain has the same molecular mass as the µ chain (80 kDa), lysates were preabsorbed for IgM. No additional Ig could be precipitated. Either bovine B cells do not express IgD on their surface or IgD does not possess light chains. It thus appears that through some mutational event the gene for the δ chain in cattle is replaced by a gene for the 150kDa polypeptide, which cannot bind light chains and whose expression is no longer independent of the µ gene.A further 14 MAbs have been raised that specifically detect bovine T or B activation markers. These MAbs were divided into three groups: (1) those whose expression was highest when cells proliferated rapidly, (2) those whose expression was highest when cells proliferated slowly and (3) those whose expression was not influenced by the speed of proliferation.Three antigens were characterized in the first group: a 100-kDa antigen found only on activated T cells and with properties similar to the human Tal marker, a 53-kDa antigen found on T and B cells and a third antigen that could not be precipitated but that was found on proliferating T and B cells.In the second group, an antigen of 185 kDa (125 kDa after reduction) was recognized by at least three antibodies. This antigen was found neither on transformed nor on resting cells. However, it was present on IL-2-dependent T-cell lines, but sometimes varied in its expression, decreasing when cell multiplication increased. This antigen may have disappeared from the surface or may have been masked by an undefined factor during rapid division.A third cluster of three MAbs defined an activation marker that appeared very late after lectin activation (2-5 weeks). The antigen was found only on T cells.Among other MAbs that did not cluster, one MAb recognized a marker on all proliferating cells tested and on immature red blood cells up to the stage of reticulocytes. This marker had a molecular mass of more than 200 kDa (95 kDa after reduction), which is similar to the molecular mass of the transferrin receptor in humans. Two more antigens, one of 115 kDa and the other a complex of three polypeptides of 185, 160 and 125 kDa, also recognized only activated cells. These clusters of MAbs will be used to characterize the proliferative states of populations of cells in trypanosome-infected cattle.A group of five trypanosome-naive Boran cattle (group 1) were challenged using Glossina morsitans centralis infected with T. congolense clone 13E-8. They were treated when their packed cell volume, commonly used to measure the degree of anaemia, dropped to 15% between 36 and 54 days after infection. A second group of five Boran cattle (group 2) and a third group of five N'Dama cattle (group 3) were each similarly infected with T congolense clone 13E-8. Groups 2 and 3 had both 32 months previously been infected with the homologous serodeme. Each animal in groups 2 and 3 had serum antibodies capable of neutralizing the infecting metacyclics prior to infection, and the numbers of chancres that developed in these groups were lower than the numbers in group 1.The rechallenged Borans (group 2) became parasitaemic and chronically anaemic but did not require treatment before day 70. Three of the five animals in this group eventually cured themselves. The N'Damas, on the other hand, controlled the level and duration of parasitaemia as well as the degree of anaemia and showed no clinical symptoms of the disease.Low levels of reticulocytes were detected in all three groups of cattle until day 35, despite a greater decrease in the packed cell volume in the two Boran groups. The chronic anaemia in the rechallenged Boran (group 2) was accompanied by significantly increased levels of reticulocytes, although the overall packed cell volumes continued to drop.Recirculating lymphocyte populations in infected animals were analysed by flow cytometry using MAbs. The levels of B cells increased in both the Borans in group 1 and the N'Damas in group 2. The CD5 antigen was expressed on 50-90% of the peripheral blood B cells in infected animals but on only 5-10% of peripheral blood B cells in uninfected animals.Qualitative and quantitative differences in antibody levels among the groups are being examined.A decrease in the CD8 + cell population was observed in all three groups of animals, but the N'Dama showed a small increase in CD4 + cells in contrast to a decrease in these cells observed in both the naive and the rechallenged Boran groups. These interesting changes in T-cell subsets during infection are being analysed further.Two in vitro systems have been used to study the role of macrophages and B lymphocytes as antigen-presenting cells in cattle and to compare the requirements for presentation of particulate and soluble antigens in cattle. Sheep erythrocytes were used as a particulate antigen in one in vitro system and ovalbumin as a soluble antigen in the other. In both systems, secondary in vitro cultures were derived from peripheral blood lymphocytes of cattle that had been primed in vivo and stimulated with optimal concentrations of antigen.When antigen binds to antibody molecules on the surface of a resting B cell, it usually initiates a proliferation and differentiation of B cells to cells that secrete soluble antibody. The two cultures in this experiment were tested for cell proliferation after five days and for antibody production (by an antigen-specific ELISA of the culture supernatants) after ten days. The fluorescence-activated cell sorter was used to obtain purified populations of macrophages and B cells that were then returned, in different combinations, to a responding population of bovine peripheral blood lymphocytes that had itself been depleted of all antigen-presenting cells by using the fluorescence-activated cell sorter. The resultant populations were then cultured and tested in comparison with undepleted peripheral blood lymphocytes.In the sheep erythrocyte-specific cultures, no cell proliferation was observed after the lymphocyte populations were depleted of macrophages; if macrophages were returned to a population depleted of all antigen-presenting cells, cell proliferation returned to expected levels. In contrast, putting purified B cells back into a population did not initiate cell proliferation. In the ovalbumin-specific cultures, macrophages were responsible for antigen presentation and the number of macrophages added to the lymphocyte population correlated with the degree of the proliferative response. B cells also presented antigen in this system, but less efficiently than macrophages.These results seem to indicate that in cattle the presentation of particulate antigens is mediated by macrophages alone, whereas the presentation of soluble antigens is mediated by both macrophages and B cells. The relative efficiency of the two cell types in presenting antigen, as well as structural immunological aspects of the presentation process, will be the subjects of future studies.In 1988 a number of T. vivax stocks from different parts of Africa were cloned in goats and defined and/or purified from isolates containing mixed infections. Goats were then infected with these stocks and the course of infection and the humoral response of the host were studied. All infected goats showed a capacity to mount antibody responses against surface and internal antigens of T. vivax, but the timing of the appearance of these antibodies varied with the timing of the appearance of the parasites. Antibody responses occurred 5 to 6 days after the appearance of parasites in infections that subsequently became chronic, 7 to 8 days after the appearance of parasites in acute infections, and coincidentally with the appearance of parasites in transient infections.Parasite-specific responses were tested by immune lysis and ELISA. Purified VSG of the infecting VATs was used as antigen in the ELISA. Recurrent peaks of lytic antibody and IgM, and sometimes IgGI, to the infecting VAT occurred in both cattle and goats, suggesting that the reappearance of VATS, or serologically cross-reactive VATs, is more common in T. vivax infections than in T. brucei or T congolense (Figure 23). appearing in a goat infected with Trypanosoma vivax ILDat 1.2 shows: (a) that there are second peaks of antibodies to isolated ILDat 1.2 VSG; (b) that the anti-VSG response is mirrored by the lytic response against live ILDat 1.2 trypanosomes; but (c) that there is no secondary response to the common antigens present in a lysate of ILDat 1.2 trypanosomes.The studies using ruminant hosts have been supported by investigations into the immunological basis of resistance in mice to T. b. brucei infection. Previous work with a resistant, C57B 1 / 6, and a susceptible, C3H/ He, strain of mice infected with a clone of T. b. brucei (GUTat 3.1) had shown that the two strains developed similar numbers of cytoplasmic Ig-positive B cells in the spleen with similar kinetics, and that these cells contained similar amounts of parasite-specific antibody. However, the resistant strain had detectable parasitespecific antibody in its serum from day 5 onwards, whereas the susceptible strain had little or none. From this it has been inferred that there might be a block to Ig secretion in the susceptible strain.Two new techniques were developed at ILRAD during the year: immunoblots to visualize the secretion products of individual cells and a parasite-specific ELISA using fixed trypanosomes. Use of these techniques showed that secretion was normal in the spleen cells from the susceptible mouse strain, both in the proportion of cells secreting antibody and the amount secreted. Spleen-cell cultures from infected susceptible or resistant mice showed that total and parasite-specific antibody production in vitro in both strains were similar up to the point at which the parasitaemia decreased in the resistant strain (the parasitaemia staying high in the susceptible strain). However, after the disappearance of detectable numbers of trypanosomes in the resistant mouse strain, the levels of total IgM and parasite-specific IgM increased greatly. Fixing trypanosomes immediately after removing them from infected mice and using immunofluorescence staining showed that mouse antibody was present on the surface of trypanosomes from both strains of mice. Control trypanosomes from irradiated mice had very little antibody. Thus, the infected, hypersusceptible C3H / He mice produce parasite-specific antibody both in vivo and in vitro.Trypanosomes were added to spleen-cell cultures from the resistant mice on day 7, when the mice had no detectable parasites. The amount of parasite-specific antibody decreased in correspondence with increasing numbers of trypanosomes added. The antibody was thus being absorbed by the trypanosomes. The greater numbers of parasites in the susceptible mice-2 to 5 times greater than the numbers in resistant mice at peak parasitaemia-may effectively absorb parasite-specific antibodies so that the antibodies are undetectable and the antibody concentrations remain too low to be able to destroy trypanosomes.Further investigations of clonal virulence have revealed that the different growth rates of clones of T. b. brucei stock S427 parasites in C3H/ He, C57B1/6 and Balb/c mice were related to the infective dose of parasites, the clone studied and the host used. Parasites of different virulence produced different parasitaemic profiles in a single infected host. The capacity of a host to control a parasite of low virulence may be dependent on a host cell or cellular process that is sensitive to irradiation.The long-lasting effect of bacterium acnes (formerly called Corynebacterium parvum) treatment to reduce the level of parasitaemia in mice was associated with a relative absence of dividing forms of T. brucei in the bloodstream. Previously described biological mediators generally did not induce dividing forms of T. brucei to become non-dividing forms in cultures free of accessory cells. However, on injection into mice prior to infection with T. brucei, one mediator, tumor necrosis factor (also called TNF/ cachectin), delayed the onset of parasitaemia by an unknown mechanism.In summary, the advances in ruminant immunology have shown that the number of helper T cells in trypanotolerant N'Dama cattle increases during trypanosome infection, whereas in sensitive Zebu cattle their number decreases. N'Dama are also better able to maintain the activity of their complement system than Zebu. Furthermore, as noted last year, the reticuloendothelial cells of the N'Dama are better able to ingest and destroy antibody-coated trypanosomes than are those of Zebu. Further research in this area may provide the first indications of the mechanisms involved in trypanotolerance and how they may be manipulated by immunological means to enhance resistance to trypanosomiasis.Research into the mechanisms in livestock that enable the animals to resist the pathogenic effects of trypanosomiasis can be divided into two broad areas: studies of trypanosomal anaemia in cattle, including bovine bone-marrow cultivation in vitro, and studies to elucidate effector pathways and molecules that may be involved in host responses to disease.Anaemia, a reduction in the number of red blood cells normally present in the blood, as well as an apparent dysfunction of leucocytes, white blood cells that include lymphocytes and monocytes, occur in animals suffering from trypanosomiasis. The causes of the anaemia and leucocyte dysfunction are unknown. Studies of the formation of blood cells in cattle infected with a haemorrhagic stock of T. vivax continued in 1988. As reported last year, the infected animals developed anaemia; leucopenia, a reduction in the number of leucocytes; and thrombocytopenia, a reduction in the number of platelets in the blood. Other than a moderate increase in the proportion of monocytes in the blood, the leucopenia reflected a reduction in the numbers of all the other white blood cell types.In this experiment extensive haemorrhage involving many organs occurred in the cattle during and after the second week of infection. Extensive phagocytosis-ingestion of red and white blood cell precursors, erythrocytes (Figure 24) and trypanosomes by macrophages-was also observed. Hyperactivation of the phagocytic system may thus partly account for the reduction in the numbers of normal red and white blood cells in the infected cattle. The underlying stimuli that activate macrophages are still unknown but these may include a direct effect of trypanosome products on host cells. The techniques developed in the ILRAD studies in this area will be extended to include comparisons between the relatively trypano-resistant N'Dama cattle, which suffer only mild anaemia, and the more susceptible Boran animals, which suffer severe anaemia. Both the anaemia and the inefficient immune responses in cattle infected with trypanosomes may arise in part from impaired bone marrow functions. Using the right growth factors, researchers have been able to determine the number of various progenitor cell types-those cells that give rise to the various types of red and white blood cells-in humans and rodents.In cultures of human and rodent cells, soft agar has been used to grow colonies of white blood cells (myeloid), and methylcellulose has been used to grow red blood cells (erythroid) and blood platelets (megakaryocytes). Bone marrow stromal cells were also grown for several months in fluid phase cultures.The work done in this area in 1988 was focused on finding the most suitable sites and means of obtaining bovine marrow and ways of enriching bone marrow biopsy material for the earliest possible progenitor cells. Use of the many monoclonal antibodies produced at ILRAD that identify bovine cell types enabled workers to eliminate relatively mature cells from bone marrow preparations by incubating the mixed, biopsied cell population with antibodies to mature cell types in the presence of complement. Magnetic beads coated with such antibodies have also been used in similar selection procedures. Using fluorocytometry and cell separations in the fluorescence-activated cell sorter has also made it possible either to eliminate certain cell types or to enrich cell preparations for progenitors.The long-term goals of this project are to study the effects of trypanosomiasis on bone marrow functions and to gain an understanding of the causes of trypanosome-associated anaemia and immunodepression. In attempts to optimize the growth of cells that will give rise to colonies of cells of a particular lineage, various conditioned media and growth factors, including human and bovine recombinant IL-2, human recombinant granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor, and murine IL-3, were tested for their ability to stimulate or maintain colony growth. None of these growth factors or interleukins gave good results. However, medium from bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells, which had been stimulated with the mitogen Con A, contained factors that supported neutrophil, macrophage and eosinophil colonies.With the use of Iscove's medium supplemented with methylcellulose, 1 % deionized bovine serum albumin, and recombinant erythropoietin, it has been possible to grow short-term erythroid colonies that last between 8 and 15 days, depending on the maturation stage of the progenitors. Attempts to grow long-term cultures, essential for testing the effects of materials from trypanosome-infected animals, have been unsuccessful to date, but use of media containing 2-mercaptoethanol with hydrocortisone has yielded encouraging results.The difficulty in maintaining pluripotential cells-which are able to give rise to many different types of blood cells-in long-term bone marrow cultures may be due to ignorance of the growth factors required by these cells. Attempts are now being made to improve the survival of such pluripotential cells. As sources of bovine interleukins, produced commercially by recombinant DNA technologies, become available, the role of these substances in controlling the growth and differentiation of blood cells will be studied.Studies were begun in 1988 to determine the role of complement in trypanosome infections. Complement is a system of blood proteins that may be activated to help destroy microorganisms. In the first of these, a haemolytic assay was developed to quantify the activation of the alternate pathway of complement. Comparison between the haemolytic activity in sera recovered from fully susceptible and relatively resistant animals showed that the latter had higher complement levels. The decrease of complement activity seemed to correlate with parasite load. N'Dama cattle that were immune to a particular serodeme of trypanosomes had higher complement levels than Boran cattle exposed to the same parasite.Polymorphisms of complement components may thus contribute to trypanotolerance and are being studied further.Previous studies showing the presence of a peptidase in the sera of trypanosome-infected rodents were extended in 1988 to analyse sera of cattle infected with T. congolense. The parasite peptidase has been shown not only to be present during the course of detectable parasitaemia, but also to persist for several days after the animals have been successfully treated. Elevated levels of circulating hydrolases of parasite origin could well contribute to the pathogenesis of trypanosomiasis, particularly by having subtle effects on regulatory molecules such as hormones.Earlier studies to assess the endocrine status of T. congolense-infected cattle showed no significant differences in the basal plasma cortisol levels between control and trypanosomeinfected animals. In 1988 workers assessed the capacity of the pituitary to respond to exogenous bovine corticotropin-releasing factor during T. congolense infection. Sera collected from infected cattle had significantly lower levels of plasma cortisol than sera collected from the same animals before or after their infection (Figure 25). Levels of plasma ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) during patent parasitaemia were not significantly altered by the parasitaemia, which suggests that in cattle infected with T. congolense there is either an endorgan (adrenal) malfunction or a decreased half-life of cortisol. After injection of bCRF, the mean peak plasma cortisol concentration was 9.3µg/100 ml in animals before they were infected and 4.8 µg/100 ml after they were infected.Future trypanosomiasis research work at ILRAD will continue to focus on both the basic biology of the trypanosome and the interactions between the parasite and its animal host, with the aim of identifying targets for immunological or chemotherapeutic attack or ways to enhance livestock resistance to trypanosomiasis.Assembling baseline data Assessing the impact of disease control Techniques for data analysisThe economics of theileriosis control Field studies on the impact of disease controlTo feed the growing human population of Africa, land and other natural resources on the continent must be used more efficiently and the health of domestic animals must be improved. ILRAD's newest research unit, Epidemiology and Socioeconomics, is attempting to identify factors that govern the successful application of improved livestock disease control measures -particularly the widespread use of immunization-and to assess the likely impact of improved disease control in epidemiological, economic, social and environmental terms.Livestock are an important part of African smallholder farms. In addition to providing two of the most important foods in Africa-milk and meat-livestock provide manure, which is commonly used for both fertilizer and fuel, as well as transport and traction for ploughing. The sale of livestock and livestock products also gives small farmers the cash with which to buy essential agricultural inputs such as fertilizers. Many farmers use surplus income to buy more livestock, and such acquisitions in Africa, where livestock often represent a family's total wealth, help households to accumulate much-needed capital.For these reasons, new methods for controlling the debilitating and often fatal livestock diseases still common in Africa are eagerly sought. In the past, however, the implementation of new control measures that have led to increases in livestock populations have in some instances also led to the erosion of marginally productive lands. Reducing or removing the constraints to livestock production that are now imposed by disease in Africa is therefore not the whole answer to increasing livestock productivity. ILRAD's Epidemiology and Socioeconomics Unit is not only assessing measures to increase productivity, but also examining ways to sustain this increase without degrading the environment.In 1988, its first complete year of work, the Unit focused on the control of theileriosis and other tick-borne diseases in the countries of eastern, central and southern Africa in which theileriosis occurs. Once the methodologies the Unit is developing to study the impact of tickborne diseases and their control have been thoroughly tested, they should be applicable to other economically important African livestock diseases.The economic impact of effective and widespread control of several livestock diseases in Europe and North America has been calculated and these calculations used by policy makers.A few such calculations have also been made for disease control in Africa. The reliability of such calculations depends on the accuracy of the data acquired on both disease incidence and livestock productivity and on the relationship between the two. Although reliable estimates of the benefits and costs of control programs should help policy makers to evaluate the viability of control measures, insufficient attention has been given, especially in Africa, to the social feasibility and impact of control programs. ILRAD's Epidemiology and Socioeconomics Unit is attempting to redress this inadequacy.Making a benefit-cost analysis of implementing disease control measures on a single farm can be relatively straightforward if accurate and complete data are available, but such an analysis becomes complex when applied to administrative regions, countries and continents. Furthermore, sociological factors may diminish or negate the apparent benefits of a disease control program. It is difficult to identify and set values on costs that are social as well as financial; identifying and evaluating benefits are even more difficult. For this reason the Epidemiology and Socioeconomics Unit is studying new ways to assess the impact of livestock diseases and their control. This year the Unit has focused on acquiring data, assembling databases and developing research methodologies.The Unit is assembling an extensive database on factors related to the epidemiology and control of theileriosis and other tick-borne diseases in eastern, central and southern Africa where pathogenic forms of theileriosis occur. These data, which include socioeconomic factors in several countries in this region, were obtained from scientific journals and publications of non-governmental, national and international organizations. In a few study areas information has also been obtained on a farm-by-farm basis on land use, farming systems, livestock production and marketing, access to services such as piped water and roads, agricultural labour and the division of labour within households. All this information is stored in both spreadsheet and database formats to facilitate its retrieval and cross-referencing.One of the first aims of the Unit was to identify the epidemiological, economic and social factors likely to indicate the impact of immunization in given areas. These factors were then incorporated into models of the impact of disease control being written by the Unit. Once sufficient information relating to these factors has been fed into the model, it should be possible to assess accurately the impact of immunization at the community, country and regional levels. The following kinds of epidemiological data were used as indicators of the impact of immunization in given areas:distribution, abundance and movement of livestock size, composition, mortality, morbidity and performance of livestock herds prevalence of antibodies in defined age groups of cattle to the parasite species that cause disease: Theileria parva, T. mutans, Babesia bigemina, B. bovis and Anaplasma marginal. suitability of the climate and vegetation for the survival and development of ticks, which transmit the parasite that causes East Coast fever tick abundance and infection rates policy and practice of acaricide useIn many areas the introduction of new, effective measures to control theileriosis will be followed by an introduction of exotic and grade livestock, which formerly could not be raised in these areas because of their susceptibility to tick-borne diseases. The introduction of improved livestock breeds should have a major impact on smallholder dairy farms. The Unit has selected socioeconomic factors with which to identify areas that are suitable for smallholder dairy farming if theileriosis can be controlled. The factors include the following: density of the human population intensity of land use system of land tenure in use types of farming and farm management employed functions and importance of livestock on the farms breeds of livestock kept local constraints to livestock production farmers perceptions of the risks of livestock production in their areas degree to which livestock production is commercialized availability of veterinary services access to milk-buying centresMost research on the epidemiology and control of tick-borne diseases and the socioeconomics of livestock production has been carried out at only a few sites within the study region. Because the epidemiological, ecological and demographic circumstances differ, and often differ greatly, from one area to another among and within the eleven countries affected by theileriosis, these site-specific data cannot be used meaningfully to assess livestock diseases and their effects on production across districts, provinces or countries. On the other hand, it is at the district, provincial and national levels that decisions on disease control policy and implementation are usually made. The Unit is therefore attempting to define general geographical zones and social circumstances according to which particular areas may be classed with respect to ecology, farming systems, disease epidemiology and socioeconomics. These broad categories will then be used to tailor field research and disease control implementation to the circumstances of particular areas.Geographic information systems are computer software that combine sophisticated mapping techniques with powerful database programs so that spatially distributed information may be easily displayed, assimilated and analysed. In a pilot project carried out in collaboration with the Global Environment Monitoring System of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Unit has assembled databases comprising the three main determinants of livestock disease epidemiology in Africa: host distribution, vector distribution and disease incidence.The distribution of cattle across Africa was obtained from the Inter-African Bureau of Animal Resources (IBAR). The distributions of Zebu and Sanga cattle breeds and Zebu-Sanga crosses, as well as the distribution of Cape buffalo, an indigenous wild animal that carries but is not affected by the parasite T. parva lawrencei, were obtained from published literature. Accurate distribution data on exotic and grade cattle, the types most susceptible to East Coast fever and other tick-borne diseases unfortunately do not exist in several of the countries under study.The areas in which livestock may be raised in Africa are restricted for two main reasons: the presence of tsetse flies and the presence of game parks and other protected reserves.Databases on these two parameters were obtained from IBAR and UNEP's Global Environment Monitoring System project and have been used to estimate the present cattle distributions and numbers on the continent.Distributions of R. appendiculatus and related tick species, such as R. duttoni, R. nitens and R. zambeziensis, which transmit the parasites that cause theileriosis, were derived from data in published literature, government reports and personal communications. For sites at which sample tick collections have never been made, tick specialists estimated the probable distributions of tick species on the basis of their experience.For sites from which meteorological data were available, a model called CLIMEX, developed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia), was used to calculate a climatic suitability index of the survival and development of the tick R. appendiculatus (Figure 26). In addition to a suitable climate, this species needs vegetation cover in the form of grass and tree canopy to survive. An assessment of vegetation cover is given by the satellite-derived 'Normalized Difference Vegetation Index', or NDVI, which provides a measure of the photosynthetically active vegetation, or 'greenness', of every part of the world every ten days at a resolution of 1 km. The Unit obtained NDVI data for Africa from the Nairobi offices of UNEP and the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing. These data are being evaluated for their usefulness in predicting the distribution of R. appendiculatus. The Unit has assembled from published literature, government reports and personal communications the reported distribution of clinical theileriosis and antibodies to T. parva in cattle in Africa.Using ARC/ INFO, a geographic information systems software package, the Unit produced preliminary maps of the distribution of theileriosis and the animal hosts and tick vectors of the disease in the study region. Relationships among the factors studied were determined by combining and overlaying the maps.In 1988 the Unit determined the areas in which indigenous livestock are at risk from East Coast fever, the levels of risk and the areas into which the disease may spread. Lack of data on the distribution of exotic and grade livestock makes it difficult to assess accurately the risk of disease to populations of these breeds. The Unit also began to develop a map of areas that are ecologically suitable for the survival and development of the tick R. appendiculatus. In collaboration with UNEP, the Unit is broadening its epidemiological databases to include factors regarding the socioeconomic status of farmers in the study area and the types of farming systems they employ. In addition, data from field sites in Kenya will be examined to determine relationships between observations made on the ground and remote sensing data obtained by satellite.The benefits and costs of implementing different East Coast fever control strategies are being calculated by the Unit. A comprehensive analysis of the costs of implementing the infectionand-treatment immunization method was made in 1988 and applied to a case study in Kenya.Basing most estimates on data from the Kenya case study and making some assumptions concerning particular target populations and circumstances of use, the Unit calculated that it will cost approximately US$1.00 to produce a single dose of the infection-and-treatment vaccine and another $2.25 to treat each animal in the field. The total cost to the farmer of providing his or her livestock with lifetime immunity against East Coast fever, the most economically damaging of all the tick-borne diseases in Africa, thus comes to approximately $3.25 per animal. In areas where artificial insemination services are provided, immunization can be given at the same time as insemination, thus reducing the field delivery costs for each of these services.In contrast, the cost to a Kenya farmer of applying acaricide to one animal for one year ranges from about $0.60 in low-input semi-arid pastoral systems to $6.00 in ranching systems and $8.50 in high-input crop-livestock systems. Although it is true that this relatively high price for acaricide protection covers the cost of controlling all tick-borne diseases for the year rather than controlling East Coast fever alone, it is also true that in much of Kenya East Coast fever is the main tick-borne disease for which farmers use acaricides. Furthermore, the cost of the immunization method covers a lifetime rather than a year of protection against the disease.Conducting studies at particular sites on the impact of the control of tick-borne diseases provides the most reliable feedback on the consequences of immunizing cattle. This information can then be used to test the Unit's methodologies and choice of key indicators and to validate the broader assessments the Unit is making with the aid of geographic information systems.In 1988 field studies of the impact of immunization were begun in a Kenya district in collaboration with the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) (Addis Ababa), the Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) (Muguga, Kenya) and the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (Nairobi). These studies are part of wider research into the constraints to dairy production in Kenya's subhumid coastal zone and the effects of immunizing livestock against East Coast fever on small and medium-sized farms in the country. Together with KARI and ILCA, the ILRAD team is carrying out farm surveys in Kilifi District, in Kenya's Coast Province, to define basic farming systems, livestock production and disease risk. In longer term studies on selected farms the Unit will identify diseases and other factors that constrain livestock productivity and monitor epidemiological and socioeconomic factors following the immunization of livestock against East Coast fever.Reports, as well as the publication in English and Kiswahili of a weekly Internal Newsletter, which is distributed to all staff members and the Board of Directors.The annual report, annual highlights and quarterly newsletter are intended for a wide range of readers, with emphasis on laboratory and field workers in Africa who are responsible for animal health. In 1988 major articles in ILRAD Reports reviewed the development of simple and accurate methods to detect trypanosomes in infected tsetse flies and mammals; recent progress in developing in vitro culture systems for the three most important species of African trypanosome; the importance of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in bovine immune responses; a report of an international workshop held at ILRAD The ILRAD Library serves staff members, visiting scientists and participants in the training program. Because the Library's extensive, up-to-date and highly specialized journal collection is unique in Kenya, the Library extends its services to staff from other research institutes and from government departments and universities in Kenya. The collection concentrates on topics related to ILRAD's research program, with emphasis on scientific journals. In 1988 the 294 subscriptions to international journals and 36 monograph series covered such fields as parasitology, immunology, biochemistry, entomology, cell biology, biotechnology, epidemiology, genetics and molecular biology. The Library acquired 430 books, pamphlets and reports in 1988, bringing the total book collection to 2930 volumes.The ILRAD Library participates in an interlibrary loan network that includes Kenya's university libraries and national and international research institutes. ILRAD borrowed 916 items from other libraries in the network and loaned 301 items to other libraries during the year. The ILRAD Library also donated 472 books and 121 journals to other libraries, notably the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, at Muguga, and the University of Nairobi's School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Library, at Kabete.During the year the ILRAD Library hosted a student from the Kenya Polytechnic for two months. The student did practical training in specialized library and information work. Several staff members from other institutions were given demonstrations and information about ILRAD's computerized information services.The ILRAD Library offers several current awareness services. Announcements of new accessions are published in the weekly ILRAD Internal Newsletter and the Library subscribes to several guides to the scientific literature in ILRAD's research areas, such as Current Contents, Index Veterinarius and Tropical Diseases Bulletin. The Library also subscribes to selective dissemination of information services provided as printouts by Biosciences Information Services (BIOSIS), the International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the International Livestock Centre for Africa. In addition, the Library carries out computerbased literature searches for ILRAD staff. In 1988 ILRAD made 38 online literature searches: 34 were made by the International Service for National Agricultural Research and 4 by the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International.Reprints of scientific articles by ILRAD staff members are supplied on request and free of charge to scientists, technicians and field workers. In 1988, most of these reprints, 495, were sent to workers in Africa; 99 were sent to Asia, 60 to North America and 35 to Europe.Tsetse laboratory Tick laboratory Large animal production Laboratory animal production Biostatistics and computing servicesA great deal of the trypanosomiasis research conducted at ILRAD requires trypanosomes that have developed in tsetse flies. Researchers studying trypanosomiasis transmission and parasite development in the vector work in close collaboration with staff of the Tsetse Laboratory.In 1988 ILRAD's Tsetse Laboratory maintained stable breeding colonies of eight tsetse species. These were Glossina morsitans centralis, originating from mainland Tanzania; G. austeni, from Zanzibar; G. palpalis palpalis, from Nigeria; G. p. gambiensis, from Burkina Faso; G. fuscipes fuscipes, from the Central African Republic; G. tachinoides, from Tchad; and G. brevipalpis and G. longipennis, from Kenya. These species represent all three taxonomic groups of tsetse-morsitans, palpalis and fusca. Their breeding performance in 1988 is summarized in Table 3. In addition, the Tsetse Laboratory established in 1987 a colony of G. pallidipes (morsitans group), which is still expanding. By the end of 1988 this colony, which originated from the Shimba Hills, Kenya, consisted of 2647 breeding females and had produced 24,180 pupae with a mean puparial weight of 40.4 mg.These breeding colonies provided all the tsetse required for trypanosomiasis research in 1988. Tsetse puparia and adult flies were also supplied to colleagues at the University of Nairobi, the Biological Control Project (Nigeria), the Swiss Tropical Institute and the University of Bristol (UK).The main work of the Tick Laboratory is the production of a steady supply of ticks and tick salivary glands infected with the sporozoite form of Theileria parva for staff in ILRAD's theileriosis research program.Theileria sporozoites can be obtained only by development of the parasites in the tick vectors.The Tick Laboratory maintains a large colony of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks. Nymphal ticks pick up the parasites from feeding on cattle infected with Theileria parva (Muguga) stabilate. After the adult ticks moult, they are fed for four days on rabbits and then dissected to harvest the infected salivary glands. Infection rates are determined for each batch of ticks.Staff from the Tick Laboratory are collaborating with ILRAD scientists on several research projects, including the isolation of new stocks from the field, the rate of transmission of parasite clones from ticks to cattle, pick ups of parasites from Theileria-carrier cattle, tick stabilate preparation and determination of Theileria infection rates in field ticks.Rhipicephalus appendiculatus is the most important tick species in East Africa, where it is the principal vector of T. p. parva and T. p. lawrencei. Colonies of other tick species maintained at ILRAD include another Rhipicephalus species, R. zambeziensis, as well as Amblyomma variegatum and A. gemma, vectors of Cowdria ruminantium, which causes heartwater, and two relatively benign Theileria species, T. mutans and T. velifera.Changes continued to be made in the Tick Laboratory to improve disease security. The Laboratory is being extended so that rabbits that have never encountered Theileria parasites and rabbits infested with ticks infected by different Theileria species, strains and isolates can be kept isolated from each other.An incubator was purchased to increase the Laboratory's tick-handling capacity and another was modified to provide the long daylight regimes needed to activate the species and strains of ticks from southern Africa. Two data loggers were purchased to monitor the temperature and relative humidity of the incubators. A computer was purchased in August and a software program is being designed to store and retrieve tick data.Low Theileria infection rates in ticks continued to be a problem in 1988. No clear relationship is manifested between parasitaemia in cattle and infection rates in tick batches fed on the cattle. Differences do exist, however, in the susceptibility to Theileria infection shown by R. appendiculatus and R. zambeziensis collected from different areas. The Tick Laboratory is identifying the tick species and isolates most susceptible to infection. It is also studying the effect on infection rates of treating cattle with dexamethasone, a corticosteroid drug.The Both Boran and N'Dama calves are regularly produced at ILRAD using embryo transfer techniques. In the last five years ILRAD's Large Animal Unit has tested and standardized methods for synchronizing the ovulation of donor and recipient cows, for stimulating superovulation in donors, for assessing the suitability of recipients and for handling and splitting embryos before implanting them in recipient cows. In both breeds an average of just under four embryos is now obtained from each embryo-producing donor during each superovulation.The objective of transferring embryos in Boran cattle is to produce animals with the same major histocompatibility complex (MHC), as well as to produce twins. In 1988, 32 Boran calves were produced by embryo transfer from selected MHC-typed cows and bulls. Boran calves of specified MHC types were also produced during the year from natural matings.The objective of embryo transfer work in N'Dama cattle is to increase the number of N'Damas available for ILRAD's trypanosomiasis research program as rapidly as possible. ILRAD's five N'Dama heifers were each induced to superovulate twice in 1988. During the second superovulation, three of the N'Damas were infected with trypanosomiasis. Unlike susceptible cattle, these trypanotolerant N'Dama were capable of retaining reproductive activity while being infected with trypanosomes. A total of 13 N'Dama embryos were recovered and surgically implanted in Boran foster mothers, 6 pregnancies were established and 20 N'Dama calves were born in 1988, making ILRAD's total N'Dama calf production 24.The Laboratory Animal Unit provides ILRAD's research and training programs with a regular supply of mice, rats and rabbits. The Unit also maintains small colonies of meadow voles, cotton rats and guinea pigs, which are occasionally required for experimental work. All laboratory animals are housed and maintained according to international animal welfare conventions.ILRAD is self-sufficient in mouse and rat production. Colonies of three inbred mouse strains--BALB/c, C3H/He and C57/B16--are maintained. The C3H/He and C57/ B 16 mice are used primarily for studies on host resistance to trypanosomiasis. The BALB/c mice and a colony of (BALB/c × Swiss) FI mice are maintained for the production of monoclonal antibodies. Random-bred Swiss mice are increasingly used for all other research work because they are more productive and grow faster than the inbred strains.ILRAD scientists use rats primarily for the production of trypanosomes. All rats are randombred and originate from the Sprague Dawley strain. Rabbits are used mainly to produce antisera and to support the tsetse and tick colonies. Expansion of ILRAD's rabbit production continued to be impeded by outbreaks of Staphylococcus aureus. Because of this, although 25% more rabbits were weaned in 1988 than in 1987, ILRAD still relied on outside suppliers for about one-third of the rabbits required during the year.Table 4 shows the total number of mice, rats and rabbits produced and used at ILRAD in 1988. The demand for mice increased by 8% from the 1987 level, while the demand for rats decreased by 39%. In addition to supplying nearly all the laboratory animals required by ILRAD scientists, the breeding unit provided a total of 1548 mice and 588 rats to other research organizations in Kenya. The Unit maintains a library of commercial software that includes dBase III for database work; Symphony for spreadsheet work; Multimate for word processing; Smart, an integrated package, for doing all three of these kinds of work; and Harvard Graphics for producing graphs. The Unit also uses Statgraphics, SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Scientists) and other specialized software for analysing scientific data; compilers for high-level languages, such as C; utility packages such as Norton Utilities and PC Tools; and conversion packages such as Word for Word, used to convert documents from one word processing format to another.ILRAD subscribes to CGNET, an international electronic mail service linking the CGIAR institutes. This service also gives ILRAD access to many other international electronic networks, such as BITNET (which comprises research institutes and universities around the world) and British Telecom Gold (British business).","tokenCount":"21792"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f0f3cf9a969e20af9922d41db60dfe13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e3ab8e9f-cf34-4efe-a43b-302c0e8dff9d/retrieve","id":"-254657518"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c53077f3-acc7-4f20-b3fa-7e27935f96c6","pagecount":"13","content":"The CGIAR Initiative on Climate Resilience, also known as ClimBeR, aims to transform the climate adaptation capacity of food, land, and water systems and ultimately increase the resilience of smallholder production systems to better adapt to climate extremes. Its goal is to tackle vulnerability to climate change at its roots and support countries and local and indigenous communities in six low-and middle-income countries to better adapt and build equitable and sustainable futures. Learn more about ClimBeR here: https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/climate-resilience/This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Initiative on Climate Resilience and has not been independently peer-reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved.The workshop addressed how Anticipatory Action (AA) strengthens the disaster preparedness in Sri Lanka's vulnerable community for flood and landslide disasters, especially during monsoon seasons. World Vision Lanka, with support from stakeholders like the Disaster Management Centre and the National Building Research Organization, is implementing an Anticipatory Action for Disaster Mitigation Project in Nuwara Eliya. Collaborating with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), they pilot the approach in a drought-prone area, integrating it into the \"AWARE\" platform for enhanced coordination. The workshop aimed to share project findings discuss the way forward, and feature insights from key figures. The panel discussion delved into necessary governmental initiatives, early warning system enhancements, and the role of civil society in mitigating slow-onset disasters. The event concluded with plans for a national AA dialogue platform, working group establishment, inclusive implementation, and continuous sharing of project experiences. The proactive nature of Anticipatory Action and its potential to enhance disaster preparedness at the national level was emphasized. Given its vulnerability to a range of natural hazards, Sri Lanka finds itself at heightened risk of encountering both flood and landslide disasters. These occurrences are notably exacerbated during the monsoon seasons, which transpire from May to September and October to January, contingent upon the specific region. Recognizing the need for effective disaster management, it becomes imperative to prioritize proactive approaches over traditional reactive measures in order to mitigate and curtail the impact of these disasters. This strategic shift is crucial for enhancing the country's resilience and responsiveness to the challenges posed by floods and landslides.Anticipatory Action refers to a proactive approach taken to mitigate the impact of impending disasters or crises before they occur. This strategy involves identifying potential risks or threats, monitoring early warning signals, and implementing measures to reduce the vulnerability of communities and systems. The goal is to take preventive actions in advance, based on forecasted events or indicators, to minimize the severity of the impact and enhance overall preparedness.World Vision Lanka (WVL) is presently executing an Anticipatory Action for Disaster Mitigation Project, receiving support from key stakeholders such as the Disaster Management Centre and the National Building Research Organization. The project's implementation spans the Ambagamuwa and Nuwara Eliya Divisional Secretariats in the Nuwara Eliya District. This initiative is an integral component of a larger pilot project conducted by World Vision International across six countries in the Asia Pacific Region. Funding for this broader effort is provided by Aktion Deutschland Hilft (ADH) Germany.Furthermore, WVL and IWMI have established a collaborative partnership to pilot this approach in a drought-prone area and integrate the framework into the \"AWARE\" platform. This platform, functioning as an early warning to early action and finance dashboard, facilitates enhanced coordination and accountability for anticipatory action coordination. The joint efforts of WVL and IWMI aim to contribute meaningfully to disaster mitigation and community resilience in the specified regions.The primary aim of this national workshop is to formally present and acquaint participants with the ongoing activities of the Anticipatory Action Project within the Thalawakale Divisional Secretariat Division. The workshop serves as a platform to comprehensively introduce the various aspects, objectives, and progress of the project, fostering a deeper understanding among stakeholders regarding its implementation and impact within the specified geographic area.The specific objectives of the workshop are to:• To share the findings of the studies conducted under the anticipatory action project implemented in Nuwara Eliya • To discuss the way forward of the anticipatory action initiatives in the country.The workshop commenced with a warm welcome from Dr. Simon Langan, the Country Manager of the International Water Management Institute. Dr. Dhanan Senathirajah, National Director of World Vision Lanka, provided an insightful overview of the significance of integrating anticipatory actions in the humanitarian sector and the potential benefits for vulnerable communities.Dr Mark Smith, the Director General of the International Water Management Institute, shared opening remarks and valuable insights into the ClimBer initiative, highlighting collaborative efforts aimed at mainstreaming anticipatory action in Sri Lanka and the broader region.Mr. Susith Arambepola and Eng. (Prof.) Udeni Nawagamuwa presented the findings of the feasibility study, impact-based forecast study, and operational framework for anticipatory action. The experts identified existing gaps at both grassroots and national levels and proposed remedial measures to address these gaps.Eng. (Dr.) Asiri Karunawardena, Director General of the National Building Research Organization, delivered a keynote address emphasizing how anticipatory action can mitigate landslide vulnerabilities. He also highlighted the government's expectations for support from partners to reduce disaster vulnerabilities.Mr. V. Premakumar, Team Leader of the World Vision Lanka Anticipatory Action Project, briefed participants on the anticipatory action protocols. Dr Giriraj Amarnath offered an in-depth exploration of the Early Warning Early Action and Early Finance (AWARE) platform developed by the IWMI. The AWARE platform was thoroughly explained, emphasizing its key role in promoting seamless coordination among multinational and international institutes. Dr. Amarnath illustrated how this digitalized Anticipatory Action framework can be effectively facilitated, providing a comprehensive understanding of its functionalities and potential for enhancing collaborative efforts in disaster preparedness and response.Mr. Sisira Madurapperuma, Director of the Preparedness for Response and Recovery Department at the Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, shared his experiences, including challenges and opportunities encountered in implementing the anticipatory action project. During the panel discussion, the panelists engaged in a comprehensive dialogue regarding the necessary governmental initiatives to mainstream anticipatory action. The conversation also inquired into strategies for enhancing the country's early warning system. Furthermore, the crucial role of civil society organizations was thoroughly examined, emphasizing how anticipatory action could be instrumental in mitigating the impacts of slow-onset disasters like drought.The discourse was multifaceted, involving the identification of key measures that the government should adopt to integrate anticipatory action effectively. Simultaneously, there was a dedicated exploration of ways to strengthen the country's early warning infrastructure for more robust disaster preparedness.The role of civil society organizations emerged as a focal point of discussion, highlighting their potential contributions to anticipatory action strategies. The panelists actively explored how these organizations could play a pivotal role in enhancing community resilience and response mechanisms.Importantly, the panel delved into the nuanced realm of slow-onset disasters, examining how anticipatory action could be strategically employed to alleviate their impacts. This comprehensive discussion allowed participants to share diverse perspectives and insights on charting the way forward for anticipatory action, fostering a collaborative and informed exchange of ideas among stakeholders.• Establishing a national anticipatory action dialogue platform with government partners.• Establishing a working group for anticipatory action at the national level.• Promote inclusive approach in implementing anticipatory action.• Supporting government agencies in enhancing the forecasting and dissemination of early warning messages. • Continuously sharing the experiences of the pilot projects implemented for landslide, flood and drought hazards. • Lobbying with early finance donors in accessing funds.In his concluding remarks, Mr. Winson Gnanatheepan emphasized the importance of advancing Anticipatory Action (AA) as a strategic approach to disaster reduction at the national level. Recognizing the timeliness of the AA, he emphasized the importance of considering prior financial approaches and agreements as an important part of it. Furthermore, Mr. Winson highlighted the need to align these strategies with the mandates of disaster management institutes, emphasizing the proactive nature of AA and its potential to enhance the overall disaster preparedness and response framework. This insight advocates for a comprehensive and strategic integration of Anticipatory Action, positioning it as a pivotal component within the broader context of national disaster risk reduction and management strategies. ","tokenCount":"1347"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b8097428ce46a37669d621251ee7f20","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5432b03d-9e82-4892-9e5c-972c2ee5cd05/retrieve","id":"-30336467"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ad57d770-45f3-4be0-b679-c970b4ad036a","pagecount":"104","content":"The Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) is one of the 26 specialist institutions of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO). Established in 1966, SEARCA is mandated to strengthen institutional capacities in agricultural and rural development in Southeast Asia through graduate scholarship, research and development, and knowledge management. It serves the 11 SEAMEO member countries, namely,In his welcome remarks, SEARCA Director Dr. Glenn B. Gregorio emphasized the close interconnection between climate and food security issues, wherein the changing climatic conditions pose greater risks over the agriculture sector and threaten food security. Localized interventions, according to Dr. Gregorio, assume a critical role in the battle against climate change, underlining the importance of climate-smart initiatives at the grassroots.Emphasizing the crucial role of the village, the basic political unit of society, in national development, Dr. Leocadio S. Sebastian, Regional Program Leader of CCAFS in Southeast (SEA) said that it takes a village to scale climate-smart agriculture, in the same way that it takes a village to raise a child. Dr. Sebastian furthered that the village is the \"nucleus of social action,\" where the real action toward climate change mitigation and adaptation, particularly community mobilization through CSV, begins.To provide the history and context of the Guinayangan CSV, Ms. Emilita Monville-Oro, Country Director and Acting Asia Regional Director of IIRR, shared the lessons learned from CSV implementation in the municipality. A salient point in Ms. Oro's presentation was on increased Guinayangan local government's investment on interventions that address climate change impacts. Moreover, scaling up CSA initiatives would necessarily entail building the capacities of communities and local government units.In his keynote address, Dr. Rex Victor O. Cruz, Professor and Director of the Environmental Forestry Programme of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños, discussed the challenges, needs, and priorities in the ASEAN Region in the context of the current climate change scenario. Dr. Cruz related his experiences working with conservation farmers and emphasized that empowerment involves both unlearning and learning processes. He added that establishing CSVs necessitates climate-smart technical services, science and technologies, social relations, and governance.The workshop was organized into four modules.To provide participants with the fundamental principles and elements of CSV, Module 1 focused on its nature as an agricultural research for development approach in addressing climate change, food and nutrition security, and livelihood development. Furthermore, participatory tools employed in the Department of Agriculture's Adaptation and Mitigation Initiative in Agriculture (DA-AMIA) villages and the Guinayangan CSV were presented. Experiences in establishing the context of CSV in communities were also discussed.Module 2 of the workshop featured a panel discussion on the emerging lessons from CSVs in Southeast Asia. The panel was composed of Dr. Sebastian; Ms. Perla G. Baltazar, Senior Technical Officer of the DA Systems-wide Climate Change Office; and Dr. Julian Gonsalves, Senior Adviser and CCAFS Project Leader, IIRR. This was followed by a presentation on scaling considerations in CSV, which was delivered by Ms. Jana Patricia Koerner, CCAFS SEA Scaling Officer.Module 3 featured the best practices in climatesmart agriculture through a roving workshop in Guinayangan, Quezon. Participants of the workshop first visited Barangay Cabong Norte, where they learned about intercropping and other interventions in an upland agricultural system, with emphasis on corn production. This was followed by a field visit to Barangay Capuluan Tulon, where pig raisers employ small-scale, low-external input, low-carbon footprint methods of raising resilient but improved native pig breed as an alternative livelihood source for smallholder farmers. Meanwhile, the fishery and coastal agriculture site in Barangay Capuluan Central showcased the initial work done on coastal reforestation and diversification of livelihoods of coastal fishing families.Guinayangan's success story regarding the establishment of the Green Fund (payment for ecosystem services) and water resource management was the subject of the field visit to the Maulawin Spring Protected Landscape (MSPL). Guinayangan Mayor Cesar J. Isaac III related the efforts done by the local government to ensure protection and sustainable utilization of resources within the protected landscape, particularly the establishment of the Municipal Ecosystem Management Council (MEMC) and the Green Fund. This was followed by a site visit to the agroforestry and crop diversification farm in Barangay Sta. Cruz, where farmers managed to establish linkages with the private sector to expand the market for the chili peppers they produce. The demo farm and eco-park managed by the Office of the Municipal Agriculturist (OMA) of Guinayangan served as the final site of the roving workshop, which featured organic vegetable and seedling house, coconut nursery, and dragon fruit demo farm, among others. The group also made quick stops at the National Swine and Poultry Research and Development Center and the Quezon Agricultural Research and Experiment Station to learn the different initiatives and milestones achieved by the DA-AMIA Program, particularly with regard to the adaptation strategies and interventions implemented in the AMIA village in San Francisco, Quezon.Module 4 consisted of a reflection and synthesis session wherein participants shared the best practices in CSA-related work being applied in their respective countries. During the session, participants learned about the initiatives related to the establishment of the National Climate-Smart Agriculture Center in Myanmar; rice crop management practices, including dry direct seeding, in Lao PDR; CSA demonstration actions in Cambodia; CSA practices to adapt to the prolonged dry season in Malaysia; buffer stocking and indigenous adaptation knowledge of farmers in the Philippines; the Agriculture 4.0 program for low-input, high-output agricultural production in Thailand; climate-smart paddy rice cultivation in Indonesia; and the efforts done by the World Food Programme to integrate CSA components for food security and nutrition.The last module also enabled participants to share their experiences and present their re-entry action plans (REAP) in a plenary session. With this activity, participants proposed projects that aim to strengthen the capacity of upland farmers in Lao PDR; launch a workshop on establishing CSV in Myanmar; address monocropping and soil degradation in Thailand; establish a CSV in Pailin Province, Cambodia; improving yield quality and reducing yield losses of farmers in Malaysia; implement community-driven climate change adaptation and mitigation practices in the Philippines; and establish strategic irrigation for sustainable crop production in Indonesia.C limate-smart agriculture (CSA) recognizes that climatic risks to agriculture-based livelihood are occurring at much greater pace and intensity than before; and in order to address it, context-specific local solutions are needed. To answer this need, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) has developed the Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach, specifically to address this issue and to allow farmers to learn from the evidences generated at the local level; and enable them to build their own CSVs later on. In Southeast Asia, CSVs have been established in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines and Vietnam, to serve as model sites where CSA learning, as well as community-based participatory action demonstrations, may take place.The Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) has been advocating for climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as food security and nutrition security, by providing a venue for high-level discussions that may support policy advocacy and encourage organizations to learn from the best practices of their counterparts from across the Southeast Asian region. SEARCA has drafted the \"Umbrella Program on Food Security and Nutrition Security for Southeast Asia 2014-2019\" and the \"Umbrella Program on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation for Southeast Asia.\"Along this line, the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) initiated the CSV in Guinayangan, Quezon, through the support of CCAFS in 2014. Since then, various CSA interventions, which initially targeted adoption by 300 farmers, have eventually reached about 1,500 farmers, through farmer-to-farmer scaling. The Guinayangan CSV has also functioned as a \"go-to\" site for agriculture development workers in learning about technologies, as well as participatory approaches and social learning methodologies for promoting CSA and the CSV approach. The knowledge and experiences generated from the Guinayangan CSV had already been shared to around 285 agricultural researchers, students, extension workers, government officials, and media practitioners representing around 145 institutions including local and national governments, NGO, NARES, media institutions, state universities, and farmers groups from 10 countries through both on-site (roving workshops, trainings, and site visits) and offsite learning events (trainings, forums, round table discussions). Guinayangan CSV has also been recognized and tapped by the Department of Agriculture (DA) as a learning site for capacitating 17 regional field offices and their respective partner local government units in developing AMIA (Adaptation and Mitigation in Agriculture) villages in all 17 regions in the country.SEARCA and IIRR have a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to collaborate on mutual areas of interest, such as school nutrition and climate smart agriculture. Being at the forefront of both CSA and CSV advocacy in the region, SEARCA and IIRR have partnered together to implement this workshop for the ASEAN Climate Resilience Network.The ASEAN Climate Resilience Network (ASEAN-CRN) was established to ensure that ASEAN member states are capable of adapting to climate change and are able to execute mitigation efforts, in order to maintain food security and climate resiliency in the region. To achieve this, the Network provides a dialogue platform to discuss information, expertise and experiences on CSA. It serves as a link between policymakers and scientific institutions, universities, national research institutions in agriculture, and international organizations. The ASEAN-CRN focuses on advocating the practice and implementation of CSA, as it is already a proven solution to converting and shifting orthodox agricultural systems to support food security under the new conditions posed by climate change. To further enhance its capability in promoting and disseminating CSA work, the Network Background and Rationale thought it best to expose its key members to the experiences and best practices of CSV projects and programs in the ASEAN region, by visiting selected sites and engaging with stakeholders in the Philippines.The learning event highlighted CCAFS's experiences in establishing and organizing CSVs in Southeast Asia, particularly the Guinayangan CSV. It was designed for ASEAN-CRN member countries, to provide them with experiential knowledge on the principles and practice of CCAFS' CSV approach to facilitating promotion and upscaling of CSA and its potential in enhancing food security in local communities.Methodologies included plenary sessions, panel discussions, site visits, roving workshops, and reflection sessions. Participants visited selected learning sites in Guinayangan, Quezon, and prepared re-entry action plans as a requirement of the activity. This learning event featured the various participatory approaches, tools, and strategies utilized by CCAFS, local government, national government, and NGOs, that contributed to the development of CSVs in Southeast Asia.The main goal of this learning event was to help the participants gain a better understanding of the concept of climate smart villages and its impact in improving food security in local communities.At the end of the learning event, the participants were expected to have an increased appreciation of climate smart villages (CSVs) and their potential to significantly improve food security in local communities.Specifically, the participants were expected to:1) Increase knowledge and understanding of the CSV approach to make farming communities climate-smart, utilizing the experience of Guinayangan CSV in the Philippines; and2) Identify practical strategies and approaches in promoting and scaling CSA practices in their respective areas of work and fields of expertise as well as in contributing to the regional community of practice of CSA.  Welcome Message   Dr. Sebastian said that the CSV approach in Southeast Asia is ready for scaling; hence, the workshop was designed for member-countries of the ASEAN-CRN to witness the progress of CSV implementation. The main goal of the workshop, according to Dr. Sebastian, was to help participants gain better understanding of the concept of CSV toward attaining food security in local communities and catalyzing its scaling in Southeast Asia.To conclude his welcome message, Dr. Sebastian said that it takes a village to scale climate-smart agriculture and enjoined the participants to become part of that village. Ms. Emilita Monville Oro Country Director and Acting Regional Director for Asia Philippine Reional Center for Asia International Institure of Rural Reconstruction M s. Emilita Monville Oro's discussion centered on the application of the CSV approach in the Philippine setting, particularly on the experiences from the AMIA villages and the Guinayangan CSV. Ms. Oro shared that the IIRR has previously undertaken three roving workshops with DA's Systems-wide Climate Change Office through the AMIA Program. The roving workshop was designed based on the idea that models need to be built in real-life context.According to Ms. Oro, the Guinayangan CSV is not a showcase area but an example of how the local government unit (LGU) makes an effort toward climate resiliency using existing financial resources. She emphasized that while outsiders can help, it is the local community and the LGU that must do the job to ensure sustainability. Ms. Oro added that the Guinayangan CSV features champion farmers who are doing innovative approaches to adapt to the changing climate. Moreover, it illustrates the process of local engagement, especially since the local government has a more direct reach with the communities.Ms. Oro related that the IIRR, as a strategic partner of CCAFS, has espoused climate-smart agriculture for over five years, and they have used this to leverage resources to establish CSV programs in in Myanmar. She furthered that the communities and the local government are pivotal to the scaling up of CSVs, and this necessitates efforts to build their capacities in climate change adaptation and mitigation.rawing from his experiences in working with upland conservation farmers in Quezon and Ifugao provinces, Dr. Rex Victor O. Cruz said that empowerment of farmers entails two key processes-the unlearning and learning processes-to be able to transform traditional farmers into conservation farmers and to engage the entire village in this undertaking. The anecdotes related by Dr. Cruz served as a springboard for his discussion on climate change and agriculture in Southeast Asia, which covers climate projections; key impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector; key drivers of vulnerability of the agriculture sector; key barriers to adaptation; and the pillars of climate-smart villages.According to Dr. Cruz, climate projections based on the Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicate the similar results, despite efforts from various countries to cut down on greenhouse gas emissions. According to Dr. Cruz, this corroborates previous findings by scientists that imply that climate change is a train already on the loose that is set to run its course. He added that the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC predicted a warming trend, more rains in the northern part of the world, stronger seasonal precipitation variability, and stronger monsoon rains. The report also predicted an increase in heavy rainfall events, increase in cyclone intensity, and probable increase in drought risk in areas with decreased amount of rainfall.Dr. Cruz proceeded to discuss the key impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector, namely: 1.) increased risk of crop failure and reduced crop production that could result in food insecurity; 2.) water shortage; 3.) increased riverine, coastal, and urban flooding; 4.) increased risk of drought-related water and food shortage; 5.) Worsening poverty and inequality and the emergence of new vulnerabilities; and 6.) Coral reef decline. In Southeast Asia, according to Dr. Cruz, there are areas where temperatures are already approaching critical levels, especially during the susceptible stages of the rice planting season. For instance, reduced rice yield has been documented in Southern Indochina, Mekong Delta, Myanmar, the Philippines, Cambodia, and Vietnam. of vulnerability to climate change are pre-existing development problems that society still has to cope with and that vulnerability to climate change is all about the aggravation of existing problematic conditions. To illustrate his point, Dr. Cruz said that the land area owned by farmers in Southeast Asia is too small to benefit from the economy of scale, making smallholder farmers more vulnerable to climate change due to their reduced ability and resources to mitigate its impacts. College of Forestry and Natural Resources, UPLB, adopted a holistic village approach to transform traditional upland farming communities into resilient communities. To do this the CFV went beyond building the capacity of upland farmers to practice adaptive farming practices by transforming the mindsets of the farmers from being farm centric to ecosystem focused. In addition CFV nurtured the sense of accountability and responsibility, imagination and creativity, and cooperative spirit of the farmers. Further CFV facilitated the strengthening of the relationship of farming communities with LGUs, concerned national agencies, and academe.Meanwhile, CSVs also need climate-smart science and technologies through soil and water conservation, biodiversity conservation, precision agriculture, crop-site suitability matching, and long-term research and monitoring. In establishing climate-smart social relations, the elements that should be in place include organizations with legal personality, self-help system, resources pooling and sharing, and farmer-to-farmer learning system. Dr. Cruz emphasized the need to let the farmers make the decision and give them the flexibility to design their farms.  Dr. Gonsalves emphasized that resilience is not only about technologies but also about access to resources and land. He said that a key issue D r. Gonsalves' discussion focused on the conceptual and contextual basis for climate-smart villages, particularly the underlying socio-technical considerations in implementing CSVs.According to Dr. Gonsalves, CSVs serve as a scalable platform that brings about holistic and socially inclusive approaches to demonstrate location-specific solutions to climate risks. A transformational change in the rural livelihoods is one of the main indicators of its effectiveness.Dr. Gonsalves discussed the different shifts that can occur due to climate change, namely, geographic shifts or change in area of suitability; elevation shifts; seasonal shifts that may involve change in yield and cropping patters; and extreme event shifts. This is why targeting matters, since one size does not fit all. He also said that different types of targeting should be considered, such as geographical, agroecological, and social group targeting.Dr. Gonsalves pointed out that the various food systems that exist influence how agriculture is shaped. For some, it could take the form of sustainable diets or food safety. He added that it is important to contextualize CSA within landscapes, since there is interaction among the different components of ecosystems. Moreover, Dr. Gonsalves said that diversification of crops is a key step in the slow climate change adaptation process, and that CSA recognizes that the process is not only about climate-smart crops and varieties. The more diverse agroecological systems are more resilient while the more homogeneous ones are less resilient. Agroforestry is one method of diversification.Dr. Gonsalves also emphasized the significance of incorporating local knowledge about unique local responses into the system, citing the example of the use of windbreakers in farming villages in Batanes Islands in the northern Philippines. Meanwhile, he stated that microdosing of chemical fertilizers is practical in the context of agro-ecological approaches.Small farms are also seen to have the potential to become economically viable units while in this regard is that in most parts of the world, there are no frontline agricultural workers; thus, most initiatives establish farmer field schools (FFS), which does not reach majority of farmers. A method that allows for a large interface with farmers, according to Dr. Gonsalves, is the farmer-to-farmer extension system.Emphasizing the need to move beyond \"islands\" of innovations to impact on scale, Dr. Gonsalves said it is worthy to look back at the criticisms of the Green Revolution, which adopted innovation diffusion in its early years. Dr. Gonsalves also warned against the elite capture of the innovations introduced, which does not always facilitate wider farmer-to-farmer processes, as well as the risks of cumulative advantage that allows for the same group of people to benefit from interventions, as these prevent the scaling of initiatives and approaches. According to Dr. Gonsalves, scaling and sustainability are two faces of the same coin.He also underlined the importance of incremental adaptation, especially since this is what takes place naturally. Dr. Gonsalves said that addressing current climate change issues now and on scale helps build resilience and helps nurture innovation development at the community level. The \"no regrets\" approach, which constitutes adaptive practices and actions that will be beneficial in the future, regardless of whether the worst projections materialize or not.Dr. Gonsalves cited three dimensions of resilience, namely, absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities. He also discussed the concepts of \"stepping up,\" \"stepping out,\" \"hanging in,\" and \"food insecure.\" Farmers that are stepping up invest in agricultural assets to expand the scale of intensity of existing activities, including purchases of at least some inputs or services. Stepping out involves the accumulation of assets that allow investments or shifts into new activities and assets. Meanwhile, \"hanging in\" is characterized by maintaining and protecting current levels of wealth and welfare amid threats of stresses and shocks. Lastly, food insecure agriculture-based livelihoods are those that are chronically food-insecure, experiencing food deficits for more than five months annually.Dr. Gonsalves also pointed out the false dichotomy between rural and urban labor during the agrarian transition. According to him, most families actually occupy the central ground and do not fit into rural or urban categories.Climate-smart agriculture, according to Dr. Gonsalves, provides new opportunities to address the need for local adaptation, resilient livelihoods, agrobiodiversity conservation, and better nutrition. Meanwhile, Climate-Smart Villages provide platforms for ensuring that various interventions converge at the local level, where it matters the most. CSVs can be considered as \"lighthouses\" where communities test, develop, and subsequently adopt appropriate CSA practices and technologies on a wider scale. Dr. Gonsalves said the CSVs provide a wide array of options for farms, landscapes, food systems, and services.Mr. Rene R. Vidallo Philippine Country Program Director Regional Center for Asia, IIRRhouseholds practicing at least one CSA technology; (3) area is already used for on-site knowledge-sharing events; and (4) presence of local knowledge resource(s): at least one farmer leader who can perform as resource person on specific CSA practices. Guinayangan features seven (7) impact areas for CSA, an example of which is the low external input pig production M r. Vidallo presented how CSVs, as an agricultural research for development approach, was operationalized in the context of Guinayangan in Quezon Province, Philippines and how it was utilized for CSA scaling. Referring to the previous presentations which emphasized empowerment as a CSV outcome, Mr. Vidallo said that the greatest proof of empowerment observed in the Guinayangan CSV is the big change in the level of confidence of the program partners, especially those who are working in the agriculture office of the LGU.Mr. Vidallo described Guinayangan as a third-class municipality in Quezon Province, Philippines with a population of 45,155 as of 2015. Its economy is largely agriculture-based, having monocrop coconut plantations as the dominant structure. Based on participatory vulnerability assessment, the climate-related risks faced by the municipality include storms, typhoons, and La Niña conditions. Guinayangan also experiences drought-like conditions and unpredictable onset of the rainy season.Operationalizing the CSV approach, according to Mr. Vidallo, entails establishing key components. One of the foremost components of the Guinayangan CSV are the farmer learning groups that conduct participatory action research to test and learn CSA practices. In the case of the Guinayangan CSV, there are already 17 farmer learning groups, composed of 300 farmers that are engaged in learning about specific climate-smart practices, including agroforestry, coastal agriculture, and confined livestock raising, among others.The second component of the Guinayangan CSV is composed of the learning sites or impact areas where on-site knowledge-sharing is facilitated. Mr. Vidallo stated that while CSA practices can be observed in lots of areas within the CSV, a specific geographic area can be considered an impact area only if it exhibits the following key features: Another component the CSV is the community support systems such as livestock breeding centers, seedling nurseries, and crop propagation centers. Mr. Vidallo said that the purpose of establishing support systems is for farmers to have easy access to inputs (materials and knowledge) that would allow them to test and learn CSA options firsthand. He also emphasized that facilitating social learning is an important form of community support system, and this is done by facilitating farmer learning groups and participatory action research, developing impact areas, facilitating on-site learning, developing community innovations or adaptation fund, providing support to local government programming, and conducting scaling up events both on-site and off-site.Setting up sustainability mechanisms is also a key component of CSVs, according to Mr.Vidallo. In Guinayangan, this manifests in local government plans for the agriculture sector and it is in these planning platforms that designing agricultural interventions comes in and local governments allocate budget. Other sustainability mechanisms in the Guinayangan CSV include LGU investment in CSA demo site, support of national government agencies such as the DA to the LGU, building the capacities of extension service providers, and linking with the private sector and other government agencies.The next key component of CSVs entails organizing scaling up events. Mr. Vidallo said that the Guinayangan CSV employed three major scaling up events to promote CSA, which are off-site events (e.g., conferences, fora, discussions, and meetings), on-site events (e.g., roving workshops, training, and visits), and media coverage. In Guinayangan, there is an ongoing municipality-to-municipality scaling, wherein neighboring municipalities regularly share information through farmer groups, the DA's AMIA program, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).The last component of CSVs is knowledge generation on CSA. According to Mr. Vidallo, CSVs were initially conceptualized from a research perspective and thus the inherent purpose of CSVs was to serve as a platform for CSA knowledge generation and sharing. Dr. Sebastian: I think it is in India where we have private sector participation in CSVs, but in Southeast Asia, we do not have any formalized private partnerships yet. In the case of Guinayangan, they have linked with the private sector to expand their market. This is why I always emphasize that one should not be prescriptive in terms of technology. You cannot force farmers to diversify if there is no market for the products that they will diversify into. One should focus on outcome, process, and location specificity, rather than focus on diversification.We teach farmers to plant different crops, but not which crops to plant, since farmers often know what is demanded by the market and prioritize local demand. If we can link farmers with the market and aid them in developing partnership with other sectors, then they can have better a chance of expanding their market. In Vietnam, for instance, where they have the small field, big farms approach, they bring in the private sector to provide services and to buy the produce, as well as provide inputs. You may have to go beyond the village if you want to bring in the private sector.Ms. Baltazar: In the Philippines, a few cases demonstrate the private sector being brought in as partner. As Dr.Sebastian has said, they serve as the market. There are civil society organizations (CSOs) that orient farmers on the process for them to qualify as suppliers in their specific niche markets. There are also partnerships on a bigger scale, and this is where the DA is working with bigger cooperatives and large companies.Dr. Sebastian: While it is important to engage large companies, farmers should also maximize the private sector at the local level. In my experience when it comes to diversification, it is best to tackle first the household food security. Take advantage of the local market first. Vietnam is a good example of diversification from the local to the foreign market.Mr. Vidallo: In the case of Guinayangan, we struggled in terms of identifying CSA interventions because the coconut industry is already well-developed. What stood out is that typhoons and long droughts have the biggest impact on coconuts, which affect their fruiting. Those who are dependent solely on coconut suffer economic losses. The only practical alternative is diversification. In terms of private partnership, we brought in potential market, thinking that farmers can take advantage of them. However, in the case of large-scale cassava producers, there were constraints in terms of harvesting and transporting the produce. What worked was small-scale production, which needs only to satisfy the local market.Mr Ms. Rosimo said that one of the PRA tools used in PCVRA is community mapping, wherein members of the community map the available resources I n this session, Ms. Rosimo discussed Participatory Climate Vulnerability and Risk Assessment (PCVRA) as a tool that combines the climate lens and participatory rural appraisal (PRA), with sustainable livelihood as the guiding framework in doing the assessment. Based on this framework, Ms. Rosimo pointed out that the five elements of sustainable livelihood-human, natural, financial, social, and physical capital-were assessed to be at risk.Ms. Rosimo explained that PCVRA is guided by the principle of participatory rural appraisal and combines different approaches and methods that enable local people to share, enhance, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and act. In terms of the process, it is at this stage that the community is involved in analyzing their risks and in developing plans to respond to the risks identified.There are five key principles that should be kept in mind in doing PCVRA, as follows:1. Empowerment is important in climate change adaptation and the community should feel in control.2. Researchers should show respect for the community and not consider them merely as a source of information. This entails the reversal of roles between insiders and outsiders.3. Localization of tools is crucial in the PCVRA process and it is recommended that local materials should be used extensively and creatively.4. The process should also be inclusive, ensuring that all sectors are represented, especially the marginalized groups.5. The process should be enjoyable for the community.While the usual PRA is employed to generate information, PCVRA incorporates the climate change perspective, according to Ms. Rosimo. Also, the tools used are community-friendly, (such as the five capitals that are important to the community's livelihood) and the areas affected by specific climate hazards. Historical timeline is also used to identify the past significant events in the life of the community, including major disasters and socioeconomic, political, and cultural events and developments. This tool captures the positive and negative impacts of these events on the community, and the coping capacities and mechanisms of the community. It also captures the changes in landscapes and trends.Another tool used in PCVRA is the seasonal calendar with climate change perspective. This tool uses three sets of calendars representing timelines from 30 years ago, 10 years ago, and the current calendar. Key elements to measure are: amount of rainfall, temperature, frequency and strength/ force of typhoon. Meanwhile, the livelihood matrix incorporates the gender lens in determining the gender roles and the decision-makers for each livelihood activity. In addition to this, the 24-hour clock is also employed, wherein two sets of gender clocks represent normal conditions versus extreme climate-related events, such as typhoons and droughts.According to Ms. Rosimo, the PCVRA was able to surface the manifestations of climate change in the community. Climate change-related concepts such as exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity are easily grasped by the community through the PCVRA. Thus, PCVRA facilitates the understanding of the level of risks of the community's livelihood and capacity to adapt to manifestations of climate change.After data gathering and analysis, results of the assessment are validated with the participation of the community. Triangulation was also done using information from other sources, including secondary data and key informant interviews. After validation, further analysis is conducted together with community members to surface doable adaptation strategies to address the livelihood risks.Ms. Rosimo added that PCRVA facilitates community discussions and provides a venue for households and marginalized sectors to participate in planning, whose voice is usually left out.Mr. • What mechanisms and social learning process can be adopted in Myanmar to scale-out CBA and CSA?• How do current mechanisms and programs of government, academia, and civil society serve as pathways toward scaling-out CBA and CSA?According to Mr. Barbon, a comprehensive baseline study was conducted at the onset of the that it is essentially a perception survey that looks at uncertainty and anxiety of households towards food supply, as well as at insufficiency of food quality and food intake. The higher the score obtained by the household, the more food insecurity the household experienced.Another tool employed was the household diet diversity score (HDDS), which considers the number of different food groups consumed over a given reference period, usually within the past 24 hours. Also developed by USAID FANTA, HDDS is based on the assumption that a more diversified diet would lead to more important nutrition outcomes. The HDDS is presented as number of food groups consumed out of the maximum 12 food groups included in the score. The higher the HDDS, the more diverse is the diet of the household.Lastly, a KAP assessment was conducted to evaluate the respondents' knowledge about food groups and sources of vitamin A, protein, and minerals; their attitudes towards vegetables, legumes, and food preparations; and their practices in cooking, food preparation, and hygiene.Mr. Barbon proceeded to share the highlights of the baseline study results. For the HFIAS, the most food insecure was the Sakta CSV, which is located in the upland zone, followed by Htee Pu CSV, which is located in the central dry zone. These two villages are located in a highly vulnerable agroecosystem (mountainous, hilly and dry zone). For mountain regions, their isolation from the main trading centers limits their food supply to their own agricultural production only. On the other hand, food production and income from agriculture are limited during the long dry season in the dry zone. These are posing a challenge to accessing food for the households. The least food insecure households were found in the Masein CSV, which is located in the delta zone.In terms of the HDDS, all the villages except the Sakta CSV registered a lower than 6 HDDS. Most of the CSVs got an HDDS of 6 out of the highest possible score of 12 food groups. While this may be a good indication of a diverse diet, it is significant to note that the top food groups consumed are cereals, oils and fats, sweets, and vegetables, which does not reflect a balanced diet to provide nutrition to the households. Roots and tubers, milk, and other fruits were the least consumed food groups. Such information can be used in developing appropriate nutrition intervention and identifying which crops farmers can plant to address the issue.Based on the results of the baseline study, the following key nutrition and food security considerations were identified:• Diversification of production all year round contributes to diverse sources of food and income.• Promotion of new food crops reduce dependence on climate-sensitive crops.• Increased consumption of vegetables and fruits for vitamins, minerals, and micronutrients  , with CIAT as partner. This was followed by the testing and identification of CRA practices, together with IIRR, in Guinayangan, Quezon, which also served as the learning site for the 17 DA Regional Offices that visited IIRR prior to implementing CSVs in their own region. Capacity building activities, which include the localization of climate information system, were then conducted. Part of the process is the monitoring and evaluation of the program. Panel Discussion: Learning from CSVs across Southeast AsiaMs. Baltazar added that for interventions to be effective, they should be done at a wide scale, and it is hoped that the AMIA villages would serve as models to influence other villages to follow to create greater impact and more sustainable adaptation.On the other hand, Dr. Gonsalves pointed out that the CSV initiative in Southeast Asia provides a special opportunity to address poverty. Equity and climate gaps, while rarely talked about, are defining factors in the CSV approach. Dr. Gonsalves emphasized that social inclusiveness is an important part of the climate-smart village project and it is important to ensure that the bottom 40 percent, or those that are left behind, can also get involved.Dr. Sebastian said that when they started implementing CSVs in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, they had a very simple and practical protocol in selecting target sites, which involves voting and rating among members for each of the selection criteria set. Dr. Sebastian added that while there are many methodologies that can be employed, he advised choosing practical methods especially during operationalization. He added that such practical methods requiring the least resources in establishing CSVs allow for replication in many places.Question 1: How effective has this approach been in addressing climate change impacts on the agriculture sector? If it is effective, is it worth investing into? Would government go further and spend more? Would the private sector be enticed to be part of the CSV project?In response to the question posed, Ms. Baltazar said that given the limited experience in implementing CSVs, no formal monitoring and evaluation has been done yet. What has been observed, however, is that farmers were able to identify the CRA options that are best suited to their situation, which is manifested in their being able to produce more and earn more, which in turn contribute to increasing their adaptive capacity. Ms. Baltazar affirmed that the CSV initiative is worth investing into by the government because farmers do not have the capital to experiment and to try out innovations and practices that would be applicable to their specific situation. Question 2: Do you think that is one of the problems -that we cannot integrate because of the structure and the way we look at things? Ms. Baltazar said that integration and mainstreaming is also one of the stumbling blocks in implementing the various programs of the DA. In the Cagayan Valley Region, where the AMIA program implementers are not researchers but those involved in planning, they were able to raise PHP 20 million from other sources because they know where to find the financial resources and how to utilize them. Success depends on the implementers and the support of the high-ranking officials.Responding to the concern about commodity bias, Dr. Gonsalves said that it would be difficult to change the way the government is structured. For this reason, according to Dr. Gonsalves, when one talks about how to make programs more sensitive to climate change, the assumption is that the integration takes place at the lowest level.Question 3: Who do you think would be best to establish partnership with, the government, development organizations, or the private sector?Ms. Baltazar asserted that the local government units would be the logical choice for partnership, since they have the mandate as the frontline service providers to their constituents and have the resources and access to these resources.Dr. Gonsalves said that there is no question as to the necessity of forming partnerships. Yet, since the government has difficulty dispensing the funds, stakeholder platforms assume a crucial role in bringing together different partners. According to Dr. Gonsalves, the problem with the private sector leading such initiatives is that the issue of conflict of interest comes in. This is different from the concept of corporate social responsibility, where business people contribute to the CSV process. Thus, Dr. Gonsalves said that the LGUs are still calling the shots and that it is necessary to strengthen partnership with them.Meanwhile, Dr. Sebastian stated that partnership depends on the country and the location, but the government cannot be ignored. Governments provide balance and the environment for sustainability. He added that there are areas where it is the local community that takes the lead and other partners just follow suit, especially when there is strong leadership in the community. There are also other cases where the government has insufficient capacity to implement CSVs; in this case, international organizations could provide support.Question 4: When you were starting with establishing CSVs, were there communities that vehemently opposed being part of the project? Dr. Sebastian said that priority should be given to communities that are willing to be part of the project. It is impractical to spend time convincing communities to adopt the approach when there are a lot of communities who are interested in joining the program.Meanwhile, Dr. Gonsalves reiterated that their approach is incremental adaptation so that stepby-step, the village grows in terms of resiliency to climate change impacts. This is designed so that farmers can build their capacity to innovate and see what works. In one instance, they were asked if they can just send a truckload of seeds and were even asked not to come back to the village.A fter the panel discussion, Dr. Julian shared the lessons learned from establishing CSVs in the Philippines and Myanmar. According to Dr. Gonsalves, CSVs serve as platforms for identifying, testing, demonstrating, and scaling CSA/CRA options. He added that one does not need to be a researcher to know that solutions should be situated. The big issue, according to him, is who is leading the CSV initiative?Dr. Gonsalves furthered that there is a tension between the community's need to manage its resources to make a living, which may not be addressing the issues targeted by CRA, and the need to adopt the CSA approach towards resiliency. He also expressed concern over how many CSVs serve the purpose of being just showcase areas, which is an issue that needs to be dealt with.Stressing the importance of making real investments, Dr. Gonsalves said that limited financial resources would have little impact on the level of municipality or at higher levels. On the issue of outcome attribution, Dr. Gonsalves said that the fruits of CSV implementation are generated by the governments and the communities.Dr. Hla Than: In our country, the CSVs are being implemented by different institutions, such as the government, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and IIRR. However, the problem is that people are now migrating in-country and out of the country, and that their priority is on survival, making it hard for farmers to do CSV. What is your opinion on this?Dr. Sebastian: When we talk about Climate-Smart Village, we are talking about a community that already exists. We are not going to set up a new community. We are using the institutions, the framework that exists within that community. If in Myanmar, the smallest unit is the township, then you work with the township. We are not going to create a village.The CSV is not an instrument for the creation of a village. It will strengthen villages in terms of food security, nutrition security, and climate resiliency. We cannot stop migration.In Laos, at a certain time of the year, most of the men go to Thailand and the women are left behind. The question becomes: How can we improve livelihood within the village or what agricultural practices can be introduced so that women can have a source of income?Ms. Thitirut Assawamongkholsiri: How do farmers obtain climate information update in their area given the different contexts?Dr. Sebastian: When it comes to the different CSA practices, there is a part in the process wherein you try to determine the climate risks. You can get information from experts on the possible CSA options. You can also get information from the farmers: What are their current practices in coping with climate challenge? Then you'll go through a prioritization process to identify which of these options would be effective in the community.Climate information services are the most challenging part, because you need to convert the information in terms of agricultural process: Do you recommend the farmer to spray or apply fertilizer given this certain percentage of precipitation or humidity? Here you will need better technical services that may come from local extension services or from the private sector that provides similar services. For instance, Dr. Thavone from Laos has devised a cropping calendar that incorporates climate information that they share with the farmers. In Thailand, they have what they termed as One Tambon, One Product (OTOP). The challenge here is how to make the supply chain of OTOP not only productive but climate-resilient and sustainable.Mr. Sorraphong Pasomsouk: It is not easy to prioritize one or two CSA options or activities. Right now, we have 1,450 communities.Dr. Sebastian: The first thing that you should do is determine how you can make these communities climateresilient through simple interventions. You do not have to start from scratch. This is what Nepal did, they adopted and implemented the approach as part of their interventions in 1,000 villages. How can we make these communities climate-smart? You can look at the value chain, the supply chain, you look at the production system and then see where you can intervene in what is already existing in the communities.Ms. Jana Patricia Koerner CCAFS Scaling Officer CCAFS SEAAccording to Ms. Koerner, in the same way that setting up CSVs has elements of science but basically entails action, scaling is about action; it is about doing something to achieve impact. She then proceeded to share key messages on scaling that were largely synthesized from foregoing discussions and presentations. In the new definition, the scaling up of agricultural innovations is understood to \"take place in complex systems of agricultural transformation. Therefore, sustainable scaling should build into 'sustainable change at scale' .\"Ms. Koerner stressed the fact that scaling does not happen in a straight line, but should be considered as a journey across a landscape, with different entry points, or a zigzag between different possibilities and opportunities. The next question to ask, according to Ms. Koerner, is \"What are we going to scale?\" In answering this question, she underscored the need to strike a balance between the most urgent needs of the farmers and the areas where the CSV approach can make the biggest impact or have the greatest leverage. She added that scalable solutions can be identified tools and practices that prove so beneficial and scalable that these will be scaled out to a larger scale.Likewise, Ms. Koerner emphasized the importance of building capacity for innovation, especially since the environment is changing and communities must be flexible enough to adjust to the changing conditions. She added that while innovations must be easy, affordable, and culturally acceptable, these must also be better than any other comparable solutions. This hints strongly at economic assessments, and there should also be analysis of costs and benefits not only at the farmer level but also at the policy level.Inclusiveness concerns must also be considered, as the most vulnerable people and areas have different needs. The question that must be asked is, \"Who shall benefit from the intervention?\"According to Ms. Koerner, at this point the need to strike a balance and accept trade-offs could arise. This also requires good targeting, since the vulnerable groups are mostly the ones that do not have the infrastructures and capacity for scaling out.Ms. Koerner said that one cannot separate innovation development and scaling, both of which are iterative processes. She added that right from the very beginning, stakeholders must be involved in the process so that they can have a sense of ownership of the intervention.There is also a need to negotiate different interests so communication occurs and shared understanding is reached across all levels.For Ms. Koerner, the biggest learning as regards scaling is that one cannot scale in isolation.Scaling is a collective action and involves \"leveraging across different levels and sectors, a series of synergies and momentums.\" Four-wheel tractors were also provided to replace manual plowing to address synchronicity and timeliness of planting schedule in the area.T he first CSV site visited by the participants featured intercropping in an upland agricultural setting. Mr. William R. Lopez, Agricultural Technologist from MAO-Guinayangan, facilitated the discussion and field visit to the corn production farms in Barangay Cabong Norte. Barangay Cabong Norte is an upland agricultural village in Guinayangan, Quezon with a total area of 437.44 hectares. Its major agricultural products include coconut, corn, legumes, upland rice, livestock, fruit trees, banana, root crops, and chili.Through the partnership between OMA and IIRR, farmers learned about corn-legume intercropping as a CSA option to increase yield and land use efficiency. In addition, to address the vulnerability of the area to water scarcity due to prolonged dry season, the OMA andRoving Workshop T he third module of the workshop on establishing CSVs in the ASEAN Region consisted of a roving workshop, where participants visited various field sites in the Guinayangan CSV from 10-12 July 2019. These field sites represented the various agro-ecological settings and showcased the CSA options and best practices adopted to address the prevailing climate risks specific to these settings.Another challenge faced by corn producers in the area is the lack of post-harvest facilities, specifically for drying the harvested corn during the wet season. In response, the OMA-LGU partnership provided a corn sheller and corn dryer. Meanwhile, Mr. Lopez said that the OMA adopts a holistic approach in providing assistance to the farmers, from providing inputs to extending marketing assistance to help them sell their produce at a more profitable price.Among the future plans of the OMA and the LGU, according to Mr. Lopez, are to establish seed production of glutinous corn; establish demo farm on sorghum production; initiate seed production of peanut; expand chili pepper production; construct four additional open deep wells; establish community vegetable farms; and apply the sixsector industrialization approach, which covers the various activities along the value chain, from production to marketing.Ms. Jessean Dueñas and Mr. Wilberto Dueñas, farmer beneficiaries of the program, shared how they adopted the CSA approach, particularly intercropping, to maximize the use of land and to earn additional income for their families.Field Visit 2 avenue for farmer-to-farmer exchange, addressing the problem as regards limited manpower for agricultural extension systems.Mr. Hernandez shared the case story of Ms. Leony Labro, who used the money obtained from selling her pig to finance the hospitalization of her husband. Afterwards, participants were given a tour of the native pig propagation center that D uring the second site visit, participants learned how the provision of livelihoods and community support structure, climate-smart livestock production in the case of Barangay Capuluan Tulon and Barangay Arbismen, have contributed to the economic empowerment of women. Mr. Gerry Hernandez, Agricultural Technician from MAO-Guinayangan, served as the facilitator for the discussion and tour of the native pig breeding center in the area.Barangay Arbismen consists of 300 households that are mainly dependent on rice and coconut production. Its rice farms, the largest in Guinayangan in terms of land area, are primarily rain-fed. The area experiences prolonged dry spells, and in fact, farmers were not able to plant rice for three years due to water scarcity. Meanwhile, Barangay Capuluan Tulon has 240 households, with coconut production as their primary source of livelihood. In the past years, the area suffered from low production volume and declining prices of coconut in the market. To augment the traditional sources of income in the two barangays, the women tried to raise livestock, raising commercial pig breeds at the onset before transitioning to the more climateresilient native pig breeds.Farmers were able to link with the National Swine and Poultry Research and Development Center (NSPRDC) for assistance with regard to technical input and source of good pig breeds. They also collaborated with the DA Region 4-Southern Tagalog Integrated Agricultural Research Center (STIARC) for the provision of support on value chain development through the crafting of business plan and setting up of holding facility. Farmers have also introduced more climate-resilient crops in their farms, including corn and drought-tolerant high-value crops.It was interesting to note that 70 percent of the participants are women. Through the years, women farmers have led the formation of farmer groups, which continue to grow in membership. The establishment of farmer learning groups (FLGs) and the conduct of participatory action research has provided invaluable inputs and capacity building to the farmers. Aside from serving as a learning platform for farmers, FLGs are also a mechanism for scaling out and an showcases low-external input and low-carbon footprint technology. According to Godofredo Rosales, president of the Community Savings and Credit Association (CoMSCA) in Barangay Capuluan Tulon, the expenses incurred for the maintenance of the breeding facility is shared by the organization members themselves. The facility utilizes alternative pig feeds from naturallygrowing plants (banana stalk, coconut meal, and Trichantera gigantea, among others). In terms of addressing climate risks, Dr. Gonsalves said that the breeding facility has a lower carbon footprint than the commercial pig production since it reduces the need for commercial feeds. Moreover, it addresses food safety issues as it provides an alternative source of meat to the commercial pigs that are administered antibiotics, which may cause antibiotic resistance. The design of the facility, particularly the materials used and the airflow, also reduces temperature by 2 to 3 degrees Celsius, while the floor mattings/living bio-beds (made of rice hull, coconut husk, and soil) consume less water, produce less methane, and have less foul smell.Towards the end of the site visit, Ms. Rosimo emphasized the role of community support structure in encouraging more farmers to adopt CSA approaches to augment their livelihood while addressing climate risks. Another important social process that can be observed in the site is that of participatory action research, wherein the farmers themselves assess the climate risks and then discuss and test the adaptation strategies.Field Visit 3 P articipants proceeded to Barangay Capuluan Central, a coastal community dependent primarily on subsistence fishing. Mr. Joel Fabricante, Fishery Technician from OMA-Guinayangan, facilitated the discussion. During the amihan (northeast monsoon) and habagat (southwest monsoon) seasons and during typhoons, fisherfolks in Barangay Capuluan Central are not able to catch fish in the sea. During this period, which lasts from September to December, fishermen resort to coconut farming and livestock raising as alternative sources of food and income. Another challenge faced by fisherfolk in Barangay Capuluan Central is the limited fishing area, since the Ragay Gulf is shared by 10 municipalities. Fish catch has also been decreasing through the years.According to Mr. Fabricante, one of the programs of the OMA-Guinayangan is mangrove reforestation, which started in 2010 and funded by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). This reforestation project has also served as an alternative source of income, since BFAR provides remuneration for every propagule planted and separate remuneration when the propagule has survived and developed. The community has also engaged in seaweeds production as alternative livelihood through the efforts of the Office of the Provincial Agriculturist of Quezon. The fisherfolk produce pickled seaweeds from harvested seaweeds and have trained on the production of seaweed noodles. Meanwhile, the Guinayangan LGU has launched efforts to protect sea turtles and corals.One of the collaborations between the LGU and IIRR is on coastal agriculture, which aimed to increase the adaptive capacity of coastal communities. In 2015, the program attempted to plant different species of mangroves with diagonal spacing to help break strong waves. Although the program started with eight villages, it is now operating only in three villages, namely, Barangay Capuluan Tulon, Arbismen, and Dancalan Caimawan.According to Dr. Gonsalves, coastal agriculture can also act as a bio-shield that could protect communities during typhoons and storm surges. He added that the goal is to get as much plant varieties that can thrive in saline conditions into the system, including eggplants, root crops, and fruit bearing trees such as mango, cashew nuts, coconut, and jackfruit. In terms of small-scale livestock production, pigs can tolerate rains and saline air.Field Visit 4 T he participants visited the Maulawin Spring Protected Landscape (MSPL), formerly known as the Maulawin Spring Watershed Forest Reserve. MSPL is a 149-hectare protected landscape located in barangays Himbubulo and Magsaysay in Guinayangan, Quezon. Ms. Kimberly Anne Abrera and Ms. Keya Zia Pitero of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources discussed the LGU's efforts toward sustainable management of water resources in the municipality and the application of payment for ecosystem services.The MSPL represents one of the remaining intact forests in Southern Quezon. Classified as a tropical rainforest, the MSPL houses Philippine dipterocarp species and other native tree species. Given its unique features, the MSPL was declared a Protected Area under the Protected Landscape category by virtue of Presidential Proclamation No. 295 issued on 23 April 2000. In 22 June 2018, the MSPL was classified as a National Park under Republic Act 11038. Its total land area of 183.15 hectares is divided into two management zones, namely, the strict protection zone (SPZ) and multiple use zone (MUZ). Multiple use zones, which constitute around 57 hectares, are intended for forestry, agriculture, and ecotourism. This is also where tenured migrants are given temporary settling areas and serves as source of livelihood for the communities.In terms of biodiversity, the MSPL serves as home to 325 species of flora and fauna, 13 of which are Philippine endemic while 40 are threatened species. Its watershed is also an invaluable source of potable water to the neighboring communities. Income generated from resource user fees collected by the Guinayangan Water District (GWD) and entrance fees from visitors of the ecotourism zone are utilized for programs and activities that aim to protect and conserve biodiversity, as well as to maintain and develop the ecotourism facilities.Protection and conservation efforts by the Guinayangan LGU include reforestation, boundary fencing between multiple use and special protection zones, and private lands, and monitoring and maintenance of established plantations. The IIRR has also engaged in reforestation and boundary fencing activities in the MSPL, in addition to enrichment planting and the tagging and identification of priority species. On the aspect of climate-smart agriculture, IIRR has collaborated with tenured migrants of the protected landscape in applying agroforestry and raising of climateresilient livestock such as pigs.Meanwhile, Guinayangan Mayor Cesar J. Isaac III shared the municipality's experience and successful implementation of the payment for ecosystem services (PES) and how the LGU helped the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in protecting watersheds within Guinayangan. According to Mayor Isaac, the current water requirement of the municipality totaled 63.55 liters per second. While in 1964 the available water from the watershed was 100 liters per second, this declined to 20 liters per second in 2012, falling short of current water demand of the municipality. At an annual population growth of 2.37 percent, the LGU deemed water shortage imminent, prompting collaboration with organizations such as the IIRR and the Forest Foundation Philippines to preempt this problem. One fruit of this collaboration is the establishment of the Municipal Ecosystem Management Council (MEMC) and the Green Fund.The MEMC aims to preserve and maintain the ecological, economic, and cultural services of the forest resources in Guinayangan; protect and rehabilitate watersheds; ensure that activities conducted within forestlands are in accordance with national guidelines, rules, and regulations; and develop new watersheds outside of the MSPL.Mayor Isaac shared that the key to the successful implementation of PES in their municipality is ensuring the involvement of the stakeholders throughout the various stages of the process, from planning to monitoring and evaluation. By ensuring that stakeholders are engaged, conflicts are minimized during preparation and implementation of PES because these are immediately resolved at the level of the MEMC, which has representatives of stakeholders as members. Currently, the Green Fund is collected from the clients of the local water district, which is already incorporated in their monthly bill. To ensure transparency and accountability, the fees collected are deposited into a trust fund that is subject to annual audit by the Commission on Audit. Moreover, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) of Guinayangan, as the MEMC Secretariat, is tasked to provide quarterly financial reports shared through social media platforms and the LGU's accountability board. Mayor Isaac reported that 50 percent of the collections from the Green Fund are allocated to the development of the watersheds while the rest will be used for the procurement of additional land adjacent to the watersheds. Mayor Isaac furthered that while the amount collected from the Green Fund may be relatively small, it is significant in that every time the Green Fund is collected, people are reminded that they depend on natural resources and ecosystems services for their livelihoods.A fter the site visit to the MSPL, participants proceeded to Barangay Sta. Cruz to learn about agroforestry and diversification techniques, as well as to hear how farmers linked with an institutional market to ensure a stable buyer of the chili pepper they produce. Mr. Lopez, who facilitated the discussion, said that one of the challenges for farmers is establishing partnerships with a stable market.In the case of Guinayangan, farmers, through the vegetable farmers association, formed a partnership with Jollibee Foods Corp. to buy their chili pepper. To ensure that farmers meet the market standards, they underwent a series of trainings and three rounds of test marketing and established monitoring and quality assurance mechanisms. Farmers started supplying chili pepper to Jollibee Foods Corp. in January 2019 and have delivered 3,428 kilos of chili pepper as of July 2019.Providing the context of the upland agriculture initiatives of the local government, together with various organizations such as the IIRR, Dr. Gonsalves said there are risks associated with climate in the process of diversification. According to him, trees play a big role in risk reduction but are also vulnerable to the failure of fruiting and pollination services. Thus, there is a need to promote diversification. For instance, cacao farmers in the upland areas are currently focusing on Liberica coffee production due to its climateresilient features, and this is intercropped with black pepper. Dr. Gonsalves added that diversification through agroforestry also addresses price risks, helps regulate temperature, and facilitates pollination. In the case of the rice program, climate change was integrated into the Farmer Field School (FFS) curriculum. Their Climate-Resilient Farmer Field School on rice production uses climatesmart technologies such as system of rice intensification (SRI), use of green leaf manure, rice-duck system, and use of saline-tolerant rice varieties. For the corn program, intercropping with legumes as mulch was done to preserve soil health and to provide alternative food and income source. Meanwhile, the use of organic fertilizer (e.g., vermiculture), diversification of crops, and agroforestry was promoted in producing their high value commercial crops. Small livestock raising was also integrated into the programs, with special preference for native stock and the use of intensive feed gardens. In recognition of the critical role of timely and science-based information through the climate information system, the Guinayangan LGU conducts seasonal planning to provide guidance and relevant information as basis for farmer decision. There are also plans to implement 10day advisory and training of the new Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Mitigation Office for data collection.The Guinayangan LGU has also invested in structures and in building partnerships to sustain its CRA programming. The Demo Farm and Eco-Park in Barangay Danlagan Batis include community support facilities that provide not only technologies but also interventions. Among the community support facilities housed by the OMA Demo Farm and Eco-Park are the greenhouse, coconut nursery, sweet potato propagation center, goat breeding center, organic rice production, tilapia breeding center, plant nursery, dragon fruit demo farm, and crop museum.To support these technologies and CRA practices, the LGU, together with the Agricultural Training Institute, has established the Farmer's Information and Technology Services (FITS) center where farmers can conduct online and offline research for their production and marketing needs. In addition, the LGU has provided farmers with farming equipment, such as four-wheel tractors, corn hammer mill, corn sheller, rice flatbed dryer, hand tractor, and irrigation facilities, among others.According to Ms. Rosales, to fully assist and serve Guinayangan farmers, the local government helps build institutional markets and links farmers in the value chain as part of resilience building. Moreover, since Guinayangan is a coastal municipality, LGU conducts regular mangrove reforestation. Value adding is also being done in the processing center, especially by women community members.Ms. Rosales mentioned that one of the factors which contributed to the success of farmers is group building, which prepared them in engaging with different institutional markets and valueadding processors. In Guinayangan, farmers have organized themselves into farmer groups such as AROMA (Asosasyon ng Responsable at Organikong Magkakape) and CACAO Growers. In addition, the LGU continues to strengthen its coordination with DA to complement resources to facilitate better resiliency building of farmers. Dr. Hla Than Yezin Agricultural University Na Pyi Taw, Myanmar Myanmar D r. Hla Than discussed the establishment of the National Climate-Smart Agriculture Center and its efforts toward promoting CSA. One such project is the \"Sustainable Cropland and Forest Management in Priority Agro-ecosystems of Myanmar,\" which has project sites in the Chin State, Ayeyarwaddy Region, and Mandalay Region; and is designed to support national efforts to facilitate the application and upscaling of CSA, sustainable forest management, and sustainable land management.Dr. Hla Than discussed the vision, mission, goal, and objectives of the National CSA Center, as well as the main roles and responsibilities of the Yezin Agricultural University (YAU) related to the Center. Lao PDR D r. Thavone Inthavong shared the best practices and experiences related to rice crop management practice in Lao PDR. Dr. Inthavong reported that the CSV approach can serve as a strategy to manage climate risks in agriculture, which currently suffers from the adverse impact of climate change. In Lao PDR, the uncertainty in the onset of rainy season shifts the time of sowing and transplanting, while the more frequent floods and droughts have negative effects on plant growth and development.Based on the example of Guinayangan CSV, Dr. Thavone Inthavong said that CSA practices, such as agroforestry, could aid in the thrust to increase farmers' incomes through the production of commercial crops. He presented the framework being used in Lao PDR that integrates resilient agriculture concepts into the management of risks due to climate variability and change. The key elements of this framework are commercial agriculture, sustainable natural resource management, climate-smart village, and food security.Dr. Thavone Inthavong then discussed how climate-smart technology can help address or adapt to the various defining, limiting, and reducing factors in crop yield production to lessen the impacts of climate change. Meanwhile, he also shared how they use crop establishment through dry direct seeding as a climate change adaptation measure.A ccording to Ms. Fazlyzan Binti Abdullah, farmers in Malaysia experience prolonged dry season for one to two months. To address this climate risk, they encouraged farmers to shift the planting date of rice for about two weeks from the actual date based on the forecasting conducted.They have also conducted studies on the critical stage of water stress on rice, but they continue to conduct similar studies for different rice varieties. Farmers also practice organic farming, but the most successful farms are managed by the private sector, as they have already secured certification.In addition, Ms. Abdullah said that intercropping or integrated farming is practiced in Malaysia, as well as eco-engineering farming, which is similar to integrated farming but more focused on pest and disease management and landscape management.Ms. Samraida A. Undong Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao-Integrated Agricultural Center, Department of Agriculture Philippines M s. Samraida A. Undong said that the programs from national agencies such as DA and the Department of Science and Technology that are done at the regional level include those implemented by the DA-Disaster Risk Reduction Management and early warning/ advisories from the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC). Information dissemination to far-flung areas and adjustment of seasonal calendar are also conducted. Meanwhile, buffer stocking of rice, corn, and vegetable seeds are also done to provide farmers affected by calamities with initial planting materials.  Dr. Helena Lina Susilawati Researcher Indonesian Agricultural Environment Research Institute Indonesia D r. Susilawati shared with the participants the best practices and experiences of Indonesia in implementing climate-smart paddy rice cultivation. She said that due to Indonesia's huge population, which is among the top five most populous countries in the world, the government aims to address issues on food security. One of Indonesia's targets is to become the world's food barn in 2045. In relation to CSA, Dr. Susilawati said that following the presidential decree issued in 2011, which stipulates reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, the CSA became the approach that they adopted.Dr. Susilawati shared the experiences from the collaborative project between the Indonesian Agricultural Environment Research Institute (IAERI), World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), and GIZ in the Banjarnegara, Purbalingga, and Banyumas Districts. Among the technologies and approaches they employed in the project are use of leaf color charts, paddy soil test kit, organic amendment application, National Seed Management Unit-certified seeds, and water regime management with intermittent irrigation. The project also used CSA adaptation and mitigation strategies such as demo plots site and technology package for CSA implementation and field schools as a CSA demo plot approach.Results of the study showed that both organic farming and CSA approach have decreased the global warming potential and increased the revenue of farmers compared to those who practice traditional farming. She added that Indonesia's Ministry of Agriculture is set to obtain funds for the upscaling of the project in eight provinces having mineral soil and two provinces with beach soil for five years. She further emphasized that it is not only technology that is important but also markets.  There are many entry points for the introduction of CSA-it could start from dry seeding or buffer stocks. These entry points are important and are dependent on existing institutional arrangements and contexts.Dr. Gonsalves then discussed the eight guide steps synthesizing the lessons learned and knowledge generated from implementing CSVs in Southeast Asia. It is a generic guide, which could still be modified depending on the particularities of the site.The first thing to do, according to Dr. Gonsalves, is to understand the purpose and scope of CSV. He said that different stakeholders would have a different understanding of CSV; thus, it is crucial to ensure a common understanding of the underlying key concepts and principles. The second step is to identify the climate risk in the target areas, which necessitates conducting research to determine the location-specific risks. Dr. Gonsalves said that the research method used could be as simple as PCVRA or as sophisticated as those done by CIAT.Next, the CSV must be situated in a small landscape, taking into account the interactions among various subsystems. The fourth step involves consulting the stakeholders. Dr. Gonsalves stressed the importance of the LGU platform simply because it has the capacity to convene different stakeholders. The next step is to evaluate CSA options through participatory action research. Implementers could then come up with a portfolio of CSA options depending on what is manageable for the institution. Dr. Gonsalves added that CSA options do not only include technologies but also involve social learning approaches.The seventh step involves scaling up by identifying scaling opportunities and pathways. In scaling up, according to Dr. Gonsalves, it is important that one has enough number of farmers for horizontal and vertical scaling. He said strengthening the capacity of people to do something is a scaling mechanism in itself.The last guide step in establishing CSVs involves monitoring and evaluation of uptakes and outcomes. During this step, indicators can be used to monitor progress, such as productivity, livelihoods, food and nutrition, equity, gender participation, and resilience. Speaking on behalf of the participants, Ms. Abdullah said that the workshop provided her with a better understanding of CSA, CRA, and CSV. She thanked the organizers of the workshop. Meanwhile, Dr. Thavone Inthavong also said that he learned a lot from his experiences during the field visits and from other participants. He added that knowledge and technology sharing during and after the workshop would greatly help in their efforts to upscale CSV.In his closing remarks, Dr. Gregorio pointed out that integrating all that was learned and discussed during the workshop, the challenge in establishing CSVs is doing more with less. Another challenge, he said, is ensuring inclusive development and environmental sustainability. Dr. Gregorio said that the solution to this is the confluence of science-based application, information and communication technology engagement, meaningful partnerships, and innovative and entrepreneurial farmers. He enjoined the participants to remember the five Cs: collaborate, communicate, compete, conserve the environment, and concentrate and focus. ","tokenCount":"11936"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d23ed200f185e3ac2414aa9f89849d9a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51567d07-2d32-48ef-9606-759bc93ff438/retrieve","id":"2130280794"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a16f3927-3074-47d0-af26-9afde53ad48a","pagecount":"2","content":"Ces interactions complexes et dynamiques sont également façonnées par les politiques économiques, les conflits politiques et d'autres facteurs tels que la propagation de maladies infectieuses.Les relations entre tous ces facteurs ainsi que la manière dont ils interagissent sont encore mal connues aujourd'hui de même que les avantages et inconvénients des différentes réponses apportées face au changement climatique. Afin de développer des solutions pratiques pour l'agriculture face au changement climatique, nous devons désormais intégrer de manière innovatrice et compréhensible les connaissances sur le changement climatique, l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire.Aucune institution de recherche ne peut à elle seule apporter des réponses à ces questions importantes et critiques. Le programme de recherche du CGIAR sur le changement Climatique, l'agriculture et la Sécurité alimentaire (CCAFS) s'attaque au défi croissant du réchauffement climatique et de l'insécurité alimentaire à travers un partenariat stratégique entre le CGIAR et le partenariat des sciences du système terrestre (ESSP).Porté par le Centre international d'agriculture tropicale (CIAT), le programme CCAFS collabore avec les 15 Centres et Programmes de recherche en consortium du CGIAR, ainsi qu'avec un large éventail de partenaires. • d'établir un diagnostic et une analyse qui, du niveau sub-national au niveau global, soutiendront l'inclusion de l'agriculture dans les politiques liées au changement climatique, ainsi que celle des questions climatiques dans les politiques agricoles, de manière à générer des bénéfices au profit du monde rural.Le programme CCAFS rassemble les meilleurs chercheurs du monde en sciences agronomiques, sciences du climat, sciences du système terrestre et en recherche pour le développement en vue d'identifier et traiter les interactions, synergies et équilibres les plus saillants entre le changement climatique, l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire. Le programme CCAFS voudrait également un engagement fort des organisations de producteurs, des décideurs politiques, des bailleurs ainsi que d'autres catégories d'acteurs, dans le but d'intégrer leurs connaissances et leurs besoins dans les outils et approches qui seront développés. La recherche au sein de CCAFS sera menée par des équipes de partenaires ayant des compétences et expertises complémentaires, en jumelant des institutions du Nord et du Sud mais également en incluant des collaborations Sud-Sud. Cette nouvelle façon de travailler vise à favoriser le dialogue entre la science et la politique.Le programme CCAFS lie la connaissance à l'action en réunissant ensemble les acteurs scientifiques et ceux politiques. Le Programme s'engage à rendre largement disponibles et accessibles les résultats et données scientifiques, au profit des chercheurs, décideurs politiques et du grand public.  ","tokenCount":"402"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f764c3d5b2a88d390f81cd202ad6d7a8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ba70af0-dafd-470d-8371-e4d6782398d6/retrieve","id":"1872053705"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe87b13b-6adb-4647-bc26-ae0d2e6ce608","pagecount":"4","content":"During today's virtual event, public sector players, scientists, and business experts convened to shed light on the need to foster effective linkages between pioneering research, technology, and entrepreneurship to create a supportive ecosystem for innovation in the agri-food sector. Panellists also highlighted the strong commitment demonstrated from the Moroccan public and private sector to modernize the agriculture sector with the latest technological developments.In February 2020, the Moroccan government launched the \"Generation Green 2020-2030 Strategy\", introducing a shift in the way Morocco envisions agricultural development. The new strategy strives to capitalize on the achievements of the past Green Morocco Plan and is grounded on two pillars. The first is aimed at enhancing the human element through the emergence of a new generation of agricultural middle class and the empowerment of young entrepreneurs and rural populations. The second area is focused on developing a resilient and sustainable agriculture sector by adopting climate smart practices, introducing new technologies, digitalizing agricultural services, and improving the quality and capacity for innovations.\"The opportunities offered by digital technologies enable the modernization of the whole agriculture value chains by, amongst other: (i) moving production towards precision farming, responding to the imperatives of productivity increase as well to the challenges posed by climate changes; (ii) creating new and quality jobs upstream and downstream the primary production; and (iii) adding value to the production through better marketing, quality control, traceability, etc. The World Bank is excited to support Morocco in this ambitious program\", states Rémi Trier, Senior Agricultural Specialist, from the Agriculture and Food Global Practice at the World Bank.Through Generation Green, the Government of Morocco recognizes the importance to support the country's agriculture sector against climate hazards and changing weather patterns. Morocco is particularly susceptible to chronic drought as well as pest and disease pressure on crops and livestock. Climate variability is likely to exacerbate water scarcity, reduce yields, and increase the volatility of agricultural production. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's sixth assessment report, future projections indicate warmer and drier conditions for Morocco as for the whole Mediterranean region. The Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture, Maritime Fisheries, Rural Development and Water and Forests estimates that drought hazards will lead decreasing trends in rainfalls by 11% by 2050. Combined with rising temperatures by 1.3°C, it is projected that Morocco will face a 25% decrease in available irrigation water.In this context, the AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge targets ground-breaking agri-tech solutions that seek to enhance efficiency, equity, and environmental sustainability for Morocco while aligning with Generation Green. Proposed innovations must demonstrate proof of concept or minimum-viable-product (i.e., service, technology, methodology, practice) and be applicable to the Moroccan agri-tech space.\"The organization of the AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge demonstrates the engagement of the World Bank to support the declination of the axes of the new Green Generation 2020-2030 Strategy mainly that this strategy aims at creating a new generation of young entrepreneurs in the rural area and providing digitals e-services for 2 million connected farmers by 2030,\" states Majid Lahlou, Directorate of Information Systems at MAPMDREF.The AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge aims to shed light on the opportunities and challenges in the value chains in Morocco, and the role of entrepreneurs seeking to generate impact in the agri-tech space. Through the activities of the bootcamp and Acceleration Program, shortlisted participants will be guided with operational support, tools, and knowledge to consolidate, test, and scale their solutions. Innovators will be offered opportunities to network with scientists as well as private and public partners to foster long-term research and development collaboration.\"Nowadays, there is an emerging class of enthusiastic young entrepreneurs that are reframing the sector with futuristic, highly technological, and sophisticated solutions that we aim to scout and support though scientific, financial and access to market,\" says Gianpiero Menza, Senior Partnerships and Innovative Finance Officer at CGIAR. The AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge will be structured as follows.Applicants must submit their projects online through the dedicated portal by Sunday May 1, 2022 at 23:59 CET/21:59 GMT. The portal offers applicants the opportunity to be part of the larger community of ambitious founders, industry players, investors, and mentors, connect with likeminded innovators, and profile their solution to help gain exposure in the ecosystem.Following the one-month call for applications, the 20 promising innovations teams will be invited to participate in the bootcamp. With the support of CGIAR and IMPACT Lab experts, innovators will engage in a three-day training event designed to develop entrepreneurship tools through keynotes, mentoring sessions, and masterclasses to build towards a solid pitch deck. Innovations teams will pitch their solutions to a jury of sector experts who will select the 10 finalists who will be admitted to the next phase and awarded a ten-week Acceleration Program.During the Acceleration Program, the top 10 innovators will be expected to dedicate a full-time effort to the program. CGIAR and IMPACT Lab experts will support them to structure the foundations of their projects through training workshops, facilitate networking with industry experts and advisors, and fundraise for their solution's next steps.The Demo Day will conclude the Acceleration Program in which the 10 finalists will pitch their solutions in front of a panel of investors and relevant stakeholders in July 2022.Motivated individuals or organizations with a passion for developing innovative solutions that can positively disrupt the Moroccan agriculture and food sectors are encouraged to apply.Applications must be submitted online here by Sunday May 1, 2022 at 23:59 CET/21:59 GMT.Discover more on the AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge website .Questions can be submitted to contact@agritechchallenge.orgThe World Bank works with countries in the Middle East and North Africa to eliminate poverty and promote shared prosperity through strengthening human capital, supporting jobs and economic transformation, advancing gender equity, addressing fragility, and enabling green growth. The Agriculture and Food Global Practice within the World Bank provides knowledge, advice, and financial resources in low-and middle-income countries to transform food systems to reduce poverty and achieve green, resilient, and inclusive development.Digital Development Partnership offers a platform for digital innovation and development financing, bringing public and private sector partners together to advance digital solutions and drive digital transformation in developing countries.The Accelerate for Impact Platform (A4IP) is a venture space that builds on CGIAR's legacy of Research and Innovation to support both incremental and transformational innovation by bridging science and entrepreneurship to address some of the world's most pressing challenges at the nexus of agriculture, environment, and health. A4IP incubates and accelerates science-based innovations by valorizing existing or dormant research products in the precommercial-stage. A4IP connects CGIAR science with the innovation ecosystem and funds the most visionary teams to leverage scientific creativity through collaborations and cross pollination of knowledge to co-design novel breakthrough solutions for sustainable agriculture and climate action. A4IP generates both impact and the resources needed to support continued research in pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals.IMPACT Lab is a startup and innovation accelerator that supports start-ups, corporates, and public institutions to help them address their growth challenges in Africa trough innovation. IMPACT Lab offers innovation consulting, operational support of internal innovation dynamics projects, and acceleration of innovative projects. IMPACT Lab aspires to support the development of new economic and social models by bridging between startups, public institutions, corporates, and research institutes through collaborative innovation.","tokenCount":"1193"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9ab5ba8fcbeca9d5471a565ba81aafb8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2d1b048-4d76-42fd-8b43-f600c24db29a/retrieve","id":"1529744680"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"47cb8686-dce0-415d-9b45-5af9e6cec59e","pagecount":"46","content":"Genetic and physiological quality are crucial for the short and long-term success of restoration projects. While physiological quality has a considerable influence on both the germination rate of seedlings and the immediate vitality of the seedling after planting, genetic quality enables a planted population to adapt to a changing environment, and positively correlates with an increased resilience to pests and diseases. Moreover, genetic quality is considered to be an important prerequisite that allows seedlings to establish under prevailing conditions at the planting site and thus to avoid or decrease mortality due to maladaptation. Although there is broad consensus about the advantages of integrating genetic quality into Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR), markets often fail to offer seed of high genetic quality, resulting in genetic quality hardly being considered in current restoration projects. Besides the possible lack of appropriate guidelines or a general lack of awareness about the importance of genetic diversity, a collection strategy that prefers quantity over (genetic) quality might also be a reason for this. It may be economically feasible to collect as many seeds as possible from a few nearby trees, but the disadvantages of this strategy far outweigh the advantages. The resulting lack of genetic quality potentially leads to a (total) failure of a restoration initiatives, which ultimately entails a loss of investment and hence comes with significantly higher costs compared to the costs that were saved during collection.In order to better understand the interrelationships between costs, benefits, properties of the supply chain (e.g., vegetation cover at the planting site), and quality considerations (physical, physiological, plant health, and genetic) we developed a cost model that integrates relevant cost drivers of the tree seed and seedling supply chain into a single cost structure. By presenting a holistic view of relevant cause-effect relationships, we aim to help decision makers and practitioners to take better informed decisions and to create appropriate incentives, which are reflected, for example, in genetic quality-dependent prices for seeds. The model is based on a framework that represents important components of and interrelations within currently applied seed sourcing strategies, as well as associated costs and mechanisms to which these costs are subjected.The framework is based on literature and expert interviews. During the development of the framework it became apparent that estimates on restoration costs are subject to considerable variation. Furthermore, in most cases where costs were presented explicitly, their composition remained unknown. These uncertainties have been transferred to the model accordingly. It is therefore important to validate the model in a next step and populate it with data from the field, instead of secondary data. Doubtless, the loss of forests and the associated impacts on the environment and the society are among the greatest environmental threats of our time (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Governmental and Nongovernmental organisations have instituted programmes that aim to slow or stop deforestation and, where possible, to reverse it. Political commitments at national and international level have been made, which now need to be translated into adequate policies, as well as concrete budget allocations. According to the Bonn Challenge, the potential for reforestation is enormous and thus the goals are ambitious. Up to 350 million hectares of degraded land will be restored by 2030. Accordingly, the required financial resources are also high. How much these efforts will cost in the end, however, is difficult to quantify. Various studies provide estimates of restoration costs for different scenarios. The presented costs vary significantly between and also within different regions. For example, while Cole et al. (2011) recorded establishment costs for planting nursery-raised seedlings in Brazil that, depending on site conditions, range from US$ 1750 ha -1 to US$ 2735 ha -1 , Rodriguez et al. ( 2011) calculated for the same planting method and the same region establishment costs of US$ 5175 ha -1 . In their study, Summers, Bryan, Nolan, & Hobbs (2015) have found establishment cost estimates ranging from around US$180 ha -1 to more than US$36000 ha -1 . Although there is consensus that the costs of restoration are justified because they are relatively moderate compared to the costs incurred if no measures are taken (Chazdon et al., 2017), this considerable variation shows that some doubts about the economic viability of at least some restoration projects are justified (Summers et al., 2015).Therefore, an efficient use of resources is indispensable. Efficient in this context is not defined by planting as many trees as possible per capital invested, but by the long-term establishment of a tree population that serves the aim of the restoration. This in turn depends in particular on the ability of the planted trees to establish in a given environment and thus to survive under the current conditions of a planting site. Moreover, and especially against the background of anticipated climate change, the planted tree population should be capable of adapting to changing environmental conditions. For this reason, the genetic quality of the planted stock plays a decisive role. A high genetic diversity, as part of genetic quality, is reflected not only in an increased vitality but also provides the necessary basis for trees to build resistance to pests and diseases, and to adapt to changing conditions (Alfaro et al., 2014;Charlesworth & Willis, 2009;Graudal et al., 2014;Jalonen, Valette, Boshier, Duminil, & Thomas, 2018;Kettle, Ennos, Jaffre, Gardner, & Hollingsworth, 2008). Furthermore, genetic quality and in particular genetic diversity is an important prerequisite for ecosystems to be able to provide services that support and strengthen the functionality of ecosystems and with that contribute to a high biodiversity as well as to secure the livelihoods of local communities (Dawson et al., 2014;Wymore et al., 2014). In view of these facts, it is surprising that the potential of genetic diversity has often not been used or neglected in restoration projects (Alfaro et al., 2014;Bozzano et al., 2014;Dawson et al., 2014;Dedefo, Derero, Tesfaye, & Muriuki, 2017;Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Neto et al., 2014;Roshetko et al., 2018;Thomas et al., 2014). For example, it is not uncommon in projects that the collected seeds originate from only a few mother trees (Dedefo et al., 2017), which, for example, results in a narrow genetic basis, which, in turn, is a poor prerequisite for the vitality and resilience of a plant population. (Kettle et al., 2008). In addition, Roshetko et al. (2018) have shown in their study that only about a third of the project plans examined contained indications that project designers had, to some extent, included site matching or local adaptation of planting material in their planning. Although it cannot be ruled out that some actors simply do not know how to achieve a sufficiently high genetic quality, in principal, the necessary aspects and techniques are well known (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). The question therefore arises as to why genetic quality does not receive more attention in projects. Jalonen et al. (2014) suggest, inter alia, that a lack of awareness about the importance of genetic diversity or a lack of appropriate guidelines may contribute to this. Dedefo (2017) sees the cause in economic considerations where the emphasis is on mass seedling production and therefore quantity is more important than quality. Schmidt (2000;2007) also argues that economic incentives result in collecting as many seeds as possible with the least possible investment, using methods which often do not result in achieving the best quality. From an overall economic point of view, however, costs are being saved in the wrong place with this strategy. Both poor genetic and physical quality of the plant material can quickly lead to failures that ultimately cause more costs than they were supposed to save.In order to integrate these action mechanisms into a single cost structure, we developed a framework and, based on that, a cost model. The aim of this cost model is twofold: besides offering a holistic view of the cause-effect relationships, it allows us to predict the cost of tree seed and seedling supply for four different methods of landscape restoration: direct seeding, planting nursery-raised seedlings and nursery-realised cuttings, and planting stakes. In contrast to the existing cost models (see for example Summer et al. (2015)), our cost model focuses on the effects of genetic as well as physiological quality of seeds and seedlings on costs. Quality was not considered as a cost factor in any of the models we examined.In a first step, we introduce crucial components of the tree seed and seedling supply system. In the following, we focus on where in the system costs are incurred and how they are influenced.Properties of tree seed supply systems may vary greatly depending on the local context. There are various ways in which different actors produce, distribute and plant tree seed and seedlings. This variety not least derives from different national policy frameworks that are actively shaping involved actors' room for manoeuvre. Often these policies have resulted in national programmes with different foci. Whereas some programmes are mainly supporting the formal plantation sector others concentrate more on rural development (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). Depending on the focus, these programmes have, for example, different effects on the economic competitiveness of different actors by creating distorted markets and unilateral incentives (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007), which, in turn, has significantly shaped tree supply systems.The system image presented in Figure 1 illustrates the tree supply system in a simplified form and yet claims to represent the most important properties and components of, and interdependencies within, the system.Figure 1: Tree seed and seedling supply system with key components of and interrelations within currently applied seed sourcing strategies. Furthermore, it shows which aspects/components of the system are affected if quality issues (incl. genetic diversity) are taken into consideration.We distinguish between four different system components; Resources (source of germplasm and outplanting site), variables (germplasm and outplanting material) with relate characteristics (e.g. quality of germplasm or genetic quality), actors (e.g. owners, nursery, collector, etc.) and actions with connected methods and activities (e.g. capacity building, collection method, etc.). The linkages between components are either representing possible flows (of planting material) or how different system components and characteristics are linked with each other (dashed arrows). In the following, we provide a more detailed elaboration of each system property and interlinkages.There are several ways of categorizing sources of germplasm. Most authors distinguish between forests, plantations, orchards and farmland. These categories again can be divided in subcategories, that additionally reflect management practices. Forests, for example, can be undisturbed and integer or managed to several degrees. As important as current management practices are practices of the past. Because it is the history of a site that is to a large extent crucial for the genetic diversity and thus for an essential property of the quality of the germplasm (see section 3.2, 'The cost of collection'). In addition to management practices, ownership is another crucial characteristic, especially because this tend to determine which actors most typically control the source and hence who has access to it.Forests: Most of the germplasm is collected primarily in forests that are either natural or restored or planted (plantations) (Dedefo et al., 2017;Gregorio, Herbohn, & Harrison, 2010;R. Jalonen, Valette, Boshier, Duminil, & Thomas, 2018). In some cases, stands of trees in either natural forests or plantation have been improved by appropriate management for the specific purpose of seed production. These improved stands are called Seed production areas (SPAs) (Mulawarman, Roshetko, Sasongko, & Iriantono, 2003) Whereas in the global study of Jalonen et al. (2018) mainly natural forests were mentioned as being the major source of germplasm, the opposite was the case for the study of Dedefo (2017) in Ethiopia, where plantations were the most important sources for tree seeds. Besides the constraints resulting from fragmentation, natural forest may also have degraded genetic quality because the best quality trees have been harvested (Mulawarman et al., 2003). Where this has not been the case, natural forests generally contain a large range of useful tree species of high genetic quality (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Mortlock, 1999). However, that potential is rarely utilised (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). Forests are mainly controlled and owned by government and, moreover, are often protected (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). This comes with respective restrictions on collectors to carry out collection of high quality seeds (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Schmidt, 2000).Farmland: 6% of the forest restoration projects that have been surveyed by Jalonen et al. (2018) stated that farmland was their main source of germplasm. This proportion coincided exactly with the results from a survey among tree nurseries in Ethiopia (Dedefo et al., 2017). Trees on farms are either remnants of natural vegetation or planted (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). Due to isolation of the trees on farmland and their often unclear origin, the genetic quality is as dubious (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). Mainly owned or at least controlled by smallholders, the access is accordingly granted to the smallholders themselves. It is not surprising that farmland is therefore the most important source type for germplasm for farmers (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). Outside the farm, the seeds from farm trees are probably mainly distributed by NGOs (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007).Seed orchards: Seed orchards normally contain only a very limited number of species and genetic variability, but in many cases the genetic variability is reasonably good for seed production (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Prescher, Lindgren, & Karlsson, 2008;Stoehr, Webber, & Woods, 2004). According to Jalonen et al. (2018), for 8 % of the forest restoration projects seed orchards are their main source of germplasm. In some areas, seed orchards are the major source for seeds. In British Columbia, Canada, for example, about 40 % of the seeds for reforestation programmes are sources from seed orchards (Stoehr et al., 2004). According to Graudal & Lillesø (2007), seed orchards are almost exclusively established on governmental land and only in few cases on other types of land. Accordingly, governmental bodies, or in some cases research organisations, most often controll collection and distribution of seeds from distribution is most often controlled by government.Properties of planting sites are highly diverse and are to a large extent determined by the former land use. However, all planting sites have in common that they were used more or less intensively by humans and thereby lost much or extensive parts of their ecological integrity and functionality and with that their capacity to provide services relevant for society. For example, forests can be degraded by overharvesting or poor management and agriculture land through poor practices that mine soil nutrients or result in excessive erosion (Verdone, 2015). In the context of reforestation, the properties of the intended area for restoration as well as the properties of the surrounding areas are equally important. The envisaged restoration transition is often constituted by the degrading land use practices. Verdon (2015) identified tree major restoration transitions: Degraded agriculture  Agroforestry Degraded woodlots and plantations  Woodlots with improved management Bare land (deforested land) Establishment of planted forests Although these three transitions differ in their principles, when it comes to the planting of trees, the same question arises in all three cases: What is the current predominant vegetation type on the intended area for restoration? This question is crucial for the choice of planting material and in connection with that the necessary land preparation method and maintenance (Cole et al., 2011;Shoo & Catterall, 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). Not all restoration projects and research trials explicitly name the vegetation type of the intended restoration site but most of them name the former land use, which gives an indication on the vegetation type. For abandoned pasture, for example, it can be assumed that the land is predominantly covered by grass and occasionally shrubs.Based on these considerations, we have identified the following planting site characteristics:Abandoned pastures  Predominant vegetation consists primarily of grass species Abandoned plantations  Predominant vegetation consists of trees, shrubs and grass species Secondary forest  Predominant vegetation consists of trees and shrubs speciesTrees and shrubs can be propagated from seeds or vegetatively. In most cases, restoration projects work directly with seeds (direct seeding or soil seedbank) or with material that have been propagated from seeds (seedlings from nurseries or widlings) (Gregorio et al., 2010;R. Jalonen et al., 2018). Vegetative germplasm, on the other hand, are used much less common (R. Jalonen et al., 2018), although they offer some significant advantages. One of them is that vegetative organs are in general not only much larger than seeds, and in some cases even larger than seedlings, but also contain greater reserves of energy. This helps the germplasm to grow more rapidely and thus to become faster competitive for light, water, and nutrients, which ultimately helps the planting material to better establish in dense plant communities such as grasland (Forbes, Forbes, & Watson, 1992). In terms of costs, this means that less land preparation is needed when planting material propagated vegetatively (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). The most common methods of artificial vegetative propagation for restoration are cutting, grafting, layering, tissue cultures and stakes (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). However, Layering, grafting, and tissue culture are only limited suitable for mass propagation, especially in developing countries because of its high costs and the need for technical expertise (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). More common are stakes and cuttings whereby stakes are also cuttings but with a height of 2m usually bigger than what is normally understood as cuttings, such as freshly cut lateral branches with a length of about 10-20cm (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). Furthermore, vegetative stakes are often used as live fences in the tropics (Zahawi & Holl, 2009).Planting nursery-raised tree seedlings is the most often used method to restore degraded tropical landscapes (Bozzano et al., 2014;Lamb, Erskine, & Parrotta, 2005;Schmidt, 2008;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). With seedling survival rates of more than 80% this popularity is not surprising (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). In the study of Jalonen et al. (2018), almost two third of the surveyed forest restoration projects stated that they primarily use nurseryraised tree seedlings for their restoration efforts. This method, however, is also one of the more expensive approaches to restoring degraded landscapes (Cole et al., 2011;Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009).In contrast, the least costly method to restore forests is supposedly through natural regeneration (Chazdon, 2003;Lamb et al., 2005). Yet, as for all other methods, socioeconomic circumstances, as well as the ecological situation, such as the state of degradation, ultimately determine whether natural regeneration is feasible and hence leads to success or not (Chazdon, 2003). For example, natural regeneration is only possible if natural forest remnants and with that suitable germplasm with sufficient genetic diversity are present in the surrounding landscape. Possibly because of this or because natural regeneration needs more time than other approaches, only six percent of the restoration programmes surveyed by Jalonen et al. (2018) relied on natural regeneration as a method.Besides natural regeneration, direct seeding is also a more cost-effective method compared to planting nurseryraised tree seedlings (Cole et al., 2011;Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). However, the overall performance of direct seeding is lower compared to that of planting seedlings. Only about 20% of the seeds planted normally survive, mostly due to difficult site conditions, seed predation and vegetation competition (Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017;Schmidt, 2008). Nevertheless, there is an increasing interest in direct seeding as an alternative to planting seedlings (Madsen & Lof, 2005). Currently, however, Jalonen et al. (2018) shows that the method is the prevalent method in about nine percent of the examined restoration projects. In addition to the favourable economic aspects, it is the ecological advantages that makes direct seeding promising. For example, with direct seeding a very large variety of species can be achieved (Ammer, Mosandl, & El Kateb, 2002;Schmidt, 2008). Furthermore, the resulting plant communities have a denser and larger root system ( Schmidt, 2008).The method of planting vegetative propagules have received even less attention than direct seeding, although this method has some striking advantages (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). For example, stakes grow much faster than seedlings and therefore may provide rapid erosion control and a sufficient competitive edge against shorter pasture gras (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). Like stakes, wildlings also have the advantages that they do not require a nursery and therefore are more cost effective than nursery raised seedlings. Parrota and Knowles ( 2001) stated that for their project, planting wildlings, which were collected from the surrounding old grown forests, was for some species the most cost-effective planting stock option.The motives for restoration are manifold and accordingly the group of actors involved in restoration projects is diverse. Lamb et al. (2005) name three major motives for restoration, which are considered a response to the process of forest degradation and land use change, and the adverse effects that come with it: (1) The expansion of protected areas or the network connecting these areas, (2) the improvement of agricultural productivity, and(3) some form of reforestation. These categories fit well with the purposes for landscape restoration named in various publications (see e.g. (Bozzano et al., 2014;R. Jalonen et al., 2018;Mansourian & Vallauri, 2005). The resulting initiatives may have their origin on a supranational level leading to restoration endeavours on a large scale, such as the Billion Tree Campaign (2006) or the Bonn Challenge (2011). They can also originate on a national or regional level, e.g. Green Wall of China (1978) or The Green Mission in India (2010), or on a community or even individual level. Thus, the actors involved differ significantly according to the nature of the initiatives. Lars Graudal & Lillesø (2007) provide a timeline of major development and practices for tree seed production and along with that how actors in restoration have changed over time. According to their timeline, the underlying driver for seed production changed over time from primarily commercial driven objectives, where national public seed production centres provided seeds for the improvement of plantation programmes, to the aim of supporting rural house-holds needs and smallscale agriculture, and the conservation of biodiversity. In many contexts, NGOs have taken over the role that was originally assigned to national tree seed sentres in the course of this development and hence donor support shifted accordingly (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007).In the following, we identified the main actors along the tree supply system. By doing that, we are well aware that for each context the system and with that the actors and the extent to which each of them is engaged in the supply of trees may change significantly. In general, Graudal & Lillesø (2007) pointed out that a supply system can be organised centralized or decentralized. On the one hand, in very centralized systems, as it is often the characteristic for national tree seed programmes or large NGOs, the project staff is normally involved in all activities along the supply system (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). On the other hand, in decentralized systems, which are more common in small-scale enterprises or in the non-commercial diffusion between farmers, much of the work is outsourced to local labourers or is done independently by the farmer themselves (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007).Who collects and plant the seeds depends on different factors. Certainly, access to the source and land tenure play an important role. The organizational structure of the project might also be a decisive aspect. In centralized projects, seeds are normally collected and/or planted by own staff. The majority of practitioners (55%), who participated in the survey conducted by Jalonen et al. (2018), stated that collection by project staff was the most common seed acquisition strategy in the projects they have been involved. However, in order to reduce costs, centralised organisations do also hire local labour, instead of using own staff (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). In the non-commercial sectors, collectors and planters are often the same person and act either independently or in more or less defined groups. In some cases, individual collectors and groups have joined together to form formalised networks, such as the Xingu Seed Network (XSN). Often these networks pursue similar goals. Foremost, they want to generate income for indigenous communities and smallholders by serving the growing demand for seed. An essential part of these efforts is the training for seed collectors and, in some cases, for planters. Moreover, the preservation of forests, and local cultures values is another motivation of these networks. In some cases, especially but not only in projects were academic or research organizations act as project leaders, researcher themselves collect seeds (R. Jalonen et al., 2018).Nurseries can either be owned and/or run by local communities (e.g. local farmers, villagers, etc.), by governmental bodies, by NGO's, or jointly by aforementioned actors. Dedefo (2017) showed that a majority of the nurseries in Ethiopia (62.5 %) is governmental owned and run. Half of the remaining nurseries in Ethiopia are run by NGO's and farmers respectively (Dedefo et al., 2017). Roshetko et al. (2018) too, showed that a majority of the examined nurseries, of which all were located in tropical and subtropical areas around the globe, are neither fully nor partially owned and run by local communities (62%). Tripp and Rohrbach (2001) provide a possible explanation for this ratio. According to their study, which is focussing on Sub-Saharan Africa, not only regulatory frameworks are hampering private businesses at community level but also market distortions caused by the free or heavily subsidised provisioning of seeds by government or NGO (Tripp & Rohrbach, 2001).Normative actors set standards and provide guidance (Graudal & Lillesø, 2007). This includes the development of policies, regulating mechanisms, and dissemination of information and training programmes that ensure optimal market conditions, as well as the use of the most pertinent technique and species'mix for a sustainable and effective achievement of restoration goals. We foremost see governmental bodies, international development and public agencies, such as FAO, ICRAF, or IUCN, NGOs, and academic or research organisations, such as Bioversity, in the role of normative actors. However, in the long run, it would be desireable that actors along the seed supply chain, such as collector's networks, nurseries, or planters themselves take over the role of a normative actor and with that guaranty the compliance with standards as well as continuously improve them and the associated guidlines.In a next step, we have identified major activities and methods as well as cost pools of the system and complemented the system picture accordingly (Figure 2). The cost pools ultimately indicate where in the system the cost-determining factors merge. All of the identified cost pools are composed of a combination of the following four cost components: Labour, transportation, equipment, and storage. These cost components in turn can be made up from different cost units. Labour costs, for example, may consist of gross earnings of locally hired nursery workers and of the administrative staff. In this way, labour costs includeds both the costs directly associated with the development of nursery crops, such as sowing seeds or irrigating seedlings, as well as indirect costs, such as administration or marketing. Appart from that, cost components may also vary in amount because they also depend on the choice of methods which, in turn, decisively depends on the properties of the system (resources and variables) and the expected quality requirements. For example, planting seeds on sites covered by pasture grasses requires substantially more preparation work and a more intensive use of herbicides than sites with no grass covering (Cole et al., 2011;Shoo & Catterall, 2013). Or, more labour-and equipment-intensive collection methods are necessary to avoid collecting seeds affected by fungy or deseases compared to methods, which do not focus on these quality requirements (Gregorio et al., 2010;L. Schmidt, 2000). In addition, these cost components are also influenced by factors that are not directly related to the properties of the system. For example, labour costs are also depending on the local wage level. Most of the studies we examined calculated wage costs at an hourly rate of arround US$ 1. Kuaraksa & Elliott (2013), for example, used a rate of US$ 0.82 per hour to calculate labor expenses or their field experiments in Thailand. For Costa Rica, Zahawi & Holl (2009) calculated using US$ 1 per hour and with that used a similare rate. While this rate is somewhat similar for developing countries, higher labour costs must of course be taken into consideration for industrialized countries.In addition to regional differences, wages also depend to a large extent on the qualifications of the workforce. Nevertheless, for the sake of clarity and simplicity, we have refrained from further specification. Despite this simplification, a unit is available to calculate labour expenses, while project descriptions or method sections of field experiments do not specify a uniform unit to calculate material, storage or transportation costs, such as US$ per driving kilometre.Figure 2: Tree seed and seedling supply system with key components and main cost pools of and interrelations within currently applied seed sourcing strategies.In the following, we briefly explain what we mean by quality in connection with this report. After that, we describe how the choice of seed collection methods is determined or at least influenced by properties of the system and in particular by quality requirements. For each cost pool we discuss separately which factors are decisive for the choice of the method and afterwards how this might influence the costs.For the description of quality, we refer to the definition given by FAO that determines between four basic quality attributes: Physical qualities, physiological qualities, genetic quality and seed/seedling health (FAO, 2016).According to this definition, physical quality relates to the condition of the seed or seedling in a specific seed lot (moisture content, presence of other seeds, etc.). Seed and seedling health refer to the presence of pests and diseases . Physiological quality is reflected in the maturity, viability and vigour of a plant and is ultimately referring to the tree's performance. These parameters, in turn, depend on a number of (agronomic) components, such as the development of the root system or the carbohydrate reserves. Finally, the genetic quality of the planting material is reflected in the inherited growth potential, which depends on the genetic quality of the parent trees and/or on the genetic variation within the source population. While physiological quality of seeds has great impact on the germination rate and the quality of seedlings and with that has a direct influence on the establishment success and the immediate survival of the planting stock, the genetic quality is decisive for the success of the restoration both in the short and long term (Alfaro et al., 2014;L. Schmidt, 2000;Tanaka, 1984;Thomas et al., 2014). A broad genetic diversity, for example, is essential for tree species to adapt to changing conditions and is a vital prerequisite for the long-term viability in the replanted population (Mortlock, 1999;Thomas et al., 2014).In addition to these four basic quality attributes, we do also consider the plant diversity as quality attribute. We equate plant diversity with species richness (number of different species) and functional diversity 1 . There is a growing consensus that especially functional diversity has a crucial effect on ecosystem resource dynamics and the long-term ecosystem stability (Dı ́az & Cabido, 2001).Although many authors discuss costs in connection with collection methods, their explanations are mostly limited to qualitative descriptions. We have found only two studies (Cole et al. (2011) and Zahawi & Holl (2009)), which explicitly mention the collection costs in connection with their field experiment and thereby provide qualitative information (Table 1). In both studies the share of collection costs in the total costs of tree supply varies between 1% and 25%. Part of this range is due to differences between different types of germplasm whose collection causes different costs (see section 3.2.2). However, the main part of the range is explained by the subsequent cost pools, such as the planting and land preparation costs or the post-maintenance costs, which may also vary greatly in their amount depending on the characteristics of the system or on different planting methods (more details in the chapters 3.3 -3.5). The costs of collection consist mainly of labour costs, equipment costs, transport costs, and storage costs (Figure 3). These costs components are primarily influenced by the collection method, which in turn is determined by the type of germplasm and the quality requirements. Furthermore, the type of germplasm as well as the source of germplasm may also affect the transportation and storage costs directly. In the following, we first discuss the share of each cost components in the total collection costs. We then describe how the type of germplasm affects the costs either directly or indirectly by being decisive for the choice of methods (No. 1 in Figure 3). In a next step, we describe how the source of germplasm may affect the costs of collection directly. (No. 2 in Figure 3). Finally, we describe how the quality requirements and the species diversity indirectly influence the costs, by being, like the type of germplasm, decisive for the choice of collection methods (No. 3 in Figure 3).None of the reviewed literature provides information which would allow to either directly or indirectly quantify the share of the various cost components in the total costs of collection. Therefore, the proportions provided in Table 2 are estimates based on qualitative considerations which essentially refer to the differences between the cost components and the total costs between the type of germplasm (see section 3.2.2 and Tables 3 and 4). According to this data, the share of each cost components varies significantly between different types of germplasm (Table 2). We have not found a study that reported the costs for collecting cuttings. Therefore, our assessment of the composition of the total cost of collecting cuttings is based on the qualitative weighting of the impact of possible cost drivers on the four main cost components in comparison to the other two types of germplasm. (Table 3).  The type of germplasm is decisive for the choice of the collection methods and hence for the effort and equipment that is needed for collection. Beyond this the propagation strategy of the species itself also determines how seeds can or should be collected (see also section 3.2.4). Many different collection methods are available for matching the respective plant propagation strategy or the characteristics of a certain type of germplasm. They range from simple collection from the ground to more elaborate methods such as climbing trees or the use of expensive and sophisticated equipment. These methods have been described in detail by various authors and principles and recommendations were made available to practitioners in a variety of guidelines (e.g. Schmidt (2000), Mwitwa (1990), FAO (1993), Guarino, Ramanatha Rao, & Goldenberg (2011), Mortlock (1999), Mulawarman et al., (2003), see also section 3.2.4).Because of the inter-species variation in collection methods, it is difficult to quote universal costs for the collection of a specific type of germplasm. A look at the pricing of seeds illustrates these difficulties. For example, the price per kilo of cheaper typically big seeds and the more hard to get and therefore more expensive seeds offered by the Brazilian Xingu Seed Network roughly differ by a factor of 250, with an average of US$15 kg -1 (Campos-Filho, Da Costa, De Sousa, & Junqueira, 2013;Xingu Seed Network, 2013). Nevertheless, we found it pertinent for the sake of simplicity to define average costs for collecting instead of further segregating the costs.We base this approach on the assumption that the selection of species for a restoration project will most likely include both the more expensive and the less expensive species, thus offsetting the most extreme values.The majority of the available literature is mainly focussing on collecting seeds but not on collecting other type of germplasm, such as stakes or wildings. However, many aspects relevant to the collection of seeds are also somehow relevant to the collection of other types of germplasm.Only the study of Zahawi & Holl (2009) explicitly mentioned and compared the collection costs of two different types of germplasm. Their study revealed that the collection costs of stakes for a field experiment in Costa Rica were approximately seven times higher than the costs of collecting seeds for the same experiment (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). Such a direct comparison within the same study can be regarded as particular informative as it can be assumed that the underlying parameters are identical. The only other study that explicitly reported the collection costs, though without comparing different type of germplasm, was conducted by Cole et al. (2011).The cost for collecting seeds for their trial in Brazil was of the same magnitude as the costs reported by Zahawi & Holl (2009) (Table 1).Some of these costs can be attributed to different transportation costs. Transportation of seeds from the collection site to the nursery is generally easier and cheaper than the transportation of stakes. This is mainly because a typical pickup truck can carry approximately 125 times the number of seeds as stakes (Campos-Filho et al., 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). However, this is only an average order of magnitude. Of course, this factor varies considerably depending on the size and shape of stakes and seeds. Besides this, stakes may also suffer damage during transportation to the cortical tissue along the stem caused from excessive shaking if not placed properly, which also takes up more space compared to arbitrary placing (Zahawi & Holl, 2009).In addition to differences in transport, the amount of work required to collect different germplasms may also differ. Although seeds can be collected much faster in larger numbers than stakes, they are not always available because of their high interannual variability (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). Stakes on the other hand, are almost always available since in many areas of the tropics some species are widely planted as fencerows (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). These statements are again to be understood as rough tendencies. Their underlying assumptions may not be valid for all cases. In restoration projects that aim for a high species diversity, for example, the availability of stakes is likely to become a limiting factor that may only be overcome by an increased collection effort. In such projects the collection of seeds might be the more cost-effective method.Furthermore, higher material costs are to be expected when collecting seeds in comparison to collecting sticks. Often, especially in connection with quality considerations, seeds have to be picked directly from the tree, which is not only associated with more work but also with more expensive equipment.In some cases, the collected germplasm has to be temporarily stored before it can be transferred to the nursery (Schmidt et al., 2018). In general, the associated costs are rather marginal compared to other cost components. However, because of different space requirements, storage costs may differ between different types of germplasm. Stakes, for example, need considerably more space than seeds.In Table 3, we have listed the most important cost drivers which, in our opinion, lead to the fact that the collection of different type of germplasm is associated with different costs. Some seeds need to be collected from the treetop +1 > 0 = 0 High interannual variability in seed (not always available). In contrast some stakes are widely planted as live fencerows (high availability) Based on the defined shares of each cost component in total costs (Table 2), the above assumptions about the impact of the various cost drivers (Table 3), and costs reported by Zahawi & Holl (2009) and Cole et al. (2011) (Table 1, section 3.2) we have broken down the total costs into the respective four cost components (Table 4).The figures in Table 4 represent only basic costs, which means that they do not include any additional cost drivers (e.g. high genetic diversity or species richness) other than the ones discussed above. The effect of these cost drivers is discussed in the following sections. The total collection costs of each type of germplasm (Table 4) are therefore lower than the costs reported by the two authors (Table 1, section 3.2). Possible cost drivers related to the collection site are the distance between the collection site and the nursery as well as the access to the area where the mother trees are located, which might be impeded by difficult terrain or restricted accessibility for vehicles. In fact, many locations cannot be reached by vehicles and therefore the equipment has to be carried (L. Schmidt, 2000). We have developed three different indicators that can be used to assess the reachability of the source of germplasm (Table 5). While the indicator distance to the nursery mainly influences the transportation costs, the accessibility indicators (distance from the road and terrain) mainly affects the time necessary to collect the desired quantity of seeds and with that has implications on the labour costs. Based on these considerations, we defined for each restriction of the reachability (from easy to average to difficult) for both cost components an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs that would be expected if the reachability were easy (Table 6). The choice of seed collection methods may have implications for the quality of the collected germplasm. To ensure an appropriate quality and a secure collection process without jeopardizing safety of staff or the integrity of mother trees with the smallest possible costs, several factors have to be considered (L. Schmidt, 2000). Despite that, in many cases only economic considerations are decisive for the choice of methods (L. Schmidt, 2000).Foremost, the characteristics of the species itself is pivotal for the choice of method and ultimately for the effort that is needed for collection. Whereas some species, for example, are bearing abundant and regular seeds crops, which remain on the tree for a long time, other species produce only small seed crops that are dispersed or fall directly to the ground shortly after maturity (L. Schmidt, 2000). Seeds from these species are more likely to get lost to predators or contaminated with bacteria and fungi that may damage the seeds (Gregorio et al., 2010;L. Schmidt, 2000). Hence, the right timing and method greatly affect the quality of the seeds.According to Gregorio et al. (2010), it is best in any case to collect seeds before they fall from the trees because of the aforementioned reasons and because it is difficult to identify the mother tree where the seed comes from after it has fallen down. However, collecting seeds from the tree directly usually requires more labour and equipment which leads to higher costs. Whereas low branches can be reached from the ground, the collection from higher branches already need additional equipment like long-handled pruners or saws and the appropriate knowledge to use the equipment (L. Schmidt, 2000). For tall trees, where branches cannot be reached by long handled tools, climbing is necessary to reach the fruit bearing branches. A collection method that obviously implies the risk of fatal accidents. In order to minimalize the risk for collectors, not only appropriate equipment is needed but also the necessary expertise to use it. Hence, any collection that involves climbing is relatively equipment and knowledge intense as well as time consuming, which directly has an impact on the associated costs (L. Schmidt, 2000).In contrast, collection from the ground is much less labour and equipment intensive as well as time consuming and, moreover, requires less skills (Doran, Turnbull, Boland, & Gunn, 1983;L. Schmidt, 2000). Whereas large seeds can efficiently be picked up directly from the ground, nets, funnels, or tarpaulins under the trees may help to increase the efficiency when collecting small seeds (Doran et al., 1983). Although this is associated with higher material costs, the yield is greater and thus the collection more efficient. The efficiency can be even increased by shaking the tree, if the constitution of the species so permits. Not only more seeds can be collected with this method than by awaiting natural fall, the loss to dispersal, ground predation, deterioration and germination can also be reduced (L. Schmidt, 2000).In addition to the above mentioned methods, seeds can also be collected from fallen trees or by shooting down branches (L. Schmidt, 2000). However, these methods are rarer and only applicable in certain settings.Wildlings should be collected when they are still very young in order to preserve their physical integrity as far as possible and with that ensure a high physiological quality. At an advanced age, the root system is already widely developed and well anchored, which increases the chance of damaged when the plant is removed from the soil (Gregorio et al., 2010). This restriction may limit the availability of wildlings, which is likely to the search effort and thus the amount of work.In addition, care should be taken to ensure that the seed is stored correctly. The quality of seeds can only be maintained under species-specific optimal storage conditions, e.g. humidity and temperature (Tanaka, 1984). Table 7 summarizes the characteristics of collection methods for two types of germplasm (seeds and stakes) that are decisive for the physiological quality and health of the germplasm. Based on the preceding elaborations, we have defined the effects of the three quality categories (low, medium, and high quality) on the three cost components (labour, equipment, and transportation) (Table 8). We defined for each tightening of requirements for the affected cost components (labour and equipment) an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs that would be expected with only low-quality requirements. Provenance of the germplasm is another crucial factor not only in terms of costs but especially for the fitness of the seedlings. At least in the short and medium term or under the assumption that environmental conditions in a particular location is stable, the seeds of local mother plants provide the best conditions for a successful restoration project. Local plants are not only adapted to local conditions such as soil type, local plant communities, or climatic extremes (e.g. max. degrees of frost) but also are best integrated into the local ecosystem and thus also provide optimal habitat and/or interaction for the local fauna and flora (Mortlock, 1999). Hence, collecting seeds from naturally occurring remnant vegetation is usually the best approach (Mortlock, 1999). Several studies have shown that genetic differentiation between populations of the same species but from different regions can be highly significant. Loha et al. (2006), for example, showed that germination performances and height growth of a major timber species in Ethiopia differ significantly among provenances and that strong correlation between germination traits and certain local conditions most likely indicate and adaptation for seedling establishment. Based on literature review, Roshetko at al. (2018) showed that variation among provenance in growth and wood production of common trees of reforestation projects is by no means an isolated phenomenon but can be observed in many cases. However, according to Rogers & Montalvo (2004), proven examples of planting projects that have failed do to maladaptation are rare. As a reason for this the authors name the long period until perceptible signs of maladaptation show up, as well as the fact that a variety of factors could be responsible for the failure of a project and that it is therefore difficult to trace project failure back primarily or entirely to genetic reasons (Rogers & Montalvo, 2004). Furthermore, in some areas the conditions might have changed or will change considerably due to climate change or land use. In such cases, locally adapted plants may not always provide the best conditions for a successful project (Mulawarman et al., 2003).Besides the region, the type of source might have another significant effect on the genetic constitution of the germplasm. While the genetic quality of germplasm from seed production areas, for example, is mostly known, it is often difficult to make a statement about the genetic quality if the germplasm derives from natural forests because history and ecology (selective harvesting, fragmentation, etc.) of these sites are not known in every case (Mulawarman et al., 2003). For example, years of targeted harvesting of certain species may led to highly fragmented and isolated relict populations. Depending on the degree of isolation and the propagation ecology of the targeted species and with that its ability to maintain genetic flow between populations, a reduced genetic diversity is to be expected in these populations due to increased levels of inbreeding and a greater impact of genetic drift (Furlan et al., 2012). Furthermore, habitat loss because of deforestation may also be an underlying cause for habitat fragmentation. Hence, the characteristics of the landscape surrounding the collection site also has to be taken into consideration. Whereas information of the past management practices of forests are scarce or difficult to access, more information is available for seed production areas, plantations or orchards. Furthermore, the selection of the mother tree greatly conditions the quality of seeds collected (Archer et al., 2014;Mulawarman et al., 2003;L. Schmidt, 2000). In order to ensure a suitable genetic quality, seed trees should be favoured that are in healthy and viable conditions. The underlying consideration is that most observable characteristics or traits exhibit some degree of heritability and hence the vitality and performance of progeny is determined not only by environmental conditions but also by the genotype of the mother tree (Mortlock, 1999;Mulawarman et al., 2003). The phenotype of the paternal tree cannot be directly evaluated simply because the source of pollen that pollinated the flowers of the seed tree are in most cases unknown. However, a conclusion on its condition can be drawn from the surrounding trees because most likely one of them is the source of pollen (Mulawarman et al., 2003). Similar quantities of seeds should be collected from several trees in order to avoid overrepresentation of a single individual (Mortlock, 1999).In order to get an appropriate genetic diversity in the seed lot, seeds should be collected from a large number of trees. Depending on the author, the recommendations vary from at least 10 up to 100 unrelated trees (Jaenicke, 1999;Mortlock, 1999;Mulawarman et al., 2003;L. H. Schmidt, 2007;Sedgley, Hand, Smith, & Griffin, 1989). Furthermore, the collected seeds should all be from unrelated trees (Mortlock, 1999). Although this is difficult for many reasons, there are some basic principles. First, the risk of kinship decreases with an increasing distance between mother trees (Kitzmiller, 1990;Mortlock, 1999;Mulawarman et al., 2003;L. H. Schmidt, 2007). Therefore, seeds should be collected from trees spaced at least at a distance greater than that associated with seed dispersal, which means for wind dispersed species at least 50 to 100 metres and for animal a bit less (Kindt et al., 2005;Mortlock, 1999;L. H. Schmidt, 2007). Second, collection from too isolated trees should be avoided since the trees may be inbred or produce seed by inbreeding (selfing or self-pollination) which, as a consequence, may result in reduced fitness of progeny (Eckert et al., 2010;Kindt et al., 2005;Mulawarman et al., 2003).Another factor that may influence the quality of collected seeds is the number of harvesting events. According to Kettle et al. (2008), not all trees in a population are necessarily reproductively active at the same time. Therefore, if the harvest is limited to one season only, there is a risk that the sample will not contain the genetic diversity of the entire population (C. J. Kettle et al., 2008) Table 9 summarizes the characteristics of collection methods for all types of germplasm that are decisive for the genetic quality of the germplasm. These characteristics can be used at the same time as indicators for determining which quality requirements (low, medium, high) can be met if the corresponding condition is given. No. of harvesting seasonsIn Table 10, we have defined the effects of the three quality categories (low, medium, and high) on the three cost components (labour, equipment, and transportation). We defined for each increase in quality for both affected cost components (labour and transportation) an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs, which would be to be expected if no or only very low quality were pursued. According to Roshetko et al. (2018), many practitioners neglect to appropriately consider species diversity in their projects. Not even half of the afforestation/reforestation project plans, which have been examined by the authors intended to plant more than five species (Roshetko et al., 2018). According to Schmidt (2007), it is above all economic considerations that lead to keeping the diversity of species low.In the context of this cost analysis, two questions are of central importance: How many species are needed to achieve an optimal diversity? And, does a high number of species automatically mean a high functional diversity? While the first question cannot be answered universally because this can vary greatly from ecosystem to ecosystem, no universal answer is possible for the second question either. Díaz & Cabido (2001) are pointing out that such a correlation (high species richness equals high functional diversity) would only apply to specific theoretical cases and that such cases are not common in nature. We believe, however, that this simplification serves its purpose in terms of cost. Nevertheless, the benchmarks given in Table 11 are only an indication, which are essentially based on the ordered distribution (tertile) of the species richness considered in the 38 projects reviewed by Roshetko et al. (2018). None of the authors discusses in detail where any additional costs would arise as a result of taking species diversity into account. However, as the number of species increases, so does the diversity of characteristics of species (shape and height of trees, types of fruits, fruiting process, density of individuals) which most likely necessitate the use of a wider range of collection methods. Furthermore, the search effort may also increase with the increase in species diversity as the chance increases that some of these targeted species might be not common or rare. Overall, we therefore assume that the consideration of species diversity in restoration projects tends to increase both labour and equipment costs.We defined for each increase in diversity for both affected cost components (labour and equipment) an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs, which would be to be expected if only seeds are collected from five species or below. There are quite a few authors that have discussed costs associated with plant propagation in connection with guidelines and method descriptions. However, as with collection costs, respective statements are mostly qualitative in nature. We have found four studies (Campos-Filho et al. ( 2013), Cole et al. (2011), ( 2013) and Zahawi & Holl (2009)) that provide qualitative information on nursery costs associated with their field trials (Table 13). These costs can only be compared to a limited extent because some of the underlying parameters, such as labour costs, are either different or unknown. As far as possible, we have standardized these parameters. However, this was not possible for all parameters, which is why some uncertainties remain with regard to comparability.For the propagation of seedlings, the share of nursery costs in the total costs of tree supply varies between 10% and 21%. The main part of the range is explained by the preceding collection costs and the subsequent cost pools related to planting and land preparation as well as post-maintenance costs. All these cost pools may vary greatly depending on the configuration of the influencing system components and thus also their share of the total costs changes. The share of costs associated with propagating cuttings in total costs is with 42% significantly higher but as well depends on the preceding and subsequent cost pools.Table 13: Nursery costs per hectare with a tree density of 1500 ha -1 in US$. The table furthermore shows characteristics of the tree seed and seedling supply system which might have an impact on costs. The costs of the nursery consist mainly of labour costs, equipment costs and storage costs (Figure 4). Equipment costs include all materials needed for the propagation and growth of the plants, such as containers, medium, fertilizer, hormones etc. They do not include the material needed for the establishment of the nursery. The costs associated with setting up a nursery must be added separately to the total costs. The study of Roshetko et al. (2018) showed that about one third of the reviewed projects set up a nursery specifically to serve the project planting need.Labour costs include not only the direct cost associated with the production of seedlings but also costs associated with running a nursery, such as time and labour of administration, customer relations, marketing etc. cost pools are primarily influenced by the nursing method, which in turn is determined by the quality requirements. Furthermore, the type of germplasm (seeds or cuttings) may also affect the cost of the nursery either directly or indirectly. In the following, we first discuss the share of each cost components in the total nursery costs. We then describe how the type of germplasm may has implications on nursery costs by being decisive for the choice of methods (No. 1 in Figure 4). In a next step, we describe how the quality requirements and the targeted species diversity indirectly influence the costs, by being, like the type of germplasm, decisive for the choice of nursing methods (No. 2 in Figure 4).Only Kuaraksa & Elliot (2013) explicitly recorded data on the composition of the tree nursery costs. We used his data as a starting point for defining the proportion of the two cost components (Table 14). Accordingly, the share of labour costs and equipment costs in the total costs of nursery for planting material raised from seeds and cuttings are in the same order of magnitude. The difference of about 10% is due to the increased effort for propagating via cuttings versus seeds. The type of germplasm is primarily decisive for what working steps are necessary for the development of outplanting material and accordingly how much labour and equipment is needed. That, of course, only applies to those types of germplasm that need nursery facilities to propagate and grow before they can be planted in the field, such as cuttings and seeds. Wildlings and stakes, on the other hand, might be planted directly after harvesting and do not require nursing facilities (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008;Zahawi & Holl, 2009).Like the collection methods, the nursing methods and approaches have been described in details by various authors and principles and recommendations were made available to practitioners in a variety of guidelines (e.g.  Bonner et al. (2008), Landis (1989), Schmidt (2000), Jaenicke (1999), FAO (1993), Gregorio et al. (2010), Wilkinson et al (Kim M Wilkinson, Landis, Haase, Daley, & Dumroese, 2014), see also section 3.3.3). In the following, we are focussing only on the most relevant aspects. For more detailed information on this topic, please refer to the references listed above.Propagating planting stock from cuttings involves considerably more working steps than the propagation from seeds. In the case of seeds, it is often sufficient to sow them directly into containers or seedbeds with some type of artificial growing medium or an appropriate soil type (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008;Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). In some cases, however, pre-treatments may be necessary to overcome the seed dormancy and to accelerate the start of germination (Jaenicke, 1999;Mulawarman et al., 2003;Schmidt, 2000). Once the plants have matured sufficiently, they are pricked out of the germination medium and potted into new containers (Jaenicke, 1999).There are also more elaborate methods where, for example, seeds are first pregerminated and then resulting sprouts are sowed into containers (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008).Cuttings, on the other hand, require several treatment steps. First, the cut surface needs a treatment to prevent bacterial infection (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). After that, the root growth needs to be triggered and accelerated with hormones before they can be planted into containers (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008;Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013).After seeds have germinated and matured to seedlings and cuttings have established, the treatment steps are similar and essentially aim the accustoming of the plant material to the field conditions and at the same time ensuring the vitality and quality of the plants.Although the methods of reproducing cuttings are constantly being improved and with that become more efficient and cost effective, the associated costs are still higher than those of seedling production (Greenwood, Foster, & Amerson, 1991).In some cases, it is necessary to store seedlings for the period from when seedlings are lifted until they are transported to the planting site. The type of storage depends on the species and the duration of storage. Cool storage is particularly suitable for maintaining the quality of seedlings (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008). Where this is not possible, seeds can be stored for a short time in outside beds until they can be outplanted. Which methods to choose depends on the one hand on their availability and on the other hand on the characteristics of the plant species. Since our calculations do not consider either characteristics of different species or the availability, we add the same fixed amount as costs for store seedlings. These costs also include costs for any storage of seeds or cuttings before sowing or planting them into containers or seedbeds. Based on the defined shares of each cost component in total costs (Table 14), the above assumptions about the impact of the various cost drivers (Table 15), and costs reported by Kuaraksa & Elliott (2013) (Table 13, section 3.3) we have broken down the total costs into the respective four cost components (Table 16). The figures in Table 16 represent only basic costs, which means that they do not include quality requirements which may cause additional costs. The effect of these cost drivers is discussed in the following sections. The total collection costs of each type of germplasm in Table 16 are therefore lower than the costs reported by the two authors (Table 13, section 4.3). Seedling quality can be equated with the performance of the seedling on the outplanting site (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008). This performance includes both the initial and long-term survival rate as well as the growth rate. Thereby, the appearance of the plant may be an indicator for its quality, but when viewed on its own, it is only limited meaningful (Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014). Ultimately, it is the conditions at the outplanting site that determines which morphological and physiological attributes of the seedling are important or even decisive for its survival (Riikonen & Luoranen, 2018; Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014).Nursing practices can have a decisive influence on the quality of seedlings. However, seedlings of different species may response differently to different nursing practices (Riikonen & Luoranen, 2018;Simpson & Ritchie, 1997). Nevertheless, there are some basic practices that positively influence the quality of seedlings. Since these practices usually involve more work and material, they are often associated with increased costs and thus seeds with a high quality may be very expensive (Kindt et al., 2005).In addition to the desired quality of the seedlings, the quality of the seed also has an impact on nursery costs.The germination rate and thus the success of the work invested depends strongly on the quality of seeds , whereby the better the quality, the higher the germination rate (Tanaka, 1984).There are three main phases of crop development for seedlings: Establishment, rapid growth, and hardening (Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014). Nursing practices from all three phases can be decisive for the later quality of the seedling.In the first phase, the main aim is to germinate the seeds and for plants grown from cuttings to initiate the initial development of roots and shoots (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013; Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014). At the very beginning, before sowing, impurities, such as damaged and contaminated seed, soil, or insects, need to be removed (Jaenicke, 1999). After that, care must be taken that the seeds are sowed at the proper density. The density has a significant and long-lasting effect on the seedling quality especially because it is decisive for the shoot-to-root. (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008;Jaenicke, 1999). A good ratio in turn is important for a vigorous and healthy plant. At a high density, valuable space is saved, but the seedlings cannot form properly and are often stunted and are more susceptible to diseases (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008). A too low density, on the other hand, may has negative implications on the shoot-to-root ration and, furthermore, wastes valuable space (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008). However, different plant species have different needs and some species, for example smaller leaved and needle-leaved species, tolerate higher densities better than others (Thomas D Landis, Douglas, Wilkinson, & Luna, 2014).Moreover, a growing medium of high quality and adapted to the needs of the species is fundamental for the health of the plant in general and in particular for the development of a healthy root system (Thomas D Landis et al., 2014). However, quality growing media or nursery soils are difficult to find and are often associated with high costs (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008). Furthermore, the use of multinutrient fertilizer enhance the growth of plants during this phase. Moreover, the inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi or Rhizobium bacteria can support the growth of the plant and strengthen its resistance to disease (Jaenicke, 1999). Both measures involve additional work steps and thus additional work performance as well as additional material costs.For plants grown from cuttings, this phase is also important for the initial development of the roots as they are not affected by diseases. Whereas the growth of the roots can be encouraged by treating the cuttings with rooting hormones, an infection can be prevented by disinfection of tools and appropriate storage, such as cooling (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013).In the next phase, the objective is a rapid increase in size. To ensure an optimal growth and vigour of the plant, adequate quantities of fertiliser must be applied (Hardening & Landis, 2014). Furthermore, care must continue during this phase to ensure uniform growth and thus an optimal shoot-to-root ratio.The last phase, the so-called hardening phase, aims to accustom the seedling to the conditions at the planting site in order to promote survival and growth following outplanting (Jacobs, Landis, & Wilkinson, 2014; Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014). This phase is of critical importance because if the seedlings are not appropriately accustomed they may not endure the stresses caused by the outplanting and by harsh conditions at the planting site, such as drought or temperature extremes (Kim M. Wilkinson & Douglas, 2014). This can be associated with various actions that may entail a significant amount of work. Wilkinson & Douglas (2014) gives as an example the daily \"brushing\" of the seedlings to simulate the conditions of a windy planting site and with that improve the stem strength steadily before outplanting. Lastly, it is crucial to plant the seedlings at the right time. Jaenicke (1999) pointed out that if the seedlings are left too long in the nursery their quality may deteriorate considerably. Table 18 shows the effects of the three quality categories (low, medium, and high quality) on the cost components. for each tightening of requirements for the affected cost components we defined an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs that would be expected with only low-quality requirements. While the costs of practices that aim to produce high quality seedlings are relatively explicit, the effects of high seed quality on the germination rate are far more difficult to quantify. While a higher germination rate generally reduces costs, and this is easy to demonstrate, the therefor required quality is difficult to quantify. However, since all authors agree that high quality, in addition to other conditions that must be met, has a favourable effect on the germination rate, for now, we are assuming a general reduction in labour and material costs of 20% when using high quality and 10% when using medium quality seeds (Table 19). Foremost, it is important to ensure that the sample assortment of seeds is labelled and that this labelling continues during all three phases of the development of nursery crops. Proper labelling ensures that the genetic composition of the collection is maintained and that genetic aspects, such as provenance, can be considered for outplanting. Furthermore, with their practices, nurseries might be involved in genetic selection sometimes even without being aware of it (Luna, Wilkinson, & Dumroese, 2014). Luna et al. (2014) uses the speed of germination as an example.Due to economic considerations, nurseries may prefer fast-germinating plant individuals over slow-germinating individuals for reasons of efficiency. However, it could be that slow germination is an adaptive trait and therefore earliest sprouters may also be the healthiest and thus have a better chance of survival. With this practice, the nursery would have adversely reduced the gene pool and thus the genetic diversity of the population.Table 20 summarizes nursing practices that are potentially decisive for the genetic quality of the seedlings. In Table 21, we have quantified the effects of the three quality categories (low, medium, and high) on the two cost components (labour and equipment). We see no or very marginal implications on the costs for equipment since no additional equipment is needed when genetic quality is considered in nursing practices. In regard to the cost component 'labour', on the other hand, we see a slight increase due to an increase in the amount of work involved, especially in connection with labelling. Furthermore, the efficiency of a nursery may slightly decease if traits that slow down the development process can no longer be selected out. All in all, however, we believe that the effects of considering genetic quality on cost are minimal. This is why we assume a linear cost increase of only 5% of the costs, which would be to be expected if genetic quality would not be considered at all in nursing practices. The more species are germinated in a nursery, the higher its logistics costs are. The underlying assumption for this connection is that for each species a separate management plant might be necessary because the treatment should be tailored to the specific needs of a species. It is very difficult to quantify the additional costs caused by this. Not least because the additional cost per species depends on the type of treatment required by a species as well as the experience and management efficiency of the nursery. However, we expect a linear increase in costs per category of 15% of the costs that are expected if less than five species are propagated in a nursery (Table 22). As with the collection and nursing cost, the cost of outplanting are mainly qualitatively discussed in literature and in most cases in connection with guidelines and method descriptions. Some authors, however, provide qualitative information on the costs of outplanting associated with their field trials (Table 23). During the interpretation of this data we have again been confronted with the problem of different and/or unknown parameters. As far as possible, we have coordinated/adjusted them to each other.The share of outplanting costs in the total costs of tree supply varies between ~20% and ~30%. A large part of this range is explained by influencing factors that can vary significantly depending on the nature of the associated system components. For example, different former land use practises on the planting site and with that different types of vegetation cover have a considerably different influence on the preparation costs (see also section 3.4.3).  (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013) The costs incurred in outplanting and site preparation consist mainly of labour costs, equipment costs, and transportation costs. The amount of these cost components depends largely on the planting and preparation method, the choice of which in turn mainly depends on the characteristics of the planting site. The type of planting material has an effect on the choice of method by limiting it. For example, direct seedling is possible with seeds, but not with seedlings. In the following, we first discuss the share of each cost components in the total collection costs. We then describe how the outplanting material (No. 1 in Figure 5) affects the outplanting and preparation method. Finally, we discuss how the characteristics of the outplanting planting site affects the preparation method and with that the cost of outplanting (No. 2 in Figure 5).The authors Cole et al. (2011), Engel & Parrotta (2001), Kuaraksa & Elliott (2013) and Zahawi & Holl (2009) wrote down the costs related to the outplanting in a relatively detailed way, which allowed us to get a rough idea about the shares of the respective cost components in the total costs. The proportions shown in Table 24 are based on the average values of the data from the abovementioned articles and insights from the review of guidelines and methodological descriptions (see section 3.4.2 and 3.4.3). According to this data, the share of costs of equipment varies significantly between different types of planting stock. For example, the costs associated with planting stakes are much lower than that associated with planting seedlings or direct seeding (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). This is mainly due to the fact that stakes already have some competitive advantages over existing vegetation, such as their height, and thus less land preparation, e.g. application of herbicide, and maintenance, e.g. fertilizer, is needed. It is therefore expedient to consider the individual cost components dependently of the planting stock type. However, this example also shows that the costs are also related to the characteristics of the outplanting site. If there is no grass that could compete with sprouts, there is also no need to invest labour in removing it.  3.4.2 The impact of the type of outplanting material on outplanting costsThe type of outplanting material plays an important role in choosing appropriate methods and practices, and with that are decisive for the effort and equipment that is needed for outplanting. We first discuss how different type of outplanting material affect the site preparation before we discuss their effect on the choice of outplanting methods.First of all, the outplanting material must be transported from the nursery to the planting site. As with the collection costs, it is the differences in the use of space that essentially make up the differences in transport. We therefore make the same assumptions as for the collection costs, with the transport of seeds causing the lowest costs and the transport of stakes causing the highest costs. The costs associated with transporting seedlings are somewhere in between. While Campos-Filho et al. (2013) states that a typical pick-up can transport about 12 times more seed than seedlings, Zahawi & Holl (2009) estimates a similar increase between seedlings and stakes.As with transport costs in connection with the collection of germplasm, these figures are merely orders of magnitude and may vary considerably depending on the size and shape of the seeds, the seedlings, and the stakes.All type of planting stock need at least some land preparation prior to planting. The application of herbicide to suppress grass is one of them. In the field trial of Engel & Parrotta (2001), the application of the herbicide has caused costs of US$ 80 per hectare. Approximately one quarter of these costs are material costs and the rest labour costs. In addition to the use of herbicides or as a substitute to it, weeds can also be removed manually. This, however, is associated with a higher workload and thus with higher costs. The control of vegetative competition is beneficial for all type of planting stock. It has been shown that this measure has increased the survival of tree plantations in the tropics by up to 90% (Lowery, Lambeth, Endo, & Kane, 1993). However, different planting stock benefit to different degrees from weeding because they have different abilities to handle competition with other vegetation. For example, when planting seedlings, the existing vegetation has to be suppressed or removed in order to enable the seedlings to grow without competing for light. This is often not necessary with stakes. Stakes already tower over the existing vegetation at the time of planting, which frees them from the competition for light (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). This, however, does not apply for root competition for soil resources.In addition to the competitive pressure from other plants, seedlings may also be hindered in their growth by herbivory. For some species, pesticides might be a way to deal with this. We assume that stakes again have an advantage over seedlings by having a greater resistant and accordingly little until no pesticide has to be used. Zahawi & Holl (2009), for example, did not apply any pesticide when planting stakes for their field trial.In addition to the removal of weeds, seedlings of some species might also require rototilling (Engel & Parrotta, 2001). In addition, local conditions at the planting site may necessitate further physical soil treatments (see section 3.4.3).Authors of all of the reviewed literature agree that direct seeding has the lowest outplanting cost (Cole et al., 2011;Engel & Parrotta, 2001;Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). A relatively large amount of seed can be sawn in a relatively short time with little effort and equipment. Kuaraksa & Elliott (2013), for example, sowed the seed directly on the soil along a line and then protected the seeds from wind and rain by placing sliced bamboo tubes on top of them. For planting seedlings, on the other hand, a planting hole is needed in order to ensure a good root-to-soil contact and with that to access water and mineral nutrients (Haase, Landis, & Dumroese, 2014). A variety of tools are available to dig the plant holes, from simple digging sticks to motorized augers (Haase et al., 2014).Once the seedling is planted or the seed is sowed, further measures may be applied in order to support the establishment of the plant, such as fertilization, irrigation or artificial constructions for shading and shelter may. However, their necessity and efficiency depends essentially on the conditions at the outplanting site as well as on the needs of the plant species (Rose & Ketchum, 2002). In addition, the costs reported by the authors Kuaraksa & Elliott (2013) and Zahawi & Holl (2009) suggest that the type of planting stock may also be decisive for whether these additional measures are necessary and beneficial. Based on the defined shares of each cost component in total costs (Table 24), the above assumptions about the impact of the various cost drivers (Table 25), and costs reported by various authors (Table 23, section 3.4) we have broken down the total costs into the respective three cost components (Table 26). The figures in Table 26 represent only basic costs, which means that they do not include any additional cost drivers caused, for example, by the characteristics of the outplanting site. The effect of these cost drivers is discussed in the following sections. The total collection costs of each type of germplasm in Table 26 are therefore lower than the costs reported by the two authors (Table 23, section 3.4). One of the main site characteristics that significantly influences outplanting costs is the type of the current predominant vegetation type (Cole et al., 2011;Shoo & Catterall, 2013;Zahawi & Holl, 2009). In most cases, this is related to the previous land use for agriculture or horticulture (cropping or grazing) or for plantations.According to Engel& Parrotta (2001), labour costs for preparing a site with grass as a predominant vegetation are approximately 1.8 times higher than labour costs associated with preparing a secondary forest or abandoned plantation for outplanting. This is mainly because additional measures might be necessary to physically suppress the dominant vegetation, for example by roto-tilling or burning prior to herbicide application (Engel & Parrotta, 2001). These additional necessary measures result not only in more labour costs, but also in additional material costs, for example due to a higher need for herbicides. In addition to the characteristics of the ouplanting site itself, the characteristics of the surrounding areas may also influence the preparation costs. If, for example, free-ranging cattle graze in the surrounding areas or herbivorous wildlife is abundant in the surrounding forests, it may be necessary to either protect individual seedlings by netting or fencing or even fence the whole restoration area (Thomas D. Landis & Wilkinson, 2014).Although the effectiveness of fences is undisputed, they might also have a negative impact on the local fauna, for example by restricting the freedom of movement of wildlife. We have defined the effects of herbivory (low, medium, and high pressure) on the two cost components (labour, equipment) in Table 29. For each tightening of requirements for the affected cost components (labour and equipment) we defined an equal linear cost increase of 10% of the costs that would be expected with only lowquality requirements. Possible further cost drivers related to the outplanting site are the distance from the nursery as well as the access to the outplanting site, which might be impeded by difficult terrain or restricted accessibility for vehicles. To describe the reachability of the outplanting site we use the same indicators as for the reachability of the germplasm source (Table 5, section 3.2.3). Based on these indicators, we assume for each restriction of the reachability for both affected cost components (labour and transportation) an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs that would be expected if the reachability were easy (Table 30). The same authors who have already quantified the costs associated with outplanting have also explicitly mentioned the costs of post planting maintenance (Campos-Filho et al., 2013;Cole et al., 2011;Engel & Parrotta, 2001;Zahawi & Holl, 2009) (Table 31). In all projects, the duration of the post planting maintenance was 2 years. This is the time typically needed by seedlings to grow above the grass (Zahawi & Holl, 2009). The share of post planting maintenance in the total costs of tree supply varies between ~20% and ~32% for direct seeding and between ~35% and ~45% for planting seedlings. Of all cost pools, post planting maintenance thus accounts for the largest share of total costs.Table 31: Post planting maintenance costs per hectare with a tree density of 1500 ha -1 in US$. The table furthermore shows characteristics of the tree seed and seedling supply system which might have an impact on costs. The biggest threat to the development or the survival of planted seedlings and sprouts is competition from other plants and herbivory (Haase et al., 2014). In order to defy these threats, it is often necessary to continue actions that where already undertaken during outplanting. Accordingly, the two phases are very similar in respect of the resulting costs. Both cost pools mainly consist of labour and equipment costs which, in turn, are subject to the similar cost drivers. For example, the amount of work and material required for this phase also depends on how the land was used prior to the restoration and associated therewith the predominant vegetation before planting (No. 3 in Figure 6). We will only briefly discuss these relationships at the end of this section because they are in principle identical to those of the planting phase. Besides these similarities, the two cost pools do also differ. For example, much less labour and material expenses are to be expected in connection with planting activities. This is because fewer individuals have to be outplanted during post-planting maintenance since at this stage only the dead plants, or at least a proportion thereof, are typically replaced.We start this section with a list of possible factors that can influence the mortality rate. These factors are directly related to the type (No. 1 in Figure 6) and the quality (No. 2 in Figure 6) of the outplanting material. 3.5.1 Share of each cost components in the total costs of outplanting Only Engel & Parrotta (2001) recorded the costs related to post-planting maintenance in a detailed way which allows us to get an idea about how the post-planting maintenance costs are made up for direct seeding seedlings. For all other type of outplanting material, we lack this information. Furthermore, since Engel & Parrotta did not replace dead plants in their field trial, any costs that would arise in this regard are not included in their calculations. Therefore, and because similar measures are applied during post-planting maintenance and outplanting, we assume that the proportions of relevant cost components are very similar in both cases. Hence, with the exception of minimal adjustments for direct seedlings according to Engel & Parrotta (2001), the proportions in Table 32 are largely the same as for the cost pool outplanting (see section 3.4.1). Different types of outplanting material and different species have different mortality rates and must therefore be replaced with different frequency in order to obtain the desired tree density. The mortality rate is influenced both by abiotic factors such as drought or extreme cold and by biotic factors such as herbivory (Nepstad, Uhl, Pereira, & Da Silva, 1996;Shoo & Catterall, 2013). While only limited measures are available to protect young trees in the post-planting period against adverse abiotic factors, such as individual shading or irrigation, the influence of adverse biotic factors can be partly prevented or at least reduced by appropriate measures. The extent to which such measures are necessary essentially depends on the competitiveness of the young plant. On the one hand, this is determined by the planting type itself and, on the other hand, it also depends strongly on the species. Although the competitiveness of a species may play an important role, we, for the sake of simplicity, cannot consider characteristics of individual species. We assume that the selection of species for a restoration project most likely reflects a large part of this range and thus includes those species that are rather highly competitive and those that are rather weak in competition. In the following, we will therefore focus on differences between type of planting stock.As already described in section 3.4.2, stakes in particular are highly competitive due to their size at planting which reflects in a high survival rate. Zahawi & Holl (2009) reported in their study that most of the plants that have managed to establish themselves in the first year survived to the end of the study. Only some species continued to have a mortality rate beyond the first year. Accordingly, no or very little post-planting maintenance is necessary for stakes.Seedlings need more care than stakes. Nevertheless, if they receive an appropriate amount of care, seedlings also generally have a relatively high survival rate, although this may also depend on the species (Cole et al., 2011). Cole et al. (2011) showed with their field trial that besides the species, the former land use on the outplanting site may also play an important role (see also section 3.4.3). While the majority of planted seedlings were able to establish themselves on former plantations, the authors found much greater differences in survival between different plant species planted on former pastures (Cole et al., 2011). The highest mortality rate is to be expected with direct seeded seedlings. Only about 20% of all seeds mature into an established seedling (Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017). Again, site conditions, predation and competition from other vegetation are suspected of being responsible for this poor performance (Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017). In this regard, the slow growth of seedlings is a particular disadvantage of direct seeded seedlings and thus the longer duration until the competitive pressure from other vegetation, especially grass, decreases (Engel & Parrotta, 2001;Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017). Accordingly, relatively extensive post-planting measures must be applied to increase the survival rate of these sprouts and maintain plantation stocking accordingly, which in turn is directly associated with high costs (Engel & Parrotta, 2001). Furthermore, the loss must be replaced by new plants. Although re-sowing seedlings causes only little labour and material costs, especially compared to planting seedlings, repeatedly replacing dead trees may significantly contribute to the total post-maintenance costs (Cole et al., 2011;Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017). In the study of Kuaraksa (2013), direct seeding is only the most costeffective option if a 100% survival rate is assumed. If, on the other hand, the costs are calculated per established plant, direct seeding is about 20 times more expensive than planting nursery raised seedlings (Kuaraksa & Elliott, 2013). Engel & Parrotta (2001) support this by concluding that the disadvantages resulting from a deep germination survival rate outweigh the advantages in many cases and that this is especially true with regard to costs. However, these costs do not relate exclusively to post-planting maintenance costs but reflect the total costs. Hence, the extent to which the increased mortality rate affects the overall costs of post-planting maintenance is not entirely clear. For example, Cole et al. (2011), on the other hand, concluded that costs for post-planting maintenance for direct seeded seedlings are approximately 10 times lower than for planted seedlings. Part of the difference in costs most possibly can be explained by site-or species-specific characteristics that are crucial for the mortality rate. But we are of the opinion that this cannot be the only reason to explain this significant difference. We therefore assume that the sowing strategies on which the calculations are based differ. For example, high costs suggest that all dead trees would always be replaced until the desired density is achieved. This, however, would only be necessary if at the beginning only the number of seeds was sown that corresponds to the desired tree population. Although this could be the case with very expensive and large seeds it is not a very likely scenario since a propagation in nursery would most probably be the preferred strategy in this situation. Low post-planting maintenance cost, on the other, hand might be a result if the mortality rate has already been anticipated by sowing a greater quantity and correspondingly fewer individuals would have to be replaced. Low competitiveness requires more maintenance:-herbicides, fertilizer, pesticides, etc.More replacement due to higher mortality -additional seeds and planting equipment 4 2 2 0Based on the defined shares of each cost component in total costs (Table 32), the above assumptions about the impact of the various cost drivers (Table 33), and costs reported by various authors (Table 31, section 3.5) we have broken down the total costs into the respective four cost components (Table 34). However, except for one study, the costs in Table 31 do not include costs associated with replanting. Either because there were none or because plants have not been replaced. However, despite the uncertainties regarding costs associated with replanting, we considered them in our calculation by increasing the post-planting maintenance costs with a surcharge that varies between different types of outplanting material because of different mortality rates. For direct seeded seedlings we calculate a surcharge of 50%, for planted seedlings 20%, and for stakes 5% of the costs. Compared to the 20 times higher costs calculated by Kuaraksa et al. (2013), our surcharge is minimal. We cannot substantiate the amount of the surcharge with quantitative arguments, which is why we regard it as a placeholder until we have more precise data. For this reason, the values in Table 34 are subject to a great deal of uncertainty and therefore must be regarded accordingly with reservations. Furthermore, the figures in Table 34, represent only basic costs, which means that they do not include any additional cost drivers caused, for example, by the characteristics of the outplanting site or the quality of planting material. The effect of these cost drivers is discussed in the following sections. 3.5.3 The impact of outplanting site conditions on post planting maintenance costsWhether and to what extent site conditions have an effect on the mortality rate depends on the species and on the type of planting stock (see section 3.5.2). Cole et al., (2011), for example, described that whereas some species in their study had a high mortality in pastures, they performed relatively well in plantations. Particularly responsible for these differences are factors that directly influence the competitive situation, such as poor light conditions cause by dense grass vegetation (see section 3.4.3). In addition to the above-ground competition, the authors also mention a possible below-ground competition as an explanatory variable, which is lower on former plantations because the cover grass and ruderal herbs have already been widely reduced (Cole et al., 2011).Hence, to reduce the competitive pressure, substantially more post-planting maintenance is required in habitats with former grass cover. It can be assumed that due to the soil seed bank, even after the grass has already been largely pruned during the planting phase, further growth can be expected. In the study of Cole et al., (2011), the costs for post-planting maintenance on sites where seeds have been sowed directly on abandoned pasture were twice as high as for places that were previously used for plantations or are covered by secondary forest. Though not quite so big, Engel & Parrotta (2001) also reported in their study a difference between the different site conditions. In this study, the cost of maintaining trees which seed have been sowed directly on pasture land was around 15% more expensive than taking care for trees on former plantations (Engel & Parrotta, 2001).The effects of the site condition on costs cannot be considered separately from planting stock types as their susceptibility to adverse conditions varies significantly between different types. However, because we have already included the different competitiveness with the mortality rate of the different planting types in the calculations in section 3.5.2, we assume for our calculations of the influence of different vegetation types an equal effect for all types (Table 35). As for the cost pool 'outplanting', possible further cost drivers related to post-planting maintenance is the access to the outplanting site, which might be impeded by difficult terrain or restricted accessibility for vehicles (see Table 5, section 3.2.3 for relevant indicators).The accessibility indicators (distance from the road and terrain) mainly has an effect on the time necessary to apply respective maintenance measures, including replanting, and with that the labour costs. Based on these considerations, we assume for each restriction of the reachability for both cost components an equal linear cost increase of 25% of the costs that would be expected if the reachability were easy (Table 36). 3.5.4 The impact of quality considerations on post-planting maintenance costs Engel and Parrotta (2001) attribute a low initial survival rate and accordingly a high mortality rate among other things to suboptimal genetic and physiological quality of seeds. In particular, they mention maladaptation that was caused through a collection of seeds in locations where the conditions are different to the ones at the planting site (Engel & Parrotta, 2001). Although there is a broad consensus on the relationship between maladaptation and mortality rate (Loha et al., 2006;Rogers & Montalvo, 2004;Squillace & Silen, 1962), there are no studies or proven examples of how this would have affected post-planting maintenance costs or even led to the failure of the project (Rogers & Montalvo, 2004). Furthermore, Engels & Parrotta (2001) also attribute the high mortality rate of some seedlings to the poor physiological quality of the seeds, which may be related to a long storage period. This, however, mainly concerns recalcitrant seeds because they, unlike orthodox seeds, cannot be dried and stored because their viability decreases with the loss of moisture (Chris J. Kettle, Burslem, & Ghazoul, 2011).Due to missing data, we had to make assumptions in order to quantitatively describe the relationship between quality and mortality rate (Table 37). The indicators in Table 37 are complementary to the indicators already developed for assessing quality in the collection and nursing phases. We want to underline the importance of both genetic and physiological quality for the success of restoration projects and the associated project costs. At this point, we also want to point out the need to further develop indicators to collect corresponding data in order to better understand the effects of physiological and genetic quality on tree seed and seedling supply system in general and its associated costs in particular. In Table 38, we have defined the effects of the three (physiological and genetic) quality categories (low, medium, and high) on the three cost components (labour, equipment, and transportation). Different from the previously discussed cost pools, quality aspects do not cause costs during this phase but reduce them. We defined for each increase in genetic and physiological quality for both affected cost components (labour and transportation) an equal linear cost decrease of 15% of the costs, which would be to be expected if no or only very low quality were pursued. Genetic quality is often neglected during the planning or implementation of a restoration project (Bozzano et al., 2014;Dawson et al., 2014;Dedefo et al., 2017;Graudal & Lillesø, 2007;Roshetko et al., 2018;Thomas et al., 2014).. The reasons for this may be various but often it can be attributed to a lack of capacity on how to achieve and maintain quality and/or awareness about the importance of it (Riina Jalonen et al., 2014). In such situations an appropriate campaign may help to close this gap and thus create an important prerequisite for achieving sufficient quality in tree seed and seedling supply. Depending on the needs, the effort and thus the costs of campaigning activities may vary greatly. Due to the fact that only a few projects have taken genetic quality into account in their planning, we must assume that to date only a few such campaigns took place. Currently, we do not have any information on the extent of these costs.For this reason, we are refraining from monetizing these costs for the time being. Needs to be further elaboratedThe costs of tree seed and seedling supply are subject to various cost drivers (Figure 7). On the one hand, theses driving factors depend on the context and therefore cannot or only minimally be influenced by actors. On the other hand, cost drivers are directly influenced by decisions of actors. The context-specific cost drivers include the characteristics and conditions of the area where the germplasm is collected and where the trees are finally planted. In particular, the characteristics of the outplanting site play a decisive role in terms of costs because it has an influence not only on the activities in connection with the outplanting and associated site preparation but also for the post-planting maintenance. Moreover, the activities during both phases are associated with high costs. Our cost model shows that the maintenance of the planted trees for a period of two years accounts for the largest percentage of total costs for all four planting methods (planting stock-raised in nursery from cutting and seed, planting stakes, and direct seeding). In the case of planting stock-raised in nursery from seed, for example, post-planting maintenance account for almost two thirds of the total costs. For direct seeding, the share of maintenance costs in total costs is with 45% slightly lower though still the largest cost component of the tree seed supply chain. The high proportion of post-planting maintenance costs results in a disproportional effect of all cost drivers that influence these costs compared to cost drivers affecting other cost pools with a smaller share. If we assume, for example, that the outplanting site is difficult to reach and, furthermore, is also covered with dense grass the maintenance costs for seedlings increase by around half. Thus, these two cost drivers (reachability and vegetation cover) also have a major influence on the total costs, which is demonstrated by the fact that around 40% of the overall costs are attributed to these two cost drivers alone. With a share of 36%, the cost drivers \"vegetation cover\" are particularly pronounced. Similar effects of the two cost drivers can also be seen in direct seeding. Only in case stakes are planted the vegetation cover has much less impact on costs (Table 39). This is mainly due to the fact that stakes already have some competitive advantages over existing vegetation and thus less land preparation and maintenance is needed. Similar to post-planting maintenance, the cost driver reachability and existing vegetation also have a significant impact on planting costs. However, the leverage effect on total costs is not as high, since planting costs are significantly lower. They account for between 19% and 34% of total costs, depending on the planting material and the characteristics of two cost drivers.At the other end of the supply chain, the characteristics of the site where seeds are collected have a much smaller influence on the total costs. This is not surprising as the collection costs for seeds and cuttings are only between 1% to 6% of the total costs. When collecting stakes, however, the proportion is much higher (30%), which is mainly due to significant higher transport costs (Figure 8). Therefore, in the case of collecting stakes, the site characteristics have a much greater influence on the collection costs. In addition to the context-specific cost drivers, the decisions of actors themselves might has a significant impact on costs. This applies mainly to decisions concerning the quality of germplasm, which in turn is reflected in the quality of planting material. For example, the collection costs increase by about one third if collectors aim for a high genetic diversity of seeds and thus collect seeds from several mother trees, compared to the costs incurred if seeds from only one or two mother trees are collected and the seeds thus have only a low genetic diversity. Although this is a significant increase in collection costs, the additional costs are negligible compared to the total costs. This is mainly due to the fact that collection costs only account for a very small proportion of total costs (fig 8). The impact of high diversity on total costs is only apparent after the seedlings or seeds have been planted on the planting site (Figure 9). Under the assumption that genetic characteristics are decisive for the adaptability of the seedlings to the site and thus increases the rate of establishment and with that increase survival, a suitable genetic constitution significantly reduces the costs associated with post-planting care. This in turn is directly reflected in lower costs. With the current assumptions made in this cost model, a high genetic quality would reduce post-planting maintenance costs by 30% compared to the costs that would incur with low quality seedlings. This in turn would result in a reduction of the total costs of approximately 18% (Figure 9). The effects would be even greater if, in addition to genetic quality, physiological quality aspects and species diversity were also taken into account (Figure 10). In this scenario, not only would the costs of collection increase significantly (+115%), but also the costs of nursing (+86%). However, despite these additional costs, the overall costs would be reduced substantially by 26%. This is mainly due to the fact that in this scenario considerable reductions in maintenance costs (-60%) are to be expected. Due to high variability of costs already within a restoration method, such as the planting of nursery-raised seedlings as described above, it is not surprising that authors who compare different methods come up with different results. For example, while Cole et al. (2011) showed that direct seeding costs only about 10% of the costs of planting nursery-raised seedlings, a review of studies conducted by Grossnickle & Ivetić (2017) found that this size ratio is, compared to other studies, rather big. Their review shows that the costs of direct seeding ranged from 9% to 51% of planting costs of nursery-raised seedlings and, in some cases, even exceeded them (Grossnickle & Ivetić, 2017). If we calculate the difference in cost between the two methods with the cost model presented in this report, direct seeding is about four times less expensive than planting nursery-raised seedlings and in the same order of magnitude as reported by Grossnickle & Ivetić (2017) (see Table 40 for comparison with other methods). Even if the underlying quality related cost drivers change, the size ratios between the methods are relatively stable as long as they are equally applied to all methods. However, there are clear differences between different site conditions, especially between planting stocks and other methods. This is because the costs associated with stakes are only marginally affected by the site conditions. Statements about costs related to tree seed and seedling supply are often based on a qualitative argumentation. On only very few occasions have research projects or publicly accessible project reports recorded costs in detail and thus made them available to the public. It is thoroughly comprehensible why most authors are often arguing qualitatively. Characteristics of tree seed and seedling supply systems differ significantly between and even within regions, which in turn may translate directly into different cost structures (see chapter 3). While reviewing existing data, we have encountered a great variety of tree seed and seedling systems, and of approaches on how costs have been recorded. Comparing different projects therefore is very difficult and, in some cases, unfeasible. For example, although projects took place in similar geographical regions, they differed considerably in terms of their costs (Table 40). The reasons for this are manifold and, in some cases, not always clear. Costs were often only presented in an aggregated form and hence it was not always clear how these costs were composed and which parameters where included. A good example of this is the replacement of plants in the course of postplanting maintenance. Since this activity is potentially associated with significant costs, the consideration or omission of it may have a considerable effect on the total costs. The financial model presented in this report aims to explain these differences, as far as possible, by using variable cost drivers. To quantify these cost drivers, we compared, whenever possible, the average cost of an activity, e.g. cost of collection, from different projects with different constitutions and thus costs subjected to different cost drivers. This, however, was only possible for costs whose composition was comprehensible.It is apparent that an accurate and standardized database would have helped us develop the cost model. Such a database would not only have allowed a more meaningful comparison of projects with fewer uncertainties, but also to better understand the underlying mechanisms, in particular the cost drivers. If we understand accurately how decisions, for example those regarding quality, affect the output of the tree seed and seedling supply and with that the associated costs and benefits, we can build a powerful model that helps to make better decisions.A model that serves as a framework that provides us with a holistic view of cause-effect relationships. We think this is important because, without this holistic understanding, decisions continue to be based on economic considerations that do not take the big picture into account. For example, strategies that place more weight on mass seed production and therefore prefer quantity over quality can only be economically feasible if the economic consideration ends with the delivery of the seeds or seedlings, but does not include the overall project objective, namely the establishment of a sustainable tree population. If that were so, quantity over quality would no longer be a desirable goal. By integrating and connecting different activities and decisions with costs and with that expanding cause-effect relationships over the entire supply chain, the model helps to counteract false incentives. If, for example, cost savings can be shown explicitly by using high-quality seed and seedlings and, furthermore, to what extent these savings can be traced back to decisions made in connection with collection and propagation, it would help to create the appropriate incentives, for example in the form of increased prices for seeds and seedlings.Furthermore, we are also convinced that a meaningful cost model is an important prerequisite to better understand the benefits of restoration projects. Not only because costs are a firm component of a cost/benefit analysis, but also because a cost model provides a basis for a common understanding. Our cost model already presents some parts of the benefits, namely those that directly reduce costs along the tree seed and seedling supply chain. Our financial model ends after a two-year maintenance phase and considers but does not as yet integrate indirect costs (e.g. training costs, stakeholder consultation. etc.). Hence, we see the need to expand the model beyond this limit. Because costs will continue to be incurred but, above all, the greatest benefits of a project only become apparent in the long term. We propose the following steps for further action:1. Validation of the framework. The main point here is to identify (1) whether the system presented in this report contains all the necessary components with regard to the cost model, (2) whether the dynamics within the system reflect reality. Furthermore, we would like to discuss (3) to what extent the system has to be adapted or extended in order to also depict potential benefits next to the costs .2. Validation of the cost drivers. Many of the quantified impacts of cost drivers in this report are based on qualitative assumptions. The aim should be to replace these qualitative assumptions with concrete data in so far as possible.  (Zahawi & Holl, 2009) ","tokenCount":"18048"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"992e7696a4a0567d36d1ab9f108994dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/673df81b-80ba-4823-8e48-ffe2607d5ed1/retrieve","id":"974954716"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3525ce68-7fb9-47ae-bb29-7c018f07eb88","pagecount":"12","content":"Variety selection and diversification are climate change adaptation practices pursued by Colombian common bean producers. We investigate the drivers behind common bean variety selection and diversification in one of the most important common bean production regions in Colombia -Santander. The effects of climate change on this region are expected to be elevation driven. Exploiting the relationship between elevation-driven weather variations and climate change perception in Santander, we estimate an alternative-specific conditional logistic regression model to identify the determinants of common bean variety selection from a survey of producers. Using an ordered-logistic regression model, we also investigate the drivers behind common bean variety diversification within this farming community. We find that farms' elevation, household composition, and seed certification are some of the most important drivers behind farmers' common bean variety selection in Santander. We also find that varieties that sell at higher prices and have shorter vegetative cycles tend to be more preferred by farmers. Finally, farmers who receive more help from family members and own a tractor tend to grow more than one variety in the same production cycle. Common bean breeding programmes can exploit these drivers to design communication strategies to maximize uptake of newly developed common bean phenotypes.Colombian weather patterns are elevation-driven and strongly influenced by El Nino Oscillation (ENSO) (Cepal, 2012;IPCC, 2014;Buhr et al., 2018). El Niño phase tends to generate higher daily temperatures, less daily precipitation, and more recurrence of droughts, especially in low-elevation geographical areas. In contrast, la Niña phase tends to generate lower daily temperatures, more daily precipitation, and more instances of flood and extreme temperature variations, especially in high-altitude geographical areas (Poveda and Mesa, 1996;Poveda et al., 2011;Henao et al., 2020). This weather instability generates an asymmetric impact on agricultural productivity. While el Niño phase increases the prevalence of abiotic stresses in crops, la Niña phase increases the prevalence of biotic stresses and the risk of crop destruction due to floods and landslides (Santos, 2006;Duque et al., 2013;IDEAM, 2013). These patterns are expected to get worsened by climate change, negatively impacting 60% of the current Colombian agricultural production areas and 80% of the crops that Colombian farmers currently cultivate (Feola and Binder, 2010;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Eitzinger et al., 2014;IPCC, 2014).Climate change is expected to particularly affect the production of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Colombia. Some of the traditional common bean varieties cultivated by Colombian farmers, such as Calima, are highly vulnerable to extreme temperatures and reduced levels of rainfall (Schoonhoven and Voysest, 1991;CIAT, 2008;Troyo-Diéguez et al., 2010). Consequently, a worsened ENSO is expected to reduce the profitability of the cultivation of traditional common bean varieties (CIAT, 2008). In addition, low-elevation geographical areas are expected to become less suitable for the cultivation of traditional varieties of common beans because they will have an increased prevalence of biotic and abiotic stresses with a worsened ENSO (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Eitzinger et al., 2014;Güiza-Villa et al., 2020). Finally, producers located at higher elevations have a limited capacity to adapt to climate change since a hilly topography limits the use of heavy machinery or bulky technology to cultivate common beans (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Feola et al., 2015;Acevedo and Martinez, 2016).There are several adaptation strategies that Colombian common bean growers can pursue at farm-level (Smit and Skinner, 2002;Clements et al., 2011;Asfaw et al., 2013aAsfaw et al., , 2013b;;Niles et al., 2015;Islam et al., 2020). One of the most common adaptation strategies proposed for this farming community is the use of improved seeds (Hailu et al., 2015). There are several companies supporting common bean breeding programs in Colombia (Schoonhoven and Voysest, 1991;Blair, 2003;Muñoz et al., 2008;CIAT, 2008;Hershey and Neate, 2013). This work has mainly focused on making common beans more resistant to the most acute and prevalent biotic stresses present in Colombia (Leon and Jimenez, 1997;Leon and Jimenez, 2002;FENALCE, 2011;Beebe et al., 2011). However, the uptake of these new varieties has been low and Colombian farmers continue to grow traditional varieties, which are mostly exchanged in informal or non-market settings (Sperling and McGuire, 2010;FENALCE, 2020).The development of common bean varieties in Colombia has been mainly based on expert opinion about the needs of farmers, partially disregarding the determinants of farmers' demand for particular common bean attributes (Chauhan et al., 2020;Jochua et al., 2020;Ribeiro et al., 2020). Some studies in Africa have shown that demand depends on agronomic and economic attributes and farmers' socioeconomic characteristics (Katungi et al., 2011;Katungi et al., 2015;Sichilima et al., 2016). To our knowledge, no research has been performed on identifying the drivers behind farmers' demand for the attributes of common beans in a Latin American context. According to the international evidence, farmers' demand for phenotypes under development by plant breeding institutions depends on factors that also help determine the demand for current commercial phenotypes (Sichilima et al., 2016;Shikuku et al., 2017;Vanegas, 2017;Onzima et al., 2019). These factors are also expected to influence farmers' response to extension and commercial programs that promote the voluntary uptake of the new varieties. Consequently, identifying the factors that determine farmers' demand for common bean varieties allows agricultural companies, extension service providers, and seed suppliers to create commercial and communication strategies aimed at maximizing the uptake of the new varieties under development (CIAT, 2008;Sichilima et al., 2016;Eitzinger et al., 2018). This is particularly relevant to Colombia where farmers' demand for common beans is expected to be influenced by the elevation in which farms are located, which implies that seed suppliers and companies in charge of common bean breeding programs should consider elevation as an important factor to develop new varieties and design commercial and engagement strategies.Consequently, the aim of this paper is to provide the first identification of the factors that determine Colombian farmers' demand for common bean varieties. By analysing the responses to a revealedpreference survey of 566 common bean producers in the department of Santander, this paper performs the first econometric estimation of the determinants of the demand for common bean varieties in Colombia. These determinants are identified employing an alternative-specific conditional logistic regression model. In addition, this paper also performs the first identification of the factors that determine variety diversification in Colombia using an ordered logistic regression model.The department of Santander has been selected for this study because it is the fifth most important common bean producing region in Colombia (DANE, 2014) and it is expected to be the worst affected by climate change among the most important common bean production regions in Colombia (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Eitzinger et al., 2014;Eitzinger et al., 2018). Moreover, Santander's municipalities are mainly located on the Andean mountains, which implies that Santander has the archetypal mountainous landscape of the Colombian Andes and any inference based on this region is easily extendable to other Colombian regions with similar agroecological environments and elevation-driven weather variations (Perez et al., 2019;Botero et al., 2020).Valuation methods applied to the stated-preference exercises estimate farmers' willingness to pay for common beans' attributes and the magnitudes of the trade-offs that farmers are willing to accept to exchange one attribute for another (Katungi et al., 2011a;Katungi et al., 2015). Stated-preference experiments have been employed to measure farmers' preferences for agricultural products' and seeds' attributes in different parts of the world (Drucker and Anderson, 2004;Asrat et al., 2010;Mahadevan and Asafu-Adjaye, 2015;Sánchez-Toledano et al., 2017;Acheampong et al., 2018;Jin et al., 2020). This methodology has been used extensively in Africa to determine consumers' and farmers' demand for the attributes of common beans (Lambrecht et al., 2013a(Lambrecht et al., , 2013b;;Lambrecht et al., 2015;Assete et al., 2018). One important advantage of stated-preference experiments is that the experimenter may manipulate the attributes offered to consumers and farmers to study their willingness to pay for each attribute based on their variety selection. Its most important disadvantage in agricultural settings is that experiments are usually applied to varieties that are not in the market yet, which impedes the experimenter to utilise the market value of the options offered. Consequently, these studies usually rely on hypothetical economic values and rewards to elicit behaviour, which may have important consequences on the consistency of the answers (Kuhberger et al., 2002;Locey et al., 2011;Luchini and Watson, 2014).Revealed-preference or market methods are used as an alternative approach to stated-preference experiments (Louviere et al., 2000). In contrast to stated-preference experiments, revealed-preference methods do not rely on controlled experiments to obtain information on variety selection but on actual input choices. This methodology can be used to estimate the determinants of variety selection based on the actual seed choices made by commercial farmers. It utilises market information on variety choices to draw conclusions on the factors that determine the common bean variety selection observed in the market. Apart from differing in the source of information employed, revealed-and statedpreference methodologies utilise identical estimation methods and their estimated parameters have similar interpretations. This implies that both methodologies are able to determine a ranking of preference for common bean varieties, with the only difference that one relies on hypothetical selections and the other on market ones.The main drawback of the revealed-preference method is that market choices do not include the whole universe of potential choices available to farmers, whereas in stated-preference experiments all existing varieties may potentially be included. Consequently, conclusions resulting from a revealed-preference estimation only apply to the varieties actually selected in the market, whereas the conclusions drawn from statedpreference experiments apply to the whole sample of varieties presented to farmers during the experiment. The main advantage of the revealedpreference method is that information on farmers' socioeconomic characteristics is more reliable since this information is collected through face-to-face interviews with commercial farmers, which usually takes place in the farms where common beans are grown. In contrast, farmers' socioeconomic information collected through statedpreference experiments depends on farmers' willingness to participate in the experiments, which in turn depends on transportation costs and farms' distance to the study site where experiments usually take place, generating a sample selection bias that may potentially affect the generalization of the results drawn from these experiments. As a result, the revealed-preference methodology tends to do a better job in identifying farmer-specific determinants of variety selection than the statedpreference one, but a poorer job in identifying variety-specific determinants (Louviere et al., 2000;Katungi et al., 2011a;Katungi et al., 2015).In this study, we employ a revealed-preference approach to identify the factors that determine variety selection of common beans in Colombia. We further employ an ordered logistic regression model to investigate the drivers behind seed diversification. Following to Katungi et al. (2015), we use a combination of variety-specific and farmerspecific characteristics as the determinants of variety selection. Following to Onzima et al. (2019), we use a set of farm-specific factors as the explanatory variables of seed diversification. Two important determinants of variety selection introduced in this study are farms' elevation and distance to the nearest urban centre. According to Feola et al. (2015), future weather variations in Colombia are expected to be elevation-driven, which will have a differentiated effect on common bean production regions. Ramirez-Villegas et al. (2012) estimate that high-elevation farms will experience more extreme temperature variations and unpredictable seasons and low-elevation farms will experience more droughts and lower rainfall levels. Botero et al. (2020) find that elevation is an important driver of climate change perception in this region of Colombia. Farmers located at low elevations tend to perceive more droughts and water deficits, whereas farmers located at high elevations tend to perceive extreme temperature variations, even though they consider that they have enough water for their bean production. As a result, farms' elevation is expected to be an important driver behind farmers' variety selection. In turn, farms' distance to the nearest urban centre is expected to be an important driver behind variety selection because distance determines farms' accessibility in the Andean mountains (Feola et al., 2015;Botero et al., 2020), affecting farmers' transportation costs. In turn, these two variables are also expected to be important determinants of seed diversification. Elevation is expected to reduce seed diversification because it is more complicated to cultivate several crops in a steep land field. Distance is also expected to reduce seed diversification because more varieties grown imply a more spatially scattered demand, increasing transportation costs (Feola et al., 2015;Eitzinger et al., 2018). The whole set of regressors utilised in this study is introduced and explained in detail in the next section.According to IPCC (2014), the northeast of Colombia will be the most affected region with climate change. Santander is selected for this study because this region is expected to be the most affected common bean production area in Colombia and it is one of the most affected areas by ENSO (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Eitzinger et al., 2014;IPCC, 2014). Most municipalities in Santander have a hilly topography because they are located along the eastern side of the Colombian Andes. In Colombia, temperature and rainfall variations are elevation-driven. Low-elevation farms tend to have higher temperatures and lower rainfall levels and high-elevation farms tend to have lower temperatures and higher rainfall levels. This elevation-driven weather variation also affects the types of products grown in each thermal floor 1 and the varieties grown of the same crop (IDEAM, 2013;Eitzinger et al., 2018;FENALCE, 2020).Four municipalities are selected for this study: Barichara (6.6358 • N, 73.2234 • W), Curití (6.6063 • N, 73.0687 • W), San Gil (6.5548 • N, 73.1341 • W), and Villanueva (6.6709 • N, 73.1748 • W). Two criteria were used to select the study area. First, these municipalities are among the most important common bean production areas in Santander according to the 2014 Colombian Agricultural National Census. This allows having in the sample farmers with extensive knowledge on common bean production and on adaptation strategies to tackle the negative effects of ENSO on common bean production. Second, these municipalities have different elevations, which results in a different temperature and rainfall level depending on the elevation in which farms are located. Barichara (with an average elevation of 1266 masl) and Villanueva (1288 masl) tend to have higher temperatures and less rainfall than Curití (1568 masl) and San Gil (1452 masl). Consequently, common bean variety selection is expected to depend on each municipality's elevation. Fig. 1 in appendix shows a map of the study site. Perez et al. (2019) explains in detail the questionnaire constructed for this study. The information was collected by CIAT and CGIAR as part of \"AgroClimas\" project, which is aimed to understand common bean growers' decision-making at farm level in areas highly affected by ENSO (Rios et al., 2017). This paper focusses on the section related to common bean variety selection. The survey was run during August/September in 2017 and the sample includes 572 common bean growers who operate in the region. To maximize the response rate, interviewers visited all farms known to grow common beans in these four municipalities to carry out face-to-face interviews. Out of the 572 interviews performed, only 566 farmers provided useable information for this study. The survey adopts a livelihoods approach (Scoones, 1998) and collects information on farmers' human, economic, financial, and physical capitals, and on household composition. It also collects information on input and land use, focusing particularly on common bean variety selection and land use under beans.Table 1 in the appendix presents information on the varieties grown in the study site and the number of farmers who grow each these varieties. This table also shows the distribution of farmers per the number of common bean varieties grown in the same production cycle. Table 2 in the appendix presents the attributes of each common bean variety grown. The information contained in Tables 1 and 2 indicate that Santander farmers grow only eight varieties of common beans: Calima, Froilan, Corpoica JiJi, Zaragoza, Carbabello, Radical, Bola Roja, and Cargamanto Rojo. The most popular common bean variety among Santander farmers is Radical followed by Cargabello and Zaragoza, and the least popular varieties are Corpoica Jiji and Cargamanto Rojo. This low variability for some of varieties surveyed may affect the efficiency with which parameters are estimated, but it does not affect its unbiasedness (Louviere et al., 2000;page 263). We estimate the econometric model proposed below using a white variance-covariance matrix in order to reduce the heteroscedasticity that this low variation in responses for some of the varieties causes. In addition, 94.2% of the sample grows only one variety of common beans, 5.13% of the sample grows two varieties, and 0.71% of the sample grows three varieties in the same production cycle. There is no farmer in this region that grow four or more varieties simultaneously. In turn, 7 out of 8 varieties grown are bush varieties with a determinate growing habit 2 and only one variety -Cargamanto Rojo-is a climbing plant with an indeterminate growing habit. Moreover, there are four varieties that have a solid red colour (Froilan, Corpoica Jiji, Radical and Bola Roja), three have a mottled red colour (Calima, Cargabello, and Cargamanto Rojo), and only one variety has solid light pink colour (Zaragoza). Another attribute considered is the potential yield per hectare. This information was taken from Federación Nacional de Cultivadores de Cereales, Leguminosas y Soya (FENALCE) and Corporación Colombiana de investigación Agropecuaria (AGROSAVIA)'s websites for the varieties they offer, which is complemented with the information provided by Schoonhoven and Voysest (1991) for this attribute. In Table 2, vegetative refers to the number of days required by the plants to reach the flowering phase starting from seeds, size refers to the average seed weight in gr, and shape refers to the categorization utilised by CIAT to define seeds' physical appearance. 3 According to Katungi et al. (2015), these attributes are among the most important determinants of farmers' variety selection in Africa.Table 3 in the appendix presents the descriptive statistics of the explanatory variables of common bean variety selection and diversification chosen for this study. Farms' elevation is an important variable collected. In our sample, the median elevation value is 1573 masl. The distribution of elevation is symmetric around its median value, with a minimum value of 1264 masl and maximum value of 2014 masl. Another important variable collected is farms' distance to the urban centre of the municipality in which they are located/registered. Almost all common bean producers surveyed are located near to these urban centres. The distribution of distance is also symmetric around its median value of 5.14 km, with the nearest farm located at 2.03 km from its municipality's urban centre and the most distant one is located at 8.16  km.Another expected driver of variety selection and diversification is farm size. Almost 70% of the farms in our sample are smaller or equal to 2 ha, which is the average farm size in the Colombian Andean mountains (Perfetti et al., 2013), and only 2% of the farms surveyed are larger than 10 ha. As a result, common bean growers in this Colombian region are mainly small scale, low-income farmers with small land areas to cultivate crops. Another potential driver of common bean selection and diversification considered is the number of years of formal education of the household head. In our sample, household heads have an average of only 4.5 years of formal education, 75% of the sample ended primary school (5 years of formal education), though 2% have an undergraduate degree (16 years of formal education). Household head's age is a proxy for farmers' experience with common bean production (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008;Ainembabazi and Mugisha, 2014;Dhananjaya and Thayaparan, 2016). In our sample, the age distribution is symmetric around its median value of 49 years old. The youngest household head surveyed was 17 years old and the oldest 82. This age distribution is representative of the national age distribution, which is also symmetric around its mean value of 58 years old and has a minimum value of 13 and maximum of 99 (DANE, 2014). In turn, we use two variables to investigate the effect of females on common bean production decisions. On the one hand, we estimate the importance of females in the household composition. This variable is computed as the number of females living in the farm minus the number of males living in the farm. A value of 0 for this variable implies that there are as many women in household as men. A positive value implies that there are more women than men. In our sample, the median value for the importance of females in the household is zero, which implies that in 50% of the households there are more women than men and in the other 50% there are more men than women. On the other hand, we also consider the number of household heads that are men. This variable is constructed as 1 if the household head is male and 0 otherwise. In our sample, a male is the household head in 81% of the households surveyed. We use two gender variables because one of estimation methodologies used in this study performs poorly with dichotomous regressors, which is corrected with the variable of female importance defined here.Another important limiting factor that affects the decision of farmers to grow common beans in tropical zones is whether they have access to a stable water source (Beaver et al., 2010;Castro-Guerrero et al., 2016;Le-Roux et al., 2018). Common bean plants require a stable water source during its lifecycle, especially in the initial vegetative phase and during flowering, when the beans are produced (Castro-Guerrero et al., 2016). As a result, variety selection and diversification are expected to be affected by farmers' access to a stable water source. We consider water supplied from the aqueduct as a stable water source since this service is provided by the government, which may use larger resources to keep its provision stable. In our sample, 74.2% of the farms have access to the aqueduct. In addition, not all farms in our sample have a water stream nearby to use as a stable water source. In fact, only 15% of the sample indicates to have a water stream nearby, but none of these farmers use that source for common bean production. Consequently, the aqueduct becomes the most stable water source in the region and the main source   apart from precipitation. An important limiting factor for agricultural production in Colombia is that input markets are geographically segmented (Mendola, 2005). Farmers usually have a limited supply of workers, forcing them to do most of the farm work themselves or rely on family help. This implies that the separability condition between consumption and production decisions does not apply (Singh et al., 1986;Mendola, 2005), which implies that Colombian farmers' production decisions are dependent on household composition. We use the number of farmers living in the farm and the total number of inhabitants of the farm to control for household composition. In our sample, the most common household composition is four inhabitants living in the farm, followed by three and two inhabitants living in the farm, respectively. In turn, the most common household composition regarding the number of farmers living in the farm is one farmer, followed by two and three farmers, respectively. In our sample, there is no household that has more than eight inhabitants or more than six farmers living in the farm.Common beans are usually intercropped with maize, tobacco, or coffee in Colombia (Santalla et al., 2001;Iannetta et al., 2013;Kumar-Singh et al., 2013;Harelimana et al., 2018). Intercropping can be practiced as a way of diversifying the number of crops grown in the farm to generate more income sources. Intercropping is better performed with certain varieties of common beans, such as Calima or Radical (Iannetta et al., 2013). As a result, the number of crops grown are also expected to affect variety selection. We use the number of crops grown to control for intercropping practices. In our sample, 61.66% of the sample only grows common beans, 28.1% grows beans and another crop, and nearly 10% of the sample grows two or more crops apart from common beans.Seed certification is expected to affect variety selection. Utilising certified seeds is not a common practice among Santander farmers. Only 10 farmers in our sample used certified seeds for their common bean production cycle of August/September of 2017: Radical (8), Cargamanto Rojo (1), and Calima (1). 4 The rest of the sample relied on seeds saved from previous production cycles, given by a friend or relative, or bought in an informal transaction from a neighbour. Another important restriction confronted by this common bean producers is whether they own a tractor for land preparation. We collected information on the number of farmers who own a tractor, finding that 1.41% of the sample owned one. This seems characteristic of common bean producers on the Andean mountains because tractors are hard to utilise on a very steep landscape, and farmers prefer to rely on manual or animal-pulled devices to prepare the land for cultivation.Two final variables that are expected to be important drivers behind variety selection are yield per hectare and price per kg. Even though these values are not known before common bean varieties are selected, farmers with experience on common bean production are expected to (imperfectly) forecast both the yield per hectare to be obtained with a particular variety and the price per kg to be negotiated for that particular variety (Rajeswari and Suthendran, 2019;Jankovic et al., 2020). Then, we use these two variables in two ways. On the one hand, we employ them in the econometric models as farmers' individual characteristics in order to investigate if they determine variety selection and diversification. Introducing these variables as farmers' characteristics help understand if the yields obtained and prices negotiated by each farmer help determine the selection of the varieties grown. On the other hand, we employ these variables as variety-specific attributes. In order to introduce them as attributes, averages of these variables have to be taken since this empirical alternative aims at investigating whether expected yield and prices help determine variety selection in this region of Colombia. These averages are presented in Table 2 as attributes of each variety, and they are computed as the average values of yield and prices obtained by the farmers that cultivated these varieties in Santander. These averages can be considered as variety-specific attributes because they do not incorporate the influence of growing practices or market power exercised by particular farmers in the market.In a revealed-preference model, farmers' preferences for common beans are defined in terms of the attributes of the varieties available for selection (Lancaster, 1966). As preferences are not observed empirically, they are derived from farmers' choices of common bean varieties. This methodology is similar to the one employed in stated-preference models, where farmers' preferences are derived from their hypothetical choices of varieties. The difference between the two models is that in statedpreference experiments, farmers can compare all varieties under analysis and select those that attract them the most, after having considered their advertised attributes. In contrast, a revealed-preference model derives a ranking of preference for attributes from the varieties selected to be grown during the production cycle under analysis. In the latter case, farmers do not compare attributes and provides an indirect ranking by selecting a hypothetical set of varieties, but a preference ranking is derived from the selected varieties and the non-selected ones (Louviere et al., 2000). This procedure is less comprehensive, even though it allows a determination of the effect of some attributes on variety selection.As a result, the choice of varieties by farmer i is modelled as maximizing a random utility function, V i, j , (McFadden, 1974) that is defined in terms of the set of attributes, Z j , provided by variety j, farmer i's socioeconomic characteristics, X i , and an error term ε i, j , which reflects unobserved idiosyncrasies of taste. Then, the indirect random utility of farmer i can be modelled as:where α is a vector of coefficients to be estimated, including an alternative specific constant, which is associated with the attributes of the varieties considered, and β is a vector of coefficients to be estimated, which is associated with farmer i's socioeconomic characteristics. When the price of the variety j is used as one of its attributes, the estimated values of α can be used to determine farmer i's economic valuation for each attribute. Louviere et al. (2000, pages 34-55) explain in detail the theoretical model and the estimation method for Eq. ( 1).A key assumption to estimate Eq. ( 1) by an alternative-specific conditional logistic regression model is that the probability of a particular variety being chosen is independent of irrelevant alternatives (IIA). This assumption usually breaks down when some of the attributes included in Z j are random, and decision-making is heavily influenced by this variation in attributes. This situation usually occurs when the attribute of a variety is randomly assigned, such as whether a variety is bio-fortified or drought-resistant by a genetic modification that does not change the other attributes of the same variety. In this case, the selection of a particular variety may be dependent upon the random assignment of that attribute, which implies that the selection of this variety is not independent of irrelevant alternatives. As in a revealed-preference model this interaction among attributes is rather rare since farmers grow the varieties they consider the best for them and their decision is not influenced by the presentation of systematic information on varieties and attributes, Eq. ( 1) can be estimated using an alternative-specific conditional logistic regression model, which assumes that ε i, j follows a multinomial logistic distribution that is independently distributed 4 We also introduced certification as one of the attributes of common beans.Based on the varieties developed by AGROSAVIA and FENALCE, we defined certification as a variety-specific attribute by putting a 1 to those varieties known to have been developed by these institutions (Calima, Froilan, Corpoica JiJi, Bola Roja and Cargamanto Rojo). We introduced two sets of dummies for this attribute, one dummy considering Calima as a certified variety and the other dummy not considering Calima as a certified variety. None of these variety-specific dummies are statistically significant. across individuals and varieties.We can create a vector 5 Y 4528x1 that captures the selection of varieties made by all 566 farmers in the sample. We can insert in the first eight rows the selection made by farmer 1, in the following eight rows the selection made by farmer 2, and so on. The first row for each farmer refers to whether that farmer cultivated Calima, the second row refers to Froilan, the third row to Corpoica Jiji, the fourth to Zaragoza, the fifth to Cargabello, the sixth to Radical, the seventh to Bola Roja, and finally the eighth row refers to Cargamanto Rojo. Hence, Y 4528x1 defines a categorical variable with 8 categories. Using this vector, we can run a multinomial logistic regression model (MNL), which estimate the following probabilities using a maximum likelihood estimation method:where 8 refers to the total number of categories in the vector Y, Z j is a 4528xVA matrix associated with the number of attributes considered in the analysis, and X is a 4528xIC matrix associated with the number of socioeconomic characteristics considered in the model. VA and IC are related to the attributes of Table 2 and the socioeconomic characteristics of Table 3, respectively. α and β are two vectors to be estimated that are associated with the attributes and socioeconomic characteristics considered in the analysis, and v j refers to variety j, ∀j = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, which is associated with the ID of each variety as presented in Table 2. The estimation method is explained in detail by Louviere et al. (2000, 66) and Greene (2003, 720-763). For a MNL regression model, it is common to report the relative-risk ratios (RRR) instead of the estimated coefficients since the units of these estimations do not have a straightforward interpretation. These ratios are encountered by taking one category of Y as the base and expressing all estimated coefficients relative to that base. As a result, the RRR of an explanatory variable x s measures whether a marginal change in x s increases more the probability of choosing the variety used as a comparison group relative to the probability of choosing the variety used as the comparison group, or vice versa. An RRR larger than 1 indicates that a marginal increase in x s increases more the probability that farmers choose the comparison variety than the base variety. In turn, an RRR smaller than 1 indicates that a marginal increase in x s increases more the probability that farmers choose the base variety than the comparison variety. Finally, an RRR equal to 1 means that a marginal increase in x s increases in the same proportion the probability that farmers choose both the comparison and base varieties.Variety diversification refers to the number of common bean varieties grown by farmers in the same production cycle. This decision is usually modelled using a random utility framework (Asfaw et al., 2013a(Asfaw et al., , 2013b;;Khonje et al., 2015). A farmer will grow two varieties of common beans instead of one when the difference between the utility of growing two varieties is larger than the utility of growing only one variety. Similarly, a farmer will grow three varieties when the utility of growing three varieties is larger than both the utility of growing two varieties and the utility of growing only one. Thus, the random utility of growing s number of varieties, V i, s , can be expressed as:where X i is farmer i's socioeconomic characteristics hypothesised to help explain the utility derived from growing s number of varieties, β is a vector of coefficients to be estimated, ε i, s is an error term capturing unobserved factors that also help explain V i, s , and s ∈ {1, 2, 3} is the number of varieties grown by farmer i. By definition, V i, s is a latent variable. Defining Y i as a categorical variable that captures the number of varieties grown by farmer i, the relationship between Y i and V i, s can be expressed as:If this relationship can be modelled as an ordered categorical variable, it is expected that the following strong relationship holds:where V i = β ′ X i + ε i is the indirect utility obtained by farmer i from cultivating the selected variety, μ 1 and μ 2 are two values to be estimated jointly with β, which are defined in the domain of utility. The model in eq. ( 5) can be estimated using an ordered logistic regression model. In this case, it is also customary to report the RRR, which are always interpreted relative to the base category, Y i = 1.Table 4 presents the econometric estimations for the alternativespecific conditional logistic regression model. All these regressions have statistically significant Wald tests, implying that all regressors used are statistically significant to explain the variability of variety selection. We run several econometric models with different combinations of attributes and socioeconomic factors, and the results presented have the smallest Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) among all the regressions run. Three results are worth noticing on Table 4. First, the number of days to flowering and the price per kilogram of beans are the two most important attributes of common beans for this farming community. In particular, varieties with smaller vegetative phases and larger prices per kilogram are more demanded by farmers than varieties with larger vegetative phases and smaller prices per kilogram. This implies that the attributes of colour, size, and shape are not important determinants of bean selection in this region of Colombia. The reason for this result lies in the fact that almost all varieties grown in the region have a red colour, have a middle to large size and a similar shape. This reduced variability in the attributes considered may be due to the attributes demanded by consumers. If this is the case, all physical attributes are taken as given by Santander common bean producers, and the only attributes that affect their selection of varieties are those associated with the length of the duration of the crop and the economic reward obtained per kilogram sold. It is worth noting that days to flowering is only statistically significant at 10%. This result may be explained by the low variability in the number of days to flowering considered. In the sample of varieties analysed, 5 varieties have less than 100 days to flowering and only 3 have 100 days or more to flowering. This low variability may affect the estimated standard errors associated with the number of days to flowering, which in turn affect the efficiency with which the model determinates the significance of the corresponding estimated parameter. Even though this low variability, the model is capable of weakly identifying days to flowering as a driver behind variety selection in this region of Colombia.Second, we created two variables by interacting the variables of certification with yield per hectare and the variables of distance with access to aqueduct. We introduced these variables for two reasons. On the one hand, using the variables of certification and access to aqueduct without interacting them generate a multicollinearity problem with the other regressors because these variables do not vary too much across 5 Eight varieties of common beans are grown in the study area and there are 566 households in the sample, which implies that 4528 = 8*566. To obtain the RRR for the inverse relationship, divide 1 by the estimated coefficient in the table (i.e., the coefficient of female importance, for instance, for 1/2 is equal to 1/0.77 = 1.30).H. Botero et al. individuals. On the other hand, interacting these variables with other variables, such as yield and distance, solve the problem of multicollinearity, which allows having some insight about the effect of certification and access to aqueduct on variety selection. The interaction between certification and yield per hectare captures the effect of yield provided by certified seeds on variety selection and the interaction between distance and access to aqueduct captures the effect of access to a stable water source at a far distance from the municipality's urban centre on seed selection. The results shown on Table 4 indicate that the interacted variables are statistically significant explanatory variables of variety selection in Santander. Moreover, the interaction between yield per ha and certification helps determine 46 out of the 56 pairwise relationships that arise among the existing common bean varieties in the Santander market 6 and the interaction between distance and access to aqueduct help determine 34. Finally, elevation and female importance are the two most important socioeconomic determinants of variety selection in this farming community. Elevation helps explain 38 out of 56 pairwise relationships of Table 4 and female importance helps explain 26.The statistically significant variables of Table 4 generate a ranking of preference for common bean varieties. Table 5 summarises this ranking for all the variables that resulted statistically significant in Table 4. Table 5 is organized from the variable that explains the most to the one variable that explains the least the variability of variety selection. The results on Table 5 indicate that farmers tend to prefer Cargamanto Rojo (8) over the other varieties in the market when their seeds are certified.These results also indicate that farmers located at higher elevations tend to prefer Bola Roja (7) over the other varieties in the market. However, when Bola Roja ( 7) is compared with Cargamanto Rojo (8), farmers located at higher elevations prefer Cargamanto Rojo (8) than Bola Roja (8), even though elevation does not help determine the relationship between Cargamanto Rojo (8) and Calima (1), Froilan (2), Cargabello (5), and Radical (6). In turn, Bola Roja (7) also tends to be preferred by households mainly composed by women. However, female importance does not help determine the relationship between Bola Roja (7) and Corpoica JiJi (3). In turn, the interaction between distance and access to aqueduct does not help determine the relationship between Froilan (2), Radical (6) and Cargamanto Rojo (8). What this interaction shows is that farmers located farther away from the urban centres but with access to a stable water source prefers any variety over Corpoica Jiji (3). In contrast, Corpoica Jiji (3) tends to be preferred by older farmers and by farmers with more years of education. In addition, Froilan (2) tends to be preferred by farmers that cultivate several other crops in their farms. Hence, Froilan is the variety most preferred for intercropping. A final result worth noticing is the distance does not have a large explanatory power of variety selection in this region of Colombia. Distance only influences the relationship between Corpoica JiJi (3) and all other varieties, except Bola Roja: Farmers located farther away from the urban centres tend to prefer Corpoica JiJi (3) over the rest.Table 6 presents the regression results for the ordered logistic regression model. This regression has a Wald test that is statistically significant, which implies that the regressors used help explain the variability of variety diversification at 1%. The results on Table 6 indicate that farmers tend to grow more than one variety of common beans during the same production cycle when there are more farmers living in the house. This implies that more family help leads to more variety diversification. In turn, variety certification also leads to variety diversification. Hence, farmers are willing to grow more than one variety of beans when at least one of the varieties grown has certified seeds. In turn, having a tractor helps producing common beans in the areas in which these machines can be used on the Andean mountains. Thus, having a tractor leads farmers to grow more than one variety in the same production cycle. In contrast, farmers located at farther distance from the urban centres tend to grow fewer varieties. Finally, the other variables included in the regression have a low or null explanatory power of variety diversification. This implies that neither price nor yield nor access to a stable water source helps determine variety diversification in this region of Colombia. 6 Each variety can be used both as a base category and as a comparison category. Hence, each variety is used as a base for 7 relationships and there are 8 varieties (56 = 7*8).It is worth noting that neither yield per hectare or price per kg is an important driver behind variety diversification in this Colombian region. These results may be explained by the fact that farmers grow more than one variety not necessarily to obtain the largest yield per hectare or the largest price per kilogram, but as a strategy to minimize potential risks affecting seasonal yield and total income accruing from common bean production. In fact, the drivers behind common beans diversification identified in Table 6 indicate Santander farmers who grow more than one variety do it because either they have the installed capacity to grow more than one variety or are incentivised by a wholesaler to grow certified seeds, which usually have a smaller market size and are more costly to acquire. Hence, common bean diversification in this region of Colombia seems to be driven by technical factors associated with the capacity of farmers to grow more than variety than by economic factors, such as price per kilogram or yield per hectare.Voluntary uptake of new phenotypes of common bean is expected to be determined by similar factors that determine farmers' demand for common beans currently in the market (Lambrecht et al., 2013a(Lambrecht et al., , 2013b;;Lambrecht et al., 2015;Assete et al., 2018). Previous research has found that the most popular attributes of common beans demanded by farmers are drought and disease tolerance, yield, taste, and cooking time (Graf et al., 1991;Sperling et al., 1993;Odendo et al., 2004;Katungi et al., 2011a;Katungi et al., 2015). All these studies have been carried out in African countries where common bean production is important. No study has been done to identify the attributes that determine variety selection in Latin America. In this study, we performed the first identification of the determinants of variety selection in Colombia. This study identifies the length in vegetative state and the price per kg received as two of the most important variety-specific attributes that determine variety selection of common beans in the study area. Thus, varieties with a shorter vegetative phase and with a larger price per kg are more demanded by farmers in Santander. This study also shows that other attributes, such as colour, shape, and size, are not important determinants of variety selection in the study region. This result may be explained by the attributes demanded by final consumers in this region of Colombia since most of the varieties available in the market tend to have the same colour, shape, and size, which reduce its variability and explanatory power as determinants of variety selection in this region of Colombia.Studies carried out in African countries also identify farmer-specific factors that determine variety selection (Katungi et al., 2011a;Katungi et al., 2015). None of the studies performed in Africa has emphasised the role of farms' elevation or seed certification on variety selection. In this study, we identify four farmer-specific determinants of variety selection in the study region: Elevation, seed certification, females' influence on production decisions and access to a stable water source when the farm is located farther away from the urban centres. Elevation is an important determinant of agricultural production in Colombia (IDEAM, 2013;FENALCE, 2020). This variable is also an important determinant of common bean breeders' climate change perception (Botero et al., 2020). In this study, we find that farms' elevation helps explain variety selection as well. Our econometric results indicate that farmers located at higher elevations prefer to grow Bola Roja, while farmers located at lower elevations prefer to cultivate either Zaragoza or Corpoica JiJi. In turn, seed certification is found to be an important determinant of the demand for Cargamanto Rojo. Moreover, farmers who tend to demand a certified seed also tend not to grow either Froilan or Bola Roja. In contrast, farms where there are more females than men tend to grow Bola Roja and avoid growing Cargamanto Rojo. Finally, farmers who have access to the aqueduct and are located further away from the urban centres prefer to cultivate Froilan, Radical, or Cargamanto Rojo than the other varieties in the market.Common bean variety diversification is also studied in African countries (Onzima et al., 2019). This literature emphasises the role of household composition and capital goods on variety diversification. Our econometric results indicate that common bean variety diversification in Santander is determined by the number of family workers living in the farm and tractor ownership. In other words, farmers who count with more help from their family and have a tractor tend to grow more than one variety of beans in the same production cycle. In contrast, farmers located farther away from the urban centres tend to grow only one variety of beans. The latter result may be explained by the fact that farmers located farther away from urban centres have larger transportation costs, which influences the number of varieties grown by them.The results of this study show that agricultural companies and seed suppliers can utilise farms' elevation and household composition as two important factors to define engagement strategies to maximize the uptake of particular bean varieties. In particular, seed suppliers attempting to introduce climbing beans could focus on high-elevation farms since these farmers are willing to grow this type of beans. In addition, seed suppliers attempting to introduce certified varieties could focus on farmers located at farther distance from the urban centres since these farmers are willing to grow certified seeds. However, if the aim is to incentivise common bean variety diversification, seed suppliers can focus on farmers located closer to urban centres or on farmers who receive more help from family members to grow beans since these farmers tend to grow more than one variety in the same production cycle.The ENSO phenomenon has an important impact on common bean production areas in Colombia. This phenomenon affects common bean production areas asymmetrically. Low-elevation farms are more affected by droughts and high temperatures, whereas high-elevation farms are mostly affected by extreme weather variations and unpredictable seasons. This elevation-driven weather variation has a great effect on common bean productivity in Colombia. In order to help Colombian farmers to adapt to climate change, Colombian agricultural companies have developed common beans' adaptation programs. These programs aim at developing phenotypes that are resilient to abiotic and biotic stresses generated by ENSO and climate change. Most of the varieties developed so far have had a low uptake by Colombian farmers. One of the reasons is that the development of common beans has been based on experts' opinion about Colombian farmers' necessary adaptations, disregarding farmers' opinions and farmer-specific drivers behind the demand of particular common bean phenotypes. In the literature, it has been argued that the uptake of the common bean varieties under development is expected to depend on similar factors that determine the demand for the common bean varieties currently in the market. This paper provides the first identification of the factors that determine variety selection and diversification in one of the most important common bean production areas in Colombiathe department of Santander.Our econometric results indicate that elevation is one of the most important determinants of variety selection in Santander. Farmers located at higher elevations tend to demand the varieties known as Bola Roja and Cargamanto Rojo; two varieties that are recognised to perform relatively well at high elevations. In contrast, farmers located at low elevations tend to prefer traditional varieties, such as Zaragoza. These traditional varieties are usually developed or maintained by farmers themselves, and they continue to be grown because farmers prefer to rely on varieties that they know. Another important determinant of variety selection is seed certification. Farmers tend to increase the demand of Cargamanto Rojo when the seeds utilised are certified. This result implies that farmers are willing to cultivate a climbing variety when the seeds utilised are certified by a farmers' association or specialised seed producer. Finally, household composition is another important driver behind variety selection. Households where female have an important influence on production decisions tend to prefer cultivating Bola Roja, whereas households mainly controlled by males tend to prefer cultivating varieties that are harder to cultivate but that provide a larger yield, such as Cargamanto Rojo.We also investigate the determinants of common bean variety diversification in Santander. Our econometrics result show that farmers who have several family members working with them in the farm and those owning a tractor tend to grow more than one variety in the same production cycle. This implies that farmers with more physical capital and with a larger household composition tend to have a larger common bean variety diversification. In contrast, farmers who are located farther away from the main urban centres tend to only grow one variety of common beans per production cycle. This implies that farmers with larger transportation costs due to the location of their farms relative to the main urban centres tend to have a reduced common bean variety diversification.Seed suppliers and extension service providers can use these drivers to increase common bean diversification or maximize the uptake of particular common bean phenotypes. In addition, companies that have common bean breeding programs can utilise these determinants to develop new common bean phenotypes. In that sense, if these companies want to increase the uptake of climbing common beans that are also climate-adapted should focus their commercial programs on farmers located at higher altitudes since these farmers tend to have a higher uptake of climbing varieties. In turn, if these companies want to maximize the uptake of climate-adapted beans, they should develop varieties similar to Zaragoza or Corpoica JiJi since these varieties tend to be grown by farmers located at low elevations, which are at the same time the most affected by droughts and high temperatures. Following this strategy, common bean developers can design and deliver more costeffective engagement and commercial programs with communities of interest.","tokenCount":"8649"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a03beb36341947ffef6298f9142d3af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ca7994cb-5c51-4278-9b90-8614a58b7fc2/retrieve","id":"517223955"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d9c49db4-45dd-40cd-8805-4667c52a8895","pagecount":"9","content":"I n f o r m a t i o n p o u r l e d é v e l o p p e m e n t a g r i c o l e d e s p a y s A C P CTA N°75 JUIN 1998 La gestion du foncier 1 La mécanisation agricole : des approches plus mesurées 4 EN BREF 6 BOITE POSTALE 380 10 POINT DE VUE La politique aux scientifiques ! 11 ACTUALITES DU CTA 12 LIVRES ET REVUES 14 SOURCES D'INFORMATION Un nouveau site Web : le CTA se lance dans le cyber 16 L'insécurité foncière marque des points dans les espaces ruraux des pays ACP. La compétition pour l'accès à la terre et aux ressources s'accélère sous la pression ici de migrants des zones sahéliennes les moins bien dotées, là suite à la progression des fronts pionniers, ailleurs en raison des succès de l'intensification agricole et de l'insertion progressive des campagnes dans les échanges marchands. Si la réduction de cette insécurité foncière est plus que jamais à l'ordre du jour, l'espoir d'une solution miracle s'estompe à mesure que se révèlent la diversité et la complexité des situations. Ou que les opérateurs découvrent la permanence des droits coutumiers sous les apparences du droit moderne. Bref, les certitudes d'antan -mettre un terme à la cacophonie en généralisant le droit de propriété -vacillent et cèdent le pas à un pragmatisme plus modeste mais peut-être plus réaliste. L'appropriation privée des terres n'apparaît plus que comme l'une des modalités possibles d'un processus de sécurisation foncière. Autrement dit, le champ de l'expérimentation s'ouvre. Les nouvelles pratiques de gestion négociée et décentralisée peuvent-elles constituer à terme une alternative ?a recrudescence des conflits fonciers et quelques cas d'affrontements violents -entre éleveurs et agriculteurs de l'Est nigérien, ou autour des gommeraies tchadiennes... -traduisent à l'extrême l'attrait nouveau suscité par la possession de la terre et de ses ressources. Ils soulignent en même temps les imperfections des régimes fonciers actuels et les dangers de l'immobilisme, d'autant que de nouveaux acteurs citadins s'immiscent sur le marché (voir encadré page suivante).Les idées « propriétaristes », d'abord mises en avant pour clarifier la donne foncière et autoriser un surcroît d'investissements, présentent l'avantage de la cohérence. Déjà des segments de marché (le foncier urbain, des zones de plantation) obéissent à la loi de l'offre et de la demande. Pourquoi les schémas de privatisation ne s'étendraient-ils pas aux zones de brousse ?« Ce modèle est peut-être séduisant, mais il est impraticable », diagnostique le professeur Étienne Le Roy 1 . On part de loin. L'immatriculation du foncier rural réclame beaucoup d'efforts et d'argent. « En Afrique subsaharienne, précise-t-il, environ 2 % du territoire relève du domaine public. Si l'on ajoute les espaces faisant l'objet de titres régularisés -de 0,2 % du total au Sahel à 3 % dans un pays comme la Côte d'Ivoire -, on atteint quelque 5 % des superficies au statut bien identifié. C'est peu. » Par ailleurs, le coût d'une démarche d'im-matriculation des terres privatisées est très élevé. Le scénario a été chiffré aux Comores. Dans le petit archipel (650 000 habitants), les sommes nécessaires au cadastrage et aux procédures d'enregistrement représentaient deux fois le budget annuel du pays. Enfin, on peut s'attendre à de fortes résistances de la part des autorités coutumières (chefs des terres en particulier), peu enclines à saper les fondements de leur légitimité.Un ébranlement doctrinal est également venu bouleverser les « vérités » des experts. Fin 1994, le réputé Land Tenure Center (LTC), basé aux États-Unis, livre ses conclu-créé, selon leurs termes, une entente, qui porte sur l'usage du foncier et définit les règles d'accès valables pour tous aux ressources naturelles de la brousse. » Ailleurs, les nouvelles approches ont été dénommées « forums fonciers » ou « gestion patrimoniale » (voir encadré ci-dessous). Leur point commun : elles tentent de rapprocher la gestion foncière du fonctionnement réel des sociétés et des systèmes productifs africains, sans idéaliser pour autant des communautés rurales, qui perpétuent parfois des rapports féodaux et ne sont pas indemnes d'interférences politiques ou religieuses. La dynamique, en tout cas, bénéficie d'un contexte favorable. La réforme de la décentralisation progresse. La multiplication de scrutins « municipaux » confère du pouvoir à des autorités qui connaissent mieux les réalités des terroirs.Un danger guette pourtant ces démarches novatrices : l'enfermement local. Pour l'éviter, les arbitrages intervillageois doivent être validés, une fois vérifié leur caractère équitable, par le pouvoir régional puis central.Les accords locaux deviennent ensuite opposables à des tiers. Demain pourra ainsi émerger un nouveau droit foncier plus consensuel, et donc plus efficace. q Pour en savoir plus : « Menaces sur les terroirs », Courrier de la Planète, n°34, Montpellier, mai-juin 1996.« Enjeux au Sud autour de la terre », Grain de sel, n°4, Paris, décembre 1996.La sécurisation foncière en Afrique. Pour une gestion viable des ressources renouvelables, Étienne Le Roy, Alain Karsenty et Alain Bertrand, Éd. Karthala, Paris, 1996.Quelles politiques foncières pour l'Afrique noire rurale ?, ouvrage collectif, sous la direction de Philippe Lavigne Delville, Éd. Karthala, Paris, juin 1998.Bibliographie et lexique du foncier, ouvrage collectif, Éd. Karthala, Paris, juin 1998.Pour des informations sur la réforme du cadastre, le site Web de la Fédération internationale des géomètres (www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/fig7/intro.htm) comporte de nombreux liens avec des sites intéressants.Briefing on Land Resources and Land Conflict, The Royal Society, 6 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1A, UK. Site Web : www.poptel.org.uk/nuj/mike/re-pop.htm sions tirées de l'analyse de dizaines d'études de cas. La possession ou l'absence d'un titre de propriété n'influence pas de manière déterminante le niveau d'investissement dans le monde rural africain. Une manière de reconnaître que d'autres facteurs (le petit nombre d'entreprises, les faiblesses de l'appareil judiciaire) freinent aussi la progression des investissements privés. Ce constat incite l'un des animateurs du LTC, John Bruce, à ne plus chercher à tout prix à substituer le droit moderne au droit coutumier, mais plutôt à composer avec lui. Sortir de l'alternative du tout ou rien, pour accepter en quelque sorte une « situation d'entre deux ».Quelques intervenants s'étaient déjà risqués dans cette voie. Au Sud-Mali, la Compagnie malienne des textiles (CMDT) a favorisé l'intensification agricole dans la zone cotonnière (augmentation des rendements et des surfaces cultivées) en s'accommodant des logiques foncières coutumières. La success story se poursuit : la récolte nationale de coton-graine est passée de 96 000 tonnes en 1981 à plus de 450 000 tonnes en 1997. De glorieux ancêtres méritent aussi mention. « Dans le Tanganyika (future Tanzanie), les colons britanniques, rappelle Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, parièrent que l'introduction de la culture attelée, l'intensification des cultures mixtes ou l'amélioration du cheptel auraient de plus grandes chances de succès dans le cadre coutumier, en utilisant le canal des chefferies traditionnelles. » 2  Plus près de nous, la montée des préoccupations environnementales et la référence obligée à un « développement durable », soucieux du sort des générations futures, modifient la perspective. Tout règlement de la question foncière doit aussi jeter les bases d'une gestion à long terme des ressources naturelles renouvelables (eau, bois...).Enfin, à l'heure de la mondialisation, il apparaît légitime de consacrer autant d'énergie à la sécurisation des flux (la circulation des richesses agricoles) qu'au strict bornage de territoires.Sur le terrain, les chercheurs avaient déjà révélé la complexité du puzzle foncier. Selon la « logique coutumière », l'appartenance à la communauté (famille, lignage...) ouvre l'accès aux terres et à leurs ressources en fonction des statuts respectifs, de jeux d'alliance entre lignages... Les autorités traditionnelles peuvent aussi accorder des droits d'usage à des « étrangers ». À propos des relations subtiles entre les autochtones ivoiriens et les étrangers (venus du Burkina Faso, du Mali ou du Ghana), Alain Karsenty, socio-économiste au CIRAD, remarque : « Bien qu'ayant acheté des terres, les migrants restent soumis à des obligations envers les vendeurs autochtones : dons annuels, parts de récolte ou temps de travail. Et les migrants ne sont pas toujours sûrs de pouvoir transmettre les terres acquises à leur descendance. » De nombreuses situations paraissent très embrouillées, mais les intéressés s'y retrouvent. Un seul village, au nord du lac Tchad, a par exemple conclu 109 accords de transhumance (parcours, pâturages, accès des troupeaux à l'eau) avec des groupes de pasteurs nomades en transit dans la zone. Moyennant quoi, les tensions sont retombées.Là où les structures communautaires demeurent actives -c'est le cas en Afrique comme en Mélanésie -, le droit coutumier fait souvent preuve de souplesse d'adaptation. « Au Burkina Faso, raconte l'universitaire Paul Mathieu 3 , des villageois du département de Sapouy (au sud de Ouagadougou) ont réussi à transcender les identités de lignée, de quartier ou de village. Les autochtones nuni, les migrants mossi et gourmantché ainsi que les éleveurs peuls ont  Le rapport mentionne que la procédure de mécanisation agricole doit tenir compte de trois paramètres importants : l'économie, l'environnement et les aspects sociaux. Il est évident qu'aucun agriculteur ne va investir dans la mécanisation sans perspectives d'augmentation de revenu et de profit ; dans ce domaine, le manque de conviction a souvent conduit à la disparition des services d'accompagnement : la location de tracteurs, les concessionnaires, la maintenance locale et les entreprises de réparation.La mécanisation ne constitue pas une garantie de l'amélioration de la productivité. Dans beaucoup de cas, comme dans le Ségou et l'Atacora au Mali, où la culture attelée est devenue partie intégrante du paysage ces trois dernières décennies, on a observé une augmentation de la production, mais seulement parce qu'on a donné aux agriculteurs concernés la possibilité d'étendre les surfaces cultivables, celles-ci dépendant de leur habileté à acquérir ou à avoir accès à plus de terres (voir article en première page). Dans les projets conduits au Mali, certains agriculteurs ont reçu 50 % de terres en plus, et augmenté proportionnellement leur production totale -bien que de nombreuses baisses de rendement par hectare soient rapportées après mécanisation.Ces progrès à court terme en matière de revenu et de sécurité alimentaire, qui ne profitent pas à tous les agriculteurs, mettent à plus long terme le développement en péril, en causant des dommages profonds à l'environnement. En effet, la mécanisation agricole conduit à raccourcir la durée de la jachère, plus rapidement remise en culture, en même temps qu'on réduit sa surface. Cela empêche la régé-nération naturelle des arbres et arbustes, appauvrit le stock de matière organique du sol et favorise l'érosion. Le rapport souligne toutefois que le fait de mécaniser peut accompagner une action de conservation en facilitant les travaux de construction de digues et de terrasses. Malgré ces avantages, il est largement admis que la mécanisation pourrait conduire au cercle vicieux de la culture extensive, avec des écosystèmes de plus en plus vulnérables, et à une dégradation des sols.Du point de vue social, comme dans la plupart des actions de développement s'appuyant sur une avancée technologique, la mécanisation a pour effet de creuser les inégalités en milieu rural. Mise entre les mains des nonexperts, sans une gestion avisée, la technologie qui devait relever le niveau de vie et faciliter les travaux les plus durs, peut en fait appauvrir les membres de la communauté et les forcer à l'exode vers les villes. En revanche, ceux qui possèdent ou maîtrisent la technologie en tirent le plus grand bénéfice : un développement équitable semble dès lors impossible.La récente vague de libéralisation dans la plupart des pays ACP a vu le déclin des efforts des gouvernements pour promouvoir directement la mécanisation. À la place, une forte demande du marché amène de nouvelles entreprises à investir dans des produits et services plus adaptés, alors que les offres de crédit se multiplient.La mécanisation est maintenant prête pour entrer dans cette nouvelle ère, mais une approche plus mesurée lui sera demandée afin d'assumer une fonction utile dans les stratégies agricoles de développement durable, plutôt que de poursuivre son rôle destructif. Un séminaire organisé sur ce thème par le CTA en novembre 1997, à Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), a abouti à une série de directives sur la question « où et comment » pour appliquer la mécanisation. Les soixante participants, venant de 19 pays africains, ont conclu que, dans un avenir proche, la culture attelée semble être le meilleur système pour les petites exploitations d'agriculture pluviale des zones de savanes africaines.La motorisation a été jugée plus appropriée dans les cas suivants : grandes exploitations, existence d'un système d'irrigation (actuellement, 5 % seulement de l'agriculture d'Afrique subsaharienne), de bonnes possibilités de commercialisation permettant un accroissement régulier de la production. L'importance de la mécanisation a également été soulignée dans les domaines du transport, de l'agronomie, de l'élevage, ainsi que pour le stockage aprèsrécolte et les transformations agro-alimentaire. Des efforts importants devront être consentis en matière de formation et de crédit, notamment pour former des maréchaux-ferrants et développer la gestion du fourrage. On attend des gouvernements la création d'un contexte permettant à la mécanisation de devenir une option viable, à travers une série de mesures d'ordre fiscal, sanitaire, foncier, de meilleures infrastructures (routières), ainsi que par des programmes d'assistance spéciaux pour les zones à risques (comprenant vraisemblablement des actions pour les personnes touchées par l'impact discriminant de la mécanisation).Dans les fréquentes discussions qui sont en cours sur les stratégies à adopter dans le domaine de la mécanisation, il est reconnu qu'une plus grande attention doit être portée aux techniques de labour visant à la conservation de la fertilité des sols, ainsi qu'aux questions concernant les relations hommesfemmes -les participants au séminaire du CTA l'ont admis, faisant remarquer que la promotion, l'adoption et les avantages de la mécanisation en Afrique subsaharienne concernent en premier lieu les femmes. Elles fournissent une proportion élevée de la maind'oeuvre agricole et pourtant -comme la participation aux ateliers le confirme -la mécanisation reste une affaire d'hommes.L'énergie et le carburant représentent un autre point clé -technique mais crucialqu'on n'aborde pas suffisamment lors des séminaires sur les stratégies. La culture attelée étant considérée comme une étape intermédiaire, le mouvement vers la motorisation est quasiment voué à se poursuivre. Peu de stratégies en matière de mécanisation en tiennent compte mais, devant les problèmes déjà aigus de pénurie de carburant qu'on observe dans beaucoup de zones rurales, elles seront bientôt contraintes de changer d'approche. Une bonne démarche serait d'associer davantage la mécanisation aux actions d'investissement dans les systèmes pouvant fournir de l'énergie pour la fabrication des équipements agricoles, de pourvoir à leur fonctionnement et à celui des usines de transformation agro-alimentaire, aussi bien en aval qu'en amont. Développer de nouvelles sources d'énergie pouvant être valorisées dans la mécanisation agricole, tel est l'enjeu. La mécanisation n'est pas une fin en soi, mais un moyen de développement. Pour ces spécialistes en stratégies qui se plaisent à parler de rendre le pouvoir à ceux qui en sont privés, ce serait un véritable défi que de donner l'énergie au peuple, aux charrues et aux usines de transformation.  Si l'on devait décerner un trophée au phénomène climatique le plus médiatique, El Niño l'aurait emporté cette année. En cette période où les variations climatiques font de plus en plus partie du quotidien (voir « Point de vue » dans Spore 74), l'impact d'El Niño se mondialise. El Niño est le nom qui a été donné au réchauffement des eaux du Pacifique qui a lieu certaines années au large des côtes du continent américain. Ce phénomène cyclique est observé depuis des siècles, et c'est du fait qu'il revient régulièrement au moment des fêtes de Noël que vient son nom, « petit garçon » en espagnol. On ne comprend pas tout à fait ce qui est à l'origine d'El Niño, mais on sait bien qu'il a pour conséquence d'inverser le cycle des précipitations, particulièrement sous les tropiques. Des régions normalement bien arrosées, comme l'archipel indonésien, se retrouvent confrontées à la sécheresse ; d'autres (les îles Galapagos par exemple) connaissent des précipitations importantes alors qu'elles sont habituellement sèches.Les calamités dont on accuse le dernier El Niño en date forment une liste qui s'allonge chaque jour : sécheresse et incendies dans les Philippines, inondations en Somalie, en Éthiopie et au Kenya, tornades dans les Caraïbes, famine en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée et au Soudan. Des versants montagneux des Andes au Japon, en passant par le sud de l'Afrique, El Niño a bousculé les saisons et les climats.Les effets particulièrement graves et persistants des vents causés par le dernier El Niño posent d'énormes problèmes aux agriculteurs, commerçants, services de santé et consommateurs de par le monde -et ce n'est pas près d'être fini. Les pays à faibles infrastructures sont les plus touchés, comme toujours en cas de catastrophe naturelle, mais une bonne planification et l'utilisation de systèmes de prévision pourraient aider à limiter les dégâts.Les experts estiment à plusieurs milliards de dollars les dommages, pertes de production et hausses de prix causés par El Niño cette saison. Les retentissements sur le commerce dans certains pays se sont fait sentir : de fortes pluies ont réduit la production de haricots extra-fins au Kenya, qui procure un important revenu d'exportation, mais l'Ouganda et le Bangladesh en L'International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), en collaboration avec le gouvernement japonais et l'université de l'Utah (États-Unis), a édité un atlas mondial* permettant de connaître les conditions agroclimatiques convenant à des cultures spécifiques. Selon l'IIMI, cet atlas servira de plus en plus, à mesure que l'eau se fait plus rare, à identifier les cultures adaptées à certaines zones. Par ailleurs, des chercheurs travaillant avec des producteurs d'Amérique du Sud sur des moyens de prévision à long terme permettant de mieux planifier les activités agri-coles ont déjà obtenu des résultats prometteurs.On rejette sur El Niño la responsabilité d'événements qui sont parfois de simples anomalies -sa mauvaise conduite semblant parfois focaliser les esprits sur un large éventail de manifestations qui n'ont parfois rien à voir avec ce phénomène que chacun se plaît à détester. Le calembour zimbabwéen « El Niño, El Nonsense » est -dans certains cas -bien justifié !  Au Burundi, la culture du maracuja (Pasiflora ebulis), ou fruit de la passion, a connu ces dernières années une promotion considérable sous les actions conjuguées des industriels extrayant le nectar des fruits et des commerçants exportateurs de fruits et légumes. Les plants de maracuja qui couvrent le territoire burundais offrent un potentiel de production annuelle d'une tonne de fruits à l'hectare, soit 145 000 tonnes. Afin de guider les producteurs dans le choix de produits de bonne qualité et dans l'adoption d'une méthode rentable de transformation des fruits en nectar, le Centre national de technologie alimentaire (CNTA) de Bujumbura a mis au point un procédé accessible à tous. Du pesage du fruit (qui permet de connaître les rendements obtenus) à la conservation du nectar, dix étapes sont essentielles. Le lavage et le triage du maracuja s'effectuent dans de grands bassins d'eau. Les fruits flottant à la surface du liquide, il est facile de repérer ceux dont il faut se débarrasser, soit parce qu'ils sont cassés ou déformés par une maladie, soit parce qu'ils sont immatures. Deuxième étape : la petite queue ou pétiole est ôtée pour faciliter le découpage au couteau, dans le sens transversal du fruit. Vient ensuite le raclage pour séparer le contenu du fruit de l'écorce à l'aide d'une cuillère. Ce travail manuel nécessite une main-d'oeuvre importante. Le raclage achevé, la pulpe est préchauffée jusqu'à ce que les graines qu'elle contient deviennent noires. Après la séparation des graines de la pulpe, cette dernière est placée dans une centrifugeuse ou extracteur, avec de l'eau, puis filtrée. À cette étape, il faut encore ajouter de l'eau en quantité suffisante pour diluer la pulpe, puis du sucre (en quantité variable selon les goûts). Le tamisage du jus obtenu nécessite une attention particulière car il permet d'enlever les résidus issus du sucre ou d'éventuelles graines restées dans la pulpe. Le remplissage en bou-teille et le conditionnement dépendent pour beaucoup de la méthode adoptée pour la pasteurisation. Cette dernière s'effectue au bain-marie (le remplissage aura eu lieu auparavant) ou dans des cuves en inox couvertes. Le nectar sera refroidi quelques minutes après la pasteurisation, car son maintien à des températures élevées peut en altérer la saveur et la couleur. Il convient de javelliser légèrement l'eau de refroidissement pour éviter l'entrée des micro-organismes dans le récipient. Le nectar de maracuja peut être conservé trois mois à une température moyenne de 25 à 28 °C. Après ouverture, il devra être consommé dans moins de 24 heures. • La peau de banane. Riche en amidon, cellulose, sucres, pectine, matières protéiques et minérales, vitamines. De sa couche interne est extrait, par distillation, un arôme utilisé en pharmacie ou parfumerie.• Les feuilles. Source appréciable de protéines, vitamines, cellulose (facilitant le transit intestinal). Dans les pays d'Orient, les feuilles sont utilisées dans la cuisine locale pour compléter les plats de riz ou de viande.• Le pseudo-tronc. Contient de l'amidon vendu comme produit industriel (pour les textiles, le papier à cigarettes, le papier-monnaie, ou la confection des sachets de thé). Également utilisé comme produit sucrier (à des coûts moindres que le saccharose de canne ou de betterave au prix mondial). Au Kenya et aux Philippines, sa fibre textile est utilisée dans la fabrication de sacs, abat-jour, paniers et jouets.  Une série de sept films vidéo pour la formation en traction animale est disponible auprès du Centre pour l'énergie et la mécanisation agricole de Palabana en Zambie. Les films, d'une durée de 15 à 20 minutes, présentent : la sélection et le dressage des animaux de trait ; la fabrication des jougs ; la fabrication de courroies (pour les harnachements en cuir) ; le labourage et le désherbage ; le scarifiage (labour de conservation) ; l'utilisation des résidus de récolte pour l'alimentation du bétail ; le soulevage de l'arachide. Le Professeur J. Michael Thresh, du Naturel Resources Institute, Royaume-Uni, commente une brève parue dans l'édition anglaise de Spore : « Une brève récente dans Spore 70 (p. 8) résumait un article de Roots (3:2, p. 4-7, 1996) préoccupé par une maladie qu'il qualifiait de mosaïque est-africaine du manioc (East African Cassava Mosaic Disease, EACMD). Ceci laisse entendre qu'une nouvelle virose du manioc serait apparue en Afrique, non signalée jusqu'ici et qui différerait de celle connue sous le nom de mosaïque africaine du manioc. Les lecteurs de Spore devraient être avertis que rien n'étaie une telle conclusion et qu'il est plus correct de se référer aux viroses du manioc de type mosaïque dans les différentes régions d'Afrique et d'Inde comme à la mosaïque du manioc. Des recherches récentes du Scottish Crop Research Institute, en Écosse, ont montré que, si plusieurs geminivirus différents transmis par des mouches blanches sont en cause, à ce jour c'est toutefois sur le plan biochimique qu'ils se distinguent les uns des autres, pas sur le plan biologique. »René Rabezandrina, du Département Agriculture à l'Université d'Antananarivo, Madagascar, nous livre quelques réflexions à propos des mauvaises herbes (Spore 72, p. 4) : « Si tous les paysans n'ont pas accès aux herbicides, difficiles à obtenir dans les régions reculées, cela n'est pas une raison pour en priver les régions moins difficiles d'accès en s'abstenant systématiquement, comme c'est le cas actuellement à Madagascar, de mener des recherches, des actions de formation sur ces produits. Le coût des herbicides par rapport au coût du sarclage est à relativiser. Les spécialités sont en effet une fois et demie plus chères que le sarclage manuel, mais les produits banalisés tels que le 2-4-D coûtent ici deux fois moins que ce sarclage. La toxicité des substances met en danger la santé de l'agriculteur. C'est vrai comme pour n'importe quelle substance chimique. Seulement, les herbicides sont nettement moins dangereux que les fongicides et surtout les insecticides, alors que ces derniers sont largement vulgarisés et utilisés à Madagascar contre les poux et les borers du riz, les sauterelles, etc., sans que le paysan ait eu à en souffrir. Mal dosés ou répandus au mauvais moment, les herbicides peuvent nuire à la culture. C'est un risque qu'on peut éviter si on apprend aux paysans malgaches les protocoles d'application. Ces paysans ne sont pas moins éveillés que d'autres : le fait qu'ils savent utiliser correctement les insecticides ou les engrais en est la preuve. L'usage répété des herbicides favorise certaines espèces résistantes de mauvaises herbes. Plus exactement, il faudrait dire l'usage répété d'un herbicide, car, si on alternait l'usage de plusieurs types d'une année à l'autre, cet inconvénient ne serait pas à craindre. L'arrachage manuel et le sarclage restent les plus efficaces contre les mauvaises herbes, affirmation à nuancer parce que, quel que soit l'effort du paysan pour maîtriser les mauvaises herbes sur sa rizière par le sarclage, le rendement est toujours plus faible qu'avec l'emploi de l'herbicide convenable. En effet, il n'enlève les mauvaises herbes que quand elles existent et c'est déjà trop tard, car elles auront accompli leurs actions néfastes en assimilant les éléments fertilisants destinés au riz, principalement l'azote. Les herbicides, en revanche, peuvent empêcher les mauvaises herbes d'apparaître. Toutefois, je suis entièrement de l'avis de l'auteur de l'article quand il affirme que les herbicides ont permis d'alléger la charge de travail. Il m'a fallu une heure avec un pulvérisateur à dos pour traiter un quart d'hectare de rizière avec un herbicide en solution, soit 4 heures de travail pas trop pénible. À côté, il y avait quatre femmes pour sarcler manuellement une surface identique en une journée de dur labeur (il fallait rester constamment plié en deux), soit 16 jours par hectare. J'ajouterai que l'usage d'un herbicide permet de moins remuer le sol et le protège mieux contre l'érosion que si on devait biner ou labourer pour enlever ou enfouir les adventices. » [...] Au Bénin, par exemple, \"Sékou Touré ma\" (la feuille de Sékou Touré) évoque la coïncidence entre l'introduction de cette plante et la visite officielle du président Sékou Touré dans le pays. Au Togo, \"Acheampong\" est le nom du président du Ghana à la date probable de l'arrivée de l'adventice, supposée provenir de ce pays voisin. En Centrafrique et au Congo, les appellations de \"Bokassa\" et \"Lantana di(a) Ngouabi\" correspondent au règne ou à l'arrivée au pouvoir des présidents du même nom. L'appellation \"Rawlings\" dans certains pays d'Afrique occidentale symbolise la témérité de Chromolaena, rappelant les prises du pouvoir répétées de Jerry Rawlings au Ghana. En Côte d'Ivoire, la plante est connue comme \"Herbe Indépendance\", car l'année de son installation coïnciderait avec celle de l'indépendance du pays en 1960 ». J. Loumeto rappelle également que Chromolaena a aussi des effets bénéfiques : lutte contre une autre adventice redoutable, Imperata cylindrica, amélioration de la fertilité du sol et raccourcissement du temps de jachère, sans oublier des propriétés nématicides et médicinales (notamment pour la cicatrisation des plaies).«T oute politique agricole menée en Afrique se doit de répondre aux besoins du cultivateur et privilégier la mise en oeuvre de stratégies alimentaires viables qui vont dans le sens de l'autosuffisance et de la réduction de la pauvreté, puisque nous ne pouvons pas encore parler d'élimination de celle-ci », déclare-t-il d'emblée. La concision du propos est remarquable pour un politicien. Mais Monde Kagonyera fait justement partie de cette nouvelle race de scientifiques convertis à la politique, dont il estime souhaitable qu'ils remplissent les bancs des assemblées parlementaires, partout sur le continent.Parfois surnommé « l'homme de la renaissance africaine  C'est ainsi que le CIRAD, le CTA, la FAO, l'Office nigérien des forêts et l'Union européenne se sont associés à SILVA pour organiser un atelier, en novembre 1997, à Torodi (Niger), où se sont retrouvés des représentants du réseau de 14 pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest et d'Afrique centraledeux délégués par pays, l'un de l'administration forestière, l'autre de la société civile.Le programme de la réunion, structuré essentiellement autour de groupes de travail, d'exposés nationaux et de visites de terrain (des expériences nigériennes originales de gestion des ressources naturelles), a permis d'apprécier la situation des différents pays en termes d'environnement et de gestion des forêts.L'avenir du réseau était au centre des préoccupations des groupes de travail, en particulier les thèmes prioritaires suivants : l'engagement des membres, le financement et la structure, ainsi que les moyens de communication. Une « charte d'adhésion » a été rédigée à cette occasion et approuvée par l'ensemble des participants. Les principales recommandations ont porté sur la nécessité Les exposés introductifs ont souligné l'importance de l'agriculture pour l'Afrique, les nombreuses exigences de ce secteur, ainsi que la nécessité d'élaborer un programme de recherche zootechnique de portée régionale et mondiale. Parmi les préoccupations majeures de l'élevage et de l'agriculture, citons : les attentes grandissantes de ces filières, la réduction des financements publics et privés, l'insuffisance des connaissances techniques, la faiblesse des liens entre les partenaires de la recherche, et le manque de participation du secteur privé aux initiatives de la recherche.Les communications concernant l'interface élevage/production alimentaire ont mis en évidence le besoin d'adopter une approche globale de l'élevage et de renforcer la collaboration entre les producteurs et les chercheurs. Celles sur le foncier et l'élevage ont relevé la nécessité d'incorporer les coûts environnementaux dans la production animale -avec les difficultés que cela comporte -et de mettre en place un développement durable. Les débats du séminaire ont également porté sur les problèmes du réchauffement de la planète et les conséquences de la production animale sur les gaz à effet de serre. Il a aussi été question du rôle de l'élevage dans la gestion des ressources naturelles et de la valeur sociale de l'élevage comme moyen d'existence.Il est nécessaire d'associer les producteurs à l'élaboration des programmes de recherche visant l'amélioration de leurs conditions d'existence, sont convenus les participants, avant d'examiner les moyens d'évaluer -y compris par les systèmes d'information géographique -l'impact des maladies sur la productivité des élevages.Les participants de ce séminaire ont visité successivement une petite exploitation périurbaine de cultures associées à l'élevage, deux fermes (une petite et une moyenne) en zone semi-aride, et une exploitation de cultures associées, afin de se familiariser avec les aspects pratiques de la production animale dans ces différents milieux.Le séminaire s'est achevé sur plusieurs recommandations (une approche globale de l'élevage permettant d'assurer la pérennité des systèmes et la protection de l'environnement ; l'élaboration de mesures politiques visant à accorder plus d'avantages aux propriétaires d'élevages), avant de conclure sur l'indispensable implication du secteur privé dans la recherche zootechnique. La parution des comptes rendus de ce séminaire sera annoncée prochainement. Plusieurs approches utilisables pour l'évaluation de ces indicateurs ont été discutées.Sur la base des discussions tenues pendant l'atelier, les participants ont identifié les aspects fondamentaux suivants, liés au concept et à la mise en oeuvre de l'évaluation de l'impact : l'évaluation de l'impact est un processus continu d'apprentissage, intimement lié à l'environnement organisationnel.L'impact des activités d'information peut être évalué en recherchant des indicateurs liés à l'orientation de l'activité information par le client, aux canaux d'information utilisés par une organisation, et à la politique de l'organisation dans le domaine des systèmes d'information et de gestion.La sélection des indicateurs clés devrait être participative et facile à suivre.L'évaluation de l'impact devrait prendre en compte des indicateurs humains et socio-économiques.Les groupes de travail ont fortement recommandé au CTA de poursuivre son objectif de mise au point d'une méthode d'un coût raisonable pour évaluer cet l'impact, en réalisant des études pilotes en collaboration avec des organisations des pays ACP. qPerformance institutionnelle : pour une évaluation de l'impact de la gestion de l'informationLes lecteurs inscrits auprès du Service de diffusion des publications -les abonnéspeuvent obtenir les publications du CTA. Ceux qui ont renvoyé leur demande d'adhésion recevront prochainement une réponse et, une fois inscrits, deux bons de commande de livres dont l'un indique le nombre d'unités de crédit disponibles.Une valeur en unités de crédit a été attribuée à toutes les publications du catalogue CTA. Les abonnés peuvent commander ces ouvrages en fonction des unités de crédit qu'ils ont reçues. Il faut obligatoirement utiliser un des bons de commande fournis.Ceux qui ne sont pas encore abonnés peuvent demander leur inscription par lettre, fax ou e-mail et recevront en retour un formulaire d'inscription. La demande d'inscription est ouverte aux organisations s'occupant de développement agricole et rural des pays ACP (Afrique, Caraïbes, Pacifique). Les particuliers résidant dans les pays ACP peuvent également demander leur inscription.Les organisations oeuvrant au développement agricole et rural des pays ACP mais qui ne sont pas basées dans un pays ACP sont invitées à écrire au CTA en précisant leurs besoins.Le renforcement du rôle de la biométrie et de la statistique dans la recherche agricole : les rapports des groupes de travail ainsi que les conclusions et recommandations sont en français et en anglais, la plupart des communications sont en anglais uniquement. q 1997 ISBN : 90-9081-167-6 CTA n°850, L'agriculture de demain devra prendre en compte une double préoccupation : valoriser au mieux la ressource en eau et en maintenir la qualité. Tel est le message de ce livre publié par les éditions de l'Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA). Il récapitule les connaissances fondamentales sur les relations eau-plante, la régulation de ces échanges, le fonctionnement du système racinaire, les méthodes génétiques visant à améliorer la tolérance à la sécheresse, les processus physico-chimiques de la diffusion des produits qui peuvent affecter la ressource en eau et le rôle de l'eau dans la chimie de l'atmosphère. Écrit par des chercheurs mais à la portée de tous, il propose de nouvelles pratiques d'agriculture et d'élevage qui mettent en applica-tion l'économie de l'eau et la maîtrise de la pollution. Ainsi livre-t-il les clés d'une nouvelle gestion agronomique de l'eau.  La Commission européenne (CE) a édité Soutien de la Communauté européenne au secteur privé dans les États ACP, une brochure qui donne un aperçu des principes de base, des objectifs, des politiques et des instruments de l'aide communautaire an matière de développement du secteur privé en Afrique et dans les Caraïbes et le Pacifique.Depuis que la Convention de Lomé IV a élevé le soutien au secteur privé au rang de pilier de la coopération avec les États ACP, la CE dispose d'un large éventail d'instruments pour l'aide, tant directe qu'indirecte, aux entreprises privées des États ACP. Celui-ci comprend notamment l'appui à l'ajustement structurel, l'assistance technique aux gouvernements afin de faciliter la mise en oeuvre de programmes de réforme politique et institutionnelle, des programmes d'aide financière et technique visant à renforcer les capacités des agences intermédiaires au service du secteur privé, le financement de projets, des lignes de crédit ou d'autres instruments financiers gérés localement, destinés à sou- a mission étant d'améliorer l'accès à l'information, nul ne s'étonnera d'apprendre que le CTA a maintenant rejoint officiellement le World Wide Web, appelé en bref le Web. Le Web est un système permettant la connexion de tous les ordinateurs qui constituent l'Internet mondial. Il permet à l'utilisateur d'un ordinateur situé n'importe où dans le monde de « visiter » des zones choisies de n'importe quel autre ordinateur et de réunir des informations sur une multitude de sujets. Le Web est souvent défini comme une bibliothèque vivante, mise à jour en permanence. Il permet l'accès à des centaines de millions de documents et à d'autres types d'information : non seulement du texte, mais aussi de la musique, des paroles, des photos et des graphiques. C'est un véhicule d'information puissant, souvent enrichissant, parfois frustrant -le problème de l'utilisateur n'est pas de trouver suffisamment d'information, mais plus souvent, de repérer et sélectionner l'élément exact recherché. Il existe, par exemple, plus de 812 documents différents, y compris des collections de musiques et de films, décrivant les variétés de sutra chantées par des moines Zen, ou plus de 250 000 recettes à base de sauce piquante. Créé à l'origine comme un moyen pour les scientifiques de partager leurs documents de travail d'un bout à l'autre de la planète, sans passer par la poste ou la télécopie, le Web compte maintenant un nombre d'utilisateurs évalué à 130 millions dans le monde entier. Lorsqu'un individu, ou une organisation, réunit différents documents et les rend accessibles sur le Web, cet ensemble d'informations est appelé un site Web. Il peut être visité par n'importe quel utilisateur du Web.Souvent, la valeur particulière d'un site Web ne réside pas tant dans l'information que la personne ou l'organisation d'origine ont fournie que dans la richesse de ses « liens » à d'autres sites Web. Dans le cas du site Web du CTA, la première phase de son existence se concentre sur l'information fournie sur l'organisme lui-même, ses buts et ses services.    ","tokenCount":"6028"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f00fcf9a10d7dda711a1a4f8bcca4d4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/81c0d5de-3be6-4d7f-b735-784492cc1754/retrieve","id":"1406697344"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ddb15eaa-4672-454b-a151-4828558ce3e7","pagecount":"2","content":"Can our environment sustain food production for a growing population? The Agriculture and Ecosystems blog, established by the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), aims to spark debate, through informed opinions and constructive thinking, on important global issues related to one of our planet's biggest challenges -feeding 9 billion people by 2050.The blog has become a critical space for discussion among the research and development community. It is also a useful tool for connecting our readership base with relevant publications and information sources. In 2013, we had over 50,000 visitors and over 100,000 page views. Blog posts have generated over 1,000 comments (on the site and in LinkedIn groups).We are looking for pieces such as:• Reviews of recently published journal articles or books, linked to topical issues and news (examples: here and here) • Opinion pieces related to current events and global affairs (example: here) • Critical analysis/reflections of events, workshops or fieldwork that can raise discussion and debate (examples: here and here) Please note we publish only original content.• Pull your reader in. The first few sentences of your post are meant to entice them to continue reading your post and look for more information. Consider starting with a relevant current event, personal anecdote, bold statement, or question • State your argument or opinion. Then prove it (with a story contextualizing your research, personal story, include supporting evidence), and end your piece by stating your main argument again • Include hyperlinks to relevant publications, articles, books, etc. so that we can direct our readers to more information.We are looking for relevant content that addresses, in some way, the three main emerging issues of the WLE program (read more from Director Andrew Noble here):• Resource use efficiency,• Restoring degraded landscapes,• Reducing farmer risk/uncertainty through sustainable land managementWe want to ensure that blogs are interesting, capture the author's voice and stretch our readers to think. So we do allow quite a bit of room for independence. We will edit for ease of reading, grammar and scientific credibility. Sometimes a fellow scientist will review assertions for accuracy. However, we retain final editorial discretion.NB: The blog is not a space to promote your organization or project and we reserve the right to reject posts with a purely promotional angle.Photo: Pictures speak louder than words. Yes it's cliché, but we're looking for good quality photos to feature with your blog post. Please send us 2-3 landscape (horizontallyoriented) photos with minimum 600x400 pixels, correctly sourced and with captions.","tokenCount":"416"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"658d86227b655499f00be8e549b515a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2205b2c8-77d0-45c5-8ecf-f85d2bc83323/retrieve","id":"987843255"},"keywords":["data collection tools","farmed wildlife value chain","wildmeat consumption","wildlife farming","zoonotic diseases"],"sieverID":"5a87e6df-03e2-4b54-90cb-f6d63cc8f2aa","pagecount":"60","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Wildlife farming has become a significant economic driver, contributing to income generation, food production, and biodiversity. However, the close proximity between farmed wildlife and humans creates a heightened risk of zoonotic disease transmission. Understanding the knowledge, attitudes, and risky behaviours of wildlife farmers and other key actors in the wildlife value chains is crucial to mitigating these risks. In low and middle-income countries, surveillance of zoonotic pathogens from farmed wildlife is hindered by the lack of standardized data collection tools and reporting systems. To address this gap, we developed and adapted tools specifically designed for key actors along different wildlife value chains. The data collection tools are consisting quantitative questionnaires, biosafety observation checklist, and qualitative key informal interviews, and focus group discussion guides with different key actors along the wildlife value chains (Figure 1). These tools are being used to collect comprehensive data on demographics, farming practices, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours related to zoonotic disease prevention, consumption and collection of wildlife products, health status, biosafety measures, and perception on wildlife and zoonotic disease management. The data collected through these tools will inform the development of One Health interventions and enhance coordination among stakeholders to reduce the risk of zoonotic diseases associated with wildlife farming, trade, and consumption. Practice where wild animals are legally breeding and raising for commercial purposes, such as selling the animals or their products for profitTensen 2016; Rizzolo 2021The harvesting of wild animals for food and for non-food purposes, including for medicinal useWildlife farmer questionnaire and biosafety observation checklist at the farmThis quantitative questionnaire was designed to gather data regarding wildlife farming practices and the associated risks of zoonotic disease transmission in Vietnam. The questionnaire begins by collecting basic demographic information, such as the farmer's location, gender, educational level, occupation, marital status and income from wildlife farming. It proceeds to gather detailed information about the types of wildlife species raised on farms and how these animals are managed. This includes how often new animals are introduced, and how diseases are handled on the farm. It also seeks to understand whether wildlife comes into contact with domestic animals or pets, which could increase the risk of disease transmission.A key component of this questionnaire is knowledge about zoonotic diseases-diseases that can spread from animals to humans. Farmers are asked if they are aware of these diseases, if they know the symptoms, and whether they follow proper practices to mitigate the risks, such as using protective clothing or isolating sick animals. Practices regarding consumption of wildlife products shedding light on how much of the wildlife farmed is eventually consumed or traded and under what conditions. The questionnaire also aims to assess farmers' attitudes toward prevention and biosecurity, looking at whether they believe in vaccination, isolation of sick animals, or whether they report outbreaks to authorities.Additionally, the questionnaire investigates participants' experiences with illness over the past year, asking them to recall any symptoms which they or their family members may have had and the steps they took to address these health issues. The document closes with an observational checklist, where interviewers note biosecurity measures, disinfection, waste management practices, and overall farm hygiene.This tool is used in cross-sectional surveys and takes approximately 45 minutes to one hour to complete.Wildlife farmer: person who directly breeds and raises wild animals for commercial purposes, such as selling the animals or their products for profit. Outside the wildlife farmThe farm is surrounded by walls or fences, which prevent people and animals from freely entering and exiting.There is a disinfection pit/spray before people enter and exit the farm.The housing area is nearby/adjacent (<10m) to waste treatment/collection area (manure, wastewater, litter)Drinking water source is nearby/adjacent to the livestock waste source, which potentially results in water contamination H5There is stagnant wastewater around the barn and farm area.The farm has tools and equipment (walls, fences) to separate each row/pen.The cages are surrounded by nets/equipment to keep out pests, rats and insects?There are vehicles (bicycles, motorbikes, etc.) in the animal enclosure?Captive wild animals raised with other livestock (buffalo, cows, pigs, chickens, etc.) H10 Pets (dogs, cats, etc.) are allowed in wildlife shelters H11 Have water, soap, hand sanitizer or hand sanitizer available at the farm, housing area H12 Feed storage area is well-ventilated, dry, easy to clean and disinfect?The whole pens and floors are kept clean (no waste or dirt inside the pens/on the floors) H14 There are insects, pests, or rodents present in the farm/housing area H15 There is a separate area for wastewater containment and treatment H16 Manure are collected in trash cans or separate covered areas. This questionnaire was designed to gather data on the behavior, knowledge, and attitudes of individuals involved in the wildlife value chains-particularly focusing on the consumption and handling of wild animals.The questionnaire begins by collecting demographic data, asking participants for basic details such as gender, marital status, and employment type, with particular attention to those involved in wildlife farming or other wildlife-related activities. In addition, the questionnaire delves into the specifics of wildlife consumption. Participants are asked detailed questions about the types of wild animals they consume, its inquiries about the purpose of consumption-whether for food, medicinal use, or other cultural reasons-and explores how often these animals are consumed, where they are sourced from, and in what condition they are purchased. The questionnaire further examines whether the respondents have any history of handling wild animals directly, such as through hunting, trading, or slaughtering them.A key part of the questionnaire focuses on the respondents' knowledge of zoonotic diseases-illnesses that can be transmitted from animals to humans, for instance, through the consumption of undercooked wildlife meat or contact with sick animals. The questionnaire also explores respondents' understanding of disease prevention methods, such as isolating sick animals, using protective equipment, and maintaining hygiene when handling and butchering wildlife.Additionally, the questionnaire captures the respondents' attitudes towards disease prevention, asking whether they believe that practices like vaccination and reporting disease outbreaks to authorities are essential for controlling the spread of zoonoses. There is also a focus on personal responsibility-whether participants feel it is their or the government's duty to manage and prevent zoonotic diseases. Finally, the questionnaire investigates participants' experiences with illness over the past year, asking them to recall any symptoms they or their family members may have had and the steps they took to address these health issues. This tool is used in cross-sectional surveys and takes approximately 15-20 minutes to complete.Wildlife consumer: person who consumes or collects parts of wild animals or uses products derived from wild animals Blue notes for interviewers Red notes for programmers g. Exporters h. Consumers (direct consumer for eating) i. Others (please specify) 5. Establish the value chains for bats, bamboo rats, civets, and wild boar? 6. Are there any differences between men's and women's involvement in wildlife farming, trading, butchering and consuming activities? What is the reason for these differences? 7. How have these actors changed over the past 5 years, particularly since COVID-19? Why these have been changed? 8. What motivates these actors to engage in wildlife farming/trade activities? 9. In which areas of the province and the neighboring provinces are there markets that engage in wildlife trading (wholesale, retail)? 10. In your opinion, which community has a high demand for wildlife animal products? Any differences between men and women in consuming wildlife products? Which areas you could see the high demand for wildlife products in the region? Do you know the reason for that trend?III. Zoonotic diseases 11. Have you ever heard of/seen anyone in your province contracting diseases from contact with wild animals? If so, which disease was it? What were the symptoms of the disease? What did the affected person do when they experienced these symptoms? 12. Do you think that zoonotic diseases are related to wildlife farming/trading/slaughtering? Why/ why not?Are you concerned about it? 13. Have there been any outbreaks/ infectious cases related to animals, particularly wild animals in recent years? If yes, what were they, and how did people and communities react? How did your organization react? 14. What do people usually do when they get the diseases? Where do people usually go to get treatment for illness or infection? How do other members of your household involve in activities of the wildlife animal business (who does the work and how?) i. Look for sources of wildlife animals/products to purchase ii. Transport from supply sources iii. Take care of the animals iv. Slaughter (have you ever slaughtered wild animals at home? Which species? For which purposes? How were the animals before being slaughtered?) v. Process/ cook wildlife products vi. Deliver products vii. Manage and make decisions related to the wildlife animal business 5. In your opinion, which community has a high demand for wildlife animal products? Any differences between men and women in consuming wildlife products? Has it changed over time and particularly since COVID-19? Main reasons for the changes? 6. Have you ever consumed raw blood pudding or undercooked meat/meat products from wild animals?Why? How did they taste? Did you cook them yourself or buy them from elsewhere? Where did you buy them from and why did you buy from those sources? 7. Do you use any protective equipment (e.g. face mask, gloves, protective clothing, boots/foot wear) and when do you use it? Do you think using protective equipment is necessary in terms of wildlife farming and business activities? Why?III. Illness, treatment, report and biosafety training 8. Since you started raising wild animals until now, have any of them gotten sick or died? What was the reason for getting sick? What did you do when the animal was sick? Did you report it to anyone? 9. Have your family members ever discussed pathogens or diseases in humans that could be related to wildlife? a. If yes, what did your family discuss? Is there anything you are still concerned about?b. In your opinion, do wild animals carry pathogens/diseases that can transmit to humans? i. If yes, by which means/pathways do you think the diseases could be transmitted from wild animals to human? ii. If not, why? Where did you get this knowledge from? c. What did you do to protect your family from the diseases. 10. Have you heard of or seen anyone contracting diseases from contact with livestock, pets, or wild animals? If so, which disease was it? What were the symptoms of the disease? What did the affected person do when they experienced these symptoms? 11. Currently, do you feel concerned or worried about any health risks and diseases that you and your family might face? a. If yes, which health issues or diseases make you concerned, and for whom? b. In your opinion, how are these health issues or diseases related to your family's involvement in wildlife farming and business? Please elaborate on any relevant information if available 12. How often do you go for a health check-up? When was your most recent health check-up? Do you have health insurance? What were the results of your most recent health check-up? Did you share these results with anyone in your family? Did they have any feedback when you shared this information? Do other family members regularly go for health check-ups? 13. When was the most recent time that you got sick? What were the symptoms at that time? Did you seek medical attention? If so, which healthcare facility did you visit (private clinic, local health station, district health center, provincial hospital, central hospital, private hospital)? Did your family members know about your illness at that time? In your opinion, did your illness at that time have any connection to your family's involvement in wildlife farming and business? 14. In the past 12 months, did anyone in your family experience symptoms similar to your most recent illness? If so, did they seek medical attention? In your opinion, do the symptoms of these family members have any connection to your family's involvement in wildlife farming and business? 15. Have you or any members of your family participated in any associations related to wildlife farming and business? What are the names of these associations? Who are the members of these associations? Which association do you like the most? Why? Which association do your family members like the most? Why? How do you or your family members participate in these wildlife farming and business associations (through social media like Facebook, Zalo, or in-person meetings)? Please describe the three most noteworthy characteristics of the wildlife-related group or association that you are most actively involved in. 16. Do you have any suggestions or recommendations to address issues related to wildlife farming and business, as well as healthcare and disease management in your local area? If so, please elaborate. 17  Focus group discussion (FGD) guidesThe FGD guides are structured tools that were designed to collect qualitative insights from small group of key actors along the value chain on wildlife farming and its relationship with zoonotic diseases. It aims to answer questions why and how and explore the current state of wildlife farming management, trading, butchering and farming itself including species farmed, value chain, economic impacts, and changes due to the COVID-19 pandemic. These FGD discussions seek to map out the wildlife value chains, understanding the current wildlife practice, identifying zoonotic disease risks, interactions between key actors along the value chains and adding value of the wildlife trade. In addition to that, the guide also aims to gather information on strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat of adopting biosafety practices along wildlife value chains. Moreover, this also aims to assess the effectiveness of existing management frameworks and regulatory policies related to wildlife farming and zoonotic disease control, identifying strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. As well as gathering recommendations on best practices for preventing and managing zoonotic diseases. The moderator welcomes and thanks the participants for volunteering to participate in the focus group discussion. Your input and views are important to the research. The moderator also thanks the participants for their timeThis focus group discussion is designed to assess your current thoughts and feelings about wildlife farming and zoonotic disease in Lao Cai/ Dong Nai province. We would also like to discuss mapping wildlife value chains for selecting species and identifying key zoonotic pathogens that can spill over to the human population and determining the risk pathway along the wildlife value chains and potential groups at risk. The focus group discussion will take no more than two hours.Anonymity: I would like to assure you that the discussion will be anonymous. The transcribed notes of the focus group will contain no information that would allow individual subjects to be linked to specific statements. You should try to answer and comment as accurately and truthfully as possible. I and the other focus group participants would appreciate it if you would refrain from discussing the comments of other group members outside the focus group. If there are any questions or discussions that you do not wish to answer or participate in, you do not have to do so; however please try to answer and be as involved as possible.-The most important rule is that only one person speaks at a time. There may be a temptation to jump in when someone is talking but please wait until they have finished. -There are no right or wrong answers -You do not have to speak in any particular order -When you do have something to say, please do so. There are many of you in the group and it is important that I obtain the views of each of you -You do not have to agree with the views of other people in the group Does anyone have any questions? (answers). OK, let's begin Wildlife farming -Who are the main consumers of wildlife products and their characteristic -Main consumption purposes -Consumption frequency -Reason why the consumers willing to pay higher prices for wildlife products -Risks associated with wildlife consumption (risk to human health and environment)? ","tokenCount":"2690"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d729229746f64f43b170275200967b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/1e488750-4bd9-4dbf-a43d-05cf5707435e/content","id":"-1850175840"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca4ff3f8-ae32-4319-9ee4-73472f5fd3ad","pagecount":"13","content":"Race Ug99 (TTKSK) of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, detected in Uganda in 1998, has been recognized as a serious threat to food security because it possesses combined virulence to a large number of resistance genes found in current widely grown wheat (Triticum aestivum) varieties and germplasm, leading to its potential for rapid spread and evolution. Since its initial detection, variants of the Ug99 lineage of stem rust have been discovered in Eastern and Southern African countries, Yemen, Iran, and Egypt. To date, eight races belonging to the Ug99 lineage are known. Increased pathogen monitoring activities have led to the identification of other races in Africa and Asia with additional virulence to commercially important resistance genes. This has led to localized but severe stem rust epidemics becoming common once again in East Africa due to the breakdown of race-specific resistance gene SrTmp, which was deployed recently in the 'Digalu' and 'Robin' varieties in Ethiopia and Kenya, respectively. Enhanced research in the last decade under the umbrella of the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative has identified various race-specific resistance genes that can be utilized, preferably in combinations, to develop resistant varieties. Research and development of improved wheat germplasm with complex adult plant resistance (APR) based on multiple slow-rusting genes has also progressed. Once only the Sr2 gene was known to confer slow rusting APR; now, four more genes-Sr55, Sr56, Sr57, and Sr58-have been characterized and additional quantitative trait loci identified. Cloning of some rust resistance genes opens new perspectives on rust control in the future through the development of multiple resistance gene cassettes. However, at present, disease-surveillance-based chemical control, largescale deployment of new varieties with multiple race-specific genes or adequate levels of APR, and reducing the cultivation of susceptible varieties in rust hot-spot areas remains the best stem rust management strategy.Hexaploid common wheat (Triticum aestivum) and tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum var. durum) are cultivated on more than 215 million hectares worldwide at a wide range of altitudes and latitudes, with a record estimated production by FAO of 725 million metric tons in 2014, up 7.6 million metric tons (or 1.1%) from the 2013 record level, providing approximately one-fifth of the calories and protein intake in humans (WHEAT 2014). The demand for wheat continues to increase at an annual rate of 1.6% and some estimates indicate that 60% more wheat will be needed by 2050 (WHEAT 2014).Stem rust, or black rust, caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, can occur wherever wheat is grown (Roelfs et al. 1992). Although not the most widespread or common among the wheat rusts, stem rust disease has the potential to cause the most damage when an epidemic occurs (Dean et al. 2012). Severe wheat stem rust epidemics occurred in the United States in 1919, 1920, 1923, 1927, 1935, 1953, and 1954(Roelfs 1978). Average statewide wheat yield losses during these epidemics were 25.4% in Minnesota,28.4% in North Dakota,and 19.3% in South Dakota. In contrast, since 1954, only localized epidemics have occurred in the United States and the rest of North America. The prevention of widespread stem rust attacks is attributed to the deployment of cultivars with combinations of multiple resistance genes and the removal of the alternate host of P. graminis f. sp. tritici, barberry (Berberis vulgaris) near wheat-growing regions (Kolmer et al. 1991).Worldwide, stem rust is mostly found in regions with a continental climate where summer temperatures regularly exceed 25°C. The disease has caused wheat losses during different historical periods in Canada (Kolmer 2001), the Southern Cone of South America (German et al. 2007), continental Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Australia (Park 2007), South Africa (Pretorius et al. 2007), East Africa (Wanyera et al. 2006), and China (Knott 1989;Roelfs et al. 1992).In 1998, a new race of stem rust fungus with a notably unique virulence to resistance gene Sr31 was found in Uganda and subsequently named Ug99 (Pretorius et al. 2000). Race-typing experiments using urediniospore samples identified Ug99 to be the race that caused the 2004 epidemics in Kenya (Wanyera et al. 2006) and suggested that it was likely the cause of preceding epidemics that occurred after 2002 in the country. Following the North American stem rust nomenclature system (Roelfs and Martens 1988), Ug99 was designated as TTKS (Wanyera et al. 2006). Evaluations of international breeding germplasm and varieties through seedling tests in greenhouse and field screening revealed that the Ug99 race possessed broad virulence to stem rust resistance genes, especially those predominant in varieties and breeding germplasm (Jin and Singh 2006;Jin et al. 2007;Pretorius et al. 2000;Singh et al. 2006). Although the TTKS race code appeared to be unique, this designation did not reflect one of the most unique characteristics of Ug99 and overlooked its virulence to resistance genes Sr31 and Sr38. This necessitated a revision of the North American stem rust nomenclature system and resulted in the addition of resistance genes Sr24, Sr31, Sr38, and SrMcN into the differential set (Jin et al. 2008). This led to the redesignation of race TTKS to TTKSK, which recognized virulence to Sr31 and Sr38, one of the most significant and unique virulence combinations known in P. graminis f. sp. tritici populations worldwide.Recognizing its potential threat to wheat production, 1970 Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug raised the alarm and called for global action to fight the disease. The subsequent launch of the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative (BGRI) in 2005 led to a concerted international collaborative effort to combat the emerging threat of wheat rusts. A key component of BGRI is surveillance and monitoring, which has successfully tracked the evolution and spread of important stem rust races (Hodson et al. 2012).A series of reviews by Singh et al. (2006Singh et al. ( , 2008Singh et al. ( , 2011a) have documented the significance, emergence, evolution, and geographical spread of the Ug99 race group at regular intervals. In each review, an update on the latest known status of the Ug99 race group and highlights of all major changes since 2010 are provided. New emerging stem rust threats are also featured, along with an assessment of the current status of global rust monitoring systems, which were established in response to the Ug99 threat. Seven races, phenotypically recognized as a lineage, were identified until 2010 (Singh et al. 2011a), and these were distributed across nine countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Currently, there are eight confirmed races in the Ug99 lineage and these have been detected in 13 countries (unpublished data), indicating that the pathogen has continued to evolve and expand in geographical range. All known races in the Ug99 lineage and their key characteristics are shown in Table 1.Based on virulence phenotypes, it became evident that Ug99 should be regarded as a race group. One of the most intriguing races in the Ug99 race group is TTKSF, a member that is avirulent to Sr31. TTKSF was first detected in South Africa in 2000 (Boshoff et al. 2002) and was distinctive from local races based on its virulence to Sr8b and Sr38. Race TTKSF or its theoretical ancestor race PTKSF can be regarded as the most likely candidates as originators of this lineage if the Ug99 race complex resulted from asexual mutations. However, sexual recombination may have contributed to the evolution of the lineage because B. holstii, known to be susceptible to P. graminis f. sp. tritici, is present in proximity to wheat production areas in the highlands of eastern Africa (Y. Jin, unpublished). Isolates of P. graminis have been recovered from aecial infections in Ethiopia (G. Woldeab and Y. Jin, unpublished), indicating that B. holstii can serve as an alternate host in Ethiopia, and P. graminis is able to complete its life cycle.The latest race to be identified within the Ug99 lineage is TTKSF+ (Pretorius et al. 2012). It was detected in samples collected from South Africa and Zimbabwe in 2010 and identified as the result of the susceptibility of the South African 'Matlabas' wheat. The gene affected by TTKSF+ was characterized as Sr9h (Rouse et al. 2014a). Race TTKSF+ could be a single-step mutation of the existing race TTKSF, which was first identified in South Africa in 2000, then Zimbabwe (2009) and Uganda (2012). Although TTKSF+ was first reported in 2010, recent recharacterization of older South African isolates has shown virulence to Sr9h in a TTKSF culture collected in 2003, indicating that virulence existed much earlier than reported (Z. A. Pretorius, unpublished). Virulence to resistance gene Sr9h brings the total number of stem rust resistance genes known to be ineffective against the Ug99 race lineage to 34, whereas at least 39 genes remain effective, including several newly described stem rust resistance genes (Table 2), which is a positive news for breeding resistant varieties.The geographical distribution of the Ug99 race group has also expanded and the changing distribution over time is illustrated in Figure 1. The countries where Ug99 race group members have been identified include Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Iran, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, and Zimbabwe. Of these countries, Egypt, Eritrea, Rwanda, and Mozambique have confirmed the presence of Ug99 lineage races since 2010. Egypt is the most recent country to confirm detection. Since 2010, specific races have been identified in an expanded range. Notably, race TTTSK (Ug99 + Sr36 virulence) was detected in three additional countries, including Ethiopia, Uganda, and Rwanda, and race PTKST (virulent on Sr24) was also detected in three additional countries, including Eritrea, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. Detection of race TTKSF (avirulent on Sr31) in Uganda ( 2012) is also noteworthy because this race was previously identified only in southern Africa, which implies a connection between southern and eastern Africa epidemiological zones. Simple-sequence repeat (SSR) fingerprinting by Visser et al. (2009) showed that race TTKSF occurring in South Africa was significantly different from other existing non-Ug99 races; thus, it is a Race designation follows the North American nomenclature system described by Jin et al. (2008). Race TTKSF+ is given a temporary name because it exceeds the current North American 20-differential gene set.highly likely that the Ug99 lineage was a foreign introduction. In fact, the detection of TTKSF in Uganda once again supports the hypothesis of rust inoculum exchange between southern and eastern Africa. Additional samples of stem rust are currently undergoing analysis and it is likely that the pattern of continued evolution within the Ug99 lineage and geographical expansion will continue in the future.The global rust monitoring system established in response to the Ug99 threat is engaged in detecting and monitoring other races virulent to commercially important resistance genes, leading to the detection of various races with a broad geographic footprint. Those efforts led to the detection of RRTTF and TKTTF, two races with wide distribution throughout East Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia (Fig. 2). Race RRTTF was witnessed in Iran in 1997 and was still present in 2007 (Nazari and Mafi 2013). RRTTF is also present in Ethiopia (2007), Yemen (2007), andPakistan (2009). Admassu et al. (2009) reported a widely distributed race, RRTTR, in Ethiopia from stem rust samples collected during 2006 and 2007 based on a differential set described in Fetch and Dunsmore (2004) in which Sr24, Sr31, and Sr38 were not used. It is considered likely that the race reported by Admassu et al. (2009) was actually RRTTF hence this race was likely present in Ethiopia at least since 2006.Races similar to TKTTF occurred in Turkey in the 1990s and still predominate (Mert et al. 2012). They have also been detected in Iran (2010), Lebanon (2012), Ethiopia (2012), and Egypt (2013). This race group does not belong to the Ug99 lineage based on avirulences to Sr11 and Sr31 and molecular fingerprints (Olivera Firpo et al. in press). The presence of stem rust races with identical virulence profiles throughout this vast region implies that there are inoculum exchanges.In 2013, Ethiopia experienced localized but severe stem rust epidemics in the southern wheat production region and the epidemics continued into the 2014 crop season (Olivera Firpo et al. in press). Race analyses of samples from the epidemic regions detected race TKTTF to be the causal race behind these epidemics. Race TKTTF is highly virulent to the widely grown 'Digalu' wheat, which possesses resistance gene SrTmp that is effective against the Ug99 race group and ineffective against TKTTF. Through the global rust-monitoring system established by BGRI, not only was the causal race identified but also its dispersal patterns were elucidated and germplasm screening activities initiated to identify existing or new resistant cultivars.As discussed, available evidence indicates the strong likelihood of an origin and presence for race TKTTF in the Middle East region (Newcomb et al. 2013). The first confirmed detection of race TKTTF in Ethiopia was in August 2012 but the race remained at a low frequency and escaped further detection until early October 2013. By mid-November 2013, a severe epidemic on the most widely grown variety (Digalu) had started. This cultivar, despite resistance to the Ug99 race group and prevalent races of stripe rust, was highly susceptible to race TKTTF and suffered grain yield losses of up to 100% covered an area exceeding 10,000 ha. Despite an early warning, which led to a major national awareness campaign and extensive fungicide use, the absence of seed of varieties resistant to stem rust race TKTTF made effective control impossible in the 2014-15 growing season. Thousands of hectares were severely affected by the devastating epidemic. The enormous inoculum load poses a threat for future crops in Ethiopia and the surrounding region and also increases the risk of mutation and further evolution.Reports of stem rust in some fields of 'Robin', a variety released in 2011 and postulated to carry resistance gene SrTmp, emerged in the wheat crop sown in the 2014 off-season in Kenya. In the 2014 main crop season, some fields of Robin, especially those of small farmers, suffered significant losses, although losses to stem rust for large-scale farmers were limited due to the use of fungicides. Host reactions on International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) wheat breeding materials and checks possessing different resistance genes at Njoro indicate a likely evolution and selection of SrTmp virulence in the Ug99 lineage. Analyses are in progress to determine whether the stem rust outbreak on Robin in Kenya was due to race TKTTF or yet-to-be characterized variants of Ug99 with added virulence to SrTmp.Strong messages emerge from the Ethiopian TKTTF experience. The presence of a race in one region and incursion into a new region can have a devastating impact. The speed with which a stem rust epidemic can develop and spread is incredibly fast. Effective control of stem rust, especially under small-holder farming systems, is virtually impossible in the absence of resistant varieties. The current stem rust situation in Ethiopia reinforces the need for TABLE 2. Origin and usefulness of cataloged and temporarily designated Sr genes in conferring seedling or adult plant resistance to all Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici races belonging to the Ug99 lineage Stem rust resistance (Sr) genesTriticum aestivum a 5, 6,7a,7b,8a,8b,9a,9b,9f,9h,10,16,18,19,20,23,30,41,49,54,McN, Wld-1 15 a,b,c , 28 b , 29 c,d , 42 b,c , 48, 55 c,e , 56 c,e , 57 c,e , 58 c,e , Tmp (or Sha7) b,c , Huw234 b,c , ND643 c , Yaye c T. turgidum 9d, 9e, 9g, 11, 12, 17 2 c,e , 13 b,c , 14 effective global rust surveillance and monitoring, the critical need for the continued development and promotion of durable rust resistant varieties, and the diversification of varietal and cropping systems.A large proportion of the North American and CIMMYT durum wheat lines, selected for Ug99 resistance trials in Kenya in 2005, became susceptible when tested in a field stem rust nursery in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, suggesting the presence of stem rust races that were virulent to the TTKSK-effective genes present in durum wheat germplasm. Race-typing studies identified two races, JRCQC and TRTTF, the latter also occurring in Yemen (Olivera et al. 2012). Both JRCQC and TRTTF possess virulence on stem rust resistance genes Sr13 and Sr9e, two genes constituting major components of stem rust resistance in North American and CIMMYT durum cultivars and germplasm. In addition to Sr9e and Sr13 virulence, race TRTTF is virulent to at least three stem rust resistance genes  in 2005, 2008, 2010, and 2014. that are effective to race TTKSK, including Sr36, SrTmp, and a temporarily designated resistance gene Sr1RS (Amigo) located on 1AL.1RS rye translocation. Race TRTTF is the first known race with virulence to the stem rust resistance gene Sr1RS (Amigo), which represents one of the few genes effective against Ug99 race group in winter wheat cultivars from the United States. The presence of these races in Ethiopia led to the establishment of screening wheat materials, especially durum wheat, at the Debre Zeit field site in Ethiopia under the BGRI to identify resistant sources that can contribute to durum wheat improvement.In the last decade, DNA-based tools have begun to be used for population genetics studies of P. graminis f. sp. tritici. SSR markers were developed (Szabo 2007;Visser et al. 2011;Zhong et al. 2009) and used to examine regional P. graminis f. sp. tritici populations in Ethiopia (Admassu et al. 2010), South Africa (Visser et al. 2009), and the United States (Stoxen 2012). SSR markers were also used to differentiate the Ug99 race group from other P. graminis f. sp. tritici lineages (Jin et al. 2008(Jin et al. , 2009;;Visser et al. 2011). However, these SSR makers have not been very useful in differentiating different members of the Ug99 race group.Recently, the genome sequencing of a U.S. isolate of P. graminis f. sp. tritici (Duplessis et al. 2011) and the resequencing of several additional isolates provided a powerful tool for genetic studies and development of molecular diagnostic tools. A preliminary study in which 70 P. graminis f. sp. tritici isolates were resequenced demonstrated that the Ug99 race group, with 18 isolates representing 7 races, represents a single genetic lineage that has evolved relatively recently (L. J. Szabo and C. A. Cuomo, unpublished data). Using the genomic sequence data from this study, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based diagnostic method was developed for the Ug99 lineage (Szabo 2012). This assay is highly specific for the Ug99 genetic lineage and is able to discriminate between several of the members of the Ug99 race group (TTKST, TTKST, TTTSK, TTKSF, TTKSP, and PTKST/PTKSP). In addition, the development of this assay has identified multiple genotypes per race phenotype (L. J.Szabo, unpublished data). For example, four different genotypes have been identified within the race TTKSK. Currently, this assay is being used to monitor the movement and distribution of members of the Ug99 genetic lineage.The availability of an extensive single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) database for P. graminis f. sp. tritici has also facilitated the development of a high-throughput SNP assay (P. graminis f. sp. tritici SNP Chip) (L. J. Szabo and J. L. Johnson, unpublished data). This SNP assay was used to genotype isolates of race TKTTF collected from Ethiopia during the stem rust epidemic of 2013 to 2014 (Olivera Firpo et al. in press). Two distinct genetic types were identified within isolates of the TKTTF race group and it was discovered that these genetic types are part of the same genetic lineage that contains isolates of race RRTTF, a common race found in Ethiopia in recent years. However, the TKTTF/RRTTF lineage is very distinct from the Ug99 genetic lineage. At this point, the origin of the TKTTF genetic group is not clear, and genotyping of additional samples from Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia is needed for determining it.F. SP. TRITICI RACES Race-specific resistance genes. The broad virulence spectrum present in Ug99 and its derivatives has been implicated with partial to high susceptibility of numerous important wheat varieties sown on over 80 to 95% of total wheat area, as well as breeding materials, regardless of the originating countries (Singh et al. 2006(Singh et al. , 2008(Singh et al. , 2011b)). Virulences for resistance genes Sr24, Sr31, Sr36, and Sr38 were considered the most significant because these genes were providing resistance to other predominant P. graminis f. sp. tritici races and were present at a relatively high frequency in adapted wheat backgrounds. In all, 39 resistance genes continue to confer moderate to adequate resistance to the Ug99 race group; however, other races are known with virulence to 18 of these genes (Table 2). Moreover, several of the remaining effective genes were recently transferred to wheat from related genera and species that likely bring negative linkage drag present in the translocation. Development of successful commercial cultivars in the future will demonstrate their commercial utility. Genes Sr22, Sr25, Sr26, Sr33, Sr35, Sr45, and Sr50 are, at present, possibly the most useful race-specific resistance genes, provided that they are used in combinations. Some other temporarily designated genes (Table 2) that are common in highyielding wheat germplasm offer additional possibilities of gene combinations. If proper care in their deployment is not taken, then these genes are expected to lose effectiveness in eastern and southern Africa, where high populations of the Ug99 race group and other races exist each year. The \"boom-and-bust\" phenomenon was once again seen with the utilization of gene SrTmp (or SrSha7) in Digalu and Robin wheat in Ethiopia and Kenya, respectively. Recent studies (Ghazvini et al. 2012;Hiebert et al. 2011;Lopez-Vera et al. 2014a) have shown that Sr42, SrTmp, SrSha7, SrNini, and SrCad are colocated on chromosome arm 6DS; however, virulence to resistance gene SrTmp in Digalu and Robin shows that two different resistance genes, or alleles, are likely involved because temporarily designated resistance gene SrCad carried by Canadian 'AC Cadillac' wheat and breeding lines carrying SrNini remained resistant. Relationships between Sr42, SrCad, and SrNini need elucidation because all three map in the same region on chromosome arm 6DS.Adult plant resistance genes. Although adult plant resistance (APR) to stem rust has been known for a long time, Sr2 was the only well-studied gene. Sr2 and a linked or pleiotropic gene, Pbc, that conferred pseudo-black chaff (PBC) were transferred to hexaploid wheat 'Hope' and 'H44-24a' from tetraploid emmer wheat 'Yaroslav' by E. S. McFadden in the United States (McFadden 1930(McFadden , 1939). An independent transfer was also possibly made from 'Khapli' emmer by W. L. Waterhouse in Australia, who developed hexaploid wheat 'Khapstein'. Sr2 is known to confer modest APR that can be inadequate under high disease pressure; however, both semidwarf and tall wheat varieties with Sr2 and expressing high levels of resistance are also known (Hare and McIntosh 1979;McIntosh 1988;Njau et al. 2010;Rajaram et al. 1988;Singh and McIntosh 1986). Knott (1982) showed that an adequate level of multigenic resistance to stem rust was achieved by accumulating approximately five minor resistance genes of additive effects. This led to the use of the terminology \"Sr2-complex\" when a variety displays PBC in conjunction with high resistance levels because of the lack of genetic information on other contributing resistance genes. Increased emphasis on identifying and characterizing new sources of resistance to stem rust in the last decade led to various molecular mapping studies using biparental populations and association analyses. Yu et al. (2014) recently summarized results from various published studies, developed consensus maps, and identified several genomic regions that carry minor APR genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL). The most significant finding has been identifications of three pleiotropic APR genes-Sr55 (= Lr67/Yr46/Pm46), Sr57 (= Lr34/Yr18/Pm38/Sb1/Bdv1), and Sr58 (= Lr46/Yr29/ Pm39)-and a fourth gene, Sr56 (Bansal et al. 2014;Herrera-Foessel et al. 2014;Singh et al. 2012Singh et al. , 2013a)). Mapping studies using six CIMMYT semidwarf wheat varieties ('Kingbird', 'Kiritati', 'Pavon 76', 'Muu', 'Juchi', and 'Huiviris') with high levels of stem rust resistance in Kenya showed a continuous variation for stem rust severity in recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations and the presence of three to five QTL in each RIL population (Bhavani et al. 2011;Njau et al. 2013;Singh et al. 2013b). Interestingly, Sr2 was present in all resistant parents and was the most important APR gene conferring resistance to stem rust. Sr57 and Sr58 were also shown to confer APR along with other QTL. A recent study by Rouse et al. (2014b) using a biparental mapping population from the cross of durable APR-carrying but Sr2-lacking 'Thatcher' and Sr57carrying 'McNeal' showed the presence of three APR QTL on chromosome arms 3BS, 1AL, and 2BS in addition to Sr57 on 7DS. The 3BS QTL overlapped to the recessive seedling race-specific gene Sr12, a gene also transferred to hexaploid wheat from the tetraploid durum 'Iumillo' and known to be ineffective to the Ug99 race group. The Sr12 region was also implicated with APR in the Thatcher-derived U.S. 'Chris' wheat to an Australian P. graminis f. sp. tritici race (Singh and McIntosh 1987). However, whether Sr12 actually conferred APR, even though defeated, needs to be established, and the presence of a linked APR QTL cannot be ruled out.It is expected that accumulating multiple slow-rusting APR genes will result in wheat varieties that express high levels of durable stem rust resistance. This kind of resistance is especially important to curtail or reduce the evolution and survival of new virulent races in the East African highlands and other areas where wheat cultivation is continuous year round. High levels of APR to the Ug99 race group, identified in some semidwarf lines soon after the initiation of field screening in Kenya and Ethiopia (Njau et al. 2010;Singh et al. 2008), have allowed targeted breeding efforts to build this complex resistance in new breeding materials at CIMMYT.The emphasis toward phenotyping and breeding to identify and develop stem-rust-resistant wheat varieties increased during the last decade under the BGRI umbrella and supported by the Durable Rust Resistance in Wheat (DRRW) project. Over 350,000 and 87,000 wheat accessions that include released varieties, breeding materials, genetic resources, and mapping populations from up to 32 countries in a single year have been evaluated in Kenya and Ethiopia, respectively, at field sites at Njoro, Kenya (operated by the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, KALRO) and Debre Zeit, Ethiopia (operated by Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, EIAR) (Fig. 3). High emphasis is given to screening durum wheat at Debre Zeit due to the presence of races that overcome commonly present resistance genes in this species.A clear trend of increased resistance is evident in wheat germplasm screened at Kenya during the last 5 years (Fig. 4), with approximately 20% of entries showing good levels and another 20% showing intermediate levels of resistance on the average for all countries. To illustrate further, resistance to the Ug99 race group observed during the 2014 main season at Njoro field in wheat varieties and in advanced lines in registration trials from India, Pakistan, and Ethiopia indicated that 38.4, 56.7, and 69.4% of entries, respectively, showed high to moderate resistance (<30% disease severity) (Fig. 5). This level of resistance is expected to be sufficient for wheat-growing areas of India and Pakistan; however, for Ethiopia, 32.8% entries grouped under near-immune and resistant categories should be a better option for deployment because stem rust is present throughout the year in the highlands of East Africa, causing an early build up of diseases in favorable years.Resistance in wheat varieties and breeding materials from the United States of America. After the emergence of Ug99, a study by Jin and Singh (2006) assessed the level of resistance in U.S. wheat varieties to Ug99 and found that though 93 and 94% of the hard-red spring wheat varieties assessed were resistant to the two most virulent P. graminis f. sp. tritici races present in the United States, only 16% varieties were considered resistant to the original Ug99 race TTKSK. Resistant hard-red spring wheat varieties possessed stem rust resistance genes Sr24 or SrTmp and included 'Ember', 'Guard', 'Ivan', 'Keene', and 'Stoa', and were released prior to 2000. Since 2006, wheat breeders throughout the United States have assessed their advanced breeding lines for field stem rust response at the field site in Njoro, Kenya and for seedling stem rust responses to a select array of P. graminis f. sp. tritici races, including the Ug99 race group, at the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) Cereal Disease Laboratory (CDL). As a result of this work, two spring wheat varieties, 'Tom' (Anderson et al. 2012) and 'Linkert', released by the University of Minnesota in 2008 and 2013, respectively, exhibited APR to the Ug99 race group.Screening of 174 U.S. spring wheat varieties and breeding lines in 2013 indicated that only 4% were resistant as seedlings to race TTKSK (Fig. 6). When the same germplasm was screened with P. graminis f. sp. tritici races TRTTF and TKTTF, only two breeding lines displayed seedling resistance to all three races. Field screening at Njoro and Debre Zeit combined with the seedling responses indicated that 4.6% of the lines displayed susceptible infection types to race TTKSK and exhibited an average disease severity of less than 30% across the four seasons (Fig. 6).Stem rust has historically not caused severe yield losses in winter wheat in the United States. In total, 48% of hard red winter wheat and 27% of soft red winter wheat cultivars and breeding lines were demonstrated to be resistant to race TTKSK (Jin and Singh 2006). Genes conferring resistance included Sr24, Sr36, SrTmp, and Sr1RS (Amigo). The emergence of races TTKST and TTTSK in the Ug99 lineage with additional virulences to Sr24 and Sr36, in addition to race TRTTF with virulence to SrTmp and Sr1RS (Amigo), suggests that nearly all U.S. winter wheat is susceptible to at least one of the P. graminis f. sp. tritici races detected in Africa or Asia in the last decade.U.S. researchers have made substantial progress in developing molecular markers linked to available Ug99 resistance genes, identification of new Ug99 resistance genes, and facilitation of foreign disease-screening nurseries. However, U.S. wheat breeders appear to have not succeeded thus far in selecting Ug99 resistance, with few exceptions (e.g., Tom and Linkert). Emphasis on improving grain yield, abiotic stress tolerance, protein content, processing quality, and resistance to diseases or races that are already present in the United States are likely to be high priorities for U.S. wheat breeders.Breeding for stem rust resistance in CIMMYT's international spring wheat germplasm. The improved spring wheat germplasm developed each year by CIMMYT in Mexico is distributed worldwide annually through international trials and nurseries. These trials and nurseries are grown by cooperators in both public and private sectors and are used as sources of new genetic diversity for various traits of interest. National breeding programs in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and southern European countries also select adapted lines for direct release as varieties. This flagship breeding program was initiated during the mid-1940s by Dr. Norman Borlaug, who introduced shuttle breeding to shorten breeding time by growing segregating populations and other breeding materials twice each year at two distinct field sites, Ciudad Obregon and Toluca, in Mexico. This selection scheme also exposed breeding materials to two very distinct climatic conditions and multiple diseases of global importance and gave rise to widely adapted and input-responsive semidwarf varieties that triggered what subsequently became known as the \"Green Revolution\". In the post-Green Revolution period, new spring wheat germplasm developed in Mexico has resulted in several successful varieties grown in large areas in many countries (Lantican et al. 2005).  Wheat lines identified as resistant to Ug99 (Njau et al. 2010) in field screening since 2005 have been distributed worldwide since 2007 as sequentially numbered \"Stem Rust Resistance Screening Nurseries\" (SRRSN) after verifying the resistance through repeated field testing at Njoro and seedling phenotyping at biosafety greenhouses at the USDA-ARS CDL. Considering the continued importance of CIMMYT wheat germplasm in enhancing the productivity and sustainability of wheat in eastern Africa and other regions where Ug99 race group was identified and predicted to migrate through wind trajectories (Singh et al. 2008(Singh et al. , 2011a)), a targeted breeding effort was initiated in 2006 to develop highyielding spring wheat germplasm by utilizing a \"Mexico-Kenya shuttle-breeding scheme\" that allows growing and selecting segregating materials in Mexico and Njoro, Kenya twice a year (Singh et al. 2011b). Lines identified as Ug99 resistant in 2005 and 2006 and other sources of Ug99-effective race-specific resistance genes were used as donors of resistance and crossed with highyielding materials. A high emphasis was given to building APR because some wheat lines with high levels of APR could be identified soon after screening was initiated (Njau et al. 2010), and it also became obvious that Ug99 was evolving and continuing to add new virulences.Approximately 1,800 F 3 /F 4 generation populations are currently selected at Njoro, Kenya during the off-season (January to May) under high stem rust pressure. The resulting F 4 /F 5 populations are then sown again at Njoro in the main season for another round of selection. The advanced lines derived from these populations are brought back to Njoro from Mexico for phenotyping during three to four seasons. The most resistant lines are also phenotyped with Ug99 and other select arrays of races at the seedling stage by CDL. All data for various traits, generated over 2 years, are used in selecting approximately 600 of the best lines that are then distributed internationally through targeted yield trials and screening nurseries. The highest recorded stem rust severity data during the four seasons of screening is used to give a final resistance rating to wheat lines that carry APR, and we also postulate racespecific resistance genes effective against the Ug99 lineage in case distributed lines carry them. Seedling phenotyping data combined with pedigree and linked molecular marker (if available) information are used in postulating race-specific resistance genes in wheat lines distributed internationally.The first group of high-yielding wheat lines derived from targeted breeding was distributed internationally in 2011, and subsequent distribution has continued since then (Singh et al. 2011a,b). A summary of resistance to the Ug99 race group in 656 wheat lines to be distributed in 2015 as international yield trials and screening nurseries is given in Table 3. The ninth SRRSN, distributed for sowing in the 2014-15 crop season in various countries, included 235 of the most resistant lines based on three seasons of screening. Approximately half of the 656 lines possessed high to moderate levels of APR. Lines with \"near-immune resistant\" (NIR), \"resistant\" (R), and \"resistant to moderately resistant\" (R-MR) resistance categories (i.e., maximum recorded stem rust severities of 1, 5 to 10, and 15 to 20%, respectively) are better candidates for  grain-yield performance evaluation and further stem rust testing at field sites in the eastern African highlands for identifying varieties that combine high yields with high and stable APR. Some lines are already in advanced stages of national varietal performance testing (Fig. 5). In wheat-growing regions where stem rust is not endemic, wheat lines with resistance categories \"moderately resistant\" (MR) and \"moderately resistant to moderately susceptible\" (MR-MS), with highest stem rust severities of 30 and 40%, respectively, are likely to confer adequate resistance. Using these lines enhances the possibility of identifying varieties with increased yield potential, resistance to other important diseases, climate resilience, and preferred processing quality.The presence of various race-specific resistance genes was also postulated and found to be present in 21.5% of the lines (Table 3). Temporarily designated resistance genes SrND643, SrHuw234, SrYaye, and SrNini were mapped on chromosome arms 4AL, 2BL, 2BS, and 6DS (Basnet et al. 2015;Lopez-Vera et al. 2014b;Yu et al. 2014) but others need further studies to determine if they are different. These genes are associated with inconsistent seedling reactions and disease severities ranging from low to intermediate on wheat lines carrying them, indicating that their expression is enhanced in the presence of APR genes. This complicates their precise phenotyping in mapping populations; however, their combinations with APR genes could be developed by selecting plants with lower disease severities and reduced infection types. Resistance gene SrTmp was effective until 2014 off season to P. graminis f. sp. tritici races used for screening at Njoro. However, in the 2014 main season, virulence to SrTmp was well distributed in field nurseries and the reaction of several SrTmp-carrying wheat lines, including popular variety Robin, changed. In all, 61 lines, previously postulated to carry SrTmp, showed varying levels of APR in resistance categories R (2 lines), R-MR (4 lines), MR (7 lines), MR-MS (8 lines), MS (21 lines), MS-S (13 lines), and S (6 lines), supporting the previously reported results by Singh et al. (2011a) that APR genes enhance the expression of moderately effective race-specific resistance genes such as SrTmp (= SrSha7). Hiebert et al. (2011) reported the enhancement of field resistance conferred by SrCad in the presence of pleiotropic APR gene Sr57/Lr34 in Canadian AC Cadillac wheat. Therefore it is recommended that molecular-marker-assisted incorporation of race-specific resistance genes should be done in conjunction with field-based phenotyping.A relatively small but increasing number of rust resistance genes have been cloned from wheat and other plant species (Table 4). All race-specific rust resistance genes cloned to date encode proteins containing an N-terminal nucleotide-binding site (NBS) domain coupled to a C-terminal domain consisting of a series of degenerate leucine-rich repeat (LRR) motifs. An overly simplistic but nevertheless appropriate model of resistance protein function is that the LRR motif is primarily involved in pathogen recognition while the N-terminal domain is involved in activating a plant defense response. These NBS-LRR proteins are common to all land plant species and provide resistance to a diverse array of fungal, bacterial, viral, and insect pathogens (Yue et al. 2012).The six race-specific, NBS-LRR wheat rust resistance genes cloned (Lr1, Lr10, Lr21, Sr33, Sr35, and Yr10) confer a spectrum of resistance specificities even though they encode the same class of protein. Currently, there is insufficient information to predict whether an NBS-LRR protein will confer a broad or narrow spectrum of rust resistance or which rust pathogens species it will recognize based upon protein sequence. It is noteworthy that the Sr33 stem rust resistance gene is a homolog of the Mla powdery mildew resistance gene family first described in barley and later in the diploid A genome of wheat (Jordan et al. 2011;Seeholzer et al. 2010;Wei et al. 2002). It has been suggested that other members of the Mla/Sr33 gene family are also likely to encode Sr31 and Sr50 based upon genetic colocalization of Mla/Sr33 homologs and these two resistance specificities (Periyannan et al. 2013). Thus, it appears that diversification of a single NBS-LRR gene family in wheat and its relatives can provide resistance to at least two pathogen species, one of which is a rust pathogen. All six cloned, race-specific wheat rust resistance genes have related gene members elsewhere in the wheat genome or in at least one of the diploid progenitors of bread wheat. Whether some of these other NBS-LRR gene homologs also confer additional resistances like the Mla/Sr33 family is unknown.Lr1, Lr21, Sr33, Sr35, and Yr10 resistance specificities are each encoded by a single NBS-LRR gene; however, Lr10 resistance is conferred by a pair of adjacent NBS-LRR genes, each required for function (Loutre et al. 2009). Several disease resistances in other plant species are also encoded by two tandemly inverted NBS-LRR genes. The products of these gene pairs often interact by forming dimers, with one member involved in pathogen recognition whereas the other is involved in plant defense signaling (Cesari et al. 2014). With more than 150 rust resistance genes cataloged in wheat as race specific, it is likely that the majority of these genes will also encode NBS-LRR proteins. Sophisticated methodologies have been developed that enable all NBS-LRR genes present in a plant genome to be sequenced. When coupled with mutagenesis, these strategies are likely to greatly accelerate the discovery of additional wheat rust resistances that are encoded by NBS-LRR genes and, therefore, bypass tedious, conventional map-based cloning approaches (Jupe et al. 2013;Wulff and Moscou 2014).Unlike race-specific seedling resistances, various APR genes confer partial or slow-rusting phenotypes at the adult plant stage of development. Some APR genes are race specific while others recognize all rust pathogen races (i.e., race nonspecific). Two racenonspecific APR genes have been cloned from wheat, and the obvious difference in APR resistance phenotypes, compared with seedling resistance phenotypes, is paralleled by APR genes encoding entirely different proteins. The first APR gene to be cloned, Lr34/Yr18/Sr57/Pm38/Sb1/Bdv1 (hereafter referred to as Lr34), confers adult-plant race-nonspecific resistance to six pathogen species. The predicted Lr34 protein is a 12-transmembrane domain ABC transporter that transports an unknown substrate that presumably confers disease resistance (Krattinger et al. 2009).The protein encoded by the resistance gene differs from that of the susceptibility allele by just two amino acids; however, such apparently minor differences have been shown to result in significant changes in substrate transport of other ABC-transporter proteins.The second wheat APR gene to be cloned is the Yr36 gene. This gene, derived from T. turgidum subsp. dicoccides, provides partial APR to all wheat stripe rust pathogen races tested and, unlike Lr34, is associated with plant cell death at rust infection sites (Fu et al. 2009). The Yr36 protein contains a functional N-terminal serine-threonine kinase domain fused to a predicted steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-related lipid transfer (START) domain (Fu et al. 2009). This latter domain has been implicated in lipid trafficking, metabolism, and sensing, while binding of START domain proteins to sterols and ceramides causes protein conformational changes. The fusion of a kinase to a possible lipid receptor suggests that this protein may be involved in a lipid-based signaling response, although there is currently no evidence to support this model. Unlike Lr34, the Yr36 gene has not been used extensively in agriculture; therefore, its long-term durability is unknown.Colonization of plant cells by rust infection involves the insertion of haustoria into mesophyll cells. Many, possibly hundreds, of small secreted proteins called effectors are released from the fungal haustorium and enter the plant cytoplasm and are believed to suppress plant basal defense mechanisms and alter plant cell homeostasis for the pathogen's benefit (Giraldo and Valent 2013;Rafiqi et al. 2010). NBS-LRR proteins recognize, either directly or indirectly, the invasive action of a single, specific fungal effector protein (a recognized effector is known as an avirulence protein), whereupon a defense response is activated, often leading to a hypersensitive cell death response. The flax rust pathogen Melampsora lini is the only rust species for which effectors with demonstrated avirulence activity have been characterized and interaction with a cognate NBS-LRR protein demonstrated (Dodds et al. 2006;Ravensdale et al. 2011).A single pathogen effector protein is dispensable, presumably due to redundancy, which enables rapid changes in pathogen avirulence by mutation or loss of recognized effectors. Consistent with this molecular model of rapid pathogen avirulence loss is the inherent lack of durability of NBS-LRR resistance genes, particularly when deployed singularly. To counter rapid pathogen change, plant NBS-LRR proteins also evolve rapidly by sequence diversification and intergenic recombination (Michelmore and Meyers 1998). Therefore, a constant counter evolution of new pathogen races and new plant resistance gene specificities occurs in a molecular coevolutionary \"arms race\" (Maor and Shirasu 2005).The increasing number of cloned wheat rust resistance genes now makes stacking of multiple resistance genes together on a small chromosomal region in wheat a real possibility using plant transgenesis. These cis-gene stacks would greatly simplify future breeding efforts and prevent the single gene deployment of rustresistance genes. A second major advance that has potentially enabled production of cis-gene stacks in wheat is the development of a highly efficient Agrobacterium-mediated wheat transformation system (Ishida et al. 2014;Richardson et al. 2014). However, wheat rust resistance genes are generally large (8 to 16 kb), making the production of very large multigene constructs and subsequent transgenic plants technically challenging. Nonetheless, these experiments are being attempted and it is imperative that more wheat rust resistance genes are cloned to increase potential gene combinations available for cis-gene stacks.To maintain the durability of a cis-gene stack, it is essential that individual resistance genes within the stack are not deployed singularly, resulting in the erosion of the resistances present at the multigene locus. This caveat is probably more applicable to racespecific genes rather than APR genes. It is difficult to prevent deployment of single genes that are already present in wheat or which can be easily introgressed by conventional breeding. However, intellectual property protection can provide restrictions on the use of cloned genes in transgenic material. Consequently, future cis-gene stacks are likely to consist of trans-genes cloned from other plant species that are not sexually compatible with wheat and the only means of introducing these genes is via transgenesis. Potentially, these resistance genes may be derived from both hosts and nonhosts of cereal rust fungi (Bettgenhaeuser et al. 2014). The challenge of cis-gene stacks is not restricted to resistance genes and the increasing number of agronomically beneficial transgenes makes the development of gene-stacking technologies a biotechnological imperative (Que et al. 2010). a NBS-LRR = nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat and START = steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-related lipid transfer.Continuing the understanding of the molecular basis of rust disease is also likely to lead to new disease resistance strategies. Very little is known about the host cell targets of cereal rust effector proteins. However, in other pathosystems, modifications of the plant components targeted by pathogen effector molecules can generate novel resistance. For example, the bacterial pathogen of rice Xanthomonas oryzae produces an effector that acts as a transcription factor that specifically targets and upregulates the endogenous rice sugar transporter gene OsSweet14. Modification of this endogenous rice gene with site-specific nucleases prevents effector binding to the OsSweet14 promoter and results in enhanced disease resistance (Li et al. 2012). However, this type of novel resistance strategy will require a much greater understanding of wheat rust effectors and their cognate plant targets for future development in wheat.The spread of the Ug99 race group of stem rust in Eastern and Southern Africa and beyond has brought stem rust research and development activities back onto the international wheat improvement agenda under the BGRI. Significant progress was made in pathogen surveillance, field screening of global wheat germplasm, identifying diverse race-specific and APR resistance genes, cloning of rust resistance genes, breeding rust resistant varieties, and training wheat scientists. Existing varieties with resistance were identified and new varieties with race-specific or APRs were released in various countries. A decade of breeding at CIMMYT has started to deliver new, high-yielding wheat germplasm resistant to races belonging to the Ug99 lineage and other important races identified recently in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Chemicals remain an option for emergency control and are being used in eastern Africa; however, their large-scale use by small farmers is neither feasible nor economical. Therefore, success in controlling stem rust is likely to be achieved in Africa when new high-yielding varieties with a high level of durable resistance are widely grown and susceptible varieties are simultaneously removed from farmers' fields. This will require a concerted effort by researchers working in different disciplines and agencies responsible for varietal releases, seed multiplication, and their distribution and promotion. International developmental agencies interested in food security and the income of small farmers in Africa can play a crucial role in achieving sustainable stem rust control by supporting the abovementioned activities, which should also help mitigate the stem rust threat in other wheat-growing regions.","tokenCount":"7840"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac20f929cc7312558fae937cd078123b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6350ca87-ed0e-4177-97a6-f838dde3a089/retrieve","id":"1238578303"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fef7ab05-8c09-4b73-909c-0c71646ec938","pagecount":"2","content":"Description of the innovation: Kenya's framework for land use planning requires each county government to develop a county spatial plan. County spatial planning has great potential for incorporating the rangeland management practices of pastoral communities into a government-recognized framework, protecting key components of pastoral livestock production systems such as migration corridors, and developing the livestock sector in dryland areas. However, existing guidelines for doing this lacked detail. ILRI collaborated with the Kenya National Land Commission to develop these materials.• Dissemination of manuals/ tools for rangeland and land use planning processes in Tunisia, Kenya and Tanzania to community leaders, local government officials and national line ministry staff by the end of 2018.• 4.5.2 National government agencies in three priority countries use flagship outputs to improve land governance arrangements, thereby helping to reduce land degradation.","tokenCount":"133"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd3032a9733cf46123ad42e204c33f2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1015dccb-a5cb-4eb2-be07-d43d50b10a05/retrieve","id":"1450157881"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0b2a3d5d-9b4f-411a-9c18-e107457cb6c0","pagecount":"24","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc., have been used.Editing, design and layout-Training schedule for ToT on the Gender-responsive Climate-smart Bundled Livestock Innovations:Case of Community-Based Breeding Programs in Ethiopia ……………………………………………………………………….27 Table 2. List of participants for ToT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….29 1 IntroductionIn Ethiopia, livestock plays a crucial role in the country's economy, food security, and livelihoods of millions of people. Recognizing the significance of livestock genetics in ensuring sustainable development, Ethiopia has embraced Community-Based Breeding Programs (CBBPs) as a transformative approach. CBBPs aim to enhance the productivity, resilience, and genetic diversity of livestock through the active participation of local communities. CBBPs in Ethiopia have emerged as a transformative approach to livestock development, combining traditional knowledge and scientific expertise. Through community empowerment, capacity building, and collaboration, these programs have achieved commendable results in improving livestock productivity, genetic diversity conservation, and community well-being.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), through the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) in collaboration with UNIQUE Land Use and FANRPAN implementing a project focusing on \"Strengthening Adaptive Capacity of Extensive Livestock Systems for Food and Nutrition Security and Low-emissions Development in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA).\" The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funds the project. The project aims to support stakeholders engaged in extensive livestock systems in ESA to design and implement scalable, sustainable interventions that promote adaptive capacity and food and nutrition security of men and women livestock keepers while reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from livestock production. The focus countries include Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe.In Ethiopia, the ACIAR project focuses on the impact of livestock interventions such as the Community-Based Breeding Program (CBBP) and animal health on food nutrition security, greenhouse gas emission, adaptive capacity, gender empowerment, and political economy. Thus, the capacity-building training was prepared for its research work implementation from 3 rd April 2024 at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Campus, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for ACIAR project-funded students, supervisors, partners, and relevant stakeholders in Ethiopia.The training program aimed to foster an increased level of awareness, provide necessary updates, and enhance understanding of the fundamental principles and practical application of CBBP (Community-Based Breeding Program). The training covered various crucial aspects such as breeding techniques, feed management, animal health practices, gender considerations, marketing strategies, and socio-economic factors. Additionally, an essential focus of the training was to promote awareness and understanding of the ACIAR project among key stakeholders and partners in Ethiopia, ensuring their active involvement and support.The expected outputs of the TOT training include:• Understand the ACIAR project among stakeholders and partners in Ethiopia.• Explain and demonstrate the concept and principles of CBBP and its achievement in Ethiopia.• Provided participants with the application and guide of the CBBP.The training served as a platform to convene representatives from multiple partner institutions, including AICCRA, UNIQUE, and FANRPAN, as well as various collaborating research and user institutions within the country. These collaborations involved esteemed organizations such as ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute, regional research institutes and centres, Addis Ababa University (AAU), University of Gonder, Hawassa University, Jimma University, Bahir Dar University, the LFSDP project, and other stakeholders (refer to Annex Table for details). The training attracted a total of 48 participants, wherein three of them were women.Dr Tesfaye Getachew, a small ruminant researcher at ICARDA, presented the achievements of community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) and their impact. The main goal of breed improvement schemes is to select superior individuals with desired traits and spread those traits throughout the population. Here are some key points from the presentation: • Scaling Potential and Approach: The scaling potential includes more than 200 CBBPs, approximately 150 pus (primary users), various farms in research centers and universities, a dense extension system, government initiatives (LFSDP, LLRD, Yelemat Terufat), a clustering approach based on target breed/population, partner engagement through a steering committee, co-financing, and a revolving fund for sustainability.• Impact on GHG Emission: Dr Tesfaye highlighted the impact of CBBPs on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using the CLEANED model. The improved scenario significantly increased meat production (~146.57%) with lower GHG emissions. The baseline scenario showed higher emissions (approximately 432,830 tons of CO2 eq.) compared to the improved scenario in 31 CBBPs. The full potential of 52 CBBPs resulted in even lower emissions (~634,504 tons of CO2 eq., -59.36% compared to the improved scenario).In conclusion, commercializing CBBPs for sheep and goat improvement is considered costeffective, climate-smart, and beneficial. Efforts are made to establish efficient and sustainable linkages between CBBPs, primary users, and end-markets.• Can one access the DTREO database of ICARDA to obtain data for estimating GHG emissions in CBBPs? Response -Access to the DTREO database can be granted with permission from the research centers.• Does ICARDA work on manure management under the SmaRT pack approach to reduce GHG emissions? Response -Currently, ICARDA has not started working on manure management under the SmaRT pack approach, but there are plans to integrate it in the future.• In the BOOM cluster, which trait of the goat is being targeted for improvement? Is it focused on dairy goats or growth traits? Response -Currently, the focus in the BOOM cluster is on improving milk and meat traits in goats, and there are plans to integrate adaptation traits as well.• Does ICARDA integrate its work with LUNA export marketing? What is the relationship regarding exporting goats to support pastoralists under the BOOM cluster? Are there plans to expand the BOOM cluster to include Afar and Somalia goat-producing pastoralists?Response -ICARDA is in discussions with the LUNA export market to integrate the goat clusters. The goal is to establish a relationship that supports the export of goats to benefit pastoralists under the BOOM cluster. Furthermore, there are plans to expand the BOOM cluster based on the experience gained, with the intention of including Afar and Somalia goat-producing pastoralists. Response: Scientifically, there is a background explanation for the darker meat in highland sheep. This is attributed to the altitude, as the sheep accumulate more hemoglobin in their blood vessels. A hypothesis suggests that this excess hemoglobin causes the meat to darken after 48 hours. Research has been conducted on Bonga and Doyogena, but no significant darkening has been observed. Further investigation is required to determine the true cause of this meat-darkening phenomenon and its association with specific breeds.• Regarding the availability of grinding and chopping machines at the local level, who is responsible for ensuring that these machines are accessible? Additionally, have you considered the formulation of the feed for fattening? Response: Community-based breeding cooperatives are responsible for feed formulation and marketing. These cooperatives serve as organizations that handle the business aspects. The research centers in the respective research sites guide the formulation of rations. Comment -based on your presentation, your research sites are Bonga, Doyogena, and Menz. However, when presenting your results to policymakers, it is important to ensure representativeness.Therefore, there is a suggestion to consider expanding research to other areas.• It is mentioned that grazing and crop residues contribute about 37% and 30%, respectively, to livestock feed, including for small ruminants. Considering greenhouse gas emissions, it is important to note that animals consuming such feed sources tend to emit higher amounts of gases into the atmosphere. So, has ICARDA explored any means to mitigate these emissions by improving the quality of these feeds? Response -More than 50% of the feed resources come from grazing and hay, which results in higher methane emissions. We are exploring various methods, such as chopping, grinding, and physical and biological treatments to reduce methane emissions. However, we still lack a suitable instrument for detecting methane, specifically from sheep. However, existing literature suggests that techniques like chopping and grinding can contribute to methane reduction. We are collaborating with bare breeders to improve hay quality in the sustainable intensification initiative within the highland mixed farming system. Farmers tend to select soft and palatable barley varieties for animal feeding. Hence, we are leasing varieties and coordinating with the Sinana Research Center, which leads barley research and ensures the inclusion of feed traits and hay palatability in released food/feed crops.• Regarding financial literacy, has ICARDA established financial institutions or solely focused on capacity building? Response-Regarding financial literacy, one of our innovations is establishing a community of practice. Although ICARDA doesn't directly implement innovations on the ground, we collaborate with stakeholders such as research centers, cooperatives, enterprise offices, and gender empowerment offices. These stakeholders are responsible for financial literacy, gender empowerment, microfinance arrangements, and media broadcasting to reach a wider audience.• Regarding feed formulation, locally available feeds with promising nutritional content, such as \"atela\" and \"areki\" have been mentioned. From a nutrition perspective, these feeds have good concentrations that can aid in fattening. However, local formulations also present risks from a safety perspective. Many feeds are formulated locally, but there is limited knowledge about their safety regarding human consumption. Are there any specific approaches or protocols that will be implemented within the project to address this concern? Response -When we are formulating rations using local feed resources such as \"atela\" and \"areki\", which are susceptible to aflatoxin and other toxins, we are working to increase the shelf life of these products. We have ongoing research with the Debre Berhan Agricultural Research Center to maximize shelf life. While farmers have indigenous knowledge, we aim to standardize these practices scientifically.• Have you conducted any previous work involving GHG emissions from different feed types?What strategies are being used to shift farmers' mindset from business as usual to a more entrepreneurship-oriented production system? Response -there is no single strategy in our approach. We bring together both technical and social innovations. However, the first and foremost aspect is to foster a mindset shift. We recognize the importance of investing in capacity development and knowledge transfer. Our focus is empowering youth and women in rural areas to perceive opportunities within the community-based breeding system. Given the prevalent migration trend from rural to urban areas, it is crucial to highlight that the market potential exists within their localities. Therefore, we have dedicated significant efforts towards shifting mindsets and creating an enabling environment for them.Professor Wudu Temesgen, a post-doctoral researcher specializing in livestock epidemiology and economics at ILRI, delivered a presentation covering the following key points:• Herd Health: The presentation highlighted various areas of animal health interventions studied at ILRI, integrated with CBBP and other small ruminants' interventions, such as the SmaRT pack. The focus was on population-level health management, emphasizing prevention over treatment, as diseases have multifactorial causes (pathogen, host, environment) that require comprehensive interventions.• Objectives of Herd Health: The five objectives outlined were maintaining health and production at an efficient level, ensuring optimum animal welfare, minimizing public health risks, reducing AMU/R and environmental pollution, and minimizing climate impact.• Herd Health Components: The components discussed included regular calendar-based preventive vaccination and treatment, feeding management, proper housing, farm hygiene, and biosecurity measures.• count demonstrated a significant reduction in parasite burden after the intervention, with some areas showing a 100% reduction.• Animal Health and GHG Emission: The presentation highlighted that diseases, in general, reduce production efficiency and increase emission intensity. For example, O. circumcincta (not present in Ethiopia) and Eimeria spp. were observed to increase N20 emissions.However, this was an observational study that requires further investigation. Parasites were shown to decrease feed intake and increase emissions, with higher emission intensity per gram of feed in parasitic cases.• The number of animals during vaccination is very important. So, does this strategy work in small-scale production? Response: Packages for small-scale production have a problem.The project works on HH herd vaccination, e.g., pasteurellosis.• Is vaccination lifelong or does it need repetition? Response: It is lifelong for PPR vaccination but not for others, like paseurolosis, which needs repeated vaccination every six months.• Was there a lab diagnosis for parasitic diagnosis? Response: no laboratory diagnosis but use of FAMACHA, which is simply looking at anemic animals.• The prevalence decreased after vaccination. Is it ram, HH, or animal-based? Response:Animal-based prevalence, i.e., sampled animals from the population.• Do we have different health sites in CBBP areas? Response: In Doyogena and one non-CBBP area (Angolola in Amhara region).• Why is ectoparasite control intervention not there? Response: The person working on this project will be asked.• In our CBBP area site, we follow the before and after rainy season deworming strategy.What is your advice? Response: Follow the strategy to control the pasture and on animals as indicated in the presentation. Najjar discussed the objectives, methodologies, and specific findings of the study, providing valuable insights into the theoretical framework developed to measure women's empowerment in CBBP areas.During the presentation, Dr. Najjar emphasized that female livestock keepers make significant contributions to the sector despite facing negative impacts from gender norms that hinder their benefits and empowerment. The study's findings were presented, accompanied by important recommendations for the livestock sector and policymakers to address these gender disparities.Overall, Dr. Najjar's presentation shed light on the importance of understanding agency and the need to empower women in the context of the breeding cooperatives program, particularly in transforming the small ruminant value chain in Ethiopia.• How can we measure empowerment? Because most of the women livestock keepers in the survey report answered no when they were asked about their experience with climate change and climate-related issues. Why did they answer in this way?• What is the difference between empowerment and agency?• The findings of your research about gender norms in Horo were not in agreement with what was known in the area. How were these new findings generated?• How does CBBP empower women, and what techniques are used to measure its impact?• What types of methods are recommended to measure the impact of interventions on women's empowerment? Qualitative or quantitative methods are available. Which of the two do you recommend as an expert?Responses:• The result depends on the way you asked and the types of enumerators. If you use only men enumerators, women might not respond freely due to different socio-cultural norms.Therefore, you may not get the expected results. To solve this type of problem, you should have to consider the gender of enumerators. For research related to gender issues, it is preferable to use women for data collection.• Agency is a way to empower, while empowerment is the process.• There are different tools to measure the empowerment of women in the livestock sector, such as WELI and WEAI. Qualitative methods are better than quantitative methods to measure empowerment. Thus, personally, I recommend the use of qualitative methods.However, you can use mixed methods to measure empowerment.• The findings in Horo did not have any connection to societal beliefs and should be understood only from the perspective of this research.• CBBP is designed in a way to empower women, but due to low participation, we designed women-led CBBP.Dr. Getachew Legese, ILRI/CGIAR, presented about the livestock marketing and valve chains related to CBBP. To improve the marketing performance, strengthening livestock market extension to promote valve addition, awareness creation on regenerative production and consumption practices, marketing animals at a younger age, market linkages between producers, consumers, cooperatives and export market actors, scaling out of improved feeding technologies and the community-based breeding practices were suggested as an intervention.• How is regenerative marketing applied in the Ethiopian case?• To meet international livestock market quality, what has been done so far?• Livestock market linkages problem prevents producers from marketing their products. How it can be overcome?• For how long dairy cows should be kept by farmers or owners to reduce GHG emissions in Ethiopia?• How can livestock marketing contribute to GHG emissions?• Are there any livestock marketing models implemented across CBBP valve chains in Ethiopia?• What parameters are suggested for GHG emissions estimation in the case of livestock marketing?• There is no regenerative marketing practice in Ethiopia, rather sustainable production practices.• For international marketing quality, trust ability is necessary.• There is no successful history of liking cooperatives with markets, but there are some efforts and progress.• Regarding livestock marketing models, no specific models are implemented in livestock marketing in general and CBBP valve chains specific in our country. • The time management is very appreciable.• The initiative (project) is good, and the majority of the project's activities demand more socio-economic experts.• The training was beyond its expectations; the entire presenter touched on the project's general aim.• The training was well organized and much appreciated by the organizing team and ACIAR project coordinator.• Making strong partners with NARS systems is best, like ICARDA.• The facilitation of the training was very interesting. The lunches and tea breaks prepared are also satisfactory. Immediate financing is also acknowledgeable.• The best step to ensure the scalability and dissemination of this work is to consider the task force development; the suggestion for the task force includes stakeholders and engaging more experts from the main partners for this project, such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Research Institutes and Centers, ICARDA and its partner projects, CSA …. etc.• The program has the potential to build the capacity of stakeholders. It is also crucial to consider the collected data analysis and write-up training for supervisors and students in the future.In conclusion, the training concluded with the identification of feasible actions that regional and national stakeholders can undertake in the short term to effectively implement and apply the concepts of CBBP. Additionally, it was highlighted that the impact of animal health and CBBP on greenhouse gas emissions should be planned separately, as they utilize similar tools and data. In  ","tokenCount":"2935"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"121eb85b3458a8bb318e1a9c1104686e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d951f092-2479-43a9-a926-a1ec387360d3/retrieve","id":"-422580868"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae02106f-51b8-466b-903b-a06cf4942b41","pagecount":"2","content":"eans are a major food and cash crop for the majority of Ugandan farmers and consumers and account for 7% of national agricultural GDP, ranking fifth behind bananas, cassava, sweet potatoes, and maize. Bean production is entirely due to small scale farming and is concentrated mainly in the central, eastern, and western regions. Most farmers grow bush beans, whereas climbers have traditionally been limited to highland areas, constituting about 20% of total bean acreage. Typically, bush beans are grown in intercrops, (with maize, cassava, cotton, bananas, and groundnuts). Climbers are mostly intercropped with maize or grown in pure stands. In the last ten years bean production has more than doubled due to area expansion and a significant improvement in yields, coinciding with the introduction of improved varieties that are more disease resistant. Nine bush and five climbing bean varieties have been released over the last ten years by the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) in collaboration with CIAT and other partners. This study examined the impact of eight improved bush bean varieties and complementary management practices which were promoted between 1994 and 1999. The study was conducted by NARO in cooperation with CIAT andPABRA between July 2003 andFebruary 2004. The objective of this study was to estimate the social and economic impact of improved bean varieties in Uganda.The data was obtained in 2003 through a survey of 529 bean farmers over two seasons in six districts, representing six major agro-ecological zones. Additional information was obtained from key informant discussions and participatory rural appraisal (PRA). The main focus of the household surveys was the collection of data on socio-economic characteristics, bean adoption, acreage, yields, output, utilisation, marketing; and social and economic impact parameters. Benefits from adoption of improved varieties were examined from the point of view of increasing incomes to households and society from investment in bean R&D. The efficiency of technologies and R&D systems in generating surpluses was investigated. Benefits were computed from farm-level data provided by the household survey, and aggregate bean production statistics. Research and development costs were calculated using data from NARO, FAO, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Uganda Bureau of Statistics for the period 1986 to 2003.Results from a formal household survey of six districts indicate that new varieties, particularly K132 (CAL 96), K131 (MCM 5001) and NABE 2 have an average yield advantage of 37% over farmers' varieties under farmer conditions. However the observed average yield of 855 kg per hectare for new varieties is still below the potential yield of 1.5-2.0 tonnes per hectare under optimal farmer management (NARO). The most widely adopted variety is K132 because of its high yield potential and high market demand. However its acreage is declining due to its susceptibility to bean root rot. About half (53%) of the sample households had adopted at least one new variety, while 40% had adopted K132. When extrapolated to national estimates, the observed adoption of new varieties is equivalent to approximately one million households, which represents a promising step forward in achieving the PABRA goal of reaching ten million households in the PABRA region by 2008. The majority of adopters are in the 'poor' and medium wealth categories. This is indicative of the major role played by beans in poverty alleviation, and also confirms that poor households are accessing improved varieties. However benefits to the poor are limited by access to complementary resources such as land: the average bean plot for poor households is just over one third of the average plot size for rich households.The number of adopting households is lower (20-50%) in the southwest, northwest, and western regions; and relatively high (40-80%) in the eastern highlands and central regions. The distribution of new varieties depends on access to major markets, and the extent of formal seed dissemination efforts by government institutions and NGOs. There is concern that new varieties are not yet easily accessible in some areas due to limited seed dissemination and low market access.Survey results showed that new varieties have contributed 41% of total bean output in the sample -with K132 contributing 36% of total bean output. The increase in total bean output due to improved varieties is attributed to partial replacement of old varieties by new ones which have a 37% yield advantage.There is a clear differentiation by farmers between varieties grown for sale and those for home consumption. The data confirms the previously observed trend that new varieties are mainly grown for marketing rather than for home consumption. An important finding is that the share of output sold by the poor is close to that for the rich. In Uganda this has a major implication for poverty reduction: incomes of the poor can be enhanced through improved access to new varieties.Average annual household bean income has more than doubled since the introduction of new varieties, while annual household bean consumption has increased by just 37%! New varieties account for 67% of annual household bean income; and 45% of household bean consumption. Poor households earned 40,000 UShs ($23) from beans annually, compared to 60,000-70,000 UShs per year ($34 -$40) earned by wealthy households, indicating that beans contribute more to poverty reduction -given that the rich have bigger bean plots and other sources of income. Per capita bean consumption varied according to the level of adoption of new varieties. For example in Mbale (eastern Uganda) where adoption (of K 132) was high, adopters consumed more beans (50%) than non-adopters. However, there was no difference in per capita bean consumption between adopters and non-adopters at a national level. This is partly explained by the fact that adoption levels varied widely across the country, with areas which had low access to improved varieties (and therefore low adoption) consuming more traditional varieties per capita. The other reason was that a larger proportion of the main new variety adopted (e.g. K 132) was sold because of its high market demand.Reaching disadvantaged target groups is a key pillar of CIAT's efforts to eradicate poverty. In 41% of surveyed households, women were responsible for decisions to continue growing new varieties. It confirms the notion that because beans play a major role in household food security, many decisions related to beans lie in the hands of women. The total area sown to beans is much larger for women as compared to men. The survey revealed that between 1998 and 2002, the women from three pilot villages in eastern Uganda increased the area under beans four-fold (to 19 ha) while during the same period, men increased their acreage by about 0.2 times (to 5 ha). This confirms that women still maintained significant control of bean output as its level of commercialisation increased.Growing new bean varieties was perceived by farmers as having had positive welfare effects through increases in household income, increased availability of food during periods of food scarcity, improved family health, and reduced amount of fuelwood required for cooking. Increased bean production had negative impacts too, by increasing the amount of work done by women, and reducing average bean prices.The net present value (NPV) at 2003 of benefits to Uganda from public investments in bean R&D by Uganda alone for the 25-year period from1986 to 2010 is approximately 476 million dollars with an average return of 16 million dollars per year. The internal rate of return (IRR) from the investment at a nominal market interest rate of 15% is 41%. This is higher than the IRR found by Laker-Ojok (1994) for competing crops (maize 27%, groundnuts 23%, and sesame 27%). Wessler et al. (1999) observed a similar IRR of 45% for improved bean varieties in Uganda. This confirms that investment in bean R&D is beneficial to society, based on the assumption that research costs of international centres are sunk costs. It is not known how profitable bean research would be if developing countries were to fund their own breeding programmes and pay royalties for imported germplasm.","tokenCount":"1312"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"58553bcc44bb3fed8d22a211e9787cd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6a8c38a-0b55-4886-826b-55aed0f50b01/retrieve","id":"-201496542"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"88875404-f924-44cb-b7e8-b0b34e81be16","pagecount":"4","content":"Over the last two decades, Ethiopia has transformed its agricultural sector -as set out in the 2010-2015 Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I) and its successor, the 2015-2020 GTP II. The absence of clear roadmaps to develop the livestock sector has hindered successful implementation of these investment plans. Despite significant progress in increasing livestock production, analysis of livestock production and consumption show a huge shortfall in the supply of livestock products. In the absence of investment, these gaps will grow, causing food insecurity and other important economic and social repercussions. Detailed inter-disciplinary research provides clear empirical evidence of the potential benefits of a comprehensive livestock master plan (LMP) for Ethiopia.With rapid population and income growth, and increasing urbanization, the demand for livestock products is growing, presenting huge opportunities for the sector and the overall economy. The LMP was formulated from empirical evidence generated by detailed LSA and value-chain studies of poultry, crossbred dairy cattle and red meat and milk (from indigenous cattle, sheep, goats, and camels). The LSA and the LMP identified promising areas for investment in the livestock sector. The ex-ante assessments based on biophysical and socio-economic simulation analyses, undertaken as part of the LSA, demonstrated the technical and financial viability of the proposed investments, following the completion of a cost-benefit analysis.A critical dimension to realize these results is an enabling (institutional and policy) environment, facilitating the realization of the proposed investments.The strategies presented here were developed from a review of key policy documents, government directives, regulations, laws, targeted interviews, and a review of the LSA and research papers. The findings show that relevant national policies exist but they are held back by a lack of enforcement capacity and the need to update older policies.The LMP identifies the following institutional and policy issues for attention:Land policiesThe main land issues in Ethiopia are its availability and accessibility. In the highlands, where the road infrastructure is relatively developed, land availability is very limited. Conversely, land is available in remoter lowland areas, but accessibility is limited. This shortage of land for animal feed production is a critical constraint in livestock production. Given that land in Ethiopia is the property of the government and farmers and others only have the right to use it, increasing land availability for animal feed production depends on security of use rights. Land contracts for investment purposes should be clearly regulated, creating clear rights and responsibilities for those who hold the right to use land and subcontractors.• The different organizations undertaking livestock research in Ethiopia have mainly focused on the improvement of primary livestock production.Research on secondary production, like processing and food manufacturing is essential to improving the productivity and competitiveness of the sector.• The LMP and LSA were conducted with the support and collaboration of ILRI. The LSM needs to build in-house capacity to conduct similar analyses after the current one has expired. It needs institutional capabilities to generate and compile statistics which facilitate the monitoring and evaluation of the impact of new investments, and policy and institutional changes. The establishment of a suitably resourced livestock policy support unit is essential.• Ensure an efficient deployment of resources by clarifying the roles of public and private animal health service providers, and delegating the provision of certain activities, as well as offering loans, to the private sector.• Introduce on a pilot basis an animal identification and traceability system, testing effectiveness and acceptability by trading partners before upscaling and establishing a national livestock registry and traceability databank.• With other agencies and levels of government, develop feasible, adequately and sustainably resourced, and cost-effective control and prevention strategies for priority diseases based on their importance to trade, livelihoods and the risk of zoonotic exposure, ensuring clear decision-making authority and accountability during an animal health emergency.• Harmonize upwards the quality of veterinary education in Ethiopia, offer incentives to private sector employers hiring young graduates and restrict entry of students to match labour market demand.• Establish an appropriate system to regulate livestock movement in the country, reducing disease transmission.• Implement the existing draft breeding policy, ensuring adequate attention is paid to genetic improvement of dairy cattle of remote and poor smallholders.• With all relevant stakeholders, implement the draft dairy board establishment document and develop the national dairy development strategy.• Revise quality standards, and develop a regulatory framework on a pilot basis for the Addis Ababa milk shed, offering incentives to producers to raise quality standards and increasing consumer demand for safe milk.• Introduce a voluntary milk-recording scheme to develop reliable production records that facilitate on-farm selection and activities undertaken at genetic improvement centres (such as artificial insemination and bull stations).• Establish a clear policy defining the role of private and government interventions, ensuring a level playing field between private and public sector actors, and facilitating the growth of existing commercial producers and the entry of new producers throughout the value chain.• Enhance the quality of inputs (e.g. vaccinations, feeds, credit etc.) and their respective delivery systems by promoting public-private partnerships, reduce VAT rates on raw materials/ ingredients etc., and facilitate land allocation to poultry farms.Strengthen the poultry disease control system by reinforcing disease diagnostic capacities and epidemiological services, establishing compensation and contingency plans in the case of contagion, and enforcing stricter controls on the importation of commercial stocks.• Implement clear and applicable regulations including an objective leather quality grading system and encouraging supply chain actors to improve the quality of their outputs by way of incentives, protocols, etc.• Encourage the promotion of flawless hides by ensuring abattoir staff are trained in handling procedures and producers gain access to appropriate chemicals to control ecto-parasites and diseasedriven skin quality deterioration.• Establish public and private sector stakeholder consultation platforms to discuss key policy issues, including the development of market information flows on prices of hides and skins for producers and traders, and the implementation of regulations encouraging reductions in waste and tannery effluent.• Implement hides and skins trade proclamation No. 457/97 by raising awareness of its benefits to producers and traders, institutionalizing the regulation in the relevant sector bureaus nationally, and issuing regulations on the uniform and timely implementation of the proclamation in all regions and city administrations.• Train and certify graders and empower them with statutory powers to enforce the use of demanddriven quality grading for meat and live animal pricing.• Enforce the use of designated live animals transport measures and refrigerated trucks in meat transport.• Develop or enforce standards on and incentives for feedlot management, building the capacity of feedlot operators, including the design, management and operation of feedlots, best-cost ration formulation and feeding management, and livestock trade and related requirements.• Develop guidelines and directives, within the framework of the regional initiatives like the AU framework on pastoralism, to formalize cross-border trade, ensuring policy decisions on livestock trade are based on a cost-benefit analysis.• Strengthen sustainable pastoral and agro-pastoral production through the introduction of policies facilitating the availability of timely and reliable market information, and modalities supporting cross-border livestock marketing, as well as assisting pastoralists in understand market trends and substantially extending the role of customary institutions in influencing policy, legal and institutional frameworks.• Enhance attention to policies, strategies and programs on pastoral development, addressing the risks related to drought and flood and resource conflicts, and safeguarding access, administration and use of pastoral land.• Introduce and enforce regulations to support the effective functioning of livestock trade corridors designed to mitigate the effects of drought, including resources to build necessary infrastructure (e.g. water points, feed storage facilities, etc.) and mobilize the active involvement of communities in the governance of protected corridors.• Improve understanding of the resilience and adaptive capacity of drylands by publishing information on production practices, marketing decisions, and linkages of the pastoral sector to the larger economy.• Improve the genetic potential and productivity of the national herd by using artificial insemination (AI) and oestrous synchronization of crossbreds and local cattle, establishing a quality system of progeny testing and selection of AI bulls, strengthening an operating system that guarantees the supply of quality semen and other inputs, and promoting local breed improvement via selection within breeds.• Encourage through the provision of grants and loans the gradual development of private provision of AI services, increasing national coverage of quality, efficient and cost-effective services to small farmers, while guaranteeing public delivery, including through the provision of technical and financial incentives to rural Al workers in remote areas where private provision is unviable.• Facilitate linkages between producers and buyers to create awareness of the needs of both, and establish a modality to facilitate the use of oestrous synchronization and AI with local breeds for big herds in pastoral areas in order to increase calf birth rates. ","tokenCount":"1438"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9cb57f00057ef1bc9be78db10f450491","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ef2c3e3-905f-4bcd-8c03-c3c25552b3cc/retrieve","id":"375722850"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dbf13b9d-1f09-4dba-8ca3-49535a85db47","pagecount":"3","content":"Soybean (Glycine max L.) is an important grain legume cultivated on approximately 1.24 million ha in Africa (1). Malawi ranks fourth in area of production in Africa, with 75,000 ha in 2009 (1). Soybean is also gaining importance in Mozambique and several other southern African countries due to diversification programs. During a field survey conducted in March 2010, soybean plants with phyllody and witches'-broom disorders typical of phytoplasma infection were observed in three of five fields surveyed in Lilongwe (Chitedze Research Station) and Salima (Channa, Chitala) districts in Malawi and three of four fields surveyed in Zambezia Province in Mozambique. Symptoms consisted of shoot proliferation, reduced leaflets, shortened internodes, proliferated auxiliary shoots producing witches'brooms, virescence, and phyllody. Incidence of symptomatic plants was <1% in Malawi and 10 to 15% in Mozambique. Yield loss was 100% in affected plants. Five leaf samples each from symptomatic and asymptomatic plants were collected from six fields; total genomic DNAs were isolated and used as templates in PCR using phytoplasma-universal primer pair P1 and P7 for 16S-23S ribosomal RNA encoding region (3). PCR amplicons (1,709 bp) were produced from only templates derived from symptomatic plants. Amplicons from a symptomatic plant each from Malawi (Channa, Salima District) and Mozambique (Mutequelse, Zambezia Province) were directly sequenced in both directions and submitted to the GenBank (Accession Nos. HQ840717 and HQ845208). Nucleotide sequences of the two African soybean witches'-broom (SoyWB) phytoplasma strains were 100% identical. The virtual restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) pattern derived from these sequences using iPhyClassifier software (4) was similar to the reference pattern of the 16Sr group II, subgroup C (cactus phytoplasma, Accession No. AJ293216), with a pattern similarity coefficient of 0.99. A BLASTn search revealed that the African SoyWB phytoplasma sequences had a nucleotide sequence identity of 99% with those of soybean phytoplasma from Thailand (Accession No. EF193353), cactus phytoplasma from China (Accession No. EU099561), and several other members of 16SrII group. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the clustering of these strains with members of 16SrII group. In 1984, the occurrence of phyllody and witches'-broom symptoms in soybean in Mozambique was reported (2), however, no comprehensive details on the pathogen are available. To our knowledge, this is the first report of phyllody and witches'broom disease in soybean in Malawi and the first molecular evidence of association of a 16SrII-C group 'Candidatus phytoplasma' with the disease in Malawi and Mozambique. Phyllody and witches'-broom is a destructive disease, and its widespread occurrence can adversely affect soybean production in sub-Saharan Africa. Identification of alternative hosts and vector species would improve our understanding of the disease's epidemiology and contribute to development of appropriate tactics to prevent escalation of this problem into a major disease.References: (1) FAOSTAT. http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx. Retrieved 28 December 2010. (2) P. Plumb-Dhindsa and A. M. Mondjane. Trop. Pest Manage. 30:407, 1984. (3) L. B. Sharmila et al. J. Plant Biochem. Biotech. 13:1, 2004. (4) Y. Zhao et al. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 59:2582, 2009.  ","tokenCount":"487"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"abe2159ded7edcc8589076ae89f21c2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3205dfe2-6e41-4615-9acc-88182057585a/content","id":"-693214884"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"644ad954-bb38-4461-aff2-15f345457f91","pagecount":"7","content":"The primary factor used by CIMMYT to distinguish seed product market segments for maize in East Africa is the production environment (i.e., where the crop is grown). For each environment, it was assumed that farmers used the maturity level suited for that environment. The largest segment, according to estimated area under cultivation, is wet lower midaltitude (intermediate maturity), followed by wet upper midaltitude (late maturity), then highlands (late to very-late maturity), and finally dry midaltitude (early maturity). This brief explores to what extent the maturity level of seed products purchased by farmers matches the production environment where they are sold. We collected a panel of maize-seed sales data from 722 agrodealers in Kenya during two short-rains seasons and three longrains seasons in 2020-2022. These agrodealers were located across all four maize production environments. Results showed strong sales of early-maturity products across the production environments, especially during the short-rains season. The results suggest an opportunity for increased breeding investments in shortmaturity maize seed products.The transition toward demand-oriented crop breeding by CGIAR and the national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) requires a better understanding of the current and future requirements of farmers, processors, and consumers across different regions of the global South than is currently available. CGIAR, initially through the Excellence in Breeding Platform and more recently through the Initiative on Market Intelligence, has identified about 450 seed product market segments (SPMSs) across the global South that cover all crops for which it currently has breeding investments. 1 The Initiative on Market Intelligence defines an SPMS as a group of growers with common crop variety needs including both grower requirements (where and how the crop is grown) and end-user requirements (what the crop is used for) (Donovan et al. 2022). This brief explores the SPMSs for hybrid maize in East Africa-a region where maize provides an essential source of nutrition and economic activity. Hybrid maize seed in the region is sold mainly via networks of thousands of small-scale agrodealer shops (Mabaya et al. 2021). We use data on retail seed sales to deepen our understanding of farmers' requirements based on the actual seed products 2 that farmers purchase. The following section on current segmentation explains how SPMSs for maize were identified and how sales data can be used to refine our understanding of segmentation and the size of the segments. The third section, on agrodealer tracking data, presents insights from the sales data, and in the last section, we discuss proposed changes in the application of the production environment criterion for segmentation and the estimated size of segments for hybrid maize in Kenya.The Excellence in Breeding Platform (EiB) and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) collaborated in 2021 to define SPMSs for hybrid maize in East Africa (table 1) based on eight criteria (see column headings for table 1). These criteria were applied systematically to all crops relevant to CGIAR crop-breeding programs. For maize, two criteria determined the breakout of the segments: production environment and maturity level. 3 CIMMYT applied geospatial data to identify the production environments and estimate the acreage of each segment. The optimal maturity level was assigned to each environment, resulting in the following four segments for East Africa, all of which are present in Kenya:• Early-maturity maize for dry lowland and midaltitude environments (Maize 13 EAF) This brief reexamines the segmentation for maize in Kenya by looking at the seed products purchased by farmers across production environments. The research was inspired by seed companies in East Africa that perceived a growing tendency for early maturity seed products to be available in production environments where conditions allowed for later-maturing products. We assume that insights from Kenya can inform potential adjustments required for East Africa, given the similarities in production environments across the region. By examining what seed products are sold across production environments, we can test the reliability of the assumption that farmers seek seed products considered to be optimal for their environments.We used a panel dataset of 722 agrodealers 4 built by AgNexus. The dataset includes monthly sales volumes and prices for all product categories from June 2020 through December 2022. For our analysis, we extricated data 5 on agrodealer location and maize seed sales per location for two short-rains seasons and three long-rains seasons 6 .To control for outliers, averages presented are trimmed to include only transactions that fall below the 95th percentile. Figure 2 presents the distribution of agrodealers across the production environments. The largest share of agrodealers (31 percent) operated in Kenya's wet upper midaltitude environments, a major agricultural production area. A substantial number also operated in the dry midaltitude environment and highlands environment (27 percent and 25 percent, respectively). Less than a fifth are in the dry lowlands and wet lower midaltitude environments. Going forward, the brief combines the dry lowlands with the dry midaltitude region due to their similar agroecological profiles and the smaller number of agrodealers operating in the dry lowlands.The long-rains season accounts for more of the agrodealers' maize seed business than the short-rains season (table 2). However, the short-rains season remains important since it represents 23 percent of seed sales in our sample. The total quantity (kg) of maize seed sold per agrodealer increased 40 percent during the long rains relative to the short rains. The total number of product SKUs 7 stocked per season is also slightly higher in the long rains: 4.5 rather than 3.0. In part, differences across short and long rains are attributable to a larger number of agrodealers reporting zero maize seed sales during the short-rains season compared with the long-rains season.Agrodealers across all production environments stocked all three maturity types during both the long-and short-rains growing seasons. Figure 3 shows that agrodealers sold substantially more late-maturity products during the longrains season and more early-maturity products during the short rains. Late-maturity products account for half of the seed sales during the long rains. These sales of late-maturity products occurred mainly in the highlands, followed by sales in the wet upper midaltitude production environment. In the wet lower midaltitude and dry midaltitude production environments, agrodealers sell more early-and intermediatematurity products than late-maturity products during both the long-and short-rains seasons.The share of early and intermediate products increases across all production environments during the short rains, including in the highlands. In the wet upper midaltitude region, farmers purchased products of all three maturity types in significant amounts. In the wet lower midaltitude and dry midaltitude and lowland regions, both early-and intermediate-maturity products had large market shares in the short-rains season.  This brief reexamines the identified maize market segments and their description in Kenya based on variation in production environments and maturity levels. CIMMYT's initial application of the segmentation criteria for hybrid maize in East Africa used estimates derived from geospatial analysis to identify the production environments and estimate their size in terms of area and seed demand. The maturity level of products sold in each environment was assumed to match the optimal maturity level for that environment. The approach advanced a sensible discussion on how to segment maize seed product markets without the need for investments in large-scale data collection. The data presented in this brief confirms that, in a general sense, early-maturity maize is the most important product (in terms of seed sales volumes) in the dryland areas and late-maturity maize is the most important product for the highlands and wet upper midaltitude environments.Our analysis, derived from more than two years of primary data collection from more than 700 agrodealers in Kenya provides evidence for a recalibration of the maize segments in the subregion. Following agrodealer sales over time allowed us to independently apply the criterion for production environment and maturity level, as well as examine differences in seed demand across the short-and long-rains seasons. The brief highlights two important points that should be considered in future maize segmentation for the East Africa subregion. First, it recognizes the importance of the short-rains seasons in shaping maize seed demand. Farmers purchased maize seed for the short-rains season in all the production environments, and these sales represented 23 percent of total annual seed sales. The most important products for this season were early-maturing products. Second, the assumption that maize farmers in a given production environment choose seed products designed for that environment may lead to an underestimation of the demand for products with shorter maturity levels. Farmers in Kenya, and elsewhere in the subregion, have faced multiple years of unreliable rainfall patterns and drought conditions that seem to have incentivized their willingness to purchase seed products with shorter maturity (Wainwright et al. 2019, Kipkemboi-Kogo et al. 2022). Our analysis highlighted the penetration of early-maturity products in all production environments during the long-rains season, despite the potential for higher yield from later-maturing maize in more favorable growing environments. Based on these two points, table 3 presents a proposal for adjusting the current maize segments in Kenya.  The proposed change in the production environment criterion would result in a significant increase in the estimated size of the Maize 13 EAF segment. Figure 4 presents the proposed recalibration of the market segment size. This recalibration is based on the percentage of early-, intermediate-, and late maturity maize products sold within each production environment. The result is that Maize 13 EAF would go from the smallest to the largest market segment, with a market share of 36 percent. Maize 5 EAF would lose a significant share to Maize 13 EAF, which would also take a sizable portion of Maize 6 EAF.Our results apply to Kenya but are likely to hold for the rest of the subregion where maize seed distribution is highly commercialized. Researcher engagement with agrodealers can provide important insights on changing farmer needs (Rutsaert, Donovan, and Kimenju 2021). A stronger focus on using sales data to inform breeding decisions in maize, and potentially other crops where retailers play an important role in seed distribution, should become a priority for market intelligence. Future work will engage stakeholders in maize seed systems in other countries of East Africa about the changes in demand for earlier-maturing products and the implications for segmentation.","tokenCount":"1681"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"73070aa74fa87512ffcafa9e242105ac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d732c982-37e9-4283-88b9-e84e541884e1/retrieve","id":"-1279681983"},"keywords":["quinoa","osmotic stress","organic amendment","growth","seed yield","saponin"],"sieverID":"5bf1ba0b-dc03-4e16-9eda-2bb835b468d1","pagecount":"22","content":"In the Sahara Desert, due to drought and salinity and poor soil fertility, very limited crop choice is available for the farmers to grow crops. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has shown promising under such conditions in the South of Morocco, a true representative site of Sahara Desert. Soil organic amendments have the potential to minimize negative effects of soil salinity and improve crop production. Thus, this study aimed to elucidate the impact of nine organic amendments on quinoa (var. ICBA-Q5) growth, productivity, and biochemical parameters under saline irrigation water application (4, 12, and 20 dS•m -1 ). Results of the experiment indicate a significant effect of organic amendments on major agro-morphological and productivity parameters. Biomass and seed yield tends to decrease with the rise of salinity level, and organic amendments have improved productivity compared to the non-treated control. However, salinity stress alleviation was assessed by determining pigments concentration, proline content, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity. Therefore, the action of organic amendments varies from one level of salinity to another. Furthermore, a remarkably significant decrease in total saponin content was reached due to the application of amendments even at Frontiers in Plant Science frontiersin.org 01Crop production is threatened and limited by various challenges including salinity. FAO (2021) estimated that salinity affects more than 424 million hectares of topsoil (0-30 cm) and 833 million hectares of subsoil (30-100 cm). In Africa, 80 million hectares of lands are saline, sodic, or saline-sodic, of which the Sahel, in West Africa, is the most affected (Shahid et al., 2018). Salinization occurs under all climatic conditions and can result from both natural (primary salinization) and human-induced actions (secondary salinization). In agricultural area, secondary salinization is the most dominant form of salinity and is caused by inadequate irrigation, misuse of fertilizers, over-pumping, improper drainage, seawater intrusion, etc. In general, salinization occurs in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation is very low, and evaporation is high which can result in salt accumulation in the rootzone and lack of leaching (Stavi et al., 2021). Salinity affects plants and reduces their growth and productivity by limiting water and nutrient uptake (osmotic stress), accumulating toxic ions such as sodium, reducing transpiration and photosynthetic activity, damaging cell membranes and causing plant senescence (Machado and Serralheiro, 2017). Salt-tolerant plants have the ability to deal with salinity by deploying several mechanisms including osmotic adjustment, sodium compartmentalization, salt exclusion, etc (Volkov and Beilby, 2017).Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a good example of salttolerant crops that recently attracted a lot of attention worldwide thanks to its wide adaptation to various climatic and soil conditions, rusticity and resilience, and its high nutritional value. Quinoa originates from the Andean countries, where it was domesticated over 7000 years ago by the local people. Quinoa was neglected for many centuries following the Spanish conquest and was geographically limited to the Andes, where it was a basic staple food for the indigenous people (Bazile et al., 2016). The potential of quinoa was rediscovered during the second half of the 20 th century and since then, quinoa was tested and introduced to over 120 countries around the world (Alandia et al., 2020). Peru and Bolivia are both leading exporters of quinoa grains worldwide, contributing 78% of the total export (exporting 44,353 and 29,416 tons, respectively, out of a total of 93,809 tons/year) (Alandia et al., 2020;Schmidt et al., 2021).Quinoa was first introduced in Morocco in 2000 and since then its value chain significantly improved. In the beginning of its introduction, research works mainly focused on quinoa agronomic adaptation (Jellen et al., 2006), diversity screening (Mhada et al., 2014), irrigation (Hirich et al., 2014a;Hirich et al., 2014b;Fghire et al., 2015), organic amendment (Hirich et al., 2014b), salinity (Brakez et al., 2013;Hirich et al., 2014c), and sowing date (Hirich et al., 2014d). Recent research is oriented towards production transformation (Mhada et al., 2020;Hirich et al., 2021;Rafik et al., 2021bRafik et al., , 2021c)), marketing (Rafik et al., 2021a), value chain analysis (Hirich et al., 2021;Rafik et al., 2021a), etc.In order to enhance tolerance level to salinity in quinoa plants and improve their yield, it is necessary to increase the nutrient and water availability in the soil and their absorption through the application of organic amendments or fertilizers. Organic amendments were shown to be highly beneficial for crop production, especially under stress conditions (Leogrande and Vitti, 2019). In fact, by adding organic matter to the soil, the nutrient availability for the plant and water holding capacity increases, and the soil's biological activity gets improved. Another role of organic amendments is they improve soil structure and properties resulting in accelerating salt leaching in the rootzone (Ding et al., 2020;Wichern et al., 2020).To mitigate the drastic negative effects of abiotic stress such as salinity, halophytes have developed an array of salt-tolerance mechanisms by controlling the uptake and canalization of Na + , K + and Cland the biosynthesis of osmolytes (Flowers and Colmer, 2008). Quinoa is one of the famous halophytes that contains a good balance of starch, protein, lipids and fiber, minerals, and also contains a good amount of non-nutritional compounds such as saponin, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, that control various biological activities (Miranda et al., 2012;Goḿez-Caravaca et al., 2014).Saponins are bitter, soapy substances that protect quinoa plant from fungal disease and insect attacks. They also contain toxins that can cause irritation and other health issues to some people (Liao et al., 2017). While the level of toxicity is low, some people may be sensitive to this compound. Saponins are also considered secondary metabolites with numerous health promoting compounds (Puente-Garza et al., 2017;Lim et al., 2020;Yi, 2021) commonly used in the agro-food industry as food additives, and emulsifiers in cosmetic products. While in some cases, saponins could be harmful for human consumption due to their weak absorption, and toxic effect (Yi, 2021).Nevertheless, little information is available so far about the influence of organic amendments on saponins content. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the influence of organic amendments on plant growth, seed yield, and grain quality parameters such as saponins, phenolic contents, and antioxidant activity in quinoa under different salinity levels.2 Materials and methodsThe study was conducted at the experimental farm of National Institute of Agricultural Research in Foum El Oued area, Laayoune, south of Morocco (X = -13.341°; X = 27.186°; Z = 13 m). The soil in the experimental site was sandy loam, characterized by strong salinity and low content of organic matter and nutrients (Table 1).The experiment was conducted using a split-plot design with four replications. The salinity treatment was applied in the main plot, and the organic amendments were applied in the subplots. The area of each plot was 15 m 2 , each consisting of ten rows (Figure 1A). The crop was sown manually on April 13th, 2021, using the ICBA-Q5 quinoa variety. Irrigation was applied using a drip irrigation system (row-to-row spacing: 50 cm, distance between drippers: 20 cm, and flow rate: 2L/hr). The crop was irrigated twice a week and received a total irrigation amount of 240 mm during its growing cycle.Irrigation water salinity treatments were applied by filling water tank with two sources of groundwater for low (4 dS•m -1 ) and medium salinity level (12 dS•m -1 ), which corresponds to the lowest and the medium groundwater salinity level in the region, respectively. While 20 dS•m -1 was made by adding sodium chloride to the medium salinity treatment (Figure 1B).Three irrigation water salinity levels, i.e., 4, 12 and 20 dS•m -1 were applied in main-plots. Characteristics of the irrigation water used in this experiment are presented in Table 2.Nine different organic amendments in addition to a non-treated control were tested in sub-plots. Their characteristics and applied doses are presented in Table 3. The application rate of organic amendments was based on the local farmers' practices and the cost of the products in the region.Figure 2 shows the variation of different climate parameters measured at the local weather station in the experimental site. The crop received a total amount of rainfall equal to 7 mm. Temperature and relative humidity were almost stable during the growing season, with 2 picks of high temperatures exceeding 30°C. The wind speed increased during the growing period (from April to July) and had an average speed of 5.5 m•s -1 .Four individual representative plants (sampled from the average height of randomly measured 10 plants) per plot were harvested (with root) at the beginning of the seed-filling stage, when leaves were still in the plants. All plant organs, including roots, stems, leaves, and panicles were separated and weighed (fresh weight). Root volume, length, and width of different organs were recorded, and then all plant materials were oven dried for 48 hours at 60°C to obtain a constant dry weight. Phenological observation such as days to appearance of 1 st flowers; and the number of flowering plants were counted every 2 days interval until reached the 50% of the whole subplot were measured.The harvest was manually carried out for each row on July 29th, 2021. Fresh biomass was first determined, then the harvest product was oven dried until a constant weight of dry biomass was reached. Afterward, the biomass was threshed, and grains were collected, cleaned, and weighed to determine the seed yield. The harvest index (HI) was calculated as the ratio of seed yield to total dry biomass. Furthermore, crop water productivity (CWP) was calculated by dividing the seed yield by the total irrigation amount applied (also with rainfall).Soil electrical conductivity (ECe) and humidity were measured using Decagon TEROS 10 and 12 at the rootzone depth of 15 cm. Data were recorded every 15 minutes and stored in the Decagon ZL6 data logger. Soil salinity and humidity sensors were placed for sheep manure application's plot under three irrigation water salinity treatments. While, soil moisture sensors were installed for biochar, compost, and sheep manure plots under low salinity treatment (4 dS•m -1 ) to compare the soil water retention for this three amendments.Samples of soil, irrigation water, and organic amendments were analyzed in the AITTC-UM6P (Agricultural Innovation and Technology Transfer Center-Mohammed VI Polytechnic University) central laboratory following the Kjeldahl method for   Experimental design showing allocation of main and sub-plot treatments (A), Layout of the irrigation water distribution system in the experimental plots (B).nitrogen, ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry) for other elements such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, copper, manganese, iron, zinc, and boron. While the bicarbonates (HCO 3 ) concentrations in the irrigation water were measured using the method ISO 9963-1 (ISO, 1994).Chlorophyll a (Chl a), Chlorophyll b (Chl b), and total chlorophyll were analyzed using the methodology as described by Peŕez-Patricio et al. (2018). 0.5 g of fresh quinoa leaves were macerated under low luminosity conditions. The macerate was mixed with 4 mL of 99% acetone and 2 mL of ethanol (2:1 v/v), then stirred for 1 min. After 30 minutes in a dark freezer, the solution was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes, then 5 mL of acetone/ethanol (2:1 v/v) was added to the mixture and stirred for 1 min. The spectrophotometer was used to measure photosynthetic pigments at 663 nm and 645 nm. The solution of acetone/ethanol (2:1 v/v) was used as a blank solution. The following equations are used to calculate the concentration of chlorophyll a and b pigments: The determination of mineral content of quinoa leaves was performed according to the protocol as described by Pequerul et al. (1993). The dried leaf samples were finely ground and sieved through a 2 mm pore sieve. Samples were further prepared by adding 8 ml of nitric acid (HNO3) to the grounded material (0.5 g), it was placed in a digestion tube and left overnight. The mixture was then heated at 90°C for 60 minutes and 3-4 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was added. The digestion process was stopped once the solution became colorless, and after cooling, the digest was filtered and diluted with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The elemental determination of sodium and chloride in extracted samples was carried out by using a flame photometer (FP902, PG Instruments).The proline content of quinoa leaf was determined as described by Bates et al. (1973) with minor modifications. Briefly, 0.5 g of grounded quinoa leaf was weighed and homogenized with 3% 10 mL of sulfosalicylic acid. After that, 2 mL of the mixture was added to 2 mL of glacial acetic acid, and 2 mL of 2% ninhydrin solution were added. The mixture is incubated in a water bath at 95°C, after cooling in an ice bath, proline was extracted with 4 mL of toluene, the mixture is discarded, and the top layer was extracted, and its absorbance was measured at 520 nm. Proline concentration was calculated using a calibration curve of L-proline (0-40 μg/mL) and expressed as μmole Proline/g of fresh weight.Saponins extraction was carried out using the method of (Navarro del Hierro et al., 2018) with slight modifications. Briefly, 5 g of each quinoa seed's powder was placed in a filter paper cartridge and defatted using the Soxhlet apparatus with Hexane (1:10 w/v) as solvent. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of saponins was performed with methanol (1:10 w/v). Extraction was carried out using an ultrasonic probe at 60% amplitude for 15 min (3 cycles of 5 min). The mixture was filtered through Whatman paper N°1. The mixture was centrifuged, and the supernatant was dried under vacuum and then reconstituted in 5 mL of methanol.The total saponins content was determined using the modified method of Lim et al. (2020). 0.25 ml of saponin extract was added to 1 mL of reagent mixture (glacial acetic acid/sulfuric acid 1:1 v/v) and vortexed. After that, the mixture was incubated at 60°C in a water bath for 30 min and then placed in an ice bath to cool. The absorbance of the sample was read at 527 nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (VWR International, USA). Oleanolic acid was used to prepare the calibration curve (0 -1000 mg/mL). Total saponins content was expressed as g of oleanolic acid equivalent/ 100 g DW.Total phenolic content was determined as reported by Goḿez-Caravaca et al. (2011). Aliquots of 200 mL of each sample were mixed with 1 mL of 10% Folin reagent and left to stand for 6 min at room temperature in the dark. Then, 800 mL of Na2CO3 7.5% (w/ v) was added to the mixture and placed in the dark to react for 30 min before measuring the optical densities at 750 nm. A control was prepared also and gallic acid was used as a reference standard to prepare the calibration curve. The total phenolic content was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g of DW.Determination of the scavenging activity of quinoa extract was conducted using the 2.2-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) assay according to the procedure previously described by Fischer et al. (2013). Briefly, 4.9 mL of a 0.1 mM methanolic solution of DPPH (violet color) was mixed with 100 mL of different concentrations of quinoa extract. The tubes were allowed to react in the dark for 30 min at room temperature. The loss of violet color of the mixture was measured at 517 nm. A positive control containing methanol instead of the sample was prepared and Trolox (0-12 μmole) was used to prepare the standard curve. Results are expressed as μmol of Trolox per gram of extract (μmol TE/g E).The method described by Yang et al. (2022) was used to measure the activity of scavenging ABTS radical cation (ABTS+). Initially, a stock solution of ABTS was created by mixing 7.4 mM of an aqueous solution of ABTS with 2.6 mM of an aqueous solution of potassium persulfate and allowing it to sit in the dark at room temperature for 12 hours. The ABTS+ cation solution was then diluted with methanol until its absorbance value was 0.7 ± 0.02 at 734 nm. Next, 100 mL of phenolic extracts were added to 2 mL of the ABTS+ cation solution and incubated in the dark for 10 minutes at room temperature. Finally, the absorbance of the mixture was measured at 734 nm. Results are expressed as μmol of Trolox equivalents per gram of extract (μmol TE/g E).The modified method of Lim et al. (2020) was used to determine the reducing power of quinoa extract. In brief, each sample's extract (0.5 ml) was mixed with 1.25 ml of 0.2 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 1.25 ml of 30 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) and incubated at 68°C for 20 min. Then, 1.25 ml of 0.6 M trichloroacetic acid was added, and the mixture was centrifuged at 4032xg for 10 min. The supernatant was collected, and 1 ml of distilled water and 0.2 ml of iron (III) chloride were added to 1 ml of the supernatant. This mixture was kept at room temperature for 15 min, and the absorbance of the final test solution was measured at 700 nm using a spectrophotometer. Results are expressed as μmol of Trolox equivalents per gram of Dry weight (μmol TE/g DW).Statistical analysis was performed using the statistical programming language R 4.1.3. The additive model of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the effects of salinity and organic amendments on the monitored parameters. Then, Tukey's multiple comparison tests was conducted to appraise the significant differences between the mean values at a 5% level of significance. Pearson's correlation matrix was performed to investigate the strength of the linear relationship between variables and visualized using the \"corrplot\" package. Principal component analysis (PCA) was utilized to examine the correlation among the traits and evaluate the impact of the factors on the identified correlation patterns. To perform the PCA, the \"factominer\" and \"factoextra\" packages were used, and the factors were projected as supplementary qualitative variables.Variations of different monitored morphological traits of quinoa as affected by salinity level and organic amendments are presented in Table 4. Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference between tested salinity levels and organic amendments. In general, the salinity effect was not consistent from one parameter to another. For instance, an increase in salinity level resulted in a reduction of the most investigated parameters, while salinity did not significantly affect root length, root volume, and the number of panicles per plant. For some parameters such as panicle width, panicle dry weight, leaves dry weight, and plant dry weight, the highest values were recorded under the highest salinity level (20 dS•m -1 ). However, organic amendments effects vary across salinity levels. On average, the highest values of different investigated parameters are recorded under goat manure (PH, PnDW, LDW, and PDW), chicken manure (No.Pn, StDia, RV, RDW, StDW), or Lombricompst for panicle width. Days to flowering were significantly increased with increasing salinity. Under high salinity levels, compost and chicken manure recorded the highest no. of days to flowering (44 days), while sheep manure recorded the lowest (37) days.The analysis of variance revealed that all investigated productivity parameters are affected (p<0.05) by salinity and organic amendments (Table 5). Salinity had a tremendous negative impact on biomass and seed yield, with an average reduction of 21 and 36% for fresh biomass, 25 and 37% for dry biomass, 31 and 52% for seed yield, and 29 and 51% for crop water ). Similarly, harvest index was significantly affected (p<0.05) at the high saline condition, with a decrease of 17% compared to the low salinity (4 dS•m -1 ). Regarding organic amendments, their response was inconsistent between one salinity level to another. For instance, averaged across all salinity levels, the insect frass of Hermetia illucens recorded the highest value in fresh biomass. In contrast, the Tenebrio molitor frass recorded the highest values of dry biomass and seed yield under high salinity. However, under high salinity conditions (20 dS•m -1 ), sheep manure recorded the highest values for dry biomass (1.91 t•ha -1 ), seed yield (1.42 t•ha -1 ), and crop water productivity (0.59 Kg•m -3 ).Results of the soil salinity dynamics under sheep manure and different salinity levels are shown as stacked area plot in Figure 3A. The obtained data indicated that the measured soil ECe is well correlated with the applied salt concentration and varied according to soil moisture, as the soil EC sensors are very sensitive to soil humidity. The daily average of ECe varies from 5 to 15 dS•m -1 , from 4 to 12 dS•m -1 , and from 3 to 8 dS•m -1 , under 4, 12, and 20 dS•m -1 of irrigation water salinity, respectively.Soil moisture was less affected by salinity, and the average daily soil moisture were 19, 24, and 18% under low, medium, and high salinity levels, respectively (Figure 3B). Variations of soil moisture under low salinity level (4 dS•m -1 ) and three different organic amendments are shown in Figure 3C. Measured data clearly indicate that soil moisture varied from one amendment to another. For instance, biochar applied with 5 t•ha -1 holds more water than the compost applied with the same rate. Moreover, it holds more or less the same moisture (20%) as sheep manure applied at a rate of 30 t•ha -1 .Chlorophyll in leaves is essential for plant growth and can be used to determine a plant's reaction to stress. The analysis of variance was conducted to assess the effect of irrigation water salinity on chlorophyll pigments concentration under tested organic amendments (Figure 4). Results indicate a significant effect of irrigation water salinity on chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), and total chlorophyll (Chl tot) contents. As an average of all tested amendments, the maximum concentration in terms of total chlorophyll was about 9.84 ± 1.43 mg/g of FW under medium salinity (12 dS•m -1 ). However, organic amendments significantly affected the contents of all measured pigments, except for chlorophyll b content under low salinity levels. While the insect frass of H. illucens and sheep manure significantly increased the total chlorophyll concentration by 76% and 61%, respectively, compared to the control under high salinity conditions (20 dS•m -1 ). Additionally, no significant difference was recorded for the chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b ratio under salinity conditions and for all tested organic amendments. Different letters indicate a significant difference between salinity levels (uppercase letters) and between organic amendments (lowercase letters) at p < 0.05 level of significance using the Tukey post-hoc test. ECiw, Electrical conductivity of irrigation water.Analysis of variance revealed a significant effect (p < 0.01) of salinity and organic amendments on sodium content of quinoa.Conversely, the potassium content was not affected by the salinity treatments, and the effects of the organic amendments were only noticeable in the medium and high salinity conditions, which is demonstrated in Table 6. Results indicate an increase of 75% in sodium accumulation under high salinity (20 dS/m) compared to low salinity conditions (4 dS/m). In terms of amendment, goat manure was found to decrease sodium accumulation on the leaves of quinoa with 0.85 and 1.45 g/100g DW, under low and medium irrigation water salinity (12 dS/m), respectively. However, under high salinity conditions, sheep manure was more efficient in decreasing the sodium content (1.66 g/100g DW), increasing the potassium accumulation (12.53 g/100g DW), and subsequently resulting in a higher K/Na ratio (7.88).Accumulating endogenous osmolytes in a plant's leaf is a valuable indicator of the tolerance to osmotic stress. Free proline content measured under different irrigation water salinity levels and various organic amendments in quinoa leaves is shown in Figure 5. Data showed a significant increase of proline content by 38% from low to high salinity levels. However, amendments significantly decreased the proline level compared to the control at high salinity conditions. Meanwhile, Compost exhibited the highest proline content (24.9 μmole of Proline/g of FW), while sheep manure showed the lowest value (3.81 μmole of Proline/g of FW).Saponins are a class of compounds found in a wide variety of plants and are known for their characteristic bitter taste. The saponins content was measured in quinoa seeds in response to various organic amendments under three different salinity levels. Results presented in Figure 6 showed a significant increase in saponins content when salinity increased in different amendments averaging values of 0.45 ± 0.21, 0.59 ± 0.29, 1 ± 0.48% of DW under salinity levelsStacked area plot of daily soil salinity (ECe) dynamics during the crop growing period measured under sheep manure amendment and three irrigation water salinity levels at 0-10 cm soil depth (A). Stacked area plot of daily soil moisture dynamics during the crop growing period measured under sheep manure amendment and three irrigation water salinity levels at 0-10 cm soil depth. (B), and under three organic amendments (sheep manure, compost, and biochar) measured at irrigation water salinity of (4 dS•m-1) (C), at 0-15 cm soil depth.  Variation of quinoa's leaf Proline content under different salinity levels and various organic amendments. Values represent mean ± standard deviation. Different letters indicate a significant difference between salinity levels (uppercase letters) and between organic amendments (lowercase letters) at p < 0.05 level of significance using the Tukey post-hoc test. El Mouttaqi et al. 10.3389/fpls.2023.1143170 Frontiers in Plant Science frontiersin.org of 4, 12, and 20 dS•m -1 , respectively. Meanwhile, applying organic amendments significantly decreased the seed's saponin content compared to the control in medium and high salinity levels. Hence, the application of goat manure decreased the saponin content by 76% at high salinity conditions compared to the control treatment.Polyphenols are a large group of naturally occurring compounds that are known for their antioxidant properties and are found in a wide variety of plants. The effects of salinity level and organic amendments on the polyphenols content (TPC) in quinoa seeds are presented in Figure 7. Data showed a significant effect of salinity on the production of polyphenolic compounds. Hence, higher salinity levels led to higher phenolic content in different organic amendments. Furthermore, applying different amendment treatments significantly decreased the total phenolic content in quinoa seeds compared to the untreated group. The use of sheep manure recorded the lowest value of TPC under a highly saline irrigation supply (133.52 mg GAE/g of DW). At the same time, the compost significantly increases the TPC in quinoa seed from 53.55 ± 1.23 to 349.48 ± 7.99 mg GAE/100 g of DW under 4 and 20 dS•m -1 , respectively.Plants' antioxidant mechanism is triggered in response to the abiotic stress caused by excess salt exposure. This mechanism involves the activation of various enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants that work to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced under abiotic stress. The antioxidant capacity of quinoa seed is measured by DPPH, ABTS, and ferric-reducing antioxidant capacity. Quinoa seeds exhibited good antioxidant activity (AOX) across different groups of amendments, as depicted in Table 7. Compared to the control group, all amendment groups showed higher AOX when measured using the ABTS and FRAP assays, although there was no significant variation in antioxidant activity when measured using the DPPH assay. At ECiw = 4 dS/m, the highest AOX value was recorded in T. molitor frass using the DPPH assay (147.45 ± 1.15 μmol TE/g E), followed by H. illucens frass (147.22 ± 1.7 μmol TE/g E). Goat manure exhibited the highest FRAP value of 11.13 ± 0.99 μmol TE/g DW at ECiw = 20 dS/m, while compost showed the maximum value of 34.78 ± 2.3 μmol TE/ g DW when measured using the ABTS assay at ECiw = 20 dS/m.Figure 8A presents the correlation between the investigated parameters. Results indicate a significant positive correlation among agro-morphological traits. In contrast, days to flowering negatively correlate with almost all agro-morphological and crop productivity parameters. However, total saponin content (TSC), total polyphenol (TPC), and proline content have a significant negative correlation with dry biomass and seed yield.The principal plan explains 61% of the total variability in agromorphological and productivity parameters (Figure 8B), and 49% for the relationship between productivity traits and biochemical and Variation of seed saponin content in quinoa as affected by different irrigation water salinity levels and organic amendments. Values represent mean ± standard deviation. Different letters indicate a significant difference between salinity levels (uppercase letters) and between organic amendments (lowercase letters) at p < 0.05 level of significance using the Tukey post-hoc test.El Mouttaqi et al. 10.3389/fpls.2023.1143170 Frontiers in Plant Science frontiersin.org Variation of quinoa phenolic content under different salinity levels and various organic amendments. Values represent mean ± standard deviation.Different letters indicate a significant difference between salinity levels (uppercase letters) and between organic amendments (lowercase letters) at p < 0.05 level of significance using the Tukey post-hoc test. physiological measurements (Figure 8C). Plotting the treatments as a supplementary qualitative variable indicates that the clustering could be revealed, especially for the irrigation water salinity treatment. However, most of the organic amendments are not well presented on the first two dimensions. The results indicate that productivity parameters, such as biomass production and seed yield, are positively correlated with low salinity treatment (4 dS/m). Consequently, the same productivity parameters had a strong negative correlation with high salinity treatment (20 dS/m).In terms of biochemical composition, the factor analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between TSC, TPC, ABTS, FRAP, Proline, and sodium content with the high salinity treatment (20 dS/m), while low salinity treatment is mainly associated with a high K/Na ratio. Regarding the organic amendments, T. molitor and H. illucens frass are positively correlated with most of the agromorphological traits, while the non-treated control is positively correlated with TSC and TPC.It is well known that quinoa is a facultative halophyte that resists to high salinity levels without a notable effect on growth and development (Adolf et al., 2013). In contrast, in our experiment the effect of salinity on different measured morphological traits was pronounced, and a significant effect of salinity was noticed. Our findings are aligned with several previous studies reporting the impact of salinity on quinoa growth and productivity. For instance, Long (2016) found that plant height, root length, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, and panicle length were slightly reduced under high salinity conditions with a reduction rate of 13, 17, 9, 12 and 10% under high salinity level (150 mM) compared to the control (0 mM). Similarly, Talebnejad and Sepaskhah (2015) found that salinity increase from 10 to 20 dS•m -1 slightly reduced plant height, shoot and root dry weight by about 3, 10 and 15%, respectively. Contrarily to our results where number of panicles per plant increased by 8% under high salinity, Rezzouk et al. (2020) reported that salinity reduced the number of inflorescence or panicle per plant by 12% under saline compared to non-saline conditions. However, their results in terms of plant height and panicle length are in agreement with the finding of the present study. In relation to the quinoa genotype ICBA-Q5 utilized in our experiment, numerous studies have been carried out in arid regions to evaluate the impact of salinity on quinoa's morphological characteristics. However, a recent study by Shahid and Thushar (2021) indicated a reduction in plant height, number of panicles, and panicle length by 22%, 8%, and 12%, respectively, when subjected to saline irrigation (ECiw = 15 dS/m) in comparison to freshwater irrigation (ECiw = 0.3 dS/m).Regarding quinoa productivity including seed and biomass yield, several studies reported a similar findings for other tested varieties. For example, Jacobsen et al. (2003) found that seed yield of quinoa was reduced by 10% under 20 dS•m -1 compared to 5 dS•m -1 , while under fresh water conditions, the quinoa seed yield was similar to that obtained under 20 dS•m -1 . They also found that the highest seed yield was obtained under 15 dS•m -1 and the lowest yield under seawater salinity level (40 dS•m -1 ) with a reduction rate of only 44% compared to the highest yield. Similarly, (Koyro and Eisa, 2008) showed that quinoa seed yield only decreased by about 15 and 16% under 10 and 20 mM NaCl, respectively compared to the control (0 mM NaCl). While quinoa seed yield was greatly declined under 300 and 500 mM NaCl by 44 and 97% respectively, compared to the control. Similarly to our finding (Iftikhar Hussain et al., 2020) reported that salinity has negatively affected quinoa growth and productivity. In fact, seed yield was reduced by 44 and 60% under 10 and 20 dS•m -1 , respectively compared to the control (0 dS•m -1 ). However, dry biomass yield seemed to be less affected by salinity as it was only reduced by 2 and 3% under 10 and 20 dS•m -1 respectively. Contrarily, in a previous experiment in the same experiment site using the same quinoa variety (ICBA-Q5), Bouras et al. (2022) showed that yield was significantly increased by 27 and 13% under saline irrigation water with EC values up to 12 and 17 dS•m -1 respectively, compared with the control. Similarly, the same experiment showed an increase in biomass yield by 17 and 29% higher at saline irrigation with EC values of 12 and17 dS•m -1 , respectively, compared with the control. All those reported findings showed that quinoa has the ability to resist and produce under high salinity conditions. Quinoa resistance to salinity involves several mechanisms. One of them is its ability to accumulate salt ions in its cells and tissues in order to control and adjust leaf water potential. This enables the plants to maintain cell turgor and therefore, limit transpiration under saline conditions, thus, avoiding physiological damage (Jacobsen et al., 2003). Adolf et al. (2013) summarized the different physiological mechanisms that quinoa deploys to resist to salinity including: (1) stomata regulation and density by maintaining stomatal conductance and reducing stomata density under salinity conditions, (2) exclusion of toxic ions in the salt bladders, (3) osmo-protection by accumulating compatible osmolytes such as proline and mannitol, (4) osmotic adjustment by using inorganic ions such as Na, K and Cl as cheap osmotic in shoot tissue, (5) sodium translocation at xylem parenchyma rather than Na extrusion and (6) potassium retention by increasing K uptake and maintain a high K/Na ratio under salinity conditions. In our experiment, the determination of mineral content indicates a high accumulation of sodium on quinoa leaves under high salinity conditions, resulting in an increase of the K/Na ratio. However, Oumasst et al. (2022) observed a similar trend for sodium accumulation in the ICBA-Q5 variety under arid conditions in the south of Morocco. They found that the sodium content increased tenfold under 10 dS/m of irrigation water salinity compared to 0.9 dS/m salinity level. On the other hand, Bouras et al. (2022) reported no significant effect on the K/Na ratio. However, they found that both sodium and potassium contents increased by 60% and 65%, respectively, under high salinity conditions (17 dS/ m) compared to the control (5 dS/m) at the same experimental site using ICBA-Q5 as a quinoa cultivar.The organic amendment effect on quinoa was reported by several studies to improve its growth and development. Organic amendment mitigates the adverse effects of salinity by several ways including nutrient availability increase, improving soil structure which ease the salt leaching and improve soil aeration, increasing soil water holding capacity, improving soil micro-organisms activity (Diacono and Montemurro, 2015). Thus, plants assimilate more nutrients and water and accumulate more reserves and biomass. The organic amendment can also be beneficial under salinity conditions. Our finding indicates clearly that all tested organic amendments resulted in average more or less similar or higher values of seed and biomass yield compared to the control. Under high salinity conditions (20 dS•m -1 ), most of tested organic amendments have improved quinoa seed yield. For instance, sheep manure and insect frass of Hermetia illucens increased seed yield by 167 and 83% compared to the control. Very few reports are available on the impact of organic amendment on quinoa productivity under salinity conditions. Abdrabou et al. (2022) reported that applying 20 t•ha -1 farmyard manure to quinoa increased seed yield by 6-fold compared to non-treated control. Alcıvar et al. (2018) found that application of biochar, humic substances or both combined significantly improved quinoa root dry weight, root length and seed yield, conversely our study showed that applying biochar at a rate of 5 t•ha -1 under high salinity conditions reduced yield by 11% compared to the control. However, under medium salinity level biochar significantly improved yield by 4% compared with the control. Gill et al. (2020) reported that an application of 20 and 30 t•ha -1 of biochar resulted in a significant increase in quinoa biomass by 54 and 113%, respectively compared to the control. Similarly, seed yield also increased by 116 and 153%, respectively under 20 and 30 t•ha -1 of biochar.The finding of this study revealed that biochar significantly improved seed yield by 4% under medium salinity (12 dS•m -1 ) level compared with the control, with no improvement under high salinity conditions (20 dS•m -1 ). While compost improved seed yield by 21% under low (4 dS•m -1 ) salinity conditions, while it reduced seed yield by 11% under medium salinity level (12 dS•m -1 ) compared to the control. The finding also indicates that soil moisture under low salinity conditions and biochar application was maintained much higher than compost applied with the same dose. It is more probable that the high-water holding capacity of biochar compared to compost is among the factors that led to an improvement of the quinoa biomass and seed yield, especially under salinity conditions (Yang et al., 2020). While under high salinity conditions, quinoa responded better to compost rather than biochar due to its high carbon to nitrogen ratio compared with biochar in which the organic matter is more stable (Table 3).It is very difficult to explain the quinoa yield improvement under different organic amendments and different salinity levels as the behavior of each amendment varies from salinity level to another. Moreover, the yield improvement can be explained by amendment nutrient content, mineralization rate and speed, ability to improve soil water holding capacity, and biological activity. Several soil physical properties are adversely affected by salinity, making it challenging for plants to establish and thrive. The high concentration of sodium ions in the soil causes dispersion and swelling of aggregates, leading to reduced permeability and increased crusting of the soil surface (Arora and Dagar, 2019). To counter these effects, organic amendments such as manures and composts can be added to increase the concentration of humic colloids in the soil, thereby improving the structural stability of soil aggregates and enhancing water-holding capacity (Dorado et al., 2003). Diacono and Montemurro (2011) have reported that animal manure's high negative charge increases the organic carbon content, resulting in a greater cation exchange capacity, which helps in reducing nutrient loss. This is important in enhancing the organic carbon content, available phosphorus, and extractable potassium, making them readily available for plant growth. On the other hand, Goss et al. (2013) conducted a review of several contaminants associated with animal manure that can potentially pose health risks and environmental hazards. These contaminants include pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthic worms, as well as macronutrients and trace elements. These contaminants can infect both farm animals and humans through contaminated feed, food, and water supplies, and thus pose potential limitations and challenges associated with the use of organic amendments in large-scale agricultural production. Other limitations that may face farmers using large amounts of organic amendments under salinity is the consequent costs associated to their purchase and application.Proline is a proteinogenic amino acid that accumulates naturally in plants under various biotic and abiotic stress (Hare and Cress, 1997;El Moukhtari et al., 2020;Pingle et al., 2022). Accumulation of proline in cytosol and plastids of plant tissues engenders the adjustment of cellular osmotic pressure and maintains the plant's cell turgidity (Szepesi and Szollosi, 2018). In this present study, increased salinity level led to an increasing free proline level in different groups of amendments and control. These results agreed with previous studies reporting that salt stress caused a significant increase of proline accumulation by 5-folds in shoots of Indian green gram (Misra and Gupta, 2005), similarly, (Hmidi et al., 2018) showed that proline content and amino acids increase with increasing salinity and duration treatment. Meanwhile, the application of organic amendments in quinoa significantly increased the proline content. In agreement, previous studies reported the accumulation of osmoprotectants in amendmentstreated plants under salt-stress conditions (Flowers and Colmer, 2008;Talaat and Shawky, 2014;Kumari et al., 2022). According to (Patel et al., 2018), an increase in proline content was observed under abiotic-induced stress in Triticum durum treated with Kappaphycus alvarezii sap (K-sap). Overall, the accumulation of proline drastically improves the salt-stress tolerance of plants through different mechanisms, a part of being an osmoprotectant, proline can act as a regulator of redox status and attenuates cell acidity (Talaat and Shawky, 2014). Generally, proline level depends on the crop varieties, duration, and severity of salt stress. However, the accumulation of proline is not a specific indicator of salt stress, as it can be accumulated under different types of stress (drought, temperature) (Szepesi and Szollosi, 2018).Phenolic compounds are a wide range of phytochemicals classified as secondary metabolites, endowed with diverse biological activities, including antioxidant (Sabraoui et al., 2020), antiproliferative (Paludo et al., 2022), hepatoprotective (Jia et al., 2022), and antidiabetic properties (Tatipamula and Kukavica, 2021). Phenolic acids are produced naturally in fruits and vegetable plants under various forms of stress (oxidative stress, salt stress, and drought stress) but also found abandonly in the grain fraction of cereals and crops (Tiozon et al., 2022). In Quinoa, phenolic compounds are present in two forms (soluble free or soluble conjugated to polysaccharides), with the predominance of gallic acid and ferulic acids followed by flavonoids (Pereira et al., 2020). Thus, free phenolic compounds contribute effectively to the sweet flavor of quinoa compared to the conjugated (Suaŕez-Estrella et al., 2018). In the current study, the TPC in quinoa seed ranged from 53.55 ± 1.23 to 841.01 ± 3.16 mg GAE/100 g of DW. In similar studies, (Han et al., 2019) studied the phenolic content of seven different varieties of coloured quinoa, the TPC content varied from 167.2 to 303.8 mg GAE/100 g of DW. Another work by (Mhada et al., 2020) reported values of TPC of 31.67 ± 7.26 and 105.85 ± 5.21 mg GAE/100 g of DW respectively in raw quinoa of two variety (Puno and Titicaca). In addition, at higher concentrations of salinity, TPC tends to increase significantly which is inconsistent with previous reports in which salinity enhances the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds (Petridis et al., 2012;Bistgani et al., 2019). Moreover, the finding of this study revealed that the application of amendments lowered significantly the TPC compared to the untreated quinoa. In a similar study, (Chehab et al., 2020) indicated that compost negatively influenced the phenolic content in olive fruits grown under saline conditions. Generally, environmental stress and particularly salinity stress regulates the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Organic amendments are a rich source of natural antioxidants such as vitamins, and amino acids which could attenuate salt-induced oxidative stress by modulating the antioxidant defense and the chelating activity of this crop (Liu et al., 2021).Saponins are classified as anti-nutritional secondary metabolites of the glycoside family, naturally produced by plants as a response to a large spectrum of environmental abiotic stress; (Szakiel et al., 2011;El Aziz et al., 2019). Based on their chemical, saponins are divided into two main groups: steroidal and triterpenoid, their content varies from one plant to another depending on the variety, geographic location, and genetics (Cheok et al., 2014;Liao et al., 2017). Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal characterized by an abundant level of saponins, 86% is located mainly in the pericarp of the seed (Ando et al., 2002) their concentration in the upper layer is responsible for the bitterness or sweetness of the seed (Suaŕez-Estrella et al., 2018). In the current study, saponins' level content raged from 0.22 ± 0.01 to 2.21 ± 0.07% of the dry weight at different salinity levels. (Mhada et al., 2020), reported similar values: 1.41 ± 0.05 to 2.09 ± 0.29% of dry weight evaluating the saponins content of raw quinoa (Puno and Titicaca). (El Hazzam et al., 2020) indicated a higher value of 6.34%. The bitter flavor of quinoa is a limiting factor and an organoleptic default to its introduction to the human diet. Therefore, different removal techniques have been reported in the literature: wet, dry, and genetics. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to describe the saponin response to organic amendment. When applied, organic amendments effectively reduced the saponin content at different salinity levels, such effect can be attributed to different mechanisms of amendments on attenuating the salinity-induced stress (Kumari et al., 2022). A study (Alam et al., 2020) suggested that organic amendments enhanced antioxidant activity and pea biosynthesis in pea crops grown under arsenic-contaminated soil. (Diacono and Montemurro, 2015) also indicated that organic amendments influence the physicochemical properties of soil due to the flocculation of minerals to organic polymers.The damaging effects of salinity on plants, such as oxidative stress leading to harm to plant proteins, lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage, have been widely recognized. This occurs when excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) interferes with regular metabolism, (Petridis et al., 2012;Bistgani et al., 2019). The study employed three assays (DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP) to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of plant extracts, which involved the transfer of electrons from antioxidants to radicals to stabilize them. The findings indicated that quinoa seed exhibited notable antioxidant activity across various groups, regardless of the salinity level, while amendments significantly boosted the AOX compared to the untreated group. As previous studies have established, the production of phenolic compounds, which are secondary metabolites generated in response to abiotic stress, played a noteworthy role in the antioxidant capacity of a variety of plant species (Tang et al., 2015;Rusli et al., 2022). However, in our study, we did not observe any correlation between the total phenol levels in quinoa extracts and the antioxidant activity. The phenol content in these extracts showed a higher correlation with the results of the reducing power (FRAP) assay than with the DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity (Table 7). It has been noted by other researchers that the total phenol levels in extracts from pseudocereal seeds may not always be linked to their antioxidant activity. Hence, polyphenols from quinoa may be effectively reducing agents for metal ions but may not scavenge DPPH and ABTS efficiently due to steric hindrance (Yawadio Nsimba et al., 2008;Dini et al., 2010;Starzyńska-Janiszewska et al., 2016). The limited correlation observed between the overall phenolic content and the antioxidative activity implies that the primary antioxidants present in the examined seeds could be of a non-phenolic nature such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, and carotenoids. This indicates that the understanding of the sources and mechanisms of antioxidant activity in quinoa is complex and cannot rely solely on total phenol levels. Further investigation is needed to identify the specific compounds responsible for the observed antioxidant activity in quinoa extracts. This could involve the isolation, identification, and quantification of individual polyphenols in quinoa extracts as well as more detailed analyses of their mechanisms of action.This field experiment examined the ability of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) ICBA-Q5 variety to grow under different irrigation water salinity in combination with organic amendments. The finding of this study revealed considerable potential for improving quinoa yield under high salinity conditions through the application of organic amendments. Application of amendments alleviated salinity stress at the physiological level and ensured nutrient availability for plants. Further, saponin accumulation significantly decreased in response to the application of amendments, which represents an excellent opportunity to facilitate post-harvest operation and improve the grain quality of quinoa. Considering the several criteria such as yield, biochemical, and physiological, application of organic amendment is therefore suggested to improve quinoa productivity undersalt affected irrigated drylands such as South of Morocco.","tokenCount":"7945"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eeb2cb7844ccd5d9f76514baa08da520","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/885a71d7-23c0-43fd-8f59-0b497f121942/retrieve","id":"-1338281476"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6d206cdd-493f-4881-93bc-eedac09ada4a","pagecount":"7","content":"Savannakhet Province has a total area of 21,774 square kilometers, and in 2000 it had an estimated population of 757,950, with an average population density of 35 persons per square kilometer (DoP 2000). Agricultural production is the primary activity in the province and rice is the main crop being produce in the rural areas. Existing data suggest that Savannakhet Province has an estimated 116,809 hectares of rain-fed rice fields and approximately 19,801 hectares are irrigated rice fields. The number of livestock production has been recorded to be increasing and, at present, there are 79 pig farms, 19 poultry farms 15,924 man-made fish ponds, and 259 natural fish ponds (PAFO 2002). In terms of resources, Savannakhet is also rich in forest resources; in 2000 it still had 70 percent forest cover and included three national biodiversity conservation areas (NBCA), Phou Xang He (109,900 hectares), Dong Phou Vieng (197,000 hectares), and Xe Bang Noun (150,000 hectares). Economy wise, there are two state production forests in the province: Dong Ka Pho (9,600 hectares) and Dong Si Thounh (212,000 hectares) (MAF 2001cited in Chanthavong, 2004). In partnership with IRRI, NAFRI and the District Agriculture and Forestry (DAFO), CCAFS has selected potential site for Climate-Smart Villages in Ban Phailom, Champone District. A 30km commute from Savannakhet town center on a poorly maintained road.Recent statistic suggests that Phailom Village has approximately 100 households. The population is mainly dominated by women about 430 and men are relatively smaller in proportion, only 269 individuals and 90% are involve in rice farming. At the village setting, rice paddy is estimated to be 222.59 hectares account for the majority of farmland landscape while only 7.82 hectares are considered irrigated land. The terrain in Phailom is classified into 2 terrain types, the Upper Phailom and Lower Phailom. Although the greater part of Ban Phailom is rain-fed rice farming, the lower area has reasonable access to irrigation but only confined to10 households. At a glance, it is evident that access to irrigation among rice farmers is a priority to enhance cropping system and overall farming productivity. As a whole, Savannakhet Province is thought to contain rich in natural resources and immense traditional agriculture production system (rain-fed rice production, aquaculture and small livestock raising) but pressure of change in weather pattern specially prolonged dry season will have a consequential impacts in the dynamics of farming communities undermining food security and livelihoods. The establishment of a CSV pilot site in Savannakhet particularly in Phailom Village is crucial to address the looming food insecurity brought about by changing weather patterns.-Distinguish entry point for potential partnership and work synergy scheme with other organizations currently operating in the selected CCAFS CSV sites.-Provision of indicators that allows us to monitor changes in behaviors and practices of relevant local organization overtime.-Understand of the current status of provision of information/services at the local level that informs farmers' decision making about their livelihood strategies in response to climate change.In order to collect the necessary information, the CSV team conducted a survey focusing on organization that was recorded during the second day of Village Baseline Survey with men and women discussion group. Information collected includes agriculture-related decision making, natural resources management, food security, food crisis, climate change perception and organization service activities.The Organization Baseline Study in Phailom Village was conducted in three days (21 st -23 rd Oct 2014). Organization selected to undergo a follow-up OBS interview was a result of a focus group discussion during the Village Baseline Survey under Topic 2 (Organizational Landscape). CSV team facilitated the discussion and divided men and women, into form 2 gender-specific core groups while performing a parallel discussion session. Discussion was mainly focus on specific themes; 1. Food Security 2. Food Crisis and, 3 Natural Resources Management. The organizations mentioned during the discussion were ranked by the villagers with regards to their importance and roles in the community while complimenting function on different themes. Unfortunately, there are currently few organizations working in Phailom Village. During the Village Baseline Survey (VBS) at least five organizations were identified that have worked in Phailom Village. Correspondence with the villagers during FGD suggests that there are 4 formal organizations operating at local-level but further interview and desktop review confirmed that 3 of the organizations extends their mandate at the provincial level. The remaining organizations are focus mainly on nutrition, health and education. Table 1 elaborates the organization main activities and their areas of work and expertise. The International Rice Research Institute-CCARA, Room to Read and UNICEF had been selected to be interviewed with reference to the previous FGD organizational ranking by villagers during VBS. JICA and the Unknown organization were skipped for interview due to the lack of information provided in the FGD. However, initial correspondent suggest that JICA and the unknown organization mainly help with the provision and construction of rain harvesting jar/containers to facilitate access of water supply for household and home garden use. JICA and the Unknown organization carried out a project in the village but ceased its support (the project was conceded more than 20 years ago) and there were no recorded follow-up project ever since.The complexity in recalling the exact name of the organization was due to the fact that the project has ended a long time ago and was short lived. There was also a difficulty in finding a resource person who can give further information about the previous projects. Therefore, it was decided that only three organizations (see list below) will be prioritized for interview. Project is intended to be completed in the last quarter of 2015. CSV team interviewed the selected organization to explore its mandate and general perspective of implementing a project to pragmatically explore future partnership.Interview was carried out face to face with the person responsible for project implementation (See interviewee names at Annex). To collect its central perspective, CSV team forwarded the OBS questionnaire to the main office and received the information via email. We carried out interview for Room to Read with the Office Manager at the Field Office situated in Southern Province. The office manager has openly given us the detailed information about their project in Phailom Village following information in the OBS questionnaire. Finally, the interview with UNICEF was prearranged at their field office in Savannakhet Province. The interview went according to plan and useful information was collected specially on the vaccination programme being implemented for children under 10 years old in Phailom.This section provides insight to the challenges mentioned during the interview with the representative of the organization.IRRI Climate Change Adaptation in Rain-fed Areas: Data collection through local agencies; maintaining installed equipment; Following standard methods for sampling -crucial for reliable data but mostly difficult to obtain considering local capacity.Room to Read: No challenges recorded in the course of the interview.United Nations Child's Fund: Carrying vaccination drive -Children and infants are having difficulty in accepting injection/jab.At provincial level, natural resources management especially forestry is designated to the Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office (PAFO), Policies are made at the national level, the Ministry of Agriculture and MoNRE oversee national issues on Agriculture and Environment well-being, the mandate is shared to DAFO and finally passed on to the village authority. Any issues arising in forestry in the community is dealt by the village chief and village elders. In Phailom Village, forestry is mainly a community lead initiative, where households shares responsibility in making sure that forest resources in the village are kept intact. Communal land allocated by the government is predominantly managed by the community e.g. designated land for NTFP collection such as community forest. Soil management is an individual task, organic and inorganic fertilizers are intermittently use in farming communities in the province, burning of straw and other crop residue is not regulated. However, there is no known soil conservation effort being carried out in Phailom Village by organization listed above. Majority of farmers use their post-harvest crop residue to feed cattle especially after rice harvest. There is undeniably a need in information dissemination on how to sustainably manage farm landscape. Water resource is scarce in certain part of village and this is exacerbated by drought. Farm owners fetch water from the pond to water their crops and ponds are typically managed by the farmers themselves. The unknown organization promoted rainwater harvesting scheme but was abandoned by the community due to the introduction of a water pipeline by a private company In Phailom, Huaybak organization is responsible in the maintenance and distribution of irrigation, a small fee is required to the immediate users. It is important to acknowledge that at the village level, management of existing natural resources is community-based and communityled in effort.Of all the organizations mentioned only IRRI CCARA project is intended to address adaptation issues for farmers to withstand extreme climate events in the future by providing farmers I important information on the onset and intensity of rainy season. It also promotes optimal timing of farming practices to reduce risks associated with rice production. It is important to note that the project itself is new and on-going and that meaningful project result is still being documented.Main information network used by the farmers to obtain forecast is via different types of Media e.g. Television and radio but the most commonly used means of access is by individual communication i.e. Farmer-to-farmer information sharing whether personal encounter or via mobile phone. In Phailom, capacity building for farmer's organization is therefore essential in the future to reduce risk and alleviate overall climate vulnerability.IRRI CCARA is the sole organization that provides specific activities in tackling climate change. In general, there is seemingly low awareness on climate change issue and limited access to CC information particularly at the village level. It is also important to mention that at the provincial level there is an organization currently being initiated by the GoL and multi-national development agency to address climate change in agriculture sector (See Recommendation section).","tokenCount":"1647"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f035f6e0b6517e8974db125e228cae68","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47683089-4bb3-4849-803f-ab75dd965de7/retrieve","id":"1723062528"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"50909f1d-c4c2-4ade-85cd-6b655197c819","pagecount":"26","content":"Table of Contents 1 Introduction.A field trip and workshop was organized by IPMS for the National Advisory and Learning Committee (NALC) members from March 15 -17 in Tigray (see annex 1 for the workshop program). The workshop was attended by representatives from the 8 Pilot Learning Woredas (PLWs), the 4 Regions, members of the steering committee and staff from national and international stakeholder institutions. A list of participants is attached in Annex 2.During the field trip, participants were shown on-going activities in Atsbi District, one of the IPMS PLW. Emphasis was on demonstrating the market oriented innovation system approach to extension and development activities.During the next two days, the NALC reviewed the overall project purposes and objectives as well as the individual project components i.e. research and development for capacity building, knowledge management, technology and input/output marketing arrangements of IPMS. This included a poster session on commodity development in the different PLWs organized during a cocktail hosted on the evening of 16th. The objectives of were to:Review and refine the project goal, purpose, objectives and overall strategy based on experiences in the first year of implementation Review 2005/06 program and outline program for 2006/07 for project components based on lessons learned, PIP and adjustments made to the project objectives It was further explained that the outputs: Will be consolidated by the project team and incorporated into the program of work and budget for 2006/07 This program of work and budget will be reviewed and adjusted by the project steering committee The steering committee/project manager will present it to the IPMS management Board and CIDA for final approval. put on i) need for increased involvement of stakeholders in accomplishing the project objectives now and in the future ii) the research components being an integral part of the project and iii) the innovation systems approach in which processes, relationships and behaviours are emphasized. Dirk proposed that the lessons learned would be used to refine the project purpose and objective statements.For the project purpose statement it was proposed to include the phrase 'the adoption of the innovation system approach (ISA) by the MoARD' in the statement (replacing the more generally worded improving the efficiency of the government's efforts).A discussion evolved around innovation systems approach and several comments, questions and answers were provided:• Problems exist because the MoARD puts lots of efforts to improve production and once this has been achieved, no one bothers to connect farmers with the market. Partner linkages are therefore required.• It's true that in the past, the focus has been on improving production and now we know that it's important to look at markets as well and the government's strategy is also in line with this.• Previously, we used to think that everyone played their own role but now we expect all of these stakeholders -researchers, MoARD etc to work together to bring about change. How do we deal with traders? Perhaps we need special institutional arrangements? For market orientation development, we should learn to look at the bigger picture.• The concept of including all stakeholders is a good one. We should ensure that stakeholders producing inputs are also included.• People who don't have a job may not realize that there are indeed jobs available, so we should try to build their capacity and this should be part of the project purpose. Perhaps entrepreneurship courses could be offered. Capacity building is one of the project's components. The purpose statement is a broad statement and is at the higher level so we cannot include all of the project components in this broad statement since it would make the statement too long. However, at the lower level capacity building and entrepreneurship are included.• It seems that there is a shift in the objectives from before, there seems to be an improvement in the service aspect to adopt an ISA. Are we moving too far away from the original goal and focusing more on the process? If we focus more on the ISA will the agriculture problem in Ethiopia be solved? This is how it sounds to me i.e. it's because we haven't taken this approach that Ethiopia has problems and that following the ISA will solve all problems. It seems that the purpose of this project will be to push the ISA. This is a new approach throughout the world and are we sure that it will work that well? Does this purpose statement include all outcomes/objectives of the project?• We are seeing that there are more clarifications and our approach was commodity based development at the Woreda level when we originally (at PRA) made these plans e.g. Fogera rice, fish etc. When Dirk made his presentation it looked like there is going to be a change from commodity to innovation systems approach?The system may not be clear to everyone so it must be clearly defined, what exactly is this system? Are we being derailed from the original project purpose?The ISA seems to be predetermined by the project as the only viable approach.• We can look at past lessons, what is the status of Ethiopia, especially in the mountainous north, the capability of the farmers and their resource endowment is variable. We need to plan according to the characteristics of the area, mountainous, swampy etc. Such planning can not only be conducted at the macro level because you can't just make plans and tell farmers to go forward with these plans. We may end up depending on individuals to do development and these individuals may have indigenous knowledge, or have gone to school, or learned from experience. Sasakawa global 2000 did top down commodity planning which was effective and increased productivity and farmers were given cattle as incentive. However, the next year, the same farmers wouldn't continue to produce those commodities and had their reasons for this action, they have diverse needs and may not be concerned only with the financial implications of a project. The ISA as I understand is not top down but is inclusive of all stakeholders and is demand driven. We all need to have the same understanding of ISA.• All questions so far have focused on ISA and if we clarify this issue it will address many of the questions and concerns raised so far. In the past, with extension, we take new technologies and make sure they are adopted but the new technologies never looked at the result but ISA looks like it will do this.• ILRI has an ISA program -(Theme 2) and it takes some time to absorb this concept because we all have different backgrounds. Even within ILRI, people are still struggling with the concept. ISA tries to avoid imposing on people to concentrate on certain commodities; e.g. when we chose fish in Fogera as a priority commodity, we did so by going through a process. processes and approaches it also involves partner linkages, learning and knowledge management.• We need to understand the difference between a knowledge/technology versus innovation. Unless knowledge/technology is used, it is not an innovation (knowledge dissemination, uptake and application). We also need to know the difference between an organization and an institution. EIAR is an organization and so is the MoARD, the institutions are the rules of the game, and there are formal and informal rules. Innovation includes all actors, process and rules of the game. We are not only talking about knowledge creation but also dissemination and application. You asked the question why didn't we succeed in the past? We focused on knowledge creation. Who are the people who should be involved in that process? We should focus more on innovations, partnerships and institutional arrangements.• We deal with many actors but we forget about our partners, if we make the linkages, we ensure that technologies are utilized. The commodities we are working on in the PLWs are the commodities that are being produced, our target is not developing the commodities per se but the systems that can lead to effective market orientation of such commodities.• Let's simplify what ISA means in IPMS. First of all it's a system which has many actors and this project should include the public sector, researchers, and communities. Beyond IPMS, the purpose of the ISA is to bring together different actors to achieve market success. There are different levels of complexity but the basics for our purpose is just this.• It looks like we're heading in one direction and the concern is to try to understand, we are not saying that the approach is incorrect. So if we make the purpose statement even longer this may create problems. Instead, let's make it shorter but with more definitions and explain vague things such as the ISA, market orientation etc for future use as well as for other people. If we look at the picture in the ILRI handout, explaining the themes, the approach that is used is very clear and it may be better to use the same method by keeping key phrases and words such as ISA, transform, sustainable development etc.• There are 2 words that are confusing -innovation and invention. A researcher invents something and that thing is used well, but we cannot call it an innovation. Innovation may be defined as the use of an invention.• The ISA is indeed a confusing concept and I believe there are 3 aspects that may help to understand it better i) Systemic thinking -holistic and within it there are actors, who are they? ii) Multiple actors which means partners are necessary iii) process of learning by doing.• We need to understand what ISA is and we need a clear understanding before we include it in the purpose statement.• I have no problem with the concept of ISA, but at the purpose level should we state adoption of an approach? It could be one approach among the others. At this level I think we should say something more than the adoption of one approach, the project should use more approaches.• We understand it but is it important to include it in the purpose, should we take that as one approach among many or is it the approach that IPMS plans to take? If so we need to convince the group here that it is indeed acceptable.Besides the discussions on ISA, the following comments, questions were raised on the purpose statement:• Do we need to mention market orientation, i.e. isn't the statement inclusive of it?• Even if we have market orientation in the statement, we do other things such as NRM, which will have a long term impact and there are also activities related to biodiversity which has many impacts on diversity. For instance, many people are rushing to go to Metema because of sesame but this will impact the environment, and there is concern from farmers about shortage of water. We need to include environment in the purpose statement.• Why do we say MoARD in the purpose statement? This implies that we are limited to the federal government.• We may have to look at the outcome indicators proposed to measure progress in achieving the project purpose to reflect the ISA.To increase stakeholder understanding of innovation systems, IPMS will organize some introductory courses for key stakeholders.To introduce an innovation system perspective in Agricultural and Rural Development, linked to other stakeholders to transform agricultural productivity and production, and rural development in Ethiopia in an environmentally sustainable way for market oriented agricultural development.(Existing purpose statement: To strengthen the effectiveness of the Government's efforts to transform agricultural productivity and production, and rural development in Ethiopia)To reflect that the various activities in the knowledge management component are subject to testing and will therefore be closely monitored, it is proposed to include the word test in the objective statement. Participants stressed that the statement should be all inclusive of the ministry of agriculture at federal, regional and PLW levels. Participants also stressed that it should be clear that the system should provide information for private sector partners as well. Based on this, the following refined statement is proposed:To develop and test a gender sensitive agricultural knowledge management system in the agricultural research and development (ARD) that will enable Ethiopian institutions, farmers, pastoralists and private sector to adopt appropriate technologies from research and development institutions based in Ethiopia and elsewhere.To reflect the fact that in an innovation system approach, different partners are linked for a common goal, it is proposed to combine in one objective, the capacity building activities of the different partners, including linking mechanisms and processes. Presently, the capacity building of private sector partners and farmers is included in the third objective. Also to reflect the fact that the capacity building activities are subject to testing and will therefore be closely monitored, it was proposed to include the word 'test' in the objective statement. Participants agreed and the following statement is proposedTo build, test and strengthen gender balanced capacity of existing public and private organizations and individuals (farmers, pastoralist, traders) engaged in the agricultural sector to foster institutional learning and change so that new collaborative arrangements across sectors and levels are developed to better support the dissemination, use and impact of market oriented agricultural technologies and information.In the previous objective statement, emphasis was put on capacity development of farmers and private sector partners, but this has now been incorporated in the second objective. This objective therefore is reformulated as follows:To introduce, test and strengthen gender sensitive processes, approaches and methods to facilitate the introduction and adoption/adaptation of technologies and, innovative input/output marketing arrangements and small scale agri business financing in PLWs in support of market oriented development.It was proposed to broaden this objective statement to accommodate advocacy of the policy and approaches developed and tested and to indicate that the project also has international relevance.Participants provided the following feedback• I have some concern about the word advocacy although we do need people who know how to influence the change process. For research institutions like ILRI, we try to provide information/evidence to all involved so that they can make better decisions. If we do advocacy we will be seen as an institute who has a certain position and that's not the goal of this project. ILRI should have a more proactive approach to improve livelihoods of poor people.• When we look at the objectives we need to look at linkages, since we have the gender sensitivity in all objectives, we should include that in the purpose statement.• It's important to have the concept of advocacy because we haven't done any promotion activities, but the word 'advocacy' is too strong so perhaps we should reword it as 'promotion of results'.• The project was initiated by the government and the policy makers are waiting for the results of the project. I feel that the word communicate will capture what we are trying to do in advocacy. I am also concerned with the international relevance that will be expected from this project (IPGs), since this project is an Ethiopian project. Information obtained from this project may be useful for other countries but should this be an objective of the project?• The advocacy statement doesn't give the correct idea, it should be more of a PR concept. The government is looking for results/outputs so we need to communicate this and PR will work for the public, decision makers and the scientific community. There should be an inbuilt activity of a project that does PR and we should find the proper terminology to reflect this.• Instead of advocacy, perhaps we should use the word promotion -one for policy makers, scientific community (journals), users (beneficiaries), and should also be prepared in local languages so that the farmers can easily make use of the information.• We can learn from the IPMS experience but international relevance shouldn't be an objective on its own. Also, does gender have to be mentioned everywhere? We should be careful because if we are mentioning this in every objective just to mention it and we don't fulfil that goal in a gender sensitive way, it may be problematic. Perhaps we should only mention it when we are certain?• Regarding the IPG issue, the project belongs to the MoARD and the focus of this project is Ethiopia which is a unique place. However, there is general information that will be useful for other CG centers and can be applied to other places. Also, this is a two way street, there could also be international information that can be applied to Ethiopia. So this concept will be used to compare what works here to what works in other places. But I do want to reiterate that the focus of this project is what is going to work in Ethiopia.• When the MoARD requested that ILRI prepare this proposal, it was to see what knowledge could be used here in Ethiopia, from other CG centers.• CIDA should be happy that the project will be making an impact beyond EthiopiaBased on this discussion the following revised objective statement is proposed:To generate, communicate and promote gender sensitive policy options and strategies, on technology generation and use, input/output marketing and small scale agri finance for scaling out and up market oriented agricultural development of national and international relevance.Participants did observe that gender sensitivity was mentioned in all objective statements, which prompted the following comments/clarifications:• Regarding gender in development, we should know that the relationship between men and women should also be about how to share resources. It isn't just about men and women but is much more than that.• We must promote the gender issue but this should not be confused with social objectives, i.e. promoting market activities. Rather than saying advocate, maybe we should say, 'strengthening the advocacy capacity of…'• Gender is a cross cutting issue in all our developmental work. Also when we promote markets, gender has to be considered. This is CIDA's policy as well as other NGOs.• It may look a bit too much when you have gender sensitivity everywhere but we are also actively mainstreaming gender and HIV/AIDS in our activities and we understand that we may come up with outputs that may not be gender sensitive, but it is important to recognise and be aware of such outputs, to alleviate negative impacts.• If we don't understand the concept of gender, we will have problems. To me, on a higher level, gender means the old, the young, the handicapped etc. There may be types of people (the elderly for instance) who are disadvantaged.Presentations were made by Dr Ranjitha Puskur -IPMS innovation system specialist and Dr Azage Tegegne -IPMS technology specialist , highlighting what had been accomplished and what was planned for 2006/07 (see attachments in the Annex). Specific attention was paid to the processes followed in the PLWs during the planning phase and it was stressed that new institutional structures were required for implementation and participation by various stakeholders, including commodity platforms and innovation systems team supporting the RALCs and WALCs. The issue of selecting additional PLWs in each Region (bringing the total number of PLWs to 12) to test the scaling up of processes, approaches and methods was also introduced. This would start with the initial identification of priority commodities and potential interventions in the value chain in the new sites.For capacity building, particular emphasis was put on a proposal for additional MSc/BSc training in support of the innovation systems approach for a market orientated agricultural development. Finally, the need for experimentation in extension and the role of the farmer training centers (FTCs) was presented.Based on these presentations, 3 working groups were formed to discuss the following topics in more depth.i) Selection of additional PLWs for testing scaling out of processes ii) Innovative capacity building iii) Innovative extensionThe reasons and time frame for scaling out were discussed in the group. Based on this, it was felt that it may be too early (not enough proof that a market oriented approach works) and that the reasons were not clear. It was also recommended to leave this choice to the RALCs since they would be involved in the implementation. (See presentation in the Annex)Participants agreed with the latter and the project team is expecting a response from the RALCs in the next month. It needs to be stressed that this modification in the project is also subject to approval by the M?BoARD and CIDA.The group touched on various issues including the MSc/BSc training (see presentation in Annex). During the plenary some more discussion took place around the composition and role of the WALC. The need for flexibility to accommodate partners based on the specific situations in the PLWs was emphasized. It was also stressed that the capacity building should not be limited to MSc and BSc training. Short term in service training should also be emphasized.The group deliberated on 4 main areas -i) new role of extension, ii) M & E system, iii) role of FTCs and iv) use of woreda information center (see presentation in the Annex).During the plenary session, some additional points were made by IPMS staff and participants on the new extension system:• How do we go forward with extension playing a new role? The important thing that comes out is that there is a serious gap between research and extension. This area needs a lot of work. Regarding the issue of decentralization, Woredas have no control over what's going on in their Woredas and everything is being handed down from the federal government. The FTC curricula are developed at regional level and given to Woredas and they are never consulted in the process. Should IPMS start developing curriculum for FTCs? IPMS is more focused on short term courses for farmers, based on their needs. In terms of human capacity, and the DAs that have been trained at the TVETs, their training should be 30% theory and 70% practical training. But what actually happens is the reverse. So when these DAs start working, they have no idea about the situation on the ground. The operational funds are just enough to pay salaries of DAs and the plan is to build more FTCs. Perhaps the construction of these FTCs should be stopped and money should be spent on operationalising the already created FTCs. It should be clear that IPMS is not there to provide funds for operational expenses of FTCs, but would invest in capacity building of DAs and provide support for implementing participatory and market-oriented extension approaches.• We recently conducted a small survey of TVET training on newly graduated DAs and those who have been working for 2 years. In terms of training, all have received the reverse of what they should have been received (i.e. 30% theory and 70% practical). We will be in trouble if we expect these new graduates to train farmers. We have a curriculum that has been developed without any consultation with the Woredas. IPMS should talk to policy makers to allow flexibility at all levels. We should identify trainings based on the needs of the farmers, e.g. coffee, livestock system and haricot beans otherwise we are going to be asking farmers to attend text book based trainings.• My expectation of IPMS will also be to focus on the role of FTCs and should not dilute what the government is doing. IPMS should show a clear strategy on what can be done with FTCs. When developing curriculum at the federal level, we have to realistically discuss the issues and the experts must do the designing. I agree with consulting the Woredas but they don't have the capacity and we can't develop curriculum for each Woreda and each commodity. IPMS should tell the government that they may need to limit the number of FTCs and give them advice on what they should do and play the leading role in advising the government.Otherwise if we sit in a small circle like this and criticize the system, it will not work.• Do we understand what we are talking about? We have so many different variations in the environment even within close distances, e.g. Wukro and Atsbi. So when thinking of FTC intervention we have to take into consideration the differences and it's quite difficult to understand the reality on the ground. In some cases, the local varieties are better than the so called improved variety. No focus was given on apiculture so maybe an FTC should focus just on apiculture and maybe the knowledge input on the curriculum will come then.Dr Azage prepared an overview of the input research and development activities during the past year (see presentations in Annex). The presentation also provided an overview of the potential interventions and research areas for crop and livestock input supply in the coming year. Emphasis was put on the role of the private sector in the supply of these inputs.The following issues were raised/responded to:• Input supply is major development problem. For instance with chickpea, there is a shortage of seed in terms of the existing demand and even the seed will not be ready for the farmers when they need it. By the time the seeds are made available, the demand may not be there. There is a need to find a way where the technology is quickly provided to the farmers, i.e. creating a line where the technology reaches the farmers quickly when the demand is there.• The way we go with extension shows that what we are doing is not planned and that we are doing things in an ad hoc manner but this is not fair, and there should be a balanced view. Regarding input supply, when there is market failure, the government needs to react. Market failure requires that we do this type of work.Cooperatives and the private sector must also be able to provide some inputs and their cooperation should be enhanced so that we improve input supply. Improved seed supply is being provided on the most part by the government. How can we improve this system? IPMS must find innovative ways of improving this current system. The way we are going now may not result in sustainable development projects so in terms of input supply and extension, the project must find new innovative ways of improving these systems. We don't expect vehicles and buildings from this project but need innovative ways to improve and add value to this system.• We need to appreciate the efforts that are currently being put forth. If we don't do that, then we will have the same outlook on future attempts. Let's add value to the existing system, for instance supporting the private sector which is currently being done by the government. The project is not going to bring anything new but build on the existing system. For instance, new coffee seeds were produced but none of the farmers wanted them and we had to beg them to accept these new seeds.• The current problems are that there is no effective/efficient input supply, and some inputs are not readily available, especially when farmers need them the most. There is also a sustainability problem with supply; there isn't enough for next year or the future. There is no creativity; the government always follows the same system year after year. The creativity will come from the private sector, since at that point it will be profit and business driven. Many of the problems are due to the fact that input supply is controlled by the government so we should try hard to see how this can be moved to the private sector. The way we try to justify this is by saying that the farmer does not have capacity, well let's try to build that capacity. Since input supply should be handled by the private sector, how can we strengthen the private sector? The government distorts the market and this is sometimes encouraged by NGOs, so with the IPMS project, we need to change this. Input supply should be market driven.• Why would the government raise seedlings when we can contract farmers to do this? This is very expensive & inefficient and supply is provided at a subsidized rate to farmers. Why not train or raise capacity of private traders to do it legally?The subsidies distort the market.• When markets fail because of national disasters for instance, we appreciate the government's help in terms of input supply. Why does the MoARD consider input supply as one of its responsibilities? What favorable and enabling situations have we created for the private sector to enter and start operating? We keep doing it year in and year out. Let's experiment on some options and try to scale that out to other areas. Let's start testing and experimenting in a few areas. We are not saying that the government is failing everywhere. At this stage IPMS has nothing to offer but has now started monitoring a few areas and we will provide info on improved input supply system -considering alternatives is a must!• We do know that there are weak areas where we need to improve and we are not discrediting the efforts of the government but can we look at available alternatives? We appreciate that there are differences between regions and these are documented and we are trying to learn success stories to pass them onto those who can make use of them.• You have given us a direction about effectiveness and efficiency. We will verify and come up with facts and figures. Yes, the current input supply system is not sustainable and we cannot continue with the government's approach.• What is the best alternative for this country to move into a market oriented system? We are trying to assess what alternatives there are and this will be documented and forwarded to you. Maybe the coffee experience will be applicable for fruit?• We need strategic thinking and the government cannot continue like this in terms of input supply, we all agree with this. But we need to create awareness and the role of extension role should be creating this demand. Regarding the livestock extension system, AI failed at the national level, this is a national issue so IPMS should look at the livestock extension system at the national level and revise it.• I don't agree that the government continues to be involved. How do they get out?In terms of livestock, seed etc, farmers need access, availability, and quality standards regulation. If there is a calamity, the government bears the burden and if everything is transferred to the private sector, there will be problems since they may try to take advantage of the situation. But how the government gets out needs to be thought about strategically and done slowly so that it is sustainable. The private sector will always have the profit margin in mind.• The government needs to create a favorable environment for the private sector, we all agree. But when the whole system is released to the private sector, what can happen? The private sector must bear the burden and the government only interferes when the private sector can no longer handle things. There are countries where the government always intervenes if the situation affects the economy. In Europe, agriculture is highly subsidized but we are being told here that the government shouldn't be involved. I also don't agree that the private sector will always be interested in their profit margin. The government should monitor and shouldn't interfere unless it's absolutely necessary such as when farmers will be affected. The proposal for us to start experimenting is acceptable to me but what do we experiment on? IPMS should find out about the research methods that are available and see what's applicable to Ethiopia. This should be a joint effort with everyone.• One of the first two things that we did after the PRA is to critically assess the extension system and we have learned lessons from that. There are very serious problems of input supply, some more serious than others. But there are also several encouraging things and we have identified policy issues that need to be addressed. When you come to the private sector, for instance in beehives, the production is being handled by the private sector. The bureau trained the private sector which has now taken over the production. However hives are still being distributed through the government. The role of IPMS will be to critically assess this from a policy perspective and see what policies should be set.• IPMS is trying to look into animal production issues and provide guidance, for instance this year, the IPMS project is sponsoring the annual ESAP conference and we will be happy to share the reports with you. Yes, strategic thinking is indeed required in terms of the government's exit strategy. Let's study our input supply system and make informed decisions. When we get into a market oriented system, those farmers who are making a good profit don't need the extension because they are producing cash commodities such as the flower sector where the government has never provided anything. As we move more into market orientation, farmers can pay for the research and extension. Concerning the government's exit strategy, let's do research and provide scientific information for policy makers to make informed decision. There are variations when you move into market orientation, you must make informed decisions and research will support this. The national system is not into this type of research so let's provide the evidence. Our focus is how we can make things more efficient to make the input supply system better for market oriented commodities.Dr Berhanu gave an overview of output marketing research and development activities in 2005/06 and outlined the program for 2006/07 (presentation attached in Annex). The lack of information on markets has prompted IPMS to undertake and facilitate a considerable amount of research, with students and regional and international partners which should lead to actions in the coming years. The market chain analysis methodology has been developed/adopted as a research tool.The following issues were raised/responded to:• There is a good start in terms of market. What is the status of the illegal market trading of livestock in north Gondar? Please provide us with an update on the students working on dairy in Fogera supervised by IPMS.• Regarding the illegal market trading issue, IPMS will try to focus on the PLWs but we may not have time to go into that scale of national level. We need to review the existing work and build on it. The market chain analysis will include the illegal trade issue in the PLWs where it is relevant.• It seems that the research does not focus on NRM marketable products. There is export of forestry products such as gums, incense and we receive requests for assistance in their export. Bamboo is a great resource and the government has created a project together with partners. So, why not try to focus the marketing research to include NRM issues as well?• During the initial exercises, there was an exciting presentation about bamboo but for some reason it didn't catch on. If farmers are interested in it, it will catch on, it's part of a marketing strategy.• In IPMS' studies in the south, there have been efforts to include NRM in the initial diagnosis and those have been included in the PRA reports.• The Federal Ministry does not seem to be considered as a partner in marketing research activities so far. Also, the market research work has been useful and has provided us with lots of information so it's a good start. When we look at the research done by universities, it's full of models, so I'm not sure if this will be applicable for our purposes.• The Federal MoARD should indeed be a partner and the reason we make no mention of them is because we are just developing the collaboration with the state ministry of input supply and output marketing For instance two staff members of the MoARD's (NRM and input supply and output marketing state ministry) have recently joined IPMS' steering committee.• To bring about market oriented production, the market should be the starting point, not the production. The market chain analysis goes from production to consumption and looks at demand first and guides farmers on production. In terms of trying new approaches, in Uganda and India we saw many new and innovative ways of doing things. Arrangements are made for farmers to sell their items in town and a place has been created which makes it easy for them to sell their products. So maybe we can try this here so that farmers can sell their products easily. In Uganda farmers use mobile telephones to get market information. This may not be very expensive so can we think of how this can be done in Ethiopia?• Does the market chain analysis approach also include demand estimates?• In response to whether the market chain analysis will look at demand, it was said that the beginning point for any market chain study should be the consumption end point. So, demand is an important consideration in market chain analysis. Moreover, the coordination between the different stages of the market chain is an important focus of a market chain study. This year we will be more active in introducing interventions. Regarding the use of mobile telephones for market information, this is something we need to consider but may not work very well in all rural areas but yes this would indeed help the market.• The market chain analysis is ultimately about an intervention to improve the coordination between the different value stages in order to meet consumer demand. The marketing studies do have an element of an assessment of the demand. We are not alone in this game, there are other studies being conducted by different organizations. IPMS will not look at larger scale consumer demand studies, except at a little at the local level since there are other projects already doing this.Ermias Sehai presented the IPMS achievements in knowledge management and the plans for 2006/07 (see presentation attached). Emphasis will be put on operationalising the plans including the human input and processes.The following issues were raised/responded to:• In terms of capacity building, why aren't the regions also being considered? Why, isn't it necessary to consider them? What happens in terms of scaling out?• We should also consider creating capacity on GIS. Most of our work is not scientifically supported so we may not have the results that we want, so we should think about building capacity on GIS at the regional level.• What should be done with the zones in terms of capacity building, especially in Oromia?• In terms of capacity building at the Woreda and regional level, trainings will include the regional level, and computer based training materials at regional and Woreda levels. Specifically, activities sometimes take place at the federal level but if this is going to cause problems, we will have to revisit the whole idea. The focus of implementation is at Woreda level. In terms of materials, nothing has been done at the regional level but efforts have gone into training and capacity building.• The Woreda info center has to start work immediately. The DAs must pass this info on to farmers, so how is the IPMS project thinking about this and how will it reach the farmers and other FTCs? The messages should be in the local language but what we find on the computers is mostly in English. In addition, the DAs must properly understand the information.• We need to think about the target audience for the Woreda knowledge centers and portals. After the information has been collected, in order to add value to it, it should be translated into the local languages. It may be good to have the information in English, but who will benefit from this? The Woreda knowledge center will be located at the Woreda for the time being and will then move onto FTCs. But let's hope that this will not tempt DAs to always go to the Woredas looking for knowledge and use this as an excuse for them to spend more time there. It may be better to have the info center at the FTCs in order to attract farmers also.• One of the things I learned is that there are other people thinking of using this system of knowledge sharing in different areas, for instance TAMPA is using PLS to collect and disseminate market information. When we develop the Woreda info centers, we should link up with these initiatives so that it's an integrated system.• The fundamental challenge is the human side because people are not good at sharing information, since they are rewarded for guarding information by having more power and authority. Although the internet has changed things and has made a lot of information available, still the human aspect will make things move fast or not. We need to work on training people on how to facilitate information sharing.• Wireless telephone connections are spreading throughout most of the Woredas including PAs which will help with communicating information.• Regarding the Woreda info centers, how do the DAs get the info? Are they going to leave their work to come and get information? For Federal and the Woredas, the immediate target is the experts who have daily access to the internet. If this information can not reach the farmers, the experts can be the intermediaries.When the DAs are able to get the information, they should pass it onto those who need it. Content managers must have lots of flexibility to be able to edit this information.• We should have linkages with the World Bank and the nature of the portal will allow us to have this linkage so that people can get to the resources they need. That system will be a portal to multiple resources.• Regarding the challenge of human behaviour, in the KM framework, we proposed to the ministry, that this is the most difficult, more so than the technical side.People who know more are valued more so they don't want their value to be reduced. This is a concept that we always try to fight against, and process changes and incentives could be put in place to alleviate this problem. We can find out which pages are visited the most. The system would be most successful if people change their minds, and they do it not because they have to but because they believe that sharing information will help others.• The flexibility of our project should start from here since initially the focus was on federal and the Woredas. We need to close the gap so that people don't think that when they leave they take everything else with them. If the project cannot provide the computers, maybe they can be provided with the software.• We need advice from you about KM and ICT, and whether we should do more short term trainings or if the MSc and BSc trainings are better. Last year we were told no one with an IT background was available. You need to have a look at the people who have studied in regions, Woredas etc and let us know what you prefer.• We should not only look at the regions but also the zones from national to Woreda and at least provide CDs and books. IPMS will provide training, computers etc. and some lucky PLWs have found buildings already up and running but in Metema we are stuck and don't even have a proper building. Many activities are planned at the higher level but on the ground things are different.For capacity building, the need for an innovation system thinking was emphasized and development of individuals and teams to support the RALC and WALCs. In light of this, the project will revisit the MSc and BSc proposal in consultation with the RALCs and WALCs and project steering committee. Furthermore, increased emphasis will be put on short term capacity building in areas such as knowledge management, gender, marketing, GIS and environment.The main issue highlighted in the input supply component is the role of government vis a vis the private sector. The project will focus on experimenting by involving small scale entrepreneurs and provide policy advise based on studies conducted in the PLWs.The project marketing component has and will focus its attention on marketing research since very little is known formally. It is important for the project to involve the partner institution in this and thus build their capacity in this field.Knowledge management is a new concept and a lot of learning by doing will be required to operationalize this in the PLWs as well as the regional and federal level. It should be realized however that KM is not limited to IT based knowledge management. The technology exhibitions are also useful tools.He stressed the importance of organized learning and documentation and indicated the need for the development of a knowledge sharing culture. During the week, he witnessed the application of good ideas, which were manifested by the exciting field trip to Atsbi and the poster presentations. He also indicated that there is a lot of demand on our time to ensure that the development and research activities are implemented adequately.He outlined the following challenges in implementing innovative ideas 1. How we share knowledge -value others knowledge, we need champions for new ideas and also to inspire others 2. Improve institutional performance through group formations, networking, support others to deliver, who should do it? Who is better positioned to do it? We need to come together to help institutions do better, we should be critical, but careful not to offend others 3. To do better, learning by doing is important and we need to facilitate skill development 4. To facilitate change, we have to be transparent, organized and willing to learn together 5. IPMS has complex relationships with various actors and this is a huge task. For example, the BECA facility in Nairobi is a new thing which requires collective action. In order to successfully promote new ideas, organizational management is required. Regarding IPMS activities, the question is, will Ethiopian institutions own it? drive it? and champion it? 6. He indicated that he is less worried about what happens to the commodities in the PLWs which are focused on improving productivity and markets, etc. But, are these leanings institutionalized at the Regional and Federal levels? Getting the attention of top officials and leaders may be difficult as they have a lot of other issues to attend to. However, it has to be done. He also stated that although there is a lot of hard work in IPMS, it is also very exciting. As a DDG, he committed himself to provide as much support as possible to the project.There is a lot of good work going on in IPMS and I would like to thank every one involved in this important event. There were three important undertakings in Tigray over the last two weeks. These are the TARI annual research review, the technology exhibition/workshop and the NALC meeting. We are very happy to have hosted all of them here in Tigray.Although I have been involved in the preparation of the technology exhibition, I did not attend the opening ceremony. I got time to visit it today. I have noticed a lot of media coverage (radio and TV) about the displays and I think it was a very successful event.Many stakeholders, including farmers, participated. I was delighted to see Regional, Federal and International organizations participate in the exhibition. Breeding of ideas between innovative farmers and expert professionals created a conducive environment for knowledge sharing. We are proud to have hosted the event.The way this exhibition is organized is very different from what we used to do in the past.It is very innovative in its own way. We are pleased to inform you that the Regional State will take the lessons to all the Woredas in the Region. We also request other Regions to do the same.The workshop brought in prominent scientists and experts together. This has given a chance to the Regional experts to interact with you. A number of important points have been raised during the meeting and we will incorporate your suggestions/recommendations in to our five year development plan, which is being developed at the moment.In closing, I would like to thank the IPMS project for the support, and particularly Dr. Gebremedhin Woldewahid for the coordination of activities. I would also like to thank Regional representatives for their active participation. Finally, I would like to appreciate the organizers of the exhibition and workshop from the Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development and all others who participated in this important event. My special thanks go to Ato Aberra, who served as a Chairman of the Technical Committee.","tokenCount":"8111"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1b1d31ea90974e4b2a0dd635409c9444","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b70d3c63-b67e-4472-99e3-dd71a792b456/retrieve","id":"1998278370"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1469a729-a202-4cb0-b051-c5fd8c98a914","pagecount":"4","content":"As CGIAR's only research program on nutrition and health, A4NH brings a unique multi-sectoral perspective to the system-level outcome of improving food and nutrition security for health. Recognizing the magnitude of the task, A4NH is led by IFPRI and managed by a group of four other CGIAR centers and two academic institutions, and brings together the talents and resources of other CGIAR Centers plus a wide range of partners, to carry out research activities through five unique, yet complementary, flagship programs and three cross-cutting units in at least 30 countries.  The Food Systems for Healthier Diets (FSHD) flagship research program was established as part of A4NH's second phase. Through it, A4NH is responding to concerns about global diet trends and demand from countries for knowledge needed for navigating food system transformations to better address problems such as undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overnutrition.In 2017, researchers embarked on an in-depth analysis of food systems in four focus countries-Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Viet Nam-to determine what and where food systems research is needed and to identify possible entry points for interventions. To develop a research agenda, they held several rounds of national-level consultations to gather opinions and insights and test ideas for approaches as the overall process developed. They also conducted an in-depth literature review to draw on existing research and understand the national context.The first national analysis to be completed, Ethiopia, served as a case study to refine methods of study and information-sharing for the other countries. It also informed the research agenda in Ethiopia for work over the next several years, including several activities now implemented that developed from ideas that arose from partners. Researchers are working with the Ethiopian Public Health Institute to develop food-based dietary guidelines, a key tool identified during the analysis for educating people on what constitutes a healthy diet. They are also building local capacity by engaging young Ethiopian researchers in food systems work through a small grants project for graduate students.FSHD researchers are building strong partnerships with local stakeholders, including government, nongovernmental organizations, research institutions, and development partners, and laying the foundation for future collaboration in identifying strategies and opportunities that will lead to systemwide improvements with real impacts for consumers in the focus countries. respectively. For maize, 67,192.5 ha were managed by male farmers and 11,857.5 ha managed by females. Among groundnut farmers, the products were used in 14,492.5 ha managed by males and 11,857.5 ha by females.Where We WorkBy 2022, we expect to be able to demonstrate observable changes, among our partners and in the countries where we work, as a result of A4NH research. ","tokenCount":"432"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3f7d481cf9e7dc493d43f8f8e1f22e90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e70e86f4-1d26-47b0-94d1-b1eef5c26d46/retrieve","id":"-1195720163"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"68af9890-7fe9-426f-ac49-421f7c1b9141","pagecount":"1","content":"The genetic compatibility between crops and their wild relatives has important implications for conservation of genetic diversity and for the introduction and management of transgenic crops. The gene flow event, distribution of receptor populations, gene transfer effectiveness, and long-term effects (namely in fitness) are being studied in natural populations of common bean in a center of origin and genetic diversity.Our project has been conducted since 1987 in populations of Phaseolus vulgaris of the Central Valley of Costa Rica with financial support of the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ) of Germany.For the disclosure of wild populations, we applied a technique of ecogeographic surveying (Araya et al. 2001). For the molecular characterization, 2000 individuals were selected based on a morphoagronomic evaluation, and 794 of them were weedy types possibly resulting from gene flow events (González-Torres et al. 2003). We used phaseolin, isozymes and microsatellites as nuclear markers (González-Torres et al., 2004). The gene flow direction was detected by RFLPs-PCR, sequencing and SNPs on chloroplast DNA (Chacón 2001).We documented the geographical distribution of each wild population as well as the biological complexes of \"wild-weedy-cultivated\" materials (Figure 1b). Twenty-two populations of wild common bean are known for Costa Rica, and distributed in four watersheds in the central part of that country representing at least 90% of the found populations (González Torres et al. 2004).The individual 6 illustrates a case of outcrossing between Andean and Mesoamerican genepools. It has a chloroplast haplotype 'Mesoamerican cultivated' and phaseolin Andean type. In contrast with its SSR alleles are 'wild' and 'cultivated'. Our results provide an update about the distribution of wild common bean in Costa Rica, its ecology and conservation status. In addition, they allowed us to reliably establish the existence of simple or complex events of gene flow among different biological forms. Obviously, domestication has not yet altered the reproductive system of common bean up to prevent gene exchange between such forms. This in turn is also important for the production of certified seeds, or the management of genetic resources on-farm. The data analysis showed that 98% of the putative hybrids were indeed hybrid. The direction of gene flow was mainly wild pollen towards the cultivated materials (82%). However, the other direction was observed at lower frequency but as significant percentage. The gene flow was mostly in materials belonging to the Mesoamerican gene pool (the one prevailing in the area). However, outcrossing between Mesoamerican and Andean gene pools were evidenced in 8% of the weedy individuals (Figure 2). The figure 2 demonstrates repeated events of gene flow of wild pollen toward cultivated forms (individuals 1 to 3). Individual 4 has been events of repeated outcrossings resulting a weedy with nuclear genome of a wild form biological form with cytoplasmic genome of the cultivated (Chloroplast capture); however, it keeps a high seed weight as a cultivated type. ","tokenCount":"471"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"19986cdea862e3572b97119ea053b0aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9328311-0ee9-4ed2-8f88-569557efef2a/retrieve","id":"1098348696"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0be9a23d-3cd6-4451-bd12-686f165b741c","pagecount":"25","content":"Innovation Platforms (IPs) are seen as a promising vehicle to foster a paradigm shift in agricultural research for development (AR4D). By facilitating interaction, negotiation and collective action between farmers, researchers and other stakeholders, IPs can contribute to more integrated, systemic innovation that is essential for achieving agricultural development impacts. However, successful implementation of IPs requires institutional change within AR4D establishments. The objective of this paper is to reflect on the implementation and institutionalisation of IPs in present AR4D programmes. We use experiences from sub-Saharan Africa to demonstrate how the adoption and adaptation of IPs creates both opportunities and challenges that influence platform performance and impact. Niche-regime theory is used to understand challenges, and anticipate on how to deal with them. A key concern is whether IPs in AR4D challenge or reinforce existing technology-oriented agricultural innovation paradigms. For example, stakeholder representation, facilitation and institutional embedding determine to a large extent whether the IP can strengthen systemic capacity to innovate that can lead to real paradigm change, or are merely 'old wine in new bottles' and a continuation of 'business as usual'. Institutional embedding of IPs and -more broadlythe transition from technology-oriented to system-oriented AR4D approaches requires structural changes in organisational mandates, incentives, procedures and funding, as well as investments in exchange of experiences, learning and capacity development.more structural and long-term collaboration and engagement between stakeholders in the agricultural sector that has been indicated as essential to achieve development impacts (Adekunle and Fatunbi, 2012;Sumberg et al., 2013a). IPs build on experiences with earlier well-known multi-stakeholder approaches such as Farmer Field Schools (Kenmore et al., 1987;Pontius, 2002), Participatory Research (Kerr et al., 2007), Learning Alliances (Lundy et al., 2005;Mvumi et al., 2009), Local Agricultural Research Committees (Hellin et al., 2008) and Natural Resource Management Platforms (Röling, 1994).IP aim to strengthen AR4D -and the agricultural innovation systems in which AR4D is embedded -by facilitating interaction and collaboration in networks of farmers, extension officers, policymakers, researchers and other stakeholders in the agricultural system, and by providing space for experimentation, learning and negotiation (Klerkx et al., 2013;Ngwenya and Hagmann, 2011;Swaans et al., 2014). Continuous engagement of stakeholders in describing and explaining problems, and exploring innovations to address these problems is seen as essential for three reasons. First, different stakeholder groups can provide various insights about the biophysical, technological and institutional dimensions of the problem, and what type of innovations are technically feasible, economically viable and social-culturally and politically acceptable (Schut et al., 2014c). Second, stakeholder groups become aware of their fundamental interdependencies and the need for concerted action to overcome their constraints and reach their objectives (Leeuwis, 2000;Messely et al., 2013). Third, stakeholder groups are more likely to support specific solutions when they have been part of the decision-making process (Faysse, 2006;Neef and Neubert, 2011). In facilitating interaction and engagement, IPs can foster systemic 'capacity to innovate' of stakeholders to: (1) continuously identify and prioritise problems and opportunities in the dynamic environment that they are in, (2) take risk and experiment with sociotechnical options and assess the trade-off from these options, (3) mobilise resources and form support coalitions around the promising options, (4) link with others to share information and knowledge in support of change processes and (5) collaborate and coordinate with others with the aim of achieving concerted and collective action (Leeuwis et al., 2014).Recent studies on IPs demonstrate their potential in terms of realising coherent agricultural research, development and policy strategies (e.g. Ayele et al., 2012;Kilelu et al., 2013;Schut et al., 2014a;Swaans et al., 2014). However, experiences also show that IPs' performance and impact depend on many variables. For example, the quality of platform organisation, stakeholder representation, facilitation and institutional embedding determine to a large extent whether platforms can lead to real change or innovation (Boogaard et al., 2013;Nederlof et al., 2011;Ngwenya and Hagmann, 2011). Despite IP rhetoric, there may be an institutional context which leads to continuation of 'business as usual' practices, following an approach in which science develops and tests technologies that are then transferred to end users (Cullen et al., 2014;Friederichsen et al., 2013;Sumberg et al., 2013b). Furthermore, several authors have found that IP-type approaches struggle to be adequately resourced in systems that traditionally adhere to linear, top-down approaches to innovation (Kristjanson et al., 2009;Nettle et al., 2013). With a new 'wave' of multi-stakeholder approaches for enhancing systemic capacity to innovation in international AR4D, there is a need to reflect on the IP implementation and institutional embedding.The objective of this paper is to identify opportunities and challenges for IPs in terms of their institutional embedding in AR4D systems and fostering systemic capacity for agricultural innovation. We study this in the context of international AR4D, which efficiency in terms of fostering innovation using participatory and collaborative approaches has been object of reform and study over time (e.g. Clark et al., 2011;De Janvry and Kassam, 2004;Hall et al., 2003;Hellin et al., 2008;Horton, 1998;Horton and Mackay, 2003;Santamaría Guerra, 2003;Watts et al., 2008). Several authors have denoted a history of discontinuity in terms of applying and institutionalising participatory approaches (Kristjanson et al., 2009;Thiele et al., 2001). As several international AR4D programmes have recently (re-) adopted IPs as an important vehicle for multi-stakeholder engagement and to achieve impact, studying their institutional embedding is key. The objective of this paper is not to critique the IP approach or the programmes and people that are implementing them. On the contrary, we take a constructive approach to analyse the dynamics of IPs in the AR4D context in order to provide recommendations to enhance IP performance, their structural embedding in international AR4D, and their contribution to achieving development impact.Niche-regime theory based on the multi-level perspective on system innovation (Geels, 2004) is used to analyse how the functioning of IPs is constrained or enabled by the dominant AR4D context. IPs can play a key role in facilitating so-called system innovation in agriculture, which has been found essential to solve the complex agricultural problems (Elzen et al., 2012a;Hounkonnou et al., 2012;Kilelu et al., 2013;Schut et al., 2015a). Such system innovation requires fundamental restructuring of production systems, supply-chains, policies, management, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and decision-making processes (Hall, 2005;Roep et al., 2003;van Mierlo and Totin, 2014). Previous experiences from the agricultural sector demonstrate how, through processes of formation and re-formation (i.e. institutionalisation), actors and organisations tend to become locked into static 'regimes' of technologies, policies, routines, protocols, norms, values, incentives structures and regulations (Elzen et al., 2012a;Hinrichs, 2014;Sumberg et al., 2013b;Vanloqueren and Baret, 2009). Although regimes are stable, they can change over time. Dissatisfaction of regime functioning or outside pressure creates opportunities for so-called 'niches' in which alternative practices are developed and tested, to change regime configuration. In niches, actors experiment with and organise around particular ideals, interests and, purposes and, need to engage with the regime to negotiate durable change (Elzen et al., 2012b;Klerkx et al., 2010). To support niches in this effort, approaches like 'strategic niche management' are aimed at shielding off niches from prevailing regime selection pressures and tensions, so that they get a chance to mature and contribute to regime reconfiguration (Loorbach and Rotmans, 2010;Schot, 2008). However, incumbent regime configurations have path-dependencies, sunk investments and a certain institutional logic, which is not easy to durably change (Fuenfschilling and Truffer, 2013). As a consequence, niche innovations remain prone to being translated, compromised and renegotiated in order to 'fit' the incumbent regime's needs and requirements (Elzen et al., 2012b;Smink et al., 2015;Smith, 2007). IPs can be considered as places where niches can develop, and where niche and regime players meet, interact and negotiate systemic change.As indicated in the previous section, IPs can contribute to strategic niche management, but they are also a strategic niche in themselves as they can be considered an institutional system innovation. Acknowledging the inherent complexity of agricultural problems and the need for system innovation, collaborative approaches such as IPs have been proposed to foster a paradigm shift from technologyoriented to systems-oriented AR4D (Hounkonnou et al., 2012;Moschitz et al., 2015;Sherwood et al., 2012). Based on a meta-review, Klerkx et al. (2012) identified four evolving approaches to agricultural innovation (1) the transfer of technology approach that reflects the idea that researchers develop knowledge and technologies, which are then transferred 'top-down' by extensionists to farmers or other end-users (e.g. Rogers, 1962), (2) the farming systems approach that has more attention for the context-specific social-cultural, economic and agro-ecological drivers that influence the performance of agricultural innovations at the level of the individual field, the farm, or a collection of farms (e.g. Altieri, 1984;Biggs, 1995;Giller, 2013), (3) the agricultural knowledge and information systems (AKIS) approach that embodies a gradual shift from top-down to bottom-up approaches to agricultural innovation (e.g. Engel, 1995), and (4) the agricultural innovations systems (AIS) approach, that has more attention for the systemic institutional and political dimensions of innovation processes (e.g. Hounkonnou et al., 2012;Leeuwis, 2000).The above-described paradigm shift is rooted in several debates on the organisation and role of science, for example about different 'modes' of knowledge production (Gibbons, 1994;Nowotny et al., 2003), research 'for' development versus research 'in' development approaches (Coe et al., 2014), expert-led development versus peopleled development (Sherwood, 2009), or science-centric innovation systems towards innovation systems that support systemic and emergent multi-stakeholder processes (Nettle et al., 2013). Although differences exist between these debates, they all reflect a move away from approaches to agricultural innovation where the development and transfer of technologies or technical solutions by researchers and experts, and the adoption by farmers is central (technology oriented); towards approaches where processes of integrated problem analysis, participatory priority setting, designing and implementing of technological and socio-organisational solutions by stakeholders Table 1. Features of technology-oriented versus systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation (based on Gibbons, 1994;Hall, 2005;Klerkx et al., 2012;Nowotny et al., 2003;Sherwood, 2009;World Bank, 2006).Technology  1) (Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2009;Neef and Neubert, 2011). Despite various attempts to make them more integrated, participatory and demanddriven (e.g. Devaux et al., 2010;Kristjanson et al., 2009), many AR4D systems still very much reflect the technology-oriented approach to agricultural innovation (e.g. Biggs, 2008;Rivera and Sulaiman, 2009;Schut et al., 2014b;2015b;Sumberg et al., 2013a;2013b). This incumbent, technology-oriented AR4D system can hence be considered to be (part of) a regime (Minh et al., 2014). The regime configuration determines to a large extent what types of innovations are perceived to be needed (e.g. what are considered to be 'good agricultural practices'), and how the science system is supposed to support innovations (Lamine, 2011;Li et al., 2013;Minh et al., 2014;Vanloqueren and Baret, 2009).Through their focus on understanding systemic constraints and opportunities for innovation, developing a joint vision for collective agency and action, and mobilising allies and resources, IPs are believed to provide an important contribution to a transformation of incumbent technology-oriented AR4D regimes (van Paassen et al., 2014).Data for this study were gathered in two AR4D programmes in Africa. The first is the IP programme championed by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), and implemented under the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA-CP) and the Dissemination of New Agricultural Technologies for Africa (DONATA) project. The second is the CGIAR Research Program on Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics (Humidtropics) that has adopted the platform approach for achieving multistakeholder engagement, and realising its R4D outcomes across three continents. The SSA-CP was implemented in eight countries. The programme's Integrated AR4D approach was tested through 32 IPs. The objective of these IPs was mainly to create, or link farmers to, niche markets in existing value chains (CORAF/ WECARD, 2012). Within Humidtropics, platforms form the core of the programme's strategy to stimulate multi-stakeholder collaboration towards the realisation of agricultural development outcomes. The programme's projected timeline of 15 years reveals the central role of long-term partnerships in fostering innovation in the agricultural system. In Humidtropics, two types of IPs are distinguished. IPs at the more local, 'field site' level, are expected to identify, and experiment with, a coherent set of entry points for agricultural innovation. IPs at the so-called 'action site' level (which is often, but not necessarily the provincial or national level), are expected to facilitate the removal of constraints for the scaling of technological and institutional innovations 1 . Both types of IPs are composed of different stakeholder groups, including farmers (organisations), donors and development organisations, private sector, government, researchers and media.Data were collected from primary and secondary sources (Table 2). Primary data sources are participatory observations, semi-structured interviews and surveys. Participatory observation is a purposeful and systematic way of observing an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place (Kumar, 2005). Between July 2014 and January 2015, a total of 20 Humidtropics IP events were attended in Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and DR Congo. These events do not only concern the actual platform meetings, but also preparatory events, field visits and reflection meetings. Observations were documented in written jottings and field notes. For the semistructured interviews, a topic list was prepared and fine-tuned for each interview depending on the specific role of the respondent in the case. It was decided to conduct key-informant interviews with facilitators and researchers that worked with, or had studied, IPs in an AR4D context. Respondents were purposefully selected, or based on snowball sampling where interviewed key-informants identify other people that could be of relevance to the study (Russell Bernard, 2006). In total, six key informants were interviewed, all with considerable experience in analysing IPs across different programmes and countries. Interviews typically took one hour and were recorded and transcribed. Furthermore, a capacity development workshop for Humidtropics staff and IP facilitators was organised in April 2014 in Kenya. Preceding the workshop, a survey was conducted that provided insight in the perceptions of the 19 participants on agricultural innovation and the role of IPs. Secondary data sources are previously collected and documented data (Kumar, 2005). Examples of secondary data used in this study are, amongst others, agendas, announcements, minutes and other written reports of IP meetings, as well as M&E reports and scientific papers that contain empirical data gathered by other researchers. Furthermore, we analysed around 20 IP case studies published in Nederlof and Pyburn (2012) and Nederlof et al. (2011).Qualitative descriptive analysis of observations, interviews and secondary data provided insights into the different opportunities and constraints for IPs in fostering a paradigm shift from technology-oriented to systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation. The features presented in Table 1 form the outline of how we present our empirical data in the next section. For reasons of confidentiality, quotes and statements made by individual interview respondents were anonymised. Quantitative analysis of the surveys was done using Microsoft Excel R software. Survey responses were coded and mapped against four perspectives on agricultural innovation (technology transfer, farming systems, AKIS and AIS) identified by Klerkx et al. (2012). The authors have performed moderate editing of interview quotes and questionnaire responses to enhance readability.Interviews with key-informants and observations demonstrated that the majority of platform facilitators and participants are aware of the advantages of IPs. Frequently mentioned advantages include working together to align objectives of stakeholders and facilitating interactions and collaboration across different levels. Of the surveyed platform facilitators, 61% adopt a systems-oriented definition to agricultural innovation. For these respondents, the facilitation of (farmer) participatory research and learning, and processes of technological and non-technological change are more closely related to agricultural innovation than the development, transfer, adaptation and adaptation of technologies for farmers, which was preferred by remaining 39% of the respondents (Table 3).When looking at the practice of IPs, some interviewees express that IPs are sometimes 'old wine in a new bottle'. They explain that in some occasions, the IP offers a 'brand name, but practically the only thing that they do is having extension agents and scientists rolling out their ideas upon farmers' heads'. This 'corruption of the term' eventually damages the reputation of the IP approach, and consequently, its ability to achieve its potential to foster a paradigm shift in agricultural innovation. Participatory priority setting exercises were organised with the Humidtropics IPs to identify entry points for agricultural innovation. When comparing the identified entry points with the actual (field) R4D activities executed, overlap and gaps can be identified. In some cases, entry points that were identified by the IPs have not been followed up, whereas in other cases, new entry points have been included in the R4D agenda. Interviews revealed that this is mainly due to existing project commitments and funding frameworks, as well as to personal and organisational mandates and preferences to work on certain R4D themes in specific regions. These commitments, mandates and preferences did not always match the IP needs and interests.Survey results reveal that enhancing capacity to generate and respond to change forms the key objective for working with IPs (61%). A very small proportion of facilitators believe the key objective is purely technology oriented, namely to foster transfer, diffusion and adoption of technology (6%) (Table 3). Project documentation and other secondary data reveal that under the SSA-CP, IPs for technology adoption (IPTAs) were promoted under a continental platform for technology dissemination. IPTAs are organised around: 'A common commodity and analyse gaps in the commodity value chain to define the IPTA's specific interventions. They follow the concept that effective agricultural technology dissemination -the adoption, use, uptake or commercialisation of existing knowledge -calls for understanding of farming systems through strong linkages and active participation among a range of actors' (FARA, 2012). According to our interviewees, technology transfer and adoption at farm level form indeed an important objective of many IPs. They added that there is often limited attention for enhancing capacity at the systems level to continuously identify, analyse and solve technological and non-technological agricultural constraints. We observed that a large share of the current Humidtropics IP activities focus on (participatory) testing and adaptation of technologies (e.g. intercropping) at local level. Within these activities, there is attention for the nontechnological dimension of agricultural innovation such as nutrition and gender. So far, attention for policy and markets is less reflected in the R4D activities, which, to a degree, can be explained by disciplinary background and professional expertise of researches in the platforms.Of the surveyed IP facilitators, 56% is of the opinion that IPs should focus on stimulating joint problem solving and learning across particular value chains (Table 3). This is particularly true in the IPs managed by FARA in SSA-CP and in DONATA. Although an IP is not necessarily value chain bound, interviewees mentioned that a crop or commodity focus forms a good entry point for bringing together interrelated stakeholders and enhance collaboration for collective action. In IPs where the entry points are open, a broad variety of topics and interests emerge, running the risk that there is too little focus and common ground for collective action. Interviewees stressed that the (crop or commodity) focus of the organisation initiating or supporting the IP can determine or steer the platform focus and selection of entry points. Humidtropics IPs have been initiated by international agricultural research centres that form part of the CGIAR. The IPs are facilitated by representatives from the national agricultural research system (NARS), universities or national NGOs. Many of the platform facilitators have a natural science background (e.g. in breeding, agronomy, soil science), and generally did not receive specific training in facilitating interactive, multi-stakeholder processes.Entry points identified by IPs may not always align with existing organisational mandates and expertise available within the (research) organisations represented in the platforms. We observe that there is limited capacity to respond to constraints that are of institutional nature and cut across commodities or value chains. Domains such as agricultural education, gender, nutrition, policies, markets and multi-stakeholder processes are historically less strongly represented in the AR4D system than, for example, agronomy, breeding and economics. To fill such gaps, new partnerships have been established and the proportion of R4D actors with expertise in these institutional domains is slowly increasing. In Uganda, for example, one of the IPs partnered with a Tanzanian research organisation specialised on vegetables to cater for the specific needs of the IP.According to the majority of the surveyed facilitators, effective IPs support the integration of different types of knowledge (50%) or contribute to institutional change processes (39%) (Table 3). On how to reach these objectives, different visions exist. One of the interviewees explained how an IP can be a short-term project which is dismantled after achieving its objective. Actors with a clear agenda can be part of an IP for longer or shorter periods of time. Another respondent explained further that: 'Sometimes we have the government come in for about three or four years, expecting to get a result. In the same vein we often have powerful actors, NGOs, researchers and private organisations, pushing a particular agenda for a period of time under the heading of the IP'. An interviewee with a different vision mentioned that: 'Although IPs can achieve results within the first years, this is not always feasible. Furthermore, such results may not transcend to real innovation, which also needs institutional and individual behavioural and attitudinal change, and generally that requires more time.' Interviewees relate platform effectiveness to the design of the platform process: '[W]hat we see [ . . . ] is a predefinition [approach] that comes from either researchers or donors'. This way of working undermines the legitimacy and mandate of the IP in setting and driving the R4D agenda. We have observed that engaging with existing research and development projects was proposed to IPs as a strategy to stimulate fast results and concrete activities that could stimulate platform learning. In several of these projects, the scope, objectives and activities did not align well with the IP's priorities. Moreover, the detailed log-frames and predetermined M&E frameworks do not always align well with key IP principles such as responding to (changing) stakeholder needs and interests. Based on our experiences, we conclude that several of these proposed projects were never implemented in collaboration with the IP.In Humidtropics, modest, platform-led innovation funds have been created, intended to function as an incubator for activities that match platform priorities. These platform funds seem to be effective in terms of filling gaps of working on activities that IP members do not have expertise, mandate or resources for. For example, these funds are being used to support livestock R4D activities in Burundi where no other livestock (research) institute or project was able to respond to the IP demands. The availability of platform-led innovation funds should stimulate -and not reduce -the willingness of organisations represented in the IP to invest their own financial, human or other resources. Similarly, using the platform-led innovation funds to pay per diems to IP members may (negatively) affect ownership and representation, although this requires deliberation.M&E frameworks that capture platform performance and learning processes are being developed, tested and implemented with a small number of the Humidtropics platforms. Several interviewees mentioned that the type of M&E framework used depends on the AR4D organisation supporting the IPs, as well as on the donor demands and the projects that are supposed to support IP activities. In Humidtropics, for example, quantifiable outputs related to gender need to be specified for all R4D activities, which is a priority for many donors. Although surveyed IP facilitators generally have a long-term focus on fostering institutional change processes (Table 3), we observed that meeting (annual) internal criteria for time, financial and quality management and deliverables influence priority setting towards demonstrating rapid progress and impact. Platform facilitators spend a lot of their time and energy on meeting these criteria, which may be at the expense of their attention for the IP process and coherence of platform activities. Pressure for expected annual deliverables may influence the orientation of the IP towards 'low hanging fruits' rather than dealing with fostering more fundamental and long-term institutional innovation.Secondary data reveals that the performance of IPs often depends on the unique dynamics of the platform learning (process), as well as on the specific socio-economic and agro-ecological context of the identified problem (content) that the platform seeks to address. The impact of the IP is as much a result of the quality of the multi-stakeholder process (jointly identifying constraints, sharing information and learning) as well as it is a result of the performance or competitiveness of the actual innovations the platform produces. According to our interviewees, this has implications for the thinking about the generalizability and scalability of results that emerge from IPs. One of the interviewees stressed that many innovative practices are indigenous and need to be adapted and re-interpreted in order to benefit stakeholders in other contexts. A key objective of Humidtropics IPs is that innovations developed through IPs should demonstrate value-addition to existing situations and approaches, and should have built-in mechanisms for going to scale. Initial experiences show that R4D activities in IPs focus on demonstrating, or diffusing existing technologies (e.g. intercropping techniques, fertilizer applications, spacing of crops) rather than exploring 'out-of-the-box' R4D and innovation pathways. Furthermore, surveyed IP facilitators emphasise that community-based participatory research, information sharing and learning (47%) are key success factors for agricultural innovation (Table 3). Linking these community-based innovations to scaling actors such as development partners and high-level policymakers across different levels seems to receive lower emphasis, as these stakeholder groups are represented less strongly in local and national IPs in the countries where data for this study were collected. This could result in challenges for up-and outscaling of innovations that were developed through the IPs.Several of the interviewed key-informants mentioned that the traditional assumption that 'experts know it all' is only challenged to a limited extent in current IP practice. According to our respondents, this is strengthened by the fact that the majority of IPs are being initiated by (international) research organisations. Observations and interviews confirm that not only researchers, but also other stakeholders (e.g. policymakers, farmers, NGOs and donors) seem to be locked into existing division of roles and mutual dependencies and expectations. One of the causes mentioned was a lack of attention for addressing structural power inequalities between stakeholders, integration of expert and lay competences, and equal interaction and collaboration. Another key principle is that the platform can stimulate ongoing negotiation and discussion between multiple stakeholder groups, rather than reinforce a situation in which researchers develop technologies and knowledge, that extension and development partners transfer and communicate to end users (farmers). The surveys showed that 33% of the facilitators perceived the main role of researchers to be to develop technologies and knowledge. However, facilitation of learning and capacity building (28%), and enhancing innovation capacity in the agricultural system (28%) were also recognised to be important roles for researchers. A crucial challenge in this respect is how researchers see their role in a wider sense at the platform, beyond the specific disciplinary or thematic expertise that they bring to the table. Farmers were mainly seen as adopters of technologies and source of information or as experimenters and experts (both 33%) (Table 3).Of the surveyed facilitators, 61% see IPs as the most effective approach to foster agricultural innovation. More traditional intervention approaches such as farmer consultation to inform research (17%) and extension-led technology transfer (0%) are seen as less effective (Table 3). IP literature sketches an approach that uses interactive methods that can foster dialogue, learning and negotiation between stakeholders with different needs and interests to achieve collective action and impact. However, the analysis of case studies, interviews and observations demonstrate that in many IPs traditional methods such as field days, training of trainers, demonstration plots and research-led experiments dominate. Documented IP cases show considerably few examples of methods that stimulate farmer-led innovation, (reflexive) monitoring of platform dynamics, or revealing and addressing power inequalities between different groups of stakeholders.Despite the intent and potential of IPs to foster a transition from technologyoriented to more systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation, practical experiences show the challenges IPs face to live up to this expectation. In order to reflect on institutional embedding of the IP approach in AR4D and to explore strategies that can strengthen the contribution of IPs to creating systemic capacity to innovate and achieve development impact, we analyse and discuss: (1) the early observations of transformation of IPs, (2) how niche-regime interactions can explain these transformation, and (3) what strategies can stimulate the progressive alignment of IPs towards systemic approaches to innovation and their institutional embedding in AR4D structures.Our data show first signs of transformation of IPs, some of which are positive, and others are questionable for achieving the desired paradigm shift towards a systemic perspective on agricultural innovation. Examples of positive transformations include more attention for capturing learning, both within and between IPs in terms of content and process. Documenting platform processes is important for understanding the specific conditions and issues that influence platform performance. The creation of platform-led innovation funds that can function as an incubator to work on platform priorities is innovative and can strengthen the position of platforms as independent and self-organised entities. However, the challenge here is the usually low level of actual and continuous investment and resources channelled towards IPs by AR4D programmes (Kristjanson et al., 2009). Having IPs at both the local level and national level (such as in Humidtropics) can create a more conducive environment for innovation and can ensure that institutional challenges that cut across sectors, value chains, or specific localities are being addressed, including working on achieving better and continuous resourcing of IPs. Such cross cutting work is key to embedding new approaches as concluded by Minh et al. (2014). Understanding needs and challenges of stakeholders across different levels, and developing regional strategies that address these in a coherent way has been earlier noted as a critical success factor for agricultural innovation (De Janvry and Kassam, 2004;Giller et al., 2008;Schut et al., 2015a). Our findings indicate that structural attention for capacity development of IP facilitators can foster thinking about more systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation. Stand-alone workshops need to be complemented by structural adjustments of curricula of vocational and higher education institutes that train current and future AR4D professionals (Devaux et al., 2009;Donnet et al., 2012;Pant, 2012;Struik et al., 2014). Another positive experience is that, in the Humidtropics site in Central Africa, platform-related R4D activities are funded through a donor project that provides a high degree of freedom and flexibility to respond to stakeholder demands.However, we have also observed that stakeholder demands are often strategically altered to fit the objectives of existing, predefined technology-transfer projects. Trying to support demand-driven, stakeholder-led innovation processes through technologytransfer projects led by researchers and extension officers is causing challenges. The specific objectives, time-lines, funding structures and donor preferences of these technology-transfer projects often do not correspond with the demands and needs of stakeholders on the ground, as was also found in other studies (Botha et al., 2014;Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2008;Roux et al., 2010). The survey revealed that farmers continue to be seen as end-users of innovation, rather than as capable innovators who, in collaboration with researchers and other stakeholders, could set research agendas and devise effective solutions to the complex problems they face. More investment needs to be made in understanding farmer innovations and also in supporting dynamics within farmer groups, as inputs into IP functioning. This should be aimed at giving more space and voice to farmers in IP processes. Another important observation is that long-term, less tangible, institutional innovation and behavioural change remain unaddressed, while this has been denoted a key success factor towards enhancing the performance of the AR4D system in delivering development outcomes and impacts (van Paassen et al., 2014). Similar challenges have been documented in relation to other collaborative approaches, such as farmer field schools (Sherwood et al., 2012).Examples of other transformations are that many of the IPs focus on the development or adaptation of technologies and services or their adoption and diffusion (e.g. the IPTAs). Documented IP cases and observations show considerably few examples of the use of methods that stimulate farmer-led innovation, (reflexive) monitoring of platform dynamics, or institutional experiments that represent a large proportion of stakeholder needs in -for example -Central Africa (Schut and Hinnou, 2014). In contrast, many of the IP processes simply lead to researcher-led field trials that are implemented using existing national agricultural extension systems, whose efficiency and innovation capacity is often low (Rivera and Sulaiman, 2009). Here we should add that highly energetic and competent individuals in these systems can make the difference in terms of facilitating IPs and IP activities.Another concern is that key principles of IPs are being diversely translated and utilised in the hands of different actors and organisations, sometimes against the explicit purposes of the approach (van Paassen et al., 2014). The majority of organisations represented in the IPs, are traditional AR4D institutes, of which many are structured along disciplinary lines, have a long history of technology development and transfer, and have limited expertise on institutional innovation, facilitation of interactive multi-stakeholder processes, or how to address structural power inequalities between stakeholder groups. These issues are key constraints for agricultural innovation and play out in IPs (e.g. Cullen et al., 2014;De Janvry and Kassam, 2004;Ilukor et al., 2015). Although many of the organisations are hiring IP experts and are promoting integrated systems R4D, the real institutional embedding of this will take time as experiences elsewhere have also shown (Botha et al., 2014;Roux et al., 2010;van Mierlo and Totin, 2014;van Paassen et al., 2014).We identify three types of niche-regime interactions related to the IP transformation and performance in AR4D. First, we observed that the AR4D regime simultaneously constrains and enables niche-level IPs. Capacity development for platform facilitators forms a good example of how the AR4D regime supports IP functioning. Capacity development efforts emphasise the need for flexibility, adaptive capacity and learning as essential characteristics of successful IPs in terms of their capacity to respond to the needs and demands of different groups of stakeholders. However, that same AR4D regime also enforces platforms to comply with rigid annual planning, reporting and accounting requirements, that may constraint the IP's capacity to contribute to systemic change and moreover consume large amounts of time and energy from platform facilitators (see also van Mierlo and Totin, 2014). It shows that capacity development needs to be accompanied by new institutional arrangements that stimulate platform facilitators to put their newly acquired competences into practice, because an 'old' institutional setting may hinder a 'new' way of working, as noted by Nettle et al. (2013). Another example relates to the platform-led innovation funds, such as used in Humidtropics. These funds enhance IP ownership and space for innovation by making IPs less dependent on existing projects, mandates and interests of research and extension providers (see also Dentoni and Klerkx, 2015;Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2008;Real and Hickey, 2013;Ton et al., 2015). However, these allocated funds are often modest, and insufficient to drive research agendas, compared to allocations for other types of research operations. More emphasis needs to be made in developing specific research proposals in support of IP functioning and research. Also the rules and regulation around the use and accountability of platform-led innovation funds can easily stimulate IPs to procure goods (e.g. fertilizers) or services (e.g. research and extension) from certain partners (i.e. those represented in the AR4D programme), rather than generate innovation-driven research.Secondly, regimes can strategically keep niche-level developments 'on a leash' (Smink et al., 2015) to align them with regime-level objectives. Following the initial success of IPs as a niche experiment, the approach has become recognised as 'best practice' in AR4D, leading to the adaptation and uptake of the approach by AR4D organisations. The existing body of literature shows how innovative collaborative approaches that perform well at the niche level, can be prone to becoming translated to fit with prevailing mandates and preferences at the regime level (Kloet et al., 2013;Minh et al., 2014). Hence, this may loosen those features which made them distinct from previous ways of working. In relation to IPs, this may imply that they lower their ambition, and devaluate to become mere research projects steering committees with limited systemic change agency, and hence become 'old wine in new bottles'. Although it is too early to conclude this for the IPs analysed in this paper, we do observe some signs of IPs being controlled by the regime that they are supposed to challenge. For example, IP performance and R4D activities are carefully mapped against existing donor demands and development outcome expectations. Proposed activities that are in line with the demands and objectives are being advocated as responding to IP demands. Activities that are not in line with demands and objectives are strategically aligned or adjusted to fit the AR4D programme's needs, or -in the worst case -ignored. We believe that a good starting point could be to clearly position research and development actors, including donors, as stakeholders in the IP process rather than them positioning themselves principally as providers of objective scientific support to the IPs. This may be complicated as long as many of the IPs are initiated and funded by research and development actors. In line with earlier comments on the need for capacity development of IP facilitators, this would also call for creating awareness among AR4D actors, about what working with IPs implies (see e.g. Boogaard et al., 2013). Additionally, this also requires structural changes in working procedures, funding and evaluation of AR4D institutes in order to achieve development outcomes (Hall et al., 2003;Kristjanson et al., 2009).Thirdly, Kemp et al. (1998) provide insights that can help us to explain why IPs struggle to have durable impacts at regime level, noting that regimes remain stable because of path dependency and sunk investments. Such investments have been made in AR4D physical infrastructure such as laboratories or experimental stations, but also in human capacity and funding structures. Consequently, there are actors with a stake in maintaining the status quo, as adaptation of this infrastructure requires new investments, which come with a certain degree of risk. Besides new investments in infrastructure, new competences, partnerships, perspectives and routines need to emerge and develop which comes with insecurity and (often) resistance. People are aware that something needs to change, but preferably 'not in my back yard'. As a consequence, actors and organisations can become locked-in into the incumbent regime. As our experiences highlight, this lock-in does not only apply to research and development actors and organisations, but also to the farmers, government and private sector with whom they collaborate, as well as donors. An important first step is to create an enabling environment and new 'rules of the game' to unlock institutional constraints and logics (Hung and Whittington, 2011;Nettle et al., 2013). This can create space to translate these visions and intentions into concrete reform of research and broader innovation systems trying to accommodate new ways of working. This requires identifying who can champion institutional change from an influential position within AR4D organisations. Such an 'institutional entrepreneur' can reframe paradigm, engage in lobbying, build coalitions and seek resources to enable structural change in AR4D agenda setting and engagement mechanisms (Battilana et al., 2009). In addition capacity development of IP facilitators, IP members and other AR4D actors can enlarge the mental space and willingness for doing things differently (Boogaard et al., 2013;Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2008;Nederlof and Pyburn, 2012). Our survey data show that IP facilitators generally embrace systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation. In this capacity development process, exchange between different programmes and projects can be of great value, as noted earlier (Ortiz et al., 2008;Thiele et al., 2007).Tensions caused by niche-regime interactions form an inherent part of any change or transition process. Collaborative approaches such as IPs are likely to be adapted and modified to fit political and institutional realities of regime actors, as confirmed by earlier experiences (Sherwood et al., 2012). This -on the one hand -can results in erosion of key qualities of the methodology, but -on the other hand -is also needed to (re)interpret, internalise and understand what approaches like IPs are all about. A paradigm shift from technology-oriented to systems-oriented approaches to innovation requires a transition phase in moving from one regime configuration to another. During this phase, IPs and other initiatives that are supposed to lead to demand-driven, systems-oriented R4D, will have to be accommodated and funded through existing -sometimes seemingly incompatible -supply-driven technology-oriented projects and structures, and supported by actors that do not necessarily have a background, nor interest in systems R4D. During such transition periods, an 'intermediate regime' (Flinterman et al., 2013) can support that new projects will be designed to become more systems oriented, more demand driven, more trans-disciplinary and integrated. In other words, this intermediate regime facilitates progressive and strategic alignment of systems-oriented approaches with technology-oriented regimes.Progressive alignment will not be linear or one-way, but a process that is likely to be characterised by iteration, reflection, conflict and learning. We believe that IPs can fulfill an important role in facilitating such alignment processes. Rather than merely providing a space to discuss stakeholder R4D needs, sufficient attention should be paid to reflecting on the IP process of learning and adaptive management (Arkesteijn et al., 2015;Kilelu et al., 2013). In that way, IPs can provide a space where expectations and tensions related to transition processes, approaches to innovation, and the new roles and tasks for different stakeholders (including for research and researchers) can be discussed and negotiated (Schut et al., 2011). This joint reconsideration and restructuring has been found essential for collective action and agricultural innovation (Wellbrock et al., 2013).To support such reflection, more rigorous documentation and analysis of IP processes are needed, using systematic approaches as Neef and Neubert (2011) have done for participatory research. This can lead to better understanding about the key features that influence platform performance in a given context. Preliminary experiences with platform process documentation and learning systems in Humidtropics are promising, although more in-depth analysis of data is required.C O N C LU S I O N IPs are increasingly popular as a strategic collaborative approach for shifting from 'traditional' technology-oriented AR4D practice towards 'new' collaborative and integrated systems-oriented AR4D. This paper provides examples of the opportunities and challenges for IPs in supporting such a paradigm shift. Institutional embedding of key principles of IPs in AR4D programmes is taking place, such as the implementation of interlinked platforms across different levels, platform-led innovation funds, new partnerships and stakeholder commitments, and more flexible donor projects. However, it is worrying that researchers and institutional mandates continue to dominate the IP and broader AR4D agenda. Our findings suggest that many of the IPs focus on technology testing and adoption, although there is increasing attention for gender and nutrition. Institutional dimensions of agricultural innovation (e.g. related to policy, markets and access to land, credit, inputs and services) are currently being addressed to a much lesser extent. We wonder hence whether these IPs reinforce rather than challenge existing agricultural innovation paradigms, and whether they have the potential to contribute to more systems-oriented approaches to agricultural innovation. In that sense, we are witnessing the risk that IPs and other systems-oriented ways of working remain isolated cases of success rather than becoming broadly embedded in AR4D systems. This is despite efforts for better collaboration and exchange of experiences at the global AR4D level, such as in the CGIAR's Institutional Learning and Change initiative (e.g. Ekboir et al., 2013).By analysing the embedding of IPs through the lens of niche-regime theory, it has become clear that this is process of massive paradigm shift and mind-set alignment at both institutional and individual levels across the whole spectrum of stakeholders. Such a shift is unlikely to take place only through isolated experimentation with new approaches such as IPs, but require structural and broad-based learning and capacity development. System innovations will not only require reframing of paradigms, but also changes in organisational mandates and incentives, procedures and funding. These processes are of a highly political nature given path dependencies and existing investments and interests, and therefore require active institutional entrepreneurship, for which there are no clear recipes. However, decision makers in AR4D that champion the IP approach and seek to enhance systemic capacity to innovate could benefit from (1) developing a broader perspective on how AR4D fits within a broader package of agricultural innovation systems in which instruments such as IPs merit separate and dedicated funding and (2) learning from how decision makers elsewhere have created an enabling environment and durable incentives to institutionalise demand-driven AR4D to support systemic capacity to innovate.","tokenCount":"7363"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6686ff9871c91f76252a197dcde18f8b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b5c599e5-65d5-446d-a167-8b2bfe38914f/retrieve","id":"2041541749"},"keywords":["Climate-induced stresses","climate-smart breeding","climate-smart varieties","Eleusine coracana","finger millet germplasm","orphan crop"],"sieverID":"f5d082eb-0619-40f0-865a-076cc62fd566","pagecount":"31","content":"Finger millet (FM; Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) is becoming increasingly vulnerable to various climate-induced stresses, because of which the genetic and genomic resources will be important for improving the crop in the 21 st century. Currently, sizableuntapped genetic resources exists that offer promise for FM improvement to biotic and abiotic stresses. Also, earlier reports elaborate on the potential FM genomic resources, such as molecular markers, genetic maps, and DNA sequence, but the data are scanty to support the efficient and accelerated delivery of the climatesmart FM varieties. This is partly attributable to the delayed availability of complete genome sequence (CGS) of FM. Following the latest developments in FM genomic research, based on the CGS, a diversity of genomic resources have been reported. The review, therefore, provided a detailed analysis on the FM genetic and genomic resources-aided interventions that could contribute to the three pillars of Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) for addressing FM production challenges under changing climate. Exceptionally, it presented enriched information on additional useful sources of variation within FM genetic resources that have been screened for improving FM tolerance to various climate-induced stresses. Also, it presents the novel opportunities for CSA that could come as a result of the recent availability of CGS data for revolutionizing the development of cutting-edge-molecular breeding tools. Specifically, emphasis was placed on genome-wide-based technologies, such as genomic selection (GS), gene pyramiding, and gene expression with the second-generation genomic biotechnologies, such as TILLING and EcoTILLING that are wanting and have received little attention.Finger Millet (FM) (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) is a C4 crop that is envisioned to play a key role in CSA and boost food production in the face of climate change, especially in the developing world (Goron et al. 2015;Gupta et al. 2012;Bandyopadhyay, Muthamilarasan, and Prasad 2017). This low-input orphan crop (Goron et al. 2015;Bandyopadhyay, Muthamilarasan, and Prasad 2017) has evolved across 5000 years with subsistence farmers majorly in Africa and Asia (Dida and Devos 2006;Fuller and Hildebrand 2013). It serves as a food-security crop because of its high nutritional value and excellent storage qualities (Chandra, Chandra, and Sharma 2016;Ramashia et al. 2018). Finger millet grain is gluten-free, rich in calcium, fiber, iron, and methionine, tryptophan, and other essential amino acids, with excellent malting qualities, and has a low glycemic index (Chandra, Chandra, and Sharma 2016;Pandian et al. 2017). More importantly, FM grain contains higher calcium than other cereals (Kumar et al. 2016), and it is also endowed with abundant phytochemicals, with distinguished health beneficial properties, making the crop a reservoir of healthgiving nutrients (Chandra, Chandra, and Sharma 2016).Cumulative evidence shows that the growth and productivity of FM is becoming gradually vulnerable to various climate-induced biotic (pest, pathogens) and abiotic (solar radiation, drought, temperature, salinity) stresses (Gupta et al. 2017;Pavan et al. 2018). Climate change is happening so quickly on a global scale, and it is evident that in the last few decades, global agriculture has experienced increasing vulnerability because of erratic weather patterns, especially increased temperature and water stress (FAO 2011;IPCC 2014IPCC , 2018)). The rising CO 2 , coupled with other GHGs, majorly resulting from anthropogenic activities, is estimated to have caused approximately 1.5°C of global warming above the pre-industrial levels (IPCC 2018). In the future, the warming is likely to range between 3.7 and 4.8°C by 2100 (IPCC 2014), and further exacerbate agricultural production risks (IPCC 2014;Pavan et al. 2018).Studies affirm that with a temperature rise of 2°C or more, without mitigation, production of the cereal crops will be negatively affected in the tropics (Niang et al. 2014;IPCC 2014). According to Jena and Kalli (2018), like any other crop, most biological processes in FM are also temperaturesensitive. Plant growth could diminish in situations where the temperature is below 8°C or above 36°C. Additionally, the rising CO 2 indirectly impacts plant performance through its effect on air temperature and water stress as well as directly by affecting plant metabolism through its role in photosynthesis (Kanwal et al. 2014;Abebe et al. 2016). In general, climate change is already influencing the distribution of land suitable for cultivating many crops, thus significantly contributing to decreased productivity of most agricultural systems, especially for the resource-poor farmers (Adhikari et al., 2015). Furthermore, considerable evidence shows that the amount of land suitable for cereal crop production, including FM, will decline across the world because of exacerbating abiotic stresses, in particular drought, salinity, and heat (Maqsood and Ali 2007;FAO 2015;Sudan, Negi, and Arora 2015).Coping with the intensifying climatic challenges will necessitate adaption of new crop varieties that are tolerant to drought, high temperatures, flooding, salinity, and other environmental extremes. Consequently, the vital diverse FM genetic and genomic resources will become the core for strengthening the crop's resilience to the adverse climatic conditions through climate-smart plant breeding in the 21 st century (FAO 2015;Bandyopadhyay, Muthamilarasan, and Prasad 2017). The article, therefore, provides the latest knowledge on how the FM genetic and genomic resources could contribute to a transition to CSA to ensure increased and sustainable FM production in the face of climate change. It is intended to provide improved information on the additional screened FM germplasm base that is available for climatesmart breeding. Also, an updated detail on cross-compatibility, distribution, and genetic diversity of FM genetic resources for climate-smart breeding has been provided. Furthermore, expanded knowledge has been provided on the putative strategies for the implementation of genome-wide breeding research under the availability of the high-quality FM CGS data within the framework of CSA.Ensuring increased and sustainable FM production in the face of climate change requires a transition to agricultural production systems that are resilient to climate risks and shocks. Additionally, they should contribute to climate change mitigation and preservation of the vital ecosystem services (FAO 2011;Tumwesigye et al. 2019). Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is the latest approach built on the grounds and experience of sustainable development that has attained recognition in addressing agricultural challenges under changing climate (Amin et al. 2015;Tumwesigye et al. 2019). This is achieved through its three dimensions namely; 1) Sustainable increase of agricultural productivity and incomes while conserving biodiversity, 2) Adapting and building resilience to climate change, and 3) Climate change mitigation -reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Amin et al. 2015).Plant genetic resources constitute the base materials for crop improvement to withstand climate-induced biotic and abiotic stresses (FAO 2015). In contrast, genomic resources are genome-aided tools that accelerate the creation of climate-smart crop varieties (Bandyopadhyay, Muthamilarasan, and Prasad 2017;Ceasar et al. 2018). Utilization of the FM genetic and genomic resources is one of the pathways to the CSA approach that could provide sustainable and cost-effective options that are crucial for increasing longterm crop productivity. Since FM is grown at subsistence level in marginal areas, this could lead to the required adaptation and mitigation options that could ensure sustainable food and income security while preserving the agroecosystem services.Amid increasing and unpleasant climatic conditions, next-generation breeding for climate-resilient cultivars of FM will rely largely on wide-scale identification of adaptation traits available in diverse populations and germplasm collections. The cultivated FM (Eleusine coracana subsp. coracana; 2 n = 4x = 36) is a likely product from the selection and domestication of a large-grained mutant of the wild E. coracana subsp. Africana, which is native to Africa but exhibits wider distribution to semi-arid parts of the world, especially Asia and South America (Dida et al., 2008;Fuller et al. 2011;Fuller and Hildebrand 2013;Dida and Devos, 2006). Hence, the continued existence of landraces, together with wild relatives, in diverse agro-ecosystems, presents the opportunity for immense and distinct evolutionary adaptive genetic variations. This could offer huge opportunities for either selection or development of climate-resilient cultivars with stable yields and adaptation to abiotic (e.g., drought) and biotic (e.g., pests and diseases) stresses.The national and international breeding programs are already seeking to develop new FM varieties that will be well adapted to climate-induced stresses. This is likely to increase the demand for a range of millet germplasm, including those of the crop wild relatives. The natural distribution of the wild relatives is restricted to two centers of diversity with sufficient variations, which include the highly variable primary center of origin in Africa and a secondary center in India (Fuller and Hildebrand 2013;Onziga, 2015;Tesfaye and Mengistu, 2018). Both the wild E. africana (2 n = 4x = 36; AABB genome) and cultivated FM E. coracana (2 n = 4x = 36; AABB genome) are important from the standpoint of germplasm collection and conservation, as they form the primary gene pool that is freely cross-compatible. Similarly, the cultivated FM is crosscompatible with another allotetraploid, E. kigeziensis (2 n = 4x = 38; AADD genome), which is also confined to the African continent with high endemicity in eastern Africa (Dramadri. 2015). The cross-compatible diploid wild species E. indica (2 n = 2x = 18; AA genome), E. floccifolia (2 n = 18; BB genome), E. tristachya (2 n = 18; AA genome), and E. intermedia (2 n = 18; AB genome) form the secondary gene pool. The tertiary gene pool comprises diploid species E. jaegeri (2 n = 2x = 20; DD genome), E. multiflora (2 n = 2x = 16; CC genome), and E. verticillata (2 n = 2x = 18). Additionally, it has been comprehensively established that the diploid E. indica (wild goosegrass) is the source of the A genome in FM, but wanting evidence still exists on the source of B genome (Devarumath et al. 2005;Liu et al., 2014;Hatakeyama et al. 2018;Zhang et al. 2019). Nevertheless, research on those species could bring novel genes that can be introgressed into the cultivable FM to develop high-yielding and stress-tolerant varieties, particularly against extreme drought, heat, salinity, low nutrients, and the devastating FM blast disease, all exacerbated by climate change.More than 34,675 FM accessions are available in the major gene banks at various international and national research organizations worldwide (Dwivedi et al. 2012). More importantly, many of these are crosscompatible with the domesticated species, which offer greater opportunities for improvement for tolerance to the climatic stresses (Dwivedi et al. 2012;Saha et al. 2019;Gupta et al. 2017).Unfortunately, the size of the collection with a promising genetic diversity has limited uses because of the costs associated with screening all accessions for traits that could be used in crop improvement programs. However, to maximize the usefulness of the conserved germplasm, preliminary screening attempts have been initiated by scientists. Core collections of 622 (Upadhyaya et al. 2005), and a mini-core collection of 80 accessions (Upadhyaya et al. 2010;Babu et al. 2013) have been developed based on phenotypic characterization and multi-locational evaluation data recorded for quantitative traits.The evaluations have identified useful variations, leading to availability of germplasm that is early maturing, high yielding, blast-resistant. In addition, a few drought-and salinity-tolerant accessions have been identified, which can be utilized in hybridization programs for strengthening FM resilience to climatic stresses. The blast-resistant accessions belonged to one wild (E. africana) and four cultivated (E. Coracana) races (vulgaris, plana, elongate, and compacta), and also possessed significant diversity for agronomic traits, such as maturity period, plant height, and panicle type. Similarly, many accessions with grains having high protein, calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn) were also identified that can be used to enrich the cultivated FM and other crops with increased nutrient levels (Babu et al. 2013).In addition to the core and mini-core evaluations, in the last few years, gradual research attempts commenced at various research institutions to identify or develop FM genotypes with tolerance to climatic stresses (Table 1). So far, a few classical breeding programs in countries, such as India, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia, have bred and released varieties with improved yield and tolerance to climatic stresses (Lenne et al. 2007;Mgonja et al. 2011;Sreenivasaprasad et al. 2004). These improved genotypes and screened materials could provide additional useful sources of variation to the existing hub of germplasm in gene banks that confer tolerance to various climatic stresses for climate-smart breeding.Furthermore, exploitation of the induced and natural mutant lines in the future could lead to the broadening of the genetic base for FM improvement against multiple climatic stresses. However, the mutant genetic resources available for FMs are negligible (Saha et al. 2016), which require additional attention. Generally, little has been done concerning the identification of sources of tolerance to abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, aluminum toxicity, nutrient starvation, waterlogging, and heat stress in FM. Besides, most of the reported screening trials were generally based on phenotypic data. Thus, the recent development in FM genomics research is expected to provide vibrant support for accurate and accelerated screening of the available FM genetic resources for tolerance to various stresses. Ultimately, this will enhance the breeding efficiency of research programs, and hasten the creation and provision of climate-smart FM varieties for CSA.  and 434.5 times less compared with rice, maize, and barley, respectively. Nevertheless, within grasses, comparative genomics has been well studied, and can contribute considerably to marker-assisted selection efforts for tolerance to numerous climatic stresses in FM (Yadav et al. 2014;Ramakrishnan et al. 2016Ramakrishnan et al. , 2017;;Hittalmani et al. 2017;Pandian et al. 2018). The EST projects have yielded a vast amount of sequence data for other grasses that are publicly available at the NCBI Genbank database. With the help of bioinformatics tools, SSRs could be mined through in-silico synteny analysis across the grass genomes.Studies have also revealed high transferability of genic SSR markers associated with tolerance to climatic stresses and superior agronomic traits, such as blast tolerance, Ca, and yield among grasses, including FM (Yadav et al. 2014;Ramakrishnan et al. 2016). Such transferability of genomic resources from other well-studied grasses to FM, supported by the extensive gene-level synteny shared between the grass genomes, could be useful for improving the less-studied orphan crop for many complex climatic stresses.Using Roche 454 and Illumina Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies, 10,327 SSRs, and 23,285 non-homeologous first SNPs were reported in FM (Gimode et al. 2016). Furthermore, following the recent wholegenome research development for FM (Hittalmani et al. 2017), ample genomic resources with numerous opportunities for CSA have been reported. This wealth of high-quality genomic data that include among others 114,083 SSRs, 1766 R-genes, 2866 drought-responsive genes, 146 C4-pathway genes, 56 families of transcription factors (TFs), and 330 calcium transport and accumulation-related genes also exists at the NCBI Genbank database for public use. Possibly, it could serve as a reference for modernizing FM molecular research in the future.Even though conventional breeding approaches have continued to contribute to genetic improvement of important traits in FM, their efficiency can be increased considerably by supplementation with genome-aided breeding tools. However, the absence of FM CGS hampered the needed paradigm shift with respect to molecular-marker development, diversity assessment, linkage-map construction and quantitative trait locus/loci (QTL) mapping (Upadhyaya et al. 2010;Dwivedi et al. 2012;Saha et al. 2019;Gupta et al. 2017). As a result, the breeding progress, for improving tolerance to climatic stresses, has been slow and difficult for this orphan crop. Nevertheless, comparative genomic studies within grasses, have contributed primarily to the development of molecular marker systems that could be exploited for climate-smart breeding in FM. Thus, we update on the available potential key markers/QTL and candidate genes that could support climate-smart molecular breeding.We also highlight the prospects for the implementation of genome-wide breeding research under the availability of the high-quality FM CGS data in the context of CSA.Development of climate-smart cultivars could require introgressing stresstolerance traits into various genetic backgrounds. Therefore, accurate assessment of genetic diversity and population structure for the vast amount of FM germplasm maintained in gene banks worldwide is crucial for genetic resource management, trait mapping, and crop improvement. A few studies have attempted to exploit molecular tools for the analysis of genetic diversity and structure in the landraces, collections, and wild germplasm accessions of this orphan crop (Table 2). The findings provide foundation knowledge about the level of polymorphism exhibited by the different markers for discerning useful variation among FM genotypes that could be exploited in breeding programs against various climatic stresses. For instance, various FM genotypes from cultivated and wild germplasm have been identified as most diverse parents that could generate high-vigor cultivars through hybridization. The genotypes harbor novel genes that hold potential for improving FM for Ca accumulation, variable seed-coat color, high grain-nutrient content, blast-resistance and drought-tolerance traits (Gupta et al. 2010;Panwar et al. 2010;Babu et al. 2014;Dramadri. 2015;Saha et al. 2019). These genotypes could be exceptionally used as parental lines for developing climate-smart cultivars.In general, almost all the past diversity-assessment studies were based on PCR and EST markers that were mined through in-silico analysis (Table 2). These markers could have some limitations, as the development of accurate primers, in the absence of complete genomic information, is quite difficult (Garibyan andAvashia 2013: Khar andSaini 2016). Additionally, a limited number of genotypes have been analyzed for a few traits, and the number of markers available for diversity analysis is still small. Application of the raw  RAPD data of the current genome is expected to explode and modernize a systematic and accurate analysis of the diversity existing within cultivated and wild FM germplasm. To this end, the complete genome will provide a strong platform for mining highly informative genomic markers, such as SSRs and SNPs. These could be increasingly used as next-generation markers of choice for accurate genotype identification and diversity analysis in FM, as done in other major cereals (Samayoa et al., 2015;Zhang et al. 2016;Pavan et al. 2018). Actually, this will help to inform sound breeding programs and define suitable genotypes with superior alleles that meet the breeding demands.The majority of the traits that confer tolerance to climatic stresses such as disease, drought, salinity, nutrient starvation tolerance are complex and governed by QTL (Ceasar et al. 2018;Ramakrishnan et al. 2016Ramakrishnan et al. , 2017;;Serba and Yadav 2016;Sharma et al. 2014;Yadav, Sehgal, and Vadez 2011;Yadav et al. 2014). Hence, genetic improvement of such traits can be achieved through marker-assisted breeding once the QTL are identified and mapped.At present, largely, the resistance genes (R-genes) are not yet mapped in FM. A few studies have, however, mapped R-genes for blast disease that were based on in-silico analysis (Table 3). According to Babu et al. (2014), four QTL for finger blast resistance and one for neck blast resistance were reported through association mapping using 104 SSRs to screen 190 FM genotypes via the general linear model (GLM) approach. Likewise, via the mixed linear model (MLM) approach, seven markers were associated with QTL for blast disease resistance; 3 with leaf, 1 with neck, and 3 with finger blast. Both the GLM and MLM approaches revealed three common markers, i.e., RM262, FMBLEST32, and UGEP18 that were linked to blast disease resistance QTL. The markers explained 5-13% phenotypic variance (R 2 ), and were concentrated on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 3B, 4B and 6B of FM. Probably, these represent the major hub of finger blast and neck blast resistance genes. In a subsequent association mapping study using 87 genomic SSR markers, 128 FM germplasm collections, originating from major diversity centers both in India and abroad, were analyzed. A total of seven QTL were found to be associated with various agronomic traits, including leaf blast resistance (Ramakrishnan et al. 2016). Two markers (UGEP101 and UGEP95) were strongly associated with leaf blast resistance QTL, and explained 21.05 and 8.95% phenotypic variation respectively. This preliminary information on blast resistance QTL, along with the associated markers, could be useful for the development of climate-resilient genotypes with high resistance to blast disease and acceptable agronomically superior traits through marker-assisted QTL introgression. However, the markers were developed through in-silico analysis using primers designed from the Magnaporthe grisea (rice blast fungus) genes and several cloned rice blast Pi genes (Babu et al. 2014). Therefore, for the next-generation breeding, the arrival of the complete FM genome is expected to be a resource for fine mapping and validation of these QTL, along with the associated genic markers. Indeed, it will shorten the breeding for climate-smart cultivars, especially with high resistance to blast disease and acceptable agronomic traits. Resistance to the devastating blast disease exacerbated by climate change could minimize chemical use and lead to reduced emission of GHGs as well.Finger millet is specifically Ca-rich compared to other cereals (Kumar et al. 2016). It is also a locally well-adapted semi-arid crop that is expected to drive food security for the developing world under climatic change-related stresses. Hence, the identification of QTL controlling nutrient signaling and Ca accumulation traits will be essential for improving FM shortly and enriching other cereals with elevated Ca levels. A total of 9 QTL associated with Ca content were identified in 113 genotypes of FM using 14 anchored-SSR markers that were designed from calcium transporters and sensors (Kumar et al. 2015). Through association analysis, using a global collection of 238 genotypes, and 85 genic and non-genic (SSR) markers, two genomic SSR markers (UGEP78 and UGEP60) were reported to be significantly associated with grain calcium content (GCC) (Yadav., Kumar., and Thakur 2017). UGEP60 marker is linked to QTL for GCC that belongs to linkage group 1B of finger millet, which is also syntenous with rice chromosome 1 harboring a QTL for calcium content. Though the identified QTL/markers could kick-start the genetic improvement of calcium content in finger millet, the availability of the complete genome is expected to contribute to the next generation advancement for fine mapping QTL associated with this trait. This could enhance successful genetic improvement of low-Ca FM genotypes and the other cereals under the stresses associated with climate change.It has already been established that under extreme drought, uptake of nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), in plants will be adversely affected (Goron et al. 2015;Gupta et al. 2012;Ramakrishnan et al. 2017;Bista et al. 2018). However, nutrient signaling breeding in FM has not yet been exploited partly because of the scanty molecular information about the QTL governing nutrient-uptake mechanisms. Based on association mapping of 128 FM genotypes from 18 countries two QTL (qLRDW.1 and qLRDW.2) were found to be associated with root dry weight, under low P, using 72 SSR markers (Ramakrishnan et al. 2017). The same authors reported two other QTL, viz., qHSDW.1 and qHRL.1, under P-sufficient conditions, which affected shoot dry weight and root length. The four reported QTL,viz.,qLRDW.1,qLRDW.2,qHSDW.1,and qHRL.1, were linked to UGEP19, UGEP68, UGEP13, and UGEP90 markers, respectively (Table 3).So far, a few QTL mapping studies related to nutrient signaling and accumulation have been conducted in FM (Ramakrishnan et al. 2017;Kumar et al. 2016). Under the changing climate scenario, a detailed understanding of nutrient deficiency QTL will be important for the development of low-nutrient-tolerant FM cultivars. Therefore, the complete-genome-aided research is expected to help in the precise detection of nutrient-starvationtolerance QTL for MAS. Eventually, it will facilitate the selection of either cultivars for areas where nutrient deficiency is noticeable or germplasm lines that could be used as donors for nutrient-starvation-tolerance genes. Thus, this will help to enhance productivity and resilience of resource-poor farmers, especially with low purchasing power for expensive fertilizers, and simultaneously reduce GHG emissions through minimal fertilizer application.Even though the highlighted foundation studies inform about the genetic loci associated with various climatic stresses, it is typically difficult to isolate candidate genes based on such few QTL-mapping experiments. The availability of the recent CGS will be instrumental in rapid validation, discovery, and fine mapping of QTL associated with complex stresstolerance traits. The resultant high-density maps based on genome-wide next generation markers, such as SNPs and SSRs, could precisely facilitate the identification of genes, gene cloning, and gene pyramiding for improving traits that determine yield or/and confer tolerance to multiple climatic stresses in FM.Linkage and association mapping are the two most common methods used for identifying QTL conditioning complex traits; through these methods genes/QTL have been identified in different plant species (Yang et al. 2011;Zhang et al. 2016;Lule et al. 2018;Sharma et al. 2018). Since the development of bi-parental mapping populations for small millets is a difficult, the classical linkage analysis of QTL for traits associated with climatic stresses is limited. Also, large mapping populations are required to achieve highresolution maps. It could be presumed that the genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and genotyping-by-sequencing in FM could be ignited by the advent of the CGS. These could evolve as powerful second-generation biotechnological tools for high-resolution QTL mapping and SNP discovery in FM, as in other well-studied cereals, such as maize (Cappa et al., 2013;Samayoa et al., 2015;Zhang et al. 2016). Accordingly, this could lead to overcoming limitations associated with the traditional QTL-analysis approach.In addition, the availability of genome-wide high-density markers that cover the whole genome could further provide opportunities to increase genetic gains for complex traits through genomic selection (GS). With the continuous decline in sequencing costs, coupled with the availability of highthroughput sequencing platforms, the next-generation marker technology could provide hope for the selection of superior FM genotypes based on accurate breeding values. Hence, these could constitute foundation breeding populations for developing climate-smart FM cultivars at a low cost under the current climate-change scenario.Under the present situation, it has been understood that climate-changeinduced stresses, such as diseases, drought, salinity, and aluminum toxicity, have a serious effect on nutrient uptake, assimilation, and carbon metabolism in plants (Maqsood and Ali 2007;Goron et al. 2015;Bista et al. 2018). These effects are expected to further exacerbate agricultural production risks in the future. Therefore, considerable research attention, focusing on the identification of the candidate genes associated with climatic stresses for enhancing FM resilience, could contribute to the required adaptation strategies.Finger millet, a C4 crop, has a higher calcium content than some other cereals (Kumar et al. 2016), and it is likely to have evolved unique mechanisms that permit the plant to perform well under low nitrogen and adapt to a wide range of environmental stresses, such as drought, salinity, aluminum toxicity, and diseases (Goron et al. 2015;N. Gupta et al. 2012;Bandyopadhyay, Muthamilarasan, and Prasad 2017). It is suggested that the genes underlying these complex mechanisms are driven by strong promoters, transcription factors, and regulatory proteins (Gaur et al. 2018;Pudake et al. 2017;Rahman et al. 2016;Ramakrishna et al. 2018;Ramegowda et al. 2012;Sharma et al. 2017;Singh et al. 2014aSingh et al. , 2015)). However, a lack of comprehensive understanding of these underlying mechanisms, unlike in other wellstudied cereals, such as rice, has been a bottleneck, especially because of availability of scanty genomic information. Nevertheless, based on model crops and comparative genomics, opening studies have been reported on the expression profile of some genes associated with stress tolerance, which could be used for climate-smart breeding (Table 4).Most plants, including FM, obtain their mineral nutrients from the soil and transport them using nutrient-uptake proteins located in the cellular membranes of roots and shoots (Pudake et al. 2017;Sharma et al. 2017;Singh et al. 2014aSingh et al. , 2015)). For instance, ammonium is taken up by the high-affinity AMT1family, while nitrate uptake is associated with members of the NRT1 and NRT2 families of transporters with low-affinity NO 3 − transporters at high N levels and high-affinity NO 3 − transporters at low N levels, respectively (Dechorgnat et al. 2010;Xu, Fan, and Miller 2012). Similarly, phosphorus (P) is taken up by roots via the activity of PHT1-type transport proteins (Varma et al., 2017;Pudake et al. 2017). Most of the genes expressed in roots are upregulated in P-stressed plant for this PHT1 family (Smith et al. 2003). Three ATP-binding cassette (ABC) (LOC_ Os11g39020, LOC_Os02g32690, LOC_Os01g24010) transporters and KUP (potassium uptake permease) potassium type transporters were reported by Rahman et al. (2014). The same authors reported several other transporters involved in the transport of various cations and anions, including metal cation transporter (LOC_Os03g46470) and proton antiporter-2 family (LOC_Os11g42790). These were significantly up-regulated in response to salinity stress in a tolerant FM genotype. This initial understanding of transport proteins forms a promising basis for crop improvement. In the future, their genetic manipulation under availability of FM CGS could be important in enhancing wide adaptation to soil nutritional, drought, and salinity stresses. For instance, wide-scale genome-aided alteration of sodium or potassium   Ramakrishnan et al. (2017) transporters to improve tolerance to salinity, aluminum (Al) transporters to increase tolerance to Al toxicity, and nitrogen and phosphorus transporters for enhancing nutrient-starvation tolerance could contribute to the development of climate-resilient FM genotypes.Additionally, the expression patterns of genes involved in nutrient signaling and response to abiotic stresses, such as drought and salinity, are primarily regulated at the transcriptional level by the promoter and several motifs recognized by plant-specific transcription factors (Table 6). These largely regulate the expression of multiple downstream target genes under stress conditions (Rahman et al. 2014). Preliminary reports on a few transcription factors (TFs) associated with climatic stresses in FM are listed in Table 6. In addition, the current published complete FM genome sequence possesses numerous transcription factors involved in nutrient signaling and response to abiotic stresses (Hittalmani et al. 2017). Consequently, the wealth of TFs housed by the currently released CGS could provide additional potential tools for manipulating stress tolerance in FM. These could further enhance studies to identify important pathways for the accumulation of diverse protective osmolytes, such as proline, associated with physiological response to osmotic stress caused by drought or salinity (Aleksza et al. 2017;Khatoon and Singh 2016). For instance, under adverse conditions, proline, which is regulated by the MYB type transcription factors PHR1 and PHR1-LIKE1 (PHL1), acts as an osmoprotectant, stabilizing cellular structures and enzymes, scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), and maintaining redox equilibrium (Sudan, Negi, and Arora 2015;Aleksza et al. 2017). Indeed, such benefits could shrink GHG emissions from fossil fuel-dependent agricultural activities, such as irrigation, and inorganic fertilizer production.In general, most of the previous expression-profiling studies for FM were based on model crops, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, rice, and tobacco. The introduction of CGS data could serve as an anchor resource that could stimulate similar studies as those on model plants. It is expected to provide novel opportunities for the rapid translation of genetic information through  (2005) comparative genomic analysis between FM and closely related crops or other less-studied cereals. This will ultimately contribute to the required adaptations through crop diversification.With the advent of complete genome raw data, gene-analysis studies could be aided with reverse genetic mutagenesis-based second-generation genomics biotechnologies including TILLING (Kashtwari, Wani, and Rather 2019), EcoTILLING (Bajaj et al. 2016), and other cutting-edge scientific tools, such as CRISPR/Cas9 (Miglani 2017). These non-transgenic reversegenetics approaches are expected to have a broader application to plant species regardless of ploidy level or genome size (Barkley and Wang 2008). In the near future, they could serve as climate-smart high-throughput breeding tools for developing either stress-tolerant FM mutant parental lines or varieties on a short-time scale and at a low cost for CSA.Largely, the recent advances in FM genomic research could guide or support genome-wide transcript profiling, functional diversity studies, and validation of candidate genes associated with climatic stresses; especially so, those involved in different nutrient signaling pathways, such as calcium, phosphorous, and nitrogen uptake genes, nitrogen and carbon metabolism genes, and abiotic stresses (drought, salinity). As FM is richer in calcium content compared to other cereals (Kumar et al. 2016), the identified calcium genes of the complete genome will help in exploring FM germplasm for calcium uptake, translocation, and accumulation in various tissues, and enrichment of other cereals with this vital nutrient.Under the adverse climatic conditions, genetic transformation will be central to most crop improvement programs to address complex climate-induced stresses, as conventional methods could be hindered by limited genetic variability among cross-compatible germplasm. For FM, the exploitation of genetic transformation for climate-smart breeding is still in infancy, majorly because of impairments that have been associated with the lack of ample genomic resources (Hittalmani et al. 2017). So far, few transformation studies have been attempted to transfer genes associated with tolerance to leaf blast disease, drought, and salinity in FM (Table 6). This has been mainly because of the nonexistence of optimal transformation protocols for generating mutant lines in FM based on an Agrobacterium-mediated versatile method of gene delivery (Ceasar and Ignacimuthu 2014). Likewise, most previous transformation studies relied on Biolistic-mediated gene delivery and were limited to marker gene expression assessments using model plants (Latha, Rao, and Reddy 2005;Ceasar and Ignacimuthu 2014). In contrast, for other well-studied cereals, such as rice, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation has registered tremendous progress (Beyer et al. 2002;Zhang et al. 2016).Outspreading these efforts to FM within a short time under the genomic era is a requirement to ensure improved food and economic security, as the crop is mainly grown by resource-poor farmers, mostly in semi-arid areas.The availability of the complete genome assembly for FM is expected to enhance the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation protocols for the development of climate-resilient FM transgenic varieties. This is particularly so in equipping T-DNA with plant-specific promoters and terminators for cases where the genes of interest are from prokaryotes or non-plant eukaryotes. In general, the recent resources of the CGS for this orphan crop will serve as a reference for efficient, large-scale identification and cloning of additional foreign stress-tolerance genes from mutations based on SNPs in various transformation studies for enhancing FM resilience to multiple climatic stresses.Finger millet is vulnerable to the intensifying climatic risks, though it has been considered a climate-resilient crop that could drive food production for the developing world in the 21 st century. Ensuring increased and sustainable FM production in the face of climate change requires a transition to CSA production systems that are resilient to climate risks. Wise use of FM genetic and genomic resources through climate-smart breeding is one pathway that could significantly contribute to transition to CSA. Therefore, research initiatives should focus on trait-specific screening of the abundant FM genetic resources. This could aid in the identification of genotypes with superior alleles that meet the breeding demands attributable to increasing climate-induced stresses. Specifically, redesigning the climate-smart breeding research based on the recent wealth of the high-quality CGS data for FM is expected to revolutionize the discovery of high-throughput molecular breeding tools, such as SNPs on a large scale. The genome-wide-aided tools will support accurate diversity assessment, fine-mapping studies, genomic selection, and GWAS for enhancing marker-assisted breeding in FM. In addition, they could offer novel opportunities to enrich genetic transformation studies, and gene expression with second-generation genomic biotechnologies, such as TILLING, EcoTILLING, and CRISPR/Cas9, for developing climate-smart FM varieties. In general, assimilation of these genomic inputs could enhance the utilization of the assembled genetic resources and shorten the breeding time for climate-smart cultivars. Adoption of such climate-resilient FM cultivars for CSA will enhance long-term crop productivity while preserving the vital ecosystem services. Likewise, it could buffer crop production from the effects of greater climate variability and extreme events by reducing GHG emissions from direct and indirect agricultural activities that are heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Ultimately, this will lead to viable adaptation and mitigation options, especially for the smallholder farmers with limited capacity to adapt under the current climate-change scenario.","tokenCount":"5792"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"67b2776423444a5759c32f203aad50fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/283e3874-a16d-4804-bc20-8cafef1e6972/retrieve","id":"-1317522921"},"keywords":["food loss and waste","sustainable food systems","poverty","food security","general equilibrium modeling","Bangladesh","Kenya","Nigeria v"],"sieverID":"9293fa91-d186-4dd2-a498-026138d980ec","pagecount":"31","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Figure 1. Stages in the food supply and consumption chain and associated food waste and losses ............. Figure 2. Product flows and food supply stages in which food loss and waste can be reduced ................... Fanzo et al., (2020) describe the food system as comprising of \"the people, institutions, environments, infrastructure, and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, marketing, sale, preparation and consumption of food\". Food systems are influenced by a complex set of external drivers, including demographic, socio-cultural, political, economic, technological, and environmental ones (GOPLAN, 2016). In turn, food systems dictate the availability and affordability of food in local markets and shape preferences and behaviors of consumers.As such, food systems are crucial in at least two ways. First, food supply chains, which encompass production, storage, processing, and distribution of food, have a tremendous impact on the planet, contributing to climate change and environmental degradation through unsustainable water and land use, biodiversity loss, and emissions and pollution (Godfray, et al., 2010;Tilman, et al., 2011). Second, food environments, that is, the places and contexts in which consumers access food, as shaped by personal circumstances, norms, preferences, markets, and policies, determine what people consume, i.e., their diets. Diets characterized as having deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in calories or nutrients are a major cause of malnutrition and non-communicable disease and are associated with one-fifth of adult deaths globally (Afshin, et al., 2019;FAO, et al., 2020).A transformation of food systems is urgently required if countries are to successfully pursue goals of environmental sustainability and healthier populations. Sustainable food systems are defined as ones that provide food and nutrition security for everyone without compromising the economic, social, and environmental needs of future generations (Nguyen, 2018). In short, this means ensuring that all people have access to diets that meet nutritional needs and reduce the incidence of disease and mortality, while simultaneously ensuring that food production and supply chains remain within planetary boundaries (Willett, et al., 2019).Reducing FLW is central to the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2022). At least two SDGs relate directly to promoting sustainable food systems: SDG 2 aims to end hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition; and SDG 12 aims to promote more sustainable consumption and production patterns. The latter also includes as a specific target to \"halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including postharvest losses\" by 2030 (UN, 2022).While food security has always been a topic of interest for agrifood system analysts, it is only in more recent decades that food security is viewed through a sustainability lens. For example, increased crop productivity is a common recommendation for improving food security, but analysts are now asking how yield gaps can be closed in environmentally sustainable ways (Popp, et al., 2013;Pradhan, et al., 2015). This paradigm shift is shaping debates about efficiency and trade-offs associated with the allocation of resources or outputs. For instance, the food-versus-fuel debate considers the food security and environmental trade-offs in using food crops for biofuel production (Arndt, et al., 2012b;Nonhebel, 2012). Similarly, the national food self-sufficiency debate has historically focused on trade-offs between stability in food supply and efficiency, but increasingly considers environmental consequences of global trade versus domestic production (e.g., Burnett and Murphy (2014); Clapp (2016)).Another strategic option for simultaneously addressing issues of food security, efficiency, and environmental sustainability is reducing food losses and waste (FLW) along food supply and consumption chains. By some estimates, FLW accounts for up to one-third of the edible parts of food produced for human consumption globally (Gustavsson, et al., 2011), resulting in roughly US$1 trillion in economic losses per year (Lipinski, 2020). These astounding estimates have spurred interest in FLW reductions as an alternative to increased crop production-and the associated environmental pressuresto feed a growing global population and improve diet quality.Recent methodological advancements have made it easier to quantify the extent of FLW at different stages in the food supply and consumption chain (Gustavsson, et al., 2011;Fabi & English, 2018;Lipinski, 2020;Bodirsky, et al., 2020). This has also made it easier to consider the implications of FLW on sustainable use of natural resources (i.e., land and water) or on food security (e.g., in terms of calories foregone). Such estimates provide an important benchmark for estimating the economic, environmental, or food security consequences of reducing FLW. However, there is still much to learn. First, most existing studies measure losses within value chains independently from one another. Given linkages across agrifood value chains, the scale of the problem is potentially underestimated. A general equilibrium approach that captures these linkages is justified both by economic theory (Rutten, 2013) and by a handful of studies that have employed (global) economywide models (Rutten & Mhlanga, 2015;Rutten & Kavallari, 2016;Springmann, et al., 2018;Kuiper & Cui, 2021). Second, most studies provide global or regional perspectives on the problem, whereas the nature and extent of FLW varies by country because of structural differences in their agrifood systems. Moreover, policy measures are adopted at national level and so analysis conducted at national level may provide more compelling evidence.This study partially fills these research gaps. We employ economywide models for Bangladesh, Kenya, and Nigeria to assess the GDP, poverty, and food security implications of halving FLW along various stages of domestic food supply chains, including the on-farm production stage, the off-farm postharvest, processing, and distribution stages, and the household consumption stage. The simulations are consistent with the SDG target of halving food waste at retail and consumer levels. We assume the same loss reduction in production, postharvest, and processing stages, even though the SDGs are less specific in that regard, stating merely that losses will be reduced.The scenarios draw on FLW estimates by product type and supply chain stage for each country, which we estimate from food quantity estimates in the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Balance Sheets (FBSs) (FAO, 2022a) following a method by Aragie and Balie (2018). The use of economywide models ensures that the benefits, as well as the trade-offs and unintended consequences of reducing FLW, are captured. For example, FLW reductions at one stage of the food supply chain may affect market conditions, output, and employment in both upstream and downstream sectors of the chain. Similarly, there may be trade-offs and synergies across development outcomes, such as growth, poverty, or food security, which we track with the aid of the model.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents theoretical concepts and estimates of FLW along various food supply chain stages in our three case study countries. Section 3 introduces the modeling approach and simulations for assessing the economywide effects of FLW reductions, from macroeconomic and sector-level (e.g., in terms of GDP and employment) to household-level (e.g., poverty and food security). Section 4 presents detailed model results, while Section 5 concludes.The first step in our analysis is obtaining baseline estimates of FLW in the case study countries. We are interested both in total losses by food group or value chain and where these losses occur within the different stages of food supply and consumption chains, i.e., the on-farm production stage, the off-farm postharvest, processing, and distribution stages, and the household consumption stage. Figure 1 details the types of losses typically recorded within each of these stages. Since the latter stages often entail some degree of processing and transformation of foods, FLW in all stages are expressed in terms of the primary equivalent volume of supply at the agricultural production stage to facilitate comparison across stages.Source: Authors compilation Food losses occurring in the agricultural production stage include losses due to damage or spillage during harvest operations. It also includes losses incurred during on-farm transportation or storage. Losses incurred at the agricultural production stage lower farm profits since they occur before the product is marketed. Post-harvest handling and storage losses occur off the farm. This includes losses incurred during handling between the farmgate and the market and those incurred by traders during storage. Losses incurred in the processing and packaging stage relate to spillage or degradation of products during industrial and domestic processing. The distribution stage includes losses associated with trade and transport of processed foods and food waste in the hospitality sector. 1 Food waste in the household consumption stage occurs during food storage at home and preparation for final consumption. These losses require households to purchase more food than what they ultimately ingest.The distribution of losses across the various stages is often dependent on the type of food under consideration, the level of economic development in a country, and the quality of infrastructure. For example, losses will differ by food type and food supply chain stage depending on the perishability of the food type or the extent of processing and transportation required to bring those foods to final consumers. Generally, as economies transform, a greater share of farm produce is marketed, which means more of the waste is transferred to the off-farm sector. Poor quality storage, industrial equipment, or transport infrastructure in a country may also cause losses to be concentrated in the off-farm stages. In wealthier countries, more food is consumed away from home, which suggests losses may be relatively larger in the distribution stage. Wealthy households (or counties) may also have less incentive to avoid food losses since food expenses make up a smaller share of their household budgets.There are several potential sources of FLW information. Household income and expenditure surveys frequently capture information on farmers' estimates of on-farm production and storage losses (Christiaensen & Demery, 2018;Bachewe, et al., 2020). However, measuring FLW is not necessarily a primary objective of these surveys, and hence the relevant questions may be limited in scope. Dedicated FLW surveys conducted at country level, on the other hand, may provide more accurate estimates of FLW, but these do not necessarily cover all food groups or all food supply chain stages (Abass, et al., 2014;Gummert, et al., 2020;Minten, et al., 2021;Shee, et al., 2019). FLW estimates from these surveys may also not be comparable across food supply chains or countries due to differences in data collection or estimation methods. In contrast, regional initiatives such as the Africa Post Harvest Loss Information System (APHLIS) do produce data suited for cross-country comparisons (APHLIS, 2022), but this database only covers cereal crops and does not track losses along the different food supply chain stages.Given limitations of these existing data sources, coupled with our interest in measuring effects of FLW reductions across all stages of all food chains using a replicable method that generates comparable results, we rely on FAO FBSs (FAO, 2022a) and adopt an approach piloted by Kummu et al. (2012) and refined by Aragie and Balie (2018) to construct our own baseline estimates of FLW in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Nigeria. The FBSs provide product flow data for virtually all countries and for a comprehensive range of vegetal and animal products. The method we adopt for estimating FLW is easily replicable across all these countries. The FBSs further record both the sources of food commodities in domestic markets (e.g., from domestic production or imports) as well as their uses (e.g., as intermediate inputs, exports, stock changes, or final household consumption), which allows us to estimate food quantities -or product flows -at every stage of the food supply and consumption chain.Figure 2 is a graphical representation of those product flows. This framework also represents the way in which domestic production and marketed commodity flows are captured in the computable general equilibrium (CGE) model we introduce in Section 3. At the production stage  intermediate inputs and factors of production (value added) combine to form activity output (or domestic production). Activity output leaves the farm (or factory) gate and is transformed into marketed commodity output in what we term the postharvest stage . From here output is allocated either to domestic or export markets. Domestic sales combine with imported food products, which together constitute domestic supply. In the distribution stage  those food items not yet considered final products are demanded by food processors as intermediate inputs, and hence re-enter the production system. We refer to this as the processing stage  to differentiate it from the production stage, which in our terminology is defined as on-farm production only. Final products are either retained as stocks (e.g., in the case of grains) or consumed by households in the consumption stage . Government and investment demand also forms part of final demand, but typically only includes nonfood commodities and services. For our baseline FLW estimates we aggregate the product flow data for detailed food items into eight food groups, namely cereals, roots and tubers, oilseeds and pulses, fruits and vegetables, meat products, fish and seafood, dairy products, and other foods (see Table A1 in Appendix 7.1 for a detailed mapping to FBS items). We further use five-year averages of product flow data in the FBSs (i.e., for 2015-2019) to limit the effect of possible outliers. Once baseline food quantities (product flows) have been estimated for each stage in the food supply and consumption chain, we estimate the marginal FLW quantities in each food supply chain stage by applying average FLW factors estimated by Gustavsson et al. (2011). These are reported for the Sub-Saharan African and Asian regions, which we respectively apply to Kenya and Nigeria and to Bangladesh data (see Table A2 in Appendix 7.1). The resulting baseline FLW estimates for Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Kenya are presented in the next section.Although Bangladesh, Kenya, and Nigeria are all classified as lower-middle-income countries, the GNI per capita is significantly lower in Kenya (USD 2,008) and Nigeria (USD 2,100) than in Bangladesh (USD 2,619) (World Bank, 2022). The higher level of economic development in Bangladesh is also reflected in other indicators. For example, in Bangladesh agriculture contributes only 13.5 percent to GDP, compared to 22.3 and 23.1 percent in Nigeria and Kenya. Likewise, the headcount poverty rate, measured at the international poverty line (USD 2.15 per person per day) is 14.3 percent in Bangladesh, compared to 36.8 and 39.1 percent in Kenya and Nigeria. Bangladesh and Nigeria count among the topten largest countries in the world by population, with populations of 166.3 and 211.4 million, respectively, compared to Kenya's 55.0 million. Our case study countries, therefore, represent around 126.7 million or almost one-fifth of the world's poor population.Table 1 presents baseline FLW estimates. Total FLW as a percentage of total supply is highest in Nigeria (32.8 percent), which equates to 69.2 million tons of food lost each year. Losses are lower in Kenya (27.6 percent or 9.2 million tons) and Bangladesh (19.4 percent or 21.2 million tons). Whereas in Bangladesh cereals account for the largest share of FLW (39.6 percent), roots and tubers account for the bulk of losses in Nigeria (67 percent). Fruit and vegetable losses are large relative to their supply shares in all countries, which reflects large loss factors for this commodity group (see Table A2 in Appendix 7.1). FLW shares are also relatively large for roots and tubers and, in the case of Bangladesh, for fish and seafood. In contrast, FLW shares of cereals, oilseeds and pulses, and dairy products are relatively small.The second part of Table 1 breaks losses down by food supply chain stage. Since the primary equivalent food supply is the same in every stage, only the total value is shown in the table. The FLW rates in this part of the table are additive across the stages, i.e., they represent the marginal loss incurred in each stage.The key result here is that FLW rates are highest in the production and postharvest stages. These two stages also account for the bulk of overall losses, ranging from 62.1 percent in Bangladesh and Kenya to 76.5 percent in Nigeria.As we elaborate in the next section, the FLW shares are important for interpreting model results since the simulations all entail a halving of baseline FLW at each stage in the food supply chain. Our expectation, therefore, is that FLW reductions will have the greatest economywide impact when they occur in the production and postharvest stages of the supply chain. In contrast, the economywide benefits of halving FLW at the consumption stage are likely to be small, although the direct socioeconomic benefits to individual households may be significant. Of course, FLW reductions in any stage may have spillover implications for other stages or sectors of the economy, both within and outside of the agrifood system. By using an economywide model we can assess the broader implications of reducing FLW at every stage. Source: Authors' estimates based on FAO (2022a) and Gustavsson et al. (2011).Values with * are country level average percentages of FLW in total food supply.The objective of the modeling exercise is to examine the economywide effects of reducing FLW at various stages of food supply and consumption chains. We measure both the direct and indirect economic benefits as well as the trade-offs associated with reduced FLW across all markets and actors in the economy. For this we use the static version of IFPRI's Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) model (IFPRI, 2022). At the core of RIAPA is a single-country computable general equilibrium (CGE) model that incorporates flexible behavioral features, such as nested production functions for agricultural and nonagricultural activities, imperfect substitution between domestic and traded commodities, and a linear expenditure system of consumer demand. Consumers and producers maximize utility and profits based on factor and product prices, which adjust endogenously to establish market equilibrium (for details, see Lofgren et al. (2002)). The choice of a static over a recursive-dynamic model is justified for an impact assessment of FLW reductions as results are unaffected by modeling assumptions about population growth rates and structural transformation of economies (Kuiper & Cui, 2021).The CGE model is calibrated to recent Social Accounting Matrixes (SAMs) for Bangladesh (Dorosh, et al., 2021), Kenya (Pradesha, 2021), and Nigeria (Thurlow, 2021). These economywide databases capture detailed transaction flow data (incomes and expenditures) for different actors (e.g., firms or activities, households, government, and the rest of the world) as they interact via commodity and factor markets.The SAMs used in this study were produced under the IFPRI-led Nexus Project and have similar structures. Each has around 30 agricultural sectors, up to 40 industrial sectors, including 18 agroprocessing sectors, and 12 services sectors. We consider the agricultural sectors, the agroprocessing sectors, and the services sectors engaged in food trade and transport or restaurants to all form part of the broader agrifood system. The SAMs further include accounts for agricultural land, agricultural and nonagricultural capital, and eight labor groups (split by rural and urban areas and four education categories). The SAMs also include 15 representative household groups.The CGE model produces results on sectoral growth and employment outcomes.  2012a) and produces poverty headcount rates and depth of poverty estimates by population subgroup (we report the former). The diet module produces a Reference Diet Deprivation (ReDD) index, a multidimensional indicator that measures the shortfall in a household's calorie consumption against recommended calorie intakes for six key food groups, namely staples, fruits, vegetables, dairy, protein foods, and added fats (Pauw, et al., 2021). Lastly, the hunger module produces estimates of the Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU), i.e., the share of households that consume fewer calories than what is required for a healthy life (FAO, 2022b). Household expenditures in the poverty module and household calorie availability in the diet and hunger modules are all adjusted for the age and gender composition of the household.Simulation analysis of FLW reductions is still in its infancy (Rutten & Mhlanga, 2015). A handful of studies have examined the effects of FLW reductions at the primary and processing stages using global models, including general equilibrium (Kuiper & Cui, 2021;Rutten & Kavallari, 2016) and partial equilibrium ones (Springmann, et al., 2018). Britz et al. (2019) also employed a global general equilibrium model for the European Union to simulate the effects of food waste reductions in the consumption stage. Our analysis contributes to this modeling literature in two ways. First, we consider loss reductions separately within and simultaneously across all stages of all food supply and consumption chains. As we detail in the remainder of this section -with a technical description and accompanying equations in Appendix 7.2 -this is achieved by adjusting a variety of efficiency parameters, shift parameters, input-output coefficients, and marginal budget shares in the CGE model such that the FLW estimates implicit in the baseline products flows in the model are reduced by 50 percent. Second, we model impacts using country general equilibrium models that account for the unique structural features of the respective economies. Our country models also have a more detailed economic structure than is typically reflected in global models, which allows us to produce more refined country-specific results.Production scenario: FLW reductions at the agricultural production stage are associated with reduced harvesting and on-farm transport and storage losses. Reducing FLW implies an efficiency gain in that a given amount of a farmer's production, or activity output, can be produced using intermediate inputs and primary factors of production, such as capital, land or labor (see  in Figure 2). Therefore, for this scenario we increase total factor productivity, which raises the value added per unit of primary input. We simultaneously lower the quantity of aggregate intermediate input required per unit of farm output by a factor proportionate to the total factor productivity gain to account for increased intermediate input use efficiency (see Equations 1a-1b in Appendix 7.2). Both subsistence farmers producing for their own consumption and commercial farmers producing for the market experience these efficiency gains.Postharvest scenario: FLW reductions at the postharvest handling and storage stage are associated with lower spillage and degradation during handling, storage, and transportation between the farm gate and the distribution stage. The balance of activity outputs not consumed by farming households themselves is marketed. Reduced FLW in the postharvest scenario therefore means greater quantities of food products that leave the farm gate are available as marketed commodities. Marketed commodities are supplied to domestic or export markets as governed by a constant elasticity of transformation (CET) function in the model (see  in Figure 2). We adjust the shift parameter in the CET function such that the quantities of food in domestic and export markets increase per unit of activity output (see Equations 2a-2c in Appendix 7.2). These gains apply to all primary and processed food products produced in the economy.Processing scenario: The food processing stage entails a reduction in waste of foods used as intermediate inputs by producers of food and nonfood products. Fixed input-output coefficients in the CGE model define the quantities of intermediate inputs required per unit of output. In the processing scenario the input-output coefficients for food inputs are reduced to reflect their more efficient use (see  in Figure 2 and Equation 3 in Appendix 7.2). This results in a reduction in demand for food commodities used as intermediate inputs.Distribution scenario: FLW reductions in the distribution stage result in an increase in total the quantity of food available domestically for use as intermediate inputs or final domestic demand. This supply originates from a so-called composite commodity of imported and domestically produced foods. The optimal mix of imported versus domestically produced commodities in the composite commodity is governed by a constant elasticity of substitution (CES) function in the model (see  in Figure 2). The distribution scenario adjusts the shift parameter in the CES function so that the composite food commodity available for domestic consumption increases per unit of imports and domestic supply (see Equation 4 in Appendix 7.2).Consumption scenario: Lastly, the consumption scenario entails reduced food waste during final consumption by households. By wasting less, households can reduce their food expenditure without sacrificing food intake. We model this by lowering food budget shares in the household demand function so that households consume less food from own production or demand less food from the market for a given level of disposable income (see  in Figure 2 and Equations 5a-5c in Appendix 7.2). Only the budget shares of households in the third through fifth expenditure quintiles are adjusted under the assumption that the opportunity cost of food waste is high for poor households.Two points are worth noting regarding the consumption scenario. First, savings from reduced food spending are reallocated across all commodities -including food -based on consumption preferences, which means the decline in food expenditure will be proportionately less than the reduction in food waste. However, the likely outcome is still a net decline in demand for food for a given level of disposable income. Second, although food spending declines, the food quantities ingested increase, or at least remain unchanged since less food is wasted. The microsimulation models account for changes in food intake when generating results on poverty, diet deprivation, and hunger.Since the simulation parameters are calibrated to produce a 50 percent reduction in baseline FLW estimates, the scenarios are essentially efficiency gain scenarios where the implied efficiency gain is proportionate to the initial loss in a food supply. Since average losses are largest in Nigeria (see Table 1), the implied efficiency gains from halving FLW are also largest in Nigeria, and hence we expect the relative economic benefits to also be largest in Nigeria. Table 3 summarizes the key economic impacts of FLW reductions, including on consumer prices, exchange rates, GDP at market prices and factor costs, and employment. Halving FLW across all food supply stages has substantial economywide effects, raising GDP at market prices by 3.1 to 5.3 percent and GDP at factor cost by 1.1 to 2 percent across the three case study countries. As expected, relative gains are larger in Kenya and Nigeria because of the larger implied efficiency gains in these countries (see Table 2). By comparison, Kuiper and Cui (2021) estimate a 0.6 percent increase in GDP at factor cost if food losses in primary production and processing decline by 25 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa.The largest gains in GDP are recorded in the production stage. These gains are linked to increased productivity and value addition on farms, which is measured as GDP at factor cost. It is noticeable that the gap between the change in GDP at market prices and GDP at factor costs is not large in this stage. GDP gains in the remaining food supply stages are not only smaller, but the gap between the change in GDP at market prices and factor costs widens. In these off-farm stages, economic gains are primarily associated with reduced losses of foods already produced, i.e., there is no further productivity gain or supply increase on farms that would result in an increase in GDP at factor cost. However, the marketed supply or availability of foods increases, which raises GDP at market prices.Whereas FLW reductions cause marginal increases in the consumer price index in Bangladesh and Nigeria, prices fall by 0.6 percent in Kenya. Generally, FLW reductions at the production and postharvest stages lower food prices, but these reductions are more than offset by increases in nonfood prices, which causes the overall price index to increase. FLW reductions in the other stages-especially the distribution stage-have the opposite effect as food trade and services sectors become more efficient.We also observe changes in exchange rates, which affect domestic prices. Reductions in food losses at the production and postharvest stages cause the exchange rate in Bangladesh and Nigeria to depreciate by up to 1.3 percent. This causes imports to become more expensive, resulting in an increase in domestic prices. Much smaller exchange rate movements-in both directions-are observed in the remaining food supply chain stages, although in the combined scenario, the exchange rate still depreciates in Bangladesh and Nigeria. By contrast, the exchange rate appreciates because of FLW reductions in almost all the food supply chain stages in Kenya, with a 3.2 percent appreciation overall. Kenya has relatively large tea and coffee export sectors, and so on-farm productivity gains or postharvest efficiency gains lead to improvements in the trade balance. Efficiency gains in the distribution stage also allow Kenya to substitute food and agricultural imports with domestic supply, which causes the exchange rate to strengthen further.Table 3 also reports changes in GDP at factor cost at the subsector level. In the combined scenario, GDP in the agrifood sector expands by 2.7 percent in Bangladesh and by 5.3 percent in Kenya and Nigeria. In all three countries, the on-farm component (primary agriculture) expands more rapidly than the off-farm component of the agrifood system, with most of that expansion explained by FLW reductions in the production stage. The off-farm component includes such sectors as agroprocessing, food trade and transport, and food services. The weaker performance of the off-farm component relates to declining demand for food and agricultural products as processors become more efficient and consumers reduce their food waste. This reduced demand also explains the low or even negative impact on GDP in the primary agricultural sector when FLW reductions occur in the off-farm stages of the food supply chain. Lastly, Table 3 reports employment changes. On average, labor contributes about 35 percent of factor incomes in the three case study countries, with the remainder coming from land and capital. Intuitively, the labor income and employment effects should depend on the cost structures and factor intensity of the stage in the food supply chain where the FLW reductions occur. For example, FLW reductions in the postharvest stage might be more capital-intensive as storage and cooling facilities are required, while those in the food services sectors might be more labor-intensive. Since we do not explicitly define the FLW technologies that result in these FLW reductions we also assume that the employment impacts are factor neutral.Overall, FLW reductions are associated with an increase in employment as labor demand expands and more workers enter the labor force, i.e., from 1.3 percent in Bangladesh to 3.4 percent in Kenya. However, in both Bangladesh and Nigeria, agricultural employment declines across all scenarios, and by 3.5 and 3.7 percent in the combined scenario. Employment, therefore, increases only because of nonagricultural employment growth, particularly in the off-farm components of the agrifood system (e.g., in food processing and food trade and transport). In practice, such a positive employment outcome hinges on the ability of the off-farm components of the agrifood system to effectively absorb new labor market entrants and those workers released from the primary agricultural sector.Table 4 reports the effects on household real consumption spending and poverty. The combined scenario shows a substantial increase in consumption associated with the reduction in FLW. At the national level, households expand their consumption by between 4.7 and 7.0 percent across the three countries, at rates that far exceed the expansion in overall GDP at market prices. Both price and income effects explain this outcome. The increase in primary agricultural output raises producer incomes and lowers consumer prices, resulting in higher real consumption levels. Most of the gains in household consumption are associated with FLW reductions at the production and postharvest stages, which jointly account for about two-thirds of the increase in consumption. Reducing FLW at the distribution stage also strongly boosts consumption due to its direct and strong effect on food availability and consumer prices, as shown earlier in Table 3.Results for rural and urban households are somewhat mixed, although in Bangladesh and Nigeria rural households experience larger increases in real consumption. This may reflect their closer ties to agrifood sectors. There is more conclusive evidence that real consumption levels of poor households grow faster than those of nonpoor households. Increased availability and lower prices of food will generally benefit poor households more given their larger food budget shares. Poverty results are reported in the bottom half of Table 4. In absolute (percentage-point) terms, in the combined scenario, poverty rates fall faster in Kenya and Nigeria than in Bangladesh. The percentagepoint decline in poverty is also generally larger in rural areas. Reductions in poverty are highest in the production stage, especially for rural households, while urban households experience relatively sharp reductions in poverty when FLW is reduced in the off-farm stages. Poverty changes are negligible in the consumption stage as the benefits from reducing food waste appear to be offset by the negative impacts of reduced food demand on farm household incomes. Table 5 presents food security results from the diet quality and hunger modules. As explained in Section 3.1, diet deprivation is measured by the ReDD, a multidimensional indicator of diet quality, while the hunger module measures the share of people that are undernourished. A decline in ReDD is associated either with a decline in the number of food groups in which households are deprived or a decline in food consumption shortfalls. We interpret such a decline as an improvement in diet quality. In the combined scenario, ReDD declines by 2.5 points in Bangladesh, by 6.9 points in Kenya, and by 5.4 points in Nigeria. The effects are stronger when FLW is reduced at the production and postharvest stages. The distribution stage is also relatively important for diet quality as it contributes to more diverse foods becoming available for final consumption. However, reducing food waste at the consumption stage itself does not significantly improve diet quality.The bottom section of the table reports changes in undernourishment. The baseline estimates of undernourishment are consistent with those of the FAO (FAO, 2022b) and range from 9.7 percent in Bangladesh to 24.8 percent in Kenya. FLW reductions cause marked declines in the proportion of undernourished people, with rural populations in Kenya and Nigeria and urban populations in Bangladesh experiencing the largest reductions in undernourishment, mirroring the changes in poverty. Halving FLW lifts over 14 million people above the calorie threshold, with over 60 percent of those people living in rural areas.Food loss and waste (FLW) along food supply and consumption chains are estimated to account for up to one-third of food produced for human consumption globally. Baseline estimates of FLW presented in this paper reveal that Nigeria loses over 32.8 percent (69.2 million tons), Kenya 27.6 percent (9.2 million tons), and Bangladesh 19.4 percent (21.2 million tons) of primary equivalent food supply each year. These losses point to significant inefficiencies in food supply chains and highlight concerns about their environmental sustainability. FLW further contributes to undernourishment, poor diet quality, and poor health of populations. While reducing FLW is not a panacea for addressing inefficiencies, environmental sustainability, and diet-related health concerns, it certainly deserves close consideration. Although the SDGs have brought the issue of FLW reductions to the fore, there have been limited attempts to quantify the economywide benefits of reducing FLW.This study partially fills that gap by employing general equilibrium models to examine the direct and indirect effects of halving FLW separately within and simultaneously across all stages of all food supply and consumption chains in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Nigeria. An economywide perspective is important since linkages across food value chains and across the different stages within food supply and consumption chains mean policy interventions in one stage may have implications also for others.Our model results highlight the significant socioeconomic gains that can be realized from reducing FLW. FLW reductions raise GDP at market prices by between 3.1 in Bangladesh and 5.3 percent in Nigeria.Gains in GDP at factor cost are slightly lower, ranging from 1.1 to 2 percent. The biggest gains in GDP are recorded in the production and postharvest stages. Even though the agricultural sector sheds workers as the sector becomes more productive, strong employment demand in the off-farm components of the agrifood system, such as food processing and trade and transport, causes overall labor force participation and employment to increase in all case study countries. FLW reductions have small but ambiguous effects on consumer prices. Whereas FLW reductions on farms cause prices to decline due to increased productivity and food supply, FLW reductions in the processing or consumption stages lead to lower demand and hence higher prices.Households experience significant gains from FLW reductions, although most of those gains originate from FLW reductions at the production and postharvest stages rather than the consumption stage. Overall, real household consumption increases by 4.7 to 7.0 percent across the three countries, while poverty declines by between 2.5 and 4.4 percentage points, with slightly higher declines in rural areas. Declines in the prevalence of undernutrition largely mirror changes in poverty. We also measure significant declines in diet deprivation, which reflects an improvement in diet quality as household diets move closer to an ideal, healthy reference diet.In conclusion, the significant economywide gains seen here provide a strong justification for adopting FLW reduction strategies. However, there are three caveats to this modeling exercise. First, this study uses global FLW data which may lack the accuracy and precision of country-specific survey data. To gain a better understanding of the magnitude of the issue, it is necessary to collect data on FLW from various sources, such as farmers, distributors, retailers, and consumers. This will provide a more accurate baseline. Second, our results are sensitive to baseline estimates of FLW. The challenges associated with accurately measuring losses along and across food value chains are well-documented (Parfitt, et al., 2021;Xue, et al., 2017). Third, the model is not currently equipped to measure the environmental or other social benefits of more sustainable use of natural resources or reduced emissions; thus, while we measure the economywide benefits, we potentially understate the environmental benefits. Fourth, we do not incorporate the costs of policies or investments required to achieve FLW reductions. Food can be lost or wasted due to a variety of issues, such as inadequate infrastructure, outdated technologies, market inefficiencies, and consumer behavior. Fixing these problems can be a costly engagement and typically requires additional resources, including labor, and raises production costs. This implies our estimates of economic benefits are potentially overstated. Quantifying such costs remained challenging because of the complex mix of technologies that can (or should be) adopted and the behavioral changes that are required to reduce FLW (Cattaneo, et al., 2021;Rosegrant, et al., 2015). Obtaining more accurate FLW estimates, accounting for positive environmental externalities, and costing the policy and investment options needed to reduce FLW and incorporating these into the model are all important areas for future research.7.1 Food groups and baseline food loss and waste percentages Note: The percentage loss reported for \"Other foods\" is an average of losses in the foods not elsewhere defined. Percentage losses for processed distribution are assumed to be half that of fresh distribution.A detailed description of the CGE model with mathematical equations is presented in Lofgren et al. (2011). In this technical appendix we highlight those equations in the production, trade, and institution blocks of the model code that were adapted to accommodate the FLW reduction scenarios described in Section 3.2. The equations highlighted here follow the production stage and commodity flows presented in Figure 2. The figure shows the variable names used below for ease of reference.Production scenario: Each producer, represented by an activity, a, maximizes profits subject to a two-tier production system. (4)Consumption scenario: Household consumption is modeled using a Linear Expenditure System (LES).Separate equations are required to model demand for marketed (Equation 5a) and home-produced goods (Equation 5b). Households must first satisfy subsistence consumption of marketed or home-produced goods, with parameters \uD835\uDEFE\uD835\uDEFE \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 and \uD835\uDEFE\uD835\uDEFE \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E,\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ ℎ representing fixed consumption quantities that are valued at market (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 ) or producer prices (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E,\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 ). Subsistence consumption expenditure is subtracted from disposable household income (\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 ℎ ) and the balance -also called supernumerary income -is spent on goods according to fixed marginal budget shares, \uD835\uDEFD\uD835\uDEFD \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 and \uD835\uDEFD\uD835\uDEFD \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ ℎ . In this scenario the marginal budget shares and quantity of subsistence consumption of food commodities (\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 \uD835\uDC53\uD835\uDC53 ∈ \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50) are lowered by a factor \uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 \uD835\uDC53\uD835\uDC53 ,ℎ \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC5B to reflect reduced food waste by households. This results in lower consumption expenditure on marketed (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 . \uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ ) or home-produced food (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E,\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 . \uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44\uD835\uDC44 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E,\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50,ℎ ). The demand reductions are only applied on nonpoor households in the third through fifth expenditure quintiles (ℎ \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC5B ∈ ℎ) under the assumption that poor households do not waste food. ","tokenCount":"6782"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a65918aea0cfa431a1e1f6e3a944c54f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/fb566ba3-1dff-4487-96f0-d424f6663dab/content","id":"717982037"},"keywords":["Drought-tolerant maize varieties","scalability","economic impact","Tanzania"],"sieverID":"4991d036-0079-4f7b-a58b-ba81fc152b1e","pagecount":"17","content":"Drought-tolerant maize varieties (DTMVs) offer hope as an adaptation strategy for farmers facing increasing frequency of droughts in sub-Saharan Africa. Adoption of these varieties also offers hope to enhance sustainability in the agricultural production system. However, these varieties are not yet widely cultivated, and the potential economic benefits not fully understood. This study examines the scalability of DTMVs in Tanzania under three scenarios: (1) scalability conditional on knowledge of DTMVs; (ii) scalability conditional on (physical) seed availability in addition to awareness; and (iii) scalability conditional on seed affordability in addition to awareness and (physical) seed availability. The study uses household production and consumption data from major regions in Tanzania. The results from the economic surplus model indicate that by 2032, the adoption of DTMVs could generate between US$ 373 million and US$ 499 million in cumulative benefits for both producers and consumers. Such benefits could potentially lift up to 1.6 million people out of poverty by 2032. It is estimated that consumers would get 40% of the benefits and producers 60%, with the largest benefits occurring in the major maize-producing regions of Mbeya, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Mwanza, Arusha, and Kagera. Consumers in Dar es Salaam would also benefit significantly from the price reductions resulting from increased production. The largest returns on investment would occur in Dodoma, Geita, Simiyu, Singida, and Kagera. These findings justify the investment of both public and private funds to support the scaling of DTMVs in Tanzania.Climate change extremes such as drought cause losses annually of between 10-20% (Pauw et al., 2010), or even more, of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) among sub-Saharan African countries (De Pinto et al., 2019;IPCC, 2018;Mairura et al., 2021). This poses a threat to the sustainability of agricultural production among small-scale rural communities that are dependent on rain-fed agriculture (Atube et al., 2021;Fadina & Dominique, 2018;Kabubo-Mariara & Mulwa, 2019;Nord et al., 2021;Simtowe et al., 2021). The threats are even higher in countries with a large agricultural GDP (AgGDP), like Tanzania (Ochieng et al., 2021), where the AgGDP contributes about 30% to the total GDP. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that, by 2050, crop productivity in sub-Saharan Africa will have declined by 5% for maize, 14% for rice, and 22% for wheat, pushing a large number of already vulnerable people, who depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, deeper into poverty and food insecurity. Without substantial measures that address the challenges caused by climate extremes such as drought, agricultural productivity losses are expected to reduce past rates of gains from technological and management improvements (De Pinto et al., 2019).Tanzania has the second largest maize (Zea mays) area planted (approximately 4.12 million ha) in sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria, with farmers allocating nearly 70% of their land to this crop (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center [CIMMYT], 2017). However, maize productivity in Tanzania remains low, averaging 1,400 kg/ha, which is much less than the sub-Saharan African average of about 1800 kg/ha (CIMMYT, 2017), due to the limited use of improved varieties and inputs such as fertilizer, as well as to other abiotic stresses such as drought. One issue of abiotic stress-tolerant varieties is that the benefits of adoption become visible only when the specific stress, which they are tolerant to, appears (Yamano et al., 2018;Yorobe et al., 2016). The study of drought-tolerant maize adoption in Malawi demonstrates that previous early-season dry spells and access to seed subsidy increase adoption (Katengeza et al., 2019). Thus, if normal seasons continued, we could predict that farmers would tend to switch to other varieties. Therefore, Yamano et al. (2018) stress the importance of education for farmers about the benefits of stress-tolerant crop varieties through extension activities. Following recent empirical reviews on technology adoption, impact, and extension in developing countries' agriculture, Takahashi et al. (2020) noted that even if profitable technologies are potentially available, they may not be diffused widely, partly because of credit, insurance, and other market-related constraints and partly because of the ineffective information dissemination system, largely arising from the absence of effective agricultural extension systems. Moreover, a study by Kansiime et al. (2022) noted that modern agricultural technologies, such as sustainable agricultural intensification practices, have been developed with the aim of increasing agricultural productivity; however, most of them are not achieving their potential because of low adoption linked to limited extension support to make them known and accessible by farmers.In Tanzania, drought conditions are observed more frequently in the northern and central portions of the country (Arusha, Manyara, Shinyanga, Simiyu, and Dodoma), and when they occur can lead to crop failure of a significant magnitude. The effects of maize losses are also expected to lead to other spiral effects on downstream sectors such as foodprocessing, including the poultry and animal feed sectors (Gbegbelegbe et al., 2014;Pauw et al., 2010), as well as causing a sharp increase in prices of maize produce. Hence, adaptation strategies that counteract the effects of drought become important. Recent years have witnessed the development of drought-tolerant maize varieties (DTMVs) designed to help smallholder farmers manage drought caused by climate change. In Tanzania, over 20 DTMVs have been released and deployed since 2007 through a collaborative effort of the CIMMYT, national research institutions, seed companies, and agro-dealers (CIMMYT, 2017;Fisher et al., 2015). In addition to drought-tolerance, these varieties often have other important traits, such as better responsiveness to inputs and good nitrogen use efficiency (Fisher et al., 2015;Seleiman et al., 2021;Simtowe et al., 2021). They are well-adapted to sub-Saharan Africa and include open-pollinated and hybrid varieties.Despite their significant yield advantage (15-39%), DTMVs have not yet been widely adopted in Tanzania, and hence their impact is limited. However, as expressed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID, 2017), for development interventions to yield the highest impact, programming requires a facilitative approach for the widespread adoption of improved technologies and practices at the population level, also called as scaling. The scaling of proven technologies and practices is generally defined as the process of sustainably increasing the adoption of a credible technology or practice, and achieving widespread use by stakeholders while still retaining or improving upon the demonstrated positive impact of the technology or practice (USAID, 2017). In order to complement efforts to scale drought-tolerant varieties, since 2015, CIMMYT has been implementing a Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa (STMA) project, with funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation. The aim of the STMA is to reduce devastating constraints in maize production among farmers in 12 target countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. The project develops improved, multiple-stress-tolerant maize varieties that effectively address emerging and future production challenges, while increasing genetic gains and scaling-up and scaling-out the products developed and the knowledge gained.The scaling strategy for DTMVs involves a number of stakeholders, including CIMMYT, the private sector (agro-dealers and seed companies) and the public sector, as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). CIMMYT develops germplasm and provides pre-commercialized hybrid seeds to the National Agricultural Seed Systems (NARS) and seed companies for national performance trials (NPTs) before releasing to farmers. Once released, the NARS and seed companies can proceed with the production of foundation seed and then commercialize it through certified seed production; this is then sold to farmers through agrodealers. To complement such scaling efforts, studies have been conducted in some countries (e.g. Amondo et al., 2019;Nord et al., 2021;Simtowe et al., 2019a;2019b;2021) to understand the diffusion processes of DTMVs, their adoption rates, the determinants of their adoption, and their impacts on farm productivity (Wossen et al., 2017), but little is known in Tanzania about the scalability of the DTMVs that are being promoted through the STMA project, or their potential economic benefit to the nation.Against this background, our study seeks answers to two related questions: ( 1) 'what would be the potential for scaling DTMVs in Tanzania if constraints to knowledge and seed access were addressed?' This type of analysis is critical for understanding the marginal benefits from investments aimed at addressing bottlenecks in the scaling of DTMVs, and for the proper planning and building of a more concerted effort involving both public and private sectors towards expediting the widespread adoption of DTMVs. We answer this question by applying the average treatment effect (ATE) framework proposed by Diagne and Demont (2007), but follow Simtowe et al. (2019a and2021) to also consider the availability and price affordability of seed. (2) The second question is, 'what is the potential economic benefit from scaling DTMVs to levels predicted by the econometric model?' The scaling of DTMVs requires increased investment in research and development (R&D). In sub-Saharan Africa, investment in agricultural research and development has been declining steadily since its peak in the 1980s (Pardey et al., 2007), despite the evidence of relatively high rates of return from R&D investments (Ajayi et al., 2007;Bokonon-Ganta et al., 2002;Coulibaly et al., 2004;Macharia et al., 2005). Understanding the economic benefits of scaling DTMVs and distributing them to various stakeholders (including farmers and producers) could potentially catalyze investments that are critical for the development of the maize value chain.A study by La Rovere et al. (2010) confirms how investment in drought-tolerant maize in 13 countries of sub-Saharan Africa has brought cumulative economic and poverty-reducing benefits to producers and consumers in those countries; these benefits accrue from higher yields and reduced season-toseason yield fluctuations as a result of the adoption by farmers of improved, DTMVs. However, the study by La Rovere et al. (2010) uses an arbitrary number of potential adoption rates. The contribution of this study is in the application of adoption assumptions that are based on more realistic estimates of potential adoption rates, generated through an econometric analysis, as well as in an examination of the distribution of benefits between consumers and producers across the different regions in Tanzania. The paper first looks at the scaling strategy for the STMA project (see section 2), followed by an explanation of the analytical framework (section 3). The data sources and descriptive statistics are presented in section 4, while the results and discussions relating to the potential for scaling as well as its economic benefits, are discussed in section 5. The conclusions are presented in section 6.CIMMYT is implementing a product-oriented breeding programme targeted at improving maize varieties for the mid-altitude areas of eastern and southern Africa that are prone to drought and other stresses. As depicted in Figure 1, the scaling strategy for the programme's products (DTMVs) involves several agents: in particular, it calls for very strong public and private partnerships at the different stages of the seed-value chain, including research institutes, seed companies, agro-dealers, and farmers. In Tanzania, the strategy for scaling DTMVs involves the provision of breeder seed by CIMMYT to the Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI) and to seed companies, who, under the oversight of the public sector institution responsible for overseeing the release of new varieties, are then expected to conduct national performance trials (NPTs) to assess the performance of the new hybrids compared to the commercial checks. Following results from the NPTs, a variety may be recommended for release or not. If the performance of the new variety is better than the commercial check, it is recommended to the national release committee for release. Once the variety is released, the seed company commercializes it by producing foundation and certified seed. The certified seed may be sold to farmers through various distribution outlets, including the company's own channels, agro-dealers, and stockists. A major factor in the scaling of DTMVs relates to the capacity of the seed system's institutions to produce foundation seed. CIMMYT has partnered with relatively small seed companies in scaling DTMVs; such seed companies lack the capacity to produce foundation seed, and may be unable to maintain the genetic purity of seed, which can lead to seed contamination. This means they have to rely constantly on partners such as CIMMYT for their supply of breeder seed to produce foundation seed.In order to address this constraint, and as a way of improving the sustainability of the scaling efforts, CIMMYT's interventions aim to strengthen the capacities of various actors along the seed value chain, including by offering training to breeders in the NARS and seed companies on various aspects of seed production. CIMMYT provides training to technicians and breeders on new breeding tools, to enable them to produce quality seed, maintain parental inbred lines, manage germplasm, maintain seed, and conduct hybrid male sterilization and detasseling practices. Seed companies are also trained in conducting seed estimates by applying seed road maps, as well as in seed marketing strategies. Moreover, to increase the supply of foundation seed, a company called QualiBasic has been established; a key role of this company is to produce and supply basic seed (quality foundation seed) to seed companies in East and South Africa, with the aim of becoming their preferred supplier of foundation seed, for the ultimate benefit of Africa's farmers. This makes Quali-Basic a reliable and sustainable partner in the scaling of DTMVs. The seed companies that have partnered with CIMMYT also lack the capacity to produce and market large amounts of certified seed; hence they rely on grants from donors and other partners such as CIMMYT to sustain their seed production and marketing activities. One sustainability option for such companies is to explore potential financing options with existing financial institutions within Tanzania.Agro-dealers are also trained in seed storage, marketing, and business management. Such partnerships between seed companies, agro-dealers, the Ministry of Agriculture and other national research institutions, and NGO-based extension agents have led to a rapid scale-out of certified seed production and distribution. The demand for DTMVs is a big driver in the sustainability of the DTMV seed value chain. Demand is being generated through partnerships with extension providers, who create awareness about the existence of DTMVs through several channels, including demonstration plots and the radio, as well as through face-toface visits by extension agents to farmers' fields. Despite such efforts, there is a gap in understanding the potential demand for DTMVs, as well as the extent to which such efforts could lead to the sustained widespread adoption of drought-tolerant maize among the targeted farming communities. Moreover, a related question is whether or not an investment in R&D aimed at scaling the cultivation of DTMVs in Tanzania would lead to tangible economic benefits. This paper tries to address these gaps.We begin by assessing the scalability of DTMVs in view of the constraints to access and the asymmetric exposure to information; this as an important step in estimating the parameters to be used in assessing the potential economic impact of DTMV adoption. The analysis of scalability follows a framework proposed by Diagne and Demont (2007) and Simtowe et al. (2019aSimtowe et al. ( & 2021)), where farmers are assumed to have heterogenous access to information about DTMVs and to seed at affordable prices. 1 Under this framework, we address the question of whether a potential adopter is aware of the existence of DTMVs, has access to seed, and has access to seed at a price that is affordable. In addition to identifying the households that are aware of DTMVs, we identify households with physical access to seed, and those with access to affordable seed. We then extend the ATE adoption framework proposed by Diagne and Demont (2007) to estimate three types of potential DTMV adoption rates: (i) unrestricted awareness, (ii) unrestricted awareness and access, and (iii) unrestricted awareness and access and affordability. We express the potential adoption rates in Tanzania by the percentage of the farmers that would adopt DTMVs under each of the three scenarios, and estimate the associated adoption gaps, and the determinants of DTMV awareness, access, affordability, and adoption.The benefits of scaling DTMVs are both direct, at the level of adopters, and indirect, at the level of producers and consumers. Smallholder farm households supply part of the maize that they produce to the market, hence the direct effects of adopting DTMVs lead to indirect effects on both other farmers (producers) and consumers. As such, the economicsurplus (ES) approach (Alston et al., 1995;Kostandini et al., 2013;La Rovere et al., 2010) is appropriate for estimating the change in consumer and producer surpluses. The effects of DTMV adoption for producers and consumers depend on the nature of the market. In a closed economy, indirect effects occur due to supply-induced drops in price, and all market participants are affected, with consumers benefiting at the expense of producers; however, producers can still be better off if the reduction in their per unit production cost is large enough to offset negative price effects, or if their maize sales are small (Zeng et al., 2015). In a small, open economy, the domestic price is equal to the world market price that does not change with increased domestic supply, hence direct welfare effects occur only to adopters, and no indirect effects occur. In Tanzania, only 2% of the maize produced is exported to neighbouring countries; hence a closed economy model is appropriate for estimating economic surplus, because that provides more realistic estimates of the potential benefits of DTMV scaling. Wilson and Lewis (2015) report maize exports ranging between 23,000 Metric tones and 156,000 metric tones, mainly to Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Malawi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Kenya. Nevertheless, although most smallholder producers in developing countries consume their own production (Degaldo, 1997), a substantial amount of the maize produced in Tanzania (20-35%) is traded between and within the regions (Wilson & Lewis, 2015). This implies that although it is largely a closed economy, maize moves between net-producing regions and net-consuming regions, which leads to heterogeneity in the benefits from scaling DTMVs. Wilson and Lewis (2015) indicate the following four market channels as the main routes through which maize flows between maize-surplus and maize-deficit regions: i. Smallholder farmers who sell to local traders and millers, mainly in the rural areas and nearby cities; ii. Medium-sized grain traders and millers who serve rural and urban centres;iii. A few well-established, large-scale millers and traders based in Dar es Salaam, who operate in both national markets and export markets; iv. Institutional buyers, including the World Food Programme (WFP), the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA), the armed forces, prisons, hospitals, and schools.Therefore, as well as understanding the differential benefits between producers, it is important to distinguish the differential benefits between different regions as well. We then adopt the horizontal multimarket model, with the initial quantity equilibrium set by balancing total production across all regions with total consumption across all regions, including exports. In the domestic market, Dar es Salaam is an important consumption region, while the southern highland regions of Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa, and Ruvuma produce more than 40% of the maize in Tanzania. Figure 2 depicts maize flows between production areas (maize-surplus regions) and maizedeficit regions.In the economic surplus model, the major parameter affecting changes in price and economic surplus is the cost reduction per unit of output due to adoption, or the k-shift (Alston et al., 1995) expressed by:Where 1 and A are the supply elasticity, and the adoption rate (area under DTMVs), respectively; w and u are the average change in maize yield and cost per unit of maize area due to DTMV adoption. Using the k− shift, the counterfactual output equilibrium price (the output equilibrium price without DTMV adoption) is expressed by:Where p 0 is the counterfactual maize price observed when the farmers have not planted DTMVs; p 1 is the price with adoption of DTMVs; and h is the absolute value of the demand elasticity. Assuming linear demand and supply curves (Alston et al., 1995), and under a closed-economy assumption, changes in the producer surplus (DPS) and consumer surplus (DCS) attributed to the adoption of DTMVs are calculated as follows:Where Q 0 is the equilibrium quantity of maize supplied under non-adoption of DTMVs and Z is the relative price change expressed as Z = p 0 − p 1 p 0 . To find the total change in the economic surplus (DES) resulting from the adoption of DTMVs, one has to estimate both the producer surplus (resulting from increase in yield and reduction in cost of production), and the consumer surplus resulting from price reduction. Following Zeng et al. (2015), the change in producer surplus is decomposed into the price effect and the adoption effect as follows:It is difficult to compute the change in producer surplus attributable to adoption (DPS adoption ) because households experience different changes in costs and yields. However, it is easier to compute the DPS price at the market level, because the change in the price is unique for all the market participants (Zeng et al., 2015). This can be expressed by:DPS adoption is then computed as the residual between DPS, evaluated through equation ( 3) and DPS price as computed above.The empirical approach in the estimation of the economic surpluses involves the application of the Dynamic Research Evaluation for Management (DREAM) model and computer programme (Alston et al., 1995). Initially developed at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (Alston et al., 1995) DREAM estimates economic returns to investments in research and development under a range of market conditions, allowing price and technology spillover effects among regions due to the adoption of productivity-enhancing technologies (Benin & You, 2007). In each region, demand and supply are represented by linear equations, with market clearing enforced by a set of price and quantity identities (Benin & You, 2007). The model is based on the assumption that the adoption of the technology leads to an outward shift in the product's supply curve, which triggers a process of market-clearing adjustments in one or multiple markets that affect the flow of final benefits to producers and consumers (Alston et al., 1995). The market-clearing conditions are defined in terms of border prices, which may differ from the prices received by farmers due to transactions and other costs that are incurred within regions between the farm and the border (Benin & You, 2007). The model is parameterized by a set of demand and supply prices, quantities, and elasticities that were measured during a defined 'base' period, and allows for exogenous shifts in supply and demand, hence allowing for a sequence of equilibrium quantities and prices to be generated in the 'without research' scenarios (Benin & You, 2007). The 'without research' outcomes and the 'with research' outcomes, obtained by simulating a sequence of supply curve shifts attributable to research are then compared. The supply shifts induced by research are defined based on the adoption pattern of the technology over time, up to some assumed maximum adoption rate in some future year. The programme then computes discounted consumer and producer surpluses and compares those in the 'with research' scenario with those in the 'without research' scenario. DREAM also computes three investment indicators that are used in assessing the impact: the net present value (NPV), the internal rate of return (IRR), and the benefit-cost ratio (BCR).Given the significance of agriculture in Tanzania's economy, it is important to understand the economic surpluses that would result from the scaling of DTMVs, and the consequential aggregate impact on poverty. Improving maize yields through the adoption of DTMVs benefits producers directly by improving the maize supply, and the consequent reduction in the price of maize benefits net consumers by lifting them out of poverty. Moreover, as expressed by Kassie et al. (2017), agriculture has stronger growth linkages with other sectors than other economic sectors have, and thus creates employment opportunities for the poor. We follow Zeng et al. (2015), Kassie et al. (2017), and Marenya et al. (2018) to estimate the impact on poverty of the technology-induced change in the economic surplus. According to Alene et al. (2009), the number of people escaping poverty at the current level of technology adoption can be estimated as follows:where P is the number of people who escape poverty; ES is the total economic surplus due to the adoption of DTMVs; AgGDP is the total value of the agricultural gross domestic product; d is the elasticity of poverty with respect to the AgGDP driven by the growth in agricultural productivity and production; and N is the total number of poor people in the country (Alene et al., 2009).The study uses both primary and secondary data. Primary data is from a household adoption survey conducted in 2018 that was supported by the STMA project, and is used for estimating the scalability of DTMVs in Tanzania. Secondary data derived from IFPRI, CIMMYT and from other secondary sources provided information on parameters for the DREAM model.Maximum adoption estimates are made using household survey data collected in December 2018 in Tanzania. The survey involved 720 households in 39 villages across 17 districts and ten regions (see Figure 3). A multi-stage sampling technique was used, combining purposive and random sampling. The first stage selected regions, both project areas, and likely spillover areas. The second stage involved the selection of villages, using a probability proportional to size sample design. The third and final stage involved a random sampling of households within each village.The input data required for the economic surplus analysis in the DREAM model includes: (1) 'equilibrium' quantities and prices, to define the size and structure of the market under consideration at a specified point in time; (2) evidence of how the technology will change either producers' cost structures or consumers' willingness to pay for different quality products where the technology has been adopted (the K factor); (3) maximum adoption rates as indicators of scalability; (4) economic parameters of the market response to change (elasticities of both supply and demand), to predict how producers and consumers will react to the new prices generated by market forces; (5) the research and extension costs incurred in obtaining the new technology. As is typical of many impact-assessment studies, no baseline data were collected for this study before the intervention. This has thus precluded the possibility of using the 'before and after' approach of comparing the same households by tracing the changes associated with the adoption of the varieties.Table 1 depicts the parameters used in the DREAM model estimation. We estimate the impact (benefitcost ratio) of the STMA project, using the actual maize production and consumption data for the 2017 season to set up the baseline scenario. Our simulation period is 15 years, from 2018 to 2033. The total annual average (2000-2017) maize production is estimated to be about six million tons, while the yield is estimated to be about 1.4 tons/ ha. About 90% of the maize produced in Tanzania is consumed locally, and the rest is exported. However, given the ecological diversity of Tanzania, some regions, especially in the southern highlands, are the main maize-producing regions, while other regions rely on maize from the maize-surplus regions.Consequently, about 20-35% of domestic consumption occurs in regions that did not produce maize, suggesting a significant maize trade between maize-surplus and maize-deficit regions. Therefore, we estimate the overall benefits and their distribution between consumers and producers using i) a closedeconomy market-clearing model; and ii) a horizontal, multimarket model. In a closed economy, the equilibrium price is entirely determined by domestic supply and demand, whereas in an open economy, equilibrium prices are determined by the domestic supply and by both the export demand and the domestic demand, and we use a horizontal multimarket model. Information on national maize prices is based on various price bulletins and the FAO Statistical Database (FAOSTAT, 2017). The potential adoption yield benefits associated with the adoption of DTMVs are based on impact assessment publications for Uganda and Zambia in 2015 (Simtowe et al., 2019b). The results from these reports show a 15%−20% yield advantage of DTMVs over local or improved varieties that are not drought-tolerant. The selling prices and the average cost of production per hectare are assumed to be the same.In most ex-ante studies, future adoption rates are normally based on expert estimates (Hareau et al., 2006). To make plausible assessments of the maximum potential adoption rates, we use data from a household survey conducted in Tanzania in  2018, and employ an econometric model to predict potential or maximum adoption rates under heterogeneous exposure to information, physical seed access, and seed affordability, which are estimated to be 39%, 46% and 53% respectively. These potential adoption rates are the proportion of the total maize hectarage area that is allocated to DTMVs. The demand estimates are based on a demand elasticity for maize in Tanzania, suggested by La Rovere et al. (2010) of −0.35. Similarly, a supply elasticity of 0.2 was also assumed based on La Rovere et al. (2010). Given the expected higher future demand for maize resulting from the growth in the Tanzanian population, an annual growth rate of 2.6% was assumed to be the growth rate in demand for maize, and a 1.85% was assumed to be the growth rate in the annual supply of maize (World Bank, 2011). The analysis is based on a planning horizon of 15 years, and a discount rate of 10% is assumed (Gatzweiler et al., 2007) to define the project costs and benefits at present values.The costs for research, adaptation, and extension are estimated using the costs of staff for local and international research, extension, and seed multiplication. These costs are then increased by 10% of the total research costs to account for the costs of fixed factors such as land, equipment, and buildings that are shared with other projects. International research includes the cost of breeding, research materials, training, and evaluation provided by CIMMYT, while local research and extension costs are borne by the NARS partners in Tanzania. Research expenditure was calculated in terms of a full-time equivalent (FTE) scientist per year. Other sources of information about costs include Kate and Laird (2000), who estimated research costs at US$ 1.75 million/variety. Costs for testing and for an adaptive breeding programme were estimated at US$ 80,000/variety, based on two full-time equivalent (FTE) scientists, and the median cost per researcher was estimated at US$ 20,000 (Bohn et al., 1997) per year for at least three years of testing. The total expenditure was then estimated at about US$ 32 million.The results of the predicted adoption rate with and without ATE correction for different population awareness of DTMVs, seed availability, seed affordability, population selection biases, and adoption gaps are presented in Table 2. The awareness of DTMVs in the study area sample in Tanzania was estimated to be 27%, whereas the sample adoption was 10%. The predicted adoption rate for the full population after correcting heterogeneity in awareness of DTMVs was 39%. This is higher than the observed sample adoption rate because of the low levels of diffusion of DTMVs among the farming community. This indicates that if the entire population of maize farmers were aware of DTMVs, the effective demand for DTMV seed would have increased from 10% to 39%, resulting in an adoption gap due to the lack of DTMV exposure of 29%.Correcting for heterogeneity in awareness and availability of physical seed combined, the predicted adoption rate for the full population is 46%. This means that if, in addition to being aware of DTMVs, all farmers had DTMV seed physically available to them, the effective demand for DTMV seed would have been 46%. The corresponding estimate of the adoption gap of 34% resulting from the non-availability of seed can, therefore, be interpreted as the seed-access gap, which is the potential demand loss due to non-access to seed (Donstop et al., 2013), and which also suggests that there is scope for scaling the cultivation of DTMVs in Tanzania if seed companies can increase the supply of seed to the farming community after increasing farmers' awareness.The cost of seed can prevent potential adopters from adopting DTMVs. After correcting for heterogeneity in awareness, seed availability, and access to affordable seed combined, the predicted DTMV adoption rate for the full population is 52%. The corresponding estimate of the adoption gap resulting from lack of awareness, access to seed, and access to seed at an affordable price combined is 43% and is significant at the 5% level. These adoption gap estimates imply that there is still potential for scaling DTMVs adoption once awareness and seed accessibility constraints are addressed.Estimates of the economic benefits of scaling the cultivation of drought-tolerant maize varieties in Tanzania, with an optimistic yield benefit of 19%, and considering the three levels of potential adoption rates, are presented in Table 3. In the first scenario, assuming symmetric exposure of the population to drought-tolerant maize varieties, the total benefits from the scaling of DTMVs have a present value of about US$ 373 million when summed over the 15year period of the simulation, of which producers capture about 60%. The total amount of the benefits is about twice the amount spent on research into maize improvement, including extension. The internal rate of return (IRR) of 89% can be said to be very high because the return is above the prevailing discount rate during the same period (10%). The findings suggest that the STMA project in Tanzania, with its associated R&D and scaling strategy for DTMVs is very beneficial for the maize sub-sector. In the second scenario, assuming universal physical access to seed for drought-tolerant maize varieties in addition to symmetric population exposure, the total benefits from the scaling of DTMVs would have a present value of about US$ 441 million when summed over the 15-year period of the simulation. Producers still capture about 60% of the benefits, and the IRR of 118% remains attractive and is much higher than in the first scenario. The higher return is attributable to higher marginal benefits from the increased maximum adoption rate of DTMVs from 39% in the first scenario to 46%.The third scenario assumes symmetric exposure and universal access to seed that is at an affordable price. Under this scenario, the government would incur additional expenditure due to offering seed price support to those unable to purchase seed at prevailing seed market prices. Under this scenario, the total benefits from the scaling of the DTMVs have a present value of about US$ 499 million. The consistently higher benefits are attributable to the yield benefits accruing from scaling the cultivation of DTMVs from 46% in the second scenario to 52% in the third scenario. Producers' benefits increase by 1% to 61% due to the price support that they enjoy from the government, while the internal rate of return, though high, declines from 118% in the second scenario to 96% in the third scenario due to the cost incurred by the government in administering a targeted smart seedsubsidy programme.Assuming that the estimates hold true in the best-case scenario of 19% yield increase, and considering the change in total economic surplus gains as additional income for the AgGDP, the poverty impacts show that up to 1.6 million people would escape poverty over the period of 15 years.With a conservative assumption that the yield benefit is 15% (instead of 19%), under the 39% maximumadoption scenario, the total benefits would amount to US$ 294 million, with a benefit/cost ratio of 1.9 (Table 4). With a more optimistic scenario of a 46% maximum adoption rate, which could be achieved if all farmers had physical access to the seed, the economic surplus would be reduced from US$ 441 million to US$ 348 million, with a 19% yield-benefit assumption. With the most optimistic scenario of a 52% maximum potential adoption rate, which could be achieved if farmers had access to affordable seed, the economic surplus would be reduced from $499 million to US$ 393 million, with a 19% yield-benefit assumption. As earlier expressed, about 35% of the maize produced in Tanzania is traded between maize-surplus and maize-deficit regions, with Dar es Salaam being the major maize-deficit region. The results for the horizontal multimarket model are presented in Table 5. The largest benefits occur in the major maize-producing regions of Mbeya, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Mwanza, Arusha, and Kagera. Consumers in Dar es Salaam also benefit significantly from the price reductions resulting from increased production. The largest returns on investment occur in Dodoma, Geita, Simiyu, Singida, and Kagera.The Tanzanian maize sector plays an important role in the economy and livelihoods of rural Tanzanians; however, it continues to face challenges from both biotic and abiotic stresses that affect productivity. The promotion of drought-tolerant maize varieties is expected to improve productivity and yield stability. In order to achieve this, CIMMYT, in collaboration with the government of Tanzania and the private sector, is implementing a project aimed at scaling the cultivation of DTMVs.This paper examines the scalability of DTMVs in Tanzania under three scenarios: (1) scalability conditional on knowledge of DTMVs; (ii) scalability conditional on (physical) seed availability in addition to awareness; and (iii) scalability conditional on seed affordability in addition to awareness and (physical) seed availability. We find that DTMVs in Tanzania could be scaled out to 39% of the farming population if the whole population were made aware of them. Conditional on DTMV awareness and physical seed availability, DTMVs are scalable out to 46% of the farming community and to 52% if in addition to awareness and seed availability, the seed were also made affordable. The findings suggest huge potential for scaling DTMVs, which would also require substantial investment in Research and Development targeted at the DTMVs value chain.Using the predicted scalability levels, we estimate the economic returns of the DTMVs scaling initiative in Tanzania by applying an economic surplus analysis both under closed market and horizontal multimarket model assumptions. Overall, results indicate that the scaling of DTMVs is highly viable, with estimated benefits of US$ 373-499 million and potential to lift up to 1.6 million people out of poverty. The internal rates of return are above 60%, and the benefit-cost ratio above 3 under the different assumptions. Consumers are estimated to get 40% of the benefits due to price reductions, while producers would get 60% of the benefits arising from improvements in maize productivity. Moreover, DTMV scaling can also reduce poverty, suggesting that benefits from the scaling of DTMVs are beneficial for the maize subsector and the whole economy. The largest benefits occur in the major maize-producing regions of Mbeya, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Mwanza, Arusha, and Kagera. Consumers in Dar es Salaam also benefit significantly from the price reductions accruing from increased production. The largest returns on investment occur in Dodoma, Geita, Simiyu, Singida, and Kagera. These findings provide a glimmer of hope for maize farmers and governments that strive to identify solutions to drought and other stresses. The results also strongly justify continued investment in drought-tolerant maize research and scaling. Furthermore, the findings also contribute to the realization of the importance of investing in innovations that support farmers' access to improved technologies, such as the use of input subsidies to scale the technology and reduce poverty. Note 1. A detailed explanation of the identification of different categories of households, and their status in terms of access to information and seed, the assumptions about the distributions of the treatment status variables (exposure, and access to seed at affordable prices) and their relationship to the adoption outcomes as well as to the estimation strategy for potential for scalability is discussed in Simtowe et al. (2019a and2021).before the interview could advance. Participants were informed that they were under no obligation to answer any questions, or they could stop the interview at any time without giving any reasons and ask that any partial data recorded to be removed from the records. This way, the survey was consistent with CIMMYT-IREC policies and those generally applied in low-risk social science research.No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).","tokenCount":"6571"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a778a56ff2e88a6a3a0093ce5f59794c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36112b6f-066c-42ba-b792-0dc7d374bc37/retrieve","id":"859200199"},"keywords":["Afrique subsaharienne","ame ´nagement du territoire","barrage","e ´valuation","innovation eau","e ´conomie et de ´veloppement rural","ressources naturelles et environnement"],"sieverID":"7a8afe84-3626-4cf5-96d8-9310c5931a1e","pagecount":"6","content":"Valeurs d'usage ou performances techniques : comment apprécier le rôle des petits barrages en Afrique subsaharienne ? Résumé Devenus une re ´alite ´des paysages de l'Afrique subsaharienne, les petits barrages ont trouve ´preneurs au sein des socie ´te ´s rurales et constituent une source d'innovations techniques et institutionnelles. Ils font maintenant l'objet d'une demande continue des populations et be ´ne ´ficient du soutien des de ´cideurs nationaux et de l'attention des bailleurs de fonds, me ˆme si les analyses-diagnostics s'accordent sur le fait que les performances de ces ame ´nagements de ´c ¸oivent ge ´ne ´ralement les attentes place ´es en eux par leurs promoteurs. Cet article propose une grille d'analyse de cette apparente contradiction.Les populations locales utilisent les re ´servoirs pour de multiples activite ´s mais rarement comme l'envisageaient les de ´cideurs et bailleurs de fonds. Les analyses classiques ne semblent donc pas rendre compte des re ´elles valeurs d'usage de ces ame ´nagements, tant a `l'e ´chelle locale que re ´gionale (bassin-versant). Mesurer les opportunite ´s et les risques lie ´s a `l'utilisation des petits barrages et a `l'intensification de leurs usages ne ´cessite de les conside ´rer comme des construits sociaux, objets de revendications diverses et d'usages parfois conflictuels. Ils entraı ˆnent une reconfiguration tant des relations sociales que des rapports que les socie ´te ´s entretiennent avec leur environnement.es agricultures pluviales et irrigue ´es font face au de ´fi de produire plus, de fac ¸on durable, parfois avec moins d'eau. L'accroissement de la productivite ´des terres, de l'eau, du travail comme du capital investiest activement recherche ´, mais l'efficience des syste `mes de production et des ame ´nagements hydro-agricoles est abondamment critique ´e. L'e ´valuation des performances et les crite `res retenus pour ce faire paraissent toutefois peu satisfaisants (Molden et al., 2007). Une meilleure perception des opportunite ´s et des contraintes est ne ´cessaire, surtout pour la petite irrigation qui reste sous-e ´tudie ´e au regard des grands ame ´nagements hydrauliques. Reconside ´rer les ame ´nagements hydro-agricoles, et les petits barrages en particulier, comme des socioe ´cosyste `mes peut permettre une meilleure compre ´hension de leurs utilisations multiples et donc une meilleure appre´ciation de leurs valeurs d'usage. La premie `re partie de cet article fait une synthe `se rapide des approches existantes pour e ´valuer les performances des syste `mes d'irrigation. Dans une deuxie `me partie, nous soulignons pourquoi ces analyses sont insuffisantes pour appre ´hender les valeurs d'usage des petits barrages d'Afrique subsaharienne dans leur vocation multifonctionnelle. Nous proposons ensuite un cadre d'analyse inte ´grateur de leurs multiples dimensions territoriales et environnementales. Au-dela `de simples infrastructures, ce cadre d'analyse les pose comme des construits sociaux. La conclusion souligne les futures e ´tapes de recherche : il ne s'agit pas ici d'e ´laborer des outils pratiques ou de donner des exemples concrets mais de proposer un cadre d'analyse syste´mique des petits ame ´nagements hydro-agricoles en Afrique subsaharienne.Les facteurs influenc ¸ant la performance des syste `mes d'irrigation sont bien connus. La grille d'analyse pro-pose ´e par Bos et al. (2005) permet de pre ´senter les crite `res les plus commune ´ment utilise ´s (tableau 1). De telles e ´tudes restent souvent techniques et manage ´riales et ne permettent pas d'appre ´hender les dynamiques sociales complexes qui se de ´veloppent au sein des syste `mes irrigue ´s (Molden et al., 2007). La reconnaissance des ame ´nagements par les acteurs locaux, leur inte ´gration dans les syste `mes de production, et les processus d'innovation qui s'y de ´veloppent, sont pourtant centraux, tant les re ´sistances sociales peuvent en obe ´rer l'exploitation et la durabilite´.  (Rigourd et al., 2002 ;Poussin et Boivin, 2002). D'autres se sont attache ´s a `comprendre les de ´terminants et conse ´quences de l'action collective en termes de gestion des ressources naturelles (Baland et Platteau, 1996). Ostrom (1990)  Tableau 1. Critères de performance des systèmes irrigués (d'après Ostrom, 1990et Bos et al., 2005).Table 1. Performance criteria for the assessment of irrigation projects (after Ostrom, 1990 andBos et al., 2005). Multiples niveaux emboîtés de responsabilités Système de production Avantage comparatif de l'irrigation comme point d'entre ´e, ces e ´tudes ne permettent toutefois que rarement de comprendre les he ´te ´roge ´ne ´ite ´s concernant la distribution des be ´ne ´fices et des risques en leur sein, offrant ainsi une vision simplifie ´e des dynamiques sociales suscite ´es par la petite irrigation. Les perceptions, motivations et jeux complexes entre acteurs, pratiques et technologies qui en de ´finissent la re ´alite ´ne sont finalement que peu conside ´re ´s. Il en va de me ˆme pour les liens entre les communaute ´s et autres sphe `res de prise de de ´cision, a fortiori dans le contexte de ´sormais ge ´ne ´ralise ´de de ´centralisation des structures d'encadrement (communalisation, gestion inte ´gre ´e des ressources en eau).Des systèmes petits, mais multiples et dispersés, à l'impact considérable Les petits barrages sont une re ´alite ´des zones rurales de nombreuses re ´gions du monde. Il en existe en particulier des centaines dans toute l'Afrique subsaharienne. Malgre ´les difficulte ´s d'inventaire, leur nombre est estime ´a 1 700 au Burkina Faso, 800 au Mali, 600 en Co ˆte d'Ivoire et 500 au Ghana. Ge ´ne ´ralement e ´quipe ´s d'une digue en terre munie d'un de ´versoir, ce qui leur permet de stocker jusqu'a `un million de me `tres cube, les petits barrages atte´nuent les conse ´quences d'une forte variabilite ´climatique en stockant les ruissellements temporaires et les eaux de pluies. Parfois ame ´nage ´s avec un pe ´rime `tre hydro-agricole permettant l'irrigation de quelques dizaines d'hectares, il est commune ´ment admis qu'ils supportent de multiples activite ´s (riziculture, maraı ˆchage, pe ˆche, abreuvement des troupeaux, activite ´s artisanales, usages domestiques et re ´cre ´atifs ; [Cecchi, 2007]), qu'ils freinent l'exode rural, procurent un revenu substantiel aux populations riveraines (Fromageot et al., 2006), et contribuent ainsi a `leur se ´curite ´alimentaire (Savy et al., 2006). L'accroissement des usages de ces nouvelles zones humides pose ne ´anmoins des questions sanitaires et environnementales (Boelee et al., 2009). Construits dans leur majorite ´il y a pre `s de 30 ans pour reme ´dier aux conse´quences de se ´cheresses re ´currentes au Sahel, les petits barrages font depuis lors l'objet d'une demande constante de la part des populations locales. Depuis une quinzaine d'anne ´es environ, les gouvernements y voient une opportunite ´en termes de se ´curite álimentaire par le biais d'une intensification de leurs usages, une conside´ration centrale pour des bailleurs de fonds qui continuent de financer de tels ame ´nagements. Le Fond international pour le de ´veloppement de l'agriculture et la Banque africaine de de ´veloppement planifient par exemple la construction/re ´habilitation de 50 petits barrages pour pre `s de 30 millions de dollars dans le Nord du Ghana d'ici 2015-2020, confirmant ainsi les investissements re ´alise ´s depuis le de ´but des anne ´es 1990. Au Burkina Faso, ce sont plus de 60 petits barrages qui ont e ´te ´construits/re ´habilite ´s depuis l'an 2000 pour un montant d'environ 50 millions de dollars. Cette pre ´sence dans la dure ´e des petits barrages dans les politiques de de ´veloppement est un indicateur de la valeur que ces infrastructures peuvent avoir pour de multiples acteurs, bien que de nombreuses e ´tudes pointent du doigt leurs performances sous-optimales (Faulkner et al., 2008 ;Mdemu et al., 2009). Cependant, il est a `noter qu'en plus du de ´veloppement de l'irrigation, les petits barrages et les opportunite ´s qu'ils repre ´sentent sont perc ¸us de diverses fac ¸ons par les acteurs concerne ´s (exploitants et populations rurales, agents techniques des ministe `res, fonctionnaires des collectivite ´s territoriales et de l'E ´tat, e ´diles, bailleurs de fonds ; Venot et Hirvonen, 2010). La compre´hension des motivations et perceptions de ces acteurs est donc une voie importante pour appre ´hender la valeur des petits barrages et expliciter l'inte ´re ˆt continu dont ils sont l'objet (Vanclay, 2003). Leur e ´tude doit e ´galement e ˆtre contextualise ´e a `diffe´rentes e ´chelles (syste `mes agraires, territoires, politiques agricoles et environnementales) afin d'identifier les perspectives re ´ellement offertes par ces infrastructures en termes de de ´veloppement rural durable.A `l'instar des projets de gestion des territoires qui se sont de ´veloppe ´s depuis les anne ´es 1990 en Afrique de l'Ouest (Bassett et al., 2007), les petits barrages doivent e ˆtre perc ¸us comme de ve ´ritables objets d'ame ´nagement du territoire. Ils apparaissent comme un vecteur de changement social et de mutation des re ´alite ´s rurales mais constituent simultane´ment de ve ´ritables enjeux de pouvoirs dispute ´s a `diverses e ´chelles par de multiples acteurs. Ils s'accompagnent en effet d'une reconfiguration et e ´ventuellement d'une re ´appropriation de l'espace en lien avec les dynamiques d'utilisation des ressources qu'ils rendent disponibles. Les conse ´quences d'une telle restructuration en termes de gestion durable et e ´quitable restent toutefois a `de ´terminer tant les objectifs nationaux d'ame ´nagement et de contro ˆle de l'espace sont rarement en ade ´quation avec les pratiques, priorite ´s ou attentes locales. La poursuite d'un objectif national de se ´curite álimentaire, et l'intensification de l'irrigation qui en de ´coule, peuvent ainsi aller a `l'encontre des inte ´re ˆts des segments les plus vulne ´rables des communaute ´s rurales. En outre, la de ´centralisation peut se traduire par un contro ˆle accru du territoire et de ses ressources par les autorite ´s (Ribot et al., 2006).La diversite ´et la complexite ´des dynamiques associe ´es a `la petite irrigation sont reconnues depuis longtemps (Turner, 1994) mais les e ´clairages propose ´s -qu'ils soient techniques ou socioe ´conomiques (Faulkner et al., 2008 ;Mdemu et al., 2009), institutionnels (Sakthivadivel et al., 2004) ou me ˆme holistiques (Ait Kadi, 1997)de ´coulent d'une vision de ´terministe du de ´veloppement selon laquelle les performances des ame ´nagements sont e ´value ´es en regard d'objectifs pre ´de ´finis, parfois dicte ´s par des pre ´occupations qui sous-estiment tant les attentes que les expe ´riences locales. De telles e ´tudes, certes ne ´cessaires, ne conduisent souvent qu'a `souligner les limites d'ame ´nagements e ´value ´s face a `ces seuls crite `res. Les jeux complexes entre acteurs, les diffe ´rences de perceptions et les processus d'innovation des agriculteurs ne sont que tre `s rarement pris en compte par des interventions qui restent trop souvent monolithiques (Vincent, 1994). Ainsi, les multiples usages des re ´servoirs et les opportunite ´s et risques qui leurs sont associe ´s peuvent affecter des groupes d'usagers diffe ´rents et des espaces e ´ventuellement distincts qu'il convient d'identifier pour percevoir les potentialite ´s re ´elles des petits barrages (Cecchi, 1998). Inversement, la comple ´mentarite ´associe ´e a `la pluriactivite ´peut e ˆtre revendique ´e par une me ˆme cate ´gorie d'acteurscelle des agrope ˆcheurs, par exemplequi exploitera successivement ou paralle `lement diffe ´rentes ressources associe ´es aux ame ´nagements. Le tableau 2 propose un cadre d'analyse qui inte `gre et comple `te les crite `res traditionnellement utilise ´s pour e ´valuer les performances des syste `mes d'irrigation. Il s'agit ici, d'une part, de conside ´rer l'e ´chelle locale comme cadre d'exploitation des ressources et de rationalisation individuelle des activite ´s dans toute sa diversite ´(interactions entre proprie´taires, sans terres, spe ´culateurs et migrants ; interactions entre agriculteurs, pe ´cheurs, e ´leveurs et usagers domestiques ; [Cecchi, 2007]). Et il s'agit d'autre part de replacer ces dynamiques locales a `l'e ´chelle des bassins-versants afin de mieux en appre ´hender les externalite ´s (relations d'interde ´pendance entre communaute ´s, d'un co ˆte ´; entre amont et aval, de l'autre) et de de ´finir collectivement des modalite ´s d'usages et de re ´gulation. Les entite ´s hydrologiques ne sont pas les seules a `prendre en compte : il s'agit aussi d'appre ´hender les petits barrages au regard des questions environnementales qu'ils induisent, ou encore des proble `mes sanitaires et e ´pide ´miologiques qui de ´passent parfois les frontie `res des bassins-versants (Parkes et al., 2010). Mettre en perspective les petits barrages dans le cadre de filie `res de production et des marche ´s est e ´galement ne ´cessaire pour juger tant de leurs impacts sur la se ´curite ´alimentaire nationale que de leur viabilite ´e ´conomique locale.  (von Korff et al., 2010). Si la contribution des acteurs locaux dans de telles de ´marches n'est jamais aise ´e pour d'e ´videntes raisons de de ´se ´quilibre de pouvoir, les processus d'innovation garantissent cependant leur implication de facto dans l'e ´laboration et le pilotage des politiques publiques (Mosse, 2004). L'identification de ces multiples acteurs, inte ´re ˆts et espaces d'influence, ame `ne a `e ˆtre prudent vis-a `-vis d'une intensification des usages des petits barrages qui se traduirait par une appropriation exclusive de la terre et de l'eau par un groupe d'usagers pour un usage de ´termine ´(a priori l'agriculture irrigue ´e), comme semblent l'indiquer les e ´volutions re ´centes en Afrique subsaharienne (forte demande urbaine en produits agricoles, libe ´ralisation des e ´changes, nouvelles lois foncie `res favorisant la privatisation des terres, de ´sengagement de l'E ´tat vis-a `-vis des politiques agricoles, et manque de moyens des collectivite ´s territoriales de ´centralise ´es ´rents types de savoirs (experts du de ´veloppement, recherche, savoirs locaux) coexistent et fac ¸onnent les re ´alite ´s des ame ´nagements que sont les petits barrages : une recherche participative pluridisciplinaire articulant diffe ´rentes me ´thodes a `diffe ´rentes e ´chelles (diagnostic rural participatif, discussions de groupe, entretiens avec des personnes ressources, enque ˆtes, ateliers de cartographie et de mode ´lisation participative, statistiques, te ´le ´de´tection) y a un ro ˆle vraisemblablement fondamental a `jouer.Les petits barrages sont ge ´ne ´ralement pre ´sente ´s comme des ame ´nagements a `vocations multiples favorables au de ´veloppement local des populations destinataires. Les discours sur leurs performances traduisent cependant une vision technocratique du de ´veloppement dans laquelle les socie ´te ´s rurales sont perc ¸ues comme des syste `mes ferme ´s pouvant e ˆtre alte ´re ´s de fac ¸on volontaire et pre ´de ´finie par les politiques agricoles et les technologiesdans ce cas particulier par et pour l'irrigation. Une telle approche du de ´veloppement sous-estime les processus d'innovation des acteurs qui se de ´ploient a `de multiples e ´chelles. En jugeant les petits barrages sur la seule base de crite `res de performances souvent tre `s sectoriels, les analyses diagnostiques aident certes a `en re ´ve ´ler certaines limites, le plus souvent techniques ou manage ´riales. Mieux comprendre les dynamiques complexes associe ´es a `ces objets d'ame ´nagement du territoire requiert toutefois l'adoption d'un cadre d'analyse qui permette d'e ´valuer leurs valeurs d'usage et non plus seulement certaines de leurs performances. Ce cadre d'analyse reste a tester et doit e ˆtre transcrit en un modus operandi ; il a inspire ´les travaux de recherche sur les petits barrages dans le cadre du projet Agricultural Water Management Solutions (http://awm-landscape.iwmi. org/) ainsi que l'e ´laboration des projets de recherche qui se mettent en place dans le bassin de la Volta sous l'e ´gide du Challenge Programme on Water and Food (www.waterforfood.org). La question de la coexistence de diffe ´rents savoirs et des processus d'innovation dans le contexte des syste `mes agraires, des politiques environnementales et d'ame ´nagement des territoires, semble cependant d'ores et de ´ja `centrale. Une telle posture apparaı ˆt en outre ne ´cessaire afin de re ´examiner l'apparente contradiction (forte demande, faible performance) qui pe `se sur ces ame ´nagements, et ainsi mettre en place des politiques d'investissements prenant en compte les re ´alite ´s et pre ´occupations locales, tout en les projetant dans la prospective a `moyen et long termes, gage de durabilite ´. &","tokenCount":"2597"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af8b418f258694d317b11b3a0c77d30a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042518.pdf","id":"-1014200218"},"keywords":["institutions","organizations","policy choices","Blue Nile Basin","Ethiopia"],"sieverID":"ff17c21e-785f-45dd-842f-05e7825f70e4","pagecount":"47","content":"Land and water institutions play a vital role in managing and sustaining land and water resources as well as enhancing economic development and poverty alleviation efforts. While a lot has been done in terms of understanding the micro-determinants of farmers' decisions in land and water conservation, there is little attempt to understand the broad macro-institutional and organizational issues that influence land and water management decisions. The objective of the study was to assess institutional arrangements and challenges for improved land and water management in the Ethiopian part of the Blue Nile Basin (Tana and Beles subbasins). Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were held in Amhara and Benishangul Gumuz regions with important stakeholders such as the bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development, Water Resources Development, Environmental Protection and Land Use Administration (EPLUA), National Agricultural Research Systems, and important NGOs, operating in the area of land and water management, and selected community members. As the major findings in this study, we outlined major land and water-related institutional arrangements that are currently in place and their design features, in order to identify those institutions related to superior performance. We highlighted major institutional and policy gaps and actions that are required to respond to emerging issues of environmental degradation, upstream/downstream linkages and climate change. Such analysis of institutions and their design features provides useful insights and contributes to the debate on institutional reform for improved land and water management in the Blue Nile Basin, in general. By doing so, it identifies the gaps in institutional arrangements and policies and potential remedies.In this section we describe the most important environmental problems in the sub-basin, their local and downstream impacts and their possible causes. Soil erosion, nutrient depletion and deforestation are common environmental problems in the Ethiopian Highlands, not least in the Blue Nile Basin part of Ethiopia (Hagos, et al. 1999;Desta et al., 2000;ENTRO 2006).Four main areas of high sheet erosion are found in the Abay basin (Hydosult et al, 2006b). The steep slopes around Mount Choke in East and West Gojam stand out as significant areas with a high sheet erosion hazards. This is an area characterized by high rainfall intensity causing severe soil erosion. The second widespread area of high erosion hazards occurs North and East of the Abay River in the Lake Tana sub-Basin. This area includes the steep cultivated slopes around Mounts Guna (South Gonder) and Molle (South Wello). A third more restricted area is found in the upper Jema sub-basin in South Wello on the high hills North and West of Debre Birhan. A fourth area is found South of the Abay and encompasses the upper and middle steep and cultivated slopes of the Middle Abay Gorge Sub-basin in East Wellega. Two subsidiary areas with a high erosion hazards can be seen in the Upper Didessa Valley and along the escarpment hills to the West of Lake Tana in the upper Dinder and Beles valleys (ENTRO, 2006). Awulachew et al., (2008) and ENTRO (2006) documented the scale of erosion and sedimentation in the Blue Nile Basin (BNB). Accordingly, the total soil eroded within the landscape in the Abay Basin is estimated to be 302.8 million Mg per annum and that from cultivated land is estimated to be 101.8 million Mg Yr -1 . Thus about 66% of soil being eroded is from non-cultivated land, i.e. mainly from communal grazing and settlement areas. Those authors also provide disaggregated figures for scale of erosion in the three regions of Ethiopian Blue Nile Basin. Accordingly, the area of cropland subject to \"unsustainable\" (i.e. loss exceeds soil formation or 12.5 Mg ha -1 Yr -1 are 968,900 ha, 104,000 ha and 956,900 ha in the Amhara, Beni-Shanugul Gumuz (BSG) and Oromiya regions respectively. Thus, some 2.03 million ha of cultivated land have unsustainable soil loss rates.Of the total 302.8 million Mg of soil eroded a significant proportion is re-distributed within the landscape, the remainder reaching streams and rivers. At the Basin level the estimated Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) indicates that approximately 55 % of sediment remains in the landscape and does not reach the river system (Awulachew et al., 2008;Haileslassie et al., 2006). This estimate is much lower than the 90% estimated by the Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study (EHRS) but closer to the estimate by Hurni CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings (1988). The rest gets its way into the streams and ends up in reservoirs and irrigation channels in the downstream regions of the basin. In 1990, accelerated soil erosion caused a progressive annual loss in grain production estimated at about 40,000 tones, which unless arrested, will reach about 170,000 tones by 2010. Livestock play a number of vital roles in the rural and national economy but according to one estimate some 2 million hectares of pasture land will have been destroyed by soil erosion between 1985 and 1995. Declining use of fallow, limited recycling of organic and limited application of inorganic soil nutrient sources, compounded with the high level of erosion, have also exacerbated the problem of nutrient depletion of the major soils in the sub basin affecting crop productivity (e.g. Haileslassie et al., 2005).In economic terms, soil erosion in 1990 was estimated to have cost (in 1985 prices) nearly Ethiopian currency (ETB) 40 million in lost agricultural production (i.e. crop and livestock) while the cost of burning dung and crop residues as fuel was nearly ETB 650 million. Thus in 1990 approximately 17% of the potential agricultural GDP was lost because of soil degradation. The permanent loss in value of the country's soil resources caused by soil erosion in 1990 was estimated to be ETB 59 million. This is the amount by which the country's soil stock should be depreciated in the national accounts or which should be deducted (as capital depreciation) from the country's Net National Income (NNI (Sutcliffe, 1993;Bojo and Cassells, 1995).Deforestation is also going unabated because of growing demands from construction, fuel wood and farm land. In many areas of Ethiopian highland, the present consumption of wood is in excess of sustainable growth. This implies the degree of mining of the natural vegetation and impacts on water resources (i.e. through runoff and erosion). Estimates of deforestation, which is mainly for expansion of rainfed agriculture, vary from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum (EPA, 1997). Although there are no specific estimates for the sub-basin, the Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP) estimated the full value of forest depletion in 1990 to have been about ETB 138 million or some 25% of the potential forestry GDP of ETB 544 million (EFAP, 1993).Soil erosion, agricultural run-off and domestic and industrial effluents cause serious negative externalities in downstream environments. In fact, although estimates of costs are missing, there are reported signs of increasing pollution and pollutants load on water bodies and reservoirs in the sub-basin and beyond. MoWR (2007) reported that increased nutrient loads (from sewage, pit latrines and fertilizers) are contributing to increased pollution, affecting eco-system health in the sub-basin. The social costs include loss of life and agricultural production due to pollution and eutrophication of fresh water resources, sedimentation of water reservoirs, siltation of irrigation channel, (Ekborn, 2007). This underlines the far reaching consequences of environmental degradation on ecosystem health, land and water productivity. Understanding these consequences and their possible causes are important research questions that need to be pursued for improved management of land and water.On the research side, there is little attempt to understand the broad macro, institutional and organizational issues that influence land and water management decisions and addresses the understandings of upstream and downstream linkages. There is inadequate understanding of the policy and institutional failures that shape and structure farmer incentives and investment decisions (Shiferaw et al., 2007). There is no doubt that the creation of an enabling environment for farmers and agencies to adopt management practices that reduce water and land degradation and improve food security is crucial (Hannam, 2003). This is particularly important in view of mitigating impacts of upstream water resources development on downstream stakeholders dependent on the Blue Nile Basin.For example in response to increasing demand for food and contrastingly dwindling agricultural production, the Ethiopian government is considering Tana-Beles Sub-Basin Assessment of Local Land and Water Institutions in the Blue Nile and their Impact on Environmental Management 189 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings as the development corridor and thus embarked on development of irrigation and hydropower development projects in the Tana and Beles Sub Basins. This requires designing institutions that can provide legal and policy framework to define: activities that are prohibited or allowed in a certain areas, the incentive structures and policy instruments to enable action, and responsible body to enforce the provisions and careful choice of policy instruments. Designing institutional mechanisms to sustainably manage the land and water resources of the country has been an important legal and political concern in Ethiopia. Lately, the government of Ethiopia has come up with various measures to enable sustainable land and water management. But little has been done in understanding the design of the institutional arrangements and choice of policy instruments. Such analysis of institutions and their design features provides useful insights, contributing to institutional reform debate in land and water management in the study sub basin. The overall objective of the study is, therefore, to carryout assessment and gap analysis of institutional arrangements for improved land and water management in the highlands the Blue Nile Basin (taking Tana and Beles Sub-Basin of Ethiopia as an example). The specific research questions include: What are current and envisaged changes in policies and institutional arrangements for improved land and water management in regions within the Ethiopian Abay Blue Nile?  What are the design features of the existing/envisaged institutional changes?  Whether the current level policy, institution and processes effectively respond to the emerging issues (e.g. land degradation, water shortage, climate change and variability, upstream downstream relations, etc.).  Following problem analysis, in this introductory part, the second chapter outlines the approach taken to identify and evaluate the features of the institutional framework and institutional design criteria that can used to evaluate land and water related institutions in Tana Beles Sub-basin. It also briefly discusses the study site and data sources. In the result sections it highlights existing formal and informal institutional arrangements and their design features. Based on the analysis presented in section four, the study draws key conclusions and policy recommendations.The focus of this study is the Tana Beles Sub-Basin in North western Ethiopia. The Tana and Beles Sub-basins are important Sub-basins of Blue Nile (also called Abay) River Basin and are located in the Amhara and Benshangul Gumuz Regional States. The Tana Sub-basin is fully located in the Amhara National Regional State and covers parts of the West Gojam, North Gondar and South Gondar Zones. The Beles Sub-basin, on the other hand falls within the two regional states and drains the Agew Awi Zone 1 of the Amhara and Metekel zone of the Benshangul Gumuz National Regional States. The total area of the Tana and Beles Sub-Basins is about 30,000 km 2 . Lake Tana, the largest fresh water lake in Ethiopia, covers an area of 3,042 km 2 . It is at the heart of the Tana Sub-Basin whereas the Beles River that drains the Beles Sub-Basin is the largest right bank tributary of the Blue Nile and joins the main stream just before the Ethio-Sudanese Border (Figure 1). CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings In this study, we analyzed institutional setups for sustainable land and water management at national, regional and sub-basin and local scales. Formal institutions in Ethiopia are structured at federal and regional levels and informal institutions are locally instituted. The informal institutions lack linkages with the formal institutions and among themselves affecting information flow and their effective involvement in land and water management. The regional states adopt federal land and water institutions, as they are, or, as in some case, develop region specific institutions based on the general provisions given by the federal policies and institutions (e.g. Rural Land Administration and Use). Therefore, in this paper we focused more on the assessment of federal land and water management institutions and policies as they apply to regional, sub-basin and local scales. Moreover, we shaded light on the synergy between informal and formal institutions and the challenges they face in executing their responsibilities.Assessment of Local Land and Water Institutions in the Blue Nile and their Impact on Environmental ManagementFollowing the frameworks developed by Ananda et al. (2006); Hannam (2003) and Bandaragoda (2000), we identified the following criteria to evaluate the design features of land and water related institutions in Tana and Beles Sub-Basins. If institutions are to succeed in their function, they are expected to have and develop clear institutional objectives by taking various constraints they face in to account. The question of whether institutions have clear institutional objectives and how they develop them is a pertinent question to assess institutional design features. In a given socio-economic context, both formal and informal institutions have bearings on shaping behavior of actors. How formal and informal institutions influence each other is another important issue we address here to assess performance of land and water institutions. Institutions will perform better if they institutionalize adaptive management given the persistent changes in the biophysical and socio-economic environments. In this case exploring the forms of adaptive management institutions utilize, whether it involves evolutionarytrail and error approach; passivelessons from the past used to develop best single policy, or activelearning focused and participatory and uses policy and its implementation as tools for learning, is critical. Key here is to assess how institutions maximize the level and effectiveness of institutional learning, without compromising institutional stability.Finally, translating these objectives requires due process of implementation and enforcement. The institutions' enforcement capacity is hence critical. Besides what are the typical forms of enforcement: self-enforcement vs. third-party enforcement? These criteria and the key questions summarized, in This study was done as part of the research project on -Improved water and land management in the Ethiopian highlands and its impact on downstream stakeholders dependent on the Blue Nile‖ financed by the Challenge Program for Water and Food. This study falls under the policy and institutions component of the project. This component of this project was developed in recognition of the fact that every intervention is implemented in a unique context where not only physical factors, but also institutions and policies, will influence its impact. Institutional analysis was done based on a defined institutional framework to identify key design features and evaluate the performance of these features. The data collected from diverse sources was compiled and analyzed to prepare this report.‗Institutions' in this study is defined broadly to include not only formal organizations, but also informal organizations, laws, customs and social practices that influence people's behavior in a society or economy. Organizations can be defined as -structures of recognized and accepted roles‖ (Merry 1993;cited in Bandaragoda 2000). Organizations are groups of individuals with defined roles and bound by some common purpose and some rules and procedures to achieve set objectives (Bandaragoda 2000). The institutional framework for water resources management in a river basin context consists of established rules, norms, practices and organizations that provide a structure to human actions related to water management (Bandaragoda 2000). Saleth and Dinar (1999a;1999b)  The EPA is the government regulatory authority responsible for environmental protection. EPA aims -to formulate policies, strategies, laws and standards, which foster social and economic development in a manner that enhance the welfare of humans and the safety of the environment, and to spearhead in ensuring the effectiveness of the process of their implementation‖ (FDRE, 2002, p. 2). This is envisaged to be achieved through: development of enabling policy and regulatory frameworks; preparation and implementation of proactive environmental management systems; enforcement and compliance mechanisms and community empowerment; improving education and awareness and availing information and fostering participation in decision taking; and identification and availing of environmentally sound technologies and best practices and resource mobilization and channeling. The government has further defined the institutional frameworks, responsibilities and mandates for the implementation of the environmental policy (FDRE, 2002).Regional bureaus, in Ethiopia, have been established with similar designations and responsibilities as the federal ministries described above. The most relevant state level bureaus in relation to land and water management include bureaus of water resources Development, Agriculture and Rural development (BoARD), and Environmental Protection and Land Administration and Land Use Authority (EPLAUA). We briefly describe the roles and responsibilities of the regional bureaus.The major regional water sector offices have the responsibility to manage resources on behalf of MoWR. They are also mandated to administer resources under their geographical jurisdiction, i.e. non-transboundary and non-trans-regional water bodies. In Amhara and BNG the water bureau is made accountable to the regional president and administration council 2 (CANRS, 2004;BGRS, 2006). In BNG regional state it is called bureau of water, mines and energy bureau with wider mandates responsibilities. Their roles and responsibilities, in relation to land and water management, include: develop region-wide polices, strategic plans, directives, standards and manuals concerning the management of water resources in line with the federal water policies and laws; issue permits in relation to WRD; develop the water resources of the region; help solve water related conflicts; devise a system of integrated water resources management; maintain the health of water bodies from pollution, support the development of water institutions, etc. CP 19 Project Workshop ProceedingsSimilar to the federal ministry, the regional bureaus are established, their roles and responsibilities defined by law (CANRS, 2006a;BGRS, 2006). Accordingly, their roles and responsibilities, in relation to land and water management include: develop laws on the conservation and utilization of forest and wildlife resources; coordinate food security programs; provide agricultural extension services; provide support for the expansion of water harvesting and irrigation development activities; promote market-led agriculture development and create efficient agricultural input and product marketing systems, etc. (including through organization of cooperatives). Unlike the federal ministry, conservation of soil and water resources is not mentioned as one of the prime responsibilities of the bureau.EPLAUA is the regional equivalent of the federal EPA. The major roles and responsibilities of EPLAUA include: ensure interventions are carried out in a manner that will protect the welfare of human beings as well as sustainably protect, develop and utilize the resources; create conducive atmosphere by which the management, administration, use of rural land of the region could be appropriately decided pursuant to federal and regions policies (BGRS, 2006;CANRS, 2006a). To this end, EPLAUA in Amhara 3 has developed regional environmental regulations and strategies based on federal environmental policy; environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures to support development projects; issued directives to implement the rural land administration and land use; and issues environmental clearance to development projects. Furthermore, EPLUA coordinates environmental protection efforts of NGOs and community organizations besides developing strategies, polices to protect and conserve natural resources of the region and to be executed by implementation offices; (e.g. developed guidelines for soil and water conservation in 2007 (see EPLAUA, 2007) Although there are many NGOs operating in both regions, Water Aid in BNG and Sustainable Water Harvesting and Institutional Strengthening in Amhara (SWISHA) are the two active actors working in the water sector, particularly in developing the water related institutions. SWHISA is a CIDA supported six-year project co-managed by Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) and to support training programs, pilot and demonstration projects related to rain water harvesting for irrigated agriculture production. The project CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings strives to strengthen water related capacity of regional institutions and farmer associations to develop and promote sustainable water harvesting and the use of water for irrigation. So far SWHISA has been involved in the development of byelaws for irrigation cooperatives (Personal correspondence). Likewise, Water Aid, although primarily engaged in provision of domestic water, has help the regional government in developing guidelines in organizing water users associations and tariff setting for sustainable operations and maintenance of water points.In Ethiopia, there is no basin authority responsible for the Blue Nile 4 . The national Water Policy (MoWR, 1999;p.13) calls for the establishment of basin-level institutions with the aim -to ensure efficient, successful and sustainable joint management of the water resources of the basins through concerted efforts of the relevant stakeholders‖. The establishment of river basin organizations (RBO's) is envisaged to happen phase by phase. Their establishment is considered one of the main instruments to implement integrated water resources management through river basin plans and effective joint management by relevant stakeholders.Hitherto, a proclamation for the establishment of River Basin Councils and Authorities has been issued (FDRE, 2007). This proclamation stipulates the establishment of River Basin High Councils and Authorities through regulations to be issued by the Council of Ministers (Art. 3(1)). When it is deemed necessary, the proclamation stipulates, two or more river basins may be put under the jurisdiction of a single Basin High Council and Authority.There is an on-going effort to establish a river basin authority for the Abay, which is the major sub-basin of the Nile. An institutional study already undertaken pointed out the need for: (1) networking between water related actors, (2) coordination of their water related activities, plans and projects, (3) a sound knowledge of water resources, water uses and of their interactions and (4) a power to administer water resources in the basin (Gizaw, 2004). The legal basis for establishing the river basin authority is pending the enactment of establishment regulation to be issued by the council of ministers.There is no formal land and water related organizations that operate at the watershed level in Ethiopia. In some watersheds there is informal (ad-hoc) watershed development committees established as part of integrated watershed development projects, mostly by NGOs. But the life and functions of such project-related institutions are dependent on the specific project objectives and are likely to vanish with phasing out of the project. CP 19 Project Workshop ProceedingsAt the Woreda (district level), Water Desks are responsible for planning, budgeting, implementing and monitoring and follow up of water projects and programs. These local water desks report to a Woreda level government administrative body called the desk for rural development, not directly to the regional water bureaus. The rural development government body, in turn, reports to the Woreda Council, the locally based highest authority. Urban Water Supply Utilities have traditionally been accountable to the regional water resource development Bureaus.Water user associations (WUAs) and irrigation cooperatives (ICs) are the most common local institutions engaged in water management at the level of the landscape or hydrological units. WUAs could be defined as social units commonly organized by communities themselves for their own benefits of fair water distribution, improved water delivery and accounting. They are headed by a respected personality from within, leading the effective functioning of the irrigation operation services. The role of WUA is commonly restricted to the distribution of water among members, rehabilitation and maintenance of canals and address water related conflicts. WUA are sometimes threatened by parallel established government-supported ICs, which have broader operational scopes (besides water distribution and operation and maintenance also providing marketing, credit and extension services) and have stronger links with government institutions.The Amhara National Regional State Cooperative Societies Establishment Proclamation (Zikre Hig No., 134, 2006) provides a comprehensive legislation by which cooperative societies are organized and managed. The region has developed an irrigation cooperatives organization guideline 2/2001 (CPB, 2001). The Cooperative Promotion Bureau is responsible to organize, register and train; give other technical supports to cooperative associations (CPB, 2001;p. 4). The document calls for establishment of ICs in traditional and modern schemes, which is tantamount to a call for transforming traditional WUAs, which do not have formal legal status, to ICs. This is a risky venture given the multiple functions of ICs and poor performance of ICs so far in irrigation water management. This happens in the backdrop of the successful performance of traditional WUAs, despite having limited tasks, in distribution of water among members, rehabilitation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure and addressing water related conflicts. A better option could be to facilitate the legalization of WUAs so that they could access the formal saving and credit markets. The land administration committees (LACs) have been formed and trained in all Kebeles in order to assist the EPLAUA with the land registration process. During the discussions held with key informants in the Koga and Gumera watersheds number of other local institutions have been identified. Those includes: Churches, Edir, Ekub, and Debo. Despite the fact that those institutions are deeply anchored to the local tradition, most of them have weak linkage to the formal land and water management institutions and activities in the sub basins. Neither have they recorded bylaws. Exceptionally Ethiopian churches are involved in forest conservation. From our observation during field visits we realized that forest in churches seemed to be the remnant pieces of the past forest ecosystems and thus the preserved ones can be read as a blueprint for the lost ecosystems. They can also serve as springboard to restore the forest ecosystem in the extent one may require.Various policies and laws have been lately promulgated by the government of Ethiopia with the intention of improving land and water management. These belong to the class of formal institutions promulgated at the federal and regional levels. We intend to describe the key intents and features of these polices and laws in this sub-section. In doing so the critical questions raised include: What are the policies and legal instruments in place to tackle environmental problems?  Do land and water relate policies and laws have clear objectives? If so, are these objectives reflected in a clear and unambiguous manner?  What are the main features of the policies and laws, particularly in addressing downstream and upstream linkages and their scope for integrated natural resources management in the sub-basin? In other words, does the exiting policy setting create enabling environment for integrated water resource management (IWRM)?  Are there policy gaps or in legislative framework that affect effective organizational performance? This question address the issue of compatibility between exiting laws, customs, policies and organizational arrangements; Where do informal rules overrule formal rules (dysfunctionality) and rules in use due to lack of proper enforcement or due to disregard towards the spirit of the written laws?  What do the enforcement mechanisms and compliance behavior of different agents look like? Here, we present important land and water related policies and laws and their implications on environmental management. The conservation strategy of Ethiopia (FDRE, 1996) provides an umbrella framework, detailing principles, guidelines and strategies, for the effective management of the environment. It elaborates the state of the resource bases of the country as well as the institutional arrangement and action plans for the realization of the strategy. The strategy aims to meet the over goal of improving the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social, economic, culture and other needs of the inhabitants on a sustainable basis (FDRE, 1996). The document emphasizes the need to ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations at all levels in environmental management activities; and raise awareness and promote understanding of the essential links between environment and development. The document outlines the importance of: Providing security of tenure for land and natural resources by clearly defining and strengthening land and other natural resources tenure rights and responsibilities so as to support sustainable agricultural, pastoral, forestry and fisheries production and a sustainable urban environment;  Achieving coordinated, integrated and participatory local plans and land use decisions to achieve ecologically, socially and economically sustainable state and private sector land utilization;  Ensuring that disadvantaged members of the community are fully involved in the development, management and use of natural, human made and cultural resources and the environment and thus social, cultural and economic sustainability is achieved.The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE), which was approved on April 1997, has an overall policy goal to -improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians, and to promote sustainable social and economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment as a whole, so as to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖ (FDRE, 1997a). EPE emphasizes the need for arresting land degradation and promote improved environmental sanitation and health.  ). EPC oversee EPA's activities, as well as the activities of sectoral agencies and environmental units with respect to environmental management. It also ensures coordination among sectoral ministries and agencies on environmental matters. The proclamation stipulates the need for the establishment of environmental organs by regions. Mandates of the regional environmental organs are to enable regions to coordinating the formulation, implementation, review and revision of regional conservation strategies; environmental monitoring, protection and regulation; ensure the implementation of federal environmental standards or, as may be appropriate, issue and implement their own no less stringent standards; and prepare reports on the respective state of the environment and sustainable development of their respective states and submit them to the Authority (FDRE, 2002c, Art. 15).The Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation prohibits the release of pollutant into the environment by any person engaged in any field of activity. Any person who causes any pollution shall be required to clean up or pay for cleaning up of the polluted environment. The installation of sound technology that avoids or reduces, to the required minimum, the generation of waste and, when feasible, recycling of waste is encouraged (FDRE, 2002b).To enforce this, EPA is empowered to formulate practicable environmental standards based on scientific and environmental principles and in consultation with relevant agencies (FDRE, 2002b). The standards are required to include standards for the discharge of effluents into water bodies and sewerage systems; air quality standards that specify the ambient air quality and give the allowance amount of emissions for both point and non-point air pollution sources; standards for the types and amounts of substances that can be applied to the soil or be disposed of on or in it; waste management standards specifying the levels allowed and the methods to be used in the generation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal of the various types of waste. So far, EPA has prepared Provisional Standard for Industrial Pollution Control (EPA, 2003) and draft proposal of Ambient Environmental Standards (EPA, 2004), and a regulation for the enforcement of the standards in Ethiopia. Regional states are required to develop their own standards, even stringent ones considering their specific situations. This proclamation also specifies clearly the function of law enforcement of the EPA and of the Regional Environmental Agencies, in charge of taking administrative or legal measures against a person violating the law and releasing any pollutant to the environment. Two approaches are advocated by EPA in pollution control; namely: encouraging cleaner production (voluntary) and requirement to use of best available technologies (end-of-pipe control). The EIA proclamation empowered EPA to prepare procedure, regulations, guidelines and standards to effectively implement and enforce EIA proclamation. Environmental guidelines are among the tools for facilitating the inclusion of environmental issues and principles of sustainable development into development proposals. To this effect, sectoral environmental impact assessment guidelines on agriculture, transport, industry, tannery and settlements have been prepared. In addition to these, a general guideline for facilitating EIA in all sectors has been prepared (EPA, 2003). The provisions include: Without authorization from the authority or from the relevant regional environmental agency, no person shall commence implementation of any project that requires EIA;  Any licensing agency shall, prior to issuing an investment permit or a trade or an operating license for any project, ensure that the authority or relevant regional environmental agency has authorized its implementation; and  EIP study or permission does not exonerate the proponent form liability to damage.  Through this directive EPA is expected to identify projects not likely to have negative impacts, and so do not require environmental impact assessment and those that do have and requires EIA. Furthermore, EPA has developed an EIA guideline, the purpose of which is to ensure that proponents, the government and all other interested and affected parties have the opportunity to participate meaningfully in the EIA process and facilitate EIA in all sectors.The most important water related policies, strategies, regulations and guidelines in Ethiopia include: Water Resource Management Policy (MoWR, 1999); Water Resources Management Proclamation and Regulation (MoWR, 2000); and National Water Sector Strategy and Water Sector Development Program (MoWR, 2004). The range of relevant policies point to the complexity of numerous institutional mandates relevant to water management. Each of these is briefly described below.The Ethiopian Federal Water Resources Management Policy stated that the goal of the policy is -to enhance and promote all national efforts towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available water resources of the country for significant socioeconomic development on a sustainable basis‖ (MoWR, 1999, p.1). The fundamental principles of the Ethiopian Water Resource Management Policy are that (i) water is a natural endowment commonly owned by all the people of Ethiopia, (ii) every Ethiopian citizen shall have access to sufficient water of acceptable quality, to satisfy basic human needs, (iii) water shall be recognized both as an economic and a social good, (iv) water resource development shall be underpinned on rural-centered, decentralized management, participatory approach as well as integrated framework, (v) management of water Assessment of Local Land and Water Institutions in the Blue Nile and their Impact on Environmental Management 204 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings resource shall ensure social equity, economic efficiency, systems reliability and sustainability, (vi) the participation of all stakeholders, user communities specially that of women, shall be promoted in water management. The policy has a series of highly relevant provisions, in particular regarding the IWRM approach. These include: Enhance the integrated and comprehensive management of water resources that avoids a fragmented approach;  Recognize water as a scarce and vital socio-economic resource and manage water resources on a strategic planning basis with long term visions and sustainable objectives;  Ensure that water resources management is compatible and integrated with other natural resources as well as river basin development plans and with the goals of other sectoral developments in health, mines, energy, agriculture, etc.;  Recognize and adopt hydrologic boundaries or -basins‖ as the fundamental planning unit in the water resources management domain; and  Promote and advocate institutional stability and continuity in water resources management and ensure smooth transition during times of changes. More specifically the document provides additional relevant provisions on the enabling environment: Promote appropriate linkage mechanisms for the coordination of water resources management activities between the Federal and Regional Governments;  Establish phase-by-phase Basin Authorities, for efficient, successful and sustainable joint management of the water resources of the basins through concerted efforts of relevant stakeholders,  Create conducive environment for the enhancement of linkages and partnership between the Federal and Regional States on the basis of the constitution for the realization of efficient, sustainable and equitable water resources management, and provide the legal basis for active and meaningful participation of all stakeholders. The policy also addressed cross cutting and sectoral issues such as water allocation and apportionment, environment, watershed management, water resources protection and conservation, technology and engineering, water resources management information systems, monitoring, assessment and auditing, water cost and pricing (economics of water), groundwater resources, disasters, emergencies and public safety, transboundary water stakeholders, gender, research and development, water quality management and enabling environment. The sectoral part of the policy has incorporated specific issues on the area of water supply and sanitation, irrigation and hydropower.Although the issues addressed in the policy are equally important, the issue of water allocation, a basin development approach, integration of developments, water pricing, cost recovery, and water financing could be taken as key pillars for the future development and management of water resources. We present these issues briefly for closer scrutiny. The water policy provision on water allocation and apportionment indicates that it is to be done in accordance with a permit system for uses of irrigated agriculture, commercial animal rearing, industry, mining, urban water supply, etc; while no permit is required for use of water by peasants, artisan miners, traditional fishermen, traditional irrigation, water mills, hand-dug wells. The supervising body (MoWR) is responsible for determining the allocation and manner of use of water resources among various uses and users; and for issuing directives to prevent inappropriate use and wastage of water. More specifically, the policy directs that: The basic minimum requirement for basic human and livestock needs as well as environment reserve has the highest priority in any water allocation plan;  Water allocation gives the highest priority to water supply and sanitation, while apportioning the rest for uses and users that result in highest socio-economic benefits;  Encouragement of water allocation need to be based on efficient use of water allocation, which is based on efficient use of water resources that harmonizes greater economic and social benefits;  Water allocation shall be based on the basin, sub-basin, and other hydrological boundaries and take into considerations the needs of drought prone areas;  Adopting the principle that water allocations shall not be made on permanent basis, but rather on agreed time horizon that fits best with the socio-economic development plans; and  Priority is given, generally, to multi-purpose projects as compared to single purpose for optimum water utilization as well as for fair administration of water uses in reservoir operations.The policy document underlines the importance of an integrated approach to water resources development for optimal utilization of the country's water resource. Integrated water resources management promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable and sustainable manner. The policy document has also recognized and adopted hydrologic boundaries or -basins‖ as the fundamental planning unit and water resources management domain. promote Ethiopia's entitlement and use of transboundary water based on those accepted international norms and conventions endorsed by Ethiopia; and (iv) foster meaningful and mutually fair regional cooperation and agreements on the joint and efficient use of transboundary waters with riparian countries based on -equitable and reasonable‖ use principles; comply with those international covenants adopted by Ethiopia, and manage transboundary waters accordingly.Furthermore, the water resources management policy has given importance and recognition to the value of water. In order to significantly contribute to development, water shall be recognized both as an economic and a social good; and the policy has clearly recognized the disadvantaged groups of the population by citing that, -although all water resources development ought to be based on the economic value of water, the provision of water supply services to the underprivileged sectors of the population, shall be ensured based on a special social strategy‖ (MoWR, 1999). The most important role of water valuation relates to demand management and better allocation of water among the various uses. The value of water depends on its quantity, quality, location, access, reliability and time of availability. Valuing water is linking the concern that water uses must be able to meet different social, economic and environmental functions. Priority in water allocation is given to human and animal consumption, followed by irrigation.The water policy has specific stipulations pertaining to tariff setting, requiring that (i) tariff structures are site-specific and determined according to circumstances; (ii) rural tariff settings are based on the objective of recovering operation and maintenance costs while urban tariff structures are based on the basis of full cost recovery; (iii) adopt a -social tariff‖ to enable poor communities to cover operation and maintenance costs; (iv) establish progressive tariff rates, in urban water supplies, tied to consumption rates and flat rate tariffs for communal services like hand pumps and public stand pipes. The Water Resources Management policy also stipulates the following provisions relevant to irrigation: The main actors in irrigation development are identified as: farmers, service cooperatives, governmental and nongovernmental organizations' and the local people who will live in and near the irrigation development. Participation from all of these stakeholders, as well as transparency and social equity in irrigation development, are priorities. With regard to financing, the irrigation water policy calls for the establishment of norms and procedures for financing sustainability and viability; the promotion of credit facilities and bank loans; and appropriate cost recovery systems and mechanisms for all irrigation schemes. Following the Water policy, the government of Ethiopia has issued Water Resources Management Proclamation to enable proper management, protection and utilization of the country's water resources. This proclamation provides the basic legislative framework for the country with respect to the management, planning, utilization and protection of water resources. The stated purpose of the proclamation is -to ensure that the water resources of the country are protected and deployed for the highest social and economic benefits of the people of Ethiopia; to follow up and supervise that they are duly conserved; to ensure that harmful effects of water are prevented; and that the management of water resources are carried out properly‖ (Art. 3). The basic trust of these fundamental principles is that water resources management and administration in the country should be based on the National Water Policy, the Integrated River Basin Master Plan Studies (IRBMPs) and the Water Resources Laws of the country.According to the proclamation, the right to allocate and apportion water is best bestowed upon the legal jurisdiction of the Ministry of Water Resources in its capacity as supervisory body. The legal provisions in the proclamation, with regard to ownership of the resources and its allocation and apportionment, clearly show that the development, management, utilization and protection of all water resources in the country lies effectively in the hands of the Federal Government.Regional states and local administrative bodies, without requiring any new law for water, are strictly obliged by law to implement the water policy and the water proclamation in accordance with set directives and guidelines provided by the Federal Ministry of Water Resources. Moreover, this proclamation confirms the duality of management arrangements, i.e., surface waters whenever linking two or more Regions or being transboundary clearly falls under the Federal level while water resource within the jurisdiction of regions are addressed by the Regional States legal provisions.A federal Water Resources Management Regulations (MoWR, 2004), while its contents are similar to those covered in the proclamation, but details the procedures as to how the Assessment of Local Land and Water Institutions in the Blue Nile and their Impact on Environmental Management 208 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings various legal materials contained in the proclamation are to be effected on the ground. In particular the regulations present a further elaboration of the main requirements for the issuance of permits for different uses of water and the conditions for the issuance, as well as the level of water charge and procedure for licensing water operators.The MoWR still retains the mandate to issue permits for large bulk of water resources of the country although it can delegate it further to any relevant body. This is also true for collection of fees and water uses charges. Furthermore, tariff rates are determined for different water uses at national level, without intervention of Regional States.The Water Sector Strategy provides the framework, which contains ways and means of attaining the intended objectives. The goals and guiding principles remain the same with that of the policy. The strategy sets the road map on how to make meaningful contributions towards improving the living standard and general socioeconomic wellbeing of the n people. These objectives include: Realizing food self-sufficiency and food security;  Extending water supply and sanitation coverage to large segments of the society;  Generating additional hydropower and enhancing the contribution of water resources in attaining national development priorities; and  Promoting the principles of integrated water resources management. In view of the enormous water demand in the country, the WSDP has adopted the following water resource development priorities. Making clean drinking water available to the larger segments of the society, including water for sewerage purposes;  Making water available for livestock in critical areas such as the pastoral areas;  Expanding irrigated agriculture to the maximum possible extent;  Meeting hydropower generation capacity needs arising from electricity demand in the economic and social sectors; and  Providing water for the industrial development.Within the overall priority provided above, the highest priority has been given to the programs and projects, which are ongoing and their implementation is expected to continue during the period of the plan; those that require rehabilitation and reactivation; were started, but for some reason their implementation was discontinued; have already been subject to appraisal and are already being considered for possible funding; have Recognizing that WSDP is a national water plan, stakeholders including public, private sector, NGOs, international development partners and communities are anticipated to participate in the implementation of the Program. To this end, the detailed implementation arrangements of the WSDP are worked out to address the roles of various stakeholders, be it government institutions such as the Federal Ministry of Water Resources or Regional Water Bureaus. Various organs are proposed to be established towards implementing WSDP such as an Inter-Ministerial Steering Group; Federal Program Management Unit (FPMU); Regional Program Management Unit (RPMU); Sub-Program level teams under the FPMUs and RPMUs. These entities are not established as yet (NBI, 2006).A series of proclamations on Rural Land Administration and Use (FDRE, 1997b;2005c) and Land Expropriation and Compensation (FDRE, 2005b) provide the legal framework for rural land administration and use. The laws define rights of land holders and theirs obligations. In line with the constitution of Ethiopia, proclamation declared land to be the property of the state. Hence, it may not be sold or mortgaged. One of the important provisions of the proclamation is the provision on the rights of land users to get and use land freely through land distribution and/or by bequeath or gift. Holding rights are defined in the Federal Constitution (FDRE, 1995) as \"the right any peasant shall have to use rural land for agricultural purposes as well as to lease and, while the right remains in effect, bequeath it to his family member; and includes the right to acquire property thereon, by his labor or capital, and to sell, exchange and bequeath same\" (Art 2 Sub Art.3). The state also has the ultimate power to enact laws about utilization and conservation of land. Art. 51 of the constitution states that the Federal Government shall enact laws for the utilization and conservation of land and other natural resources (FDRE, 1995). Art. 52 also states, that Regional Governments have the duty to administer land and other natural resources according to Federal laws. Both proclamations vested Regional Governments with the power of land administration (defined as \"the assignment of holding rights and the execution of distribution of holdings\") (FDRE, 1997b, Art. 2.6). They also called for land registration and certification to reduce land conflicts and encourage long-term investment in rural lands.Lately, the government has come up with land expropriation and compensation proclamation (FDRE, 2005b) which states that -a landholder whose holding has been expropriated shall be entitled to payment of compensation for his property situated on the land and for permanent improvements he made to such land (Ibid: p. 3128)‖. Compensation for permanent improvement to land shall be equal to the value of capital CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings and labor expended on the land (Ibid.). A rural landholder whose landholding has been permanently expropriate [d] shall, in addition to the compensation payable, be paid displacement compensation which shall be equivalent to ten times the average annual income he secured during the five years preceding the expropriation of the land (Ibid.).Following the 1997 and 2005 federal land related proclamations, regional governments came up with their own proclamation on rural land administration and use (For instance see CANRS 2006b). In doing so, they formalized land-lease practices between farmers with contracts up to a maximum of 25 years. Furthermore, the regional proclamations paved the way for land titling, by registering all arable lands, to the landholders who received land during the last land redistribution or through inheritance from their close kin. By doing so, the regional governments hope to boost farmers' sense of security, which, in turn, may encourage investment in erosion reducing and landing quality enhancing technologies. Preliminary studies on the impact of land certification on tenure security long term investment and functioning of land markets indicate that they are having significant impacts on both accounts (Hagos, 2007;Holden et al., 2007). Similar policies were also promulgated in all the major regions of Ethiopia (Deininger, et al. 2007).Important provisions of the land administration and use proclamation, both federal and state, that have provided incentives that encourage farmers to improve their management and make additional investments on their land include (FDRE, 1997;2005;CANRS 2006b): Right to use has no any time limit;  Right to transfer holdings in bequeath or donation;  Transfer right in rent to any person for a maximum of 25 years;  Right not to be expropriated without consent of the user or unless it is to be used for public services;  Right of any person deprived from his land holding to get compensation for the permanent property he had developed on the land;  Right of the state to deprive holding rights if gross damage occurs over land due to mismanagement;  Land measurement and registration; and  Granting a legal land holding certificate where in the land holding certificate shall indicate the main provisions of right and obligations of the land holder.The new proclamations also have specific regulation on land use obligations of the land user. The land use regulations include: any rural land shall have land use plan and any rural land with 60 % slope and above shall not be used for farming and free grazing other than forestry, perennial plants and development of forage for animals (CANRS 2006b, p. 8). The obligations of the land user include: protect the land under his/her holding or land obtained in rent and conserve the surrounding; to plant trees around his/her land and properly protect them; undertake trench terracing and favorable soil conservation activities to use the land forms which are 31 to 60 % slope for perennial plants and to use CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings land based on land use plan (CANRS 2006b, p. 21). Non-compliance is likely to lead to deprivation of use rights and penalty. The Rural land Administration and Land Use of the Amhara National State (CANRS 2006b), for instance, indicates that where land is degraded due to weakness, not to conserve it, the household will be obliged to transfer the right to use land in rent temporarily for a person who undertakes an obligation; if not corrected it goes from suspending him from using his right for a limited time up to expropriating with compensation. In the extreme case, he shall be made to pay compensation for the damage pursuant to civil code in addition to measures above (p. 23).This guideline was developed with the intension of promoting and expanding participatory community watershed development in Ethiopia. This is an attempt to streamline the experiences of various actors (GOs and NGOs) in participatory watershed development, combined with the need to have a common and standardized, more effective approach to the country as a whole (Lakew et al. 2005). The guideline aims to build upon exiting community-based participatory watershed efforts to harmonize and consolidate planning procedures at the grass-roots level. The intent is to provide development agents and communities with a workable and adaptable planning tool. Another objective of the guideline is to provide practical guidance on the correct selection of technologies under different conditions and their correct implementation (Lakew et al. 2005).In the subsequent section, we will closely analyze the institutional design architecture of institutions in the Tana and Beles Basins and in Ethiopia in general. Five criteria will be used to structure our discussion: presence of clear institutional objectives; interconnection between formal and informal institutions; institutional adaptiveness; appropriateness of scale; and compliance capacity.In terms of clarity of institutional objectives, the institutional arrangements for land and water in Ethiopia in general and BNB in particular are fairly well defined. There are organizations with clear mandates, duties and responsibilities. The organizational settings have been organized in such a way that organizations that have to do with land and water, directly or indirectly, have been identified and given by law duties and responsibilities.The policies and laws in place have also clear objectives and some have developed strategies and policy instruments to meet these objectives. That said, however, there are CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings important problems noticed in the organizational setting and some questions about the institutional arrangements that remain to be answered. Important policy gaps are identified as well.Like elsewhere in Ethiopia in Tana and Beles Basins, there are at least three federal and other subsidiary agencies and the same number of regional bureaus/authorities working in the area of land and water and environmental protection. The government tried to define the roles and responsibilities of government bodies, a careful look into the work portfolios of ministries indicate the presence of overlaps in mandate between MoWR and MoARD, EPA. For instance, MoWR and MoARD have both responsibilities related to water resources development, although MoWR focuses on medium and large-scale works while MoARD focuses on small-scale irrigation and micro water harvesting. The broad areas of integrated natural resource management also fall into the mandates of these two ministries and the EPA.It seems there is a problem of split jurisdiction here, which may create problems in implementation and enforcement. EIA and water pollution control also fall under the jurisdiction of EPA and MoWR. There is already possible overlapping of responsibility between on the one hand the general and broad mandate of EPA and Regional Environmental Bureaus or Authority in the field of pollution control and on the other hand the IWRM framework that promotes integration of all aspects of water resources. If these two organizations work separately, this would lead to a clear duplication of effort and waste of resources. The critical questions here are: to what extent these overlaps in mandates mean duplication of efforts and conflict of mandates? An equally important issue is to what extent are these overlaps minimized through joint planning and coordination? Furthermore, who is responsible, mandated by law, for regulating that tasks and responsibilities are fulfilled by the responsible ministries and agencies? What specific linkages and information sharing mechanisms are in place to ensure institutional harmony and efficient information and resource flows?As indicated earlier, MoWR is responsible for water resources that are transboundary in nature and not confined within a regional state while regional Water bureaus are responsible for water resources within their jurisdiction. At the same time, MoWR is responsible for developing medium and large scale schemes in the whole country while responsibility to develop small scale schemes falls under the jurisdiction of regions, to be more precise under the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development. This separation of mandates between the federal water ministry and the regional water bureaus is artificial, to say the least, and is contrary to the principles of IWRM. In this line, an important point here is whether central ownership of these resources is compatible with decentralized management, one of the principles of IWRM, which is also advocated in the Ethiopian water policy documents. Several questions also arise from this situation: what is the role of the regional bureau of Water Resources Development? Is its role limited to provision of domestic water supply in the regions as small scale irrigation also falls under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural development? Is the MoWR in a CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings position to issue water permits and collect water charges at national scale? Or could be more efficient to delegate parts of its mandate to regional water Resources Bureaus? The same questions could be raised on the relationship of other ministries (i.e. MoARD and EPA) to their counterpart in the regions.In addressing these questions we developed an actor linkage matrix for the Tana Beles Sub-Basin (see Table 2) where we explored information flows and linkages. We found three types of information exchange and linkages within the federal ministries and regional and between the two. There are, at least in theory, formalized and institutionalized information flows and linkages between organizations falling within the same sector, example between the MoWR and BoWR or MoARD and BoARD, etc. There are indirect information flows and linkages between close neighbor sectors (e.g. land and water). The mechanisms of indirect information flows and linkages are usually through reports to a higher body (regional president or Prime Minister) and discussions at the regional/federal council of ministers level. As stated earlier, the EPE calls for the establishment of Environmental Protection Council (EPC), which oversee EPA's activities, as well as the activities of sectoral agencies and environmental units with respect to environmental management. It is also expected to ensure coordination among sectoral ministries and agencies on environmental matters. Although whether EPC is operational as yet or not is not known, a project based ad-hoc coordination platform, where national steering committee is established, is usually used to oversee the planning and implementation of a project. The committee defines, terms of reference for contractors/consultants, evaluates the outputs thereof. Any water related project is, in principle, subject to EIA based on EPA guidelines. Horizontal communications between ministries and bureaus belonging to different sectors is seldom common. There are hardly any information flows and linkages between sectors not apparently related. The lack of Integrated Information Management System exacerbates this problem of poor communication. The organization of ministries, bureaus and departments, hence, seems to follow ‗disciplinary' orientation while problems in the sector call for interdisciplinary and integrated approach. For instance, there is no structural and coordinated linkage among the various stakeholders that are involved in the water sector activities, even between the two key institutions, i.e. Ministry of Water Resources and the Regional Water Bureaus (Gizaw, 2004). On the other hand, research institutes have limited direct linkage the development ministries/bureaus. There is hardly any linkage and information flow between the formal and informal organizations.In summary: a high frequency of overlapping and conflicting roles and responsibilities between institutions reported (NBI, 2006: p. 3). NBI ( 2006) also identified poor intersectoral collaboration and control as one of problems related to roles and responsibilities of organizations. Concerns existed that roles and responsibilities between levels remained ill-defined and resulted in implementation inertia and even failure (NBI, 2006). This could lead to inability to achieve the goals of the sectors. Additionally, the stakeholders may not collectively drive some synergic benefit from being able to integrate their In this line, the organizations involved in land and water were marked by frequent restructuring and re-organization over the last few years and the process seems to be going on. While adjusting institutional responsibilities and redesigning organizational structures may be called for in the light of the changes and development needs of the country, the frequent, at times endless, restructuring process has certainly produced uncertainties, made capacity building difficult and affects the political will to push for change. NBI ( 2006) documented many challenges related to implementation within weak institutional environments that were evident, with particular awareness of the need to build substantial capacity at decentralized levels (p.5).  In terms of the role of different organizations in the development of new polices and laws, in relation to natural resource management, the federal ministries were instrumental in developing key policies and laws while regional bureaus kept a lower profile (see Table 3). In some case, regional bureaus developed proclamations and guidelines to implement federal policies and in some cases they adopted federal polices as they are.The regional Rural Land Administration and Use proclamations and guidelines falls under the former category while water related policies, regulations and guidelines have remained fall into the second category. Noticeably, there was limited research input in the development policies, as policy research in the country is at best fragmented and rudimentary to yield outputs that are worth of policy uptake. The policies and laws hitherto developed in Ethiopia are said to reflect global policy changes or the widespread adoption of the IWRM principles (NBI, 2006). Not surprisingly, the policies are reflections of the institutional arrangements as the major intents and objectives of the policies and laws reflected the roles and responsibilities of organizations that developed them. The narrow disciplinary orientation that we witnessed in organizational arrangement is also manifest in the key trusts of these policies. It is known that sustainable land management has a lot of bearing on water availability and quality, the water policy in Ethiopia, however, does not consider the need for improved land management in relation to water resources development. The limited coordination between MoWR and MoRAD also manifests in this. Informal institutions seem to play a critical role in the modus operandi of many organizations.There is no doubt that a lot of progress has been made lately in creating an institutional framework for improved land and water management in Ethiopia. However, there are cases where informal institutions substitute formal institutions. Informal institutions here are understood as those, contrary to the written polices and laws, unwritten codes of practice that shape organizations behavior. One policy gaps that still calls for immediate action is the management of transboundary waters. The Ethiopian water policies (for that matter all other riparian countries in the Nile) advocate for integrated water resources development, where the planning unit should be a river basin. Practices, however, deviate a lot form the written policy. Actual water development interventions follow a piecemeal approach. There is uncoordinated and unregulated harvesting of the countries' ground and surface water resources. Adequate upstream and downstream considerations are also lacking in the implementation process. Mechanisms for cost and benefit sharing between upstream users (who cause the degradation and could control it if they have the incentive) and downstream users (who could gain more from improved management of land and water upstream and loose due to poor management of the same) are not in place in the water policy of the country. At the basin scale, while important progress has been made though the NBI and individual efforts of countries (e.g. promulgation of proclamation for the establishment of river basin organizations in Ethiopia), still the riparian countries could not come up with mechanisms for equitable and efficient distribution of the Nile water. Still old rules govern in the distribution of the Nile water in general and the Abay Blue Nile in particular. The focus of all the water organizations is on surface water and groundwater, i.e. blue water. While rain water is the major contributor to livelihood in the basin, particularly in the Ethiopian highlands, little attention is given to it in the policies and strategies and in the organizational arrangement of the water sector. Polices leave out rain water management which has a great bearing in the sustenance of both surface water and groundwater (NBI, 2006). The lack of focus on green water is another policy gaps that cells for remedy.Furthermore, there is discrepancy between the stipulations of the law and the practice in cost recovery. The laws indicate that water schemes, potable or irrigation, are expected to operate on a cost recovery basis. The policy, for instance, stipulates that if these schemes are located in rural areas, they are at least expected to cover operation and maintenance costs of those schemes. However, practices throughout the country (not only Tana Beles sub-basin) indicate that farmers are not made to pay for operation and maintenance. This encourages overuse of water and poor management of water structures. Moreover, lack of effective cost recovery mechanisms often inhabits the ability of organizations to sustain themselves and fulfill their mandates (Gizaw, 2004;NBI, 2006).While Ethiopia's water development and environmental protection policies and laws recognize the need and importance of taking proper EIAs in pursuing any water related development intervention, traditional practices still dominate: environmental considerations are given limited consideration in water resources development. Or if they did, this is done without the involvement of EPA/ EPLAUA. As indicated earlier, both EPA and MoWR resources seem to be mandated to care for the protection of water pollution. This has become a potential source of conflict, where MoWR, and specially the regional BoWR, does not seek to secure environmental clearance from EPA/EPLUA for water related intervention. MoWR/BoWR seems to grant permits without go-ahead from EPA/EPLUA.There is also confusion in the definition of the appropriate scale. Regional bureaus and federal office are organized on the basis of administrative scale, i.e. regions or the country. On the other hand, the relevant water resources policy and watershed management guidelines advocate the basin or watershed to be the basic planning unit for intervention. A critical constraint against effective river basin management is the commonly prevalent conflict between boundaries of river basins and those of political units (nations, regions, districts, etc). The administrative boundaries also pose potential constraint in management of small watershed that fall between two districts or PAs. This calls for establishing viable and acceptable institutional mechanisms for shared management of water resources in the river basin or watershed. While the major rivers in the Abay Blue Nile are transboundary in nature, there are no transboundary organizations as yet responsible for the management of water resources at a basin scale. Many development interventions within the sub-basin are not centered on watersheds. However, the ground for the establishment of river basin organizations seems to be in the making although taking watersheds as development domains is hardly practiced.Assessment of Local Land and Water Institutions in the Blue Nile and their Impact on Environmental ManagementEnforcement capacity of institutions is another indicator against institutional performance is evaluated. The issue here is: how are violations of accepted institutions dealt with and what are the typical forms of enforcement by land and water institutions. If there are enforcement problems, what are the major causes of these problems? Overall, assessment is that regulations on water resources management, pollution control, land use rights related to water, watershed development, environmental quality and pollution control standards are not effective or enacted because of enforcement capacity (NBI, 2006). The major government regulatory agency, EPA, complains of inadequate staff and resources to do proper enforcement of environmental provisions. The same story is also heard in the regions, where inadequate manpower and resources constrain enforcement. Moreover, in the regions, they complain of lack of environmental pollution standards to do effective job of enforcement and EIA. On the development wide, there is lack of systematic monitoring and evaluation of policy implementation (NBI, 2006). The poor record in monitoring and evaluation is highly linked with the absence of an integrated system of information management at the country level or at the sub-basin level. While the land and water organizations, both in the country and regions, are mandated to collect and store relevant data to support decision making, the data collection is at best inadequate and haphazard. There are attempts, for instance, to establish Water Resource Information Center (WRIC) at the MoWR. In fact, the Ethiopian Water Management Policy (MoWR, 1999, p. 10) calls for the establishment of Water Resources Information Center (WRIC) and indeed to this effect the Ministry has now created Data and Information and GIS Center (WoWR, UNESCO and GIRDC, 2004). However, as yet there is no Integrated Information Management System in place to enable information sharing and exchange between organizations and support timely policy decision making. In the light of this, various organizations keep and maintain a wide range of data to meet their purposes although the quality and coverage of the data maintained by each organization is generally appraised as weak (MoWR, UNESCO and GIRDC, 2004;p. 75). On top of this, there is a considerable weakness at all levels of the regional water sector institutions in keeping proper records of data and information. There is also a lack of standard procedures for gathering and storing of data and information. Data management is not done in a way conducive to enable easy data sharing. This is more so at the basin scale, i.e. across countries.We have described the various land and water institutions in Ethiopia and the Tana-beles basin. Interesting in this regards is to assess how these institutions evolved, particularly the type of adaptive management pursued. Although, a rigorous analysis is called for in how specific polices, laws and organizations evolved. It seems apparent that adaptive evolutionary management is the typical type of strategy followed in drafting institutionalizing these policies and organizations. Institutionsbroadly meant the rules of the game and the actorsin the Tana Beles sub-basin or Ethiopia are developed through a series of trial and error. This explains partly the omnipresent process of restructuring of the ministries/ bureaus and revisions of policies and laws in the country /regions. CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings Another related issue is the adaptive capacity of institutions to changes in socio-economic and bio-physical contexts, i.e. technology, climate change and water scarcity, market factors, environmental and health risks, etc. Institutional efficacy is measured not only in fulfilling daily work mandates but also in developing forward looking solutions to emerging issues. Looking into the dynamics of the institutional settings in the Abay Blue Nile basin, there is hardly any indication that the emerging challenges are reflected upon and strategies to address these issues developed. There are allusions in the policy documents that envisaged water sector and broader development strategies in the country (sub-basin) are expected to provide mechanisms to mitigate some, if not all, of these challenges. However, these strategies assume that there is plenty of water potential to tap in from in the sub-basin. Economic water scarcity is considered a greater challenge than physical water scarcity. Climate change scenarios and their impact on water resources are hardly taken into account in the development of these strategies.We described the overall intent and main features of the various land and water related policies in Tana Beles sub-basin in the proceeding sections. Now we make a more focused discussion of the choice in policy instruments to enforce these policies and laws. These policies and laws will be understood in the light of their intent to influence actors (policy makers, practitioners, land and water users, etc.) to change their behavior such that the policy goals of sustainable resource use are met and externalities are minimized. Externalities are internalized if individuals account for effects of their actions on others. Imposing costs on others requires compensating them, and providing benefits for others requires being compensated for them (Kerr et al., 2007).According to Kerr et al. (2007), the most important criteria in designing effective policy instruments include: cost-effectiveness (administratively feasible, with low transaction costs); direct targeting (addressing the problem more directly will have fewer side effects); creates strong incentives to comply (easily monitored or self-monitoring are more feasible and cost-effective); has long-term impacts (avoid short time fixes); protects poor people's livelihood (helping poor people or at least not harming them); does not concentrate costs on a particular group (avoids uneven distribution of costs and benefits to encourage collective action) and replicable across scale and context (mechanisms effective in multiple settings). Policy makers will take account of these criteria in developing certain policy instruments. However, the weight given to a given criteria in choosing policy instruments could vary from context to context. The performance of different instruments is not the same in all contexts either. The performance of the same policy measure judged against these criteria could vary a well: different approaches for internalizing externalities tend to perform better against some criteria than others, so tradeoffs are inevitable (Kerr et al., 2007). CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings LAUP is for Land Administration and Use policy; X is for not clear,  is for clearly reflected, ? is for uncertain The Ethiopian Environmental Policy document, without making any serious discussion, lists a series of policy instruments with the aim of improving environmental management in Ethiopia. The possible policy options listed to control/minimize environmental pollution (i.e. air, water, land, etc.) are summarized on Table 5 Command-and-control (coercive) instruments Regulation/administrative and legal measures against offenders, technology standards (requirements to install sound technology or apply methods to recycle waste, if required), closure or relocation of any enterprise and permits in the case of hazardous waste or substances fall under this category. However, EPA has not developed relevant pollution standards for different kinds of effluents. In fact, in Tana Beles project, lack of standards was considered as one of the bottlenecks for effective pollution control and EIA.The new proclamations on land use and administration also have specific regulations on land use obligations of the land user. The land use obligation requires any rural land shall have land use plan prepared and approved by EPLAUA. In actual land use, any rural land with 60 % slope and above shall not be used for farming and free grazing other than forestry, perennial plants and development of forage for animals (CANRS 2006b, p. 8). The policy also lists a set of obligations of the land user to protect the land under his/her holding or land obtained in rent and conserve the surrounding; to plant trees around his/her land and properly protect them; undertake trench terracing and favorable soil conservation activities to use the land forms which are 31 to 60 % slope for perennial plants and to use land based on land use plan (CANRS 2006b, p. 21). Non-compliance is likely to lead to deprivation of use rights and penalty.The Water Resource Management Policy underpins the need to make the basin as a major planning unit for water resources development. And this is expected to influence the behaviors of many stakeholders involved in land and water management, although its realization into action is falling behind.Pollution charges (clean up or pay the cost of cleaning up), registration, labeling and packaging (in the case of hazardous materials) as per the applicable standards fall under this category. EPA may also issue waiver to newly established firms from applying these stringent standards. The guideline also provides incentives for the introduction of methods that enable prevention or minimization of pollution into an existing undertaking. In this case, importation of new equipment that is destined to control pollution shall, upon verification by the authority, be exempted from payment of custom duty. It also promises CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings to provide any environmental rehabilitation or pollution prevention or clean up project with financial and technical support, to the extent that its capacity allows (FDRE, 2002c). CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings tariff setting is expected not only to generate funds for maintaining water points/schemes but also change users' consumption behavior. The WSM guideline aims to institutionalize community-based participatory watershed efforts to enable watershed development planning at the grass-roots level. The guideline provides more of a working tool to implement participatory watershed management. The intent is to provide development agents and communities with a workable and adaptable planning tool. Another objective of the guideline is to provide practical guidance on the correct selection of technologies under different conditions and their correct implementation (Lakew et al. 2005). However, the implementation modalities are not clearly spelt out.In summary the various policy documents propose a mix of policy instruments, some incentive based and other command-and control type instruments. The policy instruments are clearly formulated in terms of their general intents, although lacking in terms of specific objectives and goals, jurisdiction and responsibility, hierarchy of responsibilities and proposed institutional changes (see Table 4). On the other hand, some features of the policy instruments are not well articulated. Particularly lacking are issues related to climate change scenarios, upstream-downstream linkages, role of education and research, financing, conflict resolution and enforcement.Overall there is tendency to focus on command-control type policies, this more so in the environmental policy documents, than carefully devised incentive mechanisms for improved environmental management. The tone in the policy documents is heavily loaded with the need for third party enforcement (the relevant ministry/agency supervising and regulating economic agents' behavior) than to relay on self-enforcement. This does not mean the government should not assume a role in environmental management. On the contrary, international and local experiences indicate that the government has a key role to play in providing incentives to actors to adopt improved environmental management strategies. Through proper incentives farmers, for instance, could be motivated to build up their soil capital, prevent soil loss and nutrient leakage, and hence reduce downstream externalities. But there is a consensus that policy instruments building on command and control, like regulations and mandatory soil conservations schemes, have limited or negative effects (Pagiola et al., 2002;Sterner, 2003;Kerr et al., 2007;Ekborn, 2007). Likewise, information and extension advise have had limited, although generally positive impacts. Arguably extension advice is a necessary but insufficient measure to reduce downstream damage, mainly due to poor farmer incentives to fully prevent soil loss (Ekborn, 2007). There are suggestions for increased use of positive incentives, like payment for environmental services, to address land degradation problems in Developing countries (Ekborn, 2007). Gebremedhin (forthcoming) argues that various forms of incentives have been provided to land users to conserve the land resources in Ethiopia and elsewhere in eastern Africa. However, most of the incentives were aimed at mitigating the effects of the direct causes of land degradation. The underlying causes of land degradation remained largely unaddressed. CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings Hence, there is a need to carefully assess whether the proposed policy instruments address incentive problems of actors form improved environmental management.Land and water institutions play a vital role in managing and sustaining land and water resources as well as in enhancing economic development and poverty alleviation. The institutional issues that the Ethiopian land and water sector is grappling with include restoring ecological destruction due to high level of environmental (mainly land) degradation; improving the poor performance of rainfed agriculture, low level of water resources development, and transition from a soil conservation focus to an integrated land and water management system that takes the hydrological boundaries into account. While a lot of concerted efforts are going on redress these problems doing it in integrated manner so that upstream and downstream linkages are understood remains a big challenge. On the research side also, a lot has been done in terms of understanding the micro determinants of farmers' decisions in land and water conservation, however, there is a little attempt to understand the broad macro and institutional and organizational issues that influence land and water management decisions. The objective of the study was, hence, to carryout a preliminary assessment and review of institutional arrangements for improved land and water in Ethiopian part of the Blue Nile. The study describes the various formal and informal institutional arrangements (with more focus on the former) that are in place currently and their design features in order to identify those institutions related to superior performance. The analysis of institutions and their design features provides useful insights, contributing to institutional reform debate in land and water management in Ethiopia.Our results indicate that the institutional arrangements for land and water, in Ethiopia in general and BNB in particular, are fairly well defined. There are organizations with clear mandates, duties and responsibilities. The organizational settings have been organized in such a way that organizations that have to do with land and water, directly or indirectly, have been identified and given by law duties and responsibilities. The policies and laws in place have also clear objectives and some have developed strategies and policy instruments to meet these objectives. In spite of these improvements, there is a high frequency of overlapping and conflicting roles and responsibilities between institutions besides poor inter-sectoral collaboration and control as one of problems related to roles and responsibilities of organizations. Particular concerns exist that roles and responsibilities between levels remained ill-defined and resulted in implementation inertia and even failure. This could lead to inability to achieve the goals of the sectors. Additionally, the stakeholders may not collectively drive some synergic benefit from being able to integrate their administrative efforts. Both protective institutional responses and lack of effective coordinating mechanisms are featured as reasons (NBI, 2006). Moreover, the organizations involved in land and water management were marked by frequent restructuring and re-organization over the last few years and the process seems to be going on. While adjusting institutional responsibilities and redesigning organizational structures may be called for in the light of the changes and development needs of the country, the frequent, at times endless, restructuring process has certainly produced uncertainties, made capacity building difficult and affects the political will to push for change. The policies and laws hitherto developed in Ethiopia are said to reflect global policy changes or the widespread adoption of the IWRM principles (NBI, 2006). Not surprisingly, however, the policies are reflections of the institutional arrangements as the major intents and objectives of the policies and laws reflected the roles and responsibilities of organizations that developed them. The narrow disciplinary orientation that we witnessed in organizational arrangement is also manifest in the key trusts of these policies.There is no doubt that a lot of progress has been made lately in creating an institutional framework for improved land and water management in Ethiopia. However, there are cases where informal institutions substitute formal institutions, pointing to dysfunctionality of formal institutions. Cases where practices deviate a lot form the written policy include: lack of integrated water resources development (in spite of the written policy for it); inadequate upstream and downstream considerations in development interventions; lack of mechanisms for cost and benefit sharing between upstream users (who cause the degradation and could control it if they have the incentive) and downstream users (who could gain more from improved management of land and water upstream and loose due to poor management of the same); and at the basin scale, absence of agreement for equitable and efficient distribution of the Nile water. Furthermore, while Ethiopia's water development and environmental protection policies and laws recognize the need and importance of taking proper EIAs in pursuing any water related development intervention, traditional practices still dominate: environmental considerations are given limited consideration in water resources development. Or if they did, this is done without the involvement of EPA/EPLAUA. Informal institutions seem to play a critical role in the modus operandi of many organizations.There is also confusion in the definition of the appropriate scale. Regional bureaus and federal office are organized on the basis of administrative scale, i.e. regions or the country while the relevant water resources policy and watershed management guidelines advocate the basin or watershed to be the basic planning unit for intervention. A critical constraint against effective river basin management is the commonly prevalent conflict between boundaries of river basins and those of political units (nations, regions, districts, etc). The administrative boundaries also pose potential constraint in management of small watershed that fall between two districts or PAs. This calls for establishing viable and acceptable institutional mechanisms for shared management of water resources in the river basin or watershed. Judged by their enforcement capacity, another indicator of institutional efficacy shows that regulations on water resources management, pollution control, and land use rights related to water, watershed development, environmental quality and pollution control standards are not effective or enacted because of enforcement capacity (NBI, 2006). The major government regulatory agency, EPA, and its regional counterparts complain of inadequate staff and resources to do proper enforcement of environmental provisions. Moreover, lack of environmental pollution standards are cited as reasons for weak enforcement in environmental protection and EIA. On the development side, there is lack of systematic monitoring and evaluation of policy implementation which is linked with the absence of an integrated system of information management at the country level or at the sub-basin level.With regards to adaptiveness of institutions in the Tana Beles sub-basin or Ethiopia, it seems apparent that adaptive evolutionary management is the typical strategy followed in drafting and institutionalizing these policies and organizations. Institutions are developed through a series of trial and error type adaptations. This explains partly the omnipresent process of restructuring of the ministries/ bureaus and revisions of policies and laws in the country /regions. In terms of the adaptive capacity of institutions to changes in socioeconomic and bio-physical contexts there is hardly any indication that emerging challenges are reflected upon and strategies to address these issues developed. There are allusions in the policy documents that envisaged water sector and broader development strategies in the country (sub-basin) are expected to provide mechanisms to mitigate some, if not all, of these challenges. However, these strategies assume that there is plenty of water potential to tap in from in the sub-basin. Economic water scarcity is considered a greater challenge than physical water scarcity. Climate change scenarios and their impact on water resources are hardly taken into account in the development of these strategies.The various policy documents propose a mix of policy instruments, some incentive based and other command-and-control type instruments. The policy instruments are clearly formulated in terms of their general intents (although found lacking in terms of specific objectives and goals), jurisdiction and hierarchy of responsibilities and proposed institutional changes, etc. Overall there is tendency to focus on command-and-control type policies, more so in the environmental policy documents, than carefully devised incentive mechanisms for improved environmental management. The tone in the policy documents is heavily loaded with the need for third party enforcement (the relevant ministry/agency supervising and regulating economic agents' behavior) than to relay on self-enforcement. This does not mean that the government should not assume a role in environmental management. On the contrary, international and local experiences indicate that the government has a key role to play in providing incentives to actors to adopt improved environmental management strategies. But there is a consensus that policy instruments building on command and control, like regulations and mandatory soil conservations schemes, have limited or negative effects (Pagiola et al., 2002;Sterner, 2003;Kerr et al., 2007;Ekborn, 2007). Likewise, information and extension advise have CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings had limited, although generally positive impacts. There is a need for increased use of positive incentives, like payment for environmental services, to address land degradation problems in developing countries (Ekborn, 2007). Gebremedhin (forthcoming) also suggests the need to carefully assess whether the proposed policy instruments address incentive problems of actors form improved environmental management.","tokenCount":"14381"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"49018f84ced799377e8dcc0c03eae98d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e5ab2656-e169-44ff-9a9b-a8a9d1cc4baf/retrieve","id":"2133202970"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6eb79be2-09e9-4795-9b85-5c5de6ab630a","pagecount":"20","content":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.Engaging with smallholder pig value chain actors through multi-stakeholder platformsThe International Livestock and Research Institute (ILRI) has initiated the pig multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) in Uganda to facilitate collaboration among the value chain actors, specifically between the private and public sector players. The platforms have catalysed private-public sector partnerships by providing spheres of engagement between private sector players and government officials.Since 2011, ILRI and partners have worked with producers, consumers, and other sector actors to transform the pig value chain in Uganda. During the 'Improving pig productivity and incomes through an environmentally sustainable and gender-inclusive integrated intervention package' (MorePork II) project, emphasis was put on strengthening the MSPs in Greater Masaka, which had demonstrated potential to grow, and at the national level. These MSPs provide a platform for knowledge sharing among the different value chain players, thereby increasing opportunities for growth in the piggery sector. At the MSP level, discussions focus on issues which contribute to the development of the smallholder pig sector in Uganda, while at the national level, emphasis is on creating an enabling environment for the sector by engaging with policymakers.Several achievements have been attained through MSPs including:• Mobilizing collective action to address pressing constraints in the pig sector• Raising the visibility of the pig value chain through engagements with relevant stakeholders, especially at national level• Creating networks and linkages among the various actors in the value chain thereby facilitating information/ knowledge sharing• Establishing avenues for interaction among actors leading to the creation of business opportunities• Creating an understanding among the various stakeholders of each other's constraints and opportunities to appreciate how each actor in the chain is interlinked and how their actions support the entire value chain Through engagement with the district local government, the MSP in Greater Masaka was able to get financial support of UGX43 million (USD 12,181) towards construction of a modern slaughterhouse (central abattoir) in Masaka. In addition, there is improved reputation, increased visibility and credibility of the pig sector in Uganda. MSPs have also supported the establishment of pig cooperatives and a union in Masaka that are now crystallizing collaborative and joint action among actors, thus accelerating the pig sector's growth.During the MorePork II project, workshops were held with MSP members at both regional and nations levels. During these day-long MSP workshops, participants deliberated on the need to collaborate and increase the scope of stakeholder membership of the MSPs and to promote visibility of the sector among others. Considering that engagement at the MSP level has been facilitated and is therefore dependent on support from the MorePork project, developing a sustainability plan for the MSPs is key to their long-term success.Between 2011 and 2014, the CGIAR Livestock and Fish Research Program organized a series of national consultative stakeholder meetings as part of the MorePork I project. At the meetings, sector stakeholders highlighted the need for multi-actor networks or platforms to foster interaction and dialogue across the private and public sector divide and leverage a collective voice and investment to address identified constraints. In 2014, it was decided that addressing lack of policy influence required the establishment of alliances in the form of pig multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs).The platforms sought to foster and support collective participation of value chain stakeholders, social learning and acting together to address value chain challenges including giving actors visibility and a voice. The MSPs were also identified as important avenues for scaling out best-bet interventions being piloted to address identified gaps in the Uganda pig value chain. In 2014, one national and three regional multi-stakeholder platforms-covering the eastern, central and Greater Masaka regions were initiated. Two additional regional platforms (northern and western) were established in 2015. The regional MSPs aimed at addressing pig value chain challenges at regional level, while the national platform aimed at addressing policy issues in the pig value chain in the country. Specifically, the MSPs aimed at mobilizing collective action to address pressing constraints in the pig sector in Uganda and to developing/ strengthening business linkages between actors in the pig sector.Commendable progress was made during phase 1 but some of the MSPs became dormant. The MorePork II project aimed to improve pig productivity and incomes through an environmentally sustainable and gender-inclusive integrated intervention package. Regarding the MSPs, the project aimed to:• Strengthen the national and regional pig MSPs and catalyse lower-level MSPs to facilitate social learning, raise visibility and advocate for the sector.• Explore the extent to which learning and sharing platforms such as the pig MSPs were effective in influencing learning outcomes and contributing to improved pig value chain performance.Through the MorePork II project, the regional and national MSPs were reactivated with a revised scope. Two meetings with each MSP were planned to take place. At the regional and national level, the first meetings were held with the extended MSP leadership to determine the status of stakeholder engagement, activities being implemented and for joint planning and consensus building regarding the way ahead. Through these meetings, a program was developed for the wider MSPs that followed. Following analysis of the level of stakeholder involvement of the various MSPs and ongoing activities, it was agreed that focus be on Greater Masaka and at the national level, leaving out Mukono. In Mukono, there had not been much activity or progress following the end of the MorePork 1 project.The fundamental principles of facilitating the pig MSPs followed from the original ideals of participatory approaches.The MSPs sought to leverage the power relations of members and use the respective positions not to compete or conflict but to complementarily work together in order to enhance value chain efficiencies and competitiveness of the entire industry. Experiences gained indeed shows that openness, and willingness to collaborate made all actors stronger and none weaker. The platforms also have the potential to increase productivity, market share of respective actors and optimum utilization of resources based on reduced costs of accessing information and collaboration. Farmers, for example, felt safe discussing issues with aggregators who hitherto were not 'seeing eye to eye'.1.1 Setting/situational analysis Despite a high per capita pig consumption of pork in Uganda (standing at 3.4 kg per person per annum) 1 , the pig industry has for long been plagued by various constraints to production(such as diseases, Insufficient feeding, inferior breeds, Unreliable and unstructured markets) that impede this industry's contribution to Uganda's gross domestic product (GDP) and the individual household income of the farmers engaged in pig production. More so, the development and investment plan of the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) does not rank pig production high on its development agenda and as such, most government and non-government agencies have not prioritized this sector in many of their research and development efforts. At the market level, especially in rural areas of Uganda, actors thrive on skewed information and business opportunities. They have a narrow picture of the sector and use inaccurate information to cheat the suppliers who are largely the smallholder farmers and sometimes even freeze out any peer or potential competitors or weaker actors. Most aggregators also pay low prices to the producers, which demoralizes and pushes them out of the sector. This situation has ended up breeding suspicion and mistrust among the actors, which has contributed to sector stagnation.Owing to this gap, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) identified entry points for interventions in the pig value chains in Uganda. Among the interventions seen as critical was the systematic coordination of actors in the pig value chains towards harnessing their collective actions to address major constraints in the pig industry.Using the value chain approach, ILRI sought to change the unproductive sector dynamics and promote the notion of taking a broader view of the chain before the self-interest of individual positions. The constraints in the pig value chain are complex and required innovative solutions to address them. It became clear to the different stakeholders that such innovative solutions could be created when diverse stakeholders were able to meet, share experiences, learn together and contribute to decisions. The ultimate success then lay in developing the collective commitment and capacity to turn ideas and plans into action. As a result, the MSPs, an effective intervention for catalysing cohesion and social learning among value chain actors, was envisaged. Typically, the MSPs involved farmers, aggregators, policymakers, community and private sector representatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), researchers and extension agents from different levels, sectors and disciplines. Different stakeholder groups (e.g. financial service providers) were incorporated into the MSPs as and when need arose, depending on the needs identified by the stakeholders.Members of the steering committee of the Greater Masaka pig MSP during one of the meetings to assess progress of the MSP activities (photo credit: ILRI/Pamela Wairagala). The pig multi-stakeholder engagements used participatory approaches and collective action to tackle the smallholder pig value chain challenges. An analysis was conducted to develop a shared understanding of the pig value chain and it revealed specific market drivers, the different actors and their respective roles, potential for sector growth, market situation, constraints and opportunities and the general policy environment. Through this value chain analysis, opportunities for initial interactions with the different actors were identified. Bilateral discussions were held with respective actors especially those who did not participate in the MorePork I project, to explain the value chain approach to market access and how the approach delivers benefits to all actors irrespective of the function they play. This stage was meant to answer questions, clarify expectations to the potential members and solicit a buy-in to the entire multi-stakeholder platform process. Once all known actors were mobilized, and sensitized, platforms were launched in Mukono and Greater Masaka and at the national level. However, due to poor adoption and uptake in Mukono District, it was agreed that MSP activities under the second phase of the project should focus on Greater Masaka where willingness to participate was evident, and at that national level where policy changes were needed to support sector growth.Through a participatory process, actors identified the constraints they felt that if solved, would have the biggest impact on the smallholder farmers and other stakeholders. At the regional and national level, the priority constraint selected was that of poor-quality feeds for pigs. It was anticipated that once addressed, the pig sector would significantly contribute to household incomes and the national economy in Uganda through improved incomes and employment for pig value chain actors.The district MSPs influenced district-level value chain activities and policymaking and informed the nationallevel platform, which in turn was meant to influence national policymaking through information sharing with parliamentarians and national line ministries of agriculture, animal industries and fisheries; and trade, finance and economic development. Having both district and national MSPs facilitated a bidirectional flow of information. This integrated approach was important because, although the constraints to the growth of the pig value chain are felt locally by the smallholder pig actors, and the solutions must be context-specific; change happens most effectively within an enabling national policy environment.2 Objectives, outputs and anticipated outcomes from MSPsThe MSPs specifically aimed at achieving the following objectives:1.Creating networks and linkages among the various actors in the value chain to facilitate information/ knowledge sharing.Establishing avenues for interaction among actors and creating business opportunities.Creating an understanding among the various stakeholders of each other's constraints and opportunities to appreciate how actors in the chain are interlinked and how their actions support the entire chain.Raising the visibility of the pig value chain through engagement with relevant stakeholders.Mobilizing collective action to address pressing constraints in the pig sector in Uganda. Such constraints included the following: The first meeting in Masaka was made up of the extended leadership of the MSP and the leadership of the Greater Masaka Pig Cooperative Union. This initial meeting held on 21 st April 2021 reiterated the need for collective action in solving the sector constraints for each actor to realize better gains in their respective functions. The actors resolved to hold the wider MSP as soon as possible because according to them, the results of collective action were far greater than individual achievements put together. There was a renewed interest in the MSP and the leaders agreed to widen the scope of actors to include more members of the private sector, particularly the aggregators and financial service providers. The taskforce meeting validated the key stakeholders list, secured the contacts of additional private sector actors, and determined appropriate participants to attend the wider MSPs meeting, secured their contacts and developed a draft agenda. Invitations were sent out well in advance of the meeting and many participants confirmed their attendance.The second Greater Masaka regional MSP Ssewanya Charles, the chairperson of pig aggregators in the Greater Masaka region and the chairperson of the Greater Masaka MSP chaired the meeting. He reviewed the report made during the previous meeting. This included the re-evaluation of the regional priorities and aspirations. Given that the actors had only started meeting, they wished to have a comprehensive agenda for this meeting to ensure that all the critical action points were discussed. The agenda was revised to include the following items for discussion, learning and consensus building.• The state of the pig farmers associations, cooperatives and unions.• Progress made in the acquisition and operationalization of the standard centralized abattoirs.• Progress made by the region in the animal feed dialogue meetings to sustain minimum standards.• Progress of the pig farmers capacity building meetings.• Progress regarding the affordable credit facility for pig sector actors.• Sustainability/continuity of the pig MSP in the region, post MorePork II project.• Policy change proposals and advocacy agenda.This MSP meeting comprised of various new actors who needed to be updated on the objectives of the MSP and be introduced to other actors. So, the preliminary sessions of the MSP were aimed at developing a rapport among participants to know each other but, most importantly, to develop a shared vision for the industry. The vision of Masaka MSP that was developed in phase 1 of the project was shared and validated in this meeting to secure further buy-in. Such a decision required individual participants taking a step back to view the broad picture of the sector first and then their individual position second. To achieve deeper, transformational change, the meeting started with a review of the ambitions/aspirations of the great Masaka MSP stakeholders; and where they would like to be in future. These were used as a starting point to together search for opportunities.Aspirations of actors in Greater Masaka in the next 3-5 years. 9. An effective disease control mechanism set upThe regional actors agreed that poor quality of feeds for pigs was still a major constraint limiting the growth of the value chain. It was emphasized that this problem still required united action and collaboration of all actors to resolve. Moreover, it requires internal self-regulation among actors and national policy enactment and implementation to create an enabling environment for the production and sale of high-quality feeds for pigs in region and the country. This review also revealed that the MSP in Greater Masaka had registered some results including the following:1.Initiating specialized pig-related extension services: This resulted in improved access to pig-specialized interventions/activities that facilitate the access of farmers, their organizations, and other value chain actors to knowledge, information and technologies. The extension services also mediated the interaction of farmers with relevant organizations and supported them to develop their technical and management capacity in agriculture and family life.Intensifying measures to control the spread of African Swine fever: Through collective action, sensitization of smallholder pig value chain actors had, among other measures, improved biosecurity on the farms, and the control of pig movement between farms and that of middlemen looking for pigs in different farms. Other practices included preventing unregulated and uncontrolled transport of animals, use of inappropriate slaughter places and poor waste disposal as well as lack of veterinary control of live pigs, slaughter and pork.Setting up centralized slaughter facilities: The Greater Masaka Pig Cooperative Union owns the only registered pig abattoir in region in the new Masaka City. This initiative was born through the MSP processes, specifically engagement between the then district local government and members of the MSP, and technical support from ILRI. Pork processed at the abattoir is sold in the Greater Masaka area to pubs, pork joints, hotels, butchers, supermarkets and individuals consumers. The number of aggregators who process their pigs at this central abattoir has increased. The slaughterhouse has also secured a grant of UGX43 millions from the Masaka City authorities and more has been pledged to improve the facilities at the central abattoir. The local government actors in the meeting promised to mobilize more aggregators to join the abattoir and reduce the slaughter of pigs in ungazetted places to reduce theft and improve revenue collection.Resource mobilization for setting up certified breeding centres: This is aimed at boosting local pig production. It was reported that the cooperative is in the process of helping members move from using traditional methods of pig rearing to more modern technological approaches that can potentially improve both the breeds and overall productivity. This is done in conjunction with the government programs of Operation Wealth Creation (OWC) that are also members of the pig MSP in the region. The Union has already obtained hybrid piglets to enable farmers integrate their farms with improved breeds, whose gestation period is shorter compared to the traditional varieties. Through promotion of interaction between stakeholders, aggregators are able to advise smallholder farmers on the best breeds to rear. In addition, farmers accessed artificial insemination (AI) services through the community-based AI pilot (CBAI) project implemented as part of the MorePork II project. The pilot project aimed at promoting acquisition of better breed pigs but also increasing the income of farmers by providing many pigs for sale to the aggregators form the same location that would give better returns. The CBAI also contributed to management of ASF by minimizing movement of live animals between farms.It is, however, worth noting that while the CBAI project presented a good opportunity to improve breeds in the region; the implementation had gaps and affected delivery and adoption of the initiative by farmers. Some of the gaps reported included extension workers were not readily available when needed, unfriendly and did not follow up on their work. Many of the farmers at the meeting felt that the AI intervention had not benefitted them as they had anticipated. Some of them reported that they had reverted to the community boar system, which according to them was more reliable. This feedback was given to the Vetline Services, the project partners that were responsible for the AI delivery under CBAI.Initiating farmer-based pig feed support centres: In order to improve the feed formulation in the region, the actors embraced a digital solution known as 'Feeds Calculator © ', that was unveiled to the farmers in the area. The feeds calculator is mobile phone software that guides feed millers/ farmers on the ingredients and rations to be used to develop appropriate recipes and quantities, depending on the size of the animals and the requirements by the farmers. The app supports farmers to monitor the animals' growth rate and avoid wastage of feeds thereby directly contributing to general farm output. This is aimed at improving local production capacities for increased earning. The new technology was developed through collaboration between Makerere University College of Veterinary Medicine; Single Spark Ltd, and Animal Resource and Biosecurity (COVAB) and has been made accessible to farmers through support from ILRI.Engaging with smallholder pig value chain actors through multi-stakeholder platformsMobilizing, documenting and training of pig aggregators and animal feed dealers: It was reported that pig aggregators and farmers supplying to the pig aggregators were identify and profiled. This initiative included the feed producers and drug stockists in the Greater Masaka area. In addition, a regional feeds producers association was also developed. The registered members have received training in areas such as feed formulation and business management.Sustainability plan: A sustainability plan was developed for the regional MSP to ensure it can continue beyond the current ILRI project support period.The pig MSP members choose to keep the old steering committee until a new committee is put in place in 2022.The city authorities agreed to provide a central and accessible venue where MSPs will be held in future.The district veterinary office agreed to enforce the regulation requiring all pigs slaughtering in the town to be done in the safe pig abattoir owned by the pig union.The leadership of the MSP also planned to continue building trust among other value chain actors to bring them to the MSP.The district leadership pledged more funds towards the completion of the construction of the Masaka pig Union abattoir.The MSP also plans to send out an appeal for funding to cover the gap that will be left behind by the exit of ILRI MorePork II project.The task force agreed that in additional to what has already been done, more still needs to be done, especially in:• regular engagement of the MSP stakeholders to address the sector's challenges effectively in this region.• trust building and knowledge and experience sharing, which need to be sustained because of the constant changes in the sector; and• Creating a supportive policy and institutional environment with clear incentives to bring about a systemic change in pig sector in the region and at the national level, hence the need to have a national MSP focused on creating a good policy ecosystem for the pig value chain in the country.3 The national multi-stakeholder pig platform Emma Naluyima, a pig farmer and chairperson of the national MSP, chaired the platform. She pointed out that the MSP has been in place for eight years and that its central goal of the MSPs was a platform where stakeholders can learn together in an interactive way, where they can speak and be heard, and where everybody's ideas can be harnessed to drive innovation and find ways forward that are more likely to be in the interests of all.However, it was also reported that the national-level MSP had halted activities since the end of the MorePork I because of lack of funding to implement proposed activities. ILRI funding during the second phase of the project has enabled continuity of activities. It was noted that despite the growth of the sector, the pig sector actors still do not have enough knowledge about the sector, its potential, and the constraints. There was still need for collaboration between all stakeholders to influence policymakers to prioritize the pig value chain. For instance, in the national planning documents, the planners have lumped up pork with all other livestock and are often referred to as 'meats'. Also, ASF is not addressed with a sense of urgency like foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Actors present were encouraged to work together to ensure that issues that concern the pig sector are listened to and addressed by policymakers.Actors in the national MSP reacted positively to the chairperson's communication and pledged to work together to create more visibility of the value chain through collaboration by engaging with the policymakers. Greater Masaka representatives were commended highly for initiating an active platform where the actors are working together including the regulators. The meeting noted that the Greater Masaka region has thrived and promoted the pig sector.Representatives of the Greater Masaka region gave a report on the progress made on construction of the abattoir. Once this facility is completed, the quality of pork coming from the region will be made available in the high-end shopping centres around the country.At the meeting, the guest of honour, Juliet Sentumbwe, director animal resources at the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), was represented by Woneka Deogratius a senior veterinary officer at the ministry, who, in the opening speech, pointed out that government is run on two fronts, the technical and political one. The political arm tends to have more influence, an opportunity that the national MSP members ought to use since they are more likely to influence decision-making in the political front. He emphasized the importance of MSPs in contributing to policy review and formulation.'The farmers can easily knock on the minister's door and he will open and listen to you than if it's a technical staff who knocks; use this forum to open doors for your members.' he advised. He also reaffirmed the ministry's support to the national MSP. 'As a result of the national MSP, the pig sector is now mentioned in the ministry corridors and boardrooms, though more can be done. You should openly talk about the pig value chain so that discussions can get to the centre stage,' he said.The actors reviewed the progress made so far regarding the strategic direction established in the previous national MSP. The outcomes of their discussion are captured in Table 1. Specialized (pig) vet services promoted• These services are demand driven. The platform should promote awareness creation, which will result in demand and consequently specialization.• The platform should demand for the services from government and make its voice heard Promote visibility of the pig value chain• Need to create visibility and have champions for the different pig value components (e.g. producers, feed producers, genetics etc).• Website for increased visibility 1.Standards for setting up pig abattoirs: Actors from Mukono Animal Farmers Association (MAFI) reported that they were working on the registration of pig farmers' cooperatives in order to form a union like the one in Greater Masaka. They were also setting up an abattoir but were not aware of any guidelines for pig abattoir construction. An official from the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal industries and fisheries who was at the meeting informed noted that the guidelines were available and could be accessed by interested members.The most recent outbreak of the disease had occurred between April and June 2021 and many farmers lost their pigs. Actors raised several pertinent questions:• How can interventions such as quarantines be enforced when farmers have no compensation or inducement system for culling their infected herds?• What's the role of value chain actors in the observance of quarantines?• How can farmers who have been affected by ASF be compensated?• How can the agricultural insurance be promoted to compensate farmers who lose their pigs during culls?Members of the national multi-stakeholder pig platform during meeting held in Kampala (photo credit: ILRI/Pamela Wairagala).• Few extension service providers are in place and the service is not accessible to those that need it.• Need to increase the numbers of extension service providers• An E-extension app will soon made available to pig farmers to make extension services more accessible to farmers.Several developments were highlighted regarding genetics:• Participants were informed that a breeders association is being formed with the National Animal Genetic Resources Centre and Data Bank (NAGRC & DB) which is the lead agency fostering and facilitating the process.• Njeru Stock Farm is being transformed into a breeding centre and budget provisions have been made and work is starting soon.• NAGRC & DB has constructed a mega feed stock facility in Kasolwe-KamuliThe Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) has a pig-breeding unit in Kyanja, where they train farmers in breeding.• KCCA imports semen to avoid inbreeding.• Actors highlighted the need to streamline pig genetics in the country.• Laws should be enforced/supported to work to ensure feed quality. there should be a will to enforce them to, for example, apprehend feed millers that adulterate feeds.More training is needed for both farmers and feed processors. Involve the producers of the raw materials, e.g. seed farmers, in the awareness creation to promote traceability of all raw materials. Should be able to batch and trace materials in case of challenges.The feed dealers' association that is still in formation should ensure that proper feeds are processed and accessed by farmers.• Stakeholders including police, MAAIF etc. need to work together to promote quality feeds.• Sweet potato silage to be promoted as animal feed.• Farmers were encouraged to join cooperatives such as the Central Region Kagoma Pig Cooperative and these cooperatives should learn/benchmark against the Greater Masaka Pig Cooperative Union.• There is need to bring more stakeholders on board to support the completion of the Masaka abattoir.Formalization of the national MSP: Participants highlighted the need for a legal framework to formalize the existence of the national platform. They envisioned the pig sector platform becoming like the very popular Uganda Manufacturers Association (UMA), which brings together manufacturers in Uganda. The actors agreed to benchmark good practices of MSPs in Uganda to help them make the right call regarding formalization and the nature and form of the MSP they should focus their energy on developing.Some participants, however, believed that the MSP would serve them better if it remained an informal platform. They said it should remain all-embracing and welcome as many actors as possible because turning it into a formal entity with clearly defined membership would be restrictive and some actors may not want or be able to join. They said platform members should be encouraged to form formal entities such as SACCOs, associations, unions, etc. These formal structures would then be welcome to become members of the platform. This issue will be discussed further at the next national MSP meeting.Digital platform: Members proposed to a digital platform owned by the national MSP to increase the reach of the value chain and add more key stakeholders, besides the farmers. The digital platform would provide national MSP members with a place to market their products creating a strong digital footprint for the stakeholders in the pig sector. Also, it will facilitate the national platform actors to keep engaged beyond the physical meetings, which are costly.The national MSP meeting concluded with participants expressing their commitment to fully operationalize the platform to enhance knowledge exchange, build capacity for engagement, and integrate diverse knowledge systems, practices, and innovations into pig value chain change policies and actions.In further operationalizing the platform, participants stressed the importance of gender-responsiveness, the engagement of youth and local knowledge holders, adequate funding, and building a long-term, dynamic partnership.They noted that this MSP meeting should not be the end just because the MorePork II project was closing but an important steppingstone, the first activity of the platform, towards the full operationalization and formalization of the MSP fully with a secretariat of its own.Overall, throughout the workshop, a diverse range of participants put forward a wealth of ideas for activities that can be included in a future work plan for the MSPs. Some of the proposed ideas include, inter alia, establishing an entity called the National Pig Multi-Stakeholder Partnership (NPMSP), which can implement a work plan; creating a digital platform for sharing knowledge and business opportunities, and convening regular meetings (face-to-face or through the digital platform) to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and build collaboration. Some participants noted that the NPMSP could inspire national-level work such as setting up and implementing policy and legislative measures to ensure the pig actors' full and effective participation in policy processes and actions.Contemporary thinking suggests that successful businesses cannot be sustained unless there is trust and confidence among the value chain participants. Since the launching of the MSPs, there is evidence to suggest that there is positive qualitative improvement in how the participants in the pig value chain in Uganda relate. The initial suspicion and mistrust appear to have declined as members are willing to openly talk amongst themselves and ask questions to get correct information than make wild allegations and counter accusations. This was observed for instance during the recent regional MSP meetings in Masaka where the aggregators discussed freely with the farmers regarding the quality of the pigs/pork in the area. The aggregators encouraged the pig farmers to find better breeds and to improve them in order to increase the weight and quality of their animals for better profits. Hitherto, such actors could not sit around the same table or see eye-to-eye. This shows how improved communication helps to appreciate how a constraint of one actor can influence others and hence how joint action can brings about win-win situations.4 Key challenge faced by MSPs in UgandaThe major challenge facing MSPs in Uganda is the financial limitation of most of the key actors. Budget to cover the cost of MSPs is difficult to find in terms and time to attend meetings is also limited.This cost of running MSPs includes materials, capacity building, communication and meeting expenses. In the past, no single agency budgeted these items. Without the financial support of ILRI's MorePork II project, the MSPs would probably not happen. With time, larger stakeholders will be able to fund their participation in these MSPs. The issue currently remaining unresolved is how to finance weaker participants who lack financial means to participate in the MSP meetings, e.g. farmers whose transport costs are a major hindrance to participation in the pig value chain meetings.MSPs have demonstrated that value chain actor interactions during platform meetings improve communication and information flow amongst participants and initiate new networking opportunities. This was seen during the platform meetings where financial institutions were introduced and linked to clients in the pig value chain. As such, financial institutions such as Centenary Bank, Development Finance Company of Uganda Bank Limited (DFCU), Brac Uganda, and Masaka Microfinance and Development Cooperative Trust (MAMEDCOT) have noted that some of the members of the MSP are dealing in lucrative businesses, which make them bankable. Lessons learned to date have confirmed that once MSPs are properly organized and facilitated, they can independently attract financing from the private or public sector. Already Masaka City Council has provided over UGX40 million for the construction of a pig abattoir.Without the networking between value chain actors, the pig cooperative union and the city authorities that happened through the MSP, this financing would have been difficult secure.Progress achieved in the pig value chain has also demonstrated that proper value chain analysis is critical to improve its efficiency. Value chain analysis encompasses understanding the broader economic goals than just a supply chain analysis, with major emphasis on creating additional value, which in-turn increases incomes, economic opportunities and helps in poverty reduction. This means that given its broad outlook but with specific leverage points; value chain analysis makes it easy to attract both public and private investment aimed at generating equitable linkages for the smallholder farmers.Since MSPs are loose networks of like-minded actors who come together to understand and solve specific constraints within the value chain, it has been observed that they should always remain action oriented and focused to be effective. As much as core business of different actors/participants differs, the common purpose of coming together to share information and act of common constraints overrides the individual objectives of respective actors.MSPs perform best when constraints resulting from bureaucracy are removed. Time spent either in meetings or performing a transaction with multiple benefits should be sought and be rewarded; time value of money should also be emphasized. Members have noted that for successful platforms, the agenda should always be short and focused to the maintain interest among members.Creating a vibrant pig value chain for smallholder pig actors in Uganda requires partnership between key stakeholders. Many of the constraints that were confronted and the available opportunities to try to solve them are embedded in a network of changing social, economic, political and environmental factors. Different groups may be concerned with the same issues but from different perspectives and different interests. In a world of interconnected economies, bringing about change depends on dialogue and alignment across different sectors in society. MSPs will be helpful in fostering relationships across these groups and helping them collaborate for mutual benefits. Although no one group may be able to bring about change on its own, the power of one group can be enough to block the actions of others.To avoid this, there is need to develop shared perspectives, new understanding, and collective commitment for action, even between groups who may at first seem to have diverging interests or be in conflict such as aggregators and farmers, who can find new ways of working together to develop the pig value chain.","tokenCount":"6145"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0627e0de36aa0f4c7d1f2f27acbaff5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5300a5c3-7017-4b94-b67d-0ad9bdcb50d1/retrieve","id":"1256119077"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e80ba44b-e4d7-4fe1-97b3-1bbe2461ad5d","pagecount":"39","content":"Utangulizi: Uwezeshaji wa Wanawake katika Biashara inahusiana na Mifugo (WELBI) ni kipimo kilichosawazishwa cha kunakili uwezeshaji wa wanawake wanaojihusisha na sekta ya biashara inayohusiana na mifugo. Mikakati mbalimbali ya kusaidia uwezeshaji wa wanawake ipo, ila ni vigumu kuipa mikakati hii kipaumbele bila njia za kuaminika za kupima uwezeshaji. Kwa kutumia WEAI kama hatua ya kwanza, timu ya watafiti wa nyanja mbalimbali kutoka Taasisi ya Kimataifa ya Utafiti wa Mifugo (ILRI) na Chuo Kikuu cha Emory waliunda Kielelezo cha Uwezeshaji wa Wanawake katika Mifugo (WELI) ambayo ni kielelezo kipya cha kutathmini uwezeshaji wa wanawake katika uzalishaji kwa sekta ya mifugo. ILRI ilirekebisha zaidi WELI kutalii mabadiliko katika uwezeshaji wa wanawake wanaojihusisha na biashara zilizo kwenye minyororo ya thamani ya mifugo. WELBI hupima uwezeshaji wa wanawake wanaojihusisha na biashara zinazoshughulikia mifugo, hasa, katika utoaji wa huduma ya afya kwa mifugo na ujasiriamali wa ufugaji.Kumbusho kwa wabunifu wa utafiti: Taarifa katika moduli G1 inaweza kunaswa kwa njia tofauti. Hata hivyo, ni lazima kuwe na njia ya: (a) kutambua mtu anayefaa kufanyiwa dodoso katika kaya, (b) kuainisha matokeo ya dodoso, hasa kama aliyetarajiwa kudodoswa hayupo, ili kutofautisha hili na data iliyokosekana, na (c) kurekodi nani mwingine alikuwepo wakati wa dodoso. Kifaa hiki lazima kirekebishwe kwa muktadha wa nchi ikijumuisha kuongeza mifano na tafsiri katika lugha za kiasili inapofaa. Bidhaa katika MODULI G3A si kamilifu kwa hivyo itahitaji kukaguliwa na kusasishwa ili kushughulikia vipengee vinavyohusika katika kitovu cha mnyororo wa thamani ulio muhimu katika utafiti unaoangaziwa. Matokeo kutoka kwa uchunguzi wa ubora yanapaswa kutoa msingi wa kusasisha orodha.Tanbihi kwa wadodosaji: Hojaji hii inapaswa kutumika kwa kudodosa mtu binafsi katika kaya ambaye anatambuliwa kama mfanyibiashara inayohusiana na ufugaji na/au mume/mke wake au anayeishi naye kama mke/mume (ikiwa inawezekana). Pale ambapo kuna haja ya kumdodosa mume/mke wake (mdodoswaji wa pili) wakati pia huyo mfanyibiashara (mdodoswaji mkuu) anadodoswa ila hakuna mume/mke wake, inapaswa kudodosa mwamuzi mkuu wa jinsia tofauti na mdodoswaji mkuu kutoka kwa kaya ya mdodoswaji mkuu. Unapaswa kukamilisha jalada hili kwa kila mtu aliyetambuliwa katika \"sehemu ya uteuzi\" hata kama mtu huyo hayupo kwa madhumuni ya kuripoti. Tafadhali hakikisha, na urudie tena, ya kwamba:• Umejaza sehemu ya orodha ya dodoso ya kaya ili kubainisha mdodoswaji sahihi mkuu na/au wa pili;• Umeandika kitambulisho cha kaya na kitambulisho cha mtu binafsi kwa usahihi kwa mtu unatakaye mdodosa;• Umepata ridhaa ya utafiti kutoka kwa mdodoswaji katika dodoso la kaya;• Umetafuta mahali pa faragha pa kufanyia dodoso au ambapo wanakaya wengine hawawezi kusikia wala kuchangia majibu.Usijaribu kusawasisha majibu kati ya wadodoswaji, mdodoswaji mkuu na mdodoswaji wa pilini sawa kuwa na tofauti katika majibu yao.a. Pakua na uweke ODK Collect kutoka kwa hifadhi ya programu hadi kwenye kifaa chako cha simu ya mkononi ya Android. b. Zindua programu na kwenye upande wa juu kulia uone vitone hivi vitatu. c. Bonyeza kwenye vitone hivi vitatu; chaguo la kushuka chini litafunguka. MWONGOZO WA MAAGIZO h. Mara inapomaliza kupakuliwa, bonyeza kwenye 'Jaza fomu iliyo tupu' ili kuzindua programu ya kukusanya data.• Usiwasomee wadodoswaji orodha ya majibu yenye msimbo isipokuwa pale ambapo umeelekezwa kwa uwazi 'SOMA.' Badala yake, mruhusu mdodoswaji akupe jibu lake la swali kisha uchague jibu lifaalo zaidi kutoka kwenye orodha ya majibu yenye msimbo. Iwapo jibu la mdodoswaji halieleweki, inaweza kumaanisha kuwa mdodoswaji hakuelewa swali, kwa hivyo chunguza zaidi na kulipanga swali upya ili mdodoswaji aelewe.• Mwezi unapaswa kuandikwa kila wakati kwa nambari kutoka 1-12.• Mwaka unapaswa kuandikwa kwa tarakimu 4 kila wakati.• Tarehe kamili kama vile tarehe za kuzaliwa au tarehe za dodoso zinapaswa kuwa na muundo ufuatao: SIKU-MWEZI-MWAKA (yaani siku yenye tarakimu 2, mwezi wenye tarakimu 2, mwaka wenye tarakimu 4).• Asilimia inapaswa kuandikwa kila wakati kutoka 0-100.• Anza na dodoso la kaya, na kisha dodoso za mtu binafsi. Ikiwezekana, na kama inavyowezeshwa na uundaji wa timu ya jufanya dodoso, wadodosaji wa kiume wanapaswa kumdodosa mdodoswaji wa kiume na wadodosaji wa kike wanapaswa kuwadodosa wadodoswaji wa kike.• Ni sawa kwa wanakaya wengine au washiriki wenza kwenye biashara ya mdodoswaji kusaidia kukumbuka majibu ya maswali yaliyoulizwa kwa mdodoswaji kama sehemu ya dodoso la kayaau la biashara TU.• Kwa sehemu zenye maswali yanayoelekezwa kwa mtu huyo binafsi, ikiwezekana, wadodoswaji wanapaswa kuhojiwa wakiwa kando kando, bila wanakaya wengine au watu wengine kuwepo. HAIPASWI wanakaya wengine au washiriki wa biashara kusaidia kukumbushana maswali kwenye dodoso la mtu binafsi.• Ingawa utafiti utakadiria viashiria tofauti, kikubwa kikiwa ni Kielezo cha Uwezeshaji Wanawake katika biashara inayohusiana na mifugo (WELBI), kutajwa kwa utafiti unaofanywa kunapaswa kuzingatia mradi ambao makisio ya WELBI yanahitajika ama kwa ajili ya kufuatilia maendeleo ya mradi au kutoa taarifa za shughuli za mradi, na sio lazima kuelezea zana za uchambuzi (k.v WELBI nk). Kama ilivyoonyeshwa katika fomu ya ridhaa ya utafiti, maswali katika utafiti yanalenga zaidi katika kufanya maamuzi ndani ya biashara na kaya na maswali mengine yahayohusiana na mdodoswaji katika biashara yake. Ili kutoleta hisia kwamba tunataka kubadilisha au kushawishi majukumu ya kijinsia au kuwawezesha wanawake kwa kutumia dodoso hili, jambo ambalo linaweza kupotosha au kupendelea matokeo, ni vyema kutanguliza mradi unaohusika na kile ambacho chombo kinashughulikia katika suala la kufanya maamuzi, na sio uchanganuzi wa data (uwezeshaji wa wanawake).• Kilomita 1 = maili 0.6• Kilomita 1.67 = maili 1• Maili 1 = mita 1667• GUU 1 = mita 0.30Kanuni zifuatazo zinaweza kufaa katika swali lolote katika uchunguzi wa kaya. Kwa hali yoyote (isipokuwa mifumo ya kuruka) swali halipaswi kuachwa bila jibu. Ikiwa huna uhakika, andika tanbihi na umuulize msimamizi wako baada ya kukamilisha dodoso jinsi ya kujaza swali hilo mahususi.Haitumiki (N/A)/Hakuna uamuzi uliofanywa…………………….98 lingine bainisha………………………………………………….99Biashara ni shughuli ya kununua na kuuza bidhaa na huduma. Ingawa ufugaji unaweza kuchukuliwa kama biashara ya kulea na kuzalisha mifugo kwa madhumuni ya mapato, haswa wakati wigo unaenea zaidi ya kilimo cha kujikimu, biashara inayo husiana na mifugo, katika muktadha wa utafiti huu ni pamoja na kununua na kuuza mifugo, mazao ya mifugo, pembejeo na huduma zinazohusiana na mifugo kwenye viwango vingine vya mnyororo ya thamani isipokuwa kiwango cha mzalishaji . Biashara ya mifugo ni pamoja na biashara ya wanyama hai (mfano nguruwe, ng'ombe, mbuzi kondoo, ndege n.k), biashara ya mazao ya mifugo (km maziwa, mayai, nyama n.k), usambazaji wa pembejeo (km malisho, dawa za kuua wadudu, dawa za kinga na tiba za mifugo, vifaa, na chanjo), na utoaji wa huduma zinazohusiana na mifugo (km huduma za kliniki za afya ya wanyama, huduma za ushauri/ugani, huduma za uhimilishaji, huduma za kuthibiti gesi asilia/mbolea, na utoaji wa huduma za mikopo inayohusu mifugo).Kaya: Ufafanuzi ulio wazi na uliosawazishwa wa kaya ni muhimu kwa kuwa fasili mbalimbali za kaya husababisha mikusanyiko tofauti ya kaya na zinaweza kuwa na athari kubwa katika utofauti wa viashirio vya matokeo hasa yanayozunguka kazi na matumizi (Beaman na Dillon 2012).Ili kuwezesha ulinganisho wa nchi tofauti, tunapendekeza fasili zilizosawazishwa zitumike kutambua ni nani anayepaswa kujumuishwa kama 'mwanakaya,' na ni nani anayepaswa kuhusiswa kwenye dodoso kamamdodoswaji 'mkuu' na 'wa pili'.Tafiti nyingi za kaya zenye madhumuni mbalimbali hufafanua kaya kama kundi la watu wanaoishi pamoja na kushiriki chakula kutoka kwenye 'chungu kimoja' (Ayad et. al., 1994;Glewwe, 2000).Sehemu muhimu ya ufafanuzi huu ni kwamba kundi la watu binafsi linashiriki angalau baadhi ya rasilimali za kawaida na kufanya baadhi ya maamuzi ya pamoja ya bajeti na matumizi. Mwanakaya ni mtu ambaye ameishi katika kaya angalau miezi sita (6), na angalau nusu ya wiki katika kila wiki katika miezi hiyo. Hata wale watu ambao hawana uhusiano wa damu (kama vile watumishi, wapangaji, au wafanyikazi wa kilimo) ni wanakaya kama wanakidhi sifa hizi. Watu ambao wanaishi pamoja na wanakaya (wanalala pengine kwenye vyumba vinavyoishi wanakaya), lakini hawagharamii au kushiriki chakula kutoka 'chungu kimoja' na wanakaya, hawachukuliwi kuwa wanackaya. Ufafanuzi huu, ikijumuisha mifano na miongozo mahususi zaidi, imepachikwa kwenye dodoso.Kumbuka kuwa mbali na maagizo yaliyo hapo juu, afuataye anapaswa kujumuishwa kama mwanakaya:• Mtoto mchanga chini ya miezi 3.• Mtu ambaye amejiunga na kaya kwa njia ya ndoa chini ya miezi 3 iliyopita.• Watumishi, wapangaji na wafanyikazi wa kilimo walio katika kaya sasa hivi na watakaa katika kaya kwa muda mrefu lakini walifika chini ya miezi 3 iliyopita.Usijumuishe kama mwanakaya:• Mtu aliyekufa hivi karibuni ingawa alikaa zaidi ya miezi 3 katika miezi 6 iliyopita.• Mtu ambaye ameacha kaya kupitia ndoa chini ya miezi 3 iliyopita.• Watumishi, wapangaji na wafanyikazi wa kilimo ambao walikaa zaidi ya miezi 3 katika miezi 6 iliyopita lakini waliondoka kabisa.• Iwapo fasili ya kawaida ya kaya haileti maana katika muktadha ambapo tafiti zitatekelezwa, ni muhimu zaidi kuhakikisha kwamba wadodosaji wana uelewa sawa wa fasili ili utekelezaji uwe thabiti katika kaya zote. Ukiwa na shaka juu ya nani wa kujumuisha au kumtenga, tafadhali jadiliana na msimamizi wako.Wadodoswaji wa wakuu na wa upili ni wanakaya ambao wamejitambulisha kuwa washiriki wa kimsingi wenye jukumu la kufanya maamuzi, kijamii na kiuchumi, ndani ya kaya. Kwa kawaida huwa ni mwenye biashara/mwekezaji na mume au mke wake. Hata hivyo mdodoswaji wa pili anaweza pia kuwa mwanakaya mwingine, mradi tu awe mwanaume (ikiwa mdodowaji mkuu ni mume) au/ mwanamke (ikiwa mdodowaji mkuu ni mke) mwenye umri wa miaka 18 na zaidi na anashiriki maamuzi katika kaya ya mdodoswaji. Pana uwezekano kupata mdodoswaji mkuu pekee ikiwa mtu huyo ni mwanabiashara na hakuna mtu mzima wa kiume katika kaya yake. Mwanamke/mwanaume kielelezo ni mwanamke/mwanaume anayetambuliwa kama mmiliki, mmiliki mwenza, mwekezaji au mfanyakazi katika biashara inayohusiana na mifugo ambaye anasimamia shughuli za biashara au ana fahamu vizuri gharama, michakato na uendeshaji wa kina wa biashara hiyo.Kabla ya kuanza dodoso, ni muhimu kutanguliza utafiti kwa mdodoswaji na kupata ridhaa yake ya kushiriki. Waeleze wazi kwamba ushiriki wao katika utafiti ni wa hiari.Baada ya kusoma maelezo yote kwenye fomu ya ridhaa na kuomba ridhaa kutoka kwa mdodoswaji, hakikisha kwamba unatia sahihi katika nakala sawia za ya fomu ya ridhaa iliyoarifiwa kwa kila kaya na kuacha nakala moja kwa kaya hiyo baada ya dodoso.Hii ni sehemu inayohitajika na ni muhimu sana kwa kutoa utambulisho wa kipekee kwa kila biashara iliyofanyiwa utafiti. Mfumo wa kipekee wa utambulisho wa biashara unapaswa kutengenezwa kabla ya utafiti na utumike kwa kuweka lebo kwenye kila hojaji. Hakuna biashara inayopaswa kupewa nambari ya utambulisho wa biashara iliyo sawa na nyingine.Hii pia ni sehemu ambapo unanakili jina la biashara (kama lipo). Ikiwa mjasiriamali hana jina la biashara yake, tumia jina la mjasiriamali unayemdodosa Pia nakili kitambulisho cha eneo kwa mfano majina ya wilaya, kata na kijiji mahali biashara ilipo/dodoso lilifanyika.Hii ni sehemu inayohitajika na muhimu sana kwa kuchambua biashara kulingana na asili, aina na ukubwa.Maswali:1. Mahali pa dodoso -hapa, unatakiwa kurekodi eneo unalofanyia dodoso.Asili ya huluki ya biashara ya [jina la biashara]? (Kumbuka: jina la biashara kutoka kwa Moduli A): Hapa, unapaswa kujua jinsi biashara ilivyoundwa, yaani, ikiwa imesajiliwa na ni aina gani ya usajili ambao biashara iko nao. Katika baadhi ya matukio, wafanyabiashara huendesha biashara ambazo hazijasajiliwa kwa hivyo chagua msimbo unaofaa. Iwapo hakuna msimbo ulioorodheshwa unaofafanua vya kutosha asili ya biashara, basi chagua \"nyingine bainisha\" na uendelee kuandika aina ya biashara kama ulivyofafanuliwa na mdodoswaji.3. Wakati [jina la biashara] lilipoanzishwa (Mwezi na Mwaka) -ikiwa biashara imesajiliwa, muulize mdodoswaji mwezi na mwaka iliposajiliwa. Ikiwa biashara haijasajiliwa, muulize mdodoswaji mwezi na mwaka biashara ilipoanzishwa.Aina ya biashara [jina la biashara] inahusu nini -hili ni swali la chaguzi nyingi ambapo unapaswa kunakili shughuli zote ambazo biashara inashiriki.Ikiwa biashara ni ya mifugo na mazao ya mifugo, ni ipi? --ikiwa biashara inahusu mifugo na mazao ya mifugo, basi hili ni swali la chaguzi nyingi ambapo unapaswa kunakili mifugo na mazao yote ya mifugo ambayo biashara hiyo inajishughulisha nayo.6. Ukubwa wa biashara (kwa idadi ya wafanyakazi): -tafadhali nakili idadi ya wafanyakazi (aina zinazotolewa). Hii inajumuisha mmiliki ikiwa anajishughulisha na biashara hiyo. Hii inapaswa kuwatenga wanakaya wengine wowote ambao wanaweza kuwa wanasaidia katika biashara lakini hawapati mishahara au marupurupu kutoka kwa biashara hiyo.Idadi ya matawi ya kudumu/viduka vya nje vya biashara hiyo -tafadhali nakili matawi ya kudumu au viduka vyovyote vya nje vya kudumu ambavyo biashara inayo. Hii haijumuishi maeneo makuu ya biashara hiyo (ikiwa biashara ina eneo) -kwa taarifa yako, maelezo kuhusu majengo yatanakiliwa baadaye katika moduli ya raslimali.Idadi ya wafanyakazi wa kudumu katika biashara -kutoka kwa swali la 6, hapa unapaswa kutaja jumla ya idadi ya wafanyakazi wa kudumu walioajiriwa katika biashara, yaani wale wanaopata mshahara na wanatarajiwa kukaa katika biashara kwa muda mrefu.Jalada: Tafadhali hakikisha kuwa taarifa iliyokusanywa katika kila sehemu inayofuata ya dodoso inalingana na taarifa iliyonakiliwa katika moduli za awali. Kwa mfano, kuwa na kitambulisho sahihi cha kaya na kitambulisho cha mtu binafsi (kitambulisho sawa katika orodha ya kaya Moduli B) ni muhimu sana.G1.01. Utambulisho wa kaya -hiki ni kitambulisho cha kipekee kilichopewa kila kaya. Kinaweza kuwa nambari au nambari pamoja na herufi. Kabla ya kuelekea kwenye kaya yoyote, hakikisha kwamba msimamizi wako amekupa kitambulisho cha kaya ambayo unaenda kuidodosa. Andika kitambulisho cha kaya ulichopewa kwa urahisi wa kurejelea mara tu unapoanza dodoso.• Kidokezo kwa wasimamizi wa uchunguzi: Kitambulisho bora cha kutumia cha Kaya ni 'Kitambulisho chenye maarifa cha Kaya ' ambacho hutoa habari zaidi kuliko nambari tu. Hizi zinatolewa vyema katika umbo la nambari na herufi ambapo kwa mfano, herufi ya kwanza inawakilisha nchi, herufi ya pili inawakilisha wilaya/kata/woreda n.k., na kufuatiwa na tarakimu kwa kila kaya. Kwa mfano, kaya zilizododoswa katika Kaunti ya Nairobi (Kenya) zinaweza kupewa vitambulisho vya kaya kama KENAI001 … KENAI300 (KE=Kenya, NAI=Nairobi, 001=kaya ya kwanza kudodoswa na 300= kaya ya 300 kudodoswa).• Kidokezo kwa mdodosaji na wasimamizi: Tafadhali hakikisha kwamba kitambulisho cha kaya ni sahihi (kutoka kwenye orodha ya sampuli).Jina la mdodoswaji anayedodoswa -Hili ni mahususi kwa kumtambulisha mtu anayedodoswa kwa jina (msimbo kutoka kwa orodha katika Sehemu B): Toa jina kwa mpangilio ufuatao: Jina la ukoo, Jina la kwanza. Jina la ukoo ni sawa na liitwalo 'Jina la Mwisho'.Jinsia ya mdodoswaji -Jinsia ya mdodoswaji ipeanwe kama Mwanaume au Mwanamke.Nidhamu ya kazi: Usiulize swali hili kama jinsia ni dhahiri, aidha kwa jina au kwa uchunguzi wa kimwili. Hata hivyo, uliza wakati una shaka na mwanakaya hayupo kwa hiyvo huwezi kudhariri jinsia yake.G1.03a. Unamdodosa nani? -Hii ni mahususi kwa kumtambua mtu anayedodoswa, ikiwa ni mfanyabiashara mwanamke mwanamke kielelezo) au mfanyabiashara wa kiume (Mwanaume kielelezo) au wadodoswaji wa upili (mwanaume/mwanamke au mwanakaya wa mwanaume/mwanamke kielelezo) ambapo watu wawili wanapaswa kudodoswa kutoka kila kaya/biashara.Aina ya kaya ya mdodoswaji -swali hili linanakili ikiwa kaya limeundwa na wanaume na wanawake wazima (kaya ya watu wazima wawili) au kaya ya watu wazima wa jinsia moja kwa mfano, kaya ya watu wazima wa kike pekee au kaya ya watu wazima wa kiume pekee.G1.05. Matokeo ya dodoso: -Swali hili linaweza pia kuwekwa mwishoni mwa utafiti. Pale ambapo orodha ya wajasiriamali mahususi imetolewa kwa ajili ya utafiti, tafadhali hakikisha kuwa dodoso limejazwa hadi sehemu hii hata kama hukumpata uliyeelekezwa kumdodosa katika kaya kwa sababu moja au nyingine. Tumia misimbo inayofaa kuonyesha kuwa umekamilika ikiwa umeitambua kaya na umeweza kufanya dodoso. Au kwa nini kaya husika haikushirikishwa kwenye dodoso.G1.06. Uwezo wa kuhojiwa peke yako: Ni muhimu kuonyesha kama uliweza kumdodosa mdodoswaji peke yako au walikuwepo watu wengine wakati wa dodoso. Tafadhali chagua msimbo unaofaa ili kutoa taarifa juu ya wale waliokuwepo wakati wa dodoso.G1.07. Nafasi ya umiliki ya mdodoswaji katika biashara: nakili nafasi ya mdodoswaji katika biashara yaani iwapo mdodoswaji ni mmiliki wa biashara (mmiliki pekee au wa pamoja), muwekezaji, mfanyakazi, mwanakaya n.k.Kumbuka: Kwa utafiti wa WELBI, inashauriwa kumdodosa mmiliki wa biashara (na pale ambapo watu wawili wanahojiwa kwa kila biashara, mdodoswaji wa pili anapaswa kuwa mpenzi au mtu mzima wa jinsia tofauti na mdodoswaji mkuu, ambaye anahusika katika kufanya maamuzi. katika ngazi ya kaya/biashara.Cheo cha kazi ya mdodoswaji katika biashara -hii inanakili tu kazi ambayo mdodoswaji anafanya katika biashara.amekuwa akifanya kazi katika biashara.shughuli za kazi ambazo mdodoswaji hufanya katika biashara. Kumbuka: wote wajibu swali hili isipokuwa wakati mdodoswaji ni mwekezaji.Tafadhali tanguliza sehemu kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji: \"kuanza mjadala, ningependa kuzungumza kwa kifupi kuhusu kila mwanakaya wako, yaani, majina yao, uhusiano wake na mdodoswaji mkuu na tarehe zao za kuzaliwa. Tafadhali orodhesha majina ya kila mtu anayechukuliwa kuwa mwanakaya hii, kuanzia mdodoswaji mkuu.\"B01: Jina la mwanakaya -uliza majina ya kila mmoja wa wanakaya, kuanzia mdodoswaji mkuu akifuatiwa na mdodoswaji wa upili na wanakaya wengine kutoka mkubwa kiumri hadi mdogo.Toa jina kwa mpangilio ufuatao: Jina la Ukoo, Jina la Kwanza. Jina la ukoo ni sawa na kile kinachoitwa 'Jina la mwisho.'Jinsia ya [JINA] -Jinsia ya kila mwanakaya itatolewa kuwa Mwanaume au Mwanamke.Nidhamu ya kazi: Usiulize swali hili kama jinsia ni dhahiri, aidha kwa jina au kwa uchunguzi wa kimwili, hata hivyo, uliza wakati una shaka na mwanakaya hayupo ili kubainiwa.B03: Je, [JINA] ana uhusiano gani na mdodoswaji mkuu? -Hapa unauliza, kwa kila mwanakaya, jinsi wanavyohusiana na mdodoswaji mkuu, na si mkuu wa kaya.[JINA] alizaliwa lini? (miaka YYYY) -Mbinu bora ya kupata umri wa mwanakaya ni kuuliza ni lini (mwaka), mwanakaya alizaliwa.B05: Je, hali ya ndoa ya [JINA] ni ipi? -Hapa unanakili ikiwa mwanakaya yumo katika ndoa, na ikiwa hayupo, yupo kwenye hali gani.B06: Je, [JINA] tayari amehudhuria shule? -Hapa unauliza, kwa kila mwanakaya kama amepata elimu yaani iwapo alihudhuria shule.B07: Je, ni kiwango gani cha juu cha elimu kilichofikiwa na [JINA]? -hili linaulizwa tu kwa wanakaya ambao wamehudhuria shule. Inakuja katika sehemu mbili, kwanza unauliza ni kiwango gani cha shule (mfano shule ya msingi, sekondari, chuo kikuu n.k) mwanakaya amemaliza au alifikia wapi.Kwa viwango visivyokamilika: Ni kiwango cha miaka mingapi aliyotimiza shuleni kabla kusitisha masomo?B08: Je, [JINA] amefuata mafunzo yoyote ya ufundi stadi? -hapa, uliza ikiwa mwanakaya amehudhuria mafunzo yoyote ya ufundi.B09: Je, [JINA] yuko shuleni kwa sasa? -uliza kama mwanakaya anahudhuria shule kwa sasa.Kumbuka: Maswali B6-B9 yanapaswa kuulizwa kwa wanakaya walio na umri wa zaidi ya miaka 4.B10: Je, [JINA] anafanya kazi katika biashara? -hakikisha ikiwa kila mmoja wa wanakaya (ambao wana umri wa zaidi ya miaka 4) anafanya kazi katika biashara, iwe ya muda kamili baadhi ya masaa. Hili linapaswa kuulizwa hata kama mwanakaya hajaajiriwa katika biashara, kwa mfano mtoto anayesoma lakini humsaidia mama katika biashara ya kilimo wakati wa likizo ya shule.B11: Je, jukumu la [JINA] katika biashara ni gani? -kwa wale ambao mdodoswaji ambao wameashiria kuajishughulisha na biashara, iwe kwa muda wote au la, katika B10, uliza ni jukumu gani wanalofanya katika biashara.Mdodosaji: Uliza maswali haya kuhusu angalau washiriki 5 wa biashara ambao si wanakaya wanaojishughulisha zaidi katika maamuzi ya biashara.Tanguliza sehemu hii kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa: \"Ningependa kukuuliza maswali kuhusu angalau wanachama 5 ambao si wanakaya wanaofanya maamuzi katika biashara yaani watu ambao umewaajiri au wafanyakazi wenzako katika biashara wanaofanya maamuzi kuhusu uendeshaji wa biashara\".D13: Jina-uliza majina ya kila mmoja wa washiriki wa hiyo biashara, kuanzia mdodoswaji mkuu, akifuatiwa na mmiliki wa biashara (kama mdodoswaji mkuu si mmiliki) na wanachama wengine kwa mpangilio wa kuelekea chini wa cheo. D21: Je, [JINA] amefanya mafunzo yoyote ya ufundi stadi? -hapa, uliza ikiwa mwanakaya amehudhuria mafunzo yoyote ya ufundi.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata wazo kuhusu majukumu ya wanakaya na washiriki wengine katika biashara unayoiangazia (wanaume na wanawake) katika kufanya maamuzi kuhusu shughuli za biashara. Usijaribu kuhakikisha kuwa majibu ni sawa kati ya mdodoswaji wa kiume na wa kike katika kaya. Ni sawa kwao kuwa na jibu tofauti. Pia usimdodosemdodoswaji mkuu akiwa pamoja na mdodoswaji wa upili pa, dodosa mmoja baada ya mwingine au mwambie mwenzako amdodose huyo mwingine.Majibu ya swali kuhusu ni nani anayefanya uamuzi yanapaswa kunakiliwa kwa kuchagua misimbo ya vitambulisho (kutoka sehemu ya ratiba ya kaya na biashara -Moduli B na D) iliwezesha kulinganisha maamuzi na sifa za wadodoswaji binafsi. Wabunifu wa utafiti wanapaswa kuingiza mifano ya ziada, ya ndani ya shughuli inapofaa.Tafadhali tanguliza sehemu kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa ungependa kuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu ushiriki wake na washiriki wengine katika kufanya maamuzi ya ainatofauti kwa shughuli za kazi katika vipengele mbalimbali vya shughuli zao za biashara. Maswali yanahusu shughuli mbalimbali, huku msisitizo maalum ukiwa katika shughuli zinazohusiana na biashara ya mifugo.Moduli hii inajumuisha maswali yafuatayo:• G2.01: Je, (JINA) alishiriki katika [SHUGHULI] katika muda wa miezi 12 iliyopita yaani, kutoka [MWEZI ULIOPO] mwaka jana hadi [MWEZI ULIOPO] mwaka huu? Swali hili linajibiwa na NDIYO au HAPANA. Tafadhali kumbuka yafuatayo:o Muda wa marejeleo wa swali hili daima ni miezi 12. Katika baadhi ya matukio, kwa shughuli zinazohusiana na uzalishaji wa mazao, itasaidia kumwomba mdodoswaji afikirie kuhusu misimu miwili ya mwisho ya upanzi kama eneo lina msimu wa mazao mara mbili kwa mwaka. Katika hali nyingine, muda wa marejeleo unapaswa kuwa idadi ya misimu ya upanzi kulingana na idadi ya misimu ya upanzi kwa mwaka, uingiliaji kati na muda kati ya tafiti. Hili linapaswa kuamuliwa na kusawazishwa wakati wa kipindi cha mafunzo ya utafiti.o Katika baadhi ya lugha kuna umoja wewe na wingi wewe. Swali hili linarejelea umoja wewe (mtu anayedodoswa, wala si mdodoswaji pamoja na kaya yake). Ikiwa lugha ya kiasili haitofautishi kati ya umoja au wingi, hakikisha mdodoswaji anaelewa kuwa hili linamhusu yeye pekee (Hili pia litatumika kwa maeneo mengine yote ambapo tunakuuliza 'wewe' katika dodoso ya mtu binafsi).o Ikiwa mdodoswaji atajibu 'hapana' hakushiriki katika shughuli, basi endelea na maswali kwenye shughuli inayofuata. o Ikiwa kuna watoa maamuzi zaidi ya 3, mwambie mdodoswaji ataje 3 walio muhimu zaidi.o Kumbuka: ikiwa mdodoswaji anajibu 'binafsi' pekee (yaani hakuna watoa maamuzi wengine waliotajwa isipokuwa mdodoswaji mwenyewe), basi elekea kwa swali G2.05. Maswali G2.03 na G2.04 huuliza kuhusu kiwango cha mchango na udhibiti ambao mdodoswaji anahisi anao katika shughuli, lakini ikiwa anaonyesha kuwa yeye peke yake ndiye anayefanya uamuzi, basi tunaweza kuchukulia kwa uhakika kuwa mdodoswaji ana kiwango cha juu cha mchango na udhibiti wa maamuzi hayo. o Katika baadhi ya matukio, katika lugha ya kiasili G2.03 inapaswa kuulizwa kama maswali mawili tofauti (kwanza uliza ikiwa mchango wowote umetolewa, kisha uulize kiwango cha mchango huo).• G2.04: Je, unahisi unaweza kushiriki kwa kiasi gani katika maamuzi kuhusu [SHUGHULI] hii ikiwa unataka au ulitaka kushiriki?o Weka alama ya mviringo jibu moja kutoka kwa kategoria zifuatazo: Sivyo kabisa…………………………….01 Kiwango kidogo ……………………………02 Kiwango cha wastani………………………….03 Kwa kiwango cha juu ………………………….04 o Hata kama mdodoswaji hakushiriki katika maamuzi, anaweza kuwa anafanya hivyo kwa hiari, kama vile uamuzi unapokabidhiwa kwa wengine, au ikiwa mdodoswaji hana haja ya kujishughulisha katika shughuli au uamuzi fulani. Swali hili linakusudiwa kunakili ikiwa mdodoswaji anaweza kushiriki katika mchakato wa kufanya maamuzi ikiwa angetataka.• G2.05: Je, ulikuwa na mchango kiasi gani katika maamuzi kuhusu jinsi ya kutumia mapato o Msimbo wa 98 ('hautumiki') unapaswa kuandikwa katika hali ambapo uamuzi haujafanywa, kwa mfano, hakuna mapato yaliyotolewa au bidhaa/huduma hazikuuzwa kwa hivyo mapato hayakuzalishwa. Kwa hali yoyote, swali hili lisiachwe bila kujazwa. Ikiwa jibu lililotolewa kwa swali lolote la G2.03 au G2.05 ni 'haitumiki au hakuna uamuzi uliofanywa' basi endelea na maswali kwenyeshughuli inayofuata.Kwa safumlalo B hadi L, maswali G2.05 hayafai kuulizwa.Katika baadhi ya matukio wadodoswaji watahitaji maelezo zaidi kuhusu vipengee vilivyomo katika jedwali. Mdodosaji anaweza kutumia mifano rahisi kueleza. Mifano inaweza kuelezwa kulingana na shughuli maalum zinazofanywa na kaya katika eneo la uchunguzi. Hapa kuna mifano ambayo inaweza kutumika:• A. Kuuza bidhaa na/au huduma kwa wateja au kutangamana nawateja moja kwa moja: Kwa mfano, ulikuwa na mchango katika maamuzi kuhusu aina gani ya bidhaa, muda wa kuuza, kiasi cha kuuza na kwa nani na/au kuwasiliana na wateja kuhusu mauzo ya huduma au bidhaa ambazo biashara hii hushughulika nazo?• B. Kushughulikia na/au kuhifadhi bidhaa: Kwa mfano, je, ulikuwa na mchango katika maamuzi kuhusu aina gani ya uhifadhi, uchakataji au shughuli zingine zinazohusisha kushughulikia na/au kuhifadhi bidhaa ambazo biashara hii hushughulika nazo?• H. Ununuzi wa kawaida wa biashara (pamoja na vifaa vya ofisi na vifaa vingine vya matumizi kwa mahitaji ya biashara): Kwa mfano, je, ulikuwa na mchango katika ununuzi wa kawaida wa biashara, kama vile ununuzi wa vifaa vya ofisi, au bidhaa/huduma zingine ambazo biashara hutumia (hizi bidhaa/huduma sio zile ambazo biashara hii hushughulika nazo bali ni za matumizi kwa biashara)?Tafadhali tanguliza sehemu kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kwamba ungependa kuzungumzia mahali ambapo yeye au mwanakaya wake wanaendesha biashara inayohusiana na ufugaji. Maswali G3.01 hadi G3.06 G3.01.: Muulize mdodoswaji kama biashara kwa sasa inamiliki sehemu (maeneo) inapofanyia kazi (kama vile eneo la kutunzia vifaranga, duka, zizi la mifugo wa kuuzwa n.k.)? G3.10. Muulize mdodoswaji kama yeye (binafsi au kwa pamoja na wengine), anamiliki sehemu hizo (maeneowanapofanyia biashara). Kumbuka kuwa haya ni maswali mawili-ndani ya moja (21) kwa hivyo hakikisha kuwa jibu unalopata linajumuisha maswali yote mawili yaani, kumiliki na jinsi inavyomilikiwa (binafsi, kwa pamoja n.k).Muulize mdodoswaji kama kuna mtu yeyote katika kaya yake akiwemo yeye mwenyewe, anayemiliki ardhi yoyote kwa sasa isipokuwa eneo lake la biashara au makazi? Kama jibu ni ndiyo, kwa kumiliki ardhi ambapo biashara ipo sasa au ndiyo kwa kumiki ardhi ya makazi, nakili NDIYO. Ikiwa HAPANA, nakili HAPANA kisha nenda kwa swali G3.11, BIDHAA A. G3.10. Muulize mdodoswaji kama yeye (binafsi), anamiliki ardhi yoyote inayomilikiwa au inayolimwa na kaya yake. Kumbuka kuwa haya ni maswali mawilindaniya moja (2-1) kwa hivyo hakikisha kuwa jibu unalopata linajumuisha maswali yote mawili yaani, kumiliki na jinsi inavyomilikiwa (binafsi, kwa pamoja n.k).Tanguliza sehemu hii kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa ungependa kuzungumzia idadi ya vitu ambavyo vinaweza kutumika katika biashara zinazohusiana na ufugaji. Chagua kipengee kimoja kwa wakati mmoja na umuulize mdodoswaji maswali G3.11 hadi G3.12.G3.07: Muulize mdodoswaji kama yeye (binafsi), anamiliki hicho [KITU]/baadhi ha hivyo vitu.Moduli hii ina maswali juu ya ufikiaji wa mkopo. Mambo machache ya kuzingatia:• Vyanzo vya ukopeshaji vinaweza kurekebishwa kulingana na muktadha wa nchi/utafiti. Hata hivyo ni muhimu kuhakikisha kwamba vimefautishwa kutoka kwa kila kimoja na kutohesabu aina yeyote mara mbili. Ikiwa lugha ya asili haitofautishi kati ya aina ya vyanzo kadhaa vwa mikopo, vyanzo vinaweza kuunganishwa kuwa moja. Kwa mfano, ikiwa shirika lisilo la kiserikali na mikopo midogo ya vikundi au ukopeshaji ni sawa katika muktadha wa kiasili (ikiwa vikundi vidogo vya mikopo zinaendeshwa kupitia Mashirika yasiyo ya Kiserikali), basi ni sawa kuviweka vyanzo hivi viwili kuwa kimoja. Katika hali hii kutakuwa na vyanzo vitano badala ya sita. Kamwe chanzo kile kile cha mikopo kisihesabiwe chini ya chanzo kingine. Iwapo unahisi kuwa anachoeleza mdodoswaji kinaweza kuwa chini ya vyanzo viwili au zaidi, tumia uamuzi na ukiweke chini ya aina moja unayohisi kuwa bora zaidi.• Muda wa kurejesha ni ndani ya mwaka uliopita; hata hivyo, ikiwa chanzo cha mkopo kimekuwa kikiendelea kwa zaidi ya mwaka 1 (yaani, mkopo wa miaka mingi ulioanza miaka 2 iliyopita) unapaswa kuhesabiwa.• 'Mkopo wa bidhaa' unarejelea mkopo unaotolewa kwa njia ya bidhaa au huduma tofauti na mkopo wa pesa taslimu.• 'Wakopeshaji wasio rasmi' inarejelea wakopeshaji pesa/bidhaa/huduma na wengine ambao HAWAJAJUMUISHWA katika mojawapo ya vyanzo vingine vya mikopo.• Kumbuka kuwa swali G3.16 halijajumuishwa katika hesabu ya pro-WEAI. Hata hivyo, tunapendekeza uliulize, kwa kuwa inakuruhusu kubainisha ikiwa watu binafsi wanaweza kukopa kutoka vyanzo mahususi, hata kama hawakujaribu mwaka uliopita kabla ya dodoso. Hii ni muhimu kwa upangaji wa mikakati na miradi, kwa sababu inaonyesha iwapo kuna kikwazo cha mkopo katika suala la mahitaji ambayo hayajafikiwa ya mkopo.• Kwa upande wa G317, katika baadhi ya matukio huenda mtu binafsi asijue kama wanakaya wengine wamefikia au kutumia aina mahususi ya mkopo, na katika hali hii jibu 97 'Sijui' linaweza kuchaguliwa.• Kwa G3.18 Dodosa na urekodi hadi watu 3 (wanakaya ama washiriki biashara husika); hakikisha unamchunguza mdodoswaji na kuuliza, 'kuna mtu mwingine yeyote anayeshiriki maamuzi haya?' G3.18 (katika toleo la FULLBARE na XS) : Katika swali hili, uliza kama mdodoswaji alihusika mwenyewe.• Swali la G3.21 linajumuisha akaunti binafsi za benki na akaunti za pamoja za benki. Haijumuishi akaunti za benki zinazomilikiwa na vikundi (VSLA, SACCOS, n.k.), hata kama mtu binafsi ni mtiaji saini kwenye akaunti za kikundi• Swali la G3.22 linajumuisha huduma za kidijitali za kifedha (pesa zilizo kwenye simu). Hata hivyo, hili halijumuishi akaunti za pesa zilizo kwenye simu zinazomilikiwa na vikundi (VSLA, SACCOS, n.k.), hata kama mtu binafsi ni mtiaji saini kwenye akaunti za kikundi.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu maeneo ambayo wanaume na wanawake huenda nje ya nyumbani kwao.• Q6.01: Katika miezi 12 iliyopita, ni mara ngapi kwa ujumla huwa unaenda [MAHALI]?Misimbo ya mara ngapi anaweza kuwa anaenda, imeorodheshwa.• Tanbihi: Mahali F: mji unarejelea eneo la mjini au manispaa ya jiji. Tafadhali tumia sensa rasmi au ufafanuzi wa serikali wa eneo la mjini au manispaa ambayo inatumika katika muktadha wako mahususi.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu mtazamo wa ujasiriamali wa mdodoswaji yaani, mchanganyiko wa kipekee wa sifa, ujuzi, na mitazamo ambayo huwawezesha watu binafsi kutambua fursa, kukumbana na changamoto na kuzalisha thamani. Wajasiriamali waliofanikiwa wanasifa kadhaa muhimu zinazochangia mafanikio yao (Gartner, 2023).Katika moduli hii, kuna taarifa 11 ambazo unapaswa kumsomea mdodoswaji na kumuuliza kama anakubali kabisa, anakubali, hakubaliani wala kukataa, au hakubaliani kabisa kuhusu yeye mwenyewe.Tanguliza sehemu hii kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa: \"Sasa nitakuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu kile unachofikiria kujihusu. Tafadhali sikiliza kila moja ya kauli zifuatazo. Fikiria jinsi kila kauli inavyohusiana na maisha yako, kisha uniambie kama unakubali au hukubaliani na kauli hiyo\". Kidokezo: Kwa moduli hili na maswali sawia kama hayoyanajulikana kwa kimombo kama ya 'likert-scale', anza kwa kutafuta mwelekeo wa makubaliano, yaani kama anakubali, hakubaliani au ni mtu wastani (hakubali wala hakatai). Baada ya kupata mwelekeo, na ikiwa jibu ni kukubaliana au kutokubali basi uliza kiwango cha kukubaliana au kutokubali ili kuthibitisha ikiwa ni kukubaliana au kutokubali kwake kuna uzito kiasi gani.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu ufikiaji wa usafi kwenye mazingira ambamo mdodoswaji hufanya biashara inayohusiana na ufugaji.Kwa a maswali matatu yalio katika moduli hii, unapaswa kudodosa na kunakili ikiwa mahali pa kazi au karibu na mahali pa kazi pa mdodoswaji, kuna mahali ambapo mdodoswaji anadhani ni salama na safi kuenda haja ndogo, haja kubwa, na kunawa mikono. Usalama katika swali hili unamaanisha kutokuwa na hofu ya kushambuliwa au kudhihakiwa. Kwa wadodoswaji ambao biashara yao ni ya kuhama/kusafiri hama (kuhama/kusafiri kutoka sehemu moja hadi nyingine kwa kuuza bidhaa na/au huduma), swali hili bado ni muhimu kwa kuwa popote walipo, wanaweza kufikia vifaa vinavyohitajika?Kidokezo: Maswali yanaweza kuonekana kuwa yenye ugumu wa kujieleza na yana aibi kuzumgumzia kwa hivyo yashughulikie kwa unyenyekevu na ikihitajika, mhakikishie mdodoswaji usiri na faragha ya taarifa hiyo. Mjulishe mdodoswaji kwamba tunajaribu kubaini mapungufu ya kimuundo ambayo kwa kawaida ni chanzo cha ukosefu wa usawa, na ni changamotokwa uwezo wanaume na wanawake kufanya vizuri kama wajasiriamali.Mara tu unapojiamini kuwa mdodoswaji ameridhika kuendelea na sehemu hiyo, basi tanguliza sehemu hiyo kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa: \"Sasa, nitakuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu ufikiaji wa vifaa vya usafi wa mazingira\".Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu ufikiaji wa usafi wa mazingira mahali pa mdodoswaji pa kufanyia biashara tunayoiangazia inyohusana na ufugaji. Hii ni sehemu ya wadodoswaji wanawake pekee.G12.05: CAPI: Je, mdodoswaji ni mwanamke? -swali hili ni lako la kujibu badala ya kumuuliza mdodoswaji. Hapa unapaswa kutumia mtazamo wa kawaida wa jamii kuhusu nani ni mwanamke na nani ni mwanaume (kibaolojia).Kuna maswali nane katika moduli hii. Unapaswa kudodosa na kunakili tayari unafahamu kama katika au karibu na mahali pa kazi pa mdodoswaji, mwanamke anaweza kusimamia kwa usalama mahitaji yake ya usafi wa hedhi. Usalama katika swali hili unamaanisha kutokuwa na hofu ya kushambuliwa au kudhihakiwa. Kwa wadodoswaji ambao biashara yao ni ya kuhama au kusafiri (kuhama/kusafiri kutoka sehemu moja hadi nyingine ili kuuza bidhaa na/au huduma), swali hili bado ni faafu kwa kuwa popote walipo, wanaweza kufikia vifaa vinavyohitajika?Kidokezo: Maswali yanaweza kuonekana kuwa yenye ugumu wa kujieleza na ya aibu kuzumgumzia kwa hivyo yashughulikie kwa unyenyekevu, na ikihitajika, mhakikishie mdodoswaji usiri na faragha ya taarifa hiyo. Mjulishe mdodoswaji kwamba tunajaribu kubaini mapungufu ya kimuundo ambayo kwa kawaida ni chanzo cha ukosefu wa usawa, na ni changamoto kwa uwezo wa wanaume na wanawake kufanya vizuri kama wajasiriamali.Mara tu unapojiamini kuwa mdodoswaji ameridhika kuendelea na sehemu hiyo, basi tanguliza sehemu hiyo kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa:\"Sasa, nitakuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu uthibiti wa usafi wa hedhi\".Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu unyanyasaji wa kimapenzi mahali pa kazi pa mdodoswaji. Hii ni sehemu ya wadodoswaji wote (wanaume na wanawake).\"Hapo awali ulisema kuwa unatumia muda wako mwingi wa kazi unapatikana\" [MAHALI]. -swali hili ni lako kutumia pamoja na mdodoswaji (limeandaliwa kwa namna ya kutomfanya mdodoswaji ajisikie kuwa hukuwa makini alipokutajia aina ya kazi yake na mahali anapotumia muda mwingiambayo katika baadhi ya matukio inaweza kuwa nyepesi).Moduli hii ina maswali matano. Katika moduli hii, unapaswa kujua ni mara ngapi mdodoswaji anafikiri kwamba [wanaume/wanawake -kutegemea jinsia ya mdodoswaji] wa umri wa mdodoswaji wanaoishi katika jamii ya mdodoswaji, wanapokuwa mahali pao pa kazi, wanapitia hali ambapo wengine huwaweka kwenye aina tofauti za ukatili wa kijinsia. Ukatili wa kijinsia katika hali hii ni pamoja na matukio ambapo wengine:A Hufanya majaribio yasiyotakikana ya kuanzisha uhusiano wa kimapenzi au kingono nao licha ya jitihada za kuzikataa/kuzikemea.B Papasa kwa njia ya kimapenzi bila idhini C Kumfanya mtu ahisi kama anahongwa ili ajihusishe na vitendo ya ngono D Kumpendekezea kimapenzi mtu, kwa mfano kumwalika mtu kushiriki tendo la ndoa nao?E Kumfanya mtu aogope kwamba atatendewa vibaya, kwa mfano kutishia mtu, kutompa kazi, au kumpuuzwa ikiwa hatakubali kushiriki ngono.Kumbuka: Kusisitizia mdodoswaji kwamba hapa hatuangazii hali iliyompata yeye binafsi bali tungependa kujua maoni yao ikiwa matukio haya hutokea kwa wengine (ambao ni kama wao, jinsia na makundi ya rika n.k.).Kidokezo: Maswali yanaweza kuonekana kuwa yenye ugumu wa kujieleza na ya kusumbuaaibu kuzumgumzia kwa hivyo yashughulikie kwa unyenyekevu, na ikihitajika, mhakikishie mdodoswaji usiri na faragha ya taarifa hiyo. Mjulishe mdodoswaji kwamba tunajaribu kubaini mapungufu ya kimuundo ambayo kwa kawaida ni chanzo cha ukosefu wa usawa, na ni changamoto kwa uwezo wa wanaume na wanawake kufanya vizuri kama wajasiriamali.Mara tu unapoamini kuwa mdodoswaji ameridhika kuendelea na sehemu hiyo, tanguliza sehemu hiyo kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kwamba \"Linalofuata, nitakuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu unyanyasaji wowote ambao mtu anaweza kupata wakati akijipatia riziki\".Madhumuni ya moduli hili ni kupata taarifa juu ya mitazamo na imani kuhusu kuvumiliana kwa kutokea kwa migogoro dhidi ya wanawake katika mahusiano ya kimapenzi. Maswali katika moduli hii hayaulizi kuhusu kuathirika kwa mdodoswaji kibinafsi bali ni kupata mitazamo ya mdodoswaji kuhusu migogoro ya nyumbani dhidi ya wanawake.• MUHIMU: Maswali haya yanahitajika kwa wanaume na wanawake.• Hata kama mdodoswaji hana mpenzi (hajawahi oa, kutengana walakutalakiwa au ni mjane) uliza swali kwa njia hiyo hiyo.Kidokezo: Maswali yanaweza kuonekana kuwa yenye ugumu wa kujieleza na ya aibu kuzumgumzia kwa hivyo yashughulikie kwa unyenyekevu, na ikihitajika, mhakikishie mdodoswaji usiri na faragha ya taarifa hiyo. Mjulishe mdodoswaji kwamba tunajaribu kubaini mapungufu ya kimuundo ambayo kwa kawaida ni chanzo cha ukosefu wa usawa, na ni changamoto kwa uwezo wa wanaume na wanawake kufanya vizuri kama wajasiriamali.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata maelezo kuhusu uwezo wa mdodoswaji kulipia leseni/vibali vinavyohitajika, na kama anaweza kulipa kwa wakati mara kwa mara leseni/vibali vinavyohitajika.Unapaswa kwanza kujua ikiwa biashara hiyo inayohusiana na mifugo, ambayo mdodoswaji ni muhusika, inahitaji kulipia leseni. Kisha uliza ni mara ngapi biashara hiyo ianaweza kulipia, kulingana na ni mara ngapi wanatakiwa kulipa, iwapo ni kila mwaka, robo mwaka au ni malipo ya mara moja. Kumbuka kuangazia vipengele vya kiasili vya leseni/vibali vya ndani na wajulishwe kuhusu mahitaji yao kabla ya kuanza utafiti ili unapouliza swali, uweze kupima kama mdodoswaji alielewa swali, ikiwa hapana, unaweza kuuliza swali upya.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu ufikiaji wa mtaji wa kijamii kwa wanaume na wanawake kupitia vikundi (uwezo wa kikundi).Mambo machache ya kuzingatia:• Kumbuka kuwa vikundi katika jamii vinaweza kuwa rasmi u visivyo rasmi na vya kimila.• Kumbuka ya kwamba kuwa mwanakaya 'hai' wa kikundi kunapaswa kufafanuliwa na mdodoswaji (yaani wazo lake la kibinafsi la nini kuwa mwanakaya kunahusisha). Ukiulizwa na mdodoswaji, unaweza kuashiria kuwa uanachama 'hai' unaweza kujumuisha kuhudhuria mikutano, kulipa ada ya mtumiaji, kuwa na cheo cha uongozi ndani ya kikundi, n.k. Aidha, eleza kuwa kuna tofauti nyingi sana katika aina ya kikundi hadi kuwa na ufafanuzi uliosawazishwakuhusu mwanakaya hai kwa hivyo mhimize mdodoswaji kutumia uamuzi wake mwenyewe.• Kumbuka kuwa 'jamii' imeachiwa mdodoswaji kufafanua na inaweza kuwa vikundi ndani ya kijiji chake au kujumuisha anuwai kubwa ya kijiografia ikijumuisha kijiji au jiji la karibu.• Kumbuka kuwa vikundi vingi vina shughuli nyingi. Kwa mfano, kikundi cha kilimo kinaweza pia kujishughulisha na akiba na mikopo. Wakati hali ikiwa hivi, chagua aina ya kikundi kinachowakilisha shughuli ya msingi ya hicho kikundi. Ikiwa kikundi cha wakulima kinatoa huduma za ugani kwa wingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na akiba na mikopokwa kiasi kidogo, basi kikundi hicho ni cha kilimo wala si kikundi cha akiba na mikopo. Muulize mdodoswaji aelezee kikundi kwa undani zaidi, ikiwa haieleweki.• Ikiwa kundi fulani si faafu kimuktadha,' linaweza kubadilishwa na kundi linalofaa katika kategoria sawa; kama hakuna ubadala uliopo wa kubadilishwa unaweza kuondolewa kutoka kwa dodoso.Ikiwa kuondoa kikundi au kutoshiriki inapaswa kuamuliwa wakati wa mafunzo; kikundi hakipaswi kamwe kuondolewa wakati wa kufanya dodoso.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata wazo kuhusu jinsi muda wa wanaume na wanawake unavyotumika. Aina za shughuli na muda unaotumika kufanya shughuli hizo zinaweza kutumika katika uchambuzi wa kiuchumi na kijamii, kwa mfano mchango wa wanawake katika shughuli za kiuchumi; thamani ya uzalishaji wa nyumbani na sekta isiyo rasmi; tija; ukosefu wa wakati na mengine. Tunavutiwa sana na shughuli za biashara na shughuli zingine kama vile kilimo, kilimo cha bustanina ufugaji shambani au nyumbani. Pia tunavutiwa kujua ni muda gani unaotumika kuwatunza watoto, haswa iwapo itafanyika wakati mdodoswaji anafanya shughuli zingine.G4.01: Tafadhali rekodi kumbukumbu ya shughuli za mtu binafsi katika saa 24 kamili zilizopita (kuanzia jana asubuhi saa 10 asubuhi, kumaliza 9:59 asubuhi ya siku ya iliyopo).G4.02: Weka alama ya kuteuwa kwenye kisanduku hiki ikiwa mdodoswaji pia alimtuza mtoto au watoto wakati akifanya shughuli nyingine. Kwa swali hili, kuwatunza watoto ni pamoja na kuwajali 'kikweli' (mfano: kulisha, kuosha mtoto) na kujali 'kwingine' (mfano: kuteka maji maji huku akibeba mtoto mtoto). Kumbuka: Hili linapaswa kuulizwa wakati shughuli za msingi zinajazwa.• Muda wa kuanza kuchunguza huanza saa 10 asubuhi ili kujumuishashughuli za mapema ikiwa mwanakaya aliamka mapema sana. Inasaidia sana kujaza jedwali hili wakati wa mazungumzo na mdodoswaji, badala ya kuwauliza walichokuwa wakifanya katika 10:15, 10:30, 10:45 na kadhalika. Kwanza, ni muhimu kujua ni saa ngapi mdodoswaji aliamka na ni saa ngapi alienda kulala, kwa hivyo masaa ya kua macho ndio yaliyosalia kunakili.o Unapaswa kwanza kumuuliza mdodoswaji ni saa ngapi aliamka siku iliyotangulia, na kisha ujaze wakati wowote kabla ya hapo kama wakati wa 'kulala na kupumzika.'o Kisha, muulize ni saa ngapi alienda kulala siku iliyotangulia, na kisha ujaze wakati wowote baada ya hapo kama wakati wa 'kulala na kupumzika.' Kufanya hatua hizi mbili za kwanza mwanzoni huweka mipaka ya muda kwa siku inayohitaji kuelezwa namna muda wake ulitumiwa.• Baada ya kutambua saa za kuamka na kulala, mdodosaji anaweza kumuuliza mdodoswaji alichokifanya baadaye, na kwa muda gani, na kuendelea hadi shughuli za siku nzima zijazwe. Kwa mfano, uliza: je, baada ya kuamka ulifanya nini? Kisha mdodoswaji anasimulia alichofanya na kwa muda gani. Kazi ya mdodosaji basi ni kutambua msimbo sahihi unaohusishwa na kila shughuli na kuweka jibu katika kipindi sahihi cha muda. Kisha, mdodosaji anauliza, je, uliwajali pia watoto wakati wa kufanya shughuli hii? Mdodosaji anapaswa kujibu kwa kisanduku ikiwa mdodoswaji pia alikuwa akimtunza mtoto wakati akifanya shughuli nyingine. Hata kama mdodoswaji hamtunzi au kumshughulikia mtoto moja kwa moja au kutangamana na mtoto (kwa mfano, mtoto amelala au anafanya shughuli nyingine), kwa muda wote anapowajibika kwa mtoto wakati huo, inapaswa kuteua msimbo 'Ndiyo' kwenye kisanduku cha G4.02kwa kipindi kifaacho cha muda aliokuwa na mtoto.• Kulingana na muktadha, inaweza pia kuwa muhimu kutumia viashiria vya kawaida vya wakati ili kuwasaidia wadodoswaji kukumbuka shughuli zinazohusiana na matukio mengine ambayo hutokea kwa kutabirika siku nzima (yaani, kila wakati kula chakula cha mchana saa saba, saa za maombi, mawio/machweo, n.k).• Vipindi vya muda vinawekwa alama katika vipindi vya dakika 15 na shughuli moja inaweza kutiwa alama kwa kila kipindi kwa kuandika msimbo wa shughuli kwenye kisanduku. Usiache visanduku vya vipindi vyovyote vikiwa wazi. Ikiwa shughuli itafanywa kwa muda mrefu zaidi (zaidi ya dakika 15), msimbo sawa wa shughuli unapaswa kurudiwa kwa muda wote wa shughuli. Kwa mfano, ikiwa shughuli 'E' ilifanywa kwa saa moja, basi alama 'E' inapaswa kutiwa katika visanduku vinne mfululizo.• Hakikisha kuwa alama zako zinaeleweka kwa uwazi. Hupaswi kamwe kuwa na zaidi ya shughuli moja iliyotiwa alama katika kipindi cha muda. Ikiwa mdodoswaji alikuwa akifanya mambo mengi (kwa mfano kula kifungua kinywa na kusikiliza redio) muulize mdodoswaji ni shughuli gani kati ya hizo mbili ambayo ilikuwa ya msingi kwa wakati huo na uweke msimbo wa shughuli hiyo msingi kwa muda ufaao. Ikiwa shughuli ya pili ni kumtunza mtoto, hakikisha pia umeteua kisanduku cha G4.02.• Ikiwa shughuli imekamilika kwa muda wa chini ya dakika tatu lakini umetumia sehemu kubwa ya dakika 15 (hadi dakika 8), basi weka alama kwenye kisanduku kizima cha shughuli hiyo. Aidha, ikiwa shughuli imekamilika kwa sehemu ndogo au chache ndani ya dakika 15 (chini ya dakika 8) basi usihesabu shughuli kwenye jedwali. Kwa mfano, ikiwa mdodoswaji alikula/kunywa kwa dakika 20, sanduku moja tu linafaa kujazwa (dakika 15 zinahesabiwa na dakika 5 zilizobaki zinapotea kwa sababu hazifiki dakika 8). Ikiwa hata hivyo, mdodoswaji alikula/kunywa kwa dakika 25, basi masanduku mawili ya dakika 15 yanapaswa kujazwa (dakika 15 kwenye kisanduku cha kwanza na dakika 10 kwenye kisanduku cha pili). Sanduku haliwezi kugawanywa kamwe.• Wakati mdodoswaji anapoelezea shughuli nyingi katika kipindi kifupi, kama vile utaratibu wao wa asubuhi, tumia uamuzi wako bora kubainisha ni kategoria gani za shughuli nyingi zinapatikana na ujaze gridi hiyo ya saa kwa kipindi hicho.• Usiache kamwe nyongeza ya dakika 15 ikiwa wazi. Masaa yote 24 yanapaswa kuelezwa yalivyotumika.Mfano: Katika mchoro ulio hapa chini, tunaweza kuona kwamba mdodoswaji alikuwa amelala au kupumzika hadi saa 11:30 asubuhi. Saa 11:30 asubuhi alisikiliza redio kwa dakika 30, ikifuatiwa na kula kifungua kinywa kwa dakika 15 na kuoga na kuvaa kwa dakika 15. Saa 12:30 asubuhi safari kwenda dukani kwa muda wa nusu saa kisha alianza kufanya kazi katika duka, ambayo aliendelea kwa masaa mawili na nusu iliyofuata.4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00Orodha ya shughuli ni ya jumla kwa hivyo inaweza kuwa jambo ambalo mdodoswaji amefanya halijaelezewa miongoni mwa shughuli zilizoorodheshwa. Kwanza tafakari kama shughuli anayoisema mdodoswaji inalingana na shughuli nyingine zozote ambazo hazikuchapishwa awali.Ikiwa hakuna shughuli sawia kwenye orodha iniyouchapishwa, basi tumia msimbo wa \"Nyingine, taja\" kisha kuielezea kwa undani iwezekanavyo shughuli hiyo. Iwapo kuna zaidi ya shughuli moja inayolingana na msimbo wa 'Nyingine, taja', hakikisha kuwa kuna maelezo tofauti kwa kila shughuli.Kazi rasmi na shule hupewa kipau mbele kuliko shughuli zingine. Utunzaji wa kibinafsi, kula, kusoma, kusafiri, n.k. wakati wa kazi na saa za shule kila mara inafaa kutumia msimbo wa kazi/shule, bila kuzitofautisha kuonyesha (km. usitofautishe wakati wa kula na wakati wa kufanya kazi rasmi ikiwa mtu atakula kwa muda katikati ya masaa ya kazi). Hata hivyo, mapumziko rasmi yanarekodiwa kama kula, utunzaji wa kibinafsi, ununuzi au chochote ambacho kimefanywa.Shughuli nyingi, kama vile ununuzi, zinahusishwa na usafari. Ikiwa safari kama hiyo ndio sehemu ndefu zaidi ya kipindi cha dakika 15, inapaswa kunakiliwa kama kusafiri (Msimbo \"U\". Usafiri mahususi wa kwenda na kutoka kazini au shuleni unapaswa kurekodiwa kama kusafiri tofauti (msimbo \"T\").Kumbuka: Jalada la GL la shughuli linajumuisha vipengele VYOTE vya kategoria. Kwa mfano, kuhusiana na ufugaji mifugo kubwa (kama vile ng'ombe) hii inamaanisha muda unaotumika kulisha ng'ombe, kukamua ng'ombe na kusindika na kuuza maziwa kutoka kwa ng'ombe.A Kuuza bidhaa na/au huduma dukani, kwa ajili ya mtu binafsi au mwanakaya Inajumuisha shughuli zote za mauzo zinazofanywa katika eneo (duka) aidha kwa biashara za kibinafsi au za familia. Kumbuka: hii haijumuishi mauzo ya bidhaa za ziada kutoka kwa kilimo cha kaya, uvuvi na kazi za nguo ambazo si sehemu ya shughuli za biashara. B Kuuza bidhaa na/au huduma nyumba kwa nyumba, kwa ajili ya mtu binafsi au mwanakaya Inajumuisha shughuli zote za mauzo ya kuhama hama (kuhama kutoka sehemu moja hadi nyingine) zinazofanywa kwa biashara yako mwenyewe au ya familia. Kumbuka: hii ni kawaida ya huduma kama vile utoaji wa afya ya wanyama lakini inaweza pia kujumuisha uuzaji wa bidhaa. Kwa bidhaa, hii haijumuishi mauzo ya bidhaa za ziada kutoka kwa kilimo cha kaya, uvuvi na kazi za nguo ambazo si sehemu ya shughuli za biashara. C Kutafuta na kusafirisha bidhaa kwa ajili ya biashara mfano vifaranga vya kutwa, majani ya shahawa, malisho, madawa n.kHii inajumuisha muda unaotumika kununua na kuleta bidhaa ambazo biashara inafanyia mauzo au malighafi. Hii inajumuisha kuhudhuria madarasa na kufanya kazi za shuleni. Kumbuka kuwa utunzaji wa kibinafsi na mapumziko mafupi wakati wa saa za shule huchukuliwa kama shule. Fanya kazi (kwa hivyo jumuisha muda wote uliotumika shuleni). P Kupika Inajumuisha muda unaotumika kupata chakula sokoni (lakini si muda wa usafiri, ambao huhesabiwa chini ya usafiri), kuandaa chakula cha kupika, muda wa kupika na muda wa kufanya usafi baadaye.Haijumuishi muda uliotumika kuvuna mazao (weka katika 'kilimo/mifugo/uvuvi'). Q Kazi za ndani (pamoja na kuteka maji, mafuta)Inajumuisha kazi zote za nyumbani zisizolipwa kama vile kuteka maji na kutafuta kuni, kusafisha, kufua nguo na kazi nyingine za nyumbani (bila kupika). Kazi za nyumbani zinazolipwa huhesabiwa kama 'kazi kama kuajiriwa.' R Kutunza watoto Kulea watoto kunahusisha kuwalinda 'moja kwa moja' na 'kufanya majukumu mengine'. S Kutunza watu wazima (wagonjwa, wazee)Inajumuisha utunzaji usiolipwa kwa watu wote nyumbani na nje ya nyumbani. Utunzaji unaolipwa unahesabiwa kama 'kazi kama uliyoajiriwa.' T Kusafiri (kwenda/kutoka kazini au shuleni)Usafiri kwenda na kurudi kazini au shuleni.U Kusafiri (kusiko kwa kazi au shule)Usafiri unajumuisha safari zote, isipokuwa kutembea na kusafiri wakati wa kazi. Inajumuisha kutembea ikiwa lengo sio kufanya mazoezi. Safari ndefu zitatenganishwa na shughuli kama vile kula, utunzaji wa kibinafsi, n.k. V Kufanya mazoezi Aina zote za shughuli za michezo ya viungo ikiwa ni pamoja na kutembea, ikiwa lengo sio kuhama kutoka sehemu moja hadi nyingine (ambayo inahesabiwa kama 'kusafiri na kutembea'). W Shughuli za kijamii na burudani Kitengo hiki kinanakili shughuli zozote za kijamii, kama vile kuketi na familia, kutembelea marafiki, kuzungumza kwa simu na marafiki, kutembelea sehemu ya kunywa au mkahawa na marafiki, kwenda kutazama shughuli za michezo n.k. Aina hii pia inajumuisha shughuli za ngono ikiwa si kazi ya kulipwa (vinginevyo inaweza kunakiliwa kama 'kazi uliyoajiriwa' au 'biashara yako mwenyewe'). Pia inajumuisha shughuli za bustani, uvuvi na shughuli zingine za uzalishaji ikiwa ni za kufurahisha tu. Aina zote za shughuli za michezo ya viungo ikiwa ni pamoja na kutembea, ikiwa lengo sio kuhama kutoka sehemu moja hadi nyingine (ambayo inahesabiwa kama 'kusafiri na kutembea'). X Shughuli za kidini Jumuisha kuhudhuria ibada, maombi au shughuli/sherehe zingine za kidini. Kumbuka kwamba ikiwa mtu huyo ni Mchungaji, Imamu au mtu mwingine anayefanya hii kama kazi/kazi yao, inapaswa kuhesabiwa katika kategoria ya 'kazi iliyoajiriwa' na si kama shughuli ya kidini. Y Kufuma / kushona / utunzaji wa nguo Inajumuisha kazi ya nguo za kuuza na matumizi yako mwenyewe lakini haijumuishi ukarabati wa nguo (nakili kama 'kazi ya ndani'). Z Ukulima, kilimo cha mimea Shughuli zote zinazofanywa kwa mazao ya biashara na/au mazao yanayopandwa kimsingi kwa matumizi ya chakula (mboga, kahawa, matunda, mpunga, mahindi, mihogo, mtama, ngano). Hii ni pamoja na usindikaji baada ya kuvuna shambani na nyumbani bila kujali kama inazalisha mapato au kwa matumizi ya nyumbani. A A Ufugaji wa mifugo (ng'ombe, kuku, kondoo n.k.) Kulisha, kufuga, kuchunga, kupeleka ng'ombe, ndege,kondoo, mbuzi na kadhalika sokoni; usindikaji wa bidhaa na kupeleka bidhaa sokoni.AB Ununuzi / kupata huduma (pamoja na huduma za afya) kilimo cha bustani Inajumuisha utunzaji wa kibinafsi unaolipwa, kama vile kunyoa nywele, kutembelea daktari au kituo cha afya (kupata huduma za afya), huduma ya gari na benki, n.k. Usafiri wowote unaohusishwa na ununuzi utajulikana kama kusafari. Kutazama runinga/kusikiliza redio/kusoma Inajumuisha kutazama runinga, kusikiliza redio na/au kusoma.• G4.05: Je, katika saa 24 zilizopita ulifanya kazi kidogo kuliko kawaida, takriban sawa na kawaida au zaidi ya kawaida? Lengo la swali hili, ni kutaka kujua jinsi siku iliyotangulia ya mdodoswaji inalingana na utaratibu wake wa kawaida.o Kwa swali hili, kazi inafafanuliwa kama shughuli zote za riziki zinazofanywa nyumbani au nje ya nyumba, zinazolipwa au zisizolipwa, pamoja na kazi za nyumbani. Tunavutiwa tu na jumla ya muda unaotumika kufanya kazi (mtazamo wa mdodoswaji kuhusu'uzito wa kazi'), kwa hivyo ni sawa ikiwa mdodoswaji atajibu 'kama vile kawaida, lakini kwa kazi tofauti.'Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu vyanzo vya mapato kwa kaya ya mdodoswaji.Tanguliza sehemu kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa:\"Tungependa kujua kuhusu vyanzo mbalimbali vya mapato ya kaya yako (HH)\".G13.01: Je, kaya yako inapata mapato kutoka kwa chanzo hiki? -nia hapa ni kujua ni vyanzo vipi vya mapato kwa wanakaya, sio tu mdodoswaji bali hata wengine. Maswali yanayofuata yanahusisha kurekodi ni nani katika kaya anapata mapato kutoka kwa kila chanzo, nani hufanya uamuzi juu ya nini cha kufanya na pesa kutoka kwa chanzo mara nyingi na, kupanga vyanzo kwa mpangilio kwanzia kile kilicho muhimu zaidi kwa kaya zao. Umuhimu unaweza kupimwa kwa mtazamo wa thamani ya mapato au kipimo kingine. Hata hivyo, unapaswa kumruhusu mdodoswaji aamue ni vipimo vipi vya kutumia katika ukadiriaji wa chanzo muhimu zaidi.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu uaminifu na uhusiano wa heshima kati ya mume na mke, kati ya watoa maamuzi wawili wa kaya (ambapo mwamuzi si mpenzi), au uhusiano mwingine wa karibu na kaya katika suala la kufanya maamuzi pale ambapo hakuna mume/mke na hakuna mtu mzima mwingine anayefanya maamuzi.• Kumbuka: Aidha safu mlalo A au B ZINAHITAJIKA; lakini ikiwa zote mbili hazitumiki, basi safu mlalo B ni SI LAZIMA. Ongeza safu kuuliza kuhusu watu walio nje ya kaya kama mama mkwe anayeishi nje ya kaya na wake wenza katika kaya zenye wake wengi.• G7.01: MUHIMU: weka kitambulisho cha mwanakaya # ambacho kinalingana na mtu aliyeorodheshwa kwenye safu mlalo.Madhumuni ya moduli hii ni kupata taarifa kuhusu imani ya mdodoswaji kujihusu (kujiamini) na uwezo wao wa kufikia malengo waliyojiwekea.Tanguliza sehemu kwa kumwambia mdodoswaji kuwa: \"Sasa nitakuuliza baadhi ya maswali kuhusu hisia tofauti ambazo unaweza kuwa nazo. Tafadhali sikiliza kila moja ya kauli zifuatazo. Fikiria jinsi kila kauli inavyohusiana na maisha yako, kisha niambie ni kwa kiasi gani unakubali au hukubaliani na kauli hiyo kwa kipimo cha 1 hadi 5, ambapo 1 ina maana \"hukubaliani kabisa\" na 5 inamaanisha \"unakubali sana\".","tokenCount":"8136"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"97a0dc395bbb535d23e9f4e630195213","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bdc63cf2-a0fc-4231-89fb-820a0ce14f2c/retrieve","id":"1386154990"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5d885a40-7cf2-484c-a4a7-d8e984789b26","pagecount":"16","content":"Water, one of the most important natural resources, supports people's daily life, maintains the ecosystems that people rely on, provides transportation, recreation, ecotourism, and much more. Pressures on water resources and disasters are rising primarily due to unequal distribution, urbanization, extreme and frequent drought and flooding, pollution, deforestation, and also partly due to poor knowledge about the distribution of water recourses and poor management of water resources and usage. Remote sensing provides critical data sources for mapping water resources and changes, while GIS provides the best tool for drought and flood risk management, presentation, visualization and publication education.The main objective of this capacity building program is to strengthen the government agencies related to water-related risks institutions as part of the AICCRA and DIWAS initiative for Zambia to improve the extent, quality, and accessibility of early warning on flood and drought information.The training course aims at presenting the open source data and public domain platform capabilities for water resource management, including (i) pre-processing modules to facilitate the preparation of input data, (ii) modeling tools for the analysis of several processes using Google Earth Engine aimed at supporting monitoring of floods and drought indicators, and (iii) postprocessing tools to present knowledge and advisory products for climate adaptation application in Zambia.The training will support the participant in learning the pre-processing tool to provide the user with enhanced time-series processing capabilities and access to various open-source satellite data, learning basic scrips both in Google Earth Engine and Python for activities related to floods and drought in showcasing the application of water resource management (Annex -1). Specifically, the experts will give more focus to Google's GEE platform to showcase largeand small-scale scientific analysis and visualization of geospatial datasets. GEE is widely used by researchers, nonprofit organizations, educators, and governmental agencies to analyze large-scale geospatial data, and is available free of cost for non-commercial users. The initial part of the training course will basically run through basic elements on data storage and developing product, organizing, and demonstrating access to a wide variety of satellite imageries and geospatial datasets to offer global-scale environmental data analysis capabilities. In addition to the tools and cloud computational powers necessary for analyzing large datasets, the GEE platform offers Application Programme Interfaces (APIs) in JavaScript and Python.Overall the training concept will address the potential of the geospatial data sets being used for the mapping, monitoring, and promoting operational capabilities for timely action through (i) the proliferation of open-access satellite data streams, (ii) the advent of cloud computing, and (iii) the growing use of machine-learning algorithms. Not only are far greater volumes of Earth Observation (EO) satellite data available, but the processing and integration of diverse, largevolume data sets are possible with far greater ease, and by a larger number of users than ever before. This combination of factors has opened the doors to broader sets of water resource applications at new spatial and temporal scales that were, until recently, simply impractical or infeasible in the majority of cases.This training offers participants an opportunity to gain hands-on experience using GEE, Python to complete a series of real-world environmental remote sensing projects for beginners, intermediates, and experts. Participants will be able to develop an integrative project that encompasses remotely sensed data inputs, processing, and analyses for an environmental scientific investigation. Prior programming experience and knowledge in JavaScript are required, as the course will touch on the basics of selected programming languages.To achieve the training course (Annex -2) , the IWMI experts will provide concept and theoretical understanding of remote sensing and developing applications for floods and drought with the following set of activities:Activity 1. This session will start with the introduction to remote sensing and GIS and the potential applications in water-related disasters. Theory and hands-on with the use of satellite datasets specifically on the flood and drought mapping using NASA MODIS Terra / Aqua, ESA Sentinel and USGS Landsat data will be trained to the participants.Activity 2 This session will start with an overview presentation of \"advance data processing using Python and automation\", followed by a hands-on workshop that takes participants through the basics of getting up and running with Python and related tools. Basic python tools including rainfall data analysis, data processing, clip, mosaic, and visualization skills to be trained. The hands-on will include satellite data processing and calculation of vegetation parameters, developing drought and flood indices, and comparison with multiyear time series data.Activity 3 This session will start with an overview presentation of \"What Is Earth Engine\", followed by a hands-on workshop that takes participants through the basics of getting up and running with Earth Engine. You will learn how to perform complex, large-scale tasks such as time-series compositing and supervised classification using the Earth Engine API and interactive development environment. The hands-on training includes flood mapping using ESA Sentinel-1 or Landsat, crop mapping using Sentinel-2, surface water dynamics, vegetation monitoring using NDVI, VHI and related indices; Activity 4 This session will cover field data collection using ODK (Open Data Kit) for integration of near real-time information for drought and flood reporting. ODK is a free and open-source software for collecting, managing and using data in resource-constrained environments. Training experts will demonstrate the ODK application in drought monitoring application and help the participant to help collect data through ODK as part of the training course.The training program was organized through the funding support from Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA), World Bank and Digital Innovation for Water Secure Africa Initiatives (DIWASA), Helmsley Foundation.The participant will have greater insights into the potential of open source satellite data and its application in water resource management. Further, the participant will have the ability to apply the tools namely Google Earth Engine, Python, and related remote sensing software. Lastly, the training program will highlight the One CGIAR ClimBeR initiative on the synergies with the early warning component with the development of the AWARE (Early Warning, Early Action and Early Finance) platform to address food and nutrition security among vulnerable households.Name Designation Email WhatsApp Amarnath Giriraj Principal Researcher a.giriraj@cgiar.org +94 767770046 Niranga Alahacoon Researcher n.alahacoon@cgiar.org +94 773646536 Surajit Ghosh Regional Researcher s.ghosh@cgiar.org +91 8171082366A total of 24 participants were represented from 8 institutions (WARMA, ZMD, Ndola City Council, IAPRI, Mulungushi University, ZRCS, NRSC and ZAMSTATS). Refer annex below for the details (Annex -3).Technical experts introduced with a presentation on the potential application of flood and drought monitoring and early warning using geospatial data, tools and models including earth engine (EE). The various example presented to participants to get an understanding of the EE capabilities and how the training provides an opportunity to utilize the remote sensing products in a timely decision making process.Later the experts delivered a lecture on the basics of remote sensing and GIS to help understand the characteristics of remote sensing sensors and their capabilities in mapping and monitoring environmental issues.The second half of the day was dedicated to the hands-on session by introducing earth engine basics, working with satellite images, filtering satellite data and image comparison with example data for participants to get familiarized. • https://code.earthengine.google.com/862ad522493ea312fc5a7d7585bcaf0cThe last day of the training continued with EE capabilities of producing composite indices to map drought severity, intensity and frequency using time-series satellite data from rainfall, vegetation indices to produce vegetation health index (VHI). The participants were explained the advantages of composite indices compared to the single index. Later part of the session focused on the image classification techniques using time-series data to map land use land cover which includes generating training signatures for each land use and applied supervised classification and random forest algorithm to produce the LULC map for Zambia.Training feedback from participants The training period should be increased to atleast 14 days for participant to have enough time grasp the material • Some participants requested specific analysis to be performed at multiple scale and produce product at district, constituency and ward level.• Future training, especially on floods and droughts, need more videos and training materials.Participants were requested to provide future training needs and they are summarized below. Overall, the participants highlighted the need for advance remote sensing, learning the basics of python and java to strengthen EE skills. Specifically, several participants sign up for specific water-related risk applications including early warning.As a next steps, through the joint program of AICCRA, DIWASA and CGIAR ClimBeR initiative, we will be organizing training program on flood forecasting and early warning for a specific river basin in northern Zambia in close collaboration with WARMA as cohost of the proposed training program. Tentatively the meeting will be held on 26 July 2022. We will be developing specific triggers for early warning and strengthening institutional collaboration on early warning early action.• Enter your email, your affiliation and country/region.• Review the terms, verify your non-robot identify and click 'Submit'.• Check your email, including your spam folder, for a link from the Google Developer's Team. • The confirmation email will have directions on how to access the Code Editor.","tokenCount":"1492"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a04f348ce4b035a987c113c9c8273b2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1b7099d0-5e31-4612-ad7e-fcd16a1cbe72/retrieve","id":"315243744"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0223186b-0efc-42c0-baac-c2d2016b3a9a","pagecount":"35","content":"CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.Gender norms, attitudes and practices in rural areas often hamper women's empowerment and their ability to engage in issues that matter in their lives. Constraining gender relations at the household and community levels combined with the limited gender capacities of service providers hinder women's participation in decision-making processes and limit their access to and control over resources, assets and benefits (including information, services and technologies) in livestock development.Addressing constraining gender norms and practices requires inclusive dialogs to change the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of community members and service providers. In recent years, participatory community based approaches have received more attention among development practitioners because of their strong grassroots focus that enables service providers to design informed interventions based on the local context.Gender transformation in small ruminant management can be facilitated through various strategies and one effective approach is through community conversations. These structured dialogs provide a collaborative platform for community members (including women, men and youth) and local service providers to come together and discuss issues related to gender roles, responsibilities and opportunities. Through inclusive dialogs and collaborative learning processes, the underlying gender values and norms that shape the behaviors and attitudes of community members and service providers as well as the patterns of interactions between women and men can be explored and addressed.The community conversations interventions are implemented through trained local research and development partners. The facilitator guide aims to provide step-by-step instructions and resources for local facilitators to effectively lead and guide interactive discussions and activities that promote gender equality and transformation in small ruminant management. The guide aims to support local community facilitators in creating an inclusive and participatory environment where community members can openly discuss and address gender related issues in small ruminant management. It provides facilitators with the necessary knowledge and tools to engage community members in critical reflections on existing gender roles and norms, identify barriers to gender equality and collectively explore strategies for transforming gender dynamics in small ruminant management.The approach o Community conversations are participatory community engagement and learning processes where community members work with trained facilitators to collectively identify issues, analyze constraints and explore strategies for addressing the issues.o They encourage critical discussions and reflections among women and men community members and local service providers on pertinent issues opening avenues for new ways of thinking and leading to community actions to make desired changes.o The community conversations approach has been applied in different areas and contexts such as education, youth employment, disability, rural health care, women's empowerment and gender equality.o The approach has also been used as a qualitative research method as well as a participatory training method.o The CRP Livestock in Ethiopia adapted the community conversations approach to the livestock development context as a participatory community engagement and training approach. The methodology has proved promising in facilitating collaborative learning, joint analysis and action among community members and service providers to address different livestock development issues.o The approach also supports gender transformation efforts in livestock development.Pre Key issues in small ruminant management (with a focus on goat production and marketing) will be explored in a gender responsive way and serve as entry points to address constraining gender perceptions and practices at the community, household and service provider levels. The community conversations aim to increase the knowledge and skills of community members in small ruminant management in a gender responsive way.Specifically, the community conversations intervention aims to:o Explore the role of women and men and the gender constraints and knowledge gaps in goat production, marketing and household decision-making in the Baide community.o Assess the transformative changes induced using community conversations at the household, community and organizational levels in the Baide community and local partners through pre-and post-conversation household surveys, focus group discussions, participant observations and key informant interviews.o Empirically prove the role of community conversations as a gender-transformative approach to bring about changes in gender norms and practices at the community, household and institutional levels in the context of small ruminant management.Community conversations can facilitate gender transformation in several ways:o Inclusive participation: Community conversations ensure that women and men community members have an equal opportunity to participate and share their perspectives and experiences. This helps challenge traditional gender norms and promote greater gender equality within the household and community. o Identifying gender specific needs: Community conversations allow community members to identify gender specific needs and constraints in small ruminant management. By discussing these issues collectively, solutions can be co-created to address the specific challenges faced by women and men, ensuring that interventions are gender responsive.o Empowering and developing leadership: Community conversations can empower community members by providing spaces to voice their concerns and opinions. By engaging in dialog, community members can build confidence, develop critical thinking skills and advocate for gender equality within their households and communities. Particularly, community conversations have the potential to empower women by offering them a platform to express their perspectives and make meaningful contributions to decision-making processes. This can help foster women's leadership skills and increase their involvement in livestock related activities.o Knowledge sharing and influencing: Through community conversations, women and men can share their knowledge and experiences in small ruminant management. This exchange of knowledge and information can help break down gender stereotypes and enhance the overall productivity and profitability of small ruminant enterprises.o Creating community solutions: Community conversations serve as a platform to identify solutions and strategies for gender transformation. By collectively brainstorming ideas, community members can develop action plans to address gender inequalities at the household and community level in small ruminant management.Gender transformational changes can be complex and may not occur immediately. They typically take place gradually and demand a range of concerted and supportive efforts. The primary purpose of the community conversations are to initiate initial shifts in awareness and behavior. In the long run, these discussions can lead to significant and lasting transformations in gender dynamics, which may include: A situation assessment was conducted in the Konso Zuria District, using focus group discussions with both women and men community members, as well as with local partners. Furthermore, key informant interviews were conducted with community leaders and partners. The primary objective of the situation assessment was to gain an understanding of the context and challenges surrounding small ruminant management, considering the opportunities and constraints experienced by both women and men community members. Based on the findings of the assessment, the following topics have been identified to be included in the community conversations. o Participating community members are expected to influence their household members, relatives and other community members by sharing information from the conversations using different informal spaces and networks.o Ensure that the same participants complete all rounds of the community conversations as much as possible. o Empowering women: challenging and transforming gender norms and practices; supporting and enabling women to make decisions within the household and community; strengthening women's capability to control resources and benefits; strengthening women's representation and influence in community based decision-making and management structures; women's networks; relational, engagement and demand capacity.o Changes at household and community level: collaborative action and joint decision-making within the household; family support for women's participation; positive community images of women, their roles and their contributions; gender-equitable attitudes; gender capacity of service providers; women's engagement and influencing capacity.o Consider choosing a central location accessible to as many community members as possible.o Open spaces (such as under a tree or a convenient community place) to create easy access to women and men farmers and create a safe/comfortable learning environment.o Circular sitting arrangements that create a level playing field.o Running typically through 2-3 hours and engaging about 50 participants.o Involving both single-and mixed-sex discussion groups.o Half day sessions with about a month interval to allow community members time for reflection and experimentation and cater to farm and household activities.o Four to five rounds of community based training in half day sessions addressing different issues in bite sized content.o Create a safe and inclusive environment where everyone feels comfortable expressing their opinions and sharing their experiences.o Create a space where individuals can openly discuss the impact of gender norms and inequalities on their livelihoods.o Encourage respect for the experience and perception of diverse participants.o Use learning approaches that best fit the group.o Use open ended questions to stimulate diverse responses.o Listen carefully to understand, rephrase and lead a discussion.o Share stories that can serve as inspiration and motivation for others to make positive changes.o Rephrase to clarify understanding and show appreciation.o Redirect to get others involved.o Probe to get more information and views.o Observe to check on who is not participating.o Engage all participants and encourage critical thinking and reflection.o Keep the conversation moving and focused on the task.o Summarize to help participants understand and reach an agreement.o Enable the group to go on a journey of change and transformation.o Capture key issues discussed, agreements, action points and quotes from community conversations without your judgment. o Note what women and men community members say and how they say it. Watch for areas of tension and strong emotion.o Look for turning points in the discussion, where community members were able to break through disagreements, find compromises and/or reach a new level (agreements and decisions).o Actively take notes during opening and closing sessions when local partners make reflections and remarks.o Review the notes with the facilitator(s) immediately and organize the notes into a report as soon as possible after the conversation.o Compare what women and men community members say at the beginning of the discussion with where they have arrived at the end. Community conversations are action-oriented and aim to facilitate gradual and incremental gender transformation at the household, community and service provider levels. By the end of each conversation session, encourage community members and local partners to identify practical community actions to apply the knowledge gained during the conversations. Once community actions are identified and agreed upon, then encourage community members to volunteer to form action-sharing-influencing groups. This aims to support implementing community actions, continue the learning and sharing process and provide peer support and influence. Additionally, local partners should commit to providing technical support to community members in implementing their community actions. This could be in the form of monitoring and mentoring support, documenting early changes and providing problem solving support to community members.Session 1. Animal feed and feeding managementIn this session, community members will explore their gendered perceptions, practices and constraints about animal feed and feeding management. The session aims to facilitate dialog about gender relations in animal feed and feeding management toward more equitable or balanced role sharing.By the end of the session, community members will be able to:o Conserve locally available feed resources.o Produce improved fodder and forages.o Balance gender roles in feed and feeding management. What happens in the welcome and start can set the tone for the rest of the community conversation process.Create a welcoming and friendly atmosphere. Warmly welcome and greet participants as they arrive at the meeting place to establish a friendly relationship.Use circular seating arrangement to facilitate the flow of ideas, thoughts and expressions during the conversations.Open the meeting in a culturally appropriate way. Have community elders/leaders welcome participants and open the meeting with prayers and blessings.Set the tone for interactive discussion and participation by introducing sessions with engaging activities (such as storytelling, picture supported discussion, problem scenarios etc.) that motivate people to learn and share.Introduce the facilitation team, explain the purpose and clarify expectations for the meeting.Activity 2. Exploring community members' animal feed and feeding management practicesEncourage exploratory discussions to analyze the existing feed situation and give community members purpose and motivation to engage actively in community conversations that will lead to action. Note that participants may mention several small ruminant management issues at this stage. As a first round of planned conversations, this helps set the background and introduce the different issues that will be discussed in subsequent conversation sessions. Start from a broader discussion of small ruminant management issues, then narrow the discussion to focus on animal feeds and feed management. Mention that other issues that participants have identified will be discussed in subsequent conversation sessions.Note also that adults are generally motivated by an internal need to develop new skills or learn new practices. Use active learning methods (such as problem scenarios, picture analysis or storytelling) to introduce learning topics more engagingly and motivate learners.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Mention that you will divide participants into small groups to discuss these issues in more depth.Have separate women and men discussion groups to explore gendered perceptions of the current feed situation and feed and feeding management practices of the community.Assign facilitators and note takers for the group discussions.Take pictures of group discussions with consent.o Create an inclusive environment and use inclusive language.o Provide sufficient time and space for participants to gather their thoughts and contribute to discussions.o Use discussion questions to guide the conversations. Adapt and contextualize the questions as necessary and develop talking points with a clear flow to lead the conversations. Make probing as necessary to encourage deep thought and get more information.o Make sure that the discussion questions are sufficiently explored and that women and men participants get the opportunity to share their views or experiences. o Always keep eye contact with the participants. Do not keep eye contact only with a person speaking but keep eye contact with others as well.o Keep the discussion on track and manage time properly.o Paraphrase and Summarize before you move to another discussion question.Use the following discussion questions to guide the conversations. Ask women and men participants to explore and share their experiences and stories around their existing feed situation.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Existing Ask group note takers to report back the main findings from the group discussions.Summarize and identify the main knowledge and practice gaps.Impart new knowledge to address the knowledge and practice gaps or supplement existing knowledge and practices.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating the following key action messages. Adjust the messages based on the exploratory discussion (i.e. the main knowledge and practice gaps identified).o Adequate and balanced feed supply is important because it has a direct impact on the growth rate, production and reproduction capacity and health status of the animal.o Avoid underfeeding and overfeeding animals.o Feed animals adequate and good quality feed (clean and uncontaminated).o Select feed properly so that animals get a balanced diet that comprises essential nutrients.o Categorize animal feeds as roughages and concentrates and discuss feed types based on nutritive content: water, dry matter, protein, carbohydrate, fat, minerals and vitamins.o Improve the nutritive value and palatability of low quality feed resources through supplementation and simple technologies like physical and urea treatment.o Mix and feed balanced cost rations for more efficient and effective use of available feed resources.o Provide animals with adequate and clean water and mineral supplements.o Plant improved forages in different production strategies (e.g. live fence, intercropping, crop rotation) to enhance feed availability and improve animal diets by supplementing natural pastures and crop residues. o Ask women and men community members what practical actions they will take to improve the availability and quality of feed resources and how they balance gender roles in feed and feeding management practices.o Document the identified community actions.o Ask community members to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to implement the agreed community actions.o Ask partners to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to support (follow up, monitor and mentor) community members in implementing the agreed community actions. o Clarify expectations for the next meeting. Explain that participants (community members and partners) will be asked to share the progress made toward meeting the agreed community actions.o Close the meeting on a positive note.o Invite community elders/leaders to close the meeting with prayers and blessings.o Meaning making of the conversations o Capturing key emerging issues, themes and actions Session 2. Animal husbandry and welfare managementIn this session, community members will engage in experiential discussion to explore gendered perceptions, opportunities and constraints in animal husbandry and welfare management.By the end of the session, community members will be able to:o Analyze labor and time demand of livestock activities for women and men.o Explore perceptions about gender division of labor and valuation of women's roles in livestock husbandry.o Identify opportunities and constraints for women and men in livestock husbandry and welfare management.o Propose actions for equitable gender division of labor in livestock husbandry. o share how they applied the learning/implement community actions.o share challenges they faced in implementing the community actions.Invite action-learning-sharing volunteers to share their experiences and how they influenced other community members.Summarize and highlight the main learning applications and appreciate community members for the great changes they have made.Introduce the topic of the day.Activity 2. Exploring community members' animal husbandry and welfare management practicesEncourage interactive discussion to explore community members' animal husbandry and welfare management practices.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Then, have separate women and men discussion groups to explore gendered perceptions and practices of livestock husbandry and welfare management.Assign facilitators and note takers for the group discussions.Take pictures of group discussions.Animal o What is the link between watering and feeding animals?Activity 3. Introducing new knowledgeBring groups together.Ask group note takers to report back the main findings from the group discussions.Summarize and identify the main knowledge and practice gaps.Impart new knowledge to address the knowledge and practice gaps or supplement existing knowledge and practices.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating key action messages.o Select a dry and higher place for making a goat house.o Always ensure a huge flow of light and air inside the house.o The house must have adequate space and be comfortable enough for the goats.o Always keep the floor of the house dry.o Adjust breeding/mating times so that kidding occurs at a favorable time for survival.o Properly managing the flock during gestation and at kidding can significantly reduce kid mortality.o Determine the time of weaning based on the amount of feed and water the kids are consuming.o Providing small volumes of targeted feed to young stock can help rumen development prior to weaning and fill nutrition gaps when dams are off grazing.o Ask women and men community members what practical actions they will take to improve their animal husbandry and welfare management practices.o Document the identified community actions.o Ask community members to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to implement the agreed community actions.o Ask partners to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to support (follow up, monitor) community members in implementing the agreed community actions. o Clarify expectations for the next meeting. Explain that participants (community members and partners) will be asked to share the progress made toward meeting the agreed community actions.o Close the meeting on a positive note.o Invite community elders/leaders to close the meeting with prayers and blessings.o Meaning making of the conversations o Capturing emerging issues and themesIn this session, community members will explore their existing small ruminant flock health management practices, identify areas of improvement and take practical actions to prevent and control the transmission of common small ruminant diseases and reduce their economic and public health impacts.o By the end of the session, community members will be able to:o Identify major diseases that affect the health, productivity and welfare of small ruminants.o Explain the economic and public health impacts of major small ruminant diseases.o Explain intrahousehold impacts of major small ruminant diseases.o Identify causes and transmission pathways of major small ruminant diseases.o Implement improved flock health management measures. o share how they applied the learning/implement community actions.o share challenges they faced in implementing the community actions.Invite action-learning-sharing volunteers to share their experiences and how they influenced other community members.Summarize and highlight the main learning applications and appreciate community members for the great changes they have made.Introduce the topic of the day.Encourage discussion to explore community members' flock health management practices.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Then, have separate women and men discussion groups to explore gendered flock health management practices, opportunities and constraints.Assign facilitators and note takers for the group discussions.Take pictures of group discussions.Major Bring groups together.Ask group note takers to report back the main findings from the group discussions.Summarize and identify the main knowledge and practice gaps.Impart new knowledge to address the knowledge and practice gaps or supplement existing knowledge and practices.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating key action messages.Note that the following points are recommended messages. Adjust messaging based on the findings of the exploratory discussion (main knowledge and practice gaps identified).Discuss common small ruminant diseases (focusing on goats) that prevail in the community, their clinical signs, transmission pathways and prevention and control measures, asking farmers to share their experiences.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating the following messages.o Infectious and parasitic diseases are common diseases affecting goats.o Viruses, parasites and bacteria are the most common disease causing pathogens.o Disease agents can be transmitted to animals either directly or indirectly.o Prevention is better than treatment.o Keep your animals appropriately vaccinated and dewormed.o Treat any sign of illness promptly.o Improve the health and welfare of your animals through good husbandry practices and biosecurity measures.o Nutrition, sanitation, biosecurity and regular vaccination are primary modes of prevention of infectious diseases.o Avoid stress for your animals.o When an animal gets sick, separate it from the rest of your animals to prevent the infection from spreading.o Use antimicrobials responsibly.o Handle waste from treated animals more carefully.o Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through unsafe handling and consuming animal source foods, environment and contact with sick animals or attending parturition.o Use protective gear correctly when you are in contact with sick animals, cleaning barns and attending births.o Bury dead animals and goats and sheep heads. o Ask women and men community members what practical actions they will take to improve their flock health management practices.o Document the identified community actions.o Ask community members to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to implement the agreed community actions.o Ask partners to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to support (follow up, monitor) community members in implementing the agreed community actions. o Agree on the next meeting.o Introduce the topic of the next meeting.o Clarify expectations for the next meeting. Explain that participants (community members and partners) will be asked to share the progress made toward meeting the agreed community actions.Closing:o Close the meeting on a positive note.o Invite community elders/leaders to close the meeting with prayers and blessings.o Meaning making of the conversations o Capturing emerging issues and themes Session 4. Inclusive small ruminant marketingIn this session, community members will discuss their gendered small ruminant marketing practices, opportunities, needs and challenges.o By the end of the session, community members will be able to:o Identify existing small ruminant marketing practices.o Identify their small ruminant marketing needs.o Explore opportunities and constraints women and men have in small ruminant marketing.o Explore opportunities and challenges for collective small ruminant marketing. o recall what they learned in the previous session.o share how they applied the learning/implement community actions.o share challenges they faced in implementing the community actions.Invite action-learning-sharing volunteers to share their experiences and how they influenced other community members.Summarize and highlight the main learning applications and appreciate community members for the great changes they have made.Introduce the topic of the day.Activity 2. Exploring community members' small ruminant marketing practices, needs and challengesEncourage discussion to explore community members' small ruminant marketing practices, opportunities and constraints.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Then, have separate women and men discussion groups to explore gendered livestock marketing practices, needs and challenges.Assign facilitators and note takers for the group discussions.Take pictures of group discussions.Small ruminant marketing practices, needs and challenges  Ask group note takers to report back the main findings from the group discussions.Summarize and identify the main knowledge and practice gaps.Impart new knowledge to address the knowledge and practice gaps or supplement existing knowledge and practices.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating key action messages.o The type of livestock species owned by women is context-specific and ownership patterns may change over time.o Ownership patterns can be determined by intrahousehold allocation rules as well as by the broader sociocultural context.o Smallholder farmers face many market challenges such as low prices, weak bargaining power, lack of market information, high transaction costs, lack of group action to bulk produce, distance to nearest markets, lack of marketing infrastructure, erratic and unorganized market and lack of market linkage facilitation support.o Compared to men, women often lack market contacts and information. Livestock traders offer lower prices to women because they have weak bargaining power and fewer options for selling animals in far markets.o Collective marketing groups are formed based on self-selection among closely related farmers who know each other relatively well. The basic objective of the groups is to increase market participation and the price per head of the sheep and goats they supply to the market.o Collective marketing action increases the bargaining power and income of group members and access to services such as market information, market linkage facilitation support and extension and advisory support. o Ask women and men community members what practical actions they will take to improve their small ruminant marketing practices and facilities.o Document the identified community actions.o Ask community members to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to implement the agreed community actions.o Ask partners to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to support (follow up, monitor) community members in implementing the agreed community actions. o Clarify expectations for the next meeting. Explain that participants (community members and partners) will be asked to share the progress made toward meeting the agreed community actions.o Close the meeting on a positive note.o Invite community elders/leaders to close the meeting with prayers or blessings.o Meaning making of the conversations o Capturing emerging issues and themesSession 5. Gender relations and decision-makingIn this session, community members will explore gender values, norms and practices that shape intrahousehold and community gender relations and decision-making patterns. They will critically examine and challenge their own gender perceptions and attitudes that will lead to shifts in gender relations in the household and community.By the end of the session, community members will be able to:o Identify sociocultural and structural factors that influence women's mobility and access to livestock information and services.o Explain the position of women in the household and community groups (breeding cooperatives).o Critically evaluate gender values and norms that define women's relations in the household and community.o Identify communication and information-sharing patterns in the household and community and explain their consequences on women's empowerment and gender equality. o share challenges they faced in implementing the community actions.Invite action-learning-sharing volunteers to share their experiences and how they influenced other community members.Summarize and highlight the main learning applications and appreciate community members for the great changes they have made.Introduce the topic of the day.Activity 2. Exploring gender relations and decision-making patterns in the household and communityEncourage discussion to explore gender norms, values and practices that shape gender relations and decision-making in the household and community.Summarize the discussion and highlight the main points.Then, have separate women and men discussion groups to discuss the issues in more depth.Assign facilitators and note takers for the group discussions.Take pictures of group discussions.Institutional Bring groups together.Ask group note takers to report back the main findings from the group discussions.Summarize and identify the main knowledge and practice gaps.Impart new knowledge to address the knowledge and practice gaps or supplement existing knowledge and practices.Integrate and reinforce learning by communicating the following key action messages. Adjust the messages based on the findings of the exploratory discussion (i.e. the main knowledge and practice gaps identified).o Gender norms, values and practices define relational patterns and influence who relates and interacts with whom, who gets what information and services and who decides on what.o Women, men, boys and girls pursue their interests and livelihoods in the context of institutional structures (formal and informal rules and practices) that govern behavior and expression of voice as well as distribution and control of resources.o Gender biases and capacity gaps both at the extension service and community levels limit gender integration in extension services. o Ask partners what actions they will take to mainstream gender in extension services.o Document the identified community actions.o Ask community members to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to implement the agreed community actions.o Ask partners to reflect on their learning experiences and make commitments to support (follow up, monitor) community members in implementing the agreed community actions. o Clarify expectations for the next meeting. Explain that participants (community members and partners) will be asked to share the progress made toward meeting the agreed community actions.o Close the meeting on a positive note.o Invite community elders/leaders to close the meeting with prayers or blessings. o Analyze the process and findings concerning the purpose and objectives of community conversations.o Identify common patterns, trends or divergent viewpoints that emerged.o Offer insights or explanations for why certain concerns or ideas were prevalent.o A few bullet points of commitments from partners (animal health team leader, development agent, other focal points) on how they plan to integrate the community based training into their regular extension activities and provide monitoring and mentoring support for community members in implementing their community actions.o A few descriptions/bullet points of the overall mentoring and monitoring approach and process planned. o Were participants equally engaged (men and women)? What were the issues raised by women and men community members?o What do we need to change for the next conversation session?o Has there been evidence of change in attitudes and perspectives from the previous session?o How do we consider the level of learning in the community, any evidence?o How can we follow up on this session in the next conversation session?","tokenCount":"5019"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aa003b46475b661ded06f23c6cd6613f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b02d2da0-d785-4200-943f-1d7bb70ea168/retrieve","id":"-37274876"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aca6f662-051f-4c33-9096-167086996c54","pagecount":"63","content":"Pastoral populations of sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to losses in wealth and productive assets via herd mortality shocks. Although conventional insurance mechanisms covering individual losses are not cost effective in lowincome extensive grazing pastoral communities, index insurance for livestock offers a promising alternative. This paper identifies regions most suitable for an index-based livestock insurance product: areas predicted to have high covariate risk from drought, high potential demand for a livestock insurance product, and supporting market infrastructure for an insurance product. Our findings support current efforts to implement index insurance in Kenya and Ethiopia, and reveal additional areas for geographic expansion in western and southern Africa.Tables Table 1: Countries ranked by TLUs (Top 10). See appendix for complete table (A1) 7Table 2: First-level administrative units ranked by TLUs (Top 10). See appendix for complete table (A2) 8FiguresFigure 1: Initial target area of UNEP arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones (in grey) overlaid on a political map of global administrative unit layers (GAUL, Figure A1) from the FAO Figure 2: Refined target area (blue) when subtracting areas of at least 2% cropland. Also pictured is the nearly identical ten% cropland tolerance target area (red) which overlays the unrefined target area of arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones (grey) Pastoralism, characterized by extensive livestock herding and management, constitutes a significant and vital component of the African economy. 1 There are an estimated 50 million pastoralists and agro-pastoralists active in sub-Saharan Africa today (Rass 2006), many of whom reside in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) where climatic factors severely constrain or prohibit economic diversification in agricultural production. ASAL populations are, therefore, particularly vulnerable to losses in wealth and productive assets via herd mortality shocks, potentially rendering extensive grazing pastoralists victim to poverty traps (McPeak and Barrett 2001).Unfortunately, conventional insurance is subject to high information and transaction costs that effectively price out many smallholders, and is therefore typically not a suitable solution for improving the welfare of low-income ASAL pastoralists.Offering a livestock insurance product based on individual losses requires verification, which proves prohibitively costly in expansive rural areas with little infrastructure (Mahul et al. 2009). Other concerns include adverse selection (an insured client may have superior knowledge about his or her own herd mortality risk relative to insurers) and moral hazard (e.g. neglecting livestock once insured), both of which can render the product unsustainable, and difficulties validating claims in remote locations.Index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) is a viable solution for insuring livestock losses from covariate shocks in places where traditional insurance is not viable. Unlike traditional insurance, index insurance uses an external indicator to assess losses on an aggregate level over a particular area. Index insurance is also less susceptible to moral hazard-payout is independent of an insured client's individual behavior-and adverse selection as the index is created from external variables unrelated to individual-specific risk.A recent example highlighting the promise of IBLI comes from the Kenya's Marsabit district, where drought contributes to 62% of reported livestock mortality (Jensen et al. 2014), motivating the construction of an index measuring covariate drought risk from low levels of forage scarcity. The resulting IBLI pilot program made use of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), leveraging relatively low-cost and long-recorded satellite readings of plant photosynthetic activity to estimate a statistical relationship between NDVI and herd mortality from historical data. 2 The constructed IBLI index 1. ILRI scientists estimate 'pastoralism contributes between 10 and 44% of the GDP of African countries', and is particularly important in sustaining poor rural populations (Boto and La Peccerella 2009).2. Between 2010 and 2012, the IBLI Marsabit index predicted livestock mortality rates using a response function of NDVI that was developed using 20 years of historic NDVI and livestock mortality rates (Chantarat et al. 2013). Starting in 2013, the IBLI Marsabit index has no longer explicitly predicted livestock mortality rates. Similar to the IBLI-Ethiopia product launched in August 2012 and other IBLI products in Kenya, the IBLI Marsabit product now makes indemnity payments according to an index developed using only NDVI values.therefore serves as a proxy for livestock mortality and triggers automatic payouts without the need for costly verification on a case-by-case basis. Evidence from the pilot indicates that IBLI successfully insured pastoralists during a drought period and, for simulated full coverage, reduced household exposure to risk from large covariate shocks by 63% (Jensen et al. 2016).Insurance or lottery ticket?Despite its potential benefits, index insurance does not necessarily imply full-indeed any-risk coverage. Because the IBLI product is designed to cover covariate risk, individual gains or losses that deviate from the index are not compensated. An insured client, therefore, might not lose any livestock during a drought and still be paid an indemnity, or lose a significant portion of his or her herd without indemnity during a period where the index does not reach its threshold for payouts.Gains and losses that are imperfectly correlated with the realized index payout are defined as basis risk. For IBLI, basis risk applies narrowly to any losses from lack of vegetation beyond a certain threshold that are not appropriately compensated by the index payout. Other risk is also present through factors not captured under NDVI, including disease, predation, or armed conflict. If basis risk is sufficiently high, index insurance can increase the level of an insured agent's income risk, rendering the IBLI product a gamble instead of a source of income smoothing. In Marsabit, IBLI effectively reduced downside risk exposure by 30%, with the remaining 69% of downside risk largely deriving from idiosyncratic risk not covered by the index (Jensen et al. 2014). The fine line between an insurance product that covers risk and a product that produces risk motivates the need to characterize regions most suitable for index insurance. These most suitable regions will exhibit low basis risk, where covariate losses correlate well with the NDVI-backed IBLI index.Climatic constraints: Constructing a target areaIn order to characterize regions suitable for index insurance for pastoral populations, we first isolate areas where (1) extensive grazing pastoralists reside and where (2) populations are exposed to high covariate risk from herd mortality. Surveyed literature indicates African pastoralists are largely confined to semi-arid zones (FAO 2001), with some possible presence in arid and dry sub-humid zones. 3 Our first step, therefore, is to identify areas of the continent that fall within arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones (Figure 1).We acquired the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) world aridity index measuring average annual precipitation in millimetres per day divided by average annual potential evapotranspiration. The UNEP index was selected because it serves as a more sophisticated indicator of climate than precipitation averages alone and includes self-defined index cutoffs for arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zone classification. These zones cover a relatively wide swath of area compared to zoning based on precipitation averages, ensuring that most significant pastoral populations are included in the desired region. The UNEP aridity index also features thirty consecutive years of consistent data collection. Leaving aside hyper-arid and humid regions provides a preliminary climatic target region where pastoralism is viable on the African continent. It is worth noting that NDVI already serves as an index for offering index insurance in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones. NDVI offers remotely sensed data for vegetation-an indicator of drought events that are the primary cause of herd mortality, and an indicator of other forage scarcity events that raise mortality-and is freely and openly available. NDVI is also preprocessed, which provides an advantage in transparency (Chantarat et al. 2013). Additional advantages in confining our target area to arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones include the fact that NDVI and other remotely sensed measures are ideal for spatially extensive averages and that there exists at least some level of exposure to extreme drought events in these areas, implying a level of covariate risk within the target area.Having confined our target area for index insurance via climatic variables, we then refine our target area by focusing on regions more suited for extensive grazing pastoralists in contrast to more sedentized agro-pastoralists, who are able to better diversify sources of income and may be less susceptible to covariate shocks identified by remotely sensed data. Although cropping is not unheard of amongst pastoral populations, subtracting areas of significant agricultural activity from our target area allows us to isolate pastoral populations with a high proportion of covariate risk to total risk-populations most likely to benefit from an IBLI product. We have taken the effort to remove cropped regions because while there is generally little cropping within our climatic target area, our inclusion of dry sub-humid climates allows for some moderately cropped zones. Cropping within the climatic target area is also possible due to irrigation projects in low-rainfall areas. We, therefore, acquired cropland data from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). The IIASA cropland map (Figure A4) has generated significant media attention and is a (1) reputable and (2) up-to-date hybridization of several existing cropland datasets, providing the most complete cropland dataset on the African continent to date (Vancutsem et al. 2012).Figure 2: Refined target area (blue) when subtracting areas of at least 2% cropland. Also pictured is the nearly identical 10% cropland tolerance target area (red) which overlays the unrefined target area of arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones (grey).We create our refined target area by removing areas with more than 2% cropland per square kilometer from our existing aridity map. Our 2% figure is intended to represent any relevant agricultural production. As a robustness check we also generate a target area using a 10% cutoff, which produces a nearly identical region (Figure 2). Cropping covers approximately 26.964% of the climatic target area with a 2% threshold and 26.909% with a 10% threshold. Overall, the 2% threshold refined target area covers approximately 99.925% of the 10% target area. We do not subtract water bodies from our target area as these places periodically encounter high concentrations of grazing livestock, which if recorded at imprecise resolution can be inadvertently removed in the remaining steps of characterization.Finally, we subtract areas of low variation of the NDVI index to again refine the target area. High variation in vegetation productivity implies index insurance can offer some value to pastoralists (i.e. there's risk to be covered) but sufficiently low variation diminishes the need for IBLI. Using a seasonal layer on NDVI variation and recommendations from Anton Vrieling (Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, University of Twente), we generate a final target area for regions exhibiting an NDVI coefficient of variation of at least 0.1, a conservative lower bound.Having used climatic and cropland data to estimate our target area-the area containing populations most geographically well suited for IBLI-our next step is to estimate areas of high livestock ownership within our target area. These are the places where risk reduction from IBLI can be maximized in absolute terms.  Livestock supply: Finding where IBLI can maximize impactAfrican pastoralists are largely dependent on camels, cattle, sheep and goats, with the former two especially common amongst extensive grazing pastoralists. We acquired data on camels, cattle, sheep and goats generated by ILRI's Tim Robinson and estimates using machine learning techniques applied to subnational livestock figures (Figure 5, Robinson et al. 2006). 4, 5   We identified the data sources as relatively up-to-date (2006-12) and extremely detailed (three arc minute resolution or .05 degrees, fewer than 10km) compared to other published data on livestock distribution. Robinson's 'gridded livestock of the world' (GLW) layers include the additional benefit of accounting for prohibitively steep terrain and certain protected areas, effectively refining our target area. We performed a validation check by aggregating livestock totals by country from ILRI and comparing to reported country-level figures from the FAO.  We then performed a zonal summation of TLU counts within each first-level administrative unit, following a few small manipulations in layering (Figure 6). The critical insight in our methodology is that we only include livestock that fall within the already-computed target area, so that livestock holding counts are in theory more reflective of extensive grazing pastoral holdings and thus of target clients for IBLI. Our TLU counts explicitly exclude livestock in humid and hyper-arid types of climate and livestock in regions where more than 2% of the land is cropped.The countries (Table 1) and top administrative units (Table 2) are then ordered by total TLUs to provide an estimate of total potential demand for livestock insurance. Sudan has the greatest number of livestock within the geographic zones appropriate to IBLI and three of its states top the list of potential demand at the first administrative level as well. Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and South Sudan follow Sudan at the country level ranks and TLU aggregation at the lower administrative level also highlight these countries as high TLU regions.  8 and 9). 6 These two categories indicate relatively well-developed insurance markets in the southern part of the continent, possibly stemming from the many insurers operating out of South Africa and microinsurance initiatives in Namibia. These figures are supplemented by counts of insurance companies by country parsed from industry reports by the lead author (Figure A11).6. For example: https://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/DDDI10KEA156NWDB We supplement our findings with microinsurance reports form the MunichRe Foundation (Figures A12, A13). MunichRe's 2015 report grouped countries by current and predicted future suitability for microinsurance programs, again emphasizing relatively stronger infrastructure in the southern and eastern regions of the continent. Combining our climatic, livestock supply and insurance market (institutional) data offers a multidimensional perspective on which regions are well suited for a livestock index insurance product. We first identified a target area for pastoral activity based on climatic variables, then proceeded to estimate relevant livestock supply (in TLUs) within the target area, serving as a proxy for demand for a livestock insurance product. We then used country-level institutional data to find which livestock-rich areas already have adequate infrastructure for the introduction of an index insurance program. Taking all classes of data into account, we construct the following (Figure 9):  If one were to focus on initiatives for development, areas with high livestock supply but poor insurance infrastructure (countries in dark red) could reap considerable marginal welfare gains from the implementation of a viable insurance product if the right partner(s) can be identified and government regulators authorize the sale of such a product. Of particular interest are Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia and Chad. Mauritania and Cameroon's far North Regions are also of some interest.Our characterization results provide a prioritization of areas in which to implement IBLI based on livestock densitycorresponding to potential demand for a livestock insurance product-among extensive grazing pastoral populations.Particularly salient is the presence of high-priority areas outside Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. The southern administrative units of Niger and Mali, and even as far east as Mauritania all appear strong candidates for index insurance. There also appear to be potential high-priority regions south of the Zambezi River in Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa.Offering IBLI within these high-priority areas may require identifying specific local partners to assist with implementation. Additionally, identifying local sources of basis risk may help determine where IBLI can offer the most benefit among highpriority areas.We have produced a crude prioritization of which areas could most benefit from an IBLI program covering drought-related risk to livestock productivity and mortality under differing circumstances. What remains in the characterization process, having identified a region for expansion, is the identification of sources of basis risk and the removal of areas prone to high basis risk within that region. Once a subset of administrative unit(s) is identified as of interest for implementation of index insurance, for example by using Table A2 to identify units within countries of interest, we encourage further refining of the implementation area within this region by subtracting off areas prone to natural disasters (floods, wildfires), disease and pestilence (tsetse fly), and armed conflict. Examples of these types of data are included in our appendix.Description: The GAUL is an initiative implemented by FAO within the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) and AfricaFertilizer.org projects.The GAUL compiles and disseminates the best available information on administrative units for all the countries in the world, providing a contribution to the standardization of the spatial dataset representing administrative units. The GAUL always maintains global layers with a unified coding system at country, first (e.g. departments) and second administrative levels (e.g. districts). Where data is available, it provides layers on a country-by-country basis down to third, fourth and lower levels. The overall methodology consists of a) collecting the best available data from most reliable sources, b) establishing validation periods of the geographic features (when possible), c) adding selected data to the global layer based on the last country boundaries map provided by the UN Cartographic Unit (UNCS), d) generating codes using GAUL coding system and e) distribute data to the users (see TechnicalaspectsGAUL2015.pdf).Because GAUL works at global level, unsettled territories are reported. The approach of GAUL is to deal with these areas in such a way to preserve national integrity for all disputing countries (see TechnicalaspectsGAUL2015.pdf and G2015_ DisputedAreas.dbf).   It was developed by IIASA and IFPRI using a hybridization of multiple data sources contributed by many other institutes and organizations, combined with crowdsourcing validation data where volunteers used high-resolution data to check the accuracy of larger-scale maps.'Current sources of information on cropland extent are not accurate enough for most applications', says IIASA researcher Steffen Fritz, who led the project. 'The global cropland map is a low cost solution to fill this need.'IIASA researcher and co-author Linda See adds, 'Our hybrid approach combines existing maps to produce a better integrated product than any of the individual global base maps currently available'.The new global cropland map is more accurate, by virtue of increased agreement between different datasets on cropland cover. The researchers used a likelihood method to quantify the level of uncertainty, using agreement between maps to assign a likelihood to each area. See explains, 'Where all maps agree there is cropland, there is a higher likelihood that cropland is present'. Protected zones, steep terrain and other prohibitive areas for livestock were subtracted from land area, and machine learning methods were applied to national survey data to predict livestock distribution.   5. Highflyers: Those markets that have a robust, thriving, microinsurance sector. Typical characteristics would be a massive outreach, several product categories on offer through a good number of providers for a number of years, as well as an effective market infrastructure that allows participants to continually improve and expand service quality.4. Aspirants: Countries in this category have microinsurance markets that look poised for significant growth in the immediate future. Common traits include a diverse provider group with solid experience in microinsurance, an enabling environment and relatively large populations, leading to a significant untapped market potential.3. Hidden talents: These are microinsurance markets that have most of the required fundamentals for expansion, but growth has been limited thus far. Typically, there is already some experience with microinsurance but very few commercial insurance companies, and risk pools are fragmented where community-based schemes are present. Also, the diversity of microinsurance products available is very restricted.2. Fledglings: These microinsurance markets are in a nascent stage only. Experience with microinsurance is limited, and significant sector development is unlikely to happen without external stimuli. Yet, the size of the population provides potential for the development of a diverse market.1. Embryonic: Countries in this category are unlikely to see the development of a thriving microinsurance sector in the short to medium term. There is no or very limited experience with microinsurance, the population is relatively small and there is no enabling infrastructure. Some countries in this category are post-conflict or plagued with unrest.  Section 2-Constructed Layers: Layer name: Aridity_valid Description: Constructed from combining arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones from the UNEP aridity map (Figure A2). Layer name: Target Description: The blue area (overlapped by red) is constructed by taking the valid aridity zones map (Figure A18) and subtracting off areas of at least 2% cropland per square kilometer (Figure A4). Areas in red only are areas with NDVI CoV greater than 0.1 (A16). Thus, the blue area visible on the figure represents areas of <2% cropland that have been cut off under low variation. Layer name: Target_OLD_Mar11 Description: We constructed the previous target area by taking the zones of proper aridity and subtracting layers for flooding, tsetse fly suitability and irrigated lands (not shown in this report). Also of value is congruence between the old constructed target area and new target area, shown below side-by-side. These similarities motivate our removal of areas with potential factors that could deter pastoralism and/or potentially produce basis risk.    Layer name: TLU_zonal0 Description: Aggregating TLUs in target area by country (GAUL administrative level 0) using the ArcGIS zonal statistics tool Layer name: TLU_zonal1 Description: Aggregating TLUs in target area by GAUL administrative level 1 using the ArcGIS zonal statistics tool  Layer name: TLU_ins_class_target Description: Constructed using TLU counts and insurance market information, particularly from FRED sources (nonlife, insurance company assets). Displayed only in the area where TLUs were counted (the target area for pastoral populations). ","tokenCount":"3508"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5042d9aeaab9e1a63ae5f0fe4d53e033","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1091c782-7e3d-496c-aa80-40e9952f0767/retrieve","id":"533456471"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fbe214ef-0085-4195-84b4-857800a3e7f9","pagecount":"1","content":"Kenya's dairy industry plays an important economic role in the life of farmers, milk processors, milk traders, feed manufacturers and traders. This industry contributes up to 14% of the agricultural GDP and 3.5% of the total GDP. Studies have shown that dairy chain development could be hampered by mycotoxins and Kenyan dairy sector is not an exception. Aflatoxin contamination has negative effects on human health and incurs economic losses to the dairy sector.Levels of aflatoxins in the Kenyan dairy value chain: How can we assess the economic impact?Grand-Bassam, Côte d'Ivoire from 1 to 3 October 2013A systematic literature review was done using Cab-direct, Pubmed, AJOL, and Google scholar, with the following key word combinations: mycotoxins, maize, feeds, , milk, economics, Kenya. Abstracts were screened online and the relevant papers retrieved.The natural occurring aflatoxins are AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, with AFB1 the most abundant, toxic and carcinogenic. AFM1 and AFM2, the hydroxilated products of AFB1 and AFB2 respectively, are found in milk and milk products. AFM1 is hepatotoxic and carcinogenic. Aflatoxins cause hepatocellular carcinoma in humans and are also associated with stunting in children. Chronic aflatoxin poisoning in dairy cattle causes a reduction in milk yield, decreases feed efficiency, and reduces reproduction efficiency. Acute aflatoxin poisoning due to consumption of contaminated food and feed causes deaths in man and dairy cattle.  The high aflatoxin level in maize in Kenya is a potential risk to acute aflatoxicosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in humans Economic costs of aflatoxins should include both direct markets costs and human health costs A study of the aflatoxin contamination levels a long the Kenyan dairy value chain can identify the critical control points to implement mitigation strategies. Mitigation strategies should be implemented on the basis of cost-effectiveness analysis and on stakeholders complianceMost of the publications on the levels of aflatoxins in Kenyan dairy value chain are on maize, followed by animal feed , peanuts , milk and wheat .The levels of aflatoxins in maize in most studies were well above the Kenyan upper limit of 10 ppb in food/feed (up to 116666 ppb) . The highest level in dairy feeds was 1123 ppb compared to 2687 ppb in peanuts. Milk had AFM1 levels up to 0.78 ppb which is above the FAO/WHO upper limit of 0.05 ppb.The levels of aflatoxins in maize were 0-4593 ppb (Nairobi county), 0-58000 ppb (Kitui, Machakos, Makueni, Embu and Kiambu counties), 0-426 ppb (Taita, Kwale,Tana river, Nakuru, Laikipia, and Kilifi counties), 14-17 ppb (Bungoma county) and 0-116666 ppb (Nandi county). The dairy feed aflatoxin concentrations were 0-4593 ppb (Nairobi, Machakos, Nyeri, Uasin gishu, and Nakuru counties). In two counties of Busia and Homabay the aflatoxin levels in peanuts were in the range of zero to 7525 ppb. Economic costs is the sum of direct market costs and human health costs. Direct market costs correspond to the costs incurred by all the stakeholders among the dairy value chain who are affected by aflatoxins. This is especially the case of feed producers, and milk producers. Human health costs could be assessed through questionnaire directed to sampled consumers and using the following equation (Rico-Sole, 2012): ","tokenCount":"519"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7d85880c14e982fc85ca211bdb9ddc21","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee1dc0d3-8aae-438b-90bd-b0cad660a01a/retrieve","id":"1845192470"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"83ec561d-556d-4e8d-a66c-eca95c8a95dd","pagecount":"51","content":"Soil erosion forms one of the main causes of land degradation in third world countries. The subject of this research was the influence of land use and land use change on soil erosion in the upper Genale catchment, Southern Ethiopia. A land use classification was implemented for Landsat satellite images from 1985, 1993, 2003 and 2015. Using a hydrological model of the catchment, created with the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), an erosion model was developed. The results of an erosion survey, which focused on different land uses, were used for calibration and validation. Using a continuation of land use changes in the past decades, erosion predictions were made for 2025. Land use change within the area was substantial with an increase of farmland from 10 percent to 62 percent between 1985 and 2015. Forest and grassland cover decreased from 76 percent to 32 percent. Besides population growth as the main driver of land use change, financial opportunities and government policies have been observed to influence land use dynamics in the region. During the erosion survey the average soil erosion was 3.9 t ha −1 during 5 weeks. An average annual erosion of 41 t ha −1 y −1 was predicted for 2015. Both the erosion survey and the model revealed agricultural land to be the biggest influence on soil erosion. Especially annual crops which exhibited soil erosion up to 10 times as high as other farms. The erosion was estimated to have increased by 189 percent between 1985 and 2015. When land use changes continue linearly, erosion will increase to 50 t ha −1 y −1 in 2025. Soil and water conserving measures in combination with irrigation projects are needed but should be strategically chosen. Good decision making is necessary to maintain agricultural potential in the area.Soil degradation forms an important problem that many third world countries face. Decrease in the top soil layer depth and the soil organic matter content have a substantial negative influence on crop yield, which is especially threatening when yield is already critically low (Lal, 1990). The importance of soil degradation and its extensive consequences on yield have been reported by the World Meteorological Organization (Sivakumar, 2011). According to their report, productivity on more than 16 percent of the agricultural land in the world is threatened, from which the largest parts are in Asia and Africa. Productivity has decreased as much as 20 percent in, for example, sub Saharan Africa in the last 40 years. Furthermore, a continuation of a productivity loss up to 1 percent per year is expected for regions which are already vulnerable (Sivakumar, 2011).Soil erosion forms one of the most important factors in soil degradation, due to soil particles and organic matter being eroded by flow of water or wind over the soil (Lal, 2001). Especially high precipitation in combination with vulnerable soil can cause problems that cannot be neglected. Acceleration factors such as decrease in soil structure due to land use also play an important role. The removal of vegetation in an area, for example, drastically decreases soil strength (Lal, 1990). It also may reduce infiltration rates and cause increased amounts of surface runoff (Hurni et al., 2005). These reasons make land use change one of the driving forces of soil erosion, which has on many occasions been pointed out as an important and threatening influence (Virgo & Munro, 1987;Lal, 1990;Hurni et al., 2005;Tamene & Vlek, 2007;Sisay et al., 2014). While control measures such as terracing and strip farming can be taken to reduce soil erosion, both application and research into these control measures are below a level that would create sustainable agriculture in many third world areas (Morgan, 2009). Especially with the possible impact of population growth, and thus likely land use change, on the behavior of soil erosion (Tamene & Vlek, 2007). More insight into the critical influence of land use change on soil erosion is required to control its consequences. Optimal locations for creation of control measures could then also be located to ensure maximum benefit from these costly projects (Yang, 2010). If not built correctly, local support for these erosion-control projects might decrease rapidly which will cause even more problems in finding the local funding for building and maintaining these measures (Shiferaw, 1999).Ethiopia has been plagued by struggle in many aspects. A general low productivity of agricultural land and a rapid population expansion both combine into a major permanent food shortage (Clay et al., 1999;Yang, 2010). Furthermore, over-grazing and deforestation, which have been common practice for decades, precipitate alarming rates of soil erosion, which far exceed other complications such as salinization and depletion of nutrients (Tekle, 1999;Taddese, 2001). Not only deforestation but land use change in general has a high rate in the Ethiopian highlands (Zeleke & Hurni, 2001). This high rate of land use change has been linked to the high values of soil erosion in Ethiopia (Bewket, 2002;Bewket & Sterk, 2005;Hurni et al., 2005). It is estimated that on average a mass of 42 t ha −1 erodes from sloping agricultural land in Ethiopia annually (Hurni, 1985).While general principles considering land use, soil erosion and land degradation are known (Lal, 2001), specific studies about this topic are scarce, especially for regions within Ethiopia. Soil erosion and land degradation in Ethiopia have been the subject of studies, but besides some low detail models for the entire country, most of Ethiopia only has some crude estimations of soil erosion and land degradation (Munro et al., 2008;Setegn et al., 2009). In general it is concluded that soil erosion values are reason for concern. Land use has also been the subject of studies but only for certain regions in Ethiopia such as the upper Ghibe Valley (Reid et al., 2000), the Kalu district (Tekle & Hedlund, 2000), the Beressa watershed (Amsalu et al., 2007), and for deforestation in the Southern Central Rift Valley (Dessie & Kleman, 2007). In general it was concluded that land use changes take place rapidly, mostly due to population increase, and the rate of deforestation has been high when compared to other countries. Detailed studies on the relation between land use changes and soil erosion are scarce for Ethiopia. There exist only four studies for some parts of the Ethiopian Highlands (Bewket, 2002;Bewket and Sterk, 2005;Hurni et al., 2005;Tefera and Sterk, 2010). Bewket (2002) focused mainly on land use change and concluded that while it has an important influence on soil erosion, the percentage of vulnerable land (land without permanent vegetative cover) remained constant between 1957 and 1998 in the Chemoga watershed. He concluded, however, that this is not representative for other parts of Ethiopia. Bewket and Sterk (2005) focused mainly on hydrology and how it has been influenced by land use change in the Chemoga watershed. An erosion survey was also performed combined with an analysis of the land use change. They concluded that especially a decrease in infiltration and thus an increase in surface runoff due to land use change could increase soil erosion. Hurni et al. (2005) also concluded that in the upper Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia the population increase led to intensification of agricultural land use and thus increased runoff. This could lead to an increase of soil erosion. Tefera and Sterk (2010) focused on the effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures. An erosion survey was executed which showed that both crop type, slope and soil texture influenced soil erosion. They concluded that in the Fincha's watershed, slope and land use type have an important influence on soil erosion and rill density after precipitation events. In their study only fields with annual crops were however surveyed. None of the above mentioned studies focused on the direct influence of land use change on soil erosion while it was frequently mentioned as an important influence. The influence of land use change on soil erosion and thus land degradation is therefore unknown in many regions. The aim of this research project was to determine the influence of land use change and land management on soil erosion in the Genale river catchment within the Sidama zone in Ethiopia.The specific objectives were:1. Create land use maps for different time periods to investigate land use changes.2. Quantify soil erosion and relate it to land use, topography and soil characteristics.3. Investigate possible relations between soil erosion, land use, land use change and land management using modeling.The Southern Ethiopian hydrological system is highly influenced by two rivers; the Genale and Dawa rivers. Part of the basin of the these rivers lays within the Sidama zone, a 50,000 km 2 area with Awassa as its capital. The population of the zone is estimated to be approximately 2.1 million with a population density of 451.8 people per square kilometer (CSA, 2013). This research was conducted within the upper part of the Genale river catchment within the Sidama zone (1). The Genale river has its origin in the Ethiopian highlands, nearby Awassa. It receives the vast majority of its water from the Sidama and Bale highlands. The study site is the upper Genale basin, which covers the districts: Arbegona, Bensa and Bona Zuria. The Genale river originates near the great Rift Valley and flows from the northwest to the southeast (Grab, 2002). It has a total basin area of approximately 172,000 square kilometers and a length of nearly 860 km (CSA, 2012). The altitude of the study site varies between 1,258 and 3,745 meters above sea level. Altitudes of the surrounding province vary from 800 meters to up to 4,600 meters (CSA, 2013). A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is given in Figure 1. The slopes are reported to be steep within the Ethiopian highlands (World bank, 2004). The average slope of the catchment is 9.57 degrees. Of the total area, 33 percent has a slope between 8 and 15 degrees, 16 percent has a slope between 15 and 30 degrees and 1 percent has a slope above 30 degrees. From the districts that form the study site, the Arbegona district is the highest, with altitudes between 2600 and 3700 meters. The Bona and Bensa districts are lower, going down to 1500 meters above sea level. The dominant crops in the catchment are coffee (Coffea arabica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) and annual crops such as maize (Zea mays L.) and sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L.). The coffee is grown in agroforestry systems with trees providing shade to the coffee shrubs. Due to the higher altitude, no coffee is grown in the Arbegona district since temperatures are below the necessary climatic conditions for coffee growth.A variety of climate systems exist within the zone, with various levels of rainfall and diverse land use characteristics throughout. Within the study site the average temperature ranges between 19 and 26 degrees Celsius. Annually, temperatures in the lower altitudes vary between 23 and 30 degrees Celsius and temperatures in the higher altitudes range between 15 and 20 degrees Celsius (CSA, 2012). The annual precipitation in the catchment varies between 1200 and 2000 mm with an average of 1700 mm. The climate at the study site is dominated by one dry (Nov -Mar) and one wet season (Apr -Oct) (Figure 2). Between April and May a the first and minor part of the rainfall season takes place, after which the more intense part of the rainfall season happens between June and October. The dry season lasts from September until February. Within the rainfall seasons the temperatures go down. Because of these climatological properties, conditions for vegetation are favorable and agricultural potential is high (NMA, 2014). The local economy is mainly based on subsistence farming. Enset forms the staple crop and the main cash crops are coffee and annual crops. The local farms are responsible for the high presence of agroforestry (World Bank, 2004). While the generally impoverished people have no financial means to pay for soil erosion control measures, substantial humanitarian aid is present in Ethiopia. Therefore, some control measures have been constructed, and possibilities of implementing more of these measures do exist within the area (FAO, 2014).Since no detailed land use maps existed for the study site, such maps were created to use for both the modeling and analysis of land use change in the region. In order for classification to work correctly, images with a spatial resolution appropriate for the spatial variability of land use are needed (Woodcock & Strahler, 1987). A resolution of 30 meters was chosen since this has been used successfully in other research in similar regions (Reid et al., 2000;Teferi et al., 2010). Landsat TM and ETM+ images with this resolution and at least 5 spectral bands were available since 1985 (USGS, 2015). To examine the change in land use, images from four different moments in time were used. Images from February had minimal cloud cover and were available for a sufficient number of years. Images where the study site was best visible, with a maximum cloud cover of 10 percent, were available from February 1985February , 1993February , 2003February and 2015. . To compare spectra from different sattelite types, radiometric consistency is required (Vincente-Serrano et al., 2008). Radiometric calibration was therefore performed using the equations of Vogelmann et al. (2001). Atmospheric correction was performed with the Quick Atmospheric Correction Code (QUAC) developed by Bernstein et al., (2012). Both the calibration and the classification methods were available in the ENVI remote sensing software package (ITT Visual Information Solutions SA, 2008).When terrain is rough, the illumination changes due to a difference in angle between the sun, the surface and the sensor (De Jong, 2004). To correct for these illumination changes a correction was performed. For this research the c-correction model was applied. This empirical model is based on reflection of both diffusive and direct light and is location dependent (Teillet et al., 1982). Other models exist but the c-correction was used as the method has been shown to give the best results for most Landsat images (McDonald et al., 2002;Riano et al., 2003). The ccorrection is based on the following procedure: For each band n, a regression line through all the combined digital numbers and incident angles is fitted:Where DN is the Digital Number value for the reflection of light for the n th band, i is the sun's incident angle (angle relative to surface normal), b n is the interception of the regression line, and m n is the slope of the regression line. This gives an approximate linear relation between the illumination and the incident angle. The correction that was done using this relation is as follows:Where Lh n is the illumination a horizontal surface would have, Lr n is the illumination on the sloped surface, and a ze is the sun's zenith angle (angle relative to the normal vector of an horizontal surface). The incident angle is calculated from the slope and solar angles:Where s is the slope angle of the surface, a az is the azimuth angle of the sun, and a as is the aspect angle of the surface. All the corrections on the used remote sensing images were accomplished with the exclusion of clouds from the image as they have a negative effect on the Table 1: The land use types used for classification of the Landsat satellite images performed algorithms (De Jong, 2004). The sun's zenith and azimuth angles were provided with the meta-data from the Landsat satellite images used. For the DEM, the Aster world-wide 90 meter digital elevation model was interpolated to 30 meters resolution. From this digital elevation model both the slope and the aspect angle have been calculated. Research by Gao and Zhang (2009) showed that the use of a down-scaled 90 meter resolution DEM for Landsat correction is possible and has successfully given similar results when compared to a real 30 meter DEM.The land use maps were created by using a supervised classification on remote sensing images. The spectral angle mapping, minimum distance, maximum likelihood and spectral information divergence methods were tested (Sabins & Lulla, 1987;De Jong, 2004). For validation and comparison of accuracy both the confusion matrices and the kappa coefficients were used. The kappa coefficient is calculated from the confusion matrix (De Jong, 2004):Where κ is the kappa coefficient, N is the total number of pixels being classified, m i,j is the amount of pixels belonging to class i and classified into class j, G i is the total number of classified pixels belonging to class i and C i is the number of ground truth pixels belonging to class i. The spectral angle mapping method showed the highest accuracy and was therefore used.The classes that have been used for the classification process, and their descriptions are given in Table 1. These types of land use have been observed to be present in Ethiopian highlands by other research (Zeleke & Hurni, 2001;Bewket 2002). The agroforestry class was subdivided into enset, coffee and annual crops since these were mainly grown throughout the study site. Other types were assumed to be present in such a way that they can be neglected in the classification process.To calibrate and validate the classification process, land use observations were done. For the most recent image, control points were established on site. At least 20 control points were used for each class, which resulted in 328 control points. Using these points, groups of pixels were selected, of which the class was known. After half of these pixels were used to create sample spectra for all the classes, validation was done using ground truth polygons created from the other half. In order to further validate the generated land use map, a total of 10 transects of 2 kilometer length were taken throughout the catchment, observing land use. Because the use of ground truth polygons is only possible for a recent image, the older images from 1985 and 2003 were classified using the same sample groups as were used for the 2015 image. Calibration of the older maps was done with information considering land use history from elderly farmers in the study site. For this, informal interviews were held with ten elderly farmers who have lived in the study area for more than 25 years. The farmers were asked questions referring to the history of the land use of both their own fields and the area in which they lived. For the older maps to be in accordance with the information from elderly farmers, thresholds were set for the spectral angle mapper. These thresholds limited the spectral difference that a pixel could have with a sample group, while still being able to be classified to that group. Effectively this can shift the percentages of land use classes, distributing pixels without classification to their second most likely land use class combined, the four land use maps have been used to analyze land use change and the influence on soil erosion in the erosion model. To analyze the the causes of land use change, the distribution of land use classes over multiple slope classes was analyzed for each created land use map.In order to relate land use change to land degradation, soil erosion measurements were done in the field. Soil erosion was quantified by using the assessment of current erosion damage (ACED) method by Herweg (1996). This method is based on surveying erosion features such as rills and gullies. By measuring the amount of features and their average depths, widths and lengths, the total eroded volume is estimated. The forms that are provided in the method were used for the survey. The possible presence of water and soil conservation measures is also noted. Herweg (1996) states that the following assumptions underlay the ACED method; 1) Sheet and splash erosion are assumed to have such a small contribution to sediment yield that they can be neglected. 2) Rainfall must be mostly concentrated in intense events and not evenly distributed throughout the year. Since the method was tested and created partially in Ethiopia, it is mentioned that the assumptions are correct for most parts of that country (Herweg, 1996). This includes the study site of this research.The survey method was applied on 62 fields. These fields were located in the middle and lower district within the study site. This way all four dominant land use types were present: enset, coffee, annual crops and grazing land. In order to relate soil erosion to topography and soil characteristics, these properties were variable for the 62 fields. The 62 fields were evenly distributed over the following slope classes:The inclination of slopes was determined by using a set of marked poles combined with an inclinometer. Each combination of land use and slope class had 4 fields, except enset, for which 2 fields with a very steep slope and 6 fields with a steep slope were used.Average width and length of the fields was approximately 30 meters. The total surveyed area was thus 5.7 ha. The length of rills was measured from their starting point to the end of the field, or the point of sedimentation. If a smaller rill joined a larger rill, the volume of the smaller rill was estimated from the starting point to the point where the rill entered the larger rill. Since rills change in depth and width, averages of multiple measurements were taken for each rill. The width was measured at 1 to 5 points along the length of the rill. For each of these points the depth was measured between 1 and 5 times along the intersection of the rill at that point. This was necessary to obtain a good average value for depth. The number of measurements depended on the actual width and length. The measurements for the volume of the eroded soil were done twice between March and May 2015 for every field. Similarly to other studies, one month was chosen to be between the measurements (Tefera & Sterk, 2011;Bewket & Sterk, 2003). Since erosion features might be removed due to tilling of the fields, the farmers were asked to report the dates when tillage happened. The eroded volume was then measured for the days following the date of tillage.The SWAT (Soil & Water Assessment Tool) model is a public domain modeling tool that simulates hydrological systems and soil erosion. In a second master research, De Gier (2015) implemented the SWAT model for the same study area. He calibrated and validated the model using discharge data of the Genale river, and focused only on the hydrology of the catchment. In the current study the validated model was used to quantify erosion in the upper Genale catchment.To use the hydrological model, ArcSwat, a SWAT version integrated in Arcmap software, was used (Winchell et al., 2007;Esri, 2009). Since SWAT does not include the entire hydrological cycle in its model but merely a catchment leading to a certain user-defined outlet point on a river, input and output fluxes for this area were needed. During conversion into the model the study area was divided twice. First subcatchments were created based on topography and the stream network. Each subcatchment leads to a single reach of the Genale river. Within each subcatchment a division was made into hydrological response units (HRU's). These exist out of all combined areas that have the same soil type, slope class and land use type. SWAT uses a water balance equation for each layer in every HRU. These layers are, from top to bottom: the unsaturated top layer, subdivided into a root zone and a rootless unsaturated zone, the shallow unconfined aquifer and the deep confined aquifer (Arnold et al., 1996).For the water content in the unsaturated zone, every HRU uses the following equation (Arnold et al., 1996):Where SW t and SW 0 are the final and initial water storages in the unsaturated zone of the HRU (mm), R day is the daily rainfall (mm), Q surf ace is the daily runoff in mm, E a is the actual daily evapotranspiration (mm), W seep is the daily outflow of water out of the unsaturated zone into the shallow unconfined aquifer (mm), Q lat is the daily amount of lateral outflow (mm), and t is the time (days). For each component of the water balance a routine is used. For runoff, which is highly influential on erosion, the soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) and Manning's equation for water flow are used (Arnold et al., 1996). For other layers, such as the shallow unconfined aquifer, terms are similar but involve groundwater flow and deep groundwater recharge. These are simulated using a base flow recession constant (Arnold et al., 1996). Sediment deposition or degradation in a channel is also included in the model. Which one of these occurs depends on the ratio between the sediment capacity of the channel and the incoming sediment load.To model soil erosion, the SWAT model uses an HRU based approach. For this the modelled area is divided into sub-catchments which are assumed to behave in a similar way and can thus be approximated using the equations in the model. In order to calculate sediment yield (soil loss in a certain region) the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) is used. This equation is defined for a single HRU as (Williams, 1975):Where SE is the total sediment yield for a given day in the HRU (10 3 kg), Q surf ace is the surface runoff volume (mm ha −1 ), q peak is the peak runoff rate (m 3 hr −1 ), A HRU is the area of the hydrological response unit (ha), K is the soil erodibility factor (0.013 * 10 3 kg m 2 hr) (m 3 10 3 kg cm) −1 , LS is the topographic factor (-), C the cover and management factor (-), P the support practice factor (-), and CF RG the coarse fragment factor (-). Because of the HRU-based approach to soil erosion, sediment is routed directly from the fields to the reach within the same subcatchment.Because of this, no deposition can occur within the simulation.The difference with the original Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is the term related to the strength of the erosive force (Wischmeier & Smith, 1960). Instead of rainfall, surface runoff is used to drive the soil erosion process. From the factors in the MUSLE equation, only the management related factors C and P were estimated for the study site. Both the physical and the runoff factors were estimated from the DEM, land use map or the output from the hydrological part of the model. The management and support practice factors were estimated from research by Stone and Ontario (2000). They created tables of values for a variety of tillage practices, tillage directions and management practices. Research has shown that the empirical formula used for the topographic factor of the MUSLE equation, which was derived using slopes below 9 • , does not compare well with experimental data for slopes steeper than 9 • (Liu et al., 1994;Liu et al., 2000). In the study site more than a third of the area has a steeper slope than was used to develop the MUSLE topographic factor (Williams, 1975). The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) uses a different topographic factor which is more accurate for steeper slopes (Liu et al., 2000). Since this topographic factor is not a part of the SWAT model, it was manually calculated and used in the erosion calculations. The RUSLE topographic factor was calculated with the following equations (McCool et al., 1987):where L is the length factor (no unit) and S is the slope factor (no unit).)Where λ is the horizontal length of the field in the direction of the steepest slope (meter) and β 1−β is the ratio between rill and non-rill erosion (no unit). This ratio is given by:Where θ is the slope angle. Furthermore:The values for these factors were calculated using the built-in tools from the Arcmap software (Esri, 2009).The methods that are used by the SWAT model need weather conditions for the entire study site. Rainfall was measured throughout the fieldwork period by two already present rain gauges.Because of the use of daily weather data, the simulation was set to also use daily time steps.In order to provide the model with all the soil parameters and land use properties that were required for the MUSLE equation, the created land use and soil maps were reclassified using soil and land use classes from the built-in SWAT library. For the parameters canopy height, leaf cover, leaf area index, root dept and plant density, the values from the SWAT library were checked against the values that were gathered during the erosion survey.In order to calibrate the erosion model, the calculated erosion values were compared with the erosion measurements. Based on this the model parameters were changed to minimize the difference between the measured and modeled soil erosion values. To determine which parameters had to be altered, a sensitivity analysis was performed. Since the hydrological part of the model was calibrated by de Gier ( 2015), only parameters directly influencing erosion were considered. The parameters that the model was the most sensitive to, and that also had the highest uncertainty, were changed. Erosion was not measured for steeper slopes than 30 degrees and other land use types than annual crops, grazing land, enset and coffee. Due to this, areas with these properties cannot be directly calibrated. An average of the calibrated parameters was used for other land uses and the areas with a slope above 30 degrees were given the same slope factor as the steepest calibrated slope class.For the comparison, an average of the measurements that matched the slope class, land use type and soil type of an HRU within the same subcatchment was used. As an error function the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) was used (12):Where x i,obs is the observed value, x i,mod is the modelled value and n is the number of observations.For calibration of the erosion part of the model, half of the gathered data form the erosion survey was first used. After that, validation was done using the other half. As a significance criteria, p = 0.05 will be used. After the performance of the model was validated, it was calibrated for the entire data set. Both the calibration and the validation were done using the SWAT-CUP software, which allowed for use of automated calibration by Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) routine (Abbaspour et al., 2007).After calibration and validation, the erosion model was executed for the four created land use maps to relate the land use change in the study site to the soil erosion determined by the model.For the calibration and validation, weather data from the months of the survey was used. All other simulations were performed with the weather conditions from 2007 (de Gier, 2015). With a total rainfall of 1650, that year showed a distribution of rainfall close to the average. Finally a future scenario was made where both the land use change of the past 10 years, and the change in distribution of land use over slope classes were continued. A program was written in Wolfram Mathematica in order to do this. The statistics of land use change between 2003 and 2015 were used to calculate chances for pixel conversion. Pixels neighboring to a certain class were set to have a higher chance to be converted to that same class.The resulting land use statistics and land use maps, that were created with the spectral angle mapper method using images from 2015, are given in Figure 3 and Table 2. Land use and land use change percentages are given as percentage of the total catchment area. The validation results for different types of classification methods for the most recent satellite image are given in Appendix A. The c-correction that was applied changed the kappa coefficient of the land use map from 0.74 to 0.83. The confusion matrix for an uncorrected classification is also given in Appendix A. The spectral angle mapper method performed optimal within the study site. The confusion matrix for the resulting land use map for 2015 is given in Table 3.Table 3: Confusion matrix for the spectral angle mapper classification of the 2015 image of the upper Genale catchment, Southern Ethiopia, with a kappa coefficient of 0.83The kappa coefficient of 0.83 indicates that the pixels were generally classified correctly. Generally a minimum value of 0.8 for the kappa coefficient is used as a criterion for a good classification process (De Jong, 2004). Since no inundated areas were detected within the catchment, the water land use class was omitted from the results. Without this class, 75 percent of all the pixels were classified correctly. The least accurate land use type in the classification was coffee for which only 56 percent was correctly classified. Within the catchment, especially the strong presence of agroforestry with coffee and enset causes spectral similarity of the both these classes and forests, leading to classification errors. The combination of forest, enset and coffee however performed above average with 76 percent of pixels being correctly classified. In general, both the strong presence of trees and the highly mixed nature of land use/cover in the catchment due to the small farm size complicated the process of classification. The vast majority of farms are smallholder farms. Fields with an area of more than 0.25 ha are encountered sporadically and commercial farming is completely absent. For some fields with coffee intercropping systems are furthermore present with, for example, avocado trees. Lastly, the locations of ground truth points were predominantly in the center of the catchment, and thus not ideal for classification of the outer parts.The main types of land use in the catchment are enset, annual crops and coffee. Annual crops and coffee are especially present surrounding the larger villages within the study site. Most of the farmers live in traditional huts and have some small pieces of land next to their homes with enset and grazing land. The southern part of the catchment is more arid due to higher temperatures and consists mainly of annual crops and bare soil. The northern part of the catchment, which has a higher altitude and is thus cooler, mainly consists of grazing land, enset, forest and annual crops because of this. The western part of the catchment is more mountainous and therefore consists of many of the remaining pieces of forest. While new types of fruits and vegetables such as apples have been introduced in the Sidama zone by organizations such as ILRI, the presence of these is not yet substantial enough to be visible on remote sensing images.Land use and land cover have changed dramatically over the past 30 years within the Genale river catchment in the Sidama zone (Figure 3, Table 4). Forest decreased from 39.54 percent in 1985 to 5.77 percent in 2015. Grazing land decreased from 48.88 percent in 1985 to 26.69 percent in 2015. The first large deforestation projects started early in the 20th century. After that there were multiple attempts by the government to replant parts of the national forests but eventually the much more extensive deforestation projects caused a substantial decrease in natural forest. Deforested areas were first converted into grasslands and after 1993, the percentage of grass in the catchment dropped drastically while forest area remained stable. Decrease in grazing land was 7.86 percent between 19937.86 percent between and 20037.86 percent between and 13.89 percent between 20037.86 percent between and 20157.86 percent between . Decrease in forest was 16.33 percent between 19937.86 percent between and 2003 and 7. and 7.54 percent between 2003 and 2015. Grazing land was mostly converted into enset and annual crops.While the Sidama zone is particularly proud of its traditionally produced and unique varieties of coffee, the growth of the areas that are used for coffee within the catchment has stopped after 2003. Between 2003 and 2015 the area of coffee grew with 0.31 percent while growth between 1993 and 2003 was 4.13 percent. It is losing the previously important role it had as a cash crop due to changes in it's price. Especially chat (Catha Edulis) has increased in popularity by taking on the role as the new cash crop for local farmers. Within the study site chat is grown as an annual crop. Its presence can, however, not be detected from satellite images due to its similarity to other land use classes. Especially new smallholder farms are used to cultivate chat. Consumption of the leaves is said to increase in popularity with the younger generation in the country due to its stimulating properties. Strengthened by the increased presence of chat, annual crops have been growing in popularity rapidly during the past decade. Other important annual or bi-annual crops are sugar cane and maize, which have also thrived between 2003 and 2015. These also take on the role of cash crop for numerous farmers. Annual crops have had an increase from 2.26 percent in 1985 to 18.98 percent in 2015.Both in the past and in recent years, one of the most important crops grown in the Sidama region has been enset. Praised for its ability to withstand droughts, it is the staple crop of a vast majority of the population (Mohammed et al., 2013). Between 1985 and 2015 the percentage of land dedicated to it increased from 5.2 percent to 35.9 percent. Especially the North of the catchment, where coffee is not able to grow efficiently, the crop is widely produced. The southern part of the catchment has fewer smallholders farmers focused entirely on enset. Generally, however, most households do have at least a small field of enset next to their homes of around 0.05 -0.15 ha for their own consumption. With the large decrease in area for grazing land in especially the southern part of the catchment, the ability to allow for livestock to graze has disappeared entirely around larger villages. Due to this, the majority of livestock there is fed with enset. During the past 30 years, enset has remained the most important crop in the catchment.The distribution of land use classes over different slope classes is, for the majority of land use classes, similar to the distribution of slope classes within the entire catchment. Exceptions are, for example, residential areas. As expected they are present substantially more in lower slope classes. While on average the catchment has 49 percent of its area with a slope lower than 8 degrees, 86.5 percent of the residential areas lie within that slope class. The distribution of forest also differs from the total distribution of slope classes. Instead of 49 percent, 27.1 percent of the forest lies on areas with slopes below 8 percent. The percentage of forest on areas with a slope above 15 degrees increased from 16 percent to 37 percent in the last 40 years. This was expected as deforestation is more probable to occur when the remaining soil is more advantageous for cultivation. Annual crops, a growing land use, has increased much in the moderate slopes. Both enset and coffee, also growing land uses, have increased more in the areas with steeper slopes. This is due to the majority of the forest already being removed before enset and coffee had the majority of their growth. Steeper slopes had to be used since most of the more moderate sloped areas with forest were already deforested.Lastly, due to both the lack of remaining forest and the protection of it by the government, the recent increase in cereals originated mostly from converted grazing land. Due to the lack of available land in the catchment the remaining forest is likely to eventually disappear. Areas with steep slopes have often been last in the area to be deforested and converted into either grassland or smallholder farmland. These areas will gradually be occupied by farms that cultivate popular crops. This would result in a high percentage of fields with annual crops, which have been increasing recently, on steep slopes, which would lead to more erosion and less irrigation potential.The population of Ethiopia is estimated to have tripled in the past 60 years. Between 1985 and 2015 the population of Ethiopia increased from 41 million to 99 million (UN, 2013). Since population data for the districts within the catchment was not available, population growth is assumed to have been identical to the national increase. Consequences of this are visible in the trend of both a decrease in forest and grass, and an increase in coffee enset and annual crops. A combination of growth of the population and different land use classes within the upper Genale catchment is given in Figure 4.Agricultural land forms the combination of annual crops, coffee and enset. The percentage of the catchment used for villages and cities furthermore exhibits exponential growth similar to the estimated population growth in the region. The area of the catchment covered by cities has grown from 0.02 percent to 0.05 percent between 1985 and 2003. After that the area of cities grew to 0.15 percent in 2015, leading to a total increase from 2 to 18 hectares. The land use change in the catchment in the past 40 years thus seems to be driven mainly by population growth.The amount of bare soil strongly fluctuates between the different moments captured by the land use maps. A possible reason for this could be the presence of more intense dry seasons in those years. Both old farmers and other studies (Hameso, 2014) mention that extreme dry years do take place in the Ethiopian highlands. Severe droughts that lasted for multiple years are said to be the cause of significant migrations, leading to land use change (Reid et al, 2000). In order to investigate the relationship between the presence of droughts and the percentage of dry/bare soil in the catchment the annual averaged rainfall is given together with the dry/bare soil percentage in Figure 5.Compared to the average rainfall of 1700 mm, 2002, 2003 and 2014 were substantially dryer. While the publicly available data stops in July 2014, from interviews with farmers and data from the Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency it is known that 2014 and the first months of 2015 have been the dryest in twenty years. This complies with the high percentage of bare soil in the 2015 land use map. Therefore, for the land use in both 2015 and 2003, rainfall correlates well with the percentage of bare soil. In 1993 and 1985 no evident correlation is however present. In the land use map of 1993, annual crops are present in areas where they are not detected in 2003. Therefore, the lack of correlation between bare soil and rainfall in these years is probably due to classification errors between bare soil and annual crops.Other studies in and near the Ethiopian highlands reported similar changes in land use. The percentage of grazing land in the upper Genale catchment has been the subject of a study by Bi-Figure 5: The percentage of the upper Genale catchment, Southern Ethiopia, that was classified as bare soil against total annual rainfall in that area. azin et al. (personal communication, May 11, 2015). They performed a survey in three districts within the same catchment. These districts take up at least two thirds of the total area. The results from this survey showed that on average, the amount of grazing land decreased by 50 percent between 1994 and 2014. This exhibits a high likeliness with the decrease of 48 percent in the Genale catchment between 1993 and 2015. Similar studies in Ethiopia also point to population growth as a primary driver of land use change (Bewket & Sterk, 2005;Tefera & Sterk, 2008). In a study by Bewket (2002), grazing land decreased in area, similarly to the Genale catchment, in a catchment in the Northern Ethiopian highlands. The area was predominantly converted into farmland. Due to classification errors there was a minor decrease in area of settlements between 1982 and 1998. However, the increase between 1957 and 1982 followed population growth similar to the Genale Catchment. In a similar study in Ethiopia, Zeleke & Hurni (2001) also observed a decrease in natural forest and grassland since 1957. In their catchment residential area and cultivated land increased substantially, as in the Genale catchment, mainly due to population growth. In another similar catchment Tefera & Sterk (2008) observed a decrease in grassland and an increase in cropland. In this catchment grazing land however grew in area from 20.7 to 25.2 percent of their catchment between 1980 and 2001. They state this growth is caused by dynamics between swamp areas, grazing land and the construction of a dam within the catchment. Permanent grazing land decreased in area, similar to the trend in grazing land in the Genale catchment.Other important drivers of land use change in Ethiopia are said to be policies introduced by the government such as the forest protection policies (Reid et al, 2000;Tesema, 1997). Within the upper Genale catchment, interviews with inhabitants revealed multiple mentions of protection of forested areas against migrating population. The governments forest protection policies, that originated from the derg regime between 1974 to 1987, have been mentioned both to have a negative, and positive effect on forest protection. Tesema (1997) stated that afforestation by the derg regime was more efficient than the more recent projects. Bewket & Sterk (2005) observed that the area of forest increased in their catchment between 1957 and 1998 due to government forest protection and afforestation. Bewket (2002) reported that government policies contributed to the steady increase in area covered with forest. Biazin & Sterk (2013) observed a decrease in dense since 1965 in a much more arid and warm area. Due to government policies and a change in government they observed \"severe forest losses\". Similar to the Upper Genale catchment, cultivated land took the place of much of the forest there. Grassland was barely present in the catchment they studied and increased slightly. The more gradual decrease in forest within the upper Genale catchment in the last 10 years suggest that the protection of forests is generating results. Between 1985 and 2003 deforestation however took place at an alarming rate, indicating that the protection has only recently been efficient. In other catchments deforestation took place before any aerial photos were made (Bewket & Sterk, 2005). In some regions deforestation is said to have happened before the 20th century (Ritler, 2003). In the upper Genale catchment only a small percentage of the deforestation was reported to have happened before 1985, and a part of these deforested areas were reported by farmers to have been afforested again after government changes.Other policies that are said to have influenced land use are the resettlement and revillagization policies (Reid et al, 2000). While they state that farmers did not change the area of land they cultivated because of their migration, the population distribution throughout regions changed. Especially the relocation of the majority of the population into villages could result in livestock being kept in close proximity to the villages, causing it to be fed more with enset. This could have helped in the decrease of grazing land in the past 30 years. Revillagization is reported to have happened within Ethiopia in 1986 and in the decades before. Since the decrease in grazing land between 1985 and 1993 is insignificant, smallholder grazing land was most likely left untouched after the revillagization.Another driver for land use change within the catchment could be climate change. Studies report that temperatures are likely to rise in the Ethiopian highlands. This could mean that the 2400 meters altitude boundary for coffee could shift allowing for more coffee cultivation. While the amount of coffee has risen, no farmers have reported that they were able to grow coffee on higher altitudes. In the future coffee presence might increase due to rising temperatures. Lastly, with the more arid and therefore less inhabitable rift valley nearby, the relatively more fertile Genale catchment is a logical choice for migration. The capital of the province, Awassa, has grown to at least three times its earlier population in only 10 years according to the local government. However, since the catchment is already densely populated, migration could eventually lead to deforestation of the last areas with forests.The total area of the fields that were visited for the erosion survey was 4.7 ha. The average erosion during the fieldwork was 3.9 t ha −1 with an estimated rainfall during this period of 120 mm. The average values for erosion for each combination of slope and land use class are given in figure 4. The measured erosion values from the erosion survey, plotted against slope, are given in Figure 6 including regression lines for each land use class. An example of the erosion is given in Figure 7.Table 4: The average values for erosion for each combination of slope and land use class in the Genale catchment during 5 weeks (t ha −1 ).Figure 6: The erosion values, measured on 4 different land uses during 5 weeks, plotted against slope. Regression lines and their equations are included.Annual crops have shown the highest amount of erosion with increasing slope. This was expected because the soil is bare for the part of the year after harvesting the crops. The annual crops within the catchment furthermore do not develop sufficient leaf area and root density to efficiently catch rain and prevent erosion. Coffee and enset exhibited less erosion, which can be explained by their much higher leaf area index. Especially enset, with its vertically structured leaves and often fully covering layer of dead leaves on the soil, prevents rain from causing splash detachment. Coffee is frequently planted less densely which allows for rills and gullies to form during intense rain. Coffee and enset furthermore cover the soil more permanently than annual crops. Farmers reported replanting coffee every 25 years and enset every 7 years on average.As expected, grazing land displayed the lowest amount of erosion. Due to the dense cover and tight roots relatively few erosion features were visible on field with grass as cover. Tillage practices differ throughout the study site. For an estimated 60 percent of the study site tillage is performed. All observed practices were either done by hand or with an ox plow without any regularity or direction. Fields with enset that were recently tilled showed 2.5 t ha −1 erosion and the fields that were not tilled showed only 0.3 t ha −1 . Besides the removal of dead leaves that cover the soil and reduce the impact of rain, the grass that grows between the plants is removed, reducing soil structure in between the plants.2) Existing soil and water conservation measures were present within the study site. Generally, fences made of the Euphorbia Candelabrum, a plant similar to cacti, were able to partly prevent erosion. Some of the fields with annual crops on slopes steeper than 20 degrees applied other methods. Three of the 62 fields that were inspected had these while 18 fields had fences made of Euphorbia Candelabrum. From all the non-annual crops, the fields with fences had an average slope of 7.6 degrees and an average erosion of 0.59 t ha −1 during the fieldwork. The non-annual crops without fences displayed an average of 2.9 t ha −1 during the fieldwork, with an average slope of 11.6 degrees. Since the increase in slope is more than 3 times as small as the increase in erosion, this demonstrates that the fences prevent a large part of the erosion from flowing out of the fields. Annual crops were only combined with fences at the down-slope border in 2 of the 16 fields. In these cases they were only present for less than 50 percent of the border, making them less effective. The other present measures were contour ditches. In total 3 farms with these measures were identified. These efficiently caught all the eroded soil during the fieldwork. An example of these measures is given in Figure 7. However, only a small part of the annual erosion occurred during the fieldwork and the ditches were already filled to near their maximum capacity. Ditches were, however, well maintained and it is therefore suspected that the efficiency of the ditches stays high during the remaining part of the wet season. Herweg and Ludi (1999) also report the use of these measures in the Ethiopian highlands but suspect more efficient measures are available such as strips of land perpendicular to the slope direction, covered with elephant grass (Pennisetum Purpureum).During the erosion survey, two field with extreme erosion features were measured. Both of these were yearly crops, lying bare during the dry season, with slopes of 11 and 22 degrees. Due to the minimal cover and steep slopes these fields exhibited up to 62 t ha −1 during the survey period.Existing studies of erosion in the Ethiopian highlands report 42 t ha −1 y −1 (Hurni, 1985) and 40 t ha −1 y −1 (Shiferaw & Holden 1999). Hurni reported a annual rainfall of 830 mm (Hurni, 1985), which is substantially lower than for the Genale catchment. The influence of the slope on the erosion can also be seen from Figure 6. An increase is shown for each land use type with increasing slope. The spread of the erosion values is large, especially for annual crops. Because of this, determining the form of the relationship is difficult and a linear fit was chosen. While a trigonometric relationship is often assumed on physical basis and measurements (Weesies et al., 1997), this is not present in the measurements from the survey.Due to the nature of the research project, the survey had to be conducted before the second and larger rainy season started. This changed the temporal distribution of rain events, since measurements were not done during the entire year, which would have exhibited a different distribution of rain. Therefore the survey might not comply with the assumptions of the ACED method. The majority of rain fell in more numerous events of more gradual intensity. Such a change in distribution could influence the ratio between erosion originating from rills and sheet erosion (Herweg, 1996). During the survey any sign of sheet erosion at the down-slope border was taken into account, this is however far more imprecise. Other research has also discovered a relationship between the proportionality of rill and inter-rill erosion and the intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall events (Liu et al., 2000). The influence of the mentioned effects are however expected to be insignificant and the results conform to similar research projects.The variables that the model was most sensitive to, and that were used in the calibration process, are given in Table 5. The same variables have been determined to be the most important in the process of modelling erosion with SWAT by other research (Wu & Chen 2012).Table 5: The calibration parameters that were used to model erosion in the upper Genale catchment using the SWAT model.It was assumed that the total uncertainty in erosion was 50 percent. All parameters were therefore given a relative range from 0.8 to 1.15 times their original value. This leads to a combined relative range of 0.5 to 1.5 times the original erosion values. The final calibrated values for all parameters were within their separate ranges indicating that the model does not significantly deviate from the observations. The parameters with the lowest p-value were the RUSLE slope and management terms for the coffee and enset land use classes. The erosion for these land use classes was underestimated by the model. This was caused by the use of land use classes from the default SWAT library. These classes had to be modified more than expected. The plant density, leaf cover and leaf area were all higher than would be representative for the enset and coffee fields that are common in the catchment. This decreased the rainfall hitting the soil, and thus decreased splash detachment in the erosion model. Due to a larger spread of the plants, the leaf area index of 1.15 and 4.5 for coffee and enset were estimated to be 0.8 and 3.5 m 2 . With these changes the parameters for these land uses performed within the desired accuracy, and had a p value higher than the significance criteria of 0.05. Comparison of the survey and the results from the model are given in Figure 8 for the calibration and Figure 9 for the validation.  The average modelled erosion during the survey period was 4.94 t ha −1 . The calibrated model showed an RMSE of 4.12 t ha −1 , and a regression line with a slope coefficient of 0.79, which indicates a good likelyness between modelled and observed data. Validation gave a better comparison, with a RMSE of 3.63 and a slope coefficient of 1.01. For the full dataset, the RMSE is 3.17 t ha −1 . While the predicted values show some spread, both the linear relationship, and the correct slope of this relationship are evident within the validation of the model, indicated by a slope coefficient of 1.01, and an R-squared value of 0.68. This means that both the spatial patterns and the erosion values are generally predicted accurately. The most noticeable relative errors are present where erosion was simulated lower than observations. This is presumably partly due to the distribution of rainfall events during the measurement period. To investigate whether the spatial patterns in the increase in erosion were caused by runoff changes or directly by the change in parameters associated with different land use types, the runoff was plotted for 1985 and 2015 (Figure 10). The average annual surface runoff in the Genale catchment increased from 444 mm to 546 mm. While runoff in the main valley of the catchment was not significantly influenced by land use change, runoff in other parts changed substantially. Especially the most northern part of the catchment showed an increase in annual surface runoff and a change in its spatial distribution. Cultivated land has been reported to cause between 5 and 30 times as much runoff as forested areas and 10 times as much as grass covered areas (Hurni, Tato & Zeleke, 2005). Due to the decrease in grazing land, the most northern sub basins display up to double the amount of runoff. Two smaller regions in the center of the catchment also exhibit a similar increase in runoff due to a large decrease in grazing land. The majority of the grazing land in these sub basins was converted to yearly crops. Furthermore, an increase in runoff due to traditional Maresha ploughing practices has been reported (Temesgen et al., 2012;Biazin et al., 2011). Maresha ploughing was shown to reduce the infiltration rate, and thus increase surface runoff. Because the majority of farmland in the Genale catchment is ploughed either with this traditional method or by hand, both giving similar results in soil structure, this could potentially be one of the important factors that cause erosion. The maps with predicted erosion for the years 1985 and 2015 are given in Figure 11. The erosion maps for all other time-periods are given in appendix C. The erosion-map for 1985 has a range from 0 to 160 and an average of 13.8 t ha −1 y −1 . The 2015 erosion map has a range from 0 to 200 t ha −1 y −1 and an average erosion for the catchment of 41.0 t ha −1 y −1 . An overview of the modeled average values for erosion in the past and the future are given in Figure 12. Comparable to the increase in agro-forestry and agricultural land, the trend shows a shape similar to the population increase in the Ethiopian highlands. With an increase from 13.8 to 41.0 t ha −1 y −1 , the erosion has risen by 190 percent between 1985 and 2015. Erosion values above 10 t ha −1 y −1 can be categorized as high, above 20 t ha −1 y −1 as very high and above 40 t ha −1 y −1 as severe (Singh et al., 1992). The erosion in study site in 1985 can thus be classified as high on average, while the 2015 map would almost completely fall into the category very high or severe. In the future scenario for 2025, the land use change trends from the past 12 years were continued with 28 percent annual crops, 11 percent coffee, 46 percent enset and 13 percent grazing land. For this land use, an average soil erosion of 50.0 t ha −1 y −1 was predicted. This is an increase of 263 percent compared to 1985. Both the details and large-scale patterns of the spatial distribution of erosion have furthermore substantially changed. In the 1985 erosion map only the main valley shows an increase in predicted erosion values. In 2015 two main regions within the catchment are notable due to their high values: The main valley in the south and the north-eastern higher region of the catchment.The average modelled erosion throughout the study site in 2015 agrees with reported values from other studies. Shiferaw & Holden (1999) reported values of approximately 40 t ha −1 y −1 for the Ethiopian highlands, and for the same area Hurni reported 30 t ha −1 y −1 (1985). Both the SWAT model and the modified universal soil loss equation have been used successfully multiple times before in Ethiopia and around the world (Tesfahunegn, 2013;Prasannakumar et al., 2012;Setegn, 2008;Tripathi et al., 2013). The model has furthermore proven to be successful in comparisons and test research projects (Shen et al., 2009;Mosbahi et al., 2013).In Table 6, the percentage of the total erosion in the catchment that is caused by each land use type is given for 1985 and 2015. In general, the causes of erosion agree with the erosion survey. The main source of erosion is annual crops. In 2015, 40 percent of the erosion came from annual crops that formed 19 percent of the total area of the catchment. Forest exhibited insignificant amounts erosion and grazing land, which covers 26.7 percent of the catchment, contributed 9.4 percent of the erosion. Both coffee and enset contributed approximately the same percentage of erosion as their land use percentages. For yearly crops, coffee, enset and forests, the erosion in 1985 shows similar values, which indicates that annual crops are by far the most influential contributors to erosion in the catchment. Due to its large presence, enset is the second most important contributor. An exception is grazing land, which was responsible for 52.5 percent of the erosion in 1985. Besides grazing land covering 48.9 percent of the catchment.Similar distributions of the sources of erosion were measured by other research. Ouyang et al.(2010) reported that an increase in bare soil and/or farm land increased erosion in both their SWAT model and in measurements. A study in Ethiopia by Betrie et al. (2011) also stated that a decrease in forest increased both their modeled and measured sediment load, indicating an increase in erosion.Table 6:  In the past three decades, land use change in the Genale catchment has been substantial. Agroforestry with the local staple crop enset has increased from 5.2 to 36 percent of the study site between 1985 and 2015. Annual crops have taken over the role of coffee as the most important cash crop, and have increased in area from 2.3 to 19 percent. The area of coffee itself has also grown substantially from 2.9 to 7.9 percent. These land uses have been increasing in area at the cost of a large part of the grazing land and forest, which have respectively decreased in area from 48.9 to 26.7 and from 39.5 to 5.8 percent of the Genale catchment. Besides population growth as the largest driver of land use change in the region, government policies and financial opportunities have contributed to the dynamics of land use in the catchment. The price changes of coffee and annual crops such as maize, sugar cane and especially chat have motivated many farmers to build new or change existing farms to grow these more profitable crops. The government's policies for protecting forest have protected the last remaining patches of forest that are scattered throughout the area.The land use survey has revealed that annual crops, followed by coffee, enset and grazing land, have shown the most erosion. This was confirmed by the erosion model that was created. In 1985, the average predicted soil erosion in the Genale catchment was 13.8 t ha −1 y −1 . Between 1985 and 2015, the average predicted soil erosion has increased by 190 percent to 41 t ha −1 y −1 , which can be classified as severe (Singh et al., 1992). An evident increase in erosion is present throughout the catchment. Land use has been shown to be the most important cause of increase of soil erosion in the Genale catchment. Especially the increase in annual crops has, both through its influence on runoff and direct properties, contributed to the high increase in average soil erosion. Spatial patterns in erosion maps were determined mainly by land use and slope. With land use change continuing as in the past decade, an average soil erosion of 50.0 t ha −1 y −1 was predicted, an increase of 25 percent compared to 2015.Land management has been shown to have an important influence on soil erosion. Sustainable SWC measures are however rarely present in the catchment, while the current erosion values indicate that they are necessary and that their absence is a cause for concern. Biological fences made of Euphorbia Candelabrum have been shown to block a significant part of eroded soil from flowing downstream on moderate slopes. These fences are however not maintained to a sustainable level and for steeper slopes they do not offer a functioning SMC measure. Areas with steeper slopes and higher risks of erosion are thus left exposed. The combination of popular annual crops, pressure from population growth, and the steep slopes in the region create high erosion values and a high risk of land degradation. The created erosion maps can provide a useful tool for management and decision making in the region. Especially the main valley and north-eastern regions of the catchment should be focussed upon, since steep slopes and annual crops combine to give the highest risks of land degradation. More risk comes from the last remaining areas with forest. Located especially on steep slopes, deforestation will cause extensive land degradation, especially when popular crops such as chat are to be grown there. Protection of the remaining forest should be a high priority. Currently, irrigation potential is barely utilized in the catchment. Although the potential is high, the steep slopes, combined with annual crops, require well-chosen options for irrigation based on FAO guidelines (Nachtergaele, Petri & Biancalani, 2011).      ","tokenCount":"11103"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3311ba6d9c796a7582a2c67f3614703b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/V4VWBQ/4KFNJN","id":"668105585"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6fbfd978-edd3-40a8-a346-e446e21232d4","pagecount":"4","content":"The The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) encourages the use of the EWTS data, but emphasizes that the attached data files are unit record or 'raw' data files. The decision not to alter the contents of the data files means that the user of these files will need to take care in handling missing observations, outlier values, and violations of logical consistency.The authorized use of these data is limited to government, academic, and research institutions (or individuals associated with these institutions) to be used for informing and improving government policy or for educational purposes. The data is not authorized to be used for commercial purposes. The data are provided 'as is' and in no event shall IFPRI be liable for any damages resulting from use of the data. While great effort was taken to obtain high quality data, the accuracy or reliability of the data is not guaranteed or warranted in any way.The questionnaire was administered to 1984 geographically weighted, randomly selected wheat and wheat flour traders located in 141 districts in 18 governorates from August through December 1996. The questionnaire covered a broad range of topics including, the general characteristics of the traders, the structure of their trading business, their trading flows and networks, their transport, communication, storage and cost structures, credit transactions, relative profitability and investment activities, and their opinions on the government role in regulating trading activities. ","tokenCount":"231"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7085573877.json b/data/part_5/7085573877.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..dc9dbb6641ef5c8f617c545d8dc62372572c9c05
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b8b8dbfe6736c88d0eb6f6314b72afa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0fa8f544-4690-4a00-ac52-7aea9e89d2d8/retrieve","id":"-1736487111"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b4f83216-44fb-4888-b89c-f32b6594a923","pagecount":"2","content":"Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are creating new and exciting opportunities to reach farmers in South Asian countries. Given the penetration of mobile phones and radio stations even in remote rural areas, they serve as an excellent medium to disseminate weather and agriculture related information to farmers. For instance, farmers who are linked to climate information and agro-met services through mobile phones and other information technologies are more likely to make better decisions regarding crop planting, fertilizer application, irrigation scheduling, insects and pest management and harvesting. Besides, timely information can greatly help farmers manage climate risks. But despite its wide penetration in rural areas, the potential of ICT use in climate risk management remains under-explored in South Asia.CCAFS South Asia is working with national partners and CGIAR centres in the region to study the potential to deliver timely and accurate agromet advisories and provide climate information to farmers through mobile phones and radio. We have tested projects in partnership with IFFCO Kissan Sanchar Limited in India and the Nepal Development Research Institute (NDRI), using mobile phones, radio and the internet.• To harness the potential of ICT tools and applications to deliver climate information and agro-meteorological services to farmers.• To identify the scope of coordinating government agencies, private companies and local famers (and farmer groups) to use ICT tools to enhance their climatic resilience. • A need assessment survey was conducted with stakeholders to identify the preferred communication channels to receive climate information.• Based on the survey, ICT tools were selected to broadcast and disseminate these messages.• Content for the messages was developed keeping in mind the specifi c needs of farmers in the region and was related to the cropping season.• Partnerships were established with ICT companies and telecom service providers to disseminate the information.• Monitoring and evaluation of the communications were carried out to understand the impact and reach of the projects.• Nearly 140 voice messages on climate-smart agriculture were developed and disseminated in Vaishali (Bihar) and Sangrur (Punjab). The average number of active listeners was 2,850 a month in Vaishali and 1,384 a month in Sangrur.• In CCAFS Climate-Smart Villages in Bihar and Haryana nearly 1400 farmers have enrolled to receive climate and agro-met advisories through the CCAFS-CIMMYT project. The project has been particularly successful in engaging women farmers.• In Nepal, NDRI and CCAFS in coordination with government bodies, developed and disseminated 20 messages on climate change adaptation and agroadvisories. This was broadcast in the form of public information jingles during primetime shows on the national radio channel, Radio Nepal, which typically has about one million listeners each day.• Local FM-stations were found to be most effective for dissemination of climate information and agroadvisories in Nepal, with nearly 90 percent of people indicating it was their preferred source of information.• In Nepal, follow-up surveys indicate that 89 percent farmers found agro-advisories messages useful for their farming activities. Nearly 85 percent of farmers said they would pay NRs.10-20 per month to subscribe to climate information and agro-advisory messages.• A systematic review of stakeholders in India showed high satisfaction among farmers with the agromet messages they received under the CCAFS-CIMMYT project. Farmers made several suggestions which are being incorporated to improve the content of the messages.The ","tokenCount":"536"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7110189987.json b/data/part_5/7110189987.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..078409706f001050cfa4417010282bbd9f974a51
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"96edbe479844b3dcaa2e8c205469cbcd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f1899f89-4e55-4146-a39c-7d1d29b2fa12/content","id":"207585920"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8c033d16-4a29-4e92-a331-8f7ea82d0e4a","pagecount":"57","content":"El Producto lnterno Bruto (PIB) es un indicador que cuantifica el valor total anual de los bienes y servicios producidos en un pais y se utiliza comunmente para analizar el comportamiento econ6mico de un pais.En este documento se analiza el contexto y funcionamiento de las instituciones relacionadas con la investigaci6n agropecuaria en Mexico. En el capitulo II se analizan los principales indicadores del sector agropecuario destacando entre ellos la evoluci6n y composici6n del PIB de este sector, regiones productoras, sistemas de producci6n, balanza comercial y tenencia de la tierra. En el capitulo III se analizan algunos elementos de la politica agricola entre los cuales destacan el PROCAMPO y la relacionada con la tecnologia agropecuaria.En el capitulo IV se presentan algunos indicadores de los niveles de pobreza y distribuci6n del ingreso en el pais. En los capitulos V y VI se exponen las principales caracteristicas de la producci6n de maiz y trigo, destacando la importancia de estos cultivos, asi como la evoluci6n de la superficie, los rendimientos y la producci6n para el periodo 1931-1998. En el capitulo VII se analiza el Sistema Nacional de Investigaci6n Agropecuaria (SNIA) distinguiendose el papel que desarrollan las instituciones participantes. En este sentido, se distinguen las instituciones por su principal funci6n en la investigaci6n en financiadoras, administradoras y operadoras. Se analizan tambien los mecanismos mediante los cuales se determinan las prioridades de la investigaci6n tanto en las instituciones financiadoras como en las operadoras de la investigaci6n agropecuaria en Mexico. Dada su relaci6n con la investigaci6n y su contribuci6n al objetivo nacional de elevar producci6n y productividad, se hace una breve resefia hist6rica de la evoluci6n del servicio de extension agropecuaria. Finalmente, con el objetivo de ilustrar la relaci6n entre organismos financiadores, administradores y operadores de la investigaci6n agropecuaria, se presentan algunos ejemplos de interrelaciones incluyendose orgamsmos tanto nacionales como internacionales.*Para analizar el comportamiento del PIB de Mexico se utilizo informacion correspondiente al periodo 1988-2000. El PIB se clasifico en agropecuario, industrial y de servicios (grafica 2.1). Se aprecia que el PIB de servicios es el de mayor aporte a la economia al contribuir en promedio con el 66.62 %, seguido en importancia por el PIB industrial con un promedio de 27.24 % y el agropecuario (se considero la produccion agricola, pecuaria, forestal y pesca) solo aporto en promedio el 6.14 %. ,.,.,, .. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .. , .. , .. _ ,,,,,,,,,,,., .. ,_,,,...,, .. \"....... . ........................ ,,,.,.~\"'\"''\"'•\"•\"'•\"\" .......... \"\"\"'••••'•'\"'\"'\"'':W'•\"'• .... . \" .... ' ...... °'\"\"••'•'•••'•\"\"•\"'\"'fi\"'i\"•\":•:•:>Fl'i'i'; 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 ! 0 PIB Agropecuario 0 PIB Industrial Cl3 PIB de Servicios ! Valores a precios de 1993. Fuente: Centro de Estadfstica Agropecuaria, SAGAR.Con respecto al comportamiento del PIB total, este tuvo una tasa de crecimiento media anual (TCMA) de 3.54 %, con una caida pronunciada en 1995 (grafica 2.1). Esta caida del PIB en 1995 se derivo en gran parte de la abrupta devaluacion del peso frente al dolar lo que ocasion6 aumentos en la inflacion y en las tasas de interes deprimiendose asi las actividades de consumo, ahorro e inversion. Dentro de los sectores, el mas dinamico en ese periodo fue el industrial con una TCMA de 4.52 %. Este rapido crecimiento en la industria se explica en gran parte por la expansion de la industria maquiladora de exportacion. Por otro lado, el sector agropecuario muestra el menor crecimiento dentro de las actividades economicas pues tan solo crecio a una tasa del 1.93 %. Cabe tambien mencionar que el PIB agropecuario muestra variaciones significativas en crecimiento a traves de los afios. Esto se debe, en gran parte, a que gran proporcion de la superficie agricola se cultiva bajo el regimen de temporal, altamente dependiente de los niveles de lluvia.La produccion agropecuaria, forestal y pesquera se divide en cuatro apartados: la produccion agricola, la pecuaria, la forestal y la pesquera. La importancia relativa de estos subgrupos se muestra en la grafica 2.2, donde se observa que el valor de la producci6n agricola representa el 59 % del total, seguida en importancia por la producci6n pecuaria con el 35 %, la pesquera con el 5 % y finalmente la producci6n forestal con solo el 1 %. Por otro lado, la producci6n agricola ascendi6 a mas de 95.7 millones de toneladas anu tles. Esta producci6n se divide a su vez en: cereales, cultivos industriales, frutas, hortal zas, legumbres y raices, forrajes, flores, especias y plantas de omato. De estos cultivos los que aportan un mayor volumen a la producci6n son los cereales, las hortalizas y las frutas (grafica 2.3).Graficas 2.'3. Distribucion Porcentual del Volumen de la Produccion Agricola ( Promedios del Periodo 1998-96) Fuentes: INEGl,1998 Flores, especias, plantas de ornato Frutales Cultivos lndustriales 13%Las tendencias en el crecimiento de la producci6n de los principales cultivos agricolas se presentan en la grafica 2.4. Se aprecia que los cultivos basicos no han tenido un comportamiento positivo a traves del periodo analizado, con excepci6n del maiz que present6 una tendencia creciente durante la decada de los noventa. Este crecimiento se explica, en gran parte, por la implementaci6n del programa de subsidio directo a los productores de cultivos basicos denominado PROCAMPO. Los principales productos pecuarios que se obtienen en Mexico son: came de bovino, came de porcino, came de pollo, came de ovino, came de caprino, leche de bovino, huevo, miel y leche de caprino. Los volfunenes anuales promedio que de estos se obtuvieron durante el periodo de 1985 a 1998 fueron de 2.8 millones de toneladas de came (de las cuales el 39 % fue came de bovino, el 35 % de cerdo, el 24 % de pollo y solamente 2 % came de ovino y caprino ), 6.6 miles de millones de litros de leche, 0.8 millones de toneladas de huevo y 58 mil toneladas de miel. Por otro lado, los productos de mayor aporte al valor de la producci6n son los de bovinos y otros productos, seguidos por aves y porcinos (grafica 2.5). El comportamiento de la producci6n de los principales productos pecuarios se presenta en la grafica 2.6. Como se aprecia en dicha grafica, la producci6n de pollo fue la mas dinamica del periodo, con un crecimiento sostenido, mientras el producto con un comportamiento mas irregular fue la producci6n de came de porcino, la cual en 1984 lleg6 a ser la mas importante de las cames; sin embargo, despues de una tendencia decreciente, a partir de 1990 llega a ser la de menor participaci6n. En cuanto a la producci6n de leche, esta creci6 de 1972 a 1985, con un periodo de caida de 1986 a 1990 y reactivarse nuevamente a partir de 1991. Este ultimo periodo de reactivacion ocurre despues de liberarse el precio de la leche, el cual estaba controlado por el estado bajo el regimen de precios tope como politica de proteccion al consumidor. .s 1000\"Q> Fuente: SAGAR, 1998.Para efectos de analizar la produccion agropecuaria por regiones, el pais se dividio en 3 grandes regiones: Arida, que comprende los estados de Baja California, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Sonora, Tamaulipas y Zacatecas; Templada, integrada por los estados de Aguascalientes, Distrito Federal, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro y Tlaxcala; y Tropico, que comprenden los estados de Campeche, Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Morelos, Nayarit, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Veracruz y Yucatan.Las principales regiones por producto se presentan en los cuadros 2.1 y 2.2. En general se observa un comportamiento acorde con las necesidades agroclimaticas de cada cultivo o actividad. Por ejemplo, la produccion de arroz, que es un cultivo con altos requerimientos de humedad se desarrolla en un 88% en la region tropical; en cambio la producci6n de cebada, que es un cultivo de zonas templadas se produce en un 77% en esta region. Asimismo, el algodon que requiere climas calidos y secos se desarrolla bien en la region arida. Algunos cultivos con mayor grado de adaptabilidad como el maiz y el frijol se obtienen en proporciones importantes en las tres regiones ( cuadro 2.1 ). El sector agropecuario de Mexico presenta diferencias en cuanto a la predominancia de los sistemas de produccion. Estas diferencias se pueden observar hacia el interior de cada subsector (agricola, pecuario y forestal).En el subsector agricola encontramos dos tipos de agricultura: la comercial y la tradicional o de subsistencia. La agricultura comercial, intensiva en el uso de insumos y capital, se desarrolla principalmente en las zonas de riego del pais, entre las cuales destacan el noroeste, el noreste, el bajio y la laguna. En la region noroeste, que comprende los estados de Baja California, Sonora y Sinaloa se producen comercialmente hortalizas, granos y en menor proporcion frutales. Otra region importante en la produccion agricola es la del bajio en la cual se producen principalmente granos y hortalizas. En el noreste predomina la produccion de granos. En la region de la laguna predomina la produccion de forrajes. En los demas estados no existe un predominio de un cultivo en particular aunque sobresale la producci6n de aguacate en el estado de Michoacan, la de mango en Nayarit, la producci6n de platano y cacao en Tabasco y la de naranja en los estados de Veracruz y Nuevo Le6n.La agricultura tradicional o de subsistencia se desarrolla en todo el territorio mexicano, sobre todo en areas de temporal y bajo el regimen de minifundio. En este tipo de agricultura predomina la producci6n de granos basicos, la cual se utiliza para el consumo familiar y en menor grado para el consumo de los animales domesticos. No se dispone de informaci6n que indique la importancia relativa de cada tipo de agricultura; sin embargo un indicador que se puede utilizar es el referente a las caracteristicas de la tecnologia aplicada al maiz en sus vertientes de riego y temporal (cuadro 2.3). De acuerdo con datos de la SAGAR, en 1999 se sembraron 16.1 millones de hectareas, de las cuales el 80 % fueron de temporal y el 20 % restante de riego. En el caso de la producci6n de leche que se obtuvo en 1998, el 50.5 % se obtuvo bajo el sistema especializado, el 20.6 % bajo el sistema semiespecializado, el 19 .5 % lo aport6 el sistema de doble prop6sito (este sistema tambien se divide en comercial, semicomercial y familiar) y s6lo el 9.4 % lo aport6 el sistema familiar (SAGAR, 1999a). La producci6n porcina presenta condiciones similares. En un estudio realizado por la SAGAR (1999b) se identificaron tres tipos de sistemas de producci6n: el sistema tecnificado o integrado, el sistema semitecnificado o semiintegrado y el familiar o de traspatio. En cuanto a la producci6n ovina y caprina los sistemas se clasifican en sistemas intensivos, semiintensivos y extensivos. Estos ultimos son los predominantes y se caracterizan por el empleo de mano de obra familiar por lo que tambien son catalogados como sistemas familiares (FIRA, 1999). Para el caso de la producci6n forestal, recientemente se han establecido plantaciones forestales con un caracter comercial, pero se s1gue explotando el bosque y las selvas tropicales de manera tradicional.La investigaci6n agricola se ha desarrollado bajo dos paradigmas. Uno puede denominarse de producci6n para la agricultura comercial. El otro, de desarrollo econ6mico -social para la agricultura tradicional y la de subsistencia. El primero se ubica en el campo experimental (con el instrumental y los apoyos necesarios) y se enfoca a obtener innovaciones biol6gicas, quimicas y mecanicas -de origen nacional o intemacional -que permiten elevar la productividad y competitividad del proceso, generalmente especializado por cultivos. Se parte de la premisa de que el productor dispone de medios propios, o los obtiene de las instituciones publicas o privadas, para incorporar innovaciones tecnol6gicas y asi elevar, con eficiencia econ6mica, la producci6n. El segundo paradigma de investigaci6n se enfoca a la aportaci6n de innovaciones biol6gicas, quimicas y mecanicas que elevan la eficiencia del sistema de producci6n complejo, generalmente policultivos alimenticios, frutales, ganaderia de traspatio, aprovechamientos forestales, artesania y otros. La investigaci6n se realiza en la parcela y con los medios de producci6n de la agricultura tradicional y de subsistencia, con capital minimo y aprovechamiento maximo de la mano de obra familiar. La investigaci6n, en este tipo de agricultura, se considera como elemento basico de un proceso estrategico en el cual participan los propios productores, equipos tecnicos y el personal de instituciones de apoyo al desarrollo agricola y rural (Jimenez, 1996). La investigaci6n agricola ha estado muy orientada hacia la producci6n, con un enfasis en el aumento de los rendimientos y una menor atenci6n a los costos, con un mayor enfoque sobre la tierra de riego en detrimento de las zonas de temporal y tropicales, a pesar de que estas ultimas representan casi tres cuartas partes de la superficie agricola total. Las instituciones de investigaci6n se han orientado al aumento de la producci6n mas que a encontrar medios para ayudar a los agricultores y gobiemo a alcanzar los objetivos de la politica agricola, en particular practicas de cultivo sostenibles que respeten el medio ambiente. Sin embargo, se estan haciendo algunos esfuerzos para recolectar informaci6n para ayudar a los agricultores a administrar eficazmente sus recursos, a fin de mejorar la productividad y el desempefio con respeto al medio ambiente. La reciente descentralizaci6n de las actividades de investigaci6n y de asistencia tecnica del nivel federal a los gobiemos estatales, asi como la participaci6n de los productores en la fijaci6n de las prioridades de la investigaci6n, contribuiran a mejorar la productividad de la agricultura (OCDE, 1997).Las exportaciones e importaciones se dividen en dos apartados: las agroalimentarias y las agropecuarias. Las primeras comprenden todos los productos y alimentos procesados de origen agropecuario y las segundas comprenden todos los productos agropecuarios sin procesar. El resultado del comportamiento del comercio intemacional de los productos agropecuarios se presenta en sus respectivas balanzas comerciales.Como consecuencia de la apertura comercial iniciada con la incorporaci6n de Mexico al GATT, que signific6 la eliminaci6n de permisos de importaci6n y la reducci6n unilateral de aranceles, se observa un progresivo deterioro de la balanza comercial agroalimentaria. Esta muestra deficits a partir de 1988, a pesar de que las exportaciones crecieron de manera sostenida, llegando a ser 3.4 veces mayores en 1995 que en 1985. Pero tambien las importaciones se incrementaron, inclusive a un ritmo mayor (cuadro 2.4). La apertura comercial mencionada y el sostenimiento de un tipo de cambio sobrevaluado propiciaron que las importaciones de alimentos, bebidas y tabaco se dispararan, siendo casi 8 veces mas altas en 1994 en comparaci6n con 1985 ( cuadro 2.5).En el grupo de alimentos, bebidas y tabaco, los productos que mostraron mayor dinamismo en las exportaciones durante el periodo de 1985-1997 fueron las legumbres y frutas preparadas o en conserva, la cerveza, el tequila y otros aguardientes, el jugo de naranja, los extractos de cafe y la came de ganado. Por el lado de las importaciones, los productos que mostraron mayor dinamismo fueron los alimentos para ganado, las cames frescas o refrigeradas, los aceites y grasas animales y vegetales, los preparados alimenticios especiales y las conservas vegetales ( cuadro 2.6). Cabe destacar que en este periodo tanto en las importaciones como en las exportaciones se increment6 el rubro de \"otros productos\" lo cual se debe a que la apertura comercial ha diversificado el comercici.  1985 1994 1995 1996 1997 1994/1985 1997 En cuanto el comportamiento del saldo de la balanza comercial agropecuaria, cabe resaltar que este ha sido erratico, alternandose ai'ios de deficit con ai'ios de superavit. Este comportamiento se atribuye, entre otros factores, a las variaciones climaticas y a los ajustes en el tipo de cambio ( cuadro 2. 7).Las exportaciones agropecuarias han crecido de manera sostenida, fundamentalmente gracias al dinamismo de las exportaciones de frutas y hortalizas en las que Mexico goza de ventajas estacionales; sin embargo, el crecimiento de las importaciones ha sido mas dinamico, sobre todo en lo que se refiere a semilla de soya, semilla de algod6n, frutas de clima templado y hortalizas ( cuadro 2.8). Cuadro 2.7. Mexico: Balanza Comercial Agropecuaria, 1985-1997  1985 1994 1995 1996 1997 1994/1985 1997  De acuerdo a la ultima reforma, la pequefia propiedad agricola se define como aquella superficie que no exceda por individuo de 100 hectareas de riego o humedad de primera o sus equivalentes en otras clases de tierras, o la superficie que no exceda por individuo de 150 hectareas cuando las tierras se dediquen al cultivo del algod6n, si reciben riego; y de 300 cuando se destinen al cultivo de platano, cafia de azucar, cafe, henequen, hule, palma, vid, olivo, vainilla, cacao, agave, nopal o arboles frutales. Considera pequefia propiedad ganadera la que no exceda por individuo la superficie necesaria para mantener hasta 500 cabezas de ganado mayor o su equivalente en menor, de acuerdo a la capacidad forrajera de terreno. En dicha ley tambien se indica que estan prohibidos en Mexico los latifundios.El territorio mexicano cuenta con una superficie de 196. 7 millones de hectareas de las cuales, en 1939, 15 millones se clasificaban como cultivables. Para 1949 la superficie cultivable se increment6 a 20 millones y para 1960 alcanz6 los 24 millones para permanecer sin gran variaci6n a partir de esa fecha. Adicionalmente, 80 millones de hectareas son usadas para ganaderia; de estas las dos t~rceras partes se localizan en las zonas semiaridas con baja capacidad de carga animal (Fernandez-Cornejo y Shumway, 1997). Debido a grandes proyectos de irrigaci6n que desarroll6 el gobierno a partir de la decada de los cuarenta, las tierras de riego pasaron de 1. 7 millones de hectareas en 193 9 a 2.4 millones en 1949, a cerca de 3 millones en 1960, para alcanzar 5 millones de hectareas en 1980, permaneciendo desde esa fecha sin cambios importantes (F AO, 1999). La superficie cosechada creci6 de 6. 7 millones de hectareas en 1939 a 8.6 millones en 1949, 11.4 millones en 1960, para llegar a 17.4 millones de hectareas en 1980. A partir de esa fecha ha sufrido pocos cambios (F AO, 1999).A partir de la crisis de 1982, los gobiemos de Mexico han adoptado una serie de medidas tendientes a reducir la participaci6n del estado en la economia, entre las que destacan la venta de empresas paraestatales, la disminuci6n de la participaci6n gubemamental en la distribuci6n y comercializaci6n, la eliminaci6n de los controles de precios y la abolici6n y reducci6n de los subsidios. Entre las reformas a la politica econ6mica relacionadas con el sector agropecuario destacan el desmantelamiento del sistema de precios de garantia, la sustituci6n de los permisos previos de importaci6n por aranceles y cuotas, la reforma al articulo 27 constitucional y la creaci6n de PROCAMPO.Segun las autoridades, con todas estas medidas de liberaci6n se eliminarian las distorsiones en la asignaci6n de los recursos agropecuarios, se haria mas eficiente la producci6n del sector, se impulsaria la inversion y el cambio tecnol6gico en el agro y se recuperaria el crecimiento (Ylinez, 1994).En 1993 Mexico cambi6 el sistema de precios de garantia por un sistema de pagos directos a los productores, basado en la superficie sembrada de maiz, frijol, trigo, arroz, algod6n, cebada, sorgo, soya y girasol, denominado PROCAMPO (Valdez 1994). En la administraci6n de Ernesto Zedillo se inici6 una serie apoyos al productor a traves del Programa Alianza para el Campo, cuyos componentes son: fertiirrigaci6n, establecimiento de praderas, campafias de sanidad vegetal, ganado mejor, equipamiento rural, mecanizaci6n, capacitaci6n y extension, kilo x kilo, transferencia de tecnologia, sistemas de informaci6n agropecuaria, programa lechero, campafias de salud animal, hule y programa de cafe. Cabe mencionar que su forma de operar es mediante fondos concurrentes en donde el productor tiene que aportar una parte considerable de los costos de cada programa, por lo que esta sujeto a la capacidad de pago de dichos productores.Las innovaciones derivadas de la investigaci6n agricola en Mexico son numerosas e importantes. En estos logros la genotecnia ha jugado un papel muy importante a traves de la obtenci6n de plantas y semillas mejoradas. Sin contar las innovaciones de otras instituciones, se estima que solamente el INIF AP y sus entidades antecesoras, a partir del afio de 1943, ha formado y liberado alrededor de 750 variedades y semillas mejoradas e hibridos (Cuadro 3.1). La investigaci6n en fitomejoramiento se apoya en 42,000 colectas de 104 especies importantes para la agricultura nacional; estos materiales se depositan, conservan y mantienen su viabilidad en bancos de germoplasma a cargo del Programa de Recursos Geneticos. Otro tipo de innovaciones tecnol6gicas lo constituyen los sistemas integrados contra plagas y enfermedades, manejo de suelo y agua; tecnologias para la reducci6n del uso de agroquimicos y sistemas de producci6n orientados hacia el uso de insumos organicos y tecnologias para la conservaci6n de granos y subproductos de cosecha. El efecto de estas innovaciones puede apreciarse en los siguientes casos: en maiz bajo riego con semillas mejoradas se tienen rendimientos comerciales de 12 tons/ha. Sus principales ventajas son la tolerancia al acame y la resistencia a enfermedades; en maiz bajo temporal, cuando son acompafiadas del paquete tecnol6gico adecuado, tienen potencial para incrementar la producci6n de 1.9 a 2.5 tons/ha en una superficie de 6 millones de hectareas; en tierras de temporal de buen potencial (2 millones de hectareas) el incremento puede ser de 4 a 6 ton/ha; en el caso del trigo hay 42 variedades resistentes a la roya y aceptables por la industria molinera; bajo riego es posible producir 7 ton/ha, disminuyendo en un 30 % los costos de producci6n; para temporal hay cinco variedades con potencial de producci6n de 5 tons/ha con sus respectivas tecnologias de producci6n y en frijol hay 33 variedades que pueden aumentar los rendimientos en 2 tons/ha bajo condiciones de riego y en 1 tonelada en condiciones de temporal, lo que significa 40 y 30 % de aumento, respectivamente, con respecto a los rendimientos actuales.En la investigaci6n pecuaria, se han generado tecnologias y biol6gicos para el diagn6stico de alrededor de 100 especies animales importantes y prevenir 40 enfermedades. Asi tambien, desde el punto de vista quimico y nutricional se han caracterizado mas de 80 productos y subproductos nacionales susceptibles de incorporarse a la dieta de diversas especies animales, destacando aves y cerdos. En el tr6pico, a partir de 35 variedades forrajeras, se ha integrado tecnologia para sistemas de pastoreo de ganaderia intensiva, aplicable en mas de 15 millones de hectareas de praderas tropicales. Se ha generado informaci6n agron6mica y zootecnica para el uso de praderas de riego para la producci6n de came y de leche. Tambien se dispone de tecnologia para el uso intensivo de matorrales de los desiertos de los Estados de Chihuahua y Sonora.En investigaci6n forestal destacan el manejo de poblaciones nativas para la selecci6n de germoplasma disponible para establecer plantaciones forestales de pino-encino. Cabe destacar que el pino es el genero econ6micamente mas importante en el aprovechamiento maderable y por su riqueza genetica, Mexico es el pais con mayor biodiversidad del mundo. Otra de las aportaciones importantes es el desarrollo de tecnologias para el aprovechamiento de bosques naturales y el establecimiento de plantaciones forestales (Jimenez, 1996). Otro cultivo que se ha impulsado en las zonas tropicales es el hule en donde los clones seleccionados han incrementado los rendimientos de un promedio de 0.9 tons. de hule seco/ha a niveles que van de 1.3 tons/ha en Tabasco y Norte de Chiapas a 2.2 tons/ha en el Centro de Veracruz. El potencial econ6mico es muy alto ya que el mayor consumo que se tiene es de hule de importaci6n (88 %) y este cultivo puede contribuir a reducir la salida de divisas.Adicionalmente, la investigaci6n agrf cola en Mexico, sus innovaciones cientificas y tecnol6gicas y su impacto en la producci6n, han tenido repercusiones en America Latina y otros ambitos del mundo. En este proceso, la Fundaci6n Rockefeller, en el contexto institucional internacional promovi6, con el Gobierno de Mexico, el establecimiento del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT).El origen del CIMMYT se remonta a un programa especial de investigaci6n establecido en el afio de 1943 por el Gobierno de Mexico y la Fundaci6n Rockefeller, que coadyuv6 a que Mexico casi lograra la autosuficiencia en maiz y trigo a mediados de la decada de los afios cincuenta. Durante 1966 y 1967, el CIMMYT y Mexico pudieron responder prontamente a las condiciones de hambruna que imperaban en la India y Pakistan gracias a que ya contaban con variedades mejoradas de trigo mexicano cuya semilla se entreg6 a los productores de esos paises y que, en combinaci6n con las practicas de cultivo adecuadas, elevaran enormemente los rendimientos. En consecuencia, se produjo un crecimiento acelerado de la producci6n que dio origen a lo que se conoci6 como \"La Revoluci6n Verde\" (CIMMYT, 1992).Con relaci6n a los niveles de pobreza y desigualdad hay varios indicadores que la caracterizan. El Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo menciona entre otros al Coeficiente de Gini (urbano y rural), la Incidencia de la Pobreza (urbana y rural) y Brecha de la Pobreza. Sin embargo, para el caso de Mexico, no existen estudios recientes que indiquen cual es la situaci6n de la pobreza rural por lo que, con el fin de dar una idea de la misma, se tuvo que recurrir a datos de la distribuci6n del ingreso. La distribuci6n del ingreso es un concepto que se empez6 a manejar en la decada de los cincuenta vinculado al concepto de desarrollo econ6mico y se refiere principalmente a que la riqueza generada en un pafs se debe distribuir equitativamente entre los distintos estratos de la poblaci6n.Para analizar las tendencias de la distribuci6n del ingreso se utiliza el coeficiente de Gini, el cual es una medida agregada de la desigualdad y puede tomar valores desde cero (igualdad perfecta) hasta uno (desigualdad total). Otro indicador de la distribuci6n del ingreso es la medida de desigualdad (MD) que es la raz6n del por ciento de ingreso del 40 % de la poblaci6n mas pobres entre el por ciento del ingreso del 20 % mas rico (Todaro, 1991). La informaci6n sabre la distribuci6n del ingreso por deciles y el coeficiente de Gini se obtuvieron de la encuesta de Gas.tos e Ingresos de los Hogares para los afios disponibles y se muestra en el cuadro 4.1. En general, tanto el coeficiente de Gini como la medida de desigualdad muestran tendencias desfavorables para los estratos de poblaci6n de menores ingresos. En estudios recientes se reporta que la situacion de pobreza y marginacion del campo mexicano se ha visto paulatinamente agravada a partir de 1982, afio en que se implemento un nuevo modelo de desarrollo, cuyas caracteristicas principales son el retiro paulatino de la funcion rectora y orientadora del estado en la promocion de las actividades economicas (sobre todo las primarias), asi como la disminucion del financiamiento al gasto social.La exclusion de vastos sectores de la poblacion urbana y rural de los programas de desarrollo condujo al agravamiento de los niveles de pobreza y pobreza extrema. Oficialmente, segun un documento de trabajo intemo de la Secretaria de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) basado en el conteo del INEGI en 1995, la geografia de la pobreza de Mexico se ubica en 1,376 municipios (56.9 %), los cuales comprendian una poblacion marginada de 25.8 millones de mexicanos sin especificar a los que viven en extrema pobreza (Garcia, 1999).Tambien se afirma que la pobreza es un fenomeno que se presenta principalmente en el medio rural debido a que el 75 % de los pobres de Mexico viven en pequefias comunidades. La pobreza ha crecido en los ultimos afios. Segun cifras oficiales existen 42 millones de pobres en Mexico, de los cuales 26 millones viven en pobreza extrema (Ladron de Guevara, 1999).Para tratar de ejemplificar lo anterior Moscardi (2000), sefiala que en America Latina y El Caribe, viven aproximadamente 200 millones de pobres, de los cuales el 35 % habita en zonas rurales. Por otro lado, menciona que en la mayoria de los paises situados entre el Tropico de Cancer y el de Capricomio (Region Andina, Centroamerica y la mayor parte de Mexico) la proporcion de personas pobres que dependen de la agricultura esta por encima del 50 %. En tanto en los paises que no estan dentro de esta franja (Sur de Brasil, Chile Uruguay, Argentina y el Norte de Mexico), el porcentaje de personas pobres que dependen de la agricultura esta muy por debajo del 50 %. La distribucion de la pobreza esta, por lo tanto, bastante marcada: la pobreza rural tiende a concentrarse en los paises tropicales y subtropicales, mientras que la pobreza urbana es mas notoria en las zonas de clima mas templado.Finalmente, en el cuadro 4.2 se presenta informacion que relaciona la pobreza de la poblacion rural con los recursos naturales existentes en America Latina y El Caribe en base a un agrupamiento geografico denominado Megadominio. Se observa que no necesariamente la dotacion de recursos naturales determina los niveles de pobreza. El maiz es el cultivo mas importante en Mexico en terminos de superficie, producci6n y valor. En 1998, la superficie cosechada de este cultivo fue de 7. 9 millones de hectareas la que represent6 mas del 52 % del area total establecida con cultivos ciclicos* (cuadro 5.1). Ademas de lo anterior, destaca su importancia en el consumo humano en virtud de ser un producto basico en la dieta de la poblaci6n mexicana. El 57% del consumo total de maiz en Mexico se destina al consumo humano, y de el, cerca del 60% se consume en forma de tortilla (Galarza, et al, 1997).Durante la decada de los treinta la superficie cosechada promedio anual fue de 3 .13 millones de hectareas. Esta se increment6 en los siguientes afios hasta llegar, en la decada de los noventa, a un promedio de 7.65 millones de hectareas anuales (cuadro 5.2). Llama en particular la atenci6n el incremento observado durante las decadas de los cuarenta, cincuenta y sesenta, cuando la superficie cosechada creci6 a tasas promedio del 3% anual. Este importante crecimiento en la superficie puede haberse debido a que en ese periodo la economia de Mexico vivi6 sus mejores momentos del siglo XX, incluyendo estabilidad de precios, estabilidad en el tipo de cambio y crecimiento econ6mico. Esto permiti6 apoyar los diferentes sectores econ6micos entre ellos el agropecuario. En la decada de los setenta se observa una disminuci6n en la superficie mientras que en las decadas de los ochenta y noventa se observa un ligero aumento.Los rendimientos de maiz por hectarea han mostrado una evoluci6n importante al pasar de 0.57 ton/ha en la decada de los treinta a 2.29 ton/ha en los noventa (cuadro 5.2). Sin embargo, los mayores incrementos en rendimientos se registran a partir de la decada de los sesenta con la introducci6n de semillas mejoradas, fertilizantes y otros componentes del paquete tecnol6gico, todo ello en el contexto de la Hamada \"Revoluci6n Verde\". Sin embargo, los rendimientos en Mexico se consideran aun bajos y esto se debe, en gran parte, a la gran proporci6n de superficie sembrada bajo el regimen de temporal deficiente con baja utilizaci6n de insumos modemos. La producci6n de maiz en Mexico pasa de un promedio de 1.8 millones de toneladas anuales durante la decada de los treinta, a 17 .5 mill ones en la decada de los noventa ( cuadro 5.2). Esto significa una tasa de crecimiento anual de 4.85 %, muy por arriba de la tasa de crecimiento de la poblaci6n (2 %-3 % por ciento). No obstante este crecimiento, Mexico no ha alcanzado la autosuficiencia. Durante el periodo 1995-1997 se importaron en promedio 3.5 millones de toneladas de maiz anuales.El cultivo del maiz se siembra practicamente en todo el territorio nacional. Sin embargo, en 1998, los 5 principales estados productores de maiz, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Chiapas, Mexico y Michoacan contribuyeron con mas del 50 % de la producci6n nacional (cuadro 5.3). Cabe mencionar que las caracteristicas de producci6n en algunos estados contrastan notablemente, por ejemplo en el estado de Sinaloa, la producci6n se realiza de manera intensiva con riego, fertilizaci6n y semillas mejoradas; en cambio, en algunas regiones del centro y sur del pais, aunque se dispone de un buen temporal, existe el minifundio con escaso uso de tecnologia y la producci6n se destina en gran parte al autoconsumo. El trigo es uno de los granos mas importantes en Mexico. Se utiliza para la elaboraci6n de una gran variedad de productos alimenticios como el pan, galletas, pasteles y pastas. En 1998 se sembraron mas de 760 mil hectareas de trigo constituyendose en el cuarto cultivo mas importante dentro de los cultivos ciclicos en Mexico despues del maiz, frijol y sorgo grano (cuadro 5.1).La evoluci6n de la superficie cosechada con trigo en Mexico muestra 4 etapas bien definidas. La primera, que comprende las decadas de los treinta, cuarenta y cincuenta, cuando la superficie pas6 de un promedio anual de 513 mil a 800 mil hectareas ( cuadro 6.1 ). Durante este periodo la superficie creci6 a una tasa anual promedio del 2.55 %. El segundo periodo corresponde a las decadas de los sesenta y setenta cuando la superficie se reduce a poco mas de 700 mil hectareas, a una tasa anual del (0.21) %. La tercera etapa corresponde a la decada de los ochenta cuando la superficie observa un crecimiento acelerado a una tasa promedio de 3.96 % y rebasa el mill6n de hectareas y, finalmente una cuarta etapa que corresponde a la decada de los noventa cuando la superficie disminuye a una tasa anual del (2.17) % hasta llegar, en 1998, a una superficie de 768 mil hectareas. De la superficie total establecida con este cultivo el 98.5 % se establece bajo el regimen de riego; ademas, aproximadamente el 90 % de ella se establece durante el ciclo otofioinviemo, es decir, se siembra durante los meses de noviembre a enero y se cosecha durante los meses de abril a junio.Durante las decadas de los treinta y cuarenta los rendimientos anuales oscilaron entre los 700 y 800 kg/ha. En cambio, durante las decadas de los cincuenta, sesenta y setenta, los rendimientos se incrementaron de manera muy significativa al pasar de un promedio de 1.2 ton/ha durante la decada de los cincuenta a 3.5 ton/ha durante los setenta, esto es, a una tasa anual de 5.5 %. Lo anterior tiene relaci6n con la Hamada revoluci6n verde de la cual fue este cultivo uno de los mas beneficiados. En la decada de los ochenta los rendimientos registran ligeros incrementos y en los noventa muestran un estancamiento ubicandose en 4.16 ton/ha (cuadro 6.1).- Durante las decadas de los treinta y cuarenta la producci6n oscil6 alrededor de las 400 mil toneladas. A partir de los cincuenta y hasta los ochenta la producci6n se incrementa continuamente a una tasa anual promedio de 6.6% hasta superar los 4 millones de toneladas ( cuadro 6.2). Durante los noventa, la situaci6n se revierte y como consecuencia de la disminuci6n en la superficie cosechada y el estancamiento en los rendimientos, la producci6n disminuye a una tasa anual cercana al (2) % para ubicarse en alrededor de 3.64 millones de toneladas. El nivel de producci6n nacional ha sido insuficiente para abastecer el consumo interno. Durante los afios 1995-1997 la producci6n represent6 el 65 % del consumo nacional.En la producci6n por entidad, destaca en los ultimos 30 afios como principal productor el estado de Sonora, ubicado en el noroeste del pais el cual ha participado con volumenes de entre el 32 % y 49 % del total nacional (cuadro 6.2).En 1998 Sonora produjo 1.37 millones de toneladas lo cual represent6 el 42 % de la producci6n nacional. En ese mismo afio le siguieron en importancia Baja California y Guanajuato con el 14.5 % y 9.6 % respectivamente. Desde el punto de vista geografico se pueden agrupar lo principales estados en 2 regiones importantes: el Noroeste y el Bajio. El Noroeste estaria integrado por los estados de Sonora, Sinaloa y Baja California; y el Bajio estaria integrado por los estados de Guanajuato, Jalisco y Michoacan. Agrupados de esta manera, en 1998 el Noroeste particip6 con el 65 % de la producci6n nacional de trigo, el Bajio particip6 con el 20 % y el restante 15 % se produjo en otras regiones del pais.El termino de sistema nacional de innovaci6n (S.N.I) esta basado en el concepto de sistemas nacionales productivos y el de relaciones entre empresas, donde se enfatizan las relaciones entre productores y usuarios en la economia nacional. Freeman (1987) define al S.N.I., como \"las redes institucionales en los sectores publicos y privados en los cuales se dan las interacciones para generar, transferir y difundir las nuevas tecnologias\". Para Nelson (1982), los S.N.I., se deducen en parte de las politicas nacionales de innovaci6n. En este orden de ideas los S.N.I, comprende empresas publicas y privadas, universidades y centres publicos de investigaci6n cuyo objetivo es la producci6n de ciencia y tecnologia al interior del contexto nacional (Niosi, et al 1992). Para Patel y Pavitt (1994), la noci6n de S.N.I., puede considerarse como un intento serio par \"difundir y describir la naturaleza y determinantes de las inversiones hechas por paises y empresas en actividades de aprendizaje para promover y administrar el cambio tecnico\".Estos autores reconocen cuatro grupos de instituciones centrales en los S.N.I.:1. Universidades e instituciones similares que proporcionan investigaci6n basica y entrenamiento. 2. Instituciones publicas y privadas que proporcionan educaci6n y entrenamiento vocacional. 3. Empresas, en particular aquellas que invierten en actividades de,innovaci6n. 4. Las instituciones de financiamiento que desempefian una diversidad de actividades de promoci6n y regulaci6n del cambio tecnico.Asimismo, sefialan estos autores que los gobiemos en todos los paises proveen la mayor proporci6n de los fondos para el desarrollo de investigaci6n basica en universidades e instituciones vinculadas a estas, como un apoyo para las actividades innovativas desempefiadas por las empresas. Este apoyo incluye entrenamiento para los investigadores quienes van a trabajar en las firmas donde se plantea la formulaci6n de problemas de investigaci6n, la habilidad para desarrollar y usar lo ultimo en tecnicas e instrumentos de investigaci6n, asi como la membresia en redes profesionales nacionales e intemacionales.En paises de menor desarrollo y con una creciente integraci6n al mercado mundial, un factor clave de la competitividad es la capacidad de innovaci6n de su sector productive. En este contexto, Mexico se encuentra en un proceso de desregulaci6n de sus actividades de investigaci6n y desarrollo (IyD) que hace apenas unos afios era una actividad practicamente exclusiva del gobiemo a traves de sus institutes y centres de investigaci6n, asi como de las universidades publicas, con una escasa participaci6n del sector privado. En los ultimos 10 afios, las politicas orientadas a la actividad cientifica y tecnol6gica han propiciado una creciente participaci6n de las empresas, en particular para aspectos de desarrollo tecnol6gico, a traves de apoyos especificos y promoviendo un acercamiento y vinculaci6n con los centres generadores de ciencia y tecnologia. Como resultado de lo anterior, para el caso de la agricultura mexicana, se ha observado una creciente participaci6n de las empresas en la actividad de investigaci6n agropecuaria donde los vinculos formales e informales con las instituciones generadoras de conocimiento han jugado un papel importante (Tapia, 1997).En Mexico de manera formal no existe un Sistema Nacional de Investigaci6n Agropecuaria (SNIA) que promueva de manera integral y sistematizada el desarrollo de la capacidad innovativa de todos los sectores de la producci6n. Se considera que informalmente funciona un SNIA y que las principales instituciones que forman parte de~ ese sistema son: la Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Desarrollo Rural (SAGAR) a traves de sus instituciones de investigaci6n y docencia como son el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones F orestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias (INIF AP), cuya responsabilidad es la planeaci6n y operaci6n de la investigaci6n cientifica y desarrollo tecnol6gico agropecuario y forestal, el Colegio de Postgraduados (CP), la Universidad Aut6noma Chapingo (UACH) y la Universidad Aut6noma Agraria Antonio Narro (UAAAN); los Institutos Tecnol6gicos Agropecuarios (IT As) dependientes de la Secretaria de Educaci6n Publica (SEP) y las Facultades de Agronomia y Veterinaria de las Universidades estatales. Dentro de los organismos promotores y de apoyo financiero estan el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia y las Fundaciones Estatales PRODUCE, estas ultimas con enfasis en el fomento y apoyo a proyectos de transferencia de tecnologia.En los ultimos afios las instituciones relacionadas con el SNIA han presentado cambio~ como consecuencia de las transformaciones implementadas en la politica econ6mica de Mexico. Algunos de esos cambios estan relacionados con las politicas macroecon6micas con orientaci6n al mercado que incluyen la privatizaci6n de empresas publicas, la reducci6n de subsidios y de precios de garantia y la apertura comercial. Lo anterior repercuti6 en una reducci6n del gasto publico destinado a la investigaci6n (grafica 7 .1 ), donde se observa que el gasto federal ejercido en Ciencia y Tecnologia, asi como el porcentaje de este con respecto al PIB, tiende a disminuir a partir de 1981. Aunque estos conceptos se incrementan en 1991, este incremento se debe a que a partir de esa fecha se reportan como gastos de ciencia y tecnologia los recursos asignados a fondos para el fortalecimiento de la infraestructura y capacidades cientificas y para la repatriaci6n de cientificos mexicanos. -Tambien hay que resaltar que los recursos destinados a la ciencia y tecnologia en Mexico representan, en el mejor de los afios, apenas el 0.45 % del PIB, lo cual es un porcentaje muy bajo si se compara con el de los paises desarrollados que esta por arriba del 2 % del PIB. Otro aspecto que llama la atenci6n es el comportamiento del gasto federal en ciencia y tecnologia destinado a Agricultura, Ganaderia y Desarrollo Rural (gnifica 7 .2), en donde se observa una caida considerable a partir de 1981. Particularmente resalta la caida en la participaci6n porcentual con respecto al gasto total federal en ciencia y tecnologia, que en 1981 rep!\"esentaba mas del 20 % y para 1997 apenas representa el 5 %.Atendiendo a sui principal funci6n y con el fin de dar una idea de los componentes y agentes que integran al SNIA de Mexico, se ha hecho la siguiente agrupaci6n: Organismos de Financiamiento, Organismos Administradores y Organismos Operadores. Sus principales caracteristicas se describen en las siguientes secciones.En Mexico corresponde al Poder Ejecutivo Federal, con la aprobaci6n del Congreso de la Union, la responsabilidad de sancionar y autorizar a traves de la Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico (SHCP) el presupuesto nacional, incluido en este los montos asignados a las actividades de investigaci6n a traves de las Secretarias de Estado y que por mandato tienen bajo su responsabilidad llevar a cabo las actividades de investigaci6n cientifica en sus diferentes sus modalidades.En el ambito intemacional, existen instituciones financieras que destinan recursos a programas de investigaci6n, entre las cuales destacan el Banco Mundial (BM) y el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), que apoyan a sus paises miembros y con cierta prioridad a paises que se encuentran en vias de desarrollo o a los considerados como pobres.Los Gobiernos Extranjeros, principalmente los de paises industrializados, han venido contribuyendo con recursos para la investigaci6n en proyectos relacionados con aspectos de interes mutuo como lo son los fitosanitarios y zoosanitarios, asuntos del medio ambiente y recursos forestales.Otra fuente de financiamiento para la investigaci6n esta representada por las U niversidades N acionales e Internacionales que fundamentalmente transfieren parte de sus recursos para que otras universidades o instituciones realicen actividades de investigaci6n con una vision global y de conjunto sobre problemas que afectan a la sociedad. En el caso de las Universidades Norteamericanas, los recursos se asignan a traves del Agricultural Research Service (ARS) del United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) por medio de donaciones a universidades de reconocido prestigio como son las universidades integradas en el Midamerica International Agricultural Consortium (Oklahoma State University, Iowa State University, University of Missouri, University of Nebraska y Kansas State University) y los cuales deben ser ligados con universidades de otro pais, en este caso Mexico.En esta misma clasificaci6n se encuentran las Fundaciones Nacionales e lnternacionales que apoyan el proceso de investigaci6n con recursos financieros que a traves de convocatoria ponen a concurso y/o se destinan en forma directa, aunque esta segunda forma cada vez es menor. Como ejemplo se puede citar en el ambito intemacional a la Fundaci6n Mc Nigth, asi como la Fundaci6n Kellog que ponen a disposici6n de la comunidad cientifica recursos para investigaci6n mediante concurso.A nivel de iniciativa privada la Industria y Empresas han adquirido una gran importancia dentro del ambito de la investigaci6n, ya que el monto de los recursos que asignan a esta actividad es cada dia mayor y toma un peso especifico cada vez mas importante. Tales empresas estan invirtiendo en infraestructura y equipo que hacen de la investigaci6n una actividad cada vez mas relevante. El tipo de empresas aqui consideradas presenta dos modalidades: destinan recursos monetarios a centros de investigaci6n para el desarrollo de proyectos especificos, o bien, estan consolidando sus propios cuadros de personal cientifico, que se espera den aportes relevantes en el mediano plazo; mas aun, existen empresas que combinan ambas modalidades. Algunas de estas empresas e industrias son el Grupo MASECA, la Compafiia NESTLE, Novartis, Grupo BIMBO, la Industria Maltera, la Industria Harinera y la Industria Aceitera, entre otras. Es importante destacar aqui la importancia de las relaciones formales entre los centros de investigaci6n y docencia y la iniciativa privada, a traves de las cuales las empresas fortalecen sus estrategias de competitividad mediante proyectos y acciones conjuntas encaminadas a mejorar los procesos productivos y agroindustriales.En esta secci6n referente a organismos financieros se incluyen tambien los Patronatos y Organismos de Productores, que fundamentalmente se agrupan para actividades de interes comun y que cuentan con una organizaci6n particular y local, en donde los recursos asignados para la investigaci6n se orientan hacia la soluci6n de problemas que afectan directamente a sus agremiados.En el ambito estatal los Gobiernos Estatales cada vez se muestraµ mas comprometidos a destinar recursos que resuelvan problemas de sus comunidades y municipios. Tales recursos generalmente se asignan a programas ligados a acciones gubemamentales del Ejecutivo Federal o bien a sus organismos estatales de investigaci6n para que esos recursos se utilicen en el propio estado.La SAGAR es la dependencia donde se administran los recursos destinados a la investigaci6n del sector agricola, pecuario y forestal. Esto a traves de sus centros de investigaci6n y docencia, particularmente el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIF AP), el Colegio de Postgraduados (CP), la Universidad Aut6noma Chapingo (UACh) y la Universidad Aut6noma Agraria Antonio Narro (UAAAN). En lo que se refiere a la investigaci6n aplicada, los recursos se canalizan al INIF AP el cual dispone de infraestructura y equipo de investigaci6n para generar tecnologia agropecuaria y forestal para atender las principales regiones productoras del pais. En aspectos de investigaci6n y docencia, el CP, la UACh y~ la UAAAN, son las principales instituciones publicas del pais que forman recursos humanos de servicio al sector productivo tanto a nivel de licenciatura como de maestria y doctorado, quienes se incorporan posteriormente a los centros de investigaci6n publicos y privados, asi como a universidades y a otros centros de docencia en el pais. La investigaci6n que se realiza en estos centros de docencia se dirige principalmente a la formaci6n de recursos humanos, sin subestimar los aportes que realizan al sector productivo ya la industria.Cabe destacar la participaci6n de la SAGAR en la administraci6n y asignaci6n de recursos a las actividades de transferencia de tecnologia, en especial a las que se llevan a cabo a traves del Programa gubemamental Alianza para el Campo. Como componente de la Alianza para el Campo, la Transferencia de Tecnologia opera tanto con recursos de la SAGAR, como con recursos de los Gobiemos Estatales y aportaciones en especie de los productores. El componente Transferencia de Tecnologia opera a traves de las Fundaciones Produce establecidas como Asociaciones Civiles, una por cada entidad federativa, las cuales asignan los recursos con base en las demandas tecnol6gicas de los productores. El liderazgo de las Fundaciones recae sobre un productor con reconocida solvencia moral y liderazgo tecnico y con conocimiento de los problemas que afectan a la agricultura de su estado. En la estructura tecnica de las Fundaciones esta formalizado el respaldo tecnico de la comunidad cientifica, lo que permite una buena traducci6n de las demandas de los productores en proyectos de transferencia de tecnologia.La Secretaria de Educaci6n Publica (SEP) es la instancia donde se concentran los recursos asignados a sus Institutos Tecnol6gicos Agropecuarios, asi como a sus Centros de lnvestigaci6n y Graduados Agropecuarios (CIGA's), los cuales se destinan a la investigaci6n, formaci6n de recursos humanos y estimulos al desempefio academico. Tambien la SEP, en coordinaci6n con CONACYT, destina recursos a la formaci6n de los cuadros basicos de recursos humanos cientificos y tecnol6gicos, tanto a traves de becas de postgrado, como por medio de su propio sistema SEP-CONACYT que integra instituciones de docencia con nivel de postgrado. Tambien asigna recursos como estimulo a la productividad por las actividades de investigaci6n a traves del sistema nacional de investigadores.La SEMARNAP, aunque no es su funci6n fundamental el realizar investigaci6n, cuenta entre sus dependencias con el Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua (IMT A) que realiza investigaci6n, aunque mas especifica sobre ingenieria del agua de riego.En esta clasificaci6n destaca el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT), el cual administra y asigna recursos financieros a proyectos de investigaci6n. El proceso de asignaci6n parte de una convocatoria a la que tienen acceso todas las instituciones de investigaci6n y docencia para concursar con propuestas de proyectos de investigaci6n. La asignaci6n se lleva a cabo mediante un proceso de evaluaci6n, mecanismo que evita la duplicidad de esfuerzos de investigaci6n sabre un mismo tema. El CONACYT opera a dos niveles: uno nacional, en el cual se concursa principalmente , para proyectos de investigaci6n basica y/o estrategica, bajo la responsabilidad de investigadores de amplia trayectoria con nivel de doctorado; y un segundo nivel que opera a traves de nueve delegaciones regionales, donde la asignaci6n de recursos se orienta principalmente a proyectos de investigaci6n aplicada y con impacto regional, bajo la responsabilidad de investigadores no necesariamente con nivel de doctorado o con amplia trayectoria. En ambos casos, la aprobaci6n de las proyectos de investigaci6n se sustenta en criterios de calidad academica, aportaci6n de fondos complementarios, pertinencia, cobertura regional, trabajo interinstitucional e interdisciplinario y formaci6n de recursos humanos.Los sistemas regionales del CONACYT juegan un papel importante en el financiamiento de la investigaci6n agropecuaria. Son 9 las sistemas regionales de CONACYT, las cuales incluyen diferentes entidades federativas ( cuadro 7 .1 ). De 1995 a 1999 se han apoyado 1930 proyectos con un monto de 603.6 millones de pesos, de las cuales el 56.9 % han sido apoyados con fondos del CONACYT y el 43.l % restante con aportaciones de las usuarios de la investigaci6n.Al analizar las areas de investigaci6n de las proyectos apoyados se aprecia que las areas relacionadas con el sector agropecuario, coma lo son el area de alimentos y el de recursos naturales, son las que presentan las porcentajes mas altos ( cuadro 7.2). Esta situaci6n habla de la importancia que se le da al sector primario en este tipo de investigaci6n cuya caracteristica principal es la investigaci6n aplicada. Existen otros organismos con aportes importantes en la labor de administraci6n de la investigaci6n. Entre ellos tenemos a los gobiernos estatales, las fundaciones estatales produce y otros organismos internacionales. En el contexto estatal tenemos a los Consejos Estatales de Ciencia y Tecnologia (COECYT's) dependientes de los Gobiernos Estatales y que en forma complementaria a los apoyos del CONACYT y Fundaciones Produce, apoyan proyectos de investigaci6n, difusi6n cientifica y tecnol6gica, formaci6n de recursos humanos y premios a las actividades cientificas sobresalientes. Actualmente existen 13 Consejos Estatales organizados en una red, lo que facilita las relaciones entre si y con la comunidad cientifica.Las Fundaciones Estatales Produce se crearon en la administraci6n del Presidente Ernesto Zedillo como un espacio a los productores para su participaci6n en la toma de decisiones sobre el financiamiento a proyectos de investigaci6n y de transferencia de tecnologia que respondiesen a sus necesidades. Las Fundaciones Produce estan en proceso de consolidaci6n y a traves de una Coordinadora Nacional de Fundaciones con sede en la Ciudad de Queretaro, han logrado importantes alianzas con organismos financieros nacionales e internacionales, con instituciones de investigaci6n publicas y privadas, asi como con empresas del sector agropecuario.Dentro de los organismos internacionales destaca el Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), organismo internacional que agrupa a 16 centros de investigaci6n distribuidos por todo el mundo, contando Mexico con la sede del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT). Este centro se financia con aportaciones de los gobiernos de diversos paises, principalmente desarrollados, de fundaciones y de empresas para destinarse a programas y proyectos especificos de investigaci6n, asi como al entrenamiento especializado de cientificos de todo el mundo.Tambien se han hecho algunos intentos para que existan en Mexico algunas representaciones de otros centros y de esta manera captar mas recursos internacionales para la investigaci6n agricola mexicana, como pueden ser los casos del International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (!CARDA), del International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) y el International Water Management Institute (IWMI).La investigaci6n agropecuaria moderna en Mexico, de acuerdo con Fernandez-Cornejo y Shumway (1997), inicia en la decada de los cuarenta con el establecimiento de la Oficina de Estudios Especiales, por un convenio entre la Fundaci6n Rockefeller y la Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganaderia (SAG) y con la creaci6n La actividad de investigaci6n agropecuaria tambien la realizan las escuelas de agronomia y veterinaria de las Instituciones de Educaci6n Superior. En algunas de estas instituciones se han creado centros especiales como el Centro de Investigaci6n y de Estudios A vanzados (Cinvestav) del Instituto Politecnico Nacional, el Centro para la Innovaci6n Tecnol6gica (CIT) de la Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico, los centros regionales del CP y de la Universidad Aut6noma de Chapingo y se ha fortalecido el sistema de educaci6n tecnol6gica agropecuaria de la Secretaria de Educaci6n Publica (Morales y Gomez, 1996).Con respecto al gasto en investigaci6n y desarrollo experimental destacan los que realizan en el sector educativo superior y el gobiemo con el 45% y 33%, respectivamente, seguido por el sector privado con el 21 % del total ( cuadro 7.4 ). Las instituciones que realizan actividades de investigaci6n en Mexico se pueden clasificar en cuatro apartados: a) instituciones publicas que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria, b) instituciones privadas que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria, que incluyen un numero variable de empresas agropecuarias que cuentan con un departamento de investigaci6n, c) Universidades no agricolas que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria y d) Dependencias y organismos intemacionales que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria. A continuaci6n se describira brevemente cada una de ellas.En Mexico el numero de instituciones publicas de investigaci6n agropecuaria ha cambiado en los ultimas 20 afios. Lo anterior se puede apreciar al comparar un documento elaborado por el Centro de Estadistica y Calculo del Colegio de Postgraduados en 1973, que reporta 76 instituciones publicas de investigaci6n, mientras que el censo de instituciones que elabor6 el INIF AP en 1998, reporta 122 instituciones. Algunos de los cambios que se detectan en dicho periodo son la integraci6n en 1985 del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas, el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Pecuarias para conformar el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP). Tambien algunos gobiemos estatales constituyeron institutos estatales de investigaci6n tales como el caso del estado de Tabasco, el estado de Mexico, el estado de Guanajuato y el estado de Sonora.Las instituciones publicas a su vez se pueden clasificar en dos apartados: las que dependen de la SAGAR, que estan representados por cuatro dependencias (tres educativas y una de investigaci6n), las cuales son el CP, la UACh y la UAAAN y el INIFAP y las instituciones que dependen de las dependencias federales o estatales diferentes a la SAGAR.El INIF AP esta enfocado en un 100 % a la investigaci6n y desarrollo de tecnologia de producci6n en materia agricola, pecuaria y forestal. En el caso de las instituciones educativas, la investigaci6n se ve un poco mas restringida ya que la formaci6n de recursos humanos es prioritaria, mientras que la investigaci6n ocupa un segundo • lugar dentro del qu~hacer de estas instituciones. La investigaci6n agropecuaria publica no escapa a las politicas de ajuste del gasto reflejandose ello en el deterioro de su financiamiento ( cuadro 7.5) En la grafica 7 .3 se muestra la distribuci6n de recursos federales destinados exclusivamente a ciencia y tecnologia en materia agropecuaria en 1997. Se observa que el INIF AP es el de mayor participaci6n, situaci6n que se explica por la infraestructura fisica y humana con que cuenta, asi como por su cobertura a nivel nacional. Dentro de las instituciones que no dependen de la SAGAR, sobresalen los Institutos Tecnologicos Agropecuarios dependientes de la SEP. La proporci6n de tiempo asignado a actividades de investigaci6n en ellos es menor que las instituciones de docencia arriba sefialadas ya que, comparativamente, se puede decir que son de reciente creaci6n y a(m no han logrado consolidar una masa critica de investigadores. El Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua y el Instituto de Ecologia, que dependen de la SEMARNAP, si bien no realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria al 100%, si tienen en sus proyectos de investigaci6n alglin componente agropecuario. Los Fondos Instituidos en Relacion con la Agricultura (FIRA) del Banco de Mexico, cuentan con centros de demostraci6n, sobre todo en aspectos de ganaderia y de labranza de conservaci6n, los cuales cuentan con fondos de recursos fiscales y de organismos internacionales. Tambien algunos gobiernos estatales constituyeron Institutos estatales que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria, tal es el caso del estado de Tabasco, el estado de Mexico, del estado de Guanajuato y el estado de Sonora.En este apartado se incluyen un numero variable de empresas agropecuarias que cuentan con un departamento de investigaci6n. Tambien el numero de instituciones privadas cambio en los ultimos 20 afios. La mayoria estan orientadas a probar y adoptar tecnologias desarrolladas fuera del pais. Especialmente han tenido gran auge las compafiias semilleras. El cambio en el numero de empresas tambien se puede apreciar en el documento mencionado del Colegio de Postgraduados que indica que en 1973 solamente existia una instituci6n privada y para 1998 el censo elaborado por el INIF AP reporta 20 instituciones. Las Empresas Privadas se han enfocado a resolver problemas particulares, existiendo casos como el de Monsanto o el Grupo Pulsar que han invertido importantes recursos monetarios y humanos en campos de investigaci6n como el de la biotecnologia. Cabe tambien seiialar el caso de la asociaci6n entre la industria maltera y el INIF AP para obtener mejores variedades de cebada destinadas a la industria cervecera. Existen Universidades PU:blicas y Universidades Privadas que estan impulsando programas de investigaci6n agropecuarias orientadas a resolver problemas especificos de las empresas. La actividad de investigaci6n agropecuaria realizada en los ultimos 20 afios se increment6 en las Instituciones de Educaci6n Superior. En algunas de estas instituciones se han creado centros especiales como el Centro de Investigaci6n y de Estudios A vanzados (Cinvestav) del Instituto Politecnico Nacional y el Centro para la Innovaci6n Tecnol6gica (CIT) de la Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico. El incremenlo de las actividades de investigaci6n en estas universidades tambien se puede apreciar en el documento mencionado del Colegio de Postgraduados que menciona que en 1973 existian 6 Universidades que realizaban investigaci6n y para 1998 el censo elaborado por el INIF AP reporta 88 instituciones de este tipo. Estas universidades realizan investigaci6n, en su gran mayoria, sobre todo las universidades estatales, solamente con sus estudiantes cuando estos realizan sus tesis. Las Universidades que se considera que realizan investigaci6n son aquellas que cuentan con programas de postgrado, tales el caso de la UNAM, la UAM, la Universidad de Chihuahua, la de Tamaulipas, la de Yucatan y los Institutos Tecnol6gicos Agropecuarios que cuentan con programas de postgrado.Entre las Universidades e instituciones de docencia privadas que realizan investigaci6n agropecuaria, destaca por su presencia, en casi todo el pais, el Instituto Tecnol6gico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, aunque gran parte de sus proyectos se orientan principalmente al area de los agronegocios.El Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), realiza investigaci6n acorde a los lineamientos marcados por el Foro Global y siguiendo los enfoques y prioridades marcados a nivel mundial como es el caso de la investigaci6n en maiz y trigo realizada por el CIMMYT.Cada instituci6n de investigaci6n define sus lineas de investigaci6n y para ello utilizan sus propios criterios. Antes de la conformaci6n del INIF AP existian tres Institutos Nacionales de Investigaci6n: el agricola (INIA), el pecuario (INIP) y el forestal (INIF). Estos institutos definian sus prioridades a traves de la elaboraci6n de diagn6sticos por sistema-producto para detectar la problematica ya partir de ahi derivar lineas de investigaci6n. A partir de la formaci6n del INIF AP el metodo principal para definir prioridades de investigaci6n ha sido la integraci6n de cuerpos colegiados de expertos por sistema producto. Las instituciones de docencia e investigaci6n no cuentan con un metodo especifico para definir prioridades. Se norman por las prioridades nacionales definidas en los Planes Nacionales de Desarrollo Agropecuario y por el criterio y la experiencia de sus propios investigadores.Por otro lado se da tambien un proceso de priorizaci6n por las instituciones que financian la investigaci6n. En el caso del CONACYT las prioridades estan definidas por las prioridades nacionales definidas en los Planes Nacionales de Desarrollo. Y para el caso de otras instituciones sus prioridades las determinan sus propias politicas.Las Fundaciones PRODUCE y los Sistemas Regionales del CONACYT realizan reuniones con los productores, investigadores y funcionarios publicos con el fin de detectar la problematica regional o estatal y a partir de ello definir prioridades para la asignacion de los recursos destinados a la investigacion.El papel de los investigadores en la definicion de prioridades de investigacion, se da a traves de su participacion en los cuerpos colegiados de sus propias instituciones. Tambien a traves de su participacion en los comites de evaluacion de proyectos de investigacion del CONACYT o de otras instituciones financiadoras de la investigacion. Los productores participan a traves de las fundaciones PRODUCE indicando lo que en su criterio requiere ser investigado. Los proveedores de insumos participan tambien induciendo la investigacion a traves del financiamiento de proyectos especificos de acuerdo a sus intereses. Los funcionarios publicos tambien participan mediante la asignacion de recursos a la investigacion en proyectos que han percibido ser socialmente importantes.El servicio de extension se ha considerado como un eslabon que vincula los resultados de la investigacion con los programas de fomento donde la tecnologia juega un papel importante para incrementar la produccion y productividad del sector. Sin embargo, el Servicio Nacional de Extension Agricola de SAGAR, que ha operado los servicios publicos de divulgacion y asistencia tecnica, ha mostrado mayor inestabilidad a lo largo de su existencia en comparacion con el sistema de generacion de tecnologia.De acuerdo con Zuloaga y Perez ( 1996) durante el periodo de 1942 a 1950, la extension agricola sufrio multiples cambios de organizacion y enfoque. En ese periodo conto con escasos recursos para operar. En contraste, la red de estaciones experimentales se desarrollo considerablemente. Hacia 1954 la extension se concentro en las zonas de riego y por primera vez participaron en su programacion productores organizados. Con el apoyo de las fundaciones Rockefeller y Ford, se realizaron importantes programas para apoyar los cultivos de maiz y trigo en los recien creados distritos de riego marginandose desde entonces a los pequefios productores de vastas zonas de agricultura tradicional del pais.Los mismos autores mencionan que en 1966 se trato de reducir la brecha entre los servicios de investigacion y extension. Se busco favorecer a los productores de escasos recursos en las zonas de influencia de los centros regionales de investigacion. Se asignaron recursos financieros y humanos y foe hasta 1971 cuando a la extension se le otorgo el rango de Direccion general en la Secretaria de Agricultura. El numero de extensionistas paso de 268 en 1962 a 1583 en 1971.En el siguiente periodo gubernamental se cancelo tal Direccion y las actividades de divulgacion se encargaron al Instituto Nacional de lnvestigaciones Agricolas (INIA), precursor de INIF AP, mientras que las funciones de asistencia tecnica se transfirieron a los distritos de riego y temporal. Para dar una idea de la magnitud del servicio de extension durante el lapso comprendido de 1977 a 1979, el servicio llego a contar con 21,500 tecnicos, de los cuales el 57 % estaba asignado a zonas de temporal.El servicio de extension foe drasticamente reducido en 1985 coma resultado de la politica de adelgazamiento del aparato gubemamental iniciada en 1982. Se efectuo otra reestructuracion quedando el servicio de asistencia tecnica incorporado a los nacientes distritos de desarrollo rural.En 1990, el gobiemo establecio el Programa de asistencia tecnica privada promoviendo la repartici6n de costos de este servicio entre el gobiemo y los productores. El mecanismo para lograrlo ha sido la celebracion de contratos directos entre productores y consejeros privados. Un antecedente de este proceso lo es el Programa de reembolso de asistencia tecnica de FIRA, el cual apoya a los productores de bajos ingresos financiando los servicios de asesoria proporcionados por empresas privadas. Este programa reembolsa una parte de los gastos de capacitacion y de becas de estudios a los productores y a las empresas privadas de asesoria. Desde 1990, la parte pagada por los productores se ha incrementado y debe cubrir desde un 20% de los costos en el primer afio hasta un 100% al cabo de 5 afios.El mismo esquema de distribucion de costos foe desarrollado por el FIRCO en sus programas de estimulo a la produccion donde se incluia el servicio de asistencia tecnica (OCDE, 1997  , 1997).Actualmente la SAGAR ha reformulado el concepto de extension para restablecer el Servicio Nacional de Extension Agricola coma enlace con un servicio \"privado\" de asistencia tecnica contratando tecnicos por honorarios, apoyandolos con recursos de Alianza para el Campo. Algunas caracteristicas de la extension agricola actual son las siguientes (Zuloaga y Perez, 1996):Es una actividad paralela a la investigaci6n, en lugar de ser su continuacion. Establece escasa o nula vinculacion estructural y programatica con el INIF AP en los ambitos central, estatal y local.Tiene una inadecuada organizacion, y en los estados las areas administrativas y normativas predominan sobre la operativa. Carece de presupuesto suficiente y oportuno. A pesar de varios apoyos crediticios intemacionales para reforzar la capacitacion de los extensionistas y mejorar el servicio, la SAGAR no ha podido mejorar su operatividad. Nula diversificacion de fuentes de financiamiento y virtual ausencia de los productores en la planeacion y evaluacion. Insuficiencia de recursos humanos. Si se considera solo la superficie sembrada con cultivos basicos, actualmente cada extensionista atenderia anualmente de 10,000 a 15,000 hectareas. Se tienen cubiertas hasta ahora solo 372 de 2,000 areas de extension agricola. El puesto de extensionista exige un perfil profesional definido. Utiliza solo el metodo de extension \"capacitacion y visita\" para atender una diversidad de condiciones agronomicas y socioculturales y minimiza el vinculo con el INIFAP.En esta seccion se describen, a manera de ilustracion, algunos ejemplos de como se llevan a cabo las relaciones entre los organismos financiadores, administradores y operadores de la investigacion que se desarrolla en Mexico. En anexo se presenta un esquema de interrelaciones entre diferentes tipos de organismos.Un primer ejemplo de las relaciones entre los diferentes organismos que intervienen en la investigacion es el de CONACYT con las instituciones de investigacion. El CONACYT, por medio de una convocatoria, pone a disposicion de los organismos de investigacion recursos que por medio de un proceso de competencia y evaluacion de proyectos de investigacion son asignados al usuario final encargado de implementar y desarrollar la investigacion. Este proceso puede desarrollarse tanto a nivel nacional como a nivel regional por medio de los Sistemas de Investigacion Regional con que cuenta el CONACYT, en donde se observa la participacion de los gobiemos estatales, asi como de las universidades locales y las Fundaciones Produce.Otro ejemplo de interrelacion es el que se presenta entre el Agricultural Research Service (ARS) del USDA quien pone a disposicion de las Universidades norteamericanas donaciones para que realicen investigaciones agropecuarias, con la condicion de que se busque contraparte intemacional. Es asi como el INIF AP ha establecido un convenio de colaboracion con el MIAC (agrupa 5 universidades del centro de los Estados Unidos de America) para desarrollar proyectos y otro tipo de eventos, con lo que se incrementan los recursos financieros para apoyar las actividades de investigacion. Estos recursos son incorporados via la Fundacion Mexicana para la Investigacion Agropecuaria y Foresta!, A.C. (FUMIAF), quien se encarga de recibir las donaciones y posteriormente distribuir los recursos a los proyectos que fueron aprobados.Otra interrelacion importante a mencionar es la que se da entre CIMMYT e INIF AP. En este caso el Gobiemo Mexicano por conducto de SAGAR destina parte de su presupuesto a acciones de investigacion a desarrollar por ese Organismo Internacional. Esos recursos permiten que la relacion entre CIMMYT y SAGAR se formalice a traves del INIF AP quien mantiene un lugar dentro del Consejo Directivo de ese organismo. Para definir el destino de los recursos se ha establecido entre CIMMYT-INIFAP un convenio al amparo del cual se realiza la distribuci6n de los recursos entre diferentes programas y posteriormente a nivel de cada proyecto. Para ello se firma un convenio de colaboraci6n especifico en donde se establecen las bases y caracteristicas del proyecto a desarrollar, para finalmente hacer llegar los recursos al proyecto.En la interrelaci6n entre FIRA e INIF AP se da una interacci6n entre una instituci6n de financiamiento y una de investigaci6n, en donde el FIRA se ocupa de otorgar credito a productores agropecuarios para que adquieran tecnologias agropecuarias de vanguardia que son generadas por instituciones dedicadas a la investigaci6n como es el caso de INIF AP. Esta relaci6n que se da entre un organismo financiador y un organismo operador se concreta por medio de un convenio al amparo del cual se establecen las bases de colaboraci6n, incluyendo las lineas que resultan de interes para ser ejecutadas por medio de proyectos especificos. Estos proyectos son implementados y desarrollados en forma conjunta entre tecnicos e investigadores a fin de probar en condiciones reales las tecnologias que una vez desarrolladas se puedan transferir a un mayor nucleo de productores.El analisis del sector agropecuario muestra, a traves de sus principales indicadores, una disminuci6n gradual en su importancia relativa, reflejo, en parte, de las politicas aplicadas a este sector en las ultimas decadas. Destacan en este sentido la eliminaci6n de los precios de garantia, la eliminaci6n de subsidios a insumos claves como las semillas mejoradas, los fertilizantes y la electricidad; y sobre todo, la significativa apertura a la importaci6n de varios productos entre los que destacan granos y carnes. Como resultado, los precios reales de estos productos han disminuido significativamente con el consecuente efecto negativo sobre el ingreso de los productores y la disminuci6n de la participaci6n del PIB agropecuario en el PIB total. La producci6n de granos basicos ha permanecido estancada en niveles de alrededor de 30 millones de toneladas anuales, cantidad similar a la que se obtenia a principios de los ochenta, con la diferencia de que el pafs tiene ahora una poblaci6n adicional de 20 millones de habitantes.En el caso de la ganaderia, Mexico pas6 a ser el segundo mercado para las exportaciones de came de bovino de los Estados Unidos, mientras que en el caso de la lecherfa, Mexico, a pesar de los avances en este rubro, continua siendo uno de los pafses que mas leche en polvo importa. Esta situaci6n continuara mientras los responsables de la politica agricola del paf s insistan en que el sector agropecuario mexicano deba competir de tu a tu con los pafses del primer mundo. Cabe •sefialar el contraste entre esta posici6n del gobierno mexicano y la de la Comunidad Europea quien ha sefialado en varios foros que por ningun motivo dejaran a su sector agropecuario al libre juego de las fuerzas de mercado y que los apoyos y la protecci6n continuaran ante la importancia que para ellos tiene este sector.La investigaci6n agropecuaria se ha desarrollado en este contexto. La participaci6n del gasto federal en ciencia y tecnologia en agricultura y ganaderia con respecto al gasto total en ciencia y tecnologia disminuy6 de alrededor del 23% en 1981 a poco mas del 5% en 1997. Asimismo, para el mismo perfodo, el gasto en ciencia y tecnologia en agricultura y ganaderia disminuy6 de cerca de 1,3 00 mill ones de pesos (pesos de 1994) a menos de 400. Esta disminuci6n en la disponibilidad de recursos fiscales ha forzado a las instituciones de investigaci6n del sector a buscar fuentes alternativas de financiamiento. Esto ha implicado un cambio gradual en la mentalidad de los investigadores quienes no estaban acostumbrados a buscar recursos fuera de sus instituciones. De esta manera, los investigadores han tenido que acudir a organismos como las fundaciones nacionales y extranjeras, el CONACYT nacional, los sistemas regionales del CONACYT, entre otros, donde han tenido que competir por los escasos recursos.En Mexico ha sido palpable la necesidad de un organismo que coordine las actividades de investigaci6n de las diferentes instituciones involucradas en esta actividad. Esto se ha puesto de manifiesto en los proyectos que se presentan a concurso cuyo componente interinstitucional se ha debido mas a la iniciativa de los propios investigadores que a politicas de coordinaci6n de sus respectivas instituciones. Sin embargo, de manera informal existe un sistema nacional integrado por instituciones que se agrupan en tres categorfas: organismos de financiamiento, organismos administradores y organismos operadores de la investigaci6n. Agraria \"Antonio Narro\" y algunos Institutos Tecnol6gicos Agropecuarios dependientes de la SEP. Tambien dentro de la clasificaci6n de organismos operadores se pueden mencionar a algunas universidades no agricolas como la UNAM y el IPN a traves de los Cinvestav's; las facultades y escuelas de agronomia de Universidades estatales; y empresas privadas como Monsanto y el Grupo Pulsar.Se considera importante que dentro de las politicas agricolas futuras se formalice ya un Sistema Nacional de Investigaci6n Agropecuaria. Este organismo coordinaria la investigaci6n del sector hacienda un mejor uso de los recursos humanos y materiales dedicados a esta actividad, encaminando los esfuerzos hacia el logro de objetivos y metas nacionales. La nueva Ley de Desarrollo Rural contempla ya su creaci6n reconociendose asi a la investigaci6n agropecuaria y forestal como una actividad _estrategica y de interes publico. Sera importante que esta ley se apruebe, y, sobre todo, que se instrumente para que las instituciones publicas y organismos sociales y privados coordinen sus actividades, mejorando asi los procesos productivos agropecuarios y forestales del pais. ","tokenCount":"12338"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b66882c6ff75fb1bbb6d655558236e58","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1961a2ef-1dcb-46f7-b4e3-887ad63d3629/retrieve","id":"-917119982"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"da561355-7880-4641-aa7f-8d7db5cf2eff","pagecount":"11","content":"These are highlighted below and elaborated on in the detailed commentary:1. Specify a vision of success with respect to expected impact, viz-a-viz the number of targeted smallholder farmers and the farming systems in each country and region. Map target domains clearly for each of the grain legumes and the hypothesized impact pathways outlined. References to data and methods on which targets and projections are made should be made available at the time of submission of new proposals in response to the second call.2. Undertake a rigorous demand analyses (to substantiate the claims made about increasing consumption), synthesize studies on adoption constraint analyses, and complete the priority setting exercise -by crop and region -based on need and impact potential.3. The theory of change (ToC) for each target output should be completed as a matter of priority, and to include in each impact pathway the assumptions underlying progress along the pathway consistent with the assumptions underlying the overarching ToC.4. Proper targeting and definition of the breeding strategy requires a more nuanced definition that takes into account both agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions, including the market preferred traits, demand patterns and the role of private and public sector in legume R & D.5. Pursue a more holistic, multi-disciplinary approach to improving productivity and exploiting the potential for grain legumes in small-holder farming systems, both for their income potential and for improving the diets of the poor. Productivity enhancement, targeting, gender, market development and impact-at-scale on the farmers' fields all need further improvement.6. Clearly show linkages to other CRPs through a table or a matrix. Attribution and transparency are critical where different CRPs contribute to different activities in the same value chain. The CRP should also consider explicitly defining a 'partnership strategy'.The Grain Legume (GL) CRP has been funded for almost two years and shows some positive developments: program structure and strategy refined (5 IDOs and 5 FPs and 3 CC areas established) with emphasis on an Inclusive Market-Oriented Development (IMOD) approach; gender being well integrated into the program, establishment of a wide range of partnerships; and delivery of research outputs (e.g., sequencing of chickpea and groundnut) and some key outcomes. A Director was appointed in 2013 and some changes have been made in governance and structure. New instruments are or soon will be in place, e.g., student and grant schemes, and key programmatic achievements have resulted. The program is to be commended for accomplishing all this. As with many other CRPs, it is disappointing not to see a reporting of more scientific publications in either the Annual Report or the extension proposal.From a programmatic perspective, there is concern about the heavy germplasm focus in this CRP and the lack of a more holistic and multi-disciplinary approach to improving productivity and exploiting the income-generating potential of grain legumes in small-holder farming systems and for improving the diets of the poor. Legumes are largely pro-poor and pro-women, eco-friendly and high value crops compared to many other crops. The global market demand is fast growing (e.g., in Asia), opening new markets for smallholder producers in Africa. But this potential remains under-utilized. The productivity enhancement (agronomy, crop management), targeting, gender, market development and impact-at-scale on the farmers' fields all need further improvement. This may require complementary investments from governments and prioritization of legumes into national agricultural development, food security, nutrition and export strategies. GL cannot achieve its goal by working on germplasm development without addressing these challenges and working on some of these important issues to strengthen extension, seed and input delivery, postharvest management and marketing of grain legumes.The extension proposal or Annual Report does not adequately specify a vision of success with respect to expected impact, viz-a-viz the number of targeted smallholder farmers and the farming systems in each country and region. Target domains should be mapped and developed clearly for each of the grain legumes and the hypothesized impact pathways outlined. How would GL further refine this through proper modeling of farming systems and target domains? The targeting strategy needs to differentiate areas with good and poor market access in both high and low potential production environments. This is important for scaling promising innovations. This concern is related to a set of strategic issues identified by the ISPC in the first set of reviews of the original GL proposal.While the ISPC and FC considered the GL final proposal adequate (in February 2012), in each of their three commentaries the ISPC highlighted the need develop a more focused and rational agenda. They recommended strengthening the justification for a CRP on grain legumes, and developing (and applying) a more systematic approach to priority setting across crop species, regions and constraints in the context of delivering impact. Issues related to narrowing the focus (fewer product lines), articulation and justification of impact pathways, implementing a rigorous M & E system, and more effective integration with other CRPs (and with the private sector) were also highlighted. Some developments along these lines have occurred, e.g., work begun to articulate specific IPs for specific output targets, strengthening M & E processes. However, it does not appear that enough has been done. For example, there is little evidence of the CRP undertaking any rigorous demand analyses (to substantiate the claims made about increasing consumption), or synthesizing studies on adoption constraint analyses, or having done priority setting -by crop and region based on need and impact potential. SC 1 was supposed to do the latter but there is no report of an output or even an activity from this SC. The lack of prioritization may reflect a strong tendency for continuing along existing lines of Center work (budgets also reflect this). The extension proposal does not appear to have made use of any external strategic studies, including ISPC's strategies and trends papers or cross-CRP studies, in developing or refining its agenda thus far.The extension proposal does state that it is too early (still) for radical changes based on amalgamation. Changes are mainly sequential. This is unfortunate as it would be useful to see a listing of efficiency savings, legacy projects/targets, etc., that have changed and are likely to be changed in any 2 nd phase of the program. (Nothing has been identified as either 'completed' or as 'new'). Equally helpful would be to have had an analysis of the added value to science (not just to management) from the mergers. The proposal does indicate that the extension phase \"is mainly about consolidation and focusing of effort\". This task will be aided by the expected development of impact pathways for individual output targets (making monitoring doable, not aspirational) and by underpinning the ToCs with an IMOD approach. Already the CRP has selected 8 Product Lines based on a priority setting process described in the initial CRP. It continues to monitor the activities of these Product Lines through annual deliverables.In summary, a number of positive developments and change processes are underway for this CRP (e.g., focused monitoring of the activities to create outputs), there is still a need, however, to address some of the earlier issues raised by the ISPC, particularly related to priority setting.1.1 Plausibility of ToC and Feasibility of IPs: The ToC is defined around the discovery, development, and delivery of seed based legume technologies and the crop management practices that reduce risk exposure and/or improve productivity. Underpinning this ToC is an approach developed recently by ICRISAT 'Inclusive Market Oriented Development' or IMOD, that believes the key to improving prosperity is increasing access to input and market opportunities. This is a plausible hypothesis. At the program level then, this CRP uses the IMOD approach to \"… identify targets for intervention, and to assess the performance of activities with respect to the aim of improving the livelihood of smallholder farmers as well as the urban and rural poor.\" The plausibility of the ToC of GL is predicated on whether smallholder farmers who are willing to adopt improved varieties (seed-based approaches) will also adopt IPM and BNF outputs to allow the crop/pest/disease management components to act synergistically. This ToC may be difficult to achieve as there are few successful examples of multiple adoptions of improved varieties and IPM/BNF at scale globally.As presented (on the website), the overarching ToC appears clear and simple, although lacking in impact pathways. The ToC however is not yet completeimpact pathways are promised for each target output by the start of the extension period. The research team is encouraged to complete them as a matter of priority, and to include in each impact pathway assumptions underlying progress along the pathway, consistent with the assumptions underlying the overarching ToC. Two examples given in the extension proposal (p4) include the useful feature of numbered points along the pathway corresponding to indicators for which data will be collected in the M&E system. However they do not include assumptions-these are to be found elsewhere in the extension proposal in a discussion about IDOs, and are more generic in description.It is important to be clear how this IMOD strategy will be adapted to take into account the special conditions and characteristics of grain legumes in the target regions. They differ significantly from other, particularly cereal, crops. Grain legumes are often grown in small farm sizes often by women, in rotation or intercropped with cereals. Demand is growing (but needs documenting and qualifying), market potential is thought to be high, and have significant positive externalities in terms of nutrition and environmental quality. In addition, these crops tend to be undervalued as reflected in the limited policy and R&D support they receive. One size therefore will not fit all. A more nuanced targeting priority setting strategy and impact pathway is needed to enhance the overall impact and relevance of this CRP. How IMOD will be adapted and made more relevant to address these special circumstances of grain legumes and how the new ToC strategy will actually be used as a \"framework for priority setting\" for targeting interventions (as indicated on p2) should be clarified. What priorities have changed as a result of using IMOD? W hy, for example, is IDO 4 perceived to be the main target (vs IDO 1 or IDO 2). It's reasonable, but it should be explained and justified as there are priority and strategy implications. At the same time, it is not clear why more attention and priority is not given to IDO 5 (environment), given grain legumes' unique attributes. Other concerns about the ToC and impact pathway are:In a number of cases the targets seem too ambitious, e.g., 15-20% increase in income for at least 2.5 million households by growing heat tolerant varieties of chickpeas, lentils, faba bean; or 100% yield increases among adopters of climbing beans in SSA; or 20% increase in pigeonpea consumption in rural India (seems highly unlikely).Increasing consumption of GLs (IDO 3), especially among the poor, is by no means a trivial objective. Lowering prices of GLs may be the most effective means to achieve this objective, which in turn implies the need for large increases in production -locally or regionally. This suggests the need to consider targeting not only small holders, but perhaps medium and even large farms in better endowed areas where commercialization offers the best prospects for that. At least consideration needs to be given to this strategy.Assumptions and risks, especially to obtain 'reach' appear simplistic in many cases. Each of these assumptions should be considered carefully and challenged internally; many constitute relevant researchable topics in their own right. It is not always evident that the major constraints have actually been identified (which in many cases may not be lacking research); it's often the uptake pathway and the demand for those products that have to be examined. Often these are THE key issue, and simply advocating 'a new attitude towards legumes' is unlikely to work (re: \"All must be encouraged to consider legumes an indispensable part of the diet and farming system\". If, in fact, many of the critical bottlenecks are related to uptake and adaptation of existing technologies (tested on-station/on-farm and deemed appropriate), rather than the generation of new technologies, emphasis should be on uptake analysis and downstream partner capacity (and strategy).The CRP will contribute to 5 IDOs related to food security, income, nutrition & health, productivity and the environment, with the main contribution being to productivity, which seems appropriate. More discussion and description of the impact pathway towards the other IDOs, e.g., IDO 5 (environment) would be useful. The CRP provides a set of metrics for each IDO including a comprehensive list of ongoing activities and targets. To measure them all would be a sizeable task in its own right. A more focused and doable set of targets is required. In addition, developing the ToCs for the individual output targets will better enable the CRP to monitor progress towards outcomes. These are largely seed based products with a plausible pathway to the IDOs, mainly to IDO 4 (productivity).Annex 1 provides a comprehensive list of the \"assumptions\" needed to meet the IDO targets, particularly assumptions in \"attaining reach\" and \"changed behavior-outcomes\" which are, to a large extent, in the hand of other partners. These impact pathways have operational metrics that can relate the activity/Product Line to the IDOs in a logical way. This is ongoing and to be encouraged.GL has recently realigned its product lines into FPs in the context of the R4D process leading to IDOs. Product Lines remain intact, and run through the FPs to provide the outcome focus in this process perspective. FPs 1 to 5 identify the crop interactions with biotic and abiotic constraints (FP1), the trait discovery and deployment pipeline (FP2 and FP3), the seed systems required for their adoption, and markets that produce income (FP4), capacity (FP5). There are also two crosscutting areas (CCs). FP4 and FP5 work together for the assessment of impact, redefining priorities and assessing gender components of priorities and activities through CC1. A new cross-cutting area, CC2 will be developed for high throughput genotyping and associated bioinformatics.The FPs are aligned with the main objective of this CRP-increasing production, sales, consumption and beneficial contribution of farming systems of grain legumes that reduce poverty, hunger, malnutrition of smallholder farmers and their households, while improving the health of mankind and sustainability of farming systems. Similarly, the FPs are expected to contribute to the IDOs with measurable achievements once the indicators and metrics have been defined and agreed.There are a number of specific issues related to the scope and orientation of several of the FPs. FP2 and FP3 describe the overall priorities for the allele discovery, allele development and allele deployment. While the biotic and abiotic stress factors are well identified, more clarity is needed on what will be done for each of the different legume crops and which agro-ecologies or geographies will be targeted when addressing specific biotic or abiotic stresses. Proper targeting and definition of the breeding strategy requires a more nuanced definition that takes into account both agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions, including the market preferred traits, demand patterns and the role of private and public sectors in legume R & D. The market traits (e.g., grain color, shape and size) are particularly important in legume trade and domestic markets. Whereas herbicide resistance and mechanical harvesting are important for commercialization of legumes, the market and nutritional traits need to be considered in the breeding strategy as part of trait discovery and variety development and cannot be an afterthought. The same is true for legume intercropping and rotation.An integrated approach (with soil fertility management, rotations, intercropping, etc.) is needed to increase productivity, income and the environmental sustainability from GL. The extension proposal does not present how this can be achieved and much of the emphasis seems to be on germplasm development to address biotic and abiotic production constraints. Given that the yields of many legumes are so low, good agronomy and crop management will be critical in terms of soil and water management as well as pest control to improve productivity, including finding the right incentives to facilitate adoption of those interventions. FP1 would need to bring some innovative integrated agronomic and socio-economic research that will allow attaining the full potential of seed technologies.Careful assessment of the potential for public-private partnerships in legume seed systems (FP4) is required. More innovation and critical thinking is needed to make the seed systems research more useful and relevant to local conditions. This needs to be supported by active socioeconomic research to make this more strategic and bring transformative thinking on how seed systems work has been done for years on legumes.Cross-cutting issue: Despite the importance of gender issues, markets and global trade for grain legumes, none of the FPs adequately highlight the importance of multi-disciplinary approaches in addressing the unique challenges for legume intensification, systems diversification, market development and commercialization. One research area, for example, could be to understand and enhance the under-exploited market opportunities in domestic, regional and inter-regional trade, e.g., between Asia and Africa for many of the pulses. The same can be said for seed policy issues to understand the market failures and the potential of policy harmonization to expand seed markets and encourage private sector participation. Socioeconomic research needs to be more evident in this CRP and linked to both product development and delivery objectives.Gender is reasonably well integrated into the strategy and to some extent into the work program.The CRP gender strategy describes how an improved understanding of social inequity in target communities will inform research priority, technology generation, deployment and promotion.The CRP plans for an expansive set of gender activities where gender analytical research will aim to identify areas where interventions may have significant gender disaggregated differential effects. It appears that gender mainstreaming in this CRP is being taken seriously.The program partners have a long history of working with women and men farmers and the extension document and 2013 Annual Report includes examples where it is obvious that gender issues have been considered. Although none of the long list of publications on the website has gender in the title, and a rapid scan of a few scientific publications revealed no references to gender, the most recent formulation of the program makes work on gender more explicit and ensures that there will be a budget (10% of total) allocated to it.This CRP notes that its partners vary according to activity, region and country and that reach, scope and depth are all considerations for identifying partners. The CRP highlights NARS and regional organizations as key partners for varietal development activities and also puts some of its key partners as members of the various committees in its governance structure. This is consistent with its belief that partnerships are most effective when formed around joint actions, such as topically (and often geographically) oriented projects. More specific information about the roles of partners in specific FPs would be needed in order to assess the relevance and quality of partnerships how this relates to the ToCs.Strategic partners are well defined with a healthy mix of developing and developed nation institutions, and a significant number of NARS and others. Joint work plans are also being initiated with some of its key NARS partners. Stronger linkages are being sought with all other major initiatives on legumes. The CRP mentions a few important links to ARIs. Given the world-class uniqueness of this CRP in legume research, it is hoped that the CRP can attract more self-funded ARI partners based on its science merits.It is expected that this CRP will form close linkages with the systems programs especially for drylands and the humid tropics (CRPs 1.1 and 1.2). These may have already been made with Drylands systems but links to Humidtropics are not mentioned. Also, it is puzzling that no linkages have been made with CRP LF for development of dual-purpose varieties. Grain legume residues (e.g. cowpea, groundnut etc.) are valuable and highly nutritional sources of fodder as dual-purpose crops especially in dryer systems. Linkages with A4NH are specified for genetic enhancement of nutritional value focused on improving the iron and zinc concentration in bean and lentil and for anti-nutritional aflatoxin management. This CRP needs to clearly describe its linkages to other CRPs through a table or a matrix. Attribution and transparency are critical where different CRPs contribute to different activities in the same value chain. In order to document \"shared impact\", linkages should be clearly defined in impact pathway schematics.The CRP appears to struggle with partnering with other CRPs because, in part, of the reliance on W3/bilateral funding which it says, favors single line reporting. The CRP is experimenting with studentships and competitive grants to provide a catalyst for more CRP partnering.The CRP outlines partnership budget to be about 10% of the FP (or PL) budgets. It has also allocated a further USD 2 million to a grants scheme to fill gaps in research needs and strengthen research capacities.In summary, the program is paying considerable attention to partnerships and should be commended as such and be encouraged to further improve partnership linkages, in particular with ARIs and CRPs. It should also consider explicitly defining a 'partnership strategy'.The CRP highlights some of its important partnerships in the section on Regional Collaborations at local and global levels. Some examples of \"strategic partners\" (could be called regional partners) in different countries are the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, for the delivery of improved legume varieties to Ethiopian farmers, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for activities in India, the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique in Moroccoa key partner for ICARDA; the PABRA network for seed systems which acts as a broad regional coordinating body; and KARI in Kenya for multiple interactions on chickpea, common bean, cowpea, groundnut, and pigeonpea.The development of joint studentship plans will further strengthen these partnerships. The CRP also links with strong and well-established crop networks such as PABRA, Cereals and Legumes Network, N2Africa and other key players.The Workplan for the extension period 2015-2016 is given in Annex 2; with deliverable dates for milestones and output targets in Annex 5. The extension phase of GL is mainly about consolidation and focusing of effort (but insufficient detail was provided to assess that effort), hence it is aligned with the original proposal and realignment with on-going donor funded projects. The Tropical Legumes (TL) Project (funded through W3) will target a subset of the crops and countries of interest to GL. It will therefore be necessary to develop a plan for spillover countries. The realignment of the GL according to FPs rather than Product Lines, emphasizes the process of technology development and deployment. Nevertheless the Product Lines remain the focus and coordinating principle. The Product Lines target technological developments that are expected to add value to on-going work, and to have maximal impact for GL production and use.The workplan does not distinguish what is new from what is on-going and what may have come to an end.The Budget is not altogether clear. It appears that the budget for 2015-2016 is based on the 'average' budget from 2012-2014 and seems to be coherent with the budget proposed in the original proposal. The 2015 budget is roughly similar to 2014, but the program requests a 20% increase (USD7 million) in 2016. The latter requires some justification, especially in the light of the statement \"Budget partitioning between participating Centers is largely unchanged\". This is disappointing, and would seem to suggest little serious movement toward re-strategizing. Furthermore, the total increase in the 2016 budget is evenly allocated across all FPs and CCs at a 15% increase, again, not indicative of a strategic choice. The major share (about 37%) of the FP budget is with FP 2 and 3 (varietal trait discovery and deployment), which is similar to the Dryland Cereals budget allocated to varietal improvement.","tokenCount":"3943"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"078f817e57a398e2c217bd384691728c","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.slire.net/download/697/article_3_brab_60_aihou_et_al_restoration_of_terre_de_barre_fertility_using_pigenpea_grown_in_rotation_or_inte.pdf","id":"-1135106469"},"keywords":["N-fertilization","P","yield efficiency","LER","Benin N","P","rendement efficient","LER","Benin"],"sieverID":"816ecf11-1909-4381-b4a9-8a550957d9ba","pagecount":"14","content":"The following nine main cropping systems were evaluated: maize/maize in rotation without N-fertilizer (control); maize/cowpea in rotation where maize received N-fertilizer; maize/pigeonpea intercropping without N-fertilizer; maize/cowpea/pigeonpea in rotation where maize received N-fertilizer; maize/maize in rotation with N-fertilizer; maize/pigeonpea fallow in rotation where maize received N-fertilizer; maize/pigeonpea intercropping where maize received N-fertilizer; pigeonpea/maize/cowpea in rotation where maize received N-fertilizer; pigeonpea/maize/maize where maize received N-fertilizer. The rate of N-fertilizer applied was 74 kg N as urea (28 kg N/ha 2 weeks after planting maize and 46 kg N/ha 6 weeks after planting maize). Compared to the control, the increase in maize grain yield ranged from -1.55 to 215 % for all cropping systems receiving N-fertilizer and intercropping without N-fertilizer, maize grain yield in intercropping without N-fertilizer increased by 9 % in first year and decreased by 1.55 % in second year compared to the control. The maize stover yield with N-fertilizer application increased by -24 up to 203 %. Pigeonpea grain yield (in intercropping) without N-fertilizer was 56 % higher than with N-fertilizer. Pigeonpea as fallow produced 73-97 % more fresh wood than intercropped pigeonpea without fertilization and 91-118 % more fresh wood than intercropped pigeonpea with N-fertilizer. The intercropped Cajanus cajan with N-fertilizer produced 11 % less fresh wood than intercropped without N-fertilizer. The total N amount in the maize grain yield increased by 5-245 % for the first season of year 1 compared to the control and increased by 241-260 % for the second season of year 1 compared to the control. The total N amount in the maize grain of the intercropped pigeonpea/maize with N-fertilizer was 190 % higher than the intercropped pigeonpea/maize without N-fertilizer. The total amount of P follows the same trend as Nfertilizer in intercropped systems. The yield efficiency was low in year 1 compared to year 2. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was higher in cropping system without N-fertilizer than with N-fertilizer.In the Mono Province of Benin, reduced fallow periods as a result of increasing demographic pressure (200-250 persons/km 2 ) have led to a decline in soil fertility and, hence, to reduced agricultural productivity. In this Province, N was evaluated at 68 % of the total cost of chemical fertilizer required to restore soil fertility in a degraded soil (Honlonkou et al., 1999). Farmers' perception of crop importance in improving or depleting soil fertility were investigated in a recent survey conducted in the derived savanna (DS) in southern Benin to get first-hand indications of technologies that could enhance soil nutrients' stocks (Houngnandan et al., 2000;Aihou et al., 2006a;Aihou et al., 2006b). Giller and Wilson (1991) reported that various approaches could be used to solve the problem of soil fertility. The most obvious solution is to import nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers but for a variety of social, economic, and other reasons, this is generally difficult. The alternative is to increase the biological input of nutrients and it is here that the biological fixation of atmospheric N has a crucial role to play in increasing the sustainability of yields with minimal external inputs.Farming systems based on the direct drilling with cover plants on Ferralsols showed advantages in the dynamics of certain nutritive elements (Balbino et al., 2007). Thus, concerning P, the direct drilling with cover plants also contribute to a better valorization while exploiting the organic share of this element in the system. Several low input practices offering a potential for improving soil fertility management in the study area were introduced. They include alley cropping and its variants which consist of the simultaneous planting trees and food crops (Acacia auriculiformis, Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium are the most commonly used trees), Mucuna sp fallow or Mucuna sp in relay maize (Zea mays) cropping systems, and the pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) as a resource management technology because of its dense biomass. All these introduced technologies at different scales face low adoption rates because of many technical, social, cultural and economic reasons: mismanagement, the socio-economic aspect, land tenure systems, suitable germplasms, nutrient deficiencies, diseases, etc. Cereals, particularly maize and sorghum, were regarded as depleting soil nutrients while legumes (Mucuna sp., Cajanus cajan and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in that order) are regarded as non-depleting. Cajanus cajan is a relatively new crop for smallholders of most African countries. But in recent times its cultivation in the moist savanna agro-ecological zone has gained popularity as a consequence of the increasing need for food and fodder. It is also important as a cash crop. Increasing attention goes also to the N 2 -fixation capacity of Cajanus cajan and its contribution to the subsequent crop in an attempt to develop sustainable cropping systems. Cereal/legume rotation effects on cereal yields have been frequently reported for semi-arid regions of West Africa (Bagayoko et al., 2000). Many authors have reported that a generally proposed cause for such effects is an increased N availability for the cereal crop from symbiotic N 2 -fixation by the preceding legume, which can lead to significant increases in the available soil N pool.Intercropping is an age-old practice in the tropics, and it has received the attention of researchers. Several studies indicate that this practice offers a considerable yield advantage over a sole cropping system, because of its efficient utilization of plant growth resources. In terms of land use, growing crops in mixed stands is regarded as more productive than growing them separately (Ofori and Stern, 1987). This may be due to some of the established and speculated advantages for intercropping systems such as higher grain yields, greater land use efficiency per unit land area, and improvement of soil fertility through the addition of N by fixation and excretion from the legume. Legumes are often credited with supplying large amounts of N to the succeeding non-leguminous crops grown in rotation (Hesterman et al., 1987). Kumar Rao et al. (1987) estimated that the amount of N 2 -fixed by Cajanus cajan genotypes of different maturity groups ranged between 6 and 60 kg N/ha. Adu-Gyamfi et al. (1997) found that Cajanus cajan fixed between 120-170 kg.ha -1 of atmospheric N throughout the cropping season. Cajanus cajan is unique in that, being a shrubby grain legume, it combines food production with ease of establishment, fast growing, high biomass productivity, and local acceptance. Azam et al. (1985) found with a pot experiment that fertilizer-N uptake by corn was reduced when Sesbania aculeta residues were added to the soil, although only 5 % of the legume's residue-N was absorbed. There are few published data on the relative availability of fertilizer-soil N and Cajanus cajan residue-N to crops in West Africa and particularly in the derived savanna. It was hypothesized that Cajanus cajan could intensify cropping in the derived savanna zone by restoring and maintaining the soil fertility status and by sustaining crop yields in improving the soil nutrient status for the companion crop in the intercrop or subsequent crop in rotation. As a result of the above-mentioned problems, the objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the agronomic potential of maize and Cajanus cajan in rotation and as intercrop; (ii) to examine the factors influencing the performance of Cajanus cajan and maize in both systems.The study was carried out at an experimental field belonging to the \"Centre de Recherches Agricoles Sud-Bénin Sekou II˝ (6.625°N, 2.245 ′E) with an altitude of 100 m above sea level in the DS benchmark area, southern Benin. The zone is characterized by a bimodal rainfall distribution: between March and July and from September to November with an annual rainfall ranging from 947 to 1,060 m. A pronounced irregular rainfall pattern is observed during the cropping period. The trial was established on a site referred to as \"terre de barre\" soils, a common local name for the various red soils developed on the continental terminal formation as found in the coastal zone of Benin, Togo and south-western Nigeria. The soil of the site was deep; dark reddish brown with a textural B-horizon developed on Continental Terminal material and is classified as Ferrali-Haplic Acrisols (FAO, 1991). The selected soil chemical properties of the soil profile before the trial implementation at Sekou II are given in Table 1. The experiment started in site, where three years old fallow vegetation dominated by Chromolaena odorata was removed from the trial area. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with four replications and the following treatments (cropping systems) in rotation or in intercropping (Table 2). An amount of 28 kg N, 46 kg P 2 O 5, and 28 kg K 2 O/ha was applied 2 weeks after planting and an additional 46 kg N/ha was applied 6 weeks after planting on the maize. For this trial, simple fertilizers were used such as urea (46 %N), triple superphosphate (46 % P 2 O 5 ) and KCl (60 % K 2 O). The plot area for each treatment was 6.4 m x 6.4 m. In monoculture or in intercropping, maize was planted at 0.80 m x 0.40 m with 2 plants per hill. Cowpea was planted at 0.60 m x 0.20 m with 1 plant per hill. Cajanus cajan was planted at 0.80 m x 1.60 m with 1 plant per hill in monoculture as well as in intercropping.Before the trial implementation in year 1, the field soil were sampled taken at the top soil (0-30 cm) and the following soil chemical characteristics were determined: total C (0.62 %), total N (1.07 %), total phosphorus (13.82 %), pH (H 2 O) (5.40), pH (CaCl 2 ) (6.68). At harvest, maize grain and stover; cowpea grain and haulms; Cajanus cajan grain, biomass and fresh wood were recorded. For maize, cowpea and Cajanus cajan, four plants were randomly selected in each plot and at harvesting time recorded for dry matter (DM) yield after drying the samples at 65 °C for 72 hours. All samples of the maize parts were analyzed for N and P following the method described by Anderson and Ingram (1993).Fertilizer N use by maize from urea-N was evaluated as follows:The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was used to evaluate intercrop efficiencies in yield and N uptake by the plants with respect to simple crops (Willey, 1979). The LER defines yield as a function of area: LER = IC a / MC a + IC b / MC b , where:IC and MC refer to intercrop and monocrop yields or N uptake, respectively, and the subscripts a and b indicate the crop yields of the two plants in the mixture.All data from maize, cowpea, and Cajanus cajan were submitted to analysis of variance with the GLM procedure of the SAS system (SAS, 1992). The LSMEANS statement was used to calculate the means.In year 1 and year 2, both the sole and intercropped maize showed significant responses to N applied at the rate of 74 kg N/ha -1. The increase in maize grain yield ranged from -1.55 to 215 % compared to the control. Maize grain yield of the intercrop treatment without N-fertilizer in year 1 increased by 9 % compared to the control, while in year 2, it decreased by 2 % compared to the control (1,809 kg.ha -1). In year 1 and year 2, maize stover yield increased between -24 and 203 % compared to the control. Maize stover yield in the intercrop treatment without N-fertilizer decreased by 24 % in year 2 compared to the control (3,194 kg.ha -1) (Tables 3 and 4).In the second season of both years, the mean cowpea grain was higher in treatment 2 than the treatment 4. The same trend was observed with cowpea haulms in the second season of year 1. In the second season year 2, cowpea grain and haulms were lower compared to year 1 (Table 5).Cajanus cajan grain yield (in intercrop) without N-fertilizer (298 kg.ha -1) was 56 % higher than with Nfertilizer (132 kg.ha -1). Cajanus cajan fallow produced 16 % less grain than intercropped Cajanus cajan.In the present study, only data of Cajanus cajan in year 1 were evaluated. Cajanus cajan in pure stand as fallow and at the same density as intercropped produced 43 to 62 % more leaf dry matter than intercropped leaf dry matter without N-fertilizer (1,248 kg.ha -1) and 31 to 48 % more leaf dry matter than intercropped Cajanus cajan leaf dry matter with N-fertilizer. Without fertilization Cajanus cajan in pure stand as fallow produced 73 to 97 % more fresh wood than intercropped and 91 to 118 % with N-fertilizer. Intercropped Cajanus cajan with N-fertilizer produced 11 % less fresh wood than intercropped without Nfertilizer (Table 6).A significant correlation was found between the leaf dry matter and the fresh wood of Cajanus cajan (r=0.72). The Cajanus cajan grain yield was significantly inversely related to the maize grain yield (r=-0.51). A significant correlation was found between the maize grain yield and the maize stover (r=0.69) (Table 7).-1 N) Amount of fertilizer applied Actual maize DM yield -Absolute control DM yield Table 3. Mean of maize grain and stover dry matter yield (kg.ha -1 ) and percentage increase over the cropping system maize non fertilized in monoculture (MZNFm) (T1) in the first season in year 1 and year 2.Cropping system Year 1 Year 2 grain (kg.ha -1 ) SD % increase stover (kg.ha -1 ) SD % increase grain (kg.ha -1 ) SD % increase stover (kg.ha The total N content in the maize grain increased by 5 to 245 % compared to the control (7.65 kg N/ha). It was 190 % higher than without N-fertilizer (8.02 kg N/ha). A similar trend was observed in the N content of maize stover and the total N content of the maize cobs. In the second season of year 1, treatments without intercropping and receiving N fertilizer had a total N content in the maize grain that varied between 9 and 30.67 kg N/ha. For the stover, it varied between 4.37 and 16.24 kg N/ha, and for the cobs, it ranged between 0.85 and 2.61 kg N/ha (Tables 8, 9 and 10).In the first season of year 1, the total phosphorus content in the maize grain increased between 21 and 366 % compared to the control (1.49 kg P/ha). While the total phosphorus content in the grain of the intercrop Cajanus cajan with N-fertilization was 13 times more than of the intercrop without N-fertilizer. In the stover, it increased by 4.41 to 84.56 % compared to the control (1.36 kg P/ha). The total phosphorus content in the cobs increased by 106 to 176 % compared to the control. But with the intercrop, without fertilizer, it decreased by 11.76 % compared to the control. In the second season of year 1, the treatments without intercropping and receiving N-fertilizer had a total phosphorus content in the maize grain which varied between 2.12 and 5.73 kg P/ha, for stover it varied between 0.43 to 1.29 kg P/ha, and for the cobs, it ranged between 0.08 and 0.28 kg P/ha. However, a significant increase was not observed between the total phosphorus content in the stover when intercropped with N-fertilizer or without N-fertilizer (Tables 8, 9 and 10).In year 1, the yield efficiency ranged between 12.18 and 21.95 %.While in year 2, it varied between 23.67 and 33.98 %. It was observed that the efficiency was low in all cropping systems in year 1 (Table 11). The water is one of the main factors, which affect the yield efficiency. When the rainfall pattern was favourable in year 2, the yield efficiency was higher in all-cropping systems receiving N-fertilizer than those in year 1.Cajanus cajan/maize intercropping gave a higher LER of 2.41 in grain production than the monoculture cropping but it was the monoculture cropping and intercrop without N-fertilizer that gave the highest LER (Table 12). Many authors have raised that the lack of N and P most often limit crop yields and microbial activity. Some cover plants as Cajanus cajan contribute to improve its biodisponibility (Balbino et al., 2007). The fodder plant better recycle part of the ions NO, Mg 2+ which would be if not lixiviated (Balbino et al., 2007). Consequently in this study, application of N enhanced grain yield as has been found in many studies. The most striking observation made in this study was that grain yields decreased in the intercropped, maize/pigeonpea without N-fertilizer, while it was increased with N fertilizer. Despite pigeonpea and maize generally grown under inter-or mixed cropping system, studies on fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) have mainly focused on sole cropping systems than in mixture.The response to N-fertilization was remarkable in both years. Intercrop maize with N-fertilization produced the highest yield as compared to the other treatments with N. But intercrop maize without N-fertilization produced the lowest yield and no significant increase was observed as compared to the control. Rao et al. (1987) reported that any beneficial effect from legumes should have been evident when 0 N.ha -1 is applied to the cereal. In fact, the legume reduces the cereal yield at 0 N.ha -1. He pointed out that these results suggest that the cereal under most field conditions does not derive any beneficial effect from the legume during the current season, particularly when it is grown at full population and without Nfertilization. Therefore, to obtain good yields, fertilizers should be applied in both the inter and sole cropping. Application of N fertilizer to legumes decreases its dependency of the N 2 fixation. Therefore most farmers assume that N application to intercropping system may be antagonistic instead of synergetic (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 1997). N requirements of sorghum when grown as sole crop are reported to be higher than when grown as intercrop (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 1997). However, they pointed out higher nutrient uptake by pigeonpea/maize, pigeonpea/sorghum as compared to sole-cropped pigeonpea. It was reported also in a pigeonpea intercrop treatment that 80 kg N.ha -1 was optimal, where as Adu-Gyamfy et al. (1996) recommended a moderate rate dose of 25-30 kg N.ha -1 .The response of maize to N in any studied cropping system is mainly dependent on the seasonal rainfall. In a normal season, it is economical when rainfall is high and well distributed. In this study, in year 1, grain yields decreased with decreasing rainfall compared to the results of year 2. Despite the decreasing rainfall and grain yields in this study, a significant grain yield increase occurred due to N application and current soil fertility status. Sakala et al. (2000) reported that when crops are grown in association, the residues of the different crops become mixed so that residues of different quality decompose simultaneously within the same soil volume. Interaction between decomposing residues can be complex and result in N mineralization patterns which are not readily predicted from N mineralization of the separate component of the mixture. Maize yield in the rotation maize/cowpea or rotation Cajanus cajan fallow/maize, with Nfertilization, produced a good yield as intercrop. Giller (2001) argued that for grain legumes, to play an important role in maintaining soil fertility for other crops in rotation, they must obviously leave behind more N from N 2 -fixation than the amount of soil N that is removed in the crop.The amount of total N and P in the different plant parts of maize was high in all treatments receiving fertilizers but it was low with intercropping and no fertilizer. A probable explanation is that Nfertilization promotes the mineralization of soil N and consequently enhances N uptake and yield efficiency. Rao et al. (1987) reported that the efficiency of N utilization was less in intercropping, probably because of competition from legumes and their sharing of some N. They pointed out that the difference between a sole and intercropped cereal was less when the associated legume was pigeonpea or groundnut. It was reported that fertilizer N recovery (FNR) by sole-cropped pigeonpea (14 %) was higher than intercropped pigeonpea (2-4 %). The low FNR by intercropped Cajanus cajan is attributed to the fact that no N fertilizer was applied to intercropped pigeonpea (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 1996). These authors suggested that N application to pigeonpea during the pod filling stage (where the N 2 fixing ability is low and N requirement is high) could help to increase the grown yield and the overall productivity of the system (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 1997).The Land Equivalent Ratio was higher in the treatment without N-fertilizers and less in the treatments with N-fertilizers. Willey (1979) reported that this trend apparently supports the hypothesis that intercropping is more relevant for poor environments; but the monetary advantage which remained little affected by N does not suggest that intercropping has to be replaced by sole cropping with N-fertilizer. Dalal (1974) reported that intercropping maize with either beans or cowpeas had more adverse effects on the grain yield of the maize than pigeonpea. He attributed this to the fact that high rates of nutrient absorption by the two legumes coincided with uptake by the maize crop, whereas with pigeonpea the greatest nutrient demand occurred after the maize crop had been harvested. N-beneficial effects of the legumes on the associated crop could arise from improved mineralization of soil N by the priming effect of the legume, excretion of nitrogenous compounds from nodulated root systems, N-conserving effects, the greater competitive ability of the companion crop for soil N compared to the legume which generally holds true when legumes are intercropped with cereals, the decay of sloughed-off nodules and roots, leaching of soluble N from leaves, and the decay of fallen leaves (Senaratne et al., 1995). Danso et al. (1987) reported that the well known contribution of a grain legume in an intercrop is that of its ability to fix atmospheric N 2 which therefore presumably reduces the competition for soil N with the associated non-Nfixing crop. This was reported, despite some reports of N transfer from a grain legume to an associated non-legume. Several others have shown that this does not occur, or is of little importance.Several researchers have reported N transfer from grain legumes to the associated crop i.e. from groundnut, cowpea and mungbean to sorghum, to wheat, from soybean to sorghum and from cowpea to maize. On the other hand, some researchers could not observe any N transfer from legumes to the associated crop, i.e. from fababean to barley. Nitrogen transfer from legumes may depend on the N 2 fixation, the genotype, the interspecies distance, the legume/cereal ratio, the fertility level, the mycorrhizal colonization, etc. (Senaratne et al., 1995). They suggested that further studies on the above mentioned aspects would prove useful in elucidating and promoting N transfer, and in assessing its significance in sustaining the productivity of low-input legume-based intercropping systems. We do not know when intercropping began nor why civilization fostered its use, whether by design or accident. Intercropping dominated early agriculture and it is still practiced in many areas of the worlds (Anders et al., 1996). With regard to that, it is known that legume/cereal intercropping would minimize the application of N-fertilizers in the tropics. In this study, there was no direct evidence that intercropped maize gained N from associated pigeonpea. For further research, it is necessary to draw more attention on plant species (germplasm and cycles), spatial arrangement, date of sowing (to minimize competition), tillage, balanced plant nutrient management and integrate diseases and insect control for optimum performance of maize/pigeonpea intercropping, pigeonpea fallow/maize rotation.The increase in maize grain yield ranged from -1.55 to 275 % in all cropping systems (rotation or intercropping with pigeonpea), with or without N-fertilizer application compared to the control (maize/maize in rotation without N-fertilizer). The maize grain yield in intercropping without N-fertilizer increased by 9 %. Pigeonpea grain yield (in intercropping) without N-fertilizer was 56 % higher than this with N-fertilizer. Pigeonpea as fallow produced 73 to 97 % more fresh wood than intercropped pigeonpea without fertilization and 91 to 118 % more fresh wood than intercropped pigeonpea with N-fertilizer. The intercropped pigeonpea with N-fertilizer produced 11 % less fresh wood than intercropped without Nfertilizer. The total N amount in the maize grain increased by 5 to 245 % in all cropping system (rotation and intercropping with Cajanus cajan, with or without N-fertilizers compared to the control. The N yield was low in intercropping without N-fertilizer. The total P followed the same trend as total N. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was higher in cropping systems without N-fertilizer than in those fertilized.The ultimate result of a cropping system that does not replace the nutrients removed by the crops is impoverishing of soil and poor crop yields. The maize/pigeonpea intercropping without N-fertilizer produced the lowest grain yield and the lowest N yield compared to the cropping systems receiving Nfertilizers. To make more sustainable and efficient maize/pigeonpea intercropping or maize/pigeonpea rotation, a minimun amount of N-fertilizer as well as other biological treatments (e.g. % AMF) are required according to the soil fertility and water use management.","tokenCount":"4132"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5bd21434c6dea8ab5fe44f266c633015","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c0d56a1-6816-4077-a3af-c19d986c4c11/retrieve","id":"-1381053765"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c5c3bc84-6bf4-4387-93ef-c09f57e89e6c","pagecount":"7","content":"Smallholder farmers produce majority of food in developing countries yet continue to be vulnerable to poverty, food insecurity, limited diet quality and diversity, malnutrition, and face various production challenges. Though quantitative studies have explored determinants of dietary diversity among farmers, this data can be further enriched with farmer experiences and perspectives of whether and how these factors affect dietary diversity to inform intervention design and implementation. A qualitative study was conducted among rural smallholder farmers in Kiboga district, Central Uganda with 28 participants in eight focus group discussions (four groups with men and four groups with women). The results showed that both men and women were concerned about food security and dietary diversity and viewed household food production as pivotal to food security. Purchase of food was affected by prices, household income, distance to markets and food diversity in the accessed markets. Major determinants of dietary diversity included household food production, agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness, information access and use, household income, and time. Poor perception towards meetings, insufficient nutrition information, skills and training were also noted. Gender influences and differences noted were concerned with allocation and use of harvested food and income within the household; more men than women having a poor perception towards meetings/trainings; and women having limited time for agricultural and nutrition practices that support dietary diversity. From the results, efforts to improve dietary diversity should address the food security and production challenges faced; support income generation whether on-or off-farm and market access to diverse foods; use designs that address gender issues and are labor and time sensitive; and include capacity building in nutrition and practices that support access to and utilization of diverse food baskets, and social behavior change strategies.In developing countries, smallholder farmers produce 60-80% of the food consumed [1]. They are however also the most vulnerable to poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition, as they face several challenges related to production, access to services, and inadequate infrastructure, knowledge, and skills. Working in a limited resource setting while facing climate change and urbanization exacerbates these challenges and their ability to cope [2][3][4]. Undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies are more prevalent in low-and lower middle-income countries, which include countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. These countries are also facing an increase in the prevalence of overnutritiona change that has been attributed to urbanization, a shift in dietary patterns with increased consumption of energy-dense, highly refined foods high in fat and sugar, and low in micronutrients, and a reduction in physical activity due to more sedentary work [5,6].In Uganda, 29% of children under five are stunted and 53% are anemic. Among adults, 24% of women and 9% of men are overweight or obese, while 32% of women and 16% of men are anemic [7]. According to the 2016 National Demographic Health Survey, only 15% of children aged six to 23 months had minimum acceptable diets and 30% consumed diets with the minimum recommended dietary diversity. Consumption of iron-rich and vitamin A-rich foods by these children was at 40% and 67% respectively [7]. The national average caloric intake is at 1883 Kcal per day per person whereby 39% are estimated not to meet their energy requirements. In addition, the quality of household diets is lacking with 40-60% of the caloric intake derived from starchy staples [8]. Regarding food security, at a national level, 26% of households face stressed food insecurity, that is, they have borderline food consumption scores (21.5-25), are employing coping strategies and are unable to afford some essential non-food expenditures without engaging in irreversible coping strategies. In addition, five percent of households face a food security crisis, whereby they have poor food consumption scores (≤21), low meal frequencies of up to one meal a day, low dietary diversity of less than three food groups, and no food stocks [9].A high-quality diet is considered to be one that provides sufficient amounts of nutrients relative to age, sex, disease status and physical activity, reduces all forms of malnutrition, promotes health, eliminates hunger, is safe, and produced sustainably. It is characterized by healthy eating habits and depends on food availability and culture [10]. Regrettably, such diets are not accessible or available to many given the two billion people globally that are food insecure, without regular access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food, the 700 million people that face severe food insecurity and possibly experienced hunger [11], and the food insecure and malnourished in Uganda highlighted above.A number of quantitative studies have explored the determinants of dietary diversity among farmers. Determinants have included income or wealth, income allocation to food, land ownership and size, access to home gardens, production diversity (the diversity of food groups produced), level of education or literacy, nutrition training or knowledge, access to media, access to water, household size, ethnicity and gender, especially the literacy, nutrition knowledge, access to markets, and occupation of women. Whereby the presence of these factors increased the likelihood of food security and dietary diversity among households [12][13][14][15][16]. This information can be further enriched with farmer experiences and perspectives of whether and how these factors affect dietary diversity through qualitative studies. Qualitative studies provide an opportunity to understand the patterns of behavior related to food and the food environment and shape key issues within the food environment that are important to farmers [17,18]. Where quantitative studies clarify the status of a situation and the cause-and-effect relationships and test hypotheses, qualitative studies are able to tease out the underlying reasons and mediators thus aiding the tailoring of interventions and messages [19,20].Qualitative reports from Tanzania have shown the importance of food security and dietary among farming households with women and children more at a disadvantage compared to men [21]. Furthermore, agriculture, agrobiodiversity, income and socio-economic status, livelihood diversity, seasonality, and household size, affected their ability to produce, purchase and consume sufficient and diverse food [21,22]. None the less, there is room for more qualitative information on farmer experiences and perspectives not only on determinants of dietary diversity but also how any limiting factors are being addressed and could be further improved. It is also important that such investigations disaggregate the gender perspectives and dynamics existing in each context.This study therefore sought to determine community and gender perspectives on nutrition and food security and dietary diversity, and their determinants among rural smallholder farming households in Central Uganda. The research questions studied were, what are the community and gender experiences and perspectives on child feeding practices, and household food availability and access? Based on the experiences and perspectives, what are the determinants of dietary diversity?A qualitative study was conducted among rural smallholder farming households from Kiboga district, in August 2018 to determine social norms and community perspectives on dietary diversity and food security. Kiboga district located in the Central region of Uganda has two main rain seasons a year with both perennial and annual production systems. The dominant production systems include agroforestry, banana-coffee, and maize farming systems. There is also livestock production mainly cattle, pigs, goats, and poultry [23]. The food security dynamics in the study sites are similar to not only the surrounding districts in the central region of Uganda, but also to smallholder farming communities elsewhere in the country and smallholder farmers in banana-based farming systems in Eastern Africa [24].Two parishes Kisweeka and Ssinde parishes were purposively selected based on relatively easy access and mobility by the researchers and the community participants, locality and distance between ensuring the two parishes were not adjacent to each other and having predominantly farming households. Within these parishes, 10 villages were randomly selected using a list of random numbers generated using Microsoft excel. A study sample size of 182 households farming households with at least one child aged between 6 and 59 months was obtained as part of a larger study [25]. From this sample of households, 12 men and 16 women participated in a total of eight focus group discussions (FGDs). Each parish had a total of four FGDs, two FGDs with men and two FGDs with women. FGDs for men and women were conducted separately. All participants had primary level education and their main occupation was farming. The average age for the eight FGDs was 39.1 ± 11.1. The average age for the men's FGDs was 44.7 ± 13.2 and that for women 35.0 ± 7.2.Using discussion guides, the FGDs explored i) the foods consumed by children aged 6 months to 3 years of age and the rest of the household, ii) the extent to which the foods consumed by children were adequate, iii) how food consumed in the household was obtained, iv) what factors determined the foods consumed, and v) how households addressed the challenges faced when accessing and consuming diverse diets. The FGDs were carried out by trained facilitators in the local language, assisted by trained note-takers. Audio recording were also made. Written informed consent to participate and record the discussion was sought from each participant prior to the start of each FGD. Communication and permission were also sought from the District officials. The study protocol was approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee of Stellenbosch University, Reference Number S16/06/099.The audio recordings for the FGDs and field notes were transcribed and cross-checked by the facilitators to ensure quality. The transcriptions were also cross-checked versus the audio recordings. The transcriptions were analyzed using Atlas.ti software v.8. The framework method of analysis was used to identify patterns and themes in the responses to the different questions as a way of understanding the research themes and questions [26]. This analysis involved identification of the presence or absence of themes, identification of codes informed by the themes, coding of the data, and comparison of themes and codes across the FGDs and genders. This was followed by grouping of the codes by organizing them into a matrix based on how they corresponded to the emerging themes, how they could be used to answer the research questions and how they interacted with one another.The meals served to children were reported to be largely similar to those consumed by the rest of the household. Differences between the children's diet and the rest of the household though not common practice ranged from, preparation of enriched porridges like soy flour mixed with maize or millet flour, addition of silver fish or green leafy vegetables to the bean or groundnuts sauce, purchase of eggs or milk, children accessing fruit in between meal times or mashing food for infants.Commonly consumed foods included starchy staple foods like cooking bananas, cassava, maize, rice, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. Fruits included pawpaw, mangoes, jackfruit, guavas, avocado, dessert bananas, passion fruit, gooseberries and Vangueria apiculata. Plant protein foods included beans, groundnuts, or soybean, while animal source foods included milk, eggs, and silver fish. Consumption of animal source foods like meat, milk, eggs, and fish was noted to be limited by their cost. Other foods whose consumption was influenced by their cost and household income include rice, potatoes, cooking bananas, soybean, and cooking oil.Though each FGD had participants that considered the diets of their children as adequate, some participants considered them inadequate. There were, however, more responses reflecting inadequate diets, and this was mainly attributed to limited availability and/or access to adequate food and lack of money to buy the preferred foods.When participants' understanding of adequate diets was explored, their perceptions were grouped into three categories i) Adequate diets were those that provided sufficient quantity of food leaving the children satisfied, ii) Diets were adequate if they were not monotonous and included different types of food such as milk, potatoes, and silver fish, and iii) Diets were adequate if they were well suited for children for example, food that is warm and of a texture fitting their age. For example, soft foods were said to be suitable complementary foods for children aged 6 months to 1 year and as such cooking bananas were preferred over cassava. Maize flour prepared as porridge or stiff porridge was also perceived to be good for children. Participants also acknowledged that an adequate diet is subjective because what one considers acceptable for their child may not be considered as such by another.Other perceptions around child feeding were discussed, with the most common perception being that children need to eat different and/ or tasty foods such as groundnuts, fish, eggs, milk, rice, potatoes, cooking bananas and amaranth. Secondly, that serving left over food from the previous meal especially at breakfast was a common practice that was considered inappropriate by some participants. As a result, participants preferred foods that could be warmed in the morning, but these were either not always available, or warming was not possible. Thirdly, that infants should be breastfed, and as they grow older, the feeding frequency reduces and type of food changes. Participants noted that not all women introduced foods at six months. There were no differences observed between FGDs and the men and women FGDs concerning perceptions about food and child feeding.Food was mainly sourced through four avenues, own farm production, bought from the market, gathered from the wild, and/or obtained in exchange for labor. There was a consensus from all FGDs that majority of the food consumed should be grown on their farms. Regarding buying of food, the cost of food and its availability in the market was a major influence on the type and quantity of food bought. In addition, larger markets with a variety of food stuffs were located farther from their households/villages.\"I also only buy cooking bananas, the rest of the food and vegetables I get from my garden\" [Women FGD 02] \"It depends on what foods, for example potatoes, groundnuts, maize flour, milk, watermelon, pineapples are bought from distant markets. Posho and rice are sold nearer so the distance to the market is not an issue\" [Women FGD 02] \" …. there are periods when as farmers we buy food. The main problem is change in weather; during the dry spell we all don't have food. As farmers in the village, we are not supposed to buy food like people who live in towns, but it is because of bad weather that we do.\" [Men FGD 03] Availability and consumption of animal source foods was limited and attributed to low household animal production given the high production costs, diseases, and theft. To access animal source foods, household made use of available income or sold other food items in store to obtain money to purchase these foods. A balanced diet was considered important. However, achieving a balanced diet depended on the household's ability/inability to grow and purchase the different foods. The former was the preferred scenario because the cost of foods did not allow for purchase of adequate amounts.Consumption of fruits and vegetables was strongly linked to their seasonal availability. A high consumption of vegetables during the rainy season and fruits during their specific harvest periods was reported. Participants noted that they generally made minimal effort to ensure consumption of fruits and vegetables in the off-and dry seasons. A lack of fruits and vegetables from their farms did not necessarily lead to their purchase even when income was available. Exceptions were noted among households that had farmland near swamps and those with well managed kitchen gardens because vegetables require plenty of water and are scarce during the dry season.\"No one buys fruits. We eat fruits when they are in season and are available in plenty\" [Men FGD 05] Fruit availability and consumption was also linked first to the number of fruit species and number of trees grown by a household. This was because the time of flowering differed across and within species, therefore, the larger the number of fruit species and number of trees in a household, the more likely they were to have access to fruits in different seasons/months. Secondly, fruits were an income generating crop in the community and this reduced the quantity available for home consumption. There were no differences observed between FGDs and between the men and women FGDs concerning perceptions about household food availability and access.The discussions identified five broad determinants of dietary diversity and approaches that the participants were taking or recommended to improve the situation. These were household production, agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness, information access and use, household income, and time.Household food production: The diversity of foods consumed was largely related to the diversity of crops grown and animals reared. Food production was in turn perceived to be influenced by land availability, soil fertility, pest and diseases and weather patterns. Household land access limited the diversity and quantity of crops grown. Access to additional land through hiring was hindered by availability of suitable land for the desired crop and the costs involved. Pests and diseases were reported to be prevalent leading to increased use of pesticides thus increasing production costs. Prolonged dry seasons and unpredictable rainfall were also increasing in occurrence, negatively affecting yield. As a result, participants noted that they needed additional income to access more land, hire labor to farm and purchase the necessary inputs such as fertilizers, manure, pesticides, and herbicides in order to increase the quantity and diversity of production.\"The land has been fragmented and is no longer enough to produce enough food. … … most families had plots of land to grow their own food, but most land has been sub-divided and sold, so some farmers do not own any …. In addition to this, our land is exhausted. For you to get a good yield, you have to spend more on fertilizers and irrigation to have a meaningful harvest\" [Men FGD 07] \"… soils used to have earth worms which help in increasing soil fertility, now because of over spraying they are no longer present in soils …. We overuse chemicals, sometimes unnecessarily …. to wipe out weeds, pests and diseases, this has led to loss of soil fertility\" [Women FGD 08] Agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness: Adequate information also influenced crop selection and management, and food choice and preparation. Participants reported that they were more likely to grow crops they were familiar/had experience with, those that produced/guaranteed a good yield, those that contributed to household income, and those that provided food security (alleviated hunger). These foods included maize, cooking bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, and beans. In addition, other considerations included seasonal/annual crops vs perennial crops; crops that mature quickly or are available all year round especially in the lean season, or crops that were 'easy' to produce, that is, had lower input and labor requirements. Fast maturing crops were favored as they shortened the lean seasons. Crops that required less labor allowed more time for production of other crops or household responsibilities.\"There are some foods that most people don't see the importance of planting, like pumpkins. It's not that they don't eat these foods, but they don't see the importance of planting them in their homes\" [Women FGD 06] Despite the fact that participants mentioned the different foods that make up a diverse diet as important for meal composition, good nutrition and health, a diverse diet was viewed as consuming different types of starchy staple foods as opposed to consuming different food groups by some. This view was prevalent in four out of eight FGDs (three FGDs in Ssinde and one FGD in Kisweeka). For these participants, consumption of a diverse diet was therefore viewed as costly, a waste of time, food, and money, or impractical due to the incorrect understanding of a balanced diet by some of the participants. This highlighted the need for appropriate nutrition information.Information access and use: The skills, information and knowledge behind the practices and decisions made by the participants during production, purchase, preparation and consumption of food were mainly from family, friends and neighbors, based on experience, and from trainings, media and fellow community members that had attended these trainings. The implementation of practices however was noted to be inconsistent with many reverting to old practices after a while. This was attributed to lack of resources such as money, seeds, land, labor, and time. Laziness and/or lack of a push-factor also led to abandoning of a technique, where push factors included monitoring by projects, community extension workers or leaders.In addition, a poor attitude towards meetings and trainings where information and skills are commonly disseminated in the community was noted. That is, general community meetings and meetings and/or trainings that are regularly used by governmental and non-government organizations to disseminate information or intervene within the community. This poor attitude was reported by the women FGDs who perceived that the poor attitude in their communities to be mainly among men. This in turn affected the adoption of knowledge or practices because it requires support and input from both the man and woman within a household.Time: Production, preparation and consumption of diverse diets were reported to be hindered by time. Given the different household chores and responsibilities, there was limited time for adequate and timely production of crop diversity, preparation of balanced diets, and child and household care. Time as a factor was mentioned by only the women FGDs.\"it is true all these things require time, whatever we learn will need that you allocate time for its implementation, sometimes omitting some routine things at home which is very hard, because these routines and responsibilities are still important.\" [Women FGD 06] Household income: As earlier reported, households had challenges with purchasing different food groups especially animal source foods due to limited income and high prices. In addition, because household food production was for both food and income, participants noted that they were increasingly selling more of their agricultural produce to meet the increasing agricultural and household needs like school fees, medical bills, sundries, and pesticides. The women FGDs noted that men were more likely to sell the total crop harvests without leaving a portion of the harvest for home consumption. Women on the other hand ensured that there was always part of the harvest left for household consumption.\"… most people sell off their crops to get money to sustain their homes but it's the men who do it mostly. For us we are always thinking of our children, but men prefer to sell all …\" [Women FGD 08]The experiences around the above determinants of dietary diversity were generally similar across parishes. The exception was around adequate information. While all FGDs included participants that had an incorrect understanding of a balanced diet and its importance, this misinformation was more prevalent in Ssinde parish (2 FGDs with women and 1 men FGD) compared to Kisweeka parish (1 FGD with men). Although both genders noted lack of adequate information and limited income as some of the barriers to diverse diets, a poor attitude towards meetings and trainings particularly among men and limited time for production and utilization of diverse foods were reported only by women FGDs. Though the tradeoffs around crops harvests, especially allocation of produce for food and/or sell were mentioned by both genders, men emphasized the importance of allocating for sell while the women emphasized the importance of allocating for food.Results from the FGDs indicate that household production, agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness, information access and use, household income, and time were perceived as the major determinants of dietary diversity. Other determinants included distance to the market, the price and diversity of foods available in the markets and the interaction of gender dynamics and the fore mentioned determinants.Though a variety of foods were available in the community from own production and markets, meals were largely composed of starchy staples and legumes. The diets discussed corresponded with earlier reports of diets mainly composed of cereals like maize, roots and tubers like cassava, cooking bananas and beans [23,27]. While some participants considered the diets of their children to be adequate, others considered them inadequate, with varying perceptions of what an adequate diet was. Despite the perception of adequacy by some, diets of children in the study region have been reported to be lacking with only 26% meeting the minimum dietary diversity (≥4 food groups), and 13% consuming the minimum acceptable diets, values lower than national figures of 30% and 15%, respectively [7]. In addition, inadequate intakes of micronutrients, especially vitamin A, vitamin B-12, iron, zinc and calcium have been reported [28].Food was mainly obtained from own farm production and markets, with own production regarded as pivotal. Purchase of different food groups were limited by their cost and availability in the market with markets having a variety of food stuffs located farther from the participants' households/villages. Household food consumption patterns and dietary diversity are influenced by the production systems of smallholder farmers, whether crop, livestock, or mixed, and their market access [4]. In addition to providing diverse diets, production of a variety of crops has additional advantages for the smallholder farmer such as reducing risks to shocks such as poor harvests and low prices for harvests [1]. For households that are poor, have low on-farm diversity and have poor market access, such as the long distances faced by participants, production diversity has been found to have a stronger influence on dietary diversity. While for households with more income and market access, the influence of production diversity on dietary diversity reduces [29,30]. Therefore, both the productivity and production diversity and markets access of similar smallholder farmers should be addressed in order to improve their dietary diversity and food security [4,31].Consumption of fruits and vegetables was limited by seasonal availability where a lack did not necessarily lead to purchase even when income was available. Participants noted that fruit availability and household consumption was also linked to fruit diversity produced and the income potential of fruits because majority were sold. The diversity of fruits and vegetables can be leveraged to address the seasonal access challenges through agrobiodiversity assessments, targeted diversification and promotion of fruit and vegetable consumption [32,33]. In fact, improving year-round availability of micronutrient-rich fruits and vegetables by increasing the number of varieties available has been reported to increase consumption [34]. Also, an increase in household income was associated with increased demand for fruits compared to that for vegetables in Sub-Saharan Africa, as vegetables were more expensive than fruits [35]. Therefore, for the study site, such an increase in income may reduce the quantities of fruits sold, thus increasing their availability for home consumption.Household food production a major determinant, was related to the diversity of foods consumed and production was in turn influenced by land availability, soil fertility, pest and diseases and weather patterns. The production challenges noted were similar to those previously reported for smallholder farmers in Uganda and elsewhere [1,2,23,[36][37][38]. Participants in an ethnographic study in Tanzania also closely related the determinants of dietary diversity and those that affected having enough food and agricultural production [22]. This goes to show that addressing production challenges to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers will go a long way in improving food security and dietary diversity.Agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness informed the priority crops in terms of food production, consumption, and diversity. Inadequate nutrition information was also noted including a narrower and/or incorrect understanding of a dietary diversity. This knowledge gap corresponds with the agricultural and dietary practices and choices. Agricultural knowledge and income have been reported to influence input and technology use and adoption [1,39], and improving nutrition knowledge and skills has been shown to improve dietary practices [40][41][42][43]. Capacity building, and investing in different types of capital and efforts to empower communities increases the likelihood of positive impact and sustainability of interventions [44,45]. Community members have specialized knowledge and experience that can be harnessed to solve challenges, which strengthens the case for participatory approaches and context driven interventions [46,47]. Farmer, women, youth, religious and savings or loan groups within the communities and cooperatives could provide an entry point for participatory approaches, community engagement and empowerment.Information access and use was varied and a poor attitude towards meetings and trainings was noted particularly among men. This result sheds more light on the inadequate information in the study sites despite several actions by government, non-government and community-based organizations within the district. To efficiently improve the knowledge, attitude and skills in agriculture and nutrition revealed in the study, the available information access channels and existing community networks need to be maximized. Community networks and leaders could provide support to adopt and implement practices that support household food and nutrition security, thus addressing the lack of a push factor reported in this study which affected sustained adoption of learned practices and their impact. Community meetings and trainings provide an opportunity to share and receive information that can improve food security and diet quality [48]. Behavior is influenced by several factors, the perceptions and attitudes of an individual and their community, the local culture, economic environment and availability of resources [49]. Development of a social behavior change strategy can inform communication strategies, build social support, increase intervention impact, and enhance empowerment in the target community [49]. The use of several methods and channels has been found to be more effective than use of a single one, and use of a small set of method and channels is more effective than several different techniques due to inconsistent quality of delivery that can arise with several techniques [50]. Therefore, to improve information access and the effectiveness of community meetings and trainings, a social behavior change strategy with appropriate behavior change methods that utilize and/or address the how and why of determinants in this study should be developed and used.Time was a major limiting factor noted by the women, affecting production of diversity, preparation of balanced diets. Time has also been previously reported as a determinant of child feeding practices and dietary diversity [22,48]. While agricultural interventions tend to increase time commitments of the impacted household member, women are especially affected given their key role in both agriculture and nutrition. In addition, different household members (men, women, youth, children) respond to the increased time burdens and workload in different ways, which has implications on the nutrition impacts of interventions [51]. Intervention designs therefore need to assess and address such gender issues and include labor and time sensitive practices.Household income not only affected the purchase of food but also affected the quantity of harvests allocated for household consumption and its mode of allocation to address different needs. This information expounds on the food security situation in light of the food production for both food and income reported among smallholder farmers. Men were noted to sell more of the harvests thus compromising household food security and dietary diversity. This determinant also led to the sell of most if not all fruits produced. Income or wealth is a well reported determinant affecting food security and dietary diversity directly through purchasing power and indirectly by affecting agriculture and agrobiodiversity [12,22].Improving income and livelihoods of farmers is a major aim of global and national strategies whereby increasing both on-and off-farm income and improving its use among smallholder farmers has been recommended [4,31]. This has been recommended together with improving gender equity. Empowering women enhances the impact of agricultural interventions on diets and other nutritional outcomes. The impact varies with context given the different cultures, gender norms and differences in levels of empowerment. Therefore gender roles in the food environment need to be understood and harnessed in interventions to empower women and reduce any unintended negative impacts on nutrition [31,52].Both men and women were concerned with food and nutrition security and dietary diversity and viewed their household food production to be pivotal. Purchase of food was affected by the price of food stuffs particularly animal source foods, household income, distance to the market, and the diversity of food available in the markets. The major determinants of dietary diversity identified were household production, agricultural and nutrition knowledge and awareness, information access and use, household income, and time. Poor perception towards meetings, insufficient nutrition information, skills and training in the community were also noted, including a knowledge gap in the understanding and perception of dietary diversity. Gender influences and differences were concerned with allocation and use of harvests and income in the household, men having a poor perception towards meetings/trainings, and women having limited time for agricultural and nutrition practices that support dietary diversity. Efforts to improve dietary diversity should address the food security and production challenges faced and support income generation whether on-or off-farm, and market access to diverse foods. Intervention design needs to address gender issues and include labor and time sensitive practices. Capacity building in nutrition and practices that support access to, and utilization of diverse food baskets is also required. This can be enhanced by development of social behavior change strategies and further studies into knowledge sharing and access, and attitudes towards learning in households and communities to inform communication strategies, build social support, and enhance empowerment.","tokenCount":"5449"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b3c2f27ba852e9b6e795fe64d5985ab4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6ee120f6-9880-4f33-85aa-357f127224e4/content","id":"1866444198"},"keywords":["Rust resistance","Race specific genes","Adult plant resistance genes","Breeding technologies"],"sieverID":"68033703-b4e5-46d6-a665-6fb3d74dc50c","pagecount":"18","content":"The three rusts are the most damaging diseases of wheat worldwide and continue to pose a threat to global food security. In the recent decades, stem rust races belonging to the Ug99 (TTKSK) and Digalu (TKTTF) race group resurfaced as a major threat in Africa, the Middle East and Europe threatening global wheat production. In addition, the evolution and migration of new aggressive races of yellow rust adapted to warmer temperatures into Europe and Asia from Himalayan region are becoming a significant risk in several wheat production environments. Unique and complex virulence patterns, continuous evolution to overcome effective resistance genes in varieties, shifts in population dynamics, transboundary migration have resulted in localized/regional epidemics leading to food insecurity threats. This underscores the need to identify, characterize, and deploy effective rust resistant genes from diverse sources into pre-breeding lines and future wheat varieties. The use of genetic resistance and deployment of multiple race specific and pleiotropic adult plant resistance genes in wheat lines can enhance resistance durability. Recent advances in sequencing annotated wheat reference genome with a detailed analysis of gene content among sub-genomes will not only accelerate our understanding of the genetic basis of rust resistance bread wheat, at the same time wheat breeders can now use this information to identify genes conferring rust resistance.• Geographical distribution of three rust diseases, impact, management strategies and briefly address the new molecular tools in the current era to enhance resistance breeding and opportunities for wheat improvement.Pests and diseases (P&D) have historically affected food production either directly through losses in crop production or quality. Currently, these losses are exacerbated by the changing climate threatening food security and rural livelihoods across the globe. Nearly 200 wheat pests and diseases in wheat have been documented, of which fifty are considered economically important because of their potential to cause substantial yield losses. Two studies estimated potential grain yield losses due to disease at 18% and 21.5% at global level and (10.1-28.1%) per hotspot for wheat [1], however, losses can be significantly higher in areas where susceptible wheat varieties are still grown. Rust pathogens are present in all wheat growing environments and have constantly hindered global wheat production since domestication and still continue to threaten the global wheat supplies. It is estimated that global annual losses to wheat rust pathogens can be around 15 million tons valued at US$ 2.9 billion [2]. Documented evidence suggesting wheat rusts could be one of the earliest pathogens wherein spores of SR dating back to 1300 BC were detected in Israel, rust was reported as serious disease of cereals in Italy and Greece more than 2000 years ago and festival called \"Robigalia\" was celebrated to protect the crops from rusts and smuts [3]. The continuous effort to increase genetic gains is not possible without overcoming several of the current barriers such as climate change coupled with a variety of unpredictable abiotic and biotic stresses that pose significant threat to wheat production both locally and globally (see Chap. 7). Genetic uniformity of wheat in the quest of developing high-performing cultivars, has also contributed pathogen resurgence to the point wherein diseases threaten global wheat production. This review considers the three rust diseases affecting wheat productivity, and the emerging threats considering the geographical distribution, impacts, and management strategies and briefly address the new molecular tools in the current era to enhance resistance breeding and deployment opportunities for wheat improvement.There are three wheat rust diseases, namely stem (black) rust, stripe (yellow) rust and leaf (brown) rust, all belonging to the members of the Basidiomycete family, genus Puccinia, and named P. graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt), P. striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) and P. triticina (Pt), respectively.Stem rust (SR), or black rust is common where wheat plants are exposed to warmer environments at later stages of crop growth. SR has the potential to completely annihilate a healthy looking crop when an epidemic occurs and linear yield losses have been observed, early infections can result in no grain fill and panicles can be reduced to chaff [4]. SR epidemics have been significantly curtailed by eliminating its alternate host (barberry species) between 1918 and 1980 in the USA and in the UK, adoption of semi-dwarf, early maturing rust resistant varieties developed by CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center), and the use of fungicides.Wheat growing environments of East Africa are unique epidemiological regions that favor wheat production all-round the year in different regions providing continuous green bridge for pathogen evolution and survival resulting in frequent localized epidemics. Even though it was under control for over three decades the recent re-emergence of SR race \"Ug99\" in East Africa posed a serious threat to global wheat production [5].The stem rust race Ug99 (TTKSK) caused widespread damage in Kenya [6] carrying unique virulence as it was able to overcome over 50% of the known SR resistance genes including widely deployed genes Sr31 and Sr38. Following the spread of race Ug99, resistant cultivar \"Kenya Mwamba\" was released in 2001 (known to carry gene Sr24) which became a popular variety with farmers however; in 2006, race TTKST (Ug99+Sr24 virulence) was detected in Kenya, resulting in severe localized epidemics in Kenya [7]. Through sustained breeding efforts of CIMMYT, several new varieties with resistance to TTKSK and TTKST were released post 2009, of which \"Kenya Robin\" became a leading variety combining high yield potential and SR resistance covering 40% of the wheat area in Kenya by 2014. However, in the same year the breakdown of resistance in Robin and two variants of Ug99 race group with virulence to resistance gene SrTmp were identified, viz. race TTKTK (Ug99+SrTmp), and TTKTT (Ug99+Sr24+SrTmp) [8]. These two genes (Sr24 and SrTmp) were quite important in conferring effective resistance to SR races in the USA, CIMMYT, South America and Australian wheat germplasm increasing the vulnerability of varieties to Ug99 race group [9] not only for East Africa but predicted migration paths threatening production in other wheat growing environments [9]. In 2018, another new race with virulence to Sr8155B gene was identified in Kenya in 2018 (unpublished data) and currently, seven of the fourteen variants within the Ug99 race group have evolved in Kenya, making it the hot spot for evolution of Ug99 race group.Stripe rust epidemics in Ethiopia in 2010, prompted release of varieties carrying good levels of stripe rust and SR resistance of which cultivar \"Digalu\" (carrying high yield potential and rust resistance to both YR and Ug99 race group) became a popular variety with farmers by 2013-2014 occupying approximately 31% of wheat area under production. However, in 2013, devastating localized epidemics of SR were reported on Digalu caused by race TKTTF, a SR race unrelated to the Ug99 race group [10]. This race was able to overcome resistance gene SrTmp present in Digalu and was later detected in Kenya, this race was previously reported in Turkey, Lebanon and Iran. Airborne dispersal models also indicated a migration route into East Africa from sources in the Middle East. Race TKTTF has also now been detected in Germany, UK, Sweden, Denmark. In addition to Digalu race group, diverse SR races with rare combination of virulence to Sr9e and Sr13 have been found in the central highlands of Ethiopia [11], which have been quite important for durum wheat as these genes are deployed in both North America and Australia.Widespread eradication of the alternate host, common barberry, had resulted in effective control of SR in Western Europe until 2013. However, unusual SR infections on winter and spring wheat in 2013 and race analyses identified six SR races, similar to Digalu race with additional virulence to Sr7a, Sr45, and SrTt-3 [12]. Common barberry is now being implicated as a source of new stem rust race diversity in Georgia and Western Siberia and SR epidemics on oats in Sweden. Since 2014, several large-scale stem rust outbreaks have been reported and virulent races are spreading rapidly. Race TKKTP with virulence combination for Sr24, Sr36, Sr1A.1R and SrTmp [13], races TRTTF and TKKTF (virulence to Sr1A.1R) have also been identified. Race TKKTF is spreading rapidly and now detected in 17 countries across Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and East Africa. Similarly, race TTRTF caused epidemics on durum wheat in Sicily since 2015 and is now detected in 10 countries in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and East Africa [14].Stripe (yellow) rust (YR) is a common disease in wheat and well adapted to temperate areas with humid and cool weather, aggressive races adapted to warmer temperatures have migrated and spread across geographies since 2000 [15]. Race shifts towards higher rates of mutation for virulence within the Pst pathogen has resulted in vulnerability of widely deployed cultivars. Global yield losses to YR is estimated at 5.5 million tons per year [16]. Production losses in North America alone since 2000 exceeded over one million tons, and in China, losses over 1.8-6.0 million tons were observed under epidemic conditions. Similar reports of yield losses to YR in Europe in the recent decade has been attributed largely to the race shifts derived from the Himlayan region [17]. Historically, impact of newly evolved YR races on wheat productivity have been occasional, however, new incursions have often resulted in widespread damage, e.g. incursion of YR races from Europe into eastern Australia in 1978, western Australia in early 2002. Exotic incursions of YR races replaced the existing populations in the USA since 2000 and race shifts in the European Pst populations in 2011 and 2012 by races from the Himalayan region [17] are very good examples of exotic races with different genetic Pst lineages causing significant impact on host susceptibility. A recent study linking both virulence and race structure with recent YR epidemics in different geographies [18] suggested different Pst races in distinct genetic lineages, where aggressive strains adapted across diverse environments were spreading across continents, including the more recent outbreak of YR in Argentina.Leaf (or brown) rust (LR), is the most common rust disease in both winter wheat and spring wheat growing areas, as well as on durum wheat. Yield losses due to LR can be substantial if susceptible varieties are infected at early stages coupled with favourable temperatures and moisture conditions resulting in rapid progress in short time span. Yield losses are largely due to the reduction of kernels per spike and lower kernel weights.Populations of Pt, are specifically adapted to either tetraploid durum wheat or hexaploid common wheat and races conferring virulence to several of the LR genes are prevalent throughout the world [19]. Since the early 2000s, races of Pt that are highly virulent on durum wheat cultivars have spread across South America, Mexico, Europe, the Mediterranean basin, and the Middle East. These races confer virulence to Lr71 gene, widely present in durum wheat, however, are avirulent to many of the LR genes that are found in common wheat. In Ethiopia another group of Pt races have been found that are highly virulent on durum wheat yet avirulent to the highly susceptible common wheat cultivars such as \"Thatcher\" and \"Little Club\" [20] and these isolates are unique to Ethiopia.On a global scale, most populations of Pt are unique in their virulence and molecular genotypes. Even though the most common mode of evolution is through mutation and selection in a given environment, there is evidence for recent migration of Pt races between different continental regions. Since the mid 1990s isolates of Pt with virulence to Lr1, Lr3a, and Lr17a, and avirulence to Lr28, have increased and spread across the U.S. and Canada. These isolates also had a unique molecular genotype, which indicated that these were likely recently introduced to North America. Since the early 2000s these isolates with identical or highly similar virulence and molecular genotypes have been found in Europe, South America, Ethiopia, Turkey and Pakistan [21]. Similarly isolates of P. triticina with virulence to durum wheat that also have identical or highly related molecular genotypes have been found in the Middle East, South America, Europe, Ethiopia, Tunisia, Mexico and the U.S [22].   [4] (Fig. 8.2). The results from the international nurseries show a shift to higher frequencies of lines with resistance to SR races, since the screening activities were initiated in 2008. Similarly, close to 150,000 wheat land races and advanced durum wheat breeding lines and varieties have been evaluated in Debrezeit.Reliable phenotypic data generated from these phenotyping platforms led to the characterization of over 35 SR genes/loci in collaboration with global partners (Matt Rouse CDL, unpublished data), Genomic prediction models for APR (Adult-Plant Resistance) showed promising results [23]. Release of over 17 varieties in Kenya and Ethiopia and more than 200 varieties released in several countries globally over the years is testament to the success of the impacts from the phenotyping platforms. CIMMYT-Kenya shuttle breeding has resulted in rapid cycling of over 2000 populations each year between Mexico and Kenya to evaluate and select lines in early generations against virulent SR. Candidates of the stage I (10,000 lines) and stage II (1500 lines) yield trials are also evaluated and the selected lines are included in international nurseries and trials and distributed to NARS partners.  Denmark and the tools and database are updated on a routine basis, hence delivering the most recent information in a timely manner. The Wheat Rust Toolbox includes a comprehensive user management system that permits controlled access to specific tools and functionality. Registered users have country-specific access to an on-line data entry system and a suite of country-specific data visualization options for their own data.A series of reviews on current status of key SR races [4,24,25] have provided a recent and comprehensive overview of the status of the Ug99 race group, describing the rapid evolution of new races and its geographical expansion. Technology innovations are now enhancing the global rust monitoring system. Very recently Mobile And Real-time PLant disEase (MARPLE) diagnostics [26] has been developed by John Innes Center, UK and successfully deployed as a portable, genomics-based tool to identify individual strains of complex fungal plant pathogens. Advanced spore dispersal and meteorologically driven epidemiological models, developed by Cambridge University and UK Met Office, are now providing valuable new information on pathogen movements and the basis for near-real time, in-season rust early warning systems. An operational rust early warning system is now operational in Ethiopia and similar systems are being developed in Nepal and Bangladesh.Currently, over 220 rust resistance genes viz. 79 LR resistance genes, 82 YR resistance genes and 60 SR genes have been formally cataloged and designated of which majority of them confer race specific resistance and only a few genes confer slow rusting /partial adult plant resistance to the three rust diseases.Race specific, or seedling resistance, also referred as qualitative resistance or all stage resistance is effective at all growth stages and belongs to the \"R gene\" class conferring NBS-LRR (Nucleotide Binding Site-Leucine Rich Repeat) domain. Some exceptions are known where R-genes are effective only in post-seedling or adult plant stages. R-genes may confer a major resistance effect/complete resistance expressed as varying degrees of hypersensitive response and are effective one or against few races of the pathogen. However, majority of the R-genes are intermediate and do not confer clean phenotype or adequate levels of resistance and some are influenced by temperature and light regimes. The ease of selecting these genes at both seedling and field stages has made it easier to incorporate such resistance in wheat breeding programs resulting in increased productivity (boom). However, deployment of single R-genes has often resulted in pathogen acquiring virulence post deployment as varieties in a short period leading to breakdown of resistance causing epidemics and severe yield losses (bust) cycles e.g. widespread virulence for Yr9 and Yr27, virulence for SR gene Sr31 and other important SR genes Sr24, Srtmp to the Ug99 race group and ineffectiveness of LR resistance genes in the United States. However, deployment of multiple R gene combinations often refereed as \"pyramiding\" can effectively enhance durability of resistance in an event of when one of the R gene breaks down other genes will continue to protect the variety and keep pathogen populations under check.Race-nonspecific resistance often referred as adult plant resistance or partial resistance is effective against wider races of a pathogen species. APR is generally quantitative, exhibiting incomplete resistance that is usually expressed at later stages of plant development unlike race-specific resistance that is expressed at both seedling and adult plant stage. These genes help slow the disease progress through increased latency period, reduced infection frequency, reduced pustule size resulting in lower spore production. Several of the APR genes confer seedling susceptibility and usually produce medium to large compatible pustules at low frequency without hypersensitive response and expression of resistance is observed when the plants reach flag leaf or boot leaf stage. The phenotypic effect of such genes is relatively minor to moderate, however, additive effects of multiple APR genes (4-5) in combinations can result in very high levels of resistance [24]. The problem of \"boom and bust\" cycles prompted wheat breeders to embrace an alternate approach combining slow rusting or partial resistance to enhance resistance durability. Johnson and Law [27] defined durable resistance as \"resistance that remained effective after widespread deployment over a considerable period of time\". A general concept of a durable resistance source for cereal rusts is that it is minor in effect, polygenic, usually expressed at post-flowering/adult plant stage, non-race-specific and produce non-hypersensitive response to infection. Noteworthy examples of durable resistance is the resistance to SR transferred from tetraploid emmer to North American bread wheat cultivars \"Hope\" and \"H-44\", and LR resistance in the South American wheat cultivar \"Frontana\". Since the early 1980s, significant progress has been achieved in understanding the genes involved with slow rusting and their efficient use in breeding [7]. Currently at CIMMYT, key slow rusting pleotropic genes such as Lr34. Lr46, Lr67 and Lr68 in combination with other minor effect genes continue to enhance durable resistance to the three rust diseases [4,24].Lr34 was first reported in cultivar \"Frontana\", and wheat cultivars containing Lr34 are widely present and occupy more than 25 million ha in developing countries and is effective in reducing yield losses in epidemic years, and has been mapped on chromosome 7DS. This gene confers pleiotropic resistance effect (Table 8.1) on multiple diseases such as YR, SR, powdery mildew, barley-yellow dwarf virus and spot blotch (Lr34/Yr18, Sr57, Pm38, Bdv1 and Sb1), respectively and is associated with a morphological marker leaf tip necrosis (LTN). Lr34 was cloned and the gene encodes a full-size ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter [28] and gene-specific markers were developed which are widely used in marker assisted selection.Lr46 was first described in 1998 in cultivar \"Pavon 76\", located on chromosome 1BL characterized by lower latency period [34], confers partial resistance to other diseases with corresponding designations Yr29, Sr58 and Pm39, respectively. Lr46 is also associated with LTN and is very common in both old and new wheat varieties including durum wheat.The Lr67 gene was identified in the common wheat accession \"PI250413\" and transferred into \"Thatcher\" to produce the isoline \"RL6077\" (Thatcher*6/PI250413). Lr67 also shows pleotropic effect to SR and YR however, with lower effect of LR resistance than Lr34. Mapping studies mapped Lr67/Yr46/Pm46 on chromosome arm 4DL. Cloning elucidated that Lr67 gene encodes a hexose transporter [35].Lr68 is another APR gene located on chromosome arm 7BL, conferring APR to LR identified in CIMMYT's wheat \"Parula\", known to carry Lr34 and Lr46 and likely to have originated from \"Frontana\" [33]. Lr68 showed a weaker effect than Lr34, Lr46 and Lr67 but combined effect of Lr34, Lr46 and Lr68 in Parula resulted in near immunity [33].Stem rust gene Sr2 is one of the most important and widely used genes, conferring modest levels of resistance, and has been effective until date (over 100 years) even to the Ug99 and Digalu race groups of SR in East Africa. This gene was transferred from \"Hope\" and \"H-44\" into common cultivars and is derived from a tetraploid \"Yaroslav\" emmer and is located on chromosome 3BS. This gene was widely used by Dr. N. E. Borlaug when he initiated wheat breeding in 1944 in Mexico, which resulted in varieties such as \"Yaqui 50\" and several high yielding semi dwarf varieties that were deployed in different wheat programs [24]. The Sr2 gene shows pleiotropic effects with YR gene Yr30 that also confers moderate resistance. Sr2 gene is also associated with a morphological marker called pseudo-black chaff (PBC). Efforts to combine Sr2 with other minor effect genes to enhance SR resistance in breeding materials at CIMMYT has resulted in several resistant or moderately resistant varieties and recently lines combining Sr2 and Fhb1 have been developed [36]. Several new uncharacterized slow rusting genes, some potentially pleiotropic, have been identified in the recent years suggesting diversity for APR QTL and their potential in breeding.Other adult plant resistance genes reported to confer partial or slow rusting include Lr74 Lr75, Lr77, and Lr78 for leaf rust, Yr11, Yr12, Yr13, Yr14, Yr16, Yr36, Yr39, Yr52, Yr59, Yr62, Yr68, Yr71, Yr75, Yr77, Yr78, Yr79, Yr80 and Yr82 [37] for yellow rust and more recently Sr56 identified in cultivar 'Arina' for stem rust [38].Breeding for rust resistance has been a rigorous exercise owing to the continued evolution and selection of pathogen for new virulence to previously effective resistance genes largely through mutation or sexual recombination, or transboundary migration of races to new wheat production environments. In most developing countries, varieties with genetic resistance are preferred by farmers; therefore resistance is a required trait for release. Even though several race-specific resistance genes have been identified only a handful of genes are used actively in breeding as several genes are only effective in certain environments and majority are easily overcome in few years of deployment. Linkage drag associated with undesired genes transferred from secondary and tertiary gene pools or originating from unadapted genetic backgrounds remains a major constraint even with modern techniques to shorten e.g. translocations. One of the best approaches to utilize these race-specific resistance genes is through pyramiding, combinations of multiple effective genes in varieties. Molecular markers linked to some of the effective resistance genes have facilitated the selection for multiple resistance genes and releases of varieties that carry them. However, the lack of diagnostic markers to select genes in different genetic backgrounds leaves no option but use field-based selections under artificial epidemics, which continues to be the most common practice in several breeding programs.Other approach is to utilize quantitative APR in breeding, although the individual effects of pleiotropic APR genes and other QTLs are small or moderate in their effect when present alone; near-immune levels of resistance have been achieved by combining 4-5 of these genes that often have additive effects. Incorporating such type of resistance has been found to enhance durability and significant progress was made for LR resistance, and more recently for resistance to Ug99 race group and stripe rust resistance in CIMMYT germplasm using a single back cross selected bulk scheme. Although breeding for APR resistance is cumbersome initially, additive effect of multiple minor APR genes enables combinations of high disease resistance, which can be simultaneously selected together with high yields with appropriate agronomic traits and the frequency of these genes can be increased within the breeding germplasm. Comparison of grain yield performance of 697 EYT lines (Stage II) 2018-2019 derived from Mexico Shuttle and Mexico Kenya Shuttle breeding schemes identified similar frequency of lines that combine high yield potential and stem rust resistance (Fig. 8.3) and significant progress has been achieved in combining yield potential and rust resistance in CIMMYT breeding lines.One of the prerequisites for enhancing APR is the absence of epistatic racespecific resistance gene interactions in breeding materials, which enables selection of transgressive segregants with high levels of resistance under high disease pressure. The progress in breeding APR to the Ug99 race group was facilitated by extending shuttle breeding scheme to Kenya and were able to demonstrate success in achieving high levels of complex APR to rusts at CIMMYT.The proven approach to enhance durability of genetic resistance is the deployment of combinations of multiple effective resistance genes. However, limitation to stack multiple genes is their segregation when parents possessing different genes are crossed and the need to grow large populations to identify multiple gene combinations and the need to have complementing diagnostic markers tagging the R-genes to ensure desired gene combinations are achieved. However, incomplete/moderate effect R-genes, race-nonspecific APR genes, or their combinations confers enhanced resistance levels due to additive effects, hence have been shown to be effectively selected in the field under high disease pressures [4,24].In the last two decades several rust resistance genes have been cloned viz. eleven SR resistance genes: Sr13, Sr21, Sr22, Sr33, Sr35, Sr45, Sr46 Sr50, Sr55 (pleiotropic with Lr67), and Sr57 (pleiotropic with Lr34) and more recently Sr60 four LR resistance genes Lr1, Lr10 Lr21and Lr22a and six YR resistance genes Yr5, Yr7, Yr10, Yr15, YrAS2388R and Yr36 (see Chap. 19). Also, in the last decade R gene enrichment sequencing (Ren-Seq), approaches have been widely used to clone resistance genes. Resistance genes from wild relatives can be introgressed to engineer broad-spectrum resistance in domesticated crop species using a combination of association genetics with R-gene enrichment sequencing (AgRenSeq) and a relatively new approach called MutRenSeq that combines chemical mutagenesis with exome capture and sequencing has been developed for rapid R-gene cloning [39]. Despite these advances, limited number of widely effective cloned genes and rapid evolution of new races with complex virulences and transcontinental migration reinforces a responsible strategy for their deployment.The availability of multiple cloned resistance genes has opened the possibility of transforming wheat lines with a stack or cassette of multiple cloned effective resistance genes. This transgenic approach can help combine multiple resistance genes in a linkage block with one another on a single translocation thereby reducing the chances of segregation upon further breeding processes and up to five cloned genes can be stacked currently transgene cassette of four R-genes (Sr22, Sr35, Sr45 and Sr50), combined with the APR gene Sr55 [40] (https://2blades.org/). However, the current regulatory framework in most countries does not allow the cultivation of transgenic and cisgenic, wheat. If future policy decisions allow use of transgeniccassettes this approach has great potential to develop wheat varieties with durable resistance. Genome editing technology in the recent years has shown great potential to surpass the bottlenecks of conventional resistance breeding (see Chap. 29). This technology offers the modification of specific target genes in elite varieties, thus bypassing the whole process of crossing. Recent advances in gene-editing technology can also offer avenues to building resistance durability. Genome editing was found to be effective in improving powdery mildew resistance by editing Mlo homologs in wheat to produce a triple knockout in hexaploid wheat [41]. As gene-editing technology develops, site-specific editing of alleles may become practical in the future.Geographical distribution of three rust diseases, impact, management strategies Rust resistance, Race specific genes, Adult plant resistance genes, breeding technologies and new molecular tools in the current era to enhance resistance durability.The three rust diseases continue to be a significant challenge in several wheat production environments. Major threat is due to the extreme damage these diseases can cause to susceptible varieties. Severe localized epidemics have been reported in the last two decades largely due to the lack of resistance diversity in host and constantly evolving and migrating rust races that can pose a significant risk wherein breeding for these new incursions or newly evolved races could be a recent undertaking. Genetic resistance through deployment of both race specific genes and APR though quite widely used in breeding programs, effective combinations of partially effective pleotropic race-nonspecific genes such as Sr2, Lr34, Lr46, Lr67, and Lr68 have been found to confer durable resistance in CIMMYT germplasm. Deployment of both APR genes with combinations of multiple race specific genes can be a better strategy to enhance resistance durability. Cloning of rust genes in the last decade and development of gene-specific DNA markers can facilitate pyramiding strategies into desired wheat backgrounds with a possibility to possible to transform wheat lines with a cassette of multiple cloned resistance genes. Significant progress in the area of global rust research including monitoring and surveillance, establishment of phenotyping platforms to facilitate the testing of global wheat germplasm and the identification and characterization of new sources of race-specific and APR genes, all of this has led to the development and rapid deployment of rust resistant cultivars target countries. CIMMYT breeding will continue to provide improved highyielding wheat germplasm carrying high to adequate rust resistance to global wheat partners, mitigating the potential threat of these transboundary rust diseases. Even though fungicides are effective in controlling rusts and are widely used in developed countries, lack of availability at the right time and resources are still a limitation for small holder farmers and emerging concerns of new race groups requiring multiple applications (reduced fungicide efficacy) to avert losses highlights the importance of breeding and deployment of resistant germplasm to curtail epidemics.","tokenCount":"4809"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d7ff40cc75cdc9923b89a4d5c06fae6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d78c8f8-e25f-495e-92e8-0fd062869b85/retrieve","id":"-208463594"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"03ce86ea-638e-48ef-abef-685977666a79","pagecount":"18","content":"Objetivos básicos de un \"sistema\" nacional de RFG C.Responsabilidades de un \"sistema\"•avanzar el inventario y monitoreo de RFG•capacitar la gente•generar y distribuir beneficios•fomentar la conservación Creación de nuevos productos a partir de los RFG:ejemplo: plásticos desarollados a partir de álmidon de maízAlgunos indicadores de un \"sistema\"• el inventario de la flora y RFG agrícolas es• gente es disponible para apoyar el 'sistema'• la información los fluye entre los actores• se generan que reforzan la conservación• el 'sistema' se preocupa por igual de RFG \"huerfanos\"• los RFG extranjeros traen beneficios al país• los RFG fomentan el empleo y valoran la diversidad humana• el 'sistema' porque tiene puede cuentas'","tokenCount":"107"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"795ec7d39da37efc0402b9c6f8bafdaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f59fb01d-8ac4-4321-8cdb-b0b12126b901/retrieve","id":"-1402531185"},"keywords":["livestock","climatic extremes","drought","early warning systems","ESA"],"sieverID":"846a3ea1-5d6e-4b5f-8498-3fd1fe09b1d2","pagecount":"5","content":"The SADC initiatives for drought crisis mitigationThe early warning systems (EWS)The challenges for addressing livestock issuesLivestock are central to the livelihoods of the livestock-dependent production systems in Southern Africa, accounting for about 25% of the total agricultural output of the member states. In particular, livestock are central to the well-being of the pastoralists and the agropastoralists.Climatic extremes are a critical phenomenon in the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities largely because of the extreme dependence of these communities on the natural environment for their livelihoods and the welfare of their animals. In most parts of the arid and semi-arid areas of southern Africa, a common feature is unreliable rainfall and periodic droughts. This climatic phenomenon is known to impact biodiversity, human health, the productivity of the systems and hence the well-being of the livestock owners (Ford 1971;Lewis 1975;Hussein 1976;Swift 1976;Horowitz and Little 1987). For the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, drought can no longer be regarded as a catastrophe but rather accepted as a recurrent feature of the environment. (Pereira 1968) This and other climatic phenomena have been recognised as crucial to the development of the sub-region at the highest political levels. In direct response to this concern, the SADC member states have elaborated a Sub-Regional Action Programme (SRAP) to implement the UN Convention to Combat Desertification under the umbrella of the SADC Environment and Land Management Sector. At the same time, a network of early warning systems (EWS) has been established in the sub-region addressing regional as well as national perspectives.In order to contribute to these efforts, the SADC Regional Animal Agriculture Research Network (SAARNet) has also started an initiative to undertake studies on \"Crisis Mitigation in Livestock-Dependent Systems\" to understand the risks associated with climatic variability and to provide policy options, technologies and knowledge products that will make the livestock sector more resilient in times of drought and thus promote food security, poverty alleviation and sustainable natural resource conservation.The SADC Sub-Regional Programme to Combat Desertification (SADC-SRAP): Following the SADC Council of Ministers approval of the \"SADC Policy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development -Towards equity-led growth and Sustainable Development in Southern Africa\", in August 1996, the Council established the distinct Policy and Strategy Coordination Unit called the SADC Environment and Land Management Sector (SADC-ELMS) under the SADC Committee of Ministers of Environment.The overall aim of SADC-ELMS is \"to achieve sustainable utilisation of the natural resources and effective protection of the environment\" (SADC 2000). To achieve this overall goal, SADC-ELMS will co-ordinate activities at the level of three programmes, namely the Land Management Programme, the Environment Management Programme and the Information Management Programme.Within this framework, the SADC Council of Minister approved and adopted a Sub-Regional Action Plan (SRAP) in August 1997 to combat desertification in Southern Africa as the key operational instrument for implementing the United Nations Convection to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in the sub-region. One of the priority programme areas identified and agreed upon to be implemented by SRAP is the \"Strengthening of Early Warning Systems\". SADC-ELMS is evolving and has already undertaken an assessment of institutions in SADC countries that could assist it in leading the co-ordination and implementation of activities in the SRAP priority programme areas. Thus far the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN) has been selected and approved by Council as the Lead Institution for SRAP's Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening priority programme area. DRFN will, among other things, establish a network of institutions to build capacity to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought as well as provide leadership in the various aspect of research on desertification and drought.A number of EWS have been established in SADC over the past decade or so, with focus on the communities that are extremely vulnerable to climatic variability. Following is a brief review and evaluation of the most successful EWS in SA so far, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.The major objective of most EWS is to rapidly provide decision makers with timely and accurate information to quickly take informed decisions on food security and environmental management planning (Walker 1989;Wakesa 1997;Agastiva 1997). Largely, these EWS essentially collect, process, analyse and disseminate observational data on a number of interrelated variables and depend very little on predictive models.This is a Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) funded project. The overall objectives of the project are to strengthen EWSs for food security in east Africa by establishing satellite remote sensing capabilities in the sub-region and preparing and distributing monthly early warning information to users in the SADC member countries and is based in Harare. It uses satellite data from NOAA HRPT, Meteosat Artemis and Meteosat PDUS to generate and produce timely information on the status of agricultural and environmental resources to assist national and regional institutions concerned with food security and environmental monitoring. The information bulletins are distributed as both GISbased maps and reports. End-users surveys have shown a general satisfaction with the quality of its products and considerable enthusiasm for EWSs to continue operation in the region.These are two parallel regional initiatives operated and financed by the USAID Africa Bureau in both the Inter-governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) countries of eastern Africa and the SADC countries of southern Africa. They report on price status of food commodities as well as assess weather and growing season status. In addition they provide information on crop production outlooks. Based on these the systems provide quantitative estimates of food aid requirements as well as confirmed emergency food aid and pledges. They do not provide animal production estimates. They distribute their products electronically and by post, targeting national and sub-national level agencies and policy makers.These are jointly operated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) with one based in Harare covering southern Africa and the other based in Nairobi covering eastern Africa. These generate quantitative data on the status of the weather and growing season on a monthly basis using monthly and seasonal rainfall forecast information produced by the Climate Prediction Centre (CPC) in Washington D.C., USA along with satellite-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and locally collected agro-meteorological data. They produce monthly bulletins which are distributed in hard copy only to national-level technicians through courier and normal mail for informing the relevant policy makers.SADC-ELMS and EWS provide many opportunities for a holistic approach to mitigating the effects of drought in the region. However, a number of constraints need to be addressed to enhance the value of these initiatives:With the exception of a few, the climate predictions or crisis indicators provided by most EWS are point forecasts and therefore are of limited value for livestock impact forecasts and long-range climate forecasts. The short-notice nature of these systems could largely account for intervention failures, especially among the resource poor stakeholders, who are usually ill prepared to effectively mobilise the necessary resources to adequately respond to crisis situations. Information produced by most EWS tends to be oriented to short-range action time scales, drawing largely on locally available data (observational data) and very little use of data external to the region (satellite information). The systems are thus oriented to adverse shocks and hence demand ex-poste rather than ex-ante responses to shocks. They promote coping strategies oriented to relief operations and handouts rather than mitigation.There is a general inability to provide reliable and complete information. The satellite technologies currently used by the EWS are relatively new and therefore not well understood and appreciated by ground technical staff. Equally true is that the involvement of different players employing different methodologies to gather the same data creates problems for the harmonisation of data to produce integrated and accurate information and knowledge products for use in decision-making. Most EWS do not provide the required information rapidly and on time to enable endusers to make quick decisions to ameliorate prospective risks and exploit emerging opportunities. This is largely due to their use of courier and normal mails rather than electronic mail for the dissemination of the information they generate.There is an urgent need to improve and strengthen the existing mechanisms for rapid and timely provision of reliable and relevant information for quick decision making. The relevant institutions in the region must therefore build capacity for use of electronic mail for information dissemination both for those that require the primary data to generate early information and those change agents that need to inform the communities to be affected.There is also an urgent need to enhance the value of the existing EWS by increasing the capacity for extended range climate forecasting and livestock impact forecasting. This can be achieved by the use of emerging inter-seasonal and inter-annual climate forecasting capabilities. There also exist well-established models of animal diseases and growth, range ecology (for example at ILRI) and crop growth, that could be linked to climate forecasts to establish climate-driven forecasts for fodder, animal disease epidemiology and animal growth.For decades now, development resources have been increasingly used up by relief operations necessitated by unsatisfactory anticipation and/or mitigation of drought. Enhancing the capacity of EWS to mitigate crises, but more importantly to cue opportunistic development interventions will break the cycle of dependence on external relief and the diversion of development or aid resources toward development. Increasing the capacity of EWS for longrange climatic forecasting will enhance the ability of the end-users of their forecast information to make timely decision to take advantage of emerging opportunities and or ameliorate prospective crises rather than depend largely on coping strategies.As satellite technology is new, there is a need to train (in-service) the ground technical staff to make them more effective in data collection, processing and interpretation. This will improve the accuracy and quality of the forecast information.EWS must ensure that the countries they serve, build the capacity for quick response to risks shocks as well as opportunities presented by the forecast information. The current lack of harmonisation and co-ordination of the activities of the EWS is counterproductive. Currently different EWS use different data sets to produce climatic predictions, thus tending to differ in the quality and accuracy of these predictors. In Kenya national EWS, for example, several institutions are involved in collecting the same data but using different methods thus putting in question the reliability of the results.There is a need to bring satellite technology to those countries that do not have their own receiving facilities by the RCSSMR supplying satellite data to those countries.The human and economic value of the forecast information must be estimated to rationalise the investment into EWS in the region. This will require regular end-user valuation of the information provided by the EWS and the level to which the use of the information has impacted food security.","tokenCount":"1773"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a7546c0bf3013d5fa6875c39db460890","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b67df436-d93a-4a90-8320-30eef41d87a5/retrieve","id":"-1681895692"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a3f85246-94ec-43d4-ab09-e882f2703623","pagecount":"8","content":"In September 2004, The EC assigned InfoDev to supervise a feasibility study, including recommendations for the design of a possible new ICT for development program in ACP countries. See: www.infodev.org 5 African Union communiqué: Africa-Europe Dialogue, third meeting of the Troikas,The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) brings together governments, United Nations agencies, industry leaders, civil society and non-governmental organizations, and media representatives in a single high-level policy making process. The ultimate aim of the WSIS is to develop a clear statement of political will and a plan of action to ensure that everyone can participate in the information society and benefit from the opportunities that ICTs can offer to create, access, utilize and share knowledge and information.The WSIS is the first Summit to take place in two sessionsthe first took place Geneva in December 2003, and the second will be held in Tunis from 16 to 18 November 2005. With less than a year to go before the Tunis Summit, preparations are well under way -also in ACP countries. This issue of ICT Update provides a snapshot of key WSIS events, issues and actors en route to Tunis.At the end of WSIS in Geneva two issues remained unresolved: Internet governance and financing. Of these, the question of financing is of particular relevance to ACP countries. At the Geneva Summit, President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal, speaking on behalf of all developing countries, presented a proposal for the creation of a 'Digital Solidarity Fund' to finance the development of ICT infrastructure in the South. Pablo Accuosto and Niki Johnson of the Third World Institute provide a brief overview of how the question of financing has been addressed at the WSIS since then. Djilali Benamrane, coordinator of the WSIS Civil Society Working Group on Financing Mechanisms, gives his opinion on the issue of funding for ICTs.In February 2005 African policy makers will gather in Accra, Ghana, for the second WSIS regional preparatory conference. Of course, the question of financing will be discussed but the central theme of this conference is Access: Africa's key to an inclusive Information Society. Taking up this theme, Willy Currie observes that access involves more than infrastructure, and calls for investments in relevant content and adequate capacity building. In the Q&A, former CTA director Rodney Cooke elaborates on this point, arguing that the WSIS agenda at large should focus less on technology and more on people. Aida Opoku-Mensah highlights other issues on the Accra agenda, stressing that the conference is important not just for ICT pundits and activists, but for all African development actors.While the continent of Africa may be expected to have some influence on the outcome of the WSIS, the other two smaller ACP regions are much less in a position to do so. Nevertheless, as Abel Caine illustrates, even a small island state such as Fiji can make a difference by actively participating in the WSIS process, and can benefit from the opportunities it offers to do business, negotiate assistance, and -no less important -to bring ICTs to the forefront of national policy priorities.At the end of WSIS Summit in Geneva, the question of how to finance efforts to bridge the digital divide remained unresolved. The proposal of President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal to create a 'Digital Solidarity Fund' (see page 3) was warmly received in the South, including in many ACP countries. Northern countries, including the European Union, were much less receptive to the idea. Recently, in a communication to the WSIS Bureau, the EU expressed its opinion that 'it is yet to be convinced as to the need for the creation of a separate Digital Solidarity Fund'. Instead, the EU leans to the view that 'ICTs should be regarded as tools for development and not as an end in themselves', and welcomes that 'donor funding for ICTs in development is increasingly provided through their integration and incorporation … into country-owned development strategies'. 1 Yet, the EU is prepared to earmark some development funding for ICTs. This became apparent at the WSIS Summit in Geneva, when on 10 December 2003, the EU and the ACP countries signed a Joint Position on the Information Society for Development. In this document, the signatories declared their intention to intensify collaboration to develop information society strategies in ACP countries. They also called for regulatory environments to include provisions on universal access at affordable costs. Most importantly, the signatories expressed their support for an 'ACP Programme on ICTs' to be submitted 'to the appropriate EU decisionmaking bodies', stressing the importance that 'the programme addresses key themes as they emerge from the WSIS …'. 2 On 13 July 2004, the European Commission announced that it had 'recently approved an \"ACP ICT Programme\" as a first step towards implementing the [Joint Position] signed between the EU and the ACP countries at the Geneva Summit'. 3 At the time of writing, a feasibility study for this programme is being reviewed. 4 Meanwhile, in Africa, where the issue of funding will feature prominently on the agenda of the regional WSIS Conference in Accra in February 2005 (see page 5), support for the Digital Solidarity Fund appears to be growing. On 3 July 2004, the Executive Council of the African Union (AU) called upon member states 'to support the Digital Solidarity Fund and its effective implementation'. More recently, at the third EU-AU ministerial meeting in Addis Ababa, 2-3 December 2004, African ministers requested their European colleagues to provide support for the Fund. Whereas the EU delegation 'took note of the request', 5 the issue of funding for the information society remains as yet undecided.At the end of the WSIS in Geneva two issues remained unresolved: Internet governance and financing of ICTs for development (ICT4D). Of these, the issue of financing is particularly relevant to developing countries. At the second meeting of the WSIS Preparatory Committee (PrepCom2), held in Geneva in February 2003, President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal spoke on behalf of countries in the South. To bridge the digital divide, he argued, there was a need for a transfer of resources from the North for the development of ICTs in the South. This transfer should be based on the notion of 'digital solidarity'.At PrepCom3, in September 2003, the Senegalese delegation once again raised the issue, and proposed the creation of a Digital Solidarity Foundation. The Foundation's mission would be to manage a Digital Solidarity Fund (DSF) that would be fed by voluntary donations from countries in the North. The final version of the proposal, presented at the Geneva Summit in December 2003, suggested that these voluntary donations be raised on sales of personal computers, software and network equipment (a dollar in each case) and on the use of international communications. The fund would also receive contributions from the private sector, governments and other voluntary donors. The resources of the DSF would be used for: (1) the development of infrastructure; (2) the development of applications and services for public administrations and communities (health, education, etc.), in particular for marginalized groups; (3) the development of new markets and creation of stable jobs; and (4) human resources capacity building.Senegal's proposal was backed by the majority of countries in the South, including African countries, but the governments of most developed nations strongly opposed it. The US and the EU argued that financing should be sought through existing mechanisms, not by creating new ones. As exemplified by President Bush's Digital Freedom Initiative (DFI), many developed countries preferred market-based financing of ICT4D -i.e. through the promotion of private sector investment.The position adopted by the governments of the developed nations was backed by the private sector, represented at the Summit through the Coordinating Committee of Business Interlocutors (CCBI). For their part, participating civil society organizations (CSOs) declared that 'existing and new financing measures should be envisaged and appraised', including the DSF, provided that it 'clearly states its goals [and] is transparently managed'.The final text of the WSIS Declaration of Principles does not establish the Fund as proposed by Senegal. Instead, the issue of how to finance the development of ICTs in the South was effectively transferred to the second phase of WSIS.Shortly before the Summit closed, however, the cities of Geneva and Lyon and the government of Senegal announced contributions totalling about €1 million, representing the first three It is instructive to examine the indices of digital access provided by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and to compare them with those of the UNDP's Human Development Index (HDI). It is apparent that the quality of access to ICTs is directly related to average education and income levels and, more generally, to the development of countries. Indeed, the 'digital divide' is just one expression of the North-South divide, which continues to persist despite the many efforts of the international community to diminish it. Efforts to bridge the digital divide cannot stand alone. The proposed Digital Solidarity Fund, however laudable its aims may be, will not suffice as it depends on voluntary contributions. Instead, it would be preferable to include funding for ICTs in existing financing for development mechanisms, provided that these are thoroughly re-examined and reformed to make them more transparent and accountable, and better able to address the reality of increasing inequalities on a global scale.Djilali B Benamrane (email: dbenamrane@yahoo.com) was senior economist with the UNDP in Niger. He is currently a researcher for the Paris-based association Biens Publics à l'Echelle Mondiale (BPEM) and coordinator of the WSIS Civil Society Working Group on Financing Mechanisms. For more information, visit www.wsis-finance.org.Access to ICTs is a key theme in the WSIS Declaration of Principles and Plan of Action adopted in Geneva in 2003. The overall target is to 'ensure that more than half the world's inhabitants have access to ICTs within their reach' by 2015. 1 From this ambitious goal, three processes have emerged in the second phase of WSIS, which will culminate in the Summit in Tunis in November 2005. These three processes are geared to answering the following questions:* * What financial mechanisms exist for providing universal ICT access to global information networks, and should new ones be created? The third process centres on the question of where the financial resources will come from to achieve the 2015 target.All of these issues have an impact on rural development and agriculture in developing countries. In the event that the developed countries agree to phase out their domestic farm subsidies in the WTO Doha round of trade negotiations, agricultural producers in developing countries will be able to gain more equitable access to global markets on a basis. However, these markets run on global information networks, and developing country producers will remain at a disadvantage if they are not connected.Therefore, the challenge is not simply to increase rural access at a national level, but to connect rural agricultural producers to markets through global information networks. At the very least, this means building open networks in developing countries that anyone can utilize, and to follow this up by providing incentives for network operators to extend access to rural areas beyond national telecommunication infrastructures. This would be an enormous undertaking. Africa has the lowest levels of Internet penetration, despite the existence of the SAT 3 fibre optic cable along the west coast of the continent that provides connections to the Internet backbone infrastructure. In Africa there are just 111 users per 10,000 people, compared with 585 in Asia, 2444 in the Americas and 3333 in Europe. Similarly, Africa has only three Internet hosts per 10,000 inhabitants, in contrast with 37 in Asia, 955 in Oceania, 1440 in the Americas and 229 in Europe. 2 This limited penetration can be attributed to unreliable connections, and the high cost of using the telecommunication infrastructure. With an average cost of US$ 1500 for each new fixed telephone connection, increasing the penetration and reliability of networks would be enormously expensive, particularly in rural areas. A recent report from DFID has estimated that extending regional backbone infrastructure networks in Africa would cost $500-1000 million. 3 To this would have to be added the costs of upgrading national backbone networks and extending connectivity beyond those networks into rural areas. It has been estimated that doubling the current ICT infrastructure in Africa could cost $8-12 billion.Achieving the 2015 access target will involve more than physical connectivity. Many challenges need to be addressed, such as developing the capacity of agricultural producers to enable them to use ICTs effectively as part of their production, marketing and distribution activities. Others include the provision of relevant content in local languages and useful applications.Governments of developing countries tend to overemphasize technical solutions to the problems of ICT access. From their perspective, providing infrastructure and increasing access to ICTs may seem the most logical primary goals. Developing content and investing in human capacity may appear secondary, less important priorities, yet they are crucial to ensure that ICTs are effective in supporting development, and should be integral to all rural development and poverty reduction strategies.Policy makers involved in agriculture and rural development need to examine the issues (most notably financing) on the agenda of the WSIS PrepCom2 to be held in Geneva from 17-25 February 2005. They must consider whether the agenda adequately addresses the need to improve access to information networks in rural areas, and if it does not, engage with the WSIS to do something about it. Just two weeks before PrepCom2, African policy makers will have an opportunity to do just that, as they gather in Accra for the second WSIS regional conference from 2-4 February 2005. Rightly, the theme of the conference will be 'Access: Africa's key to an inclusive information society'.Willie C Currie (email: wcurrie@apc.org) is policy programme manager for the Association for Progressive Communications (APC; www.apc.org) and a member of the WSIS Task Force on Financial Mechanisms (TFFM). Africa's participation in the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) process began at the first regional preparatory conference in Bamako in May 2002. Hosted by the UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the government of Mali, the Bamako conference was attended by representatives of stakeholders from all African countries.For Africa, WSIS could not have come at a better time. Most countries have embarked on a series of long overdue changes in the telecommunication sector through deregulation and privatization. These changes are key to improving the generally poor telecommunication infrastructure and expanding access to all. The exponential growth in the use of mobile telephony and wireless technologies, as well as the explosion in broadcasting services, in particular community and commercial radio, demonstrate that even though the continent might not be a hub of technological development, it is certainly not being left behind! It therefore came as no surprise that representatives of 48 African countries attended the WSIS in Geneva, including 16 heads of state and prime ministers, 79 ministers and their deputies and 53 ambassadors, not to mention the many representatives of civil society organizations, the education sector and the media.As part of the preparations now under way for the Tunis phase of WSIS, the second Africa regional conference will be held in Accra, Ghana, from 2-4 February 2005. Since the Tunis phase will focus on the implementation of the WSIS Plan of Action adopted in Geneva, the African regional conference will review the actions taken by African countries to reduce the digital divide and to adopt a regional action plan based on the African Information Society Initiative (AISI), which is the only regional framework of its kind.The central theme of the Accra conference is 'Access: Africa's key to an inclusive information society'. The many issues to be discussed include infrastructure, ICT applications for socio-economic development, Internet governance, indicators, and financing mechanisms. Since Africa is a largely agrarian continent, it is expected that we will see many countries wanting to develop strategies in the area of ICTs for agriculture and rural development.Several key policy issues are on the agenda of the Accra conference. One issue is the need for a stocktaking of national e-strategies, which most African countries are now putting in place. Another issue is to assess the status of policy making at the regional level. Initiatives now under way include the development of a legal framework for e-commerce by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), an e-strategy by the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and an egovernment strategy by the East African Community (EAC) in cooperation with UNECA.There will also be pre-conference workshops that will bring together various stakeholders to discuss aspects of the information society, including a workshop on 'ICTs and poverty reduction', hosted by UNECA and the OECD. The aim of this workshop is to enable UNECA-assisted countries currently implementing their national estrategies to focus on rural development and poverty reduction and ways to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.If I had to pick just five outcomes that I would most like to see emerge from the Accra conference, these would be: 1. that ICT investments become a permanent feature of African national budgets, and not just items of expenditure from donors; 2. that expansion of the information society becomes part of all rural development efforts, with a greater commitment to extending the ICT infrastructure into rural areas than is currently the case; 3. that specific sets of regulations are put in place to enable telecom and mobile operators to build adequate networks that will reach rural areas; 4. that certain aspects of the information society of particular importance to Africa are addressed, such as content in local languages; and 5. that 'm-commerce' is taken seriouslythe growth in the use of mobile telephony is a perhaps uniquely African development and offers many ordinary people access trade and commerce opportunities. More generally, I hope that as many development actors as possible come to Accra to enrich and strengthen the ICT4D discussions from a real development perspective. The conference is relevant not just for ICT pundits and activists. There will be no point in discussing ICTs and agriculture or rural development, for instance, unless extension workers and the entire agricultural community participate in the discussions, and even lead the debate. At this stage in the development of an information society in Africa, we need to consider how ICTs can be embedded into development. The challenge is to ensure that the wider development community gets on board the WSIS bandwagon to make sure it delivers the goods! Aida O Opoku-M Mensah (email: aopokumensah@uneca.org) is ICT Team Leader, Development Information Services Division, UNECA, and coordinator of the African Information Society Initiative (AISI). For more information, visit www.uneca.org feature WSIS round two, phase two -African perspectives Aida Opoku-Mensah believes that the upcoming WSIS regional conference in Accra, Ghana, is important not just for ICT pundits and activists, but for all African development actors.As a member of the Fijian delegation, I was just one of the 11,000 participants from 175 countries, including 44 heads of state, at the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva in December 2003. We had gathered to develop a better understanding of the information revolution and its impact on the international community, but I was also able to discuss the best routes to Fiji and possible trade deals.During one of the sessions I found myself sitting next to the President of Finland, Ms Tarja Halonen, and she asked where I was from. 'Ahh, Fiji … paradise', she replied when I told her. Ms Halonen then turned to the man sitting next to her and asked, 'Jorma, does Nokia have an office in Fiji?' Jorma Ollila is the CEO of the Finnish company Nokia, the world's largest mobile phone supplier. As I sat there next to the president of a country and the head of Nokia, I thought about the ultimate goal of the Summit -to bring the benefits of ICTs to all nations -and began to imagine what it could mean for Fiji.Fiji's involvement in the WSIS all started from an email I sent to a few colleagues in the Pacific in late 2002 about the 'wee-sis' summit, and asking what we should do about it. Within days we had a busy email list (WSIS Pacific) up and running, and by January 2003 about 20 representatives of 10 Pacific Island countries were heading for the WSIS Asia regional conference in Tokyo. We had worked long and hard on the wording of the 'SIDS' paragraph that was to be included in the Tokyo Declaration. It was therefore tragic to see our beautifully crafted paragraph reduced to just a brief reference to 'small island developing states' in the final declaration.By doing the diplomatic rounds and attending meetings, I have become much wiser in the ways of 'horsetrading' and national interest politics. Fiji may have missed out with the SIDS paragraph in Tokyo, but it scored big with the 'youth' paragraph of the WSIS Geneva Declaration of Principles. Two full sentences were taken directly, with full consensus, from the Fiji submission: '… We recognize that young people are the future workforce and leading creators and earliest adopters of ICTs. They must therefore be empowered as learners, developers, contributors, entrepreneurs and decision-makers'.I always feel proud when I see my own words being used in documents or on posters at international youth events. As I was a borderline youth (just 32!) at the time of the Geneva summit, I can now use the 'youth' paragraph as an example to show young Fijians that they too can make a difference.With the second phase of WSIS now under way, there are still some thorny issues to be settled, such Internet governance and financing for ICTs for development. Fiji will again participate in the discussions to ensure that our unique needs are acknowledged and, perhaps, reflected in the final declaration. We are aware that such a small country is unlikely to have much influence, but it is heartening to know that it is possible to contribute to the process.One lesson I learned from attending WSIS was that the side meetings are sometimes more important than the formal sessions. In the corridors of the conference centre and at the numerous meetings, I was able to meet an incredible range of people, and to negotiate financial and technical assistance for Fiji.No less important, Fiji's involvement in the WSIS process has brought ICTs to the top of the national political agenda. As a result of the constant reporting to senior ministry officials, as well as briefings to cabinet ministers, ICTs are now critical elements in government planning. All ministries are required to produce IT plans to complement corporate strategy plans. What's more, all ICT expenditures are now routed through one agency and linked to a centralized system that is aligned with regional and global obligations (such as WSIS). The Ministry of Finance has allocated US$6 million for ICTs for development in 2005 and, through contacts made at WSIS, Fiji has almost concluded negotiations with China for a concessional loan of US$20 million for e-government projects.I am about to leave my government post, so I won't be representing the Fiji government in Tunis. One day, however, I hope that I will once again be sitting next to the President of Finland, so that I can invite her to Fiji to see how we used the WSIS process to become one of the world's leading ICT countries. I guess that this reflects two tendencies. The first is the preoccupation of the majority of the WSIS participants with technology and access, rather than with information content for development. Much of the WSIS Plan of Action was aimed at economic impact and development, positing ICTs as possible tools for political and socio-economic empowerment. However, many of the subsequent agendas have reverted to being technology driven, as if ICTs are themselves a solution.Second, when people talk of development they tend to forget that three-quarters of the world's poor live in rural areas and depend directly or indirectly on agriculture. For this reason, until recently much of the development literature gave low priority to agriculture and, indeed, donor financing of rural development has been in relative decline.Why is it important for agriculture to feature more prominently on the WSIS agenda?The WSIS, like all recent world summits, paid heed to the Millennium Development Goals. The first of these goals is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. Today 1.1 billion people live on less than US$1 per day (the internationally recognized poverty threshold). Of these, 325 million live in sub-Saharan Africa, and most of them in rural areas. There are now many reports describing the impact of increasing agricultural productivity on poverty reduction. One of the most recent I have seen, from IFPRI, is that in Africa a 10% increase in the level of agricultural productivity is associated with a 7.2% reduction in poverty.In Geneva I gave a presentation at IFAD's side event, 'Six years of bridging the rural digital divide'. Much of that presentation, and the subsequent panel discussion, highlighted the need to move the WSIS focus away from technology and access, towards ICTs as tools for development. That is to say, it needs to address how bridging the digital divide can strengthen efforts to foster the political and socio-economic empowerment of rural communities.In my presentation I focused on experiences with three regional networks that share learning and experiences in rural development among IFAD projects and partners. I also described our Rural Poverty Knowledgebase (www.ifad.org/rural/), which covers thematic areas including rural finance, household food security, gender and targeting, community-based natural resource management (specifically livestock and rangeland management) and sustainable livelihoods approaches.IFAD's focus on strengthening feature Q&A: ICTs as tools for rural developmentAccording to Rodney Cooke it is necessary to move the WSIS focus away from technology and access, towards ICTs as tools for rural development.capacity and empowering the rural poor underlines the importance of appropriate technology and the need to focus on people and partners -people must be the principal agents of change.As former director of CTA, what do you think CTA can do to continue to assist ACP countries to influence the WSIS process?The IFAD side event at WSIS was fortunate in that we were able to secure the participation of the current Director of CTA, Carl Greenidge. The IFAD website features a summary of that event, which captures many of the suggestions about bringing pressure to bear on the WSIS process to focus on ICTs as tools for development rather than the current heavy emphasis on technology, access and the digital divide. In view of its role in strengthening ACP organizations concerned with rural development, CTA is well placed to influence the WSIS process. I anticipate that CTA will continue to view ICTs from the perspectives of the users in ACP countries and will assist rural poor people to lead their own development processes. Similarly, the CTA should continue to join the WSIS push for improved ICTs for development projects, and to encourage EU donors to work with local partners to create an enabling policy environment that will bring about more rapid rural development. ","tokenCount":"4495"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd8aa4295253b846265940cbebce28d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1dd02c1d-463c-448b-b5df-611b673c249b/retrieve","id":"1850407665"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dcdd0ec8-854a-465c-8858-9818b32d64a3","pagecount":"16","content":"Introduction Limitations to fodder bank development Herbage production Establishment Productivity Regeneration Integrated crop and livestock production with fodder banks Future component research ReferenceThe herbaceous cover of Nigeria's subhumid zone consists mainly of annual grasses with a very low percentage of native legumes (Paper 4). Seasonal changes in herbage quality are caused primarily by changes in plant development rather than by climatic conditions per se. The C 4 photosynthetic pathways in grasses allow a rapid accumulation of structural component, with the resultant dilution of nutrients, such as N and P in the tissue. Unlike grasses, legumes exhibit a less efficient C 3 photosynthetic pathway and are independent of soil N. which is secured through biological fixation in the root nodules. As a result, legumes are usually higher in protein and minerals. They have higher DM digestibility and voluntary intake by animals than associated grasses at similar stages of growth. Growing forage legumes is therefore one way of overcoming the protein deficiency of grasses. This is the objective of fodder banks, in which forage legumes are established and managed in concentrated units that can provide dry-season supplementation for ruminant livestock. The techniques for establishing and maintaining fodder banks have been adapted to the socio-economic environment and technical capability of the settled pastoralist.The factors involved in fodder bank production in the subhumid zone of Nigeria have been identified and are shown in Figure 1. The principal factors that together influence the productivity of fodder banks are: land, labour, capital, soil, climate, seed (variety and quality), fire and ants. These and other factors are discussed below. Understanding how these factors operate under the varying conditions of different parts of the subhumid zone will help identify the problems and prospects of fodder bank development.The poor soil structure and fertility typical of the subhumid zone, and the need for fallowing, have been discussed in Paper 4. These conditions provide a point of entry for fodder banks to improve soils for cropping.The availability of land for fodder banks depends on where a pastoralist chooses to settle; the most common choice is in the vicinity of crop farmers (Paper 4). Fallow land is attractive because it has less tree and shrub cover and requires less clearing, but there may be difficulties in obtaining it because of rising demand for cropland. Wherever there are arable farming communities in the subhumid zone they control land ownership and use. These communities will therefore play a significant, even if indirect, role in providing land for fodder banks to those pastoralists settled in their neighbourhood and must eventually benefit from fodder banks or else the intervention will have limited applicability.Pastoralists settled on grazing reserves or in less heavily populated areas may have easier access to land, but the generally poorer soil and higher ligneous cover of these sites may require a different approach to fodder bank establishment and management.Pastoralists' decisions on how much labour and capital (cash and livestock) to allocate to fodder banks will determine the area of land that can be used, the method of land preparation and other inputs affecting the productivity and continued existence of the banks. Many of the beneficiaries' responses cannot be predicted and are only observable once the pastoralists control their own fodder banks.The climate of the subhumid zone has also been described in Paper 4. Forage legumes could help minimize moisture runoff and soil erosion and improve infiltration and water retention.Seed (varieties and quality) Pasture seed production is in its infancy in Nigeria. The few commercial producers do not adhere to proper quality standards, and there are no appropriate production, curative and storage facilities. Stylosanthes cultivars -Verano, Cook and Schofield are the only varieties with seed available in commercial quantities, and they are marketed at prohibitive cost: the price of a kilogramme of stylo seed ranges between 10.00 and 14.00 Naira (US$ 13 to 18). Table 1 shows the quality of a typical sample of commercial seed. Low seed quality increases the seed requirements, and hence the cost of establishing a unit area of fodder bank. Fodder banks can only be useful for feed supplementation if forage is available throughout the dry season. Their regeneration depends on the amount of stubble (in the case of a perennial such as S. guianensis cv Cook) and of seeds in the soil. The annual burning of both crop-and rangeland by farmers and pastoralists is a serious problem for fodder bank management, since it not only destroys the herbage but may also affect legume regeneration.Legume establishment in both the first and subsequent years is largely determined by the number of seeds germinating per unit area. About 1 kg/ha of seed out of 8 kg sown was recovered near ant holes when a broadcast of Stylosanthes guianensis cv Cook was followed by 2 weeks of drought. Although collection by harvester-ants has been found useful in concentrating good-quality seed so that it can be easily gathered, it can lead to a very serious loss of viable seed needed for establishment and regeneration.Since grasses deteriorate rapidly in quality during the dry season, the quality of a fodder bank is a function of the proportion of legumes in the sward. Management practices on the fodder bank should aim at optimizing legume growth with respect to grass growth. To achieve this objective in the subhumid zone of Nigeria, the following factors must be considered.A fodder bank should be situated near the dwelling of a settled pastoralist. The pastoralist must keep a close watch on the fodder bank to prevent its misuse by animals during the growing season, and to control animal grazing time and confinement during seedbed preparation.The area of land required for a fodder bank depends on the number of animals that need to be fed. In ILCA's case study areas an average herd consists of about 50 animals, with 15 to 20 pregnant or lactating cows (Paper 6) that are likely to respond most profitably to supplementary feeding. Given the productive potential of a well managed fodder bank, 4 ha should be a reasonable size. Since a single piece of land suitable for a fodder back may not be available in one block, particularly in areas of intensive cropping, more fodder banks may be required but this increases the cost of fencing per unit area and raises other management problems.Land preparation, from the time of site selection until sowing, must provide optimum conditions for germination, emergence and establishment.Despite its high cost, fencing is indispensable. Pastoralists do not yet regard forage crops as private property in the way that they do food crops. Attempts to oversow or strip-sow stylo in natural pastures failed because of inadequate establishment under communal grazing. Fencing is thus obligatory, although the kind used (bush poles and barbed wire, or metal fences) remains at the discretion of the pastoralist.Burning, grazing and trampling are cheap methods of reducing herbaceous cover. However, the timing of these operations is critical, and the choice of any one or a combination of them is site-specific, depending on vegetation, topography, etc. For instance, burning steep slopes leads to excessive soil erosion and wash-off of seeds.Two methods of seedbed preparation, namely mechanical ploughing and dry-season confinement of animals on the site, were tested by ILCA. Both methods produced a satisfactory legume cover, but mechanical ploughing was considered irrelevant because of its high cost and the difficulty of securing such services in remote areas. It could upset the delicate patterns of land use, since the extent of cultivation is currently determined by labour availability (Paper 4). Dry-season confinement of animals was also unacceptable to pastoralists because of the need to deposit manure on crop fields. Even early in the dry season, confining animals to control grasses and weeds was unacceptable because of the fear of worm infection from recently manured areas.However, confining animals during the wet season prayed to be effective, and the time required for trampling was short. Between 600 and 800 m 2 of land could be satisfactorily prepared in 1 night. At this rate it would take 2 months to prepare 4 ha, so a combination of techniques any or assistance from other herds may be necessary to prepare the seedbed in time. However, it has proven possible to establish a satisfactory fodder bank of S. guianensis cv Cook in an area having ferruginous soil by selectively cutting the shrubs, trampling the soil, and sowing the small, freshly trampled areas almost daily quite late into the wet season. The seed set in the first year should increase the cover in the second year.Using land clearing machines to remove trees may not be wise. Land graded for fodder bank development in Kachia Grazing Reserve had the lower hard pan exposed, leading to erosion and extremely poor establishment of the legume. Machine clearing also led to impeded water infiltration and aeration. Such areas may have to be renovated using chisel or shatter ploughs to break the hard pans.Seeding rate depends on seed quality, and because the latter is generally poor 8 to 10 kg/ha was found necessary for satisfactory establishment. Commercially available seed has only 60% purity and 50% viability, whereas effective establishment requires at least 30 to 40 plants per m 2 . The presence of other legume species in the seed may not be a disadvantage, but that of weeds is.Stylo seeds have two dormancy mechanisms: embryo dormancy and seed coat impermeability (hardness of seed). These mechanisms gradually decrease when seeds are on the ground or are treated artificially by heat treatment or scarification. Such treatment allows a high germination per unit area within a short period early in the growing season. The pastoralists found scarification by brief immersion in boiling water easier than other methods. The length of time seed is in contact with boiling water is critical. Softening of seeds is achieved by taking 2 or 3 kg of seeds at a time in a cloth bag and immersing for 1 minute in boiling water. However, for testing germination with only small handfuls of seed, 20 to 30 seconds of hot water treatment will be adequate.Scarified seeds need to be sown immediately because in storage they lose their viability. They germinate uniformly, leaving little reserve if the first flush of seedlings does not survive. At least one third of the seed should, therefore, be unscarified as an insurance against false starts. S. guianensis cv Cook and S. hamata cv Verano do not require seed inoculation because these two species nodulate freely with cowpea rhizobium, which is ubiquitous in Nigerian soils.Stylo seeds can germinate under a wide range of soil surface conditions, but cultivated, trampled, grazed or burnt surfaces tend to have different temperatures and water potentials, which affect seed germination and seedling survival.A cultivated surface, where the soil is loosened by ploughing, harrowing, etc. allows seeds to be covered with soil. Water imbibition by seed can therefore take place from all sides. Under these conditions, radicle emergence and root anchorage are easy. However, when seeds are broadcast on an uncultivated surface, water imbibition will take place only through the area of the seed in contact with the soil. Moreover, most of the water absorbed will be lost by evaporation through the part that is not in contact with the soil. This loss occurs especially in seed sown on burnt areas, or areas where weeds are trodden dawn by corralled animals or bared by intensive grazing. Maintaining low water tension and high humidity in the micro-environment is thus important when seeds are sown on uncultivated land. The consequence of high water tension and low humidity in dry spells varies according to the stage of germination. Seeds dehydrated before metabolic change begins may be reactivated when rehydrated. But dehydration after the initiation of the radicle may cause irreversible damage to the seed and hamper the emergence of seedlings.The time taken to complete germination varies from species to species, depending on the nature of their seed coats. The length of time the soil is moist appears to be critical for both germination and establishment. In an experiment testing the effect of the frequency of wetting to the field capacity of a ferruginous soil on germination of S. hamata cv Verano, it was found that a break of 2 days in the watering regime was sufficient to reduce seed germination by 52% (Figure 2).Once the radicle emerges, further survival depends on how successfully it is anchored in the soil. Survival is strongly determined by the type of land preparation. An experiment to determine the effect of different land preparation and sowing techniques on the establishment of S. guianensis cv Cook in fodder banks revealed that broadcasting seeds in mid-June, after the rains had properly set in, followed by 2 weeks of intensive grazing of the grass cover, gave a high seedling density at 6 weeks (Table 2). Dry spells following sowing encourage harvester-ants to work. A substantial amount of seeds were seen around ant-hills on pastoralists' fodder banks 1 week after broadcasting.  The whole experimental area had been burnt during the previous dry season, so that its grass cover at the beginning of the growing season was all regrowth. Seeds mixed with a slurry of dung or insecticide generally gave improved establishment, compared to broadcasting seeds accompanied with sand.The appearance of the first trifoliate leaf marks the independence of seedlings from seed nutrients. It occurs about 12 days after sowing in S. guianensis cv Cook and S. hamata cv Verano. Seedlings with fast-growing root systems have a better chance of surviving the moisture stresses common in the subhumid zone at the beginning of the rainy season. However, even after that there are more hazards which will determine the quantity of the fodder finally available.For instance, seeds of S. guianensis cv Cook with a viability of 80% and sown after scarification at the rate of 10 kg/ha (1 kg = 250 000 seeds) could potentially result in a population density of 200 plants/m 2 . In practice, competition for space, moisture, light and nutrients, and the relative abilities of the various species in the microniche to utilize these are what determine legume survival, and the ultimate plant density is almost always lower than the potential number of 200. A legume such as S. hamata, which has faster root elongation, is more competitive than S. guianensis cv Cook.Tropical grasses are generally endowed with a C 4 photosynthetic mechanism, making them physiologically and biochemically more efficient in high light intensities. When moisture is unlimited these grass species grow fast, rapidly occupying the available space and shading the legume growing underneath. Grasses at the early stages of growth are high in nutritive value and are selectively grazed by cattle either by choice or because they are so predominant. In tropical Australia, this selectivity facilitates legume growth in grass-legume mixtures when the mixed pasture is grazed early in the season. However, grazing behaviour studies on experimental fodder banks at the Kachia Grazing Reserve revealed that animals did not differentiate legumes from grass until 4 weeks after the start of the rainy season. This it suggests that the period for using grazing to control grass is quite critical. This practice is discussed in Paper 7.The soils of the subhumid zone are generally low in organic matter, phosphorus and nitrogen. Legumes have higher P requirements than grasses. Under increasing levels of P, Stylosanthes spp. had better nodulation, increased N uptake and higher DM productivity (Figures 3 and 4). Soils in the subhumid zone may also be deficient in micro-nutrients, as evidenced by the performance of S. hamata cv Verano in an experiment that systematically omitted a particular element from the nutrients supplied to a plot. Elimination of Cu and S produced only 35% and 59% respectively of the potential DM, although the stylo was supplied with all other necessary nutrients (Figures 5 and 6).In the subhumid zone of Nigeria, a dressing of 150 to 200 kg of single superphosphate should generally be provided at the time of sowing stylo. Depending on soil conditions, this rate may have to be varied and other nutrients added as more fodder banks extend to other parts within the zone.    At the end of a normal growing season the two stylo cultivars used on fodder banks at the Kachia Grazing Reserve had an average of 12% CP. It was assumed that a daily ration of 2.5 kg of stylo DM would provide a protein supplement equivalent to 1 kg of cottonseed cake with 30% CP. A supplemented period of 6 months would therefore require 9000 kg of stylo for 20 animals. With utilization assumed at 50% of the available herbage, a fodder bank capable of producing about 20 000 kg of stylo DM would be required. Given an anticipated yield of 5000 kg of DM per ha, a fodder bank of 4 ha should suffice. In practice fodder bank size depends on land availability, size of herd, producer commitment and other factors. Even the recommended size of 4 ha may be changed as more information becomes available on botanical composition, seasonal changes in legume quality, grazing behaviour, and producer preferences with regard to the numbers and classes of stock to be grazed. The number of fodder banks at different stages of evaluation in 1983 in the various phases of systems research are shown in Figure 7. The first-year productivity of researcher-managed trials is given in Table 3.  The CP of the stylo in the fodder bank declined markedly during the dry season. Higher amounts of stylo will clearly be required to derive the same amount of protein supplementation as the season progresses, even if the animal rate of intake is assumed to remain unchanged.Productivity and composition of stylo in the herbage were found to vary among fodder banks in the same soil top sequence, even in the first year. Herbage yield per unit area also varied within the same fodder banks as a function of the time of sowing stylo (Table 4). Such differences in herbage productivity with fodder banks may be more pronounced in years of unusual distribution of rainfall, such as 1983. a/ Before each sowing the entire herd of cattle was confined in the area for 1 to 3 nights.DM yields are normally measured by cutting, drying and weighing samples. Doing this for several 4-ha fodder banks, with their inter-and intra-variability, is very cumbersome. If measurements are to be taken repeatedly, a much faster and non-destructive technique is needed. The DM ranking method described by Haydock and Shaw (1975) was very useful in determining the yield and botanical composition of fodder banks. In this method a set of five fixed quadrats is first chosen to represent a yield scale, followed by rating on this scale. Other quadrats are laid out in a grid to cover the entire fodder bank. Laying quadrats on a grid helps monitor the productivity and condition of a fodder bank in successive years. The method is based on the belief that it is easier to estimate the yield of a sample that is at some point on a visual scale, than it is to estimate the actual weight. The estimates of six people involved in yield measurements using DM rating, correlated against the actual weights, are given in Table 5. Estimates of botanical composition can also be made, giving the species likely to take first, second and third places in the DM within a quadrat; these estimates are multiplied by weighing factors to produce dry weight percentages. In order to be financially viable, fodder banks will have to remain productive for 5 years or more, and should be managed so that they will regenerate themselves.In the case of perennial legumes, such as S. guianensis cv Cook regeneration can stem either from living shoots left after dry-season grazing or else from seed. Theoretically, S. guianensis cv Cook, repeatedly grazed to a height of about 10 to 15 cm, should regenerate for many years, but experience at the experimental fodder bank at Kurmin Biri has been somewhat different. Only about 0.7% of the established stylo went into the third year, while only 28.2% regenerated in the second. This loss occurred because termites attacked the old stylo stems. When fodder banks were managed by pastoralists, there were difficulties in controlling the stocking rate. On almost all such fodder banks, shoots of S. guianensis cv Cook did not last more than one season due to overgrazing. Furthermore, the accidental burning of fodder banks in bush fires kills all living stylo shoots from the previous season. Hence, the size of the seed reserve in the soil, even for this perennial legume, is very important.The seed reserve depends on many factors. Under subhumid conditions, S. guianensis cv Cook flowers in October/November and seed set takes place in January. Since the dry season normally begins in October/November, grazing an S. guianensis cv Cook fodder bank very early in the dry season reduces the seed returned to the soil.S. hamata cv Verano flowers earlier, in July/ August and seed set generally takes place before the dry season begins. The quantity of seed set at the end of the growing season is very high (Table 6). In the subhumid zone S. hamata behaves like an annual and regenerates almost entirely from seed. Burning of fodder banks changes the pattern of germination, probably because more seeds are softened. Higher germination has been recorded on burnt areas at the beginning of the rainy season (Table 7). This might be a disadvantage, especially in a year of erratic rainfall. However, regeneration, in particular of S. hamata cv Verano, was unaffected after the fodder bank had been burnt in the previous dry season. Estimates of the seed reserve in the soil at the beginning and end of the dry season suggest a large discrepancy. Roughly 22% of the seed might have been gathered by harvester-ants from the area during that time. Grazing behaviour studies on heavily stocked fodder banks have recorded animals licking the ground, probably to pick up seeds. Seed losses of this kind could result in poor regeneration in subsequent years.When allowed to grow for 2 or more years, a forage legume such as Stylosanthes increases soil N content. The amount of N returned to the soil by the legume depends on the same factors, varying from species to species, that favour legume growth (Table 8). Legumes also improve the physical properties of soil (Table 9) and hence resistance to erosion. With the increase in soil N, nitrophilous grasses tend to assert themselves. In one 4-year-old Verano fodder bank, although the proportion of legume in the total bulk declined the number and weight of stylo per unit area increased eased.Table 9. Influence of vegetation on some soil physical properties (preliminary results). The possibility of soil improvement through the use of forage legumes adds another dimension to the fodder back concept in the subhumid zone. Crops such as maize, grown after 2 to 3 years of stylo, have indicated highly significant yield increases (Paper 17). Cereal cropping within a fodder bank in short rotations may prove a viable way of integrating crop and livestock production systems.The initial success of the researcher-managed trials suggests that fodder banks could play an important role in improving livestock productivity. However, numerous problems were encountered when fodder banks were developed without the close supervision of the researcher. Pastoralists failed to understand and/or carry cut recommended procedures at any point from the preparation of the land onwards. More research is needed to simplify, explain and increase the repeatability of the various technical aspects of fodder bank production. One of the main concerns is the need to look for ether legume species that are more suited for establishment based on surface sowing and sad sowing.","tokenCount":"3945"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d17a9babb8d8bb81078fc66c13b4338a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7239373-169e-48df-9c23-eec473b027d0/retrieve","id":"-258096451"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7e4fe55-b992-4c92-bf13-8fda1d47d771","pagecount":"48","content":"Esta publicación ha sido preparada en el marco del proyecto CIP -Fundación McKnight \"Fortalecimiento de los sistemas de semillas de papa nativa en Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú\" y ha sido publicada con el financiamiento del proyecto FAO \"Mejoramiento de la disponibilidad, acceso y uso de semillas de calidad en sistemas de agricultura familiar campesina de la zona altoandina del Perú\" GCP/RLA/183/SPA. Las publicaciones del CIP contribuyen al desarrollo de información importante para el dominio público. Los lectores están autorizados a citar o reproducir este material en sus propias publicaciones. Se solicita respetar los derechos de autor del CIP y enviar una copia de la publicación donde se realizó la cita o publicó el material al departamento de Comunicaciones a la dirección que se indica:La agricultura familiar campesina de la zona andina cumple un rol estratégico en materia de producción de alimentos, especialmente de aquellos cultivos que forman parte de la base alimenticia como es el caso de la papa la cual es considerada el cuarto alimento de mayor consumo en el mundo.Sin embargo, la disponibilidad de este alimento se ve comprometida cuando las plagas y enfermedades que afectan este cultivo causan pérdidas en los rendimientos y en la calidad de los productos antes y después de la cosecha.Por lo que una oportuna gestión de las mismas es vital para una producción más eficiente.En este sentido, la aplicación de un programa de manejo integrado de plagas Un valor a resaltar de este documento es su redacción en lenguaje sencillo y abundantes imágenes, que serán de mucha utilidad en las Escuelas de Campo de Agricultores (ECAs). Estas características responden a la necesidad de poner a disposición de capacitadores la información técnica para mejorar la competitividad de la agricultura familiar campesina andina.Finalmente, la presente guía por su contenido, estructura y diseño abre la posibilidad de generar material complementario de capacitación, como fichas técnicas, afiches y material audiovisual entre otros. Por lo tanto, estamos seguros de la gran contribución y utilidad de la \"Guía de identificación de plagas que afectan a la papa en la zona andina\".Este enfoque es compartido y concordante con la estrategia de FAO \"Incremento Sostenible y Eficiente de la producción de cultivos con enfoque eco sistémico\", lo que ha permitido que con enorme satisfacción la FAO se sume a este esfuerzo, apoyando la publicación de esta guía para su difusión entre los países miembros y su utilización en las actividades de capacitación de diferentes proyectos que vienen impulsando en la Región. Epitrix spp.Brassica spp.Información detallada de las plagas que afectan los cultivos de papa. Para la lectura de los encargados de la capacitación a los agricultores.Foto(s) de la plaga que afectan el cultivo de papa. Para mostrarla a los agricultores mientras el capacitador lee el texto.A partir de la página 01 hasta la página 17Adelanto de época de siembra, eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad resistente, evitar exceso de fertilización nitrogenada, distanciamientos adecuados entre plantas y entre surcos, aporques altos, alternancia de fungicidas (sistémico -contacto), corte de follaje antes de la cosecha, cosecha oportuna, selección de tubérculos, almacenamiento adecuado.Hojas: Manchas necróticas de color marrón claro a oscuro.Tallos: Manchas alargadas que los hacen quebradizos.Tubérculos: Manchas irregulares de color marrón rojizo y de apariencia húmeda en la superficie de los tubérculos. Al corte longitudinal se observan estrías necróticas que van de la superficie al centro del tubérculo.Condiciones favorables para la plagaPresencia de pelusilla blanquecina en el envés de las hojas.Días templados (temperaturas entre 15 -21°C y alta humedad relativa (mayor de 90%), cultivo de variedad susceptible.RANCHA LANCHADesde la emergencia hasta después de floración.Principalmente por semilla infectada. Infecciones secundarias se producen a través de tejidos foliares infectados. Días calurosos, alternancia entre días lluviosos y secos, variedades precoces.Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad resistente (generalmente tardías), uso de fungicidas (contacto -sistémico), corte de follaje antes de la cosecha, elección de tubérculos y cosecha oportuna.Generalmente antes de floración hasta la madurez de la planta.Semilla infectada, rastrojos de plantas afectadas.Tumores en tallos, estolones y tubérculos.Ocasionalmente en hojas y flores.Campos infestados, suficiente humedad en el suelo y temperaturas entre 12 a 24°C, presencia de variedad susceptible.Elección de terreno donde no se ha reportado la enfermedad, eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior, rotación de cultivos, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedades resistentes, selección negativa, selección de tubérculos y reforestación de campos muy contaminados.Condiciones favorables para la plagaDesde emergencia hasta formación de tubérculos.Semilla infectada y suelo infestado.Agente causal: Spongospora subterranea Raíces y estolones: Agallas irregulares hasta de 1.5 cm de color oscuro.Tubérculos: Lesiones como pústulas que salen a la superficie y una vez maduras liberan un polvillo marrón oscuro.Campos infestados, suficiente humedad en el suelo y temperaturas entre 16 a 20°C, presencia de variedad susceptible.Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, rotación de cultivos, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad resistente, no usar guano de animales que hayan consumido tubérculos infectados, selección de tubérculos.Condiciones favorables para la plagaDesde emergencia hasta formación de tubérculos.Semilla infectada, suelo infestado, estiércol de animales que hayan comido tubérculos con esta enfermedad.Agente causal: Fusarium spp.Pudrición seca de tubérculos que luego se arrugan y finalmente se momifican.Campos infestados, heridas en los tubérculos, almacenamiento inadecuado (falta de ventilación).Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, rotación de cultivos, uso de semilla sana, evitar riegos pesados y anegamiento del campo, selección de tubérculos, desinfección de tubérculos con fungicidas y almacenamiento adecuado.Condiciones favorables para la plagaCerca a cosecha y en almacén.Semilla infectada, suelo infestado.Agallas en tubérculos y estolones. Al cortar las agallas se nota el tejido de aspecto granuloso y color negruzco.Campos infestados, semilla infectada, monocultivos de papa, presencia de variedad susceptible y hospedantes alternos como Chamico (Datura stramonium).Uso de semilla sana, uso de terrenos donde no se haya reportado la enfermedad, evitar el monocultivo de papa, rotaciones largas por más de 7 años, eliminar plantas alternas.Condiciones favorables para la plaga Manejo Desde la emergencia.Semilla infectada, suelo infestado.Agente causal: Ralstonia solanacearum Follaje: Marchitez que puede presentarse inicialmente en un solo tallo o en toda la planta cuando el ataque es fuerte.Tubérculos: Decoloración de la superficie del tubérculo. Cuando se cortan transversalmente los tubérculos y luego se presionan, aparecen gotitas blanquecinas (exudado bacteriano) por el anillo vascular. Este exudado también puede salir por los ojos del tubérculo o el extremo del estolón. Los tubérculossemilla infectados pueden no presentar síntomas pero si pueden ocasionar la enfermedad cuando las condiciones sean propicias (infección latente), por ello existe cuarentena contra el tránsito de tubérculos para semilla en algunas áreas agrícolas.Campos infestados, semilla infectada, climas cálidos, heridas ocasionadas durante las labores culturales.Elección de terreno donde no se ha reportado la enfermedad, eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, rotación de cultivos, uso de semilla sana, evitar riegos pesados y anegamiento del campo, desinfección de herramientas, selección de tubérculos sanos y almacenamiento adecuado.Condiciones favorables para la plagaDesde emergencia hasta formación de tubérculos.Semilla infectada, suelo infestado y agua de riego.Agente causal: Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum y P. atrosepticum Follaje (pierna negra): En la parte basal de los tallos se presenta una pudrición de color negro de consistencia suave.Las hojas se tornan amarillentas y las plantas detienen su crecimiento.Tubérculos (pudrición blanda): Pudrición con consistencia suave de color crema, cerca a la parte afectada es de color oscuro. Al inicio no tiene olor pero al final despide olor desagradable.Campos infestados, semilla infectada, riegos pesados o campos anegados, heridas en los tubérculos y almacenamiento inadecuado.Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, rotación de cultivos, uso de semilla sana, evitar riegos pesados y anegamiento del campo, desinfección de herramientas con lejía al 3%, selección de tubérculos y almacenamiento adecuado.Para pierna negra: desde emergencia hasta formación de tubérculos. Para pudrición blanda: formación de tubérculos, cosecha y almacenamiento.Semilla infectada, suelo infestado y agua de riego. En los tubérculos se observa disminución del tamaño, deformidad, rajaduras y necrosis.Semilla infectada, uso de misma semilla por varias campañas, presencia de variedad susceptible, hospedantes alternos y malezas, alta población de áfidos, cigarritas, mosca blanca, etc.Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, uso de semilla sana, selección positiva (selección de plantas sanas para obtener semillas, selección negativa (eliminación de plantas enfermas), uso de insecticidas para el control de insectos transmisores de virus, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad resistente, selección positiva, trampas amarillas o franjas móviles, selección de tubérculos y almacenamiento a luz difusa.Desde emergencia hasta completar desarrollo vegetativo e incluso por contacto entre tubérculos en el almacén.Semilla infectada, áfidos, cigarritas, contacto entre plantas.*Acrónimos de viruses: APLV (Virus latente de la papa andina), APMV (Moteado de la papa andina), PVY (Virus Y de la papa), PVX (Virus X de la papa), PLRV (Enrollamiento de la papa), PYVV (Amarillamiento de venas de la papa)VS*En las plantas se puede observar enanismo, amarillamiento, deformación de hojas y rigidez de la planta. En algunos casos las plantas no muestran síntomas.En los tubérculos se observa disminución del tamaño, deformidad, rajaduras y necrosis.Campos infestados, semilla infectada o suelo adherido a tubérculos, variedades susceptibles, presencia de malezas y plantas hospedantes alternas.Elección de terreno donde no se han reportado nematodos, eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, araduras profundas, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad resistente, uso de materia orgánica, rotación de cultivos, uso de nematicidas, uso de plantas trampas y cosecha oportuna.Desde emergencia hasta completar desarrollo vegetativo.Semilla infectada o suelo adherido a tubérculos, maquinaria agrícola, suelo agrícola y en los sacos o envases destinados al transporte de tubérculos.Raíces y raicillas: Estructuras redondas amarrillas o blancas (hembras del nematodo) en las raíces.Agente causal: Premnotrypes spp.Hojas: Daños en forma de media luna producido por adultos de gorgojo.Tubérculos: Larvas producen galerías profundas, al salir producen agujeros circulares característicos.Campos infestados y rara vez en semilla infestada.Eliminación de tubérculos infestados a la cosecha, eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, araduras profundas, uso de semilla sana, uso de variedad precoz, siembras tempranas, barreras de plástico y barreras vivas, zanjas en el contorno del terreno, rotación de cultivos, evitar monocultivo de papa, uso adecuado de insecticidas, uso de plantas trampas, uso de trampas de refugio, aporques altos, colección de gorgojos adultos, cosecha oportuna, uso de mantas en la cosecha, selección de tubérculos y control biológico.Desde la emergencia hasta la cosecha.Migración desde campos infestados y rara vez en semilla.Agente causal: Phtorimaea operculella, Symmestrichema tangolias y Tecia solanivora Hojas: Minado de hojas (solo P. operculella).Tallos: Larvas ingresan por axilas causando la caída de hojas, barrenan tallos.Tubérculos: Larvas hacen galerías irregulares.Eliminación de rastrojos del cultivo anterior y malezas, araduras profundas, uso de semilla sana, profundidad adecuada de sembrado (no superficial), aporques altos y oportunos, uso de insecticidas, uso de trampas con feromonas, cosecha oportuna y selección de tubérculos, uso de plantas repelentes, báculovirus y talco Bt (si existe en el mercado local) y almacenamiento a luz difusa.Desde la semilla, desarrollo vegetativo hasta cosecha inclusive almacén.A través de semilla infestada.Campos infestados, semilla infestada, climas cálidos y secos, temperaturas mayores de 20°C favorecen el desarrollo del insecto.Agente causal: Frankliniella spp.Las hojas presentan manchas plateadas. En ataques severos ocasionan el secado y muerte de las plantas. Presencia del insecto en el envés de las hojas succionando la savia de las plantas. Los trips pueden transmitir el virus Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV).Uso de semilla libre de virus, eliminación de rastrojos, plantas voluntarias y malezas, eliminación de plantas con síntomas de virus, época de siembra adecuada para no coincidir con las épocas de mayor cantidad de trips, uso adecuado de insecticidas.Desarrollo vegetativo.Provienen de campos de papa aledaños infestados.Climas cálidos y secos especialmente en ausencia de lluvias, presencia de malezas y hospedantes alternos infestados con trips. Campos de papa aledaños infestados.Agente causal: Epitrix spp.Ocasionan perforaciones en todo el follaje.Rotación de cultivos, adecuada fertilización de plantas especialmente nitrogenada, adecuado riego, uso de trampas amarillas, uso adecuado de insecticidas.Desarrollo vegetativo.Provienen de campos de papa aledaños infestados y del mismo campo de cultivo con infestación previa.Climas cálidos y secos especialmente en ausencia de lluvias.MOSCA SALTONACompiten por la luz, el agua y los nutrientes con nuestro cultivo de papa y pueden actuar como hospedantes de otras plagas.Rotación de cultivos, preparación del terreno, uso de variedades competitivas, distanciamiento adecuado de siembra, cobertura viva de cultivos, manejo de riego, deshierbo en forma manual o con herramientas, labores de cultivo oportunas, uso adecuado de herbicidas.Condiciones favorables para la plagaDesde emergencia y todo el desarrollo vegetativo.Semilla de la maleza y/o esquejes.Campos infestados, introducción de semilla en materia orgánica o residuos de suelo de campos infestados.BUENA PRÁCTICAElección de terrenos.Preparación de terrenos.Análisis de suelos.Elección de época de siembra.Elección de variedad y uso de semilla sana.Uso de barreras vegetales, barreras de plástico, zanjas alrededor del campo y trampas de suelo.Distancia adecuada entre plantas y entre surco.Riegos adecuados y oportunos.Aporques altos y oportunos.Uso de trampas o franjas pegajosas de color amarillo (fijas o móviles).Uso de trampas con feromonas (si están disponibles en el mercado local).Conocimiento de plagas que ocurrieron anteriormente en el cultivo para su posterior manejo.Eliminar malezas y rastrojos del cultivo anterior. Eliminar estructuras de hongos, bacterias, nematodos e insectos.Uso de dosis, fertilizantes o enmiendas adecuadas.Evitar épocas de mayor presencia de la enfermedad o insectos.Siembra de variedades resistentes a la plaga. Emergencia de plantas sanas y vigorosas. Siembra de semilla con brotes múltiples. Siembra a profundidades adecuadas. Evitar contaminar el suelo con tubérculos enfermos o infestados con insectos.Evitar que los gorgojos ingresen al cultivo o dañen los tubérculos.Evitar alta humedad en el follaje. Dar espacio adecuado para el desarrollo de las plantas y de los tubérculos. Propicia mayor aireación entre plantas evitando mayor humedad.Brindar la humedad necesaria al cultivo. Evitar estrés de las plantas y agrietamiento del suelo.Evitar daños en los tubérculos por insectos o enfermedades. Aumentar tierra para mayor desarrollo de tubérculos. Evitar pudriciones por anegamiento.Atraer y atrapar insectos.Atraer y atrapar insectos.Todas las plagas que pudieron afectar el cultivo anterior y que son capaces de permanecer en el suelo.Todas las plagas que permanecen en el suelo (hongos, bacterias, malezas, nematodos, gorgojo y otros).Exceso de fertilización nitrogenada favorece el desarrollo de rancha y ataque de insectos. Uso de materia orgánica (guano) disminuye poblaciones de nematodos. Uso de materia orgánica incrementa la población de microorganismos benéficos que afectan insectos.Siembras adelantadas previenen heladas o rancha.Rizoctoniasis, verruga, roña, pudrición seca, marchitez bacteriana, pudrición blanda, nematodos, gorgojo de los Andes, polilla de la papa y otros.Gorgojo de los Andes.Rancha.Rizoctoniasis, verruga, roña, pudrición seca, marchitez bacteriana, pudrición blanda y pierna negra, nematodos, polilla de la papa.Rancha, marchitez bacteriana, pudrición blanda y pierna negra, gorgojo de los Andes, polilla de la papa.Mosca minadora, mosca blanca y pulguilla.Polilla de la papa.Efecto de buenas prácticas agronómicas sobre las plagas que afectan a la papa BUENA PRÁCTICAColección de insectos (adultos).Eliminación de plantas voluntarias y malezas.Selección negativa.Selección positiva.Aplicación de plaguicidas de baja toxicidad.Desinfección de herramientas.Corte de follaje antes de la cosecha (por lo menos 2 semanas antes).Cosechas oportunas.Selección de tubérculos.Uso de mantas para la cosecha y selección de tubérculos.Tratamiento de tubérculo semilla con pesticidas.Tratamiento de tubérculo semilla con báculovirus (si están disponibles en el mercado local).Uso de plantas repelentes y trampas con feromona (si están disponibles en el mercado local).Almacenamiento a luz difusa.Rotación de cultivo (cereales y otras gramíneas) y descanso de terrenos.Atrapar y eliminar insectos.Eliminar posibles reservorios de hongos, bacterias, viruses, nematodos e insectos. Eliminar plantas que compiten con el cultivo.Eliminar plantas enfermas (según sintomatología mostrada en el campo).Seleccionar plantas sanas para su posterior cosecha y uso como semilla sana.Prevención o control de enfermedades, insectos, malezas.Evitar contaminación de plantas por enfermedades.Incentiva la maduración del tubérculo. Elimina follaje infectado con enfermedades o insectos.Obtener tubérculos con madurez comercial. Evitar cosechas en lluvia que favorezcan la pudrición de tubérculos. Evitar cosechas tardías que favorezcan el ataque de insectos.Clasificar tubérculos destinados a consumo o semilla. Seleccionar tubérculos sanos para almacenamiento.Evita la contaminación del suelo por insectos que se encuentran en los tubérculos.Evitar pudriciones causadas por hongos.Evitar pudriciones causadas insectos.Evitar ataque de insectos.Lograr tubérculos verdeados y con brotes vigorosos. Disminuir pudriciones causadas por hongos o bacterias y ataque de insectos.Disminuye las poblaciones de insectos, hongos o bacterias que se mantienen en el suelo. Uso adecuado de los suelos.Gorgojo de los Andes.Rancha, alternariosis, viruses, rizoctoniasis, verruga, roña, pudrición seca, marchitez bacteriana, pudrición blanda, nematodos, gorgojo de los Andes, polilla de la papa.Viruses, marchitez bacteriana, verruga.Todas las plagas.Rancha, alternariosis, rizoctoniasis, nematodos, gorgojo de los Andes, polilla de la papa, insectos transmisores de virus.Viruses, marchitez bacteriana.Rancha, alternariosis, gorgojo y polilla.Rancha, alternariosis, rizoctoniasis, roña, pudrición seca, marchitez bacteriana, pudrición blanda, gorgojo de los Andes, polilla de la papa.Plagas que causan pudriciones (hongos y bacterias) o daños en los tubérculos (polilla y gorgojo), así como deformación (verruga) o reducción de tamaño (virus).Gorgojo de los Andes.Rancha, pudrición seca.Polilla de la papa.Polilla de la papa.Pudriciones por hongos y bacterias y ataque de insectos (polilla y áfidos).Todas las plagas que permanecen en el suelo. En el caso de verruga, roña y carbón, los terrenos deben descansar por más de 10 años (son difíciles de erradicar del suelo).• Agalla: Hinchamiento o crecimiento excesivo que aparece en la planta por acción de la infección de un patógeno. • Agente causal: Todo aquel organismo capaz de causar daño a las plantas y productos vegetales. • Amarillamiento: Pérdida del color verde normal de las plantas.• Anegamiento: Acción de regar en exceso.• Báculovirus: Tipo de virus que atacan a los insectos.• Cancro: Lesión necrótica y profunda que se produce en el tallo o ramas de la planta. • Clorosis: Amarillamiento de los tejidos normalmente verdes, debido a la destrucción de la clorofila o a la dificultad para sintetizarla. • Contacto: Fungicida que protege solo parte en la que es aplicada. No se distribuye en la planta. • Costras: Pequeñas superficies endurecidas que se forman sobre los tubérculos por acción de algunos hongos. • Estolón: Tallo lateral que crece horizontalmente por debajo del suelo y forma los tubérculos. • Feromonas: Sustancias químicas producidas por un insecto con el fin de provocar un comportamiento determinado en otro individuo de la misma especie que generalmente es la atracción sexual. • Fungicida: Compuesto químico destinado a eliminar hongos.• Herbicida: Compuesto químico destinado a eliminar malezas.• Hospedante alterno: Es una planta que puede ser infectada por un patógeno para sobrevivir pero que no es necesariamente vital para completar su ciclo de vida. • Infección: Establecimiento de un patógeno dentro de una planta hospedante. • Infestación: Contaminación de una planta, suelo, herramientas, etc. con bacterias, hongos, insectos, etc. • Insecticida: Compuesto químico destinado a eliminar insectos.• Mancha foliar: Lesión limitada a las hojas.• Manejo de la plaga: Conjunto de actividades destinadas a disminuir o erradicar una plaga. • Monocultivo: Sistema de cultivo en el que la tierra es usada para sembrar una sola especie vegetal. • Mosaico: Síntoma que se caracteriza por zonas entremezcladas de coloración verde normal de las hojas con color amarillo o verde claro. • Moteado: Áreas irregulares de color verde claro y oscuro.• Necrosis: Muerte de células o tejidos vegetales causados por un patógeno.• Nematicida: Compuesto químico destinado a eliminar nematodos.• Patógeno: Organismo capaz de causar enfermedad en las plantas. • Plantas repelentes: Plantas que producen sustancias químicas que ahuyentan a otros organismos. • Pudrición: Reblandecimiento, decoloración y con frecuencia desintegración de los tejidos de una planta como resultado de una infección producida por bacterias u hongos. • Pústulas: Lesión a manera de vesículas.• Quistes: Estructura de nematodos que contiene sus huevos.• Resistencia: Capacidad de un organismo para superar, totalmente o hasta cierto grado, el efecto de un patógeno u otro factor perjudicial. • Selección negativa: Eliminación de plantas enfermas.• Selección positiva: Selección de las mejores plantas.• Signo: Patógeno o sus partes o productos que se observan sobre una planta hospedante. • Síntoma: Reacciones o alteraciones internas y externas que sufre una planta como resultado de su enfermedad. • Sistémico: Que se difunde internamente por toda la planta.• Susceptibilidad: Incapacidad de una planta para resistir el efecto de un patógeno o factor prejudicial.","tokenCount":"3293"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"681c7a1b61518050af4eb9ed44e0bed7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d984b72e-a104-4360-9b59-eec412788f20/retrieve","id":"-1513144561"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62daa702-9a8f-4d33-91e5-ff413c8e3f16","pagecount":"6","content":"Raising CGIAR's Profile: Climate Impact Platform's Global Media Engagements in 2023.Module 4 of CGIAR's Climate Impact Platform is dedicated to catalyzing transformation within global climate processes, a mission synergizing with Function 3 which focus on amplifying the external visibility of CGIAR's climate science. In pursuit of this objective, Dr. Aditi Mukherji, Director of the CGIAR Climate Impact Area Platform, authored numerous Op-eds in 2023. The following report provides a condensed overview of these articles, alongside significant media references featuring Dr. Mukherji.In this piece Dr Mukherji shares her thoughts on how in 2023, significant milestones marked a concerning trend towards exceeding global warming targets, notably the breach of the 2°C threshold for two consecutive days in November and 86 days recording temperatures surpassing 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. These events underscored the urgency to address climate change, with human activities, particularly greenhouse gas emissions, identified as the primary driver. The year witnessed devastating climate impacts worldwide, from heatwaves in South Asia to cyclonic disturbances and glacier melting. Despite international agreements like the Paris Agreement, efforts fell short, exacerbating the climate crisis. Dr Mukherji noted that financial support for climate action, adaptation measures, and the operationalization of a loss and damage fund emerged as crucial initiatives, albeit underfunded. The role of individuals, especially the affluent, in mitigating emissions through lifestyle changes was emphasized, highlighting the collective responsibility to avert a future marred by climate catastrophe. Urgent action is imperative to ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.Opinion Piece in Hindustan Times: https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/records-shattered-promisesunfulfilled-101703685372085-amp.htmlIn this piece, Dr Mukherji speaks about how Mitigating emissions in the agriculture sector to achieve a just transition involves navigating complexities to avoid further marginalization of small-scale producers in the Global South. While agriculture significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, reducing them without exacerbating inequalities and food insecurity poses challenges. Context-specific solutions are necessary, including halting deforestation, promoting sustainable diets, reducing food loss, and improving yields. Targeted interventions, such as training smallholder farmers and investing in emerging technologies, can help achieve netzero emissions in food systems by 2050 while supporting smallholders. Substantial investments in transforming food systems, particularly in low-and middle-income countries, are crucial to meeting climate goals, ensuring food security, and empowering small-scale producers for a more resilient future.Op-Ed in Context News by Reuters https://www.context.news/just-transition/opinion/how-to-cut-agriculturesemissions-to-achieve-a-just-transitionIn the worst April heatwave in history, South Asia must demand these urgent climate actions.The current heatwave gripping Asia, leading to school closures in India, underscores the urgent need for climate action to safeguard children's future, asserts Dr Mukherji, as she speaks on this as both a climate scientist and a parent. Dr Mukherji highlights the immediate impacts of climate change on education and emphasizes the world's responsibility to address it. Urging for a swift transition to renewable energy, particularly in regions like West Bengal, where fossil fuels dominate, she emphasizes the feasibility and necessity of ambitious renewable energy targets. Additionally, Dr Mukherji advocates decarbonizing public transport, restoring natural urban features like 'sponge cities' to mitigate extreme weather events, and promoting responsible consumption habits among the affluent. The message is clear: collective action is imperative to secure a liveable future for our children amidst the escalating climate crisis.An opinion piece in Third Pole: https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate/opinion-worst-april-heatwave-south-asia-mustdemand-these-urgent-climate-actions/?ampIn this piece Dr Mukherji speaks on the recent IPCC report , which highlights the critical intersection of climate change and agricultural resilience, warning that a temperature increase of over 2°C would severely jeopardize climate-resilient development, particularly impacting vulnerable regions in the Global South. Urgent action is needed to address this threat, with a focus on accelerating agricultural innovation to both adapt to climate challenges and mitigate emissions. While smallholder farmers, especially in developing countries, are disproportionately affected, investment in existing agricultural technologies and inclusive policies can significantly enhance resilience and reduce emissions. These innovations range from climate-resilient crop varieties to solarpowered irrigation pumps, offering tangible solutions to safeguard food security while mitigating climate risks. However, scaling up these innovations requires concerted global efforts in both mitigation and adaptation, underscoring the imperative for comprehensive action to achieve climate justice and resilience in food systems.Opinion piece on Aljazeera : https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions/2023/3/29/for-real-climate-justice-its-timefor-a-food-revolutionThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC, convened for a four-day session on Tuesday to begin the next round of what is known as the assessment cycle. Established in 1988, the IPCC is the scientific authority on the climate crisis, bringing the most detailed, evidence-based picture of Earth's climate changes in its assessment report (AR). Dr Mukherji speaks on these reports, which detail the climate crisis's technical, economic, and social factors and consequences.The Hindustan Times (interview with Aditi Mukherji, Director, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Impact Action Platform): https://www.hindustantimes.com/environment/cause-and-effect-scientist-s-job-isn-t-to-negotiatebut-to-give-evidence-to-govts-aditi-mukherji-iwmi-101690353901253-amp.htmlIn this piece Dr Mukherji, stresses the necessity of 'just' energy transitions in Indian agriculture to combat water insecurity and reduce the sector's carbon footprint, echoing concerns raised in the latest IPCC report regarding climate-driven food and water insecurity. In an interview with Mongabay-India, Dr Mukherji advocates for contextspecific approaches in the water-energy-food nexus, emphasizing the importance of aligning crop selection with regional suitability and transitioning to clean energy for irrigation. Additionally, Dr Mukherji highlights the need for policies that prioritize justice and equity, particularly in addressing the disproportionate burdens faced by smallholder farmers in adapting to climate change. She underscores the importance of correcting existing policies and institutions to manage water resources better and mitigate climate risks, emphasizing the critical role of context-specific approaches in sustainable water management and land-use planning.Mongabay (interview with Aditi Mukherji, CGIAR Climate Adaptation and Mitigation Impact Area Platform lead): https://india.mongabay.com/2023/03/interview-ipcc-author-aditi-mukherji-on-energy-transition-in-agricultureand-water-security/ Monsoon-dependent Indian subcontinent is highly climate exposed.Dr Aditi Mukherji, co-author of the IPCC Synthesis Report and CGIAR Climate Impact Area Platform Director, emphasizes the urgency of climate action, particularly in South Asia, which is already a climate hotspot. She stresses that even incremental increases in global temperatures have significant impacts and that every effort counts in preventing further warming. While acknowledging the disappointment in current mitigation efforts, Dr Mukherji sees hope in continued action towards limiting temperature rise, underscoring the importance of equity in addressing climate impacts and the need to transition away from fossil fuels. The report highlights the disproportionate effects on vulnerable communities. It stresses the necessity of finance for adaptation, cautioning against reliance solely on carbon capture technologies and advocating for lifestyle changes and equitable consumption patterns globally. ","tokenCount":"1042"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"27cd574b66eba8d9ae8ca1d0494bbe68","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a8870f21-ac29-4ac7-8104-e3a070f85415/retrieve","id":"-732748210"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d9f156e-8b77-463b-b266-ddeb602ad638","pagecount":"10","content":"PROBLEMS RELATING to availability, maintenance and servicing have restricted computer usage in sub-Saharan Africa. There is also the more fundamental issue of deciding what the computer is to do and how to keep the system flexible enough so that it can take on new functions and expand.ILCA began developing its computer system in 1980, and since then it has steadily expanded so that it is now one of the largest agricultural research computer networks in sub-Saharan Africa. In a sense it has been a pioneering effort, and this paper describes some of the problems encountered and provides useful information on computer networking and the potential of computers in livestock research.It also describes the ILCA computer facility and the services which ILCA provides to national research organisations that do not have computer facilities to analyse the large volumes of data which have been collected over recent years.1. Hewlett-Packard equipment could be serviced within Ethiopia.2. The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) had released MINISIS, a library database system compatible with the HP3000.Since installing a Hewlett-Packard (HP) 3000 Series III computer in October 1980, the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) has been steadily expanding its computer capacity at headquarters and at its field stations. This expansion has involved Hewlett-Packard mini-and microcomputers. This paper outlines the growth of ILCA's computer network from 1980 to 1984, and discusses the usefulness and limitations of micro-computers using one of ILCA's research programmes outside Ethiopia as a case study. The paper concludes with a discussion of some problems in operating a micro-computer network.The HP3000 was originally chosen in 1980 for ILCA's Information Services, but is now used by all departments within the Centre. Hewlett-Packard equipment was selected for the following reasons:ILCA and the U.N. Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) bought from the Société d'Etudes de Réalisation Informatique et de Conseil (SERIC), a French agent for Hewlett-Packard, the first two HP3000 systems in Ethiopia. Since then seven more have been sold by SERIC in Ethiopia and this has led to an increasingly reliable service and maintenance.Together with the bibliographic database programme (MINISIS), Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Biomedical Computer Programmes (BMDP) were purchased in 1980 for scientific data analysis. Shortly thereafter an animal production and linear programming packages were acquired. Administration software was first developed in-house, but has since been replaced by a commercial package.The recent expansion of the ILCA minicomputer system is outlined in Table 1. As more staff used the computer, extra disc storage capacity was required and a 400 Mb disc was added in 1982. In 1983 the workload doubled; more central processing capacity was needed, and an extra HP3000 was ordered in late 1983. The new machine was installed in July 1984.By August the 1984 work output had already surpassed that of all of 1983. During 1981 and 1982 the Computer Unit analysed a backlog of data which had accumulated in the latter half of the 1970s. Field data were brought to headquarters for entry, verification and analysis on the HP3000. Initial analyses of field data had been completed by late 1982. In these analyses one major problem arose, namely the difficulty in collating, editing and correcting data when the original field documents were not available. It was decided to use micro-computers located at field stations to solve this problem.During 1981 Hewlett-Packard released the HP125 micro-computer. This 'micro' is based on the Z80A micro-processor chip and uses the CP/M operating system. As the HP125 can act both as an asynchronous terminal and as an intelligent terminal to the HP3000, ILCA decided to purchase two HP125s for headquarters to evaluate their suitability as a basis for a microcomputer network. Dbase II, Visicalc, Statpak, Microstat and Word 125 software were also purchased. The facility with which data could be transferred between an HP125 with its diskette and the HP3000 proved to be extremely powerful and useful.Scientists were able to enter their data on the HP125 using database management facilities, then do initial analyses using the available statistical packages before transferring their data to the HP3000 for further comprehensive analysis. With the additional advantage of the word processing capability, ILCA decided to purchase more micro-computers for headquarters and its field programmes.The purchase of equipment from a single manufacturer and the consequent compatibility of Hewlett-Packard micro-equipment with existing hardware was considered more important than the lower cost of possible alternative machines. ILCA spent approximately US$ 15 000 on a micro-computer system for each of two field programmes. Each system consists of an HP125, 64K bytes memory, 250K bytes disc storage (5.25\" diskettes) and a daisywheel printer. A reliable power source is of utmost importance in field stations if scientists are to obtain full benefit from the micro-computers, and so uninterruptible power supplies were purchased from a UK manufacturer.During 1982 and 1983, the network was further expanded with the installation of HP125 microcomputers at ILCA's field programmes in Kenya, Nigeria, Mali and Ethiopia. At the same time additional HP125s were acquired for ILCA's headquarters in Ethiopia. The coordination of the micro-computer network is carried out from ILCA's headquarters in Ethiopia.After initial training and familiarisation, scientists found the micro-computers an indispensible tool both at headquarters and in field stations. In Ibadan, Nigeria, ILCA's team uses the machine for data collection and word processing, whilst in Nairobi, Kenya, the 'micro' is used predominantly for data collection and verification. This latter use is described in the case study below. At headquarters the word processing capability permits faster preparation of reports, and the ability to transfer documents via the HP3000 to the Linotype CRTronic typesetting equipment streamlines the publication process and increases throughput.As ILCA was the only organisation in Ethiopia to have HP125 micro-computers, SERIC did not wish to be responsible for their maintenance. It was thus necessary that spare parts were stored at ILCA, and an agreement was made with Hewlett-Packard to replace defective boards. The purchase of three sets of the three boards that make up the HP125 increased the overall cost of the system. It was necessary to carry more than one set of spare boards because ILCA's network spans five different African countries. Whenever defects are reported, the appropriate spare boards are immediately despatched to the field programme and the defective boards are returned to headquarters to be forwarded to Hewlett-Packard. There can be a delay of up to 4 months between the failure of a board and its replacement by Hewlett-Packard.While ILCA was expanding its micro network, Hewlett-Packard were further refining their microcomputers. In August 1983 they released the HP150 micro-computer and simultaneously announced that the HP125 would no longer be manufactured. The HP150 is based on the 8088 microprocessor chip, uses the MS-DOS operating system, and belongs to the family of IBM-PC compatible micro-computers. Compatibility with the IBM-PC and the use of MS-DOS has given the HP150 a larger software base. In line with Hewlett-Packard's stated policy, ILCA had to decide whether to standardise on the HP150 or to look for an alternative CP/M compatible machine.Once again the compatibility between the HP3000 and the HP150 was of paramount importance. Hewlett-Packard released the HP150 with software to allow similar network communication to the HP3000 as was possible with the HP125. The HP150 network software is more powerful, and Hewlett-Packard are treating HP150s as entry points to many computer networks, not necessarily based on the HP3000. Another feature of the HP150 is its capacity to read discs processed by a HP125 micro-computer. In the end ILCA's decision was simple.During 198410 HP150 micro-computers have been purchased to expand the micro-computer network both at headquarters and in the field programmes.Many other improvements have been made in the capacity and capabilities of Hewlett-Packard micro-computers since the HP125 was released. One major improvement is the enhanced graphics capability of the HP150. Six-pen plotters can now be purchased for less than US$ 2000, so that an inexpensive HP150 system may now include graphics. A standard HP150 purchased by ILCA includes a daisywheel printer, a plotter and 250K bytes of disc storage, or alternatively 15M bytes using a Winchester disc. The micro-computers are now widely used within ILCA and have a wide variety of software. The microcomputer hardware and software currently available at ILCA are given in Tables 2 and 3.  The Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group is based in Nairobi, Kenya, and focuses on the biological and economic aspects of livestock productivity, with a strong emphasis on trypanotolerant livestock. Its research is carried out with the help of a number of donor agencies in close cooperation with national institutions in 10 countries of central and West Africa where the tsetse fly and the associated trypanosome blood parasite are found.The objective of the ILCA trypanotolerance research programme is to determine the productivity of different breeds of domestic ruminants exposed to different levels of tsetse-trypanosomiasis risk within various management systems and climatic zones. The results permit an evaluation of between-breed differences in susceptibility to trypanosomiasis throughout Africa, They also permit an assessment of the role played by acquired resistance and a between-breed comparison of the rate at which resistance develops.Table 4 shows the management system, species and number of animals studied during 1984 in each country within the trypanotolerance network. A wide range in animal numbers must be handled. For each animal, data covering reproductive performance, weight change, milk production, health, prophylaxis and therapeutic treatments and tsetse challenge need to be recorded monthly. Considering the number of individual monthly records, it is clear that extremely large data sets build up very quickly. A micro-computer unit was established to allow rapid entry, checking and filing of country data.In August 1984, the trypanotolerance network's micro-computer system consisted of 3 HP125s, 1 HP150, 2 dual floppy discs, 2 fixed discs, 3 printers and 1 plotter.The micro-computer system is run by a staff of three. Individual animal scientists also use the micro-computers for their data storage and analysis. Training support has been limited to familiarising the supervisor with new software.A well-thought-out handling system is necessary to ensure rapid entry and rational organisation of the data within the trypanotolerance network; the following discussion centres around this flow.Field sites are supplied with simple preprinted data forms that are easily completed each month by field staff. After verification these sheets are sent to ILCA's Trypanotolerance Group in Nairobi.Upon receipt of the data recording sheets in Nairobi, the staff who are familiar with that particular data set check it for completeness and data quality. If major omissions or inaccuracies are apparent, a memo is sent to the field site and no data entry is attempted.If data are acceptable, they are entered at a terminal using a database management package. Use of database software speeds up the capture on magnetic media in many ways. Each field of a record is described initially so that displayed field names allow for ease of entry. For example, numeric fields will not accept alpha character data. Fields may also be set up so that they are duplicated across records, which speeds up entry by avoiding extra key strokes.Once a data set has been entered, various flow paths are available.In all cases several checks are made using statistical or database software. Most common are range checks using frequency or cross-tabulation routines to identify fields containing impossible values. Where errors in the original data sheet are found a memo is sent to the field site. It is important that queries be sent back to the field staff as soon as possible, while the data recording is reasonably fresh in their minds.Using a database software master, files can be updated with additional data. Editing a master file is slow and tedious, while entering monthly data is relatively quick. Database routines that transfer additional data greatly speed up the time and accuracy of updating a master file. At this stage checks may identify animals for which monthly data have not been recorded, and this calls for a further memo to the field site.Monthly statistics can be calculated. These are normally simple means rather than large-scale analyses, as micro-statistical software is not available for unbalanced designs. Calculation of means allows monthly trends to be plotted. Receiving monthly updates from their data provides an additional incentive for field staff to continue carrying out accurate recording. For the scientist, these monthly trends provide a tool for assessing what is occurring in the field and for preparing the layout of the major analyses that are needed.At all times, back-up copies of data are made to avoid data losses. Copies may be made from diskette to diskette or from a fixed disc to diskette. At appropriate stages diskettes are sent to headquarters so that master files can be updated, more complex checks can be made, or the final analysis can be carried out. For the final analysis, a scientist from Nairobi usually comes to headquarters to oversee the statistical analysis that has been clearly laid out by the staff of the trypanotolerance network.The use of micro-computers by the Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group and the other ILCA field programmes greatly improved the control of recorded data. Capture of data onto magnetic media, checking, updating and correspondence concerning problem areas is now relatively quick. This short ' turn-around' of information maintains the interest of field staff and improves field recording. Producing data trends routinely allows scientists to stop recording data of insignificant value and start recording other data where trends indicate the need.The establishment and running of this micro-computer network has provided ILCA with the knowledge of the many problems that must be considered in setting up a viable microcomputing facility in Africa.In Africa the selection of computer equipment is a particularly difficult problem as computer companies are not active in sales or maintenance. The following issues must be considered prior to the purchase of equipment.a. Where micro-computers are to be used to capture and transfer data to a mini-or mainframe computer, compatibility must be ensured. b. The micro-computer must have an adequate processor to carry out the required software jobs such as statistical analysis. It is advantageous if the micro's memory can be expanded and further peripherals added later. c. Evaluation of the volume of data must be made to ensure that discs of sufficient capacity are selected. d. Service and maintenance capabilities must exist. Obviously, it is preferable that the company or supplier has in-country facilities to ensure faster repair and routine maintenance. The alternative is to have in-house spare parts, an engineer and a method of obtaining new or repaired parts. e. The environment in which the micro is to be used is important. A reliable power supply is imperative as drops and cuts in the electric supply can cause damage to the computer boards. Protection of equipment from heat and dust is also necessary. f. Cost is obviously important, but in order to satisfy points a) to d), more expensive equipment may be necessary to provide a reliable working system.Evaluation and the purchase of software is extremely difficult in Africa, and contact with a software-producing organisation in Europe or North America is a necessity. Some major questions relating to software are listed below: a. Will the product accomplish the objectives required? b. Will the product run on the selected micro? c. Are created files compatible with other software products? d. Is the product easy to use?In African countries there is a great shortage of trained computer personnel. This is largely due to a lack of computers throughout the continent and the small number of universities offering computer science courses. In addition, only limited support is available from companies or suppliers. It is clear that inexperienced staff can begin to use micro-computers without much assistance, but never become competent enough to exploit fully the capacity of the computer facilities . In some cases staff are unable to install and begin using software packages. A great need for training exists.In view of the lack of experience and inadequate facilities within many African agricultural research organisations, ILCA believes it can offer the following assistance:1. In conjunction with national research workers, ILCA with its mini-computer facilities helps analyse and interpret the large volumes of raw agricultural data which have been collected by national research organisations.2. ILCA can advise national research organisations on the selection of appropriate microcomputer equipment.3. ILCA can train African research workers in the use of computers. To date this training has been part of an overall package aimed at assisting in the analysis of accumulated national data.It is planned that courses on statistical and computer methods will be formalised at ILCA in 1985.ILCA is developing an animal recording software package adapted to micro-computers. Using this package, national research stations can more easily monitor and evaluate their animal production data, thus facilitating optimum management decisions.There is no doubt that micro-computer technology will enable African research workers to enter the computer age more easily and at minimal cost, ILCA seeks to assist national research groups to select, install and operate these systems.","tokenCount":"2816"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac1adccf1da47708b2cb8cb527ba6359","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/03a7ef2d-4823-4003-9e6a-50587b9149ce/retrieve","id":"-1818811416"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7ab9559b-d3f9-4828-8dae-6030b6d8d40d","pagecount":"36","content":"with others while they develop essential 21 st -century digital skills (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecentre Accessed on 19-06-08).Community radios -are a type of radio service that meets the interests of a certain area, broadcasting material that is popular to a local audience (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_radio. Accessed on 19-06-08) CMCs -Community Multimedia Centresare institutes that combine community radio broadcasting with other ICT technologies. They promote community empowerment and address the digital divide. It opens a gateway to active membership of the global knowledge society by making information and communication the basic tools of the poor in improving their own lives (UNESCO, www.unesco.org/webworld/cmc Accessed on 19-06-08).For the distinction of the various financial structures in this report we apply the categorization of Benjamin; to be referred to hereafter as Type A and Type B. Hybrid models are consequently described separately. The two major types of Telecentres initiatives in Mozambique are: A) the micro-enterprise Telecentres; and B) the larger, donor-funded Telecentres -Benjamin, P. 2000 (see Sources and Appendix for a more detailed description)The number of information and communication centres for community development has increased remarkably in recent years in Africa mainly with the support of various bilateral and multilateral organisations like FAO, IDRC, UNESCO, and USAID. However, these experiences seem to have only covered part of the needs identified. In addition, the existence of the centres without a continuous support from external funds seems to be compromised leading to the following: o African Rural communities still have limited access to available information on o socioeconomic, and political activities at different levels ; o Local development experiences are not well known and promoted; o Capacities to manage information and communication are still limited at local level o A relatively important number of centres created are not functional after the departure of the supporting institutions.In this context, CTA has decided to benefit from these experiences in order to look at options for integrating traditional communication approaches and tools (radio, information centres) and new ICTs (cybercafés, community platforms, websites) in order to better respond to the needs of the rural producers at grass root level.The aim of this report is to give an overview of the current phase of development of the Telecentres in Mozambique, describe their main difficulties, challenges and opportunities, proposing recommendations and a framework for action. The overall objective of this report is to contribute to improved knowledge sharing in Mozambique and hence contribute to the socio-economic development of rural communitiesThe methods applied are:o Desk review ; data collection and review of secondary sources -websites/files, reports and other documentation, including policy papers of governmental, bi-, or multilateral agencies, donor organizations operating in the area of intervention; o Sequences of semi-structured interviews with key informants were taken to come to an institutional analysis (DIRO) -(collaboration and competition, policies and regulations, clients' needs) and the needs at the organizational level; o An analysis was made from the collected information to come to a problem census;determining the range of topics of concern and identification of main challenges and opportunities; o Participatory Strategic Planning (PSP) -a four step process eliciting the stakeholder's vision, the articulation of the contradictions blocking that vision and the creation of strategies dealing with those blocks that may result in an accountable implementation plan. PSP is done on an individual base, by analysing results from the survey and interviews, categorizing the responses.Telecentres -are public places where people can access computers, the Internet, and other digital technologies that enable people to gather information, create, learn, and communicate financed by the government through CPRDs and can therefore be considered as the above mentioned Type B. This report will, from now on, use the term 'Telecentres' as a general term to refer to Telecentres, Community Radios, CMC, CPRDs and UMTICs. If a particular model/approach isn't covered by the general term, the specific term will be used.Mozambican CMCs started with the implementation of two telecentres in the districts of Manhiça and Namaacha (both in Maputo province), in 1999. These pilot projects were an initiative of the community, gained support from the CIUEM (Eduardo Mondlane University Informatics Centre), and were sponsored by IDRC (International Development Research Centre).Mozambique was, thereafter, selected as one of three partner countries in an initiative launched by UNESCO and the SDC (Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation) during the World Summit on the Society (WSIS) in Geneva, in December 2003This initiative aimed to scale-up CMC initiatives and to move beyond isolated pilot projects. This new programme started up in November 2004, and was financed by SDC. By the end of 2005 eight CMCs were established in Mozambique. Since then the numbers of CMCs increased rapidly. Many existing telecentres and community radios have been encouraged to complement their facilities and become full CMCs. Existing telecentres started to offer community radio services and existing community radios started to offer computer facilities such as basic ICT training and use of internet.Local institutions such as libraries, community centres and community based organisations were stimulated to establish their own CMCs. CMCs were established according the for-profit concept of user-paid service, aiming to become self-sustaining after the first years. This, unfortunately, proofed to be difficult to achieve.Manhiça's and Namaacha telecentres were complemented with a community radio in 2004 and are nowadays known as CMCs.  1). Over 50 districts already enjoy benefits from a CMC, Telecentres or community radio. The government recognises the development potential of ICTs and aims to have at least one CMC in each of the 128 Mozambicans districts , providing equal access to information to the whole population (Telecentros, 1998). Mozambique is situated in south-eastern Africa and has borders with Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa (see Figure 1).Mozambique gained independency from Portugal after the Portuguese Colonial War, in 1975 when FRELIMO (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique), an anti-colonial communist political group, took control over the country. The country adopted a socialist system and all private goods were taken by the government. At the same time the anti-communist opposition group RENAMO (Mozambican National Resistance) was formed. RENAMO was sponsored by the Rhodesian Intelligent Service, by the apartheid government of South Africa and the United States and launched a series of attacks on transport routes, schools and health clinics.The country descended into a civil war which endured until 1992, when President Chissano and RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama signed a peace agreement.The civil war had a severe impact on the country's economy. In 1989, UNICEF estimated that the country's GDP was only half of what it would have been without the war. The economy of Mozambique continues to be dominated by agriculture nowadays, even if only 22% of its arable land is cultivated.Major exports include prawns, cotton, cashew nuts, sugar, citrus, copra and coconuts, and timber. At an extensive economic reform many state-owned enterprises were privatized. GDP growth rates increased rapidly; today's growth rate is more then 10% per year.The socialist government claimed all the land as state property after independence, disowning its original landlords and redistributing the land among the population. The government established cooperatives for the provision of supplies, and to purchase the peasants production. The peasants were organized in rural villages (aldeias comunais) operating under the economic control of the local cooperatives. This drastic change in land distribution had a big influence on the economic situation. The new system could not produce the same production yields and possible benefits resulting from land reformation were lost because of the civil war. In 1986, the Government of Mozambique was granted international aid from IMF/World Bank. The country embraced a more liberal and market-oriented development model. In this new context, mechanisms were created to acquire new land rights for private investment, at almost no cost for the applicant. It was only after the multiparty elections of 1994, that the government initiated the ambitious land legislation programme according which land rights were protected and investments into the rural areas stimulated.Within this historical context, Mozambique became a unique country regarding the rural circumstances; the amount of big farms is nearly inexistent, 70% of the total population still lives in rural areas and peasants are mainly producing for subsistence.The civil strife also limited the penetration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the country. The provision of e-mail and internet services was first initiated by the Eduardo Mondlane University Informatics Centre (CIEUM), in 1993. For rural areas, ICT infrastructure started only recently with the improvements of the telecommunication network and the privatization of the telecommunication governmental company (TDM) for mobile telephony (see national network). In 2006 the per capita GDP was estimated at U.S. $320, a significant increase over the mid-1980s level of U.S. $120 (USDS, 2008). All consumption rates per capita have increased with 3% annually during this period all sections of society have enjoyed a greater consumption rate, but a slightly higher increase in consumption per capita in the higher social levels, increasing social inequalities. Although this economic growth is impressive, over half of the population continues to live in absolute poverty.About 80% of the economically active population work in the agricultural sector. Fourteen million Mozambicans live in rural areas. Many rural communities are sited in areas far away from the national road network. Trading at national level and access to information from national sources are very difficult for them. Communities there are often poor; illiteracy and unemployment rates are high. The widespread of other than non-basic ICT services is therefore challenging. Various programs in Mozambique involve the expansion of informatics and of connectivity to the internet, mainly in the capital city but expanding to the interior.Mozambique has very high illiteracy rates, mainly in rural areas. About 64% of the adult male population finished the 5 th grade in urban areas, contrasting with 24% in rural areas. These rates are lower for the adult female population: about 43% of the urban women finished 5 th grade, while only 9.5% of the adult rural women did achieve the same level of education (Gwatkin et al. 2007).The mains source of electricity is hydropower. Households are the main consumers of electricity. The exact number of households connected to the electric grid is unknown, but estimated between 5-20%. Electricity supply, mainly in the countryside, is problematic.Mozambique produces more electricity then it consumes. About 13.17 billion kWh is produced within the country, while 9.12 billion kWh is consumed. (See Internet access is still limited in Mozambique (see table 2). The government has initiated a project whereby optic fibres will be placed throughout the country. This will permit the use of fixed telephone lines, television and broadband internet. Although a few provinces have been covered already, the vast majority of the population still have no access to these facilities. In urban areas Telecentres become more and more widespread. 1 Note: as a percentage of the adult population using the media at least once a weekThe government recognises the importance and the development potential of ICT, and formulated the ICT policy strategies following the launch of the African Information Society Initiative (AISI). Mozambique is one of the few countries to allocate 5% of its GDP for the development of the telecommunications sector.The government of Mozambique approved a National Informatics Policy at the end of 2000 and an Implementation Strategy in 2002. The policy specifically states that 'The State recognises and protects the right of citizens to have access to information and to knowledge spread by ICT' and adopts the principal of universal access. In current practice, there is no legislation restricting freedom of expression on the Internet, and no restrictions (blocking or filtering) on access to sites or the publication of information on the Internet.The government obligated all legal entities which provide public telecommunication services in Mozambique to invest 1% of their gross income of the previous year to FSAU. FSAU -Fundo do Servico de Acesso Universal /Universal Access Fund -is a public service created in 2006 with the aim to invest in projects for universal access to telecommunications. CIUEM has entered agreements with a number of computer companies such as HP, Sun, Digital and Tulip for the provision of maintenance guarantees.Within the University, CIUEM was responsible for developing an information policy for establishing the University's LAN which provides e-mail services in Maputo and Internet Access on campus.Internet connectivity in rural areas is often non-existent or, if existent, it oscillates and is expensive. Satellite internet offers the best connectivity at the moment but is very expensive. The government programmed the installation of optic fibres throughout the country, which will offer an affordable and good alternative for satellite internet; broadband internet for all.The Ministry of Science and Technology is the national institute in charge of ICT policies in Mozambique. The Ministry installed UTICT (ICT Policy Implementation Technical Unit) as GO in charge of coordinating the implementation of CMC's and community Telecentres throughout the country.In 2002 the government of Mozambique, by means of the UTICT, and the PNUD (United Nations Program for Development) signed an agreement to promote and implement CPRD's (Provincial Centres of Digital Resources) with the aim to implement the national ICT policy at the provincial and regional level.CPRD objectives fulfil the need to bridge the gap between the remote and isolated CMCs, and those CMSs where information is relatively easy accessible. -Such as the centres at the provincial capitals or those at Maputo-. o To document and share results.The regional and provincial government are also involved in the management of the Telecentres, guaranteeing the necessary infra-structure.The CMC's operate with an information exchange structure and staff exchange programme among them. These are considered as great mutual learning practices and as such promoted by the CPRDs; they provide accommodation for meetings for example staff member trainings.More over, CAICC promote the exchange between all the community ICT access points (CMC's, CPRD's, Community Radios and Telecentres).Participation of the local community is guaranteed by the local committee (CAL). The communities can express their needs and wishes to this committee who are responsible to fulfil these needs or transmit them to other levels of the communication network. This participation of the community in the CMC decision-making process is essential for the sustainability of the CMC's. (Macame and Cumbana, 2002). The tangible services offered at most Telecentres are basically fax, computers with internet, binding, printer, fax, photocopy and telephone. These are standard at most Telecentres. Photocopying is the most requested service by Telecentres users, followed respectively by, telephone and computer use. The use of internet and e-mail is among the least requested services, but is increasing rapidly.After the first years of the CMCs implementation there has been an increasing use of computer services in general, mainly for e-mail checking and basic use of Microsoft Office packages. Each of the four Telecentres has four computers, an Internet hub and modem, two printers, backup equipment, a public phone, a fax/phone, an external card-phone, a photocopier, an overhead projector, a whiteboard, a TV with video, a radio and a binder. Current operating costs are just being met by income generated through service provision. There are still many unexplored applications: like mainstreaming content of internet for community radio broadcasting (info for cooperatives, trade unions, market prices, etc.) and transmitting relevant information provided by Geo-Information Systems, and other interesting sources and applications, to community level. Innovative information technology should be scant on relevance and adapted for development and environmental purposes. This requests a cross-sector and trans-national approach, while staying connected with the latest IT innovations worldwide. When disaggregated by gender, the Table 4 below shows that for women the order was telephone, photocopying and computer word processing in a descending order of use. For men, the reverse order was observed with computers as the most popular and telephones the least used of the services.  There is a large demand for computer use, mainly among the youth and students. Most CMCs have about 2-4 computers. This is way too little to fulfil the demand for both individual users and those who wish to follow training on ICT.Most CMCs require a minimum of three staff members. The manager and the assistants are responsible for the activities at the CMCs. The assistants have the task to operate the photocopy machine, printer, computer and other daily activities. All staff members must be a member of the community and speak both the local and Portuguese language. They do work on voluntary basis but receive some financial support out of the CMC's revenue.Staff members of the Telecentres classified as Type B, receives special vocational training carried out by the CIUEM. In common practice, they are the ones dealing with the day-to-day problems faced by the users and as such must be able to assist them finding the requested and required information.The local committee (CAL) composed of community representatives are in charge of the supervision and monitoring of the CMCs. The members are local authorities, NGO staff members and local parallel organizations. At some of the CMCs CAL members participate actively in the management of the centres. At other centres, a CMC member reports the CMC activities to CAL, thus in this structure CAL supervises the CMC activities indirectly.Most CMC work as horizontal organizations, in which all involved participate in decisions at their respective levels. Whereby the general supervision is the concern of the CAL members. The aim of this structure is to ensure the involvement of the community members and hence to promote community ownership. However, the involvement is often restricted to certain parts of the community and the decision-making process is still partially done by external organizations.The frequent replacement of assistants is one of the identified problems in the management. It's a negative side-effect -of the training provided to CMC staff members and the low salary incentives offered by Telecentres-, that skilled employees leave in search for better paid jobs. New, inexperienced assistants need to be hired frequently. Suitable candidates for the function aren't easy to find since they must belong to the community and possess specific skills, such as the Portuguese language, and a good understanding of the communities' perceptions, demands and needs. Investments in training, and human capital are lost for the CMCs if trained people leave to serve other parts of society and results also in a diminished collaboration between the community and the CMCs.In general the working conditions for Telecentres staff members are not optimal. Many of them work on a voluntary basis and receive only symbolic financial return for their efforts. This is influencing the continuality of long-term programs.Technical support, backup, and continuous staff training are essential for sustainability of Telecentres and for encouraging the developmental and information services. Telecentres in general call for more and better trainings on management, administration, marketing, and IT (hard, -and software) skills, for staff members.Good communication channels with local authorities and community leaders as well as maximum transparency and information regarding the project are also important to ensure the role of the Telecentres within the community.Farmers might not participate in the group discussions simply because they live too far. Need assessments conducted by staff members on the concerns of those, and other peasants is a mean to collect data for content development and to strengthen and expand the network.Despite the applied horizontal structures, in reality those working in the sector prefer mostly to refer to some spokes-persons instead of expressing their own points of view. This gives an impression of a centralized management style and/or working culture, which isn't coherent with the nature of the sector.Within the context of Mozambique there are three major sources for funding for Telecentres; by the government (CPRD's and UMTICs), by international organizations (CMCs) and by private entrepreneurs (funds are made available through FSAU, (see the National ICT Policy section). UTICT evaluated the most appropriate and sustainable organizational model. This research was focused mainly on CMCs. Some findings;Every service of the CMC is offered in an accessible price for the community. In the current situation, most CMC's are able to cover their basic cost, such as electricity and water bills, expenditures of staff members, etc. by the services revenue. However, this income does not allow the CMC's to maintain their machines and invest in new equipments and infrastructural improvements. CMC's therefore still depend on external funding and support, such as the CIUEM.The remaining Telecentres in Mozambique, -those that aren't part of the CMC/CIUEM project-, have similar financial structures. Their income is also generated by charging the users with a minimum cost for the use of services.Funds for the acquisition of new equipment and its maintenance are still received from external organizations. Telecentres still remain dependent on donor support although their aim is to achieve financial sustainability in the nearby future.The community radios were mostly initiated by external organizations such as UNESCO and the Mozambican Mass Media Institute (ICS). Since community radios technologies have significantly lower costs than Telecentres, and they work exclusively with volunteers they are able to operate with a very low budget and, consequently, provide free information to the users. For acquisition of new equipment and maintenance funds are raised at UNESCO and ICS. To overcome this dependency UNESCO and other supporting organizations are promoting a multi-facet system of sources of income, while limiting costs to a minimum and increasing the capacity of the community to maintain this system. (UNESCO/UNDP, 2006).Some private entrepreneurs have noticed the successes of Telecentres and the increasing demand for computer services in rural areas. They started internet cafes, which now compete with the Telecentres. In this competition the Telecentres have the advantage that the community got a certain social commitment towards them. This competition might increase if the demand for computer services exceeds the potential of the Telecentres. If the strengths and opportunities of both models (type A and B) would be combined this can result in an organisational model whereby the private entrepreneurs invest in the technical infrastructure (increasing the number and quality of PCs, provision of software, maintenance, etc.) While Telecentres can offer housing and attracting costumers-since they're more embodied in the community.  The high costs of equipment, maintenance, connectivity, software, thus the costs for technology and innovation is the primary reason Telecentres, don't reach a break-even point, and achieve financial self-sustainability within a few years after implementation. Common expressed concerns among the CMC's, regarding investments, are the need for better control mechanisms on the services, the development of local partnerships, training for staff members (management, administration, marketing and general IT),the limited means to increase the number of computers and to improve the radio transmission quality. There is a general increase, mainly among the younger generations, in the use of computers at the CMC, both for use of internet and training courses. CMCs do not have the financial capacity to cover all above mentioned costs.The marketing approach can be improved since among community members there isn't enough awareness on the available services at the Telecentres and their benefits. There is, furthermore, a lack of services tailor-made to client-specific needs (for instance geographically or production related), and/or specific target group customized services.Financial independence is far from being reached yet. The income generated through the services provided is not enough to meet all the costs and to guarantee replacement and maintenance of the equipment. Connectivity costs will, with the introduction of optic fibres throughout the country, soon reduce, but this is not the case with the price of equipment.Costs for the services provided cannot be increased until Telecentres have contributed to a clear economic return to all levels of the community. This is a long term process. CMC's main group of clients (youngsters) aren't yet taking part in the labour market, and are still in the learning process. Increasing service prices at this phase of development it likely to hamper sustainability.A key to success for the CMCs is to go beyond the provision of technical services. The opportunities for innovative applications of information supply reaches much further than currently explored.UTICT has built an online platform for content development, making online portals available for all institutions that wish to publish information online. The provision of information using the platforms built by UTICT is not compulsory. Some research institutes produce their own content, making use of other channels for publication. There are three levels of online content development for CMCs in Mozambique; national, provincial and local.o National level: UTICT's online platform, on which the various governmental sectors publish their information. These sectors i.e. Health, Agriculture, Education are each responsible for the provision of content in their areas of concern.o Provincial level: CPRD's are responsible to produce relevant information at provincial level, making use of the publishing facilities created by UTICT. o Local level: CMCs produce information, publishing this on the same online platforms. Some CMCs publish information on their own websites.Online information produced outside the country, mainly in Portuguese speaking countries like Portugal and Brazil, is frequently consultant by Mozambicans, thus considered to be relevant and useful.Content development for the community radio is likewise produced on national, provincial and local level. The information supplied at the national and provincial levels is mainly governmental; broadcasting current affairs and daily national news. This information is often translated to the local language by the community radio staff members. But most of the content for community radios is developed at local level.Most community radios make transmission time available for members of the community. They can participate in radio programs and express their opinion through the phone, duringphone-in programs, and programs with (live) group discussions. It is mentioned that there are many community members that do not feel comfortable to expose their opinions to the whole community. The possibility for anonymous divulgation might help some farmers to overcome this. It's crucial that mediators of the community (like the assistant) become skilled in vulgarisation, or extension workers are connected with the Telecentres transmitting (translating and adapting) information from and towards peasants.There is an expressed need for translation and simplification of the information produced elsewhere. Especially on topics related to agricultural production like up-dated market prices and weather forecast.Illiteracy is a major problem restringing the optimal use of IT. Basic use of IT requires a minimal degree of alphabetization. Most of the information provided through the internet is in Portuguese. Those who enjoyed the privilege of education are able to benefit from the Telecentres services. However the vast majority of the population still depends on the staff members of Telecentres or on literate friends/family members to help them in the use of IT.Besides illiteracy, the population encounters also the effects (advantages and disadvantages) caused by new forms of transmitting information. Information, in Mozambique like in most African cultures, has been transmitted mainly orally. In the modern information society conventional media sources are mainly based on written text.Reading is mostly an individual activity3, while oral information exchange can be a group activity whereby participation and two-way/multiple exchange are part of the communication. Group discussions imply also shared decision-making. It is likely that new media will nourish individuality and influence social stratification. Especially since media content isn't always corresponding with the cultural perception.Concerning this, a differentiated approach for content management at the different services -Community radio and internet-is appropriate. Community radio can be applied to facilitate democratic processes involving the elder generation into multi-stakeholder communication exchange. 4.The use of internet for livelihoods improvements are long-term objectives with a focus on the younger generation. Collaboration both community radio and Internet for content exchange and co-productions will bring an added-value and overcome the weaknesses and risks of the respective media.Conclusions 1. Telecentres have a comprehensive and positive impact on communities in Mozambique. Often offering the sole connection for knowledge and information exchange of local communities and connecting them with the global information society.2. Appropriate information and training can raise awareness, increase income generation and provide structures of exchange on environmental, agricultural, health and other development-related topics.3. Telecentres are importance tools for participation, empowerment and capacity building. Embodied in local communities their power and impact can be very high.Telecentres help the community to take part in the open market and move away from their isolated position.4. Cautiousness is required regarding possible effects changing the traditional exchange and decision making processes in a disadvantaged manner with the use of nonadapted services and content.5. Income generated through the services provided is not enough to meet all the costs and to guarantee replacement and maintenance of the equipment.6. The high costs of equipment, maintenance, connectivity, software, thus the costs for technology and innovation is the primary reason Telecentres, don't reach a breakeven point, and achieve financial self-sustainability.7. Most Telecentres will, in the next years, continue to be dependent on (inter)national donors who provide, at least, sufficient funds for the maintenance and replacement of equipment.8. Most users of the facilities offered by the Telecentres, such as computer and internet, belong to the younger generations, economic return from the Telecentres to the community is likely to be a long term process.9. If the conditions for well functioning centres are fulfilled; basic education for all, proper content development, stable and cheap internet connectivity and power supply, an economic return in the community will be the result, followed by a more balanced cost-price implementation at the Telecentres. This demands a period of another generation to mature.10. Over emphasising the financial self-sustainability can overshadow the quality and adequacy of the Telecentres. Considering the role and impact of the Telecentres in the overall development, the idea of financial self-sustainability can be reconsidered in the long-term.11. The use of internet for livelihoods improvements are long-term objectives with a focus on the younger generation. Collaboration for content exchange and coproductions can bring added-value and overcome the weaknesses and risk of the respective media.12. There is relatively little knowledge among community members on the available services and their benefits. There is, furthermore, a lack of services tailored to specific local needs and a lack of content relevant to local interests. Specific regional content is not always available and if available often not provided in a simplified, easy to understand language. 2. Internet connectivity in rural areas is often non-existent or, if existent, it oscillates and is expensive. Satellite internet offers the best connectivity at the moment but is very expensive. Optic fibres are installed throughout the country, which will offer an affordable alternative for satellite internet ;namely broadband internet for all. Since there is an urgent need for it; this process has high priority.3. The information sector is a highly specialised one which changes rapidly, and demands highly specialised professionals to keep updated with international developments and innovations. To meet this demand a group or centre of consultants (ITC technicians/designers, Knowledge and Information Exchange specialists, etc) can function as a service/consultative centre on regional/national level. By vocational training (ToT), helpdesk services and other consults such a centre can provide tailormade and up-dated services and solutions in an effective manner. (For instance through subscription to this helpdesk).4. Farmers might not participate in the group discussions simply because they live too far. To overcome this Telecentres can send extension workers or staff members to these remote areas more often.5. There is a need for easy access and relevant content to be made available for the community. Editorial skills scouted and promoted within the served communities can add an interesting dimension (improving accessibility, ownership, relevance of information, interactivity and representation).6. There is a need for translation (adapted and scanned on relevance) of the available information. Less academic and more hands-on working language.7. There should be a clear job description of the function of mediator/facilitator between the Telecentres and the served communities. His/her role is of crucial importance and should be rewarded to assure continuality.8. Community radio should moreover be applied to facilitate democratic processes involving the elder generation into a multi-stakeholder communication exchange programme, participatory video-making and dissemination can have a likewise effect. 9. Improve accessibility by internet with the production and use of visual info and educative materials, by web-designers, making use of illustrative examples, humour and universal or culture specific designs.10. With the development of specialized marketing strategies; new sponsors and advertisers can be attracted at national and international levels. These markets strategies should be related to the various groups of uses, providing potential advertisers insight to the market.11. Web home-pages and community radios are yet under-exploited means for advertisements.12. Focus should shifts from financial self-sustainability towards the broader perspective on the role and impact of Telecentres within the overall development context. In this perspective Telecentres are more a tool for development than an end product. Telecentres do have a valuable impact worthy of long-term (financial) support.13. Telecentres link with education can help school teachers to keep updated with new teaching techniques, subject contents and give access to digital libraries. Students can gather information about different topics and develop basic ICT skills that are nowadays indispensable.14. Telecentres should promote interactive programs making use of phone-in programs or free (subsidized) help lines, as for example the child helpline telephones.15. Each Telecentres can build on an effective e-mail strategy. Websites built around an e-mail strategy approach has proven to be more frequently visited, more accessible and it improves the interactivity of the users. Therefore create on-line communities and enhances the possibility of the community to become active information providers instead of consumers 5 .16. The marketing approach can be improved since among community members there isn't enough awareness on the available services at the Telecentres and their benefits. There is, furthermore, a lack of services tailor-made to client-specific needs (for instance geographic or production related), and/or specific target group customized services.17. New media sources such as internet allow innovation by using more suitable ways to transmit information for oral based cultures, e.g. the production of videos by internet or DVDs.18. Community radios often have transmission time made available for farmers to divulgate and discuss their problems, individually or through group discussions. This possibility is not yet optimally used. Many members, furthermore, do not feel comfortable to openly discuss their problems through the radio. The possibility for anonymous divulgation might help some farmers to overcome the above mentioned apprehension.19. Farmers might not participate in the group discussions simply because they live too far. To overcome this problem Telecentres should send extension workers or staff members of the community radio to these remote areas to interview the farmers enabling them to share insights.PART 6 -Framework for action Adjustment by customs duties and SIFIM 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9⋅ Electronic conferences, discussion groups, newsletters.","tokenCount":"5717"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3bf00e84e600f6b9a46c2e79c826a4fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7643a62f-e5b3-45ca-b9f6-1550f095133e/retrieve","id":"-590098456"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9776ee41-4160-4649-8230-65cbf98a108a","pagecount":"24","content":"En el marco del Programa SERVIR-Amazonía, una iniciativa de la Administración Nacional de Aeronáutica y Espacio de Estados Unidos (NASA) y de la Agencia de Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID), se organizó el taller de trabajo: \"Consulta de Necesidades de Usuarios del Programa SERVIR-Amazonia\" en Bogotá, Colombia, los días 27 y 28 de agosto de 2019.El principal objetivo del taller, al cual asistieron 63 personas de más de 32 organizaciones, fue el de obtener una primera aproximación, desde la perspectiva de los actores involucrados, sobre los principales problemas/amenazas que afronta la Amazonía enmarcadas en las 4 áreas temáticas en las que trabaja el Programa. En base a esta información, y a través de un proceso participativo de dos días, se identificaron necesidades de información y oportunidades para la mejor toma de decisiones que permitan priorizar el codiseño de servicios.Durante el taller se facilitó una discusión inicial acerca de las percepciones de los participantes sobre el estado actual de la toma de decisiones ambientales basadas en información geoespacial en Colombia. El mapeo de los servicios existentes y actores claves se realizó de manera participativa y guiado por las áreas temáticas. Este mapeo es el principal insumo para la priorización de los servicios a desarrollar durante el Programa y se usará en la fase de definición y do-desarrollo de los mismos. Este ejercicio mostró que ya existe mucha información, actores y servicios existentes. Asimismo, se identificaron 12 necesidades principales respecto a la mejora del uso de información geoespacial en el Colombia: monitoreo y alertas tempranas, enfoque al usuario, estandarización de la información, coordinación multisectorial, interoperabilidad, recursos humanos y financieros, y automatización.Los participantes desarrollaron 12 ideas de servicios geoespaciales en las cuatro áreas temáticas de desarrollo de servicios del Programa: SERVIR-AMAZONIA Ilustración 1: Doce ideas de servicios El equipo de SERVIR-Amazonia preparará, conjuntamente con las instituciones participantes en el taller, para cada idea de servicio identificada, un breve documento que contenga el concepto de servicio y luego se facilitarán posibles colaboraciones institucionales para el co-desarrollo de los mismos. Para el desenvolvimiento de este proceso, los profesionales del Programa establecerán contacto con las instituciones involucradas y proporcionarán el apoyo técnico y facilitación necesario.Este proceso de involucramiento y co-desarrollo con el Programa no se cierra con este reporte, muy por el contrario, estará permanente abierto a recibir sugerencias y consultas sobre la factibilidad de nuevos servicios, capacitaciones, etc., para lo cual las instituciones interesadas están cordialmente invitadas a contactarnos a través de la sección de Asistencia Técnica de nuestra página Web.En el marco del Programa SERVIR-Amazonía, una iniciativa de la Administración Nacional de Aeronáutica y Espacio de Estados Unidos (NASA) y de la Agencia de Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID), se organizó el taller: \"Consulta de Necesidades de Usuarios del Programa SERVIR-Amazonia\", en Bogotá, Colombia, los días 27 y 28 de agosto de 2019, en las instalaciones del hotel Suites Jones. Se realizó una evaluación sobre las necesidades, prioridades, y oportunidades relacionadas al codiseño de servicios basados en información geoespacial, en las 4 áreas temáticas del Programa: Sequía e SERVIR-AMAZONIA Incendios Forestales, Gestión de Recursos Hídricos y Desastres Hidroclimáticos, Tiempo y Clima, Manejo Ecosistémico.El principal objetivo de este taller fue el de obtener una primera aproximación, desde la perspectiva de los actores involucrados, sobre los principales problemas/amenazas que afronta la Amazonía, enmarcadas en las 4 áreas temáticas en las que trabaja el Programa. En base a esta información, y a través de un proceso participativo de dos días, se identificaron necesidades de información y oportunidades para la mejor toma de decisiones que permitan priorizar el co-diseño de servicios.La asistencia al Taller de Consulta de Necesidades de Instituciones Usuarias de Tecnología Geoespacial, efectuado en Bogotá, Colombia, los días 27 y 28 de agosto de 2019, tuvo un total de 63 participantes, representantes de diversas instituciones públicas y privadas.De estas 63 personas, 37 fueron hombres y 26 mujeres. La distribución de las instituciones es como sigue:Ilustración 2: Tipo de instituciones participantes (Fuente: Registros de Asistencia) SERVIR-AMAZONIAA través de una encuesta en vivo, se facilitó una discusión inicial acerca de las percepciones de los participantes sobre el estado actual de la toma de decisiones ambientales basadas en información geoespacial en Colombia.-Los participantes consideran que el nivel de uso de información geoespacial para la toma de decisión en la Amazonia es intermedio. El uso de la información es ligeramente mejor para las áreas de servicio \"Condiciones meteorológicas y clima\". Se resaltó que el IDEAM está haciendo un trabajo impecable, pero hay que fomentar el uso de la información, pasando a una cadena de valor de la información que asegure un buen flujo entre todos los actores y usuarios ya que se nota un problema de la distribución para llegar al usuario final. Se requiere más intercambio intersectorial (i.e. agricultura y medio ambiente).-En general, la disponibilidad de datos es considerada buena, pero falta un mayor análisis a nivel territorial. La temporalidad es otro aspecto importante a considerar, ya que a veces se toman decisiones con información desactualizada. Una mayor facilidad en la integración con otros sistemas de información es necesaria a través de manuales que se deben formular, usando APIs, y datos abiertos lo que facilitará un mayor nivel de consultas.-También se identificó que el factor más determinante para mejorar la aplicabilidad de la información geoespacial es la articulación de los actores. Lo más importante es la comunicación: Es necesario que los usuarios potenciales conozcan las iniciativas y los recursos de información disponibles, dar visibilidad y difusión a lo existente. Las plataformas no duran, lo que demuestra el problema de la sostenibilidad de las iniciativas. Hay que buscar una manera creativa de llegar al usuario; acercar la información al territorio, i.e. campesinos.-Igualmente, se debe traducir la información a todo tipo de público, i.e. pueblos indígenas. Más que la falta de tecnología hay que invertir en la parte social, falta el impulso para llegar a los territorios y a diferentes escalas (interacción Bogotá-territorios). En relación con el tema de la conectividad en áreas remotas, la Fundación GAIA busca llevar herramientas a los pobladores de la amazonia. Varios participantes mencionaron que es complejo y que este tema no debería quedar de último en la lista (ver ilustración 3). Muchas comunidades indígenas requieren acceso a la información. Este tema también va de mano con la articulación entre actores. En general hay mucha información dispersa y desarticulada.Ilustración 3: Respuestas a la pregunta: ¿Cuál factor es determinante para mejorar la aplicabilidad de la información geoespacial?-La aplicabilidad del marco normativo fue el tema central de la discusión. Se precisa que las diferentes bases legales para el manejo sostenible del Amazonas ya existen: La Constitución del 91 declara al Amazonas grado sujeto de derecho, la Ley 2 considera la reserva forestal; se creó la figura de los Parques Nacionales Naturales, y la figura de resguardos indígenas, también existen restricciones en el uso de la tierra de la Amazonia Colombiana. Pero las diferentes dinámicas que se dan en el territorio dificultan su implementación ya que no hay garantías en la aplicabilidad del marco legal y faltan los recursos y la capacidad de implementación: procesos de desplazamiento, orden público, ocupación de campesinos, cultivos ilícitos, la deforestación que se incrementó como consecuencias del proceso de Paz, e incluso temas de infraestructura. Adicionalmente, se menciona que en Colombia existen muchas leyes, sobre todo relacionadas con los recursos hídricos y los ecosistemas, muchas veces inspiradas en marcos legales que rigen en otros países, lo cual no ha dado buenos resultados ya que el contexto colombiano es muy específico. En el tema de sequía no hay información suficiente para tener un marco normativo robusto.-La pregunta acerca de la optimización de la participación de los pueblos indígenas generó una discusión enérgica. Dentro de las ideas expresadas (ver notas completas en anexo), se resaltó la necesidad de consultar los pueblos indígenas y hacer lo posible para entender su visión y puntos de vista. Se requiere garantizar la participación de organizaciones indígenas en el diseño de los servicios desde el principio y considerar proyectos exclusivos orientados a sus comunidades incorporando los saberes locales del uso del territorio y actuando de manera diferenciada acorde a sus lenguas, etnias, usos, costumbres y territorialidad. Se mencionó la necesidad de fortalecer la gobernanza territorial incorporando sus prácticas de manejo de los ecosistemas dentro de la planificación territorial. De igual manera se indicaron otros dos requerimientos: La capacitación técnica sobre las oportunidades de mejorar la toma de decisiones usando la información geoespacial, y la necesidad de llevar conocimiento explícito y de fácil comprensión a las comunidades indígenas para que se tomen decisiones informadas bajo hechos concretos y no en base a suposiciones y tomando en cuenta sus hábitos de consumo de información. Se precisó que estas recomendaciones no solo son válidas para las comunidades indígenas, hay que considerar también los campesinos, y colonos que vienen temporalmente a los territorios. -En referencia a la situación de la mujer en las organizaciones representadas, la mayoría de los asistentes (45%) confirmaron que sus instituciones cuentan con una política de promoción de igualdad de género, pero un 11% indicó que no cuenta con esta política de equidad de género. De otro lado, el sondeo permitió conocer que a pesar de que hay una presencia significativa de mujeres en los equipos referidos a geo-referenciación, son pocos los casos en que las mujeres ejercen cargos de dirección.Kelsey Herndon, científica asociada a SERVIR-Amazonia de NASA y Gustavo Galindo, líder de Procesamiento Digital de Imágenes de Satélite de IDEAM hicieron presentaciones sobre nuevas tendencias en el uso de observación de la tierra para mejorar la toma de decisiones ambientales. Existen nuevos sensores que están creando capacidades inéditas, como los datos de radar disponible del satélite SENTINEL. Su potencial es muy importante para los trópicos por su capacidad de ver a través de las nubes, y de tomar información de día y de noche. También se puede medir la estructura de vegetación y detectar fuentes de agua. Otras nuevas capacidades incluyen LIDAR de la Estación del Espacio Internacional y de las compañías con imágenes de alta resolución, como PLANET. Otros avances incluyen la inteligencia SERVIR-AMAZONIA artificial, las plataformas en la nube como los de Google, Microsoft, Amazon y los beneficios del concepto de Open Science.Glenn Hyman, el Líder de Ciencia y Datos de SERVIR-Amazonia realizó una presentación sobre el \"Concepto de Servicios\" que guiará el desarrollo de aplicaciones, plataformas y recursos de información y capacitación bajo el Programa. Un Servicio en el contexto de SERVIR es alguna combinación de datos, aplicaciones, y programas de capacitación de los usuarios. Forman productos integrados de información orientados a proveer soluciones para la toma de decisiones ambientales. Se presentaron varios ejemplos, tal como una aplicación desarrollado por SERVIR que mide la disponibilidad en cuerpos de agua en África del Oeste. El servicio aprovecha los satélites para estimar la presencia de agua y provee la información a los sectores ganaderos y a los productores para que ellos pueden planificar dónde van a llevar su ganado para asegurar que consumen suficiente agua. En este ejemplo hay un flujo de información desde las plataformas de satélites hasta las agencias de gobierno y las asociaciones de ganaderos, llegando al ganadero que está planificando cómo mantener sus vacas hidratadas. SERVIR tiene una caja de herramientas para desarrollar sus servicios. Este incluye guías sobre (1) el concepto de servicio, (2) la teoría de cambio del servicio, (3) la definición de producto de un servicio, (4) la definición de plan de manejo de datos del servicio, y (5) guías para la capacitación de los usuarios. Las plantillas orientan a los equipos que desarrollan los servicios para garantizar su éxito.El mapeo de los servicios existentes y actores claves se realizó de manera participativa y guiado por las áreas temáticas. Este mapeo es el principal insumo para la priorización de los servicios a desarrollar y se usará en la fase de definición y co-desarrollo. Los detalles de la captura de esta información se encuentran en el anexo respectivo.A través de una discusión en grupos pequeños de los participantes se obtuvo una lluvia de ideas sobre las principales necesidades respecto a la mejora del uso de información geoespacial en Colombia, las cuales se agruparon en las siguientes 4 áreas:1. Estandarización de la información 2. Integración de la información 3. Recursos Humanos y financieros 4. Fomento del uso A continuación, se detallan las necesidades que se discutieron en cada categoría:Ilustración: Necesidades expresados por los participantesEn esta sección se presentan las doce ideas de servicios geoespaciales identificadas, desarrolladas de manera participativa, y centradas en las cuatro áreas temáticas de desarrollo de servicios.Ilustración: Las 12 ideas de servicios con el proceso de desarrollo de servicios de SERVIR-AmazoniaLos participantes en el taller en Bogotá expresaron interés en mejorar el acceso la a información de incendios en tiempo real, como, por ejemplo, reportes divulgados por Apps de Smartphone. Los reportes en tiempo real servirían también para reportar a las autoridades de prevención y supresión, donde se están observando los incendios. Actualmente el IDEAM produce un mapa con datos de incendios detectados por satélite.El IDEAM produce alertas de amenaza de incendios el cual es actualizado diariamente. Este producto es válido por 24 horas y se basa en las condiciones actuales de tiempo. Se ha demostrado la necesidad de extender los pronósticos a escala de días a semanas (sub-estacional y estacional). Además de extender los pronósticos de amenaza de incendios, se ha identificado la necesidad de incluir otros indicadores, como tipo y/o stress hídrico de la vegetación, en los modelos de amenaza y progresión de incendios.Además de productos enfocados en incendios, se ha expresado la necesidad de trabajar en los productos de pronóstico de sequía en la Amazonía con el objetivo de apoyar no solamente los temas de prevención de incendios, sino también al sector agrícola.Idea de servicio #4: Monitoreo de inundaciones, niveles y caudales La Amazonia Colombiana, como otros partes de la Amazonia, carece de instrumentos que miden las condiciones hidrológicas y meteorológicas. Debido al bajo nivel de población y actividad económica, no se ha priorizado el establecimiento de estaciones para medir estas condiciones y dado los costos de instalación de estas estaciones, se evalúa la posibilidad de proveer estos servicios con otras tecnologías basado en la observación de la tierra.El servicio propuesto podría proveer información sobre inundaciones y niveles en los ríos de la Amazonia Colombiana en tiempo real, además de pronósticos. Se contempla la adquisición de datos de sensores remotos que pueden ser comparados con las pocas estaciones que existen con el fin de aumentar la cobertura de información en la región. La información meteorológica puede provenir de las mediciones de precipitación y temperatura, quizá incluyendo algo sobre la humedad de suelo durante el transcurso del año. La información sobre los niveles de los ríos podría ser de altimetría de radar. El servicio enviaría alertas a funcionarios de gobiernos locales, a los pescadores y agricultores, y a el sector de navegación en los ríos y otros usuarios. Se utilizarían datos de IDEAM, NASA, NOAA y otros proveedores de información.La Amazonia de Colombia enfrenta problemas de contaminación del agua (i.e por fugas de petróleo u otras sustancias) y hay varios retos en el monitoreo de la calidad de agua. El servicio propuesto crea un sistema de monitoreo de calidad de agua que unifica la información del gobierno, las universidades y otras fuentes. También contempla el desarrollo de una red de información que junta las diversas formas de información. Toda la información estaría geo-referenciada para poder evaluar cómo la red hidrográfica impacta en la dispersión de contaminantes. Una de prioridades del sistema sería la medición de los niveles de mercurio en el agua y en los peces. El sistema podría aprovechar información de satélites para monitorear los sedimentos de los ríos como un indicador de calidad. El sistema enviará alertas a los funcionarios de sistema de salud, la comunidad pesquera y funcionarios de gobiernos locales.Idea de servicio #6: Pronóstico de Clima, tiempo meteorológico e hídrico exclusivo para la Amazonia Se trata de una aplicación destinada a actores locales (gobernaciones, alcaldías, sector productivo, comunidades) que generaría pronósticos con imágenes e información específica para la Amazonia a escala y generadas a partir de estaciones hidro-meteorológicos terrestres. Se podrían tomar decisiones sobre el ordenamiento territorial, la gestión ambiental, el uso de la tierra agrícola, y mejorar la gestión del riesgo y de la salud pública. Las organizaciones involucradas serían entre otros: IDEAM, MADR, UNGRD, Gobernaciones y alcaldías, comunidad, federaciones, CARs, DNP, UPRA, consejos y asambleas, Parques Nacionales Naturales)Idea de servicio #7: Sistema de Alertas tempranas hidro-meteorológicas para la AmazoniaSe trataría de un sistema de alertas tempranas que funciona en red y destinada a actores locales tal como alcaldías y gobernaciones, gremios productivos y de turismo, industrias, autoridades indígenas, asociaciones agrícolas, aseguradoras, y aviación comercial. Hay un sistema existente en Mocoa, y mínimo se necesitan cinco sistemas más para lograr una difusión de alertas que cubre los territorios amazónicos. Las instituciones por involucrar serían los SAT locales, alcaldías, cuerpos de emergencia, IDEAM, PNN, CARs y SINCHISe trataría de un servicio de información de gestión del agua integrada desde varios proveedores tal como las estaciones meteorológicas, imágenes satelitales e información compartida por los habitantes de la región. El servicio podría mejorar la toma de decisiones para acciones de mitigación y adaptación al clima, planeación de actividades productivas, y manejo del recurso hídrico. El servicio destinado a PNN, la academia, comunidades, los medios de comunicación y el sector educativo podría influir en la apropiación y transformación del conocimiento colectivo y contribuir a la adaptación cultural al cambio del clima (variabilidad climática).Idea de servicio #9: Plataforma unificada de serviciosEl IDEAM brinda una serie de servicios independientes, tales como monitoreo de deforestación, mapeo del uso de la tierra, inventario forestal y otros. Este nuevo servicio combinaría estos componentes separados en una plataforma de servicio unificada para el uso del suelo y el análisis de ecosistemas, lo que facilitaría la planificación, el ordenamiento del uso del suelo, la otorgación de licencias y la gestión ambiental. Con el objetivo de mejorar el desempeño de la planificación pública, la plataforma centralizaría los servicios en un entorno interoperable y estandarizado con información geoespacial en tiempo real. Idea de servicio #10: Sistema nacional de Catastro Ambiental Rural en AmazoniaEste servicio responde a una necesidad crítica de generar información acerca de la tenencia de la tierra en la Amazonía colombiana. El Catastro Ambiental Rural podría ser un instrumento fundamental para ayudar en el proceso de regularización ambiental de propiedades y posesiones rurales. Consiste en trazar un mapa digital a partir del cual se calculan los valores de las áreas para diagnóstico ambiental delimitando las áreas de conservación, áreas de protección permanente, reserva legal, restos de vegetación nativa, área rural consolidada, áreas de interés social y utilidad pública. También ayudaría en la planificación de la propiedad rural, la legalización, el ordenamiento, la sanción legal, la concesión de licencias, así como la recuperación de áreas degradadas, la gestión ambiental y el proceso de paz, promoviendo la formación de corredores ecológicos y la conservación de otros recursos. Podría ser utilizado por los gobiernos departamentales y nacionales.Colombia tiene un sistema de monitoreo de deforestación bien desarrollado. Este nuevo servicio ayudaría a explicar los patrones y procesos de cambio forestal y a gestionar el manejo de zonas vulnerables, además de fundamentar una práctica de diferenciación de los ecosistemas. El servicio estaría integrado con el inventario nacional forestal, permitiendo la elaboración de escenarios ambientales en la planificación a nivel municipal y departamental.Idea de servicio #12: Sistema de detección del cambio de cobertura Este servicio brindaría un amplio monitoreo forestal para la caracterización del cambio de uso de la tierra.Esto ayudaría a las partes interesadas a comprender procesos más complejos detrás de la deforestación para contribuir, desde esta perspectiva, a las prácticas que favorecen el control del uso de la tierra, la expansión de la cubierta forestal y una mejor prestación de servicios relacionados a los ecosistemas asociados. Dicho sistema permitirá verificar rápidamente las alertas acerca de cambios en la cubierta forestal en la Amazonía colombiana apoyando la inspección realizada por ANLA, SINCHI y otras agencias (vigilancia, sanción, prevención y control de la deforestación y la degradación de los bosques).El taller finalizó con un aporte del Líder de Datos y Ciencia de SERVIR-Amazonia, Glenn Hyman, quien hizo una comparación de los resultados del taller con la consulta de usuarios que se desarrolló con usuarios peruanos en Lima durante el mes de Julio 2019.Glenn resaltó que en el Perú se incluyó el tema de monitoreo del efecto de plagas y enfermedades para los productores y que el tema de monitoreo de tiempo y clima para los cultivos ocupó una posición más alta en la agenda en Perú que en Colombia. Mencionó que hay muchos intereses comunes en incendios, así que se podría considerar el desarrollo de servicios comunes entre los dos países. En el Perú se incluyó el problema de Humo en las ciudades, expansión de incendios, y herramientas para monitorear los vientos. En Colombia se habló más del concepto de \"crowd sourcing\" y el uso de los medios sociales para lograr un flujo de la información a doble vía. Anota que el tema del Catastro no se mencionó en Perú. Dos temas que no se mencionaron en ningún país fueron los incendios en el bosque y el mapeo digital de suelos.  ","tokenCount":"3544"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"028454a5fae87f70cb4e29d11824b69c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a1fe769-379d-465a-bfb6-03a0e1a64be3/retrieve","id":"-1880082770"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0d224239-a243-4123-a4d0-5222cdb8ef55","pagecount":"29","content":"Whiteflies belong to the order Homoptera, family Aleyrodidae, and are currently reported to transmit 28 different plant viruses ofbeans and other crops (71,120). Whitefly species reported to be vectors of plant viruses include Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (=B. inconspicua Quaintance), B. lonicerae, B. manihotis Frappa, B. tuberculata Bandar, B. vayassieri Frappa, Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar, Aleurothrixus jloccosus Mask, Trialeurodes abutilonea Haldeman, T natalensis Corb. and T vaporariorum Westwood (13,32,36,91,106). Whitefly populations are commonly restricted to tropical zones below 1300m, where they are capable of transmitting viruses to various plant species (13, 32, 36, 61 , 68, 95, 102, 119, 120).Bemisia tabaci is the most common whitefly vector ofbean viruses and is variable in its feeding habits and reproduction rates on different plant species. Flores and Silberschmidt (56) and Russell (107) characterize this variation as biotypes. However, Bird (9,10,11,14) denotes the variation as races, B. tabaci race jatrophae and B. tabaci race sidae.The virus diseases transmitted by whiteflies (B. tabaci) are grouped into two main types by Costa (52) according to their symptomatology. These types are mosaic and leaf curl.A green, or more frequently yellow, mosaic of foliage is the most conspicuous symptom in the mosaic group. Y ellowing may appear along the veins and develop into a yellow net orbe limited by the veins. Curling or crinkling of the foliage m ay occur dueto the ~bnormal or unequal growth of healthy and infected mosaic areas of the leaf. As the foliage matures, the mosaic tends to become less apparent, and for certain diseases, such as cotton common mosaic, the yellow areas may turn reddish llite in the season (28). In the case of Malvaparviflora infected with the disease agent from Abutilon thompsonii, the initial mosaic is followed by witches' broom symptoms (58). The characteristic yellow or gol den color of infected plants is easy to distinguish from hea1thy plants in a field . . In the case of leaf curl, infected plants do not exhibit clear mosaic symptoms but may show a diffused yellowing of leaves and vein clearing which may be easily overlooked. The characteristic symptom caused by this group is the stunting of infected plants, curling, enation, and vein thickening of foliage. Costa (36) recently included a third group of whitefly-transmitted viruses which produces yellowing symptoms to distinguish from similar symptoms induced by aphid-transmitted viruses or nutritional disorders. Yellowing symptoms induced by whitefly-transl\\}itted viruses commonly appear only later during plant development.Symptomatological differences suggest that the first group of viruses occurs in parenchymatous tissue and the second group occurs in phloem vessels (32). However, sorne diseases may induce symptoms of the first group in sorne hosts and symptoms of the second group in other hosts. F or example, the disease agent from infected Rhynchosia mínima induces a bright yellow mosaic symptom on Rhyncosia mínima but induces leaf curl and enation on tobacco (11). Duffus (54) also mentions two major groups of whitefly-transmitted viruses identified as variegation-producing and plant malformation-producing types.Very few whitefly-transmitted diseases have been isolated and provento have a viral etiology. The previously mentioned groups of viral diseases have been based upon arbitrary classifications due to similarities in symptomatology and presumed insect vectors. Bird et al. (20) suggested that these whitefly-transmitted viruses with unknown or incomplete etiology be placed in one group, rugaceous diseases, instead of different groups primarily distinguished only by symptomatology. Much organized and collaborative research is required to characterize these whiteflytransmitted viruses and establish their true relationships.The following viruses of beans and other plant species have been demonstrated to be whitefly-transmitted, many however, only under research conditions. These viruses are grouped in order of their decreasing economic importance: a) bean golden mosaic; b) bean chlorotic mottle, abutilon mosaic, yellow dwarf mosaic, infectious chlorosis of M alvaceae; e) euphorbia mosaic; d) rhynchosia mosaic; e) jatropha mosaic; f) jacquemontia mosaic; g) ipomoea or merremia mosaic; and h) mung bean yellow mosaic.The following sections of this chapter will review the geographical distribution, economic importance, host range, symptomatology, physical properties, transmission, epidemiology and control measures reported for these viruses.Bean golden mosaic virus (BG MV) was first reported in Latín Ame rica in 1961 (31), at which time it was considered to be a minor disease in Sao Paulo, Brazil. lt has since occurred in practically every major bean production area in Brazil, including Minas Gerais, Parana, Bahía, Pernambuco, Ceara, Para, the Amazon, and the Valle del Rio Sao Francisco (33,44,121). BGMV has been reported in many other bean production regions of Latín America, such as El Salvador (66,67,126,127), Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama (66,67), Puerto Rico (12,17,21), Jamaica, Dominican Republic (1 , 2, 101, 102, 108), Colombia (63), Cuba (23), Belize, Mexico, Honduras and Venezuela (Gálvez, personal observations).Identification and nomenclature of BGMV has been quite diverse and must be standardized between workers in different regions, since BG MVlike symptoms have been called BGMV, bean yellow mottle, bean golden yellow mosaic, bean yellow mosaic and bean double yellow mosaic(l2, 17,21,46,47,48,108,126,127). Gálvez et al. (64) utilized serology, electron microscopy and density gradient centrifugation to prove that isolates inducing similar disease symptoms in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Brazil and Nigeria aU were bean golden mosaic virus. This relationship between isolates also should be clarified by utilization of the BGMV antisera developed by Goodman (75) from isolates collected in Puerto Rico.Bean golden mosaic virus is an economically important disease, especially in regions of Latín America such as Brazil and parts of Central America and the Caribbean. Brazilian bean production has been reduced / greatly by the virus since 1972, and its seriousness ha~ been attributed to the increasing whitefly populations associated with the expanded production of soybeans in bean growing areas (33,44,121). Gámez (66,67,70) considers BG MV to be the principal bean di sea se in the Pacific coastal plains of El Salvador, where disease incidence frequently reaches 100%.Various workers (42,69,101,102) report that infection by BGMV reduces the number of pods, number of seeds per pod and seed weight. Reported yield losses consist of 57% in Jamaica ( 1 O 1, 1 02), 48-85% in Brazil ( 42,90), 40-100% in Guatemala (96), and 52-100% in El Salvador (Cortez .._-/ and Diaz, personal correspondence). Yield losses vary greatly depending upon plant age at the time of infection, varietal differences and possibly viral strains (33, 6 1).The host\"range of BG MV includes Phaseolus vulgaris, P. luna tus, P. acutifolius, P. polystachios, P. longepedunculatus, P. aborigeneus, P. coccineus, Desmodium occuleatum, Macroptilus lathyroides, Terramnus urcinatus, Vigna radiata, V. unguiculata and Calopogonium muconoides (2,4,12,13,20,21,27,31,33,34,35,36,51,57,68,79,102,122,124).Common names frequently used for bean golden mosaic virus in Latín America include mosaico dorado del frijol, moteado amarillo del frijol and mosaico dourado do feijoeiro.Symptoms of BGMV are readily visible in infected bean plants which exhibit a brilliant yelJow or golden color of lea ves (Fig. 1). Symptoms may appear in the primary 1eaves within 14 days after planting if high populations of whiteflies are present in or near the fie1d. Bird et al. (20,21) observed the presence of small yellow spots, sometimes apparent as starshaped lesions, near the leaf veins three to four days after exposure to viruliferous whiteflies.The primary systemic symptoms of BG MV infection are apparent as rolling of the lower leaf surface of young lea ves, which 1ater exhibit a range of mosaic symptoms (Fig. 2). These symptoms are predominant near the veins and within the leaf parenchymatous tissue, where an intense and often brilliant yellowing deve1ops. Susceptible cultivars exhibit a marked rugosity and rolling of lea ves, many of which may be completely yellowed or occasionally white to nearly b1eached. Tolerant cu1tivars often present symptoms with less intense leaf mosaics and may exhibit sorne plant recuperation at a later stage of development.Most cu1tivars do not show a reduction of leaf size (33). When the infection occurs during the seedling stage, susceptible plants may become stunted. Pods of infected p1ants may exhibit mosaic spots orbe malformed (Fig. 3). Seeds may be disco1ored, malformed, and reduced in size and weight (24,66,67).The symptomatology of BGMV appears to be similar to that reported for lima bean golden mosaic virus in Africa (122) and lima bean yellow mosaic in India; but the 1atter differs in its host range (95,105). Mung bean yellow mosaic, urd bean yellow mosaic viruses and yellow mosaic of Do/ichos lablab likewise are not able to infect the majority of Phaseolus vulgaris cultivars (104). However, these viruses appear to have a similar symptomato1ogy on their respective hosts as doesBGMV in beans (92,93,95,104,128). Electron microscopy evaluations of infected bean tissue reveal that the principal cellulu symptom is evident as a drama tic change in chloroplast morphology, particularly in the lamellar system (81). Recently Kim et al. (80) reported that the symptoms are limited to the phloem tissue and cells adjacent to the parenchyma tissue. Virus-like particles appear as packed hexagonal crystal arrangements or as loose aggregates in the nuclei of infected cells. Distinct changes in the nucleoli also are evident, since there is a segregation of granular complexes and fibrils which may occupy 75% of the nuclear volume (76).Bean golden mosaic virus has been classified as a viral disease beca use of its characteristic transmission by insects, symptomatology and mode of dissemination in the field (21 , 31 , 68, 85, 101). However, its viral etiology was not completed until its isolation was accomplished in 1975 by Gálvez and Castaño (62). They observed that fixed BGMV has a specific form which consists of icosahedral particles united in pairs (identical dimer particles or geminates). The bonded particles are flattened at their point of union (Fig. 4) and measure 19 x 32 nm, while individual particles have a diameter of 15-20 nm. Matyis et al. (87) reported individual particles measured 12-13 nm in diameter. A similar particle morphology was found for the viruses causing tomato golden mosaic, euphorbia mosaic (86,87) as well as BGMV of beans in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, and BG MV of P. luna tus from Nigeria (64).Goodman et al. (77) could not determine whether these geminate particles actually were the infectious entities or artifacts of fixation. However, Gálvez and co-worlcers (24,62) could observe particles in unflxed preparations, and they gave the highest infectivity. When the BGMV particles were disassociated with EDTA at high molarity(O. IM), infectivity was almost completely lost.BGMV particles have a therrnal inactivation point of 50°C (18,19) to 55°C (62}, a final dilution end-point of 10-1 ( 62) to 10-2 ( 18, 19), and an in vitro longevity of 48 hours at room temperature (62). Goodman and coworkers (76,77) deterrnined that the particles have a sedimentation coefflcient value of 69 S, a molecular weight of 2.6 x 1()6 daltons, a 260 nm absorbance value of7.7 anda 260{280 absorbance ratio of 1.4. The genome of BGMV contains DNA which has a sedimentation coefficient of 16 S, a molecular weight of O. 75 x 1()6 daltons, and compases 29% of the particle (24,25,72,73,76). Two protein components, of molecular weight 3.8 x 1 ()4 and 5.5 x 1()4 daltons, were isolated by Cárdenas and Gálvez (24,25). The DNA is single stranded and resistant to exonucleases (24,74). It has a buoyant density of l. 717 g/ mi in cesium chloride and is resolved into two components during polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in 8 M urea (74, 77). Francki and Bock (60) have included BGMV in a newvirusgroup called the Geminivirus, based upon its particle characterization, physicalchemical properties and single-stranded DN A.BG MV can be transmitted naturally by whiteflies and artificially by mechanical inoculation. Other whitefly-transmitted plant viruses such as euphórbia mosaic, abutilon mosaic and sweet potato virus 8 also ha ve been transmitted mechanically (32,36). However, Meiners et al. (88)   (87) were notable to transmit BGMV isolates mechanically in Brazil, which may reflect differences in methodology or strains. Sorne strains of BG MV may be transmissible only by the whitefly vector (36,41,76).BGMV has not been shown to be transmissible in seed from infected bean plants. Pierre (102) tested seed from 300 infected bean plants, and Costa (31 , 33, 34, 36) tested seed from 350 infected lima bean plants. N one of these seeds was found to be infected by BGMV.The principal mode of BGMV transmission, especially under field conditions, occurs from the whitefly vector, Bemisia tabaci. Whiteflies are able to extract plant sap, but the principal threat to crop productivity is their ability to transmit plant viruses. Costa (32) stated that the whitefly is able to transmit viruses to more than 16 plant species, including cultivated and non-<:ultivated plants. Nene (94) has studied the biology of whiteflies in relation to legumes such as Phaseolus aureus, Vigna mungo and Glycine max. The insect can produce 15 generations a year, during which time populations may be restricted toa single crop species or migra te to a variety of plant species. A whitefly may la y 38-106 eggs(Fig. 5) during its life cycle, which requires 13-20 days d uring March to Octo ber or 24-72 days d uring N ovember to M arch in India. Populations of whiteflies are reduced as the mung bean crop matures. These populations then may migrate to other plants such as crucifers, lentils and peas.The life cycle on cotton in India ( 107) varies from 14-107 days, is shortest during April to September (14-21 days), and is longer during November to February (69-72 days). The maximum ovipos,tion occurred at temperatures greater than 26.5°C, and no oviposition occurred at temperatures below 24°C .There is no evidence of transovarial transmission or virus multiplication within the whitefly (32,36,95).Costa (32) states that .whitefly-transmitted viruses are not acquired as rapidly as aphid-transmitted viruses. Inoculation efficiency increases more because of longer acquisition periods than because of differences in virus infectivity. Whitefly-transmitted viruses have a defined but shorter incubation period, and particles are retained for more than 20 days in the insect vector. Whitefly adults can acquire and transmit BGMV within 5 minutes (7, 21 , 68), and the inoculation efficiency is increased as population size is increased per infected plant (7, 13, 32, 36, 68, 120). Gámez (68)found an average acquisition and incubation period of three hours each. The retention period varíes according to the acquisition period but may reach 21 days or the entire life ofthe whitefly (7,20,32,36,68,120). The insects occasionally have been observed to lose their capacity for transmission (68). lmmature forros (Fig. 6) are able to acquire mung bean yellow mosaic virus which persists during pupation and can be transmitted during the  Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses adult stage. At least 50% transmission has occurred from adults (Fig. 7) obtained from irnmature fonns which had previously fed on infected plants (95,105). Costa (35} reported that female whiteflies were more efficient than males as vectors ofBGMV to Phaseolus vulgaris, P. acutifolius and P. po/ystachios. However, males were more efficient vectors on P. lunatus and P. longepedunculatus.BGMV is not seed-transmitted and, therefore, probably exists in many regions in plant reservoirs such as lima beans and other susceptible legumes including voluntary and cultivated beans, and weeds (34, 36, S l , 52, 61, 68, 1 02). Pierre ( 1 02) considers that lima beans and Macroptilium lathyroides are natural hosts for BGMV in Jamaica, in addition to poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima). Increased production of soybeans has increased whitefly populations and BG MV incidence great\\y in beans planted in Parana and Sao Paulo, Brazil (33,44,121). Tobacco, tomato and cotton plantings in El Salvador and Guatemala are responsible for the high whitefly populations in those countries (5,6,27,52,61,78).Bean golden mosaic virus is more prevalent in lower to intermediate elevations ( 13, 33}, nonnally below 2000 m where whitefly populations, temperatures and inoculum sources are greater. BGMV incidence is less during November to March when temperatures and insect vector populations are lower in Jamaica, Cuba and the Dominican Republic. BG M V is more common and severe in Brazil at elevations between 400-800 m and near the end of the summer or dry period (January to February) when whiteflies migrate from other maturing crops, such as soybeans, to the young bean plantings. Whitefly populations decline rapidly during cooler periods of the year, when temperatures are unfavorable to the whitefly and when fewer susceptible crops exist (31 , 33).The incidence of BG MV in a bean production region can be reduced by eliminating altemative plant reservoirs of inoculum such as volunteer plants of Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus, P. longepedunculatus, Calopogonium sp. and other plant species. Crop rotation and distribution within a production region also are important. BGMV incidence is increased greatly by planting beans near fields of soybeans which, although not susceptible to BGMV, are favorable for whitefly populations which may encounter and transrnit BG MV from infected plants, such as Sida spp. and other hosts, to developing bean crops (33,102). BGMV infection of beans can therefore be reduced by not planting beans near fields of other crops such as soybeans, tomatoes, tobacco and cotton, which favor the build-up of whitefly populations.Date of planting should be varied, if possible, so that young bean plants develop during periods of lower temperature and higher moisture which are less favorable to the whitefly and its ability to transmit BGMV (5, 6, 23, 31' 32, 33, 36, 44, 70, 78, 1 02).N o economical and practical biological control measures are currently available (95,109). Plant mulches have been shown to reduce whitefly populations (8), possibly due to altered air temperature near the plants.The whitefly vector can be controlled by applying insecticides to economically reduce the population size and incidence of BGMV tranmission to susceptible cultivars. Various insecticides are effective against whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum). These include Tamaron 600E (l lt / ha), Nuvacron 60 (0.5 lt/ ha), Folimat 1000 (0.5 lt / ha), Bux 360 and Thiodan 35 or End• osulfan (1.5 lt fha) (50). Populations of whiteflies were reduced effectively in El Salvador by applying Tamaron 600 ( 1 lt / ha) every seven days during the first 30 days after plant emergence (53,82,83). Alonso (6) reported that Nutasystox R-25 (1 lt / ha), followed by Nuvacron 50 (1.5 lt/ ha) and Folimat 80 (0.33 ltf ha), effectively controlled whiteflies when applied 15 and 30 days after planting.Systemic insecticides, such as Furadan and Thimet, effectively control whitefly populations when applied at planting (6). Substantial yield increases were obtained in the Dominican Republic by applying Carbofuran (Furadan 5G) (2.5 g / m row) at planting followed by 0.15% Monocrotophos (Azodrin 60E) applied at six, 15 and 30 days after plant emergence (3,89,99,100). Nene(94) obtained effective control ofwhiteflies in India with a mixture of (a) 0.1% Thiodan, 0.1% Metasystox and 2% mineral oil, anda mixture of (b) 0.1% Malathion, 0.1% Metasystox and 2% mineral oil. He observed that the mineral oii acted as an ovacide.Chemical control of insect vectors can be effective and economical in areas with moderate to low disease pressure and whitefly populations. However, its effectiveness can be reduced in regions where high numbers of viruliferous vectors migrate continuously from other infected plant species. Therefore, chemical control may have to be combined with other control measures, such as plant resistance, to achieve a higher leve! of protection.Plant resistance can provide an economical method of disease control. W orkers ha ve evaluated more than 10,000 accessions of Phaseolus vu/garis, and sorne accessions of P. luna tus. P. acutifolius, and P. coccineus under field and laboratory conditions, but they have not found any source of high resistance or immunity to BG MV (24, 26, 27 , 31, 33, 43, 61, 66  (116,117,118) obtained a tolerant mutant, TDM-1 , by treating seed of Carioca with 0.48% ethyl methanol sulfonate for six hours at 20°C. TDM-1 has a leve! of to1erance similar to that of Turrialba 1, but it is not as agronomically acceptable.The tolerance of Turrialba 1, Porrillo 1, ICA-Tuí and ICA-Pijao has been confirmed in Guatemala, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, Brazil and N igeria under high disease pressure in bean nurseries interplanted between tomatoes, tobacco, cotton, and soybeans to favor high whitefly populations (Fig. 8). Glasshouse inoculations and subsequent laboratory analyses revealed that these tolerant materials contained lower virus concentrations than highly susceptible accessions (24,26,27).These tolerant materials have been utilized in breeding programs, and initial progenies appear promising (65,129). Sorne progenies are highly tolerant to BGMV and produce 1,500 kg/ ha under high disease pressure, as compared to yields of 1,000 (ICA-Pijao) and 650 (Turria1ba l) kg/ ha for the progenitors. These progenies can produce 3,000 kg f ha in conditions where the virus is not a limiting factor to production.Bean golden mosaic virus and its whitefly vector are able to survive on and infect various p1ant species, including beans. Integrated control measures can effective1y reduce the incidence and severity of BG MV. These measures should consist of reducing vector populations by chemicals, eliminating altemative hosts, and using different p1anting dates combined with the deve1opment of agronomicaUy acceptable cultivars with improved levels of to1erance or resistance.Bean chlorotic mottle virus (BC1MV), abuti1on mosaic virus (AbMV), yellow dwarf mosaic virus and infectious ch1orosis of Malvaceae have a similar symptomato1ogy and are considered as a group in this section. Additional research is required to fully characterize these viruses to determine whether or not they are identical.These viruses reportedly are widespread throughout Latín America, wherever the whitefly vector exists (4,JO,12,13,14,15,16,36,38,45,78). They have been observed in Colombia, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and the United States. Often they are present in regions where bean golden mosaic virus and Rhynchosia mosaic virus exist. Their symptoms frequently are confused with those of BClMV and AbMV (27,29,31,32,36,61,97,111,113,123).Common names frequently used for bean chJorotic mottle virus and abutilon mosaic virus in Latín America include moteado clorótico del fríjol, enanismo amarillo, enanismo del fríjol, anao amarelo, clorosis infecciosa de las Malvaceas, and mosaico de Abutilon.BClMV can cause 100% infection in susceptible cultivars but seldom is economically importan t. Its incidence normally is onJy 2-5% in Brazil (31 ). However, Costa (33) reported that BClMV caused 100% yield loss in each of five cultivars that he studied.   14,15,20,29,30,31,39,40,45,49,55,59,61,78,81,98,110,111,112).BCIMV and AbMV infection can cause asevere dwarfing of susceptible plants, accompanied by a high proliferation of buds and a bunchy or rosette type of plant development. If infection occurs in young plants, a witches' broom is produced and leaves often exhibit chlorotic mottling (Fig. 9). Chlorotic spots or mottled areas may be produced on leaves of tolerant cultivars or older susceptible plants (Fig. 10). These spots may be accompanied by a rugosing of leaves (Fig. 11). Severely affected plants   produce few or no pods. Figure 12 illustrates AbMV symptoms produced in an infected Pavonia sp. plant, and Figure 13 illustrates symptoms of infectious ch1orosis of Ma1vaceae in an infected Malva sp. plant.S un (115) observed ultrathin cytoplasmic sections of Abutilon stn'atum var. thompsonii infected with AbMV and found spherical particles 80 nm in diameter. These particles consisted of an inner core 16 nm in diameter surrounded by an outer shell. Kitajima and Costa (8 I) observed isometric particles 20-25 nm in diameter in infected tissue of Sida micrantha. Additional studies are needed to compare these observations with BCIMV isolated from other infected hosts including beans.Costa and Carvalho (39,40) determined that AbMV had a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C, a final di1ution end-point of 5-6, and retained its infectivity for 48-72 hours in vitro in water or sodium sulfide buffer.Mechanical transmission of AbMV has been very difficult but has been accomplished by Costa and Carvalho (39,40) from Malva parviflora and Sida micrantha to soybeans. The virus can be propagated in these species as well as in Sida carpinifolia. Bird et al. (20) was unable to transmit AbMV mechanically and had difficulties with its natural vector, Bemisia tabaci race sidae. Strain differences may exist within the virus and whiteflies.Whiteflies have been demonstrated to transmit BClMV and AbMV to beans ( 1 O, 20, 29, 30, 31 , 33, 36, 38, 56, 97, 113, 114). Bird et al. (20) showed that whiteflies could acquire the virus during a 15-20 minute feeding and retain their ability to transmit AbMV for seven days. Costa (33) was able to transmit AbMV easily from Sida sp. to beans but had difficulty transferring it from beans to beans via the whitefly.Euphorbia mosaic virus (EMV) was isolated in 1950 from Euphorbia prunifolia Jacq. (37) and has since been observed in many species of Euphorbia. The virus has been detected in beans in Brazil but does not appear to be economically important. EMV or bean crumpling generally produces only local necrotic leaf lesions at the feeding sites of viruliferous whiteflies. Occasionally EMV may induce a systemic infection characterized by twisting or crumpling of leaves due to the unequal growth of green tissue surrounding the initial necrotic lesions. A bnormal development of auxillary buds al so may occur, and plants are commonly stunted.M a tyis et al. (86,87) purified EMV partially and reported that it consists of identically-paired particles 25 nm in diameter and individual isometric particles which measure 12 -13 nm in diameter. They determined that EMV belongs to the Geminivirus group.Costa and Carvalho (39,40) reported that EMV in sap has a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C and retains its infectivity in vitro for more than 48 hours. Bird et al. (18) also report that EMV has a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C but retains its infectivity in vitro less than 24 hours and has a dilution end point of 10-J. lnfectivity can be maintained : in tissue dried in calcium chloride at 4°C for 12 weeks.Euphorbia mosaic virus can be transmitted mechanically from Euphorbia sp. (Fig. 14) to Datura sp. at a rate of 31 % and easily between Datura sp. (18,22,39,40). Transrnission from soybeans to soybeans is difficult. EMV is not seed-transmitted (20,33).Bemisia tabaci supply the natural mode of transmission, can acquire the virus during a 1 O-minute feeding period, but require a 20-rninute period for transmission, and can retain their infectivity for 20 days (20, 31 , 36, 37).Euphorbia mosaic virus seldom is observed in bean fields unless there is a high incidence of whiteflies and infected Euphorbia spp. near or within the field.Very Jittle research has been conducted on control measures for EMV, which is even less infectious to beans than BCJMV or AbMV (31 , 33, 36). However, plant resistance has been identified in accessions of Phaseolus  Rhynchosia mosaic virus (RMV) was isolated in Puerto Rico and produces symptoms similar to those reported for infected Rhynchosia mínima in other tropical countries (ll, 12,13,14,15,20,84). Symptoms of RMV are similar to those caused by BCIMV and AbMV. Research is required to determine the relationship between these viruses. Rhynchosia mosaic virus is transmitted by whiteflies but is not reported to cause economic problems.The common name frequently used for Rhynchosia mosaic virus in Latin America is mosaico de la Rhynchosia.The virus has a host range which includes Salvia splendeus Sellow, Cajanus indicus Spreng, Canavalia ensifomis (L.) D.C., C. marítima (Aubl.) Thou., Crotalaria juncea L., Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urban, Pachyrrhizus erosus (L.) Urban, Phaseolus aborigeneus Burk., P. acutifolius A. Gray. P. l. Wright, P. acutifolius A. Gray latifolius, P. coccineus L., P. lunatus L. , P. trichocarpus C. Wright, P. vulgaris L., Rhynchosia mínima DC, R. reticulata DC, Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal, V. angularis (Willd.) Ohwi and Ohashi, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) M oendi, Gossypium hirsutum L., Malachra capitata L. , Oxalis berrelieri L., Nicotiana acuminata Hook, N. afata Link and Otto, N. bonariensis Lehmann, N. glutinosa L., N. nightiana Goodspeed, N. marítima Wheeler, N. paniculata L.and N. tabacum L. ( 11 , 20).Rhynchosia mosaic virus infection of beans causes symptoms such as leaf malformation, yellowing (Fig. 15), witches' broom and plant stunting . Mechanical transmission ( 18%) has been demonstrated by using buffers and the tobacco cultivar, Virginia 12, as source of inoculum (12,20). Rhynchosia mosaic virus has not been found to be seed-transmitted (20).The virus is easily transmitted by Bemisia tabaci (11,20). Transmission can be achieved in less than 24 hours and the insect retains its infectivity for seven days. Apparently, the virus survives in infected weeds such as Rhynchosia minima which is widespread throughout the tropics.Very little research has been conducted into control meas u res for RM V. Glasshouse investigations in Puerto Rico (20), revealed that the bean cultivars La Vega (R 19) and Santa Ana (selection from Masa ya, Nicaragua) were tolerant to the virus and hada good leve! of resistance in the field .Bird (9,20) reports that three viruses were capable of infecting beans under controlled conditions in Puerto Rico. They were Jatropha mosaic virus, isolated from Jatropha gossypifo/ia (L.) Pohl and transmitted by Be misia tabaci race (biotype) jatropha; Merremia mosaic virus, isolated from Merremia quinquefolio Hall and transmitted by Bemisia tabaci race (biotype) sidae; and Jacquemontia mosaic virus, isolated from Jacquemontia tamnifolia Griseb and transmitted by Bemisia tabaci race (biotype) sidae.This chapter has reviewed briefly sorne of the whitefly-transmitted viruses which are reported to infect beans under natural and artificial conditions. Much confusion exists between investigators as to virus identification and relationships (20, 33, 36, 41, 61 , 76, 86). Additional research is required to elucidate this complex group ofviruses and to study the variability which may exist within these viruses and their whitefly vectors.","tokenCount":"4857"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b87bcbae0bd70dc800a46d3f390b1009","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00267-022-01616-9.pdf","id":"-928975158"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"902ba772-61cf-4093-8b5e-2d91f10e32ac","pagecount":"12","content":"The COVID-19 pandemic has underlined the importance of safe access to sufficient clean water in vulnerable communities, renewing interest in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) programs and related targets under Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). The purpose of this study was to better understand the obstacles to water access in vulnerable communities and identify ways they might be addressed in five countries in the Mekong Region (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand,  Vietnam). To this end, qualitative interviews with 50 government officials and development or health experts were complimented with a quantitative survey of the experiences and views of individuals in 15 vulnerable communities. There were several key findings. First, difficulties in accessing sufficient clean water for drinking and hygiene persist in certain vulnerable communities, including informal urban settlements, remote minority villages, and migrant worker camps. Second, limited rights, high prices, and remote locations were common obstacles to household access to improved water sources. Third, seasonal differences in the availability of clean water, alongside other disruptions to supply such as restrictions on movement in COVID-19 responses, drove households towards lower quality sources. Fourth, there are multiple threats to water quality from source to consumption that should be addressed by monitoring, treatment, and watershed protection. Fifth, stakeholder groups differ from each other and residents of vulnerable communities regarding the significance of water access, supply and quality difficulties, and how they should be addressed. The paper ends with a set of program suggestions addressing these water-related difficulties.The COVID-19 pandemic has underlined how access to clean water for drinking, hygiene, and other household uses is still an important issue for vulnerable communities in both developing and developed countries (Hannah et al.  2020, Tortajada & Biswas 2020). A survey of households in 23 low-income and middle-income countries in 2017-18 found almost 70% had water-related problems in the previous month that made them vulnerable to COVID-19 (Stoler et al. 2021). A review of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) measures adopted in 84 countries showed that, while hygiene and infection prevention has been widely promoted, support for vulnerable households was often weak and coverage incomplete (Giné-Garriga et al.  2021). Inadequate water and sanitation infrastructure are frequently identified obstacles to improving hygiene practices, and thus reducing risks of COVID-19 infection (Howard 2021); for example, in remote Alaskan native communities in the United States (Eichelberger et al. 2021), and rural villages in Odishi, India (Bauza et al. 2021). Low socioeconomic status (Aregu et al. 2021), lack of formal rights (Larson 2020, Tanana et al. 2021), gender inequalities (Islam et al. 2021), and skewed power relations (Corburn  et al. 2020, Stoler et al. 2021) are other sources of obstacles.The purpose of this study was to better understand the main obstacles to household water access in vulnerable communities in the Mekong Region and identify ways they might be addressed in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper focuses on the perspectives of 50 government officials, and development or health experts interviewed from five countries in the Mekong Region (Cambodia, Laos,  Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam). This qualitative evidence was complimented with selected observations from a quantitative survey of residents in 15 vulnerable communities reported in detail elsewhere (Lebel et al. 2022). Previous work in the Mekong Region on issues of water access, supply, and quality provide a starting point from which to ask questions about the impacts of COVID-19.Access refers to having the capabilities and entitlements to use a water source or system to meet at least basic needs (Gupta & Lebel 2010). Residents in central Yangon, Myanmar, for instance, have had access to piped water for more than 150 years (Ko & Sakai 2021), whereas today in peri-urban Yangon, the majority of informal settlement dwellers living along the river banks do not have access to tap water (Groot & Bayrak 2019). Instead, they had to buy water of dubious quality at high prices from vendors. Perceptions of tap water quality and familiarity with it as a source are important to whether it is drunk or not in central Yangon (Ko & Sakai 2021). In this example, differences in access to the tap water system are related to location and land ownership status. It is unclear if the COVID-19 pandemic had any significant impacts (positive or negative) on access to water in informal urban settlements like this or other highly vulnerable communities in the Mekong Region.Supply refers to the physical availability and social allocation of water for household uses. Studies in Can Tho City, Vietnam, suggest that abilities to access alternative water resources to formal tap water system may reduce the risks of water shortages (Allen 2019), but another study showed that households that use multiple water sources had higher rates of illness (Neumann et al. 2014), underlining the importance of considering water quality in addition to supply volumes. In one site in Northern Vietnam, reservoirs traditionally used to harvest and store rainwater for the dry season were removed to construct a coal power plant (Nga  2018). Residents were provided with treated tap water from the river, but did not trust the quality of the water and found the supply unreliable, so they shifted back to collecting rainwater. These two examples illustrate interactions between access, supply, and quality. It is unclear if the COVID-19 outbreak in the short-term disrupted supplies or whether it renewed longer-term commitments to improving the supply of water to vulnerable communities in the Mekong Region.Quality refers to the properties of water at various points from source to use, with an emphasis here on being safe to drink and clean enough for washing hands. Ethnic minorities living in upland areas of Northern Thailand obtain drinking water from mountain streams, shallow wells, or buy commercial bottled water (Sudsandee et al. 2020). In this latter study, all samples from mountain water supply systems were found to be contaminated. Groundwater wells, a potentially valuable drinking water source in periurban Chiang Mai, Thailand, were contaminated with E. coli and Enterococcus despite the use of \"improved\" sanitation systems (Chuah & Ziegler 2018). In another suburban study, contamination of rainwater collected for drinking, could be explained by the lack of regular cleaning of rainwater urns (Vannavong et al. 2017). Water quality issues have not been addressed in most studies on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, so its importance to meeting drinking water needs and the effectiveness of hygiene programs is still unclear.The distinct vulnerabilities of women and men, elderly and children, migrants and residents, to the impacts of COVID-19 may intersect with water access, supply, and quality in differing ways. A review of WASH interventions in Myanmar focussed on internally displaced people, identified access to sanitation facilities by women, children, and the disabled as key gaps (Domini et al. 2020). While women in Vietnam were seen by officials as the primary beneficiaries of improved domestic water supply services, they had little recognized role in planning, maintenance or decision-making (Thai & Guevara 2019). WASH initiatives can be an entry point to women's empowerment and contribute to gender equality (Leahy et al. 2017). A study of women-owned piped-water businesses in Cambodia also found evidence of empowerment, while observing persistent gender norms on mobility and household duties that limited income generation (Grant et al. 2019). It is unclear how COVID-19 interacted with household water uses or needs of women, children, the elderly or disabled in the Mekong Region.Taken together, this past work on water use of vulnerable households in the Mekong Region suggests that the importance of COVID-19 impacts with respect to problems of water access, supply, and quality are likely to vary among types of vulnerable communities. Another expectation was that the perspectives of government officials on solutions may vary by country and sector, as well as differ from that of residents. Finally, while all five countries have made progress in pursuing targets under Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6)which aims to \"ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all\" (United Nations 2015)significant or major challenges remain, and are likely to have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 outbreak (Sachs et al. 2021).This study was conducted in five countries in the Mekong Region: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Thailand is now classified as an upper middle-income country, whereas the other four are considered lower middle-income countries (World Bank 2020). The first confirmed COVID-19 case outside China was a Chinese tourist visiting Thailand (13 January 2020). By 24 March 2020, the other four countries had also had their first case. Government efforts in the five countries to control spread of the disease followed similar timelines, for example, the first round of border closures to foreign visitors began in March 2020. As of 23 August 2021, the incidence of COVID-19 per hundred thousand population, based on online datasets (Dong et al. 2020), were from lowest to highest: Lao PDR (174), Vietnam (361), Cambodia (541), Myanmar (691), and Thailand (1507).The interviews covered views on how government programs and policies helped people cope with impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak, starting broadly and then asking specifically about access, supply and quality of water for drinking, hygiene and other household uses in vulnerable communities. Informants were also asked about what else should be done and their views on the merits of pursuing four measures: improving reliability of water supply; improving quality of water supplied; expanding dry season storage; and providing low-income households with free alcohol gel for washing hands. In a few cases, we searched online for additional details about projects and policy issues raised in the key informant interviews. Any such sources used, mostly newspaper articles and press releases, are cited in the text.Altogether 50 interviews were done, primarily between 6 May and 30 June 2021 in the five countries: Cambodia (6), Myanmar (7), Laos (10), Thailand (17), and Vietnam (10). Four late interviews were done in November 2021. By major stakeholder groups, the distribution was: 40 government officials, including from water (13), health (10), other (12), local (5); and 10 non-state actors, including from NGOs (5), academics (4), private consultants (1).Interviews were conducted in local languages, mainly via online or telephone calls, and occasionally in person. When consent for recording was provided, the interviews were later transcribed. When interviewees asked not to be recorded, notes and summaries were made instead. In some cases, the informant asked to type their responses in their own time and send back to the researchers. Interview documents were translated into English for coding and analysis using the NVIVO 12 software.In the results section, references to individual interview sources are shown with an interview number superscript. The full list of interviewees and their anonymized affiliations is provided in Table 1 of the Supplementary Materials.In-depth interviews were not done with members of the vulnerable communities, as this would require extended travel by the researchers and long face-to-face interaction, increasing COVID-19 risks to all. Instead, we drew on a quantitative survey of largely closed questions that could be administered simply and quickly, often with trained local data collectors. Our primary source for information on the views of members of vulnerable communities, therefore, was a survey of 1559 individuals in 15 locations across five countries in the Mekong Region (Table 1). The surveys were mostly done between 20 January and 21 April 2021, except for a few late responses in Myanmar up to 2 June 2021.In this paper, we focus on just a small part of the survey questionnaire dealing with support for interventions (same as those noted above for other stakeholders) and a few indicators of vulnerability and household water difficulties because of the COVID-19 outbreak. Vulnerability indicators included ethnic minority status, not having a formal education, and daily pay for work. For water difficulties, this included items related to access, supply, and quality. For drinking water, for example, this included \"having to drink water that smelt, looked or tasted bad,\" disrupted delivery, water becoming more expensive, and being impacted by drought. A more detailed description of the data collection methods, and an analysis of the full quantitative survey appears in a companion paper (Lebel et al. 2022).The findings below are organized around the inter-related issues of water access, supply, and quality. In the past year, many respondents from 15 vulnerable communities had experienced not having enough clean water to drink (48%)  or wash hands (36%). There were some differences among vulnerable communities (Table 1).A long-term approach to COVID-19 recovery and reducing water access problems is to extend water distribution, for instance, by expanding infrastructure within or adjacent to existing service areas or developing a new source. In Thailand, the Provincial Waterworks Authority \"budget is limited and the installation of pipes to expand area serviced must be worth the investment.\" 30 The latter sentiment, an example of the corporate logic of fee-charging public water authorities. The quickest way to get clean water to an unconnected community is through a request to the subdistrict (TAO) or local government. The local government will then cooperate with the waterworks authority, \"which is ready to assist.\" 28 Through this pathway, the work will be done more quickly as \"the budget will be allocated faster.\" 28 According to an NGO worker, if you are not the main village, but a small and remote one, then \"you will be among the last villages to be helped. It is local politics.\" 27 Furthermore, local authorities are adept at \"pushing the burden onto people in the community to take responsibility\" 27 for securing their own water resources.In Laos, projects in remote areas may be difficult to access by road in the rainy season, hindering development of water infrastructure. 7 Some places where NGOs work \"have no vehicle access due to poor road conditions, and thus need to walk about 10-20 kilometers, carrying things to the villages.\" 16 Another difficulty for water systems in remote locations is a lack of electricity, in which case one option isif have enough fundsto use a solar-powered pump. 7,13 Apart from remoteness, capacities to provide water services are often limited by budgets. If budget is available but limited, one approach is to \"make two or three more watering points in the community,\" 8 and when more funds are available connect the water system directly to each house. In the context of COVID-19, it is desirable to have direct connections, as this helps reduce risks of contaminated supply points, and makes maintaining social distancing easier than when collecting water from a shared community access point. 7 Infrastructure within the home, including taps, washing stations, storage, and latrines make it easier to follow good hygiene practices, but cost money. Helping vulnerable groups cope with the impacts of COVID-19 is \"not only about water, it is also about WASH, or sanitation and hygiene, hardware and software.\" 9 Government policy in Laos is for all people to have access to WASH services in line with SDG 6, but \"need assistance from outside the country.\" 9 An official in the Ministry of Health in Laos explained plans for a program supported by WHO to upgrade tap water systems \"for all, not only for vulnerable groups\" to be safe to drink. 13 Informants from Laos, in particular, were reluctant to acknowledge vulnerable groups, instead emphasizing \"access for all\".The cost of water services limits access. Writing in April 2020, Horn Chanvoitey of Future Forum in Cambodia argued that the impending COVID-19 outbreak \"exposes one of the Kingdom's great inequalities: access to clean water\" (Chanvoitey 2020), while an official admitted that \"the poor are lacking the ability to connect to clean water services\" (Koemsoeun 2020).Governments in most areas reduced water prices in service areas for a couple of months during the COVID-19 pandemic; some also reduced connection charges or extended due dates for service payments. Thus, in Thailand, the Provincial Waterworks Authority reduced water fees by 10% for two monthly billing cycles, first in February-March 2021, then again in May-July 2021. 28,34 In Laos, the Water Supply Enterprise in Vientiane Province reduced water fees by 5% for 3 months for all persons, no focus on the vulnerable or poor. 11 Another Lao official with the Department of Water Supply, said they had a program for free household water connections. 8 In Vietnam, cuts to water prices were accompanied with cuts for electricity and telecommunication services in areas impacted by COVID-19 control measures such as lockdowns (Tu & Tuan 2021). Across countries, these pricing-related measures largely apply to less vulnerable communities already in service areasmany other water insecure households do not benefit.Those who live in the northern parts of Pindaya, Myanmar, for instance, must buy water \"from the seller who takes the water from an urban lake\" or a Monastery tube well. 18 Plans are to drill tube wells and concrete storage tanks in five villagesa village water committee has already been established to maintain the system. 18 In upland sites in Thailand, access to clean water is very expensive if must cart in by truck, so it is a last resort when other sources are unavailable. 27 High prices of bottled drinking water may also limit access for the poor. Thus, governments need to \"work closely with the private sector,\" namely drinking water factories, to \"control the prices of drinking water and make sure that consumers are not taken advantage of during the COVID-19 outbreak.\" 12 Respondents were more likely to report that drinking water became more expensive as a consequence of the COVID-19 outbreak in Myanmar (29%), Cambodia (25%), Thailand (24%), and relatively less likely in Laos (5%) and Vietnam (3%).An important coping response to high prices was to switch to lower cost water sources. In the study sites in Vietnam, the poor and those whose income was greatly reduced by the COVID-19 outbreak, switched to boiled water from wells to drink rather than spend money on bottled water. 42,46 In Myanmar, some people \"cannot afford to buy bottled water, so they used river water for drinking. Consequently, people suffered from other health problem.\" 22 People were more likely to switch to lower quality sources as a response to COVID-19 in Vietnam (26%) than other countries (6-11%).Extra expenses at home, including for water, may be a difficulty for low-income households, especially if COVID-19 also resulted in sudden unemployment. 36 To some extent financial assistance may help cope with rising costs or loss of income. In Thailand, access to government assistance related to COVID-19, however, required an identity card, and in several instances, a smart phone, effectively putting key resources beyond reach of the most vulnerable individuals. 35,49 Nevertheless, during 2020, survey respondents from Thailand (64%) and Myanmar (57%) were much more likely to have received formal financial assistance than those in other countries (2-9%).An official in Thailand acknowledged \"there are still people who do not have access to clean water, including some ethnic minority communities and foreign workers.\" 31 Thus, \"people living outside the service area, for example, ethnic groups living in the uplands, won't receive water services from the Provincial Authority.\" 28 They must seek support from other government offices. The \"cardless\" in Thailand, not recognized as citizens and thus without an identity card, face many difficulties accessing government services. The identity card is also linked to a house registration document, which is needed to request for water or electricity connection. 36 Residents of informal settlements in Myanmar are without the land documents they need to access treated and piped water, so they \"have to use river water for their domestic uses, as there is no clean water access for them.\" 20 During the COVID-19 lockdown measures, an identity card was needed to be displayed when moving between areas. In Myanmar, \"migrant workers who do not have legal registration in the township are among the most vulnerable.\" 20 Rights to water services, in practice, are not secure when individuals lack an identity card, house registration, and land documents.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, people \"have to use more water in their daily activities than in normal times in order to\" wash hands to prevent the spread of the disease, but some cannot follow the guidelines as they did not have enough water. 23 The COVID-19 \"crisis is a stark reminder that the Cambodian government has not sufficiently addressed the issue of insufficient access to clean water and sanitation\" (Chanvoitey 2020).Lack of specificity with regards to vulnerable groups has been an important limitation in strengthening access. In the COVID-19 response in Laos, \"there is no specific programs for elderly, disabled, women and girls.\" 14 Similarly, in Myanmar, most government support programs are for all people, under the policy principle of \"no one left behind.\" 19 Nevertheless, the value of more targeted programs was acknowledged by some officials, for example, one argued \"government support programs should place more emphasis on specific vulnerable groups like the elderly, migrants, children and disabled.\" 21 School and childcare center closures impact children and their caregivers; children no longer eat lunch or drink milk provided at school. 36 Younger children need to be supervised, limiting the time parents can earn an income outside the home. 36 Likewise, residents of informal settlements suffer from lack of access to clean water during the pandemic, and therefore should be targeted for assistance by specific supporting programs. 20 In Thailand, this is difficult to provide as they lack house registration documents. 29 Regardless, an official argued that \"government agencies must have a plan, and from a humanitarian perspective must help\" those without access to clean drinking water. 31 In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic increased awareness of water access issues among government officials concerned about WASH services. Prices of tap water, for example, were lowered. There was no evidence of changes to formal rights of vulnerable communities to access water services.Dry season shortages were an important reason for disrupted water supplies. Half of the surveyed respondents (49%) said their household water sources were impacted by seasonal drought. Respondents in upland sites were more likely than those in urban sites to have their water supplies impacted by seasonal drought. Households impacted by drought were more likely than those not so impacted to support actions to increase community water storage.In Dak Lak, Vietnam, water shortages are most common towards end of the dry season (March-May), with impacts greatest in remote areas, ethnic minority villages and poor households. 46 Those with shallow dug wells are impacted more than those with deeper drilled wells, as the former dry out. 38,43 Women are impacted more than men because they \"have to carry water home from their neighbors [well].\" 40 A lack of water for hygiene impacts \"not only COVID-19, but other diseases such as hand, foot and mouth disease\" 42 among children. In 2020, the outbreak of COVID-19 coincided with water shortages, exacerbating the challenges of maintaining hygiene for those without access to tap water. 38 Increasing water storage is one solution recommended by officials and experts in all countries. In Laos, officials encouraged villagers to collect rainwater and build big tanks to store water. 14 In Cambodia, communities are encouraged to extend public ponds and drill community wells to help improve dry season water storage. 1 Households are also encouraged to collect and store rainwater. Financial resources are important to making own water storage pond, as it is costly to make a pond big enough to last the dry season. 25 Moreover, \"water shortage problems for personal hygiene became worse in the pandemic period.\" 20 In Myanmar, the government had a program, \"not only for the COVID-19 period but for the long-term water security,\" for some villages to build water tanks to store harvested rainwater. 18 Drilling wells is another important option to secure water supplies. In Laos, wells are usually more than 60 meters deep with a standard minimum of 40 meters. 15,16 In Vietnam, wells were around 60 meters. 39 Drilling wells is expensive 41 so lower-income households depend on community drilling projects funded by the state or NGOs. 42 Government programs \"support drilled wells for communes that are short of water in the dry season and do not have access to tap water.\" 44 Even so, in Buon Don, Vietnam, \"many drilled wells do not have water because of the rocky terrain.\" 45 In peri-urban sites, such as those in Thailand, water quality in shallow wells is often poor. 24 Survey respondents in Vietnam (87%) were the most likely, and in Thailand the least likely (5%), to use groundwater wells as a source of drinking waterwith the other three countries being intermediate (30-38%).The dominant view of officials was that the provision of tap water was unaffected by the COVID-19 outbreak. In the city of Vientiane, Laos, \"local communities can get access to clean water to use in toilets/bathrooms, washing hands, and in their house.\" 13 The city has a good system so the impacts of COVID-19 were small, \"but in rural area impacts were greater.\" 7 In Vietnam, \"COVID-19 did not have much effect on people's access to safe drinking water and sanitation.\" 38 A district waterworks official in Thailand said that \"the spread of COVID-19 was not affected because water production was maintained as normal.\" 30 In Thailand, \"the spread of the COVID-19 virus has not directly affected people's access to clean water in areas that use water from the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority.\" 34 At the same time, a regional waterworks official in Thailand noted that for maintenance and servicing, the \"key problem they encountered was entering areas designated as red zones for controlling spread of COVID-19.\" 29 In Laos, some water supply projects were abandoned or significantly delayed following disruptions to work caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. 7 With Vientiane city and province locked down, experts cannot come to work, and thus water supply improvement programs were delayed. 9,13 In Myanmar, at times of critical shortages prior to COVID-19, \"water was provided house-by-house, but during outbreak could only fill concrete tanks in middle of village\" due to concern about disease transmission. 18 \"Moreover, despite that some clean water is accessible, it is not enough quantity for their daily use, especially water for handwashing and hygiene.\" 21 As a temporary solution, alcohol-based hand sanitizers were distributed for free in some areas in each country for short periods, often as part of hygiene information campaigns or private donation initiatives in response to COVID-19. Hand sanitizers were otherwise too costly for residents in vulnerable communities. 9,23,27,49 In Laos, \"there are many households that cannot get alcohol gel for washing hands, because they lack the money needed to buy it.\" 14 When they were given a bottle of gel they had to use it sparingly -\"so we use alcohol gel for washing hands only when we go outside, and we use soap when we stay at home where we often wash our hands.\" 7 Support for programs among residents surveyed to \"provide low-income households with free alcohol gel for washing hands\" was higher in Thailand (46%) and Cambodia (44%), than in Laos (28%) and Myanmar (22%). Government officials in Laos and Myanmar pointed out that they had supplies and budgets for only a fraction of those in potential need. 15,18 A medical officer said they prioritized \"providing hand gel to villages with water access problems, in order to save water, while acknowledging we also have to create water sources for them in the long term.\" 23 Drinking water supplies were temporarily disrupted by the COVID-19 outbreaks in some locations in Laos, as \"local authorities did not allow them access to the village to deliver drinking water, to all outsiders.\" 10 Later on the provincial and district COVID-19 operation units intervened and instructed that drinking water was to be delivered as normal. 10 Overall, a quarter of the households (23%) surveyed in vulnerable communities experienced disrupted delivery of drinking water because of the COVID-19 outbreak. This is a larger group than implied in interviews with state officials and NGOs. Just under half of households overall supported interventions to improve the reliability of water supplies.In Myanmar, the policy gap between national level and ward level, spanning six levels in the administrative hierarchy, is large and difficult to navigate. 20 Most policy and regulation are top-down, with many limitations emerging, leading an informant to argue an urgent need to \"have feedback from both implementers and local people.\" 21 Moreover, a recurrent problem for established but vulnerable communities in Thailand looking to engage with the state is that there are \"too many players\" 36 with stakes in water resource management. An academic characterized the COVID-19 governance challenge: \"Understand that the public do not have a role in offering solutions or ideas for what the government should do, what measures it should take, to help the people. There are no people at all; there are experts and civil servants as far as the eye can see. There is no civil society.\" 49 While the reliability of water supplies to households can be improved by drilling wells to exploit groundwater and concrete tanks to store rainwater, community level projects typically require \"a lot of negotiation with villagers\" around choosing locations for wells, tanks and pipe networks as land-uses are impacted. 18 Water projects are managed \"to allow the community to participate, meaning that villagers have to help dig and lay the pipes themselves. There is no budget for digging and laying pipes.\" 32 There is also training for the water management committee on how to use the equipment and reduce risks of contamination, for instance, through rules regarding allowable activities near the well. 16 Communities may be required to establish a water fund based on household contributions and use it to pay for electricity, maintenance, and repairs. 7,13 In Thailand, one community managed a coin-operated reverse osmosis drinking water filtration and treatment system. The system is popular because it is cheap and conveniently located along the main road, and thus also used by other villages. 32 The sales are sufficient to replace filters and cover costs of electricity and a technician when repairs are needed. 32 A village fund committee including headmen and sub-district office manages the dispenser, a separate committee to that manages the ageing village mountain water supply. 32 Water management according to community agreed rules in the mountain system is important 36 for water allocation: \"There will be discussions at the community level about how much water can be used, because we are upstream. How much will we have to use, and besides, we will have to let people downstream use it too.\" 27 Such social allocation systems were maintained and proved useful during the COVID-19 outbreak.In summary, water supply was only disrupted for short periods, if at all, by the COVID-19 outbreak. Dry season shortages remained a key source of supply disruptions in some communities and impacted on hygiene measures. The favored long-term response being to drill more (and deeper) wells or larger storage ponds.Groups vulnerable to poor water quality and COVID-19 include \"migrant workers, casual workers, and low-income families in the township.\" 22 And \"even though they wash their hands regularly, the quality of the water they access is not good for use.\" 20 A minority of residents surveyed in the past year \"had to drink water that smelt, looked, or tasted bad\" (17%) or \"wash hands with water thought was dirty or unsafe\" (23%). In the vulnerable communities studied in Myanmar, \"for drinking, most use bottled water, but for the poor families, they must use both pond water and river water for both cooking and drinking, although it is not safe for their health.\" 21 Around half of the individuals surveyed (53%) agreed that actions should be taken to \"improve the quality of water supplied so it is safe to drink\". Experts largely concurred with some bureaucrats, seeing it as a core mission of governments. 31 In Thailand, \"the master plan stipulates that every village must have clean drinking water. It is written in the plan, but actually doing it according to the plan is difficult.\" 36 The core \"mission of providing clean drinking water has been transferred to local government\" alongside budgets, but as they also have large mandates, the result is that providing clean water is not always a priority. 31 Adequate budgets for maintaining water treatment systems, replacing filters, for example, is also important. 49 The Department of Health in Thailand monitors water quality for the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority. 34 Since the first wave of the COVID-19 outbreak, the Environmental Health Working Group has been monitoring for potential contamination and coordinating the management of water quality in Chiang Mai province. 33 A key technical measure was to raise free chlorine levels from 0.2-0.5 ppm to more than 1.0 ppm. The Department of Groundwater Resources introduced additional measures for the water production teams, in order to reduce risks of COVID-19 spread, including wearing of gloves and hats, and additional cleaning routines. 31 Local village tap water supply systems in Thailand normally do not get government support to use disinfectants. A public health academic recommended that \"the government should promote the addition of chlorine to reduce the contamination of pathogens in the community or village water supply systems.\" 48 Some managers learn about the use of chlorine, but face another obstacle: \"villagers do not want to use water that smells of chlorine.\" 48 Even if water meets standards where it is produced, if the pipe system is not well-maintained, tap water may not be safe to drink. 48 Locally produced drinking water \"is cheap and easy to buy, but when we look back on the water production process, some small drinking water plants might not be up to standard.\" 48 Small bottling companies that don't have their own water treatment equipment buy water from a larger producer, and in the handling, for instance, putting on caps, there may be contamination. 48 Governments need to monitor and enforce laws, for example, when failing to meet standards, and \"provide water that is really clean to the people.\" 48 An official in Thailand summarized that \"so far, no coronavirus 2019 has been detected in drinking water, and based on current information, the risk of contamination of drinking water is low.\" 47 Drinking water dispensers were not used in study sites in Cambodia and Laos, uncommon in Vietnam (6%), and more familiar in Myanmar (21%) and Thailand (48%). A stable electricity supply is an important pre-requisite to having reverse osmosis water treatment facilities, including coin-operated dispensers. 27 On-going maintenance, for example, to change filters, is also important for water quality. 48 Monitoring show that \"coin-operated water dispensers, used by laborers and low-income people, are easily contaminated,\" 48 and as a shared access point, a potential source of COVID-19 infection. 48 Local government in Chiang Mai recognized the need to keep coinoperated water dispensers clean, 32 especially during the COVID-19 outbreak.Upland residents and officials, although they live or work in different elevation zones in the landscape, had similar views (reasoning) regarding the importance of watershed forests for protecting water resources. To protect water sources from degradation, \"the conservation and restoration of watershed forests\" is key to \"sustainable and secure water resources.\" 36 In the upland communities in Chiang Mai, an NGO member explained how \"we use our knowledge and beliefs in water management, such as taking care of watershed forests. There are prohibitions on disturbing watershed forests.\" 27 An official from a water enterprise serving Vientiane underlined that \"need to reserve the forest in upstream due to climate change issue, it is very significant for water supplies.\" 11 Dry season shortages are understood by these actors to be a consequence of deforestation. 8 In rural areas, \"the community needs to understand that if we farm with dangerous chemicals, the water will become contaminated.\" 36 An important part of dealing with dry season water challenges is for the \"community to take measures to protect their water sources.\" 7 In urban areas, lockdowns during the COVID-19 outbreak made solid waste and wastewater management more challenging, especially from medical facilities. 48 Groundwater wells, according to one official in Laos, should be separated from toilets by at least 30 meters. 16 During COVID-19 pandemic, some authorities and local communities paid more attention to the sanitation requirements of water systems. 16 In summary, water quality issues have been a concern of both residents and officials in all five countries. The COVID-19 outbreak amplified concerns about the importance of clean water for drinking and hygiene.The key finding of this study was that, despite rapid and pervasive social and economic development across the Mekong Region, difficulties in accessing sufficient clean water for drinking and hygiene persist in certain vulnerable communities. Experiences in migrant worker camps, informal city settlements, and remote minority villages, suggest that these difficulties, exposed by the COVID-19 outbreak, are routinely underestimated by officials or fall into institutional cracks. In normal times, these vulnerable communities are rarely visited by water agencies. Communities are expected to handle problems themselves, and thus the limitations of water systems pass largely unnoticed. Various agencies responsible for constructing water infrastructure or providing treated water have their own service areas, budgets, and procedures for adjusting water distribution, adding delivery points, opening new connections or developing new water sources. No one is directly responsible for water systems in these communities. Coordination across government agencies, as well as collaboration with residents and other non-state actors (Corburn et al.  2020), helps secure project financing (Howard et al. 2020), and ensure implementation leads to improved access.Limited rights, high prices, and remote locations were common obstacles to water access. Rights to water, in practice, are not secure when individuals lack an identity card, house registration, travel or land documents. High prices of water for drinking or hygiene are an issue for lowincome households, in particular those on daily wages or whose livelihoods have been disrupted by COVID-19 measures such as lockdowns or business and border closures. In an earlier study in rural Vietnam, high connection fees were the main reason poor households did not access piped water (Carrard et al. 2019). In the current study, reduced water service fees of around 10% for a couple of months during the COVID-19 outbreak, while popular, did not benefit the most vulnerable households, for instance, in informal urban settlements without metered connections. The free water directive introduced in Ghana went much further than the public utilities in the Mekong Region, promising six months of free water to domestic users, but also struggled to reach poor and water insecure households (Smiley et al. 2020). Remote communities faced with seasonal shortages in the availability of clean water lie beyond current service areas of water authorities, and do not have sufficient funds to develop new water sources by themselves. A sustained effort is needed to identify, assist, and empower water insecure individuals at risk, as they are not automatically visible to programs catering to the general population, even in the context of a pandemic response with its emphasis on reducing transmission.In this study, the COVID-19 outbreak temporarily disrupted supplies in some sites, and interrupted water programs or maintenance in others. A global commentary suggested that the combination of a drought and pandemic could be disastrous with severe impacts on agricultural livelihoods, employment, and nutrition in local and wider food systems (Mishra et al.  2021). The sensitivity to drought of upland communities in this study was a source of concern to some officials and experts interviewed. In the uplands of Vietnam, for example, water shortages are common towards the end of the dry season. Residents drill wells, build storage ponds, and save water for domestic uses, sharing when they must. Governments and residents agree that further investments in drilling groundwater wells, rainwater harvesting structures, increasing storage, and watershed conservation are needed. Similar perspectives among stakeholders on ways to meet needs using local water resources are a starting point to improving supply, but is not enoughthere must also be sufficient public investment for infrastructure to reach all households. Elsewhere in Vietnam, unreliable tap water services led people to access alternative sources (Allen 2019, Nga 2018). Regionally, there was little evidence, aside from reaffirmations of the importance of WASH programs, that the COVID-19 outbreak would stimulate improvements in the supply and allocation of water to vulnerable communities. Rather, early concerns that the outbreak may delay achievement of the SDGs (The Lancet Public H (2020)) still seem to hold, in particular, for the case of Myanmar (Sachs et al. 2021).Perceptions of the importance of water quality problems often differed between officials and residents. In the uplands, water quality may be perceived as good by residents, but treatment is still essential given high rates of contamination (Sudsandee et al. 2020). In lowland settlements with improved sanitation, poorly sited and maintained toilets can still contaminate ground water used for drinking and hygiene in the household, causing disease outbreaks (Chuah & Ziegler  2018). In dense informal settlements, these contamination risks are even higher. The high dependence on bottled drinking water in many of the vulnerable communities studied, reflects concerns with the quality of tap water and other alternatives. Contamination of water during handling and storage, shown to be important in other studies from the region (Shaheed et al. 2014, Vannavong et al. 2017), was also noted by interviewees in this study. Threats to water quality from contamination need to be addressed by investments in monitoring, treatment, and protection. In the longer-term, it is important to protect water sources from degradation (Hannah  et al. 2020). Water quality was an important issue for vulnerable populations in the Mekong Region.There was widespread agreement among residents and officials that women were more vulnerable and impacted more by COVID-19 than menin line with expectations (Adams et al. 2021). Women use water in the household for cooking and cleaning, and were more likely to follow good handwashing hygiene practices (Lebel et al. 2022). Experts and officials, however, said very little about the roles of women in addressing water-related difficulties, or the benefits to women of solutions proposed or adopted. Officials in Laos, for instance, tended to discuss solutions to water access issues as being \"for all\" and were reluctant to emphasize special treatment for specific vulnerable groups. In other countries, perspectives were more diverse, and included calls for both greater humanitarian assistance to specific vulnerable groups, and for isolation or control of others seen as a threat of further disease outbreaks.This study is one of the first to explore the implications of differences in stakeholder perspectives for programs aimed at improving water systems in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Public actors from different sectors or levels of government perceive and respond to problems of water access, supply, and quality differently, reflecting mandates and organizational interests. Water officials, when addressing immediate COVID-19 concerns, emphasized their actions taken to reduce risks of transmission through their services; whereas when addressing issues of water supply, they referred to expanding service areas or improving reliability of services. Health officials focussed on the COVID-19 crisis, when it came to water, were mostly concerned about ensuring adequate supplies of clean water to healthcare or quarantine facilities, and risks of contamination from wastewater. Officials with responsibilities for administrative areas at local or provincial levels have diverse planning and implementation responsibilities when it comes to water resources and COVID-19 responses. In general, local governments did not put improving access to water for vulnerable groups as a local development priority. These differences in perspectives help explain the institutional cracks that leave vulnerable communities underserved.The views of residents, officials, and experts regarding both the significance of water access, supply, and quality issues, and what needs to be done to address them, while often overlapping, also diverged in a few important areas. Based on these observations and other findings of this study, we have five program suggestions.First, special programs are needed to help highly vulnerable communities gain secure access to sufficient clean water for drinking and hygiene during the COVID-19 pandemic. Programs aimed at the general population are not enough. Coordination mechanisms are needed, for example, an inter-ministerial working group at the provincial level, to ensure that no one is left behind.Second, emergency measures under COVID-19 outbreak should be linked into recovery programs in a way that leaves water systems better prepared for the next pandemic. This could start by ensuring that weaknesses of water systems, exposed by the outbreak, are documented and the lessons shared, so that these weaknesses can be addressed by postcrisis recovery programs. Costs are always an issue. One way to prioritize needs and attract external funding is to explicitly link efforts to improve water systems to WASH programs and SDG 6 targets for drinking water and sanitation.Third, as the barriers to improving water supply and quality in vulnerable communities are diverse and contextspecific, it is important that households are consulted in the design of WASH programs and the development of water resources. This includes evaluation of water supply infrastructure, treatment technologies, and arrangements such as management committees and water service fees. Doing so would help narrow the gap between the experiences of vulnerable people and the views of officials and their experts.Fourth, the private sector played an important role in the provision of drinking water. Quality and prices of water, as well as the adherence to hygiene practices in transport and at shared water collection points, however, need to be monitored and regulated by governments. In terms of outbreak context, greater attention is needed on the regular cleaning and servicing of shared water points such as coin-operated dispensers. In terms of longer-term recovery and preparedness, the public needs greater reassurance of the reliability of tap water quality, otherwise bottled water systems will continue to predominate drinking water supplies.Fifth, the role of the natural environment in protecting water resources needs to be more widely recognized by residents and officials. In the uplands, support for developing local water systems, for instance, could be linked to commitments to protect upper tributary watersheds; while in the lowlands, sources of pollutants and contaminants need to be managed, including from agricultural fields, human settlements, and industrial activities.In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that a combination of shorter-term and longer-term measures addressing water access, supply, and quality difficulties are needed to improve provisioning of clean water for drinking and hygiene in normal times, as well as during epidemics, in vulnerable communities in the Mekong Region.","tokenCount":"7695"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4882acabbc22981ad4d5b8f242934975","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ad16a12c-0650-40c8-a178-b7c515488362/content","id":"-1877755953"},"keywords":["Wheat","blast","Magnaporthe","disease","research"],"sieverID":"eca961c7-e6ca-4747-a0e8-9068646cb552","pagecount":"5","content":"Wheat blast is relatively a new disease of wheat that first appeared in Brazil in 1985. It did spread to some other neighbouring countries in the following years and owing to its predisposing factors, was feared to be capable of moving across continental boundaries. The disease has now been reported from Bangladesh. Wheat blast at best can be described as poorly understood as both pathogen and its pathogenicity as well as host and its ability to resist need to be investigated before breeders could confidently field varieties with sufficient levels of genetic resistance. In the meantime, chemical protectants and management strategies need to be worked out to tackle this menace that has already been impoertant in rice.Literally speaking, blast means explosion. Wheat blast directly strikes wheat ear and renders grains shrunken, shrivelled and deformed within a week of initial symptoms giving no time to farmers to react. Climatic conditions viz., hot and humid climate play a crucial role in disease development. The blast pathogen shows various infection abilities and is known to infect many grasses like rice, wheat, barley, etc. In fact, rice blast has been one of the most important and damaging rice diseases, whereas wheat blast is of relatively recent occurrence (Maciel, 2016). First sighted in 1985 in Brazil, it soon spread to other iso-climatic neighbouring countries of South America. It is now a serious production constraint in the tropics and sub tropic regions, including Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay causing yield losses of up to 100% (Peng et al., 2011). Most current wheat varieties are blast susceptible, pathogen is highly variable, epidemiology as well as genetics of resistance is poorly understood. All this makes wheat blast a formidable wheat enemy. Since wheat blast requires concurrent heat and humidity to develop, experts had earlier warned about a possible movement of blast from Latin America to similar regions of Africa and Asia. The detection of blast in early 2016 in Bangladesh (Callaway, 2016) confirmed the fear. The blast in Bangladesh was most likely caused by a wheatinfecting South American lineage of the blast pathogen, Magnaporthe oryzae (Islam et al., 2016). If blast fungus continues to show similar migratory capacity, it could soon spread to other hot and humid wheat growing regions in South Asia and beyond. The situation perhaps is even more demanding as fungicides at best offer only a partial defence (CIMMYT, 2016). A spread of wheat blast in South Asia could jeopardize food security of 300 million inhabitants of this region as they consume over 100 million tonnes of wheat each year. It is already reported that blast affected 16000 hectares of wheat crop in Bangladesh and consequent poor harvest led to Bangladesh importing extra 400,000 tonnes of wheat as compared to previous year (New Age, 2016). This article attempts to review the available information on wheat blast research and also identify gaps to be addressed.Literature now accepts M. oryzae pathotype Triticum as the correct name for wheat blast pathogen (Maciel, 2016;Castroagudin et al., 2015, Perello et al., 2015;Maciel et al., 2014) although recently, a new species named Pyricularia graminis-tritici was proposed to cause wheat blast by Castroagudin et al. (2016). Ever since its first report, blast pathogen was variously named by researchers for example, Pyricularia oryzae (Araujo et al., 2016;Oliveira et al., 2015;Cruz et al., 2015a;Silva et al., 2015), Pyricularia grisea (Filha et al., 2011;Kohli et al., 2011;Rocha et al., 2014), Magnaporthe grisea (Urashima and Kato, 1994;Peng et al., 2011;Pagani et al., 2014) and M. oryzae Triticum (Cruz et al., 2015a). Blast pathogen has shown capability to evolve fast to adapt to new climates. Peng et al. (2011) reported that isolates of blast pathogen from different species displayed differential infection abilities and host parasite specificity between wheat cultivars and pathogen isolates was observed. Triticale (Secale X triticum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) have also been reported to be infected by M. grisea (Urashimae et al., 2004). Cross infectivity studies among hosts revealed that blast pathogen from triticale and barley could infect triticale, barley, wheat, oat and rye but not rice, sorghum, maize, common millet, sugarcane and Brachiaria brizantha (Urishama et al., 2004). Ever since its detection in 1985, blast had been observed only on wheat and black oats in Brazil. The disease did spread to some other Gramineae species but white oat remained resistant till 2012 when cultivar IAC 7 was severely attacked in Sau Paulo (Marangoni et al., 2013). It is worth mentioning that first detection of blast in US in 2011 was reported to be a case of host jumping by blast pathogen (Tosa et al., 2016). Urashima and Kato (1994) screened 43 wheat lines from Brazil, Japan, USA, Bulgaria, seven Triticum spp., and 18 Aegilops lines against M. grisea inoculation under greenhouse conditions. They found only two Aegilops accessions resistant and all others screened were susceptible. Attempting to differentiate between young and adult stage resistance, Cruz et al. (2010) challenged 70 wheat genotypes in young stage to 18 isolates of blast pathogen. They found BRS229, BRS179, CNT8, BRS120 and BRS Buriti with better resistance levels. 12 of the 70 genotypes were inoculated at adult stage and they found CNT8, NE 20156-B, PF 844001, PF 964009 and PF 804002 having less leaf and head area affected by blast. Blast pathogen has also evolved to acquire resistance to fungicides extensively used to manage the disease. Oliveira et al. (2015) compared resistance presented by two groups of Pyricularia oryzae isolates from wheat to two fungicides viz., azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin, both of which are quinone oxidoreductase inhibitors or QoI fungicides. They concluded that high level of resistance to QoI fungicides may be the result of high selection pressure exerted by consecutive years of strobilurin application for the management of wheat diseases in Brazil.Blast is still spreading in South America and now covers large geographic regions. Maciel et al. (2014) found no subdivision among isolates collected from wheat fields of central-western, southwestern and southern Brazil, indicating high level of gene flow across a large geographic expanse. They proposed that populations of wheat blast pathogen exhibited a mixed reproductive system in which sexual reproduction is followed by local dispersal of clones. Based on seedling virulence assays with local wheat cultivars, they reported 14 pathotypes in the current population; however, detached head virulence assays differentiated only eight virulence groups on the same set of wheat cultivars, and there was no correlation between seedling and head reactions.First detected in Brazil in 1985, wheat blast soon spread to other neighbouring countries like Bolivia, Paraguay (Kohli et al., 2011) and was detected in Argentina in 2012 (Perello et al., 2015). The blast causing fungal pathogen M. oryzae can spread through seed and can also survive on crop residues. The blast mainly affects grains; however, leaf lesions are also observed. The leaf lesions and/or sporulation on leaves does not precede spike blast and therefore importance of inoculum originating from leaves in severely affected fields is disputed, even though it was observed that conidia production coincided with spike emergence under both green house and field conditions (Cruz et al., 2015b). However, Goulart et al. (1995) reported that infected rachis (black point infection in rachis) did pass on pathogen to harvested seed. They found BH 1146 with least infection index and consequently no BH 1146 seed carried infection. On the contrary, variety Anahuac had highest infection index (99.5%) and 26.7% of its seeds carried wheat blast pathogen. They reported a significant positive correlation between field incidence of wheat blast and percentage of seed with wheat blast pathogen across varieties. Cytological investigations revealed that in case of compatible reactions (host resistance) viz., rice blast pathogen on rice (r_b_p_r) or wheat blast pathogen on wheat (w_b_p_w) fungal hyphae penetrated and colonized the epidermal cells and also invaded many neighbouring cells. On the other hand, in the case of incompatible reactions (non-host resistance) of the type w_b_p_r and r_b_p_w fungal hyphae were not able to neither penetrate nor colonize the epidermal cells. Interestingly, in the case of non-host resistance if penetration did occur, the hyphae remained restricted to the first invaded epidermal cell (Araujo et al., 2016). Additionally, unsuccessful penetration occurred with high frequency in incompatible interactions as compared to compatible ones. Correct and uniform scoring of disease symptoms is a critical perquisite to comparative studies, understanding and reporting. Visual scoring like that for glume blotch and fusarium head blight can be an efficient and useful tool. Maciel et al. (2013) employed a software 'ImageJ' to propose a diagrammatic scale to record varying severity of the disease symptoms on wheat spikes. Similarly, Rios et al. (2013) developed a standard area diagram sets (SADs) to quantify wheat blast severity on wheat leaves. Severity estimates were more reliable even with inexperienced scorers when SADs were employed.Interaction studies of 27 wheat cultivars with two ear pathogens viz., Magnaporthe wheat blast (WB) and Fusarium head blight (FHB) revealed that most of the 27 cultivars displayed inverse disease response to two diseases. The cultivar 'Milan' displayed resistance (R) to blast and susceptible (S) reaction to FHB. The reactions were reversed when cultivar 'Sumai 3' was inoculated with these two pathogens. Microscopic studies revealed that MWB similarly colonized spikelets in both the cultivars and FHB infected anthers of the susceptible cultivar earlier. Interestingly, both the pathogens grew much faster in the rachilla of the susceptible cultivars indicating that resistance mainly expressed in this part connecting spikelet with rachis (Ha et al., 2016). Gene expression patterns confirmed differential disease phenotypes, fungal spread in the rachis and colonization patterns. The differential response of resistant and susceptible cultivars rules out availability of common resistance genes at least in the material investigated. Cellular investigations revealed that resistance to nonadapted Magnaporthe isolates was due to formation of appositions beneath pathogen penetration sites that adapted virulent isolates were able to breach (Tufan et al., 2009). They also reported differential transcription post infection between adapted and non-adapted isolates. Five major genes for wheat blast resistance viz., Rmg1, Rmg2, Rmg3, Rmg4 and Rmg5 have been reported (Peng et al., 2011). It is interesting however, to note that wheat leaf rust resistance gene Lr34 confers resistance to blast in rice (Krattinger et al., 2016). A word of caution on resistance that even complete resistance may break down due to nitrogen induced susceptibility (NIS). Ballini et al. (2013) reported that NIS is a general phenomenon affecting resistance to blast fungus in both wheat and rice. Peng et al. (2011) reported absence of effective method for control of wheat blast and emphasized that efforts should be focused to prevent pathogen dispersal to protect wheat production, a warning that came true when blast was detected in Bangladesh (Callaway, 2016). Blast pathogen has also evolved to acquire resistance to fungicides extensively used to manage the disease (Oliveira et al., 2015). Similar findings of widespread distribution of QoI (group of fungicides used for controlling blast) resistance in M. oryzae populations sampled from wheat fields and Poaceous hosts across central and southern Brazil were reported by Castroagudin et al. (2015). This resistance is a result of mutation of G143A which led to evolution of cytochrome b gene. Since strobilurins are widely used to manage wheat blast in Brazil, there has been a surge in frequency of the G143A mutation in the wheat infecting population of M. oryzae from 36% in 2005 to 90% in 2012 (Castroagudin et al., 2015). Pagani et al. (2014) advocated integrating several options for efficient management of wheat blast. In a two year study, they found that phosphite treated plots increased yield by 9 to 80%, silicon (Si) treatment by 26 to 92% and synthetic fungicides by 90 to 121%. Rocha et al. (2014) however, concluded that control of wheat blast by means of fungicides application was effective for flag leaves but not for ears. Positive contribution of Si in augmenting the resistance to blast was confirmed by Cruz et al. (2015a). They reported limited colonization of +Si plants by pathogen and that this was associated with the deposition of phenolic compounds. They also observed that expression of all defence related genes was significantly increased on infection but expression level was two to three times higher for +Si plants as compared to -Si counterparts. Similar results of increased Si concentration causing reduced fungal growth were reported by Silva et al. (2015). They found that at histochemical level, Si is involved in the potentiation of the biosynthetic pathway of flavonoids that increases wheat resistance to blast. Silicon application reduced area under blast progress curve by 31% in an experiment reported by Filha et al. (2011). Several substances like jasmonic acid (JA), deacetylated chitosan (DC), potassium silicate (PS), potassium phosphate (PP), tebuconazole (TE) etc. have been experimented to manage wheat blast (Cruz et al., 2011). They found that PP was the best treatment that most reduced severity in the three cultivars tested. TE and PS when added to the culture medium gave lowest values for mycelial growth.They concluded that PP and TE increased the potentiation of wheat resistance to blast which was also dependent on the inherent level of resistance of the cultivar. According to Urashima and Kato (1994), probenazole and tricyclazole gave good control of blast, except at heading stage. They also reported that new products containing blacin and acetamide gave good protection of the wheat head. Some combinations of earlier reported fungicides viz., tricyclazole and tebuconazole were reported (Goulart and Paiva, 1993) to give best yield increase if followed by thiophanate-methyl+ mancozeb. However, Goulart et al. (1996) reported only mancozeb application to be economically viable. Even though the disease is new and is a subject of detailed investigations worldwide, it is a disease of serious consequences and therefore early warning or disease forecasting can be of great help for farmers and administrators. Development of wheat blast requires simultaneous occurrence of both temperature and spikewetness. Cardoso et al. (2008) reported highest blast intensity at 30°C which increased with duration of wetting period, while the lowest severity was at 25°C with 10 h of spike wetness. Irrespective of temperature, a wetting period of less than 10 h caused no disease, whereas at 25°C and 40 h wetting period, intensity exceeded 85%. Authors developed a model that shows blast intensity as a function of temperature and spike wetness. The model has then been used to prepare tables to predict blast. Rios et al. (2016) recommended combining both genetic resistance and fungicide treatment for most effective blast management. With 70 and 90% control of final incidence and severity, they found that effect of resistance and fungicide was additive of incidence as well as severity control.There have been reports on agronomic management (Oliveira et al., 2016) and biological control (Singh et al., 2012;Gnanamanickam and Mew, 1992) of rice blast having potential implications for integrated management of wheat blast. Sowing date significantly affected disease incidence and yield of 14 wheat varieties in Brazil (Oliveira et al., 2016). The strain F0142 of Chaetomium globosum isolated from barnyard grass showed potent disease control efficacy against M. grisea and also wheat leaf rust (Park et al., 2005). The methanol extract from stems of a tree of Chinese origin, Catalpa ovata exhibited potent antifungal activity against several fungal pathogens including M. grisea (Cho et al., 2006). The fungus, Trichoderma harzianum (Singh et al., 2012) and bacteria viz., Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. (Gnanamanickam and Mew, 1992) were also observed to control rice blast. The results hold promise and warrant further investigations to integrate agents of biological origin in a wheat blast management strategy.Wheat blast is a poorly understood emerging threat with potential to be of catastrophic magnitude. There is need to investigate all the parties involved viz., pathogen, host and predisposing factors that would enable stakeholders to manage the disease. Research imperatives on pathogen side include pathogen range, evolution, patterns of variation, effect of climatic factors, epidemiology, virulence patterns, etc. There is need to study variation in pathogen vis a vis, its geographical spread to deploy genetic resistance accordingly. Some research in South America has identified resistance sources; however, this needs to be undertaken in all wheat growing areas where blast favouring conditions prevail. Establishing distinctness of resistance and any relationship with growth stage and/or environmental factors need to be investigated. Since a commercial product needs to have all the features including yield, therefore resistance to blast has to be an integral feature of breeding programmes targeting regions with blast favouring climate. Last but not the least, predisposing factors, chemical protectants, agronomic manipulations and biological agents need to be studied so as to devise management strategies till usable genetic resistance is available in commercial cultivars.","tokenCount":"2758"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36926b62f6fd7b924d63564edd35a763","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c70ab7af-4b98-4efb-a496-34739eb55029/content","id":"-596482866"},"keywords":["Rehman, H.u.","Tariq, A.","Ashraf, I.","Ahmed, M.","Muscolo, A.","Basra, S.M.A.","Reynolds, M. Evaluation of Physiological and Morphological Traits for Improving Spring Wheat Adaptation to Terminal canopy temperature","water soluble carbohydrates","heat stress","stay green","seed yield"],"sieverID":"ce05ef23-fce2-4801-b4cb-fc36b60a4487","pagecount":"15","content":"Wheat crop experiences high temperature stress during flowering and grain-filling stages, which is termed as \"terminal heat stress\". Characterizing genotypes for adaptive traits could increase their selection for better performance under terminal heat stress. The present study evaluated the morpho-physiological traits of two spring wheat cultivars  and two advanced lines (V-07096, V-10110) exposed to terminal heat stress under late sowing. Early maturing Millet-11 was used as heat-tolerant control. Late sowing reduced spike length (13%), number of grains per spike (10%), 1000-grain weight (13%) and biological yield (15-20%) compared to timely sowing. Nonetheless, higher number of productive tillers per plant (19-20%) and grain yield (9%) were recorded under late sowing. Advanced lines and genotype Punjab-11 had delayed maturity and better agronomic performance than early maturing heat-tolerant Millet-11. Advanced lines expressed reduced canopy temperature during grain filling and high leaf chlorophyll a (20%) and b (71-125%) contents during anthesis under late sowing. All wheat genotypes expressed improved stem water-soluble carbohydrates under terminal heat stress that were highest for heat-tolerant Millet-11 genotype during anthesis. Improved grain yield was associated with the highest chlorophyll contents showing stay green characteristics with maintenance of high photosynthetic rates and cooler canopies under late sowing. The results revealed that advanced lines and Punjab-11 with heat adaptive traits could be promising source for further use in the selection of heat-tolerant wheat genotypes.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a staple crop and nourishes billions of people daily, while its productivity is significantly decreased under high temperature. Owing to global climate changes, wheat yields are expected to decline by 6% for each 1 • C increase in temperature. Therefore, gain yield of wheat crop must be increased by 60% until 2050 to fulfil the food demands of burgeoning global population [1]. According to the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), world wheat producing regions are grouped into eight different mega environments (MEs) [2]. The ME1 and ME5 are highly productive irrigated environments in South Asia; however, wheat crop is exposed to terminal heat stress in these MEs [3]. South Asia includes India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh where wheat is sown late due to the delay in the harvesting of previous crops, i.e., rice and cotton in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat zones owing to delayed harvest of long maturing semi-dwarf rice varieties and delayed picking of cotton respectively [4,5]. The delay in wheat cultivation exposes the crop to high temperatures during flowering and grain-filling stages termed as \"terminal heat stress\" [6]. Nonetheless, wheat grown on ≥13.9 million ha in the rice-wheat cropping system of South Asia [1] including rice-wheat and cotton-wheat zones of Pakistan experience terminal heat stress [4,5].Spring wheat in South Asia is sown in the months of November and December while harvested during April and May particularly in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping zones. The timely planted wheat crop in these zones has temperature requirement of 12-22 • C during vegetative and reproductive growth periods particularly at anthesis and grain filling stages.Late sown wheat experiences higher canopy temperature (>31 • C) during reproductive period adversely affecting many physiological processes resulting in shortened crop growth cycle and reduced yields [6]. For example, high temperature during anthesis reduces pollen viability by restricting embryo development and promotes anther sterility resulting in less grain numbers [7,8]. High temperature exposure after anthesis decreases grain filling rate which is associated with declined grain yield [7][8][9][10]. These decreases in grain filling rate and duration accelerate senescence with the loss of chlorophyll and limits assimilate supply towards developing grains [11].Nonetheless, wheat plants evolve several physiological mechanisms to cope with terminal heat stress which include early maturity [3,6], stay green [11,12], reduced canopy temperature [13], accumulation of high stem water soluble carbohydrates [14] and high biomass accumulation [13] to translate assimilates into yield. For instance, early maturity as an adaptation strategy provides explanation for variation to physiological responses and grain yield under high temperature among wheat genotypes during reproductive period [3,6]. Stay green trait maintains high leaf chlorophyll contents that are associated with grain yield and its components under heat stress [11,12,15]. Likely, the loss in green area affects grain size that can be compensated by improving the remobilization of watersoluble carbohydrates stored in stem and leaf sheaths to developing grains under high temperature and drought stress [14]. However, studies showing the direct relationship of water-soluble carbohydrates with grain yield under heat or drought stress are limited. In addition, wheat plants with cooler canopy during grain filling, have capability to access subsoil moisture which helps to maintain evaporation and photosynthesis under hot irrigated conditions [16]. Wheat plants with cooler canopies also have positive association with grain yield [13,17,18]. Therefore, these physiological traits can be the best combination for genetic improvement of wheat genotypes to mitigate heat and drought stress because of their common genetic basis [16,19,20].Exploring combination of physiological traits needs identification of wheat genotypes which produce high yield and express adaptation traits under high temperature exposure. Therefore, developing heat tolerant genotypes through breeding is a major objective in wheat improvement programs [3,6]. In view of global climate changes, these efforts should be accelerated to reduce high temperature effects [1,21] as rise in the global average temperature is a serious threat to wheat production in different MEs prone to terminal drought or heat [3,22,23].To cope with situation, at present, efforts for evaluation of exotic germplasm developed by CIMMYT are in progress through National Agriculture Research Programs (NARPs). For this, elite nurseries of wheat germplasm are tested in MEs of South Asia for their adaptability to heat and associated traits which are later assembled into mega varieties for both improved productivity and heat tolerance [3,6,24]. Similarly, an international wheat phenotyping network has been established in South Asia for application of phenotyping techniques to accelerate selection and support breeding program for their success by incorporating physiological traits into new generation of lines for heat or drought tolerance [24]. Thus, physiological characterization of existing genotypes or plant genetic resources through phenotyping tools may provide better understanding of heat adaptive traits and their integration into breeding programs may help to translate these genotypes into desirable plant types [25,26]. The present study, therefore, compared the performance of wheat genotypes including one widely grown and two promising advanced lines with early maturing heat tolerant cultivar to identify morpho-physiological traits for adaptation to terminal heat stress under late sowing. Most specifically the association of these traits with grain yield was determined for their further use in cultivar selection.High temperature significantly reduced crop development period, including booting (7-8 d), heading (2 d), anthesis (3 d), grain filling (10 d) and maturity period (10-12 d) under late sowing. Among the genotypes, earlier heading (3, 3, 4 d), booting (9-11, 10-12, 11-15 d), anthesis (1-2, 2-5, 4 d) and maturity (10-13, 10-12, 10-11 d) were observed for Punjab-11, V-07096 and V-10110 respectively compared to heat tolerant Millet-11 under late sowing condition. However, delayed heading (2 d), booting (3 d) and anthesis (7 d) were observed for heat tolerant Millet-11 while grain filling period was reduced for all genotypes under late sowing condition. Interactions were significant for all phenological traits (Table 1).Wheat crop expressed a 20% and 71-125% increase in Chl a and b contents respectively, under late sowing compared to timely sown crop during anthesis. Heat tolerant check Millet-11 and advanced line V-07096 expressed the highest Chl a and b contents during the first growing season (2012-2013), while these were highest in Punjab-11 and V-10110 during the second growing season (2013-2014) under late sowing. Reduced canopy temperature was observed in late sown crop during 2012-2013 and vice versa for 2013-2014. Heat tolerant Millet-11 and advanced lines V-07096 and V-10110 expressed reduced canopy temperature during both seasons. Maximum increase (50%) in stem water-soluble carbohydrates was found under late sowing. Nonetheless, all genotypes expressed similar stem water-soluble carbohydrates under late sowing (Table 1). Letters among columns denote significant differences in means for sowing dates while letters within columns denote significant differences between cultivars at P ≤ 0.05; SD = Sowing dates; G = Genotype; n.s. = non-significant; Fwt = Fresh weight basis.No significant difference was observed for photosynthetic (A) and transpiration rates (E) under timely and late sown wheat while intercellular CO 2 concentration (Ci) and stomatal conductance (Gs) were reduced under late sowing. However, lowest photosynthetic and transpiration rates were found for advanced line V-07096. Regarding interactions, the highest Gs was found for timely sown advanced line V-07096 and it was drastically reduced under late sowing condition. On the other hand, highest Ci was found in advanced line V-07096 under both sowing conditions while Gs was significantly reduced under late sowing (Figure 1). ; G = n.s., SD×G = 0.16 Letters among columns denote significant differences in means for sowing dates while letters within columns denote significant differences between cultivars at P ≤ 0.05; SD = Sowing dates; G = Genotype; n.s. = non-significant; Fwt = Fresh weight basis.No significant difference was observed for photosynthetic (A) and transpiration rates (E) under timely and late sown wheat while intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci) and stomatal conductance (Gs) were reduced under late sowing. However, lowest photosynthetic and transpiration rates were found for advanced line V-07096. Regarding interactions, the highest Gs was found for timely sown advanced line V-07096 and it was drastically reduced under late sowing condition. On the other hand, highest Ci was found in advanced line V-07096 under both sowing conditions while Gs was significantly reduced under late sowing (Figure 1).  Terminal heat stress significantly reduced yield related traits in all the wheat genotypes under late sowing. Among these traits, plant height, spike length, grains per spike, thousand grain weight and biological yield were reduced more under late sowing than timely sowing (Table 2). Total number of productive tillers were highest during both years, while grain yield was high during first growing season and was similar under both timely and late sowing in 2nd growing season. Advanced lines V-07096 and V-10110 expressed the highest plant height, spike length, number of grains per spike, thousand grain weight including biological and grain yields. Genotype Punjab-11 also expressed highest biological and grain yields significantly similar to advanced line V-07096. For total productive tillers, the differences among genotypes were non-significant. The interactions were significant for spike length, thousand grain weight and biological yield, while these traits decreased during second growing season, grain yield during both years and plant height during first growing season were significant (Table 2). Terminal heat stress significantly reduced yield related traits in all the wheat genotypes under late sowing. Among these traits, plant height, spike length, grains per spike, thousand grain weight and biological yield were reduced more under late sowing than timely sowing (Table 2). Total number of productive tillers were highest during both years, while grain yield was high during first growing season and was similar under both timely and late sowing in 2nd growing season. Advanced lines V-07096 and V-10110 expressed the highest plant height, spike length, number of grains per spike, thousand grain weight including biological and grain yields. Genotype Punjab-11 also expressed highest biological and grain yields significantly similar to advanced line V-07096. For total productive tillers, the differences among genotypes were non-significant. The interactions were significant for spike length, thousand grain weight and biological yield, while these traits decreased during second growing season, grain yield during both years and plant height during first growing season were significant (Table 2). Letters among columns denote significant differences in means for sowing dates while letters within columns denote significant differences between cultivars at P ≤ 0.05; SD = Sowing dates; G = Genotype; n.s. = non-significant.Positive correlation was recorded for Chl a and b contents, and canopy temperature with grain yield while no relationship was noted between stem water-soluble carbohydrates and grain yield under both timely and late sowing (Figure 2). A significantly strong, and positive relationship of 1000-grain weight was found with days to heading during both years while with maturity time during the 2nd year only. Nonetheless, the relationship of grain yield with heading and maturity time was non-significant during both years and negative with maturity time during the 1st growing season (Table 3). Identification of plant traits and developing wheat cultivars with improved adaptation to terminal heat stress is priority for plant breeders around the globe. The present study compared the performance of wheat genotypes to identify the morpho-physiological traits for terminal heat stress tolerance under late sowing. Results showed that late sowing reduced yield traits, including spike length, number of grains per spike, thousand grain weight and biological yield than timely sown crop, albeit response varied between sowing conditions and years. The reduced number of grains per spike in the present study might be due to low grain fertility and floral spikelets associated with increased temperature even by 1 • C during booting and anthesis stages [27]. Reduction in number of grains depends on developmental stage, at which high temperature occurs and determined by supply of carbohydrates during floral development, which is a sensitive process to high temperature [28]. Higher number of grains per spike in advanced lines of the present study might be attributed to increased availability of stem water-soluble carbohydrates. Advanced lines including genotype Punjab-11 had higher thousand grain weight and grain yield than heat tolerant early maturing check Millet-11 and maintained it under terminal heat stress. Better agronomic and yield performance of the advanced lines and Punjab-11 seemed to be genotypic specific effects [29], while achieving and maintaining the optimal grain weight is considered an index of heat stress tolerance and adaptation [30]. Another possible reason for the decrease in yield traits of the present study might be attributed to reduced duration between different crop stages and less translation of biomass to yield (Tables 1 and 2). Reduced biological yield, thousand grain weight and 6-20% decrease in grain yield is reported in wheat crop exposed to terminal heat stress [3,23,31]. Nonetheless, a higher number of total productive tillers and grain yield during the first growing season under late sowing might be due to superiority in physiological traits of genotypes expressing high leaf chlorophyll contents and cooler canopies during anthesis or grain filling stages. Both traits help the plants to maintain better photosynthetic performance and remobilization of stem reserves to the developing grains during grain filling under high temperature or drought stress [3]. High temperature increased transpiration and keep crop canopies cool and turgid to maintain the photosynthetic performance [16]. Although relatively low transpiration and photosynthetic rates were found especially for advanced line V-07096 under late sowing, these were significantly similar with timely sowing supporting the hypothesis that genotypes maintained photosynthetic performance under terminal heat stress.Reduced canopy temperature response of wheat lines V-07096 and V-10110 was also reflected with a decrease in gas exchange traits including A, E and Ci under late sowing in the present study [16]. Higher leaf chlorophyll contents at anthesis in wheat genotypes are an indicative of delayed senescence, high photosynthetic rate and remobilization of assimilates under terminal heat stress. Both traits contributed to higher grain yield in wheat genotypes under late sowing as evident from direct association of leaf chlorophyll contents and canopy temperature with grain yield (Figure 2a,b). Stay green trait is highly dependent on the environment and has a strong positive relationship with grain filling rate, duration and grain yield under heat stress [20]. Grain yield and stay grain are controlled by similar quantitative traits loci (QTLs) which are co-localized for productivity enhancement under heat stressed environments [20]. Heat tolerant wheat lines developed with physiological traits having cooler canopies and stay green showed superior yield and higher thousand grain weight with better adaptability under terminal heat stress [3,24].The stem water-soluble carbohydrate is a potential adaptive trait for developing heat or drought tolerant wheat and 10-50% variation in stem water-soluble carbohydrates to total stem dry weight has been reported in wheat [32,33]. Higher accumulation of stem water-soluble carbohydrates in advanced lines along with early maturing heat tolerant check Millet-11 the present study indicated increased buffering capacity of these genotypes to remobilize carbon reserves towards the developing grains accumulated during stem elongation period under terminal heat stress [14].Nonetheless, no relationship of stem water-soluble carbohydrates with grain yield in the present study (Figure 2d) validates that weak association of water-soluble carbohydrates with yield as reported earlier and response is dependent on environment [16,26]. Higher stem water-soluble carbohydrates expressed under late sowing in the present study validate the potential of trait under stress condition and should be further investigated. In addition to superior physiological traits, wheat genotypes showed delayed maturity, however, response was compensated with higher yields ranging 5.38-23.82% compared to early maturing heat tolerant check Millet-11. Early maturity is as considered a breeding criterion to escape the effects of terminal heat stress, however, short duration may be accompanied with grain yield losses [3]. Interestingly, association of thousand grain weight with days to heading was significant and strong during both years and with days to maturity in the 1st year (Table 3).Nonetheless, superior performance of advanced lines and Punjab-11 for grain yield and physiological traits demonstrated their potential to be used for the physiological breeding programs. Thus genotypes with heat adaptive traits should be considered in parent selection for a targeted environment or for the identification of one or more adaptive traits .This study was conducted during the winter (rabi) growing season of 2013-2014 and 2104-2015 at University of Agriculture Faisalabad (latitude, 31 The four wheat genotypes used in the present study were two widely cultivated  and two promising lines (V-07096, V-10110).Genotypes were cultivated at two sowing times viz. timely and late sowing. The crop planted on the 10th and 13th of November was considered as normal sowing while on the 10th and 13th of December was recorded as late sowing during 2013 and 2014, respectively. The delayed sowing was done with the objective to create a heat stress environment at anthesis and during reproductive stages. The early maturing genotype Millet-11 was used as heat tolerant check while Punjab-11 was selected for its high yield potential [47]. The experimental treatments were randomized in complete block design (RCBD) with split-plot arrangement with sowing dates into main plots and wheat genotypes into sub-plots and each replicated thrice. Wheat genotypes were planted into net plot size of 5.7 m × 3.5 m at inter-row spacing of 22.5 cm.The Faisalabad features semi-arid sub-tropical climate and is located in Punjab-Pakistan. The rice-wheat rotation is generally practiced as a cropping pattern in this ecological zone. Wheat is grown as a spring crop starting from November and harvested in April. The average maximum and minimum temperatures during winter were 21 • C and 6 • C, respectively. May, June and July are the hottest months during summer and December, January and February are the coldest ones during winter [48]. Average annual rainfall is about 300 mm and that is highly seasonal and 50% of it is received during monsoon in July and August. However, in the present study, the temperature from sowing to booting ranged between 16 to 28  3).The seed rate of 125 kg ha -1 was used for wheat cultivation. Recommended fertilizers doses of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were applied at rate of 100-85-60 kg ha −1 using urea, single super phosphate and sulfate of potash, respectively. Whole of the P and K were applied during land preparation and while N was applied in three splits with the 1st half during land preparation as basal, 2nd at the 1st irrigation and 3rd at the 2nd irrigation. Crop was irrigated four times including the 1st as pre-saturated, 2nd at crown initiation, 3rd at tillering and 4th during anthesis stages. All plant protection measures were performed as recommended and weeds were controlled manually. 4.6. Observations 4.6.1. Crop Phenology Phenological measurements at different crop developmental stages such as days to booting, heading, anthesis and maturity including grain filling period were recorded following Zadoks scale [49].For canopy temperature, measurements were taken during mid grain-filling stage using Infrared Thermometer between 10:00 h to 14:00 h under clear bright sky with no wind. Two readings per plot were taken and averaged. Leaf chlorophyll contents were measured according to Arnon et al. [50]. Five flag leaves were harvested from each plot at 10th days after anthesis and 0.5 g leaf sample was extracted in acetone (80% v/v) and kept overnight in sealed falcon tubes at 5 • C. The absorbance of the supernatant was determined at 645 nm and 663 nm using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi-220 Japan). Water soluble carbohydrates i.e., stem reserves were measured according to Yemm and Willis [51] and stem from main primary tillers was collected at the 7th day after anthesis. Fresh material (0.5 g) was boiled in 5 mL distilled water for 1 h. The extract was filtered and distilled water was added up to 50 mL. The 5 mL anthrone reagent was added into 1 mL of the extract along the sidewall of the test tube and vortexed. The mixture was heated in a water bath at 90-95 • C for 20 min, cooled down and absorbance was taken at 620 nm using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi-220 Japan).Plants 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 rice and cotton in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat zones owing to delayed harvest of long maturing semi-dwarf rice varieties and delayed picking of cotton respectively [4,5]. The delay in wheat cultivation exposes the crop to high temperatures during flowering and grain-filling stages termed as \"terminal heat stress\" [6]. Nonetheless, wheat grown on ≥13.9 million ha in the rice-wheat cropping system of South Asia [1] including rice-wheat and cotton-wheat zones of Pakistan experience terminal heat stress [4,5]. Spring wheat in South Asia is sown in the months of November and December while harvested during April and May particularly in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping zones. The timely planted wheat crop in these zones has temperature requirement of 12-22 ℃ during vegetative and reproductive growth periods particularly at anthesis and grain filling stages.Late sown wheat experiences higher canopy temperature (> 31 °C) during reproductive period adversely affecting many physiological processes resulting in shortened crop growth cycle and reduced yields [6]. For example, high temperature during anthesis reduces pollen viability by restricting embryo development and promotes anther sterility Stomatal conductance (gs), sub-stomatal CO 2 concentration (Ci), photosynthetic (A), and transpiration rates (E) were recorded at anthesis stage from top the 3rd leaf of every plant using infra-red gas analyzer (IRGA) (model, LCA-4; Analytical Development Com-pany, Hoddesdon, England) [52]. All these measurements were recorded at 13.00-14.00 h. During measurements, leaf chamber molar gas flow rate was 248 µmol s −1 , ambient CO 2 conc. (Cref) 352 µmol mol −1 , ambient pressure (P) of 98.01 k Pa, molar flow of air/leaf area 221.06 mol m −2 s −1 and leaf chamber volume with gas flow rate (v) of 380 mL/min. 4.6.4. Yield Related Traits Average plant height, spike length and number of grains per spike were recorded at maturity by threshing 10 primary tillers manually. Numbers of productive tillers of each genotype from selected plants were counted at maturity and averaged. The grains of threshed plants for each replication were bulked separately for 1000-grains and weighed. For straw yield, an area of 2 m 2 was randomly harvested twice per plot, tagged and weighed separately with the help of an electric balance. The harvested samples were threshed manually and grain yield for each genotype was measured. Both straw and grain yields were expressed as g m −2 . 4.6.5. Statistical Analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for data comparison using Statistix 8.1 software. The year was taken as factor to find the homogeneity or heterogeneity and where year was significant, the data of both years were analyzed and presented separately, otherwise pooled. MS-Excel was used to present data graphically. To overcome confounding effects of maturity among cultivars for physiological traits, co-variance analysis was performed. The significant difference among treatment means was compared following Tukey's range test at 5% probability level. Pearson's correlation was also performed for heading and maturity time with thousand grain wight and grain yield to determine relationship between them.The present study revealed necessary variation among genotypes for various morphophysiological traits associated with adaptation to terminal heat stress. Advanced lines and cv. Punjab-11 had better agronomic performance for most of the traits than heat tolerant check Millet-11 under late sowing. A positive relationship of leaf chlorophyll contents and canopy temperature was found with grain yield. Therefore, advanced lines and Punjab-11 with high biomass and grain yield, reduced canopy temperature and high leaf chlorophyll contents can be promising sources to be utilized in physiological breeding for developing climate resilience in wheat. block design, N: Nitrogen, P: Phosphorus, K:Potassium, IRGA: Infra-red gas analyzer and ANOVA: Analysis of variance","tokenCount":"4115"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e8f42458f14fda312cf44a7f497e781","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/647f1fa4-c73e-4fff-8c8b-e9edb884d1a1/retrieve","id":"-29490831"},"keywords":["digital agronomy","GIS","land suitability assessment","spatial targeting","recommendations domains","sustainable intensification","vegetable cultivars"],"sieverID":"1117fc4d-6301-4024-95ab-ec53b689b0a7","pagecount":"12","content":"Land suitability assessment matches crop requirements with available resources to promote sustainable production. Scaling out of sustainable agricultural intensification practices to suitable biophysical and socio-economic conditions reduces the risk of failure and increases their adoption rate. This study applies a geospatial framework to identify potentially suitable sites for extrapolating two improved vegetable cultivars grown under integrated management practices (IMP's) in Babati District of Tanzania. On-farm trial data on the yield and income of two cultivars were used as a reference. Extrapolation was based on the gridded biophysical and socio-economic layers that limit the production of the two improved vegetable cultivars'. The extrapolation suitability index (ESI) showed the areas where cultivation of the two improved vegetable cultivars under IMP's can be scaled-out with a potentially low risk of failure. We generate maps of the most important limiting factor for each cultivar in every pixel to guide the spatial targeting of appropriate remedial measures. Application of these maps will promote evidence-based scaling out of improved vegetable technologies by the extension and development agencies.Vegetables are an essential dietary component as most are rich in micro-nutrients such as iron, Zinc, Magnesium, vitamins A and C (Ojiewo et al., 2010). These micro-nutrients play a vital role in human growth, development, and health. 90% of the population with Ca and Zn deficiency is in Africa and Asia (Kumssa et al., 2015). Efforts to increase the sustainable production and consumption of vegetables will significantly address malnutrition and hidden hunger. Moreover, vegetable farming promotes income diversification in small-scale farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa, thereby improving livelihoods.The level of crop production is context-dependent. Recent research has shown that scaling out sustainable agricultural intensification technologies to locations with biophysical and socio-economic conditions similar to their trial sites increases their adoption rate and reduces the risk of failure (Annicchiarico et al., 2005;Rubiano et al., 2016). Yields attained at the reference agronomic trials can be achieved in other areas with similar biophysical and socio-economic conditions. Land suitability assessment is applied to identify locations with similar conditions to reference trial sites. Land suitability assessment promotes design of better land management by supporting land use pattern that prevents or avoids environmental degradation through the segregation of competing land uses (AbdelRahman et al., 2016;Han et al., 2021). Land suitability assessment improves knowledge on the appropriateness of specific land use in a location and identifies the limitation(s) hindering land utilization. Mapping the suitability of crops to the prevailing biophysical and socio-economic context informs evidence-based agricultural investments and promotes the sustainable use of limited resources. Characterizing the biophysical context under which technologies performed successfully is vital for planning to scale out investments.Geospatial data and tools are applied to generate recommendation domains for sustainable agricultural intensification technologies as they offer the speed, flexibility, and power to synthesize big data on land resources (Hyman et al., 2013;Usha and Singh, 2013;Muthoni et al., 2019). Spatial frameworks for mapping crop suitability follow a 'top-down' or a 'bottom-up' approach. The top-down approach utilizes a multi-criteria analysis to classify remote sensing data into clusters based on predetermined criteria or expert knowledge but without direct reference to the on-farm trial sites (e.g., Tesfaye et al., 2015;Muthoni et al., 2017). The bottom-up approach utilizes data from field trials as the benchmark of the suitable environmental conditions for agronomic technology, followed by a spatial search of other areas with a similar context in the wider geographical area (Rubiano et al., 2016;Muthoni et al., 2019). The top-down approach is the most applied to generate the spatial recommendation domains for agronomic technologies (Tesfaye et al., 2015;Notenbaert et al., 2016), primarily due to the increasing free availability of gridded biophysical and socio-economic layers.The bottom-up approach is not applied widely because of the limited data availability from on-farm trials. Recent studies have shown the potential of the bottom-up approach for developing extrapolation domains of bundles of technology options using available on-farm trial data (Rubiano et al., 2016;Muthoni et al., 2019). The \"bottom-up\" approach is more specific because recommendations are generated from on-farm trials after validation in multiple locations or seasons. Muthoni et al. (2019) developed the extrapolation suitability index (ESI) for maize varieties and mineral fertilizers in Tanzania. They combined data from agronomic trials and remote sensing layers to generate maps on the suitability of technology packages beyond the trial sites to guide scaling-out operations. The ESI method apply an innovative extrapolation detection algorithm (Mesgaran et al., 2014) that factors the dissimilarity from the reference trial sites while also accounting for novel combination of environmental variables beyond those encountered in the trials. Rubiano et al. (2016) mapped the global out-scaling of water-efficient rice technologies using data from 220 pilot sites. Annicchiarico et al. (2005) showed that scaling out Algerian durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) on GIS-generated recommendation domains had an 11% yield advantage.There are few spatially explicit recommendations domains for vegetable cultivars worldwide. For example, Jayasinghe and Machida (2008) developed a web-GIS tool utilizing soil, topography, climate, and land use data to map land suitability for tomatoes and cabbages in Sri Lanka. In Nepal, Thapa et al. (2020) mapped the suitability of cauliflower, and Baniya et al. (2009) developed spatial recommendations for the larger cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.). Ji et al. (2018) mapped the the spatial-temporal variability of vegetable production in China. Mostafiz et al. (2021) applied a fuzzy membership method to map suitability of vegetables between different seasons in Bangladesh. Other studies had applied a top-down multi-criteria decision making to map suitability of vegetables without on-farm trial data (Mugo et al., 2016;Mostafiz et al., 2021;Rahmawaty et al., 2021;Yuniarti et al., 2022;Zakaria et al., 2022). Although multiple agencies in Tanzania promote sustainable vegetable farming at scale, detailed maps on the suitability of improved cultivars and related improved agronomic practices are lacking.A recent study in Babati district of Tanzania analyzed onfarm trials data to identify promising vegetable cultivars and related management practices (Lukumay et al., 2018). The study compared the yield response and economic benefits of improved tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum; \"Tengeru 2010\") and African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum; \"Tengeru White:) cultivars grown under improved management practices (IMPs) and standard farmer' practices (SFP's; control) (Lukumay et al., 2018). The IMPs comprised good quality seeds of improved cultivars, healthy seedlings, good agronomic practices (GAP's), and integrated pest management (IPM). The control plots used good-quality seeds and SFPs. Results from these on-farm trials revealed that growing the two cultivars using IMPs significantly increased yield for Tengeru 2010 tomato from 28 t ha −1 (control) to 64 t ha −1 and from 23.04 t ha −1 to 54 t ha −1 for African eggplant. Lukumay et al. (2018) further demonstrated that farmers who applied IMP's attained gross profit margins up to USD 18,300 and 9,600 ha −1 with benefit-cost ratios (BCR) of 8.5 and 4.5 for tomato and African eggplant, respectively. Evidently, the adoption of IMP in vegetable farming at scale could confer a broader societal impact in terms of yield and profits.The question that emerged after the on-farm validation trials was where else should the package of two cultivars and IMP's be scaled-out with minimal risk of failure in Babati district of Tanzania? This study addresses the above question by conducting a spatially explicit characterization of biophysical and socio-economic contexts that match the trial sites where the improved vegetable technology packages returned significantly higher yield and income. We hypothesized that technological packages that show high yield potential in reference trial sites would also perform equally well in outlying areas with similar environmental conditions. The objective of our study is to produce a map of each cultivar's extrapolation suitability index (ESI) to identify areas where specific technological packages can be scaled-out with a potentially low risk of failure. Moreover, we generate a map showing the most important covariates (MIC) that highly limits each cultivar's suitability at every grid cell to guide the spatial targeting of appropriate remedial measures. The MIC analysis provides knowledge for localized targeting of management practices to improve the suitability of specific technologies. The spatially explicit framework presented in this paper will guide evidence-based land use planning for sustainable agricultural development in smallholder farming systems. . Materials and methodsThe study area islocated in Babati district of Tanzania (Figure 1). Maize-legume intercropping is the main farming system in the Babati district, but vegetables are grown to supplement income and nutrition. Livestock keeping mostly under zero-grazing systems is common and provides milk and farmyard manure. This study focuses on two vegetable cultivars; the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum; \"Tengeru 2010\") and the African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum; \"Tengeru White\"). The \"Tengeru 2010\" tomato is rated excellent for taste and high market acceptability and tolerate early blight, late blight, and tomato mosaic virus (Ojiewo et al., 2010;Minja et al., 2011). The \"Tengeru White\" African eggplant requires less water than tomatoes and prefers sunny conditions. It grows on a wide range of soils, including sandy loams but does not cope with waterlogging and intense shading. African eggplant is considered moderately sensitive to salinity and tolerant to acidity.The on-farm trials were implemented to validate the suitability of baskets of technologies comprising an elite tomato (\"Tengeru 2010\") and African eggplant (\"Tengeru White\") grown under IMP's in the Babati District of Tanzania. The on-farm trials in a randomized complete block experimental design were implemented in four villages (Figure 1) characterized by high (Bermi, Seloto), medium (Gallapo), and low (Matufa) rainfall zones (Lukumay et al., 2018). The trial sites were selected based on agroecological potential (rainfall and altitude), population density, and market access under the Africa RISING program (https:// africa-rising.net/). The results from the on-farm trials compared the yield and net benefits (profit) between the standard farmer's practice (control) and the integrated management practice (IMP) for the two cultivars. Lukumay et al. (2018) showed that the yield advantage and income for the IMP treatments of the two cultivars were more than double compared to the control (Figure 2). The IMPs package emerged as the best-bet for eggplant and tomato. The IMPs package comprised good quality elite seeds of improved vegetable cultivars, healthy seedlings, good agronomic practices (GAPs) and integrated pest management (IPM). GAPs included the application of manure, mulching, proper spacing, stalking, irrigation, and weeding. For tomato and eggplant, respectively, the IMP package produced a yield of 2.3 times higher and increased income by 1.6 compared to standard farmers' practice (Figure 2).The yield and net benefits (income) for African eggplant (Tengeru White) and tomato (Tengeru ) cultivars grown under standard farmers practice (control) and integrated management practices (IMP) in the Babati district of Tanzania.We obtained a set of gridded biophysical and socio-economic layers that influence the suitability of the two vegetable cultivars from various sources (Table 1). The gridded datasets had different spatial resolutions ranging from 30 m (elevation) and 4 Km (climate). All gridded data was resampled to 30 meters resolution to avoid loss of high-resolution topographic details (Figure 3). The grid and vector layers representing the administrative boundaries were pre-processed, analyzed and visualized with the open-source R programming environment (R Core Team, 2023). The raster (Hijmans, 2023) and rasterVis (Lamigueiro and Hijmans, 2019) packages were mainly used for spatial analysis and visualization, respectively.Data collected from on-farm trials were used to generate a map of the extrapolation suitability index (ESI) of a tomato (\"Tengeru 2010\") and the African eggplant (\"Tengeru White\") grown using IMP. Compared to SFPs, the treatments with IMP had a higher yield advantage and incomes. Therefore, the trial plots for IMP for both cultivars were selected as the reference sites when delineating the extrapolating suitability maps. A principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on a data frame containing the gridded environmental layers listed in Table 2 to identify the primary gradient associated with each trial site. The optimal number of clusters for environmental variables was determined using \"NbClust\" R package (Charrad et al., 2014). The package provides 30 indices for assessing the number of clusters. It proposes the best clustering scheme to the user from different results obtained by varying combinations of clusters, distance measures, and clustering methods. In our case, we evaluated the complete method with Euclidean distance for cluster sizes ranging from 2 to 15. Hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) function of \"FactorMinoR\" R package (Lê et al., 2008) was utilized to group the trial sites into an optimal number of clusters with relatively similar environmental conditions. The cluster of trial sites' that each cultivar showed the highest mean yield and netbenefits was selected as a reference for extrapolation. A 30 m buffer around the location of best-performing trials was generated and used to crop the reference environmental layers. However, different criteria for selecting the best-bet trial sites can be specified: i.e., the yield stability, longevity of production, and quality of seeds; depending on the production objective.The method proposed by Muthoni et al. (2019) was applied to generate the ESI maps of the two vegetable cultivars grown under IMP. The ESI method utilize data from agronomic trials and remote sensing layers to generate maps on the suitability of particular technology package beyond the trial sites. The input variables were the points around the best-performing trial sites for each two cultivar in Babati and 11 gridded biophysical and socioeconomic variables or their reasonable proxies that are known to affect growing and marketability of vegetable cultivars (Table 1). The trial sites where particular vegetable cultivar showed good performance were utilized as reference training sites. The ESI maps were generated by calculating environmental dissimilarity between the reference trial sites and the outlying extrapolation area targeted for scaling out operations (Figure 1). This was accomplished by calculating novelty type-1 using the univariate extrapolation function in \"ntbox\" R package (Osorio-Olvera et al., 2020). The novelty type-1 ranges from 0 to negative infinity, with zero value representing the area that perfectly matches trial site conditions and, therefore, is the most suitable for scaling out. The most suitable zone in the projection domain that should be prioritized for scaling-out a particular agronomic technology package. This is the zone exhibiting the lowest univariate environmental dissimilarity compared to the conditions in the reference trial sites (novelty type-1 is equal or close to zero). The map of the novelty type-1 indicates the magnitude at which the environmental conditions at any particular location in the projection domains fall outside the range of values observed in the reference sites (Mesgaran et al., 2014). The most limiting covariate (MIC) was mapped using the ExeDet tool (Mesgaran et al., 2014). The most limiting factor at every location is the most extreme univariate value (minimum/maximum) compared to the reference sites' optimal conditions (Mesgaran et al., 2014).Three optimal clusters of environments were discriminated from the trial sites (Figure 4). The first two PCA axes explained 61.3% and 23.5% of the variance in environmental conditions, respectively. Cluster 1 represented trials in Matufa village characterized by lower agricultural potential due to warmer temperatures (high Tmin), sandy and alkaline soils (Figure 4). Cluster 2 had the highest trial plots (n = 12) located in Bermi and Seloto villages. The two villages have a high potential for agriculture as revealed by high elevation (DEM), precipitation (PPT), soil organic carbon (SOC), dense population (TotPop), and steeper slope; (Figure 4). Trials in cluster 3 were more correlated with the second PCA axis and represented trials in Galapo village characterized by high CEC and longer distance to the market.The ESI maps revealed that the Tengeru 2010 tomato is widely adapted but more suitable in the southern-central area of the Babati district (Figure 6A). The African eggplant was particularly unsuitable in the humid highlands in the southwestern of the district (Figure 6B). The central area around Matufa village was the most suitable for Tengeru White eggplant.Tengeru 2010 tomato cultivar's suitability in over 80% of the Babati district was limited by evapotranspiration (ETP; Figure 7A). Figure 8A shows that the median ETP (545 mm) in the projection domain was lower than the reference trial sites (618 mm). The DEM was the MIC covering the second largest area for Tengeru 2010 cultivar (Figure 7A); the median elevation in this area was higher (1,800 m) compared to the reference trial sites at 1,300 m above sea level (Figure 8B). The Tengeru White eggplant was primarily limited by precipitation (PPT) in over 70% of the district and the market access in the rest of the area located in the east to southeast of the Babati district (Figure 7B). Figure 8C shows that the median PPT (620 mm) was higher and more variable than the reference trial sites (580 mm). The south-east section of the district showed very low market access due to the longer time taken to reach the nearest market (Figure 8D).Maps on the extrapolation suitability index (ESI) were developed to guide evidence-based spatial targeting of two improved vegetable cultivars grown under IMP's in Babati district of Tanzania. Data from agronomic trials, and remote sensing layers were utilized to generate ESI maps showing a technology package's suitability beyond the trial sites. The ESI maps highlighted the potential risk of scaling out the validated vegetable technologies outside the trial sites. The area with low ESI values (0-1) has a lower risk and is therefore identified as the highest priority recommendation domain for scaling out the two technology packages.Characterizing the biophysical context under which technologies performed successfully is vital for planning the scaling out investments. It promotes the sustainable use of limited resources, e.g., targeting areas requiring minimal supplemental fertilizer and irrigation. Applying innovation presented in this paper in scaling-out programs is likely to reduce the risk of failure of technologies. Information presented in the ESI and MIC maps helps the extension and development agencies to rationalize investment given limited resources (Rubiano et al., 2016). The ESI map could help agro-input companies to target supplies to regions where their technologies are more suitable. The demand for improved seeds can be estimated before the planting season, thereby improving the input supply systems. The ESI maps can also guide agro-dealers to target suitable zones for disseminating specific agro-advisory services.The approach leverages the increasing remote sensing data to drive evidence-based targeting of agricultural technologies in areas where long-term agronomic trials are lacking. The ESI and MIC maps can also be utilized to guide the setting up of multi-location trials to investigate the cultivars' local adaptations under different environments and management practices. A recent study in the same district identified the ability to adapt to local conditions as one of the critical drivers of adopting improved vegetables at scale (Gramzow et al., 2018). The maps on the ESI and the most limiting factor provide a factual basis for future surveys to unravel the socio-cultural conditions that limit technology adoption. These maps need continuous improvement as more data from on-farm trials and higherresolution remote sensing data becomes available. Therefore,Characterization of the environmental conditions in the vegetable trials. Cluster represents trials in Matufa village, cluster are Bermi and Seloto and cluster is Galapo. Trials in cluster (Matufa village) and (Galapo) showed the highest median yield (Qty Prod) and net benefit for the African eggplant and tomato, respectively (Figure ). Therefore, trial plots located in the two best-performing clusters ( and ) were selected as the reference sites when delineating the extrapolating suitability maps for the two cultivars.The yield (Qty prod) and net benefit variability for African eggplant (Tengeru White) and the tomato (Tengeru ) among the three environmental clusters. The red dots represent the mean of yield and benefits. Clusters and showed the highest yield and net benefit for African eggplant and Tengeru tomato, respectively, and were used as the reference for spatial extrapolation.the ESI maps are regarded as \"living maps\" that are updated as more information from trials becomes available to improve agro-advisory. For example, the recently released very high resolution (30 m) on soil nutrients and physical conditions (Hengl et al., 2021) will improve mapping crop suitability at the plot level Since this study utilizes open-source remote sensing data and geospatial tools, our methodology is replicable in other geographies or crops, if geotagged crop trial data is available.Although several institutions or initiatives are running vegetable trials in Tanzania, sharing data from these trials is a challenge. Initiatives for harmonizing agronomic trials remain a critical area of improvement.The extrapolation suitability index (ESI) for (A) tomato ( Tengeru) and (B) African eggplant (Tengeru White). ESI show the risk of scaling out vegetable cultivars grown under integrated management practices (IMP).The spatial variation of the most important covariates (MIC) for two vegetable cultivars grown under improved management practices in Babati district. The zone where none of the covariates was identified as limiting represents vegetable cultivars' reference trial sites.The ESI methodology can be adapted depending on the objective of the scaling operation. Different reference sites can be selected depending on the goal of the scaling initiative. We selected the reference trials in the villages that returned the highest yield and profit. Alternatively, a scaling operation can choose the sites with the lowest crop yield if the objective is to uplift productivity in most challenged farms. Similarly, the trials with the most stable yield across space and time could be selected even if the aim is to promote stability rather than increase crop productivity. Therefore, thorough site characterization, especially when setting the crop trials, is essential to ensure the representativeness of main environmental gradients.The Tengeru 2010 tomato showed wide adaption to the Babati district's conditions, while the Tengeru White eggplant is unsuitable in southwest part of the district around Bermi and Seloto villages. The south-west area of Babati is characterized by humid highlands and high precipitation (Figure 1). African eggplant requires less water than tomatoes and prefers sunny conditions like the situation around Matufa village that recorded the highest yields. Higher precipitation and lower evapotranspiration compared to the reference trial sites emerged as the main limiting factors in the large area for eggplant and tomatoes, respectively. This reflects the importance of optimal moisture for vegetable cultivation. Lower evapotranspiration than the reference sites limited tomatoes' suitability in the largest area. Since evapotranspiration is directly proportional to soil moisture content, it suggests that lower than optimal moisture affected the suitability of the tomatoes. Our study concurs with recent studies that observed that deviations from optimal soil moisture highly limit land suitability for vegetable cultivation in the tropics (Widiatmaka, 2016). However, too much rainfall increase the instances of pest attack on tomatoes thereby increasing the production cost since more pesticides are applied (Yuniarti et al., 2022). Low market access was the main factor limiting the Tengeru White eggplant's suitability in the hilly and forested landscape in south-east of the district. Although south-east of Babati district showed moderate to high suitability for African eggplant, poor accessibility can hinder vegetable production investments. Vegetables are durable commodities that need good market access to avoid post-harvest losses and high transport costs that reduce profits. Ji et al. (2018) reported road density as among China's most important drivers of vegetable production. Poor accessibility in south-east of Babati district is confounded by the prevalent lack of appropriate post-harvest storage management practices that cause up to 50% of yield losses of vegetables between harvesting and consumption (Majubwa et al., 2015).The maps on the most influential covariates provide an evidence-based tool for spatial targeting of appropriate remedial measures. Evapotranspiration (ETP) and precipitation (PPT) were the main limiting factors for the two cultivars revealing that enhancing soil water conservation measures or supplemental irrigation is likely to increase yield.However, our study did not consider the socio-cultural aspects that may hinder the adoption of a technology package even in ecologically suitable locations. There is a need to improve the ESI approach to capture the spatial variations of socio-cultural aspects like the differences in resource endowments, level of awareness, production orientation, and gender norms known to influence the adoption of vegetable technologies. For example, Fischer et al. (2020) reported that cultural norms restrict the participation of women in public gatherings leading to lower access to extension services. These norms in turn prevents women from getting more involved in fruit vegetable production and make them focus on leafy vegetables, as their cultivation is perceived easier and less costly. Similarly, Mugiyo et al. (2021) observed that the exclusion of crucial social-economic variables, such as access to credit and extension services, limits the adoption of vegetable cultivars in areas with suitable biophysical criteria. In that regard, Notenbaert et al. (2016) suggested the inclusion of socio-cultural variables in developing recommendation domains for agricultural technologies through stakeholder engagement and consultations. Nevertheless, the ESI maps provide a solid basis for future surveys to unravel the socio-cultural conditions that limit vegetable technologies' suitability.Most studies on mapping the suitability of vegetables primarily utilized the top-down multi-criteria decision-making approaches that are subject to expert opinions (e.g., Widiatmaka, 2016;Rahmawaty et al., 2020Rahmawaty et al., , 2021;;Mugiyo et al., 2021;Zakaria et al., 2022). In these studies, the geospatial layers were first classified into suitability groups based on literature or expert knowledge. Our method substantially reduces subjectivity by incorporating the reference crop trial data.Future developments will focus on designing a open-source web-GIS tool for mapping the suitability of vegetable cultivars and agronomic practices. The proposed tool should be user-friendly and straightforward so farmers and village extension staff can operate it with basic gadgets with or without an internet connection to provide on and off-line agro-advisories. A similar web-GIS opensource tool implemented in Sri Lanka proved to be helpful to rural farmers with limited IT knowledge (Jayasinghe and Machida, 2008). The tool's utility was supported by the establishment of information technology centers in rural areas under a government project called e-Sri Lanka. This could be replicated in the Babati district to foster the vast potential of vegetable development. The targeting tool can be integrated into mobile-based agro-advisory initiatives currently piloted in the district.The government of Tanzania and development partners has identified adoption of sustainable agriculture intensification technologies as a strategy to improve access to nutritious food. This aimed to achieve the sustainable development goal (SDG) 2 i.e., \"end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.\" The reduction of malnutrition, stunting, and wasting is a priority policy issue. Vegetables are rich in essential micro-nutrients (Ojiewo et al., 2010), therefore increased production, accessibility and consumption promotes healthy living by reducing the hidden hunger (malnutrition and stunting) especially in children under five and elderly (Khamis et al., 2019). Extension agencies in Tanzania promote growing elite varieties of fruits and vegetables to increase nutritional security and generate more income in smallholder farming systems (Ochieng et al., 2021). Moreover, promoting adoption of improved vegetables at scale is an essential policy toward increasing income for rural households. The ESI maps generated in this study enables the extension and development agencies to objectively identify the priority areas for better scaling out of improved vegetables.This study presents maps on the extrapolation suitability index (ESI) and the most influential covariates (MIC) for two vegetable technology packages in the Babati District of Tanzania. These maps are a useful guide to extension and development partners on prioritizing sites for targeting scaling out intervention to increase yield, income and maintain environmental health. Maps generated from this study are further expected to reduce the risk of failure of improved vegetable packages and ultimately enhance adoption at scale. The information generated in this study will support decision making on allocation of land for diversified agricultural production to achieve food and nutrition security. The main advantage of the method is its replicability across space and time, low investment required, and generates easy to understand the maps. However, the accuracy of the maps is dependent on the precision of the input layers and therefore they need to be validated on the field before adoption by extension agencies.","tokenCount":"4591"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e3c6eb59ac09e39ba4c0d9568857a7dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f31bdd8f-049e-4fba-938a-07bc3bb3298c/retrieve","id":"-2047926213"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3c184bb5-8e8b-46fd-b477-15527de192aa","pagecount":"82","content":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment.IWMI's mission is to provide evidence-based solutions to sustainably manage water and land resources for food security, people's livelihoods and the environment. IWMI works in partnership with governments, civil society and the private sector to develop scalable agricultural water management solutions that have a tangible impact on poverty reduction, food security and ecosystem health.viiIrrigation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is expanding, following years of neglect. Governments, international donors and private sector actors have renewed their interest in irrigation investments to make the region food and water secure by moving from drought-prone, rain-fed agriculture to irrigated agriculture. Until now, public investments have emphasized decentralized water management systems and the establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) as the most prominent management approach to accompany the expansion of irrigation. Investors expect WUAs to deliver on user participation, full cost recovery and reliable service provision. However, implementation of WUAs is fraught with problems and hurdles, be it internally (pertaining to the community of irrigators and users) or externally, affected by specific political economies, ineffective policies, and rigid water bureaucracies.Building on existing literature and the analysis of a portfolio of development projects (past and under implementation), this paper reviews the evolution of WUAs in SSA, reflecting on the conceptualization of how they operate, and the promised outcomes related to irrigation development and the efficient and effective delivery of irrigation services. It also moves one step further from the existing plethora of studies on WUAs, postulating that additional reflection is needed to understand the limitations of WUAs and propose alternative, viable and context-based adapted models. This need is particularly strong in SSA where irrigation is incipient, and governments and donors are still consolidating their development approaches. Whereas a growing body of international literature takes into account the sociopolitical context of decentralized irrigation management, practical indication on what remains to be done to address the various limitations found in SSA stays meagre and scattered. The objective of this paper is not to challenge the myth of WUAs but to learn how to better deliver on the promised outcomes. The underlying message is that, if the SSA region is to be made water and food secure while respecting resource sustainability, community development, livelihoods and equality of resource access, the recurrent templates for WUA management and governance need to be revisited and adapted to local needs.In order to do so, this paper examines the main lines of thought on WUAs, defining a mainstream type of WUA and then proceeding to evaluate the main consequences for irrigation management in SSA brought about by its implementation. To that effect, this paper has developed a framework to analyze how WUAs function, centered around two main interdependent narratives underpinning the mainstream WUA approach: (i) full cost recovery of operation and maintenance (O&M) for system performance, and (ii) user participation in decision making at the WUA level. The juxtaposition of such a theoretical approach with the reality on the ground when it comes to the actual delivery of services by WUAs represents the next level of analysis included in this report. Here, the paper highlights how the complexities arising from the expected feedback loop generated by WUAs (irrigation performance -agricultural productivity -cost recovery -user participation) are extremely difficult to predict and prove due to the myriad of factors affecting irrigation management and agricultural productivity.Following this, an additional analytical framework is proposed to characterize WUAs in its socio-technical and economic context, and to systematically analyze conditions under which WUAs would function in SSA. The framework provides a broad overview of WUAs in SSA, considering the socioeconomic and political setting of WUAs, the water resources system they manage, their governance structure and finally the type of users/members. This framework is used to study cases drawn from project reports and peer-reviewed literature mainly from the following countries: Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and viii South Africa. The review of these case studies highlights that the compounded complexities of WUAs in SSA not only prevent the achievement of improved agricultural productivity, but weaken the assumed feedback loop through which improved irrigation performance strengthens cost recovery and user participation in WUAs. In turn, donors and public agencies conclude that WUAs, and often the irrigation projects, have failed.As a result, policy makers and donor agencies have tried five main channels to strengthen conventional WUAs: (i) WUA policy and legal instruments, (ii) WUA bylaws, (iii) contracts with WUAs, (iv) training of WUA members, and (v) introducing monitoring and evaluation (M&E). All five channels are reviewed in this paper, concluding that the advancement of WUA policies, bylaws, contracts, trainings and M&E signals that even though donors and public agencies recognize the weaknesses of WUA management, it does not represent meaningful change in expectations from WUAs or a substantive change in the approach to irrigation scheme management. No evidence has been found to show that having national-level legal instruments or regulations, or ensuring that WUAs create bylaws, actually leads to the desired outcomes of improved cost recovery, equitable participation, and improved overall effectiveness of governance or O&M in an irrigation scheme.Against this backdrop, this paper introduces seven alternative management options which deviate from the way WUAs are typically implemented and expected to function by water administrations, decision makers and donors. None of the options have been widely adopted so far; however, the first five alternative management options have been explicitly advocated by scholars and development organizations. A definition of alternative management options and an overview of the seven options are provided. The paper then explains each option in more detail with a specific emphasis on how the approach deviates and/or overlaps with the way WUAs are typically conceptualized and implemented. The alternative management options reviewed here shift the focus onto activities that are related to other actors and/or processes in irrigation management. WUAs may still play an important role in these alternative management options, but formalizing and training WUAs per se is no longer considered the only way to achieve cost recovery and user participation. In some options, the role and responsibility of WUAs may even be completely different from mainstream practices. Examples of its practice in SSA or other development contexts are also discussed. Finally, the most important opportunities and threats which may affect the implementation of this management option in the SSA context are outlined.This paper then concludes by reflecting on how the general expectations of WUAs from water bureaucracies, decision makers and donors to deliver on cost recovery, user participation and, ultimately, irrigation performance are rarely met. One reason is that cost recovery through water user fees is often prioritized over user participation in decision making. Indeed, user participation is seen as a fundamental factor to ensure willingness of users to pay fees and undertake O&M. The underlying issue is the invalid assumptions that underpin the expected functions of WUAs (examined here). The review of case studies highlights that the socioeconomic context and agricultural conditions shape the ability of WUAs to deliver results, but these enabling conditions cannot be easily created by external institutions and actors. In SSA, WUAs are primarily promoted in a setting of smallholder agriculture by external agencies, such as national governments or donors, with a few notable exceptions.To summarize, the main challenges that appear to constrain WUA management in SSA include the following:1. WUAs are unable to collect user fees and therefore unable to pay for O&M. Scheme or project goals may not prioritize and undertake activities to support increased farmer income. 2. Farmers' incentives may not support payment of user fees; income from irrigated agriculture is low and contributes only partially to their livelihood strategies. ix 3. WUAs are not inclusive of different types of water users, including women, although, by default, the irrigation infrastructure is usually used for multiple purposes. WUA membership is biased towards irrigators (plot owners or managers). 4. Emerging irrigation, such as individual pump users, are not integrated into scheme planning or management. Individual irrigators encroach upon gravity irrigation systems managed by WUAs, but do not participate in WUA decision making, cost recovery or O&M. 5. Local institutions (customary, political, state) have contradictory objectives and incentives than formal water user institutions that are often externally imposed. 6. Low capacities of the state in rural areas limit technical and management assistance to consistently support WUA development.The results of this study suggest the following key lessons in relation to irrigation WUAs: 1. Setting up WUA policies, bylaws, contracts, trainings and M&E constitute limited means to improve the performance of WUAs. 2. No simple alternative management arrangement exists within the existing WUA framework. 3. Adapt management roles, structures and infrastructure to deliver transformative services and improve rural livelihoods. 4. User participation is crucial for smallholder irrigation development, but does not mean that WUAs can or should be solely responsible for all the functions. 5. Performance indicators and the practice of M&E of WUAs are largely missing.Evidence suggests that there is large untapped potential to expand the irrigated area in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Hanjra and Gichuki 2008;Pavelic et al. 2013;Svendsen et al. 2009;Xie et al. 2014;You 2008). Following years of neglected irrigation development, governments, international donors and private sector actors have renewed their interest in irrigation investments to make the region food and water secure by moving from drought-prone, rain-fed agriculture to irrigated agriculture. Until now, public investments emphasized the establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) as the most prominent approach to decentralized water management systems. Investors expect WUAs to deliver on inclusive user participation, full cost recovery and reliable service provision. However, implementation of WUAs is fraught with problems and hurdles, be it internally (pertaining to the community of irrigators and users) or externally, affected by specific political economies, ineffective policies, and rigid water bureaucracies.Researchers and development practitioners have subjected WUAs in the irrigation sector to critical scrutiny since their early implementation in the 1980s and 1990s (Meinzen-Dick et al. 1995;Turral 1995;Vermillion 1997). Worldwide, many case studies offer mixed results with regard to the functioning of WUAs and outcomes related to irrigation development (e.g., Groenfeldt and Svendsen 2000;Meinzen-Dick et al. 2002;Uphoff and Wijayaratna 2000). Most of those case studies do not fulfil the conditions for a rigorous comparative evaluation of WUAs, particularly as they use varying indicators to assess WUA performance (Senanayake et al. 2015). These indicators range from agricultural production factors to water fee collection rates and equitable water distribution. The wide range of indicators show that different kinds of assumptions are made on how WUAs are expected to function and what defines a successful WUA.More recently, several reviews on WUAs have tried to put forward more conclusive insights on the impact of WUAs on irrigation performance by analyzing a large number of case studies (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007;Ghazouani et al. 2012;Mukherji et al. 2009;Senanayake et al. 2011Senanayake et al. , 2015)). However, the picture presented vis-à-vis their achievements remains unclear. Reviews show that, in most cases, WUAs do not live up to the expectations of water administrators, public decision makers and donors who initiated the establishment of WUAs. Some reviews primarily point to causes of failure such as the poor implementation, and unclear formulation of the roles and responsibilities of WUAs (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). Other reviews focus on critiquing the assumptions behind the WUA concept and question whether WUAs are the most appropriate institutional arrangement to improve irrigation performance (Mukherji et al. 2009). The two most prominent criticisms of WUAs to be found across the literature are the unrealistic expectations on cost recovery and the neglect of inclusive user participation during implementation of irrigation projects. All reviews conclude that the broader socio-technical and economic context in which WUAs are supposed to function is central to finding solutions for irrigation management, regardless of poor implementation or conceptual flaws.Against this background, additional reflection is needed to understand the limitations of WUAs and propose alternative, viable and context-based adapted models. This need is particularly strong in SSA where irrigation is incipient, and governments and donors are still consolidating development approaches. Practical indications on how to address different types of limitations of WUAs in SSA remains meagre and scattered, despite the body of international literature that considers the sociopolitical factors that affect WUA performance (see, for example, Kemerink et al. 2013;Rap 2006;Suhardiman and Giordano 2014;Venot et al. 2011). The objective of this paper is not to challenge the underlying concept of WUAs, but to gather learning that will enable practitioners to better deliver on the promised outcomes of decentralized irrigation management.The main message is that the recurrent templates for WUA management and governance need to be revisited and adapted to local needs, if the SSA region is to become water and food secure while also respecting resource sustainability, community development, livelihoods and equality of resource access. Practitioners, decision makers and researchers have documented and analyzed numerous cases and tried to wedge in theoretical solutions that continue to fail in the real context. Local management systems cannot be modelled according to specific externally determined models. The reproduction of particular irrigation system development narratives and associated pre-made solutions requires scrutiny, especially given the lack of effective solutions to date. Development investors and implementers often see WUAs as a preset model to deliver improved irrigation management. At the same time, assessments of irrigation schemes focus on what a WUA did wrong, rather than questioning whether the establishment of WUAs is the right approach to deliver improved irrigation management at all.To critically examine the WUA approach and discuss alternative management models, this study is split into three parts. The first part of this study (section 2) summarizes the main lines of thought on WUAs so far by consulting reviews and assessments carried out globally. The second part (section 3) evaluates the consequences for irrigation management in SSA by providing a detailed description of the most important factors that influence WUA management. The third part (section 4) intends to go beyond the more common review of constraints and failures of WUAs in SSA by examining alternative and innovative management options developed, in part, as a response to past criticism of the WUA concept. Most interventions to strengthen WUAs have focused on minor adjustments in their implementation, but this paper highlights examples that display more fundamental changes based on a different rationale to achieve cost recovery and user participation. Section 4 presents exemplary case studies that enable the study to then synthesize lessons that can be learned from past investments in WUAs and promising alternative management options. Finally, the study suggests recommendations to adapt decentralized water management in different contexts in SSA.This section introduces the theoretical concepts behind WUAs and outlines the main points of criticism on the operationalization of those concepts, using evidence from existing reviews on WUAs across the world. First, this section provides a working definition of WUAs. Second, it discusses the historical origins of the WUA, and its relationship with broader developmental and socio-technical paradigms. In doing so, it explores the prevailing rationale behind WUAs. Finally, the section addresses the reasons for high expectations on WUAs against the assumptions underlying the WUA concept. For each major assumption, practical experiences and critical literature which challenge the assumptions are presented.This paper uses a working definition for WUAs adapted from IFAD (2001) as a formal organization that brings together farmers for the purpose of managing a common irrigation system 1 . Other definitions may apply to contexts of domestic water use or traditional irrigation organizations (i.e., non-formalized user organizations). Here, we introduce the term \"mainstream\" WUA to specify what is generally meant by the term WUA in the frame of current donor-funded irrigation development projects. Table 1 lists the main characteristics of mainstream WUAs. A WUA is a user-based organization that aims to manage the irrigation system for its members mostly on a nonprofit basis. Its main tasks include the allocation of water within the irrigation system, operation and maintenance (O&M) of the system and the cost recovery of O&M through the collection of irrigation fees from its members. A WUA is generally small in scale with a limited number of members (usually no more than several hundred members), so that self-management by users is possible. The actual size of a WUA often depends on the irrigation system. For example, a WUA may be responsible for one tertiary block that is subdivided into smaller units of Water User Groups (WUGs), or one WUA may be responsible for the entire system. TABLE 1. Main characterisitics of mainstream WUAs.Formalized, non-profit, user-based organizationFarmers using water from irrigation systemIrrigation water management:-Water allocation between users -Operation and maintenance (O&M) of the irrigation system or part thereof -Collection and management of irrigation water user fees to cover O&M costsSmall scale where management by users is possible Source: Based on Vermillion and Sagardoy 1999.In the 1950s and 1960s, governments, international donors and development banks invested in large-scale, centralized irrigation systems worldwide. Yet, in the following decades, irrigation engineers and international development organizations realized that most of those large-scale irrigation systems managed by state bureaucracies were underperforming (Mollinga et al. 2007).Critiques of the large-scale public irrigation schemes pointed out failures, such as irrigation coverage below the designed command area, lack of significant improvements to agricultural productivity and infrastructure that degraded faster than anticipated due to poor maintenance. Researchers and development organizations from the late 1970s promoted decentralized management as an alternative to public institutions that they thought would ensure the effective performance of irrigation systems; organizing water users into WUAs (Turral 1995;Uphoff 1986). The public sector, alongside bilateral development institutions and development banks, initiated irrigation management reforms, transferring at least part of irrigation scheme management to newly established WUAs. The reform process through which management responsibility is withdrawn from state agencies and devolved to water users is often referred to as Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) (Turral 1995). The management mode with an important role assigned to WUAs is sometimes called Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) (Groenfeldt and Svendsen 2000).International donors supported early pilots of the proposed decentralized irrigation scheme management in the 1970s in the Philippines, followed by pilot projects in Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka, among others (Bruns 1993;Meinzen-Dick 1997). By the 1980s, IMT to WUAs resonated with broader decentralization reforms taking place in developing countries. At that time, grassroots development implementers and democracy activists promoted the transfer of public services to communities' decentralized agencies or local organizations based on lack of trust in central government, while neoliberal advocates urged states to devolve roles to reduce deficits (van den Broek and Brown 2015). This occurred in tandem with the policies of global finance and development institutions, notably the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, through structural adjustment programs to encourage, and in some cases even require, national governments to reduce their range of responsibilities and activities in the delivery of public services (Konadu-Agyemang 2000). Extensive research on traditional community-based natural resource management inspired ideas on decentralization of resources such as water (Wegerich 2010). That research argued that decentralized organizations, such as WUAs, could better address a population's actual needs (Uphoff 1986). In short, the changes in irrigation management reflected a broader movement across sectors to reduce the role of central government, and increase the role for decentralized government agencies and local communities, as well as private companies.The first WUAs were thus established during a period of political reorientation, and institutional and economic reforms. The abrupt shift from state to user management in large-scale irrigation systems was often accompanied with high expectations of newly established WUAs by governments and donors (Wester et al. 1995). However, early assessments of the impact of WUA management on the performance of irrigation systems showed ambiguous results, partly because different kinds of indicators were used to assess WUA performance. Vermillion (1997) concluded that, in general, IMT reduced irrigation expenditure by governments, but found no clear evidence that IMT increased agricultural productivity.Disappointing results triggered a donor and development organization quest for the enabling conditions to improve WUA management (IFAD 2001;Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). Development investors began to pay more attention to the implementation and the support of WUAs to prevent failures. Some evidence suggested that intensive training and support from external agencies could improve the performance of WUAs, but these conditions usually could not be sustained after initial project implementation or pilot phases. Nevertheless, successful examples were showcased by international policy networks (e.g., the International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management set up by the World Bank) to promote further reforms regardless of the actual evidence on management performance or governance practices (e.g., Mexico) (Rap 2006).In the 1990s, international donor agencies advocated again for participatory water management within the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) paradigm. IWRM stands for a holistic approach to water management, with stakeholder participation in decision-making processes regarded as an important pillar. Following the global push for IWRM with the 1992 Dublin Principles, more than 40 governments from developing countries incorporated IWRM principles in their water policies (Hassing et al. 2009). Consequently, governments did not retreat from the WUA approach, but increased expectations of WUAs \"to play a critical role in promoting the IWRM reform at the community level\" (Hu et al. 2014: 163). Hence, IWRM reforms consolidated the popularity of the WUA approach by public institutions, donors and development project implementers.More recently, irrigation experts across disciplines directed fundamental criticism at irrigation management by WUAs, questioning the underlying assumptions of the WUA concept; unstated basic assumptions essential to make WUAs function according to expectations by governments and donor agencies (Mukherji et al. 2009). At the same time, an implicit critique continued among development actors who signalled concern of WUA failure by advocating for public-private partnerships (PPPs) in irrigation management (Trier 2014;Darghouth 2007;Zekri and Easter 2007). Indeed, Singh et al. (2014) warned that the rejection of the WUA management model could be politically motivated and linked to the promotion of PPPs as the new governance model to replace WUAs by private companies in irrigation service delivery. Meinzen-Dick (2007) further challenged the attempts to replace WUAs and the underlying principles, arguing that a new panacea of profit-oriented actor participation is not the solution to problems faced by specific institutional arrangements of the past. Meinzen-Dick (2007) proposes to define the most appropriate mix of state control, user management and market mechanisms for irrigation systems based on context-specific conditions.The two main narratives underpinning the mainstream WUA concept are full cost recovery of O&M and user participation (Figure 1). The cost recovery narrative implies that the performance of the irrigation system will improve when water users in an irrigation scheme fully pay the costs of infrastructure investment and O&M. The user participation narrative implies that the performance of the irrigation system will improve when users participate in the decision making on, and hands-on management of, the irrigation system. It follows that improved irrigation performance should then lead to increased agricultural productivity (i.e., extended irrigated area, and increased irrigation efficiency, cropping intensity and higher yields), which will create a positive feedback loop on the water users' ability and willingness to recover all costs and participate in management. Because cost recovery and user participation are supposed to enhance irrigation performance, the feedback loop is strongest when both conditions are met. Hence, cost recovery and user participation are considered to be interdependent. Often the two are discussed together, but they are presented in Figure 1 separately to emphasize the different assumptions underlying each condition. FIGURE 1. Theoretical framework of WUAs.Sustainable useThe cost recovery narrative is backed by the widespread conclusion of researchers, policy advisors and development organizations that poor performance of state-managed irrigation systems causes the deterioration of irrigation infrastructure (Huppert et al. 2003;Suhardiman and Giordano 2014). They perceive state management as being subject to a negative cycle of low cost recovery that leads to poor maintenance, and in turn to suboptimal irrigation performance and low agricultural productivity. Some analysts further argue that farmers benefit directly from irrigation projects, and should thus pay for O&M costs and a portion of the capital costs of irrigation systems (Easter and Zekri 2004). They posit that entrusting water users with the responsibility of cost recovery will lead to the positive performance of irrigation systems in multiple ways, including the following:1. Efficiency -Cost recovery through WUAs increases the efficient use of financial resources because water users are local experts who know the best and most necessary investments in O&M. Hence, water users are motivated to invest their money in more cost-effective solutions than external agencies that lack an incentive for financial savings or profit (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007).Ownership -Mandating WUAs to contribute labor and funds for cost recovery promotes their sense of ownership of the irrigation system (Mutambara et al. 2016). When water users experience strong ownership, this creates an incentive for responsible use of the irrigation system (Uphoff 1986). This, again, prevents rapid deterioration of the infrastructure and reduces costs (Huppert et al. 2003).Accountability -As decentralized, member-based organizations, WUA members can best ensure that scheme management is accountable for providing quality services. Hence, internalizing the expenditure on O&M reduces losses due to inappropriate use of funds (Easter and Zekri 2004).The main driver of transferring irrigation management to WUAs is often to attain financial sustainability of irrigation projects through cost recovery by water users (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). Such irrigation management reforms are consistently found to have reduced the financial burden on national governments (Senanayake et al. 2015). However, actual cost recovery and related O&M by water users often remains ineffective. An evaluation of agricultural water management projects funded by the World Bank from 1994 to 2004 found that cost recovery objectives defined in project proposals were unrealistic and actual achievements were unclear (Independent Evaluation Group 2006). An extensive review of IMT in 33 countries by Garces-Restrepo et al. (2007) concluded that payment of water user irrigation fees was erratic. Sometimes, the ratio of farmers paying the fees increased shortly after WUAs became responsible for cost recovery, but declined again over time. Senanayake et al. (2015) reviewed 181 case studies from Asia, Africa and Latin America and found that only 33% of the IMT case studies reported a positive impact on the irrigation fee collection rate of WUAs. The same study reported that only 25% of the cases showed improved financial viability of WUAs 2 , but did not indicate whether full cost recovery was obtained in those cases. Ghazouani et al. (2012: 10) argued that, irrespective of the payment rate and the price charged, \"water fees are always insufficient to cover operation and maintenance costs\", based on their evaluation of WUAs in the Near East and North Africa. Shah et al. (2002: 3) argued that financial self-sufficiency of WUAs can only be met in commercial farming settings where \"the costs of self-managed irrigation are an insignificant part of the gross value of product of farming\". Examples of those settings can be found in Mexico, Turkey, USA and New Zealand (Shah et al. 2002). Yet, large variations are found even within countries. For example, in Mexico, the famous cases celebrated for successful WUA management are situated in the northwest, where irrigated agriculture is commercialized with better maintained infrastructure compared to the rest of the country (Rap 2006).The above-mentioned findings show that the assumptions contradict the reality in most cases regarding cost recovery by WUAs. First, studies suggest WUAs lack the managerial skills for success (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). WUAs face severe difficulties regarding the O&M of complex irrigation technologies (IFAD 2001). Moreover, many irrigation projects have to provide WUA members with a range of trainings to ensure that farmers have obtained the skills required to conduct meetings and monitor accounts, operate the system and maintain the equipment (Meinzen-Dick 1997). This suggests that local expertise may not be readily available to find the most cost-effective O&M solutions.Second, water users perceive the fees, fines and costs related to full cost recovery as a heavy financial burden rather than a means to enhance their ownership. In most cases, WUA members are not involved in decision making and, furthermore, lack full ownership rights of the main system (Meinzen-Dick 1997). The isolated duty of bearing the O&M costs of degraded infrastructure tends to discourage farmers rather than mobilize them to increase their commitment to the management of their schemes (Ghazouani et al. 2012).Third, adequate financial contribution by farmers is difficult to enforce politically (Ghazouani et al. 2012). Fees set according to farmers' willingness to pay does not necessarily cover the O&M costs (Le Gal et al. 2003). Various reasons make it difficult to enforce farmer water fee payment. For example, China recently released farmers from paying high agricultural taxes, and a high water fee could be considered as a hidden agricultural tax (Nickum and Mollinga 2016). In other cultural contexts, water might be considered a natural good or a \"gift from God\" for which users do not perceive a need to pay (Ahmad 2000).Fourth, WUAs are not necessarily homogeneous groups of water users with predictable relations of trust and a common purpose that would enhance collective action. Mosse (2006: 702) argued that collective action around irrigation is often \"embedded in wider systems of patronage and 'corruption', as well as in village social hierarchies.\" This may contribute to farmers' disincentives to pay fees, and possibly to the inappropriate use of funds by WUA leadership. The lack of documentation of WUA financial management makes it difficult to estimate how often this occurs. According to the Independent Evaluation Group (2006), few project evaluation reports provide a clear indication of performance on O&M cost recovery through user fees. Ghazouani et al. (2012: 16) harshly criticized this situation and imply that full transparency is purposefully avoided by institutions, asking whether \"anybody really wants to know.\"Finally, some authors put forward a more fundamental criticism of the cost recovery narrative. They argue that the costs of irrigation systems are artificially inflated by state agencies to secure their own funding or resources (Suhardiman and Giordano 2014;Venot et al. 2011). One known phenomenon is the build-neglect-rebuild cycle, through which irrigation agencies benefit from infrastructure degradation; agencies apply for funding from governments or international donors to rehabilitate irrigation schemes regularly and thereby finance their own existence (Araral 2005). This critique suggests that the solution to infrastructure maintenance does not lie in demanding water users to pay more to the scheme, but in carefully investigating the actual required investments and costs from the outset.The user participation narrative of the WUA concept is strongly inspired by lessons learned from community-based natural resource management of common-pool resources in traditional systems. Research on numerous cases worldwide illustrated that the state is not essential as an external authority to set and maintain rules on natural resource management (Ostrom 1990). In fact, user groups are capable of establishing long-lasting solutions for common-pool resource management through collective action. Examples of traditional irrigation systems in Indonesia, Nepal, Philippines and the Middle East provided successful prototypes (Meinzen-Dick 1997). As such, collective action is assumed to be triggered by the establishment of WUAs, allowing water users to actively participate in decision making. Strengthening user participation is expected to improve the performance of irrigation systems in various ways, particularly equitable distribution and sustainable use of water (Meinzen-Dick 1997;Ostrom and Gardner 1993), notably including the following:1. Sustainable use -Collective institutions in traditional irrigation systems can assure sustainable use of common-pool resources over long periods of time by preventing unnecessary use and rapid depletion of water resources (Ostrom 1990). WUAs ideally provide a platform for water users to negotiate rules through bylaws that encourage sustainable collective water management and use over time, as observed in traditional irrigation systems (Meinzen-Dick 1997).Equitable distribution -Collective institutions in traditional irrigation systems can assure equitable distribution between upstream and downstream water users (Ostrom and Gardner 1993). Equity in the distribution of water is commonly formulated as one of the main objectives of WUAs, based on the notion that WUAs promote collective action (Meinzen-Dick et al. 1995;Wegerich 2010).The user participation narrative has frequently been used to argue in favor of WUAs as a decentralized water management approach, but actual participation during implementation remains poor. From a review of WUAs in the Near East and North Africa, Ghazouani et al. (2012: 8) concluded that \"participation has been in most cases limited, if not cosmetic.\" An extended review of WUA management in Africa, Asia and Latin America showed an improvement in farmer participation in less than half of the cases, based on criteria of elected WUA leaders and member attendance at meetings (Senanayake et al. 2015). In their review of 33 cases worldwide, Garces-Restrepo et al. ( 2007) mentioned a general lack of participation by women and small farmers in the governance of WUAs, suggesting the absence of equitable and meaningful participation in decision making. A clear and consistent indicator to measure user participation is not apparent, but multiple reviews suggest that many WUAs lack meaningful user participation. WUAs do not function in the participatory manner expected for various reasons. First, WUAs rarely consist of a homogeneous group of water users. In practice, levels of equitability within decentralized community-based systems (e.g., WUAs) can be affected by preexisting social and political local characteristics (Mollinga et al. 2007;Mosse 2006). Communitybased organizations reflect locally established vested interests, including existing hierarchies with customary or political elites. WUAs replicate the unequal systems of power and rule, which tend to benefit those that control land and other resources, wealthier classes and men. Hence, WUA management based on traditional and customary institutions does not necessarily lead to equitable or democratic rules or management. Indeed, WUAs established along traditional governance or natural resource management systems risk merely reinforcing the power of elites through institutional arrangements and governing rules, such as bylaws. Some argue that formalized WUAs even deepen existing inequalities, because those already in positions of power are \"best placed to take advantage of the new institutional arrangements\" (Sokile andvan Koppen 2004: 1352). Many case studies worldwide (see, for example, Mosse [2006], Sokile and van Koppen [2004], and Brown [2011] for cases in India, Tanzania, and South Africa, respectively) show that those in powerful positions and leadership roles tend to dominate WUA executive bodies. In some cases, government authorities avoid entrusting traditional leaders with official WUA leadership positions; however, even then, wealthy farmers can occupy and misuse the positions (Zuka 2016). In sum, the existing differences in interests and power of members of a WUA tend to disadvantage the resource-poor and women farmers, and prevent realization of equal participation and decision making to benefit the overall scheme and all members of the WUA.Second, WUAs as formal organizations often place men over women, even though women play an important role in irrigated agriculture (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen 1998). This may be related to the existing gender relations in which men's customary and social positions vis-à-vis women become embedded into WUA institutions and rules, and can even enable men to mobilize the WUA structure to marginalize women further (Sokile and van Koppen 2004). This uneven power relation based on gender is institutionalized in WUAs in different ways, but often follows similar patterns that reduce the participation of women in WUA bodies and governance structures. Formal or de facto rules exclude women from joining a WUA or participating in governance structures within a WUA, for example, by requiring literacy, formal landownership for plots within a scheme, or holding elections or meetings when women have other responsiblities. In addition, women may be discouraged from participating in discussions at WUA meetings by customary norms, such as rules that prohibit women from sitting next to or speaking in front of an older male relative or inlaws (Lefore et al. 2017). These informal and formal rules and practices discourage women from equal participation in WUAs, or even from being members and participating at all in any form of decision making.Third, the creation of WUAs does not ensure meaningful decentralization to empower local decision making. State agencies at national and subnational levels often have disincentives to fully devolve management decisions to WUAs. Many case studies show that WUAs imposed by external agents and not created based on water users' own initiative tend to be 'moribund' or 'dormant' organizations, lacking any kind of decision-making power in irrigation management (Acheampong and Venot 2010;Mosse 2006). Those WUAs differ considerably from groups formed by water users that represent collective institutions for sustainable resource use. State agencies tend to set up institutions \"to manage something that the government can no longer handle itself!\", being the infrastructure and related cost recovery for O&M, rather than collective institutions that \"slowly develop the rules of association\" based on users' needs (Ostrom 2001: 252). The role mandated to WUAs by state agencies is not primarily to encourage participation of all WUA members in the management of the irrigation scheme or related natural resources, but limited to a few activities that do not require inclusive participation. Ironically, the emphasis on collecting water user fees and basic O&M may be even more prevalent in large-scale irrigation systems, a context in which it is more difficult to achieve the kind of self-governance observed at smaller scales (Abernethy 2010).Furthermore, dynamics of national politics may be played out at the local level and hinder real participation in decision making of local organizations such as WUAs. In many instances, centralized irrigation agencies and ministerial staff may be reluctant to hand over decisionmaking power to WUAs, as mentioned above, which limits the effective devolution of control over resources and services provided by WUAs (Mollinga et al. 2007). In other words, national-level political actors do not want to risk creating WUAs with strong local decision-making power over natural resources and built infrastructure that could threaten political interests. In addition, the disincentive to decentralize decision making through local participation can also be bureaucratic. This may include reasons such as an irrigation agency being relatively powerful within the national political structures, an irrigation agency whose budget relies on the collection of fees from water users (Van Vuren et al. 2005), or an irrigation agency that would shrink with decentralizing authority over schemes causing staff to be retrenched or reassigned to different positions (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). Across the various reasons, governments often achieve restricted participation and decision-making control in WUAs by dictating or imposing WUA bylaws that narrowly outline management structures and mandates (Abernethy et al. 2000;Yami 2013). Researchers suggest that the reliance on irrigation agencies for the implementation of WUAs is contradictive (Mukherji et al. 2009;Suhardiman and Giordano 2014), given the political, economic and social context.Governments and donor agencies hold a primary expectation that irrigation management by WUAs will lead to increased agricultural productivity through improvements in irrigation performance (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). Furthermore, they assume that water users will be the first to benefit from an increase in agricultural productivity through rising incomes. The costs of irrigation may initially increase for farmers after IMT, but additional income in the medium-to long-term should balance the higher costs (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). This argument suggests the evolution of farmer incentives to pay for irrigation scheme services; farmers' increased income will enhance both the ability and willingness to contribute to O&M costs over time. A similar change in farmer incentives also applies to user participation in WUA management; increased agricultural productivity and income would give farmers an incentive to strengthen and extend their active participation in irrigation management (Meinzen-Dick 1997). This anticipated feedback loop depicted in Figure 2 is based on the following three circular assumptions:1. Irrigation performance  Agricultural productivity -Irrigation performance is the weak link that keeps agricultural productivity low. Therefore, improving irrigation performance will lead to increased agricultural productivity.2. Agricultural productivity  Cost recovery -Irrigated agriculture is the primary source of income for water users. Therefore, agricultural productivity improvements (particularly increased cropping intensity and higher yields) will increase income and living conditions. Higher income will in turn enhance the ability and willingness of WUA members to contribute to O&M costs of irrigation schemes.The impact of WUA management on agricultural productivity is extremely hard to prove due to the complexity and variety of factors intervening at the same time; even the most rigorous studies have not demonstrated a clear relationship (Senanayake et al. 2015). The complex linkages between yield, income, and technological developments such as irrigation have been subject to constant debate (Howlett 2008). Poorly performing WUAs may not be to blame for low agricultural productivity. Mukherji et al. (2009) argued that, particularly in Asia and Africa, the state or development partners constructed large-scale irrigation infrastructure systems to achieve national food security or for other aims, not commercially viable, financially self-sustaining systems. From the outset, irrigation infrastructure has been optimized to secure specific food (or fiber) crop production, largely to support urban areas, and not designed to enhance individual farmer income that would enable full cost recovery. Changing the management approach to an irrigation system along with changing development goals or approaches will not automatically lead to increased agricultural productivity and higher farmer incomes.Other factors beyond a WUA's performance on infrastructure may cause low agricultural productivity. The general state of the agriculture sector may also not be conducive to improved agricultural productivity, despite changes in irrigation approaches. Shah et al. (2002) argued that irrigation performance in SSA is usually not the main constraint that keeps agricultural productivity low; the lack of access to agricultural input and output markets are significantly more important. Markets will largely determine the economic performance of irrigation systems as they relate to revenue and income generated from the crops cultivated, harvested and sold. In sum, the expected feedback loop that links WUAs with irrigation scheme performance through improved agricultural productivity, incomes, cost recovery and user participation does not hold.Early reviews of WUA management often focused on creating the 'enabling' or 'essential' conditions for the success of management transfer programs to WUAs (IFAD 2001;Vermillion 1997). Reports suggested that certain conditions could be 'socially engineered' to make WUA management work (Wegerich 2010). More recently, researchers called for 'context-specific solutions' (Meinzen-Dick 2007;Senanayake et al. 2015). This argues for institutional arrangements for irrigation management that are adapted to the existing socio-technical and economic context in which irrigation development takes place, rather than trying to alter the broader socioeconomic factors in which WUAs are embedded. Accordingly, the most important factors that influence the functioning of WUAs should be understood. This paper proposes a framework that summarizes the critical factors Studies have identified the most important factors that shape WUA performance. Often a distinction is made between external and internal factors, in which external factors refer to the physical, socioeconomic and political environment, while internal factors describe the water management organization itself (IFAD 2001;Ghazouani et al. 2012). However, Wegerich (2010: 17) argued that such a distinction is arbitrary, because \"internal factors are in fact a reflection of the external factors and vice versa.\" Likewise, Meinzen-Dick (2007) proposed a framework that includes the critical factors hypothesized to affect irrigation system management without differentiating between internal and external factors. The framework is based on previous studies and contains six broad categories used to analyze any kind of common-pool resource management (Ostrom 2007). These include: socioeconomic and political setting, resource system, resource units, governance system, users, and related ecosystems.This paper further adapts the Meinzen-Dick ( 2007) framework in Figure 3 to characterize WUAs in the sociotechnical and economic context in SSA. More specifically, categories are simplified to broadly consider the natural and technical characteristics of water resources described under 'resource system', 'resource units' and 'related ecosystems' under one heading of 'water resource system'. The 'governance' category in the framework refers to local governance structures that directly influence irrigation management by WUAs. The category 'socioeconomic and political setting' entails the broader national and interlinked international governance setting. Both these categories taken together integrate multiple aspects that fall under the commonly used definition of water governance as \"the range of political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place to develop and manage water resources, and the delivery of water services, at different levels of society\" (Rogers and Hall 2003: 7). Stated otherwise, governance processes largely determine decision making on the allocation of water resources and the regulation of use, while water management refers to the practical activities related to the allocation and regulation of water resources. The framework includes 'financial performance of user groups' as a separate subcategory under 'governance' because, as mentioned in the previous section, cost recovery and user participation can be considered as two separate strings of WUA performance.Each of the four categories in the framework in Figure 3 include typical conditions that influence the performance of WUAs in SSA. The description of the contextual conditions is primarily based on cases drawn from project reports and peer-reviewed literature from the following countries: Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Since the literature on WUAs in SSA is scattered, we focus on those countries for which sufficiently in-depth and recent data on WUAs are available. An assessment of the contextual factors is used to identify specific challenges for WUAs in SSA, which will be referred to in the next section of this paper on alternative management options. ` This paper follows Namara et al. (2010) to differentiate between 'conventional' and 'emerging' irrigation as two broad categories of irrigation systems in SSA. Conventional irrigation refers to those systems primarily developed by the state and often financed by public or donor institutions, such as development banks or bilateral development agencies. In contrast, individual users or private enterprises (sometimes in cooperation with the state) lead emerging irrigation. Such private irrigation is emerging in most SSA countries (de Fraiture and Giordano 2014). So, the two categories are useful to classify typical irrigation systems subcontinent-wide. 3 Currently, WUAs are most likely to be found in conventional irrigation systems, so is the focus of this study. However, emerging irrigation is rapidly spreading, so is included where relevant.Irrigation in SSA was primarily developed through centralized irrigation systems until recently (Oates et al. (2015). After independence, African national governments built large-scale irrigation systems 4 or took over the management of existing systems from colonial authorities (Carpenter et al. 2017;Oates et al. 2015;Vandersypen et al. 2007). International development banks and bilateral agencies provided grants and loans to African governments to rehabilitate or extend systems in the post-colonial era. Yet, from the beginning of the 1980s, international donors criticized centralized irrigation (Carpenter et al. 2017;Wester et al. 1995). A decline in the levels of public spending on agricultural services, including irrigation in the 1980s and 1990s, followed the stabilization and structural adjustment programs promoted by institutions such as the World Bank (Poulton 2012). In most countries, but notably Ghana, South Africa, Mali and Mozambique, the annual growth rate of conventionally irrigated areas actually dropped to zero by the year 2000, though increased in Kenya, Nigeria and Senegal between 2000and 2003(Svendsen et al. 2009).Governance Users As public spending on agriculture declined, international development banks and agencies promoted IMT and the formation of WUAs as a mechanism to reduce government spending, as well as to increase farmer 'ownership' of irrigation schemes (Turral 1995). The first wave of WUAs in the 1980s and 1990s in West African countries such as Senegal, Burkina Faso and Mali aimed to simultaneously decentralize and upgrade the management of existing irrigation systems, while reducing the costs for governments (Aw and Diemer 2005;Wellens et al. 2013;Wester et al. 1995). Under these conditions, the public sector placed more responsibilities on irrigation water users (Aw and Diemer 2005;Wester et al. 1995). The often abrupt disengagement of public irrigation agencies contributed to improper O&M of the irrigation systems by WUAs (Vandersypen et al. 2007;Wellens et al. 2013).Recently, public institutions and donor agencies have increased their interest in irrigation development (Woodhouse et al. 2017). The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) consolidated national ambitions and provides policy directives for African states to increase investments in the agriculture sector, including expansion of the area under irrigation (Brüntrup 2011). CAADP aims primarily to increase smallholder agricultural productivity, though governments often find themselves in a dilemma whether to prioritize large-scale commercial agriculture for national economic stimulation or smallholder agriculture for poverty alleviation (Oates et al. 2015).More specifically, the national governments of emerging economies, notably Ethiopia, Kenya and Nigeria, have plans to promote irrigated agriculture (Gunda et al. 2013;Oates et al. 2015). New investments seek to rehabilitate the old and develop new infrastructure, as well as strengthen management. For example, in 2014, the World Bank signed an agreement with the Government of Nigeria to invest USD 495 million in the rehabilitation of large-scale irrigation systems in the Northern Region with strengthening WUAs as a critical component (World Bank 2014a, 2014b). The Sahel Irrigation Initiative Support Project is in the pipeline with a potential investment of USD 173 million in both large and small-scale irrigation systems in Chad, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal (World Bank 2015b). In that case, only the small-scale irrigation systems are to be managed by local communities through WUAs (FAO 2017). The project plans for the management of large-to medium-scale irrigation systems to be led by public authorities or PPPs. This reflects the trend since the mid-2000s of national governments and donor agencies driving the increase in the annual growth rate of the irrigated area in SSA (Svendsen et al. 2009) with mixed approaches to management systems.Growth in irrigated area has become the general trend in SSA, but the situation varies vastly by country. Some countries have experienced a large increase in irrigated area over the last decade. For example, the area equipped for irrigation increased by 335% between 2001and 2015in Ethiopia, by 97% between 2002and 2013in Tanzania and by 45% between 2003and 2010in Kenya (FAO 2016). In other countries, the growth rate is smaller. For example, the area equipped for irrigation increased by 13% from 2000 to 2011 in Mali and by 11% from 2004 to 2010 in Nigeria (FAO 2016).These investments in irrigation development relate to an overall increase in commercial agriculture in SSA (Hall et al. 2017). Major irrigated crops in SSA are rice, sugarcane, fiber (e.g., cotton) and vegetables, varying by subregion. Cereal crops such as wheat, maize, sorghum and millet may also be irrigated, but this is not always profitable, hence such crops tend to be produced under rain-fed conditions (Svendsen et al. 2009). Irrigated production of vegetables is growing rapidly, particularly near urban centers (Frenken 2005). According to Dittoh et al. (2013), over 75% of the irrigated area in West Africa (including both conventional and emerging irrigation) is for vegetable production. Most of the smallholders producing cash crops, especially fresh vegetables, rely on emerging irrigation concentrated in urban and semi-urban areas with direct access to urban consumers (de Fraiture and Giordano 2014; Dittoh et al. 2013). Although private smallholder agriculture may be transitional and only produce partially for commercial markets (Olwande et al. 2015;Wiggins et al. 2014), they provide about 80% of the food supply in SSA (FAO 2014). Production for export is often by large-scale commercial farms with privately operated irrigation systems or out-grower schemes not within the purview of public governance structures.Private investments have increased through both foreign investment in farmlands and on-farm irrigation schemes for commercial farming (Cotula 2011), as well as private smallholder investments in irrigation technologies (Woodhouse et al. 2017). The majority of farms, both emerging private small-and large-scale commercial production, are not within conventional schemes and not required by public institutions to establish WUAs to manage water or related infrastructure.In most of SSA, WUAs are established as part of conventional irrigation development projects based on requirements set by donor agencies and less by the public institutions. However, only a few countries have officially set out laws or regulations for WUAs in national legislation, notably Kenya and South Africa, and through proclamation in Ethiopia. More countries are, however, working toward the formalization of WUAs in national law or through other procedures, albeit not incorporating emerging irrigation systems. In some cases, WUA guidelines remain outside national policy, but may still be instituted by irrigation agencies, such as World Bank-supported guidelines in Malawi.Large parts of SSA are characterized by seasonal water scarcity, where rainfall is concentrated during a few months of the year (Burney and Naylor 2012). Generally, the spatial disparity of water availability on the subcontinent is high, with extremely wet regions neighboring extremely dry regions. Both the spatial and seasonal variability of water resources are increasing (Kotir 2011). This will affect the predictability of water supply in irrigation schemes.Based on the AQUASTAT database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the irrigated area of SSA was 7 million hectares (Mha) in 2006 (equivalent to 6% of the cultivated area), which is significantly below the world average of 18% (Svendsen et al. 2009). Most of the irrigated area in SSA is under small-scale irrigation schemes, with only approximately 17% of the current irrigated area in SSA is under large-scale irrigation systems (Lankford et al. 2016). Unsurprisingly, current infrastructure-based irrigation is most prevalent in the semi-arid and arid regions of SSA, mainly in the Sudano-Sahelian Region and Southern Africa (Frenken 2005). Lowland irrigation is practiced in regions with relatively abundant water resources, while irrigation during flood recession is most common in West African coastal states (Frenken 2005). Compared to other regions in the world, infrastructure to capture water resources for irrigation is scarcely developed in SSA, yet many studies indicate that sufficient water is available to significantly increase the irrigated area in the region. According to multiple studies, SSA has a large potential of untapped water resources which can be used for irrigation (Hanjra and Gichuki 2008;Pavelic et al. 2013;Svendsen et al. 2009;Xie et al. 2014;You 2008). You (2008) estimated that another 2 Mha could be irrigated by large-scale systems, with water stored behind dams, and 23 Mha could be irrigated by small-scale irrigation technologies, such as rainwater harvesting, pumping installations, small dams and river diversions. The potential is strongly dependent on cost assumptions and could be as high as between 27 and 82 Mha (Xie et al. 2014).Overall, most irrigation development projects in SSA since the 2000s have focused on smallscale irrigation systems with irrigated areas up to 500 ha per scheme. Small reservoirs or river diversions are built to collect and store the water and convey it to farmers' fields. Usually, a single WUA holds the responsibility for managing the scheme. Most infrastructure, such as reservoirs, has been financed through grants and loans from international development banks and agencies. Generally, the management of the infrastructure is transferred to newly established WUAs after construction.This is exemplified by a focus on small-scale irrigation in participatory irrigation development projects since 2000, co-funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), in Tanzania, Ethiopia andMalawi (IFAD 2007a, 2007b;World Bank 2015a). To some extent, these projects built upon existing water harvesting and irrigation practices, but also included new river diversions and gravity schemes. In Tanzania, the irrigated area per scheme lies between 200 and 250 ha (IFAD 2007b), whereas programs in Ethiopia included river diversion schemes with irrigated areas of 100 ha and spate irrigation schemes with irrigated areas between 200 and 500 ha (IFAD 2013). In Malawi, the participatory irrigation project included so-called mini-scale schemes with irrigated areas below 20 ha (World Bank 2015a). In small-scale irrigation schemes, water control can be more flexible, but the schemes are also vulnerable to local weather extremes; 85% of the small-scale schemes built for the above-mentioned project in Tanzania are not resilient to drought and are easily damaged during extreme rainfall events, such as floods (IFAD 2007b).The use of groundwater resources is currently estimated to cover only 20% of the total irrigated area in SSA with high potential for more development (Villholth 2013). Public investments in pumping installations for groundwater irrigation are rarely accompanied by the formation of WUAs in SSA. In the rare cases where WUAs are set up on groundwater irrigation schemes, the mandate of WUAs may be both O&M and cost recovery to use the pumps, and also ensure sustainable water use. For example, WUAs in Niger are organized around the use of pump installations with the primary task to \"protect, restore and rationally and equitably exploit the water resources\" (IFAD 2015: 8). Promoting WUAs for sustainable groundwater use is a relatively new approach, particularly implemented in those regions of the world where groundwater over-exploitation poses a threat to the socioeconomic and environmental sustainability of irrigated agriculture. For example, in Yemen and China, WUAs can play an important role in restricting farmers' groundwater abstraction, with a few particularly successful examples of participatory WUA processes and roles (Aarnoudse et al. 2012;Taher 2016).Generally, farmers often rely on the same water resources used for the irrigation scheme to also serve domestic and livestock needs, largely due to the limited development of water infrastructure in SSA. Land and water resources are widely used for multiple purposes by the rural population, including providing water for livestock, fishing and domestic use. The diversity of water users for multiple purposes frequently causes local conflict of water sources and infrastructure, particularly related to irrigation and livestock.Beyond conventional irrigation development, emerging irrigation accounts for 15% to 75% of the actual irrigated area across SSA (Abric et al. 2011). Emerging irrigation is generally overlooked in terms of the establishment of WUAs, despite its increasing importance. The exact figures for emerging irrigation are difficult to calculate, as data on emerging irrigation and particularly small-scale private irrigation remain unreliable and scarce (de Fraiture and Giordano 2014; Dittoh et al. 2013). The AQUASTAT database of FAO excludes areas not under permanent irrigation equipment (Svendsen et al. 2009), so analysis based on that data likely underestimates current emerging irrigated areas (Woodhouse et al. 2017). Small-scale emerging private irrigation depends on a variety of technologies that facilitate the access, distribution and use of water, such as treadle pumps, small petrol or diesel motor pumps or watering cans (Burney et al. 2013;Dittoh et al. 2013). The technologies are used to access either groundwater or surface water from rivers, underutilized irrigation canals and small reservoirs (de Fraiture and Giordano 2014; Villholth 2013). Those technologies tend to be concentrated on individual farms in which \"access, distribution and use all occur at or near the same location\" (Burney et al. 2013: 12513). In addition, individual pumping may take place inside canal irrigation command areas managed by WUAs (Foster and van Steenbergen 2011). The deterioration of canal irrigation infrastructure sometimes accelerates the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater within canal irrigation schemes (Kuper et al. 2012). However, farmers using individual technologies, including in canal systems, are generally excluded from WUAs and lack any organization to collectively manage infrastructure or commonly exploited water resources. Collective management will likely be required to ensure sustainable resource use as this type of irrigation continues to increase.In SSA, WUAs usually receive little technical support from local state agencies. State agencies responsible for irrigation are typically \"small in size, dispersed over several ministries, and remote from the ground\" (Venot 2014: 536). Development banks and agencies aimed for such lean state irrigation agencies. However, at the same time, they provide funding for nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to implement irrigation development projects and establish WUAs, often isolated to individual projects within a short project cycle (Tafesse 2003). This leads to situations in which external actors oversee local government institutions in the planning and management of irrigation systems (Venot 2014). Such arrangements expand the disconnection between WUAs and local institutions, such as agricultural extension, which otherwise have potential to facilitate meaningful user participation in WUAs.Development actors, whether external organizations or public agencies, generally create WUAs as irrigation schemes are constructed or rehabilitated. In principle, the governance rules of WUAs, the 'internal code' or 'bylaws', should be set by WUAs themselves through a participatory process (Vandersypen et al. 2007). In reality, WUA bylaws are likely to be prescribed by the external funding agents or by national government agencies and not developed by the WUA members themselves (Abernethy et al. 2000;Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007;Kemerink et al. 2013;Vandersypen et al. 2007;Yami 2013). In addition, irrigation scheme farmers often effectively ignore rules or bylaws or replace them with local institutions that have their own political interests. The ability of the WUA to manage infrastructure and water resources is undermined by the combination of the external requirement for a WUA, lack of effective and inclusive participation of WUA members in determining bylaws, and the appropriation of WUA activities by other bodies with powerful interests.Indeed, some scholars argue that WUAs cannot be defined as user-driven participatory organizations because they are formed under such external influences. Based on an in-depth study of 37 small reservoirs in Ghana, Venot et al. (2012: 18) concluded that WUAs \"remain promoted by outsiders rather than being the expression of a collective decision-making process emerging from the community\". Others sketch similar situations in different countries. For example, Ferguson and Mulwafu (2007) reported that the top-down enforcement of WUAs weakened smallholder farmer participation in Malawi. Also, in Kenya, Kemerink et al. (2016Kemerink et al. ( : 1072) ) found that WUA members cannot participate meaningfully due to \"predetermined and biased organization structures introduced by the policy\" despite the established legal basis for WUA formation. In Mali, scheme users largely disregard formal WUA institutions put forward by donor agencies; official positions of WUA committee members are filled, but meetings do not take place (Vandersypen et al. 2007).As noted, local institutions in rural villages also interfere in WUA operations. Gaps left by weak irrigation agencies and intermittent NGO interventions, or unclear institutional mandates and legal pluralism contribute to this situation. For one, customary authorities based on customary values and rules take on responsibilities that are meant to be the mandate of the WUA (Sokile and van Koppen 2004;Vandersypen et al. 2007). Local claims on land and water are often not codified in state laws, but function within parallel, powerful customary institutions (Hodgson 2016;Sokile and van Koppen 2004). In most of SSA, customary structures did not evolve around irrigation systems, as in Asia or Latin America, but rather around kinship and chieftaincy (Kemerink et al. 2013). As such, roles related to the management of the irrigation scheme may be subsumed under preexisting customary institutions, which may not necessarily reflect the principles of equitable participation or current natural resource management practices and ultimately contradict the aims of WUAs. Hence, collective irrigation institutions -WUAs -are usually introduced for the first time within potentially conflicting sociopolitical settings. In Ghana, formal WUA tasks mainly consist of minor maintenance and daily management, but traditional authorities remain responsible for \"settling disputes, resolving conflicts and maintaining social cohesion\" (Acheampong and Venot 2010: 5). This is similar to Malawi, where local village headmen maintain responsibility for all conflicts, even those within the public irrigation scheme (Lefore et al. 2017). This amalgamation of institutions and roles, sometimes contradictory, can hinder substantial user participation in practice. It may also obscure the allocation of funds by WUA leaders and constrain cost recovery objectives (Kemerink et al. 2016).In other cases, non-irrigation public agencies commandeer control over WUAs in the absence of a strong irrigation agency. For example, in Ethiopia, WUAs are officially registered as cooperatives, which have a history of politicization. The public agency responsible for cooperatives dictates the WUA bylaws in line with its own interests (Yami 2013). This undermines cooperation and enforcement of scheme rules, and encourages water users to revert to traditional water distribution practices. However, Ethiopia represents an exceptional case in SSA as one of the few examples of historical collective irrigation institutions.Case studies also show interference in WUA membership composition. The implementing agency that sets up a WUA during project inception tends to predefine WUA membership based on a national law or a WUA bylaw template. For example, WUAs in Ghana and Burkina Faso tend to center on downstream irrigators and exclude other users of small reservoirs in 85% of the cases (Venot 2014). In Tanzania, membership criteria based on landownership favors men, as women usually do not hold official or customary land rights (IFAD 2001). Follow-up projects attempted to redress this issue by setting targets, i.e., quotas, for female WUA membership (IFAD 1999), but intra-household gender discrepancies were not fully resolved through this approach (IFAD 2007b). In addition, WUA membership criteria in Ethiopia based on land-use rights within the irrigation command area exclude landless farmers from WUAs (Yami 2013). In a more extreme example, Kemerink et al. (2013) described the situation in South Africa, where large, commercial farmers, predominantly white, exploited the formation of WUAs for their own benefit based on the historical foundation of formal institutions and collective water use. Farmers within the former homelands used traditional institutions based on kinship, as they were not familiar with the formal procedures of the commercial farmers. Farmers within the former homelands could not influence the mandate and structure of the WUA, despite the formal prescriptions on their inclusion after the end of apartheid.Leadership selection is no better on inclusion, though nominally should be done through a transparent election by all members. Leadership positions are often assumed by local elites through various means (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007;Kemerink et al. 2016;Sokile and van Koppen 2004), even when they have technically been 'elected' by all WUA members (Zuka 2016). In this position, local elites benefit most \"from new opportunities provided by the irrigation reform in terms of training, access to information and abilities to shape the rules governing scheme functioning\" (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007: 224). For example, in Malawi, WUA leaders were able to reallocate plots within the irrigation system to their own family members (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007), and informal and formal procedures often excluded women (Lefore et al. 2017).The prescription of WUA bylaws and membership composition by external agencies without taking into account the local context, compounded by the interference of self-interested local institutions, reduces representation and participation of different groups and classes within a scheme. This ultimately undermines the WUAs' ability to operate with transparency and equality. Yet, public and donor agencies also expect WUAs to be financially transparent and independent as management bodies. The official mandate of WUAs remains the O&M of the irrigation system, but donors often prioritize financial independence. For example, WUAs in an IFAD-supported, community-based watershed management project in Rwanda are expected \"to operate without external assistance and to mobilize funding for system maintenance and repairs\" (IFAD 2016: 47). One case of successful cost recovery is highlighted in the IFAD-supported Participatory Irrigation Development Programme in Tanzania, but notes the case \"is outstanding and is a unique approach that is contrary to most other schemes where they will wait for government or donors to resolve any problems with funding\" (IFAD 2007b: 27).At the same time, the financial performance of WUAs is rarely documented in detail and WUAs fail to keep adequate financial records. Overall WUAs do not sufficiently collect fees and/or transparently spend the resources collected. In the Tanzania case noted above, farmers became increasingly reluctant to contribute to O&M costs throughout the duration of the project (IFAD 2007b). Also, farmers in Malawi persistently resisted paying irrigation maintenance fees, because they felt their decision-making power in irrigation management had been curtailed even with the formation of WUAs (Veldwisch et al. 2009). In Mali, very few WUAs actually collect financial contributions (Vandersypen et al. 2007). In Senegal, studies found WUAs deliberately set low water fees, which kept fees affordable for farmers and improved payment rates, but was too low to recover O&M costs (Le Gal et al. 2003). In Kenya, reports show that WUAs collected contributions from their members, but farmers' access to water had not improved despite increased fees; it was unclear how the money was spent (Kemerink et al. 2016). Also, farmers in Zimbabwe were reluctant to pay fees, because they suspected WUA leaders of using the money for personal benefits (Mutambara et al. 2014). Summarizing the findings from studies in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, Mwamakamba et al. (2017) stated that farmers usually do not pay fees because WUAs have no means to enforce payment. Donors and public agencies often expect fees to be collected to cover O&M costs and ensure WUA financial independence, but they rarely provide guidance for fee collection.The gap between the national state and local areas appears to present an opportunity for increasing the role of farmers in water management through WUAs. However, lack of institutional backstopping and capacity development by the state also forms an obstacle to implementing and maintaining WUA operations in the long run (Mutambara et al. 2016). For example, IFAD found that WUAs in Tanzania functioned well as long as donor-funded staff were employed at district level, but support for WUAs faded once this role had to be taken over by the district government itself (IFAD 2007b).The average farm size in SSA is a little more than 1 ha per agricultural worker (Svendsen et al. 2009). Land availability for smallholder farming is constantly shrinking with a rapidly growing population and foreign land investments (Cotula 2011). Therefore, participatory irrigation development projects often explicitly target poor, small-scale farmers with landholdings below 1 ha. In addition, donors and NGOs target a considerable share of female-headed households with limited access to land, who are considered particularly poor and marginalized (IFAD 1999;World Bank 2015a). WUAs usually group together several dozen to several hundred smallholders, depending on the size of the scheme. In some cases, the scheme size is deliberately kept low following administrative or village boundaries, so that each WUA represents one village (IFAD 2007b).Most smallholder farmers in SSA produce for subsistence with the surplus used for commercial sale (Frelat et al. 2016;Wiggins et al. 2014), depending on diverse livelihood strategies, including animal husbandry, fishery and trade (Shah et al. 2002). Overall, smallholder farming in SSA is still characterized by low incomes and limited access to credit (Barrett et al. 2017;Burney and Naylor 2012). At present, 83% of smallholder farmers sell only part of their crops produced on the market (Frelat et al. 2016). Small-scale irrigation development projects may simultaneously promote new staple crops and cash crops, particularly high-value vegetables (African Development Fund 2007; Burney and Naylor 2012). However, most farmers reserve at least half of their land to produce crops for home consumption (Wiggins et al. 2014).Generally, farmers have little to no experience with irrigation prior to development projects, as rain-fed farming is still widespread in most countries (Oates et al. 2015;You et al. 2011). Moreover, irrigation at individual farmer level does not necessarily prepare farmers to manage collective water resources and irrigation schemes, as these approaches often rely on the individual use of simple irrigation technologies, such as watering cans (Dittoh et al. 2013), or partial water control techniques, such as spate irrigation (Woodhouse et al. 2017).Furthermore, investments in small-scale irrigation systems common for SSA often aim to alleviate poverty in rural areas and improve food security rather than increase incomes for farmers. In fact, irrigated income is only a small part of overall income, and in itself often too low to make cost recovery of irrigation systems feasible (Merrey et al. 2002). Overall, the subordinate importance of irrigated agriculture as part of rural livelihood strategies, and the correspondingly small landholdings and limited access to input and output markets, reduce the impact irrigation performance has on agricultural productivity and rural income (Shah et al. 2002).The common attributes of smallholder farmers transitioning to irrigated cultivation belie internal differences. As noted above, WUGs are not homogenous and members not necessarily 'equals'; differences exist within communities in terms of wealth, gender and ethnicity (van den Broek and Brown 2015). Water infrastructure in the irrigation scheme often also serves others in addition to the smallholder farmers, including pastoralists, fishermen and domestic water users. Nevertheless, WUA membership is often restricted to those who are expected to use water for irrigation whether they are plot owners or managers (Venot 2014). WUAs rarely include large-scale commercial farmers, except in South Africa, where an attempt to unite smallholders and large-scale commercial farmers in WUAs failed (Brown 2011;Kemerink et al. 2013). Acheampong and Venot (2010) argued that those multiple uses and users are not accounted for in the official role of WUAs as determined by external agencies. In addition, this excludes potential revenue streams and economic benefits other than irrigated agriculture (Venot et al. 2012), which are neglected in full cost recovery.The main factors influencing WUA management are contrasted with the situation in South and Southeast Asia, and North Africa as shown in Table 2 to highlight the unique character of WUA management in SSA. Differences can be found within each region, but the characteristics shown here represent the dominant conditions which distinguish the three regions from one another. The main challenges conventional WUA management currently faces in SSA are also summarized. In South and Southeast Asia, WUAs are primarily established to manage large-scale irrigation systems, which have been built or rehabilitated by post-colonial governments for national food security purposes. Previously, these systems were centrally managed by powerful water bureaucracies. Those bureaucracies with poor decentralized structures later became responsible for initiating management through WUAs. The livelihoods of smallholder farmers are strongly dependent on irrigated agriculture. Yet, a large share of irrigation requirements is currently supplied by privately owned equipment to pump water from aquifers and, to some extent, also from rivers and canals.In North Africa, formal WUAs can be found in both large-scale irrigation systems which used to be managed by state bureaucracies as well as upgraded small-scale irrigation systems which used to be managed by farmers. Investments in irrigation are primarily made to stimulate the region's economic development. Smallholder agriculture is increasingly commercial and strongly relies on irrigation development. Private investments in groundwater wells have substantially increased farmers' access to water over the last few decades.The context in Africa, however, differs considerably from other regions. Shah et al. (2002: 5) stated that \"in many aspects, the SSA smallholder situation differs from situations where IMT worked and was sustained.\" The cases above suggest that this argument still holds true (Bjornlund et al. 2017). In summary, smallholder irrigation schemes often seek mixed and contradictory goals that fail to consider the context. In almost all cases, farmer incomes remain too low for full cost recovery. In addition, the scheme's water source and sometimes the scheme itself serves multiple uses and users, which can increase conflict both on the scheme between those within the WUA and off the scheme between irrigators and the users excluded from the WUA. This compounds the complexities of the heterogeneous composition of WUAs, in which members have diverse preexisting socioeconomic status. Again, this is aggravated by institutions, including NGOs, customary institutions, and political organizations, that seek to fill the gaps left by low state presence and insinuate their own agendas at local level into scheme governance. At the same time, the state and donor-supported agencies may impose top-down directives, often through mandated scheme bylaws or rules, which undermine genuine WUA leadership and equitable, inclusive member participation. WUAs and irrigators may be constrained by such directives, but also confront little to no technical support or capacity strengthening needed to ensure productive irrigation schemes. This is occurring as emerging irrigation is expanding. Individual, dispersed irrigators often operate in the same watershed, aquifer or reservoir command area as formal irrigation schemes, but are outside of the governance scope of WUAs. The parallel and uncoordinated operations can undermine water resource sustainability, water allocation equity and therefore participation of WUA members within an irrigation scheme. It can also create discord between members of a scheme and individual irrigators nearby. Together, these factors not only prevent achievement of improved agricultural productivity, but weaken the assumed feedback loop through which improved irrigation performance strengthens cost recovery and user participation in WUAs. In turn, donors and public agencies conclude that WUAs, and often the irrigation projects, have failed.This summary comparison illustrates the differences between contexts of SSA and those in which donors and public agencies establish conventional WUAs. It highlights the limitations of transferring WUA templates or lessons from North Africa and Asia to SSA. WUAs may encounter difficulties to deliver on cost recovery and user participation in all three regions, but some intractable challenges predominate in SSA. This may reflect unrealistic expectations of WUAs to function uniformly.As summarized above, researchers and policy advisors identified flaws in WUA management after the establishment of WUAs, but many donors presumed the flaws could be fixed through slight modifications to implementation strategies. For example, IFAD published a report in 2001 that evaluated the performance of WUAs in small-scale irrigation projects in Africa, Asia and Latin America (IFAD 2001). The report presented a long list of recommendations to guide future design processes. Likewise, many irrigation projects implemented after 2000 incorporated additional suggestions or in some cases requirements for WUAs to mitigate common problems. However, those 'second generation' participatory irrigation projects did not fundamentally change the donor or public agency expectations of WUAs. Rather, most initiatives invest in WUAs to deliver on the same core functions, i.e., cost recovery and user participation. Policy makers and donor agencies have tried five main channels to strengthen conventional WUAs: (i) WUA policy and legal instruments; (ii) WUA bylaws; (iii) contracts and formal agreements with WUAs; (iv) training of WUA members; and (v) introducing monitoring and evaluation (M&E). A few examples below illustrate recent efforts.Donors and policy makers turned to the development of national-level legal instruments to regulate WUA operations to make them more effective. In some cases, donor agencies push national governments to put forward desirable WUA regulations that enforce the 'norms' in conventional WUAs, including cost recovery and user participation based on principles of equity. For example, in Malawi, the National Irrigation Policy and Development Strategy of 2000 included the preparation of WUA regulations to be adopted by the national government for broad roll-out in schemes (World Bank 2015a). Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia have recently introduced national-level policies or legal instruments. Mozambique also approved national regulations for WUAs in 2015 (Mwamakamba et al. 2017). In Kenya, the Water Act 2002 legally recognizes WUAs, defined as 'community projects' allowed to apply for a water permit at the water authority when at least two-thirds of the people occupying the area are WUA members (Kemerink et al. 2016). Tanzania's National Water Policy of 2002 and Water Act of 2009 also provides a legal basis for the formation of WUAs, which can be established by a majority of users of a common waterway. In Tanzania, the mandate of WUAs is to apply for a user permit, allocate water among its users, resolve water conflicts and collect water user fees on behalf of the river basin organization (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). Ethiopia issued the Irrigation Water Users' Proclamation in 2014 that recognizes WUAs as a unique legal entity primarily responsible for the O&M of irrigation systems (Haileslassie et al. 2016) and demands mandatory WUA membership of all users of the system. Generally, the formalization of WUAs in national regulations officially aims at strengthening community-based irrigation management through WUAs, but often entails more state regulation, e.g., requiring water use permits (Lein and Tagseth 2009). Hence, codifying WUAs may also set the foundation to illegalize previously tolerated water use by smallholders (Harrison and Mdee 2017;Kemerink et al. 2016).Bylaws are \"the constitutional rules of each WUA\" (Lempériere et al. 2014: 21), sometimes referred to as the 'internal code' or 'constitution' (Vandersypen et al. 2007;Zuka 2016). Important aspects included in bylaws are structure and mandate of the WUA board, rights and duties of WUA members, procedures for calling meetings and setting irrigation fees (Lempériere et al. 2014). Generally, water users themselves are supposed to set WUA bylaws to ensure they are fit to purpose. Nevertheless, governments and donor agencies often require certain elements to be integrated into bylaws. This can be stipulated in national-level legal instruments, as mentioned above, but can also be achieved by assisting or guiding WUAs as they establish their statutes. For example, in Malawi, the Department of Irrigation has a template which is used for establishing all WUA bylaws (Lefore et al. 2017). Similarly, WUA trainings provided by donor-supported or public agencies often include instructions on drafting specific bylaws. For example, one of the WUA training objectives of an African Development Bank (AfDB)-funded irrigation project in Kenya was to \"facilitate the elaboration of constitution and by-laws by the farmer organizations\" (African Development Fund 2006: 15). This is reinforced in cases where setting up bylaws is a specific condition for WUAs to receive funding for initial operations. In Nigeria, for instance, the technical proposal for a planned irrigation project states that WUAs will receive additional funds given that \"they are compliant with their own by-laws in terms of governance and accountability\" (World Bank 2014a: 52).The suggestions or requirements for bylaws tend to address previously encountered problems or perceived failures in WUAs. The implementation of quotas for women's participation is one clear example of how bylaws are mobilized to address past failures. Ethiopian guidelines for WUA regulations suggest that \"there should be at least two women in leadership positions in WUA\" (IFAD 2013: 48). Also, the IFAD-supported Land Conservation and Smallholder Rehabilitation (LACOSREP) project in Ghana set a quota of 40% women; it did so by opening up the WUA membership to all farmers and community members, rather than restricting membership to landowners or primary irrigators (IFAD 2001). The outcomes for \"technocratic\" quotas for women's participation are mixed, at best (Cleaver 1998;van Koppen 1998). Imposed bylaws also sought to address the accountability and financial transparency of WUA leaders (Zuka 2016). However, a recent case study in Malawi shows that WUA regulations on leadership election and financial audit reporting do not influence the actual functioning of WUAs (Zuka 2016). Governments and donor agencies approach bylaws as a tool to compel democratic governance mechanisms, ignoring the fact that forced participation has limited impact given the persistence of traditional institutions, and the power of local elites and entrenched interests.A more direct way to enforce requirements upon WUAs is the enactment of contracts or agreements with WUAs. These can be transfer agreements between the WUA and the government and/or donor agency defining the rights and duties of each party. The agreement may include cuts in financial support, if requirements are not met. This is foreseen in Nigeria where WUAs are expected to sign a transfer agreement prior to receiving financial support (World Bank 2014a). The agreement sets the duties of WUAs in terms of governance and accountability. Similar agreements in advance of project implementation may be signed between WUAs and local project implementing agencies. Participation is arguably the main objective of signing the agreement. For example, in Ethiopia, \"WUAs that participated directly in the planning process would be required to sign-off on all agricultural and irrigation plans before they are submitted to the Regional Programme Coordination Unit (RPCMU) for approval\" (IFAD 2013: 6). However, the agreements may also formalize the cost recovery obligation. Similarly, in the case of Ethiopia, the agreements include a clause on WUA members' voluntary labor contribution during construction (IFAD 2013). Contracts can also be signed between WUAs and construction companies to assure the participation of WUAs in the planning process of projects or in-kind labor or material contributions. In Tanzania, a project mandated that \"chairmen of WUAs participate in tender evaluation, contract and certificate signing during construction\" (IFAD 2007b: 29). Finally, agreements may also be signed between landowners and WUAs in an attempt to avoid conflicts over land and water use rights, as practised in Malawi (World Bank 2015a). These examples show that signed agreements are applied in new projects to rectify a range of constraints faced by WUAs in the past. However, the focus is on formalizing institutions, similar to the WUA policies and bylaws, which does not necessarily address the underlying contextual factors.Another approach to improve WUAs is through training. Here, the focus is not so much on formalizing institutions, but on building internal capacities with regard to the technical, financial and managerial skills considered necessary to manage a WUA and take over O&M tasks. Irrigation development projects initiated during the late 1990s and 2000s tried extended training programs for WUA members. A good example is the Irrigation, Rural Livelihoods and Agricultural Development Project in Malawi implemented from 2005 to 2011, which was considered among \"the first of a new generation of irrigation projects\" (World Bank 2015a: 2). During the design of the project, the inability of farmers to operate and maintain rehabilitated irrigation systems was considered one of the project's main risks. Therefore, existing WUAs were 'revamped' through trainings on basic O&M to mitigate this risk, according to the project's evaluation report (World Bank 2015a). Those existing WUAs were originally established during the Smallholder Flood Plain Development Programme which ran from 1998 to 2007. Despite the added investment in training, the capacity and sustainability of those WUAs were evaluated as 'doubtful' at the end of this project (ibid). Hence, IFAD concluded that \"[i]t was recognized that participatory planning, consensus building and design, combined with WUA strengthening and training, would have to start at least one year prior to construction [of irrigation systems]\" (IFAD 2001: 43-44).A similar rationale was followed in the project design of the IFAD-supported Participatory Irrigation Development Programme (PIDP) from 1999 to 2006 in Tanzania, which included a comprehensive capacity development component for WUAs. The project design was informed by lessons learned from the Smallholder Development Project for Marginal Areas (SDPMA) implemented from 1989 to 1996. The PIDP project proposal states that the previous SDPMA project focused too much on infrastructure \"at the expense of training, particularly of WUAs in the operation and maintenance of their schemes\" (IFAD 1999: 2). The new PIDP project included a broad set of trainings, including: an introductory seminar for all members, a general course on WUA bylaws and financial administration, a course tailored for WUA leaders and a specific course for women to enhance their participation. Similarly, the Participatory Small-scale Irrigation Development Project (PASIDP) in Ethiopia which ran from 2006 to 2017 also planned specific trainings for women \"to assist them to better participate in the management of WUAs\" (IFAD 2013: 65). The proposal of Transforming Irrigation Management in Nigeria project also considers the training of WUAs an essential element to \"re-align existing WUAs and establish new ones to achieve a transformed institutional structure for effective water management\" (World Bank 2014a: 15). The project foresees a long training trajectory that includes the design of the training process itself, as well as subsequent implementation of the WUA trainings.These examples show that intensified efforts have been made to train WUAs in 'second generation' participatory irrigation projects. These trainings concentrate on two main aspects. First, the skills and capacities of WUA members -and WUA leaders in particular -to operate and maintain the irrigation system, including financial and administrative management. Second, the inclusion and participation of women in WUAs. As mentioned explicitly in the project proposals, the trainings respond to difficulties faced by WUAs in the past. However, whereas training can be an effective way to sensitize WUA members for such potential difficulties, it does not necessarily address the underlying causes for the failures. For example, in the case of poor financial management, the main challenge is related to low income from irrigated agriculture, as discussed in the previous section, which may not be addressed through financial literacy training. Training may have a positive effect on WUA performance where such efforts are consistent and sustained over time, as suggested in a recent case study by Balasubramanya et al. (2018) in Tajikistan. However, more often, capacity development is limited to a few trainings in a short project cycle.Development banks and agencies have sought to introduce or strengthen monitoring and evaluation (M&E) within and on WUAs toward ensuring effectiveness. M&E of a WUA income and expenditure, as well as water use and levels, could contribute to the transparency of its financial governance and improved service delivery. However, monitoring data on the availability and distribution of water is often lacking at WUA level, which can undermine the ability of WUAs to control water use and impose sanctions when users do not respect irrigation turns or any other operational rule. Several authors argue that monitoring water levels at field level, in particular, can be an effective tool to improve irrigation performance without the need for expensive technical interventions (Poussin et al. 2006;Vandersypen et al. 2008;Wellens et al. 2013). Ambitious plans to implement such M&E may exist at the project planning phase. For example, the appraisal document of the 'Transforming irrigation management in Nigeria' project seeks to \"raise the capacity of the country to collect, store, share and manage data related for the management of dams, irrigation investments and agricultural mechanization and transform this data into usable information across stakeholders to underpin and plan their actions\" (World Bank 2014a: 92).However, actual M&E of irrigation schemes is low. In Malawi, it has been reported that WUAs collect and share data with its members on simple indicators such as the number of WUA members, the cultivated area in dry and wet seasons, and membership fees (World Bank 2015a). Yet, this data collection is only common in larger irrigation schemes; such activities are too time and resource consuming in the smaller schemes for WUA executives to take up in addition to other tasks. The IFAD-funded Participatory Irrigation Development Programme' (PIDP) in Tanzania outlined participatory M&E to be carried out by government district offices (IFAD 2007b). Yet, IFAD observed \"less intensive monitoring and follow up to the schemes\" once the project support for those district offices was phased out (IFAD 2007b: 21). Also, the mid-term report of PASIDP in Ethiopia indicated the urgent need to monitor and evaluate project implementation (IFAD 2013), but the M&E system planned at project design stage was not put in place. The reports provided no clarification of the reasons for the delay in M&E implementation. M&E could potentially provide data to identify constraints before they contribute to WUA failures, but it may also contradict an underlying principle of WUAs to reduce the size of the state irrigation agencies. The lack of state presence and capacity at local level, particularly within most irrigation departments in SSA, lowers the likelihood of implementing M&E, much less as an early alert system to problems at institutional level. In any case, M&E initiatives seek to collect data and potentially document weaknesses, but do not directly address the contextual causes of failures.The advancement of WUA policies, bylaws, contracts, trainings and M&E signal that development banks and agencies, as well as public institutions, recognize the weaknesses of WUA management. However, such efforts do not represent meaningful change in expectations from WUAs or a substantive change in approach to irrigation scheme management. No evidence is available to show that having national-level legal instruments or regulations, or ensuring that WUAs create bylaws, actually lead to the desired outcomes of improved cost recovery, equitable participation and improved overall effectiveness of governance or O&M in an irrigation scheme. Rather, the cases above suggest that development actors continue to assume that mainstream WUAs are the correct vehicle for both cost recovery and user participation to achieve improved irrigation performance. In order to move away from this approach, alternative management options which assume a different role for water users are discussed in the next section.This study introduces seven alternative management options which deviate from the way mainstream WUAs are typically implemented and expected to function by water departments, irrigation agencies and donors, as described in section 2 on the theoretical concept of WUAs. Each option is described with a special emphasis on how the approach deviates and/or overlaps with the way WUAs are commonly conceptualized and implemented. Examples of the practice of the options in SSA or other development contexts are provided. Finally, the most important opportunities and threats that may affect the implementation of each option in the SSA context are outlined.As described in the first sections of this report, governments and donor agencies typically expect WUAs to strengthen both user participation and cost recovery aspects of irrigation management. In practice, user participation is often equated with assigning O&M tasks to WUAs, while cost recovery concentrates on the collection of water user fees by WUAs. In line with this, development donors and agencies focus on organizing water users in WUAs and fortifying the role of WUAs through national policies and regulations, bylaws, contracts and training of WUA members particularly on financial administration and O&M matters. Figure 4 represents the basic components and interactions of a mainstream WUA. In short, users are engaged with the WUA through fee payment (and also through board or executive delegation). The WUA uses the fees to recover the costs of running the irrigation system. The WUA is also in charge of, and participates in, the O&M of the irrigation system, which is designed to deliver water for irrigation to users. Alternative management options primarily rely on other mechanisms to enhance user participation and/or cost recovery. Most importantly, the options shift the focus onto activities that are related to other actors and/or processes in irrigation management. WUAs may still play an important role in management options, but formalizing and training WUAs per se is no longer considered the only way to achieve cost recovery and user participation. In some options, the role and responsibility of WUAs may even be completely different from mainstream practices. To make a clear distinction between these different types of WUAs, we will refer to those organizations which follow the dominant WUA model as 'mainstream' WUAs.Based on a literature review of smallholder irrigation development, this study identified seven alternative management options that development actors have promoted and/or implemented recently. As shown in Table 3, each option provides a different approach to issues of user participation and/or cost recovery.Fee payment to recover O&M of irrigation systemDelivery of water The role of field staff in irrigation Field staff are less concerned with agencies and their interaction with infrastructure as such and more WUAs is strengthened to facilitate concerned with service provision the participation of WUAs in O&M compared to higher-level irrigation of the irrigation system. officials. Hence, a more prominent role for field staff allows breaking through the build-neglect-rebuild cycle keeping costs artificially high.Multi-functional WUA -WUAs generate income by providing agricultural services which can be used to recover O&M costs of the irrigation system.As a specialized company operating partnership (PPP) a PPP contract with a private operator, under competitive market conditions, which becomes responsible for the private operator provides the most delivering irrigation services.cost-effective solutions for O&M of the irrigation system.Both surface water and groundwater use WUAs can charge fees for both water-groundwater WUA are managed by a WUA, so that water surface water and groundwater use to can be accessed flexibly according to recover O&M costs of the irrigation the water users' needs. This limits their system. dependency on the irrigation agency and/or competing users.The approach may largely replace the practice under mainstream WUA management (e.g., PPPs) or supplement current practices (e.g., overarching water user platforms). None of the options have been widely adopted so far; however, scholars and development organizations have explicitly advocated the first five alternative management options. These options are relatively well documented, so practical examples are available to illustrate how the options function, though not necessarily in SSA. The last option listed on combined surface water and groundwater WUAs is less developed. Several scholars hint at this option as a solution to challenges in irrigation development today (Foster and van Steenbergen 2011;Mukherji et al. 2012), but few practical examples are available. Hence, the option is explored based on experiences made with mainstream WUAs in a setting of conjunctive surface water and groundwater use.The alternative management options presented here do not provide exhaustive solutions for all challenges faced by mainstream WUAs in SSA. The options presented offer alternative means to solve issues with cost recovery and/or user participation, but do not address the underlying causes of problems in irrigation schemes. As such, this section provides a broad overview of contextspecific options for primary functions of WUAs.Participatory design (or interactive design) is a process through which the intended users of an irrigation system are involved in the decision making on the infrastructure (and partly managerial) design of the system. Figure 5 depicts the basic layout of a WUA when operating on the participatory design principle. This involves the contributions of users according to their own financial capacity and labor input. An external irrigation engineer or project staff is involved with the WUA to develop and design the irrigation system according to the needs of the users. Users also contribute directly through a facilitated process so that the irrigation system delivers.In the context of externally funded irrigation development projects, participatory design implies that users also have an important say in a project's budget allocation (van Koppen et al. 2012). In a project developed through a participatory design process, most efforts concentrate on the participation of user groups during the design phase. Some scholars argue that an irrigation system developed through a participatory design process matches water users' managerial skills to maintain the system (Morardet et al. 2006). Therefore, O&M of the irrigation system is likely to be taken over by a WUA after the design phase, but other management options may also be selected depending on users' preferences. User participation during the design process promotes the selection of infrastructure and managerial solutions based on users' own financial capacity and potential labor input. Hence, participatory design is a promising approach to ensure that the O&M costs can be recovered by water users themselves after the design phase.The idea of participatory design for irrigation development is not new. Beekman and Veldwisch (2016) referred to several scholars who advocated participatory design and developed guidelines for its implementation in the irrigation sector in the 1990s. Also, Scheltema (2002) reported on guidelines developed by the Government of Kenya to support participatory design in the 1990s. The different guidelines share a design process that follows a step-wise approach, whereby users can influence decision making at different stages of the design process. Beekman and Veldwisch (2016) identified three main steps in the design process: problem definition, conceptual design and construction. Preferably, multiple cycles of problem definition, conceptual design and construction are repeated and built upon each other. This means that construction work is not finalized at once, FIGURE 5. The role of WUAs in participatory design. and can be adjusted according to experiences or issues in the scheme. Strengthening facilitated processes of engagement and learning at multiple levels could enhance the iterative cycle needed for the participatory design approach (Hagmann and Chuma 2002;Lefore 2015).Also, the issue of cost recovery is addressed through the selection of low-cost solutions which genuinely suit the local situation and input from water users. The WUA should not have to collect (unrealistically) high irrigation fees, because the scheme should be designed to fit the local economic circumstances and capacity. Overall, a participatory design approach is likely to imply longer time spans and higher costs for a project's planning and design phase, but costs would be kept lower on infrastructure construction and subsequent O&M (Wolfe and McCans 2009).In order to adopt a participatory design approach, governments and donor agencies would need to reconsider some conventions in irrigation projects. First, budget allocation should not be narrowly defined by external actors (governments or donor agencies) prior to actual infrastructure design. Second, not only water users but project managers should also be regarded as important actors to enhance user participation. According to Morardet et al. (2006: 44), activities to strengthen user participation need to focus on:• building capacities of project managers, specifically engineers, in participatory approaches;• providing incentives that encourage them to interact with local stakeholders (for example, including criteria in their performance assessment system); and• placing more emphasis on training rural people, both in terms of technical knowledge and empowerment. The actual implementation of a participatory design approach for the irrigation sector is limited.A review on the planning and implementation of irrigation projects in SSA by Morardet et al. (2006: 37) concluded that \"participation often comes after the overall project is designed; i.e., the design is not based on beneficiaries' demands and interest.\" Some elements of the approach appear promising and have been integrated into mainstream WUA approaches, particularly in IFAD projects. Notably, projects have consulted water users before detailed infrastructure design. For example, social issues were integrated in the planning and design of the irrigation schemes in the PIDP in Tanzania through consultations with intended users (IFAD 2007b). However, project designers did not always successfully merge the needs expressed by communities with technical knowledge on water availability. As a result, irrigation infrastructure was constructed on places where not enough water could be delivered. The project completion evaluation report draws the lesson that more time should be assigned to the design process (ibid.).In some cases, water users have participated in the selection of contractors for the construction of infrastructure, and in the M&E of project development. For example, the IFAD-funded participatory irrigation projects in Ethiopia and Tanzania anticipated that WUAs would participate in the tender committees for awarding construction contracts (IFAD 2007b(IFAD , 2013)). That said, construction work was still of low quality in Ethiopia due to inappropriate design and poor workmanship (IFAD 2013).These cases highlight the role of facilitating the participatory design process and ensuring that the design matches technical requirements for irrigation. Beekman and Veldwisch (2016) reported on a case in Mozambique (Box 1) which provides an example of the importance of the facilitator in understanding farmers' day-to-day water use issues and suggesting technically sound solutions. The process should be facilitated by an actor that is not part of the engineering-based irrigation authority, in order to avoid local demands being subsumed or dominated by technical experts on infrastructure. More training on how to facilitate participation to strengthen meaningful input of communities into planning would be needed. Refer to IWMI (2014) for one example of such a training curriculum.Low-cost technologies - You (2008) argued that small-scale irrigation in SSA is beneficial under the condition that low-cost technologies are used. The participatory design approach intends to seek such low-cost solutions in cooperation with water users based on their needs and capacity to contribute money or labor. In this regard, the approach suits situations where farmers face many constraints to full commercial farming, and incomes may not increase substantially to recover the costs of capital-intensive infrastructure.Multiple uses -Irrigation infrastructure is often used for multiple purposes, such as water for livestock and fishing (Venot et al. 2012). Advocates of participatory design expect the approach to break through the typical centrally developed project cycle, enabling the integration and consultation with non-irrigation scheme users, including emerging individual irrigators, livestock owners and domestic water users, among others. This would entail budget allocation and infrastructure that is flexible with regard to water uses and livelihood goals. In cases where that is realized, a participatory design approach can reduce losses caused by damage due to unplanned uses of infrastructure (i.e., by building bridges over deep canals for cattle) (van Koppen et al. 2012), as well as improved management of water resources in the landscape.The Messica Irrigation Pilot Project was an action research project which was financially supported by the Dutch government and ran from 2012 to 2014. The project was carried out in a smallholder farmer-led irrigation system covering around 500 ha in Central Mozambique. The aim of the project was to support farmer-led irrigation development and increase benefits from irrigated agriculture. The participatory design process was divided into three phases: (i) problem definition, (ii) conceptual design, and (iii) construction and redesign. Each phase was characterized by intensive interaction between the engineer (project staff), a preexisting Management Committee representing the community as a whole, and the farmers using water from the system.In the problem definition phase, emphasis was put on understanding underlying problems and difficulties faced by farmers. This helped to avoid solving problems of an organizational nature with infrastructural solutions. For example, farmers experienced a large amount of leakage from the main canal due to the habit of digging multiple breaches to flood a single field. Whereas this problem could be solved by lining the canal, more stringent rules restricting the number of breaches per field was brought forward as a more cost-effective solution. Another problem identified during the first phase was the washing away of intake constructions during the rainy season.In the conceptual design phase, possible infrastructural solutions for the intake problem were further explored. In this phase, a local contractor joined the discussions. The design of permanent constructions, as well as the provision of labor by the farmers was decided upon and captured in a signed contract. One of the solutions proposed by the engineer was the construction of a gabion weir (mesh wire box filled with rocks) as intake from bigger rivers -its construction is considered less costly than concrete diversion structures.During the construction and redesign phase, farmers were expected to contribute labor to the construction of the gabion weir. However, this phase was characterized by much renegotiation over the original contract agreed upon. As the technology was unknown to the farmers, they were not eager to contribute labor after all. At a certain point in time, it was considered to abandon the gabion weir in the frame of the project. Yet, after long discussions, farmers resumed the work and the construction was completed.A similar cycle of problem definition, conceptual design, and construction and redesign was repeated in the second year of the project. During the second project cycle, the farmers willingly contributed labor to the construction of gabion weirs, because the weir built in the first year had worked properly during the rainy season. Representation of water users -Before a participatory design process commences, the potential water users who will participate in the design process need to be identified. This step is decisive for the subsequent participatory design process. For example, the Mozambique case involved a six-month participatory rural appraisal phase (Beekman and Veldwisch 2016). This is necessary to ensure adequate representation of different water users and stakeholders in the area, who will be required to cooperate in the design process and in the management functions later. Not ensuring adequate representation of a range of water users could undermine participation in a WUA and irrigation scheme, leading to the types of failures commonly seen from lack of participation.Overarching water user platforms, sometimes called water user forums (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013), are higher-level organizations which bring together smallholder representatives and other water users, such as cities, industries and large-scale farmers, to negotiate water distribution at river basin or sub-basin level. 5 Figure 6 depicts the basic functioning of a water user platform, where users are represented through different associations and stakeholder groups, and together they participate in the allocation of water within a river basin. Sometimes, the platform includes other stakeholders active in the water sector, such as government agencies and NGOs. Local-level smallholders are brought together with large-scale water users, and water resource planners and regulators to ensure improved water access for the smallholders (Hoogesteger 2012). In this regard, overarching water user platforms can strengthen smallholders' participation in water governance and secure their water access even in the presence of strong competition by more powerful players in the context of limited water resources. FIGURE 6. The role of WUAs in overarching water user platforms. 5 In large-scale irrigation systems, overarching water user platforms may also bring together representatives of multiple WUAs. Such platforms are often referred to as federated WUAs. The aspect of a multiplicity of stakeholders involved in catchment management is further developed in the subsection Multi-stakeholder and Innovation Platform, which goes beyond river basin management and includes other aspects of water management and agriculture. Smallholder users participating in overarching water user platforms are usually representatives of WUAs. Overarching water user platforms do not replace WUAs, but provide the mechanisms to integrate smallholder-based WUAs into decision making on water allocation at catchment level. As such, overarching water user platforms are mostly beneficial in cases where WUAs are situated in a stressed river basin characterized by highly competitive water uses. In such a context, ensuring that smallholders take part in higher-level decision making may be an important driver for them to get organized and participate in WUAs (Hoogesteger 2012). A water user platform may secure or increase smallholder water rights, but does not tackle the issue of cost recovery of infrastructure built to capture the water (Kemerink et al. 2016). The intention is to improve water allocation to the smallholder irrigation scheme, which in turn is expected to incentivize WUA members to pay their water fees to maintain infrastructure.The idea of overarching water user platforms has received considerable attention since the early 2000s (McCornick and Merrey 2005). In SSA, attempts to bring this new mode of water governance into practice have been made in Burkina Faso, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Kemerink et al. 2016;Komakech and van der Zaag 2013;Manzungu 2002;Roncoli et al. 2016). The creation of water user platforms is usually introduced through a reform in the national law. These reforms are often based on the IWRM principle of stakeholder participation in water management (Sally et al. 2011). However, prescriptions on the organizational forms may differ from country to country. In Burkina Faso, water policy reforms prescribe the establishment of local water committees with voluntary membership and an advisory role to the government (Roncoli et al. 2016). In Tanzania, the water law provides for catchment and sub-catchment committees that can be delegated functions by the river basin authority (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). Kenya's Water Act 2002 facilitates the creation of Water Resources User Associations -an organization of multiple local stakeholders responsible for allocating water permits and resolving water conflicts (Carpenter et al. 2017). The formation of water user platforms often follows a formal process in line with those legal reforms.Stressed water basins -SSA (excluding Southern Africa) is still one of the regions in the world where human alteration has a limited impact on natural river flows (Döll et al. 2009). Nevertheless, the pressure on water resources is rising in upcoming economies where water use by large-scale commercial farming and urban areas is growing, such as in Tanzania and Kenya. Here, river basins are characterized by intense competition over water resources and frequent water shortages (McCornick and Merrey 2005). Smallholders in these areas experience conflicts over water with competing users. These can be conflicts between smallholders and international agribusinesses or between smallholders and cities (de Bont et al. 2016;Harrison and Mdee 2017). Whereas conflicts can sometimes be solved by shifting from surface water to groundwater resources, this is likely to present a superficial, shortterm solution when groundwater is feeding into the river's baseflow (de Bont et al. 2016). In worse cases, smallholders' access to land and water is threatened due to the conflict (Harrison and Mdee 2017). In this context, overarching water user platforms may be beneficial to integrate smallholders into decision making on allocation and thereby help to secure their access to water.Financial viability -A major challenge faced by overarching water user platforms in SSA is the lack of appropriate financial budgets for their operation. Indeed, cases of overarching water user platforms in SSA demonstrate that legal reforms are not effective as long as no financial means are made available for the participation of smallholders. In part, the formation of completely new organizational structures based on legal reforms may be too ambitious, not taking into account local institutional and financial capacities (McCornick and Merrey 2005). This may keep the platforms in a dysfunctional state after formal establishment (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). Contributions by financially strong water users (e.g., large farmers) may keep the platform running, but this does not enhance the participation of smallholder representatives. In Tanzania, it was found that so-called sub-catchment WUAs face serious financial difficulties and stay dysfunctional (Box 2) (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). Similarly, it was found that the WUA representatives in Burkina Faso could often not attend meetings due to non-reimbursement of transport costs (Roncoli et al. 2016). Also in Kenya, the impact of overarching water user platforms on smallholders' access to water is limited due to a lack of financial resources to invest in infrastructure (Box 3). This allows large powerful users with sufficient financial means to \"tweak the rules of the game in such a way that it better serves their interest\" (Kemerink et al. 2016(Kemerink et al. : 1073)). Lack of financial resources can threaten the legitimacy of the platform (Roncoli et al. 2016).The Kikuletwa Catchment is located in the Pangani River Basin in Northeast Tanzania, near the border with Kenya. Water users in the catchment include smallholder subsistence farmers, pastoralists, large-scale commercial farmers, cities, mines and tourist facilities. Recently, the number of conflicts over the allocation of water resources has been increasing. To address this issue, the Pangani River Basin Organization and development partners established four so-called sub-catchment WUAs in 2010. These four sub-catchment WUAs were planned to be united in one large catchment WUA at a later stage. Representatives from different wards in the sub-catchments were selected to enter the sub-catchment WUA committees. Yet, after formal registration and establishment of the sub-catchment WUAs, little has happened. The water authorities and development partners reasoned that the sub-catchment WUAs were created in the interest of water users and should thus be financed by membership fees. However, most of the water users were ignorant about the existence of the sub-catchment WUA and challenged the legitimacy of the organization once confronted with the request to pay membership fees.Source: Based on Komakech and van der Zaag 2013. Komakech and van der Zaag (2013) suggested that, in the case of Tanzania, parallel customary arrangements exist which could have been integrated to establish a user platform at catchment level. Hence, they argue that any government or development organization planning to establish a user platform should: \"First invest in research to identify existing arrangements and understand their strengths and limitations. Subsequently, based on this understanding, a program can be developed to strengthen the positive aspects of the existing institutional arrangements while attempting to minimize some of the negative aspects\" (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013: 246-247).Meaningful participation of multiple users -Another problem faced by overarching water user platforms in SSA is a lack of meaningful participation of smallholder users, a problem already mentioned which undermines the main objective as an alternative management option to mainstream WUAs. Sometimes, this is related to a lack of financial means as mentioned above, but it may also be produced by the role of powerful water users during the formation process. For example, in Kenya, commercial farmers in prominent positions in the platform were found to hinder individual smallholders from applying for a water permit (Kemerink et al. 2016). Water forums tend to be comprised of representatives of formal organizations such as farmer unions (e.g., in Zimbabwe) or more often WUAs (e.g., in Kenya and Burkina Faso). In Zimbabwe, those so-called representatives were found to have weak linkages with the actual water users (Manzungu 2002). In Burkina Faso and Kenya, individual water users, such as pastoralists and riparian irrigators, were found to be excluded (Kemerink et al. 2016;Roncoli et al. 2016). This may stimulate individual users to become members of WUAs, as was the case in Kenya (Box 3). However, it can also encourage water users to find other ways to voice their opinions, as illustrated by the demonstration of riparian users in Burkina Faso (Roncoli et al. 2016). Not only formal prescriptions can influence the selection of representatives in the overarching water user platforms, but also initiators of the platforms may play an important role in this regard. In both Kenya and Burkina Faso, large-scale commercial farmers/ agribusinesses were found to lead the formation process and steer the inclusion (or exclusion) of other users (Kemerink et al. 2016;Roncoli et al. 2016). To avoid this, a different stakeholder who is not a water user themselves (such as the government or an NGO) should oversee initial proceedings and facilitate the organization of WUAs under the platform. 6The development of multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) has been proposed to increase user participation in irrigation management, embedded in a larger context of user participation through partnerships in development (Chambers 1994;Evans et al. 2010). MSPs are in essence a negotiation body that provides a facilitated space for stakeholders to share opinions, define common problems and seek negotiated solutions (Evans et al. 2010;Faysse 2006). A word of caution, however, is put forward by Warner (2007), as MSPs do not need to be tangible or physical (an office in a buildingThe Likii sub-catchment is located in Central Kenya. Water users in the catchment include smallholder subsistence farmers, pastoralists, large-scale commercial farmers, a water utility and wildlife conservancy with tourist facilities. In 2002, the Likii Water Resources User Association (WRUA) was established to coordinate water allocation at sub-catchment level and to mitigate conflicts. In the sub-catchment, nine WUAs had been established earlier. Altogether, these WUAs represent about 2,500 smallholder irrigators. The organizational reform was prescribed by Kenya's Water Act 2002. The formation of the WRUA was initiated by one of the largescale commercial farmers. It was decided that membership of the WRUAs, and consequently the right to apply for water abstraction, was confined to smallholders organized in WUAs and large-scale users. Smallholders not organized in WUAs and pastoralists were thus excluded from the platform. This urged many smallholders to join the existing WUAs; however, those WUAs lack the financial means to build infrastructure to supply all additional WUA members with sufficient water. Hence, some smallholders, whose land is located near the river, decided not to join the WUAs and individually divert water to their land with pumps. This practice is considered illegal under the Water Act 2002. Although there are some exceptions under which individual smallholders may apply for water abstraction rights, they tend to refrain from doing so because they are afraid they may be forced to join the WUAs.Source: Based on Kemerink et al. 2016. where people meet), and can also be 'a state of mind' or a phenomenon that enables participation and communication between stakeholders. MSPs come in many ways and forms, incorporating several components (linked to the specificity of the case, context and problem at hand) allowing \"shared learning, collaborative planning and interventions, but not all of them can be said to achieve real mutual planning and action\" (Evans et al. 2010: 358). As a result, Warner (2006) suggested to weigh in expectations when developing goals and attaching expectations to these MSPs as stakeholder objectives for the platform might differ. Stakeholders participate with pre-conceived ideas and agendas, e.g., some might see communication as a goal per se while others demand a tangible result (ibid.).Innovation platforms are a type of multi-stakeholder platform with the aim of facilitating open communication and collaboration between stakeholders usually within a value chain to promote collective resource management or bring new products or processes and organizational forms into economic use (Martey et al. 2014;Rajalahti et al. 2008). They extend beyond the creation of knowledge and include factors affecting demand for and use of knowledge (Rajalahti et al. 2008). Innovation platforms are usually initiated by a research or development organization, a government agency or an NGO (Homann-Kee Tui et al. 2013). A broad and diverse group of stakeholders is identified, and the first few meetings are convened by the organization to define a focus and a problem to address (ibid.). Then, platform members decide on the appropriate options and solutions to address the problem, usually guided or supported by a moderator or facilitator (external or internally chosen by the stakeholders). Based on the problem definition and designed solutions, additional resources may be required (e.g., training, or further testing of technology) (ibid.).In South Africa, Catchment Management Forums are non-statutory water management organizations set up to enhance citizen participation in water management at the grassroots level (Boakye and Akpor 2012). Similar platforms have been created in Tanzania (Figure 7) (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). In South Africa, these forums are used as knowledge sharing platforms by stakeholders, and communication channels facilitating discussion about shared problems and identification of common problems (Boakye and Akpor 2012). However, participants of the Msunduzi River catchment management forum still struggle to understand the purpose and objectives of the forum, having minimal contact with ministry officials.It is also possible that MSPs fail to provide sufficient empowerment to stakeholders and often do not succeed in delivering expected outputs (in some instances, expectations are set too high or power relationships frustrate or limit participation and representation among stakeholders), thus affecting the legitimacy of the process itself (Warner 2006;Faysse 2006). In Tanzania, communication and collaboration are limited by power imbalances between stakeholders (as collaboration implies joint decisions with power sharing, and acceptance of decisions and implications) (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). In Mexico, Consejos Técnicos de Aguas (COTAS) (technical committees for groundwater management) were set up by the central government to unify multiple stakeholders under a common groundwater resource management platform. However, a lack of sense of ownership among water users proved to be an obstacle for their consolidation (Wester et al. 2011). This lack of representation due to a poor democratic process of stakeholder selection and representation also created the perception among users that COTAS were just an extension of the state government in the form of an 'appendix' organization (Valdés Barrera 2014;Wester et al. 2011). COTAS are also restrained by the overruling power of other government agencies and have no faculties to control groundwater abstractions, having to rely on the users' goodwill and on the National Water Commission, the only government agency with the power to issue pumping permits and responsible for the enforcement of aquifer regulations (Perez Fuentes 2010; Wester et al. 2007).Innovation platforms can extend much further than the mere management of natural resources, and have been conceived as entry points \"for the operationalization, validation and dissemination of agriculture technology\" (Martey et al. 2014: 1). As challenges associated with natural resource management are multi-faceted, they can require multiple interventions in parallel (e.g., market access, institutional reform, infrastructure design, rural development, government policies, etc.). Innovation platforms enable users and stakeholders to develop new forms of communication, decision finding/making, and equality of access to information, knowledge and accountability of community-based management institutions (Martey et al. 2014).As presented by Martey et al. (2014) for Northern Ghana, multi-stakeholder and innovation platforms can enhance coordination, communication and collaboration between stakeholders within a value chain, and ultimately promote collective resource management. As described by Martey et al. (2014), MSPs to increase rice production and food security support the sharing and dissemination of knowledge, and coordinate decision making at local, national and regional levels. The platform equally serves the purpose of increasing competitiveness of agriculture, or improving access to markets (national and international). This point is mentioned by Homann-Kee Tui et al. (2013: 2), when they specify that \"innovation platforms can be used to explore strategies that can boost productivity, manage natural resources, improve value chains, and adapt to climate change.\" Bjornlund et al. (2017) explored a similar thesis and presented innovation platforms as a potential opportunity for small-scale irrigation in SSA to become economically sustainable, reduce  external investment, and become self-supported by farmers. This is achieved through a proactive and realistic problem-solving approach rather than the implementation and transmission of a set of principles top down (ibid.). They function as a way to develop a common mission and achieve specific goals (Homann-Kee Tui et al. 2013). The participants of agricultural innovation platforms benefit from the close contact, which can generate innovation, information sharing between different types of farmers, technology transfer, and learning-by-doing (Bjornlund et al. 2017).The problem of spatial fit, nested institutions, and customary arrangements that arise from the various definitions of problems and solutions between MSPs and river basins are highlighted by Komakech and van der Zaag (2013). These issues can be addressed by modularizing catchments, i.e., simultaneously establishing a basin-wide MSP and sub-basin catchment MSPs \"to ensure the catchment-wide group does not get overwhelmed by the many interests and conflicts across an entire river basin, and also does not develop strategies or initiatives that do not make sense in all the sub-catchments\" (Verhallen et al. 2007: 260). In Morocco, irrigation authorities coordinate timidly with farmer organizations at the community and irrigation scheme levels through MSPs and WUAs in matters related to water allocation at the scheme level, negotiation process for milk prices with milk cooperatives (as part of the value chain for milk intersects the water and irrigation systems), and the catchment management governing boards (Faysse et al. 2010). For each case, however, weak links between family farmers and representatives from WUAs make coordination and effective management difficult (ibid.). According to work in Tanzania by Komakech and van der Zaag (2013), even if catchment forums can provide consensus over issues such as water allocation negotiation and conflict resolution, such modularization does not ensure that optimal allocation principles and rules are found between stakeholders. For example, participation of certain stakeholders (e.g., large farmers) may be constrained if they perceive these processes as a potential threat to the status quo and therefore their interests. Thus, the identification of optimal and suitable subunits and their effective coordination is paramount to the success of these forums (ibid.).Joint management is a generic term often used to describe irrigation management where O&M tasks are divided between an irrigation agency and WUAs (Subramanian et al. 1997;Uphoff 1986). Based on Suhardiman and Giordano (2014), we narrow down the definition of joint management as a management mode whereby the exchange on daily water delivery practices between field-level staff of an irrigation agency and water users is the central building block for irrigation development. Figure 8 depicts the basic layout of a WUA participating in joint management, where the delegated irrigation agency interceding through field staff, oversees the contribution of the WUA in the joint management and O&M of the irrigation system. Users continue to contribute through fees or other contributions and receive water for irrigation through the system. Cooperation between the two can be based on regular collaborative meetings or organized through a combined management committee (Ricks 2015). Suhardiman and Giordano (2014) assumed that irrigation outcomes can be improved by reshaping field-level practices of water delivery through joint management, and without striving for a perfect physical state of the irrigation system. Contrary to mainstream WUA implementation, joint management places more importance on the role of the field-level irrigation department or extension staff as catalysts of user participation. Hence, it requires governments and donors to spend more attention to mobilizing and training field-level staff to engage with and support water users. Joint management as defined here also requires governments and donor agencies to shift their focus from infrastructure maintenance to daily water delivery practices. Suhardiman and Giordano (2014) argued that investing more in field-level staff and their engagement in daily water delivery practices will reduce O&M costs, because expensive infrastructural solutions favored by rent-seeking officials at higher levels are avoided. Ideally O&M costs can be maintained at levels affordable for WUAs. Overall, joint management would require a larger long-term budget available for field-level staff and less recurrent investments in rehabilitation of the physical infrastructure.In many irrigation systems, irrigation agencies continue to assume specific management responsibilities, even after the establishment of WUAs (particularly in irrigation systems that were previously centrally managed) (Mwamakamba et al. 2017;Subramanian et al. 1997). Nevertheless, development support often concentrates on the duty of WUAs to carry out O&M and recover related costs. Meanwhile, capacity building of irrigation agency staff stays out of focus (Mukherji et al. 2012). Also, incentives for field-level staff to actively engage with WUAs are most of the time lacking because of the focus on infrastructure development and securing donor funding (Suhardiman and Giordano 2014).Overall, a joint management approach is not widely practiced in SSA. However, cases where WUAs have not been solely responsible for O&M of irrigation schemes and received long-term technical support demonstrate positive results. For example, a comparative study of three irrigation schemes developed in the 1970s in Benin shows that only the scheme under continuous technical support was still fully operational by 2006 (Djagba et al. 2014). In the other two schemes, the irrigation infrastructure was almost completely taken out of use. In all the schemes, \"an irrigation scheme manager was appointed to monitor the irrigation facilities and supervise the farmers' organization\" after initial construction (Djagba et al. 2014: 334). This arrangement was maintained over time, only in the scheme which stayed fully operational.Similarly, WUAs may receive intensive technical assistance from field-level staff during pilot projects or early project phases. This explains why WUA management often displays more positive Fee payment/other contributions outcomes at early stages of implementation than at advanced stages (Suhardiman and Giordano 2014). An example of this can be found in Tanzania, where WUAs were reported to function well as long as project staff were stationed at the district government. However, once the external staff left, the support to WUAs by district governments was limited \"due to lack of resources for transport, computer skills and lack of incentives in general to support the schemes\" (IFAD 2007b: 29). Similar experiences are found in Malawi, where capacity building of local government staff and the setting up of Water User Association Service Units (WUASU) at the irrigation department were foreseen to facilitate support for WUAs in schemes previously managed by the government (World Bank 2015a). However, WUASUs only stayed actively involved in scheme management, budgeting and accounting, and infrastructure maintenance during a restricted phase of joint management (e.g., 2 years) before those responsibilities were transferred to WUAs.The Krasiew and Mae Yom Joint Management committees in Thailand are two cases in which strengthening the interaction between agency staff and water users has been a deliberate approach to improve irrigation management in the long term (Box 4). The two cases show that intensive Box 4. Krasiew and Mae Yom Joint Management Committees in Thailand.The Krasiew irrigation system is located in Southwest Thailand. It has an area of around 18,000 ha and over 6,000 farmers. After construction of the Krasiew Dam in 1981, nine WUAs were officially established by the irrigation agency. However, in practice, the irrigation system was centrally managed by the irrigation agency. In 2001, a new impulse was set by an Asian Development Bank (ADB)-funded project promoting user participation. The head of the local office of the irrigation agency was in favor of the participatory approach recommended by ADB, and encouraged his staff to spend more time in the field with the farmers. It took the field staff around 3 years to build a trust relationship with the farmers. In 2003, a Joint Management Committee was established. The committee operates at system level, and primarily coordinates cooperation between irrigation officials and local farmer representatives. The intensified cooperation led to various changes in day-to-day water delivery practices. For example, a temporary weir was placed on top of the dam, making more irrigation water available during the dry season. Farmers had initiated the construction of the weir, and participated in the planning and building process. Moreover, farmers now inform the irrigation agency when too much water is released at certain outlets, so that water can be saved for future use.In the Mae Yom irrigation system, the successful case of the Krasiew was taken as an example. The irrigation system is located in Northern Thailand. It covers an area of approximately 36,000 ha and has 62 WUAs which had been formally established in the 1980s. In 2005In -2006, farmers in the system had conflicts over water after severe droughts. In 2006, a new official, native to the region, was moved to the local irrigation agency to promote farmer participation. The farmers acknowledged the official's personal commitment to encourage their involvement. In response, they started to seek more assistance from the irrigation agency to deal with practical water delivery issues. In 2010, a Joint Management Committee was also set up here by the irrigation agency and WUA representatives. During biannual meetings, representatives of different WUAs at different ends of the main canal are brought together. This allows the irrigation agency to oversee all users' needs and better coordinate water delivery in the system by adjusting the irrigation schedule. As a result of the increased efforts by the irrigation agency to bring WUAs together, upstream farmers agreed to refrain from using water on three to four days during the dry seasons. Hence, more downstream farmers are currently able to grow dry-season crops.Source: Based on Ricks (2015).interaction between field-level staff and strong relations of trust are needed to expose the most eminent problems in water users' day-to-day irrigation practices. It is only then that practical, costeffective solutions to address those problems can emerge. In the cases presented here, the correct incentives to achieve this were created by personally engaged officials at the local irrigation agency.Large-scale irrigation systems -Joint management is particularly suitable in a context where the influence of irrigation bureaucracies is strong and their role cannot be fully replaced by water users themselves (Suhardiman and Giordano 2014). In SSA, joint management may thus be most appropriate in the Sudano-Sahel Region, where large-scale irrigation systems are in place. For example, in Northern Nigeria, irrigation agency staff and WUAs are currently reported to hold uncooperative attitudes towards each other which limits possibilities to improve irrigation performance (Haruna 2015). In light of planned investments in existing large-scale irrigation systems in Nigeria as well as other Sahel countries, joint management presents a promising approach to achieve better results (World Bank 2014b, 2015b).Potential to reduce infrastructure costs -The notion that joint management can reduce the costs of O&M of irrigation systems is based on the assumption that maintenance costs are kept artificially high by irrigation officials who personally gain from the build-neglect-rebuild cycle (Suhardiman and Giordano 2014). This argument has been developed for the case of powerful irrigation bureaucracies in Southeast Asia. For SSA, Venot et al. (2011: 418) argued that, although the irrigation bureaucracy is smaller in scale and influence than in Asia, \"corruption finds its breeding ground in the workings (daily practices) of multiple actors all along the project cycle.\"Incentives for field staff to engage with water users -Many authors argue that, in SSA, current support by the government to WUAs falls short and should be enhanced (Acheampong and Venot 2010;Morardet et al. 2006;Zuka 2016). However, the question remains as to how incentives can be strengthened for field staff to engage with water users. Personal engagement of local irrigation officials, as in the two successful cases in Thailand, is hard to be out-scaled under many government policies or donor programs. Local government budgets may be inadequate to cover salaries for local staff and many extension services in SSA are severely understaffed. One solution could be to provide more long-term financial support to WUA service units as part of internationally-funded irrigation development projects, such as the above-mentioned WUA service units which operated in Malawi for a short while only (World Bank 2015a).Within the frame of donor-funded rural development projects, non-irrigation services, such as provision of credit, storage, processing and marketing of agricultural products, may also be supported. However, these services are usually assigned to separate organizations, such as savings and credit cooperatives, rural banks or various agricultural cooperatives (IFAD 2007b;World Bank 2015a). One alternative to mainstream WUAs is a multi-functional WUA that engages in activities in addition to irrigation infrastructure management activities. Figure 9 presents the layout of a WUA engaging in the provision of additional services. These may include provision of agricultural services to its members, such as the supply of fertilizers and seeds, land levelling, granting of agricultural credits or assistance with crop processing and marketing. Users can access these services through additional payments to the WUA. The O&M costs of the irrigation system are recovered through these various financial strands. The idea to encourage WUAs to engage in additional activities has been promoted by several scholars as a means to increase WUAs' financial viability (Arun et al. 2012;Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007;Ghazouani et al. 2012;Pradhan 2002). The diversification of WUA activities is expected to address the problem of cost recovery currently faced by mainstream WUAs in two ways. First, multi-functional WUAs can gain additional income from service provision for the recovery of O&M costs (Ghazouani et al. 2012). Second, WUAs can support water users to increase productivity in irrigated agriculture by providing improved access to agricultural input and output markets, and in doing so, increase income (Arun et al. 2012). This would increase water users' ability to pay for irrigation O&M. In addition, Garces-Restrepo et al. (2007) argued that good quality service provision by WUAs can strengthen its members' loyalty and willingness to contribute money and labor to the organization.The proposal for multi-functional WUAs has found some resonance in the literature, yet it has not been widely adopted. In some cases, governments are not in favor of granting WUAs the permission to make profit or engage in financial activities outside O&M fee collection (Garces-Restrepo et al. 2007). One reason given by governments is that WUAs might make profit and would not maintain tax-exempt status. Garces-Restrepo et al. (2007) found that in 21 out 32 countries WUAs are not allowed to engage in agribusiness and make profits.Examples of multi-functional WUAs are sporadic cases initiated by WUAs, as illustrated by the case of the Jradou WUA in Tunisia (Box 5). The example suggests that successful diversification of WUA activities depends on the capacity and skills of WUA leaders. Similar cases of WUAs taking up economic activities elsewhere show both positive and negative results. Koppa (2008) reported on three WUAs in India which undertook additional activities, such as purchasing input supplies and marketing, but only one made gains, while the other two suffered losses due to non-recovery of money invested in the additional activities. A detailed analysis on the income and expenditure of two WUAs in India demonstrates the limited impact additional economic activities may have on WUA budgets (Bhatt 2013). One of the WUAs studied made profits of around USD 40 through the resale of fertilizers to its members, which is equivalent to only 5% of the income from irrigation fees. In the case of Tunisia, financial viability resulted from WUAs adding multiple economic activities. The WUA of Jradou is located in North Tunisia. It has 45 members and manages 60 ha of land irrigated by two tube wells. In Tunisia, WUAs officially have a larger mandate than irrigation management only. WUAs are registered as 'Groupements de Developpement Agricole' (GDA), whose tasks may include among others: provision of equipment, agricultural inputs, technical advice and marketing. However, this is not well known and profit-making activities are often regarded as illegal. An IFAD-funded project which ran from 1998 to 2008 provided technical support to the WUA of Jradou. However, the initiative to undertake commercial activities came from the WUA leaders themselves. Its approach stood out against the other 120 WUAs in the region, including those supported within the frame of the IFAD project. By the end of the project, the WUA had undertaken a wide range of commercial activities. For example, the WUA bought fertilizers and seeds in large quantities to sell at affordable prices to WUA members. Besides that, the WUA applied for a loan from a local NGO to grant credit to its members. The WUA also engaged in selling water to non-WUA members. By 2010, revenues from those activities allowed the WUA to recover regular irrigation O&M costs as well as larger, unforeseen expenditure.Source: Based on Ghazouani et al. 2012;Mehdi and Venot 2012.Examples of multi-functional WUAs in SSA show mixed results. Abernethy et al. (2000) described difficulties faced by WUAs in Niger to engage in purchasing fertilizers for its members. Although WUAs were officially allowed to expand activities and make profit, they were constrained by financial rules imposed by the government. Government rules dictated that profit revenue had to be used to offset or reduce farmers' irrigation fees. Therefore, the WUAs could not increase overall revenue. Ironically, WUA members became less willing to contribute irrigation fees when the WUA failed to buy fertilizers as expected. Scheltema (2002) reported unsuccessful cases of WUAs being set up as cooperatives responsible for supplying agricultural input in Kenya. WUAs lost money buying inputs when farmers did not pay, further reducing the ability to undertake O&M. Randall (2012) described the history of one such cooperative in the Mwea Irrigation Scheme in Kenya. In another example from Kenya, in 1998, farmers assigned the Mwea Rice Growers Multipurpose Cooperative to take over the management of the irrigation scheme after a conflict arose with the state irrigation agency. However, the cooperative failed to manage the scheme well, and farmers substantially reduced the amount of rice sold through the cooperative by 2003. This raises questions about expanding the roles of WUAs into functions of marketing cooperatives.More positive examples are found in Zimbabwe and South Africa. In Zimbabwe, one WUA in Mtandahwe was found to collectively purchase fertilizers and have a subcommittee for marketing farmers' products (Mutambara et al. 2014). Although the WUA did not have significant savings, it also did not have any debts. Farmers in the scheme found they had fewer difficulties to market their produce compared to neighboring farmers. Also, the collective purchase of fertilizers allowed uniform and timely operation of the irrigation scheme. In Mphaila in South Africa, farmers in one WUA collectively purchased organic fertilizer, which saved costs on the input and transportation to farm gate (Rootman and Stevens 2016). Moreover, farmers found the handling of different tasks through one organization as a way of reducing the number of meetings and limit the time spent away from the farm.Access to agricultural input and output markets -WUAs can invest in improving access to agricultural input and output markets for smallholders to improve productivity, efficiency, and potentially farmer incomes and satisfaction with WUA services. Collective purchases of agricultural production inputs and selling of outputs can improve market access and reduce per unit costs for farmers, among other benefits.However, WUAs may lack the capacity to overcome market access constraints. Over the last two decades, donors have sought to integrate investments in irrigation and additional agricultural services in SSA (World Bank 2015a). In that context, multi-functional WUAs could serve as a suitable organizational form to advance both irrigation management and the provision of other agricultural services at local level. Alternatively, donor and public agencies could facilitate coordination between WUAs and agricultural service providers in reinvestment models for improved irrigation performance, without necessarily fusing the functions in one organization.Legal status of WUAs -In most SSA countries, the legal status of WUAs is not (yet) clearly defined. This allows flexibility to register WUAs as profit-making entities or multi-functional agricultural cooperatives. For example, in Tanzania, WUAs can be registered as cooperatives with the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives or as associations with the Ministry of Home Affairs (Komakech and van der Zaag 2013). However, Abernethy et al. (2000) suggested that strict requirements by the government on WUAs can inhibit collective initiatives by farmers and lead to unproductive situations, so overregulation should be avoided.Skills and capacities of WUA members -WUAs need more skills to add roles related to market access and service provision (Ghazouani et al. 2012). In this regard, the potential to transform WUAs that are poorly functioning at present into multi-functional WUAs may be limited. Many WUAs already have low technical capacity and lack technical advice from public agencies. Garces-Restrepo et al. (2007) suggested adopting a two-step approach, whereby WUA activities related to irrigation system management are well-established before secondary activities are added.The concept Public-Private Partnership (PPP) irrigation services entail a private operator providing services to irrigators in a scheme or schemes over a given period of time based on a contract between the government, a private operator and potentially also the WUA. Figure 10 represents these relationships where WUAs contract a private operator to ensure the delivery of services and O&M of the irrigation system. The contract and process is supervised by a public or government agency. The range of irrigation services taken over by the private operator differs from case to case. Involvement can be limited to infrastructural investments or include more managerial tasks from on-farm water delivery to product marketing (Bernier and Meinzen-Dick 2015). The private operator will generate a revenue based on service provision, which can be recovered from public funds or from user fees (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016). Advocates of PPPs in the irrigation sector argue that the private sector will bring in \"efficient management skills and fresh funds\" (Darghouth 2007: 1). They expect improved financial viability and quality of irrigation services (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016). The private operator becomes responsible for providing the most cost-effective solutions (and sometimes also for collecting the fees), although costs may still be recovered from user fees, as is the case in the management of mainstream WUAs. User participation is not by definition part of a PPP approach, but it can contribute to viability, as discussed below. The idea to set up PPPs for irrigation development has gained popularity among policy makers and donor agencies (Trier 2014). Despite the increased attention on PPP solutions, \"there are few studies and there is little available evidence as to what works\" (Bernier and Meinzen-Dick 2015: 1). Often literature on PPPs for irrigation in SSA has a theoretical or explorative character (see, for example, Penning De Vries et al. 2005;Gadelle 2002;Mwendera et al. 2013). Reports on PPPs in irrigation commissioned by the World Bank showcase several examples in SSA (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016; Darghouth 2007). However, most cases are assessed based on the formal structure of the PPP laid out during the planning phase, while the long-term impact of the institutional arrangement stays out of scope. In part, this may be because the reports rely on desktop reviews and little data is readily available on the ongoing activities of the PPP. Some of the projects mentioned have not been fully implemented yet. For example, the implementation of the PPP in the Megech-Seraba scheme in Ethiopia, prominently presented in both reports (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016; Darghouth 2007), has suffered long delays. Recent newspaper articles announce that the scheme will only start operating this year. According to the business website 2Merkato.com, the Megech-Seraba irrigation project was to be operational at the end of 2017 (2Merkato 2017).Cases on PPPs in SSA with regard to the impact on smallholders and their irrigation practices are found for Zambia, Swaziland, Burkina Faso and South Africa (Houdret et al. 2017;Mapedza et al. 2016;Wellens et al. 2013). Those cases suggest that the involvement of farmers in the planning phase is critical to achieving sustainable outcomes. Bernier and Meinzen-Dick (2015) warned that smallholder farmers are typically excluded from the process of drafting PPP contracts, though a World Bank report indicated that WUAs participated in the contract process in four out of the eight cases in SSA (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016). WUAs were found to participate particularly when the private operator only took over O&M of the irrigation and was not involved in capital investments. However, actual performance of the projects has yet to be thoroughly assessed.The negative effect of drawing up a contract without meaningful participation of users is illustrated by the case of Joint Venture Schemes in Limpopo, South Africa (Mapedza et al. 2016). Here, the government mediated between smallholders and a large-scale commercial farmer to enter into a partnership as a prerequisite for public investments in new irrigation technologies. However, the choice of the technology was made without smallholder involvement. Officially, the investments were made to benefit smallholder farmers, but in reality the smallholders lost out. They faced low profits, and high water and energy bills, and did not have access to their land and water for other purposes, except for irrigation of the main crop. In response to the disappointing outcome and protests by the farmers, the program was ended after 3 years. Mapedza et al. (2016) argued that the main reason for failure is a lack of involvement from the smallholder farmers in planning the partnership.A positive example in Burkina Faso is provided by Wellens et al. (2013) (Box 6). Here, WUAs were found to be actively involved in drafting the conditions for the PPP contract. The arrangement also foresaw long-term exchange on day-to-day irrigation practices between the water users and field staff employed by the private operator. Similarly, Houdret et al. (2017) argued that the active involvement of representatives of WUAs in establishing PPP contracts in Swaziland and Zambia has been crucial to its success. In both cases, smallholders set up their own companies, which in turn contracted private operators for irrigation management, service provision and market access. The Kou Valley irrigation scheme is located in Southwest Burkina Faso and covers an area of 1,200 ha with around 1,300 plot owners. In the 1990s, irrigation management was transferred from the government to a newly established WUA. The WUA was unable to keep the scheme running well, leading to low yields and land abandonment. In 2006, a process was started, with support from Belgian development agencies, to set up a PPP to manage the irrigation scheme. Three main activities were taken up right from the start: (i) a team of staff members from the public and private sector was set up to develop an improved water delivery schedule; (ii) a full-time irrigation advisor was employed by the private operator to assist WUAs with day-to-day water delivery; and (iii) discharge readings were recorded on a daily basis at the inlets of all secondary canals. All three activities facilitated the development and implementation of the water delivery schedule. The schedule was developed based on a FAO decision-support tool. WUA representatives participated in several meetings during which different water delivery scenarios were discussed. Finally, the WUA opted for a \"deficit irrigation scenario.\" The new irrigation schedule has been followed since 2009. It was only after the WUAs had gained their first experiences with the private operator that a PPP contract was drafted and external financial support was phased out. From 2010 to 2013, operational costs were gradually taken over by water users. Based on a preliminary analysis of PPPs in Asia, Mukherji et al. (2009) concluded that PPPs are most likely to function in highly commercialized farming systems. The case of a PPP including high capital investments in irrigation infrastructure by the private sector in Morocco highlights the risk it contains for smallholders not fully depending on commercial farming (Houdret 2012). The PPP provided for the construction of a water transfer pipeline to irrigate 10,000 ha of land. However, the PPP contract obligated all farmers in the irrigated area to make significant private investments in drip irrigation and produce citrus fruits. Also, branch connections and irrigation fees amounting to EUR 15,000 (equivalent to USD 19,000) for 15 ha had to be paid. This eventually led to the exclusion and abandonment of smallholder farmers from the area.In contrast, the PPP in Burkina Faso did not involve financial investments in the irrigation infrastructure. The involvement of private operators has been limited to rescheduling water delivery in the existing irrigation system. Also, two proposed PPPs in Zambia and Ethiopia are planned to take place under conditions of subsistence farming (Mandri-Perrott and Bisbey 2016). Mandri-Perrot and Bisbey (2016) suggested that in such cases private operators' revenue can only be secured when the system is subsidized by the government.Low income from irrigated agriculture -Smallholder agriculture in SSA is largely characterized by low incomes from irrigated agriculture. Trier (2014) argued that O&M contracts, such as the one adopted in Burkina Faso (Box 6), are a good option in such a context. However, PPP contracts which foresee high capital investments by the private sector are most appropriate for 'modern' irrigation systems with commercial farmers. Smallholders in SSA would not be able to pay the high irrigation fees that private operators may charge to recover high capital investments, as illustrated by the case of Morocco (Houdret 2012).Capacity and skills of private operators and WUAs -One important argument in favor of PPPs is that the private sector will bring in specialized skills in irrigation management (Darghouth 2007). However, this requires that private operators can employ capable staff, which is not necessarily available everywhere in SSA (Houdret et al. 2017). Also, the involvement of WUAs in drafting PPP contracts would require substantial training of water users in the technical and legal aspects of the contracting process. An alternative would be to let an externally financed trial phase precede the signing of long-term PPP contracts, as in Burkina Faso. This allows WUA members to clearly understand the role of the private operator before agreeing upon the contract's conditions, including water users' financial contribution.Worldwide, most WUAs have the mandate to manage irrigation from surface water-based canal systems. However, recently, the establishment of WUAs to manage groundwater-based pumping installations is on the rise, mainly related to the regulation of groundwater pumping and sustainable use of the resource (Lopez-Gunn and Cortina 2006;Taher 2016). The idea to combine the management of canal irrigation systems and pumping installations under a single user organization has not yet been widely developed. Figure 11 depicts the basic layout of a WUA involved in the conjunctive management of surface water and groundwater. Groundwater and surface water users jointly contribute and participate in the WUA, and the WUA has delegated management and regulation powers over the two types of resources (well permits, monitoring, etc.). Groundwater can contribute directly to the irrigation system (e.g., through wells controlled by the WUA itself) or through individual wells owned by the users. The WUA recovers O&M costs from user fees. FIGURE 11. The role of combined surface water and groundwater WUAs.Based on their review of WUAs in Asia, Mukherji et al. (2009: 49) claimed that to unlock the potential of surface irrigation systems, those systems \"must morph in ways they can support and sustain the rising groundswell of atomistic irrigation.\" Technological innovations in canal irrigation systems, such as intermediate storage structures, could be used to recharge aquifers and increase farmers' flexible irrigation use (Mukherji et al. 2012). However, such innovations can only come about when surface water infrastructure is not only managed for the purpose of surface water irrigation and groundwater infrastructure not only managed for the purpose of groundwater irrigation. The idea to widen the mandate of WUAs to include both surface water and groundwater is one suggestion to deliberately guide such a process.Recently, the concept of coordinated surface water and groundwater management for irrigation in development contexts has received increased attention (Evans and Evans 2011;Foster and van Steenbergen 2011). Coordinated conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater has the potential to optimize the water availability for all users within the given hydrological boundaries (Foster and van Steenbergen 2011). Currently, this is often hindered by the split responsibility for surface water and groundwater over different organizations and individuals. Hence, Foster and van Steenbergen (2011) suggested that groundwater-only users should also join existing WUAs in charge of canal irrigation.The integration of surface water and groundwater management at WUA level may provide solutions to deal with issues of water delivery and financial viability currently faced by mainstream WUAs. First, irrigation through pumping installations (mostly, but not exclusively tapping from groundwater resources) is by definition more flexible than irrigation through canal systems. Hence, WUAs whose mandate include the O&M of canal irrigation systems and pumping installations can operate relatively independent from irrigation bureaucracies and respond effectively to water users' demand. Second, income from flexible pumping irrigation is often higher than from centrallyled canal irrigation (Shah et al. 2007). The additional income can contribute to recovering O&M costs of canal systems. This would make sense particularly in those areas where users of pumping installations benefit from the canal infrastructure (i.e., when groundwater is recharged through surface water irrigation). Foster and van Steenbergen (2011: 959) defined conjunctive water use for irrigation as follows: \"situations where both groundwater and surface water are developed (or co-exist and can be developed) to supply a given […] irrigation canal-command -although not necessarily using both sources continuously over time nor providing each individual water user from either source.\" The conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water for irrigation is common in many developing countries worldwide (Foster and van Steenbergen 2011). Prominent examples can be found in North Africa and Asia (see, for example, Kuper et al. 2012 in Morocco andMekonnen et al. 2016 in Pakistan). Nevertheless, cases of WUAs taking managerial responsibility over both surface water and groundwater irrigation are difficult to find. The main reason is that conjunctive use happens informally. Most of the time, WUAs in conjunctive use areas are externally initiated and implemented by an irrigation bureaucracy responsible for surface water irrigation only, while groundwater irrigation is most of the time developed by individual farmers. 7 This means that users belong to WUAs to access surface water, but rely on private wells to complement their irrigation needs with groundwater (Nagrah et al. 2016).WUAs for local groundwater management are rare in areas of conjunctive use \"due to the larger complexity of the water systems\" (van Steenbergen et al. 2011: 167). In the Northern Plains of China, the government assigned the responsibility of enforcing groundwater regulations to WUAs in 2007. WUAs were involved in the selection of groundwater wells which had to be taken out of use. They also became in charge of the allocation of surface water and groundwater use rights per household. Because all WUA members irrigated with both surface water and groundwater, it was relatively easy to mobilize the WUAs to engage in groundwater management.The functioning of WUAs for canal irrigation systems may also benefit from groundwater use within the system. The study of Nagrah et al. (2016) in Pakistan showed that farmers who rely around 50% on groundwater tend to have stronger incentives to participate in WUAs involved in canal irrigation management than farmers who rely solely on surface water. They explain this phenomenon by the productivity-enhancing effect of groundwater, which stimulates farmers to engage in collective action and pay fees to improve the access to all available water sources. Kuper et al. (2012: 52) made a similar observation for the Tadla irrigation scheme in Morocco, arguing that the functioning of the canal irrigation system depends on \"the water fees paid by farmers for surface water. This is only possible when farmers are able to grow crops in a conjunctive use environment.\"These practical examples illustrate that combined surface water-groundwater WUAs are most likely to be found in conjunctive use situations, where surface water and groundwater resources are tapped by the same group of individuals. Moreover, some form of collective institutions for groundwater use, i.e., the shared ownership and use of wells, facilitates effective inclusion of groundwater management in WUAs. Although, currently, most WUAs in conjunctive use areas focus on the management of surface water irrigation, two important observations are made: (i) groundwater users who solely rely on groundwater at tail-end reaches may benefit from WUA management; and (ii) the (financial) viability of WUAs may be strengthened by farmers' conjunctive use of groundwater within canal irrigation systems. These phenomena can be strengthened through the establishment of combined surface water-groundwater WUAs.Currently, groundwater use in SSA is more often developed in regions which used to rely on rain-fed agriculture (Namara et al. 2013), but it may also take place in a context of surface water irrigation (de Fraiture et al. 2014;van Soelen 2013). Some anecdotal evidence exists on the impact of groundwater irrigation on WUA management of canal irrigation systems. As mentioned earlier, de Fraiture et al. (2014) reported how farmers using surface water organized in a WUA are affected by upstream groundwater use of non-WUA members in Burkina Faso. Ironically, those groundwater users benefit again from the infrastructure built for surface water irrigation. Similarly, Kemerink et al. (2016) described how smallholder farmers in Kenya decided not to become members of the local WUA to avoid membership fees, and instead individually pump water from surface water canals and groundwater wells. Also, Ducrot (2016) stated that the development of private pump-based irrigation (potentially tapping groundwater resources) induces struggles over land in Mozambique. The author mentioned one case in which collective irrigation organized by a WUA had to make space for the development of private pump-based irrigation for commercial farming. The WUA is still waiting for the negotiated compensation two years after handing over its land. These practices show that in SSA \"ignoring groundwater use can reduce [WUAs'] effectiveness\" (Nagrah et al. 2016: 295), which underlines the relevance of combined surface water-groundwater WUAs in the SSA context.Planned investments in groundwater irrigation -Both international donor agencies and governments plan increased investments in groundwater irrigation in SSA (Chokkakula and Giordano 2013;van Steenbergen et al. 2015). This presents an important opportunity to take into consideration the institutional integration of groundwater and surface water irrigation at field level and involve existing WUAs in new groundwater irrigation projects. Despite the tremendous untapped groundwater potential on the African continent as a whole, the potential to irrigate with rechargeable groundwater resources differs per country (Pavelic et al. 2013). In some countries, such as Kenya and Niger, groundwater development will soon reach its sustainable limits (ibid.). Under these circumstances, groundwater use is likely to interfere with surface water resources, which particularly demands a conjunctive management approach.Lack of data on conjunctive use situations in SSA -Currently, little information is available on the extent of groundwater use and its impact on farmers' livelihoods in SSA (Kamwamba-Mtethiwa et al. 2016). Even less is known on conjunctive surface water and groundwater use practices. This situation needs to be further assessed to understand what role combined surface water-groundwater WUAs can play to address related irrigation management issues.The literature presents WUAs as a vehicle for cost recovery and related user participation in irrigation management. In academic literature and project proposals, both aspects are considered essential to improve irrigation performance and increase agricultural productivity. Yet, WUAs rarely meet expectations of water agencies, decision makers and donors to deliver on cost recovery, user participation and, ultimately, irrigation performance. The underlying issue is the invalid assumptions that underpin the expected functions of WUAs. The review of case studies highlights that the socioeconomic context and agricultural conditions shape the ability of WUAs to deliver expected results, but these enabling conditions cannot be easily created by external institutions and actors.This study assessed the most important factors influencing WUA management in the SSA context. In SSA, WUAs are primarily promoted in a setting of smallholder agriculture by external agencies, such as national governments or donors. With a few notable exceptions, WUAs are established in small-scale irrigation systems. The main challenges that appear to constrain WUA management in SSA include the following:1. WUAs are unable to collect user fees and therefore unable to pay for O&M. Scheme or project goals may not prioritize and undertake activities to support increased farmer income.2. Farmers' incentives may not support payment of user fees; income from irrigated agriculture is low and contributes only partially to smallholder livelihood strategies.3. WUAs are not inclusive of different types of water users, including women, though by default the irrigation infrastructure is usually used for multiple purposes. WUA membership is biased towards irrigators (often plot owners or managers).4. Emerging irrigation, such as individual pump users, is not integrated into scheme planning or management. Individual irrigators encroach upon gravity irrigation systems managed by WUAs, but do not participate in WUA decision making, cost recovery or O&M.5. Local institutions (customary, political, state) have contradictory objectives and incentives; formal water user institutions are often externally imposed within this context.6. Low capacities of the state in rural areas limit technical and management assistance to consistently support WUA development.Over time, governments and donors have noted these and related difficulties faced by WUAs. Both have made attempts to intervene to salvage WUAs. Efforts have focused on WUA formalization, such as regulations at national level, mandated WUA bylaws, and contracts between the state or private organizations and WUAs. In addition, interventions have included trainings on both technical and managerial skills. However, these interventions do not fundamentally change the context in which WUAs operate, so have not enabled the desired improvements.In addition, WUAs in SSA undertake very little data collection and maintain poor records, which prevents proper assessment and continual performance evaluation. Indeed, indicators and standards for performance measurement are often unavailable or unclear. Irrigation or water agencies cannot monitor the quality of service delivery without indicators for performance or data, even assuming those institutions had the reach and capacity for monitoring and evaluation functions.Establishing decentralized irrigation management need not translate into state rollback and complete decoupling of centralized service provision, oversight and regulation. The poor allocation of resources to the water sector at state level in general, including lack of staff and financial resources, contributes strongly to WUA failure. Inclusive and broad user participation to achieve a legitimate mandate needs to be facilitated, and proper financial and infrastructure management requires continual training, data collection and monitoring, all of which require funds and institutional support. Complementary activities, such as market linkages, mechanized services and credit provision, may be added to WUA functions to increase farmer incomes, but also require state capacity and resources.The failure of WUAs to deliver on expected full cost recovery and O&M resulted in the emergence of alternative management options, though not as widely implemented as mainstream WUA approaches. These options focus on other processes and actors in irrigation development and management, often assigning different roles to WUAs. Each option may have merits for contextspecific solutions. The following alternative management options have been identified:1. Participatory design -Water users participate in the design, budgeting and implementation of water use development projects.2. Overarching water user platform -A platform for WUA representatives and other water users, such as cities, industries and large-scale farmers, to negotiate water distribution at river basin or sub-basin level.3. Multi-stakeholder and innovation platform (within/parallel to WUA) -Multiple actors along irrigated value chains interact and share information, and link across services and products to increase farmers and others' capacities, identify joint opportunities and strengthen market access.4. Joint management -Field-level staff from irrigation agencies closely cooperate with WUAs on water delivery activities.5. Multi-functional WUA -WUAs provide agricultural service activities to mechanize practices, finance farm or plot O&M activities, and ensure market access.6. Public-private partnership (PPP) -A private operator takes over O&M of the irrigation system in close cooperation with WUAs.7. Combined surface water-groundwater WUA -WUAs are responsible for both surface water and groundwater irrigation within the given command area.Table 4 provides an overview of all the alternative management options (including mainstream WUA) and their relevance in the SSA context. For each option, the main processes and actors are listed. Moreover, the table summarizes the role of WUAs in different decision-making processes, the major actor responsible for O&M and the method through which financial viability of the irrigation system is secured. TABLE 4. Alternative management options for smallholder irrigation in SSA. The results of this study suggest the following key lessons in relation to irrigation water user groups or associations:Setting up WUA policies and regulations, bylaws and contracts with WUAs, and providing WUA trainings constitute limited means to improve the performance of WUAs. These activities have been implemented by governments and donor agencies in response to poor results of WUA management in the past. Yet, the focus on formalizing and strengthening WUAs has been primarily to strengthen (financing) O&M of irrigation systems. However, the roles and responsibilities of WUAs need to be reconsidered to address the underlying challenges of WUA performance, and other actors and other processes need to receive more attention.No simple alternative management arrangement exists within the existing WUA framework.In the past, donor agencies and financial institutions believed that irrigation performance could be improved by transferring irrigation management responsibilities from one actor (the state) to another (the users). Given the failures in that management structure, the same organizations are now promoting transfer of the responsibilities to other actors, either the private sector or customary institutions. Based on this review, the factors that contribute to WUA failure cannot be solved by a quick 'organizational fix', such as the PPP. At the same time, decentralized community management based on customary rules and structures is also not a panacea to ensuring inclusivity and participation. Local management can be affected by power struggles and vested interests of ruling classes, political organizations and men farmers, which in turn can affect water (and land) allocation. This can reinforce existing social disparities, and undermine effectiveness and equitability of water services. Care should be taken that such approaches do not have negative effects on smallholder farmers. Instead, national or project goals and the conditions of each context should be assessed to identify the processes and actors most crucial to enhance irrigation performance.Adapt management roles, structures, and infrastructure to improve delivery of transformative services and improve rural livelihoods. WUAs, together with a range of stakeholders, need to develop, pilot test, and then incorporate more innovative and responsible management rules and frameworks. This is required to deliver on expected services that effectively contribute to improving the livelihoods of the farmers dependent on irrigation schemes. In cases of existing irrigation infrastructure, more effective bylaws and service delivery arrangements can be facilitated through interaction between strengthened field staff of irrigation agencies and water users (i.e., joint management). Development assistance should emphasize improved water delivery services, rather than exclusive attention being given to user pay mechanisms. In some, but not all, cases 'low-technology' solutions and innovation can reduce the costs that must be recovered by the users, though this should not justify poorly constructed infrastructure to merely save costs. A participatory design process can support the co-selection of affordable infrastructural and managerial solutions by users, and irrigation managers and officials, while also utilizing innovations in technology and mechanization. The aim should be to deliver services through beneficial infrastructure and technologies that users have an incentive to pay.WUAs can or should be solely responsible for all functions. All the empirical cases of alternative management options reviewed in this study highlight the importance of user participation in irrigation management. In fact, in most cases, existing WUAs are not dismantled, but their roles and responsibilities have changed. Irrigation design and management take place in close interaction with other actors, such as irrigation engineers (in participatory design), field-level staff of irrigation agencies and private operators (in joint management or PPPs), or other actors in related institutions or value chains (multi-stakeholder, innovation, or overarching water user platforms). This suggests that more attention should be directed to encouraging other actors involved from irrigation design and management to markets and value chains, to actively engage with water users and facilitate participatory processes.The review shows an absence of systematic follow up of water service delivery within a framework of monitoring and evaluation (be it internal or external at multiple levels), as well as very few indicators for performance evaluations. In the few cases when such an evaluation is undertaken, the focus is on full fee collection and user payment for O&M, but almost no attention is given to the quality of service provided to irrigators, access to water, equity and allocation of water turns, or user satisfaction. Monitoring activities funded within projects tend to stop once a project is finalized and a scheme is handed over to the state or water users. In summary, the WUA concept initially suggested a disengagement of the state from public service provision at community or group level during irrigation management transfer. The implementation of the concept through programs and policies led to lower funding for local water agencies and staff, which in turn created critical gaps in roles needed to ensure effective WUA operations, monitoring and follow up. The result of transferring irrigation management to users and communities did not encourage increased control by water users, but rather a partial and incomplete 'forced' decentralization of irrigation services from water agencies amid reluctance by the state to fully devolve management authority and powers to local services and staff, or to user groups themselves. The evidence suggests that effective water user participation in fee payment and O&M, as well as support for additional activities needed to increase irrigator incomes and strengthen livelihoods, actually requires continuous supervision and funds from state agencies. The institutional contradictions and associated resource constraints must be addressed, otherwise WUA reforms will continue to have limited effectiveness.","tokenCount":"28835"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e3e9e8d3b5913a975c2cd71afe6f80a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c80de436-6bfe-4b36-a133-5e72e73007f3/retrieve","id":"320637312"},"keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","PIM -Policies, Institutions, and Markets","Livestock -Livestock"],"sieverID":"52d91f8a-626b-434d-8d48-403044bb2dfe","pagecount":"36","content":"Participatory rangeland management (PRM) was developed by ILRI and partners in Ethiopia, piloted and then upscaled. PRM improves the productivity of rangelands and access to resources for local rangelands users (communities). In 2018, the European Union invested Euro 1.5 million in the Piloting of PRM Project in Baringo County, Kenya and six shared grazing lands in Tanzania (targeting 450,000 pastoralists and agropastoralists). In 2020/21 PRM is being upscaled through a USD 30 million investment on 8.8 million hectares in Ethiopia.This outcome draws from two Livestock CRP innovations: Firstly, Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) -PRM is a defined step-by-step process for improving local level rangeland management. It follows three stages of investigation (including participatory mapping), negotiation and implementation. It supports establishment and/or strengthening of rangelands management institutions, and supports the production of a rangeland management plan and an agreement with local government to improve access of communities to natural resources and land. M&E and capacity building are also important steps. Secondly, the piloting of PRM in specifically Tanzania builds on the ILRI-led Sustainable Rangeland Management Project (SRMP) and development of the innovation Joint Village Land Use Planning (JVLUP), which is a process that allows villages to plan land use collectively to share resources such as grazing and water. It is led by village authorities, with technical support from district government participatory land use management team (PLUM).• 277 -Joint village land use planning in Tanzania (https://tinyurl.com/2jqmf6e8) • 1143 -Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) in Tanzania and Kenya (https://tinyurl.com/2fh6vej8) Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: Participatory rangeland management (PRM) was introduced to Ethiopia in 2010 [3]. It was piloted by Save the Children USA and SOS Sahel & FARM Africa from 2010. In 2012 it was included in Ethiopia's Country Programming Paper to End Drought Emergencies by the Government of Ethiopia [5] and within the World Bank funded project Regional Pastoralist Livelihoods Resilience Project (RPLRP) [9]. It was then upscaled significantly by a USAID-funded project called PRIME (Pastoralist Areas Resilience Improvement and Market Expansion) by CARE [1], also developing participatory mapping guidelines [7]. PRM has been included in a government manual on woreda (district) land use planning [6]. A review of the project concluded that it has empowered communities (particularly women) and improved rangeland productivity [4]. Learning from these experiences the European Union funded a project to pilot PRM in Kenya and Tanzania drawing from the lessons and experiences in Ethiopia. The Project was launched in February 2018 through IFAD/International Land Coalition (ILC) and is implemented by RECONCILE (Resource Conflict Institute) and Tanzania Natural Resource Forum (TNRF) with technical support from ILRI and CELEP (Coalition of European Lobbies for Eastern African Pastoralism) [2]. The Project is working across three conservancies and one community forest in Baringo County, Kenya, and four shared grazing lands in Kiteto District in Tanzania. The grazing lands in Tanzania were secured through a process of joint village land use planning with support from the Sustainable Rangeland Management Project (SRMP) led by ILRI, the Tanzania Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries and the National Land Use Planning Commission. The area covered by the project in Kenya is 85,629 hectares in four areas -Irong, Kabarion, Koitegan and Paka Hills, and in Tanzania covering 161,144 ha across four village grazing lands called OLENGAPA, ALLOLE, KIMBO and NAPALAI all found in Kiteto District, Manyara Region. To date the project has included 22,000 pastoralists/local community members in activities. By 2020 eight fully functional rangeland management institutions had been established with almost 45% female representation. At the same time the capacities of local government and other stakeholders have been built. ILRI has developed a PRM toolkit for counties in Kenya [8]. The experiences of PRM are also contributing to global advocacy on rangelands. USAID now invested USD 24,145,000 in PRM in Ethiopia for upscaling approach.","tokenCount":"625"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e85e708d597569f89f6b9612af99dc71","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e4118aa-9648-40eb-a967-8ea35dc40c26/retrieve","id":"1872834649"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"798472ce-3413-4d57-8c59-cb4f33b9f59a","pagecount":"11","content":"Below is the summary of the insights gathered from the meeting after the opening session:The workshop was organized on 11 October 2023, from 9.00 to 16.00 hrs, at Lao Tel Hotel in Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR. The event was facilitated in cooperation between the National Agriculture and Forestry Institute (NAFRI) and the CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS), represented by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and the International Potato Center (CIP). The main objectives of the workshop are to:• Share the experience and lessons learned from promoting and implementing policy evidencebased policy research and influence in Lao PDR and global initiatives. • Share lessons from experiences in the PTT and validate its case study on building evidencebased research capacity and science-policy community; and • Discuss potential ways forward for the community of policy practice in Lao PDR.The workshop was co-chaired by Dr Thatsaka Saphangthong, Director General of the Department of Planning and Cooperation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, and Dr Chansamone Phongoudom, Deputy Director of NAFRI.• During the opening remark session, Dr Thatsaka emphasized the importance of the workshop as a key step for developing and strengthening the agricultural sector. He expressed his appreciation for many previous study results, lessons, and knowledge acquired through the PTT's initiative and expected to learn more about these studies and recommended policy implementations for the context of Lao PDR. • Dr Chansamone also highlighted the importance of incorporating contextual-based evidence from the policy research into the planning and decision-making process, especially by the end of the term in the year 2025, the end-term of the agenda for the 9th Socio-Economic Development Plan. • Both chairpersons encouraged participants to participate actively and share their comments and thoughts with the workshop. Thirty-six (36) participants attended the workshop online and in the meeting room, including ten women representing different government sectors, research institutes, and other development partners. A list of the participants is available in Annex 1.o The PTT later produced two books on lessons from the Vietnam situation and other countries. The books became well-known when the economic situation in Vietnam changed. This was one example of how evidence-based research was taken into the policy process. o Testing policy models in the fields with farmers, enterprises, and governmental officials to ensure the quality of the data is also important for further communication and engagement of policymakers.• Dr Clemens Grubuhel: o Participated in the PTT team in Lao PDR in 2016, where he worked on strategic leadership with supervision from Dr Phouangprarisack, the former Vice Minister of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). At the time, the team defined the PTT and its functions and how it can be situated within the Ministry with its potential to deliver evidence to policy impacts. o He was actively involved in the policy process through consultations of the development process of the Green Agriculture and Sustainable Framework of Lao PDR, initiated by a former Department of Policy Legal Affairs. o He also shared tips on how to engage research with policy process through:▪ Mismatching terms between Lao and English and their concept, i.e., The policy and politics in relevance to policy. ▪ Balancing research evidence, policy demand, and their interest in the policy development process. ▪ Mismatching policy research and demands, as quality research takes time, while policy wants immediate responses to their emerging problems. ▪ Shifting approach to present research evidence via virtual/online approach, as those traditional hard copied ones may not be accessible to target audiences. ▪ Policy influent channelsthrough the minister, director generals, and local administrative and provincial authorities can all help address challenges and influence upper management, i.e., the national assembly. ▪ Communication of policy outcomes at further local levels.o Shared similar practices from a case in Kenya, including developing and implementing policy tools, among many other examples. ▪ The application of AI (Artificial Intelligence) to prove evidence is also a credible approach to engage the policy realm. o Establishing an inclusive Governor of the Policy Council is a powerful tool to involve relevant stakeholders responsible for the policy process. o Regional conferences to engage policymakers, including youth.Dr Latsamy Phounvisouk from NAFRI delivered the presentation. She outlined the PPT background and governance structure. She also highlighted some policy-based research, including contract farming, sustainable and green agricultural policies and institutions in Lao PDR, and commercial banana production in Lao PDR. Key recommendations from her case study are as follows:• Invest in the next generation of researchers and policymakersbuild a cadre at various institutions (NAFRI, MAF, National University of Laos (NOUL). • Develop a consortium of donors and international research institutes to support the process.• Ensure demand-led policy research by ensuring policymakers and researchers are codeveloping research questions and priorities and providing opportunities for other stakeholders to provide inputs, knowledge, and perspectives. • Government leadership to create space for policy research: NAFRI should devise an institutional plan to provide leadership and clear mechanisms for policy research.• Link the research agenda to higher levels such as the National Assembly and Party decisionmakingconsider creating a wider network of policy researchers beyond MAF. • Create platforms and opportunities to foster exchange between researchers/ scientists and policymakers to prioritize issues and research questions. • Improve inclusivity of the science-policy interface: there is a need to understand the different knowledge perspectives in the policy process and bring different stakeholders into the process (farmers, civil society, the youth) and • A clear understanding of policy processes and impacts of policymaking and its implications on gender, poverty, ethnicity, etc.The session was moderated by Ms. Sengphachanh Sonethavixay, from IWMI, with the following two panelists: Dr. Bounleth Vannalat, NOUL, and Dr. Latsamy Phounvisouk, NAFRI.Photo Credit: Souphalack Inphonephong (IWMI).Below are the summaries of their key messages connecting the PTT to the policy-making process:• Dr Bounleth Vannalat: o Understanding that a Think Tank is a hub for researchers and scientists to exchange their lessons, he is proud to be involved in the PTT to expand its networking community to bring in all concerned sectors and contribute to agricultural development. He also learned many things from PTT, especially on policy research. o The involvement of NOUL in the PTT includes participating in research from the beginning to policy recommendations. o A key strength of NOUL is that it has many good researchers. He believes getting these researchers involved in PTT research will be very helpful. o He finds that forming a research team from different expertise areas is a good lesson he learned from PTT. This leads to enhancing research quality and identifying credible evidence for policymakers to accept.• Dr Latsamy Phounvisouk: o Her pride in participating in the PTT is that she can conduct research internally and externally with many researchers and institutions. She also finds this a good lesson. She added that this allowed her to build research networking and knowledge sharing for conducting research needed for policymakers to support agricultural production and farmers. o One of the challenges she identified is the public understanding of the PTT. She received common questions from many people about how policy research was conducted, how the research evidence was adopted, and how impacts were made. Another challenge is that PTT researchers often have no chance to participate in policy development. Expectations from the research's participating farmers to address their problems after the research also posed challenges to the researchers. o To the question, \"What could help her to conduct better research?\" she argued:▪ The research advisory team will help review and edit PTT's research work. ▪ Research budget from both the government and development partners. She elaborated that existing budgets are often allocated for long-term research, while shortterm research to provide responsive evidence to hot issues of policymakers is still lacking. ▪ She also suggested that there is a need for a platform to bring in researchers and policy makers to discuss policy issues, research needs and evidence. This will also help enhance the connection between researchers and policy makers.There were three groups for the participants in the meeting room and one group for the online participants. Each group was assigned with one facilitator to ensure dynamic participation of the members. Results of their discussions for four given questions are as follows:Question 1: Strengthening the organization of the PTT.What should we continue doing? What are three new things to test? Group 1• Continue collaborative research between NAFRI, NOUL, and other institutions. • Make action plans to identify challenges and provide evidence. • Follow policy implementation needs. • Focus on policy coherence in research and implementation.• Continue the cooperation among PTT members, CSO, NOUL, and the private sector.• Platforms to reach out to other sectors. • Better linkages to Sub-Sectoral Working Group for Agricultural Development (SWGARD).• The mechanism for SSWGs to find specific research.Photo Credit: Souphalack Inphonephong (IWMI).• Better dissemination and communication of research outputs.• Webinars/seminar series to engage policymakers and share the PPT's research findings (bridge the gap). Group 4 (online)• Continue the PTT 2.0 (may not be in its the current form)• Engage with the youth, i.e., young researchers from universities. • To strengthen NAFRI as the secretariat to perform its functions, by ensuring its budget allocation. Group 3• To improve data exchanges/data collection -to be available.• Policy clubs/policy dialogues at NOUL (Training, teaching, and competition). • Advisors for policy research.• Training research on policy research.• Curriculum on policy research and analysis.• To formulate cooperation through a letter of agreement.• Regular conference.• Database/contact list of researchers with capacity for policy research.• There is a need to be clear on the way forward on what the PTT stands for and needs to achieve. • Strengthen networking among the national research institutes beyond NAFRI, i.e., NIER (National Institute for Economic Research) and MONRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment) who may need to know how to do research that impacts policies. • Joint capacity building.• Closer networking with international research institutes -CIRAD, IWMI and other CGIAR research centers are also interested in engaging with the PTT. • Shift the research modal from international institutes to NAFRI and other national research institutes with support from the international research institutes.Question 3: Strengthening research-policy community.What are critical actions needed to change/improve better link between research and policy makers? Group 1• Create a task force to link researchers and policymakers.• Roundtable meetings with SWGARD, SSWGs.• Organize exchange visits with other countries. Group 2• Expand research cooperation/networking to ensure the involvement of relevant sectors and local expertise. Group 3• Better linkages to the SSWGs and better support to SSWGs from the PTT. • Establish linkages to lower levels (provincial and district) to identify needs and test out (research on implementation of policy)feedback on implementation. • Better communications and disseminations.• High level presentations to director level to share dialogue/feedback.• Mechanism to have policy makers approval of research agenda.• Formulate joint projects between researchers and policy people based on common problem narratives. • Mentoring programme for young researchers by using the PTT alumni as mentors.Question 4: Policy demands.Which is the current demand in terms of the policy focus? Group 1• Policy demand and research areasto seek from MAF.• Short-term focus: food survivorship -For example, in the agricultural sector, there should have supportive policy farmers/villagers to overcome current crisishigh inflation, for instance. • Medium-term focus: commercialization • Long-term: 1) food production and value chain, 2) market standard, 3) food and nutrition security. Group 2• Short-term focus: collect/identify current crisis and their solutions to ensure food security, which can be done through consultations with relevant government departments, and surveys at the local level. • Commercialization or modernization shall not be a research focus for the current situation. Group 3• Urgent: improve substitution (food, fertilizer, feed, seed, chemicals).• Addressing inflation in food systemsaddress food inflation.• Regional trade opportunities (trade analysis).• Implication of cassava boomhow to manage.• Foresight analysis.• Potential for accessing carbon credit.• Ex-Ante assessments of policy research. Group 4 (online)• It is better to focus on the short-term or hot topic issues as well as the long-term research. • Research for strategy development and evidence for the national socio-economic development plan and so on. • The new incarnation of the PPT needs to have clear and appropriate funding resources, a clear pathway and TOR to be able to work.• Define activities that clearly prove that PTT can have impact on policy development.Michael Victor, the lead facilitator of the event, summarized the main topics discussed above in the following point:• Capacity -one of the main outcomes from today's discussion is that we need to build the next generation through training and capacity building. • Communication and dissemination -The general public hardly sees the output and information of the PTT, as it is not on any website or social media platform like Facebook. There are no regular seminars, webinar series, or dialogues. However, this aim includes dissemination, communication, and engagement (advocation). • New mechanism -\"PPT 2.0\", new name or new terms of reference, and embedding in sector and sub-sector working groups, including finding informal mechanisms. • The roles of donors that need to changeto play an important role in supporting the SSWGs to engage with PTT as a part of the research community. • Improved quality of the researchwe can move from a small study to better data collection, better analysis, and have a real research agenda to reach a higher level and continue to implement.The workshop ended at 16.00 hours. It successfully achieved its objectives to share the PTT's progress and achievements and engage the participants to discuss its way forward and immediate action plans. These were also reiterated in the closing remarks by Dr. Chansamone, the co-chairperson. He expressed his appreciation of the PTT's success in moving from a small research group to larger groups due to continued support from all the stakeholders, including their current participation. \"All your comments and thoughts are good and meaningful for the PTT to move forward to a larger research community by 2030\", said Dr Chansamone. He added that MAF, led by the responsible Vice Minister, plans to improve the PPT.The next PTT workshop will be informed later after its work plan is finalized with inputs from today's recommendations. ","tokenCount":"2356"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82b0fffa6eee15c2da1f383bcd215bbb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d299fd3c-0bea-4dc5-8fd8-b1f9d1161178/retrieve","id":"129818396"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"89f0a2d5-c48f-424f-8d15-370f13609c88","pagecount":"28","content":"• Refereed JOUrna1 arl!cles To produce robust high yieldmg nce vaneues requmng lower mputs we wiii provide well charactenzed progemtors and advanced matenals with an ample genetlc base as well as mfonnatwn and trammgOur research IS orgamzed around three maJor outputs 1) Enhanced gene pools 2) lntegrated crop pest and disease management 3) lntensificatwn and diversificatwn of nce croppmg systems for small farmersThere are opportumues for growth m the nce sector because land and water are more abundan! m Latm Amenca than m other nce ¡,rowmg regions The nce sector faces nsks because there IS a trend for more open markets and many countnes subsidize nce productwn Most nce producers are small to mid size fanners and the ¡,ovemments m this regwn tend not to subsidize nce production The Rice Project focuses on strengthenmg the nce sector m the low and mid altitude regions of Latm Amenca and the Canbbean Our actiVItles focus on problems that are locally Importan! and especially m the area of pest and diseases many of these constramts are umque to Latm Amen ca and the Canbbean Our nce breedm¡, activitles are for both Irngated and upland nceWe concentrate on developmg matenals with broad genetlc diversity that mcorporates a range of ¡,ram quahty trmts and resistance to the pest and diseases common m th1s regwn To mcrease the genetiC diversity we work with mterspecific crosses composite populatwns and are developm¡, bwtechnology methods that allow the mcorporatlon of tralts more efficiently These activities are generatmg both segregatmg populatlons and advanced !mes which are transferred to partners through either bilateral agreements or networks mcludmg FLAR GRUMEGA and INGER Our partners are then able to select advanced !mes or make their own selectwns from the se¡,regatm¡, populatwns These matenals also serve as a source of parents m the breedmg activities of our partners Unhke Asm most of the nce m Latm Amenca IS planted by d1rect seedm¡, S mee many small farmers do not have 1rngated mfrastructure we are mcreasmg our research on nce that has better tolerance to water stress and 1 or has mcreased efficiency m water use This IS a ¡,loba! effort that IS bemg coordmated throu¡,h the Generatwn Challen¡,e ProgramWe have been developm¡, upland nce breedm¡, populatwns and advanced hnes for many years The tendency m Latm Amen ca has been a declme m total area of upland nce but an mcrease m ytelds m those areas that remam m productwn lmproved vanetles have made excellent tmpact m the upland nce ecosystems Jomtly with the Bwtechnology Research Umt and m collaboratwn wtth JlRCAS (Japan) gene technology ts bemg explored as an altematlve to mcorporate mcreased effictency m water use for the trngated nce ecosystems targetmg reductwn of water consumptwnFor the small farmers JOmtly wtth our partners we put m place parttctpatory vanety selectlon and breedm¡, schemes m dtfferent agro system of Central Amenca Early matunty vtgorous htgh yteldmg vanettes with adequate ¡,ram quahty are sorne of the trmts selected by farmers whtch gtves thetr famthes the food secunty needed to expenment and adopt htgher value crops The recent activtties to develop nce wtth htgher levels of tron and zmc ts bemg funded by ClDA Canada m collaboratwn wtth Harvest Plus and should lead to the development of naturally bwfortlfied vanetles that wtll provtde better nutntwn for both the rural and urban nce consumersTo sustam ytelds preventmg the pressure of pests and dtseases we work m collaboratwn wtth our partners to dtssemmate lntegrated Crop Mana¡,ement practtces FLAR has been acttve m promotmg Integrated Crop Management Practtces With water becommg a more expenstve and/or scarce resource and the need to produce nce at competltlve pnces we are workm¡, with FLAR and other partners to develop a comprehenstve set of management gmdelmes to reduce mputs whiie mcreasmg ytelds These actlvttles are mformatwn mtenstve and reqmre local support to be successful efforts to mcrease the biOdiversity of nce vanel!es and Introduce trmts of 1mportance to Latm Amenca The Rice ProJect develops breedmg populatiOns and advanced !mes with trmts that mclude h1gh y1eld bOOd brain quahty early vigor strong tillers tolerance to water stress nce blast Rh1zoctoma nce hoJa blanca virus and the plant hopper T 011 1wlu1 More recently m collaboral!on wllh IRRI we have started enhancmg the nutntiOnal quahty of nce by developmg !mes that are h1gher m Iron and zmc Th1s output 1s reflected m the CIA T proJeCt SB 2 The pest and d1sease traits that are mcorporated mto the new vanel!es are helpmg the farmer to reduce the use of pes1Ic1des Usmg mtebrated crop and pest management IS central to producmg a sustamable abro ecological system The efforts to develop nce With better water use effic1ency benefits the nce farmers with the least amount of mfrastructure and should lead to the reduct1on of water m the Irngated systemsThe Rice ProJect focuses on strengthemnb the nce sector m the low and m1d altitude rebiOns of Latm Amenca and the Canbbean Our research IS orbamzed around three maJOr outputs I) Enhanced gene pools 2) Integrated crop pest and d1sease management 3) IntensificatJon and diversificatiOn of nce systems for small farmersTh1s output 1s concemed w1th the charactenzatiOn of genet1c resources and how to use them efficientlyThe Future Harvest (CGIAR) nce benet1c resources are held m IRRI W ARDA and CIA T Wc are collaboratmg to ensure that th1s Importan! pubhc bOOd becomes charactenzed and catalobued m a manner that makes 11 more access1ble to the commumty of nce researchers INGER IS a network wh1ch fac1htates access to these matenals We mamtam many activities w1th other advanced research mslltutwns and these actiVI!Ies contnbute to bnng recent technologies to the regional partners These generate knowledge and technologies that mclude functwnal genom1cs marker mded selectwn transgemc nce gene flow stud1es bwsafety and bwforllficatwn Many of these acllviiies are housed m the Biotechnology Research Umt and Agrobiodiverslty ProJect of CIA T The CIA T contnbutwn to regional vanetal development has mcluded populatwns that were denved from both O satzva and other rela!Ives We attempt to develop populatwns w1th a h1gh degree of diversity yet mclude many Importan! trmts of agronom1c 1mportance The parents of these populat10ns normally mclude germplasm from our s1ster Future Harvest centers CIRAD has also been a source of parental matenals We also ha ve been m the forefront of new methods for nce breedmg The two pnnc1pal methods are Recurren! Selectwn and Marker A1ded Selectwn Recurren! selection IS an activity that has been promoted through GRUMEGA Durmg the last 1 O years Il has held many R1ce Breeder Workshops and many local partners have populatwns and advanced nce !mes from these acllvi!Ies Th1s year the second nce vanety that was developed by recurren! selectwn was released m Bohv1a by CIA T Santa Cruz and ASPAR We are a member of FLAR and most of the FLAR germplasm IS developed usmg sorne of the CIA T germplasm FLAR mcludes sorne of the strongest nce research ms!Itutwns m Latm Amenca and th1s IS a valuable source for Germplasm Enhancement as well as other forms of collaboratwnThe Regional Rice partners are respons1ble for the release of vanet1es wh1ch IS the mam 1mpact of Output 1 A very h1gh percentage of the new nce vanet1es contam CIA T germplasm Many of the van elles were developed mto advanced !mes befare they were selected by our partners The need for gerrnplasm IS h1ghly vanable and depends on the amount of nce productiOn m a g1ven country In general the less nce that IS produced the more these programs need advanced matenals The larger nce programs use germplasm and segregatmg populations to make the1r own selectwnsThe breedmg for resistance acllvities that are part of th1s output are mtegrated w1th the activities of Output 1 and ach1eve 1mpacts through the same mechamsms and partnersThe charactenzatwn of the pest and d1seases are an essential part of th1s output Th1s work IS often done m collaboratwn w1th ARI or natwnal partners An example of the collaboratwn IS the analysiS of why the vanety Llanos 5 has mamtamed stable (durable) res1stance to nce blast for more than 15 years Th1s study was conducted With Kansas State Umvers1ty and has elucJdated that both maJOr and mmor genes are contnbutmg to the stable res1stance Th1s mforrna!Ion JS bemg used m the breedmg activities and m the development of molecular markers for th1s d1sease A molecular analys1s of res1stance to nce hoJa blanca and 1ts vector are also bemg doneThe counterpart of the plant res1stance IS the d1vers11y of the pathobens and pests We have conducted extens1ve analys1s of the d1versity of the nce blast funbus Similar charactenzatwn IS bemg done for the causal agent ol sheath bhbhl Th1s can help detennme wh1ch vanet1es could be deployed to mitigate losses or apphcations of pesticidesThe manabement of pest and d1seases cannot be separated from crop manabement FLAR IS active m promotmg Crop Management pracllces that are helpmg to mcrease the y1elds and lower the cost of nce production We are workmg to combme IPM w1th the Crop Management to max1m1ze the benefits These actiVIIIes depend on extens1on actiVIIIes and h1gh levels of collaborallon We hme Imtmted m 2006 a proJect to study m selected nce pathobens the development of res1stance to fungicides The obJective IS to develop manabement strategies that miiigate the probab1hty of pathogen res1stance to funpc1des throubh the JUdiCIOUS use of the pes1Ic1des Th1s should lead to lower pesiiicide use wh1ch benefits the farmers and envuonmentTh1s activity mcludes participator) nce breedmg and the mam mechamsm IS workmg with farmer orgamzatwns The small farmers benerally have the least amount ot land eqUipment IITibalwn systems and cred1ts (mfrastructure) and need upland or aerob1c nce vaneties that use water and fert1hzers effic1ently fh1s acllvity mtebrates the advances m breedmg methodology (recurren! selectwn) the use of d1verse gennplasm mcludmg the mterspec1fics and m the future the hibh 1ron and zmc m.e !mes usmb partiCipatory methods to focus on the needs of the small nce farmers These activities help the fanners by developmg the1r orbamzallonal skills and can md m their ehgibhty for cred1ts and other ass1stance These fanners need to be aware of other opportumt1es to mclude other crops mto the1r abro ecosystems especmlly hibh value crops Rice IS a lood secunty crop that also contnbutes to the fanner s mcome Th1s output mvolves the trammg actiVIIIes of the proJect Many ol these acllviiies are mlebrated w1th the Outputs 1 and 2 CIA T has been a source of trammg for many of the scientists m the nce commumty and we contmue to play a role m the development of nce researchers extenswn agents and students m LAC Access to mfonnatwn IS extremely Importan! for a compellllve nce sector and th1s IS an area m wh1ch more resources need to be devoted The CIA T s1te stnves not to duphcate mfonnation that IS on other SI tes but to be a resource to help find the most useful mformatwnThe lntcrmtimnl Treaty on 1 hnt Gcnct1c Resourccs fm 1 ood and Abnculture 1s an mternatwnal agreement governmg many of the world s most Importan! crop diversit) collectwns The treaty wiii ensure that th1s d1versity wh1ch IS cnllcal for the nce crop 1mprovement wdl remam m the pub he domam In the area of bennplasm CIA T has dec1ded to place most of 1ts elite !mes mto th1s system To do th1s we wdl use the database formal of IRRI and these should become part of the Future Harvest benet1c resources Most of the technologies mcludmg database mana¡,ement programs breedmg methodolo¡,Ies nce !mes which are developed at CIA T enter mto the pubhc domam as mternatiOnal pubhc goods One of the most relevan! and Importan! outputs of the CIA T Rice ProJect IS the dcvelopment and deployment of mterspecific nce !mes denved from crosses between wild nce species and cultivated nce Most of our partners and NARs m LAC are not m a pos1t10n to carry out this type of breedmg work smce they lack the expertise resources and fundmg to do It Besides they are more concerned With the development of Improved !mes to address product10n problems that Impmge on today s nce product10n but not on broademng the gene!Ic base of nce or on problems for which no sources of geneuc resistance are known     • FAO Regional Tecmcal Coopera! Ion ProJect (TCP/RLA/3 1 02) Capacitacion en FitomeJoramiento Genetico e Intercambio de Gerrnoplasma para utilizar los Recursos Geneticos del Arroz en Amen ca Latma y el Can be The Regional TCP ProJect mvolves 6 Countnes Argentma Chile Cuba Guatemala Nicaragua and Domimcan Repubiic and 3 lntematwnal Institutwns FAO CIAT and CiradFundmg by F AO of a Regional TCP ProJect","tokenCount":"2114"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7335820638.json b/data/part_5/7335820638.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"72a2f609822b32e8e89ef4b1584adbb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2b56c43-ad94-47fd-a848-f2f106240691/retrieve","id":"-1585354450"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"308b5d51-b6d4-4c48-b0a0-61a0dce73edc","pagecount":"2","content":"The benefits provided by hydrological ecosystem services have been increasingly acknowledged over the last decade. Many attempts have been made to explicitly include this recognition in markets, using schemes known as Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services (PHES).Most of the earliest PHES initiatives were in Latin America. Hence, the region boasts the most evolved body of experience to draw from and continues to see the evolution of different forms of PHES.For example \"pure\" PES concepts require the condition of \"additionality\" in the provision of ES; therefore watersheds which provide satisfactory levels of ES are not considered to need a PES in its pure form. However, in these or other watersheds where ecosystem services (ES) benefits are unevenly divided between providers and beneficiaries, the broader 'benefits sharing mechanism' (BSM) is considered a more useful measure for avoiding water-related conflicts.In situations where inequity is an issue, cooperative schemes may go beyond \"pure\" PHES to include rewards for the currently provided ES. Thus, the AN2 project defines ES-related BSMs as: those agreements among watershed actors which aim to convert situations of uneven ES gains into opportunities to improve the distribution of benefits to all stakeholders, with a view to improving equity and providing incentives for the long-term protection of ES.The presentation will outline this concept and the research from which it was identified as the most appropriate for the given sites. Essentially this research comprised meetings and consultations with watershed actors in AN2 project's study sites about their motivations for engaging in PES-type schemes (motivation that has existed prior to project implementation).The presentation will then briefly contrast this approach against the classic definition of PES, highlighting the main differences. It will also cover how these potential BSM (as per the project's definition) will serve to meet objectives beyond ecosystem conservation, such as those of equity and poverty in the watersheds. The presentation will finally identify the conditions that render each selected watershed site appropriate for implementing a BSM-scheme.","tokenCount":"324"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a46978387de3776f48a33621bcb7cc5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dfda43e0-b71b-40b9-90f9-41ce09d9c19d/content","id":"-1505088413"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6c1db367-d5c0-49dc-b15f-b3e8ad2bb4cd","pagecount":"41","content":"The Boards of Trustees of Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, Internacional and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, A. C.:We have audited the accompanying combined financial statements of Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, Internacional and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, A. C. (collectively \"the Organization\"), both of which are under common management, which comprise the combined statement of financial position as at December 31, 2015 and 2014, the combined statements of activities, changes in net assets and cash flows for the years then ended, and notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory information.Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these combined financial statements in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), and for such internal control as management determines is necessary to enable the preparation of combined financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these combined financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those standards require that we comply with ethical requirements and plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the combined financial statements are free from material misstatement.An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the combined financial statements. The procedures selected depend on our judgment, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the combined financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, we consider internal control relevant to the entity's preparation and fair presentation of the combined financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity's internal control. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the combined financial statements. (Continued) We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our audit opinion. ) is a private association chartered under Mexican law. CIMMYT, A. C. does not carry out any activities and only holds part of the land and buildings where CIMMYT, Int. carries out its activities. These two entities, which are under common management, are referred to collectively in this document as the \"Organization\".A Headquarters Agreement signed by the Government of Mexico on May 9, 1988 and ratified by the Mexican Senate on December 22, 1988, recognized CIMMYT, Int. as having the status of an international organization. A revised agreement between the United Mexican States and CIMMYT, Int. concerning the establishment of the headquarters of the Center in Mexico was signed on June 27, 2003 with retroactive effect from January 1, 2003. Due to its status as an international not-for-profit organization, the Organization is exempt from income taxes. (3) Functional and presentation currency-The accompanying combined financial statements are presented in U.S. Dollars (\"Dollar\" or \"$\") which is the Organization's functional currency and the currency in which these combined financial statements are presented. Except otherwise noted, all financial information presented in dollars has been rounded to the nearest thousand.(4) Use of estimates and judgements-The preparation of combined financial statements in conformity with IFRS requires management to make judgments, estimates and assumptions that affect the application of accounting policies and the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, income and expenses. Actual results may differ from those estimates.Estimates and underlying assumptions are reviewed on an ongoing basis. Revisions to accounting estimates are recognized prospectively.Information about critical judgments in applying accounting policies that have the most significant effect on the amounts recognized in the combined financial statements is included in the following note: Information about assumptions and estimation uncertainties that have a significant risk of resulting in a material adjustment in the year ending December 31, 2015 is included in the following note:Note 13 (c) -measurement of defined benefit obligations: key actuarial assumptions;(5) Significant accounting policiesThe accounting policies set out below have been applied consistently to all periods presented in these combined financial statements, unless otherwise indicated.Cash and cash equivalents are comprised of cash on hand, bank current accounts, fixed term interest-bearing bank deposits and publicly listed securities. The Organization considers all highly-liquid debt instruments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents. Restricted cash is detailed in note 6.i.Transactions in foreign currencies are translated to the respective functional currencies of each foreign branch at the exchange rates prevailing on the dates of the transactions.Monetary assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies are translated to the functional currency at the exchange rate at the reporting date. Non-monetary assets and liabilities that are measured at fair value in a foreign currency are translated to the functional currency at the exchange rate in effect when the fair value was determined. Foreign currency differences are generally recognized in the statement of activities. ii.The assets and liabilities of foreign operations, are translated to Dollars at the exchange rates at the reporting date. The income and expenses of foreign operations are translated to Dollars at the exchange rates in effect at the dates of the transactions.Foreign currency differences are recognized in OCI (Other Comprehensive Income) and accumulated in the translation reserve. Due to materiality reasons, no currency translation effects were recognized during the periods presented.(c) Employee benefitsi.Short-term employee benefits are expensed as the related service is provided. A liability is recognized for the amount expected to be paid if the Organization has a present legal or constructive obligation to pay this amount as a result of past services provided by the employee, and the obligation can be estimated reliably.ii.A defined contribution plan is a post-employment benefit under which an entity pays fixed contributions into a separate entity with no legal or constructive obligation to pay further amounts. Obligations for contributions to defined contribution pension plans are recognized as an employee benefit expense in the statement of activities in the periods during which services are rendered by employees. Prepaid contributions are recognized as an asset to the extent that a cash refund or a reduction in future payments is available. Contributions to a defined contribution plan that are due more than 12 months after the end of the period in which the employees render the service are discounted to their present value.(Continued) iii.In accordance with Mexican Labour Law, the Organization provides seniority premium benefits to its National Recruited Staff (NRS) under certain circumstances. These benefits consist of a one-time payment equivalent to 12 days wages for each year of service (at the employee's most recent salary, but not to exceed twice the legal minimum wage), payable to all employees with 15 or more years of service, as well as to certain employees terminated involuntarily prior to the vesting of their seniority premium benefit. Costs associated with these benefits are provided for based on actuarial computations using the projected unit credit method.The Organization's net obligation in respect of long-term employee benefits other than pension plans is the amount of future benefits that employees have earned in return for their service in the current and prior periods; that benefit is discounted to determine its present value.Termination benefits are recognized as an expense when the Organization is committed demonstrably, without realistic possibility of withdrawal, to a formal detailed plan to either terminate employment before the normal retirement date, or to provide termination benefits as a result of an offer made to encourage voluntary redundancy. Termination benefits for voluntary redundancies are recognized as an expense if the Organization has made an offer of voluntary redundancy, it is probable that the offer will be accepted, and the number of acceptances can be estimated reliably. If benefits are payable more than 12 months after the reporting period, then they are discounted to their present value.End of service benefits for International Recruited Staff (IRS) such as costs of return flights and shipment of personal effects are accrued during the duration of the employment contract. Because of the unstable political and security context in countries where the organization operates, a provision for end of service benefits for international staff has been included based on the estimated probability of having to close operations in specific countries.(Continued) Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value. The cost of inventories is based on the first-in first-out principle. Inventories are assets held in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the Organization's operations or in the rendering of services. They comprise materials and supplies not directly expended at the time of their purchase, such as scientific supplies, automotive parts, building materials, petroleum products, office and other general supplies.Inventories are valued at average cost. The cost of inventories applied to operations is based on the average method, and includes expenditure incurred in acquiring the inventories, and other costs incurred in bringing them to their existing location and condition.Inventories are written down to net realizable value on an item-by-item basis. The allowance for inventory obsolescence is deducted from the related asset. The amount of write-down of inventories to net realizable value and all losses of inventories are recognized as an expense in the period the write down or loss occurs. The Organization considers as equipment to be capitalized items with an estimated useful life beyond one year and costs in excess of $2.5 or its equivalent.Equipment is recorded at acquisition cost. Cost includes the purchase price and all other incremental costs incurred in bringing the asset to its present location and condition for its intended use.Any gain or loss on disposal of an item of property and equipment is recognized in the statement of activities.ii.Subsequent expenditure is capitalized only if it is probable that the future economic benefits associated with the expenditure will flow to the Organization.iii.Depreciation is calculated over the depreciable amount, which is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost, less its residual value.Depreciation is recognized in the statement of activities on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives of each part of an item of property and equipment, since this most closely reflects the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset. Land is not depreciated.Estimated useful life for property and equipment is as follows: Property and equipment acquired through the use of grants restricted for a certain project is recorded as an asset. Such assets are depreciated over the shorter of the project life or their useful lives.i.Intangible assets that are acquired by the Organization and have finite useful lives are measured at cost less accumulated amortization.ii.Subsequent expenditure is capitalized only when it increases the future economic benefits embodied in the specific asset to which it relates.iii.Amortization is calculated to write off the cost of intangible assets less the estimated residual values using the straight-line method over their estimated useful lives, and is generally recognized in profit and loss.The estimated useful life of the software is three years.Amortization methods, useful lives and residual values are reviewed at each reporting date and adjusted if appropriate.Software acquired through the use of grants restricted for a certain project is recorded as an asset. Such asssets are depreciated over the shorter of the project life or their useful lives.Mainly include prepaid expenses for the purchase of services that are received after the date of the combined statement of financial position and in the ordinary course of business.(Continued) These represent amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services received, whether billed by the supplier or not.A provision is recognized if, as a result of a past event, the Organization has a present legal or constructive obligation that can be estimated reliably, and it is probable that an outflow of economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation.Non-derivative financial instruments comprise cash and cash equivalents, restricted cash, accounts receivable and accounts payable.The Organization initially recognises accounts receivable and accounts payable on the date that they are originated.Financial assets and liabilities are recognized initially at fair value plus any directly attributable transaction costs. Subsequent to initial recognition, these financial assets and liabilities are measured at amortised cost using the effective interest method.The Organization derecognises a financial asset when the contractual rights to the cash flows from the asset expire, or it transfers the right to receive the contractual cash flows on the financial asset in a transaction in which substantially all the risks and rewards of ownership of the financial asset are transferred.The Organization derecognises a financial liability when its contractual obligations are discharged, cancelled or expire. (n) Impairmenti.A financial asset is assessed at each reporting date to determine whether there is any objective evidence that it is impaired. A financial asset is impaired if objective evidence indicates that a loss event has occurred after the initial recognition of the asset, and that the loss event had a negative effect on the estimated future cash flows of that asset that can be estimated reliably.Objective evidence that financial assets are impaired can include default or delinquency by a debtor.The Organization considers evidence of impairment for receivables at a specific asset level. All individually significant receivables are assessed for specific impairment. All individually significant receivables found not to be specifically impaired are then collectively assessed for any impairment that has been incurredbut not yet identified. Receivables that are not individually significant are collectively assessed for impairment by grouping together receivables with similar risk characteristics.An impairment loss in respect of a financial asset measured at amortized cost is calculated as the difference between its carrying amount, and the present value of the estimated future cash flows discounted at the asset's original effective interest rate. Losses are recognized in the statement of activities and reflected in an allowance account against receivables. Interest on the impaired asset, if any, continues to be recognized through the unwinding of the discount. When a subsequent event causes the amount of impairment loss to decrease, the decrease in impairment loss is reversed through the statement of activities. ii.The carrying amounts of the Organization's non-financial assets, other than inventories, are reviewed at each reporting date to determine whether there is any indication of impairment. If any such indication exists, then the asset's recoverable amount is estimated.The recoverable amount of an asset is the greater of its value in use and its fair value less costs to sell. In assessing value in use, the estimated future cash flows are discounted to their present value using a pre-tax discount rate that reflects current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the asset. For the purpose of impairment testing, assets that cannot be tested individually are grouped together into the smallest group of assets that generates cash inflows from continuing use that are largely independent of the cash inflows of other assets or groups of assets (the \"cash-generating unit\").An impairment loss is recognized if the carrying amount of an asset or its cashgenerating unit exceeds its recoverable amount. Impairment losses are recognized in the statement of activities. Impairment losses recognized in respect of cashgenerating units are allocated to reduce the carrying amount of the other assets in the unit (group of units) on a pro rata basis.The Organization recognizes revenue in accordance with IFRS as follows:i.Income for rendered services is recognized in the accounting period in which the services are rendered.ii.The Lead Center of a CRP is required to include in its statement of activity expenses incurred by subcontracted centers and the corresponding revenue. Fund Donors may designate use of the funds they contribute to the CGIAR Fund in three ways:Window 1 (W1) -These funds may be allocated by the Fund Council, in consultation with the Consortium, to CRPs submitted by the Consortium and approved by the Fund Council.Window 2 (W2) -These funds are directed by Fund Donors to specific CRPs proposed by the Consortium and approved by the Fund Council as eligible to receive Window 2 subaccount funding. For each CRP, funds received into Window 2 are limited to the total budget amount approved by the Fund Council for that CRP.Window 3 (W3) -These funds are directed by Fund Donors to individual Centers. Fund Donors may designate specific amounts to specific Centers for use at the Center's discretion.iii.Sales revenue is recognized when certain conditions have been satisfied: iv.If the Organization acts in the capacity of an agent rather than as the principal in a transaction, then the revenue recognized is the net amount of commission made by the Organization.v.The Organization's finance income and financial cost include interest income, interest expense and foreign exchange effects. Interest income or expense is recognized using the effective interest method.vi.Government grants are initially recognized as deferred income at fair value if there is reasonable assurance that they will be received and that the Organization will comply with the conditions associated with the grant; they are then recognized in the statement of activities as income on a systematic basis over the useful life of the asset.Grants that compensate the Organization for expenses incurred are recognized in the statement of activities on a systematic basis in the periods in which the expenses are recognized.Donor accounts receivable represent amounts recoverable from donors for restricted grants promised or pledged for which any conditions have already been met. Donor accounts receivable are stated at their gross principal amounts, less any allowance for doubtful accounts. The allowance for doubtful accounts is initially created once the recoverability of collectible balances becomes doubtful based on the management's periodic review and analysis of the receivable balances from Donors accounts, as well as an assessment of the prevailing and anticipated economic conditions. If subsequently, as part of the periodic analysis of Donors accounts, the management confirms that a previously created doubtful account becomes uncollectible, the outstanding grant receivable balance is removed from the books through the allowance for doubtful accounts.(Continued) The Generation Challenge Program (the \"GCP\") was a consortium formed by different organizations (the \"Consortium Members\"), whose principal goal was to improve the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers and consumers in developing countries by accessing and utilizing the genetic potential of public genetic resources in plant breeding programs through the concerted generation, management, dissemination and application of comparative biological knowledge.The GCP was supported by the World Bank, the European Commission, the Department for International Development (DFID), and other donors (collectively the \"Supporter Organizations\") and was governed by an independent governing body. At inception of the GCP, governance was provided by a Steering Committee. The Steering Committee was replaced by an Executive Board early in 2008.The GCP ended on December 31, 2015 and was transitioned to the Integrated Breeding Platform and, as a part of that transition process, the GCP Executive Board resolved to designate GCP funds for the purpose of implementing the new IBP program. Similarly, the IBP Phase II project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation comprises co-funding from the GCP at the request of the Foundation.The Integrated Breeding Platform (the \"IBP\") is an initiative of the Generation Challenge Program that came to an end December 2015. It is hosted by the Organization. The aim of the IBP is to support and promote the use of advanced plant breeding technologies and knowledge in order to increase agricultural productivity, enhance food security, and improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers throughout the developing world.The IBP is supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the World Bank (collectively, the \"Supporter Organizations\") and is governed by an independent Board of Trustees.(Continued) The total liability for International Recruited Staff (IRS) benefits as of December 31, 2015 and 2014, is $3,262 and $4,396, respectively. These amounts have been determined based on management's estimates.Net assets represent the residual balances of total assets minus total liabilities. The net assets are further classified as follows:(a) Unrestricted, designated net assets-Represent net assets which use is not restricted by donors but restricted by the Organization's management for specific purposes. The amount represents the accumulated costs of infrastructure investments, property and equipment, net of accumulated depreciation.Due to the conversion to IFRS, the deferred income method was applied. This method consists in the recognition of the asset at the date of acquisition against deferred revenue, with the asset's depreciation recognized in the statement of activities on a systematic basis over the useful life of the asset against the corresponding release of deferred revenue. Represent the Organization's accumulated surplus. These funds are intended to ensure availability of sufficient working capital to provide continuity to the Organization's operations, to cover additional investments in the upgrade or expansion of the organization's infrastructure and potentially for the orderly closure of the organization, if so required.(15) Revenue-Funds received from donors are used to support the Organization's programs. Programs must fall within the mandate of the Organization. Restricted grants also support the Organization's general activities, but they must be used for the activities mutually agreed upon between the Organization and the donor.Included in the combined statement of activities as supplementary funding are W3 & Bilateral Grants, which are related to, but not strategically aligned with the Consortium Research Programs (CRPs), funding that typically supports scale-out and accelerates the impact pathway of a CRP. This type of funding includes a significant number of country-specific, downstream projects that were not envisioned in the original CRP proposals. The Organization acts as a host agent for a fee. In the absence of specific guidance in IFRS on distinguishing between an agent and a principal, management considered the following:•The Organization does not take title to the goods and has no responsibility in respect of the goods sold.• Although the Organization collects the revenue from the final customer, all credit risk is borne by the supplier of the goods.The Organization cannot vary the selling prices set by the supplier by more than one percent.  The Organization has exposure to the following risks from its use of financial instruments:• market risk This note presents information about the Organization's exposure to each of the above risks, the Organization's objectives, policies and processes for measuring and managing risk, and the Organization's management of net assets. Further quantitative disclosures are included throughout these combined financial statements.The Organization is a not-for-profit organization that neither actively engages in the trading of financial assets for speculative purposes nor write options. The most significant financial risks to which the Organization is exposed are described below.The Organization's Board of Trustees has overall responsibility for the establishment and oversight of the Organization's risk management framework. Management has a Risk Management Committee, which is responsible for developing and monitoring the Organization's risk management policies. Management reports regularly to the Board of Trustees on this Committee's activities, findings and recommendations.The Organization's risk management policies are established to identify and analyze the risk faced by the Organization, to set appropriate risk limits and controls and to monitor risks and adherence to limits. Risk management policies and systems are reviewed regularly to reflect changes in market conditions and the Organization's activities. The Organization, through its training and management standards and procedures, aims to maintain a disciplined and constructive control environment in which all employees understand their roles and obligations.The Organization's Audit Committee oversees how management monitors compliance with the Organization's risk management policies and procedures, and reviews the adequacy of the risk management framework in relation to the risks faced by the Organization. The Organization's Audit Committee is assisted in its oversight role by Internal Audit. Internal Audit undertakes both regular and ad hoc reviews of risk management controls and procedures, the results of which are reported to the Audit Committee.Market risk is the risk that changes in market prices, such as foreign exchange rates, and interest rates will affect the Organization's income or the value of its holdings of financial instruments. The objective of market risk management is to manage and control market risk exposures within acceptable parameters. The functional currency of the Organization is the US dollar. However, the organization is also engaged in foreign currency transactions.In respect monetary assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies, the Organization's policy is to ensure that its net exposure is kept to an acceptable level by buying or selling foreign currencies at spot rates when necessary to address short-term imbalances.The following significant exchange rates have been applied during the year. Management has not quantified the potential impact on the statement of activities and net assets based on fluctuations of the exchange rate (sensitivity analysis) for immateriality reasons, due to the fact that the Organization does not have any material transactions in foreign currencies.Credit risk is the risk of financial loss to the Organization if a donor or counterparty to a financial instrument fails to meet its contractual obligations, and arises principally from the Organization's receivables from donors and investments and cash equivalents.The Organization's exposure to credit risk is influenced mainly by the individual characteristics of each donor.The cash and cash equivalents are held with bank and financial institution counterparties, which are rated AA-to AA+, based on rating agency ratings.(Continued) At December 31, 2015 and 2014, there was an allowance for doubtful accounts receivable of $1,195 and $945, respectively, related to contributions from several donors that have indicated they are not expecting to be able to pay their outstanding balances, mainly due to economic circumstances. Additonally, an allowance of $1,324 and $3,154 related to the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) loan was recognized.Liquidity risk is the risk that the Organization will encounter difficulty in meeting the obligations associated with its financial liabilities that are settled by delivering cash or another financial asset.The Organization's approach to managing liquidity is to ensure, as far as possible, that it will always have sufficient liquidity to meet its liabilities when due, under both normal and stressed conditions, without incurring unacceptable losses or risking damage to the Organization's reputation.At December 31, 2015 and 2014, the Organization did not have any available lines of credit.(18) Net assets management-The Organization presently follows the CGIAR's Account Reserves Policy Guidelines to maintain sufficient net assets for meeting the Organization's operational and strategic needs and to maintain confidence of donors. This is achieved with efficient cash management, constant monitoring of Organization's revenues and long-term investment plans mainly financed by the Organization's operating cash flows.The Organization believes that it has complied with all aspects of contractual agreements, grants and donor restrictions that could have an effect on the combined financial statements.(Continued) There are no other standards and interpretations issued but not yet adopted that the Management anticipate will have a material effect on the reported income or net assets of the Organization.","tokenCount":"4446"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"96eda19c3c86cb9eeb925c0d31ef3052","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb6b2b78-ef73-4493-b48f-4ae40618ea64/retrieve","id":"-745537947"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f607044-5b44-447b-82cf-4f6e6af5804e","pagecount":"23","content":"•porque es posible hacer un seguimiento a un material biológico/ genético •porque tiene muchas implicaciones para la documentación en los países documentación: inventarios biológicos, procesos bio-tecnológicos •porque puede haber preguntas en seguimiento y control •porque la figura de la patente deja muchos interrogantes •porque la figura de la patente deja muchos interrogantes incluyendo la otorgación con poca base para evidenciar la inovación incluyendo la otorgación con poca base para evidenciar la inovación incluyendo la no reparación en caso de ausencia de inovación incluyendo la no reparación en caso de ausencia de inovación• abril 1999: el USPTO otorga una patente sobre un frijol amarillo y sobre un proceso de mejora para producir este tipo de frijol (patente no. 5,894,079) (presentada el 15 Noviembre de 1996)• otoño de 1999: alerta de organizaciones de la sociedad civil • el acuerdo FAO-CGIAR (cfr. segunda declaración conjunta)• restricciones futuras sobre el uso de germoplasma designado • daño al mejoramiento profesional en USA y otras partes • ignorancia del 'arte' anterior qué afirmó el CIAT ?1. no hay invento sobre el color, tampoco descubrimiento 2. no hay invento sobre el proceso de mejoramiento 3. los requisitos básicos de 'novelty' y 'non-obviousness' no están Segunda declaración conjunta -FAO y el CGIAR -1998 (un año antes de otorgar la patente sobre el frijol amarillo)\"The Centers recognize that many accessions designated under the Agreements with FAO were distributed to plant breeders and researchers prior to designation in keeping with the CGIAR policy for providing \"unrestricted availability\" to germplasm -as noted in the preamble of Agreements. In dealing with this situation, the Centers will request and urge that no intellectual property rights be sought for designated germplasm that was distributed before its designation under the FAO-CGIAR Agreement\". observaciones finales•un Centro Internacional del CGIAR defiende una variedad mejorada•la variedad mejorada es del sector público de un país latinoamericano•este país latinoamericano no apareció en la solicitud de re-examen•la variedad mejorada fue comprada 'legalmente' dentro de una mezcla•el re-examen se ganó gracias a la capacidad de documentar el 'arte anterior'•el 'arte anterior' incluyó las colecciones de germoplasma designado•e incluyó todas las publicaciones pertinentes en todo el mundo hacia 1901 !•no se ve la compensación económica hacia el CIAT, tampoco hacia el INIA, tampoco hacia los productores mexicanos, tampoco hacia el Perú•es muy factible hacer una 'trazabilidad' de una planta cultivada","tokenCount":"387"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54793c5c48fe4599d39f93a7a7ba039e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c613b9d4-5cae-4c77-be3d-0d69852139f0/content","id":"-1674630743"},"keywords":["producción de semillas","alianzas","industria de semillas","mercados","producción de semillas híbridas seed production","alliances","seed industry","markets","hybrid seed production"],"sieverID":"e9a1ffa4-b529-4439-925a-519d0c543152","pagecount":"17","content":"Introducción. El rápido crecimiento de la inversión privada en el sector de semillas de maíz plantea desafíos para los organismos públicos y las empresas más pequeñas que tienen cada vez menor acceso a tecnologías y mercados. El Consorcio Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz (IMIC-LA), creado en México en 2011, busca aumentar el tamaño y la competitividad del sector semillero mediante el acceso a germoplasma y herramientas de mejoramiento. Sin embargo, no hay datos y medidas básicas recientes de la estructura que permitan evaluar esta y otras iniciativas del sector. Objetivo. Actualizar y analizar los indicadores de ventas totales, participación en ventas por categorías de empresas y tipos de variedades de semilla, y cobertura con semillas mejoradas, en México. Materiales y métodos. Se utilizaron datos de ventas de semillas de maíz de entrevistas y encuestas con empresas semilleras y estadísticas oficiales de producción de semillas del Servicio Nacional de Inspección y Certificación de Semillas (SNICS) del año 2011 al año 2016. Resultados. Los resultados mostraron un sector semillero más grande y competitivo después de veinticinco años de apertura, especialmente en los años más recientes en los que se destaca el rápido aumento del volumen y la participación de las ventas del subsector de empresas nacionales. Conclusión. La amplia participación de las empresas como miembros del consorcio y el desarrollo y comercialización de nuevas variedades, sugieren un impacto positivo y un papel en el crecimiento y competitividad de las empresas semilleras nacionales.El sector semillero es el conjunto de organizaciones que participan en el mejoramiento, producción y distribución de semillas y brindan a los agricultores las innovaciones de mejoramiento genético a través de semillas comerciales. Este sector es parte de un sistema de semillas más amplio que incluye la selección, siembra e intercambio por parte de los agricultores. En el caso del maíz, en los países con agricultura desarrollada, prácticamente todos los productores utilizan las semillas comerciales, principalmente híbridos de maíz, mientras que en los países con economías agrícolas menos desarrolladas la adopción de híbridos está creciendo rápidamente, lo que estimula el desarrollo de la industria privada de semillas (Fischer et al., 2014). Por ejemplo, en la India (Pray y Nagarajan, 2012;2013), Tailandia (Napasintuwong, 2014), y países de África del sur (Chisinga, 2011;Hamukwala et al., 2012;Mabaya, 2016), las empresas privadas están creciendo a partir de un sector previamente desarrollado y dominado por empresas estatales. En Ghana y Uganda, el crecimiento se está dando a partir de una producción comercial de semillas muy escasa, dominada hasta hace poco por productores de muy pequeña escala (Tripp y Mensah-Bonsu, 2013;Tripp y Ragasa, 2015). En Kenia (Smale y Olwande, 2014), Etiopía (Abate et al., 2015;Sisay et al., 2017) y la mayoría de los países de África occidental (Fischer et al., 2014), las empresas privadas están creciendo rápidamente aunque, el estado continúa dominando el sector.En México, en 1991 se permitió la participación del sector privado en la investigación, producción y comercialización de semillas. Previamente el sector había tenido un desarrollo dominado por el sector público, con el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas, Forestales y Pecuarias (INIFAP), en el mejoramiento y desarrollo, y la Productora Nacional de Semillas (PRONASE) en la producción y distribución. Tras la apertura, se produjo una rápida entrada de empresas semilleras multinacionales y un cierre paulatino de la PRONASE (Luna et al., 2012;Espinosa et al., 2014). El sector público continuó su participación en investigación y mejoramiento de maíz, principalmente a través del INIFAP, aunque con recursos cada vez más restringidos (Espinosa et al., 2014).El crecimiento de la inversión privada y disminución de la capacidad y contribución de la investigación pública en el mejoramiento, producción y comercialización de semillas (Langyintuo et al., 2010;Beintema et al., 2012;Spielman et al., 2012;Flaherty et al., 2013), propone desafíos para los organismos públicos y las empresas más pequeñas, que tienen cada vez menor participación en la generación y acceso a la tecnología y los mercados. Para las empresas se plantea la necesidad de acceder al germoplasma y los avances en mejoramiento para mantenerse competitivas (Langyintuo et al., 2010;Schenkelaars et al., 2011;Kassie et al., 2013;Ragonnaud, 2013). Para Maize Improvement Consortium (IMIC-LA) created in Mexico in 2011, seeks to increase the size and competitiveness of the seed sector through access to germplasm and breeding tools. However, there are no recent basic data and measures of the sector structure that allow evaluating this and other sector initiatives. Objective. To update and analyze the structure indicators of total seed sales, participation in sales by categories of companies and type of seed varieties, and coverage with improved seeds in Mexico. Materials and methods. Maize seed sales data from interviews and surveys with seed companies and official seed production statistics from the Servicio Nacional de Inspeccion y Certificacion de Semillas (SNICS) from 2011 to 2016 were used. Results. The results showed a larger and more competitive seed sector after twenty-five years of opening, especially in the most recent years in which the rapid increase in volume and the share of sales of the national business subsector stands out. Conclusion. The broad participation of seed companies as members of the consortium and the development and commercialization of new seed varieties suggest a positive impact and a role of the consortium in the growth and competitiveness of the national subsector. los centros públicos de investigación, se expone el desafío de colaborar con el sector privado para llegar a los productores y generar impacto con los productos de su investigación (Spielman et al., 2007).En México, los centros de mejoramiento público manifestaron la necesidad de desarrollar nuevos esquemas de abasto de semilla básica con las empresas, para que sus productos de mejoramiento se comercialicen con los agricultores (Espinosa et al., 2003;González et al., 2008). Las empresas semilleras, por su parte, plantearon la necesidad de acceder a un abastecimiento de germoplasma adecuado y oportuno que asegure una producción de semilla comercial viable (Luna et al., 2012;Castañeda et al., 2014). Del lado de los centros de investigación agrícola internacionales, como el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), y que en el pasado tendían a informar el impacto por la cantidad de tecnologías desarrolladas, se planteó el desafío de demostrar el impacto de los productos de investigación, incluidas las semillas mejoradas, en los campos de los agricultores (Hellin y Camacho, 2017).En 2011, se creó en México el Consorcio Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz para Latinoamérica (IMIC-LA), dentro del programa de Modernización Sustentable de la Agricultura Tradicional (MasAgro) entre el CIMMYT, centros nacionales de investigación y mejoramiento genético, y empresas semilleras nacionales. El objetivo del consorcio es mejorar la productividad del maíz y aumentar el tamaño y la competitividad del sector semillero en México, mediante el acceso selectivo a germoplasma y herramientas de mejoramiento y el fortalecimiento de la capacidad de las instituciones locales (Prasanna, 2013). El IMIC-LA se enfoca en la adopción de semillas mejoradas de maíz por parte de agricultores con potencial para aumentar la productividad especialmente en zonas de producción de temporal en México (García y Ramírez, 2014;Escandón et al., 2017). En México, IMIC-LA es conocido como MasAgro Maíz.Un estudio reciente señala que las empresas semilleras mexicanas recibieron un apoyo significativo a partir de la posibilidad de acceder a nuevo germoplasma mejorado disponible con el consorcio de semillas de MasAgro (Castañeda et al., 2014). Sin embargo, si no se conocen medidas básicas de la estructura como el tamaño de ventas totales y la participación o proporción de las ventas de las distintas empresas, no se pueden evaluar políticas y decisiones de gestión. Conocer las medidas de la estructura del sector es fundamental para evaluar con precisión las opciones de política para diseñar estrategias nacionales de crecimiento agrícola, establecer prioridades de investigación pública y diseñar incentivos privados para la innovación y para la adopción de tecnologías que mejoren la productividad (Spielman y Kennedy, 2016). Para el sector de semillas de maíz en México, los datos más recientes del tamaño del sector son de 2009 (Luna et al., 2012) y los datos más completos con participación de mercado de empresas y variedades de semilla son de 1993 y 1995 (López, 1995;Morris y López, 1999), con lo cual falta información y datos más actualizados que permitan una mayor comprensión y dimensionamiento de cómo funciona el sector y las perspectivas de una alianza público-privada entre las empresas semilleras y los centros de investigación para aumentar el tamaño y mejorar la competitividad.Por su importancia en México, la semilla de maíz está en el centro de debates y discusiones de política sobre qué tipos de semillas y sistema de producción asociados es el mejor (Turrent et al. 2017), cuáles son niveles adecuados de participación de los materiales de mejoramiento público y de empresas nacionales y multinacionales (Espinosa et al., 2014;Luna et al., 2012). La intención de presentar y analizar nuevos datos y evidencia sobre la estructura, es contribuir a evaluar y mejorar la gestión del consorcio y de otras políticas y a enriquecer el debate público sobre las opciones de semillas para mejorar la producción de maíz en México.El objetivo de este trabajo fue actualizar la información y analizar los indicadores de ventas totales, participación en ventas por categorías de empresas, tipos de variedades de semilla, y cobertura con semillas mejoradas en México. El análisis se centró en los cambios con respecto a años anteriores y con la participación del nuevo consorcio de semillas IMIC-LA.Este estudio se basó principalmente en datos de ventas de semillas de maíz recolectados a través de entrevistas y encuestas realizadas por el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), con las empresas semilleras participantes en el consorcio IMIC-LA durante los años 2011 a 2016. En 2011 y 2012 se entrevistaron 31 empresas semilleras (entrevistas con empresas semilleras CIMMYT -MasAgro, 2011y 2012). De 2013 a 2016 se encuestaron, vía correo electrónico, 30, 24, 39 y 41 empresas en 2013, 2014, 2015 y 2016, respectivamente (encuestas de comercialización de semillas CIMMYT -MasAgro, 2013, 2014, 2015y 2016). Con las entrevistas se obtuvieron datos de ventas globales de semilla de maíz de las empresas por año. Con las encuestas se obtuvieron datos de ventas de semillas de maíz por tipos de variedades.A partir de estas entrevistas y encuestas se obtuvieron datos de 47 empresas semilleras nacionales. Estos datos no estaban completos para todas las empresas todos los años de 2011 a 2016. Los datos faltantes se estimaron con base en el crecimiento promedio del conjunto de empresas con datos u observaciones cada año por categorías de tamaño.La clasificación de empresas según el tamaño se basó en la definición de MacRobert (2014) de empresas pequeñas como aquellas que tienen menos de 500 toneladas de producción o ventas de semilla de maíz por año. El resto de las categorías se definieron en relación con la definición anterior: hasta diez veces más grande (500-5000 toneladas) se consideraron empresas medianas, más de diez veces más grandes empresas grandes (>5000 toneladas), y menos de diez veces más pequeñas (<50 toneladas), se consideraron microempresas.Los datos de 47 empresas, observados y estimados, se complementaron con datos estimados de las ventas de empresas multinacionales y nacionales, que no participan en el consorcio IMIC-LA, a partir de estadísticas de producción de semilla certificada de maíz ciclos 2011/2016 del SNICS (2016). La estimación se realizó tomando los datos de producción reportados por SNICS como si fueran datos de ventas, es decir, equivalentes a los datos reportados y estimados a partir de las entrevistas y encuestas. Combinando los datos de ventas de las entrevistas y encuestas, y los de producción de semilla de SNICS, se obtuvieron datos estimados completos del sector para los años 2011 a 2016. Los datos de ventas de las encuestas y de producción del SNICS, se sumaron para el análisis en este estudio.Para el análisis de los tipos de variedades de semilla se utilizó información de la encuesta de impacto del germoplasma CIMMYT-MasAgro (2015), que se realizó con las empresas participantes en el consorcio de IMIC-LA, vía correo electrónico, para conocer el origen y uso del germoplasma de maíz. Esta información se utilizó para clasificar los híbridos y variedades (de polinización abierta) de maíz en públicos, privados, CIMMYT (germoplasma) con IMIC-LA, públicos (germoplasma) con IMIC-LA y privados (germoplasma) con IMIC-LA, en función del autor de la variedad o cruza final y de las líneas y cruzas simples componentes de los híbridos. Con base en esta información, se clasificaron las variedades de semillas vendidas en 2016 por las empresas del consorcio según la encuesta de comercialización de semillas CIMMYT -MasAgro, 2016.Todos los datos se trataron manteniendo la confidencialidad de la información de las empresas y los resultados del análisis se presentaron como promedios y categorías por tipos de empresas y productos.Para la estimación de uso y mercados de semilla, se utilizaron datos de estadísticas de producción de maíz y estadísticas de uso tecnológico del Servicio de Información Agrícola y Pecuaria (SIAP), y las zonas de producción de maíz de temporal (Donnet et al., 2017).Los datos de la estructura del sector para los años 2011 a 2016, se compararon con datos disponibles de tres publicaciones anteriores de 1995, 1999 y 2012 (Cuadro 1). Las publicaciones de 1995 y 1999 reportaron datos de encuestas con empresas semilleras realizadas por el CIMMYT en 1993 y 1996, respectivamente; mientras que la publicación de 2012, utilizó datos de producción de semillas en 2009 de SNICS. Las tres publicaciones reportaron tamaño del sector de semillas de maíz, participación del sector público y del sector privado, y el número de hectáreas plantadas con maíz. Las publicaciones basadas en las encuestas, adicionalmente, reportaron el número de empresas nacionales, multinacionales y de productores de semilla, y el porcentaje de la superficie de maíz plantada con híbridos, con variedades mejoradas y con semilla del productor. Las publicaciones de 1999 y 2012 tienen información de la participación de mercado de las empresas nacionales y empresas multinacionales, y la publicación de 1995 tiene información acerca de la participación de mercado de híbridos privados e híbridos públicos.Estos indicadores se consideraron puntos de comparación relevantes de la estructura del sector al inicio de la apertura comercial en los 90 y antes de iniciar el consorcio de semillas IMIC-LA. Los resultados presentan los mismos indicadores calculados con los nuevos datos en este estudio.El sector de semillas de maíz en México está integrado por empresas semilleras y centros públicos de investigación y mejoramiento nacionales y el CIMMYT (Figura 1). El sector semillero se puede ver como un Cuadro 1. Datos de la estructura del sector semillero de maíz en México utilizados para el análisis en este trabajo. Table 1. Data on the structure of the maize seed sector in Mexico used for the analysis in this study. sistema que mueve tanto productos de semillas como información sobre su desempeño entre los recursos de germoplasma y avances en mejoramiento, y los agricultores (Christensen y Nelson, comunicación personal, 2012). La coordinación de este sistema se realiza de tres formas. Una forma es la integración del mejoramiento, producción y comercialización en una misma empresa; este es el caso de las empresas que tienen programas de mejoramiento y, desarrollan y registran variedades de semillas privadas o propietarias. Otra forma de coordinación es la multiplicación por parte de empresas semilleras de los híbridos y variedades públicos desarrollados por los centros de investigación nacionales. Esta forma es utilizada por las empresas que no tienen programas de mejoramiento, aunque también por empresas que, teniendo variedades de semillas privadas, multiplican otras de origen público. La coordinación se realiza a través del abastecimiento de semilla básica de la variedad, en el caso de variedades de polinización libre, y de las líneas y cruzas simples progenitores en el caso de híbridos.Con el consorcio IMIC-LA, hay una nueva forma de coordinación que es la alianza público-privada integrado por el CIMMYT, centros de mejoramiento nacionales, incluyendo el INIFAP y universidades nacionales, y empresas semilleras nacionales miembros o socias del consorcio. El CIMMYT y los centros de mejoramiento nacionales participan en el mejoramiento y desarrollo de variedades de semilla de uso final. La asociación en el consorcio público-privado, involucra un conjunto de actividades y compromisos propios que los socios realizan tanto individualmente como en conjunto. El CIMMYT desarrolla productos de mejoramiento que incluye cruzas de híbridos para ser multiplicadas como productos de semillas finales y cruzas simples, y líneas para ser usadas como productos intermedios de mejoramiento por las empresas y centros de mejoramiento en el consorcio. La producción de híbridos finales es una nueva actividad del CIMMYT con el consorcio de IMIC-LA, mientras que el desarrollo de productos intermedios, líneas y cruzas simples, con las que las empresas y los centros de mejoramiento nacionales desarrollaban los híbridos finales, es la actividad que el CIMMYT venía desarrollando regularmente.Los socios del consorcio IMIC-LA participan en una red colaborativa de evaluación que consiste en ensayos multilocales en los que se evalúan los productos de mejoramiento. Los miembros del consorcio deben aportar una  localidad de evaluación como mínimo, con lo cual tienen derecho a incluir una variedad de semilla producto de su propio mejoramiento para su evaluación. La red de evaluación incluye ensayos de mejoramiento participativo de maíces nativos. El CIMMYT coordina los procesos de recepción y preparación de las variedades de semilla que se quieren probar, diseño experimental y envío de los materiales a las localidades de evaluación. Las empresas participantes del consorcio, reciben las semillas para un ensayo en el sitio de evaluación acordado y se encargan de la conducción del ensayo, incluyendo la siembra, manejo agronómico, cosecha y toma de datos. El CIMMYT recopila, analiza y distribuye la información sobre el rendimiento y otras características de los productos de mejoramiento. Esta información es utilizada por las empresas para identificar híbridos finales que se desean multiplicar; adicionalmente, se prueban en los ensayos productos intermedios de mejoramiento, líneas y cruzas simples de maíz, que se evalúan por sus características como progenitores de cruzas finales. La información a partir de los ensayos de progenitores es utilizada por las empresas y los centros de investigación públicos miembros del consorcio interesados en el mejoramiento; el cual está enfocado en el desarrollo de híbridos de alto rendimiento y resistentes al estrés en las condiciones de producción de temporal en los distintos mega-ambientes tropical, subtropical y de valles altos de México.Las actividades del consorcio incluyen investigación, desarrollo y capacitación en tecnología de producción de semillas y en tecnologías de mejoramiento, por ejemplo dobles haploides. También se realizan actividades de promoción de las semillas mejoradas y tecnologías asociadas de producción de maíz en parcelas demostrativas con los agricultores.En el 2016 el sector estuvo integrado por 114 empresas productoras de semilla, dos empresas grandes multinacionales, 14 empresas medianas (una multinacional y el resto nacionales), 53 empresas pequeñas (una multinacional y el resto nacionales) y 45 microempresas nacionales (Cuadro 2). Con respecto a los datos de la estructura disponibles previamente (Cuadro 1), se observó un aumento en el número total de empresas de prácticamente el doble, de 55 empresas en 1993 y 62 en 1996, a 114 en 2016. Durante los años cubiertos por este estudio, se observaron cambios Cuadro 2. Empresas semilleras de maíz en México. 2011 -2016. Fuente: Datos de entrevistas y encuestas con empresas semilleras del consorcio MasAgro y de producción de semilla certificada del SNICS. Empresas grandes: >5000 t de semilla de maíz, medianas: 5000-500 t; pequeñas 500-50 t; micro <50 t / Source: Data from interviews and surveys of seed companies in the MasAgro consortium and certified seed production statistics of SNICS. Large companies : > 5,000 t of maize seed, medium: 5,000-500 t; small 500-50 t; micro <50 t.en el número de empresas en cada categoría, resaltándose el aumento sostenido del número de empresas medianas del subsector nacional, indicando el crecimiento del tamaño de las empresas en este subsector. La participación en el consorcio de MasAgro fue de aproximadamente cincuenta empresas nacionales en 2016. Los cambios en el tamaño y participación de mercado del sector semillero de maíz en México en los seis años cubiertos por este estudio del 2011 al 2016, se muestran en la Figura 2. El tamaño varió entre un mínimo de 53 000 t en el 2012 y un máximo de más de 101 000 t en 2015. El tamaño fue de 85 263 t en 2016, último año cubierto por este estudio, con un crecimiento del 35 % y una tasa promedio de crecimiento del 6,1 % entre 2011 y 2016. Este tamaño representa un aumento de tamaño del doble con respecto a 1993, casi el triple de la cifra disponible para 1996, y el doble de la cifra reportada para 2009, lo que indica el rápido crecimiento del sector en los últimos siete años. La participación en ventas de los subsectores varió entre un máximo de 76 % en 2011 y un mínimo de 69 % en 2016 para las empresas multinacionales y, en sentido opuesto, un mínimo de 24 % y un máximo de 31 % para las nacionales en 2011 y 2016, respectivamente. La participación en ventas de empresas nacionales del 31 % en 2016 fue similar a la registrada en 1996, con la diferencia de que, en este año, el 30 % de participación nacional correspondía un 13 % al sector público y un 17 % al sector privado (Cuadro 1). Por el contrario, hubo un notable aumento con respecto al 5 % de participación reportada para las empresas nacionales en 2009. La clasificación por tamaños mostró que en el año 2016 la categoría con mayor participación fue multinacionales grandes con el 68 %, seguida por las nacionales medianas con el 20 %, multinacionales medianas y las nacionales pequeñas con el 10 % cada una. Además, hubo un 1 % de participación de una empresa multinacional mediana y otro 1 % de las empresas nacionales micro. Fuente: Datos de entrevistas y encuestas con empresas semilleras del consorcio MasAgro y de producción de semilla certificada del SNICS. Empresas grandes: >5000 t de semilla de maíz, medianas: 5000-500 t; pequeñas 500-50 t; micro <50 t. Source: Data from interviews and surveys of seed companies in the MasAgro consortium and SNICS certified seed production. Large companies: > 5,000 t of maize seed, medium: 5,000-500 t; small 500-50 t; micro <50 t.Las ventas del subsector nacional crecieron de 15 000 a 27 009 t de semillas de maíz, 75 % entre 2011 y 2016 (Figura 3). El mayor crecimiento se dio en la categoría más grande (empresas medianas), que pasaron del 61,6 % al 66,6 % de participación en ventas del subsector nacional en 2011 y 2016, respectivamente, con un promedio de 62,2 % en el periodo de estudio. A su vez, las empresas pequeñas y micro disminuyeron su participación, las primeras del 34,1 % al 31,1 %, con un promedio de 33,5 % y las segundas del 5,4 % al 2,8 %, con un promedio de 4,3 %.Las empresas semilleras que participan en el consorcio de IMIC-LA representaron, en conjunto, el 85 % de las ventas de empresas nacionales en 2016.De 85 263 t de semilla de maíz producida y comercializada en 2016, el 90 % fueron híbridos privados, 5 % híbridos públicos, 2 % variedades públicas y 3 % fueron híbridos desarrollados con el consorcio IMIC-LA, correspondiente a la suma de 2% híbridos desarrollados por el CIMMYT y 1% por empresas privadas (Figura 4). Comparando con los datos disponibles que muestran los tipos de variedades en 1993, se observó el aumento de los híbridos privados y la disminución de híbridos y variedades públicos.Al considerar el subsector nacional, los híbridos privados representaron las variedades más vendidas con el 69 % en 2016, seguidos por los híbridos públicos, nuevos híbridos desarrollados en CIMMYT durante el consorcio IMIC-LA, las variedades públicas y nuevos híbridos privados con germoplasma de IMIC-LA (Figura 5). En Fuente: Datos de entrevistas y encuestas con empresas semilleras del consorcio MasAgro y de producción de semilla certificada del SNICS. Empresas grandes: >5000 t de semilla de maíz, medianas: 5000-500 t; pequeñas 500-50 t; micro <50 t. Source: Data from interviews and surveys of seed companies in the MasAgro consortium and SNICS certified seed production. Large companies: > 5,000 t of maize seed, medium: 5,000-500 t; small 500-50 t; micro <50 t.    total los híbridos desarrollados a través del consorcio IMIC-LA, es decir, ya sean cruzas finales desarrolladas en CIMMYT o cruzas finales desarrolladas por las empresas, representaron el 10 % de las 22 000 t con datos. El total de ventas del sector semillero nacional, al sumar la producción de semillas certificadas reportadas por SNICS para otras empresas en 2016 y de las cuales no se tienen datos, fue de 26 mil toneladas. Las variedades de semillas desarrolladas con el consorcio representaron el 9 % de la producción y ventas de todas las empresas del subsector nacional con datos en este estudio.Si se considera al mercado de semillas de maíz como toda la semilla sembrada por los agricultores, en México hay un mercado de aproximadamente 7,5 millones de hectáreas de las cuales 1,3 se cultivan bajo riego y 6,2 bajo temporal (SIAP, 2013a). Los híbridos de maíz se utilizan en prácticamente el 100 % de las hectáreas cultivadas bajo riego. En el temporal, el promedio de uso es de 40 % (SIAP, 2013b). La comparación con el promedio de uso de híbridos de 20 % de la superficie de maíz (riego y temporal) 20 años atrás (datos de 1996), en una superficie similar, sugiere el crecimiento de la industria, sin considerar los cambios en el aumento de la densidad de siembra que significan mayor demanda de semilla. La cobertura con híbridos o penetración de mercado, presenta grandes diferencias según la región de producción (Cuadro 3). Occidente es el mercado de semillas más desarrollado en la producción de maíz bajo condiciones de temporal, seguido por el Bajío y la zona tropical de Occidente, donde la mayoría de los productores utilizan híbridos. El conjunto de regiones que incluyen el resto de las zonas tropicales, los valles altos y el subtrópico norte, tienen una cobertura intermedia entre 33 y 44 %, y los valles centrales de Oaxaca una cobertura del 12 % de la superficie.Cuadro 3. Cobertura con variedades de semillas mejoradas de maíz en las regiones de producción de temporal en México. 2013. Los resultados de la estructura mostraron un sector semillero sustancialmente más grande y competitivo después de 25 años de apertura y, especialmente, en los años más recientes. Además del crecimiento de las ventas de la industria en su conjunto, de 35 000 en 1993 a 85 000 en 2016, se destaca el rápido aumento del volumen y la participación de las ventas del subsector de empresas nacionales. La participación de mercado de estas empresas fue del 31 % en 2016, notablemente más alta que el 5 % registrado en 2009, y resalta el desafío de mantener la posición sobresaliente alcanzada, y en lo posible aumentarla. El consorcio IMIC-LA puede desempeñar un papel principal en mantener y aumentar esta participación aprovechando y explotando las complementariedades de los socios y privados. La discusión se centra en las implicaciones que los datos y análisis de la estructura pueden tener para informar la gestión de una asociación público-privada de semillas que ayude a mantener y mejorar esta participación y promover un sector semillero fuerte y competitivo.Los centros de investigación públicos, tanto el CIMMYT como el INIFAP, tienen varias ventajas en el mejoramiento del maíz incluyendo una base sólida en instalaciones de investigación, bancos de germoplasma y conocimiento de la diversidad de materiales genéticos. En particular el CIMMYT resalta por su acceso a las herramientas y tecnologías de mejoramiento 'upstream' más modernas; algunas de estas tecnologías, como la edición génica, son particularmente promisorias para consorcios público-privados, especialmente en países en desarrollo, por su bajo costo y rápida producción (Friedrichs et al., 2019). El INIFAP, por su parte, ha lanzado más de doscientas variedades de maíz adecuadas para las diferentes regiones climáticas de México (Turrent-Fernández et al., 2014), y junto con otras instituciones nacionales como la Universidad Autónoma de Chapingo y el Colegio de Posgraduados, tiene el conocimiento territorial de las variedades de semilla. Las empresas aportan el conocimiento de los mercados, incluyendo las variedades preferidas por los agricultores y la capacidad de producción y distribución con los agricultores.La principal ventaja de la colaboración en el consorcio es desarrollar la capacidad de prueba de las variedades en el campo. Dado que el rendimiento alcanzable de maíz está determinado por la interacción del germoplasma con el ambiente, la selección de las mejores variedades solo puede lograse a través de los ensayos en campo, lo cual está reflejado en que las grandes compañías de semillas de maíz emplean más agrónomos que mejoradores, y en las que un híbrido se puede probar en miles de ensayos de rendimiento en muchas condiciones antes de ser comercializado (Fischer et al., 2014). El consorcio ofrece esto a las empresas socias al posibilitar las pruebas que garanticen el rendimiento de las nuevas variedades en el campo de los agricultores donde se quieren vender las semillas.La evidencia en este estudio acerca del aumento de las variedades de semillas híbridas versus las variedades de polinización abierta, y especialmente de los híbridos privados con respecto a los híbridos públicos, mostró lo que se ha llamado una proposición de valor ganar-ganar entre la industria de semilla y los agricultores (Fischer et al., 2014) y resalta, nuevamente, la importancia del acceso a los avances tecnológicos en mejoramiento y de desarrollar las pruebas a campo para identificar las variedades más competitivas. Como es ampliamente conocido, los híbridos fomentan la viabilidad de una industria comercial y un ambiente positivo para la inversión privada en el mejoramiento, porque la cruza de la primera generación (F1) presenta un mayor rendimiento por el vigor híbrido o heterosis que decae en la siguiente generación (F2), y por lo que los agricultores tienen el incentivo de comprar semilla todos los años.Las nuevas semillas desarrolladas por los socios del consorcio también corresponden a solo este tipo de variedades. Los nuevos híbridos de maíz desarrollados, como buen indicador de la innovación del sector (Spielman y Kennedy, 2016), respaldan el papel del consorcio en posibilitar el aprovechamiento de los recursos de la investigación pública para entregar innovaciones de semilla a los agricultores.La orientación y foco de la colaboración público-privada de IMIC-LA en desarrollar variedades de maíz especialmente adaptadas a los ambientes de temporal en México, resalta aún más la competencia clave de las pruebas locales en la identificación y selección de las mejores variedades en ambientes donde la variabilidad ambiental hace que las mejores variedades cambien más de un lugar a otro. En total, las semillas mejoradas se siembran en aproximadamente 2,3 millones de hectáreas de maíz bajo temporal y existen 3,7 millones de hectáreas donde se podrían encontrar nuevos usuarios y clientes de híbridos. Como lo indican los rendimientos de maíz en el Cuadro 3, este potencial se encuentra en áreas cada vez más limitadas. Extender los beneficios de las semillas mejoradas a nuevos agricultores en estas áreas se relaciona con el reto en México de propiciar el uso extensivo de los materiales nativos sobresalientes a través de la producción y abastecimiento de semillas de variedades no convencionales (maíces nativos y combinaciones de semillas mejoradas y nativas acriolladas) (Ortiz et al., 2007;Espinosa et al., 2014). La diversidad de empresas semilleras y la participación de ambos el sector público con su interés en desarrollo y el sector privado con su interés comercial sugieren que el consorcio de semillas IMIC-LA puede tener una posición particularmente adecuada para abordar este reto.La red de evaluación más que un activo complementario (Byerlee y Fischer, 2002) es un activo colaborativo y que puede constituir una ventaja competitiva para los socios del consorcio. Los resultados de este estudio sugieren que pueden existir oportunidades de aumentar la capacidad de la red de evaluación y que se pueden explorar en la gestión del consorcio. Por un lado, la falta de nuevas semillas que provengan de INIFAP entre los híbridos del consorcio, sugiere que la participación, con materiales y sitios de prueba de este socio está por debajo de su contribución potencial por sus capacidades y conocimientos del desempeño de germoplasma, incluido aquel que usan los agricultores y cuya incorporación podría mejorar el diseño y los resultados de las pruebas. Por su parte, la amplia participación de las empresas privadas en el consorcio sugiere un potencial para aumentar el número de sitios y materiales que se ensayan y que se traducirían en un aumento de nuevas variedades de semillas comercializadas en los próximos años.El intercambio de los dos tipos de materiales de mejoramiento, cruzas finales y líneas y cruzas simples intermedias, parece apropiado dados los distintos tipos de empresas, con y sin programas de mejoramiento, y su interés en producir híbridos privados. La posibilidad de utilizar cruzas finales sugiere un aprovechamiento de las complementariedades, lo que reduciría la competencia entre los sectores público y privado en el caso de las empresas sin capacidad de mejoramiento, mientras el acceso a las cruzas y líneas intermedias permite la complementariedad con las empresas más grandes y que dependen del germoplasma desarrollado en estas organizaciones para generar sus propias variedades de semillas comerciales (híbridos propietarios).Con respecto a los socios nacionales del sector público, una preocupación persistente es que las asociaciones público privadas puedan suplantar su papel de los socios nacionales en la investigación agrícola (Spielman et al., 2007). Todo esto significa que hay una necesidad de desarrollar los acuerdos de transferencia e intercambio de materiales genéticos y de la información acerca del desempeño de las variedades de semilla. Dado que los beneficios de la cooperación y la colaboración dependen significativamente de la capacidad de los actores públicos y privados para desarrollar arreglos creativos para reducir la principal fuente de competencia entre sectores que es la propiedad y el uso de conocimiento científico y tecnológico (Spielman y von-Grebmer, 2004), el consorcio tiene que trabajar en estas capacidades.La información en este estudio sobre el número de las empresas, los tipos de variedades y volumen de ventas se puede utilizar como punto de partida para desarrollar y negociar \"acuerdos y mecanismos creativos\" (ibid) entre los miembros del consorcio sobre los términos y condiciones del intercambio de materiales e información para el uso de la propiedad intelectual que aumenten el uso e impacto / beneficios de los productos de mejoramiento del consorcio. La cantidad y diversidad de empresas (y cobertura geográfica derivada), sugiere que estos arreglos pueden implicar un \"reacomodamiento\" y avance hacia arreglos entre las empresas de especialización, por ejemplo, producir material parental, cruzas y líneas intermedias de semilla básica, y producir híbridos finales, es decir, empresas multiplicadoras.Este estudio presenta para el sector de semillas de maíz, una actualización de los datos e indicadores de tamaño, empresas, tipos de variedades y cobertura de mercados, incluyendo la participación del consorcio público privado IMIC-LA, como nueva forma de coordinación entre la investigación y desarrollo, y la producción y comercialización de semillas. Los datos disponibles con el consorcio de semillas IMIC-LA han proporcionado la oportunidad de actualizar la evidencia y proveer información detallada para profundizar en un sector de gran interés para México. Esta información, que no está comúnmente accesible dado que involucra información privada de las empresas, se generó por la necesidad de demostrar el impacto de la utilización de fondos públicos en el mejoramiento de maíz.El CIMMYT y los institutos públicos de investigación de México han sido la fuente de las variedades mejoradas e híbridos de maíz, multiplicados y distribuidas por las empresas nacionales, así como de las líneas y cruzas utilizadas como materiales de mejoramiento. La forma de la coordinación era mediante el abastecimiento de semilla básica y no había un intercambio sistemático de información sobre el origen y el uso y desempeño del germoplasma. Lo que es diferente con el consorcio es que involucra pruebas colaborativas de los materiales y un mayor intercambio de la información, no solo entre una empresa y un centro de mejoramiento sino entre todas las empresas y centros de mejoramiento miembros.La amplia participación de las empresas como miembros del consorcio y el desarrollo y comercialización de nuevas variedades de semillas sugieren un impacto positivo y un papel en el crecimiento y competitividad de las empresas semilleras nacionales. La contribución de la alianza público privada al crecimiento del subsector nacional es particularmente significativa en el contexto de competencia con empresas multinacionales líderes y provee un modelo alternativo exitoso de coordinación de la cadena de producción de semillas. En una industria más madura y más competitiva, el rol del consorcio es aumentar la información que posibilite a las empresas el acceso a germoplasma y la identificación de las mejores variedades de semillas en las condiciones específicas de los agricultores a los que se intenta vender, y a los centros de mejoramiento, la demostración de los beneficios de las semillas en los agricultores a los que se intenta impactar.El principal activo y actividad del consorcio es el intercambio de información en la red colaborativa de evaluación que permite identificar los híbridos de mejor y más estable desempeño, y las variaciones entre una zona y otra. Esta información es útil para las empresas para planificar la producción, distribución y promoción de las semillas. También es útil para los mejoradores que buscan identificar nuevas prioridades y necesidades de mejoramiento.La iniciativa de IMIC-LA es un ejemplo de esfuerzos intensivos en la recopilación y análisis de datos que son relevantes para mejorar la gestión del consorcio y validar su impacto, y para entender los sistemas de semillas en general. A nivel de la gestión del consorcio, puede ser útil para construir indicadores de participación de los socios, diseñar planes de mercado en áreas específicas y con agricultores específicos, incluyendo qué tipos de acuerdos promover con qué tipos de empresas y en qué términos de cantidad y tipos de variedades de semilla.A nivel de validar el impacto, se puede combinar y triangular con información del uso de las semillas por los agricultores y las diferencias de estas semillas en rendimiento, calidad para distintos usos y rentabilidad con respecto a otras opciones de semilla. El fortalecimiento del sector semillero se tiene que verificar finalmente en el aumento de la productividad agrícola. Es importante avanzar en la evaluación de cómo las semillas ayudan a los agricultores, e integrar los indicadores de la estructura del sector semillero con indicadores del desempeño","tokenCount":"6367"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"544d0112d4ec805bcdf3a8ca005da30b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4d8812c-4a49-4ea7-b38f-f443512978e6/retrieve","id":"829668409"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e6dd3cb9-c269-4550-a7d5-fb048dbc7c1d","pagecount":"1","content":"Fig 1. Biomass production of two varieties of Mucunapruriens, following the application of 30 tons manure/ha and Rhizobium inoculant Fig 2. Farmers' preferences of different varieties of forage legume at different Project sites Fig 3. Crop residues and agro-by-products popularly used by farmers in Eastern DRC•Livestock production in Eastern DR Congo is constrained by scarcity of veterinary extension services and the low nutritive value of forages during the dry season.•ILRI is collaborating with Food for the Hungry (FH) and IITA on the \"Tuendelee Pamoja II\" Project to improve smallholder farmers food security, household nutrition, income and resilience through (i) training of Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) and (ii) adoption of improvedTraining and equipping CAHWs 1.In most Walungu sites, herbage yield of M.Pruriens was high (6.1 tons DM/ha) in var. Utilis and lower (5.4 tons DM/ha) in var. Cochichennensis. However, an opposite trend was recorded at theKakono site only. Highest herbage yield (6.9 tons DM /ha) on var. Utilis was recorded where Rhizobium inoculant was applied in combination with manure.2.Farmers' preferences on forage legume varieties were influenced by biomass production, leaf size, animal preference and drought tolerance, in decreasing order. In the high altitude M.pruriens var.Utilis was most preferred, followed by M. pruriens var. Cochichennensis. In low altitude areas, preference followed the order, M. pruriens var.Cochichennensis > M. pruriens var Utilis > Lablab purpureus cultivar Highworth.Territory, which is more developed. Agro-industrial by-products are generally not used because of lack of knowledge,lack of storage facilities and shortage of cash to buy them.The 60 CAHWs are now working in their respective villages, under supervision of LocalGovernment veterinarians.Adoption of improved legume forages, efficient use of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products and the availability of CAHWs in the rural communities is leading to improved food security, nutrition, income and livelihood.PROJECT SITES (i) High altitude equatorial zone -Walungu territory (South Kivu Province), (ii)Tropical lowland agroecological zone -Kalemie and Moba Territories (Tanganyika Province)Component 1 : Scaling \"best-fit\" fodder optionsA field experiment with a RCBD and split-split plot arrangement of treatments was conducted in 3 villages of Walungu territory, to evaluate biomass production potential of the two varieties.. Forage variety was the principal factor, followed by manure and Rhizobium, respectively.Field demonstration trials were established in 6 villages of Walungu and 4 of Kalemie, to evaluate two varieties of M.pruriens (Utilis (white seeded) and Cochichennensis (black-seeded)) and two cultivars of Lablab purpureus (Highworth and Rongai). The trial involved participatory evaluation of forages by farmers.A data collection tool was developed to make inventory of crop residues and agro-by-products that are fed to different types of livestock in S.Kivu and Tanganyika ","tokenCount":"430"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7bad354fa8575455d6aeb4f998526c13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d1acf05e-932b-49f0-a374-5f9a8f029748/retrieve","id":"-958602283"},"keywords":["LWY","Hampshire","Indi (Doom) Arunachal: LWY","Indi"],"sieverID":"05703e20-7f07-4778-9942-030c8420742a","pagecount":"22","content":"1970-71: AICRP on Pig came in -To assess various genetic parameters of economically important traits of existing exotic breeds of pigs in India with respect to production, reproduction and efficiency of feed utilization. Tirupati & Jabbalpur : Large White Yorkshire Khanapara & Izzatnagar : Landrace Chronology (continued) 1976: National Commission on Agriculture recommend crossbreeding to AICRP centers. 1976: With the NEC funding Hampshire was imported and introduce in 30-Sow unit, Khanapara, BPBF-Khanapara and Barapani (Meghalaya). 1978: Large white Yorkshire was introduced. 1981: Indigenous breeds was started to maintain in organized farms for performance study. Chronology (continued..) 1988: Govt. of India imported LWH, Landrace and Saddle back 2002: Govt. of India imported Hampshire and gave it to Assam, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh. Thereafter no more importation Present: Fear of inbreeding depression, injection of new exotic gene is critically needed to scale up the performance NRCP: LWY, Hampshire (Ha) Ghungroo (Gh), Durock (Du), Indigenous (Indi)• Better growth rate and better feed conversion efficiency • LWY crossbred (75%) and Hampshire crossbred (75%) had higher value of litter traits than their respective 50% crossbred • The crossbreds had lower back fat thickness and higher lean cuts in their carcasses than the indigenous pigs Assam's pig breeding strategy• Non descript local breed of pigs to be upgraded by crossing with the exotic male pigs• The exotic male piglets which are available in the Govt. pig Breeding farms are to be distributed at minimal cost• Most of the states in India follow the same strategyChhattisgarh's pig breeding strategy• Cross-breeding of pigs with exotic breeds should be continued in areas where the community can afford to give additional feed and provide improved management conditions.• Recommends that the exotic and native breeds should be kept separate and not crossed.• They also have an important role to play in conservation of indigenous breeds of pigs.Mizoram's pig breeding strategy Distribution of good germplasm is not managing effectively• No real push for improvement of germplasm by govt. departments • Lack of concrete strategy to whom and to where the produced piglets will be sold to cross with which breed. • Little/ no subsequent follow up from the department • No selection and grading of piglets that are sold to farmers.• Many good quality piglets are even reared for fattening purpose.• Condition of govt. run pig farmers is poor.• Hereditary lines are not properly maintained.• No. of produced piglets from organized farms are negligible to meet the requirement Problems at farmers' field Thank you","tokenCount":"412"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b001bbcbfaa90edaddb66c79da17020a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2be67104-3acd-45ac-b683-42c91e194c30/content","id":"-1037742943"},"keywords":["Transgenic technology","Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize technology","communication","public awareness","insect resistant maize for Africa (IRMA) project"],"sieverID":"88b50ffc-c84c-447c-a8f1-8bf94b4e0f74","pagecount":"5","content":"The Insect Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) Project, aimed to improve food security through developing and deploying locally adapted stem borer resistant maize varieties using both conventional and biotechnology mediated methods, especially Bt technology. This technology uses a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to create transgenic maize varieties. Transgenic technologies have been a controversial and emotive topic in recent years, and the IRMA project was launched against this backdrop. To ensure widespread acceptance of the IRMA project and its Bt technology, the project carefully planned and implemented its communication and public awareness strategy. Following its public launch in March 2000, the project promoted an open communication environment and continuously engaged with stakeholders to update them on progress. The project achieved this through targeted and diverse communications products such as media articles and broadcast news pieces, newsletters, websites, videos and reports. To complement these, the project conducted annual stakeholders' meetings, and specialized training for frontline project staff and collaborators, especially extension agents. This paper reviews the IRMA Project's public awareness and communication strategy and analyzes its effectiveness.Transgenic technologies, also referred to as \"genetic modification\", \"genetic engineering\" or \"genetic enhancement\", have attracted considerable and emotive debate. The emotion is associated with perceived loss of economic, human and environmental safety. It is also associated with perceived adverse behavioral and physiological effects such as impotence (Juma, 2003;Keech, 2010). Both proponents and opponents have been effective in their communications and outreach efforts, based on the fact that the general public is now more informed about genetically modified organisms or *Corresponding author. E-mail: awangalachi@cgiar.org. Tel: +254 (0) 20 722 4619. 'GMOs', as they are commonly referred to. Globally, this communication has had both negative and positive effects. Both parties have disseminated information into the public domain, nevertheless, the facts may not always hold true. The Insect Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) project considered monitoring of the local, regional, and international media to be critical. This would help in assessing the credibility of news sources, and sift reports based on fact from those that were alarmist or sensationalist.This paper explores the communication activities undertaken by the IRMA project, and their impact on public acceptance. The goal of the IRMA project was to increase maize production and improve food security through the development and deployment of insect resistant maize to reduce losses due to stem borers. Using both conventional and biotechnology breeding techniques, the project combined the best available science to achieve its aims. As it dealt with a controversial product, genetically modified insect resistant maize containing a gene from Bacillus thuriengiensis (Bt), there was a lot of interest in this novel project and its end product.Before the launch of the IRMA project, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) and the project donor, the Novartis Foundation, considered Kenya and Zimbabwe as likely sites. After due consideration, it was determined to base the IRMA project in Kenya, making it the only sub-Saharan African country aside from South Africa to undertake such research. This project would serve as a reference point for other countries in the eastern Africa region in defining the scientific, regulatory, and communication issues in order to proceed effectively in establishing biosafety protocols and regulations. Establishing an effective communications strategy at diverse levels was also considered a priority.Communication was accorded a prominent role since the earliest discussions about the project among the donor, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center commonly called by its Spanish acronym CIMMYT for Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). This can be traced directly to the public relations difficulties related to genetically modified (GM) crops encountered in Europe and to a lesser extent, the United States, and the forceful opposition to them by powerful anti-GM organizations. It was not thought that introduction of GM crops in sub-Saharan Africa would be immune to such controversies and attacks, and so communication was considered a key thematic area for the IRMA project and guiding principles were discussed and established early on Mugo et al. (2003). This was the thematic area: \"Communication to raise awareness on the technology, promotion to raise awareness on the insect resistant maize varieties, and capacity building through training of personnel in biotechnology, and the establishment of biosafety facilities and other infrastructure necessary for development and use of insect resistance maize varieties\" (Mugo et al., 2003).Effective aspects of the IRMA communications and public awareness included the use of a multiple stakeholder approach, continuous stakeholder engagement, fostering public understanding, balanced media coverage and input into the policy development process. Among the communication strategies employed by the project were, annual stakeholders' meetings, project documents, a road show and monitoring of the media.Opponents of biotechnology, and specifically transgenics, Wangalachi et al. 4695 nics, appear to use sensationalism to further their cause. They have spread fear, warning consumers of alleged adverse effects on health, loss of biodiversity in the environment, and loss of markets for agricultural products (Karembu, 2009;Keech, 2010). Consequently, fields sown to genetically modified crops have been raided and demonstrations held against the production of genetically modified crops. In addition, there have been attempts to block passage of biosafety legislation (Karembu, 2009). The media have had some attention-grabbing headlines, for example, Reuters quoted Prince Charles, in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, saying \"… the widespread use of genetically modified crops would be the biggest environmental disaster of all time\". This story was headlined 'Prince Charles says GMO crops will be \"disaster\"' (Randall, 2008). Among the organizations that have strongly supported such claims are GreenPeace, the Canadian-based GM Free Consumers Network, and organic farmers worldwide. Some headlines, however, have indicated government support for the technology with The EastAfrican boldly stating 'Kenya govt wants to impose GMOs 'by force'' (Mbaria, 2008). The Times (UK) had a headline suggesting that those against GMOs had ulterior motives. Under the title 'Green activists 'are keeping Africa poor'', a leading British scientist accuses the west of impoverishing Africa by promoting traditional farming at the expense of modern scientific agriculture (Henderson, 2008). The development of GM crops has however not reached its full potential due to limited resources for research, low levels of awareness among consumers, and expensive and cumbersome regulatory processes (De Groote, forthcoming).In Africa, there have been several successful initiatives, spokespeople and media outlets that have fostered positive communications on transgenics, mainly in South and features in local and international dailies. Scientific publications such as the African Journal of Biotechnology have contributed to creating a critical body of credible biotechnology information. Other initiatives have included training of journalists, scientists and extension workers on effectively communicating the science and benefits of agricultural biotechnology.For communication to be effective, it needs to be targeted. In the case of communications on transgenic technologies it additionally needs to strive for balanced media coverage, foster public understanding, be a continuous activity, provide public input into the policy development process, communicate the benefits and not just the science, periodically survey public opinion, use a multi-stakeholder approach and provide information proactively (Keech, 2010).Initial activities included forecasting the project's information needs and how these would be met; understanding Kenyan audiences and their information requirements and preparing for stakeholders' meetings, which were deemed an integral part of the project's communications efforts.From the onset, transparency and openness were objectives of the IRMA project's communication efforts. Indeed, communication was one of the five themes in IRMA I and IRMA II. This was in part to counter anticipated attacks from anti-GM organizations, but even more as an approach to encourage stakeholder and media involvement. Because the project leadership accepted the science in support of development of transgenic maize, the project embraced increasing awareness about it.A key trait of the IRMA communications strategy was to keep the messages simple and to develop diverse products for the various audience segments-the educated lay public, journalists, non-governmental organizations, farmers, policymakers and project partners. A second key feature of the strategy was to create a sense of ownership among Kenyan partners and stakeholders by giving the project an African voice and face. This was accomplished through media training of scientists and project administrators. Later in the project, with the inquiries on transgenic maize received by KARI field agents and Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) extension officers, a third plank was added, aimed at training personnel at grassroots level.The IRMA project's communications activities were diverse, but coordinated. A focal point for communicating transparently with the public was organizing the annual stakeholders meeting. In addition to directly engaging key stakeholders on the communications front, this entailed developing joint press releases, drafting position statements, and actively engaging the media in either a panel format or with one-on-one interviews. In addition, IRMA would take advantage of events conducted by other organizations such as ABSF and ISAAA to conduct media outreach-both to Kenyan and international media.For general outreach, the communications team also produced a Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) document, a project brochure, and fact sheets, as well as articles in the CIMMYT annual report. For stakeholder and internal use, the communications team developed and produced the IRMA Updates quarterly newsletter, project annual reports, and an \"issues management\" matrix. IRMA also sought to take its information and messages directly to key audiences. It reached out to farmers and other stakeholders through participating in the popular national agricultural shows. Other initiatives included training of journalists and key extension officers (Mugo et al., 2005a).For the external officers, the project undertook an innovative \"road show\" of workshops in July 2005, traveling across Kenya to improve the effectiveness of frontline MoA extension staff and to receive input into the project's public awareness strategy. Five information sharing workshops were conducted at Mtwapa, Katumani, Embu, Kakamega and Kitale. In total, 120 resource persons and extension agents participated in the workshops, enabling them to better convey accurate information about Bt technology and the IRMA project. In addition, the roadshow team identified good communicators among the extension staff, and effective messages, suitable for video and radio productions, to reach farmers. To identify particularly effective messengers and messages, the project conducted a 'Star Search' exercise-a talent search for the best extension agent; this would be the person who had the ability to spread, most effectively and convincingly, key IRMA information and messages to farmer audiences in Kiswahili (the most widely spoken local language in Kenya) (Mugo et al., 2005b). In the years that followed, the IRMA project and the MoA collaboratively conducted workshops on biotechnology and biosafety for farmer organizations, to share information and harmonize use of limited resources (KARI and CIMMYT, 2007).Monitoring of the global media was useful in providing a context for the position statements and FAQs, synthesizing media trends and advising the IRMA project steering committee on implications for information efforts and developing an archive of information for use in presentations and publications. A clipping service was contracted out to Picasso Productions, a Kenyan media house, to monitor the Kenyan media. The report given in 2002 documented about 100 articles and 30 editorials related to agricultural biotechnology, mostly maize, that appeared in the major Kenyan newspapers. The service monitored features by the key words 'GM crops', 'Bt maize', 'KARI', and 'IRMA project'.The stakeholders to whom the IRMA project reached out included farmers, project partners, non governmental organizations (NGOs), other biotechnology organizations, seed companies, maize processors, Ministry of Agriculture officers, extension agents, donor agencies, journalists, scientists, and policy makers. The project developed targeted communications products and messages for each of these groups, and this was useful in taking the IRMA message further. For example, by ensuring that farmers, extension agents and journalists received the correct and appropriate messages on the GM technologies and the IRMA project, the project achieved mostly positive and balanced media coverage; additionally in a consumer survey on GM issues, respondents cited newspapers as being an important source of information (Kimenju et al., 2005).The IRMA project succeeded in engaging stakeholders throughout its project lifetime-first during its public launch and subsequently through the annual stakeholder meetings (Mugo et al., 2003). This was useful in three ways; it kept the project partners and other stakeholders updated on the project's progress, it improved the sense of ownership and inclusion by stakeholders and it engendered openness and provided a channel for stakeholders to highlight areas of the project research they wished to be included, further enriching the usefulness and relevance of the IRMA project and its products to the target community. The effectiveness of these initiatives was captured by participants' questions during the question-and-answer sessions of various stakeholder meetings. For instance, in 2002, these questions were on the stewardship of the Bt maize technology. This indicated that the IRMA project had by then communicated effectively on the technology, which was well understood by the stakeholders' representatives (Mugo et al., 2003). Questions shifted from the safety of the technology to demand for the technology.The IRMA project was commended by Kenya's Agricultural Secretary at the time for its comprehensive information and communication strategies, and for not leaving the public and the stakeholders behind, in the development of its technology. He praised the project for \"keeping stakeholders engaged through diverse ways including (these) annual stakeholders' meetings…\" (Mugo Wangalachi et al. 4697 et al., 2005a;Mugo et al., 2008;Mugo et al., 2005b;Mugo et al., 2003).During the 2007 stakeholder meeting, it was encouraging that participants' concerns centered on the project's implementation and when the Bt maize would be available to farmers rather than questioning the technology; this gave confirmation that consumers and stakeholders had gained acceptance of the technology as a result of adequately having their concerns addressed throughout the course of the project (Mugo et al., 2008).The IRMA project communications team did not set out to create a 'positive spin' on GM technologies, or on the IRMA project, its processes and products, but instead sought to achieve balanced media coverage. This was achieved through transparency, having effective spokespeople, being proactive in seeking and exploiting media opportunities as offered through the monitoring service or as they emerged, effectively supporting scientists before they gave media interviews, and reacting immediately to negative news. Through Picasso Productions and journalists invited to stakeholder meeting, the IRMA project was able to get its stories and features placed in the leading Kenyan papers, and television stations. In addition, the IRMA project had some significant media events, mostly around the many 'firsts' that the project had achieved. Two of these were the launch of the first biosafety greenhouse complex, in Africa, outside of South Africa, on 23 June 2004 and the first planting of the Bt maize on Kenyan soil in confined field trials at Kiboko on 27 May 2005 (Mugo et al., 2005a).The official opening of the project's biosafety greenhouse complex in 2004 by Kenya's President (H.E. Mwai Kibaki) was a huge media draw in itself and was perceived as a presidential endorsement of genetic engineering for agricultural advancement in Kenya. This high visibility launch was not serendipity, but rather the result of a concerted effort in which KARI and project leadership persuaded the MoA of the historic aspects and impact of the biosafety greenhouse opening, which in turn relayed this to the Office of the President. The ripples from this event spread continent wide, with news of the de facto endorsement appearing extensively in major local, regional and international channels including Cable News Network (CNN) International and Africa (aired at least three times on the CNN World News Report).The first planting of the Bt maize confined field trials was also well attended by local journalists and both the planting and the IRMA project were covered extensively on television, print and in electronic media. Coverage also extended to The New York Times, and The International Herald Tribune, Reuters wire service, and to SciDev.Net, among numerous other global websites (Mugo et al., 2005b).Despite unforeseen setbacks, such as the halting of the first Bt trial, CIMMYT and KARI partners openly engaged the media about the stoppage due to a technical error, where a systemic pesticide was inadvertently applied to plants already infested with stem borer larvae, obliging the scientists to repeat the experiment. This helped in building the credibility of the IRMA project, and the project went ahead with a reputation of having nothing to hide, thus establishing long-term trust in the eyes of the general public.The IRMA project contributed to the development of the Kenyan biosafety policy through its various communications efforts, presentations by scientists at different fora, and collaboration with similar stakeholders, such as granting interviews for the Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation-commissioned video for use to drum up support for the Biotechnology Policy and Biosafety Bill, which came up for debate in 2008 in Kenya's parliament and was passed in 2009 (GoK, 2009). Through effective documentation of all the processes and progress of the IRMA project, useful information was captured that informed the design of similar transgenic maize technology projects, namely the Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) and Improved Maize for African Soils (IMAS) projects, both executed by CIMMYT together with other partners.The IRMA Project has been described as having defined the course of biotechnology activities in Kenya. It has also serves as a testing ground for national biosafety regulations and guidelines (Mugo et al., 2008). This paper has offered experiences from the first two phases of the IRMA project, showing the activities undertaken in disseminating information to the general public. The project was effective in communicating about its transgenic technology, and countered attacks from opponents of the technology, thus succeeding in gaining widespread stakeholder acceptance, and building the foundation for follow up agricultural biotechnology projects with a transgenic component. Reassurance, clarity, awareness and information are keys for any successful communication initiative. Thus, the IRMA project strives to provide accurate information to consumers, and to farmers, and this has led to the success of the project.","tokenCount":"2957"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"905cc69e5b531d06fb3805061c447740","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6995b24-a214-4e41-9210-04d617643329/retrieve","id":"-613019431"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c37d4636-efbf-4fbf-b432-20cd2dcca2d5","pagecount":"18","content":"It is well recognized in the development literature that movement in and out of poverty is caused by several demographic, economic and natural factors that are within and outside the control of the household. This paper uses primary data collected from a sample survey to understand the major factors behind changes in economic conditions in a coastal province in South Vietnam. The survey was conducted in 2001 in five purposively selected villages to (i) understand the livelihood systems in the Vietnam coast; and (ii) analyse the impact of government intervention (construction of embankments and sluices to prevent saltwater intrusion) for water management on rural livelihoods. A comparative analysis of costs and returns of intensified rice farming, rice-shrimp farming and semi-intensive shrimp farming is conducted to study the effect of the change from the brackish-water to the freshwater system on the productivity of land, the most important asset possessed by rural households. An income determination function is estimated to analyse the effect of the endowment of various capital items on household income. Farmers were asked to report changes in economic conditions over the last ten years and the reasons behind the changes. These qualitative data were related to the endowment of capital at the household level to analyse the factors contributing to the poverty dynamics in the region.Since the reunification in 1975, the government of Vietnam has sought to improve the livelihood of the rural population mostly through agricultural development focusing on technological progress in rice farming. The doi moi policy (renovation) from the late 1980s, with a market-oriented economy, had a positive impact on agricultural production, especially rice production. As a result, Vietnam turned from being a net importer to a major exporter of rice in the world market. The Mekong River Delta (MRD) has been the major source of the growth in rice production and exportable surplus over the last two decades. However, because of saline intrusion, the growth in rice production in the coastal parts of the delta lagged behind that of other regions. To cope with this problem, the government began investing in the early 1990s in the construction of a series of embankments and sluices along the coast to prevent saline water incursion, with the objective of intensifying rice production and improving farmers' livelihoods (Hoanh et al., 2003).This study assesses the effects of government intervention on the livelihoods of the people in Bac Lieu Province, a coastal province in the MRD. We want to test the proposition that, although increasing ricecropping intensification through control of saline water intrusion could lead to improvements in livelihoods of the people dependent on rice farming, it might adversely affect the livelihood strategies of the people who rely on fisheries and shrimp farming using brackish water, an important resource in the coastal area.The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) (Chambers andConway, 1992: Carney 1998;Dearden et al., 2002) was used as the framework for the study. Livelihood constitutes the capacities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities needed for a means of living. Livelihoods are sustainable when they are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses, are not dependent on external support, maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources and do not compromise the livelihood options of others.The SLF starts with five categories of capital (assets) and an understanding of how people use them as a means for livelihood strategies. These assets are (i) human capital, for example, good health, skills and knowledge; (ii) natural capital such as land, water and biotic resources provided by nature; (iii) physical capital accumulated by the people themselves; (iv) financial capital comprising liquid resources such as cash in hand, savings, jewellery and credit; and (v) social capital such as networks and relationships with people and organizations, and personal qualities. The livelihood strategy depends on the household's endowment of these various assets.The productivity of capital and livelihood outcomes are largely determined by organizations, institutions, policies and infrastructure that are beyond the control of the households. In the SLF analysis, these are called transforming structures. The sluice gates and the canal system developed by the government to control intrusion of saline water in the coastal area are examples of a transforming structure. The market forces and institutions that determine the prices of products and inputs are also part of the transforming structure, and they also determine the productivity of capital and returns to enterprises and ultimately have an impact on the livelihood outcomes. Vulnerability context frames the external environment in which people operate. These are shocks, trends and seasonal fluctuations, such as natural disasters and price fluctuations, that influence people's livelihoods and their belongings, but are beyond their control. An important livelihood strategy is to accumulate enough assets to develop resilience to these external shocks.The pathways for moving out of or into poverty that we call 'poverty dynamics' can be analysed using the sustainable livelihood framework. Many earlier researchers (such as Mellor, 1986: Lanjouw andStern, 1993;Fields et al., 2003) identified the major forces for the enrichment of livelihood. They include (i) technological progress in agriculture; (ii) accumulation of physical and human capital; (iii) occupational mobility from farm to non-farm activities; and (iv) rural-urban migration.There are also forces that drag households into poverty. The most important is the increasing population resulting from demographic factors. As children grow up and form their own households, the endowment of natural and physical capital declines (Hayami and Ruttan, 1985). The other factors causing downward mobility are death and disability of earning members, natural hazards and market-induced adverse movement in terms of trade for agriculture.To assess the importance of various factors behind poverty dynamics, panel data for each household through longitudinal surveys are needed. But we do not have such data. Therefore, we asked respondents these questions: 'What has changed in the economic conditions of the household over the last 10 years?' and 'What are the factors behind the change?' We also made a quantitative analysis of the effect of the change from the shrimp-based to rice-based system on the people in different zones with data on costs and returns in rice and shrimp farming.The study covers Bac Lieu Province, an area covering 254,000 ha, of which about 200,000 ha are cultivated. It supported a population of 764,000 in 2001. To increase agricultural production, particularly rice, from 1994 to 2000 the government constructed a series of sluices progressively from the east to the west to prevent saltwater incursion (Fig. 3.1). As a result, the canal water progressively became fresh from the east to the west, as indicated by the retreat of the isohalines in Fig. 3.1.Based on the soil types and the duration since canal water has become fresh, the project area can be classified into three zones.• Zone 1 is found in the east of the project site (east of the 1998-isohaline, Fig. 3.1), is characterized by alluvial soil types, with water and environment changed from a brackish-water ecology to a freshwater ecology before 1998. Hereafter, this zone will be called an 'early intervention zone' (EIZ). • Zone 2 lies in the middle section of the study area, in between the 1998-and 2000-isohaline. Large areas of this zone have acid sulphate soils. Water and environment changed to a freshwater ecology after 1998 and before 2000. This zone will be referred to as a 'recent intervention zone' (RIZ). • Zone 3 lies to the west and north of the 2000-isohaline. This area is not affected much by the closure of sluices because saline water can flow throughout the area from the East Sea when the sluice system is closed, and therefore is called a 'marginal intervention zone' (MIZ).To assess the impact of the government intervention on peoples' livelihoods at the study site, we first conducted a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in order to draw a general picture. Next, we conducted a household survey to gather relevant data on the operation of the household economy and to understand livelihood strategies.The information obtained at a particular point in time can be used to depict the changes in the livelihood system over time induced by the salinity control intervention. The EIZ represents the situation of stability after the transition from the brackish-water system to the freshwater system is complete. The MIZ represents the situation in the coastal area in the absence (or with little indirect influence) of government intervention. The RIZ represents the situation in transition from the brackish-water system to the freshwater system.Using this typology and the results from the PRA, we purposively selected five villages: two from the EIZ, two from the RIZ and one from the MIZ. All households in the selected villages were interviewed with a structured questionnaire to collect data on different aspects of the operation of the household economy. The name of the villages and the sample households covered by the survey can be seen in Table 3.1 and locations are shown in Fig. 3.1.The following information on the three zones was obtained from key informants through a PRA.According to the key informants, the salinity in the area started to decrease in 1994, and in 1997 it was about 50% of the level of the pre-vious years, and since then fresh water has been found in all canals almost all year round.Before 1990, swamp land occupied a large area, with abundant supplies of natural shrimp and fish. Most of this swamp land was converted to rice land from 1996 to 1998. With the increased availability of fresh water, rice cropping in the village shifted from one crop of traditional varieties in the 1980s to double cropping by the adoption of shortduration rice varieties. In 1999, farmers tried further intensification by growing three rice crops. But, as the yield for each season dropped, farmers reverted to double cropping of rice. On the relatively high land, they started growing vegetables, maize, sugarcane and fruit trees as the area became flood-free. The natural catch of shrimp and fish decreased substantially, leading to a decline in employment and income from fisheries, particularly for poor households. However, intensification of rice farming generated opportunities for hired work for the landless and marginal farmers. Labourers from the different upper provinces migrated to compete with local residents for this work, so many poor farmers had to move to the provinces nearby to seek work after the second rice crop. Raising freshwater fish in ponds that were no longer flooded became a common source of supplementary income among the economically better-off households.Before 1996, farmers used to cultivate one traditional saline-tolerant rice crop in the rainy season and shrimp in the dry season. Poor households that did not own land worked as hired workers in shrimp fields, cultivated rice and caught natural shrimp and fish. After 1996, as canal water became progressively fresh, the production system changed. In 1998, 10% of the area under shrimp was converted to raising modern, high-yielding rice varieties. The area allocated to rice increased to 70% in 1999 and to 100% in 2000. Although fresh water was found in the canals, acid sulphate soil caused very low rice yields in spite of the use of high-yielding rice varieties. Farmers saw very low returns to rice production, and some even lost money. The intervention affected the livelihood of all categories of households in this area, but large farmers were particularly hard hit. Some farmers started to raise tiger shrimp but few succeeded in getting a good crop. Since the harvest of natural fish had been the largest share of income of the poor groups, their livelihood was particularly negatively affected by the loss of this source of income due to the enclosure of the sluices. The poor started migrating to other places to trade their labour.Farmers cannot grow rice in the dry season because of the saline soil and water. After one or two shrimp crops in the dry season, farmers rotated with one salinity-tolerant traditional rice crop in the rainy season. This rice-shrimp system proves to have sustainable productivity. Lime is used in shrimp culture to ameliorate soil acidity; it has positive effects not only on shrimp cultivation but also on rice production in the next season. This resulted in an increase in rice yield from 2 t/ha in 1998 to 3-4 t/ha in 2000.Human capital was the predominant asset in the area. An average household consisted of 5.1 persons. The proportions of males and females were equal. The economically active age group (15-67) constituted 67% of the population. About 92% of the males and 87% of the females in this age group participated in economic activities. The average number of workers per household was 3.3; 85% of them were engaged in agriculture (Table 3.2). The quality of human capital in terms of educational attainment of the workers was low. The average years of schooling for the household head (manager) were 4.4 and for the average worker 4.6. For the household head, 12% had had no formal schooling, 40% had attended primary school only, and just 5.5% had graduated from secondary schools. Nearly 14% of the households are managed by women.The area was well endowed with natural capital by Vietnamese standards. The average size of land owned by the household was 1.56 ha, compared with 1.15 ha for the Mekong River Delta and 0.72 ha for Vietnam as a whole. Of this land, 0.11 ha was used for homestead and another 0.11 ha as orchards and homestead gardens, and 1.33 ha as cultivated land (Table 3.2). Very little land was used for raising fish or shrimp, except in the village from the MIZ. The land area under shrimp farming in that village was 1.99 ha.Households that operated no land constituted 16% of all households. The number varied from 6 to 22% among the five villages. The proportion of the non-farm households was higher in the MIZ. Thus, a sizable proportion of the households was dependent on only human capital for their livelihood. Smallholdings with a size of up to 1.0 ha constituted 37% of the households, while farms of over 4.0 ha that could be considered as large constituted only 3.2% of the households. Some 22% of the households operated holdings of more than 2.0 ha and controlled over 52% of the total land. The incidence of tenancy cultivation was rare except in the village in the MIZ, where 10% of the cultivated land was tenant-operated (Table 3.2).Owing to the concentration of the canals, the area had good control over irrigation. Nearly 92% of the land was irrigated, of which 85% was irrigated by pumps and the remaining 15% by a gravity system. The accumulation of physical capital was still at a low level. About 45% of the total value of non-land fixed assets was used for agriculture (Table 3.2). The amount of money borrowed from different sources was US$220 per household. Nearly 85% of the loan was obtained from institutional sources.The level of social capital can be measured by membership of the households in different organizations and networks. Only 11% of the households reported membership in the Farmers' Union, 4.2% in the Veterans' Club and 2.5% in the Women's Union. Members from six out of the 911 households were actively involved with the Communist party.The variation in capital endowment in the three zones can be noted in Table 3.2. The endowment of land was higher while the level of education of the workers was lower in the MIZ than in the other zones. For other capital items, there was only a marginal difference.Among the assets, the physical capital was most unequally distributed, with the bottom 40% of the households owning only 7% of the capital, whereas the top 10% had a share of 42% (Table 3.3). The least unequally distributed capital was the level of skills of the workers. The distribution of land was also fairly unequal. The income originating from the improvement in productivity of land and physical capital is thus expected to be unevenly distributed among the households in the area.Households use their capital endowments in different ways to make a living. Table 3.4 provides information on the occupational distribution of the workers at the study sites. In the survey, the respondents were asked to report a maximum of two occupations, the principal (in which the major portion of time was allocated) and the subsidiary for each household member. The responses indicate that about 17% of the workers had a secondary occupation. The dominant source of livelihood was farming (Table 3 The data show high dependence on land as the source of livelihood. Women were engaged in farming almost to the same extent as men. But some gender difference in the occupational structure can be noted in Table 3.4. Table 3.5 reveals some differences in livelihood strategy among the three zones. A larger proportion of workers were dependent on farming in the EIZ than in the MIZ, indicating a positive effect of rice intensification on employment generation. But, the effect on the generation of employment for hired workers was marginal. Engagement in handicraft production was limited mostly to the MIZ. The higher engagement in handicrafts in this zone is presumably due to the availability of raw materials in the saline areas (nipa leaves, mangrove forests, etc.) and also to the demand for products in fishing, fish processing and storage, and fish trade. A substantially larger proportion of workers reported other agriculture (livestock raising, aquaculture, etc.) as a subsidiary occupation in the EIZ. With salinity control came a greater opportunity for earning income through vegetables, horticultural crops and livestock raising. The data on the sources of household income show minor involvement of households in many economic activities (Table 3.6). A majority of the households reported some income from cultivation of other crops, livestock raising and forestry, but the amount of income earned from these activities was less than US$100 per annum. In terms of the contribution to household income, the major activities in order of importance were shrimp farming (43%), rice farming (22%), agricultural wage labour (10%) and non-agricultural labour, including handicrafts (6%).The average income earned by a household was estimated at US$1032 during the year. With the household consisting of 5.1 members, per capita income was estimated at US$203 (Table 3.6). About 85% of the income came from agriculture (including aquaculture). However, there was a large variation in income in the three zones (Table 3.7). Per capita income was US$635 in the MIZ, owing to the large income contributed by shrimp farming and fisheries. Per capita income in the EIZ was less than a quarter of that in the MIZ. Although availability of fresh water facilitated intensification of rice farming, the loss in income from shrimp farming and fisheries far outweighed the increase in income from rice farming.The average per capita income was only US$99 for the RIZ. The transition from the brackish-water to the freshwater regime indeed had a much more substantial negative impact on livelihood. Although the average size of cultivated land was higher in this zone than in the EIZ (see Table 3.2), the income from rice farming was less than a fifth, which pushed down the average household income in this zone. Agricultural workers selling labour to rice farmers earned more than the rice farmers themselves. Low rice yield could be attributed to the acid sulphate soil.The income was also fairly unequally distributed, with a Gini coefficient of total income of 0.56 (Table 3.8). This high degree of income inequality is mainly due to the highly unequal distribution of income from shrimp farming (Gini coefficient = 0.73). The income from rice cultivation was more equally distributed (Gini coefficient = 0.48). The income inequality analysis at the village level shows relatively less inequality within a village. The Gini coefficient in the two villages in the EIZ was 0.46 and 0.37, whereas the estimate for the village in the MIZ was 0.63. The income situation in the two villages under transition (in the RIZ) was not normal during the year of the survey because of substantial income losses from rice cultivation. Actually, it is the larger land-owning households in these villages that suffered more. As a result, the income distribution was in fact better than in normal circumstances. The concentration coefficient of income in this zone was 0.38 and 0.44. These numbers at the village level suggest that the very high concentration of income for the study area as a whole is partly due to the high inequality of income across villages.Since the level of income is low, and it is highly unequally distributed, the incidence of poverty is expected to be very high in the study area. We have measured different indices of poverty using the method suggested by Foster et al. (1984). The povertylevel income is taken as US$127 per capita per year, adjusting the norm used by the Vietnam government by changes in the cost of living index. It is substantially lower than the dollar-a-day norm that the World Bank uses for comparing poverty across countries (World Bank, 2001). The estimated numbers are reported in Table 3.9. For all five villages together, the number of households living below poverty was estimated at 44% for the year of the survey. The numbers varied from 23% for the MIZ to 37% in the EIZ, indicating that the intervention had a negative impact on poverty reduction. The poverty incidence was very high for the villages in the RIZ because of the drastic fall in income from the water management intervention. It can be noted that, although the income inequality was very high in the shrimp-producing village in the MIZ, the poverty situation was lower than in the villages that practised intensified rice farming with fresh  water. Thus, the change from shrimp farming to rice farming not only reduces the income of the better-off sections of society but also contributes to an increase in poverty. What do the people themselves think about poverty in a locality? Interest is growing in the participatory measurement of poverty (Narayan, 2000;World Bank, 2001). We asked the respondents to report whether they would consider their households as 'extremely poor', 'moderately poor' or 'nonpoor'. The findings on this self-perception of poverty are reported in Table 3.10. The qualitative data should reflect the poverty situation in a normal year, rather than for the year of the survey as measured by our objective analysis of the quantitative data. For the study area as a whole, 51% of the households considered themselves as 'poor', with 14% as 'extremely poor'. The proportion of poor households was reported to be lower in the shrimp-producing village (MIZ) than in the villages in the EIZ. These findings are similar to those from the objective analysis reported earlier.Table 3.11 shows self-perception of poverty by major socio-economic groups. The incidence of poverty was substantially higher in the households managed by women than in the male-headed households. Extreme poverty is concentrated in households operating less than 0.4 ha of land,  Government investment in the construction of embankments and sluices for maintaining fresh water for rice cultivation could be considered an element of a 'transforming structure', an external force to promote agricultural intensification and diversification. Since natural capital (land and water) and human capital (workers) are the dominant assets, such an intervention is important to mark the first step towards enrichment by improving the productivity of land and labour.Table 3.12 presents information on seasonal yields and annual productivity of the rice and shrimp system. The village Ninh Quoi, that produces three rice crops a year, had a total rice production of 11.8 t/ha/year valued of US$1381 and net returns to the household-owned resources of US$761. Growing three rice crops is too taxing, however, for maintaining soil fertility. In Minh Dieu, the other village in the EIZ, farmers grew two rice crops a season and had net returns to family resources of US$606 per year. Farmers of Ninh Thanh Loi village in the MIZ grew one rice crop using traditional varieties and had net returns of US$243 from rice. But, in addition, the farmers harvested shrimp and fish in the other two seasons from the same land and got a yield of 289 kg/ha/year, equivalent to 16.1 t of rice. The net returns from shrimp/fish cultivation per year were estimated at US$1337 per ha. The village got total returns of US$1580 per ha per annum from the rice-shrimp system. Thus, compared with the most intensive rice system that the government intervention has induced, the pre-existing rice-shrimp system Livelihood Systems and Dynamics of Poverty It should be mentioned here that shrimp prices were more favourable than rice prices in the year of the survey. One kg of shrimp was equivalent to 55 kg of rice (US$6.53 versus US$0.12 per kg). Both rice and shrimp prices fluctuate from year to year, but the shrimp market is more volatile. Even if the relative price of shrimp had declined by 50% from the level of 2001, the rice-shrimp system would remain more profitable than the intensive rice production system.The other consideration for poverty reduction is generation of employment for resource-poor households. We estimate that the rice-shrimp system generates employment of 57 days per ha per year (35 days in two shrimp seasons and 22 days in one rice season), almost equivalent to the days of employment generated in three rice crops in the intensified rice system. Since shrimp is almost entirely marketed and is a perishable crop, it generates additional employment in processing, storage, transport and trade, which is higher than in postharvest and marketing operations of rice.To conclude, the investment in water management intervention did not contribute to improvement in agricultural productivity and employment generation, a step on the road to livelihood enrichment. We have noted in the previous section that the offfarm and non-farm economic activities were still relatively unimportant because of the limited accumulation of physical capital, low levels of education and limited market for non-farm goods and services. The extent of rural-urban migration is also low, as indicated by the small proportion of households receiving remittance (Table 3.7).To assess the factors causing movement into poverty, we asked respondents to report the major crises that had hit these households over the previous 10 years, and how they  coped with these crises. Some 25% of the households reported facing one or more crises during the period. The major crises that caused vulnerability to livelihood were destruction of property by Typhoon Lynda (1997) and floods, death and disability of earning members, an occasional drastic fall in paddy price, death of livestock and loss of soil fertility caused by salinity, in that order of importance. The amount of loss incurred from crises varied from 1 to 10 million VND (US$66 to US$660), with a majority mentioning a loss of from 1 to 5 million VND. A majority reported that they coped with a crisis by using their own savings or by selling or mortgaging property. One in four respondents borrowed money and 17% got help from relatives. Only 38% of the people were able to recover from the losses totally, and 51% partially recovered. Twelve percent of the households were unable to recover from their losses.Table 3.13 reports the opinions of the respondents on changes in economic conditions over the decade prior to the survey. Downward mobility was reported mostly in the two villages in the RIZ (in transition), where two-thirds of the households reported a deterioration in economic conditions. Upward mobility was most pronounced in the MIZ, where 60% of the households reported upward mobility. The net change was also positive in both villages in the EIZ. The major factors behind the improve-ment in economic conditions in the MIZ (the shrimp-based system) were an increase in shrimp or fish production, followed by an increase in rice production (Table 3.14). In the EIZ (the rice-based system), the major factors behind upward mobility were reported as an increase in rice production, followed by an increase in employment opportunities and engagement in livestock production.The major reasons behind downward mobility in the RIZ were a reduction in both shrimp and rice production. The closure of the sluice gates reduced the availability of brackish water needed for shrimp production. But, the acidity in the soil and the inexperience in the cultivation of modern rice varieties did not contribute to a compensation for the loss through an increase in rice production.A significant proportion of the households in Ninh Quoi village in the EIZ also reported downward economic mobility. With the availability of fresh water, this village started growing three rice crops, which adversely affected soil fertility and caused a gradual reduction in rice yield. The reduction in rice production was reported as a major factor behind the downward mobility (Table 3.15). Other factors that contributed to the downward mobility in the village were an increase in health hazards for the farmers (increased incidence of malaria because of stagnant water in the canals) and a reduction in income from trade (the construction of sluices adversely affected inland water transport). The government intervention in water management indeed succeeded in controlling saline water intrusions into Bac Lieu Province. This had encouraged farmers to grow a second rice crop and, in some areas, a third rice crop in the eastern part of the protected area, where there is good alluvial soil and canal water became fresh before 1998. However, management of coastal areas is not easy with regard to optimal resource use for increasing income, distributing it better and sustaining the quality of natural resources. The increase in rice production in the early intervention zone comes at the expense of a fall in the production of highvalue aquatic products, from both the raising of shrimp in brackish water in fields and the capture of natural fish in canals in the recent intervention zone, where the environment was in a transition from brackish-water to freshwater ecology. Given the prevailing prices of rice and shrimp, even at the low yield (150 kg/ha) under extensive cultivation, shrimp production was many times more profitable than rice production.The salinity control intervention had a negative impact on the livelihood of the poor. Lacking access to land and with minimal education, the livelihood of the poor depends heavily on catching natural fish and shrimp in the saline canal water. Those with marginal land were also negatively affected because they could not keep up with new technologies, and lacked capital to invest in adopting the new technologies of modern rice cultivation.The net effect of the government investment in the construction of embankments and sluices was a substantial reduction in farm income at the transitional stage. This situation could improve over time as farmers gain experience with the new land use and cropping patterns. In the long term, the production system in the RIZ may become simi- lar to that of the EIZ. But, because of the presence of acid sulphate soil, it is not expected that the land productivity will be as high as in the EIZ. Even if the productivity is as good as in the EIZ, farm income would still be lower than in the MIZ, where the production system was similar to that of the RIZ before the intervention.The high value and higher profitability of shrimp production indicate that the brackish water in the coastal area is no less important a natural resource than rice lands. Findings from this study have helped the Bac Lieu provincial government to readjust the landuse policy and water management strategies that allowed intensification of rice in the east of the province and, at the same time, a shrimp-based production system in the rest of the province. This has helped reverse the downward economic mobility of the transition zone (Hoanh al., 2003).The low yield of shrimp under present cultivation practices suggests that the productivity of the brackish-water resource could be further increased by developing and diffusing improved technologies and cultural practices. But this has to be done with caution. It has been shown that largescale intensive shrimp farming is risky, harmful to the environment and not sustain-able (see Szuster, Chapter 7, this volume). Even extensive shrimp farming in the long term may also negatively affect the environment and people's livelihood via a reduction in fruit trees, vegetation cover and homestead and livestock production (see Karim, Chapter 5, this volume). Long-term sustainability of the study area will depend upon limiting the intensification of shrimp culture and concerted action among all stakeholders to adopt integrated management of the environment. Also, shrimp raising would cause socio-economic inequality and worsen the distribution of rural income.The economy of the study site remains at a low level of development, with land and manual labour as the dominant resources. The limited accumulation of physical capital, low quality of human capital and limited market for non-farm goods and services constrained development of the non-farm economy, which has proved to be a major pathway of poverty reduction in many countries. The government should therefore invest more for education, electrification and transport infrastructure, and develop the infrastructure for research and extension for fisheries in coastal areas, as was done in the past for rice in the deltas.","tokenCount":"5496"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a2f23623f549e0bb6d7c9a690c545c4e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3879ab2-e261-4ef3-b168-db1dd50c84d8/retrieve","id":"1372106668"},"keywords":["Macroinvertébrés","distribution","bioindicateurs","petits plans d'eau","bassin de la Volta","Burkina Faso"],"sieverID":"ed2ef314-04e3-4c42-8c8c-83f3bf7440be","pagecount":"25","content":"Une étude des macroinvertébrés dans deux lacs de barrages hydro-agricoles (Bama et de Boura) et dans le lac naturel de Bala a permis de mettre en évidence la distribution spatio-temporelle des macroinvertébrés bioindicateurs de la qualité des eaux. La collecte des échantillons a été inspirée de la méthode conventionnelle de la Directive Cadre sur l'Eau de l'Union Européenne (DCE). L'étude a permis d'identifier 26405 individus de macroinvertébrés répartis en 71 espèces et 33 familles au total sur les trois sites de Bama (25 familles), Boura (23 familles) et Bala (30 familles). Les polluo-sensibles ont été décrites au lac naturel de Bala : des crustacés de l'ordre des Cladocères et 7 familles d'insectes (Gyrinidés, Pleidés, Baetidés Ephémérélidés, Tabanidés, Cératopogonidés et Canaceidés). L'étude a noté la présence de l'espèce Hydrocanthus ferruginicollis (Notéridés) particulièrement dominante dans les retenues hydro-agricoles de Bama (30,52% des Coléoptères) et Boura (27,32% des Coléoptères) ; tandis qu'elle ne représente que 7,51% des Coléoptères récoltés dans le lac naturel de Bala. Cette étude considère que les polluo-sensibles et les polluo-résitants décrits respectivement à Bala et à Bama et Boura peuvent être considérés comme de potentiels bioindicateurs des plans d'eau du bassin de la Volta.La petite irrigation a été au coeur de la recherche agricole des pays subsahariens afin de garantir la sécurité alimentaire (Burney et Naylor, 2012). La construction de structure de stockage d'eau tels les petits barrages répond en partie aux attentes des populations de ces régions. En effet, les avantages socioéconomiques de ces ouvrages régissent les dynamiques démographiques des zones rurales. D'une part, ils permettent la fixation des populations locales et d'autre part, ils exercent un véritable tropisme sur de nouvelles populations (Cecchi, 2007). Pourtant, la densification démographique et l'intensification agricole restent des causes majeures de dégradation des écosystèmes aquatiques (Leight et al., 2010 ;Sass et al., 2010). En effet, les contaminants issus des intrants agricoles jouent sur le développement du biote présent. Leboulanger et al. (2011) ont ainsi décrit la toxicité de cocktails de contaminants phytosanitaires sur les communautés planctoniques. Au Burkina Faso, avec près de 1700 retenues d'eau construites (Cecchi et al., 2009), la dégradation des écosystèmes liés aux plans d'eau artificiels et naturels devient une préoccupation croissante. Outre l'envasement, les pollutions physico-chimiques liées aux activités anthropiques endogènes de leurs bassins versants, ont motivé bien de chercheurs. Kabré (1994) a par exemple lié les problèmes de santé chez les juvéniles de tilapias aux perturbations écologiques constatées au niveau du lac de barrage de Loumbila au centre du pays. De manière générale, les ressources en eaux du pays semblent amorcer une détérioration qualitative (GIRE, 2001). Les perturbations des écosystèmes aquatiques se ressentent très souvent au niveau des communautés biologiques (Moisan et Pelletier, 2008). Ainsi, la surveillance de l'intégrité de ces écosystèmes s'est beaucoup basée aujourd'hui sur des mesures relatives aux communautés biologiques en place, et notamment les macroinvertébrés.Ces organismes diversement répandus au niveau des différentes strates de l'eau se caractérisent par leur polluo-sensibilité différentielle ; caractère utilisé en bioindication des écosystèmes aquatiques. Différents travaux se sont intéressés à ces organismes au Burkina Faso : on peut se référer à la liste faunistique des Chironomidées proposée par Déjoux (1977), aux travaux de Guenda (1996) sur les simulidés des bassins de la Volta, aux inventaires de la faune entomologique benthique rapportés par Kabré et al. (2000) et à la structuration des macroinvertébrés en général par Kabré et al. (2002). Cependant, aucune de ces études antérieures, ne met en exergue des taxons de macroinvertébrés aquatiques d'intérêt écologique voire bioindicateurs de qualité biologique de ces plans d'eau.La question recherche de la présente étude est que les activités agricoles ou anthropiques impactent la biodiversité et la distribution spatio-temporelle des macroinvertébrés inféodés aux plans d'eau du bassin de la Volta.La superficie de 247 200 km 2 du Burkina Faso est divisée en 3 grands bassins versants : le bassin du Niger, le bassin de la Comoé et celui de la Volta. Ce dernier est le plus vaste du pays avec une superficie de 178 000 km 2 (Figure 1). Il est subdivisé en 3 sous-bassins qui sont le sous-bassin du Nakambé, le sous-bassin du Nazinon et le sous-bassin du Mouhoun. Le sous-bassin du Mouhoun où se situent les trois plans d'eau (Bama, Boura et Bala) d'investigation de cette étude, a une superficie de 77 500 km 2 . C'est une zone assez bien arrosée par rapport au reste du pays : la pluviométrie annuelle varie entre 900 et 1500 mm. On y trouve des cours d'eau permanents, des lacs, des mares et des sources d'eau souterraines. Le climat de type tropical soudano-sahélien est caractérisé par l'alternance de deux saisons bien distinctes : une saison des pluies (mi-mai à octobre) et une saison sèche le reste de l'année. Les mois chauds sont les mois de février, mars, avril et de mai. Les températures minimales annuelles varient entre 18 °C et 26 °C (en décembre et avril respectivement), et les maximales entre 30 °C à 38 °C (en décembre et avril respectivement). L'évapotranspiration réelle est estimée à 860 mm (Wellens et al., 2009). Les cours d'eaux permanents de la région bénéficient de la contribution des ressources aquifères.Notre étude s'est focalisée sur le réservoir de Bama, le lac de barrage de Boura et le lac naturel de Bala (Figure 1). Le réservoir de Bama (11°23' N, 4°24' W) est localisé à une trentaine de kilomètres de la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso. Il est situé au coeur d'aménagements hydro-agricoles couvrant une superficie totale de près de 3000 hectares dont un périmètre rizicole irrigué établi en 1972 de 1260 hectares. D'innombrables parcelles y sont par ailleurs cultivées (bananes, maïs, papayes, choux, maraîchage) avec les mêmes cultures en hivernage qu'en contre saison. D'une superficie de 50 hectares environ, le réservoir de Bama est le fruit des déficiences techniques et du manque d'entretien des aménagements hydrauliques : il est situé au centre de nombreuses parcelles dont il collecte une partie des écoulements. Des mutations génétiques ayant favorisé l'adaptation des moustiques de la zone aux insecticides ont été rapportées par Dabiré et al. (2008) qui attestent des pressions contaminantes élevées.Le lac du barrage de Boura (11°02'N, 2°30'W) est situé dans la commune de Boura à 50 km de Léo, chef-lieu de la province de la Sissili et à environ 200 km à l'Est de Bobo-Dioulasso. Ce réservoir de 4,2 millions de m 3 a été créé en 1983 sur l'affluent principal du fleuve Sissili qu'est la rivière Kabarvaro pour répondre aux besoins pastoraux, humains et agricoles des populations riveraines. Son bassin versant (110 km 2 ) est intensément cultivé, principalement à des fins vivrières. Le réservoir soutient l'irrigation de plusieurs périmètres situés tant sur les rives du réservoir (environ 30 hectares de cultures maraîchères et de maïs) qu'en aval de la digue (de l'ordre de 75 hectares de riziculture et de maïs) et exploités tant durant la saison des pluies qu'en contre-saison. Une quarantaine de pêcheurs exploitent le site tandis que de très nombreux troupeaux viennent s'y abreuver, notamment en saison sèche, ce point d'eau étant l'un des rares pérennes de toute la province de la Sissili.La mare aux hippopotames de Bala (11°34'N, 4°10'W) est un lac naturel, avec une superficie variant de 80 à 350 ha (Béarez, 2003) et une capacité de l'ordre de 0,14 millions de m 3 , situé dans le village de Bala, département de Satiri à une soixantaine de kilomètres au Nord-est de Bobo-Dioulasso. La mare et l'intégralité de son bassin versant (192 km 2 ) ont été classées Réserve de la Biosphère par L'UNESCO en 1987, puis site RAMSAR en 1990 : toute activité agricole y est strictement interdite. D'une longueur de 2,6 km pour 700 m de largeur en moyenne, le lac est alimenté par le Tinamou qui prend luimême sa source au niveau de diverses résurgences phréatiques 4 km plus au sud. Le lac est localisé dans la pleine d'inondation du Mouhoun correspondant à une dépression au niveau de la rive droite du cours d'eau (Béarez, 2003). La mare aux hippopotames est située dans une zone de climat sud-soudanien, avec une pluviométrie moyenne annuelle de 1200 mm. La profondeur maximale du plan d'eau varie saisonnièrement entre 1 m et 4 m (Dibloni et al., 2010). Ce lac a été choisi comme site de référence puisqu'aucune activité agricole n'est autorisée à proximité immédiate.La collecte des macroinvertébrés aquatiques des trois sites a été réalisée mensuellement de février à juillet 2012. Ces mois correspondent à la saison sèche qui est une période de fort stress pour ce type d'écosystème aquatique tel que décrit par Aka et al. (2000), Thomas et al. (2000) et Arfi et al. (2001) Le contenu du filet composé de parties de plantes, de macroinvertébrés et de boue, est rincé à l'eau, puis les macroinvertébrés sont retirés et conservés à l'alcool 90° ; le reste étant conservé dans des bocaux de l'alcool 90° pour un tri au laboratoire. Ce filet a également servi à la capture des espèces de surface.Les insectes ont été identifiés grâce aux clés d'identification de Durand et Levêque (1981), Merrit et Cummins (1984), Tachet et al. (2000) et de Moisan (2006). Les mollusques ont été identifiés à l'aide de la clé de Moisan (2010) et de la publication de Brown (1980). Le document de Moisan (2010) a aussi permis d'identifier les vers. Le niveau taxonomique reste la famille pour certains individus ; néanmoins, l'identification des espèces fut possible en utilisant les documents déjà cités et les ressources du site web http://bugguide.net/node/view/351669/ tree.Les densités des macroinvertébrés benthiques (nombre d'individus au m 2 ) ont été calculées en pondérant les abondances obtenues par la surface effective de balayage (3 m 2 ). Trois groupes sont ainsi définis (Dajoz, 1985): le premier concerne les taxons \"très fréquents\" avec F ≥ 50%; le deuxième groupe correspond aux individus \"fréquents\" avec 25% ≤ F < 50%; les taxons rares forment le troisième groupe avec F ˂ 25%. Dans cette étude de comparaison de retenues, un quatrième groupe est aussi défini : il s'agit des individus absents avec F= 0%.L'indice de diversité de Shannon (Shannon et Weaver, 1949)   Un nombre total 26 405 individus de macroinvertébrés aquatiques ont été capturés pendant la période de collecte : 9914 à Boura, 9825 à Bama et 6666 à Bala. Cette population est très largement dominée par les insectes qui représentent 85,74% des captures. Les mollusques correspondent à 13,62% tandis que les vers (0,57%) et les crustacés (0,05%) constituent des communautés très marginales. Les Tableaux 1, 2 et 3 présentent les effectifs des différents macroinvertébrés aquatiques collectés dans chacun des sites. D'une manière globale, l'étude a permis d'identifier 26405 individus de macroinvertébrés répartis en 71 espèces et 33 familles au total sur les trois sites de Boura (23 familles), Bama (25 familles) et Bala (30 familles) (Tableau 7).Cinq ordres d'insectes ont été collectés au niveau des trois retenues à savoir les Coléoptères, les Hétéroptères, les Odonates, les Diptères et les Ephéméroptères. Les individus de ce dernier ordre ont été échantillonnés seulement au niveau du lac naturel de Bala.Les Les deux familles qui composent cet ordre à savoir les Beatidés et les Ephéméréllidés n'ont été échantillonnées que dans le réservoir protégé de Bala. Les individus ont été capturés au niveau des racines des macrophytes. Les valeurs quantitatives restent très faibles. En effet, les Beatidés représentent 0,21% des insectes et les Ephéméréllidés en représentent 0,04 %.Les vers représentent moins de 1% des macroinvertébrés échantillonnés (0,29% à Bama, 0,75% à Boura et 0,72% à Bala). Une seule famille à savoir les Hirudinés est présente dans nos échantillons. Ces individus ne sont pas strictement benthiques et leur nombre tend à s'accroître pendant les périodes de pluies.Les Cladocères sont les seuls Crustacées échantillonnés. Ils ont été rencontrés seulement à Bala et représentent 0,21% des macroinvertébrés de cette station.Cinq         -: F = 0% (taxons absents) + : F ≠ 0% et inférieure à 25% (taxons rares) ++ : 50%˃F ≥ 25% (taxons fréquents) +++ : 50% ≥ F (taxons très de fréquents) Tableau 6 : Résultat du t-test sur les moyennes des indices de diversités (valeurs mensuelles, N=6) des retenues de Bama, de Boura et de Bala.Bama-Boura Bama-Bala Boura-Bala Les études antérieures sur les macroinvertébrés aquatiques faites par Guenda (1996) au fleuve Mouhoun et Kabré et al. (2000Kabré et al. ( et 2002) )  Les taxons rencontrés durant la saison sèche dans les différents sites, et en particulier dans les retenues hydro-agricoles subissent les stress liés aux intempéries climatiques et aux agressions physico-chimiques dus à l'utilisation des pesticides et la dégradation des berges. Kabré et al. (2002) avaient mis en exergue l'effet négatif de la période d'étiage sur les populations de macroinvertébrés notamment les Diptères des systèmes lacustres. Dans nos échantillons, cet ordre d'insecte est très largement dominé par les Chironomidés, surtout au niveau du sédiment. Les travaux de Kabré et al. (2000) sur le lac de barrage de Bagré au centre du pays confirment cette dominance des Chironomidés au niveau du benthos des plans d'eau. En outre, la prolifération de Bulinidés au niveau de la vase constatée au niveau de nos trois retenues reste en adéquation avec les observations de Poda et al. (2006). En effet, pour ces auteurs, les aménagements hydrauliques présentent des risques sanitaires avec la prolifération des Bulinidés, hôtes intermédiaires des parasites des bilharzioses. Les individus appartenant à ces deux familles (Chironomidés et Bulinidés) sont ubiquistes. Les Coléoptères, autres insectes ubiquistes dans les trois retenues, se sont illustrés dans les travaux de Oertli et al. (2005 ;2010a ;2010b) pour la caractérisation de bonne qualité de l'eau des mares et étangs européens. Ces chercheurs associaient la bonne qualité des eaux aux Coléoptères, les Odonates, les Gastéropodes, les Amphibiens et Plantes aquatiques présents. Dans le même sens, les espèces de Coléoptères sont diversement représentées au niveau de nos trois retenues (Figure 2). Il est une réalité que ces plans d'eau européens sont plus grands et naturellement, ont des conditions climatiques différentes ; cependant, l'utilisation des Coléoptères en bioindication des plans d'eau du bassin de la volta est réaliste nonobstant des études plus approfondies sur leur niveau de sensibilité aux polluants, particulièrement l'espèce Hydrocanthus ferruginicollis de la famille des Notéridés fortement présents au niveau des retenues hydroagricoles (Figure 3). Toledo et Hendrich (2006)  Les densités moyennes de macroinvertébrés benthiques (57,33 à 517 individus au m 2 ) sont statistiquement identiques pour les trois sites (Tableau 4). Kabré et al. (2000) avaient obtenus dans le lac de barrage de Bagré des résultats comparables aux nôtres (129,2 à 483,3 individus au m 2 ). Guenda (1996)  Un seul taxon peut ainsi l'influencer, d'où sa non utilisation dans les études de bioindication basé exclusivement sur la polluo-sensibilité différentielle de plusieurs taxons. Les courbes de variation de l'indice de diversité des trois stations (Figure 6) indique une légère différence entre les stations anthropisées et la station de référence malgré que cette différence ne soit statistiquement pas significative. Fisher et al. (1982) avaient émis en effet le principe selon lequel l'indice de diversité est d'autant plus élevé que les conditions du milieu favorisent l'installation de nombreuses espèces.Le niveau taxonomique atteint dans notre étude n'a pas permis de constater cette différence significative au niveau du lac naturel de Bala. les Ephémérélidés (Ephéméroptères), les Tabanidés et les Cératopogonidés, les Canaceidés (Diptères) et les crustacées de l'ordre des Cladocères. Les familles qui n'ont été rencontrées que dans les retenues anthropisées (Bama et Boura) peuvent être considérés comme des polluo-résistants et pourraient être d'un autre type d'intérêt pour la bioindication de ces hydrosystèmes car leurs fréquences restent inférieures à 50%. Le site protégé de Bala confirme son statut de station de référence avérée par la présence des Ephéméroptères : cet ordre d'Insectes avait été classé par Moisan et Pelletier (2008) comme taxon sensible au niveau des écosystèmes aquatiques.Les communautés de macroinvertébrés de nos trois retenues restent largement dominées par les insectes avec plus de 85,74% de représentativité. Plus de la moitié de cet embranchement de macroinvertébrés est représenté par l'ordre des Coléoptères avec 78,90% dans la retenue de Bama, 85,14% au niveau du lac de barrage de Boura et 71,13% dans le lac naturel de Bala. D'une manière globale, l'étude a permis d'identifier 26405 individus de macroinvertébrés répartis en 71 espèces et 33 familles au total sur les trois sites de Boura (23 familles), Bama (25 familles) et Bala ( 30 ","tokenCount":"2708"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"74420f8ea665feb5e4de5894fd9a8f05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f12e40df-c02b-4073-87da-091c1ab4c5fe/retrieve","id":"-423501834"},"keywords":["land degradation neutrality","SDG","land productivity","land cover","NDVI","Landsat","vegetation-precipitation relationship","soil organic carbon","Google Earth Engine"],"sieverID":"4af9a1d8-ee69-4455-84f0-797e8d746239","pagecount":"21","content":"Monitoring land degradation (LD) to improve the measurement of the sustainable development goal (SDG) 15.3.1 indicator (\"proportion of land that is degraded over a total land area\") is key to ensure a more sustainable future. Current frameworks rely on default medium-resolution remote sensing datasets available to assess LD and cannot identify subtle changes at the sub-national scale. This study is the first to adapt local datasets in interplay with high-resolution imagery to monitor the extent of LD in the semiarid Kiteto and Kongwa (KK) districts of Tanzania from 2000-2019. It incorporates freely available datasets such as Landsat time series and customized land cover and uses open-source software and cloud-computing. Further, we compared our results of the LD assessment based on the adopted high-resolution data and methodology (AM) with the default medium-resolution data and methodology (DM) suggested by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. According to AM, 16% of the area in KK districts was degraded during 2000-2015, whereas DM revealed total LD on 70% of the area. Furthermore, based on the AM, overall, 27% of the land was degraded from 2000-2019. To achieve LD neutrality until 2030, spatial planning should focus on hotspot areas and implement sustainable land management practices based on these fine resolution results.Land degradation (LD) is defined as the \"continuous reduction or loss of the productivity of the land due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic causes\" [1]. It is a global problem and affects people, their livelihoods and nature. Studies suggest that up to 3.2 billion people live and depend on degraded lands [2] and that approximately a quarter of the world's lands are affected by LD [3,4]. Poor people, who often rely on agriculture, are most vulnerable to LD [5,6]. Lost ecosystem services due to land use and land cover (LULC) change and LD account for up to USD 10.5 trillion loss per year, which is about a sixth of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) [7]. Furthermore, biodiversity is declining globally, with tremendous losses in sub-Saharan Africa because of LD [6]. Projections suggest that lower productivity in the face of climate change will drive LULC change globally. Moreover, the population growth, combined with a changing diet, will have an enormous influence on agriculture and thus LD [8]. It is for these reasons that the world community introduced the sustainable development goal (SDG) 15.3, which aims to \"restore degraded land and strive to achieve an LD-neutral world\", highlighting the global importance of this issue [9,10].Tanzania is a hot spot of LD, with more than half its area showing signs of degradation [2,11]. It has the highest annual forest area net loss in East Africa and the fifth-highest worldwide [12]. The cost of LD has been summed up to USD 2.3 billion annually in the first decade of the new millennium [13]. Seventy-five percent of the total labor force, mostly rural people, work and depend on the agricultural sector, which is accountable for about 30% of the GDP [14]. Although the cultivated area increased in the last years, the output per hectare (ha) decreased, both in annual and perennial crops, even though fertilizer consumption quadrupled at the same time [15]. The number of undernourished people is growing and is currently more than 30% [16]. The population is increasing while agricultural productivity is stagnating, and the economic dependency on natural goods is still high. The consequences of this dilemma area persisting pressure on land and, thus, a probable conversion of natural into cultivated land in the coming years. The poor people's food security is also at risk, and in the coming years, in the face of climate change, new insecurities are likely to arise [17]. This holds especially true for the rural semiarid central districts of Kiteto and Kongwa (KK).Agricultural intensification and sustainable land management (SLM) are keys to halt and reverse LD [18][19][20]. One major constraint that prevents action is the lack of spatial information on the extent and magnitude of LD [18]. In contrast to the laborious fieldwork, remote sensing offers the unique opportunity to consistently assess vast areas over a long period [2][3][4]. Unfortunately, the existing LD maps have a coarse spatial resolution and provide inconsistent estimates of the affected area [8]. For example, previous estimates of the extent of LD in Tanzania range from 41% to half of the country [2,3,11]. These variations emanate from differences in definitions of LD, monitoring methods and lack of appropriate data [6,21]. In the course of SDG 15.3 implementation, standard methods for assessing LD were introduced, making reports more comparable.This new standard methodology, recommended by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), includes the usage of three sub-indicators for the complimentary assessment of LD [22]. The first sub-indicator, land cover (LC), reports changes in vegetation cover. The second, land productivity (LP), captures changes in ecosystem functions. The last, soil organic carbon (SOC), indicates slower changes resulting from biomass alterations [20]. The three sub-indicators are aggregated to form the land degradation indicator. Improvements in one indicator cannot compensate losses in others, as they are complementary and not additive. Thus, the \"one-out, all-out\" approach is applied whereby even if one indicator shows signs of decline and the others are positive, the land is deemed to be degraded [23].The recent Tanzanian national LD-neutrality (LDN) report follows these guidelines [24]. However, it only assesses LD for the first ten years of the 21st century and mainly uses global default data with a coarse spatial resolution. The 1 km coarseresolution is inadequate to monitor LD in small mountainous and highly fragmented landscapes, as it may miss out on smaller than pixel size LD areas [25].Overall, only a few studies have been published on the subject of SDG 15.3.1 monitoring and assessment. Gichenje and Godinho [26], for example, conducted a baseline assessment of the SDG indicator 15.3.1 for the years 1992 to 2015 using the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (8 km, AVHRR) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series and the European Space Agency (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (CCI) LC map in Kenya. In Mozambique, Frederique et al. [27] analyzed only the LD sub-indicator LP trend using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (250 m, MODIS) NDVI from 2001 to 2016.However, these studies share the common disadvantage of applying only default methodology and global datasets for national and subnational LD assessments. Though Akinyemi et al. (2020) used a customized 30m resolution LC map to assess the LC subindicator of SDG 15.3.1 in Botswana, this study relied on AVHRR time-series assessment for the LP sub-indicator. Furthermore, no studies exist in Africa that used high-spatialresolution datasets the assessment of more than one sub-indicator of SDG 15.3.1. Therefore, it is vital to overcome the existing research gaps and use high-resolution spatial data to provide improved information on the SDG 15.3 [28].In this light, the main aim of our study was to assess the SDG 15.3.1 indicator based on the newly adopted approach based on the higher resolution (compared to default UNCCD datasets) 30m Landsat time series and 30m LC maps and compare our results to the estimates of the SDG 15.3.1 based on the default UNCCD data and methods.Our study addressed the following research questions:• How much land is degraded, and where are the hotspots of LD in KK? • How do the individual sub-indicators affect LD? • Does using higher resolution data (30 m) improve the delineation of LD compared to moderate-resolution data (250 m)?The study site is situated in Kiteto and Kongwa districts, located in Dodoma and Manyara regions of Central Tanzania, respectively (Figure 1). The elevation ranges between 850 and 2100 m above sea level. The study area has a hot arid steppe climate [29]. The average monthly temperature stays between 19 and 25° C all year, and the precipitation is roughly 600 mm a year, with interannual differences of 500 to 800 mm. Large parts of northern Kiteto and more minor areas of the mountainous region in Kongwa are protected areas for nature and landscape conservation.The SDG 15.3.1 indicator and its three LDN sub-indicators were computed using the recommended default method (DM) with Trends.Earth [30] and the adapted methods (AM) using high-resolution Landsat (and other) datasets (Table 1). The DM (LC) map provided by the UNCCD is based on the 300 m ESA CCI LC map (Table 1). The AM utilized 30 m LC maps for 2000-2018 in the study area that the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resource for Development (RCMRD) developed. Both datasets were disaggregated into the six LC classes as defined by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), i.e., forestland, grassland, cropland, wetland, urban, and otherlands [31].The recommended global default dataset uses the MOD-13Q1-coll6 (250 m) MODIS-NDVI products [30]. In contrast, the AM was calculated based on a 30 m resolution NDVI from a combination of Landsat 5, 7 and 8 (Table 1). The Landsat time series were accessed and analyzed using Google Earth Engine [32], based on atmospherically corrected surface reflectance collections (Table 1). The Landsat 5 and 7 data were spectrally harmonized with Landsat 8 series using linear transformation [33]. As a further step to improve the image quality, the fmask was adopted to mask out clouds and cloud shadows [34,35]. Generally, the images with cloud cover scores higher than 80% were removed. Finally, the NDVI was calculated for each image, and then the images of the same admission time were merged and clipped to the extent of the study area. As it is recommended to constrain the observation period to the growing season to reduce the number of irrelevant assets for the computation and enhance the quality of the time series [22], we used the imagery from November to June. When using Trends.Earth, there is no possibility to apply the computation to the growing season, so the DM uses the whole calendar year. In order to integrate the rainfall information, data from Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) were used (Table 1). The SOC metrics were derived from the SoilGrids250m dataset [41] for the DM and the AM, as there is no national SOC database for Tanzania. SOC is measured at a depth of 30 cm and is stated as mass per area (e.g., tons per hectare (t/ha)) [22] .The calculation of the SDG 15.3.1 indicator is based on the \"one out, all-out\" approach ( [23] and Figure 2). The three LD sub-indicators (LC change, LP decline and loss of SOC) are estimated, and if one indicator signals degradation, the LD indicator will reflect this as well. A baseline is needed to compare the progress of LDN. The baseline year (t0) was set to be 2015 and is computed as the average of the period leading up to t0 (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015). The indicators are then remeasured in regular time intervals leading to 2030, and change is used to monitor the progress to accomplish LDN [20]. To calculate the indicator for the reporting year 2019 (t1), it is necessary first to assess the baseline util t0 and then calculate the change from the baseline to t1 (Figure 2). As a final step, combine both results. The details of the calculation of each indicator are explained in the following section. The three LD sub-indicators were created from satellite images using cloud-based geospatial computing. The indicators were calculated using Trends.Earth [30] and Google Earth Engine [32] for the DM and AM, respectively. As Trends.Earth currently only enables the computation for the baseline period (BP), the DM is only available from 2000 to2015.The first SDG 15.3.1 indicator is the LC change. To assess the LC degradation, the transitions between 2000-2015 and 2015-2018 were analyzed for the baseline and the first monitoring period (MP), respectively. To determine whether changes from one LC class to another are interpreted as degradation, a change matrix can help visualize the transitions (Table 2) based on the Good Practice Guidance by the UNCCD [31]. It is recommended to adopt this matrix for the national context. Therefore, transitions from grasslands to croplands were not considered LD for the AM to avoid tradeoff between ecosystems and food security and between nomadic and sedentary living.LP is described as \"the biological productive capacity of the land\". It is closely associated with net primary productivity [42], which can be measured directly with earth observation methods [22]. NDVI is a widely used index detecting LP [26,43,44]. The LP subindicator consists of three distinct components, namely trend, state and performance.The LP trend component measures the trajectory of change in productivity over time. It is calculated at the pixel level using linear regression and the Mann Kendall significance test [22,45,46]. Positive and negative changes in NDVI indicate increasing and decreasing productivity associated with vegetation recovery and degradation, respectively. The eight most recent years of data were used to create a new distinct and significant time series that is more responsive to present land conditions. Further, following [47], we accounted for the effect of rainfall variability on vegetation productivity trends by using the rain use efficiency (RUE) method.The LP state component represents recent changes in LP compared to the BP. The yearly NDVI mean images of the shortened BP (2000-2012) were normalized and assigned to classes from 1 to 10 based on their percentiles. To avoid annual fluctuations, contemporary values of the three-year anteceding t0 and t1 were classified in this scheme. Areas with a reduction of two or more classes were classified as degraded, while the rise by two categories was interpreted as an improvement [31].The LP performance component examines local productivity compared to similar ecoregions defined by the unique combination of SoilGrids [41], soil taxonomy great groups and LC classes (Table 1). The 90th percentile in each ecoregion was calculated as a proxy for the maximum productivity level. The LP performance was then calculated based on the ratio of the observed mean NDVI value per pixel and the NDVImax (90th). Values below 0.5 indicate regions where the LP is low and LD may prevail [31].The overall LP sub-indicator is calculated based on the three components mentioned earlier. As the LP trend is based on a statistically significant test, it is most influential, and its status determines LP degradation. Only if both LP status and LP performance show negative results, does the LP indicator also show degradation [22]. If only the LP state component shows degradation, this could indicate \"early signs of decline\" because the other indicators may not have detected the most recent LD. Further, if only performance shows degradation, there is no temporal trend, and the land is classified as \"stable but stressed\" [22]. In contrast to the Good Practice Guidance by UNCCD, Trends.Earth (DM) also incorporates the \"early signs of decline\" state component into the LP degradation [30].The Good Practice Guidance for the SOC sub-indicator is based on the maximum equilibrium SOC content at a location that is controlled by environmental factors such as rainfall, evaporation, solar radiation, and temperature [22]. The content can change based on three distinct change factors: First, the land-use factor represents SOC stock changes based on the type of land use. Second, the management factor reflects the management practice of the land use (e.g., grazing intensity on grasslands).Third, the input factor represents the different amounts of carbon input into the soil [22,48,49]. While the LULC change factor can be used with LC as a proxy, there are presently no sufficient datasets available to provide information about the management or the input for the other two indicators. Thus, the only indicator to assess SOC changes is the second LD indicator LC change [22]. Three sub-indicators, namely LC transitions, LP decline, and SOC loss, were estimated to derive the SDG 15.3.1 indicator using the default and adapted methods. The patterns of each sub-indicator based on DM and AM are described in the following sections starting with the BP from 200 to-2015 for both DM and AM. The first monitoring period from 2015 to 2019 is only assessed using the AM, as the data necessary for this period are currently not available in Trends.Earth.According to the DM based on the medium-resolution 300m LC maps, over 99% of the study area remained stable in the BP (2000-2015) (Table A1). Urban areas covering less than 0.1% of the study area experienced the highest relative expansion (56%). The forestlands were the only other LC class that increased in area significantly (4.4%) in the BP.In contrast to the DM, the AM with high-resolution (30 m) LC data revealed that 6.7% of the total area changed to a less desirable LC class, signifying LD, and only 2.3% of analyzed areas improved. The area of (semi)natural LC, such as forestlands (−19%), grasslands (−6.6%) and wetlands (0.1%), mostly declined, whereas the croplands recorded the highest spatial gain (24.2%) (Figure 3 and Table 2). The trend observed in the BP continued in the first years of the MP (Figure 3 and Table A2). Overall, from 2015 to 2018, 3.3% of the total area was degraded during the MP, while 1.2% of the area changed to a more desirable LC. Grass-and forestlands continued to decline by 3 to 9 %, respectively, while anthropogenic(-influenced) covers such as cropland and urban areas expanded. Compared to about 3000 ha forests lost per year (a) in the BP, the rate doubled to 6000 ha/a in the MP. Similarly, the changes in croplands increased from 6000 ha/a in 2000-2015 to 7500 ha/a in 2015-2018.The DM revealed that the LP sub-indicator showed degradation in 71.1% of the area during the BP from 2000 to2015 (Table 3). The LP component trend showed \"decline\" in 26.8% of the area (Figure A1a). Another 44.3% of the study area showed \"early signs of decline\" (LP component state, Figure A2a), and the rest (28.9%) remained stable (Figure 4a). According to DM, croplands were most affected (48.4%) by LP decline in 2000-2015 (Figure 5). Forestlands with only about 11.7% marked as degraded were less affected compared to their actual LC share (Figure 5).  Based on the AM applied between 2000 and 2015, the final composite indicators of LP decline revealed that 8.2% of the study area was degraded between 2000 and 2015 (Table 3). This is nearly entirely based on the 8.2% \"decline\" of the LP trend component (Figure A1b). Further, 9.1% and 1.4% of the study area were marked as showing \"early signs of decline\" (Figure A2b) and \"stable but stressed\" areas (Figure A3b), respectively (Figure 4b). Grass-and croplands accounted for 43.5% and 42% of the degraded area (Figure 5). The decline in forestlands was, in turn, detected only on 2.6% of the total degraded area.LP declined over 12.2% of the study area during the MP from 2015 to 2019 (Figure 4c). With an increase from 9.1% up to 17% of the area, the share of areas with \"early signs of decline\" (state component) was higher than during the BP (Figure A2). The area where LP was improving was reduced from 855 to 171 km 2 compared to the BP.Soil organic carbon was not directly computed but rather assessed through LC classes' alteration and the related change factors [49]. SOC did not change significantly with the DM during the BP from 2000 to2015: 99.9% of the land did not change the in SOC content by more than 10% (Table 4). Changes in the individual LC classes were also neglectable.In contrast to DM, the AM approach revealed that during the BP of 2000-2015, 8.4% of the land was degraded due to SOC diminishment, while 2.1% increased in SOC content (Figure 6). The average SOC stock declined from 51.2 to 50.2 t/ha in 2015, losing 1,592,423 t of carbon over 16 years (Table 4). Forestlands had significantly higher SOC stocks (62.2 t/ha) at t0 than the other LC classes. Based on the transitions in LC, the amount of SOC in forests dropped by 19%, while SOC under agricultural use increased by 25.1%. In the MP, the SOC content experienced significant losses on 3.7% of the land. The same trend was observed in other LC classes (forest-, grass-and wetlands) that gradually lost SOC in the MP (Table 4). During the BP from 2000 to2015, the DM method identified 71.1% of KK's area as degraded and only as 0.5% improved (Figure 7a). This result is mainly caused by the subindicator LP, while the two other indicators LC and SOC showed nearly no degradation. The LP degradation was mainly driven by the state component of LP in 70.3% of the total area. On the contrary, during the BP, the AM showed that 16.4% of the area was degraded and 2.7% improved (Figure 7b). The distinct sub-indicators influenced the final indicator more evenly with 52.4%, 50% and 31.7% by SOC, LP and LC, respectively, compared to the DM.The AM for the first MP (2015-2019) showed that 16% of the total area was degraded, 1.5% improved and more than 82% remained stable (Figure 7c). Forests and grasslands were the least affected among LC classes. Croplands (38%) and wetlands (7%) experienced the most degradation between 2015 and 2019. Over three-fourths of the degradation was driven by the LP sub-indicator, whereas LC and SOC only contributed 20% and 23% to LD, respectively.Over the whole period of 20 years (2000-2019), which results in the SDG 15.3.1 indicator at timestep t1, 27.7% of KK was degraded, and 2.8% of KK improved (Figure 8a). Thus, the LD was widespread across the two studied districts and formed several LD clusters (Figure 7b and 7c). The degradation was not equally distributed over the study area: the biggest LD hotspots were Central and Western Kiteto, as well as Western Kongwa (Figure 8a). Even though the land covered by forests decreased and the land covered by crops increased from 2015 to2018, the degraded proportion changed conversely as follows: The degraded area covered by forests increased to 3.9%, while the area covered by crops sank to 41.9%. While SOC's degraded area only changed slightly, the relative contribution sank from 50 to 30% (Figure 8b). The degraded area, which is solely influenced by LP, rose over 50% and interplayed with others over 70%. The presented study is the first in Africa to support the monitoring of the SDG 15.3.1 indicator using fine-spatial-resolution (30 m) satellite time series data for LD assessment. This is a key contribution considering that previous studies used 250 m to 8 km resolution data [24,26,50] for LP sub-indicator monitoring, unlike our study that utilized long-term Landsat time series for SDG 15.3.1 monitoring. Furthermore, it is the first sub-national study that assesses the SDG 15.3.1 indicator in Tanzania for the BP and includes the MP until 2019. The first 4 out of 15 years of the SDG time frame are assessed and could help identify hotspot areas for targeting the appropriate measures to combat LD in the study area.The presented LD assessment in KK districts confirmed that the LD problem is acute in Tanzania. The Tanzanian target is to achieve LDN by 2030 [24]. Both KK are part of declared LD hotspot regions, which need to improve 25% of the area based on the status at t0. According to our analysis, only 2.7% of the land area has improved and 27.7% is degraded. Next to the (sub)national targets, there are also specific targets to avoid, minimize and reverse LD in Tanzania [24]. Among others, about half of the current national forest area should be restored, 50% of the national croplands should improve LP and the SOC content in croplands should rise to 54.5 t/ha [51]. Despite these more specific and ambitious targets, our results show a negative trend in all LD sub-indicators analyzed, suggesting that more efforts are needed to combat LD in the study area.Precisely, instead of restoring forest areas, even more trees were cut over 19 years (14.7% to 10.9% tree cover). In croplands, LP degradation was above average, while the SOC content in croplands improved marginally. A possible explanation could be that restoration attempts using SLM practices had not yet shown effects, because it takes several years for the change to be monitored remotely [52,53]. Moreover, it takes decades for SOC to change [49,54]. Hence, it is of paramount importance to prioritize the detected LD hotspots for rehabilitation and SLM practices to reverse LD processes.There are currently no sub-national studies for KK districts. With around 27% of the area in KK being degraded, it is less affected by LD compared to national assessments found in [3], [2] or [11]. However, the comparison with these studies is difficult, as they used different monitoring periods (ending in the 2000s and 2016) and only a subset of the methodology (LP trend) and coarse resolution imagery (i.e., 8 km AVHRR data). This suggests that our study brought LD assessment in Tanzania one step further by assessing three components of LD according to the SDG 15.3.1 indicator. Further, using significantly higher spatial resolution, spatial datasets allowed us to reveal spatial patterns of LD beyond pixel sizes of 8 km [2,3,11] or 1 km [24].Our study compared the results of the LD assessments based on default UNCCDsuggested datasets (250 m MODIS data used for LP sub-indicator and 300 m ESA CCI LC maps) and customized relatively high-resolution datasets (30 m Landsat data used for the LP sub-indicator and 30 m RCMRD LC maps). The resulting differences between LD estimates based on DM and AM were striking and could be primarily attributed to the difference in the pixel size of 6.25 ha (MODIS) versus 0.09 ha (Landsat), which could be critical in specific areas where fine LD patterns prevailed. This finding is confirmed by several studies highlighting the importance of using high-resolution imagery to detect LD, especially on heterogeneous landscapes, such as KK districts, dominated by heterogenous small-scale farms [50,55,56]. Recent studies that used ground-truth data for validation showed that using Landsat data for the LC sub-indicator captured LD better than using ESA-based 300 m datasets [50]. Nevertheless, certain factors could have impacted the AM, such as the scan-line failure in Landsat ETM+ data. To reduce the potential negative influence of this on our analysis, we applied several preprocessing steps confirmed to be effective in similar studies [56].NDVI was applied in this study, although it was affected by soil brightness in areas with low vegetation cover. Other vegetation indices, such as MSAVI or MSAVI2, are less sensitive to soil optical properties in less vegetated areas and, therefore, can be used to detect a decline in vegetation productivity [57]. However, the alternative indices have significantly better results than NDVI only in areas where bare soils prevail. Further, Tüshaus et al. [58] compared NDVI with the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) and MERIS-based Terrestrial Chlorophyll Index (MTCI). The results indicated only little differences between the different vegetation indices. Nevertheless, the impact of different vegetation indices on the estimated LDN sub-indicators can be further tested.Furthermore, our results pointed out that the ESA CCI LC did not reflect significant LC changes during the BP in KK districts. Other local estimates, such as the National Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment of Tanzania Mainland [21] or Tanzanian Forest Reference Emission Level [59], suggest a change rate that is three to twenty times higher, respectively, for a similar period analyzed. Our result is in line with the study of Kimaro et al. [60], who investigated the LC change for the study area from 1987 to 2010. Their study indicated that the LC change was already in progress over 30 years ago with heavy declines in (semi)-natural landscapes. This suggests that our research offers advancement of sub-national assessment of LD in heterogeneous landscapes.Our study revealed that the LP sub-indicator impacted LD in the study area the most (by 50%) using the AM. The remaining half is affected by SOC, LC, or by the combination of more than one sub-indicator. On the other hand, the LD indicator using the DM is nearly solely affected by the LP sub-indicator, which is primarily driven by the state component. This suggests two things: First, our AM is better suited to reflect the ongoing multidimensional degradation in KK districts. Second, even if the ongoing LULC change stops, the degradation will not halt because of the decline in LP. This is well reflected in croplands, which were the worst affected land cover class, not only in LP decline but also in SOC loss. Due to the continuous cultivation of the agricultural lands combined with overgrazing and little fertilizer inputs, the crop yields in the study area are reportedly low, caused by the limited availability of soil nutrients and organic matter content [18]. Another study that assessed LD in Kenya in similar environmental and land use settings found that croplands experienced the highest decline in LP, indicating that unsustainable farming practices are widespread throughout Eastern Africa [26]. This has serious consequences, as already 30% of the Tanzanian population are undernourished [16], and the yield gap for the main crops needs to be closed for the population to sustain itself in the coming decades [61].The soils in KK districts lost 1.6 million t of SOC due to LULC change from 2000-2018, according to our study. This is especially dire, as SOC is vital for soil quality and is a key ecosystem indicator [62]. The study by van der Esch et al. [63] suggests that due to LULC change, 27 Gt of SOC will be further lost globally by 2050, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies conducted in Tanzania found that higher SOC values on the farm level resulted in financial benefits for the farmers [64]. Thus, increasing SOC via SLM practices would not only improve farmers' living conditions but also allow slowing down ongoing SOC degradation.In contrast to the LP and LC sub-indicators, which have a continuous basis with Landsat and Sentinel missions [65] and for which there are also further high-resolution maps available [66], the SOC sub-indicator still lacks good spatial and temporal coverage. Further, there are currently no sufficient datasets available to provide information about the management or the input for the SOC indicator. Thus, the SOC change is only approximated by the LC change sub-indicator, leading to a misbalance towards the LULC change in the overall SDG 15.3.1 indicator. At the moment of the analysis, the high spatial resolution SOC data by Innovative Solutions for Decision Agriculture (iSDA) based on [67] were not available. Further work should thus address this limitation and incorporate per availability high-resolution SOC data in the analysis, as well as conducting field validation of both approaches. At the beginning of 2021, the UNCCD updated the first version of the SDG 15.3.1 good practice guidance and innovated the methodology [68]. Future studies should therefore adopt this new approach in conjunction with newly available datasets.The improvement of the subnational analysis with freely available data, the use of cloud computing platforms, and the source code's availability to perform LD assessment present an opportunity to upscale the analysis further and transfer the methods to other study areas.The presented study demonstrates the potential of earth observation for LD monitoring with high spatial resolution data and uses cloud computing approaches with Google Earth Engine, and it improves the measurement of the SDG 15.3.1 indicator in the study area in Tanzania up until 2015 and 2019 at two different levels of spatial detail. Our study thus offers advancement of sub-national assessments of land degradation (LD) in heterogeneous landscapes. The improvement of the sub-national analysis with high-resolution data, the use of cloud computing platforms and the provision of the source code used here to perform LD assessment should encourage a transfer of the here presented approach to other study areas and/or the upscaling of the results of this study to the national level.For this, we compared two approaches of assessing the SDG indicator 15.3.1 in Kiteto and Kongwa districts of Tanzania. The first method applied the global default (DM) medium resolution datasets proposed by the UNCCD for monitoring LD for the baseline period (BP, 2000(BP, -2015)). The second method, the adapted method (AM), applied local land cover 30 m maps and 30 m Landsat to monitor LD for the baseline and the first monitoring period (MP, 2015-2019). The LD assessment for the BP reveals large differences between the DM and AM. Using the DM, nearly all degraded area stems from the LP sub-indicator based on 250 m MODIS imagery. In contrast, the degradation was less than 1% for the LC and SOC change sub-indicators, calculated based on ESA CCI LC (300 m) maps. The LD captured by the AM based on Landsat time series and 30 m LC data was evenly distributed between the three sub-indicators and revealed LD on 27.7% of the area. We, therefore, concluded that the results derived from medium-resolution datasets are likely to over-and underestimate the LD for different sub-indicators and, thus, might misinform policy-and decision-makers and land managers if used operationally. Further, our study concluded that the local datasets and high-resolution imagery are essential to capture subtle changes within the heterogeneous landscape in semiarid central Tanzania.Our results confirmed that LD is currently ongoing in the study area. The LD did not halt after 2015 but spread further across the districts and formed several severe LD clusters. Therefore, to achieve the national LDN targets, it is crucial to address the most important LD causes, such as overgrazing and unsustainable farming in the study area. The application of SLM practices would enhance the low LP in croplands and prevent LULC change in KK districts.Further work should incorporate high-resolution SOC data in the analysis and conduct field validation of LD assessments resulting from both approaches. Figure A1. The land productivity component trend generated using (A) the default approach with MODIS imagery, (B) the adapted approach with Landsat imagery for the baseline period, and (C) the adopted approach with Landsat imagery for the monitoring period 2015-2019.The land productivity component state generated using (A) the default approach with MODIS imagery, (B) the adapted approach with Landsat imagery for the baseline period, and (C) the adopted approach with Landsat imagery for the monitoring period 2015-2019.The land productivity component performance generated using (A) the default approach with MODIS imagery, (B) the adapted approach with Landsat imagery for the baseline period, and (C) the adopted approach with Landsat imagery for the monitoring period 2015-2019.","tokenCount":"5678"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f8e7a7689f6a050651f34601c0250b57","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55ddb9d3-ad03-4dd2-89be-eb2d7369f274/retrieve","id":"1445865294"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ffee3ce7-2f9e-43b5-90e4-bd5effa39d6b","pagecount":"164","content":"This is to certify that this thesis entitled \"Analysis of the Role of Cooperatives in Agricultural Input/Output Marketing in Eastern Tigray Zone, Tigray Region, Ethiopia\" submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of M.Sc, in Cooperatives Marketing to the School of Graduate Studies, Mekelle University, through the Department of Cooperatives, done by Mr. Jemal Mahmud Alemayehu, Id. No. GR17/98 is an authentic work carried out by him under my guidance. The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to the best of my knowledge and belief. Name of the student_______________________ Signature and Date___________________ Name of the supervisor_____________________ Signature and Date___________________ Name of the supervisor_____________________ Signature and Date___________________ iiiTABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT .Tsaeda-Imba are functioning better in food grain distribution, input supply and credit provision than MPCSs in Atsiby Womberta. MPCSs in the two districts provided both medium term and short term loans for fertilizer and seed, and household package programs. With regard to organizational performances, the cooperatives have their own working procedures and systems, by-laws, employees and boards, and working areas. Ratios were analyzed taking the five years financial data (2002 and 2006). The liquidity analysis, financial leverage and profitability ratio showed that the over all performance of cooperatives under investigation were weak or below the desirable level. T-test and result showed significant difference in the age, Livestock ownership, crop production, annual income, expenditure, input purchased, share capital contribution between the mean of two sample groups at less than 10 per cent probability level, and Chi-square test result: sex, access to input/credit, membership, educational status, and so on showed that significant differences between the two sample groups at less than 10 per cent probability level. Econometric software called \"Limdep\" was employed to estimate the Tobit model to identify factors influencing the participation (intensity of participation). Probability of participation appeared to be significantly and positively influenced by education status, sex, number of paid up share capital, off-income, livestock owned, access to input credit, membership status, access to alternative marketing and members' satisfaction; while the influence of members' age, off-farm income and access to alternative market had inverse relationship and significant to determine participation. Perceived role performance, perception of members' on transparency, expenditure, on-farm income, annual income, input purchased, perception on input/output prices, etc. were not significantly related to the dependent variable. Moreover, perceived problems and members' suggestions were also identified sufficiently to analyze role of cooperatives such as internal/organizational, external and infrastructure related problems. Performance of cooperatives viii and members' participation were used as key factors to analyze cooperatives' role in agricultural input/output marketing in the study area. The policy implication is that Government, NGOs and other stakeholders need to give emphasis on improving individual, organizational and institutional capacity of cooperatives.        Ethiopia has a total area of 1.222 million square kilometers and has more than 75 million population (CSA, 2005), of which 85 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture. The agricultural sector is the primary source of food supply, which is characterized by fragmented small farms operated by household farming families. Moreover, subsistence agriculture usually involving farmers working on very small land holdings dominates the economy. Ethiopia has an agrarian economy where agriculture constitutes about 45 per cent of the GDP, followed by 43 per cent from the service sector, and 12 per cent from the industrial sector (FAO, 2005). Tigray, the northernmost region of Ethiopia, bordering Sudan and Eritrea, Amhara and Afar regions in west, north, south and east respectively, has a cultivated area of about 800 000 ha (BoARD, 2003). Total population of the region is estimated to be 4.3 million as of July, 2006. the region is classified as a food-deficit area due to its semi-arid climate and high population density (FAO, 2005). Agriculture, being the mainstay of the population of Tigray, has been practiced for several years without any improvement in its productivity.Co-operation as a way of life has been and continues to be a tradition in finding the solution to the socio-economic problems of the people in Ethiopia. Examples of such cooperation can be found everywhere in the working of mutual aid institutions such as Equb, Eddir, Wonfel or Jigii, Senbete and many others. The traditional cooperation among the rural community was a ground to the flourishing of modern cooperation in early 1960s, realizing that these traditional institutions failed to meet the requirements of credit services and equipment needed for productive purposes in full. In all circumstances the program for cooperative development was, therefore, formulated and had been included in the second Five-year Development plan  of the country (Zerihun, 1998).The Derg regime established an extensive network of socialist agricultural cooperatives through out Ethiopia by organizing the peasants. There was virtually no member participation. Instead, party agents and political activists largely ran these cooperative systems (Dessalegn, 1994).Corruption and mismanagement were so prevalent in the service cooperatives, which handled the purchase of consumer goods for rural communities, which basic goods such as soap, salt, sugar and paraffin oil were generally in desperately short supply in the cooperative shops.The existing government abolished the command economy and introduced economic and political liberalization, including steps to promote the development of democratically governed, market oriented, member owned cooperatives; and professionalism in the management of cooperatives. In addition, the government has placed a high priority on food security and selfsufficiency. Cooperatives are promoted as part of Ethiopian rural and agricultural development strategies, within the national macroeconomic policy framework of agricultural development led industrialization (ADLI).Within the above context, cooperative promotion office/bureaus have been established at regional and Federal level to launch the extension of on-going cooperative development effort to benefit small scale farmers and to promote the spirit of self help community organization: as an integral part of farming communities development. Consequently, several agricultural cooperatives (Primary and Secondary) have been established in many parts of the country, not only to benefit members, but also benefit rural communities.Inline with these realities, the research attempted to analyze the role and functions of cooperatives in agricultural input output marketing through evaluating their performances, analyzing members' participation and identifying the constraints of cooperatives. Besides, in the research, an attempt was made find out issues which require further research and investigations so that other researchers can easily come up with outstanding recommendations to enhance cooperatives' contribution in the economic development of the country.In Sub-Saharan countries, like Ethiopia, where the small-scale farming dominates the overall national economy, agricultural production and productivity is very poor. The entire agriculture of the country is characterized by limited use of improved input and backward cultural practices, and depends on rain. Besides, the agricultural productivity continued to be poor and failed to meet the food demand of the ever-growing population. The factors attributing for poor productivity are recurrent droughts, environmental degradation, poor infrastructure in quality and quantity, and backward cultural practices. Considerable loss also occurs to the produce due to poor practices of post harvest handling and limited use of appropriate post harvest technologies (MoFED, 2005).Moreover, due to the weakness of markets, characterized by high transaction costs, high risk, and inadequate communications and transport infrastructure, people living in food deficit areas continue to face famine and food insecurity while producers in surplus regions endure unattractively low producer prices (Eleni et al., 2004). This shows that the agricultural sector in the country can produce food to meet the needs of the people provided that the sector makes efforts to conserve the rain water for irrigation, introduce improved agricultural inputs and improving the marketing infrastructure in Ethiopia.Ethiopia began transforming its agriculture in the mid-1990s after the existing government formulated a development strategy centered on agriculture. The strategy which is known as the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) sets out agriculture as a primary stimulus to generate increased output, employment and income for the people, and as the springboard for the development of the other sectors of the economy (Samuel, 2006). Depending on this strategy, the government has given emphasis to the development and promotion of cooperatives to facilitate agricultural marketing activities. Promotion of cooperatives has then significant contribution in enhancing rural development through supplying agricultural inputs and marketing farmers' produces.Cooperative is a special group of people with mutual interest to solve their individual problems through common efforts and ultimately attaining economic and social empowerment to the group members and the community. The prime objective of cooperatives is to solve problems that individuals failed to address independently. Accordingly, cooperatives are involving in input/output marketing activities, credit provision and providing other services to the members.According to the 2005's Tigray Cooperatives Promotion Office report, the total number of primary cooperative societies is 1309, of which 582 primary cooperative societies are Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies having total number of membership about 338,242 members (93.79 percent of the total members of different kinds of cooperative societies) (TCPO, 2005). About 555 MPCSs are registered at the regional and district level promotional offices (TCPO, 2005). From the above data, it is possible to say that the agricultural multipurpose cooperatives have wider base in membership. This is so because the MPCSs used to provide diversified services to members such as marketing agricultural produces, supply and distribute agricultural input (fertilizer, seeds and agro-chemicals), credit service provision, other services like tractor, grinding mill service, storage services etc.However, there should be clear understanding on the bottlenecks in implementing the agricultural input/output marketing activities by cooperative societies. With the tremendous growth in size and operations and complexity of agricultural marketing, cooperatives are facing a big challenge from both their members and management, and the competitors. It is found that agricultural cooperatives have had limitations by meeting efficiently the needs of their farmer members.Thus, the major challenge facing the agricultural cooperatives is how to operate and meet the needs of the members efficiently and effectively keeping in mind the basic principles of cooperation.Another constraint being faced by cooperatives in playing their role is their limitation to keep continues the members' patron on their undertakings. The farmer members are expected to be loyal to cooperatives and vise versa. But it is apparently known that if cooperatives fail to meet members' demand or members do not get any definite benefits from the existing cooperatives, they do not keep on their membership or cease to participate in the activities of the cooperatives. This is so because the farmer members' participation can only be enhanced based on concrete or tangible benefits. As a result, it is very often complained that participation of members in the cooperatives is very poor. So, the evaluation of performance of Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies (MPCSs), the participation of members and identification of problems facing cooperatives are critical areas, which had to be studied in order to see whether MPCSs really are playing their role in the study area.In line with the above reality, the research/study attempted to come up with possible solutions and recommendations after having clear understanding upon the situation by giving due emphasis to answer the following research questions:• What are the major business activities in which cooperatives are engaged with regard to input/output marketing?• What is the performance of the Multi-Purpose Cooperative societies in their business activities?• To what extent the members participate in the Multi-Cooperative Societies?• What are the main constraints of the agricultural marketing cooperatives which impede in achieving their objectives?With the background described above and collected literature related to the study, it was observed that no in-depth study has been attempted to evaluate the role of cooperatives in agricultural marketing development (Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies) in Eastern Tigray Zone. Government's policies and strategies, perception of the community towards cooperatives, NGOs and government intervention and interference, all had significant contribution in enhancing and/or retarding the movement for the last three decades. In due course, it was too difficult to conclude that the stakeholders had proper understanding on the values and principles of cooperation to coordinate their efforts. Thus the study is hoped to help policy makers and implementers understand issues related to cooperatives development, values, principles and their challenges as well. In general, the result of the study is helpful for promoters, policy makers, promotional and regulatory institutions and the beneficiaries to use in designing strategies and coordinating efforts to improve performances and members' participation in MPCSs.In the study, an attempt was made to identify some important and policy relevant variables in MPCSs performances, members' participation and decision on using available services. The Government can direct their effort towards manipulating these variables at the desired level of proportion in such a way to improve performances and participation of member farmers to patron the services rendered through the cooperatives.Institutions and/or individuals who are interested to know socio-economic characteristics of the area especially agricultural and cooperatives related in the study district can use the document as a reference. Besides, it would be a useful reference for researchers and other personnel interested in the area of study. Therefore, it was hoped that, results from this study would have practical use mainly to the study area and similar other areas, and can serve as a base for any further studies to be conducted in other areas.The general objective of the study is to assess the role and functions of the Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies in the Eastern Tigray Zone of Ethiopia.1. To evaluate the performance of MPCS in agricultural input/output marketing activities 2. To study the participation of members in the MPCS of Eastern Zone.3. To identify problems of MPCS affecting the performances of cooperatives. 4. To offer suggestions to improve the performance of the MPCS.• Members' participation in the Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies (MPCSs) is adequate to enhance cooperatives play their role in the course serving community.• Members' participation in the MPCSs is significantly associated with their annual income • Members' participation in the MPCSs is significantly associated with access to credit/input.• Members' participation in the MPCSs is significantly associated with the perception of members on the role performances of cooperatives.Among the several areas in the country where cooperative movement is high, the study area is the front-liner in the set up and organization of agricultural cooperatives. The reason for the study to be confined in the two districts is that the prevailing resource limitation does not allow encompassing other areas in the zone.The first objective of this study focuses on the performances of cooperatives which require financial statements of the cooperatives. However, some cooperatives in the two districts were not audited in yearly bases due to shortage of auditors in the zone and district offices.Cooperatives that were properly audited for the year 2002 -2006 were selected to meet the first objective of the study. Besides, the study included the agricultural input/output activities carried out within the years of 2002-2006. However, the secondary data collected might not be adequate due to poor documentation in the cooperatives societies.By comprising the required budget and time, a total of 162 farmers were interviewed to meet the second, third and fourth objectives of the study. All sample respondents were members of seven multi-purpose cooperative societies. These cooperatives primarily supply farm inputs especially fertilizer through credit to the members/farmers. Though they failed to achieve, the cooperatives also set as objective to purchase farmers' produce during harvest period. As a result, the study focuses on the analysis their performances and factors influencing members' participation in cooperatives. Due to budget and time limitation the study covered only seven cooperative societies.The purpose of this chapter is to review previous study of cooperatives, local and international, focusing on investigating the evolution of the movement and some general concepts and practices. As to the researcher's knowledge no in-depth empirical study has been conducted on the Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies in Eastern Zone of Tigray Region. Therefore, the study intends to fill the gap and the review on relevant literature is presented in this chapter.Cooperation has been the very basis of human civilization. The inter-dependence and the mutual help among human beings have been the basis of social life (Krishna swami, 1992). However, modern type of co-operative enterprise has its origins in the 19 th century and has become one of the most ever-present example forms of business/economic enterprise.The first modern cooperative, the Rochdale society, was established in England in 1844. It started with 28 members who purchased one share each of stock. The members consisted of craftsmen such as weavers or shoemakers. The members decided to join to work together, sell their products under one roof, and use a part of earnings to purchase supplies in quantity at economical price, another portion of the earnings would be reinvested in growth of the society, and the reminder would be returned to the individual member in the form of refunds (Chukwu, 1990).Cooperative movement in Germany evolved in response to the economic crisis. Both farmers and town dwellers were on the verge of starvation in 1846 (Kebebew, 1978). In agricultural area of western Germany, the disastrous year of 1846, inspired Fredrick Wilhelm Raiffeisan, to take some action to alleviate the problem of hunger. He believed that farmers could improve their condition by eliminating moneylenders and middlemen. The government formed a local committee in Raiffeisan district that is responsible for the initiation of an agricultural credit society. Co-operatives exist in all countries of the world and operate under diverse political systems: from communism to capitalism. Most writers and authors agreed in the motivation to form co-operatives having three particular aspects:• The need for protection against exploitation by economic forces too strong for the individual to withstand alone• The impulse for self-improvement by making the best use of often scarce resources• The concern to secure the best possible return from whatever form of economic activity within which the individual engages whether as a producer, intermediary or consumer.Different authors defined cooperatives in different ways and meanings. For instance, Center for Cooperatives (2002) defined cooperative as a private business organization that is owned and controlled by the people who use its products, supplies or services. Although cooperatives vary in type and membership size, all were formed to meet the specific objectives of members, and are structured to adapt to members' changing needs. Chukwu (1990) Contemplate cooperative as a democratically controlled business i.e. it is owned and controlled by the members and gives benefit to the members. However, the International Cooperatives alliance (ICA) defined cooperative in 1995 as an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise (ICA, 1995). The statement is often supplemented with the distinguishing features of seven principles adopted by ICA. Moreover, according to the 1995 statement, cooperatives function based on the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity, and solidarity. In the tradition of their founders, cooperative members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility, and caring for others (ICA, 1995).There are seven basic principles of cooperatives that govern cooperatives. The principles define cooperative organizations, give them strength and basis and rationale for their public support.Cooperatives are the only business organizations owned by the people who use, controlled by the people who use it and the benefits generated by the cooperative accrue to its users on the basis of their patrons. These interests are commonly referred as to the cornerstone to the contemporary cooperative principles. The different principles that govern cooperatives include:  Chukwu (1990) presented different criteria of classifying cooperatives that have been adopted by different authors and some of the criteria for classification are summarized as follows. One of the classifying criteria is the area of operation. Urban cooperatives are those operating in the urban areas. There are housing, credit and saving etc. cooperatives operating in the urban area of our country. Rural cooperatives are those operating in the rural areas. Most of the cooperatives in Ethiopia fall in this category. There are grains, livestock, dairy, coffee etc marketing cooperatives in different rural areas of the country (Chukwu, 1990).Cooperatives can also be classified based on their organizational level. The smallest individuals set up in the cooperative organizational level are primary cooperatives. They usually cover a limited area of operation. They have individual person as a member. The working capital is obtained from paid up shares of each member. The other organizationally form is secondary cooperatives that strive to meet the interest member cooperatives. The working capital is collected from paid up shares of the constituent primary cooperatives. The third layers in the organizational set up are the tertiary cooperatives. These types of cooperatives usually formed by the secondary cooperatives and the working capital are obtained from paid up shares of the constituent secondary cooperatives (Chukwu, 1990).The other classification criterion of cooperatives is the sector in which the cooperatives engaged.Cooperatives that engaged in the agriculture sector are classified as agricultural cooperatives.There are many agricultural cooperatives operating in the different sub sector of the agricultural economy: dairy, fishery, coffee, grain, input purchasing, etc…. Industrial cooperatives (small scale industry) engaged in the industry sector. These types of cooperatives include handicraft cooperatives and other metal and woodwork cooperatives. Service cooperatives are those engaged in the service sector of the economy. They usually engaged in the banking, insurance, transport, health, electricity etc (Chukwu, 1990).The number of operation in which the cooperative engaged is another classification criterion of cooperatives. There are single purpose cooperatives, which have only one field of activity (one purpose e.g. marketing). There are also multi-purpose cooperatives, which have more than one field of activity (two or more purpose e.g. credit and marketing).Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies: refer to multipurpose cooperatives unlike single purpose cooperative undertake diversified activities. Multipurpose cooperatives, which functions on the basis of a fully integrated framework of activities, planned according to member's requirements identified at the grass root level, taking the socio-economic life of the farmer members in its totality (Chukwu, 1990).The inter-dependence and the mutual help among human beings have been the basis of social life.Since the beginning of human society individuals have found advantage in working together and helping one another; first in foraging, then in hunting, later in agriculture and still in manufacture (Krishnaswami, 1992).Cooperation is an age-old tradition that runs through the history of Ethiopian society. For centuries, the spirit of self-help has been an integral part of farming communities. However, despite the existence of 19147 various types of cooperatives in Ethiopia, with a membership of 4.076 million, smallholder farmers are still continued to be under-served, exploited and marginalized (Appendix VII). Since 1991, Ethiopia has been undergoing major political and economic changes. The authoritarian centrally planned and controlled economy of the previous two decades is being replaced by free-market economic development. In line with the government's plan to privatize business, NGOs' funding is helping to restructure these cooperatives to become farmer owned and controlled, democratic and transparent (FCA, 2005).In Ethiopia farmer's organizations have a long history. The traditional forms of farmer's organizations were not formal types rather they were informal. These organizations vary from place to place according to the culture and economic activities of the area where they undertake their activities. The traditional self-help groups may be classified into two main categories. These are: work groups whose members help each other in rotation or jointly carry out farming activities like (Jigie, Wonfel) and rotating saving and credit type association whose members make regular contributions to a revolving loan fund (Iquib). However, these traditional organizations have not yet been developed to the modern cooperatives or any other kind of business organization (Zerihun, 1998).Over 40 years have been counted since the modern farmer's cooperatives came into existence in Ethiopia. The first period to the emergence of modern cooperative societies was during the Emperor Haileselasie ruling period in 1961. During the imperial ruling period, modern cooperatives in the agriculture sector came in to existence mainly to undertake commercial agricultural production for export purposes.During this time the first cooperative legal action was made and it is known by Decree number 44/1961. The main reasons for this decree was the increase in number of unemployment, the fast increase of migration from rural area to urban, the increase in number of students who drop out of their education, and finally the disarmament of the military without proper compensation and pension. Cooperative movement in Ethiopia was started in the 1960s with the launching of the comprehensive agricultural development projects such as the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) (Zerihun, 1998).Accordingly, the first cooperatives' proclamation known as proclamation number 241/1964 was put in place. Based on this proclamation 158 cooperatives were established with 33, 400 members and 9, 970, 600 Birr total capital. However, the focus was only on potential areas for agricultural production in order to enhance the production of economically important crops/cash crop for export and as a result, land ownership was basic criterion for membership. In most part of the country few landlords owned the land. So from the very beginning, it failed to meet the demand of the marginalized group of farmers. Commercial farmers were encouraged to become members of the cooperatives (Zerihun, 1998).In 1974, the Military junta overthrown Emperor Haileselasie government and established a socialist type of government. The government proclaimed cooperative organization proclamation in 1978: proclamation number 138/1978. During this era, tremendous efforts were done to promote agricultural service cooperatives as well as producers cooperative societies. However, cooperatives' movement used to suffer from a loss of credibility in the eyes of their members and the public in general because of the political ideology of the then existing government. Up to 1990 there were 10,524 different types of cooperatives with 4,529,259 members and capital of Birr 465,467,428 throughout the country. From these cooperatives 80 percent were rural cooperatives. At that time the then existing government gave due attention for the cooperatives (Zerihun, 1998).Even though the military government issued a proclamation to promote and support cooperatives, its main target was to promote the socialist ideology through out the rural Ethiopia using cooperative as a means of attaining its objectives. The members were forced to form or join in to cooperatives. Dessalegn (1994) revealed that MoA auditors investigated more than 24 million Birr was misappropriated by the management committee and employees of MPCSs. That was almost the tip of the iceberg, given that audits were carried out on fewer than 25 percent of cooperatives. The members lacked tangible benefits and there was no role to play for members hence sense of ownership gradually degraded (Dessalegn, 1994).The existing government has shown its commitment for farmer's co-operative promotion since it came in to power in 1991. Initially the Government enacted agricultural co-operative proclamation incorporating the internationally accepted principles. The intension was both to reorganize organize farmer's co-operatives, which can work in the free market economy. The government continued its effort to promote various types of co-operatives through out the country and introduced co-operatives proclamation No. 147/1998. Since then different agricultural and non agricultural co-operatives have been organized and established (FCA, 2005).Since the enactment of the new act, liberalizing the cooperative movement from direct government control, the movement has witnessed a number of challenges. Where as some of the challenges offer excellent opportunities for the cooperative movement to develop into strong commercial enterprises.Among the challenges, stiff competition, hangover of the past or luck of commitment, globalization and government attitude towards subsidy are the major ones. Hence, democratization of the movement, a change of government role from direct control to advisory role, the legal framework, dividend earnings can be considered as opportunities for the better performances of cooperatives. The 1998 proclamation has created favorable condition for the promotion of cooperatives into higher-level business organization or unions by pooling their resources together. For example, the details advanced forms of existing cooperatives information presented in the table 1 (FCA, 2005). Agricultural input and output marketing plays an active and critical role in economic development. Any improvement in the agricultural marketing system is a means of stimulating agricultural and economic development at national and regional level. Failure to develop the agricultural marketing system is likely to negate most, if not all, efforts to increase agricultural production and productivity. Sustainable food security cannot be achieved without giving due consideration to the development of markets. The food security action needs to be integrated with market development.Marketing: Even though there is no universally accepted definition, most frequently there is no problem in defining marketing which is assumed to include all activities involved in the production, and flow of goods and services from point of production to consumers. Marketing encompasses all activities of exchange conducted by producers and middlemen in commerce for the purpose of satisfying consumer demand. Kotler defines marketing as the set of human activities directed at facilitating and consummating exchanges (Kotler, 2003). American Marketing Association defines marketing as the performance of business activities directed towards, and incidental to the flow of goods and services from producer to customer or user (Kotler, 2003).Marketing Channels: are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or services available for use or consumption. Marketing channel decisions are among the most critical decisions facing management (Kotler, 2003).Agricultural Marketing: Agricultural marketing is the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of food products and services from the point of initial agricultural production until they are in the hands of consumers. Agricultural marketing also includes the selling to farmers of supplies needed for production Farm marketing is the connecting link between farm producers and consumers. This link involves physical distribution and economic exchanges.Agricultural input: can be categorized into two types: consumable and capital inputs. The former include manures and fertilizers, seeds, insecticides, pesticides, diesel oil and electricity.On the other hand, capital inputs include tractors, trailers, harvesters and threshers; pump sets, and other implements (Singh, 2002). Agricultural inputs are used to be available for market to improve production and productivity of the agricultural sector.Agricultural Output: agricultural product means any product or commodity, raw or processed, that is marketed for human consumption (excluding water, salt and additives) or animal feed.A well-functioning agricultural market is an important element of agricultural development program. It could enable farmers to get a fair proportion of consumers' price, enhance farm income and, consequently, allow the process of agricultural intensification to deepen further with a positive impact on poverty reduction. The weak performance of the agricultural markets (both input and output markets) in Ethiopia has been recognized in various studies as a major impediment to growth in the agricultural sector and the overall economy (Dawit, 2004).With an inefficient marketing system, the surplus resulting from increased production benefits neither the farmers nor the country (Eleni et al., 2004). This is so because the agricultural markets in Ethiopia are highly influenced by the production system itself. Samuel identified that a sustainable utilization of modern farm inputs (agricultural intensification) is a function of financial incentives to farmers, affordability and availability of modern farm inputs. Moreover, production (environmental) and market risks are affecting sustainable technology adoption in Ethiopian agriculture (Samuel, 2006).Gebremeskel also recognized that most of the agricultural production is undertaken by small scale producers scattered all over the country, engaged in different agricultural enterprises without specialization, and with limited marketable surplus. Therefore, the scattered produce in small quantity needs to be collected and assembled, graded, and transported from one market level to another. Thus, the marketing system is characterized with a long chain with many intermediaries (Gebremeskel, 2002).Gebremeskel analyzed that with adequate amount and distribution of rainfall, the country can produce enough amount of food that can feed its population both in the surplus and deficit areas provided that the surplus produce in the potential areas is effectively moved to the deficit areas (Gebremeskel, 2002). However, due to weakness of markets, characterized by high transaction costs, high risk, and inadequate communications and transport infrastructure, people living in food deficit areas continue to face famine and food insecurity while producers in surplus regions endure unattractively low producer prices (Eleni et al., 2004). This shows that the Ethiopian agricultural sector can produce food to meet the needs of the people provided that the sector makes efforts to conserve the rainwater for irrigation and improving the marketing infrastructure in Ethiopia. This is particularly important as the country is following a policy of agriculture ledindustrialization and economic development where the agricultural sector is expected to produce surplus that can move to the other sectors of the economy.The cooperative movement is significant both in terms of membership and impact. The United Nations estimated in 1994 that the livelihoods of nearly 3 billion people, or half of the world's population, were made secure by cooperative enterprises. Nearly 800 million individuals are members of cooperatives. They provide an estimated 100 million jobs. They are economically significant in a large number of countries providing foodstuffs, financial services as well as the provision of services to consumers (ILO, 2005). Cooperatives have created over 13.8 million jobs in India, with 92 per cent of the jobs created through self-employment in the workers' cooperatives. In Japan, the consumer cooperative movement provided 58,281 full-time and 95,374 part-time jobs in 199795,374 part-time jobs in (ICA, 2005)).However, as of the ICA's survey report in 2005, cooperatives, like other enterprises have seen their operations significantly affected by external challenges in the political and economic environment. Despite these, the cooperative movement is promising to a growing potential for cooperative development, and for cooperative renewal, in light of the limitations of the free market in regard to social responsibility and equity, the advantages of decentralization of power, the importance of stakeholder and community involvement in economic and social life, and the growing role of the civil society (ICA, 2005).Co-operatives are providing the mechanism to organize and mobilize people for self-help action in providing the services required by farmer members and rural community: farm input supply and output marketing in the agricultural sector. Researchers and practitioners have attempted to conduct studies on cooperative movement of Ethiopia. Some of the empirical studies conducted in the country are summarized in the following:As self-administered rural institutions, cooperatives have the capacity to reflect, and to respond to the needs of their members; and, at the same time, to help fostering attitudes of self-reliance and self-confidence within a framework of mutual aspirations and mutual action. Fassil (1990) in his study showed that in spite of the several tasks bestowed upon peasant service cooperatives, they were mainly engaged in the supply of consumer goods to members followed by grain purchase and selling activities. Even in the activities they engaged, they have lower share compared to those of state and other bodies. The problems of the cooperatives were manifested in the sphere of marketing and management, which includes the problems in the supply of both consumer goods and agricultural inputs, participation in purchase and sale of products especially grain, shortage of skilled manpower and financial management. Farmers' demand to use cooperative as marketing agent for farm produces and input basically dependent on the ability of cooperatives to provide diversified services such as grain mill service, tractors service etc. and other benefits. Hence, provision of different services and benefits is an indispensable means in increasing the participation of the farmers in marketing their farm produces through the cooperatives (Fassil, 1990). Dessalegn (1994) revealed that Cooperative auditors from MoA investigated more than 24 million Birr were misappropriated by the management committee and employees of MPCSs. That was almost certainly just the tip of the iceberg, given that audits were carried out on fewer than 25 per cent of cooperatives. The members lacked tangible benefits and there was no role to play for members hence sense of ownership gradually degraded (Dessalegn, 1994).Daniel (2006) also used ratios analysis to evaluate performances of cooperatives taking the two years financial data (2001/2 and 2002/3) in the study districts. The liquidity analysis showed that the cooperatives under investigation were below the satisfactory rate (a current ratio of less than 2.00) for two consecutive years. All of the cooperatives under investigation in the two districts use financial leverage (financed more of their total asset with creditors fund i.e. on average 89.35 per cent of the assets of the cooperatives was financed with creditors fund in the two years). The profitability ratio of the cooperatives under investigation in the two districts showed that the profitability of the cooperatives was weak. All the cooperatives earn return on their asset below the interest rate the financial institution extend credit. The debt ratio shows the financial risk i.e. as debt becomes an increasing percentage of the cooperatives' financing source, the cooperatives face inability to meet debt obligations (Dessalegn, 2006).Tesfaye (1995) revealed that producers' cooperatives failed in the past not because of failure inherent in the collective management but because of forced membership with out the interest of the farmers and formation of the cooperatives in hurry without any sufficient preparation and feasibility study. The problem of intervention of the Derg regime in the affairs of cooperatives i.e. using them for its political ends and the largeness and complexity of the organizations for the managerial capacity of the farmers were also a reason for the failures of the cooperatives (Tesfaye, 1995). Haileselasie (2003), in his study about cooperatives in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba, investigated that 78.7 percent of the members became member in cooperatives through mobilization and persuasion by the civil societies such as Farmers, Youth and Women's Associations. As a result, the members' were not aware of the duties and rights they have in the cooperative societies. According to Haileselasie's finding, for example, out of the total respondents members' participation in the annual meeting was 12.2 per cent and 68.8 per cent of the total respondents had bought only one share. The result of the study revealed that the overall participation of members in the study area was weak (Haileselasie, 2003). Gebru (2006) found out in his study that the participation of women accounts 20-25 per cent in various cooperative types in Tigray region. And he concluded that though women are under represented in membership and leadership, the condition is improving from year to year in the region. Gebru (2006), in his conclusion stated that cooperatives are assisting farmers in far and remote areas of the region to distribute agricultural input and credit. He also concluded that despite international price increases over time for the agricultural input particularly fertilizer, cooperatives are distributing at faire and reasonable price (Gebru, 2006).Several researchers attempted to apply the Tobit econometric model to study participation of local people in various development activities including cooperatives, and adoption of new and/or improved technologies. Getahun (2004) used Tobit model in assessing factors affecting adoption of wheat technology. His analysis showed that fertilizer use, income and credit influenced the probability of adoption and intensity of improved wheat varieties. Klein et al. (1997) used Tobit model to analyze the amount business conducted with different type of cooperatives. The research result revealed that relatively larger sized farms did a great proportion of grain marketing and chemical purchases through the cooperatives and bought more of their fuel from the cooperatives. Older farmers patronized all types of cooperatives more than younger farmers except for farm chemical. At the highest level of off-farm income, grain farmers used the cooperative more intensively. The perception of competitive price leaded to a higher rate of patronage. Tefera ( 2004) also used Tobit model in identifying the determinants of smallholder farmers' demand for non-formal credit. The result showed that gender of the household head, number of children below fourteen years of age, fertilizer use and interest rate on the credit were found to determine the demands for non-formal credit. Gizachew (2005) in his study recognized that Market participation and sales volume decisions are found to be important elements in the study of dairy marketing patterns. He used Participation in dairy sale as dichotomous dependent variable and examined using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation procedure of logit model. As a result, Participation decision of the smallholder was affected by education of household head, experience in dairy production, and return time from the district capital and financial income from different sources. The sales volume decision of dairy was analyzed using Tobit model. Education of the household head, extension visit, and return time from the district capital, financial income from different sources, credit, grain production and crossbred dairy cows were important determinants affecting volume of dairy sales. Daniel (2006) used Tobit regression model to identify the factors influencing farmers' marketing of teff through the cooperatives in his study districts. The model result revealed that among 17 explanatory variables included in Tobit model, 10 were found to be significant at less than 10 per cent probability level: family size, cooperative price for teff, position in the cooperative, farm size, yield of teff, patronage refund, fertilizer credit, distance of the cooperative from the farmer's house and distance of the district (main) market from the farmer's house were found to be significantly related to the farmers' marketing of teff through the cooperatives. And among these significant variables district, Cooperative price for teff, position in the cooperative, farm size, yield of teff, patronage refund and distance of the district market from the farmer's house were found to be significantly and positively related to the farmers' marketing of teff through the cooperatives.It could be inferred from the above studies that the potential of co-operation is immense to Ethiopian condition and appear well suited to the economic, social and institutional needs of development in the rural Ethiopian economy.The Tigray National Regional State is situated between 12 0 15' and 14 0 57' N latitude and 36 0 27' and 39 0 59' E longitude. It is bordered to the North by Eritrea; to the West by the Sudan, to the South by Amhara and to the East by Afar Regional States. It covers a total of 53,638 square km surface area. It belongs to the African dry lands, which are often called as the Sudano-Sahelian Region (BoFED, 1998).The study area, Eastern Tigray Zone, is located in the northern most part of Tigray region. It is bordered with Afar in the East, Southern East Tigray in the south, Central Tigray in the west and Eritrea in the north. Eastern zone has six districts and 94 tabias (Peasant Associations). Total area of the Zone is 4717.5 km 2 (CSA, 2006).The two districts of the study area, Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and Atsiby Womberta, are found in Eastern Tigray Zone. Saesie-Tsaeda-Imba district is located in the eastern zone of Tigray region on which the capital Firewoyni is located 60 km far from Mekelle, on the way from Mekelle to Adigrat. It has a total area of about 933.12 km 2 . It is divided into 24 administrative PAs of which 22 are rural and two Kebeles are town administration. Atsiby Womberta is located about 65 km north east of the Tigray Regional State capital of Mekelle. About half of the distance from Mekelle to the capital of the district, Endasselassie, is off the main road to the east branching at the town of Agula'e. Total area of the district is 885.3 km 2 (CSA, 2006). It is divided in to 16 administrative 'tabias' (PAs) and two towns administrative.Moreover, the survey conducted by UNDP, 1998 for socio-economic study for the land use indicated that in the total area of Eastern zone 437,118.2 hectares, 58.04 per cent is cultivated, 9.36 per cent for grazing land, 17.66 per cent for forest and bush land, and the rest 14.96 per cent is classified as miscellaneous land (BoFED, 1998).The mean annual temperature ranges from 15 to 19 0 c. The climate of the zone is classified into three agro-climatologic resources: High land representing 73.4 per cent, Midland 12.6 per cent and lowland 14 per cent. The altitude of the area ranges from 1500m-3200m.a.s.l. (BoARD, 2004). The average annual rainfall of eastern zone ranges from 400-800mm (BoARD, 2004). The major soil types in the area include black clay loam 'Walka' (20.3 percent), red clay loam 'Baekel' (36.8 per cent), sandy soil 'Hutsa' (31.8 per cent), red sandy loam 'Mekhaih' (6.3 per cent) and mixture of black and red clay loam (4.8 per cent) (BoARD, 2004).According to July 2006 estimates of CSA, the region has a total population of 4,334,996 of which 2,136,000 were male and 2,198,996 were female. The female population was slightly more than the male population, that is, 50.7 per cent. The rural population of the region has been 3,518,996 representing 81.2 per cent of the total (CSA, 2006). The region has a total of 750, 160 households out of which over 83 per cent, that is, 597,872 were rural households. Total population of the zone as of July 2006 is 686,564. The female population accounts for about 52.1 per cent and remaining 47.9 per cent are male. The urban population of the Zone is estimated to be 18.4 per cent (CSA, 2006).According to the CSA estimation as of July 2006, the total population was estimated to be 113,966 and 138,291 for Atsiby Womberta and Saesie-Tsaeda-Imba district respectively. The female proportion is estimated to be 52.7 per cent and 53.6 per cent for both Saesie-Tsaeda-Imba and Atsiby Womberta districts respectively. The districts have a population density of about 128.7 persons per km 2 for Saesie-Tsaeda-Imba and 148.2 persons per Km 2 for Atsiby Womberta.Crop production in the region as well as in the study area is cereal dominated. Cereals account for 84 per cent of the cultivated land, while oil crops and pulses constitute 9 and 7 per cent, respectively (BoARD, 2000). A review of the area under different crops for the past five to six years shows that sorghum, barely and teff are the three most import cereal crops in the region, in terms of area coverage. It has also been estimated that there is 300,000 ha of potential irrigable land in the Region (BoARD, 2004).Like in other parts of the country, the farming techniques used by most farmers in the study areas are traditional and the dominant farming system is crop-livestock mixed farming. Livestock also constitute an important part of the rural economy of the region, the zone as well as the districts of the study area. Eastern Tigray Zone is believed to account for about 14 per cent of the region's livestock population. Livestock are kept partly as capital, which can be turned into cash when required (Table 2).Similar to other parts of Ethiopian highland, the districts enjoy subtropical climate, which allows the cultivation of a wide range of crops. Crop production in both Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and Atsiby is almost entirely dependent on rainfall. The main crops grown in the districts include teff, maize, wheat, barely, sorghum, millet, chick peas and beans. However, most parts of the study area suffer from unreliable erratic pattern of precipitation, which often results in crop failure. Crop and livestock yields are very low. The main production and productivity constraints are land degradation which resulted in poor soil fertility. Increasing population pressure of both human and livestock exacerbated the degradation process. The existing agricultural extension services, though it is inadequate to support a major expansion in farm production, have brought remarkable changes in terms of area coverage and service The existing road network is inadequate and poor. The asphalt road connects the district capital, Firewoyni town with Mekelle, Wukiro, Idagahamus, Adigrate and other small villages located on the main road. The same condition is witnessed in Atsiby Womberta in road networks. The all weather road branched from Agula'e Town to the east crossing Haik Mesahil, Endasselassie and Dessia Towns. The other all weather road stretches from Wukiro to Endasselassie. Small villages along side the roads are benefited from the transportation services. Otherwise, the remaining rural roads in the two districts are dry whether roads which are rough, unfit for transportation of agricultural products for they lack regular maintenance. Donkeys and human portage are commonly used to transport produce to the local markets and to take supplies from such points to the farm.Markets in Tigray, as is in other parts of the country, serve as media for rural commodity and manufactured product exchange. Despite the economic role, local markets also have social and political role to enhance the exchange of information and views among the local people. Most frequently, the farmers in the study area used to sell their produce directly to consumers in the near by local markets. Sorghum, oilseeds, teff, wheat, barley, gum and incense, livestock and livestock products such as cattle, goat and sheep, honey and hide and skin are the most important outputs produced in abundance. Inadequate standardization and grading methods, traditional units of measurement characterize the marketing system in the study area across the open-air markets and poor transport and communication facilities. The major primary markets in the districts' towns are Idaga Hamus, Frewoyni, Endasilassie, Desse'a and Haik-Mesahil town markets.Cooperatives' role with regard to output marketing in the study area is limited in purchasing food grains from the surplus producing areas in the harvest period /inside and outside the region/ to distribute during dry period (TCPO, 2004). This is so because the area is known as drought prone, the farmland holding is small and fragmented and as a result, productivity is very poor.With regard to input marketing, AISE and Guna Trading House were the major suppliers for more than 10 years. Currently, however, Inderta Cooperatives Union came to involve in fertilizer import and distribution in the Region. Inderta Cooperatives Union is the sole supplier of fertilizer in collaboration with other primary level cooperatives through out the region for the last two cropping seasons. Seed and chemicals (pesticide, fungicide, etc…) supply is so far done by the BoARD while cooperatives and district input experts are involved in distributing to farmers.As far as the provision of institutional farm credit is concerned, most farmers have an access to Dedebit Rural Credit Services (DECSI), Rural Saving and Credit Cooperative (RuSACCOs) and the Multi-Purpose Service Cooperatives. However, since 2000, the role of cooperatives in credit provision is increasing from year to year. Sources of loan for cooperatives are Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) through regional government budget collateral and European Union (EU) and World Bank through the Regional Food Security Coordination Office. The CBE's loan is working in almost 32 districts of the region both short term and medium term loan; while the EU/World Bank loan is disbursed in 25 districts in the form of medium term loan.All possible sources of loans through cooperatives are working in the study area. Easy access and timely availability, simple and low costly, and proximity are the main reasons supposed to determine farmers' to shift their demand for loan via cooperatives. Following the initiative of VOCA/Ethiopia to launch the promotion of rural micro finance cooperatives in 2001 and later on, in 2003 by RUFIP, RuSACCOs also are becoming important sources of loan to their members (TCPO, 2005).According to the 2005's Tigray Cooperatives Promotion Office (TCPO) report, the total number of primary cooperative societies at regional level is 1309, of which 582 primary cooperative societies are Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies having total number of membership of about 338,242 members (93.79 per cent of the total members of different kinds of cooperative societies). Of which 555 MPCSs are registered at the regional and district level promotional offices (TCPO, 2005). From the above data, it is possible to say that the agricultural multipurpose cooperatives have wider base in area coverage and membership. The government of the region is providing promotional and regulatory services to the cooperatives at regional and district level. Particularly, the district level promotional department is responsible to organize the people on voluntarily basis, register and provide technical assistance and keep the momentum of cooperatives development in their course of service provision to the members. To do so the promotional department is organized at district level into the organization and promotion team, marketing and credit team and auditing and registrar team.Each team is consisted of three experts. Besides, one team leader for each team and one department head are appointed to coordinate the overall effort of the department (DCPD, 2007). The ultimate objective of sampling is to select a set of elements from a population. Random sampling enhances the likelihood of accomplishing this objective and also allows for the objective assessment of the reliability of the sample. Eastern Tigray Zone comprises of seven districts and 94 Kebeles having a total number of 117,000 households (CSA, 2004). The zone is classified into two big agro climatic zones: High land and Mid Land/Low land. Accordingly, two districts were selected randomly, one from the highland and one from the lowland/midland in order to have proportional representation to the agro-climatological condition of the zone. Thus Saesi-Tsaida-Imba and Atsiby-Womberta districts were selected for the study. There are 16MPCSs in Atsiby-Womberta and 12 MPCSs in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba districts. Hence four MPCSs from Atsiby-Womberta and three MPCSs from Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba were selected randomly for the research (Table 3).The probability proportionate technique to determine the sample size was followed. Hence the total numbers of the member respondents selected are 162 from all the seven MPCSs. The proportion of sample size from the total number of members of the sample MPCSs is 1.556 per cent. The sample size is sufficient to collect adequate primary data from the study areas. The sample size for the study is determined in the following way: Maximum Margin of Error (5%) =Z√ (P/1-P/)/n(1) 5% e=1.96x√0.12 (0. The target population in the two districts is 12 per cent of the total number of members in the zone, level of confidence 95 per cent, which corresponds to Z score of 1.96. Hence, the sample size was fixed as 162 members, which is enough to meet the minimum requirement for the sampling. It is obviously known that data are of two broad types with regard to sources: primary and secondary. Both secondary and primary data on a wide variety of variables were required to meet the objectives of the study. Based on the literature reviewed and observations made in the area, it is envisioned that huge database is required. A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was employed to collect data. The information required, with regard to secondary data, include: both financial and physical quantity of purchased and sold of agricultural input/output, recording of activities, data related to production, purchases, sales, members, assets, credits disbursed and collected, employees, profits/losses.Most of the data related to the performance of the cooperatives were collected for about five years from each of the seven primary Multi-Purpose Cooperative Societies. Secondary data were obtained from various sources such as reports of MoARD, Bureau of Finance Economic Development, cooperatives, etc at different levels. Maps, information from NGOs operating in the area and other published and unpublished materials, which were found to be relevant for the study, were utilized.Primary data were collected from sample respondents through using a structured interview schedule, which was designed to generate data on some social, institutional and economic variables that are supposed to be important for the study. Important data collected from the primary sources include, farmers access to input and credit, annual income and expenditure, members duration in cooperatives, access to market, perception on input and output prices, loan available, access to extension facility, farm size, livestock holding, other socio-economic characteristics, like on and off-farm income, age of household heads, gender, family size, educational level, participation in cooperatives, perception, etc. The primary sources of data were sample farmers.The data were collected in between August-November 2007. Twelve Tenth-grade completed who speak the local language were recruited from the study area and acquainted with the questions, trained on methods of data collection and interviewing techniques. Interview schedule was developed in English and later translated into local language, Tigrigna. Besides, field trips were made before the actual survey to observe the overall features of the selected cooperatives and to pre-test the interview schedule. For pre-testing purpose, 12 farm households outside the sample farmers were interviewed, at the rate of one farmer by each enumerator. After pre-testing, a second meeting was held with the enumerators to discuss on their field experiences, clarity of questions, language, unexpected responses and additional response options for the questions.After incorporating corrections, the final version of the interview schedule was prepared (Appendix VII). Continuous supervision was made by the principal researcher to correct possible errors on the spot.Farmer members' participation behavior, especially in low income countries, is influenced by a complex set of socio-economic, demographic, technical and institutional factors. Modeling farmers' response to cooperatives' intervention in agricultural input/output marketing has, therefore, become important both theoretically and empirically. Several models are available to analyze factors affecting members' participation in cooperative affairs. The choice of a member to participate or not may depend upon several factors. Some of these alternative models are briefly discussed below.To meet the first objective of the study, to evaluate Performance of Cooperatives, an attempt was made to describe the functions and organizational status of MPCSs. Cooperatives' Function andPerformance refers to the ability of cooperatives in accomplishing their planned activities within specified time and required budget allocated. Based on the data available at the district promotional offices and cooperatives, it was attempted to evaluate the function and performance of cooperatives in input output marketing, credit service provision, capital accumulation, membership number, profit and loss using simple percentage analysis. But simple percentage analysis was not adequate to evaluate cooperatives performance.The researcher used different financial ratio analysis. Financial ratios can be designed to evaluate cooperative's performance. Ratios can be used as one tool in identifying areas of strengths or weakness in cooperatives. Financial ratios enable to make comparison of cooperative's financial conditions over time or in relation to other cooperatives. Ratios standardize various elements of financial data for differences in the size of a series of financial data when making comparisons over time or among cooperatives.A cooperative, which intends to remain viable business entity, must have enough cash on hand to pay its debts as they come due. In other words, the cooperatives must remain liquid. One way to determine the case is to examine the relationship between a cooperative's current assets and current liabilities. Liquidity ratio also is quick measure and means to ensure whether the cooperative is capable to provide sufficient cash to conduct business over the next few months.According to Birmingham and Houston (1998) pointed out that one of the most commonly used liquidity ratio is the current ratio that is computed by dividing current asset by current liabilities.(2)Whenever a cooperative finance a portion of asset is related with any type of financing such as debts, the cooperative is said to be using financial leverage. According Birmingham and Houston (1998) financial leverage management ratio measures the degree to which a firm is employing financial leverage. According to these authors, of the several types of financial leverage ratios, debt ratio is commonly used. It measures the portion of a firm's total asset that is financed with creditors' fund. It is computed by dividing total debt by total asset.(3)Profitability is the net effect of a number of policies and decisions. Profitability ratios measure how effectively a firm's management was generating profits on sales, total assets, most importantly stockholders' investment (Birmingham and Houston, 1998). These authors also suggested that the most commonly used profitability ratio refers to the return on total asset, which is computed by dividing net income by total asset.(4)The study of analysis role of cooperatives in input/output marketing is based up on dichotomous regression models. As a result it needs to explain the probability of participation on cooperative affairs to use as marketing means or channel including the extent and intensity of participation index. Knowledge that a member farmer is participating in cooperatives business may not provide much information about his extent of participation in the cooperative. A strictly dichotomous variable often is not sufficient for examining the intensity of members' participation in cooperatives.Discrete regression models are models in which the dependent variable assumes discrete values.The simplest of these models is that in, which the dependent valuable Y is binary (it can assume only two values denoted by 0 and 1) (Amemiya, 1985;Gujarati, 1988 andMaddala, 1997).According to Amemiya (1985); Gujarati (1988) and Maddala (1997), the three most commonly used approaches to estimating such models are the Linear Probability Model (LPM), the Logit model and the probit model. The Linear Probability Model is the model, which expresses the dichotomous dependent variable (Y) as a linear function of the explanatory variable (X). Because of its computational simplicity, LPM has been used in econometric applications especially during and before the 1960s.However, as indicated by Maddala (1997), Amemiya (1985) and Gujarati (1988) the linear probability model has an obvious defect in that the estimated probability values can lie outside the normal 0-1 ranges. The fundamental problem with the LPM is that it is not logically a very attractive model because it assumes that the marginal or incremental effects of explanatory variables remain constant, that is Pi = E (y=1/X) increases linearly with X (Maddala, 1997 andGujarati, 1988).The limitation of the linear probability model suggests that there is a need to have an appropriate model in which the relationship between the probability that an event will occur and the explanatory variables is non-linear (Gujarati, 1988;Maddala, 1997). The authors suggested that the sigmoid or S-shaped curve, which very much resembles the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of random variable, is used to model regressions where the response variable is dichotomous, taking 0-1 values. The Cumulative Distributions Functions (CDFs), which are commonly chosen to represent the 0-1 response models, are the Logit (logistic CDF) model and the Probit (normal CDF) Model.Logit and Probit models are the convenient functional forms for models with binary endogenous variables (Johnston and Dinardo, 1997). These two models are commonly used in studies involving qualitative choices. To explain the behavior of dichotomous dependent variable we have to use a suitably chosen Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). The Logit model uses the cumulative logistic function. But this is not the only CDF that one can use. In some applications the normal CDF has been found useful. The estimating model that emerges from normal CDF is popularly known as the probit model (Gujarati, 1995). The logistic and probit formulations are quite comparable, the chief difference being that the logistic has slightly flatter tails, which is the normal curve approaches the axes more quickly than the logistic curve. Therefore, the choice between the two is one of mathematical convenience and ready availability of computer programs (Gujarati, 1988).Members' Participation studies based upon dichotomous regression models may attempt to explain only the probability of active participants versus passive-participants rather than the extent and intensity of members' participation. Knowledge that a member is actively participating may not provide much information about members' behavior because he/she may be using 1 percent or 100 percent of his/her level or intensity of participation in the cooperatives' affairs.Similarly, with respect to involving in exercising their right in decision, purchasing of input or selling their output to the cooperatives and so on, a member may be involving in lower level or at large intensity. A strictly dichotomous variable often is not sufficient for examining the intensity of participation.There is also a broad class of models that have both discrete and continuous parts. One important model in this category is the Tobit. Tobit is an extension of the Probit model and it is really one approach to dealing with the problem of censored data (Johnston and Dinardo, 1997). Some authors call such models limited dependent variable models, because of the restriction put on the values taken by the regressand (Gujarati, 1995).Examining the empirical studies in the literature, many researchers have employed the Tobit model to identify factors influencing the participation of members in cooperatives as well as other aspects of development efforts. For example, Daniel (2006) and Gizachew (2005), used the Tobit model to estimate the probability and the intensity of farmers market participation in agricultural produces.The econometric model applied for analyzing factors influencing participation and intensity of members' participation in cooperatives is the Tobit model shown in equation ( 5). This model is chosen because, it has an advantage over other models (LPM, Logistic, and Probit) in that, and it reveals both the probability of participation of members and intensity of their participation.Following Maddala (1992), Amemiya (1985) and Johnston and Dinardo (1997), the Tobit model can be defined as:Where, Yi = the observed dependent variable, in our case the index of intensity of participation.Y i * = the latent variable which is not observable.Xi = vector of factors affecting members' participation and index of participation ß = vector of unknown parameters u i = residuals that are independently and normally distributed with mean zero and a common variance σ 2 .Note that the threshold value in the above model is zero. This is not a very restrictive assumption, because the threshold value can be set to zero or assumed to be any known or unknown value (Amemiya, 1985). The Tobit model shown above is also called a censored regression model because it is possible to view the problem as one where observations of Y* at or below zero are censored (Johnston and Dinardo, 1997).The model parameters are estimated by maximizing the Tobit likelihood function of the following form (Maddala, 1997 andAmemiya, 1985).Where ƒ and F are respectively, the density function and cumulative distribution function of An econometric software known as \"Limdep\" was employed to run the Tobit model. It may not be sensible to interpret the coefficients of a Tobit in the same way as one interprets coefficients in an uncensored linear model (Johnston and Dinardo, 1997). Hence, one has to compute the derivatives of the estimated Tobit model to predict the effects of changes in the exogenous variables.As cited in Maddala (1997), Johnston and Dinardo (1997), McDonald and Moffit proposed the following techniques to decompose the effects of explanatory variables into participation and intensity effects. Thus, a change in X i (explanatory variables) has two effects. It affects the conditional mean of Yi in the positive part of the distribution, and it affects the probability that the observation will fall in that part of the distribution. Similar approach is used in this study.1. The marginal effect of an explanatory variable on the expected value of the dependent variable is: following Maddala, (1997) 2. The Change in the probability of participating in cooperatives as independent variable Xi changes is:3. The change in intensity of participation with respect to a change in an explanatory variable among active participants is:Where, F(z) is the cumulative normal distribution of Z, ƒ(z) is the value of the derivative of the normal curve at a given point (i.e., unit normal density), Z is the z-score for the area under normal curve, ß is a vector of Tobit maximum likelihood estimates and s is the standard error of the error term.Using descriptive statistics it is also possible to compare and contrast different characteristics of the sample member households along with the econometric model. Hence, descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage and standard deviation are computed to analyze the collected data.With regard to fourth objective, percentage analysis was employed to study and interpret the problems of societies, which determine the performance of the cooperatives. Finally, the researcher summarized the members' suggestions based on the result of the analysis and discussions.In this particular study the main socio economic and demographic variable hypothesized to differentiate between active participants and non-participants of members' on agricultural input/output marketing of Cooperatives include the following:Members' Participation: refers to the tendency of the members to actively associate in planning, executing and monitoring and evaluation of activities related to cooperatives. The dependent variable for analysis is dichotomous nature representing the observed status of members' participation in cooperatives affairs including in agricultural input/output marketing.Depending on the index result of each respondent, the respondents were categorized into two groups: passive and active members. The respondents who scored 0.5 and above values were grouped as actively participating members (APM), while the others who scored below 0.5 value was grouped as passive participant members (PPM).Participation Index (PI): is the yardstick or standard to measure the level of the participation of members in various activities related to cooperatives. Moreover, index of participation of members in cooperatives was also a complementary dependent variable, which is useful to identify determining factors that affect the intensity of members' participation. In order to measure level of participation in cooperative undertaking, the researcher has identified the most important indicators of participation. Accordingly, the researcher selected the following indicators: Attending annual meeting, approving the by-law/amendment, annual plan and budget, audit report, determining share values, sharing responsibilities, evaluating and approving executed activities report to measure members' involvement members' willingness to exercise their democratic rights; and buying and selling (Input/Output), using available loan using the services rendered, and buying additional share capital to measure members' economic participation. This information was collected from the sample households through interviewing method. The qualitative nature of the indicators measured by scoring was organized to develop participation index, by simply adding the scorings and divided to the total possible maximum score in order to identify whether member was participating actively or not.Therefore, the dependent variable of the Tobit model has continuous value. As observed in different empirical studies the dependent variable can be expressed in terms of ratio, actual figure and log form depending on the purpose of the study. As a result, in analyzing the role of cooperatives in input/output marketing the factors that influenced members' to decide participate in cooperatives was substantiated as index of intensity of members' participation as the dependent variable of the Tobit model.Members' decision to participate in cooperatives' affairs and the intensity of their participation in a given period of time is hypothesized to be influenced by a combined effect of various factors such as household characteristics, socio-economic and physical environments in which the members are operating. Based on the brief literature review in this study a total of 25 variables are hypothesized to explain the dependent variable of the study.Age of the member (MEMAGE): is defined, as number of completed years of the respondent or member. It is continuous variable. The assumption in the study is that as age progress farmers acquire experience and knowledge in participating and the intensity of members' participation in the cooperatives. In this regard, this variable is hypothesized to positively influence members' participation and members' intensity of participation.represents to the characteristics of the members in terms of masculine and feminine. It is dummy variable. Hence male members score 1 and otherwise zero.It is expected that male-headed households have more experience and access in participating in the cooperatives.Family size of members (MEMFASI): -Family size is number of persons in the family. It is a continuous variable. The larger the family members, the more the labour force available for production purpose, the less the probability to be weak in participating in input/output marketing of the society. On the contrary to this fact large family size may imply self-insufficiency because large households consume more than do the small households. Therefore, the coefficient of this variable may show negative or positive sign.-This represents the level of formal schooling completed by the members. It is a discrete variable where \"0\" represents illiterates, \"1\" represent read and write \"2\" represents 1-8 th grade, \"3\" represent 8-12 th grade and \"4\" represent above 12 th grade. Educated members are expected to have more exposure to the external environment and accumulated knowledge through learning. Moreover, educated members are familiar with their duties and rights they have in cooperatives and keep in touch to take right decision. Therefore, educated members would be expected to have active participation experience.-This represents the total number of years that the member has spent in cultivating his/ her own farming. It is a continuous variable. It is believed that experience teaches and trains members with respect to farming operations. Hence, more experienced members are more likely to be patronizing than the less experienced one.Off farm income of members in Birr (OFINCEM):refers to the income obtained from different activities apart from agriculture. It is a continuous variable. Since members have inadequate on-farm income they often look for other sources of income. So this income has a great support for farming population to fulfill their obligation. Moreover, the income raised from such activities help the members not to sale their crops immediately after harvest at cheap price.Rather the trend of their involvement in buying agricultural inputs increases on the contrary.On-farm income of members in Birr (ONINCEM): -. This refers to the total amount of cash that specific member raised from on-farm activities on cash. It is a continuous variable and this income is the immediate source of capital for smallholder farmers to finance their day-to-day activities. Therefore, the higher the cash income the members have, the more they will involve in marketing activities of cooperatives.Total annual income in birr (TAINCEM): refers to the total earnings of all the members of the family of the respondent for one year. This can be obtained by adding the income earned by the family members and income from on-farm and off-farm for one year.Members' farm holding size in hectare (FRLHEM):refers the total farm size possessed by the member. It is continuous variable. Since it represents ownership of important farm asset, it is expected that it enhance the capacity of the members to involve in every aspect of marketing activities of cooperatives.Members' number of livestock in TLU (LSTKEM): -Livestock are the farmers' important sources of income, means of transportation, and food and draught power for crop cultivation in the study area. Total livestock of the members is measured in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). It is therefore, logical to expect that a higher value of livestock unit increase the probability of being active participant.refers to the soil fertility status of sample farmers' cropland as perceived by the respondents. It is to be measured based on: \"0\" if the soil is poor, \"1\" if the soil is fair and \"2\" if the soil is fertile. If the soil is fertile the product raised from the land is sufficient enough, ceteris paribus. So fertile the soil is, the higher will be the farmer to have marketable surplus.Total consumption expenditure of the member in Birr (TEXPEM): -The amount of total expenditure on consumption of goods and services determines the availability of liquid asset for fulfilling members' obligation, i.e. to make right decision to participate or not. If the members' expenditure is high, the possibility of using improved agricultural input is low.Proximity to Village Market in Km (PROXIMA): refers to the distance from house of members to the village market place. The distance to the village market place directly determines the member farmers' decision whether to participate or not in cooperatives. It is measured in terms of Kilo meter (km).Distance from the extension Service (DISEXTN): refers to the distance between the extension office and members' house located. It is measured in terms of kilo meter. The distance to the extension workers' center has a direct impact on the member farmers' decision whether to participate or not in cooperatives through the purchase of input and improves their productivity in order to have marketable surplus.Perceived Cooperatives' role Performance by members (PECORPM): is the perception of members to the ability of cooperatives in accomplishing their planned activities to achieve their commitment to the members within specified time and required budget allocated. Besides, the role performance of cooperatives also is independent variable, which is measured by the degree of members' perception on: Role of cooperatives in price stabilizing, Market information dissemination, solving market problems, providing demand oriented services and Provided Credit Services. This information was collected from the sample member households through interviewing method. The qualitative nature of the indicators was measured by scoring to quantify the members' perception in role performance of cooperatives. Finally, the scoring was summed up and divided to the total in order to develop index to know the degree of members' perception on role performances of cooperatives.This is a dummy variable, which is expressed in terms of member's accessibility to production credit to purchase available input through cooperatives.Several studies have shown that access to credit plays a significant role in enhancing the use of agricultural input. In the present study, it is hypothesized that access to input credit would have positive influence on members' participation intensity. It is a dummy variable and if the perceived price of agricultural output condition is poor \"0\" and if fair \"1\". Some of the products are naturally harvested within particular time and may be perishable and have to be disposed immediately after harvest. Moreover, commitments such as loan, land use and income taxes are mostly settled after harvest.   This chapter presents the findings from simple percentage, ratio analysis, descriptive and econometric analysis. Simple analysis was used to describe the functional and organizational performances of cooperatives in various activities in the study area. The financial ratio analysis made use of three ratios i.e. current, debt and return on total asset to examine the performance of the cooperatives found in Atsiby Womberta and Saesi-Tsaida-Imba districts. The descriptive analysis made use of tools such as mean and frequency. T-test and χ2test were also employed to test the significant level of the explanatory variables. Econometric analysis was employed to identify the most important factors that influence the participation of members in the cooperatives.The first objective of the study was addressed by using different performance measures.Measurement of performance involves knowing how far actual performance is consistent with planned performance or with standards already established. Some simple figurative expression and ratio analysis were employed to assess the change in some economic variables such as the trend of business transaction in terms of volume or value and in the financial condition of cooperatives.The study area is known as food insecure area in the region. A few years ago, droughts have been occurring almost at interval of every two-three years. Hence it is usual phenomena to see people in the rural parts of the study area who almost entirely depend on food aid. According to FAO report in 2005, even in a good harvest period, the production is not adequate for the household consumption. For instance, according to the report, the balance of total food production to meet demand was 145,077 Metric tons in deficit. Samson (2002) also revealed that 80 per cent of the households in the study area received food aid in the year 2000/ 2001. Therefore, as the study area is a food deficit, co-operatives have little role in assembling farmers' produces. The cooperatives were engaged more in procuring food grain for members' consumption, fertilizer and seed distribution and short and medium-term credit provision for fertilizer and the household packages. Due to high competition from the local traders, cooperatives' involvement in consumer goods purchase is decreasing from year to year.The farmers in the study area used to demand food grain for consumption starting from May.Cooperatives have indispensable role in filling the gap. This is so because the rugged nature landscape of the study area coupled with its steep valleys and high upland areas makes the transport of bulky commodities both difficult and expensive at individual farmers' level.Consequently, cooperatives were actively involving in procuring food grains like teff, maize and wheat from surplus producing areas, in and/or outside the region, to distribute among the members in the rain season. The volume procured is increasing over time in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and decreasing in Atsiby Womberta (Table 4). Total volume of food grain procured in the year 2002 was 235 qts while the volume increased to 3567 quintals (qts) in the year 2006. Despite the inconsistency in procuring food grains due to financial constraint, they were attempting to satisfy their members demand. The financial statement of some cooperatives revealed that food grain business is not as profitable as credit services. Lack of transparency and accountability in the procuring process can be pointed out as main factor attributing for less profitability. The board and the management have neither controlling mechanism to persuade purchasers nor they involve in the purchase to ensure transparency in the process. As it was indicated in the financial statement of audit report, procurement of consumer goods and food grain have been always the sources of disagreement and conflict between members and the board (Audit report, 2002(Audit report, -2006)).In all the case, MPCSs in the study area involvement to purchase or collect members' produces was very poor. Low potential in agricultural production and productivities, farmers' lack of orientation to market their produce through cooperatives and generally lack of awareness to produce for marketing purpose were among the most essential constraints, which had substantial contribution for the poor role of cooperatives in assembling agricultural produces.Fertilizer distribution has become the most important business activity for almost all MPCSs in the study area since 1999. Distribution of fertilizer through cooperatives is carried out starting from May to end of July. Cooperatives used to distribute fertilizer for both members and nonmember farmers. The only difference is that members are eligible to purchase fertilizer on credit basis. The role of cooperatives in fertilizer distribution is growing in Saesi-Tsada-Imba while the distribution in Atsiby Womberta through cooperatives was declining for the last five years (Table 4). Fertilizer distributed through cooperatives in the year 2002 was 855 qts and 415.875 qts in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and Atsiby Womberta respectively. The volume distributed through MPCSs in Saesi-Tsada-Imba increased to 1246 qts in 2006. The district cooperatives promotion department (DCPD) report indicated that, as of 2006, cooperatives were a source of fertilizer for 87 per cent in Saesi-Tsada-Imba and zero in Atsiby Womberta. Most often, the average volume of DAP and Urea taken from the cooperatives were 37.5 and 25 kg respectively. The average quantity consumed by the farmers is too little as compared to other farmers in the country.Moreover, there is no private wholesaler or retailer dealing in fertilizer distribution in the study area.Cooperative involvement in seed distribution is poor. Usually the input department in the district office of agricultural and rural development (DOARD) is responsible for the distribution. In Saesi-Tsada-Imba, in the year 2002-2006 total volume of seed distributed were 362.10 qts. The volume distributed included only the quantity distributed through sample MPCSs. Besides, out of the total volume of seed distributed for the five consecutive years 125 qts were improved seed (wheat) and 60.5 kg was Vegetable seed (Table 4). Barley, wheat and chickpeas were the most important type of seeds distributed. The District Cooperatives Promotion Department (DCDP) report shows that cooperatives ceased to involve in seed distribution in Atsiby Womberta. In the year 2002, 16.375 qt was distributed through cooperatives. However, cooperatives had no role in the year 2005 and 2006 (Table 4).The MPCSs in Saesi-Tsada-Imba were advancing towards provision of pesticides to the members starting from 2003 (Table 4). There were steady increases in the supply of pesticides through cooperatives (27 kg to 65 kg). The input department in DOARD and MPCSs has close relationship in Saesi-Tsada-Imba as compared to Atsiby Womberta. The concerted effort of input department and cooperatives promotion team in the district is creating encouraging environment to cooperatives. Therefore, cooperatives' role in input distribution is improving from year to year in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba. There were two Credit sources for cooperatives: CBE through the regional government budget guarantee for fertilizer purchase and revolving credit fund from donor organizations for the household package purposes. Documents show that in the study area larger proportion of fertilizer sales to farmers was on credit basis. The credit sales are either channeled through cooperatives or agricultural offices. Although the share from the total credit extended to farmers is declining, there is also one regional based micro-finance institution that is dealing with input credit: Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution (DECSI).Prior to the year 2000, Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution had a lion share in the credit market of the region particularly in relation to chemical fertilizer marketing. According to district level promoters' opinion, cooperatives began to receive consistent and effective technical and administrative support after the establishment of independent cooperatives' promotional office at the regional, zonal and district level. The support from the government enables cooperatives to have vital role in input distribution, which had significant impact on the growth of cooperatives' credit market share in the region as well as in the study area. Accordingly, the magnitude of credit disbursed in 2002 was 840,000 birr while the amount increased in 2006, to 4,070,800 birr.The loan was disbursed for both fertilizer and seed purchase and household package program in the study districts. The data collected from the study districts cooperatives' promotion department revealed that there was a substantial increment of loan disbursed to the beneficiaries (Table 5).According to the by-law of cooperatives, regardless of its source, members must be the only users of available loan. However, considering challenges of farmers to credit access, cooperatives took the responsibility of disbursing loan for the household package to include non-members of their vicinity. Cooperatives work in collaboration with district level agricultural and rural development office and local administration to propose and approve loan beneficiaries for the household packages. This is so because the source of fund for the household package was donors (EU and World Bank). The responsibility of managing the community based fund based on the agreed procedure fallen on the shoulder of cooperatives. The manual or procedure was prepared with full consultation of donors, cooperatives, promoters and other stakeholders including BoARD in the year 2002. With regard to repayment performances, the audit report of cooperatives shows that on average the annual repayment was 97 per cent for the fertilizer and seed loan, and 69 per cent for household packages in the two districts.In Eastern Tigray, the beginning of cooperatives movement can be traced back to the mid 1960s.Besides, the documents in BoARD revealed that there were strong movements in the beginning of 1980s. Due to prolonged war and political instability, the cooperatives momentum in the study area was impaired for more than 10 years. The year 1998 was a new chapter for cooperatives movement in the country. Following the Federal Government enacted proclamation No 147/1998, the reorganizing efforts based on the new proclamation began which had persuasive effect to regain their momentum. The government created Conducive environment by permitting cooperatives involve in input distribution and credit provision. The regional government favoured cooperatives to have access for credit from Commercial Bank of Ethiopia through regional budget collateral or guarantee arrangement. As a result, their role of involvement in input credit marketing increased, which in turn had significant impact on increasing the number of members and total amount of capital in birr (Table 5).Consequently, the data gathered from the financial statement of cooperatives show that the total amount of capital in the year 2002 was 602,646.57 birr while the amount increased to 1,270,895.38 birr in 2006 (Table 5). The capital increase was almost above 100 per cent in five years time. Membership increase in number, additional share contribution, cooperatives successful engagement in loan provision and input marketing had significant contribution according to the financial statement of each sample MPCSs in the study areas. According to audit reports, the members' share contribution is also proportional to that of collectively owned capital by making profits.However, improper practices of handling documents, recordings and accounts due to poor management were creating difficulties to the district level auditors in differentiating reserve, social fund with cooperatives' profit as well as in distributing the patronage dividends. The pursuit of capital from profit is important and desirable practice, so long as the element of members' share capital to the total capital structure is so proportional. The argument is that it fosters member control in making policy decisions and avoids abandon the fundamental values of the co-operative movement (Crawford, 1997). The control structure of co-operatives is made up of three tiers: the general assembly, BoDs and employees. Each structure has clearly demarked duties and responsibilities stated in the By-Law.The General Meeting of Members makes policy through the annual meeting of members. In the annual meetings the members exercise control over the cooperatives. According to the by-law of MPCSs' members, at least, were expected to involve in one annual meeting per annum. However, cooperatives were usually unable to run the meetings accordingly due to limited willingness of members and lack of boards to notify the annual meeting ahead of time. After several calls only 75 and 83 per cent of the annual meetings were conducted in the sample MPCSs in both Atsiby and Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba districts.The BoDs are the delegates of the GA, which controls the works of the co-operative on behalf of members. The boards of directors are consisted of Management Committee and Control Committee. Both are accountable to the general assembly. According to the By-Law, the boards' term is three years after election with the possibility of extending one additional term. However, only two cooperative societies in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba were managed to change boards for the past ten years. The remaining six sample cooperatives had limitations to be abided by their by-law.Except the minor replacement elections to fill the number of missed board members, no changes were made as per the terms stated in the by-law. Besides, the control committee had failed to take the responsibility of controlling the property of cooperatives on behalf of members.In most case the MPCSs have employees who are responsible to carry out activities such as book keepings, store and shop keeping, and sometimes managers. The employees are accountable to the board. There were six bookkeepers, five shop/store keepers, seven purchasers, 11 guards, one accountant and one manager in the seven sample MPCSs. The employees' terms of agreement are based on the labour law of the country. The level of education of the employees was at most secondary school. Maximum monthly salary paid to the manager of one cooperative society in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba, 500 birr/month, while the remaining employees' salary ranges between 90-320 birr/month. In all sample MPCSs, working procedures, by-laws, financial documents were introduced though they are not utilizing the documents properly due to lack of skills and technical supervisions from district and regional level promoters. Almost all MPCSs of the study area had their own office and working area though the offices had lack some essential working furniture and equipments (Appendix IX).The satisfactory rate of current ratio that is accepted by most financial institutions as condition for granting or continuing commercial loan is 2.00. With this benchmark when the reference years (2002 -2006) are observed, all the sample cooperatives in the two districts performed below the desirable standard. In 2002 the average current ratio for the selected cooperatives for this purpose in the two districts was 1.389 (Table 6 and Fig. 2). The highest ratio was 2.29, which was scored by Haile Manjus in Atsiby and the lowest was 1.03, which was scored by Mahibere Genet in Saesi-Taseda-Imba, (Appendix II). In 2003 the average current ratio was 1.316 (Table 6). The average current ratio for the year 2004 became 1.295. In the year 2005, the average current ratios were 1.75 and 1.01 for both Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and Atsiby districts respectively. In the year 2006 there was one cooperative in Atsiby district, which in general scored below 1.00.The trend of liquidity ratio was increasing in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba and decreasing in Atsiby Womberta. When one observes the performance of the cooperatives, there was slight decrease in the liquidity ratio in the year 2003 as compared to the 2002. This implies that their current liabilities were rising slightly than their current assets. In most cases, the cooperatives have credit access both from financial institutions via the regional government collateral arrangement and from NGOs in the form of revolving credit fund. However, the ability to get credit by their own to meet their short-term demand for money (to purchase farmers' output or input) is endangered. Lenders may not be willing to extend short-term loan to the cooperatives, as the financial institutions require current ratio to remain at or above 2.00 as a condition for granting loan.The financial leverage of the sample cooperatives in the two districts was computed employing the debt to total asset ratio (finances a portion of assets with debts). The cooperatives under investigation in the two districts financed more of their total asset with creditors' fund. In 2002 the average debt-asset ratio was 61 per cent (Fig, 5). This indicates that 61 per cent of the total asset of the cooperatives was financed with creditors' fund. In the year 2003 the average debtasset ratio increased to 63.05 per cent. However, two MPCSs from Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba district and none from Atsiby district cooperatives have shown slight decrease in debt-asset ratio in 2006 as compared to the previous years. The trend of the financial leverage was increasing in Atsiby Womberta while it was decreasing in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba for the past five years (Figure 5).Observing the five years data of how the cooperatives were financed, external financial sources have supplied at least 61 per cent of the cooperatives finance in Atsiby Womberta and 47 per cent in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba (Appendix III). The smaller the proportion (in most cases <50 percent) of the total asset financed by the financing institutions, the smaller the risk that the firm is unable to pay its debt (Brigham, et al., 1998). Having higher proportion of asset financed by the external sources (creditors) fund may lead cooperatives to the risk of bankruptcy if the management seeks to increase the debt further by borrowing additional funds. The profitability ratios demonstrate how well the firm is making investment and financing decisions. According to William et al. (2003) firms need to earn return on their asset that enables them to pay the interest of the money they borrowed i.e. they need to have return on their asset, which is equal or better than the interest rate of the money they borrowed.One can observe from Table 6, the profitability ratios of the cooperatives under investigation were fluctuating in the past five years. The earning of cooperatives under investigation in 2002, the highest was 530 per cent in Atsiby, which was scored by Mahibere Bokuru and the lowest, was 0 per cent, which was scored by three cooperatives in Atsiby and one in Saesi-Tsada-Imba (Appendix III). In 2003 the highest ratio was 891 per cent, which was scored by Mahibere Bokiru and the lowest was 0 per cent, which was scored by Haile Manjus Cooperative Society in Atsiby.In 2002 the average profitability of the cooperatives under investigation was 34 per cent though four out of the selected cooperatives were not profitable. In 2003 the average ratio increased to 35 per cent and only one cooperative was not profitable. The average profitability ratio for 2004 declined to 12 per cent and cooperatives, which were not profitable, became two in number (Appendix III). Even though there was improvement in profitability ratio in 2002-2006, the most important sources of profit for almost all profit making cooperatives was loan interest collected from the Members and non-members borrowed the fund. As the major source of the loan fund was the donors revolving credit fund through bilateral agreement for food security purposes, its cost of fund was very much low. As a result, their profitability in 2002 and 2003 was higher than the year 2004-2006. Later on, when cooperatives began to borrow money from the financial institutions for fertilizer distribution purpose, which had relatively high cost of loan interest (7 per cent), cooperatives' profitability ratio started to fluctuate and is affecting their liquidity, asset management and financial management. Even some of the cooperatives were not in a position to achieve the profitability ratio which is equal or better than the interest rate (7 per cent) with which they borrowed money from the financial institutions. The possible reasons for the difference in profitability among the cooperative lies on how effectively the cooperative management is generating profit on sales, total assets, money they borrowed, repayment performances and most importantly members' investment (share capital).This section discusses the nature of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the member households that affect their participation in the affairs of cooperatives. As discussed earlier in the methodology part, the study was based on cross sectional data obtained from 162 member households. The discussions in this section mainly compare the two household groups:Passive and Active participants in the cooperatives affairs.The study examines the participation of all the respondents in cooperatives: in decision making, exercising their democratic rights and economic participation. Components of participation were identified and selected for the study purpose based on literature review. The researcher used 12 participation indicators and measured members' degree of participation accordingly (Appendix X). Simple participation index was developed to easily group the respondents into APM and PPM. The participation index was worked out by adding the individual respondent scorings of all the indicators and dividing to the possible maximum total scoring that one respondent had to score. The result of the study shows that 45.7 per cent of the total sample respondent (74 respondents) found to have relatively high level of participation/APMs while 54.3 per cent of the respondents were PPMs (88 respondents) (Table 7); i.e the participation index for 74 respondents was 0.5 and above, and vise versa.The study result shows the maximum and minimum participation index scored from the sample respondents was 0.925 and 0.1 respectively for APM while the PPMs score were 0.48 and 0. The participation index of the sample respondents indicates 54.3 per cent of the total respondents were passive in their participation while 45.7 per cent of the total respondents involving actively in achieving the objectives of collective efforts. Most members were actively involved in using available loan and buying agricultural input particularly fertilizer. Sample respondents' participation in selling agricultural output to cooperatives was very poor. Moreover, the tendency of the index of respondents in decision or exercising the democratic rights was higher for the actively participating respondents than PPMs (Table 7).To be more specific, based on co-operative's principle, it is members who have the democratic rights to involve indecision making with out any kind of discrimination. On this regard, the study result of members' participation index shows that members' involvement to elect boards and involve the general meeting scored 0.4753 and 0.4629 respectively. On the contrary, members were very much reluctant to share responsibility to have a leading role in cooperatives (Appendix X). The respondents participated in approving the by-law, annual budget and activity plan, and other undertakings, which require decision in the general assembly. In general, the study found out that 77.2 per cent of the total respondents could not involve in exercising their democratic right nor had participation in decision (Table 7). This implies that the member-co-operative relations were low. Predominantly the establishment of cooperatives at the grass root level is to obtain economic and social benefits to the members. To achieve the objectives of cooperatives, members must involve in financing, using available services, marketing outputs and purchasing inputs. Active involvement of members has an indispensable effect in the overall results of cooperatives. That is why the researcher attempted to assess as to what level members are participating in the activities of cooperatives: Using available loan, buying and selling, using available services and financing.Maximum level of members' participation was seen in using available loan as per the participation index scoring, that is 0.5925. Apart from the index, the findings of the research revealed that 45.7 per cent of the total respondents replied that they were strongly participating while 54.3 per cent of the total respondents had weak participation in playing their role to achieve the overall objectives (Table 7). The finding coincides with Haileselasie's, 2003, result of participation of members in cooperatives in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba district.Total number of family members of the sample households was about 978, out of which 49.7 per cent were male and 50.3 per cent were female. This figure was approximately consistent with secondary data obtained from each district BoFED, which indicated that male constitute about 49.2 per cent of the total population of the district. Maximum and minimum number of family members of the respondents is 10 and 1 respectively for PPMs and 11 and 2 for active participant members. Average family size for the active participants is 6.22 and for passive participants 5.89 in number (Appendix XI). This average is exceeding the national average which implies that the study area is relatively densely populated. The percentage difference between the two sample groups is insignificant (Table 8).The proportion of female passive participant households is about 61.4 per cent while the actively participating female headed household is 30.6 per cent of the total sample female members. On the contrary, passive and actively participating male led households accounted for 47.8 and 52.2 per cent of the male respondents respectively. And when we compare the number of male headed households with the total, the share was only 69.8 per cent while the remaining 30.2 per cent belongs to the FHH (Table 8). The percentage difference in between the two groups in the Chisquare test shows sex was statistically significant variable p=0.011). This implies that male-headed households were participating actively more than female headed households. The study result is consistent with the study result of Gebru, 2006, that female representation in cooperatives is lower though the trend is promising.The age structure of sample households shows that the average age of passive participants was 49.7 years compared to 45.77 years for active participant members with the minimum and the maximum age of 22 and 67 years respectively (Appendix XI). The mean difference between the two age group respondents was statistically significant (t=2.731, p=0.007) at 1 per cent probability level. The age is expected to be a great source of experience in every day-to-day activity of human beings. So the elder households are expected to have more experience in the Agricultural Input utilization and marketing output through cooperatives. Most researchers agree on role of education to motivate and let members participate on cooperatives' affairs actively. This is so because members who are literate have an opportunity to be acquainted with the rights and obligations they have in the cooperatives. For instance it can help members to understand their right easily to be a member, use available services like agricultural input, loan and also meet their obligation such as contributing share capital. The educational status in the study area indicates that about 48.8 per cent of the total respondents were illiterate; about 33.3 per cent attended literacy classes while around 14.82 and 3.05 per cent had primary and secondary level education respectively. Moreover, about 45.5 per cent of passive and 52.7 per cent of active participant members were illiterate, 44.3 per cent passive and 20.3 active participants were able to read and write while 10.2 and 20.3 per cent had primary education for both passive and actively participating members respectively. The percentage difference for both PPM and APM shows that there is a significant difference at 1 per cent significant level (t= 29.62, p=0.00). In terms of access to formal education (Table 9), the result indicates that passive participant members had less access to education as compared to that of members participating actively. Land is the primary resource (input) in the production process. The average total farm size was 0.56 ha for active participants and 0.6 ha for non-participants (Appendix XI). There are no fallowing practices for both active and passive participant members for the farmers have shortage of land in the study area. The maximum farmland holding is 2.12 ha and 2.81 ha for the actively participating and passive members respectively. Landless farmers are 9 from the passive members and 4 from actively participating members. According to information obtained from administration council of the district, since 1975 land distribution had been taken place for several times in the districts. Hence, the mean comparison of two groups in terms of mean farm land size revealed that there is no significant difference between the two sample groups, which 0.6 ha is for passive members and 0.56 ha for active members (T-Test= 0.558) (Table 10).Among the sample groups reported that they used their own and rented in land for the main cropping season, Meher, were 46.1 and 53.9 per cent passive and APMs respectively. This implies that actively participating members seek for additional lands, other than owned land, through some possible arrangements (Table 10).   The respondents' average experience in farming was 30.27 years with standard deviation of 13.66. Furthermore, the average farming experience of PPM was 28.1 years with standard deviation of 9.08, while for the APM it was 25.88 with standard deviation of 8.1. The mean difference in farming experience was statistically tested and there was no significant difference between the two sample groups (Table 13). Often agricultural households' income is determined by household's production activities and changes in factors influencing production activities. The household cash income was estimated based on the sales of crops, livestock and their products and off-farm income that the farmer or any of the household members earned in the year. However, farmers are reluctant to reliably estimate their income.The total on-farm income of sample respondents was 475,263 birr. The average on farm income of actively participating members is 3813.8 birr/year and exceeds the average on-farm income of the passive members by 51.3 per cent (2193.6 birr/year). The major sources of cash income were from the sale of wheat, barley, pulses and vegetables. Besides, both livestock, cereals, pulses and vegetables on average contribute 82 per cent of the total annual income per household of the sampled farmers. In agreement with the stated hypothesis in this study, there was significant difference in the mean annual income from on-farm activity between two sample groups at 1 per cent probability level. Sales of crops and livestock are the major cash income sources for the households in the study area. About 56.2 per cent of the total sample respondents earned cash income from sales of cereals and pulses whereas about 40.7 per cent of the sample respondents earned cash income from sales of cereals, pulses, vegetable and livestock and /or livestock byproducts (Table 14). Eighteen percent of the total income earned is from non-farm income. The average off-farm income is 446.97 birr/year for passive and 874.5 birr for actively participating members. The income earned from off-farm is from labor employment, handcrafts, and home made alcohol and other informal businesses. Table 15 shows the distribution of households by off-farm/non-farm income. The survey result showed that 71 percent of the sample households earned less than Br. 1000. Among the actively participating member households 41.9 percent of them earned above 1000 birr per year. The farmers used to generate income during holidays, market days as well as during social gatherings at the farmers' field and residences. The income generated from offfarm/non-farm activity ranges from no income to a maximum of Birr 4000 per household within the study year (Table 15). It is usual in the study area that farmers used to engage in various income generating activities. This is so because the farm produce is inadequate to fulfill their demand for consumption expenditure as well as purchase of livestock. In agreement with the stated hypothesis in this study, there was significant difference in the mean annual income from off-farm/non-farm activity between two sample groups at less than 5 percent probability level.The total annual income of the households in study area is a function of crop, livestock, horticultural productions and employment on off-farm/non-farm activities. The distribution of households' total annual income in relation to participation in cooperatives is explained in Table 15. The average household income of the sample respondents was found to be Br. 3,563.57. The mean difference between two groups was Birr 856.27which is highly substantial. The group statistics showed that there is significant difference in total annual income of household between members who are participating and passive in participation in the cooperatives affairs at less than 1 per cent probability level. Table 15 shows distribution of sample households by total annual expenditure per household.Sampled farmers on average spent Br. 2975.20 per household (HH) with standard deviation of 1356.2. The survey result also showed that the average expenditure for actively participating member households was 3496.7 Birr per HH as compared to Birr 2537.07 Birr per HH for passive participant members. The statistical analysis revealed that the mean difference between two groups in relation to expenditure per HH was significant at less than 1 percent probability level (Table 15). For various reasons, they were not willing to receive credit from agricultural offices or cooperatives. The corresponding percentages who received loan for same season were 41.6 per cent and 58.4 per cent of PPM and APM respectively (Table 16). The research result shows 62.3 per cent of the total sample respondent had access for credit and input through cooperatives. In addition, the percentage difference of the two sample respondents was significant at 1 per cent probability level (Chi-Square = 42.178, P=0.008).Population pressure accelerated continuous cultivation of farmland and this exacerbated soil nutrient depletion, declines in organic matter content and finally brought reduced crop productivity (FAO, 2004). To increase production and yield farmers need to use of artificial fertilizers UREA and DAP as per the recommendation for macro nutrients (N and P). Artificial/inorganic fertilizers are often used in all parts of the study area. Out of the surveyed member farmers, 46.3 per cent were reported in using artificial fertilizers DAP and/or UREA for cereals such as wheat and teff (Table 16). Documents from BoARD elucidated factors attributed to low consumption are, among others, poor perception on the use and application of artificial fertilizer, drought, low price for grain, which does not cover the cost of agricultural input and risk aversion associated with crop failure.The use of agricultural input and credit is often influenced by the farmer's access to extension services, since extension agents provide improved inputs and technical advice. In the study area, in each PA there are supposed to be available at least three extension agents supervising to all farming community to provide technical assistance on improved agricultural practices, livestock production and natural resources management. The extension agents are expected to facilitate fertilizer credit distribution and collecting repayments in addition to the technical support. In the study area, the distance between farmers' farm and extension on average, for PPM is 3.17 km and APM 3.03 km. On the other hand, about 57.1 per cent and 42.9 per cent of the sample respondents travel less than 2.5 km to the extension center both PPM and APM respectively (Table 17). The range of distance from the extension center to the farm land is 1-8 km for PPM while it is 0.05-8 km for APM (Appendix XI). The mean difference between the two sample groups was insignificant. Respondents in the study area reported that they sold some of their agricultural products right after harvest to cover costs of farm inputs, social obligation and urgent family expenses by taking to the immediate near by local market. The survey result indicated that the average distance of respondents' home from the nearest market place was 2.89 km (Appendix XI). On average APM was located about 2.87 km distance whereas PPM was about 2.91 km far away from the nearest market. From among the total respondents, 12.4 per cent lived at a distance above 5 km, 46.9 per cent of the respondent lived at a distance of 2.5 km or below away from the local market and from among them 40.7 percent of the respondent located in a distance between 2.5-5 km (Table 17). The longer distance implies that people less often go to market and more time was required to get to market. ownership and willingness to purchase additional share to finance cooperatives. The mean difference between sample groups is significant at 1 percent probability level (Table 19).Difficulties are encountered when the principle of the \"voluntary and open membership\", is violated. Co-operative principles require that membership should not be assumed to imply either political commitment or obligation. Co-operatives organized and tightly controlled by government, as instruments of state economic policy are rarely conducive to the development of democratically controlled, member-owned co-operatives (Coward, 2004). Because they are created to serve the objectives of politicians and planners; on which their objective may or may not coincide with members who have little effective control of the cooperatives. Although there was a kind of persuading the farmers to be members of cooperatives in late 1990s and early 2000s, the existing members had become members in different periods. The study result shows that 56.2 per cent of the total respondents became members for more than 10 years while 24.7 per cent of the respondents became members in between 6-10 years before (Table 19).The study result also shows that there is no significant difference in between the two sample respondent groups in their mean difference.It is unusual for farmers in the study areas to become a member in cooperatives through selfinitiatives or convinced with the objectives and benefits. Table 19 shows that 72.8 per cent of the PPMs and 27.2 APMs had become members through mobilization or persuasion. 63.5 per cent of the total sample respondents joined into cooperatives not because they were clear on the merits they can secure being a member but to secure food aid or involve in food for work programs.With regard to members' perceived role of cooperatives upon achieving their goal, the respondents were asked certain questions to identify their reaction. The indicators used to measure members' perception on the role of cooperatives included: price stabilization, information dissemination, solving marketing problems and rendering demand oriented service.Accordingly, the research result reveals that, 39.5, 56.2, 53.7 and 62.4 per cent of the total respondents disagreed that cooperatives were playing important role in achieving the price stabilization, market information dissemination, solving marketing problems of the members and rendering demand oriented services objectives respectively. Therefore, the study result indicates that members' perception were negative on cooperatives towards achieving their objectives. The percentage difference between the two respondent groups for price stabilization, market information dissemination and solving marketing problems is significant at one percent level of probability (Table 20). The control structure of co-operatives is made up of three tiers: the general assembly, BoDs and employees. Each structure has clearly demarked duties and responsibilities. The General Meeting of Members makes policy and through the annual meeting members exercises control. The BoDs are the delegates of the GA, which controls the works of the co-operative on behalf of members.In most case the MPCSs have employees who are responsible to carry out activities such as book keeping, store keeping, shop keeping and sometimes managing. The employees are accountable to the board, and the board in turn to the GA.Important points used to indicate the existence of transparency and accountability inside the cooperatives: willingness and ability of the board to conduct Annual General Meeting, report to General Meeting, passing decisions based on the by-law, members' willingness to exercise their duties and rights and steps used to distribute dividend were among some.Cooperatives need to disclose their members a specific time/date in a year to hold an Annual General Meeting. The annual general meeting is mandated to hear and approve the audit report, decide how any surplus shall be used and distributed, electing Board, approving the annual plan and budget etc. An attempt was made to recognize whether the cooperatives had a regular annual general meeting or not in the study areas. The study result shows that 26.1 per cent of PPM and 41.9 per cent of APMs were aware of the existence of regular annual meeting and were capable to attend (Table 21). The remaining members 69.1 per cent of the total respondents from both PPM and APM were not well informed to attend the annual general meeting. In most MPCSs the general meeting is used to be carried on after several calls.Consequently, 30.9 per cent of the total respondents were aware about the reports discussed in the GM while 69.1 per cent of the respondents were not clear about the report or not involved in the meeting to be informed about the achievements (Table 21). On the other hand, 32.1 per cent of the total respondents also responded that the board and management were used to pass decisions based on the mandate given to them in the by-law, while 67.9 per cent said they have no ideas on what base the board and management used to pass decisions.In addition, the study result shows that 30.2 per cent of the total respondent said they were aware to their duties and rights while 69.8 per cent were not. This means majority of the members were not aware on what they must do in order to be able exercise their rights. Patronage Dividend is the distinguishing feature of cooperatives from other form of business organizations. Members are expected to be informed on when and how dividend is distributed to members. However, the study reveals that only 32.1 per cent of the total sample respondents had clear understanding on the dividend distributing procedures and methods while the remaining 68.9 per cent lack the understanding. In general, the study result indicates that 28.4 per cent of the total respondent agreed with the existence of transparency and accountability in the cooperatives, while 71.6 per cent of the respondent disagreed with this idea. The chi-square test also indicates that there is significance difference between the groups at 1 per cent level of significance (Table 21).It is obviously known that the willingness of farmers to purchase agricultural input is influenced by the expected agricultural products price. That is, if members observe and perceive that the pricing policy is unfair, they refrain to use improved agricultural inputs based on recommended rate and selling their produce to the cooperatives. This will have its own negative consequence in letting them involving in the affairs of cooperatives. So members are very much price sensitive and enthusiastic to have great concern upon agricultural output/input prices. The concern emanates from the very nature of cooperatives that they are established to stabilize market prices to producers by increasing members' bargaining power. With regard to the respondents' perception on agricultural output and input prices, 31.5 per cent of the total respondents have good perception and 68.5 per cent of the respondent perceived poorly (Table,22). There is no percentage difference between the two sample groups. Most co-operatives, in the study area in particular, operate in a commercial circumstances which any form of business enterprise would find difficult. Like their farmer-members, the cooperatives have to operate in very marginal conditions. Their members are usually poor, often subsistence, and farmers.Hence members' may expect price differences, demand-oriented service provision, proximity to the village, appropriate timing, less cost and high quality of services. However, mostly, it could be beyond their capacities to meet all the criteria. An attempt was made to measure members' satisfaction using the above stated indicators.Accordingly, the study result reveals that members' perception on price differences on the services rendered by cooperatives as comparing to other service providers were that out of the total respondents 54.3 per cent of the total respondent were not happy on this regard. Overall, 29.4 and 60.6 per cent of PPM and APM respectively were satisfied by the service providing through cooperatives while 70.6 and 39.4 of PPM and APM were dissatisfied by the pricing, costs, timing and quality of services cooperatives rendering. Depending on the number of total responses, the major problems perceived by members as a major problem to affect satisfaction in the study areas were reported to be lack of price differences, demand oriented services, proximity or location, late supply of input, high cost and poor quality of services (Table 23). The percentage differences between the two sample groups are significant at 1 per cent probability level.Prior to running the Tobit model, the hypothesized explanatory variables were checked for the existence of multi-Collinearity and heteroscedasticity. Very often data we use in regression analysis cannot give decisive answers to the questions we pose. This is because the standard errors are very high or the t-ratios are very low. This sort of situation occurs when the independent variables display little variation and/or high intercorrelations. The situation where the independent variables are highly intercorrelated is referred to as mult-icollinearity (Maddala, 1992). Before running the model all the hypothesized explanatory variables were checked for the existence of multi-Collinearity problem. There are two measures that are often suggested to test the existence of mult-icollinearity. These are: Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for association among the continuous independent variables and contingency coefficients for dummy explanatory variables.The technique of variance inflation factor (VIF) was employed to detect the problem of multicolinearity among the continuous variables. According to Maddala (1992), VIF can be defined as: VIF(Where, R i 2 is the square of multiple correlation coefficients that results when one explanatory variable (Xi) is regressed against all other explanatory variables. The larger the value of VIF (Xi) the more \"troublesome\" or collinear the variable Xi is. As a rule of thumb, if the VIF of a variable exceeds 10, there is a multicolinearity problem. Nine explanatory variables were tested for VIF. The VIF values displayed below have shown that five continuous explanatory variables have no serious multicolinearity problem (Table 24).  The decision rule for contingency coefficients is that when its value approaches 1, there is a problem of association between the discrete variables. The result in Appendix XII indicates that eight discrete explanatory variables had no the problem of multicolinearity.One of the assumptions in regression analysis is that the errors u i have a common variance .If the errors do not have a constant variance we say they are heteroscedastic (Maddala, 1992). In the general linear model, OLS estimates are consistent but not efficient when the disturbances are heteroscedastic. In the case of the limited dependent variable models (such as Tobit), the estimate of the corresponding regression coefficient is upward biased in the presence of heteroscedasticity. But nothing can be said about the other coefficients and the direction of the bias. It is more practicable to make some reasonable assumptions about the nature of heteroscedasticity and estimate the model than just to say that Maximum Likelihood estimates are inconsistent if heteroscedasticity is ignored (Maddala, 1997).In this study heteroscedasticity was tested for some suspected variables by running heteroscedasticity Tobit model using econometric software (LIMDEP). Green (2000) has indicated that if hetroscedasticity is present in Tobit model, it could take the following form:Where,  i 2 represent the heteroscedastic explanatory variable. A test for hetroscedasticity thus involves the hypothesis that '= 0. Therefore, in this study a hetroscedasticity corrected Tobit model was used in the regression of the dependent variable on the explanatory variables`.Total amount of input purchased in birr and livestock ownership in TLU were assumed as the possible sources of heteroscedasticity. We found that total amount of input purchased was statistically significant for heteroscedasticity, while livestock ownership was not significant. For the convenience of computing the marginal effects and change of probability in members' participation for the study, the Tobit model was estimated by simply excluding one variable, which was found to be significant for heteroscedasticity (i.e. Input Purchased).Estimates of the parameters of the variables expected to determine the probability of participation and level of participation are displayed on the Table below. A total of 12 explanatory variables were considered in the econometric model out of which 10 variables were found to significantly influence the participation probability and index of participation intensity. Of the total 10 explanatory variables six discrete and four continuous explanatory variables were found to be significant to determine the probability of participation and index of participation intensity.As expected, Age (AGEMEM) was negatively influencing the change of probability of members' decision to participate in cooperatives affairs (significant at 10 per cent level). The direction of the coefficient of this variable showed a negative relation with members' participation and is significant at 10 per cent probability level. This means that an increase in the age of household head decreases the likelihood for the household to participate on the affairs of cooperatives by 0.15 per cent. This is possible because as farmers get more and more experience in their farming operation, climatic knowledge of their area, accumulate wealth and use better planning than the younger ones, the behavior farmers averting risk increases with increasing in age and experiences of the household head. Hence, they may prefer to refrain from actively participating in the affairs of cooperatives. On the other hand, perhaps, the inverse relationship of age with participation in cooperatives happened due to the fact that the younger farm households cannot get enough land to support their livelihood compared to the older farm households. Therefore the younger households have to rely more on non-farm employment than the older ones to support their livelihood. Usually farmers with small land holding or devoid of farm land depend on non-farm activities, which don't require active participation in cooperatives. However, the result proves the hypothesis that members' age has significant contribution to the change in the probability of members' participation.The econometric model result revealed that gender differentials among the member farm households (MEMSEX) were positively influencing the decision to participate and intensity participation (significant at 10 per cent level). The positive sign indicates that male-headed households were more likely to participate in cooperatives: input purchasing, using loan services, and other affairs of cooperatives which involve decision. Being a male-headed household increases the probability of participation by 7.45 per cent. This result is in conformity with the priori hypothesis.As expected, level of education (MEDUST) was positively influencing the probability of participation and intensity of participation (significant at 5 per cent level). Education (the change in status of household head from illiterate to literate) increases the probability of participation by 8.55 per cent. This suggests that members' with better intellectual capital have the ability to improve their access to seek information so that they can easily understand the benefit of collective efforts, their duties and responsibilities, and the principles and values of cooperation. The more members have ability to read and write the more they can have access to share others' experiences of cooperation and as a result, improves the probability of their participation.Share contribution of members (MEMSHCA) was also positively related with participation and intensity of participation (significant at less than 10 per cent level). Each additional unit of members' financial contribution increases the probability of participation by 1.92 per cent. This suggests that participation is more likely enthusiastic to households with large number of share capital.Access to Credit and Input (ACCINP) is another important factor which was positively related to the dependent variable (significant at 5 per cent level). Access to credit and input increases the probability of participation by 24.67 per cent. The result coincides with the fact that credit is essential to farmers to purchase fertilizer, seed, farm implements and pesticide and maintain close relationship between members and cooperatives. Basically, cooperatives are established to address issues related to input and credit provision.Of interesting is the finding that the off-farm income of members (OFINCEM) have inverse relationship with probability of participation (significant at 5 per cent level). Perhaps, involvement in various activities increases the ability of members to generate additional income through diversification of non-farm activities, which can have impact in changing the probability of members' participation by 0.04 per cent. This result also confirms with the hypothesis that off-farm income has significant impact on participation of members' in cooperatives affairs. The more farmers used to earn off-farm income the more they decide to relay on non-farm activities for their livelihood, which doesn't request necessarily to involve in input/output marketing, purchasing share capital as well as other undertakings of cooperatives.Perceived satisfaction of members (MESATIF) also has positive relationship to the probability of members' participation (significant at 10 per cent level). The perception of members' satisfaction on services delivered by cooperatives increases the probability of participation by 9.25 per cent. Pricing policy, demand oriented service provision, timely, less costly and high quality of services are the most important indicators used to measure members' satisfaction.Hence the result of the study shows as a unit increase of members' satisfaction the likelihood to change the probability of participation also increases at 9.25 per cent. The result is inconformity with the hypothesis that members' participation is determined by the satisfaction on the services rendered through cooperatives.Total livestock owned (TLU) is another factor, which was positively related to the dependent variable (significant at 10 per cent level). Each additional unit of Livestock increases the change of probability of participation by 1.26 per cent. The implication is that livestock are important sources of cash income in rural area, which can be used for purchasing of input, use available loan services, feel confident participate in cooperatives activities which may involve decision and exercising their duties and responsibilities including buying additional share capital. In addition, farmers who owned a large number of livestock have the capacity to buy share capital, bear risks of using agricultural input and available loan services. Therefore, the result coincides with the hypothesis that livestock ownership is significant factor to determine members' participation.It is also apparent from the results that the participation of members is influenced by the condition which allows them to become members (Significant at 5 per cent). Sample respondents who became member through self initiation and convinced by the promotional works were participating actively better than the other groups. Being a member through self-initiation and convincing manners (that is through the efforts of awareness raising activities) more likely encourage them decide participate in various activities of cooperatives actively and increases the change of probability of their participation by 9.15 per cent. The implication is that, convinced members are keen to be aware of what is going on in the cooperatives and encouraged to have active role in patronizing the business. On the contrary, persuaded members were passive to involve in the affairs of cooperatives.The priori expectation was the existence of alternative marketing opportunities may not affect members' participation in cooperatives. However, the expectation may be reversed when there are alternative market outlets available in their locality. The availability of alternative market opportunity, therefore, has negatively influenced members' participation in cooperatives (at 1 per cent significant level). Though the nature of farming practice in the study area doesn't allow the farmers to have the experiences of producing for marketing purpose they used to sell part of their produces to consumers directly, or to retailers and wholesalers on the nearby local markets. Most frequently, they also used to buy basic necessities from the private dealers for consumption. This is so because from the very nature of consumer behavior, members may not be ready to compromise on their own comparative advantages to share risks with cooperatives assuming future benefits. Perhaps, lack of price differences, supply of goods and services based on members' demand, high cost and poor quality services might attribute to members' interest in looking for alternative market opportunities. Therefore, access to alternative marketing opportunity decreases the probability of members' participation in cooperatives affairs by 16.22 per cent. The result implies that cooperatives lack a system that makes them competent in providing services to attract members' comprehensive participation in all activities (Table 24).The fact is that members' commitment to use cooperatives as marketing outlet or agent depends only as long as they are capable to offer attractive prices or quality services. The results of the Tobit model were also used to identify the effects of marginal changes of the explanatory variables on the level of participation (participation index) of members in cooperatives.Table 25, presents the effect of marginal changes (derivatives) of explanatory variables on the intensity of participation (participation index) among actively participating members (APMs) as well as the entire sample households.Members' age, off-farm income and access to alternative marketing opportunities were the only significant explanatory variables which had inverse relationship with index of members' participation intensity while the marginal effect of other significant explanatory variables had positive relations.Members' age was one of the explanatory variables, which had inverse relations with the intensity of participation. The increase in one year in age reduces the index of participation by 0.0008 for APMs and by 0.0007 for the whole sample respondents. As the age of farmers increases their decision on resource allocation including time depends on the tangible and expected outputs which they thought it can bring for them. This is so because age taught them to thoroughly see the risks and benefits associated with participating in cooperatives.Variables representing the demographic characteristics: educational status and sex of respondents had found positively determining the members' index of participation. Sex status of the household head (being a male) increases the intensity of members' participation by 0.0409 among APMs, and by 0.0376 among the entire sample. This implies that male headed households have better understanding on the benefits of cooperation than female headed household members.Similarly, the marginal effect result reveals that the change in the education status of the member HH (from illiterate to literate) increases participation index by 0.0469 among APMs, and by 0.0433 among the whole sample respondents.The farming characteristic variable used in the analysis, i.e., number of total livestock (TLU) owned has a positive effect. A unit increase in the number of livestock owned (TLU) increases index of participation about 0.0102 among APMs and by 0.0064 among the entire sample. Farmers who have larger number of livestock have sufficient number of oxen to plough their field timely and as a result obtain high yield and income to demand services from cooperatives.Off-farm income of members was the only significant explanatory variable representing income and expenditure characteristics used for the analysis. The study result shows that the amount of off-farm income earned is negatively related to the level of members' participation (index). An increase in the off-farm income of the members by 1 birr decreases the index of participation 0.0002 for APMs and by 0.000018 for the entire sample respondents.Variable representing institutional service, Access to input credit, have positively influenced members' intensity of participation in cooperatives. Access to input credit increases members'participation intensity by 0.1354 among APM and by 0.1248 among the entire sample. The study result revealed that members were easily accessible to the loan and input services of cooperatives.The more cooperatives involve in input supply and credit service provision, they can secure the more effective participation of members.Access to alternative marketing opportunities (ALTMAR) was also significant explanatory variable, which represents institutional characters. The study reveals that as farmer members have accesses to more alternatives marketing opportunities for their output and basic needs the probability of using cooperatives as marketing outlets or agents decreases. An increase in the number of the alternative marketing opportunities decreases level of participation by 0.0889 for APMS by 0.0820 for the whole sample respondents.The explanatory variables representing membership characteristics: members' share capital contribution and the condition members joined to cooperatives had positively influenced on the intensity of members' participation. A decision of members to buy a unit of additional shares in the cooperatives let increases the index of participation by 0.0106 among APMs and by 0.0097 among the entire sample. This directly implies, as members have more number of share capital (paid up) in the cooperatives the more likely they could have enthusiastic to be involved in the affairs of cooperatives.As expected, condition of membership to be member in cooperatives was influenced positively level of participation. The marginal effect result shows that being a member through self initiation and convincing mechanisms (promotional efforts) increases the index of participation by 0.0502 for the actively participating members and by 0.0463 for the whole sample respondents. Promotional efforts were so essential to enhance self-initiated membership so that members' level of participation in cooperatives can be improved.The explanatory variable members satisfaction upon the services delivered through cooperatives has positive sign and the marginal effect of change determines the level of participation of members by 0.0507 for APMs and 0.0468 for the whole sample respondents. The marginal effect of the result implies that as the level of members' satisfaction increases the members' commitment to participate in cooperatives also improves. Lack of equal opportunities to enjoy benefits as well as make decisions, limited capacity of boards and employees and lack of awareness on their duties and responsibilities are important problems to impede cooperatives performance. The problems are highly interrelated problems.Besides, lack of equal opportunities to all members is the effect of limited capacities of the board and management including their limitation in transparency and accountability on the steps used to pass decisions. Had it been involved in all aspects of DM, members might have effective patrons in collective marketing. There has been a tendency to argue that a major cause of co-operative failure is the constraint imposed on the lack of management skills and clearly demarked members' authority to exercise their democratic right. Moreover, the standard of management within co-operatives is often inherently poor. As has already been stated, co-operatives often work in markets and geographical areas considered as marginal in terms of profit potential by most other forms of commercial business enterprise. This being the case, the salaries, working conditions and work location that they are able to offer fail to attract top quality managers.Therefore, the internal problem or organizational constraint is the most important problem that requires due attention to improve the performances of cooperatives. Overall, more than fifty percent of the sample respondents agree that the indicators for the organizational or internal problems are real bottlenecks to impede the performance of cooperatives in input out put marketing.MPCSs are working on area where most profit oriented private and public enterprises refused to work with. The situation of members and the place where they are located have vital role in either impairing their movement or enhancing their performances. The external environment is beyond members' patron in other study areas such as unfair prices, offered to the produces of members and interference of other groups upon cooperatives had also high impact on the participation of members and performance of cooperatives in the study area. Increase in the agricultural production, should be achieved through the use of improved technologies. At the same time farmers should have access to market for their produces. The bulky and perishable nature of agricultural input and output requires massive transportation facilities, road networks, adequate warehouses, packaging materials, proper way of post harvest handling and other infrastructural facilities. Most frequently, due to remoteness and marginalization of the rural areas, market infrastructure tends to be deficient. There is lack of appropriate roads, communication means, and transportation. There is also lack of appropriate storage, irrigation facilities. This resulted into significant increase of cost of transactions. High transaction costs coupled with seasonal nature of demand and supply for agricultural input and output respectively, it is usually evident that price increases during peak demand period to input and decreases in supply peak period for the produces. Consequently, cooperatives fail to compete and give adequate services to members due to inefficient management capacity.The study result in the table 28 reveals that the 57.8 per cent of the total respondent perceived the cooperatives performance is highly affected due to infrastructural development problems while 21.4 per cent refused to accept. Besides, the respondents agreed on the shortage of trained man power, lack of information on market oriented production, communication facilities, marketing infrastructure, storage and transportation facilities, access to irrigation facilities, linkage with financial institutions, and electrification are affecting the performance of cooperatives and members participation as well (Table 28). Based on the index result, the most important problem of infrastructure according to the sample respondents' view was lack of sufficient information on market oriented production. The extension service providing to the farmers focuses on increasing production and productivities.Extension workers trained on agronomy, livestock production and natural resource management have limited skill and experience to let the producers plan by answering what, how, when, where and why they need to produce.On the other hand, the sample respondents also view shortage of trained man power and marketing infrastructure as important problem to determine cooperatives performance in input/output marketing. The day to day activities of cooperatives are managed by the employees whose academic background didn't exceed the secondary school. Mostly, the in-service training programs providing to up grade the employees skill were not based on the needs or gaps. As a result, the employees are not as such well oriented to assist the board or directors in passing decisions or formulating policies. Hence cooperatives are poor in their performances.Equally, communication facilities were also important infrastructural problem by retarding the flow of information. Information is crucial for agricultural producers. Cooperatives and member farmers may require information for planning, implementing farm production and marketing. The existing communication facilities are not adequate to enhance the concerted efforts of cooperatives and member farmers.On the top of this, lack of storage and transport facilities (including road), electricity and irrigation facility were among the important problems of infrastructure to affect performances of cooperatives. The storages or warehouses owned by cooperatives are below the required standard. Inadequate size or capacity, unevenly leveled floor, holes on the walls, floor and roof were the most important problems of the stores. Lack of electricity on the rural area is an obstacle to cooperatives plans little bit-advanced activities: agro-processing. Overall infrastructure is key area where members were clearly understood its level of effect up on their own individual as well as collective efforts.At the end of interviews sample respondents were requested to offer their suggestion. However, due to redundancy and similarities the researcher preferred to summarize into six categories.Moreover, all the sample member respondents didn't be able to provide suggestions clearly. The suggestions include:Demand Oriented Service Provision: 45.1 per cent of the sample respondents' suggested that cooperatives business must be demand oriented. This view is from the very point that the service rendered through cooperatives is not planned based on members' demand. As it was discussed in the problem, little effort is done usually to consult members on planning, executing and evaluating activities. Lack of skill and experience to incorporate members view in the plan, negligence, and vested interest of certain group could be the cause for the problem. Members should have opportunities to express their needs. Services providing through cooperatives have to be based on members demand. Otherwise, the effort of cooperatives may fail to attain the objectives for shortage of fulfilling members' demand. Therefore, a concerted effort of the board, employees and promoters is required to take initiative in arranging opportunities to identify members' desires or ideas.According to the sample respondents' suggestion, 55.0 per cent of the sample respondents suggested that cooperatives management committees need to be capable, respected and dependable in order to carry out their mandate in effective and efficient way. The general assembly is supreme power of cooperatives.Election of MC is executed during annual meetings of the members. Members should involve in electing MCs. However, GA has supreme power, MCs are also mandated to pass decisions and give directions to the management or employees. Concern is required to elect capable, highly respected and dependable board so that they can play a pivotal role in achieving the objectives. This is so because members have poor concern and involvement in electing MCs. The suggestion is from the very fact that members usually neither are willing to share responsibility nor have concern to elect dependable board members. The study result indicates that 42.0 per cent of the total sample respondents suggested that proper assessment of demand and potentials of the study areas is required in order to diversify cooperatives business and services. Cooperatives and/or other stakeholders should assess the CHAPTER VEthiopia is among the poorest countries in the world where agriculture is almost the major source of living for more than 83 per cent of its people. Besides, even though the sector is the dominant sector in the national economy, its performance has been poor and failed to bring sustainable changes in the living standards of the rural community. The sector is failing from meeting the most basic and important function of the provision of food to a rapidly expanding population.Among others, underdeveloped agricultural marketing system is a major factor responsible for the poor performance of the sector.Because of the inherent characteristics of cooperatives, it is true that different social, cultural, economical and political scenarios determine for their movement to be successful or full of failure. The nature of cooperatives as social organization/Association/ and economic organizations/business enterprises/ give them an opportunity to have dual objectives. Economic success is basic to the achievement of co-operative purpose for, in the long run, unprofitable enterprises cannot be sustained. On the other hand, they have social obligation to pursue for the successful achievement to the very concepts of equity and fair dealing.Mostly the potential of co-operatives, and the extent of their development, has, in many cases, fallen for short of expectations. Low standards of performance, bad management, financial failure, corruption and misuse of funds, use of co-operatives for political ends, have been common features of co-operative enterprise in several areas. As a consequence, a great deal of understandable crisis has been witnessed in co-operatives, and many, including some members, have become skeptical as to its ability to play an effective role in the development process.The overall objective of the study is to analyze role of MPCSs in agricultural input/output marketing in the study area. In order to see the role of cooperatives, it was preferred to give emphasis on evaluating their overall performances and members' participation as well as perceived problems in using the available services. Simple percentage analysis, ratio analysis, descriptive and econometrics model were employed to identify determining factors of the role of cooperatives in performing their activities as well as participation of the members.Therefore, two districts and seven MPCSs were selected at random from Eastern Tigray Zone for the study. A total of 162 member households of cooperatives were considered for this study of which 162 cases were included in the econometric model. In addition, secondary data obtained from relevant institutions were used.Multi-purpose cooperatives operating in the agricultural sector of the national economy are supposed to increase efficiency of the marketing system and promote agricultural development in the rural area. The purpose of cooperatives is to coordinate individual efforts through improving bargaining power, creating economies of scales for members' produces and input, and sharing risks among the members. In order to see how MPCSs are performing in the study area, an attempt was made to collect the available data in food grain distribution, input and credit provision, capital accumulation and profit making  from the district offices. The result was discussed organizing in three categories such as functional, organizational and financial performances.The result shows that MPCSs in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba are functioning better in food grain distribution, input supply and credit provision than MPCSs in Atsiby Womberta. The trend in the function of MPCSs in the activities stated earlier is increasing from year to year in S/Ts/Imba while it is fluctuating in Atsiby. MPCSs in the two districts used to both medium term and short term loans from CBE for fertilizer and seed, and EU and World Bank for household package programs. Credit is the most important profit making business for the MPCSs and beneficiaries.According to audit report of the study area, there was also healthy loan repayment performance.Consequently, a steady growth was witnessed in capital accumulation for the last five years.However, the service rendered by MPCSs had neither consistency nor based on members' demand except input and credit services. Little effort had been made with regard to promotional support from the two district promotional departments to overcome the problem they have in procurement. In general, their contribution to market members' produce was very poor.Therefore, a concerted effort is required to improve their role in input/output marketing among the MPCSs, governmental organizations, NGOs and the community.With regard organizational performances, the cooperatives have their own working procedures and systems, by-laws, employees and boards, and working areas. Due to lack of comprehensive understanding on the by-law, working procedures and systems, they are not performing well though MPCSs in Saesi-Tsaeda-Imba are performing with slightly better than Atsiby Womberta District. Similar results were found on the studies done by Gebru (2006) and Haileselasie (2003).Limitation of cooperatives to use qualified manpower, the management capacity of the cooperatives' board of directors and other employed workers were the most important obstacles identified as a finding. Accordingly, they suggested education and trainings, improving their financial capacity through encouraging members' financial contribution and enhancing participation of the farmers to patronize are among the possible solutions to improve their weak performances.On the other hand, to evaluate the performance of cooperatives, ratios were analyzed taking the five years financial data (2002 and 2006). The liquidity analysis showed that the cooperatives under investigation were below the satisfactory rate (a current ratio of less than 2.00) for the last five years. All of the cooperatives under investigation in the two districts use financial leverage (financed more of their total asset with creditors fund i.e. on average 60.1 per cent of the assets of the cooperatives was financed with creditors fund for the last five years). The profitability ratio of the cooperatives under investigation in the two districts showed that their profitability was weak.For instance, the difference between return on asset (ROA) compared to the interest rate of financial institution was very low. Therefore, over all performance of cooperatives in the study area was weak or below the desirable level. Daniel (2006) analyzed cooperatives financial ratio to evaluate their financial performance in Ada'a Liben and Lume districts of Oromia regional state.The same problem was seen in the financial performances of cooperatives.The descriptive statistics and econometric model were also used for analyzing the data in addition to the ratio analysis. T-test was used to compare the mean values of the continuous explanatory variables and examine the existence of statistically significant differences between APMs and PPMs in cooperatives affairs. The T-test showed significant difference in the age of the farmers, Livestock ownership, total annual income including on-farm and off-farm, expenditure, input purchased by the members, and share capital contribution between the two groups at less than 10 per cent probability level. Discrete variables were also compared using Chi-square test to see if there is statistically significant difference between the two groups. The Chi-square test also revealed that the discrete variables: sex, access to input and credit, membership status, educational status, members' satisfaction, perception on role performance of cooperatives, access to alternative marketing opportunities and transparency and accountability showed significant differences between the two sample groups at less than 10 per cent probability level.Econometric software called \"Limdep\" was employed to estimate the Tobit model to identify factors influencing the participation and index of members' participation (intensity of participation). The Tobit model was chosen since it has advantage over other models in revealing both the probability of participation and the intensity of participation (Participation Index).Probability of participation and intensity of participation appear to be significantly and positively influenced by education status, sex, age, number of paid up share capital, off-income, total livestock owned, access to input credit, membership status, access to alternative marketing opportunities and members' satisfaction; while the influence of members' age, off-farm income and access to alternative market had inverse relationship and significant to determine participation. Perceived role performance, perception of members' on transparency and accountability, expenditure, on-farm income, total annual income, input purchased, perception on input/output prices, fertility status and farm size of the farm household, membership duration and family size were not significantly related to the dependent variable.Moreover, perceived problems and members' suggestions were also identified sufficiently to analyze role of cooperatives. Accordingly, the most important problems that impede cooperatives On the basis of the results of this study, the following policy implications are suggested so as to be considered in the future intervention strategies which are aimed at the promotion of cooperatives at local (PAs), district, zonal, regional and federal level. These may be broadly viewed as strengthening institutional set up of cooperative sector in promoting from the grass root to the federal level as well through horizontal and vertical integration.The study result shows that education, age and sex of the household head, members' satisfaction and membership status are among the significant variables affecting the probability of participation and intensity of participation. ","tokenCount":"25343"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fc47c0dc129e1017e9b5b755ccafa1b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ca2a231-2a54-42eb-8957-a1e0f1ed6eba/retrieve","id":"-302846408"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fcdf3198-368a-4a52-9c1d-0f24668dcc7d","pagecount":"28","content":"Extension: reaching out restoring crucial services to modernise agriculture 17 | Viewpoint Silim Nahdy: innovating through extension innovation remains a key challenge for extension 18 | Field report Jamaica: farmers get the message icts for farmers 20 | Sector Sesame: seeds for growth 21 | Publications 25 | Get on board with CTA eXtenSion Reaching out DOSSIER 13 Price volatility Towards market regulation? COVER STORY 4 Baffour Badu-aPraku It all starts with seeds INTERVIEw 12 Cover photo: © S Maina/AFP for UNDP SPore n° 154 -auguSt-SePtemBer 2011 is the bi-monthly magazine of the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). CTA operates under the Cotonou Agreement between the countries of the Africa, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) group and the European Union and is financed by the EU.Food price volatility has become a regular headline in the news since the 2007/2008 spikes that prompted riots in many countries. Weather-related crop losses, export restrictions, high oil prices and use of food grains to produce biofuel all are culprits. Poor consumers in particular are adversely affected as food accounts for a large share of their total budget. High food prices also affect the nutrition status of poor households, especially of pregnant women, children and HIV sufferers. These households see their capacity to access education, health care, and other basic needs compromised. A multi-pronged approach is needed to tackle the problem. A recent report to the G20 produced by FAO and OECD lists a number of steps that need to be taken -boosting agricultural productivity in developing countries, reducing or eliminating trade-distorting policies and establishing a new mechanism to improve information and transparency on agricultural production, consumption, stocks and trade. In June, the G20 Agriculture Ministers released a 5-point Action Plan on food price volatility and agriculture. The Action Plan will certainly help in getting highestlevel policy attention for agriculture. It has outlined important action points, in particular on production and information sharing. However, several commentators feel that it should have been stronger on issues such as biofuels and trade restriction. To be watched.Director -CTA auguSt-SePtemBer 2011 | SPore 154 | T he volatility of agricultural prices, with significant and irregular swings both upwards and downwards, has been particularly marked in recent years. Between June 2010 and January 2011, the FAO food price index for a basket of commodities including meat, dairy products, cereals, oils and sugar, rose by 37%, having dropped by 22% a year after the crisis of 2008.This trend has a serious impact on global food security, especially on the poorest members of the community, who spend between 50 and 70% of their incomes on food. Food producers in the South gain little advantage from price hikes, especially if the cost of inputs rises at the same time, as in the case of fertiliser, whose price is closely linked to that of oil.A number of factors explain the current volatility of agricultural prices. Among them is increased use of output for products other than food for human consumption. These include biofuel production and livestock feed based on animal protein to supply growing demand, especially from the emerging countries. Other influences that come into play at an international level are rising oil prices, the fall in the US dollar, protectionist measures to limit exports and 'panic buying', all of which push up prices. The rise in wheat prices in 2010 were partly caused by an export ban imposed by Russia following extreme drought that year. Growing speculation by investors targeting agricultural products has exacerbated volatility.Price instability is also being seen within countries, for reasons not linked to external markets. The 2008 crisis had little impact in Madagascar, but rice prices have soared since December 2010, although prices have remained stable on global markets. Researchers say these developments are mainly caused by overestimating harvests, lack of dialogue between stakeholders and delays in the rainy season. In Samoa, the small size of domestic markets makes it difficult for them to absorb price shocks on the international market. A case in point is nonu (Morinda citrifolia), a niche product consumed locally and exported.Anxious not to see a repeat of food crises, the international community has embarked on several initiatives. However, none of them has produced results to date. They include reform of international governance of food security and nutrition with the setting up in 2011 of a High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) -a G20 agricultural organisation --within the Committee on World Food Security. Funding initiatives have also been announced. In 2009, the G8 countries undertook to release US$22 billion (€15.5 billion) to support food security in developing countries. In April 2011, the World Bank-led Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP) was launched, with US$900 millionReducing the volatility of agricultural prices to achieve greater food security is a priority for ACP countries and the international community. Measures needed vary widely, as do the causes of this complex phenomenon. But there is wide agreement that the time has come to take action.There are currently two schools of thought about the best way to stabilise agricultural prices. Liberals believe in the power of market forces which, they say, can achieve self-regulation. In their view, market liberalisation represents an opportunity: it offers the best scope for generating profits from output and is responsible for the reduction in global food prices in the past few decades. In contrast, supporters of regulation believe that it is precisely the way that markets operate that requires urgent attention. Speculation on food commodities involves financial investors buying to create an artificial shortage so as to sell at a higher rate later on. This practice is both economically dangerous and morally indefensible.There now seems to be a consensus on the need to regulate this kind of speculation. In its report on price volatility, HLPE identifies a series of international strategies, among them speculation, restoring confidence in the international commercial system, compiling stocks on a global and regional scale, investing in agriculture and checking the growth in demand for food products in developed countries.Franck Galtier, a researcher at the French agricultural research organisation CIRAD, believes several kinds of instruments are needed to combat food price instability. They include measures that would stabilise prices by modernising production and trade structures -construction of storage infrastructures, development of quality standards, warrantage systems, etc. These would cushion the impact of instability on farmer revenues through futures, purchase options, harvest or weather insurance, etc. Other strategies rely on state intervention by controlling output (input subsidies), regulating imports and exports (taxes, quotas, etc.) and using public stocks to shore up household incomes when prices are high.An initiative that follows this model has already been launched in Burkina Faso. Set up by the French development agency AFD, the Fonds de lissage (adjustment fund) launched in April 2008 aims to bind cotton sector prices and guarantee a decent income for producers. Prices fluctuate freely within certain defined margins and the fund intervenes when they reach the ceiling price or fall below the floor price. The system is having some success at local level.Food riots have already been staged in Mozambique and Uganda. For producers' organisations, the issue is clearly one of food sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Ibrahima Coulibaly, president of the Mali producer organisations group CNOP and vice-president of the Network of Farmers and Producers' Organisations of West Africa (ROPPA), said recently, \"We are all victims of agricultural price volatility and there is no protection for our markets. Africa can feed itself, and those who say it can't are lying!.\" Farmers in developing countries have an important role to play in stabilising prices -one that should not be ignored. For the time being, no concrete action has been taken at this level, and producers remain prey to fluctuations in global markets. Modernising agriculture, enabling farmers to produce more with greater efficiency, by increasing productivity to supply local markets -that should be the priority strategy to tackle price volatility. ANFACO, the Spanish association of producers of canned fish, claimed the agreement posed a \"serious threat\" to its business activities.■ Kites that can pull a canoe whose engine has failed and get it back to shore with its crew have been developed by French organisers of the Bouvet Guyane 2012 solo Atlantic rowing race. Made by specially trained Senegalese fashion designers and artists, they will be tested by fishers in Dakar and in the main harbours used by small-scale fishers to launch their boats, including Kayar (north) and Mbour (south), both 100 km from the Atlantic coast. A first batch of 100 'dynamic survival kites' has already been made. Not only can they be used to replace an engine that has broken down, but they can also save fuel and summons help in case of danger. In Senegal, some 50 small-scale fishers die or are lost at sea each year due to engine failure.ensure that efforts to reduce emissions from forests are properly managed.Developed by FAO and the World Bankmanaged Program on Forests (PROFOR), the guidelines look at key components of forest governance and grades performance in six areas: accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, fairness, participation, and transparency.\"This framework outlines a systematic approach that countries and forest managers can use to identify areas of weakness, devise and implement suitable responses, and monitor results\", said Eva Muller of FAO. http://tinyurl.com/3z72t4n internet Making the most of connections loband is a service that simplifies web pages, making downloading easier when internet connections are slow. the new web page contains exactly the same information as the original, but without colours and the images. for easier surfing, visit: www.loband.org/loband food SurveySSmart phones are being used to assess food needs in africa. the world food Programme (wfP) is piloting them in food surveys, aimed at faster data collection and improved accuracy. the phones are loaded with a specially developed application for the project. wfP Burundi marks the first phase of the project, with plans to expand to the democratic republic of congo and mozambique.New research shows that mangroves store exceptionally more carbon than most tropical forests. As a result, the rapid rate in their destruction along coastlines is causing significant emissions of greenhouse gaseshigher than was previously thought. From the results of the study, carried out by the Center for International Forestry Research and the USDA Forest Service, scientists estimate that degradation of mangrove forests may be generating as much as 10% of all global deforestation emissions, though they account for just 0.7% of the tropical forest area. A 30% to 50% decline in mangroves over the past half-century has raised fears that they may disappear altogether in as little as 100 years.Recent campaigns for small-scale farmers to plant new cashew trees, treat old trees and market harvests more effectively have already produced good results. Mozambique's institute for cashew production forecasts sales of more than 200,000 t of nuts this year, compared with 110,000 in 2010. The country has 23 processing factories employing a total of 9,000 workers. http://tinyurl.com/6ah9fqe moringa, PatcHouliIn Rwanda, export crops such as patchouli and moringa introduced in the early part of the last decade have disappointed producers, many of whom had abandoned food crops with the promise of good profits. The crops have failed to reach the purchase prices vaunted at the outset, and planned processing facilities are not working properly. As a result, land is lying fallow and the producers are downhearted. \"Why not dig up crops like patchouli in Rusizi (West) which does not provide any revenue for farmers, and replace them with successful crops like rice?\", asked a Rwandan member of parliament at the end of March, after the Prime Minister had presented the state of agriculture in the country.■ People displaced by the war in Nord-Kivu in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, have gone back to farming and are no longer taking food aid from NGOs. They prefer to wait for harvests and are requesting technical support instead. Impoverished by war, these farmers have taken up their former activities since returning to their home villages. Thousands of hectares of abandoned land have been cleared and planted. The producers now shun the meagre rations of food aid whose collection takes up more time than it is worth. Local authorities say NGOs would do better to adapt to the current needs of the villagers they seek to help. \"It would be better if they gave assistance by supplying improved seeds, ploughing material and fertiliser, but also in monitoring progress in the fields, with technical advice to produce higher yields\", said the president of the Provincial Assembly of Nord-Kivu. \"That is more effective than handing out food, especially when it is products like maize, which they produce and supply to the town of Goma and some neighbouring countries.\" diSeaSe hardier sweet potatoes ■ Crop scientists at Uganda's National Crop Resources Research Institute (NACRRI) in Namulonge have released sweet potato varieties that are resistant to diseases and weevils, both of which take a heavy toll on yields. Kawogo, Naspot 1, Naspot 90 and Kakamega were developed using conventional methods, tissue culture, biotechnology and computerised marker-assisted selection.\"We are crossing indigenous species as well as species from the Agricultural Potato Centre in Peru to get resistance\", said agronomist Charles Niringiye. The annual output of sweet potato in Uganda is 2.6 million MT, making it the country's third most popular food crop after bananas and cassavas. cycloneS Short-cycle rice against wind and tides in madagascar, solutions developed by the ec's food Security project are helping to offset the effects of cyclones, which destroy rice harvests and threaten food security. Mihary rice needs substantial amounts of water, but it has its benefits. Sown when a cyclone has passed, it can be harvested after just 3 months.Women farmers prefer to grow themselves.eXtenSionPapua new guinea's (Png) coffee curriculum is using schools to extend coffee knowledge. the curriculum, a scheme to disseminate information about coffee cultivation among pupils and teachers, is being conducted in pilot schools in the eastern Highlands, Simbu, western Highlands, morobe and east Sepik provinces. the initiative is proving so successful that it is due to be rolled out to all schools by the end of 2011.fodder■ Farmers in Papua New Guinea are producing their own livestock fodder instead of buying expensive feed. Kepsy Miller, of Upegu village in the Bena District, is one innovative farmer using garden produce to make his own feed for chickens, pigs and fish.\"We have a lot of organic resources from our food gardens such as corn, wheat, cassava, banana, soya bean, sorghum and rice which can be mixed with fish meal or copra meal to produce different types of feeds suitable for different livestock\", he said.Miller is chairman of the Misafa Organic Stockfeed Mill Project, a communitymanaged scheme that uses food products from gardens to feed livestock. The feeds are then sold back to the farmers. \"People were paying high costs to obtain and purchase feed for their livestock so we formed this group and used our own little skills and knowledge to come up with alternative products. We are now producing our own feed using locally grown vegetables and the farmers are happy as they are able to save some costs\", said Miller.The first global guidelines for 'bycatch management and reduction of fishing discards' for marine fisheries have been published by FAO. The aim is to reduce, and eventually eliminate, all types of bycatch. In 2004, FAO calculated that 7.3 million t, or 8% of total fish catches, were thrown back into the sea because they failed to meet fishers' expectations. As a first step, the guidelines suggest making an assessment to establish the scale and nature of the problem. Ocean 2012, a coalition of NGOs, claims that wastage is especially serious along the coasts of tropical countries due to the presence of foreign vessels. It stresses that the practice has a direct impact on the livelihoods of local fishing communities.Canned tuna in PNG the government of Papua new guinea (Png) is urging european manufacturers, especially from Spain, to invest in setting up tuna canning plants to supply local markets. the suggestion comes in response to concerns voiced by european manufacturers that tuna from Png will invade their markets following the signing of the economic Partnership agreements (ePa) between Brussels and Png.Livestock keepers are making their own feed for pigs.■ To combat the shortage of vets in rural areas, livestock keepers are being trained to monitor disease and carry out vaccinations on their animals. In Mali, in the regions of Mopti and Sikasso, local NGO IDC, with the support of Agronomists and Veterinarians Without Borders (AVSF), has trained women livestock keepers to detect disease outbreaks and to vaccinate and worm poultry. At the end of the training sessions, each key livestock keeper received a kit consisting of a coolbox, a syringue, some needles, vaccines and worming tablets for poultry. In areas where 90% of rural women are farmers, this initiative has led to a doubling of vaccination rates in the villages involved. In 3 months, in the department of Koro alone, more than 15,000 chickens were vaccinated against Newcastle disease and 1,600 were wormed. With a 100% success rate, vaccinating against Newcastle disease enabled the virus to be eradicated in flocks that have been treated.Quest for perfect cattle the search is under way for highperforming cattle breeds that are best suited to local environments. the dairy genetics east africa (dgea) project is helping smallholders take full advantage of the region's booming dairy sector and improve their incomes by giving them access to top quality breeds at affordable prices.A growing number of countries are taking steps to catalogue and conserve the genetic diversity of livestock following a warning that more than 20% of breeds face extinction. Several governments have designed national strategies for managing animal genetic resources. Some have gone further. Kenya is including information on livestock as part of its human census and Ghana is training specialists in the conservation of indigenous breeds. But FAO warns that much more needs to be done. Some 1,710 breeds are in danger of extinction, compared to 1,649 in 2008 and 1,491 in 2006.Preserving forests for the future ■ In Kopongo on the coast of Cameroon, communities are planting trees to restore their forest, destroyed by unregulated timber extraction. With help from community interest group GIC-Forêt, they are planting 50,000 trees of varying species. They include varieties whose timber can be sold as logs, such as African walnut, Moabi, Doussie or Iroko and fruit trees such as plum, wild mangos and avocados. Once ready for planting, the young trees are transported into the forest and sunk into holes between 30 and 50 cm deep. The community interest group (CIG) has a root propagator, so that tree seedlings can be multiplied by taking cuttings and grafting. The tree nurseries are set up in specially laid out areas. Supported by local environmental NGO Cameroun Ecologie, the initiative forms part of efforts to combat climate change. Once planted, the trees do not require maintenance and losses are negligible. To date, the CIG has planted 600 trees and is overcoming a range of obstacles to launch income generating activities, including honey production and pig and poultry rearing.waterSwedish carbon trading firm Tricorona calculates that the Solvatten purifier saves 1 t of carbon emission per household per year and cleans water of dangerous pathogens.\"More than two thirds of all health problems stem from unhealthy water, used for drinking, cooking or washing.That is why it is so important to ensure that Kenyans have access to safe water, which doesn't come at a high cost in terms of money, time or the felling of trees\", said inventor Petra Wadström. The company is using carbon finance to reduce the price for users and is teaming up with microfinance institutes to enable households to buy the €70 purifier in monthly instalments.A tree planted in the forest community maPPing■ A community mapping project is helping villagers in the remote village of Boe Boe in the Solomon Islands to make important decisions about climate change and other risks.The 3D model was built by people from the village, guided by teachers, elders and invited guests from neighbouring communities.The model showed the extent of the tsunami that struck in 2007, and recent kingtide levels that inundated parts of the village. The community has used the model to discuss these and other climate-related issues, and to explain early strategies and adaptation efforts. These include ecosystem-based approaches, such as establishing conservation areas and reinforcing the traditional tambu sites and rites over the streams, islands, mangroves and watershed forest. A digital animation of the village has shown villagers the possible levels of inundation that may occur with predicted sealevel rise of 50 to 200 cm. The 3D model is now kept in the community hall. For more information: Robyn James (The Nature Conservancy) rjames@tnc.org wild vegetaBleSanxious about the disappearance of some wild vegetables and keen to increase incomes for rural households, fao is helping communities in central and south-west congo to grow and market okazi (Gnetum africanum), a small climbing plant found in the undergrowth. its leaves are edible and rich in protein. Bantu and pygmies are involved in the project which is helping to bring the two ethnic groups closer together.nile BaSinBurundi has signed the nile Basin initiative, an agreement based on a new arrangement for sharing the waters of the nile between countries bordering the river. it is the sixth country to ratify the accord, after ethiopia, kenya, rwanda, tanzania and uganda. only drc, egypt and Sudan have yet to sign. due to a treaty that dates from 1929, egypt currently has access to the largest share of the nile waters, as well as a right of veto over all new installations upstream. foreStSglobal research shows that 1.5 billion ha of the world's lost and degraded forests could be restored. the analysis reveals that africa and asia hold the greatest promise, each with about 500 million ha of forest landscapes offering opportunities for forest restoration. the new data comes from the world resources institute, South dakota university, uSa and the international union for conservation of nature.energy bio-charcoal ■ Communities in Kenya and Senegal are using new technology to produce charcoal in a more efficient and environmentally friendly way. Called Adam Retort, the technique has been developed by Chris Adam, a German inventor. The system can produce the same amount of charcoal using up to half the wood -or other biomass such as agricultural waste -as traditional methods. The innovative kilns are built with locally available materials and each oven has a capacity for about 600-900 kg of wood, producing 200-350 kg of charcoal. The cost of a unit is approximately €500, making it suitable for communities or small enterprises rather than individuals. Trials in Kenya show that the initial investment can be recouped in about 3 months from sales of charcoal.The design also produces 75% less gas, such as methane. Kenya uses 2 million t of charcoal for household purposes annually, a major cause of deforestation. The main technique used is earth-mount-technology, which requires 100 kg of wood to create 10-15 kg of charcoal. There are plans to roll out the scheme to Ethiopia. www.biocoal.org.No more blowing on the embers ■ In the Democratic Republic of Congo, a new type of brazier has been unveiled. It takes just 5 min to boil water compared with 25 min for an ordinary brazier. The lower part of the device is entirely made of wood, while the upper part is made of metal. Three 1.5 v. batteries power a fan which blows in erratic spurts on the embers, producing consistent heat. The embers are separated from the fan by a finely meshed metal grill. Even the smallest pieces of ember, which would be wasted on an ordinary brazier, are used on this fanpowered version, saving both time and money.Researchers from the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have mapped genome regions that may help develop cowpea varieties resistant to drought and disease.The findings should help farmers cope with a host of problems including parasitic weeds and insect pests, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The continent is responsible for 70% of the world's cowpea production. IITA Researcher Eugene Agbicodo, who carried out the genetic analysis of drought-tolerance in cowpea, has made a linkage map of the crop, identifying portions on the cowpea genome where genes that have effects on drought-tolerance and resistance to bacterial blight could be located.Scientists have shown for the first time that orange maize is a good source of vitamin a, whose deficiency causes blindness. the maize was bred using conventional means to have higher levels of beta-carotene, which the body converts into vitamin a. a uS study found that beta-carotene from orange maize was converted at a rate almost twice as high as that of white maize, and higher than that of vegetables.Helicoverpa armigera is one of the most devastating cotton pests. West African research is working to find solutions to insecticide resistance for this moth. The regional programme for integrated cotton protection in Africa PR-PICA met recently in Cotonou. Mamoutou Togola, coordinator of the programme for Mali, took the opportunity to present and defend an alternative product to Endosuflan, now banned since harmful to human health. While researchers are unanimous in confirming the efficacy of the new insecticide -Tihan 175 O-TEQ -against cotton pests, the product has not yet been widely adopted by producers, said Togola. He added that the packaging of this product and its lack of odour had caused some farmers to question its quality. According to the coordinator, Benin, Burkina Faso and Mali are now using Tihan without problems Worried by the number of school dropouts in his community, Ati, a cocoa expert in Central Malaita, resolved to help them learn a trade. In 2006, he organised a 6-month training programme on cocoa farming for 10 youths. Called Cocoa for Life, the course covered propagation, pruning, pest control, harvesting and marketing.After training, the youths rehabilitated old cocoa plots in their communities and sold harvests to local companies for export to Southeast Asia. By 2010, nearly 1,000 young dropouts had learned cocoa cultivation and the crime rate was falling. \"They realised that money earned from cocoa farming is legal, unlike money earned from marijuana or home brew\", said their mentor.Guinea-Bissau is exporting more than 100 t of sesame this year, mainly to Middle Eastern markets. The sesame sector (bené in Guinean Peul) involves national and inter-African groups and national farmers' association ANAG. Its rise may mark the end of dominance by the cashew industry. According to Braima Camara, president of the Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Agriculture and Services, this product will lead to significant job creation in the country.http://tinyurl.com/64o8d46 funding Good results for BNDA with profits of fcfa3.5 billion (€5.3 million), up 78% from 2010, mali's agricultural development bank Bnda confirms its healthy financial status and remains the country's chief funding partner for agriculture. \"these results were achieved thanks to good company management, better organisation, improved quality in human resources and modern and innovative production tools\", said a bank spokesperson. rwanda 10% of budget for agriculture rwanda's budget for 2011-12 shows a 5% increase in funds for agriculture. finance minister John rwangombwa said the focus should be on promoting exports and market access for farmers. with this rise, rwanda achieves the target of devoting 10% of its national budget to agriculture, adopted by the african union in its maputo declaration in 2003.Wine produced on the island of Fogo, Cape Verde, will be exported to Portugal and USA by two Portuguese companies, following the signing of a deal. Cooperatives in Chã and Sôdade currently produce 150,000 bottles per year, but this figure may increase. There are also plans to extend exports to include coffee, traditional jams and liqueurs made on each of the Cape Verde islands. There are several bottlenecks facing the seed sector. For instance, the West Africa region doesn't have enough seed companies. Even the companies that are in place have a lot of problems.These include insufficient capital, financial and human resources. Closely related is the fact that some of the seed companies do not have enough processing facilities, and in some of the countries, taxes are high, so some of them find it difficult to access credit. Another issue is that of insufficient foundation seeds -seeds produced from breeder seeds by the government seed agencies or organisations that are permitted to do so. To assist farmers in the production of certified seeds, farmers need enough quantities of foundation seeds. The problem is that sometimes the agencies that are supposed to collect breeder seeds from scientists and produce foundation seeds don't do their job. These bottlenecks tend to hinder the dissemination and adoption of seeds.Yes of course! Farmers are ever willing to take up improved varieties. They even go after the seeds. But let me add, most varieties are not well marketed. Information is lacking on the availability of improved varieties. In several countries, there are no seed outlets and farmers who are not close to the cities don't have access to the seed market.What is the level of private sector involvement in the seed sector? So far, in West Africa, only Nigeria has a relatively vibrant seed industry, with about 12 emerging private sector-driven seed companies. Ghana and Mali have three seed companies each. This is not good for the region.That is partly because most of the varieties used in the sub-region are open pollinated varieties (OPVs). When farmers get access to OPVs, they don't go back to the seed source for the next 2-5 years. They simply pick the ears from their farms and plant in subsequent years. This is in contrast to what happens in developed countries, where they have hybrids. With hybrids, farmers have to go back to the source every year.We have been able to tackle this challenge by promoting Community Based Seed Production (CBSP) schemes. The plan has been to work with farmers, teaching them the techniques of seed production and helping them to produce seeds. The CBSP strategy is operating in Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, and Mali. We used the approach when we discovered a dearth of private seed companies in these countries. Through CBSPs, farmers are able to get improved seeds even in the remotest areas.In one of the projects in Borno State of Nigeria, a community based seed producer -Jirkur Seed Company -has evolved into a cooperative seed producer. The team from AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa) came in and they supported them with funds and today Jirkur Seed Company is producing and supplying seeds across several states in Nigeria.What we need is a deliberate plan by the governments in the region to support the establishment of private sector driven seed companies. Also, it is time for the Economic Community of West African States to take the necessary steps to ensure the smooth implementation of the harmonised seed protocol to facilitate the movement of seeds across the region, so that once a variety is released in any member country, it can be freely made available and marketed in other member countries.There is an urgent need for more private sector companies to meet growing demand by farmers for better quality seed. One promising strategy is the launch of Community Based Seed Production schemes to improve both seed production and marketing.\"Farmers are ever willing to take up improved varieties\" dr baffour badu-apraku is a maize breeder with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture in Nigeria. With extensive experience developing maize varieties tolerant to drought and weeds, he believes good seed is the key to higher agricultural output.Agricultural advisory services are crucial to improve output and processing opportunities. But for extension to have any real value, it needs to be demand-driven and involve local farmers in defining and providing advice and assistance. enyan smallholder dairy farmer David Kenduiywo, who keeps three cows, used to sell his milk to hawkers. Yields were low and so was the price, at KES10 (€0.07) per litre. These days, Kenduiywo cultivates fodder crops and feeds his cattle hay, silage and crop residues. He learned about the benefits of improved feed from a farmer training scheme run by the East African Dairy Development (EADD) project and is now passing on his knowedge to fellow dairy producers as a trainer. \"Since I realised the importance of feeding my cows well, my milk production has increased from 3 l/cow/day to 16 l\", said Kenduiywo, who has a fixed supply line to a milk company and has more than doubled the unit price he receives.The EADD volunteer farmer trainer programme, operating in Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda, is one of a number of initiatives seeking to make scarce extension staff and resources more effective. Agricultural advisory services (AAS) play a key role in helping smallholder producers to access information about crop and animal production and tap into new research, technology and market opportunities. But the AAS sector is in a state of crisis as a result of privatisation and structural changes within many ACP countries. Furthermore, recent years have seen serious under-investment in extension, research, education and training, as publicly-funded services have dwindled. The trend has left many small-scale producers on their own, at a time when they badly need advice on how to adapt to rapidly shifting conditions such as climate change and biodiversity loss.All too often, remaining state-run extension services are organised on a centralised basis which do not filter out to the farmers who need them, especially in remote areas. The gender balance among AAS is frequently skewed. Other problems include poor linkage with education and research, with the result that technology often fails to be generated or adapted, or indeed to reach end users.Producers' and farmers' organisations and other networks such as commodity associations and NGOs have taken up some of the slack left by depleted government advisory services. There has also been a move towards privatising extension, though suppliers may have a vested interest in pushing particular inputs, making it imperative to install monitoring mechanisms. Often, the focus is on extension for export, but there is also strong demand for advisory services to improve access to domestic and regional markets.Galvanised by the pressing need, a number of reforms and innovations have started to emerge. An international conference in Nairobi, Kenya from 15-18 November 2011, organised by CTA and a range of partner organisations,\"The leaves on all my tomato plants are shrivelling.\" \"I have a fish farm and I'm wondering if it's OK to feed the fish chicken feed?\" \"Is it possible that my pigs have contracted bird flu?\" These are just some of the questions fielded by agricultural experts at Cameroon's Allo Ingénieur, a helpline for farmers who call in with their problems.Here, an expert is always on call, from an office lined with reference books and files on a range of agricultural subjects from crop disease to poultry keeping. If an answer cannot be provided on the spot, the expert consults a specialist and gets back to the caller.  plans to examine some of the most promising developments. Extension services can take many forms and there is no one model that fits all. They may be organised on an individual basis or in groups, and take place from a distance or on-site. Group extension work is increasingly common, with the obvious advantage of being more cost and time efficient. Field trips and farm visits can be effective ways of reinforcing a message. In southwestern Trinidad, a rural community was able to recover from a devastating hurricane by launching a tilapia venture with the help of farm visits. The Point Coco Association is now thriving, with plans to expand into processing and packaging.Mass extension methods may make use of the media, and local channels are often particularly effective. Radio broadcasts can be a lively source of information, especially when listeners are organised into groups. Canadabased Farm Radio International produces programmes to help African smallholder farmers learn about, discuss and adopt a range of techniques, from natural pesticide use to vetiver planting. Research shows that farmers reached by the service are five times more likely to adopt an improved agricultural practice. Posters, slide-shows and comic strips can all play a role. Video recordings can do much to convey information in an easily assimilable manner.There is wide scope for ICTs for effective extension outreach, a particularly valuable tool in isolated areas. A programme run by the Women of Uganda Network (WOUGNET) has set up an information centre where women farmers can use ICTs to learn and share new techniques. A cooperative of women shea butter producers in southern Mali uses ICTs to market their product, improve management systems, and train members in new processing methods. Mobile phones are being used for a wide range of advisory purposes, helping farmers to diagnose and treat plant disease, improve soil quality and access updated information on market prices. Mobile phone conferencing allows farmers to take part in group discussions, talking to an extension worker from a mobile phone with the loudspeaker facility turned on. Interactive Voice Response systems, which can be customised for language, are an increasingly popular means of obtaining information on crops, livestock, weather conditions and market prices.But there is more to effective extension than simply making knowledge available. Equally important is providing an opportunity to interpret the information, together with its implications. Extension agents need to be catalysts, mobilising farmers to experiment with innovations. An extension network in Kibuye, Rwanda offers incentives such as tools and inputs to farmers who use innovations, publishing their names and photographs to raise their standing in the community.Communication is the key to all successful extension methods, the best of which focus on the value of farmers passing on information and practices to each other. The farmer-group approach plays a valuable role in realising economies of scale, and enables farmers to support each other as they learn and adopt new methods. Farmer field schools (FFS), often considered as a highly effective model, regularly hold field days and training sessions for other FFS groups and neighbouring farmers, providing an opportunity for each participant to teach others. At the end of the FFS cycle, certain farmers are chosen to be farmer facilitators.In certain contexts, extension can have connotations of paternalism -a hangover from colonial times -so it is important that advisory services are inclusive and not topdown. Farmers often learn more from fellow farmers with whom they can identify. In a part of Nigeria where farmers are notoriously resistant to change, the Promoting Sustainable Agriculture in Borno State (PROSAB) project is introducing innovation by directly involving producers. Farmers are active contributors and participate directly in trials of new technologies. To help overcome the problem of inadequate extension services in the Solomon Islands, a farmer-designed mentoring strategy has been developed for watermelon growers. The focus is on family units, and the process starts with a lead farmer, who attends a 5-day train-the-trainer programme. The farmer then visits other farms to train producers on crop management techniques.With fewer resources available from governments and donors, new arrangements for funding and delivering extension services are being tried. Models include contract farming, where embedded services are provided along the value chain. In Vanuatu, where state-run extension faces poor funding, staffing levels and high transport costs, private businesses in the vanilla, coffee and sandalwood sectors provide advisory services to their smallholder suppliers.Recent models include payment for extension. Evidence shows that when farmers purchase training services the impact is often greater than when they attend training funded by someone else. Weaknesses in private systems include lack of quality control, but in Papua New Guinea, the Smallholder Support Services Supply Project involves contracting out advisory services to local small-scale enterprises, a process closely monitored by the Department of Agriculture. Farmers identify their needs and contribute to the costs.An important challenge to higher revenues is insufficient access to knowledge of markets. However, some advisory services are starting to respond more effectively and there is growing recognition that Market Oriented Agricultural Advisory Services (MOAAS) can help smallscale players to take advantage of market opportunities. In Barbados, a cotton extension programme run by the Ministry of Agriculture has moved on from just advisingFarmers in Uganda are gleaning new information through an entertaining medium. Answers to common problems are worked into plays by a theatre group and recorded in local languages for broadcasting to rural communities. The initiative, run by the Agricultural Research and Rural Information Network, is backed up by five information centres, called InfoPops, where staff collect questions from farmers and obtain answers from agricultural researchers. Theatre scripts based on the solutions are developed by the Ndere Troupe theatre group and recordings of the plays are distributed electronically or on CD ROMs via post. Communities are also able to use ICT facilities in the rural InfoPops to access market information and find information on new crops and other farming matters. farmers about pests and production methods to link producers with the island's ginning company to buy output. An advisory scheme launched in Mali's millet belt offers close cooperation with farmers' organisations to help market products.The downside of many advisory schemes is that they are finite. When the help runs out, so too does the impetus for higher outputs and profits. For that reason, some of the most successful initiatives have in-built sustainability. In Kanye, Botswana, the rural Industries Innovation Centre works with local people to identify problems and develop production methods with the emphasis on new equipment and tools. This process, in turn drives demand for small-scale industry. A key feature of the EADD programme in Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda is the deliberate lack of financial or material support. Farmer trainers are given nothing but a bag and notebook for keeping records, and an incentive to offer advisory services through the closely monitored sale of seeds and feed. Evidence shows that many farmer trainers are still continuing their work 3 years after a project has ended.dr Silim Nahdy is Executive Director of the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) in Uganda, tasked with promoting effective extension services. He also chairs the African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services (AFAAS). © B Bafana key figureS 14,000 producers have to share each extension officer in remote parts of the Solomon Islands 1/4 of listeners adopted improved agricultural practices after hearing extension advice on broadcasts by Farm Radio International 83% of extension workers in sub-Saharan Africa are men 35 % income increase achieved by farmers participating in the Agricultural Support Programme in Zambia, which offers intensive market oriented adviceWhat are the challenges facing extension services? Farmers in Africa are increasingly in need of information on better farming methods and AAS providers are ideally placed, but need resources to be able to engage with farmers regularly. Agriculture Advisory Services (AAS) have changed but increasing the pace of innovation remains a challenge if we are to transform our AAS from the old stereotype of just connecting researchers and farmers to working with farmers, researchers and the business community in developing agriculture.The services fall short of meeting the needs of the farmers because of changes in the agriculture sector, in particular poor capacity by AAS at the national level. Climate change, the use of ICTs, trade barriers and the penetration of markets are issues that concern small-scale farmers and AAS need to provide solutions. how do we respond? We have to strengthen agricultural institutions not only to deliver but to advocate. AAS providers are the frontline workers who deal with farmers and by providing effective and timely services they become the voice of the farmers. There are a lot of success stories in rolling out AAS in countries like Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria and South Africa where food production has improved as a result of farmers getting adequate and timely information on improving farming methods.Yes. I would like to see more AAS providers being trained on ICTs and using them to deliver better services. ICTs are giving farmers and researchers new tools such as remote sensing to help in climate change monitoring. Farmers need to know the prices of their produce, so they can make informed decisions. For that, we need systems for timely information-sharing, gathering and transmission. Thanks to mobile phones and the Internet, farmers are benefiting from ICTs, but we can do more. RADA -the extension service of Jamaica's agriculture ministry -has been stepping up use of ICTs in the past 2 years, interacting with farmers and offering advice on preparing for bad weather and preserving crops and livestock. The agency has also set up a database that can track more than 142,000 farmers through their full cycle of production. Using this system, RADA sends text messages to farmers' cellphones to offer suggestions on techniques and marketing\"Farming has moved from the primitive, and now due to the fact that we have high-tech farming you have more people gravitating to it\", said Delbert Fearon from his farm in the parish of St Catherine. Just down the road, Hudson Clennon is an enthusiastic user of the innovative extension services. \"It helps you to propel forward\", he said.ICTs are proving popular with farmers in Jamaica. Innovative extension services are enabling them to prepare for bad weather, improve techniques and tap into new markets. They are also helping to give agriculture a whole new image. our African countries -Ethiopia, Nigeria, Sudan and Uganda -rank among the world's seven leading producers of sesame. Together they account for more than 75% of global output which is estimated at more than 3.5 Mt/year (see chart). However, consumption levels are low in Africa, with the bulk exported, mainly in its raw form, as seeds. The African continent as a whole only processes 25% of its sesame production into oil, mainly in Sudan and Uganda. Sudan is alone in having an industrial processing unit. The crop's biggest consumers are Asian countries, where sesame is used in cooking, cosmetics and medicines. The market is ripe, but African countries are not taking advantage of the opportunities to make a larger profit.In Ethiopia and Nigeria, Africa's largest sesame producers, attention is focused on improving marketing in the sector. In Ethiopia, sesame is produced on fairly large farms. Demand on the world market for sesame produced in this country is significant, given the seasonal difference between Ethiopian harvests and those of the major global producers (China and India). But developing the sector will require improving the marketing system, especially market information, quality assurance and a better organisation of cooperatives. Nevertheless, the admission in 2010 of sesame -traded for about US$2,000 (€1,400) per tonne on world markets -to the Ethiopian Commodity Exchange is a sign that the sector is taking off.Nigeria is Japan's major supplier, which in turn is the world's leading importer of sesame. It is, however, even more poorly organised, despite sesame being its second most important export crop, behind cocoa, with annual revenues of US$20 million (€14 million). Production is mainly assured by smallscale producers, who use few inputs and have low yields. There is little structure to marketing. In an effort to address this problem, the government launched a national sesame production programme in 2007 to promote production, create jobs and increase exports. As part of the initiative, the Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) focuses on processing.In West Africa, sesame production volumes are far lower, though they hold promise. According to FAOSTAT figures for 2009, Burkina Faso, which started cultivating sesame in the 1980s, has become the world's 20th biggest producer, with 56,000 t. Chad produced 35,000 t, Mali 11,948 and Senegal 6,831 t. Strong points in sesame production include the fact that cultivation is relatively simple. Sesame does not need irrigation and it fits in well with crop rotation schemes. Growing sesame therefore offers an alternative to cotton. Once left to women to be intercropped with other plants, sesame is attracting a rising number of male farmers who grow this crop exclusively. Organic sesame production could offer interesting development opportunities given that most farmers already grow a sesame variety that requires almost no pesticide. However, the certification process is highly demanding.In these countries, developing markets and processing will require improved organisation for the value chain, consistent strategies and funds -still lacking -for better equipment. In January, sesame producers' organisations in the Malian region of Koulikoro organised the 1st National Sesame Day. A number of stakeholders took the opportunity to call for the launch of a commodity association (see Spore 152). By bringing various stakeholders in the sector together, bodies like these could make a real contribution to its development.With a substantial market in Asian countries, sesame (Sesamum indicum), has become a profitable crop for Africa. African production alone, accounts for onethird of global output. Whatever the scale of their operations, African producers must reinforce the value chain and focus on processing. The world's 7 leading producers of sesameLatin America and the Caribbean is the richest region in the planet in terms of its biological diversity. Within the array of the region's ecosystems lie roughly one-third of the world's mammals and reptiles, two-fifths of the world's birds, and almost half of the world's amphibians.The latest atlas in the UN Environment Programme's (UNEP) series shows environmental changes in this region, based on remotely sensed images acquired by satellite, and through images, maps, tables, graphs and text, it presents a picture of where Latin America and the Caribbean has been, and where it is now. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has launched a new food security portal. It features country profiles with news and key food security indicators, a data store offering regularly updated datasets for easy monitoring of price changes at global and country level and a blog presenting new issues for discussion each week and opportunity for comment. Tools for analysis include commodities graphs, annotated commodity price timelines and a simulator for the impact of releasing food stocks. The development of genetically modified plants that are resistant to certain Lepidoptera species has ensured that a thorough understanding of the diversity of Heteroptera species -commonly known as bugs -is a necessity. Evidence has shown that due to lower levels of insecticide use against caterpillars, various bugs from the Pentatomidae and Miridae families merit particular attention. To eradicate these pests, synthetic insecticides are required, with carefully dosed applications. Many predatory bugs eat prey that have eaten leaves from genetically modified plants. The study into the effects of this type of ingestion makes it imperative to identify the predatory bug species. A guide aimed at farmers and other agriculturalists working in the field offers a brief description of the main predatory bugs found in West Africa, mainly feeding on cotton crops, maize, cowpea, soybean and sorghum.Only a small minority of producers working on more than 600 million smallholder farms around the world have access to extension services, or to any form or training or further education. This makes it even more difficult for them to adapt production and processing methods to changing economic, social and environmental conditions such as globalisation and climate change, or to take advantage of new opportunities. With growing donor demand for goals to be met and short-term success to be delivered, extension providers are increasingly finding themselves forced into a corner, limited to transferring methods and technology rather than imparting any overall understanding of the many factors involved when it comes to addressing and improving farmers' problems. This book focuses on Learning for Sustainability (LforS). It is a learning-oriented approach to extension, which takes as its starting point the need for stakeholder dialogue as well as efficient knowledge management and organisational development. This method uses specially developed tools such as learning groups and simulation games to convey complex information in an effective manner. A case study in Madagascar shows how LforS is being used to help promote rural afforestation. A final section offers ideas for further reading and web resources. ■ Sub-Saharan Africa has the unenviable record as being the only major region in the world that has failed to progress in terms of food security, with more or less stagnant levels of production per capita in recent years. Since poverty in the area is a predominantly rural phenomenon, it is agriculture that holds the key to resolving the problem. A core of this in-depth study into smallholder production in sub-Saharan Africa is that small-scale farmers are producing far below their potential.With detailed investigations into farming in Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia, the authors trace the farm-level effects of agricultural policies, focusing on a variety of themes including micro-credit, infrastructure, cash crop production and food security.The book presents examples of how selected African governments have played a role in influencing the market and encouraging smallholder participation in staple food production. It explores some notable African policy and institutional reforms, as well as the use of subsidies and government-led agricultural development programmes. It also analyses the contribution made by the inclusion of the private sector within government plans and programmes in most countries. However, all the evidence points to the conclusion that, despite some marginal improvements, the productivity gap remains wide.■ Biodiversity has extensive economic repercussions. Its loss can cause financial damage not only to farmers but to society as a whole. Protecting it, on the other hand, can result in benefits for producers and ultimately for plant breeders and consumers. This book assesses a variety of economic issues relating to agrobiodiversity in a number of developing countries and shows how addressing these can help with effective policy-making. The approach is illustrated using data from countries covered by the Genetic Resources Policy Initiative (GRPI), among them Ethiopia and Zambia. GRPI was launched to strengthen capacity in genetic resources policy in selected developing countries.Through various case studies, including detailed analysis of rice, maize and groundnut crop varieties and diversity, the book examines the economics of managing crop diversity onfarm. It examines preferences for crop variety attributes, farmers' perception of agrobiodiversity loss, and value addition and marketing of the products of traditional crop varieties. The results that emerge are shown to be relevant not just to GRPI countries but to other countries where the sustainable use of these resources in an issue. ■ When cocoa was introduced to West Africa just over a century ago, there was little understanding of the massive economic potential that the crop would have. But over the decades, demand for cocoa and chocolate has soared in industrialised countries, fuelling a sector which still has smallholder production at its base. The global market for cocoa and chocolate products is now worth more than €53 billion a year. More than 50% of the world's beans come from Ghana, the world's second biggest producer, and the focus of this book. The country's cocoa exports earned €8.4 million in 2008, and that figure is rising. In spite of the scale of the industry, and the profits that are made from it, small-scale cocoa farmers receive just 4% of the final price of a bar of chocolate sold in the UK. The result of 2 years of investigation into the cocoa industry, based on hundreds of interviews conducted with Ghanaian farmers, this book looks at the conditions facing cocoa producers and examines why they lack a voice. It highlights their need for more negotiating muscle, scientific support and land reform, and claims that chocolate companies need to be more transparent about their dealings in the region. The author concludes that if farmers are to enjoy a better standard of living, chocolate lovers will have to get used to paying more for their favourite treat.By o ryan Zed, 2011. 182 pp. iSBn 978-1-84813-005-0 GBP12.99 • €15 Zed Books 7 cynthia Street london n1 9Jf, uk fax: +44 (0)20 7833 3960 sales@zedbooks.co.uk www.zedbooks.netAid for Trade (AfT) is an initiative designed to help developing countries boost their involvement in the global economy. This report examines how the mechanism has been used so far and to what extent it has been effective in helping small and vulnerable economies (SVEs) to improve their trade performance. The issue is a critical one at a time when the prospects for small states is bleaker than ever due to preference erosion and the emergence of new and larger competitors. The gender gap Increasing women's access to land, livestock, education, financial services, extension, technology and rural employment would boost their productivity and generate gains in terms of agricultural production, food security, economic growth and social welfare. That is one of the main findings of this year's flagship report from FAO, which focuses on women in agriculture. Closing the gender gap in agricultural inputs alone could lift 100-150 million people out of hunger. As much as one-third of the food produced for human consumption every year is lost or wasted, according to a new report. The study shows that an annual 1.3 billion t of food is produced but never consumed. Wastage in industrialised and developing countries is roughly the same -670 and 630 million t, respectively. Food losses during production, harvest, post-harvest and processing, occur predominantly in developing countries.global Food Losses and Food Waste extent, causes and preventionValuable fisheries ■ Oceans cover three-quarters of the globe and support a diversity of resources that are fundamental to the livelihoods of millions of people. However, the marine fisheries sector is facing a range of serious challenges. These include over-exploitation of fish stocks, climate change and major environmental disturbances such as oil spills and other causes of pollution. Assessing the economic value socio-economic sustainability of marine resources is a key step towards understanding the problems facing the sector and helping to frame policies to mitigate them.This book offers an overview of the nature of the difficulties facing the marine fisheries sector, especially in poorer countries where communities are reliant on what they can harvest from the sea. It also looks in detail at methods to collect and analyse socio-economic data relating to these resources and their use, allowing decision-makers and stakeholders involved in fisheries management to plan for the future. The second volume in the landmark study into The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is now available. Through a wide range of case studies, it shows how the value of nature can be made visible, looking at the ecological, economic and social values at risk through biodiversity loss and some of the mechanisms and instruments by which incentives can be developed to protect it. The book clearly shows that the costs of sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services are lower than the cost of losing them. ■ This latest addition to the Smart Solutions series looks at the importance of safe water and sanitation as tools for helping households and communities to lift themselves out of poverty. As the book points out, it is significant that access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation has been included as one of the Millennium Development Goals.In spite of numerous programmes to improve the situation, many people in developing countries continue to have neither clean water to drink for themselves and their families, nor sanitation facilities to protect household health. Though some progress is being made, the authors contend that the scale of the problem which continues to exist is largely due to a tendency to pursue technical solutions in isolation. The overlying importance of hygiene, which is a critical factor in the success of any water and sanitation programme, is all too frequently overlooked. With its usual mix of concrete examples and clear explanations and illustrations, this booklet offers simple ways of improving household hygiene, not just for better health, but as a first step on the path out of poverty.Invasion ecology is the study of the causes and consequences of the introduction of organisms to areas outside their native range. There is growing interest in this field, especially with the advent of globalisation and the risks that this poses. A new book, whose editor is based in South Africa, examines why and how organisms are moved around the world, how and why some become established and invade, and how best to manage invasive species. Most African governments consider biofuels as offering potential for increasing agricultural productivity and export incomes. This book issues a word of caution. Using African case studies, the authors examine the impacts of large-scale biofuel production on African agriculture in regard to land outsourcing and food security issues. And it explores the extent to which the biofuel expansion has generated new economic alliances, resulting in forms of inclusions and exclusions within the rural population. ■ The establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1955 led to a major transformation of the global trading system. With the launch of the WTO, the rules were extended beyond trade in goods to include trade in services and trade-related issues such as intellectual property rights. The bewildering complexity of WTO regulations is a minefield for many people, but understanding them properly is essential for trading prospects.This book seeks to demystify the WTO and provide clarity as to what it is and how it works, with trade delegations and other groups from developing countries in mind. It describes the rules-based system created by the organisation and looks at why delegations from developing countries need assistance to engage in the highly technical and legal discussions and negotiations. It also looks at the contribution made by the Commonwealth project, which was designed to offer this kind of help and examines assistance provided in various rounds of negotiations, and the obstacles encountered. Agricultural commodity issues -an area of particular importance for many ACP countries -receive special attention. ■ Past approaches to rural and peri-urban sanitation problems have been based on the construction of toilets and attempts at awarenessraising by explaining in polite terms the risks of contamination and disease associated with the unsafe disposal of faeces. Reflected in this book's outspoken title is another approach, known as Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS), which is based on tackling the upfront, without genteel euphemisms. Experience in Asia and Africa has shown this to be a far more effective strategy. CLTS, which focuses on facilitating a profound change in people's behaviour through participatory techniques, raises local people's awareness of the linkages between open defecation and disease through the release of powerful emotions such as disgust and shame. As a result, they are encouraged to analyse their own sanitation situation and take action themselves. Now being implemented in 43 countries, including 28 in Africa, CLTS is spreading rapidly throughout the developing world and producing impressive results in terms of reduced rates of diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid and other enteric diseases originating from poor sanitation. Challenges remain, but this book charts a success story that offers hope and cause for reflection for anyone involved in this important public health issue.cta publications mentioned in Spore are marked by the green leaf symbol, and these are available free-of-charge to subscribers to cta's Publications distribution Service (PdS). other readers can buy these titles from cta's commercial distributor. only agricultural and rural development organisations and individuals resident in acP countries can apply for PdS subscriptions. each PdS subscriber is assigned a certain number of credit points annually for purchasing publications on cta's list. the list of cta publications can be consulted on cta's electronic catalogue: www.cta.int all other publications, indicated by a square, are available from the publishers listed, or through commercial booksellers. African nations risk providing investors access to large areas of land in secretive and one-sided deals that fail to deliver real benefits. This is according to the first ever legal analysis of contracts published by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). The report analyses 12 recent contracts through which investors have leased large areas of land in eastern, western, central and southern Africa for various agricultural activities. It found many problems with the contracts but also happily some signs of positive deals, notably in Liberia. ■ There is now widespread agreement that food production will have to increase substantially over the coming century to feed a rapidly rising population, especially in the South. Just how that increase should be achieved, however, is open to debate. A growing body of opinion opts for the sustainable intensification approach as the best way of getting more from the amount of land available, without doing any further damage to the environment.That may seem a tall order, but this special issue seeks to prove that impressive results can be and have been achieved using systems that are not only gentle on the environment, but that also contribute to the delivery of a range of valued public goods, such as clean water, carbon sequestration, flood protection and groundwater recharge. The UK Foresight Project on Global Food and Farming Futures commissioned 40 projects and programmes in 20 African countries where sustainable intensification has been developed over the past two decades. Documenting a selection of the case studies, this book offers a detailed analysis of schemes that really have produced results.Cases include examples of crop improvements, agroforestry and soil conservation, conservation agriculture, integrated pest management, livestock and fodder crops and novel policies and partnerships. The results are indeed impressive. By early 2010, the 40 projects from across Africa had produced benefits for 10.4 million farmers and their families and improvements on nearly 13 million ha. The challenge is to find ways of scaling up the process, so that many more people can reap similar rewards.  Topics presented are taken from findings and conclusions made by leading experts at the Brussels Development Briefings, Regional Development Briefings and key CTA events. The first in the collection addresses the geopolitics of food. The second policy brief (June 2011) is dealing with issues relating to agricultural water management.These publications are available in English and French and can be ordered from CTA or downloaded at www.cta.int .CTA sponsored 15 journalists from around the ACP region to attend the World Conference of Science Journalists (WCSJ) in Doha, Qatar in June. Science and agriculture are topics that receive limited attention from ACP media. This is often due to poor understanding and a lack of proper training for the media on these subjects. Media professionals need to receive training in order to better understand the science process, appreciate the role of agriculture and development and ultimately become more comfortable reporting on these key issues. The 15 journalists who attended the WCSJ had the unique opportunity to strengthen their science communication skills, learn about current media approaches, best practices and current trends in science reporting.Have you heard of the Annual Bloggies? Well, now it's your turn to stand out in the blogosphere! CTA recently launched a new competition targeting young people between the ages of 18 and 35 involved or interested in agriculture. The 'Youth in Agriculture Blog Awards' (YoBloCo Awards) aims to highlight successes and challenges experienced by youth engaged in agriculture in urban and rural areas. CTA hopes to encourage the production of information using new social media and technologies by young farmer groups and organisations active in youth and agriculture.The competition is an initiative of the CTA ARDYIS project which raises youth awareness and capacity on agricultural and rural development issues in ACP countries through ICTs. Entries are invited from individuals and organisations discussing topics such as challenges and successes of youth in agriculture, climate change, natural resource management, agricultural production, agri-business, agricultural value chains, agricultural policy issues, etc.Interested bloggers should enter before 31 October 2011 through the ARDYIS website (http://ardyis.cta.int/en/blog-competition). Full details on entry requirements and the selection process can be found online. ","tokenCount":"11239"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"04c7e9aab162dc195dcc0ad543ae9c7e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7db2b9cc-cc9b-4d59-8a04-4991a7b8a7b3/retrieve","id":"1604693277"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c3c57aec-e47f-434c-ad92-f642395468c3","pagecount":"12","content":"The workshop was introduced by Dirk Hoekstra, IPMS Project manager, who described gender as 'an integral part of the value chain development strategy, used by the project'. Stephen Sandiford, Senior Development Officer at CIDA gave a welcome address followed by John Mc Dermott, ILRI's Deputy Director General for research who emphasized the idea of 'multiplying the benefits and mitigating the risks faced by women accessing assets and climbing the livestock ladder' as a pathway out of poverty.See Dirk Hoekstra full presentation, Observations and reflections on AgriGender workshop 2011 Following the welcome, keynote speaker and workshop co-organizer Jemimah Njuki, sociologist and gender specialist at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) delivered her presentation Working with women and men in agricultural market development: The missing link, in which she states that market-oriented agriculture will succeed in helping women only if it moves beyond 'doing right for women.' To get market-oriented agriculture to work for women, Njuki suggests the following ways for creating a level playing field for women in agricultural production.Increase women's decision-making in agricultural projects to enable them play a role in identifying markets and commodities in specific value chains. ' Work with both men and women because women are a part and parcel of households and communities that include their husbands, brothers and other men. Raise women's assertiveness and leadership skills by linking them directly with (especially urban) consumers who buy their products so that the women producers understand how markets work and what kinds of products their clients prefer.Encourage women to organize themselves in groups, which give them better bargaining power in markets, provide access to financial and other services.Increase women's access to technologies and inputs and services to ensure that they can continue to adopt improved production practices needed to meet new and changing market needs and demands.In his address, Ato Wondirad Mandefro, State Minister of Agriculture in Ethiopia, acknowledged the workshop as being the first dialogue on Gender and Market-orientedDirk Hoekstra Agriculture in Ethiopia, \"aiming at paving the way to put science and research to practice\". He added that \"addressing gender imbalance in market oriented activities is a priority in Ethiopia.\" According to him, the lessons shared, the strategies, approaches and an understanding of what makes them effective in the Ethiopian context will be immensely helpful to the Government in designing strategies to scale them out to assist the process of agricultural transformation.During the workshop, presentations were structured around four themes selected to give a full picture of gender and agricultural marketing.Theme 1: Gender in market oriented agriculture and value chains Ann Waters-Bayer, agricultural sociologist and senior advisor with ETC EcoCulture, presented Promoting gender equality and empowering women through livestock in which she asserts that livestock can give women a chance to control more income and, reduce gender inequality. According to Waters-Bayer, women are presently still overlooked in livestock interventions and she discusses supporting women's local innovations, implementing strong gender analysis and improving women's access to training and education, among others, as ways to recognize women's roles thus changing mindsets of professionals regarding women's contribution to livestock.Look for 'Five lessons to integrate gender in marketoriented agriculture' by Ann Waters-Bayer on http:// ilrivideo.blip.tv/ Lemlem Aregu, IPMS Gender Specialist, discussed the constraints marginalizing women farmers in Ethiopia's 10 Pilot Learning Woredas of IPMS in her presentation The role of women in crop value chains. She compares gender characteristics in Ethiopia's rural populations related to labour, crop production, marketing, technology adoption, access to information and their implications for market-led development.Jemimah Njuki, ILRI Team Leader, Poverty, Gender and Impact, addresses key research questions on livestock and women's economic empowerment in Gender and livestock value chains in Kenya and Tanzania. Women's access to Day 1 Jemimah Njuki livestock production resources is inhibited by genderbased constraints and even though women are involved in and may control production, they often do not own the means of production -namely, livestock, land and water. Furthermore, gender participation in commercialised livestock markets is still inequitable.Rekha Mehra, Director of economic development at the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), in Gender reviews and strategies for cotton sector development in six countries of sub-Saharan region emphasizes the role of cotton as a major cash crop in Malawi, Zambia and Uganda. As women provide much of the labour for all aspects of cotton production but do not get returns or very little, it is important to design gender integration strategies in order to fully acknowledge women's role as farmers and give them their due share of benefits.Questions about these presentations were then addressed in a short discussion with the four speakers. Among others, those tackled issues of women's roles to supply input:\"we should also consider the role of women in other segments of the value chain\" (Rekha Mehra), what livestock enterprises for women: \"we have to take into account what women want and not be restrictive\" (Ann Waters-Bayer), challenges regarding extension services: \"reaching men and women simultaneously is the key entry point\" (Lemlem Aregu).Peter Ballantyne, head of ILRI Knowledge Management and Information Services (KMIS), then facilitated round table discussions in groups aiming at raising 'burning questions' not addressed in the morning session. Those were:1. Where and why specifically have we failed to get a gender balance in market-oriented agriculture? Is it due to our traditions and cultures? Inappropriate policies? Lack of implementation of those policies? 2. Why have we seen such little movement toward gender equality at all levels of society over the past 20 to 30 years?3. How, and how much, does national policy affect the implementation of recommendations to better link rural women farmers to markets? 4. Are there policy and investment actions that can ensure that women benefit much more, and much faster, from programs working for agricultural transformation and growth? What are these actions?5. What are the main challenges in the practical applications of strategies to engage more women in market-oriented agriculture?6. Should we build on existing cultures to help bring about gender equality? If so, how could we do this?7. Is there a role for rural women as 'middle-women' in agricultural business enterprises?8. What particular services will help women most to achieve gender equity? How should these services be provided, and measured, along the whole agricultural value chain?Theme 2: Strategies for integrating gender and women in market oriented agriculture Muhammad N.A. Siddiquee from CARE Bangladesh talked about the most socially, politically and economically marginalized women in Strengthening the dairy value chain in Bengladesh. CARE strategic decisions are aiming at economically empowering women whose opportunities as dairy producers, collectors, processors, livestock health workers and input sellers are limited by tradition and gender roles.A market place followed by a cocktail where participants could exchange and share about their projects took place after the afternoon presentations. Posters and leaflets from various organizations were displayed. There were also some videos.Strategies for reaching women with services (Theme 3) Isabelle Baltenweck, ILRI Agricultural economist, discussed the advantages of the Hub approach in Using hubs to increase access to services by smallholder farmers: Experiences from the East Africa Dairy Development Project. The EADD project employs a 'hub' approach, which provides a flexible way to provide input and output services to small farmers, many of whom are women. A new strategy aiming to put more women on the front lines of the project should lead to more women joining extension work, including working as trainers and helping to make decisions in hub budgeting and operations.Yisehak Baredo, IPMS Research development officer from Goma district, explains in Gender focused service provision and its impact: IPMS Goma experience how households in a small village in Goma have begun doubling their income from fattening sheep. The project began in March 2008, when farmers were first offered loans to buy the sheep. The improved feed supplements they used reduced the fattening period, enabling the farmers to bring their sheep to market in three months, instead of the usual eight to ten months. In early 2008, several men resisted the inclusion of women in the project and some women dropped out. Still, women made up 38 of the 117 farmers in the program. In fact, women ranked first and second place for a 'best-practice' award organized by the district and IPMS, proving that given the chance, women can excel in innovative agricultural ventures.Read more on Improved fattening doubles incomes from sheep raising in western Ethiopia-Top two innovators are women, ILRI news blog.Gizachew Sisay, Senior value chain advisor at Oxfam GB, followed with a presentation on gender and apiculture: Women's economic leadership through honey value chain development in Ethiopia. Traditionally women have not engaged in beekeeping as hives are hung on trees and women did not climb. But modern hives are placed on the ground and do not need much labour, land or expensive agricultural inputs. After challenging the existing attitudes and stereotypes about women and allowing more women beekeepers to access new skills/knowledge, Oxfam interventions increased women's participation in coops by 45% in some places.Read a blog in French about Sisay's presentation on http:// tinyurl.com/46u8m6c Berhanu Adenew, Senior Researcher from the Ethiopian Economics Association (EEA), involved in \"Researching Women's Collective Action\", project implemented by Oxfam GB, elaborated on Characteristics of women's collective action for enabling women's participation in agricultural markets: Preliminary findings from Ethiopia. While women are often under represented or excluded from profitable agricultural markets; another challenge is that where collective action appears to provide women with clear economic benefits, they often become a target of male encroachment. After conducting research about gender roles and economics in the agricultural sector in Ethiopia, the project aims at characterizing the different forms of collective actions existing in sub sectors. Read more on What will it take for women farmers to break away from the hearth-and into the marketplace?, ILRI news blog. Jemimah Njuki, ILRI Team Leader, Poverty, Gender and Impact, addresses Impacts of commercialization of crop and livestock products on income control by women: Evidence from Malawi and Uganda in her presentation. It focuses on what influences income management by women, based on a study of a sample of 457 households in Malawi and Uganda and comparing income control by men and women. Conclusions stress that, among others, programs aimed at increasing commercialization or using a value chain approach need to take into account these gender and intra-household dynamics.Elizabeth Waithanji, ILRI Post-doctoral scientist, presents a case study from The Meru goat breeders' association (MGBA): a poor farmers' empowerment initiative highlighting where women benefit the most and the least in the value chain in terms of division of labour, access to markets, access to goats and milk and their income because of differences in decision making, access to technologies and participation in different stages of the value chain.In a session facilitated by Peter Ballantyne, ILRI, six groups were established to brainstorm and come up with policy related questions related to their topic. Two of these worked on access to services, two on strategies for enhancing women's participation in value chains and two on impact of such interventions. Questions were captured both on audio and paper. This session elicited multiple ideas for moving the discussions on strategies, access and impact forward through policy issues.Ensure that policymakers demand gendered evidence 1.and base their decisions on that evidence. Conduct a review of current policies and monitor their 2.implementation.Integrate gender into the educational curriculum, from 3.first grade to last.Provide women with access to low-risk credit and 4.insurance services.Thoroughly document and broadly disseminate good 5.gender practices.Review policies for their coherence: ensure that some 6.do not undermine others. Demand that a certain number of women are 7.empowered in each local development project.Target women for capacity building and give them easy 8.access to information and finances.Ensure that women have access to suitable services and 9.technologies.Obtain quantitative data on the inter-household impacts 10.and dynamics of interventions.Afterwards, a panel comprising seven professionals (representing NGO, donors, Ethiopian Government, United Nations, research) was asked to comment on the policy issues identified. This discussion was facilitated by John McDermott, ILRI Deputy Director General.The government should be in charge, but supported by 1.other institutions, which should find ways to work better with government. We need both top-down and bottom-up conversations 2. and should continuously be making suggestions for revising policies. Donors are trying to align themselves with government 3.strategies but sometimes run into roadblocks regarding some social issues.The coordination of work between a country's 4.agricultural research system and the government must be transparent.Question #2: Do we need a policy framework to pull things together? If so, what is the one thing that must be in that policy framework?Institutions that can support the policies. 1.Clear national and regional policies that we can 2.support.Mechanisms for implementing policies.Participatory policymaking and people-centered policies. 4.Ways spelled out to make policies functional. 5.Effective ways to build capacity on the ground. 6.An institution responsible for linking institutions and 7.monitoring policy implementation.Question #3: We seem to not do things very well; how can we help ministers make better decisions?Mainstream gender across programs. 1.Make women part of the teams designing programs. 2.Resource those programs appropriately. 3.Write the rights of women into constitutions, as Rwanda 1.has done. View women's issues as a societal, not gender, issues. 2.Get local women involved higher up the value chain.Build the capacity of staff to implement policies. 4.Employ strategies that help change attitudes and 5.mindsets about women.Question #5: So we see that there are things that work at local and regional levels, but ministers need to decide on national agricultural policies. What kind of leverage points are successful African countries such as Ghana and Rwanda using? How do we make a difference for women?First, identify the potential 1. benefits of a project and then determine how many women would benefit. Demonstrate ways in which both men and women can 2.'win'. Don't rely on policies sitting in vacuums-unattached 3.to the budgets, participatory process, capacity building, gender-friendly attitudes needed to make them workto work. At the same time, don't attach policies too strongly 4.to specific things-such as a cash crop, cooperative, or particular government-because these are unsustainable and can be manipulated for gain by the few.Look and learn from lessons on the ground. 1.We have the policies; use them effectively. 2.Monitor projects continuously.Evaluate projects regularly. 4.Give districts the support they need to translate national 5.aims into local actions. Support the education of all children. 6.Focus on what farmers are efficient at. 7.Be outward looking: take in lessons from the wider 8.region.At the end of the session, John McDermott focused on the five following key points:It's really about 1.how we work. There are good lessons out there.We need to work together.Government has the lead role. 4.We need to find ways to work well with governments. 5.As the workshop drew to a close, Dirk Hoekstra, IPMS project manager, shared his observations on the workshop about the necessary holistic approach to gender, the need for flexibility, the gender sensitization and the scaling out, among others.On day 3, a field visit was organized to Debre Zeit where participants visited the Ada Dairy Cooperative and were introduced to Tigist Weycha, a mother of three and dairy producer.As Paul Karaimu, ILRI writer and editor, reports, in Rural transformation: How a dairywoman and beekeeper in the Ethiopian highlands turned their farms into profitable businesses linked to markets, Weycha is a member of the local Ada'a Dairy Cooperative that processes about 5,000 litres of milk a day obtained from farmers in the area. She owns 12 cattle, including 7 improved-breed dairy cows. She has been in the milk business for six years, though her livestock husbandry experience goes back 11 years.A goal of the IPMS project was to help improve livelihoods of the poor in Ethiopia by linking rural smallholder producers to markets. The project facilitated setting up a collection center by the Ada'a Cooperative near her village, which became a reliable buyer of her milk. The project trained her, along with other women, in managing her dairy farm business and animals. The benefits she has accrued as a result of this are clear to see six years on.Weycha is one of the successful dairy farmers in Debre Zeit. With support from her family and her husband-who is trained in animal health management and uses this expertise on the farm-she has excelled as a model dairy farmer. Weycha feeds her cows mostly on maize and teff residues and alfalfa. She supplements this with wheat bran, oil cake and molasses that she buys every two weeks from traders in Debre Zeit town.Participants also visited another participant in the IPMS project, Elfnesh Bermeji, a beekeeper who makes 50 birr for every kilogramme of honey she sells from her 20 modern and traditional hives. She harvests the honey twice a year and has used the income from its sale to build a home and educate her children, who are now supporting themselves after graduating from university.Read more on IPMS approaches for innovative apiculture development in ADA.A reflective session took place after the visits where participants were asked to highlight the key message that they were going to take back from the workshop and field visit. For one participant, the message was 'all good development activity starts with research and ends with research', implying that understanding issues thoroughly at the outset to design appropriate strategies to achieve one's objectives then try to understand the impacts (what works and what does not) should help to inform future actions, activities and programs. Dirk Hoekstra also stressed that reducing the burden of women through family planning should be emphasized, since this would enable them to participate more fully in productive activities.This event was reported with a range of mainstream and social media. View the meeting outputs online:  ","tokenCount":"2932"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ecb5eb754092fe3c666408016f1922d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e88a64f9-707c-492e-8e4c-25be5c777276/content","id":"1419032371"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c3b4a55d-64a9-4289-b121-923bbcbb47cc","pagecount":"10","content":"This research note offers insights to a new method for understanding the economic benefits of utilizing climate services for decision making in agriculture, which can provide justification for the public and private investment in provision of climate services to farmers. In order to understand the potential benefits of weather information for improved farm decision making, case studies from wheat farming in India and Bangladesh are presented.Farmers typically make decisions on agricultural operations based on traditional agricultural calendars and market information that are developed based on knowledge gained previous farming experience. Due to increasing climatic variability, it is generally widely agreed that the past climatic conditions are not a good measure of current and future conditions. Hence, farmers are increasingly in need of science-based, locationspecific, and user-tailored climate services in short-, seasonal-and longer-time scales. However, there are only limited tools available to evaluate the usefulness of agricultural climate services and understand their value proposition. This in turn can limit investments in and use of climate services. In this research note, we present preliminary research towards the development of an ex-ante evaluation method to quantify the value of the short-term weather advisory services in South Asia. The method identifies the key crop management decision points that -as assessed through statistical modeling -could potentially lead to yield gains. This method also develops a counterfactual assessment if forecast weather information is provided to farmers.Increasing climatic variability threatens the livelihood of millions of smallholders globally who depend on agriculture (Tesfaye et al., 2019;Amjath-Babu et al., 2016). Farmers typically make decisions on agricultural operations based on traditional agricultural calendars and market information that are developed based on knowledge gained previous farming experience. Due to increasing climatic variability, it is now widely agreed that the past climatic conditions are not a good measure of current and future conditions (Hewitt et al., 2012). It is often reported that the provision of weather forecasts (seasonal, short-term) combined with agricultural advisories can increase the efficiency of farmers in handling yearto-year and within-season variability of weather and improve farm profits (Meza et al., 2008;Lourenco et al., 2016;Kim et al., 2022). Findings also suggest that climate services account for diverse social structures, behaviours and contexts to demonstrate their applicability in real world context (Findlater et al., 2021).There is however a scarcity of tools and methods to evaluate the value proposition of climate services for farmers. This is is a limiting factor to meet the demand for understanding the economic and social benefits of using agricultural climate services to justify the public and private investment in provision of the services to farmers (Soares et al., 2018;Findlater et al., 2021). The value of a forecast or a climate service is the differential between the outcomes with and without access to them or the potential outcome if the users had access to the service (Soares et al., 2018, Hossain et al., 2021;Lourenco et al, 2016;Kim et al., 2022). Existing studies on economic evaluation of climate forecasting mainly focus on seasonal forecasts (Roudier et al., 2012, Zinyengere et al., 2011, Amegnaglo et al., 2017) and evaluations of short-term forecasts are seldom reported (Roudier et al., 2017;Hewitt et al., 2017). In addition, types of decisions that are considered most studies are limited to changes in crops and varieties and their planting dates on a seasonal rather than withinseason basis (Meza et al., 2008), or to aquaculture sector (Hossain et al., 2021). Moreover, the factors that may hinder the efficient use of climate services are also not well investigated. Integration of local and scientific knowledge such as that used in early warning systems in disaster risk reduction (Hermans et al., 2022) would be equally useful in developing and applying climate services based on hindcast experiments.The International Council for Science (ICSU) identified the need of enhancing usefulness of weather forecasts and future climate changes as one of the grand challenges of sustainability science. Given the historical evidence of societies being collapsed when they were unable to cope-up their farming with climate variability underlies the importance of climate advisory services (Hewitt et al., 2012(Hewitt et al., , 2017 ) ). This in part lead to the development of the global framework of climate services (Hewitt et al., 2012). However, the absence of rigorous evaluation of such services in generating economic value for the stakeholders may hinder investment and farmer adoption of climate services and advisories. To contribute to this research gap, the current study focuses on: 1) Understanding the farmer-to-farmer variability of decisions and their willingness to change their decisions, given the availability of high-quality weather forecasts.2) Quantifying (ex ante) the value of short -term forecast based agro-advisory using a switching regression model for wheat farmers in India (Bihar) and Bangladesh.Though there are methodological options of contingent valuation, decision theorybased models, benefit transfer, etc., (Whitehead et al., 2015, Karni, 2022), the current work presents a decision-based analysis. In this method, farmers are presented with the weather data of past year (hindcast) and asked for potential changes in their farming decisions if the information was available to them with a lead time of five days. The assumption made is that the short-term forecastbased climate services can only influence the timing of agricultural operations and hence can benefit farmer without any change in actual input use. The method captures the behavioral changes of farmers in terms of farming operations, given the forecasts and its uncertainty and assesses the economic value of the short-term forecast-based changes in agricultural operations.This \"hindcast\" method presents daily data of key weather variables like maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall for the past cropping season with line graphs to farmers and asks them to mark their crop husbandry decisions (planting, irrigating, weeding, fertilizing, harvesting, etc.) to capture the decision they would have altered if they were provided with forecasts with five days of lead time. The sampling method followed a random selection of villages within a 10 Km radius of meteorological stations to ensure accuracy of the data presented to farmers. Farmer's use of inputs including fertilizer and irrigation, and yields obtained by farmers are collected separately. This approach generates the dataset with yields, inputs, dates of key agricultural operations, and the operations farmers are willing to change given five day weather forecasts. A statistical approach is used to create \"what if\" scenario to capture the yield shifts if farmers altered their operations within the lead time (five days) of the forecast. In case of wheat, the change in planting date, irrigation on the days that breaches threshold high temperature, and harvesting before a rainfall event are taken as key decisions that can be considered using the forecasts and examined the additional benefits that would have realized by the farmers. The possible factors that may hinder forecast-based decision making are also captured. The method captures on the possible yield benefits of accessing climate services to address the climate variability but doesn't capture cost savings (e.g., avoiding irrigation in cases of forecasted rains) due to climate services and gains from mitigating extreme climate events.The data are segregated to two regimes by creating an indicator of sum of deviations from critical dates of planting, irrigation (on days of temperatures above a biologically critical crop-species specific threshold), and harvesting (e.g., before a rainfall event that could reduce yield). The first regime is the farmers that performed operations that are closer to critical dates Regime 1:Equation 1 indicates the wheat yield if farmers plant, irrigate and harvest wheat based on decisions considering the weather conditions ('weather smart' farmers), while Equation 2 represents potential yield when farmers grow wheat without considering the weather conditions. The model is estimated using the \"Movestay\" package of STATA software.Using a decision-based analysis, we attempt to understand the value of shortterm forecast-based agricultural advisory using a climate sensitive decision frame for wheat farmers in India (Bihar) and Bangladesh. For the first time to our knowledge, a systematic method is being developed to evaluate short term-climate advisory services. It is expected that this method can be fine-tuned for use in smallholder farming systems in Asia and throughout out the global south where quality historical weather data are available from meteorological services. This novel \"hindcast\" approach presents the daily data of key weather variables including maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall for the past cropping seasons with line graphs (Figure 1) and, following an orientation on how to interpret graphs, asks farmers to mark their crop husbandry decisions (planting, irrigating, weeding, fertilizing, harvesting, etc.) in the date lines. This captures the decisions farmers could have modified if they had been provided with forecasts with five days of lead time.Figure 2 shows that sampled farmers were willing (yes response) to make changes in their practices based on weather forecast information. Options include changing sowing dates, practicing irrigation at critical temperature thresholds to avoid drought stress, or harvesting quickly in case of untimely rainfall events that may significantly damage mature crops left in the field. The least acceptance to changes in irrigation were observed in Bihar. This could be due to restrictions stemming from the lack of economic or physical access to irrigation water resources in many areas. This indicates that additional development and infrastructural investments are likely to be needed to realize the potential value of forecastbased advisory services. Figure 3     Farmers' actual timing of management decisions (Figure 3) were compared to a location-specific 'ideal' decision set (planting date, irrigation at critical temperature thresholds and harvesting before rainfall events). Deviations of actual farmer decisions from the ideal were then used to construct a composite index. Employing the index, the dataset is divided two regimes (near and far from ideal) and counterfactuals are generated using the switching regression model.The simulations using estimated regression regimes show that farmers can achieve a potential wheat yield gain of 15% in Bangladesh and more than 60% in Bihar if they switch to ideal weather sensitive practices (Regime 1) by following the climate sensitive decision making using the forecasted agricultural advisory. Irrigations to avoid heat stress above critical threshold and reduced crop damage due to heavy rainfall events could result in significant yield gains in Bangladesh, though these simulations require field experimental validation. Similar strategies could also lead to moderate gains in Bihar. The negative sign of coefficients in irrigation deviation indicates that the yield penalty will be low if the irrigation is closer to dates of critical temperature stresses, indicative of the potential drought-stress abating effect of irrigation. Similarly, a positive sign for deviations from damaging rainfall at harvest period show the potential benefits of harvesting before crop-damaging extreme rainfall events. The negative sign in case of planting dates deviations indicates the yield penalties associated for days when wheat is sown late. We also collected information on factors affecting planting date decisions of farmers other than weather, which is a key variable determining wheat yield.Results show that in Bihar, membership in farmers' groups was identified as a major influencing factor while such groups were not a major factor in influencing planting date decisions in Bangladesh. Cash constraints can stifle the planting dates in Bihar farmers, while this appears to be less of a concern in Bangladesh.Drought spells are nonetheless an important factor affecting in planting dates in both countries.These preliminary results show considerable potential for climate advisory services that aims to reduce the effect of untimely planting dates, heat stress at critical temperature thresholds, and harvest time heavy rainfall damage. However, it is important to note that this initial did not evaluate the potential effect of disease forecasts, which could generate additional economic benefits.In addition, farmers indicated they were generally interested in accessing these services. Our ex-ante evaluation shows that linking agricultural advisory to weather forecasts could potentially aid in improving yield and income levels of wheat farmers in Bihar and Bangladesh. The provision of services however may not be sufficient to achieve changes in productivity without additional strategic development actions. For example, support will also be required to improve timely seed supply, access to credit, timely availability of inputs, and irrigation provision. In conclusion, the results from this study provide preliminary evidence to support further investment in climate services that could generate significant social welfare effects, though further research is needed to validate the hindcast method and to assess climate service effectiveness through rigorous post-hoc studies or randomized control trial approaches.TAFSSA is a CGIAR regional integrated initiative to support actions that improve equitable access to sustainable healthy diets, improve farmers' livelihoods and resilience, and conserve land, air, and water resources in South Asia. We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ SUGGESTED CITATION Amjath Babu, T.S., Krupnik, T.J., Timsina, J. 2022. Evaluating the value of agricultural climate services using hindcast experiments Methods development in India and Bangladesh. Work Package 5, Research Note 5. CGIAR research initiative on Transforming Agrifood Systems In South Asia (TAFSSA). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. Dhaka, Bangladesh.","tokenCount":"2149"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4309d02140b0d9621626635fbb3236d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H031290.pdf","id":"904545203"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1162e190-db0f-4ed5-a208-13a4074deb5b","pagecount":"45","content":"This is especially true in the developing (ountries where food produdion increased 3.4 percent annually, exceeding the annual population growth of 1.5 percent in the 1990s.:A review of 585 irrigation projects by the World Bank t(lund an internal rate 01' return of 15 percent. But many projects have underperformed or have had external social or environmental costs. The benetits, costs and impacts of irrigation remain controversial. 'i';likcnillark use, \"blue walt'r\" and \"'<Iter\" In usct'lliv describe these pn.ce\"cs, tn an 1I11<iistlirbed state, rainwater (untrihl:les to river runoff, termed water,\" or vapor:zes bcl~);'l' r(';;!.ching rivers through PW(t'sscs of evapotranspia. lion) or {'grel'll waler\" flow:\"Effective management of basin water for food production requires a better understanding of a complex set of water-related interactions that occur across spatial and temporal scales, and within various locations of a basin. A major problem in many basins worldwide is a lack of effective water governance structures that can put this understanding into action.The purpose of this paper is to scope out the likely research issues that require an integrated water resources management (IWRM) perspective. The objectives are twofold. The first is to ensure that work undertaken in the other four themes is mutually coherent, and fits well into a framework of an integrated water-and land resources management (figure I). It will serve as a \"reality check\" on the trade-offs and synergies that are offered by the different strands of the Challenge Program (CP) research themes and test their relevance at multiple scales up to basin level. The second objective is to undertake research into key problems within the realm of IWRM that have particular relevance to the improvement of crop productivity and production, alleviation of poverty and enhancement of environmental security.Increased water resources for agriculture provided the fuel for the green revolution. World food production has outpaced population growth, I and food prices have declined markedly. Rural farmers and the poor have both been beneficiaries of these gains. 2 But the task of providing food security to all is incomplete. Malnutrition persists in much of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa -much in regions dubbed economically water scarce, meaning that while there is water in nature, sometimes abundantly, it has not been developed for human use. There is a significant weight to the argument that scarcity is caused by people not having enough access to water rather than to the absence of sufficient water (Soussan 2002). Areas of intensive agricultural water use tend to experience land and water degradation, resulting variously in salinization, declining water quality and groundwater and degraded coastal ecosystems. The effects strike first and hardest at the poor and threaten the resource base on which food production depends.Integrated approaches to managing water offer solutions. We use the definition ofIWRM taken from the Global Water Partnership (GWP/TAC 2000):IWRlvf is a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability ofvital ecosystems. Pigllrc i. integratillg l1'ork of other thclI/otic areas.IWRM integrates natural and human systems and thus int1uences water quantity, quality, and use, and where and how many benefits are derived.It is of critical importance that the Water and Food Challenge Program identifies the most important areas of integration that will mitigate the water crisis. The IWRM theme serves the dual purpose of using the IWRM framework to explore key areas of integration , and to provide a means to integrate the work of other thematic areas of the CPo The problems of basins where water has been intensively developed and used are dearly different from those where people would like to abstract apparently ample supplies to relieve problems of water scarcity. The intensively irrigated North China Plains, or Pakistan's Punjab, have a different set of problems than where farmers need to organize to tap into water sources in the hills and Terai of Nepal, or on the African plains. In general, these two are the basic problems facing IWRM in the world today-exploiting water resources to relieve water scarcity and improve livelihoods, and second, to manage highly stressed river systems and yet promote sustainable development.This can be illustrated by conceptualizing phases of river basin development (see Keller et al. 1998;Ohlsson and Turton 2000;Allan 2001 for similar discussion).' In its most basic form, water scarcity is a situation where people cannot access this water for drinking or to grow crops. As a reaction to water scarcity, people tap basin water resources. Hydraulic structures, ranging from simple stone-and wood diversion structures to complex dam, canal and drainage systems supply water from streamflow for drinking and industrial supplies, and for agriculture. Rain fed agriculture converts land use from its previous cover (forest, grassland) to cropland, with varying impacts on the previous hydrologic balance.At any course in time, we develop an available water supply, limited by the amount of hydraulic structures and rain-led agriculture. When demand exceeds this available supply, one response is to provide more supply by expanding either hydraulic infrastructure or rain-fed agriculture. This supply approach is ultimately limited by the amount of land and water resources within a basin, the technical and economic limits we have in abstracting this supply (it would be difficult to divert the entire Amazon), ecological thresholds beyond which ecosystems cannot sustain land -and water-use practices, and societal desires about usc of water, which change over time in response to the state of a country's social development and economy.Figure 2 represents a typical progression of river-basin development over time with the original runoff and rainwater sources shown on the y-axis, and time on the x-axis. Over time, more water is made available for human uses from streamflow or groundwater by building structures (dams, diversions, groundwater pumps) yielding a stair-step pattern. Larger dam or diversion structures would yield a sudden jump in the amount of water made available. After a new dam is built, it takes time to deplete all available water by converting it into evaporation. Populations grow, wealth grows and demand increases, until depletion reaches the available supply, when possibly another structure is built. Similarly, conversion of land to rain-fed agriculture yields more water (directly from rain) for agriculture. Rain-fed expansion continues until a limit is reached. Figure 2 graphically illustrates three important phases of river-basin development implicit in the above discussion. The progression continues until the threshold is reached.Development. In this phase the amount of naturally occurring water is not a constraint. Rather, expansion in demand drives the construction of new infrastructure and expansion of agricultural land. Institutions are primarily engaged in expanding facilities for human use. Among others, Turton and Ohlsson (1999) refer this to the supply-side phase.  Utilization. Significant construction has taken place, and the goal now is to make the most out of these facilities. Water savings and improved management of water deliveries are important objectives. Early in this stage, inter-sectoral corn petition is rninirnal. Institutions are primarily concerned with sectoral issues, such as rnanaging irrigation water, or managing drinking water supplies.Allocation. When depletion approaches the potential available water there is limited scope for further development. We refer to this as a \"closed basin.\" Efforts are placed on increasing the productivity or value of every drop of water. An irnportant means of accomplishing this is to reallocate water frorn lower to \"higher-value\" uses. Valuation of water to achieve both sustainability and equity in allocations arnong cornpeting dernands becomes a major issue. Managing dernand becornes increasingly critical. Infrastructure construction is lirnited to those that aid in regulation and control. Little scope remains for \"real water savings.\" Institutions are prirnarily involved in allocation, conflict resolution and regulation. Several irnportant managernent and regulatory functions gain prorninence, including inter sectoral allocation. :National-level coping strategies include industrialization and trade for food, thereby importing \"virtual water\" (Allan 1996). Turton and Ohlsson (1999) refer to this as the demand-rnanagement phase.Options at this point (B) are limited by the arnount of water resources, and the amount of water that can be brought in by trans-basin diversions. Mining of water resources can, and often does, lead to depletion levels over the utilizable Iirnit. Mining of groundwater in the :North China plains is an example. Eventually though, human depletion rnust reduce to below-sustainable limits.This progression of water use explains in part why IWRM is not common practice. During the initial development phase, a concern is to provide access to water, typically along sectoral lines, for irrigation, or for urban uses. Because there are apparently ample supplies at this early phase upstream-downstream impacts are not profound, and there is little felt need to think cross-sectorally, or in a whole river~basin sense. It is only later, when actions at one part of the basin start to affect someone else, that issues of allocation arise. Institutions, though originally designed to construct, do not easily make the transition to managing difficult issues of water delivery and maintenance to allocating scarce resources and managing adverse impacts. Water bureaucracies are very creative in maintaining their construction and supply-driven orientation even in fundamental institutional reform processes (Rap et al. 1999).The issues that arise from growing pressure on the water resources relate to the integration of management of the resource, water scarcity, implications for the poor and the environment, and the rate at which the water-resources situation changes.Water scarcity. Construction of facilities provides access to water, and relieves water scarcity. But even with facilities to provide access, scarcity can exist. A condition of institutional scarcity exists when laws, traditions, or organizations restrict access or are inadequate to distribute water to all, leaving some people with water scarcity. Physical or absolute scarcity exists when the demand for water outstrips the facilities to tap into resources. Physical scarcity exists, for example, in the North China Plains where there is no more water left for the next user who may wish to develop a new supply.Water scarcity in each phase of development has important implications for poverty (Sullivan 2001;Schreiner and van Koppen 2000). During the development phase, an important consideration is to identify the beneficiaries. Will infrastructure benefit poor people? Will more powerful people capture the benefits? The problems change during the utilization phase. Even though conveyance structures exist, management may not meet the needs of the poor. During the allocation phase, water is reallocated amongst sectors and people. When water moves away from agriculture to cities and industries will the poor and less powerful be able to maintain their right or access to water, or will they find employment in other sectors? Will poor people be able to capture the economic gains when water moves to higher-valued uses?Water and environment. Hydraulic infrastructure alters natural flow regimes and facilitates the change in landscape with growth in agricultural areas and cities. During the utilization phase, water use and depletion intensify, further removing water that has other important ecological functions. A common \"solution\" to scarcity is to eat into natural reserves of ecological significance for more water, resulting in damaged wetlands or loss of biodiversity in ecosystems generally. During the early phases of development, dilution can be sufficient to solve pollution problems. During the allocation phase, dilution is not an option, because there simply is not enough water. Clean-up at the source becomes increasingly critical.Water management is IDost often concerned with distributing supplies or responding to highly variable climatic conditions. We tend to look for the most expedient solutions to these immediate problems. Unfortunately, problems of groundwater, salinity buildup, nutrient mining and intrusion of saline water creep up unnoticed and suddenly become severe problems. They have considerable momentum and are therefore slow to turn around and may incur very significant costs and serious casualties on the way.We see two important future challenges. The first is for those river basins early in development phases but with pressure to use more water resources at position A (figure 2). The challenges are to use water more sustainably, and to avoid the institutional, environmental and poverty pitfalls of rapid development.A second challenge is for those areas of the world already intensively developed, approaching or past sustainable limits to come back to sustainable limits (move from position B to a future point). Restoration is a key agenda.In the first case, foresight and the ability to make early changes are required before \"slow variables\" become a problem. Adaptive governance arrangements that can respond to issues of scarcity or environment before a crisis hits are therefore necessary. We recognize that water use changes affect others within a basin, and more strongly as the basin approaches the allocation stage. Many of the issues of governance ar:d scale fall across traditional sectoral or organizational boundaries, such as the critical water use interfaces of agriculture and environment; and agriculture and urban areas. These need a special focus. The most critical \"slow variables\" for agricultural water use have to do with the quality and quantity of groundwater.five key problem themes have been identified for special investigation within an integrated framework. All are underwritten by significant issues of governance, which are introduced in the section under Governance: A Common Thread in IWRM.Modeling and other decision support tools will be a fundamental component of almost all research methodologies and are discussed briefly in box I.Box 1. Decision support tools for integrated management.Although there is already an extensive literature and software for decision support, there is a need to adapt and develop tools to address complex water/ food/environment problems, assist stakeholders in putting policy into action and to develop effective management strategies. Such tools would cover technical, social and economic aspects of land and water management at the basin scale. They would be applied to well-defined sets of intervention points, some of which are expected to emerge from the other working groups.Models will play an essential role in predicting outcomes (\"what-if scenarios\") and in understanding the possible consequences of interventions in terms of food security, poverty and vulnerable groups, ecosystem services and other important management objectives. They will also be required to scale up the expected impacts of field research, nested at different scales, to the basin scale, using a variety of assumptions on the ultimate uptake and spread of technologies, management packages and so on.The third use of models is in scaling down the likely impacts of policy and higher-level interventions (water rights registration, cost recovery pricing, etc.) at a more local scale.The first problem concerns generic issues of land and water management and is encapsulated by \"Upstream-downstream interactions and scales of analyses.\" The complexities of hydrology, land interactions and flow paths through the landscape are fundamental to the question of human development and usc of water resources, and have many counterintuitive characteristics, which require careful analysis over multiple spatial and temporal scales. The subsequent topics are in some ways subsets of this first theme, but have specific characteristics that merit separate consideration.The second, groundwater management, is a particular case, where there are two major problems in large but discrete areas of the world, severe overexploitatiol1 and degradation of aquifers (USA, Turkey, India, China, Mexico) and insufficient utilization of potential resources for agriculture (sub-Saharan Africa). The third, there is rapidly rising interest and action in implementing strategies to increase the production and productivity of rain-fed agriculture, through small-scale water harvesting technologies that are perceived to be pro-poor and hydrologically benign.As these interventions are replicated, there is a need to evaluate their inevitable impacts on water availability at the catchment and basin scale.The fourth focus falls on the dramatic extent and pace of urban development and the associated problems of managing the transfer of rural water to urban use, and on an important niche of urban and peri-urban agriculture and the use of wastewater.Last, the problem of agricultural development and environmental sustainability requires broad-based and detailed research, to quantify ecosystems services, define and quantify impacts of agricultural development and management on them, and understand trade-offs so that appropriate solutions are offered to policy makers and users.It is very clear that many issues of governance are central to each of the selected topics, and will be managed as a \"hidden\"theme, a common thread running through all four. The central focus of the Challenge Program is on the development of new solutions, and this requires the provision of appropriate tools and production systems that can be managed within practicable institutional frameworks and respond to well-contextualized needs. New solutions should be designed to provide opportunities for new policies and the substance to implement existing ones.1. Upstream-downstrearn interactions and scales of analyses. AII-too-frequently people are involved in actions aimed at improving the lives of a target group of people engaged in managing resources at a farm or a system. But a water-related action taken in one part of the basin affects other human and environmental uses elsewhere within the basin to varying, and often difficult-to-predict degrees. Even with best intentions, alleviating problems in one area, may exacerbate poverty in another area. Understanding of trade-otIs between equity, productivity and efficiency, requires understanding of scale issues. A key challenge is to understand these complex relations, and integrate this understanding within governance structures.2. Groundwater. Groundwater has proven to be a key source of water to improve the livelihoods of millions of rural poor globally, and potential remains for its exploitation. At the same time, depletion and degradation of the groundwater resource threatens this livelihood-sustaining resource base. Integrating both groundwater with other water sources and its use across sectors requires urgent attention, especially in developing countries where its use is rapidly growing.3. Enhanced rain-fed agriculture. Equitable and productive use of rainwater requires a clear understanding of scale and needs to be accompanied and guided by sound governance procedures. The true effectiveness and equity benefits of rainwater harvesting and other enhanced rain-fed technologies need to be assessed and where necessary improved. In some situations, improvements in agriculture on primarily rain~fed land will be the key to production and livelihood gains, and relieve pressure on developing new sources of river water. On the other hand, the hydrological impacts of multiple small dams, water harvesting and increased infiltration on streamflow and groundwater recharge need to be investigated, so that the scale of such developments is planned and managed appropriately.4. The urban-agriculture interface. Reallocation of water from agriculture or rural areas to urban areas is a commonly observed phenomenon. In 2025, urban and industrial water use is projected to grow by 87 percent compared to 1995, which will generate 182 km' of return flows, compared to an estimated growth in agricultural diversions of 440 km'. Domestic return flows in 2025 are estimated to be 13-17 percent of total agricultural diversions (TWMI 2000; Shiklomanov 2000). If there is little expansion in agricultural supplies, it is likely that supplies to agriculture will decrease. Other growing trends are peri urban agriculture made possible by informal irrigation, and including irrigating with urban wastes. Negotiating this reallocation, coping with reduced supplies in rural areas, and dealing with issues of health and pollution, all have strong health and livelihood implications.5. The agriculture-ecosystem interface. We surmise that agriculture will lose water in the competition with urban areas because water will move from lower-to higher-valued uses. The lower-valued uses for agriculture and environment will be the residual users of water. Food and environmental security will be dependent on how this interface is managed.Each of these topics is discussed in the following sections and provides a brief analysis of the situation, and the challenges that are present in general and also in the context of governance, natural science and resources management. River basins are chosen as the basic unit of analysis within the Challenge Program on water and food. This differs from an eco-regional approach, as a basin can cross several eco-regions, and this a priori selection may differ from an Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM) approach, where water may not be the key entry point even though it is important.The main reason for selecting basins is to allow us to consider all water uses simultaneously within the context of the natural hydrologic cycle of rainfall, runoff generation, use and disposal of v'.'ater. Large amounts of water use by agriculture can be particularly detrimental to the natural hydrologic cycle and impact other uses. Without a basin context, it is difficult to catch these IWRM interactions.Various programs can be integrated within the basin framework. For example, how do upper-catchment activities relate to downstream irrigation and fisheries, or how does drought-resistant bean breeding affect overall basin planning? Drought-resistant varieties, along with other rain fed or mixed rain-fed and irrigated management innovations, may provide solutions that require less water in one location within a basin, leaving additional water for other uses. Answers to these questions will rely on how tools are developed to understand issues of scale.By working at the same location we can capitalize on knowledge accumulated, facilitate the integration of ideas across disciplines and resource managers within the basin, and concentrate activities to make a difference to the communities dependent on basin water. Within a basin, for example, a group of people may be working on bean breeding, management of catchments, I1sheries and with basin authorities.Results found in different basins can be compared and contrasted to synthesize generic lessons. '\\0 do this, the integration group will set up a common data and analysis protocol across basins. Will solutions developed in one basin be applicable to other environ ments, or what adaptations are required? Working across basins, generic solutions can be identified, and the impact of research can be extended more broadly.Inf()fInation from basins conforming to an agreed data protocol will allow linkages for programs exploring regional and global processes and global change scenarios. For example, changes in land use will atfect Box 2. COllfinued.temporal and spatial patterns of evaporation and precipitation. Information on important demographic shifts from on-the-ground information can influence predictions of global models. Scenarios from global models on climate change or food prices can help planners at the basin level design for the future.Where should the challenge program be focused? One means of selection is to include basins at various stages of development. Other considerations include environment-arid, semiarid, humid; and geographic focus-Asia, Latin America and Africa. Another issue is whether to select subbasins that represent key problems or processes, or whether to select larger international basins where cross-country negotiations become important. Ifwe can master scale considerations, it is possible to choose relatively international basins, using a nested scale approach to capture key relationships within various parts of the river basin.Assessment-reference basins, there will be a well-organized body of information and data and a solid baseline against which changes and impacts can be measured. In \"new\" Challenge Program basins, these baseline data will need to be collated and used as a reference for developing good adaptive management strategies over a 10-15 year per iod. A process of stakeholder identification and consultation will be required early in the development of work in the focus basins and catchments.In recent years, the notion of good governance has figured prominently in discussions amongst development planners, donor agencies and NGOs concerned with water. This has grown out of the widespread perception of \"state failure:\" the realization of the inability of the state to effectively address some salient problems of society. The current water crisis is often seen as a crisis of governance. The institutional strength of the state to efficiently manage water resources has been challenged from several different sources, particularly its bilure to integrate policies and practices related to the management of water resources (Vermillion and Merrey 1998;World Bank 1993). Governance has emerged as one of the key challenges water professionals. Effective governance is a prerequisite to achieving rWRM.With water scarcity and increasing competition for water, the need for more effective and adaptive governance and institutional frameworks for managing river-basin water resources plays an increasingly critical role.The concept of governance is often not readily understood and may be used in different ways. The GWP defines Water Governance as different political, social and administrative mechanisms that must be in place to develop and manage water resources, and the delivery of water services, at different levels of society.The experience of water reforms in the developed world has had a profound influence on the prescription of the institutional reform agenda in developing countries and in the specification of what constitutes good governance, with principles such as treating water as an economic good being enshrined in successive international meetings from UNCWE (United Nations 1992) to the second World Water Forum in 2000 (Briscoe 1996;Perry et a1. 1997). Clearly, there is a gulf between the normative prescriptions of good water governance and actual practice in the developing (and developed) world. The emerging conventional wisdom in natural resources and environmental management focuses on the basin as the fundamental unit of integration, although Allan (1996) shows that the \"closed\" environmental system of the basin lies within broader and open political and economic systems, which can offer solutions through access to regional and global markets.The degree to which such notions, prescriptions and innovations are translated into practice, and how they are modified, ignored and contested are ofgreat practical merit in evaluating and developing design principles for effective institutions in land and water management in the developing world.It is clear and logical that governance issues underwrite the context, analysis and development of research in each of the four themes for focusing IWRM -related research within the Challenge Program. Therefore, we propose that there is a governal!ce and institutional-analysis component running with common thematic coherence through each of these research topics. The analysis will focus at the more local level of management, at basin and sub-catchment scale, and leave much of the broader global, political and market linkages to working group 5, covering global policies and institutions.Governance inputs to the four research themes will set the institutional, political and cultural context at the local scale, define the setting of the research problem and describe the actual institutional framework and policy that exist on the ground. It will ensure that there is a satisfactory and representative interdisciplinary framework in each case. There will be opportunities to consolidate and generalize the findings in a more purely institutional mode on the basis of combined and varied, but specific experience.Although specific governance concerns will be incorporated into each of the four research themes, there are common threads of institutional analyses that will be considered in all cases.IWRM at different spatial and temporal scales, and in different stages of resource use and depletion:a. Institutional linkages between scales and generations.b• Understanding enabling and constraining conditions for institutional reform and change.• The role of crises as an agency for change.•The management of crises. Efficiency and equity-rising water scarcity and competition for water imply rising economic value that, in turn, implies declining equity in distribution and access, which potentially aggravates poverty. In contrast, equitable access to water that \"traps\" users into sustained poverty is also clearly not desirable in welfare and economic terms. b.Equity and ecology~-many in the developing world face hard decisions between maintenance of sustainable and viable natural ecosystems and the welfare of burgeoning rural and urban populations. c.Platforms for participation and negotiation of priorities, trade-offs and compensation.Effective integrated management of basin water resources is complicated by the tilCt that the use of water and land at one location affects how water is used at another location, often in counterintuitive or complex ways. Misunderstanding can lead to policies that adversely affect one set of users, while trying to improve conditions for others. There are at least two major dimensions to this-one is the consequence of upstream use on downstream availability and the other is how actions taken at one scale affect uses and users at other scales. For example, the degree to which field level interventions save water, or improve the productivity of water at the basin scale or the degree to which policies affecting basin allocation affect fium and community practices are often not clear.Scales ofanalyses. Scaling up is the effect of changing the boundaries of analyses of water availability and water utilization.~ Key scales we consider for water resources in agriculture are for an individual crop, a field, an irrigation system, a community, a river basin, a nation and the global arena. Key processes change as we move up and down spatial scales (Molden and Merrey forthcoming). While the boundaries between scales are fuzzy, one way to know whether two scales of analyses are distinct is to test whether key physical and institutional processes of interest are \\Ve do nOl usc <;\\.\"i,ling uF' here to ml\\lll repliGllion of an intervention.different. For example, when considering a rain-fed agricultural field, key processes include infiltration, transpiration and evaporation. When we consider a river basin, key processes are, for example, streamflow and water allocation between multiple uses and for environmental tlows. The problem is that we think of change processes at one scale but cannot easily perceive the impact this change will have on other processes at a larger scale.The extent and quality of lateral flows to and from the scale of interest, and how these affect other uses, determine the importance of scale issues (van Noordwijk 200 1). In water resources systems, there are significant scale effects because of the tremendous amount of lateral flow, and if we consider virtual flows of water (in traded food), the scale reaches beyond the river basin.Upstream and downstream interactions. At one level, interactions between upstream water users and other users downstream are well understood. Few people within the irrigation field are unaware of head-tail differences in relation to access to water or to reduced water quality in tail-end areas in irrigation systems. In many cases, similar distortions can be found in river basins, even though flow should accumulate rather than dissipate from upstream to downstream. \\\\That is less well understood is how interactions may begin to change and increase in complexity as basins approach full exploitation of available water. When all water in a basin is exploited or allocated, then any change in water use by one user or sector will have an immediate impact on all other water users, either within the same sector or in different sectors (Seckler 1996). In a typical water-short basin, for example, not all water users will have sufficient water to meet the potential demand from their land. Well-intentioned programs to bring about water savings at one location\" and transfer the \"saved\" water to other locations may actually have no impact on productivity, although equity impacts may be substantiaL Rather than trying to save water, the management focus should change to increasing the productivity of water within each water use.The key problem is that most investors, development agencies and water management organizations are not adequately equipped to make decisions that take into consideration issues of scale. Consequently, water-agricultureactions that are taken result in unexpected side effects, often to the detriment of poor people and the environment. This is not merely a problem of poor institutional design and function but is also a topic that is not well understood and requires further development of basic concepts and tools, especially for information-poor environments. There is often a lag between a scientific appreciation of water agriculture-basin relations and its significance being grasped at the policy level, leading to delays in the development of responsive resources management strategies. There are several complicating factors related to issues of scale:First, water demands for different sectors are not always quantified with the same precision. Diversion requirements of urban and industrial sectors are typically better defined than agricultural needs. Return flows are rarely well known; yet they represent an important source ofwater for many people. For other sectors, especially environmental needs, needs are less clearly defined. This makes the overall allocation process quite difficult, particularly when water rights (if they exist) do not change in response to changing demands and priorities.The second complicating factor is that water allocations by sector have to account for multiple uses of the same quantum of water. For example, a single drop of water generated through natural ecosystems may serve hydropower, urban uses, fisheries, environmental uses, and then agricultural needs before it is ultimately depleted. Water management approaches mayor may not take advantage of these possible synergies.Institutional competition adds a third type of complexity. In many countries, some agencies or organizations are reluctant to collaborate with others. Organizations originally charged with the construction of large infrastructure seem particularly slow to respond to such concerns as environmental protection, water quality, gender equity, democracy and recreation. While the establishment of basin-level management organizations can greatly assist in the process of water allocation between sectors, the actual management of water often rests with individual agencies that still act in a unilateral manner.Fourth, land-use decisions, or water uses that do not constitute direct streamflow diversions can have important ramifications. The amount of rain-fed agriculture influences the movement of both water and salts. For example, in Western Australia, replacement of native forest cover with rain-fed crops and pasture has resulted in additional recharge, and a mobilization of salts (op.cit Turral 1998). The National Land and Water Audit (2000) estimates that dryland salinity in 2050 will affect 17.5 million hectares, dwarfing the impacts of irrigation-induced salinity. Replacing grass with forests, or forests with crops influences streamflow hydrology. Groundwater use, or rainwater harvesting, may extract water that would otherwise flow into rivers and be available for downstream uses. It is not so obvious that these changes in use may affect other users, and the overall productivity of basin water resources.Water institutions are typically closely related to the scale of analysis. Communities develop and manage water resources b'ut in the context set by environmental protection agencies, or agreements on water sharing with a basin. Referring to the water resources development continuum in the introduction, two sets of key problems are identified. At point A in figure 2, scale and upstream/ downstream affects are less pronounced, and local community and development activities can take place without much concern of scale. With more intensive development, scale becomes more important, and requires different institutional arrangements to solve (Molden et a1. 2001). For example, communities able to manage small irrigation may be ill equipped to negotiate with cities that would like to utilize their water source, and governments may be ill equipped to handle the negotiation between those interested in large-scale water resources development and local communities (Donahue and Johnston 1998). At point B, in highly water stressed situations, the same challenges above are likely to apply. In addition, governance structures that promote demand management, environmental protection and restoration, and protect water rights become increasingly important (Wester et  al. 2001; Svendsen 2001).• What models of river-basin management work in defined developing country contexts?a. What changes to state-run organizations and institutional processes are required to achieve more effective and transparent management of rivers and basins? b. How can effective water governance structures be crafted from the bottom up, that represent scale and human (welfare) concerns? c. Which governance arrangements facilitate scale-related synergies, and reduce negative impacts, and in which hydrologic and socio-political environment are they most effective? d. How can they be effectively promoted and evaluated?What analytical tools and processes are required to understand the livelihood impacts of actions taken in one locality on other parts of the basin? How do we integrate hydrological and productivity understanding with livelihoods and examine trade-offs in how they and the environment are affected?• What is the socio-political context of national and local development? How can it be taken into account to counter short-term political expediency against long term stewardship of resources and sustainable livelihoods (as in the case of the North China Plain where subsidies are still offered for tube wells despite catastrophic falls in water tables)?• What are the sound processes for the specification and implementation of bulk water rights (to cities, irrigation districts, livestock systems, etc.) and what are the implications for equity and longer-term flexibility?• What are good incentives for farmers to increase water productivity-how to achieve higher water productivity and maintain or increase production or find higher-value substitute-production systems?Natural sciellce challenges• What are good methodologies tor conducting water use and resource availability audits? How do we track and account tor multiple uses and the relative value and productivity at successive stages of the hydrologic path? How do we account for the cumulative impacts of widespread \"uncontrolled\" small-scale interventions on water resources use and availability (for instance nested tank systems or on-farm storages)?• What is a good conceptual basis tor treating scale to account for site-specific and generic hydrological and agricultural consequences of water management actions?• What techniques can be developed or adapted to substitute for poor but essential data required in assessment, modeling and development of future management options?• What are the practical limits to potential production and productivity within basins and in basins lying in different eco-regions? vv'hat factors set absolute limits (i.e., solar radiation and temperature) and which are manageable (soil degradation, fertility, moisture regime, plant characteristics)?• What are the hydrological consequences at larger scales of rain-fed and runoff agriculture?• What livestock management practices positively influence water quality, quantity and dynamics?Resource management challellges• What are the means to assess the degree to which water-related actions at one scale or location affect other basin uses, in particular in data-scarce environments?• How can concepts and analytic tools addressing issues of scale be mainstreamed into the investment and management decision-making processes?• What are sound water allocation programs? a.How can bulk entitlements be defined and managed? b.How can land use be linked to hydrology in complex situations (surtace water-groundwater interactions)? c.What are innovative methods for multiple use of water for maximum benefit? d.What are effective alternative strategies in water supply: for example substituting large dams with mUltiple small storages-economic, hydrological and ecological trade-offs?• Can we develop a Water Balance Toolkit?a.What are generic methods for data substitution and data generation? b.What are generic techniques to incorporate temporal variation to get beyond the classic \"average year\" scenario of developing country hydrology? c.What global and regional indicators (such as ENSO -El Nino Southern Oscillation) can we use in different eco-regional contexts in resource and risk assessment?Groundwater will be an enduring gauge of this generation5 intelligence in water and land management. (, Honing this intelligence requires that science stays in \"The credo of the Australian G[(\\undwatn School at Adelaide.constant interaction with policy and action; and in the South, there is too little of such interaction.At the core of the groundwater debate are two opposing forces. The first is that groundwater development is a good thing-open, equitable, productive and a good 'instrument for poverty alleviation. The second is that many of the reasons that groundwater is in this position (energy and capital subsidies, open access due to limited or nonexistent licensing) result in the overexploitation and degradation of the resource.At the same time, there remain considerable areas with underutilized groundwater resources (Southern China, Ganjetic Plain and Africa provide examples in different contexts, the first of probable low demand due to high rainfall and surface-water availability and the last due to capital and energy infrastructure barriers.) Research must also consider how to develop these sustainably, avoiding the trap of overexploitation and degradation widely experienced in India, northern China and the USA.Throughout the world, regions that have sustainable groundwater balance are shrinking by the day; and the worst symptoms of these are showing up in South Asia, Mexico and the North China Plains. Three problems dominate unsustainable groundwater use: a) depletion due to overdraft; b) waterlogging and salinity due mostly to inadequate drainage and insufficient conjunctive use; and c) pollution due to agricultural, industrial and other human activities. Myriad consequences of unsustainable groundwater use are becoming increasingly evident. Problems in groundwater management include:1.Water table  A typology has been identified below with five socio-ecological conditions that define the central groundwater governance challenges, shown in table 1. The rising dominance of groundwater in India is illustrated in figure 3.Institutional, legal, regulatory and economic instruments for effective groundwater management (demand regulation and supply augmentation) that work are known, but their success is largely demonstrated in industrialized countries, and have evolved over long periods, as long as for 200 years (Blomquist 1992). Experience in developing countries has been much more negative and has been ch:uacterized as a problem of overcoming institutional inertia (Shah 2002). The barriers to adoption of known measures can be briefly summarized as:• Limited water resources, poorly developed services and high population.• Sheer numbers of farmers and wells, giving rise to enforcement problems, especially where agro-wells have become a major driver for growth (50-70% of Asian agriculture).• Policies that increase supply but do not restrict demand, typically energy pricing.  • The value of groundwater as insurance against drought tends to weaken regulatory measures at other times, and when irrigation is developed.• Growing centrality of groundwater irrigation to agrarian livelihoods, through the miracle of the mechanical pump, especially cheap small units for shallow groundwater extraction.The basic research premise is that good science and informed policy discussion can stimulate strategic players to forge groundwater governance mechanisms, which are suited to the South's contextual realities. Doing this requires that, as in research establishments in the North, science in the developing world focuses on the \"bigger picture\" -of policies, institutions and resources management strategies.• How are regulatory reforms negotiated in developing equitable and poverty focused use of groundwater for irrigation? How are similar reforms negotiated to restore the balance when resources use has become unsustainable?• What are enabling factors in the political and cultural landscape that allow for the development of actionable policies to manage groundwater.• What polices and development models are there to allow sustainable and equitable agricultural use of groundwater in Africa.• How do societies assess future policy outcomes and pathways in order to better negotiate groundwater management solutions with multiple stakeholders?a. Audits of resources use and actual institutional arrangements-can they be done? Are they worthwhile? b. Scenario building tools, including simulation models. c. How important is better knowledge and hydro-geological understanding to negotiating good institutional solutions?• What is appropriate institutional development and effective participation in generating, adapting and implementing groundwater policy in specific socio ecologies?• What are the prospects and supporting policies for groundwater \"banking\" and drought \"banking\"?• What are the quantified consequences of overexploitation of groundwater to crisis point in specific socio-ecologies, and what are the expected consequenceJ on resource use, welfare and poverty, environment, economic stability in incipient situations?• What models of effective groundwater governance can be distilled for developing country socio-ecologies?• What are the detailed hydrological interactions between surface water and groundwater, and what are the impacts of land use and land-use change on the position and quality of groundwater. How can we improve the physical understanding of recharge and discharge zones in the landscape and their quantitative relationships? Can we make progress with less-demanding data input?• What is the role ofgroundwater in maintaining aquatic eco-systems?• What techniques can we develop and apply to substitute for a lack ofgood data that enable understanding of the nature and behavior of complex aquifer systems?• What is the long-term nature of groundwater response to climate change and its potential effects on aquifer recharge?• What is the importance of groundwater to the maintenance of coastal marine ecosystems?Resource management c1wliellges• What are the economic and environmental trade-offs in large-scale water transfers for groundwater recharge or substitution• What are dfective agricultural production strategies in more effective and efficient use of groundwater? Alternative strategies include new approaches to conjunctive use, supplemental versus full irrigation, analysis of the costs and benefits of using water now and foregoing it later (as in Gujarat in India and the Namoi Valley in Australia).• What are the benefits and trade-offs of using surface water canal systems to recharge groundwater and developing conjunctive use strategies to effectively distribute water and radically improve flexibility and, hence, agricultural options and productivity?• What is the impact of water-saving technology on groundwater abstraction and management?Under scenarios to double agricultural production by 2025 to meet world food needs, water use for rain-fed and irrigated agriculture would have to approximately double without significant improvements in water use efficiency and productivity (IWMI2000),The prime responsibility for researching technologies and management practices to enhance rain-fed agriculture lies with the working group researching the improvement of crop water productivity, However, there are substantial questions relating to the potential impacts of large-scale replication of enhanced rain-fed agriculture on the existing hydrological balance and on water use at the basin scale. There is much to be done in understanding and implementing effective solutions and trade-offs at the basin scale, and there is clearly potential for major policy realignment in basin-scale water management in some cases.Rain-fed agriculture worldwide is practiced on approximately 80 percent of the agricultural land (the remaining is under irrigated agriculture), This ratio varies substantially between tropical regions, from approximately 95 percent in sub Saharan Africa to 65 percent in Asia, Rain-fed agriculture will remain the dominant source of food production during the foreseeable future (Parr et al. 1990). Yields from rain-fed agriculture are often low, generally around 1 t hal in semiarid tropical agro-ecosystems (Rockstrom 2001), which explains why rain-fed agriculture is estimated to contribute only some 60-70 percent of world grain foods (Alexandratos 1995), There is ample evidence to suggest that the low productivity in rain-fed agriculture is due more to suboptimal performance related to management aspects than to low physical potential (Agarwal and Narain 1997;Benites et al. 1998;Rockstrom and Falkenmark 2000;SIWI 2001).In a first global estimate, Rockstrom and Jonsson (1999) calculated annual global values of water use in the form of evapotranspiration to sustain rain-fed l agriculture at 4,500 cubic kilometers (km\\ yrl), compared to some 2,500 km' ye estimated withdrawals for irrigated agriculture (Shiklomanov 2000), A new philosophy is emerging that suggests good opportunities to produce more food per drop of water if the focus is changed from the (downstream) management of in-stream a.ld stored water to the upstream position where the rainfall enters the soil-plant system,The major focal points for intensitlcation of rain-fed agriculture are in Africa, where there is estimated to be significant untapped potential and in the Indian sub continent, where there is both a long tradition of innovation in rain-fed agriculture and a nationwide movement to promote low-cost, small-scale technologies to improve livelihoods through better catchment-level water-management practices. Much of this initiative has not been dwelt on the implications at'the basin scale.Water-related problems in rain-fed agriculture in the water-scarce tropics are often related to the intensity of rainfall with large spatial and temporal variability, rather than to low cumulative volumes of rainfall (Rockstrom et al. 200 I). Mitigating intra seasonal dry spells is a key to improved water productivity in rain-fed agriculture in semiarid and dry subhumid tropical environments. There are three major avenues to achieve this:• Maximize plant water availability (maximize infiltration of rainfall, minimize unproductive water losses [evaporation], increase soil-water-holding capacity and maximize root depth),• Maximize the capacity of plants for uptake of water (timeliness of operations, crop management, soil fertility management).• Bridge crop water deficits during dry spells through supplemental irrigation.The technologies to do this include:• Water conservation.• Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation.The key challenges lie in mitigating risk through technology, better management and better information that allow better management. Equally important is addressing farmers' perceptions of risk and adapting technologies, management strategies and policies that address their concerns.Clearly, increasing the ratio of plant transpiration to soil evaporation and increasing the efficiency of transpiration are beneficial outcomes, which present little threat to catchment-level water balance. However, increasing transpiration at site (from stored soil moisture and captured runoff) clearly has potential, but as yet poorly understood and rarely quantified effects at the catchment and basin scale.• What are effective institutional arrangements to: a. Integrate enhanced rain-fed agricultural technologies and practices into basin-wide water management systems?b. Coordinate communities in the redesign and management ofsurface runoff to enhance rain-fed agriculture?• What policy, investment and subsidy requirements are there to replicate and implement effective and equitable programs to improve rain-fed farming systems?• What are the opportunities, benefits and problems associated with developing water rights for managed runoff and small-scale on-farm storage? How should such rights be specitJed and implemented?• What strategies can effectively integrate and reshape the currently entrenched divide between irrigation departments and agricultural services that deal more with rain-fed productions systems?• What are the likely impacts oflarge-scale intensification of rain-fed agriculture resulting in increased crop evapotranspiration on the catchment-and basin scale water balance and on existing water allocations? How can modeling of likely scenarios be verified in practice?• What are the long-term likely effects of climate change at basin scale on strategies to improve rain-fed tarming?• Development and adaptation of risk-management tools such as rainfall forecasting (e.g., the use of ENSO in \"Rainman\" in Australia).• What are appropriate mixes of technologies and practices and scales of replication that both benefit local users and have minimum impact on the environment and downstream water users and rights holders?• What are the trade-offs in terms of food security, pro-poor livelihood strategies, marketable surplus and economic efficiency of distributed small-scale water development compared to larger more centralized projects?• Where are the most appropriate fits for different interventions in different agro ecological and hydronomic zones?Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General, recently stated that the world has entered the \"urban millennium:' Africa's population will almost triple by 2050 and this will be primarily in the urban and peri-urban areas and in West Africa; it has been estimated that within less than 20 years, two out of three citizens will live in urban centers.There are two immediate consequences for food production and security. The first is that water will be increasingly reallocated and redirected from rural water systems (principally irrigation) to meet rising urban and industrial demand (Rosegrant and Ringler 1998), as is already clearly happening in Malaysia and PRe (Hong et al. 2001). The second is that urban food demand will rise substantially and may not be satisfied due to insufficient appropriate production in rural areas. Increasingly, we observe in and around cities' farming systems, which that specialize in meeting urban food demand and dietary preferences, notably fresh vegetables and perishable goods. These farming systems are part of a phenomenon called Urban and Peri Urban Agriculture.Urban agriculture contributes to employment, poverty alleviation, urban food security and balanced diets. Moreover, during periods of economic or political crisei' urban agriculture has proved to be an important survival strategy in many countries. Despite recent international recognition, urban agriculture is rarely considered in national or urban planning, receives little support and is constrained by insecure land tenure and competition for land and water with other urban functions. There are different faces of urban agriculture. In Kumasi, for example, two of three households grow crops for home consumption in their backyards while urban market production is mostly found on lowlands along streams, which are unsuitable or forbidden for construction purposes, but favorable for year-round irrigation. In 1999, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) estimated that 800 million people were engaged in urban agriculture worldwide. Of these, 200 million were considered to be market producers, employing 150 million people full time.Informal irrigation. It is paradoxical that government (and the water sector in general) focuses on formal irrigation, while an informal sector has emerged in the background as a self-sustaining farming system, driven by market forces. The dimensions and impacts are significant. In Ghana, for example, between 8,000 and 9,000 hectares of farmland are formally irrigated in more than 10 struggling governmental irrigation projects. Intormal irrigation, carried out with watering cans, covers an estimated 12,000 hectares around the city of Kumasi alone. Despite the fact that most tropical soils and particularly urban soils are oflow fertility and most rural smallholder farmers are struggling below the poverty line, urban vegetable growers studied by IWMI in West Africa, Pakistan and Mexico, generated good livelihoods. In West Africa, for example, with 10 vegetable harvests per year on just 0.1 hectare, producers gain about 10-20 times the income of traditional maize! cassava cropping on the same area.Transferring water and nutrients to urban centers. Increasing urban populations, rising urban income, and high-valued urban water uses tend to pull water from rural urban settings (figure 4, water transfers at Zhang He). Because only a small proportion of inflow is actually evaporated by urban use, large amounts of urban return flows are generated. The implications are that many irrigation systems will have to operate with reduced water supply, which (unless increases in crop water productivity are realized) will mean less production, reduced area, and possibly fewer farmers in business. There is evidence that many transfers take place by force, and farmers are not equitably compensated (Scott et a1. 200l). Many institutions are ill equipped to handle this transfer. Increasingly, rural farmers will have lesser quality supplies, polluted by upstream cities. In the Gediz basin (Turkey), urban pollution of water constrains crop choice within the Menemen coastal plains (IWMI and GDRS 2000). While not well documented? there appears to be an important demographic change driven by water transfers, where areas of agricultural concentration and people are shifting from rural areas to peri -urban areas.Such permanent cash crop systems require correspondingly high inputs, which are sourced cheaply and effectively from typical urban \"resources\" like organic wastes and wastewater, thus closing the rural-urban nutrient cycle. The provision of livelihoods to marginalized groups from urban conglomerations is another positive factor, which has not been sufficiently studied or quantified.Wastewater is used because it is either the only source of reliable water supply (informal vegetable irrigators in Ghana), or for its nutrient value with attendant savings in fertilizer (Asia). However, the associated health risks that producers and consumers face and other environmental impacts like pollution of groundwater from the application of human and livestock wastes are major threats against which research and management are required. Today, dean vegetables are the exception in city markets in Africa due to microbial and, sometimes, heavy metal contamination of rivers, drains and shallow groundwater.This calls for methods to prevent or minimize health risks, without compromising the livelihoods of farmers. Possible \"entry points\" in the \"wastewater chain\" may be at the level of the local authority regulating pollution, at the treatment level, and in low-income countries with limited viable treatment options during irrigation or the post-harvest period. Thus, applied research on appropriate measures and realistic interventions that tackle the problem in a holistic, but situation-specific way, are required to support the informal irrigation sector and (peri) urban agriculture in generaL Urban agriculture requires a multi-sectoral research approach, involving the active participation of various non-research agencies such as municipal stakeholders, especially in the planning and implementation of policies and action programs.In parallel to required research, effort is required to achieve wider recognition of the scale of urban agriculture and the extent of existing use of wastewater. Decision makers and stakeholders need to be aware of the potential benefits and problems, so that they take informed steps to promote, assist and regulate such developments, to the economic benefit of municipalities and their citizens. We anticipate that the Comprehensive Assessment will provide some initial answers to these questions, where secondary data are available or primary data collection is not too demanding.• What are actual and potential mechanisms for rural to urban water transfer?How can these be broke red and negotiated equitably?• What options are there for institutional and policy support towards appropriate water rights for smallholders in urban and peri-urban agriculture, for both freshwater and wastewater?• What are the links between wastewater~use-re\\ated policies and bylaws on the environment, health and agriculture, and understanding the institutional arrangements that encourage or discourage more holistic approaches to managing risk in the context of urban and peri-urban agriculture?• What are the roles of women and men in urban agriculture and their respective contributions to family livelihood and poverty alleviation?• What is the difference between actual and potential health risk related to wastewater use, and how do we quantify them and their attendant economic risks and benefits to farmers, crop handlers and consumers?• What are appropriate interventions for different entry points in the wastewater chain for maximum impact with reduced associated risks, in collaboration with the involved stakeholders?• What are useful methodologies to quantify actual and potential water demand for urban agriculture? What methodologies and technologies can be developed that integrate these demands with conventional urban water supply and wastewater programs?• What proportion of nutrients can be recovered from liquid, fecal and solid city waste for urban and peri-urban agriculture, and what viable and socially acceptable recycling options are there to do so?• How can the efficiency of water and nutrient use be improved to promote higher crop and water productivity in (peri) urban agriculture?In mediating and managing the transfer of water from rural agriculture to urban use, some relevant issues include the following:• What are the expected dynamics and patterns ofwa'ter transfer under ditJerent forecasts of urban growth? \\'\\lhat are specific forecasts of municipal, industrial and urban agricultural demands for water in the sample cities?• How much water will be transferred, and what proportion will be available for agricultural reuse, within, around and downstream of cities?• What are alternative, environmentally beneficial uses of much larger flows of urban wastewater?• What modifications and design innovations to urban wastewater systems are desired and possible to make maximum and cost-effective use of urban wastewater and storm flows?With respect to urban agriculture:• What is the extent and economic impact of informal irrigation and wastewater use around cities at the national, subregional and regional scale in comparison to formal irrigated areas? What are the proportions of different wastewater sources (domestic v industrial v urban runoff) in total wastewater production, percentage of wastewater collection and treatment?• What are holistic approaches to safe wastewater use in agriculture, linking together various disciplines to identify the most appropriate entry points for interventions and capacity building along the whole pollution pathway (wastewater sources, treatments options, irrigation techniques and other farming practices, crop handling in markets and households, policies, education and capacity building)? \\Yhich of those entry points has the highest probability of success in the local context of low-income countries where conventional recommendations (water treatment) are difficult to realize?• How do we value and reduce health and environmental impacts related to wastewater use in agriculture? What is the impact of land application of wastewater in urban agriculture to improve river health downstream of large cities?Natural ecosystems consist of biotic and abiotic components that are essential to preserving the conditions that allow life, as we know it, to exist. Plant and animal biodiversity in such ecosystems play an important role in helping to maintain the Earth's atmosphere, protect watersheds, renew soil and water, and recycle nutrients. Thus, the environment and people's lives are interlinked, a fact recognized internationally in Agenda-21 (UNCED 1992).The focus of the problems considered here lies on the interactions between agriculture and aquatic ecosystems, and their interface with terrestrial ecosystems, such as water-generating forested areas and the margins of wetlands, which we define broadly to include rivers, floodplains, deltas, lagoons, marshes and more.Freshwater is at the core of agricultural sustainability and natural ecosystem survival. It is the universal solvent, and the main pathway of nutrient and sediment flows. It is needed for all human activities, including food production, but is also vital to the survival of all other living creatures, especially those, such as fish and amphibians, that live in permanently watery habitats. Diversion of water for human use inevitably adversely affects its availability for other users. It is generally accepted that 70 percent of all diverted freshwater is used in irrigated agriculture, and agriculture in general is considered to be the major cause of degradation in more than half of the 1,000 or so internationally important Ramsar wetlands (Scott 1999). Large-scale diversion, storage and regulation of water limits or degrades the in stream and near-stream habitat, may induce secondary problems such as salinity, and result in critical impairment of ecosystem functions and the services they provide (WCD 2000). In addition to water deprivation, natural ecosystems are burdened by the consequences of high intensity agriculture in the form of chemical pesticides, fertilizers and livestock wastes that poison land and water alike. Eutrophication and oxygen-depleted dead zones in aquatic ecosystems are particularly pernicious consequences of this pollution.Humans are held to be responsible for three major waves of extinctions of species. The third wave, over the past 400 years, is from massive destruction of natural habitats as a result ofland clearing for agriculture and other activities by a steadily expanding human population (reviewed in McNeely and Sherr 2001). Farmers destroy biodiversity in attempts to eliminate pests, disease, and dangers to livestock, and compete with crops for space, nutrients and water (McNeely and Sherr 200 I). New agricultural expansions are more or less balanced by abandonee.! or fallow lands, although the expansions in agriculture are occurring mainly in high-biodiversity tropical habitats, with consequent losses in flora and fauna.Natural ecosystems perform ecolGgical functions that provide benefits to people either directly or indirectly, through the provision of plant and animal-based food and medicinal products, and many livelihoods depend upon this function. Other natural products are used as materials for house construction, utensils, and in some instances, clothing. Aquatic systems are sources of water for domestic and livestock needs, and together with their associated biodiversity, often help purify polluted water through processes of sedimentation, filtration and bio-extraction. Natural resources areas, through their role as biodiversity refuges, can generate income for poor communities through ecotourism. They act as reservoirs of the natural enemies ofcrop pests, which can be mobilized for operational control through the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles. Natural resources areas play an important role in groundwater recharge. More controversially, wetlands are especially presumed to playa role in water storage and flood attenuation and maintenance of streamflow during the dry period. All of these functions have both intrinsic and economic values, which are presently poorly understood or defined. The Aquatic Ecosystems Group will be primarily involved in researching methodologies to define ecosystem functions and values. The application and management of these products will be undertaken in the integrating theme at working in a basin or subbasin context, and will be in the overall evaluation of the costs and benefits of agriculture.The challenge for research and action is how to achieve increased food security without further destroying natural ecosystems that are vital to the overall environmental health of the planet. This means producing more food on the same extent of agricultural land with less water. Given the reality that land already in use is unlikely to be allowed to revert to nature, it also means fostering this nature within the very agricultural systems that originally destroyed it. Or building new agricultural systems designed to foster nature from the very outset.The dilemma of nurture versus nature forces us to confront one central challenge: the trade-off between land for crops and land for nature; water for crops and water for nature. In the context of integrated water resources management (IWRM), it implies developing the technical capability to determine and prioritize the water requirements of multiple users under differing climatic, agronomic and ecological scenarios, and the institutional capability to deliver the resource appropriately. Developing such a capability requires a multi-sectoral approach involving irrigation/agricultural managers, researchers, the state sector (wildlife/ forestry/environmental) agencies, conservation/environmental/social service NGOs, and local community organizations.Figure 5 shows the trade-off between natural and highly managed systems (Acreman 2001). As natural systems are modified more and more, the benefits of the natural system decline (solid line), e.g., hydrological functions, products and biodiversity are lost. At the same time, benefits from the highly managed system increase (dotted line), e.g., food production rises. The total rises to a maximum before declining. It is at this point that the balance between naturalness and level of management is \"optimized:' Obviously, the value that society places on goods and services and ethical considerations will determine the exact form of these curves. Indeed, the perceived benefits will vary between different groups and individuals. Therefore, it is essential that the costs and benefits to society of allocating water alternatively to maintain ecosystems and to support direct use in the form of agricultural, industrial and domestic uses are quantified. An extension of this challenge applies in managing water at the basin scale. The river basin is an important macro-ecological unit in IWRM, and the river system is at its heart. From an ecological perspective, the river system is more of a living entity, whose functioning can be encapsulated within two key concepts.The first is the \"fiver continuum\" concept that takes in the linkages between the upstream source and downstream coastal zone lagoon and delta systems (Vannote et al. 1980). It encompasses changes in river flows, water quality, nutrients, sediments and biodiversity along this continuum. Nutrients and sediments generated upstream, for instance, are recycled and drive plant growth downstream. Animal species may migrate seasonally in either direction (e.g., anadromous fish, such as salmon and trout, and catadromous fish, such as eels). Engineering works, such as dams, barrages and sluices, break this continuity and radically alter both physical and biotic characteristics of the river.The second concept is that of the \"flood pulse;' based on connectivity between rivers and their lateral tloodplains (Sparks et al. 1990). Rivers provide the flood plains with their nutrient-rich sediments, and the flood plains provide breeding grounds for river species and purify water through sedimentation and absorption of nutrients and pollutants (Acreman 2000).The two concepts encapsulate the longitudinal and lateral ecological dimensions of a river system, to which the vertical dimension of groundwater recharge can be added. The fourth dimension is that of temporal variability, which is intrinsic to the dynamics of natural ecosystems (Ward 1989) and which underwrites a significant part of the risk analysis that must be considered. One of the challenges is to maintain river ecosystem continuity and variability whilst meeting the water requirements for agriculture. Finding ways to maintain ecological continuity could be a key to sustaining the natural goods and services that river systems provide, and on which many human livelihoods depend. • What are the economic costs of maintenance of environmental flows?• How can practical methods of trade-off analysis be developed and negotiated in a variety of developing country contexts?The functions ofthe working group are the following:• To ensure that work undertaken in the other four themes is mutually coherent, and fits well into the framework of an integrated water and land resources management. It will serve as a \"reality check\" on the trade-offs and synergies that are offered by them and test their relevance at multiple scales up to basin level.• 10 undertake research into key problems within the realm of IWRM that have particular relevance to the improvement of crop productivity and production, alleviation of poverty and enhancement of environmental security.• To elaborate a common framework for comparing and contrasting the application of research at multiple scales, within a selection of representative river basins. This framework will inevitably make significant recourse to simulation modeling, in order to capture and understand the complexity and interaction at the basin scale. It will be supported by interventions at smaller scales, which are nested at successive levels within and across the basin.• To implement a manageable strategy to harvest research requirements and disseminate and promote research findings as actionable programs for NARES, other extension agents and NGOs, and to harvest their feedback to provide some syntheses and analyses within the life span of the program.The objectives ofthe research program are as follows:• To develop designs for good governance of water for food and environment• To identify and develop technologies, information tools and management systems that improve water productivity at the basin scale and minimize their ecological impacts.To integrate technologies and effective polices for sustainable and equitable exploitation of groundwater resources.To develop cost-effective technologies and management institutions that promote innovative strategies to derive the maximum benefit from urban water for food and environmental security,• To understand and quantify the trade-offs between increasing food securityl productivity and ecosystem function and value at a range of spatial and temporal scales.","tokenCount":"11303"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e96698f4fcc6d9049fcded9979726151","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4a47f558-e358-4add-b79b-eab395ec7044/retrieve","id":"76947359"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c3082ad1-3d01-48e6-a743-505234033027","pagecount":"4","content":"Decline in agricultural productivity due to severe land degradation is a common issue in many farming systems in Ethiopia. Several places, including the high potential agricultural areas, are dealing with highly degraded landscapes and severe soil loss.In Abreha Wa Atsbeha farmers had detailed understanding of how conservation structures and vegetation inLoss of soil in many parts of the country has long been deemed responsible for significant decline in grain yield. In addition, smallholder farming systems are facing a great threat from the changing climate. These systems have to adapt to climate changes and productivity has to be increased to meet food security objectives. To achieve this, system intensification is key, but it has to be sustainable. This can be done by integrating trees into the farming system in a manner that enhances sustainability of these systems.Managing tree-crop-livestock mixed farming systems involve knowledgeintensive processes, as it comprises trade-offs and synergies. It is vital to match the right components and management practices to production systems and ecosystems. Beginning with the local people's understanding of their farming system is a good starting point. This will ensure identification of knowledge gaps and demand-driven entry points.Complex knowledge about ecological processes was obtained from three sites (one in Oromia Regional State, Arsi: Bekoji and two in Tigray Regional State: Abreha Wa Atsbeha and Adi Gudom), albeit with distinct variation in farmers' knowledge among the sites. To collect, record and analyse local knowledge of tree-croplivestock interactions, the AKT5 (Agroecological Knowledge Toolkit) software and methodology was applied across the three sites in Ethiopia with contrasting agroecologies, farming systems and degree of success in terms of integrating trees in their farms.  In addition, farmers in Abreha Wa Atsbeha were purposively managing a tree locally known as momona (Faidherbia albida) for soil fertility, fodder (Figure 3), shade and as a firewood source. There was a system where farmers who did not have this tree could rent it from those who had it on their land; this was especially practised when farmers had a calving cow because fodder from this tree was said to improve the quality of the milk. It is important to note that farmers are aware of ecological processes based on their local opportunities and constraints. Gaps in knowledge also appear to be related to the opportunities and constraints that exist within the system.A major difference between Abreha Wa Atsbeha and Adi Gudom, both in Tigray Region, was the management of livestock and its impact on vegetation cover. Since farmers had started implementing conservation activities and grazing exclusion zones in Abreha Wa Atsbeha, there had been a significant improvement in vegetation cover, groundwater recharge and soil stabilization. In Adi Gudom, there is still widespread free grazing. Soil loss and land degradation are apparent in the landscape (Figure 4).Barriers to tree planting in Adi Gudom were cited as: land being rented for farming; lack of access to seedlings of appropriate tree species; lack of knowledge on tree management and land being far from homesteads which made it harder to protect and properly manage them. In Arsi, Bekoji, biophysical conditions were different from that of Tigray, and farmers' knowledge of ecological processes differed too. Productivity in this study site had not yet begun to show a severe decline. Farmers in Arsi, Bekoji, also explained that the impact of trees on crops and pasture through competition vary from species to species. Eucalyptus, although currently expanding in the region, was identified as the most competing tree for water and nutrients. One farmer noted \"… it [eucalyptus] depletes all the water for other uses; if planted next to water sources, it makes the water to dry up; if planted next to crop land, it has to be at least 10m away since the poison from its roots and leaves reduce crop production significantly.\" Another important piece of knowledge that can be used for sustainable intensification in Arsi, Bekoji was farmers' knowledge and explanation of cereal-legume rotation sequences (Figure 7). Although the nitrogen-fixing ability of legumes was not explicitly described by these farmers, they explained the importance of including a legume after every cereal crop. Their main arguments were that have taproot systems that improve soil structure and the broad leaves that fall from legume crops have the capacity to improve soil nutrients. • There is valuable knowledge held within farming communities that can inform local interventions. However, it is important for farmers to be involved in the decisionmaking process, especially as they will be the ones actually implementing any changes to the farming system.• Inclusion of local knowledge when designing interventions that aim for sustainable intensification is vital.• As ecological and socio-economic constraints vary from place to place, we need to be careful when using this location-specific knowledge to scale up interventions.• Analysis of local knowledge can reveal existing knowledge gaps, in which case, specific capacity building activities may need to be carried out to ensure farmers have the necessary skills to enhance their farming systems.• For conservation efforts from successful areas to be replicated in degraded areas, farmer-to-farmer experience sharing platforms can be helpful.","tokenCount":"842"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eba8b26cddd767061322c55c9ab201a9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb6d86a4-9889-4cf0-9737-5c58804ee39a/retrieve","id":"1399648476"},"keywords":["climate change","cocoa","carbon storage","shaded cocoa","full-sun cocoa"],"sieverID":"84548319-c4a9-4ac9-81c5-12c2d42f9e03","pagecount":"18","content":"Shade grown cocoa systems have been credited with stocking high quantities of carbon and therefore possess the potential to mitigate climate change. This study quantifies and compares carbon stored as well as estimated cocoa yields in two shade management types, i.e., shaded and full-sun across three agroecological zones: dry semi-deciduous fire zone (DSFZ), moist evergreen zone (MEZ) and upland evergreen moist zone (UEMZ) in Ghana. Results show that soil organic carbon (SOC) stored decreased with increasing soil depth across all agroecological zones. Cocoa farms with shade trees stored 6 times more soil carbon (35.90±1.56 Mg C.ha -1 ) compared to the full-sun systems (5.98±1.56 Mg C.ha -1 ). Carbon stocks in DSFZ and MEZ were 61.73±1.02 Mg C.ha -1 and 67.46±1.02 Mg C.ha -1 respectively whiles the UEMZ recorded 85.10 Mg C.ha -1 . Across agroecological zones, pod count in UEMZ and MEZ were similar but varied from that of DSFZ, which recorded the least. Wilting of pods and cherrelles, was minimal and similar in UMEZ and MEZ but was significantly higher in DSFZ. It is recommended that farmers should be encouraged through strong policies to adopt the integration of shade trees in the production of cocoa in Ghana to mitigate the effects of climate change.Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) production is one of the most extensive land use systems in the agrarian landscape in Ghana with a coverage area of over 1.4 million ha from previously forested lands (Asare, 2019). Historically, smallholder farmers have expanded into forested areas in a bid to capitalize on fertile forest land to compensate for reduced yields experienced on existing cocoa lands. The average productivity of dry cocoa beans in Ghana is reported to be in the range of 400-500 kg.ha -1 as against a potential of between 1200-2000 kg.ha -1 even though the country is noted as one of the top two producers worldwide (Asare, 2019). One of the major causes of this huge yield gap is poor soil fertility management coupled with low quality of cocoa planting materials, old average age of farmers (over 45 years), and prevalence of diseases and pests. In Ghana, the conversion rate of forest cover to cocoa farms is 1.4% to 2% per annum; this is more pronounced in the western region of the country where over 50% of the production comes from and where majority of the farms established are rapidly being converted to full sun production system (Amooh, 2017).The conversion of the humid forest zones into cropland negates a potential average carbon sequestration rate of about 16.9 t C.ha -1 and the restoration of these lands back to their native vegetation could potentially store an additional 19.9 t C.ha -1 . These values represent a change of about 18.6% between soil organic carbon (SOC) in the current land use and the native vegetation (Akpa et al., 2016). In effect, agricultural practices that contribute to SOC sequestration can contribute to mitigate climate change by converting atmospheric CO 2 into soil carbon which is long-lived (Minasny et al., 2017). Carbon sequestration is the uptake and storage of atmospheric carbon in sinks such as trees and soils through either physical or biological mechanisms (Mekong River Commission, 2013;IPCC, 2001). Principally, carbon sequestration is the storage of carbon that would have been emitted to cause global warming in the atmosphere (Mekong River Commission, 2013). In a survey of SOC experiences in about 20 regions of the world, Minasny et al. (2017) posits that it is feasible to offset the current CO 2 emissions by increasing SOC in agricultural land by improving management, afforesting degraded areas and conserving delicate land uses like native forest and peatlands.Shade-grown cocoa (cocoa agroforestry) has been considered as one of the agricultural land management practices that can provide an alternative by turning cocoa production as a cause of forest degradation to reforestation and hence balancing the yield of cocoa and ecological integrity such as closed nutrient cycling, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration (Vaast & Sommarriba, 2014). Cocoa agroforestry provides a medium for carbon storage by virtue of the presence of carbon sinks such as the soils, shade trees and the cocoa plants (Keenan & Williams, 2018). According to the IPCC (2007), global carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystem have reduced by 25% over the past 100 years.In Ghana, the quest for increasing cocoa production has led to a drastic reduction of shade tree population in the cocoa landscape (Wade et al., 2010). In order to curb deforestation and increase carbon stocks, there is a need to encourage cocoa-shade tree association (Dixon, 1995), of which some Ghanaian farmers are already practicing. In Ghana, work done on the rate of carbon stocks in the cocoa ecosystem has been concentrated on tree-stored carbon (Asase & Tetteh, 2016;Wade et al., 2010;Dawoe, 2009) with just a limited few (Mohammed et al., 2016) focused on the soil. However, according to Minasny et al. (2017) soil stores two to three times more carbon than the atmosphere and a relatively small increase in the stocks could exert a significant role in mitigating greenhouse gases emissions. This emphasizes the need to look deeper into the soils in addition to the vegetation above ground in the cocoa landscape to determine how much C is stored here and how this can translate into improving the soil fertility and mitigating greenhouse gases. This study was conducted to estimate organic carbon stored across three main agroecological zones of cocoa production in Ghana as against yields by documenting carbon stored in cocoa systems across three agroecological zones and determining the relationship between cocoa pod count and organic carbon stocks in Ghana.A total of six districts were selected from three agroecological zones, which encompass the cocoa growing belt in Ghana (Figure 1). As shown in Table 1, two districts are from the dry semi-deciduous fire zone-(Offinso North and Offinso South), two from the upland evergreen moist zone (Atwima Nwabiagya and Atwima Mponua) and two districts from the moist evergreen zone (Sefwi Juaboso and Sefwi Wiawso). The Offinso North and South Districts experience double maxima rainfall regimes with an average annual rainfall of 953 mm. The major raining season occurs in May to June, followed by a dry spell between August and September (GSS, 2010). The minor rains usually come in between September and November followed by dry harmattan till February.The Atwima Nwabiagya and the Atwima Mponua districts fall within the Upland Evergreen Moist Zone with an average monthly temperature of about 20ºC (GSS, 2010). A peak temperature of 28ºC is recorded on March and April just around the time when the rains commence. The rainfall is made up of two distinct patterns. The main season is usually between March and July, peaking in June. The minor season stretches between late September and November. The average annual rainfall is between 1400-1700 mm. The rainy days are between 105 and 115 days per year with 75% of these occurring in the major rainy season.The Sefwi Wiawso and the Sefwi Juaboso districts fall within the moist evergreen zone. The districts are characterized by high amount of precipitation (MoFA, 2016). Annually the districts record as high as 1535 mm and 1780 mm rainfall respectively. The average temperature of the areas is about 28.2ºC in March and about 24.5ºC in August. The districts have high levels of precipitation. Humidity is moderately high, and ranges between 70-90%. It has two long wet seasons isolated by a moderately short dry season. The dry season is set apart by moderately low humidity with hazy conditions occurring from December to February (MoFA, 2016;GSS, 2010). In each district, two productive farms (farms with good yield trends as per interviews with farmers and recommendations from Cocoa Health and Extension Officers) were chosen, one shaded and the other unshaded (full-sun). Farmers were interviewed to ascertain the ages of their farms, management practices (i.e. pruning regimes, pesticides and fungicides application, weeding and inorganic fertilizer/organic matter application) undertaken on the farm as well as land preparation methods used before cocoa establishment. Farms of similar age groups (15 years) were selected across all agroecological zones. At each farm, plot sizes of 30 m × 90 m were demarcated for sampling at about 20 m away from the boundary of the farm so as to help reducing border effect on data collected. Two 30 m transects dividing the plot into three 30 m × 30 m (~0.27 ha) subplots were delineated to give three pseudo-replications per each farm.All shade trees identified within plots were counted, and their diameters at breast height (DBH) measured. On the average, there were six trees per plot. The AGB (aboveground biomass) of the cocoa trees was estimated using the allometric model proposed by Torres et al. (2014). AGB (Theobroma cacao L.) in kg.tree -1 = 1.0408 exp 0.0736 × (d30) , where d30 is the diameter of cocoa trees measured at a height of 30 cm from the ground.Similarly, allometric equation by FAO (1997) was used to determine the biomass of shade trees on cocoa farms:(AGB = exp [-2.134 + 2.530*ln(DBH)] )Where AGB = estimated above-ground biomass in kg, DBH (diameter at breast height (1.3 m)) in cm. Below-ground biomass of the cocoa and shade trees was estimated by the use of Cairns et al. (1997). BGB = exp [-1.0587 + 0.8836 ln(AGB)] ) After calculating the total amount of biomass in the measured areas it is converted to tonnes per hectare from the equation of Macias et al. (2017), as follows:Where SB = sum of tree biomass of all the measured cocoa trees in the area. Factor 1000 = conversion of sample units in kilograms to tonnes and factor 10000 = conversion of measuring area (m 2 ) to hectares. To estimate the amount of carbon stored in cocoa; we multiply the AGB × carbon fraction (0.475) = Carbon in AGB (Saj et al., 2013).Cocoa yield was also estimated using yield parameters such as the number of pods per tree, number of wilted pods and cherrelles. Carbon dioxide stored in the cocoa trees were estimated by converting the amount of carbon calculated from allometric equation to the amount of carbon dioxide stored (multiply by 3.6663, molecular mass of carbon dioxide).In addition, soil samples were randomly collected at three different depths, i.e. 0-20, 20-40, 40-60) cm from the selected farms for analysis. In each subplot on each farm, 3 soil samples were collected from 3 different depths, giving a total of 9 soil samples per farm and 108 soil samples in total from the three agroecological zones. Soil samples collected were used to determine soil bulk density and organic carbon concentration (%C) using the core sampler method and the Walkley-Black chromic acid wet oxidation method, respectively, at the Soil Research Institute-Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Kwadaso-Ghana.Soil organic carbon stored (SOC) ton/ha was estimated as:Where D is soil depth (cm), d is the soil bulk density (g.cm -3 ); C is the carbon concentration (%). CO 2 stored was determined by multiplying by 3.6663 (Dutta et al., 2017;Nowak et al., 2013).Data from the study was subjected to the two-way ANOVA using Statistix 7.0 software with an alpha level of 5%, Fisher's Least Significant Difference was used to separate significant means. The variables: cocoa yields and carbon stored were compared between shaded and unshaded cocoa farms in all three-cocoa producing agroecological zones in Ghana.All farms were 15 years old. Common among shade trees identified on farms include: Entandrophragma angolense, Funtumia elastica, Milicia excelsa, Terminalia ivorensis, Terminalia superba and Alstonia boonei. Financial returns to stored carbon was estimated based on a market value of USD 5 to every Mg CO 2 stored per hectare in the absence of a baseline for this study (Somarriba et al., 2013).A total of 12 farmers were interviewed (owners of farms on which plots were established for data collection across all agro-ecological zones). Twelve respondents included ten males and two females, all aged 45 years and above. Aside farmers in the UEMZ who indicated the application of organic matter in the form of poultry manure on their farms. Other cultural practices such as, pruning regimes, pesticides and fungicides application, weeding, inorganic fertilizer application and slash and burn method of land preparation were common to all farms. This is due to the work load involved in cocoa farming which usually deter most women from engagement. This result agrees with findings of CRIG (2017) and Bymolt (2018), where in different studies conducted majority (above 50%) identified cocoa farmers were men. All respondents (n = 12) aged above 45 years. Ficks (2015) reported that one alarming concern hitting the cocoa production With all other cultural practices in the production systems across the agroecological zones being the same, farmers in the UEMZ had access to poultry manure which they apply on farms. This is possible due to high number of poultry farms in the agroecological zone (MoFA, 2019).SOC stored was significantly influenced by soil depth (A), districts (C) and A*C interaction (Table 2). However, shade-type (B), A*B, B*C and A*B*C interactions did not have significant influence on soil organic carbon stored (Table 2).Mean soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in the shaded systems was 49.23±3.06 Mg C.ha -1 and that of the full-sun system was 44.86±3.06 Mg C.ha -1 but were not statistically significant (p = 0.127). Soil depths significantly influenced the SOC stored. SOC stored (61.83±3.06 Mg C.ha -1 ) at a depth of 0-20 cm and was significantly higher than at 20-40 cm depth (45.22±3.06 Mg C.ha -1 ) which was also significantly higher than that at 40-60 cm depth (33.53±3.06 Mg C.ha -1 ) (Figure 2).Generally, there was a significant effect of agroecological zones on SOC stocks at various soil depths in the three agroecological zones with the highest recorded in the 0-20 cm depth of MEZ (Table 3). On the average, UEMZ recorded the highest SOC stored at 51.26±14.23 Mg C.ha -1 , compared to 50.30± 14.23 Mg C.ha -1 and 39.03±14.23 Mg C.ha -1 recorded in MEZ and DSFZ respectively. In each ecological zone, lower soil depths had significantly lower SOC stocks.At the district level, analysis of variance of soil organic carbon in the six districts recorded significant differences in SOC at different   The effect of shade type was significant only at Offinso South district in DSFZ, where SOC stored was 47.53±12.66 Mg C.ha -1 under shade compared to the full-sun of 33.78±7.91 Mg C.ha -1 (Table 5).The average soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in 15-year-old shaded cocoa ecosystem (depth 0-60 cm) across the three agroecological zones was 49.23±23.51 Mg C.ha -1 compared to 44.46±20.94 Mg C.ha -1 in full-sun but with no significant difference. This is consistent with results obtained by Dawoe (2009) and Mohammed et al. (2016) who also obtained similar trends even though with higher results. SOC stored decreased with increasing depth. These trends are attributed to high organic matter accumulation in the upper 30 cm depth of the soil mainly as a result of litter-fall and its subsequent decomposition (Mohammed et al., 2016;Gama-Rodrigues, 2010).UEMZ recorded the highest SOC of 51.26±21.27 Mg C.ha -1 which was significantly different from that of MEZ (50.30± 23.94 Mg C.ha -1 ) and both were significantly higher than the amount observed (39.03±14.23 Mg C.ha -1 ) in DSFZ. UEMZ recorded the highest SOC probably due to the application of poultry manure as indicated by farmers in this area.The least SOC recorded in DSFZ could be due to low rainfall and dry weather conditions which could translate into lower decomposition (Rohr et al., 2013) compared to the two other relatively wet agroecological zones. According to Rohr et al. (2013), rainfall and soil moisture content affect SOC stored, less rainfall generally leads to low SOC stored while high rainfall has the potential to store higher amount of SOC.SOC stored with regards to depth across the six growing districts showed no significant differences with the exception of Atwima Nwabiagya, Sefwi Wiawso and Sefwi Juaboso. In all these three districts, SOC varied in the order 0-20 cm depth >20-40 cm depth >40-60 cm depth. The high SOC observed at Atwima Nwabiagya district could be attributed to poultry manure application. This is because the district is home to a large number of poultry farms and this accounts for farmers having better access to poultry manure which they apply to their farms.In Sefwi Wiawso and Sefwi Juaboso the difference in SOC was as a result of high litter accumulation in the fields which serves as the primary source of SOC (Post & Kwon, 2000). This high litter fall aided by good environmental conditions for decomposition, thus, soil surface temperature and soil moisture (Pandey et al., 2013), caused variations in the SOC stored (Post & Kwon, 2000).In general, across all the districts, shade grown cocoa significantly (p = 0.0000) influenced aboveground tree carbon stored compared to full-sun cocoa. Aboveground tree carbon stocks in the shaded production system (35.90±1.56 Mg C.ha -1 ) was significantly higher than the full-sun production system (5.98± 1.56 Mg C.ha -1 ) in the three agroecological zones (p = 0.0000). In each agroecological zone, the shaded system significantly stored more carbon than the full-sun system (Table 6). At least more than three times the carbon stored in each full-sun system was in the shaded system across all agroecological zones. However, there were no marked variations between the three agroecological zones on carbon stored in above ground tree biomass.Table 7 presents the effect of shadetype x district interaction on aboveground tree carbon stored. Aboveground tree carbon in the shaded system, ranged from a minimum of 15.41±0.003 Mg C.ha -1 in the Sefwi Wiawso District to a maximum of 55.09±0.003 Mg C.ha -1 in the Atwima Nwabiagya District (Table 7). However, in the full sun production system, Sefwi Wiawso District recorded the highest aboveground tree carbon of 7.34±0.003 Mg C.ha -1 and Offinso North District recorded the lowest (4.05± 0.003 Mg C.ha -1 ).Results from the study showed significant differences between carbon stored in aboveground tree biomass of the full-sun cocoa production system and the shaded cocoa production system across the three agroecological zones with the shaded cocoa production system recording a higher mean carbon of 35.90±15.70 Mg C.ha -1 . This trend could be due to the high amount of carbon stored in both the shade trees and that of the cocoa trees (Nadege et al., 2018). According to Nadege et al. (2018), associated trees in cocoa agroforestry systems store of up to about three times the amount of carbon stored in cocoa trees.In each of the six districts, significant differences were observed in aboveground tree carbon stored between shaded and full- sun system. The highest aboveground tree carbon was recorded for the shaded systems in UEMZ (Atwima Nwabiagya and Atwima Mponua) and the lowest estimates of aboveground tree carbon was in MEZ (Sefwi Wiawso and Sefwi Juaboso).Studies of Martinez-Alcantara et al., (2016) showed that organic fertilizers with animal base component exhibit higher total biomass with a more profuse development of new organs such as leaves and roots as well as increasing the trees total biomass. This likely, accounts for the high aboveground tree carbon estimated from UEMZ.The shaded farms in MEZ relatively had less shade tree density compared to the other districts due to high shade tree removal rates from cocoa farms in this zone (Amooh, 2017). The condition may have resulted in relatively higher water stress on the farm through soil water evaporation (Lin, 2010) that may have led to less aboveground biomass development (Mohammed et al., 2016;Ferreira et al., 2015). This finding is consistent with studies of Abdulai et al. (2017), where authors observed higher evapotranspiration rates of shaded cocoa production systems due to harsh climatic conditions including drought and high temperatures.The condition in DSFZ, which has drier environmental conditions also causes slower growth of trees (UoU, 2019;William et al., 2019) hence relatively lower biomass accumulation (lower aboveground tree carbon) compared to UEMZ.In general, carbon stored in belowground tree biomass in the shaded system (2.95± 0.12 Mg C.ha -1 ) was significantly higher than in the full sun system (0.61±0.12 Mg C.ha -1 ). Carbon stored in the roots of the trees showed significant variations between the two shade types in all the three ecological zones (Figure 3). DSFZ recorded 2.76±0.93 and 0.52±0.10 for shaded and full sun systems respectively (p = 0.0002), while UEMZ recorded 4.10± 0.11 Mg C.ha -1 and 0.59±0.15 Mg C.ha -1 for shaded and full sun systems, respectively (p = 0.0000) while MEZ recorded 1.94± 0.76Mg C.ha -1 and 0.71±0.03 Mg C.ha -1 for shaded and the full sun systems, respectively (p = 0.002). Differences observed between the three ecological zones in carbon stored in the shaded cocoa production systems were significant (p = 0.0010), whiles the carbon stored in the full sun system across the three agroecological zones were similar (Figure 3).Carbon stored in the belowground biomass in the six districts varied with shadetype, with the shaded system being signifi- cantly higher than the full-sun system. Unlike that of the aboveground tree carbon stored, across the six districts, the carbon stored in a particular shade type was not significantly different from the same shade type in another district (Table 8).In each agroecological zone, belowground tree biomass carbon was observed to be markedly lower than SOC stored. The mean carbon (belowground tree carbon + aboveground tree carbon + SOC) stored in UEMZ was 55.95±1.03 Mg C.ha -1 and was significantly higher than (52.95±1.03 Mg C.ha -1 ) in MEZ, these were however higher than (42.32±1.03 Mg C.ha -1 ) in DSDFZ. Generally, total carbon stored across the three agroecological zones showed no significant differences, and values recorded were 61.73±1.02 Mg C.ha -1 for DSFZ, 67.46±1.02 Mg C.ha -1 for MEZ and 85.10± 1.02 Mg C.ha -1 for UEMZ (Figure 4).There was significant difference in belowground tree biomass between the two shade types where the shaded cocoa production system recorded a higher value of 2.95± 1.14 Mg C.ha -1 compared to the full sun of 0.61± 0.12 Mg C.ha -1 . This follows a similar pattern as aboveground tree biomass carbon stored due to the inclusion of shade trees in estimating carbon stored in shaded farms (Nadege et al., 2018;Mohammed et al., 2016). Values here are lesser compared to that of aboveground biomass because of the allometric equation employed (Cairns et al., 1997) in our study, which reduces the aboveground tree biomass to below 24% (Asase & Tetteh, 2016). From the estimation of the aboveground tree carbon in this study, the shaded system was significantly different from the full sun system hence an observed similar trend in their belowground tree biomass. The differences  The shaded cocoa systems stored higher carbon in the belowground tree biomass as compared to the full sun systems, due to the presence of shade trees (Nadege et al., 2018). The mean below ground organic carbon (soil organic C + belowground tree carbon) in the three agroecological zones, observed was 50.4 Mg C.ha -1 . In the study of Sommarriba et al. (2013), 55.9 Mg C.ha -1 for 18-year-old cocoa farms in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala was reported. The relatively lower organic carbon observed in this study could be due to the younger age (15 years) of farms used. According to Kohl et al. (2017) and King (2014), trees develop faster and accumulate much more biomass as they age, hence higher organic carbon content.Total carbon dioxide equivalents estimated from the various agroecological zones are 226.3 Mg CO 2 .ha -1 , 312.0 Mg CO 2 .ha -1 and 247.4 Mg CO 2 .ha -1 for the DSFZ, UEMZ, and MEZ respectively (Table 9). Estimated financial returns from these agroecological zones respectively are USD1,131.5; USD1,560; and USD1,237; giving an estimated total of USD3,928.50 (Table 9).In the absence of a baseline data, and assuming that the additional amount of carbon added to each of the systems over their lifespan are as indicated in Table 9. The potential estimated financial returns in each of the ecological zones as estimated are respectively, USD1,131.5; USD1,560; and USD1,237 for the DSFZ, UEMZ and MEZ. The entire system potentially then stands to earn USD3,928.5 at the rate of USD5 to every Mg CO 2 stored per hectare.Analysis of variance for pod counts revealed that there were notable differences between number of cocoa pods found on trees in the two shade systems (p = 0.0000). The full-sun system recorded higher number of pods with a mean count of 674±132 ha -1 across all agroecological zones and the shaded system recorded a mean pod count of 456±132 ha -1 .The three agroecological zones showed significant differences in cocoa pod count. DSFZ a mean pod count of 387±120 ha -1 which was significantly lower compared to what was recorded at MEZ (693±120 ha -1 ) and UEMZ (614±120 ha -1 ) (Figure 5).Significant differences (p = 0.0008) were observed in cocoa pod count between the different districts (Figure 6). The analysis revealed that pods count at Sefwi Wiawso, Sefwi Juaboso and Atwima Nwabiagya districts recorded marginal differences. However, the pod counts recorded in these three districts were significantly higher than recorded at South Offinso and Atwima Mponua Districts (Figure 6). Offinso North District recorded markedly the lowest cocoa pod counts (Figure 6). Shade-type had significant effect on the number of wilted pods and cherelles in the three agroecological zones. Generally, full sun production system recorded significantly higher number of wilted pods and cherelles (186±40 ha -1 ) compared to the shaded system which recorded 51±40 ha -1 . Significant differences in wilted pod and cherelles were observed across the three agroecological zones (Figure 7). MEZ recorded the least number of wilted pod and cherelles per ha (21±03 ha -1 ), which was similar to what was recorded at UEMZ, 49±03 ha -1 wilted pods and cherelles. DSFZ however, recorded 285±03 ha -1 wilted pods and cherelles and this was significantly higher than the other agroecological zones (Figure 7).The relationship between carbon stored and cocoa pod counts across agroecological  zones as shown in Figure 8 is possibly a reflection of how C stocks may influence cocoa yields. Though not significant (p = 0.3325), with an R 2 = 0.2405 there generally appears to be a positive relation between changes in C stocks and cocoa pod counts, with pod numbers increasing with increasing C stocks.Acrros the three agroecological zones, MEZ (Sefwi Wiawso and Sefwi Juaboso) and UEMZ (Atwima Nwabiagya and Atwima Mponua) recorded the highest number of pods. The two zones, MEZ and UEMZ, however, had significantly higher number of pods than what was recorded in DSFZ (Offinso North and Offinso South). Higher yields in UEMZ and MEZ can be attributed to more favourable rainfall conditions (Vigneri, 2007) compared to DSFZ. Yields from the MEZ in the Western region were higher than in DSFZ in the Ashanti region and this is consistent with Asare et al. (2018) and Madsen & Helledie (2018).The wilted cherelles in the full sun system were about 3.5 times more than those in the shaded system. Again, the wilted cherelles in DSFZ was 5 times higher than what was observed in MEZ and UEMZ. This could be due to the presence of intense sunlight and rapid soil water evaporation in the full sun system. Moreover, in DSFZ, there is less rainfall and high amounts of sunlight (GSS, 2010). This enhanced the effect of evapotranspiration leading to high numbers of cherelles wilting (Handley, 2016;Carr & Lockwood, 2011;Daymond & Hadley, 2008;Hadley et al., 1994). This pattern probably explains the trend in yield in DSFZ recording significantly lower number of pods per hectare compared to the MEZ and UEMZ.This study shows that full sun systems recorded significantly higher number of pods compared with shaded system across all zones. This observation is consistent with Asare et al. (2017), where the authors reported higher yields at plot level of full sun cocoa on a larger scale, Asare et al. (2018) recorded increasing yields of cocoa at farm level when shade cover increased from zero to about 34% cover. The findings of increased production at 30-50% shade cover have also been confirmed by Blaser et al. (2018) andAndreas et al. (2018). Hence, the debate on whether full-sun produces better than shaded cocoa must be put in perspective in terms of the amount of shade cover present rather than applying a blanket observation by authors who argue removal of shade trees from cocoa farms leads to increased yield (Madsen & Helledie, 2018;Wade et al., 2010;Padi & Owusu, 1998) without looking at the entire Apart from the fact that the effective life span of full-sun cocoa does not go beyond 10 years, there is also an additional effect of high insect and weed infestation, high nutrient and agrochemical demand coupled with the need for a well distribution of rain fall (Ahenkorah et al., 1987;Ahenkorah et al., 1974). Since these demands in most cases do not represent the reality of the smallholder farmers, the full-sun system turns to be more expensive both economically and environmentally to these farmers. Thus, according to Beer (1987) shaded cocoa provides an alternative that is ecologically and economically beneficial, especially in the situation where sustainability rather than maximization of productivity is of major concern.Carbon stored in Ghana's cocoa ecosystem is closely associated with cocoa pod counts. An analysis of the works of Kimball & Idso (1983) and Sommariba et al. (2013) suggest a possible increase in yield due to increase in carbon stored. Vaast & Sommariba (2014) also hinted a similar concept by reporting that cocoa agroforestry systems have the potential to bridge the gap between cocoa yields and ecological integrity such as biodiversity conservation and carbon stocks. According to Derying et al. (2016), rising amounts of carbon stored in plants leads to higher rates of photo-synthesis and also reduction in plant water loss via transpiration which causes better growth and yield boost. Hence, not only will this stored carbon improve productivity, it will also reduce the CO 2 levels in the atmosphere.It is therefore recommended that farmers should be encouraged to include shade trees in cocoa farms by governmental programs that provides monitory support to these farmers starting with payment on carbon stored in the system, as this automatically yields the highest returns to the monetary value of carbon stored. This will help conserve and enhance the cocoa production system for it to become more climate-smart and help in achieving environmental programs targeted at reducing CO 2 emission in the atmosphere. Enabling government policies that emphasize the co-benefits of agroforestry and assisting farmers in planting and maintenance of new trees on cocoa fields, would go a long way to add a social dimension to the multiple agroforestry co-benefits.The cocoa ecosystem of Ghana accounts for high amounts of organic carbon especially in the shaded system referred to as cocoa agroforests. On the contrary, yield trends indicated that shaded farms have less yields compared to non-shaded farms. Hence, to make these management systems viable for farmers in order to improve carbon storage in the cocoa landscape, there should be a compensatory mechanism that will incentivize farmers to practice cocoa agroforestry.","tokenCount":"5160"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63c76a0aaa64dd577b19faf599628d37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d229c330-261d-4e47-a447-06460610893b/retrieve","id":"1757915577"},"keywords":["Legumes","condensed tannins","temperate","tropical","acid soils","temperature","drought","soil fertility"],"sieverID":"73c210d8-9d4b-4ffd-9f61-9e74f1292146","pagecount":"19","content":"The influence of environmental factors on forage quality of temperate and tropical grasses has been reviewed by several authors, who summarized how light, temperature, drought and soil nutrients influence chemical composition, and digestibility of forages grown in contrasting areas of the world. The effects of season of the year on forage growth, grazing behavior and animal performance have also been the subject of numerous papers and reviews. However, there are few recent reviews that summarize how changes in climatic and edaphic factors influence forage quality of legumes with variable levels of condensed tannins (CT), which are important secondary compounds in some temperate and tropical legume species adapted to acid infertile soils. In this paper we summarize properties of CT and their positive and negative effects on forage quality of legumes. We also review published work on the effect of temperature, drought, CO2 concentration, season of the year and soil fertility on the accumulation of CT in temperate and tropical legumes. Results from experiments under controlled conditions indicate that high temperature alone can significantly increase the accumulation of CT in some temperate legume species (i.e. Lotus pedunculatus) but not in others (i.e. L. corniculatus). However, the effect of low or high temperature on accumulation of CT is considerably greater when accompanied with other environmental factors such as drought, high CO2 concentration and soil nutrient deficiencies. Soil nutrient deficiencies can have a major effect on elevation of CT concentration and overall feed value of temperate and tropical legumes, but only when deficiencies are such that they affect plant growth. Soil fertility and climatic conditions affect not only the concentration of CT but also their monomer composition and MW (molecular weight), as was observed in a tropical legume species well adapted to acid infertile soils. The nutritional significance of these findings are not all that well understood, but it would seem that CT in forage legumes are not a uniform chemical entity given that they can change with edaphic and climatic factors. Finally we suggest that there is a need to investigate alternatives to enhance the feed value of legumes with tannins adapted to acid soils through selection of genotypes with less CT and /or through manipulation of environmental factors such as soil fertility. For this we need to better understand how edaphic and climatic factors affect not only accumulation of CT but also their chemical structure and biological activity and relate these changes to forage intake, digestibility, N utilization, and, ultimately, to performance of ruminant animals.Environmental factors are well known to have a significant impact on the quality of forage plants, particularly those grown in environments with varying degrees of different stresses. These stresses can result in large variations, between seasons and between years, in forage yield and quality. Stress occurs when an environmental factor is not ideal for plant growth, for example, too low or too high a temperature, water logging, drought, shading, or a soil nutrient deficiency.The influence of environmental factors on forage quality has been the subject of several reviews, most of which have emphasized how temperature, water stress, light, and soil nutrients influence growth and quality of forage grasses and, to a lesser extent, legumes (Wilson, 1982;Buxton and Casler, 1993;Buxton and Fales, 1994). An important conclusion of studies reviewed is that temperature usually has a greater effect on the digestibility of grasses than do other environmental factors, mainly through its effect on leaf-to-stem ratios, increases in the indigestible cell-wall fraction and concurrent reduction in nonstructural carbohydrates. In contrast, while shading reduces yields, in most cases, in grasses and legumes, it has small and variable effects on forage quality. The effect of drought on forage quality is usually low or even positive, particularly if the stress on leaf mass is not severe. Finally, the effect of soil nutrients on the forage quality of mainly grasses has been found to be relatively small. The application of N fertilizer results in higher yield and increased crude protein. Application of S and Ca to soils with deficiencies of these minerals may enhance forage digestibility through different mechanisms. Alleviating S deficiency through either fertilization or feed supplements for animals may increase forage digestibility through improved rumen fermentation. In the case of Ca applied as fertilizer, digestibility seems to improve through changes in plant cell-wall composition.Several environmental factors have also been shown to affect quality attributes of forage legumes with variable levels of condensed tannins (CTs), which are important secondary metabolites in some temperate and tropical legume species. High concentration of CT in forage legumes can affect their intake and overall nutritional quality, thus limiting the forage's potential to enhance animal productivity. However, few recent studies have been published on how specific climatic and edaphic factors influence yield and quality of legumes with tannins.In this paper, we summarize the positive and negative effects of CTs on ruminant nutrition, and examine the response of temperate and tropical legumes to environmental stresses in terms of forage yield and quality attributes. New evidence on the effect of environmental factors on the chemical properties of CTs in tropical legumes has led us to suggest foci for future research.Leguminous plants are used in temperate and tropical regions as feed resources in different production systems to improve the performance of ruminant animals and to improve soil nutrient cycling. Several herbaceous and woody legumes are potentially valuable as animal feed resources in regions characterized by acid low-fertility soils. In temperate regions, legumes such as Lespedeza cuneata, Lotus pedunculatus, and Lotus corniculatus have been shown to be well adapted to acid soils but also to accumulate the unpalatable condensed tannins (Armstrong 1974;Lowther, 1980;Donnelly, 1981;Scott and Mills, 1981;Scott and Charlton, 1983).In tropical regions, woody and herbaceous legume species that are well adapted to acid low-fertility soils have also been shown to accumulate variable levels of CTs (Lascano et al., 1995;Jackson et al., 1996). Well-known woody legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, and Erythrina spp. can significantly improve liveweight gains and milk yield when used as protein supplements in cut-and-carry or grazing systems (Saucedo et al., 1980;Izham et al., 1982;Suárez et al., 1987;Vargas et al., 1988). However, these species are not well adapted to acid soils with high levels of Al, found throughout large areas of tropical America (Argel and Maass, 1995).Secondary metabolites, known as condensed tannins (CTs), are widely distributed in nature, as indicated by a survey, cited by Muller-Harvey and McAllan (1992), which listed about 80% of woody perennial dicotyledons and 15% of annual and herbaceous dicotyledons as containing tannins. These secondary compounds are polyphenols that are produced by plants as part of the shikimic acid pathway and which can form complexes with proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, steroids, alkaloids, and saponins (Muller-Harvey and McAllan, 1992). Tannins are separated into two groups according to their chemical origin: hydrolyzable and condensed. Hydrolyzable tannins are polymers of phenolic acids (gallic acid, hexahydroxydiphenic acid, and/or derivatives), whereas condensed tannins (CTs) are polymers of falvan-3-ol that produce anthocyanidins on acid degradation (Fahey and Jung, 1989).Complexes formed between CTs and protein are thought to be either reversible (hydrophobic and/or hydrogen bonds) or irreversible via oxidation of the phenolic compounds into reactive quinones (Fahey and Jung, 1989). The reversible complexes of CTs are stable and insoluble at pH 3 to 7, but are released at pH lower than 3 or higher than 8 (Jones and Mangan, 1977). This property of CTs to bind proteins at neutral pH and release them at low pH values has led many researchers to think that this could be a useful tool for reducing protein degradation in the rumen, thus promoting increased flow and absorption of non-ammonia N in the lower gut, and improving the animals' nutrition. This has been shown experimentally to occur when Lotus corniculatus was fed to ruminants (Waghorn et a1., 1987). In addition, some properties of CTs present in some legumes have been associated with bloat prevention in ruminants (Gutek et al., 1974;Ross and Jones, 1974;Chiquette et al., 1989). However, experimental evidence indicates that high concentrations of CTs present in some temperate and tropical legumes can negatively affect digestibility and intake of edible forage (Donnelly and Anthony, 1983;Barry and Duncan, 1984;Barry and Manley, 1984;Terrill et al., 1989;Barahona et al., 1997).The positive and negative effects of CTs in forage legumes have been related to their concentration in edible leaves and stems, which concentration varies according to species (Lowther et al., 1987;Jackson et al., 1996), plant part (Foo et al., 1982;Barahona et al., 1997), genotype within species (John and Lancashire, 1981;Schultze-Kraft and Benavides, 1988), plant maturity (Lees et al., 1995), and environmental factors (Barry and Forss, 1983;Fales, 1984;Anuraga et al., 1993). The variation of CT levels with plant genotype and environmental conditions suggests that CT accumulation can be regulated through selection or breeding, and through targeting legumes to specific environmental \"niches\" that favor low CT concentration in edible forage.In the next section, we will examine experimental findings on the effect of environmental factors on CT accumulation in temperate and tropical forage legumes.Three features characterize research published on the effect of environment on the quality of forage legumes with CTs: (1) work was limited to only a few genera and species grown in temperate zones, (2) work on tropical legumes is minimal, and (3) response variables were mostly limited to measurements of CT concentration, N, and in vitro digestibility and, in a few cases, to forage intake and/or animal performance.Research on the influence of ambient temperature, soil moisture, and soil fertility on the forage quality of temperate legumes with CTs has been mainly done with Lotus corniculatus, Lotus pedunculatus, Onobrychis vicifolia, and Lespedeza cuneata. In the case of tropical legumes with CTs, the little work done examined the effects of environment on the forage quality of Desmodium heterocarpon subsp. ovalifolium (herbaceous legume, and better known under its earlier name of D. ovalifolium), and, to a lesser extent, Calliandra calothyrsus (a shrub legume).Temperature. Results from early studies had shown that CT concentration in temperate legumes increased as the growing season advanced and that this was associated with increased mean day temperature and decreases in rainfall (Donnelly, 1959). However, under field conditions, isolating the confounding effects of day temperature and precipitation during the growing season from the concurrent aging of plants was impossible. In other studies where temperature was associated with changes in CT concentration in legumes, the observed responses were confounded with light intensity. Thus, to avoid these confounding effects, some studies were carried out under conditions of the controlled growth chamber or greenhouse.The effects of low and high temperatures on quality attributes were tested in Lespedeza cuneata genotypes with low or normal tannin contents (Fales, 1984) and in Lotus pedunculatus clones with low, medium, or high CT contents (Lees et al., 1994), all under conditions of controlled environment. Results (Table 1) showed that CT concentration in foliar tissue of both legume species increased with temperature. In the leaves of the normal-and low-tannin L. cuneata genotypes, CT concentration was 10% and 2% units higher, respectively, at the high temperature than at the low temperature. Increases in CT concentration in L. pedunculatus as a result of temperature ranged from 3% to 5% units.In experiments with L. pedunculatus (Lees et al., 1994), CT concentration increased over time in plants subjected to two temperature regimes (20 o C and 30 o C), but the increment was considerably faster and stayed higher in plants grown at 30 o C (Table 1). However, regrowth in plants grown at the lower temperature appeared healthy, whereas plants grown at the higher temperature exhibited signs of heat stress (senescent lower leaves, small leaf area, elongated stems, and abundant inflorescence) and soil nutrient deficiencies. Limited growth after cutting in plants exposed to the high temperature regime was not accompanied by an increase in CT concentration, which in fact, was lower than in the regrowth of plants exposed to the low temperature, suggesting low levels of storage carbohydrates in roots before cutting.Temperature and soil moisture. In many regions of the world, low soil moisture is a major stress that limits biomass yield of forage plants. However, drought in tropical regions is usually associated with relatively high ambient temperatures. In Australia, Anuraga et al. (1993) conducted a growth chamber experiment to examine the combined effects of temperature and soil moisture on growth and CT accumulation of L. corniculatus and L. pedunculatus. Results (Table 1) indicated that high temperatures increased CT concentration in L. pedunculatus, but had only a small effect on CT levels in L. corniculatus. Moisture stress induced a larger accumulation of CTs in leaves of L. pedunculatus as temperature increased, accompanied by reduced forage yield.Temperature, carbon dioxide, and soil moisture. The effect of contrasting temperatures in combination with different CO 2 concentrations and watering regimes on CT accumulation and other quality parameters was examined in three genotypes of L. corniculatus (Carter et al., 1999). Results (Table 1) showed that, with all genotypes, doubling CO 2 concentration increased CT levels, but that increasing growth temperature reduced CT levels. Drought had a smaller effect than temperature on CT accumulation, but caused CT levels in leaf tissues to drop. Combining the effects of high temperature, low CO 2 , and drought resulted in the lowest accumulation of CTs in L. corniculatus.As previously discussed, exposure of L. pedunculatus to high temperatures resulted in a higher accumulation of CTs than at low temperatures (Anuraga et al., 1993;Lees et al., 1994). This is contrary to what was found with L. corniculatus by Carter et al., (1999), who showed that accumulation of CTs in this species increased in response to the combined effects of low temperature and high CO 2 concentration, regardless of soil moisture. Other studies have shown that (1) low temperature and moisture stress had limited effect on CT accumulation in L. corniculatus (Anuraga et al., 1993), (2) CT levels were inherently higher in L. pedunculatus than in L. corniculatus (Lowther et al., 1987), and (3) the chemical structure of CTs differed between the two Lotus species (McNabb et al., 1997).Thus, the accumulation of CTs in temperate legumes in response to temperature is probably variable, depending on both species and genotype, at least in the case of the genus Lotus. Species with inherently low levels of CTs (e.g., L. corniculatus) seem to respond either not at all or by only slightly accumulating CTs when grown under low temperatures. In contrast, species with inherently high levels of CTs (L. pedunculatus and Les. cuneata) seem invariably to accumulate more tannins when grown under high temperatures. The combined effect of environmental factors such as temperature, CO 2 , soil moisture, and soil nutrient deficiencies is also larger on CT accumulation of temperate legumes than any single factor alone. The severity of the climatic stress imposed may also have a significant effect on biomass yield and on CT accumulation in edible tissue of temperate legumes.The impact of changing climatic factors on forage quality parameters other than CT accumulation has been studied in some cases. A negative relationship was observed between CT concentration of more than 2.5% to 3.0% of dry matter (DM) in L. corniculatus and initial rate of gas production during in vitro fermentation with rumen microorganisms (Carter et al., 1999). Digestibility of L. corniculatus was also found to increase with drought and high temperature, but to decrease with increased CO 2 concentration (Carter et al., 1999). The changes, induced by the combination of temperature and moisture stress, in CT levels in forage legumes can also affect forage intake (Barry and Duncan, 1984;Terrill et al., 1989) and N use by ruminants. Low CT concentration in L. corniculatus has been associated with decreased N digestibility, but with increased apparent absorption of essential amino acids in sheep (Waghorn et al., 1987). In contrast, higher levels of CTs in L. pedunculatus have also been shown to result in reduced N digestibility, but with no effect on amino acids absorption in the lower gut of sheep (Waghorn et al., 1994).A major constraint to growing well-known commercial forage legume cultivars is low soil fertility, particularly in tropical regions, which are characterized by large areas of acid low-fertility soils (Houston, 1993). Thus, heavy emphasis has been placed on evaluating and selecting legumes adapted to acid soils (Argel and Maass, 1995). Acid soils are also common in certain regions of temperateclimate zones and, as a result, researchers in southern USA, New Zealand, and Australia have been interested in selecting legumes that perform well in these soils (Donnelly and Anthony, 1970;Scott and Charlton, 1983).Farmers often comment that they see cattle preferring legumes with CTs when the forages are well fertilized or when they are grown in sites with high soil fertility. This anecdotal evidence prompted researchers to design experiments to assess the effect of fertilizer on CT concentration and on the palatability of temperate and tropical forage legumes with varying levels of tannins. The effect of fertilizer level on CT concentration and, to a lesser extent, on forage acceptability has been limited to only a few temperate (L. cuneata and Lotus spp.) and tropical (D. heterocarpon subsp. ovalifolium and C. calothyrsus) legumes, as pointed out earlier.Early work in southern USA indicated that CT concentration in Les. cuneata decreased when plants were grown in greenhouse pots containing a loamy soil, fertilized with K. However, the reduced CT levels due to K fertilization relative to CT levels in unfertilized plants was observed only after 3 years, when the control plants were showing symptoms of extreme deficiency and significantly reduced yields (Wilson, 1955).New Zealand researchers have also been interested in determining how soil fertility and fertilizer applications influence CT levels in L. pedunculatus and L. corniculatus (Barry and Forss, 1983;Lowther et al., 1987). Field studies showed that CT levels in L. pedunculatus cv. Grasslands Maku declined significantly (from 8%-11% of DM to 2%-3% of DM) when the legume was grown in a high-fertility soil as opposed to an acid soil with no fertilizer application (Barry and Forss, 1983). However, applying a combined P and S fertilizer to L. pedunculatus grown in acid soils reduced CT concentration to 4%-5% of DM and increased biomass yield. The negative relationship between CT level and plant yield was evident only during the 15 months following fertilizer application, after which subsequent measurements showed increases in plant yield due to residual fertilizer, but no changes in CT levels, for reasons not yet understood.The effect of S fertilization on CT concentration in different genotypes of L. corniculatus and on L. pedunculatus cv. Grassland Maku grown under low and high S conditions were examined in a field trial by Lowther et al. (1987) in New Zealand. Results indicated that, as expected, CT concentration was higher in L. pedunculatus (6% to 10% of DM) than in L. corniculatus (0.1% to 4% of DM), regardless of S fertilization. Increasing the level of S fertilization (from 20 to 50 kg/ha) resulted in a three-fold increase in yield of L. pedunculatus, but had no consistent effect on CT accumulation, as would have been expected from previous observations (Barry and Forss, 1983). This was probably associated with a suboptimal application of S, given that S concentration in the fertilized plants was considered borderline (0.12%) of deficiency, even at the higher rate of S application. In the same study, variation in CT levels in L. corniculatus was more associated with plant type than with level of S fertilization. The highest level (4%) of CTs was measured in an erect genotype of L. corniculatus, and this was below the range (8% to 11%) at which CTs affect voluntary intake, digestibility, and N use by ruminants (Barry and Duncan, 1984).From the evidence reviewed, elevation of CT concentration in temperate legumes occurs only when soil nutrient deficiencies are such that they affect plant growth. In addition, soil fertility or fertilizer application has a minimal effect on CT concentration in legumes that have inherently low levels of tannins, as was shown with genotypes of L. corniculatus evaluated in New Zealand.As stated before, little research has been conducted on defining how environmental factors influence the concentration of CTs and other quality parameters of tropical legumes. This is probably because of the low use of legumes by farmers in tropical regions. What follows is a summary of results obtained by researchers at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Colombia, who have been mainly interested in defining how soil fertility and fertilizer application affects CT levels and other quality parameters of D. ovalifolium and, more recently, of C. calothyrsus. Both these legumes are very well adapted to acid soils and have high CT levels (Jackson et al., 1996).Fertilization. In the early 1980s, cattle grazing a pure stand of D. ovalifolium in the Colombian Eastern Plains were seen to markedly prefer forage where relatively large quantities of fertilizer had been accidentally dropped. This observation led to the settingup of a field experiment with the objective of comparing quality parameters and acceptability of forage to cattle as a function of fertilizer application (treatments = [1] P + Ca; [2] P + Ca + K; [3] P + Ca + K + Mg + S; and [4] control). Results showed small differences in forage yield with the fertilizer combination P + Ca + K, but an almost twofold increase when S was added to the mixture (Lascano and Salinas, 1982). Increased biomass production with the combined fertilizer was associated with a 9% unit reduction in CT concentration and a 0.5% unit increase in N in leaf tissue. Large increases in S (from 0.09% to 0.15%), K (0.62% to 0.75%), and, to a lesser extent, P (0.12% to 0.15%) also occurred in leaf tissue. The most striking finding was that cattle preferred to graze the area where S had been applied, and that only when forage-on-offer in the S-fertilized plots was limited did the animals graze the area fertilized with P + Ca + K (Figure 1). Very little grazing was observed in the control plot and the areas fertilized only with P + Ca.To further test the hypothesis that S was involved in the nutritive quality and acceptability of D. ovalifolium, a second experiment was carried out in the Colombian Eastern Plains (Salinas and Lascano, 1983). Fertilizer combinations with and without S were applied and measurements on forage yield, forage quality, and grazing preference were carried out during 8 months, which included a rainy (6 months) and dry season (2 months). Results confirmed previous findings that forage yield was higher when S was applied in combination with other nutrients (P + Ca + K + Mg) and that this was associated with fewer CTs and more N and S in leaf tissue (Figure 2). Observations on grazing frequency also indicated that, in both seasons of the year, animals spent more time in the plots where S had been added (86% of active eating time) than where no S was applied (14% of active eating time). Fertilization with S was subsequently shown to improve the liveweight gain of cattle grazing a mixture of Brachiaria decumbens and D. ovalifolium in the Eastern Plains, presumably due to improved intake and quality of the legume (Pérez, 1997).The positive effect of S fertilization in combination with other nutrients in reducing CT levels and enhancing the overall forage value of a tropical legume with tannins closely agrees with what was found in New Zealand with L. pedunculatus grown in an acid soil (Barry and Forss, 1983). Both legumes have inherently high CT levels, and the reduced tannins, as a result of fertilization, were associated with increased forage yield and N content in leaf tissue. Thus, the feed value of legumes with tannins when grown in acid soils is probably and largely a function of deficiencies of key minerals such as S and P in the soil.To further investigate the effect of soil fertility on CT concentration and other quality parameters of D. ovalifolium, a large collaborative project was carried out in contrasting sites of Colombia. The project was funded by the BMZ (Germany) and DFID (UK), and involved the University of Hohenheim (Germany), IGER (UK), and CIAT (Colombia) (Schmidt et al., 1997). A core collection of 18 D. ovalifolium accessions was planted with two levels of fertilizer in six sites that represented savannas, humid forest margins, and humid and subhumid hillsides. One major finding was that the combined effects of soil fertility and climate had a greater effect on forage quality than did plant genotype. In this paper, we only summarize results obtained at two savanna sites, characterized by having very acid low-fertility soils and contrasting textures (clay loam and sandy loam).Forage yield and quality of D. ovalifolium grown in savannas varied according to fertilizer and season, but the effect of fertilizer was considerably greater (Table 2). In the wet season, forage biomass increased by as much as seven times with fertilizer application and was associated with reduced CT concentration, increased levels of N in leaves, and improved digestibility. Similarly, forage yield of the legume during the dry season was also higher in the fertilized plots and again was associated with lower CT levels, more leaf N, and higher digestibility.In the other agroecological sites included in the G × E study, differences in legume forage yield due to fertilizer were less dramatic than in the savanna sites. Neither were they associated with major changes in CT levels, leaf N, or digestibility. The reasons may have been, possibly, the better natural fertility of the soils at these sites and the less pronounced dry seasons. However, results from the more humid sites (forest margins), characterized by high rainfall throughout the year, indicated a marked effect of soil physical properties on CT accumulation (A. Salamanca et al., 2000, unpublished results). Lack of oxygen in the soil, resulting from poor internal drainage, was associated with poor root development, which, in turn, presumably affected uptake of nutrients and plant development. Thus, once again, for both temperate and tropical legumes, changes in CT accumulation as a result of environmental factors are evident only when the stress imposed greatly affects plant growth.Another important finding of the studies with D. ovalifolium was that fertilization level affected not only CT concentration but also their monomer composition (R. Barahona et al., 1999 unpublished results). For example, the CTs of plants grown with low fertilizer in sandy loam savanna soils had a higher cyanidin-to-pelargonidin ratio than did the CTs of plants grown in the same soil receiving high fertilization.The study also showed that the molecular weights (MWs) of the CTs also varied with environmental conditions and that MW estimates were positively correlated with rate of digestion in the early stages of fermentation (R. Barahona et al., 1999, unpublished results). The nutritional significance of these findings are not well understood, but CTs in tropical legumes do not appear to be a uniform chemical entity, given that they can change with edaphic and climatic factors.In C. calothyrsus, we also found that CT accumulation in leaf tissue was affected by genotype and by soil fertility (C. E. Lascano et al., 2000, unpublished results). The CT concentration was higher in one genotype, regardless of site but, in both sites, the CT level was higher in the forage harvested in the acid-soil site than in that harvested in the fertile-soil site. The nutritional implications of these changes in CT levels are currently being investigated at CIAT.In C. calothyrsus, differences in monomer composition of CTs were also recorded in contrasting genotypes (J. Stewart et al., 2000, submitted) but, in this case, were not affected by soil fertility (C. E. Lascano et al., 2000, unpublished results). The significance of this finding is not completely understood, but the reactivity of CTs with proteins (BSA and rubisco) was observed to increase with an increasing delphinidin-tocyanidin (PD:PC) ratio (J. Stewart et al., 2000, submitted;C. E. Lascano et al., 2000, unpublished results). These results agree with findings from earlier work with Lotus spp. that showed that the reactivity of CTs also increased with increasing delphinidin-tocyanidin ratio (Jones et al., 1976). Subsequent results showed that CTs in L. pedunculatus were more effective in reducing in vitro degradation of rubisco by rumen microbes than CTs from L. corniculatus. This difference was related to differences in the monomer composition of CTs in the two legume species (McNabb et al., 1997).Thus, the biological significance of differences in monomer composition and MWs of CTs in forage legumes as affected by species and by environmental factors may be related to the way tannins interact with proteins. If this is the case, they would then have a significant impact on N use by ruminants.The value of a forage species to a livestock producer depends largely on its capacity to produce animal products, which, in turn, is related to the quantity and quality of the forage offered. In tropical regions, liveweight gain and milk yield can be significantly depressed in pastures based on grass alone (Toledo, 1985). Grass pastures sown in areas with acid low-fertility soils degrade over time if no fertilizer is applied or if the species used are susceptible to biotic constraints. Such degradation is partially reflected in the loss of grass productivity and increased weed invasion, which affect carrying capacity and animal performance.An alternative to minimize short-and long-term declines in quality and quantity of pasture biomass and thus increase livestock production is to use legumes in pastures (Lascano and Estrada, 1989;Lascano and Avila, 1993). The rationale for this alternative is that most tropical legumes have a higher nutritive value than grasses and, through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, can enhance production and quality of the companion grass and improve soil fertility. However, the incorporation of legumes into livestock systems in marginal areas is slow, partly because some species, well adapted to acid low-fertility soils (e.g., D. ovalifolium, C. calothyrsus, and Flemingia macrophylla) are perceived as having low utility because of high CT concentrations. Thus, alternatives must be found to enhance the forage value of legumes adapted to acid soils, by either selecting genotypes with fewer CTs and/or by manipulating environmental factors such as soil fertility.In the next paragraphs, we suggest some future research areas.The effect of climatic and soil-related factors on the chemical structure of tannins in temperate and tropical legumes is not well documented. Previous work had shown that the MWs and monomer composition of CTs can vary with species and plant organ (Foo and Porter, 1980;Foo et al., 1982;Williams et al., 1983), and with season, as shown for sorghum (Butler, 1982). Early results also showed that CTs from sainfoin (Onobrychis vicifolia) were less effective in binding and precipitating protein than were CTs from Lotus spp. (Jones et al., 1976). The difference between the two genera was associated with the higher MWs of CTs in sainfoin than in Lotus spp. Other researchers had also indicated that CTs with large MWs tend to lose their protein-precipitating capacity (Kumar and Vaithiyanathan, 1990), which could have implications for N use by ruminant animals.Our studies have indicated differences in monomer composition of CTs in two genotypes of the shrub legume C. calothyrsus and an effect of environmental factors on monomer composition and MWs of D. ovalifolium grown in contrasting sites. In addition, comparison across forage species has shown that the nutritional effects of CTs were also a function of their level of hydroxylation and their association (bound versus soluble) with other plant tissues (R. Barahona et al., 1999, unpublished results). At the same concentration, CTs from D. ovalifolium were more effective than tannins from Leucaena leucocephala in preventing the degradation of substrates and in reducing the activity of fungal fibrolytic enzymes (R. Barahona et al., 1999, unpublished results).Other factors, such as tannin concentration relative to protein in the forage and their solubility in the rumen fluid, could also affect CT activity.Thus, future research on the relationship between environmental factors and the feed value of legumes with tannins should emphasize:1. The better definition of those environmental factors that induce changes in the chemical structure and properties of CTs in legumes, 2. The understanding of how these changes are mediated, and 3. Ultimately, the understanding of how they affect the nutritional quality of legumes with tannins and the resulting performance of animals consuming these legumes.The evidence reviewed indicated that climatic and soil nutrient deficiencies can have a significant effect on reducing forage yield and increasing CT concentration in the edible material of temperate and tropical legumes. The most striking results on overall enhancement of feed value of temperate (e.g., L. pedunculatus) and tropical legumes (e.g., D. ovalifolium and C. calothyrsus) were recorded for the correction of a soil nutrient deficiency (i.e., of S) and for improving soil fertility (i.e., acid vs. fertile soils). However, limited information exists on the extent to which correcting soil nutrient deficiencies will affect the long-term performance of animals fed with or grazing legumes with tannins. Some evidence suggests that the residual effect of fertilization on the quality of legumes with CTs may be short term. Thus, future research should aim at evaluating the long-term utility for dairy and beef cattle production of legumes with tannins in response to fertilizers when grown in acid low-fertility soils.A major challenge faced by the forage specialist is to predict the overall performance and feed value of forages when grown in contrasting environments. Consequently, interest is growing in linking information on environmental adaptation of forage species and accessions with GIS. Available evidence suggests that the two major factors affecting the feed value of certain legumes with CTs are soil fertility and rainfall. Thus, future work should attempt to use GIS tools and existing information on environmental adaptation of temperate and tropical forages, as a way of facilitating the targeting of legumes to locations and production systems where soil fertility and rainfall are not constraints, or where farmers can use organic or inorganic fertilizers as part of their forage management strategies.  ","tokenCount":"5616"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e3fba5825ad2940f58715cf4dc47dff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47aedcba-5ab4-4ed1-8e74-a5e95fb5ecfb/retrieve","id":"1884564062"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cea57248-bf7d-40b7-a997-8015ce09cf30","pagecount":"91","content":"CIP thanks all donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders This publication is copyrighted by the International Potato Center (CIP). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License CIP is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato and Andean roots and tubers. It delivers innovative sciencebased solutions to enhance access to affordable nutritious food, foster inclusive sustainable business and employment growth, and drive the climate resilience of root and tuber agri-food systems. Headquartered in Lima, Peru, CIP has a research presence in more than 20 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. www.cipotato.org CIP is a CGIAR research center CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners across the globe.Caused by the accumulation of viruses in the plant by continually planting virus-infected material (over time it is noted that the plant yields less and less)  Vegetative propagation (e.g. stem cuttings, storage roots) -efficient method of perpetuating and disseminating virusesControl:• high-quality planting material (\"seed\") • resistant varieties • Reducing virus sources:• Isolation:-Planting new fields 15 m far from old ones.-Barriers or intercropping with maize.-Roguing (1 MAP) .-Eliminating wild Ipomoea spp.-Destroying crop residues. ","tokenCount":"216"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f96810d59b51a0c23be3eedfdfe6e9c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a824f363-5b2a-4b8a-9a73-4b4505c25d9b/content","id":"-107056970"},"keywords":["DSSAT","crop modeling","rainy season","South Asian monsoon","climate services","Bangladesh"],"sieverID":"79274a61-a8bd-43a1-a4b2-e667893eed9f","pagecount":"35","content":"The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors.In Bangladesh, rice (Oryza sativa) is the primary staple food providing calories to a population of more than 165 million people (World Bank, 2019). The tropical climate of Bangladesh allows three rice growing seasons: aus, aman and boro. The aman rice is grown during the summer monsoon season, and tends to be transplanted in July or August and harvested from November through December. Harvests of aman rice contribute approximately 40% of total rice production in Bangladesh, although yield can be variable given that the crop is vulnerable to climate-related risks including drought and flash floods (Hussain, 2017;Mahmood et al., 2003). Early onset of the monsoon and thus excessive rainfall can damage aman rice at the seedling stage, causing delays in transplanting that can affect the productivity of both the rice and subsequent crops grown in rotation (Mahmood et al., 2004;Shelley et al., 2016). Where precipitation is insufficient, drought can have harmful effects on the growth of aman rice causing retardation in growth at the seedling stage and yield reduction due to water stress that affects pollen formation and embryo development during the flowering and reproductive stage (Mahmood et al., 2004;Shelley et al., 2016;Wassmann et al., 2009). On the other hand, a significant delay in transplanting due to a late arrival of the monsoon rains can potentially result in spikelet sterility and subsequent yield loss caused by water stress during the panicle emergence and the grain filling stage respectively (Kabir et al., 2014;Nahar et al., 2009).In developing countries like Bangladesh, smallholder farmers often have limited means to cope with climate-related risks. Modification of planting dates are however an option that has been shown to mitigate these risks (Balwinder-Singh et al., 2019), and shifting the planting window to minimize risks during critical growth stages can be one of the best approaches that farmers are relatively able to act upon (Sultan et al., 2005). In Eastern Indo Gangetic Plains that include Bangladesh, West Bengal in India, and parts of Nepal, rainfed rice farmers start to prepare for nursery seedbed once the monsoon arrives and then transplant the seedling when there is sufficient water available for repetitive wet tillage (Gopal and Kumar, 2010). Normally rainfed aman rice farmers in Bangladesh prepare their nurseries on June 15 and wait for the first rainfall to prepare their field before transplanting with 25-30 days old seedlings (BRRI, 2019).Considering the heavy reliance on the monsoon by rainfed aman rice farmers for nursery establishment and transplanting, reliable forecasts of monsoon onset are a crucial component for effective climate information services in Bangladesh.Skillful climate forecasts should be preceded by well-defined monsoon onset (Stiller-Reeve et al.. There are many varying definitions of monsoon onset dates in the literature. Some examples include definitions based on the regional change in seasonal pattern of rainfall or convective activity (Tao, 1987;Ananthakrishnan and Soman, 1988;Lau and Yang, 1997), the change in direction of prevailing winds (Holland, 1986), or combined wind-convection criteria (An et al., 1998;Matsumoto, 1997;Wang and Wu, 1997). In Bangladesh, different monsoon understanding their perceptions and needs (Brooks, 2013;Carr et al., 2019;Orlove et al., 2010;Vaughan et al., 2019).Keeping agricultural applications in mind, local-scale agronomic definition of monsoon onsets have been developed and applied over Africa and South Asia (Marteau et al., 2009;Moron and Robertson, 2014;Fitzpatrick et al., 2016). This approach is based on determining threshold parameters describing the initial wet spell and post-onset dry spell (i.e., duration and amount of rainfall amount received during those periods) based on long-term daily rainfall analysis. The threshold numbers were defined to ensure proper soil conditions for crop establishment and growth, and to avoid false onsets that can result in early crop failure. These agronomically relevant definitions tend to differ from those used by meteorologists and the climate science community. However, detailed analysis using agronomic onset definitions have been carried out only in a few countries in Africa (cf. Dodd and Jolliffe, 2001;Marteau et al., 2009;Marteau et al., 2011) and in India (Moron and Robertson, 2014). Recently, in a large-scale analysis at the scale of the Indian subcontinent domain, Fitzpatrick et al. (2016) analyzed the spatial coherence of the agronomic monsoon onset using satellite-derived precipitation data, but no focus on Bangladesh was placed. To our knowledge, no efforts have however been made to determine agronomically relevant onset criteria in Bangladesh. In addition, none of the previous studies have evaluated the utility of localized agronomic definitions against those more commonly employed by meteorologists that are based mainly on cumulative rainfall or other meteorological variables (e.g., wind direction, water vapor flux etc.). Furthermore, the benefits of the agronomic definitions to agricultural decision makers have never been quantified in terms of crop yield.In this study, we analyzed historical daily rainfall data from three regional weather stations across a north-south gradient in Bangladesh in locations where rainfed aman rice production predominates. Utilizing these data, we defined threshold numbers for agronomic onset definitions. We also evaluated the monsoon onset definitions based on the attainable yields of aman rice using the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT)-Crop Environment Resource Synthesis (CERES) -rice model. The tailored agronomic definitions of monsoon onset have potential to help rice farmers make improved decisions on the timing of nursery preparation and transplanting, especially when more advanced seasonal or sub-seasonal forecasts are available in addition to real-time high-resolution rainfall monitoring.Daily precipitation, minimum and maximum air temperature, sunshine hours, global solar radiation, relative humidity and wind speed for the period 1981-2017 were provided by the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). Three locations were considered according to the availability of data necessary for both the implementation of the monsoon onset method and crop modeling: Barishal (22.70ºN,90.37ºE),Jashore (23.18ºN,89.16ºE) and Rajshahi (24.36ºN, 88.65ºE) in Figure 1. Rainfed aman rice farming is dominant in these districts and therefore the onset of the rainy season is highly relevant as it influences the environmental suitability of determining suitable conditions for crops establishment. The climatological 1981-2017 annual cycle of air temperature, precipitation and solar radiation is provided in Figure 2. An important input variable for crop modeling is solar radiation. Unfortunately, this variable is rarely measured by synoptic weather stations, including many stations maintained by BMD.Instead, sunshine hours are more readily available. The empirical regression-based Angström-Black linear model (Ampratwum and Dorvlo, 1999) was used to estimate solar radiation from sunshine hours. This model estimates solar radiation from the linear relationship between the ratio of measured and theoretical sunshine hours (calculated as a function of hour angle), and the clearness index, defined as the ratio between daily surface and extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface. Solar radiation is calculated as the product between the clearness index and extraterrestrial radiation, which is obtained as a function of astronomical parameters for each latitude and day of the year. Several local and regional definitions of monsoon onset have been developed for different monsoon regions (e.g. Matsumoto, 1997;Stiller-Reeve et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2002). In this work, we followed the agriculturally specific 'agronomic' monsoon onset approach proposed by Marteau et al. (2009) to define the local onset of the rainy season, initially developed for Africa.According to this method, the date of onset can be defined as the first wet day of one or two consecutive days receiving at least 20 mm of rain without any 7-day dry spell receiving less than 5 mm of rain during the following 20 days counted from the onset. However, Moron and Robertson (2014) state that the date of the agronomic onset should be calculated reflecting locally-varying precipitation parameters (e.g. length of wet/dry spells) to consider local climate conditions and water balance. As such, the following four parameters characterizing the daily rainfall evolution have to be defined at the local-scale: (1) the duration of the initial wet spell;(2) the amount of rainfall received during the initial wet spell;(3) the length of post onset dry spell to avoid false onsets related to pre-monsoon rainfall and (4) the maximum amount of rainfall received during the post-onset dry spell. Previous studies in Bangladesh have defined monsoon onset and withdrawal climatological dates from the first half of June and the first half of October (Ahmed and Karmakar, 1993) or early June (between May 31 and June 9) and early October (between October 3 and 12) (Hoque et al. 2011). Based on this information, we applied the period between May 15th and October 31st to compute the above presented parameters for the three selected weather stations in Bangladesh (Figure 1), The set of parameters was calculated using data from BMD weather stations to obtain a single set for each location and are presented in Table 1.The length of the initial wet spell (LWS) considered as the minimum number of consecutive rainy days (rainfall 1 mm, number of days 1) was calculated by taking the average length of wet spells between May 15th and October 31st. BMD data indicate that wet spells for the three locations range from two to three days, with a standard deviation of one day over the three locations. Consequently, an LWS equal to the average length of wet spells plus 1 standard deviation can be considered as appropriate to define the initial wet spell (Table 1).According to Moron and Robertson (2014), the amount of rainfall received during the initial wet spell (AWS) should be set following an agricultural water balance criterion considering the amount of water needed to fill dry soil. In order to have an estimate of the potential amount of water evaporated during the initial wet spell, reference evapotranspiration (ET0) was calculated using the FAO-56 method (Allen et al., 1998), during the end of the dry season period from March 1st and May 31th. An average ET0 of 3 mm d-1 was obtained for the three locations.Consequently, an amount of rainfall ranging from 12 to 27 mm during the initial wet spell would be the minimum to wet the upper soil layers. Therefore, the average amount of rainfall accumulated during LWS for each station (AWS) ranging from 27 to 55 mm (Table 1) was applied as sufficient to wet the upper soil.The average length of post onset dry spell (LDS), defined to avoid false onsets, during May 15thand October 31st (rainy season), was obtained by calculating the average length of dry spells in which the number of consecutive days with rainfall 1 mm could be summed. Our calculations show that dry spells length ranges from four to five days, with a standard deviation of one day.The latter suggests that a post-onset dry spell of 5-6 days (LDS, Table 1) is a reasonable parameter to avoid false monsoon onsets. Finally, the amount of rainfall received during the postonset dry spell (ADS) was obtained by calculating the average ET0 during the period May 15th and October 31st. Results show that ET0 ranges from 3 to 4 mm d-1, which would evaporate an amount of water of average 15 to 24 mm during the LDS (ADS, Table 1).Thus, for each station, monsoon onset is defined as the first wet day (≥ 1 mm) from May 15th of the first wet spell of LWS days receiving at least the amount of rainfall AWS, without being followed by dry spell of LDS days receiving less rainfall than ADS in the subsequent 20 days from the onset (Table 1). The DSSAT is a modular-based software package, which can simulate growth, developments and yields of more than 40 crops based on their interaction with soil and atmospheric environment at a spatially uniform field (Hoogenboom et al., 2019;Jones et al., 2003). The CERES -Rice model was initially developed by Ritchie et al. (1986) and embedded to the DSSAT package later (Jones et al. 2003). The CERES-Rice model allows simulation of rice growth and developments under both lowland and upland conditions with various planting methods including dry sowing and transplanting. The input data to run the CERES-Rice model include daily weather data (i.e., daily maximum and minimum air temperature, solar radiation and precipitation), soil physical and chemical properties, genetic coefficients of a cultivar and management practices (i.e., planting date, irrigation, fertilizer application etc.). Rice crop phenology and the rate of crop development are simulated using the accumulated thermal time, called growing degree days, which is calculated from daily air temperature (Jones et al., 2003). The growing degree days required for transition to each growth stage are determined by user-defined genetic coefficients (Jones et al., 2003). Therefore, it is important to carefully calibrate the genetic coefficients of a target cultivar based on field experiments, before any application of the crop model. Detailed soil properties of each layer are needed to compute soil dynamics in the sub-modules for soil water balance, soil carbon and nitrogen balance, soil temperature and soil-plant-atmosphere. Total biomass of a crop is determined mainly by intercepted photosynthetically active radiation and reduced by several stress factors, such as extreme temperature or limited water or nitrogen availability (Ritchie et al., 1998).The cultivar of aman rice we used in this study is BR 11, medium-duration indica variety. The BR11 aman rice is the most common and a high-yielding variety (Mahmood et al., 2003;Mahmood et al., 2004, Shelley et al., 2016). It remains one of the most widely grown genotypes in Bangladesh since its release in 1980 (Dey and Mustfali 2001). The genetic coefficients of BR 11 for the CERES-Rice model were taken from Hussain et al. (2014) and shown in Table A1.Each target location has different soil types including Barisal, Gangni, Amnura series and the detailed soil properties are shown in Table A2. We also adopted the rice management parameters used by Hussain et al. (2014). For instance, plant population at emergence, row spacing, and planting depth were 25 plants m-2, 20 cm and 3 cm respectively. Inorganic fertilizers were applied N as urea, P as triple super phosphate and K as potassium chloride. Urea was applied at the final land preparation, 25 and 60 days after transplanting with same amount of 28 N kg ha-1. Phosphate and potash fertilizers were applied 20 P kg ha-1 and 35 P kg ha-1 respectively at the time of land preparation. Note that transplanting age and transplanting date varied with different years when dynamic onset definitions were applied.In this study, we used well-calibrated parameters from Hussain et al. (2014) for genetic coefficients of the BR 11 aman rice variety. Information on major planting and management, and fertilizer application parameters were also taken from Hussain et al. (2014). This indicates we did not consider specific fields with measured soil, weather inputs or yields but assumed hypothetical fields with general parameters and common practices shown in Hussain et al. (2014). Therefore, rather than taking a typical approach to crop model evaluation at a field scale (i.e., calculating difference between simulated and observed yields or phenological variables), we evaluated the model performance in terms of how well they capture inter-annual variabilities of long-term observed yields at an aggregate scale (i.e., division level observed yields). The model simulated rice yields with historical daily weather data from the three target stations, and these were compared with available division-level yield statistics retrieved from the Bangladesh Statistical Service during 1984-2013. The observed rice yields were linearly de-trended to remove nonclimate signals from the yield time series. We then normalized the simulated and observed yields taking account of heterogeneities in management practices, soil characteristics and local weather within a division. Spearman's rank correlation was used to quantify how well simulated yields captured the inter-annual variabilities of the de-trended observed yields at a division level.Simulated rainfed rice yields showed reasonable correlations (ρ = 0.277, p = 0.139 and ρ = 0.297, p = 0.111 respectively) with the observed yields in Barisal and Rajshahi divisions, but low correlation (ρ = 0.162, p=0.394) for Jashore (Khulna Division) as shown in Figure 3a.Particularly, Barisal and Jashore simulations could capture the extremely low yields due to drought in 1994 and 1997 (Selvaraju et al., 2006;Yu et al., 2010). Some opposite variations between the simulated and observed yields were also apparent, which could be attributed to processes that DSSAT could not simulate including disease or physical damage due to strong winds causing lodging and/or flooding.Another way to confirm DSSAT rice performance was to that the DSSAT simulated yields could capture the optimal transplanting window when applied to 36 years of historical observed weather . Mahmood et al. (2003) tested different transplanting dates no later than August 15 (DOY 227) based on Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) recommendations.Transplanting aman rice in August is typically recommended by the Bangladesh AgriculturalResearch Council to avoid yield loss due to flooding or drought when seedlings are still young (Chowdhury and Hassan, 2013). Planting after August 15 is risky in that rice is increasingly susceptible to dry conditions after the withdrawal of monsoon, particularly in Rajshahi division.Figure 4 shows the averages and standard deviations of the DSSAT simulated yields using historical Barisal weather data and different transplanting dates. The optimal transplanting window was found from the late July (DOY 211) to mid-August (DOY 226) where the mean/ variance (uncertainty) of multiple simulated yields are higher/lower. This result also agrees with the findings of Kabir et al. (2014), who indicated that that transplanting in early August (August 4th) showed best simulated yields out of a range of transplanting dates from late July to early September. We investigated the effects of different onset definitions on nursery establishment, transplanting dates and rice yields under fully rainfed conditions in comparison with traditional practice. Here we assume that farmers establish their nursery when the monsoon starts and thus how farmers identify monsoon onset determines nursery establishment dates. First, many people in our target region, consider monsoon onset as a static date, the first day of the Bengali month of Ashar which is June 15th in the western calendar (Stiller-Reeve et al., 2015). In Bangladesh, farmers are normally encouraged by extension services to prepare their nurseries on June 15th and wait for the first rain for transplanting (Chowdhury and Hassan, 2013). Here we assume that farmers make their nursery on June 15th every year and transplant when the rule of Balwinder-Singh et al., (2019) is met. That is, farmers wait until the seedlings are at least 21 days old and their rice field has a ponding depth, at least 50 mm after heavy rainfall, enough for puddling.Second, based on research evidence of farmers' own perceptions of the conditions associated with the monsoon onset demonstrated by Stiller-Reeve et al., (2015), we assumed that aman nurseries were prepared on the normal onset dates. In the case of Barisal, the normal onset date is May 31st which was taken from the survey results in Chandpur, approximately 68 km from Barisal (refer to the Figure 4 in Stiller-Reeve et al., 2015). This is another case of using static onset dates and we applied the same rule of Balwinder-Singh et al., (2019) for transplanting. Third, farmers can take into account cumulative rainfall for nursery establishment considering year-to-year variations of the monsoon onset. Following Balwinder-Singh et al. (2019), we assumed that nursery is prepared when cumulative rainfall of three consecutive days within the nursery sowing window (from May 15 to August 15) is greater than 50 mm. The above same rule is applied for transplanting. Lastly, we applied the agronomic monsoon onset definition explained in Section 2.2.1 as the nursery establishment dates. Similar to the third onset definition, this approach also takes into account inter-annual variabilities of monsoon onsets but in a more sophisticated way by avoiding false onsets. Again, transplanting follows the same rule.In simulations that considered availability of irrigation to establish the aman crop, we relaxed water-constraints in transplanting compared to the fully rainfed condition, by assuming that farmers can apply irrigation to prepare fields for puddling and transplanting when the appropriate seedling age reaches. This experiment aims to reflect increasingly available shallow tube well and low-lift surface water irrigation systems in Bangladesh since the 1980s that have served to increase production and de-risk rice farming (Shelley et al., 2016). However, here we assume only limited irrigation use to facilitate timely crop establishment. In order words, irrigation was considered to be available only for puddling before transplanting, in order to overcome the sensitivity of rice plant to water stress that can increase shock during transplanting (Mahmood et al., 2003). After transplanting, our simulation proceeded considering rice growth supported only by naturally occurring rain. Here we define appropriate seedling age as 30 days old (Balwinder et al., 2015;Kabir et al., 2014;Sarker et al., 2013;Timsina et al., 1998;Yu et al., 2010). Therefore, in DSSAT simulations, transplanting dates are determined 30 days after nursery establishment which still depends on four onset definitions described above.The effect of different onset definitions was quantified by comparing averages of simulated yields. Normality and the equal variance of the simulated yields from different onset definitions were first tested using the Shapiro-Wilk (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965) and Levene test (Levene, 1960) respectively. If the samples are normally distributed, we applied t-test for a hypothesis tests of equal means from two different groups. Otherwise, a non-parametric test, Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test (Mann and Whitney, 1947) were used.The averages and standard deviations of monsoon onset dates obtained from the agronomic onset definition for Bangladesh are displayed in Figure 5. Onset dates range from June 2nd to June 10th, with standard deviations of about two weeks. These mean values and range of variability agree with those reported by Ahmed and Karmakar (1993) and more recent works (Montes et al., submitted;Stiller-Reeve et al., 2014), as well as the spatial pattern of later onset dates overRajshahi. The time series of onset dates indicate a relatively high interannual variability obtained by the agronomic method (Figure 5). Also, some correlation between onset dates was observed, with an average correlation coefficient of 0.3. In this section, simulated rainfed rice yields using both dynamic onset dates and the static dates as criteria for nursery establishment are compared (see Section 2.2.4 for the definitions of two dynamic and two static onset dates). As a way to summarize our results, only simulations for Barisal station are included, which are presented in Figure 6. The rainfall-based onsets and agronomic onsets are almost identical in Barisal with a few exceptions (Figure 6a). They are also within the range of the interannual variability of monsoon onset when calculated using locally relevant criteria (cf. Stiller-Reeve et al., 2015) in Chandpur (near Barisal), considering the earliest (May 11, DOY=131) and latest onset dates (June 30, DOY=181). For comparison, the conventional rainfall-based onsets started earlier than the agronomic onsets in several years because they did not take into account a dry spell after the initial wet spell. When using the agronomic definition, a delay in the monsoon onset beyond the reasonable transplanting window (no later than August 15, DOY=227) was observed in 1992. When the above-mentioned transplanting rule resulted in transplanting dates later than August 15th and seedling ages greater than 90 days, we assumed no transplanting and thus no crop yield available. Compared to the static onset assumption as a trigger for seed establishment (i.e., nurseries are prepared on June 15th, DOY=166, as generally recommended by national research and extension services), the dynamic onset definitions result in relatively early transplanting dates (Figure 6a).The two dynamic onset definitions allowed higher yields than the two static definitions for many years (Figure 6c). For example, 15 out of total 25 years (60%) showed higher yields with the agronomic onset than the yields with nursery preparation on fixed June 15th. In addition, Table 2 shows that there is statistically significant difference in the means of the simulated yields between the static onset on June 15th and the other two dynamic onsets (i.e., p-value less than 0.05 proves that the hypothesis of equal means can be rejected). On average, the agronomic and rainfall-based onset dates allowed 417 and 71 kg ha-1 more yields than the static June 15th onset, respectively. This is mainly because relatively late nursery and transplanting dates derived from the conventional and static onset definition, particularly June 15th, resulted in simulations in which rice development was compromised due to adverse weather conditions and thus resulted in lower yields. For instance, late transplanting on August 3rd (DOY=215) in 1994 appears to haveexposed the rice to significant water stress one month after the transplanting. Monthly rainfall in September and October in 1994 were 144 and 87 mm, respectively -much lower than the longterm averages (263 and 144 mm for September and October respectively). In 2004, relatively younger seedling due to late nursery establishment appears to have been more seriously damaged by exceptionally heavy rainfall in August and September (cumulative rainfall from the transplanting date, August 14th, DOY = 226 to the end of September reached 1400 mm in 2004).Risk-averse farmers may not want to sow or transplant unconventionally early as a mechanism to avoid false onset and associated risks from uncertain whether. However, model simulation resultssuggest that static sowing date recommendations of June 15th appears to results in the loss of some of the benefits of early sowing or transplanting. Additionally, these results highlight the potential value of developing operational seasonal or sub-seasonal forecasts that provide actionable information about the onset of the rainy season in agriculture.  When irrigation is available, farmers can more effectively avoid the risks of water stress at the reproductive stage which can be caused by delayed transplanting (Mahmood et al., 2003). As such, when these obstacles can be overcome through the use of irrigation to facilitate more timely transplanting, even static onset definitions could theoretically achieve a reasonable range of aman rice productivity compared to the inter-annually varying onset dates (Figure 7). Our simulations that include irrigation provide support to this hypothesis, as we observed no distinctive advantage of the agronomic onset definition compared to simple rainfall-based definition. This can be attributed to the similar threshold rainfall amount during the initial wet spell (55 mm during 4 days vs. 50 mm over 3 days) and because the DSSAT rice simulation does not take into account water stress during in nurseries period after monsoon onset. However, relatively late nursery establishment with the agronomic onset definition resulted in 207, 599 and 610 kg ha-1 lower yields than the rainfall-based onsets in 1992, 2009 and 2015 respectively. In this study, our main assumption is that farmers start to prepare nursery beds with the arrival of monsoon and wait until they have enough rain for puddling and appropriate seedling age is reached. The assumption was based on the farmer survey by Stiller-Reeve et al. (2015) which suggested that farmers in the central and western part of the country consider monsoon onset as approximately June 15th. This date, June 15th corresponds to the recommended date for nursery preparation by the extension services. Based on this assumption, our analysis proved that dynamic onset dates with relatively earlier nursery preparation than the traditional static date are more advantageous for producing higher yields. However, in reality, there are many cases that farmers are forced to miss the optimal or recommended dates for nursery preparation or transplanting.First, farmers who grow three crops a year (i.e., year-round farming) for subsistence do not have sufficient time to prepare nursery or transplanting of aman rice after harvesting crops from the previous season (Mahmood et al., 2004). They have to delay transplanting in spite of sufficient rain with the arrival of monsoon or being aware of higher risks of water stress during flowering or reproductive stages as a result of the delayed transplanting. Second, considering labor-intensive farming in Bangladesh, scarce laborers during planting/harvesting hinder farmers' timely transplanting (Shelley et al., 2016). Third, in Bangladesh, a number of other factors constrain transplanting date -most importantly the relative elevation of fields and uncontrolled floodwater depths. This is one of the reasons that in Barisal, which has deep flooding, farmers tend to transplant very old seedlings and delay the transplanting dates. Particularly, Barisal is in an environment very unique to the other locations in this study. It is located in tidal floodplain and is highly affected by uncontrolled floodwater during the rainy season (Hamid et al., 2016). This provides unfavorable ecology for the high-yielding variety such as our target variety, BR 11 aman rice variety and thus farmers still prefer indigenous rice cultivars which is tall but has low yield potential to the modern varieties (Hamid et al., 2015).Considering these realities, the present study has more room for further analysis. For example, the assumption that farmers start to make their nursery right after the monsoon onset might need to be relaxed considering the constrained resources in Bangladesh. In addition, Jashore and Rajshahi have less rainfall than Barisal and thus it is more difficult to meet the criteria for transplanting (i.e., minimum 50 mm ponding depth for puddling) with the current soil inputs. Therefore, some calibration of soil characteristics might be needed to continue to the similar analysis for those two locations.In this study, we explored how different monsoon onset definitions affect rainfed aman rice yields in Bangladesh. In spite of a considerable literature on the onset of the monsoon in Bangladesh and South Asia, farmers tend to have different criteria for what determines and qualifies as on monsoon onset. As such, they tend to make agricultural decisions based on experience, perception or traditional definitions of what constitutes onset. In this paper, we applied two dynamic onset definitions (one conventional rainfall-based and a separate, tailored agronomic definition relevant to aman rice production in Bangladesh) to determine year-to-year varying dates for ideal nursery establishment in comparison with the static onset definitions. Then, we compared the resulting yields of the differently defined onset dates using DSSAT-CERES-Rice model. Dynamic onset definitions resulted in a wide range of nursery establishment dates when applied to 38 years of weather observations in Barisal. Under fully rainfed conditions, where transplanting fully depends on the quantity of rainfall received to achieve sufficient standing water for puddling, the model simulated yields with the dynamic onset definitions were generally higher than the ones with the static onset definitions. Our results indicate that these differences result from the increased possibility of losing the benefits of early transplanting that renders the crop less risk-prone to drought and to late-season abiotic stresses when the static onset is used. Importantly, our simulations also indicate that where farmers have access to irrigation, they can overcome the risks of early season drought by applying irrigation. This exploratory study used some criteria in determining nursery establishment (50 mm of rainfall over three consecutive days) and transplanting (seedling age more than 21 days and ponding depth of at least 50 mm for puddling) from literature. These criteria may however need to be refined based on additional field survey data of farmers' most common crop management practices, especially in Jashore and Rajshahi which experience considerably less rainfall prior to and during the monsoon than Barisal. This preliminary work demonstrates the potential value of using a refined agronomic definition of the monsoon onset to assist farmers' decision making and improve the timeliness of aman rice nursery establishment. ","tokenCount":"5185"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bc2e7f90a360b43b813522b3913e6909","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/17c4efa0-8fce-4d44-8665-4e9461d33dfc/retrieve","id":"-227993903"},"keywords":["Sweet potato","organge-f1esh","seedling population","leaf shape","emerging leaf colour","skin colour","flesh colour","storage root yield"],"sieverID":"8e8d40a1-714f-4850-ae53-69403c8ab4da","pagecount":"6","content":"Clonal evaluation was carried out with 1630 orange-fleshed sweet potato seedlings from controlled crosses of 'Jewel' population introduced from International Potato Centre (CIP), Lima, Peru. Morphological observations like leaf shape, emerging leaf colour, skin colour and flesh colour of storage root, weight of vine and storage root yield per plant were recorded. Wide variation was observed for all the qualitative and quantitative characters. Three types of leaf shapes were exhibited by the clones (cordate-81.65%, slightly lobed-16.69% and narrowly lobed-1.66%), while emerging leaf colour ranged between green (92.5%) to purple (7.5%). Four shades were observed in skin colour of storage roots varying from pink (35.21%), green (22.39%), 'purple (19.69%) to light pink colour (13.74%). The flesh colour of storage roots were observed to range from orange (37.48%), light orange (28.71%), dark orange (6.38%), cream (15.46%) to yellow (0.55%). The vine weight and root weight, being a quantitative character, varied according to the clone and environmental conditions (0.17 to 1.3 kg per plant). The vine weights of all the clones were higher in the lowland conditions than the upland conditions. Based on the evaluation of 1630 clones for tuber yield, tuber shape, p-carotene content and other agronomic characters, 224 clones were selected as superior progenies for recombination and sib-mating from which promising orange-fleshed varieties of considerable value can be generated.Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam), a member of the morning glory family, is an important vegetable cum food crop grown in the tropics, sub-tropics and warm temperate regions of the world for its edible storage roots.The leaves and storage roots are used as a potential source of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals and vitamins. The top portions of the plant, including the leaves contain moisture, crude protein, fibre and ash along with vitamin A and calcium. The dietary fibre content of the storage roots are reported to increase with the age of the plant, although at present it is not used for human consumption (Woolfe, 1992). In addition to its importance as human food, it also provides raw material for industrial purposes and animal feed. The flesh colour of the root varies from white to dark-orange depending upon the pigment present. Orange-fleshed sweet potato roots contain significant amounts of ~-carotene, starch, dietary fibre, minerals, vitamins (especially vitamin C, B6 and folate) as well as antioxidants such as phenolics and tocopherol (Woolfe, 1992). The composition and contents of nutrients in sweet potato vary greatly depending upon genetic and environmental factors (Bovell-Benjamin, 2007). In the orange-fleshed storage root, the major carotenoid pigment is the p-carotene, which is a precursor of vitamin A. Consumption of carotenoid-rich foods has been related to prevention of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other degenerative processes involving oxidative stress (Willet, 1990;Sies and Stahl, 2003).The efficacy of p-carotene rich orange-fleshed variety compared with a white-fleshed variety in preventing vitamin A deficiency has been demonstrated among primary school children from South Africa (Jaarsveld et al., 2005) and Sub-Saharan Africa (Low et aI., 2001).The incorporation of orange-fleshed sweet potato in the meals of 3-6 year old Indonesian children, who were marginally deficient in vitamin A showed an increased serum retinol concentration (JalaI et aI., 1996). Also, The frequencies of all the traits recorded from 1630 hybrid progenies were classified and segregation pattern for each character was analyzed.Breeding programme involving large populations are necessary to make effective selection for a desired trait as each seedling represents an independent genotype which could possibly become a variety. Hence, each seedling has to be evaluated for the econonllc traits and better ones are to be promoted for subsequent testing and selection, while the rest are rejected in each cycle of evaluation. In the present study, wide range of variation was observed for leaf shape, emerging leaf colour, skin and flesh colour of storage root, storage root weight and vine weight in 1630 clones under upland and lowland conditions.In the present study various shapes ofleaves (Fig. 1) were identified in sweet potato which ranged from round, reniform, cordate, triangular, hastate to lobed as reported by H uaman (1991). The frequency distribution for leaf shape of 1630 sweet potato clones showed that the maximum frequency was observed in cordate shape (81.65%) followed by the lobed leaves. The lobed leaves included slightly 3-lobed, 5-lobed and narrowly 3-lobed and 5-lobed. The slightly lobed (16.69%) and narrowly lobed (1.66%) leaf types were in low frequencies.Majority of clones possessed varying degrees of cordate leaf shape which may be due to the involvement of cordate leaf shaped parents in the cross combinations.In sweet potato, in addition to the storage root characters, leaf shape and emerging leaf colour are two important traits which are used to identifY a particular clone.Depending on the sweet potato cultivar, the emerging that green colour may be an incompletely dominant trait which was followed by different shades of purple colour (7.5%). The above results are in confirmation to that by Vimala and Nair (1988).The vine weight is a quantitative character which varies according to the clone and environmental conditions. It was found to range considerably among the clones as well as between upland and lowland conditions (Fig. 2).The vine weights of all the clones were higher in the lowland condition than the upland which could be due to the availability of high moisture in the lowland. The vine weight ranged from 0.17 to 1.30 kg per plant.Majority of the clones were found to possess less than 0.17 kg (62.09%) followed byO.17 -0.33 kg (27.61%).The clones which possessed 0.33 -0.50 kg and 0.53 -0.67 kg vine was in low frequencies (6.13% and 3.68% respectively). In the lowland, only seven clones (0.49%) exhibited a very high shoot weight of above 0.67 kg. In the upland conditions, the highest shoot yield was found to fall under the category ofless than 0.17 kg (51.84%) followed by 0.17 -0.33 kg (37.91%). The clones which.produced a vine weight of 0.33 -0.50 kg and 0.50 -0.67 kg constituted about 7.55% and 2.58% respectively.The highest vine yield of above 0.67 kg was exhibited by 20 clones (0.12%).AI; sweet potato is a polyploid species and a number of allelles controls each single character, the segregation of genes allows the expression of a wide range of colours (Constantin, 1965;Hernandez et al. 1965;1967). Of the 1630 clones, 8.96% did not produce storage roots.A wide variety of skin colours of the storage root ranging from purple, cream, pink. and light pink. were observed in the present study (Fig. 1). Maximum percentage (35.21 %) of hybrids possessed pink. skin followed by cream (22.39%), purple (19.69%) and light pink. colour (13.74%). Earlier reports (Hernandez et al., 1965;1967) indicated that coloured skin is incompletely dominant over white or cream skin colour in sweet potato. High heritability for tuber shape and flesh colour was reported by Jones et al. (1969Jones et al. ( ,1976) ) and Jones (1977Jones ( ,1988)).Flesh  et al. (1965; 1967) orange colour behaved as a typical character and several additive genes were involved in controlling the carotenoid pigment.The storage root weight was also found to vary among the clones as well as in the upland and lowland conditions (Fig. 2). It was observed that the storage root yield of all the clones under lowland were higher than the upland.At both sites, it ranged from 0.17 to 1.3 kg per plant. In the lowland, no tuberisation was observed in 9% of the clones. However, 63.5% clones had a root weight of < 0.17 kg. The clones which possessed 0.33 -0.50 kg and 0.53 -0.67 kg root yield were 15.28% and 10.55% respectively. Very low frequency (1.72%) of clones had above 0.67 kg root weight. In the upland conditions, out of the total 1630 clones, 15.40% did not produce storage roots, while majority (75.09%) of clones produced < 0.17 kg. Low frequency of hybrids (6.2%  1977). Jones et al. (1969) reported that storage root weight is an important component of yield in sweet potato and it could be expressed as differential plant vigour. Variation in storage root yield may be either due to the difference in the number of storage roots per plant or size of individual roots (Lowe and Wilson, 1975) .. The present study showed that some of the crosses gave superior progenies indicating the pre-potency of some clones for superior seedling habits for yield and other agronomic characters. Similar results were also reported by Vimala and Nair (1988).Sweet potato is a hexaploid, pollinated and vegetatively propagated crop. Though it is an important food crop, very little attention has been given for the improvement of this crop. For any crop improvement programme it is important to know the inheritance pattern of the characters. A study on the entire spectrum of variability, regardless of its commercial value is necessary to obtain the knowledge of inheritance pattern Gones, 1966). The high morphological polymorphism exhibited by cultivated varieties of I batatashas been reported by Sihachakr and Ducreux (1987) which also helped to specifY'their centre of origin (Austin, 1987). Estimation of genetic variability of a particular crop is a prerequisite for making any effective breeding programe. The present work has provided a preliminary morphological and agronomical characterization of orange-fleshed sweet potato. Using morphological traits, grouping of clones based on similar and shared characters provided information on the genetic base of the available orange-fleshed sweet potato. Flesh colour showed high polymorphism among the cultivars compared to other characters. It is noteworthy that upper limit of range was high in lowland conditions for most of the quantitative characters. The range of variation observed for all the traits makes it difficult to classifYthe clones into discrete classes, since considerable variation existed between the classes. The existence of continuous and overlapping variation points towards the quantitative nature of all morphological characters studied. The parental combinations having high frequency of superior progeny will increase the selection efficiency when there is a high mean and variance for the attribute. Based on the evaluation of 1630 clones for tuber yield, tuber shape, p-carotene content and other agronomic characters, 22 4 clones were selected for further evaluation. The study indicated that the selection of a number of superior progenies would provide a large gene pool for recombination and sib-mating from which promising orange-fleshed varieties of considerable value could be generated. ","tokenCount":"1693"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d51f7d2dc5384f035df59c52d1dcedda","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c63d3ff1-14fa-426e-a8ba-04173d341c83/retrieve","id":"1540981115"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2e4ad37f-6725-4445-9b42-57ff1a4687cd","pagecount":"10","content":"• Cassava program works along the entire value chain.• Farmers, NARES and the private sectors are key in product development and material release.• Strategic alliances allow us to explore new markets and get better results from our breeding trials.What we are working on nowReliable information on the problems and challenges of the value chain in the region. Poltec, Agrosavia, ADS, Farmers and associationsSearch for new talent and expertise in different areas of knowledge.Different environments for breeding trials Agrosavia, Poltec, Fundación Santo Domingo y Universidad de Cordoba. • Supporting the design of products, connection with the sector and evaluation locations. • Development and promotion of new products and released materials.• Develop new varieties Thanks!","tokenCount":"113"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1e32866633a81027dfc533ef9a9d48e6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14407c7a-6c9b-44ea-9559-8fe8fa1ba72c/retrieve","id":"-1081470192"},"keywords":["2 12 Cluster -1","3 2 Cluster -1","4 3 Flagship Project -2 39 Cluster -2","1 8 Cluster -2","2 15 Cluster -2","3 3 Cluster -2","4 5 Cluster -2","5 1 Cluster -2","6 1 Cluster -2","7 6 Flagship Project -3 41 Cluster -3","1 15 Cluster -3","2 13 Cluster -3","3 3 Cluster -3","5 4 Cluster -3","6 6 Flagship Project -4 19 Cluster -4","1 4 Cluster -4","2 9 Cluster -4","3 1 Cluster -4","4 5 Flagship Project -5 35 Cluster -5","1 13 Cluster -5","2 2 Cluster -5","3 3 Cluster -5","4 17 TOTAL 152"],"sieverID":"b6700a21-b5a7-48e9-aab6-e3b1569fa8fe","pagecount":"87","content":"A P R I L 2 0 1 9 RTB RTB Annual Report 2018 Published by the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) is a partnership collaboration led by the International Potato Center implemented jointly with Bioversity International, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), that includes a growing number of research and development partners. RTB brings together research on its mandate crops: bananas and plantains, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, yams, and minor roots and tubers, to improve nutrition and food security and foster greater gender equity especially among some of the world's poorest and most vulnerable populations. www.rtb.cgiar.org RTB would like to thank all CGIAR Trust Fund contributors who supported this research.Root, tuber and banana crops -cassava, potatoes, sweetpotatoes, yams, bananas, plantains, and tropical and Andean roots and tubers -are important staple crops providing around 15% or more of the calorie intake for the 763 million people in least developed countries. The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas plays a leading role in catalyzing more than 300 research and development organizations to maximize the contribution of these crops to tackle hunger and malnutrition, reduce poverty and make smallholder farmers more resilient to climate change.High-yielding varieties, resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses and with enhanced nutritional value are being developed in partnership with national breeding programs for all crops. In 2018, a study in Southeast and South Asia showed CIP-related varieties adopted on 19% (7.4M ha in 7 countries; estimated 3M households) of the area under improved potato and on 5% (0.14M ha in 8 countries) of the area under improved sweetpotato varieties. Moreover, an economic analysis in Nigeria, demonstrated that adoption of improved cassava varieties has allowed about 1.6 million individuals to escape poverty.Improvements to breeding programs can enhance impact across the program. Recognizing the shared challenges of breeding for clonally propagated crops, the RTB participant centers (CIAT, CIP, IITA) that underwent assessments, agreed to share results to promote cross-learning and to articulate a joint response that will support modernization of their breeding programs. Advances in genomic selection and metabolomic techniques and innovative breeding schemes across RTB crops are presented in this report.RTB is at the cutting edge of new thinking around gender, leading the Gender and Breeding Initiative which created new tools for the design of gender responsive product profiles linked to the stage-gates proposed by the Excellence in Breeding Platform to leverage improvements in gender equity.Novel tools for seed system analysis can enhance impact. This report shares the experience gained by RTB partners in using network analysis to design impactful seed system interventions and in developing digital tools (i.e. Cassava Seed Tracker™) for enhancing quality seed production and market access.Solutions developed in one geographical context can be deployed globally, as demonstrated by the biological control of cassava mealybug in Thailand that drew directly on earlier CGIAR research in Africa and generated direct economic benefits for small holders while influencing international market trends.Policies and institutions play a crucial role in enabling impactful scaling process. By sharing scientific evidence with national partners and decision-makers, RTB contributed in the design of policies, regulatory framework and plans in: a) Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, Peru (seed regulations); b) Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (regional plan to control cassava mosaic disease); c) Nigeria, Tanzania and African regional agencies (promotion and support of biofortification).In 2018, high visibility for the topic includes the implementation of a dedicated scaling fund, presentation of the Scaling Readiness Approach at the World Food Prize ceremony and the preparation of a special journal issue on scaling.PART A: Narrative SectionFourteen evaluative and impact assessment studies published in 2018 document how the results obtained by RTB, its implementing centers and partners, contribute to the achievement of the SRF targets linked with System Level Outcomes (SLOs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Summaries, available in Table 1, include: SDG1 -NO POVERTY: Adoption of improved cassava varieties in Nigeria tracked using data from DNA-fingerprinting in  showed that two-thirds of cassava growers were using improved varieties developed through collaboration between IITA and NRCRI. Economic analysis demonstrated that this allowed about 1.6 million individuals to escape poverty (using a poverty line of USD 1.9 per person per day) this represents 7.5% of individuals belonging to cassava producing households living in poverty (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/97927).The Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA) project was established in 2005 by IITA, Bioversity International, and CIAT to overcome the effects of conflict that had disrupted food production of bananas, cassava, legumes and maize. CIALCA developed and disseminated over 30 agricultural R4D technologies. A survey of 596 adopters and 360 non-adopters, using econometric analysis showed adoption of AR4D technologies reduced the probability of being poor by 13%. A large share of poverty reduction is causally attributable to adoption of improved varieties (32%) followed by post-harvest technologies (28%) and crop and natural resource management (26%). Findings indicate that relatively poor farm households benefit from adopting improved crop varieties more than better-off households (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/92931).A study in Thailand shows how the adoption of biological control measures for cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti), with the introduction of a host-specific parasitoid (Anagyrus lopezi provided by IITA) by the Thai Department of Agriculture and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute involving international collaboration from CIAT, has contributed in restoring the cassava yield that dropped by 27% after the arrival of the cassava mealybug (first reported in 2008) and influenced global starch prices and changes in global trade and finance. Biological control provides direct economic benefits of US$200-704 per ha annually at farm-gate prices in Thailand which mostly benefited small holders (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/97455).Studies on the adoption of improved potato and sweetpotato varieties in Southeast and South Asia used a refined expert elicitation approach. For both crops, breeding programs focused first  on highyielding varieties to combat undernourishment. Thereafter, traits related with enhanced crop resilience and nutritional value were included to cope with global challenges such as climate change, related biotic stresses, and the awareness of the importance of micronutrients in rural diets. For potato, the study found that 97% of the area (7.6M ha in 2015) was planted to improved varieties. Of this, 19% is cultivated with varieties originated from CIP-related material benefitting about 3M households, particularly in China, India and Nepal (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/97694). For sweetpotato, 88% of the area (3.6M ha in 2015) was planted to improved varieties. Of this, 5%, mostly concentrated in China, Vietnam and Indonesia, is cultivated with varieties originated from CIP-related material (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/98395).NB: RTB preferred not to develop an overall short text for the CRP and add more insights in the Flagship sections (see also Executive Summary).The objective of FP1 is to develop and apply leading-edge science for faster and more precise development of user-demanded varieties, overcome the limitations of conventional breeding for clonal crops, and enhance the long-term conservation and use of genetic diversity.The Crops to End Hunger multi-donor initiative is supporting modernization of CGIAR breeding programs. Consequently, breeding programs were evaluated by an external group of experts using the Breeding Program Assessment Tool (BPAT). By end of 2018, all RTB breeding programs went through the BPAT, and RTB is developing a shared response to address the main recommendations, to add value to the improvement plans. The RTB breeding community of practice is assisting breeders to develop varietal product profiles for RTB crops in market segments of major target environments (either regional or within country agroecologies) with the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Platform (EiB).There were advances in genomics research across the RTB crops, which will result in novel approaches for genomics-assisted breeding. High quality genome sequences of the two diploid relatives of sweetpotato, I. trifida and I. triloba, were published, and the genome assemblies shown to be robust references for the hexaploid sweetpotato (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06983-8). There were significant advances in the application of genomic selection (GS) for complex traits such as resistance to Cassava Brown Streak Disease in cassava (https://doi.org/10. 1534/g3.118.200710; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19696-1) and fruit filling and fruit bunch traits in banana (https://doi.org/10.3835/plantgenome2017.10.0090). These studies showed improved predictions for GS for certain traits, either by modifying the populations used and/or the prediction models.A prototype Global in situ on-line Information System, to systematically monitor diversity including landraces and crop wild relatives, has been developed, and data for banana collected by teams in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and for potato in Peru (https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/97454) have been uploaded on the website to test the import process, the user interface and display.Metabolomics serves to identify potential biomarker metabolites and to link them to characteristic traits, in effect, elucidating the relationship between genotype and phenotype/traits. In collaboration with Royal Holloway, University of London, metabolomic techniques were implemented to characterize 23 cassava varieties (https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b04769). Metabolite profiles, obtained by analyzing material at the in vitro plantlet stage, revealed some correlations with phenotypic variation which will be further investigated for causal relationships. Results illustrate the utility of the approach to classify accessions in large gene banks and characterize parental materials to be used in future breeding efforts.The objective of FP2 is to make available good-quality planting materials of a diverse set of high-yielding RTB varieties that are adapted to the needs and preferences of different stakeholders in the value chain.There were significant advances in population improvement across the RTB breeding programs, together with large increases in the numbers of new hybrids evaluated in multi-location trials with national organization partner breeding programs. For instance, IITA and NARO significantly progressed in breeding East African Highland Bananas (EAHB), also known as Matooke, and Mchare hybrids with resistance to several pests and diseases, and the first joint preliminary yield trial evaluation of 92 independently developed hybrids is underway. Assessment of consumer acceptability of Matooke hybrids is ongoing and, so far, five hybrids have been found to be acceptable.In Tanzania, three cassava breeding lines with tolerance to cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) and resistance to cassava mosaic disease (CMD), developed in collaboration with Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), are being evaluated in National Performance Trials. They were highly accepted by farmers (yield and enduse traits) during on-farm evaluation and will be officially released during late 2019 or early 2020. Other breeding lines are in the pipeline combining very good tolerance to CBSD and CMD resistance.Population hybrid breeding by separating parent lines into distinct heterotic groups, has shown impressive genetic gains in sweetpotato for storage root yield (from 10.9 tons/Ha to 18.5 tons/Ha). This approach is now being applied in Uganda, Ghana and Mozambique (https://doi.org/10.13140/RG. 2.2.13436.18569) Evidence of the usefulness of the application of the seed system toolbox has been published. Based on the experience gained with 13 case studies that included all the RTB crops, an analytical framework for seed interventions was documented (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/93374) and the factors hindering these interventions to reach their full potential were assessed (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/99184). Using network analysis, the structure of informal sweetpotato seed system in Northern Uganda was evaluated for its vulnerability to the spread of epidemics, and its utility for disseminating improved varieties. (https://dx.doi.org/10.1101/107359).The Cassava Seed Tracker™ (http://seedtracker.org/cassava/) is the world's first web-app for seed value chain integration for enhancing quality seed production and market access to help seed producers meet their potential. It has been adopted by the Nigerian National Agricultural Seed council (NASC) to implement certification of cassava seed production fields.The objective of FP3 is to close yield gaps arising from biotic and abiotic threats and to develop more resilient production systems, thereby strengthening food security and improving natural resource quality.Partnerships with National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPO) allowed for addressing the spread of major diseases in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (see case of South-East Asia plan for cassava mosaic disease in Table 2) and in Kenya (see case of potato cyst nematodes in Table 2). Easiness and accuracy of disease detection and monitoring has been supported through the development of new diagnostic and ICT-based tools (see also list of Innovations -Table 4 -and Milestones -Table 5).Gender-responsive research showed how crucial is the role that women play in managing banana plantations in East Africa (https://gennovate.org/) and how gender-based constraints (i.e. limited access, ownership and decision-making power on household resources ) may affect the adoption of management practices that help control plant disease epidemics (i.e. banana Xanthomonas wilt in Uganda; https://doi.org/10.5897/JDAE2017.0877).Optimizing the sustainable use of natural resources, including water, while enhancing productivity is one of the main objectives of agronomic research. New findings show that sustainability of cropping systems can be improved by:• appropriate irrigation techniques, i.e. partial root-zone drying, to increase water use efficiency (50% less water used compared with full irrigation), reduce CO2 emissions (by up to 14% when compared with drip irrigation) and maintain potato yield (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/96637); • establishment of efficient irrigation schedules for potato using infrared radiometry as a tool for early water deficit detection to increase yield (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11540-018-9400-5); • potato-based intercropping systems with legumes to increase profitability (up to 24%) while protecting soil (up to 23% increase in ground cover at tuber initiation stage) and increasing soil moisture content (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/93377); • agroecological approaches, such as the integration of shade-and drought-tolerant crops, nitrogenfixing and cover crops to improve soil fertility and moisture retention, reduce the weed burden, narrow yield gaps and increase overall plot/farm productivity in banana-based systems (https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1196.5).The objective of FP4 is to broaden the nutritional potential of RTB crops, expand their utilization, and add value through postharvest innovation.In 2018, progress was made in the inclusion of biofortification as a national (Nigeria and Tanzania) and regional priority in African agriculture, health and food-based interventions (see list of strategies and plans influenced in Table 2). After the initial development in Nigeria and Tanzania, the prototype of a low-cost and energy-efficient smallscale flash dryer for cassava has been installed and tested in Colombia and Ghana in collaboration with local manufacturers, processors and the University of Greenwich (report here) .Ongoing efforts to add value to RTB crop by-products and contribute to reducing post-harvest losses (PHL) are resulting in new findings and innovations. In Uganda, analysis of the cooking banana value chain showed that about 15% of the total production is affected by PHL. Recommendations on how to reduce physical and economic losses at different stages in the value chain have been formulated (https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072381).Opportunities for integration of high-quality cassava peels (HQCP) and sweetpotato silage in animal feed in Nigeria and Uganda are being explored. In Nigeria, partners in the HQCP scaling project have developed or adapted two mobile phone applications (i.e. Cassava Peel Tracker© and FeedCalculator©) that helped in mapping more than 1,000 fresh cassava peels sellers and in better linking them with other value chain actors (e.g. peels processors and feed millers).Check Table 4 for more details about the reported innovations.The objective of FP5 is to improve livelihoods by supporting the scaling of RTB innovations in agri-food systems for all RTB actors and their RTB agroecologies.In 2018, the analysis of programmatic research priorities was supported by foresight and ex-ante analysis of potential impacts of RTB innovations. Alternate modeling approaches were used to assess current research priorities for potato (https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvx044) and potential economic and poverty reduction impacts were considered to assess research priorities for cassava in Africa, Asia and Latin America (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/96587). Moreover, RTB contributed in developing a framework for prioritysetting in climate smart agriculture research (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/97614).RTB crops provide up to 15% or more of the daily per capita dietary energy for the 763 million people living in the least developed countries and, in these countries, they are the second most important group of crops for food security (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/97427). Scaling of RTB innovations can significantly enhance this contribution.information on more than 1,200 cassava processing centres generating tons of fresh peels per day in south west Nigeria (http://seedtracker.org/peeltracker/). See section 2.7-Use of W1-2 funding for more information on the three new scaling projects.RTB awards earmarked W1-2 funding for synergistic multi-crop and center work in order to focus efforts and build critical mass through a competitive selection process based upon evidence of progress and other criteria. This led to an expansion of research areas listed below, that will be effective in 2019:• Adaption and implementation of methods and tools for gender-sensitive product profile design;• Testing of crowdsourcing approach to support large scale participatory varietal selection schemes;• Development of stewardship and regulatory frameworks allowing the deployment of genetically engineered products; • Advance the understanding of untapped potential of RTB in-situ diversity through genotyping and improve knowledge management and sharing; • Analysis of RTB market trends and consumer preferences in rural and urban and identification of traits linked with preferred biochemical characteristics; • Gender-sensitive analysis of RTB value chains, with special interests to seed value chains.• Agri-preneurial opportunities in RTB value chains for young men and women.Additionally, responding to emergent diseases in an agile way two new awards were made for rapid response to transboundary and emerging disease: cassava mosaic disease in Asia, banana Foc TR4 in Mozambique and India.In the context of the already mentioned competitive process and despite a potentially strong overall rationale for investing in these areas, three research proposals did not pass the selection process and earmarked funding was terminated: 1) next generation breeding tools 2) use of cropping systems data and development of decision support tools; 3) analysis of tradeoffs and associated mitigation strategies towards responsible scaling of intensification technologies and practices in two RTB farming systems.A stocktaking exercise is underway on the adoption/impact assessment studies that generate evidence on the progress along the RTB impact pathways. The exercise will systematically document existing evidence of progress towards outcomes/impact, the main gaps and possible synergies among program participants (e.g. thematic areas, geographies, methods) to orient future planning.In 2018, RTB is reporting 152 peer-reviewed journal articles, 87% of which have been published in an ISI journal and 78% as \"Open Access\". (See Table 6 and full list of publications). Some of the journal articles that received high Altmetric Attention Scores in 2018 are highlighted in this section together with those articles that recorded a high number of views and downloads in CGSpace.Note to the reader: The Altmetric Attention Score for a research output provides an indicator of the amount of attention that it has received. The score is derived from an automated algorithm and represents a weighted count of the amount of attention we've picked up for a research output. (More information at this link).Two pest management related articles got high Altmetric Attention scores. A review of 132 studies and 6,759 sites worldwide to model natural enemy and pest abundances, predation rates, and crop damage as a function of landscape composition was tweeted 210 times and appeared in news and blogs posted in America, Australia, Asia and Europe (https://cgspace.altmetric.com/details/45922020). The second study, an analysis of the successful biological control of cassava mealybug applied in Asia, shows an example of how ecologically-based tactics support resilience and safeguard primary productivity in tropical agro-ecosystems, which in turn help stabilize commodity prices and can deliver ample 'hidden' environmental and human-health benefits that are not captured by the prices of globally-traded commodities (https://cgspace.altmetric.com/details/46507535). A third article on the influence of landscape context on effective biological control of cassava mealybug in Vietnam accounted for 33,434 views in CGSpace even if the Altmetric score was not high (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/90969).In the area of seed systems, the review of the effectiveness of five planting material multiplication methods commonly used in banana to address seed degeneration in the small farm context was tweeted 50 times (https://cgspace.altmetric.com/details/51286292). A network analysis of Vietnamese and Cambodian cassava seed systems showing stakeholder interactions and seed movements at farmer, community and national scale also got a relatively high Altmetric Attention Score (https://cgspace.altmetric.com/details/51078703).A review of genomics-assisted breeding approaches in RTB received the second highest number of views (19,630) for RTB knowledge products in CGSpace. Current status and future perspectives for developing and implementing genomic resources and approaches in RTB breeding programs, including sequenced draft genomes, SNP discovery, quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and genomic selection (GS), are presented in this paper (https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/93441).The RTB gender team participated with gender researchers from different CG centers and CRPs in the synthesis and publication of findings from the global comparative research initiative (GENNOVATE) that addressed questions on how gender norms and agency (capacity of individuals to act independently) influence men, women considering intersectionality with youth to innovate in agriculture and natural resource management. Two papers that described the scale, structure and methodology of the study, were published in a dedicated journal issue with three research papers that present findings of what influences men and women's capacity to innovate (https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.312018.3). A summary of findings from the RTB cases in GENNOVATE was shared with partners, stakeholders and practitioners (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/98839). A brief on gender and mechanization, with examples from RTB crops, was presented in the 18th Triennial Symposium of The International Society of Tropical Root Crops, receiving the best presentation award.The RTB gender team in coordination with the social scientists and specific technical areas published two journal articles and a working paper for gender-responsive scaling of sweetpotato multiplication technologies (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2018.05.003), to address gender-based constraints that influence cassava production, processing and marketing (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmpp.2018.11.007), and to enhance targeting, promotion and sustained uptake of pest and disease management practices. The project \"Starting a New Partnership Model for Food Security in the Asia Pacific (FoodSTART+)\" published a technical report on gender dimensions of farming practices in root and tuber crops and guidelines for gender-sensitive R&D actions by partner IFAD investments. FoodSTART+ promoted the Farmer Business School approach with gender and climate change perspective and in partnerships with IFAD investment projects, 1,175 farmers have been enrolled in FBS, of whom 67% are female.RTB leads the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative (GBI) which published three working papers on: i) gender and social targeting in plant breeding, ii) a framework to capture and respond to demand through breeding, and iii) case studies on gender in breeding. The information generated by these studies enabled the development of a \"Decision Checklist for Gender-Responsive Breeding\" as an overarching framework to enhance gender considerations in critical decision points across the breeding cycle. This tool was shared through a webinar and two new tools were designed to address gender and social targeting, and gender-responsive product profile development for breeding programs.Through active interaction and sharing of GBI products and ideas within RTB, breeders from different RTB crops have internalized messages and are currently planning the integration of the gender-responsive tools for the development of product profiles. Partnerships with EiB and the Gender Researchers Equipped for Agricultural Transformation (GREAT) project funded by BMGF, were consolidated. Thus, the EiB platform is exploring mechanisms to formally internalize GBI approaches and tools in their product profile development processes.A paper that provides a cross regional perspective on gender aspirations and occupations among rural youth in agriculture (https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.312018.4) was published as part of GENNOVATE. This paper shows that youth and gender issues are strongly connected and cannot be understood in isolation. Both young men and women for example, pursue formal sector employment and seek to apply their education and training. Whereas some young men aspired for knowledge-intensive or \"modern\" agriculture-related occupations, young women showed no comparable interest. These findings show clearly that opening pathways for young women in agriculture will require addressing the intersecting inequalities they face on the basis of age and gender and will particularly require tackling gender norms that maintain the invisibility of their contributions to agriculture and other productive activities. Thus, the gender team has developed intersectional approaches and tools to further explore youth issues and open-up their voices with other actors. One of the approaches adopted is the use of community videos and community video viewing to generate both intergenerational discussion and opportunity to influence policy makers. Participatory videos can amplify young people's voices with local level policy makers. A guide for gender responsive participatory videos (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/92884) was published and used with communities in Uganda and Vietnam.Work with young people has also highlighted that they are not a homogenous category or group. Young people in conflict and post conflict situations such as those in study areas in Northern Uganda and those suffering from ethnic discrimination such as in Vietnam or other forms of deprivation may need different approaches to ensure that agriculture provides opportunities for decent livelihoods for them.Researchers from RTB gender team presented two pieces of work on Youth in Agriculture (for Vietnam and Uganda respectively) at the CGIAR gender research platform meeting which took place in Addis Ababa in October 2018. One of the papers focusing on the Hmong in Vietnam concluded that understanding young people's changing ethnic positions can be a first step to identify their opportunities and challenges in agriculture. The other study focused on banana producing areas in Uganda concluded that young people's perceptions of wellbeing and aspirations are a key determinant factor to their engagement in agriculture.In Kenya young people's aspirations of income generation and business advancement were matched with business skills training and business plan development to establish potato production and transformation initiatives. Groups of young people organized themselves to manage potato supply, having members plant potato staggered over time to ensure a consistent supply of potatoes for chips. Working with seed businesses run by youth, young producers were also registering to produce certified seed as a parallel spinoff initiative. The approach piloted through this experience will be analyzed to derive lessons to engage youth in agricultural value chains in line with their aspirations and available opportunities.Capacity development activities contribute in developing future research leaders; in promoting organizational and institutional changes; in facilitating more equitable participation in and ability to benefit from innovation and scaling processes. In this section some of the results achieved in 2018 are highlighted.In Kenya, a large CIP-led community-level agriculture-nutrition intervention implemented a combination of nutrition education and social and behavior communication. A study of the effect of the intervention on caregivers' behavior relating to infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices showed that early breastfeeding initiation is largely adopted (75%). Adoption of other practices included: provision of diverse diets (21%); and incorporation of OFSP roots (21%) and OFSP leaves (11%) in the diets of young children (https://doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2018.1492382).Several projects facilitated field training, mostly for extensionists and farmers. A total of 57,000 trainees (53% female) participated in sessions on seed and crop management, including pest and disease control and climate smart agricultural practices and business skills. Innovative methods, such as the Farmer Business School, are being taken to scale by multi-country projects in Asia (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/96125).Short-term trainings targeted different audiences (i.e. farmers, National Agricultural Research Systems, Research and Development organizations, Non-governmental organizations, private sector). The total number of trainees in short-term training was 86,499 with a well-balanced participation of female (48%) and male (52%) 2 . Long-term trainings recorded 265 trainees (45% female and 55% male). Of these, 118 were PhD (59 completed), 123 MSc (77 completed), 24 BSc (23 completed). See Table 7 for additional details.Training sessions aiming at disseminating RTB innovations were organized. In collaboration with Genebank platform, a practical course was organized on the use of VirusDetect 3 , a high-throughput sequencing of small RNAs method for virus detection (https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTO-02-18-0067-R). Trained scientists in three CGIAR centers (CIP, CIAT, IITA) are now using Insect Life Cycle Modeling software (ILCYM) 4 to generate pest risk maps; the government of Ecuador and national potato program of Tenerife have also shown interest in this tool.The response to climate change is a dimension of research reported earlier in this report. Examples are: irrigation management techniques reported under flagship project 3, sustainable intensification approaches underdevelopment in partnership with RICE (see section 2.2.2) but also climate resilient varieties included in the list of innovations or which adoption has been documented through adoption studies (see section 1.1 and Table 3).RTB strengthened its collaboration with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). This included contributing to a framework for priority setting for climate smart agriculture (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ag). Additionally RTB played a central role in a jointly organized side event at the COP24 on the Agricultural Advantage presenting advances in crop breeding for resilience to climate change for root, tuber and banana crops. Varieties currently grown may not tolerate the higher levels of heat, drought, salinity and emerging diseases anticipated. There is a large genetic reserve we can tap into for improved tolerance and adaptation, and breeding programs are already targeting some traits.RTB scientists joined a team conducting a potato crop multi-model assessment to quantify variation among models and evaluate responses to climate change. Nine modeling groups simulated agronomic and climatic responses at low-input (Chinoli, Bolivia and Gisozi, Burundi) and high-input (Jyndevad, Denmark and Washington, United States) management sites. Using median model ensemble values, yield increased on average 6% per 100-ppm C, declined 4.6% per °C, and declined 2% for every 10% decrease in rainfall (for nonirrigated sites). These are the first reported results quantifying uncertainty for tuber/root crops and suggest modeling assessments of climate change impact on potato may be improved using an ensemble approach (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/77378).Impact Network Analysis (INA) is being used widely across different RTB seed system studies to improve researchers' understanding of farmers' seed exchange networks. A review was published by the University of Florida on how network analysis can be used to address complex questions such as the effect of climate change on seed degeneration and seed systems, by explaining how information, pathogens, technologies, etc. move across seed networks and ultimately affect seed access, availability and seed quality in a climate change context (https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035326).The composition of the RTB Independent Steering Committee (ISC) changed as two new independent members joined. The ISC held four virtual and one face-to-face meeting. The ISC plays a key advisory role reporting to the CIP Board of Trustees annually. The consultancy group Aline supported the ISC to conduct its yearly selfevaluation: perceptions on the frequency and quality of ISC meetings has gone up since 2017. The following priorities were identified in the self-evaluation: i) Providing strategic guidance and technical input to flagship leaders, ii) Enhancing visibility of research and results, iii) Identification of funding opportunities and iv) Monitoring and evaluation.The ISC contributed to an internal review of gender research in RTB which was instrumental in setting priorities for gender research. The ISC supported a coordinated response to the recommendations received by the different Centers following the evaluation of their breeding programs using the Breeding Performance Assessment Tool (BPAT).RTB program management depends upon five flagship and 25 cluster leaders. In 2018 two flagship leaders and three cluster leaders changed. Maintaining momentum and an adequate balance of disciplines was identified as a challenge. Systematic attention was given to putting in place a transition plan to ensure a smooth hand-over.RTB as a multi-center and crop CRP seeks to leverage synergies of clonally propagated crops. This puts it in a unique position compared to the other Agri-Food System CRPs with a strong underlying rationale for collective action. In 2017 as part of its response to the IEA evaluation, the centers agreed to implement six strategic statements on the RTB Partner Collaboration (See document here). Good progress has been made but it is timely to take stock and address any key concerns. The ISC requested that the DDGs Research report on progress in the first quarter of 2019. One of the strategic statements deals with the articulation of talent management across centers. This will be an appropriate moment to assess if staff turnover, disciplinary makeup of teams or appropriate talent management is limiting RTB effectiveness. Three hundred and eighty organizations (380) contributed to the results presented in this annual report. Figure 1 shows the network of partners having contributed to at least a scientific article reported under RTB and or having implemented a joint project or initiative funded by or mapped under RTB. The distribution of partners by organization type is presented in Figure 2. Out of the 380 partners, 38% are academic Institutions, 19% are from a National Agricultural Research System (NARS), 11% are advanced research institutions and 10% are Government departments at national or subnational level.  8 highlights some of the important and innovative partnerships in each one of the five flagship projects. One example of multi-stakeholder partnership at the regional level is represented by the initiative to combat the spread of the cassava mosaic disease (CMD) in South-East Asia. Stakeholders from Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, jointly with international research organizations and development partners have been collaborating since 2015 when the CMD was reported for the first time in Cambodia. In 2017, CMD was detected in other countries, increasing the need for immediate and coordinated action to effectively control the spread of the virus. In 2018, a regional workshop supported by the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21 st Century and CIAT led to the joint development of a response plan, with IITA participation under the RTB umbrella.Only a few examples are included in this narrative section. The list of cross-CGIAR partnerships are presented in Table 9.A cross-crop study on the types of public policies, regulations or regulatory reforms that are in place for seed quality assurance on RTB crops was conducted with PIM, the CGIAR Research Program on Policy, Institutions and Markets. Field work has been finalized in Kenya (potato), Nigeria (cassava), and Vietnam (potato and cassava). The study contributed in improving the understanding of opportunities and bottlenecks in the policy area and will help in better targeting technical support for policy changes in the seed sector where RTB is already showing effective contributions (See Table 2).CIP and IRRI, the lead centers of RTB and RICE, the CGIAR Research Program on Rice, signed a memorandum of understanding to conduct joint research on rice-potato sustainable intensification systems in India. A set of innovations will be developed and tested to allow the cultivation of potato in the rice interseason. In particular: early maturing potato (70-75 days) varieties combined with double transplanting of rice; heat tolerant potato varieties (e.g. Kufri Lima) will be tested in rotation with short duration Kharif rice.In 2018, Centers participating in RTB have directly assumed management of their intellectual assets by handling open access publications, delivering data management plans, variety release through national partners and implementing invention disclosure processes. During 2018 no patent and/or plant variety right applications were filed under the scope of RTB. RTB participant centers did not face any critical issue in the management of their Intellectual Assets.In May 2018, a workshop entitled 'Enhancing Results Based Management in RTB by Harmonizing and Strengthening ME&L systems' was held in Ibadan-Nigeria. Participants included the RTB PMU, representatives from the five participating centers: CIP, Bioversity, CIAT, CIRAD and IITA; and representatives from A4NH and GLDC. The workshop triggered a dynamic of alignment between projects, center and CRP objectives and indicators. The three levels of indicators for CRPs proposed by the System Management Office were reviewed in detail and harmonized with data managed by centers and projects. A standardized reporting framework and minimum data requirements for monitoring and assessment of indicators were developed and used to report activities and results achieved in 2018 and plan for 2019.Monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment studies completed in 2018 have focused on foresight analysis and ex-post impact as key areas. A total of seven foresight studies analyze the context of RTB crops including modelling and, calculations of profitability and market under different socio economic and climate change scenarios. Similarly, two prioritization and optimization strategies were designed and assessed to efficiently address crop diversification, use of climate smart agricultural innovations, and sustainability. These findings and results from two ex-ante assessment studies are guiding priorities in terms of technology development and dissemination to concentrate efforts in areas with the highest potential impact. In parallel twelve ex-post impact assessment studies have been conducted and their findings were aligned to the RTB results management framework to provide evidence for the harmonized indicators identified by the CRP, centers and projects, during the collaborative harmonization exercise conducted in 2018.Please refer to Table 1 and Table  10 for more details.At center and program level, the increased familiarity with and use of online tools for program management (MEL platform) and knowledge management (e.g. CGSpace, Dataverse), as well as the progress made in making them more interoperable, has contributed in making planning and reporting process more efficient. Harmonization of System common indicators and reporting requirements has allowed for cross-center and cross-CRP learning and implementation of joint capacity development activities and development of common training materials.CRP coordination, including the management of flagship project and cluster teams, requires regular interactions and effective use of communication tools. Careful organization of virtual meetings allowed for efficient use of time and resources. Main events attended by several RTB members have been used as opportunities for faceto-face meeting among flagship and cluster members. The RTB annual meeting was held back-to-back with the 18 th Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). This allowed for rational use of resources (staff time and funds) and also strengthened the scientific collaboration with ISTRC. The frequency of RTB annual meeting has been set to 18 instead of 12 months to rationalize costs, the ISC has been limited to five independent members.Institutional. As planned (see POWB 2018), the terms of references of flagships and cluster leaders were revised to mitigate the risks linked with departures/changes in Center staff that assumes these leadership positions. Management Committee members and Center Focal Points successfully supported transition processes for two flagship leaders 5 and three cluster leaders 6 who changed.Programmatic. The reduction of W3 funds allocated to breeding programs was identified at the beginning of the year as a financial risk. A breeding support fund to mitigate this risk was created and maintained even after the re-confirmation of W3 funds for breeding programs. The support fund allowed breeding programs to start organizing and reacting to the recommendations coming from the BPAT assessments.Contextual. Late confirmation of important shares of the total annual budget remain a critical issue for the program management even if System capacity to reliably plan for W1&2 funding has substantially improved.W1-2 funding strengthened RTB as partnership collaboration while ensuring strong focus on results-oriented and high-quality research through internal competitive selection process for funds allocation to cross-cutting clusters and scaling projects. W1-2 funding added value in research areas where synergistic cross-cutting research is most relevant for the program. Key highlights are presented here and more examples in Table 12.Harmonized, interlinked, easily searchable data may contribute in making breeding programs more efficient and effective. With this aim, the RTB Breeding Community of Practice contributed in maintaining and improving breeding support tools (i.e. RTB-base, BrAPI) and in further enriching protocols and trait dictionaries (http://www.cropontology.org/) with gender-responsive scoring methods useful in participatory varietal selection. Trait dictionaries are already integrated in data management tools for breeding, such as the Highly Interactive Data Analysis Platform. Also, in collaboration with FP4, dictionaries for chemical and quality traits are under development.Coordinated evidence-based stewardship of genetically engineered RTB varieties for multiple crops has been initiated in Kenya and Uganda. Joining efforts with national partners may influence the design and application of policies and regulations and may facilitate the release and adoption of new improved varieties. Progress in this area have also been reported in Colombia, where a procedure to assess genome-edited varieties was approved in 2018 (see Table 2).Similarities in seed systems for clonally propagated crops creates a huge opportunity for learning across different seed interventions. RTB developed the seed systems toolbox to support the assessment and the design of impactful seed systems interventions. In 2018, progress has been made in applying and adapting the toolbox in new countries: for cassava in Cambodia and Vietnam (https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2018.00073); for sweetpotato in Uganda (https://dx.doi.org/10.1101/107359).The Scaling Readiness approach has been developed to facilitate the rigorous assessment of innovation readiness for going to scale and to support, through a stepwise approach, the design, implementation and monitoring of scaling strategies. Scaling Readiness is used in the framework of the Scaling Fund to guide the three new projects awarded in 2018. These projects will deploy scaling strategies for: a) small-scale flash dryers for cassava starch and flour; b) seed system innovations to scale market-driven, climate resilient novel potato varieties; and c) orange fleshed sweetpotato purée for safe and nutritious food products. W1-2 funds allowed for maintaining and expanding strategic collaborations with:-Wageningen University, WUR, for research, delivery and capacity development activities in the areas of innovation systems, scaling, use of digital technologies to support collective actions, analysis of sustainability of intensification options in RTB-based systems. -Royal Holloway, University of London, in the area of metabolomic profiling of RTB crops; -University of Florida in the seed systems area; -Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, for delivery and capacity development activities linked with small-scale cassava processing.The total 2018 budget for RTB was USD 93.5M, USD 21.9M (23%) from W1&2, and USD 71.7M (76%) from W3, bilateral and RTB participant centers' own funds. The total W1&2 allocation was composed of USD 19.5M allocated in 2018 and USD 2.4M from 2017 carry-over.RTB total expenditure for the period was USD 83.9M, or 90% of the budget, of which USD 19.1M (23%) was from W1&2, and USD 64.9M (76%) from W3, bilateral and centers' own funds. W1&2 expenses reached 87% execution of the final budget and W3, bilateral and centers' other own expenditure, reached 91% execution.The 2018 level of implementation of W1&2 was 4% higher than in 2017.A total of USD 2.8M for W1&2 was carried forward to 2019. This corresponds principally to Scaling Funds project awards allocated at the end of 2018.PART B: Tables   A diversity panel representing the Musa diversity in the IITA collection was screened for Xanthomonas resistance. Resistance was found in two subspecies of M. acuminata which can be used in breeding of bananas and plantains. Potato lines incorporating bacterial wilt resistance derived from wild potato species have been used to develop breeding populations now being screened in Kenya. Likewise, potato late blight resistant populations were derived from 7 wild species, and another 7 species were used for introgressing drought tolerance. In the yam breeding program, about 15% of the parents used in crosses are landraces and/or genebank accessions. Crossing studies have been carried out between 9 closely related wild species in sweetpotato, to inform future prebreeding approaches. Moreover, 2 wild species have been identified with resistance to the most severe virus disease in sweetpotato, SPVD, which can be used as sources of resistance in breeding.A baseline study was carried out in Uganda and Tanzania. The understanding gained from the baseline research will be fed into the banana breeding pipeline at multiple entry points to assist with breeding banana cultivars that better meet the requirements of the users, including participatory varietal selection taking into account the criteria (or 'trait preferences') that are important to multiple and different users. Crichton, R., Madalla, M., Ainembabazi, J.H., Caron, C., and Van den Bergh, I. 2018. Understanding the agricultural production systems and their socio-economic context in target regions for the introduction of new banana cultivars -Baseline intra-household survey -Summary charts and tables. Bioversity International, Montpellier, France. 72p.A study by IITA on gender-differentiated user needs of cassava showed that the difference between cassava trait preferences expressed by women and men mostly related to the expertise they have on cassavarelated work. Although women mentioned processing-related traits more often than men, this appeared to be related to their higher involvement in processing. In Nigeria, 33 genotypes selected from different advanced yield trials across several locations have been identified as potential pipeline genotypes targeted for final release, having high carotenoid content and high dry matter content. Some of these genotypes are already been rapidly multiplied using SAH technique to make provision for enough planting materials ready to go into on-farm trials for final release.Milestone extended as nutrient-rich varieties are still in evaluations. Locally-adapted and user-demanded post-harvest, storage, and waste utilization technologies and management options developed and tested in 3 countriesThree technologies and practices are under different level of testing in Colombia, Nigeria and Uganda. Utilization of cassava peels for animal feed is ongoing in Nigeria.Actions have been implemented to support the development of the value chain. Utilization of sweetpotato vines silage in Uganda has already been tested for pigs. In 2018, in collaboration with dairy farms, its use has been tested with cows. Initial assessment of utilization of plantain peels and cassava peels as substrate for commercial production of mushrooms started in Colombia. Outcome 4.4: Diet quality indices increased by 20% for at least 2,000,000 farmer households and urban/rural consumers RTB supports the integration of biofortification and use of biofortified crops (OFSP, yellow cassava, Vit-A rich bananas, Fe & Zn dense potatoes) in national and regional policies, strategies and plans in Africa and Asia. Program participants, also in collaboration with HarvestPlus, are implementing intervention (at different stages of development) in more than 15 countries to make biofortified crops and derived nutrient-rich food products more accessible to farmer households and consumers. It's worth to mention that CIP is leading the SWEETPOTATO FOR PROFIT AND HEALTH INITIATIVE a multipartner, multi-donor initiative that seeks to reduce child malnutrition and improve smallholder incomes in 10 million African families by 2020 through the effective production and expanded use of sweetpotato.Techniques for inclusion of sweetpotato as an ingredient in commercially processed baked products (bread, cakes, other local wheat-based products) documented and training material for small scale processors of commercially viable OFSP based products producedResearch in Rwanda demonstrated that OFSP purée can be an economically viable, vit.A enhancing ingredient in commercial baked products. A study on the level of compliance to good manufacturing practices and food safety standards in Kenya showed that special attention to hygiene, microbial quality, and safety of OFSP purée is needed. To better integrate the gender and youth dimensions in multiple RTB initiatives, capacity building was provided to researchers. Tools and method for gender responsive breeding, seed systems development, innovation design and deliver were developed and/or adjusted. Gender analysis is a core component in the assessment RTB value chains and intervention design. New innovations and scaling processes promoted by the new round of three scaling fund projects include a gender component to enhance gender equitable access to the innovation packages and their potential benefits.Gender and youth dimensions better integrated in at least three scaling initiatives developed by RTB and partners.Using the experience and material developed in collaboration with the \"Gender Researchers Equipped for Agricultural Transformation\" Program, RTB researchers provided capacity building to teams engaged with the CIALCA project in Africa. In parallel capacity building was provided to support the analysis of gender relevant data in different scaling projects implemented by CIP in Africa. Capacity building tools were developed to support gender responsive processes in the FoodSTART+ project and with partner institutions.    We fully agree that the clusters need to be revised for congruence with FP problem definition.In the light of reduction in W1&2 and donor requirements for structuring CRP Phase II, there is also a need to reduce the number of clusters. We have already reduced from 32 to 25 clusters, based on five flagships, including a reduction from three to two banana disease clusters.Given this general reduction in numbers of flagships and clusters (coherence in aggregation levels, funding size, etc.) we feel that a single yam cluster is appropriate. In comparison, there are only two clusters each for the geographically much more widely cultivated crops of potato and sweetpotato. In doing so, RTB should also plan for continuous improvements in the data and estimates that support priority assessment.The assumptions behind the priority assessment results need to be cross checked in light of more recent evidence and unless sound and up to-date assumptions are used for ex-ante estimates, investment decisions could be misleading.Also need to be aware of cost implications of continuous improvements under very limited W1&2 funding. Need also to invest scarce resources in expost impact studies.Continuous improvement of data and estimates: Improved information should be available through M&E. But there are cost implications of continuous data improvements. More reasonable to upgrade every three years and major priority assessment every 6 years.Using priority assessment results for fundraising has its limitations as donors in majority have their own mechanisms for setting priorities. This is a good suggestion. ToRs of both flagship project and cluster leaders will include this aspect.We also agree on the value of CRP commissioned External Evaluations; however, the frequency and intensity of these evaluations should be related to the level of available W1&2 funding, with perhaps an evaluation of one flagship per year under higher levels of funding or in alternate years under a lower funding scenario. It is not only the direct cost of implementation but also the cost of the scientists' time involved which now has to be fully budgeted for. We agree with the idea of strengthening the breeding programs. However, this recommendation understates good progress already made and the continuous aim to use up-to-date breeding methods.The new genetic gain platform under discussion should help to address all of these points.However, also need to recognize that strengthening breeding programs requires funding and Priority should be given to assessing demand for clean high-We agree on the importance of seed work in RTB because they are all clonally propagated -and have therefore set up FP2.Seed system experts should be contracted via the relevant centers and not form part of PMU. Given We agree that better integration and visibility in the cluster structure is needed.Agronomic aspects are mainly focused in FP3 but due to the nature/logic of the cluster set up, integrated in different clusters also under other FPs.Yield gap analysis shows a strong role for agronomy and soil fertility in improving yields. However, until recently this area of work in RTB crops often appears as more location specific and has not really demonstrated IPGs. And impact assessments with RTB have shown less clear evidence of impacts of agronomic/crop management work.However, this is an important area and inclusion of more systems work with implementation as Agri-food System CRP, RTB should strengthen human resources and bring novel approaches to bear.11. • Policy: sole or partial funding source for dissemination of findings, learning from evidence etc.; For example, policy workshops, contracts with partners working on policy etc.  ","tokenCount":"8329"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9306bd00f91bb814cf3caa3cd1e17cc9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/632e83bf-3d25-4a0e-9774-1cabe5e8c64c/retrieve","id":"-695322747"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a71a6b37-2933-4261-aab4-3f22b71ff109","pagecount":"2","content":"Potato forms a major part of Georgian diets, culture, and heritage-\"second bread, \" they call it. Georgians eat around 55 kg of potatoes per person per year, mostly as fresh produce. This figure is well above the world average of around 33 kg. However, yields remain generally low at approximately 12 tons per hectare (ha), a figure well below the potential 30 tons/ha. Potato seed degeneration is the main constraint, caused by the accumulation of pests and diseases in seed potatoes over several cycles of propagation.In many locations, the introduction of certified seed systems is one option to address this challenge, but it has not proven successful in low-income countries such as Georgia. A more viable option promoted by the International Potato Center (CIP) is the 'integrated seed health' strategy. This approach combines better plant resistance with improved on-farm management practices, including seed potato selection and storage combined with strategic use of high-quality certified seed. This project builds on ongoing collaboration between CIP and Georgia's Ministry of Environmental Protection and Agriculture (MoEPA) and it will guide government efforts to strengthen the potato seed systems and value chain in the country. CIP's partners in the project include the Scientific Research Center of Agriculture, Georgia's information-consulting centers, the Agricultural University of Georgia, and the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Austria.The overall goal is to improve the livelihoods of Georgian farmers by increasing the profitability and sustainability of their potato-growing enterprises. The project also aims to increase the capacity of national stakeholders in the potato value chain to multiply and disseminate quality seed potatoes thereby improving the quality of potato seed available to farmers in the country.In early 2016, the International Potato Center (CIP) began working with the Georgia's MoEPA in a major restructuring program designed to create a more effective, efficient, and sustainable potato seed system. The work focused on providing improved potato germplasm and technical support to enhance potato research and dissemination through breeding, plant protection, seed systems, and post-harvest technologies. This project complements these collaborative activities by addressing integrated seed health more specifically.This project aims to improve the livelihoods of Georgian farmers and rural communities by increasing the profitability and sustainability of potato crops and building the capacity of national stakeholders in the seed potato value chain.The first step involved the development of a potato seed plan to incorporate integrated seed health strategies developed specifically for Georgia, and a baseline study and mapping exercise. These reports identified weaknesses in the current seed system and offered solutions, including appropriate disease detection technologies, multiplication practices, certification protocols, and primary training needs. Based on these recommendations, CIP developed a training plan for on-farm seed management, focusing on introducing best practices for the management of self-saved seed and developing farmer training plans and 'training of trainer' courses. The final stage in the implementation of the project will be the identification and promotion of new virus-resistant varieties.Addressing potato seed degeneration will increase productivity with minimal input from farmers. The benefits accrue from the availability of new resistant varieties, application of simple on-farm practices, and enhanced access to high-quality seed at affordable prices.CIP works with the Scientific Research Center of Agriculture of Georgia to support the improvement of seed multiplication and certification, with a focus on validating disease-detection technologies that are appropriate for the country. Activities build on the existing farmer extension service network to disseminate technologies and newlyintroduced varieties. Seed system analysis and modeling are carried out by the two participating universities. In this way, the project directly supports capacity development among several institutions and provides government with science-based evidence to inform seed policy.By November 2019, CIP had established evaluation trial plots and undertaken a field trial to test virus resistance in 28 new potato genotypes and four existing potato varieties. Consequently, four CIP clones were pre-selected and recommended to Georgia's authorities for release in the country.As part of CIP's promotional activities, it has developed a series of training guides on integrated seed health for farmers and extension workers which have been distributed through 54 regional information-consulting centers of MoEPA. Capacity building workshops have also been delivered to nearly 600 farmers, extension trainers and scientists in Georgia on seed management, viral symptoms identification, integrated seed health, and potato seed degeneration modelling.These activities have been supported by a series of public awareness activities on national and regional media outlets. An animation video on potato seed improvement was developed and aired on 30 regional and national TV channels for three months. Preliminary analysis of audience reach based on seven of the 30 broadcasters indicates that materials were watched by 71,000 households. ","tokenCount":"767"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"099ae5b7a82202011479204b536ee987","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d016777d-0c7e-49e4-875f-d59acc72268a/retrieve","id":"2065435389"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e900f972-b8b9-45d0-af8c-a161a4d740cf","pagecount":"12","content":"The Red List Categories and the accompanying five criteria developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) provide an authoritative and comprehensive methodology to assess the conservation status of organisms. Red List criterion B, which principally uses distribution data, is the most widely used to assess conservation status, particularly of plant species. No software package has previously been available to perform large-scale multispecies calculations of the three main criterion B parameters [extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and an estimate of the number of locations] and provide preliminary conservation assessments using an automated batch process. We developed ConR, a dedicated R package, as a rapid and efficient tool to conduct large numbers of preliminary assessments, thereby facilitating complete Red List assessment. ConR (1) calculates key geographic range parameters (AOO and EOO) and estimates the number of locations sensu IUCN needed for an assessment under criterion B; (2) uses this information in a batch process to generate preliminary assessments of multiple species; (3) summarize the parametersAs we attempt to address the modern biodiversity crisis, assessing the conservation status of species has become an invaluable tool for biodiversity conservation. Evaluating threat based on the Red List Categories and Criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2012) is an authoritative, comprehensive and widely used approach in conservation biology (Rodrigues, Pilgrim, Lamoreux, Hoffmann, & Brooks, 2006). Indeed, many decisions made by governments, natural resource managers, and conservation planners (Rodrigues et al., 2006) rely (often solely) on the \"Red List\" published by IUCN (http://www.iucnredlist.org/). For example, programs such as Important Bird Areas (IBA), Important Plant Areas (IPA, Anderson, 2002) or Tropical Important Plant Areas (TIPA, Darbyshire et al., 2017) all rely directly on threat assessments based on IUCN criteria. In parallel, there is also an urgency in listing threatened species in the near future. This is, for example, the case of Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) of the United Nation's Convention on Biological Diversity, which calls for assessing the conservation status of all known plant species by 2020 (https://www.cbd.int/gspc/targets. shtml).However, as of 2016, the Red List included assessments of just 21,898 plant species (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee, 2016), ca. 6.2% of the estimated global total (~352,000 flowering plant species; Paton et al., 2008). The ThreatSearch database (www. bgci.org/threat_search.php) documents the conservation assessments of ca. 150,000 taxa, including assessments at the species and infraspecific levels based on both older or current IUCN criteria; preliminary, global or regional assessments; and assessments based on other non-IUCN criteria. Thus, ThreatSearch represents an uncritical, highend estimate of the total number of plant taxa assessed to date. Hence, over the last three decades, progress toward this target has been slow largely because the process of performing and publishing full Red List assessments is time-consuming. Accelerating global conservation assessments is urgently needed (Krupnick, Kress, & Wagner, 2009;Miller et al., 2012). While alternative methods have been developed to streamline and simplify large-scale conservation assessments (e.g., Krupnick et al., 2009;Miller et al., 2012;Ocampo-Peñuela, Jenkins, Vijay, Li, & Pimm, 2016;Ter Steege et al., 2015), none are based on the theoretical framework provided by IUCN, and they thus have little immediate impact for concrete conservation actions.The International Union for Conservation of Nature employs five complementary criteria (A, B, C, D and E) under which a species can be evaluated, and, when not already extinct, assessments assign species to three threatened categories (Critically Endangered (CR); Endangered (E); VU (Vulnerable)), or otherwise to LC (Least Concerned), NT (Near Threatened) or DD (Data Deficient, when insufficient data are available). Among these five criteria, criterion B is the most widely used.For example, in 2007, almost half of all organisms whose status was published on the IUCN Red List were assessed solely based on criterion B (Gaston & Fuller, 2009). Unlike the others, Criterion B is suitable for estimating conservation status even when the distribution of a taxon is only known from georeferenced herbarium or museum collections and with limited information on local threats and potential continuing decline (Schatz, 2002), and it plays a prominent role in describing global trends in extinction risk. Even though some have suggested that Criterion B is the most misapplied of the five (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2016, p. 62), it nevertheless has the significant advantage of allowing assessments to be undertaken using distribution data only (Schatz, 2002), which are in many cases the only information available (in contrast, for example, to abundance data).Assessing the conservation status of taxa under IUCN Red List criterion B (IUCN, 2012; IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2016) nevertheless presents particular challenges based on recorded primary occurrences (typically obtained by compiling herbarium/ museum records). Criterion B involves two subcriteria (B1 and B2), which reflect two different kinds of geographic range size estimates [subcriterion B1 is based on extent of occurrence (EOO) while B2 is based on area of occupancy (AOO)], and three additional conditions (a, b and c) that describe aspects of the biology and potential decline of the taxon as a result of the impact of threats. Threshold levels for at least one subcriterion and two conditions must be met for a taxon to be assigned a threatened conservation status (see Table 1). and preliminary assessments in a spreadsheet; and (4) provides a visualization of the results by generating maps suitable for the submission of full assessments to the IUCN Red List. ConR can be used for any living organism for which reliable georeferenced distribution data are available. As distributional data for taxa become increasingly available via large open access datasets, ConR provides a novel, timely tool to guide and accelerate the work of the conservation and taxonomic communities by enabling practitioners to conduct preliminary assessments simultaneously for hundreds or even thousands of species in an efficient and time-saving way.area of occupancy, criterion B, distribution range, extent of occurrence, IUCN, location, preliminary status, threatened taxaExtent of occurrence (EOO) is defined as \"the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary that can be drawn to encompass all the known, inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon, excluding cases of vagrancy (IUCN, 2012).\" EOO is generally measured by a minimum convex polygon, or convex hull, defined as \"the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180° and which contains all the sites of occurrence (IUCN, 2012).\"Alternatively, in certain situations, EOO can be calculated as an alpha Hull (see IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2016).The Area of occupancy (AOO) is defined as \"the area within its 'extent of occurrence' that is occupied by a taxon, excluding cases of vagrancy (IUCN, 2012).\" AOO differs from EOO (see above) as it reflects the fact that a taxon will not usually occur throughout its EOO, that is, there will be areas where the taxon is absent, including (unsuitable areas). The AOO will be a function of the scale or grid cell size at which it is measured, and which should reflect relevant biological aspects of the taxon. For example, the impact of a threat is not identical if we consider tree or herb species.A \"location\" is defined as \"a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threat can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present (IUCN, 2012).\" Thus, the size of a location depends on the threat (mining, deforestation, poaching, etc.). EOO and AOO, the two main parameters of Criterion B, can be generated automatically (Table 1). However, assessing the number of locations requires contextual information about threats. This information, which is usually obtained from field observations, expert knowledge, and/or precise data on the size and nature of a taxon's range (e.g., continuous vs. severely fragmented), can thus only be applied properly using a \"taxonby-taxon\" process to obtain a fully informed IUCN Red List assessment.\"Subpopulations\" are defined as \"geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange (IUCN, 2012;Rivers, Bachman, Meagher, Lughadha, & Brummitt, 2010).\" Although the number of subpopulations is not directly taken into account for assessments based on criterion B, this information is requested during the submission process to the IUCN Red List.Below, we describe ConR, an R package to generate batch preliminary assessments of conservation status following the IUCN guidelines using multiple species datasets based on Criterion B. ConR makes it possible to: (1) calculate or estimate the key parameters needed for an assessment under criterion B; (2) generate preliminary assessments of multiple species using a batch process; and (3) summarize the estimated parameters and preliminary assessments in a spreadsheet and spatially visualize the results on generated maps. ConR implements a novel method to approximate the number of \"locations\" sensu IUCN, one of the key Criterion B parameters (see below).ConR allows users to estimate the above parameters automatically for any list of taxa and then assigns each taxon to a preliminary IUCN threat category according to Criterion B. These preliminary assessments are Under Criterion, B, the assessment of a taxon is based on the calculation of its EOO (B1) and/or AOO (B2). In addition, at least two of the following conditions must be taken into consideration: (1) the number of locations;(2) continuing decline of different aspects of its distribution (EOO, AOO, number of locations, etc.); and (3) extreme fluctuation of certain aspects of the taxon's distribution (Table 1). Calculation of the two key range parameters, EOO and AOO, can be easily automated either using a taxon-by-taxon approach, as provided for by the web service GeoCAT (Bachman, Moat, Hill, de la Torre, & Scott, 2011), or in batch mode, for example in other R packages such as speciesgeocodeR (Töpel et al., 2017) or RED (https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=red; see Table 2).However, none of these packages are designed to estimate the number of locations, a fact that hinders their utility in assigning taxa to a threat category under Criterion B. The notion of \"location\" remains a complex and sometimes confusing concept. It has been interpreted in many different ways depending on the type of organism studied, the general landscape in which a taxon occurs and the type of threat to its populations. In ConR we have, for the first time, attempted to estimate the number of locations automatically so that it can be calculated simultaneously for a large number of taxa. This automation comes with a number of assumptions detailed below.The number of locations for each taxon can be approximated using two complementary approaches in ConR. First, a grid with cells of a chosen size is overlaid on taxa occurrences and the number of locations is estimated by the number of occupied cells. The grid cell size must be defined by the user and should represent the scale at which subpopulations are equally affected by a given threat. For example, a cell size of 10 km² may be considered a good estimate of the scale at which a particular serious threat event such as mining could equally affect individuals of a given taxon (Durán et al. 2013). The user can choose a fixed cell size across the whole multispecies dataset (e.g. 10 km²) or can use a species-specific sliding scale approach (Rivers et al., 2010). In the latter approach, cell size is defined as 1/x of the maximum interoccurrence distance, where x is the maximum distance between two occurrences (e.g. 5% (0.05) of the max distance between the known occurrences). In both cases, the cell grid is overlaid on the total distribution of the taxon in a way that results in the minimum number of estimated locations.Finally, as cell size is user defined, alternative estimates of the scale at which a given threat operates can be compared.In the second approach, ConR integrates information about protected areas (PAs). The underlying rationale for this is that subpopulations within a PA will not be treated in the same way as those located outside a PA. ConR deals with PA in two ways (method_protected_area argument). First, occurrences within a given PA are assumed to fall within the same location irrespective of the size of the PA (\"no_more_ than_one\"). Subpopulations within a PA are thus assumed to be subject to the same threat. For example, protected area downgrading, downsizing, or degazetting (PADDD), a common occurrence throughout the tropics (Mascia et al., 2014), is assumed to affect all individuals within that PA in the same manner (one threat, PADDD affecting the whole of the PA). Similarly, if illegal exploitation takes place in a PA, it is assumed that this could potentially impact all individuals of the taxon.Second, the number of locations situated within PAs is estimated separately from those occurring outside PAs (\"other\"), thereby decoupling the estimation of locations within and outside of PAs. Thus, two individuals could be geographically close (separated by less than the selected grid cell size) but in separate locations, one in a PA and the other not, because the nature of the threat is not the same.T A B L E 2 Features of various currently available programs that estimate parameters used for preliminary conservation status assessments following the IUCN guidelines. GeoCAT (Bachman et al., 2011); speciesgeocodeR (Töpel et al., 2017)  For each preliminary assessment, in addition to estimating the \"number of locations\" condition, at least one of the two remaining conditions relating to the future trend of a taxon's distribution or structure must be taken into consideration: continuing decline and/or extreme fluctuation. ConR assumes by default a continuing future decline in habitat quality [condition (b) (iii), Table 1]. While this assumption might appear be an oversimplification, it would seem to be valid in most cases. The validity of this assumption is also intuitively acknowledged by the IUCN guidelines, which recognize a criterion for assessing threat status specifically on the basis of very small or restricted populations (Criterion D). This assumption is also reasonable when one considers that wilderness areas are in rapid decline throughout the world, especially in the tropics (Watson et al., 2016), suggesting that future decline may be anticipated for any given range-restricted species.Finally, ConR also provides an estimate of the number of subpopulations of a taxon by implementing a circular buffer method (Resol_ sub_pop in km²). This buffer is user defined and can be adapted to different groups of taxa depending on their different dispersal characteristics but also gene flow (if known).ConR includes four functions, two sample occurrence datasets, and two sample shapefile datasets. All functions operate on a mandatory single data frame providing taxon occurrences and on optional user-provided shapefiles of land/sea and protected area limits. Occurrence data and shapefiles must be provided using the WGS84 reference coordinate system. The input data frame requires three mandatory fields: latitude and longitude (in decimal degrees), and taxon name. The collection year can also be added, thereby allowing graphic visualization of a taxon's collecting history (Figure 1). Additional information, such as higher taxonomic rank, can also be provided. By default, ConR saves all results in the user's R working directory. A step by step tutorial (R vignette) describing all options is provided as supplementary material and on the CRAN website.This is the main ConR function, which provides values for all parameters, including EOO, AOO and an estimate of number of locations, needed for assessing the preliminary conservation status of taxa based on selected conditions and subcriteria of criterion B (Table 1). All options are flexible and can be user defined. The number of locations can be estimated using a fixed or sliding grid approach (Rivers et al., 2010). In addition, PA information can also be taken into account if an appropriate PA shapefile is provided (see above).The output is a table in a comma-separated values (CSV) file summarizing the different parameters calculated for each taxon. Besides all of the parameters calculated or estimated, ConR explicitly assigns a preliminary threat category for each taxon under the validated criteria (B1 and/or B2). In addition, one can see the threat assignments based either on EOO (B1) or AOO (B2). The output provides the user with a clear presentation of all the basic information needed to undertake a full IUCN assessment. Results can also be visualized graphically (see along with a distribution map. If PA information was included, the map also depicts the distribution of PAs as well as occurrences within (blue dots) or outside (black dots) them (see Figure 1). This map can be used for the submission of a formal assessment to the IUCN.The EOO.computing function calculates EOO. It operates with a minimum of three unique occurrences; otherwise, it returns \"NA\". InConR, EOO can be estimated either using a \"convex.hull\" or an \"alpha.hull\" method, as recommended by IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee (2016). Cropping of unsuitable areas (e.g., water bodies) before the calculation of EOO is available via the argument exclude.area. It is important to note, however, that excluding areas from the EOO calculation and the estimate EOO with alpha Hull are explicitly discouraged by the IUCN guidelines (2016) when using Criterion B. Finally, if the EOO is less than the AOO, then the EOO is set to be equal to the AOO, as recommended by the IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee (2016).In the very infrequent case that occurrences form a straight segment, the EOO will be zero, representing an underestimate of its surface (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2016). In this specific case, ConR outputs a warning. The EOO is then estimated using a different method: A polygon is built by adding a buffer of a predefined size of 0.1° to the segment, which can be adjusted by the argument buff.alpha.Also, the EOO cannot be computed when there are less than three unique occurrences; a warning is returned in such case. Finally, it should be noted that the way in which ConR estimates the EOO may be biased for species with wide distributions and cannot be applied to species whose distribution spans the 180th meridian (see R documentation).This function estimates the number of subpopulations using the circular buffer method (Rivers et al., 2010). Each unique occurrence is buffered with a circle of a defined radius and overlapping circles are merged to form a single subpopulation, while nonoverlapping circles are considered to represent separate subpopulations. For batch processing of species, while the circular buffer method does not take into consideration the dispersal abilities of each taxon, it was recommended by Rivers et al. (2010) after testing various methods. The output must be considered as an approximation of the total number of subpopulations. Although the number of subpopulations is not directly taken into account for assessments based on criterion B, this information is requested for the submission of full assessments to the IUCN Red List.The map.res function allows a graphical summary and geographical exploration of the results of the IUCN.eval function by generating maps with user-specified unit sizes (Figure 2). These maps can show, for In order to illustrate the usefulness and limits of ConR, we tested the package on a high-quality dataset of continental African palm distributions for 60 species (of the 68 currently known; Stauffer et al., 2017).A large part of the data were extracted from the RAINBIO database (Dauby et al., 2016), which contains nearly all herbarium collections for African palms. Additional recent collections were added when available, resulting in a dataset of 4,234 unique occurrence records. The dataset was first used for the preparation and submission (as of April 2017) of full, species by species IUCN Red Listing assessments, mainly under Criterion B. Second, using ConR (with default parameters) and the same data for all 60 species, but excluding any \"nonherbarium\" occurrences (such as those based on satellite imagery or population censuses), we performed preliminary assessments as a batch operation. We also ran the dataset with and without PA information (downloaded and filtered from https://www.protectedplanet.net) using the \"protect.areas\" default option. ConR analyzed the dataset in less than 5 minutes using a standard laptop.The results of the full IUCN assessments and those generated by ConR (with and without PA information), summarized in Table 3, are quite congruent. Factoring in PAs did not alter the outcomes, expect for a single species: Oncocalamus wrightianus was assessed as EN in the full assessment and by ConR when no PA information was included, but as VU with PA information. Regarding whether a species was assessed as threatened (i.e., CR, EN or VU) or not (NT or LC), we see that for 43 species (71%), the results from ConR and the full assessments agreed. For seven species, the ConR assessment indicated a threatened status, whereas the full assessment was LC.Finally, for eight species, the full assessment yielded a status of Data Deficient (DD) while ConR suggested either EN (5 species) or CR (3 species).In addition to this case study, we also undertook a preliminary conservation assessment of amphibians of Madagascar using a dataset that contained 7,657 georeferenced records representing 201 species, downloaded on February 9, 2016, from www.gbif.org (https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.2tkoae). This analysis was performed mainly to demonstrate the graphical outputs of ConR (Figures 1 and   2). This dataset is available within ConR as an example data frame (Malagasy_amphibian).ConR provides for the first time a dedicated, multispecies conservation assessment package based specifically on IUCN criterion B and using only species geographic distribution. It provides an efficient tool to help accelerate the work of the conservation community by enabling practitioners to conduct preliminary assessments that are both reliable and informative. We stress that ConR does not (and is not intended too) replace the full IUCN Red Listing process; it can, however, assist and facilitate this process. ConR uses a number of assumptions in order to automate category assignment, especially the estimation of the number of locations sensu IUCN. Notwithstanding these assumptions, detailed above, which must be understood and acknowledged by the user, ConR is flexible in their implementation, allowing the user to explore various approaches and methodologies and to customize values for each option. As shown in our case study on African palms (Table 3), the results of the full and ConR assessments are generally congruent.The differences observed between them can be linked primarily to the way in which ConR estimates the number of locations.For example, Eremospatha barendii is known from three collections made at localities more than 10 km apart. ConR thus infers (with a resolution of 10 km 2 ) two locations, whereas in the full assessment, we estimated a single location (because both localities were considered to be subjected to the same threat). Another difference lies in whether locations were used or not for the full assessment.For example, Eremospatha dransfieldii is inferred by ConR to have eight locations, and it is therefore assessed as VU. However, the subpopulations of this species are severely fragmented (Cosiaux et al., 2017), which also triggers subcriterion \"a\" (Table 1), which was used along with continuing decline (subcriterion \"b\"), and thus the number of locations was not used for the full assessment. In contrast, for some species, ConR indicated a status of CR, EN or VU, whereas the full assessment was LC (e.g., Raphia gentiliana and R. monbutturom; Table 3). These mismatches occurred for species with broad geographic distributions but for which there were few collections (and thus fewer locations were by ConR), while field data provided no clear evidence of highly fragmented populations.This case study clearly illustrates that (1) be used to generate fairly reliable preliminary conservation assessments on datasets, but (2) has limitations when, for example, a is widespread and common but poorly collected or is widespread but severely fragmented. It is important to stress that the accuracy of the georeferencing in such datasets is crucial for estimating risk. Two recently released R packages, Biogeo (Robertson, Visser, & Hui, 2016) and speciesgeocodeR (Töpel et al., 2017), are designed to help curate and clean large datasets, and are thus complementary to ConR.ConR will be useful for a variety of applications. First, as distributional data for taxa become increasingly available via large multitaxon databases (Dauby et al., 2016;Marshall, Wieringa, & Hawthorne, 2016;  Second, ConR will also be of value to taxonomists, who are increasingly expected to provide preliminary conservation assessments when describing new species or publishing revisions or monographs. By generating key parameters (EOO, AOO and an estimate of the number of locations), ConR will greatly facilitate this process.Finally, rapid preliminary assessments of IUCN conservation status based on large, multitaxon sets will support studies on a wide range of subjects such as the evolution of extinction risk within and among clades (Forest, Crandall, Chase, & Faith, 2015;Jetz et al., 2014) and the phylogenetic component of extinction risk within regional floras (Leão, Fonseca, Peres, & Tabarelli, 2014) or faunas.The ConR package has already been used by the authors to facilitate full assessments (e.g., of palms) and to prepare IUCN RedList workshops. Also, ConR has been successfully used as part of an IUCN \"Green Listing\" of Protected and Conserved Areas (IUCN, 2012) for private sector players in order to identify potentially threatened species occurring in their concessions that, after verification, will be the subject of specific conservation management plans (unpublished results). | 11303","tokenCount":"4144"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4eb08dcb64c74d44e6371ff9c408565f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aca0cac4-9fdc-499a-807c-02b6f56e125a/retrieve","id":"-1055662847"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bdf2fdf0-0a6f-41ae-aff7-0cbfbbaf5f56","pagecount":"61","content":"La cuantificación analítica de suelos y tejidos vegetales es un instrumento efectivo para interpretar la existencia de deficiencias o excesos de minerales. Consecuentemente, el uso adecuado de esta información influye significativamente en las recomendaciones de fertilizantes. Sin embargo, debe admitirse que existe conflicto en las fases de cuantificación, interpretación y recomendación debido a la alta variabilidad existente en estas fases. Esta variabilidad, generalmente, es consecuencia de la diversidad de métodos analíticos empleados y de los criterios técnicos adoptados en la interpretación y recomendación de los resultados analíticos en suelos y plantas. Probablemente, resulta utópico tratar de uniformizar las tres fases para todos los suelos existentes en los países así como para todo tejido vegetal. Sin embargo, resulta bastante desventajoso que suelos con propiedades químicas comparables existentes en América Tropical tengan una variabilidad en estas fases y principalmente en la cuantificación analítica. Por esta razón, es necesario uniformizar la metodología analítica.La mayoría de los métodos y procedimientos descritos en esta publicación se utilizan actualmente en el Laboratorio de Servicios Analíticos del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). En muchos casos, los métodos son descritos en forma suficientemente detallada, de tal manera que puedan reproducirse en muchos laboratorios, sin consultar otras fuentes. Sin embargo, en algunos casos será necesario modificarlos para adaptarlos a las condiciones propias de un laboratorio específico, especialmente en cuanto se refiere al material empleado. Por otra parte, los investigadores al necesitar alguna información detallada sobre los principios de la teoría o técnica de un método, deben consultar la literatura pertinente. Con este propósito, se incluyen referencias bibliográficas.El propósito de esta publicación es describir métodos estandarizados de procedimientos analíticos de suelo y tejido vegetal con el fin de satisfacer por lo menos tres objetivos: (1) Que investigadores en América Tropical estén más enterados de la metodología analítica para suelos y La precisión de las mediciones en los análisis de suelos y plantas, depende mayormente de la precisión del método, naturaleza de la muestra y del cuidado del laboratorista. La precisión se trata de la dispersión de los datos obtenidos en un análisis. Con mucha dispersión la precisión es baja y con poca dispersión la precisión es alta.Cuando se dice que un instrumento mide con 100 por ciento de probabilidad hasta la unidad más cercana de 0.1, se puede considerar que el instrumento permite leer con una confianza de ± 0.05 de unidad porque el error máximo en el juicio visual del operador será la mitad de la última unidad legible del instrumento. Si el error máximo legible es igual o mayor que el error máximo del mecanismo del instrumento, entonces la lectura indica el error máximo del instrumento. Si la probabilidad del error máximo del instrumento es 100 por ciento, ésto significa que para varias repeticiones de una lectura con un valor dado, que se puede representa•r como el promedio de las lecturas, cada lectura tiene 100 por ciento de probabilidad de estar dentro de los siguientes límites de con fianza.Promedio ~ 0.05 de unidadEl error max1mo puede estar expresado en forma absoluta o relativa. La forma absoluta por ejemplo es ! 0.05 de unidad, en cambio la forma relativa sería la siguiente: + -0.05 [2] Valor de la lecturaPor ejemplo si se puede medir 10 cm con un error máximo absoluto de ~ 0.05 mm, entonces el error máximo relativo sería mayor que cuando se puede leer 300 cm con un error máximo absoluto ~ 0.05 mm. El error máxl mo relativo es de gran importancia para evaluar la medición y general-3.mente se expresa en porcentaje. Con base en este principio el tamaño del error máximo relativo se puede controlar variando el valor del error máximo y el tamaño de la muestra de un suelo. Por ejemplo: si se quiere pesar una muestra de suelo hasta un error máximo relativo de 1 por ciento de la masa del suelo, se puede pesar una muestra de 1 g de masa con un error máximo absoluto de + 0.005 g o una muestra de la g de masa con un error máximo absoluto de~ 0.05 g.Los límites de confianza de una predicción expresados en la ecuación 1 también se puede expresar en forma más general de la manera siguiente (Steel y Torrie, 1960)LC = Límite de confianza de un valor pronosticado. ta = Valor de t que corresponde a cierta probabilidad con (n-1) grado de 1 i bertad. s = Desviación estándar del valor de una lectura. n = Número de lecturas.Al expresar los límites de confianza comúnmente se escoge probabilidades de 95 por ciento o 99 por ciento. Los límites de confianza constituyen una medida de la precisión de un análisis o de un ensayo. La precisión de un análisis trata de la medida de la dispersión de las repeticiones de la lectura de una muestra.La precisión de un análisis depende de la naturaleza y tamaño de la muestra.En la realidad, un análisis de suelos o plantas comprende la medición de varias muestras. La dispersión en los valores de las lecturas también puede tener su origen en la variabilidad del material de la muestra. La exactitud en los análisis de suelos o plantas ha consistido en mezclar bien una muestra compuesta para reducir la variabilidad en las repetici~ nes. Además, el tamaño de la muestra para el análisis influye sobre la variabilidad. Por ejemplo, se cree que una muestra de alrededor de 1 g es la muestra m1n1ma para determinar la densidad de los sólidos de un suelo. Por lo tanto, una muestra de 0.01 g de suelo tendrá poca oportu-nidad de representar un promedio típico de la densidad del suelo de la muestra. La muestra más grande contendrá todos los constituyentes característicos de la distribución de todo el suelo de la muestra.1.3. EXACTITUD DE UNA MEDICION.En contraste con la precisión de una medición la cual t~ata de la dispersión de varias repeticiones del análisis, la exactitud de una medición trata de la desviación del valor de un ensayo en relación con el valor verdadero del sistema o medio que se mide. La exactitud trata, entonces, de un sesgo que existe en el ensayo. En el análisis de laboratorio el sesgo puede controlarse•usando calibración y muestras de control. El error debido al sesgo puede ser sistemático (constante) o aleatorio. El error sistemático se discute más adelante. Se puede apreciar entonces, que un método puede tener mucha precisión pero poca exactitud.En el laboratorio hay muchas mediciones que son precisas, es decir que los mismos valores se esperan dentro de los límites dados de la preci-?ión del análisis. Ej.: Dentro de! 0.1 g o dentro! 5 por ciento del valor.Generalmente para revisar la técnica del análisis se hace ensayos en triplicado y si todos los resultados se ajustan a las especificaciones, se saca un promedio de ellos. Si uno de los valores se desvía más allá del límite de las especificaciones, •se saca un promedio de los dos valores conformantes. Si la técnica en el procedimiento se ha controlado, con frecuencia basta hacer duplicados para revisar la técnica.Muchos ensayos de laboratorio de suelos siguen las normas anteriormente citadas, sin embargo, es necesario mezclar bien la muestra compuesta para poder aplicar dichas normas, porque sabemos que hay mucha variabilidad de muchas de las propiedades de un suelo en distancias muy cortas.Si se tienen dos muestras, se hace referencia al promedio y al intervalo de las muestras. Si se tienen más de dos muestras, se determina el promedio y la desviación estándar, y la desviación estándar del promedio. El estimado de la desviación estándar mejora con un mayor número de muestras.El número de muestras necesarias para lograr una precisión dada (desviación del promedio) para un nivel de probabilidad es:Donde: S = Desviación estándar del promedio. ta = Valor de t con (n-1) grados de libertad a un nivel dado de probabil idad D = Precisión deseada ( p = 0.05 ó 0.01) Se calcula la desviación estándar (s) de las primeras muestras para probar por medio de la ecuación si hace falta tomar más muestras (Peterson y Calvin, 1965). Esta técnica se usa cuando se tiene como fin comparar promedios de diferentes parcelas, siendo dicha técnica útil para estudiar respuestas a tratamientos. 1.6. TIPOS DE ERRORES. l. Error Aleatorio: Si se realiza un número grande de determinaciones de la misma cantidad (muchas repeticiones) se encuentra que los valores de esta medida varían dentro de ciertos límites.• La curva de frecuencia de estos valores determina la precisión de la operación. El rango de los límites de esta distribución puede depender del instrumento o del procedimiento usado. Este tipo de desviación del verdadero valor de la medida se llama error aleatorio. En deter minaciones precisas se asume que la distribución tiene un rango muy estrecho, y generalmente se usan muestras duplicadas; la segunda muestra sirve para verificar la técnica del operador. En la práctica los registros de datos se hacen con una cifra adicional a la última cifra significativa. Posteriormente en el resultado final, solamente se emplean las cifras significativas.Generalmente, en los análisis de suelos y plantas se miden varias cantidades a varios niveles de precisión, es decir, hasta un número dado de cifras decimales o hasta tantas cifras significativas.•En los cálculos se combinan cifras a diversos grados de precisión y hay que saber la manera en que estas combinaciones afectan el resultado final.A este.respecto las reglas siguientes son muy útiles: l. En las sumas y en las restas no se deben retener más cifras decimales que las confiables en la cantidad que tieñe el menor número de cifras decimales confiables.2. En las multiplicaciones y las divisiones no se deben retener más cifras significativas que las cifras confiables en el factor con la menor cantidad de cifras significativas, o en otras palabras, las cantidades que tienen que ser multiplicadas o divididas deben tener el mismo número de cifras significativas. Es recomendable mantener una cifra más de las que las reglas indican hasta cuando se obtenga el resultado final (Minor, 1957).Generalmente los cálculos incluyen una combinación de las operaciones matemáticas• descritas en las reglas. Al realizar un cálculo es necesario 7.aplicar las reglas para evaluar el efecto total de dicho cálculo. Para mayor información sobre este asunto se puede consultar Minor (1957)  Evitar la contaminación, 3.Ide~tificar la muestra en forma adecuada, y 4.Embalar y transportar las muestras al laboratorio lo más pronto posible.En la mayoría de los casos, las muestras de suelo y planta son colocadas en bolsas plásticas (polietileno).Toda muestra, ya sea de suelo o tejido vegetal, antes del análisis químico o físico, debe pasar por una etapa de recepción. El propósito es identificar y preparar las muestras para dar entrada al laboratorio. En el caso del Laboratorio de Servicios Analíticos del CIAT, el usuario completa inicialmente un formulario de Solicitud de Análisis, similar al que se adjunta en el texto. Un formulario original completo y copia del mismo son anexados a las muestras al entregar a recepción. Es muy importante que el análisis solicitado se concentre específicamente en aquellos elementos que coadyuven en la explicación de los objetivos del trabajo realizado. Una vez realizado el análisis solicitado, el formulario original se devuelve al usuario con los resultados, y la copia se conserva en el laboratorio como récord de análisis.Programa:Fecha muestreo:Suelo 0.Número .ObS6rvaciones:Laboratorio Servicios Analíticos -CIAT Solicitud de Análisis * 9 .No. &eriallaboratoric.: ------------------Fecha entrega laboratorio: -----Fecha entrega resultado: ---.\"'Osciipci«t muestra Análisis Solicitado .•Em.iat Ofigin.ll y uM c:ogia con las muestras.10.2.2.1. Suelo. Las muestras de suelos debidamente identificadas, se transfieren a bandejas de madera (dimensiones 25 x 50 cms.) con base de anjeo para facilitar el flujo de calor a través de las muestras. Las muestras se secan en cajas diseñadas de tal forma que el aire, calentado por bombillos eléctricos, circule de la parte inferior hacia la parte superior con ayuda de un extractor, eliminando además la humedad de las cajas. La temperatura promedio es de 60°C y el tiempo de secado varía entre 24 y 48 horas, tiempo que depende del grado de humedad de las muestras.Las muestras secas se someten a una molienda en molinos que tengan el cabezal y las cribas de acero inoxidable, lo que garantiza el análisis de micronutrimentos. En la mayoría de los análisis rutinarios de suelos, las cribas corresponden a una malla No.10 (2 mm), con excepción en la determinación de la materia orgánica que se recomienda emplear suelo tamizado por malla No.60 (0.25 mm). El material molido es empacado en cajas de cartón con capacidad de 250 g, y estas cajas luego de identificadas con una numeración seriada, pasan al laboratorio.Es importante remarcar que este proceso de preparación de las muestras de suelo exige que las muestras pasen inmediatamente al análisis químl coy los resultados sean referidos en base a \"suelo seco al aire\". Caso contrario, cuando las muestras son almacenadas temporalmente, es necesario determinar un factor de humedad para cada muestra al momento del análisis, y los resultados deben ser ajustados por este factor para reducir el error.Las determinaciones del contenido de humedad se realizan en submuestras de suelo seco al aire (10 g pesados exactamente) y secadas a 105°C por un período mínimo de 12 horas. El cálculo del Factor de Humedad (FH) está dado por: 10 Factor de Humedad (FH) = Peso de suelo seco a 105°CEl contenido de humedad en la muestra de suelo está dado por la relación: %Humedad= 100 (FH-1.00). (Gardner, 1965). De esta manera, los resultados de los análisis son dados en términos de \"suelo seco\" (105°C).11.2.2.2. Tejido Vegetal. Luego del muestreo del tejido vegetal, las muestras son generalmente sometidas a cuatro fases preparativas antes del análisis químico (Jones y Steyn, 1973). l.Limpieza del material para remover la contaminación superfici a 1 .Secado del material con el fin de parar las reacciones enzimáticas y preparar el material para. la molienda.3. Molienda mecánica para reducir el material a una fineza apropiada para el análisis químico.Secado final a peso constante para obtener un valor uniforme en el cual se basan los resultados analíticos.El material vegetal seleccionado para el muestreo está siempre cubierto con una capa fina de polvo. Esta contaminación afecta los resultados del análisis y por lo tanto debe ser removida antes que el material vegeta 1 sea secado. Desde la 1 imp 1 ieza con un paño o cepillo de cerdas finas. hasta el lavado con una solución de detergente al D.l%, son los procedimientos recomendados para eliminar la contaminación del material vegetal (St~yn, 1959;Jones y Steyn, 1973). El proceso de lavado debe ser lo más rápido posible para evitar períodos largos de contacto de la solución con el tejido vegetal, ya que de lo contrario, se tiene el riesgo de lixiviar ciertos nutrimentos tales como K y Ca (Jones y Steyn, 1973).Una vez realizada la limpieza del material vegetal, las muestras son sometidas al secado a 70 oc durante 24 horas y molidas en molinos tipo l-liley con cribas de acero inoxidable de 1 mm. El tejido vegetal seco y molido se empaca en frascos plásticos con capacidad mínima de 25 g, y deben ser sellados herméticamente para prevenir los cambios de humedad en las muestras durante su análisis. Caso contrario, las muestras deben ser secadas nuevamente antes de ser analizadas. Los frascos deben ser debidamente identificadas con numeración seriada al pasar al laboratorio.Las muestras de suelo y tejido vegetal una vez analizadas, deben ser almacenadas bajo inventario, durante seis meses, como medida de precaución en caso de que el usuario solicite determinaciones adicionales.12.Al cabo de este tiempo, las muestras se entregan a los usuarios para su eliminación. El laboratorio debe conservar una serie de muestras de suelo y tejido vegetal para utilizarlas como controles en los análisis de muestras. Toda muestra almacenada debe secarse nuevamente antes de ser sometidas a nuevo análisis y ajustar los resultados en base al factor de humedad.13.3. METODOLOGIA ANALITICA PARA SUELOS ACIDOSLas muestras de suelo que llegan al laboratorio deben ser sometidas a un submuestreo, con el propósito de que la muestra del suelo sometida a análisis químico sea representativa. Para ésto, distribuir el suelo en una hoja de papel limpio y dividir en cuadros de 5 x 5 cm. usando una regla de plástico. El suelo se toma así con una espátula seleccionando por lo menos 10 cuadros. Las submuestras de suelo se colocan en bolsas de plástico inmediatamente después del secado y tamizado. l. Medir 10 ml de suelo seco al aire y transferir a un vaso de 50 ml .. Añadir 10 ml de agua doblemente.deionizada o destilada.2. Agitar la suspensión aproximadamente 1 minuto y dejar en reposo por 1 hora.3. Una vez calibrado el potenciómetro con las soluciones amortiguadas, se procede a determinar el pH de la muestra de suelo previa agitación enérgica de la suspensión.3.2.2. Determinación de la Conductividad Eléctrica** La medida de la conductividad eléctrica del extracto de suelo es una• guía aproximada pero rápida del grado de salinidad en el suelo.A. Material: Vasos de 100 ml, varillas de vidria, puente de conductividad eléctrica.Agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.Pesar 10 g. de suela seco al aire y tamizado con malla No.lO (2 mm) en un vaso de lOO ml. Añadir 50 ml de agua doblemente deianizada a destilada y agitar por 30 minutas. Dejar la suspensión en repaso durante la noche y volver a agitar par 15 minutos antes de leer la conductividad eléctrica usando un puente de conductividad. Los resultados se expresan en micromhos/cm a 25°C. 3.2.3. Determinación de la presencia o ausencia de CaC03 Libre.Prueba de Efervescencia* La presencia o ausencia de carbonato de calcio puede determinarse rápidamente y en forma cualitativa agregando unas cuantas gotas de HCl a 30% al suelo seco al aire tamizado con• malla No.lO (2 mm). La efervescencia debida al desprendimiento de gas carbónico (C02) indica la presencia de carbonato.A. Material: Erlenmeyers de 250 ml, pipeta automática de 25 ml, garrafa plástitica de 20 litros (Dicromato de Potasio), buretas graduadas de 50 . ml (ácido sulfúrico, sulfato ferroso), balanza de precisión + (-0.01 g.) B. Reactivos:1. Solución de Dicromato de Potasio (K2Cr207) 0.4li: Secar en una estufa aproximadamente 50 g del reactivo a una temperatura de ll0°C durante 1 hora. Luego de enfriar en un desecador pesar 1g.583 g y disolver en poca cantidad de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada para_ luego completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.2. Acido sulfúrico concentrado (H2S04).3. Solución de Ferroina 0.025~: Pesar 14.87 g de ortofenantrolina monohidratada (C12H8N2.H20l y 6.95 g de sulfato ferroso (FeS04.1H20). Disolverlos en agua doblemente deionizada o de~ tilada y completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.4. Solución de sulfato ferroso (FeS04 7H20)0.4li: Disolver 111.21 g del reactivo en 600 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada, añadir 20 ml de H2S04 concentrado y completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.C. Procedimiento:1. Pesar 0.5 g de suelo seco al aire y tamizado con malla No.60 (0.25 mm) en Erlenmeyer de 250 ml.2. Añadir 25 ml de la solución de dicromato de potasio 0.4N y mezclar el suelo con la solución mediante un giro imprimido al Erlenmeyer.3. Añadir 25 ml de H2S04 concentrado y mezclar suavemente durante 1 minuto. Dejar la mezcla en reposo durante 20 a 30 minutos.4. Simultáneamente realizar un ensayo de valoración en blanco (sin suelo) de la misma manera indicada en los párrafos 1, 2 y 3.5. Diluir la solución a 200 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y añadir 1 ml de la solución ferroina 0.025~.6. Titular con la solución de sulfato ferroso 0.4li hasta que el color de la solución-muestra vire de verde a rojo en el punto final.Reportar =Normalidad de la solución de dicromato de potasio. = Peso miliequivalente de carbono. =Factor de Conversión de Carbono a.Materia Orgánica. = Factor de recuperación de carbono* =Peso de la muestra (g).  Solución B: Disolver 132 g de ácido ascórbico (C6H806) en agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.Las soluciones A y B deben almacenarse en un lugar frío y oscuro por ser sensible al calor y a la luz.3. Solución de Trabajo: Preparar esta solución en el día a partir de las Soluciones A y B del Párrafo 2. Tomar 25 ml de la Solución A y transferir a 800 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada en un vaso de 1 litro. Mezclar y añadir 10 ml de la Solución B llevando luego a volumen con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.4. Solución Estándar con Fósforo: Disolver 0.2195 g de fosfato dehidrógeno de potasio cristalizado (KH2P04), previamente secado durante 1 hora a 105°C. Diluir con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada en matraz volumétrico de 1 litro y completar volumen. La solución contendrá 50 ppm P a partir de la cual se preparan las soluciones para la curva patrón de P de la manera indicada en la Tabla 2. l. Pesar una muestra de 2.85 g de suelo y transferir a un vaso de extracción de 50 ml.2. Añadir 20 ml de la solución extractora y agitar durante 40 segundos.3. Filtrar la suspensión con papel filtro Whatman No.42 o equivalente a un vaso de 50 ml. El filtrado constituye el extracto de suelo.4. Tomar simultáneamente 2 ml del extracto de suelo y 18 ml de la solución de trabajo con ayuda de un \"dilutor dispensador\" a tubos calorimétricos. Este procedimiento se sigue con las disoluciones patrón de P, de manera que las concentraciones finales de P varían entre 0.05 y 1.0 ppm P.5. Después de 15 minutos se leen los porcentajes de transmitancia en un espectrofotómetro usando una longitud de onda de 660 mu. Las muestras pueden leerse hasta las 24 horas. Los valores de %T se representan en papel semilogarítmico donde la ordenada (escala logarítmica) representa los porcentajes de transmitancia y la abscisa (escala ordinaria) representa las ppm de P. Construido el gráfico es posible pasar directamente la lectura del colorímetro a partes por millón de P en la solución durante el análisis de la muestra.Factor de = 20 ml de 1 l.OOOmlxl.000/2.85 g x 20 ml de = 70.2 Dilución solución extracto extract. suelo P disponible en el suelo (ppm) = ppm en la solución muestra (NaHC03 0.5~) de pH 8.5 tiene su fundamento en que esta solución regula la cantidad de calcio en solución por intermedio del carbonato cálcico.A. Material:Frascos de extracción de 250 ml o Erlenmeyers con tapón de vidrio Corning y resistente a los álcalis. Se han usado también frascos de plástico con buenos resultados. Agitador mecánico, papel de filtro Whatman No.42 de 15 cm ~ o equivalente, dilutor-dispensador, vaso de 1 litro, colorímetro con filtro de 660 mu, frasco de polietileno para preparar la solución extractora.B. Reactivos: l. Solución Extractora (NaHC03 0.5~): Disolver 42 g de carbonato ácido de sodio (NaHC03) en 1 litro y ajustar a pH 8.5 con NaOH. La alcalinidad de esta solución tiende a aumentar con el tiempo a no ser que se proteja con una capa de aceite mineral.Verificar periódicamente el pH.2. Carbón activo: Se usa Darco G-60 o similar al que se purifica de fosfatos lixiviándolo previamente con carbonato ácido de sodio, se lava con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y se seca.3. Soluciones patrones para desarrollo de color.Solución A: Disolver 60 g de molibdato de amonio [(NH4)5Mo¡024•4H20] en 200 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada, añadir 1.455 g de tartrato de antimonio y potasio [k(SbO)C4H406• l/2 H20] y disolver. Agregar lentamente con agitación suave 700 ml de ácido sulfúrico concentrado (H2S04). Enfriar la solución y diluir a volumen de 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.Solución B: Disolver 132 g de ácido ascórbico (C6H806) en agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.4. Solución de Trabajo: Preparar esta solución en el día a partir de las Soluciones A y B del Párrafo 3. Tomar 45 ml de la Solución A y transferir a 800 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada en un vaso de 1 litro, mezclar y añadir 18 ml de la Solución B llevando luego a volumen con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.5. Solución Estándar de Fósforo: Disolver 0.2195 g de fosfato dehidrogenado de potasio cristalizado (KH2P04), previamente secado durante 1 hora a 105°C. Diluir con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada en matraz volumétrico de 1 litro y completar volumen. La solución contendrá 50 ppm de P a partir de la cual se preparan las soluciones para la curva patrón de P de la manera indicada en la Tabla 3. 1. Colocar en un frasco de extracción 2.5 g de suelo y adicionar 50 ml de solución extractora de carbonato de sodio (pH 8.5) y aproximadamente 1 g de carbón activado.3. Agitar por 30 minutos. Nota: Los extractos de suelo obtenido con carbonato de sodio presentan a menudo coloraciones intensas. Por esta razón se recomienda el método.de molibdato azul con á~ido ascórbico, ya que éste elimina las interferencias debidas al color. Comparaciones realizadas entre la cantidad de P medido, usando carbón para recuperar el color y sin carbón, han mostrado que hay una diferencia de menos de 1 ppm de P cuando la cantidad extraída es menos de 20 ppm de P.4. Con un ''dilutor dispensador'' tomar 2 ml de filtrado, añadir 8 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y 10 ml de la solución de trabajo (Párrafo 4 de reactivos). Las diluciones patrones de P deben tener el mismo procedimiento que las muestras.5. Después de 15 minutos, leer los porcentajes de transmitancia (%T) en un espectrofotómetro o colorímetro usando una longitud de onda de 660 mu.6. Estos valores de %T se llevan a un gráfico en papel semilogarítmico en cuya abscisa (escala ordinaria) se representan las partes por millón de fósforo en solución (ppm P) y en la ordenada (escala logarítmica) se representan los porcentajes de transmisión de la luz (%T). Los puntos obtenidos se unen por una línea recta y a partir.de este gráfico se pueden calcular las ppm •de la solución-muestra sin más que leer en el colorímetro el %T correspondiente.La cantidad de fósforo extraíble por el método del carbonato ácido se puede calcular:Factor de = 50 ml de /1.00Dml Dilución solución extrae t.X l.OOOg/2.5 g X 2Dml suelo vol. final 1 2 ml de =200 extrae. suelo P disponible en el suelo (ppm) = ppm en la solución-muestra x 200. A. Material:Vasos de extracción de 50 ml, agitador de muestras, balones volumétricos de 100 ml, dispensador de 10 ml, frascos para la solución extractora, pipeta automática de 50 ml, embudos plásticos o de vidrio.Solución extractora de KCl lN: Pesar 74.56 g de KCl, disol~ ver en aproximadamente 500 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y completar volumen a 1 litro.C. Procedimiento: l. Pesar 10 g de suelo seco al aire y añadir 50 ml de KCl 1~.2. Agitar durante30minutos y filtrar recibiendo en balones volumétricos de 100 ml. Lavar el suelo con 5 porciones de 10 ml cada una de KCl lN. Finalizada la filtración completar volumen con KCl 1~ y agitar para obtener una me~ cla homogénea del filtrado (extracto de suelo en KCl 1~).Este filtrado constituye el extracto de suelo a partir del cual se determinan todos los cationes cambiables con exceR ción del K.A. Material: Erlenmeyers de 125 ml, pipeta volumétrica de 50 ml, bureta con frasco para NaOH; frasco gotero para la solución de fenolftaleína.B. Reactivos: naranja y dis•olver con un poco de agua destilada para luego completar volumen a 100 ml con agua destilada.25.2. Fenolftaleína 1% (indicador): Pesar 1 g de fenolftaleína y disolver en 70 ml de alcohol etílico para luego completar volumen a lOO ml con alcohol etílico.3. Solución de NaOH O.OSN: Preparar a partir de una solución de NaOH 0.1~ tomando 500 ml de esta solución y completando a volumen de 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.C. Procedimiento:1. ~cidez Intercambiable: Transferir 50 ml del extracto obtenido con KCl lN a un Erlenmeyer de 125 ml de capacidad. ~gregar 3 gotas de fenolftaleína al 1% y titular con NaOH O.OSN hasta la aparición de un color rosado pálido permanente. ~notar los ml de NaOH empleados en la titulación.2. Hidrógeno Intercambiable: Transferir 50 ml del extracto obtenido con KCl 1~ a un Erlenmeyer de 125 ml de capacidad. Agregar 3 gotas del indicador metil naranja al 0.1% y titular con NaOH 0.05~ hasta la aparición de un color amarillo permanente en la solución. Anotar los ml de NaOH empleados en la titulación.La acidez intercambiable y el hidrógeno intercambiable expresados en miliequivalentes/100 g suelo se calcula por la relación:  A. Determinación:El calcio se determina en el extracto de KCl 1~ tomando 2 ml y diluyendo con una solución de NaCl*. Leer la transmitancia en un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica, usando estándares de Ca que han recibido el mismo tratamiento que las muestras, de tal forma que el estándar más concentrado sea igual a 5.0 ppm de Ca. Se usa la llama de óxido nitroso acetileno. La cantidad de calcio se determina considerando el factor de dilución (FD) que resulta del producto de: ppm 100 mlCa(meq/100 g) = ppm Ca en la solución-muestra x 0.5Preparar a partir de una solución de 1.000 ppm de Ca (solución preparada comercialmente), estándares de O, 4, 10, 30, 50 ppm Ca tomando de la solución concentrada las cantidades siguientes: O, 1, 2.5, 7.5 y 12.5 ml y diluirlas a 250 ml con H20 doblemente deionizada o destilada. Al momento de utilizarlas en el espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica deben diluirse de la manera siguiente: Tomar 2 ml de cada una por separado y diluirlas a volumen final de 20 ml con la solución de NaCl obteniéndose las siguientes concentraciones: O, 0.4, 1.0, 3.0 y 5.0 ppm Ca, las cuales se usan para la curva patrón.Solución de Sodio: Pesar 50.84 g de cloruro de sodio y disolver por completo en unos 200 ml de H20 doblemente deionizada o destilada y completar volumen a 1 litro. La concentración que se obtiene es de 20.000 ppm Na.A partir de esta solución se obtiene una solución diluida de Na tomándose 60 ml de la solución de 20.000 ppm y diluyendo a 1 litro. Esta solución se utiliza para diluir las muestras y evitar interferencia en los extractos al usar espectrofotometría de absorción atómica.3.5.4. ~1agnesio (Mg).A. Determinación:Utilizar la misma dilución del extracto de KCl 1~, usada en'la determinación de calcio, y leer directamente la transmitancia en un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica, usando una curva calibrada cuyo estándar más alto sea de 1.5 ppm Mg. Se emplea la llama de aire-acetileno. La cantidad de Mg se calcula considerando un factor de dilución (FD) que resulta de: Preparar a partir de una solución de 500 ppm de Mg (solución preparada comercialmente). Las concentraciones de los estándares son: O, 2, 5 y 15 ppm Mg, tomando de la solución concentrada O, 1, 2.5 y 7.5 ml y llevando a volumen de 250 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Al utilizar estas concentraciones deben diluirse tomando 2 ml y completando volumen a 20 ml con la solución de NaCl. Las concentraciones de estas diluciones son: O, 0.2, 0.5 y 1.5 ppm de Mg, respectivamente, y son las empleadas para calibrar el equipo y obtener la curva patrón de ~1g.A. Determinación:Utilizar el extracto de KCl 1~ y leer directamente la transmitancia en un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica, usando una curva calibrada cuyo estándar más alto sea de 20 ppm Mn. Se emplea la llama aire-acetileno. La cantidad de Mn se calcula considerando un factor de dilución (FD) que resulta de: FD = 100 ml 10 g = 10Mn (ppm) = ppm Mn en la solución x 10.28.Preparar a partir de una solución de 1.000 ppm de Mn (Solución preparada comercialmente) de la manera indicada en la Tabla 4.Tabla 4. Concentraciones de las Disoluciones de ~1anganeso.Volumen de la Volumen final con H20 A. Material:Erlenmeyer de 125 ml, agitador de muestras, dispensador de 50 ml, frasco para la solución extractora, embudos de plástico o de vidrio, papel filtro'de 11 cm 0 .Solución extractora de NH4Cl 1~: Pesar 53,49 g de NH4Cl, disolver en aproximadamente 500 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y completar volumen a 1 litro.C. Procedimiento: Pesar 2.5 g de .suelo seco al aire y tamizado con malla No.10 (2 mm), y agitar durante 30 minutos y filtrar. Este filtrado constituye el extracto de suelo. Leer directamente la transmitancia en un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica, usando una curva calibrada cuyo estándar más alto sea de 40 ppm K.Se emplea la llama aire-acetileno. El factor de dilución (FD) a considerar en los cálculos de K intercambiable es el siguiente: ppm 50 ml Pesar 1.9069 g de KCl seco, disolver y completar volumen a 1 litro con agua deionizada o destilada. Esta solución tiene 1.000 ppm de K a partir de la cual se preparan soluciones estándar diluidas con las siguientes concentraciones: O, 2, 4, 10, 20 y 40 ppm de K.Ej.: Para preparar una solución que contenga 4 ppm de K, se toma 1 ml de la solución de 1000 ppm de K y se diluye en 250 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.3.5.7. Parámetros Derivados.A. Capacidad de Intercambio Catiónico Efectivo (CICE)*:La capacidad de intercambio catiónico es comúnmente referida a la cantidad de cation•es absorbidos por soluciones salinas amortiguadas a pH 7 con acetato de amonio (NH40Ac) o a pH 8.2 con cloruro de bario-trietanolamina (Ba-TEA). Para suelos de pH 7 u 8.2, estas medidas reflejan en forma adecuada la capacidad de intercambio catiónico. Además, para suelos que tienen poca o ninguna carga variable, estos métodos también son adecuados. En el caso de suelos ácidos, el uso de estos métodos es satisfactorio cuando estos suelos tienen sistemas de capas silicatadas con pH de carga no dependiente, tal el caso de suelos montmorilloníticos bajos en materia orgánica. Para suelos con pH menor que 5.5 y con carga variable, tal el caso de algunos Oxisoles y Ultisoles, los métodos indicados sobreestiman la capacidad de intercambio catiónico. En este caso, la medida que * Coleman y Thomas (1967) determina más exactamente la carga total al pH actual del suelo es el desplazamiento de cationes por una sal no amortiguada como el KCl, y la suma de cationes cambiables ha sido denominada \"Capacidad de Intercambio Catiónico Efectiva\" (Coleman y Thomas, 1967).En general, valores de CICE superiores a 4 meq/100 gen suelos ácidos sugieren suficiente CIC para prevenir pérdidas considerables de cationes por lixiviación (Sánchez, 1976).Capacidad de Intercambio Cationes Efectiva (CICE) = Al+ Ca+ Mg.B. Porcentaje de Saturación de Aluminio:El porcentaje de saturación de aluminio de la capacidad de intercambio catiónico efectiva es otra medida útil de la acidez del suelo. La saturación de Al es la relación entre el Al intercam~ biable extraído por una sal no amortiguada de KCl y la suma de bases cambiables más el Al intercambiable. A. Material: Erlenmeyers de 125 ml, bureta automática de 25 ml, frascos volumétricos de 100 ml, papel filtro de 5.5 cm~ , embudos Buchner de 6 cm ~ , gradilla para succionar y bomba de succión, frasco para solución extractora.1. Acetato de Amonio 1~, pH 7: Pesar 77.08 g de acetato de amonio y disolver por completo en 500 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y completar volumen a 1 litro.* Peech et a 1 ( 1947), Chapman ( 1965).--2. Solución de Sodio: Pesar 50.84 g de cloruro de sodio y disolver por completo en unos 200 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y completar volumen a 1 litro. La concentración que se obtiene es de 20.000 ppm Na. A partir de esta solución se obtiene una solución diluida de Na tomándose 60 ml de la solución de 20.000 ppm y diluyen do a 1 litro. Esta solución se utiliza para diluir las muestras y evitar interferencia en los extractos al usar espectrofotometría de absorción atómica.C. Procedimiento: l. Pesar 5 g de suelo en un Erlenmeyer de 125 ml y agregar 25 ml de la solución de acetato de amonio 1~. Agitar durante 30 minutos, dejar en reposo 15 minutos y filtrar usando succión. El filtrado se recibe en balón volumétri co de 100 ml, lavando el suelo con pequeñas porciones de la solución de acetato de amonio. Después de terminada la filtración, completar volumen y agitar. Este filtrado constituye el extracto de suelo a partir del cual se determinan los cationes cambiables.3.6.2 .. Calcio (Ca), Magnesio (Mg) y Potasio (K).A. Determinación:Por medio de un \"dilutor dispensador\", tomar 2 ml de filtrado (extracto) y 18 ml de una solución de sodio de manera de obtener 1.000 ppm de Na. Leer la transmitancia en espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica usando estándares de Ca que han recibido el mismo tratamiento que las muestras, de tal forma que el estándar más concentrado no exceda de 5 ppm Ca. Se usa la llama óxido nitroso-acetileno para la lectura de Ca. ppm lOO ml 100 g 20 ml Factor de Dilución(FD) =-x X X = 1 20 1000 ml 5 g 2 ml Ca (meq/100 g suelo) = ppm en solución x l.Para la determinación de Magnesio, emplear la misma solución diluída indicada en el procedimiento de Ca. Leer la trasmitancia en espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica usando estándares de magnesio que han recibido el mismo tratamiento que las muestras, de tal forma que la concentración más alta no exceda de 1.5 ppm Mg. Se usa la llama aire-acetileno para la lectura de Magnesio.ppm 100 ml 100 g 20 ml Factor de Dilución(FD) = -x x x = 1.667 12 1000 ml S g 2 mlMg (meq/100 g suelo)= ppm de mg en solución x 1.667.En el caso de determinación de Potasio, se utiliza el extracto de acetato de amonio que se obtuvo para la determinación de Ca y se lee directamente en el espectrofotómetro de absorción at~ mica usando estándares de K que cubran un rango entre 0-40 ppm K. Se usa la llama aire-acetileno.Factor de Dilución(FD) = ppm 100 ml -x ---39 1000 ml X 100 g 5 g = 0.051 K (meq/100 g suelo) = ppm en solución de K x 0.051.B. Preparación de Están~ares de Ca, ~1g y K:Seguir el mismo procedimiento indicado para suelos con pH menor a 5.4.A. Determinación:Se utiliza el extracto de acetato de amonio y se lee directamente en el espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica usando estándares de Na que cubran un rango entre 0-20 ppm Na. Se utiliza la llama aire-acetileno. Na(meq/100 g suelo) = ppm en solución de Na x 0.087.B. Preparación de Estándares de Sodio:Preparar una solución de 1000 ppm de Na, pesando 2.542 g de NaCl y diluyendo en 1 litro. El NaCl debe ser secado en una estufa a 110°C durante varias horas. Oe la solución concentrada se preparan estándares cuyas concentraciones finales sean: O, 1, 2, 5, 10 y 20 ppm de Na. Estos estándares se preparan tomando O, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 2.5 y 5 ml de la solución 1000 ppm Na y diluyendo a un volumen final de 250 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.Nota: La muestra para determinar Na debe tomarse antes de diluir para Ca y Mg para evitar contaminación en la solución de NaCl usada para estos cationes .. Erlenmeyers de 125 ml, dispensadores de 10 ml, buretas con frascos.Reactivos:, Alcohol etí1 ico é1 96%... Disolver 2.02 g de fosfato de calcio en 1 litro de agua deionizada o destilada. La solución tiene una ~oncentración de 0.008M.Pesar 10 g de suelo en un Erlenmeyer de 125 ml y agregar 50 ml de la solución extractora. Agitar durante 30 minutos y después filtrar la suspensión. Nota: Fox y colaboradores (1964) recomiendan usar fosfato de calcio en suelos con contenidos altos de materiales orgánica, ya que elimina el problema de la turbidez del extracto. El anion fosfa~o desplaza al anion sulfato adsorbido y el catión calcio retiene la extracción de materia orgánica del suelo, además de eliminar la contaminación que proviene del azufre orgánico.------- 35.3.8.2. Método turbidimétrico p~ra determinar azufre en el extracto de suelo:Obtenido el extracto de suelo, la determinación de.s en el suelo sigue un procedimiento de turbidimetría similar.A.Material:Colorímetro -tubos colorimétricos, pipetas de 1, 2, 2.5 y 10 ml.l. Solución de Acido Nítrico al 25% v/v: Mezclar 25 ml de ácido nítrico reactivo puro y 75 ml de agua deionizada o des ti lada.2. Solución de Acido Acético-Acido Fosfórico: Mezclar 900 ml de ácido acético con 300 ml de ácido fosfórico.3. Gelatina -Cloruro de Bario: Disolver 0.3 g de gelatina (Difco Bacto Gelatin -DIFCO Laboratorios Inc. Detroit Mich.) en lOO ml de agua caliente (60-70°C) y enfríe la solución a 4°C. Después de 4 horas llevar el fluido semigelatinoso a la temperatura ambiente y agregar 18 g de Cloruro de Bario (BaCl2.2H20) grado reactivo y agitar la mezcla hasta q.ue el cloruro de bario esté disuelto. Agregar 1 ml de la solución de 320 ppm S-S04, agitar y llevar la solución a la nevera a 4°C por 16 horas. La solución debe estar a la temperatura ambiente por lo menos 2 horas antes de usarla.C. Procedimiento: l. Tomar 10 ml del filtrado (extracto de suelo).2. Agregar 2.5 ml de ácido nítrico 25%.3. Añadir 2 ml de la mezcla ácido acético -fosfórico, y agitar la muestra hasta que esté completamente homogénea.4. Agregar 4.5 ml de agua deionizada o destilada.36.5. Agregar 1 ml de la mezcla gelatina cloruro de bario y agitar bien hasta que la muestra esté bien homogénea.6. Dejar en reposo por 70 minutos y luego agitar y leer a los 10 minutos el porcentaje de transmitancia en un colorímetro a 420 mu. Calcular el contenido de S-S04 en la alícuo ta analizada por referencia de una curva c~librada.D. Preparación de Estándares de S:Disolver 5.434 g de sulfato de potasio (K2S04) grado reactivo en agua deionizada o destilada y diluir la solución a 1 litro. Un ml de esta solución contiene 1 mg de S-S04. Para la prepa-. ración de la curva pipetear O, 8, 16, 32, 48, 64 y 80 ml de solución estándar de sulfato de potasio en volumétricos de 100 ml y ajustar el volumen con agua deionizada o destilada y agitar la mezcla. Las concentraciones son de O, 80, 60, 320, 480, 640 y 800 ppm S. Luego pipetear alícuotas de 2 ml de los está~ dares anteriores en volumétricos de 50 ml y completar volumen con la solución extractora. De estas soluciones tomar 10 ml de cada una y seguir el procedimiento de la misma manera que para las muestras. Las concentraciones finales de estas soluciones son de O, 1.6, 3.2, 6.4, 9.6, 12.8  3.9. DETERMINACIONES DE MICRONUTRIMENTOS.3.9.1. Boro {B)*A. f1aterial:Espectrofotómetro, bureta de 500 ml, pipeta 1 ml, vaso plástico de 250 ml, frascos plásticos de 50 ml, bureta de 50 ml, * Dible et il (1954), Wear (1965).plancha caliente, balanza, bomba de succión, embudos Buchner 5.5 cm~. papel filtro 5.5 cm~ . Todo el material de vidrio debe ser de bajo o libre contenido de boro.l. Solución Curcumina-Acido Oxálico: Pesar 0.04 g de cur.cumina y 5 g de ácido oxálico en 100 ml de etanol del 96%.2. Alcohol etílico del 96%.C. Procedimiento:Pesar 10 g de suelo en un vaso de vidrio libre de boro de 250 ml y agregar 20 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Pesar vaso+ contenido y colocar sobre plancha caliente por 5 minutos exactos desde el momento en que aparece el primer hervor. Pesar nuevamente y reponer el agua perdida por evaporación. Dejar enfriar y filtrar recibiendo el extracto en frascos plásticos . Tomar 1 ml de este filtrado en vaso plástico de 250 ml y agregar 4 ml de solución curcumi na-ácido oxálico y evaporar en estufa ! 55°C durante 4 horas aproximadamente. En forma similar proceder con estándares de boro que varían entre 0.2 y 15 ug. A continuación, enfriar el vaso que contiene el residuo seco y añadir 25 ml de etanol del 96%. Agitar, filtrar y leer el color en un espectrofotómetro a 540 mu. Las muestras deben tomarse por triplicado.Factor de Dilución (FD) = 20 ml 1000 g1000 ml 10 g Boro (ppm) = ppm solución x 2 E. Soluciones Estándares de Boro:Pesar 0.572 g de ácido bórico (H3B03) y disolver con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada para luego completar volumen a 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Esta solución contiene 100 ppm de B, a partir de la cual tomar 10 38.ml y completar a volumen de 100 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada, obteniéndose una concentración de 10 ppm de B. De esta solución tomar 1, 2.4, 6.8, 10 y 15 ml, respectivamente, en balones de 50 ml y diluir con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada obteniéndose concentraciones de 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 y 3.0 ppm de B de los cuales tomar 1 ml y continuar con el mismo procedimiento indicado para una muestra de suelo. El estándar cero debe tomarse por triplicado.3.9. Solución Extractora (HCl 0.05~ + H2S04 0.025~): Mezclar cuidadosamente 50 ml de HCl l~y 2.5 ml de H2S04 ID~ llevando luego a volumen de 1 litro con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.C. Procedimiento:1. Pesar 5 g de suelo seco al aire y tamizado con malla No.lO (2 mm.), transferir a un vaso de 50 ml. Añadir 20 ml de la solución extractora. La relación suelo-extractante es de 1:4. Leer directamente, en el extracto obtenido, los elementos menores: Cu, Fe y Zn en un espectrofotómetro de absorción atómica.El factor de dilución común para estos microelementos es el si guiente: 20 ml 1000 g Factor de Dilución (FD) =x ---= 4 1000 ml 5 gZn, Cu, Fe, Mn (ppm) = ppm Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn en la solución x 4.-------- l. Fenolftaleina: Disolver 1 g en 6D ml de etanol absoluto y completar a volumen de 100 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.2. Hidróxido de Amonio (NH40H): Diluir 10 ml de NH 4 0H concentrado en 100 ml de agua doblemente deionizada o destilada.3. Aluminon: En vasos separados disolver 0.1 g del reactivo \"Aluminon\" (ammonium-aurine tricarboxilate, C22H23N30g), 20 g de goma acacia y, 267 g de acetato de amonio en agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Cuando estén disueltos, mezclar y agregar 254 ml de HCl concentrado. Filtrar y diluir a 2 litros.4. Acido Tioglicólico 1%: Tomar 1 ml de ácido tioglicólico de grado reactivo, y diluir con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada hasta 100 ml.Transferir 2 ml del extracto a un tubo de ensayo graduado de 25 ml. Agregar 2-3 gotas de fenolftaleina y luego hidróxido de amonio hasta la aparición de un color rosado. Diluir a 10 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y agregar 1 ml de la solución de ácido tioglicólico al 1%. Mezclar y agregar 5 ml de solución de \"aluminon\". Mezclar nuevamente y ajustar pH a 4.2 con la solución de NH40H. Calentar en un baño de agua hirviendo durante 16 minutos. Enfriar durante hora y media como mínimo y completar a volumen de 25 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada. Mezclar completamente y leer transmitancia a 537 mu. El factor de dilución (FD) resulta de la siguiente relación:  2. Solución de Acido Bórico al 4%, la cual contiene 5 ml de solución de indicador mixto/litro.3. Indicador Mixto: Pesar 0.5 g del indicador verde bromocresol y 0.1 g del indicador rojo de metilo en 100 ml de alcohol etílico del 96%.4. HCl 0.02N : Preparar a partir de HCl 1~ tomando 20 ml y diluyendo con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada a 1 litro.5. Acido sulfúrico concentrado.6. Catalizador: 0.5 g de selenio y 100 g de Na 2 so 4 se mezclan hasta que queden bien compactos.C. Procedimiento: l. Pesar 0.1 g de muestra en un tubo de digestión.2. Agregar una porción del catalizador.•3. Agregar 4 ml de ácido sulfúrico concentrado.4. Digerir la muestra en bloques a 370°C durante 30 minutos.5. Dejar enfriar y agregar un poco de agua deionizada.6. Pasar cuantitativamente el contenido del tubo a un microdestilador enjuagando con agua deionizada o destilada.7. Agregar 20 ml de la solución de hidróxido de sodio al 50% y destilar recibiendo el destilado en una solución de ácido bórico al 4%.8. Titular el destilado con HCl 0.02N hasta obtener un color gris claro.NOTA: Al preparar las soluciones debe incluirse un control que contiene todos los reactivos menos la muestra. Luego de la tilulación, los mililitros gastados con este control deben tomarse en cuenta para restarlos a las muestras.% N = V-B X 0.02 X 0.014 X 100 0.1 Donde: V = ml gastados de HCl 0.02N en la muestra B = ml gastados de HCl O. 02N en el control 0.02 =normalidad del HCl 0.014 = peso equivalente del nitrógeno 100 relación porcentual = 0.1 peso de la muestra 4.6. DETERMINACION DE MICRONUTRIMENTOS (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na)*.4.6.1. Obtención del Extracto de Tejido Vegetal:A. Materiales: 47.Tubos de digestión Taylor graduados 12.5, 25, 37.5 y 50 ml, buretas de 50 ml con frasco, plancha caliente para tubos.Mezcla Acido Nitro-Perclórico: Mezclar 1 litro de ácido nítrico (NH03) 65% analítico-grado reactivo con 500 ml de ácido perclórico (HC10 4 ) 70%, la relación entre ácidos es 2:1.C. Procedimiento y Determinación de t1icronutrimentos (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na):Pesar 0.5 g de tejido vegetal molido y seco en tubos de digestión Taylor y agregar 5 ml de la mezcla ácido nitro-perclórico.Colocar los tubos en un bloque de aluminio y calentar a una tasa tal, que el ácido nítrico sea expelido en 35 a 40 minutos, teniendo en cuenta que la temperatura final no debe exceder 220°C. Luego que el ácido perclórico haya reaccionado y apare~ can humos blancos, retirar los tubos y enfriar. Diluir a 12.5 ml con agua doblemente deionizada o destilada y esta solución constituye el extracto.  Los elementos Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn y Na son determinados en forma similar a la indicada en su determinación en suelos. El factor de dilución (FD) común resulta de la siguiente relación:12.5 ml 1000 g FD = X = 25 1000 ml 0.5 g Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na (ppm) = ppm Zn,Cu,Fe,Mn,Na en la solución x 25.4.6.2. Determinación de Boro (B). *A. Material:Crisoles de porcelana, mufla, varillas protegidas en su extremo con tubo de goma, embudos, bureta de 100 ml.Preparar una solución de HCl 0.1N tomando 8.3 ml de HCl concentrado (reactivo puro) y diluyendo en 1 litro. El resto de reactivos son los mismos empleados en suelos.C. Procedimiento: Pesar 0.5 g de tejido vegetal molido y seco en crisoles de porcelana e incinerar en una mufla a 550°C durante 2 horas. Enfriar el crisol y contenido y añadir 10 ml de HCl 0.1N triturando el residuo mediante una varilla. Filtrar y proceder tal como se indica en sueios. El factor de dilución (FD) es el siguiente:  A. Material:Tubos Taylor de 50 ml, crisol Gooch de porcelana, planchas para tubos, mufla, asbesto, balanza, vasos de 250 ml, Erlenmeyers de vacío.Acido nítrico -Acido perclórico en una relación de 2:1.C. Procedimiento: l. Pesar 0.5 g de tejido vegetal en tubos Taylor.2. Agregar 5 ml de ácido nítrico-perclórico relación 2:1.3. Digerir la muestra en plancha caliente.4. Transferir la solución digerida a un vaso de 250 ml lavando bien el tubo . 49.. s. Preparar un Erlenmeyer de vacío introduciendo un crisol Gooch de porcelana con capa de asbesto (el crisol debe ser pesado previamente).6. Tomar el contenido del vaso y filtrar a través del crisol Gooch de porcelana con capa de asbesto y lavar con abundante agua hasta obtener un ''test negativo a ácido\". Luego incinerar en una mufla a la temperatura de 550°C durante 2 horas. Dejar enfriar y pesar.Peso de la muestra seca en la mufla %Sílice Cruda = X 100 0.5 g = peso de la muestra","tokenCount":"8582"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54d4f695070db304548f2c268cd27dcc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a760c55-f807-448b-bdb5-bdf527534511/retrieve","id":"-1736664269"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0818c80b-9944-42c7-8acf-a6ae29bdd573","pagecount":"8","content":"This technical bulletin was prepared as an output of the work carried out under the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors (www.cgiar.org/funders).Conservation agriculture (CA) is a critical approach that aims to balance agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability. Mechanization (especially power units, seeders, rippers and sprayers) is a key input for CA. Unfortunately, majority of smallholder farmers often have difficulties accessing and using appropriate and affordable mechanization solutions. There is a need to build sustainable agricultural mechanization models that can meet needs of farmers of all sizes, both small-, medium-and largescale and for the different farm operations. This can be done by equipping and training CA service provision entrepreneurs. Such entrepreneurs can make a livelihood by supplying high quality CA and other mechanization services to the farmers in their regions.Th CGIAR initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, also referred to as Ukama Ustawi, aims to support climate-resilient agriculture and livelihoods by helping millions of smallholders intensify, diversify and de-risk maize-mixed farming through improved extension services, enterprise development and private investment. Under its Work Package 1 (Diversify & Intensify) the initiative seeks to integrate maize-legume intensification practices using promising innovations coupled with conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture mechanization. Ukama Ustawi work in Kenya focused on profiling and promoting sustainable agricultural mechanization as a critical component of inclusive, sustainable and resilient farming in Africa. The project profiled 6 mechanization hire service business models in Kenya. One of the most popular models is the individual farmers/ entrepreneur service provision for both small handheld and motorised mechanization services. This model entails an entrepreneur offering mechanization service on a hire model to the other farmers.This technical bulletin presents a description of the Jab Planter Service Provision Model for Smallholder Mechanization in Kenya and highlights the successful work by Pauline Mogambi, an entrepreneur offering jab planter services to farmers in Nakuru County.A jab planter is a handheld equipment used to sow seed and apply fertilizers under both tillage and no tillage systems. The implement is also suitable for filling in gaps after crop germination. There are many different models of jab planters from different companies. The operational principles are, however, similar. The implement may have either separate hoppers for seed and fertilizer or one hopper for seed only. It enables simultaneous application of sowing the seed, applying the fertilizer and covering, all in one stroke of operation. Often these operations would otherwise be done by at least four people. As such the jab planter saves the scarce and expensive labour.• A jab planter can be used to support smallholder mechanization.• Hand-jab planters do not require access to animal or tractor power, is easy to operate and is labour-saving• It is a low-cost technology with main investment being the one-off cost of purchasing the jab planter, which is estimated at about USD 50-70 depending on the type and sourcing point.• One jab planter can be used and hired out for use by several farmers in a neighbourhood• The jab planter is light and easy to operate once trained• Operating the jab planter requires some skills. The training is quick and easy, and expertise is gained with continued use.• The jab planter is women friendly. The technology is easy to use and accessible to all.• It reduces drudgery and occupational risks associated with prolonged bending as the operator uses the implement while walking upright.• Enormous labour is saved using a jab planter. The work done by three to four people under conventional tillage is done by one person.• One person can plant 1 acre (0.42ha) in two to three hours, saving valuable time that enables farmers to plant in time.• With direct seeding by the jab planter, there is minimal (less than 5 percent) soil disturbance, so weed germination is minimized.• The small size of the devices makes them suitable for operation on hilly, stony and stumpy areas and for intercropping.• The jab planter enables precision planting. One can attain the best spacing and hence correct stand count for higher productivity.• It saves on wastage of seed.• The placement of the fertilizer proximal but away from the seed ensures that there is no risk of scorching and seed damage. This improves on fertilizer use efficiency• The technology allows for an increase in crop yields which in turn provides an additional source of food and income.• The jab planter has two hoopers where seed is placed in one and fertilizer in the other.• Prior to any operation, one needs to calibrate the jab planter for the specific seed to be planted or the amount of fertilizer to be applied.• A jab planter comes with several seed plate sizes. The operator will have to select the one with holes that fit the particular seed. Seeding rates can be adjusted accordingly. There is a provision to plant one, two or three seeds per hole. This is achieved by positioning the pin in any of the three holes• Similarly, the fertilizer hopper can be adjusted to increase or reduce the amount fertilizer applied per planting hole depending on crop type being sown.• The jab planter has two handles which are pulled apart and closed to release the seed and fertilizer• The action of pulling the handles apart triggers the seeds/fertilizer to be conveyed from the hopper to temporarily settle at the furrow opener (the beak). This action occurs simultaneously with piercing the soil.• The second action is pulling the handles together. This action triggers the opening of the furrow opener (beak) to deliver the seed/fertilizer in the created planting furrow. The action also triggers the closing of the seed/fertilizer metering devices.• These two actions are undertaken repeatedly, and they must be synchronized with the operator's footsteps to achieve the desired plant spacing and population.• The operator will need to carefully listen to the dropping sounds made at every action to ascertain that indeed the implement is planting and there is no blockage.• The operator will have to use his / her judgment of the weight to re-fill the seed/fertilizer hoppers accordingly when they are about to be emptied.• Seeding rates can be adjusted according to the number of holes in the seed plate that are exposed to the outlet.• The implement is mostly suited to dry, light or soft mulch covered soils. It is unlikely to work well in muddy or surface crusted soils.• The implement must be cleaned and dried properly after every operation and stored in a cool dry place.• Where possible, lubricate the moving parts of the jab planter to minimize tear and wear. A Jab Planter is a women friendly technology. We do not have to bend too much. In a rhythm, we pace around the farm singing and talking as we plant the seed. In no time an acre is planted, and we earn our income, she explains jokingly.As a trainer, Pauline has been able to train hundreds of people and farmer groups with knowledge on conservation agriculture and use of jab planter.The use of the jab planter has given her independence as a woman. She considers this a full-time job during the cropping season. She earns income and this has reduced overreliance on her husband and relatives.My desire is to clone more Paulines across the country through training on conservation agriculture and the use of the jab planter. My main challenge is having sufficient and affordable jab planters in the hands of the trained farmers, she laments.Most to the initial Jab Planters were introduced from Brazil through various projects. The imported Jab planters cost about Kshs. 12,000 (USD 95). This is unaffordable to most farmers. There has been effort by ACTN to support access to the jab planters through facilitating importation from Brazil as well as supporting local fabrication.The jab planter service provision model offers potential for scaling across the country. Through Ukama Ustawi, we are working with champions such as Pauline to train more farmers around conservation agriculture. We are raising awareness and promoting jab planter as a low-cost gender friendly mechanization solution for smallholder farmers in Kenya, Boaz Waswa, Ukama Ustawi Kenya Lead.Developing and supporting a jab planter value chain from fabrication to service provision and CA presents a great opportunity for job creation for thousands of smallholder farmers, while at the same time enabling the farmers to adopt sustainable and resilient farming practices.CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.To learn more about this Initiative, please visit this webpage.To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2024 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BYNC 4.0).","tokenCount":"1517"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fbedf576a7424b130d5b630f08fa1680","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49cb44f6-2b2a-4b4b-97c5-c29b6a56a7ae/retrieve","id":"1780471264"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fbf88689-9179-4a47-8e22-61a60ee5f783","pagecount":"64","content":"This two-year project (2015)(2016)(2017) aims to ensure that land-use related decision-making in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) takes into consideration biodiversity and ecosystem services and is based on sound information and on the consideration of trade-offs between food production and conservation goals. The long-term outcome of the project will be a reduction in the adverse impacts of agricultural commodity developments on biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being in the LVB. This is a joint project between the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) and the Albertine Rift Conservation Society (ARCOS). The project builds on activities carried out in 2014 as part of a John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation funded project \"Commodities and Biodiversity\" in the Great Lakes Region (GLR) that assessed key agricultural and extractive developments in the region and resulting impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services 1,2 , as well as the \"Oil governance in Uganda and Kenya\" project which aims to catalogue and analyse existing baseline indicators on the impact of the oil sector in Uganda and Kenya 3 . The Commodities and Biodiversity project mapped the potential impacts of future commodity developments on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the wider region's watersheds based on future socio-economic scenarios developed by the CGIAR programme on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). In an effort to maximise both the validity and the usefulness of this work for regional stakeholders, the current project builds on these results. With stakeholder input, it seeks to further develop the analysis, deliver results at a finer scale and assess how this can benefit existing policy and planning processes in the region.This report presents the proceedings from the inception workshop for the project \"Engaging stakeholders in using future scenarios to analyse the potential impacts of agricultural development in the Lake Victoria Basin\".This project inception workshop allowed for the dissemination and validation of results from the MacArthur Commodities and Biodiversity project to Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) stakeholders. It aimed to identify gaps in understanding of key developments and ecosystem services as well as determine current capacity, information needs and current management policies.The specific objectives of the workshop were to:1. Introduce the project and the workshop, and invite comments and feedback. 2. Illustrate how mapping, modelling and scenarios can be used to support land-use related policy review and development. 3. Identify policy and planning processes that could benefit from scenario-based support and capacity building activities to be held in the following two workshops. 4. Map key high impact developments in the Lake Victoria Basin and the affected ecosystem services. 5. Identify data and knowledge gaps for effective assessments to support more informed decision-making on agricultural development planning.The first three objectives were addressed on the first day of the workshop through a series of presentations, discussion and feedback sessions and an exercise to identify policy and planning processes. The second day included practical mapping exercises in country groups to identify and map developments and their impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as identifying the knowledge and data gaps around decision-making.There were a number of outputs achieved through the workshop, including:1. Maps per country of ecosystem services, biodiversity and development in the Lake Victoria Basin. 2. A list per country of policy and plans that influence the Lake Victoria Basin, with links to biodiversity and ecosystem services. 3. A list per country of data gaps and needs relating to understanding the impacts of development in the Lake Victoria Basin on ecosystem services and biodiversity.Participants included representatives from government sectors of environment, agriculture, planning and finance, as well as representatives from academia, national and regional NGOs (see Appendix 2 for a list of participants).The workshop was warmly opened by Mr. Paul Mafabi, Director of Environmental Affairs, on behalf of the Ministry of Water and Environment, Uganda. Mr. Mafabi welcomed the participants to the workshop and to Uganda. He also thanked UNEP-WCMC, ARCOS and CCAFS for the work they are doing under the project and for the generous financial support provided by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Mr. Mafabi outlined the high biodiversity value of the Lake Victoria Basin and the region's historic dependence on natural resources. Over the coming decades, society will have to balance competing needs for land to feed the growing human population, to provide resources and energy to satisfy the ever-accelerating human consumption and to reduce the rate of loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity. For decision makers to balance these different demands on land, it is crucial that they have access to information on the values of land under different use regimes and the capacity to manage ecosystems and pressures that affect them. Before officially opening the workshop, Mr. Mafabi lastly noted the need to actively engage with high impact sectors in order to mainstream environment and climate change issues into national budgets and sector plans.Participants were provided an opportunity to share their expectations for the workshop and the wider project. Participant expectations could be grouped into four categories: policy; agriculture; data, information and modelling; and scenarios (Box 1). These expectations were then revisited at the end of the workshop.Box 1: Participant Expectations Policy 1. Better understand policies around Ecosystem Services and biodiversity in the Lake Victoria Basin. 2. Achieve mainstreaming of trade-offs in supporting policy implementation in the LVB. 3. Learn about plans to make the public aware of the effect of their actions on biodiversity.Agriculture 1. How to plan and prepare for agricultural development without compromising biodiversity and ecosystem services. 2. To map existing and planned areas of agricultural development and make them available to stakeholders (e.g. Google Maps).1. Identify main impacts on biodiversity and ES in the region. 2. Data and knowledge gaps. 3. Produce a real time baseline for Ecosystem Services in the LVB.Mr. Paul Mafabi opening the workshop 4. Map scenarios and trends which influence policy developments.1. Understand how the scenarios can influence policies and decision-making, and how they can serve to engage stakeholders for biodiversity conservation and ES protection. 2. What are the limitations of scenarios and their use? 3. How can scenarios work on the ground?In this session, Arnout van Soesbergen (UNEP-WCMC) gave an overview of the previous Commodities and Biodiversity project and the links with this new project. He introduced the results of the previous analysis which looked at the potential impacts of commodity developments in the Great Lakes Region. Andy Arnell (UNEP-WCMC) then presented the preliminary results for the Lake Victoria Basin which look at the potential impacts of land use change on areas of biodiversity importance and ecosystem function. Participants were given the opportunity to comment on the preliminary results and suggested additional factors to consider in the analysis e.g. land tenure, and regional data providers to connect with. More information on the project and the preliminary results was circulated in a background document prior to the workshop.Lucas Rutting (CCAFS) lead this scenarios session which explained the concept of scenarios and how they can be used to develop and improve policies. He outlined the background of CCAFS scenarios work and the four scenarios which they have previously developed for the East Africa region. The scenarios for East Africa are described in Box 2 and in more detail in Vervoort et al. (2013)  4 . Lucas then presented approaches and processes in using scenarios to support policy, illustrated by CCAFS experience working on the Agriculture Sector Policy in Uganda and the National Environmental Policy in Tanzania. The aim of the session was to ensure participants are familiar with the concept of scenarios and to produce initial downscaled versions of the CCAFS East Africa scenarios. The outputs from the two exercises which formed part of this session will be used as part of the workshop follow up to inform development of these downscaled scenarios. Additional information on the scenarios used in the project and the development process was also circulated in a background report prior to the workshop.Participants were split into four subgroups, each examining one of the four scenarios. The aim of this exercise was for each participant to reflect on what the focal scenario would look like at a national level, thereby downscaling the regional scenarios. Participants captured their ideas on post-its which were collated into five domains (Figure 1) 5 . The group then discussed the potential flows and linkages between different domains. The results from each group are outlined in Box 2 along with a summary of the regional scenario.Scenario 1: Industrious Ants This scenario is characterised by proactive governance, and high regional integration with a wide range of benefits for food security, environment and livelihoods. However, there are difficult international relations, a costly battle with corruption and challenges of being competitive internationally with crops and products aimed at domestic markets.The group thought that under this scenario, which describes a proactive government, earlywarning systems and other climate and natural disaster prevention and mitigation measures would be in place. They also believed regional cooperation -already happening to some extent -would continue to grow, with stronger regional markets and a regional approach to combating illegal wildlife trade. Food security issues would be considered at the regional level, but the global economy and international markets would still affect food and agricultural development in the LVB region. The challenge of protecting biodiversity and natural habitats while also providing enough land for agricultural development is expected to continue. An increase in demand of different crop varieties is expected. The participants also expected government to work together to design common policies to protect biodiversity and ecosystem services, although corruption could have a negative effect on policy implementation. The high regional integration described in this scenario could be reflected in collaborations between scientific bodies, organization, universities and research institutions to share outcomes and information to improve the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services across the region. The group also projected movement of population from rural to urban areas, but were undecided on the environmental impact of this. A regional focus and interconnection within the energy sector and natural resource management is also expected.In this scenario, there is an economic boom where regions reach out to international markets. However, the scenario is not economically sustainable, with trade-offs between food security and the environment, dependency on service and industrial markets, and new vehicles for corruption weakening effectiveness. The group thought that under this scenario the benefits of strong regional cooperation and links to international markets would allow science and technology to be mainstreamed into all sector activities. This would include notable growth of imported agricultural technologies and an increase in research into, and production of, early yield food crops. However, regionalisation could lead to marginalisation of local communities. Communities will feel excluded as economic development leaves them out and undermines their livelihoods due to ecosystem degradation. There may be tension between political will at the community level and the regional block due to each community having its own background interests. Biodiversity will decline in this scenario from unsustainable resource use (including overfishing) and exasperated by those populations affected by the famine invading protected ecosystems. Wetlands and the ecosystem services they provide are especially vulnerable and likely to be targeted for conversion into cropland. From a cultural perspective, a loss of community identity and values from increased regionalisation is possible. There is likely to be inequality in the distribution of resources and food insecurity and poverty impacting health. There will be high costs from food importation especially during and after the famine (part of this scenarios narrative). There will be an increase in rural-urban migration that decrease the labour force and affecting food productivity. The group did feel that some positive impacts on society will come from the wider availability of consumer goods brought about by stronger external links. The group also thought that the famine would lead to improved institutional coordination and formation of new structures to respond to such disasters in future.This scenario is characterised by visionary actions carried out by individual organisations and initiatives facilitated by governments. It is a world of winners and losers, with uncoordinated trade and shared resources, instability, selfish behaviours and corruption preventing coordination.Participants envisioned an East African region under this scenario where national and regional institutions fail to coordinate development interventions. As a result most of these interventions appear to be ineffective or conflicting with one another. Moreover, actions towards development tend to be benefitting solitary political interests. Cultural identities of local peoples are on the decline, as foreign influences continue to enter the region and little is done to maintain East African cultural heritage. As a consequence of a highly uncoordinated and therefore ineffective mode of governance, there is a higher disparity in incomes than during the 2010s. Lack of livelihoods in rural areas is causing an ever increasing rural-urban migration trend. The youth in particular are moving to cities in search of employment and social services. Additionally, local small-scale issues that were starting to emerge and sometimes flourish throughout the 2010s are having a hard time competing with cheap imports. This leads to further economic decline and unemployment. National resources are barely managed sustainably in this scenario, and where efforts are made, management is selective and mainly serving interests of the companies exploiting the resources. Conflicts over utilization of natural resources are abound, and mostly aggravated by local and national authorities. Technological progress is moderate, and mainly non-relevant technologies are being promoted. Exploitative technologies are increasingly available for the rural poor, who lack knowledge on how to use them sustainably.This scenario is characterised by massive public mobilisations, international investments, informal trade, a personal sense of community and psychological resilience. Governments in 2030 act in self-interest, allowing reign of foreign interests and making money through crises.It is a scenario with no win-win situations, latent capacity and wasted opportunity. Revolutions are common and lead nowhere.Participants outlined country-level and LVB-specific scenarios where corrupt and ineffective governance structure led to ineffective or harmful policies with lack of implementation and weak enforcement of the degradation of natural resources. Unethical private sector investors buy their rights to developments (often through corrupt deals with government institutions) which have negative impacts e.g. water pollution, deforestation etc. This leads to short term economic boom but long term environmental impacts. The group thought that under this scenario local people would still value biodiversity and the environment and have experience in sustainable management practices but lack of social structures and disregard for local knowledge by the government means they are largely ignored. This results in a lack of public participation in policy formation. Population growth booms lead to high demand for natural resources, fuelling large scale land use change and agricultural expansion. This increasing demand leads to deforestation, rivers dry leading to livelihoods disasters, famines and water scarcity. Unsustainable spread of infrastructure to harvest natural resources also has negative impacts, especially on biodiversity loss. Ethnic conflicts over natural resources are also seen. They envisaged a lack of innovation and new ideas around environmental technology. There is also poor or no dissemination of research findings both within countries and across the region leading to slow advancement in things like agricultural productivity. Technology research is also not mainstreamed into government leading to a lack of evidence based decision making. Resource intensive and unsustainable technologies are encouraged by governments to meet increasing demand for natural resources.Exercise 2: Input on policies and plans that influence the Lake Victoria BasinThe aim of this exercise was to identify national and regional policies relevant to the environment, food security and climate change and to make an initial selection of policies which have potential to be worked on under this project. Participants were divided into country groups with regional participants joining the most relevant country. The initial policy selections are outlined in Box 3 and a full list of policies identified can be found in Appendix 3.A number of criteria were used in the policy selection: i.Is there a link with food security and/or climate change? ii.Is the policy renewed/revised soon? iii.Assess effectiveness of the policy: iv.Is there adequate budget? v.Who are the people spearheading the policy/plan? In this session Sarah Darrah (UNEP-WCMC) presented a number of global datasets in the form of environmental and socioeconomic maps for the Lake Victoria Basin. The maps showed areas of biodiversity importance in the region (Key Biodiversity areas -KBAs, protected areas and proposed freshwater KBAs) as well as forest cover and loss, farming systems, population density, mining activity and contracted or intended land deals. The aim of this session was to validate the global data used in the models developed under this project with national and local level knowledge. This was achieved through a series of mapping exercises in which country teams identified areas of high biodiversity importance and areas of key ecosystem service provision.Country teams also identified and mapped high impact developments across the Lake Victoria Basin region and discussed the potential impacts these developments could have on ecosystem services and biodiversity.Exercise 3: Mapping ecosystem services and biodiversity in the Lake Victoria BasinIn country groups, participants discussed key ecosystem services and areas of high biodiversity in their respective countries. A list of potential ecosystem services was used to help identify a short list of around five key ecosystem services for each country, grouped into provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. Areas of biodiversity importance and ecosystem service provision were then identified and mapped onto a base map of the Lake Victoria Basin.The flows of ecosystem services to beneficiaries were also outlined, using a common symbology across groups. Images of the maps created by each group can be found in Appendix 4.Exercise 4: Mapping high impact developments in the Lake Victoria BasinIn the same country groups, participants then discussed and identified existing and planned high impact developments. These were categorised into four groups: agricultural, extractive, infrastructure and other. The developments that were thought to have the greatest potential impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services were mapped on a new base map of the region.The key high impact developments identified for each country are listed in Box 4. Nyamongo and Shinyaga  Small-scale agriculture  Fish export processing zone Exercise 5: Impacts of developments on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Lake Victoria BasinIn this final data and mapping exercise, country groups overlaid the two maps they developed of 1) biodiversity and ecosystem services and 2) high impact developments and then discussed the potential impacts of developments on ecosystem services and biodiversity. Details of the developments thought to have the greatest impacts were captured in a table. For each development, countries noted the likelihood of development, and for each ecosystem service or biodiversity area they noted the likely severity of the impact on a five-point scale from negative to positive impacts and the time horizon of the impact. Additional discussions, such as the organisations/countries involved and the impacts of climate change were also captured in the table (country tables are included in Appendix 4). Participants were then encouraged to circulate around the maps of other countries to consider transboundary impacts of developments outside of their country and vice versa. This gave participants from different countries and sectors the opportunity to exchange regional knowledge and draw attention to any upcoming developments and potential impacts that may have been missed during country level discussions.The aim of this session was to produce a list per country of data gaps and needs relating to understanding the impacts of development in the Lake Victoria Basin on ecosystem services and biodiversity. Andy Arnell highlighted that UNEP-WCMC is interested in working with data from the region and from individual countries. Additional datasets and knowledge from countries is valuable as they can be used to supplement existing global data and potentially to validate the modelling work done under this project. This information will thus inform follow up workshops and has potential utility to inform policy and planning.Participants worked in country groups to complete data forms which captured useful datasets around the following themes: Biodiversity, Agriculture, Infrastructure, Geoscience and Land use. For each dataset (if known), participants noted the geographic coverage, data layer type, dataset name, whether it is spatial or non-spatial and the name and contact details of the organisation who manages the dataset. The results highlighted there are potentially a number of national level datasets which could be useful to validate the project results. The exercise also produced useful contact information for the next steps of the project.During this final session, participant's expectations from the beginning of the workshop were revisited by Yara Shennan-Farpon (UNEP-WCMC) and an open discussion gave participants time to reflect on the achievement of their expectations and to contribute ideas for the next steps of the project. Participants were especially impressed with the mapping, modeling and analyses carried out before the workshop, but were keen to see plans to improve the link between the science presented and the policymakers and stakeholders involved in decisionmaking at the regional level.Arnout van Soesbergen (UNEP-WCMC) and Lucas Rutting (CCAFS) outlined the next steps of the project and gave an introduction to the next workshop. As immediate next steps, UNEP-WCMC will use the data and information gathered during the workshop to improve the existing models of biodiversity loss and ecosystem function for the LVB. This will include improvements to the baseline for the region. The models will also be applied under the three remaining scenarios at higher resolution. CCFAS will build scenario narratives, based on the existing narratives for East Africa but incorporating the inputs from participants for the LVB region. They will also assess the selection of policies identified during Exercise 2 on the first day of the workshop and identify policy and planning processes that can benefit from the project. This will include engaging with stakeholders and relevant policy makers for each country.The next multi-stakeholder workshop will entail a scenario-guided policy review and a targeted scenario-based analysis to evaluate the performance of the identified policies and their implications for biodiversity and ecosystem services under different potential future scenarios. The workshop will also develop policy and management recommendations. Current capacity and capacity development needs for increasing the consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural development will also be assessed.The workshop ended with expressions of thanks from UNEP-WCMC, ARCOS and CCFAS for the enthusiastic engagement of participants throughout all of the sessions. Mr. Paul Mafabi closed the workshop and noted that this is just the start of the project and we are now reopening a new chapter of work that we hope will lead to many benefits across the Lake Victoria Basin region.The United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is the specialist biodiversity assessment centre of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the world's foremost intergovernmental environmental organisation. The Centre has been in operation for over 30 years, combining scientific research with practical policy advice.ARCOS is the only regional conservation organization with a focus on biodiversity conservation in the Albertine Rift. Throughout 20 years of existence, ARCOS expended its area of intervention from Albertine Rift to Africa Great Lakes and African mountain ecosystems. Its overall goal is to enhance biodiversity conservation and sustainable management of natural resources through the promotion of collaborative conservation action for nature and people.The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) seeks solutions to help the world's poorest farmers become climate resilient. CCAFS is a strategic collaboration between CGIAR and Future Earth, led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).The \"Engaging stakeholders in using future scenarios to analyse the potential impacts of agricultural development in the Lake Victoria Basin\" project would like to thank our donor, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the workshop participants for making the workshop a great success. In particular, we would also like to thank Uganda for hosting the workshop.The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP, contributory organisations or editors. The designations employed and the presentations of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organisations, editors or publishers concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries or the designation of its name, frontiers or boundaries. The mention of a commercial entity or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by UNEP.  Important; it leads all agricultural activities in the country.  More initiatives could be added to the PSTA. It is planned by the MNR to be worked on in 2017, but there is currently no budget planned. Could be in the national budget for 2017.  The water policy in the country should have two parts: resources and supply, so an integrative approach is needed.  There is support and there is donor investment for the integrated water resources management (IWRM).  This was identified as a particularly interesting one due to the integrative approach they are seeking and the fact there is a clear plan to work in it next year. The initial development and review began in 2015 and was funded by UNDPthen funding was cut.  There is support and interest to include a strategic environmental assessment in it.  Under the MNR.  But -currently no funding model, although a lot of support and interest in improving it. The IMP was developed and implemented before the Water Master Plan (WMP). But, this WMP includes new research and information which could and should be used to inform the IMP. It is within the national Crop Intensification Programme.  It was driver by Donor investment and there is a possibility for this to happen again, there is currently no budget allocated. But the MNR is writing a concept note to the Water Consultation Commission to try and get funding. The MNR wants to reconsider and review the IMP to have common principles as the WMP, as well as including the information from the WMP which was done recently and is very relevant. This is within the Rwanda Constitution -now it is called the Environmental Organic Law, but there is a plan and allocated national budget for 2016-2017 to re-design this and make it the Environmental Law.  This is an opportunity to include many aspects and improve it greatly in view of CC, food security, biodiversity, etc.  Identified as a particularly good option.  It will require integration approach, could be a long process.  Interest in including land use planning and the effect of changes in land use to policy implementation. First developed in 2014.  The group was not sure about the status of this and what information is include or missing, so they are going to email me more information.  The issue is that Rwanda has undertaken environmental studies and research into the negative effects of fertilizers on the environment and the MNR are concerned these results are not included in the NFP, as they were done after 2014.  It is amended every 2 years so there is a review planned for 2016-17. Is in national plans for 2017 but currently in consultation with finance division to allocate budget.  Rwanda MNR feel they will need technical support for this, they are not strong on agroforestry. This background document can serve as a reference during the workshop to discuss the main pressures from agricultural commodity developments on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the LVB, as well as to discuss the results of the previous scenario work under the Commodities and Biodiversity project. A further background document on the CCAFS scenarios for East Africa is also included below.Biodiversity refers to the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD, 1992).Ecosystem services refers to the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The beneficiaries of an ecosystem service may be located in the same place as where the service is generated or elsewhere. Ecosystem services include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other non-material benefits (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).Ecosystem or landscape functions are the capacities of portions of land to provide ecosystem goods and services (Kienast et al., 2009).Scenarios offer a way to address uncertainty about the future by creating \"coherent, internally consistent storylines that explore plausible future states of the world or alternate states of a system\" (adapted from IPCC 2013). Even though any single scenario is extremely unlikely to happen, a set of different scenarios can help explore plausible futures -rather than trying to predict one future. The development and analysis of such scenarios provide an extremely powerful tool to help inform environmental, economic and development-related decisions.The  2) that include wetlands, forest reserves and world famous national parks. Lake Victoria is host to the largest freshwater fisheries on the continent and provides an important transport system for the East African region. The impacts of past pressures are already visible in the watershed. For example, Lake Victoria was originally dominated by a rich fish fauna, comprising several hundred species of cichlids. The Lake and its watershed are currently estimated to hold 223 fish species (13% of the African total), 263 odonates (37%), 81 molluscs (14%) and 15 crabs (13%). Of these, 51 fish (9% of African IUCN Red-Listed species), three odonates (12%), and 12 molluscs (8%) are globally threatened 8 .A review of status and trends in the MacArthur Commodities and Biodiversity project found impacts on the lake itself from increased fishing pressure, nutrient inflows and deoxygenation, inorganic pollution, invasive species, but also signs of unsustainable utilization of wetlands and forests in the catchment and ensuing siltation and eutrophication of the lake 9 . Impacts are likely to increase under the rapid developments in the region. Population is increasing rapidly (3% per year in Uganda), as well as access to commodity markets (e.g. through infrastructure development), which will likely lead to further degradation of ecosystems. The watershed is also the location of rapid developments in the exploration and exploitation of oil and gas. Decision makers urgently need clear and authoritative information about the potential future impacts and threats as well as increased capacity for action to respond to these developments and manage risks and achieve the best possible outcomes for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human development at national and local levels.  Figure 13. Key Biodiversity Areas, proposed freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas, protected areas and main towns in the Lake Victoria Basin (UNEP- WCMC, 2015;BirdLife International and Conservation International, 2015;WorldPop, 2010).To assess trends in biodiversity and ecosystem services under different future scenarios, UNEP-WCMC collaborated with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS; www.ccafs.cgiar.org), who supported the development of four socioeconomic scenarios for East Africa by regional stakeholders in 2013 (www.eci.ox.ac.uk/publications/briefings/ECIInsightsforPolicy1.pdf). The scenarios developed take into account likely trends in national, regional and global markets and commodities, trade regulation and climate change, based on regional expert input. The scenarios process focused on socioeconomic changes (e.g. in markets, governance, broad economic developments, infrastructure) as key contextual drivers for commodity-driven land-use change, linking agriculture, food security, livelihoods and environmental change. The scenarios were processed into a model of land-use change, whose outputs were used as a basis to assess and map the potential effects of future commodity developments on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda.In June 2014, UNEP-WCMC organised a workshop entitled \"Scenario-guided policy analysis on the future of development, food security and the environment in East Africa\" in Entebbe, Uganda, in collaboration with CCAFS and ARCOS, to review these scenarios and their potential impacts, identify relevant existing or planned policies that may be affected by these scenarios, and assess capacity to manage impacts at different levels. Participants included representatives from government sectors of environment, agriculture, planning and finance involved in supporting policy making, civil society and academia.The scenarios for East Africa are described in the scenarios background document below and in more detail in Vervoort et al. (2013) 10 :During the workshop, participants reviewed land-use change, biodiversity and ecosystems services maps generated by UNEP-WCMC for each scenario. These results can be visualised on the project Watershed Exploration Tool (macarthur.unep-wcmc.org). The participants subsequently interpreted each scenario on an empty map locating key developments, areas of interest, and likely impacts. This led to the production of four maps (one per scenario) which were then digitized and used to further refine and validate the spatial analysis done by UNEP-WCMC under the project.On this basis, the participants discussed what the future might hold in terms of agriculture and environmental change, using research to develop important policy questions in the face of an uncertain future. In this way, the project sought to get regional input on the main areas of concern and their priorities in biodiversity and ecosystem services in relation to food security and development. The participants then tested if proposals for policy change to address adverse impacts would be achievable under different development and climate change conditions.Figure 3 shows the baseline of biodiversity importance 11 and Figure 5 shows the baseline of ecosystem function provision across the LVB, using modelled land use data for 2005. Biodiversity importance is determined using all available amphibian, bird and mammal species range data from the IUCN Red List 12 which can be supplemented or replaced with locally available data from the region to improve accuracy. Ecosystem function provision is a composite measure of potential ecosystem services delivery from landscape units based on land cover and land use data. These assessments assume no land use change within protected areas (PAs). Figure 4 shows modelled biodiversity loss and Figure 6 shows modelled ecosystem function provision from 2005-2050 4 using land use modelling under the second scenario (Herd of Zebra) which is a scenario of strong regional integration but reactive governance. This scenario was chosen as it represents a plausible future for not only the East and Central African region but also for the whole of Africa. As part of this project, the other three scenarios will be assessed in a similar manner.    As well as analysing the impact of scenario-driven agricultural development on biodiversity and ecosystem services, a number of datasets on the status and trends of other pressures within the Lake Victoria basin have been collated . These datasets show spatial patterns of population density, farming systems, extractive activities, forest cover and loss and known large land deals. These data are derived from mostly global, publicly available sources that are somewhat dated and are of variable quality. More accurate, regionally specific and up to date data would allow for improved analysis of trade-offs to support policy and decision making. Part of this workshop is therefore dedicated to identifying data gaps and alternative data sources as well as an assessment of the need, quality and access to such data. Figure 19. Farming systems in the Lake Victoria Basin, year 2000(FAO, 2011).Figure 20. Forest cover density in the Lake Victoria basin in year 2000 (Hansen et al., 2013). This background document features short summaries of the CCAFS scenarios created for East Africa.The CCAFS scenarios will be used as a starting point to develop scenarios for the UNEP-WCMC-led project Engaging stakeholders in using future scenarios to analyse the potential impacts of agricultural development in the Lake Victoria Basinthey will be re-imagined and discussed in terms of national and policy priorities.What are scenarios?The Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security program includes a project on scenario-guided policy formulation that is active in East and West Africa, South and Southeast Asia, the Andes and Central America. Scenarios are used in an intensely participatory process for policy development; successful agricultural, climate change and development policy formulation processes have been conducted with many governmentsparticular success stories are Cambodia, Honduras, Bangladesh, Colombia, Uganda, Tanzania and Ghana.   ","tokenCount":"5993"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"02482e6c9cbd4c9d0cf2df2515a4bdf9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c503a29-5de2-464f-b703-21852b5cce6b/retrieve","id":"283259067"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f46dfaa-fd6e-402c-b657-5dcda1980336","pagecount":"1","content":"El estudio se centra en fortalecer el sector agropecuario en Honduras mediante la asistencia técnica, la integración con mercados, y el uso de tecnologías digitales (como WhatsApp). Estamos evaluando el impacto de estas estrategias en la calidad del grano, la adopción de prácticas, las decisiones de venta, y los ingresos de productores de café y frijol. Presentamos una caracterización de los productores involucrados, analizando similitudes y diferencias, y cómo estas características pueden influir en los resultados de las evaluaciones.Café: proveemos asistencia técnica, información sobre calidad del café vendido, y facilitamos integración con mercados.Frijol: envío de mensajes técnicos (WhatsApp) y control de calidad in situ. Datos: encuesta con 2,273 productores (1,607 café, 666 frijol) en dos regiones de Honduras. Estrategia de evaluación: estudios controlados y aleatorizados (RCTs) a nivel de aldeas.• Café:• 62.9% de los caficultores tienen el café como única fuente de ingreso; • 28.3% tiene acceso a internet• Frijol:• 49.4% reportó sembrar alguna variedad mejorada;• 19% del ingreso familiar proviene del cultivo de frijol• Herramientas digitales: la mayoría de productores usa herramientas digitales (celular), aunque el acceso a red celular es variado: SMS es mejor para las zonas cafetaleras y WhatsApp para frijol. • Participación en entrenamientos: Solo el 2% de caficultores ha recibido entrenamiento (no se evaluó en frijol). Se necesita mejorar esto. • Calidad y mercado: es más común que los productores de café reciban descuentos por calidad, comparado con los de frijol. Mejorar asistencia técnica puede contribuir con la calidad e ingresos, dada la importancia de ambos cultivos como fuente de ingreso (especialmente café). ","tokenCount":"258"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3471d7f4718480fd28d91e9516dcd2f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42721d6d-bfb2-47f8-8ec3-1c89c8c9b58b/retrieve","id":"-1066903770"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3da81097-d9bb-4cb0-aff3-985b024e690f","pagecount":"57","content":".,---,=-==--Aqr1cultural Cooperat1ve Development Internat1onal (ACDI) 1s the overseas development arm of the U S aqr1cultural and farm cred1t cooperat1ves ACDI 1S part of the Nat1onal Counc1l of Farmer Cooperat1ves, wh1ch represents over 2,000 U S aqr1cultural and farm cred1t cooperat1ves w1th over one m1ll•on farmer members ACOI's membersh1p 1ncludes U S farmer rooperat1ves assoc1at1ons, and reqular corporat1ons wh1ch op~rate cooperat1velyLeqal structures varv berause statP laws requlat1nq farmer orqan1zat1ons varv WJdPlvArnr work~ w1th a w1de var1ety of tvpes of orqan•zattons oversPa~ \\nok1n~ for un1tv of purpose 1n who 1s represPntPd and hnw thPV ~rP served In th1s report therefore thP terms rooper~ttve assoc¡at1on, and farmer orqan1zat1on are usPd lntPrch~naP~hlv wh1le respect1nq the term each orqan1zat1on h~s chosen for ttsP\\f ACDI's matn purpose 1s to prov1de practJcal tPchnJcal ass1stance to farmer orqan¡zat1ons __ ln_devJ\"]OPtnq ronntrtP'I 11rot has 24 proJects 1n _LL countr 1 es ( 1989) fundPd bv cont ract.s w 1 t h the U S Aqency for Internat1onal Development (AIDl thP Inter-Amer•can Oevelopment Bank, The World Bank and '11mtlar 1nst1tut1onsFund1nq for th1s report was prov¡ded throuqh the AID (Wash1nqton Cooperat1ve_Development support Offtcel qrant to -ACDI -for-•ts-ceñfral-offlce and req1onal offlce for Lat1n Amer1ca añd the car1bbean The development experts, 1ncreas1ngly calloused to reports of such events, are tend1ng to put the1r fa1th and 1nvestments 1nto pav1ng the way for the unseen hand of the free market In countr1es w1th econom1es bound up 1n redundant layers of regulat1on, d1s1ncent1Ves to 1nvestment, and fa1led qovernmentrun bus1nesses, th1s approach 18 q1V1ng the experts a new feel1nq of accomplishment Back on the farm, there are st1ll a few aqr1cultural development proJects produc1nq outstand1nq results As a result of a request from Dr Jorqe Chanq of FUNDAGRO, th1s ~J~ter_was_SP~t to look at a qroue __ of cassava assoctatlo~called UAPPY (Unton de Asoc1ac1ones de Productores y-procesadorPs de Yuca) 1n coastal RcuadorThe wr1ter had no prev1ous knowledqe of the crop, thP country, or the actors Not easily dece1ved after too many VPars of work1ng w1th Lat1n small farmers and the1r assoc1at1ons, he came away enthused by the rap1d proqress, techn1cal aq1l1ty measured goal sett1nq, and respons1veness to human and organ1zat1onal problems shown by the UAPPY leadersh1p and the1r techn1cal adv1sorsWh1le mak1nq the l1st of problema yet to be solved, as requested by UAPPY, he noted 1t 1S remarkably short compared to s1m1lar proJects at the same stage, and the effort requ1red to solve them 18 well w1th1n UAPPY's grasp, assum1nq there are no grave externa! shocks 1n the short run Crttlcs may say that UAPPY has been f1nanced by grants and subs1d1es, and that 1t could not stand to pay market rates of 1nterest Yet th1s 1S an exper1mental, demonstrat1on proJect wh1ch has been gradually pushed by CIAT and_fUNDAGRO toward commerc1al operat1onThe quest1on of 1ndependencP from subs1dy hr-merely-a-matter-of how and whenThe quest1on of 1nterest rates 1S a funct1on of total borrow1ngs versus owner equ1ty 1nput The demonstrat1on effect of UAPPY has exceeded CIAT and FUNDAGRO expectat1ons due to hard work and a qood marketIn sorne except1onal cases APPYs (local process1nq assoc1at1ons) are be1nq formed W1th surpr1s1ng amounts of owner PqUltV tnPut, PVPn 1n thP poorest cassava grow1ng commun1t1esSmall farmers can surpr1se the experts w1th the1r ab1lity to bootstrap the cap¡talJ~~tJon of an enterpr1se they have seen work1ng well 1n every day l1fP, as opposed to hav1ng been told about 1tThe UAPPY farmers are becom1nq aware of an 1mportant local fact wh1ch was not operat1ve in prev1ous CIAT cassava proJects dur1ng inflat1onary t1mes, 1t pays to produce a product wh1ch has \\ { a l1nk toan export market, and 1s therefore 1nd1rectly pa1d 1n hard currency Th1s advantage, wh1ch 1s a new and wondrous th1nq to subs1stence small farmers, can bP lost 1f UAPPY does not cont1nue 1ts barqa1n1ng pos1t1on and un1ty 1n relat1on to the 1 buyers of 1ts products, 1n good t1mes and bao considerable sp1n-off and sp1llover effects of UAPPY are 1n ev1dence 1n the prov1nce of Manab1Th1s report ts foc•tsed on the 1nternal S1tuat1on of UAPPY and 1ts local aff1l1ateq the APPYs, leav1nq l1ttle room to d1scuss fortu1tous s1de effects Two anecdotes are 1n order, however Manab1 area pol1t1C1ans have apparently added another 1tem to the1r l1st of prom1ses to voters They st1ll prom1se schools and roads, but now they also prom1se to bu1ld an APPY And the author was told by a h1qhly respected former h1gh off1c1al 1n the M1n1stry of Agr1culture that Manab1 can and should develop a hundred APPYs rather than the mere 20 planned by UAPPY UAPPY has ach1ey~d take-off by two 1mportant means ~~-~1n9_9~qd_1ncg~e to the farmers, and conv1nc1ng farmers that ~ork1ng together 1n a bus1ness sett1ng 1s to the1r cons1derable ~~~~aJ b~nef1tTh1s has been done rap1dly and dramat1cally, necessar1ly ra1s1ng quest1ons about the susta1nab1l1ty of the organ1zat1on, espec1ally 1n v1ew of the 1mm1nent chanqe of CIAT adv1sorsThe way 1n wh1ch events have unfolded 1n the UAPPY storv has left a cruc1al gap between the V1S1onary, entrepreneur1al tn1t1al leadersh1p and the rank-and-f1le farmer Thts qap 1s ~lmost always present 1n new farmer orqan1zat1ons, but the UAPPY const1tuency and short t1me frame present spec1al challenqpq wh1ch are descr1bed here Th1s gap 1S not an ab1l1ty qap but an 1nformat1on and educat1on qap Part of the cooperat1ve ph1losophy espoused by ACDI and 1ts members 18 that the smallest and poorest of farmers can make val1d decis1ons, q1ven qual1ty tra1n1nq and techn1cal ass1stanceThe CIAT and FUNDAGRO ass1stance to UAPPY 1n the orqan1zatlonal and management areas has been of uncann1ly h19h qual1ty, g1ven the techn1cal nature of the1r pr1nc¡ple m1sS1onTh1s report merely po1nts to areas 1n wh1ch the ex1St1ng, part1ally intu1t1ve management d1rect1on can be made more spec1f1c, teachable and repl1cable A note lS 1n order concern1ng the author's use of a term he h1mself once spoke w1th great loath1ng top down After see1n~ farmer organ1zat1ons succeed and fa1l for many reasons, the author has come to real1ze that not all farmer orqan¡zat1ons that started from the top are automat1cally doomed In fact many very good ones got a needed head start from the top and becarne that much stronqer when the farmers ernbraced the orqan1zat1on from below and made 1t the1r own It 1s the author's op1n1on that UAPPY 1s well clutched 1n that farmers' embrace, and therefore has a much better-than-average chance for lonq-tPrrn surv1val and success The ma1n orqan1zat1onal 1ssue 1n th1s k1nd of proJect 1S do the farmers cons1der 1t thelr own, part1c1pate W1th genu1ne 1nterest, and 1ntend to keep 1t qo1ng? Observers are often perplexed by the 1nternal organ1zat1onal dynam1c as the farmers work out the al1gnment of local 1nterests wh1le they gradually take more control of the central organ1zat1onThe result1ng new vers1on may not appear exactly as the planners had env1s1oned, but ult1mately such change 1S part of the local adaptat1on of the technlcal/organ1zat1onal package A f1nal note 1S needed to expla1n the order, content, and purpose of th1s report After f1rst present1ng a br1ef overv1ew of UAPPY's rap1d qrowth, th1s report turna to the nature of cassava and the or191ns of the technlcal/orqan¡zat¡onal packaqe The quest1ons regard1nq the organ1zat1on are a comb1nat1on of those asked of the author by the UAPPY leadersh1p and the ones normally asked 1n an evaluat1onHopefully UAPPY and 1ts leader~ w1ll f1nd this report useful 1n mak1nq a road map for 1ts future DlSCUSSlOns W1th Dr Steven Romanoff of CIAT, Inq Carlos Eguez of FUNDAGRO, Mr Colon Mendoza, Adm1n1strator of UAPPY, and other UAPPY and APPY personnel made th1s report poss1bleThe author expresses gratitude for the1r qenerous collaborat1on and adm1rat1on for the1r work3)Un1on de Asoc1aC10nes de Productores y Procesadores de Yuca, the un1on of 16 local cassava farmer process1nq assocJat1ons (APPYs) located 1n a 70-kilometer rad1us around Pu~V~o, Manab1, Ecuador /f'ochvrQlo         UAPPY hopPS tn dou~JP product1on aga1n 10 1989, wh1le 1ocreas1n~ thP nurnber of APPYs and members by rouqhly one fourth (see Table 11 UAPPY and the APPYs also prov1de a rnar~et for numerous non-membPr small farmers, numbPr1nQ about 500 1n 1988 (sPe Table 7 and  Chart 11 Count1nq an average of 5 members per fam1ly the number of 1nd1v1dual benef1c1ar1es of UAPPY was 4,250 10 1988, wh1ch could r1se to 6,000 10 1989 (see Table 2 and Chart 1) UAPPY sales results have been recorded 10 f1nanc1al statements s1nce 1987, when sales were about $13,700, of wh1ch Just over 30% was prof1t to UAPPY (see Chart 21 Sales 1n dollars quadrupled 10 1988 and quadrupled aqa1n 10 1989, wh1le prof1ts were about 27% 10 both 1988 and 1989 (see Chart 2 and OpPratJnQ Statements, Tables 8 and 9, paqes 41 and 42)  :------------------~--c:-;:c;¡=)r---------,.;;;;0- Soarce uun, uy, 1989 250r----------------------------------.  In the Amer1cas, over 40 percent of cassava productton ts desttned for human food another th1rd of the product1on 1B usP~ for an1mal feed, wtth the remain1nq product betnq USPd tn tndustrv for laundry starch, qlue, food by-pro~ucts an~ chemtcals 2 Chart 4 1S a stmpl1f1ed explanat1on of thP uses of cassava Althouqh cassava produces onlv abo11t onP th1rd \"~\" mnch prote1n as corn or sorghum, tt 1s ene of the htqhPst nrn~urPr~ of enerqy (calortes) per area of land utJltzPd morP th~n ~o•lhltnQ the calor1e yteld of potatoes and trtpltnq thP c;¡Jnrte vteld of corn 3 An 1mportant feature of cassava '\" tts st~rch rnntPnt wh1ch makes tt destrable for tts tndustrta1 bv-produrt\" and fnr use 1n an1mal feeds When used 1n certa1n fePdS tt acts to hol~ qranules or pe1lets toqether Stnce 1986 C'I~S'IV'I flo•1r has rnmP 1nto demand as an 1ngredient 1n manufactured shr1mp fePd tn Ecuador, because shr1mp feed pellets must ho1d toqether bPtween 6-8 hours underwater• Cassava 1S easy to grow and produces well on peor, h1lly sotls w1th adequate dra1naqe It 1S not mandatory to plow the so1l, and d1sease or pest problema are m1n1mal 5 Ratnfall required 1S a m1n1mum of 400 mm per year over the ftrst half of a 9-12 month qrowtnq cycle In coastal Ecuador cassava ts planted Wtth the f1rst ra1ns of December and January, and ts harvested from September to December Flood1nq can be a problem tn very ratny years as can be lack of adequate ratnsIn coastal Fcuador ytelds are affected by etther flood1nq or drouqht tn about PVPry thnd year Growtnq costa for cassava tn the Manabt ProvJnCP of Ecuador area are summar1zed 1n Table 3 Most small farmers 1n the UAPPY mPmhPrshtP 'lrPa of CO'~\"t~l Ecuador qrow other crops 1n add1t1on to ca~~ava TVPtcal farms '\" UAPPY's membersh1p area are undPr 10 hPctarPS '\" StZP ;¡nd h'IVP typtcal crop m1XPS as summartzed tn TablP 4 6 In qPnPr'll seasonal labor requ1rements for cassava combtnP well wtth thP labor requ1rements for other crops as s    harvest Furthermore, cassava is usua11y qrown on the farmers' 1east va1uab1e, least level sotls, althouqh 1t ts tntercropped more than half the ttme, usua11y wtth corn Yte1ds 1n coasta1 Ecuador ranqe from 6 to 15 tons/hectare, 1arge1y ref1ecttnq the ratnfa11 pattern A1thouqh there has not been a census stnce 1Q74, 1t ts esttmated that the typtcal small farmer 1n the Manabt area Wtll have a cash famt1y tncome from a11 sources ranqtnq from approxtmately $600 to $2,000 annually?Factors determtntnq tncome tnclude land holdtnqs, crops qrown weather famtlV labor contrtbutton, and manaqement abtltty INIAP's st•1dv of cass11va growtnq costs (Table 3) tndtcates posstb1e net tnrome toa famtlv operatton of up to $393 pPr hectareThe tmpact nf an tncrea~P from O S hectares to 2 O hectares of cassava as 1s tvntral fnr many UAPPY farmers stnce 1985, can therefore mPan a nPt tnrrea~e in famtly tncome of between 10% and more than 100%The opportuntty costs of such an tncrease tn cassava productton wnuld be comparattve1y low, q1ven that the alternattve use of ca~sav11 land tS usually pasture and famt1y labor costs are an tmportant component of growtnq costs (see Table 3) cassava 1S we11 sutted to the sma11 famtly farm Accordtnq to research done by Romanoff tn Colombta, farmers who expand to more than 3 hectares of cassava tend to have manaqement dtfftculttes wtth harvesttnq and markettnq, and therefore swttch to other crops 8 Thus cassava appears to 1end ttself to famtly operat1ons of under 3 hectares, whtch ts typtca1 of the UAPPY farmers Oesptte 1ts advantaqes of adaptabt1tty, ease of cu1ttvatton, and htgh yteld, cassava 1s htqhly per1shable once harvested, wtth a fresh 1tfe of only 2-3 days Thts ltm1ts the amount of cassava the sma11 farmer can plant, unless he has means of reachtnq thP fresh market qutckly or drytnq h1s productIn thP casP of coaqtal Ecuador, most cassava comes to market in SPptember to DerPmber at whtch t1me the fresh prtce drops bv up tn 70% 9 Jn the mi~-JQ80'~ cassava was decl1n1nq 1n planted area tn coastal Ecuador rlue tn the 1ack of dry1nq and storaqe factltttes and market access Thts situatton has now 1mproved radtca11y for the UAPPY cassava farmers, as wtl1 be tllustrated be1ow III THB CIAT TBCHNICAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PACKAGE FOR CASSAVA Twenty years ago, the qoal of the CIAT cassava proqram was to 1ncrease the product1v1ty of cassava After the1r IDltial efforts, the CIAT team, led by Dr James Cock, Incorporated a related soc1al obJect1ve 1n the1r work to 1ncrease the urban food supply as well, wh1le ma1nta1ning the1r focus on cassava 10 Wh1le address1nq the bottlenecks to Increased cassava product1on, CIAT began formulat1nq Its multifaceted or Inteqrated approach to helpinq small cassava farmersThe main components beca me There was clearly a arowtna need for balanced fpe~s an~ drted casaava could be an 1mportant tnaredtent at a Pr1ce attract1ve to both farmer and feed manufacturer But farmers manufacturera, and 1nvestors were all reluctant to 1nvest 1n the dry1na and mtlltna procesa They were concerned w1th h1ahlv fluctuattna cassava prtcea, plus the need to have a mtntmum amount of caaaava flour ava1lable to make tncorporatton 1n feed m1xea feas1ble 12CIAT and DRI combtned thetr efforts and determ1ned that local farmer assoc1at1ons could be establtshed to dry cassava for sale to the feed m1llsIf the fresh pr1ce were h1ah, only culls would go to dry1ng, and 1f 1t were low, most of the cassava would be sold to the feed m1llaBy havtng storage as well as dry1na and mtlltng factltttes, the assoc1at1ons could hold back part of the1r product 1n storage durtna per1ods of low pr1cesThe overall result would be to place an effect1ve floor pr1ce under cassava and get farmers to produce more 13 The Colombtan proJect started as an exper1ment w1th 1~ small scale cassava farmers After a second phase of demonstrattons the proJect entered the expans1on or rPpltcatton phase 1n wh1ch local aroups have multtplted to forty 1n numbPr ThPse qroups now operate commerctally and serve about 800 mPmher farmprq and severa! thousand non-member farmers••The Colomb1an aroupq WPrP do1na a ltvely bustness of sell1na cassava flour to feed mtlls by the mtd-1980'sThe problem of the north coast farmPrq has now become lack of farmland for further expanstonThe model was further reftned 1n exper1mental proJects 1n Panama, MPXtco and BcuadorThe Colombtan exper1ence resulted 1n the current CIAT techntcal package for cassavaThe process1na technoloqy was 1ntent1onally kept stmple, cheap and small scale, 1n order to allow for small farmer adaptatton, local control, and low eneray and transportat1on costa The processtna system constata of three phystcal components a s1mple motor-drtven ch1pp1na machtne adapted from a des1gn ortatnally from Tha1land, a concrete dry1na floor, and a ctnderblock warehouse Th1s baste system allows the farmers to produce solar-drted cassava chtps wh1ch can be stored for later m1lltna 1nto flour, us1nq a portable flour mtll wh1ch can be shared by severa! local aroups throuah a rea1onal assoc1atlon The local factllttes, tncludtna the chtpptna machinP but not the flour mtll, can be obtatned and constructed for between $5,000 and $15,000, dependtna on the St?e and type of dry1ng !loor and warehouse The ent1re system can hP madP portable and can be set up qu1ckly for demonstrat1on and testtna purposes by subst1tut1nq wood-framed dry1na screens for the concrete drytna floor and ut1l1z1ng ex1st1ng commun1ty storaae space The Colomb1an exper1ence was studted for 1ts soctal destan and technolog1cal 1mpact 1n 1985 by the CIAT anthropoloatst, Dr Steven Romanoff He was then asstaned by CIAT to 1ntroduce the technology and organizat1onal system to coastal Ecuador, wh1lP mak1ng 1mprovements and adJustments for local Eruadoran cond1t1onsRomanoff placed early emphasts on soctal and organ1zat1onal tPchnoloqy, as well as the techn1cal packaaP 1tselfTh1s emphas1s was shown to be essenttal tn a cassav~ proJect 1n Mex1co, 1n wh1ch larae ch1pP1na and drv1na facJlttJPS were 1nstalled by the qovernment and then left td\\P hy thP farmers, who found them unusable 15 The approach taken by Romanoff was to f1rst 1denttfv thP prec1se sub-reatons of coastal Ecuador wh1ch havP thP arPatPst potent1al for small farmer cassava pro1ects BasPñ on thP Colomb1an exper1ence, 1t was env1s1onPd at the outset that onP central m1ll1ng and market1na assoc1atton could serv1ce a aroup of up to 20 local ch1pp1ng assoc1at1ons w1th about 20 membPrs each The cr1ter1a used by Romanoff to taraet potent1al locat1ons 1ncluded both techn1cal and soc1al concerns, and are summar1zed as follows 18 1 overall qeoqraph1cal rad1us that could be served by the central m1ll1nq assoc1at1on  where gra1n pr1ce refers to thP 1n an1mal (usually ch1cken) fPed Ecuador, this would be corn AccPSS by road dur1nq drv SPason (no r1ver transport) q Potent1al for 15 to 20 local ch1pp1na assoctattons After spendtng severa! months 1n 1985 survey1na and mapp1na coastal Ecuador to tdenttfY areas whtch would approx1mate the above condtttons, 1t was determ1ned that the c1ty of Puerto V1eJO would be a good base for a central operat1on and the f1rst demonstrat1ons of the technology were carr1ed out 1n taraeted cassava produc1ng communtttes nearbyThe second 1mportant strateqy used by Romanoff after the survey1na and taraet1na techn1ques descr1bed ahove was to mobtlize and tncorporate the local 1nst1tut1onal support network for aar1cultural development ResearchPrs from thP loc~l exper1ment stat1on (INIAP) were 1nv1ted and 1ncent1V1ZPd to dn cassava research and soc1o-econom1c st1~1es on the nPw expertmental proJects, and then to a1ve techn1cal asstst~ncP to the demonstratton proJects The M1n1strv of Aar,cultnrP (MAri extens10n1sts and rural development aqents were 1nvolved tn techn1cal, oraan1zat1onal, and leaal tncorporatton asststancP A reg1onal development comm1ttee 1nvolv1na these and other ~upport 10Stttuttons was set up for the spec1f1c purpose of ass1st1na a mill1ng assoctattoo, wh1ch became UAPPYA key part of th1s mobtl1zat1on was 10 demonstrat1ng the technoloqy to 1mportant, h1gh level tnSt1tUttonal leaders aod conv10c1na them of the 1ncome improvemeots poss1ble for the small farmer A th1rd 1mportant strategy was to obta1n qrant fundtna for the lOlttal demoostrat1on proJects by the f1rst few local ch1pp1ng aod dry1ng assoctattoos, called APPYsThe factl1t1es for these were pa1d for by small grants from the Br1t1sh and Caoad1ao Embass1esSubsequent local APPY ch1pp1ng and dry1na fac1I1t1es were pa1d for by comb1nat1oo of loaos aod qraots funded bv arants to UAPPY from AID (w1th strong M1n1stry of Aar1culture support) throuqh the P L 480 proqram (see Table 5) TPrms and 1nterest rates for these loaos aod arants wh1ch were m~de sltahtlv morP costly 10 each year, are summar1zed 10 Table 6 A fourth 1mportaot strateay was to aqqresstvelv setl cassava flour to the an1mal feed tndustry ThP f1rst attPmPt was to qplJ to the ch1cken feed manufacturera 1n the 1Puerto VtPlO arPa whtch fatled Io1t1ally the ch1cken fePd manufact•lrPrs WPre reluctant to try a new 1ngred1ent even at a low pr1ce Now w1th the or1ce of cassava flour at tw1ce the pr1ce of corn, the local bro1ler industry cannot afford to 10corporate cassava as a oew feed 1ngred1entThe second sales effort was very successfulThe shr1mp aquaculture tndustry 10 Ecuador ut1l1zes 1ncreas1na quant1t1es of manufactured feed 10 the form of pellets At about the same t1me that the project was attempt1na to sell cassava flour, the shrtmp   feed manufacturPrs 1n Guavaau1l were lnok1na for a SlJhqtJtutP tnqredtent to replace formaldehyde wh1ch had bPen used ~s a btnder to hold shrtmp feed pellets toqethPr undPrwatPr The IJ ~ health author1t1es had banned the tmportatton nf shrtmp ratsP~ on such a formulaThe CIAT representat1ve cooperatPd w1th thP feed manufacturera 1n establtshtna cost fnrmulaP obta1ntnq research data on cassava nutrJtlonal and h1nd1nq PrnpPTtJPq and enltsttnq researchers to make up exper1mental batchPq of fPPñ Cassava has a htah starch contPnt, thus 1ts PX~Pllent b1nd1na charactertsttcThe result was a buraeonqtna demand for cassava flour for shrtmp feed, whtch has provtded an excellPnt market for the expandtnq UAPPY flour productton, as s~own 1n Chart 2 A ftfth 1mportant strateqy was to establtsh a pr1c1nq mechantsm to share market r1sk and dtvtde functtons between the local APPY ch1pp1ng and drytng assoctattons and the reqtonal m1ll1ng and market1nq assoctatton, UAPPY UAPPY made the tnvestment 1n portable mtlltnq equtpment and provtded the equtpment and market1nq serv1ces to the APPYs 1n exchanae for 30% of the mark-up between raw cassava and flour wh1ch currently equals about 10% of the qross flour prtceThe APPYs use thetr ?Or for local operat1onal expenses, capttalJzatJon and rPfunds to members Thts formula assures UAPPY of a sourcP of 1ncome and q1ves both stdes sorne 1nsurance aaa1nst downward pr1ce r1sk Stnce the APPYs are the owners of UAPPY thev ~rP thP beneftctartes of UAPPY serv1ce proarams and PVPntual UAPPY refunda A stxth tmportant strateqy 1s the 11qP nf farmer-tn-farmPT techntcal asststance and tratntnqColomb1an casgav~ f~rmPrq WPrP brouqht to Manab1 to expla1n and dPmonstrate thP tPchn1cal p~rkaaP 1n the farmer's lanquage and from the farmer's potnt of VJPW Thts strateqy can accelerate the techn1cal educat1on of small farmers by months or even years and can prevent techn1cal problema befare they beq1nThe farmer-to-farmer method was further employed locally through usé of farmer-promoters selected from the 1n1tlal successful APPYs wh1ch had rPCeJved tra1n1na from the Colombtans The work of the promoters was prescrtbed and made techntcally sound throuqh use of a promoters' manual developed by Dr RomanoffThe raptd qrowth of the APPYs and the abtl1ty of the APPY farmers to operate a processtna fac1l1ty and warehouse are 1n larqe part due to the success of the farmer-to-farmer method combtned w1th the appropr1ate techntcal lPvel of the promoters' manual IV UAPPY AS A PARMBR ORGANIZATION BVALUATION ANO RBCOMMBNDATIONSThe methodology employed 1n th1s evaluat1on was to collect wr1tten mater1als and conduct exhaust1ve 1nterv1ews of the leadersh1p and employees of the follow1ng organ1zat1ons UAPPY, s1x of the APPYs at d1fferent stages of growth, and the representat1ves of CIAT, FUNDAGRO, and INIAP wbo bave worked d1rectly w1th the cassava proJect A ret1red sub-M1n1ster of Agr1culture, Mr Hugo Bguez, complemented the backqround prov1ded by Dr Romanoff by contribut1ng an 1nvaluable overv1ew of the local agr1cultural S1tuat1on and the h1story of the cassava proJeCt F1eld V1S1ts were made to f1ve of the s1xteen APPYs Account1nq books and orqan1zat1onal records were read1ly shared W1tb tbe evaluator, as were plann1nq and backqround documenta Add1t1onal backqround and overv1ew 1Dformat1on was prov1ded hy Dr Jorge Chang of FUNDAGROThe UAPPY Staff 1 UAPPY currently serves 16 local APPYs W1th approx1mately 350 farmer membersThe organ1zat1onal structure of UAPPY 1S presented 1n Chart 6The Adm1n1strator pos1t1on 1S currently held by a farmer member who was a founder of one of the or1g1nal APPYs H1s work 1S supplemented by the FUNDAGRO representat1ve and the CtAT rep~~~~katj~e These ttiree-1ñd1V1duals compr1s~ 1n effect, a management and plann1ng comm1ttee wh1ch has helped to channel the surge of growth of the APPYs s1nce 1986, and wh1ch 1s Q1V1nq the UAPPY Assembly and Board tra1n1ng, or1entat1on, and 1ncreas1ng roles 1n plann1ng future act1V1t1esAs a rule, 1t takes at least f1ve years to start a farmerowned bus1ness and assure 1ts orqan1zat1onal stab1l1tyTh1s rule 1S generally accepted by pract1t1oners who develop farmer orqan1zat1ons PAPPY 1S about three y~a~s old, yet most of the member organJzat1ons are under-t~o ~~ars_9l~Therefore 1t 1s fmportant-that-the-CIAT-and-FÜNDAGRO pos1t1ons are cont1nued for at least another two years, q1ven the kPy role that Dr Romannff and Ing Carlos Bquez bave played 1n UAPPY planmñC!--and-expans1on The facft:.hat\"b-¡:-\"\"Róman~f l.J! l~av1nq the proJect 11!__ lun~ _1 Q8Q_,_ 1S a negat1ve Tactor fo roJect It 1S unl1ke1y that c/f<-AT W1ll be a e to f1nd a replacemen w1th h1s entreprenPurJal, plann1ng and human relat1ons talents, althouqb h1s FUNDAGRO counterpart, Ing Carlos Squez, has the earmarks of the 1deal replacement In the short term Ing Bguez has had a year to learn about the bus1ness and organization under Or Romanoff's tutelage, and 1t 1S essent1al that he continue In bis pos1tion ~ One of the most diff1cult problems of small farmer proJects IS that of h1r1ng and keeping long-term management personnel after the lDitial outs1de catalyst personnel have moved on the other proJects An 1mportant part of the solut1on to th1s problem 1so training boards of directors to understand and value the role of '\"the manager Witnoüt this understand1ng,-boards may-unreasonably hold down the manager's author1ty and salary, often w1th disastrous long-term resultsIn those cases 1D whiCh the manager 1s a farmer, there can be a tendency to change managers often Extreme cases berome l1ke musical chairs amonq the members Th1s w1ll damaqe the enterprise and the organ1zation unless there 1S a stable professional staff to perform management funct1ons UAPPY staff members were found to be very h1qhly mot1vated and hard working All of those lnterviewPd had clear understand1ngs of their roles, adequate sk1lls and the des1re to 1mprove the1r skills, and, WhPre appropr1ate, made qood use of written plann1ng documents and records to perform the1r work ~ .QVerall numb~f UAJ'PY__Jtmpj.o~_es IS appropr1ate for the current s1ze of UAPPY, as 1llustrated 1n Table 7 However, the sk1ll m1x will naturally evolve w1th UAPPY activ1t1es, and the UAPPY leaders W1ll probably cut staff members If grant funding 1S endedThe UAPPY AssemblyThe UAPPY Assembly, cons1st1ng of the Pres1dents of the local APPY's, IS a relatively new entity In that most of 1ts members are from very young APPY'S Chart 7 Illustrates the ratP of format1on of APPYs and their current aqe Approximately 75% of the APPYs are under two years old as of this writJnqThe evaluator attended an Informal meetinq of the Assembly held after a CIAT/CIMMYT corn-seed production demonstrat1on at one of the APPYsThe meetinq was well-run and part1C1pat1on by those present was pos1t1ve and orderly, 1nd1cat1nq that the bas1c 1nternal dynam1c of the Assembly 1S healthy Althouqh th1s 1s an organization wbose or1q1nal ImpulsP carne from the top all of the farmer part1c1pants 1nterv1ewed d1splayed ~ qood understand1nq ~f the organ1zat~~-as_well as a stronq mot1vat1on to cont1nue and exp..andNumber of local APPYs 8r----------------------------------------.Years old 75% under 2 years old 87 5% under 3 years old Source UAPPY 3+ The UAPPY Assembly appears to play thP role normally played by a board of d1rectorsTh1s 1S typ1cal of a new small farmer orqan1zat1on of th1s s1ze, and should not be d1scnuraqed as lonq as the newer APPYs requ1re tra1n1nq and des1re to partiClpatP The UAPPY Assembly cons1sts of three diStinct sub-qroups II11 add1t1on to the sub-groups def1ned by qeoqraphy levPl~ of II1COmP and soph1St1cat1on of members) accord1nq to their time of format1on and the terms of f1nanc1nq for the1r pla11t construction 1 and equ1pment purchases Table 6 summar1zes the chanqes In f1nanc1ng offered to the new APPYs as they have bePn orqanizedThe three APPY sub-groups cons1st of 1 l those APPYs wh1ch r1sked the1r t1me, labor, and crops on an exper1mPnt 111 the or1g1nal 1985 tests of the ch1pp1nq, dry1nq, and flour-mill1nq technoloqy, but who nevertheless rece1ved the1r fac1l1t1es as grants, 2) those APPYs who rece1ved the1r fac1l1t1es w1th a comb1nat1on of part1al grants and low 1nterest loans, and 3) those APPYs wh1ch are rece1V1119 smaller part1al gra11ts wh1le pay1ng h1gher 1nterest rates A fourth group of APPYs may be formed 111 the near future, wh1ch W1ll probably not rece1ve qra11ts, wh1le pay1nq close to market rates of 1nterest on loans Inflat1011 Il1 Ecuador has worsened 1n recent months, mean1nq that the newest qroup of APPYs may be pay1nq 1nterest rates of three to four times that pa1d by the earl1er groups Pred1ct1ons of 100% Il1flation 111 calendar 1989 were be1nq madP 111 May, 1989  The d1fferPncP In total 1nterest payments made by an APPY started tn 1987 and o11e started 1n 1989 could be very qreat Th1s was d1ff1cult to avotd dUP to the demonstrat1on nature of the pro1ectCOI1Sidertl1q the tPrm of up to e1ght years for part of thP crPdlt PXtendPd hy UAPPY tn a new APPY, th1s fact presents a threat to the future orqan1zat1onal un1ty of UAPPY At the same t1me, the qradual movemPnt toward use of loans rather than qrants, plus the ra1s1nq of 111terest rate~. are healthy 1n that they should encouraqe member 1nvestme11t and d1scourage unnecessary borrow1ngThe UAPPY Assembly needs to act1vate and tra111 1ts three ex1st1ng comm1Ss1ons member educat1on, market1nq and aud1t Cv1q1lanc1a)Act1vat1ng these comm1SS1ons and prov1d1nq them W1th management 1nformat1on about UAPPY operat1o11s 1s essent1al to the future organ1zat1011al health of UAPPY small farmers who J0111 a new organ1zat1on for eco11om1c reasons take a close 111terest 111 the1r JOlnt f1nanc1al affa1rs, and the1r conversat1ons w1th each other become the 11ewspaper of the orga111zat1011If the 11ews 1S fa1rly and accurately reported, the orqan1zat1o11 can prospPr If the news 1S based on part1al 1nformat1011 and suppos1t1on, thPn the organ1zat1on w1ll suffer Th1s 1S espec1ally true of new organ1zat1ons wh1ch exper1ence rap1d qrowth, havP a hetProqel1eou~ member base (qeoqraph¡cally or demoqraph1cally) a11d recPIVP substant1al outs1de qrants or techn1cal ass1stanceThere are few human 1nst1tUt1ons to compare w1th the farmer rumor m1ll, 1n 1ts speed and power to val1date, quest1on, or condemnThe leadersh1p and members of UAPPY and the APPYs ne~d tra1n1nq 1n the bas1c pr1nc1ples of farmer cooperat1on ThesP bas1c pr1nc1ples are the same for cooperatives nr assocJatJons althouqh the laws regulat1nq each vary sl1qhtly from country to country So far the bas1c ph1losophy qu1d1nq thP orqan1zat1on seems to be 1t 1S qood to bu1ld a commun1ty 1nstitut1on wh1ch 1ncreases farmer 1ncome and the opportun1t1~s of m~mhPrs and th~1r fam1l1es to work for a waqe Th1s overall qoal IS 1mportant and has been ach1eved to a surpr1s1nq deqreP 1n a short time by UAPPY However, there are already s1gns of var1at1on 1n operat1nq methods between the APPYs These methods should be made more un1form for the sake of the un1ty of UAPPY, as well as assur1ng equ1table treatment for the farmer memberThe bas1c pr1nc1ples of farmer cooperat1on can be summar1zed as follows 1The user-owner Pr1nc1pleThe people who own and f1nance the assoc1at1on are those who use 1t (1n th1s case, the farmer members who produce and process cassava at each APPY) 2The user-control Pr1nc1pleThe people who ult1rnately control the assoc1at1on are those who use 1t (At the same t1me, they W1ll necessar1ly delegate substant1al control to management)The User-Benef1ts Pr1nciple The association's most 1mportant purpose 1s to prov1de and d1stribute b~nefits to the users on the bas1s of the1r U §e (that IS, proport1onally to usage rather than based on equal shares)There are other pr1nc1ples wh1ch are of secondary 1mportancP, such as onP mernbProne vote, the need for member educat1on, polit1cal and reliq1ous neutral1ty, and l1rn1ted return on 1nvestment An 1rnportant reason for teach1ng and pract1c1nq these pr1nc1ples 1n an assoc1at1on 1s that w1thout such a gu1ding ph1losophy there 1S an Inevitable tendency for ownership, control and benef1ts to sh1ft away from the farmer-owner-users to outside 1nvestors, pol1t1cians, and non-farmers or non-commun1ty members Th1s 1s espec1ally true 1f there has been an early econom1c success 1n the or1g1nal assoctatton, as ts,the case of UAPPY Even 1f outstders are not a factor, there 1S a tendency for sorne farmer members to vtew the assoctatton as any other local pol1t1cal organ1zat1on, and apply rules of behavtor learned 1n that arenaIt must be taught early-on that the survtval of a small farmer organ1zat1on rests on followtng a dtsttnct set of rules as set out 1n the prtnctples of cooperatton Local pol1t1cs as usual , untempered by user-control and user-beneftt th1nk1ng, W1ll often result W1th most of the marbles rest1nq 1n a few pockets Th1s holds true 1n a W1de var1ety of cultural or pol1t1cal sett1ngsThe members also need tra1n1ng 1n f1nanc1al plann1nq and ~anagement qn-ª_jevel-appiopr1ate-to thetr scale of bustness S1mply prov1d1ng them w1th 1nformat1on 1S not enouqh To 11SP that 1nformat1on they need to know how to deal w1th s1mple ftnanc1al statements and cash flows so they can have answers to these baste quest1ons New small farmer orqan1zat1ons arP under trPmPndo11S prPssurP to dtstrtbute thetr l1qu1d assets that 1S to st~y brokP Ftrst of all, most of the members have larqe fam1l1PS and modPst 1ncomes, and they W1ll rem1nd each other of th1s fact whtle meet1nq to make ftnanctal dectstons as a qroup SPcondly most of the prev1ous commun1ty f1nanc1al efforts such ~s co\\\\ecttnq f••n~s to butld a school or buy untforms for a football tPam, •ltJltZPd the funds enterely as soon as the qoal w~s met Thtrdly bttter prevtous expertences may have taught that kPeptnq a commun1ty fund 1ntact w1thout all or part d1sappear1nq or betnq spent on other proJects 1s a d1ff1cult task Fourth, and th1s IS 1ncreas1nalv true 1n Ecuador, 1nflat1on erodes assets kept In cash while 1t rewards 1nvestments 1n hard goods one Mex1can farmer def1ned the problem this way The members of the farmers' orqan1zation operate on the Idea of montontsmo As long as there 1S money 1n the ~on1on (stack or p1le of money), you can keep Wtthdrawtng, and stnce lo que es de todos no es de nad1e (that whtch belongs to everybody belongs to nobody), you should keep w1thdraw1ng unt1l 1ts all qone Therefore 1t was not a surpr1se to the author when one of the more f1nanc1ally successful APPYs suddenly d1stributed most of 1ts cash to the members 1n Hay, 1989  Th1s was done on the unconf1rmed theory that future payments from UAPPY (which IS to say, from the other APPYs) would be adequate to meet most operating needs 10 the com1ng season MPanwh1le UAPPY was st1ll far from obta1n1ng the f1nanc1ng 1t was seektng for the same sea sonClearly the act1on of distr1but1nq the funds h~d a rat1onal bas1s 1n the APPYs members' exper1ence, yet such actton by all the APPYs would qreatly weaken the1r movement, espPCiallv 1n a VPar 1n wh1ch they 1ntend to double the1r product•on and sales wh1lP pay1ng much more than before to 1nterest Furthermore, the APPY d1str1buted the1r rash to members a~ equal shares, althouqh apparently sorne mPmbers producPd much more cassava than others (that 1s, the1r amount of 1DdiY1dual usaqe of the assoc1at1on fac1l1t1es var1ed) Th1s 1S how many small farmPr assoc1at1ons start out d1str1but1nq d1V1dends, shares, or prof1ts It 1S natural to cont1nue th1nk1ng 1n the all for one, one for all ve1n that got them work1nq together 1n the f1rst place Exper1ence shows that the b1gger producers eventually calculate the amount they are subs1d1Z1nq the smaller producers and they agttate for equ1table (proport1onal) payments rather than equal payments If thetr demands are not met, they may take the1r product elsewhere or start a new process1nq plant of their own The small producers make the1r own calculat1ons and usually conclude they are much better off W1th the b1q producers bPlonq1ng to the1r group (assum1ng they get alonq w1th each other, more or less) because w1thout the btg producers, thetr costs pPr un1t are much htgher and they mtght have to go out of business Thus the prtnctple of equttable (rather than equal) usPr benPfits has a basts 1n how th1ngs workThe need of small farmers for tralninq In business manaqPment anq_f1nanc1al planntng 1S greatly IncreasPd when the farmers start-~ bl,!_S!ness together, assumtnq they want 1t to continUP ID qood years and bad Thts 1s certa1nly not l1m1ted to Ecuador or thP The Legal Basts for UAPPY and the APPYs UAPPY has legal status (personerta •urtdtca) as an aqrtcultural assoctatton Althouqh thts tvpP of orqantzatton JS eas1er to form than a cooperat1ve, and has the backtnq of the MAG, the law whtch regulates assoctattons ts rather brtPf and nonspectftc, leavtng the assoctatton to look elsewhere for phtlosophtcal and practtcal qutdance as to what to p•1t 1n 1ts bvlawsThe by-laws of UAPPY are not spectftc on the cructal potnts of management of membPr capttal, pay-outs to formPr mPmbers and hetrs, condtttons for member entry and extt, etc There has been one case of actton by an APPY to expel nonproducer members, whtch was overturned by the Mtntstry of Agrtculture because the by-laws of the APPY dtd not spell out adequate procedures and guaranteesThe appendtx to thts report contatns a copy of the by-laws wrttten by the author and the members of Coopecal1fornta, R L of Parrtta, Costa Rtca The secttons marked provtde relevant examples for UAPPY and the APPYs to use 1n reformtng thetr by-laws to deal wtth these ktnds of lSSUeSThe APPYs have legal status 1n ntne of stxtPen cases ThP rema1n1ng seven have been prevented from 1ncorporat1nq under a recent qovernment rultng, unttl all the members havP land t1tles They are able to operate as pre-assoctattons and the practtcal Pffect of not be~ng tncorporated 1s of m1nor 1mportance unless they develop s~zable assets or brtng lawsu~ts on themselvesThe evaluator arr~ved dur1nq the SPason of lPast acttvttV at the local level However, he was able to observe cassava flour m~lltng and starch productton, as well as use of thP dry1nq and storage factltttes for peanuts and cornThe techntca\\ operattons, tncludtnq plant constructton, chtpptnq machtnPrV techntcal tratntng and coord1nat1on all appear to be very well carrted outThe APPY members obvtously take qrPat prtde tn hav1nq bU1lt the ftrst commun•ty fac1l1ttes or modern bu1ldtnqs tn thetr area They are mak1nq good USPS of these factlltlPS all year for othPr crops 1n add1t1on to cassava one group (the san Mtquel APPY) has begun the construct1on of a second story on thetr warehouse, us1nq the farmers' own funds Another group (the Junqutl APPY) had JUSt bequn operat1ons us1ng a m~ntmum of tnvestment and a max~mum of borrowed fac~l•t~es and equ1pmentDesp1te lack of expertence and very mln1mal fac~ltttes (the basement of an old house), they had JUSt completed a season of much better-than-pred~cted product volume, and thetr records showed mettculous care ......... Two APPYs are women's cooperattves wh1ch producP starch for human consumpt1onThe manager and sorne members of one of thPSe qroups (the san Vtcente APPY) were tntPrVIPWed ThPY are VPrY sktlled at the more compltcated techn1cal process of produc1nq starch for human consumpt1on, and thPY are apprectatiVP of UAPPY ass1stance 1n tmprovtng the1r factltttes help1nq them w1th operattng loans, and market1ng thetr productThe UAPPY portable mtlls use power sourcPs (htqh RPM atrcooled gas enq1nes) wh1ch are not holdtnq 11p 11ndPr the stra1n of commerctal productton and should be replaced w1th h1qhPr torquP, lower RPM engtnes Wtth proper qeannq ThP qoal sho11ld bP for the eng1nes to last through an ent1re season Wtthout rebutldtnq and posstbly to run more and btgqer portable m1lls at the samP t1me UAPPY could beneftt greatly from an extended VlStt by a smallscale equtpment engtneer or an exper•enced m1ll•nq mPchan•cThe portable rotary m1lls are of local construct1on and work well, but they could bP better sealed to keep dust down thus protecttng workers and equtpment wh1le tncreastng m1ll1ng y1elds G Market~ng Operat~ons UAPPY has opened the market for cassava flour 1n shr~mp feed manufactur1ng, as ment1oned above A rev1ew of the market for shr~mp and shr1mp feed 1S beyond the scope of th1s rPport, however, a few general comments can be made Inq Carlos Eguez, the FUNDAGRO adv1sor to UAPPY, prov1ded the folloW1nq backqround on the shr1mp feed and cassava flour market Ecuadoran shr1mp exports to the U S have qrown rap1dly 1n recent years, as have Ch1nese exports of shr1mp to the u s (seP Chart 8)Because of the comb1ned export volumP 1ncreases of the two countr1es, pred1ct1ons are that shr1mp pr1ces w1ll cont1nue to decl1ne, and thP less eff1c1Pnt Ecuadoran prod•JcPrs w1ll bP put under a cost-pr1ce squeeze, result1nq 1n a shake-out of 1neff~c1ent producers Only about 40 percent of Ecuadoran shr1rnp producPrs ut1l1ze manufactured feed, and only about half of these use feed on a regular bas1sAt least 60% of producPrs prefer to usP low-dens1ty product1on methods obv1at1nq the need for feedtnq ThP only 12r leve! of cassava content 1n manufactured {Ped 1S currently about 5% of total we1ght, wh1ch could be ra1sed as h1gh as W1th no negat1ve effect on the shr1mp Shr1mp ponds are very expens1ve to bu1ld ($6-8 000 pPr hectare) and the preferred method of expans1on 1S now to purchase ex1st1ng pondsIf the more eff1c1ent shr1mp producers (who tend to be feed buyers) buy out the less eff1c1ent ones, there may be 1ncreased demand for manufactured feed, even thouqh overall Ecuadoran shr1mp product1on could stagnate or decl1neDue to the pellet-b1nd1ng qual1t1es of cassava flour, 1t appears that 1t w1ll be a necessary 1nqred1ent 1n the future A poss1ble subst1tute 1S wheat, wh1ch 1S currently much more expens1ve than cassava flourThe cassava flour pr1ce 1S currently about tw1ce the pr1CP of corn (5,600 sucres vs 2,800 sucres per hundredwe1qhtl Wtthout the shr1mp feed rnarket 1t 1s est1matPd that cassava flour would bP worth only 90% of the pr1ce of corn (2,520 sucrPs per hundredwe1ght vs 2,800 for corn) UAPPY has been told by the fePd manufact•JrPrs that thPy w•ll need 6,000 tons of cassava flour 1n 1989, of whtch UAPPY 1ntends to produce 2,000 tons UAPPY est1mates that othPr Fcuador~n producers w1ll produce 2,000 tons as well, leav1nq a shortfall of 2,000 tonsIn 1990 the manufacturPrs PSt1matP they w1ll nPPd 8,000 tons M1ll1ons of Pounds UAPPY personnel bel1eve that therP Wtll conttnnP to bP excellent demand for cassava flour for two or thrPP morP year~ based on the1r conversat1ons Wtth the feed manufacturPrs ~t that po1nt (1991-92) there w1ll undoubtedly be much qreater overall product1on of cassava and cassava flour by compettnq f1rms, tncludtng posstbly sorne form of backward tnteqratton by the fePd manufacturers UAPPY must therefore kPPp 1ts pnsttton of leadersh1p (and the loyalty of 1ts membersJ by constdertnq the follow1ng act1ons 1 Produce qual1ty and w1ll have a market when product1on espec1ally leve! a qual1ty product, and keep a reputat1on for sPrv1ce to the buyer Th1s assures UAPPY that 1t home for 1ts product , mean1ng UAPPY w1ll have a other producers W1ll not dur1nq t1mes of over-Thts means tra1n1ng and dtsCtpltntnq members, s1nce product1on 1S decentraltzed at the APPY 2 Dlvers¡fy 1ts product l1ne, to 1ncludP posstbly morP starch sales and fresh cassava exports Thts rnP~ns agqress1vely seek1nq more research fundtnq ~nd tnvPstment cap1talIf an 1ndustr1al starch plant 1S startPd by 1nvestors, UAPPY should try to posltton 1tself to bP a preferred suppl1erUAPPY should study the fresh cassava market 1n the Car1bbean and South Flor1da, where fresh eassava 1s lncrPas¡nqíy marketed waxed, nttroqen packPd or frozen 3Increase 1ts product volume and rnlll1nq efflctency, bu1ld1nq b1qqPr and better rn1llsTh1s rPqutres a W1ll1ngness of members to 1nvest, take rtsks, and accept new members Related goals would be a lower,mtlltnq cost per ton and a lower break-even po1nt 1n terms of overall product volumeThe APPY operat1ons would cont1nue to be v1able for chlpplng, storage, and sorne local m1ll1nq 4Tra1n members to st1ck toqether, on thP bus1ness s1de, us1nq the d1SC1pl1ne of markPt1ng contracts and loans w1th str1ct condlttons, as well as on the soctal stdP butldtnq organ1zat1onal un1ty v1a tra1n1nq, mottvatton~l. and soctalcultural actlVltlesIt lS sa1d that a farmer orqantzatton Wlll last no more than one-and-a-half qPnPrattons Wtthout a qood tra1n1nq programThe second qeneratton of farmers ha~ a tendPncy to undo what the1r fathPrs b•ttlt unlP~s thPy arP 1ndoctr1nated asto the or1g1nal reasons for butldtnq 1t 5 GIVe qood service to members, both In absolute terms and In terms of member perceptions Th1s means devPlop1nq a strong board, having good management, and havina a lona-term strategic planIt should be rememberPd that farmPrs almost always define good serv1ce as mean1nq a qood pr1CP for their product and prompt payment, and many farmer organ1zations have failed by try1nq to subst1tute other services for this very bas1c one For a larqe number of farmers there IS no other truly Important service 6Learn to barqain effectively, wh1ch means seekinq unity With other producers and dPlegatinq nPqotiation authority to a committeeThe above strategy IS typical of the strongest type of farmer organization, one which IS market-led, using every means to antlCipate and quickly adapt to market changes, rather than be1ng the unwitting VICtim of those changes Sorne of the above Ideas are already contemplated for the UAPPY demonstrat1on center, currently under construction However, the most Important element of the demonstration center 1S currently Incomplete, whiCh IS member understand1nq and commitment to the concept and necessity of the demonstrat1on cPnter as part of an overall strateqy Th1s IS a natural 011tqrowth of thP fact that the APPYs are relatiVPly new, the farmers are tnexper1enced and thP traininq program to date has nPcPssarily concPntratPd on start-up technical subJects for local APPY operat1onsAccounting OperationsThe evaluator reviewed three years of financ1al statemPnts and Interv1ewed the staff, accountant and the off1ce manaqer A full review of the books and records IS beyond thP scope of thiS report, and should be carried out annually by a qual1fied aud1torThe accounting work being done by the UAPPY staff 1S much better than average for new farmer organizations, In that they are able to generate their own, reasonably adequate financia! statements UAPPY needs to employ a reputable ou~~~ accounting fir~~ ~) help develop a bett~~-lnventor~_system, deprec1ati0n SChedule, ana 1ndiv1dual member rPcord system The statement-of year-Pnd d1stribUtlons to-members on the operatinq statement needs to be Improved, as does the equ1ty section on the balancP sheet MPmbPr equity should be accounted for throuqh Issuance of equ1ty certif1cates, and rules for pay-o•1t of Pqu1ty and 1nterest on --------------------------------------------------------------------------  In a base-cap~tal plan equ~ty contr~but~ons are adJusted by usage so that a two hectare cassava farmer would ~nvest tw~ce as much In the operat~on than a one hectare cassava farmerThe evaluator appl~ed rat~o analysis to the eXIStinq financ1al statements, as summar1zed 1n TablP 10 Th1s k1nd of analysl8 wlll be useful to UAPPY manaqement 1n thP flltur.,, Pspec1ally when they approach a f1nanc1al 1nSt1tUt1on f0r crPdlt Banks make the1r loan dec1s1ons and set the1r loan cond1t1onq based on these k1nds of cr1ter~aHOWPVer, the ratiO data and comments presented here are for d1scuss1on and trainlnq p•trpoqPs only They arP of l~m1ted val1d1ty bPcausP 1) thPy arP b~sPd on unaud1ted statements wh1ch do not 1nclude depreciat1on or complete allocat~ons of equ~ty, 2) UAPPY has receiVPd qrants wh1ch d1stort the earn1ngs and equ1ty p1cture, and 3) the rat1o standards need to be adJusted 1n consultat1on With qualified Ecuadoran accountants who handle S1m1lar firms Overall, the ratio analys~s shows that UAPPY IS a financially healthy, go1ng concern wh~ch could, With good management, eventually make the transit1on to loan funding from grant funding G1ven the var1ous challenges fac1ng UAPPY, hopefully that trans~t1on can be gradual, as d~scussed below 1n the plann1ng sect~on S1nce UAPPY ~S 1n the pOSltlOn of pay1nq taxes on part of 1ts earn~ngs, 1t 1S urgent that a qual1f1ed account1ng f1rm fam1l1ar W1th Ecuadoran farmer organ1zat1ons help UAPPY to ut1l1ze all ava1lable pass-throuqh mechan1sms to m1n1mize taxes and thus max~m1ze farmer benef1ts UAPPY must face 1ts tax S1tuat1on Immed1ately and learn to form 1ts tax strateqy each year severa! months before the end of the f1scal yParThe c•tmulatJV\" Pff.,ct of severa! years of neglect 1n th1s matter can be d1s~strous for a farm\"r orqan~zat1onIt should be understood by UAPPY manaqem.,nt and board that the way the1r annual f1nanc1al statements are structured and PXpressed Will have 1mportant tax consPqu.,nc\"s Computerizat~on of the UAPPY ~~~~up~1nq system would \\L eyentu~lly prov1de managemeñt and board w1th-more manaqemPnt ~~mat~~_n It wour.a-aTSo-Keip-uAPPy-keep-track of product volume and member payments wh1ch could double 1n each of the nFXt two years QAPPY should evaluate the Colombian SIAG system for IBM compat~bles, as well as Óther-systems that a local account1ng f1rm m~gh~recommend---Locally ava~lable software trainlng and  --• •-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  ---------------------- It 1S 1mportant that each 1nd1V1dual farmer be able to-see-a record of h1s product del1ver1es and payments to compare w1th h1s del1very rece1ptsIt 1S also 1mportant for the local APPY leaders to have s1mple f1nanc1al statements and annual proJect1ons and learn to use them Hav1ng th1s 1nformat1on locally ava1lable, from local (and therefore ,trusted) personnel, w1ll help to bu1ld the conf1dence of the farmers 1n the local APPY and lessen future pressures to d1str1bute the1r funds prematurely Both UAPPY and the APPYs should q1VP more thouqht to hav1ng more secure off1ces and some sort of safe or stronq box for records and valuables 1As stated above, the transfer of thP techntcal and soctal ~as~age_by_CIA! hJts_been_e~eejlenE--Clearly thts 1S a result of the p1oneer1ng work done 1n Colomb1a, plus the analyttcal study of that work and the appl1cat1on of the f1nd1ngs 1n the early plann1ng of the proJect by Dr Romanoff --~----~~-------------The rap1d growth of UAPPY has been well managed Th1s 1S due to the energet1c and entrepreneur1al leadersh1p of the proJect and w1se use of var1ous inst1tut1onal resourcesThe pol1cy of l1m1t1ng the growth of UAPPY to 20 APPYs 1s a good one, at least for the next few yearsThe newest APPYs need to do sorne catch1ng up 1n the techn1cal area, and the establ1shed APPYs need tra1n1ng to address the bus1ness concerns ment1oned above Product volume cont1nues to grow raptdly, addtnq stratn on the UAPPY system Thus 1t 1s w1se to cut off the creatton of APPYs at a number wh1ch allows room for these act1V1t1es plus sorne organ1zat1onal consol1dat1onThe demonstrat1on center currently bP1nq constructed bv UAPPY W1ll hopefully be thought of by the members as a bus1ness act1v1ty pr1nc1pally as a central m1ll1nq/storaqe stte, and sPcondartly as a research and educat1onal fac1l1tyThe lonq ltst of potenttal act1v1t1es proposed for the center should bP examtnPd carPfHlly, and the ones not key to bus1ness surv1val and the consoltdatton of UAPPY over the next two years sbould be postponPd nr turned ovPr to another compattble organ1zat1onThts ktnd of lonq-term plann1ng 1s appropr1ate for annual or sem1-annual planntnq conferences wh1ch can be organtzed as a tratntnq act1V1ty for the Assembly Eventually the manaqer should subm1t a wr1tten annual bus1ness plan to the Assembly for the1r approval, and the Assembly should learn to stay out of day-to-day manaqement, play1nq a pol1cy-mak1ng role and evaluat1ng the performance of the manager In the beg1nn1ng of a new farmer organ1zat1on, however, extra emphas1s should be placed on el1c1t1ng ful~ part1c1pat1on from all the members 1n determ1n1ng the future d1rect1on of the bus1ness Th1s 1S espec1ally true 1n the case of organ1zat1ons started from the topIn fact, the UAPPY Assembly has held sorne marathon meet1ngs 1n wh1ch plann1ng has been d1scussedThe Assembly needs to operate on two agendas -a purely bus1ness aqenda, wh1ch should be dealt w1th f1rst, and an 1nternal or member affa1rs agendaThe Assembly w1ll qet better serv1ce from the1r staff 1f they let them go home befare mov1ng on to the lonq d1scuss1ons of a non-bus1ness nature It should be noted that 1n1t1ally UAPPY was f1nanced pr1nc1pally by grants (see Chart 9) Th1s 1S appropr1ate 1n that the system was totally new and untr1ed 1n coastal Ecuador Y~t the system had potent1al to demonstrate substant1al econom1c benef1ts to small farmers and the local economy wh1ch 1t has done 1n to an extent surpr1s1ng even to the planners ThP farmer~ themselves could not be expected to 1nVPst more than the1r labor and crops 1n the 1n1t1al demonstrat1on years Ecuadoran f1nanc1al 1nSt1tUt1ons would not make loans to an UAPPY-type orqan1zat1on, and UAPPY may have to prove 1ts ab1l1ty to surv1ve, at least 1n the med1um term, befare 1t qual1f1es for a commerc1al loan In add1t1on to the var1ous tasks of techn1cal and organ1zat1onal consolldat1on, UAPPY also faces the task of convert1ng 1ts adm1n1strat1on and collect1ve m1nd-set to loan fund1ng 1nstead of grant fund1ngEventually th1s means hav1ng a bus1ness plan cons1st1ng of an overall strategy, an act1on plan for product1on and market1ng, and the related, deta1led mult1-year f1nanc1al proJect1ons and pro-forma f1nanc1al statements Ideally, g1ven the var1ous obstacles UAPPY st1ll faces, the qoal of 1ndependence from grants should be met 1n phases one year of part1al qrant fund1nq aqreed to be the last, a yPar or two of soft loans, followed by s1nk-or-sw1m comm~rc1al borrow1nqIf th1s qradual d1senqaqement from qrant fund1nq 1S nnt pos~1ble thPn UAPPY W1ll need much more bus1ness-or1ented techn1cal ass1stancP and tra1n1ng to surv1ve There 1S a dangerous poss1b1l1ty that UAPPY w1ll bP forced by lack of alternat1ve fund1ng to accept loans from the buyPrs of 1ts product, who are thP feed manufacturers Th1s k1nd of arranqPmPnt has led to the destruct1on of numerous farmer organ1zat1ons by el1m1nat1ng the1r maJar strength the ab1l1ty to barqa1n for pr1ceIf UAPPY accepts any cred1t from buyers, 1t should bP under the follow1ng str1ct cond1t1ons UAPPY 1S fac1nq the probable loss of the qrant fund1ng wh1ch fueled 1ts rap1d expans1on at the same t1me 1t attempts to doublP 1ts product10n and opPn a demonstrat1on centerThe newPst APPYs W1ll cont1nue to need f1nanc1nq and tra1n1nq to surv1ve and rema1n compat1ble w1th the older APPYs, wh1ch rece1ved qrPatPr subs1dy and attent1onThese factors need to be balanced and manaqPd, as d1scussed more spec1f1cally under the above po1nts An essent1al key to cont1nued good manaqement of expans1on w1ll be prov1d1nq adequate flour rn1ll1nq serv1cesIt 1S bPvond the scope of th1s report to prescr1be how th1s should be done 1n the upcom1nq season, except to say that 1t must be plannPd for well ahead of t1meIn a worst case scenar1o, UAPPY should be prepared to preserve and enhance th1s funct1on at all costs, and the account1ng funct1on should be almost as 1mportant UAPPY should beg1n us1ng the tool of break-even analys1s along s1de 1ts annual f1nanc1al proJect1ons Process1ng bus1nesses are extremely sens1t1ve to volume changes and th1s tool w1ll help UAPPY determ1ne how much to central1ze m1ll1nq operat1ons and how much new product1on or new mPmbers may be needed to comfortably carry overhead and equ1pment costs As ment1oned above, the demonstrat1on center should be looked upon as a bus1ness act1v1ty and 1ts non-essent1al act1v1t1es should be subs1d1zed, 1f at all poss1ble K Tra1n1ng Operat1onsAs stated above, the tra1n1nq funct1on has bPen WPll carr1Pd out 1n the techn1cal area, and needs to be enhanced w1th the add1t1on of account1nq, f1nanc1al plann1nq, manaqPmPnt, and add1t1on of account1nq, f1nanc1a1 p1ann1nq, manaqement, and pr1nc1p1es of cooperat1onThe comments and recommendattons contatned tn thts chaPtPr are summar1zed 1n Tab1e 11, ca1led the ACDI Report card As stated there1n, UAPPY has made exce11ent ovPra11 proqrPss tn a short t1me, much better than one wou1d expect Its techntca1 and manager1al needs are doab1e and knownThe orqantzattonal conso11dat1on, plann1ng, and account1ng needs of UAPPY are typtcal of new sma11 farmer organ1zat1ons 11TIIG BIICBilll 1 DIPP llllRlS --------------------------------SUBJieT 1 1 JGUDII 1 JGUDII 1 1 ---------------1------------------1------------------------------- The th1rdwave groups may have m1xed qoals and nonhomogeneous member5h1p5, but tbey can be very determ1nedIf tbey perce1ve tbat the technology 15 ref1ned enouqh and the1r local cond1t1on8 are appropr1ate, then they can evoke an extent of boot strap self-cap1tal1zat1on from tbe1r member5 that w1ll surpr15e many ob5erver5It should be recoqn1zed that th1s k1nd of fa1th 1n the future was bouqbt and pa1d for by the r1sk-tak1nq behav1or and re5ource 8Croung1ng of tbe f1r8t and second wave farmer qroups and the1r 5Upporter5At tb18 po1nt the cr1t1cs of qrant fund1ng are 81lenced tbe th1rd wave usually only want5 1nformat1on and po551bly loans, not grant5After the appearance of the th1rd wave, the 5uccess and 5urv1val of the overall movement of 5mall farmer a5soc1at1on5 w1ll depend on cont1nuous 1mprovement of the1r tecbnology, management, and ab1l1ty to surv1ve market 8W1ng5These are tall orders, but they are tbe same one5 for all farmer5 One le5son for the outs1de adV150r5 18 to place the 5econd wave of a5soc1at1on8 near tbe next valley over whenever P0551bleAnother les5on, perhap5 the bardest learn 18 1n know1ng when to d1sengaqe, to move on l1ke Johnny Appleseed","tokenCount":"9260"}
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d7bbd1c92c73c7f8ba0fba2913ac086a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7e41091-4577-463f-93d9-77347b668d1a/retrieve","id":"981609241"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"58db85ea-5cb4-4c72-a0e5-5f31b747fe49","pagecount":"22","content":"• Ethiopia has a huge livestock resource• Growing demand for livestock products (agro-industries, Population growth, economic growth and urbanization)• Relatively ideal environment• Vast area of land for livestock production• Our farmers long experience and interest on livestock production• Government interest• Availability of agro-industrial by products (from brewery, oil processing and sugar factories)• Huge crop residue to be used as roughage feed• Government owned ranches/multiplication centers• Ideal environment for maize, wheat, soya bean etc production• Inseparable linkage between crop and livestock production Integrated forage production methods • Under-sowing involves the planting of crops (forage legumes) into another crop after the main crop is established• Intercropping is a modification of under-sowing, which is useful in areas where row planting is common. The legumes intercropped in two or three rows at the same time as or after the main crop.• The forage species are under-sown with crops such as maize, sorghum, barley, wheat or plantation crops (e.g coffee).Under-sowing count.Important considerations during intercropping and undersowing:• Selection of species• Easiness for establishment• Compatibility in rate of growth, height, maturity, nutrient and water requirement, tolerance to different climatic conditions such as frost, drought, water logging• Herbage yield and nitrogen fixing ability• Harvesting and utilization• Persistence and reseeding ability for perennial legumes to be continued as permanent pastureUnder-sowing cont.• Dolichos, cowpea and vetch under sown in maize, sorghum and millet fields• Clovers and vetch under-sown in wheat and barley• Desmodium under-sown in coffee and other plantations  Hedge-row practice is integrated in the farming system to:• Control soil erosion and improve soil physico-chemical properties• Use forage biomass for animal feed/mulching-soil management• Improve crop productivity that grow in between the alleys• Enhance sustainable use of the land resources Challenges:• Poor adoption of the practice • Competition for water and nutrients • Free grazing system• Soils in backyards are usually fertile and this supports forage species to be productive.• The practice engages women and youth meaningfully.• It enhances application of a cut and carry system.• Free grazing and browsing is a challenge for forages not to perform well in backyards.• To maximize efficiency of land utilization the forage crops could be planted or grown• Along the fence lines as hedges (usually forage trees)• They can be intercropped or under sown with existing perennial backyard crops• It is also possible to grow forages on plots in the garden• Backyard forage crops also improve soil fertility, used as shelter and source of fuel wood• Leucaena, Sesbania, Tagasaste, Erythrina, Pigeon pea, Napier grass, Alfalfa, Fodder beet are commonly used backyard forages Backyard forage Count.• Forage strips are narrow lines of forage established between arable crops.It has several uses:• They provide forage for cut and carry• They prevent soil erosion • They provide wood for fuel and shelter belts if tree legumes are used• They improve soil fertilityTypes of forage strip establishment:• Forage on bunds and terrace walls. These strips can be either in arable areas or in stock exclusion zones• Forages planted on contour strips without bunds or terraces• A sort of alley farming, this is where tree or shrub legumes are planted in parallel rows in crop growing areas• Forage planted as shelter belts around crop plotsForage strip establishment Count.6 Forage production in fragile/ degraded sites• They could be planted on sloppy areas to rehabilitate eroded gullies It has several uses:• They provide forage for cut and carry• They prevent soil erosion • They provide wood for fuel and shelter• They improve soil fertility 7 Over-sowing on grazing and stock exclusion areas• Over -sowing is the rehabilitation of degraded natural or cultivated grazing land by sowing suitable forage crops to produce forage• Forage crops could also be over-sown on stock exclusion areas, usually for rehabilitation of degraded lands. The forage will be used as cut and carry or hay Cropping strategy (Habitat management)• Maize -as main crop• Napier grass -on field borders• Adult moths (stem-borers) attracted by the chemicals emitted from grasses -therefore the napier grass provide the pull • The Napier grass once attacked, it defends by secreting a sticky substance which physically traps the pest• Desmodium -intercropped • Desmodium emits chemicals that push the stem-borers • Desmodium also helps to reduce the growth of striga• Effect of stem-borer and striga on maize crop is minimized• High quality forage from napier grass and Desmodium is produced ","tokenCount":"715"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7575172632.json b/data/part_5/7575172632.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ccf082f40ffafcc4764b6611cb069478","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b665702-1b5d-495d-b0d0-128afa9b4599/retrieve","id":"2121217703"},"keywords":["citizen science","food security","on-farm varietal diversification","participatory variety selection","tricot approach O13","O35","Q01","Q16"],"sieverID":"1eea1a15-34b5-4b0d-bd01-764907309394","pagecount":"26","content":"Participatory approaches for crop variety testing can help breeding teams to incorporate traditional knowledge and consider site-specific sociocultural complexities. However, traditional participatory approaches have drawbacks and are seldom streamlined or scaled. Decentralized on-farm testing supported by citizen science addresses some of these challenges. In this study, we compare a citizen science on-farm testing approach -triadic comparisons of technology options (tricot-PVS) -with the benchmark state-of-the-art group-based participatory variety testing approach (group-PVS) over a set of socioeconomic outcomes. We focus on on-farm testing of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in the Trifinio area of Central America. We measure the impact of these two approaches on bean growers in terms of on-farm diversification and food security. We use data from 1978 smallholder farmers from 140 villages, which were randomly assigned to tricot-PVS, group-PVS or control. Utilizing a difference-in-difference model with inverse probability weighting and an instrumental variable approach, we observe that farmers involved in group-PVS, and tricot-PVS had comparable levels of on-farm varietal diversification with respect to control farmers. Nonetheless, group-PVS appears to be significantly more effective in boosting household food security, which can be attributed to improved agronomic management of the crops. This study contributes to the next generation of innovations in exploring trait preferences to produce more inclusive, demand-driven varietal design that democratize participatory varietal selection programs.Farmers often face tough barriers to adopting new varieties, when farmers' knowledge, habits, and traditions are not addressed in trials (Snapp et al., 2019). When farmers fail to adopt new varieties, they may not receive benefits such as heightened food security (Kaliba et al., 2018), dietary quality (Qaim, 2020), and on-farm agrobiodiversity for risk management (van Etten et al., 2019).Participatory varietal selection engages farmers to test genetically distinct products developed by plant breeders, thus increasing the probability of adoption (Ceccarelli, 2015;Ceccarelli & Grando, 2020, 2007). Farmers are directly involved in numerous research activities, including selecting seeds, observing pests and crop diseases, and evaluating research products (Rhoades & Booth, 1982;van de Gevel et al., 2020). However, in pursuing local relevance, farmer participatory projects often reach a relatively small number of farmers who may not be fully representative of the total population (Farrington & Martin, 1988). Furthermore, participatory approaches are perceived as lacking in effectiveness if selection is not done on farms (Cobb et al., 2019).Decentralized on-farm testing supported by citizen science may address these two issues and revive participatory varietal selection (van de Gevel et al., 2020). In agriculture, citizen science engages farmers in experimentation and observation at scale, making use of digital media to obtain higher levels of end-users' involvement (Minet et al., 2017;Ryan et al., 2018). Our study focuses on an innovative decentralized citizen science approach called triadic comparison of technology options (or tricot, van Etten et al., 2016). In this article we describe tricot as tricot-PVS to discriminate from the group-based participatory variety selection approach (group-PVS).The tricot-PVS approach has demonstrated to improve variety recommendations and genotype selection in challenging environments (de Sousa et al., 2021;van Etten et al., 2019). Farmers individually evaluate a set of genotypes (pre-release breeding products, varieties, or parents) acting as citizen scientists for their own on-farm experiment. Being largely decentralized and relatively less timeconsuming than traditional participatory variety selection programs (van Etten et al., 2019), tricot-PVS experiments can collect a vast number of variety evaluation datapoints across large areas. Evidence shows that this approach produces robust comparative data, enables farmers to observe crops throughout the cropping season on their own farms, and increases the number of participating farmers incurring the same costs (van Etten et al., 2019). Nevertheless, there is no evidence on how the effects of the tricot-PVS approach on socioeconomic outcomes compare with alternative participatory varietal selection approaches. In this study, we are interested in investigating whether tricot-PVS led to higher on-farm varietal diversification and household-level food security in the medium-run (i.e., 3 years after the experiment), compared to the state-of-theart participatory varietal selection. This contributes to the discussion around participants' benefits from participatory plant breeding beyond the development of client-oriented improved varieties, in line with Sustainable Development Goals 2 (Zero Hunger) and 13 (Climate Action).There is ample evidence on the efficiency and effectiveness of group-PVS compared to non-participatory approaches (Ceccarelli, 2015;Ceccarelli & Grando, 2020;Johnson et al., 2003). Group-PVS can support marginalized communities to make their own varietal decisions (Chambers, 1994) and it is shown to have positive effects on both varietal diversification (i.e., intra-specific diversity) (Gotor et al., 2021) and crop diversification (i.e., interspecific diversity) (Asfaw et al., 2019;Waha et al., 2018). Varietal improvements supported by group-PVS have a longer time horizon of usage, as the short-term objectives of the researchers are counterbalanced by the farmers' long-term horizon of actions (van de Fliert & Braun, 2002). Furthermore, group-PVS has been directly linked with enhancing food security levels among participating households, thanks to the improved yields and stress tolerance of the new varieties (Joshi & Witcombe, 1996;Joshi et al., 2012).However, the assumption that decentralized citizenscience approaches like tricot-PVS can generate positive effects on diversification and food security needs testing. Gotor et al. (2021) offered the first and only study to investigate effects of tricot-PVS in the Bihar zone of India. The study found that tricot-PVS leads to higher on-farm diversification which results in higher crop productivity and adaptive capacity. Our work begins to close this research gap by comparing the tricot-PVS approach with group-PVS, benchmark among the participatory approaches. Tricot-PVS and group-PVS both supply breeding programs with more (and early-stage) information that can feed into their breeding efforts (van Etten et al., 2019). However, it is less clear how these two approaches differently benefit the farmers engaged. This study explores whether or not (i) tricot-PVS participants show a higher degree of on-farm varietal diversification than group-PVS participants when compared to control farmers, and whether (ii) participation in the tricot-PVS approach increases household food security.We randomly assigned 1978 smallholder common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) growers in the Trifinio area (a cross-boundary zone between Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador) to three groups: tricot-PVS, a benchmark state-of-the-art group-based PVS approach (group-PVS), and a control group (i.e., farmers who were not invited to take part in the participatory approaches). We build a panel dataset, collected at baseline (2015) and endline (2018), to quantify the effects of tricot-PVS and group-PVS on on-farm diversification and food security. To mitigate possible endogeneity and selection biases, we run a difference-in-difference model with inverse probability weighting and an instrumental variable approach. We find that group-PVS and tricot-PVS lead to comparable improvement in on-farm varietal diversification compared to the control group. Nonetheless, group-PVS appears to be more effective in decreasing households' food insecurity. To rationalize the mechanisms behind these findings, we analyze how adoption, yield and quality of seeds delivered change between tricot-PVS and group-PVS.The remainder of the article is structured as follow: Section 2 presents the study's conceptual framework, linking PVS methods to expanding on-farm varietal diversity and strengthening household food security. Section 3 describes the study context, while Section 4 specifies the estimation strategy. Sections 5 and 6 present results and discussions of this study, respectively. Section 7 offers conclusions from the study, and presents respective policy implications.We hypothesize the effects on on-farm varietal diversification to be positive for two participatory approaches: in both groups, participants benefit from testing, evaluating, and eventually adopting new varieties. Witcombe et al. (2001) and Gotor et al. (2021) find a positive correlation between intra-varietal diversity and group-PVS participants, while Witcombe et al. (1996) state that the long-term effect of group-PVS is to increase intra-varietal diversity, but where indigenous variability is high it can also reduce it. Whether the effect of on-farm varietal diversification is stronger for tricot-PVS or group-PVS is an open question. Tricot-PVS participants can test three new varieties directly on their own plot, while group-PVS participants have the opportunity to observe all the varieties on a common trial plot. The on-farm decentralized experience within tricot-PVS might encourage farmers to retain seeds for on-farm multiplication and usage, but the three varieties tested are assigned randomly and not chosen by participants. On the other hand, group-PVS participants are exposed to a wider set of options, but the lack of on-farm testing might act as a deterrent for further uptake and intra-variety diversification in the medium-run. The hypothesis on food security is also characterized by trade-offs. Joshi et al. (2012) and Tiwari et al. (2010) find that the testing of new varieties through group-PVS can contribute to food security, thanks to the inclusion of marginalized actors in the evaluations (mainly women and vulnerable populations). van Etten (2011) and Richards et al. (2009) claim that also crowdsourced citizen science methods lead to higher food security, increasing the local adaptability and accuracy of the varieties which are on offer. Given the decentralized variety testing approach which characterizes tricot-PVS, we hypothesize higher adoption and yields among tricot-PVS participants, as varieties are tested directly in farmers' fields, management practices, and agro-ecological conditions. This might lead to higher food security among tricot-PVS farmers. However, group-PVS frequently involves agronomic training, and it is characterized by a higher number of interactions among technical staff and farmers, which can be expected to result in a larger knowledge gain by both parties. This might lead to a yield increase that is more pronounced for group-PVS than tricot-PVS, and therefore comparatively higher food security.Further, exogenous to farmers, the program may deliver the variety which farmers selected as preferred, which will consequently impact on-farm varietal diversity and food security, through adoption and yield. This ability is program-dependent, and we hypothesize group-PVS excelling tricot-PVS in delivering the preferred variety as the number of engaged farmers is lower. However, the accuracy of variety testing benefits from the decentralized testing locations at farmers' site, typical of tricot-PVS.The relations underlying our hypotheses are exemplified in Figure 1a.This research was performed in the Trifinio area (a crossboundary zone between Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador). Trifinio is a transboundary region that is managed through a special tri-national authority to promote cross-border cooperation and integration, and biodiversity and resource conservation (Celata et al., 2013;MARN, 2010). Trifinio region covers an area of 7541 km 2 , administrated by 45 towns. The region has roughly equal shares of territory in Guatemala and Honduras, and the remaining 15% belongs to El Salvador. The area is predominantly rural. More than half of its estimated 670,000 people are illiterate. Although 80% of the area has forestry potential, only 18% of its forest area remains intact. It contains the sources of the Lempa river, which is shared by the three countries. It is mainly semiarid, with 75% of the area located on slopes exceeding 25%. The average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 1600 mm, the average temperature from 15 to 25  above sea level. Agricultural activity occurs primarily through small, single-family plots, and most of the land is devoted to subsistence crops (mainly corn and beans), and coffee for commercial purposes (GIZ, 2011). In this study, we focus on common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). The reason is twofold: in this area, up to 86 different varieties of beans are used, including improved and local ones (GIZ, 2011). Farmers regularly grow beans on their plot, which makes the crowdsourced citizen science approach easier to implement. Furthermore, national breeding programs have the mandate to develop more client-oriented breeding projects on common beans. This study focuses on this territory, given the evidence dearth on participatory varietal selection approaches and their impacts in Central and South America (Occelli et al., 2023) and the acute food insecurity characterizing part of Trifinio (IPC Global Unit Report., 2021). Communitybased and participatory interventions are not new in the area but are usually related to water and forest management (Jennewein & Jones, 2016;Schlesinger et al., 2017).The sample size was planned to provide an 80% chance of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis that no difference exists between treatments, with a .05 confidence interval. However, baseline information on the entire population of bean growers was not available in the area, and we based our estimates on rosters which national breeding programs use to select growers for participatory field trials. We followed a two-stage random sampling procedure. First, we selected villages from a list of villages where the national breeding programs operate. Selection criteria included the presence of at least 40 households in the village, and the presence of a known village organization able to provide training for households in any of the two treatments. In each village, we randomly selected households based on predetermined quotas from lists of households provided by the village organizations. The quotas were calculated based on the available budget for each treatment experiment. If a household could not be found (due to demise or migration) or household members could not be interviewed after three attempts, it was replaced with another household following a predetermined order.The study involved 1978 households from 140 villages across the study area (Figure 2). Villages were randomly assigned to either group-PVS, tricot-PVS or control and then households within villages were allocated to the assigned treatment. In total, 394 households (23%) were assigned to the group-PVS approach, 739 households (35%) were randomly assigned to the tricot-PVS approach, and 845 households (42%) were assigned to the control group, where no intervention was performed. By design, farmers involved in the tricot-PVS treatment are almost double those involved in the group-PVS treatment. The tricot-PVS treatment was cheaper and required less dedicated staff. Therefore, an unbalanced design was expected to produce greater statistical power with the same resources (Liu, 2003).In 77 out of 140 villages (55%), farmers belonging to one of the treatment groups and farmers assigned to the control groups were co-villagers. This was designed to capture spillover effects within villages. Therefore, we distinguish two types of control farmers: control farmers in villages where only the control group was present, and control farmers in villages where farmers assigned to a treatment were present too. Control farmers in control villages are 521, while control farmers in treatment villages are 324. A summary of the four groups is reported schematically below (Table 1). After randomization, the community organizers visited the group-PVS and tricot-PVS households and engaged them in research according to the protocols that will be described in the following sections.The group-based Participatory Variety Selection (group-PVS) was selected to represent a state-of-the-art PVS approach. Group-based approaches are commonly used, despite their pitfalls (Misiko, 2013). We therefore opted to implement a group-based approach that would be as attractive as possible to farmers, as a competitive benchmark. In each village assigned to the group-PVS approach, a group of 15 selected households was formed. Two members per household were invited to participate. Participants gathered on a common plot established in their village to observe and evaluate 19 bean varieties (see the traits in Tables A1 and A2 in the Appendix). Farmers evaluated varieties by expressing their preferences simultaneously, utilizing five stones to report a score from one to five. This method did not require any level of literacy from the participants.Evaluation scores were then digitally transcribed and elaborated, and results subsequently shared with the evaluating farmers during plenary focus group discussions (FGDs). In FGDs, farmers elaborated on the impressions and preferences expressed, while acquiring knowledge from the other participants on their preferences and evaluations. After these group discussions, farmers expressed their preference for the bean variety they wished to receive (1.5 kg of seed). This treatment involved the participants in six meetings, accompanied by five field visits to the centralized trial. Sessions were designed to allow a continuous interaction between farmers and technical field staff (extension officers). Trainings included modules on bean agronomy and gender inclusion. The entire PVS process lasted an average of 70 days.In the tricot crowdsourced citizen science (tricot-PVS) approach, groups of 20 farmers were selected in each village (van Etten et al., 2019). Each farmer was randomly assigned and asked to evaluate three out of 19 varieties proposed by the breeders (Appendix, Table A3). Tricot-PVS follows an incomplete block design with a block size of three varieties. While each farmer evaluates a different set of varieties, altogether all varieties are evaluated. The tricot-PVS trial was designed using the ClimMob Platform (Quirós et al., 2024).To start the tricot-PVS experimentation cycle, farmers were invited to a central location where they participated in an initial workshop and received training, including on how to plant the trial and fill the observational card to collect evaluation data. Cards were developed to be easy to interpret, even for illiterate participants (see illustrative cards, Figure A1c in the appendix). The instructions for individual plots were that (i) the three varieties were planted on the same day next to each other, (ii) the varieties were planted with the same density of subplots of the same size, and (iii) the boundaries between one variety and another were clearly marked. During the training day, incentives for and benefits of participation were clearly explained (van Etten et al., 2019). The approach required four data collection moments by farmers (see Appendix, Table A2). Farmers recorded the evaluations on the assessment cards and technicians recorded the information digitally on the ClimMob platform (see https:// climmob.net/blog/) via phone calls. Trial results were processed automatically by the ClimMob platform to produce individual reports and an overall analysis combining the data from all on-farm trials. Individual reports were shared with the farmers in a final joint meeting (one per village), in which farmers could also express their preferences for receiving 1.5 kg of seed of one of the varieties. Harvested grain from the experimental plots are kept by the participating farmer.Despite sharing a common participatory nature, the approaches differ in five main features: (i) the total time required for farmers' engagement in in-person meetings, which is much higher in group-PVS; (ii) the degree of decentralization of the approaches, with tricot-PVS being a highly decentralized testing experiment happening directly at farmers' plots; (iii) the attention to bean agronomic management, which predominates more in group-PVS meetings; (iv) the number of varieties evaluated directly by each farmer, which is higher for group-PVS due to the triadic comparison nature of tricot-PVS, and finally, and (v) the cost of the approach, which is significantly lower in case of tricot-PVS. A summary of the cost analysis of the two approaches is summarized in Table A7 of the Appendix. Tricot-PVS costs 28% less than the group-PVS approach.In 2015, before starting to implement the approaches, a baseline survey captured the socioeconomic status of participating farmers. In 2018, a second survey aimed at collecting data to assess the impact of the two variety testing approaches using several indicators. In both cases, the household head was the survey respondent.The questionnaire included socioeconomic, food security, bean agronomic and varietal knowledge, and production information, and was integrated with questions from RHoMIS (Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey) (Hammond et al., 2017). Data from the surveys were recorded electronically using Open Data Kit (ODK). Location points (latitude and longitude) were also recorded.To measure on-farm varietal diversification, we used two indices of on-farm bean diversification: the variety count and the variety richness index. The former is a straightforward count of the total number of bean varieties grown by the household before and after the intervention, in line with studies by Torheim et al. (2004), Kumar et al. (2015), and Shively and Sununtnasuk (2015). The bean variety richness index is instead a revisited version of the Margalef index, accounting for the on-farm area planted to beans (Di Falco & Chavas, 2009;Smale et al., 1998). Following Sibhatu et al. (2015), the bean variety richness index is computed as:where s is the number of bean varieties grown, and A is the total area planted to beans (in hectares). For both indices, higher values indicate higher on-farm bean varietal diversity. We built these indices starting from two questions: the number of bean varieties grown at date of survey and the total area planted to beans. Since only 3 years had elapsed from the end of the experiment to the endline evaluation, it is likely that farmers are still evaluating the new variety. They might be in a transition stage when diversification is always higher; nonetheless, as this stage is common among all farmers, we do not address this point in this work.To estimate household food security, we used the Household Hunger Scale (HHS) (Ballard et al., 2011), which captures combinations of different behavioral and psychological dimensions of the food insecurity experience (Maxwell et al., 2014). The scale was designed to capture household behaviors signifying insufficient quality, quantity, acceptability, and anxiety over insecure access. Unlike other household food insecurity indicators, HHS has been specifically developed and validated for cross-cultural use, making it highly suitable for our region of study, which incorporates three different countries. In the Appendix, we include the survey module that captures the HHS indicator (Appendix, Section 4).As suggested by Ballard et al. (2011), answers given to questions in this module are combined by simple addition into a food insecurity score with a scale from 1 to 3. The score gives increasing values to higher levels of food insecurity at household level. The values stand for: (1) Little to no hunger in the household, (2) Moderate hunger in the household, and (3) Severe hunger in the household. For this index, higher values mean less food security at household level.To conclude, we are interested in investigating possible pathways linking on-farm varietal diversification and food security with participatory approaches. This is in line with recent changes in randomized control trial (RCT) studies, where investigating causal mechanisms acquires the same importance of inference (Banerjee et al., 2016). We do so by analyzing adoption, yield, and ability of the approach to multiply and deliver tested seed varieties. We start by defining as adopter those farmers who declare at endline to have adopted and planted a variety received by either participating in the group-PVS or the tricot-PVS approach. This is a strict definition of adoption. It is not sufficient for a farmer to simply possess the proposed variety 3 years after the experiment to qualify as an adopter; but they must be growing and harvesting it. We proceed by constructing a dichotomous variable defining the ability to produce and deliver the preferred varieties by each of the two approaches, which assumes a value of 1 when the post-experiment records confirm that either group-PVS or tricot-PVS participants have received the exact variety they have selected as best-performing during the participatory approach. This is exogenous to farmers, and it captures whether the participant was delivered with the preferred and selected variety. Lastly, yield is computed as the total harvest of the two growing seasons preceding the interviews -two growing seasons in 2014 for the 2015 survey, and two growing seasons in 2017 for the 2018 surveydivided by the total bean field size summed across the two preceding seasons.The baseline characteristics are relatively balanced across the control and treatment groups; nonetheless, a few differences emerge (Table 2). If we compare group-PVS participants and control farmers, the former group includes a higher number of women interviewed (+8%), a lower number of literate farmers (−7%) and a higher number of food insecure participants (+5%). Compared to control farmers, tricot-PVS participants have a higher weekly consumption rate of beans (.30 kg/week) but show higher numbers of food insecure participants (+7%). Furthermore, a higher share of tricot-PVS farmers compared to control farmers do not own their land (−5%). Differences between tricot-PVS and group-PVS participants are also partially present at baseline: tricot-PVS participants have more land for productive activities (+.14ha) and consume more beans weekly (−.22 kg) compared to group-PVS participants. Moreover, more tricot-PVS participants have higher illiteracy levels compared to the group-PVS participants (+7%).To reduce any possible bias, we rely on a difference-indifference estimator to evaluate the treatment effect and control for baseline differences in the regression models. The estimation strategy is detailed in Section 4.Attrition was defined for different steps in each approach, depending on the reasons for farmers not participating or providing data. Individuals that did not attend any of the group-PVS training sessions were considered as if they had left the study, and are classified as affected by group-PVS self-induced attrition. On the other hand, group-PVS trials were not established for 16% of randomly-assigned group-PVS beneficiaries because of project logistics. These individuals are considered as if they were not treated and are classified as project-induced attrition. Within the tricot-PVS treatment, those that were not contacted were considered as if they did not receive the treatment and represent 5% of the beneficiaries that were randomly assigned into the tricot-PVS treatment. They did not have the chance to receive the seeds, so we considered them as if they had not been treated (project-induced attrition). Some of the potential participants were contacted, but the seed was not delivered after a few attempts. We considered these as if they had left the study (self-induced attrition). Project-induced attrition reduced the number of study participants from 1978 to 1879, divided as follows: 845 control farmers (521 control-in-control and 324 controlin-treatment), 331 group-PVS participants, and 703 tricot-PVS participants. The balance among participants' characteristics remains unchanged (Appendix, Table A4). Survey attrition (i.e., farmers survey at baseline but not at endline because they were not found, moved out or deceased) was 5%: 121 farmers dropped out from the first to the second round of interviews.The self-induced attrition rate at the end of the participatory approaches is of particular interest. If a beneficiary did not complete all the participatory steps, from the kick-off training up to the traits evaluation, they were listed as a participant affected by self-induced attrition.Self-induced attrition further decreases the number of study participants to 1724, divided as follows: 845 control farmers (487 control-in-control village and 358 controlin-treatment villages), 268 group-PVS participants and 611 tricot-PVS participants.A simple way to estimate the treatment effects on on-farm varietal diversification and food security would be using the following model:where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56 is the outcome variable for farmer i (the value of bean variety count index, the variety richness index, and the Household Hunger Score); \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56 is the category treatment variable; \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC57 \uD835\uDC56 is the set of control variables j attached to each farmer i; and \uD835\uDEFD 1 is the estimated treatment effect. \uD835\uDF16 \uD835\uDC56 is a random error clustered at village level.However, the model in Equation ( 2) has several drawbacks, as it does not account for unobserved heterogeneity and attrition. Therefore, following closely Ogutu et al. (2020), we estimate difference-in-difference models using baseline and endline data. Firstly, we clearly define the treatment variables. We identify treatment simply as being a member of a farmer group that was randomly assigned to a treatment arm. This is the intent-to-treat (ITT) effect. The ITT effect does not account for possible non-compliance, which is better accounted for by the treatment-on-thetreated (TOT) effect. As attrition is non-zero in our study, we calculate both the ITT effect and TOT effect (in line with Banerjee et al., 2016;Ogutu et al., 2020).We estimate the ITT effect using the following difference-in-difference specification:(3) where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is the value of bean variety count index; the variety richness index, and the Household Hunger Score in year t (at endline); \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC61 is a year dummy that takes value 1 for the endline data (in 2018), and \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC57 is a dummy variable that takes value of 1 if a farmer is treated, and zero otherwise. For each treatment, we estimate a separate model compared to the control groups (control-in-control and control-in-treatment villages). Therefore, at each time we only include the observations from the respective treatment group and the control. As for the equations above, \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC57 \uD835\uDC56 is the set of control variables j attached to each farmer i.The parameter of particular interest in Equation (3) is \uD835\uDEFD 3 , which is the difference-in-difference estimator of the ITT effect. Under the assumption of parallel trends, the difference-in-difference estimator overcomes possible selection bias from the absence of perfect balance in the baseline covariates (Greene, 2012).In a complementary manner, we estimate the TOT effect by using actual program attendance as treatment variables. Unfortunately, data do not allow us to discretize for different degrees of attendance: therefore, we are able to calculate only a basic TOT effect, given by a dummy variable Attendance that takes a value of 1 if the beneficiary attended all the assigned steps of the group-PVS or tricot-PVS approach, and 0 otherwise.To calculate the TOT effect, we cannot ignore the fact that attendance is endogenous to the households. To avoid the endogeneity bias, we utilize an instrumental variable estimate, relying on the random assignment to a treatment group as a valid instrument. Once again, this procedure is validated by the work of Ogutu et al. (2020). Using the randomization status as an instrument is common in the analysis of RCT experiments (Carter et al., 2013). The instrument is considered valid if the following conditions apply: the offer to participate in the treatment is (i) random; (ii) highly correlated with actual attendance in the participatory approaches, and (iii) not correlated with the outcome variables, except through actual attendance of the participatory approaches. The first condition is easily met: by design, households were allocated randomly to each treatment. The offer to participate in the treatment is also highly correlated with the actual program attendance, as demonstrated by the first stage results (Table 5). The third assumption is difficult to prove, as the presence of spillover effects might hinder the effectiveness of this condition (Ogutu et al., 2020). For this reason, we calculate effects of the treatments comparing them to control farmers in control villages and control farmers in treated villages. Furthermore, we interpret TOT effects cautiously.We estimate the TOT effects using the following instrumental variable difference-in-difference specification:where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is the value of bean variety count index, the variety richness index, and the Household Hunger Score in year t (at endline), \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC61 is a year dummy that takes value 1 for the endline data (in 2018), \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC57 is treatment obtained from the first-stage regression with the instrument z. As for the equations above, \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC57 \uD835\uDC56 is the set of control variables j attached to each farmer i. To compute the instrumental variable difference-in-difference specification, we apply the two-stage least squares estimator, which produces estimates with a robust causal interpretation also with non-continuous treatment variables (Angrist & Pischke, 2009). Finally, to further control for samples selection problems and attrition bias, we use inverse probability weighting in the instrumental variable difference-in-difference specification.To rationalize mechanisms behind changes in on-farm varietal diversification and food security, we analyze how adoption, yield and quality of seeds delivered vary between tricot-PVS and group-PVS beneficiaries. Therefore, we estimate three multinomial logit models, which take the following form:where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56 is the outcome variable for farmer i (adoption, the yield, or the ability of the approach to multiply and deliver seeds); \uD835\uDC47 \uD835\uDC56 is the category treatment variable; \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC57 \uD835\uDC56 is the set of Finally, we constructed a binomial regression exercise to observe self-induced attrition rates among participants. As the two approaches differ for degree of engagement, we are interested in exploring whether this difference relate with changes in varietal diversification and food security observed among treated participants. The logistic model -iterated only among those households involved in a treatment -encompasses an attrition-dependent variable, which takes value 1 when the household head took part in the participatory program but did not return the evaluation results. The model includes observations from the baseline survey:where Attrition i is a dummy variable that indicates if the beneficiary i dropped out of the program; T i is a dummy variable that takes value 1 for the group-PVS approach and 0 for the tricot-PVS approach; C \uD835\uDC57 \uD835\uDC56 is a set of control variables j attached to each farmer i; β is the coefficient for the estimated attrition probability, and \uD835\uDF16 \uD835\uDC56 is a random error clustered at village level. The set of control variables is inserted in order to mitigate some imbalances present among participants and drop-out farmers (Appendix, Table A5). Farmers completing the participatory approaches tend to (a) have a larger household size, (b) be female-headed, (c) have less land devoted to bean cultivation, and (d) consequently buy more beans from the market. These biases are common in participatory studies that attempt to engage vulnerable farmers over longer periods of time (Langyintuo & Setimela, 2009).Estimates from Equations ( 5) and ( 6) are indicative of how these three mechanisms vary according to the participants' treatment, without expressing any causal relation. They are nonetheless useful to discuss mechanisms behind the main findings. All analysis are performed in R (R Core Team 2020).Farmers participating in the group-PVS approach have a bean variety count index that is not statistically different with respect to control farmers in control villages (an average of 1.35 for group-PVS participants with respect to 1.25 for control-in-control farmers) (Table 3). Farmers involved in the tricot-PVS approach instead have a bean variety count that is 15% higher and significant (1.37 with respect to 1.25). On average, on-farm varietal diversification in terms of variety richness is also higher for group-PVS (5.36) and tricot-PVS (4.44) participants with respect to controlin-control farmers (3.46). The model estimation suggest that farmers engaged in the group-PVS approach have a variety richness index that is 55% higher than control farmers; involvement in the tricot-PVS approach also results in higher levels of variety richness index (61%), but neither of the two effects is statistically significant. Finally, group-PVS involvement reduces the likelihood of having a higher household hunger score with respect to farmers involved in the control groups, but the effect is not significant. On the contrary, tricot-PVS involvement seems to increase the household hunger score, with P < .1. On average, the household hunger score is 1.21 for group-PVS farmers, 1.26 for control-in-control farmers and 1.27 for tricot-PVS farmers.Comparing effects on treatment farmers and control farmers in treatment villages helps understand the presence of spillover effects. On average, group-PVS farmers have a varietal count index of 1.35 and a variety richness index of 5.36, while control farmers in treatment villages register a count index of 1.22 and a variety richness index of 3.81. However, the model shows that for the bean count outcome, the effect is not significant. Similarly, group-PVS farmers have a variety richness index which is higher but not significant with respect to non-treated co-villagers. The household hunger score shows instead significant differences: group-PVS participants have a 109% lower chance of having higher levels of food insecurity (1.21 on average with respect to 1.35 for control-in-treatment households). Tricot-PVS participants have a lower chance of experiencing food insecurity in a severe manner (1.27 with respect to 1.35), but the effect is never significant. Conversely, bean variety count shows significant differences between tricot-PVS farmers and non-treated co-villagers: participants persist in showing a higher bean variety count of 11% (on average, 1.37 with respect to 1.22).We show estimates with and without baseline controls included: ITT effects in both cases are very similar in magnitude and significance.The treatment-on-the-treated estimations generate results that partially resemble the ITT effects (Table 4). More specifically, group-PVS participants show a considerably higher variety richness index (141%) with respect to control farmers in control villages. In parallel, tricot-PVS participants show a higher bean variety count index (11%) with respect to control farmers in control villages. TOT effects on the household hunger scores highlight no significant differences among treated farmers and control farmers in control villages. This is confirmed by the average absolute values of the outcome, which varies slightly (1.18 or group-PVS, 1.26 for tricot-PVS and 1.26 for control farmers in control villages). Spillover effects appear to mitigate differences in terms of tricot-PVS performance, as coefficient estimates are notsignificant for all the three outcome variables when treated farmers and control farmers in treated villages are consid-ered. TOT effects on the variety richness index are significantly different only for group-PVS farmers, who show an index that is 135% higher compared to control-in-treatment farmers (but only in the absence of additional controls). Once again, interesting results emerge when considering the household hunger score. Despite the presence of potential spillover mechanisms, group-PVS farmers have a 14% lower chance of experiencing higher hunger score levels with respect to non-treated co-villagers.Results of the first stage confirm that the offer to participate in the treatment is also highly correlated with the actual approach attendance.Tests show that the instrument is not weak in none of the specifications considered (weak instruments test with P < .01). The null hypothesis of Wu-Hausman test cannot Note: coefficient estimates are shown with robust standard errors clustered at village level. Post is a dummy variable that takes the value of 1 for follow-up observations (at endline, after treatment) and zero for value at baseline. T1 is the group-PVS approach, T2 is the tricot-PVS approach, C_C are control farmers in control villages while C_T are control farmers in treatment villages. For brevity, not all variables are shown. Baseline controls include presence of off-farm income, household size, respondent's gender, ethnic group and age, total area under bean cultivation, total bean production, and dummy for the fact that the person in charge of harvesting the beans is a female. Significance level: P-value < .01 (***); < .05(**); < .10 (*). Estimation strategy: instrumental variable difference-in-difference with inverse probability weighting model.Estimates on mechanisms and attrition. Note: coefficient estimates are shown with robust standard errors clustered at village level. For brevity, not all variables are shown. Baseline controls include presence of off-farm income, household size, respondent's gender, ethnic group and age, a dummy for the fact that the person in charge of harvesting the beans is a female, the variety count index at baseline, the household hunger score at baseline, the total amount of bean produced at baseline and the number of bean varieties known outside those proposed by the intervention.Bold values indicate significance. Significance level: P-value < .01 (***); < .05(**); < .10 (*). Observations are reduced as we are not considering control households.be rejected, showing that the OLS and IV estimates are similar, and endogeneity may not have been a big problem in our dataset. For other cases, the null hypothesis of Wu-Hausman test can be rejected and the IV estimates are to be preferred.Descriptive estimates from Equation ( 5) are reported in Table 5. Findings help shed a light on the role of adoption, yield, and delivery of preferred variety in mediating effects between group-PVS and tricot-PVS attendance. As we are interested in estimates of participants only, we restrict the sample of this estimation to treated farmers.Regarding adoption, tricot-PVS approach results in an adoption probability which is 4% lower with respect to the group-PVS approach. Similarly, the probability of receiving the preferred variety is 3% lower for the tricot-PVS treatment. group-PVS participants were more likely to receive the preferred variety, both in presence and absence of regression controls. Furthermore, group-PVS participants display positive effects on yield, while tricot-PVS farmers show a yield decrease both with and without additional baseline controls.The ability of the approach to multiply and deliver seeds is not directly linked to the performance of the varietytesting approach, but rather to implementation. Therefore, we insert the ability of the approach to multiply and deliver seeds as a control in model of adoption and yield. Once we control for this factor, the participants in the two approaches show a negligible, non-significant difference in adoption levels. Instead, significant differences in yield remain.Finally, we investigated whether the type of treatment generates different self-induced attrition rates (Equation 6). Group-PVS-treated farmers displayed a significantly higher attrition rate with respect to tricot-PVS farmers (Table 5). We found that when participants were selected for the group-PVS treatment, they had a 95% higher chance of experiencing self-induced attrition. In absolute terms, the number of targeted households who experienced attrition in group-PVS has been 126 out of 394 (32%), while for tricot-PVS attrition has been experienced by 128 out of 739 (17%).We hypothesized that the two participatory approaches would result in similar positive effects on varietal diversification, notwithstanding the fact that tricot-PVS exposes farmers to a more intensive observation of three varieties, while group-PVS exposes farmers to a less intensive observation of the whole set of varieties.Our study confirms that farmers involved in the tricot-PVS or group-PVS approach do have a higher degree of bean varietal diversification compared to control farmers (Tables 3 and 4). We examined variety adoption rates to establish whether on-farm varietal diversification was potentially the result of adopting new varieties tested during the participatory approaches. Levels of adoption are positive and similar for the two approaches, after controlling for the site-specific ability of each approach to deliver the preferred variety (Table 5). Out of 394 group-PVS participants, 74 (18%) affirmed to continue harvesting the variety delivered after the intervention. Similar figures apply to tricot-PVS treated farmers, whose adoption rate is 20% after 3 years (146 adopters out of 739 participants). In absolute terms, adoption rates are in line with existing estimates of variety adoption (Thiele et al., 2021). Since the tested varieties were mostly new cultivars (Appendix, Table A1), an average of 20% for the adoption rate is considered promising.It follows that, even though the two approaches differ widely in terms of relative investment and farmers' engagement, there is no evidence that they lead to different levels of on-farm varietal diversification.Effects on food security and the emergence of trade-off dynamics For household food security, our hypothesis was less linear. Group-PVS participants are more exposed to agronomic training and exchanges with the technical staff and between farmers, so we expected this bean knowledge gain to lead to yield increases and higher food security for group-PVS participants. However, we also hypothesized that tricot-PVS participants might show higher levels of food security too, as variety testing decentralized at the farm level might result in higher seed retention, leading to higher adoption rates and food security.Findings show group-PVS participants having a significant reduction in the household hunger score. This seems to confirm the first mechanism we hypothesized: higher food security might be driven by the difference in the number of meetings organized in each of the two programs. Tricot-PVS features an approach centered more on the individual farming household, with only two centralized meetings-an initial and a final meeting in which farmers and scientists discuss the tricot-PVS design and desired varietal characteristics. With an average of four to five participatory steps, group-PVS encompassed extensive agronomic trainings and discussions among farmers and experts. If these were to lead to higher levels of food security, we should observe higher group-PVS participants' sessions attendance to correlate positively with the household hunger score. We descriptively observe (Appendix, Table A6) that attending at least one meeting is correlated with higher levels of food security. The effect increases in magnitude and significance the more sessions participants decide to attend. Group-PVS treated farmers who attended three or more meetings have a 30% less likely to experience greater food insecurity. This mechanism appears to have a stronger effect on food security than bean variety adoption (Appendix, Table A6). Interestingly, lower household hunger scores for group-PVS farmers persist even among co-villagers: group-PVS farmers tend to perform better in terms of household hunger score, especially if compared to control farmers in treated villages (Table 5). This hints at the existence of a set of farmer-expert exchanges, which are intrinsic to the group-PVS approach and greatly benefit group-PVS participants. This result has implications beyond the breeding debate: farmer-expert exchanges and agronomic trainings should be encouraged and planned frequently in agricultural development activities as they do not simply enrich the knowledge of the parties involved, but they also contribute to better livelihoods of the beneficiaries.An important consequence of engaging farmers with technical staff more frequently is the time commitment this requires to farmers, who are less accustomed to the iterative nature of the research process, and whose atten-dance is only rarely compensated. Results on attrition seem to suggest that group-PVS farmers have a 95% higher chance of experiencing self-induced attrition. This is consistent with previous findings, which show how group-PVS approaches are expensive in terms of time and resources and result in a high rate of self-induced attrition (Misiko, 2013). Reasons for attrition might be multiple. In our sample, farmers report not attending the entire group-PVS approach mainly because (in decreasing order of importance): (i) they could not attend the meeting in which the approach was presented, (ii) they had no land on which to plant the beans afterwards, (iii), they had recent conflicts with a neighbor of a group leader, or (iv) they had a no time to attend.Broadly speaking, our results point towards the emergence of a trade-off. On the one hand, the two approaches have comparable effects on varietal diversification and adoption performance. Group-PVS participants also show higher levels of food security. However, the numerous steps, likely leading to higher food security performances, are the very same reason for which group-PVS approaches are expensive in terms of time and resources and result in a higher rate of self-induced attrition (Misiko, 2013).Implications for participatory varietal selection GROUP-PVS showed higher direct benefits to participants. Variety adoption levels were similar but increases in yield and food security that followed from participation in the sessions were higher than for tricot-PVS participants. PVS exercises are often implemented by extension services and are therefore frequently expected to have the double purpose of (i) generating insights in variety suitability and (ii) to have direct effects on farming practice. Its contribution to both purposes could be interpreted as a strength of the group-PVS approach. However, the tricot-PVS approach showed attrition rates that were lower than group-PVS and comparable variety adoption rates. The lower attrition rates imply higher external validity of the information derived from the experiment (De Sousa et al., 2021). That more households are likely to drop out of the experiment in the group-PVS approach does not only limit their direct benefits from participating in the trial. It can also lead to a bias in the resulting variety recommendations. Group-PVS did lead to higher direct benefits, however, and these are highly correlated with the interactions between technical staff and farmers.This signals that the optimum might be found if each of the approaches is used for their appropriate goal. Tricot-PVS should be used for on-farm testing and a group-based agronomy training could be delivered separately, for example, to farmers who have gone through one round of tricot-PVS. Such a hybrid approach would benefit from the lower attrition rate and the expected higher data value of tricot-PVS, but also benefit farmers in providing the benefits of improved agronomy, which can be achieved through a group-based training approach.The past decades have witnessed a gradual shift in the design and conceptualization of development projects and extension services, from a top-down implementation to active community involvement in problem identification and interventions' planning (Dirorimwe, 1998). While farmers' engagement has proven to be effective in enhancing local empowerment and sustainability (van de Gevel et al., 2020), a research gap persists on whether different methodologies of farmers' inclusion affect participants' on-farm varietal diversification and food security in the medium-term. Our study revealed that farmers involved in the group-PVS, and tricot-PVS approach have a higher degree of on-farm varietal diversification than control farmers. Furthermore, group-PVS increases the odds of experiencing lower levels of household food insecurity after 3 years from the start of the engagement program, compared to control farmers. This appears to be strongly related to the interaction between staff and farmers. Tricot-PVS presents lower self-induced attrition rates among participants and leads to similar levels of variety adoption. These findings suggest that national programs can benefit from the cost-effective, equitable, externally valid, and scalable nature of tricot-PVS for the goal of informing breeding programs. As suggested by the literature on farmers' stepwise technology adoption process (Doss, 2006), it is reasonable to separate seed innovation and crop management components and treat them in an \"additive\" way. Investors and policymakers should target participatory variety selection for improving knowledge about the local suitability of varieties and increasing the overall positive impact of the investments in plant breeding in terms of effectiveness and inclusiveness. Delivering other possible direct benefits to individual participants is equally important and it might be achieved by providing a group-based agronomy training, which can be delivered separately. Separate approaches for knowledge generation through participatory variety selection, using decentralized methods such as tricot-PVS, can achieve larger and more equitable impact with the same resources.The authors would like to thank Jose Gabriel Suchini for his support during the design of the experiment. This research was supported by Cooperative Agreement AID-OAA-F-14-00035, which was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the US Agency for International Development. This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, which is carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For details, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. J.S. acknowledges additional funding from the German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL; 2219NR144). The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organizations. We thank Vincent Johnson (GreenQuills consultant to the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) and Olga Spellman (Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT), both of the Alliance Science-Writing Service for technical inputs, and language editing.The authors declare no conflict of interest.Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's website: Appendix2. In the past 4 weeks, did you or any household member go to sleep at night hungry because there was not enough food?b. If yes, how often did this happen, in the past 4 weeks? (rarely/sometimes/often) 3. In the past 4 weeks, did you or any of your household member go a whole day and night without eating anything at all because there was not enough food? c. If yes, how often did this happen, in the past 4 weeks? (rarely/sometimes/often) The 4 weeks lagged period at the beginning of each question allows the respondents to make a reasoned assessment, without incurring into measurement bias dictated by a longer recall period. In the exercise below, we relate the degree of group-PVS participants' food security with their degree of attendance in agronomic meetings, utilizing a multinomial ordinal logit. We calculate the degree of attendance by simply counting the number of meetings in which the group-PVS farmer results as present on the attendance sheets. We treat the variable as a factor, whose baseline level is 1 if the farmer attended one meeting.Coefficients for household hunger score among group-PVS treated, after controlling the number of agronomic trainings attended and adoption. Note: coefficient estimates are shown with robust standard errors clustered at village level. We perform this exercise only among group-PVS treated farmers, so the sample of the regression is 345. For brevity, not all variables are shown for brevity. Baseline controls include presence of off-farm income, household size, respondent's gender, ethnic group and age, total area under bean cultivation, total bean production, and dummy for the fact that the person in charge of harvesting the beans is a female. Significance level: P-value < .01 (***); < .05(**); < .10 (*). The model is a multinomial ordinal logit.To compare the cost of the two approaches, we compute the unit cost per participant involved. Each sum is therefore converted from the local currency into dollars and subsequently divided by the number of participants in the program.Cost comparisons between group-PVS and tricot-PVS.Group-PVS ($/participant) ","tokenCount":"8561"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f7c00293fecdcc7b58d15202653bef6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9a5cf3b-0536-4da6-8717-aebe4c6e474a/retrieve","id":"-2142952137"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"486478d0-4e55-4a08-bb71-72d8606d5a9a","pagecount":"8","content":"Dairy farming in Tanzania is dominated by smallholder farmers. Despite the fact that small-scale milk production is widely distributed in different parts of Tanzania, mainly where the climate is favorable, the supply of milk and milk products in these regions has not kept up with the rapid increase in the human population. Productivity of existing small dairy herds is limited primarily by lack of feed supply, lack of infrastructure for feed input and output markets, milk and dairy byproducts and a low flow of information.The current situation in accessing quality and quantity dairy feeds in Tanga and Kilimanjaro is unpredictable especially in the dry season of the year. The main on-farm feed resources obtained in these area include grasses, legumes, crop residues, cereals and oil seed products which often do not satisfy feed demand of dairy animals (Maleko et al. 2016 andLukuyu et al., 2016). This has resulted in dairy farmers to purchasing off-farm feed, feed less feed with low nutrient values, and feed excessive levels of concentrates, which is a costly strategy for most small dairy farmers.Irrespective of all those challenges, there still opportunities that if strategically applied can enhance accessibility of quality and quantity feed to feed dairy cows with rations that contain enough nutrients for growth, maintenance, pregnancy, activity, reproduction and milk production. Avoiding excessive amounts of nutrients is important as it could affect cow health, reduce feed conversion efficiency (kg of milk per kg of feed and reduce) margin over feed costs. As well underfeeding will impact performance and will impact on cow health and fertility if severe. Cow requirements are assessed on several nutritional factors. Aside from water, which is a critical input, feed inputs and feed requirements are measured in terms of energy, protein, fibre, fat, vitamins and minerals. Factors such as cow age and weight, milk yield, stage of lactation, pregnancy, activity and environmental conditions will all affect feed requirements.Thus, this training on using Rumen8 software was to help dairy farmers to specify their cows for which the ration is to be designed depending on feed stuff available and/or be accessed depending on where they are.• To obtain dairy feed management plan (FMP) checklist that normally available in the two regions Tanga and Kilimanjaro. • Equip Youth, dairy farmers and dairy extension staffs with skills on using Rumen 8 computer software in developing dairy feed rations.The training bring together the animal health (AH), artificial insemination (AI), forage producersyouth agripreneurs and extension officers from Tanga and Kilimanjaro Regions.There were two main training sessions; a) Nutrient requirement of dairy cows: During lactation, lactating cows have very high nutritional requirements relative to most other animals. Meeting these requirements especially for the energy and protein is challenging in many small dairy keepers. Thus, it necessitate dairy keepers to prepare diets of sufficient nutrient concentrations to support production and metabolic health, while supporting rumen health and the efficiency of fermentative digestion.-Training participants were given an opportunity to discuss and share their experiences of feeding dairy cows and the challenges arises in field and alternatives to the challenges occurs in obtaining feed for dairy cows and general management of dairy cows practiced by dairy farmers in their areas of work.b) Introduction of Rumen8 computer software, Installation and practices: Rumen8 is a simple computer based tool that is easy to navigate and interact with to design a dairy cow ration. It factors in the main nutritional parameters giving the user an easy-to-read indication of how the formulated diet meets specified requirements and what the expected return will be based on current or projected milk prices. The rumen8 software can accommodate 15 feed ingredients during dairy feed formulation. Thus, it allows a farmers to have a wide choice of diets to develop for feeding a dairy cow.  Having dairy feed checklists from both regions helped the participants to develop dairy rations.Participants mentioned the type of feeds and the amount offered to dairy cattle, and were added in the Rumen 8 software.The amount of food fed to dairy cows had two major effects:i. The dairy cows were given large amount of feeds compared to their body size and production (milk yield per day). Excessively dry matter intake was seed in the diet provided. ii. The diets offered to dairy cattle missed important mineral contents like Calcium and Phosphorus.After having practiced on the ingredients provided with participants, the following parameters was put into considerations:-• The body size of the dairy cattle (weight of the cow)• The amount of milk the dairy cows was providing • Days pregnant • Days a dairy cow in milk • Distance covered (walked) per day.It was observed that when the dairy diets prepared while considering these parameters, it helps to attain an exact amount of feed given to dairy per day that meets the DMI of an animal. It also, helps to develop a ration that contains ingredients where important minerals like calcium and phosphorus is mate in the diets.Finally, participants were asked to propose opportunities to be prioritized in dairy cow feeding in their areas. The discussions around this topic, insinuated the following recommendations:- The first and second sessions went well. It was a nice session because, we refreshed our knowledge on Dairy feed requirements and Feed intake and through Rumen8 Software we had an opportunity to learn and understood more things that we did not know before ","tokenCount":"891"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8e0d6ac6181a28b8aefbf6edea1d85230af462d5
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0be3b905fd1a8980f5c8916c7faedb78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bcf1eca7-f97d-4cfb-a59f-f7a323fa8366/retrieve","id":"-1316286309"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"77e6ac3b-58ad-45d3-ab98-db519825d6fd","pagecount":"5","content":"A resurgence of interest in proteolytic enzymes has occurred in recent years as a consequence of the greater realization of the importance of proteases in the control of intracellular metabolic processes. 1 Their involvement is now known to extend beyond simple protein digestion or the regulation of blood clotting and complement activation, and involves such complex tasks as hormonal processing, intracellular protein transport and the regulation of metabolic pathways. However, most work has concentrated on mammalian cells and only a small amount has been done on microorganisms. For example, our knowledge of the proteolytic enzymes of African trypanosomes is confined almost entirely to those found in the endosomal/lysosomal system, namely, their acidic thiol-dependent proteases. 2 In contrast, little or nothing is known about the proteases that are involved in the subtle regulation of their metabolic processes. In part this may be due to the presence of very high levels of lysosomal cathepsin-like activity in the African trypanosomes, which tend to mask the presence of other highly specific enzymes. Consequently, there is a need to find ways of circumventing the blanketing effect of the trypanosomal lysosomal proteases.In general, proteases are classified according to the mechanism of action of the enzymes. This is frequently ascertained by employing specific inhibitors known to react with particular amino acid residues within the enzymes. For example, trypsin and related enzymes are shown to be serine proteases by their reaction and inhibition with diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP), a reagent that reacts almost exclusively with serine residues at the active sites of these enzymes. Here we describe some of our observations on the uptake and hydrolysis of fluorescently labelled materials by African trypanosomes as well as some effects of protease inhibitors on these organisms.Analysis of the thiol-dependent proteolytic activity of African trypanosomes, and of the serum derived modulator of these proteases, was done by electrophoresis in fibrinogen containing sodium dodecylsulphate polyacrylamide gels (Fbg-SDS-PAGE) as described previously. 2,4 Detection of serine esterases was performed by incubating 3 H DFP (Amersham, UK) with the respective material as described by Scheiner and Quigley. 5 The uptake of 3 m M 3 H DFP by Trypanosoma brucei 6 was performed in pH 8.0 phosphate buffered saline glucose (PSG). Uptake of rhodamine-lisamine-BSA (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugen, OR, USA) was performed on an SLM Aminco 8000 spectrofluorometer (excitation, 560 nm; emission, 590 nm) using 6,7 trypanosomes isolated and incubated (in PSG pH 7.4) in the presence of 50 m M hypoxanthine. 7 The hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec was followed specrofluorometrically (excitation, 380 nm; emission, 460 nm).Trypanosoma brucei incorporate 3 H DFP into TCA precipitable material. The uptake is dose and time dependent and conforms to a first rate order equation (Figure 1). The chloromethylketones Ac-Ala-Ala-Ala-AlaCK, MeOSuc-ValCK, TPCK, or TLCK had a statistically insignificant effect on the total uptake of 3 H DFP by either trypanosomes or trypanosome lysates. Analysis of the proteins labelled with 3H DFP, by SDS-PAGE and fluorography, showed a doublet at 71 kDa, minor bands at 52 and 39 kDa and a band at 27 kDa. Only minor differences were observed between the control and TLCK or TPCK treated samples. Curiously, the presence of TPCK slightly enhanced the labelling of the 39 kDa band. A doublet of Mr approximately 70 kDa was labelled in living trypanosomes, the lower of which was only weakly labelled in homogenates of the parasites.Analysis by Fbg-SDS-PAGE clearly demonstrates the presence of thiol-dependent proteases in African trypanosomes, which are apparently localized within their endosomal/lysosomal system. 2 We have observed and now isolated, a moiety from rat serum which has the capacity to bind to and either stabilize or activate this lysosomal proteolytic activity. The molecule has a similar Mr to serum albumin but, unlike serum albumin, it does not bind to amicon blue dye-A. It also has properties similar to kininogens (pI 4.8) and is found in commercial preparations of human high and low molecular weight kininogens, but again, antibody reactivity suggests distinct identities of the molecules.Characterization of the activating molecule is under way, but it is also necessary to ascertain whether it is taken up by African trypanosomes. We are therefore studying endocytosis by these parasites. Preliminary studies have been performed using Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec and rhodamine-BSA. Providing the parasites are properly temperature equilibrated, they show an almost immediate steady state hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec. (If they are not temperature equilibrated there is a lag phase of 1-3 min before a steady state is reached.) The hydrolysis rate of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec shows a non-linear increase upon increasing the temperature of the reaction medium. The fluorescence of rhodamine-BSA in T. brucei is localized between the nucleus and the flagellar pocket and its uptake is time, dose and temperature dependent.African trypanosomes contain acid 2,8,9,10,11,12 and alkaline 2,7,10,13,14 endopeptidase activities. They may also contain cathepsin-D-like activity, although data to support this is weak at present 12 (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and G. Mpimbaza, unpublished observations). With respect to the alkaline pH peptidolytic activity we have already shown that trypanosomes contain a DFP and TLCK susceptible activity. 2 We wished to see if there were additional serine peptidase activities in the parasites and so tried the method of Scheiner and Quigley 5 to explore this possibility. Although we were able to incorporate DFP into discrete proteins, incubation with a variety of chloromethylketones failed to prevent the incorporation of 3 H DFP into these molecules. In view of the fact that we have already seen a DFP and TLCK susceptible activity in trypanosomes, it seems unlikely this observation may be the result of the specificity of the enzymes being too tightly defined for the chloromethylketones concerned. It seems more likely that the levels of TLCK and TPCK susceptible serine protease activity in the parasites may be lower than those of the enzymes detected in the SDS gels. Thus, the observed 3 H labelled bands in Figure 2 are probably not proteases but rather serine esterases with, as yet, ill-defined specificity. Pertinent to this is the observation that T. brucei contains at least two particle-bound phospholipases which are differentially inhibited by DFP. 15 While the situation with respect to serine proteases is still unclear, the situation with respect to the thiol-dependent acid proteases, which we have termed trypanopains, is better defined. One such enzyme has been isolated and purified from T. congolense. 11 A similar activity has been located in subcellular fractions containing lysosome-like organelles from T. brucei, 2 and in equivalent fractions from T. congolense (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and D. Grab, unpublished observations). Their intralysosomal location would suggest that they play a role similar to that played by the corresponding mammalian intralysosomal activities although this has not yet been delineated. Nor is it clear what controls the activity of these enzymes. However, we have observed that plasma contains a moiety that can bind to and apparently activate or stabilize trypanopain activity when analysed by Fbg-SDS-PAGE. 2,4 Curiously, preliminary experiments using Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec showed no apparent enhancement of activity with this moiety. This may mean that the binding of the serum moiety occurs at a regulatory site removed from the active centre of the trypanopain, thereby causing allosteric activation in a manner similar to the La protease. Alternatively, the moiety may stabilize the enzyme against autodegradation or other inactivation processes that may occur during the Fbg-SDS-PAGE analysis.Because a number of the physical properties of this moiety, such as its pI and Mr, resemble those of low Mr kininogen, we explored this further. Commercial preparations of human kininogens were tested and were found to contain this activity. However, antibody studies suggest that the moiety is distinct from the high or low Mr kininogens. Thus the molecule may be a molecule that is unrelated to kininogens but that which co-purifies with them. Alternatively, it may be an immunologically distinct but related molecule. Other observations suggest that it may be a variant of serum albumin. Although we have not yet identified the molecule, we wish to ascertain whether it is taken up by trypanosomes and regulates their proteolytic activity in vivo. In order to measure the endocytosis of this moiety, we need to set up appropriate endocytotic assays. We have done this by using fluorescently labelled protein that can be monitored quantitatively by spectrofluorometry and qualitatively by microscopy. However, our observations have been complicated by the fact that the uptake of rhodamine-BSA, and other molecules, by trypanosomes in vitro is not always reproducible (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and P. Webster, unpublished observations). Definitive quantitative measurements of endocytosis must therefore await the resolution of this difficulty. Nevertheless, rhodamine-BSA is taken up in a time, temperature and dose dependent manner into a distinct region between the nucleus and flagellar pocket in the area previously suggested to be that in which the endocytotic network is located. 16,17 Regardless of its identity, the molecule is a potential candidate to regulate trypanopain activity in vivo and our current studies are aimed at elucidating whether it plays such a role.  ","tokenCount":"1476"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7606928888.json b/data/part_5/7606928888.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b34a9934a4f9e7d045c155c1df0d63e16e236eba
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"17e56f899a0c512162d57633bdb3a134","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74f0841b-bf99-44ef-8eb2-302170278ea6/retrieve","id":"-1257747729"},"keywords":["banana","Mycosphaerella fijiensis, black leaf streak","black Sigatoka","eradication cpDNA PCR-RFLP, fruit bat, long distance colonization, metapopulation, Musa balbisiana, phylogeography, SSR fingerprinting, vicariance, wild banana"],"sieverID":"36fd52a4-2ba4-4c88-a48d-ba321504bc6c","pagecount":"250","content":"The mission of the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) is to sustainably increase the productivity of banana and plantain grown on smallholdings for domestic consumption and for local and export markets. The programme has four specific objectives:• To organize and coordinate a global research effort on banana and plantain, aimed at the development, evaluation and dissemination of improved banana cultivars and at the conservation and use of Musa diversity.• To promote and strengthen collaboration and partnerships in banana-related activities at the national, regional and global levels.• To strengthen the ability of NARS to conduct research and development activities on bananas and plantains.• To coordinate, facilitate and support the production, collection and exchange of information and documentation related to banana and plantain. INIBAP is a network of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), a Future Harvest center. The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of the 16 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and proverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide.The observed infection of fusarium wilt on Cavendish in China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Australia, and the absence or limited information about Foc from other countries such as Cambodia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and other BAPNET member countries, necessitate a new survey-characterization of the Foc pathogen in the region. A map distribution of the various races and VCGs of Foc has to be developed. The Regional Coordinator (RC) together with Bob Williams of Australia will explore some possibilities of funding support for the activity from the Australian government.Although Asia and the Pacific is the centre of Musa diversity, there is no serious and sustainable breeding programme in the region. While some hybridization and mutation induction and selection is carried out in some countries, the major activity carried out in the region is local variety evaluation and selection. It was suggested that the network/ NARS link and learn from outputs from a few strong breeding programmes from other countries. A regional initiative to establish a breeding programme should be considered. A serious effort to source national/regional funding and collaborative efforts should be sought if a sustainable breeding programme is to be achieved.Existing breeding strategies and related activities of the various member countries of BAPNET are shown in Table 1.It can be observed from the above table that all countries practise germplasm evaluation. Other activities, such as molecular characterization, somaclonal evaluation and selection, chemical induction mutation, irradiation mutation, hybridization and genetic transformation, are not yet very popular for most countries in the region. It was agreed that the countries should learn from other breeding programs in order to come up with their own breeding programme strategies. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13INIBAP/BAPNET has strengthen efforts on Musa information sharing, especially in the areas of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), germplasm characterization and evaluation, and value-adding processes. Research activities such as in the area of biological control are carried out in the region. Sharing and consolidating of results and experiences hastens technology development and utilization.To enhance information development and exchange, RISBAP should be supported, particularly in the gathering and sharingof banana R&D technical information and publications in the region to be shared into the global INFODOC databases. There is a need to reconstitute the national RISBAP representatives.Table 2 shows the needs of the various countries on specific areas and the capacity of some to provide the expertise. The members will see how things can be facilitated to help one another in the region. Some countries which are more experienced than other countries offered to facilitate a training programme in the area of their expertise. Efforts to secure funding for these activities should be sourced from local funding and possibly bilateral funding. Such activities should include more demoplots, training of technicians and farmers on improved IPM and production technologies, and expanded variety evaluation trials.• Explore/consider the contribution of biotechnology in the area of pest and disease diagnostics. • Consider commodity-chain approach in the network programmes.• Participate in the proposed banana enterprise-uses studies and workshops.• Publish fact sheets of each BAPNET member country. This covers status of banana R&D and collaborative activities within the framework of INIBAP/BAPNET.• Review and improve the role of BAPNET in the areas of: -Enhancing regional collaboration; -Facilitation of knowledge, technology and information sharing; -Capacity building; -Resource generation; and -Priority agenda setting. The following are the key activities of the networks of each country. Opening remarksDistinguished BAPNET members, ladies and gentlemen, a pleasant good morning to all and welcome to China.On behalf of the BAPNET Steering Committee meeting, the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and the Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences (GDAAS), I would like to extend my warmest welcome to all the BAPNET members and the participants from different NARS and institutions. The whole GDAAS family is greatly honoured to host this very significant regional event, to be one with BAPNET in advancing our vision to make banana and plantain R&D benefit the region and to share the many exciting developments in banana research.Banana is an important fruit in China. The volume of production last year was 5.6 million tonnes, and it is estimated that production will reach over 6 million tonnes this year. China has the biggest potential market, with 1.3 billion in population. In 2002, China exported 40 000 tonnes. The export sum was US$19 million. However, we imported 348 000 tonnes of banana from the Philippines and Thailand, costing about US$75 million. Due to the rapid economic growth, the banana consumption market expanded. Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao announced in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Meeting in Bali, Indonesia last October that China will establish friendly relations with ASEAN countries to develop economy for mutual benefits, and build the region into a secure and harmonized place with ASEAN countries. Hence, we are glad and proud to make the significant contribution to BAPNET.GDAAS is one of the leading banana R&D institutions in China. Our work on banana started in the mid 1950s. Over the decades, we were involved in banana germplasm collection, screening, fusarium wilt resistance breeding and tissue culture where significant developments have been achieved. In 1999, we have received a 3 rd Grade National Science and Technology Progress Award, and in 2001, the China Excellence Patent Award. We have set up the Guangdong Banana Sciences and Technology Association in 2000. This coming 6 December 2004, we will launch the China Banana Network, which is envisioned to be very helpful to the Chinese banana industry. We are pleased to share the achievement, technology and the market with the countries A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 in the region.Lastly, I would like to take this opportunity to wish the meeting a success with fruitful discussions and deliberations that will benefit both the Chinese banana industry and the banana production in the region.I hope you all have a wonderful and unforgettable time in China during this 4-day meeting. Again, welcome to China.Honourable Chairman Luo Fu He, distinguished BAPNET members, ladies and gentlemen, I take pleasure in welcoming all of you to the 3 rd BAPNET Steering Committee Meeting.I likewise extend my sincere appreciation to the Guangdong Provincial Science and Technology Department for co-hosting this meeting, and to INIBAP and BAPNET for organizing this important event.Guangdong is located in the south of China, facing South China Sea with the Tropic of Cancer going through the middle of the province, Hongkong and Macao. It has a 178 000 km 2 land area with a population of about 80 million people. Guangdong has a sub-tropical climate, with long summers and warmer winters, and a flush of precipitation.Guangdong is an important harbour. The world-famous \"sea silk road\" starts from Guangdong. Guangdong has one of the fast developing economy among the provinces in China. In 2003, Guangdong registered a share of 1/9 of the GDP, 1/7 of the financial income, 1/4 of foreign investments and 1/3 of exports of China. Pearl River Delta is one of the biggest IT manufacturing bases in the world.Science and technology are very important in Guangdong's development. The policies of Guangdong uphold the practice of research and education. After 20 years of promotion, Guangdong has become the third in science and technology research after Beijing and Shanghai. The big Pearl River Delta (including Hongkong and Macao) has become the most powerful innovation district. Now, the provincial government has enacted a policy on building up science and technology to make the province more powerful.According to Deng Xiaoping, \"Science and Technology are important for productivity. There are 1.05 million researchers in Guangdong. The total research fund is $4 billion, with about $200 000 allotted to banana research every year. Although it is not a big fund, the achievements have been numerous: the use of tissue culture seedlings, the establishment of a germplasm collection, the introduction and screening of new cultivars and research and development in new technologies.\"*Vice Director, Science and Technology Department of Guangdong Province, China.Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13Many research awards have been received, all of which are considered as a great contribution to the Chinese banana industry.Guangdong is the hometown of Chinese banana, especially in Gaozhou and Dongguang city, where banana planting has been on for more than 600 years. There are 30 000 ha planted to banana in the two cities.It is said that they are the masters of the Chinese banana industry. Many Guangdong farmers grow banana in other provinces, extending the technology to the other farmers. Also, many researchers extend the new technology and varieties to other regions, thereby stirring a development in the banana sector. During the past 20 years, banana production has increased 10 times. This is the contribution Guangdong farmers, researchers, professors and businessman. They made the banana more profitable for the farmers.As will be evidenced by the new buildings in the banana-growing regions when you visit the banana plantation on Nov. 26, you can conclude that the farmers earn more money than civilians. This implies that the banana industry is becoming prosperous.At this point, allow me to extend my appreciation to all of you for your active commitment and dedication to the vision of BAPNET. I hope this meeting will be fruitful and productive, for the benefit of the millions of banana farmers in the Asia and the Pacific region.Again, I welcome you to Guangdong, with high hopes for the success of this meeting.But before I dwell into that, allow me to do my routine round of greetings to all of you. Looking around, I can see old and new faces in this meeting. This year, we have 5 new members in the committee, all carrying with them a lot of hope, expectations and zeal to participate and contribute significantly to the activities and realization of objectives of BAPNET. I would like to welcome Dr Satter from Bangladesh, Dr Chandraparnik from Thailand, Dr Aye Tun from Myanmar, Mr Chen from the Taiwan Banana Research Institute and Dr. Suyamto from Indonesia. I am sure that they will bring in new ideas and vigour to the network.To date, we could say that BAPNET has achieved modest but relevant accomplishments. As the platform of collaboration for the Asia and the Pacific region, BAPNET adds value to the individual efforts of each country in developing banana R&D. In Asia, we all have common problems and opportunities. By working together, exchanging ideas, helping one another, putting our efforts together in synergy, we can advance banana R&D especially for small-scale farmers more rapidly than if we work individually. This is basically the whole value of the network. I had an opportunity of looking at the networks of INIBAP and I am proud to say that I personally believe that BAPNET is the most active among all four networks.At this point, I would like not only to congratulate China for being a good host but to also comment on their banana industry. This meeting presents a good opportunity to China as banana is becoming very important in the country. As the Chinese economy expands, I would imagine that more money is available to buy bananas, hence the demand for bananas in China would be tremendously high, with more than 1 billion Chinese potential banana consumers. A similar trend is also observed by looking at the export and production data in the Philippines. I can see that there is an increase in production of bananas in the Philippines and an expansion of areas devoted to bananas. And they are looking at China now for that is where the market is. But of course China is thinking of itself also. For that. we could say that there are a lot of opportunities and challenges in China. I hope we can discuss these opportunities and challenges as it affects other countries as well.We could also learn from the experiences of other countries. More specifically, I am talking about fusarium wilt of banana. It is a major disease of many local cultivars in our region. The threat is more real as a virulent form, fusarium race 4, that can attack the variety Cavendish which is important in China, Taiwan, Australia, and the Philippines. This race has already been reported in Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, and in the Northern Territory, Australia. In Indonesia and Malaysia, race 4 is the major constraint in the establishment of Cavendish in commercial plantation scale. Now this disease is also spreading in China and causing an alarm among Chinese researchers. I think they are now putting a lot of effort towards this. This disease is also a problem in Taiwan, but with technology, they were able to manage it successfully.I believe that the activities of BAPNET and also of INIBAP, from the global perspective of basic research will be very beneficial. If we put all our efforts together, I think we can solve this many banana production constraints such as fusarium wilt. I could not express my gladness now that after talking with our Chinese partners, Dr Luo Fuhe mentioned that there is going to be a China banana network. This network will improve the synergy and collaboration of all scientists and stakeholders working on bananas in China. INIBAP and BAPNET will be honoured to participate in this network.As Dr Roux mentioned, INIBAP is a programme of IPGRI. Recently, there was a strategic improvement of direction of IPGRI. They realized that conservation cannot be achieved just for the sake of conservation.The genetic resources that we have must be used. Otherwise, there is no point in conserving them. We are not only thinking of the future generation. We are also thinking of the present generation. Conservation through use is the name of the game, and that is the strategy. For that reason, IPGRI has looked at the INIBAP and COGENT as model programmes. As such, we now have a new strategy wherein the 3 commodities, banana, coconut and cacao, are combined into one commodity programme that emphasizes on the germplasm development and use for livelihoods. These are the new challenges that we have at IPGRI and I am glad that the banana programme was used as a model for the development of livelihood.INIBAP works with partners. Through partners, we develop the technologies and identify their needs and whatever limited resources we have. We work along that line. And I hope that in this meeting, we Messages will continue to identify priorities, and at the same time look at our weaknesses and strengths and make plans accordingly. I look forward to a productive meeting in the next 4 days.In behalf of our director, Dr Richard Markham, I would like to thank all of you for your active participation, and with special thanks to our Chinese hosts for their hospitality and for the successful hosting of this important meeting.Thank you very much.Robert Williams*Banana production in Australia over the past three years has been through a period of very difficult times. In north Queensland, the major production area for Cavendish, recovered from the outbreak of black sigatoka in 2001 through to 2003. Survey results have now indicated the eradication programme that was implemented has been successful, however throughout this period banana price have been very depressed resulting in many medium and small growers exiting the industry. The larger companies have taken up this loss on production by planting more.In Northern Territory, no further outbreaks of fusarium race 4 have been detected, and the disease has not spread to any other production areas.Drought conditions, increasing land prices and lack of productivity compared to north Queensland have seen a significant reduction in banana production in these areas. Lady Finger production has now shifted to the cooler areas of north Queensland.Australian banana production has remained static at just over 22 million cartons (297 000 tonnes) for approximately 14 000 ha. Consumption has continued to increase to just over 15 kg/head/year.The majority of production is AAA Cavendish types (Williams, Mons Mari and Grande Naine) grown in tropical areas north of the Tropic of Capricorn, whilst AAB Pome -Lady Finger are grown in southern or higher altitude regions in north Queensland. The Eco banana has captured a small but developing market as more growers move into this production and marketing system. Small quantities of ABB Ducasse (Pisang Awak) and AAAB Goldfinger are providing a demand in other niche markets. The Australian banana industry was once a very organized group of producers, having a peak industry body and regional representation, that provided the industry with a solid strategic direction, political representation, funding for R&D and quarantine regulations. However, this has fallen apart in the last two years. Although the peak industry body (Australian Banana Growers Association) still remains, and has primary responsibility for the management of import risk assessments, regional operations are dysfunctional. This has resulted in loss of strategic research priorities and funding and the potential collapse of the internal banana quarantine protocols that have protected the Australian industry from many of the international pests and diseases.The loss of R&D funding has resulted in no new research projects for the past two years.While the industry structure is collapsing, additional external factors are imposing significant demands on the production of bananas in Australia such as:• Labour costs • Workplace health and safety• Environmental impact from farmingThe lessons learnt from what has happened in Australia provides BAPNET with an opportunity to evaluate how programmes are delivered and adopted by small growers in developing countries. By providing community groups with training in how to assess what the key issues are that impact on their business, and then work with them to address these priorities, greater adoption will result. This is the opposite to what is happening at the moment, where researchers are telling farmers what their problem are and giving them the results of their research.Outcomes and progress in the research and development projects have been significant. Abstracts of many of the projects are attached in Annex 1.The R&D programme is focusing along in 4 major themes:Competitive production systems• IPM. Developing a systems approach to pest and disease control.• Decision support. Production and management systems that maximize efficiency. mortality times in the lab bioassays then the new insecticide treatments and spinosad were not significantly different (P<0.05) in the level of fruit damage compared to the other treatments. Although reasonable control was achieved against all bunch pests the high levels of phytotoxicity present in the field trials make these treatments unacceptable at this time. Future research will concentrate on changing the oil formulations to reduce the phytotoxic effects in the developing bunches and testing different dose rates.The potassium based fatty acids treatment (Natrasoap ® ) had reduced efficacy against banana rust thrips making this treatment unacceptable at the reduced rate tested (5ml/L). Bacillus thuriengiensis var. kurstaki gave very good control of banana scab moth and sugarcane bud moth in field trials and were equally as effective as the chlorpyrifos standard.In the insecticide impregnated plastics trial the diazinon and suSCon ® strips as well as the chlorpyrifos impregnated bunch covers were equally as effective as dusting and spraying with chlorpyrifos and achieved less than 5% bunch damage against all pests. The low toxicology profiles, unique modes of action and good efficacy of all treatments make them suitable for use in developing insecticide resistance management strategies, further developing IPM in Australian bananas.It is recommended that, (1) insecticide efficacy; dose rate and residue data is generated to proceed with product registration of all treatments equally as effective as the chlorpyrifos standard.(2) Additional insecticides with new modes of action and low mammalian toxicity are registered so an effective insecticide resistance management strategy can be developed.(3) The potential for using biological insecticides should be further investigated by testing new pathogens against the pest complex in bananas.(5) Field trials are repeated for southeast Queensland to examine environmental effects on treatment biodegradation. WORK REQUIRED: Detailed taxonomy of the banana scab moth throughout its geographic regions (eg. Malaysia, Indonesia, Fiji, Vanuatu, New Guinea) as well as all species of its food plants is required to further enhance the potential for using biological control. Parallel studies are also required on the taxonomy and host preference of the natural enemies to help identify the most suitable biological control agent of this pest. Host preference studies are also required for theAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 introduction of biological control agents. Once identified predator complexes can be built using ecological engineering methods to establish insectaries suitable for the maintenance and establishment of the biological control agents.POTENTIAL OUTCOME: There is a very good chance that if this work is completed effective biological control agents can be identified and used to help control banana scab moth across the geographic regions for these banana industries. This should result in reducing insecticide applications and enhancing IPM systems for controlling this pest.PROJECT TITLE: Plant tissue culture: providing strategic support for the banana industry The Australian banana industry has relied on plant tissue culture in a strategic way for many years and has identified a suite of key activities that can only be achieved by utilising banana tissue culture.This project provides Australia with a tissue culture quarantine importation laboratory to facilitate safe access to valuable new varieties that are used in research (eg. disease resistance, reduced environmental impacts, improved farm practice and market expansion/diversification). This significant Australian banana germplasm collection of approximately 500 accessions will be maintained in vitro and supported by a field collection that also allows collection of agronomic data on new varieties. Australian researchers need to have access to the Australian collection to look for valuable traits such as pest and disease resistance, improved productivity, including more efficient nutrient use for lower environment impacts for less cost.One of the aims of this project is to undertake research that will lead to improved quality of tissue cultured plants in reduced susceptibility to pests and diseases and lower incidence of somaclonal variation. Banana tissue culture research in this project will also investigate obstacles to the quality of plants produced including role ofendophytic bacteriaThe activities in this project will:• allow industry to safely import valuable banana varieties.• maintain Australia's banana biodiversity as a disease-free collection of plants.• improve the level of international biosecurity -in combination with virology research.• supply disease-resistant varieties as part of the disease exclusion or PROGRESS TO DATE: The establishment of one of the world's major in-vitro collections of Musa germplasm and, concomitantly, the introduction, multiplication and distribution of new banana varieties for Australian researchers and producers.• Registration as the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service tissue culture laboratory to facilitate safe importation of banana into Australia • The establishment of a Quality Banana Approved Nursery (QBAN) Scheme, via a network of commercial tissue culture laboratories and nurseries, whereby growers can have access to clean, uniform planting material with improved productivity.• The development of ways to eliminate or manage two major problems in commercial banana tissue culture. Due to research on virus transmission growers can be assured the material they purchase is free from disease. While we do not understand the causes of off-types during tissue culture production our research has provided selection criteria that allows dwarf offtypes to be identified and \"rogued\" out at the nursery stage. This quality selection protocol has reduced the number of off-types reaching the grower. • Field evaluation of tissue-cultured plants that have identified susceptibility to fusarium wilt • The use of embryo culture and meristem culture.• The development of autotetraploid varieties using colchicine applied to invitro cultures. • Isolation and identification of endogenous bacteria residing in banana corm tissue.The key aim is utilizing plant tissue culture biotechnology to facilitate biosecurity, promote biodiversity and create market development opportunities with new varieties.Increasing pressure from outside the industry, such as threat of imports, disease incursions, and unreliable markets, plus internal pressures resulting in lack of industry unity may either encourage growers to take up the challenge of best practice or cause them to delay. However, there is unanimous agreement that industry in the meantime will need to maintain its arsenal of strategic research activities to provide the national industry with the means to move forward.Likewise, grower uncertainty due to black sigatoka and fusarium incursions combined with threat of imports have impacted negatively on QBAN where growers eradication strategy. • provide disease-free banana varieties for research and industry evaluation.improve Australian domestic quarantine. Australia has the best diseasefree planting material scheme in the world based on accredited commercial tissue culture laboratories and nurseries (QBAN) using tissue culture to produce virus-free plants.• undertake research to understand obstacles to tissue culture quality that will eventually assist commercial and research laboratories and subsequently encourage uptake of banana tissue culture. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 have been delaying plantings until they are more aware of the outcomes of these threats. The developing QBAN tissue culture sector is still struggling with delayed orders and payments resulting in reduced cash flow. Ongoing support will need to be provided.This project supports all Australian banana research projects that require banana germplasm, both providing material and facilitating importation of new varieties.With its bacteria research component it links to projects looking at biological control agents to improve both plant and soil health. This project aims to develop tools for banana growers to determine the health of their soil, by providing practical and usable key soil indicators. The indicators will be developed from a range of soil biological, physical and chemical characteristics. These key soil indicators will be used to validate the improvement in soil health by the use of pre-plant organic amendments and the use of interrow crops. They will also be used to benchmark the current status of soil health on banana farms and also to form a soil health scorecard for use by banana growers that can be incorporated into a management system that allows for continuous improvement in soil health.A detailed survey will be used to develop the key soil health indicators. Only the most practical and meaningful indicators will be used by banana growers, but will be correlated to measurements of soil processes such as the recycling of nutrients and disease suppression. The survey to develop the key soil indicators will be conducted on similar soil types from the main banana production areas.In each production area, triplicate soil samples will be taken down the soil profile to determine the effects farm management has on soil biological, physical and chemical properties. The samples will be taken from a conventional banana growing soil, a low input or organic banana production system and an undisturbed system, either rainforest or pasture. This will measure the effects of farm management on soil properties and determine which soil characteristics are most susceptible to change due to farm management. The soil characteristics, which are most sensitive to change due to farmer's management and the most practical for the banana industry to use, will be adopted as key soil indicators throughout the project.The key soil indicators developed from the initial survey will be used to develop a soil health scorecard for use by banana growers. The soil health scorecard will be tested for practicality and reliability to indicate soil health by a second survey over three years. The survey will take place yearly on banana farms on a range of soil types and management practices. This will indicate the current soil health status of banana soils and what soil characteristics need to be improved. It will also allow banana growers to incorporate a soil health recording system into an environmental management system to validate their method of farming to environmental agencies and allow continuous improvement in soil health.To help banana growers determine what is the best method to improve the health of their soil, trials are planned to test pre-plant organic amendments and the use of interrow crops. The pre-plant amendments applied to bananas are intended to provide growers with workable solutions to improve the soil health indicators and allow a more sustainable method of soil management. Pre-plant amendments and the soil health indicators will be linked to the sustainability of banana production by measuring plant growth and yields over a three year period. The amendments will also be tested for their addition of nutrients and ability to suppress soil borne diseases. The use of pre-plant amendments builds onAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 information gathered from previous projects on the use of compost and mill ash to develop disease suppressive soils.The use of crops in the interrow of bananas is intended to improve the plant, soil and water relationships within the banana paddock and to reduce the movement of sediment from the banana paddock. A number of shade tolerant species will be tested for their ability to persist within the banana interrow, withstand traffic, their resistance to soil borne diseases and their agronomic suitability for a banana production system. The effects of interrow species will also be tested for their effects on the key soil health indicators to determine if this allows growers to improve their soil health and the sustainability of banana growing. The use of interrow crops builds on information gathered on the resistance of banana fallow crops to soil borne diseases.The project to develop soil indicators to determine the health of banana growing soil has evolved due to the observations made of poor plant growth, restricted root growth and plant toppling observed on banana farms when there is no plant pathogen involved. Often the only apparent cause of poor plant growth is poor soil structure. The poor soil structure has been difficult to describe to banana growers. The effect soil structural degradation has on banana growth has no quantifiable or descriptive measures to indicate to banana growers how poor soil health is impacting on plant growth. To increase the awareness to banana growers of the effects of poor soil structure and soil degradation have on production and sustainability of banana cultivation, pot trials have been included in the project.The pot trials will also investigate the interaction of a pathogen, such as nematodes and Fusarium wilt, on bananas in poorly structured soil. This trial will demonstrate if soil conditions can increase the susceptibility soil borne disease has on banana growth.The project aims to develop practical science for banana growers to develop useful and practical indicators of soil health. To help with the adoption and uptake of the use of soil indicators, an extension component of the project comprising a biannual newsletter, annual farmer field schools and the development of a banana root and soil health manual and testing kit will be developed. The soil health manual and testing kit will complement one another and allow growers to use a soil health scorecard to assess and validate their management practices in relation to soil health. This information can then be incorporated into an environmental management system for growers to continually improve the health of soils under banana cultivation.For banana growers to improve their knowledge of soil health practices, they need indicators that can quantify and describe their current soil health status as well as management options that growers can implement to improve soil health. This project will improve the knowledge of soil health, allow growers to monitor and validate soil health and give options to improve soil health management. As a result of improved soil health from this project banana growers will be able to reduce losses due to poor soil structure, validate their farming practices and continuously improve soil health management to sustainably produce bananas in Queensland.SURVEY: 34 fields in north Queensland were sampled to validate 4 key soil health indicators: pH, electrical conductivity (EC), NO 3 -N and labile C. Samples taken from the fields were processed using soil health kit methods at laboratories in South Johnstone and sub-samples from each field sent to NRM&E accredited laboratories at Indooroopilly for duplicate analysis. The four key soil indicators were significantly related validating the methods used in the soil health kit were able to provide reliable measures of soil properties (Table 1). Labile C measurements had the largest variation between measurements conducted in South Johnstone and Indooroopilly. This may be due to the heterogeneity of carbon in the soil as well as differences in techniques. However, the soil health kit technique of measuring labile C is the only method that can currently be conducted without sophisticated equipment and provides a good indication of the carbon status of the soil.INTERROW CROPS:Interrow crops, pinto peanut, butterfly pea, carpet grass and bahia grass were planted in January, 2004. Dry matter samples were measured in April, 2004 and revealed pinto peanut and pinto peanut and carpet grass mix had significantly higher dry matter production than other treatments. There were significant differences in soil physical, chemical and biological properties between the interrow and the row area of bananas. Physically, the interrow area had significantly higher bulk density, slower water infiltration and less stable aggregates relative to row area. Chemically, the pH, EC and NO 3 -N were significantly lower in the interrow relative to the row. Biologically, the interrow area was a more fungal dominated system, whereas the row area around bananas was bacterially dominated with more plant parasitic nematodes. No nematode suppression has been detected.The pre-plant amendment field trial investigating mill ash, mill mud, compost and grass hay was established on August 28, 2003. Following the application of amendments there was an increase in the soil NO 3 -N and soil respiration measurements in compost treated plots resulting in an increase in the bacterial feeding nematodes and increased the bacterial dominance of the soil microbial community. However, at the second assessment in March 2004, there were no differences in soil NO 3 -N levels. There was a significant increase in the labile C under the grass hay treatment relative to the untreated plots. This resulted in a reduction in the bacterial to fungal ratio relative to the untreated plots, which suggested that nutrients were being decomposed by a A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 more fungal dominated pathway. There has been no change in measurable physical properties, plant growth parameters or nematode suppression under the amendments so far in the trial. The use of silicon amendments has been able to give a significant reduction in fusarium wilt symptoms in glasshouse trials. It is thought that the soluble silicon is able to improve the disease resistance in banana plants. However, the exact method, quantity and best method of application are still being determined.BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS: Beneficial microbe field trial to establish antagonistic organisms to burrowing nematodes has been completed and the results are still being analysed. Initial results suggested there is no nematode suppression or growth promotion in the field from inoculation of plants with beneficial microorganisms. Conversely, an isolate of Cytophaga sp. has given significant suppression of fusarium wilt in pot trials. This is thought to be due to up regulation of endochitinase and osmotin plant defence genes in presence of bacteria and fusarium and direct antagonism of the bacteria against fusarium.PROJECT TITLE: PCR primer verification and analysis of the black sigatoka outbreak in Tully To address the issue of the likely source of the outbreak, a comprehensive sequence study was undertaken. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and intergenic spacer (IGS) and D1/D2 regions of the ribosomal gene complex of M. fijiensis were sequenced from banana samples collected during the Tully eradication campaign and compared to an extensive catalogue of isolates of M. fijiensis and M. musicola as well to M. eumusae, a third closely related pathogen which causes a similar disease on banana, Eumusae leaf spot (ELS). Isolates for comparison were sourced from local and international collections and included sequences from Africa, India, Central and South America, the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific Islands as well as sequences from previous Australian incursions.The results of the phylogenetic analysis revealed a number of important findings:(1) confirmation of M. fijiensis, M. musicola and M. eumusae as three distinct species;(2) identification of two new species of M. musicola occurring in Malaysia and Indonesia and (3) that the source of the Tully 2001 incursion was very unlikely to have been sourced from previous incursions in Cape York but was more likely a new introduction.To ensure the ability to detect future incursions of black sigatoka and related species into Australia, the ITS sequence data was assessed for integrity of the diagnostic primer sites. In addition, the gel-based PCR assay was screened against the DNA catalogue of local and international isolates of banana and nonbanana Mycosphaerella spp. as well as other banana phytopathogens. Detection of very low level (0.04%) cross-specificity was found during testing necessitating a more specific assay format to be sought. Consequently, TaqMan ® MGB probe assays have been developed for black and yellow sigatoka and these assays are ready for technology transfer.The conclusion that the source of the Tully 2001 outbreak was most likely from a new introduction and not from a previous outbreak in Cape York, indicates that the earlier eradication programs have been successful. This finding should serve to strengthen confidence in the Tully eradication program and also provide support that eradication should be pursued in the event of any future incursions. The finding that M. musicola appears to be comprised of at least three species hasAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 important implications in quarantine. The two possible new species from Indonesia and Malaysia have not been identified in Australia and the pathogenicity of them is unknown. There is a very real possibility that these species could enter Australia undetected and for this reason, it is recommended that an extensive study of M. musicola is undertaken to determine if there are differences in pathogenicity in genotypes from different geographical regions.As a result of this study, improved diagnostic assays for black and yellow sigatoka have been developed.  ) have laid the foundation of this project by demonstrating the basic feasibility of this concept. This project will lead the way for the development of an international effort to encourage wider consumption of carotenoid-rich bananas, based on an assessment of their nutrient content, bioavailabilty, consumer-acceptability and agronomic-adaptability. Drawing on the expertise of the project collaborators in nutrient analysis (UQ, QDPIF), consumer acceptance (UQ, INIBAP and local partners) and the evaluation and dissemination of banana varieties (QDPIF, SPC, INIBAP and local partners), the results of the project will indicate whether a wider effort based on consumer education and dissemination of existing high-carotenoid varieties is likely to achieve the desired health impacts or whether it is necessary to invest in breeding efforts to transfer the desired traits to new varieties with wider acceptability and adaptability.• evaluate the carotenoid levels in existing varieties (based on collections of Pacific varieties at QDPIF and elsewhere) and the likely bioavailability of Vitamin A based on the ways in which these bananas are grown, processed and consumed • identify ethnobotanical uses of banana and gain an understanding of the acceptability of various high-carotenoid banana varieties to consumers, both at first encounter and after nutrition education • evaluate the agronomic adaptability of promising high-carotenoid banana varieties, considering growth cycle, yield, disease-resistance and adaptation to different agro-ecologies• an understanding of the technical and social factors influencing and limiting the availability of Vitamin A resulting from consumption of high-carotenoid bananas • initiation of positive health outcomes in the study areas, resulting from increased awareness of the value of consuming high-carotenoid bananas• the foundation for a realistic inter-regional strategy for using bananas to alleviate Vitamin A deficiency problems in developing countries (which is expected, when implemented through other projects, to have an immediate impact in those Pacific nations where Vitamin A deficiency has been identified, such as the Solomon Islands and Kiribati, and eventually in other regions, especially sub-Saharan Africa).The project focuses on novel research on the bioavailability of Vitamin A based on consumption of Musa and will examine pre-and post-harvest factors influencing its availability in both invitro and in-vivo studies. Equally important are the social actions and interactions within target countries with technical back-up provided by Australian partners, SPC and INIBAP. Promising banana/plantain cultivars will be identified in existing collections (QDPIF, SPC, NARI, INIBAP Transit Centre) and fruit assessed for carotenoid content and bioavailability. Agronomic assessment of a subset of varieties will begin immediately in Australia and target countries, in order to complete a full production cycle at contrasting sites (rainfall, altitude, soil fertility, disease pressure) within the project period. Participatory methods will be used to evaluate likely acceptability and consumption patterns, with and without complementary nutrition education. For each of the countries, the aim will be to identify the most favorable combination of Vitamin A/bioavailabilty and social acceptability. Analysis of data within a sociological and biophysical framework (using GIS) will provide a basis for assessing the likely cost and impact of a larger-scale strategy based on disseminating existing high-carotenoid varieties, accompanied by participatory training in food processing, health and nutrition. Engagement with local communities to identify promising germplasm, and approaches to assess and enhance the cultural acceptability of nutrientdense cultivars. • Dr Mary Taylor, SPC. Sourcing and maintaining banana germplasm, distribution of promising lines and facilitation of evaluation in member countries.Uptake pathways would include future projects of INIBAP regional networks (in Status of banana in BangladeshBanana is the number one fruit in Bangladesh considering its year round availability, popularity and production. It accounts for 41% of the total fruit production from 21% share in area. The average yield of banana is 15 t/ha, which is lower compared with that of other countries in the world. Plantain has a great demand in the urban areas during the lean period of vegetables from May to October.Banana is a rich source of calories. It is eaten fresh or sometimes mixed with rice and milk, which is the traditional dish for Bangladeshis. It also is used in fish curry, in preparing cakes and other delicious foods.The green peel is also eaten and has a medicinal value.Malnutrition is widespread in the country. The average food intake is deficient in calories, vitamins and minerals. Bananas can improve the nutritional situation of the country.Most of the bananas produced in the country are consumed in the domestic market. A small quantity is exported to the Middle-East countries. From the farm, banana passes through three middlemen before it reaches the consumer. As a result, farmers are deprived of their actual price.There are a number of banana cultivars in Bangladesh. Among them, BARI Kola-1, 'Amritsagar', 'Sabri', 'Champa' and 'Kabri' are the commercial cultivars. Nine distinct genotypes of plantain were identified from 28 collections from different parts of the country. Field evaluation of these selected genotypes was done along with FHIA-03. In this trial, FHIA-03 was found superior to all with respect to yield and disease tolerance. The local genotypes were found susceptible to fusarium wilt. Considering yield potential and disease tolerance, FHIA-03 was released for cultivation as plantain.Banana production in Bangladesh can be categorized into three systems: backyard, mixed and commercial smallholder production. Backyard production of banana is common where the growers produce banana primarily for home consumption. In this system, crop management is very poor, but productivity and longevity is high. Bananas are grown perennially in homestead areas. Practically no fertilizer or pesticides are applied. In a mixed-crop production system, banana is intercropped with potato, onion, mustard, radish, spinach, amaranth, bitter gourd, cabbage, etc. to obtain additional income. In some commercial smallholder plantations, banana is grown as a monocrop. But most of the growers are not well aware of the modern production practices.There are several factors contributing to the low production of banana in Bangladesh.The existing varieties that are susceptible to diseases are not high yielding.The major pests of banana are banana leaf and fruit scarring beetle, banana weevil and nematodes. Thrips, aphids, stem borer and mites are minor pests. The fruits affected by scarring beetle have poor market acceptability. BBTV is widespread in the country, creating problems for producers.It is well known to the commercial growers and uprooting is being done to solve the problem. The virus-infected plants are neither burned nor buried, rather they are bulked at one side of the field which helps disease dissemination through carriers.'Sabri', the second leading dessert variety is highly susceptible to fusarium wilt. This variety is now under threat of extinction. Because of soil-borne diseases, 'Sabri' cannot be cultivated for more than 3 years in the same areas. The use of disease-free planting materials and improved drainage system can prevent infection.Most of the varieties of banana and plantain are susceptible to leafspot diseases. Tilt and Bavistin were found effective against this disease. However, farmers rarely spray on their plants. Tilt is being used only in commercial areas. Aside from these diseases, banana streak virus (BSV) and banana bract mosaic virus (BBrMV) have been identified but have not been given enough focus yet.Different banana regions are devastated by cyclones, drought, flood and cold temperature. The southern part of Bangladesh is cycloneprone with occasional heavy production loss. The eastern part on the other hand is subjected to monsoon damage. In winter, the vegetative growth of banana is reduced and bunches are underdeveloped because of temperature lower than 20 0 C for about 2 months. The northern part also experiences drought for a long period. Most of the low-lying areas are affected by flood almost every year leading to production loss. In hilly areas, bananas are being grown under rainfed condition.Farmers are not aware of the sucker quality. Suckers are mostly collected from old orchards without knowing their disease status.Banana is a fast-growing crop. It requires water for its growth and fruit development. In commercial orchards, flood irrigation is done. In hilly areas, however, there is no available irrigation facility. Farmers also do not follow proper nutrient management. Banana has a high demand for potassium but farmers use more nitrogen and phosphorus resulting in nutrient imbalance. Effect of macronutrients on banana was studied at some locations but not of the effect of micronutrients. Intercultural operation such as weeding, desuckering, earthing up, pest management etc. are not done in homestead and hilly areas.The postharvest losses of banana in Bangladesh are high (20-30%). This is mainly due to the delicate nature of the fruit when it ripens and lack of suitable infrastructure for transport from production point to consumers. No processed products are marketed in Bangladesh. Due to rainfed cultivation, cyclones and monsoon storms, bananas have to be grown at the same period, resulting to oversupply in the market during harvest season. Natural ripening of banana is done for home consumption only. Heat treatment is the common method for ripening banana in commercial scale. Heating is done either by a candle or stove or by burning rice husk with banana covered with the polyethylene film or in a closed room for 6-20 hours depending on the season and variety. In this system, the firmness or texture of banana is partially damaged due to the high temperature created inside the polyethylene cover or the closed room. Fans are occasionally used to lower the temperature. About 10-15% bananas are damaged within a day due to overheating. Fruit colour also becomes pale. Some traders use ethrel to hasten ripening. They usually spray ethrel on the whole bunch before loading it in the truck for shipment to the market. Sometimes immature bunches are harvested, especially when there is higher market price.No processing industry for banana has been developed in the country.Research activities     • FHIA-03 is performing well with respect to yield and cooking quality.• Field days and training programmes were organized for the banana growers, NGOs and extension personnel involved in banana production.• A good number of disease-free tissue-cultured plants of BARI Kola-1 were distributed to the farmers through BARI and NGOs laboratories (SQUARE, BRAC, PROSHIKA).• A manual on banana production technology was published and distributed to the growers.• A book on banana production was published in 2001 for distribution to the progressive growers.Research activities       • Field demonstration on high-density planting of banana is being done by the Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE) in collaboration with OFRD, BARI.• Field demonstration on the performance of BARI-released varieties BARI Kola-1 and BARI Kola-2 is being done by BARI.• In-vitro multiplication of recommended and released varieties is being done for distribution to the growers. BARI and NGOs (SQUARE, BRAC, PROSHIKA) are involved in these activities.• Field days and training programmes are to be organized for banana growers to equip them with modern production technologies. Banana is cultivated anywhere in the country stretching from the sea level to the highland regions, but it is predominantly found along the river banks and in the central and northeast highland regions of the country.Banana plays a very important role in the daily diet of the Cambodian people. It is consumed fresh, but also eaten in processed forms like dried, boiled, fried and as cake. An economical and cultural crop, bananas are used in all religious and traditional ceremonies of the country. Regardless of the important contribution that bananas can play to the country's economy, investment in banana research is still very limited.Currently, the production of banana in Cambodia is still a small-hold industry. A constant threat to the expansion of the crop is the damage caused by pests and diseases, such as fusarium wilt among others.With a moderate funding support from the International Network for Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) and with a strong commitment from the personnel of Cambodian Agricultural R&D Institute (CARDI), a banana research project in the country has been developed. This project initiated the development of capacity for tissue culture which can generate a significant number of banana plantlets for further field multiplication.Cambodia is rich in genetic diversity of Musa. However, the fragility of the crop against vast changes in the world ecological conditions presents a strong need for their protection from permanent disappearance from the world. In this regard, the Cambodian programme took special attention on the issue, and significant progress has been made.With funding support from INIBAP, 89 samples of traditional cultivars from three provinces, Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom and Kandal, have collected within the last 2 years (Figure 1). More collections willbe done in the other provinces, but because of financial constraints, work was temporarily stopped.All collected cultivars were planted in rows of 5 m spacing at the CARDI research field. Five plants of each sample were collected from the original sources and planted on bunds to avoid damage caused by water logging (Figure 2).   Along with the collected materials, a set of materials from the INIBAP Transit Centre (ITC) in Belgium was also received (Table 1). Unfortunately, because of limited experience in working with those small plantlets, a big number of plants in the set died in the screenhouse conditions. Only 19 plants survived and were transferred for planting in the field genebank with the collected traditional cultivars. Due to this situation, the same set of materials was again sent to us from Belgium. Compared with the first batch, this second batch of plantlets all survived in sub-culture conditions (Figure 3).To produce a large number of plantlets for each accession, materials received from the International Musa Testing Programme (IMTP) are triple sub-cultured. These will then be transferred to the screenhouse for their first planting into the soil before sending to the field.As the number of plants from introduced material is still limited, no field trial has been initiated so far. However, with rapid progress in multiplying the materials through tissue culture, it is hoped that some on-farm testing trials can be planned for the year 2005. At least three locations of onfarm testing will be conducted in the 2005 rainy season. Within the last 2 years, with a strong support from INIBAP, a number of staff from CARDI has been trained in various fields in banana research (Table 2).wilt is a serious problem in banana production in Cambodia. Availability of resistant cultivars against this disease will be of great help to the industry.Most of the time in the peak harvesting season, marketing is becoming a serious problem for the farmers. In this circumstance, banana can be processed and consumed as nutritious food.New highly marketable banana cultivars, production management and other technologies are necessary for the banana production in the country.Support in the field will provide a good foundation for banana research in the country.1. Funding. Despite the fact that banana is one of the major crops in Cambodia, funding sources, local and international, toward research on this crop is absent or very limited.Development of suitable research infrastructure within the country is possible a priority for a long-term mandate. Xu Linbing*, Yang Hu, Huang Bingzhi and Wei YuerongBanana is one of the major fruits in China. In 2004, the total planted area for banana was 244 793. Some commercial plantations obtain 60 t/ha -1 yr -1 . However, due to typhoon and chilling, the average yield is only at 22.7 t/ha (Table 1). Guangdong on 20 December 2004. There is a bumper harvest this year, with some farms having more than $20 000/ha average income. A China Fruit Marketing Association Banana Branch in Haikou, Hainan province was set up in June 2004 (Xu Linbing 2004a). This will improve the banana marketing system, build up the banana selling network, help the farmers sell bananas easier and earn more profit. Hot Farm, Jianfeng, Datang, Tianbao, Tongtian, Baiguo, Shanding, Fu Min, etc. are some of the most recognized brands (Yang Peisheng 2003).Hainan Good market price is a good motivating factor for the farmers to plant bananas. Data on this was collected from www.pyagri.gov.cn.It can be seen from Figure 1 that in some months, the highest price appears to be twice more than the average price. Too many fruits competing with banana during summer lowers the banana rice. On the other hand, during winter, most of the plants die of chilling. The price gets higher than $0.5/kg following the next spring, of which the farmer can earn $20 000/ha profit in Hainan. Although there has been a recorded increase in production (Table 1), Figure 1 shows that the price did not change so much in the last 4 years.Economic development increased the market demand for bananas.Postharvest technology made the shelf life of banana longer. The marketing network of banana is also extended to small towns. Overall, more people eat banana than before, with the consumption volume becoming bigger. It is estimated that the production will reach 7M t in the next 3 years.  T h e v a ria tio n o f b a n a n a p ric e in W a n q in g s h a in re c e n t y e a rs rate of provincial de-sulfurization is only 13.30%. This then causes acid rain of more than 50% and the average pH of precipitation to be 4.92 (http://www.gdepb.gov.cn. 2004). The relationship of acid rain and banana leaf marginal necrosis is yet to be studied.• Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV). • Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) is the main disease in farms planted with tissue-cultured seedlings. Aphid control in the nursery and young plant is very important.• Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense) (Foc) has become the main disease for some banana plantations in Southern China.Guangdong has set up a project to control it. The involved institutions include South China Agricultural University, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences (GDAAS), Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences (CATAS), Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Guangzhou Institute Agricultural Sciences. Xu Wenyao studied the pathogenic reaction of banana pseudostem cells to different races of vascular wilt fungus and their crude toxins. It describes the pathogenic reaction of the banana cells upon the inoculation of spore suspension and crude toxins of Foc. The detached pseudostems and pseudostem cells of banana plantlets were treated with pathogen spore or crude toxins solutions. The pathogenic reactions were observed by using tissue sectioning. The results showed the same reactions, such as browning reaction, upon the inoculation of crude toxins produced by different fungal races. This suggests that the virulence differentiation of Foc was Banana research and production in China determined by some unknown factors rather than the toxins specificity.It was also proven that the toxins produced by Foc are non-selective for banana (Xu Wen-yao 2004). The Foc was found to have not only destroyed Fenjiao (ABB, Pisang Awak), but also Baxi (AAA, Cavendish) in Qiongshan and Sanya, Hainan province. The disease area covered 43.33 ha and 6.67 ha respectively. This is a big potential problem for the banana industry in Hainan (Zhou Chuan Bo 2003).Fengjiao (ABB, Pisang Awak) is the popular variety in China. The price is usually higher than Cavendish. It is very susceptible to Foc in commercial plantations. The ratoon harvest, which is 60-80% in virgin land, may fall to 0%. But in some backyards, Fengjiao can harvest many crop, and last for many years.Integrated pest management may cause no harm to the roots and sucker since no chemicals/pesticides will be used. Further studies are needed on this IPM programme.Twenty-three accessions from the International Musa Testing Programme (IMTP) were propagated, rooted and planted in Wangqingsha IMTP station on 31 March 2004. These accessions were investigated for the presence of Foc. Based on the last assessment conducted on 14 October 2004, FHIA-01 (AAAB), FHIA-02 (AAAB), FHIA-18 (AAAB), FHIA-25 (AAAA) are resistant. Meanwhile, 10% of FHIA-03 (AABB) and GCTCV 119 (AAA) and 12.5% of CRBP39 (AAAB) are affected. More detailed studies will still be done.• Banana Anthracnose. Zhu Sijiang (2004) investigated the induction of disease tolerance of postharvest banana by using crude extract from peels of green banana. Dipping postharvest banana in crude extract from peels of unheated green banana (UHGB) significantly controlled the occurrence of banana anthracnose, while dipping in crude extract from peels of heated green banana (HGB) had little effect on fruit rotting. This is the first report on the induction of disease tolerance of postharvest fruits by direct application of crude extract from fruit of the same species. UHGB-treated anthracnose (Colletotrichum musae) spores were found to be less virulent than HGB-treated ones. While HGB affected spore germination, more than UHGB, lesser anthracnose was observed on UHGB treated fruits. These results imply that the mechanism of anti-disease substances extracted from green banana peel to enhance the disease tolerance of post harvest banana by exogenous application lies in the fact that the anti-disease substance help strengthen the defensive system of the fruit itself instead of affecting the pathogens (Zhu Si-jiang 2004).Genetic divergence among 38 strains belonging to the falcate-spore • Bacterial corm rot was found in Hainan. It is caused by Erwinia carotovora. It occurred on poorly drained fields during the rainy season, 3%-7% plants were harmed (Zhou Chuanbo 2004).• Chilling in winter is one of the main restraining factors of banana production. Compared with apple, pear and citrus, the area planted to banana is very limited in China. However, the quality of Chinese bananas is better than tropical bananas, thereby attracting Japanese buyers to come to China. HBA is pushing a big company to join together to supply the Japanese market but typhoons and summer made banana production unstable. Some farmers moved their business to Xisuanbanna, Yunnan province. The province has the best environmental condition in China, without typhoon, with a tropical climate which lies 400 m above sea level. The banana is sweet all year round because even during summer, the temperature is remains at 20 o C at night and 37 o C in the afternoon. The road condition, however, is not that good but will be improved with the opening of the Kunming-Bangkok express way in 2007. This will also benefit Thailand and Laos. It is expected that they will bring their tropical fruits to the Chinese market.• In 2004, Chen Jiahao has studied how the defense effect of smoke screen on low temperature injures banana. The results showed that smoke screen prevented radiation of low temperature. The lower the air temperature was, the better the heat preservation effect was. The heat preservation effect was stronger at the densest height than at any other heights in the banana plantation. The heat preservation effect of smoke screen was not significantly affected by sky conditions (sunny or overcast) and air humidity.• Typhoon is another major limiting factor in banana production. In 2003, more than six typhoons devastated the banana regions. On 17 Banana research and production in China November 2003, Typhoon Nibert wiped out half of Hainan's banana plantation, causing an estimated loss of 1 billion yuan ($120M). Fortunately, in 2004, no typhoons landed on Guangdong, Hainan and Fujian provinces. The production in 2004 therefore increased by 20%.To minimize production loss due to typhoons, most plantations use timber and bamboo props to minimize the effect of strong winds.Approximately 100 M of timber and bamboo are used yearly. This is a great loss for the forests in China. In order to save timber, a timber preservation research project was carried out by the Guangdong Forest Research Institute. This project was sponsored by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). The vacuum-pressure system in the pilot workshop was set up to treat timber. They developed a new formulation for mold control, which showed good efficacy after being tested. The treated timber for banana standing pole is one of the demonstration programmes. Four-year tracking analysis results indicated that the timbers are still in good condition. It is estimated that the timber can last 15-20 years, about 3-4 times longer than the untreated ones. If the project is extended to 50% of the banana plantations, more than 70% of timber will be saved.• Xuwen County is situated in the cape of Leizhou Peninsula, westGuangdong. It is a tropical region, afflicted by drought which causes a stress to banana plantations. Some farmers usually dig deep wells (200-400 m deep) and pump water for irrigation. The 2-3 hours/8 days irrigation belt system is adapted. In Hainan, irrigation is for 1 hour/6 days, while in Pearl River delta, it is 20 minutes/3 days. The optimal plot for irrigation should be tested respectively. At present, this irrigation belt system has been extended to up to more than 30 000 ha in China. However, over excavation of underground water will cause the water table fall. It is said that the water table dropped to up to more than 100 m in Ledong, Hainan during the last 2-3 years. The use of underground water should be studied further.The Chinese government is setting up standards to promote banana production. This includes environment management, plantlet care and production, field management, postharvest processing and fruit quality.Of the collections held in GDAAS, about 50% accessions were characterized and entered into the MGIS database. Chen Houbin hasAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 evaluated fruit characteristics of 28 Cavendish subgroup banana cultivars. The result showed that the bunches of 'Gaojiao Dundilei', 'Williams' and 'Baxijiao' were more cylindrical while those of dwarf Cavendish were more conical. Yields of the planting crop and the first ratoon were 20-30 kg and 30-35 kg per stem, respectively. 'Aijiao Dundilei' had the highest yield of 33.8 kg per stem in two crops, 21% higher than the introduced cultivars like 'Baxijiao' and 'Williams'. Number of hands varied between 7 and 9, with the total fingers 140 to 170. The first hand consisted of 25 to 30 fingers and weighed 4 to 7 kg in a bunch, which was double to triple that of the last hand. Finger length of the first hand was 20 to 22 cm whereas finger diameter was bigger than the normal standard (around 40 mm). A few local cultivars like 'Aijiao Dundilei' and Gaojiao Dundilei' were comparable with the introduced cultivars in terms of yield, bunch shape, finger length and shape.The germplasms were collected in Xisuanbanna Botanical Garden, Menglun, Yunnan province, (101°25´ EL; 21°41´ NL, 570 m above sea level, with a yearly average temperature of 21.5°C and precipitation of 1560 mm). Seven accessions were collected, 1 Shuguo Bajiao; 2 Teai Guanye Xianagjiao(AAA); 3 Taiyin Hongyebei Guanye Xianagjiao; 4 Pinhonghua Guanye Xianagjiao; 5 Xiangmin Xiaoxianagjiao (AA); 6 Heliconia aurantiaca Ghissbr; and Xiangtui Jiao.• Biotechnology breeding. Xu Chunxiang (2004a) had experimented on the embryogenic callus starting from immature male flowers in two out of five banana cultivars and starting from scalps in two out of three cultivars. These four cultivars belonged to Musa AAA group. The frequency of embryogenic cell induction depended on genotype, cultivar and incubation condition. Embryogenic cell suspensions (ECSs) were initiated successfully from the embryogenic callus of all these four cultivars. The possibility of getting ECSs from embryog was also cultivar dependent. Xu Chunxiang (2004b) also regenerated Grand Naine plant through somatic embryogenesis. Grand Naine ECSs were plated on RDI or M3 medium for the regeneration of somatic embryos, 1 to 2 weeks after last subculture. The first regenerable somatic embryos were observed approximately 3 weeks after inoculation. After 8 weeks of culture, the embryogenic mass had increased about 5 to 18 times. The number of somatic embryos that could be regenerated from 1 ml settled cell volume (SCV) of ECSs ranged from between 0.71×10 5 and 3.07×10 5 , depending on pre-culture time in liquid medium before regeneration, regeneration media and incubation conditions (light/ Banana research and production in China dark). The frequency of plant recovery and the amount of plantlets from 1 mL SCV of ECS were indirectly affected by the somatic embryos regeneration conditions that were studied.Different protocols for establishing embryogenic cell suspensions and plant regeneration for gene transformation were also studied. Main cultivars and important germplasm in China, such as Musa itinerans Cheesm., Musa AA Pisang Mas cv. Mas, Musa AAA Cavendish cv. Baxi, and Musa AAB Silk cv. Guoshanxiang were used as experimental materials to establish their embryogenic cell suspensions. Different explants, immature zygotic embryo of Musa itinerans Cheesm., immature male flower of Musa AA Pisang Mas cv.Mas and scalp of Musa AAB Silk cv. Guoshanxiang were used to induce embryogenic callus, and embryogenic cell suspensions of these cultivars were established. Histological analysis was performed and used to prove that the single-cell origin of somatic embryos was derived from immature male flower of Mas (AA). Embryogenic cell suspensions of Mas were cryopreserved successfully by vitrification, and its protoplast culture was processed (Wei Y R et al. 2004b).• Space radiation breeding. The second new clone Dafeng No.1 (AAA Cavendish) was screened from local Cavendish Dazhong Gaoba. It was shown that the finger was 1.6 cm longer, finger weight was 30.5 g heavier and bunch weight was 2.1 kg heavier than Baxi. However, its bunch shape is not very good. The third clone Changfeng Xiangjiao(AAA Cavendish) which was screened from Williams, showed that the finger was 2 cm longer and bunch weight was 16 kg heavier, than other Williams, respectively. Compared with the popular cultivar Baxi, Changfeng Xiangjiao does not differ with Baxi in terms of plant characteristics except that its finger is 1.6 cm longer. Another Awak mutation, Ai Fenjiao (ABB Dwarf Pisang Awak) is 2-3 m in height, its shooting cycle 1 month shorter than normal one but the yield is low at 10 kg/bunch.Tissue-cultured plantlets are now becoming a very popular planting material. Most plantations grow tissue-cultured crops. However four problems have remained: (1) tissue-culture laboratories do not have isolated screenhouse for mother plants;(2) sample check for proliferating tissue quarantine is not sufficient and not fast enough;(3) most of the hardening nurseries do not have a net for isolation and are located near a diseased banana plantation; (4) poor nursery management of tissue-cultured plantlets made fusarium wilt spread rapidly. Huang Youbao ( 2004) has however introduced countermeasures for these problems encountered. These are: (1) to build up a mother plant nursery;(2) proper management of tissue culture source: location of mother plant for sucker and quarantine must be checked;(3) proper management of tissue culture nursery.Nurseries should be 50 m away from vegetable and banana field. There should be a net house and buffer space. Fields must be weeded and disinfected, clean water source should also be used.The banana specific fertilizer becomes more popular than ordinary compound fertilizer. According to the plant growth stage, N:P:K content is adjusted, including vegetative-growth fertilizer, flower differentiation fertilizer and fruit-growth fertilizer. Bio-fertilizer (organic) is adapted in many plantation. Amino-acid leaf fertilizers are also popular this year.Recently, many plantations have simple packing houses which are built by the local government and the farmers in Hainan province. Cartons are used to pack bananas instead of the usual bamboo baskets. There are new cable ways for banana transport built in Zhongshan and Guangxi in 2003. Hot Farm for example, has a re-fixable cable way to Banana research and production in China transport bananas. A 4000 m length way costs $25 000, but after the harvest season the facility can be put in the warehouse to avoid any damage.Feng Dou (2004) analyzed the ethylene receptor gene cloning and expression in banana fruit. Using a total RNA from banana fruits as template, two different lengths of cDNA fragments were specifically amplified by RT-PCR, which revealed a significant homology to the reported ethylene receptor gene (Gene bank number: AF 113748). One cDNA clone (the longer one) showed 99% of homology to the ORF (open reading frame) sequence of the ethylene receptor gene, while the shorter cDNA clone displayed 97% identity but with a missing region corresponding to nucleotide 194 to 1036. Analyses of expression profile by RT-PCR of the cloned genes demonstrated that its expression was prominent at different developmental stages of ripening banana fruit. In contrast, their expression in the roots and leaves was nondetectable. The result of southern hybridization showed that this gene sequence existed as a single copy in the banana genomic DNA. The results indicated a fruit tissue-specific expression pattern of the cloned ethylene receptor cDNA. The cDNA truncated from ethylene receptor was probably generated through alternative splicing, and therefore might represent a novel form of ethylene receptor gene in banana.Single cultivar planting would be a potential risk for banana production. Cavendish occupied 89% of production. However, Cavendish is very susceptible to Sigatoka and fusarium. Breeding disease-resistant cultivars is urgent. 1. Banana processing should be emphasized. Processing technologies must be developed. 2. IPM must be developed for export bananas since use of chemicals is strictly checked in the export market. IPM would be very helpful for the export banana plantations. 3. National banana production coordinating system should be set up (Yang Pei-sheng 2003). A China Banana Network will be launched at Xuwen, Guangdong on 20 December 2004. 4. Cooperate with international banana companies regarding marketing management . 5. Banana standards should be promoted to the farmers in the banana regions. Fruit quality should be improved. The taste of Chinese bananas is good, but the appearance is not. If the fruit appearance is improved, the Chinese banana could become best in the world market. *Principal Scientist, NRCB, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India.Banana and plantain R&D in India M.M. Mustaffa* and S.SathiamoorthyBananas and plantains are grown in India from Vedic times and mentioned in Tamil literature dating back to 120 BC. They are cultivated from coastal plains, deltaic areas and deep inlands to hills with an altitude of 1800 m. The system of banana cultivation varies among regions, garden land system, wetland system (in high-level deltaic areas only) and perennial systems (hills and plains).In the garden land system, bananas are planted annually and ratooning is practised occasionally. In high-level deltaic regions, they are grown in wetland condition rotated with paddy. Under this system, annualy replanting and ratooning are practised. This type of crop rotation minimizes soil-borne pathogens affecting bananas.Under perennial banana growing system, there is no annual replanting of bananas. Plants are grown up to 50 to 75 years in the \"Padugai\" lands in plains. In hills with an altitude of 1000 to 1200 m, they are grown as either a solo crop or a shade crop for coffee. Most bananas are grown under rain-fed condition, under perennial system of cultivation. Mostly Pome types of bananas are grown.A new Ensete species from Kodaikanal hills and a new diploid Musa acuminata from Anaimalai hills were collected, with the latter being found to be free from leaf spot diseases. Sixty-one exotic collections have been added to the INIBAP Transit Centre in Leuven, Belgium through National Board for Plant Genetic Resources in New Delhi.Twenty accessions were characterized using, \"Musa descriptor' from INIBAP/IPGRI, Rome and added to the National Research Centre for Bananas (NRCB) database. RAPD marker analysis of wild Musa balbisiana from Andaman and Nicobar Islands exhibited 81.65 percent polymorphism among the amplified markers showing two major clusters as: (i) 16 types of wild Musa balbisiana subspecies from Indian mainland; (ii) 13 wild types from Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 1). The existence of considerable variation was observed not only at the genome level but also with the geographical distributions. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13However, the collections in the Indian mainland from western ghat to north eastern states also exhibited genetic relatedness, suggesting that the place of origin for Musa balbisiana could be one common place but diversified in three different regions like western ghat region of Kerala and Karnataka States, eastern ghat in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa and north eastern states. Andaman and Nicobar could be another centre of origin and diversity parallel to Indian mainland.The genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship were analyzed for 36 accessions. Primers OPA-11, OPC-17, OPD-06 and OPD-18 produced polymorphism (Figure 2). The tree matrix clearly indicated five major clusters (Table 1). Genetic diversity in 28 genotypes of banana has been studied using RAPD markers. Among a total of 60 bands, the dendrogram showed two main clusters that differentiated all AA genotypes from the BB types. The BB group in turn had two nodes with both wild M. balbisiana types in one group and the cultivars 'Cuba', 'Monthan', 'Karpooravally' and 'Muthia' (ABB group) in another group has shown very close relationships. The hybrid M. acuminata x M. balbisiana was placed between these two groups. The cultivar Klue Teparod (ABB) was found to be placed along with the cultivar Red Banana (AAA).  Grouping of cultivars such as 'Velethan', 'Ney Poovan' and 'Rasthali' from South India lies far away from the BB group. This could be due to the involvement of other Musa species in their genomes. However, this still needs further investigation.Genetic diversity in 22 genotypes was studied using ISSR primers. Among the 99 bands, the dendrogram showed three main clusters that differentiated all AA genotypes from the BB types.It was observed that five ISSR primers amplified bands specific to \"B\" genotype and one ISSR primer also showed bands specific to \"A\" genotype. They were sequenced for development as SCAR markers.These have a potential in deciphering the genome composition of natural hybrids in banana.Five ABB and eight BB accessions were screened for banana streak virus (BSV) integration by using four BSV activable sequences from B genome received from QDPI, Australia. These were BSV-OL (from cultivar Red Deccan), BSV-GF (from cultivar 'Gold finger'), BS-Mys (from cultivar Mysore) and BSV-IM (source not mentioned). Integration of BSV-IM sequence was detected in all the accessions, while other activable sequences were present in most of the accessions. Another experiment will have to be done to confirm this.In order to develop markers linked to fusarium wilt resistance, DNA isolated from the parents M. acuminata, Kadali and Hoobale and hybrids obtained from the crosses were amplified using random primers. Some bands specific to hybrids and resistant parents have been obtained. These have been cloned and sequenced for use as SCAR markers.The activity profiles of the enzymes polygalacturonase (PG), cellulase, pectin methyl esterase (PME) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) showed that there was increase in PG and cellulase activities in banana (cvs. Robusta and Ney Poovan) and SPS (in case of banana) indicating enzymatic degradation of cell-wall materials concomitant with ripening. However, PME activity registered an almost opposite trend with the activity declining with the onset of ripening. With onset of ripening, SPS activity increased initially, declined slightly and remained constant thereafter.Primers have been designed to isolate ripening-related genes in banana using already available sequence data for cellulase, PG, PME, ßgalactosidase (cell wall hydrolases), ACC oxidase, ACC synthase (ethylene biosynthesis enzymes) sucrose phosphate synthase (sugar Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 metabolism) and expansin (cell wall loosening protein). Partial length of cDNA clones has been obtained for all these genes using primers in banana. Fifteen ESTs have also been generated from fruit cDNA library of banana variety Mysore Poovan. Expression of beta-galactosidase and ACC oxidase was studied in ripening banana fruit. While betagalactosidase was expressed at all stages of ripening, while ACC oxidase was expressed only during the initial stages of ripening.Full-length genes of SPS, ACC oxidase, ACC synthase and PG have been isolated from banana vars. Robusta and Ney Poovan through RACE-PCR. Both of the 5' and 3' RACE-PCR products obtained were cloned and sequenced. Complete sequence of ACC oxidase gene from banana varieties Robusta and Ney Poovan has been determined.In order to isolate fruit specific promoters, upstream regulatory sequences of ACC synthase and ACC oxidase genes have been isolated from banana cv. Robusta using genome walker kit. Four upstream sequences of ACC synthase gene of 1300 bp, 900 bp, 600 bp and 550 bp and one upstream sequence of ACC oxidase gene of 1100 bp have been isolated and cloned.The 1206 bp upstream regulatory sequence of ACC synthase gene isolated from banana cv. Robusta has been analyzed. This promoter sequence was cloned into a promoterless vector and was shown to have promoter function through demonstration of GUS gene expression in transformed cowpea embryos. This is the first promoter sequence isolated from banana fruits from India to be registered in the NCBI database. There are only two other banana fruit promoter sequences registered in the database so far.Seventeen accessions belonging to triploid category were evaluated against stem weevil under laboratory conditions. Minimum feeding was recorded in accessions number 0265 (14.9%) and maximum feeding was recorded in accession number 0395 (45.8%).Screening of 700 accessions against sigatoka leaf spot diseases using INIBAP guidelines resulted in the identification of nine immune accessions viz., Kalibun (AAB)-0574 and 0133, Dudhsagar (AAB)-0374, Pisang Rajah (AAB)-0217, Kalibow (AAB)-0211, Pisang Seribu (AAB), Thiruvananthapuram (AAB)-0125, Thiruvannanthaspulam (AAB)-0031 and Klue Teparod (ABB)-0253.Eighty-five banana varieties were screened for their reaction to root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae and root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, in pots under greenhouse conditions. The results revealed that Singhlal, Sakkarachayna, Malaikali, Manikchampa and Karthobiumthamg were resistant to root-lesion nematode.Twenty accessions were evaluated under pot-culture condition. Eleven accessions viz., FHIA-17, FHIA-23, GCTCV-119, GCTC-215, Pisang Jari Buya, Calcutta-4, PA-03, Pisang Mas, Cultivar Rose, Yangambi km-5 and Pisang Ceylon were resistant. Pisang Lilin showed wilt disease symptoms (score-2).Three promising selections of NRCB were evaluated at eight different locations including Tripura State. The performance of NRCB Sel.01 has been found very promising.MS medium and modified MS medium with higher concentrations of colchicine (10 mM) and knudson medium at lower concentration of colchicine hastened the development of embryos. Athiakol colchicine on the other hand suppressed the embryos' development.Banana diploid cvs. Anaikomban (AA) and Kanaibansi terminal male flower bud were used to regenerate shoots directly from the floral hands and multiply banana shoots. The floral hands below 0.5 cm produced shoot buds while the bigger floral hands differentiated into full flowers. They did not produce any shoot buds or shoots. An increase in the concentration of benzylamine purine BA increased the percentage of response and the number of shoots produced increased to 5 mg/l BA concentrations.Application of 2.5 kg compost + 1 kg vermicompost + 1 kg neem cake + 2.5 kg poultry manure plant -1 at 3 rd , 5 th and 7 th month after planting recorded the maximum plant-growth parameters and bunch parameters in both Karpuravalli and Rasthali bananas. Maximum bacterial population (56.33 X 10 3 CFU) and fungi (14.33X 10 6 CFU) were also recorded under organic cultivation. Conventional planting (1.8 xAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 131.8 m) with 75% N and K fertigation in Robusta (AAA), Rasthali (AAB) and Saba (ABB) resulted in maximum plant height and maximum average leaf area. Under a high pH soil, soil application of Fe (as 5 g ferrous sulphate/ plant) with foliar application of Zn (as 0.5 % zinc sulphate) and B (as 4 ppm Boric acid) recorded highest growth and bunch parameters with high quality fruits. Application of distillery effluent (DE) at 30 000 l/ acre along with 80% of recommended potassium (K) recorded higher bunch weight. Integration of CKFD @ 0.5 kg/plant and DE at 30 000 1/ac with 60% of recommended K gave an additional profit of US$627.85 to 31 750 per hectare in Karpuravalli and Ney Poovan banana respectively.Two new minor pests were reported in banana. Chlorpyrifos + liquid paraffin + adjuvant impregnated bunch-cover has eliminated rust thrips infestation. Bunch covering also reduced the harvest time and improved the finger colour. Four bio-control agents viz., Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, Paecilomyces lilacinus and Trichoderma viride were effective in inhibiting the hatching of root-knot nematodes.Bacillus subtilis showed better colonization than others.Non-pathogenic isolates viz., F. oxysporum -1 and F. oxysporum -2 were found to control wilt disease. Ethyl acetate fractions from Solanum spp. recorded maximum inhibition against both Colletotrichum musae and Botryodiplodia theobromae under in vitro condition. Trichoderma pseudokoningii and T. viride-RT were effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth of the crown rot pathogen, B. theobromae, under in vitro conditions. Pseudomonas syringae 1, Pseudomonas syringae 2, P. caryophili, P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas syringae 3, P. viridiflav and Bacillus cereus were found to inhibit the crown rot pathogen. A method of mass production of Trichoderma viride using rice chaffy grains has been developed and standardized for mass production of Trichoderma by farmers themselves.A duplex PCR has been developed for detecting BSV and BBTV simultaneously. RT-PCR technique is for detecting Banana Bract Mosaic Virus. Nucleic acid spot hybridization technique, on the other hand, has been standardized for detecting BBTV.The mealybug Ferrisia virgata was found to transfer BSV among bananas. The virus was detected in the mealybug by PCR technique.A non-radioactive probe has been made for part of the BSV genome.One RAPD marker has been identified for differentiating the BSV infection or integration in Poovan. The DNA of BS Virus from Poovan plants was isolated and used for amplification of six partial segments.The six PCR products were cloned in p-GEM -T vector and the clones have been sequenced. BBTV cp gene also cloned and sequenced for the Indian isolate.The storage life and quality changes studied on mature Rasthali banana by using vacuum sealed 400 gauge poly-bags and stored at 13.5 o C showed that the vacuum-sealed fruits had 40 days of green life at 13.5 o C; but failed to ripen when shifted to ambient condition after 20 days of storage at 13.5 o C. Those sealed normally in polybags had a green life of 8 days. The control had 10 days green life. Modified atmosphere packaging of Rasthali banana could control the chilling injury in Rasthali banana even at 10 o C. The control exhibited chilling injury even at 13.5 o C after 2 weeks of storage.The fermented banana pickle was developed using Monthan banana.Activities of various ripening related enzymes viz. PG, cellulase, PME and SPS were standardized after trying out various procedures including the use of acetone powder.The activity profiles of the enzymes showed that there was an increase in PG and cellulase activities in banana (cvs Robusta and Ney Poovan) and SPS indicating enzymatic degradation of cell-wall materials concomitant with ripening. However PME activity registered an almost opposite trend with the activity declining with the onset of ripening. SPS activity, after recording initial increase with onset of ripening, declined slightly and remained constant thereafter.The content of total soluble protein did not vary during ripening. Protein profiles however, showed qualitative and quantitative changes during ripening of banana fruit. The total sugars and reducing sugar increased with ripening in banana .Extraction methods for RNA have been standardized after trying several protocols. Total RNA was extracted from both unripe and ripe banana fruit tissue. The quality and yield of RNA was found good.Primers have been designed to isolate ripening-related genes in banana using already available sequence data for cellulase, PG, PME, ßgalactosidase (cell-wall hydrolases), ACC oxidase, ACC synthase (ethylene biosynthesis enymes), SPS and expansin (cell wall loosening protein).Partial-length cDNA clones have been obtained for all these genes using these primers in banana. Fifteen ESTs have also been generated from fruit cDNA library of banana variety Mysore Poovan (Table 3).Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13Banana varieties: Ney Poovan and Robusta Full length genes : ACC oxidase and ACC synthase Partial cDNA clones : PG, ß-galactosidase , expansin and SPCExpression of ß-galactosidase and ACC oxidase were studied in ripening banana fruits. While ß-galactosidase was expressed in all stages of ripening, ACC oxidase was expressed only during the initial stages of ripening.Full-length genes of SPS, ACC oxidase, ACC synthase and PG have been isolated from banana var. Robusta and Ney Poovan through RACE-PCR. Both 5' and 3' RACE-PCR products obtained were cloned and sequenced. Complete sequence of ACC oxidase gene from banana varieties Robusta and Ney Poovan has been determined. The full-length sequences of ACC oxidase gene isolated from banana cv. Robusta and Ney Poovan have been registered in Gene Bank of NCBI and the accession numbers were obtained. Training on techniques in gene cloning, sequencing and plant transformation -a 10-day training programme was conducted in November 2003 for scientists of ICAR and teachers of SAUs. A handson gene isolation from banana fruit tissue was included in the activities.To initiate work on banana improvement through genetic engineering, the scientists were trained in the following:• Dr Subbaraya Uma was trained in \"Banana ImprovementTechniques through Agrobacterium-mediated Transformation\" at KUL, Belgium by Dr Serge and Dr Lassloesagi with Dr Swennen as her promoter. • Mrs M.S. Saraswathi was trained on \"Mutant germplasm characterization using molecular markers\" at International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna by Dr Stephen Nielen.Under an FAO-funded programme, Dr S. Uma and Dr R. Selvarajan were nominated as national consultants and undertook various training programmes for farmers, enterpreneurs and tissue-culture industries.Awareness was advocated on the use of virus-free tissue-culture planting materials with the assistance from state governments. Training on recognition of somaclonal variants in early stages and identification of viral diseases was imparted. These were also extended to more than 500 farmers, 100 trainers and 25 tissue-culture industries.As a part of the programme, 12 farmers and 4 enterpreneurs were provided with the opportunities to attend the International Congress on Musa themed \"Harnessing research to improve livelihoods\" in Penang, Malaysia in July 2004.Exploration and collection is one of the mandates of NRCB. Continuous efforts are made to explore, collect, characterize and evaluate Musa germplasms. In this endeavor, 68 wild and local cultivars were collected from North-Eastern states and Andaman, and Nicobar islands where Musa is supposed to have originated. This includes 16 pure balbisiana (BB). Four new Musa species have also been identified.Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13Work on evaluation of global hybrids is being conducted at the five SAU's under various agro-climatic zones:• Kerala Agricultural Univeristy, Thrissur, Kerala • Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu • Bidan Chandra Krishi Vidyalaya Agricultural University, West Bengal.• ANG Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra Pradesh.• Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar.Apart from SAU's, materials have also been supplied to tthree progressive farmers in Tamil Nadu where intensive evaluation is being carried out. These trials were conducted at agricultural universities under AICRP (TF) and the results were as follows (Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9): Introduction and exchange of banana germplasm resistant to fusarium wilt.*Director, ICHORD/AARD, Jakarta, Indonesia.Banana R&D in Indonesia: Updates and highlightsSuyamto*, I. Djatnika and A. SutantoBanana is the most important and widely planted fruit in Indonesia, with a planting area of 74 751 ha and production totaling 4.5 million tonnes (Anonymous 2003). Banana has the highest production rate among all fruit crops. Major banana production areas are found in Java (54%), contributing to 68% of national banana production, while large potential lands are available in Sumatera (over 1 million ha), Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua (over 3 million ha) (Djohar et al. 1999).Commonly, banana is planted as a backyard crop or mixed with other crops such as cassava, coconut and other perennial fruit trees with minimum input management. In some areas, banana is planted as a smallholding system (≤ 1 ha). The varieties planted depend on the local commercial varieties of each region. Pisang Barangan (AAA) is very popular in North Sumatera, Nusa Tenggara Timur and Papua, while Ambon Kuning (AAA) and Tanduk (AAB) are very common in Java. Raja Sereh (AAB) and Ambon Hijau (AAA) are more expensive than Barangan in West Sumatera. Berlin (AA) is a commercial variety in Lampung and West Java, while Kepok (ABB) and Raja Bulu (AAB) are popular cooking bananas in Indonesia. Time of harvest also varies among regions so that bananas are always available throughout the year.Currently, the major limiting factors of banana production are banana wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc), bacterial blood disease (BBD), and Ralstonia solanacearum, damaging banana plantations nearly throughout almost all provinces in Indonesia.Fusarium wilt mostly known as Panama disease is one of the most damaging diseases to the growers worldwide. In Lampung banana growing areas, fusarium wilt and blood disease caused economic losses of about US$6.8 million during the 1993-1994 harvest season (Nurhadi et al. 1994)  Hutagalung (2002) stated that if the total cultivated area of banana farms is more than 1 ha, the problem of disease becomes very important. It will reduce the quantity and quality of yield. In Lampung, fusarium wilt causes economic losses of 10-65%. For the period 1973-2002, the presence of the disease caused a decline in banana production of 60-70%, and a significant economic damage amounting to Rp54.5-63.6 billion (US$9.1-10.6 million) or Rp1.88-2.19 billion (US$0.3-0.4 million) per annum. The commercial cultivars that are susceptible to fusarium wilt are Barangan (AAA), Raja Serai (Silk, AAB) and Ambon Kuning (AAA).In Indonesia, bacterial wilt ranked first in the disease-priority list provided by the Asia Pacific Network (Valmayor 1989). The affected plants are varied. In South Sulawesi, the incidence was estimated at 70-80% (Roesmiyanto and Hutagalung 1989); and it was at 27-36% in West Java (Subhan 1988 cited in Muharam and Subijanto 1991). Pisang Kepok (Saba, ABB/BBB) is very susceptible to bacterial wilt.The Indonesian Fruit Research Institute (IFRI) has collected 200 accessions of Musaceae from Sumatera, Java, Maluku Islands and Papua. However, some are duplicates or synonyms. The collections are maintained ex situ in the field, in vitro in the laboratory and in vivo in the screenhouse. Due to limited space in the screenhouse, only ITC accessions are maintained in the screenhouse. About 85% of the accessions have been characterized and entered into MGIS. Another collection site is in Berastagi experimental field. Thirty-five accessions have been collected in this germplasm field (21 accessions from ITC and 14 accessions of local varieties). The accessions from ITC are also maintained at the Bogor Agriculture University, West Java. This university carries out banana collecting missions and banana molecular marker development, however, no information on the total number of accessions is available. Another well managed banana germplasm collection is in Yogyakarta. This collection field is managed by the regional government of Yogyakarta. Over 150 accessions are conserved ex situ.Research in breeding is mainly confined to developing disease-resistant varieties. Both fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt are serious in most parts of Indonesia. The Indonesian programme's main objective is the breeding of wilt-resistant banana varieties. This is implemented by the IFRI.Conventional hybridization of banana has started in 1999. The first approach was the identification of resistant sources of male parents. For this, five accessions, namely, Kole (AA), Klutuk (BB), Jaran (M. acuminata spp. burmanica), BKT-11 (AAw) and Calcutta-4 (AAw) were obtained. These male parents were crossed with commercial varieties (female parents). The hybrid seeds were obtained when Calcutta-4 crossed with Kepok Kuning (ABB), Raja Siem (ABB) and Ketan (AAB).The hybrid plants are now being evaluated in the field.On The use of living organisms to reduce the impact of pests is a concept of classical biological control. The effectiveness of pathogen control can be increased by the augmentation of antagonistic microbes population. Pseudomonas fluorescens strain MR 96 and Gliocladium sp. are antagonistic microbes of Fusarium oxysporum. The infected plants were significantly reduced (68.5%) when the suspension of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain MR 96 was poured to the soil surrounding banana (5-month-old) rhizosphere (Djatnika et al. 2003) For the next five years starting from 2005, research will be focused on the first three priority fruits, namely banana, citrus and mango. The second priority fruits will be mangosteen, durian and other fruits based on partner demand and government requirement.Banana diseases are still the national constraint to banana production. There are two main research activities regarding banana diseases to be accomplished by ICHORD through IFRI in 2005. The first activity is breeding for national wilt disease resistant variety, including wilt disease and black sigatoka control through the integrated pest management; and the second, the dissemination of banana production system to the farmers through on-farm research. The global programmes of banana research are described on the Roadmap of R&D on Banana (Figure 1). Other banana research programmes are carried out by universities but with focus on the main programme which is the control of banana viruses and banana production system. There are coordination and collaboration between IFRI and Bogor Agriculture University on banana research programme. This coordination is required in order to avoid the overlapping of different programmes. O of agriculture up to the year 2010. This present policy also stated that fruit cultivation and production will be accorded top priority status and contributed to the gross income of the country.Banana is one of the important fruit crops cultivated in Malaysia. It is ranked second in terms of production area and fourth in export revenue based on the balance of trade figures. This crop will remain as an important industry, emphasis given to this crop in addition to the other fruit types listed under the National Agricultural Policy.The acreage under banana has stabilized at about 34 000 ha over the past several years with an annual production of about 180 000 metric tonnes valued at about RM90 million (US$24 million). Fifteen percent of the banana produced are exported valued at more than RM30 million (US$8 million). Efforts are being undertaken to more than double the production figures in the next 5 or more years. It is envisaged that this can be achieved through increasing the production areas, increasing the yield per unit area and enhancing the production technology. Technological advancement through intensified research and development activities will ensure sustainable growth in the industry. The aim of this paper is to look at the various research activities being carried outto bring the industry to the targeted production level.The germplasm collection has more than 200 accessions representing the collections from Malaysia and neighbouring countries. Collection activities are somewhat ongoing and become a continuous exercise. Further collections will concentrate on specific cultivars and for a specific interest. Presently, one of our researchers is making a survey and collection of the cooking bananas, such as Pisang Abu, P. Tandok and P. Nipah, and identifying the variations in the cultivars, mapping out the distributions and looking at the suitability and popularity of the various cultivars in banana chips production.Collections were also conducted on Pisang Raja, aimed at finding improved yield, quality and resistance or tolerance to diseases especially fusarium wilt. Pisang Rastali was also collected from various locations, especially those that can sustain several crop cycles without being infected by fusarium wilt. These collections were then further tested in naturally infested plots.In the vast collection of germplasm, the existence of diversity and the naming based on the traditional and localized nature have imposed a lot of confusion and differences of opinion. The conventional characterization techniques also have limitations to address the various levels of diversity. Thus, research is underway to characterize the collections in the banana germplasm based on the recent advances made in molecular biology. DNA sequencing and DNA markers will be used to characterize Musa germplasm and detect the variation between and within the cultivars or species. All the modern and advance methods will be used to fingerprint the accessions.Traditionally, plant regeneration and mass propagation of bananas have been done through the use of meristem cultures. Now researchers are experimenting and using explants of male inflorescence. From these immature male flowers, embryogenic cell suspensions were developed. The advantage of using explants of male inflorescence in mass propagation is the reduction in the risk of viral contamination. It also seems to have a lower rate of somaclonal variation. Embryogenic cell suspension can be used in gene transformation and plant regeneration.Efforts are underway to mass propagate P. Berangan, P. Mas, P. Tandok, P. Jari Buaya and P. Rastali as well as the wild types using embryogenic cell cultures.Fusarium wilt of banana or Panama disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense is the most important disease of banana in Malaysia and causes huge economic losses to the banana industry. Until now, there are no effective methods available to control the disease. Thus, numerous research efforts are concentrated towards understanding the nature of the disease and looking for possible methods of controlling the disease.Screening of suckers of Musa acuminate ssp. malaccensis in Foc race 4 infested field showed the resistance of this wild type. Further screening of the seedling population showed variation in resistance. This may be due to outcrossing that occurs among the population. Analysis of the screened population showed a 3:1 resistance:susceptible ratio indicating that resistance is controlled by a single dominant gene. Further crosses and biotechnological screening and evaluation were made.Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13The objective of this study was to compare gene expression profiles of P. Rastali cultivar Mutiara (tolerant to fusarium wilt) and P. Rastali (susceptible to fusarium wilt) using microarray technology. This is achieved through construction of the cDNA microarray of the two cultivars. Hopefully, this study will provide answers on the genetic mechanism of disease tolerance/resistance and help develop banana varieties resistant to fusarium wilt.Early detection of fusarium wilt through the use of markers is crucial for detection in the field as well as for the detection of the transformation of resistant genes into susceptible varieties. A semi-quantitative bioassay for early and rapid detection of susceptibility tests against fusarium wilt was conducted. The effect of inoculum density on infection was determined. The biochemical parameters such as hydrogen peroxide and other enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase, chitinase, glucanase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase in infected roots will be determined and the levels related to tolerance or susceptibility to fusarium wilt will be evaluated.Biotechnological improvement of bananas through transformation with genes associated with various characteristics are also being carried out to find a workable and efficient protocol. It is aimed at improving the agronomic characteristics of specific cultivars of banana or at incorporating genes conferring resistance to diseases especially fusarium wilt.In an attempt to find a solution to fusarium wilt, biological control methods are being evaluated and attempted as part of the integrated control measures. Various biological control strategies are being evaluated such as endophytes, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria as well as other microbes and the mechanism of suppressive soils.Endophytic microorganisms from wild bananas are being investigated as a potential bio-control agent against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Race 4. Endophytes are natural internal-tissue colonizers and are advantageous in providing competition for nutrients and space, provide buffer from environmental stress and trigger plant defense mechanism; thus, improve and enhance plant growth. Several isolates showed positive reaction such as suppressing fusarium wilt development, no severe inhibition of plant growth and triggering host resistance. These isolates were selected and can be introduced into the host system by simple inoculation methods.Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria are root and rhizosphereinhabiting bacteria with ability to increase plant growth by a variety of mechanism. Among the benefits of these groups of bacteria are: the ability to exert antifungal activities and to be useful for bio-control of fungi, ability to colonize plant root and stimulate growth of host plant, ability to stimulate root development and increase absorption of water and plant nutrients in bananas, and the ability to enhance plant nutrient uptake and act as biocontrol agent for plant disease.Bacterial isolate, Bacillus sphaericus, was shown to inhibit growth of Foc race 4 in vitro and disrupt hyphal growth of Foc. This bacterial isolate will also enhance the growth of banana and reduce the disease severity index (based on vascular discoloration) of seedlings.Researchers have also identified an actinomycetes Streptomyces violaceusniger that produced extracellular antifungal metabolites that strongly inhibit spore germination and hyphal development of Foc race 4 in vitro. This actinomycetes was also shown to reduce disease severity in plantlets inoculated with the Foc race 4.The occurrence of soil suppressive to the development of fusarium wilt was also being evaluated. From a survey, certain areas were found to be free from infection by fusarium wilt. Results showed that the disease was more severe in sandy soils compared with clay and riverine alluvium soil. The suppressive soils were characterized with high pH of close to seven, and have higher levels of calcium, magnesium and iron. Several microorganisms have been isolated and were involved in suppressive properties.Malaysia is also a participant in the IMTP-Phase III project for the establishment, evaluation and promotion of improved varieties of banana. A demonstration cum research plot was established at MARDI Headquarters in Serdang and other plots will be established at other locations. The objective of this project is to evaluate the introduced varieties in relation to yield, fruit quality, reaction to diseases, pests and other agronomic characters. Hopefully, these studies will identify varieties that are suitable and can be promoted to the farmers.Twenty improved and superior varieties of banana were introduced from the Musa International Transit Centre through the BAPNET office and the plantlets propagated in the laboratory. In addition, 12 local selections were included as check varieties. Planting was carried out on a naturally fusarium-infested site in a completely randomized design with 20 replicates. The plots will be evaluated for their reactions to fusarium wilt, sigatoka diseases and nematodes.Initial results of fusarium wilt infection after one crop cycle are as shown in Table 1. The various hybrids and somaclones showed different levels of infection (0-45%) to fusarium wilt. FHIA-18 and FHIA-25 showed good resistance to the disease. The somaclones (GCTCV-106, GCTCV-215 and GCTCV-247) have 45%, 35% and 25% mortality, respectively. The other hybrids showed only 5-15% mortality rates. The check varieties cv Rose and 'Pisang Jari Buaya' remained resistant without any incidence of mortality. The susceptible 'Gros Michel' and Cavendish-'Williams' were badly affected by the disease but Bluggoe-Cachaco had only 10% mortality. The local cultivars were badly infected except 'P. Tanduk' and 'P. Abu Nipah' with only 10% mortality.Evaluation of the sigatoka diseases based on the infection index showed that the cultivars BITA-2 and 'Pisang Jari Buaya' remained free from the disease (Table 2).The resistant check 'Yangambi km5' as expected remained free from the disease. 'Calcutta 4' also shows a resistant reaction to sigatoka diseases. more than 140 posters on topics ranging from genetic resources, production and cropping systems, plant protection, postharvest and processing.The Myanmar is home to several species of plants because of different agroecological zones. Among them, more than a hundred horticultural crops are grown in the various climatic conditions such as tropical and subtropical. From 2001 to 2002, the cultivated area for horticultural crops was more than 1 M ha.The horticultural crops rank fifth in the agriculture sector. Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation endeavours to boost the production of these crops through area expansion, introduction of improved varieties, technology transfer and market information to the growers.Myanmar has tropical and sub-tropical climates with three general seasons, namely the rainy season (mid-May to mid-October), the dry cold season (mid-October to mid-February) and the hot season (mid-February to mid-May). The average annual rainfall varies over the country, ranging from 2540 mm to 5080 mm in the coastal and hilly regions, and from 762 to 1016 mm in the central dry zone. The temperature in the south differs a little from season to season. However, seasonal temperature variation of central plain lies in the magnitude of about 40°-43°C in the hot season and 10°-15°C in the cold season. In hilly regions, the average daily maximum is approximately 29°C and the minimum is 7°C.In Myanmar, banana is one of the most important and common fruits.It can be grown throughout the country. are consumed locally.Thirteen Musa species, including wild species are widely grown throughout the country. Among them, Musa acuminata, M. cavendishii and four varieties under M. sapientum are the most common varieties.Home or backyard gardening is the common cultivation practice in Myanmar especially in the rural areas. Although commercial plantations can be found in only seven states and divisions, pests and diseases problem exist also in other areas. However, banana growers are not aware of these problems. Therefore, no control measures are being taken by farmers.The banana R&D activities are as follows:• Germplasm collection of local cultivars and introduced varieties The Vegetable and Fruit Research and Development Center (VFRDC) in cooperation with the DAR (Department of Agriculture Research) and Yezin Agriculture University conducted evaluation studies on banana germplasm. In VFRDC, 32 local cultivars and 28 introduced varieties are maintained with which varietal and adaptability trials were conducted. The list of affected germplasm collection and results of evaluation on banana are shown in Tables 1 and 2.The germplasm is maintained for conservation and for selection on pest and disease resistance/tolerance.Likewise, Myanmar received from INIBAP ITC 23 cultivars, and their conditions were observed in VFRDC. Results are shown in Table 3.One set of the 23 varieties was sent to DAR for field trials, while the remaining four sets were planted by VFRDC in the field and in pots in the screenhouse. Two plants of each cultivar were grown in the field and two plants the pots are placed in the screenhouse.The banana is essentially planted in tropical lowland. The varietal trial on local cultivars was conducted to get the fruit quality, yield, and resistance to pests and diseases. For the exotic cultivars, the adaptability tests were conducted in lowland Myanmar, including their performance and quality. Based on the local demand and customer preference, the variety selections were observed for yield, fruit quality and shelf-life through multi-location tests.For the crop improvement strategy, different planting systems, cultural practices, fertilizer application rate and water management play key roles for yield and quality of banana. Standard planting density is 5 m x 5 m. For the trials, 2.55 m x 2.55 m planting density is used due to the adaptation of growers in major banana production areas that lead to nearly four times increment of plant population. However, further research activities should be implemented. Also, appropriate dosage of fertilizer application is required for preventing the lodging of banana, especially for giant cultivars. For this purpose, future research activities will be extended in the area of nutrient requirement, timing and amount of application, irrigation scheduling and crop water requirement in different locations.The popular cultivars were selected to help meet the increasing demand for planting materials. The two multiplication methods were propagation by suckers and division of eye-buds. Results showed that one sucker can produce at least (4-8) eye buds in Dwarf Cavendish that can grow well into new plants like suckers.The micro-propagation technique in banana was successfully operated at the VFRDC tissue-culture laboratory under Myanma Agriculture Service since 1987. This activity enhances the rapid multiplication of  good-quality banana varieties. Likewise, the conservation of germplasm was done by this technique. At present, 15 banana varieties were produced and distributed to the growers. VFRDC plans to produce 300 000 plantlets from 2004 to 2005 by tissue culture. Through this rapid method, the increasing demand of the growers will be met.Postharvest losses of banana range from 20-80% in Myanmar were caused by problems in transportation, packing and marketing systems.These losses may be attributed to physiological and mechanical damage, and pests and diseases. Due to the soft texture and high moisture content, banana is more susceptible to mechanical injury. Thus, growers and distributors need to do careful handling for packing, transportation and storage. On the other hand, the technology for postharvest handling, temperature control, control atmosphere storage and control of shelf-life is needed. Thus, research activities were conducted in VFRDC.The effect of KCl on fruit quality of Cavendish banana was tested and shown in Table 4.As mentioned earlier, the growers are less aware of pest and disease problems. Major pest and disease problems are on stem borer infestation and anthracnose disease in some area. In VFRDC, IPM implemented on preharvest field conditions influenced the postharvest quality of banana. Results showed that Anthracnose incidence is reduced and increased yield and leaf numbers are observed.Likewise, chemical treatment, packaging material, controlled atmosphere and other necessary research depend on development of banana production. Myanmar endeavours to improve banana R&D through more research activities. Likewise, Myanmar aims to collect banana germplasm and to have technical collaboration with other governments, different organizations and agencies. Knowledge gained from this meeting will be applied to help improve the banana R&D in the country.Rosa N. KambuouBanana production in Papua New Guinea is still at the subsistence level. Over 85% of the rural farmers throughout the country are growing some varieties of bananas for their own household consumption and the surplus is sold cheaply in the local fresh food markets. Only a few farmers had taken interest in venturing into banana production on monoculture set-ups in small commercial scale. A large quantity of banana produced in the country is mostly consumed on farm while selected cultivars are taken to urban markets for sale.Emphasis on banana research has been minimal at this stage. The current research activities on banana focus on conservation and maintenance of banana genetic diversity in field genebanks, preliminary selection of promising cultivars for dry conditions and multiplication of planting materials of selected superior cultivars for farmers. This report will discuss the highlights of the banana research and development activities undertaken in PNG for the last two years.The PNG National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) is the main research organization on food crops including bananas. The PNG Cocoa Coconut Research Institute (CCI) and the Coffee Research Institute (CRI) are doing some work on bananas, but in intercropping studies with coffee, coconut or cocoa.Few individuals or institutions in the country are growing bananas as mono-crop on small commercial scale. Emphasis is placed on dessert bananas for the urban markets in Port Moresby and Lae.The bulk production of bananas comes from the informal sector that makes up of over 85% of the people living in rural areas of the country. Production from the informal sector focuses mostly on cooking bananas rather than dessert bananas.The current research focus on banana is in the following areas:• germplasm conservation, management and use The National Germplasm Collection has 235 accessions held in the field genebank by NARI at Laloki. Most of these accessions are cooking types from the diploid and triploid genomes. There are few tetraploids in the collection. The wild species were collected in the past, but failed to establish in ex situ field collections. The whole national collection has been morphologically characterized. Information on preliminary evaluation of bunch yields are incomplete due to fruit loss through stealing of banana bunches. Information and data collected were entered into MGIS database. The preliminary evaluation information enabled the national curator to do the initial selection of three banana varieties that are tolerant to dry conditions. The varieties 'Dwarf Kalapua,' 'Small Kalapua' and 'Tall Kalapua' are from the ABB genome. The other varieties selected by the farmers that survived the El Nino drought were 'Dwarf Cavendish' and 'Yawa.' Planting materials of the selected drought-tolerant varieties are multiplied and distributed to farmers throughout the dry-lowland areas. Research proposals are developed for testing these selected varieties at different dry land locations in the country.PNG received a total of 14 sigatoka-resistant banana varieties and hybrids from the Department of Primary Industries (DPI), Queensland and the second batch of 16 materials from the INIBAP International Transit Centre (ITC). The materials from the first batch were tested under the irrigated condition at NARI Laloki where interesting results were obtained. All the FHIA hybrids showed high resistance to sigatoka disease and produced very heavy bunches. FHIA-25 produced the highest bunch weight of 38 kg while FHIA-17 and SH-3436 produced 20 and 21 kg, respectively. The most favoured variety in terms of taste was 'Pisang Ceylan' with 17 kg per bunch (refer to 'Banana hybrids/ varieties tested for sigatoka disease resistance under irrigated conditions of Laloki Papua New Guinea').Investigations were carried out on consumer's preference of these varieties as dessert bananas. The results showed that most consumers preferred variety 'Pisang Ceylan,' and hybrids FHIA-02, FHIA-17, FHIA-23 and SH-3436 (refer to 'Banana hybrids/varieties tested for Sigatoka disease resistance under irrigated conditions of Laloki Papua New Guinea'). Based on the results of this study, NARI took the opportunity during the official opening of its Headquarters last year to officially release these five varieties to the farmers for on-farm testing.The second batch of sigatoka-resistant materials that came from ITC is being multiplied at NARI Keravat for multi-location studies in 2005.NARI entomologists based at Keravat are currently carrying out studies on banana fruit flies and scab. Their work has showed that fruit flies and scab are serious pests of bananas and can cause economic yield reduction under large mono-cropping situations if control measures are not taken. At the moment the damage by these pests is not so significant because the production is still at the subsistence level.The commodity research institutes carry out research on PNG's revenue earning crops like cocoa, coconut and coffee. CCI is undertaking studies on cocoa and coconut intercropping with bananas and other food crops. Their whole purpose is to find out which food crop species would be suitable for growing with the tree cash crops. The banana intercropping with coconut and cocoa is currently carried out at Stewart Research Institute in Madang. While the banana intercropping with coffee is conducted by CRI at Aiyura, results from these studies were not available at the time of writing this report.Banana development and production will be discussed under the formal and the informal sector production. The formal sector production refers to the commercial production of bananas in the country and the informal sector production includes the subsistence-level production.There are four semi-commercial farmers who are growing dessertAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 bananas such as Cavendish, Williams and Gros Michel for the urban markets of Lae and Port Moresby. The Pacific Adventist University (PAU) farm just outside Port Moresby is producing around 30 t/ha of banana for the urban fresh fruit markets.The other three semi-commercial producers are based outside the city of Lae. The farms owned by Messrs Samana, Philemon and Jacobson are all-producing bananas on semi-commercial scale for the supermarkets in Lae. They grow both the dessert and the cooking varieties. Cavendish is the main variety grown by these farmers with a number of popular local diploids for cooking. There may be other semi-commercial banana growers in PNG that the author may not be aware of. The author believes that commercial production of banana in PNG is insignificant thus calls for the government support to develop the formal sector banana production.It is not clear how many tonnes of banana-subsistent farmers in the country produce. Banana is usually intercropped with other food crops in a mixed cropping manner making it very difficult to estimate production. Informal sector production is based mostly on cooking varieties. Farmers from different areas prefer their own indigenous varieties. The triploid ABB varieties are grown mostly in the drier parts of the country while the diploids are commonly grown in the wet lowland and island areas. The triploid AAB varieties are commonly cultivated in the highland areas of the country.In PNG, banana is consumed as fresh fruits or as staple food crop cooked in coconut cream, baked or steamed with hot stones in earth oven. The processed banana products sold and eaten in PNG are imported from other countries. There are interested groups making their own banana chips for own consumption, but the production is minimal at this stage. There is a need in the country to go into downstream processing of banana to produce products that have high value and long shelf-life. Capacity building in the area of downstream processing is required. The IMTP varieties received from QDPI that were tested in the study conducted at Laloki are now being maintained alongside the National Banana Germplasm Collection located at Laloki. Of the total of 14 varieties, five were released to the farmers based on their high bunch yields, resistance to sigatoka and good eating quality as fresh fruits. Planting materials of varieties FHIA-02, FHIA-17, FHIA-23, SH-3436 and Pisang Ceylan are currently being multiplied for distribution to farmers. The results from the study conducted under the irrigated condition of Laloki are presented in another paper (refer to 'Banana hybrids/varieties tested for sigatoka-disease resistance under irrigated conditions of Laloki Papua New Guinea').Few planting materials of the five sigatoka resistant varieties were given to selected subsistence-level farmers and three semi-commercial farms for on-farm testing. Once sufficient planting materials are multiplied, more farmers will be selected for collaboration in on-farm testing of these varieties.The other 16 IMTP materials from the ITC are held under tissue culture condition at NARI Keravat. These materials are currently being multiplied for G x E studies at multi-location sites next year. There are plans to test these materials against the common local varieties at four different agro-ecological zones in 2005.Since last year, NARI published a number of books and articles on banana research activities. The 'banana bit' technique was written up A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 as a NARI Toktok, a publication for the farmers and service providers. Two released documents were written on the 'banana bit' technique and the five sigatoka-resistant varieties. These released documents were given with the 'banana bit' planting materials to farmers and representatives of the service providers.The general information on PNG's rich genetic diversity of bananas was published in two national newspapers, the Post Courier and the National.Banana is one of the main staple food crops of PNG. There is a national interest in developing the crop. However, inadequate technical and scientific capacity has hindered progress in research and development of banana. NARI has been supportive on banana research by including banana activity in its research programme. There is no government policy on banana development in the country. PNG was importing all its dessert bananas from Australia in the last 10 years. Since 2000, the Government has introduced a policy on importation of certain fresh food items including dessert bananas that encouraged the small farmers and semi-commercial farmers to go into dessert banana production. However, no assistance was given by the government in terms of establishment of market infrastructure to encourage farmers to produce bananas for the domestic market. That is the main hindrance to farmers' lack of interest in producing the crop on large scale. There is also a need for a national policy and government support in developing the domestic banana industry in PNG.The possible areas of collaboration include the following: The country is blessed with favourable climate for growing quality bananas such that multinational investors established large commercial plantations in Mindanao, the southern part of the Philippines. For several decades, the Philippine 'Cavendish' banana, produced from these plantations, was popular in the world market. However, the area for commercial plantations (10%) is very negligible compared with the total area of smallholder subsistence farms. Moreover, the production systems being practised are entirely different in these two farms; hence, a big gap exists between these farms in terms of the productivity per unit area. In this regard, the government is putting much effort to improve the productivity of the smallholder farms, where most of the important local cultivars such as 'Saba', 'Lakatan', and 'Latundan' are being grown.The Strategic Action Plan for Banana, drafted by the Department of Agriculture (DA) through the National Agriculture and Fishery Council (NAFC) and Philippine Genetics, Inc. in 2002, covers the plan for 'Lakatan', 'Latundan', and 'Saba'/'Cardaba' grown by majority of smalland medium-scale growers in order to enhance the productivity and further develop the industry as a whole. This is in congruence with the Medium-term Development Plan of the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) that considers the Banana R&D Program for the particular benefit of smallholder farmers.Moreover, in the crafting of the Industry Strategic Plan for Banana this year, as initiated by the National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) in coordination with PCARRD, the same thrusts and programmes will be adhered to, and the plan will be expanded until 2020. Incidentally, the Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET) also shares similar thrusts of enhancing the productivity of smallholder banana growers in the region through information sharing among member-countries.From 1991 to 2004, the total investments for banana R&D in the country amounted to P76.23 million (US$1.386 million), coming from both local and foreign funding agencies (Table 1). These investments primarily aimed to develop technologies for the production of diseasefree planting materials, screen different cultivars against major pests and diseases, improve the management systems for major cultivars, develop/improve the products both for local and export markets, maintain germplasm in the field and in vitro, develop diagnostic kits for viral diseases, improve postproduction techniques, and develop action programmes for the rehabilitation of diseased farms.The various stakeholders of the banana industry gave priority to enhancing the production and quality of the major local cultivars 'Saba,' 'Lakatan', and 'Latundan' that are being grown by the subsistence or smallholder farmers. In line with this, the current R&D priority for banana is focused on enhancing the competitiveness of the Philippine banana sub-industry (fresh and processed) for the domestic and export markets by improving the productivity of the smallholder farmers under a community-based farming operation.The banana sub-industry includes: a) the quality production of 'Saba' and other improved cultivars for chips and other new products for the export market; and b) the improved production of 'Lakatan,' 'Latundan,' and other improved cultivars for the fresh local market. In addition, the postproduction, processing, and packaging for processed products will be given attention to provide added value to banana. Alongside these efforts will be the continuing activity of concerned agencies on maintaining germplasm and improving the cultivars.  The BPI-DNCRDC and IPB-UPLB are maintaining local and introduced Musa varieties as foundation stocks (Table 2). These accessions are intended for multiplication/evaluation in selected areas and distribution to interested farmers. The newly introduced varieties will be registered jointly by BPI-DNCRDC and IPB-UPLB at the Philippine Plant Variety Protection Office.The materials at IPB-UPLB are being maintained in vitro in rooting and multiplication media and regularly subcultured in fresh medium every 2 months. All varieties maintained in the rooting medium are planted in pots inside the screenhouse. These materials serve as foundation stocks and are indexed regularly.IPB-UPLB is also maintaining a field demonstration plot of the introduced and local varieties. This serves as a showcase of the different banana cultivars and is visited by farmers, researchers and students.The materials in the screenhouse at BPI-DNCRDC are in clay pots.The recommended management practices (fertilization, pesticide spraying, sanitation like deleafing or leaf pruning, weeding and watering) for these improved varieties are regularly done. Leaf samples were already analyzed for virus indexing and were all found to be negative for bract mosaic virus.  From the harvest data, FHIA-03 was the earliest to mature, followed by FHIA-18 and 'Lakatan.' The number of functional leaves at harvest was very high in FHIA-03 (10 leaves) compared with that of 'Lakatan' (1 leaf). As of April 2004, yield data on 'Cardaba' has not been gathered owing to the fruits' late maturity. It could be observed that the hybrids were far more superior to the local cultivars in terms of yield characteristics (bunch weight, finger weight, number of hands and number of fingers).Acceptability of the fruits harvested was evaluated in terms of their general appearance, firmness, peduncle strength, postharvest characteristics, resistance to pests and diseases, yield, taste and uses.It was found that FHIA-03, FHIA-21, and FHIA-23 showed good results in terms of yield and taste. It was also observed that FHIA-23 had a long shelf life and an excellent processing quality. However, it was noted that the harvested fruits from banana and plantain hybrids were used as animal feed because of their unfamiliar taste and appearance.In the future, sensory evaluation will be conducted to assess the acceptability of the produce, agroclimatic data will be gathered, and a second test site will be established.A total of 16 introduced cultivars, using tissue-cultured plantlets, were used as test plants for evaluation. Disease rating was done following the INIBAP Technical Guidelines. Agronomic and disease ratings were taken from planting to harvest.Disease and agronomic data showed that the introduced hybrids performed better than the control. Highest youngest leaf spotted (YLS) was observed with FHIA-18. All FHIAs had a higher YLS than the resistant check, 'Cardaba.' Disease development time record showed that the necrotic lesions developed longer in FHIA-01, among all the FHIAs. Lowest disease severity index at 6 months was obtained from FHIA-01, followed by FHIA-18.A total of 22 introduced cultivars, using tissue-cultured plantlets, were used as test plants for evaluation. Disease and agronomic data collection were collected based on protocols from IMTP Phase II guidelines. Disease monitoring was done weekly. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13Nine plants of the local cultivar 'Latundan' were infected with fusarium wilt disease. Fourteen months after planting, one plant of FHIA-17, FHIA-23, FHIA-18 and SH 3436-9 was also infected. Pseudostem discoloration was observed to have extended up to the petiole of the plants.The only hybrids that were able to reach fruit maturity were TMB x 1378, TMB x 1510-6 and SH-3540. Bunch weight obtained from the hybrids ranged from 7.7 to 7.9 kg. Only accession Yangambi km 5 did not reach the shooting stage.Nineteen introduced varieties, together with seven local varieties to serve as check, were established at the demonstration plot. Morphological characterization was conducted following the Banana Descriptors. Yield evaluation was measured in terms of bunch, hand and finger yield. Characterization and yield evaluation are still ongoing for some of the varieties. Table 3 shows the initial results of the morphological characterization of the introduced accessions. Sensory evaluation of improved and introduced landraces of banana was conducted in three barangays in Los Baños, Calamba City and Bay in the province of Laguna. A total of 131 untrained panelists participated in the sensory evaluation trial. Twenty-four bananas were used in the evaluation. Separate evaluations were done for ripe/uncooked bananas and plantains and for cooked plantains.Ten characters--finger shape, peel color, hand and finger size, pulp color, pulp size, pulp texture, taste, flavor, sweetness and overall acceptability--were used in evaluating ripe/uncooked bananas and plantains. Cooked plantain was evaluated using the peel color, pulp color, texture, taste, flavor, sweetness and overall acceptability.The different varieties were ranked for every location, which can be used as the basis for determining the varieties for distribution. The results showed that respondents from different locations had varied preferences which necessitated the multiplication of different sets for various sites. In general, the results revealed that 'Lakatan' was more preferred than other ripe/uncooked banana and plantain varieties across locations, while 'Saba' topped the other plantains when cooked.Three introduced cultivars (FHIA-21, TMB x 5295-1 and CRBP 39) were evaluated for their potential for processing as banana chips, powder and catsup. While variations in color of chips and powder were observed, all three varieties were rated acceptable for processing. The project aims to evaluate the introduced disease-resistant varieties as alternative or complimentary cultivars with the local cultivars. Also, the adoption of appropriate production systems for optimum yield and maximum fruit quality is being introduced to the cooperators. To A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 date, 77 500 tissue-cultured planting materials of the different introduced and local cultivars have been distributed to farmer cooperators in the test locations. About seven training programmes were conducted, benefiting 87 project staff, farmer cooperators and municipal agricultural officers in the various project sites. The training programmes included nursery and field management, diseases and pest management and production systems of tissue-cultured bananas that were already at their fruiting stage. Most of the cooperators grew the tissue-cultured bananas. In general, the cooperators were satisfied with the performance of their plants, which they usually compared with their previous plants grown from suckers. Very minimal incidence of BBTV was observed in the test locations. However, the grower acceptability of the produce, especially of the introduced varieties, will still be determined.The following are the highlights of accomplishment of the different project sites as of September 2004: LOA 2002/21 DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union/ Dr Felino Neri • This location was the first to conduct the field evaluation trials.The trials were done in three different agro-ecological conditions: lowland upland, semi-upland rainfed and coastal zones.• Based on the agronomic characteristics of the promising banana cultivars evaluated in the different locations in La Union, the earliest variety to shoot was FHIA-23 while the latest was 'Bungulan' (Table 4). It follows that 'Bungulan' matured the earliest, while FHIA-23 was the latest. FHIA-23 had the largest pseudostem girth while 'Bungulan' had the smallest. However, 'Bungulan' produced the highest number of suckers, while FHIA-03 had the least. The maturation period of the different cultivars was greatly affected by the varying agro-ecological zones. Most varieties matured late under a coastal/rainfed condition.• Table 5 shows the initial data on the yield and yield components of promising banana cultivars in different locations in La Union. The results revealed that FHIA varieties gave higher yield in Sudipen, La Union. FHIA-03 had the highest yield, followed by FHIA-21 and FHIA-23. Under coastal and upland conditions, FHIA-03 also produced the highest yield. The initial results showed that FHIA-03 gave the highest yield under favourable and unfavourable conditions. However, FHIA-21 and FHIA-23 seemed to have been affected by drought conditions. The number of days to shooting seemed to be longer in areas with sandy soil and drought conditions. Philippine banana R&D highlights 2004 • In terms of pest observations, FHIA varieties showed resistance to sigatoka diseases while the check varieties 'Lakatan' and 'Bungulan' were susceptible. Bunchy top virus (BTV) disease was minimally observed in the area. • Table 6 shows the organoleptic characteristics of promising banana cultivars. 'Lakatan' still showed the best evaluation. FHIA-03, FHIA-21 and 'Bungulan' were very good, while FHIA-23 was good.• The first set of planting done in June 2003 using FHIA-03, FHIA-21, FHIA-23, 'Lakatan,' and 'Bungulan' in four different ecological zones reached maturity stages and had several valuable results (Tables 7 and 8).• Statistical analysis will still be done to clearly show the differences among cultivars under different growing conditions. • However, based on the data presented, most cultivars performed well under lowland irrigated, and upland hilly conditions. FHIA-21 seemed to be the best yielder, followed by FHIA-23. • The processing potential of the introduced cultivars was evaluated.Based on their initial findings, FHIA-23 was found good for making catsup and FHIA-21 for making chips. • Another set of planting materials were already in the farmer's field.Data collection is still in progress.  • The farmer cooperators were selected in four agro-ecological zones: lowland rainfed, lowland irrigated, upland plain and upland hilly. • The crops are now in their fruiting stage. FHIA-18 was observed to be the earliest to mature. Data are still being consolidated. However, the project has indicated that the early harvested fruits of FHIA-18, in combination with 'Bungulan' fruits, showed promising acceptance for making banana cakes.• Data collection was still not completed. • The plants were still on their early vegetative stage.• Initially, no pest infestation was observed in most test sites, except in one area where leaf rolling insects were observed.• A total of 1750 meriplants of FHIA-18, FHIA-23, FHIA-25, 'Lakatan' and 'Latundan' were planted under upland hilly area conditions in Balayan, Batangas.• Initial data collected are summarized in Tables 9 and 10. The data were gathered on early-bearing trees (2-3 trees per variety). FHIA-23 generated shoots and bore fruits the earliest. FHIA-25 had no fruit-bearing plants during the initial data collection.• It was observed that 'Lakatan' was susceptible to BBTV and sigatoka while FHIA-23 was the most tolerant among the cultivars planted. and 'Lakatan' were distributed to the farmer-cooperators selected from different agro-ecological zones: upland hilly, upland plain, lowland rainfed and lowland irrigated.• Based on the initial observation, plants in the lowland areas were well-maintained and exhibited superior growth. However, in the upland areas, plants suffered from water stress and their growth was stunted.• In terms of pest and disease management, appropriate actions were undertaken to eliminate the attack of insect pests and diseases. Initially, only one introduced cultivar was found to be infected with BBTV in one of the test sites. Leaf spot and freckles were observed in most test sites but reaction of the different cultivars varied. Most introduced varieties were less infected with Sigatoka, while 'Lakatan' showed higher susceptibility.• Data collection will be completed by the first quarter of 2005.• About 5000 meriplants of FHIA-18, FHIA-23, FHIA-25, 'Lakatan' and 'Bungulan' were still being maintained in the station nursery.• About 6000 meriplants of FHIA-18, FHIA-23, FHIA-25, 'Lakatan' and 'Bungulan' were still being reared in the nursery.OP Damasco, TO Dizon, FC de la Cruz, R Rabara, JB Estrella compose the team of this IPB-UPLB/DOST-PCARRD-funded project.• A total of 6012 plants generated from gamma-irradiation treatments were screened for resistance to BBTV using artificial inoculation of the virus by aphid transmission. Indexing for BBTV was done using symptomatology and ELISA technique.• Of the 6012 plants screened in the greenhouse, 114 plants which were without symptoms of BBTV were selected after 9 months of evaluation. These plants were planted in the field to evaluate their agronomic characters and confirm their resistant reaction to BBTV.• To date, 64 putative BBTV resistant lines (M1 plants) have been selected from the field. These putative lines exhibited varying degrees of resistance reaction to BBTV. Twenty-six lines showed no BBTV symptom expression in both irradiated plants (M1) and first-generation sucker plants; 21 lines were without BBTV symptom expression in M1 plants but with limited BBTV symptoms such as narrowing and yellowing of leaves, in some first generation sucker plants; 16 lines showed delayed and limited symptom expression in both M1 and first generation sucker plants. All suckers from the putative resistant lines were collected, multiplied in vitro, and will be planted in the field for a second-cycle confirmation of BBTV resistance.• All the putative resistant plants produced fruits. The yield and horticultural characteristics of some of the putative lines were comparable with the non-irradiated micro-propagated plants.• Nine hundred plants from 30 putative resistant lines were planted in the field for second-generation field evaluation. The remaining 34 putative resistant lines are being established in the greenhouse (19 lines) or are in varying stages of micropropagation (15 lines). Duplicates of 64 putative resistant lines are being maintained in vitro.VM Aquino, OP Damasco, TO Dizon, and GR Canama of IPB-UPLB are conducting the project.• BBTV-CP DNA was amplified from BBTV isolates using the CPL and CPR primers. PCR amplification of total nucleic acid extracts generated a 589 bp product in young leaves of IPB samples. One gene construct (BBTV-CP-DNA) was developed by cloning the coat protein (cp) of BBTV into a transformation vector.• Compact and embryogenic calli were initiated from 355 immature male inflorescence explants of banana using MS medium with varying amounts of 2, 4-D (1-4 mg/L) with and without BAP (1-5 mg/L). Plantlet regeneration was observed on both compact and friable calli. Embryonic calli and somatic embryos were maintained by regular subculture and were used for transformation work.• Transformation of embryogenic calli with the BBTV cp gene, using the optimized bombardment parameters, was undertaken. Bombarded calli are now in the selection and regeneration medium.• The cp gene was introduced into somatic embryos and meristems of banana using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.CvSU, DMMMSU and QSC are the proponents of this UPLB/ DOST-PCARRD-funded project.This programme aims to improve the productivity and socioeconomic welfare of the smallholder banana growers of 'Saba', 'Lakatan' and 'Latundan' in selected banana-growing areas. The initial projects to be conducted starting November 2004 are as follows:• Project 1.1. Development of management strategies against major diseases of 'Saba', 'Lakatan' and 'Latundan'/ funded by CvSU, DMMMSU, and QSC/ DOST-PCARRD-INIBAP This project will develop integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for the three cultivars. Cropping system and cultivar diversity, in combination with proper sanitation/rouging, deleafing, use of disease-free planting materials, and chemical control, will be evaluated as a means of assessing disease occurrence and severity.• Project 2.1. Technology assessment of new banana technologies/ funded by TOPD-PCARRD/ DOST-PCARRD This project will employ the Technology Assessment Protocol in evaluating the appropriate technologies that will be further promoted in farmers' fields. The following are the technologies to be assessed: 1) disease-free planting materials for the smallholder growers; 2) new cultivars of banana; 3) banana cropping systems under coconut; 4) improved management system for 'Saba' Bugtok IPM and improved production system of 'Saba'; and 5) new processed 'Saba' products.• Project 3.2. Analysis and advocacy of policy options to enhance the development of the Philippines' smallholder banana sub-industry/ funded by SERD-PCARRD/DOST-PCARRD This project aims to come up with a set of policy options/ recommendations from the policy research/analysis. Incorporated within these policy options are the reforms and interventions that should be put in place as a result of the evaluation of the policies in terms of its letter of intent and of its implementation and effects on the development of the sub-industry. • Project 3.5. Analysis of the marketing efficiency and development of innovative marketing strategies for the smallholder banana growers/ funded by UPLB-CEM/DOST-PCARRD This project will make use of data gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of information will be the surveys and case studies of farmers, processors, and traders in selected banana-producing provinces (Regions 1, 2, and 4). Published and unpublished reports will be reviewed to provide an initial assessment of the banana production-marketingconsumption system. Existing strategies and modalities for marketing agricultural products will be analyzed. Among these strategies are marketing by producer groups (e.g. cooperatives, and informal and formal farmers' organizations) and shortening the marketing chain (e.g. partnerships among producer groups and business firms).Other activities • A Letter of Agreement (LOA) on Banana R&D Collaborative Project was signed on 15 March 2004 at PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna by presidents and representatives of collaborating SUCs (DMMMSU, QSC, CvSU, SLPC, MinSCAT, PAC, and ISPSC), heads of agencies (PCARRD and DA-BAR), regional coordinators and staff of INIBAP, director and staff (CRD-PCARRD), and the media core group.• A Banana Production Manual, prepared by PCARRD was released.• The HORTINET Website under the PCARRD Information System.HORTINET contains information about various horticultural commodities, including banana was updated. Banana is the most important fruit crop in Sri Lanka in terms of hectarage, production and consumption. The area of banana cultivated in 2003 showed a slight increase over the year 2002. The increase is mainly due to the newly established commercial scale production units in the country. However, the production did not show a similar trend (Table 1). According to policy guidelines outlined by the government of Sri Lanka, agriculture research will be more focused to address the issues of productivity, crop yield and quality, superior varieties, economic efficiency of agronomic practices, sustainability of agriculture, management of markets and external issues. Both local development and introduction of superior varieties subjected to plant protection regulations is envisaged. The operational diagnostic indexing of imported planting material will be further strengthened. Provision of improved varieties and high-quality planting materials in sufficient quantities and at competitive prices is a necessary requirement to raise the crop productivity and income of the farmer. The capacity of government farms for producing planting materials will be strengthened to create competitiveness with the private sector which has a major share in the production of planting material. A major goal of the present agricultural plan is to raise the farming capability of the peasant farmers through the mobilization of farmers through the formation of farmer societies (FS) and empowerment of them with technical knowledge, marketing capabilities, investment capacity and bargaining power. The The research programme of DOA is based on six thematic areas; 1. Production of disease-free planting material 2. Characterization, evaluation of banana germplasm and development of varieties 3. Management of banana pests and diseases through environmentally compatible methods 4. Productivity improvement through better agronomic and irrigation methods 5. Soil nutrient management for different banana growing areas 6. Causal factors and management of internal browning of banana.The various projects/programmes undertaken in each thematic area are presented in Table 2.Several varieties obtained from IMTP since 1999 after the commencement of the programme were evaluated at Regional Research Station, Angunakolapellessa. The promising two varieties FHIA-17 and FHIA-23 were subjected to multilocational testing at Angunakolapellessa (Dry Zone), Girnadurukotte (Intermediate Zone) and Weerapana (Wet Zone). FHIA-17 and FHIA-23 showed promising results of higher bunch weight and good adaptability (Table 3 and  Table 4). The two varieties did not show any leaf disorders. However, there was high incidence of stem weevil at Angunakolapellessa. Banana in Sri Lanka: Status and Prospects finger weight. Results further revealed that it is necessary to maintain the nitrogen content of the third youngest leaf (lamina 3) greater than 3.0% at the late vegetative stage to obtain good yield (Weerasinghe et al. 2004).Among the cultural measures to increase the quality of banana dehanding or bunch trimming resulted in more uniform fruits having higher fruit length, girth and weight in 'Ambul' (Mysore), 'Kolikuttu' (Silk) and Ash Plantain (Weerasinghe and Ruwanpathirane 2004).Anthracnose caused by Collectotrichum musae and crown rot caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Collectotrichum musae, Fusarium species and Verticillium theobrome are important postharvest diseases of banana which affect the quality of banana available for export and local market (Anthony et al. 2004). To prevent crown rot and anthracnose bananas are universally treated with systemic fungicide such as benomyl, a possible human carcinogen and teratogen. Studies have shown essential oil of Cymbopoyon nordus, Cymbopoyon flexuosus and Ocimum basilicum to possess significant microbial properties. Fumigant bioassay developed by Abeywicrama et al. (2003) is a valuable tool to identify the efficacy of plant oils, before in vitro testing is conducted. In subsequent studies, spraying of essential oils of Ocimum basilicum (0.16% v/v) prior to cool storage was found to be a safe, cost-effective method with commercial potential for controlling postharvest diseases and extending storage life.The private sector plays a dominant role in the marketing of banana. Wholesale marketing centres of banana are located in different parts of the country. At these centres, collectors/farmers sell their products to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers. There is a certain amount of grading in these centres, however there are high postharvest losses due to bad handling and transport.There are five varieties of banana in the market namely, 'Ambul' (Mysore), Ambun (Cavendish), 'Kolikuttu' (Silk), 'Seeni' and 'Anamalu.' 'Embul' and 'Seeni' are cheaper than others (Table 5). In Thailand, apart from fresh consumption and processed product uses, the other parts of banana are also utilized in many Thai cultural and traditional activities. The total banana cultivation is 10 M ha, and this is comprised of smallholdings. Approximately 50 different varieties are being planted but only three are cited as economic fruits for their distinctive features and taste. These are 'Kluai Namwa' (ABB), 'Kluai Hom' (AAA) and 'Kluai Khai' (AA). In 2004, the estimated cultivated areas for these varieties is 161 573 ha.The The results are as follows:-Number of days from planting to flowering ranged from 175 to 240 days. 'Williams' was the earliest accession to flower at 175 days after planting while FHIA-17 took the longest at 240 days (Table 1).-Number of days from flowering to harvest ranged from 91 to 124 days. 'P. Jari Buaya' was the earliest accession to be harvested at 91 days while it took 124 days for 'Williams' to flower (Table 1).-Plant height after planting to harvest ranged from 1.60 to 3.08 m. 'AAcv Rose' was the shortest at 1.67. TMBx5295 had the highest plant height at 3.08 m (Table 1).   3).Sigatoka severity scoring at harvest ranged from 1 to 3. FHIA-02 and CRBP 39 had the lowest score of 1 (<1% of lamina with symptoms). 'Williams' had the highest severity score of 5 (34 to 50% of lamina with symptoms) (Table 3). Data collection is still ongoing for the 12 other accessions. After completion, two accessions will be selected and will be compared and evaluated with local varieties in the farmers' fields.*Head, Agro-biotechnology Department, VASI, Hanoi, Vietnam.Ho Huu Nhi*Vietnam stretches from 8 0 10'NL -25 0 4NL in the Asia and the Pacific region, a region considered as the centre of origin of genus Musa (Gowen 1995) and therefore a rich source of diversity of banana.Banana has been grown for thousands of years in Vietnam. It is now one of the most important fruits growing in the country. Vietnam belongs to the 15 largest banana-producing countries of the world, with an annual production of 1 242 539 t. Its total cultivated area is estimated at 99 340 ha, next to longan (126 265 ha), litchi and rambutan (109 538 ha).Vietnam is divided into six agro-ecological regions out of which Mekong Delta, Red River Delta and the Southeast regions are the major banana producing areas (Figure 1). The banana cultivation is based on small-scale garden, usually surrounding the household, and on hillside. The common size of banana gardens ranges from 0.2-1.0 ha. Bananas are intercropped with other crops like maize, soybean, sweet potatoes or fruit trees. Compared with sole banana gardens, the productivity is lower in mixed banana gardens. The average yield is about 10-15 t/ha, depending on the region and the farmer's cultivation level.'Chuoi Tieu' (AAA/Gia). This Cavendish group consists of the most popular banana cultivars in Vietnam, which can be divided according to three different plant height; tall (2.8-3.5 m), medium (2.0-2.5 m) and dwarf (1.5-2.0 m). They are grown alongside rivers and highly humid areas. They give high yields of 20-25 kg/bunch, with 8-14 hands/ bunch. Its fruit size is 2.8-3.5 cm. Ripened fruits are sweet and aromatic and have yellow skin and flesh. In the North, during the winter, the ripened fruits have a better quality compared with those grown in the South. Its growth duration is 14-15 months. 'Chuoi Tieu' is used for export and local market.'Chuoi Tay' (ABB, Xiem) is planted throughout the country, from the delta to hilly regions. Its pseudostem is 3-4 m long. It gives high yield with 18-20 kg/bunch, 8-12 hands/bunch. The fruit size is 9-11 cm long and 3.0-3.5 in diameter. The ripe fruits have dark yellow skin and yellow, sweet and aromatic flesh. Sometimes, there are few seeds in the fruits. 'Chuoi Tay' is tolerant to drought and poor soil. 'Chuoi Tay' is used only for domestic consumption. They also can be eaten as fresh or processed as candies, cake, boil, etc.'Chuoi Ngu' (AA, Cau) is one of the most preferred varieties because of its special characteristics. Pseudostem is 2.2-2.6 m long. Normally, its yields are 8-10 kg/bunch with 6-8 hands/bunch. The fruit size is 7-10 cm long and 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Ripened fruits have attractive bright yellow and pink, color and a sweet and aromatic flesh. The growth duration is 12 months.'Chuoi Ngu Tien' (AA). In the olden days, this variety was used as precious donations to the kings which is why the variety was given the name Tien (donation-Dai Hoang). The fruit's characteristics and growth duration are similar to those of 'Chuoi Ngu' but its fruits have a very attractive form and color and the flesh has better quality. Pseudostem is 1.5-2 m in height. These cultivars are grown nowadays in Nam Ha province.'Chuoi Bom' (AAB) has a high tolerance to drought and is grown popularly in the central highlands. It has a short growth duration (10-12 months) and high multiplication rate (8-10 suckers/plant). Its yield is 6-10 kg/bunch with 6-8 hand/bunch. Fruit size is 10-15 cm and 2-2.5 cm in diameter. Ripened fruits have bright yellow thin skin and yellow pink flesh, and are suitable for processing to make dried banana.These popular banana cultivars are shown in Figure 2 (Nhi 1997). There are some other cultivars such as Chuoi Com (AA), Chuoi Bot (AAB), Chuoi La (ABB), Chuoi Mat (AB), scattered over the different areas.These can be used as feed, cake draping etc. The national banana network consists of many research institutions, laboratory and agricultural cooperative conducting different activities in their area of expertise.• Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI), the National Repository, Multiplication and Distribution Centre, is incharge of conservation of in-vitro collection, its propagation and distribution for evaluation, testing and field trials. • Southern Fruit Research Institute (SOFRI) conducts activities such as maintenance of a field collection, disease indexing, production of disease-free planting materials, field trials and postharvest technology.• Fruit and Vegetable Institute (Gia Lam) established a procedure of banana micro-propagation, provides in-vitro plantlets to farmers, and implements trial for fusarium evaluation.• Phu Ho Fruit Research Center maintains the national banana field collection.• Institute of Biotechnology (IBT) applies molecular technique (RAPD, PCR etc.) in studying banana biodiversity and virus indexing. At the same time, they coordinate many banana research projects funded by different donors. Table 1 shows the various research projects in [2003][2004] and their corresponding donors. Musa balbisiana with hard seed Chuoi Hot Qua Lep Musa balbisiana with soft seed 3. Edible cultivated banana with following genome: AA (10), AAA (18), AAB (9), AB (10), ABB (13), BBB (3).To safeguard the banana germplasm of the country, duplicate field collection with 60 accessions was established in south Vietnam, at SOFRI (Phap and Chau 1995) (Table 2).To further ensure the conservation of Vietnam's indigenous Musa genetic resource, a duplicate in-vitro collection was also established at VASI with 80 accessions (Nhi 2004). From 2001 to 2003, VASI has received from ITC a total of 34 banana accessions. Among them, 5 accessions were lost and 29 were maintained in vitro under temperatures of 15-18 0 C and light intensity of 1200 lux with photoperiod of 14 h/day. Every 3 months, the in vitro accessions are sub-cultured. The procedure for maintenance, multiplication and distribution is shown in Table 3.A quick disease-indexing method has been developed at SOFRI and VASI to help farmers easily select a healthy planting material.In the south, a quick technique of disease detection had been tested and transferred to the growers so that farmers can select good, healthy motherplants or suckers. This is through the changing color of stained banana sucker slices (Figure 4). The use of tissue culture in banana production has been recommended and carried out by many research institutes all over the country such as VASI, SOFRI and the Agriculture Genetic Institute of Tropical Biology since more than a decade ago. In 2002, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development issued the 10 TTC 530-2002 protocol or the standard of banana TC seedling on Cavendish CV, middle Cavendish.The micro-propagation system for producing clean banana planting materials consists of major steps: selecting plants, in vitro propagation, virus indexing, establishment of nursery and transplanting in the field (Figure 5). The banana micro-propagation system consists of many stages and this system is established as a service to the laboratory and research stations of different provinces and growers. The procedure of transferred technology is thus differentiated in three levels depending on the infrastructure facilities and knowledge capability. In the case of tissue culture, the province's laboratory extension activities include organizing training courses for techno-transfer in tissue culture and field planting techniques.In some farm stations where there is only one greenhouse or nursery, trainings on hardening rooted plantlets, establishing plantlets in the nursery and field transplanting are conducted.Farmers are provided the planting materials in pots and are required to properly manage the plantlets in the field.In the last 5 years (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004), a total of 200 000-900 000 plantlets were provided for field planting and other activities. The major cultivars propagated are 'Tieu Nho' (Giant Cavendish), 'Tieu Lun' (Dwarf Cavendish) and 'Chuoi Tay' (Kluai Namwa). Table 8 shows the number of plantlets produced. Most farmers in the northern provinces, Hanoi, Hatay, Haiduong, Hungyen, use in-vitro plantlets. In-vitro plantlets have vigorous root system and good growth potential so the cycle time is shorter. Fields planted with tissue-culture bananas look healthy, with a uniform in growth and overall yield is 15-20% higher than that of suckers (Figure 6). However, tissue-cultured plantlets showed some somaclonal variation and cost higher than suckers. The variations found are variegation, upright leaves and bunch structure (Table 9). • Banana cultivars are infected by many important pests and diseases: fusarium wilt, black sigatoka and BBTV.• The farmers normally adopt inferior cultivation technologies and conduct improper management • Lack of market places, hence there are difficulties in selling processed and fresh bananas.• Evaluation and selection of excellent new varieties from the local and introduced genetic materials.• Effective use of disease-diagnostic methods in propagation system for producing healthy planting materials.  Mary Taylor*Bananas rank as one of the most widely grown and consumed crops in the Pacific. There is also a significant genetic diversity in the banana genepool in the Pacific, with Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu having the greatest diversity. Most indigenous Pacific bananas are Eumusa section hybrids, some of which are plantains, while others have a thinner, sweeter fruit, which can be eaten raw. Separate from the Eumusa complex are the Fe'i bananas of the Australimusa Section. The Fe'i banana was introduced to the Marquesas and may be a New Guinean or New Caledonian domesticate. The Fe'i bananas are characterized by their erect bunches and purple sap and also have a very orange or yellow/orange-colored edible flesh. For instance, the 'Karat' variety of the Fe'i bananas found in Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia has short, plump fruits with orange-yellow flesh.There are different types of 'Karat' banana with different sizes and shapes but all high in beta-carotene, the provitamin A carotenoid which is converted into vitamin A in the body. 'Karat' bananas have been traditionally used as a weaning food in Pohnpei and other parts of Micronesia.FAO production data in 2003 state production figures of 80 800 tonnes on 10 100 hectares, suggesting an average production of 8 tonnes per hectare for the Pacific, excluding Papua New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea, 725 000 tonnes were produced on 52 000 hectares, suggesting an average production of 14 tonnes per hectare.Despite their nutritional importance, bananas are not a priority crop for national agricultural research and extension programmes in most Pacific Island countries, largely because they are not considered an important cash crop. Consequently, government and donor funding for banana research and development is limited.The SPC Regional Germplasm Centre (RGC) distributes accessions of bananas, taro and sweet potatoes to the 22 SPC member-countries A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 and territories. INIBAP has provided FHIA lines and modest funding for the multiplication and distribution of new banana lines in the region (Table 1). FHIA-01, FHIA-02, FHIA-03, FHIA-17, FHIA-18, FHIA-23, and FHIA-25 have been distributed to American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Wallis and Futuna. In 2004, 520 tubes of FHIA bananas have been distributed, containing plantlets and proliferating tissues. In most countries, these have been planted out rather than further multiplied in tissue culture. Evaluation forms have been sent to all countries receiving FHIA lines, and this information will be compiled in a publication.The SPC is also promoting the Fe'i banana and supporting the work in Pohnpei of the Department of Agriculture and the Island Food Community of Pohnpei, a NGO recently established in Pohnpei. Work carried out by Dr Englberger in Pohnpei has shown that the levels of several key nutrients in the Fe'i banana can significantly contribute to human health. In Micronesia, for example, about half the total energy requirements and more than the required Daily Intake (RDI) of vitamin C are provided by consumption of the local cultivars. Iron levels are between 30-50% of RDI, and reach ca 100% for consumption of cultivars with the highest iron contents reported. Zinc levels are only reported for a few cultivars; these levels correspond to ca 20% of daily requirements. Beta-carotene (provitamin A) contents vary, but for some cultivars levels are sufficient to provide more than the RDI of vitamin A. The natural variation in nutrient levels in bananas is higher than previously suspected, as illustrated by the work of Englberger et al (2003). In a study of banana species indigenous to Pacific islands, levels of beta-carotene, more than twenty times that is found in standard cultivars, were obtained. At Micronesian consumption levels of bananas, the amounts of beta-carotene found correspond to several times the daily requirement.In support of the work done in Pohnpei, SPC is responding to the concern of nutritionists in the region about Pacific Islanders' decreasing intake of local foods, and their increasing reliance on less healthy imported foods. Rice, sugar and wheat flour, as well as fatty meats and refined foods, are rapidly replacing traditional Pacific staples such as taro (Colocasia), giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma), yam, banana, breadfruit, pandanus, coconut and seafood in Pacific diets. This change in lifestyle has led to health problems on an epidemic scale, including diabetes, heart disease, vitamin A deficiency and some cancers.Although the impact Musa is having on health is very much confined to Pohnpei, there is a significant interest elsewhere in the Pacific to access the Fe'i bananas from Pohnpei and to evaluate collections in other countries for their carotenoid value. This important genus could contribute more to improving the health of Pacific Islanders. As a result of this Pacific-wide interest and need, SPC is working with the relevant stakeholders in Pohnpei on the Fe'i banana. The objectives of the project are:(1) To further distribute the Fe'i bananas in Pohnpei and carry out a survey to determine their impact and acceptance.(2) To establish tissue cultures of Fe'i bananas in SPC RGC, Suva, Fiji.(3) To develop and distribute documentation promoting Fe'i bananas to the wider Pacific.The eventual aim is to establish a regional collection of these carotenoidrich bananas in the RGC. This would be achieved by collecting widely from the Pacific region, and from this total collection, establishing a core collection, which would be conserved in the SPC RGC and be available for distribution and evaluation, after virus indexing.To date, the SPC RGC has supported the publication of \"Pohnpei Bananas: A Photo was made available at the recent Ministers of Agriculture and Forestry and Heads of Agriculture and Forestry (HOAFS) held in Suva, Fiji, in September. The President of Fiji opened the meeting and on looking at the booklet, requested his own personal copy.Bananas are considered the most valued local crop along with taro, and until recently the American Samoa School Land Program, funded by the US Federal Government, paid a realistic cost for locally grown banana and taro. This source of funding stopped in January of this year, the reason given was that school children were no longer interested in eating these more traditional foods.There is no research and development as such, but there have been several workshops aimed at improving banana production in the country. The workshops have focused on forced ripening, black leaf streak disease, plant-parasitic nematodes and organic farming. Publication on banana nematodes and black leaf streak disease are available online (http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/adap2/ascc_landgrant/ technical_papers.htm). America Samoa has received the FHIA lines and evaluation is in progress.Before the 1980s, bananas were an important export commodity for the Cook Islands -fresh fruits were shipped fortnightly to New Zealand.The industry was supported with subsidies by the government. However, in the late eighties export ceased as it was no longer viable. Constraints due to irregular shipping, low yields, high input costs, lack of credit and stringent competition from other countries affected the industry. Currently about 20 acres are under banana cultivation, with the majority being the Cavendish type. About 50% are grown for home consumption, with the remaining 50% being sold on the local market.There is a potential market for sun-dried bananas, as current demand necessitates importing dried bananas from overseas.There is no significant research and development in bananas in the Cook Islands except for the evaluation of introduced banana varieties, such as the FHIA lines. These are currently being evaluated on-station, but will soon be distributed to selected islands, and interested farmers.Fiji has received some of the FHIA lines (FHIA-03, FHIA-17, FHIA-23 and FHIA-25) and is currently evaluating them at the main research station. SPC RGC has recently provided more plants to the tissue culture laboratory at the research station for multiplication as there are plans to do field trials for these lines in other parts of the country.FHIA lines, Yangambi and SH-3640 were distributed to Kiribati in 2003.They have already been planted in the nursery and some plants have been given to interested farmers on South Tarawa.Marshall Islands received in-vitro plantlets of FHIA-01, FHIA-02, FHIA-03, FHIA-17, FHIA-18, FHIA-23, FHIA-25, Saba and SH-3640. Some of these were maintained in tissue culture, but losses occurred due to power outage and an associated rise in temperature. The plants that were eventually transferred to the nursery established well in soil, and some of the FHIA lines, namely FHIA-01, FHIA-17 and FHIA-23 are in the fruiting stage. Some plantlets of SH-3640 are in the nursery and are ready to transfer to the soil. Field trials are continuing, and data on plant growth, sucker production and quality performance are being recorded.Marshall Islands is implementing a project, funded through FAO-TCP, aimed at improving food security and inter-island exchange/trade, through providing assistance to small-scale farmers. The project is providing disease-free planting material and banana agronomy training -new cultivars will be evaluated for their suitability to the Marshall Islands atoll environment. In vitro propagation is being used to produce the planting material for this project. The local cultivar, 'Jilubuki' (Mysore type), and other introduced cultivars, such as the FHIA lines will be propagated. The project hopes to facilitate income generation for the outer atolls through sales of bananas to the commercial centres of Majuro and Ebeye (Kwajalein).A farmer training workshop on banana improvement was held in September 2003, jointly organized by the Ministry of Research and Development, FAO and Land Grant. This workshop is part of the FAOfunded food security project, and focused on training farmers in the sustainable management of atoll banana production by the adoption of the narrow-pit system of planting bananas.Following the BBTV eradication programme which commenced in 2000, the area under banana cultivation has decreased drastically. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13Furthermore, New Caledonia was hit by cyclone \"Erica\" in March 2003, which further decreased production. For 2003 only 320 tonnes of banana (60% dessert and 40% cooking bananas) were officially recorded (compared to 1250 tonnes produced in 2000). The main constraints to banana disease continue to be pests and diseases which include BBTV, Cosmopolites sordidus, and black leaf streak (BLS) disease. The BLS disease is prevalent throughout New Caledonia, hence the interest in the FHIA bananas. Currently chemical treatments are used to deal with BLS. FHIA lines (17, 18, 23 and 25) have been received from the SPC RGC and are under evaluation. More data would be available but the plants were all damaged by cyclone \"Erica\". Compared with local varieties, these FHIA lines appear to be very susceptible to stress.The banana collection has 80 different varieties, of which 30 are belonging to the Maia maoli and Popoulou sub-groups. They are specific to the country and are of significant cultural and socio-economic value. These varieties are under threat because of BBTV, and therefore are being established in vitro for conservation at CIRAD in Montpellier, France. The morphological characterization of the collection is in progress. MGIS training has been received, but the availability of resources is hindering progress in this area.There is a need to produce a significant volume of planting material of cooking bananas belonging to the Maia maoli and Popoulou subgroups to replace all the plants destroyed by BBTV. However, there is concern that if they are multiplied in vitro, BSV will be activated. New Caledonia is evaluating a rapid multiplication technique established in Cameroun (CARBAP).Banana is one of the most important crops in Pohnpei and throughout FSM. The College of Micronesia -FSM Cooperative Research and Extension Land Grant Programme extension unit -Cooperative Extension Service (CES) has a programme on bananas, which includes training in the villages on cultural practices and management from the preparation of planting materials through to harvesting. Sustainable banana production is being emphasized in both home gardens and the agroforestry system of planting. Pohnpei has received all of the seven FHIA lines from the SPC RGC, and they have been planted at two sites. FHIA-01 and FHIA-03 have consistently showed black leaf spot resistance at both sites. The performance of the other lines appears to be more dependent on conditions, with FHIA-17, FHIA-18 and FHIA-23 showing preference for the drier conditions. Collection of data has been hindered by the cyclones in 2002 and 2003, but it is expected that data collection will be completed in December 2004.The Department of Agriculture in Pohnpei has been very active in promoting local bananas. Health research relating to banana has been conducted by nutritionist Dr Lois Englberger in Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Chuuk, three of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia, and it is largely the result of Dr Englberger's work that has stimulated the interest in the Fe'i bananas in the Pacific. Local bananas were found to be very high in carotenoid levels. 'Karat' was found to contain over 25 times the beta-carotene content of Cavendish, and 'Utin Iap' contained 250 times the beta-carotene content of Cavendish. In addition, 'Karat' has a relatively high content of calcium, and has been found to have resistance to fungal diseases, including BLS.A germplasm collection has been established with 32 local varieties and 8 introduced varieties. To promote the local bananas, a booklet, poster and calendar have been produced, and at World Food Day, there were competitions for the \"best\" carotenoid rich variety and also for recipe development. As a result of the awareness raising carried out by the Department of Agriculture and the Island Food Community of Pohnpei, there has been a significant increase in the number of local market vendors and also in the volume of locally marketed bananas. Dr Englberger presented a paper on her work at the recent international banana meeting and this has raised interest in Pohnpei's bananas globally. Requests for germplasm have been received from as far as South Africa.A collection of 81 bananas has been established in Makira, on the island of Maleita -the result of a partnership between the Solomon Islands Planting Material Network (PMN) and the Manivovo Rural Training Centre. One of the network members attended the MGIS training in Malaysia, and is using a simplified version of the descriptors to characterize the collection. Another member of the network has a smaller collection in the highlands and is planning to use the same descriptors for this collection. The Manivovo collection and the work being done by PMN have inspired members of NGOs from Vanuatu (Farm Support Association) and Bougainville to start their own collections.There is also interest from the Department of Health in the Solomon Islands to look at the nutritional value of the bananas in the collection, in particular, the carotenoid levels. The questionnaire for information on Musa processing was distributed to several of SPC-member countries. Most countries felt that the questionnaire was not really relevant to their situation, although there is significant interest in banana processing. Questionnaires were returned from Cook Islands and Pohnpei. In the Cook Islands, processing is limited to chips, dried bananas using Cavendish and Lady Finger -with both products regular availability was an issue. The processing \"business\" is small-scale -there are no private companies specializing in production, or universities/research centres with food science programmes. However, because of the importance of tourism in the Cook Islands, banana products are desirable and currently the government imports products (such as dried bananas) to satisfy the demand. A FAO-TCP project is currently underway to promote the production and processing of local food crops. The project will run for two years, and women from all of the islands will be trained in production and processing by consultants from Thailand.In Pohnpei, various locally-made products are available, but again, the frequency of availability is limited. These products include chips, traditional baked pudding, and more recently ice-cream. In October of this year, the Island Food Community of Pohnpei invited a food processing consultant for a workshop, focusing on small-scale food processing. Over 100 participants were involved. There was a great deal of interest from the community for new banana-based products, such as chips, banana jam, banana chutney and other products.The SPC RGC will continue to multiply and distribute improved banana lines to the Pacific countries. At present, this includes mostly FHIA lines, but this can be extended to include other lines, should they be relevant for the Pacific.• SPC will work with member-countries and determine their needs for Musa germplasm. • SPC is implementing a survey so that the evaluation information on the FHIA lines, which have been distributed can be compiled and made available throughout the region.The SPC RGC and the Plant Genetic Resources Network (PAPGREN) will continue to work with the Department of Agriculture in Pohnpei and the Island Food Community of Pohnpei in promoting the nutritional benefits of local cultivars of banana, in particular, the Fe'i banana. Funds have been transferred to Pohnpei to facilitate the distribution of suckers of selected cultivars to farmers and the first transfer of Fe'i bananas to the RGC is planned for early 2005. Where possible, support will be provided to other countries where there is interest in local cultivars, and where there is a need to identify and promote those cultivars of nutritional value. The fusarium wilt incidence on 'Formosana' orchards averaged 6.5% (ranging from 0 to 30%), which is significantly lower than 30.2% (ranging from 5 to 80%) of 'Giant Cavendish,' the wilt-susceptible cultivar. The higher rate of disease incidence on some farms was usually associated with poor drainage, sandy and acidic soil or inappropriate application of fertilizer and herbicide.Four VCG groups, VCG 0120, VCG 0121, VCG 0123, and VCG 01213-01216, have been reported previously in Foc population in Taiwan. Since 2003, all the isolates of Foc collected from different regions in Taiwan, analyzed by pathologist of QDPI, Australia, were identified to be VCG 01213-01216, suggesting the possible change of Foc population in Taiwan.The harvested bananas of 'Formosana' and 'Giant Cavendish' were separately packed (12 kg/carton) for export to Japan since February 2003. From February to July 2003, a total of 2.64 M cartons were shipped to Japan, of which 40% were 'Formosana' bananas, an increase of 34% (1.97 M cartons) over the amount of banana exported in 2002. Suffering from severe typhoon damage in the autumn of 2003, the amount of Taiwan banana exported to Japan during the same period 2004 was reduced to 1.51 M cartons, of which 35% was 'Formosana' bananas.The overall opinion of Japanese importers and ripening processors about 'Formosana' from 2003 to 2004 are as follows:-The aroma of 'Formosana' banana does not reach the standard of 'Giant Cavendish' banana. -After ripening, the deep yellowing in the peel of 'Formosana' banana is more appealing to consumers than that of 'Giant Cavendish'. -Above all, the loss of 'Formosana' banana per carton upon arrival in Japan is lower than 5%, which is much less than 13-15% of 'Giant Cavendish'. -More bananas are now sold in supermarkets in Japan. Since the younger generation is the major banana consumer and is basically in favor of fruits with good appearance and fair price, 'Formosana' banana is believed to have greater potential.Extremely high production cost, severe damage to the fruit skin and uneven fruit quality are the major production constraints for Taiwan banana under the small-producer farming system. These problems render Taiwan banana less competitive in the export market. The key to solving these problems is to increase production unit by introducing a mechanized, corporate faming system.In 2003, a total of 236 ha of corporate farms were established, each farm ranging from 10-40 ha. Each corporate farm was either managed by a single banana grower or invested by a group of farmers. In 2004, the total area of corporate farm expanded to 337 ha, averaging 9-36 ha per corporate farm.The machineries used for cultivation in the 20 ha experimental TBRI farm from 2003 to 2004 include bagging machine, bunch transportation tractor and an automatic packing house, which were all introduced from Australia. The tractor equipped with locallydesigned mist sprayers is used for controlling foliar disease or weeds, and the one with the cone-shape duster is also used for fertilizer application. To facilitate the operation on corporate farm, the narrow (1.8 m in width) and wide (4.7 m in width) row with triangular planting system is adopted.Mist sprayer. By using the tractor equipped with either air-blast style mist sprayer or the 4-wheel drive mist sprayer to control foliar diseases or by using a downward comb shape herbicide sprayer attached to the tractor to control weeds, the time needed to complete one cycle of spray was about 20 hours, which was 2 times faster than that required by the traditional manual operation.Fertilizer duster. The time needed for fertilizer application by the fertilizer-dusting machine over the 20 ha corporate farm was 21 hours, which was 5.3 times faster than that done by manual operation.Bagging machine. One bagging machine could handle 150 bunches per worker in 7 hours including removal of bell and flower, thinning of fruit hands, and bagging, which increased 7% of bunch bagging than that done by manual operation.bunch transportation tractor could be sent from field to the packingAdvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 12 station in one shuttle, which was 4 times more in terms of loading capacity compared to that operated by a farmer's vehicle.A capacity of 1200-1500 cartons could be assembled for export by the new automatic assembly shed, an increase of 25% over that handled by the traditional way.Because the application of fertilizer and pesticide in the corporate farms was done more efficiently by the newly mechanized devices, banana plants generally grew well. More than 80% of harvested bunch during the export season had better fruit quality and improved homogeneity. A net profit of US$5003-8235 (NT$170 085-280 000) per hectare was obtained on a corporate banana farm.The Temporary Immersion System (TIS) can effectively shorten the production cycle of tissue culture plantlets. In semi-solid system, each culture flask contains three explants in 45 ml culture medium while the TIS culture vessel holds 25-30 explants needing only 250 ml of liquid medium is sufficient. TIS can save about 35% of the amount of culture medium used for the commercial production of plantlets and at the same time cut down the cost of agar. The space of incubation room and labor cost can also be reduced. The initial setting up of TIS system is costly. The training of technicians both in handling the plant materials and medium preparation is also important. And, the working environment needs to be under strict control in order to minimize contamination.In January 2004, TBRI received a total of 19 accessions of Musa germplasm from INIBAP ITC. They consist of 13 tetraploids (FHIA-01, FHIA-02, FHIA-03, FHIA-17, FHIA-18, FHIA-21, FHIA-23, FHIA-25, SH-3436-9, SH-3640, CRBP, TMBx1378, TMBx5295-1), 5 triploids (Williams, Cachaco, Gros Michel, Yangambi Km 5 and Pisang Ceylan) and one diploid (Pisang Jari Buaya). Each accession has 12 tubes, 1-2 plantlets per tube, and is now maintained in the growth room under minimal growth condition, i.e. at a temperature of 16±1 0 C and low light intensity of about 1000 lux. All duplicates of 19 accessions kept in the test tubes showed normal growth. In mid-October, three plantlets of each accession were transplanted separately into pots in the repository net house and will be inspected later by personnel from BAPHIQ (Bureau of Animal and Plant Health Inspection and Quarantine) before releasing for field trial.Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) has been a serious problem in some localities in south China bananaproducing regions since 1996 (Qi 2001). Race 1 of the fusarium wilt was reported earlier (Zeng et al. 1996), whereas race 4 (VCG 01213, 01216) was identified only recently. They are fast spreading and very difficult to control.Although the plant age, weather, general conditions of root system, the physical state of soils, drainage, the nutrient status of the soil, and the amount of inoculum greatly impact the occurrence and course of the wilt disease, the clone grown is recognized the most important factor to decisively influence the course of infection (Stover and Simmonds 1987). In order to search for different sources of resistance, IMTP trials for fusarium wilt supported by INIBAP and Guangdong province were conducted between 2002 and 2004 in Panyu and Dongguan of Guangdong Province. Fifteen introduced clones plus one local cultivar were included in the evaluation in Panyu. Another 28 Cavendish cultivars were evaluated in Dongguan. This paper is a report of the results of this trial.The trials were carried out in Panyu and Dongguan, Guangdong Province, which are located in the center of the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong Province. The field plot for this trial was rented from farmers, and has been seriously infested with Foc, with about 50% of banana trees being devastated in the previous crop.In November 2000, two fusarium wilt samples collected in Panyu and Zhongshan of Guangdong Province were sent to Australia via Mr Bob Williams. On 14 December 2000, Drs Natalie Moore and Desley Tree identified two VCG groups: 01213 and 01216 ('tropical' race 4 strains), which were the same as those in Malaysia and Taiwan (Tang and Hwang 1999;Lee et al. 2001). Five tubes each of banana clones were introduced from ITC on 4 September 2001. The buds in two tubes were multiplied in nine subcultures for sufficient plant numbers. After general quarantine procedures in pots and inside netted plastic houses, in-itro cultured plantlets were transplanted into plastic bags and used as planting materials after 60 days of hardening.Trees of 30-50 cm tall were planted in the field with a randomized complete block design on 17 August 2002. Six replication trees in each of three blocks were planted. Plant spacing was 2.0 m between trees, 1.5 m between the narrow rows and 2.0 m between wide rows. All management practices were applied uniformly over the whole trial site. Inoculum was increased by adding chopped, infected banana corms and stems from neighbouring orchards to the soil on 30 August 2002. Each plant in the experimental orchard received 1000 g of this inoculum. For other managements, the technical guidelines of Carlier et al. (2003) were generally followed, with no application of fungicides in soil or on foliage. Trees were irrigated with river water.Generally one investigation each month after December 2002 was carried out on fusarium wilt. One investigation on leaf spot diseases was done 6 months after planting. Due to its very light occurrence throughout the year and no visible difference among cultivars, the leaf spot disease is not analysed in this report. The means of data from each average of plots were listed and compared.Investigation on fusarium wilt. During the growth period, three external symptoms were recorded on fusarium wilt: yellowing of erecting leaf, splitting of pseudostem, and collapse of petiole with leaf lamina in green colour. With a sharp spade, banana trees were examined internally to verify the presence of the disease and internal ratings of disease severity at harvest, or if plants are going to die before yielding fruit (Carlier et al., 2003). However, due to two successive strong typhoons on 23/24 August and 12/13 September 2003, most of the mother plants fell down and did not reach the stage of harvest.Investigations on agronomic characteristics. Agronomic characteristics of standing leaf number, height of pseudostem at flowering time, bunch weight, number of hands and fingers, and when applicable, number of functional leaves at harvest were recorded.Most trees of 'AAcv Rose', 'Gros Michel' and 'Yangambi Km 5' grew slowly and weakly, indicating that they may not be accustomed to the environmental conditions in the experimental field.There were three types of symptoms in typical banana fusarium wilt disease in different genome groups. They are: upward leaf yellowing in Cavendish type (Figure 1A); leaf petiole collapse in Fenjiao (Pisang Awak) type (Figure 1B); stem cracking in young trees (Figure 1 C); and vascular discoloration in stem and corm (Figure 1D). Diseased corms rotted under most conditions.First external symptom was observed in 210-350 days in planting cycle (Table 1). 'Gros Michel' and TMBx 5295-1 were the earliest to show yellow leaves 210 days after planting. Gros Michel was severely stunted, showed internal necrosis, and never reached flowering stage. More or less external symptoms may be seen in other clones (Table 2). 'Baxijiao' and 'Williams' had the highest ratio of diseased trees, being 72.2% and 44.4% respectively. Their internal discoloration index was 2.8 and 2.5 (Table 2). High ratio of leaf yellowing in FHIA-03, 'Yangambi Km 5,' GCTCV-119 and FHIA-18 were recorded, yet their vascular discoloration was not visible. 'AA cv Rose' did not show any external symptoms although minimum internal vascular discolouration was observed.Due to typhoon damage, only a few trees were confirmed to have died of fusarium wilt disease. There were no trees of FHIA-03, 'Yamgambi Km 5' and GCTCV-119 dead from wilt, which might be confirmed by the discoloration index (Table 2). However, 20 % of 'Baxijiao,' 'Williams,' SH3436-9, FHIA18 and CRBP39 trees died during the planting cycle. Seventy two percent of 'Williams' trees were destroyed by Foc.  GCTCV-119 seemed resistant to fusarium wilt in the planting cycle in Panyu of Guangdong. This clone came from Taiwan Banana Research Institute, and it was considered of intermediate to high resistance level (Tang and Hwang 1999). In October 2003, 44 suckers of planting cycle were collected and replanted in the neighboring plot for further evaluation of fusarium resistance and agronomic characteristics. External and internal symptoms of fusarium wilt were observed after August of 2004. There were twelve diseased trees as of November 2004.Trees with no wilt symptoms began to flower since mid September, with 11 trees flowered before early November. Average plant height in the second cycle was 2.57 m.Most of the trees in Dongguan trial plots died of fusarium wilt diseases before shooting or harvesting during the year of 2003. Further evaluation for those cultivars with a few living trees is underway.In order to screen the true resistant clones, suckers of resistant GCTCV-119 clones in the planting cycle were marked and meristems were cultured in vitro for rejuvenation. Plantlets were planted in farmers' field in April, June, July and August 2004, to find out best planting season and optimize the field management for growth improvement.Preliminary results showed good tree structure, leaf arrangements and A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 growth vigour from tissue-cultured trees. The total number of trees is more than 1000, which can be the materials of further selection.In the planting cycle, complete agronomic data were gained in a few clones. Trees of 'Gros Michel' and 'Yangambi km 5' did not flower in the first year. No fruit reached mature stage before being infected with disease in 'Baxijiao,' 'Williams,' FHIA-17, FHIA-18 and FHIA-23 (Table 3). Trees shot between 310 and 400 days after planting in the planting crop cycles (Table 3). FHIA-03 had the shortest growth cycle, shooting 300 days after planting (range 290 and 330 days), and the fruit maturing at 388 days after planting (range 307 to 472 days).GCTCV-119 started to shoot 397 days (range 389 to 406 days), and fruits mature 510 days after planting. Its yield, bunch and finger shapes were acceptable and eating quality was very good. However, one or two small leaves could be seen in a tree during early spring, indicating its sensitivity to chills. Attempts are being tried to improve its growth through adjustment of planting time and optimization of field management. SH3436-9 also had a long growth stage, shooting 395.3 days after planting, whereas CRBP 39, cv Rose and FHIA-03 started to shoot around 300 days after planting, with shorter growth stages.Crop cycles ranged between 400 and 500 days. FHIA-03 was the shortest (388.7 days). FHIA-02, cv Rose and TMBx5295-1 needed 516 days, while GCTCV-119, SH 3436-9 needed more than 500 days.Most of the trees had stems of 200 and 300 cm tall, while TMBx 5295-1 was the tallest at 312.5 cm at shooting, and cv Rose was the shortest at 205.3 cm.Fruits were harvested only in five clones (Table 3). The biggest bunch was collected in GCTCV-119, with 13.9 kg. No fruit could be harvested in other trees because of poor growth or disease or typhoon damages.Hand numbers were between 6 and 8 and total fingers 36 and 155. SH 3436-9 had 155.5 while CRBP 39 had only 36.1 fingers. Fingers of SH 3436-9 were small and underdeveloped. Leaf numbers ranged between 10 and 14 at shooting stage and 4 to 9 at harvest. However, SH 3436-9 had only 2.1 leaves at harvest.One hundred seventy out of 288 trees survived in the second cycle, which did not mean that they were all resistant to fusarium wilt disease since suckers of some susceptible clones may live for two or more years. More observation has been done in the second cycle (Table 4). 'Gros Michel,' Yangambi km 5,' FHIA-23 and SH-3640 still did not shoot, and no mature fruit bunch was harvested in FHIA-17, GCTCV-119 and SH3436-9.Three 'Williams' ratoon trees were alive and its fruits fully developed. Yet its short stems (1.86 m vs normal 2.0m~4.0m, Daniells 1995), as recorded in earlier report (Orjeda et al. 1999), were obviously somaclonal off-types from long-term conservation. 'Williams' is the reference cultivar for FOC susceptibility. Due to many subcultures and long-term conservation, somaclonal variation may be possible. Suckers were collected and in vitro cultured for further evaluation.Fingers of FHIA-02 were short and thick and with soft flesh. Fruit bunch of FHIA-03 was big and compact. Although its fruit bunch mature early and eating quality was good, cv Rose trees were short and slender, with loose hands and less superior appearances.Fifteen trees of GCTCV-119 survived in the second cycle, and five trees flowered in the first and second plots. Its leaf shealths were arranged compactly and closely, which may be the main reason for 'Choke throat' when bunch emerged. A Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13The tree stature of 'Gros Michel' was tall and erect. Even though they seemed healthy, they did not flower in the second cycle. A few trees of SH3436-9 flowered and set upward bunches with small fingers.Three trees of 'Baxijiao' flowered in the ratoon crop. However, all leaves turned yellow and wilted before fruit matured. Therefore fingers were not fully mature when harvested. Normally, the bunch weight of 'Baxijiao' is over 20 kg. It seemed that suckers of 'Baxijiao' might live for one to two years.Before the trial, pathogen samples taken from the vascular bundles of diseased plants were sent to Australia for identification. VCG 01213 and 01216 were found in these samples, which belong to the tropical race 4 (N. Moore, personal communication). Therefore, the trial should be interpreted as the reaction of banana clones to race 4 of fusarium wilt.According to the number of trees that survived 12 months after planting, in combined with external symptoms and vascular discolouring, the tested cultivars can be classified as:Susceptible: 'Williams,' FHIA-17, 'Gros Michel,' 'Baxijiao.' Less than 8 trees survived, over 40 % with external symptoms, or discolouration index over 3.0. All the cultivars tested in Dongguan were susceptible ones.  (Orjeda et al. 1999). Although in some sites it did not show good resistance to fusarium wilt like in Taiwan (Orjeda et al. 1999), it performed well in Panyu, probably attributing to the similar genetic background of the pathogen. Its fruit quality was very good and yield was acceptable. However, one shortcoming was its long cropping time. Strong suckers or tissue-cultured plantlets are encouraged as planting materials, and planted in deep, fertile soils. Extra nitrogen and potassium fertilizers may be needed, in order to stimulate tree growth. GCTCV-119 was sensitive to low temperatures in winter and early spring. A few short and narrow leaves were seen in spring. 'Choke throat' was seen in a few trees. Change of planting time would be effective in order for trees to grow in warm season. Production of virus-free plantlets, screening of new good strains or improvement through induction are also attempted.'Williams' has been a cultivar being easily subjected to somaclonal variation, especially those buds under long-term storages (Orjeda et al. 1999). Therefore, variation with resistance or tolerance to Foc race 4 may be expected. In vitro culture has been established for further observation.Some of the improved FHIA hybrids showed high level of resistance. However, the texture and flavor of the fruit are not acceptable to the consumers in China who are accustomed to the flavor of Cavendish, 'Xiangjiao' or 'Fenjiao.'Production of banana and plantain in China ranks 5 th on the world. The problems of banana production in China are the same as in other countries. Biotechnology and gene technology, together with conventional methods, can assist in overcoming the problems of banana production in developing new banana cultivars, and establishment of a suitable plant regeneration system in vitro is required for biotechnology and gene technology.Although several important progress in pre-transformation plant regeneration system has been made, the application of embryogenic cell suspension for genetic improvement of Musa is limited because of the low induction percentage of embryogenic callus, low conversion frequencies of plant regeneration from the somatic embryos and long culture times, i.e. 10 to 18 months depending on cultivar have been documented from culture initiation to plant regeneration. Therefore, an optimal protocol for embryogenic cell suspensions from different cultivars needed to be developed.The main objective of this study is to develop an optimal protocol for the establishment of a pre-transformation plant regeneration system and gene transformation of popular local cultivars of banana and plantain in China.The cultivars used in this study were: Musa AAB Silk cv.Guoshanxiang; Musa AAA cv. Williams, Musa ABB cv. Dongguandajiao, and Musa AA cv. Mas.To establish the embryogenic cell suspensions, young floral hands of immature male flower of cv. Mas (AA) and Musa paradisiaca Linn (ABB) were used as the initial explants for callus induction. During callus induction from the micro-cross section, the method described by Okole and Schulz (1996) was used.Embryogenic callus were selected from the induction calli according to histological observation and their morphology. Suspension culture was done in various media dependent on the cultivars and explants. Medium ML was used for the suspension culture of the embryogenic callus from young floral hands of Mas (AA) cultivar and scalps of AAB Silk cv. Guoshanxiang. The ML contained MS basic salts with 4 µmol/L biotin, 680 µmol/L glutanine, 100 mg/L malt extract, 130 mmol /L sucrose and 9.0 µmol/L 2, 4-D.For the histological study, the samples were fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde and the methods described by Li and Gu (1982) were followed.Micro-cross section was used as explants to investigate the factors affecting the early phase of the transformation. This was done by detecting the transient expression of GUS gene either controlled by CaMV35S or rice actin1 promoter in expression vectors constructed from pBA002 according the method described by Huang et al. (2002). The embryogenic cell suspensions was derived from young floral hands of immature male flower of cv. Mas (AA) ( Wei et al. 2005 ) to study the effects of selective agents on the differentiation of the embryogenic cells. Three expression vectors, pCAMBIA2301 containing nptII gene, pUB containing hp gene and pBAUbi containing bargene were constructed, repectively (Huang et al., 2002) for the transformation study.The explants that produced the highest frequency of embryogenic calli were the floral hands of 6 th to 12 th rows. Nine µmol/L 2, 4-D was the most effective on the callus induction. It caused 41.0% of the male floral hands to form callus and 7.5% of the induced calli to become embryogenic callus (Figure 1). Meristematic globules and yellowish, friable embryogenic cultures were obtained after culture for 5-6 months on callus induction medium (Figure 1 B). The suspension cultures were initiated by using the embryogenic calli in liquid medium supplemented with 4.5µmol/L 2, 4-D. Homogeneous, yellowish embryogenic cell suspensions (ECS) were established after 3 months of culture (Figure C, D and E). Somatic embryogenesis with the frequency of approximately 280×10 Histological analysis indicated that after 5 days of the embryogenic induction, bi-cellular and multi-cellular proembryos were observed at the same histological section. Irregular protoderm was differentiated in multi-cellular proembryo after the culture for 15 days. For another 5 days of the culture, the embryos at early globular stage were developed from the proembryos and became either oblong, pear-shaped or scutiform. Mature embryo was formed after culture for 3 months. Epidermis, shoot apex meristem, root apex meristem, and central vascular zone could be distinguished from histological section of the embryo. The mature embryo could germinate 10 days after being transferred into germination media. Thirty days later, healthy plantlets were converted from the germinated embryos. Cauliflower-like compact buds (multiple buds) could be induced from a single meristem of adventitious bud induced from Musa AAB Silk cv. Guoshanxiang in P4 medium consisted of MS salts and vitamins supplemented with 100µmol/L BAP and 1µmol/L IAA (Wei et al. 2004). However, the time for the multiple buds induction was dependent on the cultivar. For example, Guoshanxiang needed subculture for 5 cycles (35 days for each cycle), and Baxi needed 8 cycles. The investigation of conditions for callus induction from scalps derived from Guoshanxiang multiple buds indicated that 97.6% of the calli induction percentage could be reached on a medium supplemented with 5µmol/L 2,4-D and 1µmol/L Zeatin in the dark, and when multiple buds were pre-cultured in the light with a 16-h photoperiod provided by cool white fluorescent tubes with a light intensity of 30 µmol•m -2 •s -1 (Figure 2). 17.4% of embryogenic callus was produced from the induced calli.After 20 days of culture, yellowish nodular calluses (also called meristematic globules) were observed on the surface of scalps. Embryogenic complexes consisting of whitish or buff and friable embryogenic callus and young somatic embryos appeared on the surface of meristematic globules in 90-120 days of culture. After culture on mature medium for 60 days, 14.5% of the somatic embryos induced from embryogenic callus could be germinated. 11.1% of the germinated embryos were converted to plantlets.Five types of calli were induced from micro-cross section of plantain (Musa ABB cv. Dongguandajiao) in improving B 5 medium, including B 5 with dicamba ( B5D) and B 5 with 2,4-D (B52,4-D), respectively. Both type I and II calli were white, loose and wettish except for type I which was less translucent. Type III was pale yellow, compact and with less water content and small grains. Type IV was milk white, viscous and compact with bigger grains. Type V was pale yellow with compact grains and less water content (Figure 3). The morphology of callus could be changed by pre-culture and addition of different plant growth regulators (Figure 3). Pre-culture medium was MSDB, including MS basal medium, 2,4-D (18µmol/L) and 6-BAP (18µmol/L). In case of no pre-culture, type I could be induced in B 5 D, Compared with LBA4404, EHA105 was the more efficient strain for the transformation. Kan and Hp was suitable selective agents for banana explant, however the explant was very sensitive to baster because it died after one day of co-culture with baster (0.2mg/L) .The transient while type II and III could be induced in B 5 2,4-D. On the condition of pre-culture, type IV and V were respectively induced by dicamba and 2,4-D. The results of histology and physiological characters of these types of calli showed that type V could be considered as the embryogenic callus and the optimal medium for inducing type V was B 5 salts with improving B 5 vitamins/ amino acid, sucrose (30g/L), active carbon (1g/L), IAA (1µmol/L) and 2,4-D (27µmol/L). Furthermore, preculture of the explants on MSDB was very important to the induction of type V. Somatic embryogeneis could be induced from the type V callus ( Li zhe 2004), but the somatic embryos could not be successfully converted into plantlets. The suitable culture conditions for the cultures need to be further studied  Field screening was carried out in two sites, namely Zengcheng and Panyu District, both in Guangzhou, Guangdong Province. Zengcheng was chosen as Site 1. It was previously planted with 'Fenjiao', a variety heavily infected by fusarium wilt. Although there were no analyses to determine what VCG type of Foc was present in this site, it was designated as Foc race 1 site, judging from the variety that was severely affected.Panyu District was selected as Site 2. This area was previously planted with 'Xiangjiao' (Cavendish), of which 95% were affected by fusarium wilt. Similarly, no analyses were conducted to determine the actual VCG group of the Foc pathogen found in this area. However, since the previous crop that was heavily infected by fusarium wilt was a 'Cavendish' variety, this site was designated as Foc race 4 area.The planting started on 18 August 2003 in Site 1 and 26 August 2003 in Site 2. Due to the differences in the number of seedlings developed from the original culture, the number of plants per variety was not the same. The number of seedlings ranged from 5 to 20 plants per variety. These were planted in a completely randomized block design.Disease assessment was done by counting the incidence of infected plants. The infected plants were identified by the typical yellowing and eventual necroses of leaves on unshot plants, which started from the older leaves. The infection was confirmed by examining the internal vascular necrosis. Visual symptoms also included pseudostem splitting.The plants that survived the attack of fusarium wilt reached maturity, yielded fruits and were evaluated for their agronomic characteristics.The results of the evaluation in two sites are summarized in Table 1.The measure of resistance and susceptibility of the various varieties were determined by the percentage of infected plants per variety in the two trial sites. Results showed that selection pressure was amply high as reflected by the high percentage of infection in susceptible variety.In Zengcheng (Site 1) and designated as Foc 1 trial site, 'Gros Michel', which is known to be susceptible to Foc 1, and Bita-2 sustained 100 percent infection, while CRBP-39 and 'Pisang Ceylan' showed 40% and 10% infected plants respectively. All the other varieties were not affected by fusarium wilt.  Several FHIA varieties, were also observed as susceptible as the 'Cavendish' varieties. Two 'Cavendish' somaclones from the Taiwan Banana Research Institute (TBRI), which were previously reported resistant to Foc race 4 in Taiwan (Hwang 2000) were observed susceptible in Site 2. The second interesting result is the observation that several varieties, FHIA-01, FHIA-02, FHIA-03, FHIA-18 and FHIA-25 were resistant to the disease in Site 2. GCTCV-119, a 'Cavendish' somaclone from Taiwan was relatively resistant to fusarium wilt in Site 2.Table 2 summarizes some agronomic characteristics of some varieties that were resistant to Foc race 4 in Site 2.This preliminary study showed very relevant and interesting results. A more extensive and thorough evaluation is planned to be established.  Hainan is located between 3°20' and 20°18' N latitude and 107°50' and 119°10' E longitude. With a total land area of 3.5 sq km, Hainan is the smallest province in China. It is however the third producer of banana in China with a planting area of 30 800 ha and total production of 84.19 million tonnes in 2003. In recent years, the yield and planting area are increasing rapidly.However problems on pests and diseases, fertilization and genetic resources management seriously affect the development of banana industry in Hainan. To overcome these constraints, various efforts are in progress at the Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Science (CATAS). Forty-two out of the 62 banana cultivars were taken as ex-plant to be multipropagated. Fifty seedlings of each cultivar are expected to be received for planting in multi-locations in Hainan in 2005. There was a large scale investigation about pests and diseases in Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and Fujian provinces of China from July to September 2004. The results show that the major diseases are yellow sigatoka, banana freckle disease, banana bunchy top, mosaic disease and Panama wilt. The main pests are banana root borer, banana corm borer, banana stem weevil borer, black banana aphid, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius), Thrips hawaiiensis and Tetranychus piercei. In recent years, the damage of Panama wilt is serious in Guangdong and Hainan.Banana fusarium wilt [Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (E.F.Smith) Snyder et Hansen] is recorded in Hainan for the first time. On the base of the modified Komada medium, 18 isolates of fusarium wilt of banana from Hainan banana-growing areas were identified by artificial inoculation in glasshouse. The results showed that all isolates in Hainan belongs to 2 physiologic races of race 1 from Fenjiao (ABB Group) and race 4 from Xiangjiao (AAA Group) based on the culturing characters and pathogenic differentiation.Identification of physiological race, testing of pathogenicity, RAPD analysis was primarily studied using 18 isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense from Hainan and Guangdong province. The results showed that 12 isolates from Fenjiao (ABB Group) were race 1, while 6 isolates from Xiangjiao (AAA Group) were race 4. The disease incidence rate of Fenjiao inoculated by race 1 isolates and of Xiangjiao inoculated by race 4 isolates were all 100%; the pathogenicity of the No. 13 isolate from Lizhigou, Shanya, Hainan was the strongest, compared with the other 5 isolates of race 4; RAPD analysis could detect race 1 and 4,geographic origin of isolates, and pathogenicity; primer OPM-15 could be used to identity race 1 and 4.The influences of six different constant temperatures and nine host plants on development and reproduction of Tetranychus pierceiMcGregor were investigated under laboratory conditions. It could be concluded that temperatures from 28-32 0 C are the best suitable temperature conditions for the development, survival and reproduction of the mite. Papaya was the more favoured host plant compared withStethorus (Allosstethorus) parapauperculus is a very important predator of Tetranychus piercei. The influence of temperature on the development, survivorship and propagation of S. (Allosstethorus) parapauperculus have been studied.The relationships between temperature and developmental rates of various stages and a generation could be described by logistic equation model. It could be estimated that the highest survival rates of existence of egg, the first larva, the second larva, the third larva , the forth larva, pupae and a generation are respectively 94. For the accurate fertilization of banana, the total amount of each kind of essential chemical element required for high yield (75 000 kg/ ha) must be analyzed; and the utilization rate of the main chemical fertilizer in the different type of soil must be identified. The results suggested that abundant and secondary elements are different in the organ and a single plant. Figure 3 shows that the amount of N element in the fruit and leaf is bigger than in the other organs of banana. The amount of K element is higher in the fruit and the pseudostem than in the other organs. The highest amount of Ca in the banana is found in the leaf. The content of Mg is relatively high in the fruit, leaf and the pseudostem. The five kinds of chemical element are mainly distributed in the fruit, leaf and the pseudostem, but little in the peduncle and root of banana. The amount of the five kinds of element that accumulated in the organs of banana is shown in Figure 4. N is abundant in the fruit, leaf and pseudostem, the amount of K is high in the fruit and pseudostem and Ca in the leaf and the pseudostem.    A follow-up project to the NRMDCs is the Evaluation and Promotion of Musa Germplasm (EPMG). This is already being started in several countries through the establishment of on-station and on-farm experiments. Bananas and plantains are among the major fruit crops in the world, but their production is seriously threatened by many pest and disease problems, among which are black and yellow sigatoka, fusarium wilt and nematodes. The members of BAPNET have identified pests and diseases as the main constraint to Musa production in Asia and have appealed to INIBAP to mobilise resources to address such constraints.Different institutions began banana breeding programmes to overcome these diseases, and a number of high-yielding, pest-and diseaseresistant varieties were developed. Although the major Musa breeding programmes are located outside Asia, many of the new hybrids being produced by these programmes may be of interest for production in Asia.The International Musa Testing Programme (IMTP) is a world-wide collaborative effort coordinated by INIBAP to evaluate, in multilocational trials around the world, such elite Musa varieties produced by breeding programmes as well as promising germplasm accessions from the INIBAP collection, in order to obtain information on their resistance/tolerance to black and yellow sigatoka, fusarium wilt and nematodes. The aim is to identify banana and plantain hybrids resistant to these pests and diseases, which would meet local requirements and with which small-scale farmers could replace existing susceptible cultivars.IMTP phase I -The establishment of IMTP began in 1989 as a programme to evaluate germplasm from the FHIA-breeding programme in Honduras for resistance to black sigatoka. Seven tetraploid hybrids with wide genetic backgrounds were tested along with several diploid reference clones (both wild and edible), that represented the whole range of reaction to black sigatoka, from highlyThe IMTP, NRMDCs and EPMG In addition to the release of elite banana materials, integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for many of the important banana pests and diseases have been developed, including the use of in-vitro plantlets as clean planting materials.However, the existence in itself of these elite banana materials and IPM strategies is not sufficient to help small-scale farmers address the serious constraints they face from pests and diseases. In order to obtain a rapid and significant impact on banana production levels, and thus on rural poverty and malnutrition, small-scale farmers need to get access to the available elite materials and the developed strategies. The availability of in-vitro propagated materials of these improved varieties for wide distribution is limited by the capability of the International Transit Centre (ITC) in Belgium to respond to the many requests for materials worldwide. In this perspective, BAPNET launched the program of the National Repository, Multiplication and Dissemination Centers (NRMDCs) in Asia and the Pacific, to provide access to the new, improved hybrids and superior varieties developed by breeding programs all over the world, multiply them locally, and make them available to Asia and Pacific countries for national yield performance evaluation by researchers/farmers and eventual adoption by farmers.The NRMDCs, the ITC in Belgium and the breeding programmes worldwide exchange local germplasm and improved hybrids. The NRMDCs maintain this germplasm and distribute clean materials of all germplasm to scientists, farmers and other interested local parties. These parties, in return, give feedback on the performance of all the varieties to the NRMDCs, ITC and the breeding programmes.The goals of the NRMDCs are:• improved access to new hybrids and superior varieties from INIBAP;• local multiplication for provision of materials to national programmes for more expanded evaluation activities; • local multiplication for provision of materials for the eventual adoption by farmers; and • maintenance of disease-free foundation stocks.Twenty-three accessions were turned over to the participating institutes of BAPNET member countries and institutions. Most of the institutes requested in-vitro proliferating tissues. Rooted materials were sent only to those institutes where the facilities for in-vitro culture were not adequate. Some institutes experienced some problems with contamination and some of the accessions needed to be replaced.The main activities of the NRMDCs are conservation of the introduced and local varieties under in-vitro conditions as well as in a screenhouse and field, multiplication and distribution of the germplasm to scientists and farmers, and evaluation and promotion of the in-vitro propagated banana materials.In May 2004, a questionnaire to assess the impact of the NRMDCs after 3 years of implementation was sent to the partners.The BAPNET partners unanimously agree that the NRMDCs are an efficient tool for the conservation and maintenance of germplasm. All but SPC also value the importance of the NRMDCs in the evaluation of germplasm. SPC has no land available for the evaluation of the material and has to rely on its member countries for field testing. Some partners also consider the NRMDCs efficient in the multiplication and distribution of germplasm. However, the capacity of the NRMDCs in some countries is too low for the supply of materials on a large scale. Possible cooperation between the NRMDCs and government institutions, private companies or NGOs is suggested. This is in fact already being done in the Philippines. For its programme of distribution of local and introduced varieties to State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) as well as small-scale farmers in the Philippines, INIBAP has called upon the services of a private company that supplies INIBAP with large numbers of meriplants at a minimal cost of less than $ 0.1 per plantlet. Whenever the SUCs or farmers are not able to raise the meriplants themselves, private nurseries take over the job of raising the plantlets until ready for field planting.The major strengths of the NRMDCs were identified as follows:• enrichment of the genetic material through the introduction and distribution of new varieties; • introduction of the technique of using in-vitro propagated plantlets as disease-free planting materials; • supply of materials for experiments; and • safety conservation of germplasm.Despite the enthusiasm of most partners, the NRMDCs are not perfect yet. There is a need for the improvement of the facilities as well as human resources in order to enhance the institutional capacity of the NRMDCs. SPC would benefit from the availability of more germplasm at the beginning, which would assist multiplication for large-scale distribution. ICHORD and VASI mentioned that the networking within and between countries could still be improved. Lastly, promotional campaigns and dissemination of information, both on the NRMDC and the new varieties, is regarded of high priority, certainly by ICHORD and BPI.During the evaluations carried out by many of the NRMDCs, the introduced varieties performed better than the local varieties in most trials in terms of agronomic features and yield. In general, they also show a good resistance/tolerance to pests and diseases. The postharvest characteristics and taste however proved to be different from the local varieties. Consumers still have to get used to the unfamiliar taste and as a result, farmers adopt a \"wait-and-see\" attitude towards growing these varieties. It was suggested that promotional campaigns could be of much help to overcome this problem.Most farmers are impressed by the technique of using in-vitro propagated plantlets. For them, the main advantages over traditional planting materials are that in-vitro plantlets are free of pests and diseases, give a uniform growth and are easy to transport. However, the biggest obstacle that discourages farmers to use in-vitro materials is its higher price compared to suckers.In 2004, the NRMDC programme was concluded in BARI, CARDI, GAAS, SCAU, NRCB, ICHORD, MARDI, BPI, IPB, HORDI, HRI, VASI and SPC. The countries where the programme started more recently (CATAS, MAS, PNG and TBRI) will complete the program in 2005. However, the NRMDCs will still continue to play an important role in the production of pest-and disease-free planting materials, whether it be from local or introduced germplasm. Cooperation with other institutions may be recommended here.Because of the success of the programme and the interest of most partners to continue and further elaborate the NRMDCs, a follow-up project to evaluate and promote Musa germplasm within the countries through the establishment of on-station and on-farm experiments was developed. The Letter of Agreement was signed by all partners and the EPMG programme was initiated already in several countries. Note: All germplasm movement, both into the region from outside and between countries in the region, is carried out according to the FAO/IPGRI Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Musa Germplasm. o Preparations were made at the field collection at the University of Kisangani to house the cultivars that will be collected in 2005. The collection will be expanded to include plantains from the Congo Basin that are not found in the field collections held at CARBAP and IITA, namely dwarf, semi-dwarf, early fruiting and drought resistant cultivars.o A workplan for maintaining the field collection has been developed and the areas for conducting collections has been identified. o Research into the cryopreservation protocol for proliferating meristems using the simple freezing method showed that for the cultivars 'Cacambou', 'Grande Naine' and 'Williams', the rate of shoot regeneration increased after the application of 0.1 to 0.5 mM cholesterol, sitosterol or stigmasterol to the sucrose preculture medium. The post-thaw regeneration frequencies using the vitrification method were not affected by the addition of sterols.o In general, the addition of 1 mM of polyamines and aromatic amines to the preculture or regeneration medium did not affect post-thaw shoot regeneration of banana meristems. The addition of tyramine to the preculture medium enhanced the rate post-thaw shoot regeneration of 'Cacambou' and 'Williams' using the simple freezing method.o A technician has been recruited by K.U.Leuven and trained in cryopreservation to start work on a 'black box collection' that will serve as insurance against the physical loss of the collection in Leuven.o The management of the collection has been made easier with the installation of a data management system that records most aspects of accession information, from virus indexing results to stock levels.The information is accessed from a hand-held unit that reads the barcodes attached to each accession. All the accessions have been bar-coded and the data for these accessions are now routinely entered in the database by means of this device. Improvements are being made to the system, which will also facilitate the exchange of information with MGIS.o In response to demands for DNA, the ITC developed a freeze drying protocol and established a collection of lyophilized leaf samples, which means that even virus-infected accessions can be made available for molecular study. In 2004, 465 samples of 63 rejuvenated accessions have been lyophilized. Each sample consists of ±1g of fresh leaf tissue (or 0.1g of lyophilized tissue) and is kept in an air-and water-tight plastic bag that is stored in a freezer at -20°C. The leaf samples will be made available in 2005.o The Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Cytometry at the IEB finished determining the ploidy level of the 1150 accessions held at the ITC at the end of the project. Flow cytometry was used.The method measures the content of nuclear DNA, which is directly proportional to the number of chromosomes. The analysis confirmed the ploidy of 958 accessions and revealed the level of 81 accessions for which it was unknown (Figure 1). The ploidy turned out to be different from the previously accepted level in 88 accessions. The exercise confirmed that maintaining plants under in vitro conditions does not lead to large-scale changes in the genome.o The characterization activities funded by the Challenge programme for \"Unlocking genetic diversity in crops for the resource-poor\" are presented in the section on the Global Musa Genomics Consortium.o As part of an IFRA-funded project, the genetic diversity in 15 populations of Musa balbisiana from China was studied by using AFLP. High levels of genetic diversity were revealed. The application of AFLP to 281 plants generated 199 bands.o In another IFRA-funded project, microsatellites have been used to differentiate 10 FHIA hybrids in order to facilitate their identification and the conservation of the true types. Ten microsatellites were enough to discriminate between FHIA-01 and FHIA-18 but not the other hybrids. In 2000, in response to a request from the Ugandan Government and USAID, INIBAP set up a project to develop improved AAA East African highland bananas (EAHB) through the use of biotechnology. The aims were to genetically modify eight cooking and brewing varieties to express resistance to nematodes, black sigatoka and weevils, and to build Uganda's national capacity to use the current tools of biotechnology to develop high-yielding, pest-and disease-resistant varieties of this crop. Two laboratories for tissue culture and molecular research at NARO have been revamped and furnished and a team of technicians has been trained and guided through the process of establishing ECS with technical backstopping from KULeuven, CIRAD and JIC. o Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of 'S. Ndizi' cell suspensions by using the GUS marker gene was performed, confirming the wide applicability of the Agrobacterium transformation system developed at KULeuven.o Equipment for cryopreservation was acquired and cryopreservation of cell suspensions started in February 2004. Seventeen cell lines have been cryopreserved, of which 13 were re-established in liquid medium. All the cell lines that established well in liquid medium (i.e. the cells multiplied and increased in volume) and maintained their embryogenic potential were less than 1 year old at the time of cryopreservation.o The inhibitory activity on banana weevils (Cosmopolites sordidus) of the papaya cystatin was enhanced by the generation of mutants with improved binding and stability (Figure 3). Based on an analysis of their amino acid sequences, 18 mutations were created and tested for their ability to inhibit papaya cystatins. In preliminary tests, inhibition was improved in 11 out of 18 mutant cystatins.o A technique allowing Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus coffeae to take up substances from a liquid medium has been developed. This will enable the testing of various lectins and, as such, the identification of potential genes to control nematodes.o A cDNA library was developed using plants artificially infested with weevil eggs and untreated plants. Various subtraction products were isolated and cloned. Inserts obtained after digestion with restriction enzymes were sequenced. The sequences seem to belong to family of variable genes that might be involved in resistance to weevils. With funds from DGDC, INIBAP pursues studies to refine the protocols for developing and storing starting materials for genetic transformation and for optimizing the process of transformation. The research takes place in the Laboratory for Tropical Crop Improvement at KULeuven.o In 2004, 13 cryopreservation experiments on 8 cell lines each were conducted. For each cell line, an average of 8 cryotubes were transferred to the liquid nitrogen tank. After careful screening of all cryotubes, 623 cryotubes remain stored for the long term. The total number of cryotubes stored in liquid nitrogen containing transformation competent cell lines of 13 cultivars is 2140 (Table 1).o The conventional and new methods to prepare embryogenesiscompetent explants were used on 'Calcutta 4', 'Williams', 'Ingarama', 'Orishele' and 'Cachaco'. The quality of the cultures was scored from very low (-) to very high (++++) depending on the proportion of meristematic tissue to corm and leaf tissue. According to the time required to obtain 50 optimized multiple meristem cultures (i.e. cultures whose quality could not be further improved), the gain of time with the new method was 1 month for 'Cachaco', 3 for 'Calcutta4', 5 for both 'Williams' and 'Ingarama' and 6 for 'Orishele'. The morphological characteristics of the cultures, however, were similar, except for 'Calcutta 4' and 'Ingarama', which were slightly improved using the new method.o Several promoter tagging vectors containing the codon-optimized luciferase (luc + ) reporter gene close the right hand side border of the T-DNA have been developed. These constructs increased the activity of the luciferase enzyme and the tagging frequency 40fold in 'Three hand planty', 'Williams' and 'Cacambou', compared to the wild-type luciferase gene. These constructs significantly increased the efficiency of the large-scale search for banana promoters. As a result, 40 000 cell colonies can be screened in a week.o The 10 196 gene-specific tags generated from leaf cDNA after performing SuperSAGE represent 5292 expressed genes, of which 83% occurred only once, a very low frequency.o Despite the poor results obtained when using xylose to select transgenic plants of 'Three hand planty', the xylA gene was further tested by introducing it into embryogenic cell suspensions of the dessert banana 'Gros Michel'. The regeneration frequency was only improved when sucrose was added to the selection system. It was Cliff Gold, IITA (Weevil); Michael Pillay, IITA (Breeding) and Altus Viljoen, FABI (Fusarium).This Consortium brings together expertise from 30 public-funded institutions in 16 countries. As well as providing close collaboration, the consortium enables research resources to be shared, including sequence data and enabling technologies. The sequence data produced by the Consortium will be placed in the public domain and any new varieties will be made freely available to smallholder farmers. The overall strategy of the Consortium is to adopt a step-wise approach, focusing on comparative genomics and targeting gene discovery. INIBAP provides the secretariat. Funding is provided by the members through individual projects. Much of the Consortium activities are dependent on funding from the member institutes. Several regional groupings between members have also been established. Promoting conservation through sustainable use of underutlized...Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific -Vol 13 micronutrient dietary deficiencies in both developed and developing countries.The growing demand from consumers in developed and developing countries for diversified foods is creating new market niches for underutilized species. These market opportunities can generate significant income for poor farmers in less-favoured environments where these crops have comparative advantages over other staples crops. Many underutilized crops are associated with local cultures and traditions. The diversity of underutilized crops provides diversity of food in taste, colour, texture and recipes prepared by different ethnic groups. Many underutilized crops have their greatest cultural value at the local level to support cultural diversity and maintain the colourful and enjoyable life of human beings in the world.Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is an ancient Asian crop now widely grown around the world. Even though it is an underutilized crop, it remains important for food security in the temperate and hilly regions of countries in East Asia, East Europe and the Himalayan region (Arora 1995;Zhou and Arora 1995). Buckwheat contains rich amino acids, abundant vitamin P high in rutin, which reduces blood cholesterol; Vitamin B 1 and B 2 , dietary fibre, lipids and minerals (Yang and Lu 1992;Ohsawa and Tsutsumi 1995). Traditionally, buckwheat was used as a nutritious food, a leafy vegetable, fodder or medicine in East Asian and South Asian countries. Nowadays, buckwheat has become an important health food. Buckwheat can be further processed to valueadded products such as cakes, instant powder, wine or vinegar to increase the economic returns to the buckwheat farmers (IPGRI-APO 1999).International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (APO) has made efforts to promote the conservation and use of buckwheat genetic resources through a programme on underutilized crops in the region. The Programme aims at addressing constraints and promoting aspects of diversity availability, genetic enhancement and access to marketing. IPGRI-APO, in cooperation with the national programmes in the region, focused initially on producing a bibliography, descriptors and directory, and currently the emphasis is on in situ conservation, and assessing and promoting the potential of buckwheat for sustainable livelihoods for the poor.  Buckwheat is a very important crop for people living in remote areas in some countries in the region. For example, tartary buckwheat has been cultivated since the 2nd century B.C. and is one of the earliest food crops cultivated by Yi people in China. In Yi's written language, tartary buckwheat is called \"E'amu\". \"E\" means tartary buckwheat and \"amu\" means mother. Tartary buckwheat can always be found in any celebration of Yi in China. The flour of buckwheat is used in different religious festivals by making various processed products in Nepal. Some of the Lama's monks (Gumba) also use it for social or religious purposes.Buckwheat is a stable food crop in some areas of China. In the Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan province of China, the tartary buckwheat growing area is about 30% of the total area planted with food crops. Tartary buckwheat is used for the preparation of baby food, bread, pancakes, thick porridge, for making sausages and other locally shape, pericarp colour, flower colour, plant height, leaf size and shape, growth period, chemical components, etc. The evaluation is focused on identifying buckwheat lines with economically important traits such as early maturity, resistance to frost and lodging, high yield, reduced shattering and high flavonoid content. Genetic diversity of buckwheat has contributed to developing many buckwheat cultivars in the world (Campbell 1997).consumed food products in Nepal. The tartary buckwheat is also used for preparation of local wine and whisky in both China and Nepal. In Dolpa, Nepal, buckwheat is the only crop which can provide food security to farmers.Buckwheat grain contains 10.9-15.5% protein, 2.1-2.8% fat, 63-71.35% starch and 1.0-1.61% fibre (Chai et al. 1989). Protein content in buckwheat flour is significantly higher than that in rice, wheat, and maize. Its protein composition is similar to that of beans, i.e. high in albumin and globulin. It is also high in essential amino acids such as lysine (5-7%) that are deficient in major cereal crops, and lipids, minerals (iron, phosphorus, and copper), and vitamins (B1 and B2, VPP, VP and folic acid contents are all higher than in grains of major crops) and rutin. Rutin is only found in buckwheat grains and plants (but not in other grains (http://dreampharm.com/zrutin.asp). It contains more fat than rice and wheat. It contains 9 types of aliphatic acids, mainly oleic acid and linolic acids.Specific medicinal properties of buckwheat are mainly conferred by its biological flavonoid and fagopyritol. Flavonoid helps in relieving coughs and eliminating phlegm. Flavanoid content is higher in tartary buckwheat than common buckwheat. Using the flavonoid extracted from tartary buckwheat, several kinds of Chinese pharmaceutical preparations have been developed, including capsules, tablets, and electuaries. Rutin has a function of preventing haemorrhage caused by fragile blood capillaries and treating hypertension by lowering sugars and lipids. Buckwheat contains abundant Cu, which can improve the function of Fe and prevent hypohemia.Processing could add more value to buckwheat products and generate more profit for farmers. For example, farmer He Zengbao from Pingtou town processed 10 t of buckwheat flour from 15 t of buckwheat grain and sold it in markets in Yuci and Yangqu. The value increased from US$2 012.25 to US$3 022.75, about a 33.4% increase in profit.Examples of products from buckwheat flour and grain are common buckwheat flour, tartary buckwheat flour, dried noodles, instant noodles, dumpling, powder, flake, etc. The flour and grain products are easy to produce and are also durable for transportation. Therefore, these products can be produced by community-run factories and sold to local markets.This includes different kind of cakes made from buckwheat flour, for example, braised cake buckwheat cake, buckwheat-blood cake, etc. These products are mainly produced by food companies in nearby cities and supplied to the supermarkets.Buckwheat is also used to produce wine and vinegar, which are usually produced by local factories and preferred by local people. Some of these products can be found in supermarkets in the cities. There could be a potential for expansion of the market for these products.Tartary buckwheat can be processed into different kinds of teas, which have functions of reducing blood pressure and lowering sugars and lipids. It can be processed by mixing with other materials such as the fruit of Chinese wolfberry (Lycium spp.).Buckwheat has become one of the main income sources of farmers in buckwheat producing areas. The survey in China showed that farmers gain much more growing buckwheat than growing other cereal crops. Domestic demand for buckwheat has increased dramatically in recent years while international markets remain stable. Some countries such as Japan import buckwheat from China. This provides an opportunity to expand buckwheat production and its economic value.Generally, buckwheat can be grown even in poor soils and low inputs. China is a large buckwheat producing country with a total planting area of 1 million ha and a production of 1.05 million tonnes. Common buckwheat is planted on 0.7 million ha with a production of 0.75 million tonnes and tartary buckwheat on 0.3 million ha with a production of 0.3 million tonnes. A large proportion of buckwheat production is consumed by farmers themselves. However, considerable amounts are made available to the local market. There are specific companies and retail chain stores for buckwheat products in Beijing, Shanghai and other developed districts.One of the driving forces for buckwheat's market growth is an increased demand from Asian market. Japan now imports approximately 120 000 tonnes of buckwheat annually for its soba noodles. Being low in fat and sodium with no cholesterol, buckwheat is also quite popular among health-conscious Americans. Annually, China exports 80 000 tonnes of buckwheat to Japan. In addition, China also exports buckwheat to the Netherlands, R. Korea, Hong Kong, Russia and Cuba. With an increase in health consciousness worldwide, demand is expected to grow, which has potential for farmers to grow more buckwheat and benefit from it.Promoting conservation through sustainable use of underutlized...The objective of developing a livelihood framework is to ensure a better livelihood for the poor. Plant diversity can be used to reduce poverty. The livelihood framework on buckwheat is to use buckwheat as a resource to improve the capital assets of buckwheat producers at selected sites. According to the study in Shouyang, Shanxi, the livelihood framework on buckwheat can be envisaged in Figure 1.The framework brings different stakeholders together for promoting buckwheat production, processing and marketing.  involved in training farmers on buckwheat cultivation, sharing technologies, providing market information, introducing varieties, technologies and capital as well as coordinating member's activities on production, process and marketing.Farmers are the major players in buckwheat production and management of buckwheat genetic resources. They are major suppliers of raw materials to enterprises for processing new buckwheat products. Farmers' traditional knowledge on the use of buckwheat will be useful information for enterprises in developing new buckwheat products. Farmers can benefit in two ways: 1) increased buckwheat productivity and 2) increased market opportunities for income generation. Farmers actively participate in variety selection for high yielding and good quality, which contributes to a better harvest and higher price.Community enterprises play a role in adding more value to buckwheat products. The studies showed that processed flour could increase 191.2% the original value of buckwheat grain, while processed Bowl Shaped Lump could increase 883% the original value of buckwheat flour. At the same time, the processing of buckwheat also provides employment opportunities, which is an important source of income generation for farmers. The enterprises will pay attention to expanding market for seeking economic benefits. They also collaborate with scientists to develop new varieties of buckwheat to be used as health food.Research organizations contribute to conservation and improvement of buckwheat genetic resources and make them available to farmers. In previous years, the research institutes have released 6 varieties of common buckwheat (Jinqiao No. 1,Xinnong No. 1,Pingqiao No. 2,Liuqiao No. 1, and 10 of tartary buckwheat (Nongda 9909, ding 98-1, Dianning 1, Zhaoku 1, Qianwei 3, Jiujiang Kuqiao, Liuqiao-1, Liuqiao-2, Liuqiao-3 and Heifeng No. 1). In addition, scientists from food processing institutes help community enterprises to develop new buckwheat products such as tartary buckwheat wine and instant health thick soup of buckwheat. These new products are now available in the market in Shanxi Province.Local government plays a role coordinating activities and providing policy support through its relevant departments. Government helps to facilitate the development of buckwheat markets and the establishment of buckwheat production bases. The government also will play a role in public awareness of buckwheat and its products. ","tokenCount":"38938"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c1fd4c376bb925fa9a4c0eb9b15fc73f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49fc118b-102c-4d31-991a-650fa38dd27c/retrieve","id":"567565496"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0299050c-9700-463b-acc0-91b36fcace1d","pagecount":"28","content":"Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020  4 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020 • The impact of improved beans is higher when adopted together with better crop management practices • Better access to seed helps farmers' increase demand of quality seed, expansion of bean area and use of recommended good agricultural practices-thereby achieving positive yield gains • While there has been improvement in household bean consumption, most of it is still dependent on a farmer's own ability to produce, with vulnerability to climatic variations. Thus, addressing malnutrition through biofortified beans requires a concerted effort to simultaneously address the problem of seed access and challenges posed by climatic variation. • A typical farmer in Zimbabwe grows an improved bean variety for a shorter period of time. This pattern likely reflects greater stresses emanating from climatic variability, making communities vulnerable and highlights seed insecurity that warrant frequent introduction of new varieties. and gender, along the bean value chains. The project also leverages funds from the Global Affairs Canada (GAC) and Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT). The project also developed an evaluation system in flagship countries based on quasi-experimental methods, with a population-based household survey at baseline and end line across bean growing communities. The purpose was to measure short and medium term outcomes of the activities implemented along the bean value chains under the flagship countries. The impact component applied the theory of change to identify and select outcomes to include in the study.This report provides results of the ex-post impact assessment study conducted in 2018 and 2019 in Zimbabwe, comparing them with results to the baseline undertaken in 2016.The study aims to address the extent to which project interventions have influenced bean production, utilization of associated technologies promoted and household welfare.The study analyzes the success of the project using difference in difference method, but also draws lessons about what worked, what did not work well and why. The difference in difference approach is complemented by econometric methods to identify effects on the adoption on yield and consumption while controlling for other covariate factors. In the next section, this report presents background information on the study context, flagship project intervention and objectives. An overview of the methodology employed for the impact assessment study is presented in section four, with results and conclusions to follow.At the start of the project in 2015, the bean subsector in Zimbabwe was experiencing a number of challenges that resulted in dramatic productivity decline (67%) between 2010 and 2015. The common bean was also transitioning from a large scale commercial farm crop to a small scale farmers' crop, following land reform in the country. For many farmers, yield gap was conspicuously wide; the national average yield was less than 500 kilograms per hectare (AGRITEX 2015), just five-fold less than the crop potential yield of above 2700 kilograms per hectare (Mutari and Hodzi 2015). The bean yield gap was attributed to climate changedriven variable weather patterns that resulted in increased incidences and severity of biotic and abiotic stressors (Mutari and Hodzi 2015). Small scale producers in communal lands who produce over half of the national bean grain output, operate in drought-prone areas without irrigation, and lacked appropriate expertise 1 in bean production and technologies to deal with the challenges. For example, during baseline studies, farmers (61%) were not aware of the names of the varieties they had planted;Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020(47%) of farmers obtained yield less than 500 kilograms per hectare (Katungi et al., 2017).Bean productivity was also hit by climatic variability, leading to seed-borne diseases and breakdown of genetic resistance due to the emergence of new virulent pathogens. The aforementioned challenges were made worse by macroeconomic policies that were biased towards cereal and cash crop production between the year 2000 and 2014. Among these was a government drive to produce tobacco and maize, which marginalised investment in the bean subsector. As a result, national bean research and extension staff had limited capacity to respond to farmers' needs, and were unable to support the bean processing industry after the transformation of the agricultural sector in the post land policy reform era. As a consequence, the bean processing canning industry had to rely on bean imports to keep functioning. But this increased the price of canned beans, making it unaffordable by the majority poor. Production reduced for other bean types as well, which led to higher prices and consequent reduction in bean consumption. For example, a good price for bean grain at informal markets ranged from US$800 to US$1,000 per ton.Following the collapse of the beef industry and growing concerns of possible nutrition insecurity in the country at the time, the government decided to prioritize common bean for nutritional interventions given its importance as a source of protein and micronutrient. However, the people had negative perceptions about beans as an inferior food eaten in prisons, hospitals and boarding schools. Thus, changing attitudes and perceptions, especially among urban consumers and producers, was crucial in promoting production and consumption of beans in the country. Moreover, private sector seed companies and canners were operating well below capacity. If revitalized, they could in-turn re-invigorate Zimbabwe's bean sub-sector.The PABRA and SDC project interventions targeted farming households that theoretically have land to benefit economically from expanding and diversifying production, yet remain vulnerable to external shocks, such as climatic or economic turbulence. Specifically, these are households that have the potential to improve bean productivity and expand their area for beans if provided with appropriate technology, information and have access to profitable markets. The project focused on: i) developing and disseminating high-yielding bean varieties that are resilient to biotic and abiotic production constraints and good agronomic practices; ii) linking farmers to input markets, financiers and profitable grain markets; iii) building capacity of researchers within the implementing national institutions, The project was able to reach its target by forming partnerships with established companies (See Table 1), aligning objectives with government policies. Government programmes on compulsory food fortification to enhance nutrition that begun in 2015 2 , stimulating demand for biofortified beans. This in turn triggered some seed companies (Zadzamatura, Mukushi Seeds and African Granaries), which were earlier hesitant to market government developed bean varieties, to start multiplying and marketing biofortified bean varieties. Those companies that had scaled down the multiplication of bean varieties also increased production in 2017 in response to increased demand. The project also leveraged existing viable ICM technologies and mass media to support information dissemination for example through billboards and online; and a well-established input supply chain for most chemicals to reach many farmers with ICM technologies 3 .Government institutions with expertise in agricultural extension, nutrition and gender worked at national level with the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS) and AGRITEX to build farmer capacity on agronomic practices, nutrition sensitization and gender mainstreaming. All stakeholders were brought together and defined their roles in the project, developing project road maps and setting annual targets. The same stakeholders convened annually to review achievements against set targets, as well as shared experiences to draw lessons. Through these processes, new activities were added, while original strategies were revised to serve the needs of target beneficiaries.The SDC flagship project was implemented in 17 districts selected across all bean producing provinces. The districts are: Matobo, Mwenezi, Gweru, Masvingo, Chikomba, Sanyati, Zvimba, Seke, Marondera, Makoni, Nyanga, Mutasa, Murewa, Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe, Chimanimani, Chipinge and Harare. Figure 1 shows locations of intervention activities and sites for the baseline survey.Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020This study sought to achieve the following objectives:• Examine the farmers awareness perceptions and use of improved bean technologies promoted under the flagship project • Assess short and medium-term effects of the project on access and demand for quality seed and food consumption frequency • Evaluate the adoption of multiple improved bean varieties with their associated crop management practices and their impact on bean yield and bean consumption.The study uses two data sets: baseline data sets and end line data sets collected by the DR&SS and AGRITEX 4 in collaboration with PABRA scientists. The baseline sample was designed in 2016 by developing a sampling frame, purposively selecting 15 districts with a larger area under bean production in 2015. Then, we listed wards in selected districts and classified them as intervention and non-intervention wards, randomly selecting wards from each stratum. This was followed by random selection of bean growing households from each selected ward for the survey. The baseline survey was conducted in the first year in 2016 while the end line survey was undertaken in 2018, the fourth year of the project, collecting data from the same households surveyed in 2016. In each period, information was also collected at community level through focus group discussions, used to assess the extent of spillover effects by profiling direct and indirect intervention communities. By collecting data from the same households and communities, we aimed to address potential unobservable effects assumed to be fixed over the three years.A difference in difference method was used to analyse the changes between different subsamples of households in the two strata (i.e. with the intervention and without the intervention).In particular, we compare changes in the selected outcome variables of the households in the wards receiving the interventions (w) and the households in wards without the intervention between 2016 and 2018.Our econometric approach applied a (METE) model to estimate the adoption of bean technologies on bean yield and bean consumption. The technology package includes: improved varieties and organic soil fertility management practices such as organic manure, vermi-compositing, and Rhizobium inoculum and conservation agriculture. These were promoted under the project for their lowcost and technical effectiveness on enhancing bean productivity, while increasing resilience to climate variability. Since the use of each of these management practices was low, we combined the four practices and defined their adoption as use of either one of them. This resulted in two types of technologies in the analysis package, i.e. organic soil fertility management practices and improved varieties. by a household during the 7 days before the survey (WFP, 2008). FCS is an acceptable proxy indicator to measure caloric intake and diet quality at household level, based on dietary diversity, food frequency, and relative nutritional importance of different food groups. 5Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020Results of the study are discussed in two subsections, i.e. 5.1 & 5.2. Sub-section 5.1 presents the estimates of changes in technology access and utilization; bean yield measured by seed multiplication ratio; and food consumption score¬-an indicator of food security-derived from a difference in difference method. Data of 2016, served as baseline. Results in sub-section 5.2 are estimates from econometric analysis of the effect of bean technology adoption on bean yield and bean consumption.Effect on seed availability To address seed constraints, the flagship interventions in the seed systems aimed to increase the availability of quality seed, making it more accessible through innovative marketing strategies. The market activity component aimed to enhance profitability of value chain actors to increase farmers' incentive to invest in quality seed. As part of the impact assessment, we investigated whether there were changes in the seed availability and demand that can be attributed to flagship interventions.Results indicate significant improvement in the availability and access to quality seed by farming communities, which was one of the performance indicators under the seed systems. For example, the project intervention wards saw a significant reduction (60%) in the average distance between the village and seed dealer, from the average of 25 kilometers in 2016 to about 10 kilometers in 2018. The distance to seed dealers remained unchanged at 36 kilometers in non-intervention wards. This suggests that through partnerships created and managed under the flagship, seed suppliers expanded their business to cover more farming communities, either by opening new seed supply outlets or by influencing growth in agrodealer input shop networks. This resulted in impressive improvements in seed availability within farming communities in relatively close proximity-leading to a reduction in the average distance within which farmers can access quality seed when they want it.The project also invested in the production of early generation seed to support companies and reach more farmers. According to monitoring and evaluation data, eleven companies (i.e. Green Trade Seeds, Mkushi Seeds, Agri Seeds, IQ Farmer, African Granaries, Klein Karoo (K2), ARDA Seeds, National Tested Seeds, Zimbabwe Super Seeds, Champion Seeds, and Zadzamatura/Tocek) were supported by the project to produce foundation and certified seed.Seed demand at farm level has also increased, with more farmers purchasing and planting certified bean seed. Between 2016 and 2018, the average quantities of seed purchased per producer, farming under rain-fed systems in non-intervention wards increased from 8.7 to 13.1 kilograms, while it grew two-fold from 6 to 12 kilograms in intervention areas under similar production systems. The DID of 0.95 was however not significant to suggest that the change was associated with the project. In other words, the difference in seed demand between intervention and non-intervention after comparing the two years was small and could not be associated with the project intervention. For farmers growing beans under irrigation systems, there was an expansion of bean area in non-intervention wards that resulted in growth in seed requirements among this group. This additional seed requirement was met from own saved seed. Irrigated farms in the intervention areas increased their seed purchases from an average of 14 kilograms in 2016 to 33 kilograms in 2018. Compared with irrigated farms in non-intervention wards, the irrigated farms in intervention wards increased they seed demand by 8.8 kilograms that was significant at 5% level (table 2), attributable to the flagship project. We attribute this positive effect on seed demand to two factors: the increase in supply of certified seed after seed companies partnered with DR&SS for 12 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020 the project implementation (table 1); and investment into production of early generation seed, which is often a constraint in seed systems.Thus, the project increased farmers' access to quality certified seed but the gains went to farmers in irrigated production systems.The favourable price of certified seed in intervention areas coupled with the ability to manage climatic variation through irrigation enables farmers to increase their quantity of certified seed. The average price of certified seed faced by farmers in non-intervention areas was high, at US$3.3 in 2016, but later dropped to US$2.3 per kilogram in 2018 (Table 2). On the other hand, the price of certified seed remained relatively stable between US$2.27 and US$2.37 in intervention areas. Government policy did devalue the Dollar between 2015 and 2018, with seed prices pegged at US$5 per kilogram, but the intervention areas were less affected since the private seed companies were supported with production of foundation seed through project partnerships. The DID) of US$0.73 was statistically significant at 10%. This means that the farmers in intervention wards experienced lower growth in prices as compared to farmers in non-intervention wards, thanks to the project that was able to save farmers in intervention wards a price change of $0.73; thereby the project was able to cushion farmers from high prices.When the project started, seed was unavailable, with quality and quantity seed access constrained. During the two rounds of survey, each respondent was asked how much seed they desired to plant and how much seed they actually planted. Results showed that in 2016, approximately 48% of farmers in non- intervention areas planted less seed than they desired. Only 52% of farmers were able to plant the quantity bean area as desired.Following concerted efforts to distribute seed in intervention areas, the seed constraints reduced among 11% of farmers. This is to say that the proportion of producers who planted less quantity of seed than they desired reduced from 42% in 2016 to 32% among farming communities in the intervention areas (table 4). When earlier improved varieties, which were released before the current phase of the project are also included, the overall adoption rate for varieties released under PABRA support is about 68%. This means that farmers that have not planted flagship project varieties are still growing improved varieties; the majority of them developed and disseminated by private seed companies. Thus, improved varieties dominate local varieties, but a typical farmer in Zimbabwe grows an improved bean variety for a shorter period of time. This pattern likely reflects greater stresses emanating from climatic variability, making communities vulnerable and highlighting insecurities that warrant frequent introduction of new varieties. Among all farmers surveyed, farmers used the same variety for an average of 6.7 years in general, and five years for improved varieties. However, about 70% of improved bean growers had cultivated the variety for 1 to 3 years. 14 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020Farmers are also using improved agronomic inputs such as inorganic fertilizers to address the problem of poor soil fertility and biotic stresseswhich have been increasing (Katungi et al., 2017). For example, the share of bean growing households using basal fertilizers increased from the baseline of 72% in 2016 to 88% in 2018, an increase of 16%. The average quantities of basal fertilizer and ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizers used also increased significantly between 2016 and 2018 for farmers, with no significant difference between intervention and nonintervention areas (Table 5).That the project had no effect on utilization of inorganic fertilizers is not surprising, since the emphasis was on promoting low-cost organic soil fertility management practices that are climate-smart and environmental friendly. These included: vermi-composite, Rhizobium inoculant, organic or green manure, conservation agriculture and climate-smart information. Other inputs promoted under the flagship project aimed at reducing drudgery (i.e. pre and post emergence herbicides) and seed borne diseases (i.e. seed dressing chemical ApronStar® 6 ). Since information on these crop management practices existed only in 2018, data set comparisons of endline and baseline data was not possible. Our analysis of project performance is based on farmers' reported awareness, levels of satisfaction with the technology and its utilization.Results show that the majority of farmers were aware of climate-smart techniques such as adjusting planting dates in response to weather information, conservation agriculture, organic or green manure and herbicides (Figure 3).However, few farmers had started using these technologies at the time of end line survey in 2018. With the exception of adjusting the cropping calendar based on weather information, the use of other climate-smart management practices or inputs in 2018 was 25% or less 16 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020(Figure 3). Overall, low uptake of herbicide use stems from its high cost, while high labor demand is responsible for low use of organic manure and conservation agriculture (Figure 4). These adoption barriers are investigated further in a multivariate econometric analysis presented in section 5.2.We compared the yield distribution in 2016 between rain-fed farms located in non-intervention wards and those farms in intervention areas. Results in Figure 5a.  these two strata had widened. For example, the percentage of rain-fed farms registering a seed multiplication ratio below 10 kilograms drastically reduced from 60% to about 30% for intervention areas while it reduced from about 75% to about 60% in non-intervention areas. This implies that the shift in yield distribution for 2018 might have affected rain fed farms differently--, with those in intervention areas performing better than their counterparts in the non-intervention areas. For irrigated farms, the yield gap between intervention areas and non-intervention areas narrowed in 2018, but the productivity remained higher among farms in the intervention areas than in the non-intervention areas (figure 5b & d). The percentage of irrigated farms harvesting less than 10 kg of grain from one kg of seed planted reduced from 60% in 2016 to about 40% in 2018 across the non-intervention areas. The change in the proportion of irrigated farms with harvests below the 10 kg per one kg of seed planted in the intervention areas was relatively smaller -dropped by about 10% between 2016 and 2018.In table 6, we examine yield changes among irrigated and rain-fed farms separately. In both systems, the results suggest that the farms in intervention areas were relatively more productive in 2016 and 2018 compared with those in non-intervention areas. However, the effect was significant only for farms in rain-fed agriculture-showing a difference in difference of (DID) of 2.5 kilograms of grain per 1 kilogram of seed planted between farms in intervention and non-intervention wards. This is equivalent to a yield gain of 25% above the baseline average of 105 kilograms per kilogram of seed planted among rain fed farms attributed to the project for rain fed farms (table 6). The growth of 0.4 kilograms per kilogram of seed among irrigated farms was small and not statistically significant, perhaps because by irrigation, these farms were already empowered with production resources. Thus, the yield impact is higher among rain-fed farms, which we attribute to adoption of resilient varieties and better agronomic practices promoted by the project in these areas. Aggregately, the project made an average effect on yield of 11.5%.Food security of many smallholder bean producers is dependent on rainfall patterns. Three years ago, in 2016, the average FCS of bean growing households was estimated at 60.8. The diets were mainly composed of starch and vegetables and to some extent high consumption of oil and sugar. In 2018, the average household diet remained the same, but the FCS shifted upwards, lowering the overall score from the average of 60.8 to 57.6 (table 7). Generally, households in intervention areas had a lower food consumption frequency than the households in non-intervention areas (Table 7). Noteworthy is that the FCS reduced for households already above a FCS of 50 in 2016 while it increased for households who were in unacceptable FCS during the time-thus considered food insecure (Figure 6 a. &b.).18 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020Heterogeneous variations in food consumption that favoured poorer households in the year 2018 occurred in both the intervention and non-intervention wards, but the point of inflection was slightly different. The FCS increased for 20% of households at the bottom of food consumption distribution in nonintervention wards, while it increased for about 40% of the households in intervention areas. The percentage of households in the unacceptable consumption group (i.e. with FCS <28) reduced by 8.7% from a baseline of 12% in 2016 (Table 7).Table 7 also indicates a significant increase in the consumption frequency of vegetables from the 3.0 to 4.3 days per week by poorer households. This is linked to nutritional trainings that targeted poorer households. However, these households are still at a risk of sliding back to the unacceptable food consumption group. In table 8, we compare food consumption by households in the intervention and non-intervention wards between 2016 and 2018 by production system, i.e. irrigated and rain fed agriculture. These results are consistent with earlier results demonstrated in the distribution graphs.Aggregately, households residing in wards without the intervention experienced a drop in their food consumption score from 62 in 2016 to 59 in 2018. However, this drop occurred among households that farm under rainfall conditions while food consumption remained relatively stable among households farming under irrigation. Across wards with the flagship interventions, food consumption increased for families operating rain fed farms. Using the difference in difference method, our calculated effect of the intervention on food consumption was 4.6 points. This suggests there was a gain of 4.6 points in Food Consumption Score, significant at 1% (Table 8). This is equivalent to a one-day consumption of animal-based meals or two days of cereal based meals for an average family. This change is roughly an increase of 8.3% in food consumption frequency up from the baseline, achieved by households due to accessing the intervention. When we disaggregate the analysis by production systems (irrigated vs non-irrigated), the effect is higher and significant only for households on nonirrigated farms. The DID among the families of the rain fed farms was 16.1 points increase in food consumption and significant at 1% level.In terms of meals, this is equivalent to four days of animal-based meals consumed by an average household. We associated the gain in food consumption among this group to adoption of resilient varieties and organic fertility management practices as earlier discussed. 20 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020In this section, we present results on the effect of adoption of multiple technologies promoted under the project on two outcome variables: 1) Bean yield and 2) Bean consumption. The definition and measurement of these variables is described briefly below.Definition of outcome variables: Bean yield was measured in terms of seed multiplication ratio; whereby quantity of seed planted is used as a proxy for area. Quantity of seed rather than actual area was preferred because the former is less prone to measurement error when data are based on farmer recall. On average, the seed multiplication ratio was 11.1 in nonintervention areas and16.8 among intervention farms. Bean consumption is the total quantity of bean grain in kilograms retained by the household for home consumption, plus quantities purchased or received via food aid during the agricultural season studied.The flagship project promoted multiple technologies for managing soil fertility (i.e. organic manure, Rhizobium inoculant and vermi-composite) and new varieties. In the data set collected in 2018, farmers who used at least one of the technologies promoted under the flagship project constituted 61% while those that combined organic soil fertility management inputs and varieties, adopting a full package, were about 11%. The improved varieties included were those supplied to farmers from DR&SS and PABRA through the project. Thus, adopters made their decisions based on a multivariate choice over four technological options: 0) none for none-adoption at all; 1) organic soil fertility management practice only; 2) Improved project variety only; 3)7 Variables in the model and their definition.Combination of organic soil fertility and varieties.Estimation approach: To estimate the impact of the adoption of multiple technologies on bean yield and bean consumption, a Multinomial Endogenous Treatment Effects (METE) model was used. This econometric approach, (used by Manda et al., 2015;Khonje et al., 2018), evaluates the effect of an individual practice and combination of practices, while accounting for interdependency between adoption of alternative practices and possible selection bias (Deb and Trivedi, 2006). Another advantage of METE is that the model can compute and add a latent factor structure to correct for selection bias that may arise due to non-randomness in the adoption decisions when using cross sectional observational data.The METE is a two-stage estimation procedure that allows modeling the mixed adoption in the first stage as a multinomial selection decision conditioned on variables in the main equation plus instrumental variables to account for unobserved variables. For our case, we used community level exposure to climatic shocks, i.e. drought and floods, during the 5 years prior to the survey 7 as our instrumental variables.In the second stage, the model estimates the impact of technology choice (i.e. our treatment) on the respective outcome variables (i.e. yield and bean consumption). As estimators in the second stage, we used ordinary least squares (OLS) regression for the yield function and a negative bimodal model for bean consumption, since the latter had a number of zeros. In the second stage of the METE estimation, the respective outcome variable (i.e. bean yield and bean consumption) is regressed on a set of explanatory variables and predicted qualitative indicator of technological choice from stage one and latent factors. For brevity, we do not present a full discussion of the model and its empirical specification, these are discussed in the Annex.Previous studies on adoption of bean technologies and their impact on respective outcomes (Katungi et al., 2019;Katungi et al., 2016;Letaa et al., 2015;Larochelle et al., 2015)  Estimates of the determinants of adoption of non-chemical fertilizers and bean varieties derived from a multinomial model are reported in Table 9. The base-category is non-adoption of any of these technologies indicated in the plots and in the households--meaning that the farmer allocated their land to landraces without any organic fertility management practice. Results in the bottom row of Table 9 are the model diagnostics and show that variables included in the model significantly explain the variations in adoption decisions. Compared to non-adopters, farmers who adopted a combination of organic soil fertility management practices, farm in low elevation areas, are less educated and less likely to use ammonium nitrate after crop germination as top dressing (table 9). Access to a seed dealer is important for adoption of varieties. Results show that farms located within a radius of 5 to 20 km from a seed dealer were 14% less likely to adoption varieties than farmers located in a radius of 0 to 5 km from the seed dealer. The probability of adoption reduces further to 18% for farms located 20 km or more from the seed dealer as compared with those within a radius of 5 km from the same (Table 9). Farmers located far away from seed dealers are likely to choose the option of organic fertilizers only, which means that these farmers may receive information but adoption of varieties remain constrained. The significance of distance to seed dealer in adoption decision, proves its relevance as instrumental variable.Our results also indicated that the choice of new varieties is positively and significantly influenced by the sex of the household head, and use of inorganic fertilizers especially ammonium nitrate applied after crop germination, i.e. top dressing. This is understandable, since the ammonium nitrate works as a substitute for organic fertilizers. Thus, farmers that use inorganic fertilizers are motived to select only varieties from the alternatives promoted under the project. Adoption of varieties was positively and significantly higher (12%) among male-headed households compared to female-headed households, and increases by 23% as one moves from irrigated to rain fed farms (Table 9).This is surprising, and suggests that given that most of these varieties were climate smart, i.e. resilient to biotic stresses, their benefits are higher on rain-fed farms than irrigated ones,--explaining higher adoption rate. Compared with femaleheaded households, male-headed households were less likely to adopt a combination of organic soil fertility management practices with varieties. This is probably because such maleheaded households are likely to go for inorganic fertilizers while female-headed households are often cash constrained and may prefer less expensive organic fertilizers. Thus, by disseminating information on such management practices jointly with varieties while integrating gender, the flagship project encouraged their uptake by the marginalized families.The likelihood that a farmer will chose to use organic fertilizers only, was negatively related with most of these factors that increase adoption of varieties. In particular, access to irrigation and size of cultivated land were negatively and significantly associated with use of organic fertilizers. We interpret these findings to mean that use of organic fertilizers is likely to be motivated by constraints of soil fertility degradation and those related with unreliable climatic conditions. Land tenure system faced by the farmer matters when deciding on the technologies for soil fertility management. Results indicate that bean growers farming on land they do not own were less likely to use organic fertilizers, but were 19% more likely to adopt new varieties. function, but only the coefficients on varieties as well as organic fertilizers and a combination of variety and fertilizer were significant. The negative coefficient value on these factor loading means that unobserved characteristics that influence these families to choose a combination of varieties and organic fertilizers also lead to a lower yield as well as make these households consume less bean. Similarly, there are characteristics that influence households to choose project varieties only that also lead these households consume less beans. Since these factor loadings represent characteristics missed from the analysis because they were unobserved during the survey, we are unable to discuss these results further.Results from econometric analysis are consistent with estimates based on difference in difference method discussed earlier in subsection 5.1., even though DID method gave lower estimates. The model predicts an increase of 74.5% in yield for adopting combination of varieties with organic fertilizers, translating to 7.0 kg of grain per kilogram of planted seed. These results translate to a yield gain of about 347 kg/ha for those farmers that adopted a combination of varieties and organic soil fertilizer management practices. However, this category of farmers that simultaneously Aggregately, adopters of varieties and those that used a combination of varieties and organic fertilizers harvested an additional 87,14.79 tons of grain valued at USD 13,370,377 from area allocated to either varieties or a combination of varieties and organic fertilizers per cropping season. These results were statistically significant at 5% level. While previous studies have revealed positive and significant effects of improved bean variety adoption on bean yield, these studies did not control for use of management practices that cushion the crop from climatic variability. In this analysis, we attempted to do that by looking at the effect of varieties and management practices when used singularly and in combination. Results reported in Table 9, show that when organic fertilizers or varieties were used in isolation, the effects on bean yield were small (about 67%) compared to 75% gain in yield when varieties are adopted jointly with good agronomic inputs. Thus, there are complementarities between bean varieties and soil fertility management practice, which make them more effective when used in combination.Other significant determinants of bean yield were plot characteristics and use of irrigation. We found that compared to plots of clay soil type, yield was higher on plots with sandy soil, but lower on those that are of sand-loam (Table 11). As expected, yield is significantly higher on irrigated farms compared with rain fed bean farms.Increasing bean consumption is vital for nutrition security of poorer households, especially now that researchers have developed 11 The quantity of bean in kg totaled from quantities sourced from own production + purchased + received through food aid.bean varieties with enhanced Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) content. In 2016, legumes were consumed, on average, 3 times a week in study areas, but less so among households in unacceptable Food Consumption Groups. Two years later, in 2018, the average legume consumption dropped to 2.6 from 3 times a week with an average per capita bean consumption of 5.8 kilograms per agricultural season in 2018. In a multivariate analysis, using METEM , we take a deeper look at the effect of bean technology adoption on per capita consumption quantities 11 among bean-growing households. Results, reported in Table 10, show that the adoption of improved production technologies had a positive effect on household bean consumption demand. But, the effect was significant when varieties were adopted in combination with organic soil fertility management practices. In quantitative terms, simultaneous adoption of improved varieties and organic soil fertilizers increased bean consumption by 9.3% from the average. In other words, households that adopted a combination of technologies increased their bean consumption by 650 grams per person/ per agricultural season. Although this seems small gain, it represent a 11% gain in per capita bean consumption for a typical household, which is a substantial improvement among households that had negative perception towards bean consumption.Other factors also show significant effects on bean consumption demand. The quantity of beans consumed per person in households is by far lower among larger households and in agro-ecological zones of 5 and 6 that are prone to drought and erratic rainfall (Table 12). As expected, larger household size puts pressure on food availability per person. The lower bean consumption demand may be attributed to erratic rainfall in these areas that may limit food production in general and hence lower food access generally. Therefore, it is important to note that central to increasing bean consumption, especially among the rural population, are efforts to increase bean productivity in these areas and for larger households sizes.26 Bean technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers' productivity, bean consumption; and food security: Evidence from Zimbabwe SDC PROJECT ENDLINE REPORT 2020The Government of Zimbabwe, through the DR&SS and AGRITEX, jointly with ABC under the PABRA umbrella, have promoted bean technologies in the country under the flagship project launched in 2015. This study was undertaken to monitor progress in outcomes towards the project goal of increasing household livelihoods via improved bean production and utilization. Six varieties of improved beans were released to communities between 2015 and 2019, two of them biofortified with high iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) content to tackle malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies, while four are resilient to climate-related stresses like drought and disease. These were disseminated together with four varieties that existed at the time of project launch to farmers under the seed system component of the project. Consistent with project implementation data, the study found that farmers had increased access to and utilization of new varieties. Similarly, there is an improvement in the use of organic soil fertility amelioration that are of low cost and environmental friendly, but their use in absolute terms is still modest. About 36 % used varieties only in 2018 and 11% combined these soil fertility management practices with varieties. Adoption of these technologies has a positive and significant effect on bean yields of higher magnitude. This has important policy implications. For example, future interventions aimed at disseminating market preferred varieties can combine them with good and sustainable management practices to achieve multiple objectives. These include increased productivity while meeting the preferences of the market and protecting the environment. Since the adoption of organic climate-smart management practices highly depends on access to information, continuous training of farmers about their benefits and implementation is vital for their adoption.The study findings also revealed that the project contributed to closing the gap between high and low-performing farms. Farmers that were at the tail-end of yield distribution in 2016, have increased their yield and improved food security. Farmers without access to irrigation and thus vulnerable to climatic variability have benefited from resilient varieties and have been able to increase their yield by 66% and 75% when the varieties are managed with organic fertility management practices. For example, of households that were classified as having an unacceptable FCS in 2016, at baseline, about 10% used a combination of varieties and soil fertility management practices, enjoying yield increase amidst unfavourable climatic conditions. As a result, there was a reduction of 8.7% in the number of household classified under unacceptable FCS, from a baseline of 12% in 2016.The study found that the quantities of bean consumed by adopters increased, suggesting that through yield gains, the project has contributed to bean consumption. However, we observed that growth in bean consumption was heavily dependent on own production as a source compared to buying from the market; thus vulnerable to weather variability for many households that lack access to irrigation facilities. Fortunately, the study findings demonstrate that the impacts of the project flew to families producing beans under rainfed system-thereby highlighting the strategic importance of resilient varieties in sustaining bean consumption. As varieties that are more resilient have been released under the project, their continued dissemination targeting to reach more farmers is anticipated to sustain the project impacts on yield, contributing to household welfare. However, the importance of this contribution was higher for households that were able to adopt a full package of technologies that represented only 11% of the farmers. Since bean consumption is vital for nutrition, further gains in bean consumption among rural smallholders in Zimbabwe will require concerted efforts to intensify bean production in different agro-ecological zones.","tokenCount":"6701"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"86cb24e255299f1f24ba0de59f99ca9d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a94586f-a0d9-45ef-9d0f-84d1f30eb397/retrieve","id":"-556540791"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1577b5d3-8118-4d4a-ada0-d3c44c4c2299","pagecount":"10","content":"This study was undertaken in the arid to semi-arid lowlands of Metema district, North-western Ethiopia with the objective of introducing the right animal to match the environment. The Metema district covers 440,000 ha, and is mainly occupied by settlers from the highlands of Amhara and Tigray Regions, who brought the highland Zebu breeds along with them. Rutana and Felata, the local lowland cattle breeds, constitute a smaller proportion of the cattle population. The major problems associated with cattle production are diseases and biting flies, water shortage, heat stress, long distance to watering points and grazing areas. As a result of this mismatch between genotype and the environment, the performance of the highland cattle is compromised as expressed by high preweaning calf mortality, slow growth rates, low fertility and calving rates, low milk yield and carcass weight. Farmers would like to exploit the emerging and expanding demand for beef both in the domestic and export markets, and are demanding for more adapted and productive animals. The Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) project in partnership with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) and Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) has introduced one of the most promising indigenous Borana cattle breed in to the district from the semi-arid lowlands of Borana in southern Ethiopia. The breed is known for its heat and drought tolerance, good walking capacity, faster growth rate, higher fertility and superior meat production potential. Simultaneously, the project partners are testing different approaches to speed up the introduction of these desirable genes into the highland cattle population. This paper reports the processes involved in this new approach and the results achieved so far.Rural Development (OoARD) and the Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI). To assess smallholder marketable commodities and interventions along the commodity value chain, IPMS conducted a rapid rural assessment study (IPMS, 2005) According to this study the total area of the district is 440,000 ha, mean annual temperature ranges from 22 o C to 28 o C and reaches as high as 43 o C in May. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 850 mm to 1100 mm. The rainy season extends from June to September. Although 60% of the district is flatland, altitude ranges of 550 to 1,068 masl.Ethiopia has the largest ruminant population in Africa. Pastoral, agro-pastoral and transhumance cattle production systems are important determinants of livelihoods in the semi-arid areas of northwestern, southern and eastern parts of Ethiopia (Tesfaye Mengistie, 2008). The highlands are important for mixed crop-livestock enterprise, while the arid to semi-arid lowlands are dominated by livestock production. The livestock species and breeds in these production systems have been traditionally selected, over millennia, to adapt to the challenges of the agro-ecologies. The Amhara Regional State owns 35% of the national livestock population. An action research project i.e. Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers was initiated in the arid to semi-arid lowlands of Metema district, which shares a 60 Km border with the Sudan, in North Gondar Zone of Amhara Region (Figure 1). The IPMS project is implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in collaboration with the Metema district Office of Agriculture and Although the original residents are the Gumuz people, the area has been gradually populated by settlers from the highlands of Amhara and Tigray Regions. As a result, sesame-livestock followed by cotton-livestock have evolved as the dominant farming systems. The dominant cattle population is the highland Zebu (mainly Fogera cattle breed crossed with other highland Zebu) brought by the highlanders. Rutana and Felata cattle breeds constitute a smaller proportion of the total cattle population. As a result, there is a mismatch between the cattle genotype and the environment. The major problems associated with this cattle production system are diseases and biting flies, heat stress, long distance to watering points and grazing areas. Cattle production is therefore characterized by high pre-weaning calf mortality, slow growth rate, low fertility and calving rates, low milk yield and carcass weightThe PRA and subsequent studies also identified that there is a potential for a market-oriented cattle fattening system in the district due to the increased domestic demand and expanding export opportunity (Elias Mulugeta et al., 2007). Also, the transformation from a grazing area based system to a more crop livestock system resulted in the emergence of crop residues and other by-products which are potential sources of feed for fattening. As a result, farmers are demanding for more adapted and productive animals. In response to this challenge, the IPMS Project and partners designed an action research program which had three components i) identify potential indigenous breeds suitable for Metema, ii) conduct an on farm study to test the performance of crosses with the local Zebu, and iii) test different approaches to speed up the introduction of these genes into the highland cattle population.To identify potential indigenous breeds for Metema the project conducted more in depth studies on the characteristics and performance of the livestock system in Metema and did literature review on potential indigenous breeds as compared to the Highland Zebu.The focus studies on cattle production systems and on feed resources were conducted by two graduate (MSc) students. A total of 240 representative farmers were selected using systematically random sampling method and formal and informal surveys were conducted to collect quantitative and qualitative data from primary and secondary sources. In order to understand the types and the nature of livestock production system, discussions were with experts from Zonal and Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Offices and community groups in each village using topical guidelines. A semi-structured questionnaire was developed to collect data on socio-economic characteristics of the households, cattle production and management practices, feed resources and utilization practices, reproductive and productive performance of cattle, and live animal and animal product marketing.To test the performance of the crosses with the local highland Zebu, highland Zebu cows from four villages were selected based on body condition score and rectal palpation for ovarian cyclic activity and randomly allocated into hormonal treatment, control (natural mating) groups for AI with Borana semen and naturally mated to highland zebu bulls. Cows included in the experiment were ear tagged for easy identification.To test different organizational approaches to speed up the introduction of the desired genes, discussions were held with communities and officials and two basic strategies were decided upon for the first year i.e. i) natural mating with Borana bulls ii) AI with Borana semen. Borana bulls were purchased from the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (OARI) that has a research program on improving Borana cattle. Individual animals were identified, checked by a veterinarian and transported to Bahir Dar and quarantined at the Andassa Livestock Research Centre of ARARI. In addition, a total of 500 doses of Borana semen were purchased from the National Artificial Insemination Centre, in the outskirts of Addis Ababa. Lessons learned and processes used are described in the results session.The natural vegetation in Metema is predominantly composed of different woody and herbaceous species (Figure 2). Forest and rangeland was estimated to cover 58% of the district.. The farming system also has extensive grazing areas with natural vegetation of gum and incense trees. Sorghum is an important cereal crop. Cattle, goat and sheep and poultry production is a common practice. The ruminant livestock population is composed of 136,910 cattle, 32,024 goats and 1,686 sheep. The major cattle breed is the highland zebu (Figure 3). The lowland cattle breeds (Ruthana and Felata) constitute a smaller proportion of the cattle population. The mean ruminant cattle holding per household was 12.52±6.23. About 82.9 % of the respondents practiced crop-livestock mixed farming system (Tesfaye Mengistie, 2008).According to Tesfaye Desalew (2008), natural pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3 %) were the major feed resources. Concentrate feed resources included local oil extract by products (sesame cake), Niger seed cake and local brewery products. Leaves from trees were provided during the end of the dry season when the main feed resource base becomes scarce. The availability of livestock feed was influenced by season. In the wet season ((June to November), cattle depended entirely on natural green pasture. In the dry season (December to May) the natural pasture dries up and loses its quality. During the dry season, there is frequent bush fire due to the dry condition and high temperatures. Farmers also deliberately set the grass on fire to kill ticks. The total estimated annual feed supply was 833,531 tons DM and 94% came from natural pasture. Of the identified 33 herbaceous species, 14 were grasses, 6 legumes and 13 sedge species. About 20 woody species were also identified as livestock feed. Considering all grazing livestock in the district, it was estimated that there is an annual surplus of 598,258 tons DM (Tesfaye Desalew. 2008).Breeding system is entirely natural mating. About 66.3% of the respondents select superior indigenous bulls for milk yield, body conformation, color and breeding potential, while the remaining (33.7%) of the respondents using any available bull. The sources of local bulls were own (23.4%), neighbours (36.6%) and any bull available during grazing (34.7%). The majority of respondents (62.7%) did not show any specific preference with respect to breed. Only 10.8% of the respondents preferred Rutana bulls for higher milk yield, large frame size and better traction power, while 26.5% preferred local Zebu bulls for higher butter yield and resistance to disease and heat stress. Results from group discussion showed that milk yield potential, body frame, coat color, and behavior were used as a selection criterion for breeding bulls. Red, white, red and white mixture colors were highly preferred. Black coat color was not preferred for breeding. The breeding season for most cows is during the long rainy season, between June and August (Tesfaye Mengistie, 2008   1. Average milk off-take from indigenous cows was about 1.80±0.05 liters/head/day. Lactation yield averaged 328.3±16.56 liters over a lactation period of 5.91± 0.14 months. Farmers reported that feed shortage, infestation by biting flies and the very hot environmental conditions contributed to the shorter lactation length. Mean age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval was 4.54±0.05 years and 18.30± 0.44 months, respectively which were similar to the values reported for Wegera cattle (DAGRIS, 2008). Pre-weaning mortality of calves was exceptionally high and was attributed to the high ambient temperatures and diseases challenges (Tesfaye Mengistie, 2008). Tick infestation, Babesiosis, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), Blackleg, trypanosomosis and mastitis were recognized by the farmers to be the most important diseases of cattle. The occurrence of these diseases was similar between the two farming systems. About 56.9% of the respondents do not have access to veterinary services. Among those who have access to veterinary services, the majority (68.5%) use private sources while 31.5% were provided from government clinic. Farmers use different traditional control and prevention measures for most of the diseases (Tesfaye Mengistie, 2008).  To develop an action research program on gene introduction process and cattle performance, a consultative meeting was held with district administration, experts from the district Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, researchers from the Amhara Regional Agriculture Research Institute (ARARI), community leaders and interested farmers. Presentation on the concept, coupled with video show, was made and critical discussions were held on the possibility of improving cattle production into a more market-oriented system. For the first year, agreement was reached with the community, and interested individuals were selected to participate in the program. Two strategies for gene introduction were developed. These were i) natural mating with Borana bulls and ii) artificial insemination with Borana semen. The natural mating strategy is a common practice followed in the district. Farmers who were willing to maintain breeding bulls were selected by the community and in year one, four bulls were transported to Metema and distributed to farmers in four Peasant Associations (Figure 5). Subsequently, training was given on bull management to development agents and farmers who participated in the program. The AI strategy adopted in year one was uncommon due to two reasons. The first reason was that there is no AI service available in the district, and the second one is that AI service delivery in remote areas with semen from indigenous breeds has not been practiced in the country at large as priority is given to AI using exotic dairy breeds to improve milk production in urban areas. To solve the AI service delivery problem, two AI technicians were mobilized from highland districts for a three-month period to conduct the activity. As AI was a new technology to the community in Metema, a lot of awareness creation had to be done by development agents of the OoARD. In year one, only 43 inseminations with Borana semen took place and 20 crossbred calves and one pair of twins were born (Figure 6). As the Borana bulls were young, only two of them started breeding and additional three calves were born from natural mating by these bulls.Both approaches for Borana gene delivery were found to be slow in the first year, and possible ways for improving the efficiency of the AI system were examined. A campaign style approach was proposed. The idea is \"borrowed\" from the human health sector, where the necessary resources are mobilized for a short period of time to solve a particular problem, for example, vaccination against polio or meningitis. In Metema the objective was to get as many local Zebu cattle inseminated with Borana semen in a short period of time. To accomplish this, animals needed to be in good body condition free from visible reproductive problems, and should all be in heat within a short period of time. The latter can be achieved by hormonal estrous synchronization (Azage Tegegne et al., 1989). Once decided, , training was given to development agents and farmers on identification and selection of cows for crossbreeding, bull separation, oestrus detection, artificial insemination, and management of calves. In year two, three AI technicians were again mobilized from the adjacent highland districts and 318 highland Zebu cows were hormonally synchronized for insemination within a period of four weeks (Table 4; Figure 7). Another 193 cows were allocated to a control group for either insemination with Borana semen or bull mating upon natural oestrus. It was interesting to note that farmers in one of the Peasant Associations (Gubay Jejebit) could not wait for the oestrus synchronization programme and brought 28 cows for AI with Borana semen on natural oestrus.An important observation on the innovative approach for gene introduction was that some of the animals offered for synchronization did in fact not meet the criteria set during rectal palpation. These include poor body condition, pregnancy, uterine infection and anoestrus. Also, a few farmers did not return their cows for the actual insemination because they preferred to use their own bulls for mating.In Ethiopia, an AI technician in a district is expected to inseminate on average about 300 cows per district per year. In our study, 318 cows were hormonally treated for insemination over a period of four weeks only. Such an intervention could i) enhance introduction of desirable germplasm in a relatively short period of time, ii) help match calving with availability of feed, and iii) improve the efficiency of AI delivery service in rural areas. Treated and control cows are expected to deliver in June/July and data on calving will be collected and analyzed to study the effectiveness and economic viability of this new organizational approach to gene delivery for cattle production in rural areas.   There is a huge potential for beef cattle production in the lowland districts of northwestern Ethiopia, of which Metema is one. The existence of extensive grazing area, conducive climatic condition, availability of concentrate feeds and access to local and export markets provide opportunities for the development of a market-oriented cattle production system. The seasonally surplus total dry matter biomass could be effectively utilized to support marketoriented ruminant production in the district. However, the existing mismatch between the highland zebu and the semi-arid agro-ecology has resulted in sub-optimal performance of cattle. The introduction of a matching lowland genotype of cattle into the area may create new and better opportunities for farmers. Such technological interventions to be successful have to be supported and strengthened with awareness creation, community mobilization, and provision of knowledge and support services. In addition, organizational and institutional innovations are key elements to success. Although farmers have traditionally been moving animal genetic resources to different parts of the country to suit their specific purposes, this is a new approach of systematic introduction of indigenous cattle breed to better match the environment. The long term comparative study on productive and reproductive performance of the highland Zebu and Borana x highland zebu crossbreds will provide further clue and insight for future actions. Developing countries may need to re-think in terms of developing strategies for optimizing the utility of their own indigenous animal genetic resources to fit appropriate production environments and to use innovative approaches to introduce desirable genes into these systems.","tokenCount":"2821"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4ef6d4d82aaa77fd94f4390e49f65c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ffaee76-d5ec-4c00-bee1-24a099bdd458/retrieve","id":"-1743555970"},"keywords":["deep learning","genomic selection","multi-omics data","prediction method"],"sieverID":"1ebfa489-19f8-42a2-a1c2-fbb34724203e","pagecount":"15","content":"Genomic prediction is an effective way to accelerate the rate of agronomic trait improvement in plants. Traditional methods typically use linear regression models with clear assumptions; such methods are unable to capture the complex relationships between genotypes and phenotypes. Non-linear models (e.g., deep neural networks) have been proposed as a superior alternative to linear models because they can capture complex non-additive effects. Here we introduce a deep learning (DL) method, deep neural network genomic prediction (DNNGP), for integration of multi-omics data in plants. We trained DNNGP on four datasets and compared its performance with methods built with five classic models: genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP); two methods based on a machine learning (ML) framework, light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM) and support vector regression (SVR); and two methods based on a DL framework, deep learning genomic selection (DeepGS) and deep learning genome-wide association study (DLGWAS). DNNGP is novel in five ways. First, it can be applied to a variety of omics data to predict phenotypes. Second, the multilayered hierarchical structure of DNNGP dynamically learns features from raw data, avoiding overfitting and improving the convergence rate using a batch normalization layer and early stopping and rectified linear activation (rectified linear unit) functions. Third, when small datasets were used, DNNGP produced results that are competitive with results from the other five methods, showing greater prediction accuracy than the other methods when large-scale breeding data were used. Fourth, the computation time required by DNNGP was comparable with that of commonly used methods, up to 10 times faster than DeepGS. Fifth, hyperparameters can easily be batch tuned on a local machine. Compared with GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS and DLGWAS, DNNGP is superior to these existing widely used genomic selection (GS) methods. Moreover, DNNGP can generate robust assessments from diverse datasets, including omics data, and quickly incorporate complex and large datasets into usable models, making it a promising and practical approach for straightforward integration into existing GS platforms.A major goal of plant breeding is to increase crop yield per unit area, delivering new varieties in a shorter time; this is necessary to meet the challenges of food security for the world's growing population, which is expected to reach 9.5 billion people by 2050 (He and Li, 2020;Qaim, 2020). However, achieving optimum performance has been a consistent challenge for crop breeders because of issues such as extreme weather events, constantly changing environments, plant diseases, insect pests, and scarcity of land resources. Accurate predictions of crop performance could help breeders produce varieties with significantly increased agronomic performance and thus satisfy the expected increase in food demand (Bali and Singla, 2022). Genomic prediction allows breeders to estimate genomics-based breeding values using genome-wide marker sets (Meuwissen et al., 2001;Crossa et al., 2017). Genomic prediction is the first step in genomic selection (GS) for plant breeding programs (Bernardo and Yu 2007;Heffner et al., 2009).GS was first proposed in animal breeding to overcome the shortcomings of marker-assisted selection by predicting breeding values of untested individuals (Meuwissen et al., 2001). GS includes markers distributed across the genome for genomic prediction, irrespective of their effects or significance (Crossa et al., 2017). Because of the dramatic reduction in genotyping costs, GS has rapidly achieved popularity over the past decade and has led to important genetic gains in many plant and animal breeding programs (Bernardo and Yu 2007;Heffner et al., 2009;Crossa et al., 2017). Traditional methods, such as regression-based techniques, are limited in their ability to analyze high-dimensional data and to capture multivariate and complex relationships between predictor and response variables (Meuwissen et al., 2001). Machine learning (ML) methods are capable of capturing non-linear relationships within genotypes while requiring no prior knowledge of potential genetic models (Gonza ´lez-Recio et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;Abdollahi-Arpanahi et al., 2020). Random forest, a tree-based ML method, outperformed the generalized Poisson ridge regression model in predicting Fusarium head blight severity in 115 spring wheat lines via GS using 1635 singlenucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021). Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al. (2019) used 2038 genotyping-bysequencing markers to compare a Bayesian threshold genomic best linear unbiased prediction method with two ML-based methods, support vector machine and multi-layer perceptron. The three methods were used to predict days to heading, days to maturity, and plant height (PH) in seven datasets from four elite yield trial nurseries. Compared with extreme gradient boosting, genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP), and ridge regression best linear unbiased prediction, a method built with light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM) had the best performance in predicting PH, days to tasseling (DTT), and ear weight (EW) in 8652 maize lines using 32 559 SNPs (Yan et al., 2021). Support vector regression (SVR) is a well-known ML method for classification and regression problems. This method can take different types of data as input because it can be used with a variety of kernel functions. One explanation for the necessity of implementing many different ML methods in GS is that there is no universal best prediction method that can be used under all circumstances (i.e., the ''no free lunch'' theorem; Wolpert and Macready, 1997).Deep learning (DL) is a recently developed ML technique based on deep multi-layered hidden neural network architecture in which many hidden layers are constructed during network training (Xie et al., 2016). You et al. (2017) applied convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks to predict soybean yield from remotely sensed images. The CNNrecurrent neural network method outperformed methods built with random forest, deep fully connected neural networks, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Khaki et al., 2020). Khaki and Wang (2019) designed a deep neural network method to predict maize yield across 2247 locations from 2008 to 2016 using genotype and environmental data in the yield testing stage.It is now feasible to obtain multi-omics (e.g., genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics) data at a large scale to aid genomic prediction. This possibility offers new opportunities to predict complex phenotypic traits using various types of data. Several relevant studies have used omics data to perform genomic prediction for complex traits in humans and plants (Vazquez et al., 2016;Dimitrakopoulos et al., 2017;Bellot et al., 2018;Azodi et al., 2020;Hu et al., 2021). Most of these studies concentrated on incorporating multi-omics data into a predictive model to improve prediction accuracy. These data not only provide new layers for genomic prediction but also provide a link between organismal phenotypes and genomic variation that cannot easily be captured at the genome sequence level (Azodi et al., 2020). Deep learning genomic selection (DeepGS), which is based on deep CNNs (Ma et al., 2018), and deep learning genome-wide association study (DLGWAS), which is based on dual CNN streams (Liu et al., 2019), have been proposed as methods for prediction of phenotypes using genotype matrices as the input. Until now, few ML methods have been applied to omics datasets in a range of plant species. It has been necessary to use multiple plant breeding datasets to assess the performance of genomic prediction methods. In this study, we developed a new DL method, deep neural network genomic prediction (DNNGP). The predictive accuracies of methods based on DNNGP and five popular prediction methods (GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS) on wheat, maize, and tomato datasets of different sizes were compared to evaluate the performance of the new method. DNNGP is a promising and practical approach that successfully incorporates multi-omics data to predict agronomic traits of large and diverse datasets in the context of GS.Incorporating multi-omics data, we developed a genomic prediction method, DNNGP, by designing an algorithm in which stacking of multiple linear and non-linear processing units in a layerwise fashion enables learning of complex representations at different levels of abstraction. Specifically, DNNGP contains three CNN layers: one batch normalization (BN) layer (included to avoid overfitting) and two dropout layers (Figure 1A). The BN layer is used to address internal covariance shifts within input features. In addition to its multilayered, hierarchical structure, DNNGP uses a callback function to direct early stopping to avoid overfitting. Finally, seeking to accelerate the learning process and improve the convergence rate by alleviating the problem of a vanishing gradient, DNNGP uses a non-saturating and non-linear activation function (rectified linear unit [ReLU]). Thus, DNNGP combines the advantages of early stopping and ReLU. Among the other DL-based genomic prediction methods, neither DeepGS nor DLGWAS contains a BN layer (Figure 1B and 1C). DeepGS used an ReLU but not early stopping (Figure 1B), whereas DLGWAS used early stopping but not an ReLU (Figure 1C).We compared the prediction accuracy (i.e., the correlation coefficient between predicted and observed values) for GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP using four datasets: wheat599, maize1404, wheat2000, and tomato332 (Figure 2 and Supplemental Figures 1 and 2). In addition, 6210 F 1 hybrids of the maize1404 dataset (denoted maize1404_F1) were used to evaluate the performance of different methods (Supplemental Figures 1 and 2). Performance on the wheat599 dataset for grain yield (GY) was evaluated in four environments. The prediction accuracy was evaluated for each method using four, three, six, and one agronomic trait(s) in the maize1404, maize1404_F1, wheat2000, and tomato332 datasets, respectively (methods; Supplemental Table 1). All hyperparameters are shown in Supplemental Table 2.Differences between methods in prediction accuracy for GY in each environment in the wheat599 dataset may be due to the varying levels of data noise and data structure and, thus, the varying features extracted by different methods. Five of the six methods performed best in the first environment; DLGWAS did not (Figure 2A). DNNGP performed better on average (0.63) across four environments than GBLUP (0.35), LightGBM (0.45), SVR (0.61), DeepGS (0.13), and DLGWAS (0.43). DNNGP outperformed the traditional GBLUP method in all four environments; the prediction accuracies for GBLUP were 64.7%, 65.9%, 164.2%, and 61.5% lower than those of DNNGP in environments 1-4, respectively. When there was no dimensionality reduction (DR) step, GBLUP performance increased from 0.41 to 0.54, 0.39 to 0.51, 0.23 to 0.40, and 0.37 to 0.49 in environments 1-4, respectively; however, GBLUP still had lower performance than DNNGP (Figure 2A; Supplemental Table 3). Compared with DNNGP, LightGBM had 36.3%, 53.2%, 37.2%, and 38.5% lower prediction accuracy in environments 1-4, respectively. DNNGP outperformed SVR in environments 2, 3, and 4 by 14.7%, 1.6%, and 1.5%, respectively; in environment 1, the only exception, SVR outperformed DNNGP by a small margin of 1.4%. DeepGS had the worst prediction accuracy in all four environments. Compared with the other five methods, GBLUP has conceptual differences in the prior assumptions assigned to marker effects. Despite the non-linear modeling structure, DeepGS and DLGWAS performed worse than LightGBM and SVR, indicating that the algorithm architecture of the two DL-based methods was unable to successfully capture the non-linear relationships in the wheat599 dataset. DNNGP had the best performance with respect to the BLUP values (0.62), and DeepGS had the worst (0.04). DNNGP outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS by 78.81%, 60.16%, 3.45%, 1557.64%, and 17.50%, respectively. Overall, these results showed that DNNGP performed better than DL methods on small datasets. The improvement in prediction accuracy of the DNNGP method was partially due to the multilayered and hierarchical structure that includes three CNN layers, one BN layer, two dropout layers, and ReLU (Figure 1; Supplemental Table 4).We then determined the prediction accuracies of GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP on four phenotypic traits in the maize1404 dataset: kernel number per ear (KNPE), kernel weight per ear (KWPE), date to anther (DTA), and PH (Figure 2B). The highest prediction accuracies were achieved for DTA and PH across all methods, in part because of the high heritability of DTA and PH compared with the other traits (Supplemental Figure 1); thus, the appropriate features were easier to select for DTA and PH than for the other traits. Based on the average prediction accuracy across traits, DLGWAS was the worst method (0.21), and SVR was the best (0.58). DNNGP was the second-best method (0.56), with 4.50% lower accuracy than SVR. DNNGP outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, DeepGS, and DLGWAS by 50.9%, 48.6%, 75.1%, and 167.0%, respectively. The performance of DNNGP was comparable with that of SVR with respect to DTA predictions but was 12.94% higher for KNPE. In the mai-ze1404_F1 dataset, prediction accuracy was tested on three phenotypic traits: DTT, PH, and EW (Supplemental Figure 2). The highest prediction performance (0.80) was achieved for DTT across all methods. Based on average prediction accuracy across traits, SVR had the worst performance (0.34), DNNGP had the best (0.878), and GBLUP performed slightly worse than DNNGP (0.877). DNNGP outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS by 0.15%, 8.97%, 156.32%, 2.21%, and 12.80%, respectively.Using the comparatively large dataset wheat2000, we next compared the prediction accuracies of the six methods on six phenotypic traits: thousand kernel weight (TKW), test weight (TW), grain width (GW), grain length (GL), grain hardness (GH), and grain protein (GP) (Figure 2C). GL was predicted with the highest accuracy across all methods. On average, DNNGP outperformed the other five methods to various extents in predicting all traits. These results demonstrated that DNNGP was the best predictive method; it outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS by 234.2%, 2.5%, 48.9%, 16.8%, and (A-C) Prediction accuracy of methods built using six different models on three datasets: wheat599 (A), maize1404 (B), and wheat2000 (C). KNPE, kernel number per ear; KWPE, kernel weight per ear; DTA, date to anther; PH, plant height; TKW, thousand kernel weight; TW, test weight; GW, grain width; GL, grain length; GH, grain hardness; GP, grain protein; GBLUP, genomic best linear unbiased prediction; LightGBM, light gradient boosting machine; SVR, support vector regression; DeepGS, deep learning genomic selection; DLGWAS, deep learning genome-wide association analysis; and DNNGP, deep neural network for genomic prediction. Values in parentheses on the x axis labels are the broad-sense heritability values for the corresponding traits. 8.2%, respectively. Prediction accuracy in the maize1404, maize1404_F1, and wheat2000 datasets showed that DNNGP gradually outperformed the other predictive methods, extending the performance boost as dataset size increased. By contrast, SVR gradually lagged behind the other methods in performance. The results also suggested that DNNGP had relatively stable performance on all three datasets. The algorithms were also tested with and without DR, a preprocessing step that is commonly used in high-dimensional data analysis. The six methods considered in this study were fairly robust with or without DR, with the exception of GBLUP (Figure 2 and Supplemental Figure 2; Supplemental Table 3). When cross-validation (CV) was performed by calculating a single correlation coefficient across all individuals after all folds were predicted (Supplemental Table 5), the prediction accuracy was comparable with the results presented in Figure 2 and Supplemental Figure 2.The six methods were compared in terms of their performance for predicting KNPE, KWPE, DTA, and PH using genotypic and transcriptomics data on the maize1404 dataset (Figure 3). In general, DNNGP had the highest prediction accuracy in all datasets and for all traits. For DTA, DNNGP had 619.84% and 16.42% higher prediction accuracy using gene expression and SNP data, respectively, than GBLUP. When genotypic data were used for predictions, the average prediction accuracy of GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP was 0.58, 0.39, 0.17, 0.49, 0.28, and 0.72, respectively. Prediction accuracy was generally higher for DTA and PH than for KNPE and KWPE across methods. For example, using the LightGBM method, the average prediction accuracy for DTA and PH using NPs and gene expression data was 0.53 and 0.55, respectively, whereas the average prediction accuracy for KNPE and KWPE was 0.35 and 0.29, respectively. These results may be due to the correlation between heritability and prediction accuracy; KNPE and KWPE showed lower heritability than DTA and PH, so the prediction accuracy was correspondingly lower. Methods built with transcriptomics data generally did not perform worse than those built with SNP data. The gene expression data had many fewer dimensions than the SNP data, but the results indicated that they could still reflect the potential for phenotypic variation.The tomato332 dataset was analyzed using the six methods to test their performance using diverse omics data (Figure 4). DeepGS failed to generate results on this dataset. DNNGP showed superior performance compared with the other methods across all types of omics data. GBLUP prediction accuracies ranged from 0.08-0.35 for gene expression (GE), structural variation (SV), and insertion or deletion (InDel) data. Using SNP data, the prediction accuracy of LightGBM was 0.13. The SVR and DLGWAS methods built on SNP, GE, and SV data had negative prediction accuracy values, in part because they were unable to adequately capture the relationships between the features and the trait, fruit soluble solid content (SSC), being tested in this dataset.DL enables the generation of promising models to address a broad array of challenges. However, to provide a robust estimate of model accuracy, it is necessary to extend model evaluation beyond the standard analytical framework. Interpretability of DL  Newman and Furbank, 2021). The red regression lines show the orthogonal distance regression (ODR) fitted from contour lines. The differences in the slopes of regression lines of best fit reflect the genotype-phenotype relationships and demonstrate the different non-linear relationships hidden in the dataset. For the wheat599 dataset, the angle between the fitted regression line and y = x was smallest in environment 1 and largest in environment 3 (Figure 5). In all environments, the density plots reflect the non-linear relationships captured by DNNGP to some extent; this relationship can be succinctly expressed by fitting the regression line. The results illustrate that DNNGP was more likely to generate high-precision trait predictions in heavily populated areas of the phenotypic distribution.Population size directly affects the performance of prediction methods and is therefore a major factor to be considered in ML and other classic GS approaches (Xavier et al., 2016;Cericola et al., 2017). We therefore examined the effect of sample size on the prediction performance of methods built with GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP. The predicted versus observed values were compared for all six traits in the wheat2000 dataset for all six methods. Ten-fold CV was performed using 100, 200, 500, 800, 1500, 1800, and 2000 randomly selected individuals with a DR step (Table 1) and without a DR step (Supplemental Table 6). Across all methods, increased sample size was associated with improved prediction accuracy. When the sample size increased from 100 to 2000, the prediction accuracy for TKW, TW, GW, GL, GH, and GP improved by 54.0%, 48.0%, 47.7%, 126.2%, 177.3%, and 12.0%, respectively. GBLUP and DNNGP showed gradual improvements in prediction accuracy as the sample size increased. On average, across six traits, when the sample size was 100, DNNGP outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, and DLGWAS by 397.86%, 23.24%, 81.39%, and 101.25%, respectively. DeepGS failed to generate predictions when the sample size was very small ($100-200). This indicated that DNNGP could perform well on small datasets whereas DeepGS could not. When 2000 individuals were used, DNNGP outperformed GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS by 234.2%, 2.5%, 48.9%, 16.8%, and 8.2%, respectively (Table 1). DNNGP showed very high prediction accuracy for all six traits. The prediction accuracy of DLGWAS increased with sample size, and the prediction accuracies for TW, GW, and GH were negative when the sample size was $100-200 (Table 1 and Supplemental  Table 6). This indicates that DLGWAS could not successfully capture the non-linear relationship between genotype and phenotype when the sample size was very small. LightGBM and SVR had relatively stable and consistent prediction accuracy regardless of sample size. When the sample size was $1000, GBLUP had a prediction accuracy comparable with that of the LightGBM and SVR methods. However, as sample size increased, GBLUP predictions did not improve significantly. When sample sizes were large, the LightGBM and SVR methods were less robust than GBLUP and had lower prediction accuracies than DNNGP. Predictions were more accurate for GW, GL, and GH than for TKW and TW. These findings suggest that a large number of individuals should be used in GS prediction methods where possible and that DL methods should be implemented to increase prediction accuracy.Various platforms have been developed to generate genotypic marker sets in a range of sizes. SNP number reportedly has a significant influence on the performance of GS prediction methods (Heffner et al., 2011). Here we used the wheat2000 dataset to study the effects of SNPs with different p value thresholds on the prediction performance of GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP. For each of the tested traits, 10-fold CV was performed using SNPs selected at thresholds of p = 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, or 1eÀ05 (Supplemental Figure 12). In general, we observed no obvious changes in GS method performance when different thresholds were used. As the p value screening became more stringent, the prediction accuracy of methods built with LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, DLGWAS, and DNNGP did not change significantly, whereas the performance of GBLUP increased dramatically when the SNP number was reduced. GBLUP is more sensitive than the other five methods. The performance of these methods also suggested that fewer trait-associated SNPs could have the same power as unfiltered genome-wide SNPs for complex trait prediction. Predictions were generally more accurate for GW, GL, and GH than for TKW and KW, indicating again that traits with higher heritability could be predicted with greater accuracy.We next compared the computation time (in seconds) required by each method to generate predictions for four datasets to which DR techniques had been applied (Figure 6). All four datasets could be used with all six methods, with the exception of DeepGS on the tomato332 dataset and maize1404 transcriptome data. The dimension of a dataset is the product of its feature number and the population size, two major factors that determine the computation time required for model building. It is widely assumed that DL methods require longer computation times to complete analysis than traditional methods. In our study, however, DNNGP performed at a level of runtime similar to GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, and DLGWAS and could be $10 times faster than DeepGS. DNNGP took slightly longer on small datasets (i.e., <500 instances) than other methods; however, as the size of dataset used in GS is continuously increasing as a result of advances in sequencing, the outstanding performance of DNNGP on large datasets indicates that it will be a competitive method in the foreseeable future.As an important part of plant breeding, GS facilitates selection of elite breeding lines and accelerates the breeding cycle.There is an urgent need to develop GS methods with increased predictive power. Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al. (2018) found that DL methods were superior to GBLUP in predicting six of nine traits evaluated in wheat and maize. Liu et al. (2019) also demonstrated the superiority of single and dual CNN models over ridge regression best linear unbiased prediction in predicting soybean (Glycine max L.) yield, protein content, oil content, moisture content, and height. Similarly, Zingaretti et al. (2020) showed that DL models performed better than conventional linear statistical models in predicting traits with epistatic variances in allopolyploid strawberry species (Fragaria 3 ananassa) and blueberry (Cyanococcus spp.). These prior studies suggest that there is great potential to increase predictive power for complex traits using DL approaches in plant breeding.In this study, we developed a DL-based technique, DNNGP, that is capable of uncovering the complex relationships that may be hidden in diverse multi-omics data to predict quantitative traits in plants. In the algorithm architecture of DNNGP, there are three CNN layers, one BN layer, and two dropout layers (Figure 1). Neither DeepGS nor DLGWAS contains a BN layer, which we  included to prevent overfitting. Removing the BN layer from DNNGP led to a dramatic reduction in prediction accuracy; there was no convergent solution in the training set in most cases, meaning that no final prediction was available when the model was implemented without the BN layer (Supplemental Table 4).The multilayered hierarchical structure of DNNGP allows dynamic feature learning from the raw data, giving DNNGP the ability to extract low-, mid-, and high-level features. An internal covariance shift refers to a change in the distribution of the values of hidden units, which slows down convergence by forcing the learning rate toward a small value; this requires careful parameter initialization.Previous studies have established that BN can be used to address internal covariance shifts among features (Khan et al., 2020). In addition to the multilayered hierarchical structure, DNNGP was designed to avoid overfitting by employing early stopping (a callback function) (Figure 1). To improve the convergence rate (specifically through alleviating the problem of a vanishing gradient and to accelerate the learning process), DNNGP implements a non-saturating and non-linear activation function, ReLU. The superior performance of DNNGP can probably be largely attributed to its use of multiple feature extraction stages that can automatically learn representations from data.We investigated applications of DNNGP and compared the results with those of other GS methods for predicting complex traits in four different datasets. The algorithm architecture design of the DNNGP method gives it flexibility in how it can be applied; there are few existing methods that utilize multi-omics data in ML or DL to improve prediction power. DNNGP can handle complex inputs such as SNP, transcriptomics, and proteomics data. By contrast, GBLUP cannot use transcriptomics or proteomics data directly.To use GBLUP with such data as the input, we built a kinship matrix separately for the transcriptomics data but found that the performance was poor (Figures 3 and 4). Using the maize1404 transcriptomics data or the four examined inputs (i.e., SNPs, GE data, SVs, and InDelsindels) of the tomato332 dataset, the DeepGS model did not yield coherent results (Figures 3 and 4). We tested several strategies to correct this problem, including adjusting the phenotypes (by scaling and centralizing) or hyperparameters (batch size and learning rate), but DeepGS did not provide any phenotype predictions; this was consistent with its designed purpose, predicting phenotypes only from genotypic rather than multi-omics data (Ma et al., 2018).Our new predictive method performed as well as or better than several commonly used methods, i.e., a linear model (GBLUP), two ML-based methods (LightGBM and SVR), and two DL-based methods (DeepGS and DLGWAS), in a broad range of tasks. The high prediction accuracy of DNNGP compared with GBLUP in CV can be attributed to the presence of hidden layers that automatically capture complex hidden interactions without prior specification. It is therefore understandable that, in all cases, DNNGP performed as well or even better than the commonly used linear model (GBLUP). Hyperparameter optimization in multilayer DL models strongly affects performance (Khan et al., 2020), but such optimization has high computational costs. For ML methods (LightGBM and SVR), optimization can be effectively performed using a cross-validated grid search (Young et al., 2015). The DNNGP method was designed with three CNN layers, which reduces computational stress. Each trait requires various combinations of hyperparameters (Supplemental Table 2). However, unlike DLGWAS and DeepGS, the hyperparameters can easily be batch tuned using a random search on a local machine (Bergstra and Bengio, 2012), minimizing the computational cost. In general, the DLbased methods performed worse than the ML-based methods and DNNGP in predicting agronomic traits; this was especially true when the training set was small (Figure 2A; Table 1, and Supplemental Table 6). Because of the algorithm design of DNNGP (Figure 1), its performance was greatly improved as the amount of data increased, and its computation time was greatly reduced, particularly on large datasets (Figures 2, 3, 4, and 6; Table 1 and Supplemental Table 6).Increasing the statistical power of prediction methods is an area of active research that aims to enable more efficient allocation of breeding resources and facilitate optimal design of GS experiments in breeding programs. To this end, we evaluated the prediction accuracy of all six methods on the wheat2000 dataset using a selection of SNPs (Supplemental Figure 12) and subsets of instances (Table 1 and Supplemental Table 6). This experiment was designed to establish the optimal number of individuals in the training population and number of markers in the feature set that are necessary to maximize model accuracy. The results showed that the most important component was the training sample size; DNNGP predictions continuously improved with increasing training dataset size. However, DNNGP also had outstanding prediction accuracy when sample sizes were small (Figure 2; Table 1 and Supplemental Table 6). Our results and some prior studies demonstrate that DL-based methods can achieve equivalent or superior accuracy in GS compared with traditional linear models, even with a relatively small training set. Overfitting is a concern when using DL with a small training set; this results from failure of the model to learn general patterns in the data. A unified genomic prediction method for plant omics dataTo avoid overfitting, in DNNGP, we used a BN layer, dropout layer, and early stopping, which involves removal of a fixed number of neurons during model training.Plant scientists are often interested in understanding the biological meaning underlying predictive methods. This is difficult in DL-based methods because of the ''black box'' nature of neural networks and the large number of layers and neurons involved in model training. We mapped the non-linear relationships of several traits using density plots (Figure 5 and Supplemental Figures 3-11). This approach plays a vital role in understanding DL methods. However, running and interpreting DL-based methods require a background in computer science and statistics, and they may therefore require additional expertise or collaborations. DL approaches are promising for use in the context of GS-aided plant breeding programs. This study opens new avenues for the application of DL to prediction of complex traits in plant breeding. In subsequent studies, more effort can be focused on feature extraction when processing large omics datasets; it may also be useful to implement a graph neural network to mine the internal relationships among features (Zhu et al., 2022). If successful, such approaches could then replace the DR step currently used by DNNGP and would enable a huge number of features to be directly processed within the algorithm. The improved performance of DNNGP for genomic prediction using multi-omics datasets, combined with its ease of use and high computational efficiency, indicate that DL-based approaches can be widely adopted in genomic prediction studies.There is now active demand for DL-based approaches that can be incorporated into the plant breeding toolkit for use in large-scale breeding programs to improve genetic gains for quantitative traits (Xu et al., 2022;Yan and Wang, 2022). Here, we introduced a new method, DNNGP, to predict quantitative traits from multi-omics data in the context of GS in plants. We evaluated the performance of DNNGP in comparison with five popular methods (GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS), using four different datasets of differing sizes. DNNGP showed several advantages: (1) it can handle complex input such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics data;(2) it has a BN layer in its algorithm architecture that helps avoid overfitting and ensures that there are convergent solutions from the training sets while implementing early stopping and ReLU to further avoid overfitting and improve the convergence rate;(3) it performed as well as or better than a commonly used linear model (GBLUP), ML-based methods (LightGBM and SVR), and DL-based methods (DLGWAS and DeepGS) in a broad range of prediction tasks; (4) it had a similar runtime to GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, and DLGWAS and performed $10 times faster than DeepGS; and (5) unlike the aforementioned DL methods, the model hyperparameters of DNNGP can be easily tuned in batch based on configuration on a local machine. The application of DL to plant breeding is an active reseach area, and insights gained through development, testing, and application of DNNGP in this study would benefit future wide applications of DL in crop breeding.Four datasets, representing various population sizes and species with different reproductive systems, were used in this study: wheat599, maize1404, wheat2000, and tomato332. The first dataset, wheat599, is a collection of 599 historical wheat lines from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Global Wheat Program (McLaren et al., 2005). This program previously conducted numerous international trials in a wide range of wheat-producing environments.The environments represented in these trials were divided into four main agroclimatic regions (also called mega-environments) that were precisely defined and widely used by the CIMMYT global breeding program. The dataset comprised phenotypic, genotypic, and pedigree information (Crossa et al., 2010) and has been used previously to evaluate several predictive methods (de Los Campos et al., 2009;Crossa et al., 2010Crossa et al., , 2014;;Pe ´rez-Rodrı ´guez et al., 2010;Caamal-Pat et al., 2021). Each wheat line was genotyped using 1447 diversity array technology (DArT) markers generated by Triticarte (Canberra, ACT, Australia; https://www. diversityarrays.com). The DArT markers were recorded as present (1) or absent (0) for each line. Markers with a minor allele frequency of less than 0.05 were removed, and missing genotypes were imputed with samples from the marginal distribution of marker genotypes as follows:where b p j is the estimated allele frequency computed from the non-missing genotypes. After quality control, 1279 markers were retained. DR is a preprocessing step that is used in DL-based approaches to remove redundant features and noisy or irrelevant data, improving feature accuracy and reducing training time. A principal-component analysis (PCA)-based approach was used here to extract the top 95% of feature variance (Burges, 2009). PCA was used for several reasons: (1) it is a common DR approach, (2) it is appropriate for the high-dimensional input data types DNNGP was designed to process, and (3) it has been shown to substantially reduce DL computation time. After DR, 251 principal components (PCs) were retained for analysis. The phenotypic trait considered for this dataset was the average GY of the 599 wheat lines evaluated in each of the four mega-environments. To exclude environmental noise in the phenotypic data, the BLUP values were calculated by the mixed linear model in the R package ''lme4'' and were also used to evaluate the methods (Supplemental Figure 1). Dimension was calculated as the sample size multiplied by the number of features. GE, gene expression data from RNA-seq; SV, structural variants; InDel, insertion/deletion mutation; GBLUP, genomic best linear unbiased prediction; LightGBM, light gradient boosting machine; SVR, support vector regression; DeepGS, deep learning genomic selection; DLGWAS, deep learning genome-wide association analysis; and DNNGP, deep neural network for genomic prediction.The second dataset, maize1404, consisted of 1404 progeny descended from 24 Chinese elite inbred maize lines using the complete-diallel plus unbalanced breeding-derived inter-cross design (Liu et al., 2020). The 1404 lines and 30 checks, together with all founder parents, were evaluated in 5 locations for 23 agronomic traits. The BLUP values for each line were used to reduce environmental noise in the phenotypic data. Each line was re-sequenced with 11-fold coverage to obtain 11.8 million SNP markers. After quality control for missing data, heterozygosity, and minor allele frequency, 6 730 418 SNPs were retained. PCA was used for DR, and 1056 PCs were retained for use in predictions. Four agronomic traits were considered: DTA, which is related to flowering time; PH, which is related to plant architecture; and KNPE and KWPE, which are related to yield (Supplemental Figure 1). We also used published RNA sequencing data from 392 randomly selected individuals in the maize1404 dataset (Liu et al., 2020), which included expression level values for 39 484 genes. PCA was used for DR, and 209 PCs were retained. In addition to inbred lines, 6210 F 1 hybrids of maize1404 (207 maternal 3 30 paternal lines, denoted maize1404_F 1 ) were inferred by combining the maternal and paternal alleles derived from the complete-diallel plus unbalanced breeding-derived inter-cross population (Yan et al., 2021). Three phenotypic traits (DTT, PH, and EW) were measured in 5 locations. To reduce the influence of the environment, BLUP values were calculated for the phenotypic data in each F 1 hybrid and each parental line in the 5 locations over 2 years using the mixed linear model in the R package ''lme4''; these BLUP values were then used for subsequent analysis (Supplemental Figure 1). There were 32 599 haplotypic tag SNPs evenly distributed in the genome. After DR with PCA, 142 PCs were retained.The third dataset, wheat2000, contained 2000 Iranian bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) landraces from the CIMMYT wheat gene bank; these were genotyped with 33 709 DArT markers (Crossa et al., 2016). Each allele was recorded as 1 (present) or 0 (absent) in each accession. After DR with PCA, 1691 PCs were retained for analysis. Six agronomic traits were evaluated: TKW, TW, GL, GW, GH, and GP (Supplemental Figure 1). To evaluate the influence of marker number on prediction accuracy for all six methods, subsets of 33 709 DArT markers were selected using different p values at thresholds of 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, and 1eÀ05 (Student's t-test). To evaluate the influence of sample number on prediction accuracy, 100, 200, 500, 800, 1000, 1500, and 1800 samples were randomly selected from the wheat2000 dataset.The fourth dataset, tomato332, was a call set (designated TGG1.1-332) from the tomato graph pangenome consisting of 6 971 059 SNPs, 657 549 InDels, 51 155 GEs, and 54 838 SVs (Zhou et al., 2022). After DR with PCA, we retained 220, 289, 3, and 277 PCs from SNPs, InDels, GEs, and SVs, respectively. SSC, an important yield and flavor trait (Duangjit et al., 2016), was predicted in further analyses (Supplemental Figure 1).DNNGP is based on a deep CNN; the architecture includes one input layer, three convolutional layers, one BN layer, two dropout layers, one flattening layer, one dense layer, and one output layer (Figure 1A). The input layer receives m markers (or other types of omics data) for n individuals as an n 3 m matrix. The three CNN layers are the core building blocks in which the majority of computation occurs. The output of a convolutional layer can be defined as an integral transformation and is represented as follows (Sandhu et al., 2021):where k represents the kernel, convolution is the transformation of f into s(t), and the operation is performed over an infinite number of copies f shifting over the kernel.There are four basic hyperparameters that affect CNN capabilities and must be set before training: (1) number of filters, (2) kernel size, (3) activation function, and (4) regularization. The number of filters affects the depth of the output (e.g., three distinct filters would yield three different feature maps, creating a depth of three). In this study, we set 64 filters in each convolution layer. Kernel size indicates the length of the convolution window, controls the step for the input sequence being read each time, and corresponds to the feature map through the convolution process. The kernel size here was set to 4 in each convolution layer. Activation functions convert the sum of input signals into output signals; different activation functions have different mechanisms. At present, commonly used activation functions are sigmoid, ReLU, linear, and softmax. After each convolution operation, DNNGP applies an ReLU transformation to the feature map, introducing non-linearity to the model. The ReLU directly yields the value when the input is greater than 0 and yields a value of 0 when the input is less than or equal to 0. This function can be represented with the following formula:Regularization is a common solution to overfitting in ML and can reduce model complexity. The L2 regularization is applied in DNNGP to modify the learning algorithm, reducing generalization error (but not training error). It is expressed as follows:where J 0 represents the initial loss function, a represents the regularization coefficient, and w represents the square root of the square sum of each element in the weight vector u, which follows the normal distribution with mean zero. DNNGP also includes a BN layer, which can prevent overfitting and control gradient explosion to prevent the gradient from disappearing. The input units of two dropout layers were randomly set to 0 at each step during training to prevent overfitting. Data from the third CNN can be flattened by the flattening layer and then classified by the dense layer. The output layer is responsible for testing set predictions. DNNGP also includes a callback function called early stopping, which fine-tunes the learning rate to optimize the model (Khan et al., 2020).The predictive performance of DNNGP was compared with the performance of five popular methods: GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS. GBLUP is an efficient method for predicting genotypic values of target populations using genome-wide markers. It replaces the kinship matrix based on pedigree relationships used in traditional BLUP by constructing a genomic relationship matrix that is estimated by genome-wide markers. This approach more accurately predicts breeding values. The genomic relationship matrix is calculated as follows:where Z is the centralized genotype matrix, which can be calculated using the marker genotypic matrix M (VanRaden, 2008). The genotype matrix M is an n 3 m dimensional matrix in which n is the sample size, m is the number of markers, and the element in M is À1 (homozygote), 0 (heterozygote), or 1 (other homozygote). p i is the frequency of the minor allele of the i th marker. The matrix is defined as P = 2ðp i À 0:5Þ1 ðm 3 1Þ ; i = 1; 2; :::; m;and Z = MÀP. When maize1404 GE and tomato332 GE, SV, and InDel data were used, kinship was estimated using the correlations between individuals calculated from the corresponding variants (Wu et al., 2022).Molecular Plant 16, 279-293, January 2 2023 ª 2022 The Author. 289A unified genomic prediction method for plant omics dataAfter obtaining the kinship matrix, the effects of individuals can be determined using a mixed-model equation (Henderson, 1953). GBLUP was implemented in the ''BGLR'' R package (Pe ´rez-Rodrı ´guez and de Los Campos, 2014).LightGBM was developed by Microsoft in 2017 and is among the most popular ML methods for big data analysis. It has ultra-high efficiency in handling structured data with high-dimensional features and large sample sizes (Ke et al., 2017). LightGBM is more powerful than extreme gradient boosting, with a short training time and lower memory usage. LightGBM is mainly characterized by a decision tree algorithm using gradient-based one-side sampling, exclusive feature bundling (EFB), and a histogram and leaf-wise growth strategy with a depth limit. Gradient-based oneside sampling trains the single gradient on a specific feature of the sample as the weight of the sample. The specific process is as follows:1. Select a percentage (a) of samples with larger gradients as the training samples for instances with larger gradient values. 2. From the samples (1Àa) with small gradient values, randomly select a percentage (b) as the training samples for instances with small gradient values. 3. For samples with a small gradient (i.e., b(1Àa) samples), multiply by (1Àa)/b when calculating the information gain.EFB can be used to solve the problem of data sparseness by effectively combining several features. The steps for performing EFB are as follows:1. Construct a weighted, undirected graph with the vertices as features and the edges as weights; the weights are related to the conflict between two features. 2. Sort the vertices in descending order based on the degree of each node. A greater degree indicates greater conflict with other features. 3. Traverse each feature and assign it to an existing feature set or create a new feature set to minimize the overall conflict.SVR is a technique for solving regression problems based on the principle of support vector machine (Maenhout et al., 2007). Linear SVR can be described aswhere u is the weight vector, b is the intercept, C is the regularization constant, n is the sample size, a vector x i and a y i value form each training sample i as a couple, and l ε is the ε-insensitive loss function. Introducing the relaxation variables x i and b x i yields the following formula: where u is the weight vector, C is the regularization constant, b is the intercept, n is the sample size, Y is the output data matrix, A is the input data matrix, e is a vector with n-dimensional data, ε is the relaxation factor, x and x à are relaxation variables, and a and b ˛Rn are Lagrange multi-pliers. By solving the dual problem, the final regression function fðxÞ = u T x + b is obtained. LightGBM and SVR methods were implemented in Python version 3.6.5 using the ''lightgbm'' and ''Scikit-learn'' (2019) modules, respectively, and run on a GPU-equipped Linux workstation.DeepGS is a DL method built with CNN layers (Ma et al., 2018). It includes one input layer, one CNN layer, one sampling layer, three dropout layers, two fully connected layers, and one output layer (Figure 1B). The ReLU function is applied in the convolutional and first fully connected layers. The loss function is the mean absolute error index:where n denotes the number of individuals in the training dataset, and predict k and obs k represent the predicted and observed phenotypic values, respectively, of the k th individual.DLGWAS contains one input layer, one input-processing block, one feature-processing block, and one output-processing block (Figure 1C; Liu et al., 2019). The input-processing block has a dual CNN stream.The first stacked CNN stream contains two feedforward CNN layers with kernel sizes of 4 and 20. The second single CNN stream contains one CNN layer with a kernel size of 4. The feature-processing block with one CNN layer was added to integrate all outputs and process genotype features in the block. The output-processing block contains a flattening layer and a single neuron to generate the final predicted phenotypes. The inverse square root unit activation function was applied to add constraints to the predicted phenotype values and increase the learning rate.A 10-fold CV scheme was used to evaluate the performance of the six methods on the four datasets (Resende et al., 2012;Crossa et al., 2016;Gianola and Sch€ on, 2016;Qiu et al., 2016). Each dataset was randomly split into 10 equally sized folds, and then each fold (comprising 10% of the population) in turn had phenotypic values removed and was used as the testing set. Prediction accuracy was defined as the Pearson's correlation coefficient calculated for each fold/testing set and then averaged over 10 folds to be recorded for that run. The statistical properties of this strategy were extensively evaluated by Bengio and Grandvalet (2004). This strategy, denoted CV scheme 1 to facilitate illustration, has been adopted in widely available Python modules such as ''Scikit-learn'' (2019) and is extremely common in ML research (Ballard et al., 2020;Mbatchou et al., 2021). We tested another method of 10-fold CV (denoted CV scheme 2): calculating a single correlation coefficient across all individuals after all folds are predicted (Supplemental Table 5). This maintains a consistent sample size for all calculations. Both strategies of CV were repeated for 100 runs for all prediction methods. The prediction accuracy was the averaged correlation coefficient over 100 runs. The results from the CV scheme 1 analysis are presented in the main tables and figures and in Supplemental Figures 3-6. The results from the CV scheme 2 analysis are presented in Supplemental Table 5 and Supplemental Figures 7-11). We present results obtained using the full version of DNNGP (in the main figures and tables) as well as results obtained from a test iteration of DNNGP in which no DR step was implemented (Supplemental Tables 3 and 6). To ensure that methods were compared using the exact same datasets (with the same dimensions), the results from GBLUP, LightGBM, SVR, DeepGS, and DLGWAS with a DR step are presented in the main figures and tables, and those with no DR step are presented in Supplemental Tables 3 and 6.To visualize the relationship of mean changes between observed values and various features (Newman and Furbank 2021), density plots were constructed for the predicted and observed values in the testing sets.We applied the ''odregress'' function from the R package ''pracma'' to build the ODR. This is a regression technique in which observational errors on dependent and independent variables are taken into account. The R package ''ggplot2'' was used to visualize the density plot. The contour lines indicate kernel density, black lines show the function y = x, and red lines show the fitted lines from ODR. We present the density plots of DNNGP using all four datasets in Figure 5 and Supplemental Figures 3-6 for CV scheme 1 and in Supplemental Figures 7-11 for CV scheme 2.The broad-sense heritability of each trait was calculated as follows:where s 2 G is the genotypic variance and s 2 ε is the residual variance. The variances were estimated by the mixed linear model in the R package ''lme4.''","tokenCount":"8053"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6cb6e184cf79af1088948a15dfd3ab2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6568655f-4615-4053-babb-9900f550dd43/retrieve","id":"2006382736"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11cc5796-e3ad-4d3a-845f-9ca32081612b","pagecount":"61","content":"Information on fish stocks, biodiversity, capture fisheries and aquaculture is inadequate and needs further research in order to make qualified assessments.\" WorldBank 2006 Options for integrated development and management of the Se San-Sre Pok-Se Kong sub-basinsThe present report was prepared for the Water and Food Challenge Program project \"Optimizing the management of a cascade of reservoirs at the catchment level\" (MK3). It constitutes the baseline assessment of fish and fisheries in the Sesan River Basin.The Sesan River is 420 km long and flows from Dak Glei commune in Vietnam to Stung Treng in Cambodia (from Dak Glei to Plei Krong in Vietnam the river is called Krong Poko). With 19,000 km 2 the Sesan River contributes around 10% to the annual discharge of the Mekong. The maximum discharge (4,500 m 3 .s -1 on average) occurs in September and the lowest (250 m 3 .s -1 ) in March. Following the construction of the Yali dam in Vietnam, natural water levels and flows in the Sesan River started to change significantly after 1996, with unpredictable variations and lower water quality.A new methodology combining GIS information, available maps and Google Earth information was developed for the current project. As a result, eight ecological zones were identified along the Sesan River. Starting from Stung Treng, these zones are characterized mainly by wetlands (up to km 58) and then by a long string of sand banks (km 58 to 156). The Sesan River connects with the Srepok River through a narrow rocky corridor at km 38. From km 233 to the Yali site (km 286) it is no longer possible to identify the natural features of the Sesan River due to the presence of several dams and construction sites. Before dam construction the Yali Falls was a natural obstacle to fish migrations. The Yali reservoir stretches from km 286 to km 309 (Plei Krong). Upstream of Plei Krong the river becomes a mountain stream featuring a succession of wetlands, sand banks and rocky channels. With at least 235 irrigation dams, weirs or other recorded structures blocking waterways, connectivity in the Vietnamese part of the Sesan Basin has been altered considerably.The 3S system (Srepok, Sesan and Sekong Rivers) is characterized by a high level of fish biodiversity with 329 species. This corresponds to 42% of all Mekong fish species, for an area representing only 10% of the Mekong Basin. The Sesan River features 133 fish species, i.e. approximately 40 to 50% fewer species than the Sekong and Srepok Rivers. The 3S rivers are also home to 14 endangered fish species, including the critically endangered species Aaptosyax grypus (giant salmon carp), Catlocarpio siamensis (giant carp) and Pangasianodon gigas (giant catfish). Fifteen species are found exclusively in the Sekong River and two in the Srepok River; they are found in no other Mekong tributary and nowhere else in the world. No species is exclusively found in the Sesan River.The 3S system is characterized by at least 89 migratory fish species belonging to 15 families. More specifically, the Sekong, Sesan and Srepok Rivers are characterized by 64, 54 and 81 migratory fish species respectively. At least 41 migratory fish species are commonly caught by fishermen in the Sesan River, and these migratory species represent 60% of the fishermen's total catch.The total catch in the Sesan River Basin is not precisely known and estimates range between 370 and 6,700 tonnes of fish per year. This wide range of estimates underlines the urgent need for a proper assessment of fish catches along the Sesan River. The contribution of the Sesan River to the fish production of floodplains in Cambodia in Vietnam should also be assessed.The total value of the fish production along the Sesan River ranges from USD 1 to 25 million, the central estimate being between 2-16 million USD, depending on estimates of total yield and of price per kilo.The population living along the Sesan River Basin in Cambodia and Vietnam reaches 840,000 people. The number of people dependent on riverine resources along the Sesan River is subject to multiple contradictory estimates; in Cambodia, this number ranges from 30,000 to 50,000 people. Dependency might be less in Vietnam. Overall, it is difficult to assess the degree of dependency of local populations since it depends on distance to a river, household wealth, and level of local development.Fish is still regarded as the main source of protein in the diet of the Sesan people. Estimates of fish consumption along this river vary between 15 and more than 100 kg/person/year (17-53 kg/person/year along the Sekong and around 25 kg/person/year along the Srepok River).There is unanimous agreement that there has been a drastic decline in the abundance of most fish species, or more specifically in the catch per fisherman, along the 3S rivers. This decline applies to species in all families and to all three of the rivers. In the Sesan River for instance Henicorhynchus siamensis and H. lobatus had not been seen upstream for about ten years (though they reappeared in 2010 for an unknown reason). The Srepok seems to be the river where the decline is smallest.With only 20 to 40 tonnes of fish produced in 2010 there is no substantial aquaculture sector in the Cambodian part of the 3S. In Vietnam no detailed and recent aquaculture statistics could be found; in 2003 about 5,000 tonnes (i.e. less than 1 percent of the national production) were produced in the 3S. Actually, 2010 reviews indicate that 70-80 per cent of the catch originates from reservoir fisheries.The objective of the MK3 project is to contribute knowledge and recommendations so that cascades of reservoirs corresponding to hydropower dams in the Mekong Basin are managed in ways that are more fair and equitable for all water users. This project seeks to understand at the catchment scale the cumulative upstream and downstream consequences of management decisions taken for multiple reservoirs. Revised rules for water storage infrastructure management will in particular take into account fisheries and agricultural potential as well as hydropower generation.The MK3 project has two study sites: the Sesan Basin in Cambodia / Vietnam and the Nam Theun Basin in Laos (Table 1). The present component of the project focussing on i) the Sesan Basin and ii) fisheries will:-establish a fisheries baseline for the Sesan catchment, focussing on fish biodiversity, fish production, fisheries zoning, resource use and the fisheries sector; -Identify ecological flows suitable for fish in the Sesan catchment (how much flow should be left for downstream fish production); -contribute to the identification of a set of ecological sustainability principles which will guide multiple uses of water resources and riverine systems; -assess the impacts of dam development on the fisheries sector (how much capture fish will be lost due to dam construction, how this loss can be mitigated, and how much fish can be produced from reservoirs).The present report constitutes the Sesan catchment baseline for the fisheries component of the MK3 project; a second reports will focus on ecological sustainability principles and on dam impacts in the Sesan. The surface area of each river of the 3S is detailed below:  2007), which actually corresponds to the cumulated surface area of all 3S catchments (78,644 according to the MRC GIS atlas).The hydrology of the Sesan River, under pristine conditions and under current conditions, is detailed in the Hydrology section of this project and summarized in other reviews (in particular CNMC 2009). We propose here a brief overview.  We analyze in this section the environmental features of the rivers, in order to identify i) sections of the rivers constituting favourable habitats and ii) ecological boundaries, in particular obstacles to migratory fishes. As noted in Baird and Meach Mean (2005): \"there are considerable differences in the species composition of the catches for fisheries in rocky areas as opposed to sandy areas. Microhabitats in the Sesan River are clearly important for maintaining different communities of fishes\".  A methodology combining GIS information, available maps and Google Earth information was developed for the MK3 project. A GIS-based terrain model was used to i) generate a grid of 1 minute cells covering the target rivers; ii) identify the slope of each kilometre of the target rivers, and iii) identify tributaries and their network. Then using Google Earth high resolution information, target rivers were examined in detail, and for each cell of one minute (i.e. of 1,852 m), the dominant habitat characterizing the cell was identified. This resulted in a large scale and detailed ecological examination in which river slope, access to tributaries, deep pools, vegetated islands, sand bars and rapids or waterfalls could be identified. Combining the slope assessment from GIS and the flight mode function in Google Earth for quasi-horizontal perspectives reveals waterfalls that are not clearly visible on maps and that constitute obstacles to fish migrations.This methodology provides a basis for assessing the impact on fish resources of a dam located in a particular section of any river. For the purpose of that study, the Sesan River was examined in detail from its connection to the Mekong (Stung Treng province, Cambodia) up to its spring in Kontum province (Vietnam). This was done using Google Earth, at an average altitude of 4,000 m. Three major features of the river were noted:  The river was split into 1 km long segments and the slope analysis was based on the altitude difference between two ends of a segment. The resulting map is provided in Figure 5. The analysis highlighted three steep areas (S1, S1, S3, slope >1%) to be examined more closely with Google Earth as they might include waterfalls not passable by fish. Eight ecological zones can be distinguished in the Cambodian part of the Sesan River: From Stung Treng (Km 0) to Km 19 (Kamphun commune): large river (600 to 900 m wide); large sand banks and mouth of the Sekong River. The tributaries of the Sesan River in this section are very short (maximum 15 km) and not branched. From Km 19 (Kamphun commune) to Km 58 (Sre Ko commune): vegetated islands and wetlands (downstream and upstream of the Lower Sesan 2 dam site, from Kamphun to Sre Ko communes); these places might be fish spawning and breeding sites. The connection of the Sesan River with the Srepok River is characterized by a narrow rocky corridor (km 38) where currents must be strong and difficult to pass for several species. Like in the previous zone the tributaries of the Sesan River in this section are very short (maximum 15 km) and not branched.  From Km 309 (Plei Krong dam) to Km 361 (Ngok Tu commune): this section, relatively narrower (50 to 100 m wide), is characterized by a succession of wetlands, sand banks and rocky channels. The size of the river and the abundance of wetlands makes this zone favourable to fish.From Km 361 (Ngok Tu commune) to Km 420 (TT. Dak Glei commune): in this section, the river becomes a very narrow (around 20 m wide) and meandering mountain stream; it is difficult to characterize it precisely; yet it features a diversity of habitats (wetlands, streams, rocky channels, and sand banks) although the image resolution does not allow one to distinguish them precisely. There might be rapids between Km 361 and Km 372. The connection between the Sesan and Srepok Rivers is characterized by a narrow rocky corridor already mentioned (Figure 6).Zone S1 actually corresponds to a series of sand banks and wetlands, and is not an obstacle to fish migrations, as shown in Figure 9: Zone S2 is characterized by a narrow rocky channel more than by rapids or waterfalls, but in this anthropized zone of the river it is not possible to tell from the image whether this is a natural feature or the river bed made visible due to water retention by the Sesan 3/3A dams upstream (Figure 10).Zone S3: as the name indicates, the Yali Falls dam is located at a place characterized by major waterfalls that probably constituted a natural barrier to fish migrations before the construction of the Yali dam (Figure 11). River connectivity is important to fish, in particular for migratory fishes that move between different habitats to complete their life cycle. Actually, recent records show that connectivity in the Vietnamese part of the Sesan Basin has been altered substantially, as noted in: 2003): There are 580 structures of different types and scales in the sub-area 7V, including, in the Sesan River Basin, 238 structures, comprising 61 small and medium reservoirs and 177 small weirs.  WASI (2010): In Gia Lai province alone, 235 large and small irrigation structures have been recorded, including 138 dams.The table below shows the population in the Sesan River Basin. In Vietnam, due to relatively higher living standards and the development of the agricultural sector, the population is not as dependent upon capture fisheries as it is Cambodia and Laos.Actually the number of people living along the Sesan River and depending upon river resources is subject to multiple contradictory estimates. Thus:- Ryder (2007) estimates that in Northern Cambodia, 29,000 people depend mainly on the Sesan River for their daily lives; -an early study for the Lower Sesan 2 EIA, cited in Baird (2009), estimated that there are 28,951 people residing upstream along the Sesan River in Cambodia and another 11,025 people living upstream of the Sekong River; -KCC ( 2008) estimates that the Lower Sesan 2 project will impact the fish supply of around 30,000 people living along the two rivers upstream of the project site. - Wyatt and Baird (2007) estimate that the number of people impacted by changes to the Sesan River environment and resources by the Yali dam amounts to approximately 55,000 people from 90 villages. -The number of villages along the Sesan River alone amounts to about sixty, plus about thirty villages located on tributaries of the Sesan River (Figure 12) These estimates lead to the rough conclusion that the number of people dependent on riverine resources along the Sesan River ranges from 30,000 to 50,000.The Sesan River is closely connected to the Sekong and the Srepok Rivers (their respective mouths are less than 30 km apart), and the 3S Rivers constitute one ecological unit, so we also review here fish faunas and migrations in the Sekong and Srepok.The current review of fish species in the Sekong, Sesan and Srepok Rivers is derived from six main lists of fishes detailed in Baird 1995, MFD 2003, Baird and Meach Mean 2005, Nguyen Huu Duc et al. 2006, Chan Sokheng et al. 2008and Kottelat 2009. We compiled these species lists, updated their taxonomy using FishBase (www.fishbase.org) as a reference, and the result is detailed in Annex 1. Overall, the 3S system is characterized by 329 fish species, i.e. 42% of the 781 fish species found in the Mekong (although the surface area of the 3S, i.e. 78,600 km 2 , represents only 10% of the 800,000 km 2 of the Mekong watershed area). This qualifies this area as being very rich from a fish biodiversity viewpoint.More specifically, the Sekong River is characterized by 213 fish species, the Srepok River by 240 species, and the Sesan River by 133 species only. Thus the Sesan River is home of approximately 40 to 50% less species than the Sekong and Srepok Rivers. This analysis is in line with the findings of the ADB-RETA 40082 study (2010a), which estimates the number of each fish species in each river as 214, 133 and 204 species for the Sekong, Sesan and Srepok Rivers respectively.A closer analysis of the species distribution indicates that among the 329 fish species of the 3S, 91 are common to the three basins, whereas 95, 61 and 7 species are found only in the Srepok, Sekong and Sesan Rivers respectively (Figure 13). In the Lower Sesan 2 project area, the EIA, using local knowledge through posters (PRA) and catches by selected fishermen, identified 106 fish species. However, the EIA also recognizes that this figure is an underestimate and acknowledges that CEPA (2006) identified 130 species in the same zone.The IUCN Red List of endangered species, updated in July 2011, was used to assess the endangered species present in the 3S Rivers. The 3S Rivers are home to 14 endangered or critically endangered fish species, as detailed in Table 6: The above data set combined with the identification of endemic species in FishBase (www.fishbase.org. / Information by ecosystem / Mekong / All fishes) indicates that among the Mekong endemics (i.e. the fish species found nowhere else in the world other than the Mekong):-62 Mekong endemics are found in the Sekong River -24 Mekong endemics are found in the Sesan River -45 Mekong endemics are found in the Srepok RiverThe above species can be found in the specific rivers mentioned but also in one of the other 3S rivers, or in another Mekong river; we therefore refined the analysis to identify the Mekong endemics that are found only in one of the 3S Rivers (Table 5). This analysis shows that:-fifteen \"super-endemic\" species are found in the Sekong River and nowhere else in the world: Devario salmonata, Poropuntius lobocheiloides, Schistura bairdi, Schistura bolavenensis, Schistura clatrata, Schistura fusinotata, Schistura imitator, Schistura khamtanhi, Schistura nomi, Schistura rikiki, Schistura tizardi, Serpenticobitis octozona, Sewellia diardi, Sewellia elongata, Sewellia speciosa.-two \"super-endemic\" species are found only in the Srepok River: Sinibrama affinis and Toxabramis hotayensis -the Sesan River does not feature any species that are not found in other Mekong rivers.There results highlight the exceptional value of the Sekong River in terms of biodiversity conservation. Identifying the species migrating in the 3S requires an analysis of the successive publications or information sources about migratory species, which is detailed below in 4 steps.Step 1The MRC surveys based on local knowledge systematically gathered throughout the basin resulted in a preliminary description of migration patterns for 23 species basinwide (MRC 2001, MRC 2003, Poulsen et al. 2002, 2004). Out of these, sixteen were known at that time to migrate in the 3S system, but one can be removed as migrations are not absolutely necessary to this species: Labeo chrysophekadion: this species, although migratory, can spawn in a variety of habitats, in particular in reservoirs in July -October (Kamonrat et al. 1972, Boonmon and Kantejit 1977, Watanadirokul et al. 1983, Chabjinda et al. 1992) This leaves us with 15 3S migratory species formally identified in MRC 2001 (Table 8): Note: The MRC surveys also mention Henicorhynchus spp. and Probarbus spp. but not at the species level.Step 2 A compilation of the 3S migratory species cited in Baird et al. (1999), Mekong Fish Database (MFD 2003) and Baird and Shoemaker (2008) allows us to identify an additional 16 species. Out of these, two species can be removed as their migratory nature is disputable. Labeo erythropterus: this migratory species is also able to proliferate in impoundments (Rainboth 1996).Wallago attu: Poulsen and Valbo-Jørgensen (2000) believe that this species undertakes only short longitudinal migrations to the nearest stream, as well as some localized movements to pursue schools of smaller fish on which it preys. During the flood season it stays in swamps, canals and streams on the floodplain. The 14 additional species identified are detailed in Table 9. Step 3 Baird et al. (2003) list 28 species 2 believed to migrate from the Tonle Sap to Khone Falls (and therefore possibly to the 3S on their way upstream). Eight of these species are already present in the above list of 3S migratory species, and 20 additional species, all present in the 3S system (Baran 2010), are considered as probable migrants. Among these 20 species, 6 are doubtful Step 4We propose here a novel review of migratory species sensitive to dam development in the 3S, based on i) the compilation of 3S species detailed in the above section and ii) an extensive review of migratory species in the Mekong Basin. These migratory species were identified and classified using life-history ecological information in the following databases and published resources: Mekong Fish Database (MFD 2003), FishBase (www.fishbase.org), Baran et al. 2006 amended by So Nam (pers. comm.), Halls and Kshatriya (2009) and Halls (2010). For each species of the 3S, the migratory nature of the species was reviewed by a compilation of the above sources, and for disputable cases finalization of the list was done by E. Baran based on additional literature. We present in Table 10 an overview of this list and in Annex 2 the details, in particular the sources of information. This comprehensive review leads to the conclusion that the 3S system is characterized by at least eighty-nine migratory fish species belonging to 15 families.More specifically, the Sekong, Sesan and Srepok Rivers are characterized by 64, 54 and 81 migratory species respectively (Figure 14)In the Sesan River, 54 migratory species out of 133 fish species represent 40% of migratory fish; this is a third more than acknowledged in the Lower Sesan 2 EIA (32% of fish species identified as migratory species; KCC 2009). In the Srepok River, Vietnamese experts already estimated in 2006 that \"more than 50 species migrate all the way from the Mekong and far up into Vietnam.A large part of the migrations is for reaching spawning and nursery grounds\" (SWECO- Groner et al. 2006).Figure 14: Total number of species and number of migratory fish species in the 3S Baird and Shoemaker (2008) give a couple of reasons that might explain the significantly lower fish diversity and less intensive migrations in the Sesan River:\"Local people have long recognized that more fish generally migrate up the Srepok and Xekong rivers in Cambodia than the Sesan River. There are a few reasons for this. First, the Xekong and Srepok are both generally deeper rivers than the Sesan, and so their habitats are more preferable for migrating fish. Secondly, most cyprinids migrate upriver along the edges of rivers. Therefore, if the fish leave the Mekong, enter the Xekong River and travel up along its southern bank, which the majority do, they will enter the Sesan River and will soon continue right into the Srepok, which flows into the Sesan from the southeast. On the other hand, if the fish leave the Mekong and move up the northern bank of the Xekong, they will mainly continue migrating right up the Xekong to Laos.\"The second pattern is illustrated below (Figure 15): More generally, the number of migratory species is proportional to the number of fish species, and both numbers are proportional to the surface area of the watershed (Figure 16):  To our knowledge, when dealing with fish catch assessment and monitoring in the 3S system, three sources of data exist:  the AMCF catch monitoring programme carried out by the MRC Assessment of Mekong Capture Fisheries Project between 2002 and 2005 and detailed briefly in Starr (2008). This monitoring includes one village in the Sekong, one in the Sesan and two in the Srepok River.Unfortunately, data from this monitoring are not public and have been processed and partly published only twice, by Halls and Kshatriya (2009) and Halls (2010), without detailing 3S results. WWF fish monitoring in the Srepok River, as put in place and detailed in Chan Sokheng et al. 2008. However, these authors do not give in their report any details about the results of their fish abundance survey; in particular, abundance by species is not detailed.  fish abundance in the Sesan River by Baird and Meach Mean (2005) for the 3S Rivers Protection Network. This study summarizes the monitoring of fish catches over one year by 22 fishermen in 7 villages located in Ratanakiri province. The authors publish in Appendix 2 of their report 50 [gear x fisherman] data sets representing sixteen fishing gears monitored (gillnets of 10 different mesh sizes, castnets, longlines and single lines with large and small hooks, and fish poisoning using native fruits), 1,609 fishing sessions and 24,062 hours of fishing. The full data set is summarized in Annex 3 and represents a total catch of 2,233 kg. This report is remarkable in that raw data are provided in an annex. Unfortunately, the report does not provide any analysis of the data set gathered (the only analysis done consists in dividing catch by time spent fishing in order to provide CPUE -Catch per hour spent fishing). As opposed to the claim of the report sub-title (\"Before and after the construction of the Yali Falls Dam\") there is no analysis of catches before and after dam construction 4 , no analysis of the time fishermen spend fishing each year nor of the catch per fisherman per year, no inference about the total catch per family or village per year, and no assessment of the representativeness of this large sample nor of the likely total catch along the Sesan River. In short, this data set is the most comprehensive available about Sesan fisheries but remains to be analyzed.In Vietnam, as far as we know there is no specific assessment of fish catches along a particular river: \"Fishing in Sesan and Srepok rivers in the territory of Vietnam is characterized by selfsufficiency for individual households so available data on production and economic values of catch fishes is almost none\" 5The general view is that fisheries are underdeveloped in the SA-7V sub-area, and although province statistics do exist, capture fishery yields are not distinguished from aquaculture production. Yet it can be deduced from the total fish production and aquaculture production figures that the cumulated capture fish production in Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Dak Lak provinces amounts to about 500 tonnes (see Table 15), which is clearly a gross underestimate.In 2001 the total fish production amounted to 5,600 tonnes in this area (IWARP & VNMC 2003).The 2010 update of this review does not provide any fisheries production figure, and capture fisheries, whose importance to local livelihoods is recognized and emphasized, are mentioned in the Ecosystem section of the report, together with plankton, benthos and aquatic insects, although a full section is dedicated to Aquaculture production. This reflects the remaining absence of capture fisheries from official agendas in the Vietnamese part of the 3S Rivers.In Cambodia, estimates of fish catches in the 3S and in particular along the Sesan River are subject to a very large variability:-according to the Lower Sesan 2 EIA (KCC 2009), the amount of fish caught in the Sesan and Srepok Rivers (in Cambodia) amounts to 647 tonnes per year; -as opposed to this estimate, official records of the capture fishery in the Sekong alone in 2006 show about 9,500 tonnes (ADB-RETA 40082. 2010a) and actual catches are probably much more than this, since official records do not measure subsistence catches; -the Profile of the sub-area Sekong-Sesan-Srepok in Cambodia by the CNMC (2009) surprisingly does not provide any figure for total fish production in the 3S, although the importance of fisheries is recognized. Such discrepancies call for a more detailed review of catches based on catch per household and population. Baird (2009) reviewed the possible impacts of the Lower Sesan 2 dam on adjacent villages, and details catches is two of them:  Hang Khou Suon village, at the confluence of the Sekong and Mekong Rivers; there villagers claimed during interviews to catch over 365 kg of fish a year per family, out of which they make about 100 kg of fish paste per year for their own household consumption.  Srae Kor village located along the Sesan River, about 50 km upstream of the Mekong confluence; here the catch is estimated by villagers to be around 500-800 kg per year per family (mostly migratory fishes). These figures represent 3 to 6 times more that those of the Lower Sesan 2 EIA, in which the catch of families living along the Sesan River in Ratanakiri province, monitored by logbooks during two months of the dry season, amounts to 0.36 kg/family/day, i.e. 131 kg/family/year (KCC 2008, p.46). The updated study (KCC 2009), by dividing catches in Baird and Meach Mean (650 tonnes) by the local population along the Sesan and Srepok Rivers in Ratanakiri province, finds a similar yield of 129.3 kg/family/year, but it is unclear where the 650 tonne figure comes from since it is not mentioned in Baird and Meach Mean. Last, the CNMC (2009) cites province data about fish catch (in kg) per capita and per year along each river of the 3S system (Table 11 11  Assuming an average number of 6 persons per family, the figure for the Sesan River would be 73.2 kg/family/year.As a comparison, official provincial statistics estimate fish catches at 1,500 tonnes in Stung Treng province (this also includes catches along the Mekong), and 450 tonnes in Ratanakiri province (RGC 2010).An overview of the catch per family according to these different sources highlights the inconsistency between studies and figures (Table 12): There is unfortunately no way to assess which of these figures is the most accurate. The most detailed data set allowing a calculation of catch per family per year is that of the Baird and Meach Mean (2005), but these authors do not indicate the timing of the catch and do not provide information allowing the catch to be related to Sesan families.Relating the above figures of catch per capita in Cambodia to the population estimates for the Sesan River Basin (section 2.4) leads to the conclusion that the total catch in the Sesan River Basin ranges between 370 and 6700 tonnes of fish per year. This wide range reflects the diversity of opinions between sources and underlines the urgent need for a proper assessment of fisheries and fish catches along the Sesan River. Beyond the assessment of local yield, what is also needed is an assessment of the contribution of the Sesan River's fish to the production of floodplains in Cambodian in Vietnam. In a system characterized by massive and long-distance fish migrations, the catch (of adult fishes) in a given area is not a good indicator of the relative importance of this area for the system, because that area can be an important breeding site in which larvae and juvenile fish do not contribute immediately to local catches but can contribute, after a few months, to catches in another part of the system. Thus, small streams along the west coast of the United States and Canadian are not significant fishing areas but are very significant for the production of juvenile salmons that will contribute after a year or more to the intensive coastal salmon fishery. The importance of upstream tributaries in the sustainability of the Lower Mekong fisheries was highlighted in the Strategic Assessment of Mekong mainstream dams. For the present analysis we have compiled Baird and Meach Mean's data and fixed taxonomic problems by i) updating species names using www.fishbase.org and ii) leaving aside or lumping some mixed taxonomic groups such as Barbodes altus/Systomus binotatus or Henicorhynchus lobatus/Henicorhynchus siamensis/Henicorhynchus spp.Then we matched the resulting catch data with the list of migratory species detailed in Table 10, and kept only the migratory species. The remaining migratory species and their contribution to the total catch are detailed in Table 14.This shows that at least 41 migratory fish species are commonly caught by fishermen in the Sesan River, and these migratory species represent 60% of the fishermen's total catch. Baird and Flaherty (2004)   The Lower Sesan 2 EIA confirms this ranking of dominant species in catches by also listing Hypsibarbus malcolmi, Hemibagrus wyckioides, Gyrinocheilus pennocki, Pangasius larnaudii, Cyclocheilichthys enoplos, Helicophagus waandersi, Henicorhynchus lobatus, Cirrhinus molitorella., Hypsibarbus malcolmi, and Osteochilus hasseltii among the dominant species in fishermen's catches (KCC 2009).Aquaculture is not developed in the 3S River Basins in Cambodia. In 2010, aquaculture production amounted to 40 tonnes in Stung Treng province, 30 tonnes in Ratanakiri province and 20 tonnes in Mondulkiri province (RGC 2010). The Cambodian National Mekong Committee confirms this assessment: Until now, in the Cambodian part of the SA-7C zone, \"there is no large scale aquaculture (even up to 0.5 ha) in this sub-area, only a few small scale aquaculture schemes have been implemented by communities with the support of NGOs and by individual farmers/gardeners\" (CNMC 2009).The 2009 CNMC review cites only two aquaculture projects:-\"Development of fish stocks for improving natural fish resources in the Se Kong-Se San-Sre Pok River Basin in Cambodia\", a government project to be implemented by the Fisheries Administration in Stung Treng, Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri provinces between 2011 and 2015. This project is actually a fish stocking project rather than an aquaculture project, and -\"Integrated aquaculture development in the Se Kong-Se San-Sre Pok River Basin in Cambodia\", another five-year government project to be implemented by the Fisheries Administration in Stung Treng, Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri provinces.In Vietnam, IWARP and VNMC (2003) indicates that at the beginning of the current decade aquaculture production was not much developed in the SA-7V area and that the 5,000 tonnes of fish produced annually represented only 0.8% of the national production (Table 15).However, this figure is a mixture of capture fish production (loosely estimated at about 500 tonnes) and of aquaculture fish production. The 2010 update of the 2003 IWARP & VNMC report \"Analysis of sub-area 7V\" for the MRC Basin Development Plan indicates that most of the fishing comes from reservoirs (\"in most localities, fish catching in reservoirs accounts for 70-80% of total fish production on average\"), although the productive nature of rivers and streams is recognized (but not quantified). The report gives some indications about reservoir productivity (\"According to preliminary assessments, fish production at some key water bodies in the Central is estimated as hundred kilograms a year in Sa Thay river, 30 tons a year in the Great Lake and about 100 tons in Lak Lake\"). The update also emphasizes that the trend in reservoir fisheries is increasing (more fishing, more production), and that production of fingerlings for stocking is one of the management measures being developed at the province level.As for the aquaculture sector, the 2010 report also underlines that the SA-7V area features 11 hatcheries units producing 800 million to 1 billion larvae annually, mostly Ctenopharyngodon idella (80%), Hypophthalmichthys harmandi, Aristichthys nobilis, Labeo rohita, and Cyprinus carpio. However, the report does not provide any aquaculture production figures at the basin or sub-basin level, by explicit lack of data; what is provided is the surface area used by the aquaculture sector (Table 16): In the Vietnamese part of the 3S, the fisheries production was valued at 81.8 billion VND in 2000, 115.9 VND in 2005and 146.3 billion VND in 2008(1994 value). Source: 2010 update of the IWARP & VNMC report \"Analysis of sub-area 7V\" for the MRC Basin Development Plan.In Cambodia, the value of fish catches in the Sesan River, like the estimate of fish catches, is subject to multiple contradictory estimates.-\"The market value of fish production in the project area ranged from 545,950 to 781,477 USD. Market value of fish production upstream of the project area was 1,948,680 USD. ).An alternative estimate can be based of the catch figures and the price per kilogram: \"On average, villagers of Ratanakiri province […] are able to sell it from 10,000 to 15,000 riel per kilogram in the market town\" (Baird 2009, p.34), i.e. USD 2.5 to 3.75/kg. From this estimate and the total catch estimates in Table 13 it is possible to derive a range for the fish production value (Table 17). These estimates show that the total value of the fish production along the Sesan River ranges from 1 to 25 million US dollars, the central estimate being between 2 and 16 million USD, depending on estimates of total yield and of price per kilo.To our knowledge, three sources of information are available about fish consumption along the Sesan River and more generally in the 3S Rivers:-according to the Lower Sesan EIA (KCC 2008), villagers at the project site consumed from 0.5 kg to 5.5 kg per family per day depending on their catches by season; this translates into a range of 30.4 to 334.6 kg/capita/year; -according to CNMC (2009)    The dependency of the Sesan population on river resources has been highlighted by multiple studies and authors, in particular in the Cambodian part of the river (e.g. Halcrow 1999, McKenney 2001, Bush 2005, Baird and Meach Mean 2005, Rutkow et al. 2005, Swift 2006, SWECO-Groner 2006, CEPA 2007, Halcrow 2010). All major institutions and even dam developers recognize this dependency:• \"Fish are an important source of protein in the local diet throughout the 3S area, and both river and pond fisheries are important contributions to household sustenance and economy for rural communities, especially in Cambodia.\" (WorldBank 2006) • \"In Cambodia and Laos the majority of people are still close to the river system and remain highly dependent on natural resources.[…] Reduced access to fisheries is reported in all three countries but appears to have more significant implications in Cambodia and Laos where aquatic resources continue to constitute the main sources of animal protein in rural diets, and where there are few alternative sources of animal protein.\" (ADB-RETA 40082 2010b)• \"Fish and rice is the main source of protein and calories for the population of SA-7C, particularly rural people living along the rivers, lakes, and aquatic habitats.\" (CNMC 2009)•\"Fish are important protein sources of villagers along the Sesan and Srepok Rivers (approximately 40,000 people). It is considered that the socio-economic impact from the consequent loss of fish will be one of the single largest impacts of the dam.\" (KCC 2008) In fact the degree of dependency of people on fisheries is not a binary factor (dependent/nondependent) but depends on three main factors:-distance to a river (people of villages located several kilometers away from a river are less dependent on fish resources than those located along river banks); -household wealth (within the same village, fish resources from the river are more important to poor households than to wealthy households who have more alternative livelihood options and income sources); -level of local development (one kilogram of fish is more valuable to people's livelihood in a poor and undeveloped village than in a more developed village with diversified production and commercial activities). For these reasons and the resulting gradient of situations, it is often difficult to formally quantify the number of people dependent on fisheries resources.What is clear in the case of the Sesan River is the large majority of villages are i) close to a river; ii) poor by national standards, and iii) undeveloped, which makes the vilagers' dependency upon fish resources very high. Baran and Seng Sopheak (2010) systematically tested, based on fishermen's interviews, the hypotheses about fish migrations in the 3S formulated by Baird and Shoemaker (2008), with a focus on about fifteen species dominant in catches.Their study shows that Henicorhynchus siamensis and H. lobatus had not been seen for about ten years in the Sekong River, but had come back in 2010. In the Sesan and Srepok, no interruption in annual migrations was mentioned by fishermen. These species have 3 annual upstream migration waves in the Sekong (like in the Tonle Sap and Khone Falls) but 2 only in the Sesan and Srepok (no December wave). Fish move back downstream during the wet season.Abundance had declined a lot in the Sekong and the Sesan. Overall, the pattern shows a rarefaction of Henicorhynchus in the Sesan River and in the two other rivers during the last decade. In 2010, the reason why this fish was abundant enough to migrate far upstream along the Sekong again is unknown.Hypsibarbus malcolmi and H. lagleri were present and considered relatively abundant in the Sekong and Srepok Rivers, although their migration pattern was unclear. Rarefaction issues were highlighted in the Sesan, but causes are unclear. Hypsibarbus pierrei migrates all along the Sesan but its abundance in this river had declined sharply. In the Srepok Rivers it was still abundant up to km 200 and beyond. Hypsibarbus wetmorei was present in both rivers, but its abundance had declined considerably in the Sesan and it had not been seen for three years in the Upper Srepok.Labeo chrysophekadion was present in the Sesan and Srepok Rivers, but considered abundant in the Srepok and rare in the Sesan River. Labeo erythropterus used to migrate upstream at the beginning of the rainy season and downstream at the end. In 2010, the species was still present but rare (a few fishes per fisherman per year). It had not been caught for 3 years at km 53 in the Sesan.Scaphognathops bandanensis is characterized by a dry season (April-May) upstream migration and a migration downstream later, although timing varies. For this species like for Henicorhynchus spp in the Sekong or Hypsibarbus in the Sesan, people mentioned that after years of decline since about 2000, the year 2010 was characterized by much higher abundance.Bangana behri still migrated into the 3S, but was considered absent in the upper part of the Sekong River beyond km 350, and downstream; only a few fish were caught per fisherman and per year in each river.Among Pangasiidae, Pangasius conchophilus was still considered abundant in the Srepok River while abundance in Sesan River had declined sharply. The abundance of Pangasius larnaudii had declined a lot in the Sesan but seemed to be sustained in the Srepok River. Wallago attu was present in the 3 rivers but was becoming quite rare. Although it was still present in the 3S, Wallago leeri was also caught in very low quantities.Overall, this study undertaken in 2010 highlights a drastic decline in abundance, or more specifically in catch per fisherman, for most of these species. This pattern was already reported by S. Bush a few years earlier (Bush 2005). This decline applies to species in all families and to fish in each of the three rivers, though the Srepok seems to be the river where the decline is smallest.The construction of the Yali dam, the first of the Sesan River dam, started modifying the hydrology of the river as early as 1996 (Wyatt and Baird 2007)   lower water quality and impact on health (loss of some edible algae such as Telectadium edule, water not drinkable any more, itchiness, bumps, irritation of eyes, etc.)  decline in fisheries resources (dramatic reduction of catches, in particular large species)Details of the 90 migratory species in the 3S system. For each species the river in which this species is found is detailed. Non-exclusive migratory species able to breed in reservoirs have been excluded. The degree of certainty about the migratory nature of each species is expressed by the number of sources citing this species as being migratory (among the 5 main sources used). ","tokenCount":"7068"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9ab499f0dc5436de09b95378fc6fbac3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a584c831-8e35-47c2-829e-a629b914b833/retrieve","id":"615583539"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4e0d3e9-1d31-4438-91ad-a90ad71586ad","pagecount":"52","content":"The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is a global partnership that brings together 15 research centers committed to a hunger-free future. The research it conducts aims at reducing rural poverty, improving food security, human health and nutrition, and promoting sustainable natural resources management. In order to increase its effectiveness and build on its achievements, CGIAR undertook reforms in 2008 aimed at improving synergies between the various research centers and the other actors of the agricultural world and refocus efforts of the centers on the main challenges to global development. These reforms have led to the development of collaborative research programs between the centers known by the acronym CRP (CGIAR Research Program).In Burkina Faso, several centers of the CGIAR group (CIFOR 1 , ICRAF 2 , ICRISAT 3 , IWMI 4 and ILRI 5 ) implement research under the following CRPs: Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and Dryland Systems.Since 2013, these CRPs undertook a joint initiative to tackle the twin challenges to more effectively coordinate their interventions in Burkina Faso and to demonstrate the contribution of their research to the development goals set by the Government of Burkina Faso for the rural sector. Thus, a partnership concept was developed to serve as a planning, monitoring and learning tool of this initiative and in addition, a common vision, a mission and a roadmap have been defined for this initiative extended to non-CGIAR research and development actors. Building a thematic and geographical database of all CGIAR projects and those of non-CGIAR actors working in the rural sector of Burkina has also been initiated, which was later included in the map database Initiative was aimed at examining the policy in the context of multiple socio-economic and climate scenarios, to improve the policy's robustness, flexibility and feasibility in the face of these diverse futures. In addition, the joint initiative of the CRPs FTA, CCAFS, WLE and Dryland was linked to this process: workshop participants identified how CGIAR research can contribute to strengthening the PNSR. This scenario-guided policy development process is unique as it brings together CGIAR experts and national policy making experts, and links policy formulation directly to research.The objectives of the workshop were to:1. Identify the issues addressed in the PNSR 2. Formulate key objectives of the PNSR (for both 5 and 10 years) 3. Identify contribution of CGIAR research to PNSR objectives 4. Downscale the CCAFS West Africa scenarios developed in 2010-2012 (together with a wide range of regional stakeholders) to the level of Burkina Faso 5. Review the PNSR in the context of the Burkina Faso scenarios 6. Improve the PNSR and first draft on basis of the scenario-guided review 7. Improve contribution of CGIAR research on basis of the scenario-guided review Participants included policy makers, researchers, academics, rural private sector and civil societyThe workshop took place 14-15 July 2015 at the Royal Beach Hotel in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The workshop process consisted of four phases, which will be described in more detail in this chapter.First, the workshop participants were divided into four groups. All groups analysed a specific part of the PNSR (see Appendix 1) to create first drafts for improvement (based on the five and ten year objectives that were identified) as well as preliminary GCIAR research proposals aimed at contributing to the PNSR objectives (phase 1). Then, the groups were reshuffled into four new groups, with the assignment to downscale the CCAFS West Africa scenarios to the relevant policy levels (from regional to national; phase 2). These scenarios were subsequently used to test the feasibility of the new PNSR drafts and CGIAR research proposals that were put up during phase 1 and provide suggestions for improvement (phase 3). This resulted in a final draft proposal that is expected to be feasible in the context of diverse socio-economic/climate futures (phase 4).After the workshop process, these steps will be taken forward in cooperation with the SP/CPSA (phase 5 and 6). The workshop outline and subsequent steps are summarized in table 1. The results of the meeting will be 1) an analysis and revision of the PNSR; 2) tailored socioeconomic/climate scenarios for Burkina Faso; 3) an introduction to scenarios methodology for strategic planning for all participants, and 4) tailored CGIAR research proposals to contribute to PNSR objectives.Within the CCAFS program, multi-stakeholder regional scenarios (see Box 1) have been developed for the West African region and 5 other global regions in order:1. to explore key regional socio-economic and uncertainties for food security, environments and livelihoods under climate change through integrated qualitative-quantitative scenarios describing futures up to 2050;2. to use these scenarios with regional, global and local actors for strategic planning and research to explore the feasibility of strategies, technologies and policies toward improved food security, environments and livelihoods under different socio-economic and governance conditions.The CCAFS scenarios for Western Africa were developed from 2010 to 2012 during four workshops attended by a range of stakeholders from different backgrounds but with a shared interest in food security, environments and livelihoods.The development of scenarios for policy and investment guidance on food security, environments and livelihoods in West Africa focused initially on Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Ghana from the early 2010s up to 2050 while also covering the entire ECOWAS region.The main steps were to set a suitable time horizon and then to identify the key drivers of change. The participants set the time horizon at 2030, since they felt this would allow sufficient time for planning at the regional level while still developing fairly detailed narratives. Later, the scenarios were extended to 2050 to Participants then identified the key drivers of future change, selecting those relevant to food security, environments and livelihoods, and listing them according to their importance and to the level of uncertainty associated with them. Climate change was not included among these drivers since this factor of change, while of central importance to CCAFS and its partners, is introduced in the quantitative modelling as an integrated dimension of the scenarios.Two drivers were considered highly relevant for future food security, environments and livelihoods in West Africa, but with high levels of uncertainty attached to them: -whether short-term or long-term priorities dominate in regional governance whether state or non-state actors are the driving force of change in the region These two 'uncertain' drivers were used to structure four scenarios. An artist impression of these scenarios by André Daniel Tabsoba is displayed in figure 1.Globally, the CCAFS scenarios program works with 240 partner organizations who through the use of scenarios have identified 81 policy impact pathways. The scenarios program is supported by global partners such as FAO, UNEP-WCMC, Oxfam GB and by regional economic bodies and national partners in its regions.Within the CCAFS program, combined regional socio-economic/climate scenarios have been developed with a wide range of stakeholders in East and West Africa, as well as South Asia, Southeast Asia and Latin America. For East Africa, a set of qualitative scenarios up to 2050 was developed in close collaboration with regional stakeholders. Subsequently, these scenarios have been quantified using two agricultural economic models: GLOBIOM, developed by IIASA, and IMPACT, developed by IFPRI. The CCAFS scenarios project focuses strongly on the use of scenarios for decision making to achieve better policies and investments. In East Africa, government policies and action plans have been tested and developed to be feasible in the face of the challenges posed by the combined socio-economic and climate scenarios. Subsequently, maps on land use, ecosystem services and biodiversity have been developed in collaboration with UNEP WCMC. These maps were used by regional decision-makers to start to review and propose improvements to strategies.The CCAFS Scenarios team in Latin America worked together with experts and decision makers from Honduras, Belize, Guatemala, Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua to develop four regional scenarios. Thereafter, a national scenario-guided policy workshop was held in Honduras. Participants, including representatives from the Secretariat of Agriculture and Livestock (SAG), first reviewed the Strategy for risk management and climate change adaptation (2015-2019) for the sector of agriculture and livestock. Then, they downscaled and tailored the regional scenarios to the context of Honduras. In addition, they were informed about quantitative model results per regional scenario. The next step was testing the robustness of the Strategy in the face of the four downscaled scenarios. The participants identified the main barriers for the Strategy and enabling factors in each scenario. On basis of this, they formulated recommendations to improve the effectiveness of the strategies' milestones, objectives and action points (see figure 2 for a schematic representation of the workshop process). These recommendations were integrally implemented in the Strategy, resulting in the following:  An entirely new strategic objective within the strategy; focused on training for farmers in adaptation measures in increase production capacity  Other elements that were added to the strategy were the improvement of agro-climatic information systems; early warning systems; and land use planning  Its original focus on stimulating aquaculture production was expanded to other types of livestock During this session participants were subdivided into four groups, each addressing one of the four policy themes (or axes, as they are called in the PNSR). They came up with long-term (10 years)and short-term (5 years) objectives the PNSR should be working towards. The group discusses how it can be improved. Secondly, the key issues addressed by each new draft of the PNSR themes were identified. These issues were aggregated into a single list, to be used in the tailoring of the scenarios the next day.  The next step was to define the timeline, who is responsible and where the funding is coming from. This resulted in a new draft of the theme (or axis).Axis 1. Before this session, participants were assigned to new groups, each dedicated to one of the four CCAFS West Africa scenarios. Participants examined and downscaled the West Africa scenarios to the national level of Burkina Faso during this session.This scenario applied to Burkina Faso means that the government is playing a strong role in the socio-economic development of country by setting up policies and strategies based on short term priorities. The country's development goals include increasing food security and reducing poverty of population. As the economy of Burkina Faso is based on agriculture and natural resource exploitation, the short term priority will lead to the development of an agri-business and mining sector. These are the two key sectors that can contribute more easily to reach quick fixes, and fast gains and cash are the priority. The agribusiness sector could be developed in a planned way through the development of \"growth hubs\" or \"pôle de croissance\". It could also be developed through individual initiative. In both cases the agribusiness sector will grow fast. Small farmers will lose their farm lands and will instead become farm workers (employees). Agribusiness farmers will produce mainly export crops. The staple crop will be neglected. This will exacerbate the food insecurity in the rural area. The agribusiness sector will use more chemical inputs leading to environmental problems (water and soil pollution). It also need large space leading to deforestation and land grabbing of small farmers.The development of the mining sector will be based mainly on gold as it is the first export product of the country. The use of chemical products in mining sector will increase the environmental problems. The mining sector will provide income to the country (taxes) but due to the bad governance the resource will not be used properly for the development issue. Most of the mining companies are held by foreigners.Agribusiness and mining development will exacerbate the land problem (speculation on lands, conflicts between agriculturalists and pastoralists, conflicts between crop farmers and miners)as well as environment degradation (water and soil pollution from the use of pesticides and mining product, deforestation, forest and land degradation).The unsustainable use of chemicals products in agriculture and mining will increase the environmental problem (water pollution, deforestation, forest and land degradation). This will decrease the availability of suitable cropping lands and also reduce the productivity of small farmers.Food security and sovereignty will not be achieved through this scenario. The government will try to mobilize foreign aid money to solve the food crises. It takes some social measures (including food donation, sale of food at subsidised prices) against expense live (\"vie chère\") and food crises.These measures are not sustainable and could cause social trouble in the medium term. To conclude, the scenario Cash Control Calories will not allow the country to achieve a sustainable food security and sovereignty during the five years period of the PNSR. Likewise, structural development constraints will remain. This includes energy problems (shortages, polluting forms of energy), lack of infrastructures and mal governance (leading to fraud, corruption, security problems and civil unrest).This is a scenario in which state actors are dominant and where long-term priorities prevail in Burkina Faso with a vision for 2025. It explores a future that is characterized by a slow, difficult, uncertain and often painful transition to sustainable governance of food security, environment and livelihoods following the popular uprising that saw the departure of former and long ruling head of state.The transition government aims to set the nation on a pathway towards self-determination and economic independence. Some of the choices made are contradictory to the advice or policies of the International Monetary Fund, the European Union and other important donors. However, the current nationalistic spirit leads people to believe strongly in a new Burkina Faso that determines not only its own vision for development, but also its strategies and targets. As a result, most donors leave Burkina Faso, drastically reducing funding support to rural sector programs, projects and research.Unable to keep up with short term costs for rural sector investment, government cuts spending on rural sector services and capacity building resulting in reduction of soil fertility, decreased efficiency of early warning systems for climate variability or for locust invasions, reduced access to capital and production equipment, and overall lower productivity and export capacity.Government measures focus on short-term priorities; certain actions for medium to long term are postponed: issues such as gender mainstreaming are postponed for medium to long term, and survival of households is the priority. Public service employment is cut down and the private sector and civil society organizations are shrinking as people make greater efforts to produce locally and conduct local research for development.By 2018, rapid degradation of forests and other natural resources is observed as people struggle to increase economic output by increasing land converted to agriculture, grazing and mining.With the absence of international \"watchdogs\", corruption is rife and a gradually growing awareness of negative implications for a resource poor country, induces a government crackdown and review of governance standards and requirements. Testing of alternative income sources by the government leads to increased taxes and tax recovery, issuing of government bonds, reduction in state spending and sensitization on the need for a national change in mentality.At the same time, improved regional cooperation allows for more trade across national Hence the initial \"Save Yourself\" situation in the short run will eventually evolve into a thriving Burkina Faso which governance aimed at self-determination.In this scenario, while State is not dominant in the interplay between actors, it ensures its The dynamism of the emerging private sector in agricultural production and processing as well as in agricultural service provision creates some prosperity, with often some tendencies from this actor to corruption practices with state officers and agencies so that to generate further profits from its businesses. But fortunately, these practices are very limited because of the activism and lobbying of civil society as well as the pressure of a much more aware population which is demanding for good governance and accountability in the management of public affairs. The legal and regulatory environment put in place by the State and which guarantee particularly land security for the private sector in order to attract its investments in the rural sector, protects also land ownership by smallholders. Overall, improvement in land security for all actors in rural sector is favorable to a smooth implementation of PNSR.Overall, the scenario \"Civil society at the rescue?\" is conducive to the actions set in axis 1. However in a hypothesis where the private sector takes a bigger share in agricultural sector (both in production and in provision of farm inputs and equipment), some actions may face trouble:-While the dynamism of the private sector ensures that farm inputs are widely available on the markets, the quality of these farm inputs may not always meet the required standard due to the combination of the following factors: the tendency of the private providers to search for maximum profits and the weakness of State agencies to ensure enforcement of the regulation in place. This may affect negatively crop yields, and therefore may slow to some extent the expected increase of productivity and production agricultural.-Always with the tendency to maximize its profits, the private sector may focus on a limited number of cash crops that it could in addition dedicated primarily for the export market, hence a risk of compromising the objective of diversification of agricultural production.-Diversification of agricultural production also relies on off-season crops, therefore irrigation farming in the climatic context of Burkina Faso. Building dams and irrigation infrastructures to allow irrigation farming require huge financing. The State is not strong enough to mobilize such financing and the private sector is not willing to put money in such kind of decisive investments for local development. By means of vigorous and lasting campaigns toward the Government, NGOs and POs may oblige it to take its responsibilities and to seek means to realize these investments and so get their realization ultimately in the long term.Overall, the scenario is favorable to this axis with the increasing power of the producer organizations which work toward this objectives. However without a constant effort to increase the organizational and institutional capacities of these producer organizations, the benefits generated along the agro-sylvo-pastoral products value chains might be inequitably captured by the private sector within or outside the country at the expense of the producers. to ensure that the legal and regulatory provisions the protection of natural resources are applied or that the necessary public investments in this area are made will not help achieve the objectives of this axis.-Another challenge here is to meet the growing demand for natural resources of both the producer organizations and the emerging private sector to achieve agricultural production for food security and natural resource-based income/profit generation.Axis 4: IMPROVE ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER AND LIFE FRAMEWORK While many NGOs are very active in the area of this axis, and that there are windows for private sector to be involved in several actions of this axis, all things that will benefit the axis, some other actions fall in the areas of competencies and sovereignty of the State and the local authorities. The fact that the State does not always have the financial resources to ensure that the necessary public investments in this area are made might compromise some achievements of this axis.Twelve general elements characterizing this scenario in Burkina Faso were identified by the participants:1. Weak/passive unstable State Impact of this scenario on the implementation of the PNSR Under the scenario \"Save yourself\" -\"Zoe M Bass Taaba\" axis 1 of the PNSR shows a situation of low capacity of the actors to deal with the impacts of climate conditions in the short to medium term, also a low government subsidy on fertilizers and equipment, which will result in speculation.There will also be an exacerbation of land conflicts and a drop in production and yields in the short term (Axe1; 1.1). In this scenario too, the fodder shortage leads to an increase in cattle feed prices, a drop in productivity and quality, lack of infrastructures and insufficient technical supervision of human resources. All this, happening in the short term (Axis 1; 1.2 and 1.3). In this scenario, we will face, in the medium term, a lack of construction of new hydro-agricultural facilities, low mobilization of surface water and groundwater resources, low national research activity and shift in research by major international research groups. In the short term, we will face a lack of maintenance of existing facilities, a lack of development of new areas and most likely, an inability to manage food crisis (Axis 1, 1.4 and 1.5).Axis 2 (2.1) of the PNSR will face a lack of funding in the short term. While in the medium term, we see, a poor access to formal markets resulting in the emergence of black markets, the proliferation of rogue traders and scarcity of local products.Axis 3 (3.1; 3.2; 3.3; 3.4), will face an accelerated degradation of natural resources, the nonapplication of legislations on environmental governance and an exacerbation of conflicts relating to the use of natural resources over the medium term. We observe an uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources (water -forest -mines, etc.) in the short term.Axis 4 will see a lower access rate to drinking water in the short term. The lack and degradation of drinking water catchment, treatment, distribution and waste water drainage facilities will also result in a deteriorated health situation in the medium term. We will be in a situation of deterioration of living environments (air, water pollution, etc.) in the short and medium term. In conclusion this scenario presents poor management and governance (Axis 5).Subsequently, participants reviewed the PNSR themes by means of the four different scenarios.They examined which elements of the policy should be improved to work in each of the Burkina Faso scenarios.What elements would not work or be difficult to achieve?Insights from the scenario -How does this assessment follow from the logic of the scenario?Recommendations -How should it be improved?It is not possible to achieve food security and sovereignty through the scenario 1-In rural area, people will face to food deficit in term of quality and quantity -In urban area, people will face to food deficit in term of quality -Securing the land tenure for small holders farms -Enhance livestock productivity for small farmers and develop and adopt production norms (zootechnical code) -Creating and boosting local committees for water management; -Implementing crop insurance related to the climate 1.1 Sustainable development of agricultural production -From the scenario CCC, it will be difficult to ensure access to agricultural inputs and equipment for the small farmers.From the scenario the situation will be characterized by : -More conflicts for land access and use ; -Better access to farm equipment and inputs mainly for the agribusiness sector but not for small farmers -Reduction of the use of organic manure -Increase of yield for export crops -Decrease of cereal production due to the land competitiveness between cash/export and staple crops -Decrease of soils fertility due to the development of agribusiness.-Securing the land tenure for small holders farms -Ensure access to equipment and inputs by small farmers.It will not be possible to improve livestock productivity for the small farmersWe expect the intensification of livestock production in agribusiness sector for specific products (milk, meet, eggs production) using exotic breeds, livestock and veterinary inputs and by developing investment in market infrastructures. This will lead to an increase of the productivity and the competitiveness of farm products for Enhance livestock productivity for small farmers and develop and adopt production norms (zootechnical code)export. The small farming will be neglected.-The veterinary public health will be deteriorated because of use of doping products in animal feeds.-The local markets will be flooded with a farm lower quality products.Develop and adopt production norms (zootechnical code)-More conflicts for water use -Water pollution by pesticides -Poor functioning of local committee of water management Creating and boosting local committees for water management to avoid conflictsShort-term management of food crises through food aids and social measures Implementing crop insurance to secure productionDecrease of rural population's incomes as they will not be part of the development of agribusiness sector and will not benefit from the potential markets. They will lose his lands and will be transformed in farm workers.- No specific recommendation for the axis 4-Drinking water will be improved. This will decrease waterborne diseases.-However in the framework of social responsibility, agribusiness enterprises, could invest to improve sanitation.No specific recommendationDegradation of the life framework due to the increase of greenhouse gases and pollution. This will increase diseases including respiratory diseases.No specific recommendation In a hypothesis where the private sector takes a bigger share in agricultural sector (both in production and in provision of farm inputs and equipment), some actions face some trouble:-while the dynamism of the private sector ensures that farm inputs are widely available on the markets, the quality of these farm inputs may not always meet the required standard due to the combination of the following factors: the tendency of the private providers to search for maximum profits and the weakness of State agencies to ensure enforcement of the regulation in place. To some extent, this may affect negatively crop yields, and therefore may slow to some extent the expected increase of productivity and production agricultural.-Always with the tendency to maximize its profits, the private sector may focus on a limited number of cash crops that it could in addition dedicated primarily for the export market, hence a risk of compromising the objective of diversification of agricultural production.-Diversification of agricultural production also relies on off-season crops, therefore irrigation farming in the climatic context of Burkina Finally, participants reconvened in their original groups subdivided by PNSR theme. They received the scenario-guided recommendations and summarized how the PNSR theme at hand can be improved in order to be likely to work in each of the scenarios. Accelerate the establishment of modern slaughterhouses at regional levelSP 1.1. actions 7 and 8 will not work in the axis 1 :The research is based mostly in external support. There is not enough fund for basic research.Remove the actions 7 and 8 and replace them by dissemination of research findings / outputsThe action 5 will not work : with the decrease in external funding, it will be difficult to provide inputs to famers for news crop cultivationThe action 4 of the SP 1.2, should disappear in the short term.-Limited resources (fund) leading import difficulties and promotion exotic breed Focus on the action 3 in the short term period Actions 6 and 7 should be merged: there is no sense to separate themTo revisit the action 6 of SP 1.4:With a limited budget, it is better to reduce our expectations.Reduce the number of damsWeaknesses How can they be supported/overcomePoor diversification of sources of rural incomes -Put in place a rural credit mechanism by non-state actors for producers -Put in place a support system for producers by nonstate actorsNone NoneBecause rural populations are not able to enter the agrobusiness sector and benefit from the advantages of the associated potential market, their revenues decrease. They are dispossessed of their lands while they have no possibility of reconversion into another job.-Develop road infrastructure to facilitate trade of agricultural products from areas of high production to areas structurally deficient -Guaranteeing a minimum price for agricultural products (e.g. floor prices)Revenues generated in the agricultural sector might be captured by other actors than smallholders, particularly by the emerging private sector.-Strengthen capacity of producer organizations to bargain and find more remunerative markets -Producer organizations to invest more and more in the processing of agro-sylvopastoral productions What are strengths and weaknesses identified by all scenario groups? -There are no-common strengths and/or weaknesses identified by all the scenario groups. What are common recommendations and how can these be integrated into the proposal?-Establish management structures for conflicts related to natural resource use.-Clarification of roles and empowerment of actors to play their roles fully and effectively. What are strengths and weaknesses in the proposal that only come up in one or two scenarios, and how can they be supported/overcome? Transfer management of some hydraulic facilities to territorial authorities for results-based community management.","tokenCount":"4640"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0961fa89261c95c33f382bcd24df52f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e0782dc-a0db-46bc-a6a0-fbbb65723613/retrieve","id":"700602181"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"454629cc-cde0-4732-b59d-3cb64b97ab6f","pagecount":"2","content":"A falta de informação de mercado rigorosa e relevante foi identificada como um grande obstáculo para a melhoria dos sectores agrícolas dos países africanos e, no entanto, são poucos os pequenos agricultores que têm acesso a tal informação. O mau acesso a informação de mercado significa que os agricultores não podem monitorizar preços, o que reduz a sua capacidade de negociar com os comerciantes. Para solucionar esta assimetria de informação, as organizações doadoras investiram no desenvolvimento de serviços de mercado para ajudarem os pequenos agricultores. Na década de 70 foram criados muitos serviços de informação de mercado (SIM) governamentais, mas praticamente todos eles falharam na proposta de fornecimento de informação pertinente e atempada aos agricultores. Consequentemente os doadores retiraram o seu financiamento e as suas operações cessaram. Para procurar novas maneiras de fornecer informação de mercado aos agricultores, o CIAT e outros parceiros, incluindo o IITA, CTA e USAID, desenvolveram uma agenda de investigação para criarem novos serviços SIM. Estes foram concebidos a nível local, nacional e regional. Os resultados deste trabalho mostraram que os elementos básicos de um serviço de informação de mercado bem sucedido incluem: • subcontratação da gestão ao governo • ênfase em operações de baixo custo • recolha apenas de informações essenciais, como preços e notícias de mercado relevantes • recolha de informações utilizando fontes fiáveis e divulgação desta informação no mesmo dia ou no prazo de dois dias • divulgação periódica de informação a comerciantes e agricultores utilizando a rádio FM rural, telemóveis, e-mail e a Internet. Para apoiar estes processos a equipa de investigação necessitava de um sistema de gestão de dados simples para a introdução, armazenamento e redistribuição da informação. Isto conseguiu-se através de uma parceria com uma empresa de software privada, a Busylab of Accra, Gana, (www.busy.com). Esta parceria criou um SIM de utilização fácil e operação económica que foi testado em Gana e no Uganda sob o nome Tradenet.Tradenet é uma plataforma de software que permite o acesso fácil a dados de mercado por telemóvel (Serviço de Mensagens Curtas [SMS]), fax, ou pela Internet usando computadores, incluindo as agendas digitais de mão [PDAs]. Isto permite Estamos gratos pelo apoio financeiro da USAID. As opiniões aqui expressas não reflectem necessariamente a posição desta agência.que os comerciantes e agricultores recebam diariamente informação sobre preços, descarreguem ficheiros de vídeo/ áudio, acedam a documentos de investigação, enviem ofertas de compra e venda à comunidade e contactem outros participantes do mercado. Um gestor de dados analisa e dá a autorização final às entradas (por e-mail, SMS ou on-line) para assegurar que a qualidade dos dados é mantida. Uma vez aprovados, os dados são introduzidos numa base de dados e copiados para um servidor seguro on-line. Com Tradenet os utilizadores podem aceder a dados actuais ou arquivados online. Eles podem analisar a informação em função da mercadoria ou do mercado usando ferramentas gráficas on-line e descarregar os ficheiros de dados para serem analisados com Microsoft Excel.Além dos dados numéricos, Tradenet pode armazenar ficheiros áudio e de texto. Para as estações de rádio, os programas educacionais e as notícias podem ser descarregados para serem retransmitidos para o grande público por meio de ficheiros áudio (MP3).A Tradenet oferece a oportunidade de fornecer listas actualizadas de fornecedores de serviços, comerciantes e serviços financeiros. De futuro este registo também pode incluir classificações de aprovação de boa conduta comercial. As novas versões de Tradenet permitem a formação de grupos, para que as pessoas interessadas em determinada mercadoria possam criar a sua própria área de informação e gerir esta parte do site.A parte mais importante de qualquer serviço de informação de mercado é a disseminação de informação rigorosa, fiável e atempada. Hoje há muitas tecnologias para a disseminação de informação em massa: • Internet -Tradenet é um serviço on-line baseado na Web que fornece aos clientes um ponto de acesso directo à informação de mercado, que é actualizada diariamente. • Média -Os jornais e outros meios de imprensa podem descarregar a informação da Internet ou receber notícias periodicamente.Tradenet trabalha com patrocinadores a nível do país e grupos de pessoas interessadas em determinada mercadoria, que promovem o uso da informação entre os fornecedores de meios de comunicação como a rádio, a imprensa, a publicidade, etc. As empresas de meios de comunicação fornecem informação de mercado para atraírem mais leitores/ouvintes e patrocinadores de publicidade. Presentemente a empresa produtora de Tradenet não gera uma receita e os seus custos (aproximadamente USD 5,000 por ano) são suportados por projectos de desenvolvimento de financiamento público.Iniciado em 2001, Tradenet está actualmente em uso em dez países da África Ocidental e no Uganda desde 2004. A África Ocidental apoiou Tradenet através de um projecto de informação de mercado regional designado Mistowa. Na África Ocidental os parceiros incluem CSIR, FAO, IFDC, Technoserve e USAID.No Uganda os parceiros incluem ACDI/ VOCA, CIAT, DANIDA, FoodNet, IITA e Radioworks.A plataforma de software Tradenet tem por objectivo aumentar a transparência e a eficácia dos mercados africanos. Ela fornece às partes interessadas informação periódica para melhorar a sua posição de negociação e a sua tomada de decisões quanto a culturas ou produtos animais que devem produzir, onde e quando vender os seus produtos agrícolas e quando os armazenar para poderem maximizar o seu lucro. O uso de uma plataforma de informação fiável permite uma gestão de dados rápida e desempenha um papel fundamental na redução dos custos do intercâmbio da informação. Tendo em conta esta abordagem baseada em gestão subcontratada, acreditamos que os futuros serviços de informação de mercado serão operados por grupos de comerciantes, bancos, operadores de rádio, associações de agricultores e/ou ONGs. Este novo grupo de potenciais operadores pode significar que de futuro os agricultores terão acesso mais fácil à informação de mercado, a um preço atractivo tanto para os fornecedores de serviços como para os agricultores.","tokenCount":"963"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f1148baacd25f93417126f9f566434c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b58fc1fc-170a-41f1-8de8-994f072f6c75/content","id":"-1686031721"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6c20af7c-b045-4846-8fc5-413f4b9e144b","pagecount":"11","content":"Considerable progress has been made in establishing climate service capabilities over the last few decades, but the gap between the resulting services and national needs remains large. Using climate services for agriculture in Bangladesh as a case study example, we highlight mismatches between local needs on the one hand, and international initiatives that have focused largely on prediction on the other, and we make suggestions for addressing such mismatches in similar settings. To achieve greater benefit at the national level, there should be a stronger focus on addressing important preliminaries for building services. These preliminaries include the identification of priorities, the definition of responsibilities and expectations, the development of climate services skills, and the construction of a high-quality and easily usable national climate record. Once appropriate institutional, human resources and data infrastructure are in place, the implementation of a climate monitoring and watch system would form a more logical basis for initial climate service implementation than attempting to promote sub-seasonal to seasonal climate forecasting, especially when and where the inherent predictability is limited at best. When and where forecasting at these scales is viable, efforts should focus on defining and predicting high-impact events important for decision making, rather than on simple seasonal aggregates that often correlate poorly with outcomes. Some such forecasts may be more skillful than the 3-to 4-month seasonal aggregates that have become the internationally adopted standard. By establishing a firm foundation for climate services within National Meteorological Services, there is a greater chance that individual climate service development initiatives will be sustainable after their respective project lifetimes.The purpose of a climate service is \"to provide people and organizations with timely, tailored climate-related knowledge and information that they can use to reduce climate-related losses and enhance benefits, including the protection of lives, livelihoods, and property\" (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014). Over the last three decades, there have been major developments in establishing climate service capabilities globally (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014;Allis et al., 2019). There are numerous catalysts underlying this development, including scientific and technological advances in observations and forecasting (Dutton, 2002), and a growing awareness of the need for climate change adaptation (Smit et al., 2000). The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has taken a key role in trying to ensure that all countries can benefit from advances in climate services, and has promoted various national, regional and global initiatives to build their capacities.A major focus of international efforts to develop national climate service capabilities has been on forecasting, primarily at seasonal timescales. At the regional level, for example, Regional Climate Outlook Forums (RCOFs) were initiated in the late-1990s (Buizer et al., 2000;Ogallo et al., 2000), and have been implemented across much of the globe. This focus on seasonal forecasting is partly a reflection of the strong roles that the World Climate Research Programme and WMO Climate Information and Prediction Services (CLIPS) took in developing early climate service capacities (Carson, 1998;Ogallo et al., 2000;Sivakumar, 2006;Busalacchi and Asrar, 2009).The Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) was formally adopted in 2012 (Hewitt et al., 2012), and has made progress in formalizing national institutional arrangements for climate services, encouraged data-rescue efforts, strengthened regional support for climate services, and fulfilled a need for international coordination (Hewitt et al., 2020). These, and related initiatives, have helped to strengthen the capacity of many National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) to generate climate information that most NMHSs were unable to produce just a few years ago (Allis et al., 2019;Hewitt et al., 2020). However, the generation of such information is only one part of functioning and effective climate services. Much of the effort needed to develop the capabilities to tailor and apply climate information for real-world decision-making lies well beyond the role of NMHSs (Mahon et al., 2019). It is unclear how much progress has been made in areas of tailoring and realizing effective use (Brooks, 2013;Vaughan et al., 2016;Bruno Soares et al., 2018), but it is clear that demand for climate services continues to exceed capacity to provide them.In this paper, we reflect on reasons why efforts to develop national climate services may make disappointing progress towards fulfilling national needs for such services. Using agricultural applications in Bangladesh as a case study example, we highlight mismatches between local needs on the one hand, and international initiatives that have focused largely on prediction on the other. We propose ways in which climate services could be facilitated more effectively to directly link to actions and decisions in settings in other countries and contexts similar to Bangladesh.range forecasts for agricultural planning and 7-day agrometeorological forecasts for regular agricultural operations, in addition to supporting five-day weather-advisories for multiple crops for all 491 sub-districts 1 . In addition, since February 2017 2 the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) under the Ministry of Agriculture has been engaged in project activities aimed at improving climate services. Under these activities, agro-meteorological bulletins are distributed twice a week by district and once in a week at the national level. In addition, special emergency bulletins are issued in the event that an extreme weather event is predicted. These efforts, however, come with considerable additional investment from partner organizations and donors.Although not exclusively for the agricultural sector, Bangladesh does have a well-developed climate-and weather-services system for extreme events. For example, the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) is known in the Disaster Risk Reduction community to be one of the prime examples of a system built and sustained at the national level, while being trusted in the communities (Habib et al., 2012). More recently, Forecast-based Financing (FbF) has been developed to link thresholds within a forecast indicating significant risk of socioeconomic impact for pre-agreed anticipatory actions to decrease potential impact with those actions being funded by a pre-agreed set of protocols linked to a sustainable pot of funding (Lopez et al., 2020). FbF has been tested for cold waves, heat waves, tropical cyclones and floods in Bangladesh, on the weather timescale, and is in the process of being integrated into the national-level disaster-management programming. As climate services for crop diseases are a long-standing objective (Thomson et al., 2000), BMD has also recently worked with national and international agricultural research, training, and extension organizations to develop suites of extreme-weather and crop-disease forecasting advisories for farmers 3 , though integration of sub-seasonal and seasonal forecasts in these efforts remains nascent.The Government of Bangladesh and national and international research and development organizations have invested considerable efforts in recognizing and mainstreaming climate change into policies to improve adaptation planning and in building the country's resilience to climate change (Huq, 2001;Rahman and Alam, 2003;Huq and Ayers, 2008;Ayers et al., 2014). Bangladesh was the one of the first countries to develop a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), and the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) provides a climate change strategic framework for Bangladesh.The Bangladesh Delta Plan includes climate change considerations as part of its comprehensive strategy for delta development over the next 50-100 years (de Heer et al., 2012;Zevenbergen et al., 2018). Climate change has also been integrated in sectoral policies including national agriculture, water and disaster management plans, in addition to infrastructural development to improve climate resilience 4 . Challenges remain, including lack of a single overarching climate change policy, and the need for greater coherence between existing policies, improved sectoral integration and improved coordination and knowledge sharing (The Asia Foundation, 2012) 5 . However, Bangladesh has taken a leadership position on the international adaptation community, leading many development organizations to turn towards the country to learn from its experience on adaptation. Despite the prevalence of both climate change specific policies and scientific literature, climate change information has arguably been inconsistently integrated into practical adaptation to climate impacts (Ahmed, 2019;Uddin et al., 2021). Bangladesh has implemented only a small fraction of the priority projects outlined in the NAPA 6 , partly because of inadequate funding and limited integration with national policy and institutional frameworks (Ayers, 2011;Dodman and Mitlin, 2011;Pervin and Moin, 2014). A major focus of adaptation projects in Bangladesh are large-scale infrastructure projects to address impacts of floods, salinity intrusion, coastal storm surges, and anticipated sea-level rise, leaving many sectors and regions of the country still vulnerable (Zamudio and Parry, 2016).Although the impacts of weather and climate variability on Bangladesh have been deeply considered (Yu et al., 2010;Faroque et al., 2013;Amin et al., 2015;Goosen et al., 2018), most notably in disasterrisk management (Bangladesh Government, 2017;Baten et al., 2018), the bulk of the country's national planning documents focus on adapting to long-term climate change. There is a prevalent focus on mid-to endof-the-century climate projections, with less integration of climate at other timescales, despite the importance of past, present, short-and medium-term climate impacts and climate variability. Such a hyperopic perspective is often characteristic of countries where the NMHS has had an insufficient role in helping to shape the country's climate change policies (Furlow et al., 2018). Conversely, research on climate change impacts for agriculture in Bangladesh is common (Rahman et al., 2018), as are development initiatives focused on agricultural adaptation, though linkages between BMD and the agricultural research community have only recently developed and remain weak. This weakness indicates an area of significant need to address gaps between climate data generation and evidence-based real-world adaptation efforts.Much of the initiative to develop climate service capacity, such as climate observations and forecasting, have been driven by international efforts. Due to these efforts, climate services have been shaped to-date in ways that do not always match well with priorities at the national level, and by following international standards, they may involve opportunity costs in developing customized national services. In contrast, initiatives to develop climate service capacity at national scale, including in Bangladesh, are typically more sensitive to national priorities, as, for example, through notable funding by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the World Bank (Krupnik et al., 2019). Recognizing that there may be other considerations and priorities, we utilize insights generated from focus group discussions held in 2017-2018 with farmers and the DAE and BMD in Bangladesh (Krupnik et al., 2019) to frame and discuss some of the national climate service priorities for the agricultural communities in Bangladesh. Because of the scope of the potential demand for climate services, a balance is needed between meeting context-specific needs and implementing general services in a cost-effective manner (Hansen et al., 2019). At least some of the priorities listed here are likely to be relevant for other countries and other sectors.A high-quality national climate record is fundamental to developing climate services (Bojinski et al., 2014;Ceccato et al., 2014). One distinction between a weather and a climate service is that a climate service interprets current or expected conditions in the context of the past, whereas weather services focus on the characteristics of specific phenomena. Without high-quality data, such interpretation is restricted. Considering the agricultural sector, data are essential for crop risk-and suitability-mapping, for detection and diagnosis of emerging or ongoing pest and disease outbreaks, for advisories related to thermal or drought stresses, for initializing crop-and farming-system models, and for contextualizing, interpreting and verifying forecasts at scales relevant to farm decision-making. In countries with poor national climate databases, starting with a focus on developing accurate climatological data that closely match on-the-ground experience, is likely to be a more effective means of developing credibility than is trying to develop forecasts that cannot be adequately contextualized or validated from an agricultural perspective.Internationally-driven improvements in the collection and use of climate observations have led to the generation of datasets that have become essential to the global climate and agricultural research community. Examples of such data include ocean temperature profiles from the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean array (Hayes et al., 1991;McPhaden et al., 1998), various satellite-based observations (Reynolds et al., 2002;Wentz and Schabel, 2000;Knapp et al., 2011;Hollmann et al., 2013), and a suite of data products based on historical climate model reanalyses (Gibson et al., 1997;Kalnay et al., 1996;Kistler et al., 2001). However, despite support for national data-rescue efforts that have fed into improvements in these global climate datasets (Page et al., 2004;Brunet and Jones, 2011;Kaspar et al., 2015), there have been fewer efforts to develop and archive national climate records that are designed for building publicly accessible, high-quality climate products and services.One noteworthy example of an international initiative to develop national climate records is the work of the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection Indices (ETCCDI; Peterson et al., 1998;Peterson and Manton, 2008). Well over 100 countries, including Bangladesh, have participated in ETCCDI workshops where the objective is to develop national datasets that can be used to measure observed changes in climate. However, with the limited resources available, the indices are not routinely updated by all countries, and often only a highly restricted set of data is developed. In the case of Bangladesh, data for only four stations were prepared, although the BMD has more than 50 years of digitized meteorological data collected from 23 stations, more than 100 years from 14 stations, and 11 stations with fewer than 50 years of data.The ETCCDI initiative has focused on developing climate datasets suitable for a specific purposeclimate change detectionand other meteorological station data may be inadequate for such purposes. However, there are multiple other needs for climate data that must be addressed. Many NMHSs however still lack comprehensive, qualitycontrolled national climate datasets and tools that together are essential for building an effective climate service (Jones et al., 2009). For example, despite BMD's relative wealth of digitized climate data, because of insufficient support for database-management and of inadequate inter-operability (Giuliani et al., 2017), BMD has had to invest considerable effort in pre-processing data for use within a multitude of software applications internally, ancd to service external data requests.Developing a high-quality database per se is insufficient for an effective climate service: the data need to be made available. Data access is both protected and guaranteed by WMO Resolutions (Moura, 2006), but in many countries accessing data remains a challenge (Mason et al., 2019). Making raw climate data freely and easily available is not necessarily beneficial to all. While some applications do require access to data, what would be beneficial for others is access to interactive information products so that users can perform at least some level of tailoring themselves. Access to such products could help to avoid imposing an unwieldy demand on NMHSs, the meeting of which would otherwise require a re-prioritization of current tasks (Dinku et al., 2011(Dinku et al., , 2018;;Overpeck et al., 2011;Hewitt et al., 2017).This basic need for high-quality national climate databases and interactive tools is beginning to receive greater attention through initiatives such as Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS; Dinku et al., 2014Dinku et al., , 2018;;Mason et al., 2019;Siebert et al., 2019). The ENACTS initiative aims to develop high-resolution, quality-controlled, gridded historical datasets, and to produce from these datasets derived climate information products that can be disseminated through a web-based platform. Initially implemented in Africa (Dinku, 2019), ENACTS is being introduced in other parts of the world, including Bangladesh.The development of a climate monitoring infrastructure has recently become a high priority of the GFCS. While there are many urgent needs that can benefit from forecasting information, it makes most sense to build climate services initially on a strong historical and real-time monitoring system, rather than starting with forecasting capability inand-of itself. High-quality historical data and real-time monitoring provide the foundation for using seasonal forecasts effectively. Being able to comment on what is happening in real-time may help establish credibility, despite the uncertainty of forecasts.A climate monitoring system can contribute to impact-based forecasting, even where climate forecasts might not be skillful (Thomson et al., 2005;Mason and Thomson, 2019). For example, observed rainfall is one of the major forcing variables for process-based crop models or soil-water-balance models, which are the main components of pre-and in-season yield-forecasting systems. A significant proportion of the total uncertainty in crop yields comes from unknown weather for the coming growing season, but that uncertainty can be reduced by integrating monitored weather observations as the season progresses (Hansen et al., 2006). In addition, monitored rainfall data can be used to estimate initial soil-moisture conditions for process-based crop models. Therefore, several yield-forecasting systems initialize crop models with observed weather data, and replace seasonal climate predictors, or weather data conditioned on climate forecasts, with observed weather data as the growing season progresses (Cantelaube and Terres, 2005;Lawless and Semenov, 2005;Hansen et al., 2006;Ferrise et al., 2015;Asfaw et al., 2018;Shelia et al., 2019). Furthermore, climate shocks and disasters (in this case, extreme rainfall and/or strong winds that may damage crops) are not necessarily well parameterized in many crop models, leaving a gap in representation of the risk of impact at the tails of the probability distribution of potential impact-based outcomes (Ming et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2018).Climate watch systems are now being promoted internationally (Del Corral et al., 2012;Pulwarty and Sivakumar, 2014;Mason et al., 2019). A climate watch system provides advisories and alerts about important climate anomalies and extremes that are developing and/or expected to occur (Muñoz et al., 2010). Although Bangladesh has not yet implemented a formal climate-watch system, agrometeorological bulletins have been disseminated since 2009 (section 2.1). These bulletins are issued weekly, and contain reports on agrometeorological observations from 12 stations (section 3.1) and 7-day deterministic forecasts of rainfall and temperature that are based on interpretation of a variety of global model outputs. There is activity to upgrade this system, and BMD is experimentally operating a numerical weather prediction model using model inputs from the National Center for Environmental Prediction in the USA. The bulletins are disseminated by e-mail, website, fax and postal service to different users, mainly within government, and are used to develop advisories for farmers on decisions such as selection of production technology, and timing of application of fertilizers, irrigation, and pest-and disease-control measures. Information on the extent to which these bulletins have influenced farmers' decision-making processes in practice has, however, not been systematically collected or made publically available. This lack of information may be because NMHSs tend to consider themselves as producers of information, with less emphasis on translating or assuring that this information is put to practical use. While this gap is a clear constraint for improvement of the utility of climate information and its use for services, it also presents an important area of research that could help inform improvements in climate-watch systems.Climate watches and warnings are most effective when they can be translated into impacts. Communicating the range of impacts is an integral element of translation of climate services. For example, an improved understanding of thresholds for amounts of precipitation, hail size, wind magnitude, as well as complex multi-hazard disaster thresholds (such as the combination of intense rainfall and strong winds) that indicate an increased risk of crop failure and/or damage, is clearly desirable (Yu et al., 2010). If the climate-watch communication is presented from a user-centric perspective, rather than from the perspective of NMHSs alone, there is an increased likelihood of moving from availability of climate information towards building trust and subsequent use of that information in agricultural and other decision making (Crane et al., 2010;Palttala et al., 2012;Bostrom et al., 2016;Jacobs and Street, 2020;Kruczkiewicz et al., 2021).The emphasis on prediction within many international efforts to develop national climate service capabilities reflects the fact that the physical climate research community understandably has a strong innovative and theoretical, rather than applied, motivation. As a result, international research-programme priorities have not necessarily matched climate service priorities at national level. They may also neglect more mundane, but fundamental, elements of climate services such as developing a national climate record and implementing a climate monitoring service including watches and warningswhich can be increasingly crowdsourced (Zhu et al., 2019) -as discussed above. In many countries, therefore, progress made to-date in developing NMHS climate service capacity has been disproportionately focused on seasonal climate forecasting, while historical analyses and monitoring services that can inform decision-making remain less-developed, as do shorter-term forecasts of some high-impact weather and climate events. Bangladesh is somewhat exceptional in this respect: climate services related to extreme events, particularly cyclones, are relatively welldeveloped (see Section 2.1).There are many reasons why an initial focus on seasonal forecasting is potentially problematic. Providing seasonal forecasts in the absence of more fundamental climate information is like providing a blue-tooth keyboard to someone with no computer. In fact, there is the potential to do more harm than good (Suarez and Patt, 2004) if, for example, a NMHS is trying to build a positive reputation through forecasts that may be inherently low-skill, whilst failing to provide more fundamental information that may be more accurate and useful (Crane et al., 2010). Seasonal forecast skill is relatively low or even zero for much of the world and for much of the year (Weisheimer and Palmer, 2014;Mason, 2019), and so the usefulness of seasonal forecasts is inherently restricted. Even if there is predictability, expectations of forecast accuracyespecially among less-educated usersmay be unrealistic, and inappropriate levels of confidence in forecasts can erode trust, even if the forecasts are properly calibrated (Hartmann et al., 2002;Otto et al., 2016). Evidence indicates that the seasonal predictability of climate over Bangladesh is relatively low (Kelley et al., 2020;cf. Rahman et al., 2013) compared with that in many other areas of the tropics (Fig. 1). This weak predictability is, in part, because of a complex relationship with the El Niño -Southern Oscillation (de la Poterie et al., 2018;Chowdhury, 2003;Acharya et al., 2021), and weak relationships to sea-surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean. Given the complex nature of teleconnections in the Bangladesh region, multi-model prediction systems may provide higher skill forecasts than can more traditional empirically-based models (Acharya et al., 2021).Regardless of whether seasonal forecast skill for Bangladesh could be improved, realizing benefit from conventional seasonal forecasts, presented as the probability that upcoming rainfall will fall in the \"belownormal,\" \"normal\" or \"above-normal\" tercile categories, is far from straightforward (Hammer, 2000;Ogallo et al., 2000;Vogel, 2000;Ingram et al., 2002;Hansen et al., 2006;Klopper et al., 2006;Vogel and O'Brien, 2006;Ash et al., 2007;Meza et al., 2008). Focus-group data from Bangladesh indicate that such forecasts can also be challenging for users to interpret (Krupnik et al., 2019). There are many reasons why the potential benefits of seasonal forecasting may be unrealized, but one important reason is that the standard seasonal forecast format is hard to understand and use (Hartmann et al., 2002;Patt et al., 2007). This standard forecast format, which follows conventions adopted in the RCOFs (Mason et al., 1999;Buizer et al., 2000;Ogallo et al., 2008), makes sense at global and regional scales to provide a general overview. However, for local decision-making, the format is sub-optimal: seasonal total rainfall is not necessarily the most useful or predictable parameter; and the tercile format decouples forecast probability shifts from the underlying climatology, making the forecast difficult to understand. In addition, tercile boundaries do not necessarily align with thresholds that are relevant to decision making, and the terciles often fail to distinguish more extreme, high-impact, seasons from ones that are marginally below-and above-normal (Broad and Agrawala, 2000;Hansen et al., 2019). Rather than focusing too much effort on producing overly generic forecasts, forecasts could likely be more useful if they were tailored (Goddard et al., 2010), co-produced (Crane et al., 2010) and driven by a connection to a suite of decisions and actions (Buizer et al., 2016).The case of rice cultivation in Bangladesh illustrates the limitations to the value of standard seasonal forecasts. The productivity of rice is susceptible to both low-and high-temperature stress depending on cultivar and physiological growth stage (Sánchez et al., 2014;Shelley et al., 2016;Arshad et al., 2017). Rice is primarily rainfed during the monsoon 'aman' season, which contributes approximately 40% of total rice production in Bangladesh. The rice crop can also be vulnerable to extreme-weather-related risks including drought and floods that can significantly curtail productivity (Mahmood et al., 2003(Mahmood et al., , 2004;;Hussain, 2017). However, from the 1990s forward, dry 'boro' season rice has become the largest contributor to total rice production in Bangladesh, rendering it the world's fourth largest rice-producing country (Shelley et al., 2016;FAOSTAT, 2021). In both seasons, although rice cultivation is highly dependent on water availability during the respective growing season, yields are sensitive to rainfall, water deficit (drought) and Fig. 1. Estimates of the skill of IRI's seasonal (three-month) average temperature (top) and accumulated rainfall (bottom) forecasts for 1997-2017. Skill is estimated using a measure of forecast value. For further details see Mason (2019). temperature characteristics (e.g., timing relative to critical growth stages, frequency of exceeding thresholds) rather than to seasonally aggregated conditions, which are the focus of most seasonal forecasts (Koide et al., 2013;Nahar et al., 2009;Wassmann et al., 2009;Kabir et al., 2014;Mahmood et al., 2004;Shelley et al., 2016).Despite the importance of temperatures to agriculture (and other sectors), seasonal temperature forecasts are still not routinely implemented in all RCOFs, or in many countries. The implementation of temperature forecasts would also be of potential benefit well beyond the agricultural sector (Connor et al., 2008). For example, there is an increased attention from the humanitarian community to address the 'silent killer' (Loughnan, 2014) of heat waves and cold waves (Singh et al., 2019). In addition, although there has been considerably more effort to produce seasonal forecasts of rainfall rather than of temperature, the heavy focus on predicting only the seasonal total rainfall is highly limiting, as discussed above. Predicting all the rainfall and temperature parameters that affect yields is an unrealistic goal, but providing some shorter-term forecasts about high-impact weather events, together with information about the weather-within-the-season, are options that may be both more useful and more predictable than are conventional seasonal predictands (Hansen et al., 2006;Kanda, 2012). For example, rainfall frequencies are often easier to predict than rainfall total over a season (Robertson et al., 2009), including over Bangladesh (Kelley et al., 2020), and they may have stronger relationships with impacts. However, the utility of subseasonal-to-seasonal and seasonal outlooks for agricultural decision-making may be less useful for farmers in comparison to the pragmatic decisions made at the weather forecast (Fig. 2). There are some attempts within the RCOFs to predict aspects of weather-within-the-season, such as wet-and dry-spells, and heavy rainfall frequencies (Gerlak et al., 2018). However, this practice has yet to become widespread, and the connection between extreme rainfall and flooding requires improved understanding and documentation (Coughlan de Perez et al., 2017;Alfieri et al., 2018).There also have been calls to provide information about rainfall onset since the first RCOF review (WMO, 2000), and there may be some potential to provide skillful forecasts in some parts of the world (Moron et al., 2009). However, onset definitions (at least ones that have any potential to be predicted more than a few days in advance) are in terms of large-scale dynamics (Goswami and Gouda, 2010;Montes et al., 2019) that may not always necessarily translate into on-the-ground local experience.Generating timely, credible, and actionable information is only one part of developing effective climate services (Crane et al., 2010). Climate services need to be developed with engagement of all relevant parties (Dilling, 2007;McNie, 2007;Sarewitz and Pielke, 2007), otherwise the information that is developed will remain largely unused. More specifically, sufficient resources should be allocated for structured interactions between stakeholdersideally brokered by a climate science translator, whose role is to bridge gaps between the NMHS and endusers (Agrawala et al., 2001;Kruczkiewicz et al., 2021).Despite the many climate change plans and policies now in place in Bangladesh, insufficient coordination between the many agencies, donors, and projects currently working, risks continued compartmentalization, limiting effectiveness (Ahmed, 2019). Inter-ministerial coordination remains a challenge because of the fragmentation of tasks and agencies, insufficient human resources, technical knowledge, and the competition for funding (Uddin et al., 2021). Beyond government, there is limited coordination between agencies and institutions, partly due to the multiplicity of existing initiatives originating from different and uncoordinated donor funding.Climate services face similar coordination challenges. At the government level, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change serves as focal point on climate change. The BMD under the Ministry of Defense, is the mandated organization to provide meteorological services and to circulate climate and weather information. The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), under the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), is responsible for the dissemination of hydrological information and flood forecasting and warning, through its Hydrology Division and Flood Forecasting and Warning Center (FFWC). All agricultural activities conversely fall under the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL), respectively. The Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief has the role of coordinating disaster management efforts and disseminating information provided by BMD and BWDB to District-level Disaster Management Committees, media and local communities. Although BMD and BWDB are the two mandated organizations for meteorological and hydrological services in the country, it is not uncommon for other ministerial line-agencies to install their own weather observation equipment. Furthermore, there is no inter-ministerial coordinating committee to link their efforts across Ministries. The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), under the Ministry of Agriculture, has a general mandate to provide information and advisories to the country's farmers, but its role in delivering more advanced climate services (beyond agrometeorology bulletins) has only recently begun to develop.A more comprehensive solution to the coordination and engagement challenge in Bangladesh requires changes to policy and institutional arrangements. The development of a National Framework for Climate Services (NFCS) offers a promising mechanism for achieving this goal. Under the auspices of the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS), WMO offers technical support to national governments wishing to develop their NFCS (Golding et al., 2017) to \"coordinate, facilitate and strengthen collaboration among national institutions to improve the co-production, tailoring, delivery and use\" of climate services (WMO, 2018).It is imperative to build climate services around mutually agreed upon, appropriate, and pre-identified priorities and roles, responsibilities and expectationsperhaps through interdisciplinary working groups and other types of NFCS discussionswith a specific focus on membership within, and content and frequency of those interactions (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014;Kruczkiewicz et al., 2018). The NFCS development process incorporates extensive consultations with stakeholders in key climate sensitive sectors to identify priorities and define responsibilities. If the NMHS does take a facilitating role, a key challenge is to ensure that stakeholders on the demand side are fully engaged, and co-own the resulting climate services policy and governance framework (Crane et al., 2010). In setting priorities and establishing services, there is a set of ethical questions that cannot be ignored or postponed without adopting what may well be unacceptable default answers (Pfaff et al., 1999;Brasseur and Gallardo, 2016;Webber and Donner, 2017;Gerlak and Greene, 2019). For example, although there is a well-recognized need to ensure that climate services are demanddriven (McNie, 2012;Lourenço et al., 2015), this recognition must deal with practical questions of whose demand is important, and whether the potential users of these services have the capacity to understand and articulate demand for information that might not yet be available (Carr et al., 2019;Hansen et al., 2019). In summary, the NFCS's importance is rooted in coordination. Coordination allows not only for the necessary multi-disciplinary entities involved in climate services to seek guidance for conducting their discipline-specific activities, but also, and perhaps more importantly so, for the coordination, incentivization and mobilization of discussions between those entities.International efforts to support the development of national climate services have made considerable progress in countries that formally had only very limited capacities. However, in many cases such initiatives leave only a limited capability to fulfill national needs for such services. Among the many reasons for this limited impact, experience in Bangladesh highlights mismatches between the focus of many initiatives to promote climate services development on the one hand, and local needs and practical application for such services on the other.In many cases, initiatives have focused on creating products while neglecting the development of essential elements of an enabling environment to assure the continued process of climate services generation and deployment. We argue that such efforts could achieve improved benefits at the national level by focusing on important preliminaries for building climate services. These include identifying national priorities that climate services can help achieve, defining responsibilities and expectations of the various stakeholders involved, and establishing effective coordination mechanisms. These preliminaries can be facilitated through the establishment of a National Framework for Climate Service, or similar mechanisms suited to a particular national context.In the context of improving the provision of national climate information products, we argue that the historical focus on seasonal climate forecasting and downscaling of climate change projections has been premature and unbalanced. We propose that international efforts to build the capacity of NMHSs to provide climate services should give greater attention to the following areas:• Building a high-quality and easily usable national climate record, as part of systematic efforts to implement a climate monitoring and watch system. • Development of high-quality historical and real-time climate databases, as a foundation for products and services (Dinku et al., 2011;Overpeck et al., 2011). • Capacity building of professionals and communities to assess, monitor, manage, and advise on climate and weather-based risks in agriculture and associated sectors, and thus build a stronger atmosphere of responsive (Crane et al., 2010). • Improved monitoring and diagnostics products, including timely monitoring products that support skillful forecasts of climate impacts, and diagnostics products that build credibility by demonstrating an understanding of what is happening now. • Improved characterization of seasonal weather statistics beyond averages, recognizing that seasonal averages are often poorly correlated with impacts (such as crop yields and flooding), while other statistics (e.g., rainfall frequencies, heavy-rainfall frequencies, heat-wave occurrences, frost counts) may be more useful and more predictable (Hansen et al., 2006). • Improved saliency of information, e.g., by removing unnecessary jargon and including more user-specific information, and working to assure that technical professionals are trained to be able to communicate to multiple stakeholder audiences (Crane et al., 2010). • Greater focus on extended-range weather and sub-seasonal forecast products for impactful weather, rather than just seasonal (or longerrange) forecasts (Luseno et al., 2003). • A better-defined communication process of the constraints for using climate information for specific sectors, applications and decisions.By clearly defining the constraints, such as the lack of appropriateness of use for some applications, there could be an increased chance of matching expectations and thus building trust (Lacey et al., 2018). • To address the coordination and governance challenges, across timescales and sectors, for climate services in Bangladesh, the current status of these systems needs to be assessed, in order to identify opportunities for resolution.","tokenCount":"5733"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"932760c2e51056d8981b6ac52db5ae5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c903a293-660a-4fed-856d-659fdc947e33/retrieve","id":"1445403378"},"keywords":["Weather Shocks","Poverty","Risk","Economic Growth","and Missing Markets Weather Shocks","Poverty","Risk","Economic Growth","and Missing Markets"],"sieverID":"409826e9-af1a-44be-9679-58cb9b48068f","pagecount":"53","content":"Annex A is reproduced with permission from the World Bank. Annex A reviews some ongoing activities in price and weather risk management in eastern and southern Africa.2 Throughout this manuscript the term \"poor\" refers to households with very limited assets (including household labor) that can be employed in income-generating livelihood strategies. These households should be distinguished from those that are destitute, in the sense that they do not possess sufficient assets to even maintain nutritional subsistence. The focus here is on households that are not destitute but are seemingly locked into low-income, low-consumption thresholds. Thus, the interventions discussed here focus on stimulating investment and asset accumulation. Households that are quite literally destitute require very different types of interventions.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. 1The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier Innovation in index insurance products to transfer weather risks is capturing the attention of the development community. The use of index insurance can be documented in about twenty-five countries. Two noteworthy projects in Africa demonstrate the scope of the potential applications of these new products. The Ethiopia drought insurance for food security targets funding emergency food aid for an international organization and was purchased by the World Food Programme (WFP) in 2006. The ongoing Malawi pilot program encourages lending and adoption of improved technology among smallholder groundnut farmers. The World Bank, GTZ, and others are actively engaged at some stage of development in several other African nations (e.g., Senegal, Tanzania, Kenya, Morocco, Mali, etc.). 1 While these activities are promising, developing sustainable weather insurance products will not be easy. Numerous constraints must be addressed: 1) data limitations; 2) inadequate legal and regulatory frameworks; 3) insufficient ex ante financing for insuring largely correlated risks; and 4) limited delivery systems for smallholders. In addition, there is a need for capacity building for insurance companies and educational efforts for potential buyers.The quest for a green revolution in Africa depends principally upon the development and adoption of appropriate agricultural technologies. While there are many impediments to the adoption of technology, the economic development literature is clear in citing risk as being a dominant constraint. Poor households must be conservative in the choices they make as they can ill-afford to make significant investments in new technologies only to experience dramatic income shortfalls due to perils such as crop failure or low prices. 2 This aversion to risk causes poor households to engage in livelihood strategies that reduce risk but also greatly limit income potential. Thus, risk contributes to locking the poor into poverty. At a more aggregate level, risk constrains economic growth because society's resources are not directed to their highest and best use, which further constrains economic opportunities at the household level. Thus, the realization of a green revolution in Africa is dependent not only on the development of appropriate technologies but also on the development of effective risk transfer instruments that will facilitate technology adoption by the poor. Such risk transfer instruments can contribute to meeting the dual objectives of poverty reduction and economic growth.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 2 This paper focuses on the potential of index-based weather insurance products for contributing to a green revolution in Africa 3 . We begin by building a conceptual framework that links poverty, risk, and missing financial markets. Next, we present the case for why weather risk transfer and agricultural insurance can contribute to development. We then review the fundamental problems with traditional agricultural insurance products, which motivated efforts to develop alternatives such as index-based insurance products. Still, as we will demonstrate, there are numerous preconditions for making index insurance workable. Considering these preconditions in practice -which constraints can be overcome and which ones cannot -led to the development of our business model, which outlines the steps needed to develop sustainable weather insurance markets.Both the conceptual discussion of index-based insurance and the pragmatic suggestions of how to develop these markets provide a foundation for analyzing four distinct products that we believe may be applicable in various parts of Africa. The weather risks that most affect African nations are drought and flooding. 4 Index insurance for drought is currently much further developed than index insurance for other perils. Thus, most of the focus in this paper is on drought. Nonetheless, our experience working with flood risk in Peru and Vietnam also motivates our thinking about index insurance.For household-level products, we focus in this paper primarily, though not exclusively, on poor households engaged in smallholder agriculture. Smallholder households dominate the rural African landscape. But it becomes clear that if the smallholder market can be reached, largerscale farming operations can also be served. We use the Malawi case study to focus on one class of household-level products that is well-integrated into the value chain with the specific goal of giving farmers loans to adopt new technology. While the intent of this product is very sound, the implementation and data constraints make it difficult to replicate. We also review is the WFP drought product that was designed to pay at the country level when drought creates food security problems. In this case study, we provide some additional ideas about how this class of food security products could be targeted at the sub-region level to provide timely resources to mitigate emerging food security problems. Given the implementation and data constraints, and building on the Malawi experience, we introduce other products that could be targeted at smallholder households and intermediaries in a fashion that encourages technology adoption. The review of existing products and the ideas we present lead to recommendations for how to advance the development process of weather index insurance products in Africa, including ideas for how donor and other public support can be most effectively used to spur market development for weather index insurance in Africa.foregone opportunities to earn higher incomes) exceeded 30 percent. In the aggregate, the impact of these household-level decisions is slower economic growth.While the economic foundations for understanding how risk negatively influences technological adoption, development, and poverty are well-established, only recently have economists taken the logical next step to argue that the failure of financial markets compounds the problems that are created by risk. High transaction costs severely limit the access of the poor to financial services (including risk transfer) and global markets, resulting in suboptimal risk coping strategies. Credit, savings, and insurance markets are largely missing in rural areas of lower income countries. Each of these financial markets provides opportunities for smoothing incomes across loss events. With such opportunities, household decision makers can take on more risk, including the adoption of new technology. Increasing evidence indicates that lower income countries that have both strong banking and insurance sectors grow faster than countries with only a banking sector.The risk and poverty dynamics we describe have clear implications for the risk faced by any intermediary trying to deliver inputs and/or financial services to the poor. Spatially correlated risk constrains the delivery of services to the poor.The role of intermediaries as providers of inputs and financial services to smallholder rural households in developing countries is critical if these households are to have access to global markets. An increasing concern is that poor households are bypassed as multinational firms make direct linkages with the largest producers in developing countries. Many factors explain this -high transaction costs, information asymmetries, and risk. Thus, midsized intermediaries seem to be the primary agents for linking smallholders to larger markets.Despite the opportunity to reduce transaction costs by delivering multiple services, midsized intermediaries must still deal with correlated risk problems that often limit business investments and opportunities in rural areas. While due diligence practices of small and intermediate firms have improved, many of these advances ignore the inherent risks largely outside the control of the firm-level decision maker. For example, those intermediaries offering credit to households involved in small-scale farming must be concerned with underwriting the individual integrity of the household in paying back the debt. However, they must also be concerned with events that are outside the control of the household, such as weather risks, large downward movements in commodity prices, or adverse movements in currency exchanges that affect global competitiveness. Such correlated risks have a major influence on the revenue stream from farming activities and thus on the revenue stream for firms supplying inputs or financial services to those farm households.Spatially correlated risks are almost impossible to cope with at the local level as nearly everyone within the community may be affected by the same event. 6 Similarly, when a large number of customers experience a severe reduction in cash flow or agricultural output at the Missing MarketsThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 5 same time, the intermediaries providing services to farmers will also be adversely affected. This is particularly problematic for the midsized intermediaries that service smallholder farmers since these intermediaries tend to be geographically concentrated and thus cannot spread correlated risk across space. For example, if a microfinance institution (MFI) is geographically isolated, a single disaster can challenge its solvency. Thus, MFIs either choose to ration credit to businesses that are exposed to the same correlated loss events (such as agriculture) or rely on international donors to recapitalize the MFI in the event of a correlated catastrophic loss event.The former reduces technology adoption and slows economic growth. The latter is clearly an unsustainable business practice.If midsize input and product market intermediaries are to compete, they must be able to transfer their exposure to correlated risk out of the local area. A consequence of this is that, should such risk transfer markets emerge, intermediaries may be more willing to serve some areas that are now underserved. Therefore, innovation in risk transfer is also an important component of developing input and product market intermediaries in lower income countries. The use of index-based weather insurance, futures markets, or other risk transfer mechanisms, can be critical to reducing risk exposure and making it possible for input and product market intermediaries to offer services to smallholder farmers. If there are no mechanisms for risk transfer, the risk may preclude development of such services.At the macro level, regional disasters translate into large government costs in terms of disaster relief, rebuilding efforts, and lost tax revenues. Given the lack of financial services for most rural households in Africa, properly functioning safety net programs play a vital role in maintaining long-term household productivity when weather shocks occur. Of course, such safety net programs will not work for those who are already in chronic poverty; other social solutions are needed for the poorest of the poor. Absent financial instruments such as insurance, households that experience shocks often are forced to liquidate productive assets in order to maintain even minimal levels of consumption. Safety net programs are designed to provide timely interventions that forestall the need for liquidating productive assets. Still, disasters result in high opportunity costs for governments and donors. While national-level crises often gain media attention and assistance from the international community, unpublicized regional-level crises may have the biggest impact on the budgets of governments and local donors. Especially when disasters occur relatively commonly, such as with drought in some African nations, these costs result in constant interruptions to government and donor development agendas including programs that improve agricultural productivity. Thus, many governments and donors could potentially benefit from purchasing index insurance products that would pay an indemnity in the wake of a widespread natural disaster.In sum, natural disaster risk hinders economic development at all levels -micro, meso, and macro. Thus, for households, intermediaries, governments, and donors, developing effective market mechanisms for transferring natural disaster risk is key to stimulating technology adoption and long-term economic growth.Despite a clear need and some strong arguments for why weather and agricultural insurance is important for economic development, the struggle to find appropriate agricultural insurance solutions for lower income countries has been long and arduous. In the 1970s and 1980s, many donors worked to resolve this problem only to abandon the efforts due to the classic problems that plague agricultural insurance: The seminal work by Hazell, Pomareda, and Valdés (1986) demonstrates that traditional solutions to crop insurance are far too expensive to offset the benefits. Since the mid-1990s, scholars have focused on new approaches that trigger indemnity payments based on the value of an underlying index. 7 This work has renewed the interest of donors in the potential for insurance in rural areas of lower income countries. As a result, a number of pilot programs that use index insurance for agricultural losses are now underway (e.g., India, Malawi, Ethiopia,  Mongolia, and Mexico). 8   Index insurance is significantly different from traditional insurance in that the indemnity payments are based on data that is outside the influence of the insured. The index is created using data that serve as a proxy for loss, eliminating the need for costly individual loss assessments. The index is based on an objective measure such as rainfall, livestock mortality, county yields, temperature, water levels in a river, etc. These measures should be highly correlated with the economic losses (crop failure, death of livestock, loan defaults, etc.) that might be experienced by an insured entity but (unlike the actual loss) the insured has no ability to affect the index.As an example, consider a drought index insurance contract that pays an indemnity anytime that cumulative rainfall during a critical two month period of the growing season is less than 100 millimeters. Indemnity payments would increase proportionately as the measure of rainfall declines until a pre-specified limit is reached. For example, the maximum indemnity will be paid whenever cumulative rainfall is less than or equal to 50 millimeters. In this example, the contract is said to have a threshold (or strike) of 100 millimeters and a limit of 50 millimeters. For 7 Early work on an area-based index insurance (the Group Risk Plan in the United States) that uses the index of county yields (rather than farm-level yields) as the mechanism for indemnity payments led the way for a renewal of interest in revisiting agricultural insurance by the World Bank in the mid 1990s (see Recommended Readings topic section, Group Risk Plan). Please refer to Recommended Readings topic section, Index Insurance for Lower Income Countries, to learn more about the background, motivation, and uses of index insurance.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 7 simplicity, assume the insured purchases a sum insured of $1,000. The payment rate for every 1 millimeter of rainfall deficit below 100 millimeters is calculated as (100 − 50)/$1000 or $20. Thus, if cumulative rainfall over the period were equal to 90 millimeters (or 10 millimeters less than the threshold) the indemnity would be 10 x $20 = $200.Among the many advantages of index insurance are 1) low moral hazard and adverse selection; 2) no expensive loss adjustment for small units; 3) potentially less complex data requirements; and 4) potentially less complex and more transparent contracts. Nonetheless, index insurance can have a significant limitation -basis risk -when individuals have loss and do not get paid, or, they have no loss and receive payment. Additionally, data systems may not be adequate to develop the most desirable index insurance contracts. Finally, as weather represents a correlated risk, it is also critical that the potential large losses associated with writing weather index insurance be addressed from the outset and should be done in collaboration with the global reinsurance markets.There are a number of preconditions for creating sustainable weather index insurance, including: 1) exposure to one or more spatially correlated weather events that can generate catastrophic losses; 2) historical data regarding the weather event(s) of sufficient quantity and quality; 3) local capacity for delivering insurance contracts; 4) a supportive legal and regulatory environment; 5) effective market demand for the insurance product at prices that will be acceptable to insurance suppliers; and 6) access to risk sharing partners such as global reinsurers.The first two preconditions can be evaluated via a risk assessment. The third and fourth preconditions require an evaluation of the local institutional structure. In many lower income countries investments in technical assistance will be required before these two preconditions can be met. Later, we discuss the legal and regulatory environment in some detail. There are a number of reasons why weather index insurance should be developed as insurance products rather than weather derivatives in lower income countries. The major reason is that there is generally a framework for regulating insurance products, whereas lower income countries have very limited experience regulating derivatives products.A market demand analysis is required to evaluate the fifth precondition. There is no reason to invest resources in developing an insurance product if it is unlikely that there will be significant market demand. The final precondition is largely conditional on the other preconditions. If they are to share the risk on the insurance product, reinsurers must be convinced that the underlying risk exposure has been accurately assessed, the local institutional structure is adequate to support the insurance market, and there is effective demand for the product.Significant investments are required to evaluate these preconditions, provide any necessary technical assistance, and develop prototype insurance products. These investments have \"public goods\" characteristics; however, once these types of investments have been made and a product is offered in the market, \"free-riding\" can occur -competitors can easily copy the product and thus capture the benefits of the investments made by others. Recognizing this, private-sector insurers are generally reluctant to bear the full cost of these initial investments. Thus, having donors and host countries support these initial investments to stimulate the Recent Developments in Insurance Markets to Transfer Weather RiskThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 8 development of weather index insurance markets is a form of a public good. We address these issues in the last section of the paper. In the remainder of this section we describe issues that must be addressed in a risk assessment.Risks must be highly correlated. Weather index insurance is only effective in transferring spatially correlated risks. Catastrophic risks (e.g., drought) are more likely to be spatially correlated than are mild to moderate risks (e.g., a moderate shortfall in rainfall). If the underlying weather variable is not highly spatially correlated, the basis risk will be too great for an index insurance product to provide effective risk protection. This can occur because of the nature of the risk (e.g., hail losses are generally less correlated than drought or flood) or because of geographical heterogeneity (e.g., areas that are characterized by many microclimates).Risk cannot occur too frequently. Part of the risk assessment involves carefully examining data and various contract designs to determine if the frequency and severity of losses can be properly assessed (see Box 1: Pricing Weather Index Insurance). If the risk being examined occurs too frequently (e.g., significant losses occur at least once every seven years), the transaction costs of insuring against the risk will be prohibitive. At the same time, insurance purchasers may grow impatient if they have not received an indemnity after purchasing the insurance for many years. Compounding this is the fact that individuals tend to underestimate their exposure to extremely low-probability, high-severity natural disasters. 9 However insurers do not have this problem. To the contrary, they must take a more conservative position to assure that they are prepared to make insurance payments for the most extreme events. These characteristics of buyers and sellers can cause catastrophic insurance markets to fail if the price being charged by insurers is more than what the buyers are willing to pay.To evaluate the frequency and magnitude of loss for weather index insurance contracts, reliable historical weather data are required -ideally, at least 30 years of daily or dekadal (10-day) measurements.A concurrent component of a pre-feasibility analysis involves understanding what extreme weather events cause severe losses and when the vulnerability to losses is greatest. Index insurance requires a reliable and easily measurable index (e.g., rainfall) that proxies the severity of losses (e.g., shortfalls in crop yields). In addition to having adequate historical data on the index, it is critical that reliable measures of the index will continue to be available in the future. These measures should be conducted by a trusted third party (e.g., a national or international meteorological association). Using reliable third-party data helps ensure that neither the insurer nor the insured can influence the likelihood of payouts. Because the index is the basis for insurance payments, it is important that it be measured at locations close to the insured. For example if rainfall is the index, rain gauges should be located within a few kilometers of the insured. Thus, many weather index insurance products require well-maintained weather station infrastructure close to the insured. Pure Risk. The pure risk is the insurer's estimate of the amount of losses the insurer expects to pay. Insurers use historical weather data, i.e., the frequency and severity of weather events in the past, to develop a probability distribution. The figure is a probability distribution from 100 years of rainfall data for August in Andhra Pradesh, India. Consider the possibility of an insurance policy that makes a payout whenever rainfall is in excess of 2000 mm -shown as the shaded area. Based on the probability distribution and the structure of insurance payouts, the insurer could estimate the pure risk. For example, a pure risk of 7 percent would indicate that insurers expect to pay USD 7 for every USD 100 insured.Because this is the expected level of losses, it is the foundation for the insurance contract. The other costs of doing business are added to this base.Reserve Load. Reserve or catastrophe (CAT) loads are added to the price of insurance due to the risk of large payouts occurring early in the program -the most extreme event can occur before adequate reserves are built. To deal with this possibility, insurers use a mixture of ready access to capital that may include cash reserves and purchasing reinsurance to manage large financial losses. Reinsurance is a means for insurers to transfer the most extreme risks to international markets. Reinsurance protects the solvency of insurers and is almost always essential when selling index insurance.Ambiguity Load. Ambiguity loads account for the possibility that the available data do not represent the actual underlying risk. For example, if insurers only have a short time frame of data, they will increase ambiguity loads in case the data represent better-than-average years. In general, the more data, the less are the uncertainties and therefore ambiguity loads will be smaller. Changing weather patterns and concerns about climate change will undoubtedly create uncertainty and increase the cost of insuring the risk. Furthermore, ambiguity loads will be added when the quality of the historical data is poor.Administrative Costs. Delivery costs, marketing and education, research and development, staff and office overhead costs are some of the important administrative costs that must be included when pricing the insurance. Delivery and education, in particular, can be difficult and expensive if products are intended for households in remote locations.Recent Developments in Insurance Markets to Transfer Weather RiskThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.10 One of the most significant advantages of weather index insurance is that lower transaction costs should be lower than for traditional agricultural insurance. This is particularly critical for smallholders for whom the transaction costs of traditional agricultural insurance are prohibitive.The major limitation of weather index insurance is basis risk. Thus, the tradeoff between lower transaction costs versus basis risk is one way to evaluate how well a weather index insurance product may work. Attempts to reduce basis risk by developing complex insurance contracts or creating and maintaining a densely populated set of weather stations may prove too costly. In some areas and for some products, one may need weather stations that are only a few kilometers apart. More spatially correlated catastrophic events may require less investment in infrastructure.The findings from a risk assessment are important regardless of whether an index insurance product is ever developed. Decision makers are often unaware of the probability and magnitude of potential catastrophic weather events. A risk assessment incorporates these factors into an estimate of the annualized expected cost of each extreme weather event. Seeing their risk exposure expressed in this way can be \"eye opening\" for many decision makers. For example, some early risk assessment work for weather index insurance began in Morocco in the late 1990s. 10 A drought insurance contract was designed; however, due to a declining trend in rainfall, the price of the risk was greater than anyone had anticipated. This effectively halted efforts to develop drought index insurance for this region of Morocco.Although efforts in Morocco did not lead to a drought insurance program, the findings of the risk assessment and the pricing of an insurance product led to a useful policy dialogue. The risk assessment suggested that the government was supporting cereal production in areas that had become climatically unsustainable.In the risk assessment and product development work we have performed, a number of important lessons have emerged:1. When catastrophic weather risks are present, the cost of these risks are being paid somewhere in the society. For example, the poor can be absorbing the cost both directly (by direct losses) or indirectly (by making conservative decisions that reduce their willingness to adopt new technologies and their ability to accumulate productive assets). But also, indirect losses can be absorbed by the public sector in post hoc strategies that have many hidden costs and create perverse incentives, or by donors and others that provide assistance after a national disaster.2. Assessing who is currently paying for catastrophic weather risk helps determine if there is a potential role for index insurance.3. Pricing weather risk provides useful information for a wide range of stakeholders who may use the information to reconsider current farming systems and institutional mechanisms that are used to cope with or compensate for losses after they occur. 11The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 11 4. Relative risk exposure and thus the price of insurance can vary greatly across regions within the same country.5. The relative risk must be reflected in the pricing of insurance or it will result in inequities, potential adverse selection, and serious inefficiencies.6. When developing insurance products one must be aware of the potential for adverse selection -a common problem with existing index insurance products seems to be a failure to set the sales closing dates in advance of information that can help the insured know that the probability of a loss in higher than normal. Farmers and others use many systems to forecast weather for the coming season.7. Insurance products should be developed to complement existing risk coping and risk management strategies.The lack of available and reliable weather data is one of the major constraints when considering weather index insurance for Africa. As was described above, the availability of data is at the core of risk assessment and product development. The absence of quality weather data emerges as a chief constraint to the spread of weather index insurance in many regions of Africa. Given the importance of data and the potential cost of creating and maintaining new data systems, we review possible data that can be used for weather index insurance products in Africa. Data limitations shape many of our views about what products may be used responsibly and effectively in the near term and the sequence of development in our business model that may be most practical for market development in Africa.There are roughly 1,000 weather stations with quality-controlled, internationally available rainfall data -the type of stations most likely needed for obtaining reinsurance coverage -if stations were evenly distributed this would be one weather station for every 30,000 km 2 (Funk et al., 2003). In some locations in Africa (e.g., the Sahel and South Africa), the level of weather station infrastructure is actually declining (Ali et al., 2005;Sawunyama and Hughs, 2008). Without historical weather data, weather risks cannot be understood sufficiently to allow for the design and pricing of weather index insurance contracts. If the future availability of reliable weather data is not assured, no weather index insurance is possible. In many regions of Africa weather station infrastructure is simply too sparse and poorly maintained to successfully replicate the weather index insurance products sold to households in other countries (e.g., India).When weather station infrastructure is not in operation near the target user, the weather risk can be more crudely estimated using alternative methods. Data from weather stations can be interpolated to create a grid with estimated values between stations. These grids must take into account the topography (e.g., mountain ranges and bodies of water) that may affect weather patterns between the weather stations. Interpolating weather data tends to underestimate extreme events.Models adding satellite data to rain gauge interpolation and topography estimates such as the Collaborative Historical African Rainfall Model (CHARM, described in the Ethiopia case study) can contribute to weather risk gridding. Satellite data can be a valuable check, providing actual data values between the rain gauges; however, a process for matching satellite data to true ground-level values has not been perfected. Satellite data used in these models currently lack the specificity needed to estimate extreme events accurately at a specific location. For example, the Climatology Prediction Center Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP) is based on a 2.5° x 2.5° longitude-latitude grid (over 100,000 km 2 at its smallest point) for each value (Xie and Arkin, 1997). Ali et al. (2005) compare several rainfall products (e.g., the Global Precipitation Climatology Center, the Global Precipitation Climatology Project, CMAP, and the Geostationary Operational Satellite precipitation index) that use rain gauge, satellite imagery, or a hybrid of the two to estimate rainfall in the Sahel. These products also underestimate extreme events, but Ali et al. ( 2005) find rain gauge data predict low rainfall values (values in the 25 percent quartile of the reference measure) more accurately than hybrid products, which, in turn, predict more accurately than pure satellite imagery products.A number of organizations (e.g., the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, World Meteorological Organization, Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET), and International Livestock Research Institute) use some combination of rain gauge interpolation, satellite data, and models with other indicators to estimate regional weather for a variety of purposes. Choosing which rainfall data product to use often depends on the region of interest and the purpose for using the product (Ali et al., 2005). Because of the investments of these organizations and others, products using satellite data continue to improve, providing more precise and real-time estimates of weather in remote locations in Africa (e.g., Sung and Weng, 2008).For our purposes, the alternative data sources described above can be very useful for conducting the risk assessment because they do provide estimates of the rainfall distribution over space and time. Thus, the sub-regional impact and frequency of events can be determined.Despite the benefits of these data sources for understanding weather risk, they are often inappropriate to use when developing farm-level weather index insurance for the reasons described above -a lack of specificity and the tendency to underestimate extreme events. These products are especially inappropriate for weather index insurance for moderate losses of a household in a specific location, such as the Malawi rainfall insurance. For some of the other products presented below, it may be possible to use systems other than ground-level weather stations to estimate and insure regional drought conditions.Alternative data sources exist that may offer more appropriate indexes on which to base insurance contracts. Satellite data represent a promising low-cost alternative to weather station data for index insurance. Satellite rainfall estimates originated in 1980 and have become increasingly more accurate over time (Dinku et al., 2007). Thus, there are nearly 30 years of data available in many regions. Unfortunately, even this accuracy is dependent on using ground-level weather stations as a means to calibrate the information. Thus, there may be limitations for using these data in a number of African nations for some time.In addition to lower costs, satellite data have other benefits relative to weather station data. First, unlike weather stations in some areas, satellite data are real-time data that can track emerging weather trends as they occur. Second, certain types of satellite data, and models that accompany that data, can be more inclusive than weather station data and have the potential to lower basis risk for some products. Unlike weather station data whose values are interpolatedWeather Data in Africa -A Serious ConstraintThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. 13 between stations, satellite data are spatially continuous and can provide actual measurements for these points.The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) measures the amount of near-infrared light absorbed by plants and is a measure of vegetation density. NDVI data are available at resolutions of one square kilometer, which is much more site specific than CMAP or the other data sources described above (Ali et al., 2005;Peters et al., 2002). NDVI values are a measure of plant health. By comparing historical NDVI values to present values, the NDVI is being used to assess drought in some contexts (Bayarjargal et al., 2006;Peters et al., 2002). Satellite data also provide estimates of rainfall and temperature, which have been used in conjunction with NDVI data to create other drought estimation models; however, these different models yield differing results. Determining which NDVI-based models are most appropriate given the region and intended use of the model is still being worked out (Bayarjargal et al., 2006).Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is demonstrating significant potential. This technology penetrates cloud cover and, with the proper models, can provide localized estimates of soil moisture as well as a clear image for identifying water inundation from flooding. The World Bank is researching the use of SAR images for developing flood index insurance. Floods endanger households, disrupt business, and destroy agriculture, infrastructure, and other assets. If SAR images were found to be reliable measures of loss, this would be very significant for flood-prone regions in Africa with little or no access to insurance.In sum, using satellite imagery to underwrite index insurance is still considered experimental; however, these data are widely used in other venues and have been proposed for use in upcoming index insurance pilot projects. Further research and pilot testing are needed.Additionally, the receptivity of potential target users to insurance products based on satellite data remains untested. Still, NDVI, SAR, and other satellite data measured at high resolutions hold promise as potential indexes for areas where ground-level weather data sources do not exist or are insufficient.As we review the following case studies and present some alternative approaches, it becomes clear why we spent extra time reviewing weather data constraints in Africa. Data constraints limit the type of products and approaches that can be successfully implemented. While there are a number of developments in weather index insurance in Africa in recent years, projects in Ethiopia and Malawi have the longest history. These two projects also merit special attention as they represent two ends of a very wide spectrum of how weather index insurance products might be used in Africa. In Ethiopia, a product was purchased by an international organization (WFP) to supplement emergency aid; in Malawi, a product is purchased by smallholder farmers as part of a loan and an input package that can spur technological adoption. Data for the Ethiopia product are important, but not as critical as they are for implementing the Malawi project. The reasons are quite intuitive. Ethiopia involves estimating aggregate shortfalls in basic food production across the country. Thus, the refinements of the data are not as critical.Malawi involves estimating shortfalls of rain for individual farmers during critical time periods.Farmers who farm at significant distances from weather stations will not be served as well as those nearby the weather stations.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.14The Ethiopia project addresses emergency aid for a quick response to food security problems created by widespread drought. This important and potentially precedent-setting project opens the way for new approaches to getting emergency assistance into countries before a full-blown food crisis emerges. We review the Ethiopia project and then provide some additional ideas for how to extend this type of product. Importantly, we also caution that weather index insurance cannot guard against the current food crisis problems that are driven by dramatic increases in worldwide prices of basic commodities. Given the importance of this topic, Annex B briefly presents how and when price risk management instruments may be used.The Malawi project sets the standard for projects that are working to integrate weather index insurance to spur lending and technology adoption. Farmers are gaining access to loans because there is weather insurance. More fundamentally, the loans are being used to fund improved varieties of seeds. Nonetheless, the challenges associated with replicating the Malawi experience are daunting. Data and capacity constraints are significant and must be overcome. In many contexts, the cost of implementing such a project may become prohibitive.Beyond the case studies, we also introduce two alternatives that may offer opportunities for market development in many regions of Africa. Both of these ideas should require less infrastructure development for weather stations than the Malawi case. First, we introduce the idea of \"Catastrophic Weather Events Livelihoods Insurance.\" The idea of this weather index insurance is that it would not be targeted to a specific crop. Rather it would represent lower thresholds for payment and be designed to help farming households cope with a wide array of problems that are created by extreme weather events. As such it may require fewer weather stations as the target events would be more widespread catastrophes. The second alternative we introduce is weather index insurance for intermediaries, who serve smallholder farmers (agricultural lenders, input suppliers, and buyers). By removing some of the weather risks in the value chain, more economic activity should occur that should lead to technology adoption and economic development.Ethiopia contains approximately 22 million farmers (CIA, 2008). The entire Ethiopian economy and food security for rural households can be threatened by low rainfall levels that damages agricultural production. The first prototype weather insurance for Ethiopia food security was designed by Skees et al. (2004). In 2006, the WFP purchased a weather index contract that was structured as a derivative to provide contingent financing in the case of extreme drought during the March-October agricultural season. The value insured was USD 7 million. The WFP purchased the contract from Axa Re (now Paris Re) for a premium of USD 930,000 (Alderman and Haque, 2007). Payments were triggered when the cumulative rainfall from March to October was significantly below the 30-year average, indicative of widespread crop failure and potential famine. In the case of a triggering event, the payment made to the WFP would be transferred to the Ethiopian government for distribution to vulnerable households according to the government's existing cash-for-work poverty support program using community-based targeting methods. The contract was expected to benefit up to 63,000 households in 60 districts with maximum payments of about USD 100 (WFP, 2006).Daily rainfall data from 26 weather stations were collected by the Ethiopian meteorological agency and served as the basis for this contract. These data were submitted to an independent agency for validation. These represent the best weather stations in Ethiopia in terms of having complete and long historical datasets. They are over half of the 44 stations in Ethiopia for which historical data with few missing observations are available and roughly a fifth of the 120 official stations in Ethiopia. Few weather stations with good historical data exist in the pastoral regions; consequently, these regions were excluded from the pilot (Alderman and Haque, 2007).Ethiopia is dependent on agriculture, which employs eighty percent of its labor force and accounts for roughly 50 percent of GDP (CIA, 2008). The vast majority of crops in Ethiopia are rainfed and, as a result, household income is highly correlated with rainfall. Drought is the most common and most devastating disaster risk in Ethiopia. Significant droughts occurred in 2000, 2002, and 2003. In data from 1900 to 2006, drought accounts for eight of the ten worst natural disasters on record (famine accounts for the other two), all 10 of which have occurred since the early 1980s. On average, almost 4 million people are affected and roughly 26,000 people perish when drought occurs in Ethiopia (UN/ISDR, 2008).While drought risk affects stakeholders at all levels, roughly seven percent of the Ethiopian population have food insecurity problems regardless of weather conditions. In drought years, the number of food-insecure households can easily double. Households have very limited access to credit. In Ethiopia, land is held publicly so it cannot be used as collateral. This has been a major impediment to lending. To address this, local governments sometimes provide loan guarantees for farmers. Thus, local governments are greatly exposed to the risk of natural disasters adversely affecting loan repayments for agriculture. Finally, at the macro level, safety net programs in Ethiopia are almost entirely funded by donor organizations. Because of the chronic food insecurity problems, food aid in Ethiopia is a constant. When drought occurs, donor programs (e.g., the WFP) require large and rapid increases in funding to provide relief to households entering the ranks of the food insecure. Drought relief efforts can often divert resources from other donor organization programs that are aimed at sustainable development. Thus, the risk assessment of drought in Ethiopia revealed that households, lenders, and donor organizations were all experiencing significant negative consequences associated with drought risk.Rainfall data for the risk assessment were provided by the FEWS NET in the form of daily CHARM data for 80 zones in Ethiopia for 43 years (1960-2003). CHARM uses interpolated weather station, satellite, and land elevation data to create a grid of rainfall in Africa. CHARM results in an improved estimate of rainfall over simple interpolated weather station data; however, compared to the interpolated weather station values, CHARM tends to underestimate extreme rainfall events -the most important events for insuring against drought at refined local levels. Additionally, specificity of CHARM is somewhat limited, especially in areas of complex topography, so it is best used for understanding rainfall patterns over large regions (Funk et al., 2003).The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.Though basis risk may be too high for households to directly utilize index insurance based on CHARM data, these data can be effectively used for understanding drought risk in Ethiopia. Average rainfall declined over the 43 years of weather data, indicating drought risk is increasing. Ethiopia comprises five distinct regions based on rainfall patterns. In general, Ethiopia receives 60 to 90 percent of rainfall in the rainy season, or kiremt (June-September). However, many areas also receive a springtime rain, called belg. Farmers in these regions can alter crop choices based on the timing and intensity of these rains. For example, they may choose to plant two seasons of short-cycle crops such as wheat and teff, or if the rains are late, farmers may choose to plant a single, long-cycle crop such as maize that is planted in belg but harvested in kiremt.In designing a weather insurance product, the initial work highlighted the importance of early payouts that can be structured with weather index insurance -even in the middle of the rainy season -given clear evidence that drought will be a problem. Because drought is a slow onset event, timely payments are critical because they can provide payments as the disaster emerges -before stakeholders are truly experiencing crisis. Thus, the early work suggested indemnities be determined on a monthly basis during the rainy season and that consideration be given to defining several points for payouts during the season.To emphasize the need for early payments, consider the case of drought in northern Kenya. In this region, drought is associated with famine measured as the prevalence of at least 20 percent of children severely wasted (Chantarat et al., 2007). Low mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) is a common estimate of child (aged 6 to 59 months) wasting and is predictive of infant mortality (Mei and Grummer-Strawn, 1997). Beyond infant mortality, childhood malnutrition, especially in the first 2 to 3 years of life, is associated with life-long stunted growth and cognitive and socialemotional deficits that result in lower education completion, less learning per year of education, and lower economic potential (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007). Children experiencing even a single famine during the first year of life continued to show lower cognitive and social-emotional deficits thirty years later (Galler and Barrett, 2001). Thus, protecting households from famine can be very important and provides a clear rationale for well-functioning food aid safety nets. However, the protection must come sooner than it does with current systems.Currently, food aid procurement requires months, challenging its ability to protect households from even slow onset events. For example, the average time from the formal request for U.S. food aid to delivery is 5 months (Barrett and Maxwell, 2005). Because malnutrition can be so detrimental to lifelong developmental outcomes, mechanisms that expedite the food aid process can potentially have significant effects on household well-being and economic development. Chantarat et al. (2007) show that that rainfall estimates can be used to insure against famine in this region as a component of a safety net program. Rather than designing the contract to make payments based on indirect estimates of household well-being such as crop yields, they suggest designing rainfall insurance contracts that makes timely payments based on early indicators of drought and at levels that prevent famine (i.e., prevent severe child wasting from reduced consumption).The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.The pilot conducted by the WFP represents a valuable experiment in safety net financing.Based on our illustrations above, early and timely payouts would likely be of interest to a number of governments and donors. In particular, these products could be used to insure against sub-regional disasters that fail to capture media attention, thus, they also fail to receive relief from the international community. For these products, payouts could be based on an aggregate of rainfall data (as was done in the WFP pilot) or satellite data. Thus, even in regions with very little weather station infrastructure, developing a food security index insurance product may be feasible.Additionally, insuring against sub-regional disasters may also be effective for localized price shocks. When local markets are not highly integrated, insuring against weather yields on the regional level may hedge against commodity price spikes that are created by localized shortages. 13 Price increases will often occur when yields are low in the region due to correlated losses (e.g., a weather event or pest). In regions where drought is a major risk and markets are not well-integrated, a drought index insurance contract purchased by the government or a donor could fund the costs of bringing food relief into the region in a timely fashion. Alternatively, if this insurance product were injecting cash into a sub-region that has an inadequate food supply, food prices may increase enough for markets to overcome the high transport costs (previously contributing to poor integration of local markets) and to sell commodities in the food insecure region. In other words given the infusion of cash, the need resulting from food shortages could potentially be met through arbitrage within the country. This is a logical extension of what was begun in Ethiopia with the WFP. Such weather index insurance contracts at the sub-region level can also be developed using data systems other than weather stations as described earlier.Thus, these contracts are more feasible in the short term. It should be clear that such contracts are limited -they will not protect against global price spikes. They only provide localized protection when there is a crop failure in regions where the country infrastructure is not sufficient to have well-integrated price markets. Another critical issue that must be addressed and merits further consideration is how to distribute the cash infusion.As far as design and intent for an index insurance program, the Malawi pilot project is most consistent with the goal of spurring lending and the adoption of improved technology that could lead to a green revolution in Africa. The product is bundled with a loan and a specific input package that has improved seed. Without the associated drought index insurance, farmers would not be offered credit to purchase the improved seed varieties. The weather index insurance protects the loan to some extent as the lender is the one who receives any insurance indemnity.Drought is the most frequent weather disaster in Malawi. In terms of the number of individuals affected, all six of the most severe natural disasters in Malawi were droughts. On average over 3.5 million individuals are affected when drought occurs in Malawi (UN/ISDR, 2008). Largely due to drought risk, crops tend to have low yields associated with low access to credit, poorly functioning input markets, and low uptake of technology (Hess and Syroka, 2005).Malawi has 22 government-managed weather stations that are of sufficient quality to develop a drought insurance product. The Malawi Meteorological Service has been a willing partner in providing historical and ongoing data to make payments in this World Bank project. Of the 22 government-managed stations, 13 were used for the initial risk assessment. Stations having long histories (about 40 years) of data with very few missing values were selected. These stations were also dispersed throughout the country to assess the weather risk in disparate regions. Drought was defined as 75 percent of cumulative average rainfall over the rainy season (October-April). On average, drought occurs at two weather stations each year when measured in this way. This is roughly a 1-in-6-year event, which should be insurable. The historical data reveal localized, regional, and national drought occurring in Malawi (Hess and Syroka, 2005;Kimball, 2006).Groundnut farmers in Malawi wanting to plant with certified groundnut seed were unable to obtain credit because of the high default risk in the event of a drought (Alderman and Haque, 2007). A drought in 2004-2005 led to high default rates ranging from 30 percent to 50 percent for agricultural loans. Many lenders refused to offer credit for agriculture after this event (Mapfumo, 2007). A pilot was launched in the 2005-2006 growing season linking the Insurance Association of Malawi; the smallholder farmers union, National Smallholder Farmers' Association of Malawi (NASFAM); and two lenders (Alderman and Haque, 2007). The two lenders provided loans to smallholders who agreed to purchase index insurance. The loan covered the costs of seed and insurance premiums (Opportunity International, 2005). These products were presented as a bundled packet, which results in lower delivery costs than using an insurance sales agent.Farmers who purchase the index insurance agree to sell their yields to NASFAM. NASFAM acts as a delivery channel for the loan and insurance payouts and deducts the price of the loan from its payments to farmers for their yields. Insurance policies only cover the cost of seed for which farmers borrow from the bank, paying premiums at 6-7 percent of loan values. In the event of a payout, NASFAM deducts the amount from the farmer's loan and passes the payout on to the bank. NASFAM deducts the leftover loan liability from farmers' yield proceeds. In the event of a total payout, indemnities equal the value of the loan, and NASFAM does not deduct any amount from yield proceeds for loan payments (Opportunity International, 2005).Malawi yield data are limited and may be unreliable, and thus, alternative methods for structuring the rainfall insurance payout were pursued after the first year of the pilot (2005). The Malawi product used the FAO Water Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI) to establish the contract structure for drought insurance for groundnut. The WRSI is the ratio of water availability for a crop to water requirements for a crop during a season. The WRSI is weighted based on water needs during critical stages of development. Other, more robust crop growth models are available that mimic the physiological growth process of groundnut; however, given the limited data available, the WRSI was chosen for this project (Syroka, 2005). The WRSI requires several data inputs:1. Historical dekadal (10-day) rainfall data for a weather station;2. Average dekadal potential for the weather station;3. Water-holding capacity of the soil;Case Studies and Alternative Approaches to ConsiderThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.19 4. Water use patterns for the insured crop in the region (these are defined for the critical stages and interpolated between these stages); 5. Maximum crop root depth;6. Seasonal-yield response factors for each crop, which allow the WRSI to be converted into yield estimates; and 7. Start-and end-of-season time periods, and thus, the length of the growing period.Thus, the project designed the contract based on WRSI modeling of the effects of rainfall on groundnut crop yields. The benefit of using the WRSI is that the only input variable expected to vary is rainfall -all other model inputs are expected to remain constant. Thus, it can isolate the effects of rainfall on models of crop yields (Syroka, 2005). However, the drawback of the WRSI is that it assumes constant soil quality (e.g., constant water-holding capacity), which can differ dramatically within a region, especially in Africa.Contracts are divided into three phases, with emphasis on rainfall levels during the first two phases. The contracts were structured so that payouts would begin when rainfall levels were such that the expected decline in yields was 16 percent or 23 percent of optimal yield levels, depending on the region. Average yields in the pilot regions are between 88 and 96 percent of optimal yields. Thus, while the contracts are described as insuring against catastrophic risks, they are designed to protect against moderate declines in rainfall. The findings of this project concluded that rainfall at 65 percent of optimal levels was associated with total crop failure. Thus, payout limits were based on this amount and ranged from 58 to 68 percent, Syroka, 2005).The product has been piloted in four areas, and to keep basis risk at an acceptable level, households must be within 20 km of a weather station to participate (Syroka, 2005). In the 2005-2006 period, 892 farmers purchased weather insurance for a total sum insured of USD 35,000. In the 2006-2007 growing season farmer uptake increased to 1,710 groundnut farmers and a rainfall-based insurance contract was also purchased by some 826 farmers for maize production. Client uptake of the rainfall index insurance product may have been inhibited by the good 2006 groundnut crop. No claims were paid and there was no demonstration effect. However, farmers report that yields when using hybrid seed rose by 140 percent (Mapfumo, 2007).The Malawi pilot project has required a great deal of resources. However, this product is among the first to be carefully integrated into the value chain, and lessons learned should make future products of this nature easier to develop. The government of Malawi supports this activity, and the program has been incorporated into a larger World Bank project to support agricultural development. Other crops are being added as well. An expanded project will soon be considered by the World Bank board. Should the project be approved, it will support the installation of more weather stations (see Annex A). Additionally, the project will involve a local broker to work more closely with the lender, agribusinesses, insurance companies, and insurance regulator.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.The Malawi case is an excellent example of working with farmer organizations, lenders, and the input supplier and should remain a case study for improving linkages in the value chain for stakeholders considering using index insurance in new contexts. The key stakeholders for this type of contract are represented in Figure 1. Depending on the local setting, loans may be made by non-bank entities in the value chain, such as input suppliers or buyers of products. When this is the situation, the linkages in the value chain would be more direct. In every case, it must be clear that the insurance company is holding the weather risk and not the lender, an important regulatory concern that must be clearly stated in the contract language.A concern associated with weather index insurance products targeted to specific crops is these products can give farmers the mistaken impression that they are substitutes for traditional cropyield insurance policies. The educational and marketing efforts that must accompany these products are quite important. In their efforts to develop insurance products where the underlying index is highly correlated with yields for a specific crop, developers have considered a wide range of crop-yield models. Given that field-level, crop-yield data are nearly nonexistent in most African settings, developers generally use plant growth simulation models that link rainfall or soil moisture to the plant growth process, as was done in Malawi. This is a logical and necessary step. Still, several cautions are in order. First, these models assume that all farmers are using the same production methods and are farming the same type of soil. This assumption is questionable given the variety of farming techniques and soils in many regions of Africa. Second, these models may rely on limited or unsecured weather and crop data with missing values. These data are less likely to estimate extreme crop losses accurately. Finally, in some cases, these index insurance products are designed to insure moderate declines in crop yields, potentially creating more misunderstanding of their potential value if basis risk remains high. In short, these models can over-fit the weather index insurance product to the available data,The Insurance Regulator 21 leading product designers to overestimate the effectiveness of their design as a proxy for household-level losses.Insurance regulation can improve transparency for this class of insurance products by setting standards for marketing and education and assuring that the insurance contract is clear. It is important that insurance regulators are made aware of strengths and weaknesses of weather index insurance products. One of the responsibilities of insurance regulators is to protect the consumer. While it is useful to have these products tied to a specific crop, it must be remembered that they are still weather insurance and not crop insurance. Contracts that clearly and simply outline the specific rules for payouts and the crop(s) that are covered can also increase transparency and reduce misunderstandings. In index insurance contracts, the insured should always be required to sign a statement that indicates that they fully understand that they can have a loss and not be paid. Misunderstandings from smallholder farmers about the products they purchase can create serious problems for long-term sustainability of these products.With its 22 government-supported weather stations, Malawi was chosen for a weather index insurance pilot because its weather station infrastructure is one of the strongest in the region (Hess and Syroka, 2005). This infrastructure, plus planned additional investments in rain gauges, may make scaling up weather index insurance to the national level feasible in Malawi.However, Malawi appears to have a better infrastructure of weather stations than many African nations. We would not recommend attempting to replicate a Malawi-type insurance product in countries with less-developed weather station infrastructure. Instead, products that rely on aggregated data will be more feasible in those regions; however, using aggregated data may limit development of weather index insurance products that attempt to insure against householdlevel yield losses for specific crops.In sum, Malawi is an innovative and interesting case that seems to have facilitated valuable linkages within the value chain. It is an infant program in a single country and questions regarding its international scalability and sustainability remain, yet valuable lessons can be learned from its development and implementation.Weather index insurance could potentially insure any business affected by a particular catastrophic weather event. Rural households in Africa are likely to be involved in a number of livelihoods strategies. Some of these strategies will involve producing crops and livestock for market or for home consumption. Many of the rural poor are landless even though their livelihood strategies and labor activities may strongly depend on good weather. Furthermore, many small farmers in Africa are net food purchasers. Thus, when there is a localized drought they are paying a much higher percentage of their income for food. This is from normal levels that exceed 50 percent. As was discussed earlier, the very livelihood strategies meant to diversify income can fall apart if an extreme weather event creates simultaneous problems for several of the strategies. In Africa, households sometimes even plant different crops in the same field -a practice known as intercropping. Tying weather index insurance to a singleThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc.22 livelihood -agriculture -and a single crop may be inconsistent with the type of protection that many households need.Weather index insurance that protects households against catastrophic losses that affect a number of livelihood strategies may be most beneficial. In a sense, we are recommending a new class of \"business interruption\" insurance for smallholder households against catastrophic weather risks. We prefer to call it \"catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance.\"This new form of insurance would be less restrictive on a couple of important fronts. First, regulators should be more comfortable with an index insurance product framed as \"business interruption.\" In traditional business interruption insurance, one can never know exactly the magnitude of foregone profits due to the business interruption event; the loss adjustment is based on a number of logical assumptions. This is consistent with many other forms of business interruption insurance. For example, if a firm purchases a business interruption insurance against fire, the loss adjustment process may examine previous years of profits to forecast what the profits would have been in the absence of the fire. In general, regulators are typically more tolerant of what is accepted as a loss assessment for business interruption insurance. This eases some of the burden to prove that the index insurance will be a close proxy for loss. With respect to index insurance, the loss assessment is based on a pre-agreed relationship between the index and the losses.Second, a typical insurance requirement is that the insured be able to demonstrate an insurable interest. Thus far, weather index insurance targeted at crops also requires that the insured control some plantings of the crop that is being insured with the weather index insurance. This excludes the landless poor even though they may actually be more vulnerable to the extreme weather event than someone who has control over plantings. With catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance, any household in the region whose livelihood could be affected by a specified extreme weather event (e.g., drought or flood) would be considered to have an insurable interest and thus could purchase this insurance. Regulators may want to place an upper limit on the sum insured to protect against gambling behavior.The primary benefit of livelihoods insurance over more specialized commodity-specific weather index insurance is that it may more closely proxy the impact of catastrophic weather events on a household's entire portfolio of livelihood strategies. If weather index insurance only covers losses associated with production of a specific commodity, households may find that much of their portfolio of livelihood strategies remains exposed to the targeted extreme weather event.Weather index insurance that is not tied to a specific livelihood strategy would be easier to design. There would be no need to use sophisticated plant growth simulation models to try to design the underlying index or insurance parameters to optimize the correlation with production shortfalls for a particular commodity. The insurance could also be marketed differently. Currently, weather index insurance is typically marketed as a substitute for traditional crop insurance. But if a single catastrophic weather event can simultaneously affect multiple livelihood strategies, the outcome can literally be life-threatening for many poor households. Thus, catastrophic weather events livelihoods insurance might be marketed in ways that are more similar to life insurance.This form of insurance could also be marketed and bundled with technology and lending just as is currently being done with crop-specific index insurance in Malawi. However, we believe that this general livelihoods insurance is also appropriate for situations where data are more limited, 1) because it does not require data for crop models or yield estimates, and 2) because it insures against catastrophic events (e.g., drought). These catastrophic events are by nature more highly spatially correlated than more shallow loss events. For drought, the payout threshold would be set well below the expected value. Thus, a basket of weather station measures or even some form of satellite data could potentially serve as the index for this product.We believe that throughout much of Africa there are insufficient weather and crop yield data to support highly complex forms of weather index insurance contracts. We also believe that more straightforward contracts have an advantage in that they are easier for stakeholders to understand. Of course, basis risk will always be a problem with index insurance contracts and this issue must be presented in a clear fashion.The \"all crops\" weather index insurance contract currently used in India, presented in Figure 2, could serve as a basis for developing catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance. Such a contract is clearly generic and organized for the critical time periods for the growing season.There are at least two limitations associated with the proposed catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance product. First, in comparison to the product currently being offered in Malawi, livelihoods insurance is less directly tied to a specific technology adoption strategy. Still, livelihoods insurance could be bundled and sold with technology. Additionally, the livelihoods approach may represent an optimal use of limited funds for insurance premiums and, to the extent that household decision makers recognize that these products reduce risks they should be more willing to invest in higher-risk, higher-return activities. Thus, this type of product could still encourage more risk taking on the part of the working poor, including the adoption of technology. A particular challenge for product developers will be designing products that make payouts frequently enough to maintain household interest in the product, but not so frequently as to make the products unaffordable. Designing products for weather risks that occur at a 1-in-7-to 1-in-10-year frequency seems to balance these two needs. A second potential limitation is that insurance for catastrophic risks may be more difficult to sell if individuals indeed tend to underestimate their exposure to very low-frequency catastrophic loss events. Yet, increasing evidence indicates that poor households are willing to purchase life insurance -protection against a rare but catastrophic event -so they may be willing to purchase a livelihoods weather insurance product if it were marketed in a similar way. Intermediaries exposed to the financial problems created by correlated risk, such as droughts or floods, should also benefit from access to catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance. Input suppliers can have business interruption problems if, as a result of an emerging drought, local farmers do not purchase seeds and other production inputs. Similarly, if crop losses cause financial stress among farmers in the area, they may have to reduce their purchases of inputs for the subsequent production season.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 25 Processors or other aggregators of the output from agricultural activity will also face business interruption costs as the profits from this sector are directly tied to the output in the region. Through-put of commodities is critical to maintain the infrastructure investments that are made to store, ship, or process commodities. Undoubtedly, correlated weather risks account for at least some of the lack of investment by processors and transporters of agricultural output throughout some parts of Africa.Correlated weather risk also leads to credit rationing in some rural areas. If agricultural banks could transfer some of their exposure to correlated risk with weather index insurance products, they may be able to improve their financial performance and increase lending in the region. An index insurance product could help lenders offset the real costs associated with loan defaults and debt restructuring in the wake of a catastrophic loss event (Skees and Barnett, 2006). Furthermore, weather index insurance could offset some of the costs associated with regulatory requirements for increased provisioning when repayment is in arrears. Weather index insurance could also reduce liquidity problems since depositors tend to draw down savings following catastrophic events. Thus, business interruption insurance could provide timely access to capital for lenders.Allowing lenders to pass through the benefits of the large indemnity payment from weather index insurance may be the most efficient way to deal with the large transaction costs associated with providing more complete financial services to poor rural households. This does not mean that the lender would be underwriting the weather risks, but rather the lender would link the benefits of the aggregate index payments to the loans held by households. More sophisticated arrangements that make payments based on risk zones for group lending and group indemnity could also evolve to address special regulatory standards for microinsurance products. In turn, those in higher risk zones would be required to pay higher interest rates for this form of composite product.The value of weather index insurance is actually enhanced when it is blended with banking and credit services. The role of index insurance is to manage the correlated risk of widespread losses by shifting those losses to those willing and better able to assume the risk -generally financial and reinsurance markets. In turn, the local banking sector should be able to work with individual producers to help them manage idiosyncratic and basis risk. If a producer has an independent loss when the index insurance does not pay an indemnity, it should be possible to borrow from the bank to smooth that shock. By combining insurance with banking in this manner, it is possible to address one of the main concerns associated with index insurancebasis risk.Given the data constraints and the discussion about alternative data systems for many regions in Africa, it will likely be easier to develop more aggregated weather index insurance contracts for intermediaries than localized contracts for households. More to the point, the level of refinement needed to capture a regional weather catastrophe is much less than what is needed to capture weather events affecting individual households.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. Drought risk is the event that merits the most serious attention for weather index insurance targeted to intermediaries. As was described in the data section, a number of approaches are emerging to capture regional drought risk. Understanding the relationship between true business costs and drought risk requires working directly with experts in the business, and in many cases, getting management to consider scenarios that may have occurred ten or fifteen years prior, a time when many of the entities were not in business. The business must consider their current base today and project the impact on cash flow should a historic catastrophic event reoccur in the current year. This scenario analysis can be mapped to the severity and frequency of past events in a fashion that gives everyone a base for considering how much weather index insurance should be purchased and how such insurance may assist in offsetting economic losses.As flooding is also a major disaster event in Africa, there may be opportunities to use index insurance for flooding events. However, floods are among the most difficult events to insure and there are little historical data on flooding in lower income countries. Flooding events can be created or made worse by how dikes, dams, and water catchments are managed. Management is not an insurable risk. Thus, it will not be easy to develop flood index insurance for intermediaries in Africa. GlobalAgRisk has worked on the development of flood index insurance in Peru and Vietnam (Skees, Hartell, and Murphy, 2007). A brief summary of that work follows to give some perspective on how such insurance might be organized for Africa.In the northern region of Peru, extreme flooding can be directly linked to El Niño events. As the Pacific Ocean temperature increases beyond certain thresholds, warm air moves into the region. In the foothills of the mountains this warm air mass meets the cold air cascading down the Andes. This phenomenon creates massive rainfall that lasts for several weeks. The two most recent severe El Niño events (1983 and 1998) devastated a number of regions in Peru with massive flooding. The flooding washed away crops, destroyed basic infrastructure, and disrupted all forms of small trade. Default rates for all MFIs operating in the northern coastal department of Piura prior to the 1998 El Niño were around 8 percent. After El Niño, default rates increased to about 18 percent. While not all of this increase can be attributed to El Niño, much of it was driven by the major disruptions created by El Niño flooding. We proposed a simple insurance contract that would pay when the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) 1.2 exceeds a value of 2.0. This means that the water temperatures in the zone off the coast of Peru are roughly 2 degrees Celsius above normal -a clear signal that flooding would be severe. The insurance regulator of Peru approved this class of ENSO insurance products for lenders and other stakeholders at risk when such extreme events create problems for their portfolio. At this point, an insurance company in Peru and a global reinsurer are pursuing the market and several lenders have expressed an interest in purchasing the contract to offset economic losses that are created during these periods.In Vietnam, early flooding in the Mekong Delta creates serious problems for smallholder rice farmers who cannot harvest in time to avoid the damage that will occur. For those who harvest Weather Insurance for IntermediariesThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. early, the quality of rice is poor and prices are much lower. In this case, we organized an index based on river levels as the water crossed the border between Vietnam and Cambodia. By working closely with the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (VBARD) and with Vietnamese experts on flooding who produced flood zones that matched the river levels, we demonstrated the relationship between loan portfolio performance in one province and water levels. A Vietnamese insurer and a global reinsurer offered a business interruption flood insurance product to VBARD in May, 2008. Unfortunately, the contract was offered too late. VBARD was monitoring the levels of water in the Mekong River and knew that the likelihood of a flood event was very low. The contract was designed to pay for flooding in late June and early August. VBARD has expressed an interest in this contract for next year.For some time, we have been developing weather index insurance based on some fundamental principles about where insurance fits best for different levels of risks. For frequent and lowconsequence risk, those exposed should absorb the risk via traditional risk coping mechanisms. For less frequent, but moderate-consequence risks, individuals may use savings, lending, and some insurance solutions. When truly catastrophic risk occurs (low-frequency, but highconsequence events), some form of catastrophic insurance is needed. In some cases, this may involve a level of government or donor support. In many situations this blend of risk retention, savings, lending, and then insurance can be more optimal than putting insurance into place to deal with events that happen too frequently. This is part of what motivates our \"rule of thumb\"not to create weather index insurance for events that occur more frequently than 1 in 6 or 1 in 7 years and motivates our business model -to \"get the big risk out of the way first.\"As we have seen, existing data systems may not be sufficient to support well-defined farm-level index insurance products in many regions of Africa. To the extent that data can support what we present as catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance, this may be a better starting point for household insurance products. Households with catastrophic risk coverage can benefit from the improved business opportunities described above: new linkages to lending or improved inputs, and the timely indemnity payments that offset income losses.Even catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance may be difficult to develop and in some cases, addressing the big risk first has led us to recommend introducing the insurance product for other stakeholders (e.g., lenders) that are affected by the correlated risk. These efforts develop a foundation for the market by building local capacity with weather index insurance. In turn, this market can lead to new products. In some cases, pass-through arrangements may be possible. For example, a bank could potentially disperse a large insurance payment among its clients. In addition, bundling loans or savings accounts with weather index insurance for households is possible, as this has been done with other microinsurance products. Also, more investments in delivery could be made in this process, such as using technology to deliver products to households.In this section, we outline what public goods investments might be most beneficial for governments to make for spurring the use of weather index insurance products in economic development contexts in Africa. We recognize that governments are investing in a myriad of public goods that contribute to development, and in many cases, donors are assisting governments with important contributions. That being said, we hope if donors decide to implement any of our suggestions they do so only with the knowledge and support of the government. Thus, our discussion focuses on public goods with the assumption that donors will often be involved in these investments.For long-term sustainability of insurance markets, governments are best suited for the role of facilitator, not the direct deliverer of insurance products. This role includes establishing an appropriate enabling environment and providing certain public goods. More specifically, a government or donor can support such things as:• Improvements in data systems and data collection;• Improvements in the legal and regulatory environment;• Educational efforts about the use of weather insurance; • Product development; and • Financing for catastrophic losses.In some cases, governments or donor agencies may choose to provide financing for catastrophic losses as discussed below. In general, however, governments should not be in the business of providing insurance. In any case, governments should rarely provide direct premium subsidies, which often undermine the incentives of private-sector insurance companies. Also, such subsidies generally favor wealthier farm households and thus erode poverty objectives. Even targeted premium subsidies rarely work as planned.Improving data infrastructure is likely the highest priority public good for stakeholders hoping to spur the use of weather index insurance in Africa. First, governments can have a direct and immediate effect by providing greater access to existing data because many governments are missing quality systems for archiving and sharing historic weather data. Second, African governments wanting to pursue household-level weather index insurance products will likely need to make immediate investments in weather station infrastructure. However, investing in new weather stations will be ineffective unless explicit plans for ongoing maintenance are included.Because data are critical to the development of weather insurance markets, the equipment involved in developing weather data must be reliable, accurate, and secure from any potential tampering, and professionals who work with the equipment must be trustworthy. Other types of information are also important in the development of weather insurance. Examples include yieldThe Role of Governments and DonorsThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. 29 data and other information on losses caused by extreme weather events, changes in land use and input use intensity, and records of past disaster management activities or infrastructure changes. Government can play an important role in facilitating index insurance by collecting, maintaining, and archiving the data needed. These data should be made available for public use and for use by those with commercial interests wishing to develop innovative weather insurance products.As with any market, a legal and regulatory environment must exist for creating enforceable contracts that both buyer and seller can trust. Additionally, making laws and regulations consistent with international standards improves the chances of gaining access to global markets for risk transfer, which is crucial for making weather index insurance sustainable. Unfortunately, in many African countries, laws and regulations are simply not in place to accommodate the development and use of weather insurance products. Human capacity building and technical assistance are essential for preparing the legal and regulatory environment to govern index insurance programs.If an effective legal system is not in place, insurance contracts may lose validity, or there may be a reluctance by insurers and reinsurers to enter the market. For example, it is not uncommon for insurance companies to refuse to pay valid claims simply because there is no effective oversight, which undermines public confidence and demand for insurance. On the other hand, insurers may be reluctant to sell policies if there is a possibility that the government could alter the terms of the insurance contract after the insurance is sold. If judges and lawyers do not have a good understanding of insurance law, insurers may be forced to make indemnity payments in excess of their obligations under the policy.In sum, basic contract enforcement and regulations that attempt to assure insurer solvency may be lacking in many locations in Africa. Effective regulation and contract enforcement will be very important to the long-term reputation and performance of weather index insurance programs; therefore, investments to improve the legal and regulatory environment through technical assistance and capacity building are vital for many African countries. These governments should refer to international experience and best practice guidance to establish an appropriate enabling environment, provide public goods that support market development, and undertake any other interventions.Potential users must be educated about the advantages and disadvantages of index insurance products. To increase the likelihood that information is presented in a balanced way and that sufficient investments are made in a broader educational effort for an untested product, public funds from governments and/or donors may be required. If insurance is not commonly available in the countryside, general education about insurance and risk management may be necessary. Index insurance policies are typically much simpler and easier to understand than traditional farm-level insurance policies. However, potential users may need help in evaluating how well the index insurance works for their individual risks. In particular, products designed for households will require significant educational investments because they will be sold in larger quantities than products for intermediaries, governments, or donors.The Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier,GlobalAgRisk,Inc. 30 Educating members in the value chain may also be an important role for governments and donors, especially if donors have a previous working relationship with a bank, input supplier, etc. Donors may have an advantage for helping these intermediaries consider the benefits of catastrophic weather event livelihoods insurance or a Malawi-type insurance product and how providing incentives for households to purchase these products could improve the business of the intermediary. Thus, education efforts and formalizing linkages in the value chain can be very important for protecting households from weather shocks and for immediately increasing business opportunities.One of the challenges associated with private-sector development of new financial products is the ease with which they can be copied and replicated by others. This \"free-rider\" problem discourages many companies from making initial investments in new product development, especially in underdeveloped markets. Thus, some level of government and/or donor support for product development can be justified. These investments should be targeted at feasibility studies and developing pilot tests of new products with the involvement of local private-sector partners. Every attempt should be made to ensure that the knowledge and technology for new product development is passed on to local experts as soon as possible.Until a sufficient volume of business has been established to attract global reinsurers, extreme losses for the insurance pool may need to be underwritten by government and/or donors, perhaps through contingent loans. For example, the World Bank has a contingent loan for the Mongolian Index-based Livestock Insurance Pilot. If losses for the insurance companies and the domestic reinsurance fund are fully exhausted, the World Bank loan can be accessed to make indemnity payments.Another possible role for government or donors is to provide financing for low-probability, highconsequence events. As indicated earlier, those at risk tend to ignore the probability of the most extreme and infrequent loss events, but insurers do not ignore these events and consider the probability of such catastrophic losses when calculating premiums. This creates a gap between what buyers are willing to pay and what sellers are willing to accept for protection against very infrequent but catastrophic losses. Governments can provide the financing for this extreme layer of risk in a number of ways that still maintains incentives for domestic insurers to operate in a proper fashion. Still, governments engaging in these types of public-private partnerships should do so with caution, in particular, considering who is capturing the benefits from the proposed agreements.Weather index insurance shows signs of promise as knowledge of the concepts and experience with pilot programs are rapidly expanding. The growth and maturity of pilot programs may prove to have a significant influence on spurring a green revolution in Africa. We have carefully built the case for why weather risk transfer is important in Africa. We have also developed some details to demonstrate why the development of such markets will take time and resources.Clearly, the economic literature on poverty traps, risk aversion, and the growth dynamics of the poor suggest that improving financial services can improve risk taking, technological adoption, and asset accumulation for poor households. Consistent with these theoretical foundations, empirical evidence is showing that lower income countries where both the banking and the insurance sector are growing have a faster growth rate than lower income countries that have no growth in insurance markets. Still, as should be very clear from this paper, developing insurance markets to transfer catastrophic weather risk is not an easy undertaking.The precedent for using weather insurance for humanitarian aid was established by the WFP in 2006 with the first-ever drought contract for food security contract in Ethiopia. Getting timely payments into regions during an emerging food crisis could mitigate problems prior to a full blown crisis. This is significantly different from current approaches that move food aid well after the crisis has started. In many regions in Africa, commodity markets are not well-integrated. This creates the need for sub-region weather index insurance products to get cash into the areas affected. The cash could also be used to arbitrage markets and market imperfections at some level. Thus, this type of response could facilitate commodity market development as well.Experience thus far in Malawi is demonstrating how to package weather insurance, loans, and new technology. Farmers who have adopted the use of new seed varieties report significant increases in yield. Many aspects of the Malawi experience will provide valuable lessons so the activity there merits careful watching. However, given data constraints and the high cost of capacity building, Malawi will be difficult to replicate. With these constraints in mind, we introduce a modified system for delivering more generic weather index insurance as a means of protecting a broad range of livelihoods activities that may be negatively affected by extreme weather events. This type of livelihoods insurance product may fit African conditions better than attempting to tailor weather index insurance to a specific crop. Furthermore, it may not require the same infrastructure investments in weather stations if the event affects a large geographic area. We also expand on the idea of businesses in the value chain using weather index insurance as a means for them to cope with the weather-driven problems of their customers. In particular, we believe that these products can be used by agricultural lenders who have loan performance problems following a large weather event that create cash flow problems for their borrowers.The task of getting all of the ideas, potential use, concerns, and cautions regarding weather index insurance into a single paper is daunting. Undoubtedly, we have omitted items and ongoing activity that are important to this discussion. For this reason, we encourage you to review the Recommended Reading list.Over the past few years, operational work of the World Bank's Commodity Risk Management Group has demonstrated that successful application of market-based approaches to commodity risk management depends heavily on a) the commercial involvement of actors within the existing supply chain (such as producer groups, processors, exporters, banks, and insurance companies) and b) anchoring capacity building on commodity risk management in larger programs and operations. Below is a list of ongoing projects in the region focused on providing organizations within the supply chain with the technical skills and capacity to implement risk management programs.In 2005, the Insurance Association of Malawi (IAM) offered an index-based weather insurance policy, linked with credit supply, to small-scale farmers. This first policy was piloted at four different weather stations during the 2005/2006 growing season and offered again in 2006/2007. In July 2007, OIBM and Alliance One (a major contract farming operation in Malawi) expressed an interest in piloting a weather insurance product for tobacco at the portfolio-level, to insure part of their tobacco loan portfolio against deficit and excess rainfall. This differed from the initial pilot years since the bank, the farmers, and Alliance One shared the cost of the insurance and the policy is acting as protection for the institutions, rather than the farmers. In 2008, the program is being scaled up to include more tobacco and maize farmers, as well as, expand to other crops including paprika, soya, and tea. Technical support is being provided to stakeholders in Malawi on all aspects of program implementation including contract design, business processes for roll-out and product marketing, and insurance/reinsurance arrangements.The Government of Malawi is also in the process of using risk management tools to strengthen its food security strategy. This work began in 2005 when the Government used a SAFEX-based call option to hedge the price risk of maize imports during the food crisis. In May of 2006 and May of 2007, Malawi faced a projected maize surplus and the Government was struggling with decisions about whether or not to allow exports, and how much to export. In order to demonstrate how market-based approaches could help manage uncertainty associated with this decision, the Bank worked with the government and the private sector to structure contingent export contracts. The contingent export contracts were based on put options, which would have provided an opportunity to sell at a pre-agreed price if it was determined later in the season that the country had sufficient maize. Although the contracts were not taken up, they were useful as a demonstration of how contingent contracting could be used to help manage risk associated with surpluses. Currently, Malawi is facing another project maize surplus, but also a much tighter regional/global market. Within the country, there continues to be a fairly high level of uncertainty about crop estimates. The price/supply risk management tool being considered this year is a repurchase option, which is based on a call option combined with a trade finance structure for grain held in the country. This agreement will help Government arrange, through the private sector, for maize to be held in 3-4 locations throughout the country, until November/December of next year. Government will have the right to repurchase the maize if it appears that the country might have a shortfall during next year's lean season. If maize is needed in the country, Government will exercise the call option and repurchase stocks which can then be re-sold through the private sector. If maize is not needed in the country, the private sector partners in this arrangement will have the right to export. Export permits, with a validity date one day after the option's exercise date, will be required at the time of signing the repurchase agreement. The objective of this approach is to set up a 2nd layer of grain reserves which operates financially, through the private sector. It also helps the Government address the difficult question of whether or not to allow exports, and how to signal to the private sector its intentions about exports. The repurchase option is expected to be agreed and finalized before the middle of June, 2008.Along with this, Government is also planning to use, for the first time, an index-based weather derivative contract designed to transfer to the market the financial risk of severe and catastrophic national drought that adversely impacts the Government's budget. With the approval of weather derivatives, the World Bank can for the first time offer financial intermediation services to low-income client countries of the International Development Association (IDA), and will add to the range of risk-management tools available to middleincome client countries of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).In the case of Malawi, the World Bank will act as intermediary between the country and reinsurance companies or investment banks that offer weather risk management products. An independent third-party will monitor the weather data which will be then entered into a croprainfall model that determines whether Malawi receives a payout. The weather derivative for Malawi requires an upfront premium and is designed to manage the risk of low probability but high severity events, like severe droughts, rather than the risk of events that occur more frequently, like minor or normal droughts. Tanzania. In Tanzania, a partnership has been developed with CRDB, a local bank responsible for most of the lending to coffee and cotton sectors (it has a portfolio of over USD 80 million) to implement a commodity price hedging program for borrowers. In 2005, in the first-ever such program initiated by a local African bank, CRDB established a commodity risk management unit. CRDB has a well-integrated system to support this operation that involves the Treasury department, which is responsible for booking financial risk management transactions with an overseas market provider (Rabobank in 2005/6) and relationship managers in the Corporate Client Department who are responsible for carrying out the risk assessment and risk management activities with clients (coffee producer groups and cotton ginning companies numbering between 25-35). The risk assessment tools provided to the banks' borrowers and its staff have been integrated into standard business practices in Tanzania, although as mentioned above there is a need for additional capacity building to ensure greater take-up of these tools among the smaller and less sophisticated organizations.Currently the Bank is continuing to provide technical support to CRDB on a) improvements in the risk assessment tools to make them more user-friendly, b) structuring prototype risk management contracts, c) establishing distribution of bi-weekly market that gives cotton and coffee borrowers independent information about global prices, and d) creating operational guides and procedure manuals to ensure that permanent institutionalization of the program within the bank.Also in Tanzania, a new project is under development in cooperation with the Common Fund for Commodities to strengthen in country capacity on risk management in coffee and cotton sectors. This joint project will build on the initial work done to develop risk assessment tools which help coffee and cotton marketing organizations identify a) overall position against the market, b) break-even cost/price levels, and c) a mark-to-market value which demonstrates net profit/loss of the overall position against current market prices. Initial capacity building on this issue has started to change marketing behavior since producer groups and ginning companies who have adapted the tools are now able to monitor financial exposure throughout the season and make informed decisions about covering risk through forward selling, minimum price guarantee contracts, or financial options. In addition to improved risk management practices, the tools have helped strengthen the capacity of organizations to improve tracking of inventory, purchases, sales commitments, and quality/grades.Annex Annex B Where Do Price Risk Management Tools Fit for Food Security?Recent rises in food prices have captured global attention regarding the need to manage price risk. While price risk management mechanisms (i.e., forwards, futures, and options) can be very beneficial for short-term risks -year-to-year fluctuations -these mechanisms do not protect against long-term trends in commodity prices. To the extent that current price increases are due to a rise in global demand for food and oil, price risk mechanisms will be ineffective for managing this fundamental change.Price risk management mechanisms are most helpful for internationally traded commodities. For example, Malawi imports white maize when national yields are low; however, national yields are inversely correlated with the white maize price on the South Africa Exchange Market (SAFEX), so purchasing maize can be very costly when food shortages occur (Dana, Gilbert, and Shim, 2007). In 2005, Malawi purchased an OTC call option -based on the SAFEX price of white maize plus the cost of physical delivery -for food security purposes. During November and December of 2005, the price of white maize increased and Malawi used the call option and received physical settlement, which it used to address food shortages (Dana, 2007). Likewise, put options could be used to hedge risk for exported commodities. Still, several preconditions remain that limit the use of price risk management mechanisms in lower income countries. Specifically, effective price risk management typically requires that:1. The commodity is traded on international exchange markets; 2. The domestic market is integrated with regional and/or international markets; and 3. Local markets are well-integrated.Commodities not listed on exchange markets tend to trade in lower volumes and do not have standardized price risk management mechanisms (i.e., futures and options). OTC contracts and forwards contracts can be used, but are more challenging for low-volume commodities in lower income countries due to high transaction costs (e.g., pricing the risk, due diligence, etc.) and the problems associated with nonintegrated markets (Numbers 2 and 3 above).Domestic market integration with international markets seems to depend on a complex relationship among a variety of factors including tariffs, trade restrictions, agricultural subsidy policies, geography, and transport costs (Barrett, 2001). Integration with international markets may differ among countries within the same region in Africa. For example, coffee markets in Ethiopia and Uganda are integrated with international markets, but not in Rwanda due largely to government subsidies (Rapsominikis, Hallam, and Conforti, 2004).What may be even more problematic is that, in some African nations, local markets are not integrated. For example in Ethiopia, a surplus of maize resulting in lower prices may occur in one region while drought and food shortages result in higher maize prices in another (FEWS NET, 2006). When local markets are not integrated, households are more dependent on the commodities that they and other community members grow. ForThe Potential of Weather Index Insurance for Spurring a Green Revolution in Africa Jerry R. Skees and Benjamin Collier, GlobalAgRisk, Inc. ","tokenCount":"16571"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e8f828aac64eb27d70bc958143367f94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/487a6b6a-fe03-400f-af50-52bca22edf8c/retrieve","id":"-1638380965"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5f9cc480-827c-4379-9f0c-ff7ed9705f00","pagecount":"8","content":"Maíze production ís the maín souree oflívelihood forthe farmers ofthe western hills ofNepaL However, farmers have very límited access to improved varieties nf maize, suítable to theír local reqmr.ments. They cultivat. a number of maize varieties maintained locally tbrough continuous selection forpreferred !raíts. An Írutial survey oftne two project sites in the Gulmi distrlct of westem Nepal suggests that farmers apply a number of criteria to the soleelion of a partícular maize populalíon to suito their productíon environmenl and lO meet Iheir family requirements for difierent uses of maize. However, Ihe survey results show Ihal Ihe differences among farmers in the preference for and seleclion oi a particular maize varjety are no! very s!rong. Tlle repor! discusses the ways these differences have becn analyzed and íncorporated ínto Ihe design of participatory planl breeding for Ihe imprQvement oflocal maíze varieties by lbe farmers.Maize is the firsl mos! important food crop in the hílls ofNepal in terms ofboth area and its eontribution to household food security. It occupies about 0.8 million hectares (about 35% ofthe total cultiva!ed area); 78% ofthis is in terraced hill fanning, which produces over 1.3 million lonnes per annurn (CBS 1999). The productivity of maize, however, is quite low (L 7 lonneslhectare) and, as a result, there lS high incidence offood-deficit households in the hills ofNepa!. One of the major contributing factors lo this low yield is the poor perfonnance of fanner-mamtained maíze varieties. Fanners' access to new seeds and varieties is extremely poor and, al the same time, a majority of farmers tend lO keep their own seed without replacing it for years. It ís estimated that nearly 90% of the total seed requirements for eereals and other food crops in the country is met by the traditional seed-supply system (Cromwell et al. 1993;Joshi 1995). Sinee maíze is an open-pollinated crop, even new varieties rapidly get contaminated with the undesired traits oflocal varieties. On the other hand, most of the new varieties developed so far neither fit well with local environments nor meet farmers' diverse needs. Therefore, it lS increasingly being realized that breeding must be carried out in the target envirournent with the full participation of farmers so that the users' perspective is well reflected in the new varieties developed.-The environments where maíze is produced in the hills ofNepal are very diverse in tenns oftopography, soil types, and use of production resources. There are also differences between fanners and fanning cornmunities in terrns of aecess to resources (Le., wealth) and food culture, whích is govemed largely by ethnicity. These dífferences exist no! only between wider agroecological zones bu! also between fanning famílies in the same víllage. F or these reasons, fanners require a large number of varietal options to fit into diverse production ni ches and to meet the varied consumption Various sources of ínformatíon have been used in lhe reporto These include focus-group discussions (FGDs) conducted during particípatory rural appraisals, particípatory gender analysis, and household baseline surveys undertaken at the Darwar Devísthan and Simichaur research sites at lhe inceptíon of the project. Separate FGD sessíons were held wilh different groups of furmers, categorized by gender, wealth, and ethnicity. Ihere were two categories under gender-male and female; three categories under wealth-rich, average, and poor; and three categories under ethnicíty-BrahminlChhetri/Jogi (BCJ), GurungIMagarlNewar (GMN), and KamiIDamai/Sarki (KDS). The categorízation of farming-household weallh was done by lhe farmers themselves, using their own perceptions and knowledge of wealth of lhese households. The ethnic categorization was done by researchers on the basis of sociocultural similarities.The participatory gender analysis involved lhe analysis of gender roles and decision-making pattems in lhe production and utilization system for maize. A sample of 30 selected households was facilítated in doing lheir own gender anaIysis by using a pictorial set of aman, woman, and child, and maize grains, to indicate their roles. Similarly, a detailed household baseline survey was conducted to colleet detailed and widely representative information, which al50 served as a major source of information for this reporto It involved a questionnaire survey of 100 households (40 at Darwar Devisthan and 60 at Simichaur) selected using a stratified random sampling technique.Users' perspectives in maize production and utilizationThe perspective of users in maize production and utilization was analyzed u5ing two socioeconomic variables: ethnicity and the weallh categories derived from participatory wealth ranking. The analysis of gender perspectives, on lhe other hand, utilized inforrnation from male-and female-headed sample households lhat were included in lhe household baseline survey. Ofthe total sample households surveyed, 19% were female headed. These are mostly de jacto household heads, Le., women have taken charge of managing the farm while men work off-farm away from home for several months, mostly in India.The characteristics of the heads of maize-growing households are presented in table l. The family members who make major farming deeisions are mature, with an average age of 50 yeara. Their literaey rate is much higher (81 %) compared to the nationalliteracy rate (39.6%). However, a majority ofthem (47%) are either barely literate or have a primary-Ievel school education. The family member making tbe main farming decisions is younger and more iIIiterate in the average and poor wealth eategories, in tbe KDS and GMN ethnie households, and in female-headed households.The charaeteristics of the maize-growing households are presented in table 1. The maize-farming families are relatively larger than nonfarming families, with an average of seven members per faroily. The family size is, however, relatively smaller in the average and poor wea1th categories and in tbe KDS and GMN ethnic households than in other households. Thi, implies that the family labor availabJe to these households is less than in other households. Though farming is the major oceuparion for tbe households of tbe two research sites, fami Iy members of72% ofthe farming households are engaged in off-farm activiries to earn additional cash ¡ncome for the family. The percentage distribution oftbese households across wealth categories and male-and female-headed households is similar. The percentage ofhouseholds with farnily members engaged in off-farm acrivities, however, is slightly higher in the GMN and KDS households than in the BC] households.Maize is the main livelihood crop fo. tbe farmera of the research sites. The maize production in the area is subsistence-oriented and production is largely for self-consumption. The self-produced food, however, is not adequate to mee! household food requirements. About 86% of tbe farming household experiences food deficits from less than one to 1I months of the year, and the average length of food self-sufficiency ís only about seven months. The degree of food deficiency varies among the different household categories. The average time of food self-sufficiency is lower in average and poor households, in BCJ and KDS ethnic households, and in female-headed households. Only a small proportion ofthe households (10.4%) sell maize. The proportion ofhouseholds selling maize is similar across households of different ethnic eategories but is lower in the average and poor households and in male-headed households. A high proportion of the households (61 %) purchase maize to offset theÍf food-grain deficit. The differences in the proportion of households purchasing maize is highJy significant (p < .0001) across'wealth categories but no! significant across ethnic categories and across male-and female-headed households. There is virtually no market influence on farmera' choice ofmaize varieties.In general, farmera are smallholders witb an average maize-growing harí land holding ofO.4 hectare, scattered over an average number of 2.3 parcels (table 1). (Bari represents rainfed upland where amaize-based cropping system is dominant.) The average holding size and tbe number of parcels of barí land decrease with the wealth ofthe farming household. The differences in barí land holdings are highJy significant across wealth categories (p < .0001). Simílarly, the variation in number of parcels of barí land per household is also significant (p < .05) across wealth categories. These differences in harí land holdings and the number of harí parcels per household are not statistically significant across either ethnic categories or male-and female-headed households.  Livestock fonns an important and integral part of the fanning system and, among other things, provides a major source of nutrients (Le., manure) for plants. Buffalo, cattle, goats, and chickens are the main kínds oflivestock in the area, wíth an average lívestock unít of2.8 per household. The average livestock unít ís highest among households in the rich and BeJ categories and lowest in poor and KDS households. This difference is significant across wealth (p < .0001) and ethnic (p < .01) categories. Simílarly, the female•headed households have lower livestock units per household than the male-headed households, but this dífference is not statistícaI1y significant. The resource analysis thus indícates that BeJ households have the most resources, followed by GMN households, while KDS households have the fewest resources. Similarly, female-headed households have comparatívely fewer resources than rnale-headed households.The access farmers have to improved maize varieties suitable to local environments and their own needs ís quite límited (table 1). Only 13% ofthe fanners reported growing improved varieties of maize; however, they know the value of changing theír old seeds. Ahout 39% ofthe households reported exchanging their seeds during last five years with other fanners. The users' and gender analysis showed that access to new maíze seeds is similar across al! wealth categories. However, GMN and KDS households have a complete lack of access to new maíze seeds, and a lower proportion of rnale-headed households reported cultívating improved varieties than díd female-headed households. The proportíon of households changing seeds over the last five years, however, ís greater in the poor wealth category, suggesting that farmers in t1ús category change seed more frequently than do the others. Since these households are also híghly food deficit, they may be consuming the seed and, therefore, bOITowing seeds from other farmers. The proportion ofhouseholds changing maize seeds ¡s, however, similar across ethnic categories and between male and female-headed households.Símilarly, fanners' access to teclurical services and inforrnation on technology is also poor. On1y about 3% of the maize-growing households reported participating in agriculture-related training, and on1y 6% participated in educational tours. Likewise, about 15% of the households reported receiving infonnation on improved technology for rnaize production. This reveals that externa! technica! support to farrners in their attempts to develop better maize varieties is quite limited. The proportion ofhouseholds particípatíng in agricultura! training and tours is lower in the average and poor households than in rich households. A chi-square analysis shows significant dífferences (p < .05) in access to infonnation on ímproved technology for maize production across wealth categories. Similarly, on1y BeJ households reported having participated in agricultural training and tours or receiving ínfonnation on improved maize production. The proportíon of ferna!e-headed households particípating in agricultural training and tours and receiving infonnation on improved maize production is lower than male-headed households.Farmers have been found to grow about eight dífferent types ofmaize varieties, which they broadly categorize into two maize types: one is a large type (Thulo makai) with taU plants, big cobs, large grains and long rnaturity, while the other is a srnall type (Sano makai) with short plants, small cobs and grains, and short maturity. A majority ofthe farmers grow large-type maize, and it covers about 87.7% of lhe total maíze area. Among the large varieties, Thulo pyanlo alone covers about 80% of the area planted to this type, which reflects that, although farmers grow a large numberofvarieties, a large portion ofthe maize-growing area is covered by a relatively small number ofvarietíes.A majority ofthe households grow one to two varieties ofmaize (46.5% to 45.5%, respectively) in a season (table 2). Onlyabout 8% ofthe total maize-growing households grow more than tbree varieties per season. The varietal diversity maintained at household level, therefore, is low (figure 1). The ANOVA result shows that the difference in the number of maize varieties grown at household level is significant (p < .05) across wealth categories but not significant across ethnic categories and between male-and female-headed households. A higher proportion of poor households grows one variety of rnaize, compared to rich and average households. This is contrary to !he currently held view that small farmers maintain significant amounts of crop genetic diversity (Jarvis et al. 1997) and agrees with the fmdings of other studies (Rana and Kadayat 1999). Similarly, though no! significant, a very high proportion ofKDS households (90%) grows only one variety of maize.' \" 100% 'tl 90%\"O 80%.c: ., 70%' \" Farmers who grow more tban one variety mentioned various reasons fur this (table2): to prepare different food items, to harvest at different times, to suit dífferent land types, to use as animal feed, and to meet fodder requirements. However, a majority ofthe farmers (67.9%) grow to suit dífferent types of land, and this is true across all wealfu and ethnic categories and between male-and fernale-headed households. Ihe ANOVA result suggests that fue number ofmaíze varieties grown at household leve! is not signifieantly related to the size of the hari land but is highly signifieantly related to the number ofparcels of bari land the farmer is planting to maize (p < .0001). This indicates tbat with the increase in the number of parcels of bari land, the number of maize varieties grown at household level also increases. This also confirms ¡he PRA finding that farmers in the area grow large-type maize on more fertile land while small-type maize is grown on less fertile soil. The number of bari pareels, therefore, appears to be the strongest determining factor in deciding the number of maíze varieties to be grown per season. It is, however, true tbat farmers use multiple eriteria to select maize varieties for their household production.The gender differences in the use of sorne eriteria to choose maize varieties are striking. A large proportion of fernale-headed households (more than tbree times !he number of male-headed households) mentioned growing more than one variety to meet fodder requirernents for their livestock.Ihis is also confirmed by the PRA findíngs. During the focus-group díscussions, women farmers 5.0 3,1 7,0 0.9 13,3Note; Elhnicity is represented as BCi = BrahminlChhelrilJogi; GMN = Gurung/MagarlNewar; KDS = KamiIDam.i!Sarki.strongly expressed their preference for tall varieties ofmaize Iike their local varieties because taller varielies produce more fodder than short varíeties. Women appear 10 be more concemed with this issue because managing livestock fodder is largely theír responsibility. Similarly, women fanners are very particular aboul Ihe suitability of maize varieties for inlercropping, especíally wíth legumes (cowpeas and beans), because these help them meel the vegetable and pulse requirements of their families. The latter sometimes leads to conflicts with their male counterparts because intercropping with cowpeas and beans makes maize plants vulnerable to lodging and can cause big 105ses in the maize yield.Maize is the staple food for fanning households in the study area. Different preparations of maize are made for household consumption, ofwhich steamed grit (makai ka bhat) i5 the mos! common preparation, reported by 77% oftotal production (table 2). Farmers, therefore, prefer maize varíeties thal have high grit recovery. They perceive that ye!low (colored) maize has higher grit recovery and, therefore, prefer colored varieties over the white ones. The food preparation ofmaize is similar across households of different wealth, elhnic, and gender categories, and a majority ofhouseholds use it in grit formo Users' and genderdifferences in the choice ofvariety, Iherefore, do not appear lo be influenced by differences in the use of maize.The analysis díscussed aboye indicates that fanners' choíces for maíze varíeties are not greatly influenced by theír differences in weallh, ethnicity, and gender, Le., different categories of fanners have preferences for similar types of maize varietíes. F anners across all wealth, ethnic, and gender categories grow only one or two maize varieties per household and, therefore, their varíetal needs are not very diverse. However, farmers use multíple criteria ín selectíng the varietíes they grow.They prefer to have as many traits oftheír preference as possíble ín one lo two maize varietíes. InIhis way, they are able to maintaín and manage the variety of their-preference fora long•duration. Since maize ís an open-pollinated crop, a large number of varieties is difficult lo maintain and manage. Thi5 analysis ís also confirmed by the findings of the PRA conducted al the project research siles. The participatory breeding program, therefore, should focus on developing fewer maize varíelies with multíple traits lhat reflect fanners' preferences. Priority should be given lo the maize varieties Ihat have higher grit recovery, grow welI under different land conditions, produce high biomass for use as fodder, and alIow good intercropping with legumes.The informalÍon on gender roles in maize production and utilization is based on a participatory gender analysis done with 30 maize-growing households selected for lhat purpose. The results show that there are distinct gender roles for men, women, and children in the production and utilizalÍon of maize in lhe hilIs ofNepaL Women supersede men in their involvement in all three major functions ofmaize production and utilization: namely, (1) production, (2) household utilization and marketing, and (3) seed managemen! (table 3). Their involvement is particularly high in the application of compost and farmyard manure lo the maize fie1d; seed processing, treatment, storage, and preparation for sowing in the next season; and intercroppíng of maize with beans, cowpeas, pumpkins, and other crops.The results ofthe gender analysis show lhat women are also the prime decision makers in the family and lheir contribution to decision making in actívities related to maize production and utilization is higher than that their male counterparts in the fumily (table 4). Their contribution to decisions is particularly high in the selection of crops fOT intercropping with maize, deciding on date and time of weeding and earthing-up in the maize fields, and in most ofthe activities relaled lo utilizatíon and","tokenCount":"2921"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc771cc20b6a8772a0c74649e126dfba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042160.pdf","id":"-133490059"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a5f8b9bb-fc52-4776-9898-8dd8eb8a5c81","pagecount":"24","content":"Water resources development and management have been the common policy agenda in many developing economies, particularly in arid and semi-arid tropical countries. Both the physical and economic scarcity of water across regions made the water resources economists and policymakers critically analyze different options to manage this precious resource. A study by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) shows that around 50 % of the increase in demand for water by the year 2025 can be met by increasing the effectiveness of irrigation. Most of this gain in irrigation effectiveness would be in countries with a high percentage of irrigated rice. India and China together would account for as much as one-half of the world's total estimated water savings from increased irrigation effectiveness. Therefore, the capacity of large countries like India and China to efficiently develop and manage water resources is likely to be a key determinant of global food security in the twenty-first century (Seckler et al. 1998). In countries like India, almost the entirety of the easily possible and economically viable irrigation water potential has already been developed, but the demand for water for different sectors has been growing continuously (Saleth 1996;Vaidyanathan 1999). Moreover, the water use efficiency in the agricultural sector, which still consumes over 80 % of water, is only in the range of 30-40 % in India, indicating that there is considerable scope for improving the existing water use efficiency.Moreover, in recent decades the issue of inter-sectoral water demand and allocation poses challenges to water economists and policymakers alike. Burgeoning population, expansion in the urban sector of the economy and increase in the industrial sector led to an increase in demand for water in domestic, industrial and, of course, in the irrigation sector. The problem is further compounded by environmental pollution. Under these circumstances, it is more important than ever before to use water efficiently. The existing literature on water resources management shows that the solution to the problem of growing groundwater scarcity is centered on two strategies. First, the supply side management practices like watershed development, water resources development through major, medium and minor irrigation projects. The second is through demand management by efficient use of the available water both in the short-run and long-run perspectives. Though there are a number of demand management options available, one of the demand management strategies adopted either formally or informally across regions by water markets is by reallocation of water, particularly in regions where groundwater scarcity is acute.The water policies of many developing countries including India show that the existing policies on irrigation are mainly supply-side oriented rather than demand-side. Policies such as tariff rate, power pricing in the irrigation sector and institutional components for supplying irrigation water are far too inadequate to effectively manage the scarce water resources. Moreover, the command and control mechanism does not adequately reflect the farmers' preferences because the farmers' preferences are determined by various physical, socioeconomic and contextual factors. Under these circumstances, informal water markets emerged in order to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of water, and these markets continue to exist in many parts of the country and elsewhere as well. (Venkatachalam 2008).Water markets have been considered as a coping strategy for managing water scarcity and reallocation of water from surplus to scarcity regions/localities/farms. Evidences show that the groundwater markets play a significant role in India's groundwater economy (Bhatia et al. 1995). It is found that in Gujarat, for instance, the value of groundwater extracted and used per year is worked out to be in the range of Rs.5,000 to Rs.6,000 million. Of the total water transacted, about 40-60 % of water is sold to the resource-poor farmers who experience the capital requirement as a major constraint in establishing their own water extraction mechanisms (Shah and Raju 1988). Evidences also show that well-developed groundwater markets have existed in Gujarat for as long as 70-80 years. Groundwater markets assume importance for three critical reasons. (i) They enable marginal and small farmers to enjoy the benefits of groundwater lifts and, thereby help enhance their incomes. (ii) Groundwater markets help their owners to improve the economic viability of their lifts and, thereby enhance their incomes. (iii) These markets help the society by minimizing investments in groundwater lifts. Under these situations, groundwater markets are considered as one of the best demand management strategies (Narain 1997).In this context, it is argued that the markets can increase economic efficiency by allocating resources to their most valuable uses, i.e., markets create adequate incentives and lead to efficient water use (Mohanty and Gupta 2002). With only limited scope for further expansion in irrigation potential, the formal or informal water markets can play a crucial role in water allocation across villages and regions. Therefore, the study of water market and its nature, function and role in water resource management assume importance. Recognizing the importance of water markets as a strategy for managing scarce water resources, this paper analyses how water markets can be an option for managing the ever increasing demand for water.The literature on water markets in India dates back to as early as the 1960s. The term 'water market' has been widely used in regions where water selling and buying takes place. Literature suggests that the term has been used to describe a localized, village level institutional arrangement through which owners of the Lift Irrigation Schemes (LIS) supply irrigation service to other members of the community at a price (Shah 1986). The markets for water function in a slightly different manner to markets for other commodities and inputs. As indicated earlier the emergence of markets for water is determined by several socioeconomic and cultural factors. The water markets are typically spontaneous (initiated by private individuals to achieve mutual gains), informal (transaction of water takes place without any legal bindings and to get mutual benefits between the buyers and sellers), unregulated (no strict regulation is followed), localized (mostly functioning at the village level), fragmented (geographical separation of sellers) and seasonal (demand varies across seasons)- (Shah 1986).Studies on groundwater markets are not a new development as many have attempted across regions and countries to address the wide range of issues such as functioning of water markets, equity and efficiency in water sales, size and structure, allocative efficiency, monopoly power and determinants of monopoly power, impacts of water markets and policyoriented issues such as power pricing and so on. Studies have also attempted find out the conditions under which water markets emerge. For instance, studies have revealed that markets for groundwater have emerged where well-owners have a surplus of water and there is high demand for irrigation water (Kolavalli and Chicone 1989).Water markets are actually not uncommon. Wherever people have more water than they need they sell it to others. In the USA, rural water markets have become institutionalized, with farmers' associations selling water to each other and to urban centers in need of water. Farmers' markets exist in India where prices are fixed through negotiation, and payments are made by different modes such as cash or kind. Water sales by well-owning farmers have occurred as long as wells have been in existence, but the first reports of widespread sales appeared in studies of well irrigation in the1960s (Moosti 1970;Patel andPatel 1969 cited in Kolavalli andChicone 1989). The main focus has been on the monopoly power of the water sellers / well-owners and the impact of high-priced water sales on the non-well owners or the poor (Asopa and Tripati 1975;Shah 1985). However, much deeper examination of the operation and functioning of water markets were formally done by Shah (1985) and Bliss and Stern (1982). The water markets in India are highly imperfect and the prices are determined by the marginal cost of pumping and elasticity of water demand (Shah 1985).Experiences show that the key determinants of monopoly power in groundwater markets are rainfall, cost of water extraction mechanisms, density of water extraction mechanisms, spacing norms, cropping pattern, access to canal water and electricity and lined water conveyance system (Shah and Raju 1988). Empirical evidences confirm that the water markets in rural areas fairly reflect natural oligopolies (Shah 1986). Of course, there are several reasons to support these types of markets. The density of LIS tends never to be so high as to make the individual water sellers completely powerless. Topographical barriers and seepage losses through unlined channels prevent the sellers from enjoying full monopoly power, and the huge capital investment acts as a natural barrier in preventing the entry of new firms to the market. Moreover, enforcement of spacing norms and electricity boards either directly or indirectly limit the operation of water markets and, thereby make water markets operate as oligopoly markets.In places where there are fragmented holdings and parcels of land (far from each other), often coupled with the surplus of water in the wells, well-owners are motivated to sell their surplus to the neighbors (Kolavalli and Chicone 1989). Similarly, groundwater markets emerge in regions where well-owners have a surplus of water and an increasing demand for water due to the growing of water-intensive crops and adoption of improved agricultural technologies such as high-yielding modern varieties, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals etc. (Abbie et al. 1982). Since, the buyers seem to be price takers and primarily depend on sellers' decisions; the sellers enjoy the monopoly power as there is no immediate alternative available for the buyers. In addition, the price discrimination is also observed in the form of different prices for crops of different value, seasons, and locations. A study conducted in the Gujarat State of India, found that the capital appears to be the major constraint for the emergence of water markets in groundwater abundant areas. The lack of capital is seen as the primary barrier preventing smallholders entering the water market. It is also found that the water sellers are unable to enjoy a monopolistic position because of the simultaneous existence of many markets in the rural areas (Kolavalli and Chicone 1989).Experiences from different parts of the country and elsewhere show that water markets function in varying size from much localized areas to regions. Though the water markets are prevalent in many parts of India such as Gujarat, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal, they are most developed in Gujarat. The extent of area irrigated through water markets, which is often considered to be a surrogate for the magnitude of water traded, varies across regions as well as over time, influenced by many factors like rainfall, groundwater supply, cropping patterns, and the cost and availability of electricity (Saleth 1994). As such it is difficult to assess the size and nature of the groundwater market as a whole. The major part of the problem is the limited attention paid to this issue in the past. Whatever is known, however, indicates that up to half or more of the land area served by private modern water extraction mechanisms (WEM) in many parts of India is likely to be owned and operated by the buyers of water themselves (Shah 1993).Earlier estimates have shown that over 12 million private WEMs, which depend on small surface water bodies and on groundwater, serve a gross irrigated area of some 30 mha at an average of around 2.5 ha per WEM. Field studies indicate that the actual gross area irrigated by both WEM owners and water buyers from WEMs is often two to three times greater, especially in water abundant (WA) areas indicating the intensive use of land and water with certainty of water supplies. In the Allahabad District of Uttar Pradesh, Shankar (1987) studied over 150 private WEM owners and found that the average gross area irrigated by them was 24 ha. In Punjab, Jairath (1985) found the average gross area irrigated by a sample of diesel and electric WEM owners in Ludhiana and Amristar districts to be 5.7 ha in case of diesel WEMs and 9.6 ha for electric WEMs. Evidence from West Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh shows that small 5 -7.5 hp pumps on private bore wells are providing intensive irrigation for crops like paddy, banana and sugarcane on an average of 3.5 ha per WEM. However, the same study showed that electric WEMs in the Kheda District of Gujarat as providing irrigation to an average of over 20 ha of gross irrigated area. Some private WEMs sampled by them in Gujarat irrigated as much as 50-60 ha of gross area (Shah and Raju 1986).These studies show that the sellers provided sustained intensive irrigation to those who have no access to irrigation water. Often, a seller may provide small amounts of irrigation to a large number of buyers who use this irrigation to grow an additional crop in critical periods of moisture stress. Water selling by private WEM owners can have a dramatic beneficial impact on the community in such a context. Water sales is a pervasive feature where large as well as poor WEM owners are selling supplementary irrigation to their neighbors at prices ranging from Rs.8 to Rs 25 per hour from 5 hp diesel or electric WEMs in the tribal regions of West Bengal (Pant 2004). The seller made a tidy profit of some Rs.3,000 per year but the tribal who could grow an additional potato crop on their land gained much more (Shah 1987). The average number of buyers with whom a WEM owner deals is another indicator of the significance of water markets. As discussed elsewhere in the 'Groundwater Markets and Irrigation Development-Political Economy and Practical Policy' book (Shah 1993), the figures range from 2-3 to 70-80 across regions. In the coastal Andhra (West Godavari), and Uttar Pradesh, the number of buyers per WEM is typically smaller, whereas in Gujarat, the number of buyers per WEM tends to be large. Likewise, a typical WEM in a water-scarce area can serve a smaller number of buyers than in water-abundant areas.The studies on water markets mostly concentrated on water-scarce regions than waterabundant regions. The reason may be mainly to cope with the increasing water scarcity. Though it is hard to define the size of the water market and though water is unlike other commodities, researchers defined the extent of the spread of the water market as one to be measured in terms of breadth and depth, which Shah and Ballabh (1997) define, respectively, as the proportion of farm and farm lands that come into the beneficial ambit of the water market. At the regional level, water markets have acquired tremendous breadth as shown by multi-village studies conducted by Mukherji and Shah (2002), e.g., in villages where groundwater irrigation is prevalent, groundwater market is all-pervasive. At the micro-level, there is evidence to show that breadth of water markets has increased over time. Evidences show that the breadth of water markets in terms of percentage of irrigated area served by the water sales varied from 20.8 % in Eastern Uttar Pradesh to 100 % in West Bengal.There are several factors that contribute to the breadth of water markets and, generally, it is seen to be inversely related to the existence of other modes of cheap irrigation, e.g., public tubewells and canals. Another dimension in the size of water markets is the depth of the water market defined in terms of the intensity of water transactions. The depth of a water market is defined as the ratio of average hours of operation of the Water Extraction Mechanism (WEM) per year to the average hours of water sold per year, higher the value the greater the depth of the water market. The depth of a water market ranged from as small as (0.17) in Bihar to as large as (0.68) in Bangladesh (see Mukherji 2004). .The water is charged in different modes and it varies across the region. The water charges are paid in terms of cash, kind (agricultural output, labor etc.), and crop sharing agreements between the buyers and sellers. Evidence shows that cash transaction (Clay 1974cited in Mukherji 2004;Shah 1991;Shah and Ballah 1997;Fujita and Hossain 1995) is very common in water markets. Shah (1991) viewed these kinds of cash transactions as an indicator of market maturity for groundwater. There were also situations where water sale through cash transaction accounted for only 3 % of the total area irrigated in Bangladesh, while the major portion was accounted for by tenancy contracts between landowners and WEM owners (Fujita and Hossain 1995). Sometimes, water sales are dominated by seasonal cash contracts (Lewis 1989). Pant (2003), Ballabh et al. (2002) found that in many of their study villages, water sales are carried out by hourly payments of both in cash and kind. WEM owners are also seen to adopt leasing in and leasing out practices for transactions in the water markets. A review of these studies conducted therefore indicates that there can be two types of transactions in the water market : first, is the outright sale of water (against cash, kind or a mix of both, either at hourly or seasonal rates); and the second, is some kind of tenancy arrangement under which the WEM owner can either lease in land from other landowners or lease out land in lieu of a certain return, either fixed (in terms of money or in kind) or share of the produce (Mukherhji 2004).Experiences from the earlier studies show that the prices charged by the sellers vary significantly across regions, crops etc. The hourly price ranges between Rs. 3 in the West Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh to Rs. 45 in the Mehasana District of Gujarat (Shah 1993). Non-cash contracts, which typically take the form of sharecropping (i.e., seller collects a water rent in the form of a share of the buyer's output), are not uncommon. They have been found to be incentive compatible (Aggarwal 1999). However, this practice is found in Tamil Nadu, particularly in tank and canal command areas, where the well-owners sell water to the non-well owners for supplemental irrigation requirements. The payment is made in the form of kind, i.e., paddy outputs. These contracts work as a 'double-sided' incentive, providing the seller an incentive to ensure that the water supply is timely and reliable, and providing the buyer an incentive not to shirk the application of labor. In Tamil Nadu, there are cases where water buyers have to offer labor services such as operating the pump and irrigating the well owners' fields for a paltry sum or no remuneration at all (Janakarajan 1993).In the midst of growing water scarcity, increased emphasis has been given to market-based instruments to solve the scarcity problem. The advantages and disadvantages of water trading, the nature of functioning and impacts of water markets at different levels have been well documented, argued and debated with evidence from field experiences. When we look at the impact of groundwater markets, the literature ranging from highly positive ones that confirm the groundwater markets are the 'vehicle of poverty alleviation' to those which accuse groundwater markets of 'creating water lords' and appropriating the surplus from the poor. There are two major ways in which the impact of groundwater markets are manifested; first, in changes in cropping pattern and cropping intensity among the buyers and sellers; and second, in terms of employment generation among the landless (Mukherji 2004).The emergence and existence of groundwater markets could be viewed as a response to the nature of groundwater use, extraction and management in the country. The water markets ensure efficiency and equity and, thereby generate adequate social benefits to the society. Efficient functioning of a water market implies the narrowing of margins of the price charged by the seller and price paid by the buyers. In other words, in efficient water markets, sellers sell water at a price close to the average economic cost of pumping. This ensures larger irrigation surpluses and more livelihoods for the resource poor and the landless (Shah 1986). In such a situation, the water markets have beneficial effects: (i) higher and more risk-free income flows from farming for non-well owners who have no access to water; (ii) appreciation of non-well owners land; and, (iii) increased wages, and adequate employment opportunities for the land owners.Water markets promote higher efficiency because water users can sell any surpluses they create or use them to increase their production, such as by experimenting with a new crop grown under a different irrigation system. Groundwater markets contribute significantly to agricultural production and growth in a region. In Bengal, private shallow tubewells (STW) diffused very rapidly during the 1980s, which contributed to the high agricultural growth rate and in the reduction of poverty in rural areas. The major reason why tubewells diffused rapidly, in spite of the lack of progress of land consolidation projects was the emergence of a groundwater market.In the event of an absence of property rights mechanisms, the water markets may play a crucial role in reallocation of water from surplus regions to scarcity areas and have significant positive impacts and help achieve administered efficiency pricing (i.e., pricing marginal unit of water at marginal cost)- (Mohanty and Gupta 2002). Furthermore, studies show that farmers are sensitive to changes in water price -increasing the price of agricultural water by 10 % decreases demand by 20 %. In other words, the demand is price-elastic. Thus, a marginal reduction in subsidies for agricultural water would reduce its use by this sector. It is not necessary that agricultural output would decline as a consequence. Increasing the price of agricultural water would simply give agricultural communities an incentive to use water more efficiently, e.g., by using new technologies and planting high-value crops such as nuts, fruits and vegetables that are less water intensive (Fowler 1999).Moreover, even if water markets reduced agricultural production, such a reduction would probably be seen in marginally productive lands and crops. In this context, it has been estimated that agricultural water use could decline by as much as 15-20 % through conservation without significant decreases in production (Wahl 1989). Numerous trends indicate that a significant reallocation of water from agricultural to urban regions occurred in western states, and a reallocation of as much as 15 % of agricultural usage is plausible (Haddad 2000). It is also increasingly clear that markets will play an important role in this reallocation.Water quality improvement is also achieved through water markets. In water surplus areas with high drainage problems, the water markets transfer the surplus water to scarcity areas and, thereby reduce many quality-related problems, e.g., salinity (Weinberg et al. 1993). Water markets could also be considered as the best solution to achieve the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater. A study conducted by Kolavalli and Chicone (1989) has been successful in creating an understanding of how farmers in different parts of the canal command supplement canal irrigation with their own or purchased groundwater to obtain better results.Water markets lead to high water productivity. In areas where irrigation is done through water markets, the buyers can get the water that they need, when they need, and the water productivity will be high as markets fulfill the requirements in the most crucial stage of crop growth. Evidence shows that the water markets led to additional crop cover of 50-80 acres of 35-40 buyers land. The water seller earned an income of Rs.3,000 per year and the water buyers gained much more with the increase in crop production (Shah 1988). Since water is purchased in a market, the buyers use water more efficiently and judiciously. Thus, the water markets play a vital role in improving efficiency in agricultural production, ensuring equity in resource allocation, managing demand and promoting the conjunctive use of both surface and groundwater, particularly in command areas and improving water quality.In spite of the positive impacts, water markets significantly generate negative externalities or other ecological and equity problems also.Easy access to buy water and the huge initial investment linked with water extraction mechanism have dissuaded farmers from owning such a mechanism. It is also found that the use of unlined channels to transport water to buyers' fields results in seepage losses as high as 30 to 40 %. This implies that buyers who are at some distance from the owner' tubewell incurred an effectively higher price, which has resulted in the emergence of localized monopolies (Shah 1993).Water markets sometimes lead to adverse effects in the agricultural sector. For instance, the water market in the Tirupur and Coimbatore districts of India has emerged as a major threat to the irrigated agriculture. Due to labor scarcity, high wage rates and inadequate water storage, farmers prefer to sell their water rather than engage themselves in actual farming work. Moreover, the extensive water use in dying and bleaching industries has resulted in making water transfer from agriculture to industry become more significant. Consequently the value of production loss in agriculture also has become significant as indicated below (Table 1). The water markets will lead to social inequity in a situation where water sellers have a monopoly of the market. In this case, the water sellers will have the major share of the buyer's profit too through water sales. As more people resort to water selling, water markets can cause excess pumping of water, making groundwater aquifers more prone to depletion This will pose challenges to achieve sustainable water management, and to ensuring intergenerational equity to resource access, particularly in water-scarce regions. It is evidenced that water markets generate negative externalities such as inequity in agricultural productivity, reduction in efficiency and reduction in agricultural production both at the farm level and regional level.In spite of various negative externalities generated by water markets, it could be viewed best as a demand management tool as it helps in a big way in reallocation of water from surplus to scarcity areas/regions.Water markets and associated trading of water has been practiced in many parts of the world since a long time ago. Not only in developing countries but also in many developed countries like Australia and the USA, the water markets function either formally or informally. The functioning of water markets in few countries are discussed below.Evidence shows that the Western United States (California, in particular) is one of the earliest instances where water markets have played a role in managing water scarcity. Many argued that water markets are the key to redressing the imbalance and achieving a more efficient allocation of water. Irrigators in California have been trading water among themselves for years, both formally and informally, and trading even occurs in some districts that are supplied with federal water. Members of the Westland's Water District (WWD), for example, negotiated roughly 4,500 transfers during 1990-91. In March 1996, WWD introduced an electronic bulletin board system that enables farmers to buy and sell annual entitlements to federal water using a personal computer and a modem (Anderson and Snyder 1997). Perhaps the most established market for federal water operates in the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District near Fort Collins, Colorado. Annual water entitlements within the district are freely transferable. About 30 % of the water delivered to the district each year passes through the rental market, with rents ranging from US$ 5-7 per acre-foot (Wahl 1989). There are also numerous examples of water trading between agricultural and urban users in western United States in the states of Utah, Arizona, Colorado and Nevada. For instance, groundwater in Arizona was made freely transferable by law in 1980. Following this the cities of Phoenix, Tucson, Mesa and Scottsdale acquired more than 50,000 acres of farmland in order to leave the fields fallow and to utilize the water. A study by researchers at the University of Arizona found that during the late 1970s and during the 1980s there were about 6,000 transactions in Utah, 1,455 in New Mexico, and 1,500 in Colorado (Steinhart 1990 cited in Mohanty and Gupta 2002).Water sector in Australia has moved to the forefront of national policy debates aimed at meeting expanding social, economic and environmental objectives. The proportion of water used for agriculture is ever increasing both in absolute and relative terms.  (Hussey and Dovers 2006).Australia is also one of the pioneering countries where water trading has been practiced since a long time ago. Australian states have started allowing transfers of water entitlements through markets. Transferable rights were a response to increasing scarcity of water. As in the case of India, informal markets had already evolved before the state enacted legislation during the 1980s that codified water trading. Prior to this, farmers transferred water entitlements through 'dual ownership' whereby they purchased two landholdings and transferred water from one to the other. The fact that they chose to do this despite the high transaction costs associated with such transfers indicates the value of the gains that can be obtained from water trading. It has been estimated that water transfers along the Murray-Darling River Basin stretching over 2,500 kilometers led to a significant increase in farm incomes. In 1988-89 this increase in income was US$5.6 million through 280 transfers of 85,000 mega-liters of water. In 1990-91 the increase was US$10 million comprising 437 transfers of about 120,000 megaliters (Sturgess andWright 1993 cited in Mohanty andGupta 2002). Market-based tradable permits, i.e., transferring of water rights, have assumed importance in Australia and are being widely adopted in different states.Recognizing the importance of water trading, Chile established secure and transferable water rights. With these rights, individuals can buy or lease water quite easily. The aim is to strengthen private property, increase private autonomy in water use and favor free markets in water. Water rights in Chile are now completely separate from land ownership and can be freely bought, sold, mortgaged, and transferred like any other piece of real estate. The Chilean experience with water markets is one of mixed success and is \"something for other countries to learn from rather than to copy\" (Bauer 1997 cited in Mohanty andGupta 2002). The lesson that emerges from the Chilean experience for India is that water users strongly favor the increased legal security that private property rights provide. Not only have stronger property rights increased the autonomy of local canal associations, they have also encouraged investment in agricultural water use, particularly by those growing high-value export crops like fruits.Meinzen-dick (1997) analyzed the functioning of groundwater markets in Pakistan and their impact on agricultural productivity and incomes. The effects of the physical, social and agro economic environments on the density of private tubewells and the activity of water markets were studied, including the participation in groundwater markets. Furthermore, the determinants of tubewell ownership and groundwater purchase at the micro-level were identified using data from a household survey. The impact of groundwater markets on productivity and incomes were analyzed comparing the extent of irrigation acquired by farmers through surpluses attributable to water from canals, purchased groundwater and their own tubewells (Meinzen-Dick 1996). As per the study by Weinberg et al. (1993), in addition to improving the allocative efficiency of water use, water markets reduce irrigation-related water quality problems. This potential benefit is examined with a nonlinear programming model that was developed to simulate agricultural decision-making in an area with experienced drainage problems in California's San Joaquin Valley. Results indicate that a 30 % drainage goal is achievable through improvements in irrigation practices and changes in cropping patterns induced by a water market. Although water markets will not, in general, achieve a least-cost solution, they may be practical alternatives to economically efficient, but information-wise intensive, environmental policies such as the Pigouvian taxes.Water markets in India are quite informal, localized and spontaneous as indicated by Shah (1993) and others. However, the water markets in India are functioning in varying size and degrees across the regions. As far as water markets are concerned, numerous studies were conducted in India by different authors over a period of time. A recent study by Abijit et al. ( 2006) made an attempt to analyze the institutions and markets that govern groundwater allocation in the sugarcane belt of Uttar Pradesh, India. One of the findings was that plots are water-rationed owing to the inadequate supply of power. Rationing and the village-level mechanism of water sales lead to a great misallocation of water across the plots, and result in large crop losses for plots that irrigate with purchased water. The existence of a social contract will mitigate these potential losses in the study area to a remarkable extent. However, in the absence of such a contract average yields are estimated to be lower by 18 %.The domestic requirements of the Bhavani River basin as well as the adjacent Noyyal Basin are met partly by surface water in the Bhavani River. The river provides water to several municipalities, town panchayats and village panchayats for domestic consumption. The municipalities pump water for domestic requirements directly from the river. The annual draw from the river for the existing schemes and the schemes that are proposed in the future by the TWAD Board is in the order of 174 MCM. There are two water supply circles for household water requirements in the Lower Bhavani Basin As such, nine schemes are running to provide drinking water supply to the 'Coimbatore Circle'. The total draw from the Bhavani River for this circle is 378.50 mld (0.38 MCM) and yearly 138.5 MCM. Among the nine schemes, five schemes are running to give 335.86 mld (0.34 MCM) and yearly 122.58 MCM of water to the Noyyal Basin. There are 32 schemes running to give drinking water to the 'Erode Circle'. The total draw from the Bhavani River in this circle is 97.126 mld (0.09 MCM) and yearly 35.45 MCM. Hence, the total drinking water drawn from the Bhavani River is both for Coimbatore and Erode circles, which is 475.626 mld (0.48 MCM) and yearly it is 173.60 MCM. About 400 tankers are operating daily in transferring water from the agriculture sector to urban sectors. The price charged at the farm level is about Rs.100/tanker (13,000 lit). and it is sold to the industries at Rs. 400-600/tanker. Source: Palanisami (2005) Pant ( 2004) traces the evolution of water markets in eastern and western Uttar Pradesh. He observed a surge in investment in privately-owned tubewells and in the demand for electricity. The surge is attributable to the demands placed by the high-yielding variety of seeds and the consequent need for timely and reliable water supply, coupled with farmers' drive to maximize the yield. Pant concludes that growth increased the demand for power, which while available in plenty in the 1970s, has now become a constraining factor. Transactions in groundwater are noted for their importance in elevating the position of the small farmer by providing access to water.Continued progress in water resources development in Tamil Nadu, India, will require that the state's existing irrigation potential be used more efficiently. Only 15 % of surface water potential in Tamil Nadu remains unexploited, and the rapidly escalating construction cost constitute a growing drain on state finances while increasing the already high financial subsidy given to irrigated farms. Further complicating matters the private exploitation of groundwater by individual farmers has tended to result in an indiscriminate and unregulated proliferation of wells, which has lowered the water table in several regions of the state. Additionally, increasing demand for nonagricultural purposes has compelled the government to divert adequate water supplies from the agricultural sector to nonagricultural users on a priority basis. Increasing water scarcity in Tamil Nadu has caused the development of informal water markets, both within the agricultural sector and between the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors.Informal water trading in agriculture is often initiated by the selling of a small plot of land adjacent to a river to people who can dig a well and pump the water either from a shallow well or directly from the river through underground pipelines to fields 5 to 15 km away from the well. This practice is illegal, however, because wells within 200 m of the river are considered to be recharged directly from the river. Thus, by pumping from these wells, pump owners divert water to which they have no rights. In most cases, farmers who pump water from riverside wells use diesel pump sets to do so. However, some farmers use electricity by transferring their existing electric connections to these new wells. This practice further compounds the illegality of river pumping, selling water from pumps using electrical power is prohibited, because electricity is provided free for direct agricultural purposes only.Informal inter-sectoral water markets are also operating in and around the major river basins in Tamil Nadu. Well-owners sell water to truckers, who in turn transport the water to urban centers. Two locations, i.e., Coimbatore City and Tiruppur Town in Tamil Nadu have particularly active water markets. In informal markets, well-owners pump water using diesel or electric motors (the latter, again, being illegal) and sell it to middlemen for US$0.08 to US$0.10/m 3 (The middlemen -bullock-cart owners and lorry tanker operators -are the main distributors of water to households and other customers. This cost of water to the end consumer averages approximately US$0.75m 3 more than 10 times the subsidized rate paid by households connected to the public distribution system. (Relatively well-to-do households served by the public water system pay only US$0.06/m 3 ).Despite significant restrictions on the tradability of water in Tamil Nadu, the state's informal water markets have developed in response to increasing water scarcity and to the differential value of water across the sectors. Particularly active trading takes place between the agricultural and urban sectors. The markets serve a useful function of supplying water to users who otherwise would not be served by the highly subsidized municipal water system. However, the markets would be far more effective if the legal restrictions and excessive electricity and municipal water subsides were removed. Especially, the subsidized municipal system, which leaves out many of the poor, has negative welfare implications. The reform of water laws and water allocation systems in Tamil Nadu to permit more flexible water trading could greatly benefit the state.No doubt that irrigation water plays a crucial role in agricultural production, and many claim that the irrigation water in most of the water-scarce regions are allocated through water markets (Shah 1997;Palmer Jones 1994 cited in Mukherji andShah 2002). The size, nature and functioning of water markets significantly vary across hydrogeological and socioeconomic and cultural conditions. A study conducted across regions in South Asia confirms the proposition that the dimensions of water markets vary across regions.The differences are observed in proportion to well-owners selling pumped water, average number of buyers and sellers, hours of sale per year, proportion of well-owners who bought water, number of hours bought and the area irrigated with purchased water. Considerable variations are found across regions. For instance, average number of hours bought per year varied from 31 hours in Nepal Terai to as high as 140 hours per annum in Bangladesh. Similarly, average annual hours of sale per seller varied from 72 hours in Coastal South India to 680 hours in Western India (Table 2). It is thus clear that the size and functioning of water markets significantly vary across regions and are influenced by different factors. Several micro-studies illustrate the degree of variation in the use of water trading in India. In terms of area irrigated through groundwater markets, estimates vary from 80 % for Northern Gujarat (Shah 1993) to 60 % in the Allahabad District in Uttar Pradesh (Shankar, in his 16village sample study in 1992) to 30 % in the Vaigai Basin, Tamil Nadu (Janakarajan 1993).There is no systematic estimate at the national level of the magnitude of water trading. The area irrigated through water markets has been projected to be about 50 % of the total gross irrigated area with private lift irrigation systems (Shah 1993). Other estimates, using a methodology based on pump set rental data, put the figure at 6 million hectares or 15 % of the total area under groundwater irrigation (Saleth 1999). Assuming a net addition to output of US$230/ha/ year (based on the difference between the average irrigated and rain-fed yields as reported by the Government of India), the total value of the output due to water sales is estimated to be US$1.38 billion per year (Mohanty and Gupta 2002). Though water markets are not new and the fact that they have evolved over time and for several reasons across the regions, being an important institutional mechanism for managing water scarcity, it would be important to identify the potential areas where the markets for water could be extended or promoted. The size, nature and extent of development of water markets depend on factors such as cropping pattern, water availability, type of water extraction mechanisms installed, irrigation potentials, socioeconomic conditions and the sources of irrigation. Experiences from many parts of India reveal that, water markets are mostly well developed where the groundwater scarcity is predominant. Few studies also attempted to study the functioning of water markets in the command areas where the non-well owners buy water from the well-owners for supplemental irrigation. However, the water markets or trading of surface water in India is rather limited or not well studied. There is significant potential for studying water trading in the surface irrigation system where water is tradable through permits. Shah (1986) studied the nature and pattern of the development of water markets across regions of India considering the lift irrigation potential as a major criterion. The pattern of development of water markets varies across regions based on the lift irrigation potentials and the extent of utilization. Shah considered mainly five criterion to classify the development of water markets, and they are: (i) mode of transactions (cash or kind); (ii) proportion of water sold by the well owners; (iii) differences in cropping pattern, input use and technology adoption between the well and non-well owners; (iv) percentage of non-lift irrigation systems' owners and percentage of their land that uses purchased water; and (v) objective function of the sellers. In low lift irrigation potential and low utilization areas like many hard-rock areas where well yields are very low, there is only limited scope for development of water markets. For instance, in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh (Shah 1986) where there is limited potential for lift irrigation system, the development of water market is still at the primitive stage.Regions with low lift irrigation potential and high utilization coupled with wider adoption of modern crop production technologies have greater scope for the development of water markets. Regions such as Mehsana, Sabarkantha, Banaskantha and other regions of Saurashtra, Gujarat and southern Tamil Nadu apparently have developed water markets in spite of having low water potential. Contrary to the above, in regions where there is high potential for lift irrigation system but with low utilization, such as the regions of Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal, in spite of having huge groundwater reserves, the groundwater markets remain highly underdeveloped. The reasons attributed to this negative trend in the development of water markets in these regions are: a) poor infrastructure development; b) slow rate of rural electrification; and c) irrigation being dominated by the traditional water lifting systems.The existing literature on water markets and groundwater economy suggests that challenges to manage the groundwater differ across the regions. In spite of the abundance of groundwater resources in water surplus regions such as eastern Indian states like Bihar, the state is yet to solve its problem of poverty and achieve economic growth and development at a much faster rate. Contrary to the above, in water-scarce regions like Peninsular Southern India and Western Indian states, the groundwater resource degradation is alarming and it is imperative that the water markets should be promoted in regions where supplies are rechargeable with the available surface water.Scholars like Shah and Saleth projected the size of the water market in terms of the area covered under the market. Based on the estimated projections, an attempt has been made to assess the size of the water market across regions of India. The size of the water market would be quite larger in Western Indian states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and also in Madhya Pradesh and Southern Peninsular states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Table 3). In the face of growing water scarcity, encouraging water markets in these states would be a viable option to manage water scarcity and in the efficient allocation of water resources.The earlier researchers projected the size of water markets based on the area under groundwater irrigation only. It is mainly based on the perception that the water markets in India operate where the lift irrigation system is a common one coupled with water scarcity. However, there is also another area one has to focus on, i.e., the surface irrigated areas. In areas where the surface irrigation is predominant, water sharing issues often arise between the water users. At most times the head reach farmers enjoy maximum benefits of increased crop yield due to irrigation supplies and tail end farmers face acute water scarcity. This is also a common phenomenon in a chain of tanks which share water from a common source (Palanisami and Suresh Kumar 2004). In this case, the tradable water rights can be introduced so that the water savers would get an incentive for saving water. The surplus water could be sold to the scarce regions at a price accepted by the farmers in the surplus region. Thus, the size of water markets should allow for the total area under irrigation rather than the area under groundwater irrigation only. The studies on tradable permits are rather limited in India and there is scope for introducing such institutional mechanisms to manage the growing water scarcity. Based on the assumption that 50 % of total gross irrigated area is with private lift irrigation (Shah 1993) 2 Based on the assumption that 15 % of the total area under groundwater irrigation (Saleth 1999)Market-based instruments are proving to be an effective mechanism for increasing the productivity of water and reallocating the water saved. Experiences from many parts of the country and elsewhere clearly show that there are no formal water markets functioning in India and also that there is no legal binding for such formal water markets. Another important issue that emerges is that no defined property rights system is followed. In spite of these lacunas, the emergence and existence of informal water markets were noticed across the regions. In these circumstances, it is essential to identify the supportive conditions which are needed to transform the water markets into an effective demand management tool in the event of growing water scarcity. Hence, the water market reforms may include the property rights, water charges and the tradable water rights.Unlike in other countries, there is no proper property rights system that exists in India.Traditionally, the water resources have been managed either by the State or State Agencies or through property systems that focus on land ownership. Issues relating to ownership of water are not only complex but also different from other resources. In India, the use, control, management and ownership of water is linked to the other resources like land in the case of groundwater and irrigation structures in the case of surface irrigation. Thus, appropriating and defining property rights in water is complex in the present day context and, as such, need to be dealt with separately for groundwater and surface water. Though no property rights system for water exists, establishment of some sort of water rights and responsibility system, specifying the withdrawal or entitlement of water, is crucial for the development and promotion of water markets in a much more formalized manner.The study revealed that there are no institutional arrangements in place to: a) govern water rights; b) property systems; c) control the functioning of informal water markets; d) pricing in informal water markets; and e) resolving conflicts. Furthermore, institutional arrangements are needed for resolving conflicts over water rights. There is an increasing emphasis today on the formation of water markets, and many experiments are underway. However, effective water markets do not emerge naturally from local systems of exchange or from individual market behavior. Legally protected water rights for all water market actors depend on state institutions above the local level. Informal and traditional systems of rights in local systems of collective management often rest on traditional power structures, which do not provide solid foundations for effective water markets. Thus the legal formalization of property rights in water is the necessary basis for effective water markets.The introduction of a system of trading in water rights will provide opportunities for individuals who own water rights to trade that property right to other potential users anywhere within the basin. At present, there are opportunities for owners of property rights to trade within the catchment in which they operate and in some cases between catchments. There is limited opportunity for individuals to trade between states. From a national perspective, it is argued that the best economic returns from water resource will be generated if it is allowed to move to its highest value use. For this to occur, the necessary infrastructure, and water itself, must be available. This is not always the case. Existence of a water trading market would mean water could be purchased from elsewhere and thus make the venture feasible. The introduction of a market for water could provide substantial assistance for some irrigators: in situations where the demand for water is not high in a region because of shallow water tables, or the need to maintain minimum flows, irrigators could both reduce environmental impacts and generate income by selling their water rights to a user in another area.Pricing is an effective strategy for demand management as long as the water-rate structures contain strong incentives to conserve water. The development and implementation of pricing strategies aimed at achieving economic efficiency and demand management could become the most important option for balancing water supply and demand in the future. Water providers can encourage consumers to conserve water by reforming water rates or introducing surcharges to deter high usage of water, or by establishing fines as a deterrent to wasteful practices of water use. A major shortcoming of the literature on groundwater prices in India is that it generally does not record prices per unit volume of water; obviously a volumetric measure is necessary for a variety of reasons, including the assessment of the efficiency of water allocation within and across river basins. The percentage of area covered under water market as per the studies conducted in the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh states of India varies from 23 to 90 % in Bihar and 55 to 80 % in Uttar Pradesh.In India, the water rates presently being charged from the users are highly subsidized and have resulted in low revenue realization. The revenue realization from water charges has proved inadequate and has been meager, and much less than even the recurring O & M charges, thereby adversely impacting the satisfactory nature and adequacy of maintenance. There is an urgent need for a review and to restructure the water rates to ensure full recovery of recurring O & M cost initially, and a part of the capital cost subsequently. Although states are giving due considerations to the cost aspects and crop water requirement etc., in the fixation of water rates, in reality the rates fixed by the states seem to be restricted ultimately to the paying capacity of the farmers. No doubt the paying capacity of the farmers cannot be ignored altogether, but if the water rates are to ensure full recovery of recurring O & M cost initially and a part of the capital cost subsequently as stressed in the National Water Policy Statement 2002 and also recommended by various Finance Commissions and Official Committees, the alternative may lie in adopting differential water rates as per the holding size of the cultivators.In most cases in India, water is charged on crop basis and it also incorporates the cess and surcharges using the crop water rate as the basis. For instance., in the case of Lower Bhavani System, the water charge is Rs. 37.5/ha and the cess is the same and the cess surcharge is five times this rate thus making the total charge as Rs. 187.5 /ha (see Table 4). In the case of the tank irrigation systems of South India, the water market works in the later part of the crop season (see Table 5). The rate varies from Rs. 20 to 50 /hr depending on the crop period and the demand. Normally, about 2-3 buyers are covered under single well-owner (Palanisami 2004).Water Demand Palanisami et al. (2000) made an attempt to project demand for water among competing uses using the SHACOWAR model in the Bhavani Basin of Tamil Nadu, India. It was found that the nonagricultural demand will increase from 6.56 TMC to 13 TMC in 2010 and 16.86 TMC in 2015 and the revenue from water will be about Rs.1,062 million and Rs.1,382 million (Table .6). In the case of the Bhavani River, which has the riparian rights, the supply of water will be constant over the years. However, in the case of Lower Bhavani Sector the total water demand in odd season is estimated to be much higher than in the even season. Since, it is impossible to operate the second season without the required water supply of 8 TMC, the second season may be abandoned from 2010 onwards. The rice area will be reduced only marginally whereas the other irrigated crops will decline dramatically. In these circumstances, the groundwater use should be encouraged in the turn of seasons because with future energy pricing, the water use will not be much affected, as the energy is found to be inelastic or much lower.  The inter-sectoral water allocation can thus be defined under the framework of a water market, as the nonagricultural sectors are paying the agreed charges to the canal authorities, including the industries which are also paying the rate fixed by the government departments. Under these circumstances it should be carefully examined how in the future the inter-sectoral water allocation could be covered under the framework of a water market. Thus, even in the command areas, there is potential for promoting groundwater markets as groundwater plays a crucial role in supplementing the surface water. This is further supported by another research on estimation of the 'Stabilization Value of the Groundwater' (Palanisami et al. 2008).The stabilization value of groundwater is about 19 % higher than what it is now in the tank systems. Furthermore, the higher stabilization value may be acting as an indirect incentive to the non-well owners to buy the groundwater even though the well-owners are increasing the selling price during the peak demand periods. However, this also will encourage more large farmers to invest in wells. The stabilization value of groundwater will be always higher (19 %) even if a charge is levied on electricity, indicating the importance of the conjunctive use of tank and well water in the tank command as without the groundwater supplementation, the crop yield will be much less or in several cases crop failures will be seen. Since rice yield response to supplemental irrigation is attractive to farmers, efforts should be made to augment groundwater supplies to enhance the rice yield by providing technical and financial assistance to small and marginal farmers. This will also reduce the demand for as well as the price of groundwater in the long-run.Increasing the water supplies in the tank through sluice management strategies (where about 20 % saving is possible) is looking very attractive. Furthermore, this could be achieved with lesser investment. The stabilization value of groundwater will also be very high (77.5 %) when tank water is used at higher levels thus minimizing the groundwater use. This also will have more implications for the sustainability of tanks, in that since a greater number of wells in the tanks always results in poor tank performance, improving the tank management will enhance tank supplies, which in turn will reduce the demand for a greater number of wells in the tank command. Hence, efforts should be made to improve the system efficiencies through tank modernization strategies. Since the tank management by the farmers will be a more attractive proposition, efforts should be made to strengthen the water user's organization at the tank level. Since most of the water user's organizations at the tank level are informal, it is important to make them formal, so that they could handle financial transactions when undertaking tank improvement activities. In a conservative estimate if we take the entire tank systems in southern India, the potential for localized water market will be about 2 mha. This estimate assumes the potential for water markers in non-system tank areas, which accounts for 80 % of the total tank area of 2.5 mha. Besides encouraging the urban (domestic) water allocation with different pricing regimes, stabilization value of groundwater is also justified in big cities like Chennai in India, where increased water pumping is realized from tank commands in a radius of about 50 km for domestic uses. The stabilization value there is high since, without the groundwater, people get lesser surface supplies without meeting their demand. This is also an interesting area to be examined under the framework of water markets.In summation, market forces, which treat water as a commodity, offer an effective way of reallocating limited water supplies among competing uses. Both the rights to the use of water and the actual volumes of water can be exchanged in market transactions within regions. This will facilitate better allocation of scarce water resources across different sectors so that the overall developmental objectives could be achieved at a much faster rate.The debate on water markets as an option for demand management has diverging views. Water markets have been in operation in many parts of the world including India. Although informal water markets have been in existence for decades, formal markets with clearly assigned, private and transferable water rights are of relatively recent origin. In Chile, Western USA and Australia, where there are developed formal water markets, there have been significant gains from water trading, particularly from trades between agricultural and urban users as water gets reallocated to more productive uses. International experiences also show that formal and developed water markets strengthen the incentives for conservation and more efficient use of water. For example, farmers have responded by switching to water-saving technologies and high-value, less water intensive crops. The Indian experience with water markets has been positive, although there have been only limited gains, because markets have remained informal, localized and primitive. Thus, while these markets have led to some efficiency gains and have expanded the scope for many resource-poor farmers to access irrigation, inter-sectoral water transfers have not taken place so far.The current challenge in India and similar countries, where no such formal water markets have been established, is therefore to establish formal water markets, which will facilitate the trading of water and help achieve inter-sectoral water allocation. Furthermore, since formal water markets have a legal basis, effective regulation can be designed to address the issue of environmental sustainability. Formal water markets not only can provide low-cost solutions for quick augmentation of water supply, but be a viable demand management tool as farmers could use the water efficiently thus resulting not only a saving in water use but an increase in water productivity as well. So far a wealth of studies has been carried out on water markets and their implications in water-scarce regions. However, the water markets in water surplus regions are limited or rather water markets are not pervasive in these regions except in West Bengal, India. Hence, the development and promotion of water markets in the water surplus regions should be encouraged. In the water surplus regions, groundwater markets can transform a stagnant agricultural economy into a vibrant one, with positive productivity and equity impacts.Like in Australia, market-based instruments such as tradable permits could be introduced, particularly in the surface irrigation areas. This could be introduced either at the basin level or at the sub-basin level. As the tradable water rights provide incentives for the water conservators, this would be the best bet option for managing the increasing demand for water in surface irrigated areas. Assigning separate rights to groundwater would be the first step needed for the development of water markets. Under the riparian system being used in India, ownership of groundwater accrues to the owner of the land above. This constrains the potential for inter-sectoral allocation. To establish an active water market, rights to water use must be authorized separate from the land.Growing water demand in nonagricultural sectors may demand more water diversions from irrigation. There is evidence that payments to the irrigation water are justified for increased water diversions, besides National and State Water Polices too give priority for domestic water use. The related issues once defined will strengthen the case for encouraging water markets. Formal institutional mechanisms at different levels must be established so as to govern the functioning of water markets. Furthermore, institutional arrangements are needed for resolving conflicts over water rights. The Water Users Associations (WUAs) can be involved in this process. The role of such groups would depend on how clearly water rights are specified and how well they are established and distributed to users. If water rights are unclear and hence, allocation is contentious, conflicts would become complicated and difficult to resolve. In such cases, courts rather than committees of users will become the conflict resolving forum.","tokenCount":"10234"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4d6e2d97944610f2c0e40f23dedd92bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c03a83b-8b4c-446a-b8c9-2537f179b112/retrieve","id":"644322619"},"keywords":["Crop coefficient","evaporation","Glycine max","shoot","soybean","transpiration"],"sieverID":"09567b19-0219-43f7-b0af-8b6fc5040e47","pagecount":"17","content":"Determination of water requirement for crops in resource limited areas is challenging, yet worsened by the common assumption that all crop varieties within a species have similar water requirements. The objective of the study was to indirectly determine crop evapotranspiration of soybean varieties, using reference evapotranspiration and shoot water content under tillage and no tillage cultivation. The treatments were no tillage and conventional tillage as main plots, and soybean varieties Nyala, SB19, and SB20 as sub-plots, replicated three times. Crop evapotranspiration (ET C ) and crop coefficient (K C ) were different among varieties, and increased during growth period. SB20 had the highest K C (0.8437 at 87 days after planting -DAP); followed by SB19 (0.7888 at 70 DAP), and Nyala (0.7026 at 66 DAP). Conversely,water use efficiency (WUE) was 0.58 in SB19, 0.52 in Nyala, and 0.47 in SB20.Validation of the calculated ET C using a crop production function showed a correlation of r = 0.97 between the observed and predicted yields of the three varieties. Furthermore, the normalised root mean square error (NRMSE) and the index of agreement (d) were 0.14 and 0.87, respectively indicating accurate fit. Calculated crop coefficient strongly correlated with observed shoot water content of Nyala (R 2 = 1), SB19 (R 2 = 1), and SB20 (R 2 = 1).Crop coefficient is an important determinant of crop evapotranspiration (Allen et al., 1998;Pereira et al., 2015); yet, crop evapotranspiration is fundamental in irrigation schedules under atmospheric conditions. Additionally, the amount and distribution of rainfall received in a region influences the irrigation scheduling. This is because the amount of rainfall influences soil water content. In situations where soil-based irrigation scheduling methods (Soulis et al., 2015;Valdés et al., 2015) are used, direct soil water measurement affects irrigation amount, while in the atmospheric-based methods, the soil water content affects evapotranspiration. Most regions in Sub-Saharan Africa are dependant on rainfall for successful crop production (Foeken, 1994;Herrero et al., 2010). However, these regions are increasingly experiencing erratic rainfall amounts and distribution (Kisaka et al., 2015;Ngetich et al., 2014;Thornton, 2010). This has led to mid-season drought (Kisaka et al., 2015;Ngetich et al., 2014), and thus the need to understand and manage water requirement of crops through evapotranspiration.Soybean (Glycine max L. Merril), a crop whose production is being promoted in Sub-Saharan Africa (Chianu et al., 2009) is adversely affected by mid-season drought. This is due to the continuous erratic rainfall distribution and amount which mostly occur at the important stages of soybean growth; flowering, pod filling and seed filling stages (Mahasi et al., 2011;Daryanto et al., 2015;Omondi et al., 2015). Cover cropping, conservation tillage and mulching are some soil water management techniques (Wakindiki et al., 2007;Itabari et al., 2011) practised during mid-season drought. Moreover, the major strategy is sowing of drought tolerant and early maturing varieties of soybean (Mahasi et al., 2011). These varieties have different crop coefficients (Pereira et al., 2015), although, determination of crop coefficient for individual varieties is yet to be conducted, owing to the sensitivity, accuracy and, huge equipment investment required for such experiments (Irmak et al., 2013;Majidi et al., 2015;Ruiz-Peñalver et al., 2015). Therefore, more efficient, effective, but also low-cost procedures for determining crop coefficient of these varieties is required. This could be achieved by borrowing the ideas behind irrigation scheduling methodologies as they input the amount of water required by a plant.Methods used in irrigation scheduling are evolving from atmospheric-based (Lamm andRogers, 2015), to soil-based (Soulis et al., 2015;Valdés et al., 2015), and now plantbased (De la Rosa et al., 2015;Shi et al., 2015). However, it could be a combination of soil and atmospheric conditions (Paraskevopoulos and Singels, 2014) or the three methods involving soil-plant-atmosphere continuum. Plant based methods, if well monitored, have been commended as the best option (Fernández, 2014) as they measure the 'patient'. Such methods as daily maximum stem diameter shrinkage (De la Rosa et al., 2015), leaf water potential (Unlu et al., 2014), stem water potential (Gonzalez-Dugo et al., 2014) and sap flow (Hechmi et al., 2014;Zuniga and Poblete-echeverría, 2014) can measure the water status of the plant (Fernández, 2014). It has been shown that stem water potential, leaf water potential, and sap flow could be used to determine the amount of water applied through irrigation to a plant. This, therefore, implies that a methodology which measures water content of both stems and leaves (shoot water content) could be more precise than either through destructive sampling of the shoot in the determination of the water requirement of the plant is involved. From the crop evapotranspiration (ET C ) calculation (Pereira et al., 2015), the only difference in amount of irrigation water applied to species grown in the same agro-ecological zone, influenced by similar atmospheric conditions and soils is crop coefficient. Considering this, reference evapotranspiration is calculated using Penmann-Monteith equation and finally calculation of crop evapotranspiration. The objective of this study was to establish crop coefficients and evapotranspiration of different soybean varieties using shoot water content and reference evapotranspiration (ET 0 ).Reference evapotranspiration. Reference evapotranspiration was calculated using the Penmann-Moteith Equation (Allen et al., 1998):  2Where:G is soil heat flux (MJm -2 day -1 ), C S is soil heat capacity (MJm -3 °C-1 ), d s = effective soil depth (m), T 2 is air temperature at the end of the period considered (°C), T 1 is air temperature at the beginning of the period considered (°C), and \"t is length of time interval (days).  3Where: n is the bright sunshine hours per day (h), N = the total day length (h), S 0 = the extraterrestrial radiation (MJm -2 day -1 ), Ed = the vapor pressure (kPa), σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (4.903 × 10 -9 MJm -2 K -4 day -1 ), T= the air temperature (K), and α = the reflection coefficient. ..... Equation 4Where:  5Where: e a is the actual vapour pressure (kPa), e s is the saturation vapour pressure (kPa), RH is relative humidity (%).  6Where:∆ is the slope of saturation vapour pressure curve at air temperature T (kPa °C-1 ), T is air temperature (°C).Crop coefficient. Shoot water content was assumed to be crop coefficient, as crop evapotranspiration is always determined under unlimited water supply (Pereira et al., 2015), and hence the shoot water content reflects the soil water content and the ability of absorption by a variety. Additionally, crop evapotranspiration is important in irrigation scheduling and so is the shoot water content (Fernández, 2014). The shoot water content was measured five times during the crop growth period. According to FAO Penman-Monteith (Allen et al., 1998)  8Assuming K C to be equivalent to shoot water content over a given period, then:  9Model validation using Crop Production function. Jensen (1968), reported a crop production function of: ........................ Equation 10From this function, Y is yield and ET is actual evapotranspiration/crop evapotranspiration. .......... Equation 11Using Equation 11, predicted yield was calculated. To evaluate the model proposed for calculation of ETc from dry shoot biomass, the observed and predicted yield were analysed for best fit using the normalised root mean square error (NRMSE) and index of agreement (d) where NRMSE closer to 0 and d near 1 signify best fit (Shabani et al., 2015). After proving that, ETc was calculated using dry shoot biomass, Kc is calculated usingEquation 8knowing that ET 0 is calculated from Equation 1using the weather data. The treatments were two tillage methods (conventional tillage and no tillage) tested with three soybean varieties (Nyala, SB19, and SB20). The conventional farmer tillage method was the control treatment compared with no tillage, which is a component of conservation cultivation that has minimum soil disturbance and conserves soil moisture (Franchini et al., 2012). During the long rains of March to August, 2011 (LR2011) and short rains season of September to December, 2011 (SR2011), the treatments were randomised in a split-plot arrangement and replicated thrice. Randomised complete block design was used. No tillage and conventional tillage methods were the main plots; while soybean varieties were sub-plots. Conventional tillage mimicked farmer's practice of hand-hoe tilling at 20 cm depth, before the onset of rains; and no tillage was done using non-selective herbicide. The herbicide sprayed at 1.5 litres in 100 litres of water contained glyphosate as active ingredient.The three soybean varieties were: Nyala, a local early maturing variety which nodulates with specific rhizobia and is susceptible to soybean rust. This variety was suitable for the study as it was popular among farmers in Western Kenya. The rest were two International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) bred varieties called, TGx1740-2F and TGx1448-2E, but locally known in Kenya as SB19 and SB20, respectively. These two varieties are promiscuous, and SB19 is medium maturing; while SB20 is late maturing (Tefera, 2011). The two varieties were new introductions in Western Kenya, and hence testing their performance against a local variety was prudent to encourage adoption.Phosphorus was blanketly applied at 30 kg P ha -1 as Triple Super Phosphate (TSP); and potassium at 30 kg K ha -1 as Muriate of Potash (MOP) in furrows of 5 cm depth by 5 cm away from planting rows before planting. Seeds were treated with BIOFIX inoculants containing rhizobium strain USDA 110, using the slurry method of Somasegaran and Hoben (1994) at 10 g of BIOFIX for every 1 kg of seeds. The inoculated seeds were sown immediately after inoculation to ensure maximum survival of introduced rhizobial cells. No tillage plots were weeded by hand pulling of weeds; whereas hoes were used in conventional tillage plots at interval of two weeks.Data collection and analysis. Standard cores (diameter of 5cm and height of 5 cm) were used to collect soil samples at depths of 10, 20 and 30 cm,for soil water content measurement at 50% full bloom (R2), pod filling (R3) and seed filling (R5). These are the important stages of soybean growth in soil moisture studies (Doss et al., 1974). The samples consisted of soils taken from three positions randomly selected within a plot.Their fresh and dry weights were measured. Weights were measured after drying the samples in oven at 105 ºC for 48 hours. Soil moisture content was calculated using a gravimetric method (Hillel, 1980).Biomass samples were collected at 21, 36, 51, 66, and 81 (Nyala), 102 (SB19), 118 (SB20) days after planting (DAP). Plants were sampled randomly in an area of 0.1 m 2 within the net plot. Roots were separated from shoots at the first node from the ground, using a kitchen knife. Fresh weights were measured and dry weights determined after oven drying at 65 ºC in constant weight for 48 hours.At physiological maturity, plants within a net plot of 7.8 m 2 were harvested. Fresh weight of pods sub-sampled was taken, before being threshed. Fresh weights of the seeds and husks were also recorded. The seeds were oven-dried at 65 ºC (model -Memmert UNB 500) for 72 hours and their dry weights taken.Moisture content after drying was 12.5±0.5%.The total dry yield was calculated by multiplying dry weights of sub-samples by total fresh weight then diving the result by fresh weight of sub-samples.Climatic data obtained from meteorological station were used in computation of ET 0 . The climatic data were: radiation, daily maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity, pan evaporation and rainfall amounts. Shoot biomass, shoot water content and yield data were analysed for ANOVA in SAS software version 9.2 (SAS, 2002). They were used to calculate water use efficiency (WUE). Soil moisture content data were also analysed in SAS and means separated using least significant difference (LSD).Soil moisture content. Soil moisture content was not significantly different for tillage method and soybean variety interaction, neither was it significant for the interaction between tillage and soil depth. However, soil moisture content under interaction of soybean variety and soil depth was significant. Soil moisture content increased with depth under all varieties except for SB19 at full bloom (Table 1). At pod filling, soil moisture content under all the three varieties was not significant. At seed filling, there was significant difference between 10 cm depth and 20-30 cm depth. Soil moisture content at 10 cm depth was lowest under all varieties and increased with depth (Table 1). Soil moisture content under the varieties was significant except at pod filling stage. At full bloom, soil moisture content under SB19 was the highest followed by SB20, while at seed filling soil moisture was highest under Nyala (Table 2).Regression of ET 0 against ETc indicated the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) was better with growing days except for SB20 (Figs. 1-3). At 81 days after planting Nyala, the ET 0 agreed with ETc (Fig. 1); while 98.45% ET 0 could predict ETc at 102 days (Fig. 2). As for SB20, only 19.2% of ET 0 could not predict ETc at 66 DAP (Fig. 3). Cropevapotranspiration (ET C ) of all varieties increasedrapidly with growing time, plateaued towards physiological maturity and slightly declined (Fig. 4). The third order polynomial fitted all the three varieties,ETcof Nyala was the lowest and of SB20 was the highest (Fig. 4). Further, calculated crop coefficient strongly correlated with observed shoot water content of Nyala (r = 0.9998), SB19 (r = 0.9997), and SB20 (r = 0.9998) (Fig. 9).     From Equation 9: ................. Equation 12The results in Figures 5 and 6   13Where:Y is yield; m is slope, x is dry shoot mass (Fig. 5) or ET C (Fig. 6), there is an indication that ET C and dry shoot mass are related. Considering Fig. 5b and Fig. 6b of SB19:........................ Equation 14for Figure 5b, where x = dry shoot mass (kg ha -1 ) ...................... Equation 15for Figure 6b, where x = ET C (mm day -1 )Both calculations show the same yield, it therefore means that:  18Dry shoot mass and yield. The grain yields of each variety were accurately predicted by their dry shoot masses. A total of 52.3% of Nyala'sdry shoot mass produced grain yield, as 57.7% of SB19 dry shoot mass did the same; and 47% of SB20 dry shoot mass produced grain yield (Fig. 5). Similar results were obtained on correlating ET C with yield (Fig. 6). Validation of the measured yield of  Nyala, SB19, and SB20 against the calculated indicated a strong correlation of r = 0.9719. Furthermore, the normalised root mean square error (NRMSE) and the index of agreement (d) were 0.1426 and 0.8749, respectively; indicating the best fit (Fig. 7). After validation, crop coefficient (K C ) was calculated, and the results showed increase in K C during the growth period(Fig. 8). However, the maximum K C for each variety was recorded at different days -Nyala was at 65 days, SB19 at 70 days and SB20 at 82 days after planting.Soil moisture content. Soil moisture is important for successful crop production. However, soil moisture is highly critical in soybean at flowering and seed filling (Foroud et al., 1993;Karam et al., 2005). The ET C increase as soybean grew, followed by plateau at physiological maturity observed in the current experiment was due to increase in water requirement at the critical growth stages. Payero and Irmak (2013) also confirmed this trend. Further, a decline in soil moisture at seed filling of Nyala, SB19, and SB20 was indicative of increased water absorption at this stage. Withholding irrigation at flowering have been indicated to lead to 4% reduction in seed yield (Karam et al., 2005), while soil moisture decline at seed filling leads to 25% (Foroud et al., 1993) or 28% (Karam et al., 2005) reduction.Crop evapotranspiration (ET C ) is central to irrigation. It was different among the tested soybean varieties. These differences in ETc among varieties (Fig. 4) was majorly due to crop factors such as shoot and root growth. Wang and Liu (2007) reported that leaf area index (LAI) influences evaporation, actually, SB20 variety as an example in the current experiment had high shoot and root biomasses (Omondi et al., 2014) and hence high LAI which reduced evaporation. However, the gains in soil moisture content through canopy cover were negated by the absorption of more moisture to sustain this heavy vegetative growth and increased transpiration. This led to the overall decline in soil moisture under SB20 (Table 2).Predicted yield (kg ha -1 ) Observed yield (kg ha -1 )  Observed shoot water content (mm mm -1 ) Observed shoot water content (mm mm -1 ) Arnold et al. (2015) and Yan et al. (2014) also reported the influence of minimum canopy as the cause for increased evaporation. Evaporation as a factor of ETc had minimum fluctuation as it is dependent on solar radiation (Wang and Liu, 2007).The days when the slope of the relationship between ET 0 and ET C were negative (Fig. 1a,b, Fig. 2b, Fig. 3a, b) was perhaps due to high evaporation compared to transpiration (Sepaskhah and Ilampour, 1995;Villegas et al., 2015). Low transpiration was possible as the plants were young (21 and 36 days after planting) with less developed shoot biomass leading to low water requirement (Sepaskhah and Ilampour, 1995;Suku et al., 2014). As the plants grew water requirement increased (Suku et al., 2014) and transpiration and ET C too (Zhu et al., 2014;Villegas et al., 2015).Crop coefficient. The crop evapotranspiration calculated predicted yield of Nyala, SB19 and SB20 (Fig. 6). This eases calculation of Kc without conducting complex soil water balance experiments, as these experiments usually require sensitive and sophisticated equipment (Irmak et al., 2013;Majidi et al., 2015;Ruiz-Peñalver et al., 2015) which are not readily available to resourcelimited farmers. In the current experiment, calculated K C increased with growth period and canopy expansion (Figs. 8 and 9). This increase in K C as growth period and shoot biomass was also observed by Lopez-Urrea et al. (2013). As the shoot expands, transpiration is increased this influences crop evapotranspiration and K C . The calculated maximum Kc was 0.70 for Nyala, 0.80 for SB19 and 0.86 for SB20, while the value previously reported was 0.81 at mature pods (Karam et al., 2005). This proves that K C of the varieties are different within the same species, thus the need to always calculate it. Moreover, it has been shown that crop factors such as crop type, variety and stage of development influence evapotranspiration (Allen et al., 1998). Since the K C is different among various varieties, the simple equation developed in the current study is convenient for irrigation water calculations in the areas experiencing midseason drought. The successful application of the %ETc = dry shoot mass equation in soybean could extend to other crops, once it is validated with field experiments. The calculation of the Kc through this equation, coupled with weather data to calculate ET 0 facilitates ETc calculation leading to precise irrigation. This optimises the production system, saving water, fertiliser if fertigation method is applied and reduces leaching leading to yield increase per drop of water.Calculating K C of varieties using biomass data enables its calculation in other agroecological zones where it is difficult to obtain K C due to lack of sophisticated equipment required. Knowing K C of each variety enhance precise irrigation and water management of crops.","tokenCount":"3176"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aa069cb119e4ef76b31c8f377b257e52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c9b17a8a-bbe6-492a-8539-8b591e8b5e49/retrieve","id":"-1345251706"},"keywords":["Rutger Engelhard / Recherche et rédaction : Jim Dempsey / Copy editing : Valerie Jones","Tracy Brown Collins / Conception de magazine : Frissewind (www.frissewind.nl) / Réalisation graphique : Anita Toebosch / Traduction : Patrice Deladrier / Photo de couverture : Xinhua/ Das Fotoarchiv/Linear / Conseillers scientifiques : Peter Ballantyne","Oumy Ndiaye","Dorothy Okello","Kevin Painting"],"sieverID":"caed99a8-bf2a-4b9b-b757-4a4ad6afce41","pagecount":"12","content":"ICT Update numéro 41, février 2008. ICT Update est un magazine multimédia disponible à la fois sur Internet (http:// ictupdate.cta.int), en version papier et sous forme d'une newsletter diffusée par courriel. Le prochain numéro paraîtra en février. Le CTA, Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (ACP-UE), est un institut du Groupe des Etats ACP et de l'UE, créé dans le cadre de l'Accord de Cotonou. Il est financé par l'UE. Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Pays-Bas. (www.cta.int).O n le connaît partout dans le monde sous différentes appellations. Au Kenya, c'est un matatu. Au Ghana, un tro tro. Un concho en République dominicaine, un kombi en Afrique australe et un maxi taxi à Trinidad et Tobago. En Afrique de l'Ouest, c'est un taxi brousse. Il suit généralement un itinéraire précis dans les villes, entre des agglomérations, jusque dans les zones villageoises reculées.Dans la majorité des pays ACP, les minibus et les taxis partagés représentent un mode de transport parfois frustrant, mais indispensable. Pour des millions de ruraux, ils sont le trait d'union essentiel avec la famille, le travail, les services publics, les marchés et les magasins. Et comme ils servent à acheminer à peu près tout et n'importe quoi, les utiliser pour acheminer Internet apparaît comme une évidence. Oui, mais comment ?Le problème a été résolu par United Villages, une start-up américaine qui, au Rwanda, utilise des bus pour acheminer des courriels, des messages vocaux et des pages web aux districts ruraux voisins de Kigali. Le bus ne doit même pas s'arrêter. Équipé d'un petit boîtier capable de stocker toutes les informations nécessaires, il lui suffit de passer à proximité de l'antenne raccordée à l'ordinateur du village pour récupérer les données. Lorsqu'il rentre en ville suivant son itinéraire habituel, il transmet ces données sans fil vers un terminal informatique équipé d'une connexion Internet en temps réel. Les courriels sont envoyés, les messages vocaux délivrés et les pages web recherchées et trouvées. Les réponses sont retransmises via le bus à son passage suivant dans le village. Et tout cela, grâce au Wi-Fi.Le terme « Wi-Fi » est un acronyme qui désigne tous les produits conformes aux normes LAN (réseau local) IEEE 802.11. Cet acronyme est devenu si commun qu'il fait partie de la culture populaire on qu'on l'utilise partout : à la télé, à la radio, sur la toile. Il est même entré dans le dictionnaire. Mais vous serez sans doute surpris d'apprendre que Wi-Fi est une marque déposée de la Wi-Fi Alliance (qui a courtoisement autorisé ICTUpdate à l'utiliser dans ce numéro).Tandis que les deux cents entreprises membres de l'Alliance continuent de développer et d'intégrer leurs produits avec d'autres applications, le Wi-Fi est mis à contribution dans certains projets innovants des ACP. Sa souplesse, son coût relativement faible et le fait que plusieurs ordinateurs puissent fonctionner sur un même réseau sans fil font du Wi-Fi la solution idéale pour améliorer les communications dans les zones rurales. Son principal inconvénientsa portée relativement limitée -n'est même plus un problème grâce à des solutions inventives comme au Ghana ou en République dominicaine, où l'on voit qu'il est possible d'étendre le périmètre d'Internet par-delà les lignes téléphoniques terrestres ou les liens satellitaires.Ces dix dernières années, CAREL, le Centre d'alternatives rurales d'El Limon en République dominicaine a mis au point un système sans fil qui s'étend désormais à d'autres contrées. Chaque village pose des problèmes différents, mais une équipe dévouée est parvenue à trouver des solutions imaginatives pour chacun.Idem pour la petite ville d'Apirede au Ghana, où un centre communautaire abrite un réseau sans fil qui dessert les communautés rurales 20 km à la ronde. Un résultat impressionnant pour un projet mené par des bénévoles qui y sont même allés de leur poche pour monter le système. À force d'imagination et d'ingéniosité, ils sont parvenus à soutirer davantage du peu de bande passante disponible et à fournir un servir stable et fiable.Nous sommes certains que ces récits inspireront tous ceux qui, parmi vous, se battent pour obtenir un accès à Internet et à d'autres moyens de communication dans des zones reculées. L'expérience nous a toutefois appris que la réussite ne dépendait pas uniquement d'un ordinateur, d'un routeur, d'une antenne et d'un modem. Il faut aussi l'engagement de la communauté locale, des résidents, des pouvoirs locaux, des écoles, des ONG, des entreprises sans oublier bien entendu des chauffeurs de bus et de taxi. Seule la conjugaison de tous ces efforts permet d'obtenir un réseau sans fil réellement efficace. ■ Innovation dans la communication C es dix dernières années, le Wi-Fi s'est imposé au point de devenir un véritable phénomène culturel. Dans un sondage leur demandant si elles se passeraient plus facilement du Wi-Fi ou du café, plus de 80% des personnes interrogées choisissent le second. Le même pourcentage se passerait du chocolat, et quelques-uns préféreraient sans remords voir leur équipe préférée perdre plutôt que de se passer de leur chère connexion sans fil.Plus de 450 millions de personnes utilisent le Wi-Fi de par le monde.  L'apport de courant électrique pose toujours problème. Les panneaux solaires reviennent cher et l'électricité vient toujours à manquer, surtout par temps nuageux et à mesure que les batteries se dégradent. L'hydroélectricité s'avère la meilleure solution pour autant qu'il y ait un débit d'eau suffisant. De simples turbines en courant continu assemblées à partir d'alternateurs de voiture surclassent les panneaux solaires. Le petit système de 3 KW d'El Limon, qui alimente 65 familles à hauteur de 30 W chacune pour l'éclairage fluorescent et de petits téléviseurs, dispose d'une réserve de 500 W qui suffit amplement au « cyberlocal » de l'école.Voici dix ans que le village d'El Limon (République dominicaine) dispose de l'Internet sans fi l. Un système qui ne cesse de s'étendre et d'infl uencer l'éducation des jeunes villageois.Ce cyberlocal est devenu le lieu de rendez-vous de la jeunesse d'El Limon. Loisirs et éducation s'y partagent l'espace-temps. Internet est la principale source bibliothécaire des 15 adolescents qui vont à l'école moyenne ou supérieure d'Ocoa, à une demi-heure de chez eux. C'est aussi leur principal outil de socialisation, grâce au « clavardage » qui les relie à des adolescents hispanophones du monde entier. Sans oublier les téléchargements de musique, de vidéos YouTube et de soaps mexicains.Nous accueillons aussi des plus petits, à partir de cinq ans, qui pour certains manient l'ordinateur avec une maestria déconcertante. Les jeunes sont plus cultivés et raffinés qu'il y a cinq ans. Alors que deux ou trois seulement poursuivaient leurs études au-delà du primaire à l'époque où a démarré le projet, une quinzaine vont aujourd'hui à l'école moyenne ou supérieure et une dizaine de plus les accompagneraient s'ils pouvaient se payer le prix du transport. Les adultes, à quelques rares exceptions près, n'osent pas affronter la machine, sauf le téléphone (à pièces) dont ils usent et abusent.Le projet s'emploie désormais à attirer une plus large frange de la population au cyberlocal. Le téléenseignement s'avère une priorité plus difficile à mettre en oeuvre que prévu. Quelques jeunes ont trouvé des cours à gauche et à droite et s'en servent, mais cela manque de cohérence ; il faudrait quelqu'un qui puisse en faire la synthèse.La prise en charge médicale constitue un autre problème criant. Les malades, les personnes âgées (ou en surcharge pondérale) ont bien du mal à se rendre dans une clinique faute de véhicules 4x4 et à cause des longues distances à parcourir sur des routes défoncées. Le programme a développé un projet de télémédecine, qui permet d'accéder aux dispensaires des zones urbaines voisines. Ceux-ci doivent encore être mis en ligne et équipés de webcams et de casques pour les téléconférences. Mais l'équipement n'est pas tout : il faudra aussi former des gens du cru pour poser les gestes médicaux prescrits par le médecin et, au bout du compte élaborer du matériel de téléenseignement pour améliorer sans cesse les compétences de ces assistants.  Proposer un service de téléphone payant aux villageois est apparemment un bon moyen de récolter de l'argent, d'autant que la téléphonie mobile s'étend rarement au-delà des zones urbaines. Le service de téléphonie et d'Internet d'El Limon (dont la ligne physique se trouve à 8 km de là, en ville) a été subventionné l'an passé par des dons extérieurs, mais avec les trois téléphones payants et les petites rentrées de divers projets de développement faisant appel à l'Internet, nous espérons être en mesure d'acquitter la facture mensuelle de 100 dollars.Au final, le succès du projet dépendra de son aptitude à améliorer la qualité de vie des villageois. Il a été mis à rude épreuve l'automne dernier, lorsque la tempête tropicale Noel a frappé la région d'Ocoa, provoquant quelques morts et des dégâts importants. La route principale vers Ocoa s'est affaissée dans la rivière, tout comme la route défoncée d'El Limon. Les réparations ont pris 10 jours. Mais durant toute cette période critique, El Limon a gardé le contact grâce à ses connexions téléphoniques et Internet (deux autres villages ont perdu tout contact pendant deux jours à cause d'une antenne détrempée).Le combiné téléphonique de l'école n'arrêtait pas de sonner : parents et amis voulaient vérifier si leurs proches allaient bien. Une semaine durant, le réseau a été le seul lien entre Los Martinez, Naranjales et le reste du pays. La population n'a su que des rations de survie étaient disponibles et où les trouver (en ville) que grâce au réseau. Plus tard, une fois les secours mieux organisés, le réseau a permis de se connecter aux organismes d'urgence et de coordonner les actions.Maintenant que cette situation d'urgence est terminée et que nous sommes pratiquement revenus à la normale, le projet s'intéresse surtout au redressement et au développement économique. Nous avons obtenu une subvention de démarrage pour un projet de développement innovant qui concerne quatre villages et qui intègre l'hydroélectricité, l'énergie solaire, les biocarburants, l'aquaculture et la transformation des produits alimentaires. Grâce au réseau, les villages pourront pour la première fois unir leurs efforts pour s'assurer un avenir plus prospère. ■ Réseaux sans fi lWireless Personal Area Network (wPAN). Fonctionne bien jusqu'à quelques mètres de distance. Couramment utilisé pour la fonction mains libres des portables. Le taux de transfert des données ne dépasse généralement pas les 3 millions de bits par seconde (3Mbit/s).Wireless Local Area Network (wLAN). D'une portée réduite à la longueur d'un terrain de foot, mais avec un taux de transfert rapide, supérieur à 250 millions de bits par seconde (250Mbit/s).Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). La plupart des téléphones mobiles utilisent des réseaux cellulaires GSM. Leur portée se mesure en kilomètres mais le taux de transfert est plus lent que celui du Wi-Fi, généralement autour des 2,5 Mbit/s. Comment les milliards de ruraux vivant hors de portée de la plupart des infrastructures de télécommunication peuvent-ils espérer un jour téléphoner à un prix raisonnable ou avoir accès à l'Internet ? Le prix des communications satellitaires demeure exorbitant, sans parler des frais de fonctionnement, du manque de fiabilité en cas de conditions météorologiques extrêmes et de fréquents problèmes de maintenance.Il y a peut-être une autre solution. United Villages, une start-up américaine, a trouvé le moyen de fournir Internet à des zones rurales autour de Kigali, au Rwanda, mais aussi au Paraguay et au Cambodge. Baptisée DakNet, cette nouvelle technologie associe le Wi-Fi au VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) pour connecter des villages via lesinfrastructures de transport préexistantes.Le procédé de connexion commence dans la ville ou le village voisin. On y installe un « hub » fiable, souvent à haut débit. Celui-ci accède à Internet en temps réel via un réseau local sans fil (wLAN) standard. Les abonnés urbains qui habitent dans un certain rayon autour du hub peuvent se connecter au réseau sans fil. La zone couverte par le wLAN peut toutefois être étendue à l'aide de répéteurs qui relaient le signal depuis des points élevés tels que collines ou grands immeubles. Les possibilités d'extension raisonnable dépendent de la densité de la population, du paysage environnant et des règlements locaux en matière d'amplification du signal. Ces restrictions font que l'Internet sans fil dépasse rarement le périmètre urbain.DakNet résout ce problème en créant un réseau villageois (Village Area Networks -VAN). Dans chaque village relié au VAN    Le logo Wi-Fi Protected Setup garantit à l'acheteur que le matériel s'adapte automatiquement à la configuration de son réseau sans fil et qu'il peut ajouter de nouveaux équipements et activer les mesures de sécurité sans être un as de la configuration Wi-Fi traditionnelle ou de la sécurisation des systèmes.➜ www.wi-fi.org/wifi-protected-setupPour en savoir plus, contactez John Atkinson, directeur (john.atkinson@gmail.com) ou Gideon Kofi Amoah, coordinateur de projet (gideon.amoah@gmail.com) chez Wireless Ghana (www.wirelessghana.com)En y allant de sa poche pour couvrir l'investissement de départ, un groupe de bénévoles ghanéens a réussi à monter un réseau sans fi l d'une portée de 20 km.Un système inventif qui profi te déjà aux paysans et aux élèves.A pirede est une petite ville de l'Est du Ghana, située à environ 65 km de la capitale Accra. Comme elle est proche de la plupart des 17 autres villes et communautés du district -les plus proches sont à 1 km et les plus éloignées à moins de 8 km -les habitants des alentours peuvent facilement s'y rendre, ce qui en fait l'endroit idéal pour accueillir un centre de ressources communautaire.  ","tokenCount":"2199"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f241fe06296e48188eb6fa8f1713722a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H048773.pdf","id":"-1500075433"},"keywords":["water","security","Africa","SADC"],"sieverID":"27b01edb-19a0-4fd7-9cfe-d4539ff687df","pagecount":"21","content":"Achieving water security has emerged as a major objective in Africa, yet an analytical or diagnostic framework for assessing water security in African countries is not known to exist. This paper applies one key dimension of the 2016 Asian Development Bank's (ADB) Asian Water Development Outlook (AWDO) to assess levels of water security for productive economies in countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Economic aspects of water security cover four areas: economic activities in the broad sense, agriculture, electricity, and industry. Water security in each area is measured through application of a set of indicators; results of indicator application are then aggregated to determine economic water security at a country-level. Results show that economic water security in SADC is greatest in the Seychelles and South Africa, and lowest in Madagascar and Malawi. Opportunities for strengthening economic water security in the majority of SADC countries exist through improving agricultural water productivity, strengthening resilience, and expanding sustainable electricity generation. More profoundly, this paper suggests that there is clear potential and utility in applying approaches used elsewhere to assess economic water security in southern Africa.Water security has emerged as a critical issue of concern in global, regional and national discourses. Globally, water security has featured in the eighth phase of UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme (UNESCO IHP 2015) and filtered into the conceptualization of Goal 6 of the UN post-2015Sustainable Development Goal Framework (UN 2015). The topic also receives prominent focus in the mandates of the Global Water Partnership (GWP), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and the World Water Council (WWC). Regionally, SADC's Regional Water Policy (2005) and Regional Water Strategy (2006) reference water security and propose concrete actions to ensure it. African Ministers' Council on Water (AMCOW) outlined a path for strategic engagement to strengthen water security in African countries, calling for adoption of a high-level framework of indicators to enable water security assessment, and identifying several indicators that might be used for this assessment (AMCOW et al. 2012). Further, strengthening water security has been recognized as a regional challenge in SADC countries to meet growing food demand of increasing populations under conditions of climate change (Rampa and Wyk 2014). Not surprisingly, water security has also received central focus in regional conferences. The 16 th WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP-SA Symposium held in Mauritius in October 2015 was focused on \"Integrated Water Resources Management and Infrastructural Planning for Water Security in Eastern and Southern Africa.\" 1 Despite the growing importance of the topic, an analytical framework for assessing water security in African countries is not known to exist. In the Asia-Pacific, the Asian Development Bank's (ADB) Asian Water Development Outlook (AWDO) developed and applied a water security assessment framework to Asia-Pacific countries (ADB 2013;2016). Lautze & Manthrithilake (2012;2014a;2014b) also proposed a water security assessment framework and measured water security in Asia-Pacific countries. Two studies have developed and applied water security assessment frameworks at a global scale (Fischer et al. 2015, Sadoff et al. 2015). Fischer et al. (2015) proposed a water security framework consisting of five indicators and applied the framework to 160 countries; the approach was nonetheless somewhat crude as major aspects of water securitysuch as environment, storage capacity, water supply and sanitationappear to have been neglected. Sadoff et al. (2015) adopted a risk-based indicator framework with four headline risks and determined water insecurity from an aggregate of 3 economic risks (excluding ecosystem degradation) in selected countries. An in-depth water security assessment of African countries has not been undertaken. This paper applies the economic water security dimension of the 2016 AWDO framework to assess levels of water security for productive economies in SADC countries. Economic aspects of water security cover four areas: economic activities in the broad sense, agriculture, electricity, and industry. Water security in each area is measured through application of a set of numerical indicators. The results are then aggregated to determine economic water security at a country-level. Structurally, section 2 of this paper reviews definitions of water security and summarizes existing water security frameworks. Section 3 explains the rationale for applying the AWDO framework to SADC countries; introduces AWDO's economic water security dimension; explains the logic of the indicators; and discusses the data sources used. Section 4 presents the assessment results for SADC countries. Section 5 flags some key issues, discusses the utility of applying AWDO Framework to SADC countries. Section 6 provides general recommendations.More than ten definitions of water security now exist (Appelgren 1997;GWP 2000;Swaminathan 2001;WHO 2003;Cheng et al. 2004;Grey & Sadoff 2007;Shultz & Uhlenbrook 2007;Calow et al. 2010;Norman et al. 2011;AMCOW et al. 2012;WaterAid 2012;Grey et al. 2013;Lankford 2013;UNU 2013). While many common elements can be found across these definitions, close scrutiny also reveals noticeable differences in emphasis and breadth. Review of four, more prominent definitions (Box 1), is illustrative of the evolution of the concept over the years. From a base of the first definition (GWP 2000), risk is added to the second (Grey & Sadoff 2007), and risk is placed at the center of the third (Grey et al. 2013). The fourth definition (UNU 2013) represents an encompassing approach to the water security concept and is utilized in this paper.Box 1. Evolution of water security concepts (2000 -2013) Several frameworks to assess water security now exist (e.g. Zeitoun 2011;Lautze & Manthrithilake 2012;Mason & Calow 2012;ADB 2013ADB , 2016;;Lankford 2013;UN-Water 2014;Fischer et al. 2015;Sadoff et al. 2015). Zeitoun (2011) identified six elements of a water security \"web\": Human/Community Security, National Security, Water Resources Security, Food Security, Energy Security, and Climate Security. Lautze & Manthrithilake (2012) proposed five components of water security: basic needs, food production, environmental requirements, risk management and independence. Mason & Calow (2012) developed an overview of a potential framework that covers five themes: resource stress, variability and risk, basic human needs and productivity, environmental needs, and governance. The ADB (2013,2016) framework contains five key dimensions (KDs): household water security, economic water security, urban water security, environmental water security, and resilience to water-related disasters. Lankford (2013) proposed a twodimensional framework constructed from \"equity\" and \"sufficiency\" based on six indicators. UN-Water (2014) produced a document focusing on \"securing water\" that makes reference to five pillars: (i) drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, (ii) water resources, (iii) water governance, (iv) water-related disasters, and (v) wastewater pollution and water quality. Fischer et al. (2015) used five indicators, four of which 2 were applied to assess hydroclimatic complexity: (i) total renewable water resources per capita; (ii) the ratio of annual water withdrawal to total renewable water resources; (iii) runoff variability; and (iv) the ratio of external to total renewable water resources. Most recently, Sadoff et al. (2015) proposed a set of indicators to quantify four headline risks: (i) droughts and water scarcity; (ii) floods; (iii) water supply and sanitation; and (iv) ecosystem degradation and pollution.Four of these frameworks have been applied to assess national water security for sets of countries (Lautze & Manthrithilake 2012;ADB 2013ADB , 2016;;Fischer et al. 2015;Sadoff et al. 2015). Lautze & Manthrithilake (2012) and ADB (2013, 2016) assessed national water security within and across different water use areas, with focus on Asia-Pacific countries. At a global scale, Fischer et al. (2015) applied quantitative indicators to assess country-level 'economic-institutional capacity' and 'hydrological complexity' in 160 countries and placed countries into one of the four hydro-economic classification groups that correspond to level of water security relative to the economic-institutional capacity. Sadoff et al. (2015) applied 2 The fifth indicator -GDP per capitawas applied to assess economic-institutional capacity.1. Every person has access to enough safe water at affordable cost to lead a clean, healthy and productive life, while ensuring that the natural environment is protected and enhanced (GWP 2000). 2. The availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods, ecosystems and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks to people, environments and economies (Grey & Sadoff 2007).3. A tolerable level of water-related risk to society (Grey et al. 2013). 4. The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human wellbeing, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against waterborne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability (UNU 2013).risk-based indicators to determine water insecurity across four headline risks in selected countries.One issue on which there is no definitive resolution in water security frameworks relates to treatment of institutions. The various frameworks currently in use generally include ends (i.e. outcomes) of water security such as sufficient provision of household drinking water, yet their inclusion of the means (i.e., processes) to achieve water security such as water governance varies. Governance and institutions are clearly important to achieving water security. Nonetheless, it is an open question as to whether these should be part of water security or means to water security. In the AWDO framework, treatment of institutions more closely resembles a discrete means to achieve water security, rather than part and parcel of the concept.The AWDO was initiated by the ADB and the Asia-Pacific Water Forum (APWF) to increase importance of water in Asia Pacific's future development scenarios. Three editions of the outlook report have now been published, in 2007published, in , 2013published, in and 2016published, in (ADB 2007;;2013;2016). For the current (2016) version of the report, the authors of this paper developed the approach for the second KD, focused on economic water security, and applied it to 48 Asia-Pacific countries (ADB 2016). Given their familiarity with the approach, the authors sought to apply it to southern Africa in order to explore its utility in other regions. Importantly, the approach contains no regional bias and, as such, is presumed to be applicable in any region.The adopted framework for assessing economic water security consists of four components (Table 1). The first component seeks to measure presence of broad elements that are presumed to enable water's contribution to three economic sectors. The second component examines the degree to which water is secured to enable agricultural production. The third component examines the role of water in electricity production. The fourth component explores water's role in industry. Aggregation of the component scores is taken as the national level of economic water security.  Methods used to assess economic water security in each of the four components of the framework are discussed below. Broadly, each component contains a set of indicators that were populated. Results of indicator application were placed on a scale of 1 to 5 according to absolute scales shown in the right column of table 1. A score of 5 represents greater water security and 1 represents less water security. Indicator scores were added to produce a score for each component. 3   To determine overall levels of water security in particular countries, indicator results were averaged within components to produce a score for each component on a 1 through 5 scale. Averaged component scores were then added to generate overall country scores on a 20 point scale (i.e., a composite of 4 components that are each on a 5 point scale). Alternate ways to aggregate component results certainly exist, for example, results in particular components can be weighted according to their importance. Nonetheless, while weighting can enable an assessment of water security that allocates appropriate importance to indicators that is best matched with local realities, application of weights brings complexity that holds potential for introduction of subjectivity and bias. As such, un-weighted addition of results in particular components was felt to be the more transparent and desirable option; it is also an option consistent with approaches utilized in ADB (2013;2016).As scores ranged from 1 to 5 for each component, the maximum score a country could achieve was 20 and the minimum was 4. A higher score indicates greater water security in a particular country. The country scale assessment was chosen for two main reasons: a) data is generally available at country scale; and b) ultimately, major economic policy decisions are taken by sovereign nations. Data Data were obtained from a combination of recent sources (e.g. Hoekstra & Mekonnen 2012;Harris et al. 2014;IEA 2015;USEIA 2015;WB 2015;FAO AQUASTAT 2015). To the extent possible, data were harmonized to the year 2013. Specific data sources in each component are explained in the context of each component, immediately below.Resilience -The degree to which countries have achieved assurance of stable supply across sectors was assessed by coupling of results of two indicators: (i) rainfall coefficient of variation between and within years; and (ii) storage divided by total renewable freshwater resources. 4 A lower coefficient of variation of rainfall and higher ratio of storage to total renewable freshwater resources indicate that a country is more resilient to sudden changes. Conversely, a higher coefficient of variation of rainfall and lower ratio of storage to total renewable freshwater resources indicate that a country is less prepared to respond to fluctuations of water availability. Data from Harris et al. (2014) on the monthly, country-level precipitation for the period of 1901 -2013 and the FAO AQUASTAT (2015) data on the total country's dam capacity and total renewable water resources was utilized. The latest available data on the total renewable water resources was from 2014 and used for calculations. The latest data on country's dam capacity was from 2010, with exception of Seychelles. For the purpose of this report, we assume there has been no significant change in storage capacities since the last year of data.Water Stress Total freshwater stress is measured as total annual freshwater withdrawal divided by total renewable freshwater resources. A lower proportion of renewable water resources that are withdrawn indicate greater water security for economic growth and production. Data from the WB (2015) on the total annual freshwater withdrawals and the FAO AQUASTAT (2015) on total renewable freshwater resources were utilized. The latest available data on the total annual freshwater withdrawals from 2013 was used in the calculations. The FAO AQUASTAT (2015) data on total renewable freshwater resources for each country remained constant across years (e.g. constant in 2002, 2007, 2012, and 2014), thus we used the 2014 data.Storage Drought Duration Index Assessment of countries capacity to sustain droughts was conducted in two steps: i) determining number of months that countries dam capacity is able to provide reliable water supply; ii) dividing the number of months with reliable water supply by mean annual drought duration. Higher proportion of months with reliable water supply indicates greater water security for economic activities. This indicator was derived from Eriyagama et al. (2009). Data from New et al. (2002) on mean annual drought duration was utilized. The latest available WB (2015) data on the total annual freshwater withdrawals from 2013 was used in the calculations. Data on the total country's dam capacity was obtained from the FAO AQUASTAT (2015).Data Availability Data availability was measured by the degree to which data were available to populate the indicators applied in this framework. Eight data points were considered central for the calculations and their availability for each country was assessed: data on water storage (FAO AQUASTAT 2015), groundwater and surface freshwater withdrawals (FAO AQUASTAT 2015), sectoral freshwater withdrawal (WB 2015), sectoral GDP (WB 2015), water footprint (Hoekstra & Mekonnen 2012), electricity generation (IEA 2015;and USEIA 2015), electricity generation by source (IEA 2015), 5 and monthly, countrylevel rainfall data (Harris et al. 2014).Water productivity in agriculture Water productivity in the agriculture sector was measured by agricultural GDP divided by average agricultural evapotranspiration (AgrET). Greater agricultural water productivity indicates higher water security. Data on the agricultural percent of value added to GDP and the total GDP in year 2013 was obtained from the WB (2015) 6 . To estimate AgrET at country-level, annual actual evapotranspiration (ET) data was obtained from the MODIS Global Evapotranspiration Project (MOD16) for 2013 (MOD16 Nd) and compared with actual ET dataset for yearly actual ET available on the FAO Geonetwork website (FAO 2015). Cultivated land area 7 data for 2013 was then obtained from the Global Agro-Ecological Zones (GAEZ) (IIASA and FAO 2015). Finally, AgrET for cultivated land was clipped from the MOD 16 global ET dataset using the geographic information system (GIS). 8 Actual AgrET for every country was averaged to estimate country AgrET in mm/year. The volume of AgrET (km 3 ) was determined by first converting the AgrET in mm/year to km/year and multiplying by the cultivated land area (km 2 ). The estimated AgrET covers both rainfed and irrigated areas for the selected countries.Self-sufficiency of agricultural production Sufficiency of agricultural production is measured as the annual water footprint of agricultural good consumption divided by annual water footprint of agricultural good production. National scale annual water footprint statistics data on agricultural good consumption and agricultural good production 9 from Hoekstra & Mekonnen (2012) was used. Both internal and external water footprints were added to determine country-level total water footprint of agricultural good consumption. Given that the annual water footprint data from Hoekstra & Mekonnen (2012)  Minimum Platform, Electricity Productionthe degree to which the minimum platform for electricity production is achieved was measured by subtracting country's percapita electricity production from the global average per-capita electricity production. To calculate per-capita electricity production in individual countries and globally, the 2012 population data was obtained from the WB (2015) and combined with the 2012 data on electricity production from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (USEIA 2015). A higher value indicates that a country is less water secure as it needs to increase electricity production which translates to more additional capacity to achieve the minimum platform of per-capita electricity production whereas a lower value indicates that a country's electricity production is closer to the global average, hence less additional capacity is needed.Water Productivity in Electricity Water productivity of electricity was measured as electricity production (GWh) divided by the quantity of water consumed (km 3 ) to produce that electricity. Estimated electricity production data was obtained from the International Energy Agency (IEA 2015), which for 2013 contained the most detailed data on country's electricity production from 13 electricity sources, 11 namely : coal, oil, gas, biofuels, waste, nuclear, hydro, geothermal, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, wind, tide, and category named \"other sources.\" Diversity of a country's electricity sources was then linked with indicative quantities of water consumption of those sources (Gerbens-Leenes et al. 2008;IPCC 2012;Mekonnen et al. 2015). For consistency in calculations, the following three assumptions were made:8 GAEZ and MOD16 datasets were used because they were believed to be more precise than the FAO estimates. 9 Agricultural good production excludes water footprint of grazing and animal water supply. 10 The agricultural value added to GDP and total GDP data was obtained from the WB (2015). The agricultural value added to GDP for Swaziland was estimated for 2013 by linearly extrapolating from earlier years for which data were available. 11 Data were available for 10 countries, but no data were available for Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Seychelles, and Swaziland.1) The median water consumption rather than the lowest or the highest values were used to calculate water footprints of electricity derived from coal, gas, nuclear, geothermal, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, and wind sources. 2) Water consumption for electricity generation from biofuels (described by the International Energy Agency only as the total of solid biofuels and biogas) was assumed to be equal to the water consumption for electricity generation from biomass, and the water footprint for biomass derived electricity (average data from Brazil, Netherlands, US, and Zimbabwe) was obtained from Gerbens- Leenes et al. (2008). 3) Water consumption for hydropower is affected by the reservoir design, climate and allocation to other uses (IEA 2012). To obtain a more global average of water consumption of hydro-electricity the median IPCC (2012) values were utilized in calculations.Ultimately, countries' water productivity in electricity was calculated by dividing the total electricity production by the total water consumption in electricity generation. The total water consumption in electricity generation for each country was calculated by adding water consumed to produce electricity from each of the 8 sources. 12 Higher values indicate that a country is using less water per unit of electricity generated and presumed to be more water secure as it is using water efficiently.Industrial Water Productivity Industrial water productivity is measured as the industrial GDP divided by industrial water withdrawal. The latest available industrial value added to GDP, total GDP, industrial freshwater withdrawal (as percent of total) and total annual freshwater withdrawal data was obtained from the WB (2015). 13 A higher proportion of industrial GDP to industrial water withdrawals indicates that productivity of water in industry is high and the water allocation will likely be secure due to its importance to the economy.In SADC member states, data availability ranged from moderate to good as captured by the data availability indicator. Most data gaps were detected in surface and groundwater withdrawals that were not utilized in calculations and in diversity of electricity sources. Data on the diversity of electricity sources was not available for five countries: Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Swaziland and Seychelles. The country-level data on total renewable water resources could not be obtained for Seychelles. Agricultural and industrial value added to GDP for 2013 were not available for Swaziland. Missing agricultural and industrial value added to GDP data were in-filled by linear extrapolation to 2013 for Swaziland.Countries' overall economic water security was determined as composite scores of the four components: economic (broad), agriculture, electricity, and industry. The score for each component is derived from the numeric indicators described above. Section 4.1 presents the overall results and aggregate component scores for each country. Section 4.2 presents indicator rankings within each of the four components.Review of the aggregated scores across countries indicates reasonable dispersion in economic water security in SADC. Economic water security indeed ranges from 9.0 to 15.3 on a 20 point scale (Fig 1). South Africa and the Seychelles appear to be the most economically water-secure; Madagascar and Malawi appear to be the least economically water-secure. All countries show room for improvement. Entry points for improvement in many countries may lie in the agriculture and electricity sectors. Economic (broad) Results in the broad economic component range from 9.3 to 16.2 out of 20 (Fig 2). 14 Levels of resilience in SADC countries can be frequently described at moderate to low. Countries such as Congo DR, Madagascar, Malawi, and Namibia appear quite vulnerable to rainfall fluctuations. Levels of water stress in SADC countries, conversely, often appear manageable. Mauritius, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe place the greatest pressure on their resources, but water stress may be less of an issue in the remainder of SADC countries. Most required data were available in most SADC countries.Agriculture Agriculture results ranged from 2 to 6 out of 10 (Fig 3). With the exception of Seychelles and Mauritius, agricultural water productivity in SADC countries is low and may constitute the largest shared challenge in the region. 15 Agricultural selfsufficiency in southern African countries is varied. While the majority of countries in the region appear in at least average position in this regard, dependence on agricultural imports in Botswana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia and the Seychelles may render such countries vulnerable to fluctuations in availability and price -compromising their economic water security. Such countries may explore ways to increase self-sufficiency in order to mitigate risks associated with external dependence.  This work applied one key dimension of ADB's AWDO 2016 Framework to assess levels of economic water security for productive economies in SADC countries. This work provides a basis for moving beyond broad calls for achieving water security in Africa, to provide a framework to actually measure economic water security at a country-level and across four economic components within countries. The results highlight important variation in levels of economic water security in SADC countries; with Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi and Swaziland having the greatest potential to improve.Our findings reveal substantially less water security than that presented in Fischer et al. (2015). Our results reveal somewhat varied level of water security in SADC. By contrast, results of Fischer et al. (2015) suggest that all SADC countries are water secure, with the exception of Zimbabwe. In particular, our methods determined Malawi to be the most water insecure in SADC according to our approach, and was at substantial risk of water insecurity by Sadoff et al. (2015). In contrast, results of Fischer et al. (2015) suggests that Malawi is water secure. 16 Part of the explanation for such inconsistency between our results and results of Fischer et al. (2015) may relate to the reality that our approach was focused on economic water security specifically whereas the aim of Fischer et al. (2015) was to assess water security broadly. Another part of discrepancy may relate to deficiencies in the methods applied by Fischer et al. (2015); for example, consideration of storage capacity and environmental preservation, presumably important parts of water security, were somehow omitted from their methods. Further, \"hydrological complexity\", applied as the central measure of a country's water security in Fischer et al. (2015), is composed of only 4 indicators. The degree to which populating just 4 indicators can be said to reflect the level of a country's water security as a whole is no doubt somewhat questionable.Findings generated in this paper reveal specific areas of strength and vulnerability in SADC countries. Three areas of strength in SADC countries are: i) acceptable level of freshwater stress; ii) moderate to good data availability; and iii) moderate to good industrial production. In contrast, three areas that require strengthening are: i) improving resilience, ii) 16 Fischer et al. (2015) only covered 13 SADC countries, and excluded the Seychelles and Mauritius. raising agricultural water productivity, and iii) increasing electricity production. Although the approach utilized in this paper may be imperfect and cover only one aspect of water security, it is the first of its kind to directly assess levels of water security in southern African countries.This paper suggests potential for applyingeither directly or in adapted form -the ADB's AWDO approach to assess economic water security in southern Africa as a low-cost, multi-sectoral screening tool. The results provide guidance for decision makers and resource managers to identify where water insecurity is most critical and where investment may be targeted to enhance water security. For example, SADC countries can improve their water security by strengthening three areas of vulnerability while reinforcing progress in areas of strength.Application of the economic water security framework in southern Africa has helped to reveal at least four key issues stemming from application of the framework. First, transboundary waters are central to water management in SADC, perhaps more so than other regions, and may not have been fully captured in the framework utilized. TRWR, utilized in this paper, accounts for inflow and outflow secured through formal and informal treaties or agreements from transboundary waters to a particular country. However, use of TRWR does not distinguish between a country that depends on flows generated internally (which is presumably more secure) from a country that depends on flows generated internally and externally (which is presumably less secure). Considering that shared waters involve competing uses where an upstream country's overuse of its allocation reduces \"secured\" inflow to the downstream country, the actual quantity of TRWR in a particular downstream country may not always match the data. As such, there may be a need to more comprehensively capture degree of inclusion and reliance on transboundary waters in a water security framework for the region.Second, related, there may be a need to explicitly accommodate the fact that the most biophysically suitable sites for water storage development that benefit a particular country, may lie in the country's upstream neighbour. And recommendations for increased water storage in particular countries that have been made in this paper, may effectively be treated as recommendations for increasing storage that benefits that country but may not necessarily be physically in a country. Ultimately, realities related to transboundary waters in southern Africa may confound country-based frameworks utilized elsewhere.Third, there are clear synergies within and across dimensions of water security. In the economic water security framework applied in this paper, it may be a challenge to achieve high performance in all four components of the utilized framework because the competing sectoral demands are often at odds. Realization of forward-leaning nexus approachesrarely evidenced at this pointmay help to optimize water use across sectors. Related, this paper placed focus on only one of five dimensions of water security, which may have masked the need for sustainable approaches that enhance economic water security without imposing costs on other areas, such as the environmental water security. A next step could be to apply other dimensions of water security in conjunction with this dimension, and to adapt the overall framework to Africa context. Fourth, it may be worthwhile to consider subnational variation, e.g., in agricultural practices and climate. The methods utilized in this paper reflect nationally-averaged agriculture conditions in SADC countries, and in reality there is large variation within countries in terms of agricultural practices, climate and physical conditions. Subnational assessments would indeed help to capture this variation.Based on the results of the assessment in SADC countries, we provide three recommendations. A first recommendation is to improve agriculture water productivity, resilience, and sustainable electricity generation as means to raising overall levels of economic water security. The agriculture sector in SADC is vulnerable as seen from the effects of recent droughts (Mpala 2015) and targeted interventions are urgently needed. These interventions should include focus on agricultural water productivity that can be improved through elevating efficiency of water delivery infrastructure, better field management practices, use of improved seed varieties, and optimal use of fertilizers. Resilience can be improved by expanding storage capacity and expanding use of techniques such as managed aquifer recharge. Sustainable electricity generation can be improved through expanding the share of renewable electricity sources that are less water intensive than conventional electricity sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal. Notably, Seychelles has developed a target to generate 5% of its final energy from renewable energy by 2020 and increase it to 15% by 2030 (Razanajatovo 2014).A second recommendation is to place continued emphasis on three areas where SADC countries are performing well. Addressing vulnerable areas does not preclude continued emphasis on areas of strength: namely, monitoring and assessment of water resources, efficient use of water in industrial production, and appropriate management of freshwater stress. Regional principles and strategies described in the SADC Regional Policy (SADC 2005), SADC Regional Strategy (SADC 2006), and the recent SADC Industrialization Strategy and Roadmap 2015-2063(SADC 2015), highlight considerable scope for meeting all three objectives. For example, tapping region's industrial potential may create opportunities to upgrade water supply infrastructure, utilize water efficient technology base, and strengthen environmental safeguards including promotion of water use and quality standards. Regional strategies aimed towards promoting water efficiency across sectors, upgrading and improving water infrastructure (SADC 2006) could help to alleviate the effects of freshwater stress in the region. Greater implementation of a policy statement encouraging water sector monitoring and evaluation at multiple levels (i.e. Policy 9.1.4., SADC 2005) could increase availability of reliable data.A third recommendation is to utilize an analytical water security framework such as this to develop an evidence base to help downscale regional policies to national contexts, and match regional policies to regional needs. The SADC regional water policy (2005), for example, calls for investments in inter-basin transfers, large scale water distribution networks and storage dams to ensure water security. Similarly, the SADC regional water strategy (2006) links development of dams with increased water security. Although these investments would contribute to increasing water security in the region, identification of the relative importance of the various interventions in specific country contexts could be informed by application of a water security framework. For example, investments to increase dam capacity may be most needed in Congo DR, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius and Namibia that scored lowest in resilience and storage relative to drought duration. Meanwhile, Lesotho and Botswana may require greater investment in raising self-sufficiency and productivity in agriculture.These recommendations have important implications for the regional economic integration, in that they may highlight areas to facilitate exchange of best practice regarding water use in selected sectors and strengthen national capacity to make more efficient use of water resources. All three recommendations could help to transfer knowledge and methodologies between countries to optimize and equitably share water derived benefits among regional member states. Three caveats should be mentioned before concluding. First, the methods utilized in this paper combined a set of water resources and economic data to measure economic water security in SADC countries. Some of the economic data -e.g., sectoral GDPno doubt reflect the effects of policies beyond water management. Nonetheless, the bottom line is that the productivity of water usewidely accepted as an important indicator in the water sector (e.g., FAO 2003;Kijne et al. 2003;Molden 2007)is affected by decisions outside the water sector. Related, second, there are no doubt interdependencies across components and indicators. A broad economic context for water security for example, can help to enable water security in agriculture, energy, and industry. And some of the conditions that enable improved agriculture water security likely help to enable improved energy security. Such inter-relationships likely affected results and alternate approachessuch as measuring economic water security as the lowest score of the four componentswere considered. Ultimately, however, this paper sought to adopt identical methods to those used in ADB ( 2016) and as such added scores for the four components. Third, lack of data for some countries prevented population of all indicators in the broad economic and electricity components; in such cases, component scores for such countries were determined based on the indicators that were in fact populated. Inability to populate all indicators may have affected results in two components.In conclusion, application of the economic water security dimension of an updated 2016 AWDO approach to SADC has helped reveal levels of economic water security across the region's countries and identify strengths and vulnerabilities within individual countries. Overall, economic water security in southern Africa is variable with many opportunities for improvement. Areas for improvement include increasing resilience, improving agricultural water productivity, and improving sustainable electricity production. Refining and reapplying a framework such as that outlined in this paper may play a critical role at a national and regional level by providing evidence to assess, plan and target water use policies and interventions across elements central to economic water security.","tokenCount":"5700"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e450f5b222942aa96ad94716d328f813","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d80968f9-1469-408f-9c7f-fd93e628c002/retrieve","id":"216811396"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f26a2ad3-8dd7-407f-9487-938c03c5ceac","pagecount":"6","content":"Youth in livestock, the engine for change: strategic partnerships with a private company (CIAT/CCAFS-Alqueria)The beginnings, incentives, and objectives of the Herederos de Tradición (Heirs of Tradition) initiative carried out by Alquería's farmer training programs. The technical support derived from a joint (and voluntary) effort of producers and extensionists of the dairy companies is central to the development of diagnostic, planning, and monitoring capacities in livestock farms. In the long run, such capacities will foster sustainable competitiveness of the producers involved. The gradual and sustained aging tendency of the rural population in Colombia of recent decades threatens the viability and competitiveness of the dairy sector, and does not allow for learning opportunities and the adoption of modern tools, such as climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and the appropriate management of dairy production systems, which are of vital importance in addressing today's urgent issues. Including youth in technological and social training programs can help contain the problems of generational renewal, poor access to education and the gender gap. Investments in agricultural education will empower the future of rural Colombia, in the context of climate change.In 2012, the private dairy company Alquería launched its first pilot training program for small-scale milk producers, MACA. The name MACA derives from the pilot's initial test region in the municipalities near the Macarena mountain range in El Meta, Colombia. This particular area has been identified for the urgent need to tackle the low rates of schooling of its producers, and the need for a technification of the livestock farms to increase their productivity and, in turn, the quality of life of their managers.In dealing with this issue, Alquería's Livestock Development department exposed indisputable realities from which the Colombian countryside (still) suffers. Most of the producers (including their families, who are also involved in the work of production on the farms) lack the adequate support and technical training that would increase their productivity and improve the quality of their produce, and consequently, their profits and quality of life. Yet, this would also be of great benefit to the private company and to Colombia's dairy value chain. It thus became evident that the need for producer training and support demanded immediate attention.The pilot initiative MACA was implemented in the El Meta administrative department, one of the regions most devastated by the Colombian armed conflict. It is no coincidence that the chosen target area is one where economic stability, land tenure, and farmers' capacities to produce are constantly under threat by warfare. Rather, the area was carefully selected by the professionals of Livestock Development, who realized that productive, modern and sustainable stock farming was fundamental for the at-risk populations of the region. As such, MACA came to exist precisely where it was most needed.In addition to boosting dairy productivity in the area, MACA also focused on strengthening relations between Alquería and the small producers who make up a vital segment of their suppliers. Establishing important links between the company and its suppliers, as well as creating solid relationships with individuals and productive guilds (gremios), formed the primary strategy of promoting continuous procurement of optimal raw material. In the pursuit for increased productivity, MACA began by establishing (in partnership with the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture) a cold chain network to benefit municipalities such as La Uribe, Mesetas, San Juan de Arama, Vista Hermosa, Puerto Lleras and Puerto Rico. What this revealed, however, is that among the shortage of basic services such as electricity and road access, a graver deficiency was hidden; that of education.Cundinamarca. Photo: Fomento Ganadero-Alquería.Despite the obvious benefits that came with the setting up of the cold chain, the Other companies from the livestock sector in Colombia besides Alquería also offer networking and training programs to producers with the aim of improving the quality of their milk and democratizing the benefits gained from better administered cattle farms. FOCA is situated as part of the Livestock Development department, within one of the teams dedicated to working directly with producers on tasks ranging from milk supply to commercial activities.Since its inception, FOCA sought to go beyond focusing merely on technical issues such as quality monitoring and establishing cold chains, and centered on generating direct relationships with the producers, facilitating the analysis of their farms, and conveying essential knowledge to help them be more competitive. Alquería sells the milk of 3,200 suppliers, which affects about 11,000 families as the suppliers include associations of small producers. This group of suppliers provides the company with about one million liters of milk a day. The company's plants are located in Cajicá, (savanna region), Palmira (western region), Antioquia and the Caribbean coast region.Initially, FOCA centered its activities on two major fronts: ECAS or field schools (Escuelas de Campo) and the Plan Finca (farm plan), an educational initiative that introduces tools to facilitate the planning and improvement of farms.The field schools serve a double purpose. In the first place, they instruct the target population on various subjects. Talks are given on the sale of milk, its composition, the legislation that regulates its price, and other subjects, informing the producers on matters relevant to their profession.Secondly, the schools reveal the critical issues on which the producers are insufficiently informed, but also those on which they are very knowledgeable and experienced with, such as pasture and soil management, and cattle and animal feeding, among others. By exposing the needs and strengths of the producers, the ECAS provide the Livestock Development staff with a more precise picture, allowing them to offer producers assistance (voluntary) that is timely, useful and that responds to their specific needs. In turn, ECAS also contributes, at least in part, to the bridging of the gaps in access to information, which is so characteristic of rural Colombia.The ECAS were and continue to be the foundation of a community approach that enhances the scope and impact of the farm plan, which provides interested producers with personalized technical assistance directly on their farms.As its name suggests, the focus of the plan is to promote planning, strengthen social networks in the area (empowering the leaders or those in a potential leadership capacity who can re-convey the acquired knowledge), and increase the income of participants, who have voluntarily enrolled in the program.Program participant helping to install a biodigester at a farm in Sesquilé, Cundinamarca. Photo: Fomento Ganadero-Alquería.The following elements are of fundamental importance: the development of a participatory appraisal, the drawing up of a work plan of activities, the calculation of time and investment required to reach the targets proposed, having a relevant set of indicators to gauge progress achieved (measuring factors related to feeding, reproduction, production and sanitary management of animals), milk quality and the farm's financial statements. Together, these factors will serve to explore and deepen the understanding of the environment.The Plan Finca includes scheduled visits with which it seeks to demonstrate to the producers the potential and limitations of their lands, build their capacity on various topics and have them apply what they have learned to better their quality of life, which will in turn benefit the company. By offering a space for meeting and discussion, which allows for a more personalized plan for increased productivity, Livestock Development professionals saw a high and continuous participation of young people.The overall goal of the initiative is in fact to maintain the traditions of the rural areas. In addition to betting on the cultural wealth of the livestock trade, by way of this initiative, Alquería seeks to empower the future generations with improved and more accessible transfer of technologies, and useful and much needed know-how so as to boost sustainable competitiveness of the dairy industry in Colombia.After all, the young people who inspired the formation of this program represent the future farmers and managers that Alquería as well as other similar companies will have to count on. They constitute the ideal group that can put into motion social programs that see them not only as guardians of tradition, but rather as agents of change.The field schools and the farm plan thus served as vehicles that forge closer ties between the company and the community, but they also acted as social research centers. They brought to light one of the biggest problems facing the sector to date, and that is the uncertainty of an intergenerational handover. Researchers have constantly called for greater attention in addressing this challenge, which is unequivocally present in many of the agricultural regions of Latin America (Triana & Burkart, 2019).From Argentina to Central America, the rapidly aging small farmer population and the impoverishment of the rural areas have resulted in a decisive decline in livestock employment, which is further exacerbated by the tendency of young adults to migrate to the cities. (Gumucio et al., 2015;Toruño-Morales, 2012;Vázquez-García, 2015;Gallo y Peluso,2013;Graña, 1996).The numbers speak for themselves. The National Administrative Department for Statistics of Colombia (DANE in Spanish) estimates that the age of the farmer population in Colombia ranges from 40 to 54 years of age. It also indicates a very low level of schooling among this population (according to the 2014 census, 60% of producers have completed only primary education). Moreover, a significant portion of those participating in the ECAS and the farm plan were found to be women producers, mothers who are head of households, and daughters, revealing the silenced truth that women areand always have beenproductive agents in livestock, and have suffered more acutely from a lack of access to resources and education.Thus, with these convictions along with the established principle that education is the driving force for competitiveness, the Heirs of Tradition initiative first launched in 2012. The objective is that \"young farmers from different parts of the country be trained on livestock practices at no cost and enhance their knowledge and skills on management of soil, animals, and the environment\". 1 Alquería strengthened this training initiative by partnering with SENA (Spanish acronym for the National Training Service). The latter would take over some of the training in its centers while the rest would be given by staff from Livestock Development as well as Human Management, thus also placing an emphasis on 'soft' skills related to social relationships, effective conflict resolution and life plans. Such initiatives are important not merely for the opportunities they present to rural youth by helping them develop important skills in planning and production, but also because they represent a microcosm that exposes the various social dynamics and cultural barriers, which have an impact on livestock farming. The ups and downs of everyday social relations, the youth's response to the educational tools and methods, the relationships they build with each other and the process of their inclusion into the workforce during their semester of practical training show how profound the problems such as generational renewal and the prevalence of a gender gap in the livestock sector are.Aside from the countless positive aspects of the venture undertaken by Alquería, there are also a number of essential lessons learned. First, it is vital to continue training future generations of farmers in Colombia by way of tools that enhance the productivity of their dairy farms and thus their quality of life. Second, the low level of schooling in rural areas must be tackled rigorously as it is a major impediment to reaching the objectives of a profitable and sustainable dairy industry. Moreover, the education should cover a wide range of issues from the deconstruction of cultural barriers and regional and gender stereotypes to proper soil management and animal care. Third, the training programs have to benefit not only the target population but other producers as well, who will have the opportunity to work jointly with the young people now trained in the trade and with the skills to take over the reins of a livestock farm.Although gender discrimination persists on many occasions, fueled by the common understanding that livestock farming is a male-dominated activity, programs such as the Heirs of Tradition initiative are responsible for gradually dismantling these assumptions by ensuring impartiality and equal access to education.The Herederos de Tradición initiative, with its course of action being focused on urgent matters such as working with the Colombian youth, triggered a fruitful partnership initiated in 2019 between Alquería and CIAT-CCAFS (CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, https://ccas.cgiar.org) to take effect by 2020 (and continue in 2021) within the framework of the \"Agricultural innovation for the development of low-emissions cattle value chains in Latin America\" project. The initiative interests CIAT-CCAFS as a platform for disseminating knowledge on environment, productivity and socioeconomics as well as for its strength in capacity building.The project's role will focus on offering students a practical and theoretical training on the identification, selection, management, and utilization of medium and low tropical forage germplasm, soil management, and forage conservation practices during critical times, which enable a more adequate response to the challenges posed by climate change, and the needs for adaptation and mitigation. The CIAT Forage Quality and Animal Nutrition Laboratory will be made available for the analysis of forage samples selected by the program participants during the implementation of the Plan Finca.The result of this bromatological analysis will be used for the assessment, proposal, and evaluation of an improvement plan that is 'tailor-made' to the needs of the farm.Graduation ceremony of the fourth cohort 2018-2019.Photo: Fomento Ganadero-Alquería.The youth and extension workers will also be trained on the use of the Tropical Forages web-based tool (formerly SoFT, www.tropicalforages.info). The interactive tool brings up a narrowed-down list of suggested forage materials most suitable for a farm's location based on inputted environmental and geographic information. Furthermore, a link with the CIAT Genetic Resources Bank will be established so that once the forage materials that facilitate productive and environmental improvements of the farmhave been selected, the user will then be able to request the chosen species directly from the Bank.As for the environmental component, the agreement covers training on the calculation and analysis of the carbon footprint (per farm), which are to be included in the Finca Plan implemented by the youth trainees. This will enable the application of key concepts concerning the mitigation of greenhouse gases. Additionally, climate change adaptation will be addressed and this work will be linked to the approach of the CIAT/CCAFS-led Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees, which will facilitate the access to relevant agroclimatic information for students, extension agents and producers by way of the periodically published newsletter. Additionally, participants can obtain training on the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach, designed to make agroclimatic information produced in the technical committees accessible to farmers. Likewise, workshops will be held on topics relevant to climate change, such as basic concepts of climate variability, vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and CSA practices regarding livestock farming.The socioeconomic component will include workshops on value chains that facilitate the understanding of the contexts in which productive activity takes place, the bottlenecks, and the opportunities of the Colombian livestock and dairy industry. This component will comprise theoretical and methodological observations on the need to focus livestock farming and youth employment according to current challenges (increase in demand, sustainable intensification, and climate change, among others), which accentuate the need for greater technification.Documentation on the lessons learned throughout the program, aiming to evaluate the relevance of investing in the education of the rural youth, and the participation of women and minority populations, will be promoted. This documentation will be key for the design of higher impact strategies that promote future work with young farmers, and help improve the process of decision-making regarding the program in the short term. Likewise, it will support the design of a monitoring and evaluation system on two levels: at the student level (to determine if they continue with careers related to the sector) and at the level of the producer, who will have the students working on their farms, using the indicators used in the Finca Plan and including others of a social nature (labor relations, intrahousehold relations, decision-making capacity on the control over and efficient use of resources, etc.).A proposal was made for awareness raising, among the young students of the program and the owners of the farms where they work, on the significant role of women in livestock farming and the importance of transforming gender stereotypes for the sake of equitable productivity. Finally, it was agreed that training would be carried out in artisanal seed production, and forage conservation as an independent business model, boosting income generation, employment and the transformation of the dairy sector to being more sustainable and resilient to climate change.This partnership between the research for developmnet sector and the private company seeks to complement the solid technical training that the program participants receive by also instructing them on other urgent issues such as climate change mitigation strategies, and productivity-enhancing and socioeconomic tools. These will prepare the heirs of tradition to develop equitable, sustainable and competitive business models.Both Alquería and CIAT-CCAFS recognize that their joint effort of empowering youth as agents of change in the face of the critical junctures that put the sustainable growth of Colombian livestock farming at risk is a vital contribution to rural development. Direct contact with the community, the effective transfer of knowledge that empowers young farmers and their families, and the possibility of continuing (and linking to) education, will constitute an important seed of change that seeks to leave a mark where it is most urgent, rural Colombia. Mauricio Ariza Aya (mariza@alqueria.com.co) is the Senior National Coordinator of Livestock Development in Alquería. His work concentrates on developing actions that maximize the productivity of livestock farmers, reduce their costs of production, and improve their output quality, while promoting environmentally responsible production systems.Led by: Within the framework of: Supported by:","tokenCount":"2941"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a76c8fa25b4586612f7560873680cdde","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/079dfbf0-db93-4222-b082-8a7038a4955a/retrieve","id":"-1342909337"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"769bcce4-e82b-4a1b-89a7-34078b9cb254","pagecount":"3","content":"Anandadhara  Need to balance credit initiatives with enabling sociocultural solidarity among women on issues like household and childcare workload, dowry, boy child preference, domestic violence, patrilocal postmarriage challenges etc. Support and facilitate non-traditional, gender transformatory activities using best practices from women's associations like Working Women's Forum (Chennai) or SEWA (Ahmedabad) Focus efforts on landless women to generate income opportunities, proposing vocational training, marketing support and social empowerment. Address women's domestic workload to reduce household tensions created by SHG commitments. Discuss/support solutions to reduce household chores, like smokeless cook stoves, social forestry planting and child daycare. Remuneration for women SHG leaders could improve the group mobilization and organisation. Improve market access for women through practical changes, eg dedicated water and sanitation facilities for women, organized transport. Develop accessible manuals on the meaning of social empowerment especially for use at the SHG village level, with for instance, information on homestead land and joint rights, access to social welfare schemes etc. Readjust the official classification of Below Poverty Line target beneficiaries according to changing realities in the village. This will enhance out-reach to the poorest and most vulnerable target groups. The community participation actor (local NGO) in the ADMI programme needs to ensure poverty and gender inclusive identification of WUA members. The other is World Bank funded Accelerated Development of Minor Irrigation (ADMI), which aims to increase agricultural incomes of small / marginal farmers through sustainable use of irrigation water. This includes minor irrigation schemes -solar or diesel pumps, training on improved and diversified crop farming and marketing, and strengthening water user associations (WUA), with a focus on women's participation.For the poorest, agriculture is not the way out of poverty  Rural is no longer synonymous with agriculture. Over the last 25 years, cultivators have decreased by 60% while the proportion of marginal and landless farmers have increased. At best, only ~20% of the village population owns cultivable land. Of this, less than 10% report agriculture as the main income source.  Land fragmentation, inflow of migrants, distress sale of land, unreliable agrarian incomes have led to a sharp decrease in the size of landholdings. For marginal farmers, average size reduced from ~1 acre to a third of one acre.  West Bengal's land redistribution (homestead parcels for all) has resulted in an enormous pressure on land and there is little \"common\" land in these villages.  The majority of the population which includes small(1/3 -1 acre) and marginal farmers (<1/3 acre) need to supplement their agrarian income by farm and nonfarm wage-labour.  Agricultural wage labour is unreliable and non-farm wage labour in the villages is occasional and inadequate. Short term coping strategies are seasonal migrationparticularly of young males to become unskilled construction workers -resulting in large numbers of school drop-outs among this group.  In the past, many small farmers were compelled to sell land to tea companies in exchange for low-pay permanent labour in the tea gardens. Many of these gardens are now shutting downalso because of high soil degradation and infertilityleaving the labourers with few alternative options.  Nearly all farmers use hybrid, HYV seeds, which require high inputs (fertilizers, pesticides and improved irrigation) leading to irreversible reliance on outside actors. Such modern practices exclude women who are not expected to spray or buy seeds. Market volatility and dependence on middlemen means farmers do not really benefit from greater productivity.  There is an agro-ecological crisis: soil infertility combined with increasingly unreliable climatic conditions; a combination of floods and droughts, makes agriculture an insecure and debt prone livelihood. The decline in food crops is a concern for family food security. There is no longer the tribal women peasant activism such as the Tebhaga struggle for land rights that happened in the past. Socio-cultural constraints on women's mobility and enterprise are binding except for the poorest, who cannot afford to adjust to social norms, and the few \"strong characters\" who dare to challenge the mainstream.  West Bengal's exemplary land reforms and redistribution have broadly failed to empower women: only 6% women reported \"owning\" land and mostly all in matrilineal communities. Joint ownership of land is not the preferred option for men who are supported by the patriarchal culture to keep many privileges.  The social norms and perceptions around what women should/ can do means that despite a male-pull out of agriculture, there isn't a feminization of agriculture or agricultural labour.The ongoing discourse on women's weakness excludes them from some \"heavy\" farm work, including irrigation.  Women remain solely responsible for unpaid domestic work and childcare, which leaves them little time for productive paid work. Lack of reliable wage labour often causes distress and conflicts.  The gender situation varies among social and religious groups and between landowner and landless families. Decision-making is more gender balanced in Adivasi and Rajbonsi households.  Only landless women work as farm and non-farm labourers, but gendered disparities in wages often deepen their vulnerabilities rather than address their poverty.  There is no collective action from women agricultural labourers to campaign for more gender equality.Anandadhara: This programme excludes by design, creditunworthy poorest and landless women who cannot save. The credit-only focus is limiting. Anandadhara does enable women to come together, but the SHGs do not mobilize to address social, cultural and political challenges faced by women.  Loans taken by SHG members are not always for productive purposes; in many cases, women's loans finance the work and needs of husbands and sons.  Gendered disparities in access to land, water, labour, finance, forests, skills and other means of production within a reinforced patriarchal setting limits agrarian enterprise for women. For female entrepreneurship to sustain and enable empowerment, traditional and modern masculine social boundaries and norms need to be addressed/ challenged. ADMI improves access to water for irrigation, resulting in the possibility of year-round cultivation, but marginal, tenant farmers and the landless do not benefit from it.  Irrigation is considered a man's job. Although officially, women are supposed to have WUA membership and quotas are met; in practice women are rarely involved in making decisions around water. Having quotas for women does not translate to women engaging more actively in WUAs.  Irrigation is a masculine domain and sector. Without gendering the sector and institutions, it is not possible to target women.  In Jalpaiguri, most WUAs have only just started operation and maintenance of irrigation systems.There are some reports of problems about payments.  While the irrigation issues are well addressed (for WUA members), ADMI project does not ensure market linksthese risks are transferred to the farmer members.","tokenCount":"1097"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43298433fc72d4b01cd1a99c0c6a56b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2169ffb5-8557-4c2b-af3f-ed91888b1659/retrieve","id":"1113077464"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bcd1ba0d-0156-4549-aeb8-98b39684dda3","pagecount":"31","content":"Sistema hídrica de la agricultura de secano 26 cm hr -1 86 cm hr -1 14 cm hr -1 4 cm hr -1Muestra disturbada de 30 cm de alto contenidos de arcilla (punto 4) en la parte baja de la cuenca.Se observó una buena actividad biológica en el suelo representada por macrofauna (lombrices, escarabajos, larvas entre otros) además de perfiles superficiales bien diferenciados (color oscuro) de los más profundos.Hay algunos lugares (como en la parte media del bosque y en las partes con la capa de material parental cerca de la superficie) que solo se los instalaron a 1 metro porque el barreno no podía perforar la capa de piedra.Muestra disturbada de 30 cm con piedras (punto 16) en la parte alta de la cuenca.Dystrudepts, Udorthents, Eutrudepts, Hapludolls, AfloramientosParte Alta -Alta conductividad hidráulica 26 cm hr -1 -Densidad 0,92 g cm -3 -pH 4,8-5,7 -Franco arenoso, Franco arcillo arenoso -MO 6,6% -Perfil profundo Parte mediaalta -Muy alta conductividad hidráulica, 86 cm hr -1 -Densidad 0,96 g cm -3 -pH 5,8 -6,9 -Franco, Franco arenoso, Franco arcillo arenoso -MO 7%-Perfil no tan profundo Parte mediabaja -Conductividad hidráulica moderada, 14 cm hr -1 -Densidad 1,01 g cm -3 -pH 4,9-5,8 -MO 6.6% -Franco arcilloso, Franco arenoso, Franco arcillo arenoso -Perfil profundo con un nivel freático a 2,9 metros de la superficie Parte baja -Baja conductividad hidráulica 4 cm hr -1 -Densidad 1.02 g cm -3 -pH 4,8-5,7 -Franco, Franco arenoso, Franco arcilloso -MO 5% -Perfil profundo con un nivel freático de uno a tres metros de la superficie ","tokenCount":"256"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7857471569.json b/data/part_5/7857471569.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"03bb16f977610d4fabb58f6650272b18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8694fc0f-ef80-474d-9a4d-5e99a8862461/retrieve","id":"863738863"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0eb26ec-6faa-401b-980c-92f1ced55fb3","pagecount":"2","content":"Bring NUS back to the table! by Stefano Padulosi NUS, or Neglected and Underutilized Species, are wild, cultivated or semi-domesticated non-commodity crops at the margin of mainstream agriculture. Their contribution to tackling food and nutrition insecurity and climate change vulnerability is huge and can no longer be overlooked. They might not be 'neglected' for much longer.NUS (Neglected and Underutilised Species), also called orphan, abandoned, lost, underused, local, minor, traditional, alternative, niche, or underdeveloped crops are part of a large portfolio of useful species cultivated and nurtured for centuries by users around the world, predominantly local communities. Although NUS have been neglected and underused, they hold great potential: hardy and highly nutritious, these vegetables, pulses, cereals, and fruits form a universe of tastes and flavours that have been shaping traditional systems everywhere. NUS species are impressive: 539 vegetables and 645 fruits in Africa, 2800 edible fruits in the Tropics, 200 leafy vegetables in Kenya, 228 vegetables in southeast Asia and 137 indigenous vegetables in Italy.All countries have a rich NUS basket as part of their unique cultural heritage. Unfortunately these species are disappearing from the field because of their scarce competitiveness in modern agriculture.This marginalisation raises great concerns in our capacities to feed the world and feed it well. Food today is seen as a pure 'commodity crop yield', lacking nutrition or agro-ecological considerations. Therefore, the main concerns in production systems are crop intensification, heavy use of agrochemicals, mechanisation, standardisation of agronomic practices and unprecedented decline of crop species and varieties in cultivation.Marginalised by research --and sadly also by development efforts -NUS lose out in national markets and survive only in small local or niche markets. Once symbols of people's cultural identity and sources of their pride, NUS have now become gourmet food for the wealthy. Interestingly, supermarket shelves seem to be loaded with a tremendous diversity of foods, but a closer look reveals that such 'diversity' is the result of intense food processing from only a few crops and varieties. The over 5,000 edible crops estimated to exist today are largely untapped by current food systems, dominated by maize, wheat, and rice that provide more than 50% of the world's plantderived calories to the world.The last 60 years of research investments over few resourceintensive crops-the so-called 'Green revolution'-have led to higher yields and important contributions to reduce hunger in the world. However, this huge achievement has been accompanied by a major downside: the heavy erosion of our plant-based diets and the loss of the biological foundation on which our farming practices are based. A staggering 75% of crop diversity has been lost in the course of last century (an estimated 300,000 varieties). Just twelve crops together with five animal species provide 75% of the world's food, and of the 137 most important crops in the world, 20 are cultivated over 80% of the global agricultural area and the remaining 117 on a mere 20%. These trends are worsening every year.Not helpful either is the poor conservation of NUS: most samples safeguarded in ex situ gene banks around the world represent very marginally NUS genetic resources, which are mainly maintained by farmers in the field.Finally, monocropping a limited number of resource-intensive crops has led to land degradation and marginalisation of smallholder agriculture.Globally, 800 million people are food insecure, 2 billion suffer from micronutrient deficiencies and 2.1 billion are overweight or obese. A new Green revolution is needed to tackle So what should be done to reverse this condition of extreme vulnerability within our food systems? The answer rests with NUS and their sustainable use enhancement.Clearly, the world needs to continue securing the production of staple crops to feed the world, but that effort must be complemented by parallel investments on the many nutritious and resilient crops found in the NUS basket. Diversifying the production systems with the injection of various NUS will buffer food systems against socio-economic shocks and at the same time strengthen the health of agroecosystems, support smallholder agriculture, safeguard food cultures and associated economies that revolve around local crops and traditions now fast disappearing. In addition, many NUS are drought-resilient, so they hold potential to tackle negative climate change impacts.The promotion of NUS is an opportunity to increase traditional crop diversity and associated food traditions. Safeguarding traditional heritage is an important contribution to protecting the identity of local communities and reinforcing their confidence to counteract threats arising from globalisation trends and changes in lifestyles.Women play a central role in using diverse NUS as well as in the nexus between agrobiodiversity and nutrition security of households. Therefore, women's capacity should be built, including through the dissemination of best practices for cultivation or value addition, the enhancement of marketing skills, and awareness raising of nutrition and better food preparation.However, NUS lack the collaborative structures, information, data and services that are instead easily available for commodity crops. For example, extension agents are poorly trained on how to promote NUS and should also be targeted in capacity-building activities. Carrying out research programmes for the promotion of NUS is a great challenge for National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and so is the development of their value chains. To address these challenges, resources are needed to strengthen capacities.Dealing with NUS requires a collaborative approach among experts from different sectors and disciplines. Bioversity International has been working on NUS for more than two decades. It has developed a successful collaborative framework-the 'holistic value chain approach' (see Figure 1)-that has been tested on several NUS, including Andean grains and minor millets. This framework, followed in several projects (with support from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the European Union) has allowed actors to work closely together to overcome the many bottlenecks encountered in the NUS value chains.For example, farmers have engaged with scientists in surveying, collecting, conserving and selecting the genetic diversity of target species; food specialists worked closely with germplasm experts and consumers to develop more nutritious food, easier food technologies and attractive recipes; private companies participated in the marketing of raw and processed products; nutritionists, school teachers and media experts helped raising public awareness on the nutritional and health benefits related to NUS, and decision makers were involved with other stakeholders in the development of policies for removing obstacles along the value chains.Bioversity International's NUS project interventions using the holistic value chain approach has strengthened the resilience of livelihood systems in both urban and rural communities through a wider deployment of NUS at household level and in the value chains. More specifically, it has produced a number of encouraging outcomes in target areas: women and men farmers and other value chain actors gained knowledge to identify diverse, stresstolerant, adapted crops with market potential and ways to better document and monitor their use; climate-smart practices are being developed and disseminated; high quality seed of stress-tolerant varieties is produced by local communities and researchers; women's and men's farmer groups are increasingly generating more income thanks to their enhanced skills in cultivation, value addition and marketing; demand for nutritious products from NUS has increased, leading to enhanced nutrition, income and empowerment of vulnerable groups; capacities of farmers to manage weather-associated risks through NUS have been strengthened; market opportunities have been realised which in turn have created incentives for farmers to continue growing and safeguarding NUS on their farm; awareness among policy makers has been raised which led to a number of relevant policies for supporting wider uses (e.g. inclusion of NUS in school meal programmes in Brazil or in the national procurement system in India).Looking back at the journey to promote NUS, progress has been made in many regards. However, NUS should be further encouraged, promoted and supported with policies at national and international level to create greater synergy among agencies that have been working on these issues in isolation. █ ","tokenCount":"1296"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"893b2daab343bf5f4e8362b741448a6a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9f424fe-1ae8-4bdb-9ee6-88ef222fc0ef/retrieve","id":"1513479565"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0bcc40d2-4c83-4817-a081-3ed2e5cc0a4a","pagecount":"6","content":"Tài liệu này được xây dựng trong khuôn khổ Dự án \"Phát triển hệ thống giống rau trong cộng đồng dân tộc thiểu số tại miền núi phía Bắc Việt Nam nhằm nâng cao dinh dưỡng và thu nhập\". Dự án thuộc Chương trình Nghiên cứu Hà Lan -CGIAR do Hội đồng Nghiên cứu Hà Lan (NWO) tài trợ.• Bao bì có thông �n rõ ràng về nơi sản xuất, thời hạn sử dụng  This publica�on was produced in the framework of the project \"Integrated vegetable seed systems development in ethnic minority communi�es in Northern Vietnam for enhanced nutri�on and income security\". The project is part of the Netherlands -CGIAR Rsearch Programme, which is funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).• Seed packages with clear informa�on on producers and expira�on date   This publica�on was produced in the framework of the project \"Integrated vegetable seed systems development in ethnic minority communi�es in Northern Vietnam for enhanced nutri�on and income security\". The project is part of the Netherlands -CGIAR Rsearch Programme, which is funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).• Seed packages with clear informa�on on producers and expira�on date• Seeds provided by local farmer cooperatives / groups who were trained in and verified in seed production and storageNgười ","tokenCount":"207"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9cb93bf421cdb18069502109c1fa3c7f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/82cf64ec-18ca-4748-8f8e-5caa36653366/content","id":"495765649"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b012e980-0687-41ce-84f1-b649d581c84f","pagecount":"22","content":"Queremos expresar nuestro profundo agradecimiento a todas las personas e instituciones que mediante su colaboración con el CIMMYT hicieron posible la realización del seminario-taller y la publicación de esta memoria. Debe mencionarse en primer lugarLa preocupación sobre la conservación de los recursos naturales en general, y del suelo yagua en particular, ha estimulado la búsquedas de nuevas formas de incrementar la adopción y difusión de tecnologías que contribuyan a conservar estos recursos. En ese sentido la productividad del sector de generación y transferencia de tecnologías de conservación, entendida como mecanismo para alcanzar efectivamente al mayor número de agricultores en el menor tiempo posible, es un factor importante para alcanzar este objetivo.Así lo han entendido el Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá (IDIAP), y sus socios institucionales, el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) Y el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), los cuales consideran que una forma de mejorar la eficiencia del proceso de generación y transferencia es proveer al sistema de información sobre los factores que afectan la decisión de los agricultores de adoptar tecnologías de conservación. Identificar estos factores y entender cómo afectan el proceso de adopción es fundamental para diseñar nuevas estrategias de investigación y transferencia, de manera que las nuevas tecnologías que se produzcan tengan las máximas probabilidades de ser adoptadas por los agricultores.La estrategia para llevar a cabo este proceso de proveer información que lleva a cabo el PRM en los países de Centroamérica y el Caribe tiene tres etapas, que se ilustran en la Figura l. La primera consiste en la ejecución de un estudio a nivel de una región donde ha habido un programa de difusión de nuevas tecnologías. El estudio tiene como principal objetivo la identificación los factores que han afectado la adopción de la nueva tecnología introducida en la región. El resultado de esta etapa generalmente consiste en un reporte de contenido técnico que incluye implicaciones y recomendaciones para la GTTA.La segunda etapa consiste en expandir los resultados del estudio de adopción en forma de un estudio de caso, cuyo contenido sea fundamentalmente dirigido a la discusión y análisis de los resultados del estudio con investigadores y extensionistas. Esta discusión se realiza en un seminario-taller especialmente diseñado con este propósito, cuyo resultado final debe ser un conjunto de acciones obtenidas de acuerdo con el consenso del grupo y plasmadas en las memorias del taller.Finalmente, la tercera etapa consiste en el seguimiento de la ejecución de las acciones acordadas y la medición de su efectividad.Siguiendo esta metodología, el 2 de julio de 1998 se realizó en la Ciudad de Chitré, Herrera. Panamá, el seminariotaller titulado\"Acciones para Impulsar la Labranza de Conservación en Maíz en la Región de Azuero\", bajo la coordinación del Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá (lDIAP), el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) y el Centro Regional Universitario de Azuero (CRUA).El seminario-taller tenía los siguientes objetivos:   , Implicaciones para: .• extensión • política• Contenido: . ---------------------------i ~~i=:~~~:es .,l-----------~~~-----------J-------------------..I@@t~i@~lt~¡~T t------------------------t'Implicaciones para:Metodología para la ejecución de talleres de retroalimentación investigación y extensión.P~MAMA, 2DE JUlIO • La Gobernadora de la provincia de Herrera inaugura el Seminario-Taller difusión de la tecnología de labranza de conservación en maíz en dicha región.2. Identificar los mecanismos de política institucional, de generación y transferencia de tecnología que permitan modificar o irifluir sobre estos factores, de tal manera que mejore la difusión y adopción de la labranza de conservación en maíz.3. Identificar líneas de aCClOn que permitan llevar a la práctica los mecanismos de política institucional identificados.Al seminario asistieron investigadores vinculados con el cultivo de maíz y con especialidad en suelos; extensionistas, vinculados con el cultivo de maíz y la práctica de la ganadería; productores de maíz; representantes de casas comerciales distribuidoras de maquinaria agrícola; y funcionarios vinculados con la toma de decisiones a nivel del sistema de generación y transferencia de tecnología, en su mayor parte de la región de Azuero. El listado de asistentes al seminario-taller se presenta en el Anexo l.El estudio sobre factores que afectan la decisión de los agricultores de usar la labranza de conservación en el area de Azuero permitió identificar un conjunto de circunstancias de las fincas, y de los propios agricultores, que juegan un papel importante, en forma positiva (favorecen) o negativa (desfavorecen), en la adopción de la tecnología. Los hallazgos de este trabajo fueron sintetizados en un Estudio de Caso especialmente preparado para la discu-Palabras de bienvenida del Ing. Ornar Chavarría.Director General del IDIAP slon en el Taller. El Caso, que se encuentra en el Anexo 1, presenta un listado de factores que afectan la adopción de semilla, y propone para cada uno una posible causa (hipótesis) sobre el por qué de la relación. Esta propuesta se usa para fomentar la discusión por parte de los participantes en el seminario.La lógica que se quiere transmitir a los participantes es la de que las características, deseables o indeseables de la tecnologías, pueden ser modificadas a través de acciones relacionadas con la investigación, con la extensión o con las políticas y que uno de los objetivos del taller es identificar estas posibles acciones, con base en la experiencia de los participantes en la Región de Azuero.La metodología de trabajo utilizada en el taller fue la siguiente. Luego de la presentación del caso, se conformaron dos grupos de trabajo, uno para analizar los resultados del estudio en la Región 1, y otro para discutir los resultados más relevantes de las Regiones II y lll.La Licda. Adys Pereira presenta el caso de estudio 8El Grupo 1 enfatizó la importancia que asume el componente ganadero en el sistema de cultivo del maíz, y los efectos de compactación sobre el suelo que causa la introducción del ganado sustentada en los residuos de maíz; así como la influencia negativa que ejerce esta compactación sobre la adopción de la práctica de labranza de conservación en maíz. Al respecto, el grupo identificó las siguientes acciones a realizar: a) Diseñar, validar y promover el uso de implementos de labranza específicos que permitan una roturación sustentable del suelo.b) Realizar estudios que permitan una mayor comprensión del papel que juega el componente ganadero en el sistema de cultivo de maíz.e) Establecer nuevas líneas de investigación en aspectos vinculados con el componente ganadero y el cultivo de maíz. Por ejemplo, investigaciones en física de suelos, niveles de compactación; sistema de semiestabulamiento del ganado bovino; nutrición con abonos orgánicos y verdes, entre otros.En lo que respecta a los factores relacionados con los costos de implementación y de información, el grupo identificó las siguientes acciones: a) Enfatizar la importancia de adecuar los implementos para roturar el suelo; así como el diseño de maquinarias que permitan recoger el rastrojo de maíz, para suministrárselo al ganado en un sistema de producción de semiestabulamiento.b) Establecer un programa de extensión dinámico sobre la tecnología de labranza de conservación. principalmente en la región n.cl Desarrollar estudios sobre métodos de transferencia con mayor impacto sobre la adopción de este tipo de tecnologías.El sistema de arrendamiento de la tierra para cultivar maíz. difundido en el área. es un factor que limita la adopción de la labranza de conservación; ya que, el dueño de la tierra. generalmente ganadero. mantiene los animales en pastoreo hasta un período muy cercano a la siembra, lo que no concede el tiempo necesario para realizar las labores de preparación de la labranza de conservación. Al respecto el grupo identificó como acción: al Desarrollo de estudios que permitan comprender el régimen de tenencia de la tierra y los sistemas predominantes de arrendamien to con los ganaderos.Un factor adicional identificado como importante para impulsar la labranza de conservación y vinculado a la vez con los aspectos arriba señalados. se refiere a la necesidad de efectuar zonificación para el cultivo de maíz.De las acciones señaladas en la sección anterior se identificaron las siguientes instituciones con responsabilidades en la ejecución de dichas acciones. El diseño y adecuación de los implementos de roturación del suelo que permitan manejar adecuadamente los suelos compactados. es una actividad a desarrollar por parte de la Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá.Las acciones en materia de investi-gaCión (física de suelos. niveles de compactación; producción de ganado bovino en condiciones de semiestabulamiento; nutrición con abonos orgánicos y verdes. entre otros). es una responsabilidad del IDIAP y de la Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias de la Universidad de Panamá.Las acciones vinculadas con la validación de las tecnologías generadas; así como la transferencia de la tecnología de la labranza de conservación. son responsabilidad del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario de Panamá.Vista parcial de algunos de los participantesEl Grupo 2 señaló que uno de los factores que influye, considerablemente y de varias formas, en la adopción de la labranza de conservación es la interacción del componente ganadero con los otros elementos que integran el sistema de producción de maíz. Uno de estos aspectos se refiere al grado de compactación que provoca sobre los suelos que se utilizan en la siembra del maíz, lo que influye negativamente en la adopción de la labranza de conservación. Al respecto se identificaron las siguientes acciones: a) Investigar y promover tecnologías de producción de ganado semiestabulado.b) Realizar actividades de capacitación a ganaderos sobre la importancia de la labranza de conservación. c) Realizar estudios que profundicen el conocimiento del sistema maíz-ganadería. con énfasis el manejo del ganado en el sistema.Los sistemas de arrendamiento del terreno utilizados implican un uso del mismo en pastoreo del ganado, hasta poco tiempo antes de la siembra del maíz. lo que dificulta el uso de la labranza de conservación. Entre las acciones que pueden realizarse está la siguiente:• Establecer sistemas de arrendamiento que permitan extraer el ganado con antelación suficiente, de modo que se evite la compactación y 10 por otra parte. que permita efectuar la práctica de la labranza de conservación.En cuanto al factor vinculado con maquinaria, el grupo señaló que la disponibilidad de maquinaria de labranza de conservación en esta Región, no es un factor restrictivo para la adopción de la labranza de conservación; sin embargo, existen algunas limitaciones relacionadas con el uso de la maquinaria de cero labranza y otros factores que condicionan la siembra. Por ejemplo. el período de siembra del maíz en la Región es muy corto, y en algunas ocasiones influyen además factores ambientales desfavorables para la siembra. Esto implica la necesidad de siembras nocturnas que se realizan con mayor facilidad en terrenos preparados de manera convencional (que permiten gUiar al operador del tractor al momento de la siembra), en comparación con terrenos no preparados con maquinaria convencional. De darse una mayor flexibilidad en los períodos de siembra, la probabilidad de adopción de la labranza de conservación sería mayor. El grupo indicó como posible acción la siguiente:• Desarrollar investigaciones tendientes a desarrollar variedades precoces de maíz, que permitan un mejor manejo del período de siembra.El grupo identificó otros factores no evaluados en el estudio, y que influyen en la adopción de la labranza de conservación. como es la textura del suelo. Se señaló que los suelos arenosos favorecen la adopción de la labranza de conservación, en tanto que los suelos de tipo arcilloso están mayormente condicionados por las condiciones ambientales y la presión de pastoreo, constituyéndose Representantes de los agricultores participan en la presentación del caso en suelos menos favorables para la adopción de la labranza de conservación. Ligado a este aspecto se indicó como posible acción la siguiente:• Establecer una zonificación para el desarrollo de actividades agrícolas y pecuarias, que permita el desarrollo de dichas actividades, considerando la conservación del suelo.Las instituciones identificadas en la ejecución de las acciones que impulsen la adopción de la labranza de conservación son las siguientes:• Las actividades de investigación concernientes a la generación y validación de tecnologías relacionadas con variedades precoces, manejo del ganado en sistemas en semiestabulamiento, y los estudios sobre el sistema maíz-ganadería, es una responsabilidad del IDIAP y la Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias de la Universidad de Panamá.• La propuesta de zonificación de las actividades agropecuarias es una actividad que pueden desarrollar en conjunto el IDIAP, la Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y el Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables.Las actividades de capacitación y transferencia de las tecnologías generadas a los productores es una labor propia del MIDA.En otro orden de ideas se destacó el aspecto de la reconversión tecnológica del maíz, concretamente, la diversificación del uso de la producción (tales como: maíz blanco, maíz dulce, ensilaje, \"baby corn\",) y el mejoramiento genético en función del destino final del maíz. Se debería considerar el incremento del valor agregado del maíz mediante el impulso al desarrollo de la agroindustria (\"pop corn, encurtidos, y hojuelas de maíz).El Estudio de Caso: Labranza de Conservación en Azuero, PanamáUno de los principales problemas encontrados en esta región. a lIJ.ediados de la década de los 80. en los terrenos de maíz preparados con el uso de arado y rastra. era la fuerte erosión y lavado que exhibían. Reconociendo la gravedad de esta pérdida de suelo. el IDIAP comenzó a partir del año agrícola 1984-85 un agresivo programa de investigación y validación de la tecnología de cero labranza en el cultivo de maíz. con el fm de reducir la erosión. conservar la humedad del suelo y controlar los costos de producción y las limitaciones en el momento de la siembra.El IDIAP recomendó para ello la utilización de la cero labranza. que consistía en una chapia mecánica o manual del terreno. la aplicación posterior de un herbicida de contacto. una vez que la maleza iniciara su rebrote. para después proceder a la siembra con máquina sembradora de precisión adaptada a este sistema de preparación. o a chuzo si el tamaño de la parcela lo permitía. La acción del IDIAP se vio complementada por el MIDA, que difundió la tecnología en el área por medio de parcelas demostrativas y actividades de transferencia por medio de acciones de algunas casas comerciales quienes. en forma simultánea. introdujeron para la venta máquinas sembradoras de precisión. las cuales se adaptaban al sistema de labranza de conservación.En 1994 un porcentaje considerable de productores habían adoptado la labranza cero; mientras que otros habían realizado una adaptación a la recomendación adoptando la labranza mínima. Esta información motivó la necesidad de realizar un estudio por parte del IDIAP. con el apoyo del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRMJ. para cuantificar el grado de adopción de la cero y mínima labranza e ídentificar los factores que influyen en esta adopción. Este estudio fue objeto de discusión y análisis en el seminario-taller. el cual tuvo como resultado final la propuesta por parte del grupo participante de un conjunto de acciones para investigación. transferencia y políticas sectoriales.El estudio de adopción se realizó en ocho distritos y 50 localidades de las provincias de Los Santos y Herrera. divididas en tres grandes áreas o regiones. La región l. formada por los distritos de Las Tablas. Pedasí. Pocrí y Guararé en la Provincia de los Santos; la región n conformada por los distritos de Los Santos y Macaracas en la Provincia de Los Santos; y la región nI, formada por los distritos de Chitré y Parita en la Provincia de Herrera.El estudio se realizó entre productores que realizan un sistema de producción de maíz caracterizado por un nivel tecnológico alto. con elevado uso de insumos externos como fertilizantes y semilla certificada. Los agricultores que usan este sistema son agricultores comerciales que generalmente tienen acceso a maquinaria y fmanciamiento; además reciben asistencia técnica y destinan su producción totalmente al mercado. La producción comercial de maíz se realiza principalmente durante la segunda estación o coa, para luego de la cosecha mantener el ganado en pastoreo sobre el rastrojo de maíz. Más del 70% de los productores de maíz en las tres regiones dedican entre 60 y 90 hectáreas de terreno, tanto propias como alquiladas, a la ganadería.Las características típicas en la Región 1 de un agricultor de maíz se detalian en el Cuadro l. Posee una finca cuya parcela de maíz que tiene en promedio 47 ha, es propiedad del agricultor (52% de los casos), casi la mitad (48%) de la superficie total de la fmca a la ganadería, donde la parcela de maíz tiene una topografía plana (63%), con buena disponibilidad de maquinaria de labranza de conservación (77%), no posee maquinaria de labranza convencional (88%), yade-más posee información sobre la tecnología de la labranza de conservación (65%).En el caso de las regiones II y 111, el agricultor típico es aquel cuya parcela de maíz tiene en promedio 16 ha, es propiedad del agricultor (77%), tiene la mayor parte (64%) de la superficie total de la finca dedicada a la ganadería, su parcela presenta una topografía plana (75%), sin disponibilidad de maquinaria para la labraza de conservación (67%), sin maquinaria de labranza convencional (80%) y tiene información sobre la tecnología (61 %).de labranza de conservación.3. Difusión de la labranza de conservaciónEl estudio analizó en primer lugar las formas de preparación del suelo utilizadas por los productores de maíz. Se usaron las siguientes definiciones de labranza.Cuadro l. Agricultor Típico de Maíz de la Región de Azuero Región Superficie sembrada ele maíz (ha) Tiene maquinaria de labranza convencional (%) Con disponibilidad maq. labranza de conserv.(%) Propiedad sobre la tierra (%) Supo dedicada a ganadería (%) Topografía plana del terreno (%) Posee información sobre labranza de conservo (%) Labranza convencional (LJ. La preparación del terreno mediante el uso de arado de disco y uno o dos pases de rastra. El método que incluye tres pases de semirroma también se incluye como Le, ya que constituye un sistema muy similar a una labranza convencional en lo que a reducir las pérdidas de suelo y agua se refiere.Labranza mínima (L,,). La preparación del terreno mediante el uso de uno o dos pases de semirroma y la aplicación de un herbicida quemante.Labranza cero (LJ. Preparación del terreno mediante chapia mecánica o manual (si es necesario) y la aplicación de un herbicida quemante.Mientras que en la región 1, la mayoría de la agricultores utilizan algunas de las prácticas de conservación, ya sea L m (43%) o Lo (24%), en las regiones 11 y 111, la forma de preparación más difundida todavía sigue siendo la Lc. En ambas regiones la adopción de la Lm es todavía incipiente, mientras que el uso de la Lo no alcanza todavía al 10% de los agricultores.Los resultados de la dinámica del cambio, es decir cómo se ha dado la adopción de la labranza de conservación, indicaron que para toda la región de Azuero, un 60% de los agricultores manifestaron haber realizado cambios en la forma de preparar el terreno en los últimos 6 años.A nivel de las tres regiones el cambio más importante constituye el proceso hacia la progresiva eliminación del arado y la reducción en el número de pases de rastra. El Cuadro 3 señala que en general los productores han dejado el arado y rastra (tipos de cambio 1, 2, Y 3) por la labranza cero (23%), la labranza mínima (38%), o por tres o más pases de semirroma (22%). Una cantidad menor al 20% manifestó que habían usado en el pasado alguna forma de labranza de conservación pero que habían cambiado a la labranza convencional (tipos de cambio 4, 5 Y 6).A nivel de las regiones, la región I parece ser la más dinámica. Los niveles Cuadro 2. Formas de preparación del terreno en maíz, por Región, Azuero, Panamá, 1994  La mayoría de los cambios realizados por los productores en la preparación del suelo se realizaron entre 1991 y 1993. Es decir, se dio un rezago de 5 años entre el proceso de generación y transferencia de la tecnología, y su difusión masiva, lo cual es consistente con la dinámica del proceso de generación y transferencia de un programa de investigación en fincas.en la difusión de la labranza de conservación (cero o mínima)Los resultados confirman la importancia del trabajo del IDIAP y del MIDA en la generación y difusión de la tecnología. La mayoría de los agricultores en las regiones I (65%) y III (79%) Y casi la mitad (45%) en la región 11 manifestaron que conocían la labranza por alguna recomendación. Una característica importante del proceso de transferencia de la tecnología en todas las áreas consiste en que quienes inician el proceso de cambio hacia la cero o mínima labranza fueron en gran medida productores líderes en esa zona. Estos productores. generalmente grandes, son los que introducen las sembradoras cero labranza y quienes también alquilan maquinaria agrícola, ejerciendo una influencia sobre el resto de productores de maíz. Es por este motivo que muchos agricultores manifestaron haber conocido la labranza de conservación por recomendación de otros agricultores.3.4. La labranza de conservación, y su relación con el uso de insecticidas y con el cambio en rendimientosLos resultados del estudio rechazaron la hipótesis de que la labranza de conservación se asocia con mayor uso de insecticidas (por la mayor presencia de insectos del suelo. como la gallina ciega); ya que no se encontró una asociación significativa entre la aplicación de insecticidas en el suelo y la adopción de la cero y/o mínima labranza. Por otro lado. no se encontró diferencia en los rendimientos entre productores adoptadores y no adoptadores; por lo que se rechazó la hipótesis de que la labranza de conservación afecte los rendimientos a corto plazo.y mínima labranza en maíz Las dos razones principales expuestas por los agricultores para usar la labranza de conservación. ya sea la L m o la Lo. fueron la reducción de costos y la conservación de suelo. El costo promedio de preparación del terreno de aquellos agricultores que usaron L m fue 12% inferior al costo de aquellos que usaron la Le. Esta reducción fue del 41 % en el caso de los agricultores que usaron la Lo. lo que representa una disminución de casi el 10% en los costos totales de producción de maíz.Se puede concluir que los aspectos relacionados con la reducción de costos tienen mayor importancia que aquellos relacionados con la conservación de suelos. Esto se debe. en parte a que. en la región 1 casi la mitad (48%) de las parcelas donde se cultiva maíz son alquiladas durante el ciclo del cultivo. Otra de las razones indicadas. aunque en menor medida. de la cero y mínima labranza. correspondió a un control más efectivo de las malezas (principalmente Cyperus rotundus)Se resumen a continuación los factores que afectan la adopción de la cero y mínima labranza. identificando las posibles causas. La discusión de estos factores. sus posibles causas y las posibles implicaciones (o acciones que puedan realizarse) en lo atinente a investigación, transferencia y políticas sectoriales, fue el objetivo principal del taller.Los factores importantes en la decisión de adopción de la cero o mínima labranza se agrupan en tres categorías: las relacionadas con el nivel de recursos de la finca. aquellas relacionadas con el nivel de calidad del suelo y las relacionadas con los costos de implementación y transacción. En la región 1, generalmente los productores son de mayores niveles de recursos que los de las regiones 11 y lll; suelen ser los primeros en adoptar nuevas tecnologías que implican una inversión inicial; se encuentran más integrados al mercado; tienen mayor acceso al crédito; y están más dispuestos a asumir riesgos.En la región 11 y lll, las fincas pequeñas no están limitadas por la disponibilidad de maquinaria de labranza de conservación' en comparación con las fincas grandes en estas áreas.La tenencia de la tierra fue un factor que parece no influir en la decisión de adopción de la labranza de conservación en ninguna de las regiones consideradas.Una explicación a este hecho se refiere a que los aspectos relacionados con el ahorro de costos de corto plazo predominan sobre las consideraciones que tiene el productor acerca de la calidad del suelo y la importancia de la labranza de conservación en el horizonte de planificación (largo plazo).Otra situación que influye en esta reacción del productor es que un porcentaje considerable de los mismos alquilan los terrenos para el cultivo de maíz.4.2.1. Componente ganadero y nivel de compactación del suelo En la región 1, hay un mayor grado de adopción entre productores con un alto componente ganadero, lo cual se relaciona con la mayor disponibilidad de recursos.En la región II y lll, a medida que los productores tienen un componente ganadero más alto, menor es la adopción de labranza de conservación. A mayor presión de pastoreo menor adopción de labranza de conservación.A mayor presión de pastoreo mayor compactación del terreno y menor adopción de la labranza de conservación.La pendiente del terreno no parece ser un factor relevante en la decisión del productor de adoptar o no la labranza de conservación en ninguna de las regiones.No hay diferencias considerables en las pendientes de los terrenos en las diferentes regiones.los costos de implementación y de información 4.3.1. Disponibilidad de maquinaria de labranza convencional y de conservación En la región 1, la disponibilidad de maquinaria de Lo impulsa positivamen-te la adopción de la Lo Y L m , mientras que la tenencia de maquinaria de Le representa una restricción fuerte a la adopción de ambos tipos de tecnologías.En la región II y III la disponibilidad de maquinaria de labranza de conservación no es un factor indispensable en la decisión de adoptar la labranza de conservación.Dado que las parcelas de maíz son más grandes, la práctica de la L m y/o la Lo se realiZa con máquinas sembradoras, ya sea especiales o adaptadas, por lo que su disponibilidad se torna más importante que en las parcelas de maíz más pequeñas de las regiones 11 y I1I, donde la siembra manual es económicamente factible.La importancia de la tenencia de maquinaria convencional confirma la importancia de los aspectos de costos en la decisión de adopción en la región I.En la región 1, la disponibilidad de información sobre la labranza de conservación, no resultó positivamente relacionada con la adopción de esta técnica, en comparación con la región II y lll, donde la misma fue relevante.En la región 1 se concentró la acción de los agentes de extensión en el pasado, por lo que los niveles de información no resultaron una restricción para la adopción; no así en las regiones II y m, donde una buena campaña de información sobre la tecnología puede tener un papel importante en la decisión de adopción.","tokenCount":"4352"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"488e7eabafbd74b7d961b9db66635ff9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1441a5be-1711-4b04-8b34-659f81543c2f/retrieve","id":"2050595039"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"97d370a7-b13d-462d-a77e-b1ea426384c3","pagecount":"1","content":"The development challenge: Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important food crop in Eastern and Central Africa.Predominantly grown by women, it provides food and nutritional security, and income, to over 200 million people in sub-Saharan Africa. Significant challenges to production include aphid-transmitted disease caused by Bean Common Mosaic Virus (BCMV) and Bean Common Mosaic Necrosis Virus (BCMNV). While breeders are working to develop resistant varieties, sustainably tackling challenges unique to this pathosystem requires multiple resistance and management strategies.Potential impact: Novel strategies of controlling bean virus diseases will be disseminated through the partnership, including the Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) network across 29 African countries. Given the widespread distribution of these viruses, yield losses could be prevented for many millions of farmers across a wide geographic area. Further, the principles of manipulating insect vectors of plant viruses may be extrapolated to a broad range of important food and nutritional security crops.2) Genes differentially regulated in bean plants infected with BCMNV, BCMV and Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) identified.3) BCMNV was found to induce the greatest response in bean plants in terms of changes in gene expression compared to BCMV and CMV.4) Genes involved in secondary metabolic pathways showed the greatest differential expression. 3) Phytosanitary, regulatory, breeder and research actors using epidemiological models to curtail viral and aphid problems in a broader geographic context and wider set of crops.4) NARS systems and stakeholders better equipped to tackle challenging crop improvement issues, incorporating highend, appropriate biosciences.5) Phytosanitary strategies for trade of beans can be adapted based on pathogen characterization, in order to safeguard regions from introduction of new, virulent strains; this includes safeguarding African smallholder farmers .Potential to scale-up 1. Identification of the genetic basis of host resistance against viruses may be applied in the development of resistant cultivars to help reduce economic losses estimated to be at least US$ 400 million annually due to these viruses. 2. Information on molecular markers useful for selecting resistant cultivars or resistance genes will be disseminated through the BecA NARS network including the PABRA network across 29 African countries. 3. The principles of manipulating insect vectors of plant viruses may be extrapolated to a broad range of important food and nutritional security crops. The novel strategies of controlling bean virus diseases will be disseminated through the partnership, including the PABRA network across 29 African countries. Further, the principles of manipulating insect vectors of plant viruses may be extrapolated to a broad range of important food and nutritional security crops. Given the widespread distribution of these viruses, yield losses could be prevented for many millions of farmers across a wide geographic area.  2) Genes differentially regulated in bean plants infected with Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) identified.3) BCMNV was found to induce the greatest response in bean plants in terms of changes in gene expression compared to BCMV and CMV.4) Genes involved in secondary metabolic pathways showed the greatest differential expression. 3) Phytosanitary, regulatory, breeder and research actors using epidemiological models to curtail viral and aphid problems in a broader geographic context and wider set of crops.4) NARS systems and stakeholders better equipped to tackle challenging crop improvement issues, incorporating highend, appropriate biosciences.5) Phytosanitary strategies for trade of beans can be adapted based on pathogen characterization, in order to safeguard regions from introduction of new, virulent strains; this includes safeguarding African smallholder farmers .Potential to scale-up 1. Identification of the genetic basis of host resistance against viruses may be applied in the development of resistant cultivars to help reduce economic losses estimated to be at least US$ 400 million annually due to these viruses. 2. Information on molecular markers useful for selecting resistant cultivars or resistance genes will be disseminated through the BecA NARS network including the PABRA network across 29 African countries 3. The principles of manipulating insect vectors of plant viruses may be extrapolated to a broad range of important food and nutritional security crops ","tokenCount":"661"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c617406593d9b0dcb2fc0064284abd67","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e015917-6816-4daf-aacc-b7300b7428ce/retrieve","id":"-305963512"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7e960094-431a-410f-bef4-21b4c56b04e3","pagecount":"32","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.The problemLivestock are an integral component of the smallholder mixed systems that dominate sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Availability of sufficient high-quality feed is a major constraint to productivity; livestock are often fed opportunistically and on poor-quality feed resources.A decline in grazing resources in response to the expansion of cultivated land and poor control over grazing rights means ever-increasing proportions of variable-quality cereal and legume crop residues in ruminant livestock diets. Cultivation of green forages specifically for feeding livestock is an important potential means of addressing the feed gap. The prominence of planted forages in smallholder farming systems varies hugely, and the extent of their cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa and to some extent Asia is lower than would be expected given their potential to alleviate the chronic feed gap. This chapter explores the potential and actual impact of planted forages and reviews success cases emerging from CGIAR research.Planted forages offer a range of benefits, which is at odds with their apparent underuse in many smallholder farming systems. Well-managed cultivated forages provide substantial yields of nutrient-rich biomass. Grasses provide large amounts of moderate-quality feed. Legumes generally yield less, but the vegetative material is of exceptionally high quality and provides an excellent high-quality feed to complement the basal resource of cereal crop residues that often dominate livestock diets across the tropics. Planted forages have several potential impacts. Use of forages can deliver social benefits including reducing the labour burden associated with feed sourcing, especially on women. Forages can also deliver economic benefits through improved livestock productivity, which often exceeds the opportunity costs of utilizing land for staple crops. Finally, forages can play a strong role in delivering environmental impact through soil stabilization, carbon sequestration and maintenance of habitats which support biodiversity.Information on the use of planted forages in the tropics is scanty, although there have been recent attempts to synthesize available information. These reviews point to large areas of improved planted forages in Latin America with a few documented successes in high-potential sites in China, India, South-east Asia and East Africa.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its predecessor, the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), have made major investments in livestock feed research. ILCA scientists  working on feed research of all typesrange ecology, forage diversity, planted forages, multidimensional crops and the nutritional quality of feeds -were about 18.8% of the 1974-1994 number of ILCA staff. These figures imply real spending on various aspects of livestock feeding of some US$70 million (in 2015 US$) in the 20 years of ILCA's existence. ILRI (1995ILRI ( -2017) ) spending was some US$105 million, for a 1975-2018 commitment of US$175 million, or roughly 10% of the total. Planted forages accounted for the majority of ILRI spending in the area of livestock feeding. We have not been able to estimate research spending on forages at the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dryland Areas (ICARDA) or at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT, or International Center for Tropical Agriculture now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT).Research by the various CGIAR centres with interests in planted forages has yielded a range of success cases where research has led to widespread uptake of specific interventions involving planted forages. For example, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has been working on the use of multi-purpose trees as livestock fodder in East Africa for the past three decades. This research effort led to the development of feeding practices especially in support of dairy production. In partnership with a range of development partners, multi-purpose trees were adopted by up to 230,000 farmers according to some estimates. Similar experiences apply to other forage-based technologies including the push-pull system, intensive small-scale grass production for beef fattening in South-east Asia and recent uptake of planted forages -often based on selections by CIAT and ILRI -in South-east Asia and eastern Africa. In Latin America and the Caribbean, planted forages, by spontaneous adoption and selection by the private sector, national agricultural research systems and CIAT have transformed livestock production over the last 60 years and are the main source of animal feed albeit mostly on large farms. More recently, increased attention has been given to bred grass cultivars, with early uptake estimated by extrapolating from seed sales of more than 900,000 ha of CIAT bred hybrids.Despite these successes, the uptake of planted forages has been much less in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia than, for example, in Latin America. There are different analyses on the basis for this lack of uptake ranging from those who point to lack of awareness of the potential merits of planted forages among farmers through to those who attribute lack of uptake to inherent system characteristics that make them uncompetitive with alternative use of land and labour.Several scientific impacts are clear from CGIAR research on planted forages over the past four decades. First, CGIAR centres and national and international partners have been successful in developing intervention strategies involving planted forages. Examples include the use of multi-purpose trees in East Africa in support of dairy production, the push-pull system with its multiple production benefits including improved livestock production, and the development of intensive grass production on small plots in South-east Asia in support of beef fattening.Second, the development of improved planted forage cultivars, especially in Latin America, involving the private sector, the national research system and CIAT has clearly led to extensive uptake by relatively large-scale farmers with clear livestock production dividends.A third area of scientific impact has been the developing of understanding and methods for prioritization of planted forage options for particular localities. Examples of research outputs that codify the extensive knowledge within the global forage/feed network including CGIAR scientists have been the widely used Tropical Forages tool (www.tropicalforages.info/; accessed 27 February 2020) and recently the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST). Linked to this, CGIAR research has been important in understanding the systemic constraints on planted forage use in smallholder systems across the tropics.There has been considerable development impact from planted forage cultivars notably Brachiaria spp. in Latin America, especially in Brazil. In Brazil the strong private sector and national research system (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation or EMBRAPA) have been instrumental along with CIAT. In other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, the contributions of CIAT have been more central. Other examples noted in this chapter include Stylosanthes spp. in China and Thailand and fodder hedgerows in East Africa.Several other development impacts can be identified from CGIAR research on planted forages. The forage gene banks of ILRI, ICARDA and CIAT have been the principal sources of germplasm for development as described in Chapter 12 (this volume). The same centres have acted as a knowledge repository on planted forages for example through collation of the Tropical Forages tool.Studies of the economic impact of planted forages related directly to ILRI's work are rare. An impact assessment in the 1990s in 15 West African countries showed some 27,000 adopters of the fodder bank technology on 19,000 ha. The calculated economic internal rate of return to the fodder bank technology was 38%.Capacity development impacts of CGIAR research have been mainly through the development of knowledge products on forages, notably the Tropical Forages tool, which is the main global knowledge repository on tropical forages and is widely used. Future work on planted forages by CGIAR centres must involve renewed effort in breeding to produce lines that are resilient to stress, particularly in the face of climate change and land pressure and responding to emerging and specific market demands. The promising work on prioritization of feed options including planted forages must be extended to allow better targeting of forage options to reduce effort to promote options that haveThe purpose of this chapter is to answer the question of what the scientific and economic value of research and development work by CGIAR centres and partners has been in planted forages for smallholders in tropical and subtropical livestock systems in Africa, Asia and the Americas. By planted forages, we mean the whole range of plants used for feeding livestock and specifically cultivated for livestock nutrition. This includes forage grasses, herbaceous forage legumes and forage shrubs/ trees, the latter often legumes; in addition, some non-legumes and non-grasses such as Tithonia diversifolia, Morus alba and Trichanthera gigantea are planted and used for animal feeding. Forage-based livestock production is significant in temperate systems. In some cases, planted forages are the main source of nutrition (e.g. Williams et al., 2007, for New Zealand). In the tropics and subtropics, cultivation of forage dominates livestock production in Latin America and the Caribbean (Jank et al., 2014) but is much less prominent in Asia and Africa. In the latter regions, livestock are fed on crop residues and natural forage either grazed in situ or cut and carried to confined animals (Renard, 1997). In a recent study of 12 global locations in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, forage crops contributed no more than 10% of cattle diets, with crop residues accounting for a much larger share (Valbuena et al., 2015). Research in India has found that crop residues were the single most important feed resource, supplying around 70% of intake, with planted forages contributing 15% (Blummel et al., 2014). There are pockets of intensive forage use; for example, Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum 1 ) in East Africa is a base feed of choice in dairy systems (Staal et al., 2002). Moreover, recent work and case studies have identified the potential benefits of planted forages in eastern Africa (González et al., 2016;N. Teufel et al., unpublished data) and tropical Asia (Stür et al., 2013) with an increasingalthough as yet limited -uptake of tropical forages beyond Latin America and the Caribbean, as shown later in this chapter.The work of CGIAR on forages commenced in the early 1970s with research in CIAT as part of the Beef Production Systems Program. This programme later shifted its focus entirely to tropical forages and became the Tropical Forages Program in 1979 (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017b). In ILCA (and later ILRI), planted forages research began in the late 1970s with evaluations of grass, forage legume and forage tree species in Nigeria and later in Ethiopia. The work of ICARDA started at a similar time, focusing on testing and disseminating cereal/legume rotations with farmers in several countries in the West Asia and North Africa region, including Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia.The empirical basis of the impact of planted forages on tropical and subtropical livestock production in Africa and Asia is not as strong as it should be. Some argue that there has been little to show for this effort in CGIAR institutions (Squires et al., 1992;Thomas and Sumberg, 1995) beyond Latin America and the Caribbean, where there are documented large-scale impacts (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017b).In this chapter, we first consider the technical merits of planted forages. We then review what is known about the extent of cultivation of planted forages in selected locations before summarizing various successes in different tropical regions. Last, we reflect on lessons from these experiences and present ideas for future research.Livestock are ubiquitous in the mixed croplivestock systems of the tropics. They are often poorly fed, subsisting on poor-quality crop residues, scavenged grasses and leaves, and a limited ration of agro-industrial by-products. Planted forages have long been promoted as a way of improving feed supply. However, the place of planted forages in smallholder livestock production outside of perhaps East Africa, especially Kenya, is often limited 2 . Planted forages are widely used in Latin America, although the definition of smallholder there does not compare with the much smaller scale in sub-Saharan Africa. Some have argued that they are not used because of systemic and economic constraints (McIntire and Debrah, 1986), although analysis often focuses on forage legumes (Thomas and Sumberg, 1995;Sumberg, 2002). There are, however, recent success reports such as from Asia (Stür et al., 2013) with more than 10,000 farmers adopting intensive grass production, eastern Africa (Maass et al., 2015) with stated adoption of Brachiaria hybrids by at least 20,000 farmers, eastern Africa (Franzel and Wambugu, 2007) on the uptake of fodder shrubs (mostly Calliandra calothyrsus) by more than 200,000 farmers, the adoption of the pushpull system of the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) by more than 30,000 farmers (Khan et al., 2011), the recent work on Brachiaria coordinated by ILRI and CIAT in East Africa with scaling of up to 25,000 households adopting Brachiaria germplasm selections (S. Ghimire, personal communication) and the adoption of P. purpureum in eastern and Central Africa (Negawo et al., 2017;Staal et al., 2002).The work of Peters et al. (2001) is a forceful argument for planted forages as instruments for higher productivity and better natural resource management. They reviewed '…the role of forage crops in improving the productivity of smallholder farming systems and breaking the cycle of poverty and resource degradation [by presenting] the contributions of forage crops to increasing farm incomes, intensifying farm production, and contributing to better human nutrition.'Planted forages offer strong technical benefits in mixed crop-livestock systems. For example, Peters et al. (2001) gave the agronomic arguments for planted forages in the tropics: (i) they provide higher crop yields per unit of land compared with alternatives, such as crop residues, natural pastures and browse; (ii) they provide higher forage quality in terms of nutrients per unit of dry matter (DM); (iii) there is improvement of soil quality by fixing nitrogen and retaining water; and (iv) they may fill seasonal feed shortages, in terms of providing feed when alternatives are scarcest (e.g. natural pastures in the dry season). Similar arguments were advanced by Shelton et al. (2005). Rao et al. (2015) outlined the importance of planted forages for ecosystem services. White et al. (2013) give the technical benefits of forages in three domains. First, planted forages can improve labour productivity given that they can reduce work to collect natural vegetation. Second, forages can allow savings in input use, such as water and fertilizer. Cultivation of forages can lead to improved productivity in terms of biomass yield, energy or protein per unit area. Finally, forages can also have environmental benefits. Such benefits include improved soil cover, reduced erosion and less weed infestation.Table 13.1 lists the top 15 forage species requested from the ILRI forage gene bank since the early 1980s. Of the top ten grasses, P. purpureum (commonly known as Napier or elephant grass) has been reported to produce a DM yield of between 12 and 90 t/ha/year and crude protein concentrations of between 5 and 16% (Negawo et al., 2017, and references therein). The data overall show the very high yield potential of planted forages, particularly forage grasses, when compared with natural pasture DM yields in, for example, Ethiopia, which range from 1 t/ha/year in the lowlands to 4-6 t/ha/year on seasonally waterlogged fertile areas (Alemayehu, 1998).The data also illustrate the high nutritive value of forages, especially forage legumes, many of which have crude protein concentrations of around 20%.Comparing these with the other major sources of nutrition for livestock in developing-world smallholder systems, crop residues, under normal agronomic practices, cereal straw yields in sub-Saharan Africa would be in the order of 1.5-7.0 t/ha with crude protein concentrations of 5-10% and metabolizable energy concentrations of 6-8 MJ/kg DM (Zaidi et al., 2013). Forage legumes, through their ability to form a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia hosted in their root nodules, also offer improvements in soil quality and reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and nitrogen fertilizer application. After harvesting the aerial portion of the plants, the remains are degraded to produce organic matter and the nitrogen component is mineralized to form ammonia, which is released into the soil and can be utilized by other plants in close proximity or planted subsequently. In addition, unlike in the above-ground portion of the plant where nitrogen concentrations do not vary significantly, nitrogen concentrations in below-ground legume tissues have been shown to vary considerably (Carranca et al., 2015).Results by Muhr et al. (1999) showed the positive effects of nitrogen contribution in the order of 80 kg/ha to the succeeding crop, even when removing the above-ground biomass, of Stylosanthes guianensis. Depending on the way in which livestock are managed, some nitrogen from legumes may be deposited on arable land as excreta returns but usually only a fraction (Rufino et al., 2007). Finally, there is the case that some forages provide feed at times of general feed scarcity. For example, some fodder trees provide green feed during the dry season when other feeds are scarce (Franzel et al., 2014). Seasonal livestock exclosures, where livestock are excluded for a time to allow biomass accumulation, can also provide dry-season feed by reserving biomass for periods of scarcity (Tarawali and Pamo, 1992;Mekuria and Veldkamp, 2012) although practical uptake of such practices has generally been limited (Tarawali et al., 1999).As well as biological nitrogen fixation by forage legumes, some tropical grass roots have recently been shown to exude chemical inhibitors of biological nitrification, which suppress soil-nitrifying bacteria, reducing the rate of leakage of nitrogen from the system, by blocking the conversion of ammonium to nitrate. Inhibitors have been identified in root exudates from a number of legume and grass species including sorghum and rice, but by far the most intense activity was detected in Brachiaria humidicola (Subbarao et al., 2007). Subsequently, the cyclic diterpene 'brachialactone' was demonstrated to contribute between 60% and 90% of the biological nitrification inhibition activity in Brachiaria root exudate (Subbarao et al., 2009). A further benefit of these soil-nitrifying bacteria is reductions in emissions of the GHG nitrous oxide.The paradox is that despite the positive nitrogen-fixing properties of legumes, which offer benefits to plant production and soil health when grown in nitrogen-constrained environments, in general the uptake of forage legumes in smallholder systems has been limited (Sumberg, 2002;Shelton et al., 2005).Global estimates of the area planted to forages are not readily available. There are, however, countries where forage data are readily available. Data from the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) indicate the area planted to 'improved' forages in India is around 8 million ha with the dominant species being Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) and forage sorghum (ICAR, 2011). In Brazil, another hotspot of planted forage production, EMBRAPA estimates that the total area planted to forages is 115 million ha with Brachiaria spp. accounting for 80% of the area and Panicum maximum accounting for 10% (Sluszz, 2012). Planted forages have been promoted for many years in eastern Africa (Abate et al., 1985). A survey of areas with commercial dairy production was carried out in Ethiopia and Kenya in 2015 to determine the levels of forage adoption, production practices and importance as a feed source (N. Teufel et al., unpublished data), in which 180 communities were selected across the major regions in each country. In Ethiopia, 20 woredas were purposively selected from Tigray (three), Amhara (six), Oromiya (seven) and Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples (four) for intensity of dairy production. Within these woredas, nine kebeles 3 were randomly selected. In Kenya, 12 counties were selected from Nyanza (three), western (two), Upper Rift (three), central (three) and coast (one) regions, based on the density of dairy animals and information about forages. Random selection identified 15 sublocations, the lowest formal administrative level, within each selected county and one village within each selected sublocation for the survey. During the survey, focus groups responded to quantitative and qualitative questions on farming characteristics and forage production practices regarding the whole village, such as the total number of farming households and cultivated area, the number of households growing a specific forage and the area of this forage planted. Most forages were differentiated by species only. Because of its importance, Napier grass (P. purpureum) was differentiated into four variety types at data collection: 'Kakamega I', 'Kakamega II', 'other improved varieties' and 'local varieties'. The share of households growing forages among farming households and the forage share of cultivated land, where forage extent was expressed in area units, were calculated for comparison.Results of this study indicate that in Ethiopia, forage grasses are grown by 10-35% of households, while in Kenya 10-85% of households grow grasses. Forage legumes are grown by fewer households overall; in Ethiopia, their occurrence (up to 12% of households) is higher than in Kenya (up to 2% of households). Forage trees occur reasonably widely with up to 40% of households growing trees in Ethiopia and up to 20% in Kenya. The areas devoted to planted forages are small. However, forage trees are often planted singly or in rows, for which area measures were not recorded.Sesbania was the most common planted forage in Ethiopia, with 34% of households growing it and 0.5% of cultivated area allocated to it. Local varieties of Napier grass also figure highly. In Kenya, local Napier varieties were the most common forage and were grown by over 90% of households in the surveyed areas, although they accounted for only around 5% of total cultivated area. Improved varieties of Napier grass ranked second in frequency of occurrence. Measuring adoption by area favours crops that are grown on larger farms, such as fodder oats in Ethiopia or Rhodes grass and the Kakamega Napier grass varieties in Kenya. In summary, the area shares of fodder crops are generally low in both countries, with Napier grass in Kenya being the most widespread, grown on around 6% of cultivated land (combining all varieties). Because many of these crops are harvested multiple times per year, their biomass shares are higher than their area shares.In this and the following sections we review current knowledge on adoption of planted forages related to CGIAR research efforts. We do this by focusing on a series of significant bodies of work in different regions that have led to at least moderate success.The fodder bank concept was developed by ILCA (now ILRI) and partners in the late 1970s in Nigeria to help crop-livestock farmers in the dry to subhumid zone to: (i) overcome dry-season feed constraints; and (ii) improve soil fertility. It consisted of establishing small (typically 4 ha) fenced paddocks with a prolifically seeding, selfregenerating forage legume (mainly Stylosanthes hamata) for strategic supplementation of livestock grazing natural pastures (Mohamed-Saleem and Suleiman, 1986). Such supplementation led to significant increases in livestock productivity under experimental conditions. After 2-3 years, the legume fodder bank was replaced by an unfertilized sorghum or maize crop that provided yields equivalent to fertilization with up to 45 kg nitrogen/ha (Tarawali, 1991). After the crop phase, the area was reconverted to a fodder bank via hard-seeded soil seed reserves. Research and promotional activities related to this technology came to an end in the early 1990s.An impact assessment, conducted by Elbasha et al. (1999) in 15 West African countries showed that, until 1995, there were about 27,000 adopters of the fodder bank technology covering about 19,000 ha. Given the estimated US$7 million research expenditure to develop this technology, an internal rate of return of 38% was calculated. Elbasha et al. (1999) stressed the finding that a considerable time lag (at least 15 years) was necessary for diffusion of the technology. The second part of their statement, '... the impact of adopted fodder banks has paid for the research that went into their development at least three times over, and this will increase substantially in the next few years, given current adoption trends' remains to be confirmed.ICRAF and partners have been active in developing multi-purpose trees and shrubs as fodder in East Africa over the past three decades 4 . Multipurpose trees have been defined as 'all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a landuse system. They are so classified according to the attributes of the plant species as well as to the plant's functional role in the agroforestry technology under consideration' (Huxley, 1984). Functions include livestock feed, construction, fuel, improved soil fertility, erosion control and shelter, among others.Initial research in the early 1990s estimated the potential of C. calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban and Leucaena leucocephala to provide feed for smallholder dairy cows in the central highlands of Kenya (Franzel and Wambugu, 2007). C. calothyrsus proved most suitable, and much of the research effort has focused on understanding how it fits into small farms. Multi-purpose trees and forage trees in general have the advantage that they require minimal inputs and can be planted along field margins and on soil bunds. They have the disadvantage of slow growth (first harvests in much of East Africa are 12 months after transplanting) and the need for stable land tenure to justify investment in a multi-season crop.ICRAF published a comprehensive review of the impact of multi-purpose trees (Place et al., 2009). This review gave data on the production impact of intake of tree forage by livestock as well as a synthesis of the various adoption studies. The best estimate was that milk yield increased by 0.6-0.8 kg/kg intake of Calliandra leaf. Scaling this production impact up using estimates of adopters in East Africa, the authors estimated the economic impact of forage tree adoption in Kenya in 15 years to be in the order of US$20-30 million. The report also assembled adoption data from various sources to arrive at a total of 206,000 farmers having adopted multipurpose trees in East Africa by 2005. By the authors' own admission, the farmer numbers are 'rough guesses', often partly based on data from reports of non-governmental organizations promoting multi-purpose trees with associated uncertainties. Nevertheless, it is clear that the number of farmers growing multi-purpose trees in East Africa is notable.The 'project focus' of the reported adoption of multi-purpose trees was highlighted in a recent paper by Brockington et al. (2016) in which a previous agroforestry intervention was revisited 5 years after the project end. While the primary focus was on fruit trees, multi-purpose trees also formed part of the study, and the issues around 'adoption' are generic. Assessment of fodder tree adoption must be done over several years, whereas conventional project cycles are usually too short to allow this. The result is that most assessments track the very early stages of adoption focusing on counting numbers of farmers receiving extension support and materials while neglecting evaluation of longer-term diffusion of tree technologies. Abandonment of fodder tree interventions following the end of projects is relatively common (Francis and Atta-Krah, 1989;Mekoya et al., 2008). Not all farmers who test fodder trees go on to adopt them (Kiptot et al., 2007). However, there are also cases of spontaneous diffusion of fodder tree technologies without researcher involvement (Kiptot et al., 2006;Wambugu et al., 2011) so the story is not clear. What is needed for this and other planted forage initiatives are some independent evaluations involving medium-term revisits to project sites to assess the extent of sustained use of fodder trees beyond the project life. Further studies like that of Brockington et al. (2016) would be welcome.Successful use of multi-purpose trees for fodder is 'knowledge intensive', and much of ICRAF's recent work has been around suitable dissemination pathways to enhance adoption (Kiptot et al., 2006;Lukuyu et al., 2012). At the current stage of smallholder system development, it may therefore be some while before we see spontaneous uptake of multi-purpose trees without project intervention.Napier grass (P. purpureum, sometimes called elephant grass) is a perennial species originating in sub-Saharan Africa that is known for its high biomass production and rapid regeneration capabilities, good palatability and nutritional qualities. These features have made it highly popular, mainly as a 'cut-and-carry' feed in livestock production systems across the tropics and subtropics. The popularity of Napier grass is not attributable to CGIAR research as it was introduced from southern Africa in the colonial, pre-CGIAR era. However, because of its importance, especially in East Africa, it has featured strongly in CGIAR research as outlined below. Napier grass is highly adaptable to a broad range of production systems and environments. Although it is known to grow best in regions where annual rainfall exceeds 750 mm and in locations below 2100 m above sea level, it has been reported to grow at up to 3000 m above sea level in tropical regions and to contain similar concentrations of crude protein to lucerne, and has been used to replace lucerne hay in livestock production systems (Criscioni et al., 2016). It can be chopped and fed directly and can also be grazed or conserved and made into hay, silage or pellets (Figueira et al., 2015;Mapato and Wanapat, 2018). There are approximately 25 Napier grass varieties or cultivars, and an additional 16 sterile hybrids formed with pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) currently being grown around the world (Cunha et al., 2011). In addition, the species is open pollinated and therefore highly heterozygous with significant variability for both nutritional and agronomic traits, which indicates that there are significant opportunities for the development of new and improved varieties (Negawo et al., 2017). The current varieties come in two main forms: there are the standard 'tall' varieties, which are renowned for their biomass production and are most popular in the cut-and-carry systems and there are the dwarf or 'short' varieties, which do not produce as much biomass but have shorter internodes (i.e. increased leaf:stem ratio) and are considered to be of higher quality and to have greater resilience to abiotic stresses (Sollenberger et al., 1987).Napier grass is most prevalent in the cut-andcarry systems that dominate livestock production systems, particularly dairy, in East and Central Africa. It is considered the most popular perennial fodder for the smallholder crop-livestock farming systems in Kenya (Nyambati et al., 2010), and has been reported to represent approximately 80% of planted forages in this country (Staal et al., 1997). Recent estimates by authors of this chapter based on the survey reported in Tables 13.2 and 13.3 indicated that Napier grass is an important feed resource for at least 1.3 million households in Kenya and Ethiopia. The variety Bana is currently the most commonly grown in Kenya, although, as indicated elsewhere in this chapter, other selected varieties are growing in importance. This is mainly because, while considered resilient in the face of many pests and diseases, the impact of some specific diseases (namely head smut and stunt) have had a negative impact on the further growth and distribution of this species. However, new material such as the smut-resistant Kakamega I and Kakamega II, which are accessions from the ILRI gene bank, are alternatives where smut is a threat (Mwendia et al., 2008). More recently, other gene bank accessions have been identified as a source of tolerance, or resistance, to stunt disease (Wamalwa et al., 2017). The potential of Napier grass with respect to yield, disease resistance and ease of harvest has been assessed in Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2017) and Tanzania (Sikumba et al., 2015).Napier grass has also had a significant impact in production systems outside Africa and has been readily adopted in South and Southeast Asia. For example, Pakchong 1 (or 'Super Napier'), a tall hybrid cultivar recently developed in Thailand and distributed in other countries including the Philippines, Malaysia and India, is being widely promoted for cultivation in smallholder systems (Halim et al., 2013;Wangchuk et al., 2015). In India, the standard Bajra-Napier hybrid (also known as king grass) variety has been identified as an option for sustained fodder yields, particularly for cattle and buffalo production systems (Kadam et al., 2017). Napier grass is also a popular cut-and-carry forage in the trop- ical southern states of China where king grass is also an option. Here, new varieties that have been developed include Guimu and Guimin Yin, which are mainly considered for use as feed for cattle and other livestock (Shilin et al., 2007). In the grazed systems of Japan, the dwarf varieties, commonly grown in combination with Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), are growing in popularity (Ishii et al., 2005;Fukagawa and Ishii, 2018).In South America, one of the few active breeding programmes for Napier grass exists at EMBRAPA in Brazil (Gomide et al., 2015). There is a history of exchange of material between the ILRI gene bank and EMBRAPA, which enhanced the diversity in each of the collections in support of the development of new cultivars (Negawo et al., 2018). Some of the most recent cultivars from EMBRAPA produced include Pioneiro, a standard variety for cut-and-carry systems (Figueira et al., 2016), and BRS Kurumi, a dwarf variety mainly targeted for grazing but also considered suitable for cut-and-carry systems (Gomide et al., 2015;Pereira et al., 2017).The so-called push-pull system developed by ICIPE and the Rothamsted Research Institute is a biological intervention to control maize stem borer (Khan et al., 2006(Khan et al., , 2008a(Khan et al., , 2014;;ICIPE, 2015). The basis of the technology is that stem borer moths are repelled by phytochemicals in the legume Desmodium spp. (D. intortum, D. uncinatum) but are attracted by the green biomass provided by Napier grass. Planting patterns for Desmodium, Napier grass and maize that take account of these effects can lead to reduced stem borer infestation. The planting pattern usually involves maize intercropped with Desmodium as a repelling plant (push) with the intercropped area surrounded by Napier as an attractant for pests (pull). A further benefit is reduced infestation by Striga spp. (S. hermonthica and S. asiatica), an obligate parasitic weed that can greatly reduce host crop yields. The technology has potential environmental and economic benefits in that it does not require expensive and damaging pesticides. The technology also provides feed in the form of Napier grass and Desmodium fodder, as well as reducing pests.Assessments by the originating institutions suggest that tens of thousands of farmers have adopted the practice in East Africa. For example, a 2011 study put the number of adopters at 30,000 in East Africa, with the technology covering 15,000 ha (Khan et al., 2011). More recent promotional materials estimate the number of adopters to be closer to 100,000 (ICIPE, 2015). In common with fodder trees, push-pull is a knowledge-intensive technology that has been heavily promoted by the originating institutions. Definitions of 'adoption' in the literature around push-pull tend to be vague and often relate to the numbers of farmers 'reached' with the technology rather than those accepting and adopting the practice over the long term. Adoption estimates are usually presented without a clear definition of adoption and without supporting evidence against which to judge their reliability. As with fodder trees, there is a need for independent evaluations to assess the true extent of adoption of the pushpull technology.The assumed strength of push-pull is its multiple benefits, which include reduced pest damage, fewer weeds, more feed and improved soil fertility using legumes (Desmodium spp.). However, in the context of assessing forage successes, push-pull is not necessarily the strongest example because the potential benefits accrue from both improved cereal yields and improved forage production. In some economic assessments of the benefits of push-pull, the extra milk from improved livestock feeding does not feature in cost-benefit calculations (Khan et al., 2008b). Other studies have factored in economic benefits from forages based on prevailing market prices for forages and found them to be important in the overall profitability of the technology (de Groote et al., 2010).CIAT has stimulated adoption of intensive grass production linked to beef cattle fattening and cow-calf breeding systems in South-east Asia (Stür et al., 2007). The technology involves cut-and-carry grass plots with the species being mainly Panicum maximum, B. humidicola and Brachiaria hybrids. The areas planted to grasses are small, averaging around 0.25 ha, but plots as small as 0.1 ha are viable because production is intensive and grass yields can be very high. The success of the planted forages initiative depended on the participatory nature of the intervention coupled with improved planting materials (Ayele et al., 2012).The planted forage initiative in South-east Asia evolved over two decades through multiple projects with estimated numbers of farmers adopting it in excess of 10,000 in Vietnam alone among those directly involved in project areas (Stür et al., 2013). Although assessments of the extent of adoption are conducted by the originating institutions and are thus not independent, the counts are based on surveys of random samples of households in the study districts and thus have some credibility. The technology has now been taken up by local government structures (Millar and Connell, 2010), and the reach is likely to be much larger although, again, independent assessments are needed.Other examples are the adoption of the legume Stylosanthes guianensis, based on accession CIAT 184, as a cover crop and for leaf meal production in tropical China, reaching about 300,000 farmers to feed poultry and pigs (Guodao and Chakraborty, 2005) and the use of various Stylosanthes spp. in India by 250,000 farmers (Shelton et al., 2005).In terms of area, adoption of tropical forages in Latin America and the Caribbean is widespread and the role of the CGIAR centres has been important (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017a) although the beneficiaries have generally been larger farmers.In 2002, a Brachiaria decumbens × brizantha × ruziziensis cultivar coming out of CIAT's breeding programme (Miles, 2001(Miles, , 2007) ) was released (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017b) as the first bred Brachiaria cultivar to be documented. Brachiaria hybrids have since been commercialized through interaction with the private sector, namely the Papalotla Group and Dow AgroSciences. Uptake based on documented commercial seed sales to the end of 2018 was estimated to be some 960,000 ha mostly sown in the past decade. According to CGIAR reports, more than 100,000 ha are planted on an annual basis, with numbers still below the potential as seed production and commercialization channels are still evolving (CGIAR, 2018). Most adopters appear to be small and medium-sized livestock producers (Papalotla, personal communication), although not equivalent to 'smallholders' as used in the African context. Recently, Papalotla registered advanced cultivars in Kenya and is commercializing these through licensing agreements (Government of Kenya, 2016). The original cultivar Mulato had limited commercial success due to low seed production and was quickly replaced by Mulato 2 when higher seed production was included as an additional breeding objective. In subsequent years, a series of Brachiaria decumbens × brizantha × ruziziensis hybrid cultivars and a synthetic mixture were released, namely Cayman (tolerant to water logging), Cobra (more erect growth habit), Camello (better drought tolerance), Mestizo (synthetic mixture of three hybrids for better establishment and pasture utilization) (Papalotla: www.grupopapalotla.com/productos.html and Tropical Seeds: www.tropseeds.com/varieties/, both accessed 27 March 2020) and Converse (Dow Agrosciences). Additional materials for increased tolerance to drought and shade (e.g. for silvopastoral systems) and additional synthetic mixtures are to be commercialized in the next 2-4 years (Papalotla, personal communication). CIAT is also advancing the development and commercialization of B. humidicola and Panicum maximum breeding lines. Some of the most widespread adoption of planted forages is in Brazil where it is estimated that about 120 million ha have been planted, of which 99 million are Brachiaria spp. and about 17 million ha are P. maximum (Jank et al., 2014). This has largely been driven by the private sector and EMBRAPA, which are valuable partners, and involves large farms that are only peripherally within the mandate of the CGIAR system.Similar production increases have been achieved in the Eastern Plains of Colombia as part of the collaboration of the Corporacion Colombiana de Investigacion Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) and CIAT, with inclusion of Brachiaria spp. in crop/pasture rotations leading to a doubling of carrying capacity compared with degraded pasture and a tenfold increase over native savannah (Rincón and Ligarreto, 2008;Rincón et al., 2010).Better documented is the uptake of Brachiaria grasses in Mexico and Central America where by the early 2000s over 3 million ha were reported based on extrapolation from seed sales (Holmann et al., 2004). Surveys in Colombia's Eastern Plains carried out in 2017 suggested that about one-third (about 3 million ha) of improved pastures are sown using Brachiaria cultivars selected by CORPOICA and CIAT or bred by CIAT; across a set of five countries, an estimated 59.2% of all pastures were found to be planted with Brachiaria grasses, with about half being CIAT-selected Brachiaria (ISPC, 2018). Through the work of EMBRAPA, with contributions from CIAT, Rivas (2002) estimated that 1.5 million ha had been sown to Andropogon gayanus by 2000.The documented success of forage legumes so far is less visible. However, for Arachis pintoi, cv. Amarillo developed in Australia and selected by EMBRAPA and CIAT for tropical America, around 65,000 ha have been reported to be adopted in Acre in Brazil (Valentim and de Andrade, 2005). A Stylosanthes spp. mixture ('Estilosantes Campo Grande'), co-developed by B. Grof (EMBRAPA, ex-CIAT), has been sown on 150,000 ha in the southern Cerrados of Brazil (Fernandes et al., 2005).These South American examples point to possible future growth in use of planted forages in Africa once livestock production becomes more commercial, farm sizes increase, private-sector actors have stronger engagement and the institutional environment is more conducive to growth of the forage sector.As well as research on planted forages, CGIAR centres have generated a range of 'knowledge products', which collect internal and published knowledge and present it in a form that is useful for scientists and the wider livestock development community. Examples of such knowledge products are the Tropical Forages tool, the Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales journal and the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST).A wide array of plant species is used as feed for livestock and these differ in both their suitability as livestock feed and in the biophysical conditions that support their growth. In 2005, the international planted forages community initiated the Tropical Forages tool to collate the tacit knowledge of forage experts as well as published data on forage characteristics to develop an online tool to support selection of appropriate forages for specific purposes and locations. The Tropical Forages tool (www.tropicalforages. info; accessed 28 February 2020) has been available since 2005 and is currently receiving approximately 500,000 annual hits with visitors coming from universities, development agencies, seed companies and (informed) farmers. It is open access and easy to use, providing detailed information on more than 170 major forage species and the environments they are adapted to. The tool was developed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, CIAT and ILRI, and capitalized on the inputs on more than 50 forage experts, with widespread knowledge and experience in tropical and subtropical forages. An updated version of the tool was launched in 2021.The The main features of Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales are that the journal is international, published online only, open access (no charges for subscription or publication fees), bilingual (English and Spanish), peer reviewed and guided by a 23-member Editorial Board, which is composed of the world's leading tropical pasture scientists. Further information on the journal is available at its website (www.tropicalgrasslands.info; accessed 28 February 2020). Back issues of the predecessor journals, Tropical Grasslands and Pasturas Tropicales, can also be accessed at this site. The journal is indexed in the major abstract and citation databases of peerreviewed literature and is widely used; as of December 2019, there had been more than 492,000 abstract views and more than 669,000 PDF/eBook downloads; currently the journal receives 229,000 annual visits.FEAST (Duncan et al., 2012) is a systematic, participatory approach to supporting design of livestock feed interventions at the village/community level. It was originally developed in 2008 by ILRI in collaboration with CIAT. FEAST involves a structured conversation with farmers at the village level to characterize the local farming system, the role of livestock in the farming system and the way in which livestock are currently fed. This is followed by application of a short household survey among selected farmers. Data from the survey are used to develop a series of standardized graphical outputs, which support decision making on appropriate feed interventions. A further feature is an intervention-ranking module, which generates a prioritized list of candidate interventions derived from automatic analysis of survey data. The FEAST data application itself has been downloaded by 1400 individuals and has been applied in over a dozen countries. Over 70 FEAST reports have been published online. Published outputs in the FEAST collection in the CGIAR publication repository have had over 15,000 views and downloads per year in the past 5 years.CGIAR has been active in the provision of advice and technical training in forage production as well as production and sale of seeds for establishment of tropical forages to address these constraints. The seed production units of CIAT and ILRI provide a source of tropical forage seeds and planting material of selected best-bet species at cost for use in establishing national forage seed production. CIAT provides seeds of 25 herbaceous legumes, nine grasses and seven fodder trees. ILRI currently can supply seeds of 33 species of herbaceous legumes, ten species of grass and five species of fodder trees. Provision of seeds from the two sources is complementary, mostly handling different species and distributing in different regions, primarily within the regions where the centres are located (Table 13.4). CIAT has shipped seeds of over 20,000 samples to 88 different countries, while ILRI has provided over 8500 samples in response to over 1500 orders since the establishment of their forage seed activities. Seed distribution has supported the forage evaluation networks of CIAT and ILRI in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa, and has strengthened forage research and development activities globally.Tropical forage seed production is a specialist market because many species are perennial and annual reseeding is not required. This leads to uncertain demand, which causes a high degree of risk to both seed producers and sellers and has reduced investment in a more formal distribution seed system for forage seeds in many developing countries (Hanson and Peters, 2003). This has also contributed to fewer new varieties and species being released in recent years and promotion of an informal integrated communitybased seed supply system to fill the gap. A recent survey in Ethiopia showed that many smallholders are willing to pay for forage seeds and to use land for planted forages where alternative feed is scarce and where market opportunities for milk and meat exist (Negassa et al., 2016).Both centres have supported alternative suppliers in the tropical forage seed agribusiness. CIAT has partnered with the Papalotla Group from the private sector to achieve a wide dissemination of hybrid pasture seeds developed by CIAT that will be distributed by Papalotla. Both CIAT and ILRI have supported entrepreneuror farmer-led seed supply systems to complement large-scale private seed production. Collaboration with government institutions and non-governmental organizations has ensured training of farmers in seed production, seed quality control and certification. A farmer-led seed enterprise, PRASEFOR (Artisanal Forage Seed Production), was formed in Honduras as an association of 12 smallholder farmers to produce grass seeds. In contrast to many other farmer-led seed enterprises, this was business oriented and formed with very limited financial support, making the approach easily replicable (Hanson and Peters, 2003). Farmers were able to obtain a return of more than US$600/ha on forage seed production compared with an estimated US$60/ ha for maize production. A similar approach was recently piloted in Ethiopia through the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ)-funded FeedSeed project by mentoring individuals and forage seed businesses representing smallholder farmers, cooperatives and commercial seed companies, thereby helping to stimulate the availability of more and better-quality forage seed and forage use by smallholder livestock producers. The pilot project incubated 30 profitable private companies whose annual seed sales reportedly started at US$20,000 and increased to US$400,000 by the end of the 2-year project. With seed prices at US$5-20/kg in early 2019, forage seed production does seem to be economically attractive.The potential impact of tropical forages on GHG emissions has been well documented. Mitigation approaches include direct reduction of emissions, enhancing of carbon sequestration, higher productivity per land area and/or livestock unit and of feed efficiency (Peters et al., 2013;Searchinger et al., 2013;Rao et al., 2015) and avoiding detrimental land conversion. By applying suitable practices, land can be freed for reforestation or for landscape restoration while livestock output grows. Genetic solutions to curb nitrous gas emissions and nitrate leaching -while reducing the amount of nitrogen fertilizers in crop-livestock rotations -have been demonstrated as a proof of concept for biological nitrification inhibition (Subbarao et al., 2017). The environmental role of symbiotic nitrogen fixation by tropical legumes is recognized, as is the potential of tannin-rich legumes for reduction of methane emissions by livestock (Schultze-Kraft et al., 2018). Less information is currently available on the water footprint of forage-based feed production, with fodder production being a major driver of water use in livestock systems (Herrero et al., 2012).The main potential environmental impact of tropical and subtropical planted forages will be through intensification of livestock production and accompanying reductions in emissions assuming livestock numbers decrease as production intensifies. The situation may change when the role of tropical forages in providing ecosystem services is further recognized and economic incentives for increased adoption of planted forages are in place (such as Payment for Ecosystem Services schemes). Because pasture-based systems, which are the largest single land-use category globally (Erb et al., 2007), are changing from extensive grasslands to more intensive mixed croplivestock farming, there is the opportunity that this transition could reduce GHG emissions without negative effects on food security (Havlík et al., 2013). Moreover, the high-risk sites, or 'hotspots', for GHG emissions are located in areas of low livestock productivity -extensively managed areas in eastern Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and South Asia (Gerber et al., 2013;Herrero et al., 2013). These are also the areas with the greatest potential for increased forage use, although as argued elsewhere in this chapter increased forage use would depend heavily on the economics of land and labour use.As examples of the potential importance of forages in climate-change scenarios, the governments of Brazil and Colombia have identified the intensification of livestock production, using planted forages and proper management, as key strategies to mitigate GHG emissions in agriculture. The strategies are outlined in the Plano ABC (Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento, 2012) and the NINO (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, 2015) for Brazil and Colombia, respectively, as a combination of increased productivity per livestock unit and land area and favouring environmentally sound land-use changes. Thornton and Herrero (2010) has illustrated the possibility of specific technologies such as improved Brachiaria and Leucaena spp. to reduce GHG emissions through increased per-animal productivity and assumed reductions in livestock numbers. Lal (2010) has stated that 29% of the overall carbon mitigation potential will be from pastureland. The biggest potentials for carbon sequestration (i.e. through restoring degraded grasslands) are in South America and Africa (Conant, 2002;Conant et al., 2011).In a review of the potential of forages to mitigate emissions, Peters et al. (2013) concluded that forage-based systems have a lower ecological footprint than feedlots. Better management of crops and grasslands, and restoration of degraded lands, can result in a mitigation potential as high as 3.5 billion t CO 2 -eq/year or 75% of the biophysical mitigation potential stated by Smith et al. (2008). Thornton and Herrero (2010) calculated that a modest 30% adoption rate of improved deep-rooted Brachiaria pastures could yield a mitigation potential of 29.8 million t CO 2 -eq/year in the Cerrados of Brazil alone, an amount equivalent to 2% of the total mitigation potential of agriculture. According to Fisher et al. (2007) and Blanfort et al. (2012), the mitigation potential of planted forages to accumulate carbon under adequate pasture and animal management is second only to forests. To refine these estimates, further research in a variety of contexts is required.What has limited the impact of planted forages in tropical Africa and Asia?Despite the technical potential of planted forages, a common research finding is that they are rarely adopted beyond project-led initiatives in Africa and Asia. Evidence for spontaneous widespread adoption is rare, except, for example, Australia and Brazil where the context is very different and smallholders are not the main beneficiary.The reasons for lack of adoption are complex. Promoters of planted forages are convinced of their technical merits and advocate greater 'promotion and dissemination' to convince smallholders of their advantages. In the terminology of Sumberg (2002) forage legumes have taken on a 'mantle of absolute goodness'. The realists view lack of adoption as being related to inherent system properties, which make them unattractive for farmers given the prevailing economic environment. To quote Sumberg (2002): 'Particular attention is placed on the idea that the biophysical and socio-economic factors that have previously been constraints to legume adoption should now be viewed as system properties and incorporated into the design specification of technology.' This idea that system properties are what constrain the uptake of planted legumes and planted forages in general is compelling and was also proposed by McIntire and Debrah (1986) as long ago as the mid-1980s. McIntire and Debrah (1986) laid out a series of propositions regarding the suitability of forage legumes for smallholder systems. Among their propositions were that at different population densities competition for land and labour will tend to disadvantage forage legumes as a viable part of the farm enterprise. At low population densities (e.g. pastoral systems), competition for labour is an issue. In such systems, crops and animals are managed as separate enterprises, as mobility of livestock is a necessary property of the system. Devoting labour to tending of forage crops becomes impractical. At high population densities (e.g. mixed intensive systems), competition for land becomes the issue. In such systems, land is scarce and use of land for production of staple and cash crops takes priority over the production of livestock feeds for reasons of economics.The barrier of system properties is also apparent in the arguments of Ruthenberg (1980) in his consideration of the scarcity of mediumto long-term grass cultivation in the tropics ('ley farming'). Ruthenberg pointed out various characteristics of tropical farming systems that make ley farming unattractive. Among the reasons offered by Ruthenberg were the poor nutritive quality of tropical grasses, the advanced animal husbandry needed to make such systems work and the relative (un)profitability of use of land for livestock production compared with arable options such as maize, sorghum and cassava.A more recent line of argument in the debate about adoption success of planted forages frames the problem as one of 'innovation capacity failure' (Hall et al., 2007). The application of innovation systems theory to the question of feed development follows a trend across the CGIAR system to think about technical change in the context of innovation systemsthe network of agents and their interactions that are necessary to foster change. In ILRI and CIAT, projects around the time, including the Fodder Adoption Project and Fodder Innovation Project, attempted to move beyond technical feed research to investigate institutional barriers to technical change in the feed sector (Ayele et al., 2012;Reddy et al., 2013). In the logic of these projects, there was a recognition that Sumberg's (2002) 'system properties' were indeed impediments to progress but that focusing on the institutional issues could overcome some of these barriers including difficulties of seed supply, access to markets and the need to deal with policy constraints to bring about improvements in livestock feeding. While these projects did not fully achieve their ambitions, they did bring in new thinking about innovation in the livestock feed sector and helped to broaden research perspectives beyond a narrow focus on forage management. In South-east Asia in particular, application of such thinking did lead to adoption of forages at a reasonable scale (Stür et al., 2013). Such innovation systems thinking is now routinely embedded in CGIAR-led projects and programmes focused on feed and forage improvement in the CGIAR Research Programme on Livestock and Fish (Puskur et al., 2011).Early research on tropical planted forages focused on collection and characterization of forage species with economic potential to improve livestock productivity. This involved collections in sub-Saharan Africa organized mainly from Australia.Promising accessions are now stored in the various gene banks of CGIAR, notably those at ILRI, CIAT and ICARDA. Despite extensive forage research activity in the CGIAR and other centres, forage adoption among smallholders has generally been disappointing. Pengelly et al. (2003) concluded that 'despite 50 years of investment in forage research in the tropics, forage adoption has been relatively poor across all tropical farming systems'. Sumberg (2002) argued that forage legumes had not achieved their potential in sub-Saharan Africa, despite 70 years of research to promote them. Shelton et al. (2005) in their review of forage legume successes found that none of the 14 legume cultivars released in Latin America and the Caribbean between 1980 and 2000 was well adopted.In reaction to these disappointing findings about the impact of tropical forages research, there have been attempts to re-evaluate the impact. The most recent example is the meta-analysis of White et al. (2013), which built upon the study by Shelton et al. (2005). The Shelton study presented 19 case studies and estimated areas planted to various tropical legumes around the world, along with numbers of farmers and gross economic benefits. Notable successes were cowpea in West Africa accounting for 1.4 million ha (ex ante impact estimate), fodder trees in East Africa totalling 4 million m of hedgerows, Stylosanthes spp. in southern China (more than 200,000 ha), Thailand (more than 300,000 ha) and India (less than 250,000 ha), Pueraria phaseoloides as grazed pastures in Brazil (480,000 ha) and A. pintoi also in Brazil (more than 65,000 ha). The authors identified factors favouring adoption as meeting the needs of farmers, building partnerships, understanding the resources and skills of farmers, engagement with rural communities, and long-term involvement of champions (Shelton et al., 2005).The study by White et al. (2013) sought to quantify the impact of planted tropical forages in general (and not just legumes, as in the study by Shelton et al., 2005). They defined the impacts in three main domains: economic, social and environmental. Positive impacts can include improved soil cover and hence reduced erosion, nitrogen fixation by legumes leading to improved soil health, and deeper rooting leading to improved water-use efficiency and soil carbon storage. Negative impacts can include the introduction of invasive characteristics and loss of local biodiversity.The authors set out a series of nine methodological shortcomings of the studies reviewed as a caution to the conclusions about economic impact. Despite shortcomings in the methods and data in the evidence reviewed, the analysis yielded some interesting insights. White et al. (2013) identified a total of 118 million ha planted to 'improved' tropical forages from the studies they compiled. They estimated that Brazil accounted for 86% of the known planted area of improved forages. The area under Brachiaria spp. dominated. The farm-size characteristics of this adoption were not fully defined and included large commercial operations.Emphasizing the methodological shortcomings of the sample studies, fewer than 20% of the studies directly attempted to quantify economic impacts. Furthermore, the lack of a common methodology to quantify economic impacts (mixture of net present value approaches and annual estimates) meant that it was difficult to come up with an estimate of total economic benefit. Environmental and social impacts were even less frequently quantified, with 7% and 2% of the studies quoting environment and social impacts, respectively. The authors recognized a trend for greater emphasis on longer-term impacts in later studies, suggesting that the research for development community is increasingly aware of the need to quantify large-scale impacts. Of all the studies analysed, fewer than 15% were conducted independently of the personnel affiliated with the programme or project. This may have led to exaggeration bias, as those closely involved would be under pressure to justify their research through impact. As previously noted, this lack of independent assessment is also an issue with the various success cases outlined earlier in this chapter.Given the advances in the quality and coverage of databases, scientists can target forage research to sites of highest probable adoption. Several factors affect adoption potential. One is population density. Forage cultivation can be expected to occur at intermediate population densities where there is sufficient land but where labour does not become a limiting constraint, or in areas of high population density that are highly productive. A second factor is profitability in the situations where high demand and prices can provide the incentive to invest in forages (e.g. instead of or as well as vegetable production). A third factor is rainfall distribution: given that forage is a yearround enterprise especially for dairy production, forages are more likely to succeed where rainfall is well distributed. If this is not the case, forages can work but the capacity to conserve, especially through hay-making, may be crucial for adoption.We outline an example for Napier grass (P. purpureum) and its potential as a cut-and-carry forage. We utilized the model EcoCrop as implemented in DIVA-GIS (Hijmans et al., 2012). To generate suitability surfaces for Napier grass, EcoCrop estimates a suitability index from 0 to 100 for a crop, based on monthly precipitation and temperature surfaces and on a small number of crop-specific parameters. We evaluated Napier grass suitability for current climatic conditions using the WorldClim dataset (distributed as part of DIVA-GIS). For possible future climatic conditions, we downscaled spatially coarse output from several climate models in relation to a high GHG emissions scenario for periods centred on 2050 and 2090 (Jones and Thornton, 2015). Aggregate differences in both projected temperature and rainfall for the climate models selected are shown in Table 13.5.To identify areas with 'moderate' population densities, following Kruska et al. (2003) we used a lower limit of 20 people/km 2 , above which increasing proportions of land are cultivated (Reid et al., 1995(Reid et al., , 2000)). Goddard et al. (1975) and McIntire et al. (1992) showed that fallowing disappears (and agricultural fields coalesce) at densities above 85 people/km 2 across the semiarid to humid zones in Africa. We thus set the moderate population density to be between 20 and 85 people/km 2 , and we used the dataset GPW v4 (CIESIN, 2016).As a proxy for market pull, we used the accessibility dataset of Nelson (2008), which gives the travel time in minutes to the nearest city with a population in excess of 50,000, based on the estimated travel time to cross each pixel in relation to land cover, slope, elevation, the roads network, and any railways, rivers and water bodies. As a threshold, following Jones and Thornton (2009), we selected a value of 200 min, allowing the possibility for a smallholder to take produce to market and return home on the same day.The results are shown in Table 13.6 and Fig. 13.1. These 'high-potential' sites are defined as the areas having at least moderate suitability for Napier grass and having a moderate human population density (20-85 people/km 2 ) and are within 200 min travel time of large population centres. In all regions, suitability increases to the 2050s but then declines to the 2090s, presumably in response to ever-higher temperatures and increased plant evapotranspiration. Nevertheless, the proportion of area that is of high suitability increases over time compared with the area of moderate suitability, and the proportion of highly suitable hotspot land outside the tropics is increasing over time. The trends for the cooler General Circulation Model (GCM; Table 13.6, middle panel) are similar, although Asia sees an increasing area of highly suitable high-potential sites up to the 2090s. The hotter GCM results (Table 13.6, lower panel) indicate that the tropics are in general becoming rather warm for Napier grass, and there are large areas in the northern temperate zones that are projected to be highly suitable high-potential sites.Changing human population dynamics in the coming decades can be expected to affect suitability by increasing pressure on land, particularly in peri-urban areas. These effects are difficult to estimate, however. For example, increasing population densities to the middle of the current century are likely to decrease the range of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis in parts of Africa through habitat destruction (McDermott et al., 2002). However, evaluating possible future changes in land use and land competition due to population growth and urban migration is more challenging, mostly because of the difficulty in projecting future development of road and other transport infrastructure, which is often the forerunner of highly localized increases in population density This simple illustrative analysis suggests that the potential high-potential sites for Napier grass adoption as a cut-and-carry forage are relatively  limited in the global tropics. A more robust analysis could be done that takes rainfall distribution into account, as well as by using a more sophisticated niche and suitability model than EcoCrop, such as MaxEnt (Warren and Seifert, 2011). Another missing element is information on possible changes in forage quality under a changing climate. Nevertheless, there is considerable potential to exploit new datasets for more appropriate targeting. Local evaluation, coupled with information on where particular forages are actually being utilized, has considerable potential to guide future forage targeting and adoption.Planted forages have the potential to fuel growth in the smallholder crop and livestock sector in Africa and Asia by providing high-quality feed and by filling seasonal gaps. In addition to productivity benefits, planted forages can reduce the environmental footprint of livestock.Adoption of planted forages has been below its potential in nearly all of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Adoption in Latin America has been better, notably in Brazil and in parts of Central America. Such success is rare in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (with the possible exception of Napier grass in East Africa), but as mixed crop-livestock systems continue to expand, so will planted forage use.To conclude, we offer some lessons for the future:• Apply lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean to sub-Saharan Africa and South-east Asia about the systemic conditions needed for successful planted forage development among smallholders. These South American examples point to possible future growth in use of planted forages in Africa once livestock production becomes more commercial, farm sizes increase, private-sector actors have stronger engagement and the institutional environment is more conducive to growth of the forage sector.• To exploit the full potential of environmental benefits, it is evident that work on forages (and other feeds) needs to be integrated with animal health and animal genetics.• We need to better define system constraints to forage use and to target solutions for system constraints along with a continuing focus on farm-level experimentation and on forage breeding. Understanding system constraints will facilitate better forage targeting using spatial forecasting of global high-potential sites.• Create markets for public and private agents by: (i) building germplasm supply arrangements (public or private, depending on location); and (ii) identifying value chain constraints and resolving them through novel business arrangements.","tokenCount":"11108"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd6af613ca33cb636600421c4be2ee9b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e5678347-51f9-4226-8206-2695298aa947/content","id":"-1478005138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3207f02a-215b-40eb-be19-c3dd2e6d6d7c","pagecount":"40","content":"This publication was developed by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) as part of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) project, which is made possible with generous support from the United States Agency for International Development Mission in Bangladesh and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.CSISA was established in 2009 with the goal of benefiting more than eight million farmers by the end of 2020. The project is led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and implemented jointly with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the International Water Management Institute, and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Operating in rural 'innovation hubs' in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, CSISA works to increase the adoption of various resource-conserving and climate-resilient technologies, and improve farmer access to market information and enterprise development. CSISA supports women farmers by improving their access and exposure to modern and improved technological innovations, knowledge and entrepreneurial skills. CSISA works in synergy with regional and national efforts, collaborating with myriad public, civil society and private sector partners.CSISA's goals are to:• Facilitate widespread adoption of resource-conserving practices, technologies and services which increase yields with lower water, labor and input costs. • Support mainstreaming innovations in national-, state-and district-level government programs to improve long-term impacts achieved through investments in the agricultural sector. • Generate and disseminate new knowledge on cropping system management practices that can withstand the impacts of climate change in South Asia. • Improve the policy environment to facilitate the adoption of sustainable intensification technologies. • Build strategic partnerships that can sustain and enhance the scale of benefits accrued through improving cereal system productivity.What are the common safety measures to follow when using pesticides? .... vi Simple and effective management methods that can improve soybean production in BangladeshList of Tables  The significance of soybean Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) accounts for approximately fifty percent of the total production of global oilseed crops. It has exceptional nutritional value, provides the richest source of protein of any crop (similar to levels found in cow's milk and meat, fish or poultry) and is able to serve as the core protein supplement to human diets. Soybean, including processed soybean products like tofu, constitutes good nutritional quality for adult humans, containing a high amount of protein (40%-50%), lipids (20%-30%) and carbohydrates (26%-30%), with more than eighty-five percent of its protein content made up of β-conglycinin and glycinin 1 . The USDA reports much lower levels of protein (13%), lipids (6.8%), carbohydrates (11%) and dietary fiber (4%) in raw green soybeans 2 but higher levels in mature raw soybean seed (36.5%, 20%, 30% and 9% respectively) 3 . Soybean is abundant in essential fatty acids, including saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids 2,3 , and contains beneficial secondary metabolites such as isoflavones, phenolic components and saponins 4 . A good source of low-cost protein and other nutritive factors for humans as well as for use in poultry feed, soybean is thus a valuable crop for both developed and developing nations 5 . In addition, it is rich in phosphorous and calcium 6 , while its oil component contains vitamins (in particular A and D) and lecithin, a crucial fatty acid.Soybean oil has gained popularity in modern day cooking in Bangladesh. However, as its extraction from soybean seed is not yet possible using traditional methodologies, most of the soybean that the country produces is used predominantly in the feed industries, and any soybean oil in the market is imported. Worldwide, the total annual production of soybean is 365.79 million tons from an area of land totaling 130.90 million hectares 7 . In Bangladesh, total annual production is 96,921 tons from a cultivated area of 62,870 hectares -at 1.54 tons/ha, this is much lower than the world average of 2.79 tons/ha 7 . Much neglected until just a couple of years ago, soybean is gradually gaining popularity as a cash crop, especially among farming households in the country's southern belt (Noakhali, Lakshmipur and Bhola districts). The socio-economic condition of these farming communities could be potentially enhanced through the establishment of small soy-based food manufacturing industries, producing milk, curd (yoghurt), flour/breads, meat, halwa, biscuits and assorted snacks, all from soybean.In Bangladesh, there are ample opportunities to increase both the area and productivity of oilseed crops such as soybean because of the availability of short-duration improved varieties and suitable agro-climatic conditions. At the same time, at the production and post-harvest processing levels there is some potential for mechanical interventions. These might enhance current oilseed production and processes and allow farmers to earn more from soybean cultivation 8 .  How was the soybean crop introduced into Bangladesh?The domestication of soybean appears to have begun in China 6000-9000 years ago 11 . In Bangladesh, soybean was introduced around 1942, although no particular attempts were made to popularize the crop or to conduct research on it until 1960-61. In 1961, the pulses and oilseeds division of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) selected two varieties of soybean (Pelican and Barnali) for the purposes of increasing fallow land cultivation in the kharif-2 season. However, by the following year these were found to be susceptible to the yellow mosaic virus and production ceased.Soybean was reintroduced into Bangladesh by the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) in 1972-73. In 1975, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) in collaboration with BARI, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Bangladesh Council of Science and Industrial Research (BCSIR) and MCC initiated the 'Bangladesh Coordinated Soybean Research Project' to investigate soybean's potential as a food crop. In 1981, this culminated in the release of the Bragg and Davis varieties of soybean 12 . However, these were also afflicted by the yellow mosaic virus and are no longer recommended for cultivation.Between 1991 and 2021 ten high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of soybean were released by BARI, BAU and MCC. These improved varieties are presented in Table 1 (see previous page) along with their key features.In Bangladesh, soybean is mainly cultivated in the districts of Noakhali, Lakshmipur and Bhola by farmers following one of two cropping patterns: T. Aman ricesoybean -fallow, or spring Aus rice/jute -soybean -fallow/wheat/mustard/lentil/ chickpea (Figure 1). No research findings on cropping patterns exist for other areas of Bangladesh.Some constraints to soybean cultivation exist in Bangladesh, including climate variability, soil condition, competition with other crops for scarce resources, and high infestation rates of pest and disease 8 . Other challenges include:• lack of quality seed/poor seed germination; • no guarantee of timely availability of quality seed or its supply to farmers; • soil salinity, particularly in the coastal belt; • lack of advanced agronomic management knowledge needed for crop production; • lack of knowledge among the general population of soybean's nutritional advantages; • tendency to pod shattering (resulting in 10%-70% yield loss) 13 ; • over-reliance by farmer on manual planting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, drying and storing; • a marketing system and supply chain are not strongly established.   Soybean can be cultivated as an intercrop with maize by sowing a row of soybeans between two rows of maize which are 60 cm apart, with 30 cm between individual soybean and maize rows. There are benefits to producing soybean as a supplemental crop to maize -for example, and most significantly, soybean adds nitrogen to the soil content through the formation of nodules which contain Rhizobium spp. bacteria, which help to improve soil health over time. Another intercrop combination can be soybean with sunflower. Or, as displayed in the pictures below, soybean can be grown as intercrop in the initial stages of mahogany woodlots or fruit tree gardens.  Which soil and climate types are conducive for soybean cultivation?Soybean can be cultivated in loam, sandy loam and clay loam soils. Medium-high to low-lying land works best for the rabi season crop, and high land with good drainage for the kharif-2 season. Optimal temperatures of 20°-25°C and 15°-22°C have been found to be suitable for flowering and maturity respectively. However, yield decreases when day temperatures are above 26°C 15 . In Bangladesh, because of their climate, the districts of Noakhali, Bhola and Lakshmipur are the most suitable regions for soybean cultivation. In the kharif-2 season of 2021, DAE introduced soybean at Chuadanga district.What seed rate is suitable for soybean cultivation?Although general advice can be given on the seed rate for soybean, in practice the actual seed rate should be modified slightly depending on seed quality, with the specific germination percentage and the moisture content of the soil helping to determine the rate used. Quality seed should have a germination percentage of over 80 percent. The ideal seed rates of Sohag (PB-1), BARI Soybean-5 and BARI Soybean-6 are 8.0-9.5 kg/ bigha (33 decimals) or 60-70 kg/ha. Due to its small seed size, seeding rate for the variety Bangladesh Soybean-4 is 5-6 kg/bigha or 40-45 kg/ha. Row-to-row spacing is usually 30-40 cm, depending on the season (see \"What is the ideal number of soybean plants in a given land area?\", below). If germination rates are <80 percent, these rates may be increased to ensure adequate crop establishment.To maintain genetic purity, seed should be collected from breeder seed (which has a 99%-100% germination rate), foundation seed (90%-95% germination rate) and/or certified/truthfully labelled seed (>80% germination). The seed should be viable (that is, no more than one year old) and must be stored in cool, dry conditions. Their shape and size should be uniform, and they should bear a bright brownish tinge, indicating proper maturity; they must also be unbroken, and free from disease and insects. Finally, they should be clean, and free from non-seed and weed seed.It is advisable to conduct a germination test one week prior to sowing in the field, following the procedure described below.• Pick out seeds from multiple different parts of the storage container.• Randomly select 100 seeds, discarding any that are broken.• Take an earthen pot and fill it with sandy soil (a banana/aroid leaf or jute bag/cloth can also be used). It should be big enough to hold 100 seeds planted 1 cm deep in rows 1 cm apart. • Plant the seeds and level off the top with soil.• Maintain optimal soil moisture (50 percent) and store in a shady location 16 .• After 5-6 days, count the number of seeds which have germinated with good/ healthy roots and shoots, and use the following formula to calculate the germination percentage:(seeds germinated) Germination percentage = - -----------------------------x 100 (total seeds) Note: applying additional water after planting the seeds can result in rotting and a reduced germination percentage.Seed rate is conditional on germination percentage and seed size, and should be adjusted if the germination percentage is low (<80 percent). To obtain an optimum seed rate when germination is 75%-80%, add about an extra 5 percent of seed; add about an extra 10 percent of seed when germination is 70%-75%. Depending on the soil type, four to five ploughing cycles followed by laddering are required to prepare the land. Soil should be free from weeds, and leveled to facilitate irrigation, drainage and intercultural operations.Soybean seed can be sown in a line formation using jab/dibble planting, or broadcasted like black gram or mung bean. An iron tine or small wooden plough can be used to form the rows. During the rabi (winter/dry) and kharif-2 (summer/frequent rain) seasons, the distance between individual rows should be 30 cm and 40 cm respectively. Seed should be inserted into the soil to a depth of 3-4 cm with 4-5 cm between plants, and then covered with loose soil.Can I use conservation agriculture methods to cultivate soybean?Soybean seed can be sown using a conservation agriculture system. Seeder machines (either inclined plate-or fluted roller-type) are used for strip-tillage, and retaining 30 cm of residue in the field from the previous Aus/T. Aman rice crop maintains moisture in the soil. The farmer can also use a 16-teeth seeder machine to sow seed and apply fertilizer simultaneously. Strip-till (or zero tillage) methods can thus be employed effectively for soybean cultivation.Bed-planting -a new technology for soybean production in Bangladesh -enables the farmer to sow seeds in line with a raised bed and automatically develops drainage, improving irrigation. Note: it is essential to apply a non-selective and an appropriate pre-emergence herbicide prior to strip/zero tillage or bed-planting, to ensure all weeds are removed. Consult with the Department of Agricultural Extension for advice on appropriate, low-toxicity weed control products.When is the optimum time to sow soybean seed?Soybean can be cultivated in two seasons each year: rabi (15 December to 15 April) and kharif-2 (15 July to 15 November). Soybean production occurs predominantly during the rabi season; production of soybean seed for use the next year takes place mostly during the kharif-2 season.What fertilizers are required and how do I apply them?Given that soybean is a leguminous crop, its cultivation requires less fertilizer than cereal crops. Also, fertilizer rates vary from one location to another according to soil type. Although site-specific fertilizer trials for soybean have yet to be conducted in Bangladesh, BARI makes the following recommendations for its use in soybean cultivation 17 :Cow dung/compost should be applied before final plowing. Half of the urea and all other inorganic fertilizers should be applied as basal dose at the time of final plowing. The remaining half of the urea should be applied later -before the flowering stage -and when conditions are damp.A basal dose of urea is required for initial plant development. Note, however, that applying nitrogen (which urea contains) may also reduce nitrogen fixation in the root, achieved through the action of Rhizobium spp bacteria. Conversely, inoculum will encourage nodulation, and its application is described below.Rhizobium spp are bacteria that serve as inoculum and help formation of nodules on the root system of the soybean plant. These bacteria 'fix' atmospheric nitrogen to the root, which as a result develops nodules which facilitate access to this nitrogen, improving the plant's growth. Before sowing, soybean seed should be mixed with inoculum to enhance nodule formation in the root system.  As a rule of thumb, inoculum is not needed for the same plot of land following the first year's application; however, annual additions of inoculum will enhance nodulation in the root zone and ensure proper growth of the soybean. Unavailability of inoculum 3 is a primary limiting factor in areas where soybean is being cultivated for the first time. Inoculated seed produces seedlings at impressive rates -inoculum also promotes healthy growth throughout the growth cycle, while maintaining a steady supply of nitrogen. According to the Government of Bangladesh's Department of Agricultural Extension, applying biofertilizer can lead to a potential 75%-150% increase in soybean yield. Application of inoculum can therefore be a cost-effective way of boosting soybean productivity where farmers may not have enough money or access to nitrogen fertilizer.Wearing a pair of protective gloves, mix soybean seed with a small quantity of water (just enough to coat the seeds) and add Rhizobium spp. inoculum (2 g for each 1 kg of seed) and mix for 3-5 minutes (depending on the quantity of seed). To prevent deterioration of the bacterial strains, the inoculum-mixed seeds should be planted within 2-3 hours, during which time the seed should not be exposed to sunlight.Weeds reduce soybean yield by competing with the plant for sunlight, moisture and soil nutrients. In general, they can negatively affect farming in several ways, including compromising the effective application of fertilizer in weed-impacted fields (because weeds absorb fertilizer more effectively than the soybean plants). They can also act as alternative hosts for disease and pests which affect rice (and which might therefore damage the rice crop in a neighboring field). and provide shelter for rats. What are the most useful weed control techniques?To obtain a desirable yield (that is, an average of 2 tons/ha during the rabi season and 1-1.5 tons/ha during the kharif-2 season), weeding should be carried out within 15-20 days of seed sowing. This is the most critical time of crop-weed competition, during which seedlings and weeds compete for nutrients, moisture and light. Manual weeding or a dryland mechanical weeder are good options for controlling weeds. Ideally, the crop should be weed-free after seed germination for the first five weeks during the kharif-2 season or three weeks during the rabi season. To achieve optimum weed control while at the same time practicing conservation agriculture, spray a pre-emergence herbicide prior to seed sowing.What is the ideal number of soybean plants in a given land area?Excess soy seedlings should be thinned out, keeping an average of 25-35 plants per m².During the rabi season, maintain a line-to-line distance of 30 cm and plant-to-plant distance of 10 cm; for the kharif-2 season crop, the line-to-line distance should be 40 cm and plant-to-plant distance 10 cm (Figure 8). These planting systems (line-to-line and plant-to-plant) can be established manually or through machine-assisted sowing.How many irrigation cycles should I apply? What is the best method of draining off surplus water?Correct irrigation is essential for any crop to obtain the optimum yield. Keep in mind that soybean is a somewhat water-stress tolerant crop and therefore requires minimum irrigation, with the amount depending on soil type and level of moisture already in the soil.During the rabi season, irrigation may be required once before sowing the seed to obtain moist soil conditions. Farmers sometimes also irrigate again immediately after seeding to obtain a good germination rate.Also during rabi cultivation, where the soil is sandy, irrigating a total of 2-3 times may be needed. The water-holding capacity of sandy soil is minimal, while that of loamy soil is better, meaning it requires irrigating a maximum of two times. In the kharif-2 season, all types of soil will probably only need irrigating once, as frequent rainfall generally occurs at this time of year.After crop establishment, the first irrigation should be applied 25-30 days after emergence; if there is no rain, apply a second irrigation 50-55 days after emergence. However, before any irrigation, farmers should observe the crop phenology and the stage of the crop. For example, during the flower initiation and pod formation stages, irrigation is necessary if the land has insufficient moisture. Before any irrigation, however, refer to online weather data or weather news broadcast on the television or radio and irrigate only if there is no possibility of rain.Farmers in Bangladesh generally use flood irrigation. However, to cultivate soybean, using the bed-planting method is the best way to ensure proper irrigation through optimum water use. This conservation agriculture approach plants seed and establishes drainage simultaneously, enabling irrigation water to move freely and the root system to access moisture correctly, avoiding water stagnation and facilitating the drainage of excess water/rainwater.Many of the pests and diseases with the potential to affect soybean will be familiar to the farmer and can be dealt with using rational pest management. The key to keeping the upper hand is vigilance, up-to-date information, prevention (when this is possible) and swift action. In general, pesticides should only be used as a last resort after other management methods and biological control have been tried.Various kinds of insects are considered pests and are harmful to the soybean crop. In Bangladesh, major pests include the hairy caterpillar Diacrisia oblique Wlk., common cutworm Spodoptera exigua Hb., leaf roller Lamprosema indicate F. and stem fly Melanagromyza sojae (Zehntner). In a humid climate like Bangladesh, soybean can also be affected by plant diseases which can reduce yield. It is important to employ different techniques for managing pest and disease, as an integrated approach provides the best protection.Note: only apply pesticides after receiving proper training and never without first consulting a qualified extension agent or trained agriculturist. Always wear protective clothing. Figure 9 presents an example of full protective clothing, which should be worn when applying pesticides (e.g. fungicides, insecticides) and herbicides.What are the common safety measures to follow when using pesticides?Pesticide is a poison. When purchasing or spraying it, always follow these safety measures to the letter:• Wear protective clothing (a plastic, non-porous coverall, protective headgear including goggles and respirator, gloves and gumboots) while spraying. • NEVER attempt to clean the nozzle by blowing into it.How do I identify and manage common pests and diseases?The hairy caterpillar (Diacrisia oblique) is a major and serious pest affecting jute and is also one of the main pests of soybean. It also frequently causes damage to other oil crops, including sesame and pulses.What are the early signs of infestation?• The pink hairy caterpillar moth lays egg masses of 500-1500 eggs on the underside of the plant's leaves. After hatching, larvae remain together in a cluster. • Adult larvae cause serious damage to plants, attacking the soybean leaves at the initial stage. Affected leaves are easily identified by their net-like structure.How can I manage this pest?• Use light traps (1 trap per hectare) to attract and kill the insect moths at night. Place a pot containing water mixed with kerosene under each trap to catch and drown the moths, reducing the population. • Pick the leaves supporting the egg mass, and the first and second instar larvae, and destroy them by crushing, burying or burning. • Put bamboo sticks into the ground (about 8-10 per bigha). This will encourage predatory birds (e.g. the borer bird) to land in the field, roost on the sticks, surveil the field for prey, and find and eat the caterpillars. • Infestation is reduced by spraying neem oil (10 percent) mixed with 2-3 g detergent/L of water twice, at a 10-day interval. • When infestation is severe, BARI recommends spraying chlorpyrifos (Dursban 20% EC) at the rate of 2 ml/L of water or diazinon 60% EC at the rate of 2 ml/L of water to control the insect pest effectively. N.B.: The pesticide must be sprayed with proper personal protection and by registered personnel only.The common cutworm (Spodoptera litura) is a very destructive pest affecting many important agricultural crops. Besides soybean it can infest tobacco, cotton, beet, cabbage, chickpea, mungbean, mustard, sunflower and many more.What are the early signs of infestation?• The black cutworm moth lays an egg mass of 500-2000 eggs on the upper side of the leaves. • Black-spotted light green larvae emerge from the eggs and start eating the leaves.• The adult larvae damage the plant by feeding heavily on it, eating half of the leaf and reducing it to a net-like structure. • The larvae spread throughout the field and cause damage to the crop right up until harvest-time.How can I manage this pest?• Install pheromone traps, 50 m apart, from the seeding stage of the plants onwards.• Hundreds of larvae remain together in a cluster. This contributes to them being easy to destroy, by picking the leaves holding the egg mass and neonate larvae, and crushing, burying or burning them. • Put bamboo sticks into the ground (about 8-10 per bigha). This will encourage predatory birds (e.g. the borer bird) to land in the field, roost on the sticks, surveil the field for prey, and find and eat the caterpillars. As well as soybean, the leaf roller (Lamprosema indicata Fab.) also infests beans, cowpea, green gram, black gram and red gram. The adult moth is creamy yellow to light brown with oblique wavy black lines on both pairs of wings 18 .What are the early signs of infestation?• The leaf roller moth lays a mass of 300-400 eggs on the underside of the leaves. Larvae emerge from the eggs and eat the soft green part of the leaves. • The yellowish-greenish larvae curl the leaves at the tip of the plant. Growth is retarded, reducing seed yield by 15%-20%. • Each plant hosts 4-5 insects.• Most infestation occurs between February and April during the vegetative growth stage of soybean. How can I manage this pest?• Reduce infestation by cultivating stress-tolerant varieties such as Sohag PB-1 and BARI Soybean-5 19  The soybean stem fly Melanagromyza sojae (Zehntner) is a common pest of soybean in Asia. It is favoured by warm temperatures, high rainfall, and high humidity 20 .What are the early signs of infestation?• Adult stem flies are shiny black and about 2 mm long. The damaging stage is the white larvae which feeds inside the stem. • The soybean stem fly lays eggs on the underside of young leaves. After hatching, the yellowish larva mines through the leaf tissue to the nearest vein of the leaf, then continues down the leaf petiole into the stem, where it feeds on the pith. • If the infected stem splits open, a distinct zigzag reddish tunnel can be seen inside it, with a larva or pupae inside that. Before pupation, the larva makes an exit hole in the stem for the adult. • Apart from the exit holes, the soybean plants will initially appear healthy on the outside. Large infestations (3 or more larvae per plant) may cause wilting and even plant death, especially in younger plants. • The larval stage lasts 8-11 days and the pupal stage 6-12 days (depending on temperature). Several generations can develop in the soybean crop throughout the season, worsening and spreading the infestation in the field.How can I manage this pest?• Put out sticky traps to monitor the presence of stem flies in the field.• Do not cultivate soybean on the same land every year -crop rotation with dissimilar crops is better. • Reduce infestation by clearing the field of weeds, dead leaves and debris -these are where the attacking insect tends to shelter. • Remove and destroy any damaged plant parts.• Minimize insect attack by treating seed with Fortenza 60 FS at the rate of 2.5 ml/kg seed. • If infestation is severe, spray diazinon 60 EC or chlorpyrifos (Dursban 20 EC) at the rate of 2 ml/L of water) twice at a 10-day interval. N.B.: The pesticide must be sprayed with proper personal protection and by registered personnel only.Yellow mosaic virus is transmitted from diseased to healthy plants by aphids.What are the early signs of infestation?• At first, yellow mosaic virus will be found in very few plants in the soybean field but will then gradually spread out. • Bright or golden yellow areas develop on the plant, along with dark or light green patches, scattered primarily across the leaf surface. • The affected leaves curl up and the plant remains a dwarf (or smaller in size).• When infestation is severe, the disease is also transmitted to the soybean seed.• Cultivate disease tolerant varieties, such as Bangladesh Soybean-4, BARI Soybean-5or BARI Soybean-6. • As soon as one or two plants are found to be affected, remove them from the field and burn them. • If necessary apply recommended insecticides, preferably bio-pesticides, to control aphids (the insect which carries the virus). How do I check crop maturity? What is the best time and method of harvesting and threshing?• Keep a close eye on the maturing of the plant, so as to harvest at the right time and obtain the optimum yield. As the plant approaches maturity, the leaves turn yellow and start to fall, and the pods appear dry and yellow. • Harvest the plant when it reaches full maturity (about 90-120 days from sowing).• Laborers usually harvest the mature plants using a home-made (kachte) knife.• Harvesting should not be done at noon or in the evening.• Transport the harvested pods from the field to the threshing floor to be dried.• Dry the pods in the sun for 2-3 days after harvesting. When the seeds inside the pod are hard (understood by shaking the pod and listening), start threshing. • Mechanical threshing breaks the pods, exposing the seeds. Use an air-blower to remove the husk and any dust, and to clean the seeds. Sieve the seeds and put them into sacks. • During manual threshing, pods are generally beaten with a wooden stick, separating the seed and husk. Winnow and clean the seed, and put it into sacks.What are the best methods of preparing soybean seed for storage?About two to three months after harvesting, seeds in general gradually start to lose their ability to germinate. Soybean seeds in particular lose viability very quickly under ordinary storage conditions and so special post-harvest care needs to be taken:• After harvesting, clean the seeds thoroughly, removing any which are rotten and affected by damp, pests or mold. Dry them very carefully. This should be done as soon as possible after harvesting -ideally immediately. • Do not leave the seeds in strong, continuous sunshine for more than three to four hours. • Store the seeds in an airtight container, such as a polyethylene bag, metal drum, black matka (a pitcher made from clay) or metal biscuit tin. • Keep this container in a cool, dry place on a wooden-based platform: make sure it does not touch the floor directly. • Check the seed moisture regularly and take steps to dry out the seeds every month if moisture content increases to above 12 percent. • Always carry out a germination test before planting and adjust the seed rate accordingly (see \"How do I conduct a germination test?\", above).Farmers generally use soya to prepare foodstuffs, including soya milk, soya halua (a dessert), soya curd (a type of yoghurt), soya piazu (a deep-fried snack with a base of flour mixed with onions and spices), soya flour (which can be mixed with wheat flour to make thick roti) and soya vorta (various combinations of mashed herbs, vegetables, or fish).When the soybeans are for household consumption, they need to be cleaned, dried in the sun and put into an airtight sack or drum. Every two to three months they should be taken out of the container for half an hour and placed in the sun again. When using the beans, the farmer should take the required amount out of the container, close it immediately, ensure it is airtight and return it to its shaded platform 4 .  What is the best way to prepare the harvested soybean for marketing and distribution?After drying thoroughly in the sun for three to four hours, the cleaned beans should be cooled in a shady place. The farmer then weighs the beans and puts them into 50 kg sacks to sell. Small farmers take these weighed sacks to a local haat (small local market) to sell to a buyer and get a good profit. First, a foria (local business person) purchases the beans from the farmers, for around BDT 900-1150 per maund (40 kg) and sells them to an arotdar (local dealer/wholesaler). The arotdar then takes 2%-3% commission and either sells the beans on to companies -such as biscuit factories, and poultry and fish feed mills -or stores the soybean before selling them to a similar type of customer at a 10%-15% higher price. As well as this, company people come to buy the beans at district level markets in Noakhali, Lakshmipur and Bhola, and take them back to their factories to use in the manufacture of products such as condensed milk, poultry and fish feed, and biscuits.As a farmer, what can I do next?• Organize neighboring farmers into several groups, prepare bulk production, and draw up a business plan which identifies and addresses the constraints of the value chain. • To facilitate this, create links with poultry and fish feed mills, local forias, arotdars/ dealers and wholesalers. • Explore the markets and share any relevant information with farmer groups regularly.• Identify lead private companies interested in providing training in business development planning and marketing, and in helping to establish a supply chain. • Start communication with BARI and DAE officers at the local, upazila and district levels, to pursue access to quality seed, and receive technical training and updated information. • Share all of this information with members of the group.","tokenCount":"5276"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23f97ff0c77a6585572137102b28ac09","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41b19989-ef63-4125-bb48-774e5ce330a6/retrieve","id":"1233320885"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3cc576da-cf6f-41c3-933a-75dc6367deee","pagecount":"2","content":"Food insecurity and malnutrition are major challenges in Eswatini. Despite its favorable climate and fertile soils, the country is a net importer of nearly all crops and livestock commodities, while malnutrition affects 26% of children in the country. To combat rising food prices and climate change impacts, the government is committed to enhancing food security and self-sufficiency through increased agricultural productivity, crop diversification and commercialization of smallholder agriculture. Nutritionsensitive agriculture is being encouraged to address malnutrition concerns.Roots crops, such as cassava, potato and sweetpotato can play a key role in improving food security, incomes and nutrition among smallholder farmers. Sweetpotato is easy to grow, matures quickly, requires minimum external inputs, and exhibits strong tolerance to drought, making it an ideal crop to fill the hunger gap before the staple maize harvest. However, at present, sweetpotato farmers predominantly grow white-fleshed varieties while biofortified orangefleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) varieties that are rich in vitamin A are not yet available in the country.The International Potato Center's (CIP) FoodSTART-Africa project is working in partnership with International Fund for Agricultural Development's (IFAD) Smallholder Market-Led Project (SMLP) and the Eswatini Department of Agricultural Research and Specialist Services (DARSS) to provide smallholder farmers with improved access to nutritious OFSP varieties that can boost incomes, nutrition, and overall food security.The overall goal is to contribute to improved incomes, and food and nutrition security for smallholder farmers through production and consumption of nutritious biofortified OFSP varieties. To achieve this goal, the project will pursue the following objectives: 1. To introduce selected and promising OFSP varieties from CIP's sweetpotato breeding hub in Mozambique.2. To conduct participatory evaluation of introduced OFSP varieties and identify locally-adapted, farmer-preferred varieties for official release in Eswatini.3. To strengthen the capacity of the national agriculture research system to maintain OFSP germplasm and produce high quality foundation seed for farmers.4. To establish a decentralized seed multiplication system to enhance farmers' access to high quality planting material of released varieties.5. To promote diverse household use of OFSP as part of diversified and healthier diets.The project is being implemented through a tripartite partnership with CIP, SMLP and DARSS. CIP will provide the technical support while DARSS leads the participatory variety evaluation to identify locally-adapted, farmerpreferred varieties for official release. As part of the evaluation process, on-station and on-farm trials will be established, the latter of which will be hosted at SMLPThe FoodSTART Africa project contributes to fighting malnutrition by promoting production and consumption of improved, nutritious sweetpotato varieties© CIP/A. FrezerHarnessing the potential of nutritious sweetpotato to improve food and nutrition security target sites. SMLP will lead the mobilization of farmers, local agriculture extension agents, and home economics staff to participate in the varietal evaluation process.To ensure that the newly-released varieties are accessible to farmers, the project will strengthen the capacity of DARSS to produce high-quality foundation seed. Additionally, decentralized farmer vine multipliers will be established and trained in vine multiplication techniques to further multiply quality seed for dissemination. Diverse household use of OFSP will be promoted by leveraging SMLP's strong partnership with the Eswatini Nutrition Council and Home Economics Department.To date, the project has introduced 10 OFSP varieties in Eswatini while DARSS (with technical support from CIP) has established trials at three stations to evaluate these varieties along with local varieties already in use.During field days (held at trial sites) participants conducted agronomic and sensory evaluation of the varieties. The data collected on field days will be CIP thanks all donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ ","tokenCount":"587"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3be54fa6a9889b7504f8cb21e7d1ecf1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.iita.org/dataset/8d9a6a0a-5429-4f2e-a94f-6022ee60ee39/resource/c4b99e07-2332-4722-b472-a0adc76068b4/download/iita-yam-sop11-labeling-validated.docx.pdf","id":"-2062561634"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a15f45db-df54-4cce-8cba-d4ff7d4c4b70","pagecount":"5","content":"Barcode labels are used for trials plot, genotypes identification and tracking purposes. For the labelling of a trial, this includes stages of advancement, the location of the trial, the experimental design, the genotypes name and the plot ID. The barcode used at the yam breeding placed on tubes, DNA plates, SAH boxes. Materials used exhibit permanent adhesion and can withstand high and low temperatures.Barcoding labels provide information and identification of a trial, plot id, and clone name. Proper labelling ensures samples and plot identification and minimize mixtures as well as human errors.The SOP covers field trials plot labelling, screen house and post-harvest samples barcoding.Function: Labeling and BarcodingIITA-YM-SOP11 Laboratory Technician: Implement barcode labelling of samples in the lab.• YamBase• Pinter: Zebra/Laser• Sticker barcode paper• Media• Barcode ribbon label (different size)• Desktop computerStep 1: Ensure the trial field book is uploaded to yambase.Step 2: Login into yambase.orgStep 3: Click on manage and click on label designer Step 4: Select the trial you want to design from the data source and select either by plant base or plot base click next.Step 5: Format the page by selecting US letter PDF format and label or custom size.Step 6: Once the format and the page are set, select the nature of the barcode type to be used (1D, 2D). Additional information can be added, such as location, planting date, etc.Step 7: Save and download your barcode labels in PDFStep 8: Print the labels using Zebra or Laser printer depending on the label media available.Design barcode labels from Zebra printer software are generally used for large trials, especially early generation trials.Step 1: Ensure the trial field book is uploaded to YamBase.Step 2: Login into yambase.orgStep 3: To export the field layout, navigate to the trial detail page and scroll down to the \"Experimental Design\" section. Click on the first tab labelled \"Download Layout\" and follow the wizard to download your file.Step 4: Save the field book download as a worksheet using excel format 97-2003The exported file will contain, amongst other fields, the plot name, plot ID, accession name, plot number, block number, replication number, row number and column number.The Zebra Designer Pro 2 software will help you select which information to be included Step 5: Open Zebra APP on the desktop computer == right-click BC property, select QR from the 2D icon, and pick 128 as linear.Step 6: Click the file and select new select standard mode (click next)Step 7: Select stock (click next); page size selects automatically (click next)Step 8: Label layout Landscape (click next), Label dimension (width 19, height 2.5, number of rows 4) (click finish)Step 9: Click barcode designStep 10: Click DROP -= (select barcode object) (click next)Step 11: Click VARIABLE and DATABASE (click next)Step 12: Click BROWSE and select the file to save as worksheet 97 -2003 early.Step 13: CHECK TABLE (click next) (click next)Step 14: Click RECORD PRINTStep 15: Ensure that field plots and lab samples are labelled according to the field book.After field labels, screen house tags, lab tags, or other identifying labels are no longer used, they should be collected from the source and placed in a central collection unit to be disposed of later. The field and lab supervisors should ensure the proper disposal of these labels.","tokenCount":"539"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/7911218134.json b/data/part_5/7911218134.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c750285c108f7ef4eb6d672cc0c91aed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7a97a49e-ed20-46ba-af59-34d6c56094f0/retrieve","id":"1758681881"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a08ec021-4b3f-43f3-90ab-c857631caaf9","pagecount":"16","content":"This report is a summary of outcomes achieved during 2023.Throughout the past year, our commitment to advancing in evidence-based decision-making has been fundamental in transforming the management of research integrity, quality, and value at the cluster level within the AICCRA project. We have cultivated a culture focused on results in project monitoring and evaluation (M&E), leveraging the capabilities of MARLO to streamline our planning and reporting processes. This strategic approach has significantly enhanced accountability and transparency, enabling informed strategic decision-making across the project.Moving forward, our emphasis will shift towards operationalizing the Data Management Plan according to the additional financing and the new results framework. A keystone of our unit's responsibility. This plan is designed to ensure that all project outputs are publicly accessible, and that each performance indicator is backed by high-quality evidence for strong project management. Our goal is to foster an environment where open data and thorough evidence-based practices underpin the entirety of our project's lifecycle. By prioritizing the Data Management Plan, we aim to set a new standard for data accessibility and quality, ensuring that every piece of information we generate is a step towards achieving our mission of catalyzing positive change within the agricultural sector.This report summarizes a series of activities and enhancements we pursued over the year to improve the MARLO system and our planning and reporting processes. It reflects our commitment to enhancing efficiency, user experience as well as aligning ourselves with open data and evidence-based decision-making principles. In this document, we share our journey towards more effective and transparent project management.The image below (Figure 1) illustrates an architecture diagram of the key components hosted on AWS that support the MARLO system's operation. This cloud-based infrastructure ensures that MARLO remains online and fully functional, highlighting our integration with CGNET for email services and our testing environment. The diagram is designed to be straightforward, providing a clear overview of how these components interconnect to maintain the system's reliability and performance. a. The operating system of the application server hosted in Amazon Web was updated from Ubuntu 18.04 to Ubuntu 20.04.6. This update improved the site's stability and security. b. The database service kept the same characteristics as a Relational Database Service (RDS) in Amazon Web Services using MySQL. c. AICCRA digital certificate is valid until May 26 2024 (Annex 1) and it is scheduled to be renewed for another year. d. We have operationalized a backup strategy for MARLO-AICCRA Data:• We have established an automated backup process as plan B in case there is a critical situation on the site. All files are being placed on the cloud and they are regularly transferred automatically to the Alliance File System located in Palmira, Colombia. • We implemented an automated process that moves all backups into an S3 bucket in AWS (Annex 2). • The Amazon Web Service also takes a full snapshot of the database server every 8 hours which is stored in the data center in Virginia (USA). This snapshot contains the data of the AICCRA database and its server configuration. (Annex 3).a. The following JAVA libraries were updated in order to improve the site's security and performance:• Struts 2 library. It was updated in the different environments where the application is deployed: production, testing and local environments. This update was necessary as a way to correct the vulnerability it represented as a deprecated library. This case was directly reported by the alliance's infrastructure team, and thanks to the library's update we can guarantee software security. In Annex 4, you can see the vulnerability Alliance Team notification email for more details. • An alert was sent by GitHub indicating that the current version of the minify library was deprecated, that one was updated on the system from version 1.7.4 to 1.7.6 and was configured to work with CSS files. (Refer to the code commit associated with this upgrade for more details). • The Closure-Compile plugin was implemented to process JS files due to its support for the latest JavaScript versions and formats. Previously, the minify library was used for this approache, but it did not process the latest JS´ versions and formats correctly. Closure-Compile ensures effective processing of JS files, even with the latest technologies in web development. (Refer to the code commit associated with this upgrade for more details).b. The deliverable synchronization service was updated in order to adjust it to a new API release. For more information refer to the code commit with this update here.a. In January 2023, we became part of the Alliance IT ticketing system as a way to manage our support in accordance with the Service Level Agreements (SLA). In the Annex 5, it shows the email screenshot announcing the use of the alliance´s ticketing system. b. The MARLO Team has resolved 86 support tickets for the AICCRA community in 2023 (from Jan 01 to Dec 31). (See tickets 2023 report).We have guided the different planning and reporting processes that have emerged in the system throughout the year. We have also provided technical assistance as requested.As part of our objectives as a unit and as a complement of the AICCRA Data Management Plan´s implementation, we aim to offer a comprehensive project management process that ensures the success and efficiency of our processes (planning and reporting).Each year of the parent project has helped us improve the implementation of our process which begins with the development of a detailed schedule that includes every task and milestone, along with specific start and end dates. Through regular meetings with CL, PMC, and CT members, we ensure compliance with these dates proactively addressing challenges or delays and seeking solutions in order to keep the process on track. We also monitor the plan regularly as a way to guarantee success in relation to previously established objectives. Our methodology ensures detailed planning and effective communication and tracking. This facilitates informed decision-making and the achievement of optimal results. You can consult our communication plan with AICCRA members here.a. PMC will be able to go through a preliminary process before entering comments into the system. They will be allowed to write an initial comment in \"Draft\" mode. Subsequently, a PMC member will be in charge of reviewing all comments to ensure that there are no duplicates or inconsistencies (Annex 6). b. The search field in the MARLO deliverable section was enhanced (see release note). c. A guide button was included on all MARLO sections where users will be able to see what is expected from them in each section at the planning and reporting level (see release note).We developed three (3) sections modules where we can manage: a. Messages: Any admin user can add messages to communicate our users significant events occurring within the system. This feature is used to transmit important information such as the unavailability of the technical team to provide support on national holidays or system update processes. This ensures that users can plan and coordinate their planning and reporting activities accordingly. b. Feedback: We developed a module that allows assigning a field as part of the QA process, enabling an icon for providing feedback. This is because not all fields in MARLO have the option to receive feedback. We created a system for administrators to manage these fields within the admin section, eliminating the need to go through a developer to enable or disable comments for a field (Annex 7). c. Guide button: Admin users can change the information displayed on each section based on the process and/or any updates on the PIM (see release note). d. Timeline: Admins can change the information displayed on the timeline component.In our commitment to enhancing the usability of the system and to reduce the need for excessive clicking and navigation between sections, we updated the homepage to allow direct access to various MARLO items, including clusters, deliverables, OICRs, and Innovations. This update is expected to help users find the sections they need more quickly (Annex 8).We have introduced two key enhancements and business rules to our platform in relation to our Key Performance Indicators.The first is a new feature for reporting on the IPI 1.2 indicator, designed to streamline the reporting process for our users (see release note). The second improvement focuses on the IPI 2.3 indicator, allowing users to break down the number of trainees to avoid double counting and to maintain accurate records of their contributions (see release note). This functionality is especially useful in the context of the 2023 Mid-year and Annual reporting cycles, offering a more detailed and efficient way to manage and report on training activities.a. We released a functionality in the system to help users identify duplicate deliverables by checking the dissemination section for previously reported URLs, handles, or DOIs. This enhancement aims to streamline the process and ensure accuracy in reporting deliverables, offering solutions for duplicates and facilitating coordination to avoid redundancy (see release note). b. We have enhanced the deliverables tables with improved keyword search and customizable viewing options, enabling users to swiftly navigate and personalize their data management experience. These upgrades facilitate the efficient organization and retrieval of deliverable information (see release note). c. We aligned the deliverables sub-categories in MARLO with the OneCGIAR vision, ensuring interoperability among digital products like MARLO, MEL, PRMS, CG Core, and CGSpace. This update facilitates consistent reporting across platforms for deliverables from 2021 onward, enhancing confidence in data management and reporting processes (see release note).We have enabled the feature in MARLO to export the information entered about a specific cluster into a PDF report format. This functionality is accessible through the \"Summaries\" section, which is already available in the system on the horizontal menu (Annex 9).a. We have integrated the qualification metrics for OICRs and MELIAs into the dashboard for internal use (see release note). b. We launched the MARLO Innovations Dashboard to efficiently map AICCRA Innovations to clusters, IPIs, and PDOs, based on insights from Cluster leaders (see release note). ","tokenCount":"1649"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b6cab81e562fb7d0e1a920ca817d2fae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1c37a36-5266-4506-8291-588c8a936743/retrieve","id":"1297332686"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7ff835f3-89b8-4bd5-ba19-463cb170c1ef","pagecount":"208","content":"Los conocimientos colectivos que se incluyen en el presente catálogo son propiedad intelectual exclusiva de los proveedores originales de la información, es decir de las comunidades campesinas que proporcionaron dicha información, de acuerdo a lo dispuesto por la Ley 27811 de la República del Perú 1 , tal como lo especifica el consentimiento informado previo firmado entre las comunidades campesinas de Huayta Corral, Túpac Amaru, Atalla-Villa Hermosa,Esperamos que esta pequeña muestra de la gran diversidad biológica de especies y variedades de papa nativa sirva de inspiración para los agricultores jóvenes, quienes tienen en sus manos una valiosa herencia de sus antepasados que es necesario mantener y promover. A la vez, para instituciones en otras regiones de los Andes, para que poco a poco se logre documentar las variedades que se mantienen in-situ. Añanchaykin ñoqapi tukuy sunquyki churasqaykimanta (quedo muy agradecido con todo mi corazón).de dicho departamento peruano, presentadas con fotografías e información descriptiva que logra combinar un balance entre los conocimientos tradicionales con los resultados de la investigación científica de campo y laboratorio.La combinación de este tipo de información en un solo documento es única e, indudablemente, constituye un aporte importante para dar a conocer la riqueza La papa también es un icono cultural y parte del patrimonio de las comunidades campesinas. Se expresa en diversas formas y aún se aplican muchas tecnologías ancestrales en el cultivo. Ejemplos son el uso de la chakitaklla en los diversos sistemas de labranza del suelo o la observación de las fases de la luna para iniciar la siembra.En la cocina, la mujer huancavelicana muestra su destreza en la preparación de variados platos utilizando las diferentes papas y chuños. A la vez, la papa está presente en variadas expresiones artísticas como son en el baile de papa tarpuy o el canto del harawi. En conjunto las prácticas, conocimientos, potajes y otras expresiones forman parte de la riqueza cultural del entorno de la papa nativa.Existen diferentes puntos de vista en cuanto al número de especies de papa cultivada. La taxonomía formal de Ochoa (1999), reconoce 9 especies; la de Hawkes (1990), 7 especies y subespecies; y la de Huamán y Spooner (2002), 1 especie con 8 grupos taxonómicos. El Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) comúnmente considera la clasificación de 8 especies cultivadas. En el departamento de Huancavelica se encuentran 7 de ellas.El departamento de Huancavelica cubre un área de 2.213.100 hectáreas, lo que representa el 6.1% de la superficie total de los Andes peruanos. La papa es el cultivo de mayor importancia. Ocupa aproximadamente el 27% de la superficie total dedicada a cultivos (Rubina y Barreda, 2000). Le siguen el maíz, la cebada, el trigo, el haba y la arveja. Entre 1990 y 1998, la papa cubría un promedio de 11.681 hectáreas anuales a nivel departamental, representando el 5.8% del área total nacional estimada en 202.317 hectáreas (Egúsquiza, 2000). Para el mismo periodo, los rendimientos promedios fluctuaban entre 7.7 a 8.6 toneladas métricas por hectárea (OIA-MINAG, 1998). La producción de papa proveniente de Huancavelica representa el 3.6% de la producción promedio nacional. La papa, al igual que la cebada y otros cereales, constituye un alimento básico para las comunidades alto-andinas de Huancavelica. Estudios nutricionales demuestran que la papa aporta un 23.0%-38.6% de energía, 28.0%-57.8% de proteína, 4.9%-16.8% de hierro, 7.0%-45.2% de zinc y 3.2%-6.2% de calcio requerido por niños y adultos, dependiendo de la época del año; además, es una fuente importante de vitamina C. Asimismo, para muchos agricultores huancavelicanos la venta de papa representa la fuente principal de ingresos familiares y con la comercialización de los excedentes logran obtener dinero para cubrir parte de las necesidades básicas. Comúnmente se cultiva en los valles interandinos, entre los 2.500 a 3.300 msnm. En Huancavelica se encuentra principalmente en los distritos de Huachocolpa, Tintay Puncu y Colcabamba (Prov. de Tayacaja). Actualmente esta especie es muy escasa.Solanum ajanhuiri es una especie de papa amarga que se cultiva mayormente en el altiplano andino del departamento de Puno (Perú) y en Bolivia.El Araq o arqa papa tiene tubérculos con piel gruesa (\"doble cáscara\"), estolones largos y es muy resistente a plagas y enfermedades. Sus tubérculos son recolectados para consumo y solamente a veces los agricultores la cultivan. En los Andes se conoce a esta especie con diferentes nombres populares: papa gentil (en el centro del Perú), chayka papa (Yauyos, Lima), papa curao (Junín), tinopo (Venezuela) y lelekkoya (Bolivia).En Huancavelica también existen por lo menos 7 especies de papa silvestre: S. amayanum, S. acaule, S. bill-hookeri, S. bukasovii, S. gracilifrons, S. medians y S. huancavelicae (Fuentealba, 2004; Ochoa, 2003; Salas, comunicación personal;   Spooner et al., 1999). Los agricultores huancavelicanos conocen a las papas silvestres como atoq papa o atoqpa papa. En las zonas de altitud intermedia, muchas veces entre el cultivo de maíz, se encuentra una especie de papa semi-domesticada que los pobladores conocen como araq o arqa papa 4 . Según Ochoa (2001), se trata de S. tuberosum subsp. andigena. Los agricultores huancavelicanos mantienen su propio sistema de clasificación taxonómica de papa. Este sistema local o indígena, reconoce tres especies principales: papa tarpuy (las papas que se siembran y se consumen), atoq papa (las papas que crecen en forma silvestre y no se consumen), y araq o arqa papa (las papas que crecen en estado silvestre y se consumen).Los agricultores huancavelicanos mantienen una impresionante diversidad de variedades de papa nativa. Estudios preliminares indican que el departamento cuenta con 500 a 600 variedades.Las papas mejoradas resultado de los cruces entre Solanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum x S. tuberosum subsp. andigena (TxA), representan diversas variedades que se cultivan en Huancavelica desde la década del 50. Las variedades más comunes son: Yungay, Revolución, Canchán y Perricholi. Sin embargo, la mayor diversidad de variedades se encuentra en las especies S. tuberosum subsp. andigena, S. goniocalyx y S. chaucha. Algunas variedades huancavelicanas que pertenecen a S. tuberosum subsp. andigena son: Duraznillo, Quichka Matanka, Yana Manwa, Yutupa Runtun, Yuraq Gaspar, Muru Gaspar, Payapa Ankun, Pulus y Chiqchi Wali. Algunas que pertenecen a S. goniocalyx son: Rosas, Runtus, Puka Ñawi Pasña, Puka Dusis, Clavelina, Allqa Ritipa Sisan y Peruanita. En S. chaucha encontramos a: Allqa Walas, Yana Wayru, Muru Wayru, Qillu Wayru, Muru Llumchuyy Waqachi, Puka Llumchuyy Waqachi, Puka Murunki y Kuchipa Qallun. La especie S. stenotomum cuenta con un número menor de variedades, por ejemplo: Yana Puqya, Suytu Puqya, Yana Ñata y Yuraq Ipillu. Los grupos de variedades amargas que pertenecen a S. curtilobum y S. juzepczukii, son: Yuraq Siri, Yana Siri,  Los agricultores huancavelicanos, en su sistema taxonómico propio, diferencian dos rangos específicos dentro de la papa tarpuy o papa cultivada. En primer lugar, reconocen grupos de variedades que se distinguen principalmente por la forma de los tubérculos. Algunos grupos de cultivares comunes son: grupo Pasña, grupo Suytu, grupo Imilla, grupo Ipillu, grupo Gaspar, grupo Llumchuy Waqachi, grupo Wayru, grupo Ñata, grupo Waña y grupo Siri. También diferencian variedades específicas en cada uno de estos grupos, mayormente por combinaciones primarias y secundarias en los colores de los tubérculos. Por ejemplo, el grupo Pasña se caracteriza por tener tubérculos comprimidos con ojos semi-profundos.Dentro del grupo se distinguen variedades por combinación de colores de la piel: Puka Ñawi Pasña, Azul Ñawi Pasña, Puka Chiqchi Pasña, Yuraq Pasña, etc.Otros aspectos de la taxonomía local están basados en el uso de descriptores morfológicos locales y en la nomenclatura quechua. Los agricultores huancavelicanos reconocen las variedades viendo solamente la planta, para lo cual utilizan 22 descriptores morfológicos. También emplean seis descriptores de tubérculos para identificar las variedades después de la cosecha. La nomenclatura quechua de los grupos de variedades y de las variedades específicas es particularmente amplia y generalmente se basa en referencias morfológicas directas (suytu = larga) o indirectas (wamanpa uman = cabeza de halcón). La nomenclatura indirecta o metafórica está basada en un simbolismo inherente que puede hacer referencia a personas (pasña = señorita), a animales (kuchipa qallun = lengua de chancho) o relacionado a éstos (yutupa runtun = huevo de perdiz), a supuestos lugares de origen (yana tarmeña = tarmeña negra) y a características muy particulares (yuraq llumchuy waqachi = que hace llorar a la nuera blanca).En Huancavelica existen dos campañas muy marcadas para el cultivo de papa nativa: la michka (campaña chica) y el qatun tarpuy (campaña grande).La instalación de la michka, conocida también como maway en otras partes del Perú, se realiza entre julio y agosto. Son siembras pequeñas ubicadas cerca a una casa o a una fuente de agua. Generalmente se instalan bajo el sistema de labranza en barbecho 5 . Las variedades que se utilizan son harinosas (no amargas), de brotación temprana y con valor comercial. La cosecha se realiza entre enero y marzo, cuando la reserva de papa en los almacenes familiares empieza a agotarse. Muchos agricultores venden parte de la cosecha en los mercados aprovechando que el precio de la papa es más alto en estos meses. La campaña del qatun tarpuy cubre un área mayor que la michka. La siembra generalmente se inicia en octubre con la instalación de variedades amargas en las zonas de mayor altura; éstas se siembran bajo labranza cero en chacmeo 6 o chiwa 7 .Seguidamente, entre octubre y noviembre, se siembran las variedades harinosas en barbecho, chacmeo o chiwa. La siembra de diversas variedades en una sola chacra se conoce como chaqru (mezcla). Algunas variedades nativas con valor comercial como Peruanita, Runtus, Camotillo o Muru Wayru, se siembran en chacras dedicadas exclusivamente a estas variedades. La cosecha del qatun tarpuy se realiza entre mayo y junio. Generalmente se inicia con la cosecha de las variedades harinosas y se termina con las variedades amargas.El departamento de Huancavelica tiene una geografía muy variada a la cual se le han aplicado diversos sistemas de clasificación ecológica: pertenece a los Andes amarillos (Tapia, 1996), cuenta con 5 de 8 zonas naturales (Pulgar Vidal, 1996) y con 28 de las 84 zonas de vida reconocidas para el Perú (Holdridge, 1967). No existe una clasificación detallada de sus agroecosistemas o zonas de producción agrícola. Sin La labranza en chacmeo consiste en voltear dos terrones de suelo sobre el pasto para posteriormente depositar la semilla en medio de los terrones. Es un tipo de labranza mínima adaptada al uso de la chakitaklla y la pradera altoandina. El chacmeo se hace mayormente entre enero y abril, cuando el suelo está suave por la presencia de lluvias. El cultivo de la papa se desarrolla encima del pasto y generalmente se aplica un solo aporque. También se conoce a este tipo de labranza como chacma o suka. 7 La labranza en chiwa consiste en abrir un hueco o agujero en el pasto para depositar ahí la semilla y taparla. Luego de un mes, se voltean dos terrones encima de la semilla tapada. Es un tipo de labranza mínima adaptada al uso de la chakitaklla. La labranza en chiwa se realiza al mismo momento de la siembra, entre octubre y noviembre.También se conoce a este tipo de labranza como qaqi, imicha, tipka o yakuycha o siembra en crudo.La primera fertilización se realiza al momento de la siembra. Los agricultores mayormente utilizan abonos orgánicos -guano de carnero, alpaca y llama-para la siembra en mezcla o chaqru destinada al autoconsumo. La siembra de variedades comerciales de papa nativa a veces se abona con fertilizantes químicos. Se aplica una segunda fertilización al momento del primer aporque. Las siembras en chacmeo Las heladas y granizadas son muy frecuentes en las zonas altas y por ello los agricultores aplican diferentes técnicas semi tradicionales para mitigar el daño que les causan. En las zonas de mayor riesgo se instalan variedades amargas o variedades robustas, como la Yana Puqya, que demuestran mayor tolerancia. Los agricultores también suelen humear o quemar bosta (estiércol seco) creando un microclima en el campo de cultivo en noches de heladas. Cuentan los agricultores que las siembras en chaqru demuestran mayor tolerancia a las heladas y granizadas porque \"las variedades se protegen entre ellas\". Para evitar los daños causados por las granizadas los agricultores emplean cohetes, de preferencia de dos tiempos, para conseguir un mayor efecto en la onda expansiva dirigida hacia las nubes. Otra práctica es la de \"hacer silbar al cuy\", que consiste en levantar un cuy hacia la nube negra y pellizcarlo para que grite. Los agricultores tratan de distribuir el riesgo, instalando chacras en diferentes lugares.Las principales plagas de campo que perjudican al cultivo de papa nativa son el gorgojo de los Andes o papa kuru (Premnotrypes spp.), el pici-pici (Epitrix spp.) y la vaca-vaca o yana-yana (Epicauta spp.). Los nematodos (Globodera pallida) causan daño donde las rotaciones se han vuelto muy seguidas y el suelo no descansa. La polilla (Symmetrischema plaesiosema), daña a los tubérculos almacenados en las trojes 10 , ubicados en altitudes menores a 4.000 m. La mayoría de agricultores opta por la rotación de cultivos como estrategia principal de prevención. El uso de plaguicidas es muy limitado y solamente algunos agricultores aplican componentes de Manejo Integrado de Plagas (MIP). Otros agricultores han aprendido a utilizar biocidas preparados con plantas locales como el marco (Ambrosia peruviana) o el ajenjo (Artemisia absinthium).La rancha, causada por Phytophthora infestans, es la enfermedad de mayor incidencia en campos instalados a menos de 4.000 m de altura. En los campos de cultivos con suelos fríos y húmedos se puede presentar Rhizoctonia solani.Generalmente, son pocos los agricultores que aplican funguicidas comerciales para combatir estas enfermedades. En cambio, algunos aplican sustratos naturales como diluciones de orines podridos para prevenir la rancha. Los agricultores también consideran que las siembras en mezcla o chaqru demuestran mayor tolerancia. En Huancavelica hay una incidencia mínima de los virus PLRV y PVY en variedades de papa nativa; se debe a la escasa presencia de vectores (áfidos). Sin embargo, se han encontrado índices altos de los virus APMoV y PVX. Probablemente se debe a la presencia del escarabajo verde de la hoja (Diabrotica spp.), en el caso de APMoV, y a trasmisión por contacto en el caso de PVX.Por lo general la cosecha se realiza manualmente, levantando los tubérculos con chakitaklla, azadón o pico. Algunos agricultores acostumbran cortar el follaje antes de la cosecha a fin de acelerar la maduración del tubérculo; este follaje sirve como forraje para el ganado. Las mujeres realizan una primera selección al momento de la cosecha, separando los tubérculos grandes para consumo o venta, los medianos para semilla y los pequeños para chuño. Se realiza una segunda selección -cerca a la casa-de las papas semilla y luego se almacenan en trojes. Algunos agricultores manejan hasta 10 diferentes trojes, dependiendo del propósito (consumo, venta o semilla) y de la composición de la producción (variedades amargas, harinosas o comerciales). Las trojes con papa semilla no se manipulan hasta el inicio de la siguiente campaña de siembra. En el caso de la semilla, es común que se realice una tercera selección antes de la siembra, para descartar los tubérculos podridos o dañados.El uso principal de la papa nativa es, indudablemente, la alimentación familiar. Las mujeres conocen las características de cada una de las variedades. Las usan apropiadamente en la cocina. Las variedades harinosas se utilizan en diversos procesos: hervido, horneado, asado, frito, secado y secado-congelado. Estos procesos dan lugar a múltiples preparaciones: sopas, guisos, purés, causas, papa a la huancaína, chichas, carapulcra, saqta mate y otros. Las variedades amargas se utilizan para el proceso de secado-congelado, resultando en la obtención de diferentes tipos de chuño (kallki chuño, yuraq chuño). A la vez, el chuño se utiliza en diversas preparaciones: mazamorra de chuño, dulces de chuño, sopa de chuño o chuño hervido.Las mujeres conocen perfectamente los usos culinarios adecuados para cada una de las variedades. Así, la variedad Runtus combina bien con el caldo de gallina, la variedad Rosas es excelente para la preparación de la papa a la huancaína y la variedad Santo Domingo mejora su sabor cuando se hornea en la pachamanca. Es larga la lista de los usos culinarios de los tubérculos de las diversas variedades.También se utilizan las hojas de algunas variedades para dar sabor de charki o carne seca a las sopas.Usos secundarios de las papas nativas son: el follaje fresco como forraje; el follaje seco como combustible; las flores para decorar sombreros; las flores y los tubérculos para decoración en ciertas festividades; las bayas en la confección de juguetes para niños; tubérculos y hojas para usos medicinales; el líquido de los tubérculos de ciertas variedades amargas para lavar ropa.Los agricultores de Huancavelica venden papa nativa en los mercados locales y extra-regionales. También practican distintos mecanismos de intercambios no monetarios como el trueque (intercambio de un producto por otro), la minka (intercambio asimétrico, que consiste en pagar el trabajo de un obrero con especies) y el ayni (tipo de intercambio simétrico, cuando la mano de obra se devuelve o paga de la misma manera y en otra oportunidad). Las \"papas regalo\" son variedades Otra razón está relacionada con las diferentes propiedades o características de cada una de las variedades en cuanto a precocidad, tiempo de cocción, resistencia a plagas y enfermedades, tolerancia a sequías, granizadas y heladas. El conocimiento de todos estos factores ofrece a los agricultores un tipo de seguro para salvaguardar el alimento de cada día. También se encuentra motivación en los diversos usos que tienen las variedades. Estos usos, generales o específicos, estimulan a los agricultores a mantener la diversidad para satisfacer la demanda familiar de alimento, medicina, forraje, condimento, combustible, etc.Sin embargo, para la mayoría de agricultores la conservación de las variedades no es un objetivo en sí mismo, sino más bien consecuencia del importante rol que éstas cumplen en el sistema familiar como recurso de mucha utilidad. Hay familias que mantienen menos de 5 variedades, y otras que mantienen más de 100 variedades. A estas últimas las denominamos \"familias conservacionistas\". Son las que encuentran una motivación especial en la valiosa labor de mantener mucha diversidad, por el prestigio que les da o, simplemente, por curiosidad y cariño a la papa. Cabe resaltar la importante labor de conservación que realizan los agricultores de Huancavelica. Con ingenio adaptan la diversidad a sus necesidades y con el tiempo contribuyen a la evolución de la diversidad genética de la papa.  (1968 -1975) la comunidad formaba parte de la hacienda Conopa, de propiedad de los hacendados Zacarías y Oswaldo Carvajal. Los comuneros de más edad aún recuerdan los maltratos que sufrían durante esa época. Cuenta don Jerónimo García Quispe que los hacendados iniciaron un juicio contra los comuneros cuando el Sr. Tomás Villena gestionó la primera escuela, a inicios de los años 60.El calendario festivo de la comunidad es muy rico. Durante el mes de febrero se festeja el carnaval. El 3 de mayo de cada año se realiza la fiesta en homenaje a la Santa Cruz. En julio, las familias celebran la fiesta del Santiago para realizar la herranza o señalización del ganado. Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: mazamorra de chuño, chaufa de cebada, chuño revuelto con huevo, y pachamanca durante la época de cosechas.Actualmente la comunidad alberga a 56 familias, dedicadas a la agricultura y ganadería en pequeña escala. Venden sus papas en el mercado de la ciudad de Antes de la reforma agraria, la comunidad formaba parte de la hacienda Santa Cruz de Esperanza, de propiedad de la familia Loret de Mola. Cuentan los comuneros antiguos que trabajaban como esclavos sin recibir sueldo alguno. Después de la reforma agraria la comunidad pasó a formar parte de una cooperativa con 11 predios, siendo Túpac Amaru uno de ellos.El calendario festivo de la comunidad es muy rico. Durante el mes de febrero se festeja el carnaval. El 3 de mayo se realiza la fiesta en homenaje a la Santa Cruz. En julio, las familias celebran la fiesta del Santiago para realizar la herranza o señalización del ganado. También mantienen las costumbres de suyunakuy, una competencia de labranza del suelo con la chakitaklla, y del taqsachi, costumbre que se practica al momento de la cosecha y que consiste en jugar con la pachamanca echando papa, oca o maswa en las caras de los presentes para que haya una buena producción al año siguiente.Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: chuño pasi, chaufa de cebada, mazamorra de oca, sopa de maswa, ají de cebada, yuyo saqti, cuy chactado, y pachamanca durante la época de cosechas. Lugares turísticos de interés son Aqchi Qaqa, zona rocosa donde se encuentran vizcachas y águilas; Manqa Renqa, quebrada con una pequeña catarata; y Ruyaq Viska Wayqu, Kachakupa Wañusqan y Pincha Corral, donde se pueden observar restos arqueológicos.Actualmente la comunidad alberga a 46 familias dedicadas a la agricultura y ganadería en pequeña escala. Venden sus papas en el mercado de la ciudad de Huancayo o en Pampas. En los últimos años las familias se han dedicado con mayor fuerza al cultivo de maca (Lepidium meyenii) por ofrecer un mejor mercado. El calendario festivo de la comunidad es muy rico. Durante el mes de febrero se festeja el carnaval. En julio, las familias celebran la fiesta del Santiago para realizar la herranza o señalización del ganado. También se mantienen las costumbres del yupanakuy, competencia de labranza del suelo con la chakitaklla; waylas, pelea entre hombres que miden su fuerza chocándose con los hombros; viga wantuy, prueba de fuerza para los hombres jóvenes de la comunidad quienes tienen que cargar un palo pesado por grandes distancias y, wawa wañuy, costumbre ritual que se realiza cuando fallece un recién nacido. En el lavatorio, cinco días después de su muerte, se hace una muñeca bebe (killi) con la ropa del bebé fallecido. Se carga y se baila con esta muñeca para que el alma del bebé esté tranquila.Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: sopa de morón, papa a la huancaína, machka, sopa de chuño, sopa de maswa, ensalada de berros o nabo, zanco, y pachamanca durante la época de cosechas. Los lugares de interés turístico son Qarwa Qaqa, donde se puede observar algunos ejemplares de la fauna alto-andina, como vizcachas, zorros, gavilanes y águilas, y Rumi Churco, una hermosa formación de Santiago para realizar la herranza o señalización del ganado. También se mantienen las costumbres del yupanakuy, competencia de labranza del suelo con la chakitaklla; waylas, pelea costumbrista entre hombres que miden su fuerza chocándose con los hombros; viga wantuy, prueba de fuerza para los hombres jóvenes de la comunidad quienes tienen que cargar un palo pesado por grandes distancias; qachwa, un baile que se hace encima de la cebada recién cosechada para que se trille, y wawa wañuy, costumbre ritual que se realiza cuando fallece un recién nacido.En el lavatorio, cinco días después de su muerte, se hace una muñeca bebé (killi) con la ropa del bebé fallecido. Se carga y se baila con esta muñeca para que el alma del bebé esté tranquila.Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: sopa de chuño, panqueque de chuño, mazamorra de chuño, mermelada de papa, postre de papa, zanco, y pachamanca durante la época de cosechas. Los lugares de interés turístico incluyen Utulu Warcuna, Manca Machay y Cóndor Qaqa, desde donde se pueden observar hermosas paisajes y ejemplares de la fauna alto-andina, como vizcachas, zorros, gavilanes y águilas.Actualmente la comunidad alberga a 55 familias dedicadas a la agricultura y ganadería en pequeña escala. Venden papa y cebada en las ferias de Yauli o Paucará.También son excelentes artesanos. Sus tejidos a mano incluyen ondas (waraka), gorros (luqu), mantas (lliklla), pantalones (wara), casacas (solapa) y fajas (chumpi). Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande (Pongos) se ubica en el distrito de Ccochaccasa, provincia de Angaraes. Fue fundada el 24 de junio de 1993 cuando Pongos se separó de la comunidad de Ccochaccasa. Sin embargo, antes de esta fecha la población ya funcionaba como unidad independiente, sobre todo en lo referente a la producción agrícola. Hasta el día de hoy, Pongos conserva los sistemas de descanso sectorial de tierras (laymes). Cuentan que el nombre Pongos se deriva del término pongo.Antiguamente un pongo era un sirviente de la hacienda. Otra versión narra que un pongo era un almacén grande del hacendado; ahí se conservaban muy bien los alimentos por estar en altura. Actualmente, existe un solo barrio, distante de la población: Pampa Huay. costumbre que acompaña al cambio de las autoridades. Cada domingo, en la puerta de la iglesia, se hace el cabildo donde las autoridades se sientan en fila según su rango. Ahí se comparte el tinkuy, un buffet de muy variados potajes y bebidas que lleva cada autoridad. En febrero se festeja el carnaval. El segundo domingo de mayo se celebra la fiesta patronal de la Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande. En julio, las familias realizan la fiesta del Santiago para realizar la señalización del ganado. También se mantienen las costumbres del yupanakuy, competencia de labranza con la chakitaklla, y del varayoq, nombre de la autoridad tradicional. Es él quien realiza el qayakuy, una costumbre que consiste en llamar a la población a asamblea desde un paraje alto, y cumple el rol de cuidar a los cultivos. Varayoq también es el nombre de la barra santa que cargan las autoridades comunales.Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: mazamorra de chuño, teqte de habas y arvejas, sopa de maswa, sopa verde de papa, waypaquy, watia, cuy con papa seca y maní, segundo de chulqi, olluquito con charki, causa de papa amarilla, papa rellena y segundo de quinua. Los lugares de interés turístico incluyen Potrengo Wayqu, Curaqaqa, la laguna de Limaccocha y Molinos Antiguos (trapiche); en todos ellos se pueden observar hermosas paisajes, piedras con imágenes y restos de los antepasados.Actualmente la comunidad alberga a 34 familias dedicadas a la agricultura y ganadería en pequeña escala. Venden papa y cereales en la ciudad de Lircay. Hay comerciantes especializados que se dedican a la compra y venta de papa. También hay tejedores. El calendario festivo de la comunidad es muy rico. En el mes de enero se realiza la fiesta de las tijeras. Durante el mes de febrero se festeja el carnaval. En el mes de julio, las familias celebran la fiesta del Santiago para realizar la herranza o señalización del ganado. El 30 de agosto realizan la fiesta patronal en honor a Santa Rosa de Lima. También se mantiene la costumbre del yupanakuy, competencia de labranza del suelo con la chakitaklla.Los platos típicos de la comunidad incluyen: patasca de trigo, platos con cuy, chaufa de morón, picante de quinua, teqte de arvejas y habas, olluquito con charki, sopa de papa, y pachamanca durante la época de cosechas. Los lugares de interés turístico incluyen Viuda Machay, una roca en forma de punta que alberga una caverna; y Botijuela Wayqu, Potrengo Wayqu y Kichi Kuchu, lugares donde existen restos arqueológicos.Actualmente la comunidad alberga a 148 familias dedicadas a la agricultura y ganadería en pequeña escala. Venden papa y cereales en la ciudad de Lircay. También hay tejedores, comerciantes y albañiles. Don Ubaldo Cano Cahuana, de 63 años, y su esposa Donata Castillares Quispe, de 53 años, han nacido en Huayta Corral. Viven en la casa con sus hijos: Jesús (14 años) y Merce (18 años). Don Ubaldo cuenta: \"las papas las he adquirido de herencia de mi suegra y mis padres también me dejaron; de ahí en adelante he seguido aumentando variedades por intercambio con otros agricultores\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y al negocio. Don Ubaldo dice: \"tengo muchas variedades porque son especiales para comer en casa y no llegan al mercado\" .Familia Cano Castillares (Huayta Corral) FAMILIA CANO CASTILLARES Asociación de Productores Ganaderos (Huayta Corral) La Asociación de Productores Ganaderos está integrada por Dionisio Zósimo Quispe Flores, Víctor Curasma Chávez, Alfredo Curipaco Villalba, Obidio Ascurra Castellanos, Teofilo Villalba Castellares, Leonardo Félix Quispe Rojas, Julián Cóndor Villanueva, Ángel Quispe Medrano, Luis Rufino Curasma Chávez, Melecio Curasma Chávez, Teodoro Juan Curasma Chávez, Vidal Curipaco Villalba, y sus respectivas familias. Narra un miembro de la asociación: \"cada persona contribuyó con 5 variedades para un campo común de semilla, y así hemos aumentado como grupo; iniciamos el primer año con un total de 30 variedades y al segundo año llegamos a 60 variedades\" . La asociación se dedica a la agricultura y ganadería; siembran papa nativa y maca y también crían animales menores. Otro miembro de la asociación señala: \"nos gusta cultivar estas papas porque Don Freddy Wilson Huatarunco Rojas, de 27 años, y su esposa doña Dionisia Mucha, de 20 años, han nacido en Túpac Amaru. Tienen un hijo de 3 años: John Jairo. Comparten la casa con los hermanos de don Freddy: Rey Pinochet (12 años), Adán (14 años) y Rey Hamilton (16 años). Don Freddy cuenta: \"las papas las tengo por herencia de mis padres, porque estas papas nosotros consumíamos mayormente desde antes: son ricas y harinosas; hacemos trueque y también nos buscan como peón y pagan con papa; por eso en estos últimos años han aumentado mis papas nativas\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y a tejer. En los últimos años han participado en ferias agropecuarias exhibiendo su diversidad de papas nativas.Familia Huatarunco Mucha (Túpac Amaru) Don Dionisio Huamán Méndez, de 29 años, y su esposa doña Teresa Rojas, de 27 años, siempre han vivido en Túpac Amaru.Comparten la casa con don Víctor de 56 años, el padre de Dionisio. Tienen 2 hijos: Nilda (6 meses) y Royer (5 años). Don Dionisio cuenta: \"las papas son herencia de mis padres, me las dejaron; más bien las variedades se han disminuido, pero estamos recuperando otras clases; en esta comunidad sí hacen cambio, entre parientes se cambia; es bonito tener estas variedades por su color y sabor\" . La familia se dedica mayormente a la agricultura y la ganadería. Don Dionisio dice: \"es mejor sembrar las papas nativas sin insecticidas porque salen de mejor calidad; aquí en Túpac Amaru se siembran muchas variedades de papa nativa\" .Familia Huamán Rojas (Túpac Amaru)FAMILIA HUAMÁN ROJAS Don Juan Ramos Cóndor, de 58 años, y su esposa doña Sofía Cóndor Araujo, de 57 años, siempre han vivido en Villa Hermosa. Actualmente viven con sus hijos: Juan Walter (13 años), Magda (15 años), Joaquín (17 años), Urbano (19 años) y Beatriz (21 años). Los demás hijos varones ya han salido de la casa y viven cerca. Don Juan cuenta: \"desde los tiempos de los antepasados se han conservado estas papas; siempre he tenido muchas variedades, las obtuve por mis padres y mis abuelos; cada año sigo aumentando en las ferias y por medio de intercambio\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. Dice don Juan: \"tengo muchas variedades; las tengo para consumo, para vender y para competir en las ferias; tenía un hermano muy amigo quien falleció hace 8 años, con él nos incentivamos para seguir sembrando; he pasado mis semillas a mis hijos; quisiera que la gente valore el departamento de Huancavelica por haber tantas variedades de papas nativas\" .Familia Ramos Cóndor (Villa Hermosa; barrio Tunso) Don Armando Ramos Cóndor, de 27 años, y su esposa doña Aidé Parí Castro, de 21 años, radican en el barrio Tunso, Villa Hermosa. Don Armando ha nacido ahí, pero doña Aidé viene de otra comunidad. Viven con sus hijos: Efraín (2 años) y Maribel (6 años). Don Armando ha obtenido muchas variedades por parte de su padre, don Juan Ramos Cóndor. Cuenta don Armando: \"desde mis abuelos se tiene a las papas nativas, mis padres me las dejaron como herencia; he aumentado variedades en los últimos años por intercambio entre vecinos y agricultores de otras comunidades\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y ganadería. Dice don Armando: \"tengo a estas papas para comer en casa y para vender en el mercado, también hago trueque; las papas nativas son una riqueza de Huancavelica y de todo el Perú\" .Familia Ramos Parí (Villa Hermosa; barrio Tunso) FAMILIA RAMOS PARÍ Familia Ramos Matamoros (Villa Hermosa; barrio Tunso) FAMILIA RAMOS MATAMOROS Isaac Ramos Cóndor, de 23 años, y su esposa doña Martha Matamoros Ccanto, de 23 años, radican en el barrio Tunso, Villa Hermosa. Don Isaac ha nacido ahí, pero doña Martha viene de otra comunidad. Viven con sus hijos: Estefani (3 años) y Liliana Rosmery (5 años). Don Isaac ha obtenido muchas variedades por parte de su padre, don Juan Ramos Condori. Cuenta don Isaac: \"mi papa me dejó estas papas como una herencia, pero también recuerdo que mi abuelo cultivaba muchas de estas variedades; he recolectado nuevas variedades en las ferias y he aumentado en estos últimos años haciendo intercambio y trueque\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. Dice don Isaac: \"tengo muchas variedades de papa para el consumo de la familia y para vender al mercado, también me gusta salir a concursar en las ferias agropecuarias; me siento feliz produciendo estas papas para conservarlas\" . Don Antonio Paytan Ccantu, de 54 años, y su esposa doña Donatilda Mayhua Huamán, de 53 años, han nacido en Sillaccasa, Pucara. Viven con sus hijos: Felipa (7 años), Rober (10 años), Celia (12 años), María (22 años) y Ana (23 años). La familia cultiva muchas variedades de papa nativa. Don Antonio cuenta: \"estas papas las tengo de herencia de mis padres y otros familiares; me las dieron cuando estaba joven\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. A la familia le gusta conservar las papas nativas; también conservan muchas variedades de habas. Don Antonio dice: \"quisiéramos tener más mercado para nuestras papas; son muy ricas y sería bueno que la gente conozca las variedades\" . Familia Paytan Matamoros (Pucara; barrio Sillaccasa) Don Alejandro Huamán Matamoros y su familia siempre han vivido en Pucara, barrio Sillaccasa. Cuenta don Alejandro: \"conozco a estas papas desde mi niñez, mis padres y mis abuelos las cultivaban; después me las entregaron y ahora las cuido con mucha dedicación; poco a poco también he logrado aumentar nuevas variedades por hacer viajes o trueque\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. Dice don Alejandro: \"son abundantes aquí las variedades de la comunidad; nos gusta tenerlas porque son un buen alimento y cada variedad tiene su gusto especial; ahora mayormente se mantienen aquí en la parte alta, pero antes también se cultivaban en la misma población y es ahí donde más han desaparecido las papas; parece que ya no quieren producir en las zonas bajas\" .Familia Huamán Matamoros (Pucara; barrio de Sillaccasa) Este grupo, formado por los comuneros Víctor Palomino Matamoros, Luciano Carvajal Ccincho, Arconio Crispín Quispe, Antonio Palomino Quispe, Moisés Ortiz Escobar, Roberto Palomino Quispe, Alejandro Soto Carvajal, Juan de Dios Palomino Matamoros, Lorenzo Soto Carvajal, Juan Palomino Matamoros, León Quinto Escobar, Gregorio Palomino Ortiz y sus respectivas familias, se dedica al cultivo de papas nativas. Casi todos sus integrantes siempre han radicado en Dos de Mayo. Narra un integrante del grupo: \"cada uno de nosotros ha encontrado estas papas por nuestros abuelos, ya desde muy antes; siempre hemos tenido estas papas; hemos intercambiado entre nosotros y también hemos aumentado por trueque y compra\". Todos los integrantes se dedican mayormente a la agricultura, la ganadería y la elaboración de artesanías típicas de Chopcca. Cuenta otro integrante: \"nosotros cultivamos estas papas para consumo y un poquito para vender, también hacemos chuño\". Don León Quinto Escobar, de 28 años, y su esposa, doña Paulina Matamoros Escobar, han nacido en Dos de Mayo. Viven con sus hijas: Zenayda (5 meses), Margarita (2 años), Gloria (6 años), Lidia (7 años), Filomena (8 años) y Marina (9 años). Cuenta don León: \"he adquirido una parte por mi padre y la otra por mi suegro, nos dejaron como parte de la herencia; después he aumentado variedades comprando, haciendo trueque y por intercambio\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y al tejido de trajes típicos de Chopcca. Dice don León: \"tengo muchas variedades porque las papas nativas son muy agradables y harinosas cuando se consumen; también tengo papa para venta, pero mayormente es para comerla en casa\" .Familia Quinto Matamoros (Dos de Mayo) Don José Cahuana Escobar, de 38 años, y su esposa doña Victorina Sedano Palomino, de 38 años, han nacido en Dos de Mayo. Viven con sus hijos: Bonifacia (14 años), Oscar Saol (17 años), Victoria (19 años), Jacinta (22 años) y Fidel (23 años). Cuenta don José: \"por intermedio de mis padres y abuelos conseguí las papas nativas, como una herencia; siempre he tenido muchas variedades, pero antes aún tenía más; también he aumentado nuevas variedades en estos últimos años por medio de trabajos en otras comunidades donde me pagaron con papas de color\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y el tejido de trajes típicos de Chopcca. Dice don José: \"estas papas tienen un gusto especial para comer y por ello las cultivo, también las vendo en el mercado; a veces falta mercado para estas papas\" .FAMILIA CAHUANA SEDANO Don Víctor Palomino Matamoros, de 38 años, y su esposa doña Paulina Carvajal Palomino, de 37 años, siempre han vivido en Dos de Mayo. Doña Nicolasa Matamoros de la Cruz, madre de Víctor, tiene 99 años y vive con la familia; ella conserva variedades de sus antepasados. Los hijos que aún viven en la casa son: Beatriz (3 años), Ana (6 años), Néstor (7 años), Bertha (9 años) Sulma (12 años), Vilma (15 años) y Olga (18 años). La familia conserva muchas variedades de papa nativa; las han heredado y las cuidan con cariño. Cuenta doña Paulina: \"hace 10 años aumentamos papas mejoradas y hace 2 años cultivamos algunas variedades nuevas como muru wayru, peruanita y camotillo; la mayor parte de las variedades las cultivamos para consumo en casa\" . Después de la cosecha del qatun tarpuy (siembra grande), don Víctor siempre viaja para hacer trueque por maíz. Don Eulogio Raymundo Escobar, de 32 años, y su esposa doña Catalina Taipe Vargas, de 32 años, han nacido en Libertadores. Viven con sus hijos: Fanny Ángela (3 años), Elías (5 años), Ismael (6 años), Santa Teresa (8 años), Santa Lucía (10 años) y Adolfo (12 años). Cuenta don Eulogio: \"estas papas me ha dejado mi abuelo como parte de la herencia, también mi papa me dejó; antes tenía más variedades, han disminuido porque el terreno era malo, no era fértil y así no producía la papa y se ha perdido; he recuperado muchas variedades por trueque, intercambio y compra\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y al negocio. Dice don Eulogio: \"estas papas son excelentes para consumir, son muy agradables y tienen buen sabor\" .FAMILIA RAYMUNDO TAIPE Don Quintín Velásquez Huamani, de 31 años, y su esposa doña Jacinta Taipe Vargas, de 24 años, siempre han vivido en Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande. Viven con sus hijos: Angelina (1 año), Jan Carlos (6 años), Freddy (8 años) y Sandra (11 años). Don Quintín cuenta: \"tengo las papas por herencia de mis padres y también llegué a tener variedades intercambiando con familiares; en estos últimos años he aumentado papas comprando de otros sitios\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. Don Quintín también trabaja en una mina como obrero. Él dice: \"aquí en Pongos Grande hacemos una competencia de chacmeo, el yupanakuy; sembramos las papas nativas con abonos naturales\" .Familia Velásquez Taipe (Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande) FAMILIA VELÁSQUEZ TAIPE Don Pío Velásquez Huamani, de 35 años, y su esposa doña Gloria Sánchez Taipe, de 33 años, han nacido en la comunidad de Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande. Viven con sus tres hijos: Júnior Rusbell (7 años), Mery Estefany (8 años) y Miriam (11 años). Don Pío cuenta: \"una parte de estas papas son herencia, pero no siempre he tenido todas estas variedades; he comprado una buena parte y también las he aumentado haciendo trueque. \"La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería, la artesanía y la compra/ venta de papas. Don Pío dice: \"tengo estas variedades para conservar, para consumo y para comercio; quisiera que se valoren las papas nativas a nivel nacional e internacional y que tengan un valor alto en el mercado\". Don Pedro Montes Velásquez, de 36 años, y su esposa doña Vilma Quispe Sotacuro, de 33 años, han nacido en Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande. Viven con sus hijos: Verónica (7 años), Jimmy (8 años), Anny (10 años) y John (13 años). Don Pedro cuenta: \"estas variedades las tengo de herencia de mis padres y abuelos, siempre las he tenido; en estos últimos años sigo aumentado papa nativa por hacer intercambio con familiares. \"La familia se dedica a la agricultura, la ganadería y pequeños negocios. Don Pedro dice: \"cultivo tantas variedades para no perderlas y así poder alimentarme con diferentes sabores de papa, por eso me gusta tener papas nativas; uno de mis sueños era cultivar papas nativas y lo estoy haciendo\" .Escobar Ramos, de 60 años, y su esposa doña Maximiliana Raymundo Palomino, de 61 años, siempre han vivido en Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande. Viven con sus hijos Ernesto (28 años) y María (21 años), y cuatro nietos: Efraín (5 años), Luis (7 años), Raúl (11 años) y Giler (15 años). Don Cesario cuenta \"las papas las tengo desde mis padres quienes trabajaban en la hacienda, ahí mis padres cultivaban muy poquito y en unas pocas parcelas; desde ese entonces sigo sembrando las papas que me dejaron mis padres\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería. Don Cesario dice: \"tengo a estas variedades porque me identifico con ellas; se están aumentando mis papas porque he comprado e intercambiado con mis paisanos en las ferias agropecuarias; en estas ferias dejo en alto el nombre de mi comunidad de Pongos Grande, mostrando mis variedades\".Familia Escobar Raymundo (Santa Cruz de Pongos Grande)FAMILIA ESCOBAR RAYMUNDO Doña Juana Segama Velito, de 48 años, vive con su madre doña Justa Velito Paquiyauri, de 75 años, y tres hijos: Vlady (5 años), Denny (11 años) y Liliana (18 años). Siempre han vivido en Allato. Doña Juana cuenta: \"estas papas las tengo desde mi mamá y mis abuelos quienes las cultivaban antes, es por herencia; siempre he tenido más de 200 variedades; en estos últimos años he aumentado mis papas por intercambio con mis familiares y he comprado en las ferias; también por sí mismas las papas se están aumentando; en mi propia chacra están apareciendo otras variedades, por eso está aumentando\". La familia se dedica a la agricultura y la ganadería, y los domingos doña Juana sale a vender al mercado de Lircay. Ella dice: \"un día cuando fui a la chacra de mis papas me di cuenta que las habían robado; iba a haber poca producción y no era poca cosa perder mis papas; me quería morir y me puse muy enferma; con el amor de Dios me he curado y nuevamente he podido recuperar mis papas\" .Familia Segama Velito (Allato)Don Pelayo Janampa Roa, de 55 años, y su esposa Teresa Martínez Velito, de 50 años, han vivido por mucho tiempo en Allato. Actualmente viven con sus seis hijos en la ciudad de Lircay. Sus hijos son: Lizeth (12 años), Anali Mónica (19 años), Wilder (20 años), Tania Marleni (25 años), Nery (27 años) y Javier (32 años). Don Pelayo cuenta: \"las papas son una herencia de mi suegra Justa Velito Paquiyauri, por ella teníamos varias variedades, pero con la rancha se han desaparecido muchas cuando un año sembramos en una parte baja, en Ninaqora Pampa; solamente las papas más tolerantes resistieron. En estos últimos años nuevamente aumentamos variedades mediante trueque, comprando e intercambiando con otros comuneros\" . La familia se dedica a la agricultura, cada año siembran sus chacras en Allato. Don Pelayo dice: \"mantenemos las papas nativas porque son muy agradables sancochándolas, las comemos en casa, también para venta y trueque\" .Familia Janampa Martínez (comunidad de Allato)Los objetivos del catálogo son:1) Difundir la riqueza de la diversidad genética de las papas nativas y de los conocimientos colectivos inherentes que mantienen las familias y comunidades campesinas del departamento de Huancavelica, para que todos los pobladores de Huancavelica, del Perú y del mundo conozcan este patrimonio de la humanidad,2) Crear un primer listado de las variedades de papa nativa que se encuentran en el departamento de Huancavelica con el fin de tener un inventario tangible que permita vigilar la agrobiodiversidad en el futuro,3) Reconocer a los agricultores conservacionistas y a las comunidades campesinas por su invalorable labor de conservación de las variedades de papa nativa.12 Por quechua normalizado se entiende el acuerdo tomado por lingüistas expertos en esta lengua para unificar su escritura; se basa en el denominado alfabeto unificado panandino.A continuación se presenta información general sobre el origen de cada variedad y los métodos utilizados para la recopilación de la información presentada en el presente catálogo.La categoría de nomenclatura describe el nombre común, los sinónimos y el significado de cada variedad.El nombre común es el nombre más frecuente de la variedad, es decir, el nombre empleado en la mayoría de comunidades y por el mayor número de agricultores. Los sinónimos son los otros nombres populares o vernaculares empleados por los agricultores de las 8 comunidades donde se ha recogido la información.El significado se refiere al significado literal del nombre común traducido del quechua al español.La información que va entre paréntesis, tanto en el nombre común como en los sinónimos, se refiere al origen geográfico de dicha información, es decir, las comunidades donde se emplean dichos nombres vernaculares. (Ver tabla 4.) En caso que el nombre vernacular esté en quechua y español, se pone también el nombre literal en quechua normalizado(*) 12 . Toda la información proviene de encuestas y observaciones participativas. La categoría de información general describe especie, abundancia y ploidía. La especie se refiere a la especie botánica. En el presente catálogo se describen variedades pertenecientes a 6 especies: S. tuberosum subsp.andigena, S. goniocalyx, S. stenotomum, S. chaucha, S. curtilobum o S. juzepczukii. Se determinaron las especies a partir de la ploidía y claves morfológicas (Huamán, 1983). Adicionalmente se realizaron consultas de confirmación de la especie con especialistas del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP).La abundancia se refiere a la frecuencia de la variedad en Huancavelica, vale decir, la cantidad de agricultores que la siembran. Se emplean 3 claves: escasa, intermedia o común. Las claves fueron determinadas a partir de encuestas estructuradas.La ploidía indica el número de copias del número básico de cromosomas. Las especies de papa cultivada pueden ser diploides (2n=2x=24), triploides (2n=3x=36), tetraploides (2n=4x=48) o pentaploides (2n=5x=60). La ploidía de cada variedad fue determinada mediante conteo cromosómico por microscopio utilizando puntas de raíz o por citometría de flujo 13La categoría de descripción morfológica describe los siguientes caracteres: hábito de planta, color primario de la flor, color secundario de la flor, distribución del color secundario de la flor, grado de floración, color del tallo, forma del tubérculo, color primario de la piel del tubérculo, color secundario de la piel del tubérculo, color primario de la carne del tubérculo, color secundario de la carne del tubérculo y color predominante del brote.La información corresponde a la descripción morfológica de cada una de las variedades realizada en los campos experimentales instalados con agricultores o grupos de agricultores. Se utilizó la lista de descriptores morfológicos de la papa (Huamán y Gómez, 1994) y su respectiva guía y tabla de colores (Gómez, 2000). La descripción del color de la flor, del tallo, de la piel y carne del tubérculo, y del brote corresponde a la descripción original realizada en campo. Puede variar ligeramente con lo que se observa en las fotografías que las acompañan. La categoría de caracteres agronómicos describe: rendimiento, número de tubérculos por planta, reacción a rancha, helada, tiempo de almacenamiento y rango de adaptación.El rendimiento y el número de tubérculos por planta se expresan en un rango de mínimo y máximo en kilogramos, o en número de tubérculos por planta. El rendimiento y el número de tubérculos por planta fueron tomados al momento de la cosecha de entre 5 a 30 plantas en 1 hasta 5 ambientes sin repeticiones. El catálogo indica un valor real para cada variedad, tal como se pudo medir en los campos instalados para fines de descripción morfológica. No se trata de resultados de ensayos de rendimientos.La sub-categoría de rancha se refiere a la resistencia de la variedad descrita a Phytophthora infestans.Es el resultado consensual o promedio de encuestas estructuradas realizadas con agricultores expertos propietarios de la variedad descrita. Las claves para la sub-categoría de rancha son: susceptible, medianamente susceptible, intermedia, medianamente resistente, resistente 14 . La sub-categoría de helada se refiere a la tolerancia de la variedad descrita a heladas o temperaturas por debajo de 0°C. Se aplicó el mismo método de recojo de información utilizada para la sub-categoría rancha. El resultado es consensual, proveniente de encuestas estructuradas y basado en la experiencia de los agricultores propietarios de la variedad escrita. Las claves para la sub-categoría de helada son: susceptible, medianamente susceptible, intermedia, medianamente tolerante, tolerante.La sub-categoría de almacenamiento se refiere al tiempo que se puede almacenar cada variedad bajo condiciones tradicionales aplicadas por los agricultores de Huancavelica. Se aplicó el método de encuestas estructuradas con agricultores expertos propietarios de la variedad. Las claves para la sub-categoría de almacenamiento son: corto tiempo (menor a 3 meses), intermedio (de 3 -5 meses), largo tiempo (mayor a 5 meses). La sub-categoría de rango de adaptación se refiere específicamente al rango de altitud donde comúnmente se cultiva la variedad descrita. El rango de adaptación está expresado en metros sobre nivel del mar (msnm). El rango expresado es el resultado de observaciones realizadas en cientos de campos de agricultores y encuestas estructuradas con agricultores expertos propietarios de la variedad. Los rangos no son resultado de ensayos de genotipo por ambiente (GxA).La categoría de usos culinarios describe usos y tiempo de cocción. Los usos se refieren a procesos (hervido, frito, horneado, chuño, etc.) y preparaciones específicas (sopas, causas, papa a la huancaína, etc.). Los usos fueron recogidos por medio de encuestas estructuradas con agricultoras expertas propietarias de la variedad descrita.El tiempo de cocción se refiere específicamente al tiempo necesario para el proceso de hervido de la variedad descrita. Es el resultado consensual o promedio de encuestas estructuradas realizadas con agricultoras expertas propietarias de la variedad descrita. Las claves de esta sub-categoría son: corto (menos de 20 minutos), intermedio (de 20 a 30 minutos) y largo (más de 30 minutos) 15 .En esta categoría se describen características complementarias de cada variedad. Dependiendo de la variedad y de la información disponible, se describe el posible origen, los usos secundarios y costumbres o historias de la variedad. La información proviene de 3 años de observación participativa, encuestas estructuradas con los agricultores y, en algunos casos, de especialistas externos.La descripción de cada variedad viene acompañada por una descripción textual en idioma quechua. Se trata de una descripción en palabras sencillas utilizando términos empleados por los agricultores. La escritura está basada en el quechua normalizado, el alfabeto oficial quechua o el alfabeto panandino unificado.Cada variedad descrita textualmente se acompaña con material visual que se especifica a continuación.Para cada variedad se presentan un total de 4 fotografías: planta, flor en planta, hoja en fondo y tubérculos en fondo (enteros y muestra partida). Es importante mencionar que las fotografías fueron tomadas en el campo, por lo que existe un efecto de distorsión generado por la intensidad de la luz natural que puede hacer variar la imagen observada en las fotografías.La gran mayoría de variedades descritas en el presente catálogo van acompañadas por un gráfico, inspirado en el diseño de los antiguos kipus 16 (figura 1), representando los datos de un conjunto de 18 Cada nudo por cuerda (marcador específico) representa un alelo encontrado con el marcador SSR específico. La posición de cada nudo o alelo en la cuerda indica su tamaño (en pares de bases). Mientras más arriba esté el nudo en el kipu, mayor el tamaño del alelo, en tanto que la posición más abajo, en la parte inferior del kipu, significa menor tamaño del alelo.El color de cada nudo o alelo hace referencia a su frecuencia, es decir, su abundancia relativa, comparando datos de más de 1000 entradas analizadas para el departamento de Huancavelica (ver tabla 6). La longitud total de cada cuerda es diferente según el tamaño mínimo encontrado sobre el total de entradas analizadas. Esta variedad es tardía y se usa para elaborar chuño. Se prepara el tunti de tubérculos con cáscara ( Villa Hermosa). En Chopcca se utiliza en la forma llamada machorra. Antiguamente, en Túpac Amaru se usaba la harina de estos tubérculos en la preparación de dulces. Las hojas se emplean para dar un sabor de charki a la sopa. Medicina tradicional: el líquido se extrae del tubérculo en gotas para curar infecciones de los ojos; el tubérculo rallado en forma de cataplasma para calmar el dolor de cabeza. Antiguamente se lavaba la ropa con las \"lágrimas del tubérculo\" durante la elaboración del chuño. Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (haz y envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (en los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.8 -2.2No. tubérculos por planta 11 -42 Color primario de la flor Morado (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo VerdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (intermedio)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (en los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.9 -1.4No. tubérculos por planta 15 -25 Color primario de la flor Rojo morado (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Marrón (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo morado (como anteojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Ausente Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rosado (intermedio)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo morado (en los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.4 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 8 -28 Color primario de la flor Violeta (pálido)Distribución color secundario de la flor AusenteColor del tallo Pigmentado con poco verdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rosado (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (en los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.9 -1.4No. tubérculos por planta 13 -28 Nombre común Morado Gaspar (PU)Guindo Gaspar (PU), Kulli Gaspar (*)Ojona MoradaAbundancia IntermediaColor primario de la flor Rojo morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor AusenteColor del tallo Verde con muchas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo morado (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo AusenteColor secundario de la carne del tubérculo Violeta (con pocas manchas)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.5 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 10 -20Helada Intermedio Es una variedad excelente para la elaboración de chuño. Las hojas se emplean para dar un sabor de charki a la sopa. Se prepara el tunti de tubérculos con cáscara (Villa Hermosa). En Chopcca se utiliza en la forma llamada machorra. Antiguamente, en Túpac Amaru se usaba la harina de estos tubérculos en la preparación de dulces. También se reporta su uso en la medicina tradicional: el líquido que se extrae del tubérculo, se utiliza en gotas para curar las infecciones de los ojos; por otro lado, el tubérculo rallado se usa en forma de cataplasma para calmar el dolor de cabeza. Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo VerdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (alrededor de los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.4 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 14 -18 Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color primario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (jaspeado)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.8 -1.5No. tubérculos por planta 16 -37Mayor a 5 meses Rango de adaptación 3.000 -4.000 msnm Hervido, guisos Tiempo de cocción: Intermedio Los tubérculos de esta variedad se parecen a los huevos de una especie de ave silvestre llamada liwli, de ahí su nombre. Esta ave es común en las alturas del distrito de Yauli donde se produce esta variedad de papa. Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo morado (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (como anteojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.7 -1.6No. tubérculos por planta 11 -24 Color primario de la flor Violeta (pálida)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con muchas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (intermedio)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (en áreas irregulares)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.7 -1.1No. tubérculos por planta 13 -18 Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (haz y envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (pálido)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.8 -1.0No. tubérculos por planta 16 -18 Color primario de la flor Morado (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con muchas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Negruzco (intenso)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Blanco (salpicado)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 1.3 -1.7No. tubérculos por planta 30 -50Mayor a 5 meses Rango de adaptación 3.300 -4.000 msnm La forma del tubérculo de esta variedad se parece a la tuqra, una bola formada con la mezcla de cal y/o ceniza vegetal, normalmente de quinua, utilizada para incrementar el efecto de la masticación de las hojas de coca.Tiempo de cocción: Intermedio Color primario de la flor Rojo morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor AusenteColor del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (como anteojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Ausente Cuentan que antiguamente se utilizaban los tubérculos de esta variedad -que por su forma son difíciles de pelar-para probar la habilidad de las muchachas o nueras para pelarlos, de ahí su nombre Llumchuy Waqachi, sólo las que pasaban esta prueba podían casarse. Actualmente ya no se practica esta costumbre.Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.8 -1.1No. tubérculos por planta 20 -28Mayor a 5 meses Rango de adaptación 3.300 -4.000 msnmColor primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchas Color primario de la flor Morado (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (en áreas irregulares)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.7 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 16 -17Helada Tolerante Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del Tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rosado (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (en los ojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo AusenteRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.7 -1.3No. tubérculos por planta 30 -40 Color primario de la flor Rojo morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor AusenteColor del tallo Verde con muchas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Rosado (intenso)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Rojo (con pocas manchas)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.5 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 12 -24Helada Tolerante Color primario de la flor Morado (pálido)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (haz y envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Rojo morado (en áreas irregulares)Color primario de la carne del tubérculo Amarillo intensoRendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.6 -0.9No. tubérculos por planta 8 -22Helada Tolerante Color del tallo Pigmentado con poco verdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Negruzco (intenso)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Violeta (anillo vascular angosto)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 1.1 -1.3No. tubérculos por planta 14 -17 Color primario de la flor Morado (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Verde con pocas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (jaspeado)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Violeta (con pocas manchas)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.7 -1.1No. tubérculos por planta 18 -27 Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (envés)Color del tallo Pigmentado con poco verdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Negruzco (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (como anteojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Violeta (con pocas manchas)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 0.9 -1.8No. tubérculos por planta 13 -24 Color primario de la flor Violeta (intermedio)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (haz y envés)Color del tallo VerdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Morado (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Amarillo (en áreas irregulares)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Ausente Color primario de la flor Morado (intenso)Distribución color secundario de la flor Acúmen (haz y envés)Color del tallo Pigmentado con poco verdeColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Negruzco (intenso)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo Blanco crema (como anteojos)Color secundario de la carne del tubérculo Morado (áreas)Rendimiento (Kg por planta) 1.0 -1.5No. tubérculos por planta 10 -24 Esta variedad es tardía y se usa para elaborar chuño. Se prepara el tunti de tubérculos con cáscara ( Villa Hermosa). En Chopcca se utiliza en la forma llamada machorra. Antiguamente, en Túpac Amaru se usaba la harina de estos tubérculos en la preparación de dulces. Las hojas se emplean para dar un sabor de charki a la sopa. Medicina tradicional: el líquido se extrae del tubérculo en gotas para curar infecciones de los ojos; el tubérculo rallado en forma de cataplasma para calmar el dolor de cabeza. Antiguamente se lavaba la ropa con las \"lágrimas del tubérculo\" durante la elaboración del chuño. Color del tallo Verde con muchas manchasColor primario de la piel del tubérculo Negruzco (pálido)Color secundario de la piel del tubérculo AusenteColor secundario de la carne del tubérculo Violeta (con pocas manchas)El término puqya o puqya uya refiere al color bronceado-cobrizo que tienen las mejillas de las personas que viven en las alturas de los Andes. Los agricultores dicen que se trata de una \"papa antigua\" o \"papa de los abuelos\" que se cultiva hace mucho tiempo en la zona de Huancavelica, sus folíolos angostos se parecen a los del \"orégano\". Es una variedad muy resistente a la rancha y las heladas y su rendimiento es muy estable \"siempre produce\" . En la noche la planta cierra su follaje, factor que posiblemente le ayuda a tolerar las heladas. Sus tubérculos se tienen que comer tan pronto estén hervidos y calientes, si se comen fríos producen cólicos. Se pueden almacenar hasta por 9 meses y se vuelven más ricos y dulces con el tiempo.    ","tokenCount":"10498"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"74ceaf6ea1880b76ab92fb8f50a7f166","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8674ec20-ba01-4f85-8e32-1b959ed1d872/retrieve","id":"-1760786256"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9ca3276d-0b07-4608-9005-1a7aea899baf","pagecount":"17","content":"First day: 17 th October 2015 Site: Diga Wereda, Arjo kebele in the morning and Jirata kebele in the afternoon Purpose: Every year Wereda Innovation Platform (IP) organizes a two days event that include farmers' field day on the first day followed by IP evaluation meeting on the next day. The timing of this event is held during the beautiful season when the crops and feeds introduced performance can be seen on farmers' field before harvest.Field day was conducted during the first day (17 th Oct 2015) in both Arjo and Jirata Kebele of Diga Wereda. Different research activity farmers' sites were visited by 138 men and women farmers. Around 30 researchers and experts came from national, zonal and Wereda IPs. Kidane is a farmer who is using soil bund with Rhodes grass. Soil and water conservation structure were applied. He is also using the grass for cattle's fattening and sell the rest to earn money. Getachew is also a farmer using soil bund with Rhodes grass and he is also managing his land very well. Nagari is also a farmer who planted Rhodes grass using soil bund and performed very well.  Wakshum is another farmer in Arjo kebele who cultivated ground nut using soil bund (with and without fertilizer). It was observed that ground nut with soil bund performed well.Question1. If this project comes and works at some farmers' field, how can others get this benefit on the ground?Answer: If technologies demonstrated at some farmers' field were effective, other farmers can learn from such model farmers and benefit from it by sharing varieties and seedling of grasses. Wakbusho Fufa is a farmer in DJirata Kebele who planted teff in row and scattering. Teff planted in row performed well. DJirata kebele Farmer Training Centre (FTC) was also visited. It is a real research area and hence Development Agent (DAs) working there devoted their time working on different variety trials (crop, livestock feeds and grasses). Agenda of the meeting: After welcome speech, brief introduction of the agenda of the fourth IP meeting and self-introduction facilitated by Wakgari Kaba (Bako Agricultural Research Centre) who is also a technical group member of this IP, opening remarks was given by Samuel (vice-chair off the Wereda agricultural office). Samuel in his speech thanked all the IP members who have contributed to the successful accomplishment of the research activities done in the Wereda. He said he was very much amazed by what he has seen on the field during the farmers' field day and assured that this is development integrated with all aspects of the agricultural sector that complements the government development agenda. He encouraged others to participate actively in the meeting and mentioned that at the end of the meeting a good idea on how to take the best practices to wider scale will emerge.Zelalem presented innovation concepts and their applications in the Humidtropics field sites in Ethiopia. His presentation is summarized as follows:What is innovation? Innovation is defined as a ''process of producing, accessing, diffusing, and most importantly, putting in to use knowledge in socio-economically useful way ', Hall et al., 2008. It can be technological, organizational, institutional, managerial, and related to service delivery or policy. It is knowledge or technology -doesn't become an innovation unless it is used.An innovation system is the cluster of individuals and organizations involved in knowledge generation, diffusion, and use (researcher, private sector firms, universities, extension agents, technical experts from line ministries etc.) together with the processes required to turn knowledge in to useful socioeconomic benefits.Innovation system in agriculture -system intensification -is very important as agricultural problems are becoming more and more complex. Engaging different actors in the research processes are very important.IP is a space for learning and change. It is a group of individuals (who often represent organizations) with different backgrounds and interests. Local IPs have been established in Diga and Jeldu since 2011 (NBDC project) by ILRI and both IPs are imbedded in Humidtropics activities since 2014.The main challenges facing the farming communities in Jeldu and Diga is identified during the diagnosis phase of NBDC project and the challenges include: Severe soil erosion and land degradation (NRM issue) -Nile basin;  Low productivity;  Collaboration issue (institutional issue);  Top down approach -less inclusive.Humidtropics continues to work in these two weredas with existing and functioning IPs capitalizing on NBDC feed intervention achievements: These IPs have technical group members -university, research centre, wereda line departments and NGOs to support implementation on the ground. Membership is for men and women farmers, local government line departments, researchers, NGOs, University (research and community service) and students. Type is not commodity based. It is an IP that deals with the whole system (tree-crop-livestock). A year (January -December) snapshot research activities of Humidtropics were done in Western Ethiopia step by step.Regular IP meetings and activities are divided in to three seasons each year 1. January -April (IP planning meeting),an R4D platform planning meeting 2. May -Aug (IP planting, training and follow-up meeting) 3. Sep -December (farmers field day and evaluation meeting), an R4D platform field visit and evaluation meeting) Facilitate sharing of last year's achievements and challenges  Lessons learnt from last year and incorporating in the planning  Men and women farmers are empowered to take the lead on planning (decide on which crop for rotation, time plan, proffered feeds etc.)  All partners contribute their inputs and own the plan  Role of farmers, research centre, university, government, local NGO and CGIAR centres shared  Detail plan will be developed for each research themeThe following principles are used for effective facilitation for creating an environment that best suits for learning and sharing. All ideas are treated equally (women and men farmers, local experts, development agents, scientist, local decision makers)  Language (all members are encouraged to talk in any language they are comfortable with including local language)  Photo-based PowerPoint presentation with little text, mainly for farmers to understand well  Flipchart (for sketching and taking notes and group presentations on plenary)  Research theme based group discussion based on expertise and interest  Plenary discussion for joint decision on each plan  Energizer, tea-coffee and lunch together to create more team sprits For example the following activities were planned during the planning meetings by IPs in both sites (Tables 1 and 2).  Before the IP follow up meeting the following were done jointly  Mobilizing resources and input from IP members as per the role identified  Provide practical trainings to farmers on planting (land preparation, raw planting of crops, weeding, soil)  Organize follow up meeting (checking if the implementation is according to the joint plan developed) Every year during this season all IP members go to farmers field during farmers field day to visit the progress of each research activities accomplished on farmers field during the first day and hold their regular innovation platform meeting the next day.  The IPs are expected to evaluate activities accomplished in the year and take lessons for next year planning through sharing of roles and responsibilities.  New farmers are also invited to the farmers' field day to promote learning and scaling up through creating farmers to farmers linkage.  Media is also invited for wider sharing of the activities accomplished through the innovation platform approaches, mainly Oromia Radio and TV. Managed to bring effective joint work among the core-CGIAR partners (IWMI, CIP, ILRI and ICRAF) and national partner (OARI) to integrate their specialization and expertise on the same farmer's field.  Resource utilization was efficient -shared roles among farmers, local partners and core partnersinput supplies (improved seed, transport, technical advice, community mobilization and empowering farmers were done well.)  Hundreds of farmers increased their crop and livestock productivity while maintaining their soil fertility.  Sold seed and seedling for feed to government projects like AGP and SLM. During the year under review, Jeldu farmers sold Desho grass seedling worth ETB1.5 million.  Six MSc students have been supported to do their research in the field sites (IWMI employed staff for four months in the field to collect soil sample and other agronomic and economic data)Two MSc students are working their research on the crop and grazing land intervention that IWMI is leading to improve productivity through soil and water conservation as well as integrated activities of improved technologies and management practices. The presentations made by the two students are summarized as follows:Keberku Endashaw, an MSc student from Ambo University, is currently working on integrated soil and water conservation and crop management effect on crop performance and soil quality of the maize based farming system at Arjo Kebele, in the lowland areas of Diga district. He presented his preliminary findings by introducing the overall objectives of the Humidtropics project in western Ethiopia and the site. He mentioned reversing land degradation and increasing productivity and income and improving nutrition as the main objectives to improve livelihood of the small holder farmers. He has described the major challenges faced by agriculture in the district including deforestation, nutrient depletion, soil erosion, and moisture stress and termite infestation. He acknowledged his work is part of a long term study lead by IWMI and that the current year's activities are building on those of the previous year. In this connection, he mentioned that the soil bunds from the previous year were maintained as the main plot treatment while the crop was changed from maize to groundnut, and the subplot treatments were changed from intercropping of maize with haricot bean to groundnut with fertilizer, while the control was no bund for the main plot and no fertilizer for the subplot. His preliminary results showed that the use of soil bund increased water infiltration, and thereby reduced termite damage, increased crop vigour and the effect on the later seems even higher with the use of fertilizer.The ongoing study on improvement of grazing land was presented by Bona Tadesse, another MSc student, also from Ambo University. Bona mentioned the existence of extensive grazing land that is either nearly bare due to land degradation, and termite infestation or infested by invasive unpalatable weeds. Runoff due to soil compaction and depletion of the soil seed bank, over grazing and the cultural practice of crop residues burning, when the area was under cultivation, may be responsible for the poor performance of the grazing land. Bona is assessing the effects of infiltration trench and Rhodes grass over sowing on soil quality and fodder productivity. His preliminary results depicts that infiltration trenches increased soil moisture content, reduced termite infestation and increased feed biomass yield. He has illustrated a stark contrast between the plots with infiltration trenches on which the grasses are vigorously growing against the control which are devoured by termites. This was witnessed during the field visits held ahead of the meeting.The yield impact of physical soil and water conservation structures is well-established. Studies using observational data from farm households show that maize yield at Diga increases by about 340kg ha -1 on lands with soil bunds, compared to lands without soil bunds. Moreover, farm level experimental results show an increase in maize yield from 5609kg ha -1 under cultivation without soil bunds to 7178kg ha -1 under cultivation with soil bunds. Yet, the economic and nutritional benefits of maize production under the implementation of physical soil and water conservation structures are not quantified to inform decision making and assure investments.The economic and nutritional impacts of maize production under soil bunds can be stochastically simulated and quantified to inform farm decisions and policy interventions. Preliminary simulation results on the economic benefits of maize production at Diga show that farm income from 2014/15 to 2018/19 can increase on average from ETB 41,611 (cultivation without soil bunds) to ETB 41,661 (cultivation with soil bunds), for 15 farm households considered in the analysis. The simulation is made without considering the additional benefits farmers may get from Desho grass production on the soil bunds to use it as an additional income source. While the income difference is marginal, it is expected that minimizing labor cost for bund construction and considering the non-tangible environmental benefits increases net farm income as a result of soil bund construction on farm lands.Lack of access to improved legume seeds, soil fertility degradation, and lack of knowledge and skill on legume production were the major problems identified up on discussion with farmers. To solve the issue of legume seed shortage, the project has started cluster seed production using group of 60 farmers (30 each on haricot bean and soybean improved seed) in lowland kebele, Lalisa-Dimtu and a group of 20 farmers were participated on highland legume (10 each on faba bean and field pea) cluster seed production in Formosa. Moreover, perennial forage legumes including pigeon pea, leuceana, and lablab seeds were distributed for about 143 farmers in Lalisa-Dimtu and Fromsa, and were planted in hedgerows around homestead. For this activity 17.5 quintals of haricot bean, soybean, field pea and faba bean seeds have been distributed for participant farmers. Adequate trainings on legume production and management (land preparation, planting methods, weeding and harvesting) were given two times, before planting and on field after planting, for participant farmers (Table 3). ICRAF's ongoing research activities progress update was presented to IP members which includes integrating multipurpose tree seedlings planted on soil bund structure in Arjo and Djirata kebele.Fifteen farmer's from Djirata and 27 farmers from Arjo kebele were benefited and most of seedlings were established well and the next planned activities such as data collection and training will be performed. Challenge encountered was presented.After holding an open discussion on key challenges pre and post IP technique committees were established. The committee will responsible to all management and supervision of planted seedlings. For smooth coordination ICRAF will submit its upcoming activity check list to national partners in advance.Question1: As this is the initial investment, do you consider the next income for consecutive years?Answer: (Teklu) and the beneficiary farmers responded that in the long run there will be no cost of construction of bunds, so it will be profitable to use soil bund and hence the initial investment is obviously incurring more costs.Question 2: How can we make soil bund effective within a short period of time?Answer: The only challenging is during the initial investment, after three to five years farmers will start using the soil bund with high marginal return.Question3: Is there any significant change in soil moisture between land with soil bund and without soil bund?Answer: Soil sample was taken from all farmers field and will be analysed. The general data will be analysed as a cumulative.Question4: After the current students finished their study, do the project will continue and what do you think about this?Answer: (Teklu); Student data are consecutive and it is long term. i.e. different student will work in different years. So, after long run the cumulative result will be known and the project will be continued even after the study through responsible offices at Wereda level.The technical post-harvest and marketing committee will be chaired by Samuel and assisted by Alemu (both are from Agricultural office).Committee members","tokenCount":"2516"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80da769dd692d7232d35a0e951cf7b70","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/988310ca-16d8-4672-bc5a-910d5728c8f4/retrieve","id":"-386278822"},"keywords":["• P669 -2","2","1 Prioritization of Policies and Investments OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"338283e5-a56f-4908-985d-c50998be6504","pagecount":"3","content":"The World Bank extensively used the SPEED tool, as well as PIM researchers' expenditure analysis, to generate insights in a 2017 book (\"Reaping Richer Returns\") which informed development policy operations in several African countries, most notably Mali, Malawi, and Zambia. The evidence emanating from the use of SPEED also influenced systematic country diagnostics in Togo, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso. Findings from the book resulted in the Ugandan Ministry of Finance changing allocations to agriculture to address inefficient agricultural spending.• Nigeria This started with an engagement between a PIM team (comprised of three senior experts, one of which was a collaborator) and the World Bank to conduct two analysis of agricultural public expenditures in Africa. Over time however, this engagement expanded, with a third analysis being conducted, and with the PIM team providing ongoing guidance to World Bank officials on the SPEED tool, as well as on other analyses that fed into the above mentioned book 'Reaping Richer Returns'. This is what resulted in not only the PIM team using SPEED in its contributions to this book, but also the World Bank itself drawing heavily on the tool directly. The change described above has been strongly shaped by the close engagement between the PIM researchers and the World Bank, and of course by the World Bank analytical team's extensive linkages with operational units in the organisation, and the operational units close collaborations with policymakers in African countries. Thus, the change was significantly aided by a chain of internal and external partnerships.The immediate users of the CGIAR innovation were a team of World Bank staff. The innovation was used as an analytical tool that can aid the generation of evidence and insights on the volume, quality, and effectiveness of government spending to support the agricultural sector. At the helm of the World Bank team were one man and one woman, as well as additional men and women staff that were guided/supervised by the key team.A workshop was organised by the World Bank that involved the PIM team as well as others. A slew of email and phone exchanges also took place between the PIM team and World Bank staff, which contributed to clarifying the use of the CGIAR Innovation. The World Bank held a number of other seminars and activities in developing countries that disseminated the insights and findings from the work that used the CGIAR innovation.","tokenCount":"395"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ca1a8f9262c43a064e10c7f98f24a1e0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f31b879-6293-4828-975a-9374b6e30756/retrieve","id":"-1488814197"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"51386513-c267-4245-b4bc-fa2db916ca5a","pagecount":"26","content":"Le tableau suivant présente les détails des résultats obtenus dans la campagne de déparasitage Du 1 juin au 11 juillet 2020 (30 jours) Communes Espèces et nombres de tete de betails déparasités Bénéficiaires touchés Bovins Caprins/Ovins Equins TotalLe Projet de Reboisement de l'USAID est mis en oeuvre dans les départements du Nord et du Nord-Est d'Haïti par un consortium de partenaires sous le leadership de la firme Chemonics International, incluant le Centre International d'Agriculture Tropicale (CIAT) et le National Cooperative Business Association CLUSA International (NCBA-CLUSA). Le Projet prête une attention particulière au renforcement de la résilience des agriculteurs, des foyers et des communautés aux chocs économiques et naturels, en intégration avec d'autres résultats intermédiaires tels que la réduction des menaces de déforestation, l'augmentation de la couverture arborée et l'appui à la gouvernance environnementale.La responsabilité du CIAT inclut, entre autres, (i) la mise en place d'activités relatives à la production animale qui visent à renforcer la résilience des agro-éleveurs par le biais d'un accompagnement rapproché pour une amélioration des pratiques d'élevage dans les zones d'intervention du Projet, (ii) Soutien technologique pour améliorer la production agroforestière et la gestion des ressources naturelles par l'installation de stations agrométéorologiques pour gérer les cycles de production et de transplantation et (iii) mise en place du Centre Rural de Développement Durable (CRDD) au Centre d'Agriculture Saint-Barnabas (CASB) à Terrier-Rouge. Ainsi, les activités présentées ci-dessous ont été réalisées pour la période allant janvier à Décembre 2020.Dans le cadre de la mission de contribuer au renforcement de la résilience des partenaires face aux chocs économiques et naturels, le Projet planifiait d'encadrer des agro-éleveurs de son aire d'intervention dans l'amélioration des pratiques d'élevage et la gestion de leur bétail. En ce sens, une campagne de déparasitage a été réalisée au cours de l'année 2020 en complémentarité aux actions déjà engagées pour améliorer la disponibilité et la gestion des fourrages dans l'aire du Projet.L'approche développée visant à renforcer la capacité des agriculteurs à pouvoir faire face aux crises alimentaires récurrentes qui affectent l'élevage des animaux domestiques dans les périodes de sècheresses fréquentes à chaque début d'année. Le déficit d'alimentation entraine souvent une parasitose interne et externe qui affectant le niveau de performances zootechnique et économique de l'élève. Comme programmées dans le plan de travail 2020, les activités suivantes ont été réalisées au cours de l'année 2020. L'une des retombées de cette session de formation, c'est qu'en améliorant le savoir-faire technique des agents vétérinaires qui constituent le véritable fer de lance de la santé animale dans les zones rurales, elle va permettre une nette amélioration des services de soins vétérinaires et par conséquent une augmentation de la résilience des agro-éleveurs dans les zones d'intervention du projet à travers la réduction en termes de nombre de têtes de bétail perdus surtout durant la saison sèche.Face à un problème de budget, et de priorité, la Direction projet a décidé d'annuler la deuxième phase de la campagne de déparasitage qui était prévue pour le mois d'octobre 2020. Les médicaments et accessoires vétérinaires qui ont été acquis par le projet seront remis aux DDA du Nord et du Nord-Est qui eux-mêmes, auront la responsabilité de réaliser cette activité dans leurs zones respectivesLa mise en place des parcelles de démonstration a permis de réaliser plus de 150 Tm de MS de fourrages, en plus de former et de sensibiliser beaucoup d'agriculteurs sur la nécessité de produire et gérer des fourrages. Sur la base des connaissances et savoir-faire acquis dans la réalisation des parcelles de démonstration en production et gestion fourragères, actuellement beaucoup d'agriculteurs se lancent dans la mise en place de système de production de fourrage suivant le modèle de système agrosylvopastoral. Ils ont profité de la disponibilité de semences dans les parcelles de démonstration pour installer leurs parcelles de fourrage.Sur cette lancée, pour une meilleure durabilité des activités de reforestation, le projet mise sur le renforcement de la capacité technico-économique des agriculteurs dans la mise en oeuvre et la gestion des systèmes agrosylvopastoraux. De ce fait, le projet assiste les producteurs dans la mise en oeuvre des paquets techniques améliorées liés au développement des cultures saisonnières et fourragères dans les systèmes agroforestiers. Ceci dans le but de la diversification des sources de revenus dans les exploitations agricoles pour le renforcement de la capacité d'absorption des bénéficiaires. Ce qui entraine en retour le renforcement de la capacite de résilience des agriculteurs à l'autosuffisance alimentaire, à la sécurité alimentaire, et aux revenus supplémentaires.Ainsi, cette année, à travers cette activité :- (ii) La production fourragère portant sur la diversité des plantes fourragères, identification et technique de production, technique de mise en place de parcelle fourragère, cultures fourragères dans les systèmes agroforestiers et mode d'exploitation du fourrage ; Par cette formation les agro-éleveurs bénéficiaires :• ont appris les bonnes pratiques d'élevage durables et respectueuses de l'environnement et se sont sensibilisés sur les conséquences de la pratique de l'élevage libre ;• ont acquis les techniques et pratiques adéquates pour mettre en place une parcelle fourragère ;• ont su comment développer une bonne intégration de l'agriculture-élevage et le reboisement au sein de leurs exploitations agricoles ;• ont acquis des savoir-faire théoriques et pratiques sur les méthodes conservation de fourrages (production de foin et d'ensilage) pouvant les permettre d'alimenter leurs bétails en période de soudure.Au cours de cette formation des séances de pratiques de fabrication de foin et d'ensilage ont été réalisées. Les bénéficiaires expriment leur satisfaction par rapport aux connaissances reçues. Selon eux, cette activité les apporte une solution concrète pour éviter la perte de bétail en période de sécheresse. Ils expliquent qu'ils sont prêts à se lancer rapidement dans l'application de ces pratiques pour pallier le problème de rareté fourragère qui surgit annuellement. Gary Bruno (voir photo suivante), un éleveur résidant à Terrier-Rouge bénéficiaires de cette formation, ayant un troupeau de 50 têtes de bovins ; avec les acquis de la formation a déjà démarré son unité de production de foin et a déjà produit 10.5 tonnes de foin avec les mauvaises herbes stockées lors de l'entretien de ses parcelles.Ainsi, qualitativement, les activités menées par le projet pour l'année 2020 ont abouti aux résultats suivants : o Capacité technique des agro-éleveurs bénéficiaires renforcé pour un meilleur développement de leurs activités agricoles ; o Application des pratiques améliorées de production de fourrage à travers la mise en place de parcelles agrosylvopastorales qui permettront aux éleveurs d'affronter les éventuelles sécheresses et améliorent la gestion de leur bétail ; o Accès amélioré des ménages agricoles en certains produits vivriers (pois congo, pois inconnu, gombo, feuille de moringa) servant à l'autoconsommation et à la vente ainsi que du fourrage pour leur bétail durant la fin de l'année 2020 grâce à l'appui du projet. D'où l'amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire de ces familles paysannes et le renforcement de leur capacité de résilience ; o 230 ha de terre en pente sont protégés contre l'érosion ; o Restauration et amélioration du couvert arboré de 375 ha ; o Selon les témoignages des différents acteurs qui y étaient impliqués, la dernière campagne de déparasitage réalisée par l'URP en juin et juillet dernier a eu un impact considérable sur le cheptel des bénéficiaires surtout en termes d'amélioration de la condition corporelle du cheptel. Il est à remarquer qu'aucun cas de mortalité n'a été rapporté cette année durant la période de sécheresse. Continuer l'appui à la production et conservation de fourrages ; -Appuyer au moins 2000 agro-éleveurs dans le développement de la culture fourragère en modèle agrosylvopastoral sur au moins 1000 ha ; -Appuyer la mise en oeuvre et la structuration d'au moins 15 unités de production, stockage et de commercialisation de foin et d'ensilage dans les départements du Nord et du Nordest -Renforcer la capacité technique d'au moins 2000 agro-éleveurs dans le gestion durable et écologique de l'élevage pour l'amélioration de leurs conditions de vie. Continuer l'appui à la gestion sanitaire des troupeaux -Appuyer le déparasitage d'au moins 110,000 têtes de bétail à travers la conduite d'autres campagne de déparasitage ; -Renforcer les services de soins vétérinaires des DDA-N et DDA-NE en les fournissant un appui en matériels et équipements vétérinaires ; -Renforcer les GSB en sensibilisant les éleveurs sur l'application et l'adoption des pratiques améliorées de gestion sanitaire des troupeaux.Par l'objectif du projet à intervenir dans des sous-unités stratégiques de la zone d'intervention du projet et de renforcer les capacités pour une gouvernance améliorée des ressources naturelles au niveau local, il est question de prioriser surtout les aires de recharge des sources captées ou tout autre type de captage des eaux de surfaces servant de moyen d'approvisionnement en eau pour les populations.Dans ce contexte, une méthodologie a été développée permettant d'identifier et délimiter les aires de recharges de certaines sources d'importance pour les communautés dans la zone d'intervention du projet.La méthodologie développée considère trois aspects fondamentaux : i) elle met en évidence l'approche communautaire et institutionnelle ; ii) Elle met l'emphase sur les aspects hydro géomorphologiques pour définir l'aire d'alimentation sur la base des lignes de partages des eaux (ligne crête) du bassin versant dans lequel se trouve la source en question ; iii) elle reprend une méthode empirique (Numéro de courbe) qui est axée sur les conditions surfaciques du milieu permettant d'identifier, à partir des techniques et outils d'analyse spatiales, les zones potentielles à la rétention d'eau en fonction des données disponibles sur l'occupation de sol, les conditions hydrologiques de la zone (la distribution des pentes) et le type de sol.   Établissement de la structure physique provisoire pour le CRDD (container office) -Les travaux d'installation de structure physique administrative du CRDD sont achevés; -Deux enseignes d'indentification du CRDD ont été installées (l'une sur la route nationale #6, l'autre sur les installations de la structure administrative; -Les matériels de cuisine et hygiénique, les matériels de bureau et de formation sont achetés. Mise en place une ferme de démonstration et de recherche appliquée au CRDD -Mille cinq cent (1500) mètres linéaires de clôture, en pieux en bois de repousse et du fil de barbelé, sont installés sur le pourtour de la ferme; -Plus de cinq cent (500) mètres linéaires de haies vives, à base d'espèces fourragères (herbe éléphant), sont établis pour délimiter les blocs de culture ainsi que les voies du CRDD; -3,5 hectares de parcelle fourragère sont réhabilités; -2 parcelles de démonstration de « jaden lakou » de superficie de 1574 m 2 (7 arbres plantés) et 8400 m2 (83 arbres plantés) sont établis sur la ferme du CRDD. Elles ont toutes 2 au moins 6 cultures vivrières ou saisonnières; -Une (1) plantation de cerisier et citronnier (48 plantules) est établie sur 800m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle de démonstration mais pur est établie sur 1227m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle de démonstration de manioc pur est établie sur 1635m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle démonstration d'association de maïs-gombo-pois Congo est établie sur 1635m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle démonstration d'association de maïs-manioc-haricot en système agroforestier est établie sur 705m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle démonstration d'association de maïs-manioc-gombo en système agroforestier est établie sur 705m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle démonstration d'association de maïs-manioc-pois souche en système agroforestier est établie sur 705m 2 ; -Une (1) parcelle démonstration d'association manioc-pois congo en système agroforestier est établie sur 705m 2 ; -9500 m 2 de lot boisé (638 arbres issus de 8 espèces) du CRDD sont réorganisés.","tokenCount":"1881"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9076c08364512f0633830879fe3a634","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/946c9373-df27-4d2f-846b-5005d2401e11/retrieve","id":"-1197443634"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3d30f9d6-1e6b-4bc1-a61e-8ba2dfffa39f","pagecount":"27","content":"Response Develop and initiate a plan to engage in a critical analysis of PIM's comparative advantage that enhances the proposal's strategic focus and its particular contribution to the delivery of the SRF.The list of six comparative advantages on p. 28 is simply a list, not an analysis of those factors in each domain the CRP contemplates working.We agree with the importance of continuous reflection on PIM's comparative advantage. This will allow PIM to fulfill its integrative function within CGIAR and to contribute to the efforts of the development community more generally. These discussions have occurred through consultations in the course of developing the proposal, and additionally during and after the Montpellier meeting of CRP Directors in June 2016. We will continue the reflection on comparative advantage in formulating the detailed work program for 2017.We have sharpened the general definition of comparative advantage (see Section 1.0.8): \"The definition of comparative advantage used in design of the PIM program has three components: (a) researchers are recognized as technical experts in the field in question, and able to deliver excellence in applied research; (b) the work proposed is relevant to the SLOs and PIM can make a significant contribution to the CGIAR portfolio-wide effort; (c) PIM brings a unique perspective that enables it to contribute research results distinct from those of other providers. Component (a) is assessed according to metrics of quality of science. Component (b) reflects interactions between and among CRPs to contribute to outcomes in shared subject areas, such as value chains or gender, and in a given geography, such as PIM's contribution to assessing the enabling environment for agricultural growth in the CGIAR countries of collaboration. PIM's unique attributes referenced in component (c) often relate to the ability to link the developmental topic to agricultural issues and to link social science research with agronomy and biology. Uniqueness may also derive from a long-standing in-country presence and reputation for objectivity, quality, and responsiveness to demand.\" Table 1.0.8.1 illustrates how each flagship addresses the three components of comparative advantage.In each flagship narrative, we now specify the constraints to attainment of the SLOs addressed and show the relevance (item b above) of the work in this regard.The revision draws on comments from the ISPC, prior consultation with researchers and partners, discussions with CRP Leaders in Montpellier in June 2016 and earlier, and follow-up meetings organized by PIM in July 2016 to agree on the respective roles of PIM and other CRPs on foresight, impact assessment of technology adoption, and value chains. The outcomes of these meetings have been incorporated into Annex 3.7, Tables 1 and 2a. We will continue regular interaction with other CRPs at the Director level to supplement the technical interactions within the communities of practice and to assure that PIM is addressing policy and institutional priorities of the other CRPs. We will also consider with the PIM Independent Steering Committee and the program's strategic partners whether external providers may be in a better position to pursue selected research. If so, partnerships will be used to leverage PIM's capacities.Response Strengthen the overall coherence of the CRP through identification and strengthening of the functional linkages among the FPs In its pre-proposal commentary, ISPC requested that PIM present a more coherent rationale for the FP structure and the value of linkages among CoAs. The PIM narrative now sketches outthough not entirely convincingly -linkages between flagships in a paragraph on p. 25 and visually through a conceptual framework diagram (Fig 1.6.2), which still falls short of adequately illustrating the inter-dependencies across the six FPs. In Fig 1.3.1, showing the relationships between FPlevel outputs, outcomes and program-level outcomes, there are no obvious inter-FP linkages. It is still not entirely clear, for example, how foresight researchers will work with value chain partners or how the outputs of each would be used by the others.As an integrative CRP, PIM has two axes of coherence; one with other CRPs across the CGIAR portfolio, and another between and among flagships within PIM. While PIM's flagships link to each other in specific ways, linkages with AFS CRPs (and external partners) are at least as important as linkages within the CRP. PIM flagships on technology, value chains, natural resource governance and gender have been formulated because of the importance of policy and social science research in these themes across the CRPs, rather than because they are interlinked within PIM. For example, the gender work in Flagship 6 achieves some impact through linkages within PIM, but more through links with other CRPs and external partners. The flagships on agricultural transformation and social protection provide complementary research to other CRPs.We have strengthened the discussion of the linkages between and among PIM flagships in both the CRP and flagship narratives. Examples of linkages between flagships of PIM are noted below:  The modeling tools developed under Flagship 1 have provided an insightful assessment of the costs and benefits of reduction in postharvest losses studied in Cluster 3.2.  Research on seed systems (Cluster 1.2) complements work on strengthening input markets (Cluster 3.2).  Analysis of farm size dynamics (Cluster 2.1) informs work on arrangements for extension and advisory services (Cluster 1.2), and changes in tenure and land administration (Cluster 5.1).  Research on agricultural expenditure (Cluster 2. With regard to (a), discussions with other CRPs and Centers about synergies with PIM during Phase 2 started early in 2016, continued at the Montpellier Science Leaders meeting in June 2016, and expanded during follow-up meetings organized by PIM in July 2016 to agree on the respective roles of PIM and other CRPs on foresight, impact assessment of technology adoption, and value chains. The outcomes of these meetings have been incorporated into Annex 3.7, Tables 1 and 2a.In 2016 a PIM-A4NH-WLE-CCAFS joint study will be conducted in Ethiopia and Bangladesh to identify potentially overlapping policy agendas within the domains of these CRPS and to coordinate efforts. This collaborative work will be expanded to other priority countries in Phase 2.Integration of social science and policy research across the CRPs takes place at the portfolio level, as different programs jointly contribute to outcomes. See Annex 3.11.7 \"PIM's Contribution to SLO Targets: Methodology Note\" for a description of different elements contributing to specific SLOs. The new Figure 1.0.3.2 shows how PIM integrates its research with other CRPs to contribute to the technology adoption SLO targets. The new Figure 1.0.3.3 shows joint efforts of PIM and other CRPs in analysis of postharvest loss and food waste. These joint efforts toward common objectives serve to build common methods and shared results, thus drawing social science researchers across the system together. The new Figure 1.0.7.1 \"PIM's contributions to engagement of CGIAR with Ethiopian partners\" shows connections between and among flagships in PIM and links with other CRPs on shared agendas of social science research.Details of social science interactions with other CRPs can be found in the flagship narratives. Following further dialogues with CRPs in July 2016, all flagship narratives have been updated except for Flagship 6 (Cross-cutting Gender Research and Coordination). Coordination on gender work will be furthered during the meeting of the CGIAR Gender Network in October 2016 to complete design of the collaborative platform and agree with the Gender Network on strategic priorities for research across the system.Response Focusing research on activities that exploit complementarities with other CRP activities rather than addressing very broad topics.Complementarity can mean either fulfilling a specific function in joint work with other CRPs, or providing a unique contribution needed for achievement of the SLOs, that other CRPs cannot provide. PIM's portfolio includes both types of complementarity. Complementarity in the sense of working together can be seen particularly where communities of practice are active, such as foresight modeling, adoption of technology, value chains, natural resource management, and gender research. Within the domains of these communities of practice, we have consulted with members of the communities of practice who also work in other CRPs and with Science Leaders to identify areas of complementarity as shown in the revised Table 1 of Annex 3.7 (Overview of inter-CRP collaboration). Complementarity in the form of providing a unique and essential contribution can be seen in the work on rural transformation, economywide effects, trade, and social protection. Indeed, PIM has made the case that it will not focus on topics covered by other CRPs, e.g., \"PIM has elected not to invest heavily in irrigation policy (covered by WLE), food safety policy (covered by A4NH), and land degradation (covered by FTA and WLE).\" These issues offer entry points for PIM for collaboration and cross-system research synergies, but they are left to the other CRPs.PIM works at a higher level of aggregation on many topics that are also addressed by other CRPs, e.g. foresight, seed systems, value chains, and gender. PIM has consulted with other CRPs to identify complementarity and selectivity of focus in the topics covered. Each of the topics noted in the comment from the ISPC is addressed by the CRP identified. PIM does some work on water as part of the work on tenure of natural resources and institutional arrangements for managing across landscapes, but most work on water is undertaken by WLE, which we think is an appropriate division of labor.The fact that identical wording is often used in Table 1 Overview of Inter-CRP Collaboration (Annex Section 3.7) across all AFS CRP cells, raises concerns as to whether genuine linkages and interactions are forming.We note the concern, and have provided more detailed information on coordinated plans with each CRP in the revised Annex 3.7 Tables 1 and 2a.Response Finally, the ISPC notes with some concern the 'low priority' given to \"Develop CRPs and Centers' partnering capacities\" within the context of the CapDev framework (p. 31).Building the research capacity of Centers and CRPs is central to PIM's work, and realized through collaborative studies, management of communities of practice, development of methods and tools, and data sharing. According to the CapDev framework, the indicator \"Develop CRPs and Centers' partnering capacities\" reflects specifically the capacity of CGIAR bodies to partner (and not the general capacity of CGIAR bodies). PIM does not directly address the \"capacity to partner\". We have assigned \"high\" and \"medium\" priority to the CapDev framework elements that we directly target. However overall, the work is not well integrated with the AFS CRPs and will be conducted mostly by IFPRI.Discussion of integration with the AFS CRPs has been enhanced in each of the flagship sections and in Annex 3.7. PIM is an integrative CRP with participation of all CGIAR Centers, as shown clearly in the budget tables. In the indicative budget, approximately 65% of Window 1-2 research funds are allocated to the Lead Center, and 35% to Participating Centers and managing partners. After allocation to CGIAR Centers and managing partners, about 25% of funds flow through to research partners and participants in capacity development. The earlier presentation of the budget data aggregated allocations to a number of CGIAR Centers under the category \"CGIAR collaboration.\" This was consistent with the guidance on budgets, but the budget tool did not pick up the category \"CGIAR collaboration,\" and assigned an inaccurately high proportion of funds to the Lead Center. We have remedied this mistake in the current presentation of the budget data. Provide further articulation of the TOC at the program and FP levels specifying the assumptions and IPs that recognize the complexities of achieving policy and institutional change RP and FP level TOCs do not delve sufficiently into the complexity of the process, surprising given the subject area of the proposal. The TOCs need to show how CoAs (for FPs) and FPs (for PIM at large) complement each other to help achieve FP level and overall PIM program outcomes in a coherent fashion.The sections on ToC at the program and flagship level have been revised. The presentation of the flagships' theories of change in the flagship narratives has been aligned with the general program's ToC, and assumptions are now more explicitly covered in each flagship. showing PIM's role as an integrating CRP working in conjunction with other programs facilitating achievement of impact (for the example of technology adoption). Finally, see the new Figure 1.0.3.3 showing how PIM uses its four channels of influence in an integrated approach to contribute to reduction of postharvest loss and food waste (sub-IDO of SRF and SDG Target 12.3).Response PIM maintains that its policylevel impact will come from influencing global agendas and policies, sharing tools and datasets, testing innovations for 'boundary partner' adoption, and raising the bar on research quality via capacity building and communities of practice. Each of these represents a relatively remote, theoretical and highly optimistic pathway that seems to miss the 'final mile' steps that are needed to translate knowledge into practice in measurable ways. The proposal needs to define in precise and concrete ways how attributable policy influence will be achieved.PIM's theory of change is presented more clearly and with more disaggregation by steps in the new Figure 1.0.3.1. Influence on next users is pursued through identification of a mechanism for change and key actors in the process, followed by selection of partners to enhance engagement and likelihood that the research will have influence. Much of the research is conducted jointly with boundary partners, and/or with frequent interaction with next users (including during the agenda-setting process, to ensure that research addresses their needs). Several examples of partnerships with national policy makers and international organizations are noted in the CRP-level and flagship narratives. PIM's list of key countries of engagement considers potential for policy impact, which is influenced by the presence of an IFPRI Country Strategy Support Program (e.g. in the cases of Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, and Nigeria). CSSPs provide a vehicle to influence policy and support strategy development through research, capacity building, and policy dialogue. PIM also benefits from long-standing relationships of Participating Centers and partners with national counterparts. For example, PIM's work in Tanzania draws on the institutional presence of IITA and Michigan State University. PIM relies on a framework of documenting relevance and contribution to policy processes without claiming attribution. This approach was endorsed at a workshop convened by PIM and SPIA in Phase 1. Response Exactly how PIM will work with other CRPs in the integration countries has not been specified aside from statements such as \"PIM will participate in the integration site plans once they are finalized\", though many other CRPs are actively engaged in developing those plans. The exception is for Ethiopia and Ghana where PIM states their preference for \"engaging in bilateral discussions with key government and development stakeholders to identify priority policy areas for PIM ….rather than establishing a separate mechanism.\" PIM fully supports country collaboration, and has participated in all meetings to develop plans in site integration ++ countries. PIM has significant presence in each of these countries, with the exception of Nicaragua, and partial exception of Vietnam. PIM's primary contributions to country collaboration are: (a) diagnostic assessment of the strength of the enabling environment to support the work of CGIAR; (b) identification of key constraints to success of the CGIAR portfolio in that country; (c) specific interventions to remedy policy and institutional constraints; and (d) facilitating coordinated engagement with national counterparts on policy issues. In the revised proposal (Section 1.0.7 and Annex 3.7), PIM provides clearer language confirming this commitment, and an example showing how it is implemented in Ethiopia (Figure 1.0.7.1). The language noted by the reviewer in quotations led to misunderstanding, and has been removed.Due consideration should be given to expanding the geographic domain of activity to include more Francophone countries in Africa.PIM works in the following francophone countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal (see Annex 3.11.5 \"Countries of engagement\"). Some examples of how an understanding of gender has helped shape the agendas under each FP would strengthen the proposal. Such examples can be found in Annex 3.4.Response PIM's capacity development work is focused on promoting adoption of PIM concepts, tools and findings, rather than on raising the level and quality of agriculture and policy research more broadly. The proposal would be strengthened by a clear overarching strategy for building lasting capacity to take on similar work incountry or global post-PIM, as opposed to simply training individuals.PIM develops tools and methods to raise the level and quality of agricultural and policy research. The Social Accounting Matrices (SAMs) are among the most downloaded items produced by CGIAR. The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEIA) is growing in application, as more development agencies use it to track the impact of their programs on women's empowerment. The work on unifying methodological approaches for measuring distortions in agricultural trade and value chains benefits (among others) the FAO MAFAP program, which regularly acknowledges the contribution. The tools for value chain analysis accessible through the www.tools4valuechains.org website are used by an array of partners within and outside CGIAR. The Country Strategy Support Programs provide ongoing capacity development for national partners. The PIM capacity development strategy has relied more on development of tools and institutional strengthening than on training of individuals, which appears to be consistent with the recommendation of the reviewers.The language in Section 1.0.3 and Annex 3.3 has been strengthened to convey the approach to capacity development described above.The outcomes are described in fairly general terms and not clear how budgets have been framed in relation to the intended work. The proposal would be strengthened by inclusion of more detail, particularly for the value-chain activity.Budgets have been framed in reference to historic costs applied to the work programs described. The budget narratives for each flagship (Sections 2.1.2, 2.2.2, 2.3.2, 2.4.2, 2.5.2, 2.6.2) include brief descriptions of the levels and categories of costs. Budgets for all flagships are at this point indicative, and will be developed in greater detail during annual planning exercises when levels of actual funding are clearer.Of interest is the assumption made that each FP leader will only spend 30% FTE on FP coordination. Even with a 100% FTE program manager, that seems too low.We wish to attract Flagship Leaders who are recognized experts in their fields. Few such people would accept positions that are largely administrative, and that leave little time for research and policy engagement. Seeking to fund a proportion of the time of Flagship Leaders in excess of 30% for management, administration, and reporting (as opposed to research) would inflate the program's management costs and reduce the pool of interested candidates. We will leverage the time of Flagship Leaders by hiring program managers.Response US$730,000 allocated to M&E activities as \"collaborator fees\" and travel costs for external evaluations raises questions. Since there are few actual interventions being proposed (which would require at least baseline and endline primary data collection), this estimate appears rather high.As explained in Annex 3.6 and in the CRP budget narrative (Sections 1.1.4 and 1.1.6), the $730,000 includes impact assessment, external evaluations, documenting research outcomes, setting up an online planning and reporting tool jointly with the other integrating CRPs, training sessions, and participation in the MEL CoP. The list of evaluations proposed can be found in Annex 3.6.There is a Management Committee, more than half of whom are IFPRI staff. This raises an issue about the insufficient level of integration with other CRPs. Hence, despite the 'linkages' that exist with non-IFPRI CGIAR entities, PIM is dominated by the interests and priorities of IFPRI. IFPRI researchers are the leaders in every FP and almost all CoAs within them.In Phase 1 the Management Committee included five flagship leaders (all from IFPRI), two Focal Points selected by the Participating Centers, the Gender Lead (a non-CGIAR staff), a representative of an external implementing partner from the NGO sector, and the CRP Director. In recognition of the concern that staff from Centers other than the Lead Center as well as managing partners should have opportunities to serve as flagship leaders in Phase 2, an open, merit-based, selection process was conducted in July, 2016. An invitation to nominate flagship leaders was sent to the PIM extended team (including Focal Points representing all Centers), CGIAR Science Leaders (CRP Directors and DDGs of the Centers), and active participants from managing partner organizations, along with TORs for the positions. Self-nominations were accepted. 11 nominations were received: 5 for IFPRI staff, 3 for staff from Participating Centers, and 3 for staff from external organizations. All nominees expressed interest for the positions. A selection panel consisting of two members of the SPAP, one external expert, one representative of the Lead Center, and one member of the PMU assigned scores to each nominee according to criteria known to candidates. As per the outcome of this process, IFPRI staff will continue to lead Flagships 1 and 4. Flagship 2 will be co-led by staff from Michigan State University and IFPRI. Flagship 3 will be co-led by staff from Wageningen University and Research Centre and IFPRI. Flagship 5 will be co-led by staff from CIFOR and IFPRI. Flagship 6 will be led by a staff member from Oxford University. It appears as if PIM is more outward facing in its ambitions rather than focused on system-wide strengthening, collaboration and the exploitation of inter-CRPs' synergies to deliver the SRF.PIM does indeed contribute to the work of the development community as a whole. This is consistent with the broad partnership strategy of CGIAR, and recognition that CGIAR is but one player in a constellation of contributors to rural prosperity, better health and nutrition, and stewardship of natural resources. PIM contributes to strengthening of the CGIAR portfolio by working to improve the enabling policy environment that underpins its success and through the several communities of practice to strengthen the research outputs of other CRPs. We have added clarifying language to show PIM's contribution to the system in Section 1.0. Response The entire budget of FP1, FP2, FP4 and FP6 is for IFPRI according to the budget tables; with about 25% of FP5 and less than 0.4% of FP3 allocated to Centers other than IFPRI. 95% of the PIM budget is allocated to IFPRI.Revisions of the text, Annex 3.7 Tables 1 and 2a, and the budget presentation have been made to address the concerns about funding for Participating Centers and external partners. In the indicative budget, 65% of PIM's W1-2 research funds are allocated to the Lead Center, and 35% to Participating Centers and partners. In Phase 1 IFPRI mobilized proportionately more Window 3/bilateral funds than did Participating Centers, with the result that about 80% of research funding from all sources was spent by IFPRI, and 20% by other Centers. In Phase 2 we will encourage and provide technical support to Centers to mobilize Window 3/bilateral funds in the same proportion relative to Window 1-2 funds as IFPRI. This should assure an increased contribution of Participating Centers to the program. In the indicative budget across sources of funding and years 76% of research funds are allocated to/mobilized by the Lead Center and 24% allocated to/mobilized by Participating Centers and partners. These proportions are indicative, and will be adjusted as mobilization of Window 3/bilateral resources on the part of Participating Centers becomes known. What is not quite so clear is the strategy for selection of core and peripheral collaborators. The proposal would have been stronger if it had discussed the principles on the basis of which partners have been selected, and the strategy for monitoring of partners' roles and output.PIM selects partners in accordance with the concept of comparative advantage as described in Section 1.0.8. At the flagship level, research partners are selected because of demonstrated excellence, unique attributes or engagement in processes, and/or to build their capacity to carry on with work once PIM exits a field of inquiry. Implementation partners are selected because they are located strategically along an impact pathway and engaged in the policy process or implementation of programs. Language added to Section 1.0.3, Section 1.0.8, and Annex 3.2 about the choice of partners is intended to clarify this.Response To complement the quantitative modelling exercise, the FP team might consider developing more descriptive/qualitative scenarios.Qualitative analysis is used to select scenarios for quantitative modeling. PIM has worked with CCAFS and regional stakeholders in Phase 1 to develop and link qualitative scenarios with quantitative modeling, and will continue to work with decision makers and stakeholders to link qualitative and quantitative approaches in Phase 2. The flagship narrative has been revised to note this. There are, however, still questions about the role PIM will play with respect to both technology adoption and impact analysis, in particular, the specific scope of effort, its comparative advantage (as highlighted in the previous commentary), and how it relates to other CRPs. It needs to be clarified if the same portfolio of work proposed in the pre-proposal is maintained, though scaled back and no longer functioning as a CoA, or whether the specific roles and activities have been reconsidered, along with the budget.PIM's contribution on technology adoption focuses on the role of policy reform and institutional and market innovations (e.g., seed regulations, targeted subsidies, ICT-enabled extension). This approach complements attention in AFS CRPs to determinants of adoption and costs/returns of CGIAR-supported technologies and practices. This will require that PIM conduct field-level analysis in close partnership with other Centers and CRPs as well as other partners, e.g., public research and extension organizations, non-governmental organizations, and private companies. We plan to prioritize such research in CGIAR countries of collaboration to facilitate linkages with AFS CRPs, and focus analyses on instances where identifiable policy, institutional, or market innovations have implications for the wider CGIAR portfolio and provide sufficient scope for analysis. No budget has been allocated to any non-IFPRI CGIAR Center.See response to comments on the budget presentation made in the general section. 40% of the Flagship 1 budget is allocated to CGIAR Centers other than the Lead Center and to outside partners.Response The agenda of CoA 1 appeared to be a collection of a wide range of topics (but missing some key ones) that did not reflect a clear strategic choice, but rather seemed to be chosen based on the existing skill set within IFPRI. There was also little mention of the large CSSPs and how they were feeding into the FP and overall CRP agenda. Those are now referred to several times in the FP2 narrative, though more could be said about the relationship between CSSPs and PIM's research agenda.The issues addressed in Flagship 2 are at the heart of the growth agenda for agriculturedependent countries, especially in Africa. CSSPs program their resources in direct discussion with governmental partners. Many issues are congruent with the topics covered in PIM, but PIM does not impose a research program on national partners or on the CSSPs. PIM is sometimes able to assist the CSSPs to broaden the agenda; e.g., to include gender or youth in a study that did not have an explicit focus on inclusion. PIM can bring Centers other than IFPRI to contribute to work requested by a national counterpart from a CSSP. PIM can also draw cross-national links between and among studies undertaken at the national level through CSSPs. CSSPs provide valuable entry to important national stakeholders. For example, when the ISPC invited PIM to organize a session at the Science Forum in April of 2016, PIM was able to do so through the excellent connections of the Ethiopia CSSP. While some key areas have been brought into the agenda, e.g., farm size, the team has stated that \"issues associated with inclusive growth that both attract bilateral funding and draw on staff capacity receive preferential treatment in FP2, which is consistent with comparative advantage and the constrained funding environment.\" The ISPC does not agree that this argument should be used to define the strategic agenda of FP2.The language about bilateral funding was misleading, and has been removed. The work of Flagship 2 is largely in Africa south of the Sahara, where countries, development partners, and now CGIAR through the country collaboration mechanism work together to meet objectives set at the national level consistent with commitments under CAADP and the Malabo Declaration. Funding and design of work follows agreement on the priorities. Thus it is neither W1-2 of PIM nor bilateral agencies that set the research agenda, but rather the national stakeholders and coordinated donors. PIM responds to the demand of the coordinated stakeholders. At present demand is concentrated in the areas developed in Flagship 2; that is, inclusive rural transformation, job creation, allocation of public expenditure and tracking of impact, and the political economy of late-transforming countries.Response A stronger justification for comparative advantage is needed. Other groups (J-PAL, 3ie, World Bank and university-based researchers) are involved in analysis of employment issues in developing countries. A clearer articulation of PIM's comparative advantage in this field would be useful in providing a stronger rationale for the specific topics of research in which this FP proposes to engage.The language on comparative advantage has been strengthened. Few organizations except for CGIAR have the necessary mandate, research skills, and convening power on these issues. PIM's partnership with FAO's Rural Employment team was motivated by their observation that most researchers working on jobs do not focus on agricultural or rural employment. Indeed, an online search revealed that only 58 (0.6%) of Institute for the Study of Labor's (IZA) 10,023 discussion papers since 1998 mention \"agriculture\" or \"farming\" in their abstracts; and only 29 (1.2%) of the 3ie database of 2,500 impact evaluations and 3 (1.7%) of JPAL's 173 agriculture/labor market studies mention both \"agriculture\" and \"employment.\" More importantly, few research organizations have the CGIAR's in-country policy experience, and most research does not consider both demand and supply-side factors affecting employment. Of the groups listed by the ISPC, only the World Bank has comparable research strength and policy engagement, but there, too, little attention is accorded to rural employment. (In a previous assignment the PIM Director wrote a chapter on youth employment in agriculture in Africa for a WB volume when it became apparent that the staffing of the study team did not include skills to cover agriculture.) The overall rationale for the selection of topics in Flagship 2 is addressed in the revised version of the proposal. The political economy work in CoA 3 looks promising, and is welcome, particularly given that so much of this CRP is built on TOC and IP that are tenuous. It is surprising not to see some mention of ideas being revived of problemdriven adaptive iteration (Andrews et al.), nor to the work led by David Booth and colleagues on doing development differently, i.e., working from positive deviance to induce generalised propositions.The presentation of the ToC has been revised, as noted above. Neither the TOC nor the IP is tenuous, although both are subject to risk and random occurrences as noted in the proposal. We agree that the referenced work by Andrews et al. and Booth offer important insights, and they have influenced the Cluster 2.3 team. To further acknowledge their importance, we have included reference to David Booth's as well as Brian Levy's work on \"going with the grain.\" What this concept means operationally for influencing evidencebased agricultural policy change is not entirely clear, and a useful topic for the Cluster 2.3 team to address. Similarly, Matt Andrews and Lant Pritchett's work on \"isomorphic mimicry\" and problem-driven adaptive iteration offers a refreshingly new lens on how to achieve institutional reform. The revised flagship proposal highlights how we will incorporate these authors' insights, as well as those of Peter Evans on \"institutional monocropping,\" into Cluster 2.3's work on public sector reforms in Africa.Response Structural change in SSA is a major development issue. The central research problem is the absence of industrialization. Looking at transformation only in Africa, as this FP does, risks ignoring key processes being seen in Asia and Latin America. In some influential circles there is a fierce concentration on raising agricultural productivity and closing yields gaps which, while important, is only one part of agricultural and rural development in Africa. Comparisons made across Asia and Africa are often ahistorical: the idea that Africa cannot industrialise through labour-intensive manufacturing rests in large part on a faulty logic that history does not corroborate. As China's wages rise, opportunities for manufacturing in Africa mount. Given this analysis, the FP may wish to consider broadening its outlook here.The team agrees that cross-country experience with structural and rural transformation is informative. The team already draws upon existing research from Asia and Latin America. Funding realities in Phase 2 are likely to constrain the amount of work that PIM can do outside of CGIAR countries of collaboration. Inclusion of Vietnam (a country of collaboration) allows us to explore the Asian experience while enriching shared CGIAR efforts. Bangladesh and India (additional countries of collaboration) also offer useful lessons. The text of the flagship narrative has been revised to note that cross-country learning from East and South Asia will be pursued as resources permit. In addition, IFPRI's office in China and good connections with Chinese research organizations allow continued partnership without commitment of too many resources. The reviewer notes, \"As China's wages rise, opportunities for manufacturing in Africa mount.\" Whether this is true, or instead China's firms will automate or outsource to Southeast Asian neighbors, is an open and important question. The work of Flagship 2 is structured to assess the issue from the African side, to understand the pace and composition of job creation and the role of Chinese and other investors. We participate regularly in fora and conferences that address the question with reference to China's changing labor market. We also examine the experience with youth employment in other countries; for example, an ongoing PIM project on rural youth employment in Africa includes historical studies of Brazil and Bangladesh. The FP adopts the approach of defining questions by diagnosis of problems, i.e., identify the problem, study the causes, and find policies and programs to remedy them. This makes sense, but the FP may also wish to consider an alternative approach using 'positive deviance' -e.g. based on assessments of cases of success that have occurred, and especially when success has been achieved in unpromising circumstances.Working from positive deviance is implicitly integrated into the work of Cluster 2.3 on political economy. Finding where there have been positive cases of policy change or \"islands\" of public sector effectiveness in a sea of low public sector capacity underlies the rationale to pursue qualitative case of successful reform. Similarly, Cluster 2.1's diagnostic approach includes studies of success at national and subnational levels. Other areas of the flagship may expand into such a methodological approach depending on resources. The description of the flagship's approach has been broadened in Section 2.2.1.3.Response While there is some past evidence of cross CRP collaboration within the foresight modelling work of FP1 (and to a lesser extent in value chains and NRM communities of practice), and frequent passing references to intentions to collaborate on various topics with other CRPs, for the most part, it is missing.The Flagship 3 team has conducted additional discussions with the AFS CRPs, and agreed on modalities of collaboration as listed below:  With RTB (FP4, FP5), FTA (FP2, FP3), A4NH (FP3), FISH, WHEAT, and MAIZE on measurement of postharvest losses;  With RTB, FTA, and A4NH on interventions to improve participation of women in VCs;  With FTA on value chains for forest and tree-crop products (e.g. inclusion, scaling, innovation, SME development);  With RTB on the value chain hubs in Peru and Senegal, and with LIVESTOCK on the VC hub in Ethiopia. This is reflected in the revised flagship narrative (Section 2.3.1.7) and in Annex 3.7. The team will seek additional cross-CRP collaboration as mutual interest and resources permit. Some of the FP narratives do allude to complementarities with other FPs. But it is still not entirely clear, for example, how foresight researchers will work with value chain partners or how the outputs of each would be used by the others. The same applies to the post-harvest technology work and statistics support.Although the linkages between the work on value chains and foresight modeling are implicit and logical (promising future technologies targeted for early development will require wellperforming value chains to reach their potential), time horizons differ between the two topics. Value chain analysis is more closely related to adoption of presently available technologies than to technologies in the development stages. The foresight work, in addition to developing guidance for investment in research, offers insight into geographies of promising adoption for existing technologies. In this area the two bodies of work are complementary, and work together. The work on seed systems in Flagship 1 is closely linked to analysis of input supply within value chains in Flagship 3. Similarly, reduction of postharvest losses improves returns to new technologies. Analysis of the evolution of value chains during the process of rural transformation brings Flagships 2 and 3 together. Flagships 3 and 6 are linked through the application of tools for gender analysis in value chains and the use of the WEAI to track gender impacts of interventions to strengthen value chains. Budget -The proposal would be strengthened by inclusion of more detail, particularly for the value-chain activity.Budgets have been framed in reference to historic costs applied to the work programs described. The budget narratives for each flagship (Sections 2.1.2, 2.2.2, 2.3.2, 2.4.2, 2.5.2, 2.6.2) include brief descriptions of the levels and categories of costs. Budgets for all flagships are indicative, and will be developed in greater detail during annual planning exercises when levels of actual funding are clearer. We have noted in an earlier communication to the ISPC that a significant share of W1-2 funds has been allocated to non-IFPRI partners. With the new approach to entering \"budget by partner\" data, the budgetary concern of the ISPC should be alleviated.Response Also, the research agenda appeared quite distinct from what the rest of the CRPs were doing, particularly in terms of integrating smallholders into domestic value chains that link farmers to processors. With respect to the latter, PIM had developed in Phase 1 a multi-center CoP for value chain research that it claims has strong linkages to other CRPs.Links to other CRPs in Phase 1 through the CoP were largely at the individual level, as members of the CoP participated both in PIM and in other CRPs, often those led by their home Centers. In planning for Phase 2, the links have been strengthened at the programmatic level through discussions with CRP Directors. The presentation of the coherence of the research agenda and complementarity with work of other CRPs has been enhanced through addition of Figure 2.3.1.6.1 \"Linking smallholders to markets through value chain research,\" showing key nodes in the value chain, recurrent constraints at each node, and potential interventions to address the constraints.Each of the nodes of the value chain presented in Figure 2.3.1.6.1 is local or domestic, although the ultimate customer or consumer could be an exporter. The fact that trade is covered in Flagship 3 does not diminish the focus of the teams on domestic and local value chains. One innovative feature of the flagship is application of tools developed for trade work (Producer Support Estimates or Nominal Rates of Assistance) to diagnostic assessment of domestic and local value chains. There is some evidence of this for a few CRPs in Table 2.7.1 (Key partnerships with other CRPs) but it is not obvious from Annex 3.7 where PIM describes what the FP provides and receives from each of the eight AFS CRPs and CCAFS. In each case the description is fairly non-specific and always the same. More specificity might be expected here reflecting the differential progress made with each CRP. Annex 3.7 has been revised to reflect specific agreements for joint work and collaboration.PIM indicates it intends to strengthen the linkages with CRPs during Phase 2, although no funds have been allocated to this end (co-investment is planned). It will be essential that PIM comes to the table seeking to both contribute to and receive from other CRPs to the CGIAR's greater advantage. The mechanism and strategy that will be used to achieve this needs greater clarification.As noted above, ties with other CRPs at an individual level through the CoP will be retained and expanded with additional members of the CoP. These members all participate in other CRPs as well as in PIM. In addition to individual links, programmatic links with other CRPs have been strengthened through consultation at the CRP Director level to ascertain areas of further engagement. Measurement and management of postharvest losses is an area of shared interest, and the work will be expanded through co-investment and parallel funding, with PIM providing leadership in design of research methods and coordination and other CRPs taking leadership in testing of interventions to address losses in their specific value chains. The value chains hubs will be another mechanism for collaboration, and other CRPs are invited to use the hubs to share results and convene partners. The value chain web site is available for other CRPs to use to post their results and methods, and to access material on useful tools.Response There are other issues related to the agenda that merit attention. While this FP focuses on value chains, there is little in the narrative that actually describes the typical issues that arise with them. In most cases, the pressing problems where markets fail concern input supply and financial services. If that is correct, then more of the work under this program should be focused on these issues. Rural finance probably deserves special attention. The supermarket revolution is another area which should probably be emphasized more in the narrative of this FP.Figure 2.3.1.6.1 has been added to show the main constraints that characterize different nodes in value chains. Finance and input supply are important, but not the only constraints. Issues of information asymmetry, contractual forms, infrastructure gaps, and others noted in Figure 2.3.1.6.1 are also important. The supermarket revolution is one element of the changing context that sends a pulse backward along the value chain, triggering changes in each node and requiring interventions of the kind shown in the figure; for example, new approaches to aggregation, contracting, demands on rural producers' organizations, and new mechanisms for meetings grades and standards. This work is already included in the PIM portfolio, as, for example, in the work of colleagues from CIP on placing native potatoes and processed products in supermarkets through the methods developed under the framework of the Participatory Market Chain Approach (PMCA). PIM's current portfolio of evaluations of value chain interventions is informed by inputs from the CoP members. PIM will continue to improve tools and build capacity to identify priority problems in value chains so that other CRPs may apply them widely for their own use and for shaping future work of PIM. It is still not that clear what added value CoA 3 (Approaches to VC improvement at scale) brings to CoA 2. While it is true there are things to learn about how small-scale pilots become large-scale programs (Korten, 1980) it is not at all evident that it warrants a separate cluster of activity.This comment from the ISPC initiated a further round of discussion within the PIM team and with two major external partners (Wageningen University and Research Centre and USAID) to consider the relative merits of removing or retaining the cluster. At the strong request of partners, we have decided to retain it with a strengthened justification. The approach that will be adopted is to collaborate with development programs already working at scale and with private firms to assess the effectiveness of interventions included in their programs. Often interventions are designed in a specific context without clear specification of the parameters of intervention or the contextual constraints that they are addressing. Under these circumstances, even when good baseline and endline data are available, it is difficult to discern why the observed impacts are or are not achieved. The work of Cluster 3.3 will undertake research in different contexts to learn where and why interventions are more likely to achieve results. This will be done with varying degrees of technical rigor depending on the need in a given setting. The findings will also provide richer end-of-project assessments for the implementation partners, both AFS CRPs and development agencies. The resources assigned to this cluster are modest, and most work will be done with cofunding by implementation partners.Response The scientific quality of the research proposed is high, except that it is not particularly new or innovative. There were some methodological issues raised by the ISPC in its pre-proposal commentary, particularly for CoA 1 which the full proposal has defended in its response and has provided further details about the methods in CoA 3. The scientific team is strong and represents a good balance of IFPRI, other CGIAR Center (CIP, ICRAF, Worldfish, CIAT, Bioversity) and Wageningen University researchers, all with good publications records. The comparative advantage is clearly high for CoA 1 but it is not at all that clear that PIM (or IFPRI) has a comparative advantage in the other two CoAs. Much will depend on how effectively linkages are formed and how productive the collaborations between PIM and other CRPs are.In addition to innovation in research, a program can make an important contribution by applying known high quality methods to new data to answer long-standing questions, such as, \"What is causing excess margins along a given value chain?\" Applying known methods in new settings often requires innovations in application. This is the case in diagnostic assessments of value chains to discover where the greatest losses are occurring and where interventions can deliver the most gain. Flagship 3 includes innovative work in measurement of postharvest losses, strategic prioritization of value chain interventions, and scaling-up of interventions. We agree that the comparative advantage of PIM in Cluster 3.2 is enhanced through inclusion of scientists from CGIAR and Wageningen University and Research Centre as a strategic partner.Response The main issue here, which has been raised previously, is the extent to which this subject area forms an obvious element of the CRP portfolio, or of the broader CGIAR portfolio. While social protection schemes are important for reducing poverty, their link to agricultural research is not obvious. Comparative advantage is the primary concern here. PIM asked to provide a stronger rationale for this FP in the full proposal, which it has not yet done. The full proposal presents a partial but not completely convincing case for why FP4 on social protection belongs within PIM, or indeed within the CGIAR.In response to this comment from the ISPC, we have substantially revised and clarified the rationale for PIM and the CGIAR to undertake this work, and expanded the work program on social protection and agriculture to strengthen its relevance to CGIAR. We have changed the flagship name to signal the importance of work on social protection for the resilience agenda. We renewed discussions with CCAFS about collaboration on research on climate change and safety nets in addition to the planned collaboration on climate change and insurance. Finally, we sought additional feedback from stakeholders at FAO about the research proposed under this flagship, and confirmed their view of the importance of continued work by CGIAR in this area.The SRF commits CGIAR to work toward \"increased resilience of the poor to climate change and other shocks\" as a contributor to poverty reduction. If the instruments for achieving this are to be limited to agricultural research narrowly defined, then interventions will be only in the sphere of technical agriculture, such as drought, heat, and flood-resistant crops and breeds, and new management techniques. As we have previously argued, even significantly accelerated growth in yields and drought/heat/flood tolerance will leave millions of people subject to shocks that increase poverty, erode health and nutrition, and contribute to degradation of natural resources. Relying only on agricultural research narrowly construed puts each of the SLOs at risk. PIM's research on social protection has already had impact on the design of large programs, and has produced highly regarded publications on the effect of social protection on agriculture, including impact on agricultural productivity and input use, livestock holdings, and adoption of technology (see references in the flagship 4 narrative). Social protection programs are growing in number and size, particularly in Africa south of the Sahara, and provide an important opportunity to build linkages with agricultural production, particularly in the early period of implementation when program design is still somewhat fluid. Social protection programs influence agricultural opportunities for hundreds of millions of smallholders and laborers in agriculture-dependent countries by alleviating credit constraints, reducing distressed sales of productive assets, often increasing demand for labor, and changing food prices. The work program set out in the proposal is ambitious but feasible, and important for attainment of the SLOs.Response Of the three research questions framing the scope of FP4 work, only the first makes a direct connection between social protection programs and their influence on agricultural growth and nutrition. Much other work in this FP would have a very indirect link to agricultural research. The CRP has argued that PIM's comparative advantage in addressing social protection derives from the ability to probe the complementarity of social protection and agricultural production thanks to linkages with the broader agricultural agenda of CGIAR. This makes sense; but how much of the research agenda this applies to in reality is not evident, although the CRP has made a serious effort to give a new orientation in this direction. Further elaboration on how each of the CoAs outputs capitalize on this connection between social protection and agriculture would strengthen the comparative advantage argument. There are important topics that need to be explored, e.g., how do public works programs affect labour allocation in relation to agriculture? How can producers' consumption be protected through social protection mechanisms in ways that don't distort market prices for foods, but the case hasn't been made here sufficiently. PIM no doubt does have competitive advantage in some parts of this agenda, but the work as currently proposed appears to duplicate work being done in several other institutions, including the World Bank, UNDP, OECD and ILO.In the revised proposal we have adjusted the work program to emphasize linkages with agricultural production. In addition we have changed the flagship name to signal the importance of work on social protection and insurance for the resilience agenda. The research agenda now has greater emphasis on complementarity between social protection and investments in agriculture and nutrition. The work will measure the effects of social protection on agricultural technology adoption, input use, cropping patterns, and holdings of livestock and productive assets. Other topics will include the impact of public works on agricultural labor supply, the effect of cash and food transfer modalities on food prices, and whether positive effects of transfers on women's empowerment identified in Phase 1 (Hidrobo et al. 2016) also affect the allocation of productive assets between men and women in the household, a major source of productive inefficiency. Research on the effects of social protection on human capital and intrahousehold allocation of resources is expected to yield insights into agricultural labor productivity and the division of labor within the household.Most of the institutions noted in the ISPC comments (World Bank, UNDP, OECD and ILO) do little on the relation between social protection and agriculture. FAO worked closely with IFPRI on the 2015 SOFA report, \"Social Protection and Agriculture: Breaking the Cycle of Poverty,\" precisely because little of the other work in the field of social protection addresses agricultural issues.Comment Response An area that probably deserves more attention here is land markets and how they are evolving, not the formal land markets, but the informal one.Flagship 5 works on customary as well as statutory, informal as well as formal tenure regimes. The interplay between the formal and informal markets is addressed jointly by Flagship 2 and Flagship 5. The work on changing farm size in Flagship 2 requires survey work on acquisition of land for farming and terms of use in which both formal and informal modes of acquisition are documented. Other resource issues that the FP might consider as important (and researchable) topics include: (i) Competition and cooperation over water: in Africa wherever water is available and used for irrigation, the governance of the water is a live issue. More cooperative models must be possible; (ii) Peri-urban challenges: multiple demands for land for farming, housing, infrastructure, industry and green space make the issues of fair and efficient rights all the more demanding; (iii) Climate change: Involving smallholders in reducing emissions and capturing carbon in their farming systems. Monitoring, reporting and verification of such capture is challenging but this seems to be a prime area for collaboration with CCAFS.Flagship 5 works on institutions for management of water, particularly within shared landscapes. The emphasis on water is not as strong as that on land, but water has historically been part of the agenda of CAPRi, and will continue to be included. The team coordinates with WLE to assure complementarity without duplication. The Flagship 5 team works with Flagship 2 on issues of rural-urban linkages and changing demands for land and water. PIM has worked with CCAFS on institutional issues associated with adoption of climate-smart technologies, but the work of measuring and monitoring emissions is undertaken by CCAFS.No comment that called for a response -Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.3, 2.2.1.3, 2.3.1.3, 2.4.1.3, 2.5.1.3, 2.6.1.3 Impact Pathway and Theory of Change (for each FP). -Specific partnerships formed to facilitate achievement of outcomes are highlighted in flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.7, 2.2.1.7, 2.3.1.7, 2.4.1.7, 2.5.1.7, 2.6.1.7 Partnerships.-Performance Indicators Matrix Table A for contributions to the SRF targets.-Annex 3.11.7 PIM's Contribution to SLO Targets: Methodology Note.PIM expects to impact a range of beneficiaries including urban consumers, value chain actors, common property natural resource users, rural laborers, farmers and especially smallholder farmers. Efforts are made to target women and the youth in each of these categories. Given the main SLO targets that PIM contributes to (technology adoption, productivity increase, and poverty reduction), PIM's quantitative contribution to SLO targets in Table A is expressed solely in terms of number of rural farming households. We have elaborated a fairly comprehensive methodology to estimate numbers of beneficiary rural farming households (Annex 3.11.7).-CRP narrative Section 1.0.3 Impact Pathway and Theory of Change.-Flagship narratives.-Annex 3.2 Partnership Strategy.Flagship 1: Work on foresight modeling can have short-term impact on investment decisions for agriculture, which will yield impact on SLOs over a period >10 years. Analysis of seed systems, extension methods, and regulatory reforms can yield impact in 3-10 years. Flagship 2: Work on political economy can have short-term impact on current or upcoming policy cycles. Budget cycles often operate on the 3-5 year cycle of Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks; thus work on d. Is there organizational buy-in from implementing or scale-up partners? (high/ medium/ low) e. Does it explicitly outline how gender considerations will be incorporated into the research objectives, methodology and implementation public expenditure can have impact in that time frame. Policy reform to stimulate rural transformation and job creation will have impact in 3-8 years. Flagship 3: Trade negotiations can drag on for years with no apparent progress, and then suddenly reach critical decision points. For that reason it is important to have analytical tools ready to deploy on short notice. Impact will follow within 2-5 years of new agreements. Analysis of weak links in value chains and remedial interventions can take 2-3 years, with implementation following thereafter. Impact can be expected in the 5-10 year range. Scaling up could take place in the 5-10 year period on a selective basis. Flagship 4: Changes in design of ongoing social protection programs can take place over a period of one year after analysis of options for change (2-3 years). Impact could thus be expected in a period of 3-5 years. Design of new programs can also be undertaken in the same period, with one year for design and one year for introduction of new programs. Insurance products can be offered on a pilot basis within a year after research indicates likelihood of commercial success. The time frame for impact of research on insurance is therefore from to 5-10 years. Flagship 5: Many development projects on land administration are implemented over a horizon of 5 years, hence changes in tenure take place within the range of 5-10 years. Similarly, institutional arrangements for management of shared landscapes can be implemented as soon as they are agreed by the affected groups, so the 5-10 year time frame (or less) is appropriate. Flagship 6: Changes in opportunities for women can be implemented within the 5-10 year window if included in design of investment projects or other programs. Changes in norms and expected behaviors may take a generation, but can be hastened by successes with interventions implemented over a shorter period. It is reasonable to expect changes in gender opportunities following upon research results within a 5-10 year period.-Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.7, 2.2.1.7, 2.3.1.7, 2.4.1.7, 2.5.1.7, 2.6.1.7 Partnerships.-CRP narrative Section 1.0.4 Gender.-Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.9, 2.2.1.9, 2.3.1.9, 2.4.1.9, 2.5.1.9, 2.6.1.9  -Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.3, 2.2.1.3, 2.3.1.3, 2.4.1.3, 2.5.1.3, 2.6.1.3 Impact Pathway and Theory of Change (for each FP).-Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.7, 2.2.1.7, 2.3.1.7, 2.4.1.7, 2.5.1.7, 2.6.1.7 Partnerships.-Annex 3.2 Partnership Strategy.-CRP narrative Section 1.0.11 Program Management and Governance.-Flagship narratives Sections 2. 1.1.12, 2.2.1.12, 2.3.1.12, 2.4.1.12, 2.5.1.12, 2.6.1.12  ","tokenCount":"9541"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1dee630787f28893626256531af4bb02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/284d8bcd-3745-47e0-9077-98d35a34c17a/retrieve","id":"1330831737"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f6711496-2eeb-427b-bfc9-be0eee384c9b","pagecount":"1","content":"GBIF makes digital biodiversity data openly and freely available on the Internet for everyone, and endorses both open source software and open data access. http://www.gbif.org GBIF provides scientific biodiversity data for decision-making, research endeavours and public use.GBIF is a network of data publishers who retain ownership and control of the data they share. Linked datasets provide a more robust representation of biodiversity than any single dataset.GBIF provides access to primary biodiversity data held in institutions in developed and developing countries. Data shared through GBIF are repatriated data.GBIF is a dynamic, growing partnership of countries, organisations, institutions and individuals working together to mobilise scientific biodiversity data.GBIF invites you to download species occurrence data freely and openly from http://data.gbif.org GBIF invites you to join the GBIF network and share your biodiversity data, as well as participate in developing new tools and services.Crop wild relatives are a vital source of genetic diversity that can be used to adapt cultivated crops to climate change. However, the survival of crop wild relatives themselves is under threat today from the impacts of climate change.In this study, we use data accessible through GBIF, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, to evaluate the possible threats posed by climate change on 11 wild genepools of some of the major crops across the globe, comprising a total of 343 species.For each species, we have compiled data of both herbarium collections and germplasm accessions from GBIF, and analysed the potential distribution of each species using the Maximum Entropy approach in Maxent (Figure 1). Based on 18 global climate models for the year 2050 under emissions scenario A2a we also mapped the future geographic distribution of species, assuming unlimited migration rates (Figure 2)We then mapped the current richness of crop wild relatives, the future predicted richness and the predicted change. The results show the hotspots of change, where significant loss of diversity is expected to occur (Figure 3). These sites, mostly in sub-saharan Africa, eastern Turkey, the Mediterranean region, and parts of Mexico are priority areas for future collection of ex situ genetic resources and their long-term conservation in genebanks.  ","tokenCount":"347"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3a45f1ab384f1423f8ad02a4639095ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e54a9e47-a28d-4be5-a4db-01588cef1230/retrieve","id":"903360949"},"keywords":["Julie Sardos","banana genetic resources specialist Alberto Cenci","genome specialist Mathieu Rouard","Bioinformatics specialist"],"sieverID":"03ad9ba6-a9d9-4221-b607-5530ce64f78c","pagecount":"80","content":"Banana is an important food crop cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions around the world. With the recent advances in genomics, a new powerful tool was developed enabling the fine-scale characterization of banana' s ancestry along chromosomes, i.e. chromosome painting. This catalogue, although not exhaustive, aims at providing an efficient tool to support the banana research and worker community in the classification of cultivars. It can be used as a tool to support the management of banana collections, which is a much faster way to classify them than with morphological characterization. M. balbisiana M. a. banksii M. a. zebrina M. schizocarpa M. a. malaccensis AustralimusaWe applied this method to a high-throughput genotyping data set obtained from 317 banana accessions spanning most of the known cultivar groups. This set included both genebank and new uncharacterized materials. By comparing curated morphological assignation to the chromosome painting results, we were able to compile a catalogue referencing the chromosome painting patterns of most of the described cultivar groups. In this approach, chromosome segments are colored according to their inferred ancestral genome contribution. The colors of segments correspond to the following ancestral contributors: black: M. balbisiana (B genome), paleblue: M. schizocarpa (S genome), green: M. acuminata ssp. banksii / M. acuminata ssp. errans (A genome); blue: M. a. malaccensis (A genome) red: M. a. ssp. zebrina (A genome), pink: uncharacterized genepools, and purple: M. a. ssp. halabanensis, Orange: Musa a. ssp. burmannica/Musa a. ssp. siamea, Yellow: Austalimusa (T genome) (new Callimusa section).The genome ancestry mosaics method proved to be extremely useful but is not exempted of methodological bias. The size of segments is approximate since it was calculated with high density markers and their arrangement established on parsimony and may not reflect the real haplotypes.   Classification Iholena (AAB) ","tokenCount":"294"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b1b7f0d58085023cda2472fb7f60ffb4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3db10891-8fea-4ad6-9514-5e74c25ccb3a/retrieve","id":"2136722962"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"afff5560-45cb-410f-b74a-795c49c97661","pagecount":"7","content":"airo i en a a ane c iar or 3 ricultural tatistics tatistics ivision ood and riculture r ani ation of the nited ations iale delle er e di aracalla o e Ital stract redit rationin re ains a a or concern for livestock value chain stakeholders in articular for s allholders for ho oor access to credit is one of the rinci al constraints on their activities o date the is atch et een credit su l and de and is usuall tackled in su aharan frica throu h the intrinsic attri utes of credit a licants and ver seldo or never throu h the ris of unavoida le ultifaceted livestock risk ana e ent ith a vie to ovin for ard to an ena lin environ ent his is the a roach ado ted in this a er hich focuses on livestock risk assess ent and ana e ent in ene al as ell as on a thorou h literature revie secondar data anal sis and intervie s ith u lic and rivate cor orations and national and international research institutions orkin in the livestock sector fter the identification uantification i act assess ent and rioriti ation of ultifaceted livestock risks e de onstrate ho risk ana e ent contri utes to the e er ence of an ena lin environ ent and sti ulates access to creditet een and ene al s livestock sector contri uted an avera e of of a ricultural ross do estic roduct and of total ith avera e annual ro th of ian and a e ivestock roduction activit su orts nearl fa ilies e uivalent to three illion individuals ian and a e ust over a uarter of the total o ulation iven the lar e ro ortion of rural households kee in s all and lar e ru inant livestock the role of ru inant livestock in i rovin far ers cash inco e and livelihoods is li ited the eak access to technolo ies and innovations hich are the selves lar el de endent on the availa ilit of ti el and ade uate credit an s all far ers are credit rationed e es and ensink s else here in access to credit for an s allholders in the livestock sector in ene al is li ited constrainin the ro th of the sector e ond household attri utes that could see to e deter inant for credit access the risk livestock environ ent li its access to finance and ulti atel constrains its roductivit hich re uires invest ents fro value chain and financial actors he is atch et een the su l of credit and real invest ent needs hich is often attri uted to lo istical challen es is also artl rooted in the hi h level of ultifaceted risks ost of the e irical literature focuses onl on household attri utes to e lain credit rationin o ever it ould also e useful to roduce an evidence ased risk anal sis of the ahelian livestock sector to rovide useful infor ation for an ena lin environ ent he ur ose of our contri ution is to de onstrate ho livestock risk ana e ent should contri ute to ena le a livestock environ ent and facilitate access to credit ection introduces a theoretical fra e ork to credit rationin ection rovides a livestock risk assess ent in ene al and descri es initiatives develo ed for risk ana e ent ection descri es ho to ove for ard for an ena lin environ ent in order to increase the su l of credit once tual fra e ork for easurin credit rationin he su l and de and of credit are so eti es isali ned and even thou ht to e irreconcila le ccordin to the se inal ork of ti lit and eiss then the i ortant contri ution of affee and ti lit credit rationin occurs in situations ith as etric infor ation in hich lenders are not a le to discri inate et een hi h ualit and lo ualit orro er attri utes thus leadin to a non alrassian e uili riu that i lies an e cess de and for loana le funds he ter credit rationin is ainl used in t o circu stances first hen so e of a ho o eneous rou of a licants receive a loan and others do not re ardless of the level of interest rates the consent to a and second hen there are identifia le social rou s in the o ulation una le to o tain loans at an interest rates and hatever the volu e of availa le credit ti lit and eissIn other ords a otential orro er is credit rationed if their rivate de and for credit ersistentl e ceeds the loan a ount offered the lender etrick o ever linkin credit rationin e clusivel to as etric infor ation has een stron l dis uted as e iricall this situation could inversel lead to a situation of overlendin e e a and e onnet et alIn addition the literature idel addresses the causes of credit rationin e ond as etr of infor ation credit rationin a arise fro the difficulties in overco in e cessive transaction costs situations of overt costs associated ith screenin onitorin and enforce ent collaterali ation issues and a risk environ ent in rural areas ainl in develo in countries ins an er and osen ei off and ti lit hatak and uinnane etrick de uate access to credit should contri ute to ards i rovin livestock roductivit and sustain intensification activities facilitatin access to technolo and innovation i to e eller and ia ne de uate access to credit ould contri ute to far ers livelihoods and their a ilit to urchase in uts and enhance invest ents e es and ensink Inversel credit rationed a ents have ore incentives to invest in less risk and less roductive technolo ies ercon urther ore credit rationin could affect rural develo ent reventin households fro diversif in these activities and ovin out of overt eardon llisIn ost of the e irical literature focuses on the deter inants of households artici ation or non artici ation in credit ro ra s his as the case in hana here non artici ation as stron l e lained fear of loan default and lack of savin s hile the factors that si nificantl influence far households artici ation are the ender status of the household head their for al education level far si e and e ershi of associations sante ddo e contri utions ho ever found an anal sis in the linkin of credit rationin to lo al uncertainties that characteri e the rural environ ent in the ahel ivestock risk assess ent anal sis in ene al he livestock risk assess ent rovides a co rehensive and uantification of livestock risks in ene al throu h a holistic a roach lessandro et al ane and allohe ene al livestock sector consists of three su s ste s of livestock roduction a astoral su s ste ased on o ilit and e tensive e loitation of natural resources and rovidin ro ical ivestock nits s or of ru inants cattle shee oats in the erlo re ion that covers ore than one third of the national territor an a ro astoral su s ste in the southeast re ion concentratin u to of cattle and of s all ru inants fro the ear ian and a e hich are raduall develo in to the detri ent of transhu ant astoral su s ste s and an intensive and se i intensive su s ste in the ia es re ion ainl roducin oultr e s i s and to a lesser e tent ru inants articularl for dair roduction his ani al roduction activit in ene al is evolvin in a lo al conte t of severe socio ecos ste shocks as ell as a deficit in infrastructure asic social and econo ic services and a su o ti al and unfavoura le environ ent onl of invest ents in the a ricultural sector and difficulties enforcin le al rovisions ada ted to livestock d na ics In addition to these constraints the livestock su sector in ene al is facin cli ate related shocks that are oth a direct source of loss and an a ravatin factor of econo ic health and olitical and social threats ethodolo ical a roach ur stud ostl tackles risk assess ent rather than constraint anal sis even thou h there are o vious links et een constraints and risks ssessin risks in the livestock sector involves risk rofilin identification and inventor of current risk ana e ent initiatives risk uantification ultiscale i acts and rioriti ation in order to facilitate risk ana e ent decision akin e carried out a ver thorou h anal sis of the literature related to livestock d na ics in the ahel in eneral and ene al in articular e co iled secondar data collected u lic technical services national and international research institutions and rivate co anies then rocessed these data for statistical ur oses usin various techni ues onte arlo si ulations e tre e value theor descri tive statistics a in e intervie ed each se ent of the livestock value chain stakeholders to etter identif their erce tion of livestock sector stren ths eaknesses o ortunities and threats anal sis rioriti ation a roach allo ed us to classif the identified risks accordin to their severit fre uenc and otential i acts inall e ent ack to the ain livestock stakeholders throu h a final orksho held in akar in une ith the o ective of assessin reasons for otential discre anc anal sis a le haracteristics of data used and anal tical ethods e endin on the a ro ecolo ical re ions s ecificall onitored as the ain livestock areas the hierarch is chan in due to the socio ecos ste ic realities ushfires are a re etitive and ver hi h risk in all livestock areas isks related to in ut deficits are hi h in the ia es and erlo re ions e ardin rainfall variations onl the southeast re ion see s to e ore or less rotected fro this heno enon onflicts have recentl had a reater effect on the ver sensitive re ion of the erlo closer to northern ali and auritania It is also i ortant to consider the ersistent internal conflicts in asa ance the southern re ion of the countr In the risk livestock environ ent the overn ent of ene al o has historicall and successivel taken lo al and s ecific a roaches to livestock sector develo ent to hel rural o ulations in eneral and eo le livin ith livestock in articular to co e ith ersistent risksIn ter s of eneral easures u lic authorities launched t o u rella docu ents to su ort livestock sector develo ent for the ccelerated ro th strate docu ent and the cono ic and social olic a er hese docu ents develo o tions and strate ies ai ed at securin astoral and a ro astoral far in s ste s and fosterin far s ca a le of eetin the challen es of internal de and for ani al roducts ith the ain o ectives of increasin livestock roductivit roductions and inco es in ene al his as o erationali ed throu h the ational lan for the evelo ent of ivestock validated in une as a rovision of the ro lvo astoral ct ro ul ated on une isk scorin is used follo in the risk assess ent ethodolo develo ed the International und for ricultural evelo ent the latfor for ricultural isk ana e ent he fre uenc avera e severit and orst case scenario ere scored and ei hted ased on the follo in for ula to re ect the reater i ortance of avera e losses as a etter indicator for the lon ter cost of risk isk score avera e severit fre uenc orst case ther ulti sectoral initiatives ere launched in ith the esta lish ent of the ational ood ecurit ouncil attached to the ri e inister s office and res onsi le for re ular assessin of the food and nutritional situation of the ene alese o ulation In addition throu h the ational ada tation ro ra es of action s ado ted in the o is ursuin the o ective of reducin the vulnera ilit of roduction s ste s and etter antici atin risks that could arise fro cli atic distur ancesIn order to facilitate access to credit for livestock rofessionals the o set u a ta ili ation u ort und on ove er ut this did not start o erations until une easures have taken the for of various instru ents a uarantee fund to rovide the anks and financial institutions ith covera e for counter art risks of u to of loss related loans the interest rate su sid fund to ena le livestock rofessionals to enefit fro the lo est rates in the a ricultural sector a redit und to refinance the financin institutions a roved the fund and a line of credit ased on Isla ic finance o ever this coherent institutional net ork has not al a s succeeded in totall rotectin the countr fro a nu er of threats in the livestock su sector o e of these threats have een s ecificall addressedisk ana e ent rocedures and instru ents ushfires ver ear uch of ene al is affected ushfires hich have a considera le i act on the develo ent of the ve etation he a national entit hose core activities include environ ental onitorin natural resources ana e ent and conductin environ ental i act assess ents as char ed to onitor fires re ote sensin since ith a vie to hel the irectorate of aters orests untin and ildlife conservation to identif and ana e ushfires ni al diseases he has set u a ational ide iolo ical urveillance ste to onitor riorit diseases his surveillance s ste is carried out throu h a passive surveillance ased on field re orts entered in a data sheet and sent to the veterinar la orator of he ene alese Institute for ricultural esearch I for confir ation or invalidation and an active surveillance ased on the follo u of a net ork of sentinel herds and durin eriods of risk sa les are taken and anal sed follo in a ver ri orous uantitative rotocol li ate and feedin s of ul an initiative resultin fro a u lic rivate artnershi resulted in the esta lish ent of the ational und of ricultural Insurance of ene al a u lic li ited co an or the livestock co onent the ai ed to raduall cover the national herd ith an avera e unit re iu of of the ani al s value i e to e aid the far er on st instru ents there is a rainfall deficit olic that co ines traditional and inde insurance ro ra s o ever iven the ersistent intensit of cli ate shocks the o has undertaken a co le entar initiative investin in the ro ra in and i le entation of a disaster risk ana e ent s ste ased on the ivestock afe uardin eration that or ani es distri ution of feed su le ents to rotect at risk reedin livestock lactatin fe ales calves In addition so e risks have een transferred to the an frican drou ht inde insurance facilit under the ricultural risk ca acit initiative a oint venture launched the frican nion to rovide ara etric insurance to cover cli ate shocks he uses satellite data sets to onitor rain seasons follo ed a ater atisfaction Inde develo ed the ood and riculture r ani ation of the nited ations as a drou ht indicator and esti ates otentiall threatened o ulations to esta lish e er enc res onse costs arkets hile receivin technical and financial su ort fro the orld ood ro ra e the o issariat for ood ecurit develo s onthl ulletins on a ricultural arkets e anded to include rice onitorin on sentinel cattle arkets e ond this the also has the dut of re ulatin the arkets for local cereals rovidin transversal studies and takin a ro riate easures for the decision akin rocess Cattle theft ith the ro in concern over livestock theft the o has set u the ivestock heft nit a structure attached to the ca inet of the inistr of ivestock to rovide a fra e ork for the i le entation of olicies and refor s ivestock thefts are su ect to assive surveillance ased on the re orts of thefts re orted at the level of the endar erie services hich esta lish hand rails recorded on cards sent to the irectorate of ivestock on ict e ond the ulti le consultation fra e orks locall initiated throu hout the countr ene al needed a lon ter vision to secure astoral land In arch the ne authorities of ene al decided to initiate the rocess of dra in u a astoral code ith the ai of ena lin the countr to have a le al fra e ork u dated and ada ted to current realities of livestock in ene al he ene alese astoral ode ill ake it ossi le to u date all e istin la s and to for ali e the livestock develo ent fra e ork in ene al o ulation s ecific discussion and conclusion In ene al s allholders attri utes alon ith uncertaint in outco es eneral socio econo ic conte t rices rural ractices olitical and lo istical challen es environ ental risks and the otential risk aversion of decision akers contri ute oth to li it access to finance and to constrain livestock roductivit o insufflate a real ro th d na ic in the sector livestock stakeholders have to invest and in ost cases the de end on credit to do that o ever credit rationin due also to ersistent risks in the livestock sector is one reason for the is atch et een credit su l and de and he link et een overall ersistent risks and reduction of availa le credit is ver eakl addressed even if in ene al this as alread evoked durin the ankin crisis sho in ho drou ht reci itated the closure of seven anks a rio and lin e iel olic develo ents in recent ears see to e ovin for ard to ards creatin an ena lin environ ent or risk iti ation risk transfer and risk co in o launched various initiatives to address different de rees of severit on st the livestock insurance develo ent as a risk transfer instru ent should contri ute oth to reducin vulnera ilit ivin co ensation o tions a ainst econo ic losses that revent s allholders in articular fro usin su o ti al co in strate ies that further eaken a recarious food and nutritional status or kee eo le a a fro li ited asic infrastructures school health centres arkets etc and to develo in roductivit throu h revitali ed invest entsIn conce tual ter s the ti e has also co e to e in thinkin seriousl a out the est a to o e ond short ter loans and to desi n d na ic odels that allo decision akin under uncertaint and incor orate lon ter orro in ith a vie to sta ili in the e er in of a real usiness environ ent ckno led e ents his a er is ased on the ork funded in the latfor for ricultural isk ana e ent hosted he International und for ricultural evelo ent I as ell as the ork funded in the orld ank s ricultural isk ana e ent ea and conducted the I as a e er of the technical tea s","tokenCount":"3413"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8011996141.json b/data/part_5/8011996141.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8fc02a2e47ddfeaad128183ae4fea4cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e46b1ce8-504d-43be-bc56-26e1395ff2a2/retrieve","id":"-2009573306"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0240996-4b84-4765-b799-254e7a377af0","pagecount":"59","content":"IPGRI now uses the following definitions in genetic resources documentation:Passport descriptors: These provide the basic information used for the general management of the accession (including the registration at the genebank and other identification information) and describe parameters that should be observed when the accession is originally collected.Management descriptors: These provide the basis for the management of accessions in the genebank and assist with their multiplication and regeneration.Environment and site descriptors: These describe the environmental and site-specific parameters that are important when characterization and evaluation trials are held. They can be important for the interpretation of the results of those trials. Site descriptors for germplasm collecting are also included here.Characterization descriptors: These enable an easy and quick discrimination between phenotypes. They are generally highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are equally expressed in all environments. In addition, these may include a limited number of additional traits thought desirable by a consensus of users of the particular crop.Evaluation descriptors: Many of the descriptors in this category are susceptible to environmental differences but are generally useful in crop improvement and others may involve complex biochemical or molecular characterization. They include yield, agronomic performance, stress susceptibilities and biochemical and cytological traits.Characterization will normally be the responsibility of genebank curators, while evaluation will typically be carried out elsewhere (possibly by a multidisciplinary team of scientists). The evaluation data should be fed back to the genebank which will maintain a data file.Minimum highly discriminating descriptors are marked with a star ( « ).The following internationally accepted norms for the scoring, coding and recording of descriptor states should be followed:(a) the Système International d'Unités (SI system) is used. The units to be applied are given in square brackets following the descriptor name;(b) standard colour charts, e.g. Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart, Methuen Handbook of Colour, or Munsell Color Chart for Plant Tissues, are strongly recommended for all ungraded colour characters (the precise chart used should be specified in the section where it is used); is the expression of a character. The authors of this list have sometimes described only a selection of the states, e.g. 3, 5 and 7 for such descriptors. Where this has occurred, the full range of codes is available for use by extension of the codes given or by interpolation between them, e.g. in Section 9 (Biotic stress susceptibility) 1 = very low susceptibility and 9 = very high susceptibility;(d) when a descriptor is scored using a 1-9 scale, such as in (c), '0' would be scored when (i) the character is not expressed; (ii) when a descriptor is inapplicable. In the following example, '0' will be recorded if an accession does not have a central leaf lobe:Shape of central leaf lobe 3 Toothed 5 Elliptic 7 Linear (e) absence/presence of characters is scored as in the following example:Absence/presence of terminal leaflet 0 Absent 1 (or +) Present (f) blanks are used for information not yet available;(g) for accessions which are not generally uniform for a descriptor (e.g. mixed collection, genetic segregation), the mean and standard deviation could be reported where the descriptor is continuous. Where the descriptor is discontinuous, several codes in the order of frequency could be recorded; or other publicized methods can be utilized, such as R.S. Rana et al. (1991), or van Hintum (1993), that clearly state a method for scoring heterogeneous accessions;(h) dates should be expressed numerically in the format DDMMYYYY, where DD -2 digits to represent the day MM -2 digits to represent the month YYYY -4 digits to represent the year.Accession number (1.1) This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions and is assigned when an accession is entered into the collection. Once assigned this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number is still not available for re-use. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank at Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank at Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system). Latin names should be given for wild species, e.g. Musa acuminata, and letters for cultivars, e.g. AA, AAA, AAB, etc.(1.5.4) 1.5.5Reference form/Cultivar (1.5.5)Either a registered or other formal designation given to the accession (e.g. 'Pisang Mas' is the reference name to be used for cultivars 'Figue sucrée', 'Amas', 'Kluai Khai', etc.)(1.6) Parentage or nomenclature, and designations assigned to breeders' material. (In the case of an artificial hybrid only) Other (specify in descriptor 1.12 Notes)(1.9) Approximate number of plants of an accession in the genebankPrevious locations Register other known previous locations of the accession, from the most recent to the oldest known location.Any additional information may be specified here Collecting number (2.1) Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This item is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collections. It should be unique and always accompany subsamples wherever they are sent.Collecting date of original sample [DDMMYYYY] (2.3)(2.4) Name of the country in which the sample was collected or bred. Use the three-letter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representation of names of countries, No. 3166, 4th Edition. Copies of these are available from DIN: Deutsche Institut für Normung e.V., 10772 Berlin, Germany;Tel. 30-2601Tel. 30- -2860;;Fax 30-2601-1231, Tlx. 184 273-din-d.Province/State (2.5) Name of the primary administrative subdivision of the country in which the sample was collectedDepartment/County Name of the secondary administrative subdivision (within a Province/State) of the country in which the sample was collectedLocation of collecting site (2.6) Distance in kilometers and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. CURITIBA 7S means 7 km south of Curitiba)Latitude of collecting site (2.7) Degrees and minutes followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 1030S)(2.8) Degrees and minutes followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 07625W)Elevation Use descriptors 3.8.1 and 3.8.2 in section 3Additional information recorded by the collector or any specific information on any state in any of the above descriptors (Passport 2.3) (Collecting number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc. depending on the population type)Type of maintenance of the accession (1.11) 1In vivo 2In vitro 3 Seed 4Other (specify in descriptor 3.9 Notes) Note all relevant information on how the sample was treated between its collection and the deposit at its destinationNote where the sample is sent after it has been collected. Specify the institution, the name of the collection or station, the address and country 1 Collection 2 Intermediate holding station 3.9 Notes Any additional information may be specified here  Estimated slope of the siteThe direction that the slope on which the accession was collected faces. Describe the direction with symbols N, S, E, W (e.g. a slope that faces a southwestern direction has an aspect of SW) As detailed a classification as possible should be given. This may be taken from a soil survey map. State class (e.g. Alfisols, Spodosols, Vertisols, etc.).1 Rainfed 2 Irrigated 3 Flooded 4 River banks 5 Sea coast 6 Other (specify in appropriate section's Notes)General assessment of the soil fertility based on existing vegetation 3 Low 5 Moderate 7 HighShould be assessed as close to the site as possibleProvide either the diurnal (mean, maximum, minimum) or the seasonal (mean, maximum, minimum) Specify seasonal average and minimum survived Any additional information may be specified hereObservations should be made ideally under standardized conditions. Most characters should be observed during the 2nd cycle of cultivation (ratoon crop), or from the plant crop if ratoon crop is not possible to obtain. Characters should be recorded when the first ripe fruit develop on the bunch unless otherwise specified. It is recommended that at least three plants growing near to each other be used in the appraisal.Two detachable colour charts (A and B) are provided to aid decisions on colour 6. Plant descriptors Recorded from the base of pseudostem to emerging point of the peduncle 1 ≤2 2 2.1 to 2.9 3 ≥3 Record the number of suckers from soil level to point of emergence of the last leaf (>30 cm height). Recorded only if no desuckering has taken place 1 ≤1 cm 2 >1 cm 3 Cannot be definedMeasured at its maximum point 1 ≤170 cm 2 171 to 220 cm 3 221 to 260 cm 4 ≥261 cmMeasured at its maximum point 1 ≤70 cm 2 71 to 80 cm 3 81 to 90 cm 4 ≥91 cm 6.3.10.1 Leaf ratio 3 ≤2 5 2.4 to 2.6 7 ≥3Recorded from the pseudostem to the lamina 1 ≤50 cm 2 51 to 70 cm 3 ≥71 cm  Measured from the leaf crown to the first hand of fruit 1 ≤30 cm 2 31 -60 cm 3 ≥61 cmRecord the number of empty nodes between the last bract-leaf and first hand of fruitRecorded at mid-length 1 ≤6 cm 2 7 -12 cm 3 ≥13 cmDescriptor state 4 (red/or pink-purple) is green homogeneously tinged with red (purple green appearance Record at flowering if the flowers of the first hands bear apparently functional stamens 1 Female (absence of pollen sacs or pollens) 2 Hermaphrodite (presence of pollen sacs and pollens)Positioning of fruits on the crown 1 Uniseriate 2 Biseriate 3 Biseriate and fusedFor the following descriptors, observe only that part of the rachis between the last hand of fruit and the male bud1 Truncated, no bract scar below the last hand of fruit 2 Present and male bud may be degenerated or persistent Length and maximum diameter of male bud at harvest 1 ≤20 cm 2 21 to 30 cm 3 ≥31 cm 6.5 Bract Descriptors 6.5.1 to 6.5.14 refer to the first external bract that still clings to the male bud Observed on the external surface 1 Few grooves or not grooved (the bract is completely, or almost completely, smooth) 2 grooving (parallel ridges are distinguishable) 3 Strongly grooved (deep parallel furrows on the surface of bract)Male flower (See Fig. 14). Descriptors 6.6.1 to 6.6.25 refer to the flowers at the axil of the first external bract unlifted. At least 10 flowers should be observed  Record number of flowers per cluster with an abnormal number of stamens, fusion of free and compound tepal, etc. Recorded at fruit maturity ('ready to eat' ripe, but not over-ripe; full yellow stage) 1 Two or less 2 Three or more Refers to any gene identified for any of the morphological and biochemical characters. List all identified genes. « «","tokenCount":"1753"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8024732121.json b/data/part_5/8024732121.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c7c10c9435677c1f45ab429a821712f38fd70f10
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3625f0c58a37ff26e529f4d77eb0063e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/315c4f5b-e627-4fb1-8b58-9b1697f250f7/retrieve","id":"1501569330"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1636aacd-ff0e-405e-b76c-8ea908028e9c","pagecount":"49","content":"Islands of Peace (IDP) is a Belgian NGO created in the 1960s. It is a pluralist association, with no religious, philosophical, ideological, or political ties. Currently IDP works in Benin, Burkina Faso, Peru, Uganda, and Tanzania. IDP also conducts activities in Belgium such as advocacy and development education. The intervention of IDP in Africa's overall objective is to enable people to pursue their own sustainable development process independently and with dignity. In its countries of operation, Islands of Peace facilitates local, reproducible, and sustainable development led by disadvantaged populations with their representatives and local authorities. Islands of Peace is an NGO specialized in the support for local development. Its interventions target vulnerable rural communities for whom the IDP programs tackle food insecurity.Since June 2018, IITA's Africa RISING and Iles de Paix have been collaborating to scale-up postharvest management technologies in Karatu District. The implementation of key activities is spearheaded by Kilimo Endelevu (KE), which is the implementing arm of Iles de Paix, while Africa RISING provides technical support. In 2018/19, the collaboration demonstrated improved postharvest technologies in eight villages (Generation 1), reaching 346 direct beneficiaries (farmers hosting the mother learning demos + members of the respective farmer groups), and another 1039 farmers as indirect beneficiaries. The Generation 1 villages included Buger (Buger ward), Kambi ya Simba (Mulumbulu ward), Chemchem (Rhotia ward), Chagarawe (Daa ward), Rhotia Khainam (Rhotia ward), Bashay (Gyekrum Lambo (Karatu ward), and Slahhamo.In 2019/20, scaling activities extended to 10 new (Generation 2) villages: Q'orong'aida and Qurus (Qurus ward); Endagem, Qaru, Kinihhe (Endabash ward), Kilimatembo (Rhotia ward); Upper Kitete (Mbulumbulu ward); Ng'aibara (Kansay, ward); and Basodawish and Khusumay (Endamarariek ward). In these new villages, demo sites and learning actions have been spearheaded by lead farmers and community-based postharvest committees whose capacity had been built by KE with technical backing from Africa RISING. In addition, seven spreading villages (not directly targeted by the technology demonstrations but learning from their peers indirectly) have been involved. These include Endanyaweti, Marera, Kilimamoja, Gendaa, Dofa, Tloma, and Endasshangweti. The locations of the primary villages are shown in Figure 1.In this reporting period, activities were hampered by the COVID-19 outbreak. However, the following activities continued: training and installation of demos in new sites led by lead farmers, initiatives to link farmers to technology suppliers and enhance business skills, and farmer support through mobile phone messaging on postharvest and nutrition issues. As a result, 699 new farmers in 17 new villages benefited from training and involvement in site demos, and 616 farmers (from 18 villages) were registered to receive postharvest and nutrition knowledge support through mobile phone messaging. Capacity development of KE field staff on postharvest management continued reached a milestone with the publication of one coauthored research article in the Journal of Stored Products Protectionhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2020.101723 For the 2019/2020 partnership period between Africa RISING and Iles de Paix, KE developed a strategic plan to expand the scaling of postharvest technologies to reach more farmers in the original villages and in the new action villages. The scaling strategy included specific actions to be implemented by KE with technical backstopping from Africa RISING, to achieve the targets shown in Figure 2. The commitment areas are summarized in Table 1, together with the achievements made. The activities that received attention during the present reporting period are marked in blue. For the purpose of this report, these have been grouped and described in sections B1-B3 as follows:1. Section B1: Africa RISING Support Areas 1 & 6: Estimating nutritional gains of improved postharvest handling and storage practices of maize and common beans; a compositional interpretation. 2. Section B2: KE Action 6/Africa RISING Support Area 5: Formulation and delivery of actionable postharvest tips that support decision making of farmers for scaling via mobile phone messaging.    The nutritional complementarity of maize and beans was empirically demonstrated in earlier work (Hulse 1991). Beans are a prime source of protein, minerals, and the B-complex group of vitamins, while maize is primarily a source of calories. However, the large quantities of maize and maize products consumed in diets make it an important source of protein and minerals. In terms of protein, maize is deficient in lysine and tryptophan but has fair amounts of sulphur amino acids (methionine and cystine), which are limiting in beans. Accordingly, maize and beans complement each other to meet the recommended amino acid balance if consumed in a ratio of 2:1 as suggested by Broughton et al. (2003).Considering this complementarity, the preservation of sufficient quantities of maize and beans between harvests is important for the nutritional security of households. Nutritional value loss is an integral component of food loss (Affognon et al. 2015). The physical postharvest losses of maize can reach 20-30% in Tanzania (Abass et al. 2014). For beans, dry weight loss of 10-40% was measured in Karatu (Mutungi et al. 2020). Whole grains lost when cobs or pods are not completely collected or are scattered or sorted out result in a direct loss of nutrients as well. Attack by pests diminishes the nutrients contained in the parts eaten up by the pests in different ways. Hence, beyond the physical grain damage and weight loss, pest attacks can have consequences, which could potentially lead to serious nutritional deficiencies if key nutrients become considerably diminished.We aimed to estimate the nutritional value loss in farmers maize and common beans stocks during the postharvest season. The relationships between physical quality and nutrient content were examined and applied to estimate the nutritional gains of improved handling and storage practices. Such knowledge would help to provide crucial evidence and guidance for justifying engagement of communities and the public on progressive food loss reduction investments.Data comprised the physical quality of grain and nutritional value measurements of samples taken from the trials installed in eight villages (Buger, Chemchem, Kambi ya Simba, Khainam Rhotia, Gyekrum Lambo, Bashay, Slahhamo, and Changarawe) during the 2018/2019 season to demonstrate improved postharvest handling and storage practices for maize and beans. The postharvest season in Karatu extends from July and continues through to April. The grain stocks held by most households decline significantly from February, hence there is a shortage in the two months between March and May. We distinguished the improved practices as a set of operations comprising timely harvesting, drying the de-husked cobs or bean haulms on mats in readiness for threshing, further drying the threshed grain on mats, moisture verification, cleaning of the grain (winnowing/sieving/sorting) before bagging, and finally storage in air-tight containers. Farmers in Karatu received training on these practices.A physical appraisal of grain damage was performed using the \"count and weigh\" method, which involves sorting samples into wholesome grains and those with various forms of defects: insect damage, mold damage, rotten/diseased/discolored grains, rodent damage, mechanical injury, and shriveled grain. The total damage is then adjusted by further determining the quantity of the damaged grain that is totally non-consumable for the estimation of losses. The method uses trained technicians who are conversant with the acceptance/rejection criteria of consumers, and therefore closely mimics consumer behavior, decisions, and actions at the point of use of the grain. The physical damage and losses data were expressed as percentages on a weight basis (Mutungi et al. 2019).The standard AOAC methods (AOAC 2000) were used. Whole subsamples (ca. 500 g) were sieved to remove the foreign matter, insects, and other debris. They were then milled into a fine flour using a laboratory mill and analyzed for moisture content (Method 925.10), crude protein (Method 920.87), crude fat (Method 920.86), crude ash (Method 923.03), and total carbohydrate by the difference. Mineral content was determined using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The energy values were calculated using the standard formula as follows: maize: kcal/100 g = (4.03 * carbohydrate g/100 g) + (8.37 * fat g/100 g) + (2.73 * protein g/100 g); beans: kcal/100 g = (4.07 * carbohydrate g/100 g) + (8.37 * fat g/100 g) + (3.47 * protein g/100 g) as also applied by the USDA food database https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/.Table 2 shows the different kinds of defects determined on maize and common bean at different stages of the postharvest season with and without improved practices. On the far-right column, the improved practices for the mitigation of the defects are given. The results are shown in Figure 3. Insect damage (ID) was the predominant damage under ordinary practices and increased from harvest to the late postharvest stage. Other kinds of damage-rotten, diseased, and discolored grains (RDD); mechanically damaged grain (MD); and shriveled grain (SG)-were low but significant when viewed collectively (range in maize: 4.2-24%; beans 2-13.8%). Practice influenced significantly (P < 0.001) the physical quality of maize and contributed 38% and 24% of the observed variability in physical quality of maize and beans, respectively. The postharvest stage also significantly influenced the physical quality and contributed 30% of the variability observed in maize and 22% of the variability observed in beans. The interaction between practice and postharvest stage was significant for ID in both commodities as well as for RDD in maize. Both practice and stage in postharvest season significantly influenced the nutritional quality of maize and beans. Practice was responsible for 18% of the observed variability in the nutritional quality of maize, while postharvest stage was responsible for 76%. Similar observations were made regarding the nutritional quality of beans; practice was responsible for 17% of observed variability, whereas postharvest stage was responsible for 69%. The effect of stage in the postharvest season was, therefore, stronger in both commodities. All the measured nutritional parameters except crude fiber changed during the postharvest season. With maize (Fig. 4a), protein, ash, and fat contents increased by 6-7%, 12%, and 2-17%, respectively. The highest content was measured at the mid-stage. Fiber and carbohydrates decreased progressively by 9-12% and 2.3%, respectively. Likewise, protein, fat, and ash content in the beans (Fig. 4b) increased by magnitudes of 7% (protein), 16% (fat), and 19% (ash), and reached the highest levels in the late stage. The fiber content did not change significantly, whereas the available carbohydrates decreased by 3% in the late stage. In both maize and beans, the calorie content did not change. The majority of the mineral elements increased particularly at the late postharvest stage. In maize, significant increases were observed for Fe (17-206%), Zn (19-25%), Mn (39-143%), Ca (35-152%), Mg (4-76%), and K (18-28%). In beans, increases occurred for Fe (24-34%), Zn (8-29%), Mn (44-53%), Ca (16-22%), Mg (72-86%), K (75-76%), and Na (102-152%).  Improved practices or ordinary practices had significant effects mainly on minerals. A comparison of the actual nutrient contents under ordinary and improved practices are shown in Error! Reference source not found.. The maize handled and stored under improved practices had higher protein (+7.8%) and Fe (+11.1%) content in the mid-postharvest stage but not in the late postharvest stage. On the contrary, under improved practices, higher levels of Cu (+13%), Ca (+38%), and Na (+22%) were measured at the late postharvest stage while lower levels of ash (8.4%), Fe (-25%), and Mn (-11.2%) were determined. With beans, the improved practices resulted in marked gains on Na (+38%), Fe (+23%), Zn (+7%), Mn (+31%), and Cu (+36%) in the mid-, but no gains in the late postharvest stage. Thus, for common beans, ordinary practices resulted in higher levels of all the nutrients except Na. Interaction between practice and postharvest stage was significant and contributed about 11% of the observed variation in the nutritional value of maize (P = 0.024, F (26; 338) = 2.521; ηp 2 = 0.11) and 19% of the variation in the nutritional value of beans (P = < 0.000, F (24; 356) = 3.036, ηp 2 = 0.19). These effects were mainly on mineral contents. In Figure 6, the mean nutrient contents of maize and beans under improved and ordinary practices are visualized, and the gains or losses marked. Common beans under improved practices had lower contents of the measured nutrients, particularly at the late postharvest stage. This is probably the effect of enrichments from insect infestations because, generally, insects are rich in minerals, protein, and fat (Rumpold et al. 2013). The only significant gains relate to protein, Fe, Zn, and Cu in maize under improved practices during the mid-stage, which can also be explained by developing hidden (pre-emergent) forms of insects (larvae) in the grains. The accumulation of the same micro minerals (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu) was likewise observed with the beans in the mid-postharvest stage. We applied loss data attributed to each of the analyzed samples to convert each measured nutrient content to the potential nutrient availability. The rationale is that production or yield at farm level can be seen in terms nutrient production. Thus, any loss of the harvested products represents a decline in the amount of nutrients available to nourish populations. The nutritional composition data, i.e., actual nutrient contents (ANC) were converted to loss-adjusted nutrient availability (LANA) by multiplying the ANC with the corresponding loss factor computed from the physical loss assessments as (1 -x) where x is the quantity loss expressed as a fraction.Statistically, practice explained 35% of the variability observed with respect to nutrient availability in maize, and 18% of the variability observed in beans. Thus, the difference between improved and ordinary practices was more palpable in maize than beans. Postharvest stage accounted for 74% and 69% of the variability in maize and beans, respectively. Nonetheless, the interaction between practice and postharvest stage was significant and explained 20% of the variability in maize and 29% of the variability in beans. With maize, the interaction between practice and PH stage influenced all the proximate components and the macro-minerals (Ca, Mg, K) whereas in the beans, the interaction effect was only significant on protein, ash, carbohydrate, and the availabilities of individual minerals were more influenced by PH stage. The improved practices had an advantage over ordinary practices in terms of the total available protein, calories, and minerals as they abated serious produce damage and loss. As shown in Figure 7, there were inverse linear relationships between grain damage and availability of key nutrients but the nutrient loss rates (e.g., calories) differed with commodity. Figure 8 shows the gains in nutrient availability from the use of improved practices on maize and beans at mid and late stages of the postharvest period. For maize, significant gains are evident at the mid stage and late stage. In beans, the gains are mainly on key minerals at the mid stage, but more gains occur at the late stage (e.g., protein +6.5%, calories +8.7). Thus, during the lean period, households and communities at large would have 34% more protein and 40% more calories from the use of the improved postharvest practices for maize as well as 6.5% and 8.7% more protein and calories from beans. According to FAO statistics of 2017 (FAOSTAT 2017), the annual per capita consumption of maize in Tanzania is 63 kg (173 g/d). The annual per capita consumption of beans is 17.4 kg (46.7 g/d). Table 3 provides a computation of the potential contribution of maize and beans to different categories of household members based on the national per capita consumption levels and the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). Combined, maize and beans contribute approximately 35% (29-42%) and 49% (37-57%) of the adult RDAs for calories and protein. The various consumer groups also receive good amounts of important minerals except calcium and sodium. Nonetheless, the consumption of maize and beans satisfies none of the RDAs. Households would have to diversify their food sources to obtain sufficient levels of Ca as well as obtain the balances on the other nutrients. Alternatively, they would need to increase the per capita consumption of the two commodities. From the use of improved postharvest technologies, significant amounts of nutrients are salvaged as shown in Figure 8. Considering that food stocks decline substantially in the late stage of the postharvest season, we conducted a computation to assess the contribution of the improved practices on the nutritional resilience of households. We applied production and household data from a baseline survey conducted at the beginning of the collaboration (https://public.tableau.com/profile/ludiwien.cooreman#!/vizhome/DraftSIA2019/Story1). The average maize production was 875 kg annually (range 50-4500 kg), while the average common beans production was 243 kg (range 50-1800). The average household size was 6.4 (7) members. Table 4 estimates the potential nutritional benefits. Assuming households sold half of the produce and preserved the other half as food supply stocks, they would have sufficient protein and calories for at least one extra month if the improved postharvest practices are duly applied. They would also benefit substantially from the availability of the essential minerals iron, Zn, Mg, and K. During the current reporting period, short messages on postharvest management (Annex 1) and nutrition (Annex 2) were formulated. A total of 616 farmers were registered to receive these messages through the Mwanga platform. The beneficiaries are summarized in Table 5. Nutrition messaging: Nationwide, Tanzania faces the double burden of malnutrition which is characterized by the coexistence of undernutrition and over-nutrition within individuals, households, and across the life course. Despite Tanzania's steady decline in the rates of undernutrition over the last two decades, the prevalence and the burden of undernutrition are still high. Undernutrition can result in underweight, wasting, stunting, or micronutrient deficiencies. It is caused by a diet that is inadequate in energy and nutrients that the body needs for good health. Other causes are disease, poor childcare and feeding, poor sanitation, and inadequate access to health services and clean water.Over-nutrition is caused by eating more food than the body needs and results in overweight and obesity. These conditions increase the risk of noncommunicable diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart diseases. Malnutrition reduces life expectancy, weakens the immune system, impairs physical and mental growth, and results in poor school performance and low individual and collective productivity at the national level. Thus, observing a healthy lifestyle, which includes healthy eating, is important to reach and maintain a healthy weight, reduce the risk of chronic diseases, and promote overall health.Nutrition communication using ICT has the potential to boost nutritional literacy and empower individuals and communities to take a more proactive actions towards managing their diets, eating habits, and wellbeing. Research studies testing the use of SMS /text messages to promote the adoption of healthy behavior have shown positive results (Marquis et al. 2009). Mobile phone messaging (texting) is less prone to technological exclusion because many farmers or households in Tanzania already have access to mobile phones. As of 2019, the Global System for Mobile Communication Association estimated mobile phone ownership in Tanzania to be 82% of the total population. Furthermore, the developed ICT-based resources can be easily distributed and accessed across a range of ICT-based platforms. Nutrition messages were developed on five topics: classes of food; food preparation and hygiene; water and sanitation; mother, infant, and young child nutrition; water and sanitation; and environment and personal hygiene (Table 6).The full list of messages is presented in Annex 1.  During the current reporting period, four artisans who had earlier received training on silo fabrication continued to manufacture the silos locally to ensure easy accessibility of the technology in the community (Fig. 10). These artisans continued to receive orders from farmers.Farmers also continued to be linked with private manufacturers of hermetic bags (Fig. 11).  • KE mobilized lead farmers and extension staff, guided lead farmers on the installation of technology demos, and bore the costs for the training of farmers in new villages. • A to Z Textile Mills-manufacturers of hermetic storage bags, drying tarpaulins, and Aflasafe® (pre-harvest aflatoxin control product) (http://azpfl.com/index.php/en/)-was our private sector partner that provided postharvest management inputs-hermetic bags.• WorldVeg continued to demonstrate vegetable technologies. As a way of enhancing nutrition integration, Africa RISING postharvest partnered with WordVeg to generate and formulate nutrition messages. WorldVeg is also demonstrating techniques for the preparation of safe nutritious meals. • TARI Makutpora-formulation and translation of nutrition messages.• Esoko-database management and transmission of messages.• TARI Uyole-message refining and alignment to national goals.Postharvest food loss is measurable reduction in quantity or quality of foodstuffs after harvest. Such losses destabilize food supply and erode the nutrition of households and communities. Allowing postharvest food losses to continue unabated is wasteful as resources will be used to produce nutrients that do not nourish families. Food systems are more resilient if farmers are able to take measures that prevent erosion of the produced nutrients along the supply chain. This in turn enables more diverse dietary choices, enhancing the resilience of communities. As demonstrated in the activity involving the estimation of the nutritional gains of improved postharvest handling and storage of maize and common beans, the widespread adoption of the improved practices would make the protein and calories needed to nourish families available for at least 30 more days, consequently contributing to the nutritional resilience of Karatu farmers, households, and community. Reducing food loss can stimulate local enterprises, generate employment opportunities, and diversify local economies (e.g., fabrication of storage devices) making the system more resilient. Adequate storage also enables farmers to use their excess produce as collateral to access credit and a reduction in postharvest losses would increase the incomes of smallholders as they can have more produce to sell. Next steps should encourage agribusinesses around postharvest management. Kilimo Endelevu should continue to monitor the adoption of the various technologies with the aim of supporting the budding enterprises such as silo fabrication by local artisans. 8. Kula vyakula vyenye nyuzinyuzi (makapimlo)nyingi ili kurahisisha uyeyushwaji wa chakula tumboni. 9. Tumia kiasi kidogo cha mafuta, chumvi na sukari kuepuka magojwa yasiyoambukiza. 10. Kula vyakula vinavyopatikana kwa urahisi na vipo kwenye msimu. 11. Lima, pika, kulala mbogamboga za asili kwa afya bora.1. Safisha jiko, kusanya uchafu na mabaki ya vyakula katika chombo chenye mfuniko na tupa kwenye shimo la takataka. 2. Ivisha vyema vyakula vya aina ya nyama, samaki na mayai kuepuka magonjwa ya kuambikiza. 3. Osha matunda na mboga-mboga zinazoliwa bila kupikwa kwa maji safi. 4. Osha mboga -mboga kabla ya kukatakata ili kuhifadhi virutubishi. 5. Pika mboga-mboga kwa muda mfupi ili kulinda virutubishi. 6. Weka mboga-mboga na matunda kwenye maji ya moto kabla ya kukausha ili kuhifadhi virutubisho. 7. Weka mafuta kidogo kwenye mboga-mboga wakati wa kupika kurahisisha upatikanaji wa baadhi ya vitamini. 8. Nawa mikono kabla ya kuandaa chakula, kumlisha mtoto, kusafisha mtoto aliyejisaidia, kumhudumia mgonjwa na kupenga kamasi.1. Chemsha maji ya kunywa, kutengenezea barafu au juisi kwa muda wa dakika tanoili kuua vimelea vya maradhi. 2. Badilisha maji yaliyochemshwa kwa ajili ya kunywa ndani ya masaa 24. 3. Kunywa maji safi na salama ya kutosha, angalau lita moja na nusu kwa siku na Zaidi wakati wa joto kali. 4. Kula vyakula vyenye maji au vinywaji kuongeza maji mwilini kama supu, madafu, togwa na juisi halisi za matunda. 5. Tunza maji ya kunywa katika chombo safi chenye mfuniko. 6. Tumia chombo maalum chenye mpini mrefu kuchotea maji ya kunywa kutoka kwenye mtungi au ndoo. 7. Osha vyombo vya kutayarishia chakula na kupakulia kwa sabuni au majivu. 8. Anika vyombo vilivyooshwa kwenye chanja au kausha kwa kitambaa safi.1. Mama mjamzito kula mlo kamili wenye virutubisho vyote kidogo kidogo kwa mda mfupimfupi ili kulinda mwili na kujiandaa na unyonyeshaji. 2. Mpe mtoto kuanzia miezi sita hadi miaka 4 chakula chenye mchanganyiko wa makundi yote sita ya chakula. 3. Mama mjamzito kula lishe bora kuzuia kudhoofika na kuongeza hatari ya kupata malaria, na upungufu wa damu. 4. Mpe mtoto lishe bora ili kuzuia Udumavu wa mwili na akili. 5. Mama mjamzito hudhuria kliniki mapema kujilinda mwenyewe na mtoto. 6. Nyonyesha mtoto miezi sita ya mwanzo maziwa ya mama yana virutubisho vyote muhimu. Mazingira 1. Usitupe takataka ovyo, zuia uchafuzi wa mazingira na kuhatarisha maisha ya binadamu na wanyama.2. Hifadhi sehamu sahihi takataka hatarishi kama kinyesi cha binadamu na wanyama, maji machafu, taka za viwandani na kilimo na mifuko ya plastiki. 3. Safisha mazingira, elimisha na hamasisha jamii juu ya usafi wa mazingira. 4. Tumia choo bora chenye kuta na mlango imara wenye kitasa au komeo na paa imara lisilovuja. 5. Tupa kinyesi katika tundu la choo na funika choo kwa mfuniko wenye mkono. 6. Tumia vifaa vinavyorahisisha usafi na kuzuia kugusa uchafu moja kwa moja. 7. Nawa mikono na sabuni baada ya kutoka chooni, kudeki, kusafisha choo au takataka.When to send message HarvestingThe timelier the harvest the better the quality; harvest when husks turn brown, cobs hang down, or kernels are hard, and resistant to scratching by the thumbnail.Uvunaji kwa wakati ubora wa mavuno; mazao yasikae muda mrefu shambani. Vuna punje zinapokuwa ngumu na kutofikichika kwa urahisi kwa kucha.Early JulyHarvested produce is alive and can get diseased; remove husks immediately and dry cobs on tarpaulin or clean platform to improve storability.Mazao yaliyovunwa ni hai hushambuliwa na magonjwa; baada ya kuvuna ondoa maganda na kausha mahindi katika magunzi kwenye turubai au kwenye kichanja safi ili yahifadhiwe vizuri.Harvesting/threshing Harvested produce is alive and can get diseased and become poisonous; separate rotten/moldy cobs before shelling.Mazao yaliyovunwa ni hai, na hushambuliwa na magonjwa na kutengeneza sumu; chambua yaliyooza/ukungu kabla ya kupukuchua.Harvesting/threshing Harvested grains are alive and can get easily diseased when wounded; use method that does not break grains during shelling.Mazao yaliyovunwa ni hai. Yakipata majeraha hushambuliwa na magojwa. Tumia njia isiyosababisha majeraha wakati wa kupukuchua.Drying Harvested grains are alive; They get easily diseased when stored moist; dry well and verify dryness of grain moisture is < 13% during storage.Mazao yaliyovunwa ni hai na hushambuliwa na magonjwa yakihifadhiwa na unyevu; kausha vizuri unyevu usizidi asilimia 13 wakati wa kuhifadhi.1 st week August Storage (early) Clean grain, better storage: winnow grain, remove dirt, and trash to keep off insects.Mazao safi, uhifadhi bora: pepeta, ondoa uchafu na safisha kuepuka wadudu.Insects require air to survive and damage stored produce; stop them by storing produce in air-tight containers always.Wadudu wanahitaji hewa kuishi na kuharibu mazao yaliyohifadhiwa; hifadhi mazao kwenye vyombo visivyoruhusu hewa wakati wote.Storage (early) Clean food, safe food, more money! Use hermetic bags or other air-tight devices to store without chemicals.Chakula safi, salama na pesa zaidi! kuhifadhi bila kutumia kemikali tumia mifuko au vifaa vingine visivyoruhusu hewa kupita. Implementation of project activities has been delayed in the reporting period due to the Covid-19 outbreak. All the planned field trips by WorldVeg staff had to be suspended from April to end of June 2020, to adhere to safety measures as recommended by officials. During that period, the technical backstopping to farmers was provided through collaboration with the government extension staff posted to Karatu District who visited the trials and met with the farmers to discuss the progress and challenges and provided advice as deemed appropriate.In the reporting period, WorldVeg supported the beneficiary farmers in eight villages of the first generation, on GAP, keyhole gardening technology, and pest and disease management. Practical training on GAP was provided to 32 people (56% women), including 27 lead farmers and five extension agents (Figs 1 and 2). A training was also provided to 70 people (47% women), including 64 farmers, on improved nursery management specifically on seedbed preparation, and vegetable seed sowing in nursery beds and trays. The comparison of the performance of the nurseries established following the improved nursery techniques (using GAP) and farmer practices indicated higher quality of the seedlings produced following GAP. Overall, the average investment in the GAP nurseries for the three crops (tomato, African nightshade, and Ethiopian mustard) used in the eight villages was TSh13,546.56 per farmer, versus TSh21,265.16 for farmer practices (Table 1). In these investments, chemical pesticides and watering bills were higher in those nurseries that followed the farmers' practices.Technical backstopping was provided to IDP for scaling GAPs in Generation 2 villages in Karatu, and for the training of farmers on safe and sustainable vegetable production. A total of 52 participants were trained, (19 male (37%) and 33 females (63%)). These included 34 lead farmers from nine villages, 10 extension officers, one district representative, five IDP staff members, and two interns attached to the KE project (Fig. 14).A baseline survey was conducted to identify the most common pests and diseases present in the project sites. The results indicated that pest and disease incidence was most important on tomato, compared to the other two crops, i.e., Ethiopian mustard and African nightshade, which are traditional African vegetable species (Table 8).The data of the baseline household survey conducted in 2019 was analyzed and the report prepared. This baseline survey conducted in Karatu aimed to understand the production of vegetables and the dietary diversity and nutritional status of rural farmers in Karatu District as a way to establish the research and training needs for improved vegetable production systems. A questionnaire was prepared and answered by a total of 487 vegetable farmers. The results indicated that the commonly grown vegetable crops were tomato, onion, African eggplant, Ethiopian mustard, Chinese cabbage, and African nightshade. The main foods consumed by the households were cereals, spices, condiments and beverages, vegetables, oils and fats, sweets, legumes, nuts and seeds, and fruits. Meat products (i.e., poultry, offal, fish, etc.), eggs, milk, and milk products were rarely consumed by many households. Ninety percent of what was consumed was purchased. The average household dietary diversity score (HDDS) was 6.15, which means that, on average, households consumed six food groups over the preceding 24 hours. Intervention households had a higher HDDS (6.33) compared to the control households (5.98) (P < 0.01). Sixty-two percent of the farmers knew that vegetables contain nutrients needed for growth and health while 38% were not so aware. Most farmers were not aware of the minimum required daily vegetable intake. About 26% of vegetable farmers perceived vegetable farming to be more risky than cereal production, mainly because of the dry nature of their areas, the lack of reliable markets, and the persistent challenge of pests and diseases. The study recommends the strategic development partners and project stakeholders to design interventions that will provide education especially on the nutritional value of vegetables, improved practices for increased vegetable production, improved health of household members and their communities, and increase household income. The full baseline survey report is attached in Annex 1. This baseline forms part of the impact evaluation of the Africa RISING project in Karatu using the Difference in Differences (DiD) method. The endline surveys are planned for 2021.WorldVeg actively participated in the nane-nane organized by the government in Simiyu during 1-10 August 2020 (Fig. 4). The event provided an opportunity for interested active actors in the agricultural sector to publicize their innovations to a critical mass of targeted end-users specifically the smallholder farmers. About 1000+ (55% male and 45% female) persons including farmers, agribusiness entrepreneurs, exhibitors from different agricultural related sectors, youth groups, and students visited the WorldVeg pavilion. Sub-activity 1.1.2.1: Assessment of the benefits of management technologies on performance of improved vegetable varieties (Season 2) An experiment which compared the effectiveness of improved nursery practices (using GAP) compared to farmer practices indicated higher quality of the seedlings produced following GAP. Overall, the average investment in the GAP nurseries for the three crops (tomato, African nightshade, and Ethiopian mustard) was TSh13,546.56, while each control farmer spent around TSh21,265.16 (Table 1). The baseline insect and pest survey at the onset of the demo trials indicated higher insect incidence on tomato followed by African nightshade (Table 9). Aphids were more common on Ethiopian mustard and African nightshade, while mites were recorded only on the Solanaceae crops (tomato and nightshade). Leaf miners were only recorded on tomato. On average, disease prevalence was higher on tomato (28%) and Ethiopian mustard (25%) compared to African nightshade (6%). Early blight mainly occurred on tomato, while virus-like symptoms were essentially recorded on Ethiopian mustard and African nightshade. ","tokenCount":"5253"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"28d5c24163f4a7f6fb50784a16183da9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a806588d-2b16-46d4-bfaa-b1685ddc22ef/retrieve","id":"-1042686278"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fec2ab58-9d7d-43f7-b182-1c3abdc3d474","pagecount":"28","content":"Les coopératives à l'heure de l'OHADA 12 GENrE Des femmes écoutées et décisionnaires 13 | À la une | Agriculture | Élevage et pêche | Environnement | Recherche | Entreprise et commerce | Interview | Dossier Genre : des femmes écoutées et décisionnaires De la nécessité d'adopter une approche genre dans les politiques | Point de vue W. Kamau-Rutenberg : les femmes en quête de leadership impliquer les femmes dans la recherche agricole | Reportage Burkina Faso : les femmes propriétaires, une nouvelle donne La mise en oeuvre de la loi sur le régime foncier pas à pas | Chaînes de valeur Le baobab : arbre de vie | Publications | Agir avec le CTA © IFAD/S. Morgan DOSSIER À lA unE InTERvIEw est le magazine bimestriel du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA). Le CTA est régi par l'Accord de Cotonou entre le groupe des pays d'Afrique, des Caraïbes et du Pacifique (ACP) et l'Union européenne, et financé par l'UE. • CTA • Postbus 380 • 6700 AJ Wageningen, Pays-Bas • Tél. :Découvrez les 4 pistes proposées par les experts du CTA En savoir plus sur www.cta.int/iyff Le Sommet sur le climat organisé par le Secrétaire général de l'ONU, et qui s'est tenu à New York en septembre 2014, a offert une plateforme idéale pour lancer l'Alliance mondiale pour l'agriculture intelligente face au climat (CSA, climate-smart agriculture). Les négociations de l'ONU sur l'agriculture et le climat, menées lors des réunions de la Conférence des Parties, ont progressé trop lentement pour de nombreux acteurs qui ont préféré l'action sur le terrain. Des initiatives bienvenues, puisqu'elles nous permettent de passer de la théorie à la pratique, de découvrir quels mécanismes fonctionnent à quels endroits et d'intensifier l'utilisation de techniques agricoles intelligentes face au climat. L'Alliance, qui a l'ambitieux objectif de permettre à 500 millions de producteurs agricoles de pratiquer une agriculture intelligente face au climat d'ici 2030, réunit des gouvernements, des organisations internationales, des groupes d'agriculteurs, des entreprises et des ONG. La France, l'Irlande, le Mexique, les Pays-Bas, le Niger, le Nigeria, la Norvège, l'Espagne, la Tanzanie, l'Uruguay, les États-Unis et le Vietnam ont rejoint l'Alliance. D'importants acteurs du développement, comme le CGIAR, DFID, l'UE, la FAO, l'USAID, le PAM et la Banque mondiale en sont membres. Pour une mise en oeuvre efficace de la CSA, trois éléments clés sont nécessaires : savoir quelles méthodes fonctionnent à quel endroit ; disposer de mécanismes de financement innovants, comme les assurances basées sur un indice climatique ; élaborer des politiques qui créent un environnement propice à la mise en oeuvre de la CSA. Les partenariats, y compris entre les secteurs public et privé, sont aussi essentiels au succès de la CSA. Plusieurs nouveaux partenariats ont déjà été annoncés : le Nouveau Partenariat pour le développement de l'Afrique (NEPAD), par exemple, a récemment lancé des partenariats avec cinq grandes ONG internationales.Le CTA a rejoint l'Alliance en s'engageant à promouvoir l'échange des connaissances sur les bonnes pratiques relatives à la CSA en Afrique, dans les Caraïbes et dans le Pacifique. Des multinationales, comme MacDonald's et Walmart, ont promis de s'approvisionner davantage auprès de producteurs pratiquant la CSA. Tout le monde n'a pas encore rejoint le mouvement, mais je suis certain que dans quelques temps, quand la CSA aura fait ses preuves sur le terrain, les sceptiques seront convaincus.A vec l'épidémie de fièvre Ebola qui s'est déclarée à la mi-2014 en Afrique de l'Ouest, les autorités sanitaires nationales et internationales se sont bousculées pour tenter de contenir cette maladie meurtrière à évolution rapide. De telles zoonoses, capables de se transmettre entre les animaux et les humains, sont une menace toujours présente. Les 13 premières zoonoses sont à l'origine chaque année de 2,2 millions décès et de 2,4 milliards de cas de maladie chez l'homme et infectent, en outre, un septième du bétail dans les pays en développement. Le coût économique de ces zoonoses peut-être estimé à 9 milliards de dollars US par an.Les zoonoses sont à l'origine de 60 % des maladies humaines, mais les divisions traditionnelles entre la santé de l'homme, celle du bétail et la salubrité de l'environnement font obstacle à leur contrôle, ce qui a entraîné une demande de coopération accrue entre les secteurs et de partage de services tels que les laboratoires et le dépistage. Cette approche, connue sous le nom d'\"Une seule santé\", initiée lors des sommets sur la grippe aviaire et la grippe pandémique et avalisée par la FAO, l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) et l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE), commence à prendre de l'ampleur. Au niveau régional, le Réseau caribéen de la santé animale a adopté l'approche \"Une seule santé\" grâce à une initiative soutenue par l'Union européenne. L'adoption d'une telle approche n'est toutefois qu'une première étape ; tout semble indiquer que les secteurs de la médecine, du développement et de la recherche continuent généralement à fonctionner comme avant.une seule santé, de nombreux avantages \"Il faut en moyenne 17 ans pour que les résultats de recherche puissent servir dans la pratique clinique et l'approche \"Une seule santé\" n'a été lancée que dans les années 2000\", observe Delia Grace, chef du programme Sécurité sanitaire des aliments et zoonoses à l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI). L'apparent manque d'intérêt suscité a toutefois découragé l'ILRI et d'autres partenaires qui soutiennent qu'il est urgent de repenser notre manière d'aborder les zoonoses. \"Tout changement de la manière de faire les choses a un coût psychologique et institutionnel. Il faut parfois une crise majeure pour stimuler l'adoption de nouvelles pratiques. L'approche \"Une seule santé\" a été très utilisée en temps de crise et moins pendant les périodes calmes\", affirme Delia Grace. Chaque intervention a mis en évidence l'efficacité de cette approche, mais les responsables de sa mise en oeuvre pensent en améliorer l'adoption par les décideurs en mettant l'accent sur ses avantages économiques. À cette fin, l'équipe de Delia Grace a réalisé la première analyse mondiale coûts/avantages, The Business Case for One Health, qui a abouti à des conclusions probantes : un investissement international de 25 milliards de dollars US sur dix ans dans l'approche \"Une seule santé\" pourrait engendrer des bénéfices d'au moins 125 milliards de dollars US par an.Par exemple, l'approche \"Une seule santé\" a été mise en oeuvre par l'ILRI pour gérer la fièvre de la Vallée du Rift (FVR) dans la Corne de l'Afrique, une maladie que partagent l'homme, le bétail et les animaux sauvages. Les recherches de l'ILRI ont établi que les épidémies de FVR surviennent rarement -parfois seulement tous les 10 à 20 ans -ce qui fait que le personnel qui a lutté contre cette maladie n'est souvent plus présent pour partager ses connaissances lors de l'épidémie suivante. Après la dernière épidémie dévastatrice de 2006-2007, les divers partenaires, dont le département kenyan des services vétérinaires du ministère de la Santé et de l'Unité des zoonoses, se sont rassemblés pour partager leurs récentes expériences et créer un outil d'aide à la décision. Cet outil intègre une série d'événements -tels que les conditions météorologiques -et indique la probabilité d'une flambée épidémique, ainsi qu'une liste des interventions possibles à chaque étape. Il importe de noter que le plan exige que les résultats de la surveillance du bétail soient communiqués aux personnels en charge de la santé humaine et inversement. Pour l'instant, l'outil n'a été intégréLes épidémies qui font la une des journaux attirent l'attention de la communauté internationale sur les maladies que nous partageons avec les animaux. Mais un travail important est encore à réaliser pour que ces zoonoses soient abordées dans une approche intégrée de la santé humaine et animale.au dispositif d'intervention pour la FVR du Kenya qu'aux niveaux les plus élevés du département des services vétérinaires. Son efficacité réelle dépendra de la manière dont il sera présenté aux vétérinaires et responsables de la santé qui interviennent sur le terrain.Les principales préoccupations du ménage moyen possédant des animaux dans les pays en développement ne sont pas liées aux pandémies mais aux maladies plus courantes -et souvent négligées -telles que la brucellose, l'anthrax, la rage et la cysticercose (ténia). Elles ont un effet beaucoup plus néfaste sur la santé humaine et animale que les épidémies et de nombreuses organisations -dont la FAO -se demandent si l'approche \"Une seule santé\" pourrait être réorientée sur ces maladies.\"Pour l'instant les organisations comme la FAO, l'OMS et l'OIE n'ont pu faire bénéficier les membres des communautés locales de l'approche \"Une seule santé\", dit Roland Suluku, un chercheur vétérinaire de l'Université Njala en Sierra Leone. Il a par conséquent relevé lui-même le défi et créé des clubs de santé animale dans les écoles pour diffuser des idées permettant d'améliorer la santé animale et humaine et la salubrité de l'environnement. Selon Roland Suluku, ces clubs connaissent un réel succès parce que les étudiants aiment partager tout autant qu'ils aiment apprendre. \"Ils veulent communiquer à leurs parents et voisins ce qui leur a été dit à l'école. Ils transmettent aussi l'information à d'autres villages grâce aux activités pour la jeunesse.\" Parmi les initiatives de ces clubs figurent la vaccination des chiens du village contre la rage et la construction d'abris plus sains pour les chèvres permettant de balayer leurs déjections et d'éviter ainsi la propagation des maladies.En contrôlant les zoonoses, \"nous prenons soin de la santé des animaux et des gens et de la salubrité de l'environnement dans lequel ils vivent\", dit Roland Suluku. \"Les animaux sont traités pour éviter le transfert des maladies. Les agriculteurs reçoivent des intrants pour produire assez d'aliments pour se nourrir et nourrir leurs animaux. On leur fournit de l'eau potable propre et on leur enseigne comment gérer et éliminer correctement les déchets. Les règlements prévoient que les animaux soient gardés dans des abris, que leur fumier soit ramassé et que leurs propriétaires l'utilisent pour cultiver des légumes. Voilà à quoi ressemble l'approche \"Une seule santé\" au niveau communautaire\". D'une certaine façon, cela rappelle ce qui se passait avant \"Une seule santé\". À la fin des années 90, le vétérinaire Calvin Schwabe, défenseur de longue date d'une collaboration intersectorielle, a souligné que dans les villages, de nombreux guérisseurs locaux traitaient à la fois les humains et les animaux. Il a donc suggéré d'associer sur le terrain les services de soins de santé pour l'homme et l'animal. Toutefois, lorsque le mouvement \"Une seule santé\" est apparu quelques années plus tard, l'attention s'est portée sur un niveau supérieur en cherchant à unir les services des grands laboratoires et à coordonner la lutte contre les maladies au niveau national ou international.Récemment des signes d'un retour à l'échelle locale sont apparus. En 2013, dans le nord-est de l'Ouganda, la FAO a commencé à travailler avec les villageois, les responsables de la santé au niveau des districts et les autorités en charge de l'agriculture et de la faune sauvage afin de trouver le moyen d'apporter un meilleur soutien à la santé des éleveurs et de leur bétail. Ayant découvert que la brucellose frappait à la fois les hommes et le bétail, ils ont entrepris de traiter la maladie dans son ensemble. Leur approche, qui associe le concept fondamental d'\"Une seule santé\" et une dimension locale, laisse entendre que le mouvement pourrait susciter un nouvel intérêt parmi les communautés d'éleveurs dans lesquelles la santé humaine et la santé animale ont toujours été étroitement liées.Dans le monde entier les communautés d'éleveurs ont mis au point des systèmes pour préserver la santé de leurs animaux et parfois ces concepts \"ethnovétérinaires\" peuvent permettre d'élaborer des mécanismes utiles de contrôle des zoonoses. Par exemple, les éleveuses de porcs du Nicaragua savent que ces animaux peuvent transmettre la trichinellose aux humains. Elles palpent les langues de leurs porcs pour détecter des signes d'infestation du parasite et abattent tout animal présentant un symptôme. La connaissance de tels savoirs locaux peut permettre d'orienter et de cibler les campagnes d'information en matière de lutte contre les zoonoses et de trouver des méthodes peu coûteuses pour les contrôler.Une équipe de recherche francokenyane a démontré l'influence de la diversité ethnolinguistique sur la constitution génétique du sorgho dans l'est du Kenya.Afin de lutter contre la sécheresse et réduire les importations de produits alimentaires en Jamaïque, le ministère de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche met en oeuvre des mesures destinées à augmenter la production dans les agriparcs (regroupements de cultures et d'entreprises agroalimentaires connexes) et à développer l'agriculture sous serre et l'aquaculture. Dans un entretien accordé au Jamaica Gleaner, le ministre Derrick Kellier explique que les agriparcs disposent de terres inutilisées qui peuvent être mises en production : \"Nous travaillons assidûment avec les agriculteurs des parcs afin que chaque centimètre carré de terre soit utilisé.\" Le ministère réalise également une enquête sur la disponibilité et le taux d'utilisation des serres dans le pays. Le Programme de repas scolaires fait partie de l'effort du gouvernement angolais visant à combattre la pauvreté et à réduire les inégalités entre les classes. À Camacupa, dans la province du Bié, les autorités locales favorisent l'introduction de produits locaux dans les repas scolaires. une initiative qui améliore la qualité nutritive des aliments et encourage la production agricole locale d'ignames, de fruits, de pommes de terre, etc. D ifficile de distinguer les impacts de la domestication par l'humain de ceux de facteurs naturels sur l'évolution des plantes cultivées. Et pourtant, c'est la prouesse que vient de réussir une équipe de recherche franco-kenyane pour une des principales céréales en Afrique, le sorgho. Jusqu'à présent, peu d'études avaient permis de mettre en exergue cette différenciation homme/nature sur la diversité des espèces cultivées de sorgho en Afrique.Pour lever le voile sur cette question, les chercheurs se sont intéressés à un territoire particulier : le versant oriental du mont Kenya. Celui-ci offre un milieu écologiquement homogène et réunit différents groupes ethniques : les Chuka, les Mbeere et les Tharaka. Cette approche permet de comparer l'influence de leurs différentes pratiques agraires et savoirs traditionnels sur la diversité du sorgho, une céréale d'importance majeure dans cette région. L'analyse de l'ADN des quelque 300 plantes collectées a permis d'identifier quatre groupes génétiques de sorgho, dont deux correspondent à deux variétés introduites. Il s'agit de variétés améliorées génétiquement par des ONG ou des services nationaux d'extension agricole. L'une de ces variétés, introduite il y a près de 15 ans, semble s'être davantage diversifiée génétiquement chez les Chuka que dans les autres groupes ethniques. Cela suggère que les pratiques des trois communautés laissent leur \"signature\" dans le génome des populations de sorgho. En parallèle, les chercheurs ont inventorié et échantillonné les différentes variétés de sorgho cultivées par 130 foyers Chukas, Mbeeres et Tharakas.Grâce à cette approche pluridisciplinaire réunissant des anthropologues, des généticiens et des agronomes, ces travaux ont montré le rôle des sociétés humaines dans la distribution géographique et l'évolution de la diversité génétique des plantes cultivées. En mai 2013, des femmes cadres supérieurs dans l'industrie alimentaire britannique et des agricultrices kenyanes ont construit un énorme vivier, de la taille d'une piscine olympique, dans le cadre du défi \"Dig for Good'. Douze mois après la construction et le remplissage de ce vivier, le collectif d'agricultrices Afula, qui possède et gère l'étang, a récolté 238 kg de tilapia qui ont été vendus pour 668 200 Ksh (5 800 €). Le collectif a décidé de réinvestir cet argent et de créer trois viviers supplémentaires. Ces viviers constituent pour les femmes du collectif une source durable d'aliments nutritifs et de revenus à long-terme qui leur permettront de nourrir leurs familles, payer les soins médicaux et envoyer leurs enfants à l'école.Dans la localité de Luma tatesa en éthiopie, les éleveurs exploitent la diversité génétique de leurs troupeaux de chèvres pour en améliorer la productivité. Avec l'appui des chercheurs de l'iLri, le bétail est étiqueté en distinguant les chèvres dont la filiation est connue de celles qui ne le sont pas, indiquant ainsi le rendement futur de la progéniture.iNSémiNAtiON ArtiFiCiELLELe Centre de multiplication des animaux performants (CmAP), situé à Loumbila au Burkina Faso, est devenu au fil du temps un centre reconnu de la sous-région. Spécialisé dans l'insémination artificielle des vaches, il réalise près de 5 000 opérations par an, avec un taux de succès d'environ 60 %. Son expertise est sollicitée par la Côte d'ivoire, le Niger et le togo.Sur les rives du lac tanganyika au Burundi, l'introduction de claies grillagées surélevées à un mètre du sol a permis de réduire de moitié les pertes de poisson dues à des pratiques de séchage inadaptées. Grâce à la meilleure qualité du poisson, les prix ont plus que doublé, passant de 2,5 $ uS/kg en 2013 à 6 $ uS/kg en 2014. Dans les sites officiels de pêche, le nombre de sécheurs est passé de 500 à plus de 2 000.Pour améliorer le système d'alerte des foyers de maladies en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée (PNG), des chercheurs de deux universités australiennes ont formé 116 éleveurs de bétail et spécialistes de la santé animale à identifier et collecter des informations sur les maladies. Six cent mille petits fermiers en PNG dépendent de l'élevage pour leur subsistance. Dans la région semi-aride du Karamoja, au nord-est de l'Ouganda, 13 200 familles pastorales se tournent vers l'agriculture comme moyen de subsistance.Le prix décerné en 2014 dans le cadre du Dairy Value Chain Challenge va permettre de renforcer les efforts de l'Office des produits laitiers de Tanzanie pour améliorer la qualité du lait et augmenter la consommation.L es pasteurs du Karamoja ont adopté l'agriculture après avoir reçu des formations dans les champs-école agropastorales (CEAP) de la FAO sur la préparation des sols, le contrôle des mauvaises herbes, la protection de l'environnement, l'entreprenariat, la gestion du bétail, la nutrition, la santé, l'hygiène, le VIH/sida, les systèmes de microcrédit, les activités post-récolte et les questions de genre. La FAO a également fourni de quoi démarrer l'activité, notamment des semences et des kits d'irrigation.\"Les formations dans les CEAP durent toute une saison, elles sont différentes dans chaque lieu et adaptées aux défis agricoles propres à chaque région\", explique Alastair Taylor, conseiller technique. Les pasteurs, qui dépendaient autrefois uniquement de leur cheptel, font maintenant pousser des oignons, du chou, des carottes, du maïs, du mil, des haricots et du sorgho. Cette diversification a permis d'améliorer la nutrition des ménages. En outre, grâce à leurs nouvelles compétences en irrigation, les agriculteurs font pousser des légumes pendant la saison sèche qu'ils vendent sur les marchés locaux. La formation agro-pastorale vise à obtenir des rendements élevés avec un minimum d'engrais chimiques afin de limiter la dégradation de l'environnement. Le recours à des foyers améliorés a également conduit à une réduction de la quantité de bois de chauffe utilisée par les ménages.a demande croissante en produits laitiers en Afrique de l'Est est une formidable opportunité pour la filière d'améliorer ses moyens d'existence tout au long de la chaîne de valeur. Toutefois plusieurs défis limitent le développement de ce secteur, notamment un accès déficient aux services vétérinaires, des connaissances limitées en matière d'élevage et de manutention du lait et des liens insuffisants avec le marché. Lauréat du prix 2014, le Dr Mayasa Simba, membre de l'Office des produits laitiers de Tanzanie, a bénéficié d'un programme d'assistance technique pour renforcer la qualité de la production de lait en Tanzanie afin d'améliorer les revenus des producteurs et la santé publique.Sélectionné parmi plus de 50 projets visant à solutionner les problèmes du secteur laitier, le projet du Dr Simba se concentre sur la conformité aux règlementations laitières via un système de formation et de certification des acteurs de la production laitière. Quatrevingt-dix-sept pour cent de la production laitière en Tanzanie provenant du secteur informel, l'objectif est d'encourager les producteurs à intégrer le marché formel, et ainsi renforcer la confiance des consommateurs et consolider le secteur laitier national.Les partenaires du prix mettent à la disposition de l'équipe du Dr Simba des formations, leurs conseils et leurs réseaux pour l'aider à développer les aspects techniques du projet et renforcer les capacités de l'Office des produits laitiers. \"L'objectif global de notre intervention est de développer une industrie laitière réglementée, compétitive et saine\", explique le Dr Simba.Pasteurs du Karamoja en formation à l'école agro-pastorale.Unique en son genre au Kenya, Msitu Tena est un projet de crédits carbone de 40 ans se développant dans une forêt d'État.M situ Tena, qui signifie \"forêt à nouveau\", est un projet de crédit carbone se développant sur 490 hectares dans la forêt d'Iloro dans le comté de Kakamega. Ce projet de 200 millions Ksh (1,7 million €) qui vise à fixer 420 000 tonnes de dioxyde de carbone de l'atmosphère en 40 ans, est le fruit d'un partenariat entre l'association forestière communautaire Muileshi, ECO2 Librium (une ONG locale en charge de la commercialisation des crédits carbone) et le Kenya Forest Service (le département forestier du Kenya). Depuis 2010, 182 hectares de forêt ont été replantés avec des espèces d'arbres autochtones. Les communautés locales sont directement impliquées et rémunérées pour leur travail qui consiste à cultiver des semis, planter les arbres et les entretenir jusqu'à leur maturité. Près de 120 membres de ces communautés travaillent en même temps à réhabiliter la forêt.Les arbres doivent atteindre une certaine hauteur avant de pouvoir commencer à générer des crédits carbone. Dans l'attente, ECO2 Librium lève des fonds pour d'autres activités. De nouveaux moyens de subsistance sont proposés comme l'apiculture et la pisciculture ; l'élevage de serpents et la construction de campements touristiques sont en préparation. \"Il est prévu de fournir un refroidisseur de lait pour chaque groupe de 20 ménages\", explique Sylvester Imbwaga, secrétaire de l'association Muileshi. \"Nous avons déjà acheté des machines pour produire du jus de goyave et nous envisageons d'emballer et vendre de la farine de maïs.\" Des poêles à économie d'énergie sont également installés dans les foyers pour réduire la quantité de bois de chauffe utilisée par les communautés.à ce jour, environ 6 000 ménages bénéficient de ce projet. Ceux qui plantent les arbres et en prennent soin sont payés pour leur travail, et les femmes qui fabriquent les poêles sont rémunérées tant pour la réalisation que l'installation de ceux-ci dans les foyers. \"J'ai pu acheter une vache laitière et payer les droits de scolarité de mon enfant qui arrive au bout de ses études secondaires\", explique Zakaria Lihanda Masheti qui dépend directement de la forêt pour le charbon, le pâturage des animaux, le bois de chauffe et la récolte d'herbes naturelles. Mais l'augmentation des revenus n'est pas le seul bénéfice : \"Nous avons perdu nos herbes, nos animaux, nos oiseaux, nos serpents et nos abeilles parce que la forêt a été rasée dans les années 1960\", raconte Meshack Amalemba. \"Nous préservons la forêt pas pour nous mais pour les générations à venir.\"la microassurance agricole accessible à tous mettre en place une assurance agricole à faible coût et destinée à tous les agriculteurs en Afrique, telle était l'ambition d'EArS Earth Environment monitoring en lançant la micro-assurance FESA (Food Early Solutions for Africa). un défi relevé avec succès grâce aux données climatiques fournies par les satellites météorologiques de meteosat.Protéger les forêts sacrées initié en 2011, le projet d'intégration des forêts dans le système des Aires protégées au Bénin a permis, à l'issue d'un processus participatif, de délimiter et borner les forêts sacrées. En parallèle, des modes alternatifs d'exploitation de la forêt ont été initiés comme des jardins botaniques, l'éco tourisme, de petits élevages ou des activités culturelles.La production de sel iodé en Guinée a trouvé de nouveaux débouchés salvateurs grâce à une collaboration entre le Programme alimentaire mondial (PAm) et la Fédération paysanne de Basse-Guinée. Le PAm en a déjà acheté 35 tonnes pour son programme de cantines scolaires.Après avoir été formés à l'agroforesterie et avoir planté 4 000 arbres dans leurs exploitations, les fermiers de melong au Cameroun ont planté plus de 2 000 arbres autour des bassins de drainage des eaux pour tenter de protéger et d'augmenter les réserves d'eau de la région. \"Nous avons toujours souffert de pénuries d'eau mais c'est du passé maintenant\", affirme l'agriculteur Pierre tagni.\"Comment peut-il exister, en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, plus de 1 000 variétés de patates douces, une plante à multiplication asexuée importée d'Amérique latine ?\", s'interroge le CirAD. En analysant un échantillon de 417 variétés locales, il est parvenu à la conclusion que ce sont les petits producteurs qui les ont sélectionnées, faisant preuve d'une remarquable adaptation au changement.Des chercheurs du Queensland University of Technology (Qut) ont mis au point une banane à teneur enrichie en beta-carotène (vitamine A) afin de combattre la cécité. L'objectif est de pouvoir fournir d'ici 2020 des plants de ces bananes, une fois testées sur l'homme, aux planteurs en Ouganda.une étude scientifique menée par le COLEACP sur les nématodes des cultures maraîchères au Sénégal a permis de mettre au point des solutions de lutte efficaces et qui préservent l'environnement. il s'agit notamment d'introduire une surveillance des populations de nématodes ou de compter et identifier les nématodes des exploitations infectées.Le prix mondial de l'Alimentation 2014 a été décerné au Dr Sanjaya rajaram, sélectionneur de blé, pour son travail sur le développement de variétés de blé nutritives, résistantes aux maladies de la rouille et s'adaptant à une grande variété de climats. Ses recherches, principalement menées au Centre international d'amélioration du maïs et du blé, ont permis de mettre au point plus de 480 variétés. riZGrâce à un dispositif de recherche et d'enseignement en partenariat (DP), le FOFIFA a créé des variétés de riz pluvial bien adaptées aux Hautes terres à Madagascar.Un projet international de recherche en génétique des eucalyptus a découvert que ces arbres peuvent servir à fabriquer des biocarburants et ainsi offrir une nouvelle source de revenus à ceux qui les cultivent à travers le monde. Cette étude menée sur cinq ans par des chercheurs brésiliens, sud-africains et américains, a réussi à décrypter le code génétique de la variété à maturation rapide Eucalyptus grandis. Elle a également découvert que les gènes des bactéries et levures présentes dans ces arbres peuvent servir à fabriquer des biocarburants à grande échelle. \"Nous pouvons aussi cultiver des arbres qui poussent plus vite, ont un bois de plus grande qualité, utilisent l'eau plus efficacement et résistent mieux au changement climatique\", rapporte le responsable du projet, le professeur Zander Myburg de l'Université d'Afrique du Sud. Femme modèle pour ses concitoyennes, minata Koné a fondé la première entreprise privée burkinabè à capitaux entièrement nationaux transformant les noix de cajou. Créée en 2003 à Banfora, la société a su, grâce à l'entregent de sa fondatrice, conquérir plusieurs marchés internationaux et redonner de l'allure à la filière anacarde.  Alors que la production de café de l'île de Fogo ne dépassait pas jusqu'à cette année deux tonnes par an, grâce à Fogo Coffee Spirit Lda, six tonnes supplémentaires ont été produites. Le projet de l'entreprise, axé sur la qualité et la réputation du café de Fogo, ambitionne d'inverser la tendance à la baisse de la production qui avait atteint un tel niveau que sa consommation en était presque exclusivement réduite aux habitants de l'île.Le déclin du café de Fogo, cultivé depuis plus de 200 ans, était imputable à l'abandon des plantations après l'indépendance du pays en 1975. Les plants sont actuellement remplacés par de nouveaux afin de préserver les caractéristiques uniques de cette variété d'Arabica.La création de l'entreprise Fogo Coffee Spirit Lda a joué un rôle déterminant pour asseoir la réputation du café biologique du Fogo, et plus particulièrement de l'Arabica, au-delà des frontières de l'île et du pays et lui assurer une place sur les marchés américains et européens. Les agriculteurs d'Afrique de l'Est profitent d'une augmentation de l'offre de services d'argent mobile.Une association sans but lucratif zambienne s'est associée à la compagnie laitière Parmalat Zambia pour créer quatre centres de collecte du lait dans le sud de la Zambie. Ce projet, dont le but est de soutenir la croissance du secteur laitier chez les petits producteurs, offre à ces derniers la possibilité de commercer avec le secteur privé et renforce leur accès aux marchés. Environ 400 producteurs en ont déjà profité et ont vendu du lait aux centres de collecte pour plus de 25 500 €. Des formations sont également dispensées, avec l'aide d'opérateurs vétérinaires privés, pour aider les petits éleveurs de bovins à améliorer la gestion de leur cheptel et développer l'élevage de vaches laitières.  Cet Acte tente d'uniformiser les législations coopératives nationales des États membres, en se substituant aux règles nationales et statutaires contraires. Il existe désormais deux niveaux juridiques : le niveau communautaire -l'Acte uniforme de l'OHADA -et le niveau local ou privé, des statuts des coopératives. Ce texte innove en donnant le choix aux coopératives entre deux formes juridiques : la société coopérative simplifiée (SCOOPS) et la société coopérative avec conseil d'administration (SCOOP-CA). De plus, l'Acte uniforme est, en quelque sorte, une loi cadre qui laisse beaucoup de liberté aux opérateurs privés pour fixer leurs propres règles de fonctionnement.La première amélioration significative concerne la simplification des procédures de reconnaissance juridique des coopératives. L'Acte uniforme supprime les procédures souvent fastidieuses d'obtention d'un agrément et les remplace par une démarche d'immatriculation plus souple, ce qui favorise l'attrait de la forme juridique coopérative.Il prévoit aussi des mesures concrètes pour favoriser un fonctionnement démocratique des coopératives, à la fois par un désengagement de l'État dans leur gestion et leur suivi et, d'autre part, par des principes internes de gouvernance qui sont renforcés.Elle impose, par exemple, des limites dans le cumul des mandats des administrateurs.Un autre apport important concerne des règles nouvelles pour favoriser une plus grande transparence financière pour asseoir la crédibilité et la solvabilité des coopératives. Par exemple, les administrateurs doivent constituer deux réserves financières obligatoires, l'une pour le fonctionnement de la coopérative, l'autre pour la formation. L'audit comptable des états financiers devrait être aussi renforcé.Enfin, l'Acte uniforme accorde une place importance à l'inter-coopération. Ainsi, la législation permet aux coopératives et à leurs faîtières de se réunir en réseaux sur la base du principe de subsidiarité.Un peu plus d'un an après l'obligation de la mise en conformité des statuts des coopératives africaines au 9 e Acte uniforme (NDLR 16 mai 2013), où en sommes-nous ?L'ambition louable de l'Acte uniforme semble montrer ses limites dans la mesure où, après la période transitoire de deux années accordées aux États membres et aux coopératives pour se conformer à la nouvelle législation, celle-ci est peu appliquée voire inexistante et méconnue. Si certains États (Togo et Gabon) immatriculent à ce jour des coopératives en suivant la nouvelle législation OHADA, en revanche, la majorité des pays ont un retard certain, à commencer par des approximations pour désigner le ministère en charge de la tenue du registre des immatriculations des coopératives. La formation nécessaire des agents de l'État sur la nouvelle législation tarde aussi à se mettre en place. Anne Guillaume-GentilLes coopératives à l'heure de l'OHADA Fabrice Larue est chef de projet \"Financement et filières agricoles\" à la Fondation FARM.Les coopératives agricoles ont aujourd'hui avec l'Acte uniforme sur les sociétés coopératives de l'OHADA des marges de manoeuvres importantes pour délimiter leur fonctionnement et leur mode de gouvernance.Plus de 50 % de la population active féminine des régions en développement travaille dans le secteur agricole, mais les disparités entre hommes et femmes perdurent. Intégrer la notion de genre dans les politiques est essentiel pour produire plus et mieux tout en autonomisant les femmes. n Éthiopie, Aster Wotango, présidente du Groupe de femmes d'Aheba, a appris à épargner et a pu s'acheter, en empruntant, quatre poules qui lui permettent de vendre ses oeufs et générer un revenu. Cette culture de l'épargne a été introduite par Farm Africa en établissant des Associations villageoises d'épargne et de crédit (Village Savings and Lending Associations -VSLAs) dans les zones rurales reculées du pays. Quelque 100 000 euros ont été épargnés et plus de 13 000 femmes sont maintenant en mesure d'accéder au crédit pour la première fois. Les autres membres du Groupe des femmes Aheba ont emprunté de l'argent pour créer de petites entreprises similaires dans la production de farine de maïs, d'épices, de café, de mangues ou de bières locales.En communicant avec des acheteurs potentiels et en obtenant des informations sur le marché via le téléphone mobile, les femmes du village de Peko-Misegese en Tanzanie ont quant à elles obtenu un prix de vente plus juste des produits issus de leurs récoltes. Mais elles sont allées encore plus loin en créant un marché qui se déroule deux fois par semaine et en construisant des entrepôts.Plus à l'Est, au Rwanda, Jeannette Maniraho, a rejoint le programme One Acre Fund et bénéficié d'un prêt sous forme d'engrais. Des engrais qui étaient jusqu'à aujourd'hui difficiles d'accès, le magasin se situant à cinq heures de marche. Les engrais ont été livrés à temps et dès la première année, elle a amélioré sa récolte de riz jusqu'à dégager un surplus après avoir nourri sa famille. Au Burundi et au Rwanda, One Acre Fund a délivré des semences et engrais à plus de 100 000 agriculteurs.Enfin, depuis la création de son entreprise en 1996, South Sea Orchids, Aileen Burness s'est attachée à soutenir les femmes des villages aux Fijdi pour qu'elles vivent de l'horticulture. Quelque 270 femmes ont ainsi été épaulées pour devenir floricultrices et accéder au financement pour démarrer leur activité. Aujourd'hui, Aileen Burness a pris son bâton de pèlerin pour former les femmes des autres îles du Pacifique.Ces quelques exemples sont autant de façons de montrer comment les femmes parviennent à accéder aux ressources productives, comment elles peuvent exprimer leurs besoins et se faire entendre et comment, en fin de compte, on peut parvenir à une plus grande égalité entre hommes et femmes. Réduire les inégalités entre les deux sexes est un défi qui se pose dans la plupart des sociétés, développées ou non, et sur de nombreux plans : le travail, les salaires, la représentation démocratique, l'éducation, etc. Dans l'agriculture, la question est d'autant plus pertinente qu'elle a été jusqu'à récemment occultée, que les femmes y ont un rôle important et que les inégalités dans l'accès aux ressources, aux marchés et aux services y sont criantes.En moyenne, en 2010, 42 % de la population active féminine travaillait dans l'agriculture au niveau mondial et près de 53 % dans les régions en développement. Mais il existe de fortes disparités entre les régions (9,2 % en Afrique australe, 70 % en Afrique centrale, 80 % en Afrique de l'Est, 7,3 % en Amérique latine, 67 % en Océanie) mais aussi entre les pays (50 % au Ghana et 93 % au Burkina Faso ; 80 % aux Iles Salomon et 24 % aux Fidji). En outre, cette part des femmes dans la main d'oeuvre agricole augmente dans certains pays en raison des conflits, du VIH/SIDA ou encore des migrations.Très présentes dans le secteur agricole, les femmes produisent souvent la majorité de la nourriture nécessaire à leur foyer, surtout en Afrique (jusqu'à 90 % selon la Banque africaine de développement), mais avec des rendements inférieurs à ceux des hommes. La FAO, dans son rapport 2010-11 sur la Situation mondiale de l'alimentation et de l'agriculture consacré au rôle des femmes dans l'agriculture, estime que la différence de rendement est de l'ordre de 20 à 30 %. Ces résultats sont à nuancer en fonction des pays, des cultures, de l'âge et du groupe ethnique. Ainsi au Nigeria, selon la FAO, dans l'État de l'Oya, la productivité des hommes et des femmes est identique pour la culture du maïs, de l'igname, du manioc, des légumes et des légumineuses ; en revanche dans l'État d'Osun, le rendement des rizicultrices est inférieur de 66 % à celui des riziculteurs.Une différence de rendement qui s'explique principalement par un moindre accès aux ressources productives. Elles disposent de moins de main-d'oeuvre, que ce soit auprès de leur famille et communauté immédiate, ou de maind'oeuvre extérieure. Elles utilisent moins d'intrants comme les engrais, ont moins recours aux technologies et aux innovations comme les semences améliorées, et accèdent moins au crédit ; la terre reste souvent la propriété des hommes. Si en matière d'éducation, des progrès sensibles ont été enregistrés, en particulier pour la scolarisation des filles dans le primaire, des disparités subsistent et entravent les agricultrices. En outre, les femmes disposent de moins de temps pour les activités agricoles, étant en charge de la collecte du bois, de l'eau, s'occupant des enfants et du foyer. Et souvent la faiblesse des infrastructures, en particulier de transport, limite leur accès aux marchés.Si ces inégalités étaient supprimées, la production agricole progresserait de 2,5 à 4 %, ce qui permettrait de réduire de 100 à 150 millions le nombre de personnes\"Les femmes ont besoin d'empowerment ce qui revient à leur donner le pouvoir de négocier, de demander et de faire\", affirme Tarikua Woldetsadick. Ce terme anglo-saxon, qui peut s'apparenter à autonomisation, responsabilisation ou encore émancipation, l'Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), en collaboration avec l'IFPRI et l'USAID, a cherché à le mesurer à travers la création de l'indice Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI). Cet indice composite vise à mesurer le rôle et l'engagement des femmes dans le secteur agricole. Il prend en compte cinq domaines : les décisions sur la production agricole, l'accès aux ressources productives, le contrôle dans l'utilisation des revenus, le leadership dans la communauté et la répartition de la charge de travail. Il mesure également l'autonomisation des femmes par rapport aux hommes au sein de leur ménage. Des projets pilotes ont été menés au Bangladesh, au Guatemala et en Ouganda. Créé au départ pour suivre et évaluer l'impact de l'Initiative américaine, \"Feed the Future\" sur l'autonomisation des femmes, l'indicateur peut être un outil pour mieux connaître et identifier les facteurs sur lesquels il faut agir pour lever les obstacles et les contraintes pesant sur les femmes. Décembre 2014-Janvier 2015 | Spore 173 | souffrant de la faim. Mais au-delà de la productivité et de la hausse de production, \"Si les femmes avaient davantage accès aux ressources dont elles ont besoinintrants, foncier, crédit, etc. -il y aurait un accroissement du Produit national brut (PNB) de chaque pays de 4 %. Pourquoi cet accroissement ? Les études ont montré que les femmes investissent dans leur communauté, ce qui créé une chaîne de rendement. Il ne s'agit pas seulement de rendement agricole immédiat de la terre cultivée mais d'investissement dans la nutrition, la santé, de meilleures conditions de vie, l'éducation… et tout cela dynamise l'économie\", souligne Tarikua Woldetsadick, en charge de la Stratégie Genre au CTA. Dans le domaine des TIC, instrument déterminant pour relier les paysans au marché, les projets doivent également être adaptés aux réalités des femmes. Le programme des petites subventions pour le Genre, l'agriculture et le développement rural dans la société de l'information (GenARDIS) du CTA, s'y attelle depuis une dizaine d'année. Parmi les recommandations émises figurent l'amélioration des infrastructures rurales en privilégiant les installations communes d'accès public, le développement de l'accès communautaire comme les télécentres, ainsi que la traduction des contenus en langues locales.Plus généralement, utiliser la radio et la vidéo pour informer les femmes est un bon moyen de les toucher car elles ne s'éloignent que rarement du village ; tenir compte de leur emploi du temps, occupé par de multiples tâches, pour fixer les horaires d'intervention des services de vulgarisation ; utiliser des schémas pour la formation ; mettre à disposition des petites quantités d'engrais ou de semences, plus accessibles financièrement ; veiller à ce que l'introduction d'une technologie industrielle ne fasse pas perdre de revenus aux femmes … sont autant de mesures qui permettent de traiter des aspects genre et de répondre aux besoins des femmes. Par exemple, c'est par le théâtre communautaire que les capacités des femmes agricultrices au Malawi et au Mozambique ont été renforcées afin qu'elles identifient leurs propres besoins, formulent des solutions et les transmettent aux décideurs politiques. Ce projet pilote, Women Accessing Realigned Markets (WARM), mené par le Réseau d'analyse de politiques relatives à l'alimentation, l'agriculture et les ressources naturelles (FANRPAN), permet aux femmes d'influer sur les politiques en se servant du théâtre, très ancré dans la tradition africaine, comme outil de plaidoyer pour apporter des réponses à leurs besoins et contraintes.Les politiques agricoles et des bailleurs de fonds accordent encore peu d'importance au genre. Selon plusieurs études, seulement 10 % de l'aide publique au développement (APD) dans l'agriculture, prend l'égalité des sexes en considération. En outre, estiment Action Aid et Peuples Solidaires, les politiques des bailleurs et des institutions n'évoquent les femmes qu'en tant que responsables de la sécurité alimentaire, de la nutrition et de la santé des enfants. Or, elles sont aussi des agricultrices ! Le regain d'intérêt pour l'agriculture, mais aussi une reconnaissance plus grande de l'importance de la nutrition et de la qualité des aliments, ainsi qu'une meilleure connaissance du rôle et des contraintes des femmes dans ce secteur constituent autant d'opportunités pour introduire une approche genre dans les politiques. Il s'agit de replacer les femmes dans leur famille, leur foyer et leur communauté car les inégalités relèvent essentiellement de la sphère sociale.Anne Guillaume-Gentil DOSSIER relevant de la commune rurale de Cassou. Des villages où les hommes ont accepté librement de céder définitivement des terres aux femmes. Une cession qui s'est faite en deux temps : d'abord obtenir l'accord de principe des hommes pour qu'ils s'engagent dans le processus de sécurisation de leurs possessions puis la cession de leurs terres.La cession des terres aux femmes a-t-elle changé leur quotidien ? \"Elles sont maintenant plus à l'aise dans leurs activités de production agricole. Elles produisent sans complexe et se sentent encore plus responsables. L'accroissement de la production rime aussi avec rentabilité économique et c'est la famille qui en profite\", observe Pama Bénao, agent domanial et chef du service foncier rural à Cassou. \"Nos activités nous ont permis d'assurer la scolarité de nos enfants. Certaines ont pu acquérir des motocycles et vélos\", témoigne Mariam Zallé.Posséder son propre lopin de terre autonomise et responsabilise davantage les femmes. \"Les femmes deviennent plus autonomes et participent à certaines charges familiales. J'ai mes propres récoltes et j'arrive à aider mon époux dans les dépenses de santé et d'éducation\", affirme Salamata Nignan, qui est maintenant propriétaire de trois hectares sur lesquels elle cultive de l'arachide et du riz. En outre, l'accès à la terre ouvre d'autres opportunités, comme l'accès au crédit pour des activités génératrices de revenus.Cependant, \"tout en mettant en valeur les terres acquises, les femmes doivent également préserver la cohésion de leur famille et veiller à maintenir de bons rapports avec leurs époux\", soutient Pama Bénao.La première étape du projet GRAF a consisté à créer des structures locales : la Commission foncière villageoise (CVF), chargée de la gestion des terres rurales à l'échelle du village, la Commission de conciliation foncière villageoise (CCFV), responsable du règlement des conflits liés à la terre au niveau local et le Service foncier rural de la commune (SFR), qui établit les titres fonciers.Aujourd'hui à Panassian et Nessian, une centaine de femmes sont devenues propriétaires de terres. Toutefois, le processus a rencontré des écueils. \"Faire des femmes des propriétaires fonciers en milieu rural au même titre que les hommes, ce n'était pas du tout évident. Je peux même dire que personne n'y croyait au début\", confie Pierre Aimé Ouédraogo, secrétaire exécutif du GRAF. \"Des réticences des époux, liées aux traditions, sont apparues. Mais aujourd'hui, des barrières ont pu être levées et de nombreuses femmes ont des attestations de possession foncière\", indique Pama Benao.La démarche du GRAF s'est basée sur la sensibilisation et l'information. Deux femmes, Rose Marie Sanwidi, ingénieure agronome, et Fatoumata Tall, juriste, ont conduit un dialogue entre les \"possesseurs\" fonciers et les femmes des deux villages.Pour alléger le processus, le GRAF a accepté de prendre en charge les frais d'établissement d'attestation de possession foncière pour tous les propriétaires fonciers qui consentaient à donner ou à prêter des terres aux femmes, selon Pierre Aimé Ouédraogo. Pour une attestation d'environ un hectare, il faut débourser 5 000 FCFA (7,60 €) pour délimiter le terrain, 300 FCFA pour l'espace sollicité, 1 000 FCFA pour l'inscription, 2 000 FCFA de frais de timbre. \"Nous avons pu identifier 70 possesseurs fonciers coutumiers. Cent soixante-quatre femmes ont été bénéficiaires de terres suite aux négociations, 64 à Panassin et 100 à Niessan\", explique Dramane Diasso, premier adjoint au maire de Cassou.À l'évidence, le GRAF a réussi son pari de \"se servir de la loi sur le foncier rural, pour assurer aux femmes, un accès sécurisé à la terre, dans la commune rurale de Cassou\". Mais, la seule attestation foncière ne suffit pas. Pour le GRAF, les femmes doivent ensuite être soutenues pour aménager les terres afin de les rendre plus rentables. \"Le changement dans la vie des femmes est assurément à ce prix\", estime Dramane Diasso. un appui durable aux communautés \"Nous aidons les communautés et leurs responsables à prendre conscience du fait que leurs terres boisées ont un potentiel commercial et peuvent constituer une source de revenus. Ce faisant, nous les encourageons à protéger les arbres et à cesser de brûler et défricher les forêts\", indique Chris Dohse de TreeCrops Malawi, un membre de PhytoTrade. Créée en 2003, Treecrops, a formé plus de 800 producteurs à la cueillette durable des fruits du baobab, à leur manipulation et à leur entreposage, ainsi qu'à la planification de l'utilisation des terres. Les communautés, qui voient un marché garanti pour leurs baobabs et la possibilité de gagner entre 20 et 400 € par producteur selon le volume récolté, ont une bonne raison financière de protéger leurs forêts. Un pourcentage des ventes de TreeCrops est aussi versé aux communautés pour participer au financement de projets tels que des écoles, des cliniques ou la régénération des forêts.Contrairement à d'autres fruits, le baobab est naturellement sec. Pour obtenir 5 tonnes de poudre de baobab (pulpe), il faut 50 tonnes de fruits et les producteurs sont payés au poids. Il est possible de former les producteurs à extraire soigneusement la pulpe et les graines pour leur transport jusqu'au site de transformation, mais la séparation de la pulpe et des graines exige un matériel perfectionné. Il est aussi essentiel d'éviter toute contamination pendant la transformation pour que la poudre produite soit conforme aux normes internationales d'exportation.\"Le baobab offre un moyen d'aider les communautés marginalisées. Celles-ci devraient pouvoir tirer profit de cette ressource, qui leur appartient\", affirme Henry Johnson de PhytoTrade. L'augmentation des attentes des consommateurs en matière de traçabilité des produits se traduit par le développement de chaînes d'approvisionnement éthiques telles que PhytoTrade, qui favorisent la commercialisation de produits de grande qualité et respectueux des principes éthiques pour l'exportation. L'expansion du marché et le fait que les consommateurs connaissent de mieux en mieux le baobab facilitent aussi la création d'un marché de niche pour les produits de marque.\"Il y a quelques années, le baobab était relativement inconnu et la poudre ne pouvait se trouver que dans quelques magasins d'alimentation naturelle spécialisés\", continue Henry Johnson, \"mais elle apparaît de plus en plus dans la composition de produits courants\". Waitrose, une chaîne de supermarchés anglaise, propose maintenant un jus contenant de l'extrait de baobab et le projet Eden commercialise un éventail de produits à base de baobab.\"Depuis son homologation, la pulpe de fruit de baobab attire de plus en plus de consommateurs en Europe. Un marché de niche qui offre des possibilités attrayantes pour les agriculteurs des zones arides en Afrique.Plus de 800 producteurs, dont des femmes, ont été formés à la cueillette durable des fruits du baobab au Malawi.Mieux lutter contre les prédateurs du coton en mettant en pratique la stratégie \"Produire plus avec moins\" dans le cadre des Champs école des producteurs (CEP), telle est l'ambition de ce guide. Destiné aux facilitateurs animant la formation participative en gestion intégrée de la production et des déprédateurs du coton en Afrique de l'Ouest, le guide synthétise et capitalise les expériences de terrains menées dans plusieurs pays de la zone (Bénin, Burkina Faso, Guinée, Mali, Mauritanie, Niger et Sénégal).Guide du facilitateur pour les Champs écoles des producteurs FAO, 2014, 79 p. téléchargeable sur : http://tinyurl.com/obd6tcrQuestionnement sur les méga-partenariats public-privé OXFAM se penche sur les partenariats à grande échelle entre les bailleurs de fonds et les investisseurs privés dans l'agriculture en Afrique. Les exemples les plus représentatifs sont la Nouvelle alliance pour la sécurité alimentaire et la nutrition du G8 et les programmes de couloirs ou pôles de croissance dans de nombreux pays africains. Sans remettre en cause leur légitimité, l'ONG estime qu'ils ne répondent pas aux besoins des plus pauvres et pose la question de savoir si de tels projets doivent être un axe prioritaire de l'aide au développement.Les méga-partenariats public-privé dans l'agriculture africaine OXFAm, septembre 2014, 45 p. Ce rapport examine les six mécanismes de financement novateurs tels que définis par la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB). Il s'agit de la réforme fiscale environnementale, des paiements pour services écosystémiques, de la compensation des atteintes à la biodiversité, des marchés des produits verts, de la biodiversité dans le financement climatique, ainsi que de la biodiversité dans le financement international du développement.   Après avoir décrit l'impressionnant développement de l'huile de palme bon marché en Asie et ses conséquences, GRAIN se penche sur l'Afrique où un autre modèle a longtemps prévalu : une production et transformation à petite échelle entre les mains de millions de paysans. Mais depuis une quinzaine d'années, plus de 60 contrats avec des sociétés étrangères ont été signés en Afrique de l'Ouest et centrale pour la création de palmeraies sur près de 4 millions d'hectares.Les paysans paient le prix fort pour l'huile végétale bon marché GrAiN, septembre 2014, 97 p. téléchargeable sur : http://tinyurl.com/ovnyjea ■ \"La faim n'est ni une malédiction, ni un accident. Elle est bien une construction humaine : on peut mourir de faim dans un pays qui regorge de nourriture et qui en exporte à la terre entière\", affirme Bruno Parmentier. Si la faim est d'abord politique, son éradication l'est aussi, ce qui ouvre le champ des possibilités pour y mettre un terme. Seulement 10 milliards de dollars US de dépenses annuelles suffiraient pour sortir de la sous-alimentation, la malnutrition et l'obésité. Mais encore faut-il qu'ils soient utilisés à bon escient. Après avoir dressé un état des lieux précis de la faim dans le monde, Bruno Parmentier explore les différentes voies possibles en mettant en perspective les défis auxquels la planète Terre est confrontée. Parmi ces défis se trouvent la surpopulation, le réchauffement climatique, la fin de la révolution verte, la mondialisation, la raréfaction des ressources, etc. Pour y répondre, l'auteur préconise de s'appuyer sur l'agriculture écologiquement intensive qui permet de produire tout en préservant les ressources et qui est compatible avec les petites exploitations familiales des pays du Sud. Il incite aussi à multiplier les programmes d'allocations familiales en prenant exemple sur la bolsa familia du programme brésilien \"Faim zéro\" et à avoir une approche globale avec une collaboration renforcée entre tous les acteurs concernés, les entreprises, la société civile, les ONG, les institutions internationales, les fondations.Résolument optimiste, l'auteur conclut que le \"défi Faim zéro\" des Nations unies est vraiment à notre portée.  vous n'êtes pas dans un des cas mentionnés ci-dessus : vous pouvez, soit acheter les ouvrages auprès des éditeurs ou en librairie, soit les télécharger sur http://publications.cta.int si elles sont en accès libre. Plus de la moitié de nos titres sont téléchargeables gratuitement ! Les titres précédés du symbole sont disponibles à l'achat chez les éditeurs mentionnés ou en librairie.Comment mesurer les impacts des politiques, program∂mes et projets de développement ? C'est une préoccupation des grandes organisations internationales pour mesurer les objectifs de tout projet et, in fine, pour améliorer son efficacité et sa pertinence. L'AFD se penche dans ce numéro sur la recherche de bons indicateurs dans le cadre des actions de gestion durable des terres, de restauration et de réhabilitation des milieux dégradés, de prévention de la dégradation des terres, de lutte contre la désertification. intègre la question environnementale dans la lutte contre la pauvreté, a-t-elle amélioré le bien-être des populations rurales ?\", telle est la question posée par l'ouvrage. Pour y répondre, les auteurs se sont penchés sur les dynamiques des systèmes agraires et du monde rural dans le corridor forestier en pays betsileo de la région Haute Matsiatra et en pays tanàla de la région Vatovavy Fitovinani. Ces deux régions font partie des six régions de Madagascar, sur 22 au total, les plus touchées par l'extrême pauvreté et la malnutrition. Ce qui n'était encore qu'une bande forestière marginale va se muer en corridor forestier avec la mise en oeuvre de mesures environnementales prises dans le cadre d'une politique de conservation de la biodiversité. Un changement qui nie les savoirs locaux, occulte les légitimités locales d'accès aux ressources de la forêt, génère des inégalités sociales et bouleverse la trame des usages et activités.Deuxième secteur économique des Seychelles après le tourisme, la pêche génère 370 millions de dollars US de recettes chaque année. Et pourtant, à l'indépendance du pays, en 1976, la pêche thonière n'existait pas. L'ouvrage conte pas à pas cette formidable expansion avec les premiers plans du gouvernement, la recherche, le développement des infrastructures, la mise en place de la flottille palangrière semi-industrielle, les négociations avec les armateurs, sans omettre les écueils et difficultés. Aujourd'hui la pêche est une affaire rentable qui s'accompagne d'une gestion raisonnée des stocks et de la préservation des écosystèmes pélagiques.  ","tokenCount":"8836"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"293f1946ac5a682c256bdf7532a56728","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/030a9a39-9423-458b-ab5e-421bcc359314/content","id":"-1678640337"},"keywords":["Adoption","Good agronomic practices","Improved varieties","Multinomial endogenous switching regression","Sorghum","Sustainable intensification"],"sieverID":"f7dbe12b-f035-4aa1-912e-4b7fe362b674","pagecount":"17","content":"The empirical literature on plot-level adoption of sustainable intensification technologies (SITs), as a package comprising improved crop varieties and good agronomic management practices is thin for dryland crops, such as sorghum. In this paper, we analyze the adoption and impacts of SITs on sorghum yield and net revenue using data from a sample of 1680 households and 3310 plots in the sorghum belt of Nigeria. Our estimates are based on a multinomial endogenous switching regression, which accounts for observable and unobservable sources of selection bias. We find a relatively low joint adoption of both improved sorghum varieties and good agronomic practices. In addition, we find that the adoption of only improved sorghum varieties and the joint adoption of both improved sorghum varieties and good agronomic practices led to a 56 and 102% increase in sorghum yield, respectively, and an 88 and 82% increase in net revenue, respectively. The yield and net revenue effects indicate that there are considerable missing opportunities that sorghum-producing households can harness through the adoption of SITs. Our findings reveal that policies tailored towards promoting the widespread adoption of SITs can lead to considerable productivity gains and economic returns for smallholder sorghum farmers towards improving their welfare.Agricultural productivity growth is widely considered an important pathway for addressing rural poverty and food insecurity as well as stimulating structural transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Gollin et al., 2021;Ligon & Sadoulet, 2018;Otsuka & Muraoka, 2017). Yet, crop yields are on average low in SSA, including Nigeria, and lag far behind yields in other parts of the world (Suri & Udry, 2022). For instance, while sorghum is often touted as an important multipurpose cropfor food, cash and fodder in Nigeria, yields on farmers' fields are often less than 1 ton per hectare despite the potential of 3.5 tons per hectare (Ajeigbe et al., 2018). Such low sorghum yields have been reported in other parts of SSA (Musara & Musemwa, 2020;Smale et al., 2018;Traore et al., 2017). The low yields are due to biotic and abiotic constraints, including erratic rainfalls, drought, poor soil fertility, pest and diseases, and poor agronomic management practices, among others (Ajeigbe et al., 2019;Mengistu et al., 2019;Mrema et al., 2017;Sebnie et al., 2020).Given the rising population pressure and the limited opportunities for agricultural growth through cropland expansion in SSA, there is a growing interest in expanding food production through agricultural intensification (Binswanger-Mkhize & Savastano, 2017;Droppelmann et al., 2017;Jayne et al., 2019). Although intensification, i.e. increasing crop yields on currently cultivated cropland is highly desirable, it has to be done sustainably by reducing its negative environmental impacts, which was a pitfall of the Asian Green Revolution (Burke et al., 2022;Jayne et al., 2019;Pingali, 2012;Pretty & Bharucha, 2014;Rockström et al., 2017). Thus, beyond the widespread adoption of intensification technologies such as high-yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers, as in the Green Revolution era, the adoption of complementary agronomic management practices can contribute to the sustainable intensification of cropping systems (Kotu et al., 2017;Jayne et al., 2019;Vanlauwe & Dobermann, 2020).To boost the productivity of sorghum, the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in collaboration with National Agricultural Research Systems and other partners, have developed sustainable intensification technologies (SITs) tailored to sorghum in West and Central Africa (Ajeigbe et al., 2019;Kante et al., 2019;Ndjeunga et al., 2015;Weltzien et al., 2018). The SITs include improved sorghum varieties (ISVs) with multi-stress tolerant traits and good agronomic practices (GAPs), such as tailored fertilizer use, planting density and planting time, etc. Several donor-funded projects and government-led interventions in northern Nigeria have helped in disseminating the ISVs and complementary GAPs required to maximize their varietal genetic potentials. Despite the notable development and dissemination efforts, there is limited evidence on the adoption and impacts of adopting the SITs.Most previous studies that have documented the productivity and welfare impacts of agricultural technology adoption in different parts of SSA mainly focus on traditional crops, such as maize, cowpea, cassava, groundnut, and rice. In addition, most of the previous studies often focus on single agricultural technology adoption, largely on the adoption of improved crop varieties, despite the motivation for sustainable agricultural intensification technologies, as discussed in emerging empirical studies (e.g. Kotu et al., 2017;Marenya et al., 2020;Mellon Bedi et al., 2022). Single agricultural technology adoption, especially on crop varietal improvement has been documented for maize (e.g. Abdoulaye et al., 2018;Oyinbo et al., 2019), for cowpea (e.g. Alene & Manyong, 2006;Manda et al., 2020) for cassava (e.g. Awotide et al., 2015;Wossen et al., 2019), for groundnut (e.g. Jelliffe et al., 2018;Kassie et al., 2010), and for rice (e.g. Arouna et al., 2017;Bello et al., 2020). Despite the considerable varietal improvement and agronomic management research for sorghum in SSA, empirical studies have only focused on the adoption and impacts of adopting ISVsthe few studies to our knowledge include Musara and Musemwa (2020) in Zimbabwe and Smale et al. (2018) in Mali. Thus, it remains unclear whether, and to what extent the joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs delivers productivity and welfare gains to sorghum-producing households.In this paper, we analyze the adoption and ex-post impacts of the adoption of SITs in Nigeria. Specifically, we focus on the plot-level impacts of SITs adoption on productivity and net revenue of smallholder sorghum-producing households. We contribute to the literature in four ways. First, our paper contributes to the emerging literature on sustainable intensification of smallholder cropping systems in SSA by providing evidence on the adoption and drivers of SITs adoption for sorghum. In this sense, we build on the empirical studies that largely focused on SITs for maize in SSA (e.g. Kotu et al., 2017;Marenya et al., 2020;Mellon Bedi et al., 2022). Secondly, we provide rigorous evidence on the impacts of adopting SITs concerning an important multipurpose crop that has received limited attention in the extant literature on the impacts of agricultural technologies. In this way, we make the first attempt to document the productivity and net revenue impacts of SITs for sorghum and build on the few studies that only focused on ISVs in SSA (Musara & Musemwa, 2020;Smale et al., 2018). Relatedly, we contribute to the emerging empirical literature that addresses the impacts of agricultural technologies using the framework of multiple technology adoption decisions (e.g. Kassie & Muricho, 2018;Khonje et al., 2018;Marenya et al., 2020).Thirdly, unlike the previous studies on the impacts of sorghum technologies in SSA and other studies on technology adoption and impacts that relied on a relatively small sample (e.g. Amadu et al., 2020;Bello et al., 2020;Oyinbo et al., 2019), our paper relies on a nationally representative household survey data from a sample of 1680 sorghum-producing households and 3310 plots in the sorghum belt of Nigeria. From the perspective of external validity, this improves the generalization of our findings across the entire sorghum belt of Nigeria. Lastly, we control for potential selection bias arising from observable and unobservable heterogeneity using the multinomial endogenous switching regression model as our treatment effect estimation strategy. In addition, we perform a robustness check using augmented inverse probability weighting. From a methodological point of view, this is an improvement over empirical studies on the impacts of technology adoption that do not account for possible selection bias from unobservable characteristics (e.g. Kassie et al., 2010;Khonje et al., 2018;Manda et al., 2018).The collaborative efforts of ICRISAT and other international and national partners have resulted in the development and dissemination of ISVs and associated agronomic management practices in West and Central Africa (Kante et al., 2019;Weltzien et al., 2018;Ndjeunga et al., 2015). In Nigeria, ISVs have been developed for different agro-ecological zones over the years and the varieties possess different agronomic traits. A lot of the varieties have a highyielding trait, with grain yield potentials of 2.5 to 3.5 t/ha, varieties, such as Samsorg 45, Samsorg 46, Samsorg 47, Samsorg 48, CSR-01, CSR-02, CSR-03 H, CSR-04 H, among others. Some of the traits of other ISVs include extra-early, early and medium maturity, high content of Fe and Zn, high stover, Striga tolerance and good malting qualities. Several donorfunded projects in Nigeria have directly and indirectly contributed to promoting these ISVs and associated agronomic management practices (fertilizer use, row spacing and planting date) through field days, demonstration trials, seed multiplication, extension services, capacity building of stakeholders, and strategic partnerships with seed companies and community-based organizations, etc. These include the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement of sorghum and pearl millet (HOPE 1 and HOPE 2) projects (2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020) and the West Africa Agricultural Productivity Project (WAAPP) (2013)(2014)(2015), among others. The former also contributed to the development of some varieties, such as Samsorg 45, Samsorg 46, Samsorg 47, Samsorg 48 and Samsorg 49. A few ongoing projects include the Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) project and the Accelerated Varietal Improvement and Seed Delivery of Legumes and Cereals in Africa (AVISA) project. The Federal Government of Nigeria through the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) promoted the use of ISVs and GAPs in its bid to improve sorghum productivity and develop the sorghum value chain. Building on the ATA programme, the Agricultural Transformation Agenda Support Program-Phase 1 (ATASP-1) (2015-2021) promoted the use of ISVs with associated GAPs, and youth and women capacity building to improve the development of the sorghum value chain.We conducted the study in nine States of Nigeria, including Jigawa, Sokoto, Kano, Kebbi, Katsina, Niger, Adamawa, Bauchi, and Gombe States (Figure 1). These States were selected because they have the highest level of sorghum production in Nigeria and are substantially representative of the sorghum belt (Ajeigbe et al., 2019). These states lie within the southern Guinea Savanna, northern Guinea Savanna, Sudan Savanna and Sahel savanna agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The study is based on data from a comprehensive farm-household survey of sorghumproducing households in the sorghum belt of Nigeria.We used a three-stage sampling design to select the sorghum-producing households for the study. In the first stage, we applied a probability proportional to size sampling to select 4 Local Government Areas (LGAs) each in 5 States (Kano, Katsina, Niger, Bauchi and Adamawa) and 2 each in 4 states (Sokoto, Kebbi, Jigawa and Gombe) giving a total of 28LGAs. 1 In the second stage, we obtained the list of communities from the relevant authorities in the 28 selected LGAs and 5 communities were randomly selected in each of the selected LGA using a random number generator to give a total of 140 sampled communities. In the third stage, we developed a sampling frame of sorghum-producing households in each of the selected communities through the use of a census, and randomly selected 12 sorghum-growing households in each community giving a total of 1680 households. The survey instrument was a structured questionnaire, which had modules on household demographic composition, physical capital, financial capital, social capital, technology adoption, input use and crop production, crop marketing, household expenditures and food security. The survey was implemented through computer-assisted personal interviewing software 'Open Data Kit (ODK)' and tablets to improve the efficiency of the data collection. A team of trained enumerators administered the survey with data collection quality control by highly experienced supervisors. The survey was conducted between October to December 2019. During the survey, we collected data on plot, household, institutional, and location variables. For ethical consideration, we included an informed consent form to the introductory note for farmers on the purpose of the survey and the survey team used it to obtain verbal consent of each farmer's willingness to participate in the survey. In addition, the data were analyzed anonymously. The approval for this research was obtained from ICRISAT. The variables are described in detail in Table 1.Estimating the causal effects of the adoption of SITs is empirically challenging because of potential selection bias. For example, sorghum farmers' adoption may be endogenous due to non-random selfselection into the group of adopters or non-adopters, which originates from observable and unobservable heterogeneity. In particular, unobservable characteristics (e.g. management experience, innate intelligence and propensity to innovate, etc.) of the sorghum-producing households may affect both the decision to adopt ISVs and the outcomes of interest, resulting in endogeneity and inconsistent estimates (Woolridge, 2010). While propensity score matching has been widely applied in empirical impact evaluation studies to deal with the issue of selection bias, it does not address selection bias arising from unobservable characteristics (Shiferaw et al., 2014;Wossen et al., 2017). To properly account for potential selection bias and  endogeneity arising from both observable and unobservable factors, we rely on the multinomial endogenous switching regression (MESR) as our main econometric approach. The MESR employs a selection correction method by computing an inverse Mills ratio (IMR) using the theory of latent factor structure and a truncated normal distribution, to correct for selection bias (Shiferaw et al., 2014).The MESR framework is modelled in two stages. In the first stage, farmers' choice of alternative technologies is estimated using a multinomial logit (MNL) model. The IMRs are calculated from the estimated probabilities in the MNL model. In the second stage, impacts of each combination of SITs are evaluated using OLS with IMRs as additional covariates, to account for selection bias from unobserved heterogeneity.In our study context, we consider the adoption of SITs -ISVs and GAPs, which results in four possible technology adoption choices, as presented in Table 1. The first category represented by the notation ISV 0 GAP 0 denotes the non-adoption of ISVs and/or GAPs at the plot level during the 2018 cropping season. The second category represented by the notation ISV 1 GAP 0 denotes the adoption of only ISVs, given as plots that were cultivated with any of the following ISVs listed in Table A1 in the appendix during the 2018 cropping season. The third category represented by the notation ISV 0 GAP 1 denotes the adoption of only GAPs, given as plots that were cultivated with at least two practices out of the following GAPs: application of NPK fertilizer, appropriate planting density measured by 75 cm ridges plant spacing and planting 1 week after the onset of rainfall. Lastly, the fourth category with the notation ISV 1 GAP 1 denotes plots that were cultivated with an ISV and with at least two practices out of the GAPs.The first stage of our econometric estimation is the use of a multinomial logit to estimate the determinants of SITs adoption. Embedded within the conceptual framework is the assumption that farmers' decision to adopt SITs is modelled within a random utility framework. Following Manda et al. (2021) and Khonje et al. (2018), we consider the latent model as follows:U * ji denotes the indirect utility that is associated with the jth choice (j = 1, … ,4). There are four technology choices 2 , with the first j 1 = ISV 0 GAP 0 , representing our reference category which is non-adoption. X ji is the vector of observed exogenous variables comprising both plot and household characteristics while the error term 1 ji captures unobserved characteristics. B j is a vector of parameters associated with X ji . X ji is assumed to not correlate with the random unobserved stochastic component of 1 ji . Although the utility of SITs adoption (U * ji ) is not observable, we observe that the decision to adopt the combination of SITs will occur if its expected utility is relatively higher than other technology combinations.WhereIf the assumption that 1 ji is independent and identically Gumbel distributed is met under the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA) hypothesis, then equation ( 1) leads to the MNL.The probability that a farmer (i) will choose a technology (j) for the multinomial logit model is expressed as:Based on equation (3), consistent maximum likelihood estimates can be found.In the second stage, the MESR is employed to estimate the effect each technology choice (j) has on our outcome variables. The yield and net revenue regime can be expressed as:Regime 1:In the equation above, y ij represents the outcomessorghum yield and net revenue. Sorghum yield was measured as the crop output in kilogram per hectare (kg/ha), and net revenue was measured as the net crop value in Nigerian Naira per hectare (NGN/ha). The latter was calculated as the sorghum revenue per hectare minus the total variable costs of sorghum production per hectare, i.e. the costs of seeds, fertilizer, pesticides and hired labour. z ij represents a set of exogenous covariates, comprising plot, household, institutional, and location characteristics. The error term m ij are distributed such that the covariates do not correlate with the error term or E(m ij |x, z) = 0 with a constant variance var(m ij |x, z) = s 2 j . For the parameters b j to be consistently estimated, the MESR makes the following linearity assumption:The outcome variables are only observed if and only if one of the adoption combinations is used (Khonje et al., 2018;Manda et al., 2021). Some unobservable factors that influence the probability of adoption could also influence yield and net revenue, thus creating non-zero covariance between the error terms of the selection equation, 1 ji and the outcome equation, m ij . Therefore, the error terms in equation ( 4), conditional on the sample selection criterion, have nonzero expected values, and OLS estimates will not be consistent. Consistent estimation of b j requires the inclusion of the selection correction terms of the choices in equation 5. Following Manda et al. (2021), the selectivity term or inverse mills ratio (IMR), computed from equation 2 can be defined as:Where r is the correlation between 1 ji , and m ij . By constructing the correlation between the error terms in equations ( 3) and (4) at zero, equation ( 4) can be expressed as:Where s is the covariance between 1 ji , and m ij . While v ij is the error term with an expected value of zero. More robust identification of the MESR model requires the inclusion of at least one additional variable as an instrument in the selection model, even though the model can be identified by construction through non-linearities in the selection model (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Lokshin & Sajaia, 2004).For an instrumental variable to be relevant in our study setting, it must have a strong correlation with the decision to adopt SITs but have no direct effect on our outcomes of interest. While we acknowledge that the choice of a relevant and valid instrument can be empirically challenging, we carefully motivate the suitability of our instrument from theory and practical considerations. The instruments considered in this study are access to information on SITs, extension contact and distance to the nearest seed market. These are plausible instruments as we expect that farmers with access to information on SITs and better extension contact are more likely to be better informed about the technologies and may be more likely to adopt the technologies. This is consistent with the idea that relaxing information constraints about the availability, technical know-how and expected benefits of agricultural technologies can allow for better-informed decision-making (Conley & Udry, 2010;Magruder, 2018;Suri & Udry, 2022). In addition, we expect that farmers that are located closer to seed markets are more likely to have better physical access to SITs and may be more likely to adopt the technologies. On the other hand, better access to information on SITs, extension contact, and seed market are not likely to directly affect our outcomes of interest. Thus, any possible indirect effect of these instruments on our outcomes of interest will only arise through their effects on the decision to adopt SITs. In practice, these instruments have been used by previous studies in the impact evaluation literature (e.g. Abdoulaye et al., 2018;Di Falco et al., 2011;Olagunju et al., 2020;Shiferaw et al., 2014). Furthermore, we conducted a falsification test following Di Falco et al. (2011) to determine the validity of the instruments for our study context. The instruments are jointly significant in explaining the adoption of SITs (table 3) but not the yield and net revenue outcomes of the non-adopters (see appendix Tables A2 and A3). 3The MESR allows us to derive the expected actual and counterfactual outcomes (yield and net revenue). Following empirical studies (Manda et al., 2021;Marenya et al., 2020;Khonje et al., 2018), the expected yield and net revenue under the actual scenario for each technology combination are computed as follows:While the counterfactual choice for each outcome is computed asThe average treatment effect which measures the impact of the use of SITs on yield and net revenue is the difference in expected outcomes between equations 7a and 7b. Which is given as:This method suggests that unobserved factors have differential effects on adopters and non-adopters hence taking the differences in effects, i.e. s j − s 1 , while holding ĝij constant ensures that the effects of unobservables are cancelled out. To check for the robustness of MESR, we employ the augmented inverse probability weighting (AIPW). While the AIPW controls for only observable heterogeneity, it is still necessary as our primary impact estimates using MESR could be sensitive to the instrumental variable assumption (Shiferaw et al., 2014).The summary statistics of the explanatory variables (household, farm, institutional and location variables) of the sorghum-producing households by adoption are presented in Table 3 shows the plot-level adoption of SITs and the associated yield and net revenue of the four categories. Results show that about 59% of the plots were cultivated without any of the technologies (ISV 0-GAP 0 ), which indicates that a larger share of the sorghum plots was cultivated without an ISV and/or GAPs despite the investment in research and dissemination of sustainable intensification technologies. About 16% of the plots had only good agronomic practices (ISV 0 GAP 1 ), and 3% had only improved varieties (ISV 1 GAP 0 ) . The combined adoption of improved sorghum varieties and good agronomic practices (ISV 1 GAP 1 ) at the plot level was about 22%. The results indicate that the combined uptake of improved sorghum varieties and good agronomic practices is relatively low in the study area.With respect to the outcome variables, the adopters of both technologies (ISV 1 GAP 1 ) had a higher sorghum yield and net revenues than the other categories. While we find notable mean differences in the outcomes between the four categories, we do not draw causal inferences about the adoption of SITs because of the significant differences in observable characteristics between the various categories, which could lead to selection bias. We need to control for observed and unobserved heterogeneity between the various categories to allow us to establish the causal effects of the adoption of SITs (Woolridge, 2010).Table 4 shows the marginal effects of the determinants of SITs. The covariates that have a positive and significant influence on the probability of adopting only good agronomic practices (ISV 0 GAP 1 ) include years of spousal education, extension contact, awareness of SITs, wage rate and seed rate. Distance to seed dealer, household size, fertilizer costs and herbicide costs are negatively correlated with the probability of adopting GAPs.The factors that have a positive and significant influence on the probability of adopting only improved sorghum varieties (ISV 1 GAP 0 ) include years of spousal education, household size, sorghum price, extension contact and farm size. In addition, distance to seed dealer and labour wage rate have a negative influence on the adoption of only ISVs.The factors that are positively associated with the joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs (ISV 1 GAP 1 ) include household size, extension contact, years of spousal education, awareness of SITs, tropical livestock unit, the price of sorghum, soil fertility, and the location variables. Distance to a seed dealer and distance to an agricultural extension office is negatively correlated with the joint adoption decision.Education of spouse is positively and significantly correlated with the adoption of SITs, including individual and joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs. This finding is consistent with Mutenje et al. (2016) who reported that a spouse's education is one of the important factors that shape agricultural technology choices within households in Malawi. Even in conservative settings, such as Bangladesh, reported spousal education as a key determinant in the adoption of improved management practices.Household size is another significant determinant of SITs. It has a positive influence on the adoption of only ISVs and the combined adoption of ISVs and GAPs. This is consistent with the findings of previous technology adoption studies (Chandio & Yuansheng, 2018;Ruzzante et al., 2021). This result is logical because larger households can rely on family labour to overcome labour constraints that limit agricultural technology adoption (Suri & Udry, 2022).Extension contact has a positive and significant influence on all combinations (ISV 0 GAP 1 , ISV 1 GAP 0 , ISV 1 GAP 1 ) of SITs. This is expected, as farmers who are frequently visited by extension agents are more likely to be better informed about the benefits of SITs and may be more likely to adopt the technologies. Numerous empirical studies have documented similar effects of extension contacts on agricultural technology adoption (Ojo & Baiyegunhi, 2020;Takahashi et al., 2020).Awareness of SITs has a positive and significant correlation with the adoption of SITs. This makes sense because for farmers to adopt any agricultural technology, the first-order condition is awareness of the technology (Conley & Udry, 2010;Foster & Rosenzweig, 1995;Magruder, 2018). This result is consistent with several studies on agricultural technology adoption in SSA (e.g. Khonje et al., 2018;Marenya et al., 2020).The price of sorghum has a positive and significant correlation with the adoption of ISVs and the joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs. This suggests that farmers are sensitive to the output price of sorghum and the expectation of a favourable price incentivizes the uptake of SITs. Recent studies such as Mottaleb (2018) have demonstrated the importance of price on agricultural technology adoption.Labour wage rate is negatively associated with the adoption of ISVs and the joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs. The negative influence of labour wage is expected because an increase in labour wage could translate into limited investment in SITs. However, the results also show that wage rate is positively correlated with adopting only GAPs, which is in agreement with Rahman and Chima (2018) who found a positive and significant influence of labour wage and ploughing price on pesticide use in southeastern Nigeria. This is possible because the use of SITs could generate high returns that can offset high labour costs.Fertilizer and herbicide costs have negative and significant influence on the probability of adopting GAPs. This is logical as it would be more difficult to adopt GAPs when the prices of inputs are high, which suggests that when the price of these inputs is high, farmers will likely grow ISVs without complementary farm inputs. The result is consistent with studies that have reported that improved technology adoption is influenced positively by complementary input use (Fischer & Qaim, 2012;Kabunga et al., 2012).Farmers' perception of low soil fertility is negatively associated with the adoption of ISVs, suggesting that farmers who perceive their soil fertility to be low or inadequate are less likely to adopt ISVs. This could be explained in part by risk aversion behaviour of farmers, especially if farmers perceive that ISVs may not yield better outcomes due to the perceived inadequacy of their soil nutrients. In such cases, risk-averse farmers are more likely to retain traditional sorghum varieties that they are more familiar with and have a track record of performance in their specific soil conditions (Spiegel et al., 2021). Another potential explanation is liquidity constraint. To achieve high yields, ISVs typically require complementary inputs, such as fertilizer, which is costly. Thus, farmers with limited financial resources to purchase complementary inputs may be less likely to adopt ISVs (Jones-Garcia & Krishna, 2021). Consequently, in the presence of cash constraints to purchase fertilizer, farmers' perceived low soil fertility could deter them from adopting ISVs. This result is similar to Meshesha et al. (2022) who reported a negative relationship between the perception of soil fertility and the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in Ethiopia.Distance to seed and fertilizer market and distance to extension service are negatively correlated with the joint adoption of ISVs and GAPs. In addition, distance to the nearest seed dealer has a negative and significant influence on adopting only GAPs and only ISVs. This result is consistent with other studies that have also reported a negative influence of distance to input market on the adoption of agricultural technologies (Kabir et al., 2017;Takahashi et al., 2020). Farmers that are further away from input markets may have less access to crucial inputs, such as improved seeds and complementary technologies, which could result in a lower propensity to adopt SITs.Residing in the northeast is positively correlated with the adoption of only ISVs. Previous studies (e.g. Kabunga et al., 2012;Abdulai & Huffman, 2014) have also reported that location-related variables are significant in determining the adoption of improved agricultural technologies. Location variables are important due to heterogeneities in markets, infrastructure and levels of socioeconomic development across regions, which can affect technology adoption.As discussed earlier, the simple mean differences in sorghum yield and net revenues that we show in Table 3 do not necessarily represent the impact of SITs adoption, due to systematic differences in observable and unobservable characteristics between the adopters and non-adopters. To consistently estimate the yield and net revenue impacts of SITs adoption, we rely on the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) derived from the MESR model, which accounts for selection bias arising from observable and unobservable heterogeneities. Table 5 shows the sorghum yield and net revenues predictions and the resulting ATT based on the estimates of the MESR model, as depicted in equations 7a, 7b and 8.The results show that the ATT estimate associated with sorghum yield is positive and significantly different from zero for the adopters of only ISVs and the adopters of both ISVs and GAPs, which implies that the adoption of ISV 1 GAP 0 and ISV 1 GAP 1 significantly increases sorghum yields in the study area. Specifically, the ATT estimate of the adopters of only ISVs represents a yield-increasing effect of about 56%, which indicates that their sorghum yield increased by 56%, as a result of the adoption of improved sorghum cultivars. The yield-increasing effect that we find is consistent with the findings of a related study on the impact of ISVs in Mali (Smale et al., 2018). However, Smale et al. (2018) reported a much larger yield effect of about 79%-180% for the adopters of sorghum hybrids and a relatively smaller effect of about 34%-35% (for improved sorghum varieties that are not hybrids). The adoption of both ISVs and GAPs led to about a 100% increase in yield, which shows the combination of both technologies doubled the yield of sorghum growers. This is expected as the high-yielding genetic potentials of improved crop varieties are better optimized when combined with optimal agronomic practices such as row spacing, planting date and fertilizer application. This aligns with Jayne et al. (2019) who argued that complementary management practices are necessary to improve yield responses. Our result is consistent with the growing empirical studies that have documented the yield-increasing effect of SITs among rural households in different parts of SSA (e.g. Mellon Bedi et al., 2022;Marenya et al., 2020;Kotu et al., 2017).While we find considerable yield impacts of SITs adoption, reliance on yield gains without the associated economic returns only provides a partial picture of the impact of agricultural technology adoption (Michler et al., 2019). In terms of the net revenue, Table 4 shows that the adoption of improved variety alone (ISV 1 GAP 0 ) led to a significant increase in net revenues of the adopters by about 88.16%. Those who adopted both ISVs and GAPs (ISV 1 GAP 1 ) had an increase in their incomes by approximately 82.30%. This result is consistent with the findings of previous studies that have demonstrated that agricultural technology adoption raises farm incomes of rural households (e.g. Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Manda et al., 2020;Tufa et al., 2019). This result is quite important, as farm income channel is often cited as a pathway for improving the welfare of rural farming households, including reduction of hunger and poverty (Evenson & Gollin, 2003;Ligon & Sadoulet, 2018;Otsuka & Muraoka, 2017).Overall, given that sorghum is a multipurpose crop (for food, feed and cash) in our study area, our results suggest that the adoption of SITs can substantially improve the grain yield and net revenues of smallholders, which are the direct effects of technology adoption that can potentially deliver indirect effects to the broader rural economy. This is particularly important given the low adoption rate of SITs in the study area, which implies that there are considerable missing opportunities that sorghum-producing households can harness through the adoption of SITs. Rather surprising, we find that the adoption of only GAPs had a very small yield-decreasing effect of about 2% and no statistically significant effect on net revenue. This indicates that GAPs work best in conjunction with the use of ISVs. A plausible explanation for the unexpected negative effect of adopting only GAPs relates to the responsiveness of the type of sorghum variety to GAPs. Local varieties are susceptible to diseases, drought (Yahaya & Shimelis, 2021) and the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica (Belay, 2018) which cannot be managed with GAPs alone. The ISVs are specifically bred to have higher yield potentials and often possess traits (such as resistance to diseases, drought and Striga and tolerance to drought) that make them more resilient to biotic and abiotic stresses. When combined with GAPs such as tailored fertilizer use, planting density, and planting time, ISVs may fully express their genetic potential and achieve higher yields. In contrast, traditional sorghum varieties that are susceptible to the biotic and abiotic stresses may not have the same response to GAP, resulting into either no change in yield or to lower yields and consequently lower revenue. The various ISVs promoted in Nigeria differ in maturity period from late (for Southern Guinea Savannah) to medium (for Northern Guinea and Sudan Savannah) and to early (for Sudano Sahel and Sahel Savannah) maturing varieties. Thus, if farmers use varieties with a late-maturing trait, a trait most traditional varieties possess in the semiarid Sudan or Sahel savannah, the varieties will perform poorly even with GAPs, due to drought stress and photosensitivity (Akinseye et al., 2020). More empirical studies may help to clarify the unexpected negative effect of adopting only GAPs in other study areas.Table 6 shows the ATT estimates using the AIPW. The adoption of only ISVs increased yield and net revenue on average, by 25% and 68%, respectively, while the adoption of both ISVs and GAPs increased sorghum yield and net revenue by 95% and 129%, respectively, which is a significant improvement compared to those plots that had adopted only ISVs. As with the MESR estimates, AIPW estimates show that the adoption of only GAPs resulted in a negative effect on yield and net revenues. However, we observe some differences in effect sizes between the ATT estimates using MESR and AIPW, which is likely because MESR controls for potential selection bias arising from both observable and unobserved factors while AIPW controls for only observable factors. Abdoulaye et al. (2018) also reported a similar divergence in effect size between a model that accounts for both observable and unobserved heterogeneity and a model that accounts for only observable heterogeneity. In general, the estimates in Table 6 using the AIPW approach are qualitatively consistent with those obtained using the MESR approach.Using a large household survey data from a sample of 1680 households and 3310 plots in the sorghum belt of Nigeria, we measure the impact of sustainable intensification technologies adoption on yield and net revenue of smallholder sorghum farmers. We estimate the impact of sustainable intensification technologies using the multinomial endogenous switching regression, which accounts for potential selection bias from observed and unobserved heterogeneity. Our findings show that a larger share of the sorghum plots was cultivated without ISVs and/or GAPs. This suggests that despite the increasing investment in sorghum varietal improvement and agronomic management research and the resulting varietal turnover, it does not translate into widespread adoption of the SITs. Among other factors, household size, years of spousal education, awareness of SITs and extension contact strongly explains the adoption of SITs in the study area, as they all had a positive and significant influence on all categories of adopters. This suggests that better access to varietal information about SITs and better access to education would help to increase the adoption of SITs. Thus, policymakers and development partners should increase investments in SIT dissemination to allow better access to information on the availability of the seeds, the varietal traits, the agronomic management practices associated with cultivating the seeds, where to source the seeds, the price of the seeds, the expected returns, among others. Also, there is a need for more collaborative efforts of the public and private sectors to strengthen the sorghum seed systems towards improving seed multiplications and ensuring that improved sorghum seeds are available within the reach of smallholders at a more affordable price. Our findings show that the adoption of SITs doubled sorghum yield and nearly doubled the net revenue of adopters. In light of the relatively low adoption of SITs that we find, the sorghum yield and net revenues-increasing effects of SITs adoption imply that there are considerable missing opportunities that sorghum-producing households can harness through the adoption of SITs. The policy implication of this is that increasing investments in promoting widespread adoption of SITs can boost the productivity and farm income of sorghum-producing households, which can potentially improve the food security and wellbeing of the households, given that sorghum is a multipurpose crop. This aligns with how productivity growth can contribute to realizing the twin goals of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger in SSA (Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2). Notes 1. Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Nigeria are the administrative units below the state and the number of LGAs differs between the states. 2. j i represents the technology choice. j 1 = ISV 0 GAP 0 , j 2 = ISV 0 GAP 1 , j 3 = ISV 1 GAP 0 , j 4 = ISV 1 GAP 1 3. We acknowledge that the use of extension contact as an instrument is not incontestable, especially from the point of view of exogeneity of the instrument, which often applies to most instruments in the literature, as discussed in Kubitza and Krishna (2020). However, the use of extension contact is plausible in our study setting because Thus, it is reasonable to assume that extension contact can ease decision-relevant information constraints and thus, it can directly affect adoption decisions but is less likely to directly affect the outcomes of adoption decisions.In addition, the results of our falsification test show that the instrument is strongly correlated with the adoption of SITs, but not with sorghum yield and net revenue outcomes of non-adopters. Furthermore, extension-related instruments have been successfully applied in previous studies on the impacts of agricultural technologies (e.g., Abdallah et al., 2021;Kamara et al., 2022;Khonje et al., 2018;Martey et al., 2020;Mellon Bedi et al., 2022). Lastly, our robustness check using the augmented inverse probability weighting (AIPW) also allays possible concerns associated with the use of inappropriate instruments.","tokenCount":"6524"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"da1df43632073233d3280e6d9e1cf8ea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/PDF/H041887.pdf","id":"-1095068158"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"96b0b98a-d7af-4bd4-afa5-7e0728f914c4","pagecount":"15","content":"The issues being addressed in this paper are as follows. Has there been significant change in cost of groundwater pumping due to diesel price shock in regions where it matters? If so, how that has impacted millions of irrigation water buyers? How farmers respond to increase in irrigation costs? Such responses include: how the well owning farmers change their farming enterprise, including the farming system itself; how their willingness to take risk changes, and finally, how the economic prospects of irrigated farming itself changes as a result? It is found that the impact of diesel price on irrigation cost incurred by diesel well owners is not significant. One reason for this is that the regions which are heavily dependent on diesel pumps for irrigation have shallow groundwater table. Also, this burden is not passed on to the water buyers owing to increasing competition and reducing monopoly power of pump owners. The analysis of the farming enterprise of irrigators under differential cost (irrigation) regimes presented here shows that farmers would be able to cope with very high rise in irrigation costs through irrigation efficiency improvements and allocating more area under crops that give higher returns per unit of land and water, that enhance the farming returns from every unit of water and energy used. By doing this, they are able to maintain almost the same net returns from farming as in the past. This means, that the rise in cost of diesel in real terms had not made any negative impact on economic prospects of diesel well irrigators, including water buyers.While in many arid and semi-arid regions of India, the water management issue is of growing physical shortage of water, and in some water-abundant regions, it is economic scarcity of water. Here, due to poor state of rural electrification, high cost of diesel engines, and the small size of land holdings, investment in irrigation is very poor. The resource poor, small and marginal farmers pay exorbitant prices for the water they buy from well owners, making irrigated agriculture an unattractive proposition.Many scholars argue that the recent hikes in diesel prices across the country had badly hit the regions with poor rural electrification facility.. Their argument is that growing economic scarcity of water, occurring due to this, cause sweeping changes in agriculture, especially of small and marginal farmers in India. This they attribute as a cause of widespread farmer distress in the countryside. This is based on the premise that regions such as eastern UP, West Bengal, Assam and Bihar depend heavily on diesel power for lifting groundwater, and increase in price of diesel is likely to impact on cost of irrigation and also millions of rural livelihoods in these regions, as agricultural productivities are already very low. Over the period of 17 years, the price of diesel has also gone up from Rs. 5 per litre to Rs. 34.84 per litre.The available empirical works on impact of energy price hike on irrigated farming are based on respondent surveys. Such works have little relevance for practical policy formulation in the sense that the perceived \"impacts of price changes\" are an outcome of the whole range of changes happening with the farming system level, including that on the market front. Such analyses fail to segregate the response of farmer to input price changes, and their subsequent implications for prospects of farming, especially by small and marginal farmers.In this paper, certain fundamental questions are raised concerning Indian agriculture. First: has there been significant change in cost of groundwater pumping due to diesel price shock in regions where it matters? If so, how that has impacted on millions of irrigation water buyers? How farmers respond to increase in irrigation costs? Such responses include: how the well owning farmers change their farming enterprise, including the farming system itself; how their willingness to take risk changes, and finally, how the economic prospects of irrigated farming itself changes as a result?The rise in diesel price might affect the diesel well owners and water buyers in diesel well commands in different ways. First of all, the rising diesel price (Rs/litre) would raise the marginal cost of using irrigation water for crop production unless the farmers put in systems to improve the efficiency of the pump that reduce the diesel consumption per hour of pumping, and increase the well outputs. This would encourage the well owners to improve the efficiency of use of irrigation water in the field to cut down the cost of irrigation. This can result in lower irrigation dosage, higher yield, higher physical productivity of water (kg/m 3 ), and perhaps higher water productivity in economic terms also (Rs/m 3 ), with net returns remaining the same.But, there might be crops where the cost of irrigation itself would be a significant chunk of the production cost. In such situations, with diesel price hike, the irrigation cost could become so high even with efficiency improvement, when compared against the gross returns from the crop. This would eventually make the net returns too low, making the crop itself unviable. In such situations, the farmers might respond by replacing the existing crops by new crops that yield much higher income returns (Rs/ha of land) so as to offset the increase in cost of irrigation water. This can also include crops that are highly water-intensive. Hence, analysis should be based on farming system returns rather than return from crops.On the other hand, the impact of rising diesel price on water buyers would be a little more complex. The reason is that over time, along with increasing cost of production of water, the monopoly price of water itself could also change in favour of water buyers with increasing number of privately owned wells as found in Muzaffarpur in Bihar (Kumar, 2007). If that happens, then the water price may not increase in proportion to the cost of production of water. Hence, taking the actual price paid by water buyers would nullify the impact of real change in diesel prices in areas where situation had not improved. To sum up, while diesel price hike can impact on cost of groundwater irrigation, the price fluctuations are not true reflections of the actual impact of diesel price increase.While this can happens on the cost front, on the price front, the market price of many agricultural produce also can change significantly over time. For instance for many cereals, the prices in real terms had not increased in real terms, and on the contrary, had reduced in certain cases. Hence, comparing the time series data on income returns from farming would distort the picture with respect to impact of input prices by wrongly attributing the declining returns to the increase in input costs. This means for capturing the \"response to and impact of input price changes\", it is essential to compare the farming systems under different price regimes for irrigation water. The major attributes to be covered in such analysis include: 1] irrigation dosage; 2] physical productivity of water in crops; 3] net returns from crops and livestock; 4] net water productivity in economic terms for crops and livestock; and, 5] the returns and water productivity in farming.The average cost of pumping irrigation water for the diesel pump owners is Rs.1.38/m 3 and the range is Rs.0.99/m 3 to Rs.2.04/m 3 . The average price at which diesel well owners sell water is Rs.2.81/m 3 and the individual values range from Rs.2.07/m 3 to Rs. 3.63/m 3 . Against this, the average price of at which irrigation water is sold by electric pump owners is Rs 0.65/m 3 and the individual values range from Rs 0.52/m 3 to Rs 0.84/ m 3 .The average price at which groundwater is being sold by electric well owners is Rs 0.70/m 3 and the individual values range from Rs.0.31/m 3 to Rs 0.92/m 3 . The average cost of pumping groundwater using diesel pump is Rs.1.87/m 3 and individual values range from Rs. 1.41/m 3 to 2.93/m 3 . The average price at which groundwater is being sold by diesel pump owners is Rs 2.15/m 3 and the individual values range from Rs.1.84/m 3 to Rs.2.42/m 3 (Table 1). The overall objective of the study is to analyze how the small and marginal farmers in water abundant regions respond to diesel price hike, and to assess the overall impact on the economic prospects of farming. The specific objectives are:To analyze the actual change in cost of irrigation water for diesel well owners and water buyers due to rise in diesel prices To analyze the response of diesel well owners to potential hike in irrigation costs and its overall impact on economic prospects of farming To study the response of water buyers in diesel well commands to diesel price hike and its overall impact on economic prospects of their farming;Increase in cost of diesel would encourage farmers to use water and other inputs for crop and livestock production more efficiently; but might also adopt high valued crops which require more water, to sustain the net returns from crop production.The geographical coverage of present study includes eastern plain region of Uttar Pradesh and south Bihar plains .The average annual precipitation in the eastern plain region of Uttar Pradesh is about 1025 mm. The region's climate is dry sub-humid to moist sub-humid. The soil types in this sub-zone are light alluvial and calcareous clay. Patna district falls under the south Bihar plains region of Bihar state receives average normal annual rainfall of 1103mm and climate condition of region is dry to moist sub-humid. The soil types found in the region are old alluvium sandy loam to clayey and the larger areas under the Tal and Diara.At the outset an analysis is made here, of the actual increase in cost of irrigation water for the diesel well owners and water buyers over time on the basis of the time series data on cost of diesel; energy (diesel) use per hour of pumping; and the well outputs. This is adjusted to inflation. The price water buyers pay in hourly terms is converted into unit charges using data on well outputs, and then adjusted to inflation to obtain the prices in real terms.The potential response of diesel well owners to increase in irrigation cost is analyzed by comparing the cropping pattern; irrigation water dosage; and productivity of irrigation water in crops, dairying and at the farm level of the diesel well owners with that of water buyers from electric well owners. This is in view of the fact that the water buyers in electric well commands are incurring much lower cost for irrigation water as compared to diesel well owners, and water buyers in diesel well command. Whereas overall agro-climatic conditions governing the demand for water for a particular crop, and the ecological viability of crops would remain the same. Subsequently, the potential response of water buyers to rise in irrigation cost is analyzed by comparing the above attributes and compared with water buyers in electric well commands.The overall economic impact of rise in irrigation cost on farming enterprises is analyzed by estimating the net return from the entire farm for diesel well owners and their water-purchasing counterparts, and then comparing it with that for water buyers from electric well owners in the same region. Further, based on the actual rise in cost of irrigation water felt by diesel well owners over the years due to diesel price hike, and the potential response of the irrigators to irrigation cost rise, the actual impact of diesel price hike on farming enterprises of diesel well owners and their water buyers is assessed.Sixty well owners and water buyers from electric and diesel well commands in Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Varanasi and Mirzapur) and South Bihar plain (Patna) were selected for the study.The net economic return from farming would be assessed by adding up the net return from crops and dairy production.The net return from crop production NI crop for those crops which by-products does not used for the dairying will be estimated as:For the estimation of net return NI cropi for those crops, which by-product is used as an input of milk production (dry fodder) , in such situation we will allocate total cost of production between the main product and byproduct using their ratio of market value. The net return from such crops we will be estimated as:Here, Y MP is the yield of main product (Quintal); FHP MP is the farm harvest price of main product (Rs/kg);Y By-P is the yield of by-product (Quintal) and FHP BY-P farm harvest price of by-products (Rs/kg); C input is the cost of all inputs used for crop production and is the cost of inputs for main production.The net income from livestock NI Dairy production based on life cycle we will estimate as:Here, Y milk is the milk yield per animal per annum; Y Dung is the yield of dung per animal per annum; P milk and P Dung is the price of milk and price of dug received by the farmer; Q is the quantum of inputs used per cattle unit per annum. The suffixes , gf, df, cf and oi stand for green fodder, dry fodder, cattle feed, and other expenses respectively. The price of gf and df will be the unit cost of production (total input costs divided by total production). The price of cf and oi is the actual market price.The net income at farm level (Rs) would be estimated as:Where, is the net income from all the crops grown by the farmers on his farm and is the net income from dairy farming.The detailed methodology for estimating water productivity in crops, dairying and farm level water productivity are discussed in Singh and Kumar (2008) The actual cost of groundwater pumping and the price at which water is traded in the diesel well commands of eastern UP and south Bihar are given below. It shows that in the case of south Bihar villages, the average cost of pumping went up by nearly 300 per cent from Rs. 0.41/m 3 to 1.16/m 3 , whereas the selling price of water went up by only 90% from Rs.1.16/m 3 to Rs. 2.11/m 3 . This means that the monopoly price ratio had declined from 2.8 to 1.3. In the case of eastern UP villages, the average cost of pumping went up by nearly 280% from Rs.0.47/m 3 to Rs.1.64/m 3 , where as the sale price of water went up by 170%. This means, the decline in monopoly price of water is (from 2.1 to 1.6) is not as sharp as in the case of south Bihar. This is quite understandable, as the rate of growth in number of diesel wells and pump sets has been much higher in south Bihar than in eastern UP. In nutshell, the impact of diesel price change on the water buyers is different from that of eastern Utter Pradesh.But, the price increase shown above does not mean that the actual price of irrigation water has gone up. If one wants to see how the price has changed in real terms, one should correct the price to the inflation rates. We have used an annual inflation rate of 7% to estimate how the cost of pumping and cost of irrigation water (sale price) have changed over the years from 1990-2006. It shows that in the case of eastern UP, the cost of irrigation in real terms has gone up by 18%, whereas the actual price of irrigation water from diesel well owners had gone down by 7.5%. In South Bihar while the cost of irrigation in real terms has gone up by 32%, the price of irrigation water had gone down by 38%.Cropping patterns of farmers in electric and diesel pump command area under different crops in different seasons for eastern Uttar Pradesh is dominated by the paddy and wheat. During summer, most of the agricultural lands remain fallow, farmers grow only green fodder. The water buyers in diesel well commands allocate some portion of their land for pulses viz., arhar, black gram and green gram, which are normally rainfed, but require one or two irrigations in case of long dry spells, thereby cutting down the cost of irrigation.The cropping pattern of water buyers in electric well commands and farmers in diesel well commands in south Bihar plans is similar to that obtaining in the eastern Uttar Pradesh viz., paddy and wheat cropping system. Due to high rainfall and poor drainage of land in the region, the agricultural land remains waterlogged during monsoon, and in this situation farmers are forced to take paddy. Farmers allocate a very small area for fodder crops to sustain dairy farming. During winter, they allocate larger area for wheat followed by potato, which gives high returns. During summer, farmers allocate larger are for onion, which again provides cash incomeThe estimates of irrigation dosage, water productivity in physical and economic terms for selected crops for diesel well owners and their water buyers in eastern Uttar Pradesh are presented in Table 3 Comparison of the estimates for diesel well owners and their water buyer counter parts (Table 3) shows the following: 1] the average depth of irrigation is slightly lower for water buyers in diesel well command as compared to their wellowning counterparts; and, 2] the water buyers in diesel well commands secure higher physical productivity of water and water productivity in economic terms for all the crops.Comparison between diesel well owners and water buyers in electric well commands however shows a different trend. The average dosage of irrigation is much lower for farmers who buy water from electric well commands as compared to diesel well owners, in spite of the fact that they are confronted with much lower GF: Green Fodder Source: Author's own estimate based on primary data marginal cost of irrigation. Further, the water buyers in electric well command secure much higher values of water productivity in both physical and economic terms as compared to diesel well owners. This is due to the fact that the electric well commands are located in the flood plains of the river, with high soil moisture content, fertile soils. These reduce not only the irrigation water requirement of the crops, but also the need for fertilizer inputs also, minimizing the input costs. As a result, the irrigation dosage and water productivity values are higher for water buyers in electric well command.As regards the net income from crop production, the comparative figures for eastern Uttar Pradesh are presented in Figure 1. Here, the electric well owners secure higher income per ha in paddy, wheat, pea and gram as compared to farmers in diesel well commands. Whereas, the diesel pump water buyers secure higher net income in bajra, mustard and linseed.The estimates of irrigation dosage, water productivity in physical and economic terms for selected crops for diesel well owners and their water buyers, and water buyers in electric well commands in south Bihar plains are presented in Table 4. Comparison of the estimates for diesel well owners and their water buyer counterparts shows a similar trend as that of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Comparison of corresponding figures between diesel well owners and water buyers in electric well command show a similar trend. The figures of irrigation dosage and water productivity (in both physical and economic terms) are higher for diesel well owners who have to pay a much higher price for irrigation water in volumetric terms, as compared to those who buy water from electric well owners.As regards the net income from different crops, the comparative figures are presented in Figure 2. In south Bihar plans, the electric well owners obtain higher net income per ha in wheat, potato, mustard and onion crops whereas, diesel pump water buyers get higher net income per ha in maize cultivation. The diesel pump owners are receiving second highest per hectare net income from onion, mustard, potato and wheat and highest per hectare net income from the paddy crop. The net income from milk production is dependent on the amount of fodder and feed provided to the dairy animals; cost of production of these inputs, and milk yield and the price of these outputs. Whereas the determinants of water productivity in milk production are: the milk yield and its price; the total amount of water embedded in the animal feed and fodder; and the cost of production of animal feed and fodder.Table 5 presents the estimates of average quantum of green fodder, dry fodder and animal feed provided to the three different types of livestock, viz., buffalo, cross bred cow and indigenous cow for diesel well owners; the farmers who purchase irrigation water from them; and those who purchase water from electric pump owners for eastern UP villages. Comparison across the different categories of farmers shows that generally, the dairy inputs are highest for water buyers of diesel well owners, followed by diesel well owners and lowest for water buyers in electric well command. The exception is for cross bred cow in which case the green fodder input is much lower for water buyers of diesel well command as compared to other categories of farmers.Table 6 presents the estimates of average quantum of green fodder, dry fodder and animal feed provided to the three different types of livestock, viz., buffalo, cross bred cow and indigenous cow for diesel well owners and the farmers who purchase irrigation water from them; and farmers who purchase water from electric well owners for south Bihar villages. Comparison across the different categories of farmers shows no general trend unlike what has been found in the case of eastern UP. Nevertheless, for buffalo, the quantum of green and dry fodder input is highest for diesel well owners.The water required for milk production includes that embedded in the dry and green fodder and cattle feed provided to the animals, in addition to the direct water use by cattle for drinking. They are estimated for the  2004) and also in Kumar (2007). Using the figures of average daily milk production per animal per day, the gross return from dairying was worked out. The physical productivity of water in milk production (litres/m 3 ) and the gross water productivity in economic terms (Rs/m 3 ) were estimated using the figures of total water use per animal per day and the gross returns. The estimates for eastern UP are presented in Table 7.Comparison of the figures of physical productivity of water in milk production shows that the figures are highest for water buyers in electric well commands. Between diesel well owners and water buyers in their command, no major differences were noticeable. As regards gross water productivity in economic terms, the water buyers in electric well command obtain the highest values in buffalo milk production. Again, no major differences were noticeable between diesel well owners and those who buy water from them in gross water productivity. But, in case of cross bred cows, diesel well owners secure the highest water productivity, followed by water buyers in diesel well commands and lowest by water buyers in electric well commands. In the case of indigenous cows, the water buyers in diesel well commands obtain highest water productivity in rupee terms.The estimates for south Bihar are presented in Table 10. Comparison of the figures of physical productivity of water in milk production shows that the figures are highest in case of water buyers in diesel well commands for buffalo milk; and highest in case of diesel well owners for cross bred cow, and indigenous cow. The water buyers in diesel well command secure highest gross water productivity in economic terms in buffalo milk production, while diesel well owners secure highest gross water productivity in cross bred cow and indigenous cow milk production. The farmers in electric well commands obtain the lowest figures of physical productivity of water and gross water productivity in economic terms in cross bred cow and indigenous cow milk production.The total average expenditure for milk production per animal per day was estimated using the standard formula provided in Singh ( 2004) and Kumar (2007). For instance, the expenditure on dairy production is highest for water buyers in diesel well command, who are confronted with highest marginal cost of irrigation water, followed by diesel well owners and lowest for water buyers in electric well commands. The net income from milk production does not show any definite trends.Water buyers in electric well commands secure highest net water productivity in milk production in buffalo milk production; diesel well owners obtain highest water productivity in cross bred cow milk production; and water buyers in diesel well commands obtain highest water productivity in production of indigenous cow milk.The estimates of daily expenditure on dairying; the net income from milk production per animal per day; and the net water productivity in rupee terms for different categories of livestock are provided for the three different categories of farmers in south Bihar villages in Table 10. Comparing the figures, no definite trend visà-vis expenditure, incomes and water productivity is seen to emerge. Having estimated water productivity values for crops and dairying, the water productivity values for the entire farming system were worked out using the estimates of the total volume of water annually allocated to different crops and the estimated volume of water used up in dairy production as per the equations provided in Methodology. The final figures for water productivity for the crop combinations; water productivity in dairying and farm level water productivity for the locations, viz., eastern UP and south Bihar are provided in Table 11. It shows that water productivity figures are higher for the farmers who are confronted with the higher cost of irrigation water, i.e., the water buyers in diesel well commands. The exception is the water buyers in electric well commands. This is due to the inherent advantage with the location.The higher values of farm level water productivity for water buyers in diesel well commands is mainly due to the reduced application of irrigation water for the crops, which enhances both physical productivity and Farm level net income (Rs/Ha) water productivity in economic terms for the crops. But, the improvement in physical productivity of water does not get converted into higher water productivity in rupee terms in dairy production. This is because the cost of production of dairy inputs is higher for water buyers in diesel well commands and diesel well owners.Overall impact of electricity and diesel price change on the farming system is analysed by considering the net return from crop and dairy farming is discussed in subsequent section. Analysis shows that the impact of cost of irrigation on farming prospects is not at all significant. While in the case of eastern UP, the water buyers in diesel well commands, who incur the highest cost of irrigation water, are earning highest income per unit of land, the electric well owners, who incur the lowest cost of irrigation water, obtain the lowest net return from unit of land (Table 12). In south Bihar, the diesel well owners are found to be obtaining highest income from every unit of land, even higher than what the water buyers in electric well commands obtain (Table 13). The difference in net returns between diesel well owners and their water purchasing counterparts is also not significant.1.The impact of rising cost of diesel on the diesel well owners ( in terms of cost of diesel well irrigation in real terms) is nearly 32% in south Bihar and 18% in eastern UP. But, this did not have any positive impact on the price at which water is sold by diesel well owners due to the reducing monopoly power of diesel well owners over time. The actual price at which water is available to the water buyers came down by 38% in south Bihar and 7.5% in eastern UP. The fact that the cropping pattern of diesel well owners and water buyers did not undergo any significant change over the past one and a half decade testifies this.In order to analyze the potential impact the rise in diesel price would have on the farming enterprise of diesel well owners and water buyers in their command, a comparative analysis of irrigation water use, income from crops, dairying and entire farm; and water productivity in crop and milk production and at the farm level of three different categories of farmers, viz., water buyers in electric well commands, diesel well owners and water buyers in diesel well commands was carried out. It shows that higher cost of irrigation water motivates farmers to use irrigation water more efficiently from a physical point of view to minimize the cost of irrigation.Ever since the Green revolution period irrigated farming has been getting transformed as a commercial proposition by the farmers. Farmers prefer crops yielding more returns and in the process reasonable price hikes in diesel do not find much importance by the farmers in their farming economies.Further, the farmers who are paying higher cost for irrigation water use it more efficiently also from agronomic and economic points of view, as reflected by higher values of water productivity in both physical and economic terms they obtain.The farmers who are paying higher cost for irrigation water use it more efficiently from economic point of view at the farm level than those who pay lower cost, by optimizing crop and dairy inputs; and allocating more area under crops that give higher returns. This is reflected in the highest cropping system water productivity and farm level water productivity in economic terms for the water buyers in diesel well commands.The net income return farmers obtain from irrigated farming is found to be inelastic to the cost of irrigation water. The water buyers in diesel well commands, who pay the highest cost for irrigation water, get as much net returns per ha of land as the water buyers in electric well commands, who incur the least cost for irrigation water in volumetric terms. They manage to sustain the net returns by minimizing the input costs and maximizing the returns, and selecting crops that give higher returns per unit land.It is clearly found that the impact of diesel price on irrigation cost incurred by diesel well owners is not significant. Also, this burden is not passed on to the water buyers due to the increasing competition, and lowering monopoly power of pump owners. Further, the analysis of the farming enterprise of irrigators under differential cost (irrigation) regimes shows that farmers would be able to cope with steep rise in irrigation costs through irrigation efficiency improvements and allocating more area under crops that give higher returns from unit of land and water, that enhance the farming returns from every unit of water and energy used. By doing this, they are able to maintain almost the same net returns from farming as in the past. This means, that the rise in cost of diesel in real terms cannot make any negative impacts on economic prospects of diesel well irrigators, including water buyers.An attempt is made to answer two important questions concerning India's farm livelihoods in this paper. They are: 1] what has been the actual impact of the rising price of diesel on millions of India's small and marginal farmers in water abundant regions who depend on irrigation pumps energized by diesel directly or indirectly vis-à-vis the cost of irrigation water?, and 2] what is likely to be the potential impact of rise in cost of irrigation water on the farming enterprise of small and marginal farmers, who are either well owners or water buyers?Contrary to the popular perception and belief that diesel price rise causes a lot of distress among farmers, it is found that the impact of diesel price on irrigation cost incurred by diesel well owners is not significant. One reason for this is that the regions which are heavily dependent on diesel pumps for irrigation are having shallow groundwater table. Also, this burden is not passed on to the water buyers due to the increasing competition and lowering monopoly power of pump owners. One needs to keep in mind the fact that over the past two decades, there has been an explosion in irrigation pump sets in eastern India, and this had drastically reduced the monopoly power of diesel pump owners.The analysis of the farming enterprise of irrigators under differential cost (irrigation) regimes presented here shows that farmers would be able to cope with very high rise in irrigation costs through irrigation efficiency improvements and allocating more area under crops that give higher returns from unit of land and water, that enhance the farming returns from every unit of water and energy used. By doing this, they are able to maintain almost the same net returns from farming as in the past. This means, that the rise in cost of diesel in real terms had not made any negative impact on economic prospects of diesel well irrigators, including water buyers.","tokenCount":"5489"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f3d9a43358f12891691af4a0575cca84","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6894d2b-051e-4a3b-8f5d-693cc08ab0e6/retrieve","id":"2137737917"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3f54a465-1b29-4fe4-a7d0-0d440d91da53","pagecount":"89","content":"CacaoNet is an international network for cacao genetic resources coordinated by Bioversity International with a steering committee and working groups composed of representatives from various cocoa research institutes and organizations supporting cocoa research. CacaoNet aims to optimize the conservation and use of cacao genetic resources, as the foundation of a sustainable cocoa economy (from farmers through research to consumers), by coordinating and strengthening the conservation and related research efforts of a worldwide network of public and private sector stakeholders. www.cacaonet.org Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization. We have a vision -that agricultural biodiversity nourishes people and sustains the planet.We deliver scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security. We work with partners in low-income countries in different regions where agricultural and tree biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation.Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a foodsecure future. www.bioversityinternational.orgThese guidelines describe technical procedures that minimize the risk of pest introductions with movement of germplasm for research, crop improvement, plant breeding, exploration or conservation. It is important to emphasize that these guidelines are not meant for trade and commercial consignments concerning export and import of germplasm or cocoa beans.The collection, conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources and their global distribution are essential components of research activities underpinning the implementation of international crop and tree improvement programmes.Inevitably, the movement of germplasm involves a risk of accidentally introducing plant pests 1 along with the host plant. In particular, pathogens that are often symptomless, such as viruses, pose a special risk. To minimize such risks, preventive measures and effective testing procedures are required to ensure that distributed material is free of pests of potential phytosanitary importance.The international, and inter-regional, movement of plant germplasm for research (including plant biotechnology), conservation and basic plant breeding purposes requires complete and up to date information concerning the phytosanitary status of the plant germplasm. In addition, the relevant and current national regulatory information governing the export and importation of plant germplasm in the respective countries is essential.The recommendations made in these guidelines are intended for small, specialized consignments used in research programmes, e.g. for collection, conservation and utilization for breeding of plant genetic resources. When collecting and transporting germplasm, standard phytosanitary measures, for example pest risk assessment (IPPC 2016), should be considered. This revision of the technical guidelines for cacao has been produced by the Safe Movement Working Group of CacaoNet, an international network for cacao genetic resources 2 . The experts on cacao pests contribute to the elaboration of the technical guidelines in their personal capacity and do not represent or commit the organizations for which they work. The guidelines are intended to provide the best possible phytosanitary information to institutions involved in small-scale plant germplasm exchange for research purposes. Bioversity International and the contributing experts cannot be held responsible for any problems resulting from the use of the information contained in the technical guidelines. These reflect the consensus and knowledge of the specialists who have contributed to this revision but the information provided needs to be regularly updated. The experts who contributed to the production of these technical guidelines are listed in this publication. Correspondence regarding this publication should be addressed to Bioversity International.The guidelines are written in a concise style to keep the volume of the document to a minimum and to facilitate updating. Suggestions for further reading are provided, in addition to specific references cited in the text (mostly for geographical distribution, media and other specific information).The guidelines are divided into two parts. The first part makes general and technical recommendations on safe procedures to move cacao germplasm and mentions available intermediate quarantine facilities when relevant. The second part covers pests of phytosanitary concern for the international or regional movement of cacao genetic resources. The information given on a particular pest is not exhaustive but rather concentrates on those aspects that are most relevant to the safe movement of germplasm. Because eradication of pathogens from a region or country is extremely difficult, and even low levels of infection or infestation may result in the introduction of pathogens to new areas, no specific information on treatment is given in the pest descriptions. A pest risk analysis (PRA) will produce information on which management options are appropriate for the case in question. General precautions are given in the General Recommendations.In order to be useful, the guidelines need to be updated when necessary. We ask our readers to kindly bring to our attention any developments that may require a review of the guidelines such as new records, detection methods or control methods.The role of intermediate quarantine centres is to prevent the spread of pests and diseases when moving planting material from one region to another by subjecting the material to a quarantine process in a country where cacao is not cultivated (thus minimising the risk of pest/pathogen entry into the system). Intermediate quarantine is particularly important when plant material is moved as budwood, as such material has the potential to harbour latent viruses.The following intermediate quarantine centres are in operation: Post-entry quarantine stations are present in some cocoa-producing countries and are used primarily for material newly imported into the country in question. The length of time in post-entry quarantine can vary from six months to two years. In some cases, post-entry facilities are also used for within country movement of germplasm.The following post-entry quarantine centres are in operation for cacao: Whilst specific guidelines are given in subsequent sections in relation to particular pests/diseases the following general recommendations apply: Pest risk analysis should precede the movement of germplasm (see individual pest sections). Germplasm should be obtained from the safest source possible, e.g. from a pathogen-tested intermediate quarantine collection. Shipping of whole pods is NOT recommended. The movement of whole plants in soil, or even bare-rooted plants, carries a very high risk of transferring soil-borne organisms and pests associated with the roots and aerial parts of the plant. Extreme caution must therefore be exercised when considering moving any whole plants, and the transfer of germplasm between regions as whole plants is NOT recommended unless the material can be transferred through a quarantine facility. When transferring material as seed, a sterile inorganic packing material such as vermiculite or perlite is preferable to an organic material such as sawdust. Used packaging material should be incinerated or autoclaved prior to disposal. Region to region transfer of budwood should usually take place via a quarantine centre. Budwood for international exchange should be treated with an appropriate fungicide/ pesticide mixture in cases where this is specified on the import certificate of the recipient country. After grafting the budwood in the recipient country, any waste plant material should be incinerated or autoclaved prior to disposal. The transfer of germplasm should take place in consultation with the relevant plant health authorities in both the importing and exporting countries.International standards for phytosanitary measures as published by the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) should be followed (https://www.ippc.int/). In accordance with IPPC regulations, any material being transferred internationally must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate.This is the safest way of moving cacao germplasm. However, care should be taken to ensure that only healthy pods are selected and appropriate fungicidal treatments given to avoid concomitant contamination. It should be noted that some pests may be transmitted by seed (Table 5.1). Movement of cacao germplasm as budwood is practiced when a genetically identical copy of a particular genotype is required by the recipient (for example, if the genotype in question has particular useful traits for breeding purposes).Since budwood may be infected with a number of viruses, e.g. Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV), budwood should only be moved via an intermediate quarantine station in which virus indexing procedures are conducted. The current recommended virus-indexing procedure is as follows (see also Thresh 1960):1. Budwood is taken from a given plant in quarantine and buds grafted onto seedlings of Amelonado cacao. These show conspicuous symptoms when infected with viruses such as CSSV. It is recommended that at least three successful budded seedlings are needed per plant being tested.Once the bud has formed a union with the seedling, the leaves and stems arising from both the rootstock and the scion of these test plants should then be inspected weekly over a period of two years for characteristic leaf symptoms and swellings (see the individual sections on cacao viruses).3. Should viral symptoms be observed then the test plants along with the mother plant should be destroyed by incineration or autoclaving.While the efficacy of molecular monitoring for viruses such as CSSV continues to improve, to date no fully isolate-independent detection technique has been produced and for this reason visual indexing is still recommended in combination with PCR-based screening.Other pests that can be transferred via budwood include insects, such a mealybugs and systemic fungi (e.g. Ceratobasidium (formerly Oncobasidium) theobromae).General recommendations when cutting budwood are:1. Material should be taken from plants that show no visible signs of pest or disease activity 2. Cutting tools should be sterilized (e.g. using 70% ethanol) between cuts.The movement of whole plants in soil between countries/ growing areas is NOT RECOMMENDED due to the high risk of transferring invertebrate pests and soilborne organisms. Extreme care must be exercised when moving plant material as bare-rooted plants due to these same risks. Consequently, movement of bare-rooted plants is not recommended unless the material is transferred through a quarantine facility.The exporting institute should raise the plant material in an insect-proof cage and an inert medium, such as perlite, should be used to minimise the chances of soil organisms being transferred. It is recommended that the material be treated with an appropriate pesticide before it is moved.The receiving quarantine station should maintain the plants in a separate insectproof area for a period of three months. During this period, daily inspections need to be made for insect pests. If a plant is found to be infected with a pest it should be destroyed by incineration or autoclaving.In vitro material should be shipped in sealed, transparent containers with sterile media. It should be inspected before dispatch and immediately upon receipt at destination. Ideally, in vitro material (or the material used to produce it) should be indexed for the presence of systemic pathogens in a quarantine facility. Infected or contaminated material should be destroyed.Movement of pollen is NOT recommended out of areas in which Moniliophthora is present due to the possible contamination of pollen samples with fungal spores.When moving pollen from other regions it should be examined by light microscopy for the presence of visible pests. Contaminated pollen should be discarded.Flower buds may be transferred for use in tissue culture. These should be surfacesterilized before despatch.Thresh JM. 1960. Quarantine arrangements for intercepting cocoa material infected with West African viruses. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 8:89-92.       Infected plants show veinal necrosis along the midrib and main veins of the leaves, and in the early stages of infection, a terminal dieback of shoots. No swellings develop in the stems or roots.The disease is reported in Nigeria and Ghana (Owusu 1971, Thresh 1958).Possibly through a nematode vector (Kenten 1977). The same author reported seed transmission of up to 24% in the herbaceous hosts Glycine max, Phaseolus lunatus and P. vulgaris. Successful sap or mechanical transmission has also been reported by Adomako and Owusu (1974) using the technique developed for Cacao swollen shoot virus.Particles are isometric and of 25 nm diameter.None. Once a plant is infected it cannot be cured.As for Cacao swollen shoot virus: Genus: Badnavirus. Graft onto Amelonado rootstock (sensitive cacao cultivar) and examine all parts of resulting plants for symptoms (See Section 5.2 Budwood).Adomako D, Owusu GK. 1974. Studies on the mechanical transmission of cocoa swollen shoot virus: some factors affecting virus multiplication and symptom development of cocoa. Ghana Journal of Agricultural Science 7:7-15.Many isolates of CSSV have been collected and are named by capital letters or the name of the locality where they were collected. Analysis of CSSV molecular variability reveals at least eight species present across West Africa when using the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses recommendations, which consider nucleotide diversity in the RT/RNaseH region (Kouakou et al. 2012, Oro et al. 2012, Abrokwah et al. 2016, Chingandu et al. 2017). Cacao mottle leaf virus is a synonym of Cacao swollen shoot virus (Brunt et al. 1996). Symptoms of the disease are highly variable and depend on the virus strain and the stage of infection. The most characteristic symptoms on sensitive types (e.g. West African Amelonado) include a characteristic red vein banding of the young leaves (Fig. 7.2.1), yellow vein banding, interveinal flecking and mottling of mature leaves (Fig. 7.2.2), vein clearing on leaves and stem swellings (Fig. 7.2.3). Some strains of the virus (e.g. some mild isolates and mottle leaf types) do not induce swellings in infected plants.Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Togo (Brunt et al. 1996, Kouakou et al. 2012, Oro et al. 2012, Abrokwah et al. 2016).Natural infection with CSSV has been reported in Adansonia digitata, Bombax spp., Ceiba pentandra, Cola chlamydantha, Cola gigantea, Theobroma cacao and other tree species of the Malvaceae. Corchorus spp. have been infected experimentally.CSSV is transmitted by at least 14 species of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).Whilst positive DNA PCR results using CSSV specific primers have been found in seedlings from self-pollinated infected trees, no expression of CSSV has been found in such seedlings either visually or through reverse transcription (RT) PCR screening (Ameyaw et al. 2010). Therefore there is no evidence of CSSV transmission by seeds. However, plants can become infected when seeds are inoculated using viruliferous mealybugs or by sap/mechanical transmission with purified viral particles.Particles are bacilliform and measure 121-130 x 28 nm.None. Once a plant is infected it cannot be cured. However, passage through somatic embryogenesis has been shown to produce virus-free clones from CSSV infected donor plants (Quainoo et al. 2008). Like most plant viral diseases, the disease can be contained or prevented if healthy plants are isolated within barriers of CSSV-immune crops.ELISA, ISEM and PCR techniques have been used successfully (Sagemann et al. 1985, Muller 2008, Abrokwah et al. 2016) to detect CSSV; also virobacterial agglutination has been utilized (Hughes and Ollennu 1993). Various other successful detection methods have been reported, and these have been reviewed recently (Dzahini-Obiatey 2008, Dzahini-Obiatey et al. 2008). While the efficacy of molecular monitoring for CSSV continues to improve, to date no fully isolateindependent detection technique has been produced and for this reason visual indexing is still recommended in combination with PCR-based screening. It is important to note that infection with Cacao swollen shoot virus may be latent for up to 20 months (Prof P Hadley, University of Reading, pers comm.). See Section 5.2. The virus is reported only in Sierra Leone (Blencowe et al. 1963, Brunt et al. 1965).Conspicuous yellow areas on leaves. No swelling occurs on stems or roots.Not seed-borne. Readily transmitted by sap inoculation to many herbaceous species.Particles are isometric and measure about 25 nm in diameter.None. Once a plant is infected it cannot be cured.Refer to Cacao swollen shoot virus above and Section 5.2.Blencowe JW, Brunt AA, Kenton RG, Lovi NK. 1963 Trinidad virus disease was first reported in 1944 and a survey at the time suggested it was confined to Diego Martin, Santa Cruz and Maracas regions of Trinidad. Two strains (A and B) of the virus were identified on the basis of symptoms induced on the differential host, ICS 6. Strain A produces feather-like red banding in a few or all of the main veins on flush leaves, with the first leaf of the flush showing the most distinct symptoms. As the leaves mature the red vein banding disappears. In some clones a mosaic type symptom persists on mature leaves. Strain B produces a continuous vein banding extending to the fine veins, which persists even after the leaves have matured though in some varieties, this strain produces a red vein banding in young leaves which disappears as the leaves mature. Following elimination campaigns and changes of land use in the affected areas, it was thought that the virus had been eliminated. However, a reoccurrence of the virus was observed in 2009 and recent molecular sequencing studies on symptomatic leaves exhibiting the A and B phenotypes have shown that two distinct badnavirus species were present, named as cacao mild mosaic virus and cacao yellow vein banding virus, (Chingandu et al. 2017a,b). Tests have shown that the virus can be detected using the indexing procedure described for Cacao swollen shoot virus above using either Amelonado or ICS 6 as the rootstock (Sreenivasan 2009, pers. comm.).A CSSV like virus has been reported in North Sumatra (Kenten and Woods 1976), although no further published reports have been made.Chingandu N, Zia-Ur-Rehman M, Sreenivasan Of the different diseases affecting cacao crops, fungal and oomycete diseases pose a major constraint. Some have a worldwide distribution and others are restricted to cacao-growing regions of the Americas, Africa and Southeast Asia. In the following sections, different experts have summarized basic information on different diseases considered of economic importance. A summary of research results for black pod, Moniliophthora pod rot and witches' broom diseases was published by Fulton (1989) and more recently by Bailey and Meinhardt (2016).Bailey BA and Meinhardt LW. (Editors) 2016. Cacao Diseases: A History of Old Enemies and New Encounters. Springer International, Switzerland.Fulton RH. 1989. The cacao disease trilogy: black pod, Monilia pod rot, and witches' broom. Plant Disease 73:601-603.Update by Karina P Gramacho 1 and Nara GR Braz 2Moniliophthora perniciosa (Stahel) Aime & Phillips-Mora (Syn. Crinipellis perniciosa)Although variability exists with the fungus there are two main biotypes, C and S biotype. Within C biotype variants seem to occur according to their country of origin (e.g. Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia).Although M. perniciosa induces a variety of symptoms on vegetative shoots, flower cushions, flowers, and pods of cacao the hypertrophic growth of the infected vegetative meristems (broom) is the most characteristic symptom of the witches´ broom disease (Fig. 8.1.1,Fig.8.1.2).Currently, the disease is present in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guyana, Panama (east of Panama Canal), Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Suriname, and Venezuela. In 2008, the disease was reported for the first time to occur in Union Vale, La Dauphine, and Robot estates in Saint Lucia (Kelly et al. 2009).  Basidiospores, the only infective propagule of M. perniciosa can infect any meristematic tissues of cacao (Purdy and Schmidt 1996). Soon after infection the pathogen establishes a biotrophic relationship with its host, during which the fungus is homokaryotic, intercellular and lacks clamp connections (Calle et al. 1982, Muse et al. 1996, Orchard et al. 1994, Silva and Matsuka 1999). At this stage, it causes Although M. perniciosa may be seed-transmitted, movement as seed is the safest method of moving germplasm. Seeds should be collected from apparently healthy pods, treated with copper fungicide or a suitable alternate fungicde to reduce the risk of pathogen transmission.It is recommended that newly introduced material is grown in isolation in insectproof glasshouses under strict supervision in a quarantine station for one year and tested for freedom of disease before being released for general use.Moniliophthora roreri (Cif.) H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny.Under natural conditions the disease affects only the pods. Infection can occur at very early stages of development and susceptibility decreases with increasing pod age. Initial symptoms are characterized by one or more swellings appearing on the pod (Fig. 8.2.1), or small water-soaked lesions, which enlarge into necrotic areas with irregular borders. A white fungal stroma (Fig. 8.2.2) covers the area within 3-5 days, with profuse formation of cream to light brown spores. Late infection of pods results in premature ripening showing a green and yellow mosaic pattern. In the infected pods the seeds become necrotic and compact into a mass (Fig. 8.2.3).The disease is present in Colombia and Ecuador on both sides of the Andes, western Venezuela, Peru, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Bolivia and Mexico (Phillips-Mora et al. 2007). It was recently reported in El Salvador (Phillips-Mora et al. 2010) and on a farm in Jamaica (IPPC 2016, Johnson et al. 2017) though efforts are now underway to contain it.Apparently, all species of the closely related genera Theobroma and Herrania, the most important being the cultivated species T. cacao (cacao) and T. grandiflorum (cupuaçu).M. roreri is most commonly believed to be an anamorphic fungus, however, a cytological mechanism that enables it to undergo sexual reproduction has been described (Evans et al. 2002), which apparently is not very active in nature.Pods are infected by spores which are viable for several weeks and can withstand exposure to sunlight. Dissemination is by wind. Natural infections have only been observed on pods, although artificial inoculation of seeds with spores has produced infected seedlings. Under natural conditions disease transmission by infected seeds has not been observed and is most unlikely.Human beings are responsible for disease dispersal over significant distances and geographical barriers and hidden infections can have a very important role in disseminating the disease into new areas. In addition to the precautions that should be taken when moving plant material described below, it should be noted that spores can also survive on clothing, footwear and on the human body. Therefore, after visiting an infected area appropriate measures need to be taken before entering an uninfected region (discarding or appropriate washing of the clothes, footwear and equipment used, avoiding visiting disease-free areas for some days, etc.).Since the fruits are the only parts of the cacao plant to be infected by M. roreri under natural conditions, most quarantine efforts have to be concentrated on preventing the movement of fruits from affected places into new farms, territories and countries.The disease is not internally seed borne. However, the long-lived spores can be transported on entire plants or their parts (seeds, leaves, budwood, etc.). The powdery spores would readily adhere to such tissues and remain viable in this situation for many months. Consequently, movement of these parts into diseasefree areas should only be carried out following a disinfection protocol. Fungicide treatment would certainly reduce the inoculum and considerably limit the chances of an unwanted introduction.  Update by G Martijn ten Hoopen The activity of Phytophthora spp. is very much associated with wet and humid conditions, although the soil often serves as a permanent reservoir and the most frequent source of primary inoculum. Infection of plant parts is caused by spores (zoospores, sporangia) which are carried by water, rain splashes, ants and animals.Major human activities that may spread Phytophthora spp. are road building, timber harvesting, mine exploration, nursery trade and hiking/bushwalking.The following plant parts are likely to carry the pathogen in trade and transport: Fruits (pods) -Infection is invisible during early stages of pod infection but later stages are easily recognizable due to pod lesions (firm, dark brown spots) and zoospore production on lesions (Fig. 8.3.1). Roots (Phytophthora is often found associated with roots of cacao) -infection is invisible to the naked eye. Trunk/branches -especially when cankers are present (Appiah et al. 2004). Growth media accompanying plants, especially soil, can carry Phytophthora inoculum.Pods: Generally speaking, pods should not be used for germplasm transfer. However, if pods are used they should be quarantined for the duration of at least one week before shipping and distribution. Since Phytophthora symptoms appear after only a few days, diseased pods should be easily recognizable within this one week period and can subsequently be destroyed. To reduce risk further, pods should be put into a pesticide bath (e.g. a mix of Mefenoxam and a Copper compound) before distribution.Whole plants (with soil): Whole plants (with soil) -the transfer of whole plants represents an extremely high risk, particularly if they are in soil. Movement of whole plants (even symptomless plants) within a country or region where Phytophthora spp. are still in an invasive phase, is NOT recommended unless the material can be transferred through a quarantine facility.Budwood: Only budwood from (apparently) healthy trees should be used. No collection should be done from trees with cankers or any other signs of disease. Since Phytophthora zoospores are relatively short-lived and susceptible to pesticides and drought, the risk of dispersal of Phytophthora propagules possibly present on budwood can be further reduced with a pesticide application/bath (e.g. a mix of Mefenoxam and a Copper compound) (e.g. Opoku et al. 2007).Leaves: Phytophthora can be present on leaves. Leaves and plants showing symptoms of blight (Fig. 8.3.3) should not be used for transfer. Phytophthora propagules may survive for short periods of time on top of leaves. Pesticide treatments and storage under dry conditions should be sufficient to eliminate this risk.Transport by Humans: Human beings are the most likely culprits for long range dispersal of Phytophthora either by not taking care when transporting plant materials (pods, budwood etc), soil, or by human activities such as road building, and hiking.NB Since P. megakarya is more aggressive and causes higher yield losses than P. palmivora (Appiah 2001) special care should be given when moving plant/soil materials within Ghana, Togo and Côte d'Ivoire where both P. palmivora and P. megakarya are not uniformly present. Some production areas in these three countriesare not yet affected by P. megakarya.The following plant parts are unlikely to carry the pest in trade and transport  Seeds originating from pods without any obvious signs of infection The most characteristic initial symptom is the general chlorosis of one leaf, usually on the second or third flush behind the tip, with scattered islets of green tissue 2-5 mm in diameter (Keane and Prior 1991) (Fig. 8.4.1a,b). This leaf is shed within a few days and symptoms progressively develop in adjacent leaves. Lenticels usually become noticeably enlarged, causing roughening of the bark on the affected branches. Three blackened vascular traces are visible when the dry surface is scraped off the leaf scars which remain on the stem following the fall of diseased leaves (Fig. 8.4.2a). This is a useful way of distinguishing between leaf scars resulting from vascular-streak dieback and those arising from leaf fall due to normal leaf senescence. Blackened vascular traces are also seen on detached petioles of infected trees (Fig. 8.4.2b). Another characteristic of diseased stems is the rapid discoloration of the cambium to a rusty-brown colour when the bark is removed and the tissue is exposed to air. The presence of this brown streaking in the wood of still-living branches is another diagnostic for the disease. Infection hyphae of the pathogen can be observed within xylem vessels of stems and leaves and the infected xylem is discoloured by brown streaks which are readily visible when stems are split (Fig. 8.4.3a). Infection hyphae have been observed in the stem usually up to 1 cm, and never more than 10 cm, beyond regions of obvious vascular streaking. Pods are occasionally affected to the extent that the fungus can colonize the central vascular system of the pod but infected pods show no external symptoms. Eventually, leaf fall occurs right to the growing tip, which then dies. Lateral buds may proliferate then die, causing 'broomstick' symptoms. The fungus may spread internally to other branches or the trunk; if it spreads to the trunk it usually kills the tree.When an infected leaf falls during wet weather, hyphae may emerge from the leaf scar and develop into a basidiocarp of the pathogen, evident as a white, flat, velvety coating over the leaf scar and adjacent bark. Presence of these basidiocarps is also diagnostic for the disease (Fig. 8.4.3b).In addition to the symptoms described above, over the last 10 years or so, other symptoms have been seen which involve more leaf necrosis and these infected leaves remain attached to the branch for a period of weeks (McMahon and Purwantara 2016). Interestingly, all symptoms can be seen on the same genotype and even on the same branch. McMahon and Purwantara (2016) further suggest that leaf necrosis and darker xylem staining observed in the VSD infected cacao in recent times, could be due to an enhanced resistance response although these authors also suggested that the necrotic symptoms could be associated with the lack of essential nutrients, such as potassium (K), reaching the canopy. Abdoellah (2009) conducted leaf nutrient analysis on infected and uninfected leaves in East Java and results indicated infected leaves had a 20% lower K concentration (on average) with Ca and Mg appearing to accumulate. Similarly, in Sulawesi, substantially lower concentrations of K were detected in infected leaves (circa 60% of the concentration in healthy leaves). However, similar K decreases were seen in plants exhibiting necrotic and the more usual chlorotic symptoms so further work is needed to clarify the role of K. The other possible case of the changes in field symptoms could be associated with climatic change e.g. raised temperatures or increased CO2 levels (McMahon and Purwantara 2016) while the production of ethylene-inducing proteins (NEPs) as demonstrated in other basidiomycete fungi that attack cacao e.g. Moniliophthora perniciosa (de Oliveira et al. 2012) could also be implicated in the VSD interaction. There is little evidence of an alternative strain of the pathogen being responsible for the necrotic symptoms (McMahon and Purwantara 2016).The With the exception of a single record from avocadoes in Papua New Guinea (Keane and Prior 1991) the fungus is only known from cacao so the geographical distribution generally reflects the occurrence of cacao in South and South-East Asia and Melanesia. Its most easterly natural limit is probably New Britain (PNG) and its discovery in New Ireland almost certainly represents a quarantine breach. Previously, introduction of the disease into New Ireland has been prevented by stringent quarantine procedures for the official movement of cacao germplasm and by a campaign of raising awareness at ports and airports of the risks involved in \"unofficial\" movement of cacao germplasm. Its introduction is probably via \"unofficial\" movement of cacao material between the island of New Britain and New Ireland. New Ireland is about 70km east of the production area in the Gazelle Peninsular in New Britain where there has been heavy infestations for many years.The disease is not found on Manus or the North Solomons which are further east despite the fact that there is widespread cacao planting there. This distribution suggests that either the hypothesized indigenous host may not occur further out into the Pacific than New Britain or that the pathogen has not reached the limits of distribution of its indigenous host (which seems unlikely). Even on the main island of PNG and on New Britain, disease incidence is patchy, with isolated plantations being free of disease (Prior 1980).The most southerly limit is the Papuan coast of Papua New Guinea, but the unknown original host(s) may occur in northern Australia. There appears to be very little morphological variation between strains collected in the region, though a phylogenetic survey conducted by Samuels et al. ( 2012) indicated some regional genetic variability with three haplotypes identified from Vietnam, Malaysia/Indonesia and Papua. There are no records from Africa or the New World.Avocado.Formation of basidia and forcible discharge of basidiospores occurs mainly at night after the basidiocarps (or fungal fruit bodies) have been wetted by rain (Keane et al. 1972). Prior (1982) showed that onset of darkness is also a stimulus for sporulation.Basidiospores were produced 8-12 h after basidiocarps were subjected to darkness, whereas those exposed to continuous artificial light during the night did not sporulate. There was some evidence that a temperature drop of 5°C also stimulated sporulation brought into the laboratory (Prior 1982). Basidiocarps remain fertile for an average of only ten days on attached branches; on detached branches they cease shedding spores after only two days. Basidiospores are large (15-25 µm x 6.5-8.5 µm), are hyaline, smooth and thin walled and are circa twice the length of the sterigmata (Mcmahon and Purwantara 2016). The hyphal cells are binucleate which is characteristic of the genus Ceratobasidium but this characteristic for taxonomic purposes has been questioned by Oberwinkler et al. (2013).Basidiospores are dispersed by wind at night and are rapidly destroyed by sunlight. Exposure to the normal, shaded atmosphere in a plantation for only 20 min was sufficient to reduce germination by 80% (Keane 1981). Exposure of spores to direct sunlight for 12 min reduced germination by 95%. Because spores are rapidly killed by exposure to normal day-time conditions in the tropics and require free water for germination, effective spore dispersal is probably limited to the few hours of darkness and high humidity following their discharge.Spore dispersal is probably further limited by the dense canopy of cacao and shade trees in plantations. As a result, disease spread from older, infected cacao into adjacent younger, healthy populations is limited with very few primary infections occurring beyond 80 m from diseased cacao.The rate of disease spread is also limited by the relatively low sporulation rate of the fungus. Each infection only produces basidiocarps when leaf fall occurs during wet weather and these basidiocarps are short lived so consequently, less than 10% of leaf abscission induced by the disease results in basidiocarp (and hence basidiospore) production. Epidemiological aspects of the disease are discussed in more detail by Keane (1981), Keane and Prior (1991) and more recently by McMahon and Purwantara (2016).Basidiospores have no dormancy and free water is required for spore germination and infection. When a spore suspension was placed on young leaves, spores germinated within 30 minutes if leaves remained wet, but did not grow further once the water had evaporated (Prior 1979). The first sign of penetration occurred after 12 h, with swelling of the germ tube tip to form an appressorium which became attached to the leaf surface. Adjacent epidermal cells showed a browning reaction to the presence of the fungus. Often infection progressed no further, but occasionally penetration pegs were formed below appressoria. Hyphae have not been observed penetrating into the xylem elements of veins, although Prior (1979) observed trails of discoloured mesophyll cells leading from the surface to the bundle sheath surrounding the xylem. In cleared and stained leaves, hyphae were observed growing within the inoculated leaf in the vicinity of the veins (Keane 1972, Prior 1979), but these could not be traced back to empty spore cases on the leaf surface. There is evidence (Prior 1979) that dew forms first on the hairs and glands that are concentrated directly above the veins of young cacao leaves. These may form a trap for deposited spores and may explain the occurrence of penetrations directly above veins as observed by Keane (1972).The fungus can be isolated from infected plant material and transferred to Corticium Culture Medium (CCM) (Kotila, 1929) but cannot be maintained in subculture as other faster growing fungi will rapidly overgrow it. Surface sterilization using 10% sodium hypochlorite with 70% ethanol (Keane et al. 1972) increases the likelihood of obtaining pure cultures (McMahon and Purwantara 2016). However, sporulation is not induced routinely on artificial media and even if basidiospores are produced, they are produced in insufficient numbers for use in pathogenicity tests.To date, pathogenicity tests have been successful only when inoculated plants have been exposed to natural conditions of temperature and dew deposition under the open sky at night. It appears that, as with sporulation, infection requires very particular conditions which are difficult to simulate in the laboratory. In these tests, symptoms developed in 3-week-old seedlings about 6-9 weeks after basidiospores had been shed onto them during overnight dew periods (Keane 1981) or after they had been inoculated with a basidiospore suspension (Prior 1978); in 6-month-old seedlings, symptoms developed after 10-12 weeks (Keane et al. 1972).Peaks in disease occurrence in the field are often observed to occur several months after seasonal rainfall peaks (Prior 1980(Prior , 1981)). The fungus infects young leaves which then start to grow after the onset of the rains. The branch or seedling continues to grow for another 3-5 months before the fungus has ramified sufficiently to induce disease symptoms in the penetrated leaves which accounts for the occurrence of the first symptoms on the second or third flush behind the growing tip.Ceratobasidium theobromae can colonize the vascular system of pods: this had some potential importance for quarantine and the possibility of transmitting the disease via infected pods distributed for seed. However, no infection was ever detected in seed and Prior (1985) discounted the possibility of seed transmission.The following is a list of plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport:-Fruits (inc. Pods): Hyphae; borne internally; invisible.-Leaves: Hyphae; borne internally; visible to naked eye.-Roots: Hyphae; borne internally; invisible.-Stems (above ground)/shoots/trunks/branches: Hyphae, fruit bodies; borne internally; borne externally; visible to naked eye.Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport -Growing medium accompanying plantsWhole plants or cuttings should not be sent from areas that are infested with C. theobromae. Where clonal material is required, it should be supplied as budwood from disease-free areas where possible. Budwood from plants grown in infested areas should be sent to an intermediate quarantine station in a disease-free area and budded onto rootstocks raised from seed collected from a disease-free area. The scion should be maintained for three growth flushes and confirmed as free from C. theobromae before cutting and sending to the final destination. In countries such as Papua New Guinea, it has been found that a post-entry quarantine period of six months in an isolated screened shade house provides adequate opportunity for the detection of VSD and this treatment has replaced the former recommendation of a post-entry quarantine period on an isolated island.Microscopic examination of transverse sections of budwood sticks and pod stalks provides a further very thorough precaution against disease transmission because hyphae of the pathogen are large and easily detected. Hyphae were found within the stalks and placentae of pods from diseased branches but seeds from these pods germinated normally and there was no evidence of seed transmission. Dipping seeds in 1g/L propiconazole + 5g/L metalaxyl M caused a small but statistically significant reduction in seedling stem height. However, root length and percentage germination were not affected and this prophylactic seed treatment may be useful in situations where quarantine authorities require additional precautions.Microscopic examination of cross sections of the budwood sticks, to check for the presence of C. theobromae hyphae in the xylem, can be used as an additional  Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, CEP 37200-000, Brazil Email: mlucio@ufla.brVerticillium dahliae KlebahnOver 200 mainly dicotyledonous species including herbaceous annuals, perennials and woody species are host to Verticillium diseases (Agrios 2005). General symptoms of Verticillium wilts include epinasty (Fig. 8.5.1 A), yellowing, necrosis and wilting or abscission of leaves (Fig. 8.5.1 B-D), followed by stunting or death of the plant (Resende et al. 1996). According to Fradin and Thomma (2006), typically wilting starts from the tip of an infected leaf, usually in the oldest shoots as invasion is acropetal (from base to apex). In cacao, infected plants generally exhibit sudden wilting and subsequent necrosis of leaves and flushes. Similar defoliating (Fig. 8.5.1 B) and non-defoliating (Fig. 8.5.1 C) types of symptom development can occur on cacao and other hosts. For example, on cotton, Schnathorst and Mathre (1966) described V. dahliae pathotypes as defoliating or non-defoliating, but other authors (Bell 1973, Ashworth Jr 1983) have suggested a continuum of symptoms related to the relative aggressiveness amongst strains of V. dahliae, rather than the occurrence of distinct pathotypes. Generally, wilt symptoms are thought to be due to water stress caused by vascular occlusion, whilst defoliation may also involve imbalances in growth regulators. Thus, Talboys (1968) suggested that defoliation was related to the level of water stress, while Tzeng and DeVay (1985) and Resende et al. (1996) demonstrated enhanced production of ethylene, respectively, from cotton and cacao plants inoculated with defoliating isolates compared to those infected with non-defoliating isolates.In stem sections, a brown discoloration of the vascular tissues (Fig. 8.5.1 E, F) can be seen. Browning, tyloses (Fig. 8.5.1 G), and deposition of gels and gums (Fig. 8.5.1 G) may be observed internally in the vessels. Symptom levels depend mainly on the concentration of inoculum, pathotype of Verticillium, plant variety and stage of plant development, temperature, soil moisture, and nutrition, particularly potassium content (Resende 1994). Infestation of plant roots by parasitic nematodes can enhance the occurrence and severity of diseases caused by soil-borne fungi such as V. dahliae (Johnson and Santo 2001).Verticillium spp. are soil-borne fungi with worldwide distribution, causing vascular disease that results in severe yield and quality losses in several crops (Subbarao et al. 1995). Verticillium dahliae and V. albo-atrum cause disease in temperate and subtropical regions but are less destructive in the tropics. Verticillium dahliae appears to be favoured by higher temperatures than V. albo-atrum, as can be deduced from its geographical distribution (Fradin andThomma 2006, Resende 1994). Verticillium dahliae is more destructive in warmer climates, whereas V. albo-atrum is more apt to cause problems in crops in northern latitudes with humid climates. Severe attacks, following especially dry conditions or waterlogging, can cause the death of a cacao tree one week after a situation of apparent health and vigour (Resende 1994).In Brazil, Verticillium wilt is a serious problem in the States of Bahia and Espírito Santo (Resende et al. 1995, Agrianual 2009). This disease is more common in regions subject to rainfall shortages, causing annual plant mortality of up to 10% on unshaded cacao areas (Almeida et al. 1989).Verticillium wilt disease is the most serious disease of cacao in Uganda inducing losses of up 30% (Emechebe et al. 1971). It has been recognized in Uganda for many years and may be a reason why cacao has not become a significant crop there (Leakey 1965, Resende et al. 1995, Sekamate and Okwakol 2007). Verticillium wilt has recently been reported in the Province of North Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo, most likely as a result of spread from Uganda. Verticillium dahliae has also been found on cacao in Colombia (Granada 1989, Resende et al. 1995).Cotton and many other dicotyledonous species.Verticillium dahliae Kleb. is a root inhabiting fungus with a necrotrophic life cycle. This anamorphic form of an ascomycete, belonging to family Plectospharellaceae, Class Sordariomycetes, is a common causal agent of wilt diseases in many crop plants (Domsch et al. 2007).The vegetative mycelium of V. dahliae is hyaline, usually branched, septate and multinucleate (Fig. 8.5.2 A). Conidiophores are erect, bearing whorls of slender awlshaped divergent phialides. Conidia are ellipsoidal to ovoid (Fig. 8.5.2 A), 15-50 (-100) µm in diameter, hyaline, mainly 1-celled, 3-8 µm long and are produced on long phialides positioned in a whorl or spiral-like shape around the verticillate conidiophores (Resende 1994, Gómez-Alpízar 2001, Fradin and Thomma 2006). Microsclerotia, considered resting structures, are commonly observed.Two species of Verticillium, V. dahliae Klebahn and V. albo-atrum Reinke & Berthold, are very similar. Taxonomically, V. dahliae is separated from V. albo-atrum mainly by the presence of microsclerotia (Fig. 8.5.2 C) as resting structure and these withstand adverse environmental conditions up to 13 years (Schnathorst 1981, Resende 1994). Verticillium dahliae appears to be favoured by temperatures of 25 -28°C while V. alboatrum of 20 -25°C (Resende 1994). Verticillium dahliae causes monocyclic disease, meaning that only one cycle of disease and inoculum production occurs during a growing season. In contrast, V. albo-atrum may produce conidia on infected plant tissues that become airbone and contribute to spread of the disease. Therefore, the diseases caused by V. albo-atrum can sometimes be polycyclic (Fradin and Thomma 2006).As Verticillium wilt is a monocyclic disease, inoculum levels of V. dahliae (microsclerotia per g of soil) in the soil at planting time, play a critical role in wilt development on many crops (Xiao andSubbarao 1998, 2000). A wide range of genera and plant species are colonized by V. dahliae, including members of the families Malvaceae such as cacao and cotton, Solanaceae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Papilionaceae, Labiatae and Chenopodiaceae (Resende et al. 1994).The life cycle of V. dahliae can be divided into a dormant, a parasitic and a saprophytic phase. A unique adaptation of these organisms is that until the advanced stages of vascular colonization, the pathogen is exclusively confined in the xylem, which contains fluids with only low concentrations of sugars, amino acids and various inorganic salts (Resende 1994). The germination of microsclerotia in infested soils is stimulated by root exudates and the germ tube penetrates the host through the roots, proceeds to grow both inter-and intracellularly in the cortex, and spreads into the xylem. Systemic invasion occurs when successive generations of conidia are produced and then transported through the xylem transpiration stream to the aerial parts of the plant (Veronese et al. 2003). It has been reported that colonization of the plant at this stage appears to occur in cycles of fungal proliferation and fungal elimination, with elimination probably driven by plant defence responses (Fradin and Thomma 2006). During tissue necrosis or plant senescense the fungus enters a saprophytic stage. Apart from the vascular tissues, shoots and roots of the plant also become colonized. In V. dahliae infection, large amounts of microsclerotia are produced (Fig. 8.5.2 B and 8.5.2 C).Efforts should be made to prevent the entry of the pathogen in the main cacaoproducing regions. It is necessary to restrict the movement of germplasm into areas where the disease does not occur, and to collect branches for bud grafting from areas free of the pathogen. When coming from infected areas, the plant material must be placed in a quarantine station, for observation and analyses since the fungus can remain dormant inside the plant tissue. Vascular discolouration symptoms are often observed. The absence of the pathogen must be confirmed through direct isolation in an alcohol agar medium before being dispatched (Freitas and Mendes 2005). Verticillium dahliae can be isolated from the xylem of roots, stems, branches, twigs and even leaves and seeds. Recent efforts to detect both specie4s of Verticillium are mainly concentrated on the use of DNA hybridization probes. An ELISA test for V. albo-atrum is in use in France for testing certified pelargoniums (CABI/EPPO).According to Pereira et al. (2008), disease control can be achieved through the use of genetic resistance associated with cultural measures, such as the use of healthy seedlings, removal of infected crop residues, balanced fertilization, irrigation and proper application of systemic fungicides, although the use of these products can be impracticable, since the fungus survives in plant debris or soil, as microsclerotia for prolonged periods. Even though genetic resistance is desirable, genetic material with satisfactory level of resistance is not yet available, although cv. POUND 7 has been highlighted in tests of \"screening\" to be partially resistant to the disease.European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) recommends that planting material should come from a field where Verticillium wilt has not occurred in the last five years and that consignments and their mother plants should have been found free from the disease in the last growing season. Such measures are as relevant in a national certification scheme as for international phytosanitary certification (CABI/EPPO). Carmen Suárez-Capello1 Universidad Tècnica Estatal de Quevedo (UTEQ),Quevedo, Ecuador . Correo electrónico: csuarez@uteq.edu.ec/ suarezcapello@yahoo.comCeratocystis cacaofunesta Engelbr. & T.C. Harr.Mal de machete or Ceratocystis wilt of cacao is caused by a host-specialized form of Ceratocystis fimbriata, now known as C. cacaofunesta (Engelbrecht and Harrington 2005).Ceratocystis cacaofunesta is a serious pathogen of cacao (Theobroma cacao) and related Herrania spp., causing wilt and death of infected trees. The cacao pathogen is a member of the Latin American clade of the C. fimbriata species complex, which has substantial genetic variation and a wide range of hosts. For an extensive review of the genus refer to CABI Crop Protection Compendium, CABI Publishing Updated 2001 by CJ Baker and TC Harrington (CAB International 2001).Infected trees show limp, brown foliage on a single branch or across the whole tree, depending if only a branch or the main stem is infected; the first symptom is a general yellowing and slow wilt of the infected part of the branch/tree, which progressively turn brown. Typically Ceratocystis wilt is recognised through limp brown foliage that hang from the tree without falling even when shaking the branch or tree (Fig. 8.6.1). Ambrosia beetles of the genus Xyleborus are attracted to the diseased trees and bore into the branches or main stem (Saunders 1965). The frass from ambrosia beetles is pushed to the outside of the stem or branch, and is seen on the base of the tree as light, powdery masses (Fig. 8.6.2). This is recognised as the first positive sign of Ceratocystis wilt; frequently the frass is seen even before the yellowing of the tree is visible.This specialized form of the Ceratocystis complex apparently has Theobroma cacao and the related genus Herrania as hosts, other Theobroma species have not been reported susceptible (Engelbrecht et al. 2007).Ceratocystis wilt of cacao (as Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis & Halstead) was first reported on cacao in western Ecuador in 1918 (Rorer 1918). It was reported in Colombia after 1940, Venezuela in 1958(Thorold 1975), Costa Rica in 1958(Thorold 1975) and Trinidad in 1958(Spence and Moll 1958). Reports of the disease stretch from Guatemala (Schieber and Sosa 1960) and Central America to northern South America, including the Peruvian Amazon (Soberanis et al. 1999), Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela (Thorold 1975). In Brazil, the disease was reported in the south-western Amazon (Rondônia) in 1978 (Bastos and Evans 1978) and more recently in Bahia (Bezerra 1997), which is out of the native range of T. cacao. The disease is also found in French Guiana (M Ducamp, pers. comm.).Two closely-related sub-lineages exist within this species, one centred in western Ecuador and the other containing isolates from Brazil, Colombia and Costa Rica.The two sub-lineages differ little in morphology, but they are inter-sterile and have unique microsatellite markers (Engelbrecht et al. 2007). Engelbrecht and Harrington (2005) differentiate the host specialized species C. cacaofunesta by its pathogenicity in cacao and locates it in western Ecuador and Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia. This differentiation certainly explains the variation in aggressiveness observed when dealing with artificial inoculations (C. Suárez-Capello, personal observation).C. cacaofunesta typically enters cacao plants through fresh wounds, such as pruning or pod harvesting wounds (Malaguti 1952), and moves through the host in the secondary xylem. Ambrosia beetles of the genus Xyleborus often attack the wood of infected trees (Saunders 1965), first attracted by the strong banana odour that the fungus produces. The frass which is pushed to the outside of the stem or branch as the beetles excavate their galleries, contains viable inoculum of the fungus (asexual spores, either conidia or thickwalled aleurioconidia) (Iton and Conway 1961) and may be spread by wind or rainsplash to infect wounds on other trees (Iton 1960). Machete blades are another efficient means of spreading the fungus (Malaguti 1952).The fungus moves through the xylem, often concentrating in the vascular rays, causing a deep stain wherever it grows. It moves systemically and slowly through the plant like a vascular wilt fungus, but it more readily kills the parenchyma tissue. The fungus will also kill the cambium and bark tissue, creating a canker on the stem or branch, usually associated with a weakening of the tree. Ceratocystis cankers are only visible at a very late stage of the infection process on mature trees; on six month old seedlings inoculated with the fungus, the disease may take six to eight months to show symptoms, depending of the degree of resistance in the plant.The fungus sporulates heavily on the cut surfaces of diseased branches. These sporulating mats produce perithecia (fruit bodies) (Fig. 8.6.3) that exude sticky spore masses for insect dispersal. The mats produce a characteristic banana-like odour that attracts fungal-feeding beetles, which can serve as vectors after helping to disseminate the fungus within the cacao tissue through their galleries.Infected trees show heavy infection at the base, perhaps due to infection of wounds near ground level. Spores in the wind-dispersed frass or spores carried by fungalfeeding insects may infect fresh wounds. The name 'mal de machete' comes from the association of such infections with machete wounds.The mycelium of the fungus is as infective as the spores (both conidia and ascospores), they readily germinate on water without any dormancy; after penetration an extensive growth of mycelium is produced within the cacao tissue well before any symptom is visible.The following is a list of plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport:-   restricted than that of R. bunodes (Waterston 1941, Saccas 1956, Sivanesan and Holliday 1972, Holliday 1980). For more information check also https://nt.arsgrin.gov/fungaldatabases/ and the CABI Crop Protection Compendium (http://www.cabi.org/cpc/).Rosellinia bunodes and R. pepo attack numerous cash crops and tree species like avocado (Persea americana), plantain (Musa AAB), coffee, cacao, lime (Citrus aurantifolia), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), Inga spp., Leucena spp. and Erythrina spp. among others (Waterston 1941, Saccas 1956, Booth and Holliday 1972, Sivanesan and Holliday 1972, Aranzazu et al. 1999, Ten Hoopen and Krauss 2006).Many of these hosts are often associated with cacao.Outbreaks of Rosellinia root rots are often characterized by their occurrence in patches that extend in a circular pattern due to the way in which the pathogen infests neighboring plants. It is generally believed that Rosellinia spp. spread through direct root contacts between host plants (Aranzazu et al. 1999) and to date it is not clear which role ascospores or sclerotia, play in the epidemiology. No evidence exists that tools used by farmers play a role in disease propagation.Initial infection points are often associated with dying or already dead shade trees. The decomposing root system allows the infection with Rosellinia which subsequently builds-up enough inoculum potential to infect healthy trees (Ten Hoopen and Krauss 2006). The economic impact of Rosellinia is due to the progressive loss of productive trees, the removal of infected trees and the direct costs of control but also because a farmer will not be able to replant for several years in infected soil.Both R. bunodes and R. pepo have similar requirements in terms of soil, and climatic conditions. Both species are often associated with acid soils, rich in organic matter (Waterston 1941, López and Fernández 1966, Mendoza et al. 2003). In those areas where both species are present, it is not uncommon for both of them to infect a plant at the same time.The following parts could carry the disease:-Roots -Trunks/branches -Growing media accompanying plants could carry Rosellinia inoculum.Parts of the plant unlikely to carry the disease:-Pods Whole plants or cuttings should not be sent from areas that are infested with Rosellinia. Where clonal material is required, it should be supplied as budwood from disease-free areas where possible. Budwood from plants grown in infested areas should be sent to an Intermediate Quarantine Station in a disease-free area and budded onto rootstocks raised from seed collected from a disease-free area.When obtaining budwood from plants growing in an infested area, care should be taken that the tree that provides the budwood and all its neighbours do not show symptoms of the disease. 480 London Road, Ditton, Aylesford, Kent, ME20 6BZ, United Kingdom Email: cam_campbell@tiscali.co.ukA rich diversity of insects are associated with the cocoa crop, often reflecting the composition of local forest fauna but also including pests associated specifically with shade species and other crops grown in the cropping system. Entwistle included around 1400 species in his 1972 list of species feeding on cocoa. The number of species found in the cocoa crop is expanded to nearly 3200 if natural enemies, pollinators and mites are included (Bigger 2012) though some of these species may be casual visitors.The main insect pests of cocoa include Cocoa Pod Borer (see section 9.2), Mirids (see sections 9.3 and 9.4) and Mealybugs (see Section 9.5). However, other pests can be of local significance, or population explosions can occur from time to time, necessitating vigilance on the part of those involved in any movement of germplasm to minimise the risk of transferring any pests on the plant material.Extreme care should be taken in moving any whole pods due to the risk of pests and the eggs on the surface or inside the pods. Particular precautions are needed in areas infected by Cocoa Pod Borer (see section 9.2).When transferring material as budwood, care should be taken to harvest budwood from branches that show no visual signs of either live insects or insect damage. The budwood should be treated with an appropriate pesticide according to local guidelines. However, since some insect eggs may not always be eliminated through a pesticide dip, it is recommended that on receipt of budwood, that grafted plants are then maintained in an insect proof cage and examined daily for the presence of insect activity, and wherever possible either autoclave or totally destroy all packaging by other means. Malaysian Cocoa Board, Locked Bag 211, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Email: aliasawang@koko.gov.myConopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae).Immature infested pods show pre-ripened yellow patches (Fig. 9.2.1). Larval entry holes on the pod surface are barely visible to the naked eye, but they can be detected by shaving the husk. Larvae leave characteristic 1-2 mm diameter exit holes in pod walls (Fig. 9.2.2). Beans from infested pods often clump together and are difficult, if not impossible, to extract (Fig. 9.2.3). Beans may begin to germinate within pods that are infested when nearly ripe (Azhar 1986).The pest is widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. The life cycle of CPB is illustrated in Fig. 9.2.4. Female moths may each lay 40-100 (maximum 300) eggs. The 0.6 mm long oval and strongly flattened eggs are usually laid singly near furrows on the pod surface. The eggs hatch after circa three days, changing during maturation from an orange colour to nearly colourless. Newly hatched larvae bore immediately through the pod walls (Fig. 9.2.5). Inside the pod, the larvae feed for 14-21 days on the mucilage, pulp, placenta and sometimes the testas of the cotyledons. Once mature, larvae bore out through the pod wall (Fig. 9.2.6) and pupate within silken cocoons on leaves, pods or dry leaf litter on the ground (Fig. 9.2.7). Pupae change colour from an initial light green to dark grey as they mature. The adults, which are circa 5 mm long with a 13 mm wingspan, emerge after a 6-8 day pupation period. The forewings of newly emerged adults display a white zigzag stripe with a yellow-orange spot at the tip. Adult moths are active at night, but rest during the day with wings, antennae and legs tightly folded to the body and orient themselves crosswise on the undersides of horizontally inclined branches. Adult longevity is normally about one week and, exceptionally, up to 30 days. A generation is usually completed within 27-33 days. When transferring seed:1. Whole unopened pods should NOT be sent from infected areas.2. The source of the seeds should be clean pods with no signs of insect boring or fungus inside the pod.3. The beans should be washed in water, treated with an appropriate insecticide/fungicide mix and packaged in fresh packing material.Eggs (2-7 days) Larva (14-21 days)Pupa (6-8 days) Adult (1-30 days)When transferring budwood:1. The source of the budwood should be trees that exhibit no signs of insect boring on the pods.2. The budwood should be treated with an appropriate insecticide/fungicide mix and packaged in fresh packing material. Colin Campbell 480 London Road, Ditton, Aylesford, Kent, ME20 6BZ, United Kingdom Email: cam_campbell@tiscali.co.ukThe plant-sucking bugs in the Families Miridae and Pentatomidae are pests of cacao in every geographic region except the West Indies, while a few genera in these Families are predators of other pest insects. The most important pest species vary between cocoa growing areas and a separate section (9.4) is included to cover the Mosquito bug (Helopeltis theobromae) which is of particular concern in Southeast Asia.Among the 56 species of Miridae so far recorded on cacao worldwide, 42 are plant feeders, 4 are predators and the status of the remaining species is unknown (Bigger 2012). About seven species of Monalonion feed on cacao shoots and fruits in South and Central America, together with a few less common genera. Sahlbergella singularis (Fig. 9.3.1) and Distantiella theobroma (Fig. 9.3.2) are the commonest and most damaging species in West and Central Africa, often severely degrading the canopy while causing only superficial harm when they feed on pods. However, the resultant necrotic feeding lesions (Fig. 9.3.3 and Fig. 9.3.4)   (Bigger 2012). Many of the Helopeltis that occur outside Africa cause serious damage to the fruit as well as degrading canopy shoots. Although those that occur in Africa feed mostly on fruits, often producing numerous necrotic feeding lesions in the pod walls, their mouthparts do not reach the beans and little economic damage is caused.The biology of all of the plant-feeding species is quite similar and is discussed in detail by Entwistle (1972). In all genera, egg-laying females inject their eggs into the plant tissue with only two microscopically thin horns attached to the chorionic rim and a slight bulge from the domed operculum exposed. The eggs usually hatch in 11-16 days. The nymphs moult five times during their development, becoming an adult three-four weeks after hatching. Most species hide in dark refuges under pods and under branches during daylight hours, only emerging at night to feed. They also often either drop from the tissue on which they were feeding if disturbed, or rapidly move from sight. Eggs present in budwood and pods present the greatest quarantine risk, because not all are likely to be killed when the budwood or pod is dipped in an insecticide while egg incubation period is long enough to allow first instar nymphs to emerge undetected at night over a considerable period.Other than mirids, over 150 Heteropterous plant sucking bugs from 14 Families have been recorded on cacao worldwide of which 55 species are reported as feeding on the crop (Bigger 2012). Most are mainly minor pests, but in the context of exported plant material, two Pentatomid species warrant special mention.Antiteuchus tripterus in Latin America is a vector of a major fungal pod rot disease caused by Moniliophthora roreri (see Section 8.2), and the insect's presence may be indicative of a latent infection of the disease. In West and Central Africa, the pod feeder Bathycoelia thalassina has become increasingly prevalent owing to the increased planting of hybrid cacao which bear pods throughout the year. Both species are large conspicuous shield-shaped insects (> 1.5 cm long) whose females lay their eggs in batches externally on shoots and pods. Hence, neither eggs nor active stages are likely to be overlooked during a visual inspection of export material. In addition, females of A. tripterus actively guard their eggs and recently hatched nymphs, rendering them even more obvious.   The life cycle of Helopeltis is between 21-35 days. An adult female can lay approximately 80 eggs (Kalshoven 1980), which are oval in shape with two chorionic processes arising from this egg (Khoo et al. 1991). The female usually lays eggs in the outer layer of pods or beneath the bark of young shoots. The eggs hatch in 5-7 days and there are then 5 nymph stages (Entwistle 1965) with an incubation period of 2-17 days. The colour of the nymph changes from light green (Fig. 9.4.5) to dark green when it turns into an adult. The nymphs are smaller and have no wings. The adults are about 5-10 mm long (Fig. 9.4.6).Transport of pods from areas infested with Helopeltis is not recommended due to the possible presence of eggs in fresh lesions. Any plant material should be inspected carefully before transit. The presence of eggs can be confirmed by staining the material using lactophenol blue and then examining under the microscope. 480 London Road, Ditton, Aylesford, Kent, ME20 6BZ, United Kingdom Email: cam_campbell@tiscali.co.ukWith few exceptions (e.g. Planococcus lilacinus, in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific which has phytotoxic saliva), mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) rarely damage cacao directly. Their main importance is as virus vectors. Not all species can transmit cacao viruses and those that do differ in their efficiency as vectors; only 14 of the 21 species recorded from cacao in West Africa are vectors of CSSV. More than 80 species have been recorded so far from cacao (Bigger 2012). Every conceivable feeding niche on a plant may be exploited by one species or more, but for plant quarantine considerations terminal buds and pods present the most vulnerable feeding sites. In Ghana, 22% of dissected terminal buds were infested mainly by nymphs, too small and too well hidden between the bud scales for detection by the unaided eye (Campbell 1983). Although most mealybug species feed from aerial tissues, 10% of species are specialist root feeders.Mealybugs are ubiquitous in the tropics and occur on cacao in all regions. A few highly polyphagous species have a worldwide distribution (e.g. Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus citri and Pseudococcus longispinus), but most species have narrower host ranges and more localized regional distributions. Cacao is an introduced crop in most regions so in those regions mealybugs have adapted to cacao from indigenous hosts.Mealybugs are small sap-sucking insects, rarely exceeding 4 mm in body length. Typically, the dorsal surface of adult females is covered in wax, the extent, distribution and colour of which is often species-specific and serves as an aid to identification in the field. Females are wingless. The body shape varies widely between species, but many of the commonest species on cacao are broadly oval and dorso-ventrally flattened. The mouthparts are located on the underside of the body almost level with the first pair of legs and consist of a short beak from which emerge needle like stylets. The insect uses these stylets to penetrate the plant's cortical tissues to tap into the phloem from which they may also imbibe virus particles. The stylets often exceed half of the insect's body length, but are capable of being withdrawn undamaged in seconds should the insect be disturbed. Reproduction may be sexual and/or parthenogenetic. Males lack mouthparts in those species that do retain sexual reproduction, so only adult females and female nymphs are vectors of viruses. Most species lay eggs, often adjacent to the mother and in masses of several hundred eggs protected by white fluffy ovisacs. However, some species including Formicoccus (Planococcoides) njalensis (Fig. 9.5.1.) a widespread vector of CSSV in West Africa, either give birth to live young or the eggs hatch within a few minutes of being laid. Newborn and newly hatched nymphs, barely visible to the unaided human eye, are the principle dispersive stage of the insect. They mostly walk giving rise to radial spread of virus diseases, but they can also be carried often long distances by wind currents giving rise to jump spread of viruses. Young nymphs often settle within apical buds so may inadvertently be transported with budwood unless the safeguards outlined in the general precautions are followed. They also squeeze between cracks in the bark and in fissures on the surface of developing pods. Nymphs can also feed on the cotyledons of any cacao seeds damaged during pod-splitting, so it is also a wise precaution to dip pods in an insecticide before live seeds are extracted and exported. Venezuela and E. punctidescanum from Trinidad, the Gracillariids Marmara spp. from Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, Spulerina spp. from West Africa and the Noctuid Characoma stictigrapta from Africa would be undesireable, but less disastrous than an accidental transference of CPB, as the damage these husk miners cause to cacao pods is mostly superficial. The necrotic wandering galleries left by these species near the pod surface are unlikely to be overlooked during a visual inspection of pods prior to shipping.The larvae of this moth bore into woody stems, branches and roots of cocoa in West and Central Africa, resulting in the death of affected limbs or young trees. Adult female moths lack mouthparts, but each may lay over 1600 eggs in their brief 4-day lifespan (Adu- Acheampong et al. 2004). The ovo-elongate 400 x 600 µm pale yellow to pink eggs, which may be laid on any part of the tree, hatch after about eleven days incubation whereupon the newly hatched larvae immediately burrow into fresh stems. However, stems below 1.5 cm diameter are unlikely to be attacked, so any shoots harvested for use as budwood above that size need careful inspection for tell-tale penetration holes, as larvae within their tunnels are protected from the effects of an insecticidal dip.  ","tokenCount":"11350"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2b9c872610571ba1f87cc6ac58bbf57b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8547df13-8e93-400b-97cd-1ba5a73c4eaa/retrieve","id":"-1510583433"},"keywords":["mineral fertilizer","technology adoption","intensity of adoption","double-hurdle model","Rwanda"],"sieverID":"6b3b4e79-240b-45b3-91e6-6405bc27d35c","pagecount":"13","content":"This study was undertaken to investigate the use of mineral fertilizer by smallholder farmers in order to understand the set of factors influencing the decisions of smallholder farmers to use fertilizers in land-scarce conditions. Using descriptive analysis and the Cragg's double-hurdle model, the study identified and analyzed factors that determine smallholder farmer adoption of mineral fertilizers and those that affect the intensity of household mineral fertilizer use. From factors that only influence the decision of smallholder farmers to use mineral fertilizers, distance to fertilizer market and livestock affects it negatively; while farmer association membership, landholding per capita, access to extension services and the size of household affect it positively. The variable \"domestic assets\" which is a proxy variable for smallholder farmers' wealth affects only the intensity of use of mineral fertilizers. Literacy of head of household, share of potatoes sold and extension services have an effect on the probability of adoption and intensity of mineral fertilizer use. Improving smallholder farmers' access to information (extension services and education) and increasing mineral fertilizer profitability through improving agricultural commodity markets are essential for raising both the adoption of mineral fertilizers and the extent of mineral fertilizer use among smallholder farmers in Rwanda.Improving the management of soil fertility among smallholder farmers is part of important solutions of addressing food insecurity and rural poverty in the context of high population pressure and limited possibility of putting new land under cultivation. Paradoxically, the use of improved technical inputs such as mineral fertilizers and pesticides is in general low in sub-Saharan Africa (Adesina and Djato 1996;Nkamleu and Adesina 2000). On average, the rate of mineral fertilizer use is estimated at between 8 and 12 kg ha −1 in sub-Saharan Africa compared to over 83 kg ha −1 for all developing countries (Mwangi 1997); things are worse in Rwanda where the fertilizer use intensity was estimated at 5 kg/ha early this decade (Kelly et al. 2001a). However, blanket recommendations in fertilizer cannot address the soil heterogeneity in most rural settings and some farmers in developing countries overapply nitrogen, considering their degraded soil quality (Sheahan et al. 2013) The government of Rwanda through its successive agricultural policies and strategic plans has been encouraging farmers to increase land and labor productivity through the use of improved technical inputs, thereby producing enough surpluses that can be sold to sustain the use of inputs and improve farm incomes. The Rwandan government has two major objectives with respect to fertilizer policy: (i) increase the number of users of fertilizers and (ii) increase the quantity of fertilizer applied by users.Several empirical models have been specified to explain farmers' technology choice decisions. Studies on fertilizer demand have used various methods, each one with its strengths and weaknesses. Some of the most commonly used of these are probit (Negatu and Parikh 1999; Kaliba et al. 2000), logit (Sain and Martinez 1999; Chianu and Tsujii 2004;Chianu et al. 2007), tobit (Adesina and Zinnah 1993;Adesina and Baidu-Forson 1995;Nkonya et al. 1997) and Heckman two-step model (Heckman 1976;Heckman 1979; Demeke et al. 1998;Minot et al. 2000;Nkonya and Featherstone 2001). Another approach that is found in literature on agricultural input adoption is the Cragg's double-hurdle approach (Cragg 1971), which as the Heckman two-step model generates one set of coefficients predicting the probability that a smallholder farmer will use the input and another set of coefficients predicting the volume of input used, provided it uses some (Ricker-Gilbert et al. 2011; Akpan et al. 2012; Martey et al. 2014; Yu and Nin-Pratt 2014). Negatu and Parikh (1999) in their research on randomly selected Ethiopian farmers for the adoption of improved crop variety found that the size of farm was part of significant variables that determine adoption. Kaliba et al. (2000) in their study examined variables affecting the use of improved maize seeds and the use of inorganic fertilizer in the intermediate and lowland zones of Tanzania and found that a variety of characteristics significantly and positively affected the use of inorganic fertilizers. Nkonya et al. (1997) analyzed the factors affecting the use of improved maize seed and fertilizers in northern Tanzania and found that farm size positively affect adoption and that farmers adopt improved seeds before adopting fertilizer. Freeman and Omiti (2003) using data from small farmers in semi-arid regions of Kenya found a positive and significant effect of household head's literacy on the adoption of mineral fertilizers. Olawale  Previous studies conducted in Rwanda to investigate the issues of land productivity including determinants of input use (Clay et al. 1995;Byiringiro and Reardon 1996;Kelly et al. 2001b;Clay et al. 2002) found that the use of improved inputsorganic matter (manure, mulch, etc.)and purchased inputs (fertilizers and lime) increases with less slopes, owner-operated land, more stable prices, small farms, more nonfarm income, the presence of more livestock and extension. However, none of these studies had a specific focus on mineral fertilizer, especially for smallholder farmers.This study intended to complement the mentioned previous studies by investigating the mineral fertilizer use by smallholder farmers operating in land-scarce conditions, hoping to provide more in-depth information that would guide the government in the process of improving policy design to meet the earlier mentioned fertilizer policy objectives. Fertilizer use decisions are indeed made by smallholder farmers and that is why it is really important to understand the set of factors influencing smallholder farmers' fertilizer use decisions. This study has used descriptive analysis and the double-hurdle model (DHM) to identify and analyze the factors that determine smallholder farmers' adoption of mineral fertilizers and those that affect their mineral fertilizer use intensity.This study covers three agroecological zones, namely, the Birunga zone, the Buberuka highlands zone and the Congo-Nile divide zone (Figure 1). All the three zones are part of the highlands of Rwanda but exhibit marked differences in soil types.Birunga agricultural zone is made of the volcanic soils that go from an altitude of 2,500 to 1,600 m. With a rainfall that varies from 1,300 and 1,600 mm and fertile soils, it creates conditions that are favorable for agricultural production. The previous limitations that were due to limited soil depth have been addressed by growing crops on small ridges formed during soil preparation.The Buberuka highlands are located in northern Rwanda and include high-altitude plateaus from 1,900 to 2,300 m above sea level. This region is characterized by a rainfall of about 1,200 mm annually and a twomonth dry season. The Buberuka highlands even though characterized by acidic soils as the Congo-Nile divide region, they are more fertile and have more options for agricultural production.Congo-Nile divide has newly reclaimed lands from Gishwati forest characterized by a small portion of volcanic soils and the rest being acidic soils as previously mentioned. It is characterized by a lower altitude of 1,900 m which corresponds to a level above the sea that does not accommodate most crops of the tropical lowlands and has tops of mountain chain that go beyond an altitude of 2,500 m. In general the annual rainfall varies between 1,300 and 1,500 mm and between 1,400 and 1,800 mm, respectively, in the Northern and the Southern parts of the zone. However, in the Nyungwe forest, the annual rainfall goes beyond 2,000 mm.In general smallholders use mineral fertilizers when the net benefit or perceived utility from applying these inputs is significantly higher than is the alternative of not using them. Farmers' utility from using technical inputs is not directly observed but the choices they make are reflected by their actions. Following Green (2000) and Pryanishnikov and Katarina (2003), the linear random utility model could be specified as:U n and U l are here perceived utilities of using mineral fertilizers and not using them, respectively, Z m is the vector of explanatory variables that influence the perceived utility from using or not using mineral fertilizer, β n and β l are parameters to be estimated, and u n and u l are disturbance terms assumed to be independently and identically distributed (Green 2000). If a smallholder farmer decides to use mineral fertilizers (option n), it follows that the perceived utility or benefit from using these is greater than the utility from not using fertilizers (option k) depicted as:The probability that a smallholder farmer will decide to use mineral fertilizers could then be defined as:with P being a probability function, U mn , U ml and Z m are as defined earlier, u* = u nu l is a random error term, β * = (β n − β l ) is a vector of unknown parameters that can be interpreted as a net influence of the vector of independent variables influencing mineral fertilizer use, and F(β*Z m ) is a cumulative distribution function of ε* evaluated at β*Z m . The exact distribution of F depends on the distribution of the random error term, u*. Green (2000) considers that depending on the assumed distribution that the random disturbance term follows, several qualitative choice models can be estimated.It is expected that some smallholder farmers do not use mineral fertilizers, which is an expression of its nonadoption. Gebremedhin and Swinton (2003) argued that the decision to adopt a technology and the decision on the extent of use of that technology are not necessarily made jointly. In fact, the decision on the intensity of use may be taken after the decision to adopt, and the factors affecting the first decision may be different from those affecting the second. Moffatt (2003) showed that both the straightforward binary and the censored data models may not be used in a case where factors affecting each decision are different because such models assume that the process that results in nonadoption of a technology is the same as the one that determines the extent of use of that technology. The maximum-likelihood estimation for the DHM which is based on two equations is then used, one taking into account the access by farmers to fertilizer and the other one considering the level of application when access to fertilizer is granted.The first decision variable (V) takes the value 1 for farmers who have adopted mineral fertilizers and takes the value 0 for otherwise. The expected utility of adopting mineral fertilizers ( ) * V i is a latent variable (that underlies an individual farmer's access to fertilizer) and is formulated as:As mentioned earlier, not all mineral fertilizer adopters use the same quantity of fertilizer per unit of land. The quantity of fertilizer used is measured in general per hectare. The second decision variable (Y) which represents the intensity of use, that is, the level of application of fertilizer by farmers who have accessed it is then formulated as follows:In equations (4) and (6) \"x\" and \"w\" are vectors of explanatory variables, possibly containing common components, including intercepts, α and β are vectors of parameters to be estimated and disturbance terms u i and ε i are considered to be normally and independently distributed.Following the above DHM description, smallholder farmers can be grouped into three categories: (i) Category 1 represents the adopters and includes all farmers who have passed the positive demand threshold ( > ) Y 0 . The DHM is thus made of a univariate probit model for the decision to adopt and a truncated regression model for the intensity of use, provided the assumption of independence between the disturbance terms ε i and u i holds. The estimates of parameters α and β in equations (4) and (5) were obtained using the stata command \"craggit\" following Burke (2009) with Stata version 11.Empirical studies identify a wider range of important variables for a household that has decided to use a new technology. The effect of most of these factors is associated with market imperfections frequent in developing countries. Production and consumption decisions of smallholder farmers in these market conditions may not be separable, thereby the inclusion of household characteristics, asset endowments and other variables impacting the profitability of the proposed technology as explanatory variables in the adoption decision model as mandatory (Shiferaw and Holden 1998). The underlying characteristic of these variables is that they are assumed to affect the adoption of the technology. Two broad categories of variables were considered in this study: (i) household-level variables and (ii) access and geographical-level variables. ). Furthermore, in the context of imperfect labor and land markets, agricultural households with less land or a larger family-labor endowment per unit of land can be expected to use labor more intensively in agricultural production (Feder 1985; Shiferaw and Holden 1998). Household size is used as a simple measure of labor availability. A large family is usually associated with a higher labor endowment that would allow a household to complete agricultural tasks on time. However, household with large size may be forced to divert part of the labor force to off-farm activities to cope with the consumption pressure. Since the off-farm opportunities are scarce in Rwanda, it may be predicted that a household with a large family will be more likely to adopt mineral fertilizers. Financial liquidity: Access to credit and a better liquidity position of the farmer (e.g., growing a cash crop), by alleviating the liquidity constraint (cash shortage), allows farmers to have access to technical inputs such as mineral fertilizers, pesticides and improved seeds.• Access to credit. This variable equals 1 if the head of the household has taken out any loan in the last 12 months before the survey. It is hypothesized to be positively associated with the probability and intensity of adoption of mineral fertilizer. • Share (percentage) of Irish potato sold. It is hypothesized to have a positive impact on household's decision to adopt mineral fertilizers and on the amount of fertilizer used.Access: This category includes the distance to the place from where fertilizers can be purchased, access to the extension services and membership in various organizations. Agroecological conditions do influence soil fertility management practices; these being labor-intensive activities. Barrett et al. (2002) found that, by increasing the marginal return and/or reducing the risks of inputs, a higher agricultural potential zone is expected to be associated with the more labor-and input-intensive practices. It is assumed that the probability and intensity of mineral fertilizer use would be higher in Birunga and Congo-Nile divide zones than in Buberuka zone.The data used in our study on mineral fertilizer use by smallholder farmers were collected through a household survey questionnaire. The survey covered three agroecological zones, namely, Buberuka highlands zone, Birunga zone and Congo-Nile divide zone. These zones are known to be the major fertilizer consuming regions on food crops in the country, especially Irish potato. In each zone, a 4stage random sampling procedure was used to select rural households as follows. 1. First stage: from each zone four administrative sectors were randomly selected 2. Second stage: from a sampled sector, one cell (an administrative unit composed by at least three villages) was randomly selected. 3. Third stage: from a sampled cell, one village was randomly selected. 4. Forth stage: 30 households were randomly selected from each village.Sampling frames were lists of sectors in each zone, lists of cells in each sector, lists of villages in each cell and lists of households in each village. The table of random numbers was used to select 4 sectors, 1 cell, 1 village and 30 households in each agroecological zone, each sector, each cell and each village, respectively. A village has between 150 and 200 households. The head of the village provided the list of his households and he was responsible to inform selected households on the day the survey had to be conducted. The appointment with selected households aimed at ensuring the presence of household head the day of the survey.The draft of the survey questionnaire was field tested and the phrasing and order of some queries were revised. The survey was then conducted by four trained enumerators under our supervision, i.e., one village per working day. The survey questionnaire covered household socioeconomic characteristics, food production systems with emphasis on fertilizer use, accessibility of input and output markets and services, and risk factors. Survey data were cleaned before descriptive and regression analyses were performed. From the 360 households interviewed, 338 had all the data that were needed and were used in descriptive analysis. However, after a preliminary analysis, 16 of these were dropped out for showing outliers in some variables (land area and value of livestock) and only 322 cases were considered for the regression analysis.3.1 Descriptive analysisResults in Table 1 showed the proportion of households using different agricultural inputs in the three abovementioned agroecological zones. Pesticides were the most used technical inputs in these zones while improved seeds were the least used. Even though three agroecological zones are the major mineral fertilizer consuming zones in the country, about 40% of survey households did not use it, implying that a number of factors impeded a generalized use of mineral fertilizers.The proportion of households using mineral fertilizers varies substantially by zone.Birunga zone with fertile volcanic soils had the largest proportion of users (91%) while Buberuka zone had the lowest (36%). Curiously, the latter zone had the highest proportion of households using organic fertilizers and improved seeds. A partial explanation for this was that Buberuka zone had soils that are relatively acidic with very low productivity without soil amendment using lime or organic fertilizers. Since the smallholder farmers could not afford the application of lime on their lands, they did their best to get some manure or other sources of organic matter. In fact, mineral fertilizers used in Buberuka on major crop production such as Irish potato, common beans, maize, wheat and vegetables are nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium (NPK), diamonium phosphorus (DAP) and urea. Better crop yield responses to these fertilizers on acidic soil require soil amendment as mentioned. Even though almost all farmers interviewed used organic manure to amend their acidic soil, the quantity used is in general very low compared to the recommended rate (at least 10 tons per hectare). Improved seeds used by households in this zone were mostly from a nearby ISAR (Rwanda agricultural research institute) station and consisted of seeds of wheat, common bean, sorghum and Irish potato.Results on fertilizer use listed in Table 1 were disaggregated in Table 2 in categories of users (in terms of frequency of use). Households that were considered as mineral fertilizer users in Table 2 were those that fell in the three first categories, that is, households that had always, often or sometimes used mineral fertilizers.On average 29% of sampled households had always used mineral fertilizers but with very high disparities between zones. In fact, more than half of sampled households in Birunga zone used mineral fertilizers each season and simultaneously in different plots while in Buberuka zone only roughly 5% of survey households could afford to do this. As a corollary, the latter zone had the highest proportion (55%) of households that had never used mineral fertilizers. The low proportion of farmers who use mineral fertilizers all the seasons and high proportion of those who never use it in Buberuka zone reflect the low accessibility of lime and mineral fertilizers by farmers in that zone. It is in fact widely believed that continued cultivation of acid soils degrades soils in humid tropics (von Uexkull 1980), which is the case in Rwanda and in Buberuka zone in particular.Table 3 gives the average values of quantity of mineral fertilizers used per household in the three zones covered by the study. On average, a household from the three zones used 34 kg of mineral fertilizers per hectare per season, which was quite high compared to the national average (5 kg ha −1 ) and the estimated average of sub-Saharan Africa (8-12 kg ha −1 ) but less than half of the average of other developing countries (83 kg ha −1 ).Results in Table 3 revealed that Birunga zone was totally different from the other two zones in terms of intensity of mineral fertilizer use by smallholder farmers. The big difference was surely due to a combination of different factors. One of these was the more intensive land use, in particular with Irish potato. This zone, having the best agricultural soils in the country, had the highest population density in the country and one could expect the lowest farm size per household. In fact, the analysis of our survey data showed that on average a household owned 1.28 hectare in Buberuka zone, 0.78 hectare in Birunga zone and 0.83 hectare in Congo-Nile divide zone. Mean values of variables hypothesized to affect fertilizer adoption were compared for farmers using and not using mineral fertilizers in Table 4. The technique used to measure the statistical significance of the differences between means of the two groups was the t test with stata 11. It has been hypothesized that the fertilizer adoption rate is higher for more profitable crops such as Irish potato and where complementary inputs are used. The proportion of households using improved seeds was low compared to those using organic fertilizers and pesticides and equally distributed among fertilizer users and nonusers (Table 4). Pesticides were the only complementary input that was more common to mineral fertilizer users. An interesting observation concerning these complementary practices was that contrary to what was expected, mineral fertilizer nonadopters used more organic fertilizer even though no statistically significant difference between the two groups was found. The implication of this result was that smallholder farmers will not benefit from the yield increasing effect that comes from the synergy in combining mineral and organic fertilizers. This missing link must be considered by all those involved in agricultural development and promotion in the study area. Statistically significant difference was observed between mineral fertilizer users and nonusers with respect to age. In fact, mineral fertilizer users were on average 4 years younger than nonusers. The results showed that literacy had a positive influence on the uptake of mineral fertilizers. The rate of literacy was 17% higher among fertilizer users than among nonusers. The proportion of female head of household was higher for fertilizer nonusers but the difference between users and nonusers was not statistically significant. This result then rejected the argument that female-headed households lagged behind their male counterparts in terms of improved technology adoption. Household assets were represented by the variables value of domestic assets (value of household appliances and furniture), value of livestock and land owned (by households). It was hypothesized that households with more domestic assets and livestock were likely to adopt mineral fertilizers while households with less land would intensify more by using mineral fertilizers. No significant difference was observed between fertilizer users and nonusers for all three variables.Financial liquidity of a household was proxied by the percentage of marketed cash crop, the access to credit and membership in association/cooperative. Results showed that the share of potatoes sold and credit access were important determinants of fertilizer adoption but were mixed for membership in farmer associations. In fact, the share of potatoes sold was 15% higher among users of mineral fertilizers than among nonusers, and the difference was statistically significant and the proportion of households that have access to credit was higher among fertilizer users than nonusers. It is important to mention that formal credit through banks being weak, all the sources of borrowing money were considered, that is, from relatives, friends, informal savings and credit groups, money lender, government and bank and microfinance institutions.The distances to fertilizer market and to paved road did affect negatively the use of mineral fertilizer as expected. In fact, compared to mineral fertilizer users, nonusers appeared to be on average 43 and 48 min walking more far from the paved road and fertilizer market, respectively.While in the previous section mineral fertilizer use was analyzed using descriptive statistics, this section presents empirical results of the DHM that determines the probability of adoption as well as intensity of use of mineral fertilizer among smallholders. The dependent variable for the fertilizer access equation was binary, to indicate whether mineral fertilizers were used by a household (adoption of mineral fertilizers), whereas the dependent variable for the truncated regression was the amount of mineral fertilizers used by the household in kilogram per hectare (intensity of use of mineral fertilizers). Summary statistics of variables that were hypothesized to affect the adoption, mineral fertilizer use intensity or both variables are reported in Table 5.Table 6 presents the results of the DHM for the 2 tiers, the probit and the truncated regression. The likelihood function of the model was statistically significant (Wald χ 2 = 98.17 and p value = 0.0000), and the post estimation calculations showed that the probit portion of the model predicted correctly in 81.68% of the cases, suggesting a good explanatory power. These results were obtained using stata software version 11.As shown in Table 6, of 16 variables included in the adoption equation, 12 were statistically significant (7 variables at the 1% probability level and 5 variables at the 5% probability level). All human capital characteristics but \"male-headed households\" significantly influenced the likelihood of using mineral fertilizers as hypothesized. Literate household heads and household size had positive impact as expected while the age of the household head as a proxy of experience in farming had unexpected negative impact. The result on household literacy confirmed our a priori expectations, and similar results were found by Freeman and Omiti (2003) with data from smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Kenya. A positive influence of household size on the adoption of mineral fertilizer was also observed by Olawale et al. (2009) with data from Northern Nigeria, and Minot et al. (2000) from Benin and Malawi. The result on the age of household head was consistent with the recent findings of Mugwe et al. (2008) and Chianu and Tsujii (2004) who also found that the age of the household head negatively influenced, respectively, the adoption of integrated soil fertility management in Kenya and mineral fertilizer in Nigeria. One of the reasons that could explain this situation was that older farmers have a tendency to stick to their usual production techniques while younger ones are associated with higher risk-taking behavior. Results failed to confirm the hypothesis that male-headed households were more likely to adopt mineral fertilizer than female-headed households and thus one can affirm that the factor \"gender\" did not impact the adoption of mineral fertilizers.The two dummy variables representing two agroecological zones (Birunga and Congo-Nile divide) affected positively the adoption of mineral fertilizer as expected. The results indicated that, the chances of using mineral fertilizers by a smallholder farmer would be higher by 56.6% and 29.3%, respectively, in Birunga and Congo-Nile zones compared to its counterpart in Buberuka zone. These results confirmed what descriptive analyses revealed earlier and could be explained by the relatively higher agricultural potential in Birunga and Congo-Nile divide zones.All the accessibility variables but distance to paved road had impact on mineral fertilizer adoption. As expected, the distance to fertilizer markets had negative impact and the access to extension services and being a member of an association had positive impact on household decision to use mineral fertilizers. In fact, the chances of using mineral fertilizers would be higher by 26.3% and 14.9% for households having access to extension services and those who are members of farmer associations, respectively.Five of 12 variables that happened to be statistically significant in explaining the household decision to adopt mineral fertilizers were also important in explaining the intensity of use of mineral fertilizer by farmers (see Table 6). These were the two agroecological zones included in the model, the access to extension services, the share of potatoes sold and the literacy of the household head.The results on the access to extension services and the share of potatoes sold which constitutes a financial liquidity variable were consistent with the findings by Martey et al. (2014) who found that the income of household head and the distance to agricultural office significantly influenced the fertilizer use intensity. Results of this study then suggested that policy whose objective was to raise the level of mineral fertilizer use among smallholder farmers who had adopted it needed to focus on factors that improve the profitability of crops and those that improve smallholder accessibility to information.One variable with no effect on the household decision to use mineral fertilizers appeared to be part of the determinants of the extent of mineral fertilizers used by adopters, namely, domestic assets which is a proxy for household wealth. Khor and Zeller (2016) using household panel data from the Hebei province of China found that the direction of wealth effect on fertilizer use does change across the different levels of farmers' wealth.This result suggested then that all things being equal, wealthier smallholder farmers in Rwanda used more fertilizer.The coefficient of the variable \"landholding per capita\" had a negative sign as expected but the variable had no significant effect on the intensity of mineral fertilizer. We failed then to confirm the hypothesis that households with less land would intensify by using more mineral fertilizers. Part of the explanation was that household farm land was in general small in Rwanda and households with very small landholdings had no means to buy mineral fertilizer.This study examined the hypothesized determinants of mineral fertilizers demand in Rwanda. The results showed that the use of mineral fertilizers is influenced by variables related to financial liquidity, human resources, access to markets, household assets and extension services.The regression analysis showed that the set of factors influencing the household decision to adopt mineral fertilizers is not necessarily the same as the those having impact on mineral fertilizer use intensity. In fact, only five of 12 factors that had impact on household decisions to use mineral fertilizers also effected the intensity of mineral fertilizer use. The most important of those factors were literacy of the head of household, share of potatoes sold and extension services. On the other hand, one factor with no effect on the probability of adoption had impact on the intensity of use, that is, domestic asset, the proxy variable of household wealth. Thus, policies aimed at improving smallholder farmers' livelihood are likely to increase the level of fertilizer use.As far as the above findings are concerned, the strategies to mineral fertilizer use in Rwanda in general and in the study area in particular need to focus on factors that enhance both the probability of its adoption and the intensity of its use. Improving household access to information (extension services and education) and increased mineral fertilizer profitability through improvement in crop output and input markets are essential conditions for raising both the adoption of mineral fertilizers and the extent of mineral fertilizers use among smallholder farmers in Rwanda.","tokenCount":"5089"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"62d1b05f5959dd10918df7ad48c8df40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e4bd603-5617-4716-b1a9-6d3d5df7b8e7/retrieve","id":"-545564920"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"769df6c6-9e65-4f21-87d1-faeec9eeef0e","pagecount":"18","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. CIAT would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Considering that about 90% of livestock feed is currently derived from shared grazing on community pasturelands, and that these communal lands are highly overgrazed, soil and land degradation are exacerbating. Widespread soil losses and nutrient depletion diminish agricultural productivity and farmer incomes. Around 85% of the total land in Ethiopia suffers from moderate to very serious levels of land degradation, costing about US$4.3 billion per year. Climate change exacerbates these challenges. Novel agricultural production systems including livestock could augment food availability, counteract land degradation, and facilitate economic growth in Ethiopia. Measures to improve livestock feed provisions through intensification without compromising food crop production or landscape health are among the prime objectives for sustainable development. In the highlands, livestock is predominantly managed in mixed crop-livestock systems. Enhancing these agricultural systems involves shifting towards heightened forage production. The number of farmers using improved pastures has increased in the last decade but remains relatively low at under 14%. The potential of grassland species to ameliorate soil quality, lessen land degradation, and raise farmer incomes remains widely unexplored. To date, there are no studies from Africa that examine the effects of grassland mixtures containing diverse tropical grasses combined with legumes on forage and food crop yields. EthiopiaGrass invited its partners and stakeholders to the second Multi-Actor Platform (MAP) meeting to inform, discuss, plan, and overcome barriers in the project implementation in a transdisciplinary way. The MAP convenes yearly to provide feedback about the research objectives and approach, and to disseminate knowledge for enhanced research uptake. The specific objectives of the second MAP meeting were to:-update and reflect on project activities and showcase preliminary results.-introduce planned activities of the project year to stakeholders and ensure alignment with ongoing initiatives. -receive feedback on research objectives and implementations so far.-identify opportunities for research uptake.-discuss the way forwards.Forage and restoration experts from multiple national universities, research institutions, and international research centers attended the meeting (Table 1).  The second MAP meeting started with a brief welcome from Mr. Mulugeta Gudisa, forage team leader from Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr. Marit Jørgensen, EthiopiaGrass's project manager, from Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO). This was followed by a round of introduction of participants (Figure 1).Topic 1: Grass-legume mixes the way forward for Ethiopia?The discussion on the topic was based on Dr. Marit Jørgensen's presentation entitled \"Grass-legume mixtures -a way forward for forage production in Ethiopia? -overview of first results from EthiopiaGrass\", which was complemented by updates on progress from controlled experiments by Dr. The results indicated that there are significantly positive diversity effects of mixing legumes and grasses both in Bahir Dar, and in Hawassa (Figure 2). It was also indicated that these preliminary findings need to be analyzed in more detail, specifically focusing on annual yields in addition to accumulated yields over years. The MAP participants raised the below questions and provided suggestions around topic 1:Questions (Q): How were harvest times decided? E.g., Desmodium's CP content was low, was it overmature?Answers (A): The harvest time was decided based on grasses -on average 100/120 days. Optimal harvest time could be decided based on optimal feed quality, which depends on season. This is a topic that merits further investigation under varying climatic conditions.Q: Were yields separated between legumes and grasses? And is it changing, e.g., what is the status of Desmodium now? Is it dominating the grasses?A: Yields of perennial crops are expected to increase after first harvest, with peak expect in year 2 or 3.We have estimated botanical composition by separating between legumes and grasses, but these data have not been analysed yet. However, as the the project duration is short and experiment is ploughed out (to test legacy effect), we cannot really assess long-term domination of Desmodium. However, there are indications that their performance is improving and that their roots are deep.Q: Desmodium and Crotalaria's roots are deep; they have weed potential & need to be managed carefully -Desmodium might not be compatible with grasses (except Napier + with enough spacing)A: Another interesting legume to consider in this case is alfalfa Suggestion (S): It is better to express the yields as annual yields.Q: As the performances in Bahir Dar seems low, why not use irrigation?A: The poor performance is also influenced by soil properties. In addition, in the standard protocol it was decided not to irrigate, as we are also looking for solutions for smallholder farmers that do not have access to irrigation. Therefore, if the forages do not survive, they are not the right solutions.Q: Is time too short to observe legacy effect?A: We expect to -at best-see small effect. The research on effect of plants on soils is also one part of our research interest under this project.S: In relation to grass-legume mixes, it might be better to express yield in CP/ha and look at economics too -which links with forage production via livestock production.S: Agriculture has multiple objectives nowadays: Food production and Soil/natural resource restoration. Livestock is very central to all these functions in Ethiopia (incl. Draught power).Q: Who will be the end-user? Which production systems and which farmers are we targeting?S: Important to also look at seed systems -for scaling purposes. There is interest from the private seed sector on seed production, supply and distribution.Q: Have you used the soil parameters in any analysis?A: We have done soil analysis, and are extracting weather data -we plan to relate these with performance.Q: What are the agronomic recommendations for the different mixtures?A: Recommended seed rates for the species in single stands were used, and the proportion of each species in the mixtures were calculated based on this.Q: Why did Stylo perform so poorly? And why did you replace by Sweet Lupin (it has availability of seeds)?A: We do not know why Stylo did not germinate well. However, we expect seed dormancy to play part, as it needs at least 6 months storage. We replaced Stylo with sweet lupin in the screening trial, due to these problems with the Stylo germination.Preliminary results from the study of effects of forage plants and their mixture on soil life through experimental approaches were presented by Dr. Peter Dörsch, and his PhD student Niklas Wickander from Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU).The presentation described the main ideas in why there is a big focus on soil biological parameters by explaining the microbial loop. To find measurable parameters we focus on three different soil microbial endpoints, exoenzyme activity, microbial biomass of C, N and P, and carbon use efficiency, to measure how the plant input affect the soil biological activity as a proxy for long-term effects. The first preliminary result from the field experiment were showcased, with soil chemical analysis of the 6 field sites (Table 2), soil texture, enzymatic activity, and microbial nutrient stoichiometry, shown for untreated soil (before establishment of the field experiment). The design of the greenhouse experiment was described, explaining the pot design, where the pots were filled with sterilized sand and 40 ml dried soil. The explanation for this was to remove the background effect to create to create a small area in which roots could interact with soil and create a stronger signal (Figure 3). The layout of the experiment was also explained, with the different treatments showcased and the measurements and analyses of the soil planned or carried out were described. The first results from the greenhouse experiment were additionally shown, with the plant dry weight biomass in the different soil and plant. The enzymatic activities were shown as the first soil biological results from the greenhouse. The future planned lab work, data analysis and follow-up experiments were finally mentioned.The MAP participants raised the below questions and provided suggestions around topic 2:Q: Can this experiment be repeated in the actual field? A: Yes, though the current results (from greenhouse) are a first proxy only. Main aim of this \"reductionist\" research: first proof of concept that forages can influence soil. Ideally, this could move into a systematic screening of forages and their potential functions in the soil (e.g. improving P enzymatic activity). North-South collaboration can help in advancing this type of reductionist research.Q: What would happen if you put earth worms in the pots? A: Interesting -maybe for Postdoc research.Q: Incorporation of crop residues in the soil can improve acidity of the soils; are soil samples taken (and analysed) at different times of the project? A: All plots have been sampled for a second time, awaiting shipment to Norway (96 samples). CEC, Carbon content, etc can have effect; maybe most important = N management. Growing plants can have positive or negative effect.S: In addition to microbial biomass, it would be interesting to identify specific microbes, e.g. presence/absence of specific bacteria which is important for sustainable production A: True, meta-genomics would allow this -population ecology; within this project we focus on functional diversity -this is easier to measure. Available N can come from leaf or from N fixed by bacteria -innoculants currently on market are mostly for food crops. P status also strongly affects ability to nodulate, especially in acidic soils.  Topic 3: Large-scale farmer-led grassland testingMr. Mohammed Ebrahim and Dr. Kalkidan Mulatu from the Alliance Bioversity and CIAT (ABC), confirmed a similar finding on the multifunctionality of improved forages through their presentation entitled \"Identification of robust grassland species and mixtures through citizen science -experience from the field\" and the \"First results on the performance of the technologies tested in the tricot trial\" respectively. These presentations were made based on preliminary findings from the citizen science based, Triadic Comparisons of Technologies (TriCOT) approach which engaged around 300 farmers in North and Southern Ethiopia (Figure 4). Certain forage species and their mixtures (Panicum maximum, Mombasa, Brachiaria hybrid, Cayman, and mixtures of particularly Mombasa with Desmodium intortum) have been identified that have so far worked very well with smallholder farmers (Figure 3). These preliminary results will be tested in a second cycle with 300 new farmers, as well as with the continued harvest tests with farmers that are willing to keep their plots from the first cycle. The Mombasa and Brachiaria grass species are new to these regions. Mixtures of grass and legume are also very new under these conditions, and thereby an innovation. There seems to be a growing interest, and a demand for scaling these innovations to more farmers and regions. Development Agents (DA's) from the Amhara and Sidama sites also provided their feedback and observation from the field. Apart from Desho and Desmodium, the forages in the TriCOT were new/unknown before in the implementation sites. It was also said that the project has provide new knowledge about forage options and on how to evaluate their performances (Table 3&4).Observations were made by MAP participants regarding the complementarity of these results with on-station experiments. Suggestions were also forwarded regarding the need for addressing more heterogeneity in agroecology. It has also been advised that one must be careful with the conclusions, as for instance preference for Desho -could be influenced by previous experiences. Thus, a large dataset is needed for reducing errors and improving representativeness.The presentation by Mrs. Meron Eshete, a researcher at ABC, addressed that the out-scaling of well performing varieties from trial plots to farm and landscapes requires an advanced understanding of smallholder mixed farming systems, that are extremely varied, considering different biophysical and socio-economic factors. Typologies are seen to be a good starting point in the research of farm performance and rural livelihoods since they can capture the characteristics and heterogeneity of farming systems. Thus, different farm optimization recommendations are to be provided for different types (Figure 5). The MAP participants raised the below questions and provided suggestions around topic 4:Q: At a national level there have been 16 farming systems identified (10 of those are mixed systems), why do we need to do this new classification? A: These exercises are more detailed as they consider differences at a smaller scale, not only on biophysical case, but also Including household-level factors too.S: Low income HH often have higher crop diversity (\"crops are everything\"), while high-income HH are often market-oriented and specialisation. It may be important to re-check the current results around this. S: Scenario suggestion on converting (food or cash) crop to forage crop -will only be feasible in some contexts or for some HHs A: FarmDESIGN approach is to be used to consult on optimization options responding to specific objective (e.g. income, food security)Project outreach approaches (e.g., blogs, workshops) that the project used to communicate activities and to synthesize similar works around the multifunctionality of forages were presented by Dr. Wuletawu Abera from ABC (Figure 6).An overview was presented regarding a synthesis/review document being developed to quantify the multifunctionality of forages, derived from published literature, but also to be acquired from gray papers and unpublished documentations across different research centers (Figure 7). Thus, experts were invited to contribute their findings generated around quantitative evidence of forages towards land restoration indicators, for co-development of the synthesis document. The MAP participants raised the below questions and provided suggestions around topic 5:Q: Farming systems are heterogeneous & feed sources are different -is this considered in the systematic review? A: All studies are geo-located so that we know which farming systems are represented. We expect to find knowledge gaps which will direct us to new research needs.Q: Interesting to review existing evidence, but need to work on the search strings, e.g. include other terms (\"soil fertility\", \"compaction\", \"soil water infiltration\"), working with *s, \"forage*\" + all the varieties, … A: Agreed. Search strings are to be refined using these suggestions and more.Q: Many people mention livestock as main contributor to land degradation, e.g. erosion range 40-100 ton/ha/year. How to think differently about this? A: The paper aims to document do we know/have data on how to change this and use forages as an innovation to reduce this? S: Language around livestock-degradation needs to change, as the issue is on the way that we manage livestock that can cause degradation, but it is also the entry point for looking for solutions and transform production systems.S: there is a strong need to change the \"tone\" of how we talk about livestock and degradation, here crop-tree-livestock integration is very important.An open discussion/plenary session was reserved at the end of the MAP meeting to discuss key topics of interest and to provide opportunities for general questions, observations, and suggestions around the topic. Dr. Solomon Mwendia and Dr. An Notenbaert from ABC forwarded few points to guide the discussion.Discussion topic 1: What could be options/interventions interesting to scale? A: Growing forages to improve subsequent food crop production, and to connect that to what is happening below-ground S: Different forage technologies for addressing feed shortage as well as as input for land restoration S: We need to follow a holistic approach to research (from soil to crop/plant to farm to landscape)connecting science of discovery to science of delivery S: Technologies selected need to be compatible with different systems and household types Discussion topic 2: What hindrances are likely to be encountered when trying to scale out/up promising interventions? What could be opportunities to tackle these challenges? S: We need to protect and restore land -so that land can be productive S: Seed availability is a key issue. Both shortage and issues are also many seeds have been handed out for free through NGO's S: Incorporation of participatory forage selection and community led seed production. Multiplication of seed production (e.g. by smallholder farmers) can be supported by different partners; different business models exist (e.g. through farmer cooperatives; focus on perennial forages are perennial and vegetative multiplication; also a role for private sector) S: TRICOT approach and selection of farmers to capture full heterogeneity (soil, etc) to be adjusted S: There is a need to reaching many people and it is advised to be done step-by-step, through demonstration, etc. Here, involving multiple stakeholders (incl. Farmers, researchers, extension) is essential. S: Supporting capacity and skills at different levels is essential. Especially addressing poor extension system (incl. for seed production). It is advised that training and capacity development are provided in collaboration with research centres (incl. for basic seed production), addressing key issues such as hharvesting time of different crops and forages in the mixtures. S: Create evidence on benefits of improved forages in terms of livestock productivity and incomeThe MAP meeting was concluded with a closure speech and appreciation of participants by Dr. Marit Jørgensen's, program manager of EthiopaGrass project.Visit to smallholder farmers in the Sidama region of Ethiopia.The livestock numbers in Ethiopia are among the highest in the world and almost all farmers hold some cattle or other livestock. Most of the feed for the livestock is derived from free grazing on overgrazed rangeland and from crop residues. This aggravates the ever-rising problems with soil erosion and soil degradation. Cultivating forage, and the use of improved forage species is not widespread in Ethiopia. Growing improved forage species could improve feed provision for livestock, while at the same time counteract soil degradation. The EthiopiaGrass project tests new forage species in mixed-farming systems that can provide a high-quality feed while simultaneously improve soil quality. Although the benefits of grass-legume mixtures regarding forage productivity and quality are well known under temperate conditions, this is less explored under tropical conditions.The grass and legume species are tested in mixtures and single stands, both in controlled field experiments, and in large-scale farmer led testing involving more than 600 farmers to understand farmers' choices and preferences.In late April 2023, we visited several smallholder farmers in the Bilate Zuria district in the Sidama region of Southern Ethiopia, close to the big Lake Hawassa in the Rift Valley. The farmers visited are participating in the farmer-led testing where each of the farmers are evaluating and ranking the best and worst of a set of three different forage species or mixtures that they have received from a pool of 14 different options. The farmers have ranked these options according to a set of predetermined criteria -e.g., how well they establish and cover the soil, yield, preference by livestock, drought tolerance, and other environmental co-benefits.The rainy season had started some weeks before we visited, and the vegetation was incredibly green. Their farms were relatively small -around 2-3ha on average but were diverse with maize intercropped with beans and potatoes, with coffee and fruit trees in between. Considering their farm size, it was not obvious that smallholder farmers would allocate a small portion of their land (about 12m 2 ) and labour to experiment with forage cultivation, but fortunately, farmers were interested to participate in this.Each farmer has three experimental plots for the tricot trial, and the forages were at waist-high at the time we visited, and farmers were very enthusiastic about the forage quality and quantity. Particularly they liked the grass-legume mixtures since it gave more milk when fed to the cows. A lot of neighbours also came by and were interested in how to get access to these options. With scaling of the experiment neighbouring farmers will be reached to test the varieties in their farms. Still, seed supply is a big challenge to be solved. However, a short-term and small-scale solution is for farmers to vegetatively propagate the forages for larger areas and share splits with neighbours.The first analyses of results after one year of experimenting show that the diverse mixture of two grasses and two legume species was the overall most preferred option by farmers. Most preferences were influenced by the forage traits related with soil cover, environmental co-benefits, and quantity. The experimentation will continue until the coming year, and this will provide a solid foundation for both selecting the best options and continued adaptation and scaling of the technologies.","tokenCount":"3314"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2b4c16e40fb9497d023a4dfad576c240","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb286084-5857-40b8-bf0c-75e61f78dced/retrieve","id":"497135370"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f609a2aa-f593-4bb2-b2b9-9911e6813bce","pagecount":"10","content":"Lo importante es realizarla oportunamente, de tal forma que el grado de humedad permita la trilla o desgrane con el mínimo de pérdidas por granos partidos o dañados.Es el período de tiempo que transcurre desde la cosecha hasta la venta o procesamiento del producto.Porque se asegura la calidad del grano.Porque un porcentaje importante de pérdidas se genera durante la poscosecha.Porque son muchas familias las que derivan sus ingresos de este cultivo y para quienes el aspecto de calidad comercial y culinaria es muy importante.Es el factor más importante en el manejo de granos. Consiste en la reducción del contenido de humedad hasta el nivel adecuado para la utilización del producto o para su almacenamiento por períodos largos de tiempo.Calentamiento-desarrollo de microorganismos (enmohecimiento), exceso de transpiración del grano y germinación del mismo.El calentamiento genera la reducción o pérdida completa del valor alimenticio, cambios químicos de las grasas, almidones y proteínas.Cambios indeseables en olor, color, sabor y en las características de industrialización, reducción o pérdida del poder de germinación de la semilla.Es una práctica en donde se separa el grano de la vaina. Son varios los métodos que se usan:El secado de la semilla evita:La instalación para el almacenamiento del fríjol debe:Estar bien ubicada, en un sito seco, bien aireada y con disponibilidad de luz.Tomar medidas para evitar las contaminaciones y la presencia de roedores e insectos.Se refiere al proceso que se realiza a los granos o semilla. Primero se realiza una prelimpieza, retirando materiales extraños, como piedras, paja, etc. En la limpieza, se utilizan elementos rudimentarios como zarandas, ventiladores, etc.Almacenar es mantener un producto en un depósito por un tiempo determinado con un propósito definido.1. En bodegas: con almacenamiento horizontal en sacos o bultos.Cartilla 4Existen dos clases de almacenamiento:Estacional: cuyo objetivo es conservar los excedentes de cosechas y ajustarlos a la demanda a través del tiempo.Temporal: se refiere al acopio rural, por pocas horas o días en espera del transporte. Es el que hacen los mayoristas en el mercado, o las agroindustrias mientras procesan las materias primas.Con el 15% de humedad, se conserva hasta por tres meses y luego disminuye paulatinamente hasta perderla totalmente.A partir de los dos meses, el tiempo de cocción aumenta en un 15%.El producto no debe presentar infestaciones.Arrumes de 4 a 4.80 m de altura.El peso puede ocasionar apertura de cotiledones.En arrumes, colocar los empaque de polipropileno al centro.Estibar para evitar absorción de humedad.Separar el bulto de la pared a 0.60 m y a 1 m del techo.Fumigar empaques.Abrir y cerrar bodegas a tiempo.El empaque debe estar debidamente identificado con información sobre el tipo de semilla, la categoría (básica, certificada, registrada), nombre del material y del productor, cantidad de semilla empacada, fecha de producción y de empaque.Facilitar su manejo, su promoción y su comercialización. Se deben utilizar empaques convencionales de papel, polietileno, polipropileno y fibras naturales.1. Recipientes sellados herméticamente (caneca metálica o plástica).El grado de humedad de la semilla debe ser inferior al 15%.2. Costales o sacos, preferiblemente de fibras naturales.3. En ambos casos, se deben utilizar estibas de madera.En el fríjol, la humedad y la temperatura alta inducen al endurecimiento. Los insectos y los microorganismos son los factores que más afectan la calidad del grano durante el almacenamiento.1. Cosechar cuando el 80 a 90% de las vainas estén secas (18 a 20% de humedad), o antes en caso de lluvia.2. Esparcir la cosecha (vainas sin desgranar) en recintos abiertos y ventilados.3. Secar al sol o en las secaderos de café o de cubierta de plástico. Cuando la producción es para semilla, la temperatura debe ser inferior a los 45 °C.4. Trillar a palo o con trilladora a motor, si el área sembrada y el volumen de la producción lo justifican.5. Determinar que el grado de humedad de la semilla esté por debajo del 15%. Si es para almacenar, la humedad debe ser inferior al 12%.6. A temperaturas bajas, se conserva mejor el grano.7. Almacenar el fríjol en cuartos secos, limpios, ventilados y previa aspersión de las paredes y colocarlo sobre estibas.8. Antes de almacenar el fríjol para siembra, debe tratarse con fungicidas e insecticidas. 9. Utilizar empaque o costales de cabuya; estos permiten mejor aireación.Coordinado por:Este estudio fue apoyado por el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, sus siglas en inglés), en el marco del proyecto \"Servicios agroclimáticos e información de seguridad alimentaria para una mejor toma de decisiones -AgroClimas\" (http://bit.ly/AgroClimas), liderado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Esta Cartilla de Manejo Poscosecha de Fríjol es la cuarta de una serie de cartillas que se estarán publicando hasta el 2018 como resultado de talleres participativos que se realizarán bajo este proyecto. Agradecemos a todos los encuestadores y agricultores de los municipios de Barichara, Curití, San Gil y Villanueva en Santander, Colombia, por su amable participación y valioso apoyo durante los talleres. ","tokenCount":"804"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6414e57bfecf9f754e69c92e6c7c7407","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dd744347-90c2-4bbc-a019-8fe7f5157042/content","id":"2040128636"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2fb7e7fa-1049-45de-b26c-0ff8074e3ab4","pagecount":"23","content":"El sector agropecuario de Colombia gener6 el 23. 7 por ciento de su PIB y el 73. 5 por ciento de sus ingresos por divisas en 1975.El crecimiento del PIB fue de cuatro por ciento y el de la agricultura de cinco por ciento en 1975. Del total del 4rea del pars el 4. 8 por ciento es dedicado a cultivos, incluyendo tierras de descanso (5. 505. 000 de hect4reas).Las importaciones totales decrecieron a una tasa de 15. 4 por ciento mientras que las exportaciones crecieron al 2 por ciento. Colombia fue un exportador neto de productos agr!colas en 197 5, excluyendo cam. El valor de las exportaciones fue 2. 4 veces el de las importaciones de productos agropecuarios.Los precios al consumidor crecieron a una tasa de 17. 7 por ciento, mientras que el de alimentos creci6 a una tasa de 19. 5 por ciento en 1975.El trigo es el principal producto de importaci6n con el 32 por ciento del total de importaciones de productos agrkolas en 1975, Hasta cuando existra el subsidio, constitura tambilm el primer rengl6n de subsidios de productos agrkolas.El trigo ocupa el 140. lugar en 4rea sembrada entre los 20 principales cultivos, despu6s de caf6, marz, arroz, algod6n, yuca, sorgo, cana de azucar, frijol, papa, soya, cebada, ajonjol! y tabaco.La producci6n de trigo ha disminurdo a una tasa promedio de 2. 8 por ciento anual entre Ramfrez, A. \"hiventario de Algunos Recursos Disponibles para la Producci6n de Trigo\", en Valderrama M. et. al. \"Propuesta para un plan nacional de producci6n de trigo para 1975\" ICA, a m4quina 35 p4gs. y anexos. Bogot4, Noviembre 1974.En Colombia existen dos zonas principales productoras de trigo: la del departamento de Narino y la de los departamentos de Cundinamarca y Boyac4. Existen otras pequenas zonas en el Valle, Santander y Antioquia (Figura 2). En general, la franja triguera est! localizada por encima de los 2,200 a los 3,000 msnm. La producci6n ha disminuido en un 50 por ciento en los departamentos de Boyac4 y Cundinamarca entre 1950 y 1970, mientras que en Naritlo se ha mantenido casi constante. Las otras regiones han disminuido dr4sticamente. Lo que ha hecho que Narino pase a ser el principal productor en 1970, cuando en 1950 ocupaba el tercer lugar (Tabla 2).Las dos principales zonas productoras tienen una temperatura promedio de 14°C con variaciones entre 18 y 10°C para las zonas planas y de 14 a 8°C para las onduladas. Durante los meses m4s secos de Diciembre y Enero se presentan heladas, lo cual limita el cultivo en el segundo semestre si no se cuenta con variedades tempranas.En las dos zonas se presentan dos estaciones lluviosas, lo que permite hacer dos cosechas al afio, una de papa y una de trigo, pero con la presencia de heladas en el segundo semestre. El promedio anual de lluvia var:Ca entre 500 y 1, 000 mm dependiendo de la regi6n. En algunas partes puede llegar hasta l, 500 mm. En algunas regiones hay baja luminosidad en la 6poca de mayores lluvias.Los estudios de suelos de la zona Cundinamarca-BoyacA para 61 municipios productores de trigo con una superficie de 900, 000 hectd.reas, muestran: 1) 500,000 son aptas para cultivos anuales. Unas 70,000 hectd.reas tienen limitaciones de drenaje. 2) 200, 000 hect4reas tienen capacidad de uso limitado debido a erosi6n moderada, mal drenaje y salinidad. Con adecuado manejo estos suelos pueden ser utilizados para pastos o cultivos como trigo. 3) 200, 000 hect4reas no son aptas para cultivos debido a la pendiente, erosi6n severa, salinidad o por ser inundables.En la zona de Narifio, 215, 000 hect4reas son aptas para uso agr!cola con limitaciones parciales de drenaje, afloraciones de rocas y piedras y salinidad. En total en las dos zonas productoras exi~tf un poco menos de un mill6n de hect4reas con capacidad de uso agr!cola con algunas limitaciones:. . La mayor parte de las fincas productoras de trigo son pequeflaa, con tecnologfa baja y ~a jos rendimientos. En 1960, en los tres departamentos principales, de un total de 69, 465 e~lotac10nes, el 95 por ciento ten!an 1.1-tivos menores de cinco hect!reas y cosechaban el 64 po_r c~ent~ de la superficie dedicada a trig<>-. La situaci6n ha tendido a acentuarse debido a que la d1_s~muc16n en el !rea total sembrada parece haber ocurrido principalmente en las fincas grandee tecnificadas.Los cultivos que compiten por recursos con el trigo son principalmente cebada, papa, ma!z, hortalizas y pastos. La cebada es considerada como un cultivo de alta _productividad con ?~ sistema de asistencia t~cnica y mercadeo bien organizados. La papa es un cultivo de alta productividad pe70 con fluctuaciones de producci6n y precios y el ma!z de tierra fr!a es un cultivo de productores m1nifundistas con baja productividad.En cuanto a la potencialidad de producci6n, el !rea total sembrada con una campafla decidida de fomento puede ser de unos 100 -150,000 hect!reas, es decir volviendo a la superficie m!xima sembrada de trigo en los afios 50 en Colombia. Con un aumento de rendimientos de alrededor de 1. 5 tons/ha. se pueden obtener alrededor de 200,000 toneladas que permitir!an cubrir un 50 por ciento del consumo nacional, y si el consumo de otros productos como arroz, papa, ma!z, pl!tano y yuca aumenta.La superficie total sembrada con los cultivos m!s importantes de tierra fr!a papa, cebada y trigo ha disminuido de 310,000 hect!reas en 1954 a 207,500 hect!reas en 1974. En ese lapso alrededor de 100,000 hect!reas fueron a aumentar las superficies de pastos, ma!z, hortalizas y fl.ores. La mayor proporci6n ha estado dedicada seguramente a pastos porque su superficie era de 395,000 hectiireas en 1960 para los tres principales departamentos productores de trigo, mientras que en 1970 era de 459, 000 hect!reas es decir una diferencia de 64, 000 hect!reas. Para 1960 el !rea total del pars sembrada de papa, cebada y trigo era de 270,000 hect!reas y en 1970 de 181,000, una diferencia de 89, 000 hectiireas. Existe pues la posibilidad de reincorporar alrededor 80-100, 000 hectiireas al cultivo del trigo de acuerdo a estas cifras, sin incluir la de las otras regiones menores.Un factor que podr!a influir en el aumento del iirea cultivada es la presencia de una nueva raza de roya en la cebada que est! induciendo a los agricultores a pensar en sembrar trigo, mientras el Programa de Cereales encuentra resistencia a la nueva raza de roya. Esto puede tardar entre dos y tres afios.Si el trigo puede ser sembrado como cultivo de rotaci6n en tierras c!lidas es posible sembrar alrededor de 25,000 hect!reas adicionales con una producci6n de 40-50,000 toneladas.El consumo de trigo ha crecido a una tasa anual promedia de 6. 8 por ciento entre 1950 y 1974. El crecimiento de la poblaci6n fue de 3.0 por ciento. El consumo de 1974 es 2.7 veces mayor que el de 1950. El consumo per ciipita pas6 de 15. 6 kilos en 1950 a 23. 5 kilos en 1974.El gobierno de Colombia suprimi6 el subsidio a las importaciones de trigo en Octubre de 1974. Una funci6n de demanda calculada teniendo en cuenta los cambios que se presentaron un mes despu~s de que fuera levantado el subsidio al trigo, muestra un coeficiente de elasticidad de demanda por harina de O. 32 y de O. 22 para pastas.!/.Un an!lisis de las cifras anteriores a 1974 mostraron que variables como \"urbanizaci6n\" y \"aumento de poblaci6n\" mostraron ser significativas en la demanda, mientras que la variable \"precio del trigo\" no fue significativa. La no significancia del precio se debe quiz! a que ~ste no est! determinado por la cantidad demandada, sino que ~l determina el volumen demandado. Dos encuestas (25 panader!as y almacenes de Bogott) realizadas uno y seis meses despu~s del alza de los precios de la harina de trigo, que sigui6 a la eliminaci6n del subsidio, mostr6 importantes cambios en la cantidad comparada por panader!as. Los cambios mts recientes en precios indican que ~stos si influencian ahora las cantidades compradas tal como lo muestran las cifras de la Tabla 3.Excepto para el estrato bajo el efecto del precio en la cantidad demandada se acentu6 a trav~s de las dos encuestas. Es importante notar que en el estrato bajo la cantidad comprada en la segunda encuesta es superior a la cantidad comprada a ra!z de la primera alza de precio, pero inferior a la cantidad comprada con precio subsidiado. El estrato medio tuvo la mayor respuesta al cambio en los precios, aunque tuvo la menor variaci6n en el precio, debido probablemente a que es el que mayor cantidad consume,por lo cual el alza tuvo un mayor efecto en el ingreso.Colombia tiene un programa para producir harinas compuestas de trigo, soya y arroz que tienen un costo menor que la de trigo. Dado que actualmente Colombia tiene superavit en la produc-ci6n de arroz, se espera que ~ste sea un componente importante en la harina de pan. En cuanto al ma!z, las ventas de harina no ban aumentado, pero las harinas preparadas con ma!z y las arepas, aunque no tienen t~rminos de comparaci6n, constituyen el doble de las ventas de harina2_/.El aumento del precio en las harinas y el pan debido al levantamiento del subsidio ha incidido directamente en la cantidad demandada de harina y pan. Esta menor demanda se ha traducido en una disminuci6n de casi 100 mil toneladas, segcin los registros de importaciones. Esta disminu-17 !.I ci6n del consumo de trigo ha sido posiblemente sustituida por mayores consumos de arroz, yuca, mafz, pl.Atano y papa. Se puede decir que el levantamiento del subsidio ha tenido total ~xito en cuanto que hizo disminuir la demanda de trigo importado, mientras que aumentaba la de otros productos producidos dentro del pafs. Sin embargo, la disminuci6n de las importaciones y del consumo de trigo no se explican en su totalidad por el alza de precios, pues se sabe que est4n entrando apreciables cantidades de harina de trigo de contrabando del Ecuador y Venezuela donde la harina tiene un precio inferior al de Colombia.Con varios cambios institucionales a trav~s del tiempo, las actividades de investigaci6n en cereales datan de 1927 cuando se fund6 la granja de clima frfo La Picota, en donde una de las actividades principales era la investigaci6n en trigo. En 1947 se abscribieron de la direcci6n de La Picota las granjas La Isla en Nemoc6n, Cundinamarca y Bonza en Duitama, Boyac4. En 1951 se empez6 a trabajar en la estaci6n Tibaitatli en Mosquera, Cundinamarca y en Abonuco en Pasto, Narmo. En 1959 la granja Surbat4 en Duitama, reemplaz6 la granja de Bonza. Actualmente funcionan como granjas representativas de los climas frfos de Colombia, Tibaitatd, Obonuco y Surbat4.En 1957 empez6 la experimentaci6n de trigo en clima c4lido en la granja experimental de Palmira, Valle del Cauca y Nataima en Espinal, Tolima. En la granja La Selva, en Rionegro, Antioquia, de clima medio se adelantaron en el pasado investigaciones sobre pudrici6n radicular en trigo!/.Los objetivos actuales del programa en los aspectos gen~ticos son:1) Obtenci6n de variedades de alto rendimiento.2) Obtenci6n de variedades con buena calidad panadera.En concordancia con estos objetivos, el programa ha trabajado para obtener resistencia genHica en: Resistencia de las royas. Las royas constitufan la principal limitante para la producci6n de trigo, y se aduce como la causa de la disminuci6n del 4rea sembrada antes de que el program entregara a los agricultores variedades resistentes. Colombia es considerada como uno de los pafses con mayor virulencia en las razas de roya. Para 1952 se consideraba que las p~rdic:\\,as por rendimiento de las variedades usadas por los agricultores era del 30 al 50 por ciento~/.Las variedades producidas por el programa son resistentes a las tres clases de roya tanto en Colombia como en los otros pafses andinos y en los viveros internacionales.Resistencia al enanismo. Esta enfermedad virosa transmitida por el insecto Cicadulina Pastusae es impor,ante en Narifio y norte del Ecuador. Estudios de resistencia se inic1aron en Obonuco en 1956~.Otras enfermedades. El programa tambi~n ha trabajado en enfermedades como el \"disturbio amarillo o BYDY, carb6n duro o hediondo, carb6n volador, pudrici6n de rafz y espiga, pudri-ci6n de la corona y el pi~ y mancha de la hoja.La investigaci6n sobre pudrici6n radicular se inici6 s6lo en 1964. Algunos agricultores atribuyen a esta enfermedad gran importancia en los bajos rendimientos de los cultivos y a que muchos agricultores hayan abandonado en los ultimos afios el cultivo de trigo. El Programa de cereales estima que las p~rdidas en rendimiento son del 36. 7 por ciento, y del peso hectol!trico en 2. 5 por ciento.!/. Aunque el Programa le dl1 alguna importancia a esta enfermedad, (quizli menor que la que le dan los agricultores), no estli adelantando actualmente investigaciones sobre ella. En el pasado se llevaron a cabo algunas pruebas en la estaci6n de La Selva, que por su suelo, temperatura y humedad tiene condiciones adecuadas para el desarrollo de los pat6genos causantes de la pudrici6n.}il}tre 1927 y 1933 la investigaci6n estaba dirigida a introducir variedades al pafs y a seleccionarlas.d. Las variedades mejor adaptadas eran entregadas a los agricultores. La primera variedad adaptada y de amplia difusi6n fue Menkemen 52. Dos variedades producidas por el Programa son Bonza 55 y Narifio 59 altamente resistentes a las royas. En 1962 se produjo la primera variedad multilineal distribuida comercialmente en el mundo: miramar 63. En la Tabla 4 se dli una lista de las variedades entregadas por el Programa y utilizadas comercialmente por los agricultores. Otras variedades se tienen en reserva para el caso de que las que est4n utilizando los agricultores sean atacados por nuevas razas de roya. Esta secc16n es extractada de Carlos Trujillo, Evaluaci6n econ6mica de la investigaci6n en trigo op. cit. p. 1-52. Colombia, Oficina de Investigaciones Especiales, 1953. Tercer Informe Anual, Rev. Nal. de Agricultura (587): 11-56, citado por Trujillo, C. op. cit. p. 35. Colombia, IIE 1958. Sexto  Adem4s en la producci6n de variedades mejoradas el programa ha trabajado en las siguientes 4reas:Fertilizaci6n. Los ensayos de respuesta a fertilizantes empezaron en 1929. En 1949, se instala un laboratorio de suelos que permite mejorar las recomendaciones de fertilizaci6n. En 1964 establece el servicio de anilisis de suelos para los agricultores. Los niveles promedios de aplicaci6n recomendados para el ICA son de 30-150-30 kgs/ha. de NPK para Cundinamarca, 60-150-30 kgs. de NPK para Boyac4 y 50-100-50 kgs de NPK para Narif!.o. Los suelos se han clasificado de acuerdo con su contenido de f6sforo, dado que 6ste es el factor m4s limitante en las zonas fr!as de Colombia.El Programa posee una colecci6n completa de variedades diferenciales para el estudio de las razas fisiol6gicas de roya. Desde 1962 se iniciaron estudios sobre especializaci6n fisiol6gica de la roya amarilla. La pudrici6n radicular se ha estudiado con resistencia varietal, control qu!mico y pr4cticas de rotaci6n y fertilizaci6n. El tratamiento de la semilla con fungicidas ha dado buenos resultados en el control de la pudrici6n. El porcentaje de colonias fungosas para tres variedades tratadas fue de O para semilla certificada, de 38 por ci~nto para semilla b4sica y de 55 por ciento para la semilla guardada por el agricultor (Tabla 5),!/. Control de malezas. La disminuci6n de. rendimiento causado por malezas se estima en un 15 a 29 por ciento, superior al causado por insectos. Se han clasificado las malezas, estudiando los mejores m6todos de control y de uso de herbicidas. Control de plagas. Se estima que la disminuci6n por rendimientos debido a plagas es de 9. 5 por ciento para climas frfos (Obonuco) y de 34 por ciento para climas c4lidos (Palmira). El caso de Cicadulina es el m4s grave pues reduce los rendimientos hasta en un 43 por ciento. El programa ha trabajado en el control de las plagas m4s importantes a trav6s de resistencia gen6tica, control qu!mico, biol6gico y manejo.Pr4cticas culturales. Se han estudiado 6pocas de siembra, rotaciones, densidad de siembra, sistemas de siembras y preparaci6n del terreno. Los estudios sobre riego datan de 1940-1941, cuando se le atribufa a 6ste un aumento experimental del 36 por ciento en el rendimiento. En los afios posteriores se han efectuado pocos ensayos en este sentido.Adaptaci6n de trigo a clima c4lido. La adaptaci6n de variedades a climas c4lidos es un objetivo importante porque permitirfa ampliar la superficie sembrada de trigo dado que el Area disponible en clima c4lido es mucho mayor que la de clima fr!o; adem4s, el grado de tecnificaci6n de las 4reas agr!colas cdlidas es mayor. Con el ensayo de variedades en clima cdlido se persiguen los siguientes objetivos:Utilizar el trigo como cultivo de rotaci6n con soya, algod6n, frijol, arroz, lo cual permitir!a dos cosechas al afio., dada la precocidad del trigo en zonas c4lidas. Utilizar las zonas c4lidas para sembrar en el segundo semestre materiales experimentales de clima frfo.Los ensayos se iruc1aron en 1955 y con algunas interrupciones continu6 hasta 1969. Los problemas principales encontrados en los ensayos fueron el control de malezas gram!neas, control de plagas, vaneamientos, ataque de royas y pudrici6n de la rarz. Las enfermedades no constitu!an un obst4culo serio.Los resultados indicaban que se podr!a sembrar comercialmente trigo como cultivo de rota-ci6n en clima c4lido. La investigaci6n fue suspendida, principalmente por dificultades presupuestales. En 1974 la Federaci6n Nacional de Cereales (FENALCE) reinici6 los ensayos de adaptaci6n. La primera cosecha se hizo en el segundo semestre de 1975. Las variedades mejor adaptadas y de mayor rendimiento fueron MP 21 y 22, seleccionadas en los afios anteriores en Palmira. Los rendimientos mayores fueron de 3, 700 kgs. en parcelas experimentales. El per!odo vegetativo fue de unos 90 d!as. Se busca lograr un perfodo mayor lo cual permitir!a aumentar los rendimientos. Los agricultores estiman que con un rendimiento superior a 1, 500 kg. se puede utilizar el trigo como segundo cultivo en un afio • . Desde los primeros ensayos se descart6 la posibilidad de sembrar trigos a niveles inferiores de los 1, 000 msnm. Se descartaron las regiones c4lidas del Tolima y los Llanos Orientales que tienen altitud inferior a los 1,000 msnm. Se ha encontrado tambi6n que la calidad panadera de los trigos de clima c4lido es excelente y uniforme de semestre a semestre. Mejoramiento de la calidad panadera. La calidad panadera de los trigos nacionales ha sido .muy criticada por los molineros, por lo cual el programa ha trabajado intensamente para obtener variedades de mejor calidad (Tabla 6). La variedad Samaca 68 es un ejemplo, sin embargo, la baja calidad en el _molino no se debe tanto a las caracter!sticas gen6ticas sino a las condiciones del culti vo, cosecha, secamiento y selecci6:r:i.Como se anot6, la mayor parte del trigo, producido actualmente en Colombia se hace en pa,rcelas pequef!.as, las cuales utilizan diferentes variedades y 6pocas de siembra. La 6poca de cosecha es generalmente hdmeda por lo que se obtiene entonces un producto con alta humedad, granos disparejos y chupados. Ni los agricultores ni los molinos disponen de seleccionadoras y de secado- El Programa cuenta ademAs con el servicio de los otros programas como suelos, fisiolog!a, entomolog!a y estad!stica.En terminos constantes de 1970 el presupuesto del Programa de Cereales ha sido de U.S. $ 49,000 para 1973, de U.S. $ 60,000 para 1974, de U.S. $ 63,000 para 1975 y de U.S.$ 57,000 para 1976 (1 U.S.$ = Col. $ 30). Se estima que alrededor de un 46 por ciento se dedica a trigo.El presupuesto de 1976 es ligeramente inferior al de 1975, lo cual implicarA una disminu-ci6n de las actividades de investigaci6n en el presente afio. En la Tabla 7 se indica el presupuesto del programa dedicado a trigo desde 1950. El !ndice calculado indica que los recursos disponibles han disminuido desde 1974 con respecto al de 1960.La semilla fundamental producida por el Programa de Cereales es entregada para su mul-tiplicaci6n y distribuci6n a la Caja Agraria. Este banco agrario de Colombia posee una secci6n de multiplicaci6n y procesamiento de semillas. La multiplicaci6n la contrata con agricultores y el procesamiento lo hace en sus propias plantas. Con la actual capacidad estas plantas no pueden procesar m<is de tres variedades de trigo. La distribuci6n de la semilla se hace a traves de los almacenes de venta y de equipos e insumos que la Caja posee a traves del pars para todos los cultivos. Generalmente la venta de semillas mejoradas y fertilizantes se condiciona a la aprobaci6n del credito y el agricultor retira la semilla y el fertilizante como parte del credito concedido.La red de agencias y almacenes existentes en el pars y la combinaci6n con el credito, constituyen un mecanismo efectivo para hacer llegar la semilla certificada a los agricultores.Paralelo al Sistema de multiplicaci6n y beneficio de la semilla de la Caja Agraria existen los de agricultores particulares, i.e., Acosemillas, que multiplican la semilla fundamental entregada por los programas de investigaci6n del ICA. Actualmente estas estas compat'l!as privadas no multiplican semilla de trigo, pero podr!an ser un mecanismo adicional al de la Caja para abastecer la demanda de semilla, en caso de que la Caja no fuera suficiente.En Colombia no existe desde 1968 un serv1c10 de extensi6n como tradicionalmente se ha conocido. Actualmente existen dos formas para la difusi6n de tecnolog!a. Una denominada \"asistencia tecnica\" hecha por firmas privadas y estA dirigida a fincas comerciales. Los creditos otorgados a estas fincas se condicionan a contratar los servicios de asistencia tecnica a compat'l!as privadas que est<in inscritas en el ICA y quien las supervisa. La asistencia tecnica se hace mediante contrato entre el agricultor y las compat'l!as autorizadas. Otra forma dirigida hacia los pequeflos agricultores se hace a traves de los proyectos de desarrollo rural en Areas seleccionadas por el Ministerio de Agricultura.El trigo producido en Colombia es comprado por el Instituto de Mercadeo Agr!cola, IDEMA, que es la agencia del gobierno encargada de comprar y vender productos agr!colas b<isicos con el objeto de regular el mercado, y por los molinos. Sin embargo, IDEMA interviene s6lo en una pequefla parte del mercado, a traves de puestos de compra. En 1974 exist!an 8 agencias y puestos de compra en Narifio, dos en Cundinamarca y seis en Tunja. En 1976 existen tres en Nariflo, una en Cundinamarca, tres en Boyac<i y una en Santander. Este menor n11mero se debe a que los molinos est<in comprando directamente a los agricultores debido a los nuevos niveles de precios del trigo importado. IDEMA en colaboraci6n con el Ministerio de Agricultura, del cual depende, determina la cantidad de trigo a importar. El trigo importado es distribuido por cuotas a los molinos del pars, los cuales deben comprar una cuota proporcional de trigo nacional para hacerse acreedores a la cuota de trigo importado. La cuota se distribuye de modo que toda la producci6n nacional sea comprada.Cuando los precios internacionales eran inferiores a los de venta dentro del pars la diferencia constitu!a una ganancia para la instituci6n, que la utilizaba para financiar otros renglones de dis-tribuci6n de alimentos que le ocasionaban perdida. Cuando los precios internacionales fueron superiores a los domesticos, la instituci6n absorbi6 la diferencia a traves de subsidios a los molinos. Estos subsidies costaron al gobierno unos U.S.$ 62.7 millones entre 1973y1974.Existen dos fuentes de credito que incluyen el trigo dentro de SUS renglones financiables. 1. Fondo Financiero Agropecuario. Otorga prestamos para cultivo de trigo a un interes del 16 por ciento anual y en cuant!a inferior al costo total de producci6n. El agricultor financia la parte faltante. Estos cr6ditos exigen la contrataci6n de ingenieros agr6nomos para dirigir el cultivo y dar asistencia t6cnica al productor. Estos cr6ditos son supervisados por la entidad y se ha-' cen a fincas superiores a 10 hect~eas.El monto total de crMito a otorgar bajo esta modalidad est! determinado por la Oficina de Planeaci6n del Ministerio de Agricultura de acuerdo con sus Programas de Cultivos. Estos son revisados por el Ministro y por el Consejo Asesor de Polftica Agropecuaria y pasan luego a ser aprobados por la Junta Monetaria, quien establece, entre otras cosas, los montos y modalidades de credito para todas las actividades del pa!s. El Fondo Financiero de su concepto sobre el monto del credito antes de la aprobaci6n por parte de la Junta.En la Tabla 9 se indica la superficie sembrada desde 1953 a 1974, con las variedades mejoradas producidas por el programa de cereales, y con la semilla vendida por el departamento de pro-ducci6n de semillas de la Caja Agraria. Dado que los agricultores utilizan semilla mejorada dejada de la cosecha anterior, el porcentaje de adopci6n calculado se ha estimado suponiendo que se siembra con semilla mejorada producida por el agricultor una cantidad igual a la vendida por la Caja.Este c!lculo es inferior al estimado por el Programa de cereales que indica que un 35 por ciento es sembrado con semilla de la Caja, un 50 pot\" ciento dejada por los agricultores, lo cual deja s6lo un 15 por ciento sembrado con variedades nativas.Si bien es cierto que en terminos constantes el precio del trigo recibido por el agricultor ha disminuido desde 1950 hasta 1974, en general los precios establecidos por el gobierno permiten calcular una rentabilidad te6rica, que se puede considerar competitiva con otros cultivos de la re-gi6n. Sin embargo, debido a los problemas de comercializaci6n anotados antes, en la pr!ctica el agricultor no ha recibido este precio sino uno inferior, con lo cual la rentabilidad obtenida realmente era inferior a la de otros cultivos de las zonas fr!as.En la Tabla 10 se muestran los precios oficiales al productor y los costos de producci6n por hectArea. Las rentabilidades a11f calculadas son altas, pero como se ha indicado, esta es te6rica, ptiesto que el agricultor no recib!a ese precio cuando vend!a a la agencia del gobierno o cuando vend!a a intermediarios. Por otra parte los precios corrientes se mantuvieron iguales por varios a:i'los sin corregir por inflaci6n. A1in as! las series de precios al productor establecidos por el gobierno, parec!an estar dirigidos a mantener una rentabilidad competitiva del trigo con respecto a otros cultivos, pero el sistema de mercadeo establecido hace que en la prActica el objetivo no se cumpla pues lbs agricultores no lograban alcanzar lbs puntajes requeridos para el IDEMA les comprara, atm reduciendoles el puntaje y pag!ndoles a un precio inferior. Los agricultores lo vend!an entonces a intermediarios, quienes posteriormente lb vend!an a IDEMA. Algunos agricultores han afirmado que era necesario paga:J;\" propinas a los compradores de IDEMA para que les fuera comprado el trigo. De hecho, esto significa un menor precio para el agricultor.En general cuando se comparan los costos nacionales y los de importaci6n se hacen teniendo en cuenta s6lo el precio CIF. Sin embargo, debemos tomar en cuenta que el trigo de importaci6n incurre en costos adicionales como son los de transporte, nacionalizaci6n y perdidas. En la Tabla 11 se calculan los costos totales de importaci6n. La comparaci6n entre precios domesticos y de importaci6n debe hacerse con los costos de importaci6n asi calculados. Si se comparan las series de precios oficiales de sustentaci6n con el verdadero costo de importaci6n, estos han sido ligeramente inferiores, con algunas fluctuaciones, a los precios oficiales al agricultor (Figura 3). Si se tiene en cuenta que el valor de la divisa de im-portaci6n ha sido en general sobrevaluada, es decir que su precio real en pesos es mayor que el utilizado para convertir el precio CIF a moneda nacional, y que los agricultores no han recibido el precio oficial sino uno inferior, los costos de importaci6n son iguales o superiores a los precios pagados a los agricultores, pero no inferiores. No es posible conocer la magnitud de la diferencia pues no se dispone del precio sombra de la divisa ni de la serie hist6rica de precios recibidos por el agricultor. Sin embargo, la informaci6n disponible parece indicar que la pol{tica de precios del gobierno fue mantener los precios domesticos iguales a los costos de importaci6n para no desestimular la producci6n y no tener los efectos adversos de desempleo. Pero en la priictica, el sistema de mercadeo, funcion6 en forma contraria, quizli influenciado por la resistencia de los molinos a recibir un producto de inferior calidad al importado. Debe anotarse que la resistencia de los molinos a comprar el trigo nacional en el pasado, y sus continuas quejas sobre la baja calidad harinera del trigo nacional, se debfan a la infraestructura que el sistema de importaci6n ha creado dentro del pais. Dado que el trigo importado vendido por IDEMA entraba directamente a molinado sin ninguna operaci6n previa por parte de los molinos y que la mayoria de• estos carecen de sistemas de secamiento y selecci6n, les es casi imposible procesar los trigos recibidos del agricultor. Tenian entonces que depender de las verttas de IDEMA. Si a esto se agregaba que el trigo importado fue para el molino hasta 1974, miis barato que el nacional, se puede entender por que el sistema de compra del trigo nacional tendfa a rechazarlo. Se argumentaba la baja calidad del trigo nacional porque se comparaba el trigo importado uniforme, cosechado en condiciones 6ptimas y seleccionado y secado, con el trigo acabado de salir del lote del agricultor colombiano.En las Tablas 12 y 13 se presenta una estructura de costos promedio para dos sistemas de producci6n y los precios relativos implicitos.POLITICA GUBERNAMENTAL PoHticas sectoriales. Objetivos para el Sector Agricola.!/ El sector agrfcola de Colombia estli caracterizado por dos subsectores bien definidos: uno denominado tradicional o de subsistencia que produce alimentos de consumo directo y que dispone de pocos recursos productivos y falta de tecnologia, est~ compuesto por una gran poblaci6n subempleada y catalogada entre los grupos mlis pobres de la sociedad. Un segundo sub-sector que produce productos destinados a la industria y a la exportaci6n, cuenta con facilidad para absorber tecnologia e incrementar SU productividad en forma acelerada. De acuerdo con esta caracterizaci6n los objetivos generales para el sector son: \" ..... elevar el ingreso y mejorar la calidad de la vida de los sectores marginados de la sociedad, y asegurarle al pais un flujo de divisas suficiente para atender las necesidades de importaciones y el servicio de deuda, tanto en el corto como en el largo plazo'~/.Existen en consecuencia politicas especiales para cada sector: Politica para el sector tradicional. Est<i dirigida a aumentar la productividad del pequefio productor a travl'!s de dotaci6n de recursos y de acceso a la tecnologia. Dado que en este sector hay mayor absorci6n de mano de obra que en la agricultura comercial y que en la industria y dado que es fuente de productos alimehticios, esta politica generarli mlis empleo y mlis abundantes alimentos.Los programas de Desarrollo Rural Integrado, DRI, son la forma de poner en ejecuci6n la poUtica para el sector tradicional. Estos abarcarlin: 1) investigaci6n y difusi6n de tecnologia, 2) credito, 3) mercadeo y 4) inversiones en infraestructura fisica.Politica para el sector moderno. A traves de este subsector se persigue aumentar la pro-ducci6n de alimentos prioritarios no producidos por el sector tradicional, incrementar la producci6n de bienes exportables y generar mayor empleo en el campo. Los objetivos especificos son~: 2/ \"1.11. \"Incrementar la productividad con el fin de reducir los costos unitarios de producci6n en la agricultura y la ganaderia\".2. \"Sustituir importaciones de aquellos productos que se puedan producir en el pais en condiciones rentables\".\"Promover el procesamiento de alimentos con altos contenido proteinico y la fortifi-caci6n nutritiva de algunos alimentos procesados, utilizando la tecnologia desarrollada en el pars\".\"Mejorar los canales de distribuci6n de alimentos\".Esta secci6n estii tomada de: Colombia, Departamento Nacional de Planeaci6n, \"Para cerrar la brecha. Plan de desarrollo social, econ6mico y regional 1975-1978  El •plan de alimentaci6n y nutrici6n, concentrari su acci6n en algunos productos seleccionados teniendo en cuenta su capacidad nutricional, la frecuencia de su consumo. su importancia en el gasto familiar y los costos por unidad de nutriente.El. conjunto de alimentos seleccionados es el siguiente: Leguminosas:. Frijol, arveja y soya Cereales:. Arroz, ma!z y trigo Amiliceos:Papa, yuca y platano Los medios para aumentar la producci6n incluye la producci6n de alimentos procesados de alto Valor nutritivo, entre los ,cuales se incluye: a. Producci6n • y comercializaci6n de pastas alimenticias enriquecidas. b. Producci6n de harinas precocidas de. ma!z y arroz. c. Producci6n de harina de soya para consumo humano. d.. Implantaci6n del uso comercial de harinas compuestas para panificaci6n y producci6n de pastas!f.Los objetivos de aumentar la producci6n de trigo est4n enmarcados dentro de una polltica general de producci6n de alimentos. Dado que el trigo es un producto altamente nutritivo y de gran importancia en la dieta familiar. ~ste debe ser fomentado si se puede producir en forma rentable.Para fomentar la producci6n nacional de trigo el gobierno elimin6 los subsidios a las importaciones y aument6 los precios internos de sustentaci6n. Los precios constantes pagados al agricultor subieron, entre 1973 y 1974, en un 30 por ciento (Tabla 10), mientras que el precio promedio de importaci6n aument6 en un 20 por ciento en el mismo per!odo.Sin embargo. no se han tornado medidas adicionales especiales hacia el trigo. aunque existe inter~s. dentro de la pol!tica de producci6n de alimentos, de aumentar la producci6n de trigo. Por ejemplo, el presupuesto de investigaci6n contin11a igual al de 1975. No existe un programa para aumentar la multiplicaci6n de semilla mejorada que permita poner a disposici6n de los agriculfores las. variedades mejoradas existentes.El gobierno espera que con los nuevos precios la producci6n de trigo aumentar4 sin necesidad de. programas especiales. Los agricultores ban mostrado inter~s en producir trigo con los nuevos precios pero es necesario disponer de .semillas y organizar el Sistema de mercadeo, especialmente en .cu~to a disponibilidad de seleccionadoras y secadoras. HabrA un perfodo de ajuste que requiere la intervenci6n del gobierno, mientras se impulsa un sub-sector que ha estado estancado. Tam-bi~n es necesario orientar los recursos para estar preparados en caso de que los precios internacionales bajen. Es necesario basar los aumentos de producci6n en condiciones de eficiencia que permitan competir con los precios internacionales.No es posible predecir cuanto tiempo tomarA el subsector trigo para responder al estrmulo de los nuevos precios si no se toman medidas de fomento adicionales, en donde se incluya mayores recursos para investigaci6n y difusi6n de tecnolog!a. La informaci6n mAs reciente indica que la pro-ducci6n de la primera cosecha de 1976 ser4 inferior a la de los attos anteriores. ) . > 0+- .r.. \"' ( ,,•~~ . . ..  -----:----------------------M:iles----------------------------TABLA 5.-Colombia -EValuaci6n de tres tipos de semillas . de trigo de tres variedades, 1969.      -------------------Miles de Do1.ares':' ---------------------  ","tokenCount":"5686"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dccccbc3a5c798124e815c368f7b7481","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5fce7959-7c66-45b6-9061-d640d6d17dee/retrieve","id":"928974613"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3979abc7-0a0c-4b48-99ea-09b4396c24af","pagecount":"21","content":"In developing countries, lack of appropriate grain storage technologies leads up to 20-30% losses, particularly due to postharvest pests. As a result, smallholder farmers end up selling their grain soon after harvest, only to buy it back at an expensive price just a few months after harvest, falling in a poverty trap. The potential impact on poverty reduction and greater livelihood security will not be realized if farmers are unable to store grains and sell surplus production at attractive prices. Postharvest losses, also have an impact on environmental degradation and climate change as land, water, human labor and nonrenewable resources such as fertilizer and energy are used to produce, process, handle and transport food that no one consumes. Apart from causing quantitative losses, pests in stored grain are also linked to aflatoxin contamination and poisoning.Agricultural intensification projects aim at identifying best practices and innovative arrangements for increasing agricultural productivity in ways that improve income and nutrition of farm households. However, an increase in land productivity without corresponding increases in storage, processing and preparation of nutritious foods from the excess harvest may heighten postharvest losses at a greater magnitude than 40%. Therefore, there is debate whether or not agricultural intensification will improve or worsen food insecurity and poverty of households who lack the capacity to preserve excess production; majority of smallholder are in this category. A possible higher cost of intensification and less revenue caused by higher postharvest losses may further aggravate poverty. Hence, improving the capacity of smallholders' to process and store farm outputs and also produce nutrient-dense foods for household consumption is a precondition for reducing poverty, hunger and malnutrition among intensifying farming communities. This report focuses on adding value to Africa RISING through knowledge and institutional innovations that increase food and nutritional security of the poor and vulnerable groups in FTF sites. The approach included developing the value chains for priority crops within a diverse farming system by enhancing the rural agro-processing sector and building the capacity of farmers, mostly women, to produce nutritious food for home consumption and for the market.NARS partners (see above) were identified based on their experiences and capacity in postharvest project implementation. The project objectives explained to the partners; roles and responsibilities of partners defined and research agreements were signed between partners and IITA and CIMMYT. In this exercise, meetings were held with local partners, including the national research programs and universities; the local partners identified target communities and intervention plan was jointly designed. Best-bet intervention technologies were identified, and tested with farmers. In general, the project objectives were guided and technically supported by CIMMYT and IITA research teams; whilst local implementation was executed by local partners.Objective 1: Improve scientific knowledge for developing strategies that will expand agro-processing sector Output 1: Factors that contribute to high postharvest losses and general food insecurity in project areas understood and strategies for expanding agro-processing sector suggested.Postharvest loss assessment study to establish the factors that contribute to high postharvest losses (100% achievement): The study was done through focus group discussions and household interviews in 14 villages of Dodoma region (Kondoa district), Kilimanjaro region (Hai, Siha and Moshi districts), Manyara region (Babati and Mbulu districts) and Arusha region (Arusha, Meru, Karatu, and Monduli districts) in order to identify factors contributing to high postharvest losses of food. Two hundred and seventy individuals were interviewed during the group focus discussion and 633 households were interviewed. Data from the field was analysed and draft report is available. Maize postharvest losses due to storage pests appeared very high (over 25%).Post-harvest losses were viewed by the respondents as being caused by bad weather which checked the final harvest of the crop. Insect pests, rotting by fungus, termites, rodents, wild animals, theft and birds including chicken were observed by most respondents (Fig1). Losses in storage were accelerated by late preparation of storage structures, late harvesting, poor storage facilities, storage bags with very low life span from the market, the bags are also easily punctured by rats. These problems led to most farmers disposing their products early which succumbed to being paid low uneconomical prices. Postharvest losses by insects are as indicated in Figure 2 below . The highest losses of 0-20% were reported in Dodoma, followed by Arusha, Kilmanjaro and Manyara while in 20-40% region were reported in Kilimanjaro followed by Arusha and Dodoma.Postharvest losses by insects are as indicated in Figure 2 . The highest losses of 0-20% were reported in Dodoma, followed by Arusha, Kilmanjaro and Manyara while in 20-40% region were reported in Kilimanjaro followed by Arusha and Dodoma.  The leaky food pipeline for the 14 villages was developed. Five postharvest constraints were identified. These were problems in shelling maize and sorghum, infestation of cereal grains by pests during storage, poor methods used in cream separation from milk, loss of nutrients during food processing and preservation and lack of special feeding programs for special groups of people like children under five years of age. These constraints could significant affect farmers' ability to increase on-farm production or to adopt new technologies that will increase output. Below is the schematic representation of preliminary results of the situation analysis at some stages of traditional postharvest handling operations, where and how farm outputs are lost in the maize-base farming system of Kondoa and Babati.  The hypothesis of this study was: Oxygen and moisture impermeable bags preserve maize and sorghum better than traditional cribs and polypropylene bags; will reduce storage loss from the current 25% to < 2%; will save storage space for the farmer; will increase farmers ability to increase crop production and will improve health of women and income for men and women farmers. Four farmers' groups per intervention village were involved in the experiment (Table 1). *Each village was treated as a block. We purposively selected households and farmers' cooperatives that have traditional storage facility (cribs) and large quantity of maize in each village. The improved storage technologies were set-up side-by-side the traditional crib/bag storage techniques (control) with the farmers.A total of 41.8 MT of maize and sorghum are currently in the storage experiments being managed by farmers.The experiments could not be established in Dodoma because farmers did not have sufficient maize or sorghum for the storage experiment. In general, farmers have very poor capacity (knowledge, technology and infrastructure) to store their staple foods (maize, millet and sorghum) for family consumption until next harvest season that starts approximately 10 months after or to store cash crops until a better market price can be obtained (Figure 2). More than 60% of the staple and cash crops (e.g. sunflower, sesame) are sold within the same month of harvesting. This is a major factor that contributes to the nearly perpetual food insecurity situation of farmers in this region, especially in Dodoma. Farmers often question the need to adopt new high yielding crop varieties that will increase their farm outputs but will be lost due to inadequate postharvest processing practices and storage system. For example, increased production of tomatoes in some villages in Babati district often causes price plunge and waste.How will the outputs support the longer term objectives of Africa RISING?Results of the postharvest loss assessment study in 8 villages of Kondoa district-Dodoma Region and 6 villages of Babati district-Manyara Region showed that cumulative postharvest loss of 40-45% of farm outputs currently occurs for maize and sorghum in the project area. A strategy to promote intensification of farming system combined with a strategy for postharvest storage of excess production will engender at least a proportionate increase in income and food security of smallholders. The risk of wasteful labour and farm inputs by smallholders as a result of postharvest losses in an intensifying production system will reduce. Integration of knowledge generated in the postharvest experiments being conducted with farmers in Babati and Dodoma will enable Africa Rising to develop a more comprehensive smallholder farming intensification strategy, eliminating the risk of glut and price plunge in event of increased smallholder farm out-puts.If these deliverables are intended to increase in scale during years 2-5 of Africa RISING, what actions do you propose to be implemented in future?Data collection in the storage experiment started with farmers needs to be completed. A total of 41.8 MT of maize and sorghum are currently in the storage experiments in the two villages. It was planned that storage indices (moisture, residual O 2 inside the storage devices, grain moisture, weevil infestation, and extent of grain damage) will be monitored for a 6 month storage period.A maize sheller has been placed at an intervention village (Mamire in Babati District) and a Sorghum thresher has been placed at the second intervention village (Mondo in Kondoa District). It is important to evaluate the improvements in value chains for these crops when threshing and shelling are mechanized compared to the counterfactual villages where traditional methods are used. This is possible in the next harvest season.Continue with data collection from the experiments that have been started with farmers; replicate testing of the technologies in new locations to be identified prior 'during 4 th quarter of 2012, and for at least two seasons to arrive at valid conclusions.Scaling up and out of hermetic storage technologies, such as super grain bags and metal silos, to reach large number of farmers. This calls for formation of innovation/learning platforms and networking an array of relevant stakeholders in order to disseminate information about these technologies.Conducting economic analysis of metal silos and super bags; identifying policy gaps, incentives and disincentives that affect adoption of postharvest technologies. Initiate policy dialogue with local and national policy makers to include postharvest technologies in to national development agenda.What lessons, including about the partnership you had within the project, have been learnt during the implementation of the project that will help Africa RISING to succeed in future? Africa RISING encourages publication of the study results in refereed publications and presentation in conferences for wider public consumption. Advise the potential of your work getting to this stage.The project has generated some information on postharvest constraints of farmers, how the constraints contribute to food insecurity and why farmers have been unable to intensify production systems. A journal paper is being extracted from the activities done so far; however, this may take quite some time to get it published. However, a paper on the results of the project will be presented at the 7 th Knowledge was imparted to many farmers during focus group discussions in 8 villages of Kondoa district and 6 villages of Babati district, and three regions. Significant skills were impacted to many farmers in the two districts during demonstrations on storage technologies, use of grain safe storage systems, use of collapsible dryers and separation of cream from milk.","tokenCount":"1779"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2c652bebbf21f3aa8d431885892dc7c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/21631f44-590e-433d-b13d-04dd56e5389e/retrieve","id":"1725837777"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85e0bd89-adbc-4e45-900a-1ca985d359d5","pagecount":"4","content":"Để chủ động đối phó với các rủi ro liên quan tới khí hậu, phù hợp với điều kiện đặc thù của từng địa phương đồng thời hài hòa trong định hướng phát triển liên kết vùng, Cục Trồng trọt và Chương trình Nghiên cứu Biến đổi khí hậu, Nông nghiệp và An ninh Lương thực khu vực Đông Nam Á đã phối hợp xây dựng phương pháp lập bản đồ nguy cơ rủi ro thiên tai và kế hoạch thích ứng trong sản xuất lúa có sự tham gia (Climate-Smart Mapping and Adaptation Planning -CS MAP) cho các tỉnh vùng ĐBSCL. Hoạt động này hỗ trợ cho Cục và các tỉnh tự xây dựng phương án quản lý sản xuất lúa thích ứng với BĐKH thông qua việc lập (1) bản đồ về nguy cơ ngập lụt, hạn hán và xâm nhập mặn quy mô tỉnh; và ( 2 i) Xác định các vùng sản xuất lúa không có khả năng thích ứng trong hệ thống canh tác hiện tại hoặc có nguy cơ chịu các tác động liên quan đến khí hậu gây thiệt hại năng suất, sản lượng, từ đó có giải pháp chuyển đổi phù hợp. ii) Nhân rộng mô hình dịch vụ khí hậu nông nghiệp với hệ thống cảnh báo sớm và dự báo thời tiết, khí hậu nông nghiệp định kì (thời hạn mùa, thời hạn tháng hoặc/và 10 ngày), kèm theo khuyến cáo nông nghiệp tương ứng; iii) Xây dựng hệ thống quan trắc cập nhật lịch thời vụ thực tế, dự báo năng suất sản lượng vùng trồng lúa.Phạm vi nhân rộng CS-MAP và bản tin thời tiết nông vụ sẽ có đôi chỗ khác nhau.• Giai đoạn 1 nhân rộng CS-MAP trên phạm vi của các vùng có nguy cơ cao đối với các loại rủi ro khí hậu. Giai đoạn 2 nhân rộng trên phạm vi các vùng có nguy cơ trung bình. Phạm vi nhân rộng được xác định bằng Bản đồ rủi ro khí hậu và kế hoạch thích ứng (CS-MAP).• Các xã hoặc huyện liền kề có cùng mức độ rủi ro đối với một loại rủi ro khí hậu nhất định được gộp thành một nhóm.Bản tin thời tiết nông vụ sẽ trước tiên được nhân rộng tới toàn bộ các huyện của tỉnh Tiền Giang và sau đó là nhân rộng tới các tỉnh dễ bị tổn thương và có sự quan tâm theo từng giai đoạn khác nhau.CS-MAP và bản tin thời tiết nông vụ sẽ được lồng ghép chặt chẽ hơn theo thời gian.-Sử dụng phương pháp lập bản đồ rủi ro thiên tai và kế hoạch thích ứng cho các cảnh báo trung và dài hạn, bằng cách xây dựng các kịch bản khí hậu thường xuyên xảy ra, trong đó xác định các khu vực bị ảnh hưởng, có khả năng gây thiệt hại năng suất, sản lượng, từ đó có các giải pháp ứng phó đầu vụ hoặc lập kế hoạch sản xuất hàng năm; -Xây dựng và phổ biến bản tin thời tiết nông vụ định kì (mùa, tháng hoặc/và 10 ngày) thông qua các kênh chia sẻ khác nhau dựa trên dự báo mùa và dự báo thời tiết giúp đưa ra các cảnh báo về các hiện tượng thời tiết cực đoan và các rủi ro ảnh hưởng tới cây trồng, do đó giúp nông hộ có biện pháp ứng phó phù hợp. -Điều kiện tiên quyết của sự nhân rộng là cần có cơ chế hợp tác giữa hai nghành nông nghiệp và khí tượng thủy văn (KTTV) về cung cấp dự báo thời hạn mùa và dự báo thời tiết bởi đài KTTV vùng/tỉnh đặc thù cho các tiểu vùng, có thể cần có kinh phí phù hợp. -Định kỳ cập nhật thời điểm xuống giống, tuổi của trà lúa, sức khỏe trà lúa để hỗ trợ điều chỉnh dự báo năng suất sản lượng theo thời gian thực.Khu vực ưu tiên triển khai trong giai đoạn 1 của kế hoạch là các huyện có diện tích lúa nằm trong vùng nguy cơ cao chịu ảnh hưởng của thiên tai (vùng màu đỏ trên bản đồ CS-MAP).Trong các giai đoạn tiếp theo, mở rộng đến các vùng nguy cơ trung bình và nguy cơ thấp (vùng màu cam và vàng).Vùng ưu tiên được xác định trên cơ sở vùng nguy cơ khí hậu, không phụ thuộc vào ranh giới hành chính, tuy nhiên để thuận tiện cho việc phối hợp thực hiện các hoạt động tại địa phương, các hoạt động được triển khai tại cấp quận/huyện và nhóm quận/huyện gần nhau về mặt địa lý và cùng chung nhóm nguy cơ.-Đối với các vùng chưa cập nhật bản đồ CS-MAP cấp huyện năm 2020, cần tiến hành cập nhật bộ bản đồ này với điều kiện sử dụng đất và thủy lợi mới nhất, bằng phương pháp lập bản đồ có sự tham gia. -Dựa trên các vùng nguy cơ, xây dựng hệ thống canh tác thích ứng và lịch thời vụ khuyến cáo cho kịch bản cực đoan và kịch bản thông thường tại các huyện có nguy cơ cao.-Riêng đối với hoạt động dịch vụ khí hậu nông nghiệp, hoạt động nên được triển khai ở cấp tỉnh, với bước đầu tiên là xác định ưu tiên của tỉnh về cây trồng hoặc/và vật nuôi,rủi ro khí hậu chính, và loại dự báo thời tiết, khí hậu cần thiết (mùa, tháng hoặc/và 10 ngày). -Thành lập các Tổ kỹ thuật về thông tin khí hậu thời tiết nông vụ (gọi tắt là Tổ Kỹ thuật), cấp tỉnh, huyện với sự hợp tác của các bên liên quan thuộc nghành nông nghiệp và KTTV để cùng xây dựng và phổ biến các bản tin thời tiết nông vụ. -Thiết lập các cơ chế cho các bước khác nhau: 1) Xây dựng các bản tin dự báo thời hạn mùa và dự báo thời tiết đặc thù ở cấp tiểu vùng bởi các Đài KTTV tỉnh/khu vực; 2) Cung cấp thông tin về nông nghiệp và môi trường bởi các cơ quan khối nông nghiệp tỉnh/huyện; 3) Xây dựng khuyến nghị nông nghiệp và các bản tin thời tiết nông vụ tương ứng với các dự báo thời hạn mùa và thời tiết đặc thù để hỗ trợ khối nghành nông nghiệp; 4) Xây dựng kế hoạch và thực hiện phổ biến bản tin thời tiết nông vụ tới người dùng kế tiếp (cán bộ xã, huyện) và người sử dụng cuối cùng (nông hộ) qua các kênh khác nhau (ví dụ: áp phích, Zalo, phát loa và cuộc họp tại xã/ấp) với sự tham gia của các bên liên quan; 5) Theo dõi phổ biến và áp dụng dự báo và khuyến nghị nông nghiệp dựa trên dự báo thời tiết thời hạn mùa và thời tiết thông qua đánh giá giữa vụ và cuối vụ.-Cập nhật số liệu tiến độ xuống giống, cơ cấu giống, tình hình sinh trưởng, phát triển của cây trồng v.v...-Dự báo sản lượng.-Cơ chế chia sẻ thông tin dự báo thời tiết định kì xây dựng và phổ biến bản tin thời tiết nông vụ định kì.-Cơ chế báo cáo cập nhật tình hình sản xuất lúa định kỳ;-Công cụ hỗ trợ dự báo năng suất, sản lượng;-Cơ chế cập nhật bản đồ rủi ro và kế hoạch thích ứng;-Cơ chế phối hợp chia sẻ thông tin giữa các huyện trong cùng một nhóm nguy cơ và/hoặc tiểu vùng sinh thái cho CS-MAP.-Đưa quy trình khuyến cáo nông vụ vào kế hoạch công tác và nhiệm vụ thường xuyên của Chi cục Trồng trọt cấp tỉnh, Phòng Nông nghiệp cấp huyện và Trung tâm Dịch vụ nông nghiệp cấp huyện.-Khảo sát nhu cầu nhân lực ở các cấp, các cơ quan, xây dựng kế hoạch đào tạo nguồn nhân lực, bổ sung nhân lực hoặc nâng cao năng lực cho cán bộ sẵn có.- -Trung tâm Dịch vụ Nông nghiệp các huyện./.","tokenCount":"1346"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f3d5d413796c162d524bc417ff055f87","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/52598287-4604-43bd-a9fe-91a921075e7a/retrieve","id":"2090262737"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"26c584a8-d731-44a7-bdc4-b0b933d7c43a","pagecount":"38","content":"Introduction 2 Extension service from where to where? Lessons from global experiences 3 Overview of the extension service development in Ethiopia 4 Current extension service in Ethiopia 4.1 Organization of the public extension system 4.2 Extension approach and delivery 4.3 Relevance of the extension service to the transformation of the subsistence agriculture into market orientation 4.4 Problems with the current extension service 5 Emerging government extension strategy 6 Conclusion and recommendation References Annex 1 Number of staff of woreda offices of agriculture of four PLWs in Oromiya and SNNPR regions by level of education and field of training, excluding personnel located at PA level (2004/05) Annex 2 Number of staff of woreda offices of agriculture of four PLWs in Tigray and Amhara regions by level of education and field of training, excluding personnel at PA level (2004/05Teams in the structure of woreda offices of agriculture (2004/05) The development of the Ethiopian economy heavily depends upon the speed with which agricultural growth is achieved. The rate of agricultural growth in Ethiopia in turn depends on the speed with which the current subsistence oriented production system is transformed into a market orientated production system. Among the many institutional support services that need to catalyse/support the transformation process, the agricultural extension service plays a critical role, since it contributes to the development of the skill and knowledge of farmers to adopt new and improved technologies (seed varieties and animal breeds, implements, chemicals and practices), and the approaches and processes with which the skill development and access to information are realized.Extension service has meant different things to different people. Moris (1991) defined extension as the mechanism for information and technology delivery to farmers. This conceptualization of the extension service has been the basis for the transfer of technology (TOT) extension model. A more comprehensive definition of extension service is given by the World Bank as a 'process that helps farmers become aware of improved technologies and adopt them in order to improve their efficiency, income and welfare' (Purcell and Anderson 1997, 55). In this paper we take even a broader definition of extension service to include facilitation of linkages of farmers with other institutional support services such as input supply, credit and agricultural produce marketing. Hence, extension service is defined in this paper as a service of information, knowledge and skill development to enhance adoption of improved agricultural technologies and facilitation of linkages with other institutional support services (input supply, output marketing and credit).Extension services in Ethiopia until about 2002 were focused on increasing production and productivity in view of achieving food security (Mathewos and Chandargi 2005).However, it had become apparent around 1996 that without integrating farmers into the market, sustained growth in the agriculture sector would not be realized. Perhaps as a result, the government policy on agricultural development has recently started to emphasize the transformation of subsistence agriculture into market orientation as a basis for long-term development of the agricultural sector. Such policy emphasis on market orientation has led to the recent establishment of a State Ministry of AgriculturalMarketing within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD). Within this State Ministry, specific emphasis is given to the role of co-operatives for the supply of credit and input/output marketing services. The extension service will have to make proper linkages with the co-operatives.The government emphasis on commercialization of the agricultural sector has implications for the organization, staffing and operation of the agricultural extension service. The role of extension is more critical for commercial oriented farmers than for subsistence farmers. When farmers produce primarily for the market (both domestic and export markets), quality and standard of the produce become much more important than during subsistence production, since competitiveness depends partly on quality of produce. Changing market conditions and consumer preferences require rapid adjustments in production technologies, and timely and effective transmission of market information. Post harvest handling and technologies play critical role in market oriented production. Meeting quality of produce depends heavily on the use of the right technologies and methods of production. Important in this respect is also the role the extension services have to play in linking the different public and private stakeholders involved in input-output marketing and credit supply.Considering these challenges this paper looks at evolution of the extension institutions globally and in Ethiopia, and how effective these institutions have been in meeting their mandate in the past. It then reviews the present system (strengths and weaknesses) and the newly developed extension strategy for Ethiopia. It concludes with suggestions for improving the extension services in order to fit into its new role in the context of market oriented transformation of the Ethiopian agriculture.This paper makes use of literature review and information collected using Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) techniques in eight woredas of four Regional States of Oromiya, Amhara, Tigray and SNNPR in 2004/05. The woredas have been identified as PilotLearning Woredas (PLWs) for the research and development activities being undertaken by the Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers project.The paper also reviews the new government initiatives aimed at improving the capacity and capability of the extension service, in particular the ATVET and FTC initiatives.The next section of the paper presents the lessons from the development of the extension service globally. Section 3 presents the historical development of the extension service in Ethiopia. Section 4 deals with the analysis of the contemporary extension service in Ethiopia while section 5 presents the emerging government strategy for agricultural extension. Section 6 concludes the paper and presents suggestion for improvement of the extension service in Ethiopia.Extension service from where to where? Lessons from global experiencesThe effectiveness of extension service can be evaluated based on the relationship between extension activities and changes in (1) farmers awareness' and knowledge of technologies, the skills with which they can use the technologies, and the extent of adoption of those technologies, (2) farmers' access to information on complementary institutional support services such as markets, credit and input supply, and (3) farm productivity and efficiency. The efficiency of the extension service is measured by the level of cost with which these services are provided to farmers.Globally, agricultural extension service indicates a number of generic problems confronting the extension service including problems related to coverage; complexities involved in the service; effect of wider agricultural development policy environment for success; the critical role of other institutional support services such as input supply, credit and agricultural marketing; lack of political support and commitment; inadequate public funding; and insufficient appropriate and relevant technologies.Although it was estimated that about 0.8 million extension workers serve about 1.2 billion clientele globally (Swanson et al. 1990), many public agricultural extension services are serving only about 10% of the potential beneficiaries (Anandajayasekeram et al. 2005). Although the role of women in agricultural production and marketing has been well recognized, there is gender bias in the service, whereby the majority of the beneficiaries are male. The complexity of the extension service arises from the need to deal with the diverse sources of agricultural information for farmers, advising multiple stakeholders and partners in the agricultural development effort, and the range of extension mandate.The effectiveness and efficiency of extension service is contingent upon the overall policy environment for agricultural development. Availability of credit and input supply services, and availability of stock of appropriate technologies can be limiting factors for agricultural development. Lack of political commitment, partly arising from urban bias and poor understanding of the role of rural development in the overall economic development effort of a country, has been another common problem confronting the extension service in many developing countries. In this regard, Purcell and Anderson (1997) posit that implementation of about half of the World Bank assisted extension projects was seriously affected by lack of commitment by senior government officials.Another generic problem confronting the extension service is inadequate public funding.The problem is especially acute with regard to operational budget. Operating costs are usually liable to budget cuts. Shortages of operating costs seriously affect the effectiveness of the extension service (Axinn 1988). In many developing countries, lack and shortage of relevant and appropriate technologies to improve productivity is a major constraint confronting the extension service, a problem which is more serious in rainfed, resource poor environments (Axinn 1988;Purcell and Anderson 1997). Part of the reason for the lack and shortage of appropriate technologies is the weak linkage between research, extension and farmers.To alleviate the aforementioned generic problems of extension, a range of institutional arrangements have been tried, including improvements in extension management, decentralization, and commodity-focused approach, fee-for-service public provision, institutional pluralism, empowerment and participatory approaches, privatization, service contracting, and inter-connecting rural people and use of appropriate media (Anandajayasekeram et al. 2005). Decentralization can facilitate flexibility and adaptability of the extension service to local environment and the needs of intended beneficiaries, although it can also increase local political interference on technical matters.The commodity-specific and privatized extension service approaches may work well in monoculture and commercial or export oriented crop and livestock production.In situations where numerous smallholders grow a variety of crops often both for subsistence and for sale, these approaches are likely to leave the majority of producers out, suggesting the need for a pluralistic extension system that also addresses the extension service needs and requirements of the smallholders. The fee-for-service approach, primarily aimed as cost recovery strategy, is expected to improve the financial sustainability of the extension service. Costs can be covered by both farmers and the public sector. Appropriate targeting of farmers, which is not an easy task in most cases, is required to make this approach effective.Most extension services in developing countries are described as pluralistic (Eicher 2004). The objective of pluralistic extension system is to have a co-ordinated system of complementary extension services that would reach and respond to the diverse requirements of farming systems and the different needs of farmer groups (World Bank 1977). As such, pluralistic extension system is characterized by the co-existence of the different extension models and approaches described in this paper. Pluralistic institutional arrangement of extension service is also considered as a step towards privatization of the service. For institutional pluralism to work, it is important for the central government to accept reduced direct control over program or staffing. If effective, institutional pluralism can solve problems of coverage, fiscal sustainability, accountability and interaction with knowledge and technology generation.Participatory approaches can play positive roles in alleviating most of the generic problems, including the development of farmers who could perform several extension agent roles in a cost effective manner. Contracting extension services can take the form of a private sector contracting in public sector extension staff (contracting in), or public funds used to contract private service providers (contracting out) (Rivera and Zijp 2002).In the latter case, the role of the public sector changes from service provider to regulator or quality controller and overseer of the service provider. With the advancement in the To counteract the effects of the enduring (generic) problems and enhance the contributions of the success factors, the agricultural extension service globally is undergoing a number of changes. According to Van den ban and Hawkins (1996), an extension system should encompass five goals:(1) transferring knowledge from researchers to farmers (2) advising farmers in their decision making (3) educating farmers to be able to make similar decisions in the future (4) enabling farmers to clarify their own goals and possibilities (5) stimulating desirable agricultural development.Extension service needs to aim at both technology adoption and human resource development. Most of the focus of extension to date has been on technology adoption (Roling 1988). Human resource development deals with the rural people themselves and their social systems, and aims at developing leadership capacity, institutions and mobilization and organization of farmers.In an attempt to reform the extension system, three strategies have often been implemented (Rivera et al. 2001). These are:(1) decentralizing the burden of extension expenditures such as direct charging of extension services, provision of coupons or vouchers (2) decentralizing the responsibility of the central government for extension and(3) decentralizing the management of programs through farmers participatory involvement in decision making leading to farmers taking responsibility for extension programs.Overview of the extension service development in Ethiopia Agricultural extension service in Ethiopia is said to have started in 1953 with the establishment of the then Imperial Ethiopian College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts (IECAMA), currently known as Alemaya University. IECAMA was established following the concept of the land grant system of the United States of America (USA) and was mandated to have three responsibilities: teaching, research and extension. The extension mandate of the college included transferring local research outputs and technologies to farmers, and importing technologies and improved practices from abroad and introducing them to farmers (Ibrahim 2004). The college was using graduates of the then Jimma and Ambo agricultural high schools as development agents (DAs), and was concentrating its efforts around the areas where it had agricultural experimental stations. The college started with only 2 extension agents; this number later increased to 132 agents operating in 77 extension posts.The extension service of the college undertook demonstrations, regular visits of individual farmer's fields and the organization of youth clubs. The youth clubs were used as entry (focal) points to disseminate technologies to the larger farm communities. Moreover, the extension service of the college focused on improved poultry production, horticulture, tree seedling production and distribution, improved wheat varieties, and apiculture. The coverage of the extension service of the college was minuscule compared to the needs of the country due to severe shortage of manpower and limitations in new/improved technologies. The lack of complementary institutional support services such as input supply and credit services was another major constraint of the extension service provided by the college. The fact that the extension service focused on training and knowledge transfer, with the responsibilities for input supply and rural credit being assigned to other bodies signifies the importance of treating the extension service only as a source of training and information. However, institutions to supply inputs and credit to farmers are necessary compliments to the extension service, and their absence had a negative effect on the effectiveness of the extension service.In 1963, the mandate to provide agricultural extension was moved to the then Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), structured as a department at the national level and extension personnel assigned at provincial levels. However, the extension service was not very active until 1968, even compared with the extension activities of the college (Ibrahim 2004). The Third Five Year Development Plan  had aimed to modernize the Ethiopian agriculture through a comprehensive package approach to be initially implemented in selected pilot areas and eventually to be scaled up to cover about  (HAD). Since all of these programs and projects were operational in only small areas, the vast majority of the country was out of their reach. Evaluation of the comprehensive package approach led to the conclusion that the approach did not benefit smallholders, and was too expensive to scale out and up both financially and in terms of manpower requirements.The first nationwide extension program, the Minimum Package Project I (MPP-I), was designed for the period 1971-1979 with financial assistance from SIDA. The objective of the MPP-I was to provide smallholders with extension and input supply services. As an implementing structure, the then MoA established a department known as Extension and Project Implementation Department (EPID). The MPP-I used similar extension approaches as the comprehensive package approach, which was using demonstration plots and model farmers. Apparently as an extension of the PADETS program, the current extension services revolves around providing farm households a choice from a menu of technology packages centred around a principal component such as water harvesting, dairy, apiculture, horticultural production etc. In the dry land areas, water development (water harvesting, ground well development or small-scale irrigation development) constitutes the core component of the packages. However, the menu driven household package approach to agricultural extension is more popular in Tigray and Amhara, and less in Oromiya and SNNPR. 1In addition to the public extension, NGOs have also been involved in providing extension services to farmers, mostly in more drought prone and food insecure areas. Some of the extension services provided by the NGOs use innovative extension approaches. SOS Sahel, Farm Africa, and Save the Children are few examples (Ashworth 2005). Several participatory approaches under different names have been used, including Participatory Action Planning and Implementation (PAPI), Participatory Land Use Planning and Implementation (PLUPI), and Farmer Field Schools (FFS) (Ashworth 2005). However, many of these programs suffer from the fact that even though they use woreda level government staff, they are not well integrated into the public system.All of the past extension programs in Ethiopia were not based on a long-term strategic vision of extension service that provides a long-term guideline for the role and core functions of a plurality of service providers, with the state playing primarily a facilitating and co-ordinating role. Moreover, the extension services, except PADETS, were based on donor funding. The different extension programs until 1991 mostly benefited the large and wealthy farmers or commercial farmers, with the neglect of smallholders. In some of the programs, the neglect of the smallholders may not have been deliberate, indicating the need for an extension program to incorporate an explicit strategy to address the needs of smallholder farmers. Focus was also given to high potential areas for the most part. The bias of the extension service towards crop production, particularly cereals, persisted throughout all the extension programs. Another common feature of the extension programs in the past has been the top-down and non-participatory approach followed consistently throughout the period. Technologies were supply driven instead of being demand driven. Most of the extension programs were also focused on production, 1. A follow-up study will determine why the emphasis on the household package program varied across the regions.without adequate attention given to the marketing of produce. After having been donor driven for nearly four decades, the extension service is now fully financed from national budget. This is an encouraging development. However, there is a need to ensure the financing of the extension service is adequate. Supplemental foreign financing could as well be beneficial to ameliorate budgetary problems of the national treasury, maintaining that the strategy is nationally driven. There are some variations in the structure of the woreda level OoARD (Table 1), apparently to fit the special requirements of the specific woredas. This suggests that some level of decentralized decision-making is taking place in the extension system. A notable case is that of Metema PLW in the Amhara Region. In this PLW, the woreda is classified into two extension areas and the extension activities in each extension area is handled by a team composed of an extension team leader, an extension and training expert, and experts in crop production, animal production, and natural resource management.In Mieso PLW of the Oromiya Region, which is partly a pastoral farming system, the woreda office is organized as Office of Pastoralists and Rural Development (OoPRD). Range development and veterinary services are emphasized in the pastoral farming system of this PLW. In the Dale PLW of the SNNPR, a special team for coffee and spices is organized, since coffee and spices are important cash crops in the horticulture based perennial crops farming system. The most common structure across the PLWs, however, is to constitute woreda level teams for crop production, livestock production and natural resources management.2. Information on the IPMS project can be found at www.ipms-ethiopia.org 3. Bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) operate at the Regional level.  1). The extension team is expected to have a team leader, several extension supervisors and a home economics agent, all based at the woreda level. Each extension supervisor is responsible for the supervision of extension activities in several PAs.Extension services provided in Tigray and Amhara regions, and in some parts of Oromiya can be categorized into three groups: household package, regular package and minimum Some of the market oriented commodities may not have been popular at the PLWs at the time the strategies were being prepared. For example, with the development of water harvesting and irrigation technologies, farmers shift to production of high value crops such as horticultural crops (vegetables and fruits). However, since such crops were not emphasized in the particular woreda previously, the extension service did not have the required subject matter specialists (SMSs) and DAs to support farmers technically.Moreover, providing marketing support services was not considered as a mandate of the extension service in Ethiopia. SMSs and DAs have not received training on facilitating market services. In addition, there is a serious shortage of personnel trained in agricultural economics, agribusiness or other business related disciplines at the woreda level offices of agriculture. As a result, market access and marketing is being a critical concern of farmers. There is a need to explicitly consider how to align the extension service to fit the market oriented development strategies envisioned in the woreda development plans.An important aspect of a more market oriented extension service is the role of the extension system in facilitating linkages between producers and market parties. While this is not yet part of an official government approach, some encouraging (informal) developments in this respect were observed in several of the PLWs. For example, in Ada'a woreda, the staff of the office of agriculture and the EARO Debre Zeit AgriculturalResearch Center (DZARC) staff facilitated linkages between wheat producers in the woreda and local food factories. In Alamata, the OoARD facilitated contacts between producers and haricot bean exporters. In Metema, cotton producers were linked with potential buyers. Although the success of these arrangements differ, the initiatives are indicative of the appreciation of the need for market facilitation in the process of agricultural transformation. Studies are required to document the lessons of these initiatives.Extension service is also expected to play a linkage facilitation role between farmers and credit and input suppliers. Linkage with the credit supply service appears to be working well, especially with regard to the household package. However, the extension service appears to have been heavily involved directly in input supply, some times taking considerable amount of the time of the experts of the woreda offices of agriculture and DAs. Extension service needs to gradually reduce its direct involvement in input supply and play more of facilitating linkages with input suppliers. If this is done, the extension service could better be placed to focus on knowledge transfer and skill development.Top-down and non-participatory nature of the extension service is pervasive throughout the country. Top-down approach is not only between DAs and farmers, but also between the woreda and the regional level offices. The service is predominantly supply driven.Technology packages are prepared based on the available new/improved technologies and attempts are made to transfer them to farmers. This supply driven approach of extension has been a common feature of all the extension service programs in the country to date. Although socio-economic surveys were made to develop the menu of household level packages in Tigray and Amhara regions, it is not clear if farmers' needs and preferences were incorporated in the design of the packages. There is a need to refocus the extension service to make it more demand driven and based on community resources. There is also limitation in the availability of technology options both for the crop and livestock subsectors. The wealth of indigenous knowledge of farmers can also be used as source of improved technology options.The current extension service is also confronted with problems that relate to budget, incentive structure and morale of SMSs and DAs, and high turnover of same. Woreda offices of agriculture are operating with only about 50% of their manpower requirements on average compared to the number stipulated in their organizational structures. The reason for this is either budgetary or the lack of suitable experts to hire. 6 The majority of staff are diploma or certificate holders, and each PLW has one DVM, except one which has two (Table 2). Annexes 1 and 2 present the number of woreda staff by level of education and field of training. Limitations in the number and capacity of DAs were found to be a common problem of the extension service throughout the four regions. Most DAs are certificate holders with 6-9 months training in agriculture. Average DA:farmer ratio in the PLWs was 1:797 (Table 3). In addition to DAs, co-DAs who received 1-2 months training were deployed in the PLWs although this is a temporary arrangement to fill the positions of regular DAs who were sent for training to the ATVETs.In some of the woredas, farmers claimed that they know better than the DAs in agricultural production, and all they needed the DAs for was only input supply. Lack of adequate capacity of the DAs was also confirmed by the DAs themselves in some of the woredas. The plan to upgrade all DAs to diploma level and train additional DAs at diploma level through training at the ATVET is a timely and appropriate response to solve the problem of both the number and capacity of DAs.6. Problem of shortage of qualified experts is not limited to the woreda level agricultural offices, but also to the regional bureaus of agriculture, and even to the MoARD. A related problem with the extension service is the low morale and high mobility/ turnover of DAs and SMSs. Perhaps because of the incentive structure, several SMSs or DAs quit the extension service and join better paying NGOs or other government offices.SMSs and DAs quit their job usually after they had gained experience in the field. Serious shortage of operational budget is another problem that affects the extension activities and also the morale of the extension personnel. In some of the woredas, SMSs are entitled to a maximum of three days per diem in a month even if they are in the field for the whole month, and usually they are in the field for much more than three days. Shortage or complete lack of transportation facilities limits the capacity of DAs and SMSs to travel to the different areas of the woreda. Related with the budget constraint is the serious shortage of training and demonstration materials.Agricultural extension service is expected to be based on scientific principles of education and communication methodology. As such, the field of agricultural extension has developed as specialized field of training in higher learning institutions throughout the world. However, our observations across the eight PLWs indicate that extension methodology is not considered as something that has to be based on professional scientific principles of information communication, and knowledge and skill development. Extension program planning, choice and implementation of communication approaches etc. are considered to be handled by any agriculturalist.In short, we observed little recognition and appreciation for the role of agricultural extension discipline as a separate area of expertise. Subject matter specialists are considered as extension experts. Almost all woreda offices do not have experts who are specialized in agricultural extension.Transmitting extension messages at church/mosque gatherings during religious holidays or other occasional social gatherings indicates the problem of targeting extension messages. People who happened to be at the church/mosque or the social gatherings may not necessarily include the target farmers for whom the messages are intended. Trainings given to households involved in the household package programs need to be organized in a better planned and co-ordinated way. Follow up mechanism of the package participants also needs to be improved. For example, in some woredas it was indicated that the package program participants do not graduate from the programs in time because they see their involvement in the program as the only way of getting inputs such as improved seeds and fertilizer. In most cases, the extension service is viewed by farmers as input delivery service, while in fact the extension service should have been knowledgebroker and facilitator of linkages of farmers with input supply services.With regard to the type of technologies being transferred to farmers, lack of or inadequate pilot testing of the technologies was mentioned as problem of the extension program in the PLWs. In addition to the lack of adequate pilot testing of technologies, appropriate and timely evaluation of the extension services has not been incorporated as an integral part of the extension service. Changes in the extension programs are often undertaken without any evaluation of the previous system. There is no in-built monitoring and evaluation system. Evaluation of the services and drawing lessons to improve future activities would contribute significantly to the improvement of the services provided.These would allow the lessons to be incorporated in the planning and implementation of future extension activities.DAs are involved in several non-extension activities, including credit distribution and collection of repayments, forecasting of input demands and input delivery, and PA administration and adjudication. The problem of involving DAs in credit distribution and collection has been recognized by decision makers at the different levels (region to woreda) and efforts are underway to ensure that DA activities are limited to extension services. It was also noted that although the extension staff are still involved in input forecasting based on the packages, its involvement in the delivery of the inputs is reducing. 7 However, the involvement of DAs in the PA administration and adjudication needs to be carefully handled to ensure that DA activities are limited to extension services only.7. A separate paper is prepared on this topic.Absence of an extension team or the lack of extension supervisors trained in extension education is another major problem of the extension service. In Tigray and Amhara regions, the extension team was abolished from the woreda agriculture office structure.Reason for the elimination of the extension team was the misconception that extension education is not considered as a profession or discipline by itself. Another reason for the abolition of the extension team from the office of agriculture is the failure to realize that agricultural extension is a knowledge and information transfer service that is based on a specialized field of expertise.DAs were supervised by SMSs. This had led to the lack of clearly defined accountability It is envisioned that the FTCs will contribute to rural transformation rather than being limited to agricultural development only, and will operate on the wider principle of human resources development rather than in the limited view of transfer of technologies (TOT), as has been mostly the case so far. It is also envisioned that the DAs will not be involved in input supply and credit collection or other non-extension related activities.The agricultural extension service at the FTCs is expected to play an active role in linking farmers with other institutional support services such as input supply, credit, co-operative promotion, and agricultural produce marketing. It will be of interest to see how the strategy translates into practice and what its impacts will be. Studies will be needed to generate this information and provide feed back to policy makers.Three diploma holder DAs, one each in the areas of crop production, livestock production and natural resource management, and most of which are expected to be graduates of the ATVETs, are expected to be placed at each FTC. Moreover, DAs that specialize in animal health and co-operative promotion are expected to serve several While an FTC based extension system with new roles and approaches is envisaged to be funded with public fund, it is not impossible to also explore the use of private sector extension services in or outside the FTCs. Within a market oriented agricultural development, private production companies including co-operatives may employ extension staff themselves to teach 'their' contract farmers. Such potentials may, for example, be explored with coffee and vegetable production. Another area that the ATVET needs to consider is the role of gender in agricultural production, and the relationship between HIV/AIDS and agriculture. Currently the colleges do not provide specific courses on these areas. The importance of these issues to agricultural development has been increasing in the recent years and the extension service needs to give due attention to these problems. Extension service provided by IECAMA in the early 1950s was limited to areas surrounding the experiment stations that were being operated by the college.Comprehensive package programs were more of rural development approaches than just extension service programs and were limited to only few high potential areas. Minimum package projects had wider coverage compared with the CPPs, but still failed to cover the majority of the country. PADEP was a victim of the ideological doctrine that was being followed by the Marxist military regime and so limited its services to producers' co-operatives. The initial success recorded by PADETS also failed to be sustained due to various reasons.The current extension service appears to give more attention to smallholders compared to its predecessors. The realization that farmers need to adopt technologies voluntarily and that DAs should not be involved in non-extension activities are encouraging developments. However, these realizations need to be fully operationalized. The low morale and high mobility of extension personnel is another major problem with the current extension system. Serious shortage of manpower, budget and facilities such as transportation facilities also need close attention.Based on the analysis in this paper, several common and enduring problems of the extension system in Ethiopia over the last four or so decades can be identified. The Other major problems of the extension system include focus on the transfer of technology (TOT) model, non-participatory and top-down approach, and its supply driven nature (as opposed to demand driven). An extension approach that is more participatory and focuses on human resource development rather than on technology transfer per se would enhance the impact and sustainability of the extension service.The focus of the extension system has been on cereal crop production and little attention was given to other subsectors, especially the high value crop commodities and For the extension service, and in particular the FTCs, to adapt its approach and roles towards a market driven agricultural development, new operational service models will have to be developed. Such models should evolve through a learning process, rather than being 'dictated'. With the emergence of the high value marketable commodities, involvement of the private sector in some of the extension tasks in the FTCs should be encouraged. To ensure that the development of new extension models is mainstreamed into the MoARDs capacity building program, the ATVET program should be included in this learning process and lessons learned should be incorporated in the curriculum of ATVETs. In addition, the knowledge and skills of the ATVET instructors should be regularly updated to respond to the changing environments in agricultural production.For example, the lack of training in ATVETs on the relationship between HIV/AIDS and agricultural production is an indication of the need for regular upgrading of knowledge and skills of instructors.Top-down and supply driven nature of the extension service has limited the identification of development alternatives that are based on the biophysical and socio-economic realities at the woreda or PA levels. Identifying development alternatives at the woreda or PA levels will be better done by the farmers themselves with the assistance of DAs and/or woreda experts. Realizing such an approach to rural development will require an innovations approach to development. Hence, we recommend the establishment of an innovations team at the MoARD at the Federal level, and at each regional BoARD. The federal innovations team would be responsible to develop innovation methodologies, develop guidelines and provide capacity building support. Regional level innovations teams would be responsible to provide training to woreda level extension staff on innovation approaches and provide back up.","tokenCount":"5903"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0b10e55325a9017dfb40dfa3f4531477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/93e879e5-0028-4219-97f7-335aab49f4fc/retrieve","id":"-1343221070"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e0897619-7d09-41e0-a5c7-7ebc12e75317","pagecount":"72","content":"By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I have followed all ethical and technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis and compilation of this thesis. Any scholarly matter that is included in the Thesis has been given recognition through citation. This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an Animal Production degree at the Haramaya University. The Thesis is deposited in the Haramaya University Library and is made available to borrowers under the rules of the library. I solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.Brief quotations from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate and complete acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotations from or reproduction of this Thesis in whole or in part may be granted by the Head of the School or Department when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author of the Thesis.Milk is the most popular food for human consumption and contains numerous nutrients such as water, fat, protein, lactose, minerals and vitamins (Walstra et al., 2006). It is the major source of regular income for Smallholder milk producers because it is produced and sold daily (Dugdill et al, 2013). Besides its benefit, it is serves as an excellent growth medium for a wide range of microorganisms (Walstra et al., 2006). Bacterial contamination of raw milk can be originated from three main sources; within the udder, exterior to the udder and from the surface of milking materials, milk handling and storage equipments. Similarly, the surrounding air, feed, soil, feces and grass are also possible sources of contamination (Parek and Subhash, 2008;Torkar and Teger, 2008). If the hygienic handling of milk is not secured, milk could be turn to unsafe for direct consumption or unfit for further processing to more stable products (O 'Connor, 1994).Quality milk implies the milk which is free from pathogenic bacteria and harmful toxic substances, free from sediment and extraneous substances, of good flavor, with normal composition, adequate in keeping quality and low in bacterial counts (Khan et al., 2008).Consumers need clean, wholesome and nutritious food that is produced and processed in a sound sanitary manner and free from pathogens. Hence, quality milk production is necessary for fulfilling consumers' demand (Khan et al., 2008). To sell raw milk directly to consumers or to a processing factory, it must be handled hygienically and remains fresh and capable of being heated without curdling. Hygienic milk handling includes; using clean equipment, maintaining a clean milking environment, observing good personal hygiene and preserving the quality of milk during storage and transportation to the consumer or processing plant (Kurwijila, 2006). Milk quality should not be ignored at all stages of the dairy value chain from farm to table. As the bacterial quality of raw milk is important to product shelf-life, flavor and product yield, it is important that dairy enterprises should strive to obtain the highest quality raw material possible from their own farm as well as their suppliers. It is therefore essential to produce best quality raw milk in the dairy farm in order to manufacture milk products of acceptable quality (Zelalem, 2012).In Ethiopia milk produced at smallholder farm is marketed without quality control measures.Hygienic control of milk and milk products is not usually conducted on routine bases. Apart from this, door-to-door raw milk delivery in the urban and peri-urban areas is commonly practiced with virtually no quality control at all levels (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Although, properly operational formal marketing and grading system targeted towards relating quality of products to market price is not well established, provision of milk and milk products of good hygienic quality is desirable from consumer's health point of view (Zelalem, 2012).On the other hand, the Chemical composition, particularly milk fat content is used as quality test (Zelalem, 2010). The nutritional as well as the economic value of milk is directly associated with its solids content. The higher the solids content better its nutritional value and more of a milk product can be made (Pandy and Voskull, 2011). Protein content being one of main quality determining criteria applied to milk payment to producers in many countries where others are priced according to fat and solids-non-fat composition (FAO, 2004).Information on the microbial and chemical composition of milk was essential to understand the quality of marketed milk supply. Previous research works mainly focused on microbial quality of fluid milk and very few studies were reported in both microbial and chemical composition at smallholder milk producer and dairy cooperatives. Therefore, the purpose of this research study was conducted to assess the quality of fluid milk in terms of its microbial and chemical compositions from smallholder producer up to consumer level in the study areas. To assess the hygienic handling practices, microbial properties and chemical composition of marketed milk supplied from Adea Berga and Ejerie districts of West Shoa zone. To identify major whole milk quality constraints in the study areas.Ethiopia possesses the largest livestock population in Africa. Recent estimates indicated that the country have about 50.9 million heads of cattle, 24.06 million goats, 25.5 million sheep and 2.3 million camels (CSA, 2010). Milk production system can be categorized based on agro-ecology, socio-economic structures of the population and type of breed and species used for milk production can be classified into two major systems, namely rural dairy system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, and mixed crop-livestock producers) and urban and peri-urban dairy systems (Getachew and Gashaw, 2001). Milk production depends on mainly indigenous livestock genetic resources dominated by small holder farmers specifically on cattle, goats and camels. The indigenous breeds accounted for 99.19 percent, while the hybrids and pure exotic breeds were represented by 0.72 and 0.09 percent, respectively (Zelalem et al., 2011).Milking cows in the traditional sector have an average lactation length of 190 days and an average milk yield 1.9 liters per day excluding the calf has suckled (MOA, 2005). The total annual national milk production in Ethiopia received from 9.6 million dairy cows and the product is estimated to be 2.9 billion liters which is, 1.69 liters yield per cow per day on average (FAO, 2010).The common predisposing factors of milk contamination by microorganisms are milking environment, cows, milking personnel, milking equipments, and water (Mbabazi, 2005).Maintaining the sanitary condition of the milking area is important for the production of good quality milk (Zelalem, 2010). Dirty milking places tend to breed flies, which may fall in milk causing contamination and thus spoilage may occur (Mbabazi, 2005). When a cow urinates or defecates in the course of milking some of its urine or dung particles may drop into the milk (Mbabazi, 2005).Cleaning the udder of cows before milking is one of the most important hygienic practices required to ensure clean milk production (Zelalem, 2010). This is important since the udder of the milking cows could have direct contact with the ground, urine, dung and feed refusals.Cleaning and removal of soil particles, bedding material and manure from the udder and flanks is necessary to prevent the entry of many types of bacteria into the milk (O 'Connor, 1995). Udder washing with clean water and drying using hand towels reduces milk contamination by transient bacteria located on the udder (Robert, 1996). Special care must be given to the cloths used for cleaning the udder. The re-use of cloths for cleaning and sanitizing may result in re-contamination of the udder. It is therefore recommended that separate cloths be used for cleaning and sanitizing and, if possible, each cloth should be used for one cow only (O 'Connor, 1995). Not washing the udder before milking can impart possible contaminants into the milk. A maximum reduction of teat contamination of 90 % can be achieved with good udder preparation before milking. This depends on the initial level of contamination and the way of udder preparation. So with high initial contamination levels this 90 % reduction might not be reached (Murphy, 1996).Milk handling personnel (milker) may contribute various organisms including pathogens especially when they are careless, uninformed, or willfully negligent, directly to milk (Ashenafi, 1994). Organisms may drop from hands, clothing, nose, and mouth and from sneezing and coughing. It is important for milk men to be in good health so that they can be a source of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis (Kurwijila, 1998).Poorly cleaned and sanitized milking utensils may be the source of many microorganisms (Banwart, 1989). Milk drops left on the surface of milking equipments act as excellent media for the growth of a variety of bacteria (Bramley and McKinnon, 1990). Milk equipment is not properly cleaned and sanitized after use. Milk residues left on equipment and utensil surfaces provide nutrients to support the growth of many microorganisms, including pathogens (Bryan, 1983). In case cracked milking equipments large number of bacteria enter and grow in the cracks, are difficult to clean (Thomas et al., 1966). The bacterial load of milk increases during transportation and if the transportation equipment is not appropriate the bacterial counts increase causing spoilage before milk reaches its destination (Grillet et al., 2007). Milking equipment should be easy to clean. Aluminum and stainless steel equipment are mostly preferred ( Zelalem, 2010).Water serves as primary sources of microorganism's contamination (Mbabazi, 2005). If Water is obtained from an open water supply care should be taken to prevent drainage that may contain human feces and other contaminants gaining entry into the source (Jay, 1992).Cooling: To prevent or retard growth of bacteria in milk and to maintain its quality for domestic consumption or during transport to the processing plant, it is essential to cool the fresh milk as quickly as possible (O 'Connor, 1995). Prompt cooling or chilling of milk at a temperature of 5°C or below is necessary to minimize microbial growth and prevent milk quality deterioration during handling, storing and transporting before the raw milk being processed. In order to facilitate bulking of raw milk supply and transport the incoming milk, refrigeration facilities are provided at points of collection and transport means to maintain the temperature as much as possible (Getachew et al., 2008). In the tropical countries of Africa with high ambient temperatures, lack of refrigeration facilities at the farm and household level imply that raw milk will acidify very fast (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Therefore the collection systems must be designed to move the milk to the cooling and/or processing center in shortest possible time. In addition every effort should be made to use available systems such as water cooling, air circulation or shaded areas to reduce milk temperature (Dello Castillo, 1990).Boiling: It is the easiest and most practicable method of making milk safe in every home. As soon as raw milk is produced or delivered, it should be boiled. Boiling involves raising the temperature to the boiling point and maintaining at this temperature for a few minutes. Then the milk should be cooled immediately. The temperature should be maintained below 10ºc.Since this may be impracticable at home, preferably the milk must be consumed as soon as possible after cooling and not an extended period of time after it has been boiled and cooled (Gebra-Emanuel, 1997, Linton, 1982).Pasteurization: it is the main safeguard against pathogenic organisms in milk. The combination of pasteurization, care in production and processing, and improved storage has resulted in relatively safe milk supply. Milk borne diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, and scarlet fever have been practically eradicated. Also, the shelf-life of milk has been increased from a few days to a few weeks (Vasavaoa and Smith, 1987).Clot on boiling test: This is one of the oldest tests for abnormal acidity levels in milk, which is brought about by too much acid in milk (pH<5.8). The test is performed by boiling a small amount of milk in a spoon, test tube or any other suitable container. If there is coagulation or precipitation, the milk fails the test. The test is not sensitive to slightly sour milk (O 'Connor, 1995;Draaiyer et al, 2009).Alcohol test:-The test is quick, simple and is used as a screening test. It is based on instability of the proteins when the levels of acid and/or rennet are increased and acted upon by the alcohol. Also increased levels of albumen (colostrum milk) and salt concentrates (mastitis) results in a positive test. The test is done by mixing equal amounts of milk and 68% ethanol (usually 2ml) in a small bottle or test tube. If the tested milk is of good quality, there will be no coagulation, clotting or precipitation upon shaking (O 'Connor, 1995, Draaiyer et al, 2009).The alcohol test can detect milk whose pH is 6.4 or lower and is more sensitive than the cloton-boiling test, which only detects milk pH levels of 5.8 and below. Colostrums and mastitis milk may give a positive alcohol test (Kurwijila, 2006) Standard plate count: The standard plate count is generally accepted as the most accurate and informative method of testing bacteriological quality of milk (Kurwijilla et al., 1992;Godefay and Molla, 2000). The total plate count of microbes in milk provides useful general information on the microbiological quality of milk. Total or aerobic plate count shows only the mesophillic aerobic organisms as incubation is done under normal atmospheric conditions at 35°C for 48 hours (Jay, 1992). The number of bacteria in aseptically drawn milk varies from animal to animal and even from different breasts of the same animal. On average, aseptically drawn milk from healthy udders contains between 500 and 1000 bacteria ml/l.High initial counts (more than 10 5 bacteria ml/1) are evidence of poor production hygiene (O 'Connor, 1994).Coli form bacteria: Coli forms are aerobic or facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, nonspore forming rods that ferment lactose to produce gas when incubated on agar for 48 hours at 35°C (FAO, 1986). Coli forms are important mastitis pathogens (Hogan and Smith, 2003) and are widely distributed in the farm environment (Hogan et al., 1989;McKinnon et al., 1990;Sanderson et al., 2005). Coliform count (CC) is a non regulated test that has been used historically to assess milk production practices such as milk refrigeration, milking machine sanitation, and pre milking udder hygiene (Guterbock and Blackmer, 1984;Davidson et al., 2004). Coli form organisms contaminate raw milk from unclean milker's hands, improperly cleaned and unsanitized or faulty sterilization of raw milk utensils especially churns, milking machines, improper preparation of the cow's flecks or dirt, manure, hair dropping in to milk during milking, udder washed with unclean water, dirty towels and udder not dried before milking ( Ombui et al., 1995). The presence of coli form organisms in milk indicates unsanitary conditions of production, processing or storage. Hence their presence in large number in dairy products is an indication that the products are potentially hazardous to the consumers' health (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Coliform count provides an indication of unsanitary production practices and/or mastitis infection. A count less than 100 Colony Forming Units (CFU)/ml are considered acceptable for milk intended to be pasteurized before consumption. Counts of 10 CFU/ml or less are achievable and desirable if raw milk will be consumed directly (Ruegg, 2003).Earlier researches conducted in different parts of the country revealed that the microbial counts of milk and milk products produced and marketed are generally much higher than the acceptable limits (Zelalem, 2010). Other research findings also reported similar values of aerobic mesophilic counts milk sampled from udder, milking bucket, collection center, milk vending shops and cafeteria is range between 7.28 and 10.28 logcfu/ml (Godefaye and Molla, 2000;Haile et al., 2012). In all cases increasing trend of counts as the milk passed through udder, milking bucket, collection centers and upon arrival at the processing plant. This could be due to improper handling, storage and transport time after the milk leaves the dairy farms. Milk produced under hygienic conditions from healthy cows should not contain more than 4.69 log cfu/ml (O ' Connor, 1994).However, raw milk samples from different part of the country TBC counts greater than the counts which is given by international standard set for minimum acceptable level of bacterial count (10 5 cfu/ml) in milk (IFCN, 2006). In other words, the above indicated count of milk samples collected from the country were considered to be below the standard set for good quality milk. This implies that the sanitary conditions in which milk has been produced and handled are substandard subjecting the product to microbial contamination and multiplication.As indicated by Chambers (2002) total bacterial count is a good indicator for monitoring the sanitary conditions practiced during production, collection, and handling of raw milk. Hence training of milk handlers about hygiene can significantly reduce the bacterial load in milk. A good example worth mentioning is a reduced total bacterial count observed in milk sampled from farmers who received training on hygienic milk production and handling, and who used recommended milk containers as compared to that produced by the traditional milk producers (Rahel, 2008).Coliform count, on the other hand, is especially associated with the level of hygiene during production and subsequent handling since they are mainly of fecal origin (Omore et al., 2001). Previous workers reported similar values of coliform counts in raw cow milk sampled from different part of the country that range between 4.03 log cfu/ml to 6.57 log cfu/ml (Fekadu, 1994;Alganesh, 2002;Zelalem and Faye, 2006;Asaminew and Eyassu, 2010).Even if, it is not practical to produce milk that is always free of coliforms. Their presence in raw milk may therefore be tolerated. However, if present in large numbers, say over 100 coliform organisms per milliliter of raw milk, it means that the milk was produced under improper procedures (Walstra et al., 2006). Hence their presence in large number in dairy products is an indication that the products are potentially hazardous to the consumers' health (Godefay and Molla, 2000).Chemical composition, particularly milk fat content is used as quality test. The solid constituents of milk make an important food item from both nutritional as well as processing point of view. Milk fat and protein are most important components of different varieties of most shelf stable milk products. It is therefore very important to determine the major chemical compositions of milk as it is the basis of further processing into more shelf stable products.Moreover, knowledge of the total solids and solids-not-fat (SNF) content of milk is necessary when it is sold for liquid consumption. In most countries, milk offered for sale for liquid consumption must conform to certain legal standards with regard to its total solids content, for example the minimum 3% fat and 8.5% solids-not-fat. The yield of dairy products obtained from milk will depend on the amount of constituents (total solids) present. The greater the amount of fat and protein in milk the greater the yield of cheese and milk with a high fat content gives more butter than milk with a lower fat content (O 'Connor, 1994).Normal cow's milk contains approximately 87.4% water and 12.6% milk solids (Goff, 2010).The solids consists of comprises 3.9% fat, 3.2% protein, 4.6% lactose and 0.9% others like minerals and vitamins (FAO, 1986). The composition of milk is affected by a number of factors including genetic and environmental factors (O 'Connor, 1994). The factors responsible for variations in milk composition include breed and individuality of the cow, interval between milking, stage of lactation, age and health status of the cow, feeding regime and completeness of milking (O 'Connor, 1994).The The Normal whole milk specific gravity ranges 1.026 to 1.032 milk collection centers and processors routinely determine the specific gravity of raw milk and reject milk suspected of having been adulterated (Kurwijila, 2006). A marketing system includes all activities involved in the flow of goods from the point of initial production to the ultimate consumer. It involves processing raw materials into final products and then distributing them to the consumer (Winrock, 1989).As is common in other African countries (e.g., Kenya and Uganda), dairy products in Ethiopia are channeled to consumers through both formal and informal dairy marketing systems (Mohammed et al., 2004).According to CSA (2010), only 6.8 percent of the total milk produced is marketed and milk and milk products are distributed both informally and formally. The formal milk market appears to be expanding during the last decade with the private sector leading the dairy processing industry in Addis Ababa and other major regional towns. However, the share of milk sold in the formal market in Ethiopia (two percent) is much less than that sold in neighboring countries: 15 percent in Kenya and five percent in Uganda (Muriuki and Thorpe, 2001).Formal marketing system milk is collected at the cooperative or private milk collection centers and transported to processing plants. In this system, milk quality tests (principally acidity using alcohol and clot-on-boiling test, and density) are performed on delivery, thereby assuring the quality of milk. This has encouraged the producers to improve the hygiene conditions, storage and transportation of the milk in order to avoid rejection of the product on delivery to the collection centre (Zelalem, 2010).Informal marketing which involves direct delivery of fresh milk by producers to consumer in the immediate neighborhood and sale to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby towns. In the informal market, milk may pass from producers to consumers directly or it may pass through two or more market agents. About 95 percent of the marketed milk at national level is channeled through the informal system. In this marketing system, milk and milk products may pass from producers to consumers directly or through one or more market agents. Producers sell the surplus milk produced to their neighbors and/or in the local markets (O 'Connor, 1994).This system is characterized by no license to operate, low cost of operation, high producer prices as compared with formal market and no regulation of operation (SNV, 2008).The hygienic condition of milk and milk products channeled through this system is also poor. This is mainly due to the prevailing situation where producers have limited knowledge of dairy product handling coupled with the inadequacy of dairy infrastructure such as cooling facilities and unavailability of clean water in the production areas (Zelalem, 2010).The study was conducted in Adea Berga and Ejerie districts of west Shoa zone which were the intervention areas of 'LIVES' project (Figure 1). Topographically the study areas were mainly characterized with leveled fields that make an ideal place for Agricultural activities. There are three main drainage basins in the areas; Abay, Ghibe and Awash. In addition there was high potential for ground water and smaller rivers like Berga Abay river basin. Adea Berga and Ejerie districts altitude the range of 1166 -3238 and 1872-2631 meters above sea level, rain fall condition ranges 887-1107mm and 991-1194mm and temperature ranges 11-21 0 C and 14-18 0 C, respectively.Agriculture provides the largest share to the livelihood of the zonal population in the region.Although, the study areas were ideal place for market oriented crop and livestock commodity development as it endowed with resources necessary for production and have good access to urban markets.Livestock and Irrigation Value Chains for Ethiopian Small holders (LIVES) project selected in among 18 non Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) districts three of them ranked and selected in different commodities such as honey and bee wax, milk and butter, small ruminant and irrigated Agriculture. The districts were selected based on their potential, suitability for market oriented Agriculture development, clusters and infrastructure accessibility to move from one district to another (LIVES, 2012). For this study two districts were selected based on their milk production potential then, two kebeles were selected from each district based on availability of dairy cooperatives and existence of milk producing farmers through purposive sampling techniques. Local and cross breed dairy cow owners and consumers were selected by simple random sampling techniques. Dairy cooperatives and processors were selected purposively based on active milk producer members and high volume of milk collection capacity. Only one union was found the study area and selected without any criteria. Finally a total of 180 household milk producers, two primary dairy cooperatives, one dairy cooperative union, two milk processing industries, and ten consumers were interviewed. Two survey tools were employed in order to collect the required information i.e. individual interview and group discussion. Semi-structured questionnaire format was used to collect data from smallholder produces focused on the hygienic handling practices during milk production (barn type and cleaning practices, source of water used for cleaning purpose i.e.udder, milker and milk utensils), type of storage container and transportation, marketing systems, quality testing methods and other related data were collected (Annex I). Independent questionnaires also used for data were collected from dairy cooperatives, union, individual collectors and processors (Annex II). Secondary data were collected from different sources, such as LIVES zonal report; district livestock agency, dairy cooperatives and dairy cooperative union.Following individual interview, focus group discussions was employed to validate the information gathered and to get in-depth information on milk production, hygienic practices, and marketing and milk quality constraints in each of the study sites. A focused group discussion was carried out with a group of seven smallholder dairy farmers, one dairy cooperative management staff, two districts and kebele livestock Agency experts from each district, a total of ten individuals (7 males and 3 females) were involved.Milk samples were collected from individual smallholder farmer's storage container at farm gate and primary dairy cooperatives before added to pool milk and from the bulked milk of primary dairy cooperatives; dairy cooperative union; dairy processor and consumer's storage containers. All milk samples were collected in pre sterilized bottle, properly labeled, stoppered and transported to the laboratory in an ice packed cooler box. Microbial analysis was performed within 24 hours after sampling (HPA, 2003).Chemical composition: Physico-chemical properties of milk samples fat content, total solid (TS), protein, and density were determined with calibrated milk analyzer (lactoscan).Coliform Counts (CC): 1 ml of milk sample was added into sterile test tube having 9 ml peptone water. Appropriate decimal dilutions of milk samples were pour-plated on 15-20 ml Violet Red Bile Agar solution (VRBA). After thoroughly mixing, the plated sample was allowed to solidify. Then Petri dishes were incubated at 30°C for 24 hours and counts were made on typical dark red colonies normally measuring at least 0.5 mm in diameter on uncrowned plates (Marth, 1978).Total Bacteria Count (TBC): 1 ml of milk sample was added into sterile test tube having 9 ml peptone water. Appropriate decimal dilution of milk samples were pour-plated on 15-20 ml SPCA (standard plate count agar) solution and mixed thoroughly. The plated sample was allowed to solidify and then incubated at30°C for 48 h. Colony counts were made using colony counter (Marth, 1978).Alcohol Test: Five ml of milk and 5 ml of 68 percent alcohol (ethanol) were placed in a test tube. The test tube was inverted several times with the thumb held tightly over the open end of the tube. Then the tube examined for formation of curd particles (O ' Connor, 1994).Clot-On-Boiling Test: Clot-on-boiling test was carried out by placing about five ml of milk in a test tube and then it was placed in a boiling water bath for five minutes. Finally; the test tube was carefully removed from the water bath and examined for the presence of floccules (O'Connor 1994).The quantitative and qualitative data were summarized on Microsoft excel sheet and analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and percentage) by using SPSS (statistical package for social science, version 20). The total bacteria and coli form count data was transformed to log values before subjected to statistical analysis. The log transformed values were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) for least square mean in Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) version 9.0 (2004). Duncan multiple Range test mean (DMRT) comparisons were used to see the mean difference between sampling sources.The overall mean male and female headed households were 97% and 3% , respectively (Table 4).The highest proportion of the respondents age were ranged16-60 years which accounts about 78.3% while the rest of the respondents were above 60 years which holds 21.7 in the study sites (Table 4). The respondents in the study area had different educational status.Nearly half of the respondents (42.2%) were able to read and write, whereas about 20% received elementary education. The remaining (36.7%) of the respondents have never been in school (Table 4). Substantial proportions of respondents in the study area were not educated;and could be identified as challenge for adoption of new technology for in the development of dairy sector in the study area. All of the farmers in the study areas were used housed type barn for their cows and milking in the house (Table 6). Zelalem (2010) reported similar result 80.4% of the respondents were used house type barn in central highland of Ethiopia. Godferey (2013) farmers milking in open air exposure to contaminants enter from the environment. Mbabazi (2005) also who reported farmers milked their animals from undesignated poorly maintained milking shades/parlors predisposing milk to contamination and spoilage.Maintaining the sanitary condition of milking area is important prerequisite for clean milk production (Zelalem, 2010). Most of the respondents 65% removed manure daily While 35%were removed three times a week (Table 6). Abebe et al. (2012) who reported similar results about 47% of the respondents clean their barn three times a week in Gurage Zone, Ezha district. The milker can be an important source of milk contamination. Therefore, keeping good personal hygiene and milkers should be in good health during milking operation (Zelalem, 2010). Most of the interviewed dairy producers (69.4%) washed their hands before milking while the rest 30.6% did not wash their hands (Table 7). Milk producers and milk collectors in the study areas did not cover their hair and dressing gown during milk collection.Cleaning of the udder of cows before milking is one of the most important hygienic practices required to ensure clean milk production. This is important since the udder of the milking cows could have direct contact with the ground, urine, dung and feed refusals (Zelalem, 2010). As observed in this study, 62.2% of the dairy producers washed their cow's udder before milking and 37.8% were not washing (Table 7) and simply allowed their calves to suckle before milking. Calf suckles and milking follows without cleaning the teats, Saliva from the calf mouth and unwashed teats increase bacterial counts (Kurwijila, 1989) The use of individual towel and following essential cleaning practices during milking is important for the production of quality milk (Zelalem, 2010). However, about 46.7% of the smallholder households did not use towels for udder drying, 15.6% used common towel and 37.7 % reported they did not practice udder drying (Table7). Milking in dry condition significantly reduces bacterial count. It is because no surplus water remains in the surface of the udder to drip into the milk and due to less chance of leaching dirt and bacteria from udder, teats and hands into milk (Islam et al., 2009) . Wallace (2009) reported that thorough cleaning of the udder followed by drying with a clean cloth was effective in reducing the number of bacteria in milk contributed from soiled teats.before and after usage. About 77% of the respondent washed their milk container with cold water and soap while 23% used hot water and soap (Table 8). The current finding contradicts with the finding of Haile et al. (2012) who reported about 85.6% of the producers used warm water together with detergents to wash milk handling equipment while 12.1% of them cleaned with cold water. All milk processing industries and dairy cooperative union were cleaned their milking equipments with warm water and liquid detergents. All primary dairy cooperatives and 70 % of consumers were washed their milk container with cold water and soap. Only 30% of the interviewed consumers were washed their milk utensils with warm water and soap. For production of quality milk a good supply of clean water is essential. Water used for washing and rinsing milk equipments and containers during milk handling must be the same safety and purity as drinking water (Younan et al., 2007).Smallholder producers in Ejerie and Adea Berga districts used different water sources for cleaning purpose i,e tap water (67%, 43%), river (19%, 37%) and Hand dug well (14%, 20%), respectively. Water from non tap sources used for different purposes can definitely contribute to poor quality milk and milk products. Therefore, it is important that producers should at least filter and heat treat it before use (Zelalem, 2010). Jay (1992) also reported high colony counts recorded on farms using wells as a water source. In Ejerie district better tap water accessibility than Adea Berga. Dairy cooperatives, union, processors and consumers were used tap water for cleaning. Adea BergaAfter milking proper milk cooling method is essential to maintain the quality of milk. All producers used traditional cooling method (put raw milk in cold water bath) and transported their milk on foot. Dairy cooperatives and unions did not have cooling facilities for raw milk during collection, storage and transportation to processing plant. Dairy cooperative union used refrigerators to preserve milk products (cheese and butter). Milk processor and dairy cooperative union used vehicles for milk collection and transportation. The vehicles were not appropriate for raw milk transportation because its lacks cooling facilities.The total collected milk samples 32.2% were positive with alcohol and 18.8 % were positive with clot-on-boiling testes (Table 9). These observations support the view that the alcohol test is more sensitive than the clot-on-boiling test as reported by O' Connor (1994)  The overall all average total bacteria count (TBC) and coliform count (CC) of raw whole milk were 6.98 and 4.84 log cfu/ml, respectively (Table 10). The total bacteria and coliform counts were significantly different (P<0.05) among different milk sources (Table 10). The overall mean total bacterial count of raw milk produced in the study area was 6.98 log cfu/ ml. This value is much higher than the acceptable value of 1 x 10 5 bacteria per ml of raw milk (O 'Connor, 1994). This high level of contamination of milk might be due to initial contamination originating from the udder surface, quality of cleaning water, milking utensils.Therefore, total bacterial count is a good indicator for monitoring the sanitary conditions practiced during production and handling of raw milk (Chambers, 2002). A good instance worth mentioning was reduced total bacterial count observed in milk sampled from farmers who received training on hygienic milk production and handling, and who used recommended milk containers as compared to that produced by the traditional milk producers (Rahel, 2008;Sintayehu et al., 2008).The present result is also comparable with the finding of Fikrineh et al. (2012)  in Southern Ethiopia (9.82 log cfu/ml). However, there was a significant microbial count difference among sampling sources of milk (Table 10). In Ejerie districts the average total bacteria count in farm gate is significantly lower than bulked milk sample at cooperatives.Moreover, milk samples collected from dairy cooperative on arrival was significantly different with bulked milk at cooperatives. Generally the trend of total bacteria count in the two districts revealed that there was increment from farm gate to milk processing plants (Table 10). This could be due to improper handling, storage and transport facilities after the milk leaves the farm. In case of Adea Berga district the average total bacteria counts of sampled milk in farm gate is significantly lower than both on arrival dairy cooperative and bulked milk at cooperatives. Bulking milk from different farmers were leads to an increased chance of milk contamination.The overall mean coliform count (CC) of raw milk produced in the study areas were 4.84 log cfu/ml (Table 10). The coliform count obtained in the present study is higher than that reported by Asamnew (2010) who found coliform count of 4.49 logcfu/ml in Bahr dar Zuria and mecha districts. Others also reported lower values Abebe (2012) 4.03 log cfu/ml in Southern Ethiopia and Zelalem (2010) 4.58 log cfu/ml in the central Highland Ethiopia .The higher coliform count observed in the current study it might be attributed to the initial contamination of the milk through the milkers, milk containers and milking environment.Since it is not practical to produce milk that is always free of coliforms, even at high level of hygienic condition; their presence in raw milk to a certain extent may be tolerated. However, the present result was larger than the acceptable limit. Coliform (CC) count less than 100Colony Forming Units (CFU)/ml is considered acceptable for milk intended to be pasteurized before consumption. Counts of 10 cfu/ml or less are achievable and desirable if raw milk will be consumed directly (Jones and Sumner, 1999;Ruegg, 2003). The average coliform counts of milk collected from farmer gate and upon arrival at the dairy cooperatives are significantly lower than bulked milk at cooperatives. These findings agree with Omore et al. (2005) who reported that bacterial counts increase and subsequently, milk quality decreases as milk passes through increasing numbers of intermediaries. The overall average contents of fat, protein and total Solid contents of raw whole milk were 3.5,3.09 and 12.19,respectively (Table 11). There was a significant difference (P<0.05) in the average fat content of raw whole milk between the two districts. The highest milk fat content value was recorded at Adea Berga district 3.9% (Table 11). The average fat content of raw whole milk observed in the current study is much less than values reported earlier. Rahel ( 2008), for instance, reported 5.35% fat for zebu cows in Delbo area of Wollayta zone and Alganesh (2002) indicated the value to 6.1% for Horro breed in Eastern Wollega. This might be due to the variation in milk fat content among genetically different breeds of cows and also for the different stages of lactation. The average protein and SNF content of milk as observed in the current study was 3.09 and 12.19 %, respectively (Table 11). The values obtained in the present study are consistent with that reported by Zelalem (2010) and Rahel (2008) for milk samples collected from smallholder farmers in Delbo area of Wollayta zone and central highlands of Ethiopia, respectively. Similarly, Alganesh (2002) also reported similar 3.31% protein content for milk samples collected from smallholder producers in East Wollega. Specific gravity: The value of specific gravity of milk sample from small holder producers at cooperative before added to pool milk the values were in the range of 1.024 to 1.032 (Ejerie) and 1.022 to 1.031 (Adea Berga) districts respectively (Table 12). The normal specific gravity of milk ranges from 1.026 to 1.032 (Kurwijila, 2006). However the milk collection centers accepted 1.027 as normal parameters for specific gravity of milk. The current result indicate that about 85% of Ejerie and 65% of Adea Berga milk samples were within the acceptable range of unadulterated milk while the rest 15 % and 35 % of the samples falls below the standard and this result shows that milk was mostly adulterated with water in Adea berga district compared to Ejerie district. Milk at normal state, have unique physico-chemical properties, which are used as quality indicators. The density of milk was commonly used for quality test mainly to check for the addition of water to milk or removal of cream. Addition of water to milk reduces milk density, while removal of cream increases it (O 'Connor, 1994).Similar to current study Alehegne ( 2004) reported specific gravity ranging from 1.025 to 1.029 for Small holder dairy Farms in Debre Zeit. Zelalem (2010) reported that majority raw whole milk sample collected from Holetta and Selale area their specific gravity were fall within the range between 1.028 and 1.032. Milk buying and selling price per liter varies between milk value chain actors. Dairy cooperatives and union bought milk from the producers by credits and pay their money every 15 days. Some farmers preferred to sell with cash to Shola milk processing industry. In general the annual buying and selling price of milk ranges 9.25 -11Birr/ liter. The milk price did not decline at fasting season.Figure 3 buying and selling price of milk Milk quality related constraints in the study areas prioritized by the respondents during group discussions were limited awareness on hygienic handling of milk, lack of cooling facility, shortage of clean water , Lack of effective quality control system and absence of quality based payment system. In each study district constraints were ranked in Table (14). Absence of quality based payment system 5 th -The study was carried out in Ejerie and Adea Berga districts of west Shoa zone, Oromia district at farm level (3.94). Overall Mean total bacterial counts and Coliform counts were 6.98±0.17cfu/ml, 4.84±0.10 log cfu/ml and significantly different (P<0.05) among different sampling sources. The highest coliforms (6.04cfu/ml) and total bacterial count (10.69cfu/ml).were observed at consumer level.The major milk quality constraints in the study areas were limited awareness on hygienic handling of milk during milk production, shortage of clean water for sanitation purpose, lack of cooling facilities during storage and transportation, lack of effective quality control system and absence of quality based payment system.The present study showed that the Total bacterial count (TBC), Coliform cunt (CC) and lactic acid percents were increases milk flows from producer to consumers. Microbial counts were not meet the international acceptable limit. This indicates that milk production and handling practices under poor hygienic condition due to inappropriate utensils used for milking, shortage of clean water for sanitation purpose, lack of cooling facilities during storage and transportation. Additionally the survey and laboratory results were show that in the two districts same small holder milk producing farmers were adulterated raw milk with water and removed the cream. This illegal practice was contribute to milk quality deterioration and reduced the standard milk composition.The following recommendations were forwarded to improve milk Quality  Trainings should be given for small holder dairy farmers in milk handling and hygienic practices. Awareness creations needed for among primary dairy cooperatives, dairy cooperative union, milk processors and individual collectors about the hygienic production, handling and processing of milk and milk products and the importance of raw milk quality control and safety. If water source is not potable, it should be heat treated for washing udder and milking equipments  Efficient milk cooling system is required at producer and milk collectors' level.During milk transportation vehicles used to transport should be equipped with cooling facilities. All milk collectors should be regularly control the quality of milk and Quality based payments introduced for improvement of the quality of milk.","tokenCount":"7078"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"86bc82c1786da34fb95cb255ae34de05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0765ec5-a460-49e7-aa84-3a3508815632/retrieve","id":"-964582157"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0ef897dd-5ebe-4bc1-8a21-d42bba73e677","pagecount":"6","content":"As Rwanda journeys towards a broad-based social and economic transformation, there are opportunities for the country's food systems to become a key driver on that journey. This idea has attracted considerable attention in the national consultations conducted in the run-up to the United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSS) in September 2021, at the summit itself, in the post-summit actions that As Rwanda journeys towards a broad-based social and economic transformation, there are opportunities for the country's food systems to become a key driver on that journey. This idea has attracted considerable attention in the national consultations conducted in the run-up to the United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSS) in September 2021, at the summit itself, in the post-summit actions that Rwanda is now pursuing, and in a series of prior case studies on Rwanda's food system (Adolph et al. 2021;Guijt et al. 2021; Malabo Montpellier Panel 2021).This note summarizes a recent diagnostic of Rwanda's food systems and the policy landscape that shapes them. Emphasis is placed on six inter-related clusters: diet quality and nutrition security; livelihoods equity; environmental resilience; agricultural productivity; infrastructure capacity; and financing and investment.Overall findings suggest an opportunity for a tangible shift in how public policy in Rwanda approaches its food systems and how the systems contribute to the broader national transformation process. We offer several policy recommendations to support the design of a coherent country strategy and policy framework. First, strengthen existing entities and mechanisms, and innovate on them. Second, develop a national food systems transformation strategy that is integrative, multi-sectoral, and action-oriented. Third, innovate on existing programs. Fourth, allow for learning through both success and failure. Fifth, invest in rigorous impact evaluation.Rwanda is now pursuing, and in a series of prior case studies on Rwanda's food systems (Adolph et al. 2021;Guijt et al. 2021;Malabo Montpellier Panel 2021).This note summarizes a recent diagnostic of Rwanda's food systems and the policy landscape that shape them. Emphasis is placed on six inter-related clusters: diet quality and nutrition security; livelihoods equity; environmental resilience; agricultural productivity; infrastructure capacity; and financing and investment.The note contributes to conversations on national and local efforts to accelerate and deepen the transformation process-conversations that are meant to inform the design of a multi-sectoral food systems transformation strategy for the country. By acknowledging the challenges that Rwanda still faces, identifying ways to build on impressive achievements to date, and encouraging greater policy innovation for the future, there is considerable opportunity for a more productive, inclusive, and sustainable transformation of Rwanda's food system.The analysis produced by this diagnostic is primarily informed by a consultative exercise conducted during a six-month period between April and September 2021 as part of the run-up to the UNFSS. Extensive background research was conducted by a multidisciplinary team with expertise in multiple aspects of the food systems perspective and experience in Rwanda. See Rockefeller Foundation et al.(2021) for details.Rwanda's journey towards a food systems transformation is well captured in Vision 2050, the National Strategy for Transformation (NST 1), and strategic plans for sectors such as agriculture, health, nutrition, commerce, and the environment. Their priorities are echoed in ongoing programs and investments of the government, its development partners, the private sector, and civil society.Nonetheless, Rwanda faces a triple threat to the realization of its long-term, transformational vision and goals for the nation. These threats are (1) low agricultural production, productivity, and productivity growth;(2) persistent malnutrition, including micronutrient deficiencies across the life cycle, even despite significant progress in poverty reduction; and (3) significant environmental challenges that are exacerbated by the country's vulnerability to climate change and limited adaptation capacity.But in the face of this triple threat, Rwanda has also demonstrated its capacity to pursue and sustain an impressive growth trajectory, with annual GDP growth averaging 7.2 percent between 2010 and 2019, rebounding to 10.9 percent in 2021 following the 2020 economic downturn caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic (NISR 2022). A combination of sound macroeconomic policies, an attractive investment environment, long-term political stability, and a strong commitment to sustainable development have all contributed to this encouraging trend, particularly in light of where Rwanda began during the darkest moments of history-the Genocide against the Tutsis-in 1994. This combination has led to the implementation of multiple strategies, policies, and programs to address poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition.Rwanda itself recognizes that there is much to be done, especially to feed a population projected to grow from 12.6 million in 2019 to 22.1 million by 2050. Rwanda's food system-comprising agricultural production, agro-processing, food trade and transport, and food services-accounts for approximately 35 percent of total GDP and 67 percent of total employment (Figure 1), making it a system of clear im-portance to the entire country. Efforts to overcome these challenges call for a deeper and more significant shift in thinking-informed by the food systems perspective-that is highlighted by stronger multisectoral approaches to problem-solving. Overall findings suggest an opportunity for a tangible shift in how public policy in Rwanda approaches its food systems and how the systems contribute to the broader national transformation process. This means addressing how balances are struck-and tradeoffs are managed-between and among agriculture, nutrition, health, and the environment in the face of a climate crisis. It also means giving greater attention to the demand-side drivers in Rwanda's food system, recognizing that singularly focused supply-side strategies rarely succeed in isolation. Finally, it means deepening the integration of policies and policy actors in the design and implementation phases of interventions that shape the food system.Many of these findings are already well articulated in Rwanda's own development discourse and policy practice. Still, additional gains can be realized through a deeper and more nuanced conversation-and tangible policy shifts-on three key issues: striking a new balance in the food system; focusing on demand-side drivers; and integrating policy actors and actions in the food system.The challenge now is to translate abstract ideas about its food systems transformation into a coherent and focused set of actions. We offer several policy recommendations to support the design of a coherent country strategy and policy framework.It is clear that proper policy coordination and sequencing are critical to advancing Rwanda's food systems transformation. There may be limited interest in the government for new agencies, committees, task forces, or secretariats to convene, coordinate, and manage the food systems transformation process. As such, the food systems approach provides an opportunity to strengthen existing entities by focusing on integration across sectors (agriculture, nutrition, health, and environment), domains (public, private, and civil society), and levels (national, district, sector, and community). This implies greater investment in mechanisms that go beyond the improvement of just government coordination, and substantively engage the private sector and communities through, for example, home-grown solutions. Ultimately, this may suggest the need for a small but agile entity for coordination, monitoring, and accountability purposes. It may also suggest the need for greater recognition of the possibility that some actors may have solutions that require less, not more, intervention by the government on occasion.2. Develop a national food systems transformation strategy that is integrative, multi-sectoral, and action-oriented. It is critically important to develop a national food systems transformation strategy that integrates and builds on existing sectoral plans, leverages existing inter-sectoral coordination mechanisms, and provides for monitoring of progress in a non-duplicative manner. This food systems strategy would have to delineate a very practical set of actions for the government and its partners to pursue, and would require broad consultation and backing. Ideally, the implementation of a widely accepted strategy would be monitored by using existing performance indicators, tracking public expenditure and economic performance tracking on a multi-sectoral or systems-level basis (as in Figure 3), and leveraging other well-established monitoring mechanisms. This approach has the potential effect of extracting government ministries and agencies from siloed, sector-based planning and budgeting to consider a more multi-sectoral approach to the food systems transformation.3. Innovate on existing programs. Third, there is scope to innovate within existing programs to introduce greater nutrition sensitivity and environmental sustainability. For example, there is scope for the introduction of healthier foods and greater dietary diversity in school feeding programs, building on past programs and experiences in other countries. This could be augmented by the procurement of nutrientdense and animal-sourced foods from farmers and other value chain actors for schools and other public institutions. There are also possibilities to experiment with the distribution of \"healthy food\" vouchers under national social protection programs in lieu of or alongside cash transfers or staple food distributions. There is also scope for strengthening the coherence of content and messaging from frontline workers providing health advice, nutrition counseling, and agricultural extension to individuals and communities to improve a range of food systems outcomes. These are just a few of the opportunities for programs in the spirit of a food systems transformation.4. Allow for learning through both success and failure. The success of an integrated, multi-sectoral approach to Rwanda's food systems transformation will hinge on open spaces for learning. Food systems are a relatively new concept, as are policy and program designs from a food systems perspective. This means that some approaches will succeed while others will fail. Opportunities to learn from both failures and successes are essential.Finally, Rwanda's food systems transformation will require greater investment in the evaluation of program impacts. Currently, the country's monitoring systems are primarily focused on ensuring transparency and accountability, and on monitoring program outputs. While this focus is extremely important, it is not a substitute for the rigorous quantitative and qualitative evaluation of program impacts. This includes the measurement and analysis of impacts related to agriculture, household income and welfare, individual health and nutritional status, and environmental sustainability, as well as the cost-effectiveness of programs designed to generate these impacts.In summary, there are significant opportunities to advance inclusive and sustainable food systems transformation in Rwanda even despite the many challenges. While the 2021 United Nations Food Systems Summit has drawn attention to these opportunities, the task now is to translate abstract ideas into real actions. But such actions cannot be undertaken in a vacuum: an enabling policy environment is critical to success. And this enabling policy environment is itself an outcome of broad-based national conversations; integration across sectors, domains, and levels; and the encouragement of policy and program innovation.","tokenCount":"1698"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"84ef75b98015b96df5d7c19d1b6f11d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9a986047-a1d0-4a7d-8fdc-fb7ffae84ae7/content","id":"-466725970"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"43bef6b8-8db3-4ded-b1bb-a9ad42150636","pagecount":"19","content":"• Importance of economics in technology dissemination.• Conventional idea -profitability affect adoption• Several studies have shown that CA increases profitability.• The environmental impacts are also well documented.• CA is a technology with potential to benefit both farmers and society.• But its adoption is still low in Asia. Why?  There is a lot of evidence on the positive public and private benefits of mulching.What is the need for putting more efforts on technology dissemination?Actual benefits vs. Perceived benefits for Farmers• The difference determines farmer acceptance and adoption• Due to several reasons (technology attributes, farmer characteristics, social norms etc.)• Subjective evaluation is equally important.• The difference determines governmental support• Investment in information campaigns, subsidies, etc.• Less studies conducted on this aspect.• Soil moisture conservation However, soil mulching is one of the uses of crop residues. Costs of using crop residues as mulch?• Increased pest infestation?• Loss of aesthetic value?• Transaction costs of getting the tillage technology [expenses incurred when buying or selling a good or service]Opportunity cost of crop residues.[Cost of not selecting the \"best next alternative\"].Mainly through avoiding residue burning.• Health hazard [burning of one metric tonne of straw releases 3 kg of particulate matter]• Nutritional loss and physical health deterioration to the soil.[including mortality of active beneficial soil bacteria].  But is this data reliable?The fraction of dry matter residues burned in the field is taken as 0.25 the developing countries.Objective vs. Subjective Valuation • The subjective theory of value• the value of a technology is not determined by any inherent property of the technology nor by its yield or profitability potential, but instead by the importance a farmer places on the technology.• Important for determining adoption.• The subjective value of a technology can be changed• A 2016-study showed that only 19% rice-wheat farmers are aware of the CA practices (81% in Punjab, 4% in Bihar).On Farm Impacts of CA • A 14% reduction (Krishna and Veettil , 2014)• Slight increase in production efficiency• 1% increase (Krishna and Veettil, 2014)• Time saving Effect on Grain Yield (%)Source: Krishna et al (unpublished).Effect on Profitability (%)Source: Krishna et al (unpublished).How to popularize CA based on its economics?• The adoption of CA almost always reduces the cost of production.• However, the magnitude depends on several factors • E.g., cost of fuel, number of passes of tractor in the conventional land preparation methods• Presence of the yield effect depends on several factors.• Particularly, the time of sowing in the absence of the technology.• Availability of herbicides.• The social benefits of the technology must be considered while promoting the technology• Payment for ecosystem services.","tokenCount":"428"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b6ede3723e73e10239160e5871eefa5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eea4161c-0c3d-4b92-8db0-a8a02856693f/retrieve","id":"1976909033"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe7275ac-81c6-4a98-852a-841aa69ada76","pagecount":"6","content":"During four seasons, an experiment was run at the Farm for the Future Tanzania Ltd (FFF) which is part of Ilula Orphan Program (IOP)'s Farm, Ilula, Iringa Region, in Tanzania. The FFF farm, is training farmers in 16 villages, with a focus on dissemination activities at regional, as well as national level. The experiment showcased very effective low-emission crop fertilisation strategies that combine high maize yields with high nutrient use efficiency and low emissions.In 2021, an demonstration experiment was run for 4th consecutive year at the Farm for the Future Tanzania Ltd (FFF) which is part of Ilula Orphan Program (IOP)'s Farm, Ilula, Iringa Region, in Tanzania. The FFF farm is training farmers in 16 villages, with a focus on dissemination activities at regional, as well as national level. The purpose of the experiment was to experimentally test and show case low-emission crop fertilization strategies that combine high maize yields with high nutrient use efficiency and low emissions. Four nutrient management treatments were combined in a full factorial setup with two tillage options. Results were very consistent across the four years and demonstrated that combining highly efficient nutrient management with high maize yields (approaching the yield potential) is possible in Tanzania.Treatments without fertilizer addition (control treatment) yielded just over 1 t/ha (conventional tillage) to almost 3 t/ha (reduced tillage); the reduced tillage effect is hypothesized to be due to better access to phosphorus and potassium as there were indications of a lower root penetration resistance and better rooting system under the reduced tillage treatment. The treatments with fertilizer addition consistently showed very high yields (4 to 10 t/ha, depending on the year, as characterized by weather conditions and sowing date). These yields approach on average ca. 70% of the rainfed yield potential and reflect very high fertilizer use efficiencies. Results also showed no significant differences in fertilizer use efficiency (additional grain yield per kg N applied when including yield effects from P and K) between reduced and conventional tillage. No effects of micro-nutrients were shown, while approximately half of the mineral fertilizers could be replaced by manure without yield effect.Each year farmers field days (from 12 surrounding villages) were organised with 400-500 attendants per season, apart from 2020 due to COVID-19. In addition, 80 pupils from primary as well as secondary school visited the trial. In May 2018 the Tanzania Uhuru Torch made a stop at the trial, to recognize its importance for farmers. During this festive day, Village leaders, Region and District level leaders, large and influential farmers as well as single mother young farmers were in attendance. The young single mothers offered the explanation of what was happening and made up their fertilizer regime of their choice.• Tanzania. The objective of this experiment was to test different manners to sustainably close yield maize gaps with highly efficient nutrient management. The IOP farm is strongly embedded in the regional economy and farmers' societies. Each year, many farmers visited the trial and the farm and its experiment is receiving regional and national publicity. The IOP farm also has a strong social mission to support the most vulnerable children in Tanzania.See: http://ioptanzania.org/farm-for-the-future/• National Country(ies):• Tanzania, United RepublicComments: The principles of the experiment and how the experiment was embedded regionally (FFF and IOP farm with many visits) can applied in other regions of Tanzania and in other countries.Contributing CRPs/Platforms: • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Contributing Flagships:• FP3: Low emissions development Contributing Regional programs:• EA: East Africa Contributing external partners:• YARA • SUA -Sokoine University of AgricultureThe innovations listed below made the outcome of this Evidence possible.• 83 -Estimating minimum nitrogen requirements (N gaps) for yield gap closure and greenhouse gas mitigation (https://tinyurl.com/2j4f4z2g)• 1722 -Proposed new methodology to benchmark N input requirements, N use efficiency and related GHG emissions for cereals (https://tinyurl.com/2pcxtk2m)• 310 -Estimating minimum nutrient (N,P,K) requirements for climate-smart intensification of maize cropping (https://tinyurl.com/2mm23vzc) Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: a. Description of outcome: The purpose of the experiment, run for four consecutive years, was to experimentally test and show case low-emission crop fertilization strategies that combine high maize yields with high nutrient use efficiency and low emissions. Four nutrient management treatments were combined in a full factorial setup with two tillage options. Results were very consistent across the four years and demonstrated that combining highly efficient nutrient management with high maize yields (approaching the yield potential, which equals roughly three times the current yields) is possible in Tanzania.b. Description of the users/beneficiaries: the experiment was run in a close collaboration between Sokoine University of Agriculture, Yara fertilizers in Tanzania, Farm for the Future and IOP in Iringa and Wageningen University & Research. Each of the parties are beneficiaries of the outcome, including the farmers in Iringa who have been attending the farmers' field days. IOP owns a modern commercial farm, named Farm for the Future Tanzania Ltd (FFF) that started operation in 2018, which is also used as a training centre. It is a registered Farm aimed to generate income, empower single mothers through training (socio-economic and agriculture) and encourage school children (kindergarten all the way to secondary school) to develop love for the agriculture by providing visits and activities that will stimulate them to grow with a positive image of this number 1 employer in Tanzania. c. Activities to link innovation to outcome: first the embedding of the experiment in IOP and the Farm for the Future in Iringa ensured a perfect starting point for visibility and broad attendance by farmers, orphans, mothers and school pupils. Every season, farmers' field days were organised, attended by 400-500 farmers per year. Village leaders were requested to come with at least 20 farmers each, divided equally between male and female. Also, on 28 May 2018 the Tanzania Uhuru Torch made a stop at the trial, to recognize the importance of the training tool for farmers. During this festive day, Village leaders, Region and District level leaders, large and influential farmers as well as single mother young farmers were in attendance. The young single mothers offered the explanation of what was happening and made up their fertilizer regime of their choice.Activities and results have been reported in annual reports, which have been submitted as deliverables to Marlo.","tokenCount":"1034"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8262328748.json b/data/part_5/8262328748.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..0bcca358d32ce477df551bf96bae4a2b2c8f67c7
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2395dad930722c29d896912f7d8fa17b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77a03a38-bbfb-44b3-a521-56abaf2af7bb/retrieve","id":"1340545236"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"09ce40a4-add0-402c-9453-abfd62bab79a","pagecount":"10","content":"The inclusion of shade trees into cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) systems can generate livelihood opportunities for smallholder farmers. Yet, there is the need to examine the ecological context within which shade trees, and their functional traits, have a positive impact on ecosystem services in cocoa systems. Here, we used a network of farms of similar aged hybrid cocoa, in a nested design consisting of agroforestry or monoculture management, on three initial soil quality levels (poor, moderate or good) in two agroecological zones (humid or sub-humid) to investigate whether shade tree functional traits are linked with soil-based and cocoa-based ecosystem services. Initial soil quality level was the main driver of differences in soil organic matter, soil N, soil C:N, soil total C, soil permanganate-oxidizable C, while agroecological zone largely explained differences in cocoa yield and aboveground C. The inclusion of shade trees increased soil macrofauna abundance and mass but decreased cocoa aboveground C compared to cocoa monoculture plots. Importantly, within agroforestry systems, shade tree leaf traits expressed as community weighted means of SLA, leaf N, and leaf dry matter content explained differences in soil-based and cocoa-based ecosystem services. These results show that agroforestry systems have the potential to enhance soil-based ecosystem services without notably decreasing cocoa yield. And a trait-based approach to describe shade tree diversity can advance our understanding and management of shade tree-ecosystem service relationships in cocoa agroforestry systems.Ghana is the second largest producer of cocoa (Theobroma cacao, L.) beans in the world, with a market share of 20% of the total global cocoa production, which represents over US$ 2 billion annually in foreign exchange (GCB, 2022) and supports the livelihood of more than 600,000 households across Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service, 2020). However, decreases in productivity and income earning by smallholder farmers, have emerged during the last decade (Kroeger et al., 2017;GCFRP, 2021;Bermudez et al., 2022), currently affecting ~ 40% of cocoa farms, with relatively low yields (Aneani and Ofori-Frimpong, 2013;Kalischek et al., 2023). Several factors have been attributed to these decreases, such as high pest incidence, the use of low-yielding varieties, over-aged cocoa stands and, importantly, soil fertility loss (Baah et al., 2011;Akrofi et al., 2015;Doe et al., 2022). Soil fertility maintenance in cocoa systems is an on-going research priority to sustain yield (Ahenkora et al., 1987;Appiah et al., 1997;Isaac et al., 2007;Konger et al., 2019;Asante et al., 2021;Doe et al., 2023). Indeed, many years of harvesting cocoa without replenishing the lost nutrients may contribute to soil fertility loss, which eventually affects yield (Appiah et al., 1997;Hartemink, 2005). While this loss may be compensated in some systems with high fertilizer inputs, these additions may acidify the soil and interfere with the availability of critical soil nutrients, such as phosphorus (Koko, 2013).There have been concerted efforts to promote the inclusion of shade trees into cocoa agroforestry systems to improve both the environment and livelihood opportunities for smallholder farmers (Asare et al., 2014;Nyantakyi-Frimpong et al., 2019;Isaac et al., 2021;Sanial et al., 2020;UNEP, 2022). Indeed, the shade trees in cocoa agroforestry systems can alter light, water and nutrient supply into cocoa systems through its direct influence on the canopy structure (Asare and Raebild, 2016), soil structure (Saputra et al., 2020), rooting systems (Isaac et al., 2014) and soil fertility (Sauvadet et al., 2020;Asigbaase et al., 2021), and thus provide various supporting ecosystem services such as enhanced nutrient cycles, and regulating ecosystem services such as biomass and soil carbon (C) storage (Ofori-Frimpong et al., 2007;Tscharntke et al., 2011;Mortimer et al., 2018). Nonetheless, to our knowledge, most studies on the role of shade trees in cocoa agroforests have focused on broad assessments of shade tree characteristics, such as shade taxa and related shade tree height or canopy measures, as well as the impacts of shade trees on soil fertility indicators and cocoa yield (Isaac et al., 2007;Blaser et al., 2017Blaser et al., , 2018;;Asare et al., 2017Asare et al., , 2019;;Asitoakor et al., 2022; but see Blaser-Hart et al., 2021), which have produced mixed results. For example, studies in Ghana and elsewhere that have compared soil fertility in cocoa monoculture and cocoa agroforests have reported similar fertility levels in the two systems (reviewed in Niether et al., 2020;Asitoakor et al., 2022), with some instances of shade trees reducing cocoa yield through various direct-pests-and indirect -light, water and soil nutrient competition-mechanisms (e.g., Ofori--Frimpong et al., 2007;Wade et al., 2010;Wartenberg et al., 2017). However, other studies have found that shade trees can improve soil fertility in cocoa agroforests, especially in farms with poor soils such as Ferralsols or Acrisols, but that these benefits depended on shade tree species (Isaac et al., 2007;Sauvadet et al., 2020;Wartenberg et al., 2020).The impact of tree diversity benefits have been linked to their functional traits, defined as any morphological, chemical, physiological or phenological characteristics that reflect the life history of individuals (Violle et al., 2007). Specifically for cocoa agroforestry systems, Sauvadet et al. (2020) show that higher soil fertility was observed under shade tree species with the highest leaf chemical trait dissimilarity with cocoa leaves in a Cameroonian cocoa agroforest, while Moço et al. (2010) observed higher soil biodiversity under the shade trees producing litter of the highest quality (i.e. low lignin and polyphenols contents, high nutrient contents). These examples point to the fact that trait-based approaches offer one of the best options to disentangle the effects of shade trees on ecosystem services provided by cocoa agroforestry systems (Martin andIsaac, 2015, 2018;Wood et al., 2015;Sauvadet et al., 2020), including soil-based ecosystem services and cocoa-based ecosystem services (Isaac et al., 2024). Such an approach provides the opportunity to optimize the selection of the most suitable tree species to be incorporated into cocoa farms to achieve key trait-environment relationships. However, there are still knowledge gaps that need to be addressed. First, most of the shade tree benefits on soil-based ecosystem services are localized under their canopies, and not detectable away from these zones (Blaser et al., 2017;Wartenberg et al., 2020), in line with the current knowledge of tree spatialized influence in other agroforestry systems (Cardinael et al., 2017). Nonetheless, while the observations of shade tree influence on soil properties at the farm scale are more seldom, they may still occur (e.g., Abou Rajab et al., 2016) but are harder to link to shade tree community traits due to the coarseness of their characterization in these studies. Second, the influence of shade treesand on a larger scale agroecosystems diversificationis also dependent on soil inherent properties (e.g., Waithaisong et al., 2020;Sauvadet et al., 2021), yet soil type sensitivity to shade tree species introduction have been seldom studied.We aim to determine whether shade tree functional traits in a range of environmental conditions predict key soil-based ecosystem services related to soil fertility and C storage, including soil C (total and active), soil N, macrofauna communities, and cocoa-based ecosystem services including yield and aboveground C storage. To do this, we used a network of farms along a gradient of agroecological zones and soil quality in Ghana, with the same cocoa hybrid of similar age, in a nested design of: farm management (cocoa in monoculture or in agroforestry), initial soil quality level (poor, moderate and good quality) and climate (humid and sub-humid agroecological zone). Our objectives were to 1) describe leaf functional trait variability among shade trees in agroforestry systems, 2) determine the soil properties related to soil-based ecosystem services and cocoa-based ecosystem services in cocoa monocultures and agroforestry systems, and 3) link shade tree functional traits and ecosystem services in cocoa agroforestry systems.Eighteen smallholder cocoa farms were purposely selected from the 130 experimental trials of the CocoaSoils program (Asante et al., 2021). The CocoaSoils program is being implemented in Ghana and other West African countries to promote integrated soil fertility management practices to achieve sustainable cocoa production and improvement in the livelihoods of smallholder famers, and to reduce deforestation (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2020). The CocoaSoils experimental trials were established in 2020 on already existing smallholder cocoa farms distributed across six Global Agro-ecological Zones (CocoaSoils Annual Report, 2019, Table 1) adapted from the zonation framework of IIA-SA/FAO (2012). The Global Agroecological zones framework provides a classification of biophysical factors that are relevant for agricultural production systems, by grouping areas with similar climatic and edaphic conditions (IIASA/FAO, 2012). This zonation classification is a coarse-scale measure, but it provides a standardized framework for characterizing climate, soil and field conditions relevant for agricultural production (Bunn et al., 2019).In this study, the cocoa farms were selected in areas representing gradients of moisture regime and initial soil quality (see details in Table 1) through 10 cocoa districts spread across seven cocoa-growing regions of Ghana, including Ahafo, Ashanti, Bono, Central, Eastern, Western and Western North regions (Table S1). These regions fall within three agro-ecological zones ranging from semi deciduous through moist evergreen to wet evergreen forests zonesand communities are located between latitudes 5.3 • N and 7.2 • N and longitudes 0.5 • W and 3.0 • E, within the six Climate-smart Hotspot Intervention Areas identified in the Ghana Cocoa Forest REDD+ programme (Forestry Commission, 2021). The Agro-ecological zonation is adopted from the Global Agro-ecological Zones for farming systems (IIASA/FAO, 2012). The cocoa areas were classified into agro-ecological zones according to two moisture regimes (humid and sub-humid) and three soil quality indices (poor, moderate and good soils). The moisture regime was calculated as Precipitation/Potential Evapotranspiration, and it is an indication of the length of the growing period (that is the number of days in the year when both water availability and temperature permit crop growth). Subhumid conditions have a moisture regime of > 1.15 for a growing period of 180-269 days, and humid conditions have a moisture regime between 0.65 and 1.15 for 270-364 days of growing period (FAO and IIASA, 2012;Bunn et al., 2019). Soil Quality Index ranges between value of 1 for the high quality soil and 0 for poor quality soil.Mean annual rainfall in the last 30 years ranged from 1300 mm to 2300 mm (Baidu et al., 2017). Mean annual temperature ranged between 26.5 • C and 26.8 • C, and elevation of 66-361 m above sea level. The communities experience bimodal rainfall pattern; the major rainfall season occurs from April to July, and the minor rainfall season starts from September and ends in November (Asante et al., 2021). The areas have deeply weathered and well-drained soils, and the dominant soil types include Acrisols, Nitisols, Ferralsols, Leptosols and Lixisols according to the FAO soil classification system (Adei-Gyapong and Asiamah, 2000). Cocoa farms that serve as controls (no fertilizer application) for the CocoaSoils trials were used. The selected cocoa farms met the following criteria: (i) cocoa farms were grown from the same hybrids, (ii) covered an area of > 1 ha, (iii) a section of the farm in agroforestry and in monoculture, and (iv) cocoa farms were between the ages of 5-15 years the age range considered as the active productive stage of the developmental cycle of the cocoa plant (Dawoe et al., 2010). We employed a nested design that included three cocoa farms (n = 3) with two farm-level management practices (monoculture and agroforestry; n = 2) nested in the three soil quality classes (poor, moderate and good soils; n = 3), and nested in two agro-ecological zones reflecting moisture regimes (humid and sub-humid; n = 2), for a total of 36 individual research sites among 18 farms. Within each cocoa farm, three 10 m x 10 m plots (100 m 2 ) were established in an area dominated by shade trees for the agroforestry plots and three 10 m x 10 m plots containing only cocoa trees were established away from the canopy of any shade tree at a distance of at least 45 m away from the nearest shade tree, and used as cocoa monoculture plots.All shade trees in the agroforestry subplots were identified by vernacular names; for trees that could not be identified in situ, leaf specimens were pressed and sent to the herbarium of CSIR-FORIG for identification. Species identification and nomenclature followed Hawthorne and Gyakari (2006). Whole plant traits were then determined on the shade trees species in the agroforestry plots. Maximum heights were measured using LaserAce hysometer, while the diameter was measured as diameter at breast height (DBH) at 1.3 m from the ground using a diameter tape. For the few shade trees with irregular bole or buttress, diameter was measured ca. 50 cm above the buttress or estimated using ocular approach.Leaf morphological (specific leaf area, SLA and leaf dry matter content, LDMC) traits were determined following standardized protocol (Pérez-Harguindeguy et al., 2013). These traits were selected because they comprised the widely used traits from the 'leaf economic spectrum' (Reich, 2014), and they have been reported to relate to soil fertility and biomass production in agroecosystems (Wood et al., 2015;Wendling et al., 2016). On each tree, six mature fully expanded leaves without obvious herbivore damage were collected from two branches detached from the shaded lower portion and outer canopy, which receives full sunlight. The leaves were stored in tightly sealed plastic bags, and immediately sent them to the laboratory for further analysis. At the laboratory, the leaf samples were scanned using a flatbed scanner (CanoScan LiDE 110) attached to a laptop after rehydration. We scanned only complete leaves with rachis and the petiole attached. We later analyzed the digital images using IMAGEJ to estimate leaf area. After scanning, the leaf fresh mass was determined and then the leaves were oven-dried at 60 • C to determine their dry mass. Specific leaf area (SLA) and LDMC were calculated using the leaf area, fresh and dry mass values following standardized protocol (Pérez-Harguindeguy et al., 2013). Specific leaf area (cm 2 g − 1 ) was calculated as one-sided leaf area divided by leaf dry mass and LDMC (mg g − 1 ) was calculated as leaf dry mass divided by leaf fresh mass. Leaf C, N and C:N were determined on oven-dried and ground leaf samples with elemental analysis on a LECO CN628 Elemental Analyzer (LECO Corporation).Approaches such as farmer yield reports, counting of the total number of cherelles and matured pods, harvested pods, and then weighing the dried beans from pods after fermentation and obtaining yield records from farmers 'Cocoa Passbooks' have been used to quantify on-farm cocoa yield (e.g., Asare et al., 2019). We estimated cocoa yield using only the total number of cherelles and matured pods on productive cocoa trees, then the density of cocoa trees per unit area according to a formula proposed by UTZ-Rainforest Alliance (2018).To do so, all productive cocoa trees (trees that had cherelles and matured cocoa pods on them) were counted in each subplot to determine the density of cocoa trees per 100 m 2 . We subsequently counted all the pods on the trunk and branches of each cocoa tree, to calculate cocoa yield per hectare as follows:Where A pt is the average number of cocoa pods per productive tree, ΣP is the total number of pods sampled on productive trees, ΣT is the density of productive trees per 100 m 2 , A cp (kg tree − 1 ) is average cocoa production per tree, A cpi is the average weight of one cocoa pod, which was taken as equivalent to 0.04 kg of cocoa beans (UTZ-Rainforest Alliance, 2018); A t , average number of productive trees per hectare; and Y (kg ha − 1 ), estimated cocoa yield per hectare.To estimate the aboveground biomass of cocoa trees, the total height and DBH of each cocoa tree in agroforestry and monoculture systems were measured using a graduated stick and a diameter tape at 1.3 m from the ground, respectively. The aboveground biomass (AGB) was then deduced from the allometric equation of Andrade et al. (2008):Where AGB is aboveground tree biomass in kg and DBH is the diameter at breast height in cm. We then calculated plot-level AGB (Mg ha − 1 ) by summing the biomass values of all trees in each plot, and then converted the values into Mg C ha − 1 using a carbon content of 0.5 of dry mass (IPCC, 2003).Soil macrofauna were sampled using a soil monolith sampling procedure adapted from Rousseau et al. (2012). Within each subplot in the agroforestry and monoculture plots, soil monoliths of 20 cm×20 cm x 10 cm depth were excavated at two random locations. In the agroforestry plots, the two soil monoliths were sampled semi-randomly in areas where the canopies of shade trees and cocoa trees were in contact under the shade tree canopy. The soil and surface litter were taken and placed on a black plastic sheet, and soil animals were manually sorted immediately. Earthworms were preserved in 4% formalin, whilst other invertebrates were preserved in 70% ethanol (Rousseau et al., 2012). Sample specimens were then transported to the laboratory for further analyses. In the laboratory, soil fauna individuals were counted and identified at the order level following standard procedure (Gibb and Oseto, 2006). After the identification, all individuals were scanned using a flatbed scanner (CanoScan LiDE 110). Fauna fresh mass was calculated from body size measurements using allometric equations (Coulis and Joly, 2017). These measurement allowed to assess both soil fauna abundance (individuals per m 2 ) and biomass (kg per m 2 ) at the plot scale, by dividing either the number of individuals collected or their estimated biomass by the area sampled in each plot (two monoliths of 20 cm×20 cm, corresponding in total to 0.08 m 2 ).Soil was sampled with a hand-driven soil auger (diameter 5.5 cm) at five locations to 20-cm depth along an X-shape in each 10 m x 10 m subplot. The collected samples were composited into one sample per plot, and transferred into labelled plastic bags for laboratory processing at the CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (CSIR-FORIG). At the laboratory, the soil samples were air-dried, crushed and sieved at 2-mm after removing gravels, roots, and other debris. The samples were then transferred to the University of Toronto Scarborough, Canada to determine Soil Organic Matter (SOM), soil C pools (total C and Soil Permanganate Oxidizable -C (POXC)) and total soil N. Soil organic matter was determined with loss on ignition methods (Schulte and Hopkins, 1996). Soil Permanganate Oxidizable -C (POXC) often considered as active soil C (Culman et al., 2012) was determined following the method of Weil et al. (2003). Briefly, a diluted, 0.2 M alkaline potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ) solution was added to 2.5 g of soil, shaken, centrifuged and measured on a spectrophotometer at 550 nm (Thermo Scientific GENESYS UV-Vis Spectrophotometer, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., USA). Total C and N were determined on a sample subaliquot that was crushed beforehand at 200 µm, before being analyzed by combustion on a LECO CN628 Elemental Analyzer (LECO Corporation, Minnesota, USA).First, functional traits of shade tree species were aggregated at the community level for each subplot via Community Weighted Mean (CWM), according to Lavorel et al. (2008):Where bi is the relative biomass of ith species, xi is the trait value of ith species, and N is the total number of species observed in a given subplot.Variables were first checked for normality using Shapiro-Wilk test and for homoscedasticity with Levene's test, and log transformed when necessary. In addition, the data were checked for extreme outliers using the box plot method in R and the ROUT method of the GraphPad Prism 10 software. A three-factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with agroecological zone (humid and sub-humid), initial soil quality level (poor, moderate and good soil) and management type (agroforestry and monoculture) as fixed factors and farm as a random factor were first performed on all soil and cocoa parameters. CWM traits were analyzed on the same logic with two-factors ANOVA of agroecological zone and soil quality type. Multiple comparisons among paired means were then tested using Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) post-hoc test to adjust for paired comparisons.Shade tree functional traits and ecosystem services were then assessed with a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). We also applied redundancy analyses (RDA) to determine if differences in soil properties and cocoa yield and carbon storage relate to shade tree CWM functional traits and macrofauna indicators in either agroecological zones. Significance of each variable was assessed using a PERMANOVA implemted using the 'vegan' R package (with 9999 permutations used). All data analyses were performed using R Programming (R Core Development Team 2018) and GraphPad Prism 10 (GraphPad Software, Inc., California, USA).Shade tree composition consisted of 23 different tree species (Table S2). The most abundant tree species were Morinda lucida (18.8%), Milicia excelsa (11.8%), Terminalia ivorensis (10.6%), Terminalia superba (9.4%) and Newbouldia laevis (8.2%). Moderately represented species, all around 5% of the species composition, were Amphimas pterocarpoides, Entandrophragma angolense, Holarrhena floridunda, Ficus sur and Spathodia campanulata. And a suite of 13 other tree species with <2% representation on cocoa farms.Traits of shade trees are reported as Community Weighted Means (CWM). CWM_Leaf N had a narrow range among all agroforestry plots (Table 2) whereas CWM_SLA had a much larger range of 4.52-138.40 cm 2 g − 1 . The agroecological zone (p = 0.015) and interaction between agroecological zone and soil quality (p = 0.015) explained differences in shade tree CWM_SLA (Table 3); SLA was higher in the sub-humid zone (Fig. S1). CWM_Leaf N though not significant, showed slightly higher values in sub-humid zone as well (Fig. S1). CWM_Leaf C:N also had a large range (7.88-70.70). Soil type explained the differences between CWM_Leaf C:N (p = 0.036) as well as DBH (p = 0.051; Table 3) with no clear trends in the direction of the other traits (Fig. S1).Soil-based ecosystem services varied among factors within the nested level, with the initial soil quality level (poor, moderate, good) explaining the largest amount of variance (Table 4). Soil quality level was a significant factor explaining differences in SOM (p < 0.002), soil total N (p = 0.002), soil C:N ratio (p < 0.001), macrofauna abundance (p = 0.009),Community weighted mean (CWM), standard error (S.E.), minimum and maximum values, and lower and upper 95% of Confidence Interval of mean of shade trees leaf and plant functional traits in cocoa agroforestry plots on three soil quality levels representing soil quality indices in humid and sub-humid agroecological zones in Ghana. Leaf N, leaf nitrogen concentration; Leaf C:N: leaf carbon-to-nitrogen ratio; SLA, specific leaf area; LDMC, leaf dry matter content; DBH, diameter at breast height; H, maximum tree height.ANOVA results of six community weighted mean (CWM) shade tree traits (specific leaf area (SLA), leaf nitrogen (Leaf N), leaf carbon (C) to N (Leaf C:N), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), tree diameter at breast height (DBH) and maximum tree height (H)) explained by three factors and their interactions: agroecological zone (A), initial soil quality level (S), agroecological zone-by-soil quality type interaction (A x S). Factors with significant effects on variables are presented in bold. as well as all C based services: soil total C (p < 0.001), POXC (p < 0.001) and AGC (p = 0.003). In some cases, mean values tended to increase from poor to moderate to good initial soil quality levels (Fig. 1B-F). Initial soil quality level had the largest impact on SOM values, moderating any effects from agroecological zone or management. Management (agroforestry or monoculture) was only significant in explaining differences in macrofauna mass (p = 0.023) and abundance (p < 0.001; Table 4), with higher macrofauna mass and abundance in agroforestry plots in all scenarios except sub-humid poor soils, where monoculture plots had higher macrofauna mass (Figs. 1H and 1I). In fact, overall, the number of individuals and mass of soil macrofauna taxa were significantly higher in the agroforestry plots than the cocoa monoculture plots. Fauna abundance was significantly higher in cocoa agroforestry plots (155.00 ± 18.26 ind.m − 2 ) compared to the cocoa monoculture plots (82.29 ± 8.85 ind.m − 2 ) (p < 0.001). Mean fauna mass also differed significantly between the two management types (p = 0.023), with the agroforestry plots recording higher fauna mass (70.65 ± 11.27 gm − 2 ) than the monoculture plots (46.04 ± 9.22 gm − 2 ). In addition, more macrofauna taxonomic groups (Blattaria, Gastropods and Isopoda) that are classified as litter transformers were distributed in only the agroforestry plots, while Isoptera were only found in cocoa monocultures (Table S3). Agroecological zone explained differences in cocoa-based services: AGC (p < 0.001) and yield (p = 0.002; Table 4), with yield being marginally higher in the humid zone (Fig. 1G).Under agroforestry management, variations in all soil-based ecosystem services (SOM, soil total N, soil C:N, soil total C, POXC) and soil fauna were greatly associated with PCA axis 1, and negatively covaried with cocoa yield, CWM_H and CWM_DBH (Table 5 and Fig S2). On the other hand, CWM_Leaf N and CWM_SLA were associated with PCA axis 2, and covaried negatively with CWM_LDMC (Table 5).These relationships between shade tree traits and soil-based and cocoa-based ecosystem services also varied with the agroecological zone; indeed, redundancy analysis (RDA) in the sub-humid zone showed soil-based ecosystem services were positively associated with soil fauna indicators but negatively covaried with shade tree CWM_DBH, CWM_LDMC and CWM_H, along with cocoa yield (Fig. 2A). Cocoa AGC on the other hand was mostly negatively associated with CWM_Leaf N ratio on the RDA2 axis (Fig. 2A). While the positive relationships between soil fauna mass and soil-based ecosystem services remained in the humid climate (Fig. 2B), cocoa-based ecosystem services both negatively covaried with CWM_Leaf C:N and CWM_SLA (Fig. 2B).Using a trait-based approach to disentangle the effects of shade tree functional traits on soil-based ecosystem services in smallholder cocoa farms, we demonstrate that shade trees have a beneficial impact on key soil properties, including macrofauna mass and macrofauna abundance. We show that these positive effects are predicted by communityweighted shade tree traits. We also found initial soil quality level (poor, moderate or good soil) was the most significant nested factor that explained differences in SOM, soil total N, soil C:N ratio, macrofauna abundance, soil total C, POXC and AGC.Agroecological zone, initial soil quality level, and their interactions accounted for differences in shade tree SLA and leaf C:N at the community level. Notably, SLA at the community scale was higher in the sub-humid agroecological zone, suggesting that the quality of shade trees in sub-humid zones are higher, given that SLA correlates well with rates of resource acquisition (Reich, 2014) and biomass production (Liu Table 4 ANOVA results of SOM, soil total N, soil C:N, macrofauna abundance and mass, soil total C, POXC and aboveground C (AGC), and yield variable explained by three factors and their interactions: agroecological zone (A), initial soil quality level (S), agroforestry or monoculture management (M), agroecological zone-by-soil quality type interaction (A x S), agroecological zone-by-management interaction (A x M), Soil quality type-bymanagement interaction (S x M) and agroecological zone-by-soil quality type-by-management (A x S x M) interaction. Factors with significant effects on variables are presented in bold.   , 2016). This finding is in line with the common assumption that climatic factors, especially precipitation, drives SLA in woody plants (Gong and Gao, 2019). On the other hand, initial soil quality levels drove the differences in CWM leaf N and C:N ratios in the sub-humid but not the humid zone; while information on the relationship between shade tree leaf stoichiometry and soil properties in cocoa systems is scarce, previous studies in forest ecosystems supports our findings (e.g., Liu and Wang, 2021). Indeed, leaf C:N ratios usually decreases with soil quality and/or fertility levels (e.g. Zhang et al., 2020). Interestingly, while not significant, we note trends in higher shade tree DBH and height in sub-humid agroecological zones, indicating that shade trees are selected for larger size, and possibly higher growth rate, in these resource limited sites. What these shade tree functional trait trends also reveal is that some traits, such as leaf N and LDMC, are conserved across climatic and soil gradients, suggesting that prescriptions for shade trees may be applicable across conditions.Our results show that the management practice of shade trees in cocoa agroforestry systems did not necessarily lead to categorical improvement in soil-based ecosystem services at the plot scale (Blaser et al., 2017: Wartenberg et al., 2020), but did enhance the abundance and mass of soil macrofauna. Indeed, retaining or integrating shade trees in cocoa agroforests is crucial for promoting the abundance and diversity of soil macrofauna and other important ecosystem services such as aboveground C. The higher abundance and mass of soil macrofauna in the cocoa agroforestry plots compared to the monoculture plots is in agreement with other studies that reported of higher number of soil animals in cocoa agroforestry systems in Ghana and elsewhere (Bigger, 1981;Bisseleua et al., 2009;Felicitas et al., 2018;Niether et al., 2020, but see Rizali et al., 2013). Often, non-cocoa trees and their associated Soil-based and cocoa-based ecosystem services and biomass-weighted community means (CWM) of shade tree functional trait correlations to PCA's eigenvectors (Figure S2). Correlations above 0.5 are deemed relevant (in bold). Leaf N, leaf nitrogen concentration; Leaf C:N, leaf carbon-to-nitrogen ratio; SLA, specific leaf area; LDMC, leaf dry matter content; DBH, diameter at breast height; H, maximum tree height. litter layer provide sustained habitat, which supports high taxonomic groups of soil fauna (Rousseau et al., 2013). In addition, the presence of shade trees can induce a denser rhizosphere, producing more food for the detritivore soil macrofauna organisms (Brussaard, 1998). Soil fauna communities such as the litter transformers that were recorded in this study (e.g., Blattaria, Isopoda, Diplopoda and Gastropoda) are recognized as an important indicator of soil biodiversity (Rousseau et al., 2013), and are critical for the general health of cocoa farms (Tsufac et al., 2021). Clearly, regardless of agroecological zones or initial soil quality level, agroforestry systems stimulate the amount and diversity of macrofauna, providing the drivers of key soil fertility processes not found in monocultures. Agroecological zone largely explained differences in cocoa-based services; aboveground cocoa carbon pools tended to be higher in subhumid zone, while cocoa yield was marginally higher in the humid zone. These trends are not unexpected as cocoa may allocate higher biomass to aboveground components in more limited conditions (Borden et al., 2019), while yield is slightly limited when climatic conditions are marginal (Abdulai et al., 2018).Efforts to establish linkages between shade tree functional traits and the maintenance and supply of ecosystem services in cocoa agroforestry systems, although in the nascent stage, is gaining attention for theoretical and practical implications on shade management to derive multiple benefits within cocoa agroforest systems (Martin and Isaac, 2015). Yet, most of these studies focuses on multiple individual shade trees rather than global shade tree community composition (e.g Blaser-Hart  et al., 2021;Sauvadet et al., 2020). Our results provide empirical evidence on shade tree functional traits at the community level to predict variables representing important soil-based ecosystem services. The association of CWM shade tree traits, such as CWM of SLA, LDMC, leaf N, leaf C:N and DBH, with soil-based services at the farm scale supports the theories that emphasize traits as direct drivers of ecosystem processes and responses (Lavorel and Garnier, 2002;Martin and Isaac, 2018;Meidema Brown and Anand, 2022).It is established that traits including leaf N, leaf C:N, SLA and LDMC affect soil fertility through their influence on decomposition, mineralization and nutrient conservation (Lavorel and Garnier, 2002;Ordoñez et al., 2009). In particular in cocoa agroforestry systems, the mixing of low-quality and high-quality litter can modify decomposition rates and thus soil fertility (Sari et al., 2022;Bai et al., 2022). In addition, conservative traits such as leaf C:N and LDMC, which partly determine leaf quality, relate to macrofauna abundance and macrofauna mass (Giweta, 2020), through an effect on leaf litter palatability and thus affect the abundance, composition and diversity of soil macrofauna (Moço et al., 2010;Rousseau et al., 2021). This is in line with the positive covariation of acquisitive trait CWM SLA with soil fauna mass found in our study. On the other hand, soil fauna mass was negatively associated with CWM of maximum height and DBH, in line with recent studies in experimental grasslands, which showed that these CWM traits explained soil fauna variability due to their overall influence of plant litter inputs (Beugnon et al., 2019). These impacts on soil fauna, and to a broader extent soil biological activity, likely benefitted to soil C content and quality, hence explaining the relationships found between these indicators in our study. These pathways provide the often missing leaf level traits linking trees to soil dynamics and outcomes, critical to optimizing shade tree management for key soil-based ecosystem services.Cocoa-based ecosystem services presented contrasting sensitivity to farms environmental and management constrains. Indeed, cocoa AGC, in spite of being higher under the sub-humid climate, responded positively to the soil quality gradient, but also to the shade tree CWM traits associated with increased fertility and soil biological activity (i.e. acquisitive shade tree leaf traits, leaf N and SLA), suggesting a strong dependency of cocoa AGC on soil quality in these systems. Nonetheless, and in spite of these effects on cocoa AGC, cocoa yield was not significantly decreased under shade trees, and presented contrasted sensitivity to soil quality and shade tree traits depending on the agroecological zone. Cocoa yield was lower in the sub-humid zone, with no clear relationships with soil quality, but rather with CWM maximum height and DBH, suggesting a more important limitation of the microclimate rather than soil quality for cocoa production in this zone.Cocoa is often cultivated in full-sun monocultures in order to maximize short-term productivity and profitability because of the uncertainty about the functional relevance of shade trees in cocoa agroforestry systems. Our results show that shade tree functional traits at the community level can predict multiple ecosystem services within cocoa agroforests. Specifically, integrating shade trees, with the expression of certain functional trait strategies, is key to promoting the activity of soil macrofauna, which has a coupling effect on soil biodiversity and related ecological functions. This has implications for our understanding and management of the context within which the positive influence of shade trees can be optimized. We also show that while some shade tree functional traits are more variable, other shade tree functional traits at the community scale are similar across agroecological zones, suggesting certain traits are conserved over climatic regions. This allows for the use of traits over taxa among agroecological zones when selecting for appropriate shade trees. Finally, soil quality plays a mediating role in the ability of cocoa systems to provide and maintain critical ecosystem services. Thus, shade tree management prescriptions should consider these local environmental constraints. This ecological approach to understanding shade tree diversity will achieve important ecosystem services for enhanced environmental benefits and farmer livelihoods. The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Marney E Isaac reports financial support was provided by Canada Research Chairs Program. One co-author is employed by Mars Wrigley in the Cocoa Plant Science division. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","tokenCount":"5837"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b55ea077fcff4514f9652e65da0e7803","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/07019fdb-7bd7-4864-bd08-3328a332c321/retrieve","id":"1069010668"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b80ffba-7b6f-4141-8416-817cceee6b0b","pagecount":"21","content":"3. La sIembra de las barreras de pasto 3.1. Pasto \"Imperial 60\" (Axonopus scoparius (Flügge) Hitch.) 3.2. Pasto Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.) 4. Aplicación de pastos como \"mulch\" 5. Impacto ambiental 6. Componentes e insumas para la implementación de las franjas protectoras productivas. 6.1. Número de sitios de mora por sembrar 6.1. Tutores 6.1. Pasto Imperial 6.1. Pasto Vetiver (Vetiveria zízanioides)Propuesta técnica para la producción de mora (Rubus glaucus Benth.) y de Pasto Imperial (Axonopus scoparius (Flügge) Hitch.)como componentes de conservación en laderas.Recomendaciones para la Parte alta de la Cuenca del Río Cabuyal, Corregimiento de Siberi., Municipio de Caldono, Departamento del Cauca, Colombia.La adopción deficiente de tecnologías de conservación por parte de los agricultores, tiene una historia de igual trayectoria que las políticas y programas de promoción de prácticas de conservación.La falta de adopción de prácticas se debe a un gran número de factores como son: técnicas complicadas, componentes tecnológicos que no estén vinculados con otras actividades en la finca, falta de asistencia técnica, altos costos, pocos incentivos económicos o la falta de beneficios a corto plazo (CIAT, 1995;Castillo y Müller-Samann, 1996).El atractivo económico por otro lado, puede convertirse en una motivación muy fuerte para la aplicación e introducción de nuevas plantas o componentes de carácter conservacionista.Incorporar más atractividad económica en componentes de conservación de suelos y aguas, por eso constituye el objetivo de una actividad coordinada y compartida entre varios proyectos del ClAT.Dichos proyectos vienen trabajando con las comunidades en la cuenca, para desarrollar tecnologías que permitan optimizar simultáneamente los beneficios ambientales y económicos.Los conceptos y sugerencias agronómicas formuladas en este documento para el cultivo de mora y de pasto de corte en fincas de ladera de la cuenca alta del Río Cabuyal, Cauca, forman parte de este trabajo.El cultivo de mora es un cultivo perenne y su propagación es de tipo vegetativo. En consecuencia, la selección y la calidad del material de propagación es de suma importancia para el éxito del culivo.Para obtener plantas nuevas se recomienda seleccionar plantas sanas y productivas con buen vigor. Lo más recomendable es la propagación por acodo de punta en bolsa; un proceso que dura aproximadamente 40 días. En lo posible se utilizan bolsas con tierra esterílízada y con micorrhiza; 50 g/bolsa (Mycorall o tierra de una era con Tagetes sp.(flor de muerto), libre de nemátodos y también enriquecida con micorrhizas (100 g!bolsa). Después de su enraizamiento (aprox. 6 semanas) se corta la rama y se deja crecer la nueva plántula en bolsa hasta 60 días.Para el transplante se abren huecos de 40 x 40 x 40, se revuelve la tierra con 2 kg de gallinaza 3 y 200 g de fosforita Huila y se deja reposar alrededor de 2-4 semanas antes de sembrar en el hueco.El abonamiento se hace a los dos meses después del transplante y más adelante cada 4 meses con 1 kg de gallinaza ó 200 g de 15-15-15 o 14-14-14-2, incorporando el abono en corona o en una banda (max. 5 cm de profundidad) a 20 cm de las plantas en el lado superior.Si el terreno tiene un pH por debajo de 5.3, se debe además aplicar cal dolomítica en cantidad de 200.gr por planta en el surco de 2 m x 0,8 m -1,6 m 2 una vez (? 1250 kglha) y en adelante 100 gr/año (625 kglha) en el surco. (El encalamiento no se debe hacer simultáneamente con la fertilización, ya que eso lleva a la pérdida de nutrientes como fósforo y nitrógeno). A los cuatro meses después de la siembra en el sitio definitivo se recomienda además la aplicación de 80-100 g/planta de Urea en forma de corona. Esta aplicación se hace en el plateo después del control de malezas. Más adelante se puede repetir este abonamiento después de cosechas abundantes para estimular el desarrollo de las plantas cada 12 meses.La poda de formación y fructificación consiste en eliminar brotes débiles y deformados.Se recomienda además, no dejar más que 4 brotes vigorosos para obtener frutas de alta calidad.Cuando los brotes alcanzan 1,6-1,8 cm hay que despuntarlos para inducir el crecimiento de ramas laterales. También hay que eliminar chupones y ramas en la parte inferior hasta 50 cm de altura. Después de la cosecha se podan las ramas sucesivamente hacia abajo hasta agotar los brotes.La producción comienza más o menos a los 270 días (9 meses) y las matas alcanzan niveles de plena producción a los 540 días (año y medio). Con un buen manejo, las variedades criollas y la mora \"Castilla\" pueden producir durante 8-10 años.Los arreglos para el cultivo de mora en fincas de ladera pueden variar según las actividades económicas en la finca y en respuesta a las necesidades de desarrollar sistemas de producción que permiten un manejo cuidadoso y sostenible del suelo y del agua.El caso común y más frecuente es la plantación del frutal en forma de monocultivo con densidades entre 1100 Y 2000 plantas por hectárea. Si estos sistemas son manejados con coberturas vivas de vegetación natural o modificada, podando las hierbas regularmente con machete o guadaña y/o con azadón químico (Federación Nacional de Cafeteros, 1998) y conservando plateos libre de hierbas, estos sistemas de producción se pueden considerar como sostenibles y conservacionistas.Nota: Mientras la mayoría de las hierbas no constituye mayor problema para la productividad y el manejo del sistema, el pasto Kikuyo (Pennisetum c1andestinumHochst ex Chiov.) puede convertirse en un problema, por lo cual se recomienda su control consecuente en forma selectiva.Sin embargo, el hecho de tener un lote pequeño con un sistema de producción adecuado, no puede evitar que el resto del terreno de la finca siga con problemas de arrastre de tierras y de escurrimiento excesivo de agua. Eso es sobre todo el caso con los cultivos anuales, los cuales, en sistemas con labranza, causan elevados niveles de pérdida de suelo por erosión. Este fenómeno contamina los ríos con sedimentos, los hace aparecer amarillos y cafés y lo más grave para el agricultor, empobrece los suelos y los hace infértiles a lo largo de los años (Figura la).Introduciendo y sembrando la mora con el sistema de franjas protectoras productivas la mora se convierte en un remedio ambiental rentable para todo el área cultivada de la finca. Sus beneficios ambientales para el agricultor y la sociedad en general se multiplican (Figura lb).Las ganancias con la introducción del cultivo de mora con el arreglo de barreras son de doble carácter:al Se protegen y conservan las tierras y las aguas en la cuenca. b)Se mejoran los ingresos, la liquidez financiera y con esto el bienestar de la unidad familiar campesina.La propuesta técnica para la siembra de mora en franjas protectoras productivas en la cuenca del Río Cabuyal (Norte del Cauca) incluye además la siembra de pasto de corte \"Imperial 60\" (Axonopu5 scoparius (Flügge) Hitch.) variedad de hábito erecto y resistente a Bacteriosis. La asociación del pasto con la mora en forma de barreras (Figura 2) se hace por razones técnicas, agronómicas y por motivos económicos.Referente a las razones técnicas, se adjunta el pasto al surco de mora para fortalecer su eficiencia y capacidad de frenar los procesos erosivos (Figura 3). Un surco de mora solo, sembrado aproximadamente cada 10 m de distancia en un cultivo anual no es capaz de controlar 105 procesos erosivos en pendientes mayores de 20-25%, ni puede mejorar mucho la infiltración de las aguas en el suelo. Por otro lado adjuntando un doble surco de Pasto Imperial (Figura 2), la franja de mora se convierte en un elemento eficiente de control de erosión y escorrentía y el pasto beneficia el cultivo de mora como cobertura muerta o \"mulch\" (ver detalles más abajo) y/o se usa como barrera de forraje en la alimentación de animales domésticos en generala de una vaca semi-estabulada para la producción de leche y estiércol.La contribución al mejoramiento de la base alimenticia de una vaca contribuye a la atractividad del sistema de cultivo en franjas. En un sondeo realizado en la zona por el Programa de Laderas del ClAT, la adquisición de una vaca lechera figuraba entre los deseos y planes principales de los agricultores. Además la producción de leche y derivados de leche resultó, parecido a la mora, como una de las mejores opciones de mercado en la zona (Ostertag y Patiño, 1996). Cobertura muerto1 ----1¡ C¡. O \\1M -\"':\"\":>1Perfil lateral de una franja protectora productiva compuesta de mora y un doble surco de pasto de corte \"Imperial 60\".Figura 2. Perfil lateral de una franja protectora productiva compuesta de mora y un doble surco de pasto de corte.  .s ' -\"' \" -----' 1' ...... hileras de mora barrera con pasto de corte (doble Surco con Imperial 60)Arreglo de las franjas protectoras productivas (FPP) en un lote pendiente con cultivos anuales orientados en curvas a nivel.,-'\" ~/ Figura 3. Arreglo de las franjas protectoras productivas en un lote pendiente trazando una franja con curvas a nivel y los demás equidistantes a través de la pendiente para facilitar las labores en las calles con cultivos.La combinación de mora con el pasto de corte por lo tanto permite diversificar y mejorar la base económica de la unidad familiar campesina y la sostenibilidad por medio de la combinación de dos oportunidades de mercadeo, derivados de leche (pasto) y mora, en un componente de conservación.La Figura 2 muestra el perfil lateral de la propuesta técnica para la zona y la Figura 3 muestra el diseiío de los lotes, ilustrando el arreglo de las áreas de cultivo y de las franjas protectoras horizontales.En cuanto al distanciamiento de las franjas protectoras se deben tomar en cuenta factores técnicos como son las lluvias en la zona, los cultivos y las pendientes pero también factores económicos como disponibilidad de área, densidad mínima deseada por el agricultor para mora, etc.SegúrÍ una formula recomendada por Hudson (1982) para las laderas tropicales los Intervalos Verticales (IV) para la ubicación de barreras en este medio varían más o menos entre el 1,3 m (5% pendiente) y el 4.9 m (50% de pendiente) equivalente a distanciamientos entre 26 m y 11 m (Delgado, 1990) en el campo.Por otro lado, datos obtenidos en las laderas del Norte del Cauca mostraron también que los procesos erosivos en lotes con mas de 10% de pendiente, fácilmente superan niveles tolerables si las barreras están distanciadas a más de 10m (Müller-Samann et al. 1994).A base de estos resultados se recomienda distanciar las franjas con 10 m de calle para un total de 14.1 m por elemento, que incluye los cultivos y la franja protectora productiva (Figura 3).De esta manera caben 394 plantas de mora y 1420 m lineales de pasto de corte en una hectárea en el cual quedan 71 % del terreno para cultivos anuales, ahora protegidos contra la erosión por las franjas.Sólo en lotes con 20% de pendiente o menos, se pueden ampliar las calles a 13 m (20%); 17 m (10%) ó 25 m (5%), si el objetivo consiste en proteger áreas grandes de poca inclinación.A menudo se encuentran fincas y situaciones en las cuales 105 arreglos diseiíados anteriormente no son suficientes para controlar la erosión o para cortar el escurrimiento. En lotes muy inclinados (> 55% y más) se hace además difícil el caminar en la plantación y el transporte de los insumos y de las cosechas.Nota: En lotes con pendientes superiores alas 30% se recomienda reemplazar una barrera de pasto \"Imperial 60\" con Pasto Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L) Nash.l en cada segunda o tercer franja, para asegurarse que ni con lluvias muy fuertes se pueden formar surcos o cárcavas largas. El pasto Vetiver (vea instrucciones para su siembra más abajo) es capaz de formar una pared verde y produce un \"mulch\" de lenta descomposición. Es muy eficiente contra la erosión y compite muy poco con la mora.Se puede sembrar en alturas hasta los 2.200 m.s.n.m.En áreas escarpadas; la introducción del pasto Vetiver permite el uso de terrenos pendientes para el cultivo de mora si el agricultor no puede o quiere dejarlos con vegetación permanente natural, como es preferible en estos casos (puede ser, por ejemplo, que el agricultor tenga muy poca tierra o el lote se encuentre muy cerca a su casa y por eso desea darle un uso intensivo).lo técnicamente ideal para el uso de terrenos muy pendientes sería la construcción de terrazas, pero eso es demasiado costoso, por lo cual se propone sembrar la mora con barreras de Pasto Vetiver (Vetíveria zizanioides, ClAT No. 26898). las barreras de Vetiver en estos sistemas actúan como un elemento de \"bioingenieria\" amarrando el terreno y a la vez facilitando las labores en 105 terrenos escarpados y favoreciendo la producción de la plantación a través de una mayor infiltración de aguas y la cobertura con el \"mulchNduradero del pasto (Figura 4a). .Los surcos en este sistema son distanciados a 3,3 m para dejar espacio a las barreras. Entre plantas se recomienda una distancia de 1,8 -2 m para una densidad de 1 51 5-1680 plantas por hectárea. En este sistema el pasto Vetiver se corta periódicamente cada 6 meses, para aplicarlo como cobertura muerta o \"mulch\" (ver abajo) en la hilera de la mora.A lo largo del tiempo las franjas con la mora y el pasto Vetiver se convierten en estructuras de terrazas, facilitando así los trabajos en las pendientes y convirtiéndolos en lotes de producción sostenible (Figura 4b).Esta técnica se puede también aplicar con otros cultivos semiperennes como lulo (Solanum quitoense lam.), Uchuva (Physalis peruviana L.), Tomate de árbol (Cyphomandra betaceae [Cav.] Sendtn.) y con arboles frutales como 105 cítricos en patrones enanos y brevas (Ficus ca rica lo).Plantas de mora con espalderaDeclive> 50 % Los arreglos propuestos para terrenos con pendientes entre el 5 y el 50% (Franjas Protectoras Productivas) y para terrenos rnuy escarpados (Mora con Vetiver), pretenden proteger las tierras mediante la introducción del cultivo de mora como un componente de conservaciónNo obstante puede ocurrir que los agricultores no quieren implementar el cultivo en la forma propuesta, sino como cultivo sólo en una plantación. Puede ser que lo que quieren 105 agricultores es evitar la preparación de grandes terrenos, desean evitar posibles riesgos con el nuevo sistema de siembra. Puede también occurir; que no tienen animales para poder aprovechar las barreras de pasto de corte. Algunos agricultores no tienen listos los lotes al momemto de recibir las plantulas para poder sembrar en forma de franjas (FPPs); otros desean mayor control del cultivo cerca de la casa, o simplemente quieren evitar lo desconocido.En estos casos se tiene que trabajar con los agricultores en la evaluación de los diferentes sistemas de producción mediante el establecimiento de ensayos participativos midiendo jomales, rendimientos, calidad de frutas, manejo fitosanitario, pérdida de suelo por erosión y vida útil de las barreras y cultivos.Se propone la aplicación de una estrategia a plazo más largo con los ensayos mencionados y, -mientras uno está esperando los resultados de estas evaluaciones, -la siembra de mora y cultivos anuales en franjas alternantes (fajas alternantes), buscando así un compromiso entre la cautela del agricultor y las ideas de llegar a un mejoramiento sustancial de la sostenibilidad ambiental de la agricultura en laderas a través de la introducción de un cultivo perenne como la mora, con optimización de su efecto ambiental.El principio conservacionista de las franjas alternas consiste en alternar franjas con cultivos, ó usos conservacionistas con cultivos, ó usos altamente erosivos en las pendientes. En este sistema los lotes se ubican en forma de fajas horizontales a través de las pendientes (Figura 5), Las fajas son suficientemente amplías para manejar los cultivos como cultivos solos. Por otro lado las fajas son suficientemente delgadas para evitar demasiada erosión en cultivos susceptibles y las fajas de cultivos protectoras son suficientemente amplias para frenar la escorrentfa, resultando de las fajas superiores y susceptibles.En el caso de la mora se recomienda la implementación de fajas de 4 surcos (lO m de ancho) como cultivo solo (ver 2.4.1.), alternando con fajas de 20 m de ancho con cultivos anuales para una relación 1:2 de la faja de mora (sostenible) con las fajas de cultivos anuales (no sostenibles). Para separar las fajas o franjas se recomienda la siembra de un pasto de corte como el pasto Imperial (ver arriba).Arreglo en tejas atternantes en cOl1torno de cultívas protectoras y cultivos causantes de erosión 10m --Figura No 5. la combinación de un cultivo de mora en zona de ladera con cultivos anuales en forma de fajas o franjas alternantes.3. La siembra de las barreras de pasto 3.1. Pasto \"Imperial 60\" (Axonopu5 scopariu5 (F/ügge) Hitch los pastos de la especie Axonopus scoparius como son \"Telembf\", \"Telembf Morado\", \"Imperial 90\" y el pasto \"Imperial 60\" son bien conocidos en la zona desde hace muchos años. Están bien adaptados a la zona y se ven lotes, los cuales recibieron un buen manejo con deshierbas, abonamiento y cortes frecuentes, que mantuvieron una buena densidad y producción durante muchos años.Para la asociación con mora o cualquier otro cultivo y para la siembra de barreras en general, se recomienda utilizar el Pasto \"Imperial 60\". Esta variedad tiene un porte más erecto y no abre tanto como el Telembf, facilitando su manejo como barrera viva en la franja protectora.Por no crecer muy tupido, como el pasto Vetiver, se recomienda sembrar este pasto en doble surco con 50 cm de distancia para mejorar su eficiencia como barrera. Según la demanda y la época del año, uno o ambos surcos se pueden utilizar como forraje o bien como cobertura muerta para la mora (Figura 2).Para la siembra se seleccionan cañas de buena calidad de un lote fértil o antes abonado para la producción de semilla. las cañas de aproximadamente 50 cm de longitud se deben sembrar con casi completo translape, para obtener una barrera bien tupida y productiva a corto plazo.Antes de sembrar los tallos se deben limpiar de las hojas, las cuales obstaculizan el brotamíento en la parte superior de los nudos. los tallos además, no se deben enterrar profundamente, sino se cubren solamente con una capa delgada de tierra.Es muy importante realizar resiembras a los 2-3 meses. Espacios libres en una barrera la hacen ineficiente, menos productiva y dan espacio a la invasión de malezas. Además, una vez establecido y crecido el pasto, cerrar los espacios libres en una barrera es casi imposible por la competencia que ejercen las plantas vecinas.3.2. Pasto Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.l CIAT No. 26898.El pasto Vetiver crece muy diferente al pasto Imperial y comienza a formar macollas muy densas y firmes dentro de 1 -2 años. Sin embargo, nunca invade los lotes y se extiende muy poco. Técnicamente es el mejor pasto conocido en este momento como barrera contra la erosión y en el Cauca se ha adaptado bien a alturas, desde el nivel del mar hasta los 2.000 m.s.n.m., creciendo más lento en las alturas. En el Municipio de Toribío creció todavía muy satisfactoriamente en la finca de Miguel Noscue a 1.800 m.s.n.m. de altura.Si el pasto se reproduce en la fonna usual (por macolla dividida en unidades de 2 hijuelas) en lotes de vivero, se deben cosechar plantas completas, cortando las raíces para poder sacar las macollas de la tierra. Plantulas separadas de macollas de 2 años dan mejor semilla que semilla cosechada de plantas con 4-6 años.Después se cortan las hojas (casi nunca se forman tallos y flores en este medio) a una altura de 20-30 cm y se dividen las macollas en plántulas de uno a dos brotes. En estas se deben despuntar las raíces dejando solamente alrededor de 8-10 cm de raíz:Las plántulas obtenidas de esta manera, algo dispendiosa (Factor de multiplicación por año, 16-25) se deben almacenar en la sombra y sembrar dentro de 105 próximos 4-5 días. Cada 15 cm se siembra una plántula con dos hijuelos, cubriendo bien la raíz y el cuello y, apretando la tierra alrededor de la raíz con el zapato (muy importante). Esta labor, de ser posible, se hace en tiempos de alta probabilidad de lluvia.Como en el caso del pasto \"Imperial\", a los 2 meses hay que hacer resiembra en todos los lugares en los cuales no ha salido una brinza verde de la planta madre, la cual se va secando. El Pasto Vetiver no es forraje, pero tiene las ventajas de competir poco con los cultivos adyacentes, de formar una \"pared verde\" y de producir una paja de lenta descomposición.En la fase de establecimiento, 105 pastos de barrera se deben manejar como un cultivo, para asegurar un buen establecimiento, plena funcionalidad y productividad. El pasto \"Imperial 60\" se debe cortar periódicamente cada 2-4 meses, para obtener y mantener una barrera eficiente, densa y productiva.El pasto Vetiver también macolla mejor y más rápido, si se hacen cortes a los 4-5 meses después de la siembra, pero más adelante aguanta intervalos más largos de hasta un año, sin que se deteriore la barrera.Mientras el pasto \"Imperial 60\" se corta con machete, para el pasto Vetiver se recomienda utilizar una hoz para cortar manojos bien manejables.4. Aplicación de pastos como \"mulch La cobertura muerta con pasto cortado (\"mulch\"l al pie de las matas de mora, ayuda a la infiltración del agua de escorrentía y mantiene la humedad alrededor del sistema radicular. De esta manera, contribuye a una mejor floración en tiempos con pocas lluvias y a la formación de frutas de alta calidad. Ayuda además a controlar las malezas. Cabe mencionar sin embargo, que el control de las malezas solo se da si los pastos se aplican en una capa suficientemente densa que no deje pasar la luz.En el caso del pasto \"Imperial 60\" y otros pastos que forman tallos gruesos o cañas, estos pueden formar raíces después de su colocación sobre la superficie del suelo, lo cual hace necesario presecarlos y/o picarlos antes de aplicarlos en las hileras de mora.El mulch del pasto Vetiver no tiene estos problemas, porque muy rara vez forma tallos en las alturas medias de Colombia. Cuando alcanza alturas de 80-120 cm se corta con hoz y los manojos obtenidos así se pueden aplicar como un \"mulch\" de muy buena calidad que dura mucho tiempo, razón por la cual el pasto también se utiliza con frecuencia para techos en establos y galpones.Para obtener y mantener una barrera eficiente, densa y productiva el pasto \"Imperial 60\", se debe cortar periódicamente y abonar si se manifiestan síntomas de debilitamiento. Vetiver tolera ciclos de corte más largos y por eso se recomienda cortarlo si se necesita renovar la cobertura muerta en la mora y cuando se necesita la paja para otros cultivos o usos.En cuanto a la cobertura se recomienda una aplicación tupida, pero no de \"colchones\" gruesos, lo cual puede ser contraproducente. Con una cobertura completa la mayoría de las malezas no pueden crecer. No obstante hay que estar pendiente de malezas como el Kikuyo que forman estolones o que son rastreras, ya que estos fácilmente se extienden en el mulch aprovechando las condiciones favorables de humedad en el surco de las plantas de mora ( hacer un control selectivo de estas malezas l.Como ya fue visualizado (Figura 1) y descrito al inicio a través de la introducción del cultivo de la mora, con el sistema de franjas protectoras productivas se protege un área mucho más grande de la finca que con el sistema tradicional de plantación de monocultivo o cultivo solo.Con 1.000 plantas, cantidad que puede manejar una familia campesina sin abandonar por completo los otros cultivos y actividades (Herrera, 1997l, en cultivo limpio se cultivan y protegen 5000 m . cultivos anuales, siguen degradándose por erosión de los suelos y un escurrimiento excesivo de agua a causa de reducidos niveles de infiltración de las lluvias en los suelos.Si las barreras con las plantas de mora se siembran con calles de 10 m, se puede proteger la misma área con solo 200 plantas, lo que quiere decir que con 1000 plantas de mora se puede proteger un área 5 veces más grande equivalente a 2,5 hectáreas, área que normalmente abarca todos los cultivos anuales en una finca.En terrenos más suaves con el 10% de pendiente y calles de cultivos de 17 m de ancho, el area protegida con 1000 plantas aumenta a casi 4 hectáreas (factor 8), en las cuales no se genera erosión de suelo y en las cuales hay mayor infiltración de agua de lluvia, lo cual contribuye al aumento de agua disponible en los manantiales, un suministro más parejo de agua en las quebradas y lleva a aguas menos contaminadas por sedimentos en la cuenca.Con el sistema de las franjas alternantes con una franja de mora de 10 rn de ancho se puede proteger una franja de 20 m de ancho de cultivos anuales o con 1000 plantas se protege un área de 1,5 ha.6. Componentes e insumos para la implementación de las franjas protectoras productivas (Franjas con mora y doble surco de pasto Imperial) (Si no hay otra información los datos dados se refieren a 10.000 m 2 (1 hectárea)).Para el establecimiento de una franja compuesta de una calle arable de 10m de ancho y 4.1 m de franja de mora y pasto (Figura 3), equivalente a 709,2 m lineales de surco de mora y 1.420 m' lineales de pasto de corte se dan los siguientes parámetros:6.1. Sitios de mora por sembrar en el sistema FPP (distancia de las matas 2 m) 394 plantaslha -400 plantaslha 440 plántulas de 60 días (10% resiembra) 400 huecos (40x40x40) 800 kg de gallinaza (2 kglhueco) 80 kg de fosforita Huila (0,2 kglhueco) 500 kg de cal dolomitica 440 bolsas plásticas 20 kg de inoculo de Micorriza Ó 40 kg de tierra de una era micorrizada cultivandola con con \"Flor de muerto\" (Tagetes patula; Tagetes sp.)Otros trabajos en el primer año:Poda de formación y fructificación 4 deshierbas Poner tutores Abonamiento 100 g de urea/planta a 1054-5 meses (se puede dividir en dos aplicaciones 6.2. Tutores Dos postes gruesos de madera cada 9 metros, equivalente a 160 postes de 2 m de largo.Cuatro postes livianos (auxiliares a 3 y 6 m entre 105 postes gruesos equivalente a 320 postes de 1,5 m de largo). 2000 m de hilo plástico o de cordón de caucho.Para surcos dobles se necesitan cañas de buena calidad, las cuales se deben sembrar con 100% de translape para obtener barreras tupidas, productivas y eficientes.Si se utilizan cañas de 60-80 cm de largo se necesitan 3600 • 4800 talloslha para sembrar 1420 m lineales con translape:Trabajos por real izar:• Cosecha y preparación 4000 cañas • Transporte y preparación 4000 cañas -Cosecha de 'p/ántu/as\" con dos hijuelas (calcular 6,6 plántulas x 710 m -4733 plántulas)Mano de obra (cortar las raíces, despuntar raíces, recortar hojas, división de macollos grandes, empacar.-Siembra de Vetiver -Preparación del surco -Distribución de plántulas -Siembra de plántulas (apretar la raíz) -Resiembra de plántulas (4-8 semanas después de la siembra)Opcional: abonamiento con gallinaza 200 g por metro lineal antes de la siembra (142 kglha) Abonamiento 20 g/metro lineal de 15-15-15 a las 6 semanas (14,2 kg!ha) 50 g/m lineal de cal dolomitica (pH < 5.2) antes de la siembra (35,5 kglha)Siembra en lotes muy pendientes (Mora con barreras de Vetiver)En lugar de hacer los cálculos para 710 m lineales por hectárea, hay que hacer los cálculos para 3030 m lineales, o sea multiplicar las cifras mencionadas arriba para mora y Vetiver con el factor 4,3.Siembra en faías o franias alternantes (capítulo 2.4.4.) :Siembra de 330 m lineales de barreras por hectárea, o sea una barrera cada 30 m de distancia y de 660 plantas de mora por hectárea.","tokenCount":"4575"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"904741cf571a8790a4e2dd6733ca9c8c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b28d7315-45ba-41e7-96dc-b9d15a5872fc/retrieve","id":"-2041545435"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"044fd32c-9310-4c09-b6f9-50c053e0a2a4","pagecount":"4","content":"Farming activities are directly responsible for 10-12% of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions, and up to 30% if all farmingrelated activities, including the clearance of forests to make way for crops and pasture, are taken into account. Agriculture contributes a disproportionately high proportion of two high-impact greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide and methane. Farming is also a victim of climate change, which is leading to unpredictable patterns of rainfall, an increase in floods and droughts, and changes in the distribution of pests and Promoting climate-smart agriculture in ACP countries diseases. It is impossible to provide precise predictions for the impact of climate change, and there will be winners as well as losersalthough the latter will far outnumber the former, with poor communities in developing countries suffering most. In some parts of Kenya and Tanzania, growing seasons are likely to become longer as temperatures rise. But over most of sub-Saharan Africa, climate change will have a negative effect on food production, reducing crop yields by an estimated 10-20% by 2050. In the northern Pacific, rising temperatures could benefit fishing communities, as marine productivity increases. However, over much of the ocean climate change is likely to lead to coral bleaching, species loss and a decline Farming is a victim of climate change which is leading to an increase in droughts some incremental, others transformational. Conservation agriculture, which involves the use of minimum tillage, the retention of organic matter and crop rotation, can help farmers reduce their carbon emissions, increase crop yields and cope with climatic variability. Agroforestry, which involves planting trees on farmland, can sequester carbon, improve soil fertility and raise smallholders' incomes.Where appropriate, policymakers should encourage these sorts of climate-smart activities.They should also consider introducing measures which help farmers cope with the risks associated with climate change. These include index-based insurance policies, described later in this policy brief, and the provision of accurate seasonal forecasts. In countries such as Mali and Senegal, better forecasting is helping farmers to plan their agricultural practices, and choice of crops, more effectively.Governments in ACP countries should also consider planning for major changes in agricultural production. Even relatively modest rises in temperature may force farmers to abandon the crops they have traditionally grown. For example, saltwater intrusion caused by rising sea levels is already affecting the production of taro, a staple crop on many Pacific islands. To counter this, research agencies are developing salt-tolerant varieties and farmers are experimenting with growing taro on raised beds. However, in some areas consideration is being given to replacing taro production with agroforestry. These sorts of strategies, planned well in advance, can help farmers adapt to climate change.Adopting a multi-sectoral approach to policy making Increasing food security and tackling climate change requires action on numerous fronts and should involve a wide range of government ministries, including those with responsibility for agriculture, rural development, trade, education and transport. Governments need to invest in a whole basket of activities to increase food production, in fish stocks. In the Caribbean, hurricanes may become less frequent but more intense, and there has already been an alarming rise in temperature over recent decades. At the Brussels briefing, experts were united in their belief that we must act now. Farmers throughout ACP countries should be encouraged to adopt a range of activities that come under the heading of 'climate-smart agriculture.' These will help them to become more resilient to climate change and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in ways that enhance rather than compromise their livelihoods. Just as importantly, climate-smart practices should increase food production. Indeed, climate-smart agriculture could be an effective way of tackling climate change and rural poverty. ","tokenCount":"602"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a79e164037a9d31eff37268e42b56c05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84b55b72-4e80-4d31-a058-126a80fae73f/retrieve","id":"-177542799"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8d5178a4-ef9b-4264-b4b5-7173cafe617c","pagecount":"6","content":"Malawi reported its first case of COVID-19 in April and declared a national emergency. Schools, bars and restaurants were closed, international flights suspended, and the economy faced considerable disruptions: quarterly growth projections from July were cut by more than 60% (Saldarriaga Noel et al.  2020). While still concerning, compared to other countries and other parts of the world, the spread of this disease in Malawi has been relatively modest with 5,951 confirmed cases and 184 COVID-19 linked deaths as of November 8, 2020. After accelerating rates of infection in June and July, the rates have decreased over the last two months. 1 In response, there has been a partial return to normalcy, marked by easing COVID-19 restrictions and the reopening of schools at the beginning of September, even while the future trajectory of the disease remains unknown. COVID-19's impact on the ground and in peoples' daily lives remains an area of considerable uncertainty. This may be especially true in rural areas where information is less readily available. Because poverty is disproportionately concentrated in rural areas, this population is vulnerable to the negative impacts of COVID-19. This is true despite the fact that negative effects are larger overall in urban areas due to higher population densities and daily activities that are more likely to be impacted by any coronavirus restrictions, and the fact that the disease itself has been more heavily concentrated in urban areas.This brief discusses perceptions of COVID-19 impacts and risks in a sample of 1,020 households in eight districts in rural Malawi conducted in August 2020. The study is ongoing and follow-up interviews will be conducted with respondents every three months for the next year. The original aim of the study is to understand seasonality of rural labor activities; however, after the onset of the pandemic, a number of COVID-19-related questions were incorporated into the survey to assess perceptions and experiences in rural Malawi.Awareness of COVID-19 among respondents was near universal with 99.3% reporting to have heard of the disease. Respondents were then asked to rate the likelihood of someone in their country, in their community, and themselves getting infected. Responses were recorded on a scale ranging from \"definite infection\" to \"definite avoidance of infection.\" 2 Seventy percent felt that their risk of contracting the disease was either very likely or definite.As shown in Figure 1, respondents saw the risk of exposure as slightly higher for other members of their community and slightly higher still for other Malawians outside of their community, relative to their own, personal, risk of infection. Given the current low infection rates of COVID-19 in Malawi, respondents are either overestimating the probability that they will become infected or anticipating that the pandemic will worsen. Respondents were also asked how they felt the disease would affect them if they became infected. Responses reflect that respondents take the disease seriously, with 75% saying that symptoms would be severe (or worse) and 46% reporting that they expected infection to lead to either debilitation or death.When asked to list actions that could be taken to reduce transmissions and exposure to the disease (without prompting of responses), the top answers provided were frequent hand washing with soap and wearing face masks in public, both cited by over 90% of respondents (Figure 2). Relatively less frequently cited actions included canceling travel, visiting people less, staying home when ill, and avoiding sick people. Interestingly, LSMS phone surveys conducted by the World Bank in late May and early June reported much lower awareness of mask wearing (Chikoti et al. 2020a) although an update based on data from August suggests, similar to our findings, that awareness of hand washing and mask wearing is nearly universal with over 90% of respondents stating that they \"intend\" to partially or fully comply with government directives on these behaviors (Chikoti et al. 2020b). 2 The options were: Definitely, very likely, somewhat likely, somewhat unlikely, very unlikely, and definitely not. These responses suggest that messaging about the seriousness of the pandemic has been effective in rural parts of Malawi. Although people may be overestimating the likelihood of infection, they are also correctly reporting knowledge of a wide range of effective measures to limit the spread of the disease.Future survey rounds will continue to track these perceptions, allowing for ongoing comparison with rates of infection. Policymakers should be cognizant of this gap between actual exposure and perceptions.In rural areas, incidence of COVID-19 is very low, suggesting that the direct health impacts of the disease are unlikely to be high. But disruptions resulting from national policies as well as peoples' behaviors could still drive meaningful economic responses. The current data does not allow for analysis of the causal impacts of the pandemic, but we can describe how respondents perceive that impact, and unusual challenges they have recently faced.In our study, 56% of respondents said that food products they usually buy were not available to them in nearby markets. Almost 50% of respondents reported that food prices for some of their regular purchases had increased recently. And 50% reported limiting the size of their meals while 45% reported having reduced the number of meals over the last week, suggestive of a high level of vulnerability. 3 Reported levels of labor participation were low with just 65% of men and 52% of women having worked over the previous three months: a likely reflection of the timing of the survey in a low agricultural season. When asked why they had not been working, the most cited responses do not appear linked to COVID-19: other household responsibilities (31%), physical or mental inability (13%), unavailability of work (12%), retirement (12%), or health issues (12%). Three less-frequently cited reasons could plausibly be linked to the pandemic: work and travel prohibited by government (7%), concern for exposure to illness (1.8%), and COVID-19 itself (1.7%). Attribution to government-imposed restrictions was more frequently cited for men (11%) than for women in the sample (4%), a difference likely attributable to the different types of work done by men and women in rural areas of Malawi, shown in Figure 3.3 See \"Malawi Household Food Security Bulletin\" for more detailed analysis of the relationship between COVID-19 and food security in Malawi. The survey also collected information specifically about unusual challenges facing household farms and businesses in the last three months, shown in Figure 4. Among households engaged in farming or who had a household business activity (67% of households in our sample) more than 50% of respondents reported lower than normal prices for outputs, difficulty accessing credit, and difficulty accessing inputs. Other significant reported challenges include lower than normal demand for outputs, higher than normal prices for inputs, and difficulty traveling. While this is useful information, the COVID-19 pandemic is only one possible reason for these challenges. In particular, output prices may have been lower because of good harvests across the country. Illness of household members is also mentioned, but given low incidence of the disease, this is unlikely to be related to COVID-19.With future rounds of data collection, we will be able to examine how these indicators evolve over time for this population. The survey also asked respondents about whether or not they had taken certain actions in the last seven days. Though these are all actions known to reduce transmission of COVID-19, the disease was not specifically mentioned at this point in the survey. Respondents claim to be taking a wide range of actions as summarized in Figure 5. Notably, willingness to reduce travel, remaining home while sick, and especially visiting others less frequently were the least frequently cited behavioral responses with reduction of local visits cited by under 24% of respondents. Interestingly, wearing face masks was mentioned by almost 90% of respondents, which compares to data collected in Round 2 of the World Bank LSMS survey in July, in which 61% of respondents report that they \"never\" wore a face mask in the last week (World Bank 2020). The World Bank's more recent update suggests that reported wearing of face masks has gone up considerably with 72% wearing them most or all of the time. In both our own analysis as well as that from the World Bank, it is difficult to know whether reported behaviors reflect what respondents know they should be doing as opposed to what they know they are supposed to be doing. With local anecdotes suggesting compliance significantly below the level of our estimates, on the ground validation of these responses could help to better fill this information gap. Public health messaging and policies appear to have been effective in raising awareness of COVID-19 in rural Malawi. People know it exists, are taking it seriously, are aware of preventative measures, and report that they are taking actions that reduce exposure and transmission. With the future spread of COVID-19 uncertain, government messaging should continue to be used to communicate important public health information in an evolving and unpredictable environment to ensure that spread of the disease continues to be low. However, given that survey respondents are over-estimating the current risk of COVID-19 infection, the government should closely track citizen perceptions to ensure that messaging corresponds with current risk levels in the country. Impacts of the disease on labor outcomes and food security are difficult to assess at this stage, although food insecurity and increasing prices were commonly reported. Independent of concerns regarding COVID-19, government should continue to take steps to promote food availability and a steady flow of agricultural inputs in rural areas.In this data, a small but meaningful share of respondents indicated that government restrictions on work and movement were the principal reason they were not working. Future restrictions may be considered if the virus begins to spread more rapidly. However, the potential for disruptions to peoples' livelihoods and appropriate social protection response will continue to be an important consideration in the Malawian context. The evolution of the disease in Malawi is still uncertain and continued monitoring of perceptions and impacts of the disease in rural areas will be important for making sure that there are real time insights to guide evidence-based policymaking and designing social protection packages. ","tokenCount":"1683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3edf6eff757f83e1135ed4ca05e7b28a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d91a6d65-badb-4bbf-8976-81869e0e79c3/retrieve","id":"-292646866"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc086438-e02e-4ca8-acaa-cb31489c6e50","pagecount":"24","content":"Involving youth in farming is an upward spiral that lifts the status of the profession A radio campaign in Malawi shows how ICTs can improve the lives of family farmers 4-8 November 2013 Kigali, Rwanda www.ict4ag.org for inclusive agriculture the digital springboard Building resilience for family farming Guest editor Contents http://ictupdate.cta.int This license applies only to the text portion of this publication.I CTs are helping millions of smallholder family farmers in developing countries gain better access to information, tools and technology that can transform their livelihoods. Indeed, ICTs help family farmers sell and market their produce, boost their ability to cope with dwindling access to water, land and soil nutrients, and deal with the extreme climate events, pests and diseases that affect their crops. If more of these ICT solutions are tailored to the needs of smallholder family farmers and put within their reach -especially the women farmers who form the bulk of this group -then their agriculture can rapidly move from being a subsistence activity to a successful and sustainable business.Agriculture is becoming more market oriented globally. Individual family farmers, however, are finding it increasingly difficult to participate in markets -not only in national and international markets, but even in local ones. Smallholder farmers have small amounts of farm produce to market but often do not have access to systems of communication, finance and transport. If they could somehow aggregate their produce and collectively synchronise their production and marketing systems, then they would be able to enter these markets more easily as a collective.ICTs can help smallholder farmers improve their production systems so they can fetch better prices, avoid gluts and have the critical mass to grow market-led crops. Conventionally, this is done by cooperatives and farmer organisations, which bring together farmers. These organisations help reduce weaknesses in the value chain. In most developing countries, however, these organisations are weak and often face constraints in planning and monitoring production systems and setting up logistics for an efficient marketing system. Some cooperatives have tried to overcome these constraints by taking control of the land of participating farmers. This approach, however, diminishes the opportunity for family farmers to participate in the decisionmaking processes that impact their livelihoods, and so ultimately this approach has failed.ICTs now provide the potential to overcome these constraints. They can help family farmers coordinate their planning and monitoring of production and marketing systems by virtually aggregating data, without cooperatives having to take over the land or do the decision making for their farms. Access to credit, financial and insurance services for family farmers has been a major constraint to improving their farming and incomes. With the increasing availability of mobile phones and the internet, smallholder farmers can now access financial services much more easily.ICTs also allow family farmers to see their farm processes from many different viewpoints, and this enables them to make more sound economic and environmental decisions. Access to ICTs and information also increases their technological literacy. A farmers' organisation that uses ICTs can now support individual farmers by suggesting what crops they should grow, and where, when and how to market them with these ICT-run systems. These systems can also help farmers organise and plan inputs. Connectivity also gives smallholders easy access to knowledgebased services that help farmers to solve farming problems.Faumuina Tafuna'i (flyinggeesepro@gmail.com) is media officer at Women in Business Development Inc. in Samoa.Ajit Maru (ajit.maru@fao.org) is senior knowledge officer at the Global Forum on Agricultural Research Secretariat of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in Rome, Italy.available to these farmers. Once the privilege of large farms, smallholders can now use these tools too to measure soil moisture and nutrients, for example, or environmental carbon dioxide.The sensors used to make these measurements can be linked to GPS systems and incorporated into sensor networks that can help farmers monitor the well-being of their crops at a micro level. The use of drones and digital cameras are enabling farmers to use very low-cost remote sensing to monitor their crops. With close monitoring, farmers can use water and soil nutrients more effectively and sustainably. This, in turn, improves the resilience of their farming system.Many smallholder farmers have difficulty securing their rights to land and other resources. Many family farms have tenancy agreements. But they keep poor records of allotment, ownership and tenancy. Cadastral surveys containing maps and records can now be managed and accessed at a lower cost using geographical information systems in the public domain. As a result, farmers can obtain records for their farms and use them to get mortgages, bank loans and compensation. When records become available in the public domain, farmers' rights to land and other resources become more secure.Like society in general, ICTs are ushering in a new paradigm for farming and agriculture. The flow and use of information and knowledge in this paradigm resembles that of a network and therefore calls for new forms of collaboration and partnership.ICTs have huge potential to provide knowledge-based services to farmers and others earning their livelihoods in activities related to agriculture, such as agri-businesses, agro-industries and financial services. In the near future, these services will be provided largely by micro, small and medium enterprises to farmers in villages and entrepreneurs who operate in local, national and even international markets. Governments and the public sector in most countries are now the major generators, managers and disseminators of organised data and information related to agriculture.Governments are also responsible for agricultural development, research, innovation and extension. New forms of collaboration and partnerships are now needed between the public and private sectors to adapt to changing circumstances in the agricultural sector -changes in which governments and the public sector provide data and information, while the private sector provides the knowledge services.Much of the data in the future will be generated and shared by communities. For farming this will occur through agricultural communities that contribute to commodity chains in terms of input, processing, marketing and consumption. Fields and farms, and all the related processes, will generate huge sets of data -'big' data that will need to be processed instantaneously.Individual farmers are being given the ability to create and manage sophisticated information thanks to lowcost connectivity, massive computing power accessible through cloud computing with shareable tools, applications and intelligently linked content. This 'democratisation' of science will draw farmers into agricultural research, innovation and development processes. This could transform the entire structure of agricultural research and innovation systems, especially for family farmers, whose specific needs seem to have been ignored by current technological innovations.There are now a large number of ICTs within reach of family farmers that would help them to improve their farming practices. Technological trends indicate that many more innovations are in the making as well. However, their availability is still too widely dispersed. Individual technologies and tools are not integrated yet in ways that would help smallholder family farmers improve their farming practices.For example, there are applications that enable farmers to do online banking but which are not linked to farmers' needs, such as credits through mortgages and crop insurance. To make ICTs even more widely available, institutions, their policies, the governance of information flows and the way they organise their work all need to undergo major transformation.This new paradigm calls for new policies, and new regulatory mechanisms and laws. Old institutions need to be revamped; new institutions and organisations need to be established; and government work processes need to be restructured. The main concern of governments should be to provide not only data and information but also the infrastructure and investment that promote new capacities and the integration of information systems and services. ◀ ➜ There are more than one million VSLA members in Uganda, and the majority of these are from rural areas where agriculture is the primary source of income.VSLAs meet on a weekly basis over the course of a cycle to save and take interest-bearing loans. This can provide access to credit to support members in buying inputs throughout the cycle and also offer a place to save and generate additional savings by loaning to other members.At the end of a cycle there is a share-out where members get their savings back and their share of the profit made on loans taken. This capital injection can also support family farming efforts by funding the purchase of livestock, agricultural equipment and inputs without the need for credit, and perhaps on a larger scale than a mid-cycle loan would allow.Furthermore, the group can provide a vehicle for the purchase of large Financial services for family farmers community assets, with some groups investing in machinery that can be used by members and rented out to other members of the community to generate additional income.VSLAs to support family farming? ➜ VSLAs follow a methodology that traditionally teaches record keeping in paper ledgers and storage of cash, collected and not loaned on, in a metal box secured by three padlocks, a separate member holding a key for each. Grameen Foundation is working with Barclays and CARE to find ways to introduceFlICkr/CIAT Fiona Robinson (frobinson@grameenfoundation.org) is project manager at the Grameen Foundation in Kampala, Uganda.technology to VSLAs that will improve access to financial services.This work has resulted in the development of a smartphone application called Ledger Link that allows the VSLA to record their meetings in the app and submit the data to the bank for secure storage. This valuable financial data is no longer at risk of being lost in case of theft or destruction of the metal box where the group store their paper ledger.By sending data to the bank, the VSLA will also build a credit history that can inform future loan applications. This could allow strongly performing groups to access funds at the beginning of a cycle when member contributions are low but demand for loans still exists, often driven by planting seasons. This credit history may also support individuals who want to access credit in the future to support their farming activities.Grameen Foundation is also working with Airtel to develop a new type of mobile wallet. This will allow groups to store money securely in a group wallet protected by 3 PINs (much like the three padlocks). VSLAs with bank accounts will be able to push and pull money to and from the account, reducing the costs, time and risk associated with carrying it to the bank physically. This product will also be offered to the groups banking with Barclays.➜ There are currently limited ICT successes with VSLAs in Uganda. The focus has been on providing training to set up groups on financial literacy, conflict resolution and linking groups to banks such as Barclays. The Ledger Link smartphone application developed by Grameen Foundation and Barclays, and the Airtel group wallet, are new uses of ICT for VSLAs. Development has been strongly rooted in user research, and an iterative process has ensured that the products are aligned to the need of the groups and their members.Early pilots and prototyping have yielded positive results, and the smartphone application has been shown to reduce record-keeping errors and even detected fraud. This will support the long-term development of groups and enhance the positive VSLA dynamics by managing the risks. The group wallet should also reduce fraud and the costs and risks associated with both holding cash in a metal box in the community and transferring it physically to the bank.Can ICTs enable VSLAs to offer other financial services to family farmers such as crop and livestock insurance and cashless financial transactions? ➜ By developing user-focused solutions for VSLAs we hope to make them more accessible and easy to use. This should overcome barriers to adoption of both these ICT developments and help to pave the way for products and services targeted at these groups in the future as they become more familiar with ICTs and trained in how to use them.Engaging with the private sector to deliver these products should raise awareness of the potential for provision of other financial services to these groups. Furthermore, the existing products are supported by robust commercial models to ensure commercial viability; therefore these can act as a proof of concept in the ability to viably serve this new type of consumer. Opportunities for insurance products and to facilitate cashless transactions for family farmer VSLA members are just some of the services under consideration in the near future.Are there any constraints for VSLAs to use technology tools, especially new ICT tools for providing financial services to family farmers? ➜ The cost of hardware is a key limitation, both in terms of basic phones for mobile money services and smartphones for the use of more sophisticated products like the data collection application.It is also necessary to train the users on new technologies and processes. This can be logistically complex and costly as groups are geographically dispersed. The group demographics mean that those targeted often have low levels of education, which can make the delivery of training and information more complex.How can these constraints be overcome? ➜ Providing ICT developments that require hardware to a group rather than an individual can reduce the cost barrier. Splitting the cost between many members can make an expensive asset affordable -a US$100 smartphone split between 30 people becomes more affordable at US$3.33 per person.Finding ways to subsidise hardware costs or spread them over time could help to reduce this adoption barrier. Finally, if thehardware can be used to generate other revenue streams for those purchasing it the incentive to commit is strengthened.With regards to training, Grameen Foundation's experience has shown that when it is provided, and products have been developed through a robust research-focused approach, users can learn to use a new tool relatively quickly. Adopting a training approach tailored to the needs of the user is important, and ensuring that the value proposition is explained in a way they can relate to and comprehend is also key -for example, explaining that by using the group wallet they can reduce the time and cost of travelling to the bank to make a deposit and increase the time and money they have to invest in farming activities.How can ICTs improve VSLA services in the future? ➜ At Grameen Foundation we believe there are many opportunities to use ICTs to better serve VSLAs to improve financial inclusion. ICTs offer a relatively low-cost way to serve a large number of people, and the clustering of people into VSLAs further supports this.Both the data collection tool and group wallet are in the final stages of testing and are due to be launched later in 2014. The success of these products with this consumer group could pave the way for many more ICT developments, targeting VSLAs, and through them, family farmers in the future. ◀ the agricultural sector is to feed this growing global population and provide the basis for economic growth and poverty reduction, then it must undergo radical change.Climate change is likely to make this task more difficult, however. Family farmers, who produce more than 70% of agricultural products in sub-Saharan Africa, are particularly vulnerable to climate change as they rely on rain-fed agriculture and have poor access to information, inputs and markets. Farm Radio Trust in Malawi is assisting farmers to adapt to climate change through an innovative ICT-enhanced participatory radio campaign.Working with the family farmers and local extension workers in the Nkhotakota district, Farm Radio Trust T he figures are alarming: according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the world's population is expected to reach nine billion people by 2050. This statistic means that by then farmers will have to increase food production by at least 70%, if not more. Meeting this demand and simultaneously preserving natural resources and preventing environmental degradation is going to be a massive challenge. If community members' knowledge of compost manure and how they were using it. Following this, a workshop was held to train the radio station staff to design and produce programmes on climate-smart agriculture and compost manure. The workshop brought together Nkhotakota Community Radio staff, family farmers, extension workers, local NGOs and others. They designed a four-month-long radio series on compost manure.The radio messages started by helping the farmers understand a series of issues, such as the meaning of climate change and its effects, the importance of compost manure in building resilience to climate change, the process of making manure using locally available resources, gender mainstreaming in the process of making compost manure, and how to actually apply compost manure efficiently in the fields. These radio messages were developed in the local language so the target audience could understand them easily. conducted a rural rapid appraisal in order to uncover the agricultural goals and challenges of smallholder farmers within the communities and then identify climate-smart innovations that respond to these needs and priorities. The aim of the appraisal was to engage family farmers in a process of articulating climate-smart agricultural practices that they would like to learn about through radio.Another appraisal sought to assessAn ICT-enhanced participatory radio campaign in Malawi shows that ICTs can be easily integrated into the lives and work of smallholder family farmers.on climate-smart agriculture and remind the audience of the topics and broadcast times through SMS.In order to increase listenership and learning among family farmers, the radio station mobilised 20 radio listening groups and supplied them with wind-up radios. These wind-up radios had mp3 recorders and 4GB memory cards that enabled members to record radio programmes so that they could listen at a later time.When the feedback system was installed, only about 40% of the population had mobile phones. However, the research team discovered that thanks to the radio listening clubs, the presence of just a single mobile phone in the community made a huge difference. The radio listening clubs were given a training session that showed members how to use the radio sets and which explained the importance of participation and feedback in development communication. They were also taught how to record their views andA mobile-based feedback system was installed to complement and enhance the radio broadcasts. The idea was to develop a system that was user friendly, easy to manage, web-based, self-analytical and accessible to all users in real time. This system enabled the broadcasters to engage their audience through SMS and flash calls. The broadcasters were also able to provide advisory information services Catherine B. Mloza Banda (catherinemloza@gmail. com) is an agricultural value chain officer at Farm Radio Trust in Malawi.discussions after they listen to the programme so that they too could be aired on subsequent radio programmes. And finally members were shown how to check their SMS inboxes, enter text and send SMS messages.By the end of the radio series, 789 contacts were recorded in the system database -an impressive number if you consider that mobile phone ownership in the area is considerably low. These contacts consisted of farmers in listener clubs and other farmers who listened to the radio broadcasts on their own. Extension workers were also included in the database so they could receive SMS reminders to help them keep track of the radio programme and provide support by visiting the clubs and mounting method demonstrations on compost manure making.Each farmer contact received biweekly SMS alerts: a broadcast reminder and an AgTip on compost manure. Other farmer listeners were added to the database when they beeped, sent an SMS or made calls to the mobile numbers in the system. To keep listeners in the loop, debates, opinion polls and quiz questions were exchanges after each episode. The statistics (see 'feedback' box) show that the participatory radio campaign helped farmers to learn about climate change and compost manure in an effective and efficient manner. At the beginning of the radio programme, broadcasters encouraged farmers to beep the mobile number as a sign that the programme is on air and that people are listening.In the course of the campaign, other previously established farmer clubs asked for assistance in making compost manure. Family farmers also made calls to the radio station to ask if an extension worker could visit and teach them how to make compost manure. The radio station personnel would then make the necessary arrangements with the agricultural extension officers to visit the area to support the farmers. One particular farmer group that was included in the programme. Broadcasters made sure that they announced the mobile numbers during each episode.Various studies in Malawi have shown that compost manure is made and used under the supervision of extension programmes of sustainable land management initiatives. And yet the rate of adoption by family farmers has remained low. This low adoption is mainly because farmers are not fully aware of the benefits of compost manure yet, and often lack the resources to use it anyway.The compost manure radio campaign that was implemented in the Nkhotakota district, however, managed to register remarkable success in a short time due to its participatory approach. By the end of the campaign, about 1,000 farmers were able to make approximately 3,200 heaps ready for application.Feedback steadily increased throughout the participatory radio campaign. Participation increased after each episode, and there was a weekly increase in the number of SMS not part of the 20 radio listening clubs registered for the project. They actually organised themselves into a group and made almost 20 heaps of compost manure with technical support from the extension workers.Another case of particular interest was a request from a community for the radio station personnel to link them up with extension workers who -by means of text messages -could teach them how to make compost manure. The radio station personnel managed to follow up with this group and link them to the extension worker responsible for that area. This led to the birth of the 21st registered listener club under the umbrella of the 'Compost Manure Making Participatory Radio Campaign' .A number of important lessons were learned while carrying out this project. Indeed, they stand to offer anyone involved in agricultural development initiatives key advice in the use of ICTs.• The reality and centrality of family farming: Compost manure is an endeavour that the whole family takes part in. While women and children normally take on the role of gathering crop residues, drawing water and animal dung, the men are normally responsible for constructing the heaps and pits for the compost. Carrying compost manure is normally done by anyone in the family, especially women and children. Therefore, it is extremely important that agricultural extension targets families.The content of extension services must anticipate the needs of smallholder farmers. Letting farmers' needs drive the objectives of development initiatives increases their ownership and makes them more receptive to these kinds of projects.• The power of ICTs: ICTs are powerful tools in agricultural extension. Radio and mobile phones were the only platform that encouraged interaction between farmers and climate-change experts. Even if there was only a single mobile phone available in the community, it made a tremendous difference because it could record and replay radio programmes.• Understanding the farmers, their context and their needs: Far too often, the cart is put before the horse when it comes to finding solutions for family farming. ICTs and other extension methods are selected without first doing the crucial work of identifying existing challenges, information needs and viable channels of communication.A comprehensive analysis of needs and context should therefore take place before farmers are provided with solutions.• Joint problem solving and decision making: Too often, development practitioners fall into the trap of 'rural tourism', where they collect baseline data for a project and synthesise it separately from the project beneficiaries. The use of participatory methods that involve farmers from A to Z have been found to generate the most effective results.In line with new development in agricultural extension, an innovation systems perspective is critical to agricultural development.Farm Radio Trust experienced remarkable results in this project by involving all stakeholders in the learning process.• Innovating the traditional extension systems: One major lesson learned during the project was that ICTs cannot replace radio -nor can radio replace the extension worker. They can complement each other in a systematic way, however. ICTs present family farmers with an opportunity to reach a wide audience, but that will only happen if ICTs are innovatively combined with traditional extension models as was done in this project. It has to be understood that using ICTs in agriculture is a means to an end and not an end in itself.• Gender mainstreaming: The position of women was analysed throughout the participatory radio campaign process. This helped to package the radio series in formats and styles attractive to women. The times at which the radio programmes were aired also took women's household schedules into account. As the radio messages were developed, gender-focused episodes were also included. Ensuring higher percentages of women in the radio listening clubs also helped to increase women's access to mobile phones, which is relatively lower as compared to men.The ICT-enhanced participatory radio campaign showed that ICTs can be easily integrated into the lives of smallholder family farmers. Indeed, it is putting to rest the myth that mobile technology is the exclusive domain of elite classes or people living in urban areas. The campaign is putting to rest the myth that mobile technology is the exclusive domain of elite classesThe First, the criteria for resilience are normative, family specific and socially defined. Resilience is not a predefined feature or a universal capacity. When supported, each family can formulate a different set of expectations and boundaries. Some families may prefer the risk of emigrating as a unit, and keep its group integrity, instead of sending someone abroad for remittances. Others may value family or faith more than increasing their income. So resilience can never be a generic model imposed from outside. It strongly reflects the autonomy of families.Second, resilience is conservative and therefore potentially oppressive. Improving resilience at one level can decrease it at another. A family is a complex group of individuals whose life conditions, internal power relations and history vary. Age, gender and ethnic differences affect people's individual positions and capabilities with regard to resilience. The definition of resilience according to the family patriarch typically diverges from that of women and youth. The effort and pain involved in coping with hard times is usually not equally distributed either. In some situations 'shocks' affecting family resilience (in the usual sense) may actually transform the whole family system and improve equity -and so ultimately generate a more systemic, fair and sustainable kind of resilience.Third, resilience is an adaptive process and a process about adaptation. Resilience builds on the procedural, cognitive, cultural, relational, socially normalised capacities of family groups to reflect and transform themselves: they need to learn how to establish clear boundaries (equity and aims) and decide which options to pursue. This is   their environment, what motivates their decision making and actions, and how the use of ICTs by other 'information partners' will affect them. It's also an ethical question, because the people who design and distribute ICTs tend to simplify or minimise their impact and restrict them to providing information.ICTs can have an impact in so many ways. They can directly shape a biophysical environment. They bring information to places where it was not available before. ICTs can be used for data collection and archiving. They can process information and create conditions for interaction and communication. Virtual tests can be conducted through ICTs to see what the impact of choices would be. ICTs are support tools for establishing agreements and conventions, as well as for monitoring and evaluation purposes. And they are important for successfully setting up and running small businesses, including family farms.Of course, we mustn't forget the fun and pleasure element of ICTs, either, which is one of their most common uses. Through ICTs, people frequently use digital social media to attract aid or attention, and to support the coordination of collective action.In what areas could ICTs enable greater resilience in family farming? ➜ I can think of at least five areas.First, there's time economy. This impact is an obvious one. By transferring information, ICTs can replace the need to move and travel (and also change social ties). The time saved can be huge. I have experienced it in Africa when invitations were brought to their recipients by drivers. A second one is access to resources, including material and immaterial resources (such as skills, power and systemic intelligence). ICTs can help people to cope with complexity and provide them with access to more decision options, though this also brings with it the risk of information overflow and loss of focus. ICTs can also play an important role in alerting families to potential hazards.Third, ICTs can promote social interaction. Most social structures (social networks in the traditional pre-Facebook sense) are pre-existing ones that are mainly facilitated by electronic networks. But in the world of ICTs, there are alternative ways of exploring and coordinating social commitment. It opens minds and paves the way for new coalitions. It should be noted that the ICT model of socialisation will impose itself on the 'normal' social content and protocols.A fourth area is the potential for ICTs to envision different scenarios (and boundaries) for the future and what their consequences would be, especially in terms of participation, which promotes acceptance and commitment. With a dynamic vision of resilience, ICTs should play a key role in the adaptive capacity of families, as well as their ability to enforce change and empower themselves in terms of evolution.Fifth, ICTs can have an impact on social justice and the limiting conditions of resilience. ICTs are not always equally available. If ICTs are fairly designed, however, they can have much more local relevance and improve the 'capabilities' of family farms (in the sense of Amartya Sen's capability approach). And since their cost is gradually decreasing, ICTs are opening up new areas of activity in an increasing number of countries. ICTs can reshape the way people think, allowing them to break out of the norm, whether political or religious. And they can shift the balance of power in family circles and communities regarding information.It should be added that ICTs cannot directly change the physical and political conditions of families in the face of international market prices, wars or local oppression. They do generate social change, however, which in the long term certainly can impact on resilience. Knowing also that, following the discussion above, it can also reduce the resilience of some for the benefits of others.➜ First of all, I'll leave aside the obvious statements about early alert systems and coordination.Adapting to climate change involves the combined capacity of farmers and their environment, including the policy context. Since we don't really know much about real future events, social restructuring is a key issue because it can potentially lead to an adaptive society. A real adaptive society is a radical transformative concept and often goes against the power establishment.Farmers, their communities, their regional authorities, should assess and formulate conditions together for mutually beneficial actions, and they should especially address the most crucial uncertainty about climate change (not whether temperatures will rise by 2°c or 4°c), which is the global social response. And the response is in the response, so to speak. It is precisely the process of addressing adaptation and organising dialogues on strategies, conditions and policies that will generate a social response.Climate change is not some pre-existing given somewhere. It's a social construct. This observation is not relativist. Floods will kill, and dikes will be too low -by 10 cm, not 5cm. A combination of knowledge is required, and the arbitration of truth is an absolute requirement for potential ICT solutions, as long as institutions support them.What constraints are there in using ICTs to promote resilience in family farming, and how can they be overcome? ➜ There are several constraints, such as literacy, access to energy, the high cost of acquiring ICTs or ICT-related services and linguistic and cultural barriers. There is too much of a focus on non-crucial issues, such as ICT programs, though there are solutions to some of these problems. ICTs can be designed so they can be used by illiterate people. People with poor access to energy can be given autonomous devices for electricity. The costs of tools and services can certainly be brought down. People working in agriculture should be encouraged to design ICTs themselves so that they suit local needs.How can ICTs bring more resilience to family farming in the future? ➜ ICTs can pragmatically support all forms of participation related to resilience. There are several steps that could be taken to promote participation. Local ICT academies can be built to support the design of ICT tools that suit local needs. It's also important to create a culture in which different sectors work together and develop a model that is compatible across these sectors. We also need to change our data-driven way of thinking about solutions. We need to work on processes, workflows and procedures. It's also important that we take into account different perspectives and points of view so that we can integrate them technically. ◀ Farmers, their communities and their regional authorities need to assess challenges such as climate change together.F amily farming may seem to differ from one region or country to another, but a closer look reveals that its various forms across the world actually have much in common with each other. For one, family farming is generally under severe threat. Incomes from family farming are declining. Young people growing up in farming families are reluctant to take up farming as a vocation. Moreover, family farmers face multiple challenges, including the limited ability to participate in markets, climate change and severe weather aberrations, the loss, degradation and difficult access to land, water and other inputs for farming, and the loss of the agrobiodiversity that affects their livelihoods.Family farmers' access to the new information, knowledge, skills and technology that could benefit their farming is being continuously eroded and reduced, thereby increasing their isolation from economic, social, political and technological change. Across the world, family farmers are abandoning their traditional livelihoods, and as a result their numbers are diminishing rapidly. Still, for the majority of rural people family farming will remain the main source of livelihood for the foreseeable futureat least until 2030 and beyond. Ajit Maru, co-organiser of the AgriFuture Days 2014 Conference held in Villach, Austria from 16 to 18 June and guest editor of this issue of ICT update, summarises the key points that were raised and discussed during the conference.One or several of these scenarios may exist or co-exist in a given country or region, depending on the policies implemented by governments.The applications of ICTs could influence the emergence and function of underlying systems that support the above scenarios. Conversely, these scenarios could influence the application and use of ICTs. For example, rural poles with complex agri-food chains for agricultural commodities used as industrial and manufacturing feedstock and food would benefit from ICT automation, robotics, integrated farm management systems and traceability systems. And this scenario may drive the emergence and rapid development of these ICTs.Rural-urban systems could benefit significantly from information systems that educate producers and consumers on the linkages between production and consumption in terms of resources used, wastage, ecosystem conservation and community participation. Similarly, large agroindustrial systems would greatly benefit from ICTs that can monitor and support decision making at various levels and also automate many human labour-intensive farming functions.An important question is whether ICTs can help to reduce the marginalisation of family farming and the abandonment of rural areas by these farmers. These farmers also play a vital role in preserving cultural heritage and ecosystems that enhance the quality of life of urban areas, a role that is not yet fully recognised by society. Indeed, the marginalisation and abandonment of family farming could have disastrous consequences for society. Following are a number of ICTs that are impacting agriculture: infrastructure and connectivity There are several dimensions to fulfilling these needs, but two in particular are crucial, and will go a long way to improving family farming. First, we need investment through a variety of sources, such as public, private, crowd and community sourcing. And we need infrastructure to be put into place for data, applications, analytics, hardware, software and connectivity, content, integration of data, information, information systems, and applications and governance. ◀ T he Volta Mango Growers Association (VOMAGA) is a legally registered dynamic cooperative of smallholder mango producers in Fodzoku, a rural community in the Volta region of Ghana. Fodzoku is a farming and fishing resettlement community along the banks of Lake Volta with a population of about 6,000. The community has a vast plot of arable land suitable for cultivating mangoes and vegetables. Land ownership in the community and plot allocation among family farmers has always been a challenge. Climate change has affected the soil and groundwater retention, and what's more, these family farmers have to meet certification requirements for the export of their mango produce to international markets.Members of the VOMAGA cooperative have started to use ICT tools to address some of these constraints and enhance their living conditions. These tools include GPS and GIS technology and soil-testing kits, and there are plans to use agrometeorological services in the future and smart ICT-based technologies to package this weather, water and croprelated data to better inform the cooperative's decision making.Volta is the most easterly region of Ghana and shares a border with Togo on its eastern side and with the Volta River and Lake Volta on the western side. It has lush vegetation and is relatively mountainous. Agriculture plays a vital role in the region's socioeconomic development. The region's economy is mainly rural and agricultural, employing about 74% of the economically active population.The horticultural sector in Ghana has emerged as a vital sector for the economy following the diversification of the country's export base. Mango, pineapple, papaya, fresh chillies and bananas are some of the products that are mainly exported to European markets. The VOMAGA cooperative istrying to actively participate in this rewarding industry, but it faces the challenge of meeting mango export certification requirements. In addition, farmers in the cooperative are struggling against poor production planning and are having difficulty establishing the spatial locations and concentration of their respective farms required for traceability and documentation.It is crucial that members of VOMAGA become organic or GlobalG.A.P. certified in order to enhance their competitiveness on the local and international markets. Certification, however, requires that their fields and orchards are clearly identifiable. In Africa this is usually done via GPS references. So they have to have their farms mapped to obtain the required geo-references.Even though farmers in the VOMAGA cooperative have been rather slow to adopt ICTs, they have now been widely accepted and their use is spreading. Indigenous technologies and local innovations do continue to play a vital role in the operation of their farms, however. One could say that modern technology is acting as a propeller forSolomon Elorm Allavi (sallavi@syecomp.com) is chief operations manager and GIS specialist at Syecomp Business Services Ltd in Accra, Ghana.A mango growers association in Ghana is using ICTs to address the challenges affecting their livelihoods.AllAVI productivity as it addresses some of the specific constraints mentioned earlier. The use of GPS and GIS technology are useful tools that enable farmers in the cooperative to meet export certification requirements more easily. With support from the Market-Oriented Agriculture Programme, which is funded by the German development cooperation agency GIZ, these farmers have been trained to use specific devises, such as the Trimble Juno 3B Handheld GPS device and the TerraSync mobile application (see box) for farm GPS mapping (collection of geo-reference farm data). Syecomp Business Services Ltd, a market leader in the use of GPS applications in Ghana, was contracted to provide on-field technical training and assessment.Member farmers of VOMAGA were given an intensive one-day training course in the use of the Trimble Juno 3B device and its software. The training involved a presentation on the theory of GPS mapping of farms, an explanation of the general features of the Trimble Juno 3B device, an overview of the TerraSync software interface and a demonstration of what the device can do for farmers. The training was immediately followed by on-field practice. Farmers were taken to mango farms where they were shown how to conduct field boundary mapping. Relevant farm features, such as farmhouses, farm equipment and streams were captured with the integrated digital camera. Farm information, such as farm size, GPS coordinates, shapes, elevation and other features were presented via the TerraSync application in real-time on the field.All this data needed further processing, however, so it was submitted to Syecomp Business Services Ltd for that purpose. Syecomp produced maps, indicative georeferences of farms and other relevant outputs for farm documentation for each farmer in the VOMAGA cooperative.These farmers felt empowered using such technologies themselves to solve some of their challenges.Ghana's main destination market for fresh produce exports is the European market. There is exciting interest from other growing markets in the Middle East and the Eastern Asia. Most buyers from these markets require GlobalG.A.P. certification from producers. The use of GPS and GIS technology is a step towards helping VOMAGA meet these export requirements for their produce. Unique codes are assigned to each farm during GPS mapping, and farmers also collect additional information, such as cropspecific production data, agronomic practices, and plot and farm history.GPS mapping of farms provides exact farm measurements, which prevents farmers from over-or underestimating the size of their farm plots used to cultivate mango in the community. As a result, farmers can now plan their farm production needs much more effectively and generate yield forecasts for their farms and avoid paying too much for farm labour and agri-input services. This has had a positive impact on the productivity and revenue of farmers in VOMAGA.The adoption of GPS mapping technology has also helped the cooperative determine the gross margin of their farm produce so it can conduct comparative assessments. It has also resulted in a host of other benefits, such as transparency regarding crop volumes under production and easier logistic planning between mango farmers and buyers.Climate change, water scarcity and food security are beginning to have negative impact on the mango farms belonging to the VOMAGA cooperative. Even in seasons of abundant rainfall, the farmers still lack the appropriate scientific knowledge on weather, soil, water and crop-related conditions to successfully deal with climate variation. The cooperative has been making plans to use satellite and remote sensing data to assist member farmers in their decision making. Specifically, it concerns an agrometeorological information service powered by the web and through text messaging in close partnership with Syecomp Business Services Ltd.The implementation of this plan will be based on farm GPS data collected from each individual farm and plot. The idea is to use the tool to monitor plot-specific information from satellite measurements. So rather than provide very general data on plant growth, water availability in soil and the nature of the soil, for example, the tool will provide plant, water, and weatherspecific information.In the future, several steps need to be taken to further improve the situation of family farmers such as those in the VOMAGA cooperative. First, national policies need to be geared towards supporting family farmers and smallholder farmers in their attempt to adopt productive ICTbased technologies. Second, there should be an overall assessment of ICT deployment in the agricultural sectors of specific countries so comparative assessments can be conducted. And finally, we need targeted investment support from private companies for the development of innovative tools to address specific constraints in rural agricultural sectors, such as the Fodzoku community in Ghana. ◀ Trimble Juno 3B is an economical rugged IP54 handheld computer that includes GPS and a digital camera. It uses the Windows professional operating system and has a 3.5\" screen. It can store up to 2GB of data and has a memory card slot as well. The GPS has an accuracy of two to five metres. ➜ Decision support systems include all tools and techniques that help farmers decide on their course of action for farming. Family farming faces many risks and has limited opportunities. Farming is becoming more complex and is affected by a number of factors, some within farmers' control, but many beyond.Indeed, this type of farming faces many constraints: participating effectively in markets, gaining access to vital inputs, such as land, water and finance, and the tools and knowledge to cope with climate change. It is important that family farmers have access to these tools, and advisory services, which they can use to forecast, plan, monitor and measure the outcomes of their decisions and actions. As far as the use of ICT-based decision support systems is concerned, these now take on many forms. Some offer forecasts, optimised plans and continuous monitoring, while others are map-based, indicating the availability and flow of resources.My own organisation PROGIS has developed DokuPlant®, an expert database based on our own technologies and that of local experts. It contains information about farm machinery, inorganic and organic fertilizer, pesticides and chemical substances, seeds and varieties, as well as cropping-methods. These technologies optimise farmers' returns and help reduce the risks to their farming. Expert data can be used together with other farm planning and management tools.How can decision support systems improve family farming? ➜ Ultimately they should help family farmers to increase their returns, reduce costs, improve the quality of their products, get better access to markets, and maintain and further improve the resilience and sustainability of the farming system and the ecology it is situated in.➜ There are many now available. Some are commercial. Some were developed as experiments and have been offered to the public.For plant protection we have systems that forecast, optimise interventions and help diagnose the problem. Forecasting systems obtain data from a variety of sources including automated weather systems, pastWalter Mayer (mayer@progis.com) is CEO of PROGIS Software, based in Villach, Austria.data and epidemiological models. Plant protection is very complex as we cannot measure with one sensor all the conditions in which pests thrive. We have to use multiple sensors that are grouped and networked with other groups elsewhere. By using these sensors and a network of weather stations and models that predict specific situations (for example, a pest will start in five days), a farmer can start spraying in advance in an attempt to control the disease. This information can be shared with farmers in the afflicted areas by means of an SMS reminding them to 'please spray tomorrow', for example.For monitoring and diagnosing pests and diseases, we use images of fields and affected crops and potential pests. In the future, it may be possible to use photometry with multiple filters, such as those used for infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of light, and support this with pattern recognition. We will also be developing decision support systems and knowledge-based systems in conjunction with these technologies. We also need to develop the human expertise that can conduct investigations and provide recommendations with all these tools.For irrigation, we now have map and sensor-based systems at various scales, from watersheds and farms to fields and plots. Soil moisture sensors located at different depths measure the moisture. The irrigation process can be started and managed in a precise way with groups of sensors so that a field is not flooded and water is used in an efficient way -where and when it is needed. The latest generation of sprinklers has nozzles that can be triggered individually. We are now able to use three-dimensional, accurate maps that also render elevation. With sensors linked through sensor networks, we can monitor soil humidity and local weather conditions and manage irrigation.Precision agriculture is gradually becoming possible for smallholder family farmers. This availability is the result of more affordable technologies, including maps, sensors, the 'Internet of Things' and cloud computing, all of which are used to monitor and control irrigation equipment and entire systems. Video technology, drones and other intelligent farm management tools are enabling farmers to do quick and accurate modelling or simulation at very small scales, for example to calculate within a few seconds various potential outcomes for different situations and compare these outcomes for optimisation.These services for smallholder family farmers will increase their returns and boost the resilience and sustainability of their farms in an affordable way, because the costs will be shared with others in the local community. This will bring new forms of entrepreneurship and cooperation. For example, it may lead to new information and knowledge-sharing cooperatives.Have decision support systems that use ICTs improved the agricultural activities of family farmers? ➜ We have reports from many farming systems all over the world. In Germany, for example, family farmers and cooperatives are benefitting from their ability to plan better. Think, for example, of farming inputs, crop monitoring and logistics, and the harvesting and processing of crops such as sugar beets. In Kenya, forecasting systems with automated weather stations have been used for pest and disease control.What constraints are there in using decision support systems to assist family farmers? ➜ The scale of farming influences the accessibility, affordability and ability to effectively use these systems, especially for smallholder farmers. Public extension systems in most developing countries are not set up to use these systems. Many of the systems available on public platforms are elementary and provide little ground support. There is also the question of expertise. For example, at which soil moisture levels should one switch irrigation on or off for locally grown crops on different types of soil? We need local experts who can support this technology and develop local models that will help farmers.Another major issue is collaboration and cooperation. Take weather stations. Different organisations need similar data from weather stations for agriculture, water, tourism, rivers and risk management. But they rarely cooperate when it comes to setting up stations and sharing data. This only adds to the overall costs instead of reducing them.We do not have a network of automatic weather stations yet, nor a service that offers data to those who want it for a small fee. In developing countries, these stations could be implemented by a governmental organisation as part of the infrastructure. The different users -public or private -can pay for the data service and build value added services for different sectors.There is another problem as well. There is a powerful sales process at work at the moment that tells farmers what the system is capable of doing but does not reveal what the real costs are or what kind of an infrastructure is needed to support the system. So if we want to use new ICTs to support smallholder family farming, we also need new organisational models for the new services. Technology alone will not improve smallholder family farming.How can these constraints be overcome? ➜ Again, we have to innovate and develop new organisational models for these new services that match the rapid development of technology and meet these farmers' needs. We also need to build the capacities of these farmers and their communities to use these technologies.I strongly believe in more capable advisory systems. To take Austria as an example: one well-informed, experienced and practical advisor, who also understands farmers' needs, can support 200 family farmers. We can lower costs, increase benefits and promote more ecological sustainability even in smallholder systems (and we do have them here in Austria too). The advisor is ideally part of the farming community and is paid by it. All farmers benefit! This really is achievable.What is the future of using decision support systems to improve family farming? ➜ Technologically, many ICT-related developments -from sensors, open data, cloud computing, the 'Internet of Things' and the use of drones -will contribute to more affordable, accurate, precise and available decision support systems. Decision support systems in the future need to become even more heuristic. The systems can be improved if we analyse big data and provide greater precision. They also need to improve the way they present the logic of their decision support through better visualisation for greater, more general comprehension. ◀ It is important that family farmers have access to ICT tools so they can forecast, plan, monitor and measure the outcomes of their decisions and actions.According to an article on ITWeb Africa, 'Systems of Things: The building blocks for the next internet revolution', now that we are more connected globally than ever before, it is time to benefit from our connectedness by putting in place the right systems to 'gather, analyse and gain insights from the massive volumes of data generated by these connected devices' . The author suggests that the building blocks for 'systems of things' have already been laid in Geoffrey Moore's 'Systems of Engagement' and 'Systems of Records', as well as the 'The Internet of Things': big data, fast data, predictive analytics, cloud, and mobile. Indeed, the author suggests that if 'African companies get these building blocks right, and are able to embed their Internet of Things applications directly into their existing business processes, they will be able to chart their own destiny' . ➜ Original article: http://goo.gl/BwxQD4According to BizTech Africa, the Kenyan ministry of agriculture is introducing e-extension services in order to relieve pressure on the 5,000 extension officers in a country where 80% of the population is involved in agriculture. It is hoped that the ministry's ICT approach will reach over seven million farmers annually, 'as opposed to the conventional one-onone service that impacted less than two million farmers' .The e-extension programme 'hinges on' high mobile phone and internet penetration in Kenya, 77.2% and 63% respectively. Indeed, estimates put the number of Kenyans with internet access at 20 million and mobile phone users at 30 million, many of whom are farmers. Over 600 e-extension agents have been trained for the project. They have been given smartphones and laptops to help reach out to farmers. ➜ Original article: http://goo.gl/uQIEHHThe Flying Donkey Challenge, a project of La Fondation Bundi, defines a flying donkey as 'an unmanned cargo aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 60 kilos' . The objective of the Flying Donkey Challenge is to lay the foundation for the development of innovations that will make large-scale unmanned civilian air cargo delivery services possible in Africa and beyond. These flying donkeys can be used to transport goods to the market, for example, and circumvent the problem of poor infrastructure.The main challenge will take place before 2020 and will be a race between flying donkeys around Mount Kenya in less than 24 hours, delivering and collecting 20-kilo payloads along the way. The final location of the ground stations and flight corridors are yet to be confirmed, but the organisers have the following details in mind for the route: total distance of 200 km; six ground stations along the route; three delivery and collection missions; and a maximum distance between ground stations of 50 km.In the meantime, four 'enabling technology and design sub-challenges' are slotted for 2015, including 'precision takeoff and landing', 'GPS denied navigation', 'sense and avoid' and 'cargo and delivery' . And there will be three 'non-technical competitions' as well, namely 'business model competition', 'legal paper' and 'logistics paper' .Organisers of the Flying Donkey Challenge are looking to the sky as a solution because 'Africa is growing too fast to build out its road network' . The organisation hopes that flying donkeys will be established 'within a generation, lifting Africa by creating jobs and enabling e-commerce and community to community exchanges in a shared economy' . In June 2013, ICT Update reported on an innovation-inthe-making called BRCK, a modem designed specifically for the continent of Africa and referred to as 'your backup generator for the internet' by Ushahidi, the Kenyan technology innovation firm that developed the device. The modem caters to the need in Africa for a modem that addresses the problem of getting -and staying -online. BRCK connects to the internet in different ways -by hopping from one network to another, creating a hotspot for multiple devices, while plugged in or running on battery power.In July 2014 the BRCK blog finally announced the first shipment of BRCKs for later that month. It came after several setbacks, including a shipment of cases from China that 'looked nothing like the first articles… or the amazing cases that were molded from 3D prints' . But with patience and perseverance BRCK has finally arrived. The launch is planned for 9 July 2014 in Nairobi, where BRCK developers will show how the innovation can be used for business and personal uses. ➜ http://www.brck.comYoung entrepreneurs in Africa can get ready to try out their innovative ICT skills. According to IT News Africa, French telecom giant Orange has launched its fourth Orange African Social Venture Prize. Participants in this year's contest are being asked to integrate an Orange application into their project. One of the conditions of the contest is that the entries are designed for use in at least one of the 18 African countries in which Orange operates, and that their ICT innovation is used to help improve living conditions in these countries.The 2014 Social Venture Prize is offering a special 'partner' prize that will award four projects with grants varying form €10,000 to €25,000, but winners will also receive a six-month support package from entrepreneurs and ICT experts and. The first prize will be offered a patent submission in the project's country. ➜ Original article: http://goo.gl/pACXgQFounded in 1991, Women in Business Development Inc. (WIBDI) supports a network of 600 family organic farmers. It is developing a project called 'farm to table' with the aim of providing hotels and restaurants in Samoa with 80% of their food needs through local production. The project will create a lasting business relationship between individual producers and the growing tourism market. The idea is simple: every Monday, producers send a list of products available in the restaurant and place an order late Tuesday afternoon. Producers who accept the order then deliver their products in the local WIBDI, who pays the following Friday. The 'm-Link system', which is aimed at extension workers, producers and restaurateurs, is built to support this process.'m-Link' is made up of three applications: m-Link Extension, m-Link Producer and m-Link Kitchen. m-Link Extension provides extension on crops, pests and diseases, and organic certification. m-Link Producer is designed to help producers in the agricultural field (planting, harvesting and processing) and the commercial field (bookkeeping, budget, etc.) A support system (wiki) allows producers to share information as well. M-Link Kitchen offers restaurateurs a database of available products and prices each week, enabling them to order, and it also offers nutritional information on products and recipes.In its pilot phase, the project involves 20 producers and seven restaurants. It is expected to grow rapidly and will be presented on the occasion of the UNSIDS conference in Samoa in September 2014.  These shocks can have long-or short-term effects and can occur as a one-off, together or in sequence, as a series of disasters. The external causes usually affect large numbers of family farmers, though in some cases internal causes such as market failures or resulting debts can also affect family farmers. To bring greater resilience to family farmers we need to forecast, prevent, mitigate, overcome and adapt to the factors that affect the well-being of family farmers so they can cope with these challenges.➜ ICTs can contribute to greater resilience in family farming by enabling many of the actions I just mentioned: forecasting, preventing, mitigating and adapting tothose causes that affect the well-being of family farmers. Many emerging ICTs can contribute to these enabling actions. Of course we are familiar with the use of radio and television to broadcast information related to disasters, but today cell phones are also used for the same purpose. In fact, cell phones can target specific individuals and communities by informing those who farm in low-lying areas of impending floods, for example.Another emerging area is the ability to model family farms and simulate the most suitable farming system for improving their management. These solutions reduce risk and increase the resilience of farms. Of course, the role of automatic weather stations in forecasting local weather, which in turn helps in many other areas such as disease and pest management, is now becoming widespread.Ajit Maru (ajit.maru@fao.org) is senior knowledge officer at the Global Forum on Agricultural Research Secretariat of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in Rome, Italy. ➜ Climate change will affect farmers in many ways. Climate variability will cause extreme weather patterns with more frequent droughts, and sudden downpours of rain will cause floods and waterlogging, hailstorms, and hurricanes, for example. As mentioned, ICTs can play a crucial role not only in forecasting the weather but also providing information to prevent damage and destruction, and help people cope with the short-and long-term after-effects.Resilience and sustainability of farming are also interlinked. ICTs can play a significant role in bringing sustainability to farming, for example, by preventing wastage of irrigation water and energy. Soil humidity sensors linked to sprinklers and drip irrigation can help manage water use in the most effective manner. When these sensors are linked in a network, as is now possible, then entire fields and farms can be monitored on their use of resources, such as water and soil nutrients.Very soon, digital cameras with special filters, such as for temperature and certain optical wavelengths, will come into use to monitor crop health. These can be mounted on small drones to periodically monitor fields from an appropriate altitude. There are ICTs that enable more widespread financial services in rural areas where banks would not find it economical to operate. ICTs can even provide health services for family farmers in remote areas.Which ICTs have helped to improve the resilience of family farmers in their farming, food security and livelihoods? ➜ We have already seen the impact cellular telephony is having on the economic and social well-being of family farmers in many parts of the world. As mentioned earlier, cell phones in Africa are enabling this category of farmers to use services they did not have access to previously, and this is helping them to participate better in markets. Cell phones also help family farmers search for secondary occupations that augment their earnings. Many people are also unaware of the role that ICTs play in agricultural research and innovation, for example in the design and development of new seeds that resist droughts or waterlogging.What constraints or limitations are there in using ICTs to bring more resilience in family farming? ➜ The availability of and access to ICTs is the foremost limitation. First of all, the ICTs that are available are usually appropriated by resource-rich farmers. In today's world, these are non-family farmers, such as corporate farmers who practice family farming. A classic example is today's dairy industry, as well as the use of precision farming. Many of the sensor-based technologies have been appropriated by these two types of farming. Though some of the technologies can be used by smallholder family farmers as well, since they were first appropriated by large farmers, their further development has been directed by this category of farmers.Access can be and often is limited by policies, regulations and organisational structures. For example, many national agricultural research organisations, who are the main managers of agricultural information in the developing world, are not investing in ways of opening up or sharing information that would be useful to small family farmers. These organisations' reluctance to share is limiting the capacities of these farmers to build sustainable and resilient farms.How can these constraints be overcome? ➜ First, society and governments must acknowledge the role that ICTs can play in rapidly innovating agriculture and contributing to the sustainability and resilience of family farming. There is very little awareness of the role this technology can play, unlike in biotechnology, for example. And this requires advocacy and championing from the experts who are aware of the potential of this technology.The second is the need for investment. This initially has to be done by the public sector in developing countries. The investment has to be in infrastructure, such as connectivity, or capacity building and in some cases even in the form of subsidising appropriate ICTs. Governments in many parts of the world have subsidised new irrigation technologies such as drip irrigation. So why not also subsidise sensors and sensor networks along with the drip irrigation systems as a package?Public-private partnerships can play a significant role in this area. Many of the knowledge services that could contribute to resilient family farming will be provided by micro, small and middle entrepreneurs. The government and public sector institutions need to support the entrepreneurs financially and technically, not only so they can provide these services but also so they can innovate. This support could also generate new employment opportunities, especially for youth in rural areas, many of whom may belong to families of these farmers.Another important limitation to overcome is the capacity to use these technologies effectively. There must be capacity development for all those working in agricultural value chains -from scientists, extension workers and farmers to transporters, processors and market intermediaries -so they can effectively use ICTs in their own activities.How can ICTs bring more resilience to family farming in the future? ➜ The future lies in many of the new technologies that are on the horizon, as well as in a greater awareness in family farmer communities of the potential benefits of using these technologies. Some of these emerging ICTs include the ability to manage and effectively use 'big data' generated on farms to improve farming. Another example is low-cost sensor technology that can monitor humidity, temperature, environmental gases and soil nutrients. This technology can be coupled with high-resolution 3D maps of farmlands, which can in turn be linked through the 'Internet of Things' to generate data that can be shared through cloud computing. Applications for smartphones or phablets, which allow farmers to use the data and technologies just mentioned, are another example.In the future, a large part of the data and information used by family farmers will be self-generated by the farmers themselves. There will be a need for new forms of collaboration and cooperation for sharing and exchanging this data, information and knowledge. Social networks will be become important, and most likely social media will have a new and different role to play. All this will contribute to bringing more resilience to family farming in the future. ◀Technology can play a crucial role not only in forecasting the weather but also providing information to prevent damage and destruction, and help people cope with the short-and long-term after-effects.Young voices I was recently nominated co-chair of one of the working groups tasked with the responsibility of drafting the orientation papers for discussions at the International Encounters on Family Farming and Research conference scheduled to be held in Montpellier, France in early June 2014. My group's theme is 'Family farming facing the challenges of urbanisation and employment' -a theme that is steeped in today's innovative and emerging trends.The group consists of experts and researchers with many years' experience in the development fieldin fact, I am the youngest member of the group. And as the youngest member, the onus has been on me to push for more youth perspectives to be accommodated in the working paperwhich I managed to do. Indeed, the stimulating exchanges in this group revealed the many challenges and opportunities that face family farming in an increasingly populated, urbanised and youthful world.Although family farmers produce most of the food consumed in the world, they face enormous challenges in accessing resources for production. Moreover, they struggle with a changing climate and other disruptions -against which they have little or no resilience -and they are stifled by competition from industrial farms and cheap imports, both of which restrict their market access. And most importantly, they are being starved of the manpower they need to thrive as a result of the unfavourable perception of agriculture among the youth. Indeed, young people are increasingly moving away from the countryside.Despite all these challenges, family farming has survived through the years. An expanding global (and urbanised) population, with rising incomes and changing consumption patterns that favour more nutritious food -especially in developing countries -presents new opportunities for family farming to thrive in the coming years. But these changes will require some adjustment on the part of family farmers themselves and some institutional support from policy makers and development organisations.One way for family farmers to survive in this highly competitive environment is to begin to harness and allow the power of big data to guide their decision making from the production to the marketing stage. Big data, which in the agricultural context is the collection and analysis of data generated from the farm to the final consumer, can help family farmers in their quest to compete with cheap products and imports from industrial farms.Through the adoption of big data, particularly meteorological and consumer data, and by allowing it to guide their decisions, family farmers can better plan their farming activities to minimise the impact of a changing climate and build resilience to shocks. Big data can also help them to know where to direct their energy and enable them to leverage the rising demand for food sovereignty among progressively informed and sustainability-minded consumers in many (developed and even developing) countries.Through these analyses, family farmers can gain more access to targeted markets, such as individual consumers -who are increasingly sensitive to the long chain their food passes through, not to mention the sanitary and contamination crises associated with industrial farms in the past -instead of concentrating on general markets, where pricing is usually not to their advantage. 'Big data' enables family farmers to discover where these consumers are, what they want, why they want it and how to satisfy their needs.But most importantly, the use of 'big data' in planning, production, marketing and all other activities along the chain may help to retain young people on family farms. Why? Because young people are tech-savvy and tend to follow and pick up on trends. Young people are also more inclined to use ICT tools to access data, and they certainly have the skills to do so.The use of ICT tools to access big data for farming purposes is also something that may well lift the status of the profession of farming as a whole. The more ICTs are used in smallholder and family farming, the more progressive the image of the profession will become. It's an upward spiral: the more young people become involved in ICTs and smallholder farming, the higher the chance that even more young people will become attracted to a career that is in touch with emerging trends.Finding a way to convince and support family farmers to adopt the use of ICTs and big data is therefore not just a question of survival in the face of low capacity and intense competition, but it may have other indirect benefits as well. It may keep, as mentioned, more young people in farming, but it may also enhance the sustainability of rural communities. Policy makers and development organisations interested in the survival and viability of family farms should be pushing for the adoption of ICTs and providing institutional and infrastructural backing for the increased use of big data in family farming. ◀ Bunmi Ajilore (bunmi.ajilore@yahoo.co.uk) is a writer and blogger in the fields of agriculture and the environment. He contributes to Bailiff Africa, an online youth-driven environmental magazine, runs a thriving blog called Ecoagriculturist and contributes to the Young Professionals for Agricultural Development blog.The use of ICTs to access big data for farming purposes may well lift the status of the profession of farming as a whole -for both family farmers and young people.FlICkr/OxFAM InTernATIOnAl The use of ICT tools to access big data for farming purposes may well lift the status of the profession of farming a whole.","tokenCount":"11996"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"002254e7f4e28cf9df70c9ef817b03e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/888051c2-8e3a-42db-8f6a-f4d780b40989/retrieve","id":"-781460481"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"840e8629-2621-40d2-b1e9-299d2b7c2c68","pagecount":"20","content":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) stands as a pivotal staple crop supporting millions in tropical and subtropical regions (Ferrero et al., 2016). Despite its significance, cassava cultivation faces ongoing challenges, prominently from diseases such as Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), with Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus (SLCMV) emerging as the predominant causative agent in South Asia and Southeast Asia since its discovery (Ntui et al., 2023). Classified within the genus Begomovirus of the family Geminiviridae, SLCMV possesses a genome consisting of two singlestranded DNA molecules, DNA-A and DNA-B, each approximately 2.8 Kb in size. Transmission occurs via the whitefly Bemisia tabaci and contained stem (Fauquet et al., 2008;Maruthi et al., 2014). The virus induces mosaic symptoms, leaf distortion, and stunted growth in infected plants (Figure 1), impacting both the quality and quantity of cassava yield and posing a serious risk to cassava production worldwide (Legg et al., 2014;Siriwan et al., 2020). Originally identified in Sri Lanka, SLCMV has rapidly spread to various parts of Asia. Countries, including India, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, China, and Laos, have reported outbreaks of SLCMV (Wang et al., 2016;Uke et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2019;Leiva et al., 2019;Chittarath et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2020). Given the recent outbreak in Southeast Asia, the identification of two SLCMV virus variants that can differ in their virulence (Wang et al., 2020) and the multiple species of rel;ated viruses that can cause the same symptoms (Legg et al., 2014), there is a critical need to develop an early detection method for all Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD)causing begomoviruses.Currently, Sanger sequencing remains the standard for virus sequencing, either through cloning in plasmids or directly as PCR products. While next-generation sequencing (NGS) approaches, such as Illumina technology (Illumina, Inc.), often have longer turnaround times and require larger capital investments (Besser et al., 2018), emerging portable sequencing technologies like Oxford Nanopore are gaining wider application. This trend necessitates a comprehensive understanding of virus distribution for effective management strategies (Kreuze et al., 2022).Nanopore sequencing, pioneered by Oxford Nanopore Technologies, offers several advantages in the context of SLCMV genomics. This technology operates on the principle of passing DNA through nanopores, enabling real-time, long-read sequencing and the capture of complex genomic structures (Jain et al., 2016). The adoption of nanopore sequencing has significantly contributed to exploring the genomic diversity of SLCMV in Asian countries. Studies utilizing this innovative technology have revealed novel strains, variations, and genomic rearrangements, providing valuable insights into the evolutionary dynamics of the viruses within the region (Tyagi et al., 2020).The capability of nanopore sequencing to generate long reads facilitates comprehensive genome coverage, thereby aiding accurate strain identification and the detection of potential recombinant events (Wick et al., 2019). The method used here has been peer-reviewed (Leiva et al., 2020) and in this report we confirm its suitability as a genome surveillance tool when applied to multiplexed samples.Here we report the preliminary analysis of SLCMV, delving into its genomic features and current geographical distribution. An urgent need exists for an in-depth understanding of the virus's evolution to enhance early detection methods and inform management. Through the integration of diverse research perspectives, our objective is to contribute to the development of sustainable strategies for mitigating the impact of SLCMV on cassava.We analyzed a total of 187 samples for our study. SLCMV sequences were acquired through two methods. Firstly, we accessed the Viral Genome Resource (VGR) at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/viruses/), a reference resource designed to enhance the usability of viral sequence data. From this resource, we selected 64 complete SLCMV genomes. In addition, we incorporated 123 new sequences from Southeast Asia (SEA) gathered in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia between 2019 and 2022. The sequences from Southeast Asia were accessed via: https://pestdisplace.org/projects/PDP_00063/map#1.74/6.8/51.6 (Table 1).  Regarding genome characterization, DNA-A exhibits an average size of 2759 base pairs (bp), with 2500 bp conserved, representing 9.9% variable positions. Nucleotide frequencies are distributed as follows: 28.9% (A), 25.2% (T), 23.8% (C), and 22% (G) (Table 2). Conversely, DNA-B averages 2762 bp, with a conserved gene length of 2369 bp. Nucleotide frequencies for DNA-B are 26.1% (A), 31.3% (T), 19.6% (C), and 23% (G) (Table 2). These characteristics align with reported values for the SLCMV virus (Zhou et al.,2003;Malichan et al., 2023).  et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020).The analysis utilized the Maximum Composite Likelihood model, considering codon positions 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and noncoding. Ambiguous positions were excluded using pairwise deletion, resulting in a final dataset of 2759 positions for evolutionary analyses. The results of the neutrality test are presented in Tables 4 and 5 for DNA-A and DNA-B, respectively. The hypothesis of a population in two-fragment equilibrium is rejected based on the test outcomes. Tajima D values were consistently negative across all cases, suggesting that SLCMV is under negative selective pressure in all countries except Thailand for DNA-B (Tajima et al., 1989). Negative selection acts to maintain or eliminate deleterious mutations (Manrubia and Lázaro, 2006). Viruses undergo changes or experience instability in their environment, influenced by the dynamic immune response of the host, which can result in variable effects on the virus's genetic makeup (Markham et al., 1998). Regarding nucleotide diversity, it was higher in Thailand than in the other countries assessed, confirming the observations listed in Table 3. The genomic information obtained with the described protocol is of a high quality according to standard tests. This quality is required to proceed with the sequence analysis presented here.The analysis of SLCMV genome surveillance in Southeast Asia confirms the presence of only one species, as our generic protocol has not detected any other CMD-associated begomovirus. However, a second branch of SLCMV, characterized by isolates containing a larger rep gene, is identified at the border between Cambodia (Svay Chek) and Thailand.The prevalence of genomes with the short version of the Rep gene dominates across all regions. The neutrality test consistently yielded negative indices for the evaluated regions, indicating a population in equilibrium. These results affirm the efficacy and versatility of the nanopore sequencing technique and the employed protocol for SLCMV.","tokenCount":"1001"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80d323b51137b38e9fb6245ba954872a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/CFL5TE/ZPYZSZ","id":"-1957707555"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"05006e62-4aee-4741-ad5a-406e7e2e80fc","pagecount":"21","content":"Good morning/afternoon. I am ________ from the Data Analysis and Technical Assistance Limited (DATA), a Research organization based in Dhaka. Together with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), we are conducting an evaluation of a BRAC's A&T project in this area. We want to talk with you about the health status of mother & child of your area. We will ask you some questions related to your job -current workload, selling of medicines and other products, motivation, self-efficacy, satisfaction and supervision. The information that you will provide us will be used to set up a good health program in this community and in similar settings in other parts of the world.We are inviting you to be a participant in this study. We value your opinion. You will only be identified through code numbers. Your identity will not be stored with other information we collect about you. Your responses will be assigned a code number, and the list connecting your name with this number will be kept in a locked room and will be destroyed once all the data has been collected and analyzed. Any information we obtain from you during the research will be kept strictly confidential. We will use approximately 1 hour of your time to collect all the information.There will be no cost to you other than your time. Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue participation in this study at any time. You also have the right to refuse to answer specific questions. There will be no risk as a result of your participating in the study.The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and DATA are jointly conducting this survey. Your participation will be highly appreciated. The answers you give will help provide better information to policy-makers, practitioners and program managers so that they can plan for better services that will respond to your needs.The researcher read to me orally the consent form and explained to me the purpose of this survey. I agreed to take part in this research voluntarily. I understand that all information given by me will not be disclosed, that I am free to discontinue participation at any time if I so choose, and that the investigator will gladly answer any question that arise during the course of the research. Please could you answer some questions about the support you get from the SK who is your direct supervisor.INTERVIEWER: Please ensure that the SS understands that the questions pertain to her direct supervisor, the SK for the area she works in.For Thank you so much for your time and patience with this interview. Before we end, is there anything you would like to ask us, or to discuss about your work. We will gladly combine all suggestions we receive from the health workers we are interviewing and discuss with BRAC.Interviewee notes about interview:","tokenCount":"481"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"641b85eece761869d3e22ba2f062d86c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbdd7263-75b8-4a3c-aa47-2b78fbdd947b/retrieve","id":"1204864303"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"15076bba-f1d3-4e3e-91f4-61d9138ec851","pagecount":"96","content":"Bioversity International is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to improve the well-being of present and future generations of people by enhancing conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests. It is one of 15 centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. Bioversity has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through four programmes: Diversity for Livelihoods, Understanding and Managing Biodiversity, Global Partnerships, and Commodities for Livelihoods.The international status of Bioversity is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2007, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,Classification of Stylosanthes species into sections and according to their ploidy level. Table 2 Taxonomic treatment of the Stylosanthes guianensis species complex. Table 3 Chromosome numbers of Mexican Stylosanthes species. Table 4 Usefulness of different molecular markers for genetic diversity studies in Stylosanthes. Table 5 List of Stylosanthes humilis genotypes studied, with their origin and classification based on different molecular markers. 40-41 Table 6 Stylosanthes species and locations in Mexico where Colletotrichum isolates were obtained.          Pests and diseases are important constraints to production in both traditional and modern agricultural systems. It is widely accepted that crop diversity, mainly through use of resistance and tolerance genes, is an important asset in reducing the risk of crop losses related to pests and diseases. However, little is known about the effect of the natural pathogen diversity on the occurrence and severity of phytopathological infestations. This publication summarizes the results of the multidisciplinary project 'Genetic diversity studies in the interaction between the anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and its host plant Stylosanthes spp.' The legume Stylosanthes is an important forage crop worldwide and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is its most important pathogen. This project was a multidisciplinary bi-national effort centred in Mexico, a centre of origin of the host plant, which focused on characterizing both the host plant and the pathogen using different characterization techniques, from macro-morphological through molecular.As anthracnosis is reducing Stylosanthes yields from Africa to Australia, an increased knowledge and understanding of the co-existence of crop and pathogen diversity will benefit stakeholders outside the study area as well. A team of international researchers undertook a coordinated effort to increase the inclusion of information on host and pathogen diversity in areas where the crop and its pathogen are native. The Unité de Phytopathologie de l'Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium (UCL) focused on the characterization of C. gloeosporioides and other Colletotrichum species associated with wild Stylosanthes species in Mexico, while Stylosanthes diversity and taxonomy were studied by the Laboratorio de Recursos Naturales, Unidad de Biología, Tecnología y Prototipos, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) at the morphological level and by the Laboratory of Gene Technology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (KUL) that studied the material at the molecular level. The Mexican partner, UNAM, was responsible for the collection of materials, both host plant and pathogen, while the Belgian partners, UCL and KUL, carried out the molecular analysis. This study is a clear example of how a collaborative, multidisciplinary effort, including the exchange of plant material, allows for the optimal use of existing synergies between different research centres, leading to a better understanding of a complex theme such as hostpathogen diversity. This will permit a better use of the crop's genetic diversity, and the corresponding resistance genes available, as well as the application of better screening methods for pest or disease resistance, based on a more extensive pathogen diversity.Bioversity International, formerly known as IPGRI, and its Regional Office for the Americas in Cali, Colombia is honoured that it was allowed to coordinate this project.The project 'Genetic diversity studies in the interaction between the anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and its host plant Stylosanthes spp.' was implemented in two phases, from 1993 to 1995 and from 1997 to 1999, with the support of the Belgian Directorate-General for Development Cooperation (DGDC). The project was undertaken by Bioversity International's Regional Office for the Americas, in Cali, Colombia, in collaboration with three research units: l'Unité de Phytopathologie de l'Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium (UCL), the Laboratorio de Recursos Naturales, Unidad de Biología, Tecnología y Prototipos, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), and the Laboratory of Gene Technology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (KUL).The main objective of the project was to study the genetic diversity within a plant host, the important forage legume genus Stylosanthes, in relation to the diversity found in its most important pathogen, the anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum, both collected from Mexico, the geographical area of origin of these organisms.Located at the junction of two different biogeographical domains and showing a complex topography, Mexico is considered the second centre of diversity for Stylosanthes, and, as such, an ideal area for this study. Stylosanthes material collected in 17 Mexican states by UNAM, in combination with existing herbarium material, provided the basis for the macroand micro-morphological, palynological, cytological, molecular and anthracnose studies.Project components investigating the diversity of Stylosanthes and of its pathogen were implemented in Belgium by KUL and UCL, respectively. The research at UCL focused on the morphological, pathogenic and molecular characteristics of wild isolates of Colletotrichum associated with Stylosanthes in Mexico. These were compared with isolates causing anthracnose on cultivated Stylosanthes (mainly C. gloeosporioides). An accurate knowledge of wild isolates allowed clarification of their origin and their specificity for Stylosanthes.KUL developed and used molecular markers for studies on inter-and intraspecific relationships in Stylosanthes. Since a solid taxonomic foundation was essential for such a study, UNAM conducted a systematic study of Stylosanthes in Mexico using macro-and micro-morphological, palynological and cytological data. Distribution patterns of all the Mexican species and their ecological requirements were also ascertained.Bioversity International provided coordination and technical support, in particular providing guidance on germplasm collection and use. Based on the reports and scientific papers prepared by the partners, the strategy, methodology and the findings of each component are discussed.Stylosanthes species are among the most economically significant pasture and forage legumes in the tropical and subtropical regions, mainly because of their adaptation to a wide variety of climatic and edaphic conditions. They originate primarily from South and Central America. As a nitrogen-fixing legume, they restore soil fertility, and when used as cover crop they are known to stabilize the soil and arrest land degradation (Thomas 1984;Ramesh et al. 1997). Stylosanthes species can be used in both, grazed pastures and mixed crop-forage systems, and they have therefore a widespread application in a variety of animal feeding systems. In Asia and Africa, they are commonly used as freshly cut fodder, as dried hay, or as leaf meal supplement for fish and farm animals (Chakraborty 2004). In northern Australia, Stylosanthes serves as a protein-rich pasture plant for cattle. Some species appear to have the potential to substantially reduce populations of cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) because of the sticky secretions they produce, which immediately immobilize the larvae of the tick (Sutherst et al. 1982;Khudrathulla and Jagannath 1998).Stylosanthes has achieved its greatest commercial success in countries outside its centre of diversity (Cameron and Chakraborty 2004;Pengelly et al. 2004). The first successes were obtained with the annual S. humilis and the perennial S. guianensis (Cameron and Chakraborty 2004). S. scabra, S. hamata (4x) and S. viscosa are other species that have been improved and of which commercial cultivars have been released. The majority of the other Stylosanthes species are economically less important. They may, however, fill particular ecological niches or provide breeders with much needed genetic diversity for traits such as disease resistance and drought or cold tolerance.The major constraint to Stylosanthes cultivation, wherever grown, is the anthracnose disease caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc., a diverse and quickly adapting fungus. Anthracnose's threat to many productive Stylosanthes cultivars in many countries (Irwin and Cameron 1978;Irwin et al. 1984;Lenné 1993;Miles and Lascano 1997), has in the last decades led to intensified research for resistant lines. Genetic resources collection combined with evaluation and the resulting germplasm selections have continued to be the major contributors to new cultivars. Two important institutes working on Stylosanthes breeding are Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. Both have included breeding programmes in addition to their germplasm activities (Schultze-Kraft 1984;Maass and Sawkins 2004).There is no doubt that an improved taxonomic classification and an advanced understanding of the phylogenetic relationships between Stylosanthes species will enhance a better use of the germplasm.The first time that a species now known to belong to the genus Stylosanthes was reported, was in 1696 when Sir Hans Sloane listed Anonis non spinosa, minor, glabra, procumbens, flore lutea as occurring in Jamaica (Sloane 1696). The plant's species name at that time was Anonis non spinosa and describing it as 'small, glabrous, procumbent, with yellow flowers', he was referring to the actual Stylosanthes humilis Kunth. In 1788, Swartz established the genus Stylosanthes Sw. with two species, S. procumbens (=S. hamata (L.) Taub) and S. viscosa (L.) Sw., and characterized it by the presence of a very long tubular calyx divided into five unequal and laciniate lobes, a papilionoid corolla, ten stamens with a free apex and a bi-articulate and uncinate pod as the fruit. Since that time, the genus has been revised several times. Vogel (1838) was the first to critically review the genus and to establish the main division of the genus into the sections Styposanthes and Stylosanthes. Of the fifteen species mentioned by Vogel, seven were described for the first time (S. angustifolia, S. leiocarpa, S. montevidensis, S. bojeri, S. scabra, S. capitata and S. bracteata) and apart from S. bojeri which is now called S. fruticosa, the other six species are still recognized (Gama-López 2006). As new species were added by various authors, new infraspecific taxa emerged (Pilger 1901) and alternative taxonomic arrangements were proposed (Burkart 1939). Meanwhile, Blake described in 1920 seven new species and six new infraspecific taxa, of which three are endemic to Mexico, i.e. S. macrocarpa, S. purpurata (= S. dissitiflora) and S. subsericea. Mohlenbrock (1958) later changed the name of S. purpurata into S. guianensis ssp. dissitiflora. Before the actual division of the genus was established (Mohlenbrock 1960;1963), the sections´ names (Herter, 1943) and their morphological traits were changed a couple of times (Mohlenbrock, 1958).The most recent taxonomic treatments of the genus were undertaken by Ferreira and Costa (1979), who described 25 Brazilian species, and by 't Mannetje (1984) who published a new classification omitting the sections and using the length and fruit rostrum as main characters. During the latter study, 't Mannetje observed a lot of species difficult to identify taxonomically, e.g. the Mexican species S. subsericea and S. macrocarpa.Since these last reviews, new Brazilian species have been described: S. nunoi (Brandão 1991), S. longicarpa (Brandão and Costa 1992), S. seabrana (Maass and 't Mannetje 2002) and S. maracajuensis (Costa and Van den Berg 2003). Although the taxonomic status of S. seabrana was only validated in 2002, commercial cultivars of this species had been registered already in 1996 (Maass and Sawkins 2004). S. salina (Costa and Van den Berg 2001) and S. recta (Vanni 1995) have recently been described for Mexico and Paraguay, respectively. S. salina was not considered in this research project, however, because results of morphological analysis showed that this species is a morphotype of S. viscosa (Gama-López 2006).Stylosanthes Sw. is a small neotropical herbaceous or suffruticose legume genus of the Leguminosae family (Lewis and Schrire 2003). Although for a long time it was classified in the Aeschynomeneae tribe, Klitgaard and Lavin (2005), now have firmly positioned the genus in the Dalbergieae tribe, based on analyses of three molecular DNA sequence data sets. The subfamily of Stylosanthes, Papilionoideae (or Faboideae) includes nearly 727 genera and 19 320 species, classified in 68 tribes (Polhill et al. 1981;Lewis et al. 2005). An estimated 50 genera and 850 species of papilionoids are found in tropical areas. About 2000 species of these can be used as forage crops, whereas others can be used as green manure as a nitrogen source (Williams et al. 1976).Currently, the genus Stylosanthes contains an estimated 50 species. About 23 species are distributed in South America and 10 species are present both in South and Central America. Several Neotropical species have been cultivated in Africa, Asia and Australia (e.g. S. guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. s.l., S. humilis Kunth and S. viscosa Sw.) where they now are naturalized (Klitgaard and Lavin 2005).The genus is characterized by sessile flowers, monadelphous stamens that are often united in a closed tube, dimorphic anthers, elongate receptacles, tri-foliate leaves, and stipules that are fused with the petiole. Fruits are loments that develop aboveground (Burkart 1939;Rudd 1981). The genus contains two subgeneric sections, section Stylosanthes and section Styposanthes. These are differentiated by the respective absence or presence of an axis rudiment, which is thought to be an aborted secondary floral axis (Taubert 1891), and the respective presence of one or two inner bracteoles (Mohlenbrock 1963;Kirkbride and Kirkbride 1987). Both sections include diploid species, but polyploid species are restricted to the section Styposanthes (Table 1).The wide distribution of Stylosanthes and its interactions with different environmental conditions have resulted in the existence of polymorphic species, which has caused nomenclatural and taxonomic problems. This is reflected in the different views about the taxonomic treatment. The classical taxonomic treatment has been mostly based on fruit morphology, in particular, the length and degree of curvature of the pod beak, the indumentation of the pod, and the width and venation of the outer bract ('t Mannetje 1984). In contrast, Ferreira and Costa (1979) emphasized the number of vascular bundles, the leaflet venation and the growth habit as main diagnostic features when reviewing Stylosanthes from Brazil. As a consequence several members of the S. guianensis complex have been classified as distinct species by Ferreira and Costa (1979), while 't Mannetje (1977, 1984) classifies them as varieties (Table 2).Table 1. Classification of Stylosanthes species into sections and according to their ploidy level.Section Styposanthes Section Stylosanthes Table 2. Taxonomic treatment of the Stylosanthes guianensis species complex.Additional methods to complement the use of morphological characteristics have been used to elucidate further the taxonomic relationships of Stylosanthes. 't Mannetje (1969) assessed affinities between Rhizobium and Stylosanthes; analysis of morphological and agronomical traits were conducted by Burt et al. (1971Burt et al. ( , 1974)), karyotype and isozyme characterization by Stace and Cameron (1984) and biogeographical evaluation by Williams et al. (1984). Recent advances in molecular genetics and the development of molecular marker techniques have made important contributions to the phylogenetic, taxonomic and diversity research of Stylosanthes. The following techniques have been used by Stylosanthes researchers: randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Kazan et al. 1993a,b;Glover et al. 1994;Vieira et al. 1997;Liu 1997;Gillies and Abbott 1998), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Curtis et al. 1995;Gillies and Abbott 1996;Liu and Musial 1995;1996;Liu et al. 1999), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) (Sawkins 1999;Sawkins et al. 2001, Chang-Sun et al. 2004), DNA sequencing of the nrDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (Sawkins 1999) and sequence-tagged sites (STS) analysis (Liu et al. 1999;Liu and Musial 2001).To manage germplasm collections and to interpret the diversity of Stylosanthes for conservation practices, taxonomic and evolutionary studies are essential. Due to their agronomic importance, most studies have been concentrated on widespread, well known or agronomically important Stylosanthes species, while minor species have been neglected. However, many of these minor species occur in restricted or isolated areas with effective barriers to gene flow, which has allowed the evolution of regionally adapted genotypes (Stace and Cameron 1984).The genus Stylosanthes has a monophyletic origin (Gillies and Abbott 1996) and is closely related to Arachis (Lavin et al. 2001). Gillies and Abbott (1996) were the first to undertake a detailed phylogenetic study of the genus. Based on RFLP analysis of chloroplast DNA in 18 Stylosanthes species, they proposed to divide Stylosanthes into 4 major clades. Liu et al. (1999) identified ten basal genomes in the Stylosanthes genus through the application of RFLP and STS analyses.Allopolyploidy may lead, as is the case for Stylosanthes, to the formation of new species. The presence of two divergent genomes in an allopolyploid species combines the traits of both progenitors, which usually contribute to generation of new genotypes adapted to a broader range of environmental conditions than their parents. Polyploids are generally hardier and more vigorous when compared to their parents (Lewis 1980). Some economically important cultivars are found in the tetraploid species. These are S. scabra, S. hamata [(S. hemihamata Stace & Cameron sp. nov. ined. (Stace and Cameron 1984)] and S. capitata (Maass and Sawkins 2004). Due to the occurrence of desirable traits such as disease and drought resistance, they have been cultivated worldwide as a forage plant (Edye 1997;Guodao et al. 1997;Lusembo et al. 1997;Miles and Lascano 1997;Ramesh et al. 1997).The basic chromosome number of Stylosanthes is x=10. Most species are diploid (2x=20) but tetraploid (4x=40) species and one hexaploid (6x=60) species have been described. All known tetraploid species, with the exception of S. capitata, are thought to be the result of an intersectional hybridization between diploids, followed by polyploidization (Stace and Cameron 1984). As mentioned before, the Stylosanthes genus is divided into two sections, the section Styposanthes contains both diploid and polyploid species, while species in section Stylosanthes are exclusively diploid (Table 1).RFLP and STS analysis of nuclear loci were used successfully to identify diploid progenitors for the allotetraploid species (Curtis et al. 1995;Liu and Musial 1997). The additive nature of RFLP and STS banding patterns enables the identification of the constituent genomes of allotetraploids. These molecular data revealed that all known allotetraploid species of Stylosanthes arose from hybridization between diploid species from section Stylosanthes (genomes B or C) and a diploid species from section Styposanthes (genome A) with the exception of S. capitata, whose putative ancestors, S. macrocephala or S. bracteata and S. pilosa, all belong to the Styposanthes section (Liu et al. 1999;Ma et al. 2004).Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. is considered the most important pathogen of Stylosanthes. This worldwide disease was first recorded at Deodoro in Brazil in 1937 on S. humilis (Anon. 1937). During the last decades this anthracnose fungus has considerably limited Stylosanthes cultivation in South America (Lenné and Calderon 1984;Miles and Lascano 1997), Florida (Sonoda et al. 1974;Lenné and Sonoda 1982a) and Australia. In the 1970s, anthracnose disease wiped out a quarter of the naturalized S. humilis growing on almost 2 million hectares in northern Australia (Ramesh and Gangaiah 2004). From the 1980s onwards, anthracnose caused extremely severe crop losses in Africa and isolates able to overcome resistance of newly released genotypes appeared rapidly (Maraite 1993).The fact that the highly variable anthracnose pathogen eliminated some promising cultivars from the market gave rise to breeding strategies to develop cultivars with broadbased resistance. This, in turn, triggered extensive work on the epidemiology and genetics of the fungus. In general, commercial utilization of Stylosanthes has been more successful in countries outside the centre of origin (Miles and Lascano 1997), partly due to limited diversity in the pathogen population.Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is characterized by an extreme variability of morphological and cultural characteristics (von Arx 1957;Mordue 1971;Sutton 1992). On potato dextrose agar (PDA), mycelium is mostly greyish white to deep grey. The underside of the colonies varies from white to dark green or brown, becoming darker with age. Conidia are usually produced as pale salmon masses in acervuli, more often setose, but sometimes glabrous, and as much as 500 μm in diameter. Conidia are straight, hyaline, normally uninucleate, very variable in length (9-24 μm), usually 3-4.5 μm wide (Sutton 1980) up to 6 μm according to von Arx (1957), and present a variable proportion of obtuse apices. Appressoria are 6-20 4-12 μm, ovoid to clavate, sometimes lobed. Conidia germinate and form appressoria at one or both extremities, at the end of very short or long hyphae. In culture media, appressoria are often formed from mycelium and become complex.Many fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Often only one method of reproduction is observable at a specific point in time or under specific environmental conditions. In these cases, mycologists have devised two names: 'teleomorph' refers to the sexual phase of the particular fungus; 'anamorph' to the asexual phase. 'Holomorph' describes the 'whole fungus', encompassing both methods. In case of C. gloeosporioides, the teleomorph is Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spaulding & Schrenk, for which very few data are available on optimal conditions required for its perithecial production. Perithecia, the fruiting bodies in ascomycetous fungi that contain the ascospores, are occasionally formed in young culture and more often in older ones. The perithecia are 85-300 μm in diameter, solitary or aggregated, globose, dark brown to black. The asci, (35)42-60(80) (8)10-12( 14) μm, are clavate to cylindrical and thickened at the apex. They contain eight ascospores that are oval, or cylindrical to fusiform, unicellular and hyaline, (9)12-24(30) (3)4-6( 8) μm (von Arx 1957). G. cingulata has first been described as homothallic by Edgerton (1914). Cisar et al. (1994) have demonstrated that self-sterile isolates of C. gloeosporioides from distantly related hosts were sexually compatible. Recent studies demonstrated the existence of a complex reproductive system in G. cingulata, involving a single locus but with multiple alternative alleles (Cisar and TeBeest 1999).The fungus is a heterogeneous and complex species, comprising several host-specific populations and exhibiting extreme morphological variability (Cox and Irwin 1988;Davis et al. 1992). Morphological characters such as shape and size of conidia, setae and appressoria have been used, together with host origin, to define Colletotrichum species. This has often induced confusion and led to a proliferation of unnecessary names, especially by excessive reliance on the host origin. von Arx (1957) grouped as many as 600 taxa under the species name Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Sutton (1980) reduced the genus to 19 species and three \"group species\" (C. gloeosporioides, C. dematium and C. capsici) in which the variability was so important that an infraspecific level of classification was suspected, but at that time, there were not enough elements to support it. Sutton (1992) gathered partial descriptions for 17 additional species, but the lack of information on various morphological, cultural or pathogenic characteristics, as well as the possible synonymies, hampered a rigorous nomenclature classification.In recent studies, the taxonomy of various Colletotrichum species, including intraspecific differentiation in C. gloeosporioides (Freeman et al. 1998(Freeman et al. , 2000;;Abang et al. 2002) was reexamined in an attempt to integrate morphological, pathogenic and molecular data. The ITS1 and ITS2 regions have been used successfully in the genus Colletotrichum to elucidate phylogenetic relationships between species and to clarify their taxonomy (Sherriff et al. 1994;Sreenivasaprasad et al. 1996;Freeman et al. 2001;Hsiang and Goodwin 2001;Denoyes-Rothan et al. 2003;Martinez-Culebras et al. 2003).The history of Stylosanthes cultivation gives evidence of the devastation that the anthracnose disease can cause worldwide. Anthracnose affects biomass and seed yield, and production losses in affected pasture lands can be up to 100% (Lenné 1986). A few assays have been performed and demonstrated a reduction of 58% of the dry matter in S. hamata fields in Florida (Lenné and Sonoda 1982a) and of 64% to 100% in S. guianensis in Colombia (Lenné 1986). In Australia, the dry matter yield and the seed losses were, respectively, 22% and 16% in S. scabra cv. Fitzroy; 67% and 49% in S. hamata cv. Verano; and 53% and 42% in S. guianensis cv. Graham (Davis et al. 1987). In many Asian countries, anthracnose seriously affected the first commercial Stylosanthes cultivars (Guodao et al. 1997). Mohamed-Saleem and Adeoti (1989) stressed the need to identify more productive, anthracnose-tolerant Stylosanthes lines as alternatives to the cv. Verano stylo in West Africa. Between 1981 and the date of this latter publication, more than 300 Stylosanthes lines were introduced into Nigeria for screening.Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, like all Colletotrichum species infecting legumes, is seedborne (Ellis et al. 1976;Lenné and Sonoda 1982b;Davis 1987). Within pastures, raindrops and animal grazing are the main agents of anthracnose spread. In the epidemiology of this fungus, the sexual stage does not play a significant role. The asexually produced conidia are the principal inoculum source. The optimal conditions required for anthracnose development are temperatures between 20°C and 30°C and more than 12 hours of continuous leaf wetness (Irwin et al. 1984;Chakraborty et al. 1990). As the conidia in the acervuli are embedded in a mucilaginous matrix (Louis and Cook 1985), it requires free surface water to suspend the conidia and make them available for splash dispersal. Chakraborty and Datta (2003) observed an increase in fecundity (spores produced per lesion area) under a higher concentration of CO 2 , and noted that this could lead to an increase in the spread and severity of disease in the future, having important implications for the functional duration of resistance in crop plants. A weather-based forecasting system for anthracnose severity on S. scabra was developed by Chakraborty et al. (2004). The model integrated 10 weather data attributes and was developed on the basis of artificial neural network (ANN) models. Briefly, the model allows one to predict anthracnose development at sites other than those where the data were collected, and allows calculation of the overall risk of anthracnose at field sites, using a set of weightings from the trained ANN models.Due to the important seed losses and the susceptibility of juvenile plants, strategic application of fungicides such as benomyl could be applied for seed crops and at plant establishment (Irwin 1989). Davis (1987) showed that seedborne infections can be effectively prevented with benomyl when applied as a dry seed treatment. A study in India calculated the benefit of using fungicidal sprays to control anthracnose in Stylosanthes, showing that net returns were positive for all cultivars (Ramesh and Gangaiah 2004). Nevertheless, in extensive agricultural systems, such as in the huge cattle farms of Australia, or in developing countries, chemical control remains economically prohibitive.The use of resistant varieties has thus been the principal recommended control strategy. The important genetic variability of C. gloeosporioides, however, has induced a rapid appearance of isolates able to overcome the resistance of the selected genotypes (Lourd et al. 1979;Maraite 1993). In Australia, the use of composites lines containing several resistance genes, such as cv. Siran (S. scabra), provides some insurance against new anthracnose isolates. Another strategy is intercrossing between species and subsequent selection of lines to develop a broader-based resistance. Inter-and intraspecific mixtures are also used in Australia. A more recent approach consists of pyramiding genes related to resistance through the use of linked DNA markers, but until now there have been no commercial applications of genetically engineered varieties (Partridge et al. 1996). Phylloplane bacteria may play a role in disease management in naturally existing conditions. Bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp., collected from the phylloplane of S. guianensis in Peru, inhibited both mycelial growth in vitro and conidial germination of the anthracnose pathogen on leaves of S. guianensis (Lenné and Brown 1991).In the 1970s, pathogenic variation in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was identified in Australia when two types were discovered, designated as type A and type B. They were isolated from Stylosanthes spp. and distinguished by the symptoms induced on plants, by infection strategy, by cultural and molecular characteristics and by host range (Irwin and Cameron 1978;Irwin et al. 1984). However, nowadays, the existence of strains that do not clearly belong to either type has been confirmed (Kelemu et al. 1999;Chakraborty et al. 2002).Type A isolates infect a wide range of Stylosanthes species worldwide, causing restricted lesions characterized by a tan-coloured centre surrounded by a dark margin, 1-3 mm in diameter on leaves and 3-6 mm on stems (Irwin and Cameron 1978) (Figure 1a). Under warm and humid conditions, the lesions coalesce on leaves and petiole, causing defoliation, whereas lesions on stems develop into cankers (Sonoda et al. 1974) and can cause the death of susceptible plants. Mature acervuli are commonly observed in the centre of the lesions. Type B isolates are mainly restricted to S. guianensis and its symptoms are characterized by homogenous brown extensive lesions on leaves (Figure 1b) and on stems, causing defoliation, terminal shoot necrosis and plant death. These symptoms were also observed on S. erecta, S. gracilis and S. grandifolia (Lenné et al. 1983;Irwin et al. 1984).Type A isolates usually produce conidia with obtuse apices, homogeneous in size, while type B isolates produce an important proportion of conidia with acute extremities, irregular in size. Additionally, type A grows more rapidly on solid medium than type B isolates (Irwin and Cameron 1978). Differences in dsRNA patterns, karyotype and ITS regions and the use of neutral markers such as RAPD and AFLP have shown that the two types are genetically distinct, but that there is a considerable variation within each type. A clear distinction of the dsRNA patterns was demonstrated between type A and B isolates (Dale et al. 1988). Furthermore, transmission of dsRNA (via hyphal anastomosis) is unlikely to occur between the two types and the authors concluded that fusions between the types do not occur in the field. Important variation in chromosome size and number were observed, both between and within types A and B (Masel et al. 1990). The most important finding was that polymorphism was only observed for the mini-chromosomes. This suggests that, in the field, the genome of C. gloeosporioides is very variable and that chromosomal re-arrangements should be considered as a means of generating variability for this fungus. Extensive studies on the diversity in South America has not only demonstrated a very important DNA polymorphism between isolates from different localities, but also between isolates collected within the same area (Chakraborty et al. 1997;Kelemu et al. 1997Kelemu et al. , 1999;;Weeds et al. 2003). RAPD allowed distinction of newly aggressive isolates of type A among a wide set of Australian isolates presenting a very low level of genomic diversity (Chakraborty et al. 1999).The centres of diversity and the natural distribution of Stylosanthes are well known. Its primary centre of origin is South America, while a secondary centre is located in the Mexico-Caribbean basin. Several species, however, are native to Africa and Asia (Williams et al. 1984).The origin of the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates that cause anthracnose on Stylosanthes remains unclear, although it is presumed that South America also corresponds to the centre of diversity of this pathogen (Kelemu et al. 2004).One hypothesis is that C. gloeosporioides isolates that are pre-existing in nature have passed to Stylosanthes crops and become progressively adapted to their new host. This could have been followed by the selection of aggressive isolates, which paved the way to the worldwide anthracnose epidemics. Another hypothesis is the occurrence of isolates specifically adapted to Stylosanthes, which have co-evolved with their host and which have been accidentally introduced into Stylosanthes growing areas. This suggests a correlation between the host and the pathogen diversity (Munaut 1999). According to Ramesh et al. (2004), the pathogen most probably has spread from its presumed centre of origin to the centres of Stylosanthes utilization through infected seed.South American C. gloeosporioides isolates that infect S. guianensis demonstrated an important genetic and pathogenic diversity (Kelemu et al. 1997(Kelemu et al. , 1999;;Chakraborty et al. 2002;Weeds et al. 2003). Information on C. gloeosporioides present in wild Stylosanthes populations is limited, while occurrence of other Colletotrichum species in these populations has not been studied at all (Munaut 1999). In order to evaluate the diversity in the wild, where the fungus is not subjected to artificial selection pressure, the project reported here was carried out in Mexico. At the start of the studies, eight Stylosanthes species had been described in Mexico (Mohlenbrock 1958(Mohlenbrock , 1963)): S. calcicola Small, S. guianensis (Aubl.) Sw.[S. guianensis subsp. guianensis and S. guianensis subsp. dissitiflora (Robinson & Seaton) Mohlenbr.], S. hamata (L.) Taub, S. humilis Kunth, S. macrocarpa S.F. Blake, S. mexicana Taub., S. subsericea S.F. Blake, and S. viscosa Sw. As Mexico is located in the northern part of the Stylosanthes diversity centre, and as it shows a remarkable biological diversity and as it is characterized by a wide range of climatic, ecogeographical and edaphic conditions, this country seemed a natural candidate to host an significant representation of Stylosanthes diversity and corresponding C. gloeosporioides variability.The wide distribution of Stylosanthes and its ensuing interaction with different environmental conditions has resulted in the development of polymorphic species. This has resulted in a complex nomenclatural and taxonomic scenario for the genus. In an effort to shed light on this issue, a systematic study of the genus Stylosanthes, with a focus on the Mexican species, was carried out, integrating ecogeography, palynology, cytology, microand macro-morphology and molecular biology.A thorough study of Stylosanthes in Mexico combined herbarium specimens with field collections. The herbarium species belonged to the collections of the Natural History Museum (BM), Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Herbario de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Jardin Botanique National de Belgique (BR), Field Museum of Natural History (F), Harvard University (GH), Herbario del Instituto de Botánica, Universidad de Guadalajara (IBUG), Herbario Nacional de México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (MEXU), Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (K), Missouri Botanical Garden (MO), New York Botanical Garden (NY) and Smithsonian Institution (US). Collection took place during 15 field trips visiting 83 sites. Site selection was based on distributional data reported by Mohlenbrock (1958), 't Mannetje (1977), Williams et al. (1984) or derived from the labels of herbarium specimens. Sites were located in 17 states in Mexico, i.e. Campeche, Chiapas, Coahuila, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Quinta Roo, San Luís Potosí, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Yucatán (Map 1) (Figures 2  and 3). The material was collected, prepared, separated and packed for morphological, fruit micro-morphological, palynological, cytological, DNA and/or anthracnose study. All herbarium and field specimens were recorded in a database.  2. Chiapas;3. Coahuila;4. Guerrero;5. Jalisco;6. Michoacán;7. Nayarit;8. Nuevo León;9. Oaxaca;10. Puebla;11. Querétaro;12. Quinta Roo;13. San Luís Potosí;14. Sinaloa;15. Tamaulipas;16. Veracruz;and 17. Yucatán   During field collection, clear morphological polymorphism within some Stylosanthes species was observed. This polymorphism, together with the unclear taxonomical descriptions of the Stylosanthes genus and its corresponding species, complicated identification of the specimens collected. Therefore micro-morphology of Stylosanthes fruits and pollen was analysed, aimed at finding unique characteristics for each of the different Stylosanthes species. The results of this and the macro-morphological studies were used to undertake a phenetic analysis to discuss or to confirm the identity of the species and to analyse similarities between the species. Whereas at the start of this study eight species had been described for Mexico, when the project was finished eleven species were taken into consideration.A first step in the identification of the collected specimens was to group them according to their morphological characteristics and by their geographical distribution to allow comparison with herbarium specimens. If the identity of the specimen could not be ascertained in this way, the use of the taxonomical descriptions by Mohlenbrock (1958) and't Mannetje (1977) were not helpful either. These descriptions appeared to be unsatisfactory to determine the taxonomic classification of the often highly variable Mexican species.The polymorphism within some species observed in the field was mostly related to the (eco)geographical distribution of the corresponding species. Variability in the widely distributed Stylosanthes guianensis was noticed such as in pubescence in the vegetative structures (viscid versus non-viscid), stem length, leaflet size and flowers per inflorescence. The wide geographical distribution of S. viscosa was also reflected in the different forms in its populations. 't Mannetje (1984) considered the length of the rostrum as an important trait to distinguish S. viscosa from other Stylosanthes species, describing it as having a rostrum less than 0.5 mm long. As Mexican field specimens, in contrast, often showed a rostrum longer than 0.5 mm, the length of the rostrum was not considered to be a consistent and differentiating character. Morphological differences in S. dissitiflora between the northern, central and southern Mexican populations were remarkable as well. Another example of polymorphism was detected in S. humilis, where populations growing on volcanic soils differed clearly from other populations of this species. Independently of the geographical region, or soil substrate, morphological variation within S. macrocarpa appeared to be very high, even within the populations. Another problem complicating identification was the very high similarity between some Stylosanthes species, such between as S. mexicana and S. macrocarpa.Questions on species delimitations can often be resolved by phenetic analysis, a common tool in species identification. It also provides additional information on similarities between species as well as on the identification of the most discriminating morphological characters. To carry out the phenetic analysis, qualitative and quantitative characters of the vegetative and reproductive structures, such as stem, stipules, trichomes, leaflets, inflorescences, flowers, bracts, bracteoles and fruits, were measured from several plant specimens of each Stylosanthes species. The descriptor list applied consisted of 137 descriptors with 390 descriptor states (Gama-López 2006). A formal description of each of the 11 taxa present in Mexico has been elaborated as part of this taxonomic revision (Gama-López 2006).Given the complex taxonomy of the genus, micro-morphology of Stylosanthes was also studied, i.e. fruit micro-morphology and pollen grains. Its main purpose was to determine species-specific morphological features of fruits and pollen grains that would facilitate solution of taxonomic problems in the genus.The number of papers documenting external micro-morphology of Stylosanthes fruits is limited. Serrato-Valenti et al. (1992) observed that the fruit pericarp is made up of prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate (idioblasts) and that it is covered by trichomes. No other detailed description was found of the external micro-morphology of Stylosanthes fruits.In this study, the external micro-morphology of fruits from 20 herbarium samples, representing 11 Mexican Stylosanthes species, was examined in detail. Several parts of each fruit were observed, i.e. complete fruit, middle section of the fruit, apical region of the rostrum, fruit base and pubescence, to obtain a comprehensive micro-morphological description of each species (Gama-López 2006). Some external morphological features of the fruit of S. macrocarpa are illustrated in Figure 5. The density and size of the calcium oxalate crystals was found to differ for each species. All species showed uniserate trichomes with a unicellular or bicellular foot, with only S. dissitiflora possessing glandular trichomes.Additional numeric data were obtained by measuring 5 external morphological features of 20 to 30 fruits per species, i.e. fruit length with rostrum not extended, fruit length with rostrum extended, fruit width, and length of both extended and not extended rostrum (Figure 4).Results obtained by multiple analysis of variance revealed that the species S. dissitiflora, S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. could be distinguished from the other Stylosanthes species by their small fruit width and their reduced rostrum. S. viscosa had a longer rostrum (either extended or not extended) than the previous three species, but the size of the fruit width was similar. The species S. calcicola, S. humilis, S. macrocarpa, S. mexicana, S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined.,   Pollen grains of Stylosanthes were described for the first time by Melhem (1966), and later by Ohashi (1971) and Pire (1974). For most Mexican species, however, there were no analyses available. In addition to its contribution to the phenetic analysis, this study was also proposed as a contribution to knowledge of the pollen morphology of the Mexican Stylosanthes species.Pollen samples were obtained from the anthers of herbarium samples and field-collected specimens belonging to 11 Stylosanthes species, including the two varieties of S. guianensis (S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined.). Fifteen pollen grains of each species were taken randomly. They were processed by the acetolysis method of Erdtman (1943), mounted with glycerine jelly to obtain permanent slides and observed through a light microscope (LM). For each species, the following characteristics of the pollen grains were measured: equatorial diameter (E), polar axis (P), and colpus width and exine thickness. These measures, as well as the derived measure of shape (P/E), were used to carry out an analysis of variance. Additionally, pollen samples were studied using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Quantitative and qualitative characters obtained from these studies were analysed by multivariate analysis. Some characters are illustrated in Figure 6.Analysis of variance of the values of the equatorial diameter, polar axis, colpus width, exine thickness and of the form coefficient showed that pollen grains of the different species are quite homogeneous, with exception of pollen size, where highly significant differences were observed at inter-and intraspecific level. S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., S. quintana-roensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. and S. subsericea could be distinguished from the remaining species by the size of their pollen, which are bigger, i.e. a polar axis of 41.47-43.01 μm and an equatorial diameter greater than 26.98 μm. The exine thickness was also greater (more than 2.59 μm) and the coefficient P/E was between 1.33 and 2.00 (Gama-López 2006).All the data concerning the qualitative and quantitative characters of the macromorphological study were included in the phenetic analysis. Two complementary methods were applied to carry out this analysis: hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA), both by using the NTSYS-PC 1.8 software package. These methods evaluate the similarity of the Stylosanthes species as a function of a specific set of variables. The cluster analysis allows knowing the level of association between the different Stylosanthes specimens and species, based on similarities between the characters studied. PCA indicates identification of those characteristics that contributed most to the explanation of the differences between species and specimens.Results of this phenetic analysis suggested the existence of 11 Stylosanthes taxa in Mexico, with 2 intraspecific taxa. At the beginning of the study 8 Mexican Stylosanthes species, described by Mohlenbrock were known (cf. Section 2.3 in this publication), i.e. S. calcicola Small, S. guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. [S. guianensis subsp. guianensis and S. guianensis subsp. dissitiflora (Robinson et Seaton) Mohlenbr.], S. humilis Kunth, S. macrocarpa S.F. Blake, S. mexicana Taub., S. subsericea S.F. Blake andS. viscosa Sw. Mohlenbrock (1958, 1963) recognized erroneously also the presence of S. hamata (L.) Taub. in Mexico (Gama-López 2006). Nevertheless, after having visited different Stylosanthes populations and identified the specimens collected, one could observe that the morphological characteristics of the supposed Mexican S. hamata populations had more morphological similarity to S. humilis. The taxonomic references consulted showed a lack of clarity in the taxonomic delimitation of the two species, as well as with respect to the phenology and the distribution intervals. Finally, at the end of this study, 11 Stylosanthes taxa and 2 intraspecific taxa were taken into consideration. Besides S. calcicola, S. guianensis var. guianensis, S. humilis, S. macrocarpa, S. mexicana, S. subsericea and S. viscosa, a taxonomic combination was recognized for S. dissitiflora Robinson & Seaton. Moreover, three new species (suggested taxa) were detected, i.e. Stylosanthes pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. (Figure 7), Stylosanthes quintana-roensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. and Stylosanthes tehuacanensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., and one new intraspecific taxon, namely Stylosanthes guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. (Gama-López 2006).The results of the phenetic analysis also allowed a better understanding of the taxonomic delimitations of the Mexican Stylosanthes species. The most relevant character to distinguish the different Stylosanthes species was the shape of the fruit base, which allowed division of the 11 species into two sections: (1) Section Humilis, which corresponds to those species that possess a fruit base that is longer than wide; and (2) Section Viscosa, which includes the species that have a fruit base with equal length and width. Results of the phenetic analysis illustrated the importance of some morphological characteristics that were not considered relevant or important in previous taxonomical studies: exine thickness, colpus width, ornamentation of exine, fruit base, presence of glandular trichomes on epicarp, length of lateral calyx lobes, calyx width and length of outer bract. In general, the clusters obtained corresponded well with species delimitations. S. calcicola, S. dissitiflora, S. humilis and S. viscosa are well delimited species, as proven by well defined clusters. Delimitation of the species S. macrocarpa and S. mexicana based on phenetic analysis is difficult due to similar characteristics. However, their distributional range is different.The new species S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. was identified first in Oaxaca and Guerrero, where it grows sympatric with the species S. humilis. S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & Dávila sp. nov. ined. is morphologically similar to S. humilis, but differs from it by the presence of an axis rudiment and two internal bracteoles, and by its ploidy level, which is tetraploid (4x=40). The second newly described species, S. quintanaroensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., is similar to S. calcicola in having a fruit with a straight rostrum and the same number of inner bracteoles. It varies, however, from the latter by having persistent stipules on the whole stem length and by the absence of an axis rudiment. The last new species, S. tehuacanensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., is similar to S. viscosa in its habit, in the presence of spots on the leaflets and in the number of bracts and bracteoles, but it differs from S. viscosa in having an axis rudiment, a fruit with a circular base and a recurved rostrum.  For each Mexican Stylosanthes species, the general distribution is described according to Mohlenbrock (1958, 1960, 1963), 't Mannetje (1977) and Williams et al. (1984). In addition to the description of the distribution in Mexico and its corresponding habitat, distribution maps were prepared using the 642 geographical coordinates of the herbarium species and of the species collected. Maps were developed using ESRI® Arcmap version 9.0 (Gama-López 2006). Genus Stylosanthes Sw. General distribution: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Distribution in Mexico: In most of the Mexican territory: from the peninsula of Baja California to the state of Quintana Roo. Habitat: In oak and pine-oak forest, in tropical deciduous, tropical evergreen and subevergreen forest, xerophytic scrubland, pasture (or savannah) and coastal dunes. Altitude varies from 0 to 2150 m.General distribution: In the southeast of the USA and Mexico, as well as in Central America and the Antilles (Cuba, Dominican Republic and Jamaica). Distribution in Mexico: In the Yucatán Peninsula and in the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatán, as well as in Chiapas, where it was reported for the first time. Habitat: Secondary vegetation of sub-evergreen and tropical deciduous forest, mangroves and coastal dunes. In disturbed areas next to road edges, in calcareous and alkaline soils and flood-prone areas. Altitude varies between 0 and 240 m, although in the state of Chiapas one population was found at 1550 m.General distribution: In Mexico and Central America. Distribution in Mexico: This species had been described in the states of Jalisco and Chiapas. During the collection trips, new localities in the states of Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Guerrero and Oaxaca were reported. Habitat: In pine-oak and oak forest and in disturbed areas of the oak forest. On ferric soils with sedimentary rocks. Altitude between 420 and 1350(-1680) m. Stylosanthes guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. General distribution: From Mexico down to northern Argentina. Distribution in Mexico: From the state of Sinaloa to Chiapas. Habitat: At the borders of pine-oak forest, in evergreen and sub-deciduous tropical forest, in xerophytic scrubland and in pasture. It grows in ferric soils and occasionally on volcanic soils. Altitude between 250 and 1650(-1875) m. Stylosanthes guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. var. guianensis General distribution: Widely distributed on the American continent: from the northwest of Mexico to northern Argentina. Distribution in Mexico: In the south, south-west and south-east of Mexico, i.e. in the states of Chiapas, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tabasco and Veracruz (Map 2). Habitat: At the edges of pine-oak forest, evergreen and sub-deciduous tropical forest, in xerophytic scrubland and pasture. It grows in ferric soils and occasionally on volcanic rock. Altitude between 250 and 1650 (-1875) m. Habitat: Along the margins of oak and pine-oak forests and of tropical deciduous forest; in pasture, coastal dunes and on waste ground. In ferric and calcareous soils, and sometimes in volcanic soils, at altitudes up to 1600 m. Stace and Cameron (1984) considered that in order to understand the polyploid populations of some Stylosanthes species, as well as to document their genetic origin, studies on the ploidy level should be prioritized.Observation of the mitotic and meiotic chromosomes of the Mexican Stylosanthes species revealed the presence of diploid and tetraploid species with normal behaviour during meiosis. Differences in chromosome length, as well as in the number and position of secondary constrictions, were observed. The chromosome numbers of the Mexican Stylosanthes species are reported for the first time.The chromosome numbers of the species were obtained from meristematic cells of primary roots. Roots were pre-treated with 0.001 M aqueous solution of 8-hydroxyquinoline for five hours. Subsequently, the chromosomes were stained using Feulgen´s solution (García 1990) with application of 1% aceto-orcein stain to enhance colouring. Permanent slides were obtained using the Conger & Fairchield method (Conger and Fairchield 1953).The diploid and polyploid numbers of the species studied were 2x=20 and 4x=40, with a basic number of x=10 (Table 3). Results obtained are in agreement with Cameron (1967), Stace and Cameron (1984) and Vanni (1987). The very small chromosome size hampered the karyotype analysis, and the number of chromosome pairs with satellites in the terminal part of the arms could not be distinguished. Chromosome size data obtained from the mitotic cells of S. dissitiflora, S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. varied, with the last two being larger.Another important aspect was the clear difference between the polyploid cells of S. pseudohumilis and the diploid ones of S. humilis. In S. pseudohumilis, the chromosome number was always tetraploid (Figure 8), in contrast with S. macrocarpa, where diploid and tetraploid chromosomes were observed, although fewer tetraploids. This may correspond with the morphological variation of this species, and warrants further investigation. Haploid chromosome numbers were obtained from pollen mother cells. Chromosomes were stained with 1% acetocarmine and mounted with Hoyer´s solution (Anderson 1954) to obtain semi-permanent slides.Studying the meiotic chromosomes of Stylosanthes species, it was confirmed that the haploid chromosomal number obtained (n=10), corresponded with half of the diploid number (2n=20). The meiotic behaviour was relatively normal. The chromosomal segregation occurred as expected with the separation of the ten chromosomes in each one of the poles in the first and second meiotic division. Meiotic cells presented at least one nucleolar organizer per genome and sometimes more than one bivalent was observed. There were only some irregularities observed in the mating of the chromosomes when becoming multivalent, probably due to chromosomic alterations (Stebbins 1971). Advanced understanding of phylogenetic relationships among Stylosanthes species, in combination with a well defined taxonomy, provides a solid basis for genetic diversity studies. In previous studies (Vander Stappen et al. 1999a,b, 2002a,b), phylogenetic relationships in Stylosanthes were inferred by DNA sequence analysis of the ITS region of nuclear ribosomal DNA and the trnL intron of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) in 119 genotypes, representing 36 species of Stylosanthes and 7 species of the outgroup genera Arachis and Chapmannia. In this study, ITS and cpDNA sequences from 30 Mexican Stylosanthes genotypes representing 11 species and 12 taxa, were determined and compared to previously published sequences by multiple DNA sequence alignment, followed by parsimony analysis. The results are shown in Figures 9 and 10.The Mexican genotypes of the diploid S. dissitiflora, S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. are grouped in an exclusively diploid clade that contains all members of the S. guianensis complex, S. montevidensis, S. macrosoma and S. biflora. While this clade 4 as a whole is well supported, its inner structure is poorly resolved by the differences between trnL and ITS sequence types. The data does not answer the question of whether S. dissitiflora should be considered as a variety of S. guianensis ('t Mannetje 1977), as a subspecies (Mohlenbrock 1958) or as a different species (cf. Section 3.1.1.3 in this publication). Results from ITS DNA sequencing support the taxonomic study of Gama-López, namely that two distinct taxa of S. guianensis are present in Mexico: the well known variety guianensis and the newly recognized variety occidentalis.The Mexican genotypes of the diploid S. humilis are clustered in clade 1, which contains diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species. The occurrence of different ITS types in S. humilis may be attributed to the different morphological forms (Burt 1984) of this widely distributed species. The diploid species S. viscosa belongs to clade 1 for both sequences. Different ITS types were found in the widely distributed S. viscosa.The tetraploid species S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. clusters in clade 1 and 3 based on the trnL intron and the ITS region, respectively. The trnL sequence types of S. pseudohumilis, S. humilis and two genotypes of tetraploid S. hamata (C and E) are identical. S. pseudohumilis has a distinct ITS sequence type that is most similar to the ITS sequence types of diploid S. hamata genotype B from the Bahamas and tetraploid S. hamata genotypes C and E. Given the close morphological similarity between S. pseudohumilis and S. humilis (cf. Section 3.1.1.3 in this publication) and their shared chloroplast DNA haplotype, S. humilis is considered as the maternal progenitor of S. pseudohumilis. The paternal genome donor of S. pseudohumilis is related to the diploid species S. hamata. Remarkably, the allotetraploid genotypes of S. hamata from Venezuela and Colombia [S. hemihamata Stace & Cameron sp. nov. ined. (Maass and Sawkins 2004)] have their origin in a similar process of hybridization, with S. hamata s.str. and S. humilis as the putative paternal and maternal genome donors (reviewed in Maass and Sawkins 2004). However, both species have distinct morphological features, with S. pseudohumilis sp. nov. ined. resembling its maternal progenitor S. humilis (cf. Section 3.1.1 in this publication) and S. hemihamata resembling its paternal progenitor S. hamata s.str. (Stace and Cameron 1987). Most probably, independent hybridization events have taken place between geographically distinct genotypes of the widespread S. humilis and S. hamata s.str.The diploid species S. calcicola clusters in clade 3, which is a clade containing diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species of Stylosanthes. S. mexicana contains diploid as well as tetraploid genotypes (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a). The diploid genotypes, which are endemic to Mexico, are grouped in clade 3. The two genotypes of S. mexicana that were collected in Bolivia and Venezuela (Mohlenbrock 1958) are tetraploid (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a). The species S. macrocarpa, which is endemic to Mexico, is known to be diploid (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a). However, in her taxonomic study, Gama-López identified diploid as well as tetraploid genotypes (cf. Section 3.2 in this publication). The diploid genotypes belong to clade 3.Discordance between nuclear and cpDNA analyses of the tetraploid genotypes of S. macrocarpa, S. mexicana, S. subsericea and S. tehuacanensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. are explained by a process of allopolyploidization, with inheritance of the cpDNA of one parent, which is related to clade 3, and fixation of the ITS sequences of the other, i.e. S. viscosa. A similar process has been suggested for the Central American species S. ingrata and S. hamata (type of S. eriocarpa Blake, genotype D), the South American species S. scabra, S. sericeiceps, the Caribbean species S. tuberculata, and the African species S. fruticosa (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a). The morphological and molecular diversity in these species may be related to independent and recurrent formation of these species by hybridization between different forms of the widespread S. viscosa and a second progenitor that belongs to clade 3.Based on parsimony analysis of the trnL intron and ITS DNA sequences, the Mexican tetraploid species S. quintana-roensis is clustered in clades 3 and 1, respectively. Molecular data from DNA sequencing of cpDNA and ITS combined with STS-PCR (Vander Stappen et al. 2002b) give strong support to S. quintana-roensis having an allotetraploid origin, with the maternal progenitor from clade 3 and the paternal contributor from clade 1.In conclusion, this phylogenetic study shows that Mexico, as a secondary centre of diversity, has been an important geographical region for Stylosanthes speciation, especially to speciation by allopolyploidization. Of the 11 species that were collected in Mexico, 5 are (partially) tetraploid, i.e. S. macrocarpa, S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., S. quintana-roensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., S. subsericea and S. tehuacanensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. The interaction of species from clade 3 (S. hamata, S. mexicana, S. macrocarpa and S. calcicola), which have a restricted distribution, with the widespread and polymorphic species S. humilis and S. viscosa from clade 1, has been very important for the origin of these Mexican allotetraploids. Five of these presumed genome donors are found in Mexico. Most of the taxonomic confusion in Stylosanthes can be related to independent and recurrent formation of these allotetraploid species by hybridization between different forms of the genome donors. A similar observation was made for the S. scabra complex (reviewed in Maass and Sawkins 2004).  Horizontal bars before species names indicate identical sequences. For the species with more than one sequence type, the name of the species is followed by a letter code that refers to the genotype studied. Subscripts indicate ploidy levels.Knowledge of the genetic diversity and the genetic structure of populations is of great importance for conservation and germplasm management of the species. As Mexico, a centre of diversity for Stylosanthes, possibly has interesting genotypes for the search for anthracnose-resistant Stylosanthes, molecular tools are needed that can be used for a largescale screening of the genetic diversity of natural Stylosanthes populations in Mexico. Besides a short presentation of the molecular tools used, the genetic diversity of four key Stylosanthes species in Mexico is discussed.Four PCR-based strategies were assessed to develop molecular markers in Stylosanthes. They differ from each other in several characteristics, such as (i) the target genome (mitochondrial, chloroplast or nuclear genome); (ii) the target DNA (coding or non-coding; single copy, lowcopy or multi-copy; single-locus or multi-locus); (iii) the level of polymorphism; (iv) the nature of polymorphism (basepair differences or length variation); and (v) allele frequency information (dominant or co-dominant). Depending on these characteristics, each molecular technique is appropriate for one or more aspects of biodiversity studies.In the first approach, DNA sequence analysis of two non-coding chloroplast regions, the trnL intron and the trnLF intergenic spacer, was used successfully in Stylosanthes to study species relationships and evolution (Vander Stappen and Volckaert 1999;Vander Stappen et al. 1999a-c, 2002b). In addition, chloroplast DNA sequence analysis was very useful for the identification of the maternal progenitors of polyploid species. The presence of a polymorphic microsatellite region and the observation of intraspecific variation in S. humilis makes the intergenic spacer region also suitable as a marker below the species level.The second approach involved DNA sequencing of the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (Vander Stappen et al. 1998, 2002a,b). The DNA sequence data derived from ITS allowed us to determine evolutionary relationships in Stylosanthes (cf. Section 3.3 in this publication). Most polyploid species contained one ITS copy, with similarity to either the maternal or the paternal progenitor, enabling the identification of one of the parental genome donors. Intraspecific variation in the ITS DNA sequence was found in several species. This variation was consistent with the genetic variation inferred from other molecular data, demonstrating the usefulness of this marker for genetic diversity studies in Stylosanthes. Although DNA sequence information is highly valuable, the large-scale screening of populations by DNA sequencing is economically not feasible. As an alternative, the occurrence of basepair variations in specific DNA regions can be assessed by DNA sequence analysis of a limited number of samples, followed by searching for restriction sites and corresponding restriction enzymes using PCR-RFLP, which may reveal the determined (known) basepair variation in an indirect way by visualization on an agarose gel system.The potential of the arbitrary-PCR techniques, i.e. RAPD and AFLP, in determining interand intraspecific variation in Stylosanthes species was tested and discussed (Vander Stappen 1999). These techniques have the advantage that no prior sequence information is required of the species under study. Because of problems with reproducibility and contamination, RAPD analysis was considered to be less suitable for diversity studies. In contrast, AFLP analysis of S. humilis revealed that this technique is very useful for the determination of genetic variation at the individual level (Vander Stappen et al. 2000). At the species level, AFLP can be used in Stylosanthes to classify genotypes by species, to identify polyploid species in relation to their progenitors and to determine relationships between closely related Stylosanthes species (Vander Stappen 1999). Although AFLP is a very powerful molecular tool for genotyping, the technique cannot be accurately used to study the genetic structure of populations, because the different alleles cannot be distinguished from each other due to the dominant character of the polymorphic AFLP bands.The last approach involved the development and use of co-dominant PCR markers by site-targeted PCR analysis. This approach requires the design of primers that specifically target highly variable regions in the genome. One strategy for obtaining co-dominant markers was the isolation, characterization and conversion of microsatellites into single sequence repeat (SSR) markers (Vander Stappen et al. 1999c). Another strategy involved the design of sequence-tagged site (STS) primer pairs, which were derived from coding and noncoding regions of published Stylosanthes genes (Vander Stappen et al. 1999b). The sitetargeted PCR markers were useful to determine intra-and interspecific variation, and to identify the origin and parentage of allotetraploid species by length and/or DNA sequence variation (Vander Stappen et al. 1999b, 2002b). A combined use of SSR and STS markers provides useful indirect measures for population parameters.A summary of the relevance of the different DNA markers for studying genetic variation within and among Stylosanthes species is provided in Table 4. The information presented in the table is based on our own experience and is expected to be of great usefulness to investigators planning future genetic diversity studies in Stylosanthes.In her taxonomic study of Stylosanthes of Mexico, Gama-López distinguished three different taxa in the S. guianensis complex, i.e. S. dissitiflora Robins. & Seat, S. guianensis var. guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. (cf. Chapter 3 in this publication). The two varieties of Stylosanthes guianensis in Mexico have a distinct geographical distribution, i.e. var. occidentalis is mainly distributed in the north-west of Mexico and var. guianensis is mainly distributed in the south, south-west and south-east of Mexico. Nayarit is the only state where both types have been observed at the same location in the field. The species complex of S. guianensis is the most widely distributed species of the genus Stylosanthes. Its natural distribution extends from Mexico to Argentina ('t Mannetje 1977), whereas S. dissitiflora grows at the extreme northern geographical limit of the species complex (Williams et al. 1984).Plant and seed material of 77 specimens belonging to the Stylosanthes guianensis species complex were collected by Gama-López in 8 Mexican states, i.e. Chiapas (2), Guerrero (1), Jalisco (20), Michoacán (5), Nayarit (36), Oaxaca (6), Sinaloa (1) and Veracruz (6). Of these, 71 belong to the species S. guianensis and 6 to S. dissitiflora. The S. guianensis collection contains the varieties guianensis and occidentalis. The DNA sequencing of the chloroplast trnL intron and the ITS region in the genotypes studied revealed distinct cpDNA haplotypes or ITS sequence types, or both, enabling discrimination between the three taxa identified in the morphological study by Gama-López: Stylosanthes dissitiflora and the two distinct subgroups of S. guianensis, i.e. the varieties guianensis and occidentalis, respectively (cf. Section 3.3 in this publication). The Mexican varieties of S. guianensis can be clearly separated from each other by PCR-RFLP (Figure 11). The Mexican collection of Stylosanthes guianensis and S. dissitiflora was analysed using 18 SSR and 9 STS primer pairs, previously found to be variable within the S. guianensis complex (Vander Stappen 1999;Vander Stappen et al. 1999c). The primer pairs were useful in discerning S. dissitiflora from S. guianensis, and S. guianensis var. guianensis from var. occidentalis, and revealed polymorphism within each taxon. Hybrids were found between S. dissitiflora and S. guianensis var. guianensis, and between S. guianensis var. guianensis and var. occidentalis, suggesting the occurrence of interspecific hybrids in the S. guianensis complex. These hybrids show additivity of PCR fragments for each marker used, representing the combination of two different genomes (Figure 12). Within S. guianensis var. guianensis and var. occidentalis, additivity of alleles was observed for several site-targeted markers. The occurrence of heterozygotes indicates that some degree of outcrossing is present within each of the S. guianensis varieties. Similarity values between the genotypes were calculated based on absence/presence of length variants from 25 sitetargeted PCR markers and subsequently used in principal coordinate analysis to depict the relationships within the Mexican S. guianensis complex by a 2-dimensional plot (Figure 13). The figure shows that the S. guianensis complex in Mexico is resolved into three major groups that correspond to the taxonomic identification of Gama-López (cf. Section 3.1.1.3 in this publication). The interspecific hybrid genotypes (G119-2, G257-1 and G265-1) are intermediate to the groups that contain the parental genome donors of these genotypes.A total of 45 genotypes representing 27 specimens of the Mexican Stylosanthes guianensis var. guianensis collection of Gama-López were analysed by site-targeted PCR analysis to assess intraspecific variation, the distribution of genetic variation and the occurrence of heterozygotes. The genotypes were collected in the states of Chiapas (3), Guerrero (2), Nayarit (18), Oaxaca (7) and Veracruz (15).    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 M M 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 M Five site-targeted PCR markers were found to be polymorphic in length among the S. guianensis var. guianensis genotypes. All these markers amplified one locus, enabling the identification of heterozygotes. The proportion of heterozygotes ranged from 2 to 15%. Based on the polymorphisms, genetic distances among the Mexican genotypes of S. guianensis var. guianensis were calculated and visualized by a two-dimensional plot (Figure 14). The figure shows that there is no strict subdivision within the Mexican S. guianensis var. guianensis according to geographical distribution. Most of the genetic diversity in the Mexican S. guianensis var. guianensis collection is represented by the genotypes from Nayarit and Veracruz. Seven site-targeted PCR markers were found to be polymorphic in length or DNA sequence among the S. guianensis var. occidentalis genotypes. The observed proportion of heterozygotes was 8.5%. Cluster analysis revealed two major groups in S. guianensis var. occidentalis reflecting the geographical localities from which the genotypes were collected, i.e. Michoacan versus Jalisco/Nayarit. The genotypes from Michoacan are genetically very similar. The genotypes from Jalisco form two subgroups that are correlated to their geographical distribution, i.e. three locations near the coast versus eight locations in the centre of Jalisco. The Nayarit collection contains both subgroups. There is no evidence of gene flow between the Michoacan and the Jalisco/Nayarit collection. The genetic variation that was observed in the Jalisco/Nayarit collection is represented by the genotypes from one location in Nayarit. Site-targeted PCR analysis of the Stylosanthes guianensis genotypes G119-2 and G257-1 with locus-specific markers always resulted in the amplification of two bands (and sometimes one heteroduplex band) that, based on their length, could be attributed to S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis. Eleven site-targeted PCR markers, which were found to be polymorphic within S. guianensis var. guianensis or S. guianensis var. occidentalis (cf. Sections 4.2.2.1 and 4.2.2.2 in this publication), were used to identify the hybrid origin of these heterozygotes. The PCR markers show that the parental genome donors of these hybrids most probably occur in the same area in Nayarit where the hybrids were found.Six specimens of the Mexican Stylosanthes dissitiflora collection, as identified by Gama-López, and seven herbarium specimens of S. dissitiflora were analysed by 16 PCR markers. Figure 15 shows the phenetic tree obtained from the site-targeted PCR analysis.Five different groups were observed, each corresponding to a geographical region and morphotype. No genetic variation was observed within groups 1, 2 and 5. In contrast, small variation was found within group 4, dividing this group into two subgroups, a and b. Two heterozygotes were observed in this group. G265-1, which formed a separate group, is a hybrid, sharing one genome with S. dissitiflora of group 4a and one genome with S. guianensis var. occidentalis. There was no evidence of cross-hybridization between the different groups. Group 1 seems to be the most widespread S. dissitiflora group. Genotypes from this group were found in Honduras and in the Mexican states of Jalisco and Chiapas. From the taxonomic and molecular study it is confirmed that three different taxa in the Stylosanthes guianensis complex can be distinguished, i.e. S. dissitiflora, S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis Gama-López & P. Dávila var. nov. ined. Moreover, the presence of hybrids with genome additivity between these taxa suggests that they do not truly interbreed. Altogether, our data support the view of Ferreira and Costa (1979) and Costa and Ferreira (1984) that different members of Stylosanthes guianensis complex should be treated as different species, in contrast to 't Mannetje (1977't Mannetje ( , 1984) ) who regarded the taxonomic groups as different varieties. ITS DNA sequencing (cf. Section 3.3 in this publication) and site-targeted PCR analysis (Vander Stappen, unpublished data) confirmed that Mexican genotypes of S. guianensis var. guianensis are genetically similar to the genotypes of S. guianensis var. guianensis from Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela.The considerable degree of intraspecific variation that was found within S. guianensis var. guianensis and S. guianensis var. occidentalis may be related to the breeding system. S. guianensis is considered to be a facultative outcrossing species (Stace 1984;Miles 1985). The observation of heterozygotes in this study gives further evidence that there exists a considerable level of outcrossing in S. guianensis.Plant and seed material of 30 specimens belonging to the species Stylosanthes humilis Kunth were collected by Gama-López in seven Mexican states, i.e. Chiapas (1), Guerrero (3), Jalisco (1), Michoacan (8), Nayarit (8), Oaxaca (8) and Veracruz (1). Difficulties in species determination were encountered in the plant material that was collected in Oaxaca and Guerrero. At these collection sites, Gama-López discovered a new species, S. pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined., that is morphologically similar to S. humilis but differs from it by the presence of an axis rudiment and two internal bracteoles and by the ploidy level. The taxonomic study of S. humilis by Gama-López (2006) has also shown the presence of a new ecotype of S. humilis in Mexico that grows in Guerrero (genotype Z415), Oaxaca (genotype G150) and Veracruz (genotype M1807) on volcanic soil and is characterized by smaller vegetative and reproductive structures in comparison with the more common S. humilis in Mexico. To measure the genetic diversity of S. humilis, molecular analysis was performed on these Mexican genotypes and on additional genotypes representing the geographical distributional range of S. humilis.Chloroplast DNA sequence analysis revealed the existence of two different cpDNA haplotypes A and B in S. humilis (Table 5). These cpDNA haplotypes are related to the geographical distribution of S. humilis, and may be the result of independent evolution due to geographical isolation (Vander Stappen et al. 1999a). In addition, haplotype A was also found in the cultivated genotypes of S. humilis from Africa and Australia. Surprisingly, haplotype A is also present in the Mexican genotypes G150 and M1807, specimens taxonomically identified as a new ecotype of S. humilis (Gama-López 2006).DNA sequence analysis of the ITS region of nuclear ribosomal DNA was used to determine the level of intraspecific variation in S. humilis. A single ITS sequence type was found per genotype. Nine different ITS sequence types were identified in total, of which seven were found in Mexican material. Based on these differences, the genotypes are clustered in two major groups, corresponding to the cpDNA typification and supporting the spatial structure of S. humilis. Within group 2, two subgroups were identified. The genotype with ITS sequence type D (Z415) forms a third group that shares characters with both major groups (Table 5).AFLP analysis was used to determine genetic relationships in Stylosanthes humilis (Vander Stappen et al. 2000). Table 5 gives an overview of the different groups that were identified by AFLP analysis. Within the Mexican collection, three major groups were recognized, each corresponding to a geographical region with low within-group and high between-group variability. There were only a few exceptions, indicating a small degree of interaction between the different areas.Stylosanthes humilis was analysed by 12 site-targeted PCR markers that were previously found to be variable within this species (Vander Stappen et al. 1999b,c). The PCR markers include six microsatellites and six STS markers. For each PCR marker, only one allele was observed per genotype, indicating a low level of heterozygosity in the species S. humilis. Results were congruent with what was found in the previous molecular analyses.Data derived from these PCR markers were analysed and visualized by a phenetic tree (Figure 16). The genotypes are clustered in two major groups A and B (Table 5), corresponding to the cpDNA haplotypes B and A, respectively. With the exception of the new Mexican S. humilis ecotype G150, all Mexican genotypes are clustered in group A, together with genotypes from Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica. Within this group, the clusters reflect the geographical localities from which genotypes were collected, i.e. subgroup A1: Jalisco and Michoacan; subgroup A2a: Guerrero and Oaxaca; and subgroup A2b: Nayarit (Figure 17). However, there are some exceptions, such as the genotypes G122 and G192, which are clustered in a group other than that expected from their distribution. The genotypes from Chiapas and Veracruz differ slightly from these subgroups. With the exception of the genotypes of G122, no significant differences were observed among the genotypes of Nayarit, indicating their close genetic relationship. A similar conclusion can be drawn for the genotypes from the collections from Oaxaca and Guerrero. In contrast, different alleles per locus were identified in the Michoacan collection, indicating a moderate degree of genetic variability. The Central American genotypes are grouped together with this collection. Within group B, the South American gene pool, most of the genotypes grouped according to their geographical distribution, i.e. subgroup B1a: Venezuela; subgroup B1b: Panama, Colombia; and subgroup B2: Brazil and the genotypes of Africa and Australia, which are of Brazilian origin. Two exceptions are the genotypes G150 and CPI40266-1 which originate from Mexico and Brazil, respectively. Although only a limited number of genotypes from the South American gene pool have been studied here, similar clusters have also been observed by Sawkins et al. (2001), who focused their work on this gene pool.  Due to its predominantly self-pollinating nature, S. humilis is expected to have a low degree of outcrossing, resulting in a low degree of genetic variability. Although the levels of outcrossing in S. humilis are not known, failure to detect heterozygotes in this study may indicate a low level of outcrossing in this species, resulting in low levels of polymorphism within populations. Most of the genetic diversity in S. humilis is found between the regional types and may be associated with different habitats.The occurrence of genetically distinct types in S. humilis is substantiated by additional molecular data from isozymes (Stace and Cameron 1984), RAPD (Kazan et al. 1993a,b) and AFLP analysis (Sawkins et al. 2001). The genotypes studied by Sawkins et al. (2001) could be divided into a Brazilian group, a Venezuelan/Colombian group, a Central American group (Panama, Costa Rica) and a Mexican group, with a clear discrimination of the Mexican group from the others. The clear distinction between S. humilis of Mexican and Brazilian origin has also been demonstrated by F 1 hybrid weakness. Stace and Cameron (1984) observed in hybridization studies that F 1 hybrids formed between a Mexican and an Australian accession of Brazilian origin were significantly less fertile than F 1 hybrids between a Brazilian and an Australian accession. Altogether, these data suggest the presence of at least two major gene pools in S. humilis, one extending from Mexico to the northern part of Costa Rica, and the other from Costa Rica to Brazil. Most probably, both groups may have diversified independently during evolution of the species. A similar pattern of evolution has been reported for Phaseolus vulgaris and Theobroma cacao, which both have a Mesoamerican and a South American gene pool (Koenig and Gepts 1989;Whitkus et al. 1998). The existence of partial reproductive isolations separating both groups is indicative of geographical isolation over a long period. The occurrence of distinct types within each gene pool reflects the distribution of S. humilis in isolated enclaves from Mexico, along the Panama isthmus, through Colombia and Venezuela, down to Brazil (Mohlenbrock 1958;Williams et al. 1984), and may indicate very limited gene flow between these regions.Surprisingly, the Mexican specimens of the new ecotype of S. humilis (G150, Z415 and M1807) show closer genetic relationship with the genotypes of the South American gene pool (Table 5), and hence did not conform to this geographical delineation. A possible explanation for the occurrence of this ecotype in Mexico could be long-range dispersal events or introductions of genotypes from one area to another by human activity. However, the existence of the intermediate type Z415 that shares characteristics with both gene pools, may suggest that pockets of variability exist in Mexico that do not belong to the greater Mexican gene pool. This study reveals new information concerning genetic variation in S. humilis from Mexico, an area neglected during earlier germplasm collections of S. humilis (Schultze-Kraft et al. 1984). The data presented here have shown that Mexico is a possible major centre of diversity for the species S. humilis, which may contain unique genetic resources of the species S. humilis, and therefore cannot be neglected in terms of its conservation.Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined.Although morphologically very similar, Stylosanthes pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. differs from S. humilis, by the presence of an axis rudiment and two internal bracteoles, and by the ploidy level, which is tetraploid (cf. Chapter 3 in this publication). In this study, molecular analyses were performed to explore the origin, diversity and parentage of S. pseudohumilis in relation to its putative parental genome donors S. humilis and S. hamata s.str., and the allotetraploid race of S. hamata s.l.Plant and seed material of 27 specimens belonging to the species S. pseudohumilis sp. nov. ined. were collected by Gama-López in 6 Mexican states, i.e. Chiapas (2), Guerrero (1), Oaxaca (20), Puebla (1), San Luís Potosí (1), Tamaulipas (1) and Veracruz (1). This new species was first identified by Gama-López in Oaxaca and Guerrero, where it grows in sympatry with the species S. humilis.Molecular analysis is a tool to investigate the constituent genomes in S. pseudohumilis. A single distinct chloroplast trnL intron and trnLF intergenic spacer region (IGS) sequence type was identified previously in the specimen G136 of S. pseudohumilis. Based on this sequence, S. pseudohumilis is clustered with S. humilis and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. (Vander Stappen et al. 1999a). DNA sequencing of the trnL intron and trnLF IGS region from eight additional specimens, representing the distributional range of S. pseudohumilis in Mexico, did not show intraspecific variation. In addition, site-targeted PCR with the trnLF IGS primers revealed that all the specimens of S. pseudohumilis used in this study, have the same trnLF IGS length variant that is shared with S. humilis of the Mexican gene pool, as opposed to S. humilis of the South American gene pool.In a previous study, DNA sequencing of the entire nuclear ribosomal ITS region revealed a single distinctive ITS sequence type in the S. pseudohumilis specimen G136 (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a). This type was also found in the other specimens of S. pseudohumilis collected by Gama-López and was most similar to the two ITS sequence types that have been observed in the species S. hamata s.str. (types A and B) and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. (type B).The origin of the tetraploid S. pseudohumilis was further investigated by STS PCR with three selective primer pairs. These primer pairs had been used in a previous study to identify the progenitors of the species S. quintana-roensis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. (Vander Stappen et al. 2002b). The selective primer pairs amplified one fragment in S. pseudohumilis that could be attributed to one of its progenitors. Direct DNA sequencing of these nuclear loci from S. pseudohumilis (specimen G136) revealed 100% correspondence to the sequence types of either S. humilis or S. hamata s.str. Given the allotetraploidy, the molecular affinity with S. hamata s.str. and S. humilis, S. humilis of the Mexican gene pool and S. hamata s.str. may have acted as the maternal and paternal genome donors of the species S. pseudohumilis, respectively.The strong affinity of S. pseudohumilis to S. humilis is substantiated by morphological and distributional data, because both species can grow in sympatry and they share a lot of morphological characters, including the diagnostic fruit characters (Gama-López 2006). The contribution of a second genome donor from section Styposanthes to S. pseudohumilis was observed by the presence of an axis rudiment and two inner bracteoles. The hybrid origin of S. pseudohumilis is in direct agreement with the evolutionary model for tetraploid formation in Stylosanthes (Stace and Cameron 1984) because the species is a combination of a diploid species from section Styposanthes, i.e. S. hamata s.str., with a diploid species from section Stylosanthes, i.e. S. humilis. Moreover, as in most progenitors of the Stylosanthes tetraploids, the parental species of S. pseudohumilis are members of either clade 3 or clade 1 (cf. Section 3.3 in this publication).AFLP analysis indicated a low level of intraspecific variation in S. pseudohumilis. In addition, S. pseudohumilis and its putative progenitors S. humilis and S. hamata s.str. were analysed by 14 non-selective site-targeted PCR markers which previously were found to be variable within one of its putative parental genome donors (Vander Stappen et al. 1999b,c, 2002b). The PCR markers included five microsatellite and nine sequence-tagged site markers. Additivity of the PCR banding pattern in S. pseudohumilis was observed for 11 of the 14 sitetargeted PCR markers (an example is shown as Figure 18). For each primer pair in the sitetargeted PCR, all the specimens of S. pseudohumilis contained an identical banding pattern, of which the fragments were shared with at least one of their putative parents. Two primer pairs formed an exception by amplifying two different length fragments among the specimens. These length fragments were related to the length polymorphisms that were observed in S. humilis of Mexican origin.In contrast to the morphological characters, which may vary greatly along the distributional range of S. pseudohumilis sp. nov. ined. (Gama-López 2006), the genetic variation within S. pseudohumilis sp. nov. ined. is very low when compared to genetic diversity levels determined previously in S. humilis by AFLP analysis (Vander Stappen et al. 2000;Sawkins et al. 2001). The lack of genetic variation in S. pseudohumilis in comparison to the greater polymorphism observed in its parental progenitor S. humilis in Mexico (Vander Stappen et al. 2000;cf. S. humilis in this chapter), suggests that S. pseudohumilis has originated from a single and relatively recent hybridization event between S. humilis and S. hamata s.str. and that the observed morphological diversity is most probably due to adaptation to different environments. Additional evidence for the recent origin is provided by the congruency of several DNA markers to their corresponding diploid orthologues. The agronomically important tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. (S. hemihamata Stace & Cameron sp. nov. ined., Stace and Cameron 1987), which is restricted to the coastal region around the Gulf of Maracaibo in Venezuela and Colombia, has an allotetraploid origin, with the diploid species S. humilis and S. hamata s.str. as its putative parental genome donors (Curtis et al. 1995;Liu et al. 1999). The AFLP banding patterns of S. pseudohumilis and of S. hamata s.l. showed great similarity to each other, with differences in absence or presence of approximately 17 bands, most of which are attributed to differences between the Mexican and Venezuelan/Colombian S. humilis. S. pseudohumilis and S. hamata s.l. also revealed similar STS banding patterns. Variation between both allotetraploid species were due to differences in additivity with three site-targeted PCR markers, and length polymorphisms within the diploid species S. humilis or S. hamata s.str. The length polymorphism that was observed between S. pseudohumilis and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. by five sitetargeted PCR markers was directly related to variation between Mexican and Venezuelan/Colombian S. humilis.AFLP analysis and STS PCR markers provided molecular evidence about the close genetic relationship between Stylosanthes pseudohumilis Gama-López & P. Dávila sp. nov. ined. and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. because of their common allotetraploid origin, i.e. they share the same parental species. The morphological differences between both species may be the result of independent hybridization events involving different genotypes of S. humilis and S. hamata s.str. The hybrid infertility (Stace and Cameron 1984), and the remarkable degree of morphological (Edye et al. 1974) and molecular variation (cf. Section 4.3 in this chapter) demonstrated previously between S. humilis of the South American and Mexican gene pools, may be reflected in the variation between the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. and S. pseudohumilis. This has been demonstrated by the presence of two chloroplast DNA types in S. humilis, enabling distinction between S. pseudohumilis and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l. in correlation to the geographical structuring of S. humilis. (Vander Stappen et al. 1999a). This was further confirmed by AFLP and five nuclear site-targeted PCR markers, where differences in PCR fragments could be assigned to differences between the two S. humilis gene pools. Besides differences between the maternal genome donors of S. pseudohumilis and the tetraploid race of S. hamata s.l., the intraspecific variation in the paternal genome donor may be reflected in the tetraploids. This was observed by the variation in ITS DNA sequence type, which can be directly related to S. hamata s.str., and to a lesser extent by polymorphism in the AFLP and STS banding pattern.The species Stylosanthes viscosa is a perennial diploid species that is widespread across the Neotropics and that shows a number of different ecotypes (Costa and Ferreira 1984;Williams et al. 1984). In Mexico, this species has a wide distribution along the coasts of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.Plant and seed material of 19 specimens belonging to the species S. viscosa Sw. were collected by Gama-López in four Mexican states, i.e. Guerrero (2), Jalisco (1), Nayarit (13) and Oaxaca (3). Molecular analysis was performed on this Mexican collection, together with 18 additional genotypes from germplasm collections representing the wide geographical distributional range of S. viscosa.DNA sequence analysis of the chloroplast trnL intron and of the ITS region of nuclear ribosomal DNA revealed no interspecific variation in S. viscosa.AFLP analysis with 6 AFLP primer pair combinations was carried out on 28 genotypes of the Mexican Stylosanthes viscosa collection and on 18 germplasm accessions of S. viscosa (Figure 19). The phenetic tree contains eight different clusters and clearly shows geographical clustering of the Mexican S. viscosa collection, i.e. Nayarit/Jalisco (group 1) versus Oaxaca (group 8) collections (Figure 20). The three subgroups within group 1 correspond to three different collection sites. Subgroup 1a contains genotypes from two locations within two kilometres of each other. In group 8, the Oaxaca group, the two genotypes of specimen G139 are clearly separated from the other genotypes of Oaxaca, which form subgroup 8a. The Mexican germplasm accessions and the accessions of South American origin clustered according to the region of origin and geographical distribution.  4.5.3 Site-targeted PCR markers S. viscosa genotypes were also analysed by nine site-targeted PCR markers, previously found to be polymorphic in S. viscosa (Vander Stappen et al. 1999b,c, 2002b, unpublished data). The PCR markers include six microsatellite and three STS markers. The observed proportion of heterozygotes in Mexico ranged from 7.4 to 29.6%. Analysis of the data derived from these markers revealed two groups in the Mexican S. viscosa collection, i.e. the Nayarit/Jalisco collection and the Oaxaca collection. Within each of these groups, variation is high and heterozygotes were observed. The germplasm accessions from Baja California, Tamaulipas and Chiapas can be clearly distinguished from the Nayarit/Jalisco and Oaxaca collections by site-targeted PCR analysis, indicating that intraspecific variation in Mexican S. viscosa is very high and that it is related to geographical distribution. The genetic variation within the germplasm accessions from outside Mexico is also very high and heterozygotes were found here as well. Overall, the genetic variation as detected by site-targeted PCR analysis is congruent with the genetic variation as found by AFLP analysis. However, AFLP revealed a higher level of variation among the Nayarit/Jalisco genotypes.AFLP and site-targeted PCR analysis enabled the Mexican genotypes of S. viscosa to be clustered into two separate groups, reflecting their geographical origin. The genetic variation that was found within these groups is much higher in comparison with the variation found in the S. humilis groups (cf. Section 4.3 in this chapter). These data are in agreement with the study of Sawkins et al. (2001), who suggested that S. humilis is genetically less variable than S. viscosa. The differences in genetic diversity levels between both species may be related to the breeding system in these species. S. humilis is considered a highly inbreeding species, whereas some evidence exists for the formation of hybrids between Mexican and Brazilian S. viscosa, suggesting some outcrossing in this species (Stace 1984). The observation of heterozygotes gives evidence that there exists a considerable level of outcrossing within and between the regional groups.In contrast to what has been observed in S. humilis, the genetic variation is not subdivided into a Mexican and a South American gene pool. This was also reported by Sawkins et al. (2001). Our molecular study enabled the genotypes to be clustered into a number of Mexican and Brazilian groups, and a Venezuelan, Colombian and North American group. Similar to what has been observed in the Brazilian groups (Sawkins et al. 2001), the genetic variation among the Mexican genotypes of S. viscosa was not continuous. This finding is very important, since S. viscosa is considered to be an important genome donor of allotetraploid species in Stylosanthes (Vander Stappen et al. 2002a;cf. Section 3.3 in this publication). In Mexico, the interaction of different forms of S. viscosa with a second progenitor has allowed independent evolution of similar tetraploid combinations, resulting in the formation of new species, such as S. subsericea and S. tehuacanensis, and intermediate forms, such as the tetraploid race of S. macrocarpa.Given the genetic variation observed in this study and the occurrence of different ecotypes (Williams et al. 1984;cf. Chapter 3 in this publication), novel variation is likely to be present in S. viscosa from other locations in Mexico that have not been sampled.Most studies on anthracnose of Stylosanthes species have been realized on isolates from cultivated Stylosanthes plants, with the objective of understanding the mechanisms associated with the severe epidemics that appeared worldwide from the 1970s on. Studies on the wild pathosystem of the fungus are limited. As isolates able to overcome the resistance of newly released cultivars appear rapidly, a wide genetic diversity of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is expected. For example, of the 15 cultivars that have been released in Australia between 1965 and 1996, none has remained anthracnose resistant (Chakraborty 2004). Although several experiments with the cultivars Primar and Unica, both released in 1996, had demonstrated a high level of resistance (Trevorrow et al. 1998), they had already succumbed to a new race of C. gloeosporioides within two years of their release (Davis et al. 1984).Selection of resistant genotypes remains, however, the main strategy for the control of the anthracnose disease. One strategy in the search for resistance genes is evaluating simultaneously the pathogenic diversity of the fungus and that of the host, especially in areas where the plant is native and where its high genetic diversity contains the source of resistance. This research project was part of such a strategy. Diversity of the Stylosanthes genus was discussed in the previous chapter. This chapter focuses on the diversity of C. gloeosporioides and other Colletotrichum species infecting wild Stylosanthes species in Mexico. Knowledge of pathogen diversity and of host-pathogen relationships will provide useful information that will help increase targeted use of germplasm, refine collection strategies and localize pertinent areas for in situ conservation.In contrast with previous studies on C. gloeosporioides, the isolates studied here originate from wild native Stylosanthes specimens collected in different states of Mexico, between 1993 and1996. A total of 264 air-dried plant samples of different Stylosanthes species, collected from 78 different populations, were received from UNAM. To study the corresponding wild pathosystem of Colletotrichum species, each sample was evaluated for the presence of this fungus by UCL. Each isolate was coded to retain information on its origin, e.g. the code SG 199-16ac1 refers to the isolate obtained from acervulus #1 on individual plant #16 of population #199, collected by Gama-López (plant collector of UNAM).Besides the isolates collected, African and Australian C. gloeosporioides isolates were also included in the experiments as reference isolates. They were previously characterized using ribosomal DNA and RAPD markers (Munaut et al. 1998) and details of previous results are given in Munaut et al. (2001).The aim of the present work was to characterize the wild pathosystem of the pathogen on Stylosanthes species and to compare this diversity with artificially induced situations on the same hosts. Therefore, morphological and phylogenetic analyses were undertaken as well as an in-depth pathogenicity study.Colletotrichum species were isolated from plant tissues showing necrotic areas, as well as from apparently healthy parts, the latter for the detection of latent infections.During the isolation process, two main morphological types of isolates were observed, falcate-and straight-spored. A total of 72 isolates produced falcate conidia, while 198 produced straight conidia. The proportion of falcate-spored isolates from Mexican Stylosanthes plants was surprisingly higher than those obtained from Stylosanthes plants previously collected in Africa (Buxant, unpublished).Lesions similar to the type A symptoms of C. gloeosporioides (for description of type A and B symptoms, cf. Section 2.2.4 in this publication) were found on 49 different Stylosanthes samples, collected in 27 populations in the states of Nayarit (17), Michoacan (5), Jalisco (2), Oaxaca (2) and Veracruz (1). In the acervuli of the lesions similar to type A symptoms, straight-spored Colletotrichum isolates were obtained. The lesions of the Colletotrichum species producing falcate conidia were all associated with the greyish-brown irregular and necrotic symptoms similar, but not exactly identical, to type B anthracnose symptoms. Falcate-spored isolates originated from 19 plant samples collected from 16 Stylosanthes populations, of which 6 were located in the state of Oaxaca. Both straight-and falcate-spored Colletotrichum isolates could sometimes be observed simultaneously on the same plant (Table 6).Recent developments in molecular genetics contributed a lot to the knowledge about the existing diversity of the studied species. As differences in gene sequence can be directly observed and described, this degree of precision was applied to investigate the evolution and taxonomy in the heterogeneous and complex Colletotrichum species. Molecular tools were applied to confirm the presence of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides in the collection of Mexican Colletotrichum isolates originating from wild Stylosanthes species. Afterwards, a preliminary study of the intraspecific diversity was carried out. Table 6. Stylosanthes species and locations in Mexico where Colletotrichum isolates were obtained (Munaut et al. 2001).No. of plant samples State (number of plant samples per state)Stylosanthes viscosa 18 Nayarit (18)Stylosanthes guianensis 18 Michoacan (3), Veracruz (1), Nayarit (10), Jalisco ( 4)SGMix (SG114, SG198, SG 199) 1 Nayarit ( 1)Stylosanthes viscosa 1 Oaxaca (1)Stylosanthes guianensis 6 Nayarit (4), Michoacan (1), Jalisco ( 1)Stylosanthes pseudohumilis 2 Oaxaca ( 2)Straight-and falcate-spored isolates obtained simultaneouslyStylosanthes humilis 1 Nayarit ( 1)a SG 238-2/3 was identified by Vander Stappen as a probable tetraploid species, with S. viscosa and a clade 3 species as likely progenitors (Vander Stappen, pers comm.). b SG238/1 was identified by Vander Stappen as a probable hexaploid species, with as likely progenitor S. pseudohumilis (4x) group 1 and S. viscosa (Vander Stappen, pers comm.).PCR amplifications were performed on the 270 Colletotrichum isolates (198 producing straight conidia and 72 producing falcate conidia), using primers synthesized on the basis of published sequences of an ITS1 fragment specific to C. gloeosporioides (White et al. 1990). For 120 out of the 198 straight-spored Mexican isolates, the expected target fragment was found, identifying these 120 isolates as C. gloeosporioides. In the remaining 78 isolates that produce straight conidia, the target fragment was not amplified. This was also the case for the 72 isolates producing falcate conidia, confirming that C. gloeosporioides is characterized by straight conidia (Munaut et al. 2001).To obtain a preliminary picture of the infraspecific genetic diversity of the C. gloeosporioides isolates present on Stylosanthes species, an enzymatic restriction of the ITS1 region was performed on the 120 Mexican isolates that were identified as C. gloeosporioides. Four reference isolates were included in the study: an Australian reference isolate type A (HM 335) and type B (HM 336), and two African reference isolates differing from type A and B (HM 497 and HM 324). A PCR-RFLP analysis resulted in five clusters (Munaut et al. 2001) (Table 7), demonstrating intraspecific variation in C. gloeosporioides associated with Stylosanthes spp. The major cluster grouped the type A and B reference isolates together with 117 Mexican C. gloeosporioides isolates. The second and the fourth cluster contained only Mexican isolates, underlining the importance of diversity studies in native plant populations.The third cluster contained one African and one Mexican isolate with an identical restriction pattern. The fifth cluster contained one of the African isolates different from types A and B.The detection of isolates unrelated to type A and B at molecular level supports the necessity for an intraspecific differentiation in this highly variable species.Morphological analyses allow a first rough screening of the morphotypes occurring on plants. In the case of the Stylosanthes anthracnose, a clear morphological distinction has been made for the isolates from cultivated areas, i.e. type A and B isolates, whilst few data are available on the wild pathosystem. It is also important to note that any description of new taxa is based on a morphological description, which can be complemented by other analyses such as a molecular characterization. Morphological characteristics as well as growth rates were studied for the four reference isolates used in for the work reported in Section 5.2.1 and for 33 Mexican C. gloeosporioides isolates. This restricted set of Mexican isolates was selected from the five ITS1 clusters previously described. The isolate obtained from acervulus #1 from each plant was analysed, except when this was identified as non-gloeosporioides, in which case it was taken from acervulus #2. Unfortunately, the strain from SG 234-5ac2 (S. humilis) was lost after this analysis, and could not be included in the later genetic and pathogenicity experiments. Per isolate, the length and width of 50 conidia were measured and the conidial apex shape (acute or obtuse) was recorded. After subculturing each isolate, the diameter (mm) of the six replicate subcultures was measured daily until the Petri dish was covered completely with mycelia, which allowed calculation of the daily growth rates (mm/day).After 12 days of incubation, the overall appearance of colonies, as well as the vegetative and reproductive structures and several conidial and appressorial characteristics, were described, using 32 multi-state categories (Munaut et al. 2001). Characterization of the conidial morphology showed that the type B reference isolate produced, as expected, more conidia with acute apices (71%) than the type A reference isolate (29%). The mean percentage of conidia with acute apices produced by Mexican isolates of S. guianensis origin, which were clustered together with the Australian types A and B, was 82%, while that of the isolates originating from other Stylosanthes species was only 55%. Mean growth rate of isolates from wild Mexican S. guianensis species (7.8 mm/day) was slower than the mean rate (11.9 mm/day) for isolates from other Stylosanthes species. Similar results were reported for type A and B isolates from cultivated Stylosanthes species (Irwin and Cameron 1978). This suggests that both types A and B occur in the wild and that they have a common genetic background with the type A or B isolates described on cultivated Stylosanthes.The overall appearance of the colonies on PDA culture medium was very variable for all the isolates studied. An index of stability (S) was calculated for each morphological characteristic in order to evaluate its pertinence for discrimination of isolates (Munaut et al. 2001). For example, S = 100% (the highest level of pertinence) means that the colonies subcultured from an isolate presented the same state for a characteristic as the original isolate. Only 8 of the 32 morphological characteristics had a stability index of 100%. These eight characteristics were: (1) distribution of sclerotia per dish; (2) number of sclerotia per dish; (3) presence of setae in acervuli; (4) distribution of perithecia per dish; (5) number of perithecia per dish; (6) ascospores mass colour; (7) edge of the appressoria; and ( 8) size of the appressoria. Except for the sclerotia characteristics, the characteristics describing the overall appearance of the colonies and the mycelia were less stable (S = 13.9-58.3%) than those describing the reproductive structures (S = 72.4-100%). This high level of morphological variation, not only between colonies from different isolates, but also between strains subcultured from the same isolate, underlines the limits of morphological characterization of the variable C. gloeosporioides species (Munaut et al. 2001).Based on these 32 morphological categories, the relationships between the colonies of 33 Mexican and the 4 reference isolates were evaluated using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA). The tree generated grouped the isolates in three major clusters, I, II and III, and was partially related to the PCR-RFLP clustering of the ITS1 regions (Table 7) and to the host from which they were isolated (Munaut et al. 2001). Based on the morphological variations observed between subcultures from the same isolate for some characteristics, these subcultures can belong to different morphological clusters. The first major cluster contained colonies from the Australian isolate type A (HM 335), and from 21 Mexican isolates originating from S. humilis and S. viscosa, all characterized by an ITS1 pattern, as well as colonies from one isolate from S. guianensis and one from S. guianensis, but presenting ITS RFLP patterns at variance with type A and B reference strains (ITS clusters 2 and 4 respectively). The second major cluster also contained 12 isolates from S. viscosa, S. humilis and from 3 S. guianensis plants, which in this case belong to the ITS1 cluster. In the third major cluster, the Australian type B isolate (HM 336) was found together with the two isolates from Mexican S. guianensis (ITS cluster 1), as well as with a mix of strains from various hosts and origins, but different from type A and B reference isolates (ITS clusters 3 and 5). Similarly, a classification by Davis et al. (1992) based on morphological characteristics of C. gloeosporioides isolates causing type A and B symptoms worldwide also demonstrated the occurrence of three main clusters, containing heterogeneous groups of strains. According to their study a first cluster contained a mixture of type A and B isolates, a second contained mostly type A isolates, and a third cluster mostly type B isolates. b RAPD subcluster delineated at 90% similarity.c Reference isolates.One can say that characterization based only on morphology is not sufficient. The observed variability of morphological and cultural characteristics in combination with a complex species such as C. gloeosporioides, and its corresponding genus Colletotrichum, increases the difficulty in interpreting diversity data above inter-isolate levels. Therefore a molecular approach was needed to compare the genetic diversity and the phylogenetic relationships of the 119 C. gloeosporioides isolates from wild Mexican Stylosanthes plants with isolates from cultivated Stylosanthes species of other countries and from other host plants.A total of 88 reproducible polymorphic bands were generated with six primers. The UPGMA method of clustering revealed a grouping of the 123 isolates (119 Mexican and 4 reference isolates) in 4 major polymorphic RAPD clusters (I to IV) (Table 7) (Munaut et al. 2002).Cluster I contained the Australian reference isolate type A and most of the Mexican isolates from the S. humilis and S. viscosa plants, as well as S. macrocarpa . Within this cluster, an important level of polymorphism was observed and isolates were split into 13 subclusters. These subclusters separated the Australian reference isolate type A from the Mexican ones. Most of the isolates belonging to the same subcluster originated from the same host species. Cluster II grouped the Australian reference isolate type B and 14 isolates originating from Mexican S. guianensis. The level of polymorphism in this cluster was even higher than in cluster I, and nine subclusters were generated. DNA polymorphism was even detected between two isolates of the S. guianensis plants, collected in the same area but at two slightly different altitudes. Clusters III and IV each contained one African reference isolate and one Mexican isolate, all differing from the typical type A and B isolates (Munaut et al. 2001). This genetic analysis showed that both type A and B are found on wild native Stylosanthes species in Mexico, and that within each type, the Mexican isolates were more closely related to each other than to the Australian reference isolates, suggesting a distinct genetic background of C. gloeosporioides populations according to their geographical origin (Munaut et al. 2002). Furthermore, the RAPD patterns of the isolates belonging to clusters III and IV differed from those of the typical type A and B isolates, determining them to be type C isolates.The important diversity in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates, as well as the occurrence of Mexican isolates unrelated to type A and B, indicated the need to investigate the phylogeny of C. gloeosporioides isolates originating from Stylosanthes and from other hosts.Thirty-two Mexican isolates, selected from the work described in Section 5.2.2 for morphological analysis, with the exception of the isolate SG 234-5 ac2, were sequenced together with 26 C. gloeosporioides isolates from Stylosanthes species from outside Mexico and from other hosts. The ITS1 regions of the C. gloeosporioides isolates were analysed with the ITS1 regions of isolates of C. gloeosporioides from various hosts and origins available in the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) databank and with the ITS1 sequences of C. fragariae, C. fuscum and C. kahawae isolates (Munaut et al. 2002), which are all very similar to the ITS1 sequence of C. gloeosporioides (Sreenivasaprasad et al. 1996). C. musae was used as an outgroup.Two major phylogenetic clusters, S and VHO, respectively referring to isolates mostly from Stylosanthes species (S) and to isolates from various hosts and origins (VHO), were generated (Table 7) (Munaut et al. 2002). Of the 30 isolates grouped within RAPD clusters I and II, and simultaneously belonging to cluster S according to their ITS1 sequence, three different ITS1 sequences (173 bp long) were identified (Table 7), slightly different from those of the reference isolates of type A and B (Munaut et al. 2002). Cluster VHO contained the 17 isolates from various hosts and origins, as well as the isolates from Stylosanthes species grouped in RAPD clusters III and IV. HM 497 (RAPD subcluster III1), C. kahawae and the C. gloeosporioides isolate from Carica papaya subclustered separately (VHO1) from the other 14 isolates, in VHO2. Within the subcluster VHO2, isolate SG 205-4ac2 (RAPD subcluster III2) presented exactly the same sequence as reported for the isolate from Citrus.  were also found in subcluster VHO2.The type of symptoms induced on plants, as well as the virulence spectrum and the aggressiveness of Mexican C. gloeosporioides isolates were analysed to evaluate the risk of germplasm transfer to areas where Stylosanthes is cultivated. A selected set of 32 isolates were studied, based on their position in the RAPD analysis as described in Section 5.2.3. The isolates were inoculated on seven cultivated Stylosanthes species using the technique of Munaut and co-workers (1997):• S. viscosa (accession DON305, S148 and S) and S. humilis (cv. Paterson) were chosen because they were the host species of most of the Mexican isolates. • S. hamata, S. capitata (native in Brazil and Venezuela), S. fruticosa (native in Africa in semiarid conditions) and S. scabra (cultivated worldwide in tropical areas) were selected as host plants because of their South American and/or tropical to semi-arid origin.• A set of S. guianensis accessions and cultivars were also tested, as these were previously used to differentiate the virulence spectrum of the African and Australian type B isolates. (Malter 1984;Munaut 1990;Maraite 1993). Accessions CIAT 136, CIAT 10136, CIAT 184, CIAT 1283 and cvs. Cook, Endeavour, Graham and Schofield were tested for their susceptibility to Mexican isolates from S. guianensis. For Mexican isolates from other Stylosanthes species, only accessions CIAT 10136 and CIAT 184 and cvs. Endeavour and Schofield were tested. In each test, the African type B isolate was used as internal control, as accession CIAT 10136 is resistant to this isolate, and accession CIAT 184 and cv. Schofield susceptible and highly susceptible, respectively (Munaut et al. 1997). The anthracnose severity index (asi) on each inoculated leaflet was recorded using a scale of: 0 = no symptoms; 1 = spots smaller than 1 mm; 2 = up to 25% of the surface necrotic; 3 = up to 50%; 4 = up to 75%; 5 = more than 75% or leaflet dropped. A mean asi was calculated for each leaf. Statistical analyses were performed using the General Linear Model of the SPSS software (SPSS, Chicago). General means (both per isolate and per inoculated genotype) were compared using the Student-Newman-Keuls test (p<0.05). The asi data were sorted into five categories related to the level of compatibility of the interaction: incompatibility (I), when no symptoms were observed (mean asi = 0); low compatibility (c) for 0<mean asi<1; moderate compatibility (C) for 1≤mean asi<2; high compatibility (CC) for 2≤mean asi<4; and very high compatibility (CCC) for mean asi≥4.Most isolates originating from Stylosanthes species other than S. guianensis and clustered in RAPD cluster I induced only small type A lesions (Munaut et al. 2002) on the inoculated species. Some inoculations on S. humilis and S. capitata even resulted in incompatible interactions. Nevertheless, compatibility levels ranging from C to CC were observed in more than 50% of the interactions between the accessions S148 and S (both S. viscosa), and the Mexican type A isolates. No type B symptoms were observed in any of the compatible reactions (Table 8).The four isolates belonging to RAPD cluster II were obtained from S. guianensis. On each S. guianensis genotype, except on accession CIAT 184 (susceptible to African type B isolate), extensive type B lesions were induced by at least one Mexican isolate. One isolate even demonstrated a potential to induce lesions on accession CIAT 10136, a genotype characterized as being resistant to the African type B isolate. Only one isolate induced extensive lesions on cv. Cook. The S. guianensis cvs. Schofield and Endeavour were the most severely attacked. In contrast, all the genotypes of the other species were free of symptoms, or presented small spots less than 1 mm in diameter (Table 9).Two Mexican isolates extracted from S. viscosa and S. guianensis, that differed from the typical A or B isolates at the molecular level (being respectively in RAPD clusters III and IV), induced only small, restricted necrotic lesions, different from either A or B anthracnose necrosis, on several inoculated Stylosanthes species (Munaut et al. 2002) (Table 8 and Table 9).The symptoms induced on plants by Mexican isolates support the intraspecific differentiation in types A and B, as demonstrated by the RAPD results. In each compatible interaction, Mexican isolates related to type A induced type A symptoms, while isolates related to type B induced type B symptoms. Mexican type B isolates were able to induce only small, restricted lesions on various species of Stylosanthes other than S. guianensis. In contrast, a few Mexican type A isolates had the potential to induce severe type A lesions on various S. guianensis genotypes. This pathogenicity study proves that some isolates occurring in wild Stylosanthes populations were able to overcome the resistance of cultivated genotypes, constituting a major threat to the commercial utilization of Stylosanthes worldwide.The important morphological variability within type A and B isolates led to a distribution of some isolates in morphological groups containing both types. This continuum in variability has already been described for isolates from South America (Kelemu et al. 1999), and underlined again the importance of other robust criteria for taxonomic analysis of the C. gloeosporioides complex.The results of the various approaches clearly demonstrated that an intraspecific level of differentiation exists within the species C. gloeosporioides. The present results and those obtained by various authors involved for many years in the characterization of C. gloeosporioides isolates from Stylosanthes and other hosts (Hodson et al. 1993;Alahakoon et al. 1994;Hayden et al. 1994;Sreenivasaprasad et al. 1996;Johnston and Jones 1997;Yang and Sweetingham 1998;Johnston 2000;Waller and Bridge 2000) lead to the proposal of an infraspecific taxon for the C. gloeosporioides isolates originating from Stylosanthes species, i.e. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides forma stylosanthis Munaut f. nov. anam. Within this new forma, two formae speciales were distinguished corresponding to the earlier discovered pathogenic variation in the species C. gloeosporioides, i.e. the type A and the type B. The corresponding formae speciales are respectively Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. f. stylosanthis forma specialis stylosanthis Munaut f. sp. nov. and C. gloeosporioides Penz. f. stylosanthis forma specialis guianensis Vinijsanun, Irwin & Cameron (Vinijsanun et al. 1987). The complete taxonomical descriptions as well as the set of isolates examined can be consulted in Munaut et al. (2002).The new forma stylosanthis presents the main morphological characteristics and reproductive structures of the species as described by von Arx (1957) and Sutton (1980Sutton ( , 1992)). Some isolates (e.g. SG 199-15 ac1) occasionally produce perithecia similar to those of the broad teleomorphic species Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spaulding & Schrenk. However, the ITS1 sequence differs significantly and consistently from the ITS1 sequences of ten isolates analysed from ten hosts other than Stylosanthes (96-98% similarity), while the ITS1 sequence similarity within the forma is more than 98% (Munaut et al. 2002).The forma specialis stylosanthis, known as type A, is hosted on a wide range of cultivated and wild Mexican Stylosanthes species, but with a very low occurrence on S. guianensis. It induces light lesions surrounded by a dark margin and is characterized by a RAPD pattern that differs from the f. sp. guianensis by 70% UPGMA dissimilarity and demonstrates internal subclustering.    Mean anthracnose severity index (asi) in a column or in a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to the Student-Newman-Keuls test (p<0.05). Isolates and genotypes classified according to increasing mean asi. For an explanation of asi, see Section 5.2.4.The forma specialis guianensis, known as type B, is hosted on cultivated S. guianensis in Australia and Africa or on wild specimens in Mexico, and on a restricted set of other wild Mexican Stylosanthes species (S. gracilis, S. grandifolia). It induces extensive, brown lesions and is characterized by a RAPD pattern that differs from the f. sp. stylosanthis by 70% UPGMA dissimilarity and demonstrates internal differentiation into clusters with more than 55% similarity. Both formae speciales are distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, Australia, Asia and Central and South America.The diversity aspect of the falcate and straight conidia produced by Colletotrichum isolates was not reported in previous work of South America, although the fungus species is a wellstudied pathogen in South America.Of the 270 Colletotrichum isolates retrieved from wild Stylosanthes species in Mexico, 198 were characterized by straight conidia and 72 by falcate. The molecular, morphological and pathogenic studies revealed a remarkable diversity within the 120 straight-spored C. gloeosporioides isolates. To complete the global view of the Colletotrichum species associated with Stylosanthes species in Mexico, and more particularly of their possible pathogenicity, the remaining 78 straight-spored and 72 falcate-spored Colletotrichum isolates were examined.The morphology, phylogeny and pathogenicity of straight-spored isolates of Colletotrichum species other than C. gloeosporioides were analysed on a subset of 18 accessions obtained from ten populations of S. guianensis, one of S. pseudohumilis, one of S. viscosa and from a mixture of plants collected in different populations (Munaut 1999).For the morphological characterization of the straight-spored Colletotrichum isolates, the same methodology was used as explained in Section 5.2.2. The isolates were obtained from acervuli that were characterized by brown septate setae producing pale salmon masses of conidia. Five isolates produced only conidia with obtuse apices; no conidia with acute apices were obtained. The mean length of the straight conidia ranged from 13.1 to 24.4 μm, and the mean width from 3.2 to 7.4 μm. Three of them were characterized by, simultaneously, mean conidial length (>22 μm) and width (>6 μm) significantly larger than those of most of the other isolates (the \"giant\" conidia). For most of the monoconidial isolates, the subcultured colonies presented variable morphology concerning colour and mycelium type (Munaut 1999).Given the visual observation of the amplified patterns, five major groups (RAPD I to V) could be distinguished (Munaut 1999). Group I contained three isolates producing conidia larger than the average, as well as one isolate that produced conidia similar in size to various isolates from the other groups. RAPD cluster II contained 11 isolates characterized by a wide range of different morphological and conidial characteristics. Clusters III, IV and V contained one isolate each. ITS Sequencing. Given the results of the RAPD clustering, a restricted set of 13 isolates from 13 different plants collected in 12 Stylosanthes populations was used for ITS1 sequencing. Additionally 26 different Colletotrichum species from various hosts and origins available in the EMBL databank were included. Epichloe sp. was included as an outgroup (Munaut 1999) (Figure 21).A restricted set of 13 isolates was selected on the basis of the morphological results for the ITS 1 analysis. Four main types (1 to 4) of sequences were detected, and partially corresponded with the 5 RAPD clusters (Munaut et al. 2002) as follows:• ITS1 type 1: three Mexican isolates producing \"giant\" conidia and the isolate SG205-4ac1 shared more than 99% similarity with an isolate of C. crassipes (EMBL acc. AJ56918). The four isolates presented similar RAPD patterns (Group I). • ITS1 type 2: the same six isolates were also clustered in RAPD group II and presented some homology with various Colletotrichum species (C. orbiculare, C. trifolii, C. lindemuthianum, C. acutatum and C. lupini).• ITS1 type 3: the two Mexican isolates belonging to this type 3 belonged to RAPD group III and IV. They presented a high similarity with isolates of the recently described new species C. boninense (Moriwaki et al. 2003).• ITS1 type 4: the only Mexican isolate of this group (RAPD group V) presented 100% similarity with C. coccodes (Z32931). This phylogenetic tree highlighted the significant diversity of Colletotrichum in Mexico. Although two isolates are very similar to C. boninense and another other isolate is related to C. coccodes they could not be identified as known species. Whether these isolates belong to a species for which no ITS1 sequence is available in EMBL, or to a species incompletely described by Sutton (1980;1992) or von Arx (1957), or belong to an undescribed species remains unresolved. As a consequence, analyses of ultrastructural morphological characteristics, as well as of the ITS1 region of species for which the ITS1 sequence was not available, and of other regions of the genome able to discriminate species, such as the ITS2 region or the subunits of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA), should be performed before they are possibly described as a new species. Morphological analysis of the anamorphic form, observed for the three isolates, may also provide additional information on their taxonomic identification.To know the pathogenic potential of the Mexican non-gloeosporioides straight-spored Colletotrichum isolates, these were inoculated on seven Stylosanthes species: S. humilis (cv. Paterson), S. mucronata, S. capitata accession CIAT 1405, S. hamata (cv. Verano), S. scabra (cv. Fitzroy), S. viscosa (S148) and S. guianensis. Three genotypes of S. guianensis analysed previously and presenting a range of susceptibility to African isolates (Malter 1984;Munaut 1990;Munaut et al. 1997;Munaut and Maraite 1998) were used as internal controls according to the description in Section 5.2.4. Inoculation was performed as per Munaut et al. (1997). In some interactions, the symptoms were different from the typical type A and B symptoms but more or less similar to the type C symptoms caused by several C. gloeosporioides isolates described in Section 5.2.4.A 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant effect of the main factors 'isolate' and 'genotype' on the anthracnose severity indices (cf. Section 5.2.4 in this publication). The mean anthracnose severity indices ranged from 0.09 to 0.75 (Table 10). Compared to the other inoculated genotypes and species, S. humilis cv. Paterson and S. guianensis cv. Endeavour were respectively the most resistant and the most susceptible cultivars. Isolates induced only small, restricted lesions (c) or even no lesions (I) on S. humilis, S. guianensis accession CIAT 184, S. fruticosa and S. hamata. S. scabra presented extensive anthracnose lesions after inoculation with four isolates, but was free of symptoms with six others. The severe anthracnose lesions on interactions with S. capitata, S. viscosa, S. scabra and S. guianensis cv. Schofield reveals a huge pathogenic potential in Colletotrichum in Mexico. The ability of one Mexican isolate from S. guianensis and one from S. viscosa to induce severe lesions on S. guianensis accession CIAT 10136, characterized as resistant or immune to most C. gloeosporioides isolates from Africa (Munaut 1990;Maraite 1993;Munaut et al. 1998), confirms the potential of anthracnose disease in wild Colletotrichum species.   Morphology of the falcate-spored Colletotrichum isolates was studied as described in Section 5.2.2. Within the falcate-spored isolates, two main morphological types were observed: (i) light brown colonies, producing an orange-brown pigment in the agar with very short white mycelium and absent or very sparse setae; and (ii) grey to olive-coloured colonies producing a moderately to elevated white mycelium and acervuli with seta. The isolates produced 100% of falcate conidia with acute apices. The mean size of the condia ranged from 20.9 to 28.4 μm in length and 2.5 to 2.9 μm in width.ITS, and recently obtained 28S rDNA and β-tubuline gene sequences (data not shown), revealed that most falcate-spored isolates were C. capsici, known as an important pathogen in tropical areas, although the homology between reference and Mexican isolates was not always perfect. Only one isolate (from S. guianensis plant SG 197-2) was identified as C. dematium.Thirteen falcate-spored isolates that have been morphologically and molecularly identified as C. capsici were inoculated on three Stylosanthes species from which they were isolated in Mexico, i.e. S. guianensis, S. pseudohumilis and S. humilis. Inoculation was performed using the protocols of Munaut and co-workers (1997). Although the mean anthracnose severity indices (asi) were less than 1, except for the SG 226-1ac1 isolate, severe symptoms (C or CC) were observed in interactions with eight isolates (Table 11). S. humilis cv. Paterson, the most resistant genotype to Mexican C. gloeosporioides f. stylosanthis f. sp. stylosanthis isolates (Munaut et al. 2002), also presented the highest resistance level to isolates tested in this component of the research. Equal to the straight-spored non-gloeosporioides isolates, the C. capsici isolates also have significant pathogenic potential, as some isolates were able to induce severe lesions on S. guianensis accession CIAT 10136, otherwise characterized as a resistant genotype.  21). The ITS1 sequences were the most similar to the partial sequence available for a C. crassipes isolate in the EMBL databank. Three Mexican isolates share some characteristics with C. crassipes as described by von Arx (1957), such as conidial size and shape, but the shape of the appressoria was different (Sutton 1980). Integration of the morphological and the molecular characteristics does not allow one to assign these four Mexican isolates to a known species, but gives an indication of their close proximity to C. crassipes. Confirmation of the species name could be validated by additional sequencing and analyses of DNA regions pertinent at the taxonomic level, such as 28S rDNA, β-tubuline and mtDNA.Six unidentified straight-spored isolates of the ITS1 type 2 (RAPD II) were grouped into a major cluster whereby their ITS1 sequences presented a similarity rate of 94 to 98%, but these seemed to be completely different from those of the other species (Figure 21). This suggests the occurrence of a new species, characterized by small variations in its ITS1 region.These examples suggest the occurrence of new species among the Colletotrichum isolates producing straight conidia. This should be clarified by comparison with isolates from various international collections, more particularly with isolates typifying species, varieties and formae of Colletotrichum, and with isolates for which complete morphological description or molecular data are available. Additional regions of the genome used as taxonomic tools, such as the ITS2 region or the conserved rDNA subunits (5.8S, 16S, 28S) or the β-tubuline gene, should be sequenced to evaluate the similarities of Mexican sequences with those available in the databanks.Although an significant number of plants (264) was collected in 78 different populations during different seasons and in a wide range of ecogeographical regions, Colletotrichum species could only be retrieved from 64 plants (24%) belonging to 36 populations (47%). Most of the isolates originated from plants collected during the rainy season (October to January) in the states of Nayarit, Oaxaca and Michoacan. However, correlation between ecogeographical origins of Stylosanthes populations and occurrence of Colletotrichum species is difficult to state, because of the heterogeneity in the number of collections visited in each area, in the number of plants collected within each population, and in the differences in recovering Colletotrichum isolates from the plants.Conidial morphology, growth rates on solid medium and molecular characterization all demonstrated the occurrence of both types A and B in nature, indicating a common genetic background of the isolates pathogenic on native and cultivated Stylosanthes.Simultaneous occurrence of C. gloeosporioides and other straight-and falcate-spored isolates of the Colletotrichum genus on native Stylosanthes species suggests significant diversity of the pathogen present on this host plant. Furthermore, besides the presence of type A and type B isolates of the species C. gloeosporioides, confirmed through molecular and morphological characterization, some additional isolates were detected that could not be associated with type A and B isolates. The existence of Colletotrichum isolates sharing common molecular characteristics with, but not related to, known Colletotrichum taxa, and not satisfactorily identifiable using the morphological characterizations proposed by Sutton (1980) andvon Arx (1957), suggests, at least, high diversity in the genus Colletotrichum on wild Stylosanthes in Mexico, and, presumably, the occurrence of new species. As expected, Colletotrichum isolates found on wild Stylosanthes species in Mexico showed higher genetic diversity than those found on cultivated Stylosanthes.The integration of morphological, pathogenic and molecular data demonstrated clearly that an infraspecific level of differentiation exists within the diverse species of C. gloeosporioides, and that the isolates isolated from Stylosanthes species share a common genetic basis. Therefore the infraspecific taxon Colletotrichum gloeosporioides forma stylosanthis f. nov. was proposed for C. gloeosporioides isolates from Stylosanthes. Two formae speciales were distinguished: f. sp. stylosanthis, proposed for the type A isolates and f. sp. guianensis for the type B isolates.High genetic diversity of the pathogen and the potential for transfer of genetic information between isolates facilitates the introduction of new isolates in areas where Stylosanthes is cultivated. Besides that, several Mexican isolates were able to induce lesions on genotypes resistant or immune to African isolates, and therefore to put at risk commercial utilization of Stylosanthes worldwide. Finally, the ability of various isolates to induce anthracnose lesions on several Stylosanthes species demonstrated that the anthracnose epidemics worldwide reflect only a small part of the pathogenic potential in the genus Colletotrichum.The number of Stylosanthes species and cultivars grown worldwide is only a small part of the total biodiversity existing in the genus. This implies that interesting genes for improvement of yield, or for resistance or tolerance to various eco-climatic conditions or diseases are still supposed to be available in wild populations.Related to this huge diversity of wild Stylosanthes species is the question of the occurrence and diversity of its main pathogen (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) in similar wild conditions. Indeed, its presence and-even more importantly-its potential diversity, as described in the previous chapter, could be evidence that the epidemics that have occurred up till now reflect only a small part of the infection potential present in the Colletotrichum genus.During this research project, huge genetic polymorphism was revealed in the Colletotrichum genus isolated from various wild Mexican Stylosanthes species. Besides the high variability detected within the 120 strains identified as C. gloeosporioides, the existence of some new species among the 150 other Colletotrichum isolates is suggested. To detect a specific relationship between the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and the Stylosanthes species from which they originated, ITS sequencing and RAPD analyses were performed on the 120 Mexican C. gloeosporioides strains. Well characterized type A and B isolates from Australia were included in each analysis as reference isolates, as well as two isolates from Africa, different from both type A and B.Sequencing of the ITS regions and phylogenetic analyses, including isolates from various other non-Stylosanthes hosts, demonstrated a common genomic basis for the isolates specific to the Stylosanthes genus. Therefore a new forma was proposed: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides forma stylosanthis Munaut F. nov. anam., in which two formae speciales were described: C. gloeosporioides Penz. f. stylosanthis forma specialis guianensis Vinijsanun, Irwin & Cameron mainly found on S. guianensis; and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. f. stylosanthis forma specialis stylosanthis Munaut f. sp. nov. found on most other Stylosanthes species.RAPD analysis showed that the Australian type A isolate grouped with the Mexican isolates obtained from S. humilis and with all but one of the isolates obtained from S. viscosa. The Australian type B isolate clustered with all but one of the Mexican isolates found on S. guianensis. Within each of these main clusters, the Mexican isolates were more closely related to each other than to the Australian ones, suggesting distinct genetic evolution of C. gloeosporioides populations according to their geographical origin. Two African isolates differing from the typical type A or B isolates (Munaut et al. 1998) clustered with the two remaining Mexican isolates from S. viscosa and S. guianensis. These results confirm that the types A and B occur in nature on wild Stylosanthes species in Mexico and that they present similar host species as in cultivated areas worldwide.A second phenetic analysis was performed by separating the isolates according to their Stylosanthes species of origin (S. viscosa, S. humilis and S. guianensis) (Munaut 1999). The clustering of 74 strains found on wild S. viscosa plants was primarily linked to their population of origin, but also to the date of collection. The phenogram obtained therefore represents a dynamic evolution in C. gloeosporioides structure. The 27 isolates from S. humilis could be separated into four different types, partially related to the state of origin (Michoacan and Nayarit). The isolates collected in four populations in Nayarit clustered in two separate groups, without clear link to their population of origin, morphological or pathogenic differences. This lack of correlation is often observed in the Stylosanthes-C. gloeosporioides interaction (Chakraborty et al. 1997;Kelemu et al. 1997). Furthermore, the Australian isolate type A, which is obtained from S. viscosa, was more similar to the isolates from Mexican S. viscosa than to those from S. humilis, suggesting a common genomic basis for isolates from S. viscosa. This means that, although all the latter species belong to C. gloeosporioides f. sp. stylosanthis, there is still a kind of subpopulation of isolates identifiable within this forma specialis that are more related to one host species than to another.The 18 isolates from S. guianensis could be grouped according to the geographical origins of their host (Michoacan, Nayarit, Veracruz). Although few strains had been analysed for this host, their diversity was greater than that found on strains proceeding from S. viscosa and S. humilis. Although highly polymorphic, strains from different acervuli transferred from the same plant are still more closely related to each other than isolates from different plants.Among the 150 other Colletotrichum strains, 72 falcate-spored strains were isolated. ITS sequencing of representative strains allowed identification of only one C. dematium isolate, all the other strains being identified as C. capsici. This last species is known as a pathogen of several tropical crops, such as Capsicum spp.Given the sequences available in the EMBL database at the time of analyses, the remaining 78 straight-spored Colletotrichum strains could not be assigned to any known species, although some similarities could be observed. At least four groups of strains should be investigated more accurately, and could represent new species.This extensive diversity study, performed on the five (or available) isolates obtained from the five acervuli on each plant, demonstrates the important diversity between isolates from different acervuli, plants and populations. Although pathogen diversity of the host species could be partially linked to the state where it was collected, isolates from plants collected in the same population were generally more similar to each other than to isolates from plants from different populations.Even if significant genetic diversity and a corresponding high aggressivity of several C. gloeosporioides isolates was observed, Stylosanthes species are still widely distributed in Mexico and present a high level of species, morphological and molecular diversity (Vander Stappen et al. 1998, 1999a-b;Vander Stappen 1999). This suggests that there is a potential reservoir of resistance present in Mexican Stylosanthes populations, a potential that could be used by breeders for improvement of cultivated genotypes.The advances made during the research project provide a basis for the development of a strategy for the conservation and use of Stylosanthes genetic resources in Mexico and around the world. Crucial to any such effort is a solid taxonomic framework, which has been provided by the revision of the genus undertaken by UNAM. The distribution and ecology of the Mexican species is also better understood now. New species were found in the states of Jalisco, Puebla and Oaxaca. In terms of species-level diversity, the state of Oaxaca had the greatest number of Stylosanthes, with eight species, while Chiapas and Jalisco had six species each. In several areas of the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Chiapas and the Yucatán Peninsula, 'hybrid zones' of Stylosanthes were detected, indicating that, in narrow areas, genetically distinct Stylosanthes populations meet, cross-pollinate and produce hybrid progeny.Map 6 shows the results of point-centred analysis of the distribution pattern of diversity. A circle with a radius of one degree (the size of the circle shown in blue on the map) was drawn around each collection point and a Shannon-Weaver diversity index calculated based on the presence of Stylosanthes species within the circle. Points in dark green show where species diversity is highest. An area in the south of the country has been highlighted as a hotspot of Stylosanthes species diversity, and thus probably a likely focus of any future in situ conservation work. Using GIS technology, it is now possible to assess the extent of Stylosanthes diversity within protected areas, and the risk it faces from different genetic erosion factors, such as urbanization or soil degradation. Of course, the number of species is only one measure of diversity. Two areas may have equal numbers of species but the species may be more genetically similar among themselves in one area than in another. Based on the morphological, and especially the molecular marker data, we have a better idea of the genetic relationships among the species, and can augment the analysis of the geographical distribution of species diversity with this information. The molecular data also allows one to speculate about in which species, and the locations where, evolutionary processes are particularly active. We have found that the Mexican species from the S. calcicola lineage (or from phylogenetic clade 3) (cf. Section 3.3, Phylogenetic analysis of Stylosanthes, in this publication) seem to be speciating rapidly, and forming polyploids within the genus, in combination with the widespread species S. viscosa and S. humilis. These will make them particularly important targets for conservation, especially in situ.Another important variable affecting conservation interventions is the pollinating system of the target species. The molecular data suggest that outcrossing is high in S. guianensis and S. viscosa and low in S. humilis. The balance between intrapopulation and interpopulation variation is likely to be somewhat different for outcrossers and inbreeders, with more population differentiation among the latter, which is reflected in the occurrence of regional types within each of these species.Turning to Colletotrichum, which has been thoroughly studied at UCL, genetic diversity was found to be very high in Mexico compared with Africa and Australia, presenting a major danger for Stylosanthes cultivation. Anthracnose disease caused by C. gloeosporioides worldwide seems to represent only a small part of the infection potential demonstrated in the two formae speciales identified in Mexico. The results of the Colletotrichum work raise the question of the definition (and the existence) of the co-evolution phenomenon.The results do not completely support the theory of co-evolution of host and pathogen. The huge diversity of the host plant Stylosanthes and its wide distribution suggests that the host plant is not threatened in its existence by the huge diversity, and phytopathological potential, of C. gloeosporioides and other Colletotrichum species-one could assume that there is a kind of balance between the host and its pathogen. If this can be considered as coevolution, it is still an open question, as no analyses were undertaken of the resistance gene(s) in the host nor of the virulence gene(s) of the pathogen. Co-evolution of host and pathogen has long been assumed, particularly by the plant breeder community, and has been proven for host-pathogen combinations such as Phaseolus bean and the angular leaf spot fungus Phaeoisariopsis griseola, and for wheat and Puccinia rusts. This gene-for-gene interaction was the basis for resistance breeding, e.g. against cereal rusts.Although significant genetic diversity was observed, as well as high aggressivity of several C. gloeosporioides isolates on wild Stylosanthes cuttings, the wide distribution and genetic diversity within the host suggests that a potential for resistance exists in Mexican material. The challenge for the future will be to limit the danger of movement of aggressive strains outside Mexico, while at the same time locating and transferring resistance to cultivated material.","tokenCount":"23065"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd9ad012517074d9a4357279591e83b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/48f1f049-c2d4-4992-9e3b-e96ac8c7836f/content","id":"1448455510"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"81a966c3-8bc8-464a-80dc-78f0011cdbfc","pagecount":"12","content":"The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT® (www.cimmyt.org), is a not-for-profit research and training organization with partners in over 100 countries. The center works to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat systems and thus ensure global food security and reduce poverty. The center's outputs and services include improved maize and wheat varieties and cropping systems, the conservation of maize and wheat genetic resources, and capacity building. CIMMYT belongs to and is funded by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org) and also receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks, and other public and private agencies. CIMMYT is particularly grateful for the generous, unrestricted funding that has kept the center strong and effective over many years.From a physical perspective, the soil matrix is generally conceptualized as being constituted by soil aggregates (filled spaces) or secondary soil units, and pores (empty spaces) (Soil Science Society of America, 1997; Lal and Shukla, 2004). Dry sieving provides an indirect measure of field aggregate size distribution that can be expressed as mean weight diameter (MWD ds ) (van Bavel, 1949), or as a percentage of aggregates. Aggregates can be divided into large macro-aggregates (>2 mm), small macro-aggregates (250 μm -2 mm), micro-aggregates (53-250 μm) and free silt + clay (<53 μm) (Six et al., 2004).Factors that differ between studies and lead to variation in results include the sieve load, duration of the sieving treatment (particularly on fragment sizes larger than 16 mm and smaller than 4.75 mm), as well as the number and size of sieves (Díaz-Zorita et al., 2007). To allow comparison, these factors must be kept constant between samples. However, the disintegrating forces that occur during sample taking, preparation, and analysis do not duplicate the field phenomena. Consequently, the relationship between aggregate-size distribution obtained in the laboratory and that existing in the field is somewhat empirical (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986).Various authors have reported that dry sieving provides a measure of soil erosion. Chepil (1953) stated that resistance to wind erosion is positively related to the percentage of dry soil structural units greater than 0.84 mm. However, the percentage of these aggregates would vary as a result of disturbance intensity (i.e., strength and duration) during dry sieving. The application of stress to soil fractures the soil matrix in zones where the bonds between particles are weaker than the force of the applied stress. Consequently, the size of fragments will depend upon the applied stress (Díaz-Zorita et al., 2002). Given the variability of methodologies applied and the complexities of processes related to wind erosion, the relationship between dry sieving and soil erosion is unclear. Field sampling for soil structure studies must be undertaken carefully to avoid structure disruptions which will distort results. When making comparisons between different management practices, all samples should be collected on the same day (i.e., observed variability in soil structure of soils which have similar water content may be a result of different management practices). Samples should be obtained using a shovel to avoid compression and disturbance of the sample (which occurs when using an auger) and ensure minimum wall surface area to volume ratio to decrease the risk of compaction. Only the part of the sample not touch by the shovel may be used. Avoid any activities, such as hammering the shovel, which can result in sample disruption. Then samples are placed in rigid large sampling boxes or paper bags that have been appropriately labeled. Avoid layering the samples as this would cause compression of soil. Prior to analysis, samples should be stored in a controlled environment (i.e., constant temperature and humidity).After field sampling, air-dry samples at room temperature for a few hours and then gently break large clods (>5 cm) along natural planes of weakness into natural aggregates. The samples are then air-dried for 2 weeks before being passed through an 8 mm sieve to remove coarse plant residues, roots and any stones >8 mm. Take a sub-sample of 200-300 g for further analysis. Thoroughly mix the sample before taking the sub-sample to ensure you obtain a representative sub-sample.Place sieves in a stack (i.e., 4.00, 2.00, 1.00, 0.50, 0.25 and 0.053 mm) with the largest mesh size on top and a closed recipient at the bottom. Pour the sample onto the top sieve. The stack is then placed within the machine with the top sieve covered by a lid (Figure 1). Secure the stack of sieves tightly in the machine and shake them at a speed of 210 cycles min -1 for 5 minutes (Figure 2). Afterwards, empty the sieves onto their corresponding metal trays. Ensure you have weighed and marked these trays in advance. It is advisable to write the corresponding mesh size on each tray. Clean the sieves with a brush to ensure that all soil is collected on the trays and no soil remains on the sieves. Next, weigh the trays with soil and record the weight. After sieving, the samples can be stored for use in other experiments or as a back-up in case there are errors in the data.Where:MWD ds = mean weight diameter (mm) of dry sieved soil d = mean diameter of each size fraction size i (mm) (e.g., soil found in 2.00 mm sieve has 4.00 mm as maximum diameter and 2.00 mm as minimum diameter. Thus, mean diameter for such sieve is 3.00 mm). For the selected group of sieves, mean size fractions are: 6.00 mm, 3.00 mm, 1.50 mm, 0.75 mm, 0.375 mm, 0.1515 mm, and 0.0265 mm.    ","tokenCount":"920"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8371688405.json b/data/part_5/8371688405.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"60a7d80ec2222d69402efcc59ecc7707","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/952ce224-a87a-474a-8b4b-59491a17fa25/retrieve","id":"81902095"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1eb50748-c9ee-42e0-b3c4-91dfe01abd12","pagecount":"2","content":"Discussions with farmers in Coastal Bangladesh showed they prefer using off-farm income to purchase agricultural inputs, rather than credit. Public policy that enables off-farm income generation opportunities are likely to be of use, where current level of fertilizer application is below optimum, particularly for resource-poor farm families. Where farmers routinely over-apply fertilizers, or practice imbalanced application, more complex policy, and development interventions may be needed, including educational programs, direct training, and behavioral nudging methods that encourage more rational use.• Multi-national Country(ies):• India • Bangladesh • NepalComments: Indo-Gangetic Plains focussed Links to MELIA publications:• https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13975-7","tokenCount":"94"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8394307413.json b/data/part_5/8394307413.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..703d9ab3e7ff1cbf19ba754f558d4aebfb6d88a3
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5a073ac9c0437c6d731f8c32d94520cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a59cf363-e0dd-49cd-a5fa-a3b575cdbdcd/retrieve","id":"122802692"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7bdfd565-e447-4859-9df8-5775e5cc0631","pagecount":"1","content":"• Development of market facilities is an important intervention to improve the marketing system and benefit rural inhabitants from small ruminant production.• Small ruminant keepers can generate higher incomes from increased participation and higher prices for their animals due to carefully designed market development interventions in Ethiopia.The • There is a great scope for increasing the contribution of livestock resources by improving the marketing system.• This study presents an empirical evidence on the impacts of putting markets sheds in place on the market participation and income from small ruminants.• Experimental market sheds were constructed in nine markets and baseline and follow-up surveys were conducted in 16 markets on a sample of 50 marketers from each of the markets.• We employed different econometric models to estimate the impact of the sheds on market participation and performance of smallholder farmers.• Advocacy to encourage investment in market infrastructure development to improve the marketing system and enhance the welfare of small ruminant keepers in the study area.","tokenCount":"163"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8415491411.json b/data/part_5/8415491411.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d275136434ab76086ffe9adaaca9f289c6b3c9dc
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a0d750eb12b88d50f93465fd095d2699","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84faefdf-2e3b-4f22-8acb-37bcb1f0a938/retrieve","id":"820856610"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"922e7a83-ab61-4b4b-9108-120ab39707f9","pagecount":"91","content":"Over the past decade, donor organizations, researchers, and development practitioners have recognized the importance of collecting mixed methods gender and assets data using mixed methods in monitoring & evaluation and impact evaluation of development programs. Nonetheless, many researchers and practitioners remain unsure of why or how to do this. This toolkit has been developed as part of the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project (GAAP) to assist researchers and practitioners who are either new or unfamiliar with using mixed methods for gender and assets data collection and analysis. 1 In addition to establishing the need for gender and assets research, the toolkit defines key concepts and highlights methods for collection, analysis, and dissemination. It also draws from first-hand insights (opportunities and challenges) from previous research projects and the recently-completed GAAP case studies. For those interested in Toolkit compiled and edited by Julia Behrman, Zhenya Karelina, Amber Peterman, Shalini Roy & Amelia Goh as part of the Gender, Agriculture, & Assets Project (http://gaap.ifpri.info/), and updated by Chiara Kovarik and Katie Sproule. The toolkit would not be possible without the guidance and comments of the GAAP core team membersControl over and ownership of assets are a critical component for well-being of individuals and households. Assets are multi-dimensional, and thus have multi-dimensional benefits. Productive assets can generate products or services that can be consumed or sold to generate income. Assets such as homes or buildings may both provide services as well as generate rent. In addition to tangible assets, it is important to remember that assets also encompass intangible items like social capital and education that can be converted into marketable connections and skills. Assets are long-term stores of wealth that can increase or decrease with investment and time. Assets can act as collateral and facilitate access to credit and financial services. Their fungibility provides security through emergencies and opportunities in periods of growth. In short, owning land and livestock, homes and equipment, and other resources and wealth enables people to create more stable and productive lives. Increasing ownership of and control over assets also helps to provide more permanent pathways out of poverty compared to measures that aim to increase incomes or consumption alone. Agricultural development projects that seek to increase the asset holdings of the poor contribute to sustainable poverty reduction while promoting self-reliance.Who controls these assets within the household is critical to household and individual well-being. There is now substantial evidence that contradicts the common assumption made in economics and many development projects of a \"unitary\" model of the household -that is, the assumption that households are groups of individuals who have the same preferences and fully pool their resources. Evidence suggests that, while some assets in a household are jointly held, many assets within households are held individually by the men, women and children who comprise households. 2 This allocation of assets to various individuals within households is determined both by the contexts in which households find themselves as well as intra-household dynamics. The distribution of assets across individuals within a household may, in turn, affect individuals' intra-household bargaining power when individual preferences over outcomes differ. A growing body of evidence has shown that not only do women typically have fewer assets than men, but they also use the ones they have differently. Increasing women's control over assets, mainly land, physical, and financial assets, has been to shown to have positive effects on a number of important development outcomes for the household, including food security, child nutrition, and education, as well as women's own well-being. 3 Based on this and other evidence, it can be inferred that: understanding the role of men's and women's asset ownership and control is key to achieving global development goals.A crucial first step toward understanding the gender dimensions of asset ownership and control is acquiring detailed gender-disaggregated information on assets though monitoring, evaluation, and data collection. Unfortunately, most data on assets is collected at the household level, and does not distinguish individual-level assets, or is limited in terms of categories of assets collected and the method in which ownership or control is operationalized. However, there are a growing number of studies that examine gendered control over assets, using a range of evaluation methodologies.Thistoolkit is intended to help researchers and practitioners collect, measure, and analyze gender and assets data in qualitative and quantitative evaluations for current and future projects. It was developed as part of the Evaluating the Impacts of Agricultural Development Programming on Gender Inequalities, Asset Disparities, and Rural Livelihoods (GAAP) Project of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. 4 The GAAP project 3 evaluates how a number of agricultural development projects in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa impact women's and men's assets (and other development outcomes) and seeks to identify which strategies have been successful in reducing gender-asset gaps.The toolkit is organized as follows: Section 1 presents an overview of key questions and concepts related to gender and assets; Section 2 focuses on important principles for measuring the gender-asset gap in quantitative and qualitative data collection, highlighting tools, best practices and approaches, and pros and cons of each method; Section 3 summarizes these best practices, drawing from the experience of project partners in GAAP, and makes over-arching recommendations in terms of gender asset data collection, and; the Annex provides a host of additional information, including a list of resources for collection of gender and assets data, case studies from each of the GAAP partner projects and from previous work on gender and assets, and a guide for how to integrate gender into standard household surveys.For questions or comments about this toolkit, or to share your experiences with us, please contact IFPRI-Gender@cgiar.org.The following is an overview of key questions and concepts related to gender and assets data. For additional information, refer to the annex.The stock of all resources that a person accesses, controls, or owns makes up his or her assets. As stores of value for each person, an asset may increase or decrease in value over time, and it may also create new value (for example, through generating income). It may be liquid or illiquid, tangible or intangible, internally-embodied or externally-embodied. The term \"asset\" and the term \"capital\" are often used interchangeably.Assets can be broadly categorized according to the following: Natural resource capital such as land, water, trees, genetic resources;  Physical capital such as livestock, agricultural and business equipment, houses, consumer durables, vehicles and transportation, water supply and sanitation facilities, technology, and communications infrastructure;  Human capital such as education, skills, knowledge, health, nutrition, and labor power;  Financial capital such as savings, credit, and inflows (state transfers and remittances);  Social capital such as membership in organizations, networks that increase trust, ability to work together, access to opportunities, reciprocity, and informal safety nets, and;  Political capital such as citizenship, enfranchisement, and effective participation in governance-often key to controlling rights over other assets.Control over and ownership of assets is a critical component of well-being. Increasing control and ownership of assets helps to create success in pathways out of poverty in comparison to interventions aimed at increasing income or consumption alone. For example, a woman who owns a plot of land can use the land to grow produce for home consumption or sale. Alternatively she can rent or sell the land if she needs money or use the land as collateral to get a loan. Assets are typically sold for income; however, many can also be used to create additional income. For example, with education-a type of intangible asset-the initial investment has potential pay-offs over every period of a person's life, allowing him or her to access better paid and more stable work opportunities. Because assets are long-term stores of value, they can also be used to help protect individuals or households against negative shocks. Income and consumption are subject to fluctuations where loss of employment and sickness can suddenly and dramatically change household security. On the other hand, assets can accumulate over time and are more resilient to fluctuation. Furthermore, asset ownership may carry intangible benefits such as increasing self-esteem and social status which are associated with both individual and household well-being. The relationship between assets and income can be summarized as follows: assets are a stock, income is a flow derived from those assets.There are many dimensions related to a person's rights to an asset. While all of the dimensions are valuable, the focus of the evaluation depends on the context of the situation. When considering what constitutes rights to an asset, nuance is necessary. Rather than just collecting data about household assets, it is essential to understand how each individual within the household interacts with the asset. This analysis not only involves figuring out who owns the assets, but also who is permitted to use it. Thus, depending on the context for each asset, it may be important to ask the following questions:1. Whose resources were used to purchase it; 2. Who makes decisions regarding how to use it; 3. Who makes decisions regarding who else is allowed to use it and who is not; 4. Who makes decisions regarding its sale and/or rental; 5. Who collects any income generated from its use, sale, or rental; 6. Who makes decisions on how to spend income generated from its use, sale, or rental; 7. Who tends to the asset in terms of time spent taking care of it, repairing it, maintaining it; 8. Who is permitted to use the asset; 9. Who actually uses the asset; 10. Who has the legal right or documentation to claim the asset if taken to court; 11. Who is allowed to keep the asset if a partnership dissolves or a household splits up, and ; 12. Who makes decisions about bequeathing the asset?There are specific categorizations to help further define a person's degree of access, control, and ownership of a particular asset. These are not mutually exclusive, but should be approached as overlapping \"bundles of rights.\"In terms of bundles of rights, access and withdrawal are often considered \"use rights,\" while management, exclusion, and alienation are often considered \"control rights.\" Access or use rights alone are typically thought to be useful, but not as empowering as control rights, and ownership rights are the strongest of all. Having all of the bundles of rights, specifically alienation rights (the right to rent out, sell, or give away the asset), is often considered ownership (although in some societies, an \"owner\" might not have all of these rights, or might not have them independently). See Table 1 for more detailed information and example of how the definition applies to the case of a piece of land.Despite these general patterns, the associated definitions of \"use,\" \"control,\" and \"ownership\" tend to differ significantly by culture and country context. In addition, which dimensions and definitions of rights are the most important for gender and assets research are situational and vary by assets. For example, in the context of livestock, the right to make decisions about how to use the asset (i.e. feeding a cow healthy grains) and the right to claim the output produced by the asset (either the dairy itself for food or the income generated from dairy sales) may be quite beneficial. In contrast, in the context of a radio, the right to merely access the radio (i.e. listening to broadcast and gaining information) may also benefit the individual. In these cases, it is very helpful to conduct qualitative work to understand how households in a particular context define these concepts when interpreting data. Right to use the asset Individual(s) has the right to physically be on a piece of land and use the land. In many cases, women are an important source of basic labor (weeding, harvesting) on men's fields, but have no control over the output or even their own time.Right to claim the output and/or income produced by the asset Individual(s) has the right to take and sell the produce grown on the piece of land, but most importantly, receives the income from the sale. In some cases, women are actually responsible for selling the agricultural products at the market, but have no rights over the financial reward.Right to make decisions about how to use the asset Individual(s) has the right to make decisions about, for example, whatM crops will be grown on the piece of land, what laborers will be hired, and how agricultural inputs like fertilizer and pesticides will be applied.Right to exclude others from using the asset Individual(s) has the right to exclude others from physically being on and/or using the land.Right to transfer the asset to others, such as through sale, leasing, gift, or inheritance Individual(s) has the right to transfer a piece of other people. In the majority of cases, women lack the right to decide what will be done with land or to even receive the land, especially in terms of inheritance.Source: Johnson and Quisumbing (2009)  In the GLAS survey, researchers asked not only about ownership but also about a spectrum of asset rights, including use and decision-making over assets.  In addition the survey allowed for disaggregation of data by sex by asking each woman and man separately about her or his rights over particular assets.  The GLAS also collected information on joint ownership and asset rights from individual women and men from the same household to assess the prevalence of joint asset holding, especially of land and housing, among women and to compare women's experience and reports of joint asset ownership with men's experience and reports.4. Why is it important to study the distribution of asset access, control, and ownership across different male and female household members, rather than simply looking at the total number of assets held by the household? Why should we collect asset ownership data at the individual level rather than the household level?A common assumption made in economics and many development projects is that of the \"unitary\" household model -that is, the assumption that households are groups of individuals who have the same preferences and fully pool their resources. However, this assumption may in fact hide inequalities in access to assets that exist within the household. There is now a growing body of evidence that suggests thatwhile some assets in a household are jointly held, many assets within households are also held individually by the men, women and children who comprise households. 5 The distribution of assets across individuals within a household may, in turn, affect individuals' intra-household bargaining power when individual preferences over outcomes differ. Many studies have concluded that not only do women typically have fewer assets than men, but they also use the assets they have differently. Increasing women's control over assets, mainly land, physical, and financial assets, has been found to positively affect a number of important development outcomes for the household-including food security, child nutrition, and education-as well as the women's own well-being.Aside from the gender dynamics, numerous studies have shown that information collected at the household level is not sufficient to measure specific ownership within the household. For example, a land title is not titled in the name of a household, it is titled in the name of a specific household member. When we collect data on asset ownership, it is important to allow for both joint and individual asset ownership. Most economic theories of household decisionmaking that consider bargaining within households focus on individually owned or controlled assets, but in practice, whether joint or individual asset ownership matters more depends on context.As described above, research shows that households do not pool resources nor share the same preferences. This implies that the individual(s) within the household who receives and controls resources determines the impact of policy and development programs.As a consequence, even when the goals of a particular development intervention relate to the household-level or the country level rather than the individual level, attention to gender and assets is crucial if programs and policies are to effectively improve development outcomes. Evidence from many countries across a range of development interventions shows that men and women use their assets differently, and increasing women's control over household assets leads to improvements in child health and nutrition outcomes, agricultural productivity, and income growth. One study found that gender inequality in education reduces economic growth. 6 Further, increases in women's education (e.g. investment in human capital) in developing countries led to the greatest contribution to reducing the rate of child malnutrition, responsible for 43 percent of the total reduction. 7 In Bangladesh, the greater a woman's asset holdings at marriage, the larger the share the household spends on children's education. 8  Another study found that households in which Bangladeshi women had a higher share of assets also had better health outcomes for girls. 96. Does the term \"gender\" refer to a focus on women? When one refers to a focus on \"gender and assets\" are they are interested only in women's assets?No. Although \"a focus on gender\" is often incorrectly interpreted as \"a focus on women,\" the study of gender differences refers to the study of both men and women in relation to each other. Therefore, in studying gender and assets, it is not enough to just look at women's assets. It is important to understand the relative position of men and women, with respect to assets. In particular, one should take into account differences in the value, quantity, and quality of assets owned by men and women within the same household, as well as those that are jointly owned or managed. In mainstream economics, the conceptual reasoning for considering the relative versus absolute holding of men and women is that it has implications for the bargaining power when two individuals have different preferences over outcomes. If we observe trends only in men's asset ownership or only in women's asset ownership, we miss the full picture. Our experience in GAAP suggests that we may also miss the full picture if we neglect joint assets.Figure 1 shows the percentage change of husbands ' andwives' assets in rural Bangladesh (1996-2000). Women's assets are increasing, especially land; however, husbands' assets are increasing more. Thus, gender-asset inequality has increased over this time period. To the extent that this growing intra-household inequality of asset ownership may affect decision-making power, both the absolute asset ownership of men and women and their relative positions are important to take into account. Thus, to accurately understand the entire dynamic, it is important to pay attention to both men's and women's assets, and study the impact that agricultural development programming has on both groups.Source: Quisumbing (2010)   GLAS is a gendered assessment of men's and women's rights over assets -including ownership, documentation and control over use, transfer, and transactions.  These studies point to significant nuances in the nature of the gender-asset gap and its drivers and to the fact that it is important to go beyond looking at women as a homogeneous category. Different kinds of women -for example, female heads of household, widows, or wives of male heads -have different asset rights and will be more or less vulnerable depending on their status.7. Can assets be jointly-owned (that is, owned by two or more people)? What are the common categorizations of ownership?Yes, assets can be jointly owned. However, households are often inclined to report that all assets in the household are jointly-held, for the sake of politeness or political correctness, even when this differs from the reality of associated rights. Further probing on specific rights often helps to uncover whether an asset can be considered jointly owned, individually owned or collectively owned.Source: Johnson and Quisumbing (2009) 8. What is the \"gender-asset gap\", and why does it persist?Development research has shown that there is a gap in number and value of specific assets held by men and by women. The reasons for this gap include many factors, which are often context-specific. In many cultures, there are socio-cultural perceptions that women \"should not\" own particular types of assets (i.e. land, cattle, high levelsIndividual ownership One particular individual holds the bundle of rights that, in the specific context, constitutes ownership. These rights vary dependent on context and on how they were acquired.Typically women have exclusive ownership and control over the dowry gift provided by her family. In some cultures, however, while the dowry is given to her, the husband's family controls the dowry. In other examples, certain assets are culturally associated either with men or women. In South Asia, small livestock is typically considered owned and/or controlled by women and larger livestock is typically considered owned and/or controlled by men.Two or more individuals hold the bundle of rights that, in the specific context, constitutes ownership. Joint ownership is common among spouses and within households.Land may be considered \"joint\" as long as both spouses are alive and married. However, both names may not be on the title, and the asset would not be split evenly in case of divorce. It is important to probe for this type of ownership given the variation in definitions.Collective ownership Individuals formed into a group collectively hold the bundle of rights that, in the specific context, constitutes ownership.Many development projects, such as microfinance, promote collectively owned assets among groups, which serve as a buffer against shocks. In some cases, assets are owned as shares by group members, which can be easily transferred (making them similar to individual ownership), while in other instances this is not the case.of schooling) or be involved in certain types of activities associated with assets (i.e. operating a water pump or riding a bicycle). These more active, \"masculine\" activities instead tend to be associated with men. Given these social perceptions, women face more constraints relative to men in acquiring assets, using assets, or gaining ownership rights to assets. These constraints are attributed to barriers for access to resources, mobility, knowledge and/or information, and legal standing. In some cases, women may simply tend to have different preferences or physical capacity than men for particular assets.In order to bridge this gap, accumulated evidence highlights some best practices and tools to increase women's asset holdings. It aims to uncover: 1) how to target women with development interventions; 2) how to improve participation in development interventions , and; 3) what to do to increase the chances that women will benefit from agricultural development projects. For example, one intervention seeks to work with men to change attitudes and behaviors that limit women's economic opportunities.However, incorporating gender into program implementation is often challenging. First of all, many programs do not directly include gender-related outcomes, such as reducing the gender-asset gap, in their program targets and therefore it is difficult to mobilize resources to include gender-specific design components. Second, even when gender is included as a specific goal, the methods shown to be effective are often not widely utilized in program implementation. For example, many interventions focus on women and men separately (for example, focusing only on reaching \"numbers\" of women) and ignore how they relate to one another, leading to negative impacts on gender dynamics.As mentioned above, there is substantial evidence that men's and women's asset ownership and control have implications for individual and household welfare. However, it is not clear from the evidence whether there is an \"optimal\" distribution of assets across men and women, and in particular, it is not clear whether it is optimal for men and women to have exactly the same number and type of assets. All of the following scenarios could decrease asset disparities between men and women: 1) increasing women's assets; 2) decreasing men's assets or redistributing assets from men to women; 3) increasing both men's and women's assets, but women's to a greater extent; 4) increasing the returns to women's asset more than to men's assets, given equal asset endowments; and(5) increasing women's share of assets through joint ownership with men (although who controls the asset still needs to be determined). There is a lack of research, however, to point to which of these scenarios, if any, has the most optimal outcomes for men and women. The current evidence shows that development may have counterbalancing factors for the gender-asset gap. For example, having greater equality in asset holdings across male and female partners may lead to more equal bargaining power; however, there is at least a perception that a woman receiving more assets may also result in more conflict or domestic violence in the household.Therefore, more evidence is needed to show whether reducing the gender-asset gap should be the goal of development projects. However, what is clear is that researchers and practitioners need to have a nuanced understanding of the gender dimensions of asset ownership before implementing new development projects and programs.10. Why is it important to collect data on men and women's assets when evaluating a project?As described above, how a project affects the distribution of assets within households can have substantial implications for its impact on long-term household and community-level development. Even if a project does not directly specify gender-related outcomes as one of its target objectives, asset ownership and control have implications for who in a household and who in a community reap benefits from the program. For example, if a program that transfers cash to households leads to increases in women's asset ownership, this may suggest a dimension of positive outcomes related to women's empowerment and children's welfare. If a project does directly specify gender-asset targets, it is important to assess whether the study meets its goals, and if not, what constraints prevent them from being met. By evaluating whether a program succeeds in meeting certain objectives as well as the sources of success or failure, researchers and practitioners can identify broader lessons that can be applied to future projects, leading to more positive, effectively-targeted investments.11. Is there a \"one size fits all\" way to collect gender and asset data in evaluations?Gender-asset dynamics are heterogeneous, complex, and rooted in social, economic, and institutional factors.Moreover, the type of data that is useful to collect relates to how the data will be used. For full-scale impact evaluation, comprehensive gender-asset data in addition to other household information may be necessary. Meanwhile, for monitoring and evaluation, only gender-disaggregated information on the most program-relevant assets may be necessary. For example, if a program aims to increase women's ownership of livestock, the monitoring and evaluation data (M&E) collection can focus on gender-disaggregated ownership and control of livestock, as opposed to including all forms of assets. Therefore, there is no \"one size fits all\" approach to collecting gender and assets data. However, as described in the next section, there are some basic principles that one can follow in designing instruments to collect this data.Because assets have cultural meaning as well as economic value, individual ownership of assets, and the meanings thereof have long been studied by anthropologists and other social scientists, often in the context of studies of marriage and inheritance (e.g. Goody 1973). In economics, much of the early work on measuring the gender asset gap was conducted in the 1990s in order to test theories of household behavior-whether households behaved as though they made decisions \"as one unit\" (also known as the unitary model\") or whether they were composed of individuals who may have different preferences and did not necessarily pool their resources. Because assets that husbands and wives controlled were thought to influence spouses' decision-making within marriage, early studies collected information on assets at marriage, inherited assets, and current assets, separately for husbands and wives in a wide range of countries (Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, and South Africa). 10However, these early attempts at collecting gender-disaggregated asset data did not pay much attention to asset ownership by other household members (even if the bulk of household assets are typically owned by husband and wife) or assets that were jointly owned, and were typically confined to smaller samples (300-1000 households) that were not necessarily nationally representative. 11 Early work by Deere, Doss, and Grown in the 2000s attempted to systematize the collection of individual-level asset data in the context of large scale household surveys similar to the Living Standards Measurement Studies. This led to current efforts to measure assets at the individual level in the In Her Name project. \"Lessons learned\" from the GAAP partners in collecting gender and assets data are found in Section 3, while details from the GAAP case studies, as well as the most relevant previous initiatives to collect gender-disaggregated asset data are included in this toolkit in Annex 3: Case studies.There are a wide range of quantitative and qualitative tools and methodologies that can be employed to look at gender and assets issues in M&E or impact evaluation. Key questions you may want to ask before starting to design an evaluation include: What type of information do you want to collect? Will qualitative or quantitative methods be better for this purpose? Which tools or methods are most appropriate?  Will you be working at the household level? The community level? The national level?  What types of assets are particularly valuable or important in your area of study?  Who can you interview or talk with to better understand gender and asset dynamics in the area of study?The household head? Other household members? Community leaders? How might the social position of the person you interview or talk with influence his or her responses?  How can you ask questions that will help you understand the multiple control and use rights associated with a particular asset (e.g. right to use the asset, rent it, alter it, sell it, etc.)?.  How can you assess intangible assets-such as social capital, human capital or political capital-in addition to tangible assets-such as property?Quantitative methods use mathematical or statistical techniques in order to discern patterns about populations of interest. There are a variety of methods for undertaking quantitative monitoring and evaluation or impact evaluations. Household and individual-level data are typically collected using quantitative household surveys with a standardized questionnaire, typically with fixed coded responses, although some may allow open-ended responses to be coded later. Data for quantitative analyses may include panel data that is data collected about the same households over a number of years, allowing for analysis of changes over time. Some of the surveys collect data at the level of the individual household member, which allows for comparison between men and women, and also helps to capture the full range of livelihood strategies within the household. Sampling to cover the range of wealth and/or poverty categories is critical for these types of surveys. Although some qualitative data is included in the quantitative surveys, researchers analyze most survey data-including qualitative responses-using statistical or econometric techniques in statistics packages such as SPSS, Stata, or SAS. Representativeness: Large sample sizes ensure that data will be more representative of the populations in question.  Causation: Econometric methods allow you to test scenarios and calculate coefficients so you can attribute causality, and estimate impacts to better understand which aspects of programs are more effective.  Availability of existing data. Some data is already publicly available in censuses and other databases thus it may be possible to conduct analysis without new data collection efforts. Establishing context: With quantitative data it is more difficult to understand nuances of a given culture and context. This may lead to a tendency towards over-generalization.  Difficulties in establishing causality: Even with good data it is often difficult to establish causality.Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) typically refers to activities undertaken by implementing organizations to keep track of progress toward achieving program targets. For example, if a particular program aims to have 80 percent of program recipients owning cattle, then the M&E data may collect information on how many cows a sample of program recipients own. In general, implementing organizations select a small number of beneficiaries at random at intermittent periods during a program's progress and record key indicators for those beneficiaries. M&E data is typically collected only on recipients of the program, not on non-recipients of the program. Thus, M&E data cannot be used to infer program impacts. In other words, while it is possible to track changes in indicators for average recipients over time, it is not possible to attribute these changes as causal impacts of the program-the impact of having the program, versus not having it. Again, the example above applies to cattle ownership. Data on non-recipients would be necessary to pick up any time trends in key indicators that are not related to program receipt.In addition to tracking changes in key indicators among program recipients, M&E data can also be used to look at relationships between characteristics of program recipients, characteristics of service providers, characteristics of communities, and outcomes of interest. For example, it is possible to establish using fairly straightforward multivariate regression analysis that a program beneficiary is more likely to have more cows if the beneficiary is more educated, if a program service provider has more training, if the community is less remote, etc. In other words, we can learn patterns of relationships with outcomes of interest among program beneficiaries. However, these still cannot be interpreted as causal impacts of the program. For example, it cannot be stated that because of the program women that are more educated own more cows. Since definitions of ownership may be context-specific, for any asset that is listed, it may be helpful to specifically address various dimensions of ownership and ask who in the household has access to the asset, who in the household would be able to sell the asset, who in the household receives income received from any production from the asset, etc.It is also interesting to collect M&E data on gender-disaggregated assets if these are indicators that are key to a program's goals. For example, as noted above, if a program aims that 80 percent of its female recipients should own cows, then it can track how many cows are owned by various members of the household in a small subset of its recipient households. However, the gender-disaggregated asset list can be quite parsimonious and focused on the indicators that interest the implementing organization. Unlike impact evaluations, it is not necessary to include a comprehensive list of all possible assets in the household unless patterns of ownership across assets are also of interest to the program implementer. For example, if women recipients' ownership of cattle was the key goal of a program, but the implementers were also interested to see whether women recipients who owned land were more likely to own cows, they might include both gender-disaggregated cattle ownership and gender-disaggregated land ownership in the assets module.Impact evaluation refers to a formal quantitative study that uses statistical and econometric tools to infer the causal impact of a program on its beneficiaries. This \"impact\" refers to the differences in outcomes that beneficiaries experience, relative to what they would have experienced in the absence of the program. Since it is obviously not possible to directly observe the counterfactual case of beneficiaries' outcomes in the absence of the program, the key challenge in impact evaluation is to develop a proxy measure for what beneficiaries' outcomes would have been in the absence of the program.Note it is not possible to simply compare the outcomes of a program recipient before receiving the program and after receiving the program. This is because other changes may have occurred over time. For example, suppose that a woman owned four cows in July 2010, before a particular program started. After the program started, there was an outbreak of cattle disease, so that in July 2011, one year after the program started, she only owned three cows. However, if there had been no program, she would have still experienced the cattle disease and would have only owned one cow in July 2011. Then the impact of the program on her cattle ownership should be considered an increase in two cows, relative to what she would have had in the absence of the program (=3-1). It would be incorrect to attribute the loss of one cow (=3-4) to the program; that is, simply comparing the pre-program/post-program outcome for a program recipient is likely to give a misleading estimate of program impact.There are several ways of constructing the proxy measure in a valid way. The choice depends on how program beneficiaries were chosen:If the program was randomly assigned to beneficiaries (that is, if out of a pool of eligible households, it is randomly selected which households will receive the program and which households will not receive the program), then it is reasonable to assume that non-recipients are on average very similar to what program recipients would be like in the absence of the program. Therefore, the impact of the program can be inferred by simply comparing the outcomes of program recipients and program non-recipients after the program is in place. An econometric method called \"differences-in-differences\" can also be used, if both pre-program and post-program data are available for both groups, to account for any pre-program and time-invariant differences between the two groups. With a randomly-assigned group of non-recipients to be used for the proxy measure, analysis is straightforward.  Due to the very clean design, randomization is often considered the \"gold standard\" of study design for impact evaluation. Randomization is often difficult to implement, due to political, social, and ethical considerations.  Often randomization is only feasible in small-scale pilots and/or over a short term, in cases where the randomized non-recipient group is promised that they too will receive the program after a certain time. For large-scale programs targeted at particular types of households, it is often infeasible to randomly hold out some households with the targeted characteristics to not receive the program.If the program is assigned to beneficiaries in any way other than randomly, then we can no longer assume that non-recipients look the same as recipients counterfactually would in the absence of the program. For example, if a program is targeted to poor households, then we expect that (by construction) the average non-recipient household is richer than the average recipient household would be in the absence of the program. Suppose, for example in a poor household, Household A, a woman would own one cow in the absence of the program and two cows with the program, whereas in a richer household, Household B, a woman would own five cows even in the absence of the program. Then the program's impact should not be calculated as the difference between the number of cows owned by a woman in Household B in the absence of the program and the number of cows owned by a woman in Household A with the program (which would wrongly indicate that the program causes women to lose three cows, rather than gain one cow). We would instead need to construct a suitable comparison group to the recipient households among the non-recipient households, using a very rich amount of data collected both pre-program and post-program and using complex econometric techniques (e.g. matching methods and regression discontinuity design). Most programs are targeted to particular types of households, making this the only feasible impact evaluation strategy. The credibility of the impact estimates depends completely upon whether similar non-recipient households could be found to compare with recipient households. For very well-targeted programs, it is very difficult to find households that are similar to recipient households but not receiving the program, simply due to the comprehensive targeting.  Even if a suitable comparison group can be found, the data needs are very intensive and can be very costly and time-consuming to collect.  Even if a suitable comparison group can be found and sufficient data is available, the econometric methods used to estimate impacts are quite complex. Using these methods requires a strong background in statistics, econometrics, and data analysis software.Moreover, because impact evaluation often focuses not only on estimating average impact, but also on uncovering pathways of impact, the data needs for impact evaluation can be quite intensive. In particular, gender-disaggregated assets data may not only be outcomes of interest, but these data may also be determinants of women's bargaining power that are likely to affect the magnitude of program impact. Thus, in the context of impact evaluation related to gender and assets, the list of assets for which ownership needs to be collected in a gender-disaggregated manner includes not only the assets that are considered outcomes of interest for the program, but also all other assets that are considered valuable in that cultural context. Thus, the list of assets is often quite long. For example, it may include items such as pots, pans, blankets, etc., which are not primary outcomes of interest for a particular program, but still may reflect ownership for various household members and which may convey status in that particular context. Thus data collection for the gender-disaggregated assets module can be fairly time-consuming. Sometimes detailed information beyond simply the number of a particular asset owned is also necessary for analysis. For example, a positive impact of a program might be owning the same number of cattle but highervalued cattle, detecting which would require information on the value of each asset owned. For this reason, there are often additional columns other than simply number owned in the assets module for impact evaluation, including value of the number owned.Since definitions of ownership may be context-specific, for any asset that is listed, it is often helpful to specifically address various dimensions of ownership. That is, ask who in the household has access to the asset, who in the household would be able to sell the asset, who in the household receives income received from any production from the asset, etc.In short, impact evaluation answers very important questions, but it is a large and often costly undertaking. It is usually conducted by trained researchers who are evaluation partners to implementing organizations, in collaboration with the implementing organization. It is rare for implementing organizations to conduct impact evaluation on their own programs (due also to concerns over impartiality).There are a variety of methods for undertaking quantitative impact evaluations that consider gender and assets dimensions. Some of the surveys collect data at the level of the individual household member, which allows for comparison between men and women, and also helps to capture the full range of livelihood strategies within the household. Sampling to cover the range of wealth/poverty categories is critical for these types of surveys. Although some qualitative data is included in the surveys, researchers analyze most survey data-including qualitative responses-using statistical or econometric techniques in statistics packages such as SPSS, Stata, or SAS.Ideally, household surveys should collect gender disaggregated data on a number of topics including household roster, education, asset ownership, agricultural production, income and other topics of relevance to the project in question. For a more detailed explanation of how to insert/modify gender into existing survey modules, see Annex 2. Table 3 below is an example of a simplified way to engender the asset module of a household survey.In the case one wishes to collect a panel of gendered-assets data and disaggregation was not done during the baseline, it is possible to collect information on outcomes that are easy to recall and \"lumpy,\" such as land and assets, and do this retrospectively. This was the method used to collect information on assets at marriage in the IFPRI surveys described in Case Study 2 as well as Quisumbing and Maluccio (2003). Another strategy is to rely on a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods that will allow you to collect information that is lacking (section 2.5).Source: Johnson and Quisumbing (2009) As a final summary, in addition to primary quantitative data from surveys, it is useful to consider secondary data sources from government and other researchers' studies. Secondary data can be used to provide the basis for sampling frames, cross-check the information from more localized primary data collection with other regions or nationally representative samples, and provide direct information for a study. Nationally representative secondary data, especially official statistics, also provide the basis for cross-national comparative studies. OECD provides a website (http://wikigender.org/) with a range of gender-disaggregated data, including a series of gender inequality indices. Numerous cross-national studies, for example, have shown that women's education has a powerful effect on a range of development outcomes. Qualitative data is also an important part of gender-assets research, bringing to light dimensions of the issue that are difficult to capture with statistics or surveys. To thoroughly understand gender relations, researchers must also examine additional aspects of well-being, such as status, self-esteem, empowerment (or disempowerment), vulnerability, issues of social differentiation, social norms and, most importantly, self-perceptions by individuals and communities of what it means to be \"male\" or \"female\" in a given society. Nonetheless, qualitative data usually draws from a smaller sample of people and thus can be more subjective and difficult to draw out general patterns. The next paragraph highlights the benefits and challenges of this method. Captures dimensions of gender-assets data that cannot be described through numbers and statistics. For example, risks that are faced by men and women may be culture specific and difficult to get at using standard survey questionnaires without prior qualitative work, such as collecting life histories or focus group interviews to better understand dynamics surrounding major risks.  Allows for greater flexibility to ask and probe about interesting findings. When collecting asset data, there are often important gender differences in the spectrum of asset ownership that may not be accurately captured in household surveys with predetermined answers. For example what it means to \"use\" or \"control\" a given asset may be entirely different from what it means to \"own\" that asset and differences in categories of asset ownership may fall along gender lines with important distinctions not easily captured in surveys. There may be additional qualitative differences in the kinds or types of assets that male and females own which only emerge from in-depth discussions with the respondents themselves.  Qualitative research also allows respondents to express their own opinions freely, thus allowing researchers to better understand why men and women may accumulate different types of assets in the first place. Ethnographic methods such as participant observation can provide key insights into gender roles in agriculture (and non-agricultural) activities, and prolonged residence in villages may reveal aspects of intra-household negotiations, hiding of assets, or sensitive topics that respondents may not reveal in surveys. Accurate data collection requires greater training and expertise. Because qualitative methods are less pre-specified than household or other quantitative surveys, they require more on-the-spot analysis by the person collecting the data to know what issues and ideas to follow up on. In comparison, in quantitative surveys enumerators are usually trained to ask questions in a standardized manner, and most of the analysis is done using statistical analysis back in the office. As a result, finding skilled qualitative researchers who understand the topic area may be more difficult than finding survey enumerator teams.  While the data collected is more thorough, it is longer and less wieldy (more difficult to summarize). Collecting, analyzing, and writing about qualitative data requires a greater amount of time and effort.Given the variability of gender assets data, there are a variety of different qualitative methodologies that can be used to gather the information. In the following overview we highlight some of the main methods and provide examples and resources of how they can be applied to fieldwork.Source: Njuki (2009)  Ranking and Rating/Scoring activities can be useful for identifying important traits and criteria for organising issues or items by preference. While these methods tend to be used for technology evaluation, ranking of options (e.g. prioritizing household income options, asset preferences), they can also be used to compare preferences across groups (e.g. men and women). There are a number of advantages to these activities; for example, they can be used with symbols and counters, especially with groups with low literacy levels; they can be done individually or in groups; they allow for group contributions of lists to be ranked/rated and the criteria to use; and they can be easily quantified. However, a disadvantage is that these activities take considerable time, especially when community groups identify their own lists and criteria for evaluation. Diagramming/Mapping exercises can take a variety of forms including participatory impact diagrams, before and after maps and diffusion maps. Mapping exercises have a number of advantages as well; for example, they can be used with groups that have low literacy levels; they are very engaging; they provide easy visual presentation; they can provide massive amounts of information that combine qualitative data as well as simple numbers; and they can be done on paper or on the ground. However there are a number of disadvantages, including the fact that they require close facilitation, can be time consuming, and can be dominated by those that can write (who holds the pen, chalk, or stick etc.). Personal diaries Ranking/Rating/ Scoring are disadvantages as well. For example, in an FGD, there may be less time to explore and probe and difficult to triangulate data on individuals or households. In addition, louder voices may dominate quieter ones and there may be problems associated with peer pressure. Furthermore, FGDs are not very appropriate for sensitive topics. Semi-structured interviews are conducted with a fairly open framework which allows for focused, conversational, two-way communication. They generally start with more general questions or topics and are followed by more specific probing questions. Not all questions are designed and phrased ahead of time, the person leading the interview often uses an interview guide rather than a set of questions. Semi structured interviews can be used to: (1) obtain specific quantitative and qualitative information from a sample of the population;(2) generate general information relevant to specific issues, and;(3) gain a range of insights on specific issues.There are many advantages to doing semi structured interviews. By providing depth and detail, they have analytic power that allows researchers to relate data to other data at individual, household, and community levels. Furthermore, they are not biased by problems of peer pressure. However, they tend to be more time consuming and costly to collect and analyze, and often lead to smaller sample sizes. In addition, semi-structured interviews do not allow for trigger and interaction effects like those in group interviews. Most significant change is a story-based, qualitative and participatory approach to monitoring and evaluation that involves the collection of significant change (SC) stories emanating from the field level, and the systematic selection of the most significant of these. These stories can be used for different domains of change, program evaluation, organizational review and evaluation and building community ownership through participatory evaluation. The advantage of this approach is that it is participatory, involves multiple stakeholders and does not use pre-set indicators. It can thus capture unexpected and unanticipated changes; however, it can be very time consuming. Network analysis is a set of integrated techniques used to depict relations among actors and to analyze the social structures that emerge from the recurrence of these relations. Analysis is conducted by collecting relational data organized in matrix form. Actors are depicted as nodes, and their relations as lines among pairs of nodes. Advantages are that these can be done individually or in groups, data and/or information can be quantified (UCINET) and presented through visual tools (e.g. Venn diagrams) or short questionnaire surveys. However, analysis is limited to evaluation of interactions and requires multiple types of software, such as UCINET for analysis and Netdraw for network maps.By using data from a variety of sources and qualitative and quantitative methods, it is possible to cover a wide range of issues and topics relatively efficiently. Rather than seeing this as a second-best solution, such a combined approach can actually provide more convincing analysis than any single method. This is because studies have found that people respond differently to quantitative and qualitative information. Numbers are required to convince some audiences, while others will be unimpressed by numbers, but relate more to in-depth and contextual information gathered using qualitative techniques. Triangulation, where several types of data are used in a single study, and used to cross-check and compare results, allows any weaknesses in one method to be offset by the strengths of another.An assessment of 57 mixed method studies identified five purposes for mixing methods: (1) triangulation-seeking convergence of results;(2) complementarities-examining overlapping and different facets of a phenomenon;(3) initiation-discovering paradoxes, contradictions, fresh perspectives; (4) development-using the methods sequentially, such that results from the first method inform the use of the second method, and; (5) expansionadding breadth and scope to a project. 12Translating gender-assets data methodology to the field can be challenging. It is imperative that researchers prepare themselves for several potential questions and issues that can arise in order to ensure that data collection goes smoothly. There may also be resistance, often from funders, against the complexity and costs of these types of surveys. Researchers must be ready to justify the increased complexity in terms of the wealth of insights gained. Again, it is important that researchers and fieldworkers adapt their collection strategy to the culture-context. In this section, we draw from interviews with experienced researchers (see Annex 3 for the full interviews) and highlight some of the main questions and issues that can arise as well as provide solutions before getting out in the field. Identifying who in the household should be interviewed: Should it be the \"head of household\" as is the case in many surveys? Should the head of household answer for all household members or should multiple household members be interviewed? Different people in the household will have access to different typesThe study included two phases: qualitative field work and quantitative household assets survey.  In the qualitative phase, focus group discussions were complemented by interviews with key informants and a compilation of the secondary literature. The focus groups focused on four themes: the accumulation of assets over the life cycle; the importance of assets; the market for assets; and household decision-making over asset acquisition and use. The qualitative work provided the basis for developing survey questionnaires that were both adapted to each country situation but also facilitated comparisons across countries.  The quantitative phase of the study involved collecting nationally representative data in Ghana andEcuador and data representative of the state of Karnataka, India. A household inventory asked about the ownership of all tangible assets including housing, agricultural land, livestock, agricultural implements, non-farm economic activities and associated assets, and consumer durables. Respondents were asked to identify individual and joint owners of all of these assets owned by anyone in the household. In addition, individual level questions were asked about financial assets, awareness of inheritance laws, recent shocks and coping strategies, and decision-making. These questions were asked of two people, often the principal couple, within the household.of information and/or have different perspectives and thus will report different things. It is important to think strategically about which types of household members will be able to best provide necessary information. Maintaining privacy of responses: This is particularly important for asset issues which may be sensitive. It is possible that household members-particularly women-will have hidden assets that other people in the household will not know about. Selecting who will be doing the data collection: In some contexts respondents may be more comfortable with same sex interviewers while in other contexts they may actually be more comfortable with an interviewer of the opposite sex, or the gender of the interviewer may not be an issue at all. For example, Pakistan and Bangladesh surveys have teams of men and women; surveys in the Philippines almost always employ women due to trust and safety issues; surveys in Guatemala City employ women interviewers for safety issues; in many African contexts interviewers in surveys are men. Adapting question style and format during the data collection process to, for example, participants' level of education or method of valuation: In some studies, questions had to be adjusted (particularly in lowliteracy populations) so that they could be understood by respondents. Other fieldworkers found that respondents had difficulties valuing assets at present or recalling what they paid at acquisition. To work around this issue, fieldworkers instead collected data on when the asset was acquired, what was paid upon acquisition, and current market value or replacement cost, using alternative methods of estimating the value of the asset. In other contexts, the number (count) of the assets was collected instead of the value.In fact, these simpler methods of collecting gender-disaggregated assets data worked very well in the regressions. Thinking longitudinally and tracking changes over time: New data collection efforts may want to be forward-looking in terms of creating the possibility of revisiting households to build up panel data sets on individual and joint asset accumulation. So this means obtaining information with which to track households and individuals over time. This is essential, because new categories of assets emerge over time (for example, term insurance, new savings instruments, cellphones etc.) as well as new uses for incomes earned from assets. Furthermore, capturing changes in ownership and control of assets over time, especially as the relative value of assets change (land may become less important as incomes become more diversified, for example). Another study also pointed out the importance of updating the community questionnaire to capture changes in local facilities, institutions, and even cultural norms. For example, the extent to which women can travel has expanded greatly over time, partly because of the need to go outside of the village for NGO training.The insights listed below were compiled from a series of nine interviews conducted by members of the GAAP team with project leads from each of the eight GAAP projects (two interviews were conducted for CSISA). The interviews were conducted to update the GAAP toolkit after the case studies had been completed, in order to obtain feedback from project partners on the relevance and usefulness of the methods for collecting gender and assets data that were developed through participation in GAAP. The full interviews can be found later on in this toolkit (Annex 3) under the heading \"Case Studies\". These key lessons provide a synthesis of some of the messages that emerged from the interviews. Each lesson is followed, in parentheses, by the project (or projects) that mentioned it. The lessons are divided into four categories, which follow the stages of research (before, during, after, and in the future), with some sub-categories nested within the categories. If, in reading these lessons, you find yourself interested in learning more about the findings or lessons from each project, we suggest that you read the projectspecific case studies, as well as the Discussions Papers and Project Notes for each project, located on the GAAP website (http://gaap.ifpri.info/). General advice: o Be thoughtful in designing a questionnaire that includes a gender perspective (HarvestPlus).For instance, consider collecting information on multiple asset owners or decision makers to more fully understand the role of different household members and gender around these topics. o Get to know your community and gain their trust first, before asking questions that might be new to them or uncomfortable coming from a total outsider (CARE). Sometimes questions had to be adjusted (particularly in low-literacy populations) so that they could be understood by respondents.  In some areas, respondents had difficulties valuing assets at present or recalling what they paid at acquisition. Therefore data was collected on when the asset was acquired, what was paid upon acquisition, and current market value or replacement cost, using alternative methods of estimating the value of the asset. In some countries (e.g. South Africa, Mexico), the collaborators felt that it would be an undue burden on the survey team and the respondent to get the value of assets, so instead counts of assets were collected. Surprisingly, these simpler methods of collecting gender-disaggregated assets data worked very well in the regressions.\"o Pilot and test things on a small scale first (BRAC). Ideas that seem likely to work may not in a field setting (for example, in Uganda it was not advisable to randomly select the primary male or female to be interviewed but rather to let the person best suited to answer the module selfselect) (HarvestPlus). o Know your context and be flexible in what that means for your project and any adaptations you might have to make to fit the context (Kickstart). In some contexts (i.e. South Asia), it may be challenging to even set up forums to talk to women in some communities, where access to them might be limited by social norms (CSISA). Also, understand that if there is a specific context of your project, the results you find may not be generalizable to other areas of the country (i.e. if you're working in a zone known for dairy production there may be higher levels of livestock, or if you're working in a zone that is patriarchal you may not find the same issues as you would in a matriarchal area) or to other countries (i.e. in South Asia female seclusion is common, whereas it is not in Africa) (CARE and LOL) . o Consider adding a process evaluation to a project; it can provide insight regarding both the context and the pathways by which the program does or does not affect respondents as intended by the program theory framework (HKI). o Allow an adequate amount of time between baseline and midline surveys to capture changes (CSISA).  Qualitative and quantitative tips:o Early qualitative work can help identify issues that could be important to include in quantitative work. o In areas where there are low levels of literacy and numeracy, you may need to get creative with the kinds of tools you use (CSISA). o It will probably be more challenging to hire skilled qualitative interviewers than skilled quantitative interviewers (many projects) and you might have trouble finding female interviewers, depending on the location (both CSISA projects). In these contexts, it is important to think about whether male interviewers are appropriately trained to ask female respondents questions and gather unbiased information, or whether it is culturally appropriate to hire male interviewers. In some contexts, the sex of the interviewer may not matter; in others it might. o Consider allowing for more than one owner in collecting asset ownership data; design questionnaires or forms with space for up to two owners (HarvestPlus). o Consider including decision-making modules; they are important to capture household dynamics that influence and involve asset ownership (HarvestPlus).  Major issues that were identified among the GAAP projects included:o The definition of ownership and various rights may vary across cultures and context o Understanding inheritance patterns and their influence on asset ownership o Whether women in particular truly have no knowledge on a subject or are forbidden from talking about it o Identifying problematic interview procedures, such as the sex of the interviewer versus the respondent Formulate comprehensive questions o You can adapt your tools to capture questions that arise during initial stages of research (i.e. CARE's barrier checklist) or change the field work protocols if necessary (i.e. making FGDs single or mixed-sex depending on the community) (CARE).o It is important to not only ask about the benefits of a project or intervention. You must also ask about the consequences or negative impacts (Kickstart). o Ask not only what changes have occurred due to the project, but also how the individuals feel about those changes (CARE). o You can design your project to look at impacts on other types of assets, or to look at only the assets that would be directly affected by the project (like CSISA did). The pro to the former would be capturing spillover effects, which might unexpected, while the pro to the latter would be having a survey that is easier to administer.  Problematic concepts and issues o Many projects mentioned that the concept of ownership turned out to be multifaceted, complex, and comprised of many different rights. It is challenging but important to make sure these distinctive rights are captured. Joint ownership was also challenging to define and understand, as was the issue of usufruct versus actual ownership. Finding the correct tools (likely qualitative) to get at the detailed nuances of this topic can be helpful (LOL).  Distinguishing between use versus ownership was challenging (CSISA). o The language barrier can be very challenging. Especially in cases where multiple levels of translation have to occur, it is important to be very careful to minimize distortion and ensure that concepts you are asking about are those you intended (LOL).o You can always add more qualitative information collection if you feel like you need a better understanding of some issues that have arisen during the life of the project (Kickstart). o In qualitative work, less traditional questions and techniques may be useful in certain contexts.Asking hypothetical questions may help get more truthful answers to ownership rights questions (i.e. asking what would happen to your plot of land if your husband died instead of who owns the plot) (BRAC). However, in other situations vignettes may be more easily understood if the respondents have trouble giving answers to situations they have never experienced or open-ended questions that are difficult to answer (HKI). Life trajectory mapping or life history exercises appear useful in contextualizing the program, the lives of the respondents, and the magnitude of the program's impact (Landesa, BRAC). o When formulating questions in conducting qualitative work, don't make any assumptions about what answers from respondents will be. Rather, ask questions to understand a certain topic and then follow up with additional questions (i.e. to understand land ownership, ask how does the household access land and then about whether women work together or separately, etc) (HarvestPlus). It is also important to hire interviewers who don't have preconceived notions of what the \"correct\" answers are (Landesa). GAAP did not really focus on what kinds of new projects/interventions can be designed and implemented based on the findings of this research. That would be something to do next time (CARE)  Other topics came  up that could be interesting to study in future work (i.e. how might these projects impact intimate partner violence, etc. (CARE) Many interviewed provided valuable feedback as to where the greatest research challenges lie and raised important questions. Major challenges and questions include: Integrating quantitative and qualitative work was identified as very important by most, if not all, case studies. However, finding the proper balance and the timing of each approach seems to be an art (HKI).  Collecting sex-disaggregated data on asset ownership is important. However, we also need guidelines on when it is important to collect data on joint ownership. (HKI)  Cost is always a factor in fielding a questionnaire. Having a questionnaire that can be administered to a male or female respondent by an interviewer of either sex would help to reduce cost. (HarvestPlus)  Standardization is important moving forward. Can the research community agree on a standard set of sex-disaggregated research questions on asset ownership and decision-making? (Landesa)  What are the long term effects of the programs on gender dynamics? (Landesa, HKI)The following are a number of additional resources for more in-depth information on collection of gender and assets data. This paper examines household asset dynamics and gender-differentiated asset inequality over a 20-year period  in northern Nigeria. We show that the initial endowments of both household capital and livestock holdings are inconsistent with the poverty trap hypothesis but that tracking rules for households in panel surveys may lead to differences in empirical results on poverty traps. Available at: http://www.ifpri.org/publication/does-social-capital-build-women-s-assets This paper investigates the long-term impact of agricultural technologies, disseminated using different implementation modalities, on men's and women's asset accumulation in rural Bangladesh.All GAAP power points, discussion papers, case studies, tools (both qualitative and quantitative) and project descriptions can be found on the GAAP project website. Available at: http://gaap.ifpri.info.The following tables look at how to insert and modify survey modules to integrate gender issues in a standard household survey: Basic baseline information: red cells  Typical module with gender-disaggregated info ALWAYS collected: purple cells  Gender-disaggregated info SOMETIMES collected: green cells  Specialized module with gender-disaggregated info ALWAYS collected: blue cells     Source: Quisumbing (2006) Note: In fielding questions about domestic violence it is important to have trained enumerators with knowledge about services available and to protect the privacy of respondents and not subject them to greater risk.In the following annex we provide a number of case studies of projects collecting mixed methods data on gender and assets. The case studies are intended to provide practical examples and also illuminate differences across contexts, and how the researchers/investigators adapted their studies to these different contexts. For each case study we provide background information on the project, an overview of methodology, access to survey instruments when possible and a brief overview of key findings related to gender and assets. It is important to note that the feedback on the survey methodology is from interviews with the project leaders themselves and gives firsthand experience about what aspects of data collection were successful and what needed to be improved. The first set of case studies are from GAAP, while the second set are from previous work on gender and assets.Case NGNB works with local communities to purchase and allocate small plots of land, with titles issued jointly under the names of the husband and the wife. In addition, NGNB helps beneficiaries connect with other government agencies responsible for the provision of assistance with housing and basic inputs, capacity building in homestead food production, and investments in infrastructure.This study evaluated the NGNB program and is a result of collaboration between Landesa and the Gender, Agriculture and Assets Project (GAAP). The project examined how land ownership and joint titling affect households' tenure security and agricultural investments, as well as women's involvement in food and agricultural decisionmaking-outcomes that when enhanced are expected to lead to increased household food production and longterm food security.Quantitative data was gathered from 1,373 households from three districts (Coochbehar, Bankura, and Jalpaiguri) that were surveyed in 2010-2011 and again in 2012. The sample includes beneficiary households that, at the time of the baseline survey, had received their homestead plots and obtained their land titles but had not yet moved to their new plots, plus households that made it to the list of NGNB-eligible households but were not selected as beneficiaries of the program and act as a control group.Qualitative information was purposely gathered in a single district-Coochbehar-to gain an in-depth perspective on a specific locality. This information was collected in 2012 by relying on three complementary tools: key informant interviews with village-, block-, and district-level officials responsible for implementing the program; life-history interviews with program beneficiaries; and focus group discussions with beneficiaries and with eligible non-beneficiaries.Even after a relatively short period of time, the NGNB program shows very encouraging results regarding tenure security, women's decision making power, and household agricultural investments: Women perceive their NGNB plots to be more secure than other plots: women are 8 percent less likely to report being concerned about having to vacate an NGNB plot than other plots and 18 percent more likely to report that they expect their households to have retained access to and control over an NGNB plot than other plots five years later. Their perceptions of tenure security vary with plot size, with larger plots viewed as more secure.  Including women's names on the land titles significantly contributes to women's involvement in food and agriculture decisionmaking. Compared to their non-NGNB peers, women in NGNB households are 12 percent more likely to be involved in decisions to take loans from a Self-Help Group or microfinance institution, 12 percent more likely to be involved in decisions on whether to purchase productive assets, and 9 percent more likely to be involved in decisions related to the purchasing and consumption of food. Further, when women's names are included on land documents, the share of their households' land where they are involved in decisions on how to use the land, what to grow on it, and whether to sell produce from it increases by 15 percent, 14 percent, and 11 percent, respectively.  The average NGNB household is 12 percent more likely than a non-NGNB household to report having taken out a loan from a formal bank since 2009 and 88 percent more likely to use a loan for agricultural purposes.  During the year before the survey, NGNB households were 11 percent more likely to have used fertilizer or pesticides; 11 percent more likely to have used seedlings, seeds, or stems; and 7 percent more likely to have agricultural equipment than eligible households that did not become NGNB beneficiaries.  Despite NGNB's noteworthy impact on outcomes that can contribute to future food security, we are unable to detect statistically significant NGNB effects on households' current food security. On average, NGNBeligible households are just as likely to be food secure regardless of whether they became program beneficiaries. We suspect that not enough time has passed for households to become food secure. This would be consistent with other experiences, like a resettlement program in Zimbabwe, where it took 12 years for the positive welfare effects to materialize (Kinsey, Burger and Gunning, 1998). In our case, qualitative work revealed that only 25 percent of the beneficiaries had actually moved to their plots by the time of the endline survey and that some of the plots are of marginal quality.1. What kind of support did you need for undertaking data collection for your case study?  Landesa has a local office in India and although its program team is well established, its research team is fairly nascent. The Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project (GAAP), with the opportunity to get research support through IFPRI, helped the research team understand how to conduct rigorous field work. While collecting sex-disaggregated data was not a new idea for Landesa, we did benefit from direct technical input from the IFPRI team (by Ruth Meinzen-Dick, Agnes Quisumbing, and Amber Peterman) and were able to obtain valuable feedback on our research design, tools and approach.2. What are the unique gender-asset questions and indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why?  We had good modules on plot disaggregated data-regarding documentation, decision-making, vulnerability, etc. Landesa is trying to standardize the questions asked and has used the same questions in five other settings to date. In general, we see high value in standardizing the questions asked to provide greater comparability between studies and are working towards this goal. We are also in the process of adopting standardized modules on food security that were also asked in this survey.instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why?  We did a life history exercise to try to understand if and why land mattered to people. For instance, in recounting their life story, did women mention land in connection to important life events? What we quickly realized is that the women we interviewed were born poor, had stayed poor, and were currently poor; there wasn't a large amount of variation throughout their lives and so this may not be the best approach to explore our question. In addition, given our resources we were only able to interview 8 women and this makes it very hard-if not impossible--to reach conclusions that are generalizable. However, we would certainly consider repeating a life history exercise with a larger sample, in which case we will definitely incorporate lessons learned from this round.4. Are there any particularities about the region or country of implementation which you think are important to recognize in relation to the gender-asset indicators you collected and which are important for other researchers to be aware of? Did any of these context-or countryspecific factors influence your survey implementation methodology, and how?  Our enumerators were hired from two different states in India and we hired two sets of enumerators in each-firms to do the quantitative work and consultants to conduct the qualitative work.While we had no trouble finding good organizations to take on the quantitative work, finding qualified local researchers to do the qualitative work became a considerable challenge. This was further complicated by the fact that we thought it was important to hire a woman. An additional obstacle was dealing with enumerators' and consultants' preconceived ideas of what the \"correct\" answers were. We worked hard with them to minimize the potential for biases in their interviews. There are a number of remaining challenges for researchers. Foremost, it will be important to standardize questions. As a research community we should decide on a standard set of issues/activities that we want to understand regarding land, formulate a standard set of questions and then ask them consistently. For instance, there is an internationally standardized question module regarding domestic violence. Similar standardization for an asset ownership and decisions-making module would be beneficial. Another issue we came across was that women oftentimes could not answer questions asked about land or asset ownership. As a result, enumerators had to ask her husband or the primary male in the household to obtain the answer. It is not entirely clear to us if these women refused to answer those questions because they did not know the answers or because they were not supposed to talk about those issues. We will need to test alternative modules to decide if it would be better to reframe the questions or to rely on answers from someone else in the household. Since we are unlikely to be the only ones experiencing this problem, we could benefit from guidance from the research community on how to effectively address this issue.6. Anything else you would like to share about GAAP and your involvement with it?  One issue for our project is that the baseline and endline were done just three years apart when many of the expected benefits of the program may take considerably longer to materialize. Given this, it would be beneficial to conduct another round of data collection to measure the longer term effects of the program, at say five or more years from the baseline. The GAAP study's aim was to explore how CFPR-TUP affected intrahousehold dynamics in beneficiary households, including men's and women's ownership of and control over various assets (the transferred asset, as well as other assets) and roles in intrahousehold decisionmaking. It also aimed to understand men's and women's perceptions of these changes.The GAAP study drew on Phase 2 of CFPR-TUP, which ran from 2007 to 2011. Phase 2 was rolled out using an experimental design, allowing for rigorous evaluation of program impacts. Analysis focused on the \"Specially Targeted Ultra Poor\" (STUP) package in Phase 2. STUP was allocated using a cluster-randomized control design.In each subdistrict with at least two branch offices, one branch office was randomly assigned to \"treatment\" and the other to \"control.\" Eligible poor households were chosen in both treatment and control areas, using community targeting and verification visits. In treatment areas, eligible households were selected as CFPR-TUP beneficiaries. Women in beneficiary households received one or more productive assets, training on using the productive assets for income-generating activities, a small subsistence allowance, and close supervision from program staff. While the program designated women as responsible for maintaining the assets, its focus was on the household as an aggregate unit. No requirements were specified for women's role in making decisions related to the assets (for example, selling or renting them or using generated income).The study included quantitative and qualitative elements. The quantitative assessment of CFPR-TUP's impacts on beneficiary households drew on the program's experimental design. As part of previous research, BRAC's Research and Evaluation Division (RED) had collected-in 2007 (baseline), 2009, and 2011-socioeconomic and health data on a large sample of eligible households across treatment and control areas. In 2012, RED partnered with GAAP to collect an additional round of data on the same households, this time regarding intrahousehold dynamics. Modules covered gender-disaggregated asset ownership and control, as well as decisionmaking. Of the 7,953 households interviewed in 2007, 6,066 households were successfully re-interviewed in the 2012 follow-up round. For impact evaluation, it was assumed that because the CFPR-TUP's treatment was randomly assigned, intrahousehold dynamics were very similar across treatment and control groups prior to the program. Therefore, with adjustments made for attrition, the 2012 round of data could be used to estimate CFPR-TUP's causal impacts on intrahousehold dynamics.The qualitative assessment was based on focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews conducted in 2011. Fifteen FGDs were conducted across treatment and control areas. The FGDs consisted of groups of women project participants, groups of project participants' male spouses, and groups of non-beneficiary women. In-depth interviews were conducted with participants from treatment branch offices. The qualitative work served two purposes. First, it informed the development of instruments for the 2012 quantitative survey. Second, it revealed norms on gendered patterns of asset ownership, as well as beneficiary perceptions of project impacts, which allowed researchers to interpret the quantitative impacts in light of local context.Analysis confirmed previous findings that CFPR-TUP significantly improved household-level well-being but showed new evidence of mixed effects on targeted women:  CFPR-TUP significantly increased household ownership of livestock. The largest rise was in livestock owned by women (including cattle, typically thought to be \"men's assets\"), with corresponding increases in women's livestock control.  CFPR-TUP also increased household ownership of other assets. However, this rise generally translated into increased sole ownership by men. Women did experience increases in rights to use some assets, which they reported as increasing social capital.  CFPR-TUP shifted women's work inside the home and increased women's workloads, reducing their mobility. However, women reported preferring this outcome to the stigma of working outside the home.  CFPR-TUP decreased women's voice in a range of decisions.The program did significantly increase women's ownership and control of livestock, indicating transferred assets largely remained with women. In most other tangible dimensions of asset ownership and decisionmaking, however, women tended not to benefit. Nevertheless, taking into account \"intangible\" benefits explored in qualitative work reveals more favorable results for women. Women report increased social capital, confidence, and skills, in part from increased access to consumer durables. They acknowledge increased workload and reduced mobility, but nevertheless report that they prefer to work inside the home due to the stigma associated with working outside the home.As a whole, the analysis shows that asset transfers targeted to women can increase women's ownership and control over the transferred asset, but may not necessarily improve women's relative bargaining position in the household. It also reveals that outcomes valued by women may depend on sociocultural context and are not always tangible. This last point highlights the complexity of assessing whether interventions improve \"women's empowerment.\"o Are there any particularities about the region or country of implementation which you think are important to recognize in relation to the gender-asset indicators you collected and which are important for other researchers to be aware of? Did any of these context-or country-specific factors influence your survey implementation methodology, and how? o Thankfully a lot of good work has been done on gender and assets in Bangladesh, so there's no need to reinvent the wheel or start completely from scratch. o Additionally, Bangladesh is a good place to do fieldwork. If you can get a project running and manage it well, it has high potential to succeed and be scaled up. However, it is key to do pilots and try things out on a smaller scale first. For instance, in another project I worked on in Bangladesh we found that male enumerators could interview women without any problem, though this is often perceived to be an issue. Conversely, female enumerators could not interview men as they did not respect or take the younger women seriously, though this is not often perceived to be an issue. o You need to understand what's been happening over time with gender norms in the country/region(s).There are several notable changes in Bangladesh and some of these changes have nothing to do with development programs. For example, garment factory work has allowed many women to delay marriage and avoid paying dowry as they have their own, independent means of income. A less positive effect on some women, is that there is a large population of men that have migrated to the Middle East in search of workwhich in effect, leaves their wives at home with their mother-in-law, a less than desirable situation for young women.o What do you see as the largest methodological challenges in collecting gender-asset data in general and how can we as a research community work towards filling this gap? o Ownership of high value assets plays an important role in women's empowerment. However, ownership is a nebulous concept and involves many rights (i.e. do you get a say in whether to sell the cow? do you do the work associated with the cow? do you get the income from selling the cow's milk?). One large challenge we face is making sure these distinctive rights are captured.o Did everything go smoothly? Were there any unexpected challenges that came up? o Oftentimes qualitative work is designed by quantitative people. In quantitative work it is generally okay for the researchers who do the fieldwork to be separate from the researchers who do the analysis. In qualitative work, this is not the case; it is important for the qualitative researcher(s) to observe in the field and have this understanding when later looking through the interviews and conducting the analysis. o The primary challenge I faced is that I was not involved with the field work and was brought on later to conduct the analysis. The first thing I did was talk to the people that did the fieldwork but this wasn't a good substitute experience for me, not having been to the villages and observed the interviews.o What qualitative tools worked well for getting at gender and asset dynamics? What qualitative tools did not work well? o We had 15 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 60 key informant interviews. The focus groups were good, though they provided generalized answers. However, one shortcoming of the FGDs is that the people facilitating them were associated with BRAC and may have positively biased what people said about the program. o The key informant interviews were important to help get a more detailed picture than what the FDGs provided. In general, it would have be better to have conducted more key informant interviews. Another issue is that the key informant interviews were not done with women because the selection criteria was program or committee leaders; however, women could provide valuable insight. o The questions and themes for both of these tools were good, however, they could be asked differently to elicit more accurate responses. For instance, questions asked for determining control of assets were asked directly (\"Who has the right to sell [ITEM]?\", \"Who has the right to the income from selling [ITEM]?\", etc.).With this approach people tend to give you more idealized answers (i.e. husband really has right but wife reports it is a joint right). However, getting answers to these questions can also be done in a hypothetical manner, which helps to break down the priming effect of the other method. For instance, ask, \"What would happen to the item if her husband died?\", \"Who would get the item if her husband ran off with another woman?\", etc.o What qualitative tools do you wish you had used in your research? o Another approach, which we did not use but would be valuable, is to map people's life trajectories (pre, during, and post-project) to better understand how various aspects of their lives changed or did not change. This would help to contextualize the program and its impact.For more information about the BRAC project, please see: Das, N., R. Yasmin, J. Ara, M. Kamruzzaman, P. Davis, A. PROJECT CONTACT(S): Nurul Amin Siddiquee (siddiquee@bd.care.org ) and Kakuly Tanvin (kakuly@bd.care.org)The goal of CARE-Bangladesh's Strengthening the Dairy Value Chain Project (SDVCP) is to improve the dairyrelated incomes of 35,000 households in northwest Bangladesh. To achieve its goal, SDVCP addresses the major challenges to improving smallholder participation in the value chain, namely farmer mobilization and education, access to markets for their milk, and access to productivity-enhancing inputs. The project assists in the formation of dairy farmer groups as well as increasing women's participation in the dairy value chain, particularly in such nontraditional occupations as milk collectors and livestock health workers. The SDVCP evaluation looks at how both tangible and intangible assets may have changed, particularly for women, as an outcome of the intervention.This study included both qualitative and quantitative components. The quantitative component drew from longitudinal survey data taken from a baseline ( 2008) and endline (2012) collected from beneficiary households and control groups. The surveys collected data on land and assets, and included several questions on the number and kind of livestock owned and livestock and dairy care practices. The qualitative component included 11 focus group discussions (FGDs) composed of purposively selected project beneficiaries in 10 subdistricts of Rangpur and Bogra Districts. The groups ranged in size from 14-30 participants and included 7 female-only groups and 4 mixed-sex groups. The three primary topics of discussion were asset ownership, access to resources, and decisionmaking about dairy production and dairy-related income.o Impacts on Asset Ownership: Project participation did not seem to change the overall value of household asset portfolios, but it did seem to have significant impacts on a particular assets' value. For example, the value of households' livestock increased, as did the value of agricultural and nonagricultural productive assets. While land ownership did not change significantly, households did expand their land under cultivation through rent and mortgage and thus the amount of land in use increased in both treatment and control groups. Participation increased the value of men's assets and jointly held agricultural assets, but had no impact on women's assets. Though joint ownership cannot be assumed to be the same as joint control over assets, the increase in joint ownership among a sample where most assets were owned by men does seem to point to an increase in gender equality. o Impacts on Women's Access to Credit, Mobility, and Human Capital: Project participation seemed to result in a lower percentage of women taking NGO loans, with FGDs explaining that this stemmed from the source of credit shifting to alternative sources and also a preference for saving money rather than borrowing and paying interest. Women stated that men would go through them to access NGO credit. Project participation resulted in a higher proportion of husbands and wives jointly deciding whether wives could go by themselves to a variety of places. Participants also reported no objections to a woman going to various places to visit friends or family if she could cover her own expenses. Project participation also seemed to result in increases in women's mobility because it made it necessary to travel for training and participation in the project, and because it changed social norms. There are also spillover effects on human capital that can be attributed to increased mobility. o Impacts on Decisionmaking: It still remains to be seen whether project participation changed decisionmaking around dairy production, use, and sale. Quantitative results suggest that the program had negligible impacts on decisionmaking related to the buying, selling and leasing of cows and dairy-related expenses. At both baseline and endline men dominated decisionmaking within the household. Women's decisiomaking, even in areas on which the program trained them, was unaffected. Qualitative results find more nuance: while women were the primary marketers of milk, it was still men who made the decision to sell milk, though women did make decisions on whether and how to allocate milk for home consumption. o The project also seemed to impact household time and labor allocation. Adult women increased their time spent on dairy-related activities within the household and adult men increased their time on dairy-related activities outside the household. The increase in adult women's time spent on dairy activities came at the expense of spending time on other household activities, thus resulting in young girls taking on this work. This demonstrates an unexpected and unintended consequence of the project.1. Are there any particularities about the region or country of implementation which you think are important to recognize? Did any of these context -or country -specific factors influence your GAAP case study or M&E implementation methodology, and how? o Nurul and Kakuly: SDVC is operating interventions in dairy zones of the country. Therefore, cattle ownership is higher in these zones than in other parts of the country and it would thus be unwise to generalize the findings of the studies to all findings on asset ownership. In addition, men usually own productive and other assets in rural Bangladesh while women rarely do. In a study such as ours, when women are asked about their ownership of assets, this could make people in the community uncomfortable. So, rapport building with the community was essential before doing any study on women's empowerment. o Shalini: In rural South Asia more broadly, female seclusion tends to be a sociocultural norm. The project itself was very cognizant of these norms and of women's roles -knowing that women perform a lot of dairy activities but that steps in the value chain needed to be brought nearer to women. We took these factors into account when designing the evaluation of the project, as well. We designed a questionnaire that specifically addressed mobility and ensured that we had female enumerators so that women could be interviewed alone. We also made sure that we collected information on some assets that we found from the qualitative work to be among the few items that women are perceived to own and are therefore considered important assets for women in rural South Asia. These included items like jewelry, cooking utensils, and clothingwhich might not have been considered particularly important assets in other contexts.Was it challenging to find enough skilled enumerators or field workers for the collection? o Nurul and Kakuly: Project staff were the main interviewers for the qualitative work and both project and casual staff were engaged for the quantitative study the project's internal M&E. It is always difficult to hire qualified workers for the field work and this was no exception, especially for the qualitative enumerators. High-quality individual workers are most often engaged with regular jobs, while specialists or consultancy firms are expensive and it requires more time to hire them for any study. Therefore, SDVC worked with casual surveyors that have been engaged with the M&E work of SDVC for a long time, and they are now well trained on different study methods and processes in the context of rural Bangladesh. o Shalini: The quantitative data collection for the external evaluation was collected by Data Analysis and Technical Assistance, Ltd. (DATA), a highly-regarded independent survey firm, and supervised by IFPRI.The baseline and endline surveys were conducted by experienced and qualified enumerators, whom DATA has on call for large surveys. DATA had no trouble finding qualified enumerators, but they are paid more than typical interviewers hired on a casual basis.o Nurul and Kakuly: For data collection in the qualitative study we used focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KII), and case analysis, while for the quantitative study we used a survey and participatory performance tracking by group members. We also used some tools to raise awareness, which we had not used before joining GAAP but that we designed from the preliminary findings of the GAAP studies. These included the access control matrix that looks at ownership over assets by men and women; the barrier tree that we used to identify different obstacles for women in participating in the dairy value chain; the daily time use tool to track men's and women's roles and time allocation in dairying and other household chores; pairwise ranking to understand gendered needs; and a barrier check-list to identify obstacles of individual project participants. We used FGDs and KIIs to gather data for project operations but not exclusively for the gender study. In a different survey we had collected data for monitoring on women's empowerment but added more indicators in the project M&E tools after joining the GAAP initiative. o Shalini: There is growing interest in value chains, but relatively little data collected to evaluate their impacts, and even less to evaluate sex-disaggregated impacts. The tools we used in the quantitative impact evaluation included a baseline survey conducted in 2008 and an endline survey conducted in 2012 on beneficiary households and control groups. We collected sex-disaggregated data on asset ownership and control, as well as nearly all aspects of the dairy value chain -who takes milk to delivery points, who collects the payments, etc. We also measured disaggregated time allocation not only for dairy maintenance but also for other household activities. Collecting this allowed us to understand whether there was a time burden involved with participating in the program, whether this meant reallocating time from other activities, and how this impacted not only women but also other household members including men and children.o Nurul and Kakuly: From the beginning, the project noticed some obstacles for women during field visits, and field staff also reported some challenges in engaging women participants in the dairy value chain. After that, the barrier checklist was developed and project staff started to report on different barriers they noticed in the project area. Through this process we were able to get a sense of the overall barriers for women, but not particularly with regards to the dairy value chain. After joining GAAP, as a part of the study, SDVC planned to further investigate these obstacles to get a better understanding of different barriers for women in value chains. So the project designed the barrier tree tool, administered it in the field, and explored different barriers for women farmers and women service providers. The project got a more complete view of women's barriers through this process and it influenced us to design more tools/interventions that might address some of these obstacles. o Preliminary findings also showed that women rarely join in any income-generating activities as they are always over loaded with household chores, and because the labor allocation for men and women is not equitable. Extensive awareness is also required for asset acquisition and for women to have ownership over assets. Following different obstacles, the project also designed a package program with these tools and administrated a pilot among 20 farmer groups in the SDVC operating area. However, GAAP endowed us with the space to look back on these issues for further research.o Nurul/Kakuly: Control over income has been a vital finding from the qualitative works that we have incorporated in our regular M&E system since then. From the FGDs it emerged that women who are engaged with income generation can hardly manage the income. From this finding we conducted some awareness interventions in groups and now we are monitoring their progress.If so, please give us an example of this, and how it worked out. o Nurul/Kakuly: We did not need to change the tools but we did need to change the administration process. For example, in some communities we did mixed-sex FGDs while in other communities we found that the community was quite conservative and women were dominated during FGDs so we did FGDs with only women participants.o Shalini: We know quite a bit about what the project did or did not change for men and women. But we know less about how men and women perceived these changes. For the purposes of interpretation, it would have been very useful to have explored more which roles and rights women actually want. For example, we find that women's individual asset ownership does not increase, while their joint ownership does. But we do not know whether they would prefer individual ownership or joint ownership. We also do not know which assets they would actually want ownership or control over, or which mobility rights they would want. How do they feel about the rights that they have gained? Do they want those rights? Do they get the rights that they do want? Perhaps what matters is not that women increase individual ownership over exactly the same types of assets that men individually own, but that they increase whatever rights they actually want over whatever assets they actually want. One way to help interpret the quantitative impacts would have been to include some questions in the qualitative work on what dimensions of roles and rights men and women valued. We could have then followed up those specific dimensions in the quantitative work.o Nurul and Kakuly: Sometimes we needed to interview only women participants but one or two men were present observing the interview. Sometimes they also tried to dominate the participants and we had to directly tell them to leave the discussion. In that instance we started some internal discussions on women's issues so that the women felt encouraged before the main discussion and the men either got bored or felt too shy to be there.o Nurul/Kakuly: GAAP is more concerned with and experts on research on women's empowerment issues, but at the same time it needs to design some interventions/tools that can be implemented to address some common findings from the research. o Shalini: In this phase of GAAP, we focused on studying how agricultural projects affected the overall gender asset gap and found some very striking patterns across projects. Moving forward, it could be useful to explore what dimensions of the gender asset gap matter most to project participants and focus on studying impacts on those dimensions, to pro-vide more nuance and depth in interpreting these changes. For example, in the CARE quantitative work, we did not focus on impacts on intimate partner violence, but later felt this might have been an area where the project caused changes that mattered to participants although we did not pick it up. Relatedly, it is useful to think about how projects work within gender norms. Some projects aim to improve people's well-being while accommodating the existing norms, whereas others aim to transform the norms themselves.For more information about the CARE project please see: The Manica Smallholder Dairy Development Program (MSDDP) in Manica Province, Mozambique, has two primary objectives: 1.) rebuilding Mozambique's dairy industry to meet market demand and 2.) increasing smallholder farmers' incomes through participation in a sustainable dairy value chain. The program provided training and improved dairy cows to households and supported the establishment of producer cooperatives and milk collection centers in communities in Manica province. Households in the province needed to meet a variety of criteria to participate and, for those that did, two members were required to attend trainings. This was a modification from an earlier requirement that only one member was required to attend training. Households chose the members themselves, and as a result of this change in requirements, over 60 percent of households had a woman trained. Once household members had completed the training, the household was given a pregnant heifer, registered in the name of the household head. The study looked in particular at women's participation in the program and the program's effects on gendered distribution of assets (like livestock and agricultural tools) and decisionmaking power.Land O'Lakes partnered with ILRI to examine the gendered impacts of this initially \"gender blind\" program, using both qualitative and quantitative tools. For the quantitative component, two household surveys were conducted in 2011 (125 households) and 2012 (150 households) in Manica and Gondola districts in Manica Province.The surveys collected information on household dairy productivity; food security; sex-disaggregated data on demographics, assets, and agricultural labor; and retrospective data on pre-program assets. There was no control group; the analysis looked only at beneficiary households and their outcomes pre-and post-program. Comparisons were drawn between those households that had completed training and received their cows with those households that were still in the process, as well as between households that had female trainees with households that did not. For the qualitative component, LOL and ILRI conducted focus group discussions (FGDs) in program communities. In 2011, 15 FGDs were conducted that discussed the MSDDP, local understandings of assets and asset ownership, and gendered roles in dairy production. Two more focus groups were conducted in 2013 that looked at gendered control of income. The groups were divided into women's groups and men's groups, and were segregated by geographical location and whether or not households had already received their dairy cows.o Rights to Assets: Households increased their ownership of exotic cattle and land by a significant amount during the program period. However, the gendered distribution of assets did not change. There is a high degree of joint ownership of cattle and other assets and, according to FGDs, much of the joint ownership consists of women having rights to use assets that men control. However, these use rights did not necessarily mean women had control over milk, other livestock products, or income. o Production and Consumption: Households that participated in the program reported higher milk production and sales than households that had livestock but did not participate in the program. These increased levels of production and sales, however, went hand in hand with high input costs and more labor hours for men, women, and children. The program's impacts on nutrition were positive, with participant households having higher levels of milk consumption and greater dietary diversity. Interestingly, the amount of milk allocated to either household consumption or sale did not differ greatly depending upon whether men or women made the allocation decision. o Gendered Control of Income and Investment: Income from dairy production dramatically increased for households that received cows, but most of this income was controlled by men. Even though women contributed greatly to labor and \"jointly\" owned cows, this did not result in control over income. In many cases, even when women reported having control over income, this often meant that they made purchases only after first consulting their husbands. Men tended to use milk income to invest in draft animal technologies and cow feed/drugs. Women used income on immediate household needs. Furthermore, women reported not purchasing any assets with income generated from the sale of bull calves, while men reported purchasing many assets with this money.1. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex, and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors -are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected? o I thought that Mozambique was a matriarchal society and thought that gender norms played out differently. In the study sites, however, the community was patriarchal. I would have liked to see how the gender dynamics played out in matriarchal communities.Had you ever used these tools before? Was training the enumerators in these tools easy or challenging? o We mainly used focus group discussions (FGDs), a PRA tool. Within the FGD checklists different exercises such as proportion piling, rating, ranking, activity calendars, gender role mapping etc. were used. Occasionally, key informant interviews (KII) were conducted.o The question on joint ownership of assets was complicated because the subject of joint ownership is complicated. Women often considered usufruct rights as ownership un-problematically, although a few women pointed out that usufruct rights did not represent true ownership. What I would like to know/ was not able to establish is the difference that usufruct versus actual ownership makes-by actual ownership I mean the ability of a woman to dispose of the asset with or without seeking permission from the man. If the type of ownership matters, for who(m), and in what ways does it matter? FGDs might not be appropriate to collect this data. In-depth interviews might be more useful. o In-depth interviews. We did not use them because of the language barrier between the person who could have interviewed and potential respondents -too much meaning could have been lost in translation. I will use them only when there is no language barrier between the interviewer and respondent.Anything else you would like to share about the GAAP project and your involvement with it? o The language barrier can be a great challenge. I feel like translating questions and answers twice -English-Portuguese-Local language-Portuguese-English -is likely to distort questions and responses -even the most carefully framed ones. The necessity to minimize distortion is especially important for issues such as gender, which often require frequent probing and reframing of questions.For more information about the Land O'Lakes project please see: Evaluating HKI's E-HFP program involved a longitudinal impact evaluation consisting of a quantitative baseline (2010) and endline (2012) household survey. Program impacts were measured at both the household and individual level and both male and female respondents were interviewed separately about issues such as assets, agricultural production, and livestock ownership. Two separate rounds of qualitative research were also conducted during the quantitative survey period. The qualitative research was primarily designed to provide insight into why the program did or did not improve women's agricultural production and maternal and child health and nutrition outcomes, by examining issues related to the delivery and utilization of program services. In addition, it was designed to examine the gendered implications of the E-HFP program in terms of access to and control over productive assets.Certain changes occurred during the two years of the E-HFP program's operation, specifically regarding asset ownership and control and gender norms:1. Women Made Gains in Asset Ownership: While men continued to own the majority of agricultural assets, women began to own more assets. Further, women's assets increased more in intervention villages than in control villages. The average number of agricultural assets owned by women in intervention villages increased to a statistically significant degree relative to the average number owned by women in control villages. Program impacts on small animals were statistically significant and positive for both men and women, but with the differential increase for men larger than that for women (4.3 versus 2.6). Moreover, the proportional gap between men and women in ownership of agricultural assets narrowed more in intervention villages than in control villages. Finally, women in intervention villages reduced land cultivated between 2010 and 2012, whereas men's land holdings remained relatively constant as compared to control villages. However, this is likely due to the intensification of women's agricultural production to higher value horticulture crops. Thus the results represent a redistribution of land cultivated across seasons with greater quality due to the availability of irrigation in the dry season.The qualitative research showed that women's control over productive assets increased in intervention villages. Women were primarily responsible for the care of the garden, and they were more likely to make decisions about the use of their gardens' products and the proceeds earned from these products than men. Additionally, while men still owned the majority of land for the garden at the end of the pilot program, there was an increase in the percentage of women who owned land for the garden (as reported by beneficiary women). Although men generally retained control of the larger livestock, women's decision-making power with regards to chickens and goats increased significantly as compared to control villages and was actually higher than men's decision-making power for the treated villages (41% of women and 35% of men reported having decisionmaking power in intervention villages versus 29% of women and 58% of men in control villages). Also, both men's and women's perceptions of and opinions about who could own and control certain assets appeared to have become more open to female control and ownership. This change was more pronounced in intervention villages than control villages.3. Perceptions about Women's Ownership and Control Over Land Are Changing: Men and women across villages stated that while men could inherit land, women could not and could only obtain land through gifts or marriage. Nevertheless, half of men and women in intervention villages reported that their opinions on who could own land, use it to grow fruits and vegetables, or both, had changed. Their opinions had altered because of changing gender roles, the HKI program, and changes in consumption.o What are the unique gender-asset questions and indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why? o We had a process evaluation component embedded into our survey work in 2011, between the 2010 baseline and 2012 endline and a follow-up process evaluation in 2012. In general, a process evaluation analyzes the effectiveness of the program operations, implementation and delivery. This was an important component for our evaluation in two regards. First, it helped us to understand the local context in which the E-HFP program operated (norms regarding ownership, health knowledge, training capacity, etc). Second, we were able to visually map and examine the various pathways contributing to the program's impact as well as understand where actual pathways did or didn't differ from our program theory framework. As part of this evaluation, all parties involved in the program were interviewed (i.e. female beneficiaries, their husbands, landowners, garden program trainers, etc.) using a combination of qualitative and quantitative instruments.Both female beneficiaries and their husbands (husbands were only interviewed in the second round of the process evaluation) were asked questions about how the homestead garden program positively and negatively impacted their lives, child care and nutrition, and also the husband's perception of the program.o What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why? o While we were satisfied with the questions and indicators collected, in retrospect, we may have changed the mode by which we obtained some information. For instance, using vignettes instead of open-ended questions may have helped respondents answer hypothetical \"how could this be better?\" type questions, which can be hard for respondents if they have never experienced or heard of a possible alternative. More generally speaking, more creative options for asking qualitative questions would be valuable and using vignettes would be a good option to consider.  Kevane & Gray (1999) in western Burkina Faso found that women often work on land controlled by men but do not have much direct control over land. However, in certain ethnic groups (e.g. Mossi), women farm plots independently and have a lot of control over what is planted and over income from the plots, whereas in others (e.g. Bwa), women's rights are much more limited. So there can be large and important differences between ethnic groups. In our study area, the Gourmancema and Zaoga ethnic groups view women's rights similarly to the Mossi. o For the second round of qualitative research in 2012, we felt it was important to gain some further understanding of how men and women viewed ownership of land in this particular study area, what they perceived their 'rights' to be, under what circumstances they felt it was or was not appropriate for women and men to own land and why -as these things can impact asset ownership and control and women's rights more broadly. We discovered interesting information in terms of how inheritance patterns influence land ownership and therefore who has control over what. Some of these type of questions may have been useful to have included also in the quantitative piece, or in the first round of qualitative research in 2010, to examine any changes in these patterns or in people's perceptions about what was happening.o What do you see as the largest methodological challenges in collecting gender-asset data in general and how can we as a research community work towards filling this gap? o One large need is having greater guidance for how to integrate qualitative and quantitative research. They are complementary and valuable in incorporating gender into research, but integrating them well is a skill. Moreover, a greater understanding of when a quantitative question response option should include joint ownership, in addition to a male and female option, would be helpful to include in future guidelines. Our quantitative data was collected in a sex-disaggregated manner with basic male and female options; however, there was no joint option. We did allow for joint ownership in our qualitative research for questions; for instance, regarding control over the garden and small animals. In retrospect, there perhaps should have been a joint option for the quantitative survey as well but it's still unclear to me.For more information about the HKI project please see van den Bold, M., A. Pedehombga, M. Ouedraogo, A. PROJECT CONTACTS(S): Daniel O. Gilligan (d.gilligan@cgiar.org), Neha Kumar (n.kumar@cgiar.org), J. V. Meenakshi (meena@econdse.org), and Agnes Quisumbing (a.quisumbing@cgiar.org)The goal of the HarvestPlus reaching end users (REU) orange sweet potato (OSP) project is to increase vitamin A intake and improve vitamin A status among vulnerable populations (women and children) in rural Uganda by introducing beta-carotene-rich OSP, as well as related messages concerning agronomy, nutrition, and marketing.Most households obtain planting material for these crops through interaction with other households. This raises a number of important questions about the roles of social interaction, intrahousehold division of labor, and gender in determining the rates at which these biofortified crops are adopted and spread. As part of the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project (GAAP), this study examines the effect of women's bargaining power, as revealed in gender-based patterns of ownership and control of land and assets, on adoption of OSP and vitamin A intake among children.Data collection for the evaluation survey was conducted in REU project areas in two survey rounds: a baseline survey in 2007 and an endline survey in 2009. Each survey round included a detailed socioeconomic survey and a nutrition survey, including a detailed 24-hour dietary recall module. Each survey round also included a farmer group survey conducted with the farmer group chairperson or other leader, a community survey, and a price survey. In addition to these survey rounds, a qualitative study on gender and asset ownership and control was undertaken in project sites in Kamuli and Bukedea districts in 2011, which guided the hypotheses tested in this study.Measures of intrahousehold bargaining power were constructed using gender-differentiated data from the survey's modules on asset ownership and control over land. These data were used to create estimates of the share of land and nonland assets exclusively owned by women, exclusively owned by men, or jointly owned. Similarly, respondents were asked which household member made the crop choice decisions on each plot, allowing up to two responses.Results of the project showed that REU led to OSP adoption by 65 percent of project households, compared to just 4 percent in the control group (de Brauw et al. 2012). The project also significantly increased the prevalence of adequate dietary intake of vitamin A by children under 3 years and reduced the prevalence of low serum retinol among children ages 3-5 years (Hotz et al. 2012). Specifically, results regarding gendered bargaining power include the following:o There were clear gender differences in decisions to plant OSP on specific parcels. On nearly 60 percent of parcels, men and women jointly made the crop choice, but men took the lead in making this decision. On 20 percent of parcels, women alone made crop choices, partly reflecting the number of single-head households headed by females. Only 4.5 percent of parcels were reported to be under exclusive male control, while the remaining 16.5 percent of parcels were under joint control, with a woman taking the lead in the decisionmaking.o The relationship between female bargaining power and control over household assets and the OSP biofortification program's impact on adoption and diffusion as well as dietary intakes of vitamin A was complex. The probability of OSP adoption was highest for parcels over which there was joint control, but where women took the lead in deciding which crops were grown, and lowest for parcels exclusively controlled by men. Although crop choice decisions were correlated across parcels, the evidence indicated that women played an important, and often leading, role in the decision to adopt OSP, but that this decision was often jointly made with their husbands. o Households in which women had a lower share of nonland assets were more likely to grow OSP on joint plots with women in primary control. Where women had a higher share of nonland assets, decisionmaking on joint plots appeared more egalitarian, but OSP adoption was significantly less likely on plots under exclusive male control. o The share of nonland assets exclusively controlled by women had a large, significant effect on child dietary intake of vitamin A. On average, the more nonland assets women controlled, the higher their children's vitamin A consumption tended to be. This effect was independent of the REU project's impact on vitamin A consumption, though. Women with relatively higher control of nonland assets did not necessarily have an advantage in using their bargaining power to increase the REU project's impact on child vitamin A consumption. Instead, the project was able to increase children's vitamin A consumption regardless of the mother's share of nonland assets. o Although the project had a large impact on vitamin A consumption, our other research on this project showed that this impact did not apparently derive from lessons learned during the project's nutrition training. These studies found no signs that the REU had an impact on fathers' knowledge of child feeding practices in Uganda, while nutrition messages received by women appear to have had a relatively small effect on OSP adoption and dietary intakes of vitamin A (de Brauw et al. 2010Brauw et al. , 2012)).1. What are the unique gender-asset questions and indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why? o We asked two plot level questions regarding land ownership and decision-making in which we collected data on up to two household members. Besides providing a rich understanding regarding which household members owned and managed land, this allows us to see specialization occurring within the household and the associated efficiencies that come from that. We also collected a detailed agricultural decision making module that attempted to get at different levels of asset ownership and use, including not only who owns an asset, but who makes decisions about the type and quantity of crop to grow, the sale of crops and so on.2. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why? o We ended up collecting data retrospectively regarding joint/male/female asset ownership. During the endline survey, we first asked respondents who owned the asset at present and also asked respondents to think retrospectively to two years prior (the time of the baseline) about who owned each asset. o It would have been great to ask more detailed questions about land ownership dynamics, however this was not the focus of this project.3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected? o This may be easier said than done, but it is so important to be thoughtful beforehand in designing a questionnaire that provides gender perspective. As mentioned, we didn't initially collect sex disaggregated data on asset ownership, and while we later collected it retrospectively, it would have been ideal to have collected it during the baseline. Another aspect which we could have explored a bit more, is additional decision-making questions and measures of control regarding various household activities. On a related note, we could have done some additional experimentation on behavior change. We had one behavior change targeted exclusively at women. However, involving men or having additional behavior change programs would have been an interesting experiment.4. Are there any particularities about the region or country of implementation which you think are important to recognize in relation to the gender-asset indicators you collected which are important for other researchers to be aware of? Did any of these context-or country-specific factors influence your survey implementation methodology, and how? o Initially we thought of interviewing either the primary male or female of a household through random assignment. However, our field partner pushed back against this approach indicating that it would cause tension within the household if a woman was selected to be interviewed instead of the husband and asked questions about asset ownership. Ultimately we ended up asking whoever was best suited in the household (self-identified) to answer the questions pertaining to a given module. While it may have been advantageous to interview both the primary male and primary female within a household, our budget didn't support two surveys per household. Regarding the qualitative work, we found that it was important to do male and female focus group discussion surveys separately.o Related to the previous question, I think finding a method by which you can collected gender-asset data using one enumerator, either male or female, would be ideal. Conducting two surveys per household (for the primary male and female) is more costly and oftentimes not affordable. Additionally, using all male or female enumerators is oftentimes impractical so strategies to be able to use either sex regardless of the sex of the respondent are helpful for field logistics.6. Did everything go smoothly? Were there any unexpected challenges that came up? o During the fieldwork interviewers encountered a number of difficulties. For example, in some areas, the popularity of OFSP meant that it was difficult to get nonmembers of farmers groups who had not been to at least a few OFSP trainings. Nonetheless, the interviewers strived to ensure that those people who attended the non-farmers group focus group discussions had truly not been to OFSP trainings or farmers group meetings before. In addition, due to the fact that many more women than men were members of farmers groups, focus group discussions with men tended to be smaller than those held with women. Another difficulty encountered by the field team was that interviewers sometimes had trouble getting focus group discussion participants to conceptually understand questions that involved ranking of OFSP traits.A final difficulty was the fact that in some cases there did not appear to be major differences in adoption rates between the areas designated as \"high adopters\" and those designated as \"low adopters\" by the extension agents who were involved in sample selection.o It was important for us not to make assumptions about how things currently worked and to instead get at these responses inductively. For example, first by probing about how households access land, and then following up by asking if men and women farm plots together or separately and what factors men and women consider when deciding what to grow on a given plot. This gave us a detailed picture about the gender dynamics of farming that built upon the respondents own answers to questions about how things worked in their communities.For more information about the HarvestPlus project please see Gilligan, D. O., N. Kumar, S. McNiven, J. V. Meenakshi, and A. R. PROJECT CONTACT(S): Ephraim Nkyonya (e.nkonya@cgiar.org)The objective of the Kickstart International project was to increase crop production and productivity through the use of human-powered, low-cost, micro-irrigation pumps. Direct benefits of the project include increased incomes and improved food security for households using pumps. The Gender, Agriculture and Assets Project collaborated with Kickstart to better understand the gender dynamics of who purchases and controls pumps, as well as the intrahousehold effects of pump use on decisionmaking and use of income from irrigated crops.The study collected qualitative data in three regions of Tanzania and three districts in Central and Western Kenya. These sites were purposively selected based on a number of factors, including areas with high numbers of pump purchases, different degrees of gender stereotyping, and proximity to urban centers. The primary data collection tool used was focus group discussions (FGDs). These FGDs included between 6 and 18 people that were selected from lists of farmers that had already purchased the pumps. Twenty-seven FGDs were facilitated across the two countries (11 women-only, 11 men-only, and 5 mixed-sex).In addition to the FGDs, a second study with two components was conducted in Kenya. First, in-depth individual interviews were conducted in 9 households (6 male-headed and 3 female-headed) to provide more data on decisionmaking and control over income, which the first survey did not adequately capture. Second, a rapid assessment of the layaway pump purchase program was conducted with 6 men and 6 women to establish the benefits, challenges, and ways to improve the service.o Awareness, purchase and perceptions of Kickstart pumps by gender: Sales data showed that only a small percentage of pump sales were made to women between 2005 and 2013: 18 percent in Kenya and 6 percent in Tanzania. Of the different pump varieties, women liked the lightweight hand-operated MoneyMaker Hip Pump, which was easy to use, had no operational cost, and did not require women to use their legs to pump, an activity that was seen as culturally inappropriate in some areas.o Ownership and use of Kickstart pumps and other assets: Men were more often the owners of both pumps and other large household assets, while women owned smaller household assets. Most participants in Tanzania stated that men and women decide jointly whether to purchase a pump, but in the case of disagreement it was the husband who made the final decision. In some cases men bought the pumps without jointly deciding with their wives, and in other cases women would sometimes buy pumps, especially women from female-headed households.Women generally knew less about pumps than men, mostly because of lower levels of education, less mobility, and unequal access to information. Men and women also identified different information sources, with men stating that Kickstart leaflets, radio and television were important while women stated that husbands or other farmers were important information sources.Pumps were used mainly to irrigate owners' land, though some owners lent pumps to friends or neighbors for a fee or in-kind payment, or free of charge. Female respondents from central Kenya noted that men rarely lent their pumps to women because they felt it was culturally inappropriate for women to use the pumps. The irrigation pipes were laid by both men and women, with occasional help from children, but most pedaling was done by men as it was considered difficult work. Women found it difficult to use the pumps, partly because they were viewed as culturally inappropriate, as mentioned previously. Some participants noted that women took longer to irrigate a given piece of land than did men because women had many other responsibilities that required them to take breaks from irrigating.o Intra-household decisionmaking on crop choice and use of income: Men and women considered several factors when deciding which crops to grow under irrigation, including the crops' potential for home consumption and sale, the availability of a ready market, and the ability to grow with minimal labor and external inputs. In both countries men and women had difference preferences for crop choice, with women preferring leafy vegetables. In both countries, spouses discussed what crops to grow and irrigate, but men made the final decision if there was disagreement. Women who had their own plots or whose husbands worked away from home made their own decisions.Men, women and children jointly weeded and harvested crops, but men usually conducted all sales alone. Money that was earned through sales was handled in one of four ways: 1.) men kept the money but decisions about it were made jointly; 2.) men kept the money and used it on purchases that they and their spouse did not agree upon; 3.) men gave the money to their spouses for safekeeping; and 4.) women who sold their own crops (like leafy vegetables) made their own decisions on how the money was spent.Whether or not a woman owned a pump did not seem to influence which crops would be irrigated or who would control and manage the income generated by those crops.o Impacts of Kickstart pumps on household and individual well-being: Respondents listed a variety of positive impacts from owning a Kickstart pump, including improved yields (thus leading to cultivation of larger plots), general improvements in household well-being (such as more income, better food security, improved health status of household members), a decrease in women's time spent fetching water, the increased ability of women to access social capital because the income from sold crops allowed them to join women's groups, and an increase in positive perceptions and self-perceptions of women. Tradeoffs were discussed as well. Respondents noted that women had less time for social activities like group meeting and church activities, leisure time, and time spent playing with their children. While few negative impacts were mentioned, women did report that men misused money on extramarital relationships and alcohol.1. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex, and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors -are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected? o Going into this project, we did not think that there would be problems with marketing pumps to women. The pumps are low-cost and don't require gas or other inputs, which we thought would make them quite attractive to very poor people generally, and women in particular. However, we saw very low sales of pumps to women, and we discovered that this was partly due to cultural norms in the area. Women did not want to use the pumps because the physical movement necessary for using the pumps was seen as inappropriate for women in the area. This is something we did not anticipate, but shows the value of research. In addition, we found that there were credit constraints that kept women from purchasing the pumps. Thus, a layaway program was developed to facilitate women's ability to buy pumps.Had you ever used these tools before? Was training the enumerators in these tools easy or challenging? o The Kickstart project focused on qualitative methods, in particular focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. The focus group discussions were both single sex (male only and female only) as well as mixed sex. The in-depth interviews were added near the end-term review of the project to provide more data on questions on decisionmaking and control over income. o While the tools were not new (we had used focus group discussions and in-depth interviews before), the focus on assets was new for us, and thus required us to review the instruments we were using. We decided not to hire enumerators for the focus group discussions but instead conduct them ourselves because, as researchers, we hoped that this would allow us to capture all the information we desired for our research.We also hired two consultants, one from each country, to advise on the particular gender issues relevant to that context. The focus groups involved a lot of dialogue with respondents and yielded rich information.We also decided to ask a somewhat creative set of questions regarding the unintended consequences of the pumps in their villages. As researchers, we sometimes ignore the unintended consequences of our research, and it was important to our project team that we capture these effects from the point of view of the respondents.3. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why? o In retrospect, it would have been nice if we had collected more information on what kinds of marketing strategies could have been used to market the pumps and, in particular, which strategies would have specifically been effective for targeting women. We could have also looked at different methods of marketing, like mobile phones, for example. In addition, it would have also been nice to ask more questions about social capital as that seems to be very important among women and could have yielded some interesting information about how social networks and groups might play a role in using these technologies.Anything else you would like to share about GAAP, your involvement with it, or gender and assets research in general? o Being involved in this project has convinced me that gender and assets data is really something that far more projects should collect. It is something that really should be collected all the time, and rather than just a specific project it should be a cross-cutting program. Developing a shorter, more standardized module on gender and assets, would be a great idea because then it would be easier for it to be incorporated into larger surveys. If a module on gender and assets could be routinely included in large, nationally-representative household surveys, and national statistical bureaus could be convinced to get on board, a huge difference could be made.For more information about the Kickstart project please see Njuki, J., Waithanji, E., Sakwa, B., Kariuki, J., Mukewa, E., Ngige, J. 2014 For more information about GAAP, please visit http://gaap.ifpri.info/ Dairy animals were owned jointly or by the husband, and decisions to sell or buy dairy animals were mostly joint.Households that raised smaller livestock, where ownership, use and control were joint between husband and wife, tended to come from lower castes. Almost half of households with houses made of local materials were jointly owned, and mobile phones were more commonly owned by men.The majority of agricultural machinery was rented rather than owned, due to its high cost, and for the same reason more upper caste households had access to the machinery than lower caste households. Men also had more access to the machinery; no women owned, used, or controlled any agricultural machinery.Interesting findings emerged between high and low castes with regards to differences in the quantity and value of assets owned, rather than differences in access to major assets. A higher percentage of upper caste farmers had large farms and more valuable dairy animals, houses, clothing, jewelry, televisions, and cell phones. A gender analysis showed that men's assets were of higher value than women's, and that gender gaps were more severe than suggested solely by ownership incidence measures alone. That is, not only were women usually less likely to own assets, but the assets they did own were usually fewer in number and less valuable than those of males.The promotion of mechanization through this project resulted in limited adoption and high disadoption due to the small size of farms and the lack of capital among farmers to purchase large machinery. Future adoption will be dependent upon availability of service providers and farmers' access to other sources of income. o Our research team had already done a lot of work in India and knew a lot of the contextual factors that would be influencing our study areas. There has also been a lot of work done in the area on related issues, like labor and caste, for example. We knew going in that most households are headed by males and that the nuclear family structure is very important in this area. We also knew that the majority of farmers were smallholders and that there were very low literacy rates among women in Eastern India. All of these contextual factors helped to inform the design of a more appropriate set of tools.2. Was it difficult to hire enough qualified interviewers or field workers for the collection? Did you have equal numbers of male and female interviewers? o It was hard to find qualified young male interviewers; they were not used to administering surveys to women or to asking questions about either gender or assets. As for female interviewers, it was challenging to get enough of them because of safety concerns in some parts of rural India, especially travel at night. These are definitely factors to think about when considering who your enumerators will be.o One of the innovative tools that we used to collect data was pictures of assets. We showed these pictures to respondents when asking them if they owned the asset and also during the ranking exercises on which assets they considered important. This was not a new tool for us -we had used it during a participatory varietal selection activity in eastern India -but it was one that was particularly fitting for this context as many women in the area were illiterate. We also found that the use of focus group discussions and pictures made the discussion less tense, more relaxed, and allowed us to gain the respondents' trust.4. Which questions or modules were more confusing or problematic? Which questions were the easiest to administer? o There were some questions that were challenging for respondents. The questions about jewelry ownership and value, for example, were difficult because people were suspicious given that jewelry ownership is usually somewhat private information. In addition, the questions about who owns or uses an asset were difficult to answer. The question on owning opened discussions on undocumented ownership versus documented ownership and which one we were asking about. The issue of using an asset was challenging with regards to how it related to work. For example, in the case of women and land, working on land was not always necessarily considered to be \"work\", but instead considered to be \"helping her husband\". With regards to \"access\" to an asset, we found that we had to explicitly ask about the concept of renting. If we didn't ask about this we risked losing valuable information.What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators that you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect but which you would have liked to collect, and why? o In retrospect, I think we focused too much on assets such as land, large animals, houses, etc. and who owns, uses, and controls them. While this is definitely an important issue, CSISA as a project cannot provide or transfer these assets. We should have focused more on issues that the CSISA project can impact. For example, we should have asked more questions on men and women's access to farm-related resources such as seeds of improved crop varieties, farm inputs, and participation in training on new methods of crop production practices and management, and access to agricultural extension services. It would have been useful if the project had distributed improved seed varieties (rice, corn, wheat) to Women's Self Help Groups as well as trained them on how to produce high quality seeds. IRRI and CIMMYT could have reduced the as-set/resources gaps through this kind of initiative. o Finally, the CSISA project could have given more attention to providing strategies for small and marginal farmers to access agricultural machinery and postharvest equipment that can reduce losses and drudgery to women. Moreover, it would have been better if there had been a longer period between the baseline and the midline surveys. As it was, the time period was too short to see much of a change in land ownership and other assets, which require high capital such as agricultural machinery, dairy animals, and houses.For questionnaire(s) and survey instrument(s), please visit: http://gaap.ifpri.info/tools-used-by-gaap/csisatools/For more information about GAAP, please visit: http://gaap.ifpri.info/ o Network composition and formation: Social networks of men and women in the same households overlap very little (only about 5 percent of the time). MHHs are more likely to link to other MHHs than to female-headed households. Male social networks are also more heterogeneous with regards to wealth than are female social networks; men from poor households tend to discuss agriculture with relatively wealthy men while women from poor households tend to discuss agriculture with relatively poor women. o Exposure to LLL through networks: Poor FCHs have significantly larger networks than poor MHHs, but wealthy MHHs have larger networks than wealthy FCHs (though this difference is not statistically significant). In addition, MHHs in both wealthy and poor households have an equal number of links to potential adopters, but poor FCHs have significantly more links to potential adopters than do wealthy FCHs. However, poor FCHs have fewer adopters in their networks than MHHs.1. What was the source of your interviewers for the quantitative and qualitative work? Was it difficult to hire enough qualified interviewers or field workers for collection? o We used locally-hired (primarily male) enumerators for all of our data collection, including the information sessions and the auctions. While it would have been great to have a field team that included more female enumerators and enumerators who were skilled in qualitative data collection and analysis, our efforts to organize this were unsuccessful. Instead, we relied on the research team-including IFPRI research assistants/analysts-to gather qualitative information. In the future, we would consider hiring postgraduate students to explore qualitative dimensions of our work. o We used a combination of tools for generating and collecting data: an experimental auction, a randomly assigned treatment, intra-seasonal surveys conducted at the household and plot levels, and supplemental surveys with male and female heads of household. This combination of tools was a first for much of the team, and although several team members had prior experience, the application of these tools to gender and social network analysis was a novel experience for everyone on the research team. o Another first for many of us was the use of computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)-a combination of survey software and tablet computers-to collect quantitative data. The use of CAPI offered several advantages. First, because CAPI was something new for the enumerators as well as the researchers, it kept the team engaged and enthusiastic even under arduous field conditions. Second, CAPI made the data quickly available to the team for analysis purposes. And while there were occasional problems with both the software and hardware, the CAPI experience opened the door for more rapid, better quality data collection in this project and other future projects. o The project area presents many difficulties for the study of gender dynamics. Social norms tend to limit exclusive access to women for enumerators in some circumstances, and strongly held beliefs about power and control probably obscure our ability to discern nuances in gender dynamics. Norms similarly held by (primarily male) enumerators may have presented similar problems. Despite this, we were pleased with the data we were able to extract and analyze in this project.Were there any tools (qualitative or quantitative) that you wished you had used in your data collection? If so, which ones? o We would have preferred to have more qualified enumerators and qualified female enumerators.o One of the most significant challenges with collection of data on gender-related issues is determining whether male enumerators can properly understand and ask questions to female respondents. Not being able to find female enumerators is not an excuse to overlook women in a survey, and our male enumerators did a solid job at obtaining responses from female respondents. o A related challenge is finding qualified enumerators. That said, there are a growing number of companies in India that train, supply, and manage enumerators for precisely this kind of work. These companies might be an important source for future endeavors. o On the analytical side, one of the biggest hurdles to quantitative gender research is that it often means using data in different ways. Specifically, having multiple data points in a single household forces the researcher to think about decision-making as a joint process, which stretches our theoretical and empirical modeling.For Background: Since the early 1990s a growing literature has paid increasing attention to the role that intrahousehold resource allocation plays in affecting the outcome of development policy. Studies by IFPRI on how the commercialization of agriculture affected the nutritional status of individuals within households in a number of African and Asian countries were among the first to debunk the traditional view that individuals within the household share the same preferences or pool their resources, and that the rights, resources, and responsibilities of men and women may be different, which may influence resource allocation decisions. If household members in fact have different preferences, resources, and responsibilities, then designing policies while relying on a model of the household that assumes that individuals share the same preferences and pool their resources-the unitary model-may lead to policy failures.Building on these early findings, new research has pushed for the development of new models of household behavior. One of the challenges in testing models of household behavior was to find measures of bargaining power that were exogenous to decisions currently being made within households. IFPRI researchers focused on collecting measures of assets at marriage of husband and wife (as well as inherited assets) across several countries in order to test these models of household behavior. These tests are summarized in Quisumbing and Maluccio (2003) for Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia (Sumatra) and South Africa; related work in other countries can be found in Quisumbing, ed. (2003). Comparative studies of such nature bring additional insights to similarities and differences among developing country regions.Methodology: IFPRI researchers used a common framework and similar survey methodologies to analyze a wide range of policy issues, permitting comparisons across countries. In some countries, modules on intra-household allocation and gender were added to ongoing or planned studies by IFPRI researchers and their collaborators. Researchers made an explicit effort to test the unitary model of household behavior against an alternative that allowed for different preferences of household members and non-pooling of household resources. Because relevant assets and marriage customs differed in each of the countries, asset modules had to be tailored to the specific context.Findings: IFPRI's intra-household research has produced the following key findings: Households do not act as one when making decisions, rejecting the null hypothesis that men and women's resources have the same effects on household decision-making.  The collective model predicts that the distribution of resources depends an individual's bargaining power within the household. The distribution of power and resources within the household, however, almost always favors men. This has both economic and social consequences that differ across countries and cultures. Improvements in women's status and increases in the resources that women control raise allocations toward education and improve child health and nutrition. Social networks may be an important resource that women can use to help mitigate the impact of adverse shocks. Investment in women, particularly in education, is key to poverty reduction and improved incomes for families as a whole.  Protecting women's entitlements implies that their rights should be enforced, yet enforcement is not automatic when customary rights and statutory rights are not consistent.  A new generation of policies and programs has explored innovative ways to increase resources in the hands of women. These initiatives include credit programs targeted to women, have had positive effects on women's earnings and decision-making ability, as well as on child nutrition and educational outcomes.For more information: We collected data on assets at marriage, current assets, and family background, separately for husband and wife.In most cases, the assets module was developed after qualitative work in the survey sites and extensive pre-testing by the principal investigators. In some countries, we also collected information on inherited assets. We found that collecting information on family background of husband and wife was quite important, as they determined assets brought to marriage. In all of the case studies, we also had measures of human capital for husband, wife, and children (education, weight, height). The case studies had different emphases in terms of assets. In Bangladesh, because the emphasis was on nutritional impact (human capital), we obtained blood hemoglobin readings using the Hemocue. The South Africa study focused on human capital. The Ethiopia study built on a panel where gender-disaggregated asset data had not been collected, so we collected some indicators retrospectively. The Guatemala study was implemented in an urban setting (slums) where some assets were owned by individuals, others by the household, and others were shared with other households. In Ghana and Sumatra, where we were investigating the impact of men's and women's land rights on tree resource management, the assets modules on inheritance ended up being quite different because extended family structures are very different in both countries. Specialized assets modules had to be developed for each of these cases, although the general structure of the questionnaire was similar.2. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why?We felt that the data we collected were quite comprehensive for the purpose for which they were collected-testing models of household behavior. However, in hindsight we could have collected more information on control of assets-not just ownership.3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?We did a lot of background work on marriage and inheritance customs before designing the questionnaire. We undertook this by reading the anthropological literature, conducting qualitative work in communities (focus groups and key informant interviews), and doing extensive pre-testing. Collecting gender-disaggregated assets data requires skilled enumerators who understand the purpose of the study, and in-country collaborators who are willing to change ways of doing things (collecting data only at the household level). Sometimes questions had to be adjusted (particularly in low-literacy populations) so that they could be understood by respondents. In some areas, respondents had difficulties valuing assets at present or recalling what they paid at acquisition. We therefore collected data on when the asset was acquired, what was paid upon acquisition, and current market value or replacement cost, using alternative methods of estimating the value of the asset. In some countries (South Africa, Mexico), our collaborators felt that it would be undue burden on the survey team and the respondent to get the value of assets, and so counts of assets were collected. Much to our surprise, these simpler methods of collecting gender-disaggregated assets data worked very well in the regressions.Having collected gender-disaggregated assets data since 1996, I feel that the basics are well understood within a small community of researchers-obtain a listing of relevant assets based on previous anthropological and/or qualitative work, ask husband and wife about individual and joint assets using the household roster to \"ID\" the asset, be open to looking at different types of assets (non-traditional assets). However, there is some resistance outside this community, people say that it is \"too difficult.  (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010) and assessed the longterm impact of three anti-poverty interventions in Bangladesh: i) the introduction of new agricultural technologies, ii) educational transfers, and iii) microfinance -on a range of monetary and non-monetary measures of well-being (Quisumbing, Baulch and Kumar, 2011). The impact evaluation of the introduction and dissemination of vegetable and fish technologies in Bangladesh builds on an existing IFPRI data set, collected in 1996-97, with detailed gender-disaggregated assets data, which made it possible to estimate the impacts of technology dissemination on men's and women's assets (Quisumbing and Kumar 2011;Kumar and Quisumbing 2011).Methodology: These impact evaluation studies drew from the IFPRI Chronic Poverty and Long Term Impact Study in Bangladesh dataset, which used integrated and iterative qualitative and quantitative methods. The study builds on three surveys conducted by IFPRI in Bangladesh to evaluate the short-term impacts of microfinance (1994), the new agricultural technologies (1996-97) and the introduction of educational transfers (2000 and 2003) and a follow up conducted in 2006-07. While information on many gender-disaggregated variables was collected in all the evaluation studies, gender-disaggregated assets data was collected only in the agricultural technology sites. In 2006, IFPRI, DATA and the CPRC began a major study to resurvey the households surveyed in all three of the evaluations. While the focus of this study was on understanding of the drivers and maintainers of chronic poverty in rural Bangladesh, the intervention-comparison groups were maintained from the previous study, and greater attention was placed on obtaining gender-disaggregated data in all the sites. The resurvey involved both qualitative studies and a follow-up longitudinal survey of households included in the IFPRI studies, and involves three sequenced and integrated phases.Another round of data collection in the educational transfers and agricultural technology sites was undertaken in 2010, focusing on the impacts of the food price increases in 2007-2008. A gender-disaggregated assets module was administered to all surveyed households, focusing on gendered responses to the food price crisis.Findings: These studies in Bangladesh indicate that household-level and individual impacts of anti-poverty interventions differ in the short term and the long term because of differences in the time path of net benefits from the interventions and spillover effects. Divergence between short-term and long-term impacts may be especially important in interventions that seek to bring about behavioral change, where spillover effects and learning from others may be significant.Feedback on case study methodology based on an interview with Agnes Quisumbing and Neha Kumar:1. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why?The gender-disaggregated assets module builds on an existing data set (see case study 10) for the agricultural technology sites, but is now administered to all surveyed households. The major innovation is the collection of gender-disaggregated assets data over time, which allows analysis of gendered patterns of asset accumulation. In the agricultural technology panel, we have observations in 1996/97, 2006/7, and 2010. In the educational transfers sites, we have observations in 2006/7 and 2010. New data collection efforts may want to be forward-looking in terms of creating the possibility of revisiting households to build up panel data sets on individual and joint asset accumulation. So this means obtaining information with which to track households and individuals over time.We also updated the community questionnaire to capture changes in local facilities, institutions, and even cultural norms (for example, the extent to which women can travel-whether limited to the village, the town center, etc-has expanded greatly over time, partly because of the need to go outside of the village for NGO training). We would have wanted to do more on: Perceptions of what men's and women's \"ownership\" of assets really means, what \"jointness\" really means (respondents did identify most of their assets as joint assets, although they also identified individuallyowned assets);  Collect gender-disaggregated shocks data. Subsequent analysis shows that shocks affect men and women differently, but it would have been good to investigate whether illness (for example) of a man or a woman had different effects on households;  Collect better indicators of social capital and group dynamics. We have individual information on group membership and types of groups (from the 2006/7 survey), but not information on the groups themselves, and;  Do qualitative work, and then build quantitative modules, to examine portfolio substitutions (for example, when having one asset helps to acquire another one) and discern whether new types of assets (or uses of assets) have emerged.3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?Since we and our local collaborators, DATA have been working in these communities for a long time (more than 10 years), we have a good grasp of local conditions. We continued to follow DATA's field protocols in Bangladesh, which is to field a team of both a male and a female enumerator. The male interviews the husband, while the female enumerator interviews the wife. They typically field two male and two female enumerators in an area for ease of travel, particularly safety, and accommodation.What do you see as the largest methodological challenges in collecting gender-asset data in general and how can we as a research community work towards filling this gap?A big challenge continues to be making sure that gender disaggregated data is collected at baseline. Going forward, we need to be able to keep up with new categories of assets that emerge (for example, term insurance, new savings instruments, etc.) as well as new uses for incomes earned from assets. We also need to be able to capture changes in ownership and control of assets over time, especially as the relative value of assets change (land may become less important as incomes become more diversified, for example). Informed by qualitative research conducted in the study areas, the GLAS offers two main methodological advances: First, it asks not only about ownership but also about use and decision-making over assets. Second, it collects sex-disaggregated data by asking a woman and a man of the same household separately about her/his own ownership, use, decision-making, and documented claims over particular assets. To assess different aspects of ownership, the GLAS captures: Perceived ownership: GLAS data assesses which assets both male and female respondents consider as belonging to themselves and/or other persons  Joint ownership: GLAS data describes the extent of joint ownership of assets such as land, housing, material assets, livestock, and financial assets  Documentation beyond land title: The survey asks about multiple forms of documentation beyond a land title or certificate of registration, including purchase agreement, rental agreement, receipts, wills, and written permission from traditional authorities Uganda: Headship emerges as a significant determinant of women's asset rights. Female headship is associated with higher likelihood of land ownership but weaker decision-making authority concerning house transactions. The findings lend support to the evidence in the literature that women, especially wives and partners of male household-heads, are particularly disadvantaged with respect to rights to sell, bequeath, or gift assets. Although a substantial proportion of women who report owning land and housing say they do so jointly, there is substantial disagreement within couples as to whether ownership is joint.  South Africa: Women heads of households emerge as having comparable asset rights to male heads and much stronger rights than women who live in male-headed households. Among women, being divorced, widowed, separated, or cohabiting (but not married) is also linked to stronger asset rights, though the improvements are not as dramatic as for female headship.(e.g. overcrowding, far away, poor quality). After field implementation, it was felt that it would have yielded more complete information to lead the questioning with resources people get from communal and resources (firewood, water, sand, grazing, medicinal plants, etc.) and then move to asking what lands these come from and the respondent's relationship to that land.3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?The GLAS collected information on several contextual and structural factors relevant to gender and asset rights.  Composition of each respondent's natal family, how often the respondent interacts with them, and whether anyone from the natal family lives in the same community.  Inheritance patterns through which persons acquire land and other assets.  People's perceptions about the socioeconomic value of land collected through questions about how owning or losing land relates to familial and social relationships and economic security.  Barriers to acquiring new land or new cattle, including economic, familial barriers, traditional/customary barriers, logistical barriers, and lack of supply.  People's knowledge of what Ugandan statutory law says about women's asset rights as well as respondents' opinions about women's asset rights.However, there were several relevant factors about which the GLAS did not collect full information.  Information about the roles and involvement of family, traditional leaders, or local government in managing or allocating land or handling property disputes  Roles of current and past partnerships in women's acquisition or loss of assets or rights to them.  People's understandings of the system(s) of rules around land in which they see themselves as operating.  Ambiguous definitions of partnership: Ambiguous definitions of partnership and multiple forms of marriage are common in sub-Saharan Africa.  Widows as a sizeable and different sub-population: Female household heads and widows are overlapping populations that are both sizeable and believed to be in unique and weaker positions in regards to assets.  What women can say about land: In some cases, women do not see themselves or are not seen as having anything to say or having sufficient knowledge about land that they should engage in participating in the survey  Policy and current events: During the data collection of the GLAS, many communities in central Uganda were experiencing violence and unrest between tenants and landlords. The tension and suspicion regarding land may have influenced willingness to participate and especially to discuss land values, transactions, and conflicts.  Sensitivity around inheritance: In the region of Uganda where the GLAS took place it is considered bad manners to mention or discuss death as it may be considered as wishing or hastening the person's death. The study included two phases: qualitative field work and quantitative household assets survey. In the qualitative phase, focus group discussions were complemented by interviews with key informants and a compilation of the secondary literature. The focus groups focused on four themes: the accumulation of assets over the life cycle; the importance of assets; the market for assets; and household decision-making over asset acquisition and use. The qualitative work provided the basis for developing survey questionnaires that were both adapted to each country situation but also facilitated comparisons across countries. The quantitative phase of the study involved collecting nationally representative data in Ghana and Ecuador and data representative of the state of Karnataka, India. A household inventory asked about the ownership of all tangible assets including housing, agricultural land, livestock, agricultural implements, non-farm economic activities and associated assets, and consumer durables. Respondents were asked to identify individual and joint owners of all of these assets owned by anyone in the household. In addition, individual level questions were asked about financial assets, awareness of inheritance laws, recent shocks and coping strategies and decision-making. These questions were asked of two people, often the principal couple, within the household.Findings: Initial calculations of the gender asset and gender wealth gaps are presented in the three country reports. One important contribution is to present the data on whether assets are owned individually by men or by women or owned jointly by a couple or jointly by others. These patterns of form of ownership and the gender asset and gender wealth gaps all differ across countries and by type of asset within countries. The gender gaps are much smaller in Ecuador which has a marital regime of partial community property whereby assets acquired within marriage belong to both the husband and wife; Ghana and India, by contrast, are characterized by separation of property as the legal, default regime.For more information:Project documents, including the survey instruments, papers based on the qualitative work and the country reports, are available at: http://www.genderassetgap.org/ Feedback on case study methodology based on interviews with the project leaders:1. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why?We asked about individual level ownership of all physical assets owned by anyone within the household and the financial assets owned by the principal respondents. We strongly recommend that all surveys concerned with household asset ownership ask specifically which household members own the asset. For assets such as land and housing, for which there may be ownership documents, we recommend asking whose names are on the documents. We also asked about the mode of acquisition of each asset which allows for analysis of the gendered patterns of acquisition. Most novel, is that we have been able to estimate both individual-level and household wealth, something rarely attempted.2. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why?We interviewed an adult man and woman within each household that had a principal couple. In certain circumstances (such as where multi-generational or polygamous households are common), it might be appropriate to interview more people within the household to get the most accurate measure of household wealth; we could not do so due to time and budget constraints. We collected ownership and valuation information on all farm animals and agricultural equipment and most consumer durables; this was very time consuming and not yet clear whether it was worth the effort.3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?We collected detailed information on marital and inheritance regimes in all three countries. This is critical for understanding and interpreting the quantitative data. The three countries were very different. The survey methodologies were adapted to each context. In Ecuador, for example, it was felt that the most accurate measures of valuation would come from interviewing the principal couple together whenever possible, since they could discuss their estimates (and share their respective knowledge of market conditions) before coming to a conclusion. The asset index we developed was based on human, social, physical and financial/productive capital but with important asset index categories. Probably the most important was the differentiation between household and community social capital.2. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?The importance of community social capital in the early days of the community consolidation was linked to the lack of infrastructure, etc. As this was acquired so community social capital declined, while the shift to a neo-liberal privatized economy meant household social capital became stronger. This was an urban study -hence the importance of housing as the first most important asset.The critical methodological issue in my work has been the combination of the quantitative asset index with indepth qualitative data obtained by living as an anthropologist in the community for over 30 years, hence the construction of 'narrative econometrics'. I did not set out to look at gender-assets but at household assets -this is a critical difference. Therefore the data when cut from a gender perspective was obviously more limited than had it been a specific gender-asset study. On the other hand the qualitative data was largely constructed around the lives of five women -and their first and second generation families. Finally an important difference from most studies is it has a 30 year longitudinal perspective and so is able to provide interpretations more difficult in 'snap-shots' done at specific points in time.The examples of gender relevant questionnaires included in the database have been obtained from agricultural censuses conducted in the following countries: Benin (forthcoming), Botswana (1993), Burkina Faso (1993), Côte d'Ivoire (2000/2001), Ethiopia (2001/2002), The Gambia (2001), Guinea (2000/2001), Mali (1999/2000), Mauritania (2003/2004), Niger (2004-2006), Senegal (1998/1999), Tanzania (2002/2003), Togo (1996), Tunisia (1995) and Uganda (2003), are available at http://www.fao.org/gender/agrigender/agri-gender-toolkit/the-database/en/ .Feedback on methodology based on an interview with Diana Tempelman:1. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you collected in your survey instrument that were particularly valuable or reflective of methodologies you would like to see replicated in future work and why?Most important is the use of the sub-holder concept, distinguishing the holder (usually the head of the household) from other active family members (sub-holders) that operate a part of the farm in their own right. To allow for intra-household gender analysis it is critical that a direct link is kept between the questionnaire section on household demographics and the separate plots cultivated or animals owned.2. What are the unique gender-asset questions/indicators you either collected in your survey instrument that you would have implemented differently or you were not able to collect, but which you would have liked to collect and why?The following aspects would benefit from more specific questions: The use of family labor by sex AND age (to find out about child labor)  The destination of the produce: home consumption/ seeds/ animal feed/ sale  Few countries collect data on credit availability and use by active household member  Few countries collect data on membership of farmer organizations and the benefits derived from that  Few countries collect data on availability of extension services and the content of the services provided by active household member  Few countries collect data on the general food security situation of the household 3. Asset-gender dynamics are heterogeneous, complex and rooted in social, economic and institutional factors-are there any background factors that relate strongly to gender-asset dynamics that you either collected or wish you had collected?Most countries that provided examples for the toolkit collected data on landownership/sex and origin. Only a few countries indicated the sex of the owners of the different farm animals. Little information is available on access to other farm tools, family labor and services like market information, financial services and other assets. Men and women in African farm households often keep separate budgets and have gender specific family responsibilities. The head of the farm household may provide seeds, fertilizer and pesticides to the other active house-hold members (who are sub-holders when farming in their own right) or may not. The sub-holders may not always have control over the use of the produce they generate. It is important to relate access to assets with control over the outputs and compare these two with the gender -specific household budget responsibilities to get a meaningful picture of the data collected on gender-assets.I am not aware of any incidents related to male enumerators interviewing female respondents, though a few incidents of this nature may have occurred in selected situations. What is more important is that agricultural census manuals recommend that the Head of the Household is the sole respondent to the census questionnaire. This may have an impact on the viability of the responses concerning assets of and work undertaken by the other sub-holders of the holding.Other than the areas mentioned under question 2 and 4, the challenge at this stage is not so much in the collection of gender specific data but more in promoting the USE of such data in policy analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The work of the research community is critical in this regard, as well-researched case studies, using census or survey data in substantiating \"gender-findings\" will help planners to understand and see the relevance of the use of this kind of data. Improved statistics user -producers collaborations and in particular feedback from the data users (researchers, activists or planners) on the usefulness (or not) of the gender specific data collected, will go a long way in keeping statisticians enthusiastic and open to continue collecting gender specific data in regular census and surveys.","tokenCount":"29121"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9c09b010a06c4b1d44d8509b1037fc6e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0acef44-c671-4e5f-a5ef-afd626762e4c/retrieve","id":"945290006"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a9d797a1-f984-4ced-8a92-20fb634daa16","pagecount":"16","content":"he whole world has experienced a series of global and local crises since 2019, and Kenya has been no exception. Before the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, poverty and food poverty rates in the country had been declining steadily, falling from 52.3 percent to 36.1 percent and from 38.3 percent to 26.7 percent, respectively, between 199738.3 percent to 26.7 percent, respectively, between   and 201638.3 percent to 26.7 percent, respectively, between    (KNBS 200738.3 percent to 26.7 percent, respectively, between  , 2018)). Income inequality also declined in the period from 1994 to 2015/16 (KNBS 2020).1 Estimates suggest that, since then, progress in poverty reduction has reversed, as a result of COVID-19 (Nafula et al. 2020), and that the impacts of the Ukraine and global crises have further increased poverty levels and the number of people unable to afford a healthy diet (Breisinger et al. 2022). In addition, ongoing droughts in the arid and semiarid areas of Kenya meant that an estimated 3.5 million people were in need of assistance in May 2022 (UNICEF 2022).Even before these crises, macroeconomic trends and acute economic disruptions had put the Kenyan economy under enormous pressure in recent years. Kenya is experiencing rapid urbanization and population growth: the urban population is projected to make up nearly 50 percent of the population by 1 Income inequality remains high in Kenya, with the Gini coefficient at 0.404; however, long-term trends point toward a decrease in income inequality over time (Bigsten et al. 2016;KNBS 2020). Some concerns have been raised over economic growth being driven by infrastructure development and growth in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector (particularly in fintech), which may be contributing to increased income inequality and replicating patterns of uneven development, particularly between rural and urban areas (Bernards 2022). However, nationwide data have not validated these concerns, and evidence from cross-country studies on African inequality point toward ICT investment lessening, not increasing, income inequality (Nchake and Shuaibu 2022; Njangang et al. 2022). Further, the widespread use of mobile money (through M-Pesa) may be a source of increased financial inclusion and reduced poverty (leading ultimately to reduced inequality)-although the empirical results for such effects from mobile money are mixed (Suri and Jack 2016; van Hove and Dubus 2019).Michael Keenan, Clemens Breisinger, Juneweenex Mbuthia, and Jemimah Njuki Chapter 1 2050, and in absolute terms this amounts to over 40 million people (UNDESA 2018). These trends are leading to increased urban food demand, longer supply chains, and greater rural inequality (IFAD 2021). How to feed and support a growing and changing population under tumultuous climatic and market conditions is perhaps the greatest challenge facing Kenya today.Gender inequalities are contributing to the underperformance of the economy and the agriculture sector specifically. Women represent over half of the agricultural labor force in Africa south of the Sahara (Palacios-Lopez, Christiaensen, and Kilic 2017). Their substantive contribution to agriculture and their vital role in ensuring family food security have been widely documented. However, gender-based inequalities in access to and control of productive and financial resources inhibit agricultural productivity and undermine resilience and sustainability efforts. Gender productivity gaps in the region range from about 11 percent to 28 percent, with Kenya at around 18 percent (World Bank 2012; UN Women, UNDP, and UNEP 2018). Substantial gender gaps in productivity have arisen not because women are less efficient farmers but because they have inequitable access to land and to agricultural inputs (Rodgers and Akram-Lodhi 2019). Such unbalanced distribution frequently stems from and is bolstered by deeply entrenched sociocultural norms and traditional expectations of gender roles.In order to address these challenges, the Government of Kenya has made food security one of the key pillars of its national development strategy, Vision 2030, through the Medium Term Plan III and the Big Four Agenda, with the aim of achieving 100 percent food and nutrition security by 2022. Specifically, this is to be achieved through the construction of large-scale multipurpose dams and smaller dams for irrigation projects and of food storage facilities, and the implementation of high-impact nutritional interventions ( Kenya, National Treasury and Planning 2018).Despite these commitments, and the important role that agriculture plays in the Kenyan economy and jobs, public expenditure is lacking. Agriculture contributes 22.7 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) directly to Kenya's economy, and the broader food system contributes 33.8 percent (Chapter 2). The sector employs more than 43.3 percent of the total population (Chapter 2) and more than 70 percent of Kenya's rural people (IFAD 2019). However, public expenditure on the agriculture sector remained around 2 percent in the 2021/22 fiscal year, well below the Malabo commitments of 10 percent and below the spending of its peers in Africa south of the Sahara (AUC 2014; Kenya Parliamentary Service Commission 2021; Pernechele et al. 2021).These low levels of expenditure translate into weakened policy implementation: the agriculture, water, and environment sectors together have 216 stalled government projects-more than any other sector (Kenya Parliamentary Service Commission 2021). However, increasing spending does not automatically translate into better outcomes: quality of spending matters. There is a need to prioritize investments and to target spending strategically to make it possible to achieve the desired impacts most effectively (Fan 2008).At the international level, the UN has coined this decade the \"Decade of Action,\" as countries work toward reaching the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 (UNSDG 2020). However, longstanding structural challenges and the ongoing crises mean that, like many countries, Kenya is not on track to achieve the SDGs. The country also risks not achieving its national goal of becoming a middle-income country by 2030, laid out in its Vision 2030 (World Bank 2020;Sachs et al. 2021). Action is urgently needed.A promising avenue for fostering change toward achieving Kenya's national development and the SDGs is to focus policies and investments on food systems-led transformation. Transformation in food systems is more than just economic and agricultural transformation. It involves changes to all facets of food systems, including the supply and consumption of food as well as institutional support. On the supply side, transformation involves moving labor and other productive assets from low-to high-production activities as well as improving productivity within each value chain (UN-Habitat 2016). Such changes can come through the reprioritization of value chains and through on-farm developments or improvements in upstream and downstream supply chains. On the demand side, transformation involves changing consumption behavior and improving access to and availability of food. Policies, institutions, and research should facilitate these changes with the objectives of building nutritious, productive, resilient, sustainable, and inclusive food systems (IFPRI 2021).The next sections provide a brief overview of the evolution of economic development thought, from an initial focus on agricultural productivity to a more market-oriented value chain approach to the current focus on food systems.A new opportunity for development: From agriculture-to food systems-led transformation Understanding the historical context of frameworks for food policy and rural development is critical to understanding why there is a need today for a food systems approach, and how this differs from previous initiatives. While every country's food policy follows its own path, there are undeniably global trends that underlie local policy decisions. These global trends are even more important when there is external financing of large portions of public agriculture-related budgets, as is the case in Kenya. In the 1960s, the Green Revolution led to a global effort to intensify agriculture and boost productivity through the uptake of improved varieties and chemical fertilizers, particularly for staple foods. In Kenya, after some initial success, the Green Revolution for staple foods has stalled since the 1980s (De Groote et al. 2005). With the Green Revolution generating mixed success, global trends in food policy then shifted toward value chain development at the start of the 21st century, and they are now moving toward food systems approaches (as seen in the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit). The brief discussion of the evolution of global trends in policy approaches that follows sets the stage for the presentation of the food systems framework.The approach to understanding economic transformation has evolved over the past decades from a narrow focus on improving on-farm productivity to a broader one on transforming food systems. This evolution in economic thought is reflective of historical transformations in agriculture, growing evidence on effective and ineffective approaches to food sector development, and changing policy strategies and goals.Previous agricultural revolutions have been driven by the development and dramatic uptake of on-farm production technologies. The British Agricultural Revolution, taking place from the 18th century to the 19th century, for example, saw the uptake of improved practices such as crop rotation, the introduction of new crops from global trade, and the use of machinery such as seed drills to make farming more efficient. To enable these transformations, the government pursued policies of land consolidation (for example, the Enclosure Acts), market development, and physical infrastructure construction. More efficient, market-oriented farms led to undeniably transformative results: labor and capital shifted from the agriculture sector to industry, leading to the Second Industrial Revolution (O'Brien 1977). This process of increasing within-sector productivity and reallocating labor and capital from less efficient to more efficient sectors is known as structural transformation, and has been identified as a key process in achieving economic development (Breisinger and Diao 2008).By the mid-20th century, the world was facing an impending food crisis: rapidly increasing populations threatened to outstrip food supply. Scientists searched for a way to increase food production to avoid a global, Malthusian catastrophe-and the Green Revolution was born. Cereals, particularly maize, wheat, and rice, were the focus of the Green Revolution because of their ability to provide calories en masse. The development of chemical fertilizers, high-yielding varieties, improved irrigation, and farm machinery proliferated on farms and allowed previously low-yield areas to become important food producers (Pingali 2012). Mexico transformed from a net importer of maize to a net exporter in under two decades (Sonnenfeld 1992). India's grain deficit turned into a surplus (Rahman 2015). Numerous other countries, notably in Southeast Asia, saw similar results and were able not only to transform their agriculture sectors but also to set the stage for industrialization and structural transformation (Hazell 2009). As in the British Agricultural Revolution before, policies enabling land consolidation and market and infrastructure development helped pave the way for the Green Revolution.Broadly speaking, most economies in Africa south of the Saharaincluding Kenya-have not seen the transformative effects of the Green Revolution. Until recently, much of the research on the African food sector has been dedicated to understanding how to replicate the results from the Green Revolution in the region, in the assumption that increasing on-farm productivity will make it possible to meet the conditions for structural transformation and spur economic transformation.However, the results of this \"traditional\" approach have not been sufficiently transformative. For example, in Kenya, per hectare maize yields have not increased in 30 years (FAOSTAT 2022), food insecurity is still a major issue (Sachs et al. 2021), uptake of inputs and machinery is low (Chapter 9), and the agriculture sector still absorbs most of the labor force (World Bank 2021). Subsistence agriculture, as opposed to market-oriented production, still plays a large role in Kenyan agriculture and hinders the ability of farmers to enhance production through input use and land consolidation (Muthini, Nzuma, and Qaim 2020;Gollin, Kirchberger, and Lagakos 2021). As such, Kenya is in the process of transitioning from traditional to modern rural systems (IFAD 2021).Because market development has played a crucial enabling role in past agricultural transformations, policymakers have increasingly turned toward inclusive value chain development to transform African food sectors (Barrett et al. 2020). Value chains encapsulate the process of creating a product and delivering it to end consumers (Reardon and Timmer 2012). In Kenya, inefficiencies and uneven distribution of profits (or of the value created) often characterize agricultural value chains, and market access for farmers remains poor in many areas (Chamberlin and Jayne 2013). As such, the development of value chains to enhance the production of food and streamline the process of distributing food to end consumers has been a much-needed policy focus. Undergoing these value chain transformations in an inclusive manner has also been critical. This ensures that small or marginalized farmers (for example, women) and value chain actors (for example, processors, transporters, and retailers) can benefit from the value chain development, and existing inequalities are not exacerbated (Donovan, Stoian, and Lundy 2016). Such an approach builds on the failings of the Green Revolution, which placed little importance on inclusivity and often pushed marginalized actors out of the sector altogether (Hazell 2009). However, this approach to transforming the food sector still often remains supply-centric, and does not address the environmental issues associated with Green Revolution technologies, which are becoming increasingly important in the context of climate change.In order to address the weaknesses of previous approaches, frameworks must not focus only on improving food supply. Demand-side dynamics and institutional arrangements play vital roles in the food sector; to drive transformation, it will be key to address constraints in these areas alongside those facing farmers. Second, frameworks must recognize that on-farm productivity is only one outcome, and it cannot be pursued at the expense of other desirable outcomes, such as sustainability. During the Green Revolution, overuse of fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemical inputs led to land degradation, the pollution of water sources, and other detrimental environmental outcomes (Hazell 2009). In the face of a growing climate crisis, it is critical to pursue the objectives of sustainability and resilience jointly with increasing productivity. Frameworks that explicitly address these issues are needed. Such frameworks should not ignore the importance of improving productivity: yields in Kenya and other countries in Africa south of the Sahara are still low, and stagnating production is a major issue currently facing the Kenyan food system that rightfully deserves policy attention (Chapter 7). However, this should not come at the price of creating further problems down the road.The following section provides an overview of food systems frameworks and then proposes a framework for food system transformation in Kenya.The food systems2 framework has been proposed as a holistic framework to guide policy to meet the various needs of a modern food sector. More generally, systems thinking \"involves exploring the characteristics of components within a system . . . and how they interconnect to improve understanding of how outcomes emerge from these interactions\" (McNab et al. 2020). In the context of food systems, this requires identifying the proper components, or actors, and understanding how such actors interact with one another to either promote or hinder desired food system outcomes. Once an understanding of the various actors, interactions, opportunities, and constraints of a food system is attained, the policy approach to facilitating food system transformation flows naturally.Defining food systems, understanding what the goals of transformation should be, and identifying the key levers by means of which transformation can occur are precursors to creating an enabling and coordinated policy for the food sector. \"A food system gathers all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the outputs of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes\" (HLPE 2017). This complex web of actors and activities can be divided into five broad components: food supply chains, the food environment, consumer behavior, external drivers, and outcomes (shown in Figure 1.1).Food supply chains concern the production and distribution of food and are conceptually similar to value chains, discussed above. These supply chains include upstream actors (input providers, agricultural services, and extension), farmers, and downstream actors (aggregators, processors, distributors, wholesalers, and retailers). Parallel streams, such as financial services providers and research and development, also play important roles in food supply chains (Reardon et al. 2019). Development of supply chains has been the focus of much agricultural policy in recent years, as inclusive value chain development has become an increasingly popular policy tool (Barrett et al. 2020).The food environment is the context in which consumers obtain, prepare, and consume food (HLPE 2017). Physical, economic, political, and sociocultural factors affect this context-respectively, consumers' physical proximity 2 The food system is also sometimes referred to as the agrifood system, and the terms are often used interchangeably. To ensure consistency with the food systems framework laid out in this book, we use the term \"food system\" throughout. This choice of wording also relates to the fact that the nonfood part is of minor relevance for the topics covered in this book. The only exception is Chapter 2, which lays out an accounting framework that explicitly captures food and nonfood items across all value chains. Consumer ChoiceBased on: Price to markets, food affordability, regulations, and cultural beliefs about food have impacts on the food environment. Further, how food is marketed and promoted to consumers makes up a key component of the food environment. Consumer behavior is the set of choices consumers make about what food to obtain, prepare, and eat (HLPE 2017). Such behavior occurs at both the household level and the individual level and encapsulates intrahousehold decisions on food allocation. Preferences, income, location, cultural beliefs, and the food environment can all shape how consumers make decisions. Placing consumers as a central component of the food system builds upon previous policy and research approaches that have placed a much larger emphasis on the supply side.The three central components-the food supply chain, the food environment, and consumer behavior-are all shaped by external factors. Such factors include broader economic conditions, the natural environment, socio-cultural traits, demographic characteristics, and policy. Each central component responds to these factors to affect the outcomes. In the food systems framework, policy is depicted as a component distinct from other external factors because governments and other institutions can directly create policy to affect the rest of the food system. The next section discusses how to enable food system transformation through effective policy.The food system produces more than just food: it has environmental, health, economic, and cultural outcomes. Further, overall food system results affect food supply, the food environment, and consumer behavior, creating a positive feedback loop. Early work on food systems frameworks placed a greater emphasis on nutrition and environmental outcomes (HLPE 2017;de Brauw et al. 2019); more recent work has stressed the role of gender in every aspect of food systems (Njuki et al. 2021).The results of food systems can be categorized along five dimensions: productivity, resilience, sustainability, health, and inclusivity (IFPRI 2021). Productivity refers to the ability of food systems to efficiently produce enough food to feed a growing population. However, food supply is subject to environmental factors (for example, the increasingly volatile rainfall patterns across East Africa and the proliferation of pests such as locusts) and market risk (for example, increasing international fertilizer and fuel prices). Food systems must be designed to withstand such shocks to make it possible to avoid acute food crises. The role of food production in environmental degradation is an issue that is moving to the forefront of international policy discussions, and food systems must be able to function sustainably without ruining the most important asset for food production-the environment-for future generations. Further, food systems need to ensure that the food produced meets the nutritional needs of consumers. Safe, balanced diets with sufficient macro-and micronutrients are needed to promote health. Finally, these systems should achieve productivity, resilience, sustainability, and health for all communities and groups of people. Inclusivity is needed to prevent further marginalization, to create more equal societies, and to leverage the vast knowledge and experiences of diverse populations to transform food systems. Inclusivity is often discussed in terms of empowering female and youth populations but it also includes economically and geographically marginalized communities, such as residents of urban slums or remote rural areas.The interactions of the food supply chain, the food environment, consumer behavior, external drivers, and food system outcomes are what make the food system run. The entire system is an interrelated web of actors and activities. Changes in one area of the food system will have ripple effects that extend beyond the immediate outcomes. For example, a policy promoting the growth of a more suitable crop in semiarid areas will immediately affect the farmers and more broadly the food supply chain. This in turn will affect the food environment, consumer behavior, and eventually food system outcomes. These outcomes are then fed back through the system, creating a cycle of change. Having this broad view of the food system can help researchers and policymakers understand the full effects of interventions, economic and environmental conditions, and policies. Such learning can translate into effective policy.This concept of food system transformation has received much attention internationally as well as in many countries, including Kenya. The year 2021 marked an important milestone in international food policy: the UN Food Systems Summit brought together delegates from around the world to discuss a new approach to economic development. Over 100 countries-including Kenyadeveloped national pathways to transform their food systems. The Food Systems Summit identified five action tracks, analogous to the five key food system outcomes, for governments to focus on: ensuring safe and nutritious food for all; shifting to sustainable consumption patterns; boosting naturepositive production; advancing equitable livelihoods; and building resilience to vulnerabilities, shocks, and stress. Further, the Summit outlined four levers of change that can cut across the action tracks and drive food systems transformation: gender, human rights, finance, and innovation (Herrero et al. 2021).However, although the Food Systems Summit placed food systems thinking and its objectives front and center for the international community and national governments, it provided less practical guidance on how policy could transform food systems. The action tracks help in policy goal setting and the levers identify areas on which governments should focus to drive change. However, setting goals is not enough. Effective policy needs research-based development and implementation to meet policy goals (Cerna 2013).An economic lens is particularly useful in understanding the complex nature of food systems, for several reasons, according to Fan and colleagues (2021). First, economics is concerned with scarcity and choice, and resources in food systems are often scarce: producers are constrained in their ability to engage in intensive farming systems, consumers face tight budgets, and institutional actors are limited in their capacity to enable the system. Economic analysis is able to give insights across these different levels of actors. Second, economics is able to analyze the trade-offs between different food system outcomes-productivity, resilience, sustainability, health, and inclusivity. Sometimes, meeting objectives along one of these dimensions may come at the cost of another, and evidence is needed to understand these costs and benefits (de Brauw et al. 2019). Third, economics can provide analysis for individual actors (microeconomics), markets (mesoeconomics), and the economy as a whole (macroeconomics). Therefore, economic analysis can sufficiently address both the feasibility and the results of both bottom-up and top-down interventions. A fourth aspect of economic analysis is also crucial for food system analysis: the quantitative, data-driven nature of modern economics. Rigorous economic analysis relies on large sample sizes and state of the art statistical methods that can meet the objectives of data-driven policy (AUC 2014).This book takes a critical look at the Kenyan food system, where it has been, and where it can go. It brings together a mix of Kenyan and international experts from CGIAR, academia, and nongovernmental organizations, resulting in a collaborative work that offers an in-depth discussion of food systems and presents various case studies across different value chains and areas of the food system. Bringing together a diverse range of rigorous research with both a bird's-eye view of Kenyan food systems and in-depth analyses of specific components of food systems allows for a unique perspective into the policies needed to enable transformation. Reflecting this approach, the book recommends broad policy themes and specific policy recommendations that can position Kenya as a global leader in tackling the challenges of the Decade of Action.This book presents economic studies across the food system using a variety of research methods. Some chapters present reviews and syntheses of scientific evidence on certain topics, whereas others present original, individual studies. The analysis is carried out at different levels, with some chapters looking at broader food system dynamics and other chapters zooming in on individual areas and value chains within the Kenyan food system. Chapters rely on both qualitative and quantitative methods using cutting-edge methodologies, such as randomized controlled trials, simulation modeling, and nationally representative household analysis. Taken as a whole, the varied methodological approach highlights the importance of data-driven learning, the use of mixed methods to more comprehensively understand topics, and the scale and scope of research needed to understand Kenya's food system and assess food policy. It further suggests that there is no cookie-cutter approach to rigorous research: different approaches to research are needed for different questions. In other words, as far as research methodology goes, \"The gold standard is the best method for the question at hand\" (Ravallion 2018).The book is divided into six parts. The first part gives an overview of food and livestock systems in Kenya. This is followed by five parts that correspond to the five food system outcomes: health, productivity, resilience, inclusivity, and sustainability. Part 2 (health) presents research on Kenyan diets and food safety in the country. Part 3 contains four chapters related to food production, which analyze, respectively, agricultural productivity trends in general, the role of inputs in agriculture, maize intensification, and mechanization. Part 4 relates to food system resilience and presents research on overall production resilience, climate insurance, and risk contingent credit. Part 5 discusses the inclusivity of the food system with respect to gender, youth, and small farmers. This is followed by Part 6, which presents research related to the environmental and financial sustainability of transformation in the context of postharvest management and digital solutions, respectively. The book concludes with a discussion on overall policy approaches and specific policy recommendations to drive food system transformation. While the chapters are categorized based on the most relevant food system outcome, many of their insights cut across outcomes. The components, actors, and outcomes of food systems do not exist in isolation; consequently, the corresponding research must acknowledge this interconnectivity. This book demonstrates the breadth and depth needed in food systems research to inform transformative policy.","tokenCount":"4365"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1db83a5f0891e31cc9f421b6958af982","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/95119ab3-b119-4ba5-8fcd-37c01b34d24c/content","id":"1333242354"},"keywords":["Hub Manager","CSISA Haryana hub Cropping Systems Agronomist","CIMMYT Bangladesh Y.S. Saharawat : Senior Soil Scientist","IARI","New Delhi"],"sieverID":"41d9f942-5711-4471-9a6d-156fded6016b","pagecount":"28","content":"The Cereals Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) is mandated to enhance farm productivity and increase incomes of resource-poor farm families in South Asia through the accelerated development and inclusive deployment of new varieties, sustainable management technologies, partnerships and policies. The project is being implemented by the CGIAR institutions; IRRI, CIMMYT, IFPRI and ILRI and supported by USAID, and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. © This publication is a product of Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) and copyrighted to the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) 2012 and is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution -Non Commercial ShareAlike 3.0 License (Unported).The designations employed and the presentations of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion of any option what so ever on the part of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) concerning the legal status of any country, person, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Where trade names are used, this does not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by CIMMYT and IRRIOperational Manual for Multi-Crop Zero Till PlanterMultiple challenges associated with plough based conventional production practices that include deteriorating natural resources, declining factor productivity, shortages of water & labor and escalating costs of production inputs coupled with challenges of climate change both in irrigated intensive systems as well as low intensity rainfed ecologies are the major threat to food security of South Asia (Jat et al., 2009;Ladha et al., 2009;Chauhan et al., 2012). Water and labor scarcity and timeliness of farming operations specially planting under the emerging uncertainties are becoming major concerns of farming all across farmer typology, production systems and ecologies in the region (Chauhan et al., 2012). In many parts of Asia, over-exploitation and poor management of groundwater has led to declining table and negative environmental impacts. Conventional flooded rice receiving the largest amount of fresh water compared to any other crop is the major contributor to the problems of declining groundwater table ranging from 0.1-1.0 m year -1 and increasing energy use. The problem has further been intensified with the unavailability of labor in time, and multi-fold increase in labor costs. Fragmented land holdings and nucleus farm families further exacerbates the problem of availability of farm labour.Potential solutions to address these issues include a shift from intensive tillage based practices to conservation agriculture (reduced or no tillage) based crop establishment techniques (Saharawat et al., 2010;Jat et al., 2012;Gathala et al., 2011). Direct drilling (seeding/planting with zero tillage technology) is one such practice that potentialy addresses the issues of labor, energy, water, soil health etc (Malik et al., 2005;Gupta and Sayre, 2007;Jat et al., 2009;Ladha et al., 2009;Gathala et al., 2011). However, due to fragmented and small land holdings it is not affordable to purchase many machines for the sowing of different crops. Therefore, multi-crop planter have been invented and are being used by many farmers across South Asia. The same multi-crop planter available in the region can be used for direct drilling of several crops including wheat, rice, maize, moongbean, mustard, barley etc without any preparatory tillage and also under reduced tillage situations. One of the major constraints in large scale adoption of this technology as well as sub-optimal use of planters is the lack of skills/knowledge on operation and calibration of the machinery for multiple uses. There are different field/ crop/situation specific adjustments needed before the use of the machine in the field. These adjustments include proper seeding depth, fertilizer rate and the seed rate etc as per the crop and field conditions to realize the potential benefits of the technology. There are several machinery manufacturers who supply these planters but the operational manuals are not available for making adjustments, calibrations for multiple purposes, multiple crops under local conditions. In absence of the manual guidelines/protocols for efficient use of these planters by the farmers, service providers, extension agents for different purposes and variable field conditions, many a times the desirable results are not achieved and even contradictory results are observed. This results in slowing down the adoption rates of the technology. Also, in absence of simple guidelines for maintenance of these planters, the farmers/service providers need to make huge investments on repairing at the start of the season. In this manual, we attempted to provide simple guidelines for calibration, operation, maintenance and troubleshooting for efficient use of multi-crop zero till planters by the range of stakeholders including farmers, service providers, extension agents and researchers.Due to fragmented and small land holdings and variable farmer typology, it is neither affordable not advisable to purchase many machines for the planting of different crops by the same farmer. The multi-crop planter can plant different crops with variable seed size, seed rate, depth, spacing etc., providing simple solution to this. In addition to adjustments for row spacing, depth, gears for power transition to seed and fertilizer metering systems, the multi-crop planters have precise seed metering system using inclined rotary plates with variable grove number and size for different seed size and spacing for various crops. This provides flexibility for use of these planters for direct drilling of different crops with precise rate and spacing using the same planter which does not exist in flutted roller metering drills. Hence, the same multi-crop planter can be used for planting different crops by simply changing the inclined plates. The planter can also be used to make the beds and simultaneously sowing the crop just by mounting the shovels and shapers which can be easily accomplished due to the given provision in the machine. The planter has the provision of drilling both seed and fertilizer in one go. Also, as seed priming is very important for good germination and optimum plant population, the multi-crop planters provides opportunity to use primed seeds which is not possible in flutted roller metering drills.The multi-crop planter primarily consists of 10 components as depicted in Figure 1 and described in below sectionThe frame of multi-crop planter consists of 2 or 3 bars made up of mild steel on which all other parts are mounted/ attached. The frame works as a body in the planter. The bars are made up of mild steel angle irons (6.5 × 6.5 × 0.5 cm) welded together to provide the desired strength and rigidity. The frame of the 9-tyne planter is of the size of 185 × 60 cm while the frame of 11 tyne machine is 220 cm long. The tynes are attached to the frame which is used to drill the soil. Tynes are attached by U-Clamping as shown in Figure 2. Mainly 9 tynes or 11 tynes are fitted at desired spacing (equal or paired row arrangements) depending on crop. These U-shaped clamps can be unbolted to change the distance between furrow openers, no. of furrow openers and also to detach the furrow openers in order to attach some other part for a different function, for example shovel cum shaper assembly may be attached for raised bed planting. A 4 cm wide, 5 cm thick and 6 cm long stiffener plate is provided at back bottom of the inverted T-type furrow opener (5.0 × 1.2 cm) which is attached to the frame with nuts and bolts or directly with clamps. The furrow opener is welded to the mild flat steel shank (straight leg standard mounted with T-type furrow opener). The blades can be of \"welded on\" or \"bolted on'' or even \"knock down\" type. The disadvantage of \"welded on\" blades is that they require machine shop for replacement, whereas, a farmer can himself replace the other two types of blades. The quality of material used to make the furrow openers will ultimately decide the operational quality and durability of the planter. Double boot is provided behind each furrow opener to receive a tube (steel ribbon or polyethylene tube with a minimum diameter of 25 mm) each to host seed and fertilizer delivery pipes. The furrow openers are adjusted to make 3-5 cm wide slits.Trapezoidal shaped seed and fertilizer boxes, made of mild steel sheet (2 mm thick), are mounted side by side (fertilizer box in front and seed box in the rear) on the frame (Figure 4). The boxes are generally 180 cm long and 24 cm deep. Box dimensions can vary depending upon the effective width of the machine and will increase with the increase in the number of the furrow openers. For example in case of 9-tine planter, the length of seed and fertilizer boxes will be around 160 cm.The seed metering and delivery system (Figure 5) consists of following-1. Seed box : it is used to store the seed in the planter 2. Inclined rotary metering plates : these rotating plates have grooves which guide the seed and drop it in to the cups (Figure 6)3. Seed metering strip : it is an iron bar which has holes in it. By changing the hole, we can change the rate of the seed to be planted in the field. The seed rate is written on the strip with the corresponding holes (Figure 8) 4. Seed Cups : These cups receive seeds that are dropped by the inclined rotary plates and then dispense the seeds to the seed delivery pipe. These seed cups must be smooth and free from any obstacle from the inside to ensure unobstructed delivery of the seeds (Figure 7).It is used to take the seed from cups to the seed boot.6. Seed boot : Seed boot finally drops the seed into the slit in the soil opened by the furrow opener.The seed metering strip is mounted on the seed box. It is attached to the seed box in such a manner that the seed box is tilted when there is an adjustment on the system. It is a strip of iron on which equally spaced holes are provided. The holes connect the strip to the seed box with the help of nut. By changing the holes, the seed rate can be adjusted. The seed rate is generally written on the corresponding hole. However, these are just indicative and for actual quantity of seed to be delivered, it is always advisable for field calibration. The seed rate may also be adjusted by putting the chain on different gears (Figure 9). Using the gear with lesser teeth will lower down the seed rate and vice-versa. There are different seed metering inclined plates for different crops as shown in Figure 10. The plates vary from each other in size of groove, number of grooves and shape of the grooves. The size, number and shape of the grooves are designed to suit the specific crops.To change the plates, the nut in the center of the plate is opened and then after changing the plate it is tightened again. Fertilizer metering system controls the amount of fertilizer application in the field. Generally there are two types of fertilizer metering system (Figure 11). In the flutted rollers metering systems (Figure 12), the fertilizer rate is adjusted with the help of the lever (Figure 14). The lever is set to the recommended fertilizer level. Before setting the fertilizer rate by the lever the nut as shown in figure 13 is loosened and after adjusting the level it is tightened again. However, for precise fertilizer rates, its always advisable to go for field calibrations. After making adjustments as per the calibrations for a specific fertilizer rate, the flutted roller pick the fertilizer from the fertilizer box and then drop it on the aluminum flow control tongue (Figure 13). The flow control tongue drops the fertilizer uniformly in to the fertilizer pipe which is then applied into the soil through the fertilizer boot attached in the furrow opener.In this system the flutted rollers are prone to clog. The second system (Figure 15) is the rotating cell type fertilizer metering type. This system has the following components. In this fertilizer metering device, cells are fitted in separate compartments to allow fertilizer placement as required in each row or some selected rows only. Fertilizer can be increased or decreased by lifting or lowering the fertilizer box respectively. Fertilizer is simply metered by a series of cups on a roller (Figure 17). The rate of fertilizer can be read on the scale (Figure 16). However, calibration of machine for fixing desired fertilizer rates under laboratory situation as well as in field can be accomplished with the procedure mentioned later in this document. This system is almost maintenance free but the precision is less as compared to the first system.Drive wheel (Figure 18) is attached in the middle of the front bar of the frame. The function of drive wheel is to transmit power to the seed The depth control wheel (Figure 19) The lower nut is adjusted for the depth control.For example, if we have to increase the depth of the machine by one inch and there are 9 threads per inch then we have to move the lower nut by nine threads in the upper direction and tighten the upper nut. The adjustment of depth control should be done in the field itself to capture the real field situation.The power transmission unit has the following The function of power transmission unit (Figure 20) is to provide drive from drive wheel to all parts of the planter for example seed box rollers, fertilizer box rollers. First of all a chain set connects the drive wheel to the driving shaft. This shaft is connected to fertilizer and seed metering shafts with the help of another chain set which provide drive to the seed box roller and fertilizer box roller. Bevel gears are attached to the shaft drive for changing the vertical drive into the horizontal drive. The idler gear (Figure 21) is used to tighten or loosen the chain for its smooth operation.  Seed and fertilizers delivery pipes (Figure 22) are attached to the seed and fertilizer boxes with the help of aluminum cups. These pipes carry the seed/fertilizer from the cups to the seed/ fertilizer boot. The tubes should be connected to seed/fertilizer cups firmly so that these may not come out during field operation. The following precautions should be taken care of Tubes should be protected from bending and breakage.Old/bent tubes should be replaced.Excessive bend in the tubes should be avoided otherwise the bend will cause obstruction in free flow of seed/fertilizer and result in non-uniform application and poor crop establishment.The tubes must be inserted about one inch into the seed/fertilizer boot to ensure proper seed/fertilizer delivery.Seed and fertilizer metering devices can increase or decrease seed rates within specified limits.To calibrate the planter to a desired seed and fertilizer rate, first fix the seed metering strip in the appropriate delivery notch and set the appropriate fertilizer rate with the help of lever or adjusting nut whatever mechanism is there in the planter. Measure circumference of drive wheel (Cd). Measure width of the drill (Wd), else multiply the number of tynes with distance between two tynes. Put seed in seed box and fertilizer in fertilizer box then rotate drive wheel manually to ten full rotations and collect seed delivered from each seed/fertilizer delivery tube separately in polythene bags (Figure 23).Weigh the seeds and fertilizer in each bag and also determine the total seed weight (Sw) and fertilizer weight (Fw). If the difference in seed/ fertilizer weight between individual delivery tubes is more than 10%, contact a mechanic/ expert to adjust or repair the machine. Calculate seed and fertilizer application rate per hectare using the following formula:Seed rate (kg/ha) = {Sw/(Cd × Wd Fertilizer rate (kg per hectare) can be determined using the same formula by substituting the total weight of fertilizer released in grams (Fw) in place of total weight of seeds (Sw). It is cautioned that calculated seed and fertilizer rates can differ from the actual rates due to drag and slippage of the drive wheel depending upon the soil moisture, surface roughness, presence of crop residue and field level. Carry out minor adjustment in seed/fertilizer rates by testing the machine in the field.First of all, fill the seed box and fertilizer box with seed and fertilizer and set the indicator at desired seed rate and fertilizer rate. Run the planter at a distance of 20 meters in the field.Collect the seed and fertilizer from the delivery pipes in polythene bags from each pipe. The amount of seed and fertilizer collected in each pipes in 20 meter run is then measured in grams. Then we calculate the seed rate and fertilizer rate by the given formula as under One acre = 4000 m 2Width of drill = x planter is attached to tractor through these three hitch points with the help of link pins. The top link hitch point also helps in leveling the machines. The three point hitch adjustments where the planter fixes to the tractor should be adjusted. The planter should level from side to side and have just enough forward and backward adjustment to enter the soil at the proper angle.While operating the planter in the field for planting, the soil moisture must be optimum both for the operation of planter as well as germination of the crop. Though the soil moisture for operation of planter in the field depends on soil type but the field should be neither too wet nor too dry so that both rut and clod formation can be avoided. First of all, planter is attached to the tractor (say 35 HP) by three point linkage. As the tractor moves the planter, the drive wheel rotates which in-turn rotates the chain-set attached to it on one end and to the drive shaft at other end. The drive shaft then provides the drive to the seed box shaft and fertilizer box shaft as all of these shafts are attached with a chain and gear drive. The fertilizer shaft is attached to the flutted rollers and when flutted roller rotates, the fertilizer enters into the spacing between the teeth of the roller and goes to the aluminium cup which drops the fertilizer to the fertilizer delivery pipes. At same time, the seed box shaft rotates the bevel gears attached to it. A bevel gear is attached at an angle of 90 degree which gives motion to the seed rollers. As seed rollers rotate, the seeds in the seed box enter into the spacing between the teeth and seeds go to the aluminium cup which drops the seeds into the seed delivery pipes. Now, the seed and fertilizer goes to the boot of the furrow openers from seed and fertilizer delivery pipes. As the furrow opener moves, the fertilizer and seeds are drilled into the soil in such a manner that the fertilizer is placed below the seed.Before operating the planter for the first time, read and understand this manual to become familiar with the major components of planter, mechanism, adjustments, and operating systems of the planter. Before each use in the field, ensure following things to make sure all necessary items are checked and adjusted.Check the condition of the planter and make any adjustments or repairs necessary particularly, the fasteners, blade bolts and welds before operating. Replace any broken or worn out parts.Select the proper row spacing, seed quantity, and depth according to the field condition and crop. (Re-adjust seed rate and planting depth after trial).Make sure that the seeds to be planted are clean, and free of soil and pebbles. Do not mix fertilizer with the seeds when seeding, as this will damage the seed metering device.Add the seed to the seed box. Do not fill the seed box more than three quarters full, in order to prevent the automatic dropping of the seeds from the opening in the inclined seed plates due to vibration in planter while under operation.Make sure that the fertilizer is clod free.Calibrate the planter as given in heading 4 and 5.Before operating the multi-crop planter, one should consider following operating notes:When tilling and seeding back and forth across the plot, line the planter up so the next row is at the desired spacing from the last row just planted.While operating, pay attention to how much seed is left, and whether the seeds are blocked in the seed delivery pipe or in the hole of the furrow opener. If the tractor is backed up while the planter is operating, soil will be jammed into the furrow opener (slits) and block seeding. If this happens, turn off the engine, and clean the furrow openers and seed delivery pipes as necessary. Restart the engine, raise the implement to back up, and re-plant the area that did not receive seed.Throttle down when approaching the end of the plot. Lift the planter through hydraulic system when about 2.5 metres away from the end of the plot, then turn the tractor. After turning, again bring down the planter with hydraulic system.Lift the planter through hydraulic system when the implement crosses a ridge or is in transport. Lower the roller to raise the blades to the maximum height while walking or transporting the tractor on the road.Stop the engine before fixing a breakdown or adjusting or changing implements.After completion of the operation, remove the remaining seeds, and fertilizer and wash the mud and weeds from the planter.DO NOT leave seed or fertilizer in the boxes over time as the seed attracts the rodents and can damage the inner parts of the seed box while fertilizer can chock the fertilizer metering system. After cleaning, lubricate the chain, and all other moving parts.The planter should be properly serviced and maintained. It should be checked before use to ensure that all the nuts and bolts are tightened and that all the parts are in good condition. For example, if the openers are worn out, they should be replaced. The fertilizer and seed boxes should also be in good condition to allow free flow of seed and fertilizer. Chains should be adjusted and oiled. After use at the end of each day, the machine should be checked, the seed and fertilizer boxes cleaned, and the moving parts oiled. After the planting season, the machine should be properly stored.Before storing the planter for any length of time, clean each part of the machine; apply grease/oil to the transmission chain and moving parts. Store the machine in a dry, wellventilated store. Keep the appropriate tools with the machine during storage to ensure that they will be available when needed again.Seed not placed at desired depth 1. Adjustment of depth control wheel is not proper 1. Properly adjust the depth of furrow openers with the help of depth control wheel.  ","tokenCount":"3789"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a0e1005b6502afdbac2500e22948661b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3aff63a9-ee37-491e-944a-8f296d330008/retrieve","id":"-63795420"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c4e361a0-a283-4ce4-b10c-9df2d1285833","pagecount":"24","content":"The \"Land Use Change Analysis as an Approach for Investigating Biodiversity Loss and Land Degradation\" is a medium sized targeted research project funded by United Nations Environment Programme-Global Environment Facility (UNEP-GEF) and other donors. The project provides an umbrella for coordinated research activities occurring in sites across East Africa, and at the East Africa regional level. The project's goal is to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and prevention of land degradation by providing useful instruments, or methodological guides, to identify and monitor changes in the landscape associated with biodiversity loss and land degradation, and to identify the root causes of those changes. The main approach has been to examine the linkages between the processes of change in biodiversity, land degradation and land use in East Africa in order to derive information and experience upon which to base the design of the guides for detecting such trends. Various ecological, socioeconomic and land use change theories and conceptual frameworks have informed the research and the guides.The project is being conducted by the LUCID (Land Use Change, Impacts, and Dynamics) team. LUCID is a partnership of scientists at national and international institutions who have been studying land use change in East Africa and its implications for land degradation, biodiversity, and climate change for over twenty years. LUCID developed a formal research programme for UNEP-GEF to consolidate the findings from long term research sites concerning the causes and consequences of land use change, land degradation and change in biodiversity. This LUCID Working Paper is drawn from the proposal submitted to UNEP-GEF in 2000(GEF 2000). It provides a description of the objectives of the project, the research and environmental situation in East Africa, summarizes current research on this topic, and outlines the hypotheses and methodology for the new cross-site data collection and analysis. 1The project will provide critical tools derived from land use change analysis for use by GEF, subsequent GEF projects, decision makers and NGOs in meeting GEF operational goals in biodiversity conservation, and prevention and mitigation of land degradation. Development of these tools emanates from the need to identify the linkages between land degradation and the GEF focal areas (GEF 1999). The information developed by the project on the linkages between biodiversity and land degradation will assist in the design of GEF projects on land degradation with multi-focal area benefits. The complexity of interactions between ecological and societal processes over time and space has challenged attempts to understand the linkages between change in biodiversity and land degradation. Land use change analyses provide an entry into understanding these linkages and associated processes.As discussed in the report of the STAP (1999) expert group workshop on land degradation, land use change analysis is a particularly useful tool because it a) provides information on the wide societal forces leading to environmental change, b) is a cause in and of itself of land degradation and loss of biodiversity, and c) provides information on the type and extent of environmental change.The land use change analysis approach will be developed and tested in a region of high risk to biodiversity and land degradation, East Africa. This is an area rich with existing research that the project can draw upon. It is also an area with a history of varied environmental management regimes and programs that provide many lessons.The project falls under the GEF Operational Programme number one on Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems. The tool will be developed and tested in the semi-arid region of East Africa, a region with abundant biodiversity and of high risk to biodiversity loss and land degradation. This is an area rich with existing research that the project can draw upon. It is also an area with a history of varied environmental management regimes and programs that provide many lessons (Tengberg et al. 1998).The project will build upon a foundation of long term detailed landscape scale site studies of environmental change and resource management in three East African countries (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). The four sites are representative of highland to lowland ecological gradients in East Africa, and the semi-arid plains in the lowlands contain biodiversity and land degradation characteristics and problems representative of those ecosystems within the wider region. The sites have comparable physical environments in terms of the range of rainfall and temperature across their ecological gradients, with corresponding agroecological zones which range from cool highland agricultural systems growing tea and/or coffee, to hot, semi-arid areas formerly dominated by nomadic herding and wildlife. The lowland areas, as in many semi-arid areas of Africa and indeed elsewhere, are currently experiencing broad socioeconomic processes that are profoundly influencing land use, including an economy shifting in favour of crops, in-migration by cultivators, local human population growth, and a transformation of the land tenure system towards privatisation. These environmental and socioeconomic similarities will encourage comparability and permit the development of generalisations, including cross-site statistical analyses and modelling exercises.Despite their similarities in environment and current socioeconomic processes, however, the four sites are each unique due to their varied political, cultural and economic histories (Table 1). Past and current land use reflects these differences, as do the current state of biodiversity and land degradation. The two sites on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, for example, straddle the national boundary between Kenya and Tanzania and, despite similar ecosystems and a comparable ethnic composition, the land reflects different national socio-political histories. Indeed, the difference is visible from the air; the border between the two countries can be traced on satellite imagery and aerial photographs. The Tanzanian side is intensely cultivated with a high density of planted trees and bananas, whereas the Kenyan side is less intensely cultivated. The agricultural production on Tanzanian side of the mountain has been central to its national economy, whereas the Kenya side of the mountain has only recently attracted important national economic policy and infrastructure attention with a spreading of commercial crop production in particular places. The wildlife resources shared across the border have also been differently managed, with resultant contrasting community/ wildlife relationships.In many respects, the site in Embu and Mbeere Districts on the eastern slopes of Mt. Kenya resembles the Tanzanian side of Mt. Kilimanjaro more closely than the site on the Kenyan side of the mountain. Similarities include a history of intensely cultivated highlands, important downslope migration into the agro-pastoral area, and land management being influenced by strong ties to the urban sector and to the national and international market. The site in southwest Uganda also has a history of intensely cultivated highlands, though until recently without the strong ties to the national and international market and without the soil management practices found in Embu and the Tanzania site. For a variety of cultural and political reasons, the adjacent semi-arid areas have only recently started to experience inmigration by cultivators coming from the humid region. These similarities and idiosyncrasies of the four sites are typical of any sites that could be chosen. They will be important in evaluating the relative importance of the various external and local factors influencing land use change, and its impacts on biodiversity and land degradation. Due to having four comparable sites with comparable information, the team will be able to develop generalisations of the root causes of land use change and synthesize data on the linkages between land use change, biodiversity and land degradation.The four case studies are being conducted within a similar framework that examines the impact of land use change on environmental conditions including land degradation, biodiversity, hydrology and deforestation. This project would support additional data collection and analysis to provide data complementarity between sites, allowing cross-site comparison of the team's research findings for the first time, and the development of the guide to land use change analysis and a replicable framework to identify root causes. It will thus provide global environmental change researchers and policy makers critical insights into the linkages between land degradation and biodiversity, and tested approaches for such analyses. It will provide the communities and countries vital information necessary for effective land use and other policy addressing these serious environmental challenges.The scientific information base will contribute to policy formation to improve peoples' livelihoods and promote ecological integrity. It will complement existing projects and research by illustrating how current approaches and findings might more effectively meet ecological and socioeconomic objectives through an integrated assessment of issues and alternatives. It will contribute to activities that assist East African governments to fulfil their commitment to their NEAPs and NAPs through policies that reduce environmental degradation, foster biodiversity conservation, and promote rural development and natural resources management.The project will contribute to current inquiries concerning environmental change in the social and biophysical sciences, and especially in the integration of the two. It will do this through a deliberate design of research questions that require consideration of the impact of the social system on environmental variables and vice versa, and through the choice of methods that permit joint collection of socioeconomic and ecological data (for example, transects and surveys). The integrative questions and research methods are described in the section following, Activities and Financial Inputs Needed. The project team is composed of ecological and social scientists, who will work together to collect and analyze information drawing upon their individual disciplinary expertise. Land use itself is the reflection of biophysical and socioeconomic factors on the landscape, and the analysis of land use change forces consideration of the interaction of one set of factors upon the other.Many of the previous studies of land use change in tropical areas have focused on humid forest ecosystems due to concerns of rapid loss of forest biodiversity and carbon sequestration capacity. Land use change in other systems, especially in semi-arid ecosystems and in agricultural landscapes, has been less studied and few models of land use change have been developed. This project will contribute to that analysis, particularly in understanding the trends, causes and environmental impacts of the land use transition from herding to cropping.In addition to the loss of biodiversity inherent in this transition, the movement towards intensified cropping and herding threatens accelerated soil degradation in the fragile soils and variable rainfall regimes of semi-arid areas, placing the human population at greater risk.At this time, our understanding of the interactions among land use, land degradation and biodiversity globally is rudimentary. Particularly in the tropics, scientists know very little about these relationships. This project will pull together the first synthesis of these relationships of its kind. Existing biodiversity research in East Africa has been conducted typically on a particular wildlife species. There has been much less research on questions of broader society/ ecological interaction, for example the research that this project will conduct on the trends of land use change across wide areas and their impact on types of biodiversity.Similarly, most past research on land degradation has been confined to the local scale. The contribution this project will make is in linking integrated findings from the local level to those from the meso or higher levels.In summary, the ultimate goal of the project is to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and prevention of land degradation by providing useful instruments to identify and monitor changes in the landscape associated with biodiversity loss and land degradation, and to identify the root causes of those changes. The three intermediate objectives are as follows:1. Analyze new and existing data concerning the linkages between the processes of change in biodiversity, land degradation and land use in order to design a guide on how to use land use change analysis to identify spatial and temporal trends, and linkages, of change in biodiversity and land degradation. 2. Integrate ecological, socioeconomic and land use data and theory to develop a replicable analytical framework to identify the root causes of land use change leading to changes in biodiversity and land degradation. 3. Provide integrated data and information on the patterns and trends in land use, biodiversity and land degradation in East Africa that will provide a basis for more effective local, national and regional programs.Following is a summary description of research addressing the linkage between biodiversity and land degradation, and the root causes of land use change, constituting the \"baseline\" of current research. Also mentioned are gaps in current knowledge that will be addressed by this project.The project sites are important both ecologically and economically for the nations. Highland agriculture on the slopes, and the rich wildlife and herding areas with related tourism in the semi-arid areas, generate crucial sources of food and income for the population and the national economies. The ecological and economic importance places the sites at the core of national economic policy, yet much of their productive potential depends on lands undergoing rapid land use change, making them susceptible to land degradation and biodiversity loss.Reduction and fragmentation of habitat, conversion of land from pasture or natural riverain vegetation to crops, clearance of woodlands, fencing, and reduction of fallow length in cultivated areas are all examples of threats to biodiversity and causes of degradation associated with land use change. The current situation is characterized by partial, but continuing degradation of vegetative cover and soil productivity, reduced access to water and other key resources by wildlife and pastoralists, and declining wildlife numbers. It is a condition of a socioeconomic system that is experiencing rapid changes itself, in economics, the political and social context, and demographics. Land use change trends are both extremely rapid, and in flux.These trends need to be identified, and their impact on land degradation and biodiversity be understood, before remedial policies and programmes can be effective in the long term across wide areas. The baseline research situation in the region, however, is of a patchwork of studies being conducted usually in relatively small areas and often focussing on one wildlife species or one other aspect of the ecological or social system. Lacking thus far has been a wider analysis of the societal and ecological trends across space, especially of several areas in different countries of East Africa that would allow a generalisation of patterns and processes to be made, and general lessons to be learned.Approaching this type of analysis requires studying the patterns and root causes of land use change, and the impact of land use change on the environment. This project is particularly interested in the ecological and processual linkages between change in biodiversity and land degradation. The root causes of land use change and the environment impacts of these changes are typically studied separately, and each topic has its own theories, methods and models. By approaching the analysis through integrated questions, methods and analytical techniques, this project hopes to go beyond this separation to understand the interlinkages and feedbacks.The land use change literature has evolved out of efforts to understand, predict and manage ecologically damaging land use changes such as deforestation. It provides landscape or higher level information on biophysical changes in the landscape, such as changes in the extent, location and fragmentation of habitats, degradation of forest canopies, the spreading or shrinking of ecosystems, and changes in biomass production or in vegetative species. It also provides a wealth of socioeconomic information critical in the identification of the driving forces of those changes.Interest in land use change analysis has grown due to improved availability of remotely sensed data, especially multi-spectral satellite imagery, and facilitated interpretation with geographic information systems (GIS). The combination of increased interest in large scale environmental changes and improved data and interpretation methodologies is leading to an increasing number of studies and projects using land use change analysis. Indeed, the international global environmental change research community has chosen land use/ cover change as a major area of research because it provides broad scale data on changing carbon storage and sequestration by terrestrial plants, and because it provides an entry into understanding the human dimensions of environmental change (Lambin et al. 1999;Turner et al. 1995).Most previous studies of land use change in tropical areas have focused on humid forest ecosystems, such as in Amazonia, the Congo Basin or Asia, due to concerns of loss of forest biodiversity and carbon sequestration capacity. Recent efforts to model land use change have therefore been directed at deforestation in humid areas (Lambin 1997). Land use change in other tropical systems, especially in semi-arid ecosystems and in agricultural landscapes, has been less studied, particularly the trends, causes and environmental impacts of the land use transition from herding to cropping that is occurring in many semi-arid regions of the globe.In addition to the loss of biodiversity inherent in this transition, the movement towards intensified cropping threatens accelerated soil degradation in the fragile soils and variable rainfall regimes of semi-arid areas, placing the human population at greater risk. By widening the analysis to include the adjacent humid ecosystem, the biophysical and societal interactions between the ecosystem gradients that are critical to the functioning of the semi-arid ecosystem will also be better understood. Alterations in these interactions are a prime reason behind current rapid land use change and threats to environmental sustainability occurring in the semi-arid zone of East Africa (Bart 1999). This theme, interaction between ecosystems, is an example of examining the interface between the social and ecological systems, across space and time. Land use change provides useful starting point for analyzing such interlinkages because it is a physical imprint of society/ environment interaction.Analysis of land use change processes requires a three level approach: determination of the spatial and temporal pattern of change, site studies to understand the driving forces and dynamics, and comparative analyses and modelling to identify the broad factors affecting land use change.Defining and analyzing the causes at different sites, and cross-site comparisons, permits a generalized understanding of the drivers of land use change that can be linked to patterns of change at the regional scale. The root causes of the land use conversions in any one site are associated with events in other areas, competition between land users, the national and international economic and policy context, and local socioeconomic and biophysical processes. Land managers' decisions are shaped by their access to resources, their social and economic status, and the opportunities and constraints defined by the institutional and policy context. Political ecology, an approach that structures this analysis by defining major processes at different scales that contribute to land use patterns, will inform the underlying research questions and analysis (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987;Campbell 1998;Olson 1998;Peet and Watts 1996). Recent directions in political ecology are moving towards incorporation of concepts of non-equilibrium dynamics and stochastic models from contemporary ecology to support conservation efforts that extend beyond protected areas (Zimmerer 2000). In this project, interpretation of root causes and trend analysis will be structured within a land use change conceptual framework that combines phases derived from intensification theory with contextual factors illuminated by political ecology (Olson 1998).Political ecology and, increasingly, other approaches to land use change analysis are realizing the importance of incorporating information on field-level and household level decision making in land use change analyses. Quantitative analyses of these human dimensions, including differentiation between households and income diversification factors, can reveal properties of the land use system and lead to better prediction and improved models. Nevertheless, this relationship between household structure and landscape pattern has thus far remained implicit (Skole et al. 2000). This project will analyze findings from extensive existing field-level and household surveys conducted by team members, and complement this with additional data collection, to allow cross-site comparisons of these influences. The effect of household variations in resources, for example, will help inform land use interpretation and illuminate the poverty/ land degradation relationship through multivariate statistical modelling.Macro-scale spatial models such as those derived from von Thunen are being developed to integrate these elements of the social structure with those of the economy (e.g., commodity prices, transport costs) to predict conversions of land use (Chomitz and Gray 1996;Walker 1997). This bid-rent approach has been applied to deforestation, but not yet to the herding/ cropping transition to be examined in this study. It is hoped that analyzing the influence of changing relative economic return of land uses, within the context of other socioeconomic and biophysical parameters, will illuminate proximate factors affecting land use conversion on the agricultural frontier. The results of spatial analyses (that address where changes occur) with other information and models (that address why and the type of change) will be combined in a spatially nested approach to develop logical assumptions of future land use changes. Scenario analyses will test the impact of alternative policy choices and other interventions on the type and location of change.Currently, land use and other society/ environmental issues in the East Africa savanna region are being examined in a multitude of research and development projects usually covering one area and/or focussed on a particular issue. Much existing research on biodiversity in East Africa has been conducted in terms of particular wildlife species, for example the elephant population in Amboseli is the best studied in the world. There has been much less research on questions of broader society/ ecological interaction, for example the trends of land use change across wide areas and their impact on plant and other forms of biodiversity. Similarly, most past research on land degradation has been confined to the local scale, and usually at the plot level examining soil parameters at agricultural research stations or on particular farms.It is recognized that land degradation in semi-arid areas is probably widespread and the most important change in the ecosystem brought about by human activity. Systematic measurements of degradation, and especially identifying the links between degradation to changes in land use and in biodiversity, are, however, rare. The degradation processes involved that ultimately results in the loss of biodiversity richness are often complex and not obvious (Ezcurra and Oba 1999). In long-standing pastoral systems, for example, the existing biome is the result of regular disturbances in the form of fire, livestock grazing and other management practices. Indeed, on-going research by team members and others have identified positive impacts of the Maasai management system, such as the rotation of bomas, on maintaining ecosystem variability (Muchiru 1992;Reid and Ellis 1995;Stelfox 1986;Young 1995). This and other ecological research is calling into question the need to restrict all community/ wildlife land sharing (Homewood and Brockington 1991). The outcome of any human induced changes to these systems depends on the nature of the system and the intensity of the perturbation. Intense livestock grazing pressure may lead to the dominance of certain plant species, for example, and may increase risks of soil compaction and erosion causing severe land degradation and biodiversity loss (Du Toit and Cumming 1999).Research is showing that human induced disturbance leads to unexpected changes in biodiversity, but some patterns are now becoming known. In the transition from herding to farming, an intensification of land use occurs. In this process, phases of intensification are associated with different land use strategies and land cover patterns. The project will provide cross-site comparability to identify the flora and fauna of intensification phases and how they are affected by the transition. Intensification leads to changes in the relative value of land, labour and capital, increasing the relative value of land and eventually to greater investments in soil management. The project will examine this intensification/ land management relationship to understand the impact of intensification on the use of key resources, on land degradation, and on ecosystem fragmentation. This intensification/ environment relationship is an area where relatively little previous research has been done, but that would have broad implications for other regions (Maitima 1998;Olson 1998;Reid et al. 1997).In sum, current understanding of the interactions among land use, land degradation and biodiversity globally is rudimentary. Particularly in the tropics, scientists know little about these relationships. This project will pull together the first synthesis of these relationships. The synthesis will be particularly valuable because it will focus on land use change initiated principally by smallholder farmers and herders in the tropics.The project sites encompass highland to lowland ecological gradients in four areas in East Africa. Human and wildlife land use systems of the semi-arid savanna in East Africa evolved to take advantage of the diversity of natural resources across the gradient. Herders and wildlife of the savanna depend on the water and vegetative resources of higher elevations and on the permanent water sources in the lowlands to survive prolonged dry seasons and recurrent drought (Gichohi, Mangui, and Gakuhu 1996;Kisanga 1999). However, these same water and vegetative resources in the higher areas and wetter margins of the savannas have been the focus of expanding agricultural settlement. This change in land use has altered the resource base available to herders and to some the richest remaining wildlife biodiversity in the world.The biodiversity of the East African savanna and adjacent wetlands and woodlands is famous and unparalleled in the world. Herds of large herbivores, such as the zebra, wildebeest, gazelles and giraffe are joined by the more threatened lesser kudu and eland. Other large mammals relying on large expanses of habitat include the elephant and black rhinoceros. Carnivores preying on these and other animals include the endangered wild dog and cheetah.Equally important in the functioning of the ecosystem, and extremely diverse in numbers of species and individuals, are the smaller animals and the region's plants.Co-existing for centuries with the wildlife in this rich and complex ecosystem are the cattle, sheep and goats of herders. On-going research by project members and others is illuminating how the management system of Maasai herders promoted the grassland and woodland mix sustaining wildlife biodiversity (Muchiru 1992;Reid and Ellis 1995;Stelfox 1986;Young 1995), and how livestock / wildlife coexistence is not necessarily destructive to wildlife (Homewood and Brockington 1991). Nevertheless, structural changes in land tenure systems are raising questions of the economic feasibility of wildlife conservation outside of protected areas (Norton-Griffiths and Southey 1995). These and other new understandings of the wildlife/ society relationship have implications for wildlife management, and in land use management and policy.Research into habitat requirements of savanna animals has shown the necessity for the maintenance of large expanses of grasslands, a mosaic of ecosystem types (often provided by altitudinal gradients), grazing and water sources during the dry seasons and droughts, and unobstructed migration corridors. Similarly, woodland species including primates, rodents, elephants and birds all depend upon maintenance of sufficiently sized tracts (Debinski and Holt 2000;Western and Gichohi 1993). Loss of these required habitats and fragmentation over the past 30 years has been the most important threat to the region's biodiversity. The loss in habitat has been through direct mechanisms, for example, deforestation or conversion of grasslands to cropping, and through incremental degradation of soils and vegetation.The expansion of cultivation is resulting in clearance and fragmentation of wildlife habitats, disruption of access to water by fencing, and water pollution by agricultural chemicals.Clearance of riparian and grassland vegetation in the lowlands, and encroachment on remaining upland forests entails the loss of significant biodiversity. The degree of agricultural biodiversity that replaces these remains to be fully documented. Further, on the upper slopes and in irrigated areas, team members are examining changes in established cropping systems that contribute to deforestation, affect agricultural biodiversity, and influence land degradation (Blot 1999;Misana 1999;Pomel 1999). These areas continue to be visited by wildlife, though fencing restricts access by larger animals and smaller species now dominate. Recurrent damage by elephants and small species (e.g. porcupine) causes considerable losses to farmers. The economic threat to agriculture is increasing as farmers plant higher value crops (e.g. horticulture and coffee), and the political costs are high as damage results in reduced local support for wildlife management programs. Meanwhile, the expansion of cropping and the intensification of herding in semi-arid areas is leading to increased pressure on fragile soils and creating economic systems highly vulnerable to rainfall fluctuations.Team members and collaborating institutions are examining the relationship between these processes-land use change, loss of biodiversity and land degradation. The current approach will be strengthened to permit cross-site comparison and regional generalization in order to provide information on the physical and temporal linkages between the processes.Land in the savannas of East Africa is thus the key to survival of wildlife, and to the economy of the human population. During the past 30 years, competition between land users-between groups of people, and between people and wildlife-has intensified and led to widespread conversions of land use (Campbell and Migot-Adholla 1981). The conversions have been driven by new land use and tenure policies, by an evolution of the rural economy favoring farming over herding or wildlife, and by human population growth including in-migration from highland areas (Kimani and Pickard 1998;Mbonile 1999). The root causes of the land use conversions are thus associated with events in other areas, the national and international economic and policy context, and local socioeconomic and environmental processes.Defining and analyzing these causes at different sites, and cross-site comparisons, will permit the development of a conceptual model of the driving forces of land use change that lead to biodiversity loss and to land degradation. Comparisons of the root causes at each of the study sites of the project, and of other sites studied by team members, will permit a generalized understanding of the drivers of land use change that can be linked to patterns of change at the regional scale. Political ecology, an approach that structures the analysis by defining major processes at different scales that contribute to land use patterns, will inform the underlying research questions and analysis (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987;Campbell 1998;Olson 1998).The development of the generic root causes framework, and of the guide to land use change analysis, is thus based on the coordination of the existing site studies. In short, project collaborating institutions and others are involved in a multitude of research and development activities, usually covering a small area and usually focussed on a particular issue. This project adds to these findings by conducting additional data collection and analysis permitting cross-border, cross-site comparability, and conducting synthetic analyses focusing on the links in the East African savannas between land use change, biodiversity change and land degradation. It will use those results as a base for the development of the generic framework and guide to be of use globally, to GEF and other environmental agencies.It is thus hypothesized that rapid land use change in semi-arid ecosystems is leading to accelerated land degradation and loss of biodiversity, and that land degradation and change in biodiversity are linked. There is an urgent need to identify the root causes of the land use change and to develop an analytical tool to predict the impact of land use change on these ecosystems. The hypothesis above will be tested by an analysis of the following themes. Agricultural intensification/ change in biodiversity relationship. c.Ecological interactions and feedbacks between land degradation and changes in biodiversity d.Community/ wildlife relationship e.Role of poverty in land use and differential land management f.Feedback effects of land degradation on farmer soil management g.Interactions across ecological gradientsThe LUCID team will build upon a foundation of long term detailed landscape scale studies of environmental change and resource management in three countries at four representative ecological gradients. The GEF project would support selective additional data collection and analysis to fill gaps and provide data complementarity between sites, allowing cross-site comparison of the team's research findings and the development of analytical and methodological frameworks. The emphasis of the project is to use existing data whenever possible. The project will also support the development, testing and write up of regional syntheses and models, and the generic framework, guide and monitoring system. This will involve travel expenses to bring together project scientists to discuss generalisable patterns and processes, field costs of verifying and disseminating results, and time of the scientific coordinators and others who will conduct the syntheses and generic activities.The existing site studies have employed a variety of information sources, analytical techniques and models to provide an understanding of the dynamics of the driving forces of changing land use and their environmental impacts. Table 2 provides information on existing data and data gaps at each site.The project will use the following methods to analyze existing or gather new information, and as a basis for testing methods for the guide and framework. The guide and framework will include sections critiquing the utility of various methods for this particular use. A basis of this type of research is the integration of socioeconomic and ecological data, quantitative and qualitative data, and data of different scales. Analytical approaches and integration and verification techniques such as triangulation will be presented and discussed.Mt. Kilimanjaro Kenya Kabale, Southwest Uganda Embu/Mbeere, Mt. Kenya RegionalHave analyzed aerial photos (1962,1982,1987) and SPOT images (1991,1994) .Will have 1973, 1987, 1995(Rombo image), 1988, 1998   1969,1979,1989,1999 density in GIS.Changing population density and structure (census data). Have 1969Have , 1979Have , 1989Have , 1999 human pop density nationwide in GIS.Evolution of the farming system: impacts of econ, polit., demog. etc. on land mangement/ intensification Evolution of the farming system: impacts of changing pop. density, economy, etc. on farm size, land mngt/ intensification; using coffee as indicator of evolution of changing system impacts of changing econ ties, population. etc. on farm size and land mngt/ intensification. 1. Ethnography: key informant interviews and focus groups to obtain data on economic activities, resource conflicts, perceptions of change in soil characteristics and biodiversity, the impact of policies at the local level, and causes and trends of migration.Surveys: household and field level surveys of farmers and herders on changing land use and land management techniques; perceptions of changes in environmental variables including soil, plant and wildlife species; migratory history, household characteristics and economic activities including ties to the urban and non-farm sector.Feedback seminars during which community members, decision makers and others to verify data interpretation and to explain the context of survey findings, e.g. the impact of land use change on the soil, plant and animal biodiversity, or the history of land tenure and its impact on land use. 4.Remote sensing and GIS. Land use change for 2-3 periods. Project members have conducted GIS analyses of land use/ cover change using satellite images from the 1970s to present, and aerial photographs from the 1950s to the 1980s. The team will further examine the interactions among land use change and wildlife distributions and habitat, soil characteristics, ecosystem fragmentation, human migration, etc.. Analyses will identify the hotspots of LUC and impact of LUC on key resources and on wildlife migration corridors. The root causes analysis will relate LUC to other data and information using methods such as spatial regression and scenario analysis. 5.Ecological field surveys. Synthesis of existing, and collection of new data on selected indicators of the effects of land use/ cover change (land clearing, grazing intensity) on land degradation (e.g., soil fertility, vegetative cover and structure) and biodiversity (plant and wildlife species diversity).An approach being developed by the PLEC project will be used and expanded to provide an overview of land degradation and biodiversity across the sites. It is based on 1) developing a biophysical characterization of the area using climate and soils data in a GIS, and 2) field surveys along transects that cross ecological gradients and represent the spectrum of land use types. This project will broaden this characterization to include social variables in the GIS (land use, tenure, human population density, infrastructure) to develop an initial description of each site.Along each transect, the project will assess the impact of land-use change and land degradation on selected ecological variables. Sampling will be conducted along the transects for areas of high and low land-use intensity. Information on vegetative structure and the abundance of key indicator plant species will be collected to provide indices of plant diversity, soil fertility (productivity) and soil degradation. We will use species area curve analysis to determine the probable total biodiversity for each site and land-use type. We will also collect soil samples for analysis to show ranges in soil fertility measures (indices). Analyses will include comparing results of areas with different land use histories and intensities, and comparing data obtained from the transect study with that obtained from the land use/ cover change analysis.Wildlife surveys: Wildlife surveys will assess the impacts of different types of landuse on wildlife populations. This will be done by conducting fine-resolution ground counts of the spatial interactions between people, land-use, livestock and wildlife, using a new technique developed by one of the team members. This information will be supplemented by information on the impacts of land-use on wildlife population structures and behavior.The following macro-level analyses will contextualize site level information within national, regional, and international frameworks. 1.Population census and other socioeconomic data: demographic patterns and processes, including migration, and other data (e.g., agricultural production, income, land tenure) will be analyzed and integrated into the project database 2.Economic and policy analysis: Economic trends and policies that affect the sites will be incorporated into the framework of this project. These include protected areas, land tenure, economic restructuring, and international economic and environmental agreements.Ecological data synthesis: Synthesis of a variety of site-level studies (most in the grey literature) of the impacts of human activities on wildlife populations in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.Cross-Site Comparisons and Regional Analysis h. Coordination of the socioeconomic, land use change and ecological research a. communication and travel by regional coordinators to ensure cross-site comparability of data collection and analysis b.analysis of regional-level land use change root causes and other GIS analyses c.literature searches and contacts with land use and other communities d.review and comment on project papers i.Develop and maintain project database j.Prepare a CD-ROM (decision making tool), build and maintain project web site k.Prepare annual project reports and conduct internal project evaluation l.Organize regional workshops and meetings m.Design, format and disseminate project \"working paper\" seriesThe themes being addressed require an approach that relates changes occurring in the social system with those occurring in the biophysical system, and interactions between aspects of the biophysical system. The complexity of the question requires a focus on critical relations and processes. The following integrative questions will frame the research.• Intensification/ biodiversity relationship. In the transition from herding to farming, an intensification of land use occurs. In this process, phases of intensification are associated with different land use strategies and land cover patterns. What are the associated flora and fauna of these phases, and how are they affected by the transition? What is the impact on key resources, land degradation, ecosystem fragmentation? This is an area where relatively little previous research has been done (Maitima 1998;Olson 1998;Reid et al. 1997). • Poverty/ land degradation relationship. How does poverty and the socioeconomic status of households affects land use choices, soil management, and the soil. This is an area where previous research has elucidated major parameters (Biot et al. 1995;Campbell 1999;Olson 1994;Scherr and Yadav 1996;Tengberg et al. 1998). This project will test those parameters in a semi-arid environment, and provide a framework to examine the issue for developing programmatic responses. • Wildlife / community interaction: impact of changes in the agro-pastoral system (land management, nomadism) on wildlife habitat and on wildlife. This is an area of recent inquiry, for example the positive role of old pastoral settlements in enhancing the structure and function of ecosystems (Reid and Ellis 1995). These interactions can also be negative; the expansion of cultivation precipitated strong declines in wildlife populations in the Mara in the last two decades (Ottichilo et al. in press). When are wildlife/community interactions positive and when are they negative? What determines the outcome of these interactions? This project will also examine the impact of tourism, and government and NGO programs on the community/wildlife relationship. Increasingly, communities are demanding that wildlife contribute to the local economies, otherwise land will continue to be converted for more profitable uses. A great deal of effort is thus being made to improve the socioeconomic well being of communities living with wildlife by helping them derive benefits from wildlife and by involving them more in wildlife management. Activities that will be examined include the creation of community wildlife sanctuaries, linking communities in wildlife rich areas with the private sector for tourism and nature based enterprise development, and especially ways to reduce conflicts between human activity and wildlife to rationalize land use to permit biodiversity conservation. • Societal and ecological interactions across ecological or altitudinal gradients: what are the interactions, how have the interactions evolved, what is impact of changes on society, wildlife, land degradation (Bernard, Campbell, and Thom 1989). • Ecological interactions and feedbacks between land degradation and changes in biodiversity: As land begins to degrade, some work shows that, initially, biodiversity can increase (Reid et al. 1997;Wilson et al. 1997). How do land degradation and biodiversity interact? When does land degradation lead to biodiversity loss and when does it not? When there is loss, is it a gradual, linear loss or are there thresholds and surprises in this relationship? If land degradation is defined as biodiversity loss, how can they be separated conceptually?The LUCID team will conduct research in four case study sites to examine the root causes of land use change and its impact on environmental conditions including land degradation and biodiversity. The research will be conducted within a common analytical and methodological framework to produce data complementarity between sites, allowing cross-site comparison of the research findings. The site and regional research findings will be disseminated in the form of working papers, on the project's internet site, on a project CD-ROM, and in policy workshops. The results will form the basis of the development of guides to using land use change analysis for identifying and monitoring change in biodiversity and land degradation, and a replicable framework to explain the root causes of land use change. The results will provide researchers and policy makers critical insights into the linkages between land degradation and biodiversity, and tested approaches for such analyses. It will also provide the communities and countries vital information necessary for effective land use and other policy addressing these serious environmental challenges.","tokenCount":"6964"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2fdeea5d6365d0c241f9ae2f621b8cf9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51bc9bcc-f1f2-4d22-a35f-141b9a71760d/retrieve","id":"-1428467590"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f4ed0834-5498-465f-a23a-85cf989e7fc3","pagecount":"1","content":"Collective action (CA) by farmers generally remains indispensable to maximizing their welfare• CA in dairy value chains in Tanzania has often taken the form of producers in a formal group collectively bulking and selling milk to a processor (case 1)• But CA can also thrive where producers in a formal group individually sell milk to milk traders (case 2) and final consumers (case 3)• More investment in R4D is needed to examine incentives for and sustainability of CA in different contexts• Public investment in building the capacity of milk producers to act collectively • Public investment in further R4D to understand the dynamics of and incentives for collective action. For instance, processors procuring milk from the extensive system would like to deal with producer groups rather than individual producers. What would be the right incentives for producers to collectively bulk and sell their milk? • Producer investment in their producer groups in terms of membership fees, joint economic activities, good governance and fostering of the cooperative ideology• CA in case 1 has been relatively successful among intensive milk producers whose cattle are mainly for milk production. But role of processing is limited, catering for only 3% of marketed milk currently • CA in cases 2 and 3 has been relatively successful among semi-intensive and extensive milk producers whose cattle are also sold for beef. This is the most common as 97% of marketed milk is sold directly to consumers without processing Corollary • CA in both input and output markets more likely where producers face greater risk of exploitation due to the specialized nature of their assets • Producers producing both milk and beef likely to act collectively to procure non-allocable inputs but not to collectively sell only one product • Objective: understand the nature of CA in Tanzania's dairy value chains so as to recommend particular models for scaling ","tokenCount":"310"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"875c493ae1af6057f8c6ba7654a31cac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7a0dec94-472e-48c7-8817-a61fd93da293/retrieve","id":"-1933379439"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a054126d-06fe-4ec7-abce-42537e6fbc5a","pagecount":"1","content":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:• Increased livelihood opportunities • Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: counterfactual model to assess ISFM impact on yields and total household incomes using farm household data from Tamale (Northern Ghana) and Kakamega (Western Kenya). The analyses reveal that ISFM adoption leads to an increase in maize yields by up to 27% in Tamale and 16% in Kakamega. Increasing the number of ISFM components, however, does not improve yields. Despite the effect on yields, adoption of ISFM does not increase total household incomes at both locations Geographic scope:Comments: data collected from Northern Ghana and Western Kenya and showed that the technology adoption leads to grain yield increase by up to 27% Northern Ghana and 16% in Western Kenya.<Not Defined> 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:17 (GMT+0)","tokenCount":"157"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63ce5106628e5c95d3df0e3ead24fe64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a42e7bb-3d96-4362-a558-5c4bdd21580e/retrieve","id":"-1474944489"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"feb4284d-68a4-4038-bd3d-1177abd8ce5e","pagecount":"8","content":"Nepal is a water-rich nation with over 6,000 rivers, a total mean annual runoff of 224 billion cubic meters, and a per capita water availability of about 9,000 cubic meters that ranks 68 out of a total of 169 countries. Despite this seeming abundance, the country has to cope with acute water scarcity, a major constraint on Nepal's efforts aimed at economic development and poverty alleviation.Global warming is expected to cause rapid and dramatic changes in the timing of the monsoon rains and release of snow and glacier melt.The Nepal Himalayas comprise a geologically active zone in which rainfall and river flow varies tremendously in time and space. Nearly 30 million people are vulnerable to recurrent floods, landslides and droughts.Building resilience to current conditions will help prepare for the rapid changes to come as the climate changes in response to rising global temperatures and, at the same time, contribute to institutional capacity for managing water-induced disasters.Himalayan watersheds and aquatic ecosystems cover a total area of 191,000 square kilometers, of which 74% lie within the borders of Nepal. Increasing demand for water is already causing measurable damage.The 44 action programs outlined in the National Water Plan will need backup and support in the form of ongoing assessments, monitoring and evaluation, methodologies and strong institutional mechanisms for managing watersheds and aquatic ecosystems.The government has established irrigation as the prime contributor to improving agricultural production and stabilizing agricultural production. Over 80% of Nepal's population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agriculture consumes 99% of all water withdrawn, but only 24% of arable land is irrigated.Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) have a long history in Nepal. Over 15,000 irrigation systems are operated and managed by farmer groups. More than 60% of the irrigated land is managed by farmers' WUAs. Despite this commitment, the overall productivity and efficiency of FMIS and WUAs remains low. There is much yet to learn before the full potential of these institutions can be achieved.Electricity is currently the constraining factor for groundwater extraction and agricultural development in Nepal's hilly terai regions. Sustainable groundwater governance will depend on a policy that includes Nepal is a water-abundant country suffering from economic water scarcity (Source: IWMI). wAtERISSuE appropriate supply and pricing of electricity, and community participation in the distribution and collection of fees.Nepal urgently needs a functional water resources information system (WRIS) that includes spatial and time series data on hydrology and meteorology, water uses and their inventory, demography, and land use data and maps. Water-related information and data are currently managed by multiple agencies.Policymakers and water managers need appropriate river basin management institutions and tools to make use of the information gathered for effective water resources assessment, water allocation and conflict resolution.The involvement of IWMI in research on water issues in Nepal dates back to 1986 with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) and funding from the Ford Foundation. The initial mandate was to promote and strengthen irrigation research capability in Nepal and to undertake research activities in FMIS.Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems: Among IWMI's early contributions were inputs to policy formulation on FMIS in the deliberations of the National Planning Commission, who were then finalizing an irrigation master plan for Nepal. Research showed that FMIS were outperforming systems managed by central agencies, and that paved the way for irrigation management reform oriented to farmer participation in the operation and maintenance of public irrigation schemes. The move towards IMT schemes was based on the proven success of FMIS.Banganga Irrigation System: The Department of Irrigation (DoI) asked IWMI to help develop and implement an action plan on participatory management. The Banganga Irrigation System was selected as the project site. ISSuE 2 management practices (by increasing the participation of water users) that could be used by the DoI throughout Nepal.West Gandak Irrigation System: IWMI carried out action research on IMT in the West Gandak Irrigation System in the western part of Nepal, which has a command area of 8,700 hectares. The main aim was to determine what kind of support services were needed to ensure that WUAs effectively carry out the responsibilities vested in them. Results showed that rehabilitation and improved management led to a general increase in agricultural productivity.Innovative methodologies: IWMI and collaborators developed a 'nested systems framework' for analyzing irrigation performance that was widely accepted as a new perspective on irrigation management and opened the way towards innovative concepts in water productivity and basin management.Water management in river basins: In the late 1990s, the Government of Nepal (GoN) launched a large-scale inter-basin water transfer project to divert water out of the Indrawati River Basin to meet the drinking water needs of Kathmandu, located in the Bagmati River Basin. Several case studies were conducted in the Indrawati River Basin and one of its subbasins to assess the potential impacts of bulk water transfer.Funded by the Ford Foundation, researchers carried out a preliminary assessment of the project impacts and local water use in the basin. They also analyzed constraints and opportunities for managing water resources based on the principles of IWRM. This major study produced four detailed case studies conducted by researchers at IWMI's Nepal office and the WECS.Formal and informal water institutions: Researchers found that the institutional framework in the river basin had evolved 'ingeniously' to manage local water supplies, and there were also cases where local institutions had evolved to resolve conflict issues in small tributaries. The question was whether such informal institutions would be adequate to resolve issues on bulk water transfer outside of the basin. Water accounting and water balance in the basin: Researchers prepared a summary of water balance situations in the Indrawati River Basin. Detailed water accounting and water balance estimations were carried out to assess the hydrological consequences of the proposed water transfer out of the basin under the Melamchi Water Supply Project.Process documentation research: Given the large scale of the diversion project and potential for conflict, it was important to understand the mechanisms that various groups adopted for negotiation and decision making. Research substantiated the need for more interaction between project officials and local stakeholders, and better sharing of information by project officials. One outcome was the first-ever use of compensation packages in water supply projects in Nepal.Inclusion and exclusion processes: Studies showed that processes of inclusion and exclusion in the irrigation sector bear considerable impact on the livelihoods of local people. Access to irrigation ensures a permanent income to households compared to those who are excluded from such facilities.Gender and irrigation: IWMI's research on gender was pioneering at a time when the role of gender in irrigation management was poorly understood. An important study on gender in irrigation management was carried out in the West Gandak Irrigation System where researchers explored women's roles in decision making. This action research project took steps to encourage women's participation in WUAs and succeeded in increasing the number of women in WUA subcommittees. Other studies suggested the need for capacity building for women as a means of increasing their role in decision making.Later research showed how women's involvement in smallholder irrigation can be significant. A study on drip irrigation, for example, showed how simple technologies can have a positive impact on women's lives by reducing the time required for 'water work'. Likewise, an assessment Control gates divert water to two different water user groups when they are planting (Photo credit: Karen Conniff, IWMI).of Multiple Use Schemes showed how women can be empowered by the cash income from vegetable farming, exposure to training and outside contact.Water availability and access are key constraints to poverty reduction and food security. Maintaining enough water for agriculture will become increasingly difficult due to climate change and competition for water between urban users, industry and the environment.IWMI's research initiatives aim to improve water availability and access in river basins, broaden our understanding of how major drivers of change influence water availability and access, and devise adaptive management strategies to deal with these changes.IWMI is seeking partners and funds for the following research projects.The ambitious targets set by the National Water Plan will require rapid development of water infrastructure, including storage facilities, which are essential for mitigation of floods and droughts and long-term food security.There is a need, therefore, to reexamine natural and artificial storage options in the light of climate change and overall national water needs, and to develop a comprehensive plan for storage development.The aim of this research initiative is to facilitate conceptual rethinking of water storage and broaden perspectives on storage options among farmers, policymakers, donors and researchers.Terraced fields are a typical landscape feature in the hilly areas of Nepal (Photo credit: Karen Conniff, IWMI).In Nepal, 80-90% of rainfall occurs during the monsoon months from July to September. Huge volumes of water frequently cause flooding, while the short duration of the monsoon season leads to water scarcity in the dry season. To mitigate floods and droughts means delaying the flow of water during the wet season and building water storage infrastructure to hold water for distribution in the dry season.The purpose of this initiative is to assess measures that can be undertaken to create a distributed system of water storage in upland watersheds.Development of water infrastructure to meet the growing demand for irrigation, energy, and urban and domestic needs will put enormous pressure on the aquatic environment. Sustainable agriculture, fisheries and other livelihood strategies require that environmental water demands be incorporated in the planning stage of development projects. Nepal's water resources are currently underdeveloped, which makes now an ideal time to introduce environmental water thresholds into the overall national water management strategy.The purpose of this initiative is to develop a methodology to quantify environmental flow requirements in Nepal, and to make flow calculations an integral part of the national WRIS.While Nepal is not generally seen as a drought-prone country, it does in fact experience frequent drought events. The last such event was a severe winter drought lasting from October 2008 to May 2009.The purpose of this initiative is to conduct a postdrought analysis by using cost estimates of the damage caused by the October 2008 to May 2009 drought. These figures would help estimate the investments necessary to minimize the cost of damage caused by future droughts. The study will also examine coping strategies and suitable technologies that smallholder farmers can use to reduce risks and vulnerabilities.Within the GoN, the WECS is at the apex of policy and planning formulation for developing and managing the nation's water resources in a river basin context. The challenge now is to translate these policy documents into practice.The purpose of this initiative is to operationalize the National Water Plan by providing some of the required tools and methods using the Bagmati River Basin as an example.This initiative will examine various ways to enhance the performance of the irrigation sector. The proposed research is aimed at: resolving difficulties within the existing framework of policy and legislation; enhancing the role of civil society actors in irrigation management; improving the operation and maintenance of irrigation systems; and identifying new investments needed to develop irrigation facilities, including the development of groundwater resources.The Ganges River Basin is shared by China, Nepal, India and Bangladesh. People here are among the poorest in the world, despite the basin's rich natural endowments of land and water. Harmonized, integrated development of the Ganges Basin could ensure food security, socioeconomic development and environmental protection, as well as political stability in the region. Coordinated basin development could also become a key strategy for adaptation to climate change. The key potential areas for collaboration are hydropower, improved agricultural water management, and flood and drought management.The purpose of this initiative is to quantify spatial and temporal water availability and demand in the Ganges Basin, assess the impact of climate change and future water resources development, and document the potential benefits of integrated regional basin development.","tokenCount":"1972"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b084637a3749a07140512f970aa6b9cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36daeeac-631e-4834-8df2-6bdd860cdfab/retrieve","id":"-304884159"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fd7cad03-97ec-4052-9e8d-44cd024db381","pagecount":"11","content":"En el Perú, se estima que hay aproximadamente 6 millones de personas que migraron internamente en algún momento de su vida. Esto equivale al 20.3% de la población, siendo su mayoría originaria de la serranía peruana. Aunque Lima es el principal polo de atracción, en los últimos años, se ha observado un aumento en la migración hacia las regiones de Madre de Dios, Tacna, Arequipa y Moquegua (INEI, 2022). Entre el 2002 y 2007, Madre de Dios fue el departamento que tuvo la mayor cantidad de migrantes con un saldo migratorio neto de 14,8% (Yamada, 2012).Fuente: Elaboración propia Entre los factores de atracción, se encuentra la búsqueda de mejores servicios educativos, el acceso a servicios públicos y la abundancia de tierra agrícola (Huarancca, Alanya, Castellares, 2020). Asimismo, los migrantes internos buscan mejores perspectivas laborales y oportunidades económicas (Yamada, 2012). Por ejemplo, en el último cuarto de siglo, la migración hacia la selva se ha incrementado porque posibilita la insurgencia de industrias como la explotación y transformación de madera, la extracción de hidrocarburos o minerales, entre otras (Sanchez-Aguilar, 2015).Por otro lado, entre los factores de expulsión se encuentra la pobreza y la falta de oportunidades laborales. Los desastres naturales y cambio climático también han motivado la migración. Entre el 2008 y 2019, 656,000 de los 33 millones de peruanos se vieron obligados a desplazarse por catástrofes naturales. En la sierra, la región de más altura del país, la migración climática está vinculada a la escasez de agua y cambios extremos de temperatura (Berdejo, 2021). Muchas veces la actividad de las industrias extractivas en la selva contribuye a las emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) y con ello al cambio climático, lo que terminan contribuyendo a la migración de estas regiones.El objetivo de este estudio es identificar los principales factores o eventos de expulsión que impulsan la migración interna desde la sierra, la región con mayor tasa de migrantes en el Perú, haciendo especial énfasis en la migración de la sierra hacia la selva. Se busca cuantificar esta relación e identificar posibles efectos conjuntos de varios factores, así como efectos cuando diferentes eventos ocurren simultáneamente. De esta forma, se busca contribuir a la evidencia sobre migración interna en el Perú y generar recomendaciones de política que contribuyan a atender este fenómeno, la mitigación del cambio climático y otros objetivos de desarrollo.La base de datos busca capturar información sobre la migración de los individuos, así como los factores de expulsión (factores económicos, factores sociales, factores ambientales y factores de seguridad o culturales) que llevaron los llevaron a migrar de la sierra a la selva. Para construir las variables que representan los factores económicos y sociales, se utilizaron diversas fuentes de información tales como: la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares, El Sistema Integrado de Administración Financiera (SIAF) y la Estadística de Calidad Educativa del Ministerio de Educación (ESCALE-MINEDU). En el caso de las variables de los factores ambientales, las fuentes de información fueron: el Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú (SENAMHI), Administración Nacional de Aeronáutica y el Espacio (NASA), MapBiomas Perú y GEOBOSQUES. Finalmente, las variables de los factores sociales y culturales provienen del portal Data-Crim y la Defensoría del Pueblo. La compilación y preparación de las variables de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares estuvo a cargo del equipo de IFPRI, mientras que las variables del resto de fuentes de información estuvieron a cargo del equipo del CIP. 1 La Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) es una encuesta que recoge información sobre la condición de vida de los hogares en el Perú desde 1995 hasta la fecha. Brinda información sobre las características de la vivienda y del hogar, las características de los miembros del hogar, la educación, salud, ingresos, empleo y programas sociales (INEI,2022). Existen dos versiones disponibles: corte transversal y panel de hogares. Desde el 2007, el panel de hogares de la ENAHO consiste en un panel rotativo a partir de una submuestra de la muestra de viviendas del corte transversal. Cada submuestra tiene un periodo de vida de 5 años y el tamaño total es aproximadamente de 8,800 (INEI, 2015). El Anexo 1 muestra una representación gráfica de cómo se organiza este panel.Para la construcción de la base de datos, se consideraron los paneles ENAHO de 2014-2018, 2015-2019, 2016-2020, 2017-2021, y 2018-2021. 2 A partir de estas bases, se construyó un pool de individuos de la selva que contenía su información migratoria y características (genero, edad y educación). Cada individuo esta entre 2 años a 5 años en el panel. La distribución de los individuos de la selva incluidos en la muestra por cada panel es la siguiente: Para construir las variables de migración, se utilizó el módulo de Salud de los paneles de la ENAHO. En esta parte de la encuesta se le consulta al individuo si residía en el mismo distrito hace 5 años y, si no es el caso, se le consulta por la ubicación del distrito donde vivía hace 5 años. A partir de esta información, se construyó variables para determinar la región del distrito de residencia actual y el distrito de hace 5 años, y, así, identificar a los individuos que migraron de la sierra a la selva. La estrategia metodología consiste en un modelo de regresión multivariada panel con efectos fijos. En la regresión se busca capturar los factores de expulsión del distrito de origen del individuo ubicado en la serranía peruana considerando las variables socioeconómicas, culturales, de estrés climático y características del suelo de este distrito. Asimismo, se controla por las características del individuo en el presente y las características no observables del distrito donde se encuentra actualmente y el año de reporte a través de efectos fijos.De esta forma, el modelo a estimar sería el siguiente:\uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC61 = \uD835\uDEFD 0 + \uD835\uDEFD 1 \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFD 2 \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 + \uD835\uDEFD 3 \uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 + \uD835\uDEFD 4 \uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 + \uD835\uDEFD 5 \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 + \uD835\uDC58 \uD835\uDC5A + \uD835\uDF02 \uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC61 Donde:• \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC61 es una variable dicotómica que es igual a 1 si el individuo en el distrito \uD835\uDC5A en el periodo \uD835\uDC61 migró del distrito \uD835\uDC5B en los últimos 5 años • \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 corresponde a características del individuo en el año \uD835\uDC61 (edad, género y educación). • \uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 corresponde al promedio de las medianas de las variables socioeconómicas de los hogares (actividad económica del jefe de hogar, composición del hogar, posesión de activos, características de la vivienda, beneficiario de algún programa de gobierno) a nivel del distrito \uD835\uDC5B considerando todos los rezagos del periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 1 al periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 5. • \uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 corresponde al promedio de las medianas de las variables vinculadas a factores económicos de los hogares (como es la tasa de pobreza, el nivel de actividad minera), sociales (presencia de conflictos sociales, proporción de población indígena) y de infraestructura y acceso a servicios (como es el acceso a electricidad, servicios de salud y agua potable), a nivel del distrito \uD835\uDC5B considerando todos los rezagos del periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 1 al periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 5. • \uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 es el promedio u acumulado de las variables de estrés climático. En este caso se incluirán los promedios de las variables de periodos de sequía, inundaciones, heladas, calor excesivo y humedad de suelo en el distrito \uD835\uDC5B considerando todos los rezagos entre el periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 1 y el periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 5. • \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61−1 corresponde al promedio de los de variables como uso de suelo, perdida de bosque y nivel de vegetación en el distrito \uD835\uDC5B considerando todos los rezagados entre el periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 1 al periodo \uD835\uDC61 − 5. • \uD835\uDC58 \uD835\uDC5A representa los efectos fijos por distrito donde se encuentra actualmente (para controlar por diferencias no observables del distrito actual). • \uD835\uDF02 \uD835\uDC61 representa los efectos fijos por año (para controlar por efectos agregados a nivel país en cada año). • \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC61 es un término de error de ruido blanco.El estudio inició en agosto del 2023 y está pensado para continuar hasta fines del 2024 (un total de 17 meses).El cronograma de trabajo está dividido en 3 fases. La Fase 1 corresponde a la planificación del estudio, el diseño de la estrategia metodológica y el análisis de los datos.La Fase 2 consiste en la redacción del artículo académico a partir de los resultados del análisis de datos y su publicación. Finalmente, la Fase 3 corresponde a la difusión del articulo académico al público en general, las asociaciones de la sociedad civil, las instituciones de gobierno y los think tanks en el Perú y Latinoamérica. Actualmente, el proyecto se encuentra en la etapa de construcción de la base de datos en la Fase 1. • Nota técnica con descripción del proyecto, la estrategia metodológica inicial, y las estadísticas descriptivas de la base de datos preliminar. • Base de datos a nivel de individuo con variables de factor expulsión.• Artículo académico • Presentaciones para reuniones, seminarios y talleres de trabajo (según se necesite).Anexo 1: Esquema de rotación de las submuestras 2007-2016Nota: Las celdas resaltadas corresponden a la muestra panel de viviendas.Fuente: INEI, 2015","tokenCount":"1514"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70dc7899539db898a071e31d02546173","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/adf281b8-bb56-4ffe-9c66-4849ff5e1ca8/retrieve","id":"-1306604327"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b8368cd6-d1b0-4213-b7b7-8e7750d1589c","pagecount":"44","content":"Cost (USD) of feed supplements and water for livestock in Puntland                Livestock is central to Somalia's economy. The livestock sector contributes around 40 per cent of agricultural GDP and constitutes 80% of all export earnings. Livestock is the major productive asset for pastoral communities, who are particularly among the vulnerable, and considered low-income households. The pastoralists' main risk is drought, which is also the primary cause of livestock illness and mortality. In 2021, drought resulted in about 2.3 million people experiencing serious water, food and pasture shortages in Somalia. Consequently, approximately 100,000 people in the central and southern areas of Somalia abandoned their homes in search of food, water and pasture for livestock.Innovative drought index-insurance products have been proven to be a cost-efficient risk transfer mechanism for livestock in arid and semi-arid pastoral regions of Kenya and Ethiopia, which have livestock systems that are similar to those in Somalia. A pre-feasibility study was jointly conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the World Bank in 2019 to assess the possibility of implementing drought index insurance for pastoralists, commonly referred to as index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) in the pastoral areas of Somalia.This document is part of the preparation for the de-risking, inclusion and value enhancement of pastoral economies (DRIVE) project. Its purpose is to i) outline the product design preparation for Puntland, ii) determine the unit areas of insurance (UAIs), iii) carry out scenario analysis on payouts and costing and iv) provide better understanding of the insurance concept to pastoral communities and private sector actors that may be interested in offering the insurance products.Since the assignment had two main areas of focus; understanding the technical and socio-economic characteristics of areas deemed feasible for implementing a drought index insurance program, a combination of desktop reviews and stakeholder engagements were carried out. A detailed desk-based technical assessment utilising secondary data from Somalia was carried out in 2019. To conduct the clustering process, Puntland was chosen as an illustrative case because of its established networks with development partners, limited financial resources and security. It should be noted that a similar process will be carried out in Somaliland and other parts of Somalia, which are deemed fit for the introduction of a drought index insurance product.The findings presented below are largely based on a two-day engagement with different stakeholders such as community representatives, government officials and private sector representatives. Some qualitative findings were complemented by data from a pastoral survey conducted after the stakeholder engagements. Similarly, some of the information provided, which could be relevant to the operational component of the drought index insurance came from independent complementary studies and ongoing engagements by ILRI and the Somalia Resilience Program (ILRI-SomRep) in Puntland and other parts of Somalia.In Puntland, the least wealthy pastoralists typically have a minimum of 5-10 camels and 60 shoats. Pastoralists with livestock holdings below these levels tend to move closer to the urban centres. From 2000, the major climatic shocks experienced in Puntland have been droughts that were severe in 2003, 2006, 2011 and 2016-17, coupled  of floods and locust attacks between 2018 and 2019. Migration continues to be one of the traditional coping mechanisms, where herders move to distant areas (sometimes trekking for up to 800 km) in search of pasture. Over time, the traditional migration process has shifted from trekking on foot to the use of vehicles to transport animals. Conversely, wealthy households arrange for water and fodder to be transported to where their livestock are located. It would be important to link the insurance product to the management of rangelands, either through incentives such as subsidies or partnering with development organizations in the area that work with communities on land use planning and rangeland management.Destocking continues to be one of the coping strategies used by the pastoralists during severe drought situations. They also diversify into different economic activities, such as producing charcoal for sale, to meet household expenses.The main sources of income and food for the Puntland pastoral communities are sales of live animals and livestock products, such as milk. Although pastoralists still buy staple foods (e.g. rice, pasta and wheat etc.) in normal seasons, reliance on these foods increases during dry seasons when milk production decreases.Some pastoralists seek loans and credit from shopkeepers, while others rely on remittances to deal with climatic shocks (e.g. during drought periods) since markets are affected and livestock prices fall. Even though there are numerous financial institutions, mostly conventional banks, they are risk averse and have not invested in the high risk livestock sector.A study from the 1990s, estimated that less than 10% of money for primary livestock purchases was formally sourced from banks, the majority of it being informally sourced from colleagues, friends and associates.Several micro-financial institutions (MFIs) exist, complementing the services provided by the banks, but their outreach and coverage mirrors that of banks. One of the most popular and well established banks in Somalia, the Dahabshil Bank, has a micro-finance service through its foundation that is working with small businesses unable to meet the commercial banks' lending criteria and loan requirements. Similar customized initiatives do not apply to livestock producers. However, there have been some promising preliminary discussions between ILRI-SomReP and Galaxy Bank on the potential of bundling insurance and credit services.Most of the MFIs are supported by the Growth Enterprise Employment and Livelihoods (GEEL) program, which offers interest free loans to sectors such as livestock, crops and fisheries. Other institutions that support MFIs, producers' groups and cooperatives are consortiums such as SomReP. The Somalia Resilience Program currently supports 416 village savings and loan associations (VSLAs), which include pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Puntland, Somaliland and southwest states of Somalia. The VSLAs have 5,576 and 1,878 women and men, respectively. Some of these groups have access to loans based on a graduation model. The initial loan amount is 300 United States Dollars (USD) rising to a maximum graduating amount of USD 1,000.There appears to be no gender disparities in savings in the category of those who can afford to save. Results from the sample surveyed in Puntland showed that 39% of women-headed and 45% of men-headed households had cash savings.Women preferred to keep their savings as mobile money, while the men kept the cash at home. It is crucial to have a better understanding of the characteristics of women who have the capacity to save compared to those that cannot.Even though the insurance sector is nascent, it is starting to grow. While the industry is weak and underdeveloped, the concept of insurance is not new in Somalia, since there was once a government-run national insurance scheme during the pre-war regime. While insurance coverage is very low, 90% of existing business is medical insurance that is mainly provided by Takaful Insurance of Africa (TIA)-Somalia and First Somali Takaful & Re-Takaful (FISO) to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and expatriates (Banerjee et al. 2021). Recently the Horn of Africa, UMMA Insurance, Baraka Takaful and Amanah insurance companies have also started offering insurance products. Takaful Insurance of Africa is the largest insurer in terms of underwritten policy premiums and its primary business is medical insurance cover that constitutes around 90% of the underwritten business. However, the total gross underwritten premium is below USD 6 million. There is general interest on drought index insurance from all the insurance companies mentioned above, however, advanced talks have only taken place with TIA-Somalia, which has an operating office in Puntland. Further engagements with all xiii Product design process to support the De-risking, Inclusion and Value Enhancement of Pastoral Economies in the Horn of Africa (DRIVE) in Somalia insurance companies are required to gauge both their appetite and expectations regarding implementation of drought index insurance for pastoralists, starting in Puntland and eventually extending to all suitable areas in Somalia.Seasonality is well defined and relatively homogenous in rangelands across Puntland, although the very dry UAIs with low normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) intensity seem to have prolonged growth seasons during the short rainy season (SRS). Forage production is at its highest from October to December, similar to higher NDVI intensity areas. Through a participatory clustering exercise with stakeholders from the public and private sectors and community representatives, nine UAIs were identified for Puntland. To estimate the total sum insured, the cost of feed supplements, water and consumption by each animal type, as well as affordability and willingness to pay by the pastoralists were considered. A scenario analysis based on estimates of resources needed to access water and food supplements suggested that a tropical livestock unit (TLU) would require USD 340 to survive a 12 calendar months-long drought.Implementation of drought index insurance products through DRIVE in Somalia will play a critical role in boosting the pastoralists' livelihoods and the country's economy. The current index-based livestock insurance is meant to provide early financial relief when satellite data shows forage index values falling below a certain threshold. This is designed to help pastoralists cope with the devastating impacts of drought before the situation worsens.During the last two decades, Somalia has experienced significant droughts that have led to widespread livestock mortality, loss of pastoral livelihoods, economic losses, malnutrition and in some instances, loss of human lives due to famine. One of the worst droughts based on satellite data was the 2003 SRS/2004 long rainy season (LRS) drought, locally referred to as 'Kartoomaley'. This drought caused serious socio-economic and environmental losses. Over 85% of total livestock of all species was lost, while some areas experienced extinction of some tree and grass species in Puntland and across Somalia. In the aftermath of this drought, some pastoralists were forced to transition into other economic activities, including migration to urban centres to seek employment and in worst case scenarios, settling in refugee camps. If the current index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) product cover was in place, this drought would have activated about 100% of payouts for most areas in Puntland and in all of Somalia, providing the much needed resources to keep livestock alive and to purchase goods for household consumption. In a household with an IBLI cover of 5 TLUs under a USD 200 total sum insured (TSI), each household would have received between USD 640 to USD 1,000 in payouts (Figure E1). Data from the pastoral survey indicate that respondents in Puntland are willing to pay USD 33, 23 and 2 as premiums for a camel, cattle and shoat, respectively. While further research will be required in other regions of Somalia during the implementation planning stages, these preliminary findings from Puntland provide useful guidelines for policymakers on the likely levels of premium co-financing or subsidies that may be required to launch drought index insurance for pastoralists.  Findings from a stakeholders' engagement in Puntland confirmed that drought is one of the biggest risks faced by the pastoralists and that index-based drought risk financing insurance (IBDRFI) product(s) could be necessary to mitigate drought-related risks and losses for pastoralists. Some of the findings were derived from relevant data taken from pastoral surveys conducted in the first quarter of 2022, even though the sample of respondents in these surveys was relatively small and skewed towards women and other marginalized groups. Insights were also drawn from other studies relevant to this technical assignment that were done during the same period.R1: Product design• The clustering, basis of valuation and TSI were determined using data from Puntland during a stressful economic time.The estimate for the TSI is relatively high compared to the values in neighbouring Kenya and Ethiopia, where Somalian pastoralists source their food supplements. To design a national drought index insurance product, it is important to carry out similar exercises in other parts of Somalia to understand the agro-ecological and socio-economic characteristics and operational mechanisms, while also determining the willingness and ability of the community to pay for insurance products.• Puntland experiences two typical growing periods spanning from March to June ('Gu' or LRS) and October to December ('Deyr' or SRS) thus allowing the definition of two risk coverage periods. The bimodal seasonal regime is similar across most of Somalia and would form the basis for the formulation of a two-risk coverage product. However, in-depth review is required to ascertain the level of variation in terms of forage intensity, rangeland sizes and delimitations of the two seasons across the country.• Using 4 and 7-season drought return periods for Puntland; the triggers are at 25th and 14th percentiles of the forage index, respectively. The 4-season trigger model requires high annual premium rates of 20%, while the 7-season trigger requires 14%. As the product is new in Somalia, there is need for all relevant stakeholders including the government, private sector, donor agencies and the pastoral communities to agree upon the most affordable and realistic local IBLI cost models. Since most of the analysis has been done for Puntland only, similar analysis should be undertaken across the country.• Costs related to the creation of an enabling environment, market and capacity development and identification of effective distribution channels as part of the implementation design must be carefully considered and incorporated. Considerable investments will have to be made to create awareness and understanding of the product.• Linking value chain development to the insurance component should be considered from the very initial stages of development, rather than as an afterthought. Careful consideration is required on bundling of services to clearly define the kind of services (e.g. savings products or information products with insurance) that should or could be bundled and for whom. Since data show that respondents are inclined to save more, albeit informally through groups, this could be favourably considered by banks, such as Galaxy Bank and the Somalia GEEL program.• In-depth analysis of the security situation especially conflicts and the potential operational implications on the IBDRFI implementation.• Analysis of potential complementary interventions to enhance IBDRFI payout effectiveness, facilitate uptake and mitigate conflicts between pastoral communities.• Analysis of potential impacts of IBDRFI payouts on conflicts and consideration for payout distribution approaches that would potentially mitigate these conflicts.1. Introduction Drought is the main risk that the pastoralists face as it is also the primary cause of livestock illness and mortality (World Bank 2019). Drought also heightens food insecurity, reduces terms of trade, increases loss in livelihoods and conflict and causes starvation. The 2021 Somalia drought resulted in about 2.3 million people suffering serious water, food and pasture shortages. Approximately 100,000 people in the central and southern areas of Somalia abandoned their homes in search of food, water and pasture for livestock (UN News 2021).Risk transfer through insurance provides an opportunity to institute appropriate mechanisms that guarantee availability of resources to mount a timely response before a weather shock becomes a crisis or disaster. The traditional ex-post humanitarian response to drought often comes too late when the foundation for herd recovery has been destroyed, making it impossible for vulnerable pastoralists to escape the poverty trap. Through insurance, it is now possible to crowd-in private sector capital and expertise to address the challenges associated with climate change. Insurance provides auditable, transparent and timely risk management solutions that deliver funds to avert catastrophic drought impacts.Innovative drought index-insurance products have been proven to be a cost-efficient risk transfer mechanism for livestock in arid and semi-arid pastoral regions of Kenya and Ethiopia, which have livestock systems that are similar to those in Somalia They have been shown to positively impact pastoral households' livelihoods and resilience to drought shocks. Lessons learned from these experiences constitute a very important future asset to i) assess opportunities and constraints of implementing drought index-insurance for livestock in Somalia, ii) identify the main areas and the magnitude of initial investment required and iii) to gain insights on how to design and customize drought index insurance models and implementation approaches for the Somalian pastoral context.A pre-feasibility study was jointly conducted by ILRI and the World Bank in 2019 to assess the possibility of implementing an IBDRFI solution in the pastoral areas of Somalia. This study recommended a more in-depth technical design review and customization study involving local stakeholders to fully understand grazing and migration patterns in the country thus enabling adaptation of product design to the local context.This assignment forms part of the preparation for the de-risking, inclusion and value enhancement of pastoral economies (DRIVE) project. This assignment builds on the 2019 pre-feasibility study. The objective of the assignment was to conduct an in-depth technical review and design a drought index insurance product customized to the agro-ecological, seasonal and livelihood needs of pastoral households in Puntland, Somalia. The assignment encompassed the following key aspects i) product design preparation for Puntland, ii) determination of unit areas of insurance (UAIs), iii) scenario analysis on payouts and costing and iv) providing better understanding of the insurance concept to pastoral communities and private sector actors interested in offering insurance products.Section 2 below briefly describes the approach taken while Section 3 describes the main findings. The findings include details on the socio-economic impacts of historical droughts, coping strategies and decision-making of pastoralists. This is followed by the description of the clustering process to derive the UAIs, an assessment of affordability and willingness of pastoralists to pay for insurance and a scenario analysis. The report concludes with recommendations and the way forward for implementation of a drought index insurance for pastoralists in Puntland, which can be extended to the rest of Somalia.Since the assignment had two main components; understanding the technical and socio-economic characteristics of areas deemed feasible for implementing a drought index insurance program, a combination of desktop reviews and stakeholders' engagements were carried out. A detailed desk-based technical assessment using Somalian secondary data was done in 2019. In order to carry out the clustering process, Puntland was chosen as an example because it has established networks with development partners, limited financial resources and better security. It should be noted that a similar process will be carried out in Somaliland and other parts of Somalia, which are deemed suitable for the introduction of a drought index insurance product.The strategy was a combination of desktop reviews, based on additional Puntland-specific data sets obtained from SomRep 1 and participative stakeholder engagements. The first step in the engagement process was the setting up of a technical working group (TWG) for Puntland. The TWG was made up of representatives from the various ministries (finance, planning and economic development, livestock and animal husbandry among others), insurance companies, financial institutions including banks, telecommunication companies, cooperatives and associations (Annex 1). The TWG was engaged at several levels to i) provide general awareness on the insurance product, ii) involve representatives in the clustering process to determine UAIs and iii) get a general sense of the socio-economic characteristics and potential willingness and ability of pastoralists to pay for insurance.The second level of engagement was with the representatives of pastoral communities from different Puntland regions/ districts such as Nugaal, Hasbahale, Bursalah, Bosaso and Xudun, who participated in the validation process of the clustering exercises conducted by members of the TWG, in addition to being part of focus group discussions (FGDs).The FGDs were carried out to i) seek views and gauge interest on livestock insurance, ii) understand historical drought frequency and coping strategies, iii) understand decision-making processes during periods of shocks, iv) get information on costs of keeping animals alive and v) gauge willingness to contribute premiums for such a product. There was a total of 27 participants over a two-day period (Annex 2). The information gathered from the clustering exercise, FGDs and additional available datasets was then used to carry out scenario analysis using price estimates generated for different drought situations and subsequent payouts.The product design for Somalia was largely influenced by the existing asset protection-based product implemented in Kenya and Ethiopia. Specifically designed to protect pastoralists in the face of drought shocks, it has so far been implemented in Africa with different modalities, including retail micro-insurance products, macro-level insurance schemes for social livelihoods protection or scalability mechanisms of social safety net programs. All these initiatives rely on similar earth observation (EO) technologies and indices (i.e. based on NDVI data) and are generally designed from anticipatory response principles of early drought detection for early action and impact mitigation. Micro-level IBLI schemes have been implemented in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia with private insurance companies involved in marketing, promoting and underwriting of the scheme on a voluntary basis with individual pastoralists. Macro-level social livelihoods protection insurance schemes are currently operational at national level in Kenya, through the Kenyan Livestock Insurance Program, eastern Ethiopia and Zambia. Like the current functional product, the assumption was that payouts would be triggered at the end of the season when conditions are critical. However, the choice of increasing the number and frequency of payouts requires extensive consultations with the community members, insurance companies and government officials, which was beyond the scope of this assignment. The maximum payout amount is determined by the TSI, which should be enough to purchase food supplements (feed and fodder), water and medication or discharge any activity with financial implications to keep livestock alive during droughts.The findings presented in the next section are largely based on a two-day stakeholder engagement, with representatives from different sectors such as the community, private sector and government. Some of the qualitative findings have been complemented by data from the pastoral survey, which was conducted after the stakeholder engagements. Similarly, some of the information provided, which may be relevant for the operational component of the drought index insurance, was obtained from complementary studies conducted independently of this assignment and ongoing engagements by ILRI-SomRep in Puntland and wider Somalia.In Somalia, poverty remains a dominant feature especially among internally displaced people in settlements and nomads. These population groups are the most vulnerable, even when assessed by other measures and indicators of poverty (World Bank 2018). The households that rely on agriculture and livestock production exhibit the highest rates of poverty, followed by those that rely on small business activities. Households that receive remittances have shown the lowest poverty rates. However, since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the rate of remittances has substantially declined (Banerjee et al. 2021). On average, rural households own about 4 TLUs of livestock. The nomadic population owns about 21 TLUs per household. The households that rely on agriculture and livestock production own the highest number of livestock units (World Bank 2019).In Puntland, according to the surveyed respondents, the least wealthy pastoralists own a minimum of 5-10 camels and 60 shoats. Pastoralists with less livestock than that tend to move closer to the urban centres in search of menial jobs such as loading and packaging services. It should be noted that the increased frequency of droughts has led to a sharp decline in cattle rearing in favour of camels. Over the years, there have also been changes in herd composition largely due to climatic shocks and conditions... The droughts had a larger impact on cattle whose numbers have declined in households (Figure 1). In addition to the covariate shocks, the situation was worsened by outbreaks of Rift Valley fever and foot and mouth disease. Apart from affecting livestock health, these diseases also affected livelihoods, as exports to middle eastern countries were banned (Banerjee et al. 2021). Figure 2 provides a timeline of the main shocks and their impact on Puntland communities. The implication of such frequent climatic shocks and other risks on the product design should be considered to ensure that the proposed insurance services are best suited to mitigate their impacts. The respondents stated that migration continues to be part of the traditional coping mechanisms where herders move to distant areas to look for pasture, moving large herds of animals while leaving women, children and small ruminants near permanent sources of water. It was estimated that herders can move their animals as far as 800 km and in severe cases either to Ethiopia or close to the coast. Figure 3 shows the main occupation among women and men who are household heads. Over time, the traditional migration process has shifted from trekking on foot to transporting animals in vehicles to areas with pasture. On the other hand, wealthy households arrange for water and fodder to be transported to the settlements where their animals are located. Vehicular transportation causes congregation of animals in specific rangelands thus increasing grazing pressure leading to rapid desertification. It would be important to link the insurance product to management of rangelands, either through incentives such as subsidies or by partnering with development organizations working with communities on land use planning and rangeland management. Some pastoralists have started growing grass in their enclosures, with any surplus being sold to other pastoralists. One vehicle load sells for USD 200 during non-dry periods but this increases substantially to USD 1,500 during droughts. For targeting purposes, it is important to understand whether such producers work individually or in groups. The wealthy pastoralists have started digging wells and exploring methods of water harvesting.Destocking continues to be one of the coping strategies pastoralists employ during severe droughts in addition to diversification into different economic activities such as producing charcoal for sale to meet household expenses.Recently, pastoralists have started selling animals to build up savings and invest in construction of houses in cities, which provide an alternate place to move to in case of droughts and other climatic shocks. Moreover, some pastoralists are moving closer to towns to start camel dairy farming to supply milk to towns. In the process they hire daily wage labourers to tend to the animals.During drought periods or any other climatic shocks, markets get affected and livestock prices fall, forcing some pastoralists to seek loans or credit from shopkeepers, while others rely on remittances (though this has been affected significantly by the Covid-19 pandemic), gifts or 'Sadaqa' (a form of charity) or help extended by wealthier members of the community to poorer members during stressful times. Figure 4 summarizes the main coping strategies by the community during severe droughts. Culturally, women do not herd 2 livestock and women-headed households normally partake in charcoal burning, firewood gathering, domestic work in wealthy households and looking after children, the elderly and small ruminants. The youth 3 tend to move to urban centres and join the labour force to earn a living.  In addition to the community's own coping strategies, external support is also extended to households in times of severe droughts. Non-governmental and development organizations usually provide cash transfers, restocking support and food aid, however, this assistance is mostly offered after the drought. Sometimes veterinary services like deworming and targeted treatment are organized by the Ministry of Livestock and Animal Husbandry. During droughts, the ministry launches mass deworming of animals and provides multi-vitamin supplements through the community NGOs. The local governments sometimes facilitate the creation of multi-disciplinary committees comprising of business people, sheikhs, elders and government officials to raise funds for water trucking, food aid and restocking.The main source of income and food for the pastoral communities in Puntland is livestock. Most of the income is derived from the sale of livestock and livestock products. Annually, an average household sells 1 camel and 7 shoats. Depending on the household type, a poor household can earn between USD 300 -600 and a better-off 4 household can earn up to USD 1,000 annually from livestock sales. Another source of income is milk, which is also consumed in most pastoral households. Due to seasonal fluctuations, milk production can fall by as much as 30% during dry seasons.The major milk producers are camels, as they have a long lactation period. They produce about 3 litres per camel per day in the wet season 5 . Milk production can be as high as 2,700 and 1,300 litres for wealthy and middle-income households, respectively. This could be attributed to wealthy households owning more camels compared to middle-income and poor households. Collectively, both household types contribute 40% to the total milk sold. Most poor households do not have camels and rely on goat milk. One she-goat produces around 0.5 litres of milk per day during the wet season and lactates for about 2 months. An average household with 12 lactating goats could get about 400 litres of milk per year and sell half of it. Poor households also rely on paid work, gifts, remittances and charcoal sales to supplement their income. Figure 6 shows the distribution of the main sources of income by wealth status of households. Pastoralists' expenditure patterns were also examined under this study in Puntland. Even though pastoralists buy staple foods such as rice, pasta and wheat to supplement their main diet of milk during normal times, the reliance on purchased foods is greater during the dry season because milk production tends to decline. According to the respondents, a poor, middle-income and 'better-off' household can afford about 600, 950 and 1,500 kg of staple food, respectively. In addition, other expenses include water for human and livestock consumption and production inputs, such as veterinary services and animal feed, which become a top priority during dry periods. Though there is some expenditure on school fees, health and clothing depending on the type of household one belongs to, these items become less important during drought periods. Figure 6 and 7illustrates expenditure patterns by household type during normal and dry periods. The average vegetation growing season in Puntland is relatively homogeneous, although there is variation in intensity of vegetation signals in response variation in precipitation within the area. Generally, NDVI intensity increases southwards with increase in precipitation as shown in Figure 8 There is bimodal rainfall distribution in Puntland -the LRS (Gu) from March to June and the SRS (Deyr) from October to December. The seasonality of forage production in the rangelands is well defined and relatively homogenous across the state although the very dry UAIs with low NDVI intensity such as Bosaaso, Iskushuban, Qardho and Sanaag seem to have prolonged growth seasons during the SRS. The highest forage production is concentrated from October to December, similar to higher NDVI intensity areas. Overall, the typical forage growing season is March to June for the LRS and October to December for the SRS in the country. The arid areas including Bosaaso, Iskushuban, Qardho and Sanaag (Figure 9) have low vegetation cover/density resulting in weak NDVI signals that do not vary greatly during normal and drought seasons, even though they are still considered important animal foraging areas. This may be problematic in index computations, as NDVI in these areas does not perform as well as in areas of high forage production, where major differences between NDVI signals are observed in normal and drought seasons e.g. Burtinle, Gaalkacyo, Lascaanod and Taleex (Figure 9). This requires close monitoring and review after product implementation to minimize chances of basis risk. The insurance coverage period is defined by the duration of the vegetation growing season, which is closely related to the onset and cessation of each rainy season, since the models estimate seasonal forage deficits instigated by droughts.In Puntland, the two typical growing periods observed allow the definition of two risk coverage periods as illustrated in Figure 10. Since the insurance contracts are issued on an annual basis covering 2 seasons, the sum insured and payouts are split across the two seasons. The first risk period covers the four wet months of the LRS and subsequent three dry months, accounting for 58% of the annual coverage. The second risk period covers three wet months of the SRS and subsequent two dry months, accounting for 42% of the annual cover. The bimodal seasonal regime is similar across most of Somalia, thus would form the basis for the formulation of a two-risk coverage product. However, in-depth review is required to ascertain the level of variation for start and end of seasons across the regions. After definition and validation of suitable rangeland areas for an IBLI product, clustering was done to delineate UAIs, the units on which drought risk profiling, product costing and computation of forage index for determination of payouts are done. The process involves definition of homogeneous risk zones or geographical areas with similar soils and topography, rainfall regime, forage/pasture growing conditions and where pastoral communities/clans normally graze their animals during the wet seasons. The area should be large enough to encompass herd grazing movements in normal rainy seasons, but not so large that rainfall and pasture conditions become heterogenous across the selected geographical area. Administrative units such as districts, counties, woredas, subdistricts etc. are typically used to define the homogeneous grazing areas (UAIs) (Chelanga, Khalai, Fava, & Mude, 2017). In Puntland, the district administrative units were selected as the basic building block for the definition of UAIs during the clustering exercise. With the guidance of a technical expert, the exercise was done through FGDs in two stages i) with the TWG comprising of relevant government institutions and the private sector representatives and ii) with the pastoral community representatives and livestock extension service workers for validation, refinement and adoption of the delineated clusters.The clustering exercise resulted in nine UAIs for Puntland (Figure 11). After grouping the districts into UAI clusters, a common name was adopted based on the popularity of the main district within the unit. It should be noted that there is an on-going administrative dispute between Puntland and Somaliland states regarding district boundaries shared by the two states. However, pastoralists in the two states move and share grazing resources freely, thus the role of this exercise was to identify areas with similar vegetation conditions and pastoral experiences for the purpose of designing an IBLI product.A similar exercise in Somaliland should take this into account to avoid any conflicts considering that the livestock index insurance will be implemented nationally.  As the policy aims to make timely payouts where forage availability is depleted by drought so that pastoralists can purchase fodder, feed supplements and water to keep their animals alive, the basis of valuation and the sum insured for the drought index insurance product for Puntland was estimated from information gathered on the costs of these inputs per animal species. Daily animal nutritional requirements and the costs of locally sourced feed supplements were averaged for each species to determine monthly costs. The cost of water varied by delivery distance, e.g. below 30 km, an 8,000-litre tanker cost about USD 50 while over 80 km, the cost ranged from USD 250 to 300. The estimated average Pastoral Economies in the Horn of Africa (DRIVE) in Somalia delivery distance was 55 km at USD 3.125/km resulting in a total cost of about USD 172. Combining water and food supplement costs, the average monthly cost was determined as shown in Table 1. Averaging across the different animal species, the annual cost per TLU was estimated to be about USD 360. This valuation provides an indicative sum insured of keeping 1 TLU alive per year in Puntland and is considerably higher than the current sum insured values for the drought index insurance covers in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is noteworthy that at the time of the field surveys, the cost of feed supplements, which are mainly imported from neighbouring countries, may have been higher than normal due to high inflation, restriction of movement due to the COVID-19 pandemic and ongoing conflict in neighbouring Ethiopia. During the field surveys, the affordability and willingness to pay for the drought index insurance cover by the pastoralists was considered. Pastoral representatives indicated that a typical pastoralist would be willing to sell one camel (considered to be of high economic value and the most preferred animal for insurance coverage) to pay the drought insurance premiums for their entire herd. However, it should be borne in mind that to ensure inclusivity, one would also need to take into consideration shoats and cattle, as the former are largely owned by women, whereas the latter are owned by both men and women. In Puntland, a mature healthy camel is estimated to cost about USD 1,000 on average and assuming a middle-income household has an average camel herd of 50, this would translate to USD 20 premiums per camel. With an indicative sum insured of USD 360 per TLU, the USD 20 premium payment by the pastoralists would translate to a premium rate of about 5.6%. Commercial programs in Kenya and Ethiopia currently charge premium rates of about 15% or USD 54 per TLU, which means middle-income pastoralists in Puntland would be willing and able to fund about 40% of the full commercial premium costs for drought index insurance. Data from the survey indicate that respondents in Puntland are willing to pay USD 33, 23 and 2 as premiums for a camel, cattle and shoat, respectively. While further research will be required in other regions of Somalia during the implementation planning stages, these preliminary findings from Puntland provide useful guidelines for policy makers on the likely levels of premium co-financing or subsidies that may be required to launch drought index insurance for pastoralists across Somalia.The payouts from the current product in Kenya and Ethiopia are supposed to facilitate pastoralists' access to services, which help them to cope with droughts. A 2017 study showed that payouts were used for animal feed and fodder, veterinary drugs, household food and school fees and occasionally to settle debts (Taye et al. 2019). Therefore, it becomes crucial to understand the market conditions of a potential implementation site, while also scanning the state of financial services. Even though the state of markets is Puntland-specific, the state of financial services is assumed to mirror that of Somalia and, therefore, equally applicable to Puntland.The livestock markets in Puntland are differentiated into i) primary markets found in the peri-urban centres, ii) satellite markets, which tend to be mobile markets established around water points where animals converge and iii) secondary markets located in larger towns. The satellite markets are accessed by livestock traders, brokers agents and middlemen who supply the secondary markets located in the larger towns of Puntland such as Galkaayo as well as towns at the border with Ethiopia. The most important secondary market is Bosaso, where goats are the main livestock species traded. The female goats (dibaax) are for local consumption, while the male ones (ahmin) are exported. The main livestock species traded in the Galkaayo livestock market are shoats and a few camels, while in Garowe, also a secondary market, both shoats and camels are sold in equal volumes.Livestock markets in Puntland also trade commodities such as food items, clothes, shoes, electronics and veterinary drugs, in addition to hosting tea shops and small restaurants. However, pastoralists have challenges accessing these markets, primarily because of lack of market information. Most pastoralists do not get market-related prices for their livestock due to lack of information on the required grades and quality standards to attract good offers. It would be important to further investigate, as part of the implementation process, the scope of providing market information as a bundled service with savings as part of the insurance policy offering.There are numerous financial institutions including conventional banks such as Dahabshil, Amal Bank, Premier Bank, IBS Bank, Galaxy Bank and Puntland State Bank, in addition to mobile network operators and micro-finance institutions (MFIs).Mobile money plays a very significant role in Somalia's and by extension, Puntland's financial ecosystem largely due to i) the lack of faith in the local currency, the Somali shilling, ii) the difficulty of transacting in United States dollars for lowvalue transactions, iii) the zero-rated transaction costs and iv) ease of use of mobile money services. However, there is low availability of pro-poor products as the financial system strongly incentivizes a small number of high value transactions. This limits borrowing opportunities for small, informal or semi-formal businesses (Banerjee et al. 2021).A study from the 1990s estimated that less than 10% of money for primary livestock purchases was formally sourced from banks, with the bulk of it informally sourced from colleagues, friends and associates. For security reasons, mobile traders seldom carry cash, especially when visiting remote and insecure areas (Little 2010;Banerjee et al. 2021). Furthermore, most of the rural population is unbanked. Banking services reached only 16% of the whole population, with the majority of these clients residing in the urban centres (Banerjee et al. 2021).Several MFIs exist, complementing services provided by the banks, but their outreach and coverage mirrors that of banks. One of the most popular and well-established banks in Somalia, the Dahabshil Bank, has a micro-finance service through its foundation that works with small businesses unable to meet the commercial bank's lending requirements/criteria to secure loans. Dahabshil Bank does not have livestock-specific products as most of the would-be borrowers cannot meet their basic requirements (Banerjee et al. 2021). However, there have been some promising preliminary discussions between ILRI-SomReP and Galaxy Bank on the potential of bundling insurance and credit services. Since the discussions are still in the early stages, the design of such bundling services is yet to be done.A lot of the MFIs are supported by the Growth Enterprise Employment and Livelihoods (GEEL) program, which offers interest-free loans to sectors such as livestock, crops and fisheries. Other institutions that support MFIs, producers' groups and cooperatives are consortiums such as SomReP. The Somalia Resilience Programme currently supports 416 village savings and loan associations (VSLAs), which include pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Puntland, Somaliland and southwest states in Somalia. The VSLAs have 5,576 and 1,878 women and men, respectively. Some of these groups have access to loans based on a graduation model. The initial loan amount is USD 300 rising to a maximum graduating loan of USD 1,000.Due to efforts of the SomReP and GEEL program, banks are considering investments in these sectors. One such example is Amal Bank, which invests in cooperatives providing ease access to finance. Amal Bank together with the central government of Somalia, GEEL program and the Qatar Charity Foundation have started providing loan schemes called packages. The focus of these 'packages' is on small-scale business start-ups, targeting women entrepreneurs and youth (both male and female). One of the packages provides loans between USD 200 -300 interest free, while another one offers loans at 7% interest and a 2-year maximum repayment period. The response to these initiatives has been promising with an initial investment of USD 110,000 in phase 1 expanded to USD 500,000 for phase II. The packages which were piloted through the GEEL program had positive responses among the women and youth, with some application requests exceeding loan limits. Efforts are underway to expand the portfolio to meet the demand.There seemed to be little gender disparities in terms of savings within the category of those who could afford to save.Results from the sample surveyed in Puntland showed that 39% of women-headed and 45% of men-headed households had cash savings, with the women preferring to keeping their savings as mobile money, while the men preferred to keep the cash at home. Figures 12 and 13 show the households with cash savings and where the savings are kept, respectively.Figure 12. Proportion of households with cash savings. Figure 13. Places where cash savings are kept. It is crucial to have better understanding of the characteristics of women (besides being household heads) who have the capacity to save versus the ones who cannot. This could have implications on product recipient targeting and subsidy determination. In addition, since Amal Bank is already participating in a loan provision scheme and is in talks with Galaxy Bank to decide on the type of services they can offer regarding the drought index insurance products, it would be prudent to engage them to gauge their interest and appetite in introducing savings schemes as bundled products with insurance.Though the insurance sector is nascent, it is starting to grow. While the industry is weak and underdeveloped, the concept of insurance is not new in Somalia, since there was once a government-run national insurance scheme during the pre-war regime. While insurance coverage is very low, 90% of existing business is medical insurance mainly provided by Takaful Insurance of Africa (TIA)-Somalia and First Somali Takaful & Re-Takaful (FISO) to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and expatriates (Banerjee et al 2021). Recently the Horn of Africa, UMMA Insurance, Baraka Takaful and Amanah insurance 6 companies have also started to offer insurance products. Takaful Insurance of Africa is the largest insurer in terms of underwritten policy premiums and its primary business is medical insurance cover that constitutes around 90% of the underwritten business. However, the total gross underwritten premium is below USD 6 million. The insurance companies also offer motor vehicle, marine cargo, travel and business insurance products that are Shariah-compliant. The insurance companies rely on external reinsurers, such as Kenya-Re, First-Re and Tunis-Re to cover their risks in a selfregulated environment, as there are no insurance laws, regulations or an associated supervisory body. There is general interest on drought index insurance from all the insurance companies mentioned above, however, advanced talks have only taken place with TIA-Somalia that has an operating office in Puntland. Further engagements with all insurance companies are required to gauge both their appetite and expectations regarding implementation of drought index insurance for pastoralists, starting in Puntland and eventually extending to all suitable areas in Somalia.3.6. Scenario analysis 3.6.1 Overview and objectives of the scenario analysisThe scenario analysis aims to provide a broad overview of how an IBLI product might work in Somalia and an illustration of indicative costing for alternative options of the product. The analysis builds on a feasibility analysis done in Somalia in 2019 (Fava et al. 2019), the more recent Drought Index-Insurance for Resilience in the Sahel and Horn of Africa (DIRISHA) report (Kahiu, Vrieling, & Fava, 2021;Lung et al., 2021) and some background information gathered from Puntland. The scenario analysis considered two product costing options, which were customized for Puntland based on 4 and 7-season drought return periods (Table 2). The two scenarios build upon the work done in Kenya and Ethiopia, where the product is on offer and has been widely tested and validated through in-depth research and quality assessments on operations and design. Detailed methods for IBLI product design are presented in Appendices 3A and B. The two costing options were applied under varying subsidy levels, i.e. partial to full subsidy, as a guide for the estimated cost of a government subsidized IBLI program. The proposed 4 and 7-season drought return costing options represent severe to very severe drought incidences. They are based on drought frequency and severity derived from remote sensing data, the NDVI (as a proxy for forage availability corroborated by literature) and local expert/pastoral community appraisal of historical droughts from FGDs held in Puntland. The two options are used to define the forage index value below which a payout is activated, known as the trigger threshold. In this context the trigger thresholds are forage index value percentiles of 25th and 14th for the 4 and 7-drought return periods, respectively (see Table 2 and Appendix 3B for details). Conversely, the forage index value at which a maximum payout is reached, known as the exit threshold must be determined. The UAI-specific minimum forage index values for LRS and SRS in Puntland were used. Using the two predefined trigger and exit thresholds, payouts were determined, allowing the estimating pure burn rates for an IBLI program in Puntland. These were further run against a 7-month TSI of USD 200 to cover the two forage growth risk windows for LRS and SRS (as described in Section 3.5.1) and as a fraction of the annual (12-month) TSI of USD 360, estimated from the cost of water and food supplements to keep an animal alive during droughts as described in Section 3.4Implementing the variables defined above (Table 2), the purpose of this scenario analysis is twofold: i) simulation analysis on historical data to illustrate product performance during drought periods in Puntland and ii) financial analysis under a range of options to illustrate hypothetical costings for IBLI implementation in Somalia. The outcome derived from the historical analysis was applied to a hypothetical market under a 30% commercial loading. Since an IBLI program is new in Somalia, this may be understated and will largely be determined by investment requirements by underwriters and the private sector for development of marketing and distribution channels. It is also noteworthy that the TSI used was determined during a high inflation period driven by the COVID-19 pandemic. The impact of the ongoing political unrest in Ethiopia should also be accounted for through regular product review. Additionally, the proposed cost scenarios are indicative and not meant to be recommendations for a specific option nor do they pretend to cover an exhaustive range of IBDRFI solutions. Instead, they provide information on possible cost estimates for such products. Hence, a detailed analysis of alternative pragmatic options and product design customization needs to be planned with local stakeholders at the early implementation stages of the product. The suggested scenarios provide flexible and pragmatic options to cover a wide range of beneficiaries with various financial capabilities and vulnerabilities and to determine financial implications for the government under various subsidy levels.Puntland has experienced several droughts according to forage indices computed using IBLI forage index methods and corroborated by information provided by respondents during FGDs as indicated in Section 3.1. The major widespread drought events occurred in the years 2003-04, 2009-10, 2016-17 and 2017-18. The last two incidences indicate drought persistence for more than three consecutive seasons, suggesting either below normal cyclic rainfall patterns or compromised ability/limited resilience of rangeland systems to recover after major droughts. In the Horn of Africa (HoA), the cyclic below average precipitation seasons/years have been attributed to the impacts of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO, the La Niña and El Niño phenomena). La Niña often causes hot and dry conditions, resulting in prolonged and recurrent droughts while El Niño induces wetter conditions in the HoA and across Africa (MacLeod, Graham, O'Reilly, Otieno, & Todd, 2021;Nicholson & Kim, 1997;Wang, Deser, Yu, DiNezio, & Clement, 2017).  Forage IndexAcross the years, the peaks indicate above average years while troughs show drought years. The diamond symbols in the boxplot show the average forage index, with the lower and upper bounds of the box showing 25th and 75th percentiles, respectively. The median is denoted by the inner horizontal line. The vertical whiskers show the full range of data, excluding outliers shown as black points outside the whiskers.Two historical payout scenarios are demonstrated using the IBLI product model in Puntland over the 2002-21 epoch. The scenarios have trigger thresholds set to pay out every 4 and 7-seasons (referred to as T4 and T7, respectively) to illustrate the implications of increasing the frequency of payouts (Figure 14). After computing T4 and T7, major drought events, i.e. triggering significant (≥ 25%) annual payouts, were evident in both options. T7 scenarios had the lowest number of major drought events for the years 2003, 2004 and 2016, while T4 had the highest number for the years 2003, 2004, 2009, 2016, 2017 and 2018. T7 only captures extremely severe droughts while T4 captures both the moderate to extremely severe drought events. The observed temporal drought patterns in Puntland are aligned with pastoralists and regional reports of drought occurrence in Somalia. It is notable that both trigger options missed the 2021 LRS drought reported across the entire HoA causing widespread livestock mortality in Puntland. This requires in-depth analysis to understand the conditions that may have led to this mismatch between the IBLI models and conditions on the ground. Under T4 and T7, the average payouts, i.e. pure burn rate 8 are 15 and 11%, respectively. This illustrates that an increase in payout frequency increases the trigger thresholds resulting in significantly higher product costs (Figure 15). A comparison between the two costing options shows that the less frequent payout model (T7), is cheaper but pays significant amounts during severe droughts. Conversely, the higher frequency payout model ( T4) is more expensive and would still pay higher amounts than T7 (Table 3). The worst drought years that occurred in Somalia in 2003-04, 2009-10 and 2016-17, attracted average annual payouts that ranged from 21-57% and 15-55% for T4 and T7, respectively (Table 3). The 2003 SRS/2004 LRS was the worst drought period, triggering close to 100% of annual payouts for most of the UAIs in Puntland. This aligns with the FGDs' feedback that most pastoralists lost almost all their livestock during this period, locally known as the Kartoomaley. In areas such as Sanaag and Bari, over 85% of all livestock species was lost. This drought is reported to have caused extinction of some tree and grass species in some areas in Puntland, while some pastoralists were forced to transition into other economic activities including migration to urban centres to seek employment while others had to settle in refugee camps. During Kartoomaley, government and international organizations placed greater focus on saving human lives than livestock assets. Analysis of other important droughts cited in FGDs in Puntland show similar findings (Table A1). Spatial patterns of drought are generally similar, but small variations occur across the UAIs (Figure 16). Annual average payouts fall in the range 10-15%. During the severe drought years, Gaalckayo had the highest rates of payouts (47 and 38% for T4 and T7, respectively) while Iskushuban had the least rates (30 and 21% for T4 and T7, respectively) (Table 3). Spatially, considering drought severity for T7 and T4, Iskushuban had the highest number of droughts triggered under T7, with eight observed drought events for the epoch July 2002 to June 2021, while other UAIs triggered six or seven drought events (Figure 16). Under T4, Sanaag had the highest drought incidences at 13, over the 20 years of the NDVI data. Indicative costings for an IBLI product in Puntland were computed. The costing was determined using the 4 and 7-season drought return costing models (Figure 16) to provide governments and donor communities with premium and subsidy options for an affordable IBLI product for pastoralists in Somalia. Even though most of the analysis focused on Puntland, the costing can be broadly applied to government or donor-driven product costing across Somalia. However, adjustments to product parameters such as UAIs, risk windows and TSI will be required. The financial implications of government or private driven IBLI implementation of micro-insurance are also provided. The analysis was done assuming an IBLI-like contract design discussed above to estimate the historical payouts for both risk windows covering the LRS and SRS from July 2002 to June 2021. The analysis provided two options (T4 and T7) and assumed a TSI of USD 200 under three subsidy regimes of 25, 65 and 90%. In Puntland, one TLU would require about USD 360 per annum to survive a drought over 12 calendar months, as calculated in Section 3.4. Since this amount is quite high, a cheaper alternative for the same USD 200 TSI is proposed based on 7-months' coverage for the LRS and SRS drought risk windows only, i.e. 4 and 3 months for the LRS and SRS, respectively. Alternative options for the USD 360 annual TSI are presented in Appendix 3C and Table A4.Using T7 and T4 within a soft market operating at 30% commercial loading, the annual premium rates applied to the sum insured would correspond to 14 and 20%, respectively (Table 4). The cost is significantly higher for the T4 compared to the T7 option at USD 40/TLU. Under T7, this would translate to USD 70, 182 and 252 investment for 25, 65 and 90% subsidy levels, respectively, assuming 10 TLUs per household coverage. A similar subsidy scheme with T4 costing options increases to USD 100, 260, and 360, under 25, 65 and 90% subsidy levels, respectively. The global fiscal cost for largescale implementation covering about 50, 000 households under these scenarios is presented below. $700,000 $1,820,000 $2,520,000 20,000 $1,400,000 $3,640,000 $5,040,000 50,000 $3,500,000 $9,100,000 $12,600,000 1,000 $100,000 $260,000 $360,000 5,000 $500,000 $1,300,000 $1,800,000 10,000 $1,000,000 $2,600,000 $3,600,000 20,000 $2,000,000 $5,200,000 $7,200,000 50,000 $5,000,000 $13,000,000 $18,000,000 APC (100%) Subsidies (10TLUS/HH) Rates Description Index P -Index Percentiles; PBR -Pure Burn Rate; AP-Annual Premiums; APC -Annual Premium Cost; CL -Commercial Loading; TSI -Total Sum Insured T4 T7 A micro-level commercial insurance program over 5 years with a target population of 50,000 households, 10 TLUs/ household and 90% subsidy regime would cost ≈ USD 12.6 million and 18 million for T7 and T4 costing options, respectively (Table 4). The cost of coverage decreases with a corresponding decrease in the subsidy level, therefore, it may be feasible to provide coverage to a larger population of pastoral communities (see Table 4 for 25, 65 and 90% subsidy options for various household sizes). Since the introduction of a subsidized IBLI program in Somalia will be gradual, it will be possible to cover more households in year 5 of the planned 5-year DRIVE project. These costings do not account for the creation of an enabling environment, marketing and distribution channels for the new IBLI product in Somalia, which are essential for the product's successful launch and implementation.Findings from the stakeholders' engagement in Puntland validated that drought is one of the biggest risks faced by the pastoralists and that drought index insurance product(s) could be a necessary intervention to help pastoralists cope with the drought related risks and losses. Additional relevant data was taken from the pastoral surveys conducted in the first quarter of 2022, even though the sample of respondents in these surveys was relatively small and skewed towards women and other marginalized groups. Insights were also drawn from other studies relevant to this technical assignment that were conducted during similar timeframes. Various stakeholder engagements in other regions of Somalia revealed that when planning the implementation of drought index insurance products, the following recommendations should be considered:R1: Product design • The clustering, valuation basis and total sum insured were determined during a stressful economic time for Puntland due to the COVID-19 pandemic and conflict in Ethiopia. This affected the flow of food supplements and diaspora remittances that are significant contributors to the Somalian economy. From the estimates, a TSI value of USD 360 per TLU per annum was computed. This is relatively high compared to the TSI values of USD 150/TLU per annum in the neighbouring countries of Kenya and Ethiopia, where Somalian pastoralists source their food supplements. To design a national drought index insurance product, it is important to carry out similar exercises in other parts of Somalia to understand the agro-ecological and socio-economic characteristics and operational mechanisms, while also determining the willingness and ability of the community to pay for insurance products.• The insurance coverage period is defined by the length of the vegetation growing season, which is closely related to the onset and cessation of each rainy season, since index-based livestock insurance models estimate seasonal forage deficits instigated by drought. In Puntland, two typical growing periods were observed, spanning from March to June (Gu, long rainy season) and October to December (Deyr, short rainy season), thus allowing the definition of two risk coverage periods. The bimodal seasonal pattern is homogeneous across most of Somalia, thus would form the basis for the formulation of a two-risk windows' coverage product. However, in-depth review is required to ascertain the level of variations in forage intensity, rangeland extents and start and end of seasons for the two seasons across the country.• Puntland has been experiencing moderate to severe droughts every 3-4 seasons, while the very extreme drought events happen every 7-10 seasons. This forms a good basis for the definition of drought return periods in the IBLI contract design.• Using 4 and 7-season drought return periods for Puntland; the triggers are at 25th and 14th percentiles of the forage index, respectively. The 4-season trigger model requires high annual premium rates of 20%, while the 7-season trigger requires 14%. As the product is new in Somalia, there is need for all relevant stakeholders including the government, private sector, donor agencies and the pastoral communities to agree upon the most affordable and realistic local IBLI cost models. Since most of the analysis has been done for Puntland only, similar analysis should be undertaken across the country.R2: Implementation process• The final determination of product premiums, payout frequency, TSI and subsidy levels requires customization depending on the area of implementation, both within Puntland and across other regions in Somalia. This requires engagement with relevant stakeholders including the public and private sectors, development and implementing organizations and community representatives (both men and women) to ensure that the options are affordable for potential consumers of the product. This includes considerations on the timing and frequency of payouts, subsidy levels and other incentives for a drought index insurance product being implemented in Somalia for the first time.• The scenario analysis on the financial implications presented in this assessment does not consider resources required to create an enabling environment, market and capacity development and identification of effective distribution channels. Since this product is new to Somalia, experiences from Kenya and Ethiopia strongly suggest careful consideration and incorporation of the above aspects during the implementation design phase. Given the high level of financial illiteracy in these communities, considerable investments will have to be made in awareness creation and product knowledge/understanding. It should also be borne in mind that custom-designed strategies will be required for different groups, e.g. women, men, youth and the disabled etc.• Engagements with the various stakeholders during this study suggested that even though there is significant presence of livestock markets, the linkages are quite poor. The high cost of livestock feed, limited fodder markets, sole dependency on the government for animal health services and lack of basic market information, all pose significant challenges in stimulating and integrating service provision in the event of payouts. Linking value chain development to financial services from the very initial stages of product development, rather than as an afterthought, should be considered. Since data show that the respondents are inclined to save more, albeit informally and through groups, this could be favourably considered by banks such as Galaxy Bank and the Somalia GEEL program.• Inspite of the presence of formal financial institutions such as banks in Somalia, there are very few formal financial institutions that have partnered with international development organizations and NGOs to provide access to finance to MFIs for livestock production. Careful consideration is required on bundling of services to clearly define the kind of services (e.g. savings products or information products with insurance) that should or could be bundled and for whom. It should not be assumed that all potential subscribers of the insurance product would want similar complimentary services with insurance.• Even though the current IBLI product has been implemented in highly insecure areas, the complexity of issues surrounding conflict and insecurity differ from one region to another. Extremist-led violence, ethnic conflicts and clashes between farmers and pastoralists driven by competition over land resources have different implications on IBDFI implementation. As the implementation framework is being designed, in-depth analysis of conflicts will be necessary to find ways of mitigating them through the drought index insurance solutions, e.g. designing the premium subsidies or payouts to enable better natural resource management. It is crucial to conduct detailed engagements with stakeholders that have prior experience in these areas to understand the inter and intra-community dynamics to design effective solutions. The current index-based livestock insurance is a type of parametric insurance whereby a policyholder is insured against the occurrence of drought events and payouts (to protect the livestock asset) are made based on the magnitude of the drought and not livestock losses incurred, as is the case under traditional indemnity contracts. Therefore, in setting up payout models for an area, the risk of drought occurrence, frequency and severity must be understood. The IBLI aims to provide payouts at the end of a drought season that results in low forage production, thus allowing pastoralists to protect their livestock, which are the main assets in these marginalized and vulnerable ecosystems.To understand the drought risk in the Puntland state of the Federal Republic of Somalia, NDVI time series data from MODIS satellite was used. The data was analysed according to the well-established methods and procedures for estimating forage indices utilised in the Kenyan and Ethiopian rangelands, where IBLI is operational. Even though various remote sensing products including rainfall, evapotranspiration, soil moisture, land surface temperature, solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence etc. (Jiao, Wang, & McCabe, 2021) have been applied in drought monitoring over the years, in this analysis the advanced IBLI model based on NDVI data to monitor drought events and estimate payouts in African pastoral systems where other datasets are limited or unavailable (Fava & Vrieling, 2021) was used. To estimate drought frequency and severity, which forms the basis of costing within an IBLI model, the NDVI data was transformed into usable and meaningful forage indices as drought indicators that can be translated into payouts.To accomplish this, key analysis steps were followed (Figure A1) including:i.The development of valid forage production area masks, done mainly by creating NDVI filters to identify pastoral lands with valid land areas and high NDVI intensity. This is because bare grounds and scarce/low vegetation areas have inconsistent signals that complicate index computation by generating unreliable results. The mask also incorporates areas with low seasonal variability of vegetation and dense woody cover as invalid forage production areas since seasonality is poorly defined, or they are hardly used as grazing resources. The satellite data-based masking approach was validated and improved using local expert knowledge to identify areas that may have been omitted and other land use characteristics that may not have been apparent from remote sensing data.ii. Spatial aggregation was done using the predefined geographic zones with homogenous vegetation characteristics, climate/seasonality and extent of pastoral movement, commonly referred to as UAIs. In Puntland, nine UAIs were identified as described in Section 3.2. These were used as the units for spatial aggregation of the NDVI data available at 250 m spatial resolution.iii. Temporal cumulation/aggregation, whereby the NDVI data available every 10 days were first averaged over a month and cumulated over the forage growth windows to estimate forage production over the entire season. Therefore, an area's seasonality must be characterized by clearly defining wet and dry seasons to accurately (allowing time lags of a few days) identify forage growth windows, which coincide with rainfall months. In Puntland, where a bimodal vegetation growth pattern was observed, the cumulation was specific to the LRS (Gu), occurring from May to June and the SRS (Deyr) from October to December (Figure 11).iv. Forage index computation involving a normalization process whereby the current season's cumulated NDVI (used as a proxy for forage availability) was compared with the historical average forage performance. The normalization (standardization) determines how far the current values deviate from normal, thus indicating a drought event.Using the severity results, three trigger thresholds were determined based on 7, 5 and 4-season drought return periods, i.e. 3.5, 2.5 and 2-year returns, respectively (Table A 2). To determine the maximum payout levels, the minimum forage index values are used per UAI for each season (LRS and SRS) using the entire NDVI data archive from July 2002 to June 2020 (Table A 3). $625,000 $1,625,000 $2,250,000 10,000 $1,250,000 $3,250,000 $4,500,000 20,000 $2,500,000 $6,500,000 $9,000,000 50,000 $6,250,000 $16,250,000 $22,500,000 1,000 $180,000 $468,000 $648,000 5,000 $900,000 $2,340,000 $3,240,000 10,000 $1,800,000 $4,680,000 $6,480,000 20,000 $3,600,000 $9,360,000 $12,960,000 50,000 $9,000,000 $23,400,000 $32,400,000 ","tokenCount":"11179"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"da82762413b3c91876793a7aef875327","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/17785823-bdfc-4c0d-b186-76d8f9e3104e/content","id":"1418154631"},"keywords":["Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize","cry1A (b) proteins","stem borers","transgenic"],"sieverID":"858c2675-b92d-4681-a0c2-e65c29a6d04a","pagecount":"6","content":"Previous testing of several public Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-maize events did not show control of the African stem borer (Busseola fusca Fuller), an important stem borer species, without which stewardship would be compromised by the possibility of rapid development of resistance to Bt deltaendotoxins. This study was carried out to test Bt-maize Event MON810 as an option to control all major stem borer species in Kenya. Two Bt-maize hybrids, DKC8073YG and DKC8053YG, both containing Bt Event MON810 of Cry1Ab gene were imported to carry out greenhouse containment trials. The hybrids together with the controls were grown in 10 replications upto the V6 and V8 stages. Infestations on whole plants were carried out at two stages of growth using 5 neonates of the spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe) and B. fusca. Bt-maize Event MON810 hybrids showed resistance to both stem borer species with low leaf damage scores and few surviving larvae recovered from the whole plant. The public Bt-maize Event 223 did not control B. fusca. Deploying Bt-maize Event MON810 may, therefore, be used to control the two species of stem borers. However, the efficacy of Bt-maize Event MON810 will, need to be evaluated under field environments.The rising food prices are a reflection of food scarcity that could affect Kenya and other net food importers. There is continuing need to increase food production in Kenya through adoption of technologies that increase productivity and minimize losses. One practical means of *Corresponding author. E-mail: s.mugo@cgiar.org. Tel.: +254 (0) 20 722 4610, +254 733 720 297.Abbreviations: Bt, Bacillus thuringiensis; HPR, host plant resistance; ITK, indigenous technical knowledge; CFT, confined field trials; IRM, Insect Resistance Management. achieving greater yields is to minimize insect pest losses through the use of stem borer resistant maize that could reduce annual grain losses by more than 10%, (De Groote, 2002).Food security awareness and concerns have become household issues globally, due to the sharply rising food prices currently estimated at over 40% (FAO, 2008). This exceptional hike in food prices resulted in severe economic, social and political consequences to African agriculture (FAO, 2008). Unfavorable government policies and low investments have contributed to Africa becoming the worst hit by food insecurity issues. Other factors that have contributed to food insecurity include drought, high costs of farm inputs such as fertilizers and improved seeds, pests and diseases, and insufficient quantities of relief food.Insect pests, including stem borers, cause direct losses and reduced food production worldwide. The impact of climate change and new methods of farming, including conservation agriculture on insect pests, can only be speculated or tested using considerable time and resources. However, it is known that insect pests respond to changes in moisture and temperature.Kenya loses an estimated 13.5% of its maize production, the major staple food, to pests annually (De Groote, 2002). These makes Kenya a net annual maize importer of an average 400,000 metric tons (Mugo et al., 2001).Past efforts to reduce stem borer losses include use of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK), cultural methods, chemical pesticides, biological control, and host plant resistance (HPR) using conventional breeding (Mugo et al., 2005;Mugo et al., 2007). The applications of biotechnology tools using HPR include molecular markers and genetic engineering. Most of the insect resistant transgenic plants have been developed by using modified genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which when ingested by target pests, release -endotoxins. Several public Bt maize events were tested in the biosafety level 2 laboratory, and in a confined field trials (CFT) site (Mugo et al., 2011). Complete control was found for the three major stem borer species (spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe), the sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina Walker) and the pink stem borer (Sesamia calamistis Hampson), but not for Busseola fusca, the pest causing the highest level of maize damage in farmers fields (Mugo et al., 2005). Due to considerations of stewardship and insect resistance management (IRM), these events could not be deployed, and a search for additional effective events was initiated. Bt-maize event MON810 that carries Bt gene Cry1Ab was used as a candidate.The cryIA(b) gene is 3468 nucleotides in length and encodes a full-length B.t.k. HD-1 [CryIA(b)] protein of 1156 amino acids (Fischoff et al., 1987), which when subjected to trypsin, yields an active trypsin-resistant protein product of approximately 600 amino acids in planta and in vitro (Lee et al., 1995). The cryIA(b) gene sequence was modified to increase the levels of expression in maize (Perlak et al., 1991). The cryIA(b) gene encodes the natural identical CryIA(b) protein (Fischoff et al., 1987). Maize line, MON810, was developed by particle acceleration technology with a DNA solution containing two plasmids: PV-ZMBK07 [which contains the cryIA(b) gene] and PV-ZMGT10 [which contains the CP4 EPSPS and gox genes] (Kania et al., 1995). This maize line contained one integrated DNA on an approximately 5.5Kb fragment with a single copy of the E35S promoter, the hsp70 intron, and the cryIA(b) gene. This paper reports the evaluation of Bt-maize Event MON810 against the two major stem borer species in Kenya, the spotted stem borer (C. partellus) and the African stem borer (B. fusca).An application was made to Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Insitutional Biosafety Committee (IBC) in November 2006, then to National Biosafety Committee (NBC) in April 2007, to introduce maize Hybrids DKC8073YG and DKC8053YG. The application was revised from an earlier one approved for research at KARI Kibos. The revised application was based on a bilateral agreement between KARI and Monsanto to jointly test Bt-maize Event MON810. It reflected the new testing location, and research objectives that would include comparison of efficacy with the IRMA Bt-maize public events.The experimental design was a 4x4 alpha-lattice with 10 replications, each plant being a replicate. The maize seeds were treated with Murtano ® , which contains a fungicide and insecticide before sowing. The planting media was first treated with Lamdex ® 50EC (a.i. lambda cyhalothrin 50 g/L) a broad-spectrum contact and stomach acting pesticide at the rate of 0.5ml per 1.25 liters of clean water to control soil-borne pests.Three seeds were grown in large pots (30 cm diameter by 36 cm high) but later thinned down to one plant per pot. The pots were spaced at 0.75 m apart to ensure that larvae could not migrate across treatment pots via leaf contact. A heater was placed to regulate temperatures to 18°C night and 22°C day to maximize growth. Soil moisture was maintained at field capacity. Fertilizers were applied to adequate levels with a starter water soluble fertilizer, followed by an application of nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers as required (Murenga et al., 2004).The test materials were two Bt-maize Event MON810 hybrids, DKC8073YG hybrid (MON810) and DKC8053YG hybrid (MON810), and their non-transgenic equivalent DKC9355YG (Non-Bt) hybrid. The public Bt-maize, Bt Cry1Ab/CML202 BC2F1 (Event 223) was also used for comparison.Five neonates of each of the two stem borer species, B. fusca and C. partellus, were used for artificially infesting the plants. The infestation was done when the plants had complete collar formed around the central stem by the fully expanded leaf with six to eight visible leaves, but only six of them had visible leaf ligules or 'collars' around the stem, usually referred to as V6 and V8 stages of growth.Leaf damage scores for each of the 10 plants were taken 10 days after infestation, using a scale of 1−9 scale, where 1 refers to least damage and 9 is when all leaves have extensive borer damage. The leaf damage scores and number of recovered larvae were determined for the four borer species. Destructive sampling was done on the plants 10 days after infestation by carefully splitting the stems to expose the larvae. The larvae were counted, mortality assessed, the instar stage of the developing larvae, and the weight of larval mass.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on data from insect resistance, agronomic traits such as plant stand, 50% anthesis, ear height, and leaf bioassays from the confined field trials was done using PROC General Linear Model (GLM) of Statistical Analysis Software (SAS, 2003), program and least significant difference (LSD) used to separate means.There were significant differences observed (p=0.001) for leaf damage score, total number of recovered larvae, and number of live larvae recovered in plants infested with B. fusca. Hybrids DKC8073YG (MON810) and DKC8053YG (MON810) showed very little leaf damage at score of 1.1 and 1.3, respectively. Extensive leaf damage of 3.4 to and 3.2 scores was observed in the non-Bt check, DKC8053YG, and the public Bt Event 223, respectively (Table1). Similar results were observed in the number of live larvae recovered with a mean of 0.10 and 0.14 larvae, from MON810 hybrids, compared to a mean of 1.70 and 1.50 larvae for the non-Bt and public Bt Event 223, respectively. The number of larvae recovered from the non-Bt check and Event 223 was higher than in the Bt-maize Event MON810 hybrids. Event 223 and the non-Bt hybrids also showed significantly higher leaf damage than the two Bt-maize Event MON810 hybrids. No differences were observed in plant height and leaf stage between Bt-maize Event MON810 hybrids and non-Bt hybrid, but Event 223 had shorter plants (Table 1). Significant differences were observed for leaf damage score (p=0.001), number of dead larvae (p=0.005), number of live larvae (p=0.005), larvae weight (p=0.005), and plant height (p=0.001) in the v8 stage plants infested with B. fusca (Table 2). Bt maize Event MON810 hybrids and the non-Bt check showed less damage of scores 1.3-1.5 compared to 2.00 of the public Bt Event 223. Similar differences were found in the number of live larvae with the hybrid DKC8073YG showing no live larvae recovered, and very few live larvae from hybrid DK8053YG (0.00 and 0.22 respectively). The non-Bt check and public Bt Event 223 had higher live larvae recovered (0.40 and 0.60 respectively). Plant height for Event 223 was significantly shorter than all other plants (Table 2).The Event MON810 hybrids showed significant differences in leaf damage score after infestation using C. partellus at the V6 leaf stage (1.0) whereas the non-Bt hybrid and Event 223 showed higher damage scores (2.99 and 2.70, respectively) (Table 3). There were no live larvae recovered from the two MON810 hybrids. A relatively high number of live larvae (2.14) was recovered from non-Bt hybrid check compared to Event 223 (1.70). Larvae recovered from the MON810 hybrids had lower weight compared to those recovered from non-Bt hybrid and Event 223. Similar trend was observed from larvae in the first to third instar developmental stages with fewer larvae observed in the Bt-maize hybrids (0.9), compared to non-Bt check and Event 223 (1.7 and 1.8 respectively). The lowest plant height was observed in Event 223 plants with mean of 56.7cm at V6 infested with B. fusca (Table 3).A similar trend of lower leaf damage, fewer live larvae recovered, lower larvae weight, fewer live larvae in each of the first three developmental stages, was observed from MON810 hybrids as compared to the non-Bt-check and Event 223.The lowest plant height was recorded from Event 223 with a mean of 138.80 cm (Table 4). There were no significant differences in the number of leaves on all plants of MON810 hybrids, non-Bt hybrids, Event 223 at V6 and V8 stages infested by B. fusca or C. partellus.The leaf damage scores were significantly lower among the two MON810 hybrids than for the non-Bt hybrid and the public Bt-Event 223 for C. partellus and B. fusca at the V6 and V8 growth stages (Figure 1). This observation has also been reported by the significantly lower number of live B. fusca and C. partellus larvae (Mugo et al., 2005) supported by the Bt MON810 hybrids compared to the non-Bt hybrid and the public Bt Event 223. The susceptibility of Event 223 to B. fusca has previously been reported (Mugo et al., 2011), and these results are consistent with those findings (Mugo et al., 2005), however the levels of susceptibility recorded from this study are higher  for C. partellus. Possible reasons could be because the seeds of Event 223 used were BC2F1; bringing the possibility that the Bt-gene was not stable at that stage. There were significant differences in larval weight of both insect species at the V6 leaf stage and V8 stage. The Bt hybrids suppressed larval weight accumulation compared to the non-Bt hybrid and the public Bt Event 223. These results agree with studies by Fenemore (1984), that toxic chemical substances ingested by insects can interfere with the metabolic processes and eventually reduce the growth of the insect (Mugo et al., 2011). Plant height with the public Bt Event 223 Bt were the shortest in both the B. fusca and C. partellus infested plants in both V6 and V8 leaf stages, while the MON810 hybrids were the same height as their non-Bt equivalent. It is highly likely that the shorter Bt Event 223 plants were due to genotype characteristics and effects of second generation of backcrossing (BC2F1) rather than effects of exposure to the Cry proteins from Bt-maize. There was only a 10-day interval between larvae infestation and recovery from experimental material. This period was not adequate for the stem borers to cause significant damage on plants, resulting in adverse effects on plant height.The live larvae recovered from non Bt hybrid checks and Event 223 advanced to third instar were more than those in the Bt-maize hybridsfor both C. partellus and B. fusca. This was in agreement with the findings of Fenemore (1984), and Tende et al. (2010).This study demonstrated the efficacy of Bt-maize Event MON810 against the two major stem borer species in Kenya, the spotted stem borer, C. partellus and the African stem borer B. fusca. Bt-maize Event MON810 was effective in the two genetic backgrounds represented by the two different hybrids. Bt-maize Event MON810 appears to act in as a chronic toxin, whereby the larvae are killed soon after ingesting the plant tissue. This has the potential of reducing the probability of pests developing resistance from consuming sub-lethal doses of cry1Ab -endotoxins.Since MON810 has been effective in control of pests, it can be expedited for release and control of stem borers in Kenya which are distributed in all maize growing areas of Kenya. Bt-maize Event MON810 needs to be evaluated under field environments, where the plants and the pests can be subjected to natural conditions during the plant growth.","tokenCount":"2373"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"57de797cc7b690a2a0cd7180f0586f2e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57a8800b-404b-4706-ba7e-686f89978481/retrieve","id":"-1425030140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f9b91e4c-a021-4de8-805f-f8fb8f5de24d","pagecount":"21","content":"What is the issue? Research questions Methods Key results WTP for two-wheel tractor based mechanization Drivers of WTP Take home messages Outline Motivation What is the issue? Research questions Methods Key results WTP for two-wheel tractor based mechanization Drivers of WTP Take home messages Hambulo Ngoma, PhD WTP for mechanization 2023 AAAE conference 4 / 21Development available OA https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3767Motivation: What is the issue? Step 1: Mechanization service description (ripping, ripping and seeding, and direct seeding) including time needed per ha and transportation of 0.5 ton within a 20-km radius. We used pictures of operations. This process continued until farmers were comfortable with the four options.Step 2: Farmers then made bids for each service, i.e., stated how much they can pay for the service, considering how much it would normally cost to do the same using alternative means, for example, manual labour or animal draft power.Step 3: Once steps 1 and 2 are complete for each service, one of the services was randomly picked to be played for real money.Step 4: Once a service is randomly selected to be played for real cash in step 3, a price for the service is drawn from a distribution of prices for the service. If a farmer's bid is higher than the randomly drawn price, they win a token worth $5.Since BDM auctions have no starting values, the WTP amounts are dispersed A parsimonious estimable function for WTP can be represented as:▶ W → labor availability, wealth (asset index) ▶ X → socioeconomic and demographic variables ▶ Credit, laborC, know, landh, socialk adp and used MT refer to credit, labor constraints, knowledge on 2WTs, landholding size, social capital, use of animal draft power & MT ▶ Estimated with Tobit with below and upper censoring Wealth is largest driver of WTP, while ADP and labor availability reduce itTake home messagesThere is demand for 2WT-based mechanization services with a business case for ripping More needed to create demand for 2WTs in regions where there is comparative advantage ▶ inclusive market deepening and business development where WTP is high ▶ demand creation based on inclusive business models where WTP is low Since 2WTs will co-exist with ADP for some time, they need to be targeted ▶ This will require economic analyses on ROI for ADP, 2WT, and business and finance modelsBecause weeding has the most labour constraints, appropriate machinery is needed While there is need to target farmers who can pay for the services to crowd in private sector, other inclusive mechanisation models should be considered that are wealth-agnostic","tokenCount":"422"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8549905952.json b/data/part_5/8549905952.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"881c068c9e14242bde95d85f62e12949","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/24c01e33-caa5-4fe4-8478-e4707d5c2aed/retrieve","id":"1289885625"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fb7c4606-9663-40b1-8bc8-ebd95f70b95d","pagecount":"27","content":"Summary of household dietary diversity, Ethiopia The African Chicken Genetics Gain (ACGG) Agriculture to Nutrition (ATONU) is striving to improve nutrition outcomes through optimized agricultural investments project, aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate nutrition sensitive interventions (NSIs) within the context of existing agricultural programs with the goal of improving the nutritional status of women of reproductive age and young children, particularly in the first 1,000 days of life. ACGG ATONU implemented a NSI in collaboration with the ACGG program, led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). ACGG is evaluating the productivity of high producing, tropically adapted and farmer preferred chicken genotypes in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Nigeria. ACGG has provided approximately 25 chickens to each participating chicken producing smallholder households. ACGG ATONU had implemented an additional packages of NSIs among ACGG households using social and behavioural change communication (SBCC) to encourage consumption of chicken products (meat and eggs); recommend water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) practices to produce poultry; use income from sale of chicken products to improve nutrition and health; empower women in decision-making around chicken production and sale; and home gardening to produce nutrient dense vegetables to improve dietary diversity within the household.It is worth mentioning that ACGG's intervention to increase chicken production helped to improve the nutritional status of women and children through increasing access to chicken meat and eggs for household consumption and empowering women by giving them access to income, which could be used to purchase other nutrient dense foods. However, increasing production and income alone may not necessarily translate into improved diets or nutritional outcomes. ACGG ATONU's intervention specifically encouraged the use of chicken products and income to provide nutritious diets for women of reproductive age and young children through extensive nutrition behaviour change communication. Recognizing the unavailability of other nutrient dense foods in local markets helped the project implementers to introduce the home gardening component of ACGG ATONU's intervention that increased the availability of nutrient dense vegetables at the household level. Following the implementation of the NSI's smallholder farmers' consumption pattern, women and children dietary diversity, chicken meat and egg consumption and use, hygiene and sanitation conditions and women empowerment are improved. Field officers have been visiting the homes of smallholder farmers and they witnessed that these farmers are bringing positive changes towards balanced diet consumption, good hygiene and sanitation and lower workload on women. For these results to be recorded, weekly nutrition education sessions, cookery sessions, home to home visits, theatre for nutrition and behavioural change communication, joint financial planning and budgeting and male sensitization were used as approaches.Undernutrition remains a key challenge to global health and development. Data indicate that a quarter (25%) of the world's children under five years are stunted, and this prevalence increases to 38% in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (UNICEF 2014). Stunting is a consequence of chronic nutritional deprivation that can begin during and even prior to pregnancy due to maternal malnutrition and other adversities. Child undernutrition is associated with high child mortality and morbidity (Black et al. 2013, (Olofin & McDonald, 2013), poor motor and cognitive development (Sudfeld et al. 2015), and lower educational attainment and economic productivity in adulthood (Victora, Adair, Fall, & Hallal, 2008). Maternal short stature, a long-term consequence of stunting in girls, is further associated with foetal growth restriction, which can lead to neonatal death and stunting in the next generation (Katz et al. 2013). Similarly, maternal and child anaemia has multifactorial causes involving complex interactions with nutrition, with serious consequences for maternal and child survival and health, healthy pregnancies, cognitive development, and work productivity (Balarajan et al. 2011).Agriculture investments and productivity are increasing in Africa. Despite investments in agriculture and gains in productivity of food staples, the number of children in Africa who are stunted due to malnutrition is climbing (Stevens et al. 2012). To a great extent, achievements in food security have not translated to improved nutrition and health at the household level (IFPRI 2015). The scale of malnutrition across the continent continues to be high, with 58 million children under age of five are too short for their age (stunted), 13.9 million weighs too little for their height (wasted), and 10.3 million are overweight (UNICEF, 2015). An estimated 163.6 million children and women of reproductive age are anaemic (Kumlachew, Tesfahun, Mulugeta, & Tadelle, 2020) while more than 220 million people are estimated to be calorie deficient (FAO, IFAD, WFP 2015).Adult obesity is on the rise in all 54 African countries, with about 8% of adults over 20 are obese (Kumlachew et al., 2020). Regions leading in agricultural production tend to be the most affected by high rates of child stunting (Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre 2014). The ripple effects of malnutrition extend beyond the affected individuals to the society and the economy. Agricultural development initiatives have the potential to improve the nutrition of those most vulnerable to malnutrition, such as women of childbearing age and children as well as the general population; however, they must be specifically designed to address nutritional goals (Ruel and Alderman 2013), with rigorous evaluation of impact on nutritional outcomes.In SSA, smallholder chicken production is an integral component of the livelihoods of poor rural households, and this is likely to continue for the foreseeable future (Kryger et al. 2010). Chicken production is largely a woman's enterprise. In addition to various sociocultural uses, the main outputs from family chicken production are meat or eggs as a source of high value nutrition for home consumption (ideal for the most vulnerable members of the household, such as pregnant women, children and the sick) and income from the sale of birds and eggs. Eggs are an important source of energy and provide 27% of an adult's daily requirements of selenium, 25% of vitamin B12, 23% of chlorine, 15% of riboflavin, 13% of protein, 11% of phosphorus, 9% of vitamin D, 9% of foliate, 8% of vitamin A, 6% of iron, and a small amount of zinc (FAO 2015). With nearly 40% of global chicken exports going to Africa and the Middle East (Mulder and Nelson 2013), there is tremendous opportunity for income growth and increased food security in SSA through improved chicken production (Iannotti et al. 2014). Evidence suggests that increased consumption of animal foods can improve child growth and development (Marquis et al. 1997). However, limited evidence exists linking increased access to chicken meat and eggs with increased household animal source food consumption and improved nutrition status among women of reproductive age and children (Nielsen et al. 2003;Leroy and Frongillo 2007).Likewise, evidence for integrating NSIs in agriculture projects for impact on nutrition and health is lacking. This fundamental gap in agricultural development, nutrition and health necessitates an integrated approach towards nutrition sensitive agriculture programs. As this approach evolves in developing countries, ATONU programs become more complex and thus increases the need for novel methods of implementing and measuring the impact. Integrated ATONU interventions cover a broad range of interventions from soil conservation and management to improved germplasm and other inputs, post-harvest processing and value addition, and storage, as well as marketing and food consumption. These processes collectively affect productivity and diversity of the harvest, food safety, and the energy as well as nutrient density of the diet. Specific interventions to integrate along the ATONU continuum may differ from one country to the other depending on national food and nutrition security, available resources, gender and cultural considerations, and hence are also likely to change over time. To successfully implement integrated approaches and ensure appropriate scale up for needed interventions, countries need coordinated efforts and robust evidence to inform decision-making frameworks. This project was designed to assess the impact of integrating NSIs in a targeted chicken production project (ACGG) on maternal and child nutrition and health outcomes.ACGG was identified as a project that integrates and assesses the impact of selected NSIs to provide evidence for agricultural potential to deliver positive nutritional outcomes. In designing and implementing the NSIs, ILRI partnered with two country implementing partners namely: the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute. The Harvard School of Public Health and its local Ethiopian partner, Addis Continental University, were responsible for the designing and conducting of the impact evaluation for the NSIs in Ethiopia, while Sokoine University of Agriculture was responsible for the impact evaluation in Tanzania. ACGG ATONU project was built on ACGG project that works with partners and beneficiaries to design and evaluate effective agriculture tailored nutrition interventions, and advocate for them. ACGG ATONU's primary beneficiaries were smallholder farm families in four regional states; Amhara, Tigray, Oromia and Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples' Region in Ethiopia and in three agricultural zones; central, southern highlands and eastern zones in Tanzania. The project targets were women of childbearing age and young children in the first 1,000 days of life in rural households, where high nutritional demands of pregnancy, development and early childhood must largely be met through food grown, or income earned, on family farms in both Ethiopia and Tanzania. The project benefited 1,600 households in both countries.Chicken products consumed at baseline and endline, EthiopiaOne of the major focuses of ATONU intervention is enhancing poultry and vegetable product consumption through improved production and management practices. Households in the intervention areas were provided chicken to improve own consumption and sale of eggs and live birds and encouraged to produce vegetables for the same purpose. During the baseline and endline assessment data were generated on the production and consumption of these commodities. Figure 1 presents a summary of index of child eggs and vegetable consumption in the previous seven days. In general, compared to the baseline, consumption of both food items has increased at the endline in all treatment arms. However, the increase in consumption of eggs looks significantly higher in the ACGG+ATONU treatment arm than both control and ACGG treatment arms. Compared to the control and ACGG treatment arms, a higher proportion of children in the ACGG+ATONU arm households consumed eggs that could be attributed to the NSI.Figure 1. Chicken, eggs, vitamin A rich vegetables, and other vegetables and fruit consumed in Ethiopia.Household dietary diversity index (HDD) is one of the most important indicators used to assess the food security status of households. It helps to measure the number of different types of food and food groups household consume and shows the diversity of food groups the household consume. It can be measured either at households or individual level such as women or children. Even though there are no standard cut off points that would indicate the adequacy of measured values, some institutions like IFPRI have their cut off points to assess the adequacy level. Table 1 presents a summary of household dietary diversity indicators by intervention period using 12 food groups approach at the household level and 9 food groups approach for women level and 7 food groups approach for child level. The household level dietary diversity is measured using 30 days food consumption recall information and usually, it does not only indicate the food security status of households, but also the wealth of households. As a result, it includes more food groups that are not included at individual level measurements. The overall average household dietary diversity score was about 4.13 during baseline and increased to 4.64 at the endline. The test for the presence of a difference between the mean values at different periods shows the presence of a statistically significant difference during the three periods. Women's dietary diversity was measured using 7 days and 24 hours of food consumption information. The 7 days consumption dietary diversity shows women's dietary diversity grew from 3.7 food groups at baseline to 4.27 food groups at the endline. The average difference at baseline and endline seems statistically significant. Likewise, the 24 hours food consumption recall also indicates women's food consumption diversity has increased from 2.72 to 3.14 food groups, with a statistically significant difference between the baseline and endline. Children's dietary diversity was also measured using the 7 days and 24 hours of food consumption recall. On average the seven days consumption of child dietary diversity grew from 2.14 during baseline to 2.68 during the endline. Similarly, the 24 hours recall consumption also grew from 1.79 food groups to 2.22 food groups. The test for difference in the average values suggests the presence of a statistically significant difference between baseline and endline.Minimum dietary diversity is also the other binary food security indicator that indicates the food security status of households, women, and children. This indicator is constructed using certain cut off points, where individuals above the cut-off point are considered as a food secure and below the cut-off point as otherwise. Table 2 presents a summary of women and child level indicators measured in 7 days and 24 hours recall. Based on the 7 days recall measure, the proportion of women that fulfil the minimum dietary diversity increased from 27.9 to 43.0%, which seems very significant. Similarly, based on the 24 hours recall measure, the proportion of women considered as an inadequate dietary diversity increased from 4.9 to 11.8%. The test for the presence of an association between minimum dietary diversity and period of observation is statistically significant at 1%, suggesting the presence of a strong association between periods of observation and level of minimum dietary diversity. Like the women minimum dietary diversity indicator, the proportion of children who were considered inadequate dietary diversity increased from 22.2 to 35.5%. There is also a statistically significant association between children's minimum dietary diversity and period of observation. In general, the minimum dietary diversity indicator of women and children suggests the presence of significant improvement during the endline than the baseline, which could be associated with the project interventions or other changes outside the project intervention. Impact of intervention on household dietary diversity (HDD), EthiopiaThe impact of the project intervention on household food security indicators was measured using the most commonly used difference-in-difference (D-I-D) approaches. Table 3 presents estimated results on the HDD indicators for the three treatment arms (Control vs ACGG+ATONU; Control vs ACGG; ACGG vs ACGG+ATONU). The impact of ACGG+ATONU interventions on HDD seems statistically significant at 1%. Compared to households in the control arms, households in the ACGG+ATONU had higher HDD, which could be attributed to the project intervention.Compared to the control arm, there was also a positive change in the ACGG treatment arm though the difference is not statistically significant. Furthermore, considering ACGG as the control group, the impact of ACGG+ATONU intervention on HDD seems positive despite the absence of a statistically significant difference between the two groups. This shows that in addition to the chicken-based intervention the NSI in the ATONU villages brought some change in HDD. Impact of intervention on household members dietary diversity, EthiopiaIn addition to household level aggregated data, intra household level indicators can also give us a good picture of the nutritional status of the selected household members who are vulnerable to food insecurity. Using the D-I-D approaches, the impact of the two interventions on women and children's dietary diversity is presented in Table 4. The estimated result suggests the impact of ACGG+ATONU intervention on women's dietary diversity measured at seven days recall seem statistically significant. Compared to women in the control arm, women in the ACGG+ATONU arms had higher dietary diversity at the endline than at the baseline. This could be attributed to the NSIs in the ATONU treatment arm. The D-I-D test between the ACGG and ACGG+ATONU intervention also shows the presence of a positive change in the ACGG+ATONU arms than the ACGG arms. However, this difference is not statistically significant. The positive difference in the values of these two intervention arms is expected due to the impact of other nutrition-based interventions in addition to the chicken related intervention. To assess the pathway between chicken production and consumption, women were specifically asked about egg consumption and cooking methods. Figure 2 describes eggs produced, consumed, sold, given away and retained for chick production. The survey questions on which this section is based ask specifically about the previous seven days.Looking at endline data, we see that the ACGG and ACGG+ATONU arms are producing approximately twice as many eggs at endline as the control arm, and more eggs than at baseline. At endline, the average number of eggs produced in the last week was 9.9, 8.5 and 4.5 for ACGG, ACGG+ATONU and control arms, respectively. We also see that in each arm, similar numbers of eggs are consumed at home as are sold.Figure 2. Egg production and uses, last week, Ethiopia.Overall, while household consumption of eggs produced on-farm was low and not different among arms at baseline (p>0.05), the ACGG and ACGG+ATONU arms had higher household egg consumption (approximately 4 eggs/week) than the control arm (approximately 2 eggs/week) at endline (p<0.05).Table 5 also shows the most common egg preparation methods. On average, the ACGG+ATONU group prepared the greatest number of eggs at endline during the last preparation (6.9), which had increased from the baseline amount by about one egg (from 5.6); the ACGG arm consumed about 6.6 eggs during the last preparation, which also increased from 5.6 at baseline. The control arm prepared about 5.8 eggs during the last preparation, which also saw an increase from about 5.1 at baseline. The most common cooking method was frying and scrambling for all treatment arms. There seemed to be a slight decrease in boiling eggs, and a slight increase in preparation by cooking in a stew or meat dish compared to baseline for all treatment arms.  Table 6 is based on the section of the survey that first asks about whether eggs were consumed in the past week, and if they were, how many were consumed by the following groups: the woman of reproductive age, the index child, the oldest child, other household members, the household head and non-household members. The average number of eggs consumed at each meal for the woman of reproductive age and the index child is relatively consistent from baseline to endline and across groups. However, as shown in Table 5 above, there was a much higher percentage of households that prepared eggs in the past week in the ACGG+ATONU (51%) and ACGG (46%) arms compared to the control arm (28%), meaning a greater number of children and women of reproductive age actually ate eggs in these groups, and that a greater number of eggs was consumed by these intervention groups relative to the control. Children's consumption of chicken remained low across all arms, while egg consumption by children increased across time for all arms. Results from the 24-hour recall indicate that chicken consumed by children was low throughout the study with <1% of children consuming chicken in the previous 24 hours (Table 7). In the 7-day food frequency questionnaire, chicken consumption increased marginally to 2.7% at endline from 1% at baseline. Egg consumption by children was more frequent, with 15.4% of the children consuming eggs in the previous 24 hours at endline compared to 12% at baseline. In the previous 7 days, 27.5% of children had consumed eggs at endline compared to 24.2% at baseline. Eggs consumed appeared to be greater for the ACGG+ATONU arm at endline compared to other arms (Table 8).  Based on the FFQ table, eggs consumed in the ACGG+ATONU arm for the last 7 days was improved from 27% at baseline to 35.8% at endline among children. This improvement is registered as a significant change resulted from the ATONU packages (Table 9). Taking the 24-hour recall method into account, egg consumption among indexed children of the ACGG+ATONU treatment arm showed a significant increase from 15.4% at baseline to 21.8% at endline (Table 9). •FFQ=Food Frequency Questionnaire.On average, 11.5% of women reported consuming eggs in the 24-hour dietary recall at endline, compared to 6.9% at midline and 4.6% at baseline. Comparatively, 32.8% of the women reported consuming eggs on at least one occasion in the past 7 days, compared to 25.4% at midline and 19.4% at baseline. At endline, 1% of women reported consuming chicken in the previous 24 hours compared to 0.5% at baseline; 5.4% ate chicken on at least one occasion in the past week compared to 2.2% at baseline (Table 10). Chicken consumption remained very low throughout the study, while egg consumption showed marginal increases in all arms. Eggs consumed appeared to be greater for the ACGG and ACGG+ATONU arms at endline compared to the control arm (Table12). Based on the FFQ table chicken meat consumed in the ACGG+ATONU arm for the last 7 days was improved from 1.8% at baseline to 5.1% at endline among women. This improvement is registered as a significant change resulted from the ATONU packages (Table 11). Taking the 24-hour recall method into account, chicken meat consumed among women of reproductive age of the ACGG+ATONU treatment arm also showed a slight increase from 0.4% at baseline to 0.7% at endline (Table 11).  • Social and behavioural changes communication (SBCC) on nutrition education and hygiene to increase eggs and chicken meat consumed.• SBCC to increase expenditure on nutritious food through income generated from sale of eggs and chicken.• SBCC to empower women to influence changes in women's time use and participation in decision-making within the household.• Promoting home gardens to increase vegetable production for improving dietary diversity.This study hypothesized that both ACGG and ATONU can improve women's and children's diets via the following three pathways: food production for own consumption, increased income expenditure on additional nutrient dense foods, and women's empowerment, all working in concert. Specifically, ACGG could increase chicken meat and eggs produced, which would increase access to these products for household consumption. These products could also be marketed, providing a source of income that could be used in part for improving diets. ACGG's efforts to target women could also lead to greater engagement and participation by women in household decision-making on chicken production and marketing, which could, in turn, empower them and improve their status within the household. The SBCC on nutrition education and hygiene could encourage household consumption of chicken products and other nutrient dense foods, especially by women and children. SBCC on household budgeting could encourage use of income from chicken production, specifically for the purchase of other foods that could not be produced by the household but provide nutrients that would be missing in the household diet.Interventions addressing gender dynamics within the household could further empower women in chicken production and other aspects of household life. Household members' adoption of appropriate WaSH behaviours could decrease harmful exposure to poultry droppings, thereby decreasing morbidity among children and improving food and nutrient use. Given that chicken products provide a good source of animal protein and essential amino acids and micronutrients, it was expected that infants and young children would have better growth, women would be less likely to be underweight, and both women and children would have a reduced risk of anaemia.To assess the effect of the treatment arms on change in household chicken consumption from baseline to endline, D-I-D analysis was performed using linear mixed model. Results of the fitted model are presented in Table 14 (local chickens) and Table 15 (improved chickens). The analysis was adjusted for zone and endline household wealth index. For local chickens, the results revealed that consumption increased from baseline to endline. The magnitude of the D-I-D coefficient for ACGG+ATONU vs control treatment arms was 1.1929, with p-value of 0.0473. This means that the change in local chicken consumption from baseline to endline was significantly higher in ACGG+ATONU than in the control treatment arm. However, no significant difference was observed for ACGG only compared to control treatment arm (β=1.1489, p=0.0595) and ACGG+ATONU as compared to ACGG only (β=0.04400, p=0.9407). For improved chicken, the results of the adjusted linear mixed model presented in Table 15 showed that the number of improved chickens consumed was also higher in endline as compared to baseline. In addition, the change for improved chicken consumption was significantly higher among subjects in ACGG+ATONU (β=1.2863, p=0.0059) and ACGG only (β=0.9125, p=0.0525) in comparison to subjects in control arms. But no significant difference in change for improved chicken consumption was observed between ACGG+ATONU and ACGG only (β=0.3738, p=0.3008).","tokenCount":"4016"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3976a8c9be442d681d8cbfeed579baf0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4ab330ca-7f5a-41d4-b5ee-515f954a21c9/content","id":"-533336732"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ed6a6fe5-5103-43f0-9d3b-84f348628511","pagecount":"68","content":"Calidad de producto final, procesamiento y molinera Características morfológicas del grano Dureza del grano Cantidad y calidad de proteína Color de la harina/semolina Concentración de compuestos bioactivos Calidad Molinera Calidad de producto final, procesamiento y molinera Calidad de procesamiento, uso final y nutricional• Si el grano tiene calidad, el agricultor lo puede vender fácilmente, obteniendo un buen beneficio en el mercado.• La producción de trigo de alta calidad puede promover el desarrollo de industria local procesadora, incrementando el desarrollo de áreas rurales a través de negocios en agroalimentación.• El incremento de la población urbana incrementará la demanda de alimentos procesados. El trigo, sólo si tiene la suficiente calidad, es la mejor opción para cubrir esta demanda.• Si la gente come trigo nutritivito tendrá un mejor desarrollo físico y mental.• Si el grano tiene calidad, el agricultor lo puede vender fácilmente, obteniendo un buen beneficio en el mercado.• La producción de trigo de alta calidad puede promover el desarrollo de industria local procesadora, apoyando el desarrollo de áreas rurales a través de negocios en agroalimentación.• El incremento de la población urbana incrementará la demanda de alimentos procesados. El trigo, sólo si tiene la suficiente calidad, es la mejor opción para cubrir esta demanda.• Si la gente come trigo nutritivito tendrá un mejor desarrollo físico y mental. .• La dureza del grano es el parámetro único más importante para la calidad de producto final.• -no se compacta -alta absorción de agua• En calidad de trigo, la proteína del grano se considera como el gluten. El gluten es la red proteica que se forma cuando la harina se mezcla con agua para obtener una masa.• Gracias a la alta diversidad de tipos de gluten, el trigo se puede utilizar para elaborar muchos productos diferentes.Elasticidad & Extensibilidad Factores genéticos (dureza de grano, características del gluten, almidón, etc. ). La variedad.Medio ambiente (sequía, calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades).Medio ambiente (sequía, calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades). Cosecha, almacenamiento y transporte.• Sequía y calor van afectar a la calidad del grano:  Tamaño y forma de grano perjudicados  Concentración de proteína aumentada  Cambios en propiedades de las masas Factores genéticos (dureza de grano, características del gluten, almidón, etc. ). La variedad.Factores genéticos (dureza de grano, características del gluten, almidón, etc. ). La variedad.Medio ambiente (sequia calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades).Medio ambiente (sequia calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades). Factores genéticos (dureza de grano, características del gluten, almidón, etc. ). La variedad.Factores genéticos (dureza de grano, características del gluten, almidón, etc. ). La variedad.Medio ambiente (sequia calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades).Medio ambiente (sequia calor, heladas, alta humedad, enfermedades). Cosecha, almacenamiento y transporte.La fertilización nitrogenada favorece:Influencia de la fertilización con nitrógeno en el rendimiento de grano y la concentración de proteína en trigo duro (Atil 2000).• Cosecha, transporte y almacenamiento.Cosecha, transporte y almacenamiento.","tokenCount":"465"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"33f41eca88bfb470c27ce8da909a88e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f58dce8-5a58-4e93-8fa9-ec68faeadd94/retrieve","id":"1764315604"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a8be643-20d5-4bcd-b285-5ed6a78b77be","pagecount":"28","content":"The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) is a partnership collaboration led by the International Potato Center (CIP) implemented jointly with the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), that includes a growing number of research and development partners. RTB brings together research on its mandate crops: bananas and plantains, cassava, potato, sweet potato, yams, and minor roots and tubers, to improve nutrition and food security and foster greater gender equity especially among some of the world's poorest and most vulnerable populations. www.rtb.cgiar.orgThe Data Analysis ManualThe means-end chain model and the related laddering method were developed in the 1980s to understand not only how, but also why consumers value the products or services they purchase (Grunert and Grunert 1995;Gutman 1982;Reynolds and Gutman 1988). The \"User guide to means-end chain analysisl\" described how to collect means-end chain data (Kilwinger 2020). However, that user guide only provided a brief overview of how to analyze data once it was collected. Manually analyzing means-end chain data can be extremely time consuming. Over time, researchers have improved means-end chain analysis and have developed several types of analysis software including: MECanalyst, LadderMAP and LadderUX (Lastovica 1995;Vanden Abeele et al. 2012;Naspetti and Zanoli 2004). These software programs have greatly simplified the analysis of means-end chain data, but they also entail some new problems. Because the software is specialized and is used by a relatively small audience, most programs are technically supported only for a short while. Therefore, the authors have developed a supportive Excel file to analyze means-end chain data. Using existing and popular software like Excel increases the likelihood of continued technical support and updates. In this user guide, we describe how this Excel file should be used. The starting point of our manual will be a previously collected set of meansend chain data. Illustrative examples are given using existing datasets from Ugandan banana farmers and Kenyan potato farmers.This manual provides instructions to use the supportive Excel file to analyze means-end chain data. This Excel file was developed to provide an analysis tool with continued technical support; Microsoft will continue to keep Excel and NodeXL available for a long time. The user guide is focused on two main steps: developing an implication matrix in Excel and creating a hierarchical value map in NodeXL (Figure 1).The five general steps of a means-end chain analysis. The first three steps are described in the data collection manual (Kilwinger 2020). This manual, the data analysis manual, describes the final two steps.As mentioned above, this manual starts with the assumption that means-end chain data has already been collected and coded. For more information on data collection and coding see Kilwinger (2020) and Kilwinger and van Dam (2021). After the data has been collected and coded, an implication matrix can be built using our Excel calculator file.First, download files \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\" and \"MECAnalysisTool_Calculator\" at: https://doi.org/10.21223/XLWLBM.It is important to first organize all of your data in the file \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\". This file has the same layout as the calculator, but it has no formulas. Because there are many formulas in the calculator file, processing new data entries takes a long time. Therefore, data should first be organized in the right format in the MECAnalysisTool_DataInput file. Entering data in the input file before transferring it to the calculator file may seem like an unnecessary step, but in the long run, it will save you time (and frustration) when entering and analyzing your data. Once the data is completely and correctly organized, it can be copied into the MECAnalysisTool_Calculator.• Open the tab \"Input_ParticipantCodes\" in the Excel file \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\". On this tab, you can enter data about your respondents (Figure 2).• In column A, \"Participant Code\", you can assign your participant codes. This code is usually a unique serial number for each participant. The codes must be numerical! • In column B, \"Participant Name\", enter the individual names of the respondents who took part in your field study. The file only works if participant names are entered in column B. If you do not want to include a name, then use the same participant code as in column A.• Entering a \"1\" in column C indicates that you want that person's data included in the analysis.Sometimes, researchers want to analyze a subset of the respondents separately, for example to compare the hierarchical value maps of men versus women. Unfortunately, the file can only process the analysis of one group at a time (see Box 1). A subset of the participants can be analyzed by inserting a \"1\" in column C \"Analyze Participant's data\". If you leave the cell blank, that respondent's data will not be included in the analysis.Example of the tab \"Input_ParticipantCodes\". In column A, codes are assigned. In column B, participant names are entered. In column C, a \"1\" is entered to indicate which data will be analyzed.• In columns D and E, a default value of \"1\" should be entered in cells D4 and E4. If you have collected and want to use data that have preferred product characteristic ratings, you can make use of these columns (see Box 2).Columns G through K \"Participant grouping\" can be used to include various demographic characteristics of the respondents, such as age, gender and location. Which demographic characteristics are relevant depends on the research question, and you can fill it in according to your study preferences. To use this space effectively, we suggest including headers that describe your demographic (e.g., Gender: Male and Gender: Female), and then include 1's where the demographic applies. These are useful columns for when you go to analyze your subsets of data because you can copy and paste the 1's into column C \"Analyze participant's data\" to avoid input errors (see Figure 3). In columns D and E, a product characteristic rating can be added. This is an optional function. For example, respondents can be asked to rate the importance of each attribute on a scale of 1 to 5, or 1 to 7, or on a Likert scale.In column D, if the rating scale is 1 to 5, enter the numbers 1,2,3,4, and 5. If the scale is on a Likert scale (e.g., \"highly relevant\" through \"not relevant at all\") fill the numbers corresponding to the categories you used on the Likert scale in column D.In column E, you can select which rankings should be included in your analysis. You may only want to analyze the data of characteristics that are most important to respondents. For example, if you only want to include characteristics rated with a 4 or higher, enter 1's in E7 and E8 (after \"4\" and \"5\" in column D) (see Figure 4).Correctly coding your responses is one of the most difficult parts of a means-end chain analysis. If coding it too dense, too much meaning might be lost (e.g., lumping more constructs under the same label, such as all separate colors under \"color\"). If coding is not dense enough the hierarchical value map will contain too many links and will be unreadable (e.g., making a separate label for all possible colors such as \"Bordeaux red\", \"crimson red\" and \"cadmium red\"). See Kilwinger and van Dam (2021) for more information on coding.This Excel file gives the option to analyze your data on two levels of coding density. We refer to these levels as \"parent\" and \"child\"; thus, you can have \"parent codes\" and \"child codes\". Child codes are more descriptive of the parent code. For example, the parent code \"shape\" can have child codes \"round\" and \"oval\". Coding and ultimately analyzing on two levels can greatly impact the results. Therefore, it is, at the very least, interesting to explore how manipulating the coding density can impact your final hierarchal value map. You may also choose to analyze your data on a parent code level, and then further explore the most relevant child codes nestled under the parent codes in your results. First decide if you will code your participants hierarchal value maps on two levels. You may have to modify how you have structured your coding to be usable in this file.• Open tab \"Input_CodeBook\" in the Excel file in \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\" (Figure 5).• In column E, enter all your coded attributes in the yellow section (rows 3 -102). Enter all your coded consequences in the red section (rows 103 -212). Enter all of your coded values in the blue section (rows 213 -291).o Code names entered in column E cannot start with a number.o Not all rows need to be filled in; you use as many rows as you have constructs. You CANNOT add or remove rows from this file.o If there is not enough space for all of your codes, you will have to code more densely by lumping more attributes into a single category to reduce the number of codes (see Kilwinger and van Dam 2021).Figure 4. The optional section preferred product characteristic rating is used. In this example, respondents have rated the importance of product characteristics on a scale of 1-5 (column E). Only characteristics that were rated as a 4 or 5 are included in the analysis (column E).o You cannot enter double names; you will get a warning (see Figure 5), and it will not calculate correctly.• In column D, provide a code for each name. This can be a number (e.g., 1) -a parent code -or a number followed by a letter (e.g., 1a) -a child code.o Any other type of code will NOT WORK. This means you CANNOT enter a letter (a), abbreviation (var), or any other type of code using spaces, dots or any other character.o Codes entered in column D must follow a logical alphanumerical order (e.g., 1, 1a, 1b, 2, 3, 3a, 3b, 3c), not only for your own clarity and organizational purposes, but also so the file can calculate correctly. Refer to Figure 6 for an example. Parent code 1 (PotatoVariety) should be immediately followed by 1a (Sherakea), followed by 1b (Shangi), followed by 1c (Unica). If only child codes, 1a, 1b and 1c exist for parent code 1 (i.e., there is no 1d), then 1c should be followed by the next numerical parent code 2 with its child codes 2a, 2b, 2c, etc. Therefore, do not enter codes out of order: 34, 5, 1 or 1g, 1a, 1f.o You cannot enter double codes; you will get a warning (see Figure 4), and it will not calculate correctly. Notably, a parent code cannot have the (exact) same name as its only child code. Warnings are given for duplicated codes or names.• Column D provides an option to include a \"Parent code\" or a \"Child code\". When making use of two levels of coding, the data entry matters.• If a construct is only coded with a number (1), no difference will be made between parent and child codes. If a construct is coded with a number and a letter (1a), a difference can be made between \"parent\" and \"child\" codes.• The example in Figure 6 shows the difference between parent codes and child codes. Codes 1a, 1b and 1c all refer to a potato variety. Their parent code is 1, referring to \"potato variety.\" Similarly, 2a, 2b and 2c are types of banana variety, and code 2 refers to \"banana variety\". • This allows users to analyze data at two levels of coding density. In some cases, it might be desirable to have high coding densities which would link \"potato variety\" to \"shape\", meaning that the potato variety defines the shape of the potato. In other cases, lower levels of coding density can be desired, for example to understand how specific varieties relate to a specific shape (Figure 7).Example of the final output using \"parent codes\" on the left, and an example of the final output using \"child codes\" on the right.• Parent codes can (only) be numbers between 0-99. Child codes can (only) be numbers between 1-99 with a letter a-z (e.g., 1a, 99z). The number should either stand alone, if indicating a parent code (1), or the number should be immediately followed by a letter to indicate a child code (1a). Do not include spaces or punctuations of any kind in the codes. For example, \"1 a\", \"1-a\" and \"99.a\" cannot be analyzed. Only \"1a\" is correct and can be analyzed (refer back to Figure 6).• Be sure to assign parent codes for all child codes, even if there is only one child code. This is because if you choose to analyze your data on the child level, no parent codes are analyzed; likewise, if you choose to analyze your data on parent level, no child codes are analyzed.Means-end chain data is typically analyzed by calculating the direct and indirect linkages that respondents make between constructs. If a ladder consists of codes 1a to 2a to 3a, 1a is directly linked to 2a, and 2a is directly linked to 3a. 1a is also indirectly related to 3a (via 2a). We recommend entering the indirect relations between codes as it reduces the influence of the researcher. For example, Researcher A may code a participant's ladder as: 1a to 2a to 3a. Researcher B, however, may code the same ladder (with their own interpretation) as: 1a to 3a. Using indirect relations will preserve in either case, the relationship between codes 1a and 3a (direct for Researcher A and indirect for Researcher B). Not including the indirect relations will mean that Researcher B will link 1a to 3a, but Researcher A in no way links 1a to 3a. Preserving the relationship between 1a and 3a is important for when you later determine a threshold for analyzing your results. • Open the tab \"Input_DirectLinks\" in the file in \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\" (Figure 8). You can enter your coded laddering data here using the participant information and code book filled in on the previous tabs.• In cell A3, select if you want to analyze using parent codes or child codes. You can change this option later to compare results (only) if you have included both parent and child codes on \"Input_CodeBook\".• Even if you want to only look at a subset of the results, we recommend inputting all of your participant's laddering data. Then select subsets of participants to analyze on the \"Input_ParticipantCodes\" tab (refer to step 1 if needed).• In column A under \"Participant\", fill in the participant code that you assigned the participant whose ladder you are about to enter.• In column B, if you used the option \"preferred product characteristic rating\" (PPCR) (see Box 2), you can enter the rating the participant gave to the characteristic. For a more in-depth demonstration of how to input your PPCR data, use the following link to watch part 2 of the tool's video tutorial: https://youtu.be/ugFFXSob8X8.o If you have not collected or included preferred product characteristic ratings in your data, enter a \"1\" in each row in which a ladder is filled in. NOTE: Be sure that if you are not analyzing your data using preferred product characteristic ratings, on the tab \"Input_ParticipantCodes\", cells D4 and E4 should contain a \"1\" and the rest of the input cells in columns D and E should be blank.• In columns C -T, the direct relations between codes of ladders made by a respondent can be entered.For example, if the respondent linked the potato variety \"Sherakea\" to the shape \"round\", and then linked the shape \"round\" to \"marketable\", enter the codes you assigned such as 1a, 3a, or 5a.o Columns AP -BF can be used to verify that the codes of the individual's hierarchal value map are directly linked together as intended.o NOTE: Do not leave empty cells between codes; Excel will not calculate the ladder correctly.o NOTE: You are not allowed to type in a code that has not been entered in your code book. You must first enter all of your codes in the \"Input_CodeBook\" tab before you can enter codes into the \"Input_DirectLinks\" tab. In column B under PPCR, enter the associated rating that relates to the Reference cell (in column C) or enter a \"1\" in each row containing a ladder. In columns C through T, you can enter the ladder the respondent made via the codes that you filled in in your code book.• TIP: The Excel file can calculate (switch) between the parent code and child codes. The file cannot do that if you type in only parent codes.• For a more in-depth demonstration of how to input your data into the \"Input_DirectLinks\" tab, use the following link to watch part 1 of the tool's video tutorial: https://youtu.be/uz96RLX99NI.Analyzing indirect linkages is not required but is optional and recommended as it gives more reliable results.• To input indirect links, open the tab \"Input_IndirectLinks\".o NOTE: If you do not want to analyze indirect linkages, leave this sheet empty!• As mentioned before, even if you want to only look at a subset of results, we recommend inputting all of your participant's laddering data. Then select subsets of participants to analyze on the \"Input_ParticipantCodes\" tab (refer to step 1 if needed).• In column A under \"Participant\", fill in the participant code you assigned.• In column B, if you used the option \"preferred product characteristic rating\" (PPCR) (see Box 2), you can enter the rating the participant gave to the characteristic. For a more in-depth demonstration of how to input your PPCR data, use the following link to watch part 2 of the tool's video tutorial: https://youtu.be/ugFFXSob8X8.o If you have not collected or included preferred product characteristic ratings in your data, enter a \"1\" in each row in which a ladder is filled in. NOTE: Be sure that if you are not analyzing your data using preferred product characteristic ratings, on the tab \"Input_ParticipantCodes\", cells D4 and E4 should contain a \"1\", and the rest of the input cells in columns D and E should be blank.• Column C \"Ref:\" refers to the (reference) code which you will list all of the codes that are indirectly linked to it. For example (refer to Figure 9), Participant 2 has a ladder as follows: 1a to 3a to 5a to 6a. 1a is directly related to 3a, and 1a is indirectly related to 5a and 6a. 3a is directly related to 5a, and 3a is indirectly related to 6a. 5a is (only) directly related to 6a. 6a is the end of the ladder and has no relations. Thus, only 1a and 3a have indirect links to other codes. 1a and 3a are therefore reference codes and should each be put in a row of column C.• In columns D -T, list all of the codes that are linked indirectly to the reference code entered in column C. Returning to our example using Participant 2, Reference code 1a is indirectly linked to 5a and 6a. Fill 5a and 6a in columns D and E after Reference code 1a. 3a (another reference code) was indirectly related to 6a. Fill 6a in column D after Reference code 3a (refer to Figure 9).o NOTE: The order of codes listed in columns D -T does NOT matter. This is different than the tab \"Input_DirectLinks\", where the order of the data input DOES matter.o NOTE: You are not allowed to type in a code that has not been entered in your code book. You must first enter all of your codes in the \"Input_CodeBook\" tab before you can enter codes into the \"Input_IndirectLinks\" tab.o Columns AP -BF can be used to verify that the codes of the individual's hierarchal value map are indirectly linked together as intended.o NOTE: Do not leave empty cells between codes; Excel will not calculate the ladder correctly. In column B under PPCR, enter the associated rating that relates to the Reference cell (in column C) or enter a \"1\" in each row containing a ladder. In column C, enter the referenced codes. In columns D through T, enter the codes that are indirectly related to the reference code via the codes you filled in in your code book.• For a more in-depth demonstration of how to input your data into the \"Input_IndirectLinks\" tab, use the following link to watch part 1 of the tool's video tutorial: https://youtu.be/uz96RLX99NI.If you used the file \"MECAnalysisTool_DataInput\" to organize your data (which we strongly recommend), now is the time to copy all of your prefilled data from the MECAnalysisTool_DataInput file into the MECAnalysisTool_Calculator file. To do so, we suggest pasting the copied data as \"Values (V)\". [Right click. Look under \"Paste Options:\". Click on the icon with a clipboard and numbers \"123\", which is the \"Values (V)\" option.] By pasting in this way, you will save yourself a headache later.The calculator file will make the actual calculations that transform the ladders into a matrix and node-list. Keep in mind that the calculator uses a \"number of respondents\" algorithm. This means that if the same respondent made a similar link more than once, it will be counted only once in the matrix. Double linkages within respondents will be automatically deleted. For more information on algorithms to transform ladders into a matrix (such as frequency of responses), see Kilwinger and van Dam (2021).• Copy the data from the Input tabs in the Data Input file to the Calculator file. Do this in the same order as the tabs appear: first the \"Input_ParticipantCodes\" tab, second the \"Input_CodeBook\" tab, third the \"Input_DirectLinks\" tab, and finally (if applicable) the \"Input_IndirectLinks\" tab.• TIP: When copying the data, leave column C on the tab \"Input_ParticipantCodes\" empty. Once all data is copied, enter a \"1\" in column C for respondents whose data need to be analyzed. This will prevent Excel from making intermediate analysis before all data has been copied.• Once the four input tabs are filled out in the calculator file, Excel will automatically fill out the output tabs. Give Excel sufficient time to calculate; it can take a couple of minutes!• TIP: Once all of your data is entered and Excel has made its first full calculation, save your calculator file! That way, if Excel has troubles later, you will not have to reinput all of your data.• The tab \"Output_SummaryOverview\" shows a summary overview of the data you have entered (Figure 10).• In the summary overview, first you see the \"Threshold\", which represents the cut-off level. This is pre-set at \"1.\" This means that linkages made by one or more respondents are included in the analysis. This threshold can be changed on the tab \"Output_Matrix\" in cell B2.• \"Nr. Of Participants\" shows how many participants are included in the current analysis. You can use this information to crosscheck your intended analysis. For example, if you interviewed ten women and five men and only want to analyze the data from the women; this number should be ten.• \"PPCR Included\" refers to an optional function where you could analyze only data that respondent indicated as having a certain importance (Box 2).• The number and percentage of direct/indirect links and attributes/consequences/values that will be presented in the hierarchical value map and the total number of direct/indirect and attributes/ consequences/values made/named by the selected respondents are all presented in the Sum mary Overview (Figure 10). These figures may be interesting to note when publishing the results of your research.Figure 4. Example of the tab \"Output_SummaryOverview\". This tab contains a summary of the entered data and the data that will be presented in the hierarchical value map.• The tab \"Output_Matrix\" shows the matrix that is generated from the entered data (Figure 11).• In cell B2, a threshold (or cut-off level) can be entered. This must be a whole number. On the \"Output_SummaryOverview\" tab, you can see how changing the cut-off level influences your data. For example, you can see how many links or constructs are included at the entered cut-off level.• In the \"Output_Matrix\", the links will be represented in matrix format. Column B indicates the constructs \"from\", and row 2 indicates the constructs \"to\".• The number of direct links is indicated with the number before the comma (e.g., 1,0), and the number of indirect links is indicated with the number after the comma (e.g., 0,1).• On the tab \"Output_Matrix\", cells that represent links that are greater than or equal to the cut -off level will be highlighted. Cells with the sum of direct and indirect links at or above th e cut-off level where there are as many or more direct than indirect links are highlighted in green. Cells with the sum of direct and indirect links at or above the cut-off level where there are more indirect than direct links are highlighted in yellow.• The \"CopyPaste_\" tabs are also automatically generated and are needed in the next section to create a hierarchical value map from the matrix.Figure 5. Example of the tab \"Output_Matrix\" where the analysis was conducted using parent codes. This tab contains the matrix of your results. The threshold (or cut-off level) can be changed in cell B5. In this example, the threshold is set for 5. Therefore, cells are colored if the sum of the direct and indirect links is greater than or equal to 5. The cells are green when there are as many or more direct links as indirect links (with a total sum greater than or equal to 5), and the cells are yellow when there are more indirect links than direct links (with a total sum greater than or equal to 5).NodeXL uses two tabs to generate output: \"Edges\" and \"Vertices\" \"Vertices\" is basically NodeXL's codebook. It refers to this tab to translate your code references into code names so that the output is readable. On this tab, you can format the text in various ways using color, shape, size, opacity, etc. \"Edges\" is used to connect one construct (\"vertex\" in their terms) to another. On this tab, you can format the lines in various ways using color, width, style, opacity, etc. You also have the option to include labels (and label formatting).• First, download the Excel add-in NodeXL on https://www.smrfoundation.org/nodexl/. There is a basic version available for free, which is sufficient for generating a hierarchical value map. For more advanced options, the pro version can be purchased.• Open an empty NodeXL file, and give it a proper name that corresponds to the group that will be analyzed (e.g., HVM_overall or HVM_subgroup_men).• On the tab \"CopyPaste_NodeXL.Edges\", you find that columns A, B and H have been automatically filled in for you. At the very least, you must Copy column A \"Vertex 1\" and column B \"Vertex 2\" of the tab \"CopyPaste_NodeXL.Edges\" to the NodeXL tab \"Edges\" in columns A and B (see Figure 12).o Column H is optional. If you want the values of the linkages to be shown in the hierarchical value map, copy column H \"labels\" from the tab \"CopyPaste_NodeXL.Edges\" to the NodeXL file on the tab \"Edges\" in column H. It can be useful for you to know how many direct and indirect links were associated with each link, but it is not necessary information for NodeXL to generate output.o You also have the option to make use of some additional automated formatting which can aid in the readability of the output generated by NodeXL (see Box 3).o NOTE: When pasting any columns from the MECAnalysisTool_Calculator file to your NodeXL file, paste as \"Values (V)\" as was suggested previously. [Right click. Look under \"Paste Options:\". Click on the icon with a clipboard and numbers \"123\", which is the \"Values (V)\"option.]• Click on the button \"create graph\" on the right side of the screen in the box \"Document actions\" . This will automatically generate a vertices list on the tab \"Vertices\".• On the tab \"CopyPaste_NodeXL.Vertices\", you find that columns A and H have been automatically filled in for you. You must copy column H \"Label\" of the tab \"CopyPaste_NodeXL.Vertices\" to the NodeXL tab \"Vertices\" in column H (Figure 12). Make sure that column A is filled in the same order on both files before copying column H.o You also have the option to make use of some additional automated formatting which can aid in the readability of the output generated by NodeXL (see Box 4).Figure 6. Example of NodeXL tabs \"Edges\" (top) and \"Vertices\" (bottom). Data can be copied in columns A and B (and optionally H) on the tab \"Edges\". Values can be inserted in the column H \"Label\". After pressing the button \"create graph\" in the window \"document actions\" column A on the \"Vertex\" tab will be automatically filled in with the codes from the tab \"Edges\". Code labels can be assigned in column H. Make sure the order of column A is similar in both files.Example of NodeXL tab \"Vertices\"• Select the \"Harel-Koren Fast\" graph in the menu of the box \"Document actions\", and then refresh the graph. Now you will see a network appear with the assigned labels. The Harel-Koren Fast graph gives the most useful automatically generated network for means-end chain data. The network graph can be modified by changing the position of nodes/vertices (see Figure 13).• To modify the network graph, select a node until the color turns red. Now you can change the position of the nodes/vertices. However, each time you press \"refresh graph\" the nodes will shift back again.To prevent this, select all the nodes that are in their proper position, and press the button with the lock icon on it. This freezes the nodes when you refresh your graph. To unlock it, press again on the button with the key icon. In the CopyPaste_NodeXL.Vertices tab, you will find a table with optional formatting settings in column P. These settings are for formatting the color of the text of the nodes (or construct names) that will appear in the hierarchal value map. To use these optional settings all (salmon colored) cells must be filled in correctly or else it will not generate correct color formats.Node color settings:• Different colors can be assigned to attributes, consequences and values. To do this, the file draws on the range of parent codes that make up each construct type. For example, if you have attributes of 1a, 1b, 2a, 3a, 3b... 39a, and 39b, this means your parent codes range from 1 to 39. Therefore, you should fill in \"40\" in cell P3. Decide what color you would like attributes to be, and write it in cell P4. Keep in mind again that you are limited to the preset color options that NodeXL accepts (see Figure 15). • Once you have determined the ranges and colors in cells P3, P4, P6, P7 and P10, the file will update, and you will see the automated colors in column B. Be sure, when you go to copy and paste this column into the NodeXL \"Vertices\" tab that you paste it as \"Values (V)\"• If you did not make use of the automated formatting options (see Box 4), when desired, the formatting of the output can be manually modified (see Figure 16). For example, in column B on the tab \"Vertices\", a color can be assigned to each node. This could clarify which constructs are attributes, consequences and values. Also, the shape (column C) and size (column D) of the nodes/ vertices can be modified. Modifications to the label such as color and position can be made in columns H and I.• Similarly, if you did not make use of the automated formatting options (see Box 3), the formatting of the linkages (the lines connecting two constructs) can be modified. On the tab \"Edges\" the line color (column C), line width (column D), line style (column E) of the edges can be changed. For example, the width of the edges can be correlated to the number of respondents making a link (e.g. , thicker lines for links with more respondents), and the line style to indicate if the link is direct or indirect (e.g., solid lines for direct links and dotted lines for indirect ones).Once the graph is modified as desired, the analysis is finished! Figure 17 shows the results of a means-end chain analysis using this tool.Manually analyzing means-end chain data can be time consuming. To simplify the data analysis, several software programs have been developed. Unfortunately, the technical support for some of this software has been discontinued. For that reason, the authors have developed a supportive Excel file to analyze means-end chain data. This user guide provides a step-by-step manual to use this Excel file.  ","tokenCount":"5422"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"161568d3f643436dccf306a6444de263","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a36da482-8a64-4137-8f84-e7eb35d4689e/retrieve","id":"-1640776493"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"96f9b373-e08a-475d-8ca8-3189f64d7e79","pagecount":"48","content":"Efecto de la profundidad del hoyo de plantación sobre el desarrollo del retoño y las raíces de Musa spp. G. Sebuwufu, P.R. Rubaihayo y G. Blomme Evaluación del método de cribado simultáneo de germoplasma de Musa contra varias especies de nematodos D.L. Coyne y A. Tenkouano Efecto del estrés oxidativo sobre los cultivares 'Berangan' y 'Mas'1 Editorial ¿Un futuro electrónico para INFOMUSA? E l apoyo con información a la comunidad de investigación y desarrollo de Musa siempre ha sido importante para INIBAP e INFOMUSA representa un elemento clave en nuestra estrategia de diseminación de la información. Durante los últimos 20 años, nos hemos adaptado hasta cierto punto al desarrollo de las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (NTIC) produciendo copias electrónicas de nuestras publicaciones, pero nos hemos resistido a ir completamente a las publicaciones electrónicas.Una de las razones consiste en que el alcance de INFOMUSA es mucho mayor como una publicación impresa que como publicación electrónica (casi el 60% de los subscriptores de INFOMUSA no han registrado una dirección electrónica con nosotros). Así que por el momento no pensamos dejar de producir la revista INFOMUSA impresa, pero las limitaciones financieras, concretamente, la reducción del financiamiento discrecional para la publicación de la revista, podría obligarnos a reducir el número de ediciones impresas al año.La producción solo de la versión electrónica de INFOMUSA ciertamente reduciría los gastos, incluso teniendo en cuenta el costo de la producción de las páginas HTML (en la actualidad INFOMUSA está disponible electrónicamente sólo en formato PDF, en representación de dos columnas, que no se presta mucho a leerla en la pantalla y obliga a nuestros lectores a imprimirla). Estamos considerando desarrollar este servicio como parte de nuestra estrategia para mejorar el acceso a nuestros productos de información a través de nuestro sitio Web.Recurrir más a las NTIC podría ayudarnos a aumentar nuestro número de lectores. Por ejemplo, un boletín electrónico que atrae la atención hacia los artículos publicados en INFOMUSA y otros tipos de noticias podría ser enviado no solo a nuestros lectores pero también a los donantes, asociados y medios de comunicación. Y como la brecha digital está resuelta, podríamos considerar una transición hacia una INFOMUSA completamente electrónica.Al buscar el equilibrio más apropiado entre las soluciones convencionales y de altas tecnologías al desafío de presentar la información de manera más rentable, nos gustaría saber lo que usted piensa. Y para mejorar la comunicación con todos nuestros subscriptores, nosotros proponemos a aquéllos quiénes tienen una dirección de correo electrónico desde el momento de la suscripción a INFOMUSA, que nos la envíen a inibap@cgiar.orgLos editores E l crecimiento demográfico de la población malgache crea un marco favorable al aumento de la producción de banano que contribuye en cerca de un 20% al suministro de fruta de la población. El banano de postre, llamado localmente Batavia o Bitavia, pertenece principalmente al subgrupo Cavendish y representa más del 75% de la producción nacional de banano. El banano se consume también cocinado, principalmente en las zonas productoras. Este consumo aumentó recientemente, substituyendo al arroz durante el período de escasez en la zona costera del Este de la isla. La producción de bananos de Madagascar registró un rápido crecimiento hasta 1975, en que alcanzó su nivel más alto con cerca de 400 000 toneladas, impulsada por sociedades de asistencia técnica para el fomento de las exportaciones 1 (hacia Francia entre 1961 y 1971). A continuación, la producción fue cayendo hasta que se estabilizó en 1979 (Figura 1). Desde 1994, su crecimiento es regular, pero lento, y se estabilizó en 290 000 toneladas a partir de 2002 (FAO-STAT). Este aumento es insuficiente respecto del crecimiento de la población. La disponibilidad anual de banano por habitante ha bajado de 60 kg en 1974 a 18 kg en 2002 (Figura 2). Si se tiene como objetivo el volver a lograr un nivel de disponibilidad por habitante de 26 kg (promedio de la disponibilidad calculada sobre 20 años), y teniendo en cuenta el actual crecimiento demográfico (2,8% al año), prácticamente sería necesario duplicar la producción de bananos en Madagascar en menos de cinco años, es decir, producir más de 230 000 toneladas suplementarias. La finalidad de este artículo es preguntarse sobre las condiciones de producción y comercialización que determinan la capacidad de ajuste de este sector a los retos cuantitativos que plantea la seguridad alimentaria del país.A nivel metodológico, este artículo explota los datos recogidos entre un panel de veinte expertos consultados en el marco de un estudio realizado para el relanzamiento del sector del banano en Madagascar (Scanagri 2003), así como los resultados de una encuesta entre una muestra de productores y comerciantes del sector realizada en el marco de unas prácticas universitarias (Rakotomalala 2003).Los principios metodológicos aplicados son los de un enfoque sectorial que conducen, sucesivamente, a localizar las principales zonas de producción, estudiar el proceso de formación de los precios y caracterizar el funcionamiento del sistema de comercialización para analizar su eficiencia.Excepto algunas plantaciones comerciales, el cultivo del banano se efectúa mayoritariamente en pequeñas explotaciones familiares con una superficie promedio de 0.3 ha; o sea 500 a 700 plantas por productor (Bé 2003, Randrianavoson 2002). Estas explotaciones, debido a su estructura y a sus dificultades de liquidez financiera, no tienen, o ésta es muy reducida, capacidad para comprar insumos (fertilizantes, insecticidas...).Con un promedio de seis toneladas de banano por hectárea, los rendimientos son muy bajos con respecto al potencial que se puede lograr en estación experimental, que puede alcanzar hasta 100 toneladas/ha en sistemas de producción muy intensivos y en condiciones particulares. Los datos disponibles (FAOSTAT) reflejan una caída de los rendimientos entre 1983 y 2004 (Figura 1). Estos datos globales no permiten apreciar la evolución de los rendimientos en función de la localización geográfica y de los sistemas de producción. Los estudios disponibles destacan la creciente importancia de las limitantes fitosanitarias, principalmente la raya negra de la hoja, el picudo y otras enfermedades en proceso de identificación, pero también las deficiencias de mantenimiento de los cultivos, especialmente la nutrición de las plantas (sobre todo nitrogenada y potásica).Entre 1976 y 1986, la provincia de Toamasima contribuía con un promedio del 51% a la oferta nacional. En 1999, con 61 108 toneladas, esta provincia sólo contribuía ya con un 36% a la producción del país (Rakotomalala 2003). Esta caída de la producción está principalmente ligada a un fuerte incremento de las limitantes fitosanitarias (Scanagri 2003). Mientras tanto, se desarrolló en el Sureste de la isla la producción de banano. En 1999, la provincia de Fianarantsoa garantizaba el 42% Análisis económico Economía del sector del banano en Madagascar L. Temple, A.H.J. Rakotomalala y T. Lescot 3 de la producción del país, es decir: 71 285 toneladas.La ciudad de Antananarivo, capital del país (aprox. 1.4 millones de habitantes) es el principal mercado de consumo de Madagascar. Partiendo de la disponibilidad promedio de 18 kg/habitante, y teniendo en cuenta el inferior consumo de banano en las zonas urbanas respecto de las rurales, se puede estimar que el tamaño de este mercado está entre 17 000 y 25 000 toneladas anuales. La cuantificación de los flujos que abastecen Antananarivo pone de manifiesto que el 60% de la oferta proviene del Sureste, el 30% del Este y el 10% del Oeste (Rakotomalala 2003).Las observaciones de precios de productos agrícolas son realizadas principalmente por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INSTAT) en los precios al consumo y, recientemente, por el Ministerio de Agricultura en las zonas de producción. Estas dos estructuras registran los precios por kilo de banano maduro, es decir, a nivel de los consumidores.Figura 1. Evolución de la producción y de los rendimientos de banano en Madagascar desde 1961. Figura 2. Evolución de la disponibilidad de banano por habitante en Madagascar. Los precios (INSTAT 2000) son el resultado de un promedio calculado en tres o cuatro mercados de Antananarivo (Figura 3). Se observa una tendencia al aumento hasta 1994, seguida de una estabilización en torno a 1000 Fmg*/kg hasta 1999. Desde entonces, los precios aumentan muy rápidamente y son cada vez más inestables: las variaciones de un año a otro presentan oscilaciones cada vez mayores. La estacionalidad (variación intraanual) es relativamente baja. Para comprender mejor los determinantes potenciales de esta inestabilidad, hubo que caracterizar la estructura del sistema de comercialización para analizar su eficiencia (Figura 4).No existe realmente mercado mayorista específico. Cada mercado cubre, simultáneamente, la función de mayorista y minorista, pero la función dominante varía según la hora del día, o incluso el día de la semana. Se distinguen varios operadores principales: los mayoristas transportistas, los mayoristas maduradores, los clientes y los minoristas.-Los mayoristas transportistas disponen de su propio camión y se abastecen principalmente de mayoristas recolectores en los lugares de descarga de las balsas. Los mayoristas transportistas no disponen de lugar de almacenamiento en la ciudad. El banano se vende entre los \"clientes\" en cuanto llega. Un camión de 10 toneladas se venderá, por término medio, entre 8 a 12 clientes, o sea, un promedio de aproximadamente una tonelada por cliente. Las pérdidas físicas postcosecha están relacionadas con la duración de almacenamiento en el camión. Entre la carga y la descarga (2 días), se pueden perder 700 kilos de fruta, pero si se superan los 3 días, las pérdidas pueden alcanzar 2 a 3 toneladas. Estas pérdidas se deben principalmente a la evapotranspiración de los racimos y a su aplastamiento en los camiones (heterogeneidad, a veces, en las fases de corte).-Los mayoristas maduradores o \"clientes\" fijan el precio de compra del banano con los mayoristas transportistas en las zonas urbanas. Los mayoristas maduradores están en contacto principalmente con mayoristas transportistas de una zona geográfica precisa. Raramente se abastecen a partir de zonas diferentes. Según las observaciones realizadas, los mayoristas maduradores están parcialmente especializados en una variedad determinada. Cada uno posee su cámara de maduración, constituida por un horno rectangular de adobe (8m x 5m x 3m) con una capacidad máxima de tres toneladas, calentado con una mezcla de madera seca y aserrín. El oficio de madurador conlleva el dominio de las técnicas de construcción de hornos y disponer de lugares libres no edificados cerca de los mercados, ya que el precio del suelo es alto. Estos conocimientos técnicos y este capital se transmiten, a veces, desde hace más de 300 años.El mayorista madurador controla el abastecimiento del mercado, ya que puede almacenar los bananos verdes. Casi toda  InfoMusa -Vol. 14 N°2 Diciembre 2005 5 la producción consumida en Antananarivo, aproximadamente 25 000 toneladas, pasa por estas cámaras de maduración artesanas. Con una capacidad anual promedio de aproximadamente 300 toneladas por cámara, se puede estimar su número entre 80 y 100. Estas cámaras están pegadas a un local de almacenamiento de los bananos. Cada mayorista madurador madura su propia mercancía. No existen (o son raras) colaboraciones entre mayoristas.Si el banano se conserva verde entre 15 y 30 días, una vez maduro, en cambio, la duración de conservación sin frío es únicamente de 2 a 3 días. La función principal de las cámaras consiste, pues, en regular el abastecimiento de bananos maduros de los mercados minoristas a partir de las existencias de fruta verde.La pérdida de peso que sufre el mayorista madurador respecto de la cantidad comprada (corte del racimo en manos, pérdida de peso por su almacenamiento en cámara que seca los bananos) oscila entre el 25 y el 30% en los bananos procedentes de Brickaville y el 20% en los bananos procedentes de Mananjary (variedad con piel más gruesa que disminuye la evaporación en la cámara de maduración y con un contenido de humedad inicial más bajo).Posteriormente, el mayorista madurador vende sus bananos maduros a minoristas. La venta se hace al kilo. Teóricamente, todas las variedades y las calidades están mezcladas. El mayorista acondiciona su fruta en \"garrabes\" (cesta con una capacidad promedio de 20 kg), pero la unidad de transacción y negociación sigue siendo el precio por kilo. Una tonelada abastece a cinco o seis minoristas situados en distintos mercados de la ciudad. Los minoristas venden a los consumidores en los mercados o en puntos de venta a lo largo de los ejes de comunicación.La sucesión de estos operadores permite identificar los circuitos de comercialización (Figura 4) que abastecen la ciudad. Sin especificar la complejidad de este sistema, derivada especialmente de la polivalencia de los operadores según los períodos, es necesario, a partir de los datos obtenidos, cuestionar su eficiencia.La desagregación de los costos de comercialización (Cuadro 1) permite calcular el margen de beneficio por kilo en cada tipo de operador e identificar aquéllos que realizan los márgenes de beneficios más altos.Los márgenes de mayoristas recolectores y mayoristas transportistas (aprox. 7 Fmg/kg) no parecen muy altos, habida cuenta, por un lado, de los volúmenes mensuales de actividad y, por otro, de los riesgos asumidos y de las inversiones de capital necesarias. Por el contrario, los márgenes de los mayoristas maduradores (315 Fmg/kg) despiertan muchos interrogantes sobre su justificación. No se pudieron evaluar los márgenes del último operador del circuito: el minorista en los mercados.El diagnóstico sobre el sistema de comercialización conduce a dos observaciones convergentes. Las encuestas entre los operadores revelaron que el precio de referencia del sector viene determinado por los precios que se forman entre el mayorista madurador y los mayoristas transportistas. Los análisis de márgenes resaltan la importancia de los márgenes de beneficios de los mayoristas maduradores en volúmenes de transacción importantes.La rebaja de los márgenes de comercialización se hace a nivel de los almacenes de maduración. Teóricamente, esta rebaja podría permitir aumentar simultáneamente los precios a los productores (condición favorable  La producción de bananos en Madagascar responde a una demanda interior en rápido crecimiento tanto en las ciudades, para el consumo de fruta, como, recientemente, en las zonas rurales para su consumo como \"hortaliza\" durante el período de escasez. Se localiza principalmente en el Sureste y Este de la isla, especialmente en pequeñas explotaciones familiares con muy bajos rendimientos debido, particularmente, al incremento de las limitantes fitosanitarias y nutricionales. Si el análisis del sistema de comercialización revela un cierto nivel de desempeño, se han identificado algunos fallos, esencialmente en la transmisión entre mayoristas y mayoristas maduradores. Este diagnóstico revela un alto potencial de mejoramiento de las condiciones de producción y eficiencia del sistema de comercialización. Su realización implica la difusión de técnicas adaptadas a las condiciones socioeconómicas de producción (manejo integrado, técnicas de multiplicación hortícolas...) y la optimización del sistema actual de información de precios en los mercados. El establecimiento, y la difusión, de un precio en su fase verde (antes de las cámaras de maduración) en las zonas de producción y a su llegada a los mercados mayoristas de Antananarivo podría reforzar la transparencia del mercado y crear condiciones económicas favorables al aumento de la producción.Bé F. 2003. Analyse de la production de la filière banane, faits et perspective, cas de la province de Tananarive. n Australia, los bananos se cultivan principalmente en North Queensland a lo largo de la costa tropical húmeda, con el centro en las ciudades de Tully e Innisfail (Anon. 2002). El área es relativamente húmeda (de 3000 mm a 5000 mm de precipitación al año) y durante la estación húmeda (de noviembre a mayo), las condiciones son propicias para la propagación de las enfermedades de manchas foliares, especialmente la Sigatoka amarilla, causada por Mycosphaerella musicola Leach. Los restantes meses del año son frescos o generalmente secos.La Sigatoka negra (SN) o raya negra de la hoja, causada por Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet, es la principal enfermedad de los bananos en todo el mundo. Es endémica en Papua Nueva Guinea e islas del estrecho de Torres. Por primera vez esta enfermedad fue detectada en el continente australiano en 1981 en el área seca de Cabo York, adyacente al estrecho de Torres (Jones y Alcorn 1982). Entre 1981 y 2000, se registró en seis otras localidades en el área de Cabo York. Probablemente, estas infestaciones fueron resultado de una o dos introducciones de material vegetal infectado desde el área del estrecho de Torres. La SN fue erradicada de cada sitio destruyéndose todo el material foliar y replantando los sitios con cultivares resistentes.En abril de 2001, la SN fue detectada en el área de Tully de North Queensland y un programa de erradicación fue iniciado después de establecer la magnitud de la infestación.La magnitud de la infestación fue delimitada a través de encuestas de todas las áreas bananeras en North Queensland, incluyendo las áreas residenciales. Las muestras de las hojas enfermas fueron enviadas al laboratorio del Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries en Mareeba. La identificación de todas las muestras sospechosas fue confirmada mediante la prueba de reacción en cadena de polimerasa (PCR) (Henderson et al. 2002).Después de delimitar el área de infestación, se declaró por vía legislativa el área de producción bananera de Tully (TBPA) como zona de cuarentena. El TBPA ocupa 4400 km 2 e incluye 4500 hectáreas de plantas de banano rodeando los municipios de Tully y Mission Beach. Todos los bananos en el TBPA debían tener un nivel de 'enfermedad detectable cero'. Hubo penalidades por no cumplir con las reglas. Todos los tejidos foliares enfermos en todas las plantas de banano debían ser removidos y colocados en el suelo para ser descompuestos.El propósito del programa de erradicación (Peterson 2002) consistió en remover todo el inóculo de SN de todas las plantas en el área y aplicar un programa intensivo de fumigación para prevenir el establecimiento de nuevas infecciones. Debido a que la incidencia de la SN era relativamente baja en comparación con la de la Sigatoka amarilla, la reducción del inóculo de la última a niveles extremadamente bajos aseguraría que todo el inóculo de la SN fuera erradicado.Todas las parcelas de tierra registradas en los mapas catastrales del TBPA fueron visitadas para destruir el inóculo en todas las plantas de banano no comerciales. A los propietarios que deseaban conservar sus plantas de banano se les requirió mantenerlas a un nivel de 'enfermedad detectable cero' defoliándolas, con o sin fumigación. Los propietarios que no cumplían con las reglas, se arriesgaban a tener que destruir sus plantas ellos mismos o a que éstas fueran destruidas y pagar por ello. Todas las plantas de banano no deseables, incluyendo aquellas que no tenían propietarios (plantas silvestres), fueron muestreadas y destruidas.Los fungicidas fueron aplicados semanalmente desde agosto de 2001 hasta febrero de 2002. Estos comprendían el fungicida protector mancozeb, y los fungicidas sistémicos propiconazol, difenoconazol, tebuconazol y trifloxystrobino. A todas las fumigaciones se aplicó el aceite mineral de 4 a 5 L/ha. Desde febrero de 2002 hasta mayo de 2003, se implementó un programa de fumigación menos intensivo, el cual consistió en aplicaciones quincenales de mancozeb, más aceite, con excepción de cuando una fumigación de propiconazol fue aplicada en abril y mayo de 2002. Los productores orgánicos aplicaron fungicidas basados en cobre más aceite vegetal en rotación con el aceite mineral exclusivamente a 5 L/ha de diciembre de 2001 a marzo de 2002.Instructores capacitados visitaron todas las plantaciones comerciales cada cuatro a seis semanas desde septiembre de 2001 hasta mayo de 2002 e inspeccionaron todas las plantas para detectar la presencia de la enfermedad. Después de las dos primeras rondas de inspección, a todos los productores que tenían la enfermedad en sus propiedades se les consideró que no cumplieron y se les aplicaron penalidades (no poder trasladar su fruta), hasta que alcanzasen el nivel de 'enfermedad detectable cero'. Todos los tejidos enfermos detectados fueron muestreados y se identificó el agente causal.Los resultados del programa de erradicación fueron verificados monitoreando la reaparición de la Sigatoka amarilla y de la Sigatoka negra durante un período de 12 meses, de mayo de 2002 a mayo de 2003, en las plantaciones sujetas a un programa de fumigación menos intensivo, en las plantas de banano no comerciales y en las plantas centinelas (trampas) (Peterson 2003). Se registraron los datos de clima y el programa de las plantas silvestres, se auditó.La legislación fue modificada y el nivel de enfermedad 'permitido' en el TBPA fue elevado de 'enfermedad detectable cero' a un máximo de 5% de tejido enfermo en cualquier hoja. El programa de verificación (Anon. 2003) consistió de seis rondas de vigilancia de dos meses cada una. En cada ronda, todas las plantaciones fueron inspeccionadas y las plantas de banano no comerciales en las propiedades residenciales fueron visitadas cada dos meses. Las plantas centinelas (bloques de 5 a 10 plantas de banano 'Williams' no fumigadas) fueron establecidas en 138 sitios en transacciones de 1 a 10 km de largo alrededor de todos los sitios donde la Sigatoka negra fue detectada. Las plantas centinelas fueron sembradas a más de 25 m de los bananos comerciales, para evitar la exposición a fungicidas, y a más de 10 m de la caña de azúcar, para evitar la exposición a herbicidas. Las plantas centinelas no fueron sembradas en las áreas que se utilizaban para el pastoreo o que eran inadecuadas para el cultivo de los bananos, como los pantanos, bosques húmedos y parques públicos. Todas las plantas centinelas fueron inspeccionadas cuidadosamente una vez al mes y todos los tejidos enfermos muestreados.En tres sitios a través del TBPA se registraron la temperatura y la precipitación. Un período de al menos tres días húmedos consecutivos (>1 mm de precipitación) con temperaturas mínimas por encima de 18˚C, se consideró como 'período de infección'. La cantidad de períodos de infección y el número acumulativo de días húmedos de los períodos de infección durante la fase de verificación del programa fueron comparados con el promedio de los diez años previos.Durante la etapa temprana del programa de erradicación, todos los sitios donde las plantas de banano fueron destruidas en el cumplimiento del programa de erradicación de plantas silvestres fueron visitadas nuevamente para asegurarse que la erradicación fue exitosa. El programa de erradicación de plantas silvestres fue auditado hacia el final del programa de verificación, con visitas nuevas a más de un 10% de las parcelas con alto riesgo, alrededor de los sitios donde la SN fue detectada, para asegurarse que no faltara ninguna planta en el programa original.La SN fue confirmada en 20 de las 2657 muestras de hojas de banano recolectadas durante las encuestas de delimitación del TBPA (Tabla 1). La enfermedad no fue detectada fuera del TBPA en las áreas productoras de banano cercanas a Innisfail o Kennedy. La SN fue detectada en las cinco muestras adicionales recolectadas entre agosto y  Un bajo nivel de ascósporas de M. musicola fue observado en el 27% de las muestras provenientes del material vegetal recolectado en el suelo de 48 plantaciones entre septiembre y noviembre de 2001. La posterior evaluación de ascósporas no fue posible, ya que no se pudo localizar material foliar intacto con lesiones distinguibles.Entre agosto de 2001 y febrero de 2002, las plantas de banano comerciales fueron fumigadas una vez por semana (27 veces) con fungicidas sistémicos en rotación con un fungicida protector. Los tipos de fungicidas sistémicos también fueron rotados, basándose en su modo de acción y problemas conocidos de resistencia cruzada. El programa de fumigación, especialmente la aplicación de trifloxystrobino (1.2 L de Tega con 4-5 L/ha de aceite) durante la estación caliente y seca (de octubre a diciembre de 2001), causó daños considerables a los racimos sin cubierta.Un total de 7629 parcelas fueron visitadas y todas las plantas no comerciales fueron muestreadas con respecto a la enfermedad. Un total de 23 857 plantas madres y 19 980 retoños de plantas indeseables fueron destruidos.La incidencia de la Sigatoka amarilla aumentó a través del TBPA durante el programa de verificación de 12 meses de duración. La Sigatoka amarilla fue detectada en el 53% de Tabla 2. Niveles de las enfermedades de las manchas foliares Mycosphaerella en las plantaciones del área de producción de Tully al final de cada una de las cinco rondas de inspección conducidas durante el programa de erradicación. las propiedades y en el 72% del área en abril y mayo de 2003 (Tabla 3), en comparación con tan solo 30% de las propiedades (4% con enfermedad y 26% con niveles extremadamente bajos) en marzo y abril de 2002 (Tabla 2). La SN no fue detectada en las 2836 muestras recolectadas en las plantaciones comerciales, mientras que la Sigatoka amarilla fue detectada en el 28% de las muestras y en el 51% de los sitios centinelas.Un total de 302 muestras fueron recolectadas en los sitios donde las plantas de banano no deseadas fueron destruidas previamente. La SN no fue detectada y la Sigatoka amarilla fue identificada en menos del 10% de las muestras. En el transcurso de la auditoria del programa de erradicación, durante el cual el 11.4% (869) de las parcelas fueron visitadas nuevamente, no se detectaron plantas de banano faltantes.Los datos de los tres sitios indican que hubo de uno a tres períodos de infección cada mes entre noviembre de 2002 y mayo de 2003, lo que representa un 86% a 106% del promedio de 10 años. El número acumulativo de días húmedos de los períodos de infección representa un 77% a 87% del promedio de 10 años. Seis ciclos de enfermedad se completarían de marzo de 2002 (final del programa de erradicación intensivo) a junio de 2003.Un modelo estadístico, desarrollado para simular la multiplicación y propagación de la SN, fue utilizado para examinar la probabilidad de que la enfermedad sobrevivió sin ser detectada.M. fijiensis es más vigorosa que M. musicola, produciendo cuatro veces más ascósporas durante el mismo período (Stover 1980). Por lo tanto, el aumento en la Sigatoka amarilla en las plantaciones y plantas centinelas y la ausencia de la SN durante el período de verificación es un fuerte indicio de que la SN ya no está presente en el área y que el programa de erradicación ha sido exitoso. En adición, la SN no ha sido detectada en el TBPA en las encuestas de seguimiento menos intensivos conducidos durante 17 meses después de mayo de 2003. A noviembre de 2004 habían pasado 39 meses desde que la SN fue detectada por última vez en una plantación y 36 meses desde que fue observada por última vez en una planta de banano no comercial.El programa de erradicación fue exitoso en parte porque la enfermedad fue detectada temprano, cuando su distribución aún estaba limitada. La ventana de oportunidad proporcionada por la próxima estación seca y la biología del hongo también contribuyeron al éxito del programa. En la planta, las ascósporas pueden sobrevivir cerca de 20 semanas en el material foliar, pero una vez la hoja haya caído al suelo, estas pueden sobrevivir solo 6-8 semanas en el tejido foliar, de acuerdo a Peterson et al. (2000), y tres semanas, de acuerdo a Gauhl (1994). Los hongos no tienen hospedantes alternativos (Calpouzos 1955, Meredith 1970) o estructuras que les permiten sobrevivir por períodos más largos.Basándose en los resultados del programa de verificación, el modelo estadístico sugiere, con un alto nivel de seguridad, que el distrito Tully está libre de SN.esde principios de la década de los 80, en la industria bananera en el norte de Queensland, que abarca el 80% de la producción de Australia, se utilizaban fungicidas protectores como el mancozeb o fungicidas sistémicos de la familia de los triazoles, como el propiconazol o tebuconazol con aceite mineral para controlar la Sigatoka amarilla (causada por Mycosphaerella musicola), hasta unas 20 a 25 aplicaciones al año (Kernot 1998). Sin embargo, otros químicos han mostrado eficacia en el control de varias enfermedades foliares (Hewitt 1998) y algunos de ellos, como los fungicidas de la familia de los triazoles JAU 6475 y epoxiconazol, se ven como alternativas posibles.Los fungicidas strobilurinas son análogos sintéticos de los metabolitos fungitóxicos que ocurren en la naturaleza y son producidos por el basidiomiceto de bosques Stobilurus tenacellus (Ypema y Gold 1999). Desafortunadamente, el modo muy específico de acción de las strobilurinas aumenta el potencial para el desarrollo de individuos resistentes (Ypema y Gold 1999). Sin embargo, las estrategias anti-resistencia basadas en las recomendaciones del Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) deberían ayudar a prevenir el desarrollo de las cepas resistentes (Gouot 1998). El fitoactivador acibenzolar es un análogo funcional del ácido salicílico que, como se ha demostrado, se acumula en las plantas invadidas por un patógeno (Sticher et al. 1997). El ácido salicílico desempeña un papel importante de señalización en la activación de las respuestas de defensa de las plantas al ataque de los patógenos (Sticher et al. 1997). En 1998En , 1999En y 2001, hemos llevado a cabo experimentos de campo para evaluar los fungicidas de strobilurina como el trifloxistrobina, azoxystrobina y piraclostrobina, los triazoles JAU 6475 y epoxiconazol, y el fitoactivador acibenzolar contra la Sigatoka amarilla.Tres experimentos de campo fueron realizados en el Centre for Wet Tropics Agriculture, South Johnstone, Australia. El diseño experimental fue un bloque completo aleatorio con tres repeticiones. Cada parcela contenía una fila individual de 10 plantas del cultivar 'Williams' (AAA) regado por miniaspersores, y una fila individual de plantas sin riego separaba los tratamientos para asegurar el desarrollo uniforme de la enfermedad a través del experimento y prevenir el traspaso durante las aplicaciones. Los materiales de siembra (uno por hoyo) fueron plántulas provenientes del cultivo de tejidos (evaluación de 1998) y retoños de tamaños similares y edad escogidos de los retoños del cultivo anterior (evaluaciones de 1999 y 2001). Los productos descritos en la tabla 1 fueron aplicados cuando las plantas tuvieron 4-5 hojas totalmente expandidas. No hubo síntomas visibles de la Sigatoka amarilla en ninguna de las parcelas experimentales en esta etapa. Los tratamientos fueron aplicados cada 14 días con un aspersor tipo mochila (Efco ® ) durante los meses cálidos y húmedos (febrero-mayo) y cada 3 semanas durante los meses fríos y secos desde junio hasta la cosecha en octubre o noviembre. El volumen de los rociados fue calibrado regando 10 plantas en una fila deEvaluación en campo de las strobilurinas, triazoles y acibenzolar para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla en Australia L. L. Vawdrey y K. Grice Tabla 1. Nombre y formula de los fungicidas utilizados para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla en las evaluaciones de campo en 1998, 1999 y 2001. El desarrollo de la enfermedad y la eficacia de cada tratamiento fueron evaluados durante la floración en cinco plantas de madurez similar por parcela, utilizando el método de la hoja más joven manchada (HMJM) (Stover y Dickson 1970). La HMJM fue determinada contando a partir de la hoja expandida más recientemente hasta la primera hoja con ≥10 manchas totalmente desarrolladas. En un término de dos semanas de cosecha, se evaluaron el número total de hojas por planta y el índice de severidad de la enfermedad en cinco plantas de banano de madurez similar por parcela, utilizando la modificación de Gauhl del sistema de conteo de severidad de Stover (Gauhl et al. 1993). La proporción del área foliar que muestra síntomas fue calculada en una escala de 0 a 6 como sigue: 0 = sin síntomas de la enfermedad 1 = <1% con síntomas 2 = 1-5% 3 = 6-15% 4 = 16-33% 5 = 34-50% 6 = >50% El índice de severidad de la enfermedad (ISE) fue calculado como sigue:∑nb/[(N-1) x T] donde n = número de hojas en cada grado, b = grado, N = número de grados utilizados (7), y T = número total de hojas clasificadas en cada planta.El ISE toma en cuenta la edad de las hojas manchadas en la planta, que es importante en la evaluación de la intensidad global de la enfermedad (Stover y Dickson 1970). También se evaluó el número total de hojas por planta.Este experimento fue realizado en un cultivo sembrado con plántulas provenientes del cultivo de tejidos, el 11 de diciembre de 1997. La fumigación con trifloxistrobina a 90 y 112.5 g de i.a./ha, azoxistrobina a 100 g de i.a./ha y acibenzolar a 40 g de i.a./ha, que fue rociado conjuntamente con 1000 g de i.a./ha de Dithane OC cada 28 días, empezó el 15 de abril de 1998 y se realizó un total de nueve aplicaciones en el transcurso del experimento (ver la tabla 2 para más información sobre los tratamientos). Los fungicidas fueron mezclados con aceite de parafina (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil ® ) a una tasa de 5 L/ha, con excepción del tratamiento testigo con el mancozeb (Dithane OC ® ), que contenía 412 g/L de aceite de petróleo. Los tratamientos fueron comparados son los estándares de la industria, propiconazol y Dithane OC ® .Este experimento fue conducido en el cultivo de segundo ciclo. El rociado de trifloxistrobina a 75 y 112.5 g de i.a./ha y acibenzolar a 40 g de i.a./ha, que fue esparcido conjuntamente con 1000 g de i.a./ha de Dithane OC cada 14 días, empezando el 2 de marzo de 1999, se realizó en un total de 12 aplicaciones (ver la tabla 3 para más información sobre los tratamientos). Los fungicidas fueron mezclados con el aceite de parafina (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil ® ) a una tasa de 5 L/ha, con excepción del tratamiento testigo con el mancozeb (Dithane OC ® ), que contenía 412 g/L de aceite de petróleo. Los tratamientos fueron comparados con los estándares de la industria, el propiconazol y mancozeb como Dithane OC ® y Dithane DF ® .Este experimento fue conducido en el cultivo del cuarto ciclo. El rociado de trifloxistrobina a 75 g de i.a./ha (solo y con mancozeb), piraclostrobina a 100 g de i.a./ha (solo y con mancozeb), azoxistrobina a 100 g de i.a./ha (solo y con acibenzolar), JAU 6475 a 50 g de i.a./ha, epoxiconazol a 75 g de i.a./ha y acibenzolar a 20 g de i.a./ha, empezó el 4 de marzo de 2001 y se hicieron un total de 10 aplicaciones (ver la tabla 4 para más información sobre los tratamientos). Todos los tratamientos fueron mezclados con aceite de parafina como el BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil ® a una tasa de 5 L/ha. Los tratamientos fueron comparados son los estándares de la industria, el propiconazol y mancozeb como Dithane M45 ® .El ANOVA fue utilizado para analizar la HMJM, el número total de hojas y el ISE. La comparación por pares de medias fue realizado utilizando el procedimiento de diferencias mínimas significativas (LSD) a P=0.05.El índice de la HMJM evaluado durante la floración, después de ocho aplicaciones de fungicidas, muestra que el trifloxistrobina, seguido por el azoxistrobina, fueron significativamente más eficaces que todos los otros tratamientos (Tabla 2). Las parcelas tratadas con trifloxistrobina fueron significativamente menos afectadas por la Sigatoka amarilla que las parcelas tratadas con azoxistrobina. El ISE registrado dos semanas antes de la cosecha confirmó la mayoría de los resultados de la evaluación de la HMJM (Tabla 2). El ISE muestra que el trifloxistrobina, seguido por el azoxistrobina, fueron significativamente más eficaces que todos los otros tratamientos, exceptuando el programa de rociado con acibenzolar/ mancozeb. El acibenzolar en un programa de rociado con el mancozeb (Dithane OC ® ) mejoró significativamente el control de la Sigatoka amarilla en comparación con el tratamiento de Dithane OC ® solo. Sin embargo, se observó una fototoxicidad de las hojas (decoloración naranja) en las parcelas tratadas con acibenzolar/mancozeb y una reducción significativa en el número de hojas en comparación con todos los otros tratamientos.El índice de la HMJM, después de 11 aplicaciones de fungicidas, muestra que el trifloxistrobina a 75 y 112.5 g de i.a./ha controló la mancha foliar con mayor eficacia que todos los otros tratamientos (Tabla 3). El ISE igualmente muestra que el trifloxistrobina fue también más eficaz para controlar la Sigatoka amarilla que los estándares de la industria, propiconazol y mancozeb (Dithane DF ® y OC ® ) (Tabla 3). La adición de mancozeb (Dithane OC ® ) al acibenzolar cada 28 y 42 días redujo la severidad de la enfermedad en comparación con el Dithane OC ® solo. No hubo diferencia significativa en el control de la enfermedad entre dos tratamientos con acibenzolar. En las parcelas tratadas con acibenzolar/mancozeb hubo una reducción significativa en el número de hojas, en comparación con todos los otros tratamientos.La evaluación de la HMJM, después de 12 aplicaciones de fungicidas, muestra que el trifloxistrobina (solo y con mancozeb) y el piraclostrobina se desempeñaron mejor que el propiconazol, y mancozeb (Dithane M45 ® ) (Tabla 4). El JAU 6476 fue más eficaz para controlar la Sigatoka amarilla que el Dithane M45 ® . El ISE confirmó la mayoría de los resultados de la evaluación de la HMJM (tabla 4). El ISE también mostró que en todos los tratamientos, con excepción del tratamiento con el acibenzolar, hubo significativamente menos enfermedad que en el tratamiento con el Dithane M45 ® solo. Hubo menos hojas en las parcelas tratadas con JAU 6475, acibenzolar solo y acibenzolar con azoxistrobina, que en las parcelas tratadas con el propiconazol.Tabla 2. Evaluación de campo de 1998 de los químicos para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla según las evaluaciones de la hoja más joven manchada durante la floración, y del número total de hojas por planta e índice de la severidad de la enfermedad, dos semanas antes de la cosecha (n=15). *Fungicida mezclado con BP Banana Misting Oil a una tasa de 5 L/ha. †Contiene 412 g/L de aceite de petróleo ‡Dithane OC cada 14 días y en combinación con acibenzolar cada 28 días. Los promedios en la misma columna seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente a P>0.05.Tabla 3. Evaluación de campo de 1999 de los químicos para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla según las evaluaciones de la hoja más joven manchada durante la floración, y del número total de hojas por planta e índice de severidad de la enfermedad, dos semanas antes de la cosecha (n=15). * Fungicida mezclado con BP Banana Misting Oil a una tasa de 5 L/ha. † Contiene 412 g/L de aceite de petróleo ‡ Dithane OC cada 14 días y en combinación con acibenzolar cada 28 días. § Dithane OC every 14 días y en combinación con acibenzolar cada 42 días. Los promedios en la misma columna seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente a P>0.05.Los niveles de enfermedad fueron relativamente uniformes en todos los tres experimentos, con daños a las hojas, de moderados a severos, que ocurrieron en las filas de guarda. Los fungicidas de la familia strobilurina como la trifloxistrobina, piraclostrobina y azoxistrobina comprobaron ser más eficaces que los estándares de la industria propiconazol y mancozeb para controlar la Sigatoka amarilla. El trifloxistrobina y el piraclostrobina, en particular, produjeron un nivel de control nunca antes visto en las evaluaciones de campo en los bananos en Australia. Un nivel similar de eficacia ha sido demostrado para el control de la Sigatoka negra (causada por Mycosphaerella fijiensis) en los experimentos de campo conducidos en América Central (Pérez et al. 2002). Nuestros resultados también sugieren que la eficacia de los strobilurinas no será comprometida cuando ellos se utilicen en los programas de fumigación con el mancozeb, fungicida protector y estándar de la industria. Estos programas de fumigación son una parte integral de las estrategias diseñadas para prolongar la vida útil de los fungicidas modernos (Gouot 1998).Un aspecto interesante de este estudio fue el aumento de control logrado cuando se utilizó el fitoactivador acibenzolar en conjunto con el mancozeb. Nuestros descubrimientos también muestran que el acibenzolar con el mancozeb puede ser fitotóxico para las hojas y reducir significativamente la cantidad de hojas. Los investigadores en Costa Rica obtuvieron un control similar para la Sigatoka negra cuando el acibenzolar fue aplicado con el aceite rociador de banano (Madrigal 1998). Igual que nosotros, ellos reportaron la fototoxicidad en las hojas más viejas de las plantas y concluyeron que el acibenzolar utilizado con el aceite rociador a tasas superiores a 5 L/ha podrían causar daños a las hojas. Sin embargo, en nuestro estudio, hemos utilizado aceite a una tasa de 3.6 L/ha, lo que sugiere que la fitotoxicidad se debió a algo más.Los fungicidas triazoles JAU 6475 y epoxiconazol proporcionaron un nivel de control similar al del estándar de la industria, propiconazol. En 2004, el epoxiconazol (Opus 75 ® ), trifloxistrobina (Flint ® ) y piraclostrobina (Cabrio ® ) fueron registrados para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla en el banano.Agradecemos el apoyo financiero de Queensland Fruit and Vegetable Growers and Horticuture Australia Limited. También agradecemos a Bayer Cropsciences, Novartis, Cropcare Australasia, BASF, Dow Agrosciences, DuPont, Rohm y Haas, Elf Atochem y AgrEvo por la asistencia financiera y suministro de compuestos evaluados.Tabla 4. Evaluación de campo de 2001 de los químicos para el control de la Sigatoka amarilla según las evaluaciones de la hoja más joven manchada durante la floración, y del número total de hojas por planta e índice de la severidad de la enfermedad, dos semanas antes de la cosecha (n=15). *Todos los fungicidas, exceptuando el acibenzolar que fue mezclado con agua, fueron mezclados con el aceite de parafina a una tasa de 5 L/ha. †2 rociados de trifloxistrobina seguidos por 2 rociados de mancozeb para un mínimo de 6 rociados de trifloxistrobina. ‡2 rociados de piraclostrobina seguidos por 2 rociados de mancozeb para un máximo de 8 rociados de piraclostrobina. §azoxistrobina a intervalos de 14-21 más acibenzolar a intervalos de 42 días.Los promedios en la misma columna seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente a P>0.05. a raya negra de la hoja (causada por Mycosphaerella fijiensis) y la enfermedad de Sigatoka (causada por Mycosphaerella musicola) son de las enfermedades que afectan de manera más significativa el cultivo del plátano, pues aumentan los costos de producción, disminuyen las zonas productoras y reducen los ingresos de los productores. En la búsqueda de un remedio eficaz para estas enfermedades, se recurre al empleo de productos químicos que suelen aumentar los costos de producción; el riesgo de que las plantas adquieran resistencia a fungicidas contra los agentes causantes; la incidencia de enfermedades de los operarios; y la contaminación de la fruta y del medio ambiente.Los compuestos naturales obtenidos a partir de microorganismos tienen grandes ventajas sobre los productos comerciales por ser menos dañinos al ecosistema y porque la propia microflora ambiental los biodegrada in situ para convertirlos en compuestos no tóxicos (Sánchez Rodríguez et al. 2002). La búsqueda de nuevos productos de origen natural no contaminantes del medio ambiente para combatir enfermedades, representa una alternativa importante en una agricultura sostenible (Sánchez Rodríguez et al. 2002).Los ácidos fúlvicos extraídos del raquis de plátano contienen una concentración alta de potasio, el cual tiende a inducir resistencia a algunas enfermedades (Álvarez et al. 2002). Los estudios realizados por Stindt y Weltzein (1990), Weltzein (1992) y Yohalem et al. (1994), y citados por Álvarez et al. (2002), relatan que los lixiviados se han usado durante muchos años en aspersiones a nivel foliar para el control de enfermedades fungosas en plantas. Además, en los estudios publicados por Álvarez et al. (2002) se afirma que las aplicaciones al 5% de ácidos fúlvicos provenientes del lixiviado de plátano reducen la severidad del mildeo polvoso en rosa.En esta investigación se pretendió encontrar, mediante la utilización de ácidos fúlvicos extraídos del raquis de plátano, una opción que ayude a manejar las manchas foliares causadas por Mycosphaerella spp., de forma eficaz, a un bajo costo y sin contaminar ni la fruta ni el medio ambiente.El estudio se realizó entre junio de 2002 y julio de 2003 en la granja Montelindo de la Universidad de Caldas, ubicada en la región Santágueda, municipio de Palestina (Caldas), a 5º 05' latitud norte y 75º 40' longitud occidental, a una altitud de 1050 metros sobre el nivel del mar, con una temperatura media de 22.5 ºC, humedad relativa del 76%, precipitación anual de 2100 mm y brillo solar anual de 2010 horas.Se utilizó un diseño de bloques completos al azar con cinco tratamientos, cuatro repeticiones y nueve plantas por repetición. La siembra se realizó el 8 de mayo de 2002 con cormos de aproximadamente 500 g, dejando una distancia de 2 m entre plantas y 3 m entre surcos, en un área de 2160 m 2 , para obtener un total de 180 plantas. Se sembró la variedad de plátano 'Dominico hartón', por ser altamente susceptible a la raya negra de la hoja y a la enfermedad de Sigatoka. A fin de garantizar una adecuada presión de enfermedad, las parcelas experimentales fueron sembradas alrededor de un cultivo de plátano que no recibió ningún tratamiento para el control de los hongos. El manejo agronómico se efectuó según las recomendaciones establecidas para el cultivo del plátano en la región, las cuales incluyeron fertilización, deshije, descalcete Manejo de las enfermedades causadas por Mycosphaerella spp. mediante la aplicación de ácidos fúlvicosInfoMusa -Vol. 14 N°2 Diciembre 2005 16 y manejo de arvenses. La duración de la investigación, desde el momento de siembra hasta la cosecha, fue de 14 meses. Los tratamientos evaluados fueron: 1) ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5%; 2) ácidos fúlvicos al 100%; 3) 1.75 L/ha de Mancozeb; 4) 0.4 L/ha de Propiconazol y 5) sin aplicación (testigo). La concentración de ácidos fúlvicos al 100% fue aplicada al follaje sin dilución, mientras que para obtener una solución al 0.5% se agregó agua como disolvente.Los ácidos fúlvicos son lixiviados por biodegradación de raquis de plátano 'Dominico hartón'; tienen una conductividad eléctrica de 24.75 mmho/cm, pH 3.95, y una composición de fósforo 260 ppm, potasio 155 ppm, calcio 49.74 ppm, magnesio 32.36 ppm, N-NH 4 9.94 ppm, sodio 6.49 ppm, hierro 0.33 ppm y manganeso 0.28 ppm. El biodegradador de raquis de plátano para la obtención de ácidos fúlvicos se construyó en la granja Montelindo.Mancozeb es un fungicida protector, producto de coordinación del zinc y el etilenbisditiocarbamato de manganeso, el cual inhibe la respiración de los hongos. Propiconazol es un fungicida de acción sistémica que ejerce su acción mediante un bloqueo de la biosíntesis del ergosterol y la inhibición de la demetilación de los esteroides.Los ácidos fúlvicos y Mancozeb se aplicaron cada 7 días y Propiconazole, cada 14 días. Todos los productos fueron aplicados al follaje. Según estudios realizados por Álvarez et al. (2002), los lixiviados del raquis de plátano a una concentración del 5% reducen el mildeo polvoso en rosa, mientras que a una concentración del 50% causan fitotoxicidad al follaje. De acuerdo con esos resultados, y teniendo en cuenta el área foliar más extensa y más gruesa del plátano, se aplicaron tratamientos con ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5% y al 100%, con un amplio margen de diferencia.Se realizaron evaluaciones semanales de todos los tratamientos en todas las plantas de cada repetición, a partir del primer mes después de la siembra, hasta la cosecha. Se registró el índice de severidad (IS) de la enfermedad, determinado con la metodología de Stover modificada por Gauhl et al. (1995), mediante la siguiente fórmula: donde n = número de hojas en cada grado, b = grado (0 = sin síntomas; 1 = menos del 1% de la lámina con síntomas; 2 = 1 a 5% de la lámina con síntomas; 3 = 6 a 15% de la lámina con síntomas; 4 = 16 a 33% de la lámina con síntomas; 5 = 34 a 50% de la lámina con síntomas; y 6 = 51 a 100% de la lámina con síntomas), N = número de grados empleados en la escala (7) y T = total de hojas evaluadas.También se determinó la tasa de desarrollo (r) de la enfermedad, aplicando la ecuación: donde t 1 = tiempo final, t 0 =tiempo inicial, X 1 = índice de severidad final y X 0 = índice de severidad inicial (Castaño Zapata 2002).Al momento de la floración y la cosecha se evaluaron las siguientes variables:(1) hoja más joven enferma, es decir, la hoja que más joven manifiesta estrías claramente visibles desde el suelo (Orjeda 1998); (2) hoja más joven manchada, que corresponde a la primera hoja totalmente abierta, contando las hojas de arriba hacia abajo, que presenta 10 (o más) lesiones discretas necrosadas y maduras o un área necrosada grande de color claro (Stover y Dickson 1970); y (3) número de hojas funcionales.Al momento de la cosecha se registraron el peso del racimo; peso de la segunda mano; peso del dedo central de la segunda mano; longitud del dedo central de la segunda mano; y diámetro del dedo central de la segunda mano.Es de anotar que la presente investigación fue llevada a cabo en un solo ciclo de cultivo.El análisis de varianza del índice de severidad de las enfermedades mostró diferencias estadísticas significativas entre tratamientos e interacción tratamiento* evaluación semanal. El índice de severidad promedio más bajo durante el estudio correspondió al tratamiento con ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5%, con un valor del 42%, mientras que la severidad más alta la presentó el testigo, con 59%, y no hubo diferencias significativas con respecto a Mancozeb y Propiconazole (Tabla 1).El tratamiento con ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5% mostró los valores más altos de hoja más joven enferma y hoja más joven manchada al momento de la inflorescencia y la cosecha, posiblemente debido a los altos contenidos de potasio en la solución. El potasio hace que las paredes celulares de las hojas se vuelvan más resistentes y, por consiguiente, que la germinación de conidios y ascosporas sea más difícil.Se observaron diferencias estadísticas significativas para las variables número de hojas funcionales en la inflorescencia y en la cosecha (Tabla 1). Los estudios realizados por Molina Tirado y Castaño Zapata (2003) en lax 100 (N -1)T misma zona, indican que 'Dominico hartón' llega a la cosecha sin hojas funcionales. En este estudio el testigo llegó a la cosecha con una hoja funcional. En este sentido, los tratamientos evaluados ejercieron un alto grado de control de las enfermedades.La tasa de desarrollo de los tratamientos no mostró diferencias estadísticas significativas entre los tratamientos evaluados, pero fue significativamente más lenta en los tratamientos en comparación con el testigo (Tabla 1).Como se observa en la Tabla 2, el diámetro, el peso y la longitud del dedo central de la segunda mano no presentaron diferencias estadísticas significativas entre tratamientos. Referente al peso del dedo central, se observó que el tratamiento ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5% superó por 50 g al testigo, debido principalmente a su efecto controlador. Este tratamiento también mostró un área fotosintética más extensa y, por ende, una mayor acumulación de carbohidratos en el racimo representado por 4.9 kg en el peso del mismo con respecto al testigo, debido principalmente a los altos contenidos de nutrientes presentes en los ácidos fúlvicos principalmente potasio.Estos resultados indican que los ácidos fúlvicos al 0.5% representan una opción viable y no contaminante del medio ambiente para el manejo de las enfermedades causadas por Mycosphaerella spp. en el plátano.   (Stover y Dickson, 1976). El hongo es haploide durante casi todo su ciclo de vida y se reproduce tanto asexual como sexualmente, vía conidias y ascósporas, respectivamente.Varios estudios han descrito la variabilidad genética global de M. fijiensis (Carlier et al. 1994(Carlier et al. , 1996)), basados principalmente en el análisis de los aislados de los hongos de diferentes continentes utilizando RFLP y marcadores PCR-RFLP (Rivas et al. 2004). La realización de estudios a escala local podría ayudar a mejorar el manejo local de la enfermedad y programas para el mejoramiento de la resistencia a la Sigatoka negra.En Colombia, la Sigatoka negra fue observada por primera vez en 1981 (Mourichon y Fullerton 1990) en la región productora de banano de Urabá, de donde probablemente se propagó al resto del país. Las principales áreas productoras de banano en Colombia están localizadas en Urabá y Magdalena, donde los bananos se cultivan a alta densidad en grandes plantaciones y son controlados utilizando fungicidas químicos (Figura 1). Las áreas de producción platanera se localizan principalmente en Tolima y Arauca donde los plátanos se cultivan en pequeñas y medianas fincas, en asociación con café, cacao u otros, con poco o ningún control químico.En el presente estudio se utilizaron los marcadores de microsatélites para realizar una encuesta preliminar de la variabilidad genética de 40 aislados de M. fijiensis de las principales regiones locales bananeras y plataneras de Colombia.Se tomaron muestras de las hojas de banano y plátano infectadas con M. fijiensis en cuatro localidades en Colombia. De los 40 aislados recolectados, 11 provenían de Urabá, 10 de Tolima, 9 de Arauca, y 10 de Magdalena. Los cultivares de los cuales se tomaron las Genética de poblaciones y 10-50 ng de patrón de ADN. Después de la desnaturalización inicial se realizaron amplificaciones en un thermocycler (MJ Research PT-200, Mass.) programado para 2 min. a 94°C; 30 ciclos de 30 segundos a 94°C, 45 segundos a 55°C y 45 segundos a 72°C; con una extensión final de 7 min. a 72°C.Para determinar el tamaño de los alelos, un volumen de 2 ml del producto de PCR, combinado con 3 ml de formamido de búfer de carga (loading buffer) (80% (w/v), 10 mM de EDTA pH (8.0), 1 mg/ml de bromofenol azul y 1mg/ml de xileno cianol FF), fue desnaturalizado a 98°C por 5 min. Esta mezcla fue cargada en el gel desnaturalizador de poliarilamida al 6%, que contenía 7 mol/L de urea. La electroforesis fue llevada a cabo con el búfer 1X TBE en un sistema Sequi-Gen ® (Bio-Rad). Los tamaños de alelos fueron estimados utilizando una escalera de ADN de 10bp (Gibco BRL).Los datos se consideraron como haploides, ya que el ADN fue aislado del cultivo de una sola ascóspora. Para cada locus se calculó la cantidad de alelos. La diversidad génica fue estimada utilizando el índice de Nei (h) (Nei 1978) y la diversidad genotípica, utilizando la estadística G de Stoddart y Taylor, considerando cada genotipo como un haplotipo con loci múltiples (Hayden et al. 2003). Para comparar las muestras de diferentes tamaños, el valor de G fue dividido por el tamaño de la muestra. Los cálculos de la diversidad génica se realizaron utilizando el programa de computadora GDA (Lewis y Zaykin 2001).La diferenciación genética se estimó utilizando las estadísticas Fst de Wright como se describe en Weir y Cockerham (1984), utilizando el programa de computadora Arlequín (Schneider et al. 2000). El significado de los valores Fst fue examinado con el método descrito en Excoffier et al. (1992) utilizando 3024 permutaciones.La diversidad génica estimada en la muestra de Arauca (0.42) fue más alta que los valores obtenidos para Urabá (0.33) y Magdalena (0.36), aunque en ausencia de la prueba apropiada es imposible distinguir las muestras (Tabla 1). Utilizando nueve marcadores de microsatélites, incluyendo siete utilizados en nuestro estudio, Molina y Kahl ( 2004) obtuvieron una diversidad génica de 0.13 para la región de Magdalena. La diferencia podría deberse a diferencias en el muestreo o al hecho de que los últimos autores utilizan más marcadores.La Entre los 40 aislados estudiados se descubrió un total de 36 distintos haplotipos de loci múltiples. Los valores G calculados para cada localidad muestreada mostraron altos niveles de diversidad genotípica (Tabla 2). La diversidad genotípica se encuentra cerca del máximo teórico, ya que la mayoría de los haplotipos fueron observados solo una vez. Esto es muy similar a lo que fue descrito por Carlier et al. (1996) quienes observaron que cada aislado de M. fijiensis correspondía a un solo haplotipo de loci múltiple, en 19 loci de RFLP evaluados.Algunos de los aislados similares provenían de localidades distantes, por ejemplo, el aislado 990920 de Tolima tenía el mismo haplotipo que el aislado 981111 de Arauca. La colección de aislados con haplotipos similares puede representar el resultado de Tabla 1. Estimados de la diversidad génica de Nei en siete loci de los aislados de Mycosphaerella fijiensis provenientes de cuatro poblaciones en Colombia. a excavación del sistema radical de una planta de banano que crece en el campo es un proceso destructivo y consumidor de tiempo. Por ejemplo, se necesitan seis hombreshora para excavar y evaluar el sistema radical de una planta de banano maduro (Blomme 2000). La estimación del tamaño del sistema radical de una mata tomando muestras de las raíces podría ser mucho más rápida. Para la fresa (Fragana xananassa Duch.), Fort y Shaw (1998) demostraron una correspondencia sustancial en la variabilidad de las muestras testigo del suelo y la masa radical de toda la planta, indicando que los cambios en el crecimiento del sistema radical podrían ser estimados eficazmente a partir de las muestras testigo del suelo. Las muestras testigo del suelo requieren no más del 10% del tiempo empleado para recolectar y procesar el sistema radical de la planta entera. Blomme (2000) evaluó plantas de banano cultivadas en el campo en la estación de pluviometría alta del Instituto Internacional de Agricultura Tropical en Nigeria y reportó que las características del sistema radical de la mata podrían ser evaluadas adecuadamente a partir de las muestras testigo. En adición, la obtención de las raíces de las muestras testigo del suelo requirió sólo una fracción del tiempo (por ejemplo, el 5% para dos muestras testigo del suelo) necesitado para excavar y evaluar el sistema radical completo de una planta madura.El objetivo de este estudio consistió en evaluar si el enfoque de muestras testigo proveería suficiente información para estimar el tamaño del sistema radical de la mata en un amplio rango de genotipos de bananos de Africa Oriental, que crecen en las fincas.Este estudio fue realizado en las fincas en los distritos de Masaka y Bushenyi en el sudoeste de Uganda, dos áreas productoras de banano importantes. El sitio Masaka-Lwengo se clasifica bajo el sistema banano-café, mientras que el sitio Bushenyi, bajo el sistema de montaña (INIBAP 2003). La altitud en el sitio Masaka-Lwengo varía entre 1080-1330 metros, con una precipitación anual promedio de 1200 mm y suelos clasificados como Luvisoles (FAO 1998). La altitud en el sitio Bushenyi varía entre 1600-1800 metros con una precipitación anual promedio de 1588 mm y suelos clasificados como Acrisoles (FAO 1998).En cada sitio se evaluaron ocho genotipos de Musa: los genotipos de banano de altiplanos de Africa Oriental (AAA-EAHB) 'Mpologoma', 'Lwadungu', 'Nakitembe', 'Mbwazirume' y 'Kibuzi', el banano de postre 'Sukali Ndizi' (AAB), el plátano 'Gonja' (AAB) y el banano cervecero 'Kayinja' (ABB). En cada sitio fueron evaluadas veinte plantas por genotipo con dos a cinco matas por finca. Las matas seleccionadas estaban en la cuarta etapa de desarrollo y consistían de una planta madre lista para cosechar con dos o tres retoños. La selección de los genotipos AAA-EAHB se basó en las series de clones con el fin de incluir un genotipo representativo de cada serie de cuatro clones (Karamura y Pickersgill 1999).El sistema radical fue evaluado utilizando el método de muestra testigo (Blomme 2000). Se tomaron tres muestras testigo del suelo en cada mata: de la posición contigua al retoño más alto y a 90° y 180° según las manecillas del reloj desde el retoño más alto. Los testigos tenían un diámetro de 25 cm y una altura de 80 cm. Los testigos fueron marcados utilizando un anillo de metal y se removieron con un pequeño azadón. Las muestras fueron lavadas para descartar las partículas de suelo y para cada muestra testigo se recolectaron los datos del peso seco y el largo de la raíz adventicia (Tennant 1975). Posteriormente, las plantas fueron enteramente excavadas y algunas de las características fueron medidas en la planta completa.El análisis estadístico se realizó utilizando el paquete estadístico Genstat (Genstat 1999). Se ejecutó una prueba ANOVA para determinar los efectos de la localización de la planta y de la Tabla 1. Promedio y coeficiente de variación, en paréntesis, del largo de las raíces adventicias y del peso seco de las raíces, medidos en una muestra testigo del suelo y en la planta entera de banano. muestra sobre las características de las raíces en la muestra testigo del suelo. También se realizaron regresiones de estas características con respecto a las características de las raíces de la mata.La mayoría de las raíces se observaron dentro de un radio de 60 cm de la planta y hasta una profundidad de 50 cm. De esta manera se recogieron las muestras testigo del suelo en la zona con la concentración más alta de raíces. La densidad de las raíces disminuyó con el aumento de la profundidad del suelo.Las raíces de las muestras testigo representan el 5% al 8% del sistema radical de la mata (Tabla 1). Estos números son más altos que el 1.1% al 2.7% observados en Nigeria (Blomme 2000).Esto podría reflejar las diferencias en el tipo de suelo (los suelos arenosos en Nigeria permiten que las raíces se extiendan, en comparación con los suelos arcillosos más compactos de Uganda, donde las raíces están más concentradas alrededor de la mata) o respuestas específicas del genotipo.La localización de muestreo no tuvo efecto significativo sobre el largo de la raíz adventicia y peso seco de la raíz medidos en las muestras testigo (Tabla 2). El efecto entre plantas claramente sobrepasó el efecto de la localización de muestreo. Aunque cada mata consistió de una planta madre y dos o tres retoños, se observaron grandes variaciones en la altura de las plantas. Estas diferencias en el tamaño de las plantas y, en consecuencia, en el sistema radical, podrían explicar el alto coeficiente de los valores de variación en la Tabla 1.Se hicieron regresiones del peso seco de las raíces y del largo de la raíz adventicia en las muestras testigo y de las características correspondientes de la mata. Se obtuvieron valores R² de las muestras testigo individuales, dobles y triples para ocho genotipos (Tabla 3). Las muestras testigo individuales y dobles dieron los valores R² más bajos, mientras que el valor mínimo de R 2 de 0.68 fue obtenido para las muestras testigo triples (Tabla 3). Esto significa que al menos el 68% de la variación en las características de las raíces de la mata puede ser explicado evaluando tres muestras testigo.Los estudios realizados en una estación en Nigeria sobre las plantas en el primer ciclo de producción han indicado que al menos el 73% de la variación en las características de las raíces de la mata podría ser explicado tomando dos muestras testigo, mientras que el 81% podría ser explicado con tres muestras testigo (Blomme 2000). Los estudios posteriores realizados en la estación sobre los cultivos en el segundo ciclo productivo indicaron que al menos el 80% de la variación en las características de las raíces de la mata podría ser explicado tomando dos muestras testigo, y el 85% con tres muestras testigo. Estos resultados sugieren que al evaluar las plantas en una finca se debe tomar al menos tres muestras testigo, con el fin de explicar más del 70% de la variación en las características de las raíces de la mata. Este método es ciertamente atractivo, ya que la remoción y evaluación de tres muestras del suelo representa sólo el 8% del tiempo necesario para excavar y medir el sistema radical entero de una planta adulta de Musa. En adición, el método de muestreo de testigo puede proporcionar una visión detallada de las dinámicas de las raíces, que es crítico para el entendimiento de los efectos ambientales sobre el desarrollo de las raíces y para investigar las diferencias genéticas en las características del sistema radical entre un gran número de cultivares.Los autores agradecen a la Red Internacional para el Mejoramiento del Banano y el Plátano (INIBAP) y la Asociación Flamenca para el Desarrollo y Cooperación Técnica (VVOB) por su apoyo financiero. También estamos muy agradecidos al Sr. Yiga Steven y el Sr. Ndamira John por la movilización de los agricultores.Tabla 3. Valores R² de regresiones entre el largo de la raíz adventicia (LRA) o peso seco de la raíz (PSR) en una, dos o tres muestras testigo del suelo y el valor correspondiente obtenido al excavar la mata a la cosecha.Muestras on el fin de controlar la propagación de plagas y enfermedades de banano se alienta a los agricultores a utilizar como material de plantación las plántulas in vitro (Robinson et al. 1993, Robinson 1996) o retoños pelados (Nampala et al 2001). Estos materiales son mucho más pequeños en tamaño que los retoños convencionales sin pelar utilizados comúnmente en Uganda, donde el tamaño del hoyo de plantación recomendado es de 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm. De acuerdo a Swennen (1990), el tamaño mínimo del hoyo de plantación para un retoño pelado de banano o una plántula in vitro debería tener 30 cm de diámetro y 30 cm de profundidad, especialmente en las fincas comerciales donde los bananos se siembran como un cultivo anual. El tamaño más pequeño de las plántulas in vitro y de los retoños pelados hace posible establecer una plantación bananera utilizando hoyos de plantación menos profundos. La reducción del tamaño del hoyo de plantación puede acelerar el establecimiento de las plantas dado que la zona donde se encuentran las raíces se colocaría al nivel de la capa superior del suelo, rica en minerales. Swennen et al (1988) reportaron que en bananos la zona donde crecen las raíces es negativa geotrópicamente, es decir, las nuevas raíces se forman en las capas superiores del suelo. El objetivo de este experimento fue de comparar el crecimiento de las plantas derivadas de plántulas in vitro y de los retoños, después de haber sido plantados en hoyos de diferentes profundidades.El experimento se estableció en marzo de 2002 en el Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias de la Universidad de Makerere en Kabanyolo, Uganda central. Con anterioridad, el campo estuvo bajo un barbecho herbáceo durante cinco años. Los suelos son arcillas rojizas pardas hasta una profundidad de 25 cm y están clasificados como Ferralsoles Eútricos (Yost y Estwaran 1990).Se examinaron hoyos de dos profundidades diferentes. En el primer método, utilizado por los agricultores, se excavó un hoyo de 60 cm de diámetro (Figura 1A). La parte superior del suelo de los primeros 30 cm fue mezclada con la parte superior del suelo de las áreas que rodeaban el hoyo y 10 kg de estiércol de vaca compostado. La mezcla fue colocada de vuelta en el hoyo durante la siembra. En el segundo método (Figura 1B), se excavó un hoyo de 60 cm de diámetro y de 40 cm de profundidad. La capa de subsuelo entre los 35 cm y 40 cm fue aflojada y dejada en el hoyo. Una mezcla de la capa superior del suelo y 10 kg de estiércol de vaca compostado fue colocado encima del subsuelo aflojado. En ambos métodos, los hoyos de plantación fueron llenados hasta 5 cm por debajo del nivel del suelo. Al llenar el hoyo, la capa superior de suelo y la mezcla de abono fueron compactados suavemente.El material de plantación consistió de plántulas cultivadas in vitro y retoños de espada pelados de dos cultivares de banano de altiplanos de África Oriental, 'Entaragaza' y 'Siira' (AAA-EAHB). El pseudotallo del retoño de espada fue cortado a 10 cm sobre el cormo antes de la siembra. Los retoños de espada eran homogéneos en tamaño y pelados pesaban 2 kg en promedio. La parte cortada del pseudotallo del retoño pelado fue colocada al nivel de suelo del hoyo de plantación para todos los genotipos y profundidades de hoyos de plantación, posicionando así la zona de las raíces del material de siembra en la capa superior de suelo rica en nutrientes. Las plántulas cultivadas in vitro fueron cubiertas con el suelo justo por encima del cuello. Veinte gramos de Efecto de la profundidad del hoyo de plantación sobre el desarrollo del retoño y las raíces de Musa spp. plaguicida Furadan 3G (Carbofuran) fueron colocados en la mezcla de suelo y abono antes de la siembra y encima de la capa superior del suelo 14 semanas después de la siembra, para controlar a los nematodos y picudos negros del banano. No se utilizó ningún tipo de riego. El diseño experimental fue una parcela dividida dispuesta como un bloque completamente al azar con dos repeticiones. El tratamiento de la parcela principal consistió en la profundidad del hoyo de plantación, mientras que el tratamiento de la parcela secundaria consistió en el tipo de material de plantación (es decir, plántula cultivada in vitro o retoño). Para cada tipo de material de plantación, se asignaron dos variedades como subparcelas secundarias.Dos campos colindantes de 48 plantas cada uno fueron utilizados para evaluar las características agronómicas 24 semanas después de la siembra (campo 1) y durante la emergencia floral (campo 2). El espaciado de las plantas fue de 3m x 3m en ambos campos. Para cada profundidad del hoyo de plantación y genotipo se recolectaron datos en seis plantas derivadas del material cultivado in vitro y seis plantas derivadas de los retoños. Para realizar la evaluación, las plantas fueron excavadas completamente. Dos campos adyacentes a los dos anteriores con una disposición similar fueron utilizados para evaluar la distribución de las raíces, es decir, el largo de la raíz adventicia como función de la profundidad del suelo, 24 semanas después de la siembra (campo 1) y durante la emergencia floral (campo 2). Cada campo tenía 24 plantas. Para cada profundidad de hoyo de plantación y genotipo, se recolectaron datos de tres plantas derivadas del material cultivado in vitro y tres plantas derivadas de los retoños.Los datos se analizaron utilizando el procedimiento del modelo mixto de SAS (Littell et al. 1996) en el cual las repeticiones fueron consideradas como aleatorias, mientras que la profundidad del hoyo de plantación y el tipo de material de siembra, como fijas. Ya que las variaciones debido al genotipo no fueron significativas, excepto con respecto a la altura de la planta, en los análisis posteriores el genotipo no se tomó en cuenta. Los promedios fueron separados utilizando una prueba-t de observaciones apareadas de cuadrados mínimos. Para establecer las relaciones entre el largo de las raíces adventicias y la profundidad del hoyo de plantación, el largo de las raíces adventicias fue trazado contra la profundidad de suelo para cada tipo de material de plantación.La profundidad del hoyo de plantación no tuvo efecto significativo sobre las características aéreas del cormo y de las raíces de las matas derivadas de los retoños, 24 semanas después de la siembra (Tabla 1). En contraste, las plantas derivadas de las plántulas cultivadas in vitro en los hoyos de 60 cm de profundidad tuvieron los parámetros como el peso del cormo, largo de las raíces adventicias y el peso seco de las raíces significativamente (P<0.005) más altos, en comparación con las plantas sembradas en los hoyos de 40 cm de profundidad. No se observó un efecto significativo de la profundidad del hoyo de plantación sobre todas las características de crecimiento evaluadas para ambos tipos de material de plantación durante la emergencia floral del cultivo en el primer ciclo (Tabla 2).Tabla 1. Valores promedio de las características agronómicas evaluadas 24 semanas después de la siembra en los bananos de altiplanos de África Oriental derivados de dos tipos de material de plantación y sembrados en hoyos de dos diferentes profundidades (n=12). LA: Área foliar, NL: Número de hojas, LW: Peso seco de la hoja, PC: Circunferencia del pseudotallo al nivel del suelo, PH: Altura de la planta, PW: Peso seco del pseudotallo, CW: Peso seco del cormo, NR: Número de raíces adventicias, LR: Largo de las raíces adventicias, RW: Peso seco de las raíces. En las columnas, los promedios seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente (P>0.05) de acuerdo a la prueba-t de observaciones de los cuadrados mínimos.Tabla 2. Valores promedio de las características agronómicas evaluadas 24 semanas después de la siembra en los bananos de altiplanos de África Oriental derivados de dos tipos de material de plantación y sembrados en hoyos de dos diferentes profundidades (n=12). LA: Área foliar, NL: Número de hojas, LW: Peso seco de la hoja, PC: Circunferencia del pseudotallo al nivel del suelo, PH: Altura de la planta, PW: Peso seco del pseudotallo, CW: Peso seco del cormo, NR: Número de raíces adventicias, LR: Largo de las raíces adventicias, RW: Peso seco de las raíces. En las columnas, los promedios seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente (P>0.05) de acuerdo a la prueba-t de observaciones de los cuadrados mínimos.La distribución de las raíces resultó similar para ambas profundidades de siembra para las plantas evaluadas 24 semanas después de la floración y para las plantas evaluadas durante la floración (Figura 2).Los resultados sugieren que el hoyo de plantación menos profundo no impidió el crecimiento de las plantas para ambos tipos de material de plantación, aunque se debe realizar más ensayos en la finca para confirmar estos descubrimientos preliminares. Swennen (1990) reportó que el tamaño mínimo para el hoyo de plantación podría ser hasta 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm. Esto también asegurará que la zona de las raíces del material de plantación sea colocada en la capa del suelo rica en minerales, en comparación con la colocación del cormo en el subsuelo. Ya que la mayoría de las raíces de banano crecen en la capa superior del suelo (Araya et al. 1998y Sebuwufu 2002), la siembra del cormo al nivel de la capa superior rica en minerales puede dar como resultado un crecimiento de la planta más vigoroso.El hoyo de plantación menos profundo en este estudio reduciría los costos de la mano de obra por hoy hasta en un 50%. Un trabajador de campo casual contratado recibe unos 300-500 UgSh [1$=1850 UgSh] para excavar un hoyo de plantación convencional, mientras que solo se le paga unos 150-250 UgSh para excavar un hoyo menos profundo ya que la remoción del subsuelo compactado demanda más energía y tiempo.Bakhiet y Elbadri ( 2004) sembraron retoños de espada a diferentes profundidades y reportaron que la siembra profunda dio como resultado un aumento del peso del racimo y redujo el tiempo hasta la floración durante los ciclos sucesivos de cultivo. Mientras que Bakhiet y Elbadri ( 2004) variaron la profundidad de plantación del retoño, en este estudio los retoños y las plantas cultivadas in vitro fueron sembradas al nivel de la capa superior del suelo y la profundidad del hoyo de siembra fue variado.Sin embargo, recomendamos realizar más estudios con el fin de evaluar los aspectos de costobeneficio, crecimiento de la planta, rendimiento y especialmente la estabilidad de los ciclos de cultivo sucesivos. Los estudios adicionales en la estación y en la finca podrían también concentrarse en diferentes profundidades de hoyo y tipos de suelo con diferentes historiales de manejo (con o sin barbecho, con o sin compactación del suelo, etc.). El desarrollo de la tecnología de participación en la finca, o de metodologías relacionadas, podría ser utilizado para refinar la profundidad del hoyo de plantación y otros aspectos relacionados bajo varias prácticas que emplean los agricultores y bajo varios sistemas de producción. Los ensayos en las fincas generarían resultados que serían representativos de las condiciones de los agricultores a las cuales también se adaptarían las recomendaciones. o existen dudas sobre la importancia de las plagas de nematodos como una de las limitaciones para la producción de Musa (Gowen et al. 2005). Sin embargo, el énfasis sobre los nematodos fitoparásitos que afectan a Musa se ha enfocado en la epidemiología, manejo e identificación de resistencia contra Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne. No obstante, las evidencias indican con mayor claridad, que este enfoque debería ser ampliado para incluir otras especies de nematodos, las cuales, dependiendo de la localización y del genotipo de Musa, pueden ser de mayor importancia que R. similis (Speijer y Fogain 2000, Gowen et al. 2005). Los nematodos como Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb) Golden, Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus coffeae (Zimmerman) Filipjev, Schuurmans y Stekhoven, por ejemplo, han sido identificados como nematodos primarios en el plátano en Africa Occidental (Speijer et al. 2001, Brentu et al. 2004) y vistos como una amenaza considerable a Musa en otros lugares, como en la India (Sundararaju 2001), la región del Pacífico (Bridge y Page 1984, Bridge 1988) y América Central (Stover 1972). También se acumula la evidencia sobre el poder patógeno de H. multicinctus (Barekye et al. 1999, Brentu et al. 2004, Ssango et al. 2004) y Meloidogyne spp. (Brentu et al. 2004) en Musa.La identificación de los cultivares resistentes a plagas y enfermedades, incluyendo a los nematodos, es un paso inicial hacia el desarrollo de una opción de manejo. Se ha realizado mucho trabajo sobre el desarrollo de los procedimientos de cribado para identificar la resistencia a los nematodos en el banano (Pinochet 1996, Speijer y De Waele 1997, De Schutter et al. 2001, Severn-Ellis et al. 2003). Utilizando estos métodos, se han identificado varios genotipos de Musa con resistencia a R. similis (Pinochet 1996). Sin embargo, el proceso de identificación de la resistencia sigue siendo un trabajo largo.La habilidad para cribar rápidamente muchas variedades indígenas o genotipos desarrollados por mejoradores haría el proceso más eficaz reduciendo el tiempo y el espacio requeridos. En este respecto, De Schutter et al. (2001) desarrollaron un método que examina raíces individuales y evalúa la multiplicación de los nematodos durante un período de ocho semanas, pero el cual fue diseñado solo para una especie, R. similis. Las actividades de cribado para detectar resistencia empezaron a tomar en consideración los principales nematodos (e.g. Stoffelen et al. 1999, Van den Bergh et al. 2000), aunque el H. multicinctus siguió siendo un nematodo difícil para cultivar, impidiendo las actividades de cribado. Con la atención puesta en la identificación de la resistencia a las especies de nematodos distintos a R. similis y la resistencia a varias especies, surge la necesidad de seguir desarrollando métodos de cribado eficaces y prácticos. El cribado de grandes cantidades de genotipos contra más de una especie de nematodo puede crear complicaciones y requiere de más espacio y tiempo. Además, la disponibilidad de retoños, especialmente de los de híbridos, puede estar limitada. Por lo tanto, el uso máximo del material disponible es trascendental.Este estudio fue realizado para adaptar y expandir el método de cribado de la raíz individual de De Schutter et al. (2001) para varias especies de nematodos.Los experimentos se llevaron a cabo en una instalación de cribado en la estación de Ibadan (7°30´N, 3°5´E) del International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) en Nigeria.Se utilizó el plátano 'Agbagba' (AAB), que es un buen hospedante de R. similis (Price 1994, De Schutter et al. 2001). Los retoños, que fueron utilizados como material de plantación y los cuales procedían de un sitio de multiplicación en la estación de Ibadan, fueron seleccionados observando que tuvieran daños ocasionados por picudos negros. Ellos fueron pelados cuidadosamente para remover raíces y tejidos del cormo infectados con los nematodos, y tratados con agua caliente (de 53 o C a 55 o C) por 20 minutos (Colbran 1967), antes de sembrarlos. Seis retoños por tratamiento y por método de inoculación fueron sembrados en aserrín en marcos de madera (1.0 m x 2.0 m x 0.3 m) y colocados en una cubierta plástica sobre el piso de concreto de la instalación de cribado. Cada marco de madera fue dividido en tres compartimientos iguales, cada uno conteniendo un retoño.Las raíces individuales fueron inoculadas de acuerdo a De Schutter et al. (2001). Aproximadamente cuatro semanas después de la plantación, de cada retoño se seleccionaron raíces primarias en la misma etapa de desarrollo. Dos días antes de la inoculación, un segmento de la raíz de 8 cm de largo, al menos a 5 cm desde el cormo, fue colocado cuidadosamente en un vaso plástico (8 cm de diámetro, 5 cm de alto) que contenía suelo arenoso arcilloso esterilizado con vapor (Figura 1). Utilizando una pipeta, cada segmento de raíz fue inoculado con 1.0 ml de suspensión acuosa que contenía 50 nematodos vermiformes. Después de la inoculación cada segmento fue cubierto cuidadosamente con el suelo esterilizado con vapor.El inóculo de nematodos fue obtenido de los cultivos en discos de zanahoria (Pinochet et al. 1995) para R. similis y P. coffeae. El inóculo fue preparado enjuagando los platos Petri que contenían los discos de zanahoria con agua destilada esterilizada y recolectando los nematodos en un vaso. El inóculo de H. multicinctus fue obtenido extrayendo los nematodos de las raíces infectadas de las plantas de 'Agbagba' cultivadas en potes que contenían suelo esterilizado a vapor. El inóculo de Meloidogyne spp. fue obtenido igual que el de H. multicinctus, utilizando Meloidogyne spp. aisladas de los plátanos en Rivers State, Nigeria, e identificados tentativamente como mezcla de M. incognita y M. javanica. Las raíces fueron picadas en trozos de 0.5 cm de largo y maceradas en una licuadora de cocina por dos períodos de 10 segundos separados por un intervalo de 5 segundos. Los nematodos fueron extraídos utilizando una técnica de embudo modificada de Baermann (Speijer y De Waele 1997).Los experimentos fueron concluidos diez semanas después de la inoculación. Los contenedores plásticos con los segmentos de raíces fueron excavados cuidadosamente. Los segmentos de raíces de 8 cm de largo fueron removidos, lavados con agua de grifo, secados con papel toalla, pesados, picados en trozos de 0.5 cm y macerados en una licuadora de cocina por dos períodos de 10 segundos separados por un intervalo de 5 segundos. Los nematodos vermiformes (jóvenes solo para Meloidogyne spp.) fueron extraídos durante 48 horas utilizando la técnica de embudo modificada de Baermann. Primero, las extracciones fueron depuradas después de 24 h y nuevamente 24 h después (a las 48 h). A las 24 h se utilizó agua fresca destilada para reemplazar la extracción depurada. La extracción del segundo período de 24 h, a 48 h, luego fue combinada con la extracción removida anteriormente para sumar la extracción total para cada muestra de raíz. Para cada segmento de raíz, el volumen de extracción fue reducido a 10 ml y las densidades de nematodos evaluadas de tres alícuotas de 2 ml de suspensión.Los dos métodos (el método de una sola especie y el método de varias especies), cada uno utilizando cuatro especies de nematodos, Meloidogyne spp., H. multicinctus, P. coffeae y R. similis, fueron comparados uno con el otro. En el método de una sola especie, tres raíces por retoño fueron inoculadas con 50 nematodos por raíz de una especie. En el método de varias especies, cada retoño fue inoculado por cuatro especies de nematodo, es decir, una especie por raíz (50 nematodos) y tres raíces por especie. Por lo tanto, cada retoño tenía 12 raíces inoculadas, cada una inoculada con una de las cuatro especies de nematodo. Los experimentos fueron arreglados en un diseño completamente aleatorio con seis repeticiones por tratamiento y conducidos en tres períodos de tiempo separados durante el año 2004.La tasa de multiplicación de nematodos, el peso fresco de las raíces y el daño en las raíces fueron evaluados en las plantas inoculadas y los datos fueron comparados entre las especies de nematodos y entre los dos tratamientos para cada especie de nematodo. El índice de necrosis de las raíces (INR) fue estimado en una escala de 0 a 20 (Speijer y De Waele 1997) para cada raíz, cortando la raíz por la mitad longitudinalmente y calculando un valor promedio para las tres raíces por retoño.Las densidades de las poblaciones de nematodos fueron transformadas mediante log 10 (x+1) previo a la realización del análisis (Gómez y Gómez 1984), para estabilizar las variaciones. El procedimiento general del modelo lineal (SAS Institute Inc. 1999) fue utilizado para comparar la reproducción, peso fresco de las raíces y el INR entre las especies de nematodos en las raíces inoculadas. Los datos promedio entre los dos métodos para cada tratamiento de especies de nematodos fueron comparados utilizando la prueba-T de Student en SAS.0De las cuatro especies de nematodos evaluadas, Meloidogyne spp. y H. multicinctus fueron recuperadas a densidades menores en la cosecha, que el R. similis o P. coffeae (Tabla 1). A pesar de las bajas densidades, la necrosis fue observada en asociación con Meloidogyne spp. y H. multicinctus. El INR fue mayor para P. coffeae en ambos métodos.El valor más alto del INR asociado con P. coffeae indica un potencial de daño más grande de este nematodo, apoyando las observaciones de los estudios realizados en microparcelas en el plátano en Ghana (Brentu et al. 2004). Solo densidades limitadas de Meloidogyne spp. en la etapa juvenil y H. multicinctus fueron recuperadas al final del experimento. Los datos sobre Meloidogyne spp. son comparables con los datos de estudios similares que duraron ocho semanas (Stoffelen et al. 1999). Hasta donde sabemos, no se han realizado estudios similares de cribado para H. multicinctus, debido en gran medida a la dificultad de cultivar este nematodo. En cambio, las evaluaciones de resistencia contra H. multicinctus han sido derivadas de los estudios de campo (por ejemplo, Speijer et al. 2000, J. Hartman sin publicar).No se observaron diferencias en las densidades de los nematodos y el INR entre los dos métodos para cualesquiera de las especies (Tabla 2). El INR para todas las especies de nematodos fue relativamente más alto (pero no diferente significativamente) en el método de varias especies que en el método de una sola especie. Entre los dos métodos sólo se observaron diferencias en el peso fresco de las raíces, pero no entre las especies de los nematodos.Probablemente, los pesos de las raíces fueron ligeramente más bajos como consecuencia del mayor nivel de parasitismo de los nematodos en el método de varias Tabla 1. Daños ocasionados por los nematodos y la densidad en el plátano 'Agbagba' diez semanas después de la inoculación con 50 nematodos por raíz, utilizando el método de una sola especie (una especie de nematodo por raíz y tres raíces por retoño) y el método de varias especies (una especie de nematodo por raíz, tres raíces por especies y cuatro especies por retoño) (n=18).  et al. (2003) podría aliviar de alguna manera la congestión en las inoculaciones con varias especies. Además, el método de varias especies puede ser problemático para los genotipos que tienen raíces delgadas si la inoculación de las raíces numerosas también reduce el diámetro de la raíz.El peso de los segmentos de raíces de los retoños inoculados con cuatro especies de nematodos fue más bajo que el de los segmentos de raíces de los retoños inoculados con una sola especie de nematodo (Tabla 3). La mayoría de las variables medidas diferían entre los tres experimentos realizados (Tabla 3).Es posible que utilizando el método de varias especies, la resistencia a una especie de nematodo se afecte como resultado del estrés causado por la inoculación de muchas especies de nematodos. En las situaciones en el campo, las plantas de Musa están más a menudo expuestas a varias especies de nematodos, y por lo tanto, puede ser beneficioso observar este deterioro de la resistencia en una etapa temprana. Por lo tanto, sería útil utilizar el método de varias especies para evaluar la reacción de los cultivares que se conocen como resistentes a una especie dada de nematodo. El método también podría ser utilizado para evaluar diferentes aislados de la misma especie en la cual se conoce la ocurrencia de variaciones patotípicas, como para R. similis (Pinochet 1987, Dochez 2004).Agradecemos el apoyo financiero al proyecto 'Mejora y Entrega de los Plátanos y Bananos Superiores a los Pequeños Agricultores en África Subsahareana', por parte del Directorio General para la Cooperación Internacional (DGIC, Bélgica). La asistencia de Idowu Rotifa y Josephine Dimkpa ha sido muy valiosa. Manuscrito del IITA No. 05/27/JA. n plantas superiores, la producción excesiva de especies de oxígeno reactivo (ROS), como los radicales de peróxido de hidrógeno y de hidroxilo, es una característica intrínseca de un metabolismo estresado bajo varios estrés abióticos. Una eliminación inadecuada de las ROS a menudo produce el estrés oxidativo, lo que se caracteriza por reacciones nocivas de las ROS con macromoléculas importantes biológicamente, como las proteínas, los lípidos y el ADN, lo que puede ocasionar daño a las células (Inze y Van Montagu 1995).Estudios de varias especies de cultivos han revelado que las plantas tolerantes a los estreses usualmente están dotadas con sistemas antioxidantes de defensa eficaces (Jagtap y Bhargava 1995, Sairam et al. 1998). Las plantas transgénicas que producen enzimas antioxidantes en exceso, por ejemplo, superóxido dismutasa y glutatión reductasa, también han sido asociadas con una tolerancia mejorada a los estreses (Allen et al. 1997, Aono et al. 1995). El objetivo de este trabajo consistió en documentar la tolerancia de las plantas de banano al estrés oxidativo, un tópico poco estudiado.Se utilizaron los cultivares 'Berangan' (AAA) y 'Mas' (AA), dos de los principales cultivares en Malasia. El cultivar 'Mas' es la variedad de postre más popular con un consumo anual per capita de 2.7 kg. 'Berangan' es el tercer cultivar más popular con un consumo de 0.5 kg por persona por año, pero es el banano de postre más exportado de Malasia (Rohizad 1999).Las plántulas micropropagadas de 'Berangan' y 'Mas' fueron preparadas de acuerdo a Novak et al. (1985), con unas pequeñas modificaciones. Los hijos de espada fueron la fuente de las puntas apicales utilizadas en la iniciación de los cultivos. Los retoños sanos se recolectaron en un campo situado a 600 m aproximadamente del laboratorio de la Universiti Putra Malasia. Los retoños recolectados fueron transportados al laboratorio en seguida en una motocicleta, un viaje de cinco minutos.Para la preparación de los medios para la iniciación de los cultivos, el medio basal de Murashige y Skoog (1962) fue complementado con 1 mg/L de tiamina, 100 mg/L de inositol, 30 g/L de sacarosa, 10 μM de 6-benzilo aminopurina (BAP) y 5 μM de ácido indol-3-acético (AIA). El medio de cultivo fue modificado con 5 g/L de agar y el pH fue ajustado a 5.8 antes de autoclavarlo. El medio de multiplicación era similar a los medios de iniciación de cultivos exceptuando la adición de 20 μM de BAP y la exclusión de AIA. El medio de enraizamiento fue parecido al medio de iniciación de cultivos menos la BAP. Los cultivos en los medios semisólidos fueron mantenidos a 25 ± 2°C bajo un fotoperíodo de luz/oscuridad de 12h:12h y una densidad de flujo de fotones fotosintéticos de 65 μmol m -2 s -1 . Los cultivos en los medios líquidos fueron colocados en un vibrador orbital (50 rpm) e incubados a 25 ± 2°C bajo un fotoperíodo de luz/oscuridad de 12h:12h y una densidad de flujo de fotones fotosintéticos de 20 μmol m -2 s -1 .Para la iniciación de los cultivos, las puntas apicales de ambos cultivares fueron cultivadas en el medio de iniciación de los cultivos durante tres semanas. Los cultivos iniciados luego fueron transplantados al medio de multiplicación y subcultivados cada tres semanas. Luego las puntas apicales fueron colocadas dos veces en el medio de enraizamiento cada vez por cuatro semanas.Para inducir el estrés oxidativo, las plántulas uniformes (con tres hojas completamente abiertas y raíces recortadas) fueron tratadas con 10 ml de una solución de paraquat (metilo viologen, número de catálogo M-2254, Sigma) a 10, 20 y 40 μM. Se conoce que el paraquat induce el estrés oxidativo en las células de plantas mejorando la producción de los radicales de superóxido en el cloroplasto (McKersie y Leshem 1994). El testigo fue agua esterilizada y desionizada. Las plántulas fueron mantenidas en un vibrador orbital (50 rpm) e incubadas a 25 ± 2°C bajo un fotoperíodo de luz/ oscuridad de 12h:12h y una densidad de flujo de fotones fotosintéticos de 20 μmol m -2 s -1 . Después de 24 horas, se hicieron análisis bioquímicos de la tercera hoja de cada plántula.Para comparar la tolerancia de los cultivares al estrés oxidativo se midieron la concentración de malondialdehído (MDA) y la filtración relativa de electrolitos. La concentración de MDA se determinó tal como se describe en Chai et al. (1999). La filtración relativa de electrolitos refleja la magnitud de permeabilidad de las membranas celulares. Adoptamos la suposición de que la ruptura y la permeabilidad de la membrana plasmática producirá un aumento de la filtración de los solutos citoplásmicos en el medio acuosoChai Tsun-Thai, Nor'Aini M. Fadzillah, M. Kusnan y M. Mahmood en el cual se sumergió el tejido foliar (Prasil y Zamecnik 1998). La filtración relativa de electrolitos en los fragmentos de las hojas (1 cm x 0.5 cm) fue determinada de acuerdo a Kraus y Fletcher (1994). Los fragmentos de las hojas fueron colocados en tubos de ensayo que contenían agua desionizada por 24 horas, después de lo cual se midió la conductividad (c 1 ). Luego, los tubos fueron colocados en agua hirviendo por 20 minutos, después de lo cual se midió la conductividad (c 2 ). La filtración relativa de electrolitos es la proporción de c 1 con respecto a c 2 .También se investigó el papel de algunos antioxidantes de los cuales se sabe que confieren tolerancia al estrés oxidativo. El superóxido dismutasa (SOD) es una enzima que contiene metal y la cual elimina los radicales de superóxido en las células de las plantas (Inze y Van Montagu 1995). La actividad del SOD es una medida de la habilidad de la enzima para inhibir la reducción del azul del nitrotetrazolio (NBT) por los radicales del superóxido (Beauchamp y Fridovich 1971). Los tejidos foliares fueron homogenizados utilizando 50 mM de búfer de fosfato de potasio (pH 7.0) que contenía 1% de polivinilpirrolidona y la actividad del SOD fue medida en el sobrenadante de los tejidos homogeneizados sometidos a centrifugación. Una unidad de la actividad del SOD es equivalente a una disminución del 50% en la tasa testigo de reducción del NBT. La tasa testigo de reducción del NBT fue establecida reemplazando el sobrenadante con una cantidad equivalente a 50 mM de búfer de fosfato de potasio (pH 7.8). El contenido total de proteínas en el sobrenadante fue determinado de acuerdo al método descrito en Bradford (1976).El ascorbato peroxidasa (APX) es considerado la enzima de barrido del peróxido de nitrógeno más importante en el citosol y cloroplasto de las células de las plantas (Inze y Van Montagu 1995). La actividad del APX es una medida de la habilidad de la enzima de oxidar el ácido ascórbico en presencia del peróxido de hidrógeno (Nakano y Asada 1980). Los tejidos foliares fueron homogeneizados utilizando 50 mM de búfer de fosfato de potasio (pH 7.0) que contenía 1% de polivinilpirrolidona y 1 mM de ácido ascórbico. La actividad del APX fue medida en el sobrenadante de los tejidos homogeneizados sometidos a centrifugación. El contenido total de proteínas en el sobrenadante fue determinado de acuerdo al método descrito en Bradford (1976).El glutatión reductasa (GR) cataliza la reducción del glutatión oxidado (GSSG) para formar glutatión reducido (GSH), un antioxidante celular importante (McKersie y Leshem 1994). La actividad del GR es una medida de la habilidad de la enzima de oxidar NADPH con la adición de GSSG (Hodges et al. 1997). Los tejidos foliares fueron homogeneizados utilizando 50 mM de búfer de fosfato de potasio (pH 7.0) que contenía 1% de polivinilpirrolidona y 0.01 mM de EDTA. La actividad del GR fue medida en el sobrenadante de los tejidos homogeneizados sometidos a centrifugación. El contenido total de proteínas en el sobrenadante fue determinado de acuerdo al método descrito en Bradford (1976).La catalasa (CAT) es una enzima perixomal que elimina el peróxido de hidrógeno (Inze y Van Montagu 1995). La actividad de CAT es una medida de la habilidad de la enzima de descomponer el peróxido de hidrógeno (Fadzilla et al. 1997). Los tejidos foliares fueron homogeneizados utilizando 50 mM de búfer de fosfato de potasio (pH 7.0). La actividad del CAT fue medida en el sobrenadante de los tejidos homogeneizados sometidos a centrifugación. El contenido total de proteínas en el sobrenadante fue determinado de acuerdo al método descrito en Bradford (1976).Los resultados se presentan como promedios y errores estándar de cuatro réplicas y para evaluar las diferencias entre los tratamientos y cultivares se utilizó la prueba t de Student.El paraquat aumentó la concentración de MDA en las células de las hojas de las plántulas de 'Berangan' y 'Mas' (Tabla 1). El MDA, un producto de la degradación de la peroxidación de los lípidos de la membrana, se considera como un marcador del daño oxidativo (Zhang y Kirkham 1996), y el aumento de su concentración indica la inducción exitosa del estrés oxidativo. Los niveles más altos del MDA en 'Mas', en comparación con 'Berangan', también indican que 'Berangan' es más tolerante al daño oxidativo.A pesar del aumento de los niveles de la peroxidación de los lípidos en las plántulas de 'Berangan' tratadas con 10 μM y 20 μM de paraquat y en las plántulas de 'Mas' tratados con 10 μM de paraquat, la filtración relativa de los electrolitos no difería significativamente en estos tratamientos (Tabla 1). El aumento de las concentraciones de MDA observado en estas plántulas puede ser atribuido en gran medida a la mejorada peroxidación lipídica dentro de las células de las hojas. Sin embargo, en las plántulas de 'Mas' tratadas con 20 μM y 40 μM de paraquat, en las cuales los aumentos significativos de las concentraciones de MDA estaban acompañados con aumentos significativos en la filtración relativa de electrolitos, la pérdida de la integridad de la membrana plasmática sugiere la propagación de la peroxidación lipídica desde los componentes celulares como los cloroplastos, a la membrana plasmática.La filtración relativa de electrolitos significativamente más baja, medida en las plántulas de 'Berangan' en los tratamientos con 20 μM y 40 μM de paraquat, en comparación con la filtración registrada para las plántulas de 'Mas', indica que la membrana plasmática de las anteriores fue menos destrozada, teniendo en cuenta la observación de que 'Berangan' es más tolerante al estrés oxidativo.La actividad del SOD fue significativamente más alta en las plántulas de 'Berangan' que en las plántulas de 'Mas' (Tabla 2), indicando una mayor capacidad de 'Berangan' para eliminar los radicales del superóxido. Nuestros resultados concuerdan con las observaciones anteriores de que la actividad mejorada del SOD está asociada con el aumento de la protección contra el daño oxidativo (Van Camp et al. 1996, Sen Gupta et al. 1993).La actividad de APX en las plántulas de 'Berangan' estresadas fue significativamente más alta que la misma en el grupo testigo, mientras que en las plántulas estresadas de 'Mas' esta no cambió o se redujo (Tabla 2). Con respecto a las diferencias entre los cultivares, la actividad de APX fue más alta en 'Berangan', sugiriendo que este se desempeñó mejor que 'Mas' en presencia del peróxido de hidrógeno detoxificador.En 'Berangan', la mayor actividad de APX estaba claramente asociada con una mayor protección contra el daño oxidativo. Por otro lado, la actividad reducida o inalterada de APX en 'Mas' tratado en 20 μM y 40 μM de paraquat, puede haber favorecido una acumulación del peróxido de hidrógeno en las células de las hojas, lo que a su vez dio como resultado la reducida actividad del SOD observada en estas concentraciones. De acuerdo a Casano et al. (1997), la actividad del SOD puede ser inhibida por el peróxido de nitrógeno. La eficaz acción del barrido y la conservación de la actividad del SOD dependen en parte de la actividad del sistema de eliminación del peróxido de nitrógeno en las células de las plantas.La actividad GR medida en las plántulas de 'Berangan' fue significativamente más alta que la medida en las plántulas de 'Mas' (Tabla Tabla 1. Concentración de malondialdehído (MDA) y filtración relativa de electrolitos en las células de las hojas de 'Berangan' y 'Mas' después de una exposición de 24 horas a diferentes concentraciones de paraquat (n= 4).3). En plantas transgénicas modificadas para sobreexpresar el GR, se observó una correlación positiva entre el aumento de la actividad de GR y la tolerancia al estrés oxidativo inducido por paraquat (Allen et al. 1997).Por otro lado, la actividad de CAT fue más baja en 'Berangan' que en 'Mas' (Tabla 3) aunque 'Berangan' estaba mejor protegido contra el estrés oxidativo inducido por el paraquat que 'Mas'. Nuestros resultados muestran que la mayor actividad de CAT no estaba asociada con las concentraciones más bajas de MDA o la filtración relativa de electrolitos. Ya que el paraquat inicia el estrés oxidativo en el cloroplasto (McKersie y Leshem 1994), es posible que la división de la catalasa en perixomas pueda haber limitado el papel de las enzimas de contener la producción de peróxido de hidrógeno en las plantas estresadas.Nuestros resultados demuestran que 'Berangan' es más tolerante al estrés oxidativo que 'Mas', tal como se refleja en una mayor actividad del SOD, APX y GR. Se necesita realizar más investigaciones en el laboratorio y en el campo para confirmar la contribución de estas enzimas a la tolerancia. Sería interesante descubrir si una mayor capacidad antioxidante se correlaciona con una mayor supervivencia o crecimiento cuando los bananos están expuestos a un estrés.La alfalfa transgénica modificada para sobreproducir SOD, fue menos afectada por el déficit hídrico y temperaturas bajas bajo condiciones de campo (McKersie et al. 1996(McKersie et al. , 1999)). Es posible que el mejoramiento del sistema antioxidante de defensa pueda producir plantas más tolerantes. Basándose en nuestros resultados, proponemos APX, SOD y GR como enzimas antioxidantes que ameritan atención de los programas de investigación que tratan de crear tolerancia al estrés abiótico en los cultivares de banano.Este trabajo fue financiado por una donación del Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología y Ambiente de Malasia.  Dos años después, el estéril pedazo de terreno fue transformado en un exuberante jardín de bananos. Hasta donde alcanzaba la vista, había plantas sanas de banano con pesados racimos (Figura 2).La metamorfosis no pasó desapercibida por los agricultores locales, quienes en un inicio estaban muy escépticos con respecto al proyecto. Balayan se encuentra en un área que fue famosa por sus bananos hasta finales de la década de los 90, cuando la producción fue abandonada debido a una rápida propagación del virus Bunchy top del banano (BBTV). Los agricultores tenían problemas en creer que las plántulas, que  se veían muy frágiles, sobrevivirían donde los retoños, el material de siembra tradicional, habían fallado. Pero el material de plantación sano, que fue verificado con respecto a la presencia de los virus, es exactamente lo que se necesita para empezar nuevamente desde el principio.La enfermedad aún es observada ocasionalmente. Cuando esto sucede, los niños inmediatamente se deshacen de las plantas enfermas, tal como los enseñaron, y este gesto sencillo ayuda a mantener la enfermedad bajo control. Después de haber visto lo que un buen manejo y material de plantación sano pueden hacer, muchos agricultores han expresado su interés en adquirir plántulas provenientes del cultivo de tejidos.Los bananos benefician a todos en Virlanie. Las casas en Manila compran sus bananos en la finca en Balayan a un 25% menos que el precio del mercado, lo que también conviene a los jóvenes agricultores a quienes les gusta un comprador regular y confiable para sus bananos. A su vez, los niños de la cuidad tienen un suministro estable de un alimento sano y nutritivo.El 'Lakatan', con su sabor dulce, aún sigue siendo el favorito local. El FHIA-23 introducido, un híbrido relacionado con el banano 'Gros Michel', está en el segundo lugar, sin embargo, los voluntarios extranjeros que trabajan en Virlanie lo prefieren a otras variedades. Otra característica Los autores trabajan en la oficina regional de INIBAP para Asia y el Pacífico en Los Baños, Filipinas. Para más información, contacte a i.vandenbergh@cgiar.org o visite el sitio web de VIRLANIE en: www.virlanie.org Figura 3. Los niños de la calle en el pasado disfrutan de unos bananos bien merecidos después de un día de trabajo en la finca Virlanie en Balayan.atractiva del FHIA-23 es su enorme racimo. El FHIA-18, un banano de cocción, se come como un bocadillo, hervido o frito. Como parte del proyecto, los jóvenes serán capacitados por la Cavite State University en el procesamiento de los bananos FHIA-18 para producir chips.El proyecto está demostrando ser un éxito no solo con los jóvenes agricultores de Virlanie (Figura 3), quienes quieren probar otros híbridos nuevos, sino también con los agricultores locales quienes desean volver a la producción bananera.Se está produciendo un nuevo esfuerzo para promover el uso de la diversidad de Musa como estrategia global para conservar bananos y plátanos.Los programas de mejoramiento existentes solo utilizan una fracción de la diversidad genética oculta en las especies silvestres y comestibles de Musa. Por ejemplo, la ecología de varias especies silvestres sugiere que la fuente de resistencia a los estrés abióticos existe en Eumusa a lo largo de la periferia norte de su distribución, incluyendo los mecanismos para la tolerancia al frío (Musa sikkimensis, Musa basjoo, Musa thomsonii), saturación hídrica (Musa itinerans), y sequía (Musa balbisiana, Musa nagensium). Las recientes expediciones de recolección en el norte de la India y en Malasia sugieren que otras áreas poco conocidas o inexploradas de la diversidad probablemente albergan nuevas características interesantes desde el punto de vista agronómico. En adición, el desarrollo de poderosas herramientas moleculares por iniciativas como el Consorcio Global de la Genómica de Musa, proporcionan una oportunidad sin precedentes para utilizar la diversidad disponible en Musa silvestre y cultivada.La vasta mayoría de la diversidad de Musa, al menos en forma cultivada, está siendo conservada en unas 60 colecciones nacionales dedicadas a Musa. Más de 6000 accesiones se mantienen en las colecciones de campo y unas 3000 se mantienen como plántulas en tubos de ensayo (colecciones in vitro). La colección mundial en el Centro de Tránsito de INIBAP (ITC), que es alojado por la Katholieke Universiteit Leuven en Bélgica, mantiene cerca de 1200 accesiones como plántulas y se encuentra en el proceso de rejuvenecimiento y crioconservación de toda la colección. También se está desarrollando una nueva colección de hojas liofilizadas para A escala mundial, el ITC asegura la conservación rentable a largo plazo y proporciona un número limitado de muestras de un amplio rango de germoplasma garantizando que están libres de plagas y enfermedades. Sin embargo, no existe una red colaboradora reconocida de colecciones nacionales o regionales. En cambio, hay numerosas colecciones nacionales de las cuales varias se destacan por la riqueza de su colección o son valiosas para la investigación, práctica o servicios de capacitación que ellas proporcionan. Varios foros de trabajo en redes existen bajo la forma de las redes regionales de investigación sobre banano y plátano y los grupos temáticos del Programa mundial de mejoramiento de Musa (ProMusa); conjuntamente, el Sistema de Información sobre el Germoplasma de Musa (MGIS) proporciona un modelo para el intercambio de información. Sin embargo, dentro del presente sistema las necesidades de germoplasma a escala nacional o regional no se llenan. Numerosas colecciones nacionales, particularmente aquellas con pocos recursos en Africa, en Asia y en el Pacífico, están funcionando de manera menos que óptima: un número significativo de accesiones tienen enfermedades o están siendo perdidas de las colecciones, los mecanismos para el intercambio de germoplasma son inadecuados y la comunidad de usuarios no está bien servida como podría estar.En una encuesta, realizada en 2005, el 62% de los curadores de 28 colecciones dijeron que su colección (10-25% o más) se estaba deteriorando debido a las limitaciones para su manejo; el 69% declaró que la capacidad del personal especializado existente no era suficiente para mantener la conservación de la colección a largo plazo. Al preguntarles cuales eran sus requerimientos de recursos humanos adicionales, más de la mitad de los curadores de colecciones especificaron la necesidad de apoyo técnico en la caracterización; aproximadamente un tercio solicitó apoyo para el manejo general de sus colecciones de campo o in vitro. Relacionado con esto está el problema de falta de uso de las colecciones y como ilustración está el hecho de el 70% de las accesiones en el ITC nunca han sido solicitadas y permanecen sin utilizar. Aunque la colección entera fue indexada para la presencia de virus, la demanda de germoplasma no ha aumentado. La diversidad es solicitada por los investigadores y productores, pero aún así, muchas colecciones nacionales y una gran parte de las principales colecciones están siendo poco utilizadas. Mientras la diversidad sigue siendo subutilizada, el manejo y la inversión en las colecciones estarán comprometidos.Los expertos en taxonomía, mejoradores e investigadores atribuyen una gran parte del problema de la subutilización a la documentación inadecuada. Muchas colecciones de Musa, incluyendo la colección del ITC, no han sido documentadas sistemáticamente; solo están disponibles datos limitados de caracterización y evaluación, y la información puede estar dispersa entre varios institutos. Los descriptores para el banano (Musa spp.) de IPGRI-INIBAP/CIRAD a menudo se aplican ineficazmente donde los curadores trabajan en un aislamiento con poca capacitación. De acuerdo a la encuesta, una colección promedio es descrita en un 45% utilizando todos o una parte de Los mejoradores necesitan que la diversidad genética sea conservada en bancos genéticos para desarrollar cultivares que puedan resistir los estrés bióticos y abióticos, como la sequía. R. Markham, Inibap los descriptores. Mientras que el Programa Internacional de Evaluación de Musa ha hecho progresos evaluando las variedades elite de Musa en múltiples sitios, la calidad de los datos brindados en respuesta a la encuesta y al MGIS revela que algunos de los esfuerzos de caracterización no cumplen con los estándares científicos.A pesar de las limitaciones identificadas en la encuesta, la comunidad de investigadores bananeros dispone de importantes colecciones activas y recursos. Basándose sobre estas fuerzas, se esta desarrollando la Estrategia Mundial de Conservación de Musa bajo la coordinación de INIBAP. El proyecto fue iniciado como respuesta a una solicitud del Fondo Mundial para la Diversidad de Cultivos, un fondo fiduciario recién lanzado y manejado por la FAO y el Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola, para apoyar la conservación a largo plazo de los cultivos citados en el Anexo 1 del Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura. El comienzo del proceso de desarrollo de la estrategia está dando los ímpetus para esfuerzos coordinados y reúne a los expertos de diferentes disciplinas, incluyendo a los biólogos moleculares y taxónomos, así como a los miembros de las  Desarrollo de la capacidad y asistencia técnica redes regionales, para que consideren cuales son las limitaciones en la conservación de Musa y como poder vencerlas. El modelo de trabajo actual (Figura 1) toma en cuenta la colección mundial en el ITC, y el papel de varias colecciones \"reconocidas internacionalmente\" que brindan diversos servicios al ITC y a las colecciones nacionales. También se reconoce que el éxito de la estrategia depende de la genuina colaboración de muchas colecciones nacionales; de que estas colecciones reciban beneficios claros de su participación y que se ofrezca una inversión paralela a escala nacional. En lugar de brindar apoyo a necesidades individuales de cada colección, la iniciativa mundial brinda la oportunidad de utilizar recursos centralizados para resolver problemas compartidos y cuellos de botellas específicos en el sistema.Actualmente, el borrador de la estrategia está recorriendo las redes regionales con el propósito de identificar colecciones prioritarias para el apoyo por parte del GCDT y para el desarrollo de un plan de acción detallado.Lusty en: c.lusty@cgiar.org.Tesis doctoral presentada en diciembre de 2004 ante el AGRO-Montpellier, Francia Hoy en día, el cultivo del banano en las Antillas se enfrenta a importantes problemas agrícolas (bajos rendimientos debido al alto desarrollo de patógenos), medioambientales (arrastre de pesticidas y suelo hacia las aguas superficiales, en un marco ecológico insular frágil) y económicos (variaciones en el precio de venta de la fruta y elevado costo de la mano de obra) que pueden comprometer la continuidad de este sector. Dentro de este contexto, se deben implementar unos sistemas de cultivo innovadores y que satisfagan unos nuevos requisitos económicos y medioambientales. Se exploran diferentes vías que, además de un modo de manejo racional, tienen como objetivo la integración de barbechos, rotaciones o plantas asociadas.La evaluación y el diseño de estos sistemas de cultivo innovadores requieren el uso de herramientas de modelización específicas que reflejen las características particulares del sistema. Con tal fin, se ha creado un modelo específico llamado SIMBA. Este modelo simula la evolución de la estructura de las masas de banano durante los ciclos de cultivo, punto esencial que condiciona al conjunto de la dinámica del sistema. También se tiene en cuenta el elemento parasitario, que influye en la sostenibilidad de la explotación y Diseño asistido por modelo de sistemas de cultivo sostenibles: aplicación a los sistemas bananeros de Guadalupe Philippe Tixier condiciona el uso de productos fitosanitarios. Se simula el parasitismo de los nematodos fitoparásitos en interacción con el crecimiento y la estructura de la masa, el estado del suelo y el empleo de nematicidas. Asimismo, SIMBA simula el crecimiento de los bananos y su productividad, la estructura del suelo, la cobertura de los suelos y el balance hídrico. Unos indicadores cualitativos e integradores, especialmente concebidos, permiten, acoplados a estos módulos biofísicos, la evaluación en el tiempo de riesgos medioambientales, como el riesgo de contaminación del agua por productos fitosanitarios y el riesgo de erosión. De este modo, se tienen en cuenta los cultivos a través de reglas de decisión que pueden evaluarse. El modelo SIMBA, al proporcionar resultados agronómicos, medioambientales y económicos (margen bruto), permite la evaluación multicriterio de sistemas de cultivo simulados según varias pautas.Seguidamente, SIMBA se utilizó siguiendo un método original de elaboración de prototipos en dos etapas (exploración global seguida de una optimización específica). Los resultados obtenidos permitieron identificar algunos sistemas de cultivo que habrá que experimentar en el campo. Este enfoque sistémico y funcional, que ha permitido avances sustanciales en la modelización de los sistemas bananeros, representa una eficaz herramienta para el diseño de sistemas de cultivo sostenibles.Tésis Estudio de la podredumbre postcosecha de los bananos y su controlTesis de Doctorado (PhD) presentado en 2004 ante la Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh Se estudió el manejo postcosecha de los bananos en Bangladesh. El procedimiento de cosecha, remoción del látex, sistema de transporte y procedimiento de maduración de tres variedades de banano, 'Sabri', 'Amrita sagar' y 'Chinichampa' fue registrado en 49 localidades de Bangladesh entre julio de 1999 y diciembre de 2000. Se examinó un total de 5 658 207 racimos con 579 566 633 dedos. Deficientes procedimientos de cosecha, carga y descarga, y vibración y compresión durante la transportación causaron rajaduras, cortes y manchas.De los bananos afectados por la podredumbre de los dedos, podredumbre del extremo del tallo y podredumbre del extremo distal, se aislaba consistentemente Botryodiplodia theobromae*, y de las frutas que mostraban síntomas de antracnosis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Las heridas en la superficie de las frutas aceleraban la infección. Los análisis bioquímicos indicaron que la calidad nutricional de estas tres variedades disminuyó debido a las enfermedades de la podredumbre. Las pérdidas en el mercado atribuidas a las lesiones y podredumbre de las frutas fueron estimadas en US$ 1.5 millones y US$ 10.5 millones, respectivamente. La aplicación de Bavistin (1000 ppm) y de Tilt (2000 ppm) previo a la infección resultó ser eficaz para prevenir el desarrollo de la podredumbre de las frutas de banano. Una vez establecida, la enfermedad es muy difícil de erradicar. En el presente estudio, los aislados del BBTV asociados con el 'Virupakshi' (AAB), 'Poovan' (AAB), 'Malaipoovan' (AAB) y 'Robusta' (AAA) fueron recolectados de diferentes lugares en Tamil Nadu. Bajo condiciones de invernadero, los aislados expresaron varios síntomas como la aclaración de venas, rayas verdes, atrofia foliar y cogollo racemoso.El virus fue purificado de las plantas de banano infectadas y se estimó que la concentración del virus en la vena media fue de 0.57 mg/kg del tejido. Para la detección serológica del virus se utilizó el antisuero policlonal contra el BBTV producido en el conejo blanco de Nueva Zelanda. El análisis de los borrones de Western reveló la presencia de 20kDa de proteína de revestimiento en las muestras infectadas. Para la detección del BBTV en las muestras infectadas se utilizó el análisis PCR de inmunocaptación. La digestión de restricción del gen de la proteína de replicasa con AluI indicó que no hubo Biología molecular y diagnóstico del virus bunchy top del banano y su manejo a través de la resistencia sistémica inducida S. Harish variación significativa entre los aislados. Las secuencias aminoácidas y nucleotídicas se alinearon utilizando CLUSTAL X 1.81. La alineación de las secuencias múltiples con las secuencias del GenBank reveló que algunos de los aislados del BBTV recolectados en las laderas de las colinas Pulney, Western Ghats, son homólogos con algunos de los aislados provenientes de India y Egipto.Cuarenta bacterias endofíticas fueron aisladas de los cormos de banano. Ellas se dividieron en dos amplios grupos: Pseudomonas y Bacillus spp., utilizando caracterización fenotípica y molecular. La mayoría de estos Bacillus spp. produjo patrones de impresión de huellas diferentes a los de Pseudomonas spp., y dentro del género no se detectaron diferencias significativas en el patrón proteínico, exceptuando el patrón de bandas RAPD.Se investigó la eficacia de las bacterias endofíticas contra el BBTV en un ensayo en potes utilizando las plantas de banano 'Robusta' (AAA) y en los ensayos de campo, utilizando retoños y plántulas provenientes del cultivo de tejidos de 'Virupakshi' (AAB), que fueron expuestas a las bacterias endofíticas al momento de la aclimatación, trasplante y 3, 5 y 7 meses después de la siembra. Varias combinaciones de bacterias endofíticas dieron como resultado reducciones significativas del BBTV.Tesis de Doctorado (PhD) presentada en noviembre de 2004 ante la Faculty of Horticulture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India En India, el virus Bunchy top del banano (BBTV) ha sido registrado en todos los estados productores de banano, con infestaciones más severas observadas en las colinas Pulney del distrito de Dindugal en Tamil Nadu. En esta región, el 'Virupakshi' (AAB), una fruta muy apreciada que alguna vez fue cultivada en más de 18 000 hectáreas como un cultivo perenne de secano, ha sido devastado por el Bunchy top y el área de siembra se redujo a 2000 hectáreas. Lainvestigación actual fue emprendida para evaluar el efecto de la resistencia sistémica inducida contra el BBTV en 'Virupakshi' y 'Robusta' (AAA).En el distrito de Dindugal de Tamil Nadu se realizó una encuesta para recolectar las plantas de 'Virupakshi' aparentemente sanas. Las plantas recolectadas fueron examinadas para detectar la presencia del virus utilizando los análisis ELISA y RAPD. Las plantas que mostraron ser negativas con el análisis ELISA fueron micropropagadas. Las 40 plantas producidas fueron examinadas para la presencia del virus. En una de las zonas de Tamil Nadu infestada con el BBTV, se llevó a cabo un experimento en el campo para examinar la eficacia de varias bioformulaciones contra el BBTV en el 'Virupakshi'. El experimento fue dispuesto en un diseño de bloques completamente al azar con ocho tratamientos y tres repeticiones. En cada tratamiento, hubo 20 plantas por repetición espaciadas a 2 m x 2 m. En este estudio se utilizaron dos cepas de Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf1 y CHA0), con o sin quitrina, en diferentes etapas del crecimiento del cultivo: al momento de la siembra, y 3, 5 y 7 meses después de la siembra. Otro ensayo de campo fue conducido con las plantas de 'Virupakshi' procedentes del cultivo de tejidos con el fin de evaluar la eficacia de la mezcla de las cepas de Pseudomonas strains (Pf1, CHA0 y EPB22). Estas cepas fueron aplicadas en las etapas primaria y secundaria de aclimatación, durante el trasplante y 3, 5 y 7 meses después de la siembra.La cepa de P. fluorescens CHA0, aplicada con quitrina al momento de la siembra y 3, 5 y 7 meses después de la siembra, aumentó la altura y circunferencia del pseudotallo, el número de hojas y el área foliar, y redujo la incidencia del BBTV en el invernadero y en el campo. La aplicación de una mezcla de cepas a las plantas de 'Virupakshi' provenientes del cultivo de tejidos durante la aclimatación, transplante y 3, 5 y 7 meses después de la siembra, también mejoró el desempeño agronómico y redujo la incidencia de la enfermedad en el invernadero y en el campo.Tesis de Licenciatura (BSc, Honours) presentada en 2004 ante la Universidad de Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia La contaminación bacteriana de los cultivos de tejidos de Musa es un problema importante y muy extenso. Se piensa que los contaminantes bacterianos problemáticos se derivan desde dentro del explante de iniciación. El objetivo de este estudio consistió en verificar si las bacterias endófitas que residen dentro del explante de iniciación podrían ser una fuente de las bacterias problemáticas, y desarrollar y evaluar un método independiente del cultivo, basado en PCR para la detección habitual de estas bacterias.Las bacterias fueron aisladas e identificadas por un análisis de las secuencias parciales de 16S rADN de 6 de los 72 explantes utilizados para iniciar el cultivo de tejidos. Estas fueron identificadas como una Klebsiella sp., una Herbaspirillum sp., una Agrobacterium sp., y una bacteria perteneciente a Enterobacteriaceaes, todas conocidas como bacterias endófitas. La Herbaspirillum sp. y Agrobacterium sp. fueron aisladas nuevamente de las plántulas resultantes del cultivo de tejidos, y todos los cultivos que derivaron de los explantes contaminados volvieron a estar contaminados después de un período de crecimiento latente. Paenibacillus sp. también se aisló de las plántulas provenientes del cultivo de tejidos que se volvieron visiblemente contaminadas, después de más de 12 meses de un crecimiento aparentemente axénico.Para la detección de un amplio rango de bacterias en los tejidos de Musa se desarrolló con éxito un método que no fue complicado por la coamplificación del 16S r AND plastídico. Se determinó un límite de control de detección de aproximadamente 1 x 10 5 células de Escherichia coli extarídas (equivalente aproximadamente a 7 x 10 3 copias de 16S rADN por PCR). Se optimizaron los parámetros de PCR como el número de ciclos, la concentración de MgCl 2 , y la temperatura de recocido. La amplia aplicabilidad de este método reveló que el ADN bacteriano contaminante, cuyas fuentes son la polimerasa Taq DNA y aerosoles exógenos, representaba un problema significativo.Este trabajo proporcionó una evidencia directa de que los endófitos que residen dentro de los explantes de iniciación Detección y caracterización moleculares de contaminantes bacterianos en el banano (Musa spp.) proveniente del cultivo de tejidos K.G. Wasmund pueden ser una fuente de contaminantes bacterianos problemáticos en plántulas de Musa provenientes del cultivo de tejidos, y que se necesita un método de detección independiente del cultivo. Sin embargo, para desarrollar un método sensible y confiable basado en PCR para la detección de estas bacterias, el análisis PCR debería dirigirse a grupos específicos de bacterias, ya que el método de rango amplio desarrollado en estudio es muy propenso a la contaminación.Tesis de Doctorado (PhD) presentada en mayo de 2005 ante la Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Bélgica Los bananos y plátanos (Musa spp.) están propensos a muchas plagas y enfermedades que causan serias disminuciones de rendimiento. La biotecnología ofrece a los mejoradores herramientas importantes para acelerar la producción de variedades mejoradas. Los cultivos de brotes apicales, también llamados cultivos múltiples de meristemas (MMC), que son altamente regenerables y se multiplican con rapidez, son extremadamente valiosos para distintas aplicaciones biotecnológicas en bananos. El desarrollo de los MMC de alta calidad corresponde a la primera fase crucial in vitro hacia el establecimiento exitoso de suspensiones de células embriogénicas (ECS) vía 'método de cortes'. Las ECS de alta calidad representan el material ideal más adecuado para la ingeniería genética en banano.En la primera parte de nuestro estudio, se desarrolló un nuevo método para producir MMC de alta calidad. Además de la variación en el tamaño de los explantes iniciales (brotes apicales cortados de las plantas enraizadas in vitro), la mayor parte de esta investigación consistió en la evaluación de la combinación más adecuada de los fitoreguladores de crecimiento (PGR). La reducción del largo inicial del brote apical (de 1.5 cm a 0.5 cm) y el uso de 10 µM de tidiazurón (TDZ) como PGR (seleccionado de 242 combinaciones de citoquinina/auxina) dio como resultado (i) una proporción igual o mayor de tejido como opuesto a los tejidos más diferenciados del cormo y de las hojas y (ii) una reducción del tiempo requerido para obtener los MMC (de 1 a 6 meses dependiendo de la variedad). Esto, en combinación con un estudio comparativo del comportamiento in vitro de maíz y banano, contribuyó a enriquecer nuestros conocimientos sobre el origen de los brotes apicales múltiples en el banano. Mientras que la Optimización de los cultivos múltiples de meristemas in vitro y suspensiones de células embriogénicas en banano (Musa spp.)formación del brote adventicio fue logrado con relativa facilidad en muchas monocotiledóneas, la proliferación de brotes axiliares en el banano no podría ser dominado por cualquiera de los 242 diferentes tratamientos PGR examinados.La segunda parte de nuestro estudio abarcó la inducción de embriogénesis en el tejido meristemático ('cortes'), el establecimiento de los ECS y el control de la calidad. La frecuencia embriogénica aumentó de 2 a 4 veces cuando los cultivos fueron dejados en la oscuridad y cuando se utilizó el TDZ en vez de benzilaminopurina (BAP) para preparar los explantes iniciales. La inducción de la embriogénesis se logró con éxito en 17 de las 22 variedades examinadas. La frecuencia embriogénica promedio entre los tipos de banano adecuados para la embriogénesis (plátanos, bananos Cavendish y de cocción) varió de 1.9% a 18.1%. Alrededor de un tercio de los complejos embriogénicos formados produjo ECS que contenían más de 75% de los agregados de las células embriogénicas. La capacidad de los ECS examinados, de formar embriones varió entre 36 -466 x 10 3 de embriones/ml de células establecidas, mientras las frecuencias promedio de conversión de embriones en plantas varió de 8 a 46%. En promedio, la calidad de los ECS disminuyó dos años después de la iniciación, aún cuando las suspensiones fueron subcultivadas regularmente y las estructuras no regenerables fueron removidas. En 5 de las 59 líneas de suspensiones celulares analizadas mediante la citometría de flujo, se detectaron aberraciones genómicas como la mixoploidia y poliploidia. Estas aberraciones genómicas estaban asociadas con una reducción drástica en la capacidad de regeneración de los cultivos de células. Sin embargo, la variación somaclonal aún se evalúa mejor en plantas regeneradas. Finalmente, se realizaron experimentos preliminares para explorar si la respuesta in vitro de diferentes variedades podría estar ligada a diferentes concentraciones de hormonas endógenas.De acuerdo a evidencias recientes de Uganda, el banano pudo haber arribado al continente africano hace mas de 4000 años, unos 2000 años antes de la introducción de la fruta aceptada en la región. El descubrimiento es publicado en la edición de enero de 2006 del Journal of Archaeological Science (Vol. 33(1): 102-113). Los autores, B. Julius Lejju, Peter Robertshaw y David Taylor, basan su postulación en los fitolitos de banano que ellos encontraron en las capas sedimentarias, los cuales se estima tienen entre 4000 y 4500 años. Los fitolitos son cuerpos microscópicos distintivos de sílice que se acumulan en las células de las plantas.Un descubrimiento anterior en Camerún de fitolitos de banano de 2500 años de edad (Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 2001, 10:1-6) había sido cuestionado en base a que los bananos fueron traídos por comerciantes a África oriental hace unos 2000 años. La evidencia reciente de Uganda apoya a aquellos quienes defienden un inicio temprano del cultivo de bananos en el continente africano. Musa tonkinensis puede ser segregada de otras especies rizomatosas de Musa por su brote masculino único. El ápice del brote masculino está marcadamente imbricado y las puntas de las brácteas individuales están perfectamente dispuestas en una bonita espiral muy distinta a las otras especies de Musa. Mientras que el color externo de las brácteas maduras es púrpura con márgenes verdes, las brácteas jóvenes no expuestas son de amarillo sólido. Las puntas expuestas de las brácteas imbricadas se secan temprano y se vuelven marrones. Estas características únicas sirven como caracteres de diagnóstico de M. tonkinensis.La morfología de M. itinerans ssp. annamica es muy similar a la de M. itinerans común, pero puede ser fácilmente distinguida por el método único de apertura de las brácteas. Las brácteas se tuercen y se enroscan hacia los lados a medida que se abren, en vez de enroscarse y enrollarse hacia arriba como se observa comúnmente en las otras especies de Musa. Otras características distintivas están basadas en sus frutas. Las frutas de las subespecies annamica son alongadas y se estrechan hacia ambos extremos mientras que las de itinerans son cortas y ovoides, la parte más ancha está cerca del ápice y la fruta se vuelve más angosta gradualmente hacia el pedicelo. Las frutas maduras de la primera especie se vuelven marrones con la cáscara agrietada, mientras que las frutas de la última se vuelven amarillas y su pericarpio permanece uniforme.Los términos en latín para la especie tonkinensis y subespecie annamica fueron seleccionados para indicar las regiones donde los especimenes originales fueron recolectados. Tonkin fue un imperio antiguo que abarcaba el norte de Vietnam y el sudoeste de China mientras que Annam fue un antiguo reino en Vietnam Central.INFOMUSA es una revista internacional que se publica dos veces al año en los idiomas inglés, francés y español. Nuestro objetivo es dar a conocer los resultados de investigaciones e informes de interés a toda la comunidad bananera. Ya que INFOMUSA publica artículos sobre cualquier tema relacionado con Musa, los autores deben emplear frases sencillas y cortas para evitar la jerga innecesaria y hacer su trabajo accesible para los lectores, especialistas en otras disciplinas. Los textos mecanografiados deberán ser preparados en inglés, francés o español y no exceder 2500 palabras, incluyendo la bibliografía. El texto debe ser mecanografiado a doble espacio. Todas las páginas (incluyendo las tablas, figuras, leyendas y referencias) deberán estar enumeradas consecutivamente. Incluya el nombre completo de todos los autores y sus direcciones completas al momento de realizar el estudio. También indique la persona quien recibirá la correspondencia respecto al trabajo. El manuscrito debe ser enviado como un adjunto al correo electrónico o en un disquete de 3.5 pulgadas para las computadoras compatibles con PC. Por favor, indique el nombre y la versión del procesador de palabras utilizado y la dirección electrónica del autor. En cualquier caso, necesitaremos recibir por correo dos copias impresas del manuscrito. Título: El título debe ser lo más corto posible y no contener números, siglas, abreviaturas o signos de puntuación. Resúmenes: Es necesario adjuntar un resumen que no exceda de 200-250 palabras. El resumen debe recapitular de manera concisa el contenido básico y enviado en el mismo idioma del manuscrito. Si es posible, se debe enviar las traducciones (incluyendo el título) en los otros dos idiomas. Palabras clave: Facilite un máximo de seis palabras clave, en orden alfabético, debajo del resumen en el idioma del autor. Introducción: La introducción debe proporcionar una razón para la investigación y cualquier información de fondo. Ya que esta introducción no pretende representar una amplia reseña del tópico, la cantidad de referencias bibliográficas debe mantenerse al mínimo. Se debe evitar las introducciones sobre la importancia de los bananos como un producto básico o producto comercial, al menos que sean absolutamente necesarias para el entendimiento del artículo. Materiales y métodos: Los autores deben proporcionar suficientes detalles de su diseño experimental para permitir al lector evaluar la validez de la investigación. Para los materiales y métodos utilizados comúnmente, será suficiente una simple referencia. Resultados: La unidad debe ser separada de la cantidad por un espacio sencillo y seguir la nomenclatura SI, o la nomenclatura común a un campo particular. Las unidades o abreviaturas inusuales deben ser definidas. Presente los datos en el texto o como una figura o una tabla, pero nunca los duplique. Evite el uso extenso de los gráficos para presentar los datos que podrían ser presentados más concisamente en el texto o en una tabla. Limite las fotografías a aquellas que son absolutamente necesarias para mostrar los descubrimientos del experimento.Discusión: La discusión no debe contener repetición extensa de la sección de los resultados, ni reiterar la introducción. Esta parte debe combinarse con la sección de los resultados. Bibliografía: Todas las referencias bibliográficas mencionadas en el texto deberán ser presentadas por el nombre del autor o autores y el año de publicación (por ejemplo: Sarah et al. 1992, Rowe 1995). Se debe evitar referencias a los documentos que circulan ampliamente, como informes anuales, y las citas de las comunicaciones personales y de los datos no publicados. Al final del texto, se debe presentar una lista de la bibliografía en orden alfabético. Por favor, siga el estilo de los siguientes ejemplos: Artículos de ediciones periódicas: Sarah J.L., C. Blavignac & M. Boisseau. 1992. Une méthode de laboratoire pour le criblage variétal des bananiers vis-à-vis de la résistance aux nématodes. Fruits 47( 5  Jones, ed.). INIBAP, Montpellier, Francia. Ilustraciones y tablas: Las ilustraciones y tablas deberán estar enumeradas consecuentemente y las referencias en el texto se harán de acuerdo a esta numeración. Cada ilustración o tabla debe incluir un título sencillo y claro. Las figuras y tablas deben insertarse después de la sección de bibliografía o en archivos separados. Gráficos: suministrar los datos correspondientes junto con los gráficos. Dibujos: si es posible, suministrar dibujos originales. Fotografías: Preferimos fotografías de buena calidad (papel brillante con un buen contraste para las películas en blanco y negro, pruebas de buena calidad y películas o diapositivas originales para las fotografías a colores), pero por favor, recuerde que no las devolveremos. Publicaremos las imágenes digitalizadas o tomadas con una cámara digital si su resolución es suficientemente alta (1 millón de píxeles o un mínimo de 300 dpi de una fotografía de tamaño real). Son aceptables los archivos con extensiones JPEG, TIFF y EPS. Evite enviar fotografías insertadas en un documento de Word o Power Point, a menos que estas están acompañadas de una mejor alternativa de calidad. Siglas: Las siglas deberán ser transcritas completamente la primera vez que éstas aparezcan en el texto, seguido por las siglas entre paréntesis. Nombres de cultivares: El nombre del cultivar debe ser colocado entre comillas sencillas. Si el nombre es compuesto, solo la primera palabra empieza con la letra mayúscula, a menos que se refiera a un lugar o nombre de persona. Utilice los nombres comúnmente acordados, como 'Grande naine' y evite las variaciones locales o traducciones, como 'Gran Enano'. Nota: Si el material de plantación utilizado para los experimentos descritos proviene o está registrado en el banco de germoplasma de INIBAP, debe indicarse su número de accesión (código ITC) dentro del texto o en forma tabular.Gracias por seguir nuestras recomendaciones. Esto facilitará y acelerará el trabajo de edición.","tokenCount":"22235"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e3e480108a33d746a07374f7054e9346","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dae241a6-9ff6-4323-ba1b-25d32ea23b0a/content","id":"-374233850"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fd142153-1369-4018-b7ba-8db21b45d094","pagecount":"11","content":"Overview: enabling the access to shared genotyping services (low and mid density) by AFS network for routine QC, MAS and GS applications. High density solution(s) to be made available for genome assemblies and resequencing of elite core lines for all priority crops. Make data publicly available.• Tactics: Coordination of different crop networks make available the marker resources already existing and that are continually build. Aggregate demand and engage with different partners to sensitize the advantage of shared services. Initiate new groups in the practice of genotyping within their BPs to eliminate discrepancies in knowledge and utilization. • Overview: Centralization trait introgression/ augmentation strategy and operation by crop and region and to enable fully costed support services for shared genotyping users.• Tactics: In development stage a centralization strategy for trait introgression/augmentation by having an automated and online submission system• Challenges: Genotyping activities, storage of data and associated operations are yet to be centralized Brainstorming time","tokenCount":"154"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"94e6ebf90b1009612ea124d41055c3ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0160c994-7765-43eb-acc2-be155a02f363/retrieve","id":"720250376"},"keywords":["Bureau du Commissaire charge de l'Agriculture, :::.l ) ~'-J Envlronnement et Ressources en Eau DIRECTC(\":: C:: (' ''. r-:~! ~,,! ,~, FRO M .","~","..:. . -. Cornrnissalre en charge de l'Agriculture, l'Environnement et des Ressources en Eau"],"sieverID":"4482b5c3-d51a-49fb-920a-4f808ae23696","pagecount":"1","content":"Sou mission pour signature Ie MoU avec Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research / Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CGIAR/CCAFS) En 2015 la Commission de la CEDEAO a travers mon Departement, a mis en place, en collaboration avec les partenaires et institutions regionales, I'alliance ouest africaine pour l'Agriculture durable face au changement climatique. Cette alliance vise a promouvoir I'adaptation de I'agriculture ouest africaine aux impacts des changements climatiques a travers des technologies et methodologies innovantes. Au nombre des partenaires se trouve Ie CGIAR qui a contribue au processus et qui continue de promouvoir cette initiative a travers des recherches actions dans la region. L'intervention de CGIAR se fait a travers son programme de recherche sur les changements climatiques, I'agriculture, et lasecurite alimentaire en Afrique de l'Ouest (CCAFS)abrite par ICRISAT Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre base a Bamako. Je vous re ...Commissaire en charge de l'Agriculture, de l'Environnement et des Ressources en Eau ","tokenCount":"154"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b414448abc8a3327c25ce0b69af02d47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b444064f-c8da-4cfd-b0a2-682123335535/retrieve","id":"-987361003"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"df5d22e1-0e78-43a2-a9a2-60b7384a1e17","pagecount":"16","content":"People today and in the future enjoy greater well-being through increased incomes, sustainably improved food security and nutrition, and greater environmental health, made possible by conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests.Our vision encapsulates IPGRI's strategic aspiration: to ensure that agricultural biodiversity is given the prominence it deserves as a contributing factor that can improve peoples' quality of life. We can do that by undertaking activities expressed in our mission.IPGRI undertakes, encourages and supports research and other activities on the use and conservation of agricultural biodiversity, especially genetic resources, to create more productive, resilient and sustainable harvests. Our aim is to promote the greater wellbeing of people, particularly poor people in developing countries, by helping them to achieve food security, to improve their health and nutrition, to boost their incomes and to conserve the natural resources on which they depend. IPGRI works with a global range of partners to maximize impact, to develop capacity and to ensure that all stakeholders have an effective voice.In order to ensure that we can organize, monitor and evaluate our work, IPGRI has adopted a logical hierarchy of goals. At the top is the overall goal, to ensure that the wellbeing of people, particularly poor people in developing countries, is sustainably improved. This is not something we can do alone. The global community has adopted a set of Millennium Development Goals in order to measure progress towards eradicating poverty. IPGRI's work is a contribution to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, especially the goals related to hunger and poverty eradication, maternal health and child mortality and environmental sustainability.Many organizations are working towards the same ends. IPGRI will make its contribution by working with partners and using its expertise in the realm of genetic resources and agricultural biodiversity to ensure that people and institutions are enabled to use and maintain agricultural biodiversity optimally. This will be achieved through six coordinated and interrelated areas of work: By organizing our efforts within this framework, we ensure that the activities within each area give rise to results that can be used to improve the part agricultural biodiversity plays in allowing people to achieve food security, to improve their health and nutrition, to boost their incomes and to conserve the natural resources on which they depend. Details of the activities in each objective can be found in \"Diversity for Well-being\", a booklet introducing the strategy, which is available by post and from the IPGRI Web site www.ipgri.cgiar.org/system/ page.asp?frame=Institute/New Strategy.htm The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is one of the 16 Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IPGRI's goal is to advance the conservation and use of genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. From its headquarters in Rome and its regional offices, IPGRI promotes and coordinates the action needed for the conservation of these genetic resources.IPGRI's Regional Office for Europe provides the Coordination Secretariats for the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) and for the European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN).IPGRI publishes two issues of the Regional Newsletter for Europe a year. This Newsletter is intended to serve as an informal forum for the exchange of news and views, and to create closer ties within the genetic resources community in Europe. Previous issues are available from the IPGRI Web site.Two meetings were held on 20 June 2004, in conjunction with the 9 th International Barley Genetics Symposium (20-26 June, Brno, Czech Republic; www.ibgs.cz).A short ad hoc meeting of the ECP/GR Barley Working Group with ten participants was organized by H. Knüpffer (Germany).The Group approved the budget of the Cereals Network for ECP/GR Phase VII (2004VII ( -2008) ) and finalized its priorities in relation to four priority areas: Topics of wider interest were discussed in the subsequent workshop.The IBGS workshop on Barley Genetic Resources, with more than 50 participants from 23 countries, was organized by H. Knüpffer.In session one, M. Jalli (Finland) introduced prebreeding and base-broadening as long-term activities that do not attract much funding. A group was formed (coordinated by M. Jalli) to prepare a strategy concept note to be submitted to FAO for possible funding. G. Backes (Denmark) and D. Falk (Canada) presented their activities.Session two, on Information Systems, was opened by M. Mackay (Australia) and J. Konopka (ICARDA) with the Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS), which exploits environmental information from the collection sites. B. Laliberté (IPGRI) introduced the Global Crop Diversity Trust, aimed at safeguarding the long-term preservation of endangered unique ex situ genetic resources collections, especially in developing countries. A group was formed to assess the state of barley ex situ collections worldwide. Databases of the Nordic Gene Bank were presented by L. Bondo. Cooperation between databases and information systems aims at a \"one-stopshop\" for barley germplasm worldwide. Two related papers were presented at the IBGS: \"Gene banks and access to barley genetic resources information\" (H. Knüpffer) and \"Global inventory of barley genetic resources\" (J. Valkoun and J. Konopka, ICARDA).In session three, K. Sato (Japan) reported that the International BCC is almost complete. A subset of Genetic Stocks was established recently and work is underway to create an Ethiopian/Eritrean subset.Martin Pavelek, AGRITEC, Research, Breeding and Services, Ltd., Šumperk, Czech Republic Thanks to the ECP/GR-funded project \"Characterization of flax genetic resources in Europe and data transfer to the IFDB\" adopted during the ECP/GR ad hoc meeting on Flax genetic resources in Prague, 7-8 December 2001, development of the IFDB progressed notably. From 2001 to 2004 characterization data were received from the following European genebanks: Bulgaria, IPGR Sadovo (453 accessions); Hungary, ABI Tápiószele (410); Romania, Suceava and Livada (247), and Ukraine, IBC Glukhiv (450).Detailed characterization and evaluation work was carried out at IPGR Sadovo, Bulgaria by J. Angelov and R. Koeva. The flax accessions were evaluated for 16 morphological characters according to the IFDB and showed substantial differences predominantly in the quantitative traits such as natural plant height and height to first branch. The accessions were divided into 5 groups, most of which were characterized by medium high plants (67-82cm), typical of the intermediate type. This type has a better proportion of fibre and seed yield, valuable for dual purpose breeding.The accessions examined also differed in respect of corolla colour (when fully developed), characterized with: blue (87%), white (6%) and light blue corolla (7%). Only one accession with a violet corolla was detected.The accessions were divided into 5 groups according to the duration of the vegetation period (from germination to technological maturity): very early; early; medium early; medium late and late. Most of the accessions belonged to the medium early group.The yielding abilities (fibre, fibre and oil, oil yield) were evaluated in the same way and divided into 5 groups with the following general conclusions:• The accessions examined were highly adaptable to the local climatic conditions; • The oil content in the seeds ranged from 29.96% to 43.67%; • The content of crude protein in the groats ranged from 33.06% to 41.04%; • Thirty accessions with a good complex of characters were selected to continue the breeding process (stem, seed, oil and protein yield) to be tested under production conditions and compared with the standard cultivars. The Solanaceae Working Group is focusing its efforts on raising the level of safetyduplication of the European Solanaceae collections. Availability to host black boxes in the various genebanks was recorded. The definition of standard protocols for regeneration and seed storage of the various species was another objective of this meeting. Information on regeneration protocols used in the various institutions was shared and will be collated. Discussions started on a minimum list of about ten priority characterization descriptors to be used by any ECP/GR participating country for cultivated eggplants, pepper, tomato, Cyphomandra and Physalis. Agreed tables of descriptors and regeneration guidelines will be published in the final IPGRI report of this meeting.The ultimate objective of these common minimum characterization protocols is to allow the future addition of primary characterization data to the solanaceous Central Crop Databases. This ad hoc meeting of the Avena Working Group (AWG) was planned as a number of its members were attending the VII International Oat Conference in Helsinki and the opportunity was too good to miss.Issues discussed included the possibility of having areas of primary habitat of three rare oat species (Avena maroccana, A. murphyi and A. insularis) in Morocco, Spain and Italy respectively preserved for in situ conservation. The country representatives will pursue this with their respective government agencies. The possibility of having these species and possibly another rare oat species A. prostrata (indigenous in Spain and Morocco) included as red list species was also proposed. Further to this, funds are available (through ECP/GR) to collect the former three species during 2005.The new GEN RES Council Regulation 870/2004 (1467/94), though not published at the time of the meeting, was discussed and various possibilities for a new project were proposed. A meeting of the previous GEN RES project \"Evaluation and enhancement of Avena landrace collections for extensification of the genetic basis of Avena for quality and resistance breeding\" was to be held the day after the AWG meeting, attended by Fred Steenhoff from the EU Commission, who it was hoped, would offer advice on how to best formulate a further proposal for submission by the AWG.As the present Chair of the AWG would be retiring in December 2004, the Group unanimously elected Andreas Katsiotis of the Agricultural University of Athens (email: katsioti@aua.gr) interim AWG Chair. It was also agreed that Andreas would be one of the two AWG members to sit on the ECP/GR Cereals Network Coordinating Group (CNCG). The other Cereals NCG member remains the same, EADB database manager Christoph Germeier. These appointments will need to be officially ratified at the next full AWG / CNCG meeting which is currently scheduled for 2007. In order to ensure coordinated conservation and optimal use of financial resources, the Swiss Commission for the Conservation of Cultivated Plants (CPC), with the support of its members and working groups, has elaborated conservation concepts and guidelines for several groups of species: fruit trees; cereals, maize and industrial plants; vegetables; grapevine; potatoes; berries. These are available in French and German at the CPC Web site (see below). Still under development are the concepts for forage crops and aromatic and medicinal plants. Each concept has an identical structure, but the contents are adapted specifically to each group of species.Each concept defines four phases:• An inventory including existing collections, field investigations and historical research; • Choice of the varieties to conserve; • Conservation, characterization and evaluation of genetic resources; • Distribution of material for sustainable use.The activities are aimed at conserving Switzerland's rich PGR diversity. Rare, foreign varieties, curiosities or seedlings (e.g. for fruit trees) are conserved temporarily, until a final decision, or a case-by-case decision, can be considered.Three conservation levels are foreseen: an introduction collection (for transitory maintenance of both unrecognized and identified accessions); a primary collection (for the long-term conservation of known varieties); and a duplicated collection (a supplementary guarantee for the perennity of the material).Guidelines and specifications are elaborated for the four phases of the concepts, as well as technical guidelines for regeneration of the species, budgetary guidelines and indicative rates.These concepts and guidelines are primarily a performance tool to ensure the conservation and sustainability of Switzerland's genetic heritage; however, they also offer a good opportunity for collaboration between public and private institutions in carrying out common projects.For more information please visit www.cpc-skek.ch or contact the CPC secretariat: Email: info@cpc-skek.chAgostino Falavigna, Istituto Sperimentale per l'Orticoltura, Montanaso Lombardo (Lodi), Italy Calabrian varieties of pepper \"di Roggiano\", onion \"Rossa di Tropea\" and melon \"Rugoso di Cosenza\" are only some of the local products served and discussed at a recent national project meeting on Italian vegetable germplasm, held in Mirto Crosia, Cosenza (Italy). The meeting presented the results of the second year of the three-year project, funded by the Italian Ministry for University and Research (MiUR) and the Ministry for Agriculture and Forest Policies (MiPAF).The project involves several partners from Agricultural Experimental Institutes, universities, the National Research Centre (CNR) and other institutions studying local vegetable varieties for: agronomic performance; morphological, biochemical and molecular genetics characterization; nutritional and nutraceutical qualities; susceptibility to disease; breeding and conservative selection. The aim is to supply the market with improved products, while maintaining and stabilizing the local traits.Local varieties of asparagus, cauliflower, eggplant, garlic, winter melon, onion, pepper, radicchio and table tomato were identified throughout Italy. Nutritional qualities are emphasized by biochemical analysis, e.g. protein content and quality of \"Purgatorio\" bean grown for more than 400 years near the village of Gradoli, and \"Sarconi\" bean recognized by the E.C. as a typical product of the central Basilicata Region. Some local cauliflower varieties with green or purple head showed high concentrations of glucosinolate compounds, known for their nutraceutical characteristics. Previously unknown traits of tolerance or resistance to fusarium and verticillium wilts were identified in local varieties of tomato. Asparagus \"Violetto d'Albenga\" and garlic \"di Vessalico\" are being characterized for morphological traits. Overall, the project has helped to emphasize the value of many local types of Italian vegetables and ensure their conservation through use.The third and final project meeting will be held in May/June 2005, as part of a national workshop on vegetable genetic resources. International experts will also be invited to exchange experiences and increase collaboration on a regional level. The \"Cultivation and plant nutrition\" section described cultivation techniques, with frequent reference to the impact of fertilizers and forms of application. Disease occurrence, phytopathological monitoring and plant pathogen relations were also reviewed.A further section on \"Food processing, health and functional food\" discussed flavonoids in general and rutin in particular. Tests for possible substitution of buckwheat for wheat flour were presented and aspects of buckwheat allergy were mentioned. The programme ended with a section devoted to buckwheat utilization in organic farming.Over 100 international specialists took part in the Symposium. The proceedings were published and can be requested from RICP (email: stehno@vurv.cz).Genetic variation for plant breeding was the focus of the 17 th General Congress of EUCARPIA (European Association for Research on Plant Breeding), held on 8-11 September in Tulln, Austria, with over 350 participants from nearly 50 countries.During the first session on \"Current availability and use of genetic diversity\", various presentations consistently reported that genetic diversity contained in cultivated germplasm has not decreased over time in quantitative terms, and in some cases it has actually increased. However, the type of alleles was subject to changes, especially the rare alleles, which might have implications on the choice of the most appropriate sampling strategies over time.During the second session on \"Strategies for exploitation of genetic diversity\", examples were given of the use of functional markers in maize and ryegrass, as well as the possibility to use molecular methods to aid introgression from wild species. Perspectives for the future include the possibility to use software helping to design and select the ideal genotype, once the full spectrum of agronomically relevant alleles has been haplotyped. The importance of correct characterization of individual plants (phenotyping) emerged as an important step that will continue to accompany the use of computer software and molecular methods in the foreseeable future.In the third session on \"Old and new goals in plant breeding\", successful cases of breeding were presented e.g. yield improvement in British wheat varieties, aided by QTL analysis; the exploitation of the Commonwealth potato collection as a source of resistance genes; and improvements in hybrid rye performance in Germany.Mapping and pyramiding of resistance genes in barley and accumulation of genotypic and phenotypic data were shown to offer a promising platform for breeders to use barley diversity. Resistance genes are being introduced into Beta. Among future breeding directions, the importance of breeding old and new species for a sustainable biosaline agriculture was shown. Additionally, it was indicated that organic farming will make more progress with the use of varieties to be bred specifically for this purpose within an organically managed environment and with farmers' participation.A possible take-home message of the Congress was that proliferation of molecular markers and refinement of marker-assisted selection techniques will increasingly accelerate the breeding progress. However, these would remain ineffective in the absence of useful genes, which can only be found in well maintained and available sources of genetically diverse germplasm. The meeting included a seminar during which the local organizers provided an overview and some results of the ongoing inventories of natural black poplar trees and stands in Switzerland. As part of the inventory, samples from poplars have also been collected for molecular identification. The results showed that there is a 3% error in morphological identification of the most obvious individuals of black poplar (i.e. old trees). It was noted that this error margin is higher for younger trees. In addition, the project has made efforts to optimize search areas for the field surveys and has only found weak correlation between the occurrence of black poplar and specific habitat types. The Swiss inventory project has also been trying to define new methods for morphological identification of pure black poplar individuals.At the end of the meeting the participants made a field trip to the floodplain forests of River Thur at the Thurgau Canton to learn more about a river restoration project. The channelled river bed has been increased from 50m to 100m in certain areas while still keeping some man-made boundaries. This has brought water back to the old floodplain forests and now new river dynamics are developing together with recovering vegetation.The field trip also provided participants with an opportunity to observe the use of poplar wood as construction material in century-old farm houses in the Thur Valley. In olden times, local people used poplar wood in many ways because it was abundant, cheap and light, yet durable. Indeed the durability of poplar wood was clearly observed in various structures of the old houses; wood of Norway spruce, for example, had suffered damage from insects, whereas poplar wood had no such problem.A summary of the meeting report is available at the EUFORGEN Web site (www.euforgen.org). Several Resolutions made by the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) are based on issues raised by the scientific community. The MCPFE process has also acknowledged the role of science in policy-making and stressed the need to build the policy process on research findings and other solid information. However, the expectations of policy-makers and outputs of scientists do not always coincide, i.e. there are gaps between current policy issues and ongoing research.On 13 October 2004, a preparatory workshop analyzed these gaps and discussed the past and future of the science-policy interface in Warsaw, Poland. The workshop was hosted by the Polish Forest Research Institute and organized by the European Forest Institute (EFI), in collaboration with the International Institute for Applied System Analysis (IIASA), the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), IPGRI and the United Nations University (UNU). Policy-makers from several European countries and representatives of the EC and the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) participated in the workshop. The state of needs, potentials and policy relevance of research for the MCPFE process was summarized based on a survey carried out by EFI and other inputs (visit www.efi.fi/events/2004/preparatory_workshop/ for details).The outputs of the workshop serve as a basis for preparations of a conference in November 2005 to strengthen the science-policy interface as part of the MCPFE process. The objectives of the November conference include identification of key socio-economic, environmental and policy issues and emerging information needs from the point of view of the MCPFE process. The conference also aims at sharing the latest knowledge on the impacts of alternative policy tools, including cross-sectoral policy impacts and facilitating monitoring of the progress in implementing the MCPFE commitments. More information on this conference is available at www.efi.fi/events/2005/policy_interface/New Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation are now available for: black pine (Pinus nigra), Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea), wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis), European and pedunculate oaks (Quercus petraea/Q. robur), cork oak (Quercus suber), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and field maple (Acer campestre).Copies are available from the EUFORGEN secretariat (euf_secretariat@cgiar.org) or downloadable as PDFs from www.euforgen.org. The distribution maps are also available through the Web site. The training workshop aims to give a common background to graduate students and young scientists already working on forest biodiversity and will address the urgent needs and challenges of biodiversity management in forest production systems in developing countries. It will give strong emphasis to promoting the links between forest biodiversity and forest genetic resources and sustainable livelihoods. The ecosystem approach will be used as a general concept for addressing the challenges associated with the conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity.For the project year 2004-2005 the two-week training workshop will take place in the Russian Federation in April 2005 and will be held in English. It will cover the following areas: (i) Forest biodiversity -policy, legal and economic aspects; (ii) Genetic diversity; (iii) Evolutionary genetics in forest tree populations; (iv) Spatial pattern of genetic diversity and its sampling; (v) In situ conservation; (vi) Ex situ conservation; (vii) Genetic conservation in forestry practice; and (viii) it will also have a regional component, focusing on specific matters such as the MCPFE and inventorying practices in former Soviet Union countries. Lectures will be given by eminent scientists from Austria and worldwide.Every year of the five-year project a two-year fellowship will be awarded to outstanding young scientists from the target region with expected increased responsibilities in the field of forest genetic resources.The research fellowships will be awarded to selected individuals (with 1-5 years' working experience in the area) from respective national programmes, identified on the basis of research innovation and practical relevance of the research topic to the home institute and country. Each fellowship will have a duration of 24 months and will take the form of a research project conducted at the host institute in Austria.An individual work programme will be elaborated together with the host institute and will include data gathering and preparation of research material in the home country. To promote sustainability of the research skills acquired, each fellow will receive coaching following his/her return to the home institute at the end of the fellowship. Follow-up work (analyses to be carried out in the home institute and report writing) will be scientifically supported by the Austrian host institute. The selected fellows will develop, with the technical support and advice of the Austrian BFW Department of Genetics, a two-year innovative research programme on forest genetic resources. The research will focus on topics relevant to the applicant's home country.BFW Department of Genetics will host the fellows in its laboratories and will provide the technical backstopping and laboratory facilities. For the two-year fellowship, IPGRI w living costs in Austria, two return tickets participation in the training workshop (s Enquiries and applications should be Applicants should send a cover letter an names and contact details of at least tw of the applicant's current work and futur January 2005.On 15-18 September, the Institute for Vine and Wine \"Magarach\", Yalta, Ukraine hosted the second project meeting on \"Development of national programmes on plant genetic resources in southeastern Europe\".National programmes comprise activities which ensure the conditions for sustainable conservation and use of genetic resources (GR). The project aims to: strengthen the less endowed national programmes in southeastern Europe; facilitate international collaboration between national programmes and aid their integration within the broader context of collaborative activities in Europe. The beneficiary countries involved are: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Russian Federation and Ukraine. The project focuses on improving the conditions for the conservation and use of grapevine and broadleaved forest GR.After the presentation of the progress made by beneficiary countries during the first year (2003)(2004), the representatives of collaborating Institutions from Austria, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg shared relevant activities and achievements and expressed their suggestions for collaborative action. The most important achievement of this meeting was the development of the workplan for the next project year (October 2004-September 2005).Fellowships at the Centre de Recherche Public Gabriel Lippmann (CRPGL), Luxembourg and at the Department of Plant Production of the University of Milan, Italy will be offered by IPGRI to young scientists from the beneficiary countries. This important component of the project aims to achieve a uniform approach in the region and to develop a strong working team. Three research fellows conducted their programmes at these two Institutions during the first project year. This meeting will enhance active collaboration between the two components of the project (the grapevine and broadleaves GR) in areas such as the recording of wild grapevine in the forests.David Maghradze from the Research Institute of Horticulture, Viticulture and Wine-making in Tbilisi, Georgia, was invited by IPGRI to act as project facilitator during the second year of the project.It was agreed that each country will complete the list of autochthonous varieties with a short description of their effective status in the collections, considered essential for implementing the conservation projects in each country. All project partners will ensure proper maintenance and restoration of the genetic material listed in the inventory. These actions will be financially supported from the project budget.The archaeobotany of grapevine in Ukraine and research into grapevine diversity of the past were considered important research components of the project. The Bioarchaeological Research Centre, Rome, Italy will develop a proposal for descriptors of the grapevine seeds.It was also agreed that the IPGRI Descriptors for Vitis should be used wherever appropriate. The project participants felt that support by the project should be offered to develop and produce the revised Descriptors.It was decided that project partners will provide inputs to the European Vitis database.To read more please visit www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/eu rope/Projects/SE-Europe/ ProjectMeetingYalta.htm Implementation of the Strategy on the one hand will facilitate access to genetic resources and technologies of their utilization in accordance with the CBD, on the other it will support the conservation of Armenian genetic resources and will control the fair sharing of benefits arising from their utilization.The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) aims at implementing a Multilateral System of access to a list of the most important food and fodder crops essential for food security. It will ensure that benefits from the commercial use of the genetic resources of these crops are returned to farmers in developing countries, the original source of most of the resources.The FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture completed the Treaty negotiations in 2001 and Italy, along with other European countries, ratified this important instrument through national law no. 101, adopted on 6 April 2004.The Treaty's potential as a legally binding agreement in the context of PGRFA is to ensure that the genetic resources that underpin social needs are maintained in the public domain.The new national law has separated the responsibilities for implementing the Treaty between the Ministero delle Politiche Agricole e Forestali (MiPAF) (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Policies), Ministero dell'Ambiente (Ministry of Environment) and Ministero degli Affari Esteri (Ministry of Foreign Affairs). MiPAF is responsible for implementing article 5 of the Treaty, concerned with promoting an integrated approach to the exploration, conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA.The activities of article 5 will be developed in collaboration with the Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura (National Council for Agricultural Research) that includes 28 public institutions of the Italian agricultural research network. A national financial strategy has been developed and the annex of the law of ratification includes measures to make available a budget of 1 172 000 Euros per year for the implementation of the activities.The implementation of the International Treaty is an important process for Italian agriculture if we consider the potential use of cultivated and wild plant genetic resources, particularly those varieties and populations that have been domesticated in Italy and those linked to the traditional knowledge and typical Italian cuisine and culture.One of the most important elements is the valorization of PGRFA and the sharing of financial benefits derived from their use and commercialization. As a result of the ratification and implementation process in Italy, we expect to realize in the near future better conditions to facilitate access and benefitsharing for all PGRFA.Institute of Botany, Vilnius, Lithuania. Photo: Institute of Botany. The workshop involved working group (WG) discussions focused on \"Political and legal issues\", definition of \"Genetic erosion and genetic pollution\", \"Monitoring at the taxonomic level\", \"Monitoring at and around the population level\" and \"Monitoring at the gene level\", with six presentations made by various project partners. Case studies were presented on day three, with WG discussions focusing on special issues surrounding genetic erosion and pollution in agriculture, horticulture and forestry and a debate on the CWR species list prioritization, the hierarchy of methodologies and future demands, prospects and opportunities.The workshop ended with a field trip to sites of geological and ecological interest, including traditional agricultural systems of the Azores. www.pgrforum.org","tokenCount":"4802"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"761f84e261fbcb715a7799952d3e92c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/02c570fe-69a4-4c99-bc2d-d5b8c81e8353/retrieve","id":"-1895568220"},"keywords":["Banana Xanthomonas Wilt","Livelihood assets","Sustainable livelihoods framework","Uganda"],"sieverID":"e5165259-b75f-4860-a294-822c648c6a93","pagecount":"19","content":"This study analyzes the influence of livelihood assets on Ugandan farmers' decisions to control Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), a disease that has threatened banana production and the livelihoods of Ugandan farmers since 2001. The BXW control strategy is based on the simultaneous implementation of four cultural practices: debudding, infected plant removal, disinfecting tools, and using clean planting materials. The Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) framework represents a very useful theoretical architecture for examining the interplay between livelihood systems of rural Ugandan households and the external context. Empirically, this study applies a double-hurdle model with the base assumption that the two adoption decision processes (whether to adopt and the intensity of adoption of the cultural practices) are separate. Results indicate that the vulnerability context and the human, social, natural, and physical capitals are the factors that drive farmers to adopt the identified strategy. Farmers' decisions about the extent of adoption are instead negatively influenced by natural capital and positively associated with social capital. These findings highlight the importance of supporting the improvement of livelihood assets to enable tailored support to farmers. It is particularly important to support the social and natural capitals that facilitate information exchange and provide critical resources for the adoption of the BXW control strategy.As in other developing countries, banana production contributes significantly to the food security and household income of rural people in Uganda. It is estimated that 75% of Ugandan households grow the crop, while Ugandans' per capita consumption of bananas is the highest in the world (Karamura 1993). Besides being an important staple food and cash crop, bananas are also valued for their medicinal properties and are associated with many cultural ceremonies and traditional beliefs. Alarmingly, banana production in Uganda has been severely threatened by Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) since 2001 (Tushemereirwe et al. 2003). This disease often leads to complete crop loss and there are currently no banana varieties that are resistant to BXW (Karamura et al. 2010;Kubiriba and Tushemereirwe 2014).During Uganda's first BXW peak, the incidence in affected fields reached up to 70% in a one-year period (Kalyebara et al. 2006), while in 2013, during the second peak, the incidence rate was over 50% (National Banana Research Program Website 2015). As a result, many households abandoned banana cultivation (Tushemereirwe 2001). Employment opportunities were lost, while the scarcity of bananas sharply increased their prices, making it increasingly difficult for local consumers to purchase their main source of nutrition (Karamura et al. 2010;Vurro et al. 2010). The situation in Uganda was only declared under control in 2015, with just 1.9% of households showing BXW symptoms in their fields (Vurro et al. 2010). However, there is a high risk of BXW resurgence. The study by Tinzaara et al. (2016) reported that the disease had continued to spread not only into disease-free areas, but also to areas where BXW had previously been declared under control. This could be due to the survival of latently infected planting materials (Ocimati et al. 2013), the fact that the disease can rapidly increase to endemic levels (Nakakawa et al. 2017), or due to banana-growing households lacking a clear understanding of the factors that impact the spread of the disease (Tinzaara et al. 2016). Considering the vital role that banana production holds for the livelihoods of rural Ugandan people, it is crucial to bring BXW under control, or preferably eradicated.In a joint effort with various international, national, and local organizations, the Ugandan government identified the farming practices that are most effective in limiting the disease's spread and consequent yield losses (Blomme et al. 2017). The integrated set of control practices identified were: (a) de-budding with a forked stick, (b) disinfecting tools with fire or Jik, (c) removal of infected plants (whether cutting out the single stem affected or the whole mat), and (d) replanting using clean planting material in the form of tissue-culture plantlets or macro-propagated plantlets (Kubiriba and Tushemereirwe 2014;Kubiriba et al. 2014;Tripathi et al. 2009;Tushemereirwe et al. 2006). This integrated BXW control package was widely promoted throughout the country in order to inform households about how BXW spreads, to promote available control options and to boost proper adoption of these practices (Kubiriba and Tushemereirwe 2014). The resurgence of BXW can only be prevented by sustained adoption of this package; these practices keep the incidence of the disease at manageable levels. Consequently, understanding the factors influencing farmers' adoption behaviors is critical to effectively controlling BXW.This study aims to contribute to this issue by investigating the relationship between Ugandan farmers' livelihood assets and their adaptation practices to control BXW. To this end, the Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) framework is employed in the current study. This holistic framework focuses on the livelihood systems of poor rural households and how they adapt their farming strategies to address external stressors, while preserving their livelihoods (Scoones 1998). The SRL framework is rarely implemented in agricultural innovation adoption studies. A common feature of such studies is that they theoretically build upon the farmers' utility maximization framework, while empirically implementing binary or censored data models with the common assumption that whether to adopt or not and the intensive margins (how much to adopt) are considered as a unique process. While such assumptions may be valid, there is no reason to expect this a priori. Therefore, to overcome this limitation, a double-hurdle model (Cragg 1971) is implemented to identify the factors that influence farmers' decision to adopt or not adopt the innovation and separately examine the factors that influence the intensity of adoption. The results of the current study could offer a more comprehensive perspective on farmers' decision-making processes and provide insights for more effective political intervention, thereby ensuring an adequate level of BXW mitigation by Ugandan farmers.This study is organized as follows: the \"Methodological approach\" section introduces the theoretical framework and the empirical approach employed, while the \"Results\" and \"Discussion\" sections show and discuss the results achieved. The final section presents our concluding remarks.Recognition that BXW has severe consequences for the livelihoods of rural households has stimulated the identification of an effective strategy to maintain the disease incidence at manageable levels. Merely having the strategy is not sufficient; the promotion of the strategy and the understanding of the factors influencing its adoption are both critical for the effective control of BXW.Given the above considerations, the Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) framework (Fig. 1) is adopted as the theoretical architecture of this study. The framework centers on rural households' livelihood systems, which are based on assets and strategies employed by farmers with the purpose of improving their livelihood outcomes. However, livelihood systems must interact with the outside system, which is composed of the vulnerability context and the institutional context (Scoones 1998). Changes in the outside system will lead to alterations in the internal equilibrium of the livelihood system. The SRL framework therefore offers a broader view of the decision-making Fig. 1 The Sustainable Rural Livelihood Framework. Source: adapted from Carney et al. (1999) and Scoones (1998) process of rural households. It highlights that the strategies adopted by rural households are decisions internal to the livelihood system aimed at improving their livelihoods, while households may adapt their strategies in response to shocks that might occur from the outside system.By considering the integrated package of the four cultural practices (de-budding, disinfecting tools, removal of infected plants and use of clean planting material) as a strategy for rural households to manage the adverse impacts on income and food security caused by the BXW disease, the SRL framework has been adapted to understand what livelihood assets influence Ugandan farmers' strategies, and how their choices are impacted by the outside context. The findings could provide insight for more effective political interventions and consequently ensure an adequate level of adaptation to BXW, or its control, by rural households.To operationalize the SRL within the context of our case study, we collected data on farmers' livelihood assets, BXW status on households' farms, access to the BXW communication approaches promoted by the institutional context, as well as data on the agricultural practices adopted by rural farmers to limit the spread of the disease. The next paragraph outlines in finer detail the empirical approach employed in the current analysis.The data used in this study is drawn from a survey conducted between April and May 2018, aimed at establishing farm typologies for effective targeting, promotion, and sustainable adoption of BXW control practices among banana farming households in Uganda.The sampling method follows a previous BXW incidence and management survey conducted in 2015. The survey was administered through face-to-face interviews using a pre-tested questionnaire. The enumerators were well trained and had previous experience in conducting banana surveys. The respondents were located in four selected major banana-growing and consuming regions (i.e., Central, Eastern, Mid-Western and South-Western) of Uganda. From each region, three districts were randomly selected, with the exception of the Eastern region in which five districts were randomly selected. The 14 districts selected were as follows: Kayunga, Kiboga, and Luwero from the Central region; Bukedea, Kumi, Mbale, Kamuli, and Manafwa from the Eastern region; Kabarole, Masindi and Mubende from the Mid-Western region; and Bushenyi, Rukungiri, and Ntungamo from the South-Western region. Two major banana-producing sub-counties were purposely selected per district, with one parish from each subcounty randomly selected. At the parish level, three villages were randomly selected, with 15 households randomly selected per village from lists provided by the local council authorities. In total, 1058 rural households participated in the survey.For the empirical contextualization of the concepts embodied by the SRL framework, namely livelihood assets, livelihood strategies, and the outside context, this study identifies and defines the following variables.Livelihood strategies are the combination of activities that households implement to achieve their livelihood goals (Stewart Carloni and Crowley 2005). In this case, the strategy that could be adopted by the Ugandan farmers to limit the spread of the BXW is based on the following four farming practices: (1) de-budding, (2) disinfecting tools, (3) removal of infected plants, and (4) use of clean planting material. Consequently, for the purposes of this analysis, the dependent variable will range from 0 to 4, according to the number of practices adopted by the households. The zero value refers to nonadopters, that is, smallholder farmers who have not practiced the BXW strategy at all. The other values that the dependent variable can assume (from 1 to 4) indicate the intensity of adoption of the recommended strategy. Households who applied only one practice scored \"1,\" those that applied two practices scored \"2,\" and those that applied three practices scored \"3,\" while households that applied all four practices were considered full adopters and scored \"4.\"Livelihood assets are a household's resource base and are often grouped into human, social, natural, physical, and financial capitals (Ellis 2000). Different endowments of the foregoing may justify the pursuit of specific strategies by the household (Below et al. 2012;García de Jalón et al. 2018;Jezeer et al. 2019). To measure each of the five capitals, we chose a set of indicators based on literature and data availability. The selected variables and their expected influence on the adoption of the integrated BXW control strategy can be found in Table 1. To measure human capital, we included the (1) age, (2) level of education of the household head, and (3) number of household members in the analysis. A negative effect of age on adoption is usually expected, since older farmers have been found to be typically more risk-averse and less interested in long-term farm investments than younger farmers (Adesina and Zinnah 1993). A higher level of education influences farmers' attitudes and thinking, making them better able to acquire, synthesize, and use information about the problems they face and the possible solutions they can adopt (Mignouna et al. 2011;Waller et al. 1998). Lastly, the number of family members in the household is used as a proxy for availability of labor. It positively impacts the adoption process because a larger household has greater capacity to overcome the labor constraints required for the introduction of a new practice (De Souza Filho et al. 1999;Mignouna et al. 2011;Mwangi and Kariuki 2015). Larger households have the human capital that allows them to adopt labor-intensive activities (Feder et al. 1985).For social capital, we used two variables: (1) gender of the household head and (2) access to extension services. Gender can influence strategy implementation because the household head is the primary decision maker. Gender-linked disparities in access to inputs, resources and services, due to socio-cultural values and norms, can impact these strategic decisions (Doss and Morris 2001;Hassan and Nhemachena 2008;Mignouna et al. 2011;Omonona et al. 2006;Tenge et al. 2004). In Uganda, it is expected that maleheaded households are more likely to adopt the promoted strategy than female-headed households. Additionally, interaction with extension agents greatly increases farmers' knowledge of available technologies and their potential benefits, hence acting as a trigger mechanism for intensive adoption (Peshin 2013). Therefore, this study hypothesizes that access to extension services positively influences the introduction of the new strategy.To measure natural capital, we selected the following variables: (1) the farm's location, since regional differences can influence farmers' adoption decisions (Adeoti 2008;Kikulwe et al. 2019;Otieno et al. 2011), (2) the total farm area, as larger farms are associated with greater wealth and it is expected that larger-scale farmers have the means to take adaptive measures and the capacity to bear risks (Deressa et al. 2009;Langyintuo and Mulugetta 2008;Nyangena 2007), and (3) the proportion of land allocated to banana production as a proxy for the importance of banana as a food and income crop (Jogo et al. 2013). Investments in adaptation options to BXW disease have a greater chance of uptake when farmers give high importance to banana production. Consequently, a positive correlation is expected between the proportion of land allocated to banana production and the adoption of the BXW control strategy.For the physical capital-related variables, the type of (1) house and (2) farm equipment 1 used by the households were considered, because they denote a certain level of household well-being, which positively correlates to the likelihood of adopting adaptation measures (Grootaert et al. 1997;Kuntashula et al. 2015).Finally, the financial capital was measured using (1) the banana farming objective 2 (subsistence or commercial) as a proxy of the centrality of the crop to farmers' livelihoods (Kikulwe et al. 2019); the (2) ownership of off-farm income sources; and (3) access to credit facilities were also measured because they represent important strategies for overcoming liquidity constraints faced by many rural households in developing countries (Reardon et al. 2007). Households with access to these different sources of income will have the financial resources needed to introduce new agricultural activities in their farms and hence are expected to adopt the recommended strategy more readily.The SRL framework includes two sets of external forces that are beyond the control of the household, but that are able to influence households' livelihood outcomes: the vulnerability context and the institutional context. The concept of vulnerability refers to unpredictable shocks that can negatively impact households' assets and consequently their livelihood strategies (Adato and Meinzen-Dick 2002). To represent this aspect of the framework, the current analysis used a variable related to the BXW status of households' farms. This variable ranges from 0 to 4, based on how long ago BXW was observed on the households' farm. Zero values indicate that BXW was last observed more than a year ago (i.e., low disease status), value 1 indicates that the BXW was last observed less than 6 months ago, value 2 indicates that the BXW was last observed less than 3 months ago, value 3 indicates that the BXW was last observed less than a month ago, while value 4 indicates that the BXW is still present on the farm.The institutional context refers to outside policies and processes that mediate the ability to implement specific strategies. The institutional context leads to the adoption of specific strategies for managing the negative impacts caused by external stressors (Adato and Meinzen-Dick 2002). Since several studies have shown that information and knowledge about innovative agricultural practices are important determinants of adoption (e.g., Aïtchédji et al. 2010;Katungi and Akankwasa 2010), various communication approaches have been used in Uganda. These approaches aimed to develop the knowledge and skills of the farmers related to the integrated BWX control strategy and, ultimately, to mobilize them for its adoption. A variable to quantify access to the BXW communication approaches was incorporated into the analysis, to assess whether they have indeed been able to influence the adoption decisions of smallholder farmers. This variable is measured as \"1\" if the households have participated in trainings, farmers' field schools or community actions or zero if otherwise.In this study, a double-hurdle model is used to analyze the ways in which the five capitals (viz. human, social, natural, physical, and financial) and the outside context influence the decision and intensity of adoption of the BXW control strategy.A feature of many models of adoption is that the process that leads to the decision of whether to adopt is assumed to be the same that determines the intensity of adoption. However, this is not always the case; decisions about whether to adopt and how much to adopt can be taken together or separately (Gebremedhin and Swinton 2003). The double-hurdle model, originally from Cragg (1971), is based on the idea that an individual's decision is the result of two processes. The first hurdle is to determine whether the individual is a zero type, and the second hurdle is to determine the intensity of adoption if the individual is not a zero type.As mentioned above, the recommended strategy to be adopted by Ugandan farmers to limit the spread of BXW is based on four farming practices. For the purposes of this analysis, the dependent variable will range from 0 to 4, according to the number of practices adopted by the households. Since the peculiarity of the data-generating process, a Poisson-logit hurdle model (Hilbe 2014) accounting for a count process is implemented with the following characteristics: (a) a binary process for explaining positive counts versus zero counts (i.e., 1 versus 0) that is related to the decision of whether to adopt the recommended strategy; (b) a positive count process for modeling the intensity of the adoption of the practices comprising the BXW control strategy (counting from 1 to 4). Following Hilbe (2014), the first process is modeled using a logit model, while the second is modeled employing a zero-truncated Poisson model.Table 2 indicates that among the four recommended BXW control practices, removal of infected plants was the most frequently employed practice, with approximately 58% of households adopting this practice. Half of the sampled households practiced timely removal of male buds with a forked stick, while 38% of households used fire or Jik to disinfect their tools. For households that implemented only one practice of the integrated package, the most adopted was de-budding (55%). Adoption rates of the different practices differed when considering households that implemented two or three practices. In these cases, the most adopted practices were the removal of diseased plants and the disinfection of agricultural tools.Replanting using clean planting material, in the form of tissue-culture plantlets or macro-propagated plantlets, was by far the least adopted practice, with just 1% of the sample employing this strategy. Previous studies (e.g., Gotor et al. 2020;Jogo et al. 2013;Kikulwe et al. 2019) tend to exclude this practice from the analysis precisely because it represents such low levels. The use of clean planting material is considered optional compared to the other practices recommended in the integrated BXW control package, because it is only required if the rural household decides to replant banana, which is not always the case. However, two thirds (62%) of the sampled farmers did replant new banana plants (Fig. 2). Such a high percentage shows that, for rural Ugandan households that are growing new banana plants to replace infected ones, the source of the plantlets remains an issue. Most of these farmers preferred to source suckers from existing mats on their own farm because they were familiar with these plants and could thus predict performance and properties of the sucker. If, for whatever reason, farmers could not use suckers from their own field, they then preferred to source planting materials from within their own social networks (Kilwinger et al. 2019). In fact, the informal source of inputs (such as farmer-to-farmer exchange) was preferred by 61% of the sampled farmers (Fig. 2) as the cost is lower than when buying from formal sources (Bagamba et al. 2006;Staver et al. 2010). However, this socio-cultural practice based on the exchange of plantlets rather than on their purchase through the formal sector aggravates the problem because it increases the risk of spreading BXW (McCampbell et al. 2018;Tinzaara et al. 2013). Just 1% of all the sampled households use clean planting material from the formal sector, indicating that this practice's adoption has been sporadic, at best, across Uganda. This makes the eradication of the disease a very intricate challenge and further highlights the importance of understanding the underlying reasons for a rural household's full adoption of the recommended package of disease control practices. This is why the present study includes the use of clean planting material from the formal sector in its analysis, despite its extremely low incidence (1%).Focusing on the complementary adoption of the four aforementioned practices, Fig. 3 illustrates that full adopters of the BXW control strategy represent only 0.19% of the sample (2 smallholders over the total 1,058 surveyed), while non-adopters amount to approximately 22% of the sample size (235 rural households). Partial adopters embody the remaining 77.60% of the sample.The group of non-adopters is made up of rural households who allocate just a small percentage (approximately 26%) of their land to the cultivation of bananas, mainly destined for self-consumption (Table 3). In addition, this group has the highest level of farm equipment index compared to all the other groups (namely 47.20) but has low well-being levels and limited access to both agricultural services and information on BXW. Indeed, the group of non-adopters shows the lowest scores for the home index (which an indicator of the households' well-being), access to extension services, and BXW initiatives (only 10%). Conversely, the group of full adopters report the highest values in terms of land owned (viz. a mean value of 6.25 acres) and farming objective (a mean value of 2.50). This indicates that the full adopters' agricultural production is more market-oriented than the other groups. Notably, full adopters have high levels of well-being, but the lowest scores for farm equipment and access to credit facilities. Regarding geography, the regional differences between each level of adoption are significant. As for the non-adopters, half (51%) are located in the Eastern region and only 11% are located in the South-Western region. On the contrary, partial adopters are mostly present in the South-Western region, while they are far less numerous in the Eastern region. Finally, the full adopters are present only in the Central region. At the bottom of the table, information is provided about the BXW status of the farms and the households' access to the communication approaches promoted in Uganda to control the disease's spread. Households who adopt only two or only three practices present high disease status scores (3.04), indicating that, on average, BXW was last observed less than 3 months ago on their farms. The full adopters and households that adopted only three practices present the higher scores denoting greater access to institutional initiatives to limit the spread of the disease.Estimates on the influence of livelihood assets and the outside context on Ugandan farmers' strategies are shown in Table 4 3 . Since the first hurdle of the model implemented in this study estimates the probability of zero (i.e., no adoption), the results of the logit model show that the region where the rural households are located, the age of the household head and the farm equipment increase the likelihood that not even one practice will be adopted. Conversely, access to extension services, the percentage of land used for banana production and the vulnerability context reduce the odds of nonadoption of the recommended livelihood strategy. Regarding the determinants of the Fig. 3 Level of adoption of the integrated BXW control strategy 3 In addition to the model presented in this study, a second model following Kikulwe et al. (2019) was implemented, which only considered three practices: de-budding, removal of infected plants, and disinfection of agricultural tools. The results of this model were substantially similar to the results of the full model implemented in this analysis. Summary statistics and results of the second model can be found in Tables 5 and  6 in the appendix. intensity of adoption, the results of the second hurdle of the model indicate that the gender of the household head positively and significantly influences this decision. As for the proportion of land area allocated to banana production, its coefficient is significant and negative. Similarly, from the results of the model, it is possible to observe that the coefficients of the dummy regions are all negative and significant.BXW disease has threatened banana production and the livelihoods of Ugandan farmers since 2001. The strategy identified to keep disease incidence at manageable levels is based on the simultaneous application of four cultural practices. However, full adopters of the BXW control strategy represent only 0.19% of our sample, while nonadopters are approximately 22% of the sample. The implementation of a double-hurdle model made it possible to deepen the understanding of the phenomenon under examination. As expected, there are different sets of livelihood assets underlying the decision to adopt and how many practices to adopt. Farming households' decisions about adoption of at least one BXW control practice are associated with human, social, natural, and physical capitals, as well as the vulnerability context. Instead, farmers' decisions about the extent of adoption are influenced by social and natural capitals. Among the human capital-related variables, the age of the household head increased the odds of non-adoption. Its effect is thought to stem from the fact that as farmers grow older, there is a higher risk aversion and a lower consideration of long-term investments in the farm. This is especially true for those farmers closer to retirement (Mwangi and Kariuki 2015). Conversely, young farmers generally want to gain experience and are therefore more willing to try out new technologies (Adesina and Zinnah 1993;Mauceri et al. 2005).The results of the first hurdle further indicate that physical capital is positively and significantly associated with the likelihood of non-adoption. A reasonable explanation would be the substitution in adaptation options, as some wealthier farmers may prefer to adopt coping strategies (such as completely abandoning banana production and growing other crops) over the recommended adaptation strategy (García de Jalón et al. 2018).An interesting aspect to consider is that social and natural capitals are the only livelihood assets that cause significant variations in the two adoption decision processes (adoption and intensity of adoption). Among the social capital-related variables, interaction with extension services is an important factor that counteracts the likelihood of non-adoption of the BXW control strategy. This is because the frequency of contact between farmers and extension personnel makes information on new technologies available and accessible to farmers. Additionally, interaction with extension agents could counterbalance the negative effect generated by the farmers' poor level of formal education (Yaron et al. 1992). Instead, the gender of the household head positively and significantly influences how many practices will be adopted. Male-headed households are likelier to adopt more practices against BXW compared to their female counterparts. This result is in line with earlier studies designating gender to be a significant and positive influence on the adoption of improved agricultural technologies (Doss and Morris 2001;Hailu et al. 2014;Kikulwe et al. 2018;Morris and Doss 1999;Murage et al. 2015;Uaiene 2011). Gender issues in agricultural technology adoption have been investigated extensively, indicating that gender is a key factor for determining adoption and scaling of agricultural technologies in developing countries (Morris and Doss 1999). Explanations for the influence of gender on technology adoption often include references to socio-cultural values and norms that reinforce men's role as the primary decision maker (Kazianga and Wahhaj 2013;Lambrecht et al. 2018). Gender norms are unwritten social rules that influence women's and men's behavior and practices in the household and on the farm. These norms significantly influence how women and men maximize opportunities related to agricultural production and innovation (Iradukunda et al. 2019;Rietveld and Farnworth 2018). Gender-linked disparities are particularly evident regarding access to inputs, income and knowledge, all of which are critical aspects of innovation (Doss and Morris 2001;Mignouna et al. 2011;Omonona et al. 2006;Tiruneh et al. 2001). Most aspects of banana cultivation are largely controlled by men, who have more access to agricultural extension services and implement banana disease management practices more than women (Doss 2013;Iradukunda et al. 2019;Kikulwe et al. 2018).In case of natural capital, all dummy regions are significant in both hurdles, indicating that regional differences significantly influenced decision and intensity of adoption of the control practices. On the one hand, farming households in the Central, Eastern, and Mid-Western regions are more likely to not adopt the BXW control strategy. On the other hand, they are less likely to adopt more than one practice compared to those in the South-Western region. These findings corroborate previous studies that highlight the relevance of regional differences (Adeoti 2008;Kikulwe et al. 2019;Otieno et al. 2011). A possible explanation is that banana production plays a prominent role for commercial purposes in the South-Western region and consequently there has been a greater involvement of all banana stakeholders in the fight against the disease.The proportion of land allocated to banana production is another natural capitalrelated variable associated with both decision and intensity of adoption. The result of the first hurdle indicates that the larger the proportion of banana production, the less likely the farmer is to not adopt at least one of the BXW control practices, while the second hurdle indicates that this variable limits the intensity of adopting the disease control strategy. The first corroborates the assumption that farmers' willingness to eradicate the disease from their own farm is subject to the importance they attribute to bananas as a food and income crop; the second hurdle suggest that the adoption of the full package may be too demanding for farmers who have an extensive banana production.Lastly, this study does not find any influence of financial capital on the decision to adopt or the intensity of adoption of the identified strategies. Broadly, financial capital is an indicator of farm-household wealth as it refers to the economic resources available to the household (Mutabazi et al. 2015). However, contention on how this capital affects adoption exists. For instance, García de Jalón et al. ( 2016) have shown that financial capital significantly and negatively influences the adoption of adaptation strategies, while Deressa et al. (2009) and Bryan et al. (2013) have found a positive correlation.Focusing on the outside system, the vulnerability context counters the likelihood of non-adoption of the disease management strategy. This indicates that farmers are aware of this strategy, consider it effective and will therefore adopt it as an adaptive strategy to the shock coming from the outside system. However, rural households will only modify their farming practices when their banana production is being affected by the disease and not as a general practice. This could pose a problem as there is a strong possibility of disease resurgence.As discussed before, the Ugandan government promoted the BXW control strategy through a range of communication approaches that sensitize households to the disease and mobilize them to correctly adopt the recommended practices. This is because acquiring information on a new technology allows farmers to learn about the existence and effective use of the practices and this facilitates their adoption. Other studies have shown farmers' participation in communication programs to be important in the adoption of new agricultural technologies (Aïtchédji et al. 2010;Bunyatta et al. 2006;Erbaugh et al. 2010;Kikulwe et al. 2019;Ooi and Kenmore 2005). In contrast, this study does not find a significant relationship between the variable related to the institutional context (proxied by access to BXW communication initiatives) and the adoption of the livelihood strategy. This is may be because farmers have gathered conflicting messages on BXW management from different sources, which has led them away from appreciating the benefits behind the recommended strategy.This study contributes to the body of literature on crop disease and pest management by identifying the livelihood assets responsible for rural farmers' adoption of measures that mitigate BXW in Uganda. Theoretically, this study builds upon the Sustainable Rural Livelihood framework as it allows a more comprehensive view on how rural households adapt their farming practices to handle external stressors and preserve their livelihoods. Empirically, the double-hurdle class of models has been applied in this study with the underlying assumption that the two adoption decision processes (adoption and intensity of adoption) are separate. This model was applied to a sample of 1058 smallholder farmers located in four major banana-growing and -consuming regions of Uganda (i.e., Central, Eastern, Mid-Western and South-Western). Our analysis shows that the majority of the sampled households only partially adopted the BXW control strategy on their farms, making it difficult to eradicate the disease. Doublehurdle results indicate that factors that drive farmers to adopt the recommended control strategy were found to be the vulnerability context and the human, social, natural and physical capitals. Farmers' decision about the extent of adoption is instead negatively influenced by natural capital and positively associated with social capital. These findings highlight the importance of understanding and supporting the improvement of livelihood assets to enable tailored assistance to farmers. It is essential to back the livelihood assets of rural households in Uganda, as there is a strong possibility of disease resurgence. A new BXW outbreak could lead to heavy negative impacts on the livelihoods of rural households in Uganda. It is therefore important to prevent such an outbreak by encouraging policies that enhance the continuous adoption of the recommended BXW control strategy.However, this study has some caveats that need to be considered. First, the choice of variables implemented in this study to describe and quantify the different components of the SRL framework was based on the relevant literature and the specific socio-cultural context being analyzed, yet the different components of the framework may not be fully covered by the selected variables. This is because the SRL framework has been long debated in the literature and consequently there is no unequivocal conceptualization of the framework and its components (Small 2007). Further research could expand on this. Secondly, it is worth noting that our study data were collected in 2018, when the BXW situation in Uganda was declared to be under control. Determinants of adoption of the BXW control strategy could be different during a disease outbreak and within different country contexts. With such limitations, there is a need for longitudinal research to assess the determinants of adoption of BXW control strategy across sub-Saharan Africa.","tokenCount":"5821"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d8c406e3af8932c58ff05fe76188611d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2320619-333c-4e7c-9273-eff118be8c07/retrieve","id":"-1542926362"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"12c51c86-11f2-40cb-9694-0f5dda75e479","pagecount":"48","content":"Este documento ha sido realizado en base al conocique trabajan en la sede regional del Centro Internacional de la Papa en Ecuador (CIP) y gracias a los aportes de los profesionales y ex colaboradores del CIP que trabajan en empresas e instituciones aliadas y que durante 45 años contribuyeron a la innovación que se relata en este documento.ara celebrar los 45 años del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), el equipo del CIP en Ecuador preparó la presente publicación sistematizando las contribuciones de esta institución a la innovación en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador.Presentar la historia de la contribución del CIP no era una tarea fácil por lo que se decidió pedir la opinión de los socios y aliados del CIP en el país mediante una encuesta. Muchas personas, de instituciones públicas y privadas, nos dieron su opinión brindando ejemplos concretos.Estos aportes han servido para estructurar esta publicación de acuerdo con la evolución del enfoque de innovación que el CIP ha sostenido desde el inicio de su trabajo en Ecuador, que se remonta a los años 70. Esta colaboración se formalizo mediante un convenio entre el gobierno de Ecuador y el CIP en el año 1990. A partir de esa fecha, se estableció Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP). El año 2011, el CIP decidió estaen Ecuador, para promover sus actividades en la región Andina y en un contexto más amplio.Nos es grato presentar esta publicación que resume y documenta los aportes del CIP a la cadena de la papa alrededor de diferentes innovaciones tecnológicas, institucionales y de mercado con un fuerte componente de fortalecimiento de capacidades de varios actores de la cadena. Conocer el pasado nos permitirá proyectarnos hacia el futuro con nuestros socios y aliados en Ecuador.Barbara Wells, André Devaux, Q ueremos en primer lugar reconocer el aporte de las familias de agricultores paperos cuyo biende nuestro trabajo y de nuestra acción.Una mención especial va dirigida al trabajo constante, comprometido y fructífero de las instituciones, empresas, Centro Internacional de la Papa ha copara optimizar los procesos de innovación tecnológica agropecuaria, destinados a la seguridad alimentaria en Ecuador.sonas que aportaron con su información y su opinión para el desarrollo de esta publicación.stamos seguros que la ciencia, bien fundamentada, contribuye a mejorar la vida de la gente. Por eso, los programas de investigación y desarrollo del CIP se proponen fortalecer la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de millones de familias de agricultores que producen papa y camote, alrededor del mundo. Lo hacen mediante la promoción de mejores rendimientos y productos, y de prácticas sostenible de manejo de cultivo y de post cosecha, lo que es fundamental para mejorar las condiciones de vida de los agricultores y los consumidores.con una serie de socios y agricultores, para generar variedades más resistentes al cambio climático y a las plagas y enfermedades, así como para producir con mejores rendimientos y obtener variedades más nutritivas, con mejores aptitudes culinarias y de procesamiento industrial.ponsabilidad social, ayudan a los agricultores y a se de las últimas tecnologías y prácticas de cultivo, adaptadas a diferentes agroecologías, sistemas de producción y cadenas de valor, poniendo especial dres, niños y jóvenes.El CIP es miembro del Consorcio CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research por compuesta por 15 centros dedicados a la investigación y desarrollo de los principales cultivos que conforman la dieta básica mundial.Los centros del consorcio trabajan en estrecha colaboración con cientos de organizaciones asociadas, incluyendo institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, academia y sector privado.La papa es el tercer cultivo alimenticio más Más de mil millones de personas, en todo el mundo, consumen papa.China es el mayor productor: cosecha más Hay alrededor de 5.000 variedades diferentes de papa, la mayoría de ellas tienen su origen en los Andes.Las papas pueden crecer en casi cualquier clima y altitud, desde el nivel del mar hasta los 4.700 m s. n. m.Las papas producen más comida por unidad de área que cualquier otro cultivo importante: una hectárea de papa puede producir entre dos y cuatro veces el valor alimenticio de los granos.Una papa hervida, de tamaño mediano, proporciona aproximadamente la mitad de los requerimientos diarios de vitamina C que de vitamina B, hierro, potasio y zinc. y se puede sembrar desde el nivel del mar, hasta los 2500 metros de altitud. papa, maíz y yuca. Pero en los países en desarrollo se ubica en el quinto lugar.Anualmente se producen más de 105 millones de toneladas en el mundo; el 95% en los países en desarrollo.nado alimentado con el follaje de camote, produce menos metano, lo que potencialmente podría ayudar a mitigar el calentamiento global. A lrededor de 40 personas, de instituciones públicas y privadas, nos dieron su opinión sobre la importancia de la contribución del CIP a la innovación, brindando ejemplos concretos.Estos ejemplos se han estructurado de acuerdo con la evolución del enfoque de innovación que el CIP ha sostenido desde el inicio de su trabajo. Esta evolución respondió a cambios en el contexto y en las formas de concebir la innovación para el desarrollo, tal como se ve en la siguiente línea de tiempo.ción de enfoque de innovación: el fortalecimiento de capacidades de varios actores, en varios niveles 4 Presentar la historia de la contribución del CIP a la innovación en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador ha requerido de un trabajo intenso de preparación, que ha consistido, en primer lugar, en recabar ejemplos sobresalientes de dicha contribución, por parte de nuestros principales aliados en el país.  En el sistema informal se como la selección positiva y el almacenamiento adecuado, para que el agricultor mejore la calidad de su semilla.Además, se han implementado regulaciones aptas para producción de semilla a baja escala, que fueron incorporadas en la normativa vigente, aplicando principios derivados de la \"semilla de calidad declarada\", pro-Al mismo tiempo, decenas de investigadores y cientos de agricultores han sido capacitados para producción de semilla.Ahora, el gobierno de Ecuador está invirtiendo en semilla de papa y se espera que, en un futuro cercano, más agricultores tengan acceso a joren la calidad de su semilla. La selección y lanzamiento de la variedad INIAP-Fripapa es un ejemplo icónico de involucramiento del sector privado para potenciar este proceso, porque, a pesar de haberse lanzado hace 21 años como una necesidad de la agroindustria, actualmente ocupa el segundo lugar en importancia en la sierra central, donde se alcanzan rendimientos cularon a los pequeños productores con mercados de valor. Actualmente estas dos variedades se usan para la elaboración de hojuelas de colores. E de las plagas de la papa ha puesto en riesgo la rentabilidad de la producción.Por eso, uno de los compromisos primordiales del CIP en Ecuador ha sido el desarrollo de tecnologías para el manejo de las plagas y enfermedades. El enfoque que se promueve es el manejo integrado (MIPE), que inbiológicos y tecnologías de bajo impacto ambiental, como alternatiplaguicidas convencionales.El CIP busca empoderar a los agricultores brindándoles una amplia gama de tecnologías desarrolladas participativamente, para que puedan tomar decisiones informadas y manejar gas y enfermedades que afectan a sus cultivos.Para la capacitación de agricultores en MIPE, el CIP y sus socios han utilizado la metodología de las Escuelas de Campo (ECA), cuya característica principal es la de generar conocimiento teórico -práctico por descubrimiento, bajo el lema de \"aprender haciendo y pensando\".La lancha es la enfermedad más devastadora del cultivo de la papa. El CIP ha investigado las poblaciones del patógeno Phytophthora, causante de esta grave enfermedad, para buscar soluciones que permitan optimizar el manejo de la lancha en papa y en otros cultivos de Solanáceas. El trabajo del CIP en el Ecuador en este campo es un referente a nivel mundial.l CIP apoya la caracterización y mantenimiento de la biodiversidad de papa, camote y otros cultivos.En el caso de papa, el CIP ha apoyado a INIAP para formar su Banco de germoplasma, que cuenta con 570 tipos de papa ecuatoriana.EL INIAP hace la conservación in-situ de germoplasbiodiversidad en los campos de agricultores y en jardines de conservación; por otro, mediante el mantenimiento de la biodiversidad en laboratorios, en cámaras frías y en estaciones experimentales.El propósito es que no se pierda esta biodiversidad, y que pueda ser nuevamente reintroducida en las comunidades o utilizada en programas de mejoramiento, para aumentar rendimientos, resistencia a plagas y enfermedades, y al mismo tiempo mejorar el contenido de nutrientes en la papa.l principio de los 90 se inició una investigación multidisciplinaria en la provincia de Carchi, guicidas: en la producción, en el medio ambiente y, sobre todo, en la salud humana.Los resultados fueron alarmantes: ¡la incidencia de intoxicación por plaguicidas fue una de las más altas a nivel mundial! La mayoría de agricultores y de sus familias sufrían daños neurológicos.cambiar actitudes y comportamientos de los agricultores y consumidores, en relación con los plaguicidas.Aunque al momento todavía se venden y se usan plaguicidas que causan serios daños a la salud, otros han sido prohibidos para su uso en el cultivo de papa. consumir alimentos sin plaguicidas.L os aliados y socios del CIP coincidieron en destacar los siguientes aspectos como los más relevantes para la contribución del CIP a la innovación en la cadena de valor:-teracción entre los distintos actores públicos y privados de la cadena, para apoyar el desarrollo de la cadena, y conocimiento, respecto de las tendencias y perspectivas del mercado de la papa en Ecuador, des para innovar en la cadena, y nuevos productos comerciales, sobre la base de la diversidad de papas nativas del país.opina sobre la innovación institucional en el sector papa, en Ecuador: \"El aporte del proyecto Papa del CIP en el Ecuador, con el INIAP y con socios locales, se sintetiza en la consolidación de una estrategia de intervención en el área rural, a nivel de un sistema productivo -el de la papa-que fácilmente puede ser adaptado a otros sistemas y a otras realidades productivas.El proceso de concertación público -privada y la cia en políticas, son parte de la \"marca Papa Andise destacan:tre los diferentes actores del sistema, formación de plataformas de concertación y requerimientos del mercado.Por otra parte, se han promovido cambios signinormas que favorecen la competitividad del sector y en el empoderamiento de las y los pequeños productores, incluyendo alianzas entre los sectores público y privado.Las plataformas de concertación proporcionaron un espacio para la colaboración de los sectores públicos y privados, y cumplieron tres funciones útiles para mejorar la competitividad y el empoderamiento de los productores:novación en forma conjunta y formularon mejor las demaninvestigación; nación y la gestión dentro de la cadena productiva (por ejemplo, equiparando la demanda con la oferta o desarrollando servicios de información y estándares comerciales); y bios en las políticas y en la información pública.Este enfoque no trata de convertirse en una receta, sino que pretende dar pistas para implementar acciones, en alianzas con diferentes actores.Los resultados de la evaluación de plataformas muestran que los participantes en las plataformas obtuvieron un rendimiento promedio promedio de los que no participa-tran que los participantes en las plataformas alcanzaron un precio que los no participantes. Sin bien los agricultores participantes gas-mayor gracias al incremento en rendimiento y precios.G. 2009. Linking Smallholders to the New Agricultural Economy: An Evaluation of the Plataformas mas puede explicarse primero por su intervención a lo largo de la cadena de valor y por la reducción de los costos de transacción; desde innovaciones tecnológicas para aumentar los rendimientos; y por último, por una mejora en el capital social que se expresa, por ejemplo, como una mayor conde la cadena productiva que permite a los pequeños productores superar las barreras de ingreso a mercados más exigentes.El día Nacional de la Papa E l consumo per cápita de papa en el país está en el orden de 24 kilos anuales, siendo este el más bajo de los países andinos. Esta situación no condice con la tradición de \"país papero\", que tiene Ecuador.Esa es una buena razón para incrementar el consumo, tanto en las zonas rurales como en las urbanas.Un desafío importantísimo, que el CIP asumió a trapara posicionar los atributos de la papa ecuatoriana, entre distintos grupos de consumidores, con hábitos de consumo variados y con diferentes expectativas de satisfacción.Entre las innovaciones institucionales para revalorizar la papa y promover su consumo se instituyó el Día Nacional de la Papa, que se celebra el 29 de junio de cada año.En la celebración participan: el Ministerios de Agricultura (MAGAP), autoridades municipales, actores de la cadena, productores, empresas, procesadores, proveedoras de servicios, chefs, escuelas de gastronomía y medios de comunicación, todos con el propósito de promover la imagen de la papa, tanto a nivel del público como entre los tomadores de decisión.E un evento nacional en el que diversos actores pudieran exponer sus avances y fomentar nuevas iniciativas relacionadas con el trabajo de innovación en la cadena de papa. Así fue que, conjuntamente con el Programa Nacional de Raíces Central del Ecuador, se decidió realizar el Primer Congreso Nacional de la papa.Hasta el momento CIP e INIAP han apoyado en la realización de seis congresos nacionales -uno cada dos años-conjuntamente con diversos actores y distintas universidades del país. En el último, cele-te en Ibarra -conjuntamente con una feria de in-EP (Ciudad del Conocimiento o Empresa Pública universidades, instituciones nacionales e internacionales y empresas de agro-insumos, para compartir co, la producción y el consumo de papa.La Papa: La importancia de nuestros estudios en la cadena de valor A lo largo de los cuatro últimos años, el CIP, en estrecha colaboración con la Subsecretaria de Comercialización del MAGAP, ha desarrollado varios estudios sobre el posicionamiento y consumo de la papa: desde la demanda de semilla para la siembra hasta la de papa para el consumo de las familias y el uso de la industria procesadora.Los estudios brindan información sobre el conocimiento que tienen los consumidores, comercializa-dores e industria sobre las distintas variedades de dan en los hábitos de compra y consumo, en los usos que dan a la papa, así como en los determinantes de las decisiones de compra. En la ilustración puede apreciase cómo los consumidores per-Es conocido 91% na visión más amplia del fortalecimiento de brindar oportunidades de capacitación a los es necesario fortalecer los vínculos y las relaciones entre ellos, para fomentar el desarrollo de acciones El CIP y sus aliados de todos los países andinos han desarrollado y aplicado el Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas (EPCP). agricultores, comercializadores, transformadores, gación y desarrollo, públicas y privadas, para que, guiados por oportunidades de mercado, desarrollen colectivamente innovaciones tecnológicas, comerciales e institucionales, que posibiliten el aprovechamiento de oportunidades.Como se puede ver en el diagrama, la interacción entre los actores que promueve el EPCP genera demandas hacia la investigación para el desarrollo de tecnologías, que permitan superar restricciones o barreras tecnologicas y comerciales, para el aprovechamiento de oportunidades de mercado y, al mismo tiempo, estimular el aprendizaje colectivo y el fortalecimiento de capacidades de los actores.Ultimamente, el CIP ha dado mas enfasis al aspecto inclusivo en el desarrollo de cadena de valor desarrollando herramientas para incluir el enfoque de genero y fortalecer las capacidades de negocio de los productores emprendió un agresivo plan de producción de se-milla de calidad y de producción de papa, para atender la demanda de estos restaurantes.A medida que los volúmenes de demanda y oferta crecían, tambien crecían las necesidades de fortalecer la organización, así como sus capacidades productivas y comerciales, en particular las de relacionarse con sus clientes y con otros proveedores de insumos y servicios.cio de \"papa para restaurantes\" explica la evolucomo una de las variedades preferidas por los agricultores y por los restaurantes del centro del país.La presencia en el mercado de \"chips\" de papa Shungo es otro ejemplo exitoso de innovación tecnológica y comercial, a lo largo de la cadena de valor y de la articulación de productores, cien-tribuido a la recuperación y caracterización de la inmensa viadedad de papas nativas del país, planteando alternativas para su aprovechamiento, estudiando y promoviendo sus propiedades.Los resultados de este esfuerzo fueron capta--CES que veía en el mercado nacional y en el extranjero, interesantes posibilidades de de hojuelas de esas variedades.Estas oportunidades promovieron la colaboración entre el CIP, el INIAP, la industria llevar adelante acciones destinadas a potenciar la producción de semilla de calidad presa.En este momento, el invernadero automatizado del INIAP produce semilla de alta calidad de estas variedades. Cada vez más los agricultores se interesan en su producción y las hojuelas de papa son comercializadas L a superación de los problemas de inseguridad y de vulnerabilidad alimentaria y nutricional, que azotan a una alta proporción de la población rural, exige un enfoque que integre la innovación en agricultura con la nutrición y la salud, de modo que la agricultura satisfaga, de manera sostenible y equitativa, las necesidades nutricionales de los consumidores.En este campo, nuestros socios y aliados destacan la contribución del CIP en: enfoque integral de agricultura, nutrición y salud, para la nutrición, la seguridad alimentaria y la salud, cer la educación nutricional, para poder cambiar prácticas y comportamientos de alimentación de las familias rurales.esde el 2011 hasta el 2014, el CIP y sus socios implementaron el proyecto IssAndes, con el apoyo de la Unión Europea, que planteó pasar de un enfoque en el que solo se veía a la papa por su rendimiento, por su potencial para la industria, y por su color o sabor, a un enfoque en el que se considera a la papa como un alimento con potencial nutricional para hacer frente a unos de los principales problemas de salud en el Ecuador: la desnutrición crónica infantil.có ampliar la red de relaciones y de colaboración, así cómo abordar temas de investigación y desarrollo fuera del sector agrícola. de instituciones expertas en salud, nutrición y educación, permitió el desarrollo de los cuatro componentes en los que se organizaron las actividades del proyecto: Contribución de la papa a la nutrición y salud: dedicado a aprovechar la diversidad de papa rica en hierro y zinc y otros nutrientes, para mejorar la nutrición de niños y niñas.Mejorar los sistemas de producción basados en papa, a través de tecnologías y prácticas que permitan elevar la disponibilidad y acceso de las familias a una dieta variada y más nutritiva.Educación nutricional para mejorar las prácticas de alimentación de las familias de manera tal que las mejoras en la disponibilidad y acceso a alimentos lleguen a las \"barriguitas\" de niños y niñas.para que los resultados del proyecto inspiren el diseño de programas y proyectos, a nivel local y nacional, y fortalezcan la contribución de la agricultura a la nutrición y salud. Para alcanzar este objetivo, desde el 2011, el CIP ha empezado un proceso de caracterización nutricional de las variedades de papas nativas y mejoradas en el país, analizándolas especialmente por sus niveles de zinc y de hierro.Pero, la calidad de un alimento no depende solo de la cantidad de nutrientes presentes, sino tam-Por eso, en colaboración con el INIAP, se evaluó la digestibilidad del almidón y la biodisponibilidad del hierro y del zinc, en once variedades de papa, en estado crudo y procesado.bilidad de varios nutrientes y polifenoles, en papa cruda y procesada. Memorias del VI Congreso Ecuatoriano de la papa.Las conclusiones mostraron que la papa en estado crudo presenta menor biodisponibilidad del hierro y zinc. Esta característica mejora con pecialmente con la en agua y con el horneado, que provocan un ablandamiento de los tejidos y paredes celulares, contribuyendo a la liberación de los micronutrientes.ada vez se utiliza más la de cultivos para combatir la desnutrición crónica de la población humana.mentos vegetales más nutritivos mientras están en cultivo, en lugar de añadir nutrientes los alimentos procesados.es el mejoramiento gevariedades que son capaces de adquirir nutrientes y acumularlos en sus partes comestibles.Por otra parte, la tiene como objetivo mejorar las concentraciones de nu-agrícolas (por ejemplo, el uso de fertilizantes que contienen micronutrientes, como zinc).En tal sentido, la agronómica ofrece una solución inmediata para mejorar el nivel nutricional del cultivo de papa -con zinc-que puede ser adoptado en todas las variedades. Es una nativa para aumentar la concentración de zinc en A pesar del crecimiento económico registrado los índices de pobreza y malnutrición siguen años sufren de desnutrición crónica, principalmen-Una mayor producción de alimentos no necesaria-El CIP propone un enfoque que promueva el cambio de comportamiento para mejorar las prácticas alimenticias de las familias y potencie el consumo de variedades de papas nativas, ricas en hierro y zinc, especialmente en los hogares con niños y niñas menores de tres años.En este sentido, en los últimos años se ha impulsado la implementación de estrategias de educación nutricional, que buscan generar cambios de comportamiento en las prácticas alimenticias y promover el consumo de alimentos de mayor calidad.Para orientar mejor las intervenciones en los sistemas de producción, de acuerdo con los requeri-rias, se desarrolló un modelo productivo nutricional que permitió evaluar la relación existente entre variables de consumo-nutrición y socioeconómicoproductivas.l CIP y sus proyectos trabajan para aplicar nuevos enfoques para la innovación y el aprendizaje, para vincular mejor la investigación con la reducción de la pobreza.Gran parte del esfuerzo del CIP ha sido destinado a fortalecer a instituciones nacionales. Capacitaciones en diversos temas (desde semilla hasta comercialización), intercambios de experiencias con colegas de otros países y colaboración en proyectos conjuntos, nos han permitido crecer juntos, en estos 45 años.ara el CIP la capacitación es una herramienta clave para incidir en actores (productores, capacitadores, extensionistas e investigadores nacionales) e incrementar el desarrollo tecnológico en la cadena papa. Los programas de capacitación toman la forma de cursos regionales cortos, talleres, seminarios, conferencias y cursos nacionales, de acuerdo con las necesidades de nuestros socios en investigación y desarrollo.La capacitación abarca metodologías complementarias: CIAL's, Investigación Participativa, ECA's, Evaluación Horizonta, MIPEP, Enfoque Partici-publicaciones como: manuales de lancha y aeroponía, y guías de tizón tardío y selección positiva.ratoristas de universidades y del INIAP cuyo objetivo cional de la papa.Finalmente, los resultados de las investigaciones del nal.al vez, la principal contribución del CIP fue servir como enlace entre jóvenes estudiantes y la internacional, procurando la creación de espacios para intercambiar el saber relacionado con el sector agrícola.El CIP ha trabajado con las principales Universidades del Ecuador y del mundo, para fortalecer los conocimientos de jóvenes profesionales, brindándoles la oportunidad de realizar pasantías en su Estación Experimental. El CIP Quito recibe alrededor de 10 pasantes por año. investigación en universidades de Estados Unidos y Europa en colaboración con el CIP; más de 40 Masters en Ciencias, alrededor de 45 Ingenieros Agrónomos, cerca de 9 Ingenieros en Biotecnología y muchos otros profesionales en áreas relacionadas con el sector agrícola, han realizado sus respectivas tesis con el apoyo del CIP.Varios de estos jóvenes que se iniciaron en el CIP se han convertido en importantes investigadores y directivos de instituciones del sector. Algunos de ellos quisieron acompañarnos en esta oportunidad: \"Mi nombre es Xavier Mera, obtuve una beca en el año 2001, con la que hice mi tesis de pregrado evaluando estrategias para el control de lancha en el cullo que piensan los paperos del Ecuador con respecto a la Ley de Semillas. Estas experiencias resultaron para mi sumamente satisfactorias y enriquecedoras. Hoy en Ecuador… y sigo colaborando con CIP en varias actividades de investigación y desarrollo. mi carrera. La institución me proporcionó una visión global de los problemas sarrollo.\"Un sincero agradecimiento a CIP en Quito y Lima, ya que me dieron la oportunidad de realizar investigaciones para obtener mis títulos de Ingeniero Agrónomo y Maestría en Producción Agrícola y con esto ganar un sin número de experiencias tanto en el ámbito laboral como personal, ayudándome de esta manera a tener mejores oportunidades de trabajo, en la actualidad Semillas Sierra en la empresa ECUAQUI-MICA\".meros estudiantes que trabajaron en el Centro Internacional de la Papa en tesis con el proyecto Fortipapa con la dirección tanto de Greg Forbes en el CIP como de Jorge Revelo de INIAP.En cuanto a formación mi experiencia en el CIP como estudiante fue muy provechosa, tuve la oportunidad de conocer de ciencia en aspectos de -taron como profesional, mucho más contactos con expertos y colegas de rrera en el CIP por varios años antes de ir a Estados Unidos por mi doctorado.gos que atesoro hasta ahora algunos nombres como Elizabeth Urbano, Car-guez entre tantos que recuerdo con afecto.Realmente afortunado de haber estudiado y trabajado con el CIP. Una gran institución y un inmejorable ambiente de trabajo y formación profesional\". \"El haber trabajado en el CIP-Quito durante varios años fue una experiencia muy enriquecedora, tanto a nivel profesional como personal. En el CIP aprendí muchas cosas, desde material vegetal, siembra y manejo de ensayos en el campo, preparación de informes y papers hasta a manejar un azadón y conducir un vehículo 4x4. Mi trabajo fue siempre muy variado, combinando tareas en el laboratorio, invernadero y campo, incluyendo expediciones al campo para la recolección de plantas y patógenos. Lo último fue especialmen-nocer lugares de mi país que de otra forma no hubiera conocido, embelesarme con su belleza natural y compartir gratos momentos con mis compañeros y amigos de trabajo. La interacción con mis compañeros y colegas en la estación de Quito fue siempre agradable; combinando y complementando nuestras capacidades y habilidades individuales pudimos formar un excelente equisuerte de tener jefes excepcionales, que siempre me alentaron y ayudaron en mi trabajo y en mi formación. Adicionalmente, el hecho de haber trabajado en una institución tan prestigiosa como el CIP, me facilitó acceder a becas de estudio de postgrado e ingresar a importantes universidades en el exterior. No me queda más que decir. !Gracias CIP por esos buenos años!\" no tengo más que buenas experiencias, cálidos recuerdos y buenos amigos. Además de vivir las más variadas experiencias con profesionales de alto nivel, recuerdo sobretodo la calidez de la gente y la convivencia en un grupo que se sentía como una familia. El CIP además me brindó la oportunidad de conocer de primera mano los problemas relativos a la práctica agrícola, lo cual en buena medida dirigió mi destino profesional y el de mis estudios de post-grado. Me siento afortunado de formar parte de la historia del CIP-Quito y espero de todo corazón que su labor continúe por muchos, pero muchos años más. Un abrazo muy fuerte a todos quienes conforman y conformaron el equipo del CIP-Quito.\"Ing. Vinicio Armijos Jaramillo del Norte en Ibarra-Ecuador E n el contexto actual, el CIP requiere añadir nuevos elementos a su enfoque de innovación.Un componente importante tiene que ver con el fortalecimiento de las capacidades de los sistemas de alimentación basados en la papa, para responder a los efectos del cambio climático.En este sentido, el principal reto consiste en generar innovaciones que permitan, de manera simultánea, elevar la productividad de la agricultura familiar y su capacidad de generar ingresos. Al mismo tiempo, aumentar la adaptación de los sistemas de producción a las condiciones cambiantes de clima y responder de manera sostenible a los de vulnerabilidad a la inseguridad alimentaria desnutrición.Estos tres productividad, adaptación y son los pilares la que ahora se conoce como \"agricultura climáticamente inteligente\".Queda por hacer, pero los logros conseguidos en estos primeros 45 años, renuevan los esfuerzos para seguir el camino del y de la innovación permanente, buscando una vida mejor para la gente.","tokenCount":"4512"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b2b43c6e1dda0077d23a3986e4d58c19","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/TN22041.pdf","id":"2059885056"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5344631c-558f-4538-b403-554092355821","pagecount":"4","content":"Soil health is the very foundation of our food systems and provides several vital ecosystem services, including land productivity, flood regulation, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration. Healthy soil is critical for increasing food and nutrition security, improving livelihoods, reaching climate change mitigation and adaptation goals, enhancing above and below ground biodiversity, restoring ecosystems and providing many other benefits for people.Healthy soil hosts more biodiversity in one teaspoon than there are humans onEarth. Yet today's soils face an unprecedented crisis. Over one-third of the Earth's surface is degraded 1 , negatively affecting over 3.2 billion people. Continuing business as usual is no longer an option if both people and the planet are to thrive.Globally we are at a crossroad. We need to ensure the pathway for achieving soil health addresses the critical economic, structural, and technical capacity barriers that prevent farmers and land managers from accessing finance, productive inputs and information. These are critical to enhance the scaling of healthy soil practices and ecosystem functioning.Rooted in the UN Food Systems Summit in 2021, and anchored in the UNCCD, as a result of the glaring need for a focus on soils as part of food system transformation, CA4SH aims to guide and catalyse public and market-based private sector investments in soil health as a foundational and proactive response for addressing food and nutrition security, climate change, socioeconomic returns and growth, productivity, rural livelihoods, biodiversity, climate and nature.The main objective of the Coalition of Action 4 Soil Health (CA4SH) is to improve soil health globally by addressing critical implementation, monitoring, policy, and investment barriers that constrain farmers from adopting and scaling healthy soil practices.• A focus on soil as a unifier across the complex and inter-related global challenges of food and nutrition security, poverty reduction, climate change and biodiversity loss.• Championing the business case for private investment in soil as a capital asset, and alternative to the current limited number of commodityfocused investments (e.g., coffee, cocoa, palm oil).• Alignment of multiple public and private stakeholders to address the soil health investment gap and incentivize and reward farmers implementing actions to enhance soil health.• Adopting a systemic approach to improving soil health aimed at simultaneously delivering co-benefits to production, the environment, climate change resilience and mitigation, and the economy.• Alignment of grower, investor, financial markets and other key stakeholders along value chains, to collectively address social, economic and technical barriers experienced by farmers in adopting healthy soil practices. • Integrate soil health considerations in policy across the development, environment, and climate change domains, and along value chains.• Expand on research in development into soil health practices, monitoring and evaluation, and financial tools and mechanisms.• Significantly increase the number of hectares of land under improved practices for soil health.• Significantly increase investments in soil health, by a margin of 5-10 fold above current financing commitments.COALITION OF ACTION 4 SOIL HEALTHThe Coalition will advocate for multi-stakeholder action to facilitate the adoption and scaling of healthy soil practices across diverse landscape. This includes process to guide and catalyze public and private sector investments in soil health, with positive outcome for people and nature.In addition the CA4SH will align and leverage off the work of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).  COALITION OF ACTION 4 SOIL HEALTHCA4SH is open is all interested stakeholders who are committed to restoring soil health.To contribute to the CA4SH get in touch with the focal points below. ","tokenCount":"566"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0248795ed8471dd497767becd98a4fbc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/810a2e13-3da8-488d-a3e1-f2742c912a8c/retrieve","id":"286231082"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"97788a89-b2e4-4a56-90d3-903f19a2fdc9","pagecount":"30","content":"Postharvest Physiological Deterioration (PPD) is one of the leading causes of postharvest losses on fresh cassava in Uganda. This is expressed as blue black root streaking accompanied by bad odor and unfavorable taste. PPD is caused by the production of scopoletin, scopolin and esculin when roots are harvested and detached from the parent plant. The deterioration reaches a maximum in about four days after harvesting with microbial spoilage of the roots. This gives cassava a shelf life of 24 to 48h after harvest. The damaged roots are unpalatable and losses can be absolute if the roots are not processed quickly into other shelf stable products. This usually means that farmers and traders along the food supply chain face losses in income and reduced food security in addition to other unintended effects such as mounting pressure to sell and hence reduced price for the traders and limited sales into distant markets. However, the potential for fresh cassava utilization for retail and other markets in Uganda is still immense and hence needs to be exploited. There is need to develop effective, user friendly and affordable technologies for reduction of PPD and for enhancing shelf life of cassava.In previous research waxing was reported to enhance shelf life. This claim however did not specify the biochemical and other changes in the roots with this treatment and did not explain the acceptability of the waxed roots. Further there was no information on the effect of this method when coupled with pruning. Coupled to this, root storage in high humidity bags was not yet evaluated for cassava roots of Ugandan elite and local varieties. Thus the purpose of this study was to evaluate waxing and high relative humidity treatments for efficacy on PPD reduction. Specifically, it aimed at evaluating effect of waxing and relative humidity storage on PPD, reducing sugars, dry matter content, cyanide content and starch yield as well as acceptability of treated roots.Results from this study show that pruning alone would only extend shelf life to four to seven days. However, pruning followed by high relative humidity (RH) storage extended the shelf life of fresh cassava roots to 28 days resulting in less than 51% PPD among all the cultivars. Much as reductions in amylose content were not apparent across treatments over time, there were significant differences (P>0.05) in amylose content for the different treatments at day 14 and 21.Pruning followed by high RH storage also did not have a significant effect of the levels of cyanide in cassava (P>0.05).There was reduction in PPD and increased shelf life after waxing for all varieties compared to untreated controls. The deterioration rate for all varieties was lower than 30% after 28 days of storage compared to about 90% and 80% deterioration for the control and pruned respectively. Waxing caused reduction in the cyanogenic potential of cassava varieties with storage time much as in the waxed treatment some increments were observed. After day seven, reduction in the cyanogenic potential was recorded from an average 80ppm for all varieties and all treatments to an average of 4.4ppm by day 28 in the non-waxed roots. Waxed roots cyanogenic levels remained in the safe zone.There was an increment in dry matter content of cassava during storage but this was lower for waxed roots. The reducing sugar contents of both waxed and non-waxed roots also increased with storage time. However, the increases observed in waxed root were lower than in the non-waxed roots and was significantly different (P>0.05) from the pruned treatment and the control.Combined pruning with waxing or with high relative humidity storage results in enhanced shelf life of cassava. Sensory analysis of waxed roots remained acceptable and did not differ from freshly harvested roots up to 14 days of storage. Thus waxing and high relative humidity storage can easily be recommended for adoption for commercial use in shelf life extension of cassava.In Uganda cassava is an important staple food. Studies have shown that at least 60% of the populations grow cassava and nearly 90% of the people consume cassava in different forms at least once daily (EAAPP, 2011). Fresh cassava is widely consumed both in urban and rural areas as a snack and main meal. Fresh cassava marketing is currently an important source of income (scoping study). Uganda has a policy of releasing \"sweet varieties\", i.e., varieties with low levels of cyanogens. These varieties are popular, with consumer demand increasing especially in urban areas, thereby providing incomes to both women and men. However, postharvest losses along the fresh cassava value chain remain unacceptably high resulting in loss in income and food security at household and national level.Postharvest Physiological Deterioration (PPD) is the leading cause of postharvest losses on fresh cassava roots in Uganda. This is expressed as blue black root streaking accompanied by bad odor and unfavorable taste. PPD is caused by the production of scopoletin, scopolin and esculin when roots are harvested and detached from the parent plant. The deterioration reaches a maximum in about four days after harvesting with microbial spoilage of the roots. This gives cassava a shelf life of 24 to 48h after harvest. The damaged roots are unpalatable and losses can be absolute if the roots are not processed quickly into other shelf stable products.The short shelf-life limits marketing options of fresh cassava by making it difficult for the value chain actors to trade with sufficient time so as to access more distant markets. As a result, the loss in economic value of the crop due to deterioration means that there are increased marketing costs and limited access to urban markets which are often located far from the production sites (Sanchez et al., 2006).Traditional methods to reduce postharvest losses due to PPD include leaving the roots unharvested in the soil after maturity (eight to twelve months). The roots can also be buried in soil after harvest where they are stored up to 3 months (MOF, CLNGMCI, & NARI, 2004). The disadvantage of the latter strategy is that roots become more woody and fibrous, decreasing their palatability. Extensive in-field storage of the roots also increases susceptibility to microbial attack as well as in the reduction of extractable starch (MOF, CLNGMCI, & NARI, 2004). Other methods include coating the roots with a loamy soil paste, piling them into heaps and consequently covering with vegetation or watering daily, but all these practices only extend the shelf life by 2-3 days (Onyenwoke & Simonyan, 2014).There is however some technological options for reducing PPD in fresh cassava roots. These options include high relative humidity storage (RH) and waxing. Extending the roots' shelf life would provide farmers and traders with fresh cassava which can be marketed for longer and to distant markets thus increasing the profitability of the fresh cassava value chain. Thus alternative, effective and user-friendly options are needed for cassava shelf life extension. Therefore, the overall purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of root waxing and high relative humidity storage on PPD of selected cassava varieties.The specific objectives of this study were: To evaluate the combined effect of pruning and waxing on the level of PPD and on biochemical attributes of stored roots of selected varieties  To evaluate the effect of pruning and high relative humidity storage on levels on PPD and on biochemical attributes of selected cassava varieties  To investigate the acceptability of the waxed and relative humidity stored roots.A total of 16 cassava varieties were collected from three fresh root trading routes of Uganda. Five varieties were collected from Kyenjojo. These include Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Bufumbo, Njule, and Kijita. Four varieties, namely, Kibonange, Bukalasa, Mpagi and Kajahi were collected from Kabarole while Hoima, Nyaraboke (also from Kyenjojo), NASE14, TIM TIM, Nyamigyera, NAROCas1, Bao and TME14 were collected from Kiryandongo. These varieties were selected because preference by farmers due to their sweetness. The varieties were rapidly screened to select nine varieties that were relatively more tolerant or resistant to PPD. These included seven indigenous land races preferred by farmers: Bukalasa, Bufumbo, Hoima, Kirimumpale, Kigita, Nyaraboke and Njule. They also included two improved or elite varieties also popular among Ugandans due to their quality attributes: NASE14 and TME14.Roots were always harvested 12 months after planting following the method of CIAT et al. (2012). Pruning or detopping (defoliation) was conducted 7 days prior to root harvesting. One set of each cultivar harvested was left unpruned (control) while the other was pruned. Care was taken to avoid injuries to the roots during harvesting (Venturini, Santos, & Oliveira, 2015).For the waxing treatment, only five (namely Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Bukalasa, NASE14 and TME14) of the nine varieties were considered depending on their availability, market value, preference to farmers and logistical arrangements for their collection from farmers in at least three different times. Cassava roots were treated according to the method described by CIAT et al. (2012). The roots were washed with potable water using a soft bristled brush to remove adhering soil and allowed to drip dry for 10min at room temperature. They were then dipped for one minute in a solution of Ridomil fungicide and a surfactant (Silverwelt). The roots were air dried and subsequently dipped in hot wax pre-heated to temperature of 140-160 0 C.Harvested roots were left moist and placed in polyethylene bags of 2-5mm gauge. The bags were sealed and roots were kept under ambient conditions in the sealed bags. Four roots were sampled every 7 days for PPD scoring and biochemical analysis.The roots were scored for PPD according to the method described by Wheatley, Lozano, & Gómez (1985). Roots of each cultivar with a minimum size of 18 cm length, without mechanical damage or pre-harvest rot were selected. The distal and proximal ends were cut off with a stainless steel knife, so that the remaining root section is about 15 cm long. Crosswise sections 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 cm from the proximal end were cut. A total of 7 sections were evaluated. Numerical values were assigned according to a scale of 0-10 on the proximal surface of each cut slice. The scale values correspond to 0-100% PPD. The average of the sum of the numerical values in the 7 sections evaluated was obtained and expressed as \"Percent of deterioration\".The percentage increase in Shelf Life (SL) after waxing was determined as the mean PPD of waxed roots subtracted from the mean PPD of non-waxed roots as shown in the formula below.(\uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC3F \uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52) = (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51 − \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51)\uD835\uDC65100 \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51The dry matter content was determined using the method by Uarrota et al. (2016). Roots of each cultivar were randomly selected, cut into 2cm slices using a stainless steel knife, mixed thoroughly and triplicates of 100g samples (W1) were dried at 60 C for 48 hours in an oven drier (Leader, Leader Engineering Widnes, United Kingdom). After removal from the oven drier, samples were weighed immediately. It was then taken back to the oven drier for 2 hours until a constant weight (W2) was obtained. Percent dry matter content (DM %) was calculated as follows:Dry matter content = 100 * (W2/W1)Cassava starch was extracted by a modified method described by Nuwamanya et al. (2009).Roots were peeled and cleaned with distilled water. Then, the roots (500g) were blended with distilled water (500g of tuber in 1000ml of water) using a Waring blender (Waring® Commercial Blender, HBB2WTG4, USA). The pulp was stirred for 2min and filtered using a triple cheese cloth. The filtrate was allowed to stand until the starch sedimented and the top liquid decanted and discarded. The starch sediment was again washed with distilled water, and the top water discarded. The starch produced was oven-dried on aluminum pans at 60 ºC until a constant dry weight was obtained. The starch extract is weighed and then stored at room temperature in dry plastic air tight containers.Distilled water (0.1ml; blank), standard corn starch (98%; 0.1g) and cassava starch (100mg), were transferred to a clean test tube and 10% sulphuric acid (5ml; Lobachemie® Reagents and Fine Chemicals, 1830, India) added. The test tube was placed in a water bath (Grant Instruments Ltd, TXF200, UK) at 80 ˚C for 30min. The supernatant (0.5ml) was transferred into a clean dry test tube as well as 5 serial dilutions for the standard solution; distilled water (1ml), phenol (0.5ml, 5%; VWR® Chemicals, France) were added to the contents in the test tube and vortexed (Labonet® International, 50200, United Kingdom) for 5s. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1ml) was added to the contents in the test tube, shaken for 5s, allowed to cool at room temperature for 15min and then absorbance was recorded with a spectrophotometer (WPA Biowave II+, England) at a wavelength of 490nm. The spectrophotometer was zeroed by reading absorbance of the blank then the absorbance of the prepared sample. The standard sample and serial dilutions of known concentrations were also measured. A graph of the data obtained from the readings obtained from the standard sample was plotted with the solution concentration on the x-axis and the absorbance on the y-axis. The equation of the \"best-fit\" straight line was determined using MS Excel© 2013. This equation gave the mathematical relationship between solute concentration and absorbance.Finally, the equation was used to derive the concentration of digestible starch in the cassava starch sample.Where, y is the absorbance x is the concentrationCassava starch (100mg) was transferred into a volumetric flask, wetted with ethanol (95%, 1ml; VWR® Chemicals, UN1170, France) and distilled water (10ml), followed by NaOH solution (10%, 2ml; Lobachemie® Reagents and Fine Chemicals, 0589800500, India). The contents were heated in a water bath (Grant Instruments) at 60 ºC until a clear solution was formed. The flask with its contents was cooled at room temperature and diluted to the mark (100ml) with distilled water. A portion of distilled water (5ml) was added and acidified slightly with HCl (6M, 3 drops; Sigma-Aldrich®, UN1789, Germany). The contents were homogenized by shaking for 5s and Iodine solution (10%, 5ml) was added. Absorbance of the solution was read at 640nm against and amylose content quantified spectrophotometrically.Cassava flour (500mg) was mixed with ethanol (1ml, 95%) and distilled water (2ml) in a centrifuge tube. Hot ethanol at 60 ºC (10ml, 95%) was added to the resultant solution followed by vortexing for 5min. and centrifugation (Labofuge 400R, Thermo Electron Corporation, Germany) for 10min. The supernatant was decanted into a volumetric flask and made up to 100ml with distilled water. This solution (10ml) was used for quantification of reducing sugars. The supernatant, distilled water (blank) and serial dilutions of 99% glucose (standard) (0.5ml each) were pipetted into separate clean dry test tubes. Distilled water (1ml) and 5ml phenol (5%; UNILAB®, 1159, Ajax Finechem, Australia) were added to the contents in each of the test tubes and vortexed for 3-5s. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1ml) was added to the contents in the test tubes, shaken for 3-5s. and allowed to cool for 15min. and then the reducing sugar content was quantified using a spectrophotometer at a wave length of 490nm.Linamarase enzyme solution was prepared according to a modified method described by Haque & Bradbury (1999). Sap (1ml), was squeezed from the end of the petiole (stalk) of cassava leaves and mixed with orthophosporic acid (0.1M, 10ml; Unilab® 372-2.5L GL, Ajax Finechem, Australia) to give a solution of enzyme. This solution was stored at room temperature for 1 hour until it was utilized.The peeled cassava root (50g) was added to orthophosphoric acid (160ml, 0.1M) and finely ground in a blender. The mixture was centrifuged at 129,000 RCF for 30min. at 4 ˚C. Triplicate samples (0.1ml) of the supernatant were added to separate clean dry test tubes. Standard solutions of Potassium Cyanide (1g/ml) as well as its serial dilutions and 1ml of distilled water (blank) were also added to test tubes. To each of these test tubes, orthophosphoric acid (0.1M, 0.4ml, pH 7.0) and linamarase enzyme solution (0.1ml) were added and incubated at 30 ⁰C for 15min. Sodium hydroxide (0.2M, 0.6ml) was added to the above sample and incubated at room temperature (25±5 ºC) for 5 min. Orthophosphoric acid (2.8ml, pH 6) and of N-chlorotosylamide (Chloramine-T; 0.1ml) were added to the sample, shaken for 5 s. and incubated for 5min. at room temperature. Pyridine-barbituric acid (coloring reagent; 0.6ml) was added to the sample, shaken for 3-5s. and left for 10min. at room temperature after which absorbance was read at 605nm in the spectrophotometer.Rating was done on a 9-point hedonic scale with anchors ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely) according to Ubbor & Akobundu (2009). Sensory analysis of all steamed cassava samples involved the participation of 20 untrained panelists who comprised of staff at National Agricultural Research Organization, Kawanda. Panelists consisted of 7 males and 13 females and their age ranged from 24 to 50 years. Availability, willingness and having eaten cassava were some of the factors considered for participating in the session. Each individual evaluated five sensory characteristics (appearance, taste, aroma, texture and mouthfeel) which were consequently averaged as overall acceptability. For waxing analysis, three of the candidate varieties which were accessible for use for this study were evaluated. These included NASE14, NAROCas1, and Nyaraboke.Upon arrival at the sensory laboratory, each panelist read an explanation of the study and gave their informed consent. Cassava samples were steamed for 30min. and served 15min. later. Steamed cassava samples were placed onto disposable plastic plates and labeled with randomly selected three digit numbers. The coded samples were presented under normal lighting conditions, in a randomized manner across panelists to ensure that the order did not introduce bias into the results. Each individual evaluated the five aforementioned sensory characteristics. Each panelist was presented with the test sample and a bottle of drinking water to rinse out their mouths before and after each taste. The panelists were asked to evaluate the product and record their perception of each sensory characteristic using a nine-point hedonic scale. The ratings on the 9-point hedonic scale used were (9=\"like extremely\"; 8=\"like very much\"; 7=\"like moderately\"; 6=\"like slightly\"; 5=\"neither like nor dislike\"; 4= \"dislike slightly\"; 3=\"dislike moderately\"; 2=\"dislike very much\"; 1=\"dislike extremely\").Averages for the sampled varieties were taken to be the representative values of particular varieties in each of the treatments at a particular sampling time. The variations between the averages for the different sampling times and the differences between the test varieties were evaluated using a one way ANOVA. All the specific analyses were carried out using GENSTAT Discovery Edition 2013 analysis software.There were differences in levels of PPD among the varieties after waxing with reduction in PPD and increased shelf life for all varieties compared to untreated controls (Figure 1). Much as differences were observed among treatments, it was observed that deterioration increased with time. The rate of deterioration was however different for the two treatments and both treatments slowed down PPD significantly compared to the control. The variations observed in Figure 1 indicated that the varieties responded in different ways to the waxing technology. TME14 and two popular local varieties (Bukalasa and Nyaraboke) responded well to waxing and therefore have major potential for shelf life extension. Conversely, NASE14 had the lowest percentage reduction in PPD rate and the lower response to waxing.Waxing was also more appropriate for longer storage times (Figure 2) while cheaper options such as high relative humidity storage would be appropriate for shorter storage times. The average PPD increased rapidly in the control and pruned treatment compared to the prunedand-waxed samples. In the case of waxing, the deterioration rate for all varieties was lower than 30% after 28 days of storage compared to about 90% and 80% deterioration for the control and pruned samples, respectively. From the above, it is evident that the shelf life of cassava can slightly be improved by pruning while shelf life can be extended for significantly longer when pruning is combined with waxing. Pruning alone cannot offer extended shelf life over 14 days while combined pruning and waxing can. Given the fact that marketing of cassava can take a long time, extended marketing period can be achieved by combining waxing with pruning.The dry matter (DM) content at day zero (Day 0) ranged from 31 to 36%. The lowest dry matter contents were observed in the local varieties Kirimumpale and Nyaraboke (average 31 and 32%, respectively) while the highest DM contents were observed for the elite variety TME14 (average 36%). Changes in DM contents were observed after storage increasing significantly by between five and 10 percentage points in the first seven days in the control (Table 1). Such increments were sustained reaching the highest level at 28 days and ranging between 42-53%. Similar observations were made for the pruned roots with no significant differences observed between the pruned experiment and the control. However in the waxed roots, lower increments in DM content were observed. The DM content, which ranged from 31 to 35% at harvest, increased with storage days and was in the range of 36-43% at 7 days and 40-48% at 28 days. The DM content in waxed roots during storage period was consistently lower than in pruned only and control roots. Nevertheless significant variability (P<0.05) was observed among the different varieties. The increase in DM over time could be as a result of moisture loss that occurs in the roots during storage. Such losses in moisture may contribute to deterioration of the root by execrating the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the main predisposing factors of PPD. Starch is one of the key ingredients of cassava roots. Loss in starch does not only lead to loss in caloric value of the root but also affects other nutrient related aspects of the root. Therefore changes in starch yield from different varieties undergoing storage after waxing were determined and these results are presented in Table 2. Reduction in starch yield was observed during storage. Reduction in the amount of extractable starch could be linked to hydrolysis and break down processes that occur in roots during storage. Reduction in starch yields over time were more pronounced in pruned and control samples which were significantly different (P <0.05) from waxed root as from day 14 of storage. However, it should be noted that there were no significant differences between the pruned treatment and the control after 7 days. This further indicates that pruning as a technology is crucial for extending the shelf life for only about 7 days after which the cassava should be marketed. There were significant differences (P>0.05) in reducing sugar contents of different varieties before storage (day 0), indicating that the amount of sugars in cassava is variety specific (Table 3). The reducing sugar contents of both waxed and non-waxed roots increased with storage time. Indeed for both the pruned and the control samples, rapid increases in sugar contents were observed over the storage days but no significant differences (P>0.05) were observed for specific storage day. However, the increases observed in pruned-and-waxed sample were lower than in the pruned roots and was significantly different (P>0.05) from the control samples (Table 3). In most of the varieties, reducing sugars increased significantly (P>0.05) during storage. Such results indicate progression in the physiological changes occurring as the starch is remobilized in the root. The remobilization coupled to no utilization of sugars in such a system leads to accumulation of a number of non-structural carbohydrates that on analysis constitute the reducing sugars. Note: the reducing sugar contents in this case refer to available sugar as released after hydrolysis of starch rather than glucose.Note: Sugar 7, 14, 21, 28 denote reducing sugar content at 7,14,21,& 28 days storage.Waxing was carried out on known \"sweet varieties\" and hence of lower cyanogenic potential (CNP). Table 4 shows that the CNP of untreated (control) and treated samples (pruned, and pruned-and-waxed) before storage (Day 0) were lower than the recommended safe levels by FAO of 50 ppm. Significant differences (P>0.05) were observed among the different varieties with the elite clones maintaining higher CNPs. These values reduced with storage time in the pruned and the control samples by more than 90% by day 28 of storage. Apart from Nyaraboke, there were increases in CNP in the waxed samples of all the other varieties up till 14 days of storage. After day seven, reductions in the cyanogenic potential was recorded from an average 80ppm for all varieties and all treatments to an average of 4.4ppm by day 28 in the non-waxed roots. This was a significant reduction compared to losses in the waxed roots which ranged from an average 127.14ppm at day 7 to an average 28.73ppm at day 28. The reductions imply that waxing does increase CNP of cassava although the CNP reduces to safe levels after 21 days.Starch content ranged from 73-84% and varied across the different varieties. Lower starch contents were observed for Nyaraboke (73.14%) while higher starch contents were observed for TME14 (84.4%). During storage, the starch content reduced with time dropping by between 10-40% depending on the variety and the treatment method (Table 5). Reduction in starch content in the pruning samples was comparable to the control samples after 14 days of storage. However, no specific reductions were observed for the pruned-and-waxed samples with starch content increasing with time instead. Note: CNP at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing. Note: starch content 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch content at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing.The amylose contents of samples ranged from 14% to 16% and were not significantly different (P>0.05) among test varieties (Table 6). There were significant differences (P>0.05) in amylose content for the different treatments at day 14 and 21. The differences reflect the losses in starch content earlier observed which was related to hydrolytic reduction and production of nonstructural carbohydrates. However, amylose was not a significant indicator of the level of deterioration since it is a function of available starch rather than total available carbohydrate. Note: Starch content 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch content at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing.Changes in protein content are presented in Table 7. Significant differences (P>0.05) were observed for protein contents at day zero or among the different cassava varieties. This is an indication that different cassava varieties accumulate different levels of protein. These differences were observed across the storage time although there were no significant differences due to treatment effects. Particularly, the protein contents reduced from an average 0.75% at day zero to an average 0.54% by day 28 of storage. These losses were higher in the control and the pruned samples and this can be attributed to degenerative hydrolysis of the components of the root. ON the other hand, waxing does not significantly affect protein content and hence it is appropriate for maintaining the nutritional quality of the roots. From the observations presented in previous sections, it is possible to conclude that pruning improves the shelf life of cassava by an average 7-14 days after harvest. Thus it is only applicable for short term storage and marketing. On the other hand, waxing can extend shelf life for at least 28 days. Its potential for use in the fresh cassava export market is huge. It is therefore recommended for long term storage that may involve transportation of roots over long distances and for extended marketing period.There was variation in mean PPD of roots with variety and storage time (Table 8). As earlier observed with the waxing treatment, high relative humidity storage (RH), reduced PPD by 30-40% depending on the variety. Such reductions are plausible if the storage technique is used for specific varieties that respond to this method.Table 9 shows that the dry matter content of cassava roots did not change with storage time under high relative humidity conditions (inside the polyethylene bags) over the storage period. This can be attributed to the control of moisture losses from the storage chamber. Therefore the maintenance of dry matter in this shelf life improving method is important attribute for fresh cassava marketing. According to Van Oirschot et al. (2000) pruning of cassava plants does not affect the dry matter content of cassava roots.  The amylose content of fresh cassava roots did not vary significantly among the cultivars (p>0.05). Kirimumpale had amylose content of 14.6% while NASE14 had 16.9% on the upper side of the values. Kigita, Nyaraboke, NASE-14, Hoima and Njule had amylose contents of 14.8, 15.33, 15.8, 15.5 and 15.85%, respectively. Storage of cassava roots under high RH did not reveal statistical differences in amylose content (Figure 4).  The amylose content (14.6-16.9%) of the cassava cultivars were within the range found by Nuwamanya et al. (2009). Van Oirschot et al. (2000) also found that pre-harvest pruning does not affect the content of amylose in cassava starch.Most of starch functionalities and physical properties of starch such as gelatinization temperature and time are dependent on the amylose content (Charles et al., 2005). All the cassava cultivars used in this study contained amylose but Getzin & Fellman (2012) utilized a cassava cultivar (AM206-5) characterized by amylose-free starch. Amylose-free \"waxy\" starch is more susceptible to gelatinization and glucoamylase digestion and has great advantages when used in food industry (Howeler et al., 2013).Reducing sugar content of flour made from freshly harvested cassava obtained from pruned cassava plants ranged from 7.49 in Hoima to 13.14% in TME14. Unpruned cassava plants yielded roots with reducing sugar content varying between 7.28% in Hoima to 12.78% in TME14.Pruning did not have a significant effect (p>0.05) on the reducing sugar content of the cassava roots. However, all cassava roots showed an increase in reducing sugar content over storage time regardless of treatment. After 28 days under RH storage, the reducing sugar content in cassava ranged from 13.82% to 29.61% for NASE14 and TME14 cultivars, respectively. There was an average increase in reducing sugar content of cassava roots under high RH storage of 0.34% per day. Increase in reducing sugar content of cassava over time is attributed to breakdown of polysaccharides like starch into glucose during respiration (Zidenga, et al., 2012). Increase in reducing sugars in cassava gives a desired organoleptic quality in terms of sweetness (Nuwamanya et al., 2009). Protein content ranged between 0.52% in Kigita and 0.96% in NASE14 for cassava roots from pruned cassava plants. Fresh roots obtained from unpruned cassava had a protein content ranging from 0.53 to 0.95% (Figure 5). There was no significant differences in the protein content of pruned and unpruned cassava roots (p>0.05). The protein content in the high RH treated roots (0.52-0.96%) did not change significantly throughout the 28 days of storage (p>0.05). It was observed that improved cassava varieties had higher protein content (0.93% for TME14 and 0.96% for NASE14) than the local cultivars (0.52% in Kigita to 0.82% in Nyaraboke) (p<0.05).Cassava cultivars in this study had protein content lower than that documented by USDA (2014) where the protein content ranged between 1 and 2%. This can be attributed to the fact that variation in nutritional composition occurs among different cultivars, locations and environmental conditions (Burns et al., 2012). Inferences by Van Oirschot (2000) also showed that protein content is not affected by pruning or prolonged storage at ambient temperature and humidity.There were significant differences (p<0.05) in cyanogenic potential among the eight cultivars examined. Cyanogen levels in fresh cassava roots from pruned cassava plants varied between 27.8 and 53.2ppm (Figure 6). Roots obtained from pruned cassava plants of NASE14, TME14, Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Kigita and Bufumbo cultivars had cyanide contents of 31.12, 32.16, 36.79, 44.86, 47.89 and 50.41 ppm, respectively. Njule had 53.2 ppm before storage while Hoima had 28.42 ppm. Pruning alone did not have a significant effect (p>0.05) on cyanogen content of cassava roots. Pruning followed by high RH storage also did not have a significant effect on the cyanogenic content of cassava (p>0.05). However, overall decrease in level of total cyanogens was observed with time among all the cultivars of pruned and unpruned cassava stored at ambient humidity as well as pruned, high RH stored cassava after seven days. Overall decrease in cyanide levels in cassava seven days after harvest could be attributed to volatility of free cyanide and prolonged interaction between the enzyme linamarase and the cyanogenic glucoside in the cassava root (Padmaja, 1995). The level of cyanide however remained constant after seven days. Further reduction in levels of cyanide could only occur by crushing or pounding the plant material to increase enzyme-substrate interraction (Montagnac, 2009). The cultivars in this study are categorised as sweet cassava and consumption of these varieties, therefore, does not pose a risk of cynide toxicity (Creda & Mattos, 1996).The overall sensory acceptability of steamed cassava freshly obtained from pruned cassava plants at 0 days ranged from 8 (like very much) for Hoima, Bufumbo and Nyaraboke to 6 (like slightly) for Kigita, Njule, TME14 while NASE14 scored 7 (like moderately). For Hoima, Bufumbo and Nyaraboke, all the sensory attributes of taste, appearance, aroma, texture and mouthfeel were highly rated at 8 (like very much). Njule, TME 14 and NASE 14 were highly rated for taste, appearance and mouth feel (averaged at 8) but were rated lower for aroma (5: Neither like nor dislike). Kigita was scored high for taste (7 like) but with low rating for texture (4: dislike slightly). Kigita was found to be very soft, which was not appealing to most of the panelists. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the overall sensory acceptability of steamed roots obtained from pruned and unpruned cassava plants. At seven days of storage under ambient humidity, overall acceptability decreased for pruned and unpruned cassava roots respectively. The overall sensory acceptability of high RH treated roots, on the other hand increased at 7 days and 14 days. Figure 8 shows that the sensory acceptability of cassava roots decreased with storage days. After seven days, the average scores of pruned and unpruned roots were 5 (neither like nor dislike) and 3 (dislike moderately), respectively. This shows that cassava roots are rendered unpalatable shortly after harvest (Ofor, 2011). The least favorite cultivar for freshly harvested cassava (Kigita: 6) was due to its low score for texture (4) (hence its name that means ghee in the local Western Uganda dialect). This is an indicator that very soft cassava is not liked by most consumers. Increase in overall acceptability of high RH treated cassava roots is linked to the increase in content of reducing sugars in the root, which, according to Nuwamanya (2009) is desired by consumers. Reducing sugars are a by-product of respiration of the root so they increase in the roots during storage. The decrease in overall sensory acceptability at 28 days was due to a low average score for the flavor (5) and taste (4) of cassava. The stored samples were also too sweet for the panelists' liking. However, nearly all the varieties were rated above 6.5 average for overall acceptability at day 7 and 14 (Figure 8)For waxing the three varieties tested included NAROCas1, Nyaraboke and NASE14. Waxing did not negatively affect the acceptability of roots. Waxed roots remained acceptable and did not differ from freshly harvested roots up to 14 days of storage (Figure 9). Thus waxing can easily be adopted for marketing of cassava roots with extended shelf life. Pruning alone can be used to extend shelf life of cassava roots to four to seven days. However, pruning followed by high RH storage could be used to extend the shelf life of fresh cassava roots to 28 days with % PPD less than 51 among all the cultivars. The technology shows promise for commercial exploitation in eastern and southern Africa where consumption of fresh cassava is widespread. Pruning seven days prior to root harvest and storage at high RH does not significantly affect the starch yield, dry matter, starch digestibility, amylose, protein and cyanide content of the cassava roots implying the root quality characteristics are not compromised by the treatments examined in the study.Similarly, pruning of cassava seven days prior to harvest did not affect the sensory characteristics of fresh cassava roots. In fact, storage of pruned cassava under high RH conditions increases the time over which cassava remains organoleptically acceptable to consumers (up to 21 days) but not up to 28 days of storage due to excessive sweetness and lack of aroma. These results highlight the prospects of employing pruning followed by high RH storage for maintaining the quality attributes of fresh cassava roots in a commercial setting.Further studies are required to understand the interaction of high RH storage and pruning on enzymatic function of cassava root. Effectiveness of other methods of storage under high RH such as storage in moist wood dust, soaking in water and burying in the soil can be further studied and compared with storage in plastic bags.Waxing similarly resulted in longer shelf life of cassava across in all the tested varieties. It can thus be a viable PPD management option for end-users such as supermarkets and other up-end markets of fresh cassava. Although the technology requires some investments in terms of facilities for waxing and other tools, the cost can be recouped quickly through the longer shelf stability of roots on the market that will reduce economic losses from PPD. PPD in unpreserved roots triggers postharvest qualitative deterioration which at times results in complete loss of the roots. Thus the benefits of better cassava marketability will outweigh the costs associated with use of the technology.Relative humidity on the other hand is cheap and could be recommended for use by traders who often have small or no investment capital. Indeed it can be used concurrently with waxing in a business pack house as designed during this study. But its benefits may be tapped by retailers in road side markers which can easily store roots in polyethylene bags as they wait to sell the roots.","tokenCount":"6267"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b445bd8c88b85bb258c2fd13f3fb8f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57f3dc1a-b34c-43e9-9c3a-aebdbc7aa7b2/retrieve","id":"1861870031"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a02941ec-5b0c-4d15-8c90-2be51992dc37","pagecount":"29","content":" Dates de séjour dans le village : 01 au 08/03/2023  Nom du village : Kiéché  Nom de la commune : Dogondoutchi  Nom de département/région/pays : Dosso, Niger  Equipe de l'INRAN 1. Dr ABDOU Nourou, Chef d'équipe, Facilitateur 2. YACOU Biba BA, Facilitatrice 3. MOUSSA Boureima, Preneur de notes 4. Dr MOUSSA GARBA Mahamadou, Preneur de notes  Equipe de supervision de l'Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT • OUEDRAOGO Mathieu, Chercheur Senior en Agriculture Intelligente face au climat et Services d'Informations climatiques (AIC/SIC). RESUME EXECUTIF Les principales ressources du village de Kiéché sont les terres agricoles ; l'aire de pâturage ; le couloir de passage ; les infrastructures (mairie, école, dispensaire, magasin, centre de formation et de réunion) ; le réseau routier (route, piste, et rue) et le site maraîcher. Toutes ces ressources sont exposées aux effets néfastes de la variabilité et du changement climatique qui se manifestent, par des aléas tels que des sécheresses, des vents violents, des fortes pluies, des inondations, des ennemis de cultures et des maladies animales. Les impacts négatifs de ces aléas sur ces ressources, se traduisant par des terres de cultures lessivées, érodées et avec des ravinements par endroits, des infrastructures et un réseau routier en mauvais état, un couloir de passage et une aire de pâturage dégradés et envahis par des espèces non appétées, ont pour conséquences, les mauvaises productions agricoles récurrentes, la malnutrition, la pauvreté, les pertes des pâturages, l'exode, l'effondrement des maisons, la dégradation des routes, l'émergence des maladies, les incendies, et le déplacement des populations. Plusieurs organisations et associations de producteurs interviennent dans le village de Kiéché. Vingt-six (26) organisations de femmes et dix-huit (18) d'hommes ont été dénombrés. Ces organisations sont dans leur grande majorité formelles, libres d'accès et interviennent surtout au niveau communal. Elles ont en général pour centre d'intérêt, les secteurs sociaux de base (agriculture, élevage maraîchage et AGR) et visent l'amélioration du bien-être de la communauté et leur sécurité alimentaire. Très peu parmi elles, agissent sur tous les trois piliers de la sécurité alimentaire à savoir, la disponibilité, l'accès et l'utilisation. Aussi, en cas de crise alimentaire, elles sont peu nombreuses à agir, en procédant à quelques distributions de vivres et d'intrants. Les producteurs et les productrices de Kiéché reçoivent des conseils et des informations relatives aux pratiques d'agriculture et d'élevage à travers quatre sources principales. Les individus (les producteurs), les organisations (projet de développement), les médias (radio régionale de Doutchi) et l'état (services techniques communaux de l'agriculture, de l'élevage et de l'environnement). À la suite de cet exercice participatif et inclusif, la communauté villageoise de Kiéché a formulé sa vision du futur du village. Ce souhait pour leur village, qui se veut comme une planification à long terme est le suivant : Avoir des champs et des aires de pâturage fertiles et productives. Disposer de semences améliorées de qualité, d'un bon réseau routier, de bonnes infrastructures et d'un personnel d'encadrement technique de proximité qualifié pour les soins aux humains et animaux et le renforcement de capacités des producteurs et productrices agricoles.Les raisons qui ont motivé le choix du village comme site sont les suivantes :▪ l'accessibilité et la sécurité en toute période (la route nationale 1, traverse le terroir villageois) ; ▪ le dynamisme et la motivation des femmes et des hommes pour avoir collaborés avec plusieurs projets de développement ; ▪ l'engagement et l'ouverture des autorités locales, communales pour accompagner les initiatives de développement de leur commune ; ▪ la présence des agents des services techniques communaux d'agriculture, d'élevage et d'environnement pour encadrer les producteurs et productrices. L'équipe pays de mise en oeuvre de cette étude est constituée de 4 agents de l'Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique du Niger. Il s'agit de :▪ Dr Nourou ABDOU, responsable de l'activité ; ▪ Dr Mahamadou MOUSSA GARBA, membre de l'équipe ; ▪ M. Boureima MOUSSA, membre d l'équipe ; ▪ Mme Biba YACOUBA, membre de l'équipe. Après un entretien avec les autorités communales, des échanges en assemblée publique, et vu le caractère participatif de l'exercice, l'équipe de mise en oeuvre de l'activité a défini les critères de choix des participants (connaissance du terroir et des outils de recherche participative, dynamisme). Après l'assemblée publique ayant regroupé 104 participants (63 hommes, 41 femmes), deux groupes de travail, ont procédé à la collecte des données auprès de 15 hommes et de 15 femmes dans deux salles de la mairie, sur la base du document de débriefing. Les thèmes abordés de façon participative dans les 2 groupes de travail sont : i) gestion communautaire des ressources (situation actuelle, principaux changements, vulnérabilité et capacité d'adaptation au changement climatique), ii) cadre organisationnel (classement des organisations, information de base sur l'organisation, le niveau de sécurité alimentaire, de crise alimentaire et des ressources naturelles) ; iii) réseaux d'information et enfin iv) vision du futur (échanges de photos prise du paysage/environnement). Les données ont été collectées sur la base d'un document de débriefing préétablie. Après explication des différents outils, les participants ont listé et traduit en image les ressources de la communauté. Après la collecte des données sur le terrain, l'équipe réalise un débriefing suivi de la saisie et de l'analyse des données le soir. Les questions posées étant bien comprises par les participants, par conséquent, les données et informations recueillies reflètent bien la situation réelle du terroir villageois.La commune rurale de Kiéché est localisée dans la partie Sud du Département de Dogondoutchi. Le village de Kiéché est le chef-lieu de la commune située à 257 Km de la capitale Niamey. Le climat est de type soudano-sahélien avec des précipitations relativement abondantes et une moyenne annuelle (entre 2010 et 2015) estimée à 564mm. Les températures moyennes varient fortement au cours de l'année. Elles sont maximales en avril-mai (40 à 42 degrés pour les maximas, près de 30 pour les minima). Les plus basses sont enregistrées en décembre et janvier (moins de 35 °C pour les maximas, et entre 15 et 20°C pour les minima). Le relief de la commune de Kiéché appartient à un vaste ensemble géologique appelé bassin des Oullemenden. On note la présence de plusieurs types de sols notamment ceux des plateaux, des talus et des versants des plateaux, de la plaine du Dallol et enfin on rencontre au bas des pentes des falaises et des talus des sols qui sont enrichis en élément argileux par lessivage oblique et qui constituent les meilleures terres agricoles. L'agriculture et l'élevage constituent les principales activités économiques pratiquées par les populations de la commune. Le commerce, l'artisanat, et la pêche sont également pratiqués par les populations Les cultures pluviales constituées de mil, de sorgho, d'arachide, de niébé, de voandzou, sont dominantes. Elles se pratiquent sur les différentes zones agroécologiques. Les cultures irriguées ne sont visibles que dans la zone du Dallol Maouri et dans quelques dépressions (vallées) de la zone des plateaux. Le chou, la tomate, le poivron etc., sont les principales cultures de contre-saison.Après l'assemblée publique ayant regroupé 104 participants (63 hommes, 41 femmes), deux groupes de travail, ont procédé à la collecte des données auprès de 15 hommes et de 15 femmes dans deux salles de la mairie, sur la base du document de débriefing préétablie. Après la collecte des données sur le terrain, l'équipe réalise un débriefing suivi de la saisie et de l'analyse des données le soir.Les outils et matériels utilisés pour conduire l'étude de base sont : des rouleaux de papier padex, des papiers cartonnés, des paquets de marqueurs et des ficelles de différentes couleurs, des stylos, des blocs note, des ciseaux, des chemises dures, des crayons des gommes, de la colle, des rubans adhésifs, etc.Les dispositions pratiques avant la visite ont véritablement commencé, après la rencontre entre le Directeur Général de l'INRAN et du responsable pays, accompagné, du responsable régional de l'activité Dr Mathieu Ouédraogo, chercheur à l'Alliance of Bioversity & CIAT de Dakar. Cette rencontre a permis à l'administration de l'INRAN, d'avoir des informations précises sur l'étude, mais a aussi facilité, la location de deux véhicules pour la mission de terrain. Aussi, certains outils ont été achetés, pour les exercices pratiques. Malgré les contacts existants entre les membres de l'équipe pays et les agents des services techniques du village retenu, l'équipe pays s'est rendue dans le village la veille du démarrage de l'étude, pour rencontrer et échanger avec les autorités locales. Cette première rencontre a permis d'expliquer l'objet de la mission et les objectifs de l'étude, ainsi que l'organisation pratique du déroulement de l'enquête.Pendant la visite, il a été expliqué aux autorités communales le caractère participatif de l'exercice, et défini les critères de choix des participants (connaissance du terroir et des outils de recherche participative, dynamisme, ...). Les conditions de restauration durant la période de l'enquête ont été également définies au cours de cette rencontre avec les autorités. L'enquête s'est déroulée pendant 6 jours. Chaque jour, les groupes travaillent de 9h à 13h, puis de 14 à 17h pour la collecte des données. La saisie et le traitement des données se font le soir par l'équipe.Après la visite avec les autorités communales, les membres de l'équipe pays se sont transportés à leur lieu d'hébergement. Le soir, une petite réunion à permis de clarifier les conditions du déroulement du travail.Les focus group ont été animés par les deux équipes réparties dans deux salles différentes constituées ainsi qu'il suit :-Nourou Abdou et Moussa Boureima avec le groupe des hommes ; -Moussa Garba Mahamadou et Biba Yacouba avec le groupe des femmes. Chaque groupe a commencé l'animation des focus groups dans une salle de la mairie. Les hommes et les femmes ont contribué à renseigner les outils à travers les exercices pratiques. L'animation en focus s'est faite en langue (Haoussa), de façon participative. Les preneurs de note enregistrent les informations après consensus. Les résultats et discussions sont structurés autour de quatre thèmes dont : ➢ Le premier fait état des ressources communautaires ; ➢ La seconde traite du cadre organisationnel ; ➢ Le troisième concerne les réseaux d'information ; ➢ Le quatrième reflète la vision du futur du village.Les principales ressources actuelles du village de Kiéché sont les terres agricoles, les aires de pâturage, le réseau routier, les infrastructures scolaires et sanitaires et le magasin de vivres. Les terres agricoles sont localisées autour des villages. Il ressort que ces terres sont pauvres, dégradées et leur superficie ont rétrécies en raison respectivement de l'absence de mise en jachère et la surpopulation. Cette dégradation réduit la production agricole, exposant les ménages à une insécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle. L'aire de pâturage (Houroumi) et le couloir de passage des animaux (Bourtali) sont aussi dégradés, entravant l'alimentation des animaux.  Les facteurs de vulnérabilité liés aux aléas climatiques qui impactent sur les ressources de la commune sont liés à la sécheresse, l'inondation, les ennemis de cultures, les maladies animales et les vents violents. Face à ces aléas, la population de Kiéché a développé des stratégies d'adaptation notamment la pratique de la Régénération Naturelle Assistée, des demi-lunes, le Zai, la plantation d'arbres, le maraîchage, l'embouche, l'élevage des petits ruminants et la volaille, l'exode rural et le petit commerce. Aussi, pour lutter contre la dégradation des infrastructures, les producteurs font recours aux travaux communautaires (remblayage, diguettes, etc…) avec l'appui des projets de développement.Selon les deux groupes, tout le village est exposé à la sècheresse et plus de la moitié de la population est sensible à ce facteur. Les producteurs sont moins sensibles à l'inondation comparée aux effets causés par les ennemies de cultures et les maladies. Les femmes soulignent que toute la population est au même degré d'exposition aux facteurs de vulnérabilité comme l'inondation, les vents violents mais la sensibilité est liée au type de champs et d'habitat. Les travaux de recherche de l'Alliance Bioversity et CIAT à travers le programme TARSPro vont aider le village de Kiéché à sortir de l'insécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle en les dotant de semences améliorées, d'un système d'irrigation, de bonnes pratiques d'alimentation et de santé animale. De plus, l'alliance peut renforcer les capacités des productrices dans la transformation des produits agro-pastoraux.Il a été demandé au groupe des hommes de lister et de classer les organisations qui interviennent dans le village. Ainsi, dix -huit organisations ont été répertoriées et classées selon un ordre d'importance dans le village pour les hommes. Les cinq premières organisations ont été classées par les hommes à cause de la nature de leur intervention. Elles contribuent toutes au renforcement de la résilience de la population et de leur bien-être. Les 5 organisations choisies par les hommes sont dans leur grande majorité formelle, car possédant un agrément et tout producteur peut en être membre, s'il le désire.   Plusieurs organisations apportent leurs aides aux producteurs de Kiéché, notamment l'approvisionnement en vivres et médicaments, la vente à prix modéré des aliments (humains et animaux) et les renforcements des capacités/formation (production agricole, transformation, nutrition humaine et animale). L'intervention de ces structures contribue à améliorer les conditions de vie de la population.C. Cadre organisationnel (situations de crise alimentaire) A l'endroit des producteurs Les hommes et les femmes n'ont pas noté de différences particulières par rapport à la gestion de la crise alimentaire. Elles ont identifié les mêmes acteurs pour la sécurité et la crise alimentaire. Plusieurs liens ont été établis et concernent les activités génératrices de revenus, la distribution de semences et vivres, la vente à prix modéré des céréales et le renforcement des capacités. Le potentiel partenariat peut être développé avec ces organisations locales.• Bada mamaki • Haddin Kay Matassa • Haddin kay noma rani • Kuzari Ces Organisations bénéficient des appuis des projets et ONG qui travaillent dans le secteur rural et la sécurité alimentaire. Toutes les organisations locales précitées ont besoins de renforcement de capacité pour l'accroissement de la production agricole (maraichage et cultures vivrières), pastorale et la transformation des produits agricoles.Les producteurs de kiéché souhaitent être formés sur les techniques culturales des nouvelles variétés, la fertilisation des sols et la gestion des stocks, les échanges sur WhatsApp, les débats radios sur des sujets d'actualités. Cette étude de base communautaire montre, que le village de Kiéché dispose de plusieurs ressources naturelles (terres agricoles ; espaces pastoraux ; infrastructures ; réseau routier, site maraîcher). Les 2 premières ressources, à savoir, les terres agricoles et les espaces pastoraux, qui dans leur état antérieur (plus de 10 ans) étaient respectivement, fertiles, productives, riches en pâturage et en espèces fourragères diversifiées sont actuellement lessivées, pauvres, érodés et envahis par des espèces non appétées. Les changements observés sur ces ressources, qui sont les mêmes évoqués par les hommes et les femmes du village de Kiéché, s'expliquent en partie, par une surexploitation à laquelle s'ajoutent les effets néfastes de la variabilité et du changement climatique (sécheresse, vents violents, fortes pluies, inondations, ennemis de cultures, maladies animales).Des propositions de solutions à l'état actuel de ces ressources naturelles, qui a pour conséquences entre autres, les mauvaises productions agricoles récurrentes, la malnutrition, et la perte des pâturages, sont exprimées dans une partie de la vision du futur du village, formulées par les hommes et les femmes de Kiéché à savoir, avoir des champs et des aires de pâturage fertiles et productives. Sur le plan organisationnel, le village de Kiéché dispose de 44 organisations locales qui interviennent pour la plupart dans le secteur agricole, dans les services sociaux de base, les AGR et le renforcement des capacités. Le village bénéficie de l'appui des partenaires au développement, nationaux et internationaux. Plusieurs réseaux permettent les échanges d'information entre les acteurs locaux notamment les média, les individus, les organisations et les services techniques d'encadrement pour une meilleure conduite des activités de production.Les échanges avec les acteurs au cours de la mission de terrain, nous permettent de formuler les recommandations suivantes : Soutenir les groupements des hommes et des femmes. Une des préoccupations spécifiques du village de Kiéché est la pauvreté des terres de culture et des espaces pastoraux, à partir desquels, la communauté villageoise tire ses moyens d'existence. En effet, les mauvaises productions et l'insécurité alimentaire récurrente sont des corollaires de cette pauvreté du substrat productif qui est le sol. Par conséquent, la Recherche agronomique et l'alliance Bioversity doivent apporter leurs appuis aux groupements et associations de producteurs en vie associative, en promouvant des technologies d'agriculture intelligente face au climat, qui permettront de restaurer les terres en relevant leur fertilité, en vue d'améliorer la productivité.  Appuyer les services techniques et les réseaux d'information. Les services techniques, les médias et les organisations, constituent un réseau par lequel, les producteurs et les productrices reçoivent des conseils et des informations, relatifs à la bonne conduite de leurs activités de productions. Il est alors nécessaire, que l'alliance et la recherche renforcent la capacité des membres de ce réseau dans le domaine des connaissances en changement climatique, en Agriculture Intelligente face au Climat (AIC) et en transformation des produits agro-pastoraux.  Mettre en place un dispositif de suivi des actions sur le terrain. Initier des actions de développement avec les partenaires au développement qui interviennent dans le village. Ces actions doivent être mises en place avec toutes les parties prenantes. La recherche, l'alliance et le CORAF doivent initier des actions de synergie entre les différents partenaires du village.","tokenCount":"2853"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c4e57eeb57a89cf14bc23e2b7bebf026","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42318191-f93d-40d1-bc1c-23c29e4b1ebd/retrieve","id":"-1131171232"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe33ec8c-2ee8-4a0a-b5fc-cfef3e2af73d","pagecount":"38","content":"Transforming traditional smallholder cow milk production systems in Ethiopia: Ex-ante evaluation  Table 1. Baseline initial cattle herd size and structure for the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 2. Stage specific demographic rates used in calibrating cattle herd projection matrices for the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 3. Lefkovitch sex-structured population projection matrices for cattle herd in the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 4. Baseline stable stage distribution (w), stage specific reproductive values (v) and annual long-term population multiplication rate for the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 5. Sensitivity and elasticity matrices from Lefkovitch stage-structured population projection matrix for the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 6. Steady-state stable stage distribution (w) and stage specific reproductive values (v) for the MRD traditional cattle production system Table 7. Steady state milk production and cumulative and annualized present value of gross margins by different cattle production systems in Ethiopia Table 8. Baseline initial cattle herd size and structure for the MRS traditional cattle production system Table 9. Stage specific demographic rates used in calibrating cattle herd projection matrices for the MRS traditional cattle production system Table 10. Lefkovitch stage-structured population projection matrices for cattle herd in MRS traditional cattle production system Table 11. Baseline stable stage distribution (w) and stage specific reproductive values (v) and annual long-term population multiplication rate for the MRS traditional cattle production system Table 12. Sensitivity and elasticity matrices from Lefkovitch stage-structured population projection matrix for the MRS traditional cattle production system Table 13. Steady-state stable stage distribution (w) and stage specific reproductive values (v) for the MRS traditional cattle production system Table 14. Steady state milk production and cumulative and annualized present value of gross margins by different cattle production systems in Ethiopia Table 15. Beef production from dairy system by traditional cattle production systems in Ethiopia Table 16. Projected national production, consumption, and production and consumption balances of cow milk with and without combined investment interventions in Ethiopia 2028 Table 17. Returns to AI and estrous synchronization in traditional cattle production systems in Ethiopia (2013-32) Table 18. Household level estimates of discounted annual incremental benefits and costs due to combined investments interventions in dairy cattle health, nutrition, AI and estrous synchronization service in mixed crop-livestock cattle production systems in Ethiopia In the context of developing countries like Ethiopia, the potential economic and social advantages of market-oriented smallholder dairying in improving the livelihoods of farm households and its multiplier effects on other sectors of the economy are well known (Walshe et al. 1991;Hemme et al. 2003;Bennet et al. 2006). First, it generates income for the farm households on a regular basis which can be used for different purposes, e.g. purchase of goods for household consumption, payment of school fees and medical expenses. Income generated from the sale of milk can also be used for financing productive investments in other farm or non-farm activities. Second, milk from dairy production provides a highly nutritious food for people of all age groups, particularly for infants and lactating mothers, thus reducing the problem of malnutrition among rural and urban households. Third, value adding activities, such as the processing, marketing and distribution of dairy and dairy products create employment opportunities in rural and urban areas. It is also argued that in situations where the arable land is shrinking and where there is high population density, dairy farming may be one of the few agricultural activities that can support viable smallholder farming (Staal et al. 1997). There are also several other intermediate products attached to livestock ownership and production, such as organic fertilizer (manure) for crop production, and socioeconomic functions such as storage of wealth, risk mitigation, and display of social status (Moll et al. 2007).Meanwhile, milk consumption is growing at a rapid pace in Ethiopia; producer and consumer prices are high by international standards, making investment in dairy a potentially lucrative business opportunity. Increasing demand for dairy products can be expected to continue due to increasing urbanization, population growth, emergence and expansion of supermarkets, cafés and restaurants, and growth in western-style dietary habits requiring dairy and dairy products as major food ingredients. However, a key question is whether a smallholder farmers will be able to seize these emerging market opportunities given their current production and marketing methods.The agro-ecology of Ethiopia is also very conducive to dairy production and milk is produced in all livestock producing areas: lowland grazing (LG) system, and moisture deficient (MRD) and moisture sufficient (MRS) mixed crop livestock production systems, as well as in specialized commercial dairy units (SP). Approximately 77% of the milk produced in Ethiopia comes from cows, while 20% comes from camels and 3% from goats (Livestock Sector Analysis (LSA) results). The majority of marketed dairy products also come from cow milk that has been processed into butter or cottage cheese-ayib (46% of the total production). Liquid milk is sold raw or pasteurized and transformed into other dairy products-54% (LSA results). Relatively large quantities of camel milk are also marketed and exported, (reportedly 100,000 litres /day), while most goat milk is consumed at household level. Due to the availability of proven technologies aimed at improving the productivity of dairy cows and the large scope for impact on producers (since there are approximately 9.5 million cattle-keeping households), cow milk has been identified as a high potential investment.Milk production in the traditional mixed crop-livestock production system is based on three-five low productivity indigenous dairy cows, limited communal and/or private grazing areas and the use of crop residues and stubbles as major sources of dairy cows feeds. Most milk production from the smallholder production system is also processed and consumed on-farm. The milk from this system is marketed mainly through the informal markets. On the other hand, the pastoral production system is based on extensive communal grazing, while agro-pastoralists are characterized by a combination of both pastoral and mixed crop-livestock production systems.Both the traditional pastoral and sedentary livestock production systems can be characterized as smallscale, low-input and not commercially oriented, with very little or no vertical integration. The other common features of these two cattle production systems is that livestock producers keep different livestock species for multiple uses, although milk is one of the major products obtained. Peri-urban and urban small dairy producers meanwhile rely on purchased feed inputs, improved dairy cow breeders, and are commercially oriented. Meanwhile, the modern specialized commercial dairy production system in Ethiopia is at an early stage of its development and accounts for very small amount of milk (less than 10%) produced in the country.The current level of dairy cow productivity in Ethiopia is very low. For example, the national milk yield for an indigenous dairy cow is estimated at 1.4 litres/cow per day and has shown very little improvement over the last several years. The average national lactation length is six months. The traditional dairy cattle system is also characterized by low reproductive performance, such as long calving intervals, low conception rates and long open periods. In general, the low levels of dairy cattle productivity and reproductive performance, but proven high potential of crossbred dairy cows indicates there is potential for investment in dairy development in order to increase the quantity and quality of milk marketed and to increase farm household incomes. Presently, the traditional dairy herd management system is not supported by the introduction of improved breeding and feeding systems and the local breeds are not differentiated and improved for particular purposes, resulting in low productivity and offtake (Hurissa and Eshetu 2003). This indicates there is scope for production and productivity increases from the current levels through investment interventions: combined improvements in animal feeding, health and genetics and management practices.The overall objective of this paper is to develop and apply an analytical and empirical modelling framework which integrates a cattle herd growth model with economic model for ex-ante assessment of the financial profitability of investment interventions to improve cow milk production in traditional mixed crop-livestock production systems in Ethiopia. The specific objectives are: 1.To provide baseline characterization of cattle herd demographics and productivity parameters, and herd growth dynamics over time in terms of cattle herd growth rates, size and structure, and milk offtake rates for representative traditional cow milk production systems and cattle herd size classes;Analyse the potential for transforming traditional smallholder milk-meat livestock systems to improve family dairy systems for commercially-oriented milk production; and 3.To evaluate ex-ante the technical and financial impacts of combined investment interventions in cattle health, feeds, artificial insemination (AI) and oestrus synchronization, and dairy genetic improvement in traditional mixed crop-livestock production systems.This paper is organized as follows. The next section provides a brief description of the data used in the analysis. Section 3 presents the analytical framework guiding the empirical analysis. The empirical model is presented in section 4, while section 5 presents the results and discussions. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations are made in section 6.The detailed discussion of the data sources used in this analysis is documented in the livestock sector analysis report for Ethiopia (LSA, forthcoming 2016). The data has been obtained from different secondary sources. First, the initial cattle herd size and structure data is generated from the Living Standard Measurement Survey (LSMS) data conducted in 2010/11 jointly by the World Bank and the Central Statistical Authority (CSA) of Ethiopia (LSMS 2010/11) and from a survey carried out by Save the Children UK in pastoral areas of Ethiopia. Second, the cattle productivity and demographic data (for example, fertility rates, mortality rates and offtake rates) used to generate parameters for various cattle herd characteristics projections was collected using the Delphi technique which involved the use of structured questionnaire to collect technical data from the national and international livestock experts. The data collected using the Delphi method was validated through meetings of and discussions with panels of experts. Third, the costs of production for different livestock enterprises and the prices for valuation of livestock and livestock products were also obtained from the expert interviews and secondary sources based on market surveys. This study is limited to or focuses on the improvement of cow milk production from the traditional mixed crop and livestock production systems which account for most of the cattle population and livestock-dependent human population.There is a growing trend towards intensive specialized commercial dairy cattle production systems, but the scale is still not significant.The analytical framework for Livestock Sector Investment Policy Toolkit (LSIPT) is based on dynamic bio-economic simulation modelling. A non-stochastic dynamic herd model is used for the projection of the livestock population and livestock products (meat, milk, manure and animal traction) over a given time period and for a given production system. The model allows for the simulation of cattle production outputs given inputs used in cattle production. The main focus is on increasing cow milk from traditional cattle production system even though milk is jointly produced with other products like live cattle, meat, manure and then, the herd model is linked with an economic model to allow for the evaluation of financial profitability of dairy cattle production over the same time period. The simulation analysis allows for the assessment of the technical and financial performance of the cattle sub-sector over time given the inputs used, the existing technologies, market conditions and policies facing the sub-sector. The analysis is conducted at herd level but the results of the simulation analysis can be aggregated to different levels: production system level, at regional and national levels. The baseline assessment provides a counterfactual scenario ('without' intervention) against which new dairy cattle sub-sector interventions can be evaluated. Thus, it provides the basis for ex-ante impact assessments and benefit-cost analyses of various proposed interventions aimed at enhancing the contribution of the cattle subsector to farm household income growth, food security, poverty alleviation and national economic growth.4.1 Stage-structured cattle herd projection matrix modelThe population projection matrices are based on Leslie (1945); Caswell (1989); Caswell (2001). Recent applications of population projection matrices to the study of livestock population growth dynamics include: Lesnoff (1999); Lesnoff (2000); Lesnoff et al. (2009); Lesnoff et al. (2012). In general, there are two types of population projection matrices which are widely used in analysing livestock and plant population growth dynamics over time. The first matrix model is called the Leslie population projection matrix model which classifies the livestock population by age, hence an age-structured matrix model (Leslie 1945). The second matrix model is called the Lefkovitch population projection matrix model which classifies livestock population by their stage of growth or life cycle and hence is called the stage-structured population projection matrix model (Lefkovitch 1965). Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. The Leslie matrix is considered to be data intensive (for example, requires age specific demographic data) and mathematically more demanding (due to higher dimensions of matrices) as compared to the stagestructured Lefkovitch matrix model. In terms of application also, the stage-structured matrix is more practical, for example, as the utilizations of cattle for different purposes are mainly based on stages of growth (age ranges) rather than age-specific per se. Both matrix models project the population in t+1 time period using the initial population at t time period and annual transition parameters. For both population projection matrices, the availabilities of reliable demographic data (e.g. fecundity rates and mortality rates) is critical for the accuracy of the prediction of livestock and livestock products. In this paper, the Lefkovitch sex and stage-structured population projection matrix model is used due to its relative simplicity and realistic characterization of cattle growth stages.In a Lefkovitch stage-structured cattle population projection matrix model, the structure of the cattle herd is defined in terms of animal numbers in different age classes and sex cohorts. Thus, the female and male cattle are divided into three discrete growth stages based on age: juvenile, sub-adult and adult. For both sexes, the stage duration for juvenile is one year and for sub-adults and adults the stage of duration varies. In general, the stage durations for sub-adults and adult cattle are assumed to be different by sex of cattle and by production system analysed. The projection interval, or time step used for the projection is one year and the overall cattle population projection time horizon is 20 years. The herd growth model is run by different cattle herd size classes and for representative cattle production systems to see the effects of cattle herd size and production system on cattle herd growth dynamics.Mathematically, the stage-structured deterministic 1 (non-stochastic) population projection matrix model for the analysis of cattle herd growth dynamics considered here is given as a discrete time first-order difference equation:(1)Where n t+1 denotes the 6x1 state vector of cattle herd sizes by sex and by stage of cattle growth at a time t+1; n t is a 6x1 state vector of cattle herd size by sex and stage of cattle growth at time t; and A is a square 6x6 Lefkovitch annual stage-structured population projection matrix used to analyse cattle population dynamics in discrete time (Lefkovitch 1965). The A matrix is used to generate a new state variable or vector n t+1 and contains the annual transition probabilities derived based on annual demographic rates (annual fecundity rates, annual mortality rates and annual offtake rates). In general, the Lefkovitch population projection matrix A is a generalization of the Leslie age-structured matrix and is given as:(2)where F a is the fecundity of adult female cattle which is the product of annual parturition rate and net prolificacy rate, the subscripts j, s and a denote juvenile, sub-adult and adult cattle, respectively irrespective of the sex of the cattle and G i,j is the probability that cattle of a given sex in stage i will enter the next stage j (j=i+1) in the next time period; and P i,i denotes the probability of an individual cattle of a given sex surviving and remaining (or persisting) in the same stage i. The structure and formulation of Leslie and Lefkovitch matrices are similar but the difference is in terms of the columns and matrix entries. In the case of Leslie matrix, the columns of matrix A represent the age of cattle or an animal, while in the case of Lefkovitch matrix the column represents the different stages of growth. The other difference between the two is that the matrix entries in the case of Leslie matrix is given in terms of fecundities in the first row which indicate the reproductive contribution for different cattle growth stages and survival probabilities (p i ) across the diagonals of the matrix. On the other hand, in the case of Lefkovitch matrix, the fecundities are given in the first row, but the survival probabilities are broken down into two: the probability of an individual surviving and moving from class i to the stage j (G i,j ) and the probability of an individual surviving and remaining (or persisting) in the same stage i (P i,i ).Given the duration of cattle in each stage (d i ) and the stage-specific survival probabilities, the matrix A entries for G i and P i are computed using the following formulas (Crouse et al. 1987):(3)where p i is the annual survival rate computed below following Lesnoff (2000) based on sex and stage specific demographic rates: annual mortality rate (m i ) and sex-stage specific annual offtake rate (o i ). The survival probability is given as follows:(5) Equation ( 5) indicates a self-recruiting herd growth model or endogenous population dynamics model where animals are not imported from outside the population for accelerating growth (Lesnoff 2012). Thus, the cattle demographic behaviour is assumed to be influenced mainly by mortality and commercial offtake rates only. Finally, the first order difference equation (1) can be given in vectors and matrix representations as follows:Where the subscripts in the A matrix denote the stages of cattle growth in i and i+1 and the multiplication of the fecundity rate by 0.5 is to indicate the 1:1 female to male ratio at birth assumed in the model. Note that the matrix A is divided into sex-stage specific blocks as indicated by the horizontal line, the entries in the upper block are for the female cattle, while the entries in the lower blocks are for the male cattle. The basic assumption of the above transition matrix is that only adult females can produce newborn calves, hence female dominant matrix model (Lesnoff 1999).Once the transition matrix A is set-up, the next step in the analysis of cattle herd dynamics is to find out the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the population projection matrix A. This is because several important parameters which characterize the cattle herd dynamics emerge from the eigenvalue and eigenvector analyses of the transition matrix A. First, the dominant eigenvalue (λ) of matrix A represents the finite (asymptotic) cattle population multiplication rate, while log (λ) gives intrinsic annual growth rate which is the continuous growth rate per individual cattle in the population. Thus, in the long-run the cattle population follows exponential growth rate given by log (λ) or:Since A is 6X6 square matrix, there are six possible eigenvalues and six associated eigenvectors with matrix A. However, the annual rate of increase of population is given by the dominant eigenvalue. The eigenvalues are defined as the solutions to the characteristic equation:where det denotes determinant and I is an identity matrix. The sign of λ indicates whether the herd size (or population) is declining (λ <1), the cattle herd size is staying constant (λ=1), or the cattle herd size is increasing (λ >1) in the long-run. For example, λ equal to 1.2 means population will increase by 20% per year and λ equal to 0.93 means the population will decrease by 7% per year over the long-run. Second, the normalized eigenvector (w) associated with the dominant eigenvalue gives the stable stage-structured proportion for cattle herd size. Third, the standardized eigenvectors (v) associated with the dominant eigenvalue of the transpose of matrix A provide the reproductive values of different stages of cattle production as compared to the juvenile, this measures the relative contributions of different stages of cattle growth to the long-term growth in cattle herd size.It is also important to note that several important simplifications of the presentation of the projection matrix model can be made once the dominant eigenvalue and the associated eigenvector are determined. These simplifications are useful for projection purposes. First, there is equivalence between the transition matrix and the dominant eigenvalue and as a result the following relationship holds at equilibrium:From equation ( 10) it follows that A is equivalent to λ and the cattle projection equation ( 1) can be alternatively given as:(11)For T large, λ is also approximated by annual empirical multiplication rate given as the ratio of N t+1 to N t where N represents total cattle herd size for all age and sex classes at a given time. Equation ( 1) can be also generalized to give the cattle projection model at any time t given the initial herd size and stable herd proportion as:(12)Where n t is a vector of cattle population at time t; n 0 is scalar and denotes the initial cattle herd size; λ is the dominant eigenvalue and w is the normalized eigenvector associated with the dominant eigenvalue and denotes stable stage population proportions. Similarly, given the stable sex and stage distribution, and asymptotic cattle growth rate, the total commercial live cattle offtake for cattle with i th sex in j th growth stage at any time t denoted as O ij,t can be obtained using the following commercial offtake function:(13)Where O ij,t is a vector of commercial offtake of the i th sex in j th growth stage at t time. The total carcass equivalent commercial live cattle offtake at a given time period is given by aggregating the carcass offtake rates across sex and stage classes. This shows the quantity of commercial offtake with constant cattle growth rate and stable stagestructure w. Similarly, the milk and other products are obtained using appropriate offtake rates for each product.It is also possible to compute the steady-state commercial offtake which is characterized by the equilibrium situation where the growth rate is zero. The simulation analysis to see the effects of different interventions is usually conducted for steady state situation to avoid bias due to change in cattle herd size and structure. For steady-state situation since λ is equal to 1, the cattle herd projection model given in equation ( 11) is modified as:(14)and accordingly the commercial offtake function can be also modified as:(15)The steady state offtake is a constant, while the cattle herd size or population remains constant over time. This is a desirable management strategy whereby a regular offtake is made thereby producing regular income and returning cattle population to stable size and structure. This is important particularly when there is a need to limit the size of cattle population due to the need to matching the livestock numbers to available feed resources. This objective is achieved through numerical manipulation of the transition matrix whereby the λ is equated to 1 and the offtake rates are choice variables selected using non-linear optimization technique.One of the important goals of the analysis of cattle herd growth dynamics is to determine what stages and what demographic rates are most likely causing the increase or decrease in the cattle herd. This is important because resources are limited so priority areas of development and research interventions need to be identified. For this purpose, sensitivity and elasticity analyses are made in order to assess the impacts of changes in cattle demographic factors (reproductive rates and mortality rates) on long-term cattle growth rate (λ). The sensitivity is calculated from the elements of the right and left eigenvectors (w and v, respectively) as follows (de Kroon et al. 1986):(16Where v is the left eigenvector associated with A, and <w, v> is the scalar product of vectors w and v. The sensitivity analysis estimates the impact of an absolute change in the demographic rates on population growth rate.High sensitivity values indicate that little intervention could have large impact in cattle population growth. However,the problem with the sensitivity analysis is that the values of sensitivity analysis cannot be compared among different demographic parameters when different scales or units are used. Therefore, instead, the unit-free elasticity is calculated from the elements of the transition matrix (a ij ) in A, the population growth rate, and the elements of the right and left eigenvectors (w i and v i ) as follows:(17)where is the scalar product of the two vectors defined as before. The elasticity analysis estimates the effect of a proportional change in the demographic rates on population growth rates. Elasticities are unitless, representing a proportional contribution to λ and are often considered easier to interpret than sensitivities, particularly, when the matrix elements are measured in different units or operate on different scales (e.g. survival rates and fecundity rates) (de Kroon et al. 1986).Since the elasticities are proportions they all sum to one and this property allows us to assess the proportional contribution of each matrix element to λ. For each column of the matrix A, which corresponds to the individual stage, the elasticity values across the rows can be summed to assess how the different stages in cattle production contribute to the cattle growth rate. Similarly, for each row, the sum of elasticity can be made across the columns to assess the relative contribution of the different demographic rates to the cattle growth rate (for example, fecundity rates and mortality rates). Thus, the analysis of the elasticity helps identify the stage where the smallest changes in demographic rates will produce the biggest change in the population growth rate and hence this helps prioritize intervention efforts. Different scenario analyses can also be conducted to take into account the degree of uncertainty and/or variation in the input parameters in the projection matrix. For scenario analysis different values for demographic rates can be used to reflect uncertainty and variation. It is also important to note that the asymptotic multiplication rate of all or part of the population depends on the female demographic rates hence female dominant herd model (Lesnoff 1999).It is indicated that the male demographic rate affects the sex-ratio in the population and the age structure of the male cattle herd only.The cattle herd projection model used here allows to estimate various outputs from the cattle production over time; commercial offtake of live cattle (and its meat equivalents), milk, manure and draft power production by different classes of cattle, herd sizes and production systems. In order to measure the productivity, feed requirements and output, the special case of a steady state (or zero growth) herd, achieved by adjustment of the offtake rates is used. This is particularly important to obtain unbiased estimate of treatment effects. The steady-state is obtained by reparameterization of the population projection matrix A such that the dominant eigenvalue of the re-parameterized matrix A is equal to 1. The parameterizing is done by changing the offtake rate numerically.The economic model to analyse the financial profitability of traditional dairy cattle production system 'with' and 'without' policy and investment interventions to increase cow milk production is based on a capital budgeting approach. This approach requires a stream of costs and benefits to be reduced to a comparable present worth using the process of discounting as outlined in Gittinger (1982).The financial viability of traditional dairy cattle production 'without' intervention is assessed by cattle herd size classes and production systems using the present value (PV) of annual gross margins (GM) generated from cattle production over the time horizon of 20 years. The GM is given as the difference between the total revenue (TR t ) of multiple outputs (meat, milk, manure, or draft power depending on the cattle production system considered) generated from cattle enterprise and variable costs (VC t ) associated with traditional cattle production for stable dairy cattle herd size and structure. The major variable costs include: costs of veterinary drugs, medicine and mineral supplements. The cattle management affects the reproduction and mortality rates which in turn affects the performance of cattle in different production systems by affecting the rate of cattle herd growth and potential offtake rates (meat, milk, manure and draft power). The herd growth model is linked to the economic model whereby the offtakes from the herd growth model are monetized.Mathematically, the present value of the gross margin (PVGM) for a given herd size class is given as:18where T is the assumed relevant planning time horizon in years; δ is the discount rate (10% assumed); GM t is the annual gross margin accrued in period t. The GM represents return to the farm household's labour, land and capital in cattle production and is a farm gate measure of the gross domestic product (GDP) for cattle. In general, the higher the PVGM the better. Furthermore, if the availability of data allows, the net profit for cattle production can be obtained as the difference between the GM and the fixed costs. The net profit indicates the extent to which the cattle producers are earning normal or excess profit and thus reflects the level of competition and risk existing in the cattle sub-sector. However, due to lack of data on the fixed costs for individual farm households it was not possible to compute the net farm income or net profits for the cattle production systems.The life cycle of livestock production is different by livestock species and production systems due to the difference in the biology and objectives of the livestock production in different production systems which affect the length or time horizon of the project. In such situations, when project time horizons are different, for comparing the GM for different livestock enterprises or crop enterprises, it is important to analyse the GM in terms of annual equivalent cash flows. Thus, the annualized present value of gross margin (APVGM) is given as:Once the APVGM is derived, it can be combined with the geographic information system (GIS) data and cattle population data to generate the cattle GM at household level for aggregation at different levels. The computed GM could be mapped by assigning it to the mapped cattle population in a given production system or for the country as a whole. This approach allows us to assess the geographic magnitude and distribution of benefits of intervention and to match their level of interventions and expenditures to potential benefits (Thornton and Herrero 2014).The financial feasibility of cattle policy and investment interventions is analysed using a multi-year partial budgeting framework. The partial budgeting implies that only the costs and benefits which differ between the 'with' and the 'without' policy and investment interventions had to be considered. Therefore, the net incremental cash flow (given as a difference between incremental benefits and incremental costs) from the policy and investment interventions over a given planning time horizon (T) is derived and analysed using three principal financial measures: (1) net present value (NPV), (2) benefit cost ratio (BCR), and (3) internal rate of return (IRR).Thus, the net incremental cash flow (CF t ) due to the policy and investment interventions at time t is mathematically given as:(20)where and are the monetary benefits of the 'with' and 'without' interventions, respectively and and are the costs for the 'with' and 'without' interventions, respectively. Then, the present value (PV) of net incremental cash flows from the policy and investment interventions over a T-year planning time horizon is given as: (21) where δ is the discount rate (assumed to be 10%); I 0 is the initial investment cost to be realized over the period t=0; and other variables are defined as before. The NPV provides a basis on which to determine whether the return on a project will be positive or negative and with which to compare different potential projects. As a rule, projects with positive NPVs are accepted.The annualized present value of incremental net benefit (ANPV) from the 'with' policy and investment intervention for a given herd class in a given production system is given as follows:(22Where PV is the present value of the net incremental cash flow and the other variables are as defined as before. The productivity impact of the intervention is also assessed in terms of annual incremental net benefit generated per individual cattle and incremental net per capita income.In addition, the benefit cost ratios (BCR s ) and the internal rate of returns (IRR s ) are also calculated for the incremental benefits and costs from the interventions. The BCR measures the total financial return for each money invested in cattle production and provides a measure of the efficiency with which the limited funds are utilized to generate the realized benefits. The BCR criterion measures the effectiveness of investment and is very important in a situation where several projects are competing for the same limited funds. Based on the BCR investment criterion, it is advisable to invest if the BCR is greater than 1 and the priority is given for the project with the higher or highest BCR. The BCR is given by the following formula:Finally, the IRR of the net incremental cash flow for the 'with' intervention situation is obtained. The IRR is a discount rate that, when applied to the future streams of project costs and benefits, produces a NPV of zero. It expresses the returns to the investment in the project as an interest rate. It therefore permits the comparison of the returns to investment in the current project with the returns to investment in other possible projects or to simply investing the funds in an interest-earning bank account. Then, in order to make an investment decision, the value of IRR is compared with the cost of capital. For example, the value of IRR greater than the current lending rate indicates that the investment is profitable. In other words, the investment must satisfy the condition that IRR is greater than δ to justify the initial investment interventions. This indicates that the degree to which the return to a livestock investment intervention is comparable to returns to alternative investment options elsewhere and hence competes for the available funds. Mathematically, the IRR is expressed as: (24) where CF t is the net incremental cash flow at time t and IRR is the internal rate of return. The idea is to solve equation ( 24) for the IRR. The impact of policy and investment interventions in traditional dairy cattle systems to improve cow milk production is also assessed in terms of the extent to which it contributes towards closing the growing future productionconsumption gap for cow milk in Ethiopia. The computation of current and projected cow milk production is made using the deterministic 20-year herd growth model as discussed in section 3. On the other hand, the computation of current and projected cow milk consumption requirements is made using available information on income elasticity of demand for cow milk, growth in real per capita GDP and human population. Thus, the projected per capita consumption of milk is given as:where C t is the projected per capita cow milk consumption for a given year t; C 0 is a baseline per capita consumption of cow milk; η is the income elasticity of demand for cow milk; and γ is the trend annual growth rate of real per capita GDP. Then, the projected total consumption of milk for future time period t (TC t ) is obtained by multiplying the projected per capita consumption with the projected population (POP t ) for that given period of time: (26) In this projection, the human population projection is based on CSA population projection for medium variant population growth scenario for Ethiopia. Thus, the annual trend growth rate for real per capita GDP is obtained by taking the difference between the average GDP and population growth rates over the last seven years . The income elasticity estimates used in the projections of milk consumption are based on estimates, by International Food Policy Research Institute, derived from household income, consumption and expenditure survey data for 2004/05 (Tafere et al. 2012). The income elasticity estimate for beef and dairy products (including milk) is 0.939 and 0.420, respectively (Tafere et al. 2012).Transformation of the MRD crop-livestock production system Parameterization of dairy cattle herd growth model Baseline cattle herd size and structure For the MRD system, two representative cattle production systems are considered: small and medium size herd MRD. The baseline or initial cattle herd size and structure for the MRD production system used in calibrating the cattle herd projection matrices is given in Table 1. In general, the observed cattle herd sizes are very small in the MRD. The average cattle herd size for small herd MRD is two, while the average cattle herd size for medium MRD is six heads of cattle. The structure of cattle herd is analysed at two levels: globally and by sex. The female cattle in small herd size accounts for 56%, while the male account for about 44% of the cattle herd. In in the case of medium herd, the proportion of female cattle herd is 54% and the female adult cattle are dominant classes of cattle for the MRD production system. Furthermore, the adult classes are the dominant classes of cattle accounting for more than 65% of cattle herd in both systems. This structure indicates the importance of cattle reproduction (replacement of oxen and cows) and for draft power and milk production in the traditional cattle production system. The detailed initial sage-specific demographic rates used in calibrating cattle herd projection matrices for the MRD production system are given in Table 2. The cattle demographic rates varied by sex, stage of growth and production systems. It is interesting to note that the observed mortality rates are higher for younger cattle as compared to older or mature cattle. Due to the lack of data, similar levels of live cattle commercial offtake rates are assumed for all MRD production systems. The initial assumed annual survival rate is also similar across different production systems because of the assumed similar levels of annual mortality rates and annual offtake rates. The observed annual fecundity rate among the reproductive female cows is considered to be very low and estimated at about 51% and 52% for small and medium herds, respectively. The annual Lefkovitch stage-structured population projection matrices for cattle herds in the MRD production system are given in Table 3. The population projection matrices are derived using the demographic rates given in Table 2.The matrix is applied to initial cattle herd to provide cattle herd growth dynamics over time. The parameters of population projection matrix determines whether the cattle herd is declining, held constant or growing over time. The parameters also reflect the state of cattle productivity development in the MRD production system and are affected by the changes in policy and investment interventions. Cattle herd growth rates, stable stage distributions and stage-specific reproductive valuesThe baseline stable stage distribution, stage-specific reproductive values and annual long-term cattle population multiplication rates for the MRD production system are given in Table 4. The projection of the number of animals for different classes of cattle for small herd and medium herd are given in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. In general, there is upward trend in number of animals for all cattle types. It is observed that under the baseline scenario, the long-run cattle multiplication rate for the MRD production system is 1.04 which implies a 4% annual growth rate in cattle herd.  In the case of small size cattle herd, the stable stage distribution associated with this constant cattle growth rate is 8%, 12%, 33%, 8%, 11%, and 27% for juvenile female, sub-adult female, adult female, juvenile male, sub-adult male and adult male cattle, respectively. Similar to initial stage structure, the stable stage distribution is also dominated by female cattle, especially adult females. It is also observed that the adult females contribute most to the cattle reproduction followed by sub-adult females. Similar stable stage distribution and stage-specific reproductive values are observed for medium size herd MRD production systems. The results of sensitivity and elasticity analyses for the MRD production system are given in Table 5. The elasticity analysis shows that the long-term cattle population growth rate is most elastic to the probability that an adult female survives and persists as an adult. The adult female survival contributes about 61% to the cattle herd growth. The annual population growth rate is second most elastic to the probability that sub-adult female survives and stays as a sub-adult. Specifically, a 1% increase in sub-adult survivorship results in about 18% increase in annual multiplication rate. In terms of stages of growth, it is also interesting to note that young female cattle, sub-adult and adult stage contribute 10%, 19%, and 71%, respectively, to cattle herd growth. Furthermore, it is also important to note that the female cattle fertility contributes only 10%, while the annual survival rate contributes about 89% to the cattle herd growth rate. Thus, under the baseline scenario, it is more important to reduce mortality rate than improving the fertility rate of cattle in order to increase cattle growth in MRD production systems. The steady-state stage distribution and stage-specific reproductive values for the MRD production system are given in Table 6. The steady state cattle production is obtained by numerically adjusting the commercial offtake rates by sex and stage of cattle growth. It is to be recalled that the cattle population in the MRD production system is growing under the baseline scenario and, therefore, in order to obtain steady state cattle production there is a need to decrease the cattle herd size by decreasing the cattle classes (sex and stage) which significantly contribute to cattle growth. Thus, the zero cattle growth rate characterizing the steady state is obtained by changing the commercial offtake of female cattle mainly sub-adult and adult female cattle. The annual steady state milk production (litres/herd) by different cattle production system is given in Table 7. The average annual milk production for the small herd size cattle is 108 litres/herd, while for medium herd size cattle the average annual milk production is 335 litres/herd. Thus, the milk production for medium herd size is more than three times of that of small cattle herd. The results of the analysis of financial probability of dairy cattle production at steady state cattle production is given in Table 7. The annualized present value of GM for dairy cattle system per head of cattle is also given in Table 7. The annualized present value of outputs per head for cattle for small herd size MRD is estimated to be ETB7310. In the case of medium size herd MRD, the annualized present value of GM for cattle outputs per head of cattle is ETB7228. Similar levels of productivity are observed for small and medium herd size cattle herds.Parameterization of cattle herd growth modelThe baseline initial cattle herd size and structure for the MRS production system used in calibrating the cattle herd projection matrices is given in Table 8. The observed cattle herd sizes are relatively higher than that of the MRD production system. The average cattle herd size for small herd size MRS is three, while the average cattle herd size for medium MRD is nine heads of cattle. The female cattle in small herd size accounts for 54%, while the male account for about 46% of the cattle herd. The proportion of female in the medium herd is found to be 52%. Similar to other cattle production systems, stage-wise the adult cattle are dominant, while sex-wise the female cattle are dominant in the cattle herd for the MRS production system. However, the level of female cattle dominance is lower for the MRS as compared to other cattle production systems. This might be because of higher draft power requirement for crop production. The detailed initial sage-specific demographic rates used in calibrating dairy cattle herd projection matrices for the MRS production system are given in Table 9. The cattle demographic rates varied by sex, stage of growth and herd size. The level of stage-specific demographic rates assumed in MRS in calibrating the cattle herd projection matrices is similar to the other cattle production systems. In general, it is observed that mortality rates are higher for male cattle as compared to female cattle and for younger cattle as compared to older or mature cattle. The observed annual fecundity rate among the reproductive female cows is considered very low and estimated at about 55% and 59% for small size and medium size herds, respectively. The annual Lefkovitch stage-structured population projection matrices for cattle herds are given in Table 10. The population projection matrices are derived using the demographic rates given in Table 9. The matrix is applied to initial cattle herd to provide cattle herd growth dynamics over time. The parameters of population projection matrix determines whether the cattle herd is declining, held constant or growing over time. The parameters also reflect the state of cattle productivity development and are affected by the changes in policy and investment interventions in the MRS production system. The baseline stable stage distribution, stage-specific reproductive values and annual long-term cattle population multiplication rates for the MRS production system are given in Table 11. The projection of livestock numbers for different classes of cattle in MRS production system are given in Figures 3 and 4. There is upward trend for all cattle types for both small and medium herd size MRS. It is observed that under the baseline scenario, the long-run cattle multiplication rate for small and medium herd size MRS production systems are 1.06 and 1.09, respectively, which imply a 6% and 9% annual cattle growth rate, respectively. The stable stage distribution associated with this constant cattle growth rate for small size herd is 9%, 13%, 34%, 9%, 11%, and 24% for juvenile female, sub-adult female, adult female, juvenile male, sub-adult male and adult male cattle, respectively. The stable stage distribution is also dominated by female cattle especially adult females. It is also observed that the adult female contributes most to the cattle reproductive value followed by sub-adult female. The reproductive value of male cattle is assumed to be zero in this kind of cattle growth modelling. Similar stable stage distribution and stage-specific reproductive values are observed for both small and medium size herd MRS production systems.   The results of sensitivity and elasticity analyses for the MRS production system are given in Table 12. The results of elasticity analyses show that the long-term cattle population growth rate is most elastic to the probability that an adult female survives and persists as an adult. The adult female survival rate contributes more than 59 to 61% to the cattle herd growth in MRS production system. The annual population growth rate is second most elastic to the probability that sub-adult female survives and stays as a sub-adult. For example, a 1% increase in sub-adult survival rate of cattle in MRS production system results in about 17-18% increase in annual multiplication rate. In terms of stages of growth, it is also interesting to note that young female cattle, sub-adult and adult stage contribute 10%, 18%, and 71%, respectively, to cattle herd growth in the small herd MRS production system. Furthermore, it is also important to note that the female cattle fertility contributes only 10-12%, while the annual survivorship contributes about 88-90% to the cattle growth rate. Thus, similar to other cattle production systems, under the baseline scenario, it is more important to reduce mortality rate than improving the fertility of cattle to increase cattle growth in the MRS production system. The steady-state stable stage distribution and stage-specific reproductive values for the MRS production system are given in Table 13. The steady state cattle production is obtained by numerically adjusting the commercial offtake rates by sex and stage of cattle growth. This indicates that in order to obtain steady state cattle production, there is a need to decrease the cattle herd size by decreasing certain types of cattle which significantly contribute to cattle growth. Thus, the zero cattle growth rate is obtained by increasing the commercial offtake of female cattle, mainly sub-adult and adult female cattle. As a result, under steady state the percentage offtake of sub-adult female cattle substantially increased. The annual steady state milk production by different cattle production systems is given in Table 14. The annual average milk production for small and medium size cattle herds are 204 litres/herd and 687 litres/herd, respectively. Note: 1 The time horizon for the projection is 28 years.The results of the analysis of financial probability of dairy cattle production at steady state cattle production is given in Table 14. The annualized present value of GM for dairy cattle production per herd and head of cattle are given in Table 14. The annualized present value of dairy cattle outputs per herd of cattle for the small and medium herd MRS cattle herd is estimated to be ETB27,356 and ETB42,243, respectively. On the other hand, the annualized present value of GM for cattle outputs per head of cattle for small and medium herds is ETB9119 and ETB4694, respectively. The small size cattle herd appears to be more productive.The intervention in the traditional cattle production system increases the cow milk production and also contributes towards beef production from culled cows, sale of male calves and unwanted female calves. The investment in cattle health, nutrition and genetic improvement also increases weight gain for the cattle classes offtaken from the dairy system. The annual steady state beef production by different traditional cattle production system is given in Table 15.In the case of the MRD, the average annual offtake rate for the small cattle herd is 5%, while for the medium cattle herd, the average annual net offtake rate is 12%. In terms of beef production, for the small cattle herd the average annual beef production per cattle herd is 10 kg, while it is 66 kg/herd for the medium size herd. In the case of the MRS, the average annual offtake rate for both small and medium herd size cattle is 8%. In terms of beef production, for the small herd size cattle, the average annual beef production per cattle herd is 30 kg, while it is 100 kg/herd for the medium size cattle herd.Table 15. Beef production from dairy system by traditional cattle production systems in Ethiopia 1Production system Average net offtake rate (%) Average annual beef production from the herd (Kg) 2Average net offtake rate (%) Average annual beef production from the herd (Kg) 2Small herd size 5 10 8 30Medium herd size 12 66 8 100Note: 1 The time horizon for the projection is 28 years. 2 The annual beef production is carcass weight assuming 45 to 50% dressing percentage.The baseline assessment of traditional cattle production systems in Ethiopia, based on the review of literature and expert opinions indicate that there is very high rate of mortality for the cattle reared across the major livestock production systems. The causes of these high rates of mortality are hypothesized to be the higher incidence of livestock diseases, internal and external parasites, and inadequate animal feeding and management practices. The negative impact of such livestock diseases on the household income, food security and national economy is wellestablished.First, for the poor livestock producers, who subsist or survive just on a few animals for living as a source of food, income, means of production and main productive asset, the death of animals due to disease or productivity losses has a tremendous impact on their well-being. Second, livestock diseases also hinder poor smallholder farmers from accessing and competing in domestic and global livestock and livestock product markets. Third, livestock mortality caused due to diseases or other factors reduces the competitiveness of commercially-oriented livestock production through direct economic losses resulting from animal deaths and decreased productivity from morbidity associated with animal diseases and parasites, and inadequate management practices. Fourth, disease affects the national economy by decreasing the foreign exchanges earned from livestock exports by limiting their access to international markets. Finally, important negative externalities of livestock disease include impacts on the health of other producers' livestock and on human health. The indigenous cattle breeds are also characterized by low genetic potential, resulting in low meat and milk yields.The investment interventions to transform the smallholder milk production are simulated for traditional smallholder mixed highland systems (MRS and MRD). The traditional smallholder dairy systems (including those in LG) account for 87% of the total production of cow milk, while the SP commercial dairy system contributes 13% (LSA results). The mixed highland and SP systems have major differences in terms of inputs and livestock breeds used. In the commercial SP dairy system, the breeds are improved exotic and/or crossbreeds and the use of veterinary services is widespread.Feed is mostly purchased and largely made up of concentrates and improved forages. In contrast, the traditional smallholder dairy systems rely on low yielding indigenous cattle breeds, with natural pasture as the main source of feed, and there is very limited availability and use of veterinary services.The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), and other dairy experts, proposed two different combined interventions to enhance cattle and milk production in the highland traditional mixed (MRS and MRD) and the LG systems. We evaluate crossbreeding, using AI and synchronization, for better genetic potential, combined with improved feeding and veterinary services in the highland mixed smallholder systems where sufficient feed base is expected to be able to support the upgraded exotic blood level. We do not simulate any direct dairy interventions in the LG system, since the experts were unified in maintaining that AI would not work there.It is assumed that about 70% of households in the MRS and MRD will be reached via the synchronization and AI investment interventions. An animal feed intervention is also required to maximize the potential production benefits from improved breeds (expected from AI and synchronization). In these highland systems, less than 1% of the total feed consumed presently comes from improved forage 2 . Farmers in the highland mixed systems will need to be convinced of the benefits and trained on how to produce better forage on their small farms, including in their backyards or by allocating a small portion of their limited food crop land. Concentrate feed will also need to be supplemented to adult females. The intervention proposes that 1.5 kg of concentrate feed is provided per animal/ day in MRS and MRD small herd systems and 2 kg of feed is provided per animal/ day in the medium herd systems. In this intervention, the farmer incurs an additional ETB53 per animal/year for improved veterinary services across all production systems. Improved animal health will reduce young and adult stock mortality and morbidity.At the start of the intervention, the adoption rate is expected to be slow, but gradually increase. The adoption rate starts at 10% in year 2 and grows to 80% in year 15, remaining the same until year 20. As a result of a multifaceted approach, including improved breeds through AI and synchronization, improved animal feed and improved animal health through veterinary services, production is anticipated to increase. Under the intervention, the milk yield per cow increases from about 2 litres per cow /day to 6 litres per animal/ day in medium MRS herds and from 1.6 to 4 litres in medium MRD herds. Similarly, the intervention results in an increase of milk yield from 1.8 to 5.9 litres per animal/ day for small MRS herds and from 1.5 to 3.9 litres per animal/ day for small MRD herds. There is also an increase in average weight by different stages of cattle growth which contribute to increased beef production.Given the fact that livestock mortality and morbidity are important causes of economic losses and food security and poverty, appropriate disease control measures are necessary to reduce the negative impacts of livestock diseases and parasites on household and national economy. The high incidence of disease indicates the lack of adequate investment in animal health, nutrition, breed improvement and management practices. However, the funds available for various interventions are also limited which require ex-ante assessments of the economic impacts, technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of the proposed investment interventions to reduce livestock mortality due to livestock diseases and inadequate management practices. The bio-economic simulation analysis is discussed in section 4 and is applied to analyse ex-ante impacts of combined animal health and feed management interventions in traditional cattle production in different production systems on milk production.The potential productivity, output, income and costs effects of the suggested investment interventions in the traditional dairy cattle production system to improve milk production are analysed ex ante at different levels: at the household or herd level, typology of livestock production zones level, and national level. The ex-ante financial profitability of cattle investment interventions are based on 20-year projected incremental cash flows comparing 'with' and 'without' intervention scenarios following a multi-year partial budgeting approach as discussed in section 4. The 'without' intervention scenario provides a counterfactual scenario against which to compare the impacts of investment interventions in cattle production. For this purpose, the household level partial budgets, the building blocks for an ex ante financial analysis, were constructed for different cattle size classes by different production systems and then the projected cash flows are derived in terms of incremental benefits; incremental costs; and incremental net benefits due to the project (investment interventions) only. The following sections present the results of the ex-ante assessment of investment interventions in cattle production in terms of its impacts on future production-consumption balances, financial profitability, and household level income impacts.The future impacts of policy and investment interventions in cow milk production is also assessed ex-ante in terms of closing the rapidly growing production consumption gap or generating surpluses of milk products for export markets to generate foreign exchange earnings. This projection is also critical to anticipate the magnitude of required future strategies and investments in dairy cattle research and development (policies and technologies), which will be required to close the production-consumption gap in milk production. Considering 15-year projection period (2012-32), the results for milk are presented in Tables 16. The results of projections of the production and consumption of cow milk 'with' and 'without' investment interventions are presented in Table 17. Without investment intervention, the total cow milk production in 2028 is projected at about 6.5 billion litres. As a whole, without investment intervention the self-sufficiency ratio in cow milk production is about 77% (with a deficit of 2 billion litres). Therefore, investment is needed to close the future cow milk production-consumption gap. The combined policy and investment interventions resulted in a significant improvement in the self-sufficiency ratio for cow milk from 77 to 136%.In general, the analysis of the 'without' investment interventions situation indicates that milk production will have to be increased significantly if future demand for domestic milk consumption is to be met and surplus milk is to be generated to meet the future meat and milk export demand. The main question is then from where does the future increase in milk production come? Several strategies can be considered to close the gap in future milk productions. First, the analyses of the 'with' investment situation indicate that the future cow milk production gaps can be significantly bridged with combined investment interventions in the various aspects of cattle production and management systems (health, feed and genetic improvements). Second, it is also important to exploit the opportunity to close the deficits in production-consumption balances by changing the composition of total milk production and demand structure. For example, there is a need to explore the opportunity to change the milk production and consumption structure from the one dominated by cow milk to camel milk and milk from small ruminants (sheep and goats). This strategy requires investments in the production and promotion of milk from camel and small ruminant as a substitute for cow milk.The results of the ex-ante financial profitability of the combined investment analyses by dairy cattle production systems in Ethiopia are given in Table 17. In the case of MRS, the NPVs are positive in all cases, all the IRRs are greater than the assumed discount rate of 10% and the BCR is also greater than 1 in all cases. In general, all the financial performance criteria used indicate the financial viability of combined dairy cattle investment interventions in the MRS system. In contrast, it should be noted the AI and synchronization led investment scenario in the MRD is not economically viable, probably since MRD areas have high ambient temperatures, poor rainfall, inadequate grazing resources, and limited availability of crop residues. These negative factors result in a lower productivity impact (less milk and weight gain) for the combined improved genetic (AI and synchronization), animal health, and feed intervention in the MRD system.In order to assess the household level income and poverty impacts of investment interventions in traditional cattle system and in order to improve cow milk production, the 20-years cumulative incremental benefits and costs from combined (animal health, nutrition, AI and synchronization) investment interventions were annualized assuming a discount rate of 10%. The results are presented in Table 18. Five performance measures were derived; annual incremental benefits per herd, annual incremental costs per herd, annual net incremental benefits per herd, annual net incremental benefits per head of cattle, and annual incremental per capita income. The annual incremental costs include both capital investment and recurrent costs. The size of annual incremental costs required indicates whether the investment or costs for investment interventions are within the reach of livestock keepers. The annual net incremental benefit is obtained as the difference between annual incremental benefits and annual incremental costs. The annual net incremental benefit per head of cattle is obtained by dividing the annual incremental net benefit per heard by cattle herd size. This measures the productivity of cattle in different production systems. The annual net incremental per capita income is obtained by dividing the annual net incremental benefit by average family size (assuming an average farm family size of 4.7 people). The results are presented by cattle production systems and cattle herd size classes. Source: Based on LSA results. Note: the annual incremental benefits and costs are obtained by annualizing the 20-years cumulative cash flows using a discount rate of 10%.The income impact of combined investment intervention in dairy cattle production varied by dairy cattle production systems and cattle herd size classes. The highest annual incremental per capita income of ETB63 is obtained from the investment in small size cattle farm in the MRS, followed by medium size cattle farm with average annual incremental per capita income of ETB52. In the case of the MRD, negative annual incremental per capita income is observed for small and medium size cattle herd classes.The objective of this paper is to present an analytical and empirical modelling framework which integrates dairy cattle herd growth and economic model for simulating milk production in traditional dairy cattle production systems. The modelling framework allows for assessing the technical and financial performance of dairy production under two conditions: 'without' intervention and 'with' intervention. The bio-economic simulation analyses of milk production for different cattle production systems for the 'without' intervention situation is used to assess and identify potential areas for policy and investment interventions to improve the future performance of dairy cattle sub-sector in Ethiopia.The data on cattle size and structure, productivity and demographic parameters and financial parameters used in the bio-economic simulation model are obtained from secondary sources: based on national and international livestock experts' opinions, literature review and analysis of cross-sectional household survey data from secondary sources.The baseline assessment of the cattle production systems indicates that the existing traditional smallholders dairy cattle production system is characterized by high mortality rates, low fertility and low commercial milk offtake rates. The average cattle herd size observed is very small, particularly in the mixed crop livestock production system. A bio-economic simulation model for the 'without' intervention situation indicates that the cattle production in different production systems is growing at annual growth rate of 5-10%. The baseline assessment also indicates that adult female cattle are the most important classes of cattle explaining the various future cattle population growth trajectories.The observed low level of productivity and reproductive performance in dairy cattle indicates the need to invest in cattle genetic improvement, health, reproductive management and nutrition. Particularly, the results of sensitivity and elasticity analyses indicate that the female cattle fertility contributes only 9-10%, while the annual survivorship of adult female cattle contributes about 59-61% to the cattle herd growth rate. Thus, under the baseline scenario, it is more important to reduce mortality rate than improving the fertility of cattle to increase cattle herd growth in different production systems. This indicates the importance of identifying the causes of cattle mortality and implementing cost-effective measures to reduce it. This requires detailed ex-ante benefit-cost analysis of various interventions using bio-economic simulation model as outlined in this paper. Here, the bio-economic simulation model is applied to the ex-ante impact assessment of the proposed combined investment interventions to reduce young and adult stock mortality in cattle and dairy breed improvement interventions.The results of bio-economic simulation analysis indicate that the combined investment interventions in cattle health, feeding, reproductive and management practices to reduce young stock and adult stock mortality and to improve dairy breed through AI and synchronization is financially viable and enhances Ethiopia's milk self-sufficiency ratio and has significant impact on cattle keepers income. The implementation of the proposed combined investment intervention requires strong private and public partnership and involves changes in public and private sector veterinary service provisions and public investment. Some of the key policy issues are highlighted below.To realize the expected milk increases in the MRS, however, sufficient feed availability to meet the increased feed demand arising from the improved breeds will be required in the areas where AI and synchronization are implemented. Specialized extension services will also be essential to support and backstop farmers in the intensive management required for the crossbred milking cows.In the highland MRS smallholder dairy system, land allocation for forage and fodder production to maximize the genetic potential of crossbreeds will be essential to meet future feed requirements. Although the forage intervention assumes that smallholder farmers will allocate their scarce land for forage production, farmers will need to be made aware of the benefits of fodder production and improved animal feeding.In addition to fodder, crossbred milking cows will also require concentrate feeds. As dairy cattle population increases, the demand for concentrate feed will also increase. At present there are not enough grain mills and oil processing plants to cater for the present needs of existing dairy cows, much less the anticipated growth in the number of dairy cows. Incentives to promote investments in the agro-processing industries would pay huge dividends in terms of meeting the growing concentrate feed gap.Perhaps, most importantly, to sustain a regular, sustained increase in the volume of milk produced and marketed, establishing more processing capacity will be essential. Although there is strong evidence that dairy processors are ready to invest in new and increased capacity, they are often discouraged and hindered by bureaucratic obstacles to investing. Besides having fair access to bank credit, investors will need to be supported in their efforts to create the milk collection and supply chains needed to connect farm milk producers to their processing facilities, through cooperatives or directly. As well, before potential smallholder dairy farmers will make the investments required to produce the amount and quality of milk required by processors, they will need to be assured of a regular, daily market for their milk.The milk supply and quality standards of processors will also need to be met. Government action will be needed to establish and enforce quality based payment incentive schemes, including the training of milk collectors and farmers on how to participate effectively in the schemes. As well, given that there are presently few assured, regular marketcentres for dairy products in Ethiopia, with the exception of a few major urban areas, poorly functioning markets presently negatively affect investment in dairy production and processing, as well as consumption growth in the country. Milk production and consumption cannot be expected to increase substantially unless well-functioning product distribution and marketing systems, bridging rural supply and urban demand, are also in place. Meanwhile, demand for milk in rural areas is for fresh milk and is currently satisfied by home production or the direct sales of raw milk. The demand for processed milk in rural areas is almost non-existent and this is not expected to change in the near future.The potential for transforming the dairy industry in Ethiopia is indeed great, yet the challenges should not be underestimated. For success to be achieved, there will need to be government investment in more effective extension services, AI infrastructure and health services, as well as more conducive policies and laws establishing clear sanitary standards and regulations, together with enforcement. Similarly, investment from the private sector will also be needed and these will only be realized if the government creates a supportive investment climate with reduced bureaucratic obstacles to obtaining land to set up and build dairy agribusinesses. Programs to promote market development and trade by fostering business linkages, by providing technical and business training to all value chain actors, and by promoting technology transfer will also be necessary to achieve the anticipated developmental results shown possible in the dairy investment scenario.","tokenCount":"11545"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"37b0ce8f846b07b479926bf29a496874","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5bfaef0c-f32a-4b2b-98d9-539a5fa3ccd4/retrieve","id":"-1992160036"},"keywords":["food security","soil fertility","soil-water conservation","livelihood strategies","Millennium Development Goals"],"sieverID":"08303348-fe17-46fa-be0b-01ef8f4d227f","pagecount":"20","content":"The Millennium Development Goals' target to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger is extremely important in southern Africa, where food security has become increasingly problematic over the last 20 years. One \"quick-win\" proposal is replenishment of soil nutrients for smallholder farmers, through free or subsidised chemical fertilisers. Other proposals include appropriate irrigation technology, improved inputs and interventions targeted at women.The first Millennium development goal (MDG) aims to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.Within goal 1, target 2 is to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. In order to achieve this, the Millennium Project proposes some initial, urgent measures and some longer term proposals. All of these proposals deal with interventions in agricultural production.The Millennium Project proposes a number of urgent interventions to be started immediately for quick results -these are what they the \"quick-wins\". In addressing food security (target 2), the Millennium Project proposes, as a quick-win, \"a massive replenishment of soil nutrients for smallholder farmers on lands with nutrient depleted soils, through free or subsidised distribution of chemical fertilisers and agroforestry, no later than the end of 2006\" (UN Millennium Project, 2005a).The emphasis on smallholder farmers is based on an assessment that of the 850 million people living in serious and chronic hunger, approximately 50 % are smallholder farmers (FAO, 2004).For this reason, the Millennium Project recommendation on rural development and food security focus on improving the production and livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The Project's major concerns for agriculture are soil fertility, water resources management, access to improved varieties of crops and livestock and agricultural extension services (UN Millennium Project, 2005b).1. Investments in soil health: application of mineral fertiliser, agroforestry (use of trees to replenish soil fertility), erosion control, return of crop residues to the soil.2. Appropriate irrigation technology, which the Millennium Project confusingly refers to as \"small-scale water management\": drip irrigation, wells, appropriate pumps and so on.3. Improved inputs: improved varieties of crops, pastures, livestock, trees and fish.4. Farm diversification to include higher value livestock and vegetables, once farm/household level food security has been achieved. 5. Extension services require strengthening, especially at village level, in up-to date agricultural knowledge and participatory approaches to farmer training.6. Agricultural research requires investment at national level.7. Interventions must be targeted to ensure empowerment of women farmers, including women extension officer recruitment, inputs and promotion of women's property/tenure rights.The MDG target to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger is extremely important in southern Africa, where food security has become increasingly problematic in the last half-century. Recurrent droughts and inconsistent national and regional policies fail to provide adequate support to large scale and small scale producers, leading to a net decline in agricultural production in the region. The poor performance of agriculture in Africa has been well documented. Food production per capita has not matched the growing population over the last 40 years (FAO, 2004). In Zimbabwe, for example, recurring drought conditions have reduced the annual maize harvest from a national consumption requirement of 1.8 million metric tonnes to around 600,000 metric tonnes (IRIN, 2005). 180 million of the world's 800 million food insecure people live in sub-Saharan Africa, surviving on less than 1 US dollar per day.Therefore, implementation of the millennium development food security goals is critical to the maintenance and improvement of livelihoods in southern Africa. However, as this paper will show, developing solutions at a global level does not always capture properly the needs and challenges of regional contexts. This is particularly important in considering the \"quick-win\" strategies proposed by the Millennium Project.It is the hypothesis of this paper that whilst implementation of MDG target 2 is critical for southern Africa, the specific context of southern Africa requires a different approach (sometimes subtly different, sometimes dramatically different) to interventions proposed by the Millennium Project to work towards the MDGs. The specific hydrological and agro-hydrological conditions of southern Africa are particularly important. Accordingly, some modification of approach is called for, and is therefore proposed.Africa's population is expected to reach 1.2 billion by the year 2020, double the 1995 figures. It estimated that at least 25 % of the population will be undernourished and living in the dryland areas of sub-Saharan Africa, which already accommodate 70 % of the World's poorest communities (Ryan and Spencer, 2001). Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region in the world where average food production per capita has been declining over the last 40 years. Yet agriculture continues to be the dominant economic activity, accounting for 70% of total employment, 40% of total exports and 34% of the GDP.Despite the technological advances in agricultural research in recent years, poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition still remain major challenges in sub-Saharan Africa (Sanchez and Swaminathan, 2005), yet agriculture is the main economic activity in the region. Added to this are natural and human-induced conflicts, and low investment in long term capacity building and research. Short-term land tenure arrangements implemented in some countries in the region sometimes do not encourage long-term investment on the land, especially where the tenure system is unclear or dynamic. That said, many improvements, especially in soil/water conservation, can be made on an annual rather than permanent basis -and thus under any tenure system.The most vulnerable groups are smallholder land users in the arid and semi arid lands (Freeman et al., 2002). Smallholder farmers make up more than half the population at risk from hunger, and in southern Africa cultivate on poor soils and unreliable rainfall is the main source of water (Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000). Crop yields are low and failures are frequent (Scoones, 1996), with more than one million people in the Limpopo basin depending on food aid in 2003 (Love et al., 2004). In this context, agricultural production in southern Africa faces a number of challenges, each of which has implications for the Millennium Project's intervention proposals.Smallholder agriculture in southern Africa is largely rainfed, and thus risky, with recurrent droughts and dryspells. Potential evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall for more than 6 months of the year. Rainfall is seasonal and highly variable. Annual rainfall for a single site can vary by up to 1000 mm from year to year (Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000) -although a drought year may easily record less than 250 mm, such as the 2004-2005 season in southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique. By the end of the dry season, i.e. just before planting, the top 0.3 m of the soil horizon frequently holds negligible water content (Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000). Furthermore, a number of climate change models predict that southern Africa shall experience significantly reduced precipitation and runoff over the next fifty years (Arnell, 2003;Moyo, 2005) -with food shortages a result (Cane et al., 1994;Du Toit et al., 2001).Frequently, the water yield from the developed surface water resource falls short of the demand, deficits being more evident during droughts (Nyabeze, 2004). Much of sub-Saharan Africa has, as a result of low conversion of rainfall to runoff, a precarious balance between available water resources and water demand (Mazvimavi, 2004). Even with such limitations, smallholder farmers have little access to blue water for irrigation (Love et al., 2004). This is partly due to a lack of investment targeting such developments, but also since, in some areas, there is a lack of suitable sites to establish further dams. Some catchments are already over-committed (Kabel, 1984) and others offer few sites where a possible river stretch for impoundment is coupled with suitable soils. Furthermore, additionally, most southern African governments face a chronic shortage of funding for capital investments such as dams.Smallholder farmers generally farm on poor quality sandy or sandy loam soils (Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000). Frequently, such soils are infertile, deficient in nitrates, phosphates and sulphur (Burt et al, 2001). This is especially the case in those countries were colonial imbalances in land distribution have not been adequately adjusted. Even in countries where such attempts have been made, smallholder farmers are generally confined to the poorer soils.Due to lack of investment in soil fertility amendments to cope with declining yields, farmers have extensified their cropping area. As soil fertility declined, farmers have maintained household food requirements by increasing the cropped area to compensate for lower yields.The question of livelihood strategies is not addressed adequately in the MDGs. Rural families livelihood strategies are not necessarily geared directly to food production, many household have diverse coping strategies to ensure some degree of sustainable livelihoods. Livestock (which are not generally a food source but a strategic financial asset) are valued ahead of crop production.For example, farmers in many southern African countries prefer to feed crop residues to their cattle than to mulch or plough in the residues. This is despite the well-proven benefits in terms of soil fertility improvement, and also increased infiltration from precipitation (Bennie and Hensley, 2001). Furthermore, poor infrastructure and therefore poor internal market linkages discourage marketoriented production.Studies have shown that poverty in southern Africa presents a greater driver to food insecurity than actual food production. It has been suggested that access to food can be a greater problem for households than absolute food availability (Misselhorn, 2005). This can be partly due to the fact that few smallholder farmers subsist entirely on their own production, and must still sell some produce to buy some of their food. Since it is well established that world food production is sufficient, but distribution inadequate (e.g. Myers, 1985), it is not logical to resolve food security problems by focussing solely on increasing production.The extent to which agricultural reform and revitalisation of agricultural practice (or the \"green revolution\") is a priority in southern Africa is limited, compared, for example, to prioritisation of land reform (changes in land distribution and tenure) (Moyo, 2004) or the commercialisation of agriculture.The quick-win proposal on mineral fertiliser is especially difficult. Accelerating and increasing fertiliser use does not deal with the underlying causes of declining soil fertility in southern Africa. Thus, while an urgent and massive investment in mineral fertiliser will have a short-term impact, it is unlikely to make any impact on food security in the medium term. There are three basic issues, which are inter-related: Firstly, the initial soil fertility is often low (see above).The second issue contributing to declining soil fertility is that fertiliser usage is low in southern Africa, compared for example to India: 28 kg/ha compared to 62 kg/ha (Twomlow et al., 1999).The lower rate of fertiliser application reflects the much higher end user price of fertiliser in Africa. This is often due to transport and import costs, especially in landlocked countries.Smallholder farmers are generally living distant from the major urban centres of their countries, increasing transport costs for them. This leads to a vicious circle at the smallholder level where current recommendations are inappropriate: few farmers add positive experiences of heavy fertiliser use, thus there is little demand, and thus rural tradestores do not stock much variety of fertiliser. Occasional free fertiliser handouts, by government or NGOs, tend to destabilise the (small) local markets, in countries where fertiliser production is done by private companiesthus providing short-term benefits but medium-term problems. These ancillary costs will remain to limit smallholder farmers in southern Africa, even if the original procurement of fertiliser is free or heavily subsidised internationally.Thirdly, rising populations have placed an increasing burden on the soils farmed by smallholder farmers: in the last half-century in southern Africa the populations have increased dramatically, but the availability of land to smallholder farmers has not increased significantly in most countries. Thus a higher population is depending on the same area of semi-fertile land (Moyo, 2004).It should be realised that a massive investment in mineral fertiliser does not address long term food security problems: there is no guarantee that such an investment would translate into a sustainable improvement in soil health. Ongoing replenishment of fertility would be dependent on a continued, guaranteed free or subsidised supply, transport system and so on.Finally, fertiliser is insufficient in itself to produce a major change in the food security situation.Major increases in yield can only be obtained when soil fertility management is combined with soil-water conservation practices such as timely planting and weeding, thus reducing periods of potential moisture stress/competition (Twomlow et al., 1999). For these reasons, massive investment in mineral fertiliser will not produce a \"quick win\" unless it is integrated with transport and other interventions.Irrigation schemes have a role to play, and smallholder irrigation schemes can become a critical common property resource (Samakande et al., 2004). However, such schemes also tend to overapply water (Senzanje et al., 2003), for a variety of reasons such as design and pricing policies, leading to problems during drought years. Poor water management on such schemes also leads to reduced yields (Samakande et al., 2004). Furthermore, access to irrigation water for the smallholder farmer remains limited. The Millennium Project recognises the limitations of large scale irrigation for food security in Africa and urges the use of appropriate irrigation technology such as low-cost drip kits. This can allow for greater access to irrigation, since the water and energy requirements are lower than conventional irrigation (Chigerwe et al., 2004). It can also allow for irrigation at smallholder household level, rather than smallholder scheme level. Drip technology on its own tends to improve water use efficiency, but sometimes does not increase yield (Maisiri et al., in press). A recent study showed that only 2 % of the beneficiaries had used the kit to produce the expected 5 harvests over 2 years, owing to problems related to water shortage and also pests and diseases. Conflicts between beneficiaries and water point committees or other water users developed in some areas especially during the dry season (Moyo et al., this volume). Thus the implementation of small-scale irrigation has to done in a manner to address these challenges.As an alternative to permanent irrigation, yields can be improved by short-term supplementary irrigation during dryspells (Falkenmark and Rockström, 2003;Nyamudeza, 1999;Rockström et al., 2003). As an alternative to dams, use can be made of rainwater harvesting technologies (Motsi et al., 2004) or accessing of alluvial aquifers (Dahlin and Owen, 1998).However, small-scale irrigation as promoted by the millennium project (e.g. Sanchez and Swaminathan, 2005) is not the only solution. Irrigation schemes can never benefit more than a small minority of farmers in a district -unless investment of an order of magnitude way beyond that proposed by the millennium project is made. To improve yield and livelihoods for a larger proportion of smallholder farmers, an approach of integrated soil and water management is needed for dryspell and drought mitigation. Short dryspells -not necessarily water scarcity measured at an annual scale -are often the major cause of low yields and loss of food security (Rockström et al., 2003). Improvements can be achieved through agricultural interventions in dryland farming (Twomlow et al., 1999). Some in field water management technologies, such as tied ridges, have proven effective at reducing runoff, thus increasing infiltration and water access to the crops (Heinrich, 2001;Motsi et al., 2004) -although uptake is variable (Twomlow et al., 1999). Conservation tillage approaches, especially where they are adapted for use with animal traction, have proven very effective in increasing water availability to crops and decreasing land degradation (Kaumbutho and Mwenya, 2000;Twomlow et al., 1999).Effective weeding also increases both in-field water availability and crop yield. Biomass can be increased by a factor of four and water use efficiency (kg/mm) by a factor of five, for well weeded maize compared to an unweeded control (Twomlow et al., 1999). Weed growth influences negatively the availability of water in the soil profile, especially during dryspells (Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000).It is not only rainfed farming, but also smallholder irrigation schemes that can benefit from improved soil-water management (Samakande et al., 2004).Often, the problem is not physical scarcity of water, but rather the lack of integrated management approaches (linking crops, soil, water, climate), human and financial capacities and weak institutional arrangements. The new water governance in the Limpopo Basin countries enshrines principles of equity and user participation in decision-making (Love et al, 2004). Catchment institutions provide a possibility for progressive and sustainable, stakeholder-based water management (Manzungu and Mabiza, 2004;Savenije and van der Zaag, 2000;van der Zaag and Savenije, 2000).Access to improved varieties for smallholder farmers is often limited, and faces many of the same limiting factors as fertiliser distribution. Furthermore, many classic \"green revolution\" improved varieties are not drought resistant -and produce the expected high yields only when free of water stress . Finally, if crop management is not improved at the same time as new varieties are adopted, the farmer will never see the real yield potential.A significant level of farm diversification already exists in southern Africa, often focusing on livestock, as has been discussed under livelihood strategies above. However, additional farm diversification requires developments of a market for the new produce, and a transport strategy to ensure that the value added in the new produce is not lost to transporters.Women farmers actually spend substantial amounts of their time and labour on activities not directly connected with agricultural production. Thus developing improved efficiencies of transport and cooking fuels, and improving ease of access to water for domestic purposes would release a large proportion of the woman farmer's labour for her to invest on her farm.In many countries in southern Africa, what is needed is not retraining of extension staff -much of the most recent knowledge is well known -but resources for expansion of service work and improvement of the conditions of staff to ensure capacity retention.The agricultural, climatic, sociocultural and economic context of southern Africa presents challenges that require modifications and alternatives to the interventions proposed by the Millennium Project to work towards the MDGs. The following specific recommendations are made for urgent interventions in agriculture in southern Africa, in order to contribute to food security:1. Interventions in inputs (seed and fertiliser) should not be simple subsidies, but should be sustainable investments targeted at either end-user level or at the transport and marketing system. This is recommended as an alternative to the once-off intervention proposed by the Millennium Project. Upgrading the transport and distribution system for inputs will have a longer term and more sustainable impact than free distribution of fertiliser for one or two seasons. Similarly, developing the market for inputs -especially for sale of small quantities of inputs -will allow a contribution from the small-scale enterprise sector.2. Intensification of investment in transfer of existing technology before development and promotion of new technologies. In some countries, farmers and even some government extension services are not aware of some of the developments within the last decade.3. Increasing the application and uptake soil-water conservation methods, including conservation tillage and weeding, and in supplementary irrigation. The interventions should be carried out mainly through intensive investments in farmer training, by collaborating government services (both agricultural extension and state water authorities) and NGOs. The approach must be participatory, to determine what techniques smallholder farmers have themselves found effective in the drier years. This has to be the priority area in extension work, as water management is often the limiting factor in yield and this proposed intervention is more practical and affordable than a massive expansion of irrigation. The amount of funding that can be mobilised internationally for MDG interventions would therefore be better targeted at on-farm water management than new irrigation schemes. The latter would, for the same amount of funding, benefit far fewer farmers and make a lesser contribution to food security. 4. Water resources planning and evaluation is required before and during implementing irrigation interventions (whether conventional irrigation schemes, drip kit distribution or supplementary irrigation). It must be ascertained that the water supply assumed for an irrigation project is sufficient, sustainable and acceptable to the community (especially nonbeneficiaries). It is essential that the agriculturalists and the water engineers should engage with each other; preferably at the local government and water management area levels. 5. Alternative livelihood strategies need developing and promoting, especially in the semi-arid to arid areas. One adaptation is to link crop development strategies to livestock development.However, for as long as rural populations increase, and expect to engage in agriculture as their major productive activity, without an increase in land allocation to smallholder farmers, soil fertility and food security will continue to decline, as land is over-utilised. Accordingly, investment should be made in developing non-agro-based livelihood strategies in marginal lands, including wildlife management, mining and so on. Given the extent to which poverty, rather than food production, influences food security in southern Africa, this could have a major impact. 6. Freeing up women's labour is essential and can be promoted by improving access to drinking water and to cooking fuel (already recommended within other MDG targets). This will allow women to spend more of their time, and thus labour, on agricultural production. 7. Investments in drivers for produce marketing, including the transport system and the provision of information on prices over radio and other media.","tokenCount":"3474"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fd7c37892ef794fe203722ab4537adac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b633dc2f-242c-488b-8cba-351a327a573f/retrieve","id":"-2079805513"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"503125e5-ab99-4718-b80e-6ac904c2f93c","pagecount":"27","content":"Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Research Initiative on Ukama Ustawi: Diversification for resilient agrifood systems in East and Southern Africa and has not been independently peer-reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, layout, opinions expressed, and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved.The CGIAR Food Systems Accelerator (CFSA) is an agribusiness capacity-strengthening support program developed by WP 3 in the Ukama Ustawi (UU) Initiative. It is a science-driven accelerator program designed to support agribusinesses scale climate-smart innovations in agrifood systems to solve pressing problems and to contribute to stronger and more sustainable value chains in East and Southern African countries. The accelerator leverages the portfolio of CGIAR innovations as well as the expertise of a wide network of international researchers from various disciplines. Agriculture and food systems knowledge is combined with social sciences to create systemic change while considering commercial parameters to ensure business success.The CFSA was successfully launched in Nairobi, Kenya on November 23rd, 2022. The Call for Applications resulted in a total of 849 applicants, out of which 288 met the high-quality standards for prequalification. The accelerator program successfully attracted women-led or co-led agribusinesses, with 69% of applicants featuring at least one woman in the founding team. The majority of applicants (72%) indicated that they were targeting smallholder farmers in their business model, and 52% claimed to have a digital innovation, highlighting the potential for technology in transforming the food systems sector. The most mentioned crops were maize, beans, soya beans, potatoes, livestock, and rice, underscoring the importance of diversifying food production.The accelerator program received high visibility and interest on the VC4A platform, social media and word of mouth, and the qualification requirements helped filter out lower quality applications. The success of the sourcing process can be attributed to the use of networks of on-ground teams and organizations, social media publicity, a cohesive internal core team, the use of VC4A and IFDC communication channels, and the involvement of different technical experts in the selection process. These highlights can serve as a guide for future sourcing efforts by the CFSA.The accelerator program core team analyzed the performance of the Call for Applications and recommended several strategies to improve the next Call. Based on the insights gained, the team suggested reducing the number of required attachments to increase the completion rate of applications. The team also plans to target previous applicants who almost made it to the shortlist with personalized emails to encourage them to reapply. In addition, the team recommended exploring alternative marketing strategies to reach potential applicants who are not active on social media, and partnering with local accelerators and incubators to leverage their networks and resources. By implementing these recommendations, the CFSA core team hopes to attract a wider pool of high-quality applicants and improve the overall performance of the next Call for Applications.The CFSA program initiated a Call for Applications targeting agribusinesses in Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, and Zambia, with the aim of supporting agribusinesses to scale climate-smart innovations and strengthen sustainable food systems in the region. To achieve this, the program is designed to provide selected agribusinesses with tailored technical assistance in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and investment readiness training, as well as mentorship, peer learning, and access to funding opportunities.This report provides a detailed overview of the program, including the application and selection process used for the first cohort. The program received a high number of applications, and a rigorous qualification process was put in place to ensure that the most suitable agribusinesses were selected.The CFSA program is a 6-month initiative designed to provide support to agribusinesses in East and Southern Africa. Its primary objective is to help selected businesses scale up their CSA innovations and to promote sustainable food systems in the region. The program offers technical assistance, training, mentorship, and access to funding opportunities to its participants.The overall objective of the accelerator is to support up to 30 agribusinesses (40% women-led and 40% youth-led) with technical assistance by 2024 and facilitate at least USD 5 million of new finance that has been unlocked, or in the process of being invested through debt, equity, or grants.More specifically, the program seeks to achieve the following objectives:• Scale up climate-smart food system innovations through strategic support of commercially viable and inclusive agribusinesses.• Develop a pipeline of inclusive climate-smart agribusinesses in East and Southern Africa.• Support inclusive climate-smart agribusinesses with investment readiness and business development, CSA, and impact measurement and management (IMM) technical assistance, coaching, and mentoring.• Provide access to finance through de-risking grants to scale CSA innovations, and matchmaking with private investors for follow-on capital.The program is divided into three phases. The initial phase spans over one month and involves an intensive sourcing process of agribusinesses. The second phase is the selection process, and final phase is the technical assistance program. Additionally, the program includes mentorship support for the agribusinesses, to provide guidance and help them achieve their goals.From November 23rd to December 22nd, 2022, the Call for Applications was open to agribusinesses in Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, and Zambia. Interested agribusinesses were directed to an online applications page hosted by the VC4A platform, where they were required to provide company details, team member information, financial information, existing CSA practices, and social impact data (including gender inclusion and information on the smallholder farmers they worked with). Additionally, applicants were asked to submit a short video or photos explaining their business model and CSA innovation, along with a proposal for the innovation they were scaling or attempting to scale. The program timeline can be found below in Figure 1.The Call for Applications was advertised through IFDC Global and 2SCALE social media channels, the VC4A network, as well as IFDC, 2SCALE, and CGIAR networks on the ground in the respective countries. The CFSA core team worked with over 30 partners to disseminate the Call for Applications, which resulted in an overwhelming response. The Call for Applications was open for a period of four weeks and attracted over 849 applicants from across the four target countries, with 288 applicants completing the application process. To further guide potential applicants, the team prepared a FAQ list -Appendix 4, which was embedded on the VC4A online application platform. This was also supported by a webinar recorded mid-application period. The webinar targeted all the ongoing applicants to provide a guide and re-clarify some of the criteria that seemed to be a barrier to completing the application.Before presenting the statistics from the submitted applications, it is important to note that the analysis is based solely on the information provided in the applications and does not take into account any additional research or verification. Additionally, it is important to acknowledge that the data was analyzed using the VC4A platform, which may have limitations in its data collection and analysis methodologies. Therefore, the statistics presented should be interpreted as indicative and not definitive.The majority of applications came from Kenya, which accounted for 31% of the total number of applications received. Uganda closely followed with 20% of the applications. Other target African countries that applied included Zambia with 13% and Rwanda with 8%. The VC4A team's report indicated that they typically receive fewer applications from Uganda and Zambia than from other countries on their platform. This feedback underscores the effectiveness of the CFSA team's efforts in disseminating the Call for Applications in those countries.Despite indicating to the public that target countries for this Call for Applications was Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia, the program still received applications from the following countries each contributing less than 1% to the total applications: Brazil, Egypt, Germany, Morocco, Netherlands, Sierra Leon, Somalia, South Africa, Togo, United Kingdom, and United States. Notably, 22% of the applicants did not specify their country of origin.According to Figure 5a, 12.8% of applicants indicated that all their founders were women, and at least 68.8% of the applications say they featured at least one woman in the founding team. 18.4% stated that there were no women founders in their team. Additionally, as shown inThe statistics in Figure 4 show that 27.8% of applicants indicated that they are involved in mechanisation and irrigation, 25% in conservation agriculture, 20.5% in nutrition, and 19.8% in agriculture risk management. 6.9% of applicants did not indicate which innovation theme they were applying to.  Figure 5b, 53.4% of applicants indicated that they have more than 50% of their management teams consist of women. This data suggests that the program was successful in its efforts to encourage women-led or co-led agribusinesses to apply. The high percentage of applications with female founders suggests that the program's outreach efforts and messaging effectively reached and resonated with women entrepreneurs in the agribusiness sector.In conclusion, the high percentage of applications featuring at least one woman in the founding team in the CFSA suggests that the program was successful in its aim to encourage women-led or co-led agribusinesses to apply. This data shown in Figure 5 highlights the potential for targeted outreach and support to help address the gender gap in entrepreneurship and promote greater diversity and inclusion in the agribusiness sector. The CFSA's efforts in this area are commendable, but ongoing efforts will be needed to ensure that women have equal opportunities to succeed in agribusiness and other industries.Furthermore, this statistic suggests that the accelerator program is successfully attracting entrepreneurs who are interested in serving smallholder farmers. The program's focus on promoting sustainable and inclusive agribusiness models appears to be resonating with applicants who are seeking to make a positive impact on their communities while also building successful businesses.The statistics in Figure 6 indicate that 71.8% of applicants to the program mentioned that they are targeting smallholder farmers in their business model. This is significant, because this percentage suggests that a majority of CFSA applicants are focusing on serving small-scale farmers. This is an important trend, as smallholder farmers make up a large portion of the agricultural industry in many countries, particularly in East and Southern Africa.According to analysis of the applications shown in Figure 7, 50% of the applicants claimed to have a digital product or service as part of their innovation. Among the digital products and services, smart farming accounted for the highest percentage at 20.4%. This refers to the use of sensors, drones, satellites, and other farm assets to generate and transmit data about a specific crop, animal, or practice to support agricultural activities 1 . Advisory services, which provide smallholder farmers with agronomic and livestock advice, market prices, weather, and climate information, as well as financial and digital literacy training, account for 17.3%. Ecommerce platforms for buying and selling agricultural produce and inputs online account for 10.7%, while digitally enabled financial services for smallholders to facilitate their inclusion in the formal financial economy account for 7.6%. Digital solutions in the agricultural last mile that enable a range of digital systems and processes to transition from paper to digital accounted (procurement) for 2.8%.The high percentage of applicants with digital innovations highlights the potential for technology to play a significant role in transforming the food systems sector, improving efficiency, sustainability, and access to food.It is worth noting that the meaning of \"digital product or service\" can be broad, and can encompass a range of technologies, from data analysis tools to e-commerce platforms.However, overall, this information suggests that entrepreneurs and innovators agriculture are recognizing the value of digital solutions and are exploring ways to leverage technology to address challenges in food systems. 4.1.6. Primary Sector ActivitiesAccording to the statistics shown in Figure 8, 28% of applicants to the CFSA program indicated that they are involved in crop farming, 13% in animal farming, 8% in farm machinery, 7% in agrichemicals, and 6% in agritech. 63.5% did not indicate their primary sector activities.The data provided by the applicants to the CFSA program shown in Figure 9 suggests that maize is the most mentioned cultivated crop, with 35% of applicants reporting it as their main product. This is followed by beans at 17%, soya beans at 15%, and potatoes, livestock, and rice all tied at 11%. These statistics highlight the diversity of the agricultural sector and the different crops and livestock that entrepreneurs are working with. It is important to note that these statistics may reflect the crops and livestock that are most grown or have the highest demand in the regions where the applicants are based. However, overall, this information underscores the importance of supporting a range of agricultural businesses and diversifying food production to ensure sustainable and resilient food systems.The stage of a business is a crucial factor, as it can greatly affect the company's trajectory and fundraising. According to the statistics provided, 55% of all applications were from growth stage companies, while 48% consider themselves to be in the start-up stage.This data suggests that a significant portion of agribusinesses that applied to the CFSA program are already established and experiencing growth, while a slightly smaller percentage are still in the early stages of development. It is important to note that the definitions of \"startup\" and \"growth\" stages can vary depending on industry and context, but overall, this information highlights the diverse landscape of agribusinesses seeking assistance or resources.In conclusion, understanding the stage of a business is crucial for identifying its needs and potential opportunities for growth. The statistics provided suggest that a mix of start-ups and established companies are seeking support, indicating a need for resources and guidance for businesses at various stages of development.After conducting a review of the Call for Applications in collaboration with the VC4A team, the CFSA team identified several areas for improvement and formulated recommendations for the next round.The VC4A platform recorded over 12,940 sessions and 26,084 page views, with a 3% conversion rate from 100 mail invitations selected by VC4A. However, many applicants using social media did not complete their applications due to difficulty in being required to attach documentation. Some applicants use a mobile phone to apply making this process challenging. On the other hand, the email campaign had a high initial interest, with a 36% open rate and 14% click-through rate, which was higher than other similar programs on the platform.Based on these insights, the CFSA core team recommends reducing the number of required attachments for future Calls to increase the completion rate. The team also plans to target previous participants who almost made it to the shortlist with personalized emails to encourage them to reapply. Additionally, the core team suggests exploring alternative marketing strategies to reach out to potential applicants who are not active on social media. Lastly, the team recommends partnering with local business accelerators and incubators to leverage their networks and resources in promoting the Call for Applications. By implementing these recommendations, the CFSA core team hopes to improve the overall performance of the next Call for Applications and attract a wider pool of high-quality applicants.Onboarding Judges Together with the CFSA core team, the VC4A team, conducted a judges onboarding session. This session guided the judges on how to navigate through the platform during the judging process. Salome Ng'ang'a, a Financial Inclusion Specialist for 2SCALE, together with the CFSA core team took the judges through selection guides and screening tools, which helped them familiarize themselves with the process and review of applications.The tools used have been annexed in this document as Appendix 1 and Appendix 2.During the steps 1 and 2 selection period, two temporary WhatsApp groups were created. The WhatsApp groups were a quick way to ask questions and get urgent responses. The VC4A team was also added in the groups where the judges were reviewing and rating the agribusinesses on the VC4A platform. This was necessary as some of the technical aspects of the platform needed expert support.The CFSA team had a blended team of internal and external judges taking part in the selection process. This included Work Packages 1, 2 and 5 of the UU Initiative. This was necessary to create an all-round and well-balanced review of the applicants to ensure that the selected agribusinesses met the overall objectives of the UU Initiative on the impact domains across East and Southern Africa region. Below is the total list of the judges that supported various stages of the selection process: To ensure that all information received from the applicants remained confidential, all external judges signed a Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure Agreement. The CFSA core team values confidentiality of information to protect the intellectual property of the participating businesses and to create a safe environment where entrepreneurs feel comfortable sharing sensitive information about their business ideas, models, and plans. It also helps build trust between the accelerator program and the entrepreneurs. If entrepreneurs feel their confidential information is not safe, they may be hesitant to disclose important information, which could hinder the program's effectiveness in helping them support their business. Furthermore, confidentiality ensures that the selection process is fair and unbiased, as judges are expected to keep the information, they receive about the applicants confidential. Overall, confidentiality is an essential aspect of building a successful accelerator program that fosters a culture of trust, transparency, and collaboration between entrepreneurs and the program.In addition, each judge was expected to declare conflict of interest if they were assigned an agribusiness that they had an existing relationship with. This conflict of interest declaration was necessary to ensure impartiality and prevent any potential bias towards the agribusiness in question.The selection process entailed a thorough 3-step process, as outlined below:1. Rapid Assessment (Step 1)Step 2)From the pool of 288 completed applications, the team conducted a quick rapid screening of all the applications with the support of the VC4A team. The judges used a Google sheet form, subdivided for each judge, to carry out the screening process. After the screening process, 30 businesses were shortlisted for further evaluation.The 30 agribusinesses underwent a second selection round where experts in CSA and investment readiness handpicked a list of top 15 agribusinesses. This involved a thorough screening of the proposals, with judges providing feedback on each of the applicants on the adjudication section of the VC4A platform. Through this process, the top 15 agribusinesses were selected and invited to participate in interview sessions from the 1st to the 10th of February 2023.The interviews provided each agribusiness with an opportunity to explain their CSA innovations further. This was pressure-like testing with the both CGIAR and IFDC-2SCALE experts from the accelerator core team and external experts from the UU Initiative Work Packages, namely WP 1, 2 and 5. The experts evaluated the CSA innovation, business model, team, and fit for the accelerator program.After the completion of a rigorous selection process, a list of 10 agribusinesses (Accelerator Partners \"APs\") were agreed upon, and all 10 APs accepted the invitation to participate in the CFSA. Below is a summary of the 10 Aps for cohort 1:Afri-Farmer Market is a leading homegrown food grocery chain social enterprise in Rwanda that is providing a stable market to local farmers. They are leveraging technology to support local and smallholder farmers to access stable markets for their agricultural produce through their e-commerce platform. And, they help farmers increase their farm productivity through best agricultural practices and access to farm inputs.Aggregator Trust is a women-led business initiative aimed at promoting affordable and nutritious food for low-income households in Rwanda, who face challenges in purchasing the expensive food necessary for a healthy life. In collaboration with its partners, Aggregator Trust is working to enhance the resilience of small-scale farmers that the company sources from by providing access to relevant research and information for sustainable farming practices.Batian Nuts Ltd (BNL) is an agro-processing company incorporated in 2017 in Kenyan as a private limited liability company. BNL was started so that it could capture and fill in a gap in the offtaking of macadamia nuts produced by smallholder farms in Tharaka Nithi and Meru Counties, and also seize other opportunities that existed in the Kenyan edible nuts subsector.The Business is now six years old and has already turned a profit Eastern Agricultural Development Company Limited Uganda Eastern Agricultural Development Company Ltd (EADC)'s core business is producing, processing, and trading super-rich and biofortified iron-rich beans and orange fleshed sweet potatoes sourced from over 3,000 small-holder farmers aiming at solving Uganda's malnutrition deficiencies of Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc.Farm Depot supplies the best agricultural products and services to ensure Zambia's farmers are profitable. The company is in the process of leveraging its database of 35,000 farmers to provide a micro-lending product to farmers with a partner financial institution.Forest Africa Zambia Limited is a Zambian company incorporated in November 2017. The factory is based in Chilanga Mapepe area. The company specializes in processing of organic indigenous wild fruit juices that include Mabuyu (Baobab) and Ngai (False Medlar) juices. Based on the principles of extended producer responsibility and circular economy, Forest Africa (Z) Limited operates a zero-waste philosophy where all parts of the baobab fruit are used efficiently. The fruit powder is processed into Juice, seeds are pressed into an oil used for skin and hair care while the shells are converted into eco-friendly charcoal briquettes that are used as energy source at our factory and funicles (fibres) into red tea which is rich in antioxidants.Shamba Records leverages emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence to digitize the agriculture sector from farm to fork. With their farm management tool, they track farmers' yields and payments. Their tool enables to unlock new farmer lending opportunities, extension services automation, disease outbreak mapping, market linkages, and crop/livestock insurance for farmers.Stable Foods is growing an end-to-end smallholder food production platform. Thier key intervention is ultra-low-cost \"irrigation-as-a-service\" subscription for smallholder farmers.Leveraging shared capex through networked irrigation solutions, Stable Foods has proven economies of scale can drive down the cost per unit for farmers and make irrigation work for even tiny plots of land at a price point that is very affordable to any smallholder. In addition, they provide inputs, training and produce offtake.The Insectary Kenya is limited company established by two entrepreneurs who saw an opportunity to returning food waste back to food chain as protein from the amazing black soldier flyYellow Star is an Agro-based organic food processing company processing cereals and other grains into precooked composite flour for porridge and food for healthy nutrition whilst saving preparation time. Through value addition and last-mile distribution of nutritious foods, Yellow Star champions access to nutritious products for children, expectant women, the elderly, and people living with HIV/AIDS. Currently, Yellow Star buys 60% of farm produce from small and micro enterprises and 40% from women-led farmer groups. Going forward, Yellow Star intends to source produce from women-led groups in order for it to become more inclusive and intentionally empower and enhance gains for women as well as equip them with climate smart farming practices for sustainable production. Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure AgreementThis CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT (this \"Agreement\") is entered into as of 1 2 J a n u a r y 2023, by and between (i) International Fertilizer Development Centre (IFDC) a science-based public international organization based located in the State of Alabama, United States of America. \"The disclosing party\" (\"Discloser(s)\"); and (ii) Food Systems Accelerator Judge, (\"Recipient\"). Discloser(s) and Recipient are together referred to in this Agreement as \"parties\" and individually as a \"party.WHEREAS Discloser intend to disclose certain Confidential Information (as defined below) to Recipient in connection with the selection of Agribusinesses to take part in the Food Systems Accelerator Program. (the \"Accelerator Program\"); and WHEREAS Disclosers wish to ensure that Recipient will maintain the confidentiality of all Confidential Information as hereinafter provided.NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the foregoing and for other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the parties hereby agree as follows:Recipient shall treat as confidential, non-public and proprietary any and all data and other information obtained from or on behalf of Disclosers and its affiliates, whether received prior or subsequent to the execution of this Agreement, and whether or not so designated or marked, including information transmitted through any means whatsoever, whether oral, written or otherwise recorded (\"Confidential Information\").Recipient shall not disclose any Confidential Information to any third party without prior written consent of Disclosers, except to its officers or other employees, agents or advisors (collectively, \"Representatives\") that have (a) a need-to-know such Confidential Information for the purpose of the Accelerator Program, and (b) agree to keep the Confidential Information confidential in accordance with the terms hereof and to observe the other terms of this Agreement. This Agreement shall apply to any of Recipient's Representatives as if they were direct parties hereto and Recipient shall be responsible for any breach of this Agreement by any of its Representatives.Recipient shall not use any Confidential Information otherwise than directly in furtherance and for purposes of evaluating the Accelerator Program and shall ensure that Confidential Information is treated with the same degree of care as Recipient would apply in connection with its own proprietary and confidential information and materials.In any event where disclosure of Confidential Information is required of Recipient by law or governmental regulation of a relevant jurisdiction, Recipient immediately shall give Disclosers written notice of such requirement and consult with Disclosers in advance of disclosure as to the form, nature and purpose of such disclosure (to the extent legally permissible), and in any event will give to Disclosers copies of any disclosure immediately upon releasing the same (or as soon thereafter as is legally permissible).Confidential Information does not include information that (i) is or becomes generally available to the public other than as a result of a disclosure by Recipient or any of its Representatives in breach of this Agreement, (ii) Recipient rightfully obtained or obtains on a non-confidential basis from a third party that had or has the right to transfer or disclose such information at the time the information was or is obtained, or (iii) Recipient can demonstrate was independently developed by Recipient without reference to, incorporation of, or other use of any Confidential Information or other information from a source that is bound by an obligation of confidentiality For the purpose of Clause 1.5 specific information disclosed by Disclosers to Recipient shall not be deemed to be generally available to the public or to be in the prior possession of Recipient by virtue of the fact that the information is known to a few people to whom the information may be of commercial interest, or merely because it is embraced by more general information in the public domain or by more general information thereafter acquired by Recipient. Additionally, where various individual elements, components or parts of the knowledge or information are public knowledge then it shall not mean that the knowledge or information relating to the Accelerator Program as a whole is also public knowledge.Nothing in this Agreement shall impose any obligation on Disclosers to enter into any definitive Agreement regarding the Accelerator Program.All Confidential Information provided to Recipient shall remain the property of Disclosers and Disclosers may demand the return thereof at any time, for any reason, upon giving written notice to Recipient. Within five (5) business days of receipt of such notice, Recipient shall return all of the original Confidential Information and shall destroy, or cause the destruction, of all copies and reproductions, summaries, analysis, or other reports (both written and electronic) in its possession and in the possession of its Representatives, with no copies retained. The Recipient shall certify to Disclosers in writing that all such material has been so destroyed or delivered in compliance herewith.Recipient shall indemnify and hold harmless Disclosers and its Representatives against any and all claims, losses, damages, costs or expenses arising out of or in connection with Recipient's (for avoidance of doubt, including without limitation Recipient's Representatives) failure to abide by its obligations, or negligence or other wrongful actions or omissions, with respect (or in any way related to) this Agreement, including without limitation any governmental action or proceeding arising out of such conduct.It is understood and agreed that money damages would not be a sufficient remedy for any breach of this Agreement and Disclosers shall be entitled to an injunction or injunctions (without the proof of actual damages) to prevent breaches or threatened breaches of this Agreement and to compel specific performance of this Agreement, without prejudice to any other rights or remedies available to Disclosers at law or in equity.Notwithstanding any other provision of this Agreement, Recipient acknowledges and agrees that it will not make reference publicly to Disclosers or any of its affiliates, including without limitation in any promotional materials, media, or similar circumstances, without Disclosers prior written consent.This Agreement contains the entire agreement between the parties concerning the subject matter hereof. No modification to this Agreement or waiver of the terms and conditions hereof shall be binding upon either party, unless approved in writing by each party. Any assignment of this Agreement by either party without the prior written consent of the other shall be void.The Parties shall use their best efforts to settle any disputes arising out of or in any way connected with this agreement. The parties agree that any and all disputes arising out of the terms of this Agreement, their interpretation and any of the matters herein released (a \"Dispute\"), without prejudice to the parties' rights to seek interim legal remedies such as injunctions, shall be finally settled under the International Chamber of Commerce.This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties and their direct and indirect successors and assigns as of the date first written above and will continue in full force and effect for a period of two (2) years from the date hereof.AGREED AND EFFECTIVE, as of the date first above written. ","tokenCount":"4937"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"62c38d6b204bd8b35cc7a3986926d80c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ecf5a108-9c7b-45d4-8bc7-72143ae73000/retrieve","id":"-1871181663"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a6d706b-9b47-42da-807c-237d93da5a7e","pagecount":"2","content":"Description of activity / study: Using primary data from 250 randomly sampled maize farmers in Kenya, scientists developed a resilience index and a structural equation model to assess Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)-based farmer resilience. With a 0.72 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (above recommended minimum), authors concluded that maize farmers affected by climate variability were more resilient when they used CSA practices, suggesting enhanced resilience to climate variability. To analyse the maize household resilience index, the study used a structural equation model (SEM), which was significant. Results indicated that both maize-legume intercropping and use of manure as fertilizer reduce the variance in maize yields, suggesting that they enhanced the resilience of maize farmers. CSA practices improve farmers? food security and welfare, and their adoption should be promoted.• National Country(ies):• KenyaComments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications:• https://hdl.handle.net/10883/21866","tokenCount":"138"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e99d937de529175445ab259fc577b7af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/81edda89-9eb5-4348-a1d1-5563b1cfc98e/retrieve","id":"-65113008"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"39fd9e25-0723-4f61-a8b7-0e3d44ca7512","pagecount":"2","content":"L'ECABREN a pour objectif de fournir aux cultivateurs de haricots des cultivars à haut rendement et bien adaptés, qui offrent une bonne tolérance aux principaux ravageurs et maladies, et présentent les propriétés culinaires et les caractéristiques semencières convenant aux consommateurs et à l'industrie de transformation. La stratégie mise en place vise également à améliorer l'efficacité du développement et de la diffusion des cultivars améliorés et à renforcer la capacité de sélection des programmes nationaux au profit des habitants de la région.À l'instar de son réseau frère pour l'Afrique australe (le SABRN), l'ECABREN, a élaboré en 2000 une stratégie induite par le marché, fondée sur l'idée que les cultivateurs de haricots ne produisent pas nécessairement pour leur propre subsistance, mais aussi en vue des marchés locaux et régionaux, voire pour l'exportation internationale (dans le cas spécifique du mangetout vert et des gros haricots blancs). Cette orientation vers les demandes du marché et les préférences des consommateurs génère des priorités de production différentes selon les pays. La stratégie d'ensemble de l'ECABREN consiste à développer des programmes de sélection pour sept principales catégories commerciales de la région en s'appuyant sur des méthodes participatives. Les principaux SNRA ont été sélectionnés sur la base de l'importance d'une catégorie spécifique dans leur pays, ainsi que sur des avantages comparatifs. Le programme de sélection s'articule autour des priorités suivantes : (1) amélioration du rendement, (2) sources de résistance aux principaux ravageurs et maladies, (3) évaluation des lignées avancées pour la productivité et (4) qualités culinaires et nutritionnelles.La nouvelle stratégie décentralisée de sélection est basée sur le partenariat et le partage des responsabilités entre les exploitants, les spécialistes des SNRA et ceux du CIAT, les ONG, les organisations communautaires, les producteurs de semences, les industriels de l'agroalimentaire et les exportateurs. Les spécialistes des SNRA élaborent des programmes de sélection, collectent le matériel génétique, sélectionnent et mettent en place des pépinières, diffusent des lignées améliorées, produisent des semences de sélection et maintiennent les variétés. Ils se chargent aussi de l'établissement de liens avec les producteurs de semences et des activités de diffusion. Selon un accord novateur conclu entre l'Université de Nairobi, l'ECABREN et le CIAT, les sélectionneurs régionaux complètent les programmes nationaux en menant des recherches parallèles en vue de créer de nouvelles populations de haricots. Ils dispensent aussi des formations dans le domaine de la sélection et assurent la coordination régionale et un appui technique permanent. Les spécialistes du CIAT ont fourni des ressources génétiques. Ils sont également chargés des formations portant sur les techniques avancées de sélection des haricots et les méthodes de suivi-évaluation participatif, et de la supervision des travaux des étudiants.Les sept programmes de sélection menés par les SNRA sont opérationnels. Des pépinières ont été mises en place et, depuis 2000, plus de 10 000 accessions de germoplasme ont été échangées dans la région. En 2003, l'évaluation régionale des lignées avancées sélectionnées a commencé dans différents pays. Des sélectionneurs se sont réunis afin d'identifier, pour chaque catégorie commerciale, des lignées régionales ayant de bons résultats dans au moins deux pays, ainsi que des lignées spécifiquement adaptées à un pays. Ces lignées sont entrées dans les dernières phases d'évaluation en milieu réel et en station expérimentale avant leur introduction officielle. Les activités de croisement se sont intensifiées : plusieurs programmes nationaux génèrent de nouvelles populations en sélection. Des programmes de formation sur la sélection à l'aide de marqueurs et sur la phytosélection participative ont eu lieu, et sept sélectionneurs des SNRA ont été invités à encadrer des formations universitaires.Selon plusieurs études de marché effectuées au Kenya, au Rwanda, en Tanzanie et en Ouganda aux niveaux local, régional et international, les haricots bon marché sont en faveur sur les marchés nationaux, le prix (et non la qualité) prenant une importance croissante pour les consommateurs disposant de faibles revenus. Les haricots de grande culture « écossés frais » représentent un segment à fort rapport économique en Ouganda. Le Kenya importe de plus en plus de haricots grains, sa production demeurant stationnaire face à une consommation en hausse. Il dispose toutefois d'un avantage compétitif en répondant à certains segments de marché à valeur ajoutée (comme les haricots verts pour les marchés européens). La Tanzanie, qui a les plus faibles coûts de production, est en bonne position pour augmenter les exportations de haricots vers le Kenya. L'Ouganda, du fait également de ses faibles coûts de production, peut augmenter ses exportations, particulièrement vers l'ouest du Kenya et le Rwanda (importateur important de haricots grains en provenance de la RDC).La stratégie actuelle induite par le marché est appelée à être poursuivie. En 2004, les parties prenantes de l'ECABREN ont convenu de concentrer la recherche sur quatre produits : les haricots pour l'alimentation et la santé, les mangetouts verts ainsi que les petits haricots blancs de conserve pour les marchés nationaux et d'exportation, et les gros haricots blancs et les haricots du Cap pour les marchés nationaux, régionaux et internationaux. L'ECABREN désire à l'avenir renforcer les liens avec les exportateurs et les industriels de l'agroalimentaire, mettre en place de nouvelles solutions face aux menaces du pourridié, de la mouche du haricot et des nouvelles races de pathogènes, et se concentrer également sur les haricots volubiles pour les sols pauvres, les lignées tolérantes à la sécheresse, la sélection de cultivars convenant aux systèmes de cultures associées, la sélection à l'aide de marqueurs, l'amélioration visant les qualités nutritionnelles, l'enrichissement de la base génétique en vue de la sélection, sans oublier les produits porteurs sur le marché comme les haricots à rames. ","tokenCount":"916"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/8709990067.json b/data/part_5/8709990067.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e8d7602867a0b954542d5c00ebcd12fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28028e6b-bff0-43cf-a863-e38705742688/retrieve","id":"144318475"},"keywords":["offal","renewable protein","food security","food safety","game meat","KwaZulu Natal","South Africa"],"sieverID":"867bb6a8-10eb-4ca4-902d-a27bc0f74468","pagecount":"102","content":"the requirements for the degree Master of Veterinary Medicine (Hyg) in the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria. Year and date of submission: October 2012 © © U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y o of f P Pr re et to or ri ia a 1. Professor C M E McCrindle my mentor, supervisor and friend, for her invaluable guidance, for spurring me on at times when I tried quitting, her moral support and endless late nights spent from the inception of this dissertation to its completion. 2. Mosstrich Export Game Abattoir staff members especially, Dr.Hein Nel, for his insight of the game industry, Charl de Villiers (PRO) -at Mosstrich Export Game Abattoir, for their co-operation, time and invaluable contribution, kindness and assistance that they afforded me during the course of my research. 3. Alexandra Heeb, post-graduate student from Hohenheim University, Germany, for assisting with data collection from the informal traders in the research area. 4. The Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs-KwaZulu-Natal, Dr.D.I. Mtshali, my supervisor, for permitting me time to complete this study. My staff M. Naicker for his assistance and moral support. 5. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) for funding this research and providing opportunities of attending conferences and workshops presented both locally and internationally. 6. Special mention of my Mum, brothers, their families and Cindy for indulging me in the comforts of their homes and lives. I love & thank you.7. Ms Segomotso Lebogo for her kindness and administrative support.In South Africa Hygiene Assessment Systems (HAS) is a National Hygiene management strategy implemented at abattoirs, that promotes and facilitates quality and hygiene and is reflective of South African quality abroad. It is prescribed under the section, \"Essential National Standards\" in the Meat Safety Act, 2000, (Act 40 of 2000). This Act covers red meat and includes both domestic animals and game. The Veterinary Procedural Notices (VPN's) are used for export of game and give far more detailed guidelines than the legislation for game meat sold and consumed locally in South Africa.The objective of the Hygiene Assessment System (HAS) is to create a national awareness of quality to better improve the quality of life of all South Africans, whilst at the same time it is used as an auditing tool for Veterinary Public Health to effectively compare essential standards within the nine provinces. Currently this programme is referred to as the National Abattoir Rating Scheme (NARS), which is only applicable to the high and low throughput Red Meat and Poultry abattoirs in South Africa and not to the Game or Rural abattoirs, thereby further compounding the duality of food standards with food safety being compromised.This study has been undertaken because there are inadequate risk control measures such as introduction of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) guidelines on primary and secondary meat inspection, specifically on game for local consumption, not only within South Africa, but in the international arena as well. A revision of the HAS document and audit will also be needed to xv meet with the local (not just export) criteria for wild game harvesting, to enable food safety, thus enabling food security in the remote non -agricultural areas in KwaZulu -Natal.Venison is the meat of today because of health priorities that have arisen over the last ten years. It is low in trans -fatty acids and is regarded internationally as a healthy product produced organically in a free range situation. South Africa has a large potential export market for venison to the European Union because the demand, for venison, exceeds supply in Europe. However, the European Union's \"safe food regulation\" that was introduced between 2005 and 2007 with an implementation date of 2008 (Regulation1021/2008) has made it imperative that the HACCP principle is applied to any food or food product of animal origin imported into the European Union or its member states. Also, HACCP specifies that a multidisciplinary team of experts is selected. This then lends itself to a participatory approach to risk assessment as wide consultation is required.This participatory approach was used, including expert opinion surveys and focus group discussions with stakeholders and role-players in the game industry such as commercial hunters, state veterinary services and game ranch owners. Such participants may have better insight into existing conditions than external experts with recognised educational qualifications, usually used in the HACCP team.From this and the relevant Veterinary Procedural Notices for game harvesting, a HACCP process flow and critical control points were derived for the primary phase of meat inspection, including slaughter, primary meat inspection and loading for transport to the abattoir. This was modified during a phase or trial harvesting and then implemented during the harvest of 1758 impala carcasses which were subsequently exported. In addition, environmental risks were considered and a risk mitigation strategy designed, to reduce any possible environmental impacts.In northern Kwazulu Natal, game ranches and conservation areas are in close proximity to the rural poor where food is scarce and comes at a premium price.xvi These game farms harvest seasonally for either the local or export market, hence there is abundance of game offal and by-products available, yet it is at present left in the field or taken to the vulture restaurants (in line with the VPN).Participatory risk analysis was thus also used to investigate the feasibility of using edible offal from impala (Aepyceros melampus) as a source of renewable protein, to address food security issues in impoverished communities in the study area, the districts of uPongola and Jozini, in northern KwaZulu Natal. Structured interviews on the cultural acceptability of impala offal were held with 162 randomly sampled adult respondents in veterinary districts associated with dip tanks. A two stage cluster design was used where the state veterinary areas were stage one and the dip tanks (with proportional random sampling of community members) were the second stage. Offal is a popular food in South Africa in different cultures, called \"ithumbu\" in IsiZulu, \" boti\" by the Indian group, \"afval\" in Afrikaans and \"tripe\" in English. Generally demand outstrips supply of offal at red meat abattoirs in South Africa. It was found that there was no significant difference between those who would eat impala offal and those who would eat the offal of sheep.It was concluded that it is feasible to use inspected game offal from impala as a protein source in much the same way as red meat offal is used and that the current practice of leaving the offal for predators was likely, if it continues, to cause imbalances in the predator/ prey ratio on game farms.It is recommended that the VPN for game be amended to encompass inspected offal being allowed into the formal food chain, in line with the standard operating procedure developed during this study. Also that current fragmentation of legislation and the implementation thereof is revisited for effective control for harmonisation of food safety standards for game meat within South Africa. Union or its member states. HACCP guidelines further specify that a multidisciplinary team is selected. This then lends itself to a participatory approach to risk assessment as wide consultation is required.Harvesting of game therefore, provides possibilities for poverty alleviation in the area, not only due to the knock-on effects of export opportunities but also job creation, and the possibility of informal marketing of low-cost by-products. These by products could provide food security, improved health, for both, those children afflicted by Kwashiorkor, and immuno-compromised individuals, job creation, as well as poverty alleviation.Similarly, the holistic approach of wild game harvesting from \"cradle to grave\" or harvest to disposal of condemned products into vulture restaurants adds to the food chain for predators and scavengers including jackals, hyena, wild dogs and vultures.This study has been undertaken because there are inadequate risk control measures such as introduction of HACCP guidelines for primary and secondary meat inspection for game, not only within South Africa, but in the international arena as well. This research is aimed at developing innovative participatory HACCP strategies to be adopted in the food value chain as commitment to the food industry, both locally and internationally. The HACCP strategy has, of recent, been implemented in the food industry and is being adopted in most other food environments as a benchmark of quality. This radical innovative HACCP strategy for game will bring about a whole new concept for change into the game industry that would be a catalyst for international trade and economic development for adoption by the European Union in compliance with global trade in game. The principles of HACCP to be applied will be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time related for \"Safe Food, Fair Food\" (Grace et al, 2008).The South African antelope known as \"Impala\" (Aepyceros melampus), currently the most sought after game species, has been chosen as a model for the development and recording of standard operating procedures and critical control points. Participatory risk assessment, as part of HACCP, will be done to estimate the risk of hazards likely to decrease the quality and safety of wild game meat derived from culling and /or harvesting of Impala (Plate 1.1).Therefore, this study aims at conducting risk analysis using a combination of traditional and participatory methods, which can contribute towards improved standards for export products as well as poverty alleviation in the communities proximal to game production areas.Mervyn Cowie (1961), who is an East African stated:\"When the Africans realise that some land is more valuable for producing wild animal products than for ranching useless scrub cattle, or trying to grow very scanty crops, they will appreciate that our endowment of wild life is an asset of great value\". Very little scientific research, has so far, been dedicated to the domestic marketing chains of South African game meat products. Few studies dedicated to the application of HACCP-principles in the production and processing of game meat have been conducted. The lack of previously generated scientific information concerning the focus of research has been one of the greatest challenges to writing a review of past literature for the present study.The quality and safety of meat remains a challenge to both developed and emerging countries for international trade. It has become essential to adhere to international food safety management systems like HACCP and guidelines in the form of Veterinary Procedural Notices (VPN's) have been written by the National Department of Agriculture, to address this deficiency in South Africa (Table 1.1).The HACCP approach for wild game meat extends from the \"bush to the table\", rather than \"stable to table\". These VPN's provide the response to a rationale for primary game meat inspection to reduce the likelihood of introducing a hazard which may adversely affect the safety of food or its suitability for consumption at later stages of the food chain. The Impala is one of the most common and predominant sources of wild game meat in KwaZulu-Natal and probably in South Africa, thus was selected as the experimental animal for this research study. It is proposed that this study in culled impala will include logistics and measures to avoid the use of areas where the environment poses a threat to the safety of food, controlling contaminants, pests and diseases in such a way as not to pose a threat to food safety, whilst adopting practices and measures to ensure food is produced under appropriately hygienic conditions.The muscles of game animals, and especially Impala, contain only very little subcutaneous and intramuscular fat when compared to domestic species. For this reason, amongst other, game meat has the potential to be sold as a health product (Hoffman, 2000;Hoffman et al., 2005). Thus, it was decided to develop a HACCP system for wild game (represented by Impala) harvested in KwaZulu-Natal to comply with the European Union regulation described above. HACCP specifies that a multidisciplinary team is selected. This lends itself to a participatory approach to risk assessment, as wide consultation is required.Usually these are experts, however, the participatory approach allows for inclusion of stakeholders, role players and end users in the \"team\". Such people may have better insight into existing conditions than external experts with recognised educational qualifications.In addition to export of the wild game meat, there is a market for the offal and secondary cuts resulting from the primary cuts. These by-products could be used to promote food security in low income communities on a regular seasonal basis, which coincides with the winter months, a time of year when crops are scarce, due to low rainfall in the study area: a summer rainfall zone.The game industry should operate within the legal parameters that are already in place to monitor the quality and safety of meat and meat products in South Africa. These requirements are listed and described in the Meat Safety Act,( Act 40, of 2000) (DoA, 2000).Currently the legislation with regard to harvesting of game has been promulgated but has not yet been finalized; therefore the compliance with international regulations is done on an \"ad hoc\" basis. The final draft was sent through for public comment only in October, 2012. The VPN's (See Table 1) are used as guidelines for harmonization within the nine provinces, in compliance with the National Department of Agriculture.(DoA 2000) There is no standard operating procedure for disposal of by-products or the handling of waste generated from harvesting game. This has potential consequences for environmental protection.In effect, game harvesting is still in an \"informal\" marketing phase although it is commercially viable. It could potentially contribute greatly to job creation and poverty alleviation, in the study area, where it has been observed by the researcher, that living standards of the rural population are low and there is a high level of unemployment and HIV/AIDS positive community members.Food of animal origin is high in protein and thus a valuable source for the undernourished and immuno-compromised sectors of society. Therefore affordable and accessible protein is crucial to meet these needs. It is suggested that byproducts from the wild game industry, such as offal, shanks and heads, which are currently discarded, could be an affordable source of human food.Participatory risk analysis (Grace et al, 2008) could be used in such communities to draw a flow chart for impala meat and offal and evaluate potential food safety risks of using these products in informal markets. This innovative strategy could ultimately not only fulfill the socio -economic and nutritional needs of the people in the study area, but it would also develop international standards of HACCP for meat of wild game from other species, thus significantly boosting the economic growth and development of the area thereby sustaining South Africa as a global economic trading partner.That it will be possible to describe the value chains for game meat (impala) and formulate HACCP strategies to comply with international standards of food safety while opening a market for safe, affordable and accessible protein in low income communities, using participatory risk analysis.The benefits of this research will be:- • A Hygiene Assessment System (HAS) and pre-requisites for (Hazard Analysis Critical Control HACCP, during slaughter and primary meat inspection of game, with impala as the study model.• An auditing framework for slaughter and primary meat inspection during harvesting linked to control points that promote food safety, meat hygiene and animal welfare of impala.• Improved food security through distribution of inspected, low cost byproducts (offal) as an affordable source of protein for vulnerable local communities.This research aims at developing participatory risk analysis to facilitate HACCP in the game food value chain, as a commitment for safe food to the food industry, both locally and internationally. The scientific and technological advantages and spin offs will not only be of benefit to the wellbeing of humans in all strata of life, but will also protect the environment. The HACCP strategy has only recently been implemented in the food industry and is not yet in place for game meat, although it is being adopted in most other food environments as a standard measure of quality. ( Achterbosch & Van Tongeren, 2002).Both formal and informal marketing chains for game meat will be investigated and recorded. This study will identify the critical control points during the harvesting process, simultaneously; mitigating measures will be put into place to reduce risks. Suggestions shall be made for improving methods for poverty alleviation, significantly improving the dietary requirements of the immunocompromised, enhancing animal welfare concerns, and environmentally friendly strategies for the disposal of waste products generated from the game harvesting. Ultimately, the aim of this study is to provide evidence that Impala offal is consumed in the rural communities surrounding the wild game areas of this study in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.1. To obtain updated data on the export of game, including impala in South Africa.2. To develop a practical value chain from field to fork for impala harvesting in northern KZN, using the VPN's as a guideline, in consultation with stakeholders.3. To use participatory methods including focus groups and expert interviews, with stakeholders in game harvesting to identify CP's and CCP's along the value chain.4. To facilitate a sustainable approach to supplying safe, affordable animal protein from inspected game by-products to vulnerable local communities.5. To investigate whether cooked impala offal would be acceptable as food to the community in northern KZN, in particular school feeding schemes.  In general the main type of game meat exported comes from wild antelope.Springbok are the major source of game meat exported, but over the study period, 3000 impala were culled for export in northern KZN (GAME SA, 2012).South African game meat production is predominantly based on wild, freerunning animals (Hoffman & Wiklund, 2006). It is largely free of human intervention as well as independent from the use of steroids, pesticides and hormones (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). The impala, Aepyceros Melampus, is a common indigenous wild antelope free- In South Africa, the name \"Impala\" is derived from its traditional Zulu name iMpala, whilst the Tswana people of the Limpopo province, refer to it as phala.The distribution of the naturally occurring impala, within South Africa, extends from Kuruman in the west, towards the Drakensberg escarpment in the east and the northern low-veld areas of KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. Impala, have recently been successfully introduced into the Eastern Cape region, the Free State and the Eastern Karoo (Hoffman, 2000) Game animals can be utilized consumptively or non-consumptively, whereby non-consumptive utilization is the provision of services to tourists, for example activities such as game viewing, bird watching and wildlife photography. The consumptive utilization, on the other hand, comprises game meat production, trophy hunting, recreational hunting as well as live capture and sales (Mostert & Hoffman, 2007). The combination of the above processes is regarded as an appropriate way to sustainably utilize wildlife by different conservationists.Additionally, both may create incentives for community conservation (Ashley & Jones, 2001).This study will exclusively focus on the consumptive utilization of game animals.When looking at the major ways to consumptively utilize game animals, trophy hunting reportedly brings along the highest net return on capital, followed by biltong, recreational hunting and live sales. In this context, game meat production is associated with the lowest returns on capital. Nevertheless, when considering the small number of trophy animals per particular game ranch, it becomes clear that, per unit area, trophy hunting in fact results in the lowest return (Mostert & Hoffman, 2007).According to Carruthers (2008) the term \"game\" in some cases appears to be reserved for animals that are hunted for amusement, while the term \"wildlife\" comprises all indigenous animals of a region. However, problems arise when trying to distinguish between \"game\" and \"wildlife\" in the South African context as there is no such distinction made in either, the English or the Afrikaans language.In these languages the terms \"wild\", which is pronounced \"vilt\" in Afrikaans, refers to both game animals and other wild animals to the same extent.Game ranching has been defined as \"the scientific management of certain species of wild animals in their natural habitat without an effort to domesticate them\". Wildlife management is defined, in contrast, as \"the discipline of keeping game at desirable levels or the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wildlife for recreational use\". \"Game farming\" is carried out on comparatively small, restricted, fenced areas within which game animals are intensively managed, or domesticated, in order to produce and harvest marketable products (Carruthers, 2008;Pollock, 1969). In the case of \"game ranching\", wildlife products, predominantly of ungulate species, are utilized through hunting, sales, tourism and other forms of indirect use (Carruthers, 2008).In South Africa, the commercial utilization of game animals has shown tremendous growth during the past 20 to 25 years. The demand for venison in European countries fuels the export of game meat products ( Mostert & Hoffman, 2007).In Africa in general, the informal game meat sector is expected to grow at a considerable rate as there is an increasing demand as a result of the strong growth in human population. The commercial utilization of game meat has potential for increasing food security locally as well as for increasing export revenue.In South Africa there are substantial wildlife resources outside protected areas, due to the dominance of privately owned farms and ranches as many of the protected areas were established in the early 1900's (Bigalke, 2000). In contrast to Australia, New Zealand, the European Union (EU) and the United States of America (USA), where venison is chiefly harvested from farmed game, the South African game meat production is predominantly based on wild, free-roaming antelope (Hoffman & Wiklund, 2006). The meat is thus regarded as suitable for health conscious consumers, as it is free of steroids, pesticides, antimicrobial drugs and hormones (Radder & Le Roux, 2005).Venison is a relatively inexpensive form of animal protein in South Africa and is not exclusively a luxury item, as it is in many other parts of the world (Hoffman et there is an obvious movement away from conventional livestock production towards game production. Traditionally, many South Africans consumed game meat as a dried, salted product known as \"Biltong\", however, consumption of game meat within the South African hotel and restaurant sector is increasing (Mostert & Hoffman, 2007).If game meat products are to compete with other meat products, the necessity of scientifically based information on its quality cannot be denied (Mostert & Hoffman, 2007). Animal health, trans boundary diseases and food associated diseases such trichinosis, must also be considered (Field, 2004, OIE, 2012).The main market for exported game meat is the EU (  Although the marketing of game meat is growing at local and international level, a great potential for the expansion of target markets for game meat products remains (Féron et al., 1998;Mostert & Hoffman, 2007). Owners must also supply a stock report and a report on any stock remedies or veterinary medicines used, for all game on the farm, annually (DoA, 2003(DoA, -2005)).The majority of game animals used for meat are slaughtered in the field (Gill, 2007). According to (Hoffman et al. 2004) game meat is traditionally obtained during the winter, due to low ambient temperatures that prevent rapid spoilage of carcasses prior to dressing and cooling. However, \"game harvesting\" or \"game cropping\" can also be conducted during hotter times of the year if cooling facilities are available and the dressing of carcasses is carried out immediately (Hoffman et al., 2004).Currently, game animals that are harvested for export come from large privately owned game ranches. When game animals are harvested, this is usually carried out by well-trained marksmen using a spotlight after dark to blind the game   There is also some confusion about the name of the qualification of meat inspectors as they are called \"Environmental Health Practitioners\", as well as \"Occupational Health and Safety Officers\" or \"Veterinary Public Health Practitioners\". In terms of the Meat Safety act, a designated person may perform the duties of a meat inspector (DoA, 2000). Such a \"designated person\" may also have other qualifications such as Animal Health Technician or even Veterinary Science. The list of pertinent legislations is included in Addendum 1.Although Codex, OIE and FAO mention ante-mortem inspection of animals for slaughter as well as slaughter methods, these are covered very superficially for game (CAC, 2005; FAO, 2004; OIE, 2012). In South Africa, the same situation exists, the red meat legislation and VPN's, even those for game, give few details on hygienic standards and animal welfare prior to slaughter of game, although these are more effectively specified for domestic animals (DoA, 2000, DoA 2003-Of necessity, wild animals are shot and the exsanguination and evisceration takes place under field conditions, not in an abattoir. In fact, it is deemed acceptable that bleeding out can take place as long as 10 minutes after shooting (Bergh, 2007). It is noted that head shots are preferred (DoA, 2003(DoA, -2005)), but in this case the animal dies rapidly and it is unlikely that much blood would come out if the throat was cut 10 minutes later.Risk based evaluation for meat is based initially on organoleptic post mortem inspection procedures, which includes primary meat inspection by a meat examiner and secondary meat inspection by a designated veterinarian. This applies to both red meat and game (CAC, 2005).The verification of process control of meat hygiene is by microbiological testing.In Monitoring hygiene at abattoirs was the first step in managing and auditing meat quality at abattoirs. These were called Hygiene Management Systems (HMS) 2  and were followed, in the United Kingdom, by Hygiene Assessment Systems (HAS) 2 , which introduced auditing, so that the level of compliance could be measured. Following the British system HAS audits have been instituted in most South African abattoirs.In HAS, auditing the Critical Control Points (CCP's) can be identified for remediation and this has been prescribed for game culling audits (DoA, 2003(DoA, -2005)). Both of which are now applied as prerequisites for the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point process, which is legislated in the Meat Safety Act, 2000 (DoA, 2000). The steps are shown in Fig 2 .3 below. Before HACCP can be applied, all prerequisites should be in place. These are usually aligned to HAS audits and these can often be used more easily in informal systems on farm to make sure that hygiene, animal health and animal welfare are in place before an animal is slaughtered.According to the Codex Manual on Hygienic Practices for Meat, (CAC, 2005), HACCP is part of a risk based approach, as quoted below:\"A contemporary risk-based approach to meat hygiene requires that hygiene measures should be applied at those points in the food chain where they will be of greatest value in reducing food-borne risks to consumers. This should be reflected in application of specific measures based on science and risk assessment, with a greater emphasis on prevention and control of contamination during all aspects of production of meat and its further processing. Application of HACCP principles is an essential element. The measure of success of contemporary programmes, is an objective demonstration of levels of hazard control in food that are correlated with required levels of consumer protection, rather than by concentrating on detailed and prescriptive measures that give an unknown outcome.\" in the form of preventative approaches towards sustainable food safety. They are essentially different from traditional approaches that rely chiefly on the sampling of end-products and their inspection (Ababouch, 2000a). Also, different to traditional approaches of food safety control, HACCP systems are integrated into the design of a given production process and they are of a comparatively high cost-effectiveness (Motarjemi et al., 1996). Therefore, as a key advantage over conventional reactive approaches, the basic principle of the HACCP system is the possibility to identify potential hazards and inadequate practices at an early stage of food processing (Ehiri et al., 1995). 1. Assemble HACCP Team HACCP comprises the identification of critical control points of processing as well as the identification of processing parameters for these critical control points, which will guarantee product safety if maintained (Coleman and Marks, 1999). In this context, a HACCP system is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards that may occur during the production, processing, manufacturing, preparation or the use of food so that the consumption of unsafe food can be avoided for the sake of the health of consumers (Motarjemi et al., 1996).HACCP comprises seven fundamental principles (See Q1 Do corrective measures exist for the hazard? Modify step, process or product Is control needed for food safety?Q2 does the step eliminate or reduce the hazard?Q3 Could contamination occur or increase at unacceptable levels?Q4 does a subsequent step eliminate or reduce the hazard to an acceptable level? with the meaning of a hazard analysis and the differences between biological, chemical and physical hazards. It is necessary to be aware of the possible hazards that may be present in game meat and to conduct a proper and accurate hazard analysis (including risk analysis).In The establishment of HACCP systems in developing countries faces manifold problems (Jirathana, 1998) and, to stay realistic, a systematic implementation of HACCP-based food safety approaches throughout these countries cannot be expected to take place very soon (Motarjemi et al., 1996). In developing countries there are often only few or even no local experts of HACCP. For this reason foreigners often need to be employed at considerable expenses, which can in many cases not or not fully be afforded by government bodies and the local food processing industry. Furthermore, overseas experts may only improve the situation substantially if they are able to make themselves aware of the specific problems of the countries in which they will promote HACCP adoption.Also, much HACCP training by these experts in developing countries have appeared to be chiefly of abstract character.Such training does not offer the possibility for trainees to learn about HACCP in practice, because they lack particular products and processes. Unfortunately, another problem in developing countries is the fact, that, in many cases, inexperienced and under-qualified persons are chosen to take part in these HACCP-training courses. This reflects the general problem of many developing countries of a lack of people, who are qualified enough to eventually benefit from such training courses. In addition to this, the apparent brain-drain in many developing countries, whereby qualified personnel move to other economies in order to obtain higher salaries surely further increases the difficulties of HACCP establishment in the developing world.In addition to this, communication and lack of sufficient skills, in the English language in large parts of the populations of many third world countries, further compounds the problem. Most foreign experts, available, use English as their vehicle of instruction and almost all literature pertaining to HACCP is available only in the English language (Jirathana, 1998). In many developing countries underdeveloped logistic conditions are another major constraint in the implementation of HACCP systems (Henson et al., 2000). Nevertheless, in the food industries of most developing countries the awareness of the necessity of HACCP systems is increasing although the introduction of HACCP to developing countries will continue to struggle with numerous problems and constraints (Jirathana, 1998).Risk is ubiquitous and unavoidable (Morris, 2002).Risk analysis in food safety is a new science-based approach to effectively enable governments to protect consumers against food borne diseases and to respond appropriately if necessary. It makes it possible to systematically link epidemiological data relating to food borne hazards. Risk analysis is used as a framework to view and react to food safety problems in a systematic, scientific and structured way. A risk analysis framework offers a process to systematically and transparently collect, analyze and evaluate both scientific and non-scientific information that is of importance concerning chemical, biological or physical hazard possibilities. However, any risk analysis should be based on all scientific evidence and information on perceptions, costs and environmental and cultural factors that are available (FAO/WHO, 2005a ; Rooney & Wall, 2003).).The development of food safety evaluations has reached a substantial parting of the ways as modern biology is utilized in aspects of food safety (FAO/WHO, 2005b). Food safety risk analysis is applied by international as well as by national and regional food safety authorities and there are some notable differences between these processes to be found at these different levels: At international level, different Codex Committees recommend food safety standards and take the role of risk managers, while national food authorities are generally in charge of the execution of risk analysis. Components of risk analysis that have been conducted at the international level can be successfully used in the national context (FAO/WHO, 2006). Both, the FAO and WHO were key players in the development of food safety risk analysis. As early as 1991, the \"Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Food Standards, Chemicals in Food and Food Trade\" advocated the incorporation of risk assessment principles into the decision-making process of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), that is currently in place today (FAO/WHO, 2005a).Risk analysis comprises of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication (Schlundt, 1999). Each of these components is essential in the risk analysis process as each one is of complementary importance (FAO/WHO, 2005a). However, the starting point of a risk analysis has to be risk assessment Although risk assessment and HACCP are related they are fundamentally different processes. Risk assessment is a process based on science which is applied to estimate the likelihood and severity of risk with accompanying uncertainty. In this context, many organizations identify four major elements of risk assessment, which are hazard identification, exposure assessment, doseresponse assessment or hazard characterization and risk characterization (Schlundt, 1999).Risk management is the process of weighing policy alternatives by mutual consent with all interested parties. Thereby, risk assessment and other factors important for the protection of consumers' health and for the promotion of fair trade practices are taken into consideration. If necessary, the selection of suitable prevention and control options is also taken into account. Both, risk management and risk assessment need to be performed within an open and transparent environment as well as on the basis of communication and dialogue.(Schlundt, 1999).throughout the risk analysis process in terms of risk, risk-related factors and risk conception amongst risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic community and other interested parties. In many cases, the procedure peaks in the implementation and continuous monitoring by risk managers.Additionally, the explanation of statements of risk assessment and the basis of risk management decisions is carried out (FAO/WHO, 2005a). Subsequent to a risk analysis, models that help to identify the most suitable strategies to manage the identified risks can be generated and tested for their suitability to boost a desired future development of a given situation (SFFF, 2012).Already in the early 1970s development professionals focusing on developing countries had to cope with the failure of formal data collection methods, which were applied to recover cost-effective and reliable data for the planning of projects. As a result, a system called 'Rapid Rural Appraisal' (RRA) was developed in the 1980s, which aimed to merge the knowledge and skills of the targeted aid recipients with scientific knowledge in development projects.Nowadays, an advancement of the PRA, the 'Participatory Rural Appraisal' (PRA), is widely applied by development projects, which is based on a crucial participation of aid recipients (Catley & Mohammed, 1996).In recent years, participatory research methods have become very popular as top-down, input oriented approaches rarely meet the needs of the people living in particular areas (Kroll & Kruger, 1998). As change is connected to perceptions, it is consequently only achievable by listening to people and observing a situation objectively. Therefore all interactions and both intrinsic and extrinsic variables of a particular system should be identified, analyzed and evaluated in a participatory way. Similar to an ecosystem, intrinsic factors are affected and influenced by extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors of a system may be people, animals and diseases. Extrinsic factors may be environmental, socio-economic and socio-political factors. The interdependency between all these variables in any system can only be determined if the evaluation is holistic. People, capital and the access to resources but also all constraints should be included (McCrindle, 2003).Amongst different participatory approaches, participatory risk assessment is an approach that is applied to gain insights into how risks are generated and how they can be reduced for it can be applied in virtually any context and within any Previous studies dealing with food safety indicated that the participatory approaches are very helpful in overcoming problems of information collection in the case of research issues that are constrained by problems such as data scarcity, an insufficient building of stakeholder ownership and difficulties in ensuring a sustainable risk management. If risks are assessed, managed and communicated in a way that is appropriate to the preconditions in developing countries, substantial capacities in food safety management may be built and evidences of impact may be provided. The \"Farm to fork\" principle, is promising when it is aimed at determining where risks can be managed most sufficiently.Commodities of high potential which have been identified in the course of earlier studies and which are constrained by food safety related problems and suboptimal ties should be the major focus of such approaches (SFFF, 2012).Participatory risk analysis is recommended by the International LivestockResearch Institute (ILRI), for use in informal food markets (SFFF). Game is an indigenous food and can be a renewable natural resource in the study area and be used for improving food security.Biological waste condemned for aesthetic reasons, includes rough offal, heads, feet and trimmings (DoA, 2000). In terms of game regulations, these are covered by VPN 09/2010-2011, as shown in Table 1   Impala, the most sought after game species, has been chosen as a model for the development and recording of standard operating procedures and critical control points. Hygiene assessment auditing and HACCP will be done to estimate the risk of hazards likely to decrease the quality and safety of game meat derived from culling and or harvesting of Impala.This will be an observational study. Participatory risk analysis (Grace et al., 2008) will be used to characterize potential hazards to the environment, human and animal health and to formulate risk mitigation and communication. Observations of Impala harvesting will be done between May and August 2008.There will be two facets investigated:• Food safety risk analysis during harvesting of impala• Interviews with end users (consumers) of inspected impala offal to determine cultural acceptabilityRisk analysis will be qualitative and based on the principles of meat safety of game meat outlined in the Meat Safety Act of 2000, the applicable VPN's and the For the checklist see Table 3.2 below.Table 3.2 Opinions of meat inspectors (in the field and at the abattoir) n=10• Name, age and gender (demographics)• Number of years experience• Opinions on the quality of impala carcases from study• Documentation required• What happens to rough offal?• What happens to red offal usually?• What happens to condemned carcasses ( septic and non-septic)• Ablution facilitiesThese informal expert discussions have been summarized in section 4.5 under ResultsStructured interviews were used with randomly selected respondents in the study area, to find out about the cultural acceptability of consuming offal from game animals. A consent form (see Addendum 2) was used with respondents and the questionnaire was administered in their language by qualified Animal Health Technicians in whose district each dip tank was located.The sampling method used in this study was proportional random sampling. The dip tanks were used as a point of reference. It is at these sites that members of the community gather on specific days to plunge-dip their livestock to prevent tick borne diseases with Ascaracides. These occasions then afford the Animal HealthTechnicians an opportunity to interact with the livestock owners for purposes of disease surveillance or other such surveys. Dip tanks involved in the study area were listed and so were all the participants together with the total number of livestock owners. Then proportional sampling of dip tanks was done. On average each State Veterinarian has 40 dip tanks under his/her control. Put all 40 dip tanks in a hat and pick out ten. Then use proportional random sampling.The sampling frame was all the dip tanks in all the state veterinary districts within the study area. This was a two stage cluster design:• First stage: In the randomly chosen State Veterinary area randomly selected dip tanks were used.• Second stage: Proportional : select dip tank owners randomly, then randomly select community members who brought cattle to the dip tanksSteps in the process were:1. Sampling frame: all the dip tanks in a particular SV area.3. Then randomly select cattle owners of these dip tanks.It was be estimated that there is an estimated 50% prevalence of people who eat game offal.Where n is the desired sample size, p is the prevalence and d is the desired level of precision in this case set at 5% (0.05).Therefore n= 3.84 X 0.5(1-0.5)/0.05 2 n = 384So 384 people need to be interviewedThe inclusion criteria were community members that reside near the dip tanks of the study areas.Unfortunately due to inclement weather and the Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak in the study area, it proved impossible to locate all the subjects randomly selected. (38%) were females and 100 (62%) were men. The youngest respondents were 17 years old and all were males whilst the oldest was 83 and he was male.The following variables were collected: age, gender, religion, and race.The answers to the questionnaires were captured on EPI-Info software and they were subsequently transferred to statistical software STATA, 11.0 (Statacorp, College Station Texas, USA) Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive tables were used to show frequencies, proportions, medians and variables.Chi-squared analysis was used in the study to assess for any associations between:• Gender and consumption of impala offal• Age and consumption of impala offal CHAPTER 4In this chapter the food value chain (process flow) for game harvesting of (impala), from \"farm to fork\", will be described in terms of integrity, wholesomeness as well as traceability, in compliance with EU regulations for export. Plate 4.1 shows partially dressed impala carcasses hanging on a frame at the temporary field depot, ready to be loaded into a chiller truck for transport to the export abattoir.Results of structured interviews, expert opinion surveys and focus group discussions with stakeholders as well as observations made during the harvesting process and hygiene management were used to identify CP and CCP's along the chain. A cold chain for game offal was developed from consultations and focus groups with relevant stakeholders. The results from a survey in the study area for edible offal from impala will also be reported.  An additional two tons of game not shown in the table, that included impala, were condemned due a breakdown in the cold chain, during loading and transport, as a result of chiller mechanism failure in the truck. This substantiated the choice of chiller temperature as a CCP, in the process flow diagram for harvesting impala.    In essence, this was a participatory approach to establishing a \"HACCP team\", which, in an abattoir, would consist of experts and not be a wide-based consultation with participants who had relevant field experience. From this meeting, the process flow was agreed on and implemented as shown below in    During the game harvest, three CCP's were identified that are highlighted above (Fig 4 .2). The first CCP, bleeding within 10 minutes of shooting, is prescribed in the VPN. However, a focus group discussion with the professional hunters indicated that they aimed at an interval of less than 3 minutes, as otherwise there was very little exsanguination. This was because culling for export was done with head shots and special rifles and ammunition, which resulted in rapid death of the Impala and thus also promoted animal welfare (Plate 4.2).The second CCP is also related to time. Although the revised VPN allows for 4 hours between loading these carcasses in the field after shooting and hanging on the frame at the depot for evisceration, removal of heads and feet and 42 primary meat inspection, the stakeholders meeting and hunter's focus group held earlier, agreed on 2 hours..  In the study area, it was observed that harvesting was done in the early morning and evening, during winter (May to August). According to Veary (1991), wind chill alone brought the core temperature of the pectoralis profundus muscle of culled springbok down to 7.25 o C within 2 hours of slaughter, if slaughtered at night, in winter. Night harvesting was also done in the study area, however, due to time constraints it had to be extended to early morning and evening as well. Focus group discussions indicated that harvesting teams were not happy to continue harvesting if ambient temperature went above 20 o C, as this resulted in an increase in condemnations due to bloating.In each truck a thermo-logger was placed in the refrigerated section, with the carcasses, to monitor temperature fluctuations. At the destination export abattoir this device was connected to a computer, demonstrating a temperature curve for the time between loading and arrival at the abattoir. A temperature monitor was also mounted in the front, on the dashboard, so that the driver could monitor the temperature in the refrigerator (Plate 4.6 a and b). If any chiller failure occurred there was no alarm, so the driver needed to check this monitor while waiting at the depot, with the engine on and while driving. According to the expert opinion checklists and focus group discussions with stakeholders and role players, there are several challenges to successful game harvesting, as summarised below.Harvesting is usually done during the winter months, but temperatures in the area of the research study can sometimes be high during the day even in winter.The higher temperatures could comprise meat safety and ultimately the shelf life of the final product. On the other end of the scale water freezes in some areas of South Africa during winter affecting sterilization of equipment, washing of hands, and cleaning of drip trays. Even chemical sterilization becomes a challenge as the water in the taps is frozen and the flow of water ceases.Daytime harvesting attracts flies whilst the bright lights used during night harvesting attract insects. Night harvesting is the route of choice for several reasons such as insects being the lesser evil than flies. The use of UV lights however assists in attracting the insects to one designated area, away from the hanging carcasses.Naturally attracted by the smell of blood during the day, drip trays are used to collect the blood to minimize attraction of flies. These drip trays are emptied and washed often as an effective fly control measure. Restrictions on the use of pesticides limit fly control measures. Invention of natural remedies can be adopted like adding a sugar solution to an empty beer bottle. This attracts the flies and traps them as well.Chilling of carcasses is much more rapid if they are left hanging on the hooks of the rails as the temperatures dips well below zero degrees in those areas of South Africa were winter temperatures plummet to below freezing.Protective clothing, such as plastic aprons. plastic capes, plastic boots and hard hats worn in the research area where winter temperatures can go up to 30°C add to the discomfort of the workers and could lead to heat stroke and compromise human safety .South Africa is currently considered to be free of BSE and is therefore classified as category 3-status unknown. BSE has been found to be present in the brain of antelope in Europe and for this reason it is suggested that the brain be removed from the heads before it enters the proposed food chain in order to avoid any future risks of food safety.Challenges for welfare are always in mind and strategies are developed to improve welfare so that there is less criticism from welfare bodies. Hunters especially, also mentioned that they do not like to see animals suffer. Other stakeholders agreed that it also has an effect on meat and carcass quality.During investigation of the food supply chain for game meat, certain environmental hazards, impacts and consequences were observed and mitigation strategies proposed. These are summarized in Table 4.3 below. Collected on drip trays to avoid environmental contamination.Focus group discussions on edible offal indicated that it was discarded on the farms where the temporary depots were erected for harvesting. It was generally left out for scavengers and vultures. Discussions indicated that this was probably not a good environmental practice because:• It could upset the ecological balance between scavengers, predators and prey as it was very sporadic and seasonal• If repeated harvesting took place, it could pollute the soil and underground waterIt was additionally suggested that as the edible offal from harvested game was inspected and therefore declared fit for human consumption, it could be used as an affordable source of protein and improve food security in the study area. The focus group eventually reached consensus that school feeding schemes, already existing in the study are, could the beneficiaries.However, there were certain constraints that had to be overcome in order to make this practically feasible:• The offal, heads and feet were removed in a field depot, not at an abattoir, so hygiene audits will have to be rigorously applied to prevent contamination by dust or insects.• An appropriate and affordable cold chain will have to be instituted.• Although edible offal from cattle and sheep is bought from red meat abattoirs and is known to be a sought-after food in South Africa, called \"etumbu\" in Zulu, \"boti\" in the Indian community, \"afval\" in Afrikaans and \"tripe\" in English, it was not known if there were cultural prejudices against offal derived from game.The edible offal came from game harvested for export; therefore the hygiene audit was rigorous for slaughter and handling according to VPN/ 09/2010-2011.However, the VPN suggests using the offal for vultures and predators. Thus, Section E (Hygiene Audit for Offal), which is part of the Meat Safety Act 40, of 2000, were applied. When this audit was applied to impala carcasses, by a registered and designated game meat inspector, in the same way that it would be applied in a red meat abattoir for cattle and sheep, a 100% compliance with the auditor was found.In the study area, one farmer had a large chiller, suitable for chilling and packing offal for distribution and storage. As the offal was removed from the carcasses it was placed into clean containers, with lids, similar to those used in a rural red meat abattoir. There was far more offal produced than could be used for human consumption, during the harvest, so the remainder was sent to the vulture restaurants.As mentioned above, edible offal from sheep and cattle, forms part of the traditional food of animal origin, eaten in South Africa, and is also regarded as a delicacy. In some section of the population, there are religious and cultural prejudices against eating any part of certain livestock species, such as pigs, cattle and horses. This would extend to their offal as well. In America, for instance, the animal welfare lobby has succeeded in shutting down horse abattoirs.It was unknown whether there were any cultural prejudices against game meat, in particular edible offal from impala. To this end a structured interview was given to a random sample of community members in the sample area (n=162).The age and gender of respondents is shown in Table 4.4 below. The sampling frame comprised of a total of one hundred and sixty two (162) respondents (from the local community) surrounding the 14 dip tanks that were chosen to participate in the study area. These dip tanks chosen were from around the State Vet Jozini and Zululand areas.  \"Buck\" meant that the respondant described the animal as a \"buck\", because they did not identify what sort of species they were describing.When the data in the table is ranked, it can be seen that impala is the most popular offal ,offal, with n=101 ( 62.35%) of respondents in favour. It can be seen that game offal is definitely less popular than offal from cattle, sheep and goats.  There was also a question as to whether parents would allow their children to eat game offal from different species, as it was planned to use stew from game offal in school feeding schemes and it was important that cultural norms and practices should be observed in the choice of offal to feed to children.The distribution of opinions of respondents on feeding offal from domestic animals or game, by gender of respondents, is shown below (Table 4.7).When the acceptance of offal is ranked by species, it can be seen that cattle, sheep, goat, impala, buck and kudu are the most acceptable, while offal from rhino, lion, zebra, horse, are least acceptable (n> 5, 3%, of respondents in favour).  reflected as frequencies, rather than relative frequencies, there is an inherent bias in regard to sex as there were more men than women in the sample of respondents, which is why stratification was done by sex.Formatted Tableand chilling), served with boiled rice, as part of the registered school feeding programme. Each child is allocated only R25.00 per week for food and thus animal protein is seldom affordable.  The hypothesis in Chapter 1 stated that it will be possible to describe the value chains for game meat (impala) and formulate HACCP strategies to comply with international standards of food safety and quality for venison, while opening a market for safe, affordable and accessible protein (game offal) in low income communities, using participatory risk analysis, was proved.In this research study, the value chains for game meat, using impala as a model, were described and HACCP strategies for primary and secondary inspection of game meat were developed. In addition, practical implementation of using affordable game offal and by-products to improve food security in vulnerable communities was described.The new method of participatory risk analysis (Grace et al., 2008), where opinions of people who are not experts in meat inspection and abattoir management, were included in the process of estimating risk to consumers, personnel and animal welfare was found to be foremost in the process.Historically, the HACCP team is interdisciplinary, but the members are required to be experts. In this study it was found that in the informal markets and field situations, such as game harvesting, there were no experts to consult and so risk was estimated, based on observations and opinions from role players, stakeholders and end users. The lack of literature and research studies on this subject posed a major challenge during the study. It was therefore largely observational.With regard to the objectives of the research, the first objective, which was Africa (See Addendum 1). This could also be used as a model internationally where there is currently little consensus in legislation on game meat and venison.Objective 1, 2 and 3 were met by:• Developing a sampling frame for the game meat industry in the study area.• Calculating sample framework size.• Successfully describing the value chains and developing a SOP for the harvesting of impala.Objective 4 was met The objectives of this research, aimed at developing participatory risk analysis to facilitate HACCP in the game food value chain, as well as to facilitate a commitment for safe food to the food industry, both locally and internationally have been successfully achieved. The scientific and technological advantages and spin-offs will not only be of benefit to the wellbeing of people in low income communities, but also could improve the macro-economics of South Africa by better utilization of game meat.Two HACCP plans have been developed for game meat using flow diagrams with prerequisites and CCP's in place. The first of these is for primary meat inspection and was put together using field observations (photographs), and participatory informal interviewing techniques. The second was based on the EU guidelines, veterinary procedural notices and literature was implemented in an export game abattoir.The objective to identify and characterise potential hazards during production, processing and export to EU was explored and shortfalls identified.Thermo-regulators were fitted to the transport truck's chiller with a visible monitoring device in the cabin. There was however, no built-in alarm system to indicate any deviation in temperature control. This was identified as a major challenge that could have a massive impact and result in huge financial losses to the harvesting team.It is therefore recommended that to remedy this situation a SABS thermo-logger with a built-in alarm mechanism be designed for practical application. The calibration of such an instrument will have to be in compliance with SANAS. This CCP was thus addressed and catered for.The study that was undertaken demonstrated that there are inadequate risk control measures such as introduction of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) guidelines in primary and secondary meat inspection specifically for game meat not only within South Africa, but in the international arena as well.This radical innovative HACCP strategy can now bring about a whole new concept/change into the game industry that would not only be advantageous for international trade and economic development, but could be adopted by the EU for compliance in global game meat trade. The principles of HACCP as applied should be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time related meeting with the concept of \"safe food, fair food\" (Grace, 2008) and not just applied for the awarding of certification.Consequently, this study was aimed at conducting risk analysis using a combination of traditional and participatory methods and can contribute toward improved standards for export products as well as poverty alleviation in the communities surrounding the game production areas.Food scarcity is a contemporary challenge in rural communities in South Africa, with many child-headed households and the need for a protein rich diet for immuno-compromised individuals afflicted by either nutritional diseases or HIV/AIDS. In many parts of the world, offal items are a very popular kind of food that could be of cardinal economic interest for meat producers.Game meat in South Africa has always been available to the select few, but this scenario has in the last decade changed due to larger tracts of land now being used as game farms. Usually, game is cropped seasonally during the winter months, when grazing is limited due to the low precipitation and for generation of income (Bothma, 2002). These carcasses are in many cases exported and thus undergo primary and secondary meat inspection. Meat by-products constitute between 50-60% of the yields of slaughtering, depending upon the species slaughtered (Subba, 2002). In the game industry, this is sometimes taken to vulture restaurants or left out for predators, after primary meat inspection (Bothma, 2002).In addition to export, there is a market for the offal and secondary cuts resulting from the primary cuts as by-products that could be used to promote food security in low income communities on a regular seasonal basis which coincides with the winter months, a time of year when there is a scarcity of crops, due to the paucity of precipitation.Slaughter of game therefore, provides possibilities for poverty alleviation in the area, not only due to the knock-on effects of export opportunities but also by job creation, and the possibility of informal marketing of low-cost by-products. These by-products could provide food security, improved health, for those children afflicted by kwashiorkor and for immuno compromised individuals, job creation, as well as poverty alleviation.Therealleviation. There will also be positive effects on the environment through better effluent and waste management and more efficient use of offal and by-products, a rich source of protein.The daily dietary requirement of protein of a child is 50 grams. If an impala carcass weighs approximately 30 kg and its offal, once cleaned, weighs 3 kg It will feed 30 learners each getting 50 grams of protein in their diet which is the daily recommended dietary requirement for a child according to the WHO.As a result 300 kg of offal can feed 3000 learners with a diet rich in animal protein. In this way 300 kg of offal can provide 30,000 meals per week at a cost of less than R8.00 a day hence making game offal available to the communities of Northern KwaZulu-Natal.This innovative strategy will ultimately fulfill the socio -economic and nutritional needs of the people in the study area, but it will also develop international standards of HACCP for game thus significantly boosting the economic growth and development of the area and sustaining South Africa as a global economic trading partner.The focus globally on the quality and safety of meat for consumer placation remains a challenge in both developed and emerging countries on the international trading arena. For this reason alone it has become mandatory to adhere to international food safety management systems such as HACCP. This principle embraces the entire process from the \"field to the table\". The critical control points identified during this process validates the rationale for primary meat inspection which mitigates the likelihood of introducing a hazard which may adversely affect the safety of food or its suitability for consumption at later stages of the food chain. This which includes, avoiding the use of areas where the environment poses a threat to the safety of food, controlling contaminants, pests and diseases of animals and plants in a way that does not pose a threat to food safety, whilst adopting practices and measures to ensure that food is produced under appropriately hygienic conditions.improved standards for game meat as well as addressing poverty alleviation in the communities surrounding the game production areas.In addition to export of game meat, there is a local market for the offal and secondary cuts resulting from the primary cuts as by-products that could be used to promote food security in low income communities. This can take place on a regular seasonal basis which coincides with the winter months, a time of year when there is a scarcity of crops, due to the lower rainfall. Slaughter of game therefore, provides possibilities for poverty alleviation in the area, not only due to the knock-on effects of export opportunities but also job creation, and the possibility of informal marketing of low-cost by-products. These by-products could provide food security, improved health for those children afflicted with kwashiorkor and immune-compromised individuals, job creation, as well as poverty alleviation. The meat obtained from trophy hunting, culling and harvesting indigenous game animals has been used in the past by biltong hunters, local butchers and for the export market. The edible by-products, currently discarded, could be used as a renewable source of protein in low income communities. These options would promote job creation for women and youth as well as improving food security in remote rural communities in close proximity to game farms and parks. This could then become a sustainable programme, although there is currently a seasonal over-supply of game meat and by-products, these could be frozen for use at a later stage providing a solution to food security from a renewable natural resource. Constraints to the utilization of such edible by-products of game meat include lack of recognized food value chains in informal markets, food safety concerns and market access to edible by-products from game harvesting operations. Therefore, this study was aimed at conducting risk analysis using a combination of traditional and participatory methods, which could contribute improved standards for export products as well as poverty alleviation in the communities surrounding game production areas.This innovative strategy will ultimately fulfill the socio -economic and nutritional needs of the people in the study areas as well as in other game meat producing areas throughout South Africa. Simultaneously it will develop international standards of HACCP for venison. This will significantly boost the economic growth and development of the area and sustaining South Africa as a global economic trading partner. South Africa is also an integral part of NEPAD.It can be concluded that the current practice of leaving the offal for predators was likely, if it continues, to cause imbalances in the predator/prey ratio on game farms. The hypothesis that stated that it would be possible to describe the value chains for game meat (impala) and formulate HACCP strategies to comply with international standards of food safety and quality for venison, while opening a market for safe, affordable and accessible protein(game offal) in low income communities, using participatory risk analysis, was proved.If an impala carcass weighs approximately 30 kg its offal once cleaned weighs 3 kg and 3 kg can feed 300 learners, each getting 50 gm of protein in their diet. This is the daily protein dietary requirement suggested by WHO. Therefore 300 kg of offal can feed 3000 learners with a diet rich in animal protein. Thereby 300 kg can provide 30,000 meals per week at a cost of less than R8.00 a day. Hence making game offal available to the communities of northern KZN, has a considerable potential for increasing food security.Recommendations suggested for further study are additional appropriate training in food safety, product handling and processing, food borne diseases, personal hygiene as well as environmental awareness enshrined in the hierarchy of reduce, recycle and reuse, together with effluent and waste management are areas that need to be addressed as a matter of extreme urgency. It must, however, provide the assurance to consumers provided by the Consumer Protection Act 2011 that the safety of all foods including edible offal from game meat complies with legislation.Game meat in South Africa is considered a luxury item that has historically always been available to the select few. Food security is a reality in South Africa The farm from which the animals originate: ","tokenCount":"10858"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c44c7803d993885f5788cadeefa76ac3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e3d6b22b-5821-48d4-a8de-696c29e63bf0/content","id":"-303577732"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f5c9b724-eac0-4927-be88-d6d93b843785","pagecount":"15","content":"Key message A key genomic region was identified for resistance to FSR at 168 Mb on chromosome 6 in GWAS and haplotype regression analysis, which was validated by QTL mapping in two populations. Abstract Fusarium stalk rot (FSR) of maize is an economically important post-flowering stalk rot (PFSR) disease caused by Fusarium verticillioides. The pathogen invades the plant individually, or in combination with other stalk rot pathogens or secondary colonizers, thereby making it difficult to make accurate selection for resistance. For identification and validation of genomic regions associated with FSR resistance, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted with 342 maize lines. The panel was screened for FSR in three environments using standard artificial inoculation methodology. GWAS using the mixed linear model corrected for population structure and kinship was done, in which 290,626 SNPs from genotyping-by-sequencing were used. A total of 7 SNPs, five on chromosome 6 showing strong LD at 168 Mb, were identified to be associated with FSR. Haplotype regression analysis identified 32 haplotypes with a significant effect on the trait. In a QTL mapping experiment in two populations for validating the identified variants, QTLs were identified with confidence intervals having overlapped physical coordinates in both the populations on chromosome 6, which was closely located to the GWAS-identified variants on chromosome 6. It makes this genomic region a crucial one to further investigate the possibility of developing trait markers for deployment in breeding pipelines. It was noted that previously reported QTLs for other stalk rots in maize mapped within the same physical intervals of several haplotypes identified for FSR resistance in this study. The possibility of QTLs controlling broad-spectrum resistance for PFSR in general requires further investigation.Communicated by Mingliang Xu.Due to the population and socioeconomic growth, the global food requirement is expected to be double the current demand by 2050 (Ray et al. 2013). Fulfilling this demand, developing countries, specifically, must double the production of staple cereals like rice, wheat and maize. Climate change has adversely affected the agricultural production throughout the world and subsequently it is distressing for the crops especially for the regions like East Africa (EA) and South Asia (SA) (Chivasa et al. 2021). Maize is an important crop in SA, where a large portion of maize (~70% of total volume) is used by the feed industry, which is the most important supplier for the protein demand (Shiferaw et al. 2011). Apart from feed, it is used as food and increasingly used in food processing industry for making additives and sweeteners (Prasanna 2018). The maize production and productivity in the Asian region have shown accelerated growth and is the second largest maize producer in the world with its 31% share in global maize production (Zaidi et al. 2018). But climate change effects have predicted to reduce the maize yield by 7.4% with every 1 °C rise in mean global temperature (Zhao et al. 2017). It is projected that climate change would reduce rain-fed maize yield in South Asia by an average of 3.3-6.4% in 2030 and 5.2-12.2% in 2050 and irrigated yield by 3-8% in 2030 and 5-14% in 2050 if current varieties were grown (Tesfaye et al. 2017). Apart from the direct effect of climate change on agricultural systems, the small holder farmers of SA will face the climate-induced risks like increased crop pests and diseases which will have an impact on crop yield (Ali et al. 2014). With the change in precipitation, temperature, humidity and wind, the life cycle of the plant pathogens will get affected, resulting in the changes in virulence (Prasanna et al. 2021). Among the maize diseases, stalk rots and ear rots are the diseases that are reported to have the highest impact with climate change (Prasanna et al. 2021). Common post-flowering stalk rots occurring in maize are Fusarium stalk rot (FSR) caused by Fusarium verticillioides (synonym, Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon), Gibberella stalk rot (GSR) caused by Fusarium graminearum, anthracnose stalk rot (ASR) caused by Colletotrichum graminicola, Diplodia stalk rot caused by Diplodia maydis, Late wilt caused by Harpophora maydis (previously known as Cephalosporium maydis) and Charcoal rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina. These pathogens could occur in isolation or in combination, along with secondary colonizers and other abiotic stress-related factors to cause severe incidences of late-stage post-flowering stalk rots. As these diseases affect the crop at a much later stage in the crop life cycle, the economic impact of the disease is too high and hence is one of the biggest challenges faced by small and marginal farmers.Fusarium verticillioides; synonym, Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon is one of the aggressive pathogens that causes seed rot, seedling disease, stalk and ear rot and reduction in maize yield globally (Williams, 2008). It also produces toxic compounds called fumonisins, in diseased and symptomless maize kernels which are responsible for leukoencephalomalacia, pulmonary oedema, liver disorders and cancer in animals (Nelson et al. 1993). Fusarium species are vertically transmitted to the next generation of plants via infection of seeds and horizontally transmitted to plants through saprophytic infection of plant debris in the soil and insect vectors (Bacon et al. 2001). Conidia and hyphae of F. moniliforme were reported to survive two winters in Kansas on sorghum stalks without losing pathogenicity (Manzo et al. 1984). The stalk rot pathogens thrive on good vegetative stage growth followed by stresses like drought, nutrient deficiencies, foliar diseases, insect and hail damage, high heat and prolonged cool and cloudy weather during flowering (Dodd 1980). F verticillioides can infect any part of the maize plant from beginning to end of the cropping season, and hence FSR is a systemic disease of maize which starts from roots and escalates to the aerial parts of the plants after flowering. It spreads through internodes and causes the disintegration of pith tissues which results in weakening of the plants, early dryness and eventually plant lodging resulting in severe yield loss. Infected stalks have characteristic pinkish to reddish discoloration of pith and vascular strands and the rotting affects the roots, crown and lower internodes (Khokkhar et al. 2014). The severity of shredding and breaking down of pith at nodes increases as the plant matures after pollination. The disease becomes widespread when there is water scarcity during and after flowering. Stalk rots are more severe and show high incidence with increased fertilization of soils, especially increased soil nitrogen increases disease incidence (Abney and Foley 1971). Increase in plant population increases disease severity and incidence, especially in susceptible entries (White 1999). The disease is prevalent in almost all the countries of south and southeast Asia like China, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand. FSR is estimated to reduce 18.7% in cob weight and 11.2% in 1000-grain weight in the infected plants (Cook 1978). The All India Coordinated Research Program on Maize (Maize AICRP, 2014) estimated 38% of the yield loss due to FSR, while in Nepal the yield loss was estimated up to 80% (Subedi et al. 2016) caused by FSR disease. In Northern USA, FSR caused the second greatest yield loss of corn (to a tune of 110.9 million bushels) after tar spot during the year 2021 (Muller et al. 2022).To understand the genetics of host resistance to this complex disease, various researchers conducted genetic analysis and reported that it is a polygenic trait which is quantitatively inherited, with significant genotype × environmental interaction (Szoke et al. 2007, Khokhar et al. 2014) with predominantly additive gene action (Mir et al. 2018, Donahue et al. 1989) towards resistance to FSR. In seedling blight caused by the same pathogen, Lunsford et al. (1974Lunsford et al. ( , 1976) ) reported that additive gene effects and maternal effects are more important than dominant gene action in its inheritance. To develop varieties that incorporates traits like resistance to quantitative diseases like FSR, which delivers a higher rate of genetic gain, holistic breeding methods incorporating modern breeding tools and strategies must be used. Breeding efficiency for disease resistance could be significantly improved by using molecular markers in selection, where there is feasibility to expand the size of breeding populations, thereby increasing the selection intensity without increasing the phenotyping demands. Selections using trait markers identified from QTL (quantitative trait loci) or linkage mapping and genome-wide association mapping (GWAS) could be used apart from employing genome-wide markers for genomic selection (GS). Identification and fine-mapping of moderate to high effect genes/QTL also increase the accuracy of selection in marker-based breeding (Nair et al. 2015). QTLs have been mapped for resistance to PFSRs like Charcoal rot (Rashid et al. 2021), GSR (Yang 2010;Zhang et al. 2012;Ma et al. 2017) and ASR (Jung et al. 1994;Abad et al. 2006;Broglie et al. 2011). A study that mapped QTL for resistance to FSR in maize was reported by Salah et al (2016), they studied the trait at vegetative stage and not at post-flowering stage. Their analysis revealed four SSR markers and one STS marker linked to FSR resistance on chromosome 10. Genomic studies were reported on seedling rot of maize caused by F. verticillioides by various researchers. Septiani et al. (2019) conducted QTL mapping in a Multi-parent Advance Generation Intercross (MAGIC) population derived from temperate maize lines for seedling rot using paper towel method. They identified three QTLs for Fusarium seedling rot, two on chromosome 4 at 2.8 Mb and 241.8 Mb, and one QTL was identified on chromosome 5 at 169Mb. In a GWAS conducted by Stagnati et al. (2020) on 230 inbred lines, some of the SNPs identified for seedling rot co-localized within QTL intervals previously identified for Fusarium seed rot, Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin accumulation in maize. GWAS studies for resistance to FSR at post-flowering stage have not been reported yet, possibly because of the difficulty in conducting high-precision trials under artificial inoculation, or the risk of co-infection with other soil-borne stalk rot pathogens under natural infection, and less variability in disease responses in the germplasm for this disease. FSR is an economically important disease in the Asian region and considering that it is a late-stage disease, due to which there are implications in phenotypic selections in breeding populations, it is important to investigate the possibility of identifying genomic regions contributing for resistance to the disease that could aid in trait selection. Also, considering the fact that there are no research reports on comprehensive mapping of resistance loci for this trait, we conducted a GWAS and haplotype regression analysis in an association mapping panel from Asia-adapted germplasm from International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) to identify trait markers associated with FSR resistance. The genomic regions identified in GWAS were further validated through QTL mapping using two F 2:3 mapping populations.The CAAM panel assembled at CIMMYT, consists of 419 tropical/sub-tropical inbred lines bred in Asia and other tropical geographies and acclimatized to the Asian tropics. This panel involves inbred lines that were bred for resistance/ tolerance to different stresses like drought, high moisture, high temperature and downy mildew. The lines are adapted to tropical, sub-tropical, lowland, mid-altitude and highland environments, and based on growing degree days (GDD) the lines are grouped into early, medium and late maturity groups. A subset of 342 inbred lines from this panel were included in GWAS.For linkage mapping, two F 2:3 populations were developed for validation of genomic regions identified in GWAS and HTR analysis. The first population FSR-1 developed from a cross between the resistant parent CML578, is an orange flint line derived from waterlogging stress-tolerant population in Asia. This line was also used as a resistant parent for QTL mapping for charcoal rot resistance (Rashid et al. 2021). In the second population FSR-2, the resistant parent CML329/MBRc2amF14-2-B*7 is a flint yellow line originated from insect-resistant population from Mexico. In both the populations CML474 was used as susceptible parent, which is an Asia-lowland adapted early line.The GWAS panel was evaluated for FSR under artificial inoculation conditions at International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) campus at Hyderabad (17.53° N; 78.27° E.; 545 masl; 784 mm/year average rainfall) for two years and CIMMYT managed farm at Daulatabad for one year (17.53° N; 78.27° E.; 545 masl; 784 mm/ year average rainfall). For linkage mapping analysis, two F 2:3 mapping populations, FSR-1 and FSR-2, with population size of 256 and 166 entries, respectively, were evaluated at Daulatabad. All FSR evaluation trials were planted in two replications following the alpha lattice design. The row length was 2m with a spacing of 0.20 m between plant to plant and 0.75m between row to row. Standard agricultural practices were followed throughout the cropping season.Fusarium verticillioides samples were isolated from the previously infected maize stalks. Infected stalks were cut into 5-10 mm small pieces, washed with 0.6% sodium hypochlorite for 1 minute and rinsed with sterile distilled water for 3-4 times under aseptic conditions. Excess water was blot dried on sterile tissue paper and infected leaf pieces were placed on Petri plates carrying pure culture Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The plates were incubated at 28 °C for 3-5 days, the growing hyphal tips were transferred to PDA allowed to grow for 8-10 days at 28 °C, spores were isolated using single spore isolation method.Toothpick method was followed for artificial inoculation of the trials (Lal and Singh, 1984). In this method, mass multiplication of F. verticillioides for artificial inoculation was done on wooden toothpicks by the method proposed by Jardine and Leslie (1992), with minor modifications. For inoculum multiplication, wooden toothpicks were dipped in tap water for 12 to 15 hours followed by air drying. Dried toothpicks (approximately 250) were packed in 250 ml glass bottles with 50 ml distilled water and were autoclaved at 15 lbs and 121 °C for 15 minutes. After sterilization, excess water was poured out of the glass bottles and potato dextrose broth (PDB) was added, followed by autoclaving at the same temperature and pressure regime. After cooling, freshly subcultured fungi were inoculated into bottles under aseptic conditions and incubated at 25 °C till the toothpicks were covered up with fungal growth (approximately 15 days). Colonized toothpicks were inserted into the stalks at the tassel emergence stage of the plants. This was accomplished by drilling a hole of 4-5 cm at 45° angle in the second internode (first elongated node) with an iron needle having wooden handle, where the toothpicks were introduced into the hole.Disease severity was recorded by splitting the infected plants in each plot longitudinally at the harvest. Split stalks were individually scored on disease severity scale of 1-9 (Payak and Sharma 1983) with score 1-2 rated as highly resistant (HR), 2.1-4 as resistant (R), 4.1-6 as moderately resistant (MR) and > 6.1 were susceptible (S). In each row, at least 10 plants were inoculated, and each inoculated plant was scored to obtain a mean disease score for the plot.All phenotypic data analyses were carried out in META-R software (Alvardo et al. 2015). To analyse single and multilocation trials mixed linear model was used where all the factors, genotypes, environments, interaction between genotype with environment and interaction with replication and environment were considered as random effects.where Y ijk was the disease severity of the i th genotype at the j th environment in the k th incomplete block, µ was an intercept term, g i was the genetic effect of the i th genotype, l j was the effect of the j th environment, b kj was the effect of the k th incomplete block at the j th environment, and ε ijk was the error term confounding with the genotype-by-environment interaction effect. Broad-sense heritability of the combined analysis across years was estimated as where σ 2 g , σ 2 ge and σ 2 e are the genotypic, genotype-by-year interaction and error variance components, respectively, and e and r are the number of years and number of replicates within each year included in the corresponding analysis, respectively. For the CAAM panel and two F 2:3 mapping populations, best linear unbiased predictions (BLUPs) were generated for each genotype using the META-R software.Genomic DNA of the association mapping panel and two F 2:3 mapping population were extracted from the leaves of3-4 weeks old seedlings using the standard protocol followed in CIMMYT. Genotyping of the CAAM panel was carried out at Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) platform. The GBS libraries were constructed as reported by Elshire et al. 2011, and SNP calling was performed using TASSEL GBS pipeline described by Glaubitz et al. 2014.The partially imputed GBS SNP data had 955,690 genotypic data points (SNPs) across all the chromosomes was based on an algorithm that explores closest neighbour in small SNP windows across the whole genome, permitting 5% mismatch (Romay et al. 2013). A total 295,794 SNPs, that passed the quality control filtration criteria of call rate (CR) ≥ 0.7 to account for missing data and minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 0.05 were used in different models of GWAS analysis for FSR resistance.For two mapping populations for the QTL mapping study, markers were selected across the 10 chromosomes from the Illumina Goldengate assay. The lines were genotyped with Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) assays developed from sequences of random and GWAS-identified SNP markers at LGC Genomics, London. (https:// www. biose archt ech. com/ servi ces/ genot yping-servi ces, Herts, UK). F 2:3 mapping populations FSR-1 and FSR-2 were genotyped with a set of 272 and 268 markers, respectively, based on parental line polymorphism.GWAS was carried out based on three models: (i) G-test in which only genotypic data (G) was used, (ii) General linear model (GLM) where genotypic data was corrected for structure (Q) using 10 principal components (PCs) and (iii) single locus mixed linear model (MLM) (Kang et al, 2010) where genotypic data was corrected for Q using 10 PCs and kinship matrix (K) to avoid false associations. In earlier GWAS studies in the CAAM panel, principal component analysis did not reveal a clear population structure with the first three principal components. The Scree plot plotted with all the eigenvalues suggested 10 principal components will be able to adjust the existing population structure (Rashid et al. 2018). A kinship matrix was estimated from identityby-state distances matrix as executed in SNP & Variation Suite (Golden Helix, Inc., Bozeman, MT, www. goldenhelix.com) (SVS) Version_8.6.0, where IBS distance = (no. of markers IBS2) + 0.5 × (no. of markers IBS1) no. nonmissing markers, and IBS1 and IBS2 are the states in which the two inbred lines share one or two alleles, respectively, at a marker (Bishop & Williamson 1990).Additive models were used for testing the three models in SVS Version 8.6.0 The mixed association mapping model used was: Y = SNP*β + PC*α + K *μ + ε, where Y = response of the dependent variable (FSR Score), SNP = SNP marker (fixed effects), PC = principal component coordinate from the PCA (fixed effects), K = kinship matrix (random effects), α is the vector of PC, β and μ are the vectors of SNP and K, respectively, and ε is the error. Manhattan plots were used for visualization of GWAS results by plotting P values on logarithmic scale. The values are plotted in the linear order based on the chromosomal position of the SNPs in SVS version 8.6.0. Quantile-quantile plots (Q-Q plots) inferred the severity of inflation test statistics by plotting the observed versus expected negative log10 P value that were generated for all the models studied according to established procedures. Q-Q plots from the three models were represented in one plot using R-studio software (RStudio Team 2020).Linkage disequilibrium (LD) was estimated based on pairwise r 2 values between adjacent SNPs and physical distances between those SNPs as described in Rashid et al. 2020. Markers that were in linkage equilibrium with each other were determined based on SNP pruning with LD r 2 threshold of 0.1 (window size 50, step size 50) and estimated as 126,120. The suggestive P value threshold to control the genome-wide type 1 error rate was estimated as 7.92 ×10 -6 which was considered as the significance cut-off for the association (Mao et al. 2015;Cui et al. 2016). SNPs with P value ≤ 0.001 in the GWAS study were selected for haplotype detection and further haplotype trait regression. Expectation maximization (EM) algorithm (Excoffier and Slatkin 1995) with 50 EM iterations, EM convergence tolerance of 0.0001 and a frequency threshold of 0.01 were used to estimate haplotype frequency as applied in SVS Version 8.6.0. Block defining algorithm (Gabriel et al. 2002) was used to identify haplotype blocks to minimize historical recombination. Regression analysis was carried out with the haplotype blocks identified on the BLUP values of FSR disease scores, based on step-wise regression with forward elimination.Linkage maps were constructed using QTL IciMapping version 3.4 software using Kosambi method for map distance calculations. LOD threshold of 3.0 and maximum distance of 40 cM between the two loci were used to detect the linkage between two markers. 158 SNPs from FSR-1 population with 256 F 3 families and 114 from FSR-2 with 166 F 3 families were polymorphic between their respective parental lines and were used for constructing the linkage map. BLUP values of disease severity scores of FSR on 1-9 scale were used in QTL analysis. The walking steps in QTL scanning was 1cM and LOD threshold of 3.383 and 3.951 were estimated, respectively, in FSR-1and FSR-2 populations based on 1,000 times permutations analysis (Churchill and Doerge 1994). QTL statistics were also reported for QTLs identified at a lower LOD threshold of 2.5. The sign of additive effect of each QTL was used to identify the origin of favourable allele in accordance with Lubberstedt et al. 1997. In this study, the negative sign of the additive effect indicates that the favourable allele is contributed by the stalk rot resistant line and vice versa.A subset of the CAAM panel comprising 342 inbred lines was phenotyped for FSR in three environments under artificial inoculation conditions. Optimal disease expression and high variability was observed during all three years, with maximum disease scores of 8.74, 8.48 and 7.80, and the minimum scores of 3.30, 2.75 and 3.62, respectively, on the disease scale of 1.00 to 9.00 in the trials. Trial means of the individual environments ranged from 4.85 to 5.41. The magnitude of genotypic variance was the lowest (0.18) in Year-3 and the highest in Year-1 (0.41) with an across genotypic variance of 0.14, that was found to be highly significant (P value <0.0001). Broad-sense heritability (h 2 ) estimates were moderate to high, ranging from 0.43 to 0.61, with across trial heritability of 0.51 (Table 1). For QTL mapping, F 2:3 mapping population FSR-1 showed mean disease score of 5.46 with minimum and maximum score of 3.38 and 7.84. The magnitude of genotypic variance was 0.23 with high significance (P value <0.001) and the heritability estimate was 0.40. The second F 2:3 mapping population FSR-2 showed a trial mean of 5.20 with disease score ranging from 3.89 to 7.57. Highly significant (P value <0.0001) genotypic variance was observed, and the heritability estimate was 0.48 (Table 1). The response of the CAAM panel and two F 2:3 mapping populations showed near-normal distribution for FSR disease severity ranging from resistance to susceptibility (Fig. 1).A subset of 295,794 SNPs, meeting the criteria of call rate ≥0.7 and MAF ≤0.05 from high-density imputed 955K GBS genotyping data, were used for conducting GWAS. Highest genomic inflation was observed in G-test (Naïve model), followed by GLM (G+Q model), which was corrected using 10 principal components. The least genomic inflation was observed in Single locus MLM (G+Q+K) model where the genomic data was corrected for both population structure (Q) and Kinship (K) as detected in QQ plot (Fig. 2). As a result, MLM model was used to discover the significant associations for FSR 1 3 resistance in the CAAM panel. Seven SNPs were found to be significantly associated with FSR resistance with P value ranging from 7.83×10 −8 to 4.71×10 −6 on chromosome 1, 2 and 6. Among the seven highly significant SNPs, five SNPs were closely located on Chromosome 6 (S6_168690251, S6_168690080, S6_168638154, S6_168436463 and S6_168794497) at 168Mb (Table 2, Fig. 3a and b). SNP S6_168690251 on chromosome 6 showed the lowest P value (7.83×10 -8 ) followed by the SNP S6_168690080 (P value 3.07×10 −7 ). The phenotypic variance explained by the identified significant SNPs in GWAS ranged from 8.38 to 6.16%. In all seven associations identified, the major allele was found accountable for conferring resistance to FSR and the narrow sense heritability with the associated SNPs was found to be 0.61. Significant SNPs detected in GWAS were located  within six gene models based on the physical positions of the SNPs with respect to B73 version 2 of reference genome (http:// ensem bl. grame ne. org/ Zea_ mays). Most of the gene models identified were found to have functional domains involved in tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, plant growth and development, resistance to viral and fungal pathogens. LD (r 2 ) was estimated in the interval of ~360 Kb that covered the peak on chromosome 6 between 168.43 and 168.79 Mb. Average pairwise r 2 observed for 52 SNPs in this interval was low at r 2 =0.23.The five most significant SNPs on chromosome 6 were in strong LD with an average pairwise r 2 of 0.77 (Fig. 3c)Fifty-one haplotype blocks were formed across 10 chromosomes, using the 360 SNPs (P value <10 −3 ) identified in GWAS, and were used in haplotype regression analysis on the estimated BLUP values of disease scores. HTR analysis detected 32 haplotypes across 9 chromosomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10) with Bonferroni P value ≤ 0.05, that explained phenotypic variance ranging from 3.75 to 10.91% for FSR resistance. Haplotype Hap_6.3 on chromosome 6 formed by four SNPs (S6_168638154, S6_168690080, S6_168690251, S6_168794497) at 168 Mb had the least Bonferroni P-value (3.63×10 −8 ) followed by Hap_8.3 on chromosome 8 (Table 3).QTL mapping was carried out in two F 2:3 bi-parental mapping populations for validation of the genomic regions identified in GWAS and HTR analysis. Linkage maps were constructed by genotyping of two mapping populations, FSR-1 with 158 and FSR-2 with 114 SNP markers that were polymorphic between the parental lines. The average marker density across 10 chromosomes was 6.44 cM and the total map length was 966.20 cM for FSR-1 and for FSR-2 population, the marker density and total map length was 6.47 and 686.12 cM, respectively. One QTL was identified in FSR-1 on chromosome 7 between PZA00616_13 and PZA02643_1 at 122 Mb and 128 Mb, respectively, based on the physical coordinates of the flanking markers. At a lower LOD threshold of 2.5, two more QTLs were identified in FSR-1 on chromosome 5 and 6. QTL qFSR5 detected between the markers PHM13942_9 and PZA00865_on chromosome 5 explained the largest proportion of phenotypic variance (6.531%) in this population. In the FSR-2 population, two QTLs were detected on chromosome 6 and on chromosome 1 at the threshold of LOD 2.5, but no QTL could be identified based on the LOD threshold obtained with 1000 permutations (Table 4). QTL qFSR6-1 detected in the confidence interval between the markers PZA02688_2 and PHM3466_69 explained the highest proportion of variance (7.49%) in this population. QTLs qFSR6 and qFSR6-1 identified on chromosome 6 in FSR-1 and FSR-2, respectively, were found to have one common marker flanking the identified QTLs.Fusarium verticillioides is one of the important fungal pathogens causing PFSR of maize. It is a hemibiotrophic pathogen which initiates the disease through roots from soilborne inoculum and spreads through the nodes and other aerial parts of the plants. FSR is a part of the PFSR complex, where stalks are infected with one or many stalk rot pathogens, which gets exacerbated under abiotic stress conditions like less soil moisture and high usage of fertilizers. PFSR diseases are predicted to either increase or change in pathogen spectrum under the climate change scenario (Prasanna et al. 2021). As a soil-borne disease, use of chemical fungicides is not an efficient option to control the disease. Apart from this, PFSR being a post-flowering disease, it affects the terminal stages of the crop, and hence growing resistant varieties, combining other climate resilience contributing traits is the most sustainable technology to mitigate yield losses from stalk rots in the target geographies in Asia which are climate vulnerable. Breeding efficiency for trait improvement, especially for resistance to biotic stresses, is  1 3 increased significantly by the inclusion of modern selection tools like molecular markers. CIMMYT and National Agricultural Research System (NARS) partners in India have developed appropriate sick plot-based phenotyping sites for evaluation and identification of stably resistant FSR resistant germplasm for use in breeding pipelines and for developing synthetic populations to increase the frequency of resistant alleles in the breeding pool.There are very limited studies on trait mapping of resistance to FSR, and considering the importance of this disease in terms of its observed and predicted spread and economic importance, we initiated this study to identify and validate genomic regions associated with FSR resistance using GWAS and linkage mapping. The CAAM panel and two linkage mapping populations were phenotyped for FSR in three and one environments, respectively, under artificial inoculation. The heritability estimates of the trials were moderate (0.40-0.61), suggesting a polygenic nature of the trait, and the results of this study could be used to optimize the most efficient breeding strategy for trait improvement. Genotypic variation was significant in the CAAM panel and the mapping populations, suggesting the superior quality of the phenotypic data that can be used for identification of genomic regions.Linkage mapping investigates recombination events and marker-trait association in bi-parental segregating populations viz, F 2 , double haploid (DH), recombinant inbred lines (RILs), etc. and has an enormous advantage for QTL detection power. Nevertheless, it has limitations like low mapping resolution, limited allele sampling and longer research time. Contrary to linkage mapping, GWAS uses historical recombination from an assembly of lines to analyse marker-trait relationship (Rafalski 2002). It has several advantages over linkage mapping like possibility to use pre-existing populations rather than newly created populations, possibility to survey larger number of alleles, higher mapping resolution and lesser research time (Yu, J. & Buckler 2006;Flint-Garcia, 2005). But considering the advantages of both these mapping methodologies and their complementarity for the purpose of identification and subsequent validation of trait associated/linked genomic regions, both these approaches were used in the present study. The linkage mapping populations were primarily used in this study to validate the identified variants in GWAS for the trait.The CAAM panel used in this study for GWAS is adapted to tropical and sub-tropical environments and derived from pools and populations developed for tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, high moisture, heat and nitrogen use efficiency, and resistance to diseases viz, downy mildews & blights and insect-pests in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. A few CIMMYT maize lines (CMLs) released from different CIMMYT regional centres across geographies were also the part of panel. In Asian environments, CAAM panel was earlier used in mapping for resistance to diseases like Sorghum downy mildew, Northern corn leaf blight & Charcoal rot (Rashid et al. 2018, Rashid et al. 2020and Rashid et al. 2021) and root traits under drought conditions (Zaidi et al. 2016). Two mapping populations were developed by crossing the resistant parents CML578 and CML329/MBRc2amF14-2-B*7 with a common elite, 1 3 but susceptible parent CML474. These parental lines were part of the CAAM panel and were selected based on their FSR disease responses. These two bi-parental populations were used to validate the genomic regions identified through GWAS for FSR resistance by segregation of relevant alleles at the associated loci (Rafalski 2010) in these populations, apart from identification of novel QTLs that were not detected in GWAS.GWAS in the CAAM panel identified five highly significant SNPs (S6_168690251, S6_168690080, S6_168638154, S6_168436463 and S6_168794497) associated with FSR resistance on chromosome 6 at 168Mb. Further, haplotype regression test also detected three haplotypes (Hap_6.2 Hap_6.3 and Hap_6.4) having a significant effect on the trait at this genomic region. A clear peak was observed in the Manhattan plot covering the region that spanned 168.43 Mb to 168.79 Mb in the GWAS analysis of which five SNPs which showed the strongest association with the trait were with moderately strong LD with an average pairwise r 2 value of 0.77. Interestingly, inclusive composite interval mapping also identified QTLs in the two mapping populations on chromosome 6 (bin 6.07-6.08), qFSR6 in FSR-1 and qFSR6-1 in FSR-2, albeit with minor effects in these populations. One of the flanking markers, PHM3466_69 at 167 Mb on chromosome 6 was found to be common between these QTLs identified in the two different mapping populations. This region could be of major significance for this trait as it is infrequent to detect stable QTL for complex traits in genetically unrelated populations (Rashid et al. 2021). Further studies are required to dissect this important region to identify the causal variation responsible for this trait. The most significantly associated SNPs S6_168690251, and S6_168690080 were found to be located within the gene model GRMZM2G095025, annotated as a protein with ubiquitin protein ligase activity, which is known for its role in resistance to abiotic & biotic stresses and plant development. E3 Ub-ligases of different families have been shown to be involved in multiple steps of plant immune responses. They are involved in the first step of pathogen response to modulate the perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by pattern-recognition receptors and to regulate the accumulation of nucleotide-binding leucinerich repeat-type intracellular immune receptors (Duplan and Rivas 2014). E3 ligases have also been reported to play important roles in immunity development in rice (You et al. 2016). The rice RING-type E3 OsBBI1 positively regulates the hypersensitive response (HR) and broad-spectrum resistance against Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae) (Li et al. 2011). Ring-type E3 is known to be involved in spontaneous programmed cell death (PCD) and non-race-specific resistance to bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) and fungal blast caused by M. oryzae (You et al. 2016). They are also known to regulate abiotic stress (drought, salinity, heat and cold) responses, through their possible involvement in modifying stress signalling pathways during favourable and unfavourable growth conditions (Lyzenga andStone, 2021, Melo et al. 2021). SNP S6_168436463, which was also identified as one of the significant SNPs along the same peak observed at 168 Mb on chromosome 6, was located within the predicted gene GRMZM2G141818, which is annotated as a nucleic acid binding protein, Argonaute104. Argonaute (AGO) proteins are RNA binding proteins which play an integral part in gene silencing pathways and many studies reveal the AGO genes respond to diverse abiotic stress conditions in maize (Zhai et al. 2019, Qian et al. 2011). This is especially notable, as FSR disease is known to be aggravated by drought stress. AGO18 family, which is grass specific, has an important role in viral defence and in plant reproductive pathways (Zhang et al. 2015). Another significant SNP in the same genomic region representing the peak at 168 Mb, S6_168794497, is located within the gene GRMZM2G052006 that encodes Eukaryotic aspartyl protease family protein. In Arabidopsis, Li et al. 2016 identified a mechanism that couples aspartyl protease with molecular co-chaperone to trigger autophagy and plant defence, providing a key link between fungal recognition and the induction of cell death and resistance. Apart from the significant SNPs identified on chromosome 6, another significant association identified was with SNP S2_4370291 on chromosome 2. This SNP was found to be located in gene GRMZM2G363066 with a functional domain with serine/threonine kinase activity, which are known for their functions in defence mechanism in plants.The receptor serine-threonine kinases are known to interact with other proteins for the processes like diseases resistance, developmental regulation to self-versus non-self-recognition (Goring and Walker 2004) and are also involved in abiotic stresses, abscisic acid-dependent plant development (Kulik et al. 2011).In studies where genetic variants associated with phenotypic traits are analysed, phenotypic variance explained for any trait increases by using haplotypes for trait regression than single markers, and therefore haplotypes allow the identification of genomic regions responsible for controlling a larger part of variation for the trait of interest (Maldonado et al. 2019). Out of the 32 haplotypes identified in this study that had a significant effect on FSR resistance, some of the haplotypes were found to be co-located in the same chromosomal bins where QTLs/ SNPs have been reported for resistance to other stalk rot pathogens. Zhang et al. 2012 fine-mapped the QTL qRfg2 for resistance to Gibberella stalk rot (GSR) caused by Fusarium graminearum between 257.3 Mb and 277.9 Mb on chromosomal bin 1.10. In this study, we identified a haplotype, Hap_1.4 at 272 Mb, within the physical interval where qRfg2 was fine-mapped. Similarly, Hap_8.2 and Hap_8.3 identified at 159 Mb in this study were detected within the physical coordinates of the confidence interval of a QTL (146.4-158.9 Mb) for GSR resistance reported by Ma et al. 2017 on chromosomal bin 8.06. Similarly, QTLs/SNPs were identified on chromosomal bin 8.06 for resistance to another PFSR pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina, causing Charcoal rot in maize (Rashid et al. 2021). Hence, this region on chromosome 8 could be considered as a region of interest for resistance to multiple stalk rot pathogens as it has been identified for at least three different PFSR diseases. Apart from stalk rots, chromosomal bin 8.06 has been shown to house several QTLs/genes for resistance to other maize diseases like Northern corn leaf blight, Common rust, Common Smut and multiple viral pathogens (Wisser et al. 2005). Another chromosomal region identified for resistance to more than one PFSR pathogens is on chromosomal bin 10.03-04. Two haplotypes identified in our study (Hap_10.1and Hap_10.2) on this chromosomal bin were also found to co-locate with a major QTL qRfg1 reported for GSR resistance by Yang et al. 2010. These observations from our study point to a possibility that, while there may be genomic regions responsible for imparting resistance to individual stalk rot pathogens, there may be some common regions that could be driving mechanisms for a broad-spectrum resistance towards multiple stalk rot pathogens. Further studies are imperative to throw more light on these observations. With the GWAS and subsequent linkage mapping for FSR resistance in this study, we have identified strong trait marker leads that could further be validated and fine-mapped for deployment in tropical maize breeding programmes to enhance breeding efficiency.Genome-wide association studies and linkage mapping were used to investigate the genetic architecture of Fusarium stalk rot resistance in maize. GWAS in a panel of 374 maize lines evaluated for FSR in three environments detected seven highly significant SNPs associated with the trait, of which, five were on chromosome 6 at 168 Mb. Haplotype regression analysis revealed 32 haplotype blocks on chromosome 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10 with significant effect on the trait. Four haplotypes were detected on chromosome 6, of which three haplotypes were located at 168 Mb. For validation of the SNPs identified through GWAS, two F 2:3 mapping populations FSR-1 and FSR-2 were employed for QTL analysis of FSR resistance. QTLs on chromosome bin 6.07-08 were detected in both the mapping populations with a common flanking marker at 167 Mb. Considering the significance of this region for resistance to FSR, it has to be further studied for fine-mapping and validating in breeding populations for development of deployable trait markers. Interestingly, three genomic regions were identified with haplotypes 1 3 co-localized with reported QTLs for other stalk rots like GSR and charcoal rot resistance. This raises an interesting proposition of common genomic regions contributing to broad-spectrum stalk rot resistance mechanisms.","tokenCount":"6590"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b3a42e4e05e6f238da9892498a9429cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f77c4bd0-e0f2-4975-a1f6-c258cf8d0522/retrieve","id":"1835310646"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"86b36647-95cb-49bb-9c3e-d780a0b47a1b","pagecount":"8","content":"Research-enabled growth in agricultural productivity is pivotal to sub-Saharan Africa's overall economic growth prospects. Yet, investments in research and development (R&D) targeted to many national food and agricultural economies throughout Africa are fragile and faltering. To gain insight into what could be driving this trend, this article updates, summarizes and reassesses the published evidence on the returns to African agricultural R&D. Based on a compilation of 113 studies published between 1975 and 2014 spanning 25 countries, the reported internal rates of return (IRRs) to food and agricultural research conducted in or of direct consequence for sub-Saharan Africa averaged 42.3%py. In addition to the 376 IRR estimates, the corresponding 129 benefit-cost ratios (BCRs) averaged 30.1. Most (96.5%) of the returns-to-research evaluations are of publicly performed R&D, and the majority (87.6%) of the studies were published in the period 1990-2009. The large dispersion in the reported IRRs and BCRs makes it difficult to discern meaningful patterns in the evidence. Moreover, the distribution of IRRs is heavily (positively) skewed, such that the median value (35.0%py) is well below the mean, like it is for research done elsewhere in the world (mean 62.4%py; median 38.0%py). Around 78.5% of the evaluations relate to the commodity-specific consequences of agricultural research, while 5.5% report on the returns to an ''all agriculture\" aggregate. The weight of commodity-specific evaluation evidence is not especially congruent with the composition of agricultural production throughout Africa, nor, to the best that can be determined, the commodity orientation of public African agricultural R&D.There is a widespread and long-standing consensus that research-enabled growth in agricultural productivity is pivotal to sub-Saharan Africa's (SSA) overall economic growth prospects, especially in the decades ahead when agriculture will continue to constitute a large (albeit likely declining) share of economic activity and source of employment for most countries in the region (Eicher, 1985;Lipton, 1988;Alston and Pardey, 2014;World Bank, 2015;ADB, 2015). Notwithstanding this consensus, investments in research and development (R&D) targeted to many national food and agricultural economies throughout Africa are fragile and faltering. Pardey et al. (2016a) reported that in 2011, national investments in food and agricultural R&D (public and private combined) throughout SSA constituted just 3.9% ($2.7 billion, 2009 PPP prices) of the corresponding world total investment of $69.3 billion; a decline on the 6.1% SSA share three decades earlier in 1980. 1 Moreover, 39% (i.e., 17 of a total of 44) of the region's countries spent less on public food and agricultural R&D in 2011 than they did in 1980, after adjusting for the rising costs of research.In spite of the economic development importance placed on agricultural R&D investments in SSA, there have been only a handful of efforts to summarize and assess the returns to these investments. Oehmke et al. (1991) found just 12 studies to include in their evaluation of the economic returns to African R&D while Oehmke and Crawford (1996, Table 2) reviewed 15 such studies, 7 of which reported on the returns to maize research for 6 SSA countries. Masters et al. (1998, Tables  1 and 2) tabulated and discussed 31 studies (34 estimates), while Alston et al. (2000, Table 7) included 47 studies reporting 201 estimates of relevance for SSA agriculture in their meta-review of the evidence on the returns to R&D throughout the world. Maredia et al. (2000, Table 11) included 26 studies (27 estimates) that reported returns-to-research estimates for major food crops throughout SSA. In their assessments of the returns to SSA-oriented R&D conducted by CGIAR Consortium (or CG for short) centers, Maredia andRaitzer (2006, 2010) pointed to just 23 studies (of which only a subset of 12 studies reported rates-of-return metrics) documenting the economic impact of CGIAR centers and their national partners in SSA. 2 In this article we update, summarize and reassess the published evidence on the returns to African agricultural R&D, drawing from the comprehensive assessment of the returns to food and agricultural R&D worldwide reported by Hurley et al. (2016). et al. (2016) summarized the evidence on the economic consequences of R&D gleaned from a compilation of 492 published studies spanning the period 1958-2015 that reported 3426 rateof-return estimates for 78 countries throughout the world. 3 That compilation constitutes the latest (version 3.0) of the InSTePP (International Science and Technology Practice and Policy center, University of Minnesota) returns-to-research database, which involved a concerted effort to develop a comprehensive account of the published evidence, a substantial share of which takes the form of grey literature.Version 3.0 of the database builds directly on two prior versions, variants of which underpinned the work reported in Alston et al. (2000) and Hurley et al. (2014). To update the database, Pardey et al. (2016b) conducted a systematic search of the literature using the EconLit, AgEconSearch, JSTOR, RePEc, SSRN, Pro-Quest, and Google search engines, and also searched listings of the evaluation literature posted on-line by agencies such as the CGIAR, ACIAR, and others that were published through to 2015. References cited in the studies identified through these searches were further reviewed to reveal any additional studies not already in the database. Each of these studies was manually scored for a multitude of attributes using a modified version of the questionnaire developed by Alston et al. (2000), which were subsequently entered into the InSTePP database. In total, Pardey et al. (2016b) added 746 new returns-to-research estimates (or 586 evaluations) and associated study and evaluation details taken from 122 different studies relative to version 2.0 of the database. The evidence presented here concerns research conducted in or of direct consequence for SSA and comes from 113 studies reporting 456 evaluations (16.1% of all the evaluations in the InSTePP version 3.0 collection). 4 A detailed tabulation of the SSA return-to-research evidence and a complete listing of all the source publications is included in the on-line supplementary material.Researchers estimating the returns to R&D have a variety of methodological choices to make. The choices made have varied over time and can influence the rate-of-return estimates. While some studies evaluated the nominal costs and benefits of an investment, the majority of the SSA return-to-research evaluations (77.1%) have taken inflation into account by evaluating the relationship between real costs and real benefits (Fig. 1, Panel a). Between 1990 and 1999, studies using nominal values were more common than prior to 1990 or after 1999. This may be attributable to the highly inflationary period of the 1990s and the difficulty in choosing appropriate deflators to estimate the real costs and benefits of research.Agricultural R&D often produces long-lasting benefits and the length of time over which these benefits are evaluated can influence the estimated rate of return. The average lag length-i.e., the period over which research spending begins and the associated benefit stream ends-for the (finite) research benefit streams in the SSA studies is 19.9 years; ranging from a low of zero to a maximum of 73 years (Fig. 1, Panel b). 5 In comparison, the average lag length for the (finite) benefit stream in the studies reporting research conducted elsewhere in the world is almost six years longer (25.7 years), ranging from lag lengths of zero to 142 years.In addition to these and other methodological attributes, evaluations can differ depending on whether they are ex post for a 2 For a listing of, and further details on, the CGIAR centers see www.cgiar.org. See also Jahnke et al. (1987) for an earlier review of the impact of agricultural research in tropical Africa. Though comprehensive in scope, the report contained few formal returns-to-research estimates.3 To tally the number of countries we counted countries in which the evaluated research was performed as distinct from counting countries in which the research was used. Some of the entries in the InSTePP database are tagged as ''multi-national\" (i.e., more than one country), but in forming the country count reported here we retained the multi-national designation and did not count each of the individual countries included in the multi-national aggregates. Moreover, version 3.0 of the database contains 2827 evaluations, wherein a single evaluation (of a particular technology, project, or program) within a given study may report either an IRR or a BCR estimate, or both. In this paper we refer to both evaluations and estimates, of which 505 estimates report on research conducted in or of direct consequence for SSA.completed or ex ante of a yet to be performed investment. Although the majority of the SSA evaluations reported in the literature (308 out of 456 evaluations) were ex post rather than ex ante, a much larger share of the SSA evaluations were ex ante (32.5%) compared with those reporting returns to research elsewhere in the world (20.3%). In SSA there is also an increasing emphasis over time on ex ante evaluations, perhaps driven by increased up-front accountability demands by research funding agencies, but it may also be a reflection of a continuing lack (if not increasing scarcity) of newly observed data on the uptake and consequence of agricultural technologies throughout SSA. Social R&D evaluations attempt to evaluate the costs and benefits of an investment accruing to all members of society, while private evaluations focus only on the costs and benefits accruing to a particular societal group. Given the paucity of privately performed food and agricultural R&D in the region (Pardey et al., 2016a) most of the evidence (390 of a total of 456 evaluations) explicitly report social returns to R&D, with the social versus private dimensions of the benefits being unspecified in the remaining studies.The first reported estimate of the returns to agricultural R&D in SSA we found came almost two decades after the classic 1958 hybrid corn evaluation study by Griliches. It is a study published by Evenson and Kislev in 1975 (chapter 3) on the returns to sugarcane research in South Africa. 6 The latest study in this SSA compilation was published in 2014. The overwhelming majority of the SSA evidence was published after 1990: just 6 studies (5.3% of the SSA total, and just 4.5% of the corresponding studies published worldwide) were published prior to 1990 (Fig. 2, Panel a). However, the post-1990 pattern of published evaluation evidence has been uneven. The number of published studies surged during the 1990s, totaling 69 studies. Thereafter, evaluation interest seems to have waned, with 30 studies published in the 2000s, and only 8 published studies thereafter. Despite the apparent emphasis on the increased accountability of (research and related) investments in SSA agriculture in more recent years (e.g., Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2015; USAID, 2015), there has not been increased evaluation evidence generated, at least not evidence about the economic returns to those investments.Around 30.9% of the SSA evaluations were published in refereed journals, about the same share as the worldwide compilation of agricultural R&D evaluation studies (Hurley et al., 2016). The remaining evaluations were published in a variety of outlets, including books, theses, reports or grey literature (Fig. 2, Panel b).Fig. 3, Panel a gives a regional breakdown of the returns-toresearch evidence in terms of where in SSA the research was performed versus where in SSA the results of the research were adopted and used. The evidence spans 25 of the total of 48 SSA countries when reported on a by-performer basis, and 32 countries when reported on a by-user basis. Thus 87% of the region's 2013 agricultural output and 82% of the region's poor people (i.e., those living on less than $1.25 per day) are encompassed by the countries included in the by-user group (World Bank, 2015a, 2015b). The regional by-performer versus by-user shares are similar, indicating the benefits included in each evaluation are typically limited to those that accrue within the country or region in which the research was undertaken (and consistent with the fact that only 5.5% of the country-specific evaluations paid any explicit attention to research spill-ins or spill-outs). Roughly one-third of the evaluations refer to research done in or impacting Eastern Africa (with studies for Uganda and Zambia accounting for 89 of that region's 150 internal rates of return, IRR, evaluations). One notable aspect of the regional split is the surprisingly small number of evaluation studies for Southern Africa compared with Eastern or Western Africa, even though that part of the continent accounted for 22.5% of the region's public food and agricultural R&D spending for the period 1975-2011 (Pardey et al., 2016a). A large share of the SSA evaluation evidence (specifically 39.0% of the evidence reported on a by-performer basis, and 29.4% on a by-user basis) consists of African IRR results obtained in the context of evaluations that encompassed more than one country (i.e., multicountry studies) or more than one region of the world, one of which was SSA (i.e., multi-regional studies). Moreover, the overwhelmingly dominant share (more than 85.4%) of both these types of (multi-country, multi-regional) studies involved the evaluation of CGIAR research, including CG-specific research or research carried out by the CG in partnership with national agencies throughout the region (Fig. 3, Panel b).Looking into more detail regarding the agencies carrying out the R&D being evaluated, public organizations make up 96.5% (440 of 456) of the evaluations. Research conducted at universities throughout SSA represents just 3.5% of the public evaluations. Research conducted exclusively by national agencies constituted 50.4% of the public-sector evaluations (or 53.9% if research done jointly with universities and private entities is included). Research conducted exclusively by international agencies accounts for a further 20.7% of this public total, with a further 25.0% of the evaluations being conducted by international agencies joint with national government, university and private partners. CG centers constituted 93.1% of all the evaluations associated with interna-  tional agencies. A tiny fraction, just 2.9% (i.e., 13 evaluations taken from 9 studies), to research carried out by private entities, of which 12 of the 13 evaluations involved joint private and public R&D. The only study that focused exclusively on privately performed R&D is a 2004 study by Nieuwoudt and Nieuwoudt on South African sugarcane research, the same subject matter as the first SSA study by Evenson and Kislev (1975). Other evaluations that involved privately performed R&D (joint with public research conducted by universities, CGIAR centers and government research agencies) include an Ethiopian study of maize research, South African studies of ornamental flowers and wine grape R&D, and Zimbabwean research on cotton and groundnuts. Notably, all but the maize study relate to private research conducted on exportoriented, cash crops rather than food staples.Just over one third (36.9%) of the evaluations report the returns to research (be it basic or applied R&D), just 2.4% of the evaluations related solely to extension, while the majority of the evaluations (59.9%) report the joint returns to research and extension. The preponderance (74.1%) of the region's evaluation evidence relates to crop research, which is well in excess of the corresponding 51% share of worldwide studies (Hurley et al., 2016). Within crops, the major focus of the SSA evaluation evidence is on maize, millet and sorghum research. These three crops alone constitute almost half (45.9%) of the crop-related evaluations (Fig. 4). Notably, little Panel b. CGIAR Research EvaluaƟons (By Performer, LeŌ Side; By User, Right Side).Panel a. Region-Specific EvaluaƟons (By Performer, LeŌ Side; By User, Right Side).   3 for details). To maximize the concordance of the commodity categories presented here with those reported in Table 3, the ''Others\" category includes joint crop-livestock, agriculture-fishing and agriculture-aquaculture research, plus research on ''other trees.\" The stacked bar reports various commodity shares within the ''Crop total\" category. evaluation evidence exists for roots and tuber crops cassava and yams (1.3% of the total returns to research evaluations for SSA), even though those crops constituted 18.0% by value of SSA agricultural output over the past two decades (1994-2013) (FAO, 2015). Similarly, livestock evaluation studies represent a smaller share (4.4%) of all the SSA evaluation studies; substantially less than the 24.3% by value share of the region's overall agricultural output attributable to livestock products.The overwhelming majority (82.5%) of the 456 rate-of-return evaluations for SSA from a total of 113 studies report an IRR measure. Of the 113 studies, 74.3% report only IRRs, 10.7% report only benefit-cost ratios (BCRs), and 15.9% report both IRRs and BCRs. Like the rates of return to research literature generally, the published SSA studies strongly prefer IRRs as the means to summarize the stream of benefits and costs associated with agricultural R&D, even though Griliches (1958) expressed a preference for the BCR. Hurley et al. (2014) suggested using the modified IRR, which is simply another way of writing the BCR.Fig. 5, Panel a shows the distribution of IRRs and other common statistics for both SSA and the rest-of-the-world (ROW A : world excluding evaluations of direct relevance to SSA). Both distributions are skewed to the right, with their mean higher than their median IRRs. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test confirms that the distributions are different at the 10% level of significance, with a substantially lower mean (42.3 versus 62.4%py) and marginally lower median (35.0 versus 38.0%py) IRRs reported for SSA compared with elsewhere in the world (Fig. 5, Panel a). While the BCRs in Fig. 5, Panel b would seem to indicate less of a discrepancy between the SSA and ROW A returns-to-research evidence with the mean BCR for SSA actually higher than the ROW A (30.1 versus 26.0) and the median BCR for SSA is a little lower than ROW A (11.0 versus 12.6), a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test again reveals the distributions are different at the 10% level of significance.Table 1 provides various summary statistics of the distribution of IRRs reported for each region within SSA. It also reports these same statistics for multi-country and multi-regional research that includes (parts of) SSA. Some of the regional summary statistics need to be taken with a grain of salt. For example, the IRR evidence for the Central region spans only two countries and draws from only four studies that report a total of 17 IRR estimates. While the statistics for the Southern region represent a summary of only 44 IRR estimates, they are drawn from 19 different studies. The dispersion among regions in terms of the median IRRs is much more muted than the means, with the returns to multi-country and multi-regional research tending to be at the upper end of the reported range.Table 2 groups the IRR observations in terms of their various research versus extension orientations. There is some suggestion in this evidence that investments in extensions services, either in and of themselves or coupled with investments in R&D, are especially rewarding. The two extension-related categories have median IRRs that exceed the ''All studies\" median (35.0%py) and are greater than the corresponding medians for the ''Applied\" and ''Basic and Applied\" research-only groupings.Table 3 groups the IRR evidence according to its commodity focus. Reiterating the findings from Fig. 4, almost all (86.8%) of the evidence pertains to crop research. The reported returns to   livestock and natural resource oriented agricultural R&D are grossly under-represented this literature, in relation to the economic value of agricultural output and the orientation of the research itself (data underlying Pardey et al., 2016a). One stand-out entry in this tabulation is the median returns to rice research, which are more than double the overall median returns to R&D. The comparatively limited amount of evaluation evidence on rice research cautions against putting too much stock in this finding. The returns to maize research are at the upper end of the range, and are substantially larger than the average or median return to research on small grain cereals such as millet and sorghum. Fig. 6, Panel a gives a mapped representation of the number of IRR evaluations and corresponding median IRR by country. There is little concordance between the geographical distribution of the rate-of-return evidence and the value of agricultural output. For example, Nigeria with 36.1% of SSA's 2014 agricultural output (by value) accounts for just 4.3% of the region's IRRs, whereas Zambia with less than one percent of the value of output constitutes 11.4% of the reported IRRs. Moreover, just five of the region's 48 countries (Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) account for 42.8% of the published IRRs.The box-whiskers plots in Fig. 6, Panel b provide more detail on the nature of the dispersion in IRR estimates within the different regions in SSA. The horizontal bar within each box indicates the median IRR, and the upper and lower values of the whiskers represent the 90th and 10th percentile reported IRR in each region. The preponderance of the evidence within each region is reasonably tightly clustered around the mean, except for the 17 evaluations in central Africa where the dispersion around the median is more pronounced.The wide dispersion in the reported IRRs for SSA and elsewhere in the world makes it difficult to discern meaningful patterns in the evidence. Moreover, the skewed nature of the IRR distributions indicates that the median is a more informative measure of central tendency than the mean, although there are indications that the mean IRR for SSA is meaningfully different from the rest-of-world average (i.e., the world excluding Africa). Hurley et al. (2016) reported a worldwide average and median IRR to research (and extension) of 59.6 and 37.5%py respectively. More specifically, the corresponding SSA figures are 42.3 and 35%py respectively, compared with 62.5 and 38%py for the concordant rest-of-world figures.This survey raises questions as to the representativeness of the African returns-to-research evidence. The commodity focus of this evidence is not especially congruent with either the composition of African agricultural production nor, to the best we can ascertain, the commodity emphasis of public agricultural R&D throughout the region (data underlying Pardey et al., 2016a). In both instances the rate-of-return evidence is over representative of crops research (and thus under-representative of livestock research). It also gives short shrift to research related to non-cereal crops, especially root crops, bananas and plantains, which are important from both a production and a consumption perspective throughout substantial parts (but by no means all) of Africa.This study raises further questions as to the utility of this evidence in drawing general conclusions about the overall returns to investments in African agricultural R&D. The portfolio of available IRR and BCR studies likely represents a complex combination of factors, including the resources available to carry out such stud-  ies, the availability of data-an especially problematic issue SSA where data on technology adoption and its productivity consequence are especially limited (see, for example, Walker et al., 2014)-, and the scope of the methodological toolkit to enable such studies. To the extent the reported IRRs and BCRs are biased towards studies of ''successful\" research, the body of evidence would give an upwardly biased representation of the returns to research in the region. Offsetting these concerns is the fact that the median of the reported IRRs for the ''all agriculture\" portfolio of studies is 39.0% per year, slightly above the median IRR for the commodity specific evidence summarized in Table 3, which is 35.1% per year. Relative to elsewhere in the world, a much larger share of the returns-to-research evidence for SSA is more speculative (ex ante) evidence on the prospective returns to research yet to be undertaken (or completed). Moreover, an ever-larger share of the SSA returns-to-research estimates are shifting in favor of ex ante rather than ex post assessments of the benefits already realized from past R&D endeavors. To the extent this change in the balance of the research evaluation evidence reflects increasingly scarce information on the uptake or (productivity) consequences attributable to research induced technical change in more recent years, it raises concerns about the growth prospects for African agricultural over the decades ahead. Certainly the research investment evidence Pardey et al., 2016a) is particularly worrisome. It suggests that many countries throughout SSA are failing to sustain the long-run commitments to investments in R&D (and associated educational and science-based regulatory capabilities) required to develop the local innovation and institutional capacities that have been pivotal to the agricultural productivity performance of countries elsewhere in the world. This is in spite of the growing body of IRR and BCR estimates reported here, which suggests that overall, governments throughout the region are continuing to underinvest in research directed to their food and agricultural sectors.  ","tokenCount":"4009"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1259f36485750ef5693f6b3b4dc97f59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46e17f37-8bab-47b6-bdf7-4154cb4d5658/retrieve","id":"-368494986"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d1f629bf-1a80-4fc3-8a15-a0d46d955b37","pagecount":"23","content":" Facilitator: Explains and guides the discussion, cross checks the analysis templates and write down Key notes on flipchart to be read by all the participants.  Observer: Cross checks the analysis templates and reminds the facilitator about missing issues.  Note taker: Detailed documentation of the discussions, notes observations during the workshop, cross checks the analysis templates and reminds the facilitator about missing issues.The first part (up to section 5) is open to all villagers, including non livestock keepers and households that do not rear project species (chicken, goat and pig). The second part focuses on the project species. Although all households are welcome to stay on, it is really meant to gather information from households who rear those species. Invite about 30 to 35 people, of which 25 should rear project species. Make sure you will have a good mix of women and men, youth and old and, small and large livestock keepers. Two groups will be formed, as detailed below. Introduce the project to the participants, explain what the program is about (objectives of the discussion); agree on \"rules and principles\" including timing. Take some time for self introductions.Objective: The main objective of this exercise is to develop an area profile by mapping the natural, social and financial resources, infrastructures, social services and land use system within the village.Activities: Ask the group members to map out their village and its' key natural resources, infrastructure, social services and the land use system. The checklist below would guide the discussion with community members.1. Where are the locations of the most important area landmarks surrounding your community (give example of landmarks -external boundaries)? 2. Which resources are available in the village, which are considered to have an impact on people's livelihoods (e. g., crop fields, forests, rivers/ponds, degraded areas)? 3. Map the village infrastructure (e. g., settlement patterns, roads, power supply, network access, different types of water points/sources/irrigation systems, community buildings, shops, commodity markets, livestock market, veterinary office/clinic) 4. What social services (e. g., health clinics, schools, dwelling places of village authorities, community meeting place, or other important facilities) exist in the area? 5. What are the main land use and resource management systems in the area (e.g., allocation of cropping, forests, grazing reserves, seasonal herd movement, areas that herders associate with diseases)? 6. Which resources are plentiful? Which are scarce or lacking? 7. Where are the markets for livestock/livestock products? The input and output markets? What are the distances? Interviewing the diagram (Questions to ask or observations to make during the Mapping process) Village map  Identification of resources-physical, social, infrastructures…, available to households for their livelihoods, including status (scarcity, plentiful) and distance-(Table 1).A village resource map drawn at a PRA in Kiprorget Village, Kenya (Heifer, 2008).  Objective: to get a description of production system Tools: focus group discussion and diagram drawing Activity: Ask farmers to describe a \"typical\" production system, highlighting;-The various components: crops, livestock and aquaculture -The interactions between components -The feeding/ management systems (grazing versus enclosed) If possible, ask farmers to represent the system in a diagram (Figure 3.1). Also record the management system by species as per the table below (Table 2). Family / HouseObjectives: To identify important livelihood activities, income sources (on farm, offfarm, and non-farm) and trends. To capture the differences in key livelihood income sources by gender, or other social differentiation. Tools: Livelihoods matrix supplemented by focused group discussion with a mixed group.Activity: Ask group members to list and rank main sources of livelihoods and cash income both from within and outside the area. Emphasize the role of livestock related activities compared to the other activities. Discuss if the importance of livelihood activities has changed in the past five years. Discuss the situation faced by women, older people and other particular groups.1. What are the main sources of livelihoods and cash income in the area? 2. Rank the sources of livelihoods in order of importance. What is the importance of livestock farming compared to other activities? 3. What livelihood activities are important sources of cash income? Is livestock an important component? 4. What activities are new and what other changes did farmers observe in the relative importance of the livelihoods? 5. What differences do you observe for women and men, or other social differentiation (e.g., access to land and livestock, control over production and sale) Matrix showing key sources of livelihoods and cash income, as well as the changes in importance, by gender and other social differentiation Objective: To determine the distribution of wealth within a community based on assets owned and income and the links between livestock ownership and well being (critical herd/flock sizes). To establish the link between wealth standards by social category, and capture farmers' interests and motivations for invest in livestock farming.Tools: Group discussion of local criteria for wealth, Piling, and card/bean ranking can assist in categorising the community.1. Explain clearly why it is important for us to understand the different types of wealth categories 2. Identify (and rank) local criteria for wealth, checking for aspects such as number of livestock owned, size of land owned, education, housing type. 3. Define thresholds for wealth categories and check how many households (%) fall in each category. 4. Discuss wealth categories specificities in terms of gender, age, ethnic minority, etc. Objectives: to identify the various breeds of the project species (chicken, goat and pig) and understand the role of these species in people's livelihood. Tools: livelihood analysis matrix and focus group discussion Activities: Focus on the project species (chicken, goat and pig). Ask group members to list the project species of livestock they keep, and the breeds.1. Assess how many households keep these species and breeds 2. Is there any difference between wealth categories? If yes, which ones? 3. Reason for keeping these species/ breeds 4. Is there a specific household member category (women/ children/ old people..) who benefits most? 5. How is the money spent? Regular household needs, starting new business etc.. list of breeds of the project species kept, names (local and English) and description (Table 5)  livelihood matrix (table 6): % farmers keeping different breeds, importance of these breeds by wealth categories, reasons for keeping various breeds, who benefits most and how is money used for, trends over time  b) Obtain other information important for breeding (such as herding arrangements, which makes breeding decision, access to breeding animal including wild relatives), including; c) Changes that have taken place in breeds used in the last 5 years.Tools: trait ranking using beans ranking for a); focus group discussion for b) and c)Expected Outputs: tables 7a, 7b, 7c, 8a, 8b, 8c, 9a, 9b and 9cStart with chicken, complete 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 sections. Then, continue with goat and pig: complete 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 sections.Get all traits of importance. Include all traits mentioned by the farmers. Then rank the breeds that farmers keep (and other they know well-see Table 5), according to these traits (1 if breed ranks first on this trait etc..). Then provide overall ranking for the breeds. If relevant, make sure to include crosses with wild relatives.  Ask the group to discuss the causes, and which breeds is most affected. Draw a problem analysis table (see below) that lists the priority problems, the causes, the coping or response strategies, and the opportunities or proposed solutions for change.For filling the \"importance\" column, group places between zero and ten stones (or equivalent e.g. beans) into each cell. Zero stones indicate no importance, one stone indicates the least importance, and additional stones indicate increasing importance with ten stones indicating the most important. Activities related to identification of actors, their roles and how they interact with the community and with each other 1. Who are the important actors / organizations working with you? List them all down (remember to include local organizations such as livestock associations). What type of organization are they? 2. What are the core activities that each of these actors perform? 3. Do different actors in the community link with different people, or have different types of links, for example, richer households, migrants, minority ethnic groups (target group/ beneficiaries)? 4. Which actors are specifically working on livestock? If yes, which activities? 5. To what extent are you satisfied with their performance (out of a maximum score of 10) Summarize the discussion around the actors by an actor matrix (Table 9). ","tokenCount":"1393"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec9b7656a47f7a5947447cfa79f3c41c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5166fc6a-b112-458a-bbbc-ec06f8a2be5d/retrieve","id":"-953556343"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2220f297-dd11-4056-8dc2-a3fb1ce6df7a","pagecount":"119","content":"The objective of this report is to present data and expert knowledge on poverty and zoonoses hotspots to inform prioritisation of study areas on the transmission of disease in emerging livestock systems in the developing world, where prevention of zoonotic disease might bring greatest benefit to poor people.Mapping and measuring the burden of zoonoses, the density and number of poor livestock keepers and emerging markets for livestock products can help identify the 'hotspots' where zoonoses not only impose significant burdens but where zoonoses management is likely to be pro-poor (targeted at poor livestock keepers and poor consumers of livestock products) and have most impact on helping small farmers reach emerging markets.All zoonoses are not equal and a first step of the study was to categorise zoonoses according to epidemiology and impact. We considered three groups of zoonoses:  Endemic zoonoses are present in many places and affect many people and animals.  Outbreak or epidemic zoonoses are sporadic in temporal and spatial distribution.  Emerging zoonoses newly appear in a population or have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographical range. Many occur as outbreaks.The first chapter reviews the substantial literature on prioritising disease and identifies prioritisation criteria relevant to this study, namely: burden of human disease; impacts on livestock production and productivity; amenability to agricultural intervention; and, concern because of emergence or severity. This allowed us to identify 24 zoonoses of high importance to poor people, 13 of which we investigated in depth. Our identified priorities were broadly similar to comparable exercises.The next chapter reviews current evidence on poverty and livestock, on livestock systems and their dynamics, and on zoonoses and how they are currently mapped. We update the map of poor livestock keepers of Thornton et al. (2002) and present an additional map based on sub-national data. Maps of livestock systems that are changing most rapidly in response to emerging markets are taken from Herrero et al. 2009 andNotenbaert et al. 2009), and vulnerability to climate change from Ericksen et al. 2011). The strengths and weaknesses of different maps are noted and quantitative examples provided on the massive under-reporting of zoonoses and animal diseases in poor countries.The next chapter presents evidence from a systematic review of over 1,000 studies on the prevalence of the 13 priority zoonoses in people and animals. It focuses on the endemic zoonoses that impose greatest burden and a 'top 20' list is given of geographical hotspots. Data on zoonoses are also extracted from the WHO Global Burden of Disease and the 'top 20' countries identified. We include a case study that compares our systematic review with an 'in-country review' focusing on grey literature and literature in a language other than English. Finally, we discuss some of the challenges of the study and caution in interpreting the results. Maps are presented.The next chapter updates the map of emerging disease events of Jones et al. (2008). For the first time, we map emerging zoonoses as distinct from other emerging disease events. A 'top 20' of geographical hotspots is given. Maps are presented. The last chapter provides maps of regional agroecosystems and summarises numbers of livestock, people and poor livestock keepers by system as well as the zoonoses context. It also draws some global conclusions from the study.Annexes provide references for the papers in the systematic review of endemic zoonoses, the incountry review, and the systematic review of emerging zoonotic events. They provide information on the long list of zoonoses and the selection of the 13 most important to poor people in terms of burden and economic impacts.There is a strong association between poverty, hunger, livestock keeping, and zoonoses.Zoonotic disease has many aspects and existing disease reporting systems do not adequately capture the impact of zoonoses or identify investment opportunities. There is much unpublished information in grey literature of developing countries.Across a range of zoonoses burden, poverty burden, and reliance on livestock, the hotspots for poverty, emerging livestock systems and zoonoses are (in decreasing order of importance both by region and country; countries in red appear in multiple listings):South Asia: India > Bangladesh > Pakistan Is higher than: East and Central Africa: Ethiopia > Nigeria > Congo DR > Tanzania > Sudan Is higher than: South East Asia: China > Indonesia > Myanmar > Vietnam Is higher than: West Africa: Burkina Faso > Mali > Ghana Strength of evidence: moderateWe updated maps of poor livestock keepers (table 0.1). Around 70% of the rural poor and 10% of the urban poor are dependent on livestock. The last decade has seen declines in density of poor livestock keepers in South America and South East Asia and lesser declines in parts of West Africa and South Asia. High density of poor livestock keepers is focal: around 6 hotspots and 14 countries bear the brunt. Four countries (India > Nigeria > Ethiopia > Bangladesh) have 44% of the worlds' poor livestock keepers (table 0.1 and chapter 4.1).Areas with both high livestock populations and strong rising demand for livestock products offer highest opportunities for livestock to be a pathway out of poverty. Demand is largely driven by urbanisation, demographic growth and increasing wealth. Monogastric (poultry and pig) production responds more to increased demand because of their high reproduction rates and ease of intensification. Hence total number of monogastrics and magnitude of change in monogastric population are proxies for identifying emerging livestock systems (table 0.1 and chapter 4.3). Countries with both high numbers and large change include: India > Myanmar > Pakistan > Bangladesh = China Strength of evidence: moderateThe study distinguishes between three categories of zoonoses:  Endemic zoonoses, present in many places and affecting many people and animals are responsible for the great majority of human cases of illness (we estimate 99.9%) and deaths (we estimate 96%) as well as the greatest reduction in livestock production. Examples are: brucellosis, leptospirosis, and salmonellosis. Endemic zoonoses are of most concern where the objective is lowering the burden of human disease and increasing the productivity and profitability of livestock for poor people.  Outbreak or epidemic zoonoses are zoonoses that typically occur as outbreaks. Examples are: anthrax, rabies, Rift Valley fever, and, leishmaniasis. They are much more sporadic in temporal and spatial distribution than endemic zoonoses but may be more feared because of their unpredictability and in some cases, severity. They are often present in neglected populations with poor health services and infrastructure. Outbreak zoonoses are of concern when there is an objective of reducing vulnerability of neglected populations. Emerging zoonoses newly appear in a population or have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographical range. Many occur as outbreaks. They are relatively rare, around 300 events in the last 70 years. Most are of minimal impact, but historically, emerging diseases have been responsible for massive impacts (e.g. HIV AIDS). Emerging zoonoses are of concern when the object is foresight, and understanding disease emergence in order to try and avert pandemics of major impact.The study assessed 56 zoonoses, together responsible for around 2.5 billion cases of human illness and 2.7 million human deaths a year. We identified the 13 zoonoses most important to poor livestock keepers because of their impacts on human health, livestock sector, amenability to agriculture-based control, and other criteria (chapter 2). These were, in descending order: zoonotic gastrointestinal disease; leptospirosis; cysticercosis; zoonotic tuberculosis; rabies; leishmaniasis; brucellosis; echinococcosis; toxoplasmosis; Q fever; zoonotic trypanosomosis, hepatitis E; and anthrax.The study searched for papers on zoonotic disease emergence events since 2004. Out of 43 new or newly identified events, most are viral and originate in wild animal hosts. Although the mappable zoonotic new events (n = 30) are globally spread across every continent, there may be clusters in northeast US, South America, Europe and South East Asia. These trends may reflect surveillance differences. There is a possible trend to more events in developing countries in recent years, which may reflect increased attention over this period. Combined with existing data on zoonotic EID events from 1940-2004 (n = 202), the clearest potential hotspots are USA and Western Europe, (this may also reflect historical surveillance differences). Countries with most events are USA, UK, Australia, and France (table 0.1).Massive under-reporting constrains our ability to understand and prevent disease. In sub Saharan Africa, 99.9% of livestock losses do not appear in official reports. At least 50% of these losses are probably due to notifiable diseases (farmers and experts rank many notifiable diseases as major causes of mortality including Newcastle disease, African swine fever, classical swine fever, trypanosomosis, East Coast fever, peste de petits ruminants).The study accessed information around 1,000 surveys on prevalence of endemic zoonoses, covering over 16 million subjects. A qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis suggests a strongly spatial distribution, with a few countries bearing most of the human and animal disease burden (chapter 3). The study also assessed the burden of zoonoses in the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) extracting data on 7 important zoonoses. This also shows a highly skewed distribution of human disease burden: 19 countries are responsible for 75% of the total burden in the GBD. Hotspots are: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Togo, and India.Countries appearing multiple times at the top of multiple metrics are (in descending order of importance): India, China, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Congo DR, Indonesia, Myanmar, and Tanzania 1 .Table 0.1: The top 20 countries at the interface of poverty, emerging livestock systems and zoonoses according to different metrics (in descending order of importance)Map of endemic zoonoses-the burden of zoonoses (Grace et al., this study) This map shows the surveys on endemic zoonoses reviewed in this report which reported zoonoses affecting >1% of humans or animal. Over 1,000 surveys were accessed covering over 14 million animals, humans and livestock products.Hotspots for high prevalence of endemic disease confirmed by multiple surveys Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Togo, India, Mali, Vietnam, Sudan, BangladeshIn poor countries as a whole:  12% of animals have recent or current infections with brucellosis, reducing production by 8%  10% of livestock in Africa are infected with trypanosomosis, reducing their production by 15%  7% of livestock are currently infection with tuberculosis (TB), reducing their production by 6% and from 3-10% of human TB cases may be caused by zoonotic TB  17% of smallholder pigs show signs of current infection with cysticercosis, reducing their value and creating the enormous burden of human cysticercosis  27% of livestock show signs of current or past infection with bacterial food-borne disease, a major source of food contamination and illness in people  26% of livestock show signs of current or past infection with leptospirosis reducing production and acting as a reservoir for infection  25% of livestock show signs of current or past infection with Q fever, and are a major source of infection of farmers and consumers This map shows locations of zoonotic emerging disease events between 2004 and 2011.Combined with existing data on zoonotic EID events from 1940-2004 (n = 202), the clearest potential hotspots are USA, South America, South East Asia and Western Europe, which may reflect historical surveillance differences.Chapter 1: Zoonoses of most relevance to poor people in emerging livestock systems Summary This chapter identifies three categories of zoonoses important for different reasons: endemic zoonoses, outbreak zoonoses, emerging zoonoses, and, old zoonoses. We discuss previous work to prioritise zoonoses and some of the challenges in identifying zoonoses of importance to the poor. We identified 56 zoonoses that appeared in multiple listings and selected criteria to prioritise them. Together, the 56 zoonoses are responsible for an estimated 2.7 human million deaths and around 2.5 billion cases of human illness a year. For the top 13 zoonoses, the figures were 2.2 million human deaths and 2.4 billion cases of illness. Our prioritisation is broadly compatible with other exercises.Zoonoses are diseases transmissible between animals (domestic and wildlife) and humans. Around 60% of all human diseases and around 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic (Taylor et al., 2001;Woolhouse et al., 2005). In aggregate, they have high impacts on human health, livelihoods, animals and ecosystems. In the first global syntheses of the impact (partial) of zoonotic diseases, Grace et al. (2011a) estimated that, in least developed countries, 20% of human sickness and death was due to zoonoses or diseases recently jumped species from animals to people.What cannot be measured cannot be managed and the first recommendation of a high-level WHOconvened group was to assess the societal burden of disease attributable to zoonoses (Molyneux et al., 2011). Assessing, including mapping, of zoonoses is key to helping decision-makers and implementers plan and manage disease control.Zoonoses can threaten human health in different ways:  Endemic zoonoses are continually present to a greater or lesser degree in certain populations.Examples are cysticercosis, brucellosis, bovine tuberculosis, leptospirosis and food-borne zoonoses 2 . They are common in poor populations and are responsible around a billion illnesses and millions of deaths every year (table 2.1). However, endemic zoonoses have been neglected by the international donor, standard setting, and research communities. Maps exist for human health burden of individual zoonoses, usually at country level but there are no available maps of endemic zoonoses as a group, and few maps for the impact of zoonoses on livestock.  Outbreak or epidemic zoonoses typically occur intermittently. Examples are anthrax, rabies, Rift Valley fever, and leishmaniasis. Endemic zoonoses may occur as outbreaks in naïve populations or when triggered by events such as climate changes, flooding, waning immunity or concommittent hunger or disease. They typically have high temporal and spatial variability. Their overall impact in terms of morbidity, mortality and production loss is much less than endemic zoonoses but because they can 'shock' systems they are often of high priority to farmers and decision makers. They can also cause important economic losses, which are often related to reaction to the disease rather than the disease itself (Butler and Grace, forthcoming). Some diseases which now occur in endemic foci have in the past resulted in major outbreaks or epidemics. Emerging zoonoses newly appear in a population or have existed previously but are now rapidly increasing in incidence or geographical range. They are relatively rare, around 300 events in the last 70 years (Jones et al., 2008). Most are of minimal impact. Diseases novel in one place may be endemic in other places and burdens are not necessarily linked to site of emergence, so mapping the point of emergence may not correlate to impact on poor people at that point. Donors and decision-makers are often concerned about emerging diseases, whose impacts on poor farmers are orders of magnitude less than the impacts of endemic zoonoses. However, the potential impact (e.g. a new HIV AIDS) is at least of similar magnitude to endemic zoonoses. Good maps exist but may not be useful for informing research aimed at identifying poor at risk from zoonoses.  'Old zoonoses' were originally zoonotic but are now spread mainly or entirely by human-tohuman transmission (some with remaining zoonotic reservoirs) (Grace and McDermott, 2011). These include HIV-AIDs, influenza, malaria, measles and dengue. These diseases have jumped species in many places and their burden is not linked to site of emergence. Their current order of magnitude is about similar to that of the endemic zoonoses (almost all due to HIV-AIDs). The ability of the livestock sector to predict, prevent and control these diseases is small and maps not likely to be useful for directing research activities so these will not be further discussed.In order to map zoonoses and poverty, information is needed on which zoonoses pose risk to the poor. One of the earliest attempts to prioritise zoonoses was conducted by ILRI (Perry et al., 2002) with support from DfID. Recent years have seen several other prioritisation exercises for zoonoses and animal health. These have been reviewed by the ENHanCE group (http://www.liv.ac.uk/enhance/) (Enhance, undated). Most use experts, criteria setting, and weighting to come up with lists. However, when evidence is both highly scarce and highly scattered (as is the case for zoonoses) then expert opinion is less useful; this is illustrated by major discrepancies between different systems of prioritising (Perry et al., 2009).Prioritisation exercises use various criteria of importance including: livestock pathogens with a high actual human disease burden; rare zoonotic pathogens with severe disease manifestations in people; arthropod-borne and wildlife associated pathogens which may pose a severe risk in future (Havelaar et al., 2010; health consequences in animals, economic consequences in animals (Dufour et al., 2006); public health (severity and occurrence in humans), animal health (severity of disease coupled with economic consequences and occurrence in animals), and food (occurrence in food) (Cardoen et al., 2009).Most of these prioritisation exercises were done in rich countries. Other challenges in identifying the zoonoses that matter most to the poor include:  Capturing multiple impacts: Many endemic zoonoses and some emerging zoonoses have impacts on livestock causing death and reduced productivity as well as costs for control but prioritisation may focus only on some impacts.  Lack of evidence on the adverse impacts caused by disease: Many zoonoses are not notifiable so are not recorded in official statistics. Even for notifiable diseases, many national reports are highly unreliable. As described in this report, under-reporting is a serious problem both in animal and human populations.  Variability: zoonoses are often focal and some vary from year to year (predictably or not). For example, Rift Valley fever may be absent for decades before causing severe problems. Human trypanosomosis currently affects only thousands of people, but historically there have been major epidemics affecting millions of people.In order to select 'important' zoonoses for further study, we used information from five listings of priority zoonoses or priority diseases that included zoonoses and were relevant to developing countries:1) The World Health Organisation Global Burden of Disease 2) The World Animal Health Organisation list of notifiable zoonoses 3) Zoonoses important to poor people identified by expert consultation (Perry et al., 2002) 4) The Rosetta listing of infectious causes of death 5) A systematic review of zoonoses commissioned by DFID, which identified 373 zoonoses as important (Grace et al., 2011).Zoonoses that appeared in more than one list were considered (n=56). We ranked these 56 zoonoses according to criteria considered important by the authors of this study. We selected the following criteria ( The major difference between our criteria and criteria used in previous studies was the inclusion of 'amenability to agricultural intervention' as a criterion. The rationale was that the ability to do something about a problem was an important criterion for prioritisation for donor agencies and decision makers. The complete table and weighting used is given in annex 1. By these criteria, 13 zoonoses were defined as most important (Table 1.3) to poor people. These 13 were selected for indepth systematic literature review and mapping.Together, the 56 zoonoses are responsible for an estimated 2.7 human million deaths and around 2.5 billion cases of human illness a year. For the top 13 zoonoses, the figures were 2.2 million human deaths and 2.4 billion cases of illness. Nine of the 13 top-ranked zoonoses were considered to have high impact on livestock, all have a wildlife interface, and all are amenable to agriculture-based interventions. Out of the top 18 ranked zoonoses across the 12 studies, 17 appeared in our top 25 listing. The exception was West Nile, which did not appear in our review. This has been most problematic in the Americas. Among all the 33 zoonoses listed in the review, 24 appeared in our list of top 25 zoonoses, suggesting reasonable similarity given the different criteria and focus.A notable characteristic of recent and expert-driven prioritisations is the high ranking given to common, food-borne diseases (salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, toxoplasmosis, listeriosis, toxigenic E. coli, and cryptosporidiosis). Decision makers and implementers using unstructured prioritisation often focus on classical zoonoses they have studied at university or emerging diseases with high media and donor attention rather than food-borne zoonoses which cause a greater burden of disease (Grace et al., 2010).There are three types of existing zoonoses maps: emerging disease event maps, disease report maps and research-derived prevalence maps. A summary along with strengths and weaknesses are presented in table 1.2.1. Emerging disease event maps. Jones et al. (2008) have identified emerging disease events as \"the first temporal emergence of a pathogen in a human population which was related to the increase in distribution, increase in incidence or increase in virulence or other factor which led to that pathogen being classed as an emerging disease\". They identified 335 events between 1940 and 2004: 60% of which are zoonotic. An updated map, which shows only zoonotic emerging disease events, is presented in Chapter 4.There are several systems for reporting disease outbreaks: these are summarised in table 1.2. The most authoritative is the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE) World Animal Health Information Database (WAHID) maps. HealthMap (www.healthmap.org) aggregates all the major disease reporting systems and information sources. Members of the OIE (currently 178 countries) have a legal obligation to report certain diseases (currently 115). Maps are generated from the information provided.3. Prevalence maps. These are based on studies assessing the prevalence of zoonoses in livestock, livestock products and people. Global prevalence maps exist for some individual zoonoses but data is often at country level. Some zoonoses have been mapped using geo-spatial data -notably trypanosomosis. The World Health Organsiation (WHO) Global Burden of Disease (GBD) has also been mapped at country level. Real time, most comprehensive.Reflects weaknesses in the source data.The challenges of mapping the multiple burdens of zoonoses include:  Reporting systems cover only few of the important zoonoses. There are over 600 zoonoses and around 100 of these are of some importance (Grace et al., 2011). However, WHO GBD and OIE only cover 11 and 33 zoonoses respectively.  The GBD does not distinguish between zoonotic and non-zoonotic causes of disease and for several diseases (including tuberculosis, schistosomiasis, gastro-intestinal disease) the proportion of disease attributable to zoonoses is not accurately known.  Zoonoses are often confused with other diseases (e.g. malaria and typhoid) and this misdiagnosis leads to systematic under-reported in the human health system.  OIE reporting grossly underestimates the importance of endemic zoonoses -see next section.  Emerging disease databases give little information on actual burden on poor people or which diseases are likely to be problematic in the future.  Meta-disease reporting systems (summarised in HealthMap) are only as good as the data they aggregate.An important conclusion of our study is that massive under-reporting of zoonotic (and other diseases) in developing countries is a major impediment to understanding prevalence and impacts of disease and developing appropriate control. We illustrate this with the examples of brucellosis in poor countries and Q fever in Africa and also compare official reports of notifiable diseases with probable mortality of livestock in Africa.Brucellosis is an important disease of cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. It is also important zoonosis and is notifiable to the OIE. In cattle, it can be suspected on clinical signs, as it causes late abortion with characteristic lesions on the placenta. It also causes carpal hygromas, a very specific indicator of brucellosis. Diagnostic tests are widely available and relatively inexpensive. Brucellosis is both important and easy to detect.Commonly used tests for brucellosis detect antibodies produced in response to infection. Antibodies tested for persist for several months (IgG) or several years (IgM). Positive tests (to both antibodies) indicate the animal is currently sick, is chronically infected or has been infected in the last year or so. Hence positive tests are roughly equivalent to annual cases.Our review captured information from 241 community surveys (that is, surveys from the general livestock community and not targeting high risk animals) of bovine, sheep and goat populations, representing 475,968 samples. The prevalence for different regions is shown in Table 1.2. From the number of ruminants, the prevalence of seropositive cases, and the relation between sero-positivity and disease we can predict the number of cases of brucellosis a year. The discrepancy between the number reported and the number predicted is several orders of magnitude. For example, for every 1 million cases in East Africa less than one case is reported to OIE. The situation is similar for other diseases reported to OIE. When there are 999,999 missed cases for every one report, surveillance is not fulfilling its purpose. Most tests for Q fever detect antibodies. Antibodies may persist for several years. Most of the surveys in our review were community based. For these, a positive result indicates current infection, chronic infection or infection in the last few years.In our review the average sero-prevalence from community surveys in Africa was 26% suggesting half a billion animals infected each year.We  2006and 2009(World Bank, 2011). This also allows us to assess under-reporting for developing countries. We do this by estimating number of livestock in Africa from FAOSTAT, annual mortality from systematic reviews, proportion of mortality likely to be due to notifiable diseases from expert opinion, and we compare these with official reports to OIE.FAO estimate that globally there are 24 billion livestock in 2010 (FAOSTAT, 2012), corresponding to 2.4 billion livestock standard units (using the OIE definition given in the aforementioned Atlas) (World Bank, 2011). Sub-Saharan Africa has two billion livestock corresponding to 253 million standard livestock units.Numerous studies on African livestock indicate annual mortality is high. Otte and Chilona (2002) reviewed production parameters of ruminants in traditional and non-traditional production systems reported in published and grey literature between 1973 and 2000 (table 1.3). Depending on species and age category, mortality ranged from 6-28% with three quarters of the species-age categories having a mortality of 10% or more. Otte and Chilona did not include poultry in the review but production parameters and characteristics of family poultry production have been compiled and published for eleven African countries (IAEA 2002). These give a range of annual mortalities from around 30% to 80% depending on the age category and country. Rege and Gibson (2009) estimate mortality in backyard poultry in Africa at 70% per year. There is little comprehensive information on mortality among smallholder pigs, but mortality is often high among pre-weaned piglets in smallholder systems (around one fifth) and very high losses occur during outbreaks of African swine fever and other epidemics (Wabacha et al., 2004).Proportion of losses due to notifiable disease Some of the annual livestock losses are due to non-infectious causes (mainly accidents, poisoning, predation and malnutrition). Other losses will be due to non-notifiable diseases (such as endoparasites) but farmers and experts agree that the 87 notifiable diseases are among the most important causes of mortality for livestock in Africa (not surprising when notifiable diseases include such high impact diseases as Newcastle disease, trypanosomosis, classical swine fever, East Coast fever, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, and peste des petits ruminants). The authors of the report consider at least 50% of mortality is attributable to notifiable diseases Combining these assumptions indicates a major discrepancy between the probable losses from notifiable disease (around 10 million) and the losses reported to the OIE (around 100,000) that can only be explained by under-reporting of several orders of magnitude. The following example makes this clear:  Livestock in Africa = 253, 00, 000 standard livestock units (FAOSTAT, 2011)  Livestock death, slaughter, or destruction reported to OIE = 82,319 units (World Bank, 2011)  Livestock annual estimated losses = 25,300,000 TLUs (literature: 10% as a conservative estimate 3 )  Estimated losses due to notifiable diseases = 12, 800,000 TLUs (expert opinion: 50% of losses)  Losses (notifiable) reported to OIE = 0.2% of total units (less than one fifth of one percent)  Losses (notifiable) probably not reported to OIE = 99.8% of losses  Losses (notifiable & non notifiable) not officially reported = 99.9%Chapter 2: Mapping of poverty, livestock, zoonoses and vulnerability to climate change Summary Information of reasonable quality is available on number of people in poverty by country and the number of livestock by country and by farming system. Literature provides estimates on the number and proportion of poor people keeping livestock. Emerging zoonotic disease events have been mapped, but because of the nature of the data, maps may not be informative about the impacts on poor people. The World Health Organisation information on the Global Burden of Disease provides information by country on the human health impact of around 11 important zoonoses and also on protein-energy malnutrition which is indirectly linked to livestock product availability and hence zoonoses. The World Animal Health Organisation collates information on 33 zoonoses but data from developing countries is prone to under-reporting.Poverty can be defined as a pronounced deprivation in wellbeing. No single indicator exists to measure all dimensions of poverty simultaneously, however, internationally comparable metrics, such as the US 1$ a day ($1.25), are useful for spatial and temporal comparisons. Estimates of poverty are probably reasonably accurate. The proportion of people living in poverty (<$1.25 per day 4 ) dropped by half between 1990 and 2010, but 1.3 billion people still live on less than $1.25 a day and around 2.5 billion on less than two dollars a day (World Bank, 2012). In the past 3 decades, dramatic drops in poverty are mainly due to development in China: in Africa and South Asia numbers of people in poverty or stable or increasing. In terms of numbers, more than 75% of the people living in poverty live in 9 countries and 80% of poor people in 12 countries. In terms of intensity of poverty, 17 countries have more than 50% of the population living on less than $1.25 per day. Whereas in 1990, nine tenths of the poor lived in poor countries, presently three quarters live in middle-income countries (mainly India, China and Brazil).How many livestock are kept and where are they? In 2012, the human population reached 7 billion and the production animal population around 24 billion (FAOSTAT, 2012). Global livestock systems have been recently re-mapped (Robinson et al., 2011). Poultry and pigs increasingly dominate in terms of number of animals kept (although in terms of tropical livestock units, ruminants are more important): 85% of all domestic animals alive are now pigs or poultry. As disease transmission is dependent on numbers and contact rates, and monogastrics are kept in higher numbers and more intensive systems, monogastrics may become more important in disease emergence.Livestock density reflects the number of livestock and the level of intensification. Human population density is a major determinant of livestock density. High density is also an important factor in the transmission of disease through increasing the probability and number of contacts. However, density may also be associated with better biosecurity and control systems, which reduce risk. High livestock density, especially of monogastrics, often reflects intensification and tends to be inversely correlated with poverty. In our study, livestock density seems more correlated with zoonotic disease event emergence than burden of zoonotic disease.  How many poor people depend on livestock? Where are they? Livestock-keeping had been variously regarded as a symptom of being poor, an important pathway out of poverty, and a transitional stage as burgeoning developing world populations shift from agriculture to urban livelihoods (Perry et al., 2010). Recent estimates suggest nearly 1 billion people living on less than two dollars a day are dependent to some extent on livestock (Staal et al., 2009). Over 600 million are found in South Asia, mostly in India. Sub-Saharan Africa has over 300 million poor livestock keepers, concentrated in East and West Africa, with fewer in southern and central Africa. A breakdown by region is provided in chapter 4.Earlier estimates were around 70% of the rural poor depended on livestock (LID, 1999). Others have estimated that 40-50% of those living in poverty ($1.25 threshold) are at least partially dependent on livestock (Thomas & Rangnekar, 2004;IFAD, 2004). A more recent 12-country study supports this, finding that on average, around 68% of rural households in the bottom 40% as regards expenditure kept some farm animal compared to 65-58% of those in the top 40%; in urban areas 22-26% of the poor kept livestock, and 8-12% of the well-off (Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2011).To what extent do poor people depend on livestock? Staal et al. (2009) analysed 92 case studies from the developing world and found that livestock contributions made up on average 38% of household incomes (33% of the income in mixed croplivestock systems, and 55% of total income in pastoral systems). The 12-country study of Pica-Ciamarra et al. found livestock contributed on average 12% to household income, with no statistical differences between contribution in rich and poor countries. (This study over-represented emerging countries, which may explain the lower contribution of livestock compared to the study of Staal et al., 2009). There is strong evidence that poor people depend on livestock, but more research is needed on the extent and nature of this dependence.Livestock provide many benefits besides income. These include traction, manure, food, social status as well as economic services such as insurance and guarantees. Several studies show that manure, while seldom marketed is highly valued in smallholder systems (ranking higher than milk in West Africa (Grace et al., 2009). A study in Kenya, found that non-marketed values comprised approximately 20% of the animals total perceived value (Ouma et al., 2003).How much do livestock products contribute to nutrition in developing countries? Across a range of developing countries, livestock products contribute 6-36% of protein and 2-12% of total calories (Nzuma & Randolph, 2008). In South Asia and East Africa dairy products account for most livestock product consumption; in the rest of Africa, dairy, poultry, beef and shoats are balanced, while in South East Asia poultry and pork predominate. Countries with low livestock consumption (e.g. Bangladesh) may offset this with high fish consumption.Poorer households are more likely to keep small ruminants and richer to keep large ruminants. Poultry keeping tends to be evenly distributed across wealth groups. However, species ownership is system and country specific.Around half the value of livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa is derived from cattle (55%), followed by poultry (25%) and small ruminants (20%). In South Asia these proportions were 61%, 21% and 18%, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2012). In both regions the arid/semi-arid zone contributed most to value of production. However, the trends are towards more value from poultry and pigs and more production from intensified systems. A recent comprehensive rural poverty mapping is the CGIAR Geographic Domain Analysis (2009). The most recent public domain maps on global poor livestockkeepers are those produced by ILRI in 2002 (Thornton et al., 2002) and subsequently updated.Understanding the spatial distribution of livestock keepers can guide the allocation of resources as a first step in reaching the poor; identify areas of opportunity for livestock as a catalyst to growth; and, target hotspots of potential livestock-associated disease and environmental degradation. However, our knowledge of the location, characteristics and trends of change among poor livestock keeping populations is very patchy, both spatially and temporally. Here we outline a rapid broad-brush global assessment of spatial distribution of poor livestock keepers, and describe parallel activities in highresolution poverty mapping for countries in East Africa using sophisticated econometric techniques pioneered at the World Bank.In 2001 the UK Government's Department for International Development (DFID) commissioned a study to produce sets of maps locating the significant populations of poor livestock keepers in the world, and to assess in very broad terms how these populations are likely to change over the next three to five decades. These data are reported by Thornton et al. (2002). The map presented in this document is updated using more current poverty estimates from World Bank's 2011 WDI with the majority of the information being from 2005-2010 yet with a few countries with estimates still from the 1990s. Several countries within each region also have no estimates and have to be extrapolated by region.The Thornton et al. (2002) study made use of existing data and spatial data layers, together with information from the literature and expert opinion. The central element of the analysis is a global livestock classification based on that of Seré and Steinfeld (1996), who present a typology based on mixed crop-livestock systems, livestock-only rangeland-based systems, and landless production systems. We defined the classification primarily in terms of landuse/cover and climate-based length of growing period (LGP), supplemented by existing global coverages of human population, irrigated lands, and urban areas. Human population scenarios to 2050 were developed for Africa, Latin America and Asia.The study also provided a breakdown of poverty information by country and livestock production system that was available for most of the countries only at the national level including: World Bank rural and national rates and two internationally comparable poverty lines: less than 1$/day and 2$day. But this information did not include any information on how many of these poor were livestock keepers. So one additional layer was created by assigning differential poverty rates by broad livestock systems (mixed, pastoral and other) within each country providing at least some further sub-national distribution of the poor with livestock.The updated map of density of \"poor livestock keepers\" 2010 based on the methodology of Thornton et al. (2002) is shown in Figure 2.4. There are many assumptions and extrapolations involved in map development; however, despite caveats various conclusions can be drawn. In terms of numbers of livestock keepers, the critical regions remain South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The mixed farming systems (crop and livestock) contain large numbers of poor (over 1 billion), and numbers of poor people dependent to some extent on livestock in these systems are considerable. Mixed rainfed systems have more poor livestock keepers than mixed irrigated systems. Rangeland systems have least absolute numbers of the poor but the poor in this system have highest dependency on livestock. Almost half of the poor in rangeland systems are located in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of different methods in developing the maps, the map of 2000 is not directly comparable with updates. Some changes are evident since the map of 2002. There has been a marked decrease in the density of poor livestock keepers in South America and South East Asia. There has been some improvement, but to a lesser degree in parts of francophone West Africa and South Asia. However, these improvments have been more than offset by increases in Africa, most of South Asia, the middle East and Central Asia. Overall, the number of poor livestock keepers is estimated to have by 56 million in the eight years from 2000 to 2008 (FAO, 2011). The International Food Policy Research Institute IFPRI (Wood et al., 2009) have released their subnational rural poverty rates that cover most of sub Saharan Africa, but not yet the rest of the developing world. We used these to prepare Poor Livestock Keeper (PLK) maps for the < $1.25/day and < $2/day poverty lines (Figure 2.6 and 2.7).The two methods (national and sub-national) have broadly comparable results. In both maps, Ethiopia, Nigeria, the Great Lakes region, parts of West Africa and Malawi have the highest density of poor livestock keepers. However, the sub-national data reveals differences within countries. Because endemic zoonoses and emerging zoonotic events are geo-located, maps derived from sub-national data are more useful in exploring associations between zoonoses and poor livestock keepers (  Livestock systems are changing rapidly in response to various drivers. Figure 2.8 shows estimates of livestock systems in 2000 and 2030 (Kruska et al., 2003, Hererro et al., 2008).  Figure 2.9 shows percentage changes in pig and poultry densities between 2000 and 2030 (Herrero et al 2009). These are used as a proxy for emerging livestock systems. These use estimates from the 'baseline scenario', that is the most probable development of the sectors.Under the reference, or 'business as usual' scenario, considered the most plausible, the hotspots in terms of rapid growth are in descending order, poultry in South and East Asia > poultry in South America > bovines in South and East Asia > poultry in sub Saharan Africa = pigs in sub Saharan Africa Does changing livestock systems change the risk of zoonotic disease emergence? The maps in Figure 2.9 show some of the geographical areas where change is most rapid; countries which are in the top 20 for both high numbers of monogastrics and rapid change are found in South Asia and South East Asia: Myanmar, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand and China.Change in livestock systems extends beyond intensification of poultry and pigs. Rapid change and growth is often associated with erosion of the natural resource base. Globally, anthropogenic changes are driving climate change with implication for livestock keeping and zoonoses. These three change processes are discussed in this section: intensification, interface with wildlife and climate change.A systematic review of zoonoses at the livestock/wildlife interface recently commissioned by DFID examined evidence for links between livestock intensification and disease emergence. Evidence is as yet insufficient for definitive conclusions, and in some cases intensification is associated with less disease, but overall it seems that intensification is linked with disease emergence and spread.There are several contributing factors. Increased livestock numbers are themselves a risk factor for increased disease transmission. Moreover, selection, breeding and management for increased productivity in livestock create host populations conducive to pathogen evolution and persistence (through lack of genetic diversity, high numbers and contact opportunities, stress-induced immunosuppression and other factors). This provides opportunity for \"wild\" microorganisms to invade and amplify or for livestock pathogens to evolve to new and more pathogenic forms. In addition, corollaries of intensification such as high livestock and pest densities, extensive transportation networks, sale of live animals for food and pets, landscape modification, poor waste management, and juxtaposition of agriculture or recreation with wildlife all contribute to \"emergence\" and shifting virulence of diseases (Grace et al., 2011). Furthermore, much of the current intensification is driven by rising demand in developing countries, where the systems for disease control and reporting are relatively weak.The literature review conducted for this survey found that zoonotic food-borne pathogens were markedly higher in poultry and pigs than in small ruminants and cattle. This suggests that as monogastric systems expand, so may food-borne disease.Agricultural intensification is likely to have different impacts on the key zoonoses depending on their epidemiology. Probable impacts are discussed in chapter 3 and summarised here. Of the priority zoonoses, 9 are likely to become more of a problem with intensification, 4 are likely to decrease and for the remaining there is no clear link. Whether disease increases or decreases, also depends on the type of intensification and other factors. Where intensification occurs in close association with wildlife, risks for disease spillover are higher. If intensification is accompanied by improvements in biosecurity and a disease control programme, then diseases such as bovine tuberculosis may decrease. Other diseases tend to increase in the early stages of intensification but may decrease after. wildlife interface exists, zoonoses control is much more complex (Grace et al., 2011). Other zoonoses in the 'top 25' but not 'top 13' with an important wildlife interface are: Chagas, Chickungunya, Ebola, Hanta disease, avian influenza, psittacosis and Rift Valley fever.There are several metrics for vulnerability to climate change (Cutter et al., 2009;Fussel et al., 2009). Tropical African countries and Asian coastal countries are usually among the countries considered most vulnerable to climate change. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) commissioned ILRI/ CCAFS to conduct a rapid assessment across the global tropics of the vulnerability of food security to climate change (Ericksen et al., 2011). The goal was to identify 'hotspot' locations where climate change impacts are projected to become increasingly severe by 2050 and food insecurity is currently a concern, using a range of indicators. The maps mainly focused on change with implications for crop growth but some of these changes also have implications for livestock production and disease.Figure 2.10 and 2.11 predict areas where rainfall and flooding will increase. This is expected to increase the risk associated with vector-borne zoonoses including tick-borne and mosquito-borne diseases. It will also increase risk of bacterial pathogens associated with stagnant water and flooding (e.g. leptospirosis, anthrax, cryptosporidiosis). The next map aggregates different thresholds that can stress production, including flips in: growing period, reliable crop-growing days, annual aveage temperature, annual average maximum temperature, maximum temperature exceeds 30 centigrade, changes in variablitly in rainfall, and increase in rainfall.Figure 2.12 Number of climate thresholds that can stress production (Ericksen et al., 2011) In terms of exposure to multiple climate threats, southern Africa has the largest area exposed (across Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Botswana, Mozambique and South Africa) with multiple threats, followed by northeastern Brazil, Mexico, Guyana, Nicaragua, and small areas in Tanzania, Ethiopia, the DRC, Uganda, India, and Pakistan, as well as the Middle East.While studies are starting to emerge on the likely effect of climate change on human disease, and changes in spatial dynamics of some animal diseases (e.g. blue tongue) are believed to be influenced by climate change, there is still little strong evidence on impacts of climate change on zoonotic disease in dynamic systems with multiple drivers. For example, as countries get warmer and wetter biological mechanisms would suggest that many diseases increase. However, if countries simultaneously get richer or invest more wisely in health care the net impact may be disease decrease (Perry et al., 2011).The effects of climate change on livestock and non-vector-borne disease have, with some exceptions, received little attention. The climate-livestock-poverty nexus was reviewed by Thornton et al. (2008) and this section is largely based on their findings. Climate change may affect livestock disease through several pathways:  Pathogens: higher temperatures and greater humidity generally increase the rate of development of parasites and pathogens that spend part of their life cycle outside the host.Changes to wind can affect spread of pathogens. Flooding that follows extreme climate events provides suitable conditions for many water-borne pathogens. Drought and desiccation are inimical to most pathogens.  Vectors: vector-borne diseases are especially sensitive to climate change. Changes in rainfall and temperature regimes may affect both the distribution and the abundance of disease vectors, as can changes in the frequency of extreme events (outbreaks of Rift Valley fever have been linked to ENSO, for example).  Hosts: some will be exposed to new pathogens and vectors as their range increases and impacts can be severe. Climate stress (heat, inadequate food and water) can also lower immunity.Of the 13 priority zoonoses, food-borne zoonoses, leptospirosis and trypanosomosis are likely to show high climate sensitivity. Howver, cysticercosis, tuberculosis, rabies, brucellosis and echinococcosis are unlikely to show high climate sensitivity. It is less clear how climate change will affect the epidemiology of other priority zoonoses, although some evidence suggests there may be important negative impacts. Food-borne zoonoses: A recent extensive literature review concluded that campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis were most likely to increase with air temperature; campylobacteriosis and non-cholera vibrio infections with water temperature; cryptosporidiosis followed by campylobacteriosis with increased frequency with precipitation; and cryptosporidiosis followed by non-cholera vibrio in association with precipitation events. Listeria sp. was not associated with temperature thresholds, extreme precipitation events, or temperature limits (ECDC, 2012).  Leptospirosis: Leptospirosis is considered one of the more climate sensitive diseases.Flooding and heavy rainfall have been associated with numerous outbreaks of leptospirosis around the world. With global climate change, extreme weather events such as cyclones and floods are expected to occur with increasing frequency and greater intensity and may potentially result in an upsurge in the disease incidence as well as the magnitude of leptospirosis outbreaks (Lau et al., 2010).  Trypanosomosis: While climate will modify (generally decrease, but not everywhere) habitat suitability for the tsetse fly, the demographic impacts on trypanosomosis risk through bush clearance are likely to outweigh those brought about by climate change (Thornton et al., 2006).  Q fever is transmitted in aerosols and climate change could affect survivability. Toxoplasmosis has rodent hosts and rodent populations are sensitive to climate change. Climate change and other environmental changes have the potential to expand the geographic range of the vectors and leishmaniasis transmission in the future. Anthrax is often associated with a combination of heavy rain and warm temperatures following a drought that encourages spores to germinate. These extreme events will be more common with climate change.We undertook a systematic literature review of the 13 zoonoses identified as important. Eight of these are 'endemic classical zoonoses' that is, zoonoses that are typically present across a wide range of communities at most times (although perhaps showing annual and inter-annual variability). In the case of bacterial food-borne zoonoses, we identified five diseases, which ranked highest on a number of recent assessments of impact (salmonellosis, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis, campylobacteriosis and disease caused by diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli). We also considered three epidemic or outbreakassociated zoonoses (rabies, leishmaniasis and anthrax) and hepatitis E, an emerging disease, which may have an important zoonotic transmission.For each disease we present information on prevalence, epidemiology, geographical hotspots and some key research questions and we estimated an 'endemic disease burden' score for all the countries for which information existed.We generated search terms that incorporated certain key words, identified and screened abstracts, reviewed full papers and synthesised required information. Diseases were initially considered on the basis of their appearance in the top 13 list of zoonoses generated as explained in the previous chapter. These were: Taenia solium cysticercosis, leptospirosis, anthrax, brucellosis, echinococcosis, hepatitis E, leishmaniasis, Q fever, rabies, toxoplasmosis, trypanosomosis, tuberculosis, and food borne infections (caused by Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter spp.). PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/) and CABDIRECT (www.cabdirect.org/) were used in doing the searches but also Google (www.google.co.ke/) including the Google scholar. Unpublished materials including student theses (mainly from the University of Nairobi) were accessed by visits. Related articles appearing during the active searches in PubMed were also utilized in sourcing for extra details, as well as from relevant references cited in the main papers reviewed. When available, the cited original papers were retrieved, reviewed, and relevant information retrieved. This also applied to major review papers providing a summary of the needed information and references for the original papers available. We used the same data as summarized in the review paper if the original paper was not available.Search terms were formulated, by disease, and by country or region; different combinations, were either relaxed or broadened to capture more articles or were restricted to refine or limit the number of resulting articles. Different Boolean operators were used (including AND, OR, parenthesis) for specific PubMed and CABDIRECT searches. Phrases guided by key words were used for the Google searches. We also applied wildcard symbols, mainly * to broaden the results in some of the searches.The first step involved screening the abstracts by title, abstracts not relevant for the project objectives were left out. The searches were originally limited to the last 10 years, but we also considered old studies if the search results were initially few. We considered studies conducted in Africa, South Asia and South East Asia. Some studies from the Middle East were also included. Those abstracts that were considered relevant (based on the title) were extracted into a word document and subsequently reviewed by a second person. Full papers linked to the relevant abstracts were extracted and reviewed. Prevalence information, if available, was extracted from abstract in cases where the full paper could not be accessed. Sources providing no information on the number of samples / subjects analysed were not considered-as the basis for the calculation of the prevalence estimates could not be established. Also excluded were papers with missing geographical locations for the specific studies.An excel® database was developed to capture information extracted during the review process (including the different search terms used). Variables extracted included: country where the study was done / or where the results apply, geo-spatial location (the specific location or coordinates if given), number of herds studied, number of samples analysed, the specific diagnostic test(s) done, subjects (livestock species, food, humans), individual prevalence, herd prevalence, year data were collected and a description of the study population. Where multiple surveys were reported in one study, each survey was listed separately (e.g. if prevalence was estimated in cattle and sheep these were considered as two different surveys each with an associated sample size, species and prevalence). We distinguish between \"community studies' which are conducted in the community and can be considered representative of it, and \"high risk studies\" which were conducted in high risk populations (sick people in hospitals, malnourished children, cattle which failed ante-mortem inspection, samples taken during an outbreak etc.). Maps were generated using data from community studies only.We defined geographical hotspots as those which had a high prevalence confirmed in multiple surveys. The number of studies needed to consider estimates reliable varied from pathogen to pathogen depending on the number of studies available and is given in the results section of the different diseases.In order to estimate the 'top twenty countries' for endemic disease burden we collated the geographical hotspots. We standardized scores for each disease so the country that had highest prevalence had a score of ten, and so on. We then summed scores for each disease by country.To develop the maps of endemic zoonoses we collected on-locational or descriptive data on zoonoses using systematic literature review and details were documented in a MS Excel spread sheet. The study area covered entire Africa and Asia (South central Asia and South East Asia). The constitution of a spatially referenced database was performed by introducing locational or spatial data in the form of coordinates into the spreadsheet. These coordinates were approximated from the 'Geospatial location' section of the database and were sourced from existing GIS databases and occasionally from websites such as Google maps and www.longitude-latitude-maps.com.The spreadsheet was then imported into the GIS software package ArcGIS v.10 (ESRI, Redlands). This software package allows for the seamless linkage of MS Excel spreadsheets to the GIS by using the coordinates columns, and these are imported as event data. The zoonoses locations were then mapped and the column 'prevalence' from the descriptive data used to map the magnitude of the prevalence as a percentage. For visualization purposes, mapping was done with a base map of agricultural farming systems on the background.We conducted a systematic review of brucellosis, tuberculosis, leptospirosis, trypanosomosis, cysticercosis, and Q fever and some bacterial food-borne diseases.  Brucellosis -the deceptive disease -causes fever and occasionally chronic disease in people; mainly abortion and infertility in cattle, shoats and pigs  Tuberculosis -white plague -a major cause chronic illness in people, causes wasting and illness mainly in cattle  Leptospirosis -swamp fever -causes fever and occasionally jaundice in people and fever and infertility in cattle and pigs; wildlife important reservoirs  Q fever -the most contagious disease -causes fever and occasionally death in people, carried by cattle, shoats, pets and wildlife, causes abortion in shoats  Cysticercosis -pork worm -most common cause of adult-onset epilepsy in poor, pig-keeping communities, leads to carcass condemnation in pigs  Trypanosomosis -sleeping sickness -cause of acute and chronic illness in people, historically caused severe epidemics, the most important disease of cattle in sub Saharan Africa; wildlife important reservoirs  Bacterial food-borne disease -the forgotten zoonoses -major cause of gastrointestinal disease in people; some but not all cause illness in animals. Several have wildlife interface  Echinococcosis -cystic disease -a major cause of illness in people and loss in sheep and goats from condemnation of carcasses We obtained information from 1098 surveys covering around six million animals, ten million people and six thousand food or environment samples. Endemic zoonoses impose an important burden in all regions, although the distribution varies according to disease. Trypanosomosis is found only in sub-Saharan Africa, cysticercosis is rare (though not absent) from cultures where pigs are not kept, and brucellosis is associated with high populations of ruminants. Zoonotic food-borne diseases, the most important zoonoses, are at much higher prevalence in poultry and pigs than ruminants. Table 3.1 summarises the prevalence for important zoonoses by region and for all developing countries. It gives the overall prevalence (humans, livestock, wildlife, other animals) and the prevalence for humans and livestock separately. Commonly used tests for brucellosis detect antibodies produced in response to infection. A combination of tests may be used to improve accuracy or ability to detect. The antibodies tested for generally persist for several months (IgG) or several years (IgM). Positive tests (to both antibodies) indicate the animal is currently sick, is chronically infected or has been infected in the last year or so. Hence positive tests are roughly equivalent to annual cases.In community surveys, the prevalence was 13% in shoats, 13% in bovines, 7% in camels, and 5% in other species (chickens, pigs, dogs). Among livestock-keepers/abattoir workers prevalence was 11%, and among suspect hospital patients, 7%. A large study in India found that 2% of patients in the general hospital population tested positive for brucellosis.The main risks for people are occupational (contact with livestock) and consumption of dairy products.In some areas, brucellosis may be maintained in reservoir wild animal hosts (African buffaloes and North American bison) in other cases diseases spills-over to wildlife and if eliminated in cattle brucellosis will die out in wildlife. Brucellosis is more problematic in intensive systems than extensive and pasture-based systems.Brucellosis is mainly a problem where ruminants are important (Africa and South Asia). Shoat-keeping communities are most at risk from B. melitensis considered the most pathogenic form.Countries with multiple surveys (>=4) and high prevalence (>15%) include in descending order: Togo, Mali, Ivory Coast, Zambia, Niger, India, Sudan, Cameroon and Burundi (human and animal combined)Sero-positive animals have higher rates of abortion, stillbirth, infertility, calf mortality and lameness. This is associated with lower milk yields (around 25% milk loss in aborted cows). Usually, infected females will abort only once, although they may remain infected their entire life. The losses are estimated at 6-10% of the annual value produced per animal (Mangen et al., 2002).Agricultural losses have been estimated at $427 million per year for sub-Saharan Africa and $600 million for Latin America (Mangen et al. 2002;Seleem et al., 2009) Human brucellosis usually presents as an acute febrile illness, often mistaken for malaria or typhoid. Chronic complications are not uncommon. Public-private partnerships for control -promising studies suggest that by combining human health investment and livestock sector investment, brucellosis can be controlled in a cost-effective way  Role of wildlife in maintaining infection -wildlife have an important role in some circumstances.The extent of this is not known, nor are effective strategies for managing disease in wildlife populations  Reducing risky behaviours around husbandry and consumption-much of the risk from brucellosis can be reduced by simple precautions applied to handling cattle and food.  Developing a vaccine for B. suis  Effective vaccination which can be distinguished from infection to aid in control The standard method for detection of bovine tuberculosis is the tuberculin test, which involves the intradermal injection of bovine tuberculin protein derivatives (PPD) and the subsequent detection of swelling at the site of injection. This may be performed using bovine tuberculin alone or as a comparative test using avian and bovine tuberculin. More recently, a gamma interferon test has been developed. Meat inspection is also used to detect tubercular lesions in cattle, but in developing countries is not very accurate. A large study in Ethiopia found routine inspection detected 3.5% carcasses with lesions whereas detailed meat inspection procedures identified 10.2% carcasses, a more than three fold difference (Biffa et al).Positive tests are roughly equivalent to prevalence (or animals currently sick with TB). Prevalence Overall, 7.4% of livestock were positive. Overall prevalence was as follows: Bovines: 8%, camels 11%, shoats 2%, pigs 15%, wildlife 5%.There were an estimated 12 million cases of human TB (prevalence) in 2010 (WHO, 2011). Twentytwo high burden countries account for approximately 80% of all new TB cases. An extensive literature exists on the prevalence of human TB but there is little information on what proportion is zoonotic, and our review concentrated on this. Table 3.2 summarises more recent studies from developing countries: on average 10.5% of human TB cases were associated with M. bovis. Our study suggests a higher overall prevalence than previous best estimates (3.1%) 5 but a strongly bimodal distribution: zoonotic TB is either very important or minor in a given context. Cattle positive for M. tuberculosis to be a problem in South Asia: in one of the studies we reviewed, taking place in India, 7.1% of pharyngeal swabs from cattle were positive for M. tuberculosis. This suggests that the burden of 'zoonotic' TB may be under-estimated as 'human TB' may be acquired from cattle.M. bovis infects a range of African wildlife (high levels of infection have been found in the Kruger Park, Zambia and Serengeti). This is a potential source of infection to livestock and people, as well as a threat to wildlife. Where M. bovis is established in wildlife hosts (e.g. badgers in the UK or possums in New Zealand) eradication is very difficult.Commonly found risk factors are close contact of animals (intensive and peri-urban systems), increasing herd size and presence of wildlife reservoirs. Important risk factors for zoonotic TB people are close contact with animals and consumption of raw milk. Prevalence appears to be higher on intensive farms.Muller summarizes a range of early reviews from Europe and North America before control was widespread. Infected cattle lost 10% of milk production and 4% of meat production and infected cows had one fewer calf. Unfortunately, good economic data is missing from developing countries but similar losses could be anticipated. TB lesions are also an important reason for carcass condemnation but it seems likely that routine meat inspection misses most cases (Biffa et al., 2010).Zoonotic TB has a similar course in people as non-zoonotic. Overall, one third of the world's population is currently infected with TB. Of those infected with TB that do not receive treatment, about 5-10% will develop TB disease some time in their lives. Zoonotic TB is more likely to present as extrapulmonary, and prevalence of extra-pulmonary TB is a crude proxy for zoonotic TB.Agricultural losses worldwide have been estimated at $3 billion (Garnier et al., 2003).Zoonotic TB is mainly a problem where cattle are important (Africa and South Asia). Dairying communities are most at risk. Countries with multiple surveys (>=2) and high prevalence (>5%) include in descending order: Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Pakistan, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Cameroon, Chad, India, and Ethiopia.Human TB (zoonotic 3-10%) is mainly localized in high burden countries: India, China, Indonesia, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. M. tuberculosis (human TB) appears to be common in livestock in some areas (especially India).What is the significance for transmission?  A zoonotic reservoir has been suspected for M. africanum -so far little evidence but not fully investigated  TB is one of the most important and common human diseases. There is much uncertainty on the proportion of this attributable to M. bovis, and our review suggested that the proportion is higher than in previous estimates and most of a problem in South Asia  Impact of M. bovis on cattle in Africa and South Asia. Much of the information on impact is derived from earlier studies in Europe or North America and may not be applicable to developing countries  Wildlife-livestock interface in hotspots (Tanzania, Ethiopia, Zambia and South Africa)  Understanding relation between intensification and disease: Cattle TB appears to increase with intensification and urban farming  Controlling cattle M. bovis and M. tuberculosis in cultures that do not permit culling of cattle Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by pathogenic organisms belonging to the genus Leptospira. There are many serovars (>250) but typically only around 10-20 are found in a given region. Serovars can be grouped into 25 serogroups.Microscopic agglutination test is the gold standard and was used by most of our studies. Paired serum samples are used to identify current or recent infection. Antibodies may persist for several years. Most of the surveys in our review were community based. For these, a positive result indicates current infection, chronic infection or infection in the last few years. Prevalence 109 surveys were assessed covering 52,534 animals and 83,596 people. In community surveys the prevalence was 34% in swine, 29% in bovines, 14% in small ruminants, 16% in wildlife and 24% in people.Among patients presenting with fever of unknown origins around 20% (7-57%) had leptospirosis. Among patients with suspected leptospirosis 60-90% had positive diagnosesInfected animals often become carriers. Wildlife are affected and can be important reservoir hosts. Risk factors for humans include presence of rodents, farm animals and floods. Risk factors for animals include smaller farms and extensive (pasture-grazing systems).Leptospirosis is mainly a problem in tropical countries where stagnant water can be found and where cattle, pigs or rodents are frequent. SE Asia has been regarded as a hot spot but fewer studies have been carried out in Africa.Countries with multiple surveys (>=4) and high prevalence (>20%): Ethiopia, Vietnam, Nigeria, Egypt, and Malaysia.In people, leptospirosis most often presents as a febrile illness. Around 5-10% of cases may develop jaundice or other complications and among these case fatality may reach 20%. SE Asia is considered a hot spot and in some areas is the second most common cause of fever after malaria.In livestock, leptospirosis is associated with abortion, still-birth, infertility and milk reduction in cattle and swine. There is little good data on losses associated with leptospirosis in developing countries. In Australia, total loss was estimated at 2.2% at herd level (Holroyd, 1980). In Vietnam, infection with some serovars correlated with one less live pig per litter, equivalent to 8% loss of production (Boqvist et al., 2002). Prevalence and incidence in Africa: leptospirosis has been considered most problematic in SE Asia, this study suggests it may be more important than suspected in Africa  Leptospirosis as a misdiagnosis in people: like brucellosis and Q fever, leptospirosis is often under-diagnosed and better tests as well as awareness raising among the medical community and public is needed  Context specific vaccination -vaccination is effective but needs to be adapted for the serovars present  Understanding whether livestock or wildlife are main reservoir: in some studies livestock appear to be the most important reservoir, in others rodents. This has implications for control  Risk reduction: human behaviour is important in decreasing risk  Impact of climate change on extreme wet weather events and hence leptospirosis: leptospirosis is strongly associated with flooding and stagnant water The most common test in animals is direct microscopic examination of blood for parasites. Hence positive tests correspond to current infections. Prevalence 103 studies were assessed covering 109,443 animals and 99,808 people. These were mostly parasitological studies so they represent current infections. In community studies, there was a prevalence of 10% among domestic animals and 5% among wild animals. Among humans (either suspect hospital patients or in focal areas for trypanosomosis) prevalence was 6%.The WHO reports human trypanosomosis as highly spatially distributed: in the last 10 years, over 70% of reported cases occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Angola, Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan and Uganda make up most of the remaining burden.Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b.g.) is found in west and central Africa; it currently accounts for over 95% of reported cases of sleeping sickness and causes a chronic infection (Gambian sleeping sickness). Most transmission is anthroponotic and can be controlled effectively through interventions targeted at human reservoirs; however, animal reservoirs have a role in the epidemiology. Pigs are an animal reservoir and recently have been associated with the persistence and epidemics of sleeping sickness in Uganda, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon. Other domestic animals and wildlife are also implicated. T. brucei rhodesiense (T.b.r.) is found in eastern and southern Africa. Nowadays, this form (Rhodesian sleeping sickness) represents less than 5% of reported cases and causes an acute infection.Agricultural expansion, deforestation and the removal of wildlife reduce the natural habitats and wildlife hosts of tsetse. Moreover, applications of insecticides to cotton and other crops may also reduce tsetse numbers and it is generally agreed that agricultural expansion/intensification is likely to reduce trypanosomosis challenge, at least in the short term (Bourne and Wint, 1994). However, in the short term there may be an upsurge in disease as tsetse, lacking alternative wildlife hosts, feed more on cattle.Acute sleeping sickness is a serious disease in people.Trypanosomosis has serious health impacts in livestock. However, the non-zoonotic T. congolense and T. vivax are less pathogenic than zoonotic T. rhodesiense. Swallow (1999) summarises a number of studies and estimates reduced productivity of around 10-20% across a range of parameters (mortality, calving rate, milk, draft power).Countries with multiple surveys (>=4) and high prevalence (>8%): Sudan, Mozambique, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso Arrest the northerly advance through Uganda of the zoonotic parasite T. brucei rhodesiense, which threatens to converge with T. brucei gambiense  Farmer-and community-based management of disease: while technical highly effective, sustainability remains elusive  Trypanocide resistance: an emerging problem across Africa which may also threaten the efficacy of human drugs  Pen-side tests to allow better and more timely treatments avoiding cattle losses and slowing development of resistance  Impact of climate, agricultural intensification and demography on disease dynamics  Factors leading to massive human outbreaks as occurred historically at the start of the 20 th century and to a lesser extent in the 1960sCysticercosis is a systemic parasitic infestation caused by the pork tapeworm (Taenia solium).The tests commonly used for cysticercosis in pigs include meat inspection, lingual inspection and antigen ELISA tests. These indicate current infections. In humans, stool samples are also used to identify current tapeworm infections and imaging to identify brain cysts.Prevalence 125 studies were assessed covering 349,923 pigs and 10,385,132 people. In community studies, the average prevalence in pigs was 17%. Among humans the prevalence in community studies was 11% (this combines people infected with Taenia solium as well as the much rarer cases of human cysticercosis). Among hospital patients and epileptics the prevalence was 12%.Humans are at risk not from consumption of pork with cysts but from consumption of tapeworm eggs shed by themselves or another human carrier. The disease persists in poor, pig-keeping communities where pigs have access to human faeces. Intensification would be expected to reduce prevalence of the disease.Hot spots: Rwanda, Congo, Chad, Togo, Nigeria, and Ghana (Geerts et al., 2004) In some countries, pigs with visible infections (by lingual palpation or mucous membrane inspection) fetch a lower price. This was estimated as a 30% reduction in price in the Cameroon (Praet et al., 2003). A study in Tanzania estimated the price of healthy pigs at $45 and infected at $21: a reduction of 46% (CIRAD, 2012). Heavily infected pigs may be condemned during meat inspection; however, in many countries either smallholder pigs are not always inspected at slaughter or inspection is inadequate.Cysticercosis is believed to be the most common cause of adult onset epilepsy in poor, pig-keeping communities. In Cameroon, the cost of treatment of one cysticercosis patient (wage loss not included) was estimated at Euro 260 (Praet et al., 2003)  Eradication of cysticercosis from an ecosystem: with the new vaccine as well as effective therapeutics, cysticercosis is eradicable but there have been no serious investments in Africa or Asia  Pen-side tests for diagnosis of cysticercosis in pigs: a lateral flow test has been recently developed but requires serum (whole blood would be more convenient)  More comprehensive and effective meat inspection: as for TB, it appears that because of financial incentives and dysfunctional systems, current meat inspection is not effective in poor countries  Hotspots among marginalised pig-keeping groups Pathogen Q fever is an infectious disease of animals and humans caused by a species of bacteria (Coxiella burnetii).Most tests detect antibodies. Antibodies may persist for several years. Most of the surveys in our review were community based. For these, a positive result indicates current infection, chronic infection or infection in the last few years.We accessed 81 surveys covering 27,252 animals and 11,023 people. In community studies, prevalence was as follows: bovines 28%, other animals (cats, dogs, horses and poultry) 26%, shoats 15%. Among febrile patients in hospitals, 0-40% (average 8%) had antibodies to Q fever.Coxiella burnetii is most frequently found in ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) but can also be detected in wildlife and companion animals. According to the literature (although not in our review) sheep appear to be infected most frequently, followed by goats and less frequently, cattle. Human cases are often associated with proximity to small ruminants (particularly at parturition or during abortions) and dry, windy weather. At least in Europe, here is no conclusive evidence in support of a link between an increased density of animals and/or farms and spillover from infected farms to humans (EFSA, 2010).Because Q fever has been investigated in few countries it is difficult to identify hotspots. Countries with high sheep populations would be expected to be at higher risk. Countries with multiple surveys (>=4) and high prevalence (>15%) include in descending order: Nigeria, Zimbabwe, India, and Egypt.Animals that carry this organism and shed it into the environment usually do not show any signs of disease. Infected ewes and does may abort or give birth to weak offspring. There is little data available on the economic impacts.In people around 50% of infections may be asymptomatic; other patients have influenza-like symptoms, a minority have atypical pneumonia or hepatitis. In around 5% of patients, chronic infection establishes. Prevalence studies in more countries  Economic impacts of Q fever in livestock  Factors leading to outbreaks of Q fever in human populations  High risk groups: pastoralists appear to have very high levels of Q fever -more studies are needed on prevalence and prevention in this group  Q fever as an emerging disease  Vaccination to manage Q fever in high risk populations In this category we include the bacterial zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted mainly through food. We reviewed Salmonella, toxigenic Escherichia coli, Listeria, Campylobacter and Toxoplasma which are among the most important causes of food-borne disease as well as hepatitis E, an emerging zoonosis. Other zoonoses of somewhat lesser importance not reviewed are: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium spp. In this section, we do not include the previously considered classical endemic zoonoses that are often food-borne (brucellosis, Q fever, zoonotic tuberculosis) but have other important transmission pathways. We did not consider non-zoonotic diseases associated with animal source foods (typhoid, rotavirus disease, scarlet fever, giardiasis, shigellosis etc.). We call these 'forgotten' zoonoses because health experts, decision makers and the public are often unaware of the important role zoonoses play in food-borne infections.A variety of tests were used. In most cases, a positive result indicates current, recent or chronic infection.We accessed 258 surveys covering 27,425 animals and 263,995 people and 4,208 food or environmental samples. In community studies, prevalence was as follows: bovines 16%, shoats 20%, pigs 30%, poultry 36%, other animals 17%, food 31%. Among people in the community prevalence was 21% and among high-risk groups prevalence was 20%.Countries with multiple surveys (>=4) and high prevalence (>15%) include in descending order: Tanzania, South Africa, Gambia, Vietnam, Nigeria, Senegal, India, and Egypt.Some of these diseases can have impacts in animals (salmonellosis, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis). However, in many cases strains pathogenic to people are not pathogenic to animals which means farmers have less incentives for control.In people, food-borne disease is an important cause of illness and economic loss. There is no good information on the proportion of gastrointestinal disease burden associated with food-borne zoonoses in developing countries. In developed countries, the proportion varies from 30-50% (Grace et al., 2008). Food-borne pathogens also cause other health problems, less common but more serious (e.g. kidney failure, septicaemia, abortion, encephalitis etc.); around 2-3% of people with acute food-borne zoonoses may also go on to develop serious complications (Lindsay, 1997). The health burden of these is considered to at least equal the burden due to gastrointestinal illness. Impact of food-borne bacterial diseases in livestock  Managing food safety in the informal sector where most of the poor buy and sell but food safety regulation is not working  Gender and food safety -much of food purchase, processing, and handling is done by women but they are often not engaged in food-safety programs  Relation between food safety and food security  Attribution -how much food-borne illness is due to zoonotic disease or agricultural products  High risk groups -the young, old, pregnant and immunosuppressed are especially vulnerable to food-borne disease and special targeting is needed to reach them Cystic echinococcosis (CE) in humans is caused by the larval stage of E. granulosus, E. ortleppi, E. intermedius or E. canadensis. All these parasites have canines (usually domestic dogs), as definitive hosts and a variety of ungulates, particularly farm animals, as intermediate hosts. Man is generally an aberrant intermediate host in which the hydatid cyst develops, usually in the liver or lungs as a spaceoccupying lesion, which can result in considerable morbidityWe did not review echinococcosis in depth; however, a comprehensive assessment has recently been carried out by Budke et al. (2006).Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a condition of livestock and humans that arises from eating infective eggs of the cestode Echinococcus granulosus. Dogs are the primary definitive hosts for this parasite, with livestock acting as intermediate hosts and humans as aberrant intermediate hosts.More than 90% of human cases occur in the 8 endemic regions in North Africa-near East and China. In descending order: China (Tibetan plateau), Turkey, India, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan Impact A preliminary estimate of the annual global burden of CE has suggested approximately 1 million DALYs are lost due to this disease (Budke et al., 2006). This is likely to be a substantial underestimate (Craig et al., 2007). In addition the losses to the global livestock industry is around $2 billion lost annually and cost of illness is around the same.We conducted a systematic review for toxoplasmosis but have not included the information here because of some epidemiological complexities. For toxoplasmosis, high prevalence may be associated with less risk, because the most vulnerable group (pregnant women) are exposed before they are pregnant. For hepatitis E there is some uncertainty over the extent of zoonotic transmission. Control of echinococcosis in remote and insecure regions  Relation between toxoplasmosis prevalence and risk: as toxoplasmosis is most serious if encountered by a naïve pregnant women, it may be that cultures where exposure to toxoplasmosis is very high (e.g. France) have less disease burden than cultures where exposure is low  Prevalence of toxoplasmosis  Changing behaviours that increase exposure to toxoplasmosis and echinococcosis  Zoonotic component of hepatitis ETwenty-eight countries appeared in the 'geographical hotspots' listing. To be considered a geographical hotspot for a disease, a country had multiple surveys (human and animal combined, but only community surveys) with a high average prevalence (table 3.2). (The cut-off prevalence varied with disease reflecting that for different diseases, different prevalences are considered high 6 ). The country with the highest prevalence is ranked as 1. The ranking for each disease is shown in Table 3.2 as well as the number of surveys and cut-off prevalence the ranking was based on. To calculate the countries with the highest burden of endemic zoonoses we gave each country a weighting according to its ranking for average prevalence for each disease (the country with the highest prevalence for the disease got a weighting of ten). Weights were added across the diseases (so a higher score represents a higher average prevalence summed across all the endemic zoonoses considered). The countries with highest burden of endemic zoonoses are shown in Table 3.3. (This ranking is probably biased towards countries with better university and research infrastructure as they conduct and publish more studies: for example, there are many more studies from Nigeria than from the Central African Republic). We retrieved papers on three of the outbreak zoonoses that appeared in the 'top 13' zoonoses listing. These were: rabies, anthrax and leishmaniasis.Twenty-one papers were accessed on rabies. These were not useful for assessing prevalence or cases but were consistent with the geographical patterns of rabies. Most rabies cases are concentrated in high-risk countries in Africa and Asia. (Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, China Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana).Thirty-five papers were accessed on anthrax. They were not useful for assessing prevalence or cases but were generally consistent with the geographical patterns of anthrax.There are approximately 10-100 thousand human incidences annually throughout the world with significant numbers of cases in Chad, Ethiopia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and IndiaPaper retrieval was not useful in assessing prevalence. Most leishmaniasis is zoonotic, but anthroponotic transmission is more important in outbreaks, 90% of human visceral leishmaniasis cases occurring in South Asia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Brazil and 90% of cutaneous leishmaniasis cases occurring in Afghanistan, Algeria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia.Other important outbreak pathogens that were not in the 'top 13' list but did appear in the 'top 25' were:  Rift Valley fever virus  Hanta virus  Ebola virus  Chickungunya virus.Avian influenza was also in this list, a zoonosis that is endemic in some regions (Indonesia, South China, Egypt and possibly elsewhere), but in most countries occurs as outbreaks, which are controlled (rich countries) or burn out (poor countries) (Bett et al., in press).These five pathogens (including avian influenza) are all caused by viruses and are characterised by high case fatality but low burden of disease. Together they cause around 15,000 deaths a year which is trivial in comparison to the top 13 zoonoses (causing 2.5 million deaths a year). Currently humans are mainly spill-over hosts and there is no sustained anthropogenic transmission (human-to-human). However, if these pathogens were to mutate to allow easy human-to-human transmission while maintaining their high case fatality the impacts would be enormous. Hence, these diseases are of interest not so much because of their burden of disease but because of potential to become diseases with higher burden. Smallpox, bubonic plague, HIV-AIDS, malaria and measles are examples of former zoonoses that jumped species with civilisation-altering impacts (Wolfe et al., 2007). Perry and Grace (2009) argue that many negative impacts of zoonoses and emerging diseases are from inappropriate responses by authorities, farmers and general public rather than disease itself. This was especially evident in the avian influenza pandemic, when outbreaks led to large changes in purchasing behaviour, which probably had little impact on mitigating risk. Similarly, the reluctance to support commodity-based trade is prejudicial to developing countries without any commensurate benefit in reducing human health risk.The map was extracted from HealthMap (www.healthmap.org). It shows all disease reports between Jan 1 st 2010 and May 2 nd 2012 of the endemic zoonoses considered in this report. The sources used were: ProMed, FAO, OIE, Eurosurveillance, Google. In all 200 reports are cited, on the HealthMap site, distributed as follows: leptospirosis (124), trypanosomosis (24), brucellosis (20), Q fever (12) and bovine tuberculosis (10). Between Jan 1 st 2010 and Dec 31 st 2010 there were only three reports for brucellosis and all were in people. As explained in Chapter 2 this implies under-reporting of actual new cases by several orders of magnitude.The original Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) was commissioned by the World Bank in 1991 to provide a comprehensive assessment of the burden of 107 diseases and injuries and ten selected risk factors for the world. Burden of disease is calculated using the disability-adjusted life year (DALY). This time-based measure combines years of life lost due to premature mortality and years of life lost due to time lived in states of less than full health. The GBD represents the most authoritative source of information on human illness.There are some challenges in using the GBD to assess zoonoses.  Firstly, zoonoses (especially in poor countries) are widely unreported, and under-reporting is relatively greater for zoonoses than for non-zoonotic diseases of comparable prevalence (Schelling et al., 2007). As the GBD report is based on national information for levels of mortality and cause of illness, this under-reporting is reflected in the GBD.  Secondly, several zoonoses with considerable burdens are not included in the GBD assessment.For example rabies, echinococcosis, cysticercosis, leptospirosis and brucellosis  Thirdly, the GBD is organised around diseases and not pathogens or transmission pathways. For example, diarrhoeal diseases, among the highest causes of morbidity and mortality in poor countries, comprise one category. Although the majority of important diarrhoeal pathogens are zoonotic (Schlundt et al., 2004) it is not currently possible to identify the zoonotic component of diarrhoeal disease from GBD figures In order to use the GBD to estimate disease we made some assumptions: Tuberculosis: we took the conservative estimate of Cosivi (1998) who estimated worldwide the proportion of TB caused by M. bovis at 3.1%. This literature review suggests the proportion is higher. A higher proportion is also consistent with historical data.  Diarrhoeal diseases: we assumed 33% of diarrhoea disease is due to zoonotic pathogens. In developed countries, several reviews (Schlundt et al., 2004, Flint et al., 2005) argue the majority of gastrointestinal disease burden is due to zoonotic pathogens (>50%). However, given the lack of evidence for developing countries we took a conservative estimate of 33%.  Trypanosomosis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis: Japanese encephalitis: are all considered as zoonotic.  Schistosomiasis: cases in regions where the zoonotic species Shistosoma japonicum predominates are considered zoonotic.  Dengue is not included. Although dengue is a zoonosis and the sylvatic cycle (monkeymosquito) has important implications for disease eradication, most transmission is human-to human.  Tetanus is not included. Tetanus is a sapro-zoonoses and the load of toxins in the environment is largely the result of contamination with ruminant faeces. However, most human burden is from contact with the environment and not animals.  Respiratory disease is a major cause of human sickness and death and a certain proportion is due to zoonotic diseases such as Q fever. We did not include these as no reliable estimates could be found.For zoonoses recorded in the GBD, 68% of the burden is made up of just 13 countries (Figure 3There is a very high correlation (99%) between protein energy malnutrition 7 and burden of zoonoses indicating the strong relation between poverty, dependence on livestock, and zoonotic disease. In this review we extracted papers mainly in English (with a minority in French) from medical and agricultural databases available on line. Systematic literature reviews which only include some languages and which depend on major databases risk missing important information. Hence, we conducted a study in Vietnam to review literature for three of the key zoonoses (Data provided by HSPH). 154 papers were identified of which 117 were in Vietnamese and only 27 in English.We used a large range of Vietnamese scientific journals, library documents, as well as meetings with key researchers on zoonoses, and open sources. The process of creating the search strategy consisted of two steps: (i) identification of key concepts characterizing the research questions and (ii) generation of a list of search terms that reflected the key concept. The main concept identified was zoonotic diseases in Vietnam. For this concept a number of subject terms and keyword terms were identified, which was then combined for the search:The overall search term components considered to define \"zoonotic diseases\" AND \"Vietnam\" for the search, were: (i) population surveyed (human or animal), (ii) prevalence and (iii) laboratory techniques. Diseases were searched by their common names, as well as the names of the causative agents. The keywords were used both English and Vietnamese, for examples:  English: \"Cysticercosis\" AND \"Vietnam\" or \"Taeniasis\" AND \"Vietnam\"  Vietnamese: \"Sán dây lợn\" or \"Bệnh lợn gạo\"English papers: we searched online databases of Science Direct, Pubmed and Web of Science with keywords of disease name or names of the pathogens in the fields of title/keywords/abstract.All the electronic copies and hard copies papers were scanned and reviewed from their title and abstract to see if the papers are relevant to research on zoonotic diseases in Vietnam. After 2 screening rounds, many zoonoses were identified from research done. However, due to the time constraint and to respond to the TOR, we decided to select 3 zoonotic diseases, including cysticercosis (pig tapeworm), leptospirosis, and Salmonellosis for in-depth review. For each of the paper related to the selected diseases, we collected key information on i) location of the study, ii) on human or animal or both, iii) robustness of research design, iv) analysis method, v) prevalence. It happened also when a paper reporting different values for different sample analysis (e.g. milk, serum or both), these were treated separately to have different prevalences of the targeted samples.We found 50 papers, project reports and student's thesis study related to cysticercosis, including 47 in Vietnamese and 3 in English; 64 papers, project reports and student's thesis study related to salmonellosis, including 40 in Vietnamese and 24 in English; 40 papers, project reports and student's thesis study related to leptospirosis, including 30 in Vietnamese and 10 in English.Conducting an in-country review covering Vietnamese journals, libraries and conference proceedings dramatically increased the number of papers and samples. It also revealed papers on less commonly studied aspects (e.g. cysticercosis in animals other than pigs and leptospirosis in wildlife) which were missed by the systematic, web-based, mainly English language review.For four of the six comparisons, the prevalence estimated by systematic and in-country review were similar, but for two there was a marked discrepancy (27% prevalence of cysticercosis in people versus 4% and 57% prevalence of leptospirosis in livestock and companion animals (domestic) versus 14% in the systematic and in-country reviews respectively). The much smaller number of studies in the systematic review makes it likely that these are less accurate.However, while 60% of the papers in Vietnamese were judged to have a 'moderate' or 'weak' methodology, only 37% of the papers in English were so judged.  We generally used data from the last 10 years. If data was very scarce we extended some searches backwards. However, given rapid changes in farming systems as well as changes in diagnostic techniques earlier studies may not reflect the current situation.  Studies indicate infection and not necessarily clinical disease.  Some surveys don't distinguish to species level making it impossible to distinguish between zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens.  Surveys focus on presence rather than transmission: so Mycobacterium tuberculosis will usually be classified as non-zoonotic although it is possible that the human victim acquired the infection from livestock.  Most surveys only report on one pathogen.  Varying sensitivity and specificity of surveys because of different tests used making direct comparison difficult.  Often little information on sampling and some community surveys may have considerable selection bias although authors claim sampling was representative.  In general, studies with fewer samples and country estimates based on fewer studies appear to over-estimate prevalence. This may be because researchers focus on areas they think may have a problem even if this is not always reported in the survey.  Some areas are over-represented (near universities) and many others under-represented.  Some countries are under-represented because of less capacity in assessing zoonotic diseases.  In the current analysis, small samples have as much weight as large samples. We plan to construct weighted prevalences by sample size and extrapolate to populations at risk.  We class slaughterhouse surveys as 'community' that is representative of the livestock population. In some places, sick animals are less likely to be slaughtered but in others they are more likely. Suggestions for overcoming these problems and improving our understanding of zoonoses of importance to the poor: Further analyse the data collected to allow better extrapolation to agro-ecosystems and investigate risk factors.  Conduct large scale, probabilistic, stratified surveys to accurately determine prevalence of key pathogens.  Conduct surveys in regions where pathogens are likely to be present but data is lacking (risktargeted).  Collect economic and behavioural data to understand the impact and risk factors for key pathogens.  Develop better, cheaper diagnostics that can detect multiple pathogens in multiple species.  Support bio-repositories for pathogens with meta-data allowing investigation of epidemiology and risk factors.Chapter 4: Updated map of emerging zoonotic disease eventsThe study searched for papers on zoonotic disease emergence events since 2004. Out of 43 new or newly identified events, most are viral and zoonotic from wild animal hosts. Although, the mappable zoonotic new events (n = 30) are globally spread across every continent, there may be clusters in northeast US, South America, Europe and South East Asia. These trends likely reflect surveillance differences with perhaps a trend to higher representation in developing countries reflecting increased attention over this period. Combined with existing data on zoonotic EID events from 1940-2004 (n = 202), the clearest potential hotspots are USA and Western Europe, which may reflect historical surveillance differences. Countries with most events are USA, UK, Australia, and France. (Chapter prepared by IOZ)Novel pathogens continue to emerge worldwide, the majority of which are zoonotic. ILRI engaged Zoological Society of London and Ecohealth Alliance to produce updated high resolution maps of zoonotic human emerging infectious disease (EID) events, by 1) extraction from the database used in Jones et al. (2008), and 2) further collection of EID events to update the database until 2012.We review the zoonotic human EID events in Jones et al. (2008), and methods for data collection and mapping of new events. 1) Jones et al. (2008) EID database. The data from Jones et al. (2008) covers 335 human EID events occurring between 1940 and 2004, 216 of which were zoonotic. In the Jones et al. (2008) analysis, an EID event was defined as the first emergence of a pathogen in a human population as a result of either increasing incidence, virulence, geographic range, drug resistance, or any other cited factor in case reports and literature. Single case reports were excluded, as were those with uncertain data quality. Separate pathogen strains were not considered as separate events, with the exception of drug resistant strains. For the maps presented in Jones et al. (2008), the location of each EID event was geo-referenced to point localities where possible, based on locations given in data sources (e.g. a village, or a hospital). These data were then converted to give each pathogen a location in a one decimal degree global grid. However, 95 of these events could only be traced to larger areas such as subnational units (e.g. states) or whole countries. To standardise for further analysis in the paper, one grid cell in these areas was selected via a random draw to represent the location of a particular EID. One of the random draws was selected for the maps presented in the paper.For the purposes of this report, we mapped all those events that had a point locality, and where only subnational unit location information was available, we assigned an EID event to the weighted centroid of that area calculated using the 'Generate Centroid' function in HawthsTools 3.27 for ArcMap 9.3. Where only country information was present, these data were excluded from the maps. A total of 172 events were mapped (Fig. 1a).2) Further data collection of EID events. We made slightly different assumptions when collecting new data than in the original Jones et al. (2008) protocols, based on updated criteria and suggested changes to the definition of \"emerging\" since 2008. We only considered emerging pathogens to be those completely novel to humans, or having novel virulence in humans or novel drug resistance. Geographic range, incidence and any miscellaneous factors were excluded. Furthermore, single case reports are not excluded, in contrast to the previous map. Separate strains or subspecies are once again only considered in the context of virulence and drug resistance. We have also extended our criteria to cover issues not addressed by Jones et al. (2008). We excluded any events from nonnatural infections (for example, accidental inoculation of laboratory workers), and we accept novel pathogens not yet given certified scientific names. Additionally, we explicitly definite an event as zoonotic if there is evidence the pathogen has an animal host or vector, or if it is cited in the literature as a likely zoonosis. Much assumption of zoonotic status is based upon transmission/natural hosts of closely related pathogens. Zoonoses were sub-classified by host type into one of four groups: 1) wildlife hosts only, 2) non-wildlife (i.e. domestic) hosts only, 3) both host types, 4) unknown. Finally, we accepted any diagnostic method (e.g. serology, microbial culture, DNA) as evidence of human infection (or animal infection for evidence as a zoonosis). Initial leads on new EID events were obtained by various search methods including; 1) searches in peer-reviewed journal articles using Web of Science v5.0 (search terms = [novel OR new] AND human AND pathogen AND [emerging OR outbreak]); 2) searches in the ProMED reporting archives (search terms = [novel OR new] AND human); and 3) expert suggestion (EcoHealth Alliance and colleagues). Initial searches were conducted in articles from 2004 onwards, although no date restriction was made in accepting EID events or their supporting references. From initial leads, further information was found via follow-up of references. Once a potential EID event was identified, we extensively traced literature on the pathogen both backwards and forwards to find the first chronological case (not the first chronological report). Data were not recorded if the pathogen could not be assigned a single, feasible spatiotemporal origin (for example, many novel human viruses have recently been discovered that were then found in populations worldwide and/or historical samples, giving no clear emergence time or location). Following Jones et al. (2008), we recorded multiple fields of interest including details of pathogen taxonomy, transmission mode, known hosts, pathogenicity, data quality and any miscellaneous notes, in addition to geographic location. This information was generally unavailable for pathogens described very recently (in the past 10 years or so) because they have not yet been studied in detail, though no exclusions were made based on missing supplementary data.We identified 43 new EID events, 34 of which were zoonotic (Fig. 4.1b). Mapping of the new EID events followed that above for the previously gathered events. Point localities were all mapped were exact coordinates were given in the source and the exact coordinates were found using Google Earth v6.2. if only textual geospatial information was given. The locality of weighted centroids was assigned to EID events with only sub-national unit and EIDs with only country localities were excluded. In total, 30 new EID events were retained.The majority of these new EID event pathogens are viruses, with several bacteria and only two protozoa (Table 1). Three events were due to drug-resistant strains, and only one due to a newly virulent strain. Although data was collected with a perspective to continuing from where Jones et al. (2008) left off, 15 EID events occurred pre-2004, 7 of which are from the 1980s or 1990s. This likely includes previously unidentifiable outbreaks that have only been classified using modern techniques. 17 of the 30 EID event pathogens in Table 1 have identified reservoir hosts or at least known animal infections (11 wild, 2 domestic, 4 both host types). However, most are recently discovered, therefore natural hosts for the remaining 13 will no doubt take time to locate and confirm.To remap the combined previous and the new EID events, we created a one decimal degree grid using HawthsTools 3.27, and used ArcMap 9.3's 'Spatial Join' tool to assign each EID event point to a single grid cell. New zoonotic EID events were mapped and labelled (Fig. 4.2) (n=30). Although the events are globally spread across every continent, there may be potential clusters of new or newly identified EID events in the Northeast US, South America, Continental Europe, and Southeast Asia. Only one grid cell contained more than one event, which was in Cameroon, containing Human Tlymphotrophic viruses 3 and 4, which were discovered simultaneously (Table 1). Previous EID events were mapped in combination with the new events (n=202) (Fig. 4.3). Again, events are present across most of the inhabited world. In contrast to the new events, the clearest potential hotspots are now the USA, and Western Europe, which likely reflects historical differences in surveillance and reporting. As in Jones et al., the maximum number of events in any grid cell was 6, occurring in Central London, UK. Separate maps were also produced for those events with wild hosts, and non-wild hosts (Fig. 4.4 4.5). Similar patterns were present for each, with the most noticeable difference being that very few EID events from non-wild hosts occurred in Africa or South America. Maps were also produced to illustrate breakdown of events in each grid cell by zoonotic host categorisation, drug resistance, and type of data (see Figure 3).  We have geo-located and mapped a total of 202 zoonotic emerging infectious disease events, 30 of which were newly collected during this study. High-resolution maps are provided for all events, as well as events stratified by type of zoonotic host, and other potential classifiers of interest. Potential trends in hotspot distribution could reflect surveillance differences. It is also possible that the higher representation of developing countries within the new events may reflect increasing research focus on developing countries or improving diagnostic technology.(Note Is the world becoming sicker or are we just better able to detect disease? The last decades have seen dramatic improvements in biological disease detection with dozens of new potential pathogens anticipated by 2020. At the same time innovations in information management are increasing awareness of disease outbreaks. Perry et al. (2011) explore this in a recent review and conclude that there is overall evidence for increased emergence of disease in recent decades, and not just improvements in diagnosis and surveillance. The current increase in disease emergence is not historically unprecedented: major epidemiological transitions also occurred during the Neolithic when livestock were domesticated on a wide-scale, during the age of exploration when Old World pathogens were introduced to the New World, and to a lesser extent with increased global travel in the nineteenth century).Countries: Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania   Rapid growth in pig production in Uganda brings risks of emerging disease such as Ebola.  Intra-regional trade important for the horn of Africa (shoats), and of interest to Ethiopia.  High zoonoses burden in Ethiopia and Tanzania.  Insecurity in Somalia and possibly South Sudan with implications for zoonoses.Countries: Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, South Africa  Some countries with export potential.  Better animal health services and disease reporting systems than most other SSA regions.  Wide regional variation in farming systems, zoonoses and response capacity.Countries: Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea Bissao, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon  West Africa is characterised by:  Poor livestock keepers 38% of the population; highest in SSA. Goats (followed by sheep) relatively most important species.  Mixed extensive more important, but mixed intensifying more important than other regions of SSA.Pastoralism/agro-pastoralism mainly in the Sahel.  Cattle important for traction, but tsetse a major barrier. Trypanotolerant cattle important in the some areas. Little dairying and reliance on imported dairy products. Traditional dairying in the Sahel has high risk of milk-borne zoonoses because of cultural practices.  Also high imports of poultry. Slow growth in livestock production.  High zoonoses burden in Nigeria and sub-humid coastal countries.  Insecurity in several countries.Countries: Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt  Northern Africa is characterised by:  Poor livestock-keepers 8% of the population. Lowest in Africa.  Relatively high urbanisation and higher development indices.  Sheep by far the most important species, followed by goats and then cattle. Only region where sheep pre-dominate. Pigs rare.  Pastoralism/agro-pastoralism the most important system. Unlike elsewhere in Africa, mixed extensive is the least important.  Intensive production important in many countries -especially poultry.  Extremely high poultry numbers and density along the Nile allow avian influenza to persist and a risk factor for other poultry diseases.Countries: Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Congo DR, Angola, Namibia (this region is included in West Africa for the review of endemic zoonoses)   3,657,390 2,660,500 2,891,810 9,223,170 18,432,870 Central and South Eastern Africa is characterised by:  Poor livestock-keepers 31% of the population. Second highest after W Africa.Generally similar to W Africa in species, systems and zoonoses.  Goats the most numerous, followed by cattle then sheep.  Pastoralism/agro-pastoralism the most important system. Mixed extensive, and mixed intensifying both important.  Pigs important, especially in Congo DR.  Central African rain forests a hotspot for bio-diversity, human incursion, game meat utilisation and disease emergence.  Insecurity problems persisting in Congo DR.Countries: Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh (our review of endemic zoonoses included Sri Lanka)  South Central Asia is characterised by:  Poor livestock-keepers 13% of the population. A relatively lower proportion or the population are poor livestock keepers than in West and East Africa but in absolute numbers about the same.  Mixed intensifying systems most important followed by mixed extensive.  Cattle are the most important species followed by goats and then sheep.  Important dairy (mainly buffalo) and draft sectors but production low. Milk-borne zoonoses very important but transmission more from contact than consumption.  Pigs are localised mainly in the North East of India but here they are very important.  Relatively stronger government services than much of SSA.  Insecurity problems persisting in several countries.Countries: Myanamar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Philippines, Papua New Guinea   7,726,660 11,278,000 4,160,070 23,819,662 South East Asia is characterised by:  Poor livestock-keepers high proportion of overall population but concentrated in Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines. China has high numbers but poverty decreasing rapidly (not included in this map).  Mixed intensifying systems most important followed by mixed extensive systems.  High urbanisation, high demand for animal source foods, stabilising populations.  Pockets of deprivation and high vulnerability to zoonoses: hill tribes in Thailand and Vietnam, Papua New Guinea and Timor Leste.  Pigs are the most important followed by goats then sheep. Only region where pigs predominate.Cattle are few in number but growing rapidly in some countries (especially Muslim).  High zoonoses burden in Viet Nam, Myanamar, Philippines and Indonesia.  Very high density of monogastrics, poor biosecurity, wildlife interfaces, backyard close to intensive systems all favour disease emergence and persistence.This final short chapter pulls together some of the more important points and conclusions around zoonoses, poverty, poor livestock keepers, emerging markets and livestock system changes.The review distinguishes between different categories of zoonoses and suggests that endemic zoonoses are of most concern where the objective is lowering the burden of human disease and increasing the productivity and profitability of livestock for poor people. Among the most important and most neglected of endemic zoonoses are food-borne zoonoses. Outbreak zoonoses are of concern when there is an objective of reducing vulnerability of neglected populations. Emerging zoonoses are of concern when the object is foresight, and understanding disease emergence in order to try and avert pandemics of major impact. Because a small number of zoonoses are responsible for the majority of human and animal burden, targeting these zoonoses is likely to be an effective use of scarce resources.The report draws attention to the lack of evidence on zoonoses presence, prevalence, drivers and imapct. There are obviously major problems around disease reporting systems in developing countries, despite considerable support at the time of the avian influenza pandemic. A question is whether to invest more in existing systems or to explore alternative ways to generate evidence about disease? We suggest the latter. Our report revealed showed literature is one of the best ways of understanding what diseases are present and their impact. Moreover, valuable information exists in the grey literature, which is not currently easily available. However, more and better information is needed which can only be obtained through field surveys. Recent advances in technology (biorepositories, genomics, e-technologies, etc) offer opportunities for radically improving our understanding of zoonoses epidemiology and control.An underlying hypothesis of the report was that hot spots for zoonoses and poverty exist, and that targeting these hotspots has good prospects for alleviating health burdens while improving livelihoods. The study confirmed that a relatively small number of countries have a disproportionate share of poor livestock keepers and zoonoses burden (notably India, Ethiopia, and Nigeria). However, the association between zoonoses as a barrier to emerging markets for smallholders was less obvious (because countries with rapidly evolving markets tend to have fewer poor livestock keepers and better control of human disease). The relation between poverty and livestock keeping with emerging zoonotic events was not obvious, possibly because of the unpredictable nature of disease emergence, relatively poor detection and a possible relation between emergence and intensive livestock-keeping (associated with rich countries). We conclude, controlling zoonoses could substantially reduce the human disease burden and support the livelihoods of poor farmers, but the benefits in terms of increasing access to emerging markets require further research.We identified gaps and opportunities for research to reduce the burden of disease for the zoonoses and regions in the report. These include: better understanding of the implications for intensification and emerging markets on zoonoses; models for zoonoses control in emerging markets; ecosystem models for management of zoonoses with a wildlife interface; improvement of surveillance for existing and new diseases; understanding the impacts multiple burdens of zoonoses in order to better allocate resources; technologies and innovation for detection, diagnosis, prevention, treatment and response. ","tokenCount":"18165"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23bb3e81733f5ad6b5365d783efc6b52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/849a5698-8c48-4b5a-8d47-e7d8ea19c0a0/retrieve","id":"1289275353"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"46b21df5-1076-4e03-83f3-ea7288651540","pagecount":"4","content":"Spatial analysis seeks to answer the WHERE and WHO questions within the Climate Security Observatory, that is, WHERE are the most vulnerable areas to climate induced insecurities and risks and WHO are the vulnerable groups to climate induced insecurities and risks? This helps in targeting and location prioritization of interventions or programs.In response to this question, the co-occurrence of different conflict intensities and climate conditions is mapped to illustrate areas where conflict and harsh climate conditions co-occur alongside information on socio-economic vulnerabilities which depict attributes of vulnerable groups.The main objective of the spatial analysis is to map the climate-conflict nexus, and identify the geographic co-occurrence of specific combinations of conflict, climate conditions, and socio-economic vulnerabilities.Spatial analysis enables rapid detection and descriptive analysis of places and communities at risk from climate, security, and socioeconomic impacts. Significant climate and socioeconomic variables are selected using Network Analysis approach in Craparo et al. (2023). The framework consists of four stages: 1) determination of climate clusters, 2) determination of conflict clusters, 3) identification and mapping of conflict-climate co-occurence, and 4) identification and mapping of the most relevant socio-economic vulnerabilities per climate security pathways driven by network analysis procedure.A pattern-based spatial cluster approach (Nowosad, 2021) is used to determine climate clusters utilizing a regular grid (megapixels) of ~20 km2 resolution and agroclimatic indices as input. The conflict clusters are determined through the execution of a hierarchical clustering method combined with a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The conflict data, obtained from Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), is grouped into three categorical conflict clusters (high, moderate, and limited) using unsupervised machine learning (ML). The ML algorithm spatially and temporally clusters all reported events within a mega-pixel. Labels for the resulting megapixel clusters are defined by a conflict or climate gradient from a PCA identifying the most relevant variables that explain the established differences.Profiles of vulnerable groups in areas with different co-occurring climateconflict intensities is determined using extreme tails of socio-economic data distribution. This is done by computing extreme percentiles (10% or 90%, depending on the variable) for the top 10 most relevant variables identified via the network analysis. For instance, 10th percentile for piped water access as an indicator of inequality or 90th percentile for stunting and wasting as an indicator of undernutrition. Finally, they are aggregated by socio-economic categories (inequality, low productivity, migration, and natural resources scarcity).","tokenCount":"393"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b98ba6d4ff3d413bed802492554b289","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/68240bd1-f101-486c-a166-41c068591fdb/retrieve","id":"224251748"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"748b7b67-62e6-42e1-81ae-3a54edda66dc","pagecount":"32","content":"In Uganda, the smallholder pig value chain has been identified by the Livestock and Fish CGIAR Program as one of the livestock options where research investments are most likely to make a major difference to the livelihoods and diets of poor people.In 2013, ILRI with the support of IFAD/EU, conducted research on the pig value chain, trying to identify the challenges and opportunities for improving the pig/pork sector in the country. The assessment report highlighted constraints that affect pig farmers like accessing quality and afford inputs, trainings, lack of coordination among value chain actors, access to market information that affect the pig small holder farmers and suggested potential interventions (Ouma etal, 2014) to; One of the object of the study was Identifying and selecting potential interventions for pilot testing a model that would address some of the challenges the pig farmers face thus business hub approach. The business hub model approach attempts to address issues within the framework of the value chain, analysing the inter-organisational linkages between the producers and the immediate buyer. Similar to the value chain approach, the analysis helps to understand where value can be added, cost reduced and efficiency improved, however, the model approach focuses on two specific players one of which is less endowed and weaker members of the value chain. The analysis also identifies a number of critical gaps in terms of capacities, infrastructure, finance, services, innovation that need to be put in place in order for smallholder groups to be viable chain partners.Physical distance, obstructing infrastructure and lack of information prevent farmers from attaining most of the key business development services required to increase their production and to operate as a viable business, in most cases business support services that are accessible are typically of high cost and poor quality. Business hub model has been a successful market systems in providing and accessing critical business development services for smallholder farmers in rural dairy sector, spurring increase in; farmer participation, farmer access to input services competitively and on check off systems, number of active suppliers, provision of sustainable extension and farmer advisory services , and value proposition to the markets (EADD, 2012).Business Hub model enables providing for and accessing critical business development services within the framework of the value chain through inter-organizational linkages between the producers, buyers and service providers. The business approach supports farmer organizations define how they do business with their customers based on the understanding of buyers' needs and market requirements so that they can prioritize activities and guide smallholder members in responding to those requirements. The business model also supports cooperatives to improve business related aspects particularly:-strategic business management of operations, better business to business coordination between farmers groups and immediate buyers, and responding to customer and value chain needs and priorities. The value chain analysis is applied in business model approach to help understand where; value can be added, costs reduced, and efficiency improved; by focusing on less endowed and weaker members. The analysis also identifies a number of critical gaps in terms of; organizational capacities, infrastructure, finance, access to input and output services, and innovations needed for smallholder groups to be viable chain partners (etal., 2008).ILRI, through the SPVCD project, supported this initiative, by hiring a consultant who assessed the feasibility of the interventions through creation of the hub of services to address the challenges faced by pig farmers in the cooperative. The report hereafter is the result of in-depth interaction of the consultant with smallholder pig farmers, stakeholders and her experience with similar experience in value chains like dairy in western and central Uganda. Based on the constraints outlined above, there was a need to develop a model that would help to farmers to access inputs and services collectively so as to enjoy the economies of scale.The overall objective of the assignment is to design a business hub model around Kyanamukaaka-Kabonera Pig Farmers Cooperative.1. Meeting reports between Nyanamuka-Kabonero pig farmers' cooperative society and pig value chain hub service providers. 2. Consultancy report documenting the best practices for the hub, the training needs for farmers and service providers. 3. Achieve 4. Monitoring protocols for assessing IDOs for farmers involved in the business hub.During the consultancy the following was achieved  Facilitating meetings between the cooperative and the pig buyers to agree on the contractual arrangements and mode of operation of the hub.  Identifying relevant business development services and their providers in the area to meet the pig cooperative members demands/needs.  Assessing service providers' incentives to provide services and be part of the hub, including willingness to provide services to cooperative members on credit.  Facilitate discussions with willing service providers and the cooperative leaders to develop MOUs for service provision to member farmers on credit.  Assess business and financial related capacity strengthening needs of the cooperative and service providers.Commodity hubs generally exhibit values beyond achieving financial goals. These values fundamentally affect how a hub operates and vary widely among commodity or product hubs. They may include, for example, sourcing products from within a defined area or commodities that are produced in ways that conform to the business hub standards and best practices. Business hubs commonly aim to sell products at a price that ensures a fair return to producers, although other hubs also operate with specific commitments to their members and communities such as providing access to healthy food in underserved areas.Assessment of best practices for the pig business hub provides a useful look into the operations of existing business hubs and a basis for the exploration of factors that may make for successful pig business hub in Kabonera and Kyanamukaka sub counties.Value proposition for farmers engaged with hubs: The business hub model posits that, stable fair prices and reliable market access enhances a hub's value proposition to the farmer and service providers. Lesson learnt for EADD business hub model (TANGO, 2013) reveal that value proposition for farmers in hub engagement are access to inputs and services on credit, and market in addition to timely and convenient payments. Identify lead suppliers or service providers from existing market assessments and similar initiatives, implement calls and expressions of interest to select pilot service providers and involve them in planning and implementation.Value proposition to the market: Share information about market gaps and opportunities and offer technical capacity building to take advantage of such opportunities. Reliable market access is the key driver for the hub engagement to be functional here we consider the hub consistently meeting minimum volume required by the buyers and contracts specifying minimum daily/ weekly / monthly volume. The lesson learnt from EADD model, reveal that value proposition to the market in hub engagement is reliable market access.For the hub to operative effectively, a check-off system should be in place. A check-off system is a credit provision system for business development services that assures the farmer accesses services and the service provider receives payment for the goods or services delivered to the farmer on credit.Check-off is the ultimate benefit for all collaborators in the business hub. The system links various actors together around a business facility, where they play different roles such providing business development services, sell of produce, payment for services, and banking services (Charles, 2010). By its nature, the check-off system assures the service provider will receive payment for the goods or services he has delivered to the farmer on credit. Pigs supplied by farmer serve as guarantee for the future payment. Ensures goods and services from suppliers are right quality.Agrees to pay for the goods and services received at the agreed terms such as price, duration, mode of payment.Offers quality services to farmers in the agreed area.Offers the agreed goods and services on credit Makes receipts/ invoices for goods received and presents them to Business Facility ( i.e. Slaughter Slab/ collection center) for future paymentCollects, bulks and markets the farmers' pigs.Keeps transaction records.Receives and compiles invoices and amounts owed by each farmer for goods and services.Deducts all money owed by the farmers.Pays the service providers the money deducted from the farmers.Lessons learnt from the farmer-oriented Business Hub models inform that success of the check-off system depends on the following pillars (TechnoServe, 2010). Success of this system is depends on the following pillars.Group dynamics: For any business organisation, there are leaders and followers, the diversity should be observed and accommodated along the way as the business progresses. Buy-in of key players is critical for starting to operate the system. The check-off system can start to function even if few farmers are ready to take on the services, the rest are expected to adopt later. There success of the check-off system is achieved through persistence and patience among the actors. Publicity: Unless the benefits of the system are known by everybody adoption rate will remain low. It is important to publicize and flag any achievements, however minimal they may be.Commitment: There must be willingness to adopt the practices of the check-off system by each of the actors so as to comply with the undertakings, roles and responsibilities as specified in the memorandum of understanding (MOU). Each of the players must buy into the system and be committed to the practices. Documentation: Documentation is a critical component of the system. The system can only be built on a firm record keeping and documentation base. As more farmers join the system, data processing also becomes critical. Ability to read and write proficiently by both the service providers and farmers is critical for accurate documentation. Information asymmetry should be avoided, as this risks fuelling corruption, embezzlement of funds, and irregularities in system receipts and payments.Timely and convenient Payments: Payments for the farmer's sales must be made on time and in full amounts. If payments are made in instalments or less than expected it will affect smooth operations of the system. Bad payment terms will gradually deter both farmers from selling to the slaughter slab as well as service providers from giving their goods and services on credit. The price at which the pig trader buys farmers' pigs must be attractive and competitive; otherwise farmers will sell their pig elsewhere.Financial services are important to farmers' productivity and the sustainability of pig farming as a business, and thus influence a farmer's loyalty to the cooperative society. Farmers appreciate advances on their pig income that reduce the strain of waiting until the end of the month for payment. Loans are described as beneficial and have largely helped farmers to pay for their requirements. By providing financial option, facilities encourage existing producers to scale up and help aspiring farmers to increase pig production.Governance strongly influences farmers' decisions to engage in collective marketing and impacts supplier retention, both of which are critical to sustaining a hub. Transparent system for election of leadership, financial reporting system, human resource performance management plan of the board members and growth strategy for the hub should be put in place.There must be trust, honesty and integrity between pig traders, the farmers and the cooperative management. In the current hub model, the co-operatives are used to pool farmers. It is worth nothing however, that in the past, co-operatives cheated farmers and the memories are still fresh in the memories of many. Therefore, the co-operative executives and the slab managers need to exercise maximum caution. Transparency and accountability of the cooperative leaders and hub management is key for suitability of the hub.Good management practices: Good management practices of the pig business hub help the hub realize a competitive advantage in input and output markets, when negotiating for supply contracts with bulk buyers, suppliers, meat processors, and other industry players as this has become a standard for market access requirements that consider supply chain best practices. This ensures the financial viability of the hubs by boosting farmers' sales and access to input and output services such as improved breeds, veterinary care, and improved feeds and feeding practices.In structuring of business system, visibility of the farmers is vital, as farmers must be recognized to own the pigs business hub and that the slaughter facility as well as the selling of the pigs. If the structure does not recognize the farmer as the owner, then and credit facilities (check-off benefits) cannot reach him. Right from the onset, the farmer organizations/cooperatives must adhere to the constitution to set a good precedence to the future co-operative that is expected to be bigger and more complex. It is important to understand the unique prevailing structures, environment and mode of operation of the co-operative before introducing the check-off system. With these in mind, introduction of the system should be done gradually rather than imposing it. Otherwise, the system may be resisted.In order to have a functional hub, the farmers who are the primary users and beneficiaries must buy into and be willing to participate in operations of the hub. Clearly demonstrating to potential partners the benefits of involvement and engage them to buy into a broad vision of market change. Sensitization on how the hub will operate is equally important. The farmers could be organized into co-operatives with well defined structures. Organise famers in well defined structures smaller to be able to access hub services collectively.During mobilization and sensitization the following should be noted: Proximity is important factor for successful operations aggregation centres. Farmers may be mobilised within radius of few miles. Preferably not more than 100 miles to enable access to business hub services local farmers usually are in the radius of 100 miles but sometimes within less than 100 miles.  Rural farmers and can easily be derailed if misinformed, therefore be clear on all issues from the on-set.  Have as many opinion leaders on board as possible.  Mobilization and sensitization is a continuous process and not a one-off eventThe business facility should be established with proper management system in place. Important aspects to note in establishing the facility include; Ensuring that the slab once established, can start operating immediately with minimum snags. Delays may slow down the farmer momentum that was already built.  Ensuring that a well negotiated sales agreement with an identified bulk buyer is already in place.  Ensuring that there is a management structure in place to receive pigs from the farmers, measure, and record as appropriate.  The hub management should also be competent to suitably compile records on individual farmer's deliveries to the market.There is need for continuous nurturing, mentoring and hand holding of the business hubs since the model is a new concept in the value chain frame work. Introduction and adoption of the model is a gradual process and not an event.By promoting more efficient business practices that lead to higher profits for all stakeholders. Business linkages also address suppliers' lack of knowledge about SMEs. The aim is to create or expand BDS embedded within business relationships between SMEs and other firms.Drive market change and respond to shifts in the market such as market demand, competition and changing technology.Through profiling and maintaining a data base of reliable and appropriate service providers to continuously support the pig business hub and farmer groups. This will address suppliers' lack of technical or managerial skills. The aim is to address a range of supply-side constraints and build the capacity of new or existing BDS suppliers to profitably serve the business. Business Development Service Providers will be engaged to ensure continued provision of support services at a fee. To ensure efficient delivery of services, ILRI should support to build the capacity of service providers so that they in turn offer quality services at a competitively prices.Ensure the hub/farmer owned enterprise is managed as a business and driven to make profits for its shareholders. This therefore requires that the enterprise is run by a qualified manager who must have a strong business background and clearly separate the functions and roles of farmers (shareholders), the management committee or board and the business managers and staff.For the business hub to be functional and sustainable, the following factors should be put into consideration. (etal., 2008)  Significant number of organised and empowered farmers willing and capable of supplying the target market or buyer: The model needs an existing group of organised farmers that have experience supplying markets. The group needs to already have functioning governance structures within a significant number of capable members relative to the needs of the buyers. The group leaders and staff need to have a clear understanding of members' profile and their capacity to serve the targeted market. Receptive business sector willing to engage in dealing with smallholder suppliers: Supplying a specific and pre-identified buyer is a cornerstone of the approach as it provides the farmers organisation with a defined target market with specific deliverables to respond to and promise of real business partnership. This is as opposed to trying to respond to the general demands of the broader market. Local enabling environment that promotes/ supports or at a minimum does not impede small-business initiative: Despite the numerous challenges of doing business locally, whether they involved complex or unclear local contract law or paying regular bribes, the benefits and economic value of the business partnership needs to be worth the effort of having to deal with the daily obstacles to business. Experienced and marketed -oriented service local providers and NGOs to facilitate the business partnership and oversee the implementation of technical activities: the existence of local market-oriented service providers that has experience linking smallholder to markets and that guide the farmer organisation, without unduly taking over activities that should be carried out by the farmer group itself. The intermediary organisation is also an important third party in trying to consolidate the relationship between the suppliers group and the buyer and can act as neutral mediator when disputes arise.Business hub model for improving livestock related income among small-scale producers has proven innovative and effective in many respects. By combining technical support to farmers for improved d management practices with business development services in a central hub, the model has paved the way for many poor farmers to profitably engage in the livestock value chain. Also, by forging direct linkages with the private sector (private dairy processors, financial institutions, and input suppliers) the model has enabled several hubs to achieve financial stability and increased the likelihood of long-term sustainability. Training needs assessment for pig farmers and service providersOne of the project objectives is building the capacity of pig farmers and service providers' value chain actors to benefit in the hub model development. The initial activity to achieve this objective was to identify the capacity building needs of pig farmers and service providers. Two survey methods were used to identify capacity building needs of farmers and service providers of the pig business hub. These were:1. Participatory needs assessment using focus group discussion, and observations of farmers, accessed by invitation to group meeting 2. Individual interviews with service providers accessed by snowballing Focus group discussions: The data was collected during a focus group discussions held with the Executive and groups members of Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative where the hub is being piloted. The group focus discussions were purposely held to:1. Identify and prioritize capacity building needs 2. Identify capacity building thematic areas and interventionsInteractive and participatory methods were used during the interviews. This was intended to allow participants to actively get involved in the interviews and discussions, express their opinions, ideas and views freely, and share information openly as well as to generate a wealth of information and make participants to value the workshop. The steps included: Brief from the interviewer  Small group discussion and presentation  Plenary discussion  Question and answer  Closing remarkIn the groups we identified the capacity building thematic areas, priority actions for capacity building, and persons or institutions to spearhead the capacity building and interventions. Group discussion guidelines were given to each group and after the discussions they made presentation. Each group presentation was followed by a plenary discussion. The plenary discussions enabled members and the facilitator to simulate the groups' presentation putting them in a position to either complement or supplement thus, enriching the group's submission.The questions and answers method was used by the facilitator to gauge the participants' understanding of the areas of discussion. This method was also used to clarify points which the participants may have found ambiguous. In the group discussions the participants used this method to enhance their understanding.Individual interviews: Snow balling method was also used on the side of service providers (input, agro vet and pig traders) within Masaka municipality. Six (6) groups' participated in needs assessment and prioritization discussions and seven service providers were interviewed using snow balling method.The dates and groups for the interviews are shown in table 2. A total of 83 participants comprising of farmers, Executive leaders and service providers were engaged in the interviews and participatory discussions to elicit information pertinent to the pig business hub in Kyanamukaka and Kabonera sub counties. The participants included; Executive leaders, service providers and farmers and Table 2 gives the number of participants by value chain actor categories. The Executive Board is the highest organ of Kyamukaka-Kabonera pig farmers Cooperative Society. It comprises of seven (7) members in various leadership positions indicated in Table 4. In October 2012, the International Livestock Research Institute officially started working with cooperative Society on the value chain assessment.The Cooperative Society was founded with the objective of harnessing a collective voice to advocate for challenges faced by pig farmers. Additionally, it was envisaged that through collective action farmers would access pig markets and inputs such as agro vet supplies, extension services and funding for the cooperative at better terms.Despite the set objectives of the Cooperative, the current business model of the cooperative, lacks well defined structures that would enable the group to have a streamlined system for farmers to access Business Development Services in the hub. The cooperative farmers are scattered overall the two sub counties i.e Kabonara and Kyanamukaka, coordination among the cooperative and individual farmers is made more difficult for members to collective access, bargain, sell their products and enjoy economies of scale.For many years the cooperative has been in existence, the financial position has been weak because it does not operative any other business apart from farmers' equity inform of membership and shares.Leadership of Kyanamukaka-Kabonera Cooperative Society comprises of 7 members, four men and three women respectively. The leaders are not actively involved in the development of the Kyanamukaka-Kabonero business hub, in terms of mobilising more farmers to join it, following up on the agreed activities as planned like coordinating purchase of brewery waste, Service Providers and site for proposed slaughter slab.Through the group discussions each category identified their capacity building needs which they later prioritised through a priority setting exercise. The farmers in Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative identified collective engagement as the first (1 st ) category of needs to improve the performance of their collective production and marketing initiatives for group marketing, business management and as meetings, mobilisation of funds, and information representativeness. This calls for strengthening the mobilisation skills of the leadership and members at large so as to recruit more and enhance member participation for collective activities such sharing.Collective Marketing and Marketing Currently the cooperative members sell their pigs individually, rather than in collective form due to lack of one stop collection centre or a slaughter slab. A collection centre or slaughter slab would work for the farmers as market space and show room at which the farmers bring the pigs to the cooperative hub for slaughter and sale. Findings from the group discussions revealed that the pigs are sold and slaughtered individually at various facilities such as; backyard, in the bushes, at homes, at the farms which majority of the participants considered as being unhygienic and unfavourable practice that is affecting their ability to negotiate for better business offers.Marketing needs pertain to services needed to enable farmers in the pig business hub to identify or establish markets for their products. Such services facilitate the creation of linkages between all the actors in a given market and enable buyers to expand their outreach to, and purchases from, the SMEs. Marketing needs identified included skills, knowledge and information for collective marketing and Hub Management. Collective marketing was considered as the collective action of organizing smallholder pig farmers around activities for marketing of their pigs. During the group discussions, collective pig marketing together with good governance of the business hub was anticipated to create incentives for cooperation around the management of the hub and attract the associated business development services for cost-effectiveness and sustainability of the business hub. This is in line with the provision that three broad categories of factors are important for effective formation and functioning of collective marketing by farmer groups, namely; types of products and markets, characteristics of the user groups, and institutional arrangements (Markelova, 2014). The Marketing skills highlighted included; identification of pig markets particularly the pig buyers/customers, bargaining for better prices, mobilizing farmers for supply of pigs to achieve economies of scale, quality and quantity assurance, access to market information, and promotion of hub services/infrastructure.Governance is important in all its aspects, as it results in a reduction of the societal and managerial problems associated with farmer groups to avoid chaos as this would ensure the members to set up a leadership/governance and management structure which would enable their farmer groups to operate efficiently and effectively in their best interest. From the group discussions and observation, the pig farmer groups were in place but lacked well defined structures of leadership, roles and responsibility definition, and commitment of members. The Governance needs identified include: formation of groups and collective marketing associations, networking, group dynamics, roles and responsibilities of board, and constitution of laws for governing the pig farmer groups.Financial services help SMEs identify and access funds through formal and alternative channels that include supplier or buyer credits, factoring companies, equity financing, venture capital, credit unions, banks, and the like. The financial service also assist buyers in establishing links with commercial banks (letters of credit, etc.) to help them directly finance SME business activities.From the needs assessment discussions, it was established that there is no village bank or SACCO linked or owned by the Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative society. The pig farmers face challenges to access finances to support their pig business or production activities, forcing the farmers to end up selling their pigs at premature age or at giveaway prices due to the need for money to cater for their immediate household needs.The Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative society, however, has put in place an initiative for mobilisation of farmer saving currently (by the time of the assessment) amounting to UGX. 3,000,000 (Three million, Uganda Shillings; eqv to approx. US$ 1,034), collected from its members in form of membership and shares to start a saving and credit scheme. Findings from the group discussions revealed that the cooperative society and small pig groups need financial skills training in; negotiation skills to access credit, record keeping, cooperative management, laws that govern saving and credit scheme, managing business finances, book keeping, preparation of simple financial statements, customer care, and risk management.The pig business hub model and Check-off system. Financial services are important to farmers' productivity and the sustainability of pig farming as a business, and thus influence a farmer's loyalty to the cooperative society. Farmers appreciate advances on their pig income, which helps them to reduce the strain of waiting until the the stipulated period by the cooperative or service provider arrangement. The check-off system has been proved a best-practice in ensuring farmer acquisition of BDS services including finances and inputs without cash payment, and later being checked off from their sales by the cooperative. The business and enterprise management needs identified associated with pig business hub model and check-off system for Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative society include; record keeping, basic bookkeeping, negotiation skills, quality management, managing business finances , preparing financial statements, entrepreneurship skills, and customer care.These services help SMEs improve their access to production inputs and output markets. They facilitate the creation of links between SMEs and suppliers and enable the suppliers to both expand their outreach to SMEs and develop their capacity to offer better, less expensive inputs.There are linkages between Kabonera-Kyanamukaka cooperative society and service providers in the area, built on; supply relationship for pig feed in form of brewery waste by Victoria Company in Kampala, access to extension services, and pig trade with the butchers and slaughter slabs in urban Masaka. The training needs identified included; quality training, Storage management, Customer care and training on how to made favourable memorandum of understanding with farmer groups.Sustainable feed production and distribution system is important for the pig business hub. Capacity building for the cooperative members and extension workers on feed plan development using the FEAST tool (ILRI, 2013) would help the members gain more skills in conducting feed resources assessment and reporting, facilitating cooperative to actually develop site feed plans and also provided feedback to refine the FEAST tool.These services establish sustainable infrastructures that enable SMEs to increase sales and income.Examples include transport systems refrigeration, storage, processing facilities, loading equipment, communication centres, and improved roads and market places. Currently pig buyers provide transport for themselves from the farmers to their butchers/ slaughter slabs on their bicycles. Training needs identified include; Record keeping, Transport management, record keeping and simple financial statements.Capacity of the service provider to provide sustainable extension and farmer advisory services would entrench extension function into the cooperative business planning and the extension services units linked to the cooperatives. The key focus is streamlining extension service delivery through a business model that incorporates value proportion in extension services as well as revenue streams from the sale of pigs through a collective approach. The service providers should be working towards creating sustainable extension departments managed by cooperatives. To guide the process, an eligibility checklist and data form should be developed and used for development of work plans/budgets and extension service provision plans.The survey for best practices and needs assessment found three business functions around Nyanamukakaka-Kobonera Cooperative Society that construct the functioning of a Pig Business Hub. For the purpose of this report, and based on preliminary ILRI research on pig value chain in the community, the pig business hub is described as having the following actors and their primary functions: i) Farmers' Cooperative whose primary function is to aggregate pigs from member farmers and manage the business hub ii) Farmers whose primary function is to produce and supply pigs to the cooperative/hub iii) Business Development Service providers whose primary function is to provide services to the farmers through the cooperative/business hub. The operations and management of the business hub should ensure that the farmers are better positioned to take advantage of the market opportunities and become engaged in emerging democratic processes.Marketing needs training should be addressed by taking a market led approach that promotes private sector participation in service provision to ensure long term provision of services beyond initial support by Pig business hub promoters, currently ILRI and the local government.Training for provision of business services should ensure that services are developed and offered at a fee to guarantee that the created value for the business services is sustained through repeat usage by the farmers and efficient delivery of services. ILRI should build capacity of service providers so that they in turn offer quality services at a competitively prices.Mobilization and sensitization training for collective engagement is very important in order to have a functional hub, led by the farmers who are the primary users and beneficiaries, and must be organised for buy in and willingness to participate in operations of the hub. Sensitization on how the hub will operate is equally important. The need to organise farmers into smaller pig groups at the village level and linking them to the cooperative, and service providers is eminent and the initial works of organization and linkages started under this assignment should be strengthened.Training on all aspects of the pig business hub model should be done by engaging strategic partners with different expertise such as training, private sector engagement, facilitating collective farmer initiatives, financing and market linkages.Facilitate building of management capacity of the board of directors as well as business managers.Training of Business Hub management staff and Executives should be frequently done for monitoring and enforcement to ensure transparency in activities of pig business hub and business service providerForming smallholder pig farmer groupsThe Need for Pig Farmer GroupsFor smallholder based on supply chain, the difficulty of coordination is made difficult by lack of organisation among individual members given those farmers generally supply the market in an adhoc and reactive way and access Business Development Services on individual basis. However, in additional to the benefit of farmer business organisation linked with collective bargaining power and economies of scale, it is a requirement for farmers' organisations or Cooperatives to be organised into small manageable groups.The pig business hub model needs an existing group of organised farmers that have experience in supplying markets with their products. The group needs to be already having a functioning governance structure involving a significant number of members relative to the needs of the target buyers. The group leader and the supporting staff need to have a clear understanding of the members profile and their capacity to serve the targeted market.In a bid to strengthen linkage between the cooperative and the pig small groups, the Board executives should have representation from pig small groups during election of board members.To effect this, cooperative must regularly hold annual general meetings and to ensure that the composition of the cooperative Board allows for wide small pig groups representation. The 28 pig small groups were sensitive and trained on the business hub model and the check off system as illustrated in appendix 2. Farmers appreciated the model and agreed to pay group membership and shares. Group members suggested that Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative leaders to call for Special Annual General Meeting to pass the resolution therein.Appendix 1: Consultancy achievements to pilot pig business hubsIn line with component one of my terms of reference the following were achieved; i) Supported Nyanamukakaka-Kobonera Cooperative Society to mobilise UGX. 3,000,000 (Three million shillings, eqv to US$ 1,034) and started purchasing feeds (brewery waste) from Victoria Company and saving and credit scheme.ii) Identified and profiled 30 already existing pig small groups within Kyanamukaka and Kabonera sub counties and linked them to the cooperative this will enhance proper communication of information between the farmers and the cooperative. Without welldefined structures at the grass root, the hub cannot be sustainable.iii) Created linkages between farmers and service providers through conducting Business Opportunity Seminars and trained members business hub model concept and use of the check-off system in the pig business hubs. iv) Within 2 months of piloting the concept, two Business Development Services (BDS) have been established; feed (brewery waste and saving and credit schemes both at the cooperative and group levels.v) Because of our intervention of working with small pig small under the Cooperative Society, Extension service providers are now more interested in providing their services to kyanamukaka and Kabonera farmers because of structures at the grass root.vi) Linked Kyanamukaka-Kabonera Cooperative Society to feeds Company (Victoria in Kampala). The cooperative has undertaken collective purchase of pig feeds as part of its interventions at the hub; local knowledge about the availability of brewer's waste in Kampala encouraged the farmers here to collectively purchase this feed to supplement their pigs' diets. So far 10 tones have been purchased each tone at 60,000 and have made another order of 30 tonnes.vii) Supported other pig cooperative societies like Kimanya-Kyabakuza and Katwe kitego to access feed (brewery waste) form Victoria Company in Kampala. Kimanya-kyabakuza has so far purchased 11 and Katwe-kitego 10 tonnes of brewery waste respectively.viii) Facilitated the signing of the feeds contract between the Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative society and Victoria Company.ix) Supported ILRI team to create working relationship with private sector foundation Uganda to build capacity for Kyanamukaka-Kabonera cooperative members. BDS can also be thought of under three different headings:1. Specialised fee-based services: offered to SMEs as distinct services for which they pay a fee or via commission. This could include accountancy/audit, freight forwarding, advertising, legal advice, veterinary, equipment repair, business consultancy, technical information, conference organising, network brokering and product design 2. Embedded services: included within a commercial transaction for another product or service. This could include design advice offered by a retailer to a producer, livestock advice offered by a trader to a farmer and producer advice offered through commodity supply chains, quality control provided by an exporter to a small processor 3. Informally provided services: information, knowledge and advice available to SMEs through other business or social relationships. This could include information and advice on price, market and technology trends through social networks or mediation through traditional cultural mechanismsBundled services = Several business services provided together as part of a package. This package of services may be offered independently or as part of another commercial transaction e.g. a transaction between a wholesaler and a producer.Embedded services = Business services provided as part of another commercial transaction, such as when a trader provides market information and product design advice to a producer when the trader purchases the producer's products.Why BDS?  They contribute to the enterprise development objectives of employment creation and improved living standards  BDS provides answers to the internal constraints holding back enterprise growth such as poor management, poor quality products, and lack of markets….  Business Development Services (BDS) help to increase sales and reduce costs for SMEs.  They help SMEs grow and create income and employment  Owners become less marginalized economically and politically and they are better positioned to take advantage of global markets and become engaged in emerging democratic processes BDS and microfinance: Some experts see BDS and microfinance as distinct fields using different approaches to address problems that are separate issues. The danger of combining the two approaches is that programmes might fail to apply best practices in each field. Micro Finance Institution (MFI) sustainability might be threatened and BDS markets could be dominated by MFIs that would subsidize services. Proponents of a combined approach argue that unless BDS and finance programmes work together to coordinate their service offerings, SMEs will not be able to access both and this will inhibit their growth and ability to create development impact. Patterns in programmes attempting to help SMEs access both BDS and finance and using best practice in both fields include:  Demand-driven integration: Attempts to integrate basic business education or referral services into MFI operations, but charges a fee and/or offers clients a choice about whether or not to take training  Parallel programmes: When a development organization offers both services through separate initiatives that reach the same client  Alternative finance: Strengthens existing, market-based financing mechanisms-supplier or buyer credit, bank or equity financing, equipment leasing, etc.","tokenCount":"6462"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5e022a5286fcec16da3b2e1ce183197","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d8b250bc-6b2f-40d9-b1be-16d7a8f20b44/retrieve","id":"1941057939"},"keywords":["underutilized legume","nutritional composition","variability","multivariate analysis","ANOVA"],"sieverID":"eb3b16fb-e380-48c6-ae12-c8a8c49f6628","pagecount":"17","content":"The adzuki bean (Vigna angularis), known for its rich nutritional composition, holds significant promise in addressing food and nutritional security, particularly for low socioeconomic classes and the predominantly vegetarian and vegan populations worldwide. In this study, we assessed a total of 100 diverse adzuki bean accessions, analyzing essential nutritional compounds using AOAC's official analysis procedures and other widely accepted standard techniques. Our analysis of variance revealed significant genotype variations for all the traits studied. The variability range among different traits was as follows: moisture: 7.5-13.3 g/100 g, ash: 1.8-4.2 g/100 g, protein: 18.0-23.9 g/100 g, starch: 31.0-43.9 g/100 g, total soluble sugar: 3.0-8.2 g/100 g, phytic acid: 0.65-1.43 g/100 g, phenol: 0.01-0.59 g/100 g, antioxidant: 11.4-19.7 mg/100 g GAE. Noteworthy accessions included IC341955 and EC15256, exhibiting very high protein content, while IC341957 and IC341955 showed increased antioxidant activity. To understand intertrait relationships, we computed correlation coefficients between the traits. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that the first four principal components contributed to 63.6% of the variation. Further, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) identified nutri-dense accessions, such as IC360533, characterized by high ash (>4.2 g/100 g) and protein (>23.4 g/100 g) content and low phytic acid (0.652 g/100 g). These promising compositions provide practical support for the development of high-value food and feed varieties using effective breeding strategies, ultimately contributing to improved global food security.Legumes are essential for meeting the dietary and nutritional needs of both people and animals. The global population is projected to increase by 170% by 2050, posing enormous challenges to the global community in ensuring secure and safe food supplies [1]. Legumes represent a unique food crop group aligning with sustainable goals while providing a substantial amount of essential nutrients. Adzuki beans, in particular, stand out as highly resilient crops, showcasing remarkable adaptability to various growing conditions in both temperate and semitropical areas. They demonstrate a capacity to thrive even in nutrientdeficient soils. Given their seeds' high-quality protein content, low carbon and water footprint, shorter growth period, ability to improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, and yield well in marginal lands, adzuki beans have the potential to significantly contribute to attaining sustainable development goals (SDGs), notably, SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), and SDG 13 (climate action). The adzuki bean (Vigna angularis (Willd) Ohwi and Ohashi) belonging to the Fabaceae family with a chromosome number of 2n = 2X = 22 holds immense potential to serve as a mainstream legume crop. The precise location of adzuki bean domestication remains uncertain, with suggestions of multiple domestication origins in northeast Asia, including Japan, China, and Korea [2][3][4][5]. Vigna angularis var. nipponeinsis (Ohwi) Ohwi and H. Ohashi (2n = 22), locally known as Ta-phe in East Kameng (Arunachal Pradesh, India) and reported to distribute in the North-Eastern Hill (NEH) region, is considered a close progenitor of cultivated adzuki beans. The adzuki bean provides an affordable, low-cost, easily digestible, rich source of protein and also contains carbohydrates, vitamins (A, B1, B2, B3, B9, and C), dietary fibers, and minerals (zinc, calcium, and iron). However, it also contains anti-nutritional factors like phytates, α-galactosides, and trypsin inhibitors with varying concentrations in different cultivars of adzuki beans [6]. The amino acid profile of adzuki bean protein is appropriately balanced, meeting the criteria set forth by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) [7]. An analysis of different varieties of adzuki beans was carried out to examine their amino acid composition. The findings showed that all eight essential amino acids needed for human nutrition were present in all the varieties. Notably, these adzuki beans had higher levels of leucine, lysine, valine, and phenylalanine. Lysine content, in particular, stood out, ranging from 1.98 to 1.82 g/100 g of beans. These amino acids are typically deficient in cereal proteins, emphasizing the unique nutritional value provided by them [8].The adzuki bean is an environment-friendly legume that can fix atmospheric nitrogen, enhance soil fertility, and prevent soil erosion. It is a multipurpose legume crop where the young pods are used as vegetables, grains as pulses, fodder, and green manure. V. angularis seems to have the highest level of cold tolerance among cultivated Vigna, based on its geographical distribution in the temperate zone [9]. Compared to other grain legumes, adzuki beans are more resistant to heavy rains and can thrive in all types of soil. With over 670,000 ha under cultivation and a production of 2,601,000 tons, China was the world's largest producer of adzuki beans in 2019-2020, followed by Japan at 140,000 tons/year [10]. The adzuki bean offers several health benefits; its grains are a good source of folate. They are easy to cook, possess a delicious taste, are good for weight management, slow down blood sugar, and are easy to digest. Adzuki-bean-derived food products may lower blood cholesterol, while proteins and phenols present in them act as antidiabetic agents [11,12]. Adzuki bean sprouts have been consumed as food and herb medicine by Chinese folk to maintain health and regulate weight since the Tang Dynasty [13][14][15]. The antioxidants and other bioactive components found in the adzuki bean seed coat are reported to lessen stress and inflammation during hypertension, supporting good health and attracting significant attention [16,17]. According to Fukuda et al. [18], adzuki bean consumption is linked to a lower risk of lifestyle-related diseases in people. Adzuki bean cultivars showed different antioxidant activities and cytoprotective effects according to the concentration and composition of phenolic compounds [19][20][21].Owing to such characteristics, the adzuki bean is widely used in the preparation of a variety of foods, often sweetened before eating [22]. In particular, it is boiled with sugar, resulting in red bean paste (anko). Red bean paste is used in many Chinese dishes and also serves as a filling in Japanese sweets such as anpan, dorayaki, daifuku, etc. In Japan, China, and Korea, they are consumed daily as a dessert or snack and at celebrations and traditional festivals. Ignorance about the potentials of the adzuki bean and lack of information on the extent of genetic variations within the crop are major bottlenecks for cultivar development and popularizing it as a mainstream pulse crop despite its high nutritional quality [2]. Characterization and evaluation data, particularly nutrient composition data, will support the selection of nutri-dense accessions and also promote and popularize this legume crop.There are limited reports available on the nutritional constituents of adzuki beans from India. Hence, the present investigation has been undertaken to explore the nutritional compositions of exotic and indigenous adzuki bean collections from the National Gene Bank, ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, India.A total of 100 adzuki bean accessions, comprising both exotic and indigenous collections, along with three checks of adzuki beans, were carefully selected from the National Gene Bank, ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), New Delhi, India (Table S1). These selected accessions were sown during the Kharif season of 2021 at the experimental fields of the ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station Shimla, India. The experimental station is situated in the humid temperate zones of India, positioned at a latitude of 31.1048 • N and a longitude of 77.1734 • E. The station's altitude is 2276 m AMSL, and it receives an annual rainfall of approximately 1415 mm. All the accessions were grown under natural conditions. Each accession was grown in a single row with two replications, following a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The rows had a bed length of 2 m, a plant-to-plant spacing of 20 cm, and a row-to-row spacing of 60 cm. Standard prescribed agricultural practices were adhered to, from sowing to harvesting. During field preparation, 100 kg/ha of di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) was incorporated. Irrigation was provided pre-sowing to ensure proper germination and additional irrigation was given at the blooming stage. Care was taken to maintain the required soil moisture through a suitable irrigation schedule. Weeding was carried out 25-30 days after sowing. No crop protection chemicals were sprayed throughout the entire crop cycle.At the physiological maturity stage, adzuki bean pods were harvested. Pods from each row were harvested separately and sun-dried, and the seeds were extracted. Each row's harvest constituted one replicate, resulting in two replicates per accession. The evaluation of nutritional composition for the adzuki bean germplasm was conducted during the year 2021-2022 at the Division of Germplasm Evaluation at ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, India.The moisture content was determined following the AOAC 925.09 [23] method, with a slight modification of considering the hot weight. Porcelain crucibles and their lids were initially dried for an hour at 100 • C in an air oven, and the hot weight of the empty crucible was recorded. Then, 3 g of adzuki flour was accurately weighed in duplicate and placed into a pre-weighed, dried crucible. The crucible with the sample was then placed in a 100 ± 5 • C air oven for 2-3 h and reweighed until a constant weight was achieved.The total ash content was determined using the AOAC 923.03 [23] method. An empty crucible was marked and heated in a furnace at 100 • C for 1 h. The weight of the hot empty crucible was noted. Subsequently, 3 g of the sample, in duplicate, was added to the pre-weighed crucible. The crucible with the sample was subjected to 180 • C for 1 h in the furnace, followed by an increase to 250 • C for 1 h to char the sample. The temperature was then gradually increased to 450 • C at a rate of approximately 20 • C per minute and maintained at 450 • C for 3 h. After complete ashing, the hot crucibles were transferred to a hot air oven maintained at 100 • C and left overnight to cool down. The weight of the crucible at 100 • C was recorded, and the ash content was calculated.The DUMAS method AOAC 992.23 [23] was utilized to estimate the total nitrogen concentration, employing the Elementar Rapid MAX N Exceed nitrogen auto analyzer. Approximately one hundred milligrams of the sample were carefully weighed in a stainless steel crucible using a Sartorius Electronic weighing balance (Model ATX224R), which was connected to the DUMAS instrument. The sample crucibles were then placed in a 90-place autosampler. Subsequently, the samples underwent combustion at 950 • C in a high oxygen environment, where nitrogen oxides were converted to nitrogen employing a copperplatinum catalyst and estimated using a thermal conductivity detector. The instrument was calibrated using HPLC grade L-Aspartic acid (Sigma A9256-100G Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, MO, USA)) for nitrogen recovery. The nitrogen concentration was translated to a protein percentage by applying Jones's factor of 6.25.Approximately 100 mg of homogenized sample underwent double extraction with 80% ethanol for 30 min at 80 • C. After each extraction cycle, the samples were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min, the supernatants were collected, and the resulting residue was used to calculate the total starch content in the samples. Megazyme's total starch assay kit, in accordance with AOAC 996.11 [23], was employed for this purpose. Initially, α-amylase was used to hydrolyze starch into maltodextrin, followed by amyloglucosidase to further hydrolyze maltodextrin into D-glucose. The oxidation of glucose led to the liberation of hydrogen peroxide, which was detected using a GOPOD reagent, producing a pink color. Absorbance was measured at 510 nm using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, BenchTop Lab Systems, Saint Louis, MO, USA and the results were expressed as g/100 g.For TSS analysis, the extraction was carried out using the same protocol as outlined in the starch section. TSS content was determined using the anthrone reagent method [24], involving sugar dehydration by sulfuric acid to generate furfural. The absorbance of the furfural anthrone complex (blue-green) at 630 nm was measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, and a calibration curve was established using a D-glucose standard. This technique quantifies the amount of TSS, including mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides, and the results were presented as glucose equivalents in g/100 g.The Phytate assay kit (K-PHYT) from Megazyme International, Wicklow, Ireland, was utilized to determine phytic acid concentration through an enzymatic technique (AOAC 986.11) [23]. The evaluation of total and free phosphorus content was conducted using an ascorbic acid molybdate color reagent. Following incubation and measurement of absorbance at 655 nm using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, the results were expressed as g/100 g.The extract obtained through the process described in the starch section was utilized to determine the total phenolic content. Total phenol was estimated using the FCR assay [25], involving a redox reaction. FCR consists of a combination of tungstates and molybdates, where phenolic compounds in the sample undergo reduction, resulting in the visible formation of a blue color. The absorbance at 650 nm was measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, and the results were expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) in g/100 g.The ferric-reducing antioxidant activity was determined following the method described by Benzie et al. [26] with slight modifications. A properly diluted sample (0.2 mL) was mixed with 0.8 mL of freshly prepared FRAP reagent. The FRAP reagent was composed of a 10:1:1 ratio of 0.3 M of acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 20 mM of ferric chloride solution (FeCl 3 •6H 2 O), and aqueous 10 mM of TPTZ in 40 mM of HCl. The absorbance of the solution was measured at 593 nm after 10 min of incubation at room temperature. A freshly prepared standard solution of ferrous sulfate was used for calibration, and the FRAP activity was expressed in mg/100 g of gallic acid equivalents (GAE).The nutritional parameter data were subjected to comprehensive statistical analysis. This included Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), descriptive statistics, and calculation of various genetic parameters such as the phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), heritability (H 2 ), and genetic advance percent of means (GAM). These analyses were conducted using the 'TraitStats' package [27] implemented in RStudio, R v4.2.3 software (https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/old/4.2.3/, Vienna, Austria) [28]. Correlations (r) among the nutritional parameters were calculated, and scatter plots were illustrated using the 'GGally' package [29] in RStudio, R v4.2.3 software [27]. In the correlation phrase, r > 0 indicated a positive correlation, while r < 0 implied a negative correlation at a p < 0.05 significance level. Furthermore, scree plots, principal component analysis (PCA), and cluster diagrams (hierarchical clustering) were generated using the 'Factoextra' [30] and 'FactoMineR' [28] packages in RStudio, R v4.2.3 software. To compare statistical differences among the clusters, Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was applied, and this was performed using the 'agricolae' package in RStudio, R v4.2.3 software.To assess the variability in each trait, descriptive statistics of the data were computed and are summarized in Table 1. The results demonstrated a substantial range of values for every trait, indicating considerable variability: moisture (7.6-13.3 g/100 g), ash (1.80-4.21 g/100 g), protein (18.0-23.9 g/100 g), starch (31.1-43.9 g/100 g), total sugar (3.0-8.1 g/100 g), phytate content (0.652-1.43 g/100 g), phenols (0.010-0.589 g/100 g), and antioxidant (11.4-19.6 mg/g). The observed genetic variations among accessions significantly contribute to the diverse nutritional compositions [31]. For each accession, the mean nutritional composition values for all the traits, along with the critical difference, are presented in Table S1. The moisture content of adzuki bean genotypes ranged from 7.55 g/100 g (IC341943) to 13.3 g/100 g (EC057459), with a mean value of 9.39 g/100 g (Table 1). These values were significantly higher than the moisture content of the best-performing check, Totru Local, which was 10.51 g/100 g. The moisture content observed in the studied accessions aligns with previous studies, such as 10.2-11.3 g/100 g reported by Bhatt et al. [32] and 13.1 g/100 g reported by Gohara et al. [33]. The hygroscopic capacity and moisture content of adzuki beans play a crucial role in their cooking characteristics [34]. The lower moisture content is believed to slow down bean hydration during soaking and prolong cooking durations [35]. One popular dish made from adzuki beans is 'ann', and its organoleptic qualities are influenced by the moisture content of adzuki bean seeds. Reduced moisture content in sweetened ann leads to increased pastiness and reduced cohesiveness, making it less desirable [35,36].On the contrary, seed moisture is a critical factor influencing seed quality and storage life. Higher moisture content accelerates seed viability deterioration, primarily due to promoting mold growth, hastening aging, causing thermal damage, and increasing the likelihood of insect infestation. Seed moisture is also directly related to various physiological aspects of seed quality [37]. Therefore, seed moisture is a significant parameter affecting both viability and cooking quality. Based on our study, the top five best-performing accessions for moisture content were identified as EC057459 (13.24 g/100 g), HPKAB87 (12.94 g/100 g), SMLAB4 (g/100 g), EC000264 (11.99 g/100 g), and EC87896 (11.98 g/100 g).The ash content of adzuki bean genotypes ranged from 1.80 g/100 g (EC340259) to 4.20 g/100 g (IC360533), with a mean value of 2.40 g/100 g (Table 1). The best-performing check, Totru Local, had an ash content of 2.5 g/100 g. However, the ash content in our study was lower than the range of 2.0-7.0 g/100 g reported by Yadav et al. [38]. The ash content determined in this study was comparable to the 4.09 g/100 g reported by Moongngarm et al. [39], and similar results were also found by various other researchers [32,33,40]. Variability in ash content could be attributed to differences in genotypes, soil composition, agricultural practices, and the use of fertilizers during cultivation [39]. Previous studies have indicated that the addition of plant ash can reduce cooking time by up to 60% in beans, while also improving sensory acceptability, antioxidant activity, and nutrient quality [41]. Therefore, ash content represents a crucial nutritional fraction of the seeds. In our study, we identified accessions HPKAB87 (4.21 g/100 g), SMLAB7 (4.11 g/100 g), IC341956 (g/100 g), EC30253 (4.07 g/100 g), and EC24102 (3.94 g/100 g) as the top-performing accessions for ash content.The range of variations in protein content exhibited by accessions ranged between 18.0 g/100 g (IC341945) and 23.9 g/100 g (IC341955), with a mean value of 20.9 g/100 g, and best-performing check HPU-51 giving 21.6 g/100 g (Table 1). The protein content of 24 accessions is more than the best-performing check. ANOVA for 100 accessions of adzuki bean also revealed that variability in protein content caused by genotypes was highly significant (2.2558), whereas treatment variations were non-significant (0.53 Ns) (Table 2). The results conformed with the previously reported adzuki bean work which ranged between 18.3 and 23.8 g/100 g [32,33,42,43]. Protein content higher than our study (23.1-27.5 g/100 g) was obtained by 9 genotypes of adzuki beans from Australia [44]. The differences in the data can be ascribed to variability in the adzuki bean genotypes, environment, and differences in techniques used for analysis. The amount of protein, sugar, fat, calcium, and iron content in adzuki beans varies depending on the soil types in which they were grown [35]. Adzuki bean protein content is at par with other pulses like chickpea (21.5 g/100 g), green gram (22.5 g/100 g), black gram (21.9 g/100 g), and peas (20.4 g/100 g) [45]. Additionally, adzuki bean protein also possesses other known health-promoting properties, such as ACE inhibitory activity (a substance that narrows blood vessels) and anti-inflammatory properties [46,47]. Adzuki beans can be integrated with climate resilience, organic farming, multi-cropping, low carbon and water footprint, and sustainable food production systems. Furthermore, the use of adzuki beans can be improved by creating value-added and nutritionally enriched products like adzuki milk, sprouts, etc., particularly for women's and children's nutrition. Owing to its multiple benefits, it is possible to use it as a shield against malnutrition and hidden hunger by developing new varieties. For this, germplasm serves as a building block: from our Foods 2023, 12, 4159 7 of 17 study, high protein content germplasm can be utilized for crop improvement IC341955 (23.9 g/100 g), EC15256 (23.7 g/100 g), HPKAB87 (or IC360533) (23.4 g/100 g), EC59489 (22.96 g/100 g), and IC341943 (22.79 g/100 g). The starch content among adzuki bean genotypes displayed significant variability, ranging from 31.0 g/100 g (IC353547) to 43.9 g/100 g (IC140846), with a mean value of 39.8 g/100 g (Table 1). The best-performing check had a starch content of 40.2 g/100 g. Interestingly, among the studied accessions, the starch content of 49 accessions exceeded that of the best check. These values surpass the 40.0 g/100 g reported by Kim et al. [48]. The variation in grain starch content can be attributed to the diverse genotypes and the physiological state of the seeds [49,50].In comparison to other legumes, adzuki bean starch content was higher than chickpea (35.7 g/100 g), pigeon pea (38.8 g/100 g), kidney bean (38.6 g/100 g), and green gram (39.2 g/100 g). However, it was lower than cowpea white (46.3 g/100 g), moth bean (46.4 g/100 g), and horse gram (47.9 g/100 g). Despite its high starch content, its utilization in the food industry remains limited. Adzuki bean starch possesses desirable slow-digesting properties due to its semi-crystalline C-type structure, becoming more digestible during boiling or cooking. Hence, it is suitable for an antidiabetic diet [51,52]. Studies suggest that adzuki bean starch may contribute to reducing cholesterol levels [53]. Consuming whole beans may aid in preventing or managing type 2 diabetes mellitus [54][55][56]. Adzuki bean starch is used in creating popular products like 'Ann', adzuki paste, biodegradable film, etc. Therefore, adzuki bean starch stands as a valuable source that can support Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 13, aiming for zero hunger and climate action. Accessions IC140846 (43.24 g/100 g), EC120466 (43.09 g/100 g), IC108080 (42.9 g/100 g), and EC000372 (42.88 g/100 g) were identified as promising from our study.The total soluble sugar (TSS) content in adzuki bean genotypes exhibited a notable range, varying from 3.02 g/100 g (IC341943) to 8.17 g/100 g (EC59459), with a mean value of 6.13 g/100 g (Table 1). These values surpass the content of the best-performing check, Grams Local2, which measured 7.2 g/100 g. In fact, the TSS content of 16 genotypes exceeded that of the best check. This range is notably higher compared to the reported range of 2.1 to 4.3 g/100 g, with a mean value of 2.2 g/100 g [32,40]. Elevated TSS concentration enhances desiccation tolerance and augments the seeds' resistance to abiotic stresses, making it an indicator for identifying drought resistance in adzuki beans [57]. TSS also contributes to improved palatability and serves as a source of fermentable sugars. In various forms, fermented pulse-based food products like uttapam, dosa, idly, vada, sepubari, papad, kanji, and masyaura are commonly consumed in India and other developing countries [58,59]. The high TSS content is particularly beneficial for preparing products like youkan, vellam payar sundal, anpan, manju, wagashi, dorayaki, etc., where sugar is a major ingredient [33]. However, minimal research has been conducted on adzuki bean TSS, warranting further exploration in crop improvement programs to align with current marketing needs and explore new opportunities. Notably, accessions EC59459 (7.97 g/100 g), EC30250 (7.77 g/100 g), EC24102 (7.72 g/100 g), IC469174 (7.69 g/100 g), and EC57159 (7.61 g/100 g) were identified as the best-performing accessions for TSS in our study.The phytic acid content showed significant variability among different adzuki bean genotypes, ranging from 0.652 g/100 g (IC360533) to 1.47 g/100 g (IC341952), with an average value of 1.21 g/100 g (Table 1). These values were notably lower than the content in the best-performing check, Grams Local2, which measured 1.18 g/100 g. A total of 40 accessions exhibited phytic acid content lower than the best check. Our findings align with reported values of 0.73-1.08 g/100 g by Han et al. [60] and are similar to the study by Bhatt et al. [32], which reported a value of 1.35 g/100 g.Phytic acid, which chelates vital minerals like iron, magnesium, calcium, and zinc, hindering their absorption and utilization in monogastric animals due to the lack of phytase, can lead to mineral deficiencies [61]. Phytate also downregulates the activities of proteases and amylases, key food digestive enzymes [62], and reduces the glycemic load. Genotypes with low phytate content are desirable for breeding improved cultivars. Our study highlights low-phytate-containing germplasm, such as EC59459 (0.652 g/100 g), IC360533 (0.655 g/100 g), EC340257 (0.816 g/100 g), EC80850 (0.930 g/100 g), and EC000372 (0.995 g/100 g), which can be valuable in a breeding program. The development of varieties with low phytate content can significantly contribute to combating mineral deficiency and achieving nutritional security.The total phenolic content of adzuki bean genotypes exhibited significant variation, ranging from 0.264 g/100 g (EC34027) to 0.588 g/100 g (IC341952), with an average value of 0.387 g/100 g (Table 1). Notably, the best-performing check, Totru Local, had a lower phenol content of 0.10 g/100 g compared to the genotypes. Our study's findings are consistent with previous research by Bhatt et al. [32], which also showed a wide range of phenol content between 0.486 and 0.648 g/100 g.Previous studies have highlighted the influence of various factors on adzuki bean seed metabolite contents, including phenolic content. These factors include genotypes or cultivars, temperature, light, latitude, and precipitation [63,64]. Polyphenols, which function as metal chelators, can reduce the digestibility of carbohydrates and proteins, as indicated by Hall et al. [50]. Additionally, the polyphenol extract from the seed coat of the adzuki bean possesses scavenging properties for various radicals, demonstrating its potential health benefits [65,66]. Our study has identified accessions with promising phenolic content, including EC34027 (0.265 g/100 g), EC57159 (0.270 g/100 g), HPKAB98 (0.270 g/100 g), IC341955 (0.275 g/100 g), and EC15256 (0.283 g/100 g), for further exploration and utilization in breeding programs aimed at enhancing nutritional quality.The ferric-reducing antioxidant activity of adzuki beans exhibited significant variability across genotypes, ranging from 11.4 mg/g GAE (EC340240) to 19.4 mg/g GAE (IC341957), with a mean value of 15.8 mg/g GAE (Table 1). Notably, the best-performing check, Grams Local2, had an antioxidant content of 16.8 mg/g GAE. Remarkably, 31 genotypes showed higher antioxidant activity than the best-performing check.Adzuki beans, akin to cowpea, broad beans, and mung beans, possess free radicals such as DPPH, ferric-ion-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), O 2 − •, 2,2 -azino-bis(3-ehtylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS+), and •OH scavenging ability [67]. Studies have indicated that polyphenols extracted from the seed coats of adzuki beans exhibit superior scavenging abilities for these free radicals compared to vitamin C [65,66]. Additionally, Foods 2023, 12, 4159 9 of 17 tocopherols and flavonoids, important antioxidant compounds present in adzuki beans, contribute to lowering the risk of cancer, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease, highlighting their nutritional importance [20].The variations in antioxidant levels among genotypes can be attributed to differences in the chemical composition of adzuki bean seeds, including variations in seed color, size, shape, and overall genotype [68,69]. Our study has identified several accessions with high antioxidant activity, including IC341955 (19.22 mg/g GAE), IC341957 (19.06 mg/g GAE), IC341950 (18.94 mg/g GAE), IC341953 (18.76 mg/g GAE), and EC18256 (18.34 mg/g GAE), warranting further investigation and potential utilization in breeding programs to enhance the antioxidant profile of adzuki beans.The comparison of nutritional traits between the indigenous (55) and exotic ( 45) collections of adzuki bean accessions revealed statistically similar performance across all traits. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of nutritional values in both groups and employs 't-test'-based statistical analysis to indicate the significance of differences. Notably, the 't-test' results demonstrated non-significant differences for all nutritional traits between the indigenous and exotic collection groups. This suggests a similar pattern of distribution of variation in nutritional composition across both indigenous and exotic collections.The ferric-reducing antioxidant activity of adzuki beans exhibited significant varia-bility across genotypes, ranging from 11.4 mg/g GAE (EC340240) to 19.4 mg/g GAE (IC341957), with a mean value of 15.8 mg/g GAE (Table 1). Notably, the best-performing check, Grams Local2, had an antioxidant content of 16.8 mg/g GAE. Remarkably, 31 genotypes showed higher antioxidant activity than the best-performing check.Adzuki beans, akin to cowpea, broad beans, and mung beans, possess free radicals such as DPPH, ferric-ion-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), O2 − •, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ehtylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS+), and •OH scavenging ability [67]. Studies have indicated that polyphenols extracted from the seed coats of adzuki beans exhibit superior scavenging abilities for these free radicals compared to vitamin C [65,66]. Additionally, tocopherols and flavonoids, important antioxidant compounds present in adzuki beans, contribute to lowering the risk of cancer, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease, highlighting their nutritional importance [20].The variations in antioxidant levels among genotypes can be attributed to differences in the chemical composition of adzuki bean seeds, including variations in seed color, size, shape, and overall genotype [68,69]. Our study has identified several accessions with high antioxidant activity, including IC341955 (19.22 mg/g GAE), IC341957 (19.06 mg/g GAE), IC341950 (18.94 mg/g GAE), IC341953 (18.76 mg/g GAE), and EC18256 (18.34 mg/g GAE), warranting further investigation and potential utilization in breeding programs to enhance the antioxidant profile of adzuki beans.The comparison of nutritional traits between the indigenous (55) and exotic ( 45) collections of adzuki bean accessions revealed statistically similar performance across all traits. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of nutritional values in both groups and employs 't-test'-based statistical analysis to indicate the significance of differences. Notably, the 'ttest' results demonstrated non-significant differences for all nutritional traits between the indigenous and exotic collection groups. This suggests a similar pattern of distribution of variation in nutritional composition across both indigenous and exotic collections.   The ANOVA for 100 accessions of adzuki bean is presented in Table 2. It revealed that germplasm accessions showed high variability for all eight nutrition composition traits studied and are highly significant. Our results were inconsistent with previously reported results [59].Important genetic parameters like the phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), heritability (H 2 ), and genetic advance percent of means (GAM) for nutritional traits are presented in Table 3. Among the nutritional traits, ash Foods 2023, 12, 4159 exhibited high values for both PCV and GCV, followed by moisture, sugar, phytate, and phenol. Antioxidant content displayed moderate values, while protein and starch showed low values. The heritability (H 2 ) was high for all traits, indicating a significant genetic component in their variation. In terms of genetic advance percent of means (GAM), six traits-moisture, ash, sugar, phytate, phenol, and antioxidant content-showed high values. This signifies the presence of substantial additive genetic variance for these traits, making selection based on them an effective and rewarding strategy. On the other hand, protein and starch exhibited low GAM values, suggesting a higher influence of environmental factors on these traits. Consequently, the efficacy of selection for these specific traits may be limited due to the strong environmental impact. PCV represents the phenotypic coefficient of variation; GCV represents the genotypic coefficient of variation; H 2 represents heritability in a broad sense (%); GAM represents the genetic advance percent of means.Correlations among the eight studied traits in 100 genotypes of V. angularis are presented in Figure 2. These correlations are instrumental in identifying meaningful associations between various parameters. A highly significant but weak positive correlation was observed between protein and antioxidants (r = 0.262, p < 0.01). This suggests that selecting germplasm with high protein content will likely also yield high antioxidant activity, and vice versa. Some plant foods rich in protein tend to have comparable levels of essential amino acids and demonstrate A highly significant but weak positive correlation was observed between protein and antioxidants (r = 0.262, p < 0.01). This suggests that selecting germplasm with high protein content will likely also yield high antioxidant activity, and vice versa. Some plant foods rich in protein tend to have comparable levels of essential amino acids and demonstrate antioxidant activity through electron transfers [70,71]. Protein displayed a significant weak negative correlation with phenols (r = −0.216, p < 0.01). Studies on white beans have shown that an increase in phenolic compounds corresponds to a decrease in free amino acids, thiol, and tryptophan residues [72].Additionally, a significant weak positive correlation was found between antioxidants and TSS (r = 0.157, p < 0.05). Legume polysaccharides, with their antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties, have biological activity influenced by sugar content, molecular weight, and glycosidic link types [73]. Conversely, we found a significant weak negative correlation between starch and antioxidants (r = −0.177, p < 0.05). Understanding these relationships-between proteins, starch, antioxidants, phytic acid, moisture, ash, TSS, and phenolic compounds-is crucial in food science, as they profoundly impact the functionality of foods [74].The PCA was a crucial analysis to pinpoint the primary traits responsible for variability and provide a simplified understanding of the data structure. Table 4 outlines the contributions of variables to each principal component. We identified four components, with significant contributions from antioxidant (30.86), phenols (25.38), protein (25.12), ash (33.11), and phytate (30.46) in terms of variable values. Eigenvalues were assigned to each PC, representing a fraction of the dataset's variation. These eigenvalues were associated with eigenvectors, defining the variation within the main components. To visualize the eigenvalues of the factors or principal components, a scree plot was utilized. Figure 3A showcases the scree plot, presenting principal components based on eigenvalues (>1).Essentially, the key information was concentrated in the initial principal components (PCs), while the subsequent PCs mainly contained noise [75]. In our study, a significant portion of the total variation (63.6%) was captured by the first four principal components (PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4) with eigenvalues > 1, as illustrated in Figure 3A. This finding aligns with similar studies conducted on cowpea germplasm accessions, where the remaining principal components contributed minimally to the overall variability [31]. Specifically, PC1 (18.6%) exhibited the most substantial variability across all genotypes, followed by PC2 (17.3%), PC3 (15.3%), and PC4 (12.4%). In total, the first six PCs explained 85.6% of the total variability.The angles between vectors in Figure 3B signify the associations between traits. A smaller angle denotes a stronger positive correlation, while a 90-degree angle suggests a weaker correlation, and a 180-degree angle indicates a negative correlation. This allowed us to categorize accessions based on their variable relationships and dominant characteristics. To discern differences in nutritional constituents, we categorized exotic and indigenous accessions (Figure 3C). However, the performance in terms of nutritional parameters between exotic and indigenous accessions showed overlapping patterns, and distinct groups did not emerge. Eigenvalues were assigned to each PC, representing a fraction of the dataset's variation. These eigenvalues were associated with eigenvectors, defining the variation within the main components. To visualize the eigenvalues of the factors or principal components, a scree plot was utilized. Figure 3A showcases the scree plot, presenting principal components based on eigenvalues (>1).  Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) was utilized to comprehensively assess the multivariate relationships among the nutritional characteristics of the evaluated accessions. This approach elucidates the intricate interconnections between all accessions based on the observed nutritional data, allowing for clustering into distinct groups and facilitating the categorization of these groupings in an unstructured dataset. The cluster dendrogram (Figure 4) delineated the 100 genotypes and three checks into two major clusters. At a distance of 10, these major clusters were further subdivided into five subclusters. Cluster I: This cluster comprised 15 genotypes characterized by low levels of moisture (8.9 g/100 g), ash (2.2 g/100 g), and TSS (4.0 g/100 g) content, with other components present in moderate quantities (Table 5). Cluster II: This included 24 accessions characterized by moderately low Foods 2023, 12, 4159 13 of 17 levels of all eight parameters. Cluster III: This comprised only six accessions characterized by high ash content (4.2 g/100 g), low phytate (1.15 g/100 g), and moderate levels of other compounds. Notably, accession IC360533, typical of cluster III, exhibited the highest ash (4.21 g/100 g) and lowest phytic acid (0.658 g/100 g) content, making it a desirable trait due to its potential for high mineral bioavailability. Cluster IV: This cluster encompassed the largest number of genotypes (30 accessions) showcasing the lowest starch content (38.1 g/100 g), highest phenol content (0.432 g/100 g), and moderate quantities of other compounds. Cluster V: This encompassed 28 genotypes characterized by the highest moisture (9.8 g/100 g), protein (21.5 g/100 g), TSS (6.7 g/100 g), phytate content (1.246 g/100 g), and antioxidant activity (16.9 mg/g GAE). This cluster displayed the lowest phenol content (0.341 g/100 g) and moderate amounts of ash and starch. Furthermore, a pairwise comparison of all subcluster means through Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) indicated significant differences among them for most biochemical attributes. This suggests that accessions from significantly distinct groups can be selected to exploit heterosis effectively, thereby enhancing trait values through plant breeding.x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18  Our study establishes the presence of significant variations in eight nutritional traits across the adzuki bean accessions preserved at the National Gene Bank of India. Notably, accessions IC341955 (23.7 g/100 g), EC15256 (23.6 g/100 g), and HPKAB87 (23.4 g/100 g) exhibited high protein content. Accessions EC59459 (0.656 g/100 g), HPKAB87 (0.657 g/100  Our study establishes the presence of significant variations in eight nutritional traits across the adzuki bean accessions preserved at the National Gene Bank of India. Notably, accessions IC341955 (23.7 g/100 g), EC15256 (23.6 g/100 g), and HPKAB87 (23.4 g/100 g) exhibited high protein content. Accessions EC59459 (0.656 g/100 g), HPKAB87 (0.657 g/100 g), and EC340257 (0.818 g/100 g) showcased low phytic acid content. Additionally, accessions IC341955 (19.2 mg/g GAE), IC341957 (19.1 mg/g GAE), and IC341953 (18.7 mg/g GAE) demonstrated high antioxidant activity, establishing them as elite accessions. These promising accessions can serve as parental candidates for augmenting the nutritional profile of adzuki beans in crop improvement programs.Moreover, accessions displaying favorable agronomic traits and superior nutrient compositions can be further selected, paving the way for the development of enhanced varieties after extensive multilocation and multiseason trials. Nutrient-dense accessions were identified through comprehensive multivariate analysis, particularly hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Accessions from cluster III were found to be rich in minerals while also exhibiting low phytate content, whereas cluster V accessions were rich in protein.Our next steps involve conducting in-depth nutrient profiling encompassing amino acids, sugars, oligosaccharides, minerals, polyphenols, and anti-nutritional factors such as protease inhibitors, oxalates, and saponins. Additionally, we will investigate nutrient bioavailability in the identified elite accessions for a more comprehensive understanding.The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods12224159/s1, Table S1: V. angularis 100 accessions and three checks name, mean values of all the eight nutritional parameters. ","tokenCount":"6334"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"755e2cf3c7bb67de998dd595292494f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/68c9f601-08d0-48bb-bf0b-5922fbb03b2f/retrieve","id":"1966742251"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f85c6331-396a-4604-8f7d-4dfcfffe1cb2","pagecount":"44","content":"The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is the global leader in publicly-funded maize and wheat research and related farming systems. Headquartered near Mexico City, CIMMYT works with hundreds of partners throughout the developing world to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat cropping systems, thus improving global food security and reducing poverty. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR System and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on Maize and Wheat and the Excellence in Breeding Platform. The Center receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.The adoption and impacts of improved maize varieties developed and deployed by CGIAR institutions in partnership with national agricultural research systems and the private sector are examined here for the period 1995-2015. The study focuses on 18 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where maize is widely cultivated. We use data from an expert survey among maize breeders in CGIAR and partner institutions, and secondary sources and publications. Both maize area and maize productivity showed an upward trend in the target regions over the period studied. Regional differences, however, were observed with respect to the total number of maize varieties released during 1995-2015: <1 variety released per annum (p.a.) in five countries (Benin, Madagascar, Guinea, Cameroon, and Senegal), whereas 11-12 varieties were released p.a. in two countries (Kenya and Zambia). Of the 1,345 maize varieties released during this period, about 60% had CGIAR germplasm in their genetic background.We classified the target countries with respect to the area under maize cultivation into 'large producers' (a group of eight countries averaging >1 million ha of maize per year during  and 'small producers' (a group of ten countries with <1 million ha). The share of released maize varieties containing CGIAR germplasm was found to be similar across groups. However, in the large producer group, several varieties were developed as crosses of CGIAR and non-CGIAR germplasm (24% of all released varieties, compared to 10% in the small producer group); this is probably associated with a more active private seed sector and stronger domestic breeding capacity among the large producer group of countries. In both large and small producers, there was a pronounced increase in the rate of annual varietal releases with a CGIAR relationship. The pace of official release of CGIAR-related improved varieties was faster than that of non-CGIAR varieties. Especially during the last five years of the study (i.e., 2011-2015), the number of released varieties with a CGIAR relationship was significantly larger (n = 304) than the number of released non-CGIAR varieties (n = 60). This pattern may be explained by the stepping-up of CGIAR breeding activities and the stronger networks established in the region since the mid-1990s. New types of germplasm were released that were resistant to more virulent diseases-particularly maize streak virus and gray leaf spot-and that were tolerant to drought and low soil fertility. The share of CGIARrelated maize varieties was substantial (87%) in countries with a low varietal release intensity (i.e., a large maize area per release p.a.) compared to countries with a high intensity (i.e., a small maize area per release p.a.) (59%).In addition to a new series of elite open-pollinated varieties (OPVs), the breeding efforts by CGIAR and partnering institutions also produced a much wider range of elite hybrids that were submitted for registration and subsequent commercialization by an increasing number of small seed companies. Most maize varieties released in SSA during 1995-2015 were hybrids (73%). We found that the seed type (hybrids vs. OPVs) and CGIAR involvement in varietal development were strongly associated. Most OPVs, which generally have less expensive seed than hybrids, had a CGIAR relationship (84%). Hybrids accounted for 65% of all CGIAR-related releases and 88% of non-CGIAR releases.Estimates of varietal diffusion in farmers' fields indicated that 34% of the maize area (equivalent to 9.5 million ha) in the surveyed countries in 2015 was cultivated with 'new' CGIAR-related maize varieties released during 1995-2015. An additional 12% of the maize area (equivalent to 3.3 million ha) was planted with 'old ' CGIAR-related varieties (released before 1995). The aggregate adoption rate of new CGIAR-related varieties was only marginally higher in the large producer group (35% or 7.3 million ha) than in the small producer group (31% or 2.2 million ha). On the other hand, adoption of old CGIAR-related varieties was higher in the small producer group (28% or 2 million ha) than in the large producer group (6% or 1.3 million ha). However, these figures should be considered lower-bound estimates because of likely underreporting. The genetic background of commercialized maize varieties is typically not disclosed or publicly available, and the parentage of a substantive share of reported varieties (21% overall for SSA in 2015) remains unidentified.Dynamic panel-data regression models at the country-level show that a 1% increase in the adoption of new maize varieties containing CGIAR germplasm increased maize productivity in SSA by 28%. The effect was particularly pronounced in the small producer group (38%) compared with the large producer group (10%), which may be attributable to a relative lack of quality germplasm for comparison in the small producer group. Employing equilibrium displacement economic surplus models, we estimate that the aggregate benefits of new CGIAR-related maize varieties was US$ 0.8-1.3 billion p.a. in 2015 for all the 18 SSA countries taken together (depending on a homogeneous or heterogeneous yield effect for the small and large producers). After further accounting for the parentage share of CGIAR germplasm in the adopted CGIAR-related varieties (80.5%), the associated aggregate economic impact of new CGIAR germplasm was US$ 0.66-1.05 billion p.a. in 2015 for the 18 study countries. Even at the lowest bound, these estimates show a high return with a potential benefitcost ratio of 22:1 to the global investment in CGIAR maize improvement (US$ 30 million in 2015), most of which was incurred in maize improvement for SSA. The active participation and contribution by national agricultural research systems and the private seed sector to the development and dissemination of CGIAR germplasm are also credited for the high returns to research investment.Yield enhancement is only one of several improved traits of the maize varieties containing CGIAR germplasm. These varieties have abiotic and biotic stress tolerance (reduction of yield variance or downside risk or both) and, more recently, enhanced nutritional quality, which are essential for the food security, income, and livelihoods of smallholder farmers dependent on maize in stress-prone agro-ecologies. Besides traits such as drought tolerance and disease resistance, CGIAR maize breeding programs are the most significant sources of germplasm with nutritional enrichment traits, especially quality protein maize (QPM), provitamin-A, and zinc. The potential economic impacts of CGIAR investment on risk reduction and nutritional enhancement in maize have not been examined in depth.Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan AfricaNext to an expanding area under cultivation, maize technology innovations are at the core of global maize production, which reached one billion tons per annum (p.a.) in 2013, and has been increasing at 3% per annum (FAOSTAT, 2020a). These innovations are crucial for lower-income countries, where about 36% of the global maize area lies, and where changes in maize productivity critically affect rural livelihoods by determining subsistence consumption and farm incomes (Shiferaw et al., 2011). Maize is consumed as a staple in Africa, where, on average, 128g of maize grain was available per person per day for consumption in the year 2017 (FAOSTAT, 2020b). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the crop provides at least 30% of people's total calorie intake (Nuss and Tanumihardjo, 2010). Despite the positive trend in global maize grain production, meeting increasing demand remains a significant challenge for maize-producing countries across the Global South, which are variously constrained by natural resource depletion and degradation, input scarcity, climate change, and poverty among smallholder producers (Challinor et al., 2016;Tesfaye et al., 2017;Assefa et al., 2020;de Groote et al., 2020;Kassie et al., 2020). In response to such challenges, maize research-and-development (R&D) has continued to generate and disseminate different climate-smart technologies and innovations (Morris et al., 2003a;Makate et al., 2017;Cairns and Prasanna, 2018;Jones-Garcia and Krishna, 2021).Successful maize technological innovations in the Global South have been variously documented through empirical research, especially in SSA (Alene et al., 2009;Smale et al., 2011;Muzari et al., 2012;Erenstein and Kassie, 2018;Kubitza and Krishna, 2020;Jones-Garcia and Krishna, 2021). There have been several compelling success stories concerning technology development and deployment for productivity enhancement, stress resilience, and nutritional enrichment of maize through crop improvement. Many of these R&D interventions have had substantial livelihood impacts for maize farmers and consumers in lower-income countries (Alene et al., 2009). Despite this, the maize breeding programs of CGIAR and many national agricultural research systems (NARS) have faced reduced budgetary support since 2015. Donors have been keen to scrutinize whether their investments are delivering value-for-money (Sumberg et al., 2013;Glover et al., 2016). Documenting technology adoption and establishing its impacts provide a measure of the performance efficiency of agricultural R&D. Furthermore, adoption-impact assessments can provide valuable retrospective lessons (Morris et al., 2003b;Walker and Alwang, 2015;Kubitza and Krishna, 2020).Against this backdrop, the present study examines the role of the CGIAR, specifically the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in maize improvement in SSA. We focus specifically on the role of improved CGIAR maize germplasm in 18 target countries in SSA during 1995-2015, using data from public and private-sector institutions. We assess the associated impact on maize productivity and indicate the relevance of nutritional enhancement and risk reduction. The present study was commissioned and financially supported by the CGIAR Research Program on Maize Agri-food Systems (MAIZE). MAIZE is part of a concerted effort to implement a results-oriented strategy in maize agri-food systems, fully exploiting the potential of international agricultural R&D to enhance global food security and environmental sustainability. CIMMYT and IITA have led MAIZE since late 2011 (MAIZE, 2016). The study complements previous research on the impact of CGIAR maize germplasm improvement for the period 1966-1998 (Morris et al., 2003a), using data from 37 developing countries (18 in Latin America, 7 in Asia, and 12 in SSA). The previous study estimated that 54% of all publicly-bred maize varieties released for non-temperate cropping systems during 1966-1998 contained CGIAR germplasm, and that 59% of the maize area under improved varieties grew CGIAR-related varieties (Morris et al., 2003a). In the present study, we update these estimates for SSA.In Chapter 2, we briefly discuss the evolution of CGIAR maize breeding and research priorities. Chapter 3 provides the details of data sources (Annex 2 describes analytical methods). Chapter 4 analyzes CGIAR-related maize varietal releases in the study countries for 1995-2015, farmers' adoption of improved maize germplasm, and the R&D impacts of CGIAR efforts toward germplasm improvement. Chapter 5 summarizes the conclusions of the study. While the focus of the study is on germplasm originating from CGIAR breeding programs, it must be recognized that a much wider range of institutions, most prominently national agricultural research and extension systems and the private seed sector, have contributed to the development, dissemination, and diffusion of CGIAR maize germplasm and the associated impact. The contribution of this collaboration cannot be overlooked. DURING 1995DURING -2015DURING 1995DURING -2015 The R&D programs of CIMMYT and IITA have more than 50 years of maize breeding history, and they benefit from access to a vast diversity of tropical and sub-tropical (hereinafter jointly referred to as (sub)tropical) germplasm, modern breeding technologies, extensive partnerships with public-and private-sector institutions worldwide, and well-coordinated germplasm phenotyping/testing networks in the (sub)tropics of SSA, Asia, and Latin America. The primary focus of CIMMYT's and IITA's maize breeding programs until the 1980s was the development of improved openpollinated varieties (OPVs) that were attractive to smallholder farmers for better performance, consumer acceptance, and their seed-recycling potential (Morris et al., 2003a). Before the 1980s, OPVs occupied almost 80% of the total maize area in low-and middle-income countries that were characterized by weak national research systems and little-developed private seed sectors (Paliwal et al., 2000). During this time, CIMMYT and IITA primarily used population improvement methods to enhance the productivity, agronomic fitness, and adaptability of maize pools and populations as sources of superior OPVs, which were deployed in the target production environments.Since the 1980s, CIMMYT and IITA have increased investments in hybrid maize breeding. The initial focus was on higher grain yield and regionally important pests and diseases, such as maize streak virus and Striga in SSA and downy mildew in South Asia. These efforts were later complemented with mainstream breeding approaches to improve abiotic stress tolerance, such as for acid soils (South America), drought and suboptimal soil nitrogen (Mexico, SSA, South Asia), waterlogging (South Asia), and high temperatures (South Asia, SSA, Mexico). Nutritional improvements of maize mainly included improved protein quality (from the 1970s into the early 1980s) and higher zinc or provitamin-A content (in the 2000s). In all these efforts, specific focus was placed on reaching smallholder farmers in SSA, Asia, and Latin America-who often had inadequate access to improved maize seed-and on geographies and maize crop seasons that were often not targeted by the multinational private sector because their market size and profit margins were too small for investment in breeding (MAIZE, 2016).Beginning in the mid-1990s, the two centers started forming intensive partnerships with many small-and medium-enterprise (SME) seed companies to commercialize improved maize cultivars, catalyze new seed systems, and to supply highquality improved seed to smallholder farmers, first in SSA and more recently in South Asia and Latin America. Overall, there are still very few maize-cultivar development programs in the private sector that are focused on the stress-prone, low-input agro-ecologies targeted by the CGIAR. Large agricultural input companies and the multinational private sector focus on higher-income countries. Pray and Fuglie (2015) estimated that approximately 95% of global private agricultural R&D spending is by companies based in high-income countries that include only 21% of the global maize area, with some spill-over to emerging markets through the multinational corporations' global research networks with subsidiaries and joint ventures.Since 1995, CIMMYT has initiated hybrid maize trials in target geographies in SSA, Asia, and Latin America, and used pedigree selection to develop improved inbred lines and hybrids. Maize biotechnology work, especially the discovery and validation of molecular markers for key traits, began at CIMMYT in the late 1990s and has strengthened significantly since 2005 (Beyene et al., 2016;Prasanna et al., 2020b). CIMMYT and IITA continuously integrated novel tools and technologies; to increase genetic gains. These included double-haploid technology, high-throughput, field-based phenotyping; and genomics-assisted breeding (Prasanna et al., 2020a).In all instances, third-party-funded projects determined where breeding and dissemination efforts could be implemented geographically, and at what scale. For example, CIMMYT and IITA intensified breeding efforts and public-private partnerships from 2007 onwards to strengthen maize seed systems in SSA through major projects, such as Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA), Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA), and Improved Maize for African Soils (IMAS). Major funding supporting similar activities in Mexico was forthcoming through MasAgro starting in 2011; however, obtaining equivalent funding at the time in South Asia was challenging.Besides drawing on the extensive genetic diversity in elite genetic backgrounds, the CGIAR maize breeding programs worked with an extensive range of R&D partners to develop products and technologies and learn from diverse agroecological zones and farming communities (MAIZE, 2016). For many NARS institutions and SME companies with very limited (or sometimes no) breeding programs, CIMMYT and IITA were the primary sources of improved maize germplasm (Morris et al., 2003a;de Groote et al., 2015). NARS and SMEs in the (sub)tropics with maize breeding programs used CIMMYT and IITA's improved maize germplasm (e.g., drought tolerance, heat tolerance, maize lethal necrosis (MLN) resistance, etc.) as parental lines in hybrid combinations and as a genetic base for deriving their breeding materials.The CGIAR maize breeding programs have also demonstrated their strategic importance in responding to devastating biotic stresses in the tropics. One of the major success stories in recent years is the rapid response to the MLN epidemic in eastern Africa, which included the establishment of an intensive screening of maize germplasm leading to the identification and development of MLN-resistant sources, fast-tracked breeding and release of MLN-resistant maize hybrids, and molecular, marker-assisted conversion of the elite but MLN-susceptible lines into resistant versions (Prasanna et al., 2020c). The MLN case demonstrates the importance and ability of CGIAR-led initiatives in maize breeding to respond quickly and effectively to emerging global challenges.The CGIAR maize breeding programs also have unique technical expertise and focused breeding programs on biofortification (Prasanna et al., 2020b). These efforts have led to the development and deployment of elite maize hybrids and OPVs with enhanced concentrations of provitamin-A (>15 ppm), kernel zinc (>30 ppm), and protein quality (2-to 3-fold higher lysine and tryptophan content), with present and potential impact on the nutritional status of the poor, especially pregnant women, nursing mothers, and weaning and pre-school-age children (Akalu et al., 2010;Gunaratna et al., 2010;Suwarno et al., 2019).Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan AfricaFarmer adoption of improved crop varieties is a crucial component in the sustainable intensification of agriculture. It has become a focal point of R&D initiatives in maize agri-food systems of the Global South. In SSA, where the crop contributes about 50% of calorie consumption in several rural communities (Lunduka et al., 2019), farmer access to improved maize germplasm is shown to have a substantial effect on poverty alleviation (Alwang et al., 2019). Here, we focus on the 18 major maize-producing countries in SSA (with available data, and excluding South Africa), viz. (in alphabetic order) Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. To explore the potential heterogeneity across the study countries arising from differential seed market size for new varieties, we classified these countries into 'small maize producers' (with <1 million ha of maize cultivated per country p.a. during 1995-2015) and 'large maize producers' (with >1 million ha of maize per country p.a.). Eight countries (Angola, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe) were categorized as large producers and the rest (n = 10) as small producers. Figure 1a shows a notable increase in the combined maize area of the 18 countries during the study period, from 17.5 million ha in 1995 to 28 million ha in 2015. Expansion of the maize area was faster in the small producer countries than in the large producer countries. Similarly, increase in grain yield was faster in the small producer countries (varying from 1.4 t/ha in 1995 to 2.0 t/ha in 2015, as a group) than in the large producer countries (1.3 t/ha to 1.7 t/ha) (Figure 1b).We obtained data on varietal releases with pedigree information and on farmers' adoption of varieties for the study period for all the study countries. These data are crucial for conducting an impact analysis of any crop breeding program. However, because such information is often not readily available, we conducted a comprehensive survey of maize experts in SSA, covering both private and public breeding programs. A semi-structured questionnaire was sent to maize scientists/managers from the 18 countries where tropical maize varieties were mostly cultivated. The questionnaire was sent to 71 experts across SSA, and 43 answered the questions (a response rate of 60.6%: Annex 1). In addition, we compiled for each country a list of improved maize varieties released during 1995-2015 from the seed catalogs and variety registers, and enriched the list further using data from a literature review, project reports (e.g., the Quarterly Bulletin of Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa Project), and CGIAR's Diffusion and Impact of Improved Varieties in Africa (DIIVA) project. These sources also provided information on the parentage of the varieties (i.e., the CGIAR relationship). The estimated area coverage of individual varieties was also obtained from these sources, which included available adoption studies. Finally, FAOSTAT (2020a) datasets were used for the national-level area, production, and yield statistics. The analytical methods employed to estimate adoption and impact are summarized in Annex 2. Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan AfricaCGIAR maize breeding focuses on tropical, and to a limited extent, sub-tropical, agro-ecologies in SSA, Latin America, and South Asia. However, the focus of this study is on SSA, mainly because of better data availability across the study period. During the period from 1995 to 2015, a total of 1,345 maize varieties were released in the 18 study countries. The number of variety releases varied widely, from <1 p.a. in five countries (Benin, Cameroon, Guinea, Madagascar, and Senegal) to 11-12 p.a. in two countries (Kenya and Zambia) (Table 1). On average, 5.1 varieties were released per country p.a. in the large producer group, and 2.3 varieties were released per country p.a. in the small producer group. However, the aggregate maize area was three times larger in the former (16.0 million ha on average) than in the latter (5 million ha on average). As a result, the varietal release intensity -the ratio of maize area to the number of varieties released p.a. -was greater for the small producer group, at one variety per 216 thousand ha, compared to one variety per 392 ha for the large producer group. The release intensity was highest for Zambia (one variety per 64 thousand ha) and lowest for Cameroon (one variety per 1,842 thousand ha). The degree of development of the domestic seed sector was primarily responsible for this difference. Zambia is a case in point: underpinning its high varietal release intensity was a vibrant private seed sector, fostered through the government's liberalization policies and a large-scale seed subsidy program (Blekking et al., 2020). According to the same study, \"the seed subsidy program has institutionalized hybrid-maize seeds as a key component for programs aimed at alleviating rural poverty and agricultural development in the country.\" On the other hand, a formal, proprietary maize seed production system had historically been missing in Cameroon, where government agencies and other farmers were the primary sources of seed (Awotide and Tontsa, 2011). Note: Varietal release intensity is the ratio of average maize area ('000 ha) by number of maize varieties (both CGIAR-related and unrelated) released annually . Maize area figures were sourced from FAOSTAT (2020a). a : Maize area per number of releases is one of the many ways of representing varietal release intensity. Walker (2015) estimated the release intensities as the number of releases per quantity as well as per value of production.The share of varietal releases with a CGIAR relationship is shown in Figure 2. Among all the maize varieties released between 1995 and 2015, about 60% had CGIAR parentage or germplasm relationship, i.e., they either had CGIAR inbred line(s)/parent(s) directly in their pedigree or had parental lines with some CGIAR origin. During this period, 859 maize varieties were released in the large producer group and 486 in the small producer group. Nevertheless, the share of released maize varieties containing CGIAR germplasm was similar across these groups. There is most likely a degree of under-reporting of varieties' CGIAR parentage, especially in the large producer group, where 11% of maize varieties had unknown parentage; by contrast, in the small producer group only 4% of varieties had unknown parentage. Furthermore, in the large producer group, a large share of varieties was developed as crosses of CGIAR and non-CGIAR germplasm (24% of all released varieties), which indicates more substantive breeding efforts in the national public and private seed sectors with maize breeding programs, as well as CGIAR's conscious effort to strengthen domestic breeding capacity. Only 10% of such varieties were released in the small producer countries.The cumulative number of maize varieties released over time is shown in Figure 3. In both large and small producer categories, there was a pronounced increase in the rate of annual varietal releases with a CGIAR relationship after 2007, which aligns with the facts that substantially more resources became available to support the development and dissemination of stress-tolerant hybrids and OPVs, and that those hybrids and OPVs demonstrated superior performance compared with established varieties (Bänziger et al., 2006). Especially during the last five years of the study (i.e., 2011-2015), the number of released varieties with a CGIAR relationship was substantially higher (n = 304) than the number of non-CGIAR varieties released (n = 60). During the study period, the rate of new variety releases with a CGIAR relationship grew faster (15.6% p.a.) than the rate of release of non-CGIAR varieties (10.9% p.a.). The increase in new CGIAR releases was more pronounced in the large producer group (Table 2).  , 1995-2015. 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995-2015  (Pixley and Banziger, 2004;Pixley, 2006). Under such conditions, saving OPV grain from the previous crop for use as seed for the following crop might be more profitable, albeit lower-yielding than hybrids. As such, CGIAR has been a vital source for elite OPVs. However, this situation might result in the failure of private investment and a slow evolution of a more dynamic formal seed sector.The CGIAR parentage classes of maize varietal releases from 1995 to 2015 are shown by country in Figure 5 (a and b). There is an apparent negative relationship between the number of overall maize releases and the share of CGIAR-related releases. Across the study countries, the share of CGIAR-related varieties to the total variety releases reduced by 0.24% (p < 0.01) for each unit increase in varietal releases. In other words, the share of CGIAR-related releases was higher in countries with few aggregate releases and decreased as the number of total releases increased. For example,  in Senegal (14 releases) and Benin (20 releases), almost all new maize varieties had CGIAR parentage. Nonetheless, even in countries with a large number of maize variety releases, which is most likely associated with a relatively active and well-developed private seed sector, the share of CGIAR-related releases was substantial (e.g., in Tanzania and Kenya).Table 3 presents the share of CGIAR-related releases in different countries for 1995-2015, cross-tabulating countries based on their varietal release intensity rank and maize area rank. Such a classification is helpful for highlighting the relative importance of CGIAR germplasm across SSA countries that are diverse with respect to the institutional environment. The share of CGIAR-related releases was high (87%) in countries with small varietal release intensities (i.e., large areas per release p.a.), compared to those with greater varietal intensities (59%). Large producer countries had a somewhat larger share of CGIAR-related releases (67%) than small producer countries (62%). However, once we exclude Zambia -an outlier in the small producer group with respect to the intensity of varietal releases -the share becomes significantly larger for the remaining small producers (95%). The largest share of CGIAR-related releases (95%) occurred in small producer countries with low varietal release intensities (mostly western and central African countries such as Benin, Ghana, and Madagascar). In short, CGIAR maize germplasm played a key role in both large and small producer countries, but the prevalence of CGIAR germplasm is highest in countries with the presence of a limited formal seed sector. Kenya (82%) 4,3 Ethiopia (80%) 3,12   Zimbabwe (34%) 7,6  Mozambique (61%) 6,13   Malawi (41%) 5,8  Angola (92%) 8,15   Tanzania (81%) 2,9 Nigeria (91%) 1,17   Sub-group (61%) Sub-group (84%) *** (67%)Zambia (28%) 12,1 Ghana (95%) 9.10   Rwanda (91%) 17,2  Cameroon (100%) 13,18   Senegal (100%) 18,5  Guinea (83%) 15,11   Mali (100%) 14,4  Madagascar (100%) 16,16   Uganda (91%) 10,7  Benin (100%) 11,14   Sub-group (54%) ##a Sub-group (95%) ***,### (62%) ## Overall (59%) (87%) *** (65%)Notes: Varietal release intensity rank is derived from the ratio of average maize area of 1995-2015 ('000 ha) by the total number of maize varieties released p.a. during this period (cf. Table 1). We have included only those maize varieties with known parentage. Figures in parentheses show the proportion of CGIAR-related maize varieties to the total number of maize varieties released during the study period. Number superscripts : Rank with respect to average maize area and rank with respect to maize varietal release intensity, respectively.***The difference in the proportion of CGIAR-related maize varieties across the two release intensity groups (high vs. low) is statistically significant at p = 0.01. ### , ## The difference in the proportion of CGIAR-related varieties across the two groups of countries with regard to maize area (large vs. small producers) is statistically significant at p = 0.01 and p = 0.05 respectively.aThe mean value is strongly influenced by the high rate of varietal release in Zambia, excluding which the proportion of CGIAR varieties of this sub-group (small, high intensity) would increase from 54% to 95%. The sub-group difference in proportion of CGIAR varieties (with small, low intensity group) would be significant at p = 0.01.Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan Africa 1995-2015Improved maize varieties released during 1995-2015irrespective of parentage -have progressively increased their estimated area share in the study countries. The share reached 69% of the maize area by 2015 (i.e., 19.3 million ha) (Figure 6a). By 2015, at the end of the study period, the maize area could be divided into three groups, comparable in size:• The area cultivated with 'old' varieties (including local varieties, landraces, and improved maize varieties that were released before 1995, whether CGIAR-related or not), 31%, equivalent to 8.7 million ha;• The area under CGIAR-related improved maize varieties (post-1995 releases), 34%, equivalent to 9.5 million ha, and;• The area planted with new (post-1995 releases), non-CGIAR varieties (14%) and varieties with no parentage information (21%), together equivalent to 9.8 million ha.The estimated adoption of new maize varieties with CGIAR germplasm was similar for the large producer countries (35% of the maize area in 2015) and small producer countries (31%) (Figure 6b and c). An additional 12% of the maize area (3.3 million ha) was cultivated in 2015 with old CGIAR-related varieties released before 1995. During the entire study period, the old CGIAR-related varieties, remained popular in the small producer countries, where they still covered 28% of the maize area in 2015. By contrast, the old CGIAR varieties were planted on only 6% of the maize area in the large producer countries, where new varieties were more prevalent. The new non-CGIAR varieties were more widely adopted by large producers (16%) than by small producers (7%).In Table 4, we present adoption estimates by country for 2015 for various categories of CGIAR-related varieties, including by seed type (OPV and hybrid) and varietal age (overall, post-1995 releases, and 'most recent' post-2005 releases). The table also includes the unweighted averages of country groupings (whereas Figure 6 is weighted by area) and shows:• A marked divergence between large and small maize producers in terms of the relative preference for OPVs vs. hybrids, with hybrids being much more widespread in large producer countries. The 'most recent' post-2005 releases were also more common in large producer countries, whereas post-1995 releases covered a similar percentage of the area in both small and large producer countries. The aforementioned widespread use of pre-1995 varieties by small producers is indicative of a scarcity of resources to disseminate newer varieties among maize farmers, which could be mainly due to a less-active private seed sector.  1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011   In Table 5, we present the estimated growth rate in adoption of CGIAR-and non-CGIAR-related maize varieties. The data reveal that both maize area and yield markedly increased during the study period. The adoption of new, improved maize varieties increased significantly at 3.5% p.a. overall, but adoption of CGIAR-related improved maize varieties was faster than that of non-CGIAR varieties (2.2% vs. 0.9%, respectively). There was no significant difference in the adoption rate of CGIAR-related varieties between the small and large producer groups; however, the adoption of non-CGIAR varieties was faster in the large producer group than in the other group. Hybrid maize adoption was growing at a rate of 1.8% p.a. overall, with a faster rate in the large producer group (2.8%) (Annex 3 & 4). . Detailed adoption estimates of (a) CGIAR-related and non-CGIAR germplasm, and (b) hybrids and OPVs are presented in Annex 5.  One should note that a crucial limitation of varietal adoption estimates is that they are partially dependent on expert surveys, although in reality most global evaluations of germplasm improvement or agricultural research investments are indeed heavily dependent on expert surveys (Manyong et al., 2003;Gabre-Madhin and Haggblade, 2004;Kleinwechter et al., 2015;Lantican et al., 2016). Nationally representative data on varietal adoption are rarely available in lower-income countries, and it is expensive and time-consuming to carry out primary data collection from farmers or seed dealers across different study nations. One important advantage of the present study is that we could build on data from the recently completed DIIVA project (Walker et al., 2014). Recent studies using DNA fingerprinting for some crops, including maize, have shown that adoption surveys using farmer recall may be insufficiently reliable for estimating varietal adoption. A recent DNA fingerprinting study in Ethiopia highlighted that maize CGIAR-related germplasm was grown by 63% of maizegrowing households in 2019 (translating into 4.1 million adopters in Ethiopia alone). In contrast, self-reported data from farmers would have underestimated such adoption by 15% points (Kosmowski et al., 2020).For now, it appears nearly impossible to conduct nationally representative and comparable studies with DNA fingerprinting across all lower-income countries simultaneously and regularly. However, supporting micro-level varietal adoption studies in selected keyintervention countries/regions using DNA fingerprinting where possible would be valuable for obtaining more robust information on farmers' adoption of varieties, which would help CGIAR and NARS ameliorate constraints in the seed value chains.In this section, we examine whether the estimated adoption of new CGIAR-related varieties generated a significant yield effect compared to other existing varietal alternatives for maize cultivation in SSA. We estimated the grain yield effects of the CGIAR-related germplasm, using panel data regression analysis with country-level fixed effects. We used national-level maize yield as the dependent variable, and the estimated share of maize area under new CGIAR-related varieties as the key independent variable for the panel data models. It should be noted that the comparison is made against all alternative varieties (i.e., older varieties, new non-CGIAR varieties, and varieties without parentage information).The reference category varieties occupied nearly twothirds of the maize area in the study countries in 2015. We considered only the yield effect and not the non-yield traits, such as enhancement of nutritional quality.The regression estimates of two model variations are presented in Table 6 (see Annex 2 for the detailed methodology). The dynamic panel data Model 1 showed that the new CGIAR-related varieties (released post-1995) had a significant effect when all data across the countries were combined. A 1% increase in farmers' adoption of these varieties increased the average annual national grain yield by about 0.28%, ceteris paribus. In Model 2, an interaction term with the large producer group dummy variable was introduced, and the results showed significant spatial heterogeneity. The new CGIAR-related maize varieties had significant grain yield effects in small producer countries (+0.38% p.a.). On the other hand, a 1% increase in the area under new CGIAR-related varieties in the large producer group increased national annual maize yields by only +0.10%. 1 One of the reasons for the heterogeneous impact between small and large producers relates to the counterfactual and the relative development of the seed sector. As mentioned above, the impact of CGIAR-related maize germplasm is assessed against all alternative varieties. The small producers thereby stand out for their more widespread use of old or pre-1995 varieties and low hybrid maize use, whereas the large producer countries have better-developed domestic seed markets and rely more on hybrids and more recent varieties. Therefore, the counterfactual in small producer In Model 2, the net effect of adoption of CGIAR-related maize varieties in large countries is the sum of coefficients of the adoption dummy and the interaction term, i.e., +0.384 and -0.288.countries has a lower base compared to large producer countries, reflected inter alia in relatively more rapid maize yield growth compared with that of the large producer countries over the study period.We employed the impact magnitude(s) from the regression models to estimate the economic surplus figures. Hence, the question of the reliability of these estimates arises. To get external validity, a comparison of our impact estimate is made with the documented impacts of drought-tolerant (DT) maize. Droughttolerant (DT) maize is improved maize germplasm developed and popularized predominantly by CGIAR institutions for SSA during the study period (Bänziger et al., 1999;Bänziger and Araus, 2007;Cairns and Prasanna, 2018). Most existing studies have shown a significant positive impact on mean grain yield on-farm, but the percentage impact varied widely from 13% (Wossen et al., 2017) to >200% (Obayelu et al., 2019;Martey et al., 2020). However, large impact magnitudes are often associated with small sample sizes. The weighted average yield gain from DT maize adoption (considering the sample size) was 27%. Only two studies (Holden and Fisher, 2015;Olagunju et al., 2019) indicated an insignificant yield impact: Holden and Fisher (2015) reported findings from Malawi during a survey year with a severe drought early in the cropping season; and a study by Olagunju et al. (2015) in Nigeria found the yield effect of DT maize adoption to be significant and substantial (+56%) only at the lower tail of the yield distribution (lowest 15% quantile). Considering that the impact of climate-resilient varieties will be prominent mostly during drought years, the positive impact estimates of DT maize obtained from empirical studies also indicate that CGIAR-related climateresilient maize varieties can have significant positive effects on yield stability and smallholder farmers' livelihoods in SSA (Cairns and Prasanna, 2018).To quantify the aggregate impact of CGIAR-related germplasm in SSA, we applied an equilibrium displacement model to evaluate the benefits of CGIAR maize breeding. Table 7 presents the aggregate maize area, production, adoption of new CGIAR-related varieties, and value of economic benefits for the 18 study countries in SSA for 2015. Under the assumption of a homogenous impact of the technology across the group of countries at 28% (Model 1), the annual benefits for 2015 accrued to US$1.3 billion. There was significant inter-country variation: about 85% of the benefits accrued to six countries -Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia. Most of these countries fell in the large producer category. Inter-country inequality is even more pronounced in West and Central Africa (WCA), with a single country -Nigeria -accounting for most of the economic benefits in the region in 2015. Several factors, including existence of a dynamic seed sector and extension system (both public and private), influence the benefit distribution across countries.Model 2 accounts for the heterogeneous impact of CGIAR-related germplasm (38% yield increase in small producer countries and 10% increase in large producer countries). The aggregate economic surplus is thereby reduced to an aggregate US$ 0.82 billion p.a. -reflecting both the lower yield effect in large producer countries and their larger aggregate maize area. Considerable intercountry variation prevailed, with Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia among the major Notes: Estimated economic surplus represents the benefits associated with the adoption induced production increase and excludes the research costs.Supply elasticity is assumed as 0.60. 2 Assumption I: A 28% increase in maize yield due to adoption of 'new' CGIAR-related varieties (1995+, when replacing alternative varieties, including 'new' non-CGIAR or 'old' varieties), which occurs uniformly across the countries (Model 1, cf. Table 6). Assumption II: A 10% increase in maize yield due to adoption of 'new' CGIAR-related varieties (1995+, when replacing alternative varieties) for large maize producers (>1M ha), and a 38% increase for small producers (<1M ha, Model 2 cf. Table 6).2 The supply elasticity is obtained from a review of literature. Alemu et al. (2003)   beneficiaries. After accounting for the parentage share of CGIAR germplasm in the adopted CGIAR-related varieties (80.5%), the associated aggregate economic impact of new CGIAR germplasm falls in the range between US$ 0.66 and 1.05 billion p.a. in 2015 for the 18 study countries (according to Model 2 and Model 1 estimates respectively).CGIAR investment in maize breeding was estimated to be US$ 30 million in 2015 at the global level (Figure 7), albeit with the lion's share of the investment in SSA. Corresponding estimates from other institutions involved in maize breeding, including NARS and the private sector, were not available. The CGIAR investment in maize improvement, therefore, does not include complementary non-CGIAR partner investments in developing and disseminating CGIAR-related maize varieties. Crop breeding is a pipeline with continuous annual investments and annual returns. There is a lag between the investment cost and the returns-i.e., current research costs are associated with future benefits, and current benefits reflect past research investment. In other words, one needs to be careful in making a direct comparison of benefits and costs for a specific year or period. A comparison of these only gives a rough approximation of the potential returns, and benefit cost ratios (BCR) are to be interpreted with caution. Considering only the investment in CGIAR maize breeding, even the lower-bound annual benefit estimated for 2015 (US$ 0.66 billion) results in a potential 22:1 BCR, which is significantly higher than the median BCR of 10:1 recently estimated by Alston et al. (2020) for overall annual CGIAR investments, and the median BCR of 12:1 that was reported for CGIAR investments in maize. An earlier study (Alene et al., 2009) on maize research in nine countries in WCA for the 1971-2005 period (35 years) also showed high returns (with a benefit-cost ratio of 21:1), albeit most of the economic benefits accrued to Nigeria (71%). However, one cannot directly compare these numbers, as the underlying assumptions vary. For example, Alston et al. (2020) attributed only one quarter of the estimated benefits to the CGIAR and the rest to the national partners and found a benefit-cost ratio of 7.5:1. On the other hand, we apportioned the benefits based on the share of CGIAR germplasm in the parentage. Had we attributed only one-quarter of the benefits to the CGIAR, the benefit-cost ratio would have reduced to 6.8:1 (Model 2), which is comparable to the BCR estimated by Alston et al. (2020).African smallholders face several constraints in maize production, including the increased frequency of abiotic and biotic stresses, and poor access to improved seeds and other vital inputs. Adapting to the effects of a warming climate is one of the most critical challenges, in conjunction with the increasing occurrence of devastating diseases and insect pests. CGIAR maize breeding continues to play a critical role in addressing these challenges, including accelerating the development and dissemination of climate-resilient maize germplasm for the benefit of smallholders (Cairns and Prasanna, 2018). In the present study, we show significant economic benefits from CGIAR maize breeding to the tune of US$ 0.66-1.05 billion p.a. in 2015 (and a potential BCR of 22-35:1) for the 18 African study countries after accounting for the CGIAR parentage share (i.e. 80.5% parentage of the estimated US$ 0.8-1.3 billion per annum). Our aggregate benefit estimates from CGIAR maize breeding concern the increase in grain yield alone. While yield improvement is a key performance indicator, there are several other less-easily quantifiable performance indicators, which would add to the estimated impact of international R&D in maize breeding. CGIAR's efforts typically complement public and private sector R&D investments in developing and disseminating improved (sub)tropical maize germplasm with key traits of interest to smallholders (e.g., drought tolerance, heat tolerance, pest and disease resistance), besides developing the capacities of NARS and SME seed companies. These complementary aspects are often inadequately accounted for in a yield-orientated impact assessment. CGIAR maize programs have also been intensively engaged in actively developing and disseminating biofortified or nutritionally enriched maize varieties (Prasanna et al., 2020b), such as provitamin-A enriched maize, quality protein maize (QPM), and high-zinc maize, mainly for human consumption. Although the efficacy of biofortified maize has been demonstrated for QPM and provitamin-A enriched maize (Gunaratna et al., 2010;Gannon et al., 2014), the realized impacts of these traits on target populations, e.g. the reduction and the value of the reduction in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and the BCR vis-à-vis the investment in CGIAR maize breeding are difficult to quantify and have yet to be studied and documented in detail.Assessment of the contribution and impact of CGIAR-related improved maize varieties should also consider yield stability in the stress-prone agro-ecologies of the (sub)tropics. Besides focusing on increasing grain yield under optimal environments, the CGIAR maize improvement programs in SSA typically focus on providing yield stability (mainly through abiotic and biotic stress tolerance), thereby contributing to the reduced downside risk of climateinduced effects on smallholders (Cairns and Prasanna, 2018). Drought tolerance is one of the main traits, especially for stress-prone (sub)tropical maize agro-ecologies. The contribution of CGIAR maize R&D investment in breeding for stress tolerance in (sub)tropical maize genetic backgrounds is unparalleled. The effect of drought-tolerant varieties in ensuring yield stability-reducing unforeseen variance and downside risk-has also substantial welfare implications (Kostandini et al., 2013). Byerlee and Moya (1993) highlighted, taking the case of wheat, that yield maintenance (e.g., by maintaining disease resistance) could by itself contribute more gains to farmers than improving potential yield. Because the non-yield outcomes of CGIAR germplasm improvement are not accounted in the estimation, one may consider the economic surplus estimates shown in Table 7 as lower bound values.A narrow productivity focus also ignores the broader systemic impacts of maize germplasm improvement. Enhancement of productivity and resilience makes maize more competitive and attractive vis-à-vis other uses of land. The area under maize cultivation is rapidly expanding in many parts of the developing world, primarily due to its relative profitability over competing crops (Erenstein, 2010;Timsina et al., 2010;Jakobsen, 2019). Area expansion could have positive impacts on farm profitability and farmer economy, but might also create several environmental and social externalities (Keophosay et al., 2011;Behera et al., 2016;Kayatz et al., 2019;Santpoort, 2020). The nature and magnitude of these impacts will most likely differ across maize production regions, calling for more micro-level socioeconomics and systems research. Instead of a single evaluation at the continental level, several coordinated case studies across maize production systems could generate more robust estimates for policy-makers (Krishna et al., 2019).In summary, intensive efforts are being made by CGIAR and partner institutions in developing and deploying improved maize varieties suitable for the tropical agro-ecologies in SSA. The estimated economic benefits and impact of CGIAR investments in maize germplasm improvement were indeed impressive through 2015, with potential BCR estimates between 22:1 and 35:1, and a net annual value between US$ 0.66 and 1.05 billion (after accounting for the 80.5% CGIAR parentage share). Nevertheless, there is room for further improvement, especially in terms of reaching more smallholder farmers with nutritionally enriched maize varieties, and by accelerating varietal turnover (Cairns and Prasanna, 2018). Many smallholder farmers are still growing relatively old varieties, particularly in countries with small maize areas (e.g., Benin, Cameroon, Madagascar) and relatively underdeveloped maize seed sectors. Our study suggests that there is significant scope to strengthen further public-private partnerships for improved maize varietal deployment in SSA, especially where deployment of improved genetics is limited by real or perceived insufficient market potential.EPILOGUE Improvement in sub-Saharan AfricaWe provide here a brief update on the present status (2019-2020) of CGIAR-related maize breeding impacts in SSA, considering:• Progress made with regard to varietal releases, commercial seed production, and adoption of CGIAR-related improved maize varieties the region;• Evidence for increasing replacement of climate-vulnerable and old/obsolete varieties with recently developed, climate-adaptive, disease-resistant, and nutritionally enriched maize varieties in SSA;• The weighted average age of CGIAR-related maize varieties in target countries in the region, and;• The unique value that CGIAR maize germplasm has offered in recent years in SSA.A particularly noteworthy R&D effort in recent years was the Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa (STMA) project, which focused on 13 countries across SSA: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Benin, Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria. Project partners officially released a total of 218 new stress-tolerant and productive improved maize varieties derived from CIMMYT and IITA germplasm during 2016-2019 (76 in 2016, 44 in 2017, 54 in 2018, and 44 in 2019) for commercialization, promotion and wide-scale dissemination (Prasanna et al. 2021).In 2019, the total certified seed production of CGIAR-related stress-tolerant improved maize varieties in the 13 aforementioned countries was 111,713 tons, compared to 72,337 tons in 2016. This takes into account only those stress-tolerant varieties released post-2007, when the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project was launched. In 2020, an estimated 5 million hectares were covered by CGIAR-related stress-tolerant varieties, benefiting nearly 8.7 million households (over 52 million people) (Prasanna et al., 2021). The climate resilience of CGIAR-related maize varieties was strongly evident during the 2015-2016 crop season in southern Africa, when CIMMYT-derived drought-tolerant maize hybrids yielded two times more than key commercial hybrids in on-farm trials, despite severe El Niño-induced drought and heat stress conditions (Setimela et al. 2018).If we broaden the definition of CGIAR-related improved maize varieties to include stresstolerant and nutritionally-enriched varieties, as well as release dates before and after 2007, the certified seed production volume across eight countries in eastern and southern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) was 110,528 tons in 2019 (68,252 tons in eastern Africa and 42,277 tons in southern Africa); this was estimated to cover 5 million hectares in 2020. Of this, 65% were varieties released after 2007.The achievements in terms of varietal releases, seed production, and broad deployment of climate-adaptive improved maize varieties in SSA can be attributed to the close partnerships of CIMMYT and IITA with nearly 100 local or regional seed companies and national agricultural research organizations. For instance, in 2019-2020, more than 55 seed companies across ESA were actively involved in scaling and commercializing seeds of 132 CIMMYT-related improved maize varieties. Of these, 20 varieties were improved openpollinated varieties (OPVs), and the rest were hybrid varieties.In addition to providing improved maize germplasm, CIMMYT and IITA also support seed company partners in SSA, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), by supplying early generation seed (breeder and pre-basic seed) of CGIAR-related maize varieties and technical backstopping on hybrid seed production, market segmentation, territory planning, seed business management, and varietal replacement (Prasanna et al. 2021).The  (Prasanna et al. 2020a). Similarly, CGIAR is at the forefront in developing elite maize varieties with native genetic resistance to fall armyworm (FAW; Spodoptera frugiperda), which has emerged as a major challenge to maize producers in Africa since 2016 and in Asia since 2018. Sustainable control of FAW requires an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy, including effective integration of host plant resistance, environmentally safer pesticides, biological control, agroecological management, and good agronomic practices (Prasanna et al. 2018a). FAW-tolerant/resistant varieties, whether derived through naturally occurring \"native\" genetic resistance or through transgene(s), provide a practical and economical way to minimize crop losses due to the pest (Prasanna et al. 2018b). CIMMYT and IITA have been intensively working on native genetic resistance to FAW. After three years of systematic evaluation, CIMMYT announced the first set of three FAW-tolerant maize hybrids for ESA in December 2020. The work on native genetic resistance to FAW needs to be significantly geared-up in both Africa and Asia in the coming years.CGIAR's breeding program on maize biofortification has led to the development and deployment of an array of elite maize varieties with enhanced levels of provitamin A (proVA), zinc (Zn), and protein quality in grain, with demonstrated and potential impact on the nutritional status of consumers, especially nutritionally-vulnerable populations (pregnant women, nursing mothers, and weaning and pre-school children) (Prasanna et al. 2020b). No large, private sector maize breeding program anywhere in the world is targeting these important traits, which are crucial for achieving sustainable development goals in SSA, Asia, and Latin America. Biofortification is an effective approach and valuable component of strategies to overcome global nutrition challenges (obesity and overweight and hidden and chronic hunger) in maize-dependent populations in SSA, Latin America, and Asia. High Zn and proVA are important for healthy immune systems, which are crucial to healthy lives and of special concern given the Covid-19 pandemic. Provitamin A-enriched maize varieties also offer the opportunity to reduce aflatoxin exposure (Suwarno et al., 2019).In partnership with HarvestPlus, CIMMYT and IITA have incorporated high proVA content into elite, stress-tolerant maize germplasm adapted to SSA. This has led to the release of several proVA-enriched maize varieties over the last decade, which are increasingly being adopted in SSA. In 2019, certified seed of IITA-derived proVA-enriched maize synthetics and hybrids, produced by NARS, community-based seed producers and seed companies, was estimated to be 3,300 tons, and was marketed in Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria. This is estimated to cover a total of about 148,000 hectares in these countries.Several CIMMYT-derived proVA-enriched maize varieties have been released by partners in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Tanzania and are being commercialized. In 2019-2020, over 1,270 tons of certified seed of 14 proVA-enriched maize hybrids were produced and commercialized in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Tanzania by 11 seed companies, covering an estimated 57,736 hectares.There is increasing evidence of the potential of improved maize varieties to stabilize production under climate change, reduce downside risks, and improve livelihoods in the stress-prone (sub)tropical environments of SSA (e.g., Wossen et al., 2017;Lunduka et al. 2019;Simtowe et al., 2019). Further strengthening the partnerships between CGIAR and national maize breeding programs, building capacities, and fostering an enabling environment for accelerated adoption of new, improved maize varieties are essential for increasing and protecting genetic gains against emerging threats (Cairns and Prasanna, 2018;Prasanna et al., 2020a;2021).CGIAR breeding has a demonstrated track record and continues to be highly impactful in improving climate resilience, and food and nutritional security of resource-constrained farmers in the stress-prone environments of SSA, Latin America and Asia. If one-half the value of all the reported agricultural total factor productivity (TFP) growth from 1960-2016 in developing countries is taken as a measure of the benefit from research investments by both CGIAR and public agencies in developing countries, a benefit:cost ratio on the order of 10:1 is implied for research by the CGIAR and national partners combined (Alston et al., 2020). Despite a steeply declining budget since 2015, the intensive maize breeding and seed systems work undertaken by CGIAR, together with public and private sector partners, has built a strong momentum in adoption of climate-adaptive improved varieties, besides rapid response to emerging threats like MLN and FAW in the maize agri-food systems in the tropics. However, there is no room for complacency. Increasing genetic gains and accelerating the process of delivering high-quality, climate-adaptive, disease/pest-resistant and nutritionally enriched maize seed is more critical than ever to sustain CGIAR's role as a key provider of improved germplasm and as a contributor to food and nutritional security. This will be achieved in the coming years by:• Co-designing and implementing impactful breeding programs with NARS and SME seed company partners in SSA, Asia and Latin America to achieve synergies, and to enhance sustainability of increased genetic gains.• Increased focus on nutritional quality and end user-preferred traits that add valuenutritional, ecological, economic, social/gender -to the product profiles.• Implementing continuous improvement plans, in partnership with Excellence in Breeding (EiB) platform, to enhance breeding efficiency and to increase genetic gains in breeding pipelines in the target market segments.• In active partnership with the public and private sector institutions, further strengthening the maize seed systems, including accelerated varietal turnover and translation of increased genetic gains from on-station to on-farm. Parentage/pedigree information for different improved maize varieties released during 1995-2015 was used to determine the CGIAR germplasm contribution or relationship. However, some pedigree data were only partial, and others were not available or disclosed. The genetic backgrounds of commercialized maize varieties, especially from the private sector, are not typically disclosed or made publicly available (Morris et al., 2003a). In some cases, the responding institutions may be fully aware of the CGIAR maize germplasm used in the development of their released varieties but may not be willing to divulge it for various reasons. Thus, the estimates for the contribution of CGIAR maize germplasm to varietal releases reported in this study are likely underestimated and are, at best, a lower bound for the true figure. Furthermore, in a cross-pollinated crop like maize, it is not always possible to calculate the percentage of germplasm contribution from CGIAR/non-CGIAR sources, nor is it possible to provide exact credit for the breeding efforts of the different institutions involved in a varietal release. In the absence of detailed pedigrees and due to the compounding factors presented above, we focused on the \"reported CGIAR contribution.\" The maize varieties released during the study period were put into five groups based on the CGIAR contribution:(1) Varieties with 100% CGIAR parentage (that is, all parents were from CGIAR or based on CGIAR germplasm; so, basically CGIAR products),(2) Varieties with significant CGIAR parentage (50-99%),(3) Varieties with some CGIAR parentage (1-49%), (4) Varieties with no known/reported CGIAR parentage,(5) Varieties with unknown parentage.The categorizations \"no known/reported CGIAR parentage\" and \"unknown parentage\" relate to the lower bound mentioned earlier, as some of the newly released varieties may have contained CGIAR parentage, but this was simply not reported or known.Varieties, for which only qualitative information was obtained (e.g., some sources revealed CGIAR germplasm parentage as \"mostly,\" \"limited,\" etc.), are included in the best corresponding categories of (2) or (3). CGIAR-related varieties comprise the aggregate of ( 1)-(3).A2.1. Estimating the CGIAR role in recent maize varietal releasesReleased maize varieties are variously adopted by farmers, inter alia, based on seed availability, affordability, and farmers' preferences (e.g. acceptance of varietal traits). Factors such as the type of seed company that develops and disseminates the variety (public vs. private, multinational vs. national, etc.), varietal characteristics and performance, the suitability of the variety to the agroecological conditions, the market price, and the quality of the seed, etc. co-determine the variety's acceptability by farmers. Additional supply-and demand-side dimensions affecting the use of new varieties include awareness/knowledge of the variety, availability, and access to the seed through agro-dealers (Rutsaert and Donovan, 2020). We compiled snapshots of maize varietal adoption in the study countries based on expert surveys, existing literature, project reports and, where available, certified maize seed volumes for in-country use in the subsequent year. The expert surveys focused on varietal adoption in the most recent year (2015), whereas the other reported adoption figures variously covered the study period. The analysis called for estimating the diffusion and adoption pattern over the study period to estimate the CGIAR contribution to the varieties being grown each year. For this, we estimated the temporal adoption patterns by extrapolating data from different points in time for each released variety in use. Basically, we assumed a linear increase from zero in the year of release to the first observed (average) adoption rate, interpolated between subsequent years with adoption rates, and assumed the last observation to hold for five years and then decline to zero over the next five years. The estimated rates of diffusion were uniformly rescaled as needed to ensure the aggregate estimated adoption in any year did not exceed 100%.We acknowledge that one may consider the assumptions behind the extrapolation of temporal adoption patterns across sources as rather strong. The sources indeed vary in robustness and representativeness over the period and between countries. Still, they represent a comprehensive compilation of data from available sources, typically include multiple sources in addition to the expert estimate per country, and are reasonably consistent.The present study estimates the grain yield effects of germplasm with CGIAR parentage. Such an analysis has particular relevance for maize, as the maize seed market is very vibrant in several SSA countries and includes the active involvement of the private sector. We used panel data regression analysis with country-level fixed effects to understand the effect of acreage share of maize varieties with CGIAR parentage on grain yield. The conventional fixed-effects models control for cross-section heterogeneity and time-invariant unobservable factors, while improving the efficiency of parameter estimates. However, to estimate the relationship between maize yield and CGIAR contribution in varietal development controlling for unobserved timevariant heterogeneity, we used a dynamic panel data model with a balanced dataset between 1995 and 2015. Arellano and Bond (1991) developed a Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) estimator to model dynamic panel data model, using the first difference of the equation.k Dln (y it ) = a+ l 1 Dln (y it-1 ) + l 2 Dln (y it-2 ) + b 2 DCGIAR it-j + ∑ g k C itk + h (T) + (e it -e it-1 )(1)where y it is national maize productivity (kg/ha) in the country i in year t, CGIAR it is the share of CGIAR-related varieties in the national maize acreage, C itk is the set of k country-specific variables (including total cropped area, percentage share of maize area, percentage share of irrigated area, annual rainfall, chemical fertilizer use in the country), T is the dummy variable standing for the time of observation, and e it is the remainder disturbance that can vary over time and countries. Our primary focus is to estimate b 2 , the effects of CGIAR-related germplasm on maize yield. However, the effect of germplasm could vary drastically across regions, especially between large and small producer country groups. To test this hypothesis, we ran another fixed-effects model adding the Big.CGIAR it interaction term, where Big is a dummy variable for large maize country producers (maize area >1 million ha on average). That gives a regression model as follows:k Dln (y it ) = a+ l 1 Dln (y it-1 ) + l 2 Dln (y it-2 ) + b 2 DCGIAR it-j + b 3 Big.DCGIAR it-j + ∑ g k C itk + h (T) + (e it -e it-1 )(2)Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan AfricaThe sum (b 2 + b 3 ) in eq. 2 provides the effect of CGIAR varieties in the large maize producer countries, while b 2 stands for the effect of CGIAR varieties in small maize producer countries in SSA.Estimation of Eq. ( 3) requires an instrumental variable to correct for endogeneity, especially with variable CGIAR it and Big.DCGIAR it-j and the correlation between the lagged differences of the dependent variable and e it-1 . Under additional assumptions, it is possible to construct an alternative GMM estimator that overcomes this problem. Here we follow the Arellano-Bover/Blundell-Bond estimation (Arellano and Bover, 1995;Blundell and Bond, 1998), which is a linear dynamic panel-data model with lags of the dependent and key explanatory variables. Similar models are used by several researchers of agricultural economics to avoid endogeneity and to generate robust impact estimates (Klomp and Haan, 2013;Castriota and Delmastro, 2015;Krishna et al., 2015).As expressed by Lantican et al. (2016), \"crop breeding is a continuous process wherein costs are incurred, and benefits obtained over time.\" The investments and returns flow over time, and estimating the benefits of a crop breeding program is far from straightforward. It is completed by challenges in (1) measuring farmers' adoption of improved varieties; (2) estimating the economic benefits to the farmers from the improved varietal use; and (3) attribution (Morris and Heisey, 2003). The previous sections already addressed aspects related to the first two challenges -whereas in terms of attribution, we focus on CGIAR-related varieties without disaggregating the relative contributions of the R&D partners.To estimate the benefits of CGIAR maize breeding through yield enhancement, we employed an equilibrium displacement model. The partial equilibrium framework has long been used in evaluating commodity-related technological progress in agriculture for both ex post and ex ante impact assessments (Krishna and Qaim, 2008;Alene et al., 2009;Alene et al., 2018). The economic benefits of an intervention are estimated based on a parallel downward shift in the supply curve of the commodity. The economic benefits from maize germplasm improvement are estimated separately for each country, within a framework for the small-open economy adapted for ex post impact evaluation (Alston et al., 1995;Masters et al., 1996). The economic surplus attributed to maize germplasm improvement at time t (ES t ) is estimated using the equation:where P t and Q t are the average real-world market price of maize and the total maize production of the country in year t respectively. For the present analysis, we used the international price of maize grain in 2015 and estimated the surplus values. The shift in supply function due to per-unit cost reduction is shown by K t , and ε is the price elasticity of supply of maize. The supply shift is calculated as:(DY⁄Y) DC⁄C K t = ( -) .A t (4) ε 1 + DY⁄Y DY⁄Y and DC⁄C are the average proportional change in yield per ha and average proportional change in the variable costs associated with the technology adoption. We assumed net yield gain for recent CGIAR-related varieties over others (including old CGIAR-related varieties, recent and old non-CGIAR related varieties, and landraces) from the regression estimates (E.q. 1 and 2, and DC = 0.). ","tokenCount":"10795"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd9a5f46fd471d3a34c03ac05c4e4c89","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H034250.pdf","id":"1723492308"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c013af6f-5c13-4762-8a23-fa61087bece1","pagecount":"14","content":"More than ever before in the course of human history, the way in which land is being used has become a source of widespread concern. The population of the world surpassed 6 billion; hence, never before in history have that many mouths to feed (Van Keulen et al., 2000). In Asia, populations will continue to increase sharply between now and 2025. (Roetter et al., 2000). This increase in population in urban and rural areas continues to exert pressure on natural resources with an increased focus on productivity in order to attain food security. On the other hand, competing demands from urban, industrial, and recreational interests are imposing increased pressure on agriculture for efficient land and water use. With these ever-increasing demands, the need for improved management of available land and water resources is of utmost importance. Optimization of resource management considering the multiple goals, priorities, and constraints, using state-of-the-art data generation and estimation techniques including simulation models and expert knowledge can contribute significantly to the sustainable management of resources. This form of optimization is usually done on a much larger scale and often details at the field and community level are either ignored or aggregated. Medium-to long-term plans and targets selected by local or national governments scenario analysis or other methods aiming at regional-scale analysis, have little direct impact on farmers. Farmers make decisions about land management of a short-to medium-term nature, whereas policymakers make medium -to long-term decisions. They do achieve these using different sets of information and objectives. Farmers will respond to these plans when they are translated into better markets, better credit systems, improved information, etc. When optimization models are applied to whole basin, land units are largely of the order of 1 to 10 km 2 , meaning that there is still much variability in site-and situation-specific conditions. In addition, every farm household has different sets of resources at their disposal with respect to land, water, equipment and labor, capital and education. Farmers therefore still have the challenge of making many appropriate decisions. The better government planning and subsequent translation into improved socio-economic conditions, the faster farmers see returns for their investments (Penning de Vries, 2000).IWMI with KU has initiated a study under Theme 1 titled \"Developing a proto-type procedure for multiple goal analysis for allocation of land and water resources of river basins: Case Study on the Mae Klong River Basin, Thailand\". The purpose of this project is to develop and test a proto-type decision support system (DSS) that can be used for river basin analysis to explore possible land and water resources management options considering land and water as a limiting resources. Such decision tools will be useful in evaluating development scenarios among different stakeholders taking into account the priorities as well as the constraints and opportunities for the use of natural resources.The development scenarios for river basin planning do not take into account the variability in the biophysical and socio-economic conditions at the farm or community level, which may adversely affect smallholders and poor farmers. In this study, multiple goal linear programming procedures will be used at the farm or village level considering the on-farm and household details in one or two representative water and land evaluation units (the smallest unit for optimization at river basin scale). The effect of the development scenarios (for the river basin) will be analyzed and alternatives will be developed to minimize these effects. The purpose of the study is therefore, to develop sustainable land and water management strategies for sustainable small-holder agriculture through multiple objective linear programming procedures for improving productivity, livelihoods and the environment.An optimal planning and management model based on linear programming involves identification of the decision variables, the constraints and the objective functions which are to be maximized or minimized.The decision variable, LUA (lt, c), is the area under crop 'c' in land type 'lt'.The main objective for land and water use planning from a farmers' perspective is the maximization of the net economic benefit. While policy makers or governments also want farmers to gain economic benefits from any natural resources such as land and water resources planning, at the same time they are also wanting to increase the productivity of the natural resources used. Therefore, the following two objectives are considered. Where, NetBen (lt, c) = Net benefit (gross return -cost of production) of crop 'c' per unit of land area for land use type (upland, lowland, etc.) 'lt'.LUA (lt, c) = Area allocated to crop 'c' in land 'lt'ii.Maximization of the productivity of irrigation water (WP) The objective functions are subject to the following constraints:The total water requirements for the crops in any period should be at most equal to the total water available in that periodWhere, WatReq (lt, c, t) = water requirement for 'c' in land 'lt' in period 't', i.e. monthly water requirement for the crops. AvaWat (t) = Water available from the canal at month 't'Water requirement (WatReq) is the gross irrigation requirement. Available water in the irrigated area is the total actual supply of water from the canals.The sum of the cropped area in land 'lt' in period 't' cannot be greater than the total available land in that land type.∑ LAC (lt, c, t) * LUA (lt, c) ≤ AvaLan (lt, t) AvaLan (lt, t) is the total area available for land type 'lt' in period 't'.These constraints are introduced to limit the amount of production of certain crops for the sake of maintaining market price and to limit suitable land for growing specific crops.LUAMax (lt, c) is the allowable maximum area for crop 'c' in land 'lt' LUAMax (c) is the allowable maximum area for crop 'c' in the total areaThese constraints are needed to fulfill social obligations such as production of minimum requirements for certain crops. Different social considerations are introduced into the model by these specific constraintsLUAMin (lt, c) is the minimum required area for crop 'c' in land 'lt' LUAMin (c) is the minimum required area for crop 'c' in the total areaAvailability of labor is one of the major factors that dictate the cropping pattern of a certain area. For example, rice and sugarcane cultivation require less labor than vegetables or fruit cultivations. Therefore, increasing the cultivation of vegetables and fruits may be constrained by the nonavailability of additional labor.ReqLab (lt, c, t) is the labor requirement (man-day) for crop 'c' for land 'lt' in period 't'.These constraints can also be used to generate employment in case the availability of labor is more than the required. In such case the constraint is:MinLab (t) is the minimum number of labor which must be utilized.LUA (lt, c) ≥ 0 (12)The models were solved using the software package LINDO (Linear, Interactive, and Discrete Optimizer).The model was applied to the command area of the village Ban Nong Fao of sub-district Borsuphan; district Song Phi Nong of Suphan Buri Province, which is located within the Song Phi Nong Irrigation Project as shown in Figure 1 (village 9). Total area of the village is 640 ha of which 363 ha is irrigated area. There are 195 household with a total population of 977. The network of irrigation canals is shown in Figure 2. The area is within the command area of canal 6L-2L. The design discharge of this canal is 3.162 m 3 /s. The canal also supplies water to 5 other villages: village 4, 5, 7 and 17 of Tamboon Borshuphan and village 6 of Tamboon Thun Kok. The canal supplies water all the year but weeks 23 to 28 and 49 to 5 of the following year. During this time maintenance activities are carried out on the canal. In this year (2002), dry season irrigation started on the 6 th week (7 th Feb 2002) and stopped at 22 nd week (30 th July 2002). Wet season irrigation started on the 29 th week (18 July 2002) and stopped on the 48 th week (28 th November 2002).Selective secondary information namely rainfall, canal actual discharge, design capacity and the area under each crop were collected from the Song Phi Nong Irrigation Project. However, most of the model input parameters are not available on any secondary sources. Therefore, a questionnaire and a data sheet were prepared to interview selected farmers of the two villages to have detailed data on the decision making for land and water management at the household level. The survey was carried out by randomly sampling the different categories of farmers. For the village level information the head of the village was interviewed.  The crop calendar of the area is shown in Figure 3. Crop area for 2002 is shown in Table 1. Sugarcane is the major crop of the village as shown in the Table 1. Rice is cultivated in the comparatively low land areas, which are not very suitable for sugarcane. Rice is grown usually two times a year, though some farmers grow 3 crops of rice. Other crops are cultivated in the upland. Though the benefits (see section 3.4.1) obtained from rice and sugarcane are less compared to fruit, vegetables and shrimp, farmers cultivate these crops because of low risk, good markets, and low labor requirements. Fruit, shrimp and vegetables need high initial investments and labor. Farmers also prefer quick returns on their investment which is not possible in case of fruit and shrimps.  The net benefit obtained from different crops varies from farmer to farmer and from one source to another. The variation in benefits for some of the crops are quite significant. In general, farmers are not satisfied with the benefit they are getting from the crop. They think crop prices are low while costs of production are increasing. One farmer cited the over supply in the market for low price of the produce. The benefit from shrimp farming varies widely from farmer to farmer, with some farmers losing and some farmers securing higher benefits. After careful comparison net benefit values used in the model are given in Table 2.Net irrigation requirement was estimated by the following formula using the data collected from the irrigation Office.Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) = Reference Evapotranspiraton (ETo) x Crop Coefficient (Kc) Net Irrigation requirement = ETc + Percolation (P) -Effective Rainfall (Pe) + Land Preparation Requirements (only for the first month)Gross Irrigation Requirement = Net Requirement/ Irrigation efficiencies To consider, the initial lag period, composite crop coefficients are estimated. Land preparation requirement for rice was considered as 200 mm and added only in the first month of the cropping period. The land preparation time was considered as one week. The percolation rate in the project area is estimated to be 2 mm/day. The irrigation application efficiencies for rice and other crops were considered as 75% and 65% which is being used by the Song Phi Nong Project to estimate the discharge. The monthly irrigation requirement of different crops is presented in Table 3. Irrigation water productivity of each crop was estimated using Equation (3) (Table 4). Productivity of grape and shrimp is very high compared to the other crops. The benefit obtained from grape is higher although the water requirement is not very high. Both benefit and water requirement for shrimp farming are high. Shrimp is also the biggest polluter of water and soil. If one includes the amount of water polluted due to the discharge from the shrimp farms or the amount of water needed to flush out pollutants from water or soil used for shrimp production to the amount of water used, then the productivity of shrimp is considerably lower.As mentioned before, the canal 6L-2L supplies water to 6 villages including the study site with a total command area of 2606 ha. The command area of the study site is 363 ha. The cropping pattern for the whole command area is almost similar with little variation. Though, in general it is difficult to maintain the equity in water distribution among the different areas of the canal, however, to get the available water for the study site water was divided equally based on the command area. Two cases of water availability were considered namely, the design discharge of the canal and the actual maximum delivery to the canal for the year 2002. The maximum release to the canal during 2002 was 2.13 m 3 /s during the week of 28 February to 06 March. This was only for one week which is the land preparation time for rice. The irrigation requirements are usually higher during the month of April as evapotranspiration is the highest in this month and rainfall is negligible. This also reflects in the actual discharge as we can see that there was consistently higher discharge (2.03 m 3 /s) during the month of April. Considering this discharge monthly available water for the whole command area is (considering all months 30 days) = 263,088 ha-mm. Therefore, water available to the command area is 36,647 ha-mm, which was considered as the maximum water available on a monthly basis in the second scenario.Maximum area available for cultivation of different crops or the minimum required area were considered with incremental steps of 5 or 10 ha for the major crops in different scenarios. This allows the investigation of the incremental benefit of cultivating a certain crop.The following 15 scenarios are considered:1. Existing Condition.2. No Limit of Area for Any Crop.3. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and shrimp area is not > 21 ha, no limit for other crops. 4. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 10 ha, no limit for other crop. 5. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 20 ha, no limit for other crop. 6. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 30 ha, no limit for other crop. 7. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 40 ha, no limit for other crop. 8. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 50 ha, no limit for other crop. 9. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 10 ha, Baby Corn not > 10 ha, no limit for other crop. 10. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 20 ha, Baby Corn not > 20 ha, no limit for other crop Shrimp area. 11. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 30 ha, Baby Corn not > 30 ha, no limit for other crop. 12. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 40 ha, Baby Corn not > 40 ha, no limit for other crop. 13. No Rice, Rice Land (Lowland with less percolation rate) will only be allowed for shrimp. Rice Area = 0 and Shrimp area is not > 21 ha, Grape area not > than 50 ha, Baby Corn not > 50 ha, no limit for other crop. 14. Rice Area >= 10 ha and Shrimp area is not > 10 ha, Grape area not > than 10 ha, Baby Corn not > 10 ha, no limit for other crop. 15. Rice Area >= 10 and Shrimp area is not > 10 ha, Grape area not > than 20 ha, Baby Corn not > 20 ha, no limit for other crop.These scenarios are considered for each case of water availability. As mentioned before two cases of water availability are considered.Monthly water availability was estimated considering the design capacity of the canal Case II:Water availability was estimated considering the maximum actual dischargeThe net financial benefit obtained for each of these scenarios and irrigation water productivity are presented in Table 5. The results indicate that financial benefit and irrigation water productivity vary for different scenarios. The net benefit obtained from shrimp farming and grape production is significantly higher compared to that of the other crops. Therefore, the model results are very sensitive to these two crops. For scenario 2 no limit of any crops was considered, therefore, the total net benefit and irrigation water productivity is considerably higher compared to the other scenarios except scenario 3. In scenario 3 only shrimp farming was limited, so the benefit is also much higher because all the remaining area is under grape cultivation. These two scenarios are completely unrealistic at present or in the near future and therefore were excluded from further analysis.Average irrigation water productivity for the objective of maximizing net benefit for both cases were estimated and plotted against the net benefit obtained from the model as shown in Figures 4 and 5. Scenarios 2 and 3 were not included in the plot. Similarly, estimated net benefit for the objective of maximizing the average irrigation water productivity was plotted against the model output values of the productivity (Figure 6 and 7). These figures show the positive linear relationship between the total net benefit and the average irrigation water productivity of the area. This indicates that both net benefit and water productivity can be improved at the same time.Area under different crops for corresponding scenarios are presented in Table 6 through Table 9. For a certain scenario even though there is no significant difference between the net benefit and irrigation water productivity under two objectives but the area under different crops are varying. This indicates that different crop mixes are possible without compromising the total net benefit and productivity. This gives farmers or policy makers more flexibility in planning the cropping pattern.    A multi-objective linear programming model has been developed for optimal planning and management of the land and water resources at the farm level for sustainable smallholder agriculture. The model was applied to a small irrigation command of the Song Phi Nong Irrigation Project of the Mae Klong River Basin and selective scenario analysis carried out. This paper presents preliminary results of the model application. The model is being updated with new information collected from this site. The model is also being applied to two other locations within the Mae Klong River Basin which will facilitate comparison of net benefit, irrigation water productivity, and cropping practices among the different dominant cropping pattern.","tokenCount":"3210"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"256bdee9bc99064275ed50fa950e7594","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27ee3fd4-f416-4ce5-9ad2-45056a7dafc3/retrieve","id":"-1707944402"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"44de189a-307f-44b1-967b-48651ebc7ee7","pagecount":"221","content":"C D = dominant susceptible (BS 1), R = recessive resistant (bs 1). Each bsr20r bsr3 has a (+1) effect and each bSS20r bss3allele a (-1) effect d S = susceptible, LS = less susceptible, PR = partially resistant * ** *****Plantain and banana (Musa spp.) are important food crops in the humid forest and mid•altitude agroecologies of sub-Saharan Africa, providing more than 25% of the carbohydrates for approximately 70 million people in the region.Plantains are high-yielding and form an integral component of the farming systems in these ecologies. In addition to being a staple food for rural and urban consumers, plantain and banana provide an important source of rural income for the smallholder family farmers, who produce them in compound or home gardens as well as in large fields. The gross value of annual production exceeds that of many other major food'crops, such as maize, rice, cassava, and sweet potato.Most cultivated Musa are triploids (2n = 3x = 33). Being almost completely sterile, they develop fruit by parthenocarpy. The most important cultivars vary in their genomic constitution and are generally categorised as follows: dessert bananas (AAA) , East African highland bananas (AAA), plantains (AAB), and cooking bananas (ABB). The genome of the cultivated types is derived from the diploid wild species M. acuminata and M. balbisiana, which contributed the A and B genomes, respectively.World production of plantain and banana is estimated at 70 million metric tons of which 35% is grown in sub-Saharan Africa. The different cultivated triploid Musa types are cultivated in distinct ecoregions. Thus, the AAB plantains are predominant in the humid lowlands of West and Central Africa, while AAA cooking and beer bananas prevail in the East African highlands. The former region harbours the world's greatest variability of plantains and is thus considered as a secondary centre of plantain diversification. A similar situation is found for the specific East African highland bananas of the Musa AAA group, reflecting a long history of plantain and banana cultivation in Africa.Pest and disease pressure on the crop has increased during the past 15 years. Also, rising population pressure has led to altered farming practices, among which shortening fallow periods are most conspicuous. At present, the major production constraints of plantain and banana in sub-Saharan Africa are diseases (black sigatoka, Fusarium wilt), pests (weevil, nematodes), and the phenomenon of yield decline (mainly in plantains). Declining soil fertility also accounts for decreased yields.liT A included plantain and banana among its mandate crops in 1987 and the Plantain and Banana Improvement Program (PBIP) was created in 1991 as a full part of the Crop Improvement Division (CID). PBIP headquarters are al Onne Station, in the humid forest zone of southeastern Nigeria, which is in the secondary centre of plantain diversification .. During 1992, PBIP has further strengthened its linkages with several ,international, regional and national programs:• the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) in the areas of germplasm exchange and evaluation, virus indexing, and training,• the Centre Regional Bananiers et Plantains (CRBP, Cameroon) for evaluation of breeding materials,• (QDPI, Australia) for evaluation of brE1eding materials, • the Fundacion Hondurena de Investigacion Agricola (FHIA, Honduras) for germplasl11 exchange and testing of FHIA hybrids in Africa,• the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL, Belgium) in biotechnology,• the Regional Plant Introduction Station of the USDAIARS (Griffin, GA, USA) in the use of molecular markers (RFLPs and RAPDs) in taxonomy, genetics and breeding• the Natural Resources Institute (NRI, England) in post-harvest technology During the past year, PBIP scientists worked along with their cooperators at IITA. NARS and advanced laboratories in six research projects (Table 1). Our main achievements during 1992 are listed below.Fourteen improved tropical Musa plantain hybrids (TMPx) with black sigatoka resistance have been registered in the Journal HortScience to place these in the public domain.Multilocatlonal testing. TMPx genotypes were transferred to NARS for the evaluation/selection process in the multilocational testing. Twenty five public and private NARS from Cote d'ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Burundi, Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Australia are evaluating TMPx genotypes along with one cooking banana hybrid (TMBx) and their respective resistant and susceptible parents, as well as susceptible and resistant reference cultivars.Determination of breeding strategy. The genetics of resistance to black sigatoka, dwarfism, albinism, suckering behaviour, fruit parthenocarpy, bunch orientation, bunch weight and other yield components were established. These findings provided the basis for development of a breeding strategy which entails production of improved secondary triploid germ plasm, the final target in plantain breeding, by intercrossing tetraploid and diploid plantain hybrids with black sigatoka resistance (Fig. 1). A first wave of hundreds of secondary triploid hybrids were field-established in 1992.Molecular linkage map. A molecular linkage map is being developed in collaboration with the USDA laboratory at Griffin, Georgia. Six segregating populations derived from triploid x diploid and diploid x diploid crosses were field-established and characterized for different morphological and agronomic descriptors. DNA was extracted from each clone and fingerprinted with RFLP and RAPD markers for genetic analysis. The development of a saturated Musa map is in progress. Tissue culture and genetic engineering. The production of transgenic Musa products has been the major goal of the common research effort with KUL. A cell suspension protocol for the regeneration of Musa genotypes was developed jOintly by scientists of both institutes. In 1992, our cooperators were able to regenerate plant lets which showed stable transformation with the GUS reporter gene and kanamycin resistance gene, introduced by the particle gun method.Agro1orestry and sustainable production. Previous agronomy research has clearly demonstrated that management of organic matter is essential to maintain long term plantain productivity without causing environmental degradation. We have observed that plantain performs very well in an agroforestry system with spontaneous multispecies hedgerows, in which the regrowth of more than 120 shrub and tree species of the natural fallow is managed by regular coppicing. This system seems promising in terms of maintaining p.roduction over extended periods of cultivation as well as conserving the plant diversity for bush fallows.Research related activities during the 1992 season (April 1992to March 1993) comprising seven research projects (coded projects 2 through 7) are reported in Sections 2 to 7. The final section (Section 8) reports on collaborative work in respect of testing, training and extension.Plantain and banana breeding continued to be the most important activity in PBIP during 1992. Significant gains in 1991 opened up many possibilities for breeding across ploidy, species and subspecies of Musa. Based on those exciting results. we have decided to intensify and decentralize the breeding work into different agro-ecologies and gene pools. However, there is stili a need at• this stage to consider breeding strategies and determine the most useful methods for improving this little-researched crop for African conditions and constraints. Genetic research and breeding activities indicated below will help to achieve this goal.Recently, we defined PBIP's breeding philosophy as follows: tQ deyelop not only disease and pest reSistant materials. but also better cultivars for the smallholders who produce plantain and banana in compound or home gardens and in large field plantations.2a.The main goal of this activity is to coliect, conserve and characterize Musa species and cultivars and evaluate them in the African humid forest environment represented at Onne. Conserved germ plasm (>400 accessions) includes diploid species and cultivars (M. acuminata -AA and M. balbisiana -BB), dessert bananas (AAA. AAB), plantains (AAB), and cooking and beer bananas (AAA and ABB) (Table 2). Over 30 sources of black sigatoka resistance are available in the collection (Table 3). Ali accessions are kept in field genebanks. Most of the plantain accessions (85%) are currently also maintained in vitro in the Tissue Culture laboratory at Onne. The in vitro collection is partly duplicated at the Ibadan tissue culture laboratory for safety reasons, where it is maintained under minimal growth conditions. 2b.Descriptor lists are used to evaluate natural Musa germplasm (diploids.triploids and few tetraploids). Multivariate analyses such as prinCipal components (PCA) and cluster can be used for the statistical grouping of the germ plasm.Multivariate statistical techniques, such as PCA were developed for situations where more than one variate was measured on each individual. PCA aims to explain the variance/covariance structure with a few (usually 2 or 3) linear combinations of the original variables. The PCA coefficients (e.g. PRIN 1,PRIN2,etc.) are functions of the eigenvalues (Au and eigenvectors (eD of the covariance/variance matrix. They are basically roots of the matrix. They can be used in the development of a discriminant function to assign clones to each taxonomic group.Qualitative morphological descriptors have been extensively used to group different accessions in taxonomic groups with similar characteristics.However, breeders are interested in agronomic traits which display quantitative variation. The objective of this activity, in support of the breeding program, was to determine whether quantitative descriptors could be used for characterization between and within taxa in Musa germplasm. This may provide a basis to define different gene pools to maximize heterotic responses when hybrids are produced. In 1992 we started the statistical grouping of germplasm accessions in liT A's gene bank through PCA.Preliminary principal component analyses on published data (Ref. 1) of an Asian collection from the Philippines banana cultivars using quantitative growth & yield parameters (pseudostem height and girth, leaf length and girth, bunch weight, number of hands, and fingers in the second hand, finger length and diameter, weight of peel and number of suckers at harvest) did not result in any clustering for M. acuminata accessions, which had a wide dispersion in the principal component diagram (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, AA and AAA bananas did not overlap (data not shown). Conversely, most of the AAA bananas overlapped with the other cultivars in the AAB and ABB taxa. This could indicate that PCA based on bunch and vegetative quantitative traits should only be considered to discriminate between ploidy levels in the same taxon. The first principal component, which explained 87% of total variation, was unevenly loaded on plant height and leaf length while the second principal component (7% total variation) was loaded mainly on weight of peel. Therefore, the right upper quadrant included tall cultivars with heavy bunches of large fingers and high weight of peel, e.g. AAB Horn plantains and ABBB natural hybrid. The ABB cooking bananas, which were initially considered as BBB ('Cardaba', 'Saba', etc), were grouped in the right lower quadrant, which was characterized for containing cultivars with large leaves. This demonstrates that some quantitative traits along with PCA could be used to discriminate between taxonomic groups in Musa.There are at least 116 plantain cultivars that have been grouped according to their bunch type (Table 2) and plant size. PCA was used to examine the association between growth and yield parameters in the West African plantain germ plasm , and to find out if the pattern of quantitative variation of bunch and vegetative traits agreed with the taxonomic grouping based on bunch type and plant size. A group of 24 plantain cultivars representing the major variability in West Africa were evaluated for nine quantitative characters.Phenotypic correlations between these traits were calculated (Table 4). Giant cultivars are taller, thicker and flower much later than medium ones and they produce more foliage, resulting in heavier bunches with more hands and fingers.PCA grouping agrees with conventional plantain taxonomy (Figs. 3 and 4). peA was based mail1ly on time to flowering, pseudostem height and number of fingers. The lasttwo traits should be used in combination as discriminant function for grouping plantain cultivars based on the phenotypic correlations and the eigenvectors, which are the weights in the peA (Table 5). The results also suggest that Nigeria has been a transit centre of plantain germ plasm movement in West Africa (Fig. 5).Plot technique studies on yield trials of plantains propagated by In vitro methods.In vitro techniques are used for conservation, distribution and rapid multiplication of plantains. Phenotypic or somaclonal variation among micropropagated plants of Musa is a common phenomenon.Determination of the yield potential of plantains should thus consider this, as well as proper field plot techniques.The aim of this research was to determine the optimum plot size and adequate number of replications for yield trials of different plantains propagated in vitro. The cultivars used represented the major plantain taxonomic groups: 'Ntanga 2' (Giant French), 'Sob by Tannap' and'Obino I' Ewai' (Medium French), 'Big Ebanga' (Giant False Horn), 'Agbagba' (Medium False Horn) and 'Ubok Iba' (True Horn).A total of 120 true•type plants were sampled and their bunches weighed for each cultivar (Table 6). No data transformations were required because the variance and the standard deviations were independent from the mean (lack of correlation) and the variance of the six plantain cultivars were homogeneous according to Box's rule. The intra-clonal variance for bunch weight was not affected by the reported somaclonal variation in each cultivar (Table 7) . However, a negative trend was observed between both which suggests that selection against somaclonal variants was effective to reduce within clonal variation for bunch weight.OPS was determined using the method of maximum curvature by plotting the coefficient of variation (V axis) versus the number of competing plants per plot (X axis) (Flg_ 6). OPS (without including border plants) consisted of 8-12 (48-72 m2), 15 (90 m2) and 20 (120 m2) competing plants for French, False Horn and Horn plantains, respectively (Table 7).The coefficient of soil heterogeneity (b) was estimated by the variation of bunch weight within each cultivar as qetermined by solving the following equation: Vx = Vi~ where Vx is the variance (calculated on a per unit basis) of bunch weight per unit area among plots of x units in size, V, is the variance among plots of one unit in size and x is the number of basic units per plot (Fig. 7). Soil heterogeneity was smaller in the French plantain (0.25) plots than in Giant or Horn plantain plots (0.9-1.5) (Table 7). Values of b close to 1 (expected maximal theoretical value) indicate that replicates were completely independent.Therefore, big plots instead of small plots, which will require an increased number of replications, should be used for the evaluation of Giant or Horn plantains. On the contrary, the bunch weight of French plantains may be evaluated in small plots.The minimum number of replications (r) was determined using the following equation: r= (MSE x 2) • (tl + tv21 D2, where t, is the critical value of Student's t distribution for a significance level of (J. =0.05, t2 is the tabular Student's value for (1-P ) =0.20, where P is the probability to obtain a significant result, MSE is the error mean square for bunch weight (from a yield trial carried out in a randomized complete block design using 15 plants per plot) and 0 is the desired significant mean difference expressed in kg. The number of replications (reps) needed decreased concomitantly with an increase in the magnitude of 0 (Table 8), e.g. assuming a MSE = 1.85 and 15 degrees of freedom for the t values, 192 reps of 15 plants each were required to detect a sign ificant mean bunch weight difference of 0.5 kg whereas 8 reps of 15 plants each were enough to detect a significant mean bunch weight difference of 2.5 kg between 2 plantain cultivars. The detection of significant mean diHerences larger than 4 kg between plantain bunch weights requires only 2 reps of 15 competing plants.2d.The success of any cross breeding program requires the production of true seed through sexual hybridizations as the first step. This was considered as the most diHicult problem for the genetic manipulation of the triploid cultivated Musa cultivars. However, the identification of 37 seed-fertile plantains ( 29French and 8 False Horn cultivars) has opened possibilities for genetic improvement in this gene pool.Seed set has been found to vary greatly among seed-fertile plantain cultivars, ranging on average from <1 seed to > 20 per bunch. Furthermore, season influenced seed rates. Seed production in two French plantain cultivars, 'Bobby Tannap' (BT) and 'Obino I' Ewai' (Ol), was analyzed over a period of 5 years (1988-1992) to determine the causes of monthly variation in seed set. These two clones were selected because they produced a high frequency of euploid (diploid, triploid and tetraploid) hybrids. The common male parent in all the crosses was 'Calcutta 4' (C4), a wild non-edible diploid banana with high male fertility.Analysis of variance indicated that seed production was not aHected by year. However, significant differences were found between months of a year and between the two plantain cultivars. The interactions, months x years and crosses x months were not significant, which allowed pooling of the results. Fig. 8 illustrates the pooled pattern of monthly variation for seed production (average of 5 years) in each cross combination. Seed set was very high in the early part of the year (peak in February), then declined to a very low level in May and reached a second peak in August-September. The seed set pattern was correlated with monthly weather variation, as measured by rainfall, evaporation, air temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and relative humidity, at Onne. Significant correlations were found between maximum relative humidity and seed set ( r= 0.563, p=0.05) for the cross BT x C4 whereas the variation in seed set was negatively associated with changes in total rainfall (r = -0.600, P < 0.05), and minimum relative humidity ( r = -0.620, P < 0.05) and positively correlated with average relative humidity in the cross OL x C4.A simple linear regression model, seed set = -487.7 + 5.3 maximum relative humidity, explained 31.7% of total variation in seed set in the cross BT x C4. The standard error for seed set estimates using this model will be 6.4 seeds.Residuals' analysis for this model (Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.10) however, indicated the presence of serial correlations in the residuals. The standard error for seed set estimates in BT x C4 using this incomplete and inaccurate model will be 6.4 seeds. More than fifty percent of total variation in seed production in the cross OL x C4 was explained by the significant multiple linear regression model (F = 4.76, P < 0.05, R2: 0.514), seed set = -111.9 -1.6 minimum relative humidity + 2.7 average relative humidity. Moreover, the analysis of residuals . (Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.76) demonstrated the validity of this model for the prediction of seed set in OL x C4 with a level of accuracy of ± 2.5 seeds.Similarly, monthly seed set patterns were studied in the crosses between C4 (male parent) with the AAA dessert banana 'Yangambi Km. 5' (Fig. 9) and the AAB cooking banana cv. 'Bluggoe' (Fig. 10) over a two year period (1988)(1989). In these two clones, characterized by a low frequency of tetraploid progenies as a consequence of their low 2n egg production, the monthly variation in seed set followed the changes in climatic factors. Based on seed set in the cross 'Yangambi Km 5' x C4 during the two year period, the following multiple regression model, which explained 62.5% of total variation on monthly seed production, was developed: seed set = 225 + 0.025 total rainfall -0.120 solar radiation• 3.374 maximum temperature -0.973 average relative humidity.The standard error for the expected seed set in this significant model (F=6.25, p < 0.01) was calculated as 7 seeds per bunch, although the analysis of residuals (Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.99) suggested that this model should be taken with caution due to the serially correlated data structure.In conclusion, it was clear that seed set in triploid bananas was increased by high relative humidity, low irradiation and low temperature which are characteristics of months such as August and September. This information will assist PBIP breeders to decide when to do pollinations based on weather information throughout the year. Consequently more progeny will be produced, thereby improving Musa breeding efficiency.In 1992, a total of 4219 bunches of diploid, triploid and tetraploid accessions/cultivars as well as euploid plantain-banana hybrids were pollinated with pollen from diploid or tetraploid parents, resulting in a production of more than 61000 seeds. Table 9 lists the monthly number of bunches pollinated for breeding activities, pollination success (as measured by percentage of bunches with seeds after hand pollination), total seed production, and average seed set (seeds per bunch) in the most important breeding schemes implemented during 1992.Table 9 also reflects PBIP's change of breeding strategy during the past year. Although the main activities were the pollination of plantain cultivars (58% of the crosses) and germ plasm enhancement in the Musa acuminata gene pool (20%), breeding plantains at the diploid level and the production of secondary triploids via tetraploid x diploid crosses were incorporated in the crossing blocks.Moreover, initial results have been encouraging as indicated by the pollination success. High seed sets were obtained in tetraploid x diploid crosses, which challenges the common idea that tetraploid hybrids have low female fertility. The highest percentage of pollinated bunches with seed production were found after tetraploid x diploid crosses (52%) and diploid x diploid crosses (28%) when at least the female parent was a plantain hybrid.Results also demonstrate the limited success of seed production by selfing, sib-mating or cross poliination of tetraploid hybrids with pollen from another tetraploid. There was 15% pollination success with an average seed set per bunch of 1.3 after tetraploid x tetraploid crosses. This may be an indication that tetraploid hybrids havE> low male fertility. Furthermore, production of secondary triploids, which for us could be the fixed target in plantain breeding, and the utilization of diploid plantains for population improvement seem to be the most efficient alternatives for the genetic betterment of the AAB gene pool. This was indicated by the high rate of seed production with low investment in pollination, i.e., 25% and 17% of total seed produced at Onne during 1992 resulted aiter pollinating diploid (10% of total pollinations) or tetraploid plantain hybrids (4% of total pollinations), respectively, with a diploid parent.Outcrosslng, seltlng and seed production In diploid bananas 'Calcutta 4', the homozygous wild diploid seeded clone was used to determine the effect of inbreeding and outcrossing rate on seed production. Seeds were extracted from selled, open pollinated (OP) and non-pollinated but bagged bunches of C4. A comparison between hand pollination (C4 selled) vs OP was done. Early results (start 01 rainy season) indicated that OP yielded more seeds (an average 01 1400 seed per bunch; 330 with well formed embryos as determined by seed floating test) than selfing (an average of 150 seeds; 14 with well formed embryos). No seeds were obtained in bagged and not pollinated inflorescences. However, increased seed set was observed in later self-hand pollinations which were done at the end of the rainy season. Furthermore, seeds were also obtained in the non-pollinat~d bunches (which were bagged to avoid pollination by bees). The results suggest that apomictic seed development could be possible in the female flowers of C4. This information, along with current investigations on the behaviour of natural pollinators (bats, bees and birds), will allow us to develop a polycross scheme for mass hybrid seed production without hand pollination., , 2f.Seed set was not only influenced by genotype of the female parent or the pollination season, as indicated in Section 2d., but also by male parent as illustrated in Table 10. The highest number of seeds were always obtained when C4 was the male parent. The low level of male fertility of 'Pisang Iii in' (PI)is the result of its structural hybridity due to an interchange (reciprocal translocation heterozygote), This explains why PI produces about half as much pollen as C4.A research activity was started in October 1992 to determine male fertility through microscopic studies and identify the period of maximum pollen viability as measured by its stainability with acetocarmine glycerol. This activity is continuing, Preliminary results of pollen stainability from October 1992 to March 1993 are presented in Fig. 11. C4, as expected, and 'Padri' had the highest and most stable levels of pollen stainability during this six month period while the plantain diploid derivative TMp2x 1297•3, 'Galeo', 'Po jari buaya' (PJB), PI and its hybrid TMb2x 384-30 had a seasonal variation for pollen stainability. Low pollen stainability levels were found at the end of the rainy season at Onne (October/November) but a significant increase in pollen stainability was observed towards the dry season. It seems that high irradiation, high temperature and/or low humidity in the environment favoured male fertility, as measured by pollen stainability,The pattern of pollen stainability variation in PI and 'Galeo' might be the consequence of their structural hybridity. The proportion of unbalanced meiotic products (non-stained pollen grains) is determined by the position and number of chiasmata (in the pairing and interstitial segments), chromosome distribution and centromere orientation. Adjacent distribution, either due to chromosome non-disjunction or disjunction, leads to partial sterility or semi-sterility of translocation heterozygotes. This happens because all or part of the meiotic products are genetically unbalanced due to duplications or deletions. Otherwise, in alternative distribution ,chromosomes bearing non-homologous translocated segments are distributed to the same pole in the first meiotic division. This makes possible the production of functional gametes. With ring formation, alternative distribution must be higher than adjacent segregation, thus more than 50% of viable gametes are expected. However, in the case of chain formation, the two types of distribution have the same frequency which increases the level of sterility. Ring and chain formation depend on chromosome size and chiasma formation. For example, when chiasmata do no form in all the arms or the point of interchange is near the chromosome end, a chain of four chromosomes will be observed. The results, therefore, suggest that crossing over varied in the translocation heterozygotes due to seasonal influence. This information indicates that mapping distances should be taken with caution because recombination frequencies, which are relative measurements, may be influenced by environment.Similar patterns for pollen stainability in TMb2x 384-30, a progeny of M. acuminata x PI, and PJB suggested that they could also be translocation heterozygotes.The occurrence of giant pollen has been considered as an indicator of 2n pollen production. C4, previously reported as non-2n pollen producer, had normal pollen with a diameter not exceeding 128 microns ().l). Diploid or 2n pollen must have 1.25 times the linear dimensions of haploid or n pollen. Therefore, giant pollen grains having diameters equal to 160).l were classified as 2n pollen. Pollen sizes significantly bigger than the giant pollen size, as defined above indicates more irregular meiosis due to the occurrence of double restitution (4n pollen). PI and its hybrid progeny TMb2x 384-30 had such pollen sizes in varying frequency (Fig. 12) during the six-month period. Also pollen grains bigger than 128).l but smaller than 160).l were observed in PI and TMb2x 384-30. These pollen grains will' be hyperhaploid but also hypodiploids due to unequal distribution of chromosomes to the poles in meiosis, a common feature of some translocation heterozygotes., It was not surprising that 2n pollen frequency varied between both clones and throughout this study because environmental and genetic factors as well as incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity have been reported to affect 2n pollen production. Production of 2n pollen decreased from October to January or March in 384-30 or PI, respectively. It 'seems, according to preliminary analyses, that 2n gametes in TMb2x 384-30 incr~ased under stressful environments characterized by high temperature and low relative humidity. Also 2n pollen production did not affect male fertility. The correlation coefficient, r = 0.05, was not significant between these two variables in TMb2x 384-30, but a nonsignificant negative trend (r=-0.60) was observed between pollen stainability and 2n pollen production in 'P. !ilin'. These findings suggest that 2n pollen production was independent of male fertility.Data from controlled crosses (diploid x diploid and triploid x diploid) will be correlated with pollen stainability variation to determine the effect of male fertility on seed production. This study will be completed in 1993.In vitro germination of seeds Hybrid plant production in the most common triploid Musa clones is hampered by low seed production (see Section 2d) and by low seed germination rates. Seeds of plantain crosses germinate in soil at a rate of about 1 %. Aseptic embryo culture techniques are routinely applied to increase seed germination rates by a factor of 3 to 10.Three years data on embryo culture of plantain seeds obtained after triploid x diploid crosses were analyzed. Seed success (percentage of seedlings germinated over total seed production) and embryo success (percentage of seedlings germinated over total seeds with embryos) were not affected by the year effect (P > 0.05). However, a significant monthly variation was observed (Fig_ 13) for both seed success (P < 0.05) and embryo success (P < 0.01). The interaction year x month was significant ( P < 0.05) only for seed success.During 1992, a total of 14570 seeds, produced from crosses on plantain or derived diploid and tetraploid hybrids, were handled in vitro at the Onne tissue culture laboratory, in support of the breeding program. An additional 1530 seeds derived from the cross BT x C4 were handled by a research fellow for his embryo culture investigation (see Section 5e). This gave an average of 1342 hybrid seeds handled on a monthly basis. Great fluctuations in germination rate were observed during the year (Table 11). however comparisons with previous years should be done with caution, because in 1992, seeds from secondary triploids and tetraploids as well as diploid-derived plantains were germinated in vitro.In vitro seed handling in 1992 was slightly smaller than in 1991. The average in vitro germination rate of 1992 showed an absolute increase of 0.7% over 1991 results, probably as a consequence of the utilization of euploid parents (either tetraploids or diploids) in the production of secondary triploids or in the population improvement of the plantain gene pool at the diploid level.Ploidy determination in plantain-banana hybrids Verification of ploidy levels in progenies from triploid x diploid crosses is required due to the production of diploid, triploid, tetraploid, aneuploid and hyperploid hybrids. Ploidy levels are estimated by phenotypic appearance and confirmed either by root-tip chromosome counting or stomata size and density. Protocols for DNA flow cytometry analysis and ploidy determination using in vitro planUets are currently in development. Preliminary results obtained by evaluating plantain-banana hybrids in the seedling nursery indicated that clones varied significantly for both stomata size (P < 0.001) and density (P < 0.001).Variation in pollen sizes was studied in flowering plants. No correlation was found between ploidy level and pollen size.A Belgian research fellow studied the reliability of ploidy determination using stomata measurements in plantain-banana hybrids by correlating these traits with chromosome counts using root tips. In general, size and density of stomata, which are negatively correlated (r =-0.62, P = 0.004), varied according to ploidy level. Diploid hybrids had on average 29 stomata mm-2with an average size (length x width) of 0.125 mm 2 , while tetraploids had on average 15 stomata mm-2 with an average size of 0.184 mm 2 . Both traits had a linear relationship with changes in ploidy level. Stomata size and ploidy were positively correlated (r = 0.59, P = 0.006) while stomata density and ploidy were negatively associated (r = -0.57, P = 0.008). The simple linear regression models explained only 33% and 35% of variation in stomata density and stomata size, respectively.A multiple regression model to predict ploidy based on stomata measurements was developed. The relationship [ploidy (as measured by chromosome sets) = 1.81+ 10 stomata size -1.76 x 10-2 stomata density) had a R2 of 43%. Despite this being a statistically significant model (F = 6.39, P = 0.009), the test of residuals (Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.36) was inconclusive.Moreover, the standard error of the estimate (0.7) indicated that it will be difficult to discriminate between diploid and triploid hybrids or triploid and tetraploid hybrids with this equation. For example, the East African cultivar 'Kamaramasenge' had significantly lower stomata density and larger stomata size than C4. Furthermore, its stomata density is lower than that of the triploid plantain cv. 'Bungaoisan', but 'Kamaramasenge' stomata have on average bigger size. This was surprising because 'Kamaramasenge' has been considered as a sterile AB diploid banana, but stomata measurements suggest that this clone could be a triploid. Therefore, chromosome countings are the only accurate proof of ploidy levels in Musa germplasm.Regression analyses, based on ploidy levels, for stomata size and density measurements were not able to explain more than 35% of their total variation. Therefore, hierarchical analyses of variance (Table 12) were carried out to determine what other factors were involved in stomata polymorphism. These characteristics were influenced not only by ploidy level within each population but also by a significant genotype effect within the same ploidy level.The ploidy effects were higher in the cross OL x C4 than in BT x C4, while the reverse was true for the clone/ploidy/population effects. Table 13 summarizes the evaluation of stomata size and density between ploidies in OL x C4 and BT x C4.2i.Ploidy polymorphism was commonly observed in progenies of triploid x diploid crosses. Aneuploids and hyperploids characterized by their abnormal foliage and/or weakness were rogued at the nursery stage.The monthly production of total euploid and tetraploid hybrids in OL x C4 and BT x C4 crosses for the period 1988-1989 is shown in Fig. 14. Seasonal variation followed the same bi-modal pattern as observed for seed set in plantain x banana crosses and 2n gamete production in diploid banana. An overlapping of Fig. 8 (monthly seed production), Fig. 12 (monthly 2n gamete production) and Fig. 13. (monthly seed and embryo success) with the cumulative monthly production of euploid and tetraploid hybrids (Fig. 14) allows us to summarize the results as follows:(i) From the last part of January to mid-March the recovery of tetraploid hybrids at Onne was high, despite the low rate of both seed and embryo success. Seed production was high in this period, but most of the seeds lacked embryos. It seems that the high seed set of February in triploid x diploid crosses had its origin in the high frequency of 2n eggs in the plantain parents as demonstrated by the number of tetraploid hybrids recovered in this month and the poor seed quality (ii) Few seeds were obtained after triploid x diploid crosses from the last days of March to early July_ However, most of the seeds had embryos which resulted in a high rate of seed and embryo germination. Despite the high quality seed production, no tetraploids were recovered. This was due to the production of normal haploid gametes (either n = 2x or n = x) in the plantain parent (iii) There was an unimodal pattern of seasonal variation for seed set, embryo and seed success, and euploid and tetraploid hybrid production from mid-July to December, reaching its peak in September, a month with low temperature, low solar irradiation and high relative humidity. In general, seed had average quality and production of 2n gametes was higher than during the March-July period but lower than in the January-March period (Fig. 14)Based on resource allocation (cosVbenefit ratio), production of tetraploid plantain hybrids, recovered from triploid x diploid crosses, may be more efficient when pollinations are concentrated during the period from end-January to mid-March at Onne or in environments characterized by high temperature, high solar irradiation and low relative humidity. Probably such environments are better suited to 2n gamete production than n or unbalanced (aneuploid) gamete production.The lack of correlation between seed set, embryo and seed success with production of tetraploid hybrids suggests that the fundamental rule of the game of numbers does not always hold: \" the larger the population size the higher the chance to recover the desired product\". Also, this relationship demonstrates that 'brute force', I.e., more pollinations to recover more tetraploids, does not work in plantain breeding. Production of tetraploid ,hybrids in the period end-July to December requires more investment that in the period end-January to mid-March. The results suggested that the basic rule of the game of numbers may only apply for the production of diploid hybrids.From May 1992 to September 1992, about 2700 seedlings were screened in the nursery before field establishment (Table 14). Most of the rogued plants were either aneuploids or had poor vigour. The numbers reflect the emphasis on plantain breeding of PBIP and the reduction of banana breeding efforts at the diploid level.Field plot techniques and evaluation of plantain-banana hybrids Although plantain and banana have previously been considered intractable to conventional genetic improvement, due to Iriploidy and the high level of sterility, large numbers of high yielding tetraploid hybrids are now being produced at IITA and FHIA. This proliferation of promising hybrids has led to the need to develop a scheme for hybrid selection.(i) The production of promising hybrids (ii) Testing of elite hybrids before release to farmers. A major limiting factor for testing the yield potential of plantain and banana is its land requirement:The objective of this research was 10 determine the minimum number of sampled plants needed per clone, and the most efficient field layouts for testing bunch weight at different stages of the breeding program.Data from a yield trial, comprising plantain-banana hybrids along with their plantain parent, were used to determine the optimum plot size and number of replications required per location for a yield trial. The method of maximum curvature was used to determine optimum plot size (Fig. 15). The inflection point on the graph indicated that four competing plants constitute the minimum number of plants in the experimental plot for yield trials of French plantain derived hybrids. The negative relationship between the log mean square error of bunch weight and log number of plants sampled per plot (Fig. 16) was expected, based on the empirical relationship indicated in Section 2c. The coefficient of regression of the equation in Fig. 16 (b = 0.51) was the measurement of the index of soil heterogeneity for the experimental field in which the preliminary yield trial was carried out. The coefficient of soil heterogeneity was inconclusive to determine if the plots of any size were serially correlated. This happens when b=O, which indicates that nothing will be gained by increasing the plot size.The probability of having Type I error (a), or false rejection of null hypothesis: 'all the treatments are equal', and Type II error (~), or false acceptance of null hypothesis, and the availability of breeding materials were considered in calculating the plot size and number of replications required for a statistically adequate comparison of bunch weight (Table 15).In the early stage of the breeding process, performance of the plantain or banana parents is compared with the performance of selected hybrids. In more advanced stages of the breeding process, the relative performance between hybrids can be used as the selection criterion for the best genotypes.In preliminary stages of the program (Early Evaluation Trials, EET, or Preliminary Yield Trials, PYT) a large number of clones are evaluated (100 or more) to determine which are to be selected for further testing. Planting material is limited at this stage, typically 1-5 plants/clone, and material is only available for unreplicated plots or limited replications in EET or PYT, respectively.In the early selection stages, it is most important not to reject valuable material. We therefore use a probability level of 10% (EET) or 5% (PYT) to select those hybrids with at least equal (EET) or significantly higher (PYT) bunch weight than the parental cultivar. This approach keeps Type II error low. In more advanced stages of the program (e.g. Multilocational testing or Advanced Trials), elite hybrids should be differentiated with a significance level of 1% (highest hybrid mean -2 or 3 SE) or 0.1% (highest hybrid mean -3 or 4 SE). This requires an increase in the number of replications to protect against Type II error.Currently, PBIP uses augmented designs in EET on the breeding station;the plantain cultivar is evaluated in replicated plots, but non-replicated plots of 5 plants each are used for the hybrids. Selected materials are evaluated in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 2 replicates of 4 plants each for PYT in one location, and in RCBD with 2 replicates of 5 plants for multilocational testing in at least 10 different locations of West and Central Africa (Fig. 17). For advanced testing of elite hybrids PBIP recommends 1 of 2 strategies:(i) National programs use a trial design such as a RCBD with 4 replicates of 5plants for advanced testing of elite hybrids, for at least 2 years (plant crop and ratoon) and at 10 different sites in the targeted ecoregion, or (ii) National programs reduce replications to 1-2 per site but increase the number of sites to be between 30-40 in the target areaThe development of a cultivar profile to identify proper agronomic practices (alley cropping, N-P-K fertilization, etc) should be fine-tuned by on-farm testing (OFT) of the TMPx along with a local cultivar. OFT requires plots comprising at least six competing plants. Four replications are required to compare 5-7 treatments and to identify as a 'cultivar profile\" the treatment which yields 25% more than the control's bunch weight. In OFT maximizing the number of trials is generally more important than replications within sites. Therefore, replications could be decreased within sites and replaced by additional sites.The most common experimental field layouts are completely randomized (CRD) and RCBD. Blocking should be used in sites where a sensible basis for this exists (e.g., fertilizer gradient). CRD are recommended for OFT especially in backyards.PBIP advises to insert a susceptible local cultivar (e.g. 'Valery' or 'Agbagba' for black sigatoka disease) at certain intervals (I.e., every two testing lines) and to plant it at the edge of a yield trial (METs, AMYTs or OFTs) in order to provide a uniform black sigatoka infection pressure.Newly bred genotypes are initially evaluated in observational plots (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) plants in an unreplicated trial) for black sigatoka resistance (BSR), large bunch and fruit size, parthenocarpic fruit development, improved ratooning and dwarfism. The early evaluation of breeding products takes place at the Onne Station and involves observations on several hundred new genotypes each year.Until 1991 most of the early evaluation plots consisted of diploid banana and plantain derived hybrids. In 1992 secondary triploid hybrids, derived from crosses between plantain primary tetraploids and available diploids, as well as offspring of diploid plantain-derived hybrids were evaluated for the first time in the field. The number of clones and seedlings, and their expected ploidy in each breeding scheme are listed in Several plantain-derived diploids, disregarding their agronomic attributes or black sigatoka resistance, were the parents in the 92-EET. They were crossed with high male fertile diploid bananas such as SF 247 and SH-3362. Preliminary analyses suggested that only selected parents should be included in the crossing blocks. This was revealed by the poor performance and vigour of several unselected diploids (565-16, 566-32, 1668-7, 2085-1, 2902-43, 4188-2) when crossed with the two diploid i:lananas. Even the breeding value of the selected TMb2x must be checked before using them as regular progenitors in the production of improved diploid plantain germ plasm because selected hybrids such as TMp2x 1518-4 and TMp2x 2625-20 produced offspring with poor vigour. Probably recurrent selection with progeny testing would be the most appropriate tool for breeding in the diploid plantain germplasm. Also the utilization of diploid bananas to breed in this germplasm should be re-examined, especially when fruit quality attributes are considered.We found hyperploids (pentaploids or heptaploids) after crossing diploid derived plantains with SF 247. This may be an indirect evidence of 4n pollen production due to double restitution in SF 247.Secondary triploids, in the 92-EET, were produced by crossing primary tetraploids (TMPx 548-4, TMPx 548-9, TMPx 582-4, TMPx 1658-4, TMPx 2637-49, TMPx 2776-20, TMPx 4698-1 and TMPx 6930) with other selected partners (TMp2x 1549-7 and SH-3362) or parthenocarpic bananas (e.g. 'Galeo').The most promising progenies in the 92-EET were derived from TMPx 548-4. So far, no aneuploids or weak progeny has been obtained with this parent. A high percentage of dwarf secondary hybrids were observed in the crosses between TMPx 582-4 (a dwarf itself) with TMPx 1187-8 and TMPx .6930-1 x TMp2x 1549-7. Some seedlings showed the abnormal growth development associated with aneuploids. This could be the reflection of irregular meiosis in the tetraploid parent leading to the production of aneuploid gametes. Also some hyperploid hybrids were produced by the female parents TMPx 2637-49, TMPx 4698-1 and TMPx 6930-1, which might be considered as an indirect evidence of double restitution in the megasporogenesis of these hybrids.Non-parthenocarpic secondary triploids were obtained by crossing TMPx 4479-1 and SH-3362. This shows that both parents are heterozygous for at least one of the fruit parthenocarpy loci. Most of the secondary triploids derived by crossing the unselected black sigatoka susceptible hybrid 597-4 with SH-3362were not promising due to their poor vigour.Preliminary evaluation of secondary tetraploids showed that some progenies from the cross TMPx 548-4 x 597-4 were abnormal and weak (poor vigour).The comparison of secondary triploids and tetraploids, which were fieldestablished in early evaluation plots, will take place in 1993 and preliminary yield trials will be carried out in 1994 to identify the best type of breeding methodology for further improvement of Musa germplasm. Combining ability of the parents will also be assessed to identify progenitors for the breeding program.Selfed progenies, of both TMp2x and TMPx, showed poor vigour mainly due to an increase of inbreeding, which might indicate that this technique could not be useful in the genetic improvement of Musa . Also we have observed that backcrosses to C4 are not convenient either at diploid or tetraploid level due to an increase number of wild alleles in the cultivated gene pool.An experiment aiming to establish the importance of heterozygosity and inbreeding in bunch weight and other agronomic traits as well as the value of the backcross method was started in 1993. The experimental materials are currently being produced. The experiment will consist of 2-way, 3-way and 4-way tetraploid x diploid, triploid x tetraploid and triploid x diploid crosses between unrelated (8=0) and related parents (8)0). Also backcrosses to the triploid plantains and diploid bananas have been done. An early evaluation trial in 1994 and a preliminary yield trial in 1995 of the hybrid progenies along with their parents will be carried out to determine what could be the best crossing scheme to continue improving Musa germplasrn.The hybrids combining increased BSR with good bunch qualities are selected in EET for further evaluation in replicated trials at Onne (2 replicates of 4 plants each), which are called PYT by PBIP. In addition to the traits evaluated in EETs, earliness, resistance to other pests/diseases, fruit quality/palatability, and postharvest storage ability are also evaluated in the PVT.From 1989 to early 1991 preliminary yield trials (plant and ratoon crops) were conducted at Onne to evaluate the performance of 25 plantain hybrids (diploids, triploids and tetraploids) alor)g with one primary tetraploid of the cooking banana 'Bluggoe' (see details about this clone in Section 4b). Results of this evaluation were reported in the PBIP 1991 Annual Report. Based on their high yield, adequate bunch characteristics and less susceptibility or partial resistance to black sigatoka the following clones were selected: TMpx 548 -4, TMpx 548-9, TMpx 582-4, TMpx 1112-1, TMpx 2796-5, TMp2x 597-2, TMp2x 1518-4, TMp2x 2348-6 and TMp2x 2348-7. The last two clones were derived from the cross 'Bungaoisan' x C4. We also found that 'Bungaoisan' was the best parent in the production of plantain-derived diploid hybrids with high bunch weight and adequate black sigatoka resistance.At the end of 1990, a preliminary yield trial consisting of the cv. 'Obino I' Ewai' (OL, under fungicide and non-fungicide treatments), and its tetraploid hybrids TMpx 548-4, TMPx 548-9 and 597-4 was planted at Onne. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 4 replications of 25 plants, but observations and data were taken in 9 intra-clonal competing plants.Results of the plant crop were discussed in PBIP 1991 Annual Report. The tetraploid hybrid TMPx 597-4, which initially was selected as black sigatoka resistant, showed a partial resistance to black sigatoka until flowering, but became susceptible during the fruit filling period. The results of analyses of variance (ANOVAs), based on production cycle means, assuming the statistically strict random model over the two production cycle (plant and ratocn crops) are given in Table 17. This AN OVA requires F values (mean square ratios) of 53.4 and 161 to detect statistical significance (P = 0.05) for treatments and production cycle, respectively. This is due to the number of degrees of freedom for the F-test (1,1 and 1,4 for production cycle and treatment respectively). Therefore AN OVA significance for these two sources of variation should be regarded as conservative.In general the bunch weights of the ratoon cycle (9.3 kg) were inferior to those previously reported in the plant crop (13.2 kg) due to a shorter cycle in the ratoon (337 days) than in the plant crop (380 days). Also the suckers developed faster in the ratoon cycle (RC) than in the plant crop (PC) as measured by the height of the tallest sucker at harvest (208 cm and 154 cm for the RC and PC, respectively). Possibly source-sink relationships favoured the fast growth of the suckers and decreased the allocation of resources (nutrients) for fruit filling.The significance of treatment x production cycle interaction was assessed by Tukey's test of non-additivity. Only significant interactions were found for days to flowering and days to fruit filling. However, a change of magnitudes but not on ranking was the cause for this statistical interaction. For example, there was a sharp reduction in days to fruit filling for the ratoon cycle of the plantain, especially when non-chemical protection was provided, whereas the hybrids used about 120 days for fruit filling in both cycles. Due to this non-cross order interaction, it was statistically correct to make comparisons of means over the two production cycles (Table 18). Student-Neuman-Keul's multiple comparison tests at the 5% level were carried out for statistical mean separation. This conservative test protects against Type I error but increase the chance of Type 1/ error (false acceptance of null hypothesis, i.e. no differences between mean treatments).Three one degree of freedom linear contrasts were carried out of: Bunch weigths of Ol increased by 57% under chemical treatment. The major factor for the increase was the gain of fruit weight (43%) due to ten more days for fruit filling. Both fruit length and circumference contributed equally (17% and 16%, respectively) to this gain in fruit size.The tetraplOid hybrids only differed in bunch weight and its components.The susceptible 597-4 had inferior bunches relative to the black sigatoka resistant TMPx 548-4 and TMPx 548-9 arising mainly from differences in fruit weights, of which the yield components (although non-significant) were increased fruit length and circumference in the black sigatoka resistant hybrids.The black sigatoka resistant hybrids relative to their fungicide treated plantain parent had greater bunch weights, improved suckering behaviour, shorter production cycle, due to earlier flowering, and longer fruit filling period (Table 18). The increase in bunch weight was due to both more and larger fruits in the hybrids than in Ol-FT, rather than increases only in individual fruit sizes. Differences in the fruit length and circumference between the BSR hybrids and the plantain parent did not attain statistical significance.Nevertheless, the fruit circumferences of both BSR hybrids were greater by 14% and 7%, for TMPx 548-9 and TMPx 548-4 repectively, than that of the fungicide treated plantain. Similarly the fruit length of TMPx 548-9 had a slight increase (5%) as compared with Ol-FT. These attributes analysis explain the higher bunch weight of the hybrids when compared with Ol-FT.A more detailed comparison between host plant resistance and chemical control strategies is discussed in Section 3c.A preliminary yield trial comprising the selected hybrids from Ol x C4 (TMPx 548-4, TMPx 548-9, TMp2x 597-2) and BT x C4 (TMPx 582-4, TMp2x 1518-4) as well as other tetraplOid hybrids produced from both crosses (period 1989 and mid-1990) and between both BT and Ol with PI was started in mid-1991. A maximum of five replicates was used for the evaluation of each clone. Results of growth and yield parameters in the plant crop (1991/1992 season) for BT x C4 and Ol x C4 progenies are summarized in Table 19.Progeny testing of the plantain cultivars was carried out to assess their combining ability for bunch weight and black sigatoka resistance before using them as elite progenitors in PBIP breeding program. In this regard, plantain cv. 'Obino l'Ewai' had greater breeding value than cv. 'Bobby Tannap', not only because the former had a higher black sigatoka resistance inheritance rate (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report), but also because its progenies had significantly better average bunch weight (Table 19). Both traits, black sigatoka resistance and yield, are currently the most important parameters used in the early evaluation of breeding materials, again emphasizing that 'Obino l'Ewai' seems -to be a more valuable maternal source for plantain improvement as compared with 'Bobby Tannap'.Data analyses from the ratoon crop will be included in 1993 PBIP Annual Report. Genetic analyses and black sigatoka (BS) reactions are discussed in detail in Section 2w. and Section 3a.Based on these PYT results, 12 hybrids of OL x C4, 3 of BT x C4, and one each from BT x PI and OL x PI were selected (Table 20) due to their equal or higher bunch weight than their fungicide-treated plantain parent as well as their decreased susceptibility or partial resistance to BS. Taking into consideration that the tetraploids constituted the reference breeding population, the rates of selection were very high: 75% for OL x C4 and 50% for BT x C4. If all the euploids are considered for this calculation, the selection rates decrease for OL x C4 and BT x C4 respectively to 32% and 5%.Plantain-derived diploids recovered from the triploid x diploid crosses prove to be very advantageous to plantain breeding, because they provide opportunity for germplasm enhancement at the diploid level and simplify genetic analysis due to disomic inheritance. This facilitates and speeds up the breeding work. They have been used in the extension of the initial breeding approach to include the production of secondary triploids by further crossing the primary tetraploid hybrids with these diploids. Twenty four selected diploids (Table 21), based on their performance in EETs and PYTs, are being evaluated for fruit quality traits prior their utilization as regular progenitors in the breeding program.Selection rates, over the total number of diploids, were 12%, 23%, 27% and 29% in 'French Reversion' x C4, BT x C4, OL x C4 and 'Bungaoisan' x C4, respectively. 2m.The TMP(B)x which incorporate most of the desirable traits in PYT are included in Multilocational Evaluation Trials (MET). Each MET is carried out in a minimum of 3 different locations using 2 replications of 5 plants each of 8-15 genotypes. The main objective of MET is to test the performance of the TMP(B)x under a wider range of agro-ecological conditions in sub-Saharan Africa, thereby assessing the genotype by environment interaction for specific traits and the stability of both yield and BSR.The involvement of key NARS in this relatively early stage of hybrid evaluation is important for feedback to improve selection procedures. Conducting METs also allows IITA's breeders to decide what material might be further evaluated by NARS in the target area. MET is an integral activity of the breeding program of PBIP in which the collaboration with NARS seeks to assist the strengthening of their research capacity. An additionally outcome should be the release and distribution of materials through the collaborating NARS.Aseptic shoot-tip culture is used as a vehicle for the safe exchange of banana/plantain germplasm. Shoot-tip cultures confer considerable advantages for the international transfer of germ plasm because: (i) The mass of plant material involved in the movement is greatly reduced (ii) The plant material is contained (iii) They overcome nearly all of the problems associated with pests and pathogens, other than in some expectional circumstances (iv) They are amenable to rapid multiplicationThe Nigerian Plant Quarantine Service visits the PBIP in vitro Tissue Culture Laboratory once every year to check the health status of the stocks. After this inspection, phytosanitary certificates are officially printed to export planting materials for the METs and AMYTs planted outside Nigeria. Each non-Nigerian cooperator of the MET and AMYT networks also sends import permits, in advance, which are issued by the respective national plant quarantine authority.This process, therefore, follows all the international, regional and local quarantine regulations for the implementation of yield trials out of Onne Station.PBIP has selected improved germplasm with non-immunity or less susceptibility to black sigatoka (see Section 3a). Our resistance criteria are defined on a scale relative to known susceptibility standards. In Section 2w a detailed description is presented on how this scale facilitated elucidation of the inheritance of black sigatoka resistance.Due to different surveyors in each location, the youngest leaf spotted  22), indicate that there were significant differences between locations for black sigatoka resistance, number of leaves, bunch weight, and fruit length, circumference, and weight. In general the clones had more leaves, heavier bunches with larger fruits at Onne than in M'Balmayo. Also the clones showed less susceptibility to black sigatoka disease at Onne than at M'Balmayo. The higher bunch and fruit weights at Onne might reflect more photosynthetic activity at this location than at M'Balmayo, due to more leaf area.Furthermore, the genotype by location interaction was significant for plant height, days to flowering, black sigatoka resistance, fruit filling period, bunch weight, number of fingers, fruit circumference and weight. This indicates that the clones had different maturation times at each location. The results emphasise the value of multilocation testing before cultivar release, even in the same agroecological region.To make a more accurate assessment of black sigatoka responses all the clones were compared with known susceptible cultivars ('Agbagba' and 'Valery') and the hybrids against their triploid parents (' Bluggoe', BT and Ol). TMP(B)x with more or significantly more leaves without necrotic spots than the susceptible parent were considered as having less susceptibility or partial resistance to black sigatoka disease, respectively.Hybrid and cultivar means of black sigatoka resistance, growth and yield parameters evaluated at each location are presented independently in Table 23 (Onne) and Table 24 (M'Balmayo) because the genotype-by-environment interaction affected most of the traits evaluated. Skewness and kurtosis were the statistics employed for the analyses of frequency distribution for all the traits in each location. We found that all traits follow almost a quasi-normal distribution at M'Balmayo and that only number of fingers, fruit length and circumference did not follow a normal distribution at Onne. This was indicated by the significant value of skewness and kurtosis for the last three traits at Onne. Transformation were not done because these non-normal frequency distributions could be related to the excessive number of triploid or tetraploid clones with high value for such traits as compared with the diploids, which are characterized for having low values for fruit characteristics.In general, the results agree with those published in PBIP 1991 Annual Report. TMP(B)x had less severe black sigatoka reactions and equal or greater bunch weight relative to their plantain parents. Also the tetraploids had shorter plant stature and better suckering behaviour, which are desirable traits combined with earlier flowering and longer fruit filling periods when compared with their plantain parents. Only 'Agbagba', the False Horn plantain, and the ABB cooking bananas had fruit sizes (weighVlength and circumference, respectively) or greater than the tetraploid hybrids. This was expected because large and heavy fruits, and big circumferences are distinctive characteristics of the False Horn and ABB cooking banana gene pools, respectively.The results from the Humid Forest Stations of IITA indicated that TMPx 1658-4 (hereafter PITA-7) and TMPx 548-4 (PITA-2) were high and stable yielding clones in this agro-ecology. These clones out yielded not only their susceptible plantain parent OL but also other ABB cooking bananas with less susceptibility to black sigatoka. Also both clones and TMPx 2796-5 (PITA-5) were stable and consistent in their black sigatoka response across locations.The MET-2. planted in 1992. tests 12 promising hybrids (Table 25) in IITA's stations at Onne and M'Balmayo, at Namulonge Station, Uganda and involves the participation of NARS in Australia, Cameroon, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ghana and Nigeria (Table 26). The field layout used at Onne Station, which is similar to that of the other sites but with different randomization, is illustrated in Fig. 18.Preliminary reports of our cooperators are encouraging. For example, the host response to black sigatoka in the MET-1 at Onne (Table 23) was similar to . the one in the MET-2 at Nyombe, Cameroon. In the CRBP 1992 Annual Report, our collaborators noted from preliminary observations that all TMPx showed high partial resistance, while TMBx 612•74 was rated as highly resistant (no necrosis). The highest levels of partial resistance were shown by PITA-5 (YLS 12.0 and 9.1. at Nyombe and Onne, respectively). YLS results for other entries at Nyombe and Onne respectively were: PITA 2 9.5, 8.8; TMPx 5484 10.2, 7.5 PITA 7 9.8 7.5. The susceptible reference banana cv. 'Valery' had a YLS of 6.2. and 4.2 at Nyombe and Onne, respectively.Complete results of the MET•2 will be analyzed and published in PBIP 1993 Annual Report.Registration of Improved plantain germplasm (TMPx)Improved genetic material of Musa, developed by IITA, is released to national programs without restriction whenever it proves useful. The improved germ plasm developed by IITA breeders has been submitted for registration in order to place the material in the public domain. This official registration provides an accurate description of the material and establishes a bench•mark of advancement. The IMTP, set up by iNiBAP, aims at the identification of germplasm (natural or improved) with resistance/tolerance to a specific disease or pest through testing on a global scale. The first IMTP concentrates on black sigatoka resistance and involves six selection sites in two continents (Africa and tropical America). IITA participates as an equal partner in the IMTP that is carried out in Africa.The IMTP-1 trial focused on the evaluation of seven hybrids of banana and plantain produced by FHIA (Fundacion Hondurena de Investigacion Agricola, La Lima, Honduras), along with 11 black sigatoka standard hosts and reference cultivars in observation (unreplicated) plots. This research is part of IITA's collaboration with iNIBAP and FHIA.Preliminary results (Table 28) ~howed that FHIA-1 (a 'Prata' banana hybrid), FHIA-2 ( a 'Cavendish' banana hybrid) and FHIA-3 (a 'Cardaba' derivative) had partial resistance to black sigatoka leaf spot disease while the remaining plantain hybrids (derived from either Maqueno or AVP-67) were susceptible or less susceptible to BS. FHIA-4 (a plantain hybrid derived from AVP-67 French plantain) showed resistance to black sigatoka until flowering, but became susceptible towards the harvest period.Comparisons among cultivars should be made only with caution because they were planted randomly in unreplicated plots, following INIBAP's guidelines for this trial. In general tall plants had a wider girth at flowering than shorther plants (r = 0.74, P < 0.01), as well as more leaves ( r = 0.75; P < 0.01). However there were not significant correlations between plant height and number of leaves with bunch weight (r = 0.47 and 0.46, respectively). Therefore, the development of high yielding cultivars with short stature should be possible. This information is being considered for the development of an ideotype in Muss breeding (see Section 2s). 'Pahang', PI and C4 showed lack of apical dominance, which resulted in a fast development of the sucker (follower for the ratoon cycle) as measured by the ratoon growth index (RGi) or the ratio between the height of tallest sucker at harvest and pseudostem height in the plant crop. None of FHIA hybrids had improved suckering behaviour, as measured by RGi. This index was smaller or equal to those of 'Valery' or 'Agbagba' for dessert bananas and plantains, respectively.'Tuu Gia' and 'Pisang Berlin' were other diploid bananas with fast sucker growth whereas SF 247 and 'Niyarma yik', early maturity clones, showed low RGi probably due to high apical dominance. This would question previous ideas indicating fixation of genes for non-apical dominance in the AA gene pool.The IMTP, set up by INIBAP, aims at the identification of germ plasm (natural or improved) with resistance/tolerance to a specific disease or pest through testing on a global scale. The first IMTP concentrates on black sigatoka resistance and involves six selection sites in two continents (Africa and tropical America). liT A participates as an equal partner in the IMTP that is carried out in Africa.The IMTP-1 trial focused on the evaluation of seven hybrids of banana and plantain produced by FHIA (Fundacion Hondurena de Investigacion Agricola, La Lima, Honduras), along with 11 black sigatoka standard hosts and reference cultivars in observation (unreplicated) plots. This research is part of liT A's collaboration with INIBAP and FHIA.Preliminary results (Table 28) showed that FHIA-1 (a 'Prata' banana hybrid), FHIA-2 ( a 'Cavendish' banana hybrid) and FHIA-3 (a 'Cardaba' derivative) had partial resistance to black sigatoka leaf spot disease while the remaining plantain hybrids (derived from either Maqueno or AVP-67) were susceptible or less susceptible to BS. FHIA-4 (a plantain hybrid derived from AVP-67 French plantain) showed resistance to black sigatoka until flowering, but became susceptible towards the harvest period.Comparisons among cultivars should be made only with caution because they were planted randomly in unreplicated plots. following INIBAP's guidelines for this trial. In general tall plants had a wider girth at flowering than shorther plants (r = 0.74, P < 0.01). as well as more leaves ( r = 0.75; P < 0.01). However there were not significant correlations between plant height and number of leaves with bunch weight (r = 0.47 and 0.46, respectively). Therefore, the development of high yielding cultivars with short stature should be possible. This information is being considered for the development of an ideotype in Muss breeding (see Section 2s).'Pahang', PI and C4 showed lack of apical dominance, which resulted in a fast development of the sucker (follower for the ratoon cycle) as measured by the ratoon growth index (RGi) or the ratio between the height of tallest sucker at harvest and pseudostem height in the plant crop. None of FHIA hybrids had improved suckering behaviour, as measured by RGi. This index was smaller or equal to those of 'Valery' or 'Agbagba' for dessert bananas and plantains, respectively.'Tuu Gia' and 'Pisang Berlin' were other diplOid bananas with fast sucker growth whereas SF 247 and 'Niyarma yik', early maturity clones, showed low RGi probably due to high apical dominance. This would question previous ideas indicating fixation of genes for non-apical dominance in the AA gene pool.The cooking banana hybrid FHIA-3 was selected for thorough testing in sub-Saharan Africa. FHIA granted authorization to include this hybrid in our AMYT and for further genetic manipulations in PBIP's breeding programme.PBIP has put forward the black sigatoka-resistant plantain hybrids PITA-2, PITA-3, PITA-4, PITA-5 and PITA-6 (see Table 20) as entries in the IMTP-2 along with breeding materials from FHIA, EMBRAPA (Brazil), CIRAD/IRFA (Guadaloupe) and INIVIT (Cuba). 2p.There is a genuine need within a breeding program to evaluate thoroughly the experimental materials through a sequence of trials, which will result in the selection of promising genotypes as potential new cultivars for distribution by NARS. Because of the existence of several programs which produce candidate breeding lines for release to African NARS, there is a need for agreement on, and coordination of, the efforts aimed at evaluating these products.Selected materials from multilocational testing (MET), along with local cultivars used as checks, are included in an Advanced Muss Yield Trial (AMYT) to be undertaken simultaneously in several local evaluation sites of various countries (Table 29) and in which the NARS would be the executing agencies.The results of such trials would thus be of regional relevance.The objective of the AMYT-1 is to identify elite genotypes for potential release as new cultivars by NARS according to the specific regulations in each country. AMYT-1 evaluates eight selected promising hybrids (Table 30) over a period of at least two years in a RCB design with 4 replications of 5 plants each.Field layouts (Fig. 19) are similar to those of the METs with independent randomizations for each location to avoid correlation of errors.Criteria for selection should not only include disease resistance and productivity, but also local preferences as they affect consumer acceptability (see Section 6).Plant breeders are interested in the selection of genotypes which perform well over a wide range of environments. To identify such genotypes, yield trials are carried out over years in the breeding station and at different locations. In Muss the genotype-by-year (GxY) interaction seems less important than the genotype-by-Iocation (GxL) interaction, even in the same agro-ecological zone (see Sections 2m and 2w).In the presence of a significant interaction, both the stratification of environments according to their agro-climatological similarities and the determination of stability parameters for genotypes across environments are important tools for the management of the genotype-by-environment (GxE) interaction.Several techniques have been developed to determine what was the most stable genotype in a set of replicated trials across years, locations or combinations of both (namely environments). However, these postdictive models are not useful in the identification of what genotypes and environments contribute to the GxE interaction. Moreover, a breeder may be interested to identify what genotypes are adapted to specific environments and/or to predict their performance in a specific location. The additive main eHects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) model was developed to provide answers for such questions. AMMI uses the analysiS of variance (ANOVA) to study the main effects of genotypes and environments and principal component analysis (PCA) for the residual multiplicative interaction.Five tetraploid hybrids, which cllrrently are undergoing evaluation in the multilocation trials, were chosen to determine the validity of AMMI analysis of factorial (genotype-by-environment) designs for Musa yield trials. Data from early evaluation trials (EET at Onne 1989/1990), preliminary yield trials at Onne in the plant crop (PYT-PC 1990/1991) and ratoon (PYT-R 1991/1992), and multilocational trials (MET) at Onne, M'8almayo and lbadan (1992/1993) were used for this analysis. This biplot (Fig. 20) gives also additional interesting information. 2r. Taxonomic approaches for banana breeding at the diploid level Plantain and banana breeding has long been considered essentially as diploid breeding due to the triploid nature of most of the cultivated types. Despite the success in the direct utilization of a wild non-related diploid banana such as 'Calcutta 4' in the production of black sigatoka resistant plantain hybrids, diploid breeding is still considered as an important component for the genetic improvement of Musa spp. In this regard, an important step in the breeding program is the production of improved diploid material to be used as male par~nts in both triploid x diploid crosses (to produce primary tetraploids) and tetraploid x diploid crosses (to produce secondary triploids). The selection of diploid material is based on both female and male fertility, black sigatoka resistance and good bunch characteristics.The genome composition of triploid banana and plantain cultivars was considered as a crucial point to develop breeding strategies by CIRAD/ IRFA andIITA (1987-1990). This information was used by breeders in these institutes, as a means of choosing diploid materials to transfer desired characteristics to cultivars. This taxonomic approach doss not seem to be genetically correct because it ignores the occurrence of segregation and recombination during meiosis. In other words, genes and not genotypes are carried to the next generation by the gametes of the diploid parents. Important genotypic combinations are broken due to the independent assortment of genes or the occurrence of crossing overs between loci. Nevertheless, selection gains in a breeding program rely on change of gene frequency, which results in the production of improved genotypes. Inreresting diploid materials, which have been obtained at IITA using this approach, will be incorporated in the regular breeding program of PSIP to test their breeding value.The intensity of selection at the diploid level was 0.7 %, the lowest across PBIP breeding schemes in 1992. Eleven improved diploid banana clones (Table 31) combining BSR, a compact and pendant high-yielding bunch with long parthenocarpic fingers, were identified. For example TMb2x 9128-3 (a progeny from the cross 'Tjau Lagada' x PI) had a bunch of 12.2 kg with 19 hands and 316 fingers. It had higher bunch weight but smaller fingers than SH-3362 (improved diploid clone from FHIA) at Onne. An exceptional selection, due to its origin, was TMb2x 6142-1, which was derived from the cross between the AM East African cooking banana 'Nyamwihogora\" and 'Calcutta 4'. This clone may be useful for breeding in the East'African gene pool (see Section 4). The improved diploids are being multiplied for their use on a large scale in the crossing blocks. In this way their breeding values will be assessed.We determined the breeding value of some diploid accessions, by their progeny testing, as well as their genotype for specific loci. 'Djum Metek' 'Galeo', Higa 111-4, M. a. subssp. malaccensis, M. 8. subssp. zebrina, M. balbisiana accessions, 'Po madu\" 'Po rotan', 'Pitu', 'Putewey' and Truncata' have limited value as indicated by their nil selected offspring. We also found that 'Padri' , SH-3362 and unknown 'Dibit' are heterozygous for the fruit parthenocarpy P, locus (see Section 2w). Segregation for this trait was observed in test-crosses with C4 (homozygous recessive for this locus). A diploid derived by crossing 'Valery', as female, and C4 , as male, was discarded because it had non-parthenocarpic fruits. This indicated that 'Valery' is heterozygous for the P, locus.2s.An Ideotype for Muss improvement and an index for multitrait selection Results in Table 4 indicated that pseudostem height and bunch weight are correlated with the leaf area index. This suggests that tall plantains with big leaves have high yielding bunches because they have more leaf area for photosynthesis. However, giant plantains flowered late and therefore required a longer production cycle (planting to harvest). Moreover, adjusted yields per unit time did not differ among medium and giant plantains in the False Horn gene pool and actual real yields, taking into consideration the incidence of nonproductive plants, were similar between giant and medium French Plantains (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report). This demonstrates the importance of correlated characters to define an ideotype for plantain breeding.Musa were analyzed based on the IMTP results (Section 20) using different biometrical approaches. Correlation analyses have been discussed in Section 20. Due to the significant correlation b~tween plant height and girth at flowering we recommend only plant height as a breeding record. However, both traits seem to be useful for taxonomic purposes as illustrated in Fig_ 22. The IMTP entries had an almost perfect clustering according to their taxonomic designations based on these two measurements. All the diploid bananas were characterized for their shorter stature and thinner pseudostem when compared with the triploid or tetraploid clones.Principal component analysis (PCA) gave more information about what diploid parents have characteristics which may be incorporated into our ideotype. PRIN1, which explained 77.2% of the total variation, was unevenly and positively loaded on plant height and days to flowering and negatively loaded on height of tallest sucker. Similarly PRIN2, was positively and unevenly loaded on days to flowering, fruit filling period and height of tallest sucker and explained another 14.3% of the total variation. Thus, the PCA diagram (FIg_ 23) was divided in quadrants: in the upper right side, the two plantain hybrids (FHIA-4 and FHIA-5) and 'Agbagba' were clustered together and closer to FHIA-3 and 'Valery'. With the exception of FHIA-3, they were characterized for being tall (except 'Valery'). late flowering, black sigatoka susceptible as well as having high apical dominance. which slows sucker development. Close to this group was the AAB derived banana hybrid. FHIA-1. In the centre of the graph and close to 'Valery' were 'Po Berlin' and FHIA-2. a hybrid of 'Williams'(Cavendish group).They had short stature and faster sucker growth than the other clones mentioned above. In the lower right quadrant. the black sigatoka susceptible diploid bananas SF 215 and 'Niyarma yik' were grouped due to their early flowering, short fruit filling time and potential apical dominance. In the upper left side we found the black sigatoka resistant AA bananas 'Tuu Gia', 'Pahang\" and C4. The other black sigatoka resistant banana PI was closer to this group. While 'Tuu Gia' and 'Pahang' were tall clones both C4 and PI had short stature and early flowering. The black sigatoka resistan~ bananas had also very fast sucker growth rates and long fruit filling period. This information combined with the comparison of TMPx germ plasm with their parents (Sections 21, 2m, 2n) allowed us to determine that the short stature, . early flowering, fast sucker growth and long fruit filling time were the most important traits contributed by the AA banana gene pool for the improvement of the AAB plantain gene pool. They have the genes (Section 2w) for dwarfism, earliness, non-apical dominance and increased time for fruit filling which made possible the production of TMPx germplasm with these attributes. Hence, these are the four main characteristiCs, besides disease/pest resistance, that Musa breeders should look for in the AA bananas before utilizing them in the crossing block.We know that the breeding product, an improved cultivar with sustainable production, is a combination of several traits, e.g. a high and stable yielding plantain with black sigatoka resistance and fruit quality. This clearly reflects that the economic value of the final product depends on more than one trait.Therefore, simultaneous selection for several traits has been put in practice at I ITA.Several methods were implemented in 1992 by PBIP for multitrait selection:(i) Tandem selection in which one trait was used as selection criteria at any one time, but the chosen trait varied from cycle to cycle of selection. For example, in the roguing nursery all the aneuploids and hyperploids were eliminated due to their poor vigour and stunted growth, later (at flowering) selection took place only in the euploid population; and(ii) Independent culling, or when a separate threshold is set for each trait, and the selected individuals are those which are simultaneously above the threshold for each trait. This happened in the PYTs where the selected TMPx had both less susceptibility to black sigatoka and higher bunch weight than their respective parents.Despite the successful utilization of these multitrait selection methods, we consider that simultaneous selection based on an index combining more than two traits may speed the accumulation of desirable traits in the breeding population. We are developing such an index taking into consideration the variance/covariance structure, genetic and phenotypic correlations and economic weights that the breeder gives to the different traits according to their economic importance. Data from the plant and ratoon crops (1991)(1992)(1993) PYTs at Onne) are being analyzed to calculate selection indices for each diploid and tetraploid breeding population. Parents for further utilization in crossing blocks . wi II be selected in 1993/1994 based on thei r index.Breeding the False Horn gene pool using somaclonal variants Occurrence of French reversion variants among in vitro propagated populations of False Horn plantains provides opportunity to breed this highly sterile gene pool. Indeed, the French variant is more fertile that the original 'Agbagba' cultivar,the number of seeds set being 2.5 and 0.03 per bunch, respectively (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report).The off-type did not only show a different inflorescence morphology, but also shorter stature and fruit filling period, lower bunch and fruit weight, fewer hands, but more fingers than the true~type (Table 32). The French reversion variant was also significantly different from the naturally occurring French cultivars for all growth and yield parameters. Moreover, preliminary results for fruit quality analyses (see Section 6), showed that TMPx 1112-1, a triploid black sigatoka resistant hybrid derived from crossing the French reversion variant of 'Agbagba' with C4, had closer fruit characteristics to 'Agbagba' than the other French plantain hybrids. This would indicate that somaclonal variation partially affected the characteristics of the 'Agbagba' cultivar.Therefore, the utilization of the French reversion variant as parent in triploid x diploid crosses could be considered as a way for the genetic improvement of the highly sterile False Horn plantains. Selection for larger and fewer parthenocarpic fruits, i.e., the False Horn ideotype, was done in the segregating diploid populations comprising euploid hybrids (diploids, triploids and tetraploids). We selectedTMPx 1297-3 among the diploid derived clones (selection rate of 12.5%) of French Reversion x C4. This clone has a pendant bunch with parthenocarpic fruits while its other full-sibs and their progenies had very poor,bunch appeBj'ance and!l1ost of them developed non-parthenocarpic fruits. Directional selection for reduced number of fruits may result in larger fruit size and concomitant bunch weight increase. This scheme has been put in practice by crossing TMPx 1112-1 (PIT A-9) and TMp2x 1297-3. Their offspring as well as that derived by intermating their other full-sibs diploid plantain hybrids were evaluated in the 1992-EET (see Section 2k). at Ibadan. The irradiance level increased 3-fold from morning to afternoon while leaf to air vapour pressure deficit levels increased 2 to 4 fold during the sampling period (Table 33). Conduct~nce values were higher for the lower leaf surface and in the afternoon than in thl'! morning, with some genotypic differences (Table 34).Low values of leaf conductance to water vapour in the afternoon under a short dry spell was sufficiently variable (P<O.05) among the tested genotypes to indicate potential adaptation to mild drought conditions. Differential and relative leaf conductance adjustments were noted among genotypes to a short dry spell vs. non-limiting soil moisture conditions. Significant genotypic differences were observed for leaf conductance among the 17 genotypes during the afternoon on the lower leaf surface of young leaves. ABB cooking bananas 'Fougamou' and 'Bluggoe' were identified as promiSing cultivars for drier areas while the AM desert banana 'Valery', AAB plantain 'Bobby Tannap' and one of its hybrids TMPx 582-4 could be very susceptible to short dry spells according to this evaluation.Conductance to water vapour in the morning was evaluated as an indirect criterion to monitor the potential photosynthesis and biomass productivity where soil moisture is non-limiting. Preliminary results suggested that the utilization of this parameter as a predictor of high economic yield (Le. bunch weight) could be unreliable for black sigatoka resistant plantain hybrids.Research continues in this area aiming to identify the best time, leaf age and leaf surface for sampling as well as the location effect in respect of these possible selection criteria.2v.A database uSing DBASEIII+ was developed with the pollination records (1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992) to analyze the results of six years of crosses. This helped to . determine the parents with high levels of fertility and seasonal effects (see Sections 2d and 4b). The database includes the cross number, parentage (female and male parents), pollination dates, date of seed extraction, and number of seeds per bunch. This database is being updated with the pollinations of the current day.The organization of the fields is crucial for the breeding program. EXCEL has been used extensively for field maps. However, we felt that a better field arrangement could be achieved using a computerized database of the breeding materials at different testing stages (early observations, preliminary trials or multilocational evaluation). This helps to find the materials and pedigrees and make decisions for further testing or utilization as parents in the crossing block. Moreover, materials with common origin (parentage and/or year of release) can be grouped together to compare them in the same micro-environment.Compilation of computerized database including the full description, based on morphologicaVmolecular markers, of the improved TMP(B)x germplasm is in progress.A new data sheet was developed for the record keeping in EETs, PYTs, METs andAMYTs. Plant height, total number of leaves, height of tallest sucker at harvest, days to flowering, days to harvest, number of standing leaves at flowering, youngest leaf spotted due to black sigatoka (at flowering and at harvest), bunch weight, number of hands and fingers, fruit length (representative finger of second hand), and fruit circumference (representative finger of second hand) are being recorded in the breeding books. PBIP breeders take account of these traits when making their selections.Genetic information is required to develop scientific breeding strategies. However, few genetic studies have been undertaken in Musa spp., despite the importance of the crop. Several authors have claimed that \"formal genetic studies of nearly or quite sterile triploids are impossible', illustrating the absence of inheritance studies in plantain and banana during the past 40 years. As a consequence very few genetic markers were available in Musa before 1992.Several characteristics of the crop make genetic analysis of Musa spp.difficult. The low rate of hybrid progenies recovered after interploidy/interspecific crosses and resulting small sample sizes are the major obstacles to genetic analysis. Nevertheless, the production of test-cross segregating populations, obtained from triploid (heterozygous parents) x diploid (homozygous recessive parent) crosses, and diploid plantain-banana hybrids have made genetic analysis in Musa possible. Therefore, the plantain and banana genomes, which were inaccessible until recently, are now being investigated.The formation of 2n eggs in Musa species has been described This could lead to the production of aneuploid gametes in a triploid organism which has one set of bivalents and another of univalents at metaphase I.However, if the univalents had premature division at the first meiotic division followed by complete failure of the second diviSion, then 2n gametes are expected (Fig. 24).The formation of 2n eggs by a SDR mechanism in the triploid plantain parent provides a means for the occurrence of segregation and recombination in the triploid plantain genome during megasporogenesis, even when there is restitution of all three sets of maternal chromosomes. Hence. the production of megaspores and embryo sacs with the maternal chromosome number does not necessarily imply that these carry the intact maternal genotype. Our finding of the occurrence of segregation and recombination during megasporogenesis in the triploid female plantain parents, challenges the commonly accepted premise about the triploid x diploid breeding approach, in which the triploid female genome is apparently fixed with recombination only possible from the diploid male parent. Therefore, the idea that plantain breeding is virtually a matter of breeding superior diploid pollinator lines can be reconsidered.Germplasm characterization must be based on characters with high heritability, easy to see by the eye and equally expressed in all the environments .(characterization descriptors). Simmonds prepared the revised list of banana descriptors for IBPGA in 1984 (Ref. 3). However, the inheritance of most of these traits, except fruit parthenocarpy and persistence of hermaphrodite flowers and male bracts is unknown. The elucidation of vegetative and inflorescence descriptors using F2 and test•cross segregating populations has recently commenced at Onne.A diploid plantain-banana hybrid, TMPx 1206-2, was obtained by crossing the French reversion somaclonal variart of the cultivar 'Agbagba' and C4. This clone was selfed to produce an F2 segregating population comprising 35 individuals. Ten vegetative morphological descriptors evaluated in this population showed polymorphism. Phenotypic appearance of the parents, Fl and F2 are shown in Table 35. Data analysis (tests of goodness of fit) and types of gene actions for each trait are given in Table 36. A test cross segregating population was created by crossing PI and C4.C4 was found to be homozygous recessive for several traits after selfing, i.e. C4 is a true breeding line. Inflorescence descriptors which showed polymorphism were evaluated in the segregating offspring. The results, tests of goodness of fit and types of gene action for each rep[oductive descriptor are listed in Table 37.The segregating loci must be considered as a minimum number due to sample size of the F2 and test cross populations. Moreover, the genetic interpretation from the test crosses should be taken with caution because PI is a structural hybrid (see Section 2f).Plantiets with complete lack of chlorophyll in any plant tissue (albinos) were found in three segregating populations, in vitro germinated in the TC Lab at Onne. Full-sib diploid plantain•banana hybrids from Africa were selfed or outcrossed with other diploid bananas, one of which is SH-3362 (Fig. 25). This clone was selected in the third cycle of phenotypic recurrent selection (PAS) in a diploid banana breeding population by FHIA breeders. PRS was based mainly on agronomic traits such as bunch wejght. fruit size and weight. plant height. and disease resistance (Rowe. pers. comm.)The segregation ratios for albinism in two populations initially suggested that this deleterious trait was controlled by One or more recessive alleles (Fig. 25). The small sample sizes of these two populations, a problem inherent to the low reproductive fertility of cultivated parthenocarpic Musa, did not allow for distinction between the one or two gene model. However this was possible with a third progeny consisting of 64 seedlings of which 4 were albinos. The segregation ratio for albinism fits the 15:1 ratio (X 2 = 0.07; 0.75 < P < 0.90), and not the 3: 1 ratio (X 2 = 11.02; P < 0.01), indicating that albinism in Musa spp. is likely under the genetic control of at least two independent recessive alleles with complementary gene action.This finding also demonstrates that deleterious recessive alleles are present in both the cultivated AAB plantain gene pool and in an advanced AA banana breeding population. The latter suggests that population improvement through PRS for agronomic traits might be based on the elimination of deleterious recessive genes. It is important to remark, however, that heterozygosity seems to be very important in the development of elite diploid progenitors because SH 3362 is a heterozygous clone not only for the two albinism loci but also for another 20 out of 21 loci preliminarily examined.This is an economically important character because pendulous bunches are more symmetrical than subhorizontal, horizontal or erect bunches and therefore, better adapted for transportation. The genetic model proposed after testing the segregation ratios in the cross PI x C4 (Table 37) was studied in two diploid test-cross segregating plantain populations derived by crossing BT (subhorizontal bunch) and OL (pendulous bunch) with C4. C4 has a pendulous bunch because it is homozygous recessive for the three bunch orientation loci.Segregation data are presented in Table 38. Based on these results we inferred that sub-horizontal bunch orientation in 8T is due to one duplex (two copies of dominant allele) and two simplex (one copy of dominant allele) bunch orientation loci. Similarly, we established that OL, which is simplex for two loci and nulliplex (no dominant alleles) for the third, has a pendulous bunch due to dosage effects of the recessive alleles at the triploid level. Thus, we concluded that bunch orientation is a threshold trait regulated by the additive effects of dominant loci (Table 39). The genotypes for each loci in the two plantains are arbitrary until tests of allelism are carried out.Previous studies on resistance mechanisms have revealed that the presence of epicuticular wax on leaves appears to be involved in host plant resistance to the fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis, the causal agent of black sigatoka leaf spot disease (see Section 3a). The objective of this research was to study the inheritance of waxiness in the pseudostem, which is composed of . leaf sheaths.Segregating populations were obtained by crossing triploid cultivated Musa and diploid improved bananas with diploid cultivated and wild bananas.Tetraploids, triploids and diploids were recovered from the 3x x 2x crosses, in which the diploid wild banana C4 was the male parent. C4 bred true for pseudostem waxiness (Table 40). A diploid F, hybrid was then selfed to produce an F2. The F2 population segregated into 29 individuals with non-waxy and 6 with waxy pseudostem. This suggests that pseudostem waxiness was due to a recessive allele, wx. The results from other crosses between C4 and other recessive waxy parents (Table 40), however, indicated that alleles with mainly additive effects were responsible for modifying the action of the dominant aUele Wx. Moreover, a clear dosage effect, i.e., an increase in expression of the trait in tetraploids, was observed (Table 41). The mid-parent regression values were 0.67 (r2 = 0.48) and 1.28 (r2 = 0.99) for the diploid and tetraploid levels, respectively. Phenotypic recurrent selection should therefore result in an increased level of pseudostem waxiness.Apical dominance, the correlative inhibition of lateral bud growth due to growth substances released by the terminal bud, has been considered as a limiting factor in the perennial production of AAB plantains. Inheritance of apical dominance in plantain-banana hybrids was elucidated by studying F, progenies segregating for suckering behaviour, as measured by the height of the tallest sucker at flowering and at harvest (Table 42).Apical dominance is controlled by one single recessive gene, ad. The dominant allele Ad, which was thought to be fixed in AA bananas (see Section 2s), improved the suckering. behaviour of the plantain-banana hybrids. At harvest of the plant crop, the diploid and tetraploid hybrids had already completed 75-100% of the vegetative development of the ratoon plant, whereas the plantain parents, due to their strong apical dominance, had only 50% of total pseudostem growth for the ratoon (Table 43). The rate of sucker growth is a result of gibberellic acid (GAa) levels within the plant and it is thought that the Ad gene regulates GA3 production. However, the Ad gene has incomplete penetrance, genetic specificity and variable expressivity as was demonstrated by the important clonal effects in the height of tallest suckers at flowering and at harvest (Rgs. 26a and 26b, respectively). Increased frequency of the Ad gene and a commensurate improvement in the suckering behaviour of the diploid population may be achieved by phenotypic recurrent selection (Fig . . 27).Strong winds occur periodically in areas where plantains are grown, causing heavy losses. Therefore, the development of dwarf cultivars with short false internodes ( < 9 cm) is desirable .. The objective of this research was to elucidate the inheritance of dwarfism for the genetic improvement of dwarf p,lantains. BT, a heterozygous normal plantain cultivar (2n = 3x) with long false internodes (19.4 ± 0.9) was crossed with C4, a homozygous wild banana (~n = 2x), which has short false internodes (6.9 ± 0.4) in the plant crop, to develop a test•cross segregating population. A total of 74 euploids (2x, 3x and 4x) were produced (Fig. 28). Forty-one normal and 24 dwarf diploids were obtained, which fits a 2:1 trisomic test-cross segregation ratio for one locus. Therefore, dwarfism is controlled by a single recessive gene, dw. The genotypes of the AAB plantain and the wild diploid bal1ana should be Dw/Dw/dw and dw/dw, respectively. At the tetraploid level, 2 normal and 6 dwarf hybrids were produced. This suggests that the dw locus should be close to the centromere, i.e., chromosome segregation, and there is a dosage effect of the dw allele at the tetraploid level. Significant differences were found between ploidy levels (P < 0.001) for plant height. The diploid hybrids were significantly shorter (228 cm) than their triploid and tetraploid (278 cm) full-sibs. The only triploid hybrid had long internodes and normal plant height (285 cm). Large and significant variation within ploidy was detected for plant height (P < 0.001) and height of tallest sucker at flowering (P < 0.001) and at harvest (P < 0.001). The single degree of freedom contrasts between dwarf and normal hybrids were significant only for plant height at the tetraploid (P < 0.01) and at the diploid level (P < 0.001). The coefficients of variation of the experiment were 12%,25% and 20% for plant height, and height of tallest sucker at flowering and at harvest, respectively.The components of phenotypic variation in pseudostem height according to the sources of the analysis of variance and measured as % of total sum of squares are indicated in Fig. 29. Most of the variation in plant height was accounted by within ploidy or genotypic variance (68%), followed by within clone or environmental variance (20%). Similar results (Fig. 27) were obtained for height of tallest sucker at flowering and at harvest. The contribution of between ploidy variance was very small, 2% and 0.2% for height of tallest sucker at flowering and at harvest respectively. Within ploidy or genotypic variance was very high for height of tallest sucker at flowering (73%) and at harvest (74%).The effect of the dw gene in pseudostem height at flowering and for the plant crop of diploid and tetraploid plantain-banana hybrids are indicated in Table 44. The average effect of allele substitution at the diploid level in the dw locus for both plant and sucker height was estimated by the regression coefficient b . The independent variable was the number of copies of the allele dw, i.e. 1 in the normal heterozygous diploids and 2 in the dwarf recessive diploids, while the dependent variable was either plant or sucker height. The substitution of the dominant Dw by its recessive allele reduced the height of the plant by 36 cm (r2 = 16%; p = 0.005) as was indicated by regression analysis, i.e. effect of alelle substitution.'Bobby Tannap' derived dwarf hybrids produced at IITA should now be considered as an additional source of dwarfism and the first dwarf plantain hybrids. These dwarf progenies can be used for further production of secondary triploid dwarf plantains as illustrated in Fig. 30. For example, scheme 2 is being implemented arid several hundreds of secondary triploids have been producedby sibing within the hybrid population.Two hybrids TMPx 582-4 x TMPx 1187-8 (see Section 2k) were crossed to produce an improved dwarf breeding population. Segregation for dwarfism was observed in this population. It was not surprising because this was expected due to the production of duplex heterozygous secondary tetraploids. Double reduction, i.e. chromatid segregation, occurred in the dw locus during the meiosis of both parents. An accurate estimate of the coefficient of double reduction, n, by maximum likelihood methods will be calculated when the evaluation of the secondary tetraploids is finished.A dwarf False Horn and French plantain cultivar have been established in pollination blocks at Onne for crosses with diploid parents. These will be used in the development of a plantain population with short stature to solve the problem of wind damage in the crop. A backcross program cannot be used to introduce the dw gene in triplex (OwlDwIOw) seed-fertile giant plantains. Therefore another breeding scheme such as a modified recurrent selection procedure should be used, Le.crossing a giant plantain with C4 to produce tetraploid and diploid progenies. Tetraploid (DwIDwIDwldw) and diploid (Dwldw) hybrids will then be crossed to produce secondary triploids. At least 50\"10 of dwarf hybrids are expected if the dw allele has a dosage effect in the triploid Dwldwldw genotype (Fig. 30).The occurrence of parthenocarpy for fruit development was also evaluated in OL x C4 and BT x C4 segregating populations. C4 lacks the dominant PI gene for fruit parthenocarpy (Ref. 4). Therefore, both segregating populations are genetically equivalent to test-crosses. Parthenocarpic fruits were those with the development of edible pulp at or near maturity. As many bunches as possible of a TMPx were examined due to some variation in the incidence of fruit parthenocarpy.All the 4x had parthenocarpic fr~its. This trait segregated in the 2x populations as indicated in Table 45. This segregation pattern does not fit the expected 1:1 disomic test cross ratio (x2= 20.7 ' ' OJ but fit the 2:1 trisomic test cross ratio (X2:3.2 NS). This should be considered as genetic evidence of the non-elimination of chromosomes from the B genome during plantain megasporogenesis leading to the production of n (= x) gametes. This result also indicates that both plantain parents have the same heterozygous duplex genotype for the PI locus.Gaining further knowledge of the genetics of host-plant resistance will enhance the development of resistant cultivars, which is considered the most appropriate means to achieve stable production (see Section 3c).Genetic analysis was conducted on one-hundred and one euploid (2x, 3x and 4x) progenies, obtained from crossing two susceptible triploid plantain cultivars with the resistant wild diploid panana C4. BT and OL were selected as the black sigatoka susceptible (BSS) triploid plantain parents due to their high seed-fertility. Also BT and OL are local plantain cultivars in Cameroon and Nigeria, respectively.Segregating progenies, and a susceptible reference plantain cultivar CAgbagba'), were evaluated over two consecutive years. Artificial spore inoculation was not required for black sigatoka field screening because the disease is ubiquitous at Onne. The field layout was a complete randomized design with 4 replicates for each TMPx. The plants were spaced at 3m x 2m. All the plots were surrounded by the BSS standard False Horn plantain cv. 'Agbagba'. All the plots were non-fungicide treated. The youngest leaf spotted (YLS) was recorded in each plant to estimate BS resistancei susceptibility. This was done at flowering because plantain does not produce new leaves after the plant has flowered.Randomly chosen plants of 'Agbagba' were evaluated in four different sites for black sigatoka. There were no significant differences between blocks and within blocks (replicates in blocks) for YLS in the reference plantain cv.'Agbagba' (Table 46). This suggests a uniform spread of the disease in the experimental field. The YLS variance and coefficient of variation decreased, but the mean remained unchanged, as the number of 'Agbagba' plants in each experimental unit increased. The point of inflection in the graph, i.e., the optimum sample size, was observed when the experimental unit was 4 plants; the coefficient of variation remained unchanged for sample sizes ~ 4 plants (Table 47).The mean and standard deviation of YLS in 'Agbagba' was 6.19 and 1.15, respectively, with a range of 4 to 8 (number of YLS). This was used to develop the disease severity scale for evaluation of host response of TMPx germplasm to black sigatoka disease leaf spot (Table 48). TMPx and TMp2x clones exceeding the mean YLS of 'Agbagba' by 2 and 3 standard deviations were considered as less susceptible and partially reSistant, because they were significantly or highly significantly different from 'Agbagba\", respectively.The number of clones evaluated per family within each ploidy level and their reaction to BS are listed in Table 49. Segregation ratios for resistance (Table 50) at the 2x level fitted a genetic model having one major recessive resistance allele (bS1) and two independenlalleles with additive effects (bsr2 and bsr3). A similar model (Table 50) explains the results at the 4x level assuming that the favourable resistance alleles have a dosage effect when 4 copies of them are present in their respective loci (bsl 4).Results suggest that the SS1 locus should be very close to the centromere; 52% of 4x progenies were partially resistant (nulliplex for the bS1 allele), thus the gene-centromere map distance was estimated as '0' (50% -the % of nulliplex) by half-tetrad analysis, which indicates almost complete linkage between the centromere and the SS1 locus.The proposed model was further validated by segregation data of S, progenies derived by selling C4 and TMp2x 1206-2, a susceptible diploid plantain-banana hybrid. All C4 selfed progenies resembled phenotypically the parental type, which confirms the homozygosity of C4 for BS reaction. TMPx S1 segregated for BS reaction (1 partially resistance, 4 less susceptible and 29 susceptible). This fit an F2 segregation ratio for 3 independent loci (X 2 = 2.98) with additive/recessive effects.Mechanisms of black sigatoka resistance are discussed in relation to the genetic model in Section 3a.Ploidy polymorphism: Eleven growth and yield parameters (Table 19) were used to group euploid (diploid, tetraploid and triploid) hybrids of three plantainbanana populations derived from triploid x diploid crosses using principal component analysis (PCA, Fig. 31). PCA indicated that the principal component 1 (PRIN1, x axis) was unevenly loaded, with height of tallest sucker as main contributor, while principal component 2 (PRIN2, y axis) was mainly loaded on plant height and average fruit weight. PRIN1 accounted for 43% of the total variation while PRIN2 explained another 30%. The clones were grouped irrespective of their ploidy along the PRIN1 axis in the two populations studied.In BT x C4 the effects of the dwarf gene (dw) as well as fruit weight of some selected diploids (TMp2x) or unselected black sigatoka susceptible tetraploids confounded the ploidy effects (Fig. 31a). The hybrids derived from OL x C4 were preferentially grouped along the PRIN2 axis according to their ploidy (Fig. 31 b).The results suggested that ploidy has an important effect on average fruit weight and plant height in OL x C4, while height of tallest suckers at flowering and at harvest are characteristics independent of the ploidy level in both OL x C4 and BT x C4. Therefore, average fruit weight and plant height may be combined in a discriminant function to determine ploidy levels in plantain-banana hybrids. However, this should be taken with caution due to the effect of other genes in plant height and fruit weight.Ploidy polymorphism and genotype influence: The phenotypic value of a clone can be regarded as the sum of genetic and non-genetic (often called environmental component) effects. The micro-environmental component in a vegetatively propagated crop can be determined by replicated measurements of the same clone (or within clone variance, VE in Table 51). The genetic component or genotypic value in this population must consider parental contributions and ploidy effects as well as the difference between clones due to specific gene arrangements. All of them were estimated by a modified hierarchical analysis of variance (Table 51) in the 1991-1992 PYT (plant crop) (see results in Table 19).Significant contrasts between ploidy levels in each family were found for bunch weight and fruit sizes (Table 52). On average tetraploids yielded more than diploids. Tetraploid hybrids have high yielding bunches with large fruits but have the same number of hands and fingers as their full-sib diploids. This indicates that tetraploidy is the optimum ploidy level for maximum expression of bunch and fruit weight in plantain-banana hybrids. Tetraploidy enables the . expression of higher order interactions (tri-and tetrallelic) which is important for maximizing yield in vegetatively propagated polyploid crops. This nested ANOVA enables the relative magnitude of each component to be determined which indicates the most desirable breeding strategy to be fOllowed. A significant Vp indicates that the families were different because the parents had an important effect in the variability observed in the population.Therefore, interfamily selection should be pursued. Significant Vx values would suggest that variation observed was due to ploidy differences within each family, which advocates directional selection based on ploidy level, within each family.Finally, a significant between clone variance at the same ploidy level (Ve) supports the utilization of individual selection within the same ploidy level in each family. A combination of selection strategies should be examined when more than one of the variance components are significantly different than zero. 52 suggest that between family selection would be the most effective method to improve plant height, bunch weight, fruit weight and its components: length and circumference. Individual selection within ploidy level for each family would be also effective for almost all the traits in OL x C4 (Table 52) and for the diploids in BT x C4. This suggests that selected black sigatoka resistant genotypes could be crossed to generate an improved secondary triploid population, see Fig. 1.Combining ability in plantain germ plasm: BT produced progenies having shorter plants than OL. This was due to the action of the dw gene in BT x C4. It seems that OL lacks this gene while BT has a duplex genotype (DwDwdw) for this locus (see section on dwarfism). The differences between bunch and fruit weight could be the result of the larger number of tetraploid hybrids in OL x C4 (14) relative to BT x C4 ( 6) and may not be a true genetiC difference between the plantain parents.Test cross ploidy mean analysis: This analysis (Table 53) was developed by PBIP to determine the main type of gene action controlling different traits in plantain-banana segregating populations. It assumes the production of second division restitution 2n eggs and chromosome segregation in triploid plantain, a homozygous diploid parent and trisomic segregation ratios in the diplOid population.Different genetic models can be tested using this analysis. The additive model assumes that the plantain parent contributes the favourable alleles (+1 for each) and that the wild banana does not have them (-1 for each). The dominant model considers that the homozygous and heterozygous are equal and better than the recessive, while the heterozygous are better than the homozygous in the overdominance model.Based on this analysis, the bunch weight of the tetraploid hybrid populations, developed by crossing plantains with a homozygous line like C4, is expected to be always better than their diploid full-sibs and equal to the triplOid parent in the dominance and overdominance models. However, the fact that some tetraploids had better yields than their triploid parents (Table 27) indicated that the epistatic interactions were the major contributors for such differences. These new epistatic interactions in the tetraploids might be the result of the recombination in the plantain genome and the contribution of exotic alleles of the wild diploid banana 'Calcutta 4' to the plantain gene pool.MET results from Onne (Table 23) were analyzed to determine heterosis in plantain hybrids. Only the black sigatoka resistant hybrids exceeded the bunch weight of the highest yielding plantain parent by up to 59% (Table 54).Heterosis in this tetraploid germ plasm being the result of complementation between the resistance and yielding alleles of the triploid plantain parent. It is also important to state that the susceptible tetraploid plantain hybrid (597-4) yielded significantly less than its susceptible plantain parent OL, which demonstrates that tetraploidy does not necessarily result in a yield increase.Genotype-by-environment interaction (year, location) and broad sense heritability for growth and yield parameters in Musa hybrids .. Clonal phenotype which corresponds to a specific genotype, can vary from year to year in the same location and or from location to location in the same year in the same agro-ecological zone. This phenomenon which effects genotype ranking in different environments, is known as genotype-by-environment interaction. Breeding programs aim to identify genotypes which have both a high and stable yield in a range of environments across a targeted region.Year and genotype-by-year (GxY) interaction of the phenotypic expression of quantitative traits in plantain and banana were studied for two years at Onne. Year variation significantly affected plant height. bunch weight.fruit circumference and youngest leaf spotted by black sigatoka (Table 55).The genotype by year (GxY) interaction at Onne only significantly affected plant height. height of tallest sucker at harvest and fruit filling period. but more importantly had no effect on bunch weight and the components of black sigatoka . resistance. Confirmation of this result requires data from multilocational trials to assess yield stability and durability of black sigatoka resistance of the plantainbanana hybrids across environments. The location effects are being determined with the information collected in the METs (see Table 22 and discussion in Section 2m).Heritability estimates: Table 55 indicates the components of variance (expressed as percentages of the sum of squares). the significance test and the broad-sense heritability for different traits evaluated in plantain-banana diploid.triploid and tetraploid hybrids evaluated in the PYTs for two consecutive years atOnne. The additive linear model for this analysis was: Yijkl = u + Ek + Ci + GYi +GEYik + eijkl where Yiikl is the value of the clone j of the cross i in the k year evaluated in the plant I. u is the mean. Ek is the effect of the year k. Ci is the effect of the population i or differences between the female plantain parents because the male parent was common to all the populations. GVi is the effect of the clone j of the i population or the difference between clones within the same i population irrespective of the x ploidy level. GEVlk is the genotype by year interaction or the effect of the clone j of the population i in the year k and eijkl is the experimental error which includes the within clone effect, the residual (variables not included in the model) and the pure error (random variation between plants of the same clone).There were significant differences between the plantain populations for fruit filling period. bunch weight and fruit parameters (weight. length and circumference); This indicates that it could be possible to select for fruit size in plantains. Moreover. significant differences within populations were observed for bunch weight and its components (except number of hands per bunch).Therefore. within population improvement will be effective to select genotypes with increased bunch weight. However, this difference between clones of the same population might be the result of ploidy levels as was indicated in previous sub-section.Broad-sense heritabilities (or the ratio between the total genetic variance and the phenotypic variance) were grouped as high (plant height, bunch weight, fruit weight, length and circumference), medium (height of tallest sucker and number of standing leaves at flowering, youngest leaf spotted, and total black sigatoka index score), low (height of tallest sucker at harvest, number of hands and fingers) and very low (fruit filling period). Low broad-sense heritability values are the result of either lack of genetic variability or a strong genotype-byenvironment interaction for the traits studied in the reference population.Conversely, high heritability indicates that the trait is not influenced by the environment or despite this fact it shows a high degree of genetic variability, e.g. plant height.Major genes: Continuous variation has been considered as a feature of quantitative polygenic traits. However, according to several quantitative geneticists \"there are several traits, e.g. plant height, for which 'major genes' can be grouped into classes, but within each class there is continuous variation\". An example of this is given by the gene H, which controls chlorophyll-a content of the flag leaf in wheat. This trait can be classified visually on chaff colour, but continuous distribution for chlorophyll-a content has also been reported for inbred pure lines and genetically homogeneous hybrids. This was a clear demonstration that continuous distribution could be observed in the expression of a single major gene when affected by environmental variation, thereby losing the Mendelian clarity of monogenic traits.PBIP has research aimed to identify major genes affecting quantitative trait variation. Thus, selection of these specific major genes, which normally are easier to manipulate than complex polygenic systems, may facilitate the breeding of plantains and bananas.Tabla 56 indicates several traits in plantain and bananas which despite showing continuous distribution, e.g. see YLS frequency distribution (Fig. 32), are mainly affected by major genes. Major genes controlling dwarfism, black sigatoka resistance and apical dominance which affects suckering behaviour are inherited as recessive genes in the plantain germplasm.The P, gene (fruit parthenocarpy) significantly affected fruit development, in terms of fruit weight, length and size in both plantains and bananas as indicated by the significant regression models (Table 57). All these characteristics are components of the bunch weight, therefore the effect of allele substitution (change of dominant for recessive gene) in the PI locus explained indirectly phenotypic variation for bunQh weight. It did not affect fruit filling time as indicated by the non-significant regre~sion model.We were able to determine the combined effect of ploidy and additive effect of the PI locus in several traits py using a multiple regression approach to analyze quantitative trait variation in two euploid hybrid populations: OL x C4 and BT x C4 (Table 58}. The model considered that the two independent variables, number of copies of PI allE\\le and ploidy in each clone, were responsible for quantitative trait variation in bunch weight, fruit weight, fruit length and fruit circumference. Each TMp2x could be either heterozygous (parthenocarpic fruits} or homozygous recessive (non-parthenocarpic fruits) for the PI locus. We also assumed that the tetraploids were duplex genotypes due to the lack of first division segregation in the PI locus (Fig_ 24).The coefficient of determination of the model (R2 in Table 58) indicated what percentage of quantitative trait variation was explained by the effect of allele substitution in the PI locus and the ploidy of the clone. Regression analyses validated the models as indicated by the significant F values in the AN OVA (Table 58}. In general the multiple regression models explained more of the variation for the quantitative traits analyzed in OL x C4 than in BT x C4.  58.Minor genes: The effect of minor genes in QTV can be estimated by proper biometrical approaches. For example, the test-cross ploidy mean analysis was modified to test additive-recessive models in black sigatoka resistance (BSR). BSR was measured by YLS at flowering. The hybrid progenies of OL, BT and 'French Reversion' were compared for their black sigatoka response (results published in PBIP 1991 Annual Report). We suspected that equally susceptible plantain cultivars could have different breeding values for black sigatoka resistance.The modified additive-recessive model did not consider epistasis. Our expectation was that the tetraploid population should have the highest mean, and the diploid population a lower mean than the triploid population but higher than the triploid susceptible plantain. The genetic parameters for additivity and recessiveness were estimated by solving a system of simultaneous equations with at least three unknowns (Table 59). Thus, breeding values for black sigatoka response of the plantain parents were compared. OL had higher values (either larger effects of additive genes or more favourable additive alleles) than BT according to this analysis. This result agrees with previous reports (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report) which indicated that a larger number of black sigatoka resistant hybrids were derived from OL due to their higher rate of transmission of black sigatoka resistance than in the progeny of BT.Moreover, the analysis of frequency distribution for YLS (Fig_ 32) revealed that the frequency distribution were different between hybrids of OL and BT when crossed with C4. BT hybrids had a wider frequency distribution at the diploid level (range 4 to 12) but narrower range at the tetraploid level (range 7-10) than OL hybrids (ranges of 5-10 for diploids and 8-12 for tetraploids, respectively). Furthermore, the frequency distributions in OL x C4 hybrids were significantly skew towards high values of youngest leaf spotted (more resistance). Hence, these different frequency distributions for YLS were the result of minor genes with additive effects modifying the action of the major gene for black sigatoka resistance. This explained why OL produced more hybrids with higher levels of black sigatoka resistance than BT. This also reinforces the use of progeny testing on equally black sigatoka susceptible plantain cultivars to assess their breeding value for black sigatoka resistance before using them as elite progenitors in a breeding program.It is generally accepted that plantains are triploids derived from interspecific crosses between the diploid species M. acuminata and M. balbisiana., which contributed the A and B genomes respectively.Consequently, the AAB genome designation was given to plantain due to its interspecific origin and based on a putative differentiation between the A and B genomes.We investigated whether these genomes were different with the aid of genetiC marker segregation in diploid populations, derived from 3x (plantain) x 2x (wild banana) crosses. The markers analysed were P 7 (fruit parthenocarpy), bSl (major gene for black sigatoka resistance) and dw (dwarfism due to short internodes ).The diploid progenies were considered as test-crosses because the diploid banana 'CalcUtta 4' is Ii homozygous line and the triplOid plantains are dominant duplex for the 'PI locus, and dominant simplex for the bS 1 and dw loci. The 1:1 (disomic) 'and 2:1 (trisomlc)c'ritical ratios were tested to determine the pattern of inheritance of the morphological markers.Segregation at the PI and dw loci did not fit a disomic but a trisomic ratio whereas segregation at the bS7 locus fitted both ratios (Table 60). However, the co-segregation of bS7 and P7 loci, which are linked in repulsion phase in plantain (see below), deviated significantly from the expected disomic inheritance (data not shown).In conclusion, plantains have a trisomic pattern of inheritance because each linkage group occurs three times instead of twice. Furthermore, there was no preferential pairing between the homologous chromosomes of the A genome but random distribution of the paired ct'lromosomes to the cell poles during anaphase I of the first meiotic division. This might imply that there is no genome differentiation between M. acuminataand M. balbisiana and, therefore, the AAB genomic designation for plantain should be discontinued or replaced with a more specific ~enetic characterization when necessary. This was further supported by the analysis of both male and female fertility in the diploid hybrids. Pollen production and stainability as well as seed set after interdiploid crosses were the criteria to determine whether the hybrids were sterile of fertile. Under the hypothesis of genome differentiation, AB hybrids should be sterile, Thus, if this hypothesis was correct 1/3 of the diploid hybrids should be both male and female sterile, The high percentage of fertile hybrids (Table 61), however, seems to indicate that this hypothesis was not true, Genetic sterility in diploid derived plantain hybrids.Triploidy per se has been considered as one of the potential causes of sterility in plantain and bananas. However, bananas such as 'Yangambi Km 5' and 'Valery' have been found to produce functional pollen grains. Moreover 37 seed-fertile plantains have been reported to produce viable 2n and n eggs. Therefore, triploidyitself should not be the only cause of sterility in triploid cultivars~ , Chromosome aberrations such as translocations (interchanges, sometimes referred as structural hybridity) and inversions also cause female and whereas the male fertility locus was located closer to the fruit parthenocarpy locus but farther from the centromere. The female fertility gene was in transconfiguration with the black sigatoka resistance gene and the male sterility gene in cis-configuration with the fruit parthenocarpy gene. This was determined by the independent assortment of the male fertility locus with both the female fertility (Table 63) and the black sigatoka reSistance loci (Table 64) but nonindependent assortment with the fruit parthenocarpy locus (Table 66).  This linkage group along with the plantain duplex genotype for the PI and bS 1 loci, and trisomic segregation explains why a greater proportion of partially resistant or less susceptible clones with parthenocarpic fruits were recovered in the diploid population derived from crosses between triploid plantains with this diploid wild banana. Moreover, this result suggests that it will be possible to improve the plantain germplasm at the• diploid level through recurrent selection but in a black sigatoka resistanVfruit parthenocarpiclfertile background.Several conclusions were drawn from the above results:(i) The triploid female plantain genome is not fixed, hence much more variability can be recovered from 3x x 2x crosses than earlier anticipated (ii) The success of tetraploid hybrids must not depend totally on the qualities transmitted by the pollen as was iterated before by banana breeders (iii) 'Calcutta 4', the wild non-edible diploid banana, is not the sole source of alleles for black sigatoka resistance because they are present, but not expressed phenotypically, in the plantain due to its additive/recessive genetiC nature. C4 transmitted its inferior bunch traits to its progenies, e.g. recessive alleles for non-parthenocarpic fruits. However, its tetraploid hybrids had fruit parthenocarpy and bunch weight not inferior to that of their French parents due to the genetic systems explained above (iv) The idea that formal inheritance studies involving triploid Musa cultivars are impossible and that nothing definite can be said about the genetiC nature of disease and pest resistance in this crop should be reviewedThe results indicate that most of the morphological traits investigated in Musa spp. as well as yield and components are under the control of epistatic genetic systems. This was not surprising because such systems are expected in vegetatively propagated species (vi) The production of diploid plantain-banana hybrids by 3x x 2x crosses was shown to be very advantageous not only for genetic analysis but also because it provides the opportunity for plantain germ plasm enhancement at the diploid level. This facilitates and speeds up the breeding work (vii) The identification of other major genes affecting quantitative traits (either by linkage or pleiotropy) will also help to speed up progress through indirect or direct selection (viii) The genetic knowledge accumulated through this research allowed us to develop a breeding scheme which PBIP currently implements. The diploid (TMP2x) plantain-banana hybrids are used in crosses with AAB plantains to produce primary tetraploids (4x) or secondary triploids (3x) as illustrated in Fig. 1. Phenotypic recurrent selection schemes for traits with additive gene action, recurrent selection with progeny testing for traits with nonadditive gene action, and reciprocal recurrent selection for traits with both additive and non-additive gene action will be employed to improve the plantain gene pool at the diploid levelWe also investigated, through literature search, the inheritance of other characteristics. A list of gene symbols and/or inheritance of well defined traits and the researchers who reported these findings are listed in A major criticism of plant breeding, especially from outsiders who lack genetic knowledge, concerns the efficiency of conventional cross breeding approaches, especially when biotechnological approaches are becoming available for the improvement of different crops by non-sexual means (see Section 5). At PBIP, we think that both conventional and biotechnological approaches are sides of the same coin: crop improvement through genetic betterment but based on Mendelian diversity, which provides the basis for selection gain. Nevertheless, we think that there are ways to continue improving the efficiency of conventional cross breeding, either through proper genetic manipulations or more accurate allocation of resources. This section describes the efforts of PBIP in both areas.Despite 70 years of breeding work, no man-bred Musa has been releasedto farmers. Hence, some people advocated that this crop was intractable to conventional cross breeding schemes. But as was pointed by other non-UTA colleagues 'the quick successes of UTA plantain breeding program\" changed this previous view. 'Moreover, they have claimed that UTA's breeding of plantains, rapidly led to the creation of a series of promising diploid and tetraploid hybrids and has. opened new prospects in genetics and in genetic improvement'. Indeed, Section 2w illustrates our recent advances in the elucidation of genetic systems controlling the most important economic traits.Based on this genetic knowledge (mode of 2n egg production, trisomic pattems of inheritance of specific traits, etc) we decided to test different scenarios to continue the improvement of the plantain gene pool. Also this simulation study helped us to understand what could be the major problems in banana breeding.Table 70 presents the population sizes required to recover the desired genotype by intermating TMPx and TMp2x clones as well as backcrossing the selected TMPx to the plantain parent. We assumed production of 2n eggs by second division restitution in the duplex triploid plantain, either chromosome or chromatid segregation in the TMPx, a'1d that the original diploid parent was homozygous recessive for the trait of interest. Also a conservative level of segregation, only 11 loci or one for each linkage group, was considered in the model. A message was clear, even when using the backcross approach, the probability of recovery the original plantain with the addition of the desired trait requires population sizes that are beyond the scope of the current breeding programs combined all together. Therefore, our goal must be to develop improved and unique plantain germ plasm with the desired traits incorporated in this gene pool.Similarly we explored the optimum ploidy for population improvement (or germplasm enhancement) in the plantain gene pool after the recovery of tetraploids and diploids from triploid-diploid crosses. Results in Table 70 indicate that for changes in gene frequency, the real aim of a population improvement scheme, working at the tetraploid level, i.e. production of secondary tetraploids, does not make sense due to the population size required to recover the desired type. Thus, we decided to pursue germplasm enhancement of the plantain gene pool at the diploid level through the utilization of TMp2x in recurrent selection schemes.Also these simulation studies suggested that the lack of success in banana breeding was due to the goals set by the breeders in their respective programs, e.g. the production of a 'Gros Michel' cv. plus the gene for Fusarium wilt resistance, as well as the materials that they used. Banana breeders should try backcrossing primary tetraploids to the triploid parent which increases the chances to get the desired gene combination. This relies on the production of normal n=x eggs in the banana parent which has been proved to occur.In Sections 2d, 2f and 2g we have established the importance of seasonal effects in seed production, male fertility, 2n gamete production and in seed quality for in vitro germination. We hav~ determined most of the major factors which influence these characteristics .. Table 71 summarizes the production of euploid and tetraploid hybrids derived by crossing the most seed-fertile plantains, BT and OL, and Calcutta 4. Despite the high seed set of the former, more tetraploid hybrids were recovered with the latter. The results suggest that BT produces a lot of aneuploid gametEls as indicated by the low percentage of euploids recovered after triploid-diploid crosses. On the other hand, OL produces more 2n eggs than BT as indicated by the percentage of tetraploid hybrids recovered after triploid-diploid crosses. Therefore, OL has a better breeding value than BT. Also Table 71 illustrates that there was no relative increase in euploid or tetraploid production by increasing the number of pollinations or producing more seed. This demonstrates that efficiency in Musa breeding is independent of hard hand pollination work! An efficient breeding system relies on the proper choice of parental materials. This information combined with the investigation in seasonal effects help us to determine when and what to cross.Recent interactions with NARS, especially in East Africa, indicate that breeding operations may start soon. In view of the enormous effort required for such an undertaking, we want to share information regarding the resource allocation in our breeding operation.  The relative costs depend on the parental genotypes, e.g. the production of one tetraploid hybrid in OLx C4 requires 50% less effort than the production of one tetraploid hybrid in 8T x C4 before field-establishment. We are continuing with this researCh to continue improving the efficiency in our breeding operations. So far, we know that most of the savings, i.e. making more efficientMusa breeding, will be obtained by either improving our pollination techniques or by an adequate parental choice ..PBIP breeding work has not only developed hybrids with black sigatoka resistance, it has also been able to prOduce improved breeding populations and it expects to develop cultivars for the African farming community. The breeding goal has been driven by an ideotype which requires the integration of several genes into a selected genotype, i.e., an improved plantain or banana cultivar combining alleles for high stable yield, resistance, adaptation, and fruit quality.Success of this complex breeding goal can be enhanced with an in depth genetic kllowledge of the breeding population. Genetic records were taken from the beginning of the program, in the early evaluation trials. Analysis of this fundamental information has provided a new understanding of Musa breeding and is being complemented with strengthened data from preliminary yield trials which have a higher level of replications. Future strategic decisions in the breeding program are being based on this genetic information to solve specific problems, such as how to incorporate a gene for disease/pest resistance into the breeding population without losing value from other traits. Genotypes selected using this approach are undergoing multilocational testing to identify clones suitable for cultivar release by NARS. Hence, the basic information is being rapidly transferred to appljed research. Using the knowledge and materials obtained in early and preliminary trials PBIP generates new technology, the improved germplasm.Finally, NARS are conducting advanced trials, with support from the breeding program, to screen for stable, high yielding genotypes as identified in the multilocational testing. The most promising genotypes will beused in a cultivar release initiative in their specific agro-ecological zone. NARS will also conduct on-farm testing to develop a cClltivar profile (N-P-K fertilization, density, alley cropping, etc) which will help farmers to maximize yields. This adaptjve research is concerned with adjusting ('fine-tuning') the technology to each specific environment. combining more than 50% of the desired traits. Among other achievements, PBIP has the only plantain•derived breeding population in the world, which allows for the first time the manipulation of plantain genes at the diploid level.fdeotype breeding Today, the breeding effort is dedicated not only to a single trait but a combination of several desired attributes (Table 76). An ideo type has been set based on information gathered in the five years of breeding activity along with recent advances in post-harvest research. We are working on how to quantify root development, resistance/tolerance levels of banana weevil, Fusarium wilt and specific nematodes in order to include them in the ideotype. We expect to have a single genotype resemtlling the ideotype in the mid-term (1993•1998). Why are the 3x plantains susceptible?The simplex genotype proposed for the BS loci in plantains (see Section 2w) agrees with its AAB genomic composition. Black sigatoka susceptible and resistant accessions have been reported in M. acuminata (A genome). whereas all known M. balbisiana accessions (B genome) show high levels of resistance.This suggests that the original interspecific cross, which resulted in the production of plantain, was between a .heterozygous (at least for the BS loci) AA accession producing 2n eggs and a BB accession with'the black sigatoka resistant recessive/additive alleles producing normal n pollen.The similarity between the black sigatoka susceptible genotypes OL (Nigerian cultivar) and BT (a cultivar from Cameroon) also indicates that somatic mutations, which generated morphological variability in the African centre of plantain diversification, did not occur in the BS loci due to lack of co-evolution with the pathogen in Africa.Plantains are susceptible because they are simplex for the BST locus and have only 2 copies of the bSri alleles. The net favourable effect in the bSi loci of plantain (=2) is similar to the diploids which are homozygous for one of the two bSi loci but heterozygous for the BS1 locus. Two 3x TMPx hybrids were also susceptible, which suggests that their genotype for the BST locus could be similar to the plantain parent and that the net effect in the bSi loci should be less than 4. No hypothesis can be statistically tested in the group of 3x hybrids due to the small sample size.Resistance is always recorded on a scale relative to something thai has been arbitrarily labelled susceptible, e.g., a standard susceptible cultivar.Experimental assessment of resistance should be done in the field using a proper experimental design with replication, as was done in the experiment reported in Section 2w. Simple means of visual scores on arbitrary scales were as good as more elaborate measures for assessing resistance. In our study, visual BS scoring could be done on unreplicated plantings due to the high heritability of resistance and the ubiquity and high inoculum pressure of M. fijiensis in Onne. Also, appropriate reference cultivars were included in the selection fields as susceptible checks.The salient features of horizontal resistance are:(i) Polygenic inheritance (but need not be) 3b.Epidemiology of black sigatoka and the search for durable resistanceThe aim of any resistance breeding program is to develop superior high yielding genotypes with durable resistance. An important component to achieve successfully this goal is the understanding of pathogen-host plant relationships.Several times the release of an improved and resistant cultivar is followed by the emergence of a novel pesVdisease strain, which occurs due to mutation or recombination events in the pathogen. Therefore, the search for new sources of resistant alleles as well as their incorporation in the breeding program never ends. Moreover, epidemiology studies, aiming at the identification of different pathotypes with variable degree of virulence in well known standards (or differentials), help in monitoring the appearance of more virulent strains and to establish a durable resistance breeding strategy. Guinea. Only 'Tuu Gia' was consistently resistant but showed partial resistance or less susceptibility to some isolates.We used the information published by Fullerton & Olsen to determine the stability of black sigatoka resistance in M. acuminata analyzing the interaction by simple linear regression analysis and studied simultaneously the pattern of strain and genotype variation in the black sigatoka host-plant interaction using principal component analysis (PCA). Ten M. acuminata genotypes evaluated across 33 different M. fijiensis isolates were included for this investigation. A black sigatoka stable source of resistance was defined as that having an overall genotypic mean smaller than the grand experimental mean; the coefficient of regression of the sigatoka reaction of a specific cultivar on the isolate mean (over genotypes), b, smaller than 1; th~ deviation from the linearity {slJ equal to zero; and the coefficient of determination of the regression model (r2) higher than 0.50. The stability parameter b was considered consistent if its standard error (sbl was significantly not different than zero.The identification of potentially highly and durable sources of black sigatoka resistance alleles was done by plotting the mean of the accessions (X axis) versus the stability coefficient b (Y axis). Nine spaces were defined drawing imaginary parallel lines to each axis; two parallel to Y axis; either from black sigatoka responses significantly lower than 2.5 in the x axis (resistant) or higher than 4.3 (highly susceptible) than the general mean, and the other two parallel to the X axis from b values statistically different from 1± 0.25 (Rg. 36). Musa accessions located in the area where the overall genotypic response across strains was smaller than 2.5 (lOW virulence) and b < 1 were regarded as having genes providing stable and adequate black sigatoka resistance. 'Tuu Gia' was in this area, therefore, this clone may have a non-specific (horizontal) resistance to the different strains used in this experiment. Moreover, it seems that its resistance does not break down even under the pressure of highly virulent strains. Conversely, C4 had a very unstable black sigatoka reSistance, which may easily break down in some environments, e.g. Papua New Guinea, where highly virulent strains have evolved.The graph of PCA axis 2 against PCA axis 1 for black sigatoka response of 10M. acuminata genotypes evaluated across 33 isolates of M. fijiensis is illustrated in Fig. 37. PRIN1 was equally loaded on genotypic means.Therefore, the abscissa axis should be regarded as the overall genotype and strain performance. A significant positive correlation between M. acuminata accession mean and PRIN1 coefficients (r2=0.99) supports this statement. PRIN2 was also significantly but negatively correlated with the stability parameter b (r2:0.74). This means that genotypes with PRIN2 scores close to zero have a linear response to strain virulence; i.e., the more virulent the strain the lower the resistance to black sigatoka disease in the plant host. PRIN2 also indicates that C4, the most unstable genotype (Fig. 36), was the accession contributing significantly more to the genotype x strain interaction. PRIN2 for strains was not as clear in its loading but the isolates from Papua New Guinea had negative scores, which might be indicative of the high virulence of the isolates collected in this area.Interpretation of PCA graphs also takes into account the relationships The second interpretation of P~A graphs concerns the relationship between points of different kind, i.e. genotype-strains interactions. The PCA graph (Fig. 37) suggests that black sigatoka resistant genotypes such as 'Tuu Gia' and TUB do not have a cross order interaction with the M. fijiensis isolates. This means that their ranking is similar across isolates with 'Tuu Gia' being almost always more resistant than TUB. Furthermore, this graph shows that susceptible cultivars (upper right) did not co-evolve with M. fijiensis, probably because they have different geographical origin. Therefore, as was suggested by Fullerton & Olsen (Ref. 5), M. acuminata accessions from Papua New Guinea should be screened to identify potential black sigatoka resistance alleles.The above study shows that epidemiology research of this nature provides baseline information which can be used by breeders to define strategies for durable disease resistance. For example, most banana breeding programs have used C4 as primary source of resistance to black sigatoka. Therefore, we may expect a narrow genetiC base for black sigatoka resistance in the breeding materials developed so far. The search for other sources of resistance is mandatory to address this problem.IITA Musa breeding population actually combines recessive/additive resistance alleles from plantain with C4 and PI resistance alleles. However, the search for more and different alleles for black sigatoka resistance and their incorporation into the breeding population to achieve durable host-plant resistance in the same genotype must be pursued. To this end, several secondary triploids, derived from crosses between non-related black sigatoka resistant primary tetraploid x plantain derived diploids, have already been produced and field established in early evaluation trials at Onne (see Section 2k).Another way to achieve durable host plant resistance may be to incorporate different sources of resistance (based on their response to different isolates of black sigatoka, see Table 3) in the same genotype. To this end, several secondary triploids and tetraploids have already been produced and field-established in early evaluation trials at Onne. Moreover, plantain-derived diploid hybrids (see Section 2) have been crossed with different BS resistant diploid bananas. In this way we are developing populations with a broad genetic base for sigatoka resistance which may result in durable resistance. This research clearly demonstrates that appropriate mycological techniques (utilization of differentials to assess host response to different isolates), as well as powerful statistical tools (PCA) provide means to establish genetic differences for virulence, and to distinguish between strains or races of M. fijiensis. Therefore, the utilization of expensive molecular techniques for the differentiation of black sigatoka strains, which cannot determine resistance levels in the host-plant and the potential host-plant interactions with the different strains, should be reviewed.Finally, the similar response across environments of susceptible cultivars (mean> 3 in 1-5 scale, and clustered together in the upper right of the PCA graph, Fig. 37) indicates that only one M. acuminata susceptible accession could be included as reference cultivar for the e.ssessment of black sigatoka variability (both severity and incidence) in a multilocational trial such as the IMTP. Currently, PBIP uses 'Valery' and 'Agbagba' as their standard reference susceptible banana and plantain cultivars, respectively. in its multilocational trials.3c.Chemical and host plant resistance strategies to control black sigatoka M. fijiensis was introduced to Africa about two decades ago and spread rapidly through all production zones. This fungus causes severe leaf necrosis and reduces yield by 30-50% (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report and Section 21).All plantain germplasm at Onne (115 cultivars). collected from West and Central Africa, tropical America and the Philippines. was found to be equally susceptible to black sigatoka (see Table 36 in TRIPP 1988 Annual Report).Chemical control strategies exist, but are socio-economically inappropriate in the framework of the resource-poor smallholders which grow the crop in Africa. In addition, fungicide applications are hazardous to health in the village homesteads. It was pointed out recently that \"fungicides are the most abundant pollutants in water downstream from banana plantations, where they can kill fish or prevent them from reprocjucing. Anything to reduce pesticide use in the tropics is strongly to be welcomed' (New Scientist, 17 April 1993 p. 9).Therefore, resistance breeding was considered by IITA as the most appropriate component intervention to control sigatoka leaf spot. A genetic improvement program was started in 1987, targeting the incorporation of durable host plant resistance to black sigatoka in plantain and banana. The results speak for themselves (see Section 2n) .We decided to quantify potential farmer gains by using two different black sigatoka control strategies: fungicides treatments and improved black sigatoka resistant hybrids. Results reported in the preliminary evaluation of hybrids along with their susceptible plantain parent under fungicide and non-fungicide protection were used to compare both control strategies (see PBIP 1991 Annual Report and Section 21 in this report).For a proper assessment of gains we estimated the potential yields (MT ha-' year-') of the TMPx black sigatoka resistant plantains and those obtained by their plantain parent 'Obino I' Ewai' under fungicide (Ol-FT) and non-fungiCide treatments (Ol-NT). Then, the potential yield of Ol-NT was used as the reference pOint (Fig. 38). The best hybrid, TMPx 548-9, had a 2.25 fold increase in yield than the plantain whereas fungicide control only increased plantain yields by about 70%. Moreover, farmers require an investment of at least US $ 750 ha-' year-' to provide chemical protection against black sigatoka disease while few suckers of the hybrids may be provided free-of Charge or at a minimum cost by NARS for further multiplication.Taking into consideration the cost!benefit ratio under two market periods at rural markets in the neighbouring area to Onne Station, we estimated roughly the advantages of host plant resistance over chemical protection to black sigatoka leaf spot disease. In normal periods 1 kg of plantain costs about N 5 (30 N = 1 US$), while in scarcity periods the cost rises to around N8 per 1 kg. Fig. 39 illustrates this comparison. At scarcity period farmer's gains by increasing production due to chemical protection might be up to US$ 1111. This may decrease to US$ 367 in normal periods when plantains are abundant in the be about US$ 3633 and US$ 6055 in the normal and scarcity periods, respectively. Therefore, host plant resistance through the utilization of favourable genes could have a comparative advantage over antifungal chemicals of 10:1 or 5.5:1 in normal or scarcity periods of plantain production in southeastern Nigeria.In conclusion, genetic improvement of plantain and banana, by a modified but conventional cross-breeding approach (see Section 2), is an important component in the scientific path towards sustainable production of Muss cultivars in Africa. Its final impact will depend on how useful the new breeding materials are to national researchers and farmers, and their success in making these an integral part of plantain and banana production systems.4.The world's highest per capita consumption of bananas is in the East African highlands. Pest pressure is higher in this region as compared to West and Central Africa, because of the additional presence of Fusarium wilt disease and banana bunchy-top virus. Genetic improvement of the highland cooking and beer banana cultivars (AAA and ABB) that are adapted to this agro-ecology seems possible because seeds have been produced in a number of these cultivars. Methods developed by PBIP (see Section 2) for the genetic improvement of plantains can be extended to AAA and ABB bananas.Breeding, to have success, must be carried out in similar conditions of the targeted eco-region. Hence, /ITA will expand its Muss breeding work by posting a breeder at Namulonge Station in Uganda, as a staff member of the IITA East and Southern Africa (ESA) Regional Centre for the Improvement of Cassava, Banana and Plantain.Screening for female fertility in AAA and other starchy triploid bananas A preliminary screening for seed-fertility in this gene pool was done in the last five years using the cultivars planted in the IITA gene bank (Table 2) at Onne Station. Table 77 indicates the average seed production in AAA and other starchy triploid bananas. We were able to identify 5 sterile and 19 seedfertile East African (EA) cultivars. 'Makara' an EA banana, once produced up to 67 seeds per bunch when pOllinated with C4. Also we found that the AB cv.'Kamaramasenge' was seed-fertile and we have obtained several hundred hybrids seeds using this clone as female parent.The two most common cultivars in that region ('Igitsiri' and 'Igisahira gisanzwe') were multiplied in vitro and later field-established in a larger pollination block at Onne station in 1992. Hybrids seeds will be produced during 1993 by crossing these AAA bananas with diploid resistant accessions such a:> C4 (black sigatoka resistance), PI (black sigatoka resistance and heterozygous carrier of dominant gene for Fusarium wilt resistant), SH-3362 (with potential genes for Fusarium wilt and nematode resistance). Due to its male fertility the AAA dessert banana 'Yangambi Km.S' may be used in crosses with the AAA cooking/beer bananas because it has resistant/tolerant genes to protect against banana weevil. 4b.It is envisaged that hybrid materials, produced at Onne, will be sent in seed form to the !ITA ESA Regional Centre. True seed produced at the Onne station will be examined to determine which microorganisms are present and, if required, how health status can be improved, before seed is sent to Uganda. For example the AB cv. \"Kamaramasenge' has good female fertility at Onne and several hundred hybrid seeds may be produced and sent to East Africa for hybrid production and testing. There, true seeds will be germinated for clonal production, evaluation and selection for improved yield, plant type and resistance to sigatoka diseases, weevil and nematode pests in this highland environment.A black sigatoka resistant hybrid of the ABB cv. 'Bluggoe' TMBx 612-74(hereafter BITA-l) has already been selected due to its high bunch weight (> 17 kg) and big fruits (>200g) at Onne and is being tested in the AMYT-East Africa (Burundi, Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar) and the MET-2 in Uganda. TMBx 1378 ('Fougamou' x M. balbisiana), a hybrid developed at Onne Station, may be a potential hybrid for this area. Other potential hybrids are PITA-5 (included in the AMYT-l set) and PITA-7 (in MET set) because they have PI as male parent and the plantain germ plasm always has been considered as resistant/tolerant to Fusarium wilt.In the 1992-EET, we observed that hybrids derived from AM cvs. 'Inkira', 'Ingumba', 'Kibungu', 'Nyamwihogora', 'Yangambi Km. 5', were mostly diploids with limited value. A tetraploid hybrid derived by crossing 'Ingumba' with 'Tjau Lagada' had a poor yielding bunch with few hands. The only tetraploid from the cross 'Kibungu' x C4 was black sigatoka susceptible. Also, hybrids with non• parthenocarpic fruits were recovered in the cross 'Yangambi Km. 5' x C4, which indicated that 'Yangambi Km. 5' is also heterozygous for the P, locus. The diploid AB cv. 'Kamaramasenge' did not produce interesting hybrids. Its hybrids with 'Truncata' had poor appearance and others with 'Guyod' had droopy leaves which could indicate tetraploidy.In our experience breeding in AAB cooking banana, we found that most of the 'Pelipita' x C4 derived triploid hybrids had bunches which resembled that of their parental line, which might suggest apomictic seed development in the cv.'Pelipita'. Hybrids from the cross 'Pelipita' x 'Maraw' showed poor vigour. Thus, 'Pelipita' cross breeding seems to be difficult. Also derived diploids of 'Bluggoe'x C4 and 'Bluggoe' x 'Tjau Lagada' were eliminated due to their poor bunches in the EETs at Onne Station.Recent concern over rising pest and disease pressure on banana and plantain has spurred genetic improvement programmes. Hence attention has focused on the collection, movement and conservation of Musa germplasm.However, efforts to propagate, conserve and breed cultivated Muss are fraught with many obstacles (slow propagation, low reproductive fertility, lack of genetic variability) specific to the biology of this vegetatively propagated crop. Several plant tissue culture and molecular genetic techniques are increasingly being used as enabling and enhancing technologies for the handling and improvement of Musa germplasm.In vitro propagation of selected genotypes for yield trials Shoot-tip culture is a well-established, adequate and relatively simple in vitro method for the rapid propagation of selected Muss materials and the production of clean planting material. Multiplication rates are several orders of magnitude higher than those obtained with conventional methods, which is of great value for the multiplication of newly bred genotypes or to speed up the testing of selections by plant breeders. Micropropagation continued to be an important tool in the rapid deployment of new breeding schemes and trials by supplying large numbers of plants of female and male parents for the crossing blocks and of TMPxs for the evaluation trials.In the last 12 months, the TC Lab supported the breeding and agronomy work by providing 800, 2760 and 1600 plantlets for 1993 pollination blocks, onand off-station trials, respectively. The TC Lab at Onne also produced about 9000 in vitro plantlets for further distribution to our NARS cooperators for the multilocational trials in the period March 1992 to March 1993 (see Section 8a).). An additional 2500 plantlets of 'Cardaba' were produced for distribution in 1993. Technical support on in vitro propagation of Musa was provided to tissue culture laboratories of Nigerian NARS.5b.The increased genetic variation among plants regenerated from in vitro culture has been termed as somaclonal variation, a ubiquitous phenomenon.The frequent use of in vitro culture techniques for the handling of Musa germplasm warrants investigations into the occurrence of somaclonal variation in this genus (for a thorough discussion see Ref. 6.)Table 78 summarizes the number of somaclonal variants per phenotypic trait in 13 different cultivars of plantain. It was clear that plantain cultivars varied widely in terms of their in vitro stability as determined by the occurrence of variation in the phenotype of regenerated plants. Also the results suggested that cultivars differed in the characters affected by phenotypic variation.To investigate the extent to which the genotypic component affects somaclonal variation, based on phenotypic evaluation, we carried out an experiment using four plantain cultivars, either False or True Hom, which were evaluated in two independent trials (Table 79). The results were not consistent over the two trials. For example the cv. 'Big Ebanga' had 35% of somaclonal variants in trial 1 and only 4.3% in trial 2. This might indicate that the environment plays an important role in the occurrence of somaclonal variation.We were able to determine that there were significant differences between cultivars in the rate of somaclonal variation in each independent trial. This was revealed by an analysis of frequency ~istribution using X2 tests (bottom of Table 79). This should be considered as evidence of genotype dependence in the occurrence of somaclonal variation. Also the genotype-by-environment interaction seems 10 affect the somaclonal variation rate. For example when cullivars 'Big Ebanga' and 'Bise Egome' (unstable clone) were compared, the rates of somaclonal variation changed in opposite directions in the two independent trials (cross order interaction).In conclusion it was clear that somaclonal variation occurs in high frequencies after in vitro propagation of False or True Hom plantain cultivars. However this phenomenon is affected by the cultivar, the environment and the interaction between both factors. 5c.Performance of suckers vs. In vitro propagules of plantain This research is of significance to the rapid multiplication of seed stocks in plantain for which in vitro techniques have been advocated.The frequencies of somaclonal variants according to the plant propagation method in the False Horn plantain 'Agbagba' were studied at OnneStation in 1992 (Table 80). The test for independence in a contingency table indicated that somaclonal variation and propagation method (conventional vs. in vitro shoot-tip culture) are independent criteria, i.e., the ratio of true-to-type to off-types plants remains the same for both techniques of plantain propagation. The phenotypic variation observed in in vitro propagules of 'Agbagba' is thus not significantly higher than in conventional propagules. This conclusion, however, only is valid for 'Agbagba' until similar 'comparisons are made with other cultivars which exhibit higher frequencies of somaclonal variation (see Table 78).The two propagation methods were compared for commercial production of plantain. Only the true-to-type were included in the analysis (Table 81) of an unbalanced data set. The sampling or within plot error was used to determine the significance of the replication x treatment interaction (experimental error).This was significant for traits which showed a coefficient of variability (CV) > 13%; plant height six months after planting, height of tallest sucker at harvest, YLS, bunch and average fruit weight, and number of hands and fingers.Concerns about potential non-phenotypic variants which were not detected by visual inspection were ruled out by an analysis of frequency distributions. Third (skewness) and fourth (kurtosis) degree statistics were employed to detect non-normal distributions. Skewness measures the degree of departure of a distribution from symmetry while kurtosis determines the peakedness of a distribution. Surprisingly the two traits with high CVs, bunch weight and height of tallest suckers, showed a non-skewed distribution. The significant skewness for plant height, total number of leaves, youngest leaf spotted at flowering, fruit filling time, number of hands and number of fingers in the conventional propagules was explained by the shift of the distribution to low values. High values for days to flowering, days to harvest, number of hands and average fruit weight explained the skewed distribution in the in vitro propagules.These were inherent characteristics of each population rather than the result of somaclonal variants which were not visually detected.Analyses of homogeneity of variance (F-tests) indicated that both populations had similar variability for all the traits except plant height at six months after planting, days to flowering, days to harvest and number of fingers. Growth parameters exhibited more variability in the in vitro propagules while number of fingers had a greater variation in conventional propagules. This demonstrated that an increase variability was not dependent on type of propagation.In general in vitro propagules had their means skewed toward high values. There were significant differences in plant height six months after planting, which is an indirect measurement of plant vigor, plant height at flowering and height of tallest sucker at harvest between conventional and in vitro propagules. The latter suggested that chemical compounds present in the in vitro propagation medium may have residual effects affecting sucker development.In vitro propagules grew vigorously and faster that conventional propagules. However, black sigatoka affected both equally, by reducing their yields. This demonstrated that an improved biotechnology such as tissue culture cannot solve the problem of plantain production alone. The aim of this research was to investigate embryo rescue at different ages (days after pollination). In this way the best embryo age was identified for in vitro germination. Fig. 40 illustrates the differences between four different ages.Younger embryos (50-55 days) had a significantly higher success in embryo rescue than older embryos.Silver nitrate (AgN03) promotes regeneration and somatic embryogenesis in tobacco, Hevea, and several monocots such as pearl millet. We investigated whether the germination of plantain mature embryos could be increased by the addition of AgN03 to the basal Murashige & Skoog medium. We found that only the lowest concentration of AgN03 increased significantly the percentage of embryo germination when compared with the control (Fig. 41).This experiment was set to evaluate the combined effects of embryo ages (50 and 80 days after pollination) and plant growth hormones on the in vitro germination of plantain hybrid seeds. The hormones were 6-benzyladenine (BA) and (X-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) at 11lM. No significant interaction between age x hormones was found. Therefore the conclusions applied to both embryo ages. The combined effects of NAA + BA significantly increased the germination of plantain hybrid seeds, however their effects alone were not significantly different from the control (Fig_ 42).Another experiment in which gibberellic acid was added as a third growth regulator to enhance the germination of plantain hybrids did not provide conclusive results.We evaluated the effectiveness of antibiotics, e.g. streptomycin, in reducing the rate of bacterial or fungal contamination. Also its secondary effect on in vitro embryo germination was investigated. The antibiotic increased significantly from 7% to 29% the percentage of healthy plantiets recovered after embryo rescue. This antibiotic, however, did not affect the germination rates.Preliminary results of early screening for black sigatoka using embryo-cultured derived seedlings.This on-going research aims to identify procedures for early detection of black sigatoka resistant hybrids obtained after embryo rescue. Progenies from BT x C4 were in vitro germinated, and seedlings along with the parents were exposed to the disease in Onne Station. Preliminary analysis revealed that there were differences between the hybrids with respect to their susceptible parent in black sigatoka incubation times, or the time between fungus penetration and appearance of the first disease symptom. No differences, however, were found between the hybrids and the parents in the symptom evolution time, i.e. the period following the appearance of the first symptom until the formation of the necrotic spot (last stage of disease development).5e.In Sf.This is a collaborative project which is being carried out through a contract with Dr R. L. Jarret (USDAIARS, Georgia, USA). The Musa genome is investigated using restriction fragment length polymorph isms (RFLPs) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs).The The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect polymorphisms among 29 diploid clones of Musa acuminata Colla collected in Papua New Guinea (PNG, Fig. 43). Primer sequences were derived from a 520bp highly repetitive and dispersed sequence isolated from M. acuminata subssp. ma/accens/s (Fig. 44). Primers (Table 83) , used individually, detected a total of 48 polymorph isms that were scored as unit characters and used to generate a Jaccard's similarity index. The relative abundance of variability within the PNG diploid bananas reflects the extreme variability within the M. acum/nata gene pool. Principal coordinate analysis was used to cluster clones (Figs. 458 and   45b) and the unweighted paired•group method of analysis (UPGMA) was used to compute genetic distance among the materials examined (Fig. 46). PCR with primers from a highly repetitive sequence is a rapid and reliable means of detecting genetic diversity in M. acum/nata.The development and utilization of molecular markers of Musa could help to obtain basic genetic knowledge and to apply it to plantain and banana breeding. For example, they could help to elucidate the genetic nature and origin of the diploids obtained from 3x x 2x crosses involving plantains or the genetic mechanism involved in the modified megasporogenesis leading to the formation of 2n eggs in plantain (see Section 2w).We (USDAIARS and PBIP) are developing the molecular linkage map of Musa using RFLPs, RAPDs, and hypervariable sequences to detect variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). RFL.,Ps are the differences in the size of DNA fragments generated upon digestion of genomic DNA of different genotypes with restriction endonucleases. RAPDs reslJlt from differential annealing and extension of primer DNA to template (Qenomic) DNA in the presence of Taq polymerase. Tandem repeats are dispersed throughout the plant genome of most organisms and, when minisatellite repeats are used as probes, they detect individual-specific hypervariable sequences in humans, animals and plants.Various random genomic probes (> 1aOO), random primers and cloned minisatellites, including the M13 bacteriophage repeat, are being evaluated for their ability to detect polymorph isms in segregating Musa populations.In 1992 we extracted at IITA, DNA from different Musa accessions, somaclonal variants and segregating ~opulations (2 testcrosses and 1 F2)' Test crosses were derived by intermating p!antains and C4, while the F2 was the result of selfing a TMp2x (Tabla 68). Additional segregating populations were developed in 1992 for mapping purposes and to identify useful markers for Musa breeding across different genetic backgrounds. We have almost finished with the morphological characterization using the Musa descriptor list of five of these segregating populations. Preliminary reports about the inheritance of morphological markers were presented in Section 2w.Several hundreds of molecular markers have been and are still being produced by our cooperators in USDAIARS and are used for the construction of a highly saturated Musa molecular map. This provides means to select the most informative probe enzyme combinations, arbitrary primers (Table 84) or tandem repeats, for detecting molecular polymorph isms and hypervariable sequences in Musa segregating populations. In this way, the identification of chromosome regions carrying loci of interest may be possible for further genetic manipulations using non-conventional or modified breeding approaches: genetic engineering and/or marker assisted selection.Molecular marker loci linked to tre loci for black sigatoka resistance (see Section 2w) are also being investigated. As such, the quantitative trait variation (QTV) for black sigatoka resistance may be dissected into its components and the suggested main types of gene action controlling black sigatoka phenotypic expression in Muss (see Section 2w) may be confirmed. In this regard, the two test-cross populations derived from triploid-diploid crosses and an F2 generated B4 by selting a susceptible TMP2x (see Section 2W.) have been evaluated for the disease and are being scored using molecular markers.A project, still pending approval, has been proposed to FAO to initiate this research in collaboration with FHIA and USDAIARS. The project focuses on , black sigatoka and burrowing nematode resistance in plantain and banana.The most informative markers (probe enzyme combinations, arbitrary primers or tandem repeats linked to loci coding for a specific resistance) are being identified by combining field evaluation of UTA and FHIA breeding materials with DNA information. They will be used as 'landmarks' for marker assisted selection (MAS) in early stages of plant development and for introgression of exotic germplasm into the cultivated Musa gene pool.We expect that the markers linked to BSR could be used for MAS in the roguing nursery to identify promising diploid, triploid and tetraploid breeding materials. The efficiency of MAS will depend of several factors such as linkage disequilibria, number of marker loci, population size, heritability of the trait of interest, and the percentage of additive variance explained by the marker. An improvement of such technology for plantain and banana breeding should be achieved by developing an optimum selection index which combines information on molecular with phenotypic measurements. Therefore, both molecular and field work are required to achieve this goal.Alternatively the identification of functional gene sequences and/or protein-derived products providing resistance to this disease could be useful for the production of diagnostic kits for the in vitro selection and rapid multiplication of black sigatoka resistant genotypes.The determination of the mode of inheritance (uniparental vs biparental) of chloroplasts in Musa spp. will be carried out by using cpDNA probes and intraand inter-specific crosses. 'Calcutta 4' (M. acuminata ssp. burmannica) has been crossed as male and female with M. a. ssp. banksii acc. No. 237. Several thousand seeds and hundreds of seedlings were obtained from these reciprocal crosses at Onne in 1992. Seeds or in vitro plantlets will be sent to USDAIARS for DNA extraction and fingerprinting.Outcrossing rates in diploid bananas 'Calcutta 4', the homozygous, wild diploid seeded clone was used to determine the outcrossing rate in diploid germplasm. Seeds extracted from selfed and open pollinated bunches of C4 (see Section 2e.) were sent to USDAIARS for DNA analysis. This information will allow us to determine the rate of outcrossing, mainly done by bees and bats, in this clone.Secure and rational management system for In vitro propagated and conserved germplasm of Musil In vitro culture is a valuable component of current propagation, conservation and improvement strategies for Musa. However, the full exploitation of in vitro culture is hindered py the occurrence of somaclonal variation. Many somaclonal variants are not apparent until in the field, often only at fruiting. This has serious practical and economic consequences for banana/plantain production at the farm level, threatens the security of in vitro conservation, and hampers the efficient application of biotechnological approaches to genetic improvement. Research over recent years has advanced towards characterizing somaclonal variants and understanding some of the underlying factors. However, there is a need to develop a strategy for the rational management of in vitro collections for Musa germplasm conservation.A project under FAO's Associate Professional Officer (APO) scheme has been proposed to address this issue in collaboration with the Intemational Plant Genetic Resources Institute (former IBPGR, Rome, Italy), KUL and others. The project mainly aims at investigating factors that influence the nature and extent of somaclonal variation in plantains and bananas in order to develop improved in vitro culture management procedures for the control of instability in culture. The project will also explore methods for the early detection and characterization of somaclonal variants with a focus on biochemical and molecular markers. This endeavour may eventually result in a genetic map of somaclonal variation in Musa, which could elucidate the underlying causes and origins of this phenomenon.POST HARVEST QUALITY ,OF PLANTAINS Several promising black sigatoka-resistant hybrids have arisen from crosses between wild diploid bananas and cultivated plantains. These hybrids are not plantains with resistance, but should be considered as novel genetic combinations. Hybrids may therefore ~ave different fruit ripening and quality characteristics compared with plantain parents and this may affect consumer acceptability.This research is aimed to determine criteria associated with plantain fruit quality and to provide breeders with rapid simple methods for efficient post harvest screening. The screening techniques being investigated include physico-chemical tests and taste panel analysis to determine fruit quality. The major criteria are fruit durability and palatability.This project is also conducting work on socio-economic aspects of plantain marketing, product development and developing methods for NARS to test the acceptability of new plantain hybrids at the farm level.6a.The plantain breeding program has produced many promiSing black sigatoka resistant plantains (TMPx) which are currently being field tested for resistance durability and agronomic performance. Post harvest research is focusing on fruit ripening characteristics of the hybrids compared with the parents and plantain from the favoured False Horn gene pool. Fruit materials are obtained from METs and PYTs (most recent promising selections) at Onne Station. Key criteria which are assessed include: fruit ripening period, fruit weight loss during ripening, initial sugar, sugar:starch ratio's, starch hydrolysis during ripening, pulp: peel ratios, rate of tissue softening, dry matter content, and mineral composition. These data will be used to obtain a ripening profile specifically for the hybrids but also to provide data of ripening characteristics across the gene pool, for further use by the breeding team. Studies on dry matter content will also be used to determine the effect of desiccating period on seed germination. This will only apply to pollinated bunches.The data in Table 85 show three of the post harvest parameters which will be used by the breeding team. The parameters of dry matter, fruit weight and pulp: peel ratios were taken from clones in the MET-1 trial located at Onne station. The data also indicate the rank order of the clones for these parameters. It should be noted that the data sets for the postharvest section are on-going, additional data are required to provide more statistically valid data. Data from the starch and sugar analysis, tissue softening and mineral composition are ongoing and are not presented at this stage.Dry matter has become increasingly important as a quality criterion, especially when developing new plant varieties. The dry matter immediately provides a measure of water content and clearly a breeder first needs to determine whether increased yield is due to higher water retention or a genuine increase in harvested product. Dry matter is also important for correlations with storage period and cooking quality. The ranking for dry matter (Table 85) showed that 'Pelipita', a cooking banana, had the highest dry matter content (OM) at 41% and the dessert banana 'Valery' had the lowest dry matter at 23%. According to previous reports, 'Pelipita' has good cooking qualities which may be related to high dry matter content. it is generally accepted that dessert bananas are eaten raw and have poor cooking qualities for which low dry matter may be a contributing factor.When dry matter contents were pooled and averaged according to the four distinct types of Musa fruit, the order from high to low of dry matter content was plantain, cooking banana, plantain hybrid and dessert banana respectively. The dry matter for the plantains ranged from between 36-37% OM, cooking bananas ranged from 31-41% OM, plantain hybrids ranged from 31-35% OM, and bananas from 23-29% OM. These early results indicate that plantain hybrids have a dry matter which is 2-3% lower than true plantains but higher than the cooking bananas 'Bluggoe' and 'Cardaba', and the dessert bananas.When percentage of dry matter for the Musa fruits are compared with other perishable staples (Table 86), then it is clear that dry matter content for the plantains, cooking bananas and plantain hybrids are favourable relative to other starchy staple foods. An important aspect of OM analysis is that although the plantain hybrid is derived from a plantain crossed with a banana type, the hybrid offspring retain a closer association to their plantain parent.The fruit weight data were taken from the second hand of the bunch. The second hand was selected as it typically provides less variability than fruits from the first hand. The ranking order for the fruit weights in this experiment (Table 85) showed that the cooking banana 'Bluggoe' produced the heaviest fruit followed by the False Horn plantain 'Agbagba'. Excluding the hybrid clone 597-4, which the breeders have rejected due to its black sigatoka susceptibility, the fruit weights of the other seven hybrids ranged from 160-191 g, which was clearly higher than the fruit weights from the ~ybrid plantain parents OL (151g) and BT (114g).Individual fruit weight is important in terms of market acceptability. In the market place fruits are typically sold individually and consumers prefer to purchase large fruits. In this respect despite having a high dry matter, the lower weights of the cooking bananas 'Pelipita' and 'Fougamou' may be less acceptable in the market.The pulp: peel ratio data (Table 85) provides further information on the value of yield. A high pulp: peel ration indicates the fruit has higher proportion of pulp compared with the peel. The trends in this data set are not apparent but it is clear from the rankingr that PI and 'Fougamou' have a very thin peel compared with the hybrids, 597-4 and 612-74 offtype. The dessert banana 'Valery' also has a low pulp: peel ratio and the hybrids were generally lower than the plantain parents.Fruit ripening in this experiment was conducted on individual fruits selected randomly from the second and third hands of the bunch. The bunch was harvested when the fruits were fully mature and taken immediately to the laboratory where the fruits were cut prior to selection. Temperature in the experimental area was maintained at approximately 25 0 C and was vented every 2 hours to prevent build up of ethylene. The ripening period was measured in terms of changes in the peel colour ov~r time. This data set is the period from harvest until the fruit peel reached colour stage 7, when the peel was fully yellow with presence of black spots. The data set in Table 87 has been analysed because the number of replications was acceptable but this data set is also ongoing.Fruit ripening period is of considerable commercial interest to farmers, retailers and the consumer. The ripening period of the hybrid should therefore be consistent with the plantain parent and the breeder will be interested in the performance of the hybrid relative to the market standard. It was interesting to find that the cooking banana 'Pelipita' had the longest ripening period of 18 days. 'Agbagba' had a significantly lower ripening period of 12 days compared with 'Pelipita'. However for the purposes of this experiment 'Agbagba' is used as the reference clone, because 'Agbagba' is a False Horn plantain grown extensively in the plantain belt of South East Nigeria which attains a high market price.The result of most interest to the breeder in this data set was that the plantain hybrid TMPx 1112•1 had a ripening period of 12 days which was equal to the reference clone. All the hybrids had a significantly longer ripening period than the cooking bananas and more importantly had a longer ripening period than the plantain female parents. The female plantain parent of most of the hybrids, OL, was found to have a ripening period of 7 days which corresponded to 63% of the Agbagba ripening period. This result was consistent with other previous studies.Once more of the physically measured characteristics have been evaluated, these data will be assessed relative to the Ideotype (see Section 2z).At a later stage when more defined data profiles are available a set of criteria can be developed by the breeders to determine a threshold value for each characteristic for selection using independent culling levels.6b.Objective physiological measurements (see Section 6a) are complemented with subjective studies on fruit palatability for which taste panels are used. These data provide information on important fruit quality characteristics for consumers and indicates potential for consumer acceptability.At Onne Station taste panels are used for sensory evaluation of boiled unripe and fried ripe fruit. Criteria for testing include taste, colour, sweetness, texture and acceptability. Fruit samples are also ranked for preference to provide information which compares clones.Although the initial studies are conducted at Onne Station, they will be extended to other locations which have the MET or AMYT cional set when fruit are available. Taste panel testing will be set up with NARS for these sites. It is hoped that studies on 'matoke' and beer preparation can be made in Uganda and taste panel analysis of 'fufu' will be conducted in Ghana. Post harvest training was given to trainees during the plantain technology training course (see Section 8c.) and this information will be followed by further training at key sites before hybrids are harvested.The The data in The most preferred fruit were the three plantains, 'Ubok Iba' (True Horn), 'Agbagba' (False Horn) and OL (French). The next most preferred clone was TMPx 1112-1, followed by 'Pelipita'. Preferences ratings for TMPx 548-4 and 548-9 were ranked at 6 and 7 respectively. The IITA clone that was distinctly not preferred was 612-74 offtype, ranked at 16 out of the 18 entries.Data from the cooking bananas suggested that 'Pelipita' and 'Bluggoe' were relatively favoured and were in the top 8 clones. However the cooking bananas 'Cardaba' and 'Fougamou' wl3re ranked 12 and 13 and were therefore not considered favourably. The FHIA hybrids FHIA-2 and FHIA-3 ranked considerably worse than the plantains and plantain hybrids against which they were tested. FHIA-2 is a candidate for the dessert banana market and a low ranking was not considered unusual. However FHIA-3 is reputedly derived from a cooking banana and is aimed as a potential resistant plantain like product for Africa. The tests from the boiled taste panel data do not suggest that FHIA-3 is a favoured candidate.The basis of clonal preferences is explained to some extent by the information in Table 89 which lists the quality criteria that were assessed by the panelists on the individual samples and their mean response. For each criterion the panelists were required to state whether the fruit was good or bad and then the panelist was given a number of choices to explain this quality assessment.The first two columns in Table 89 report colour quality and colour rating. Clearly the plantain cultivars were scored as having a very good quality with a dark yellow-orange colour after cooking. The fruits which were scored as poor included Tuu Gia, FHIA-1, FHIA-2, FHIA-3 , TMBx612-74 and 'Valery'. The colours of these fruits were a light yellow or white as in the case of FHIA-3. The white pulp colour is more typical of the cooking banana from which FHIA-3 is derived.The taste score data show that the plantain and 'Cardaba' were of good quality with a good plantain like flavour. The other cooking bananas along with TMPx 1112-1 and TMPx 548-4 had an acceptable flavour. The remaining clones were considered to have a poor flavour except for FHIA-2, FHIA-3 and 'Tuu Gia' which were scored as having an unacceptable flavour.The sweetness data were somewhat surprising in that the dessert bananas were scored as not sweet enough. This was unusual because dessert bananas commonly have a higher sugar content than plantains. One possible explanation for this was that the sugar present in the fruit was leached during boiling which gave the pulp a bland flavour.Texture indicated that the IITA hybrids were of about the right firmness except for TMBx 612-74. This cooking banana hybrid is derived from a cross between 'Bluggoe' and C4. 'Bluggoe' has a 5-6% lower dry matter than plantain and this may reduce the bOiling quality.The acceptance data provide a summary of the taste panel information.For ease of comparison this data set has been put in rank order in Table 90 and the order corroborates well with the findings in Table 88. In the quality column the plantains were scored as very good. 'Pelipita', TMPx 548-4 and TMPx 1112-1 were considered as good. The remaining IITA hybrids bar one were rated as fair. The dessert banana 'Valery', 'Tuu Gia', FHIA-1, FHIA-3 and TMBx612-74 were poor. Similarly in the ranking overall, only the top seven clones were considered as fully acceptable.The data set is useful because it can provide the breeding team with a ready made screen. Although the clone TMPx 548-9 had shown well in the ratings (Table 88) it failed to attain acceptance rating. The main reasons for this were that TMPx 548-9 had a poor flavour many respondents stating that it was not sweet enough. A probable overiding factor however was that many respondents stated that it was of good quality but contained seeds which were undesirable. The high number of seeds was also the reason for the low ranking of TMBx 612-74.One of the common problems that has arisen from the taste panel analysis concerning the hybrids and cooking bananas is the occurrence of seeds in the pulp. For example the triploid-fertile c\\/.. 'Pelipita' produces on average 233 ± 54 open pollinated seeds. Musa seeds are pea sized, hard, black objects which distinctly reduce the quality perception of the fruit. Seed set may be a problem with the more fertile tetraploid plantain hybrids. How important seed set will be in the future is at present uncertain. Seed set at Onne Station is believed to be high due to the levels of pollen being wind dispersed from the pollination blocks and from the male diploid lines being evaluated in the same experiment.Preliminary results from hand pollination (Section 2d) suggested that tetraploids have reduced male fertility. Moreover, in the farmers' fields there are no diploid pollinators and therefore there will be very little viable pollen to cause seed set.We are now planting a selected hybrid into farmers fields to assess the fruit quality as perceived by the farming community. Seed set will be one of the criteria evaluated. Alternatively the hybrid will be supplied with information that the male bud should be removed once the bunch has formed. This action will eliminate the pollen source and is the standard practice for cooking banana production in southeast Asia and for export banana production in tropical America.The data in Table 91 shows the results from taste panel comparisons of 17 Musa clones which have been prepared as fried seclions from ripe fruit.The mean indicates the overall preference for a clone in all comparisons and is accompanied by the number of observations for that clone. The final rank is based on the mean value.The preference ranking for the clones show that 'Ubok Iba' and 'Agbagba' retain positions 1 and 2. Positions 3,4 and 5 have changed in the order compared with boiled data but retain the same clones, viz rank orders 3,4,and 5 to clones Pelipita, OL and TMPx 1112-1 respectively. A note of caution is needed with the data set because 'Pelipita' was not compared directly with OL or TMPx 1112-1. The absence of these comparisons may effect the overall ran kings. The data in Tables 92 and 93 indicate the basis for the preference ranking.The dodo data show similar information to the boiled data but with some clear changes in clonal performance. The most preferred colour for dodo was a deep golden colour. The clones TMPx 1658-4, FHIA-2 and 'Valery' produced a light yellow product and were therefore scored as poor.Almost all clones provided a reasonable flavour when fried. This common feature was probably due to the flavour imparted from the refined oil used to fry the sliced pulp. The exceptions were 'Fougamou', FHIA-2 and 'Valery'. Table 93 shows the preference of the clones according to quality and acceptability score. Ten clones were considered as good quality and 11 clones had acceptable quality. These data reconfirm the information from the previous data that the plantains were the most acceptable clones. However more importantly the data indicate that for the dodo test the IITA hybrids TMPx 548-4, TMPx 548-9, TMPx 2796-5 and TMPx 1112-1 were consistently highly rated.The data also suggest that the IITA hybrids 597-4, TMPx 582-4, TMPx 1658-4 and TMBx 612-74 were not preferred. Similarly 'Fougamou', FHIA-2 and 'Valery' were not clone with potential as dodo.The data from the taste panel tests remain at an early stage and the number of blank spaces in the tables shows that far more data are required.However at this stage an overall picture is emerging based on the information from the two data sets and this is valuable. Tthe liT A hybrids TMPx 548-4, TMPx 548-9, TMPx 2796-5 and TMPx 1112-1 were consistently highly rated and therefore should be considered for continued advanced testing. The data also suggest that the IITA hybrids 597-4, TMPx 582-4, TMPx 1658-4 and TMBx 612-74 were overall not preferred and may not serve as potential candidates for replacing black sigatoka susceptible plantain.Once the clones have been assessed more fully using several physical parameters and evaluated via the taste panel, a detailed profile of a clone can be made available to the breeding team for selection and genetic analysis based on fruit quality.Other projects related to fruit quality include the evaluation of fruit damage susceptibility and fruit storage. Data on these topics are being collected but are insufficient for reporting at this time.Hybrid plantains closely resemble but are not identical to parent plantains.Hence there is a need to compare the utilisation characteristics of hybrids with parents as differences between hybrids and parents may confer advantage, e.g.in terms of cooking time or sugar content. Initial studies are investigating preparation times for hybrids in traditional dishes. Later studies will investigate simple processing techniques such as vinegar yields from high sugar content hybrids, for storage purposes.Projects are on-going on a number of these topics:(i) Cooking timeThe cooking time of the clones included in the MET sets is being assessed in terms of changes in texture. Fruit are cut and placed into boiling water. Three sections are removed every 2 minutes and these sections are tested for texture using a penetrometer. This data will be used to correlate with the starch levels and texture softening information.(ii) Wine production Overripe plantain pulp appears to be a good medium for wine production. The initial brews to which sugar was added produced an alcohol yield of 16 %. (iii) Vinegar production Studies are continuing to brew different clones for wine production and then attempt to convert alcohol into vinegar.Acetobacter will be sent from Belgium to enable conversion.(iv) Plantain chips The use of sealed polyethylene bags to store plantain chips has proven successful. Chips are of high quality after 3 weeks compared with 2 days using local thin plastics as used in the markets .. Optimum chip size has been selected and now the product is being produced on a commercial basis to test in the market place whether this type of product is commercially viable as a cottage industry. Marginal profit analysis will follow. The period from May -August is the famine period for plantain and the price of the initial product may determine viability.6d.This project will serve several functions:(i) To determine the effect of black sigatoka disease on production (ii) Determine effect of sigatoka on fruit quality, with special emphaSis on seed set (iii) To develop methods for on-farm post harvest evaluation Present interest from Imo State-ADP (southeastern Nigeria) on post harvest evaluation at the on-farm level will be followed up and incorporated in the next on-farm assessment.Plants for this project were generated during the year and will be planted in the rainy season of 1993. A second plan for future on-farm work is being developed which will concern on-farm varietal testing.Along with these activities PBIP has supplied equipment for cassava chipping, developed by engineers of IITA's Post Harvest Unit, to farms in the neighbouring area to Onne Station. These farms will receive both new cassava as well plantain hybrids in the 1993 planting season.Preliminary analyses based on results shown in Table 85 suggested that dry matter content was under the control of genes exhibiting additivity. Most of the hybrids had values in between plantain (high dry matter content) and diploid banana (low dry matter) parents. Ther~fore, phenotypic recurrent selection may be an efficient method to increase the frequency of favourable alleles for high dry matter in the breeding populations.Epistatic interactions arising from the interactions between the plantain genes and the banana genes (as discussed in Section 2w), rather than overdominance, explained transgressive segregation for fruit weight. Most of the hybrids not only exceeded significantly the mid-parent value but also the fruit weight of the plantain parent.Preliminary analysis of storage duration of fruit (Table 87) revealed that different genetic systems may be operating in PI (an structural heterozygote) and C4 (a true-breeding line). C4's hybrids either with plantains or the cooking banana 'Bluggoe' exhibited transgressive segregation for storage duration of the fruit probably due to complementation between the parental genes. While in PI the results suggested that partially dominant genes (towards the high values of the banana parent) were controlling storage duration of fruit in TMPx 2796-5 and TMPx 1658-4.Data for pulp:peel ratio did not give any conclusive evidence about the genetic system controlling this trait. More accurate genetic analyses about quality traits will be carried out using the TMp2x germplasm. Currently we are assessing different fruit characteristics in this germ plasm. 6f.Work being conducted by Drs. Tucker and Vendrell (Univ. of Nottingham, UK) is concerned with the effect of polygalacturonase (PG) on cell wall degradation which causes the fruit tissue softening associated with fruit ripening.Drs. Tucker and Vendrell are looking at polygalacturonase in banana and have started to screen mRNAs for PG message. Identification of mRNAs and cDNAs for the key cell wall degrading enzymes would provide good RFLP probes to assist with breeding work (see Section 5f). It is intended to use the IITA Muss collection (see Section 2a) as the base from which to isolate a range of ripening response material for testing following primary screening at Onne Station. This collaborative project is subject to funding from European Economic Community. The project will be finalised at Nottingham University by Dr. G.Tucker to be submitted for the 1993 funding round.Careful management of organic matter is essential to achieve sustained perennial productivity of plantain under large scale field production conditions. Agroforestry systems such as alley cropping and the management of regrowth of natural bush fallow species in plantain fields are being investigated for their capacity to maintain productivity over long periods of cultivation without degradation of the resource base. AI~o, the performance of improved genotypes relative to the crop management system should be assessed. On-site cultural practices used in breeding trials may differ considerably from typical farmer practice and could influence genotype selection. Research on this project is carried out in cooperation with agronomists/soil scientists of the Resource and Crop Management Division (RCMD) of IITA. 7a.This research aims to determine the long term yield potential of six plantain cultivars representing different taxonomic groups. The experiment, planted in 1987 with in vitro produced plants, will continue until 1993. The trial • was established in a 10-year old bus~ fallow which was cleared manually and not burnt. In the 3 m wide alleys between the rows of plantain, the natural shrub and tree species of the bush fallow were allowed to regrow in order to form a spontaneous, muHispecies alley cropping system. Through regular coppicing, the prunings of the multispecies hedgerows serve as mulch for the plantain crop, as such providing the organic matter required for sustained plantain productivity.In 1991, a research scholar from Belgium performed the data analysis of the first 2 production cycles, the plant crop and the first ratoon. The analyses were published in the PBIP 1991 Annual Report. The analYSis for the six year period (1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993) will be done considering the effects of years (Y), plantain cultivars (P), and the YxP interaction in the following traits: pseudostem height, total number of leaves, number of leaves at flowering, length/width ratio of the seventh leaf, height of tallest sucker atflowering and at harvest, days to harvest, bunch weight, number of hands and fingers, and length of production cycle. 7b.A botanical survey was conducted to determine the number of plant species and the changes occurring in the floristic composition of natural hedgerows established from fallow species that were allowed to regrow in order to form a spontaneous multispecies hedgerow under plantain cropping. The study was conducted in a 4 ha, 5-year old plantain field which was planted in a manually cleared 10-year old bush fallow. About 120 different plant species were identified in these natural hedgerows, which were coppiced regularly to provide mulch to the plantain. An increase in the number of plants per unit area was observed with increasing plot age, i.e., the longer the plot was cultivated with plantain, the higher the number of plants in the hedgerows. The most frequent species were Anthonata macrophylla, Mil/etia arborensis and the aggressive shrubby weed Chromo/aena odorata. The presence of highly nodulating tree species and the high Qiomass produced by plants such as Chromo/aena odorata, which provide a source of mulch, could explain the good perennial performance of plantain in this field. Research by the RCMD and the International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) continues on the management of the multispecies hedgerows, to determine the rate and pattern of increase in the population of shrubs, trees and herbaceous annual species found in this field. The effects 01 the multispecies hedgerows on the nutrient status of this site will also be monitored. Multllocational testing of plantain and banana hybridsThe Nigerian Interministerial Committee for the Control of Black Sigatoka Disease requested the concourse of PBIP for the development of new breeding materials and technology in this area. In 1992. both programs started a joint effort for the testing of TMPx germ plasm in 11 Nigerian sites to identify promising genotypes for future cultivar release (see Section 2m.). Also CRBP (Cameroon) and CRI (Ghana) joined the MET-2 nelwork. A total of 12 MET sets, consisting of 200 test plants of 20 clones (Table 2~) and 200 'Valery' borders, were sent to the 13 African cooperators. Also MET-2 sets, consisting of 2 plants of each entry (for further rapid in vitro multiplication and later field testing), were sent to our cooperators in Cuba, Dominican Republic and Australia.The AMYT-sets (Table 27), comprising only the testing clones (360 plants per experimental site) were sent to nine cooperators of the AMYT-network (Table 28). Two experimental protocols were developed and written versions of each as well as data sheet notebooks were distributed. The booklets:. Vuylsteke, D. & R. Ortiz. 1993. Advanced Musa Yield Trial 1 in East Africa. More than 2500 seedlings/suckers of the cooking banana cvs. 'Cardaba'(176S), 'Bluggoe' (70), 'Pelipita' (339), and the black sigatoka resistant dessert banana 'Yangambi Km. 5' (366) were distributed as basic seed not only to the Ministry of Agriculture of Rivers State but also to Akwa Ibon-AOP, Rison Palm Ltd. (Yenagoa), Prison Farm (Elele) and the extension services of Shell Co. and NAOC (AGIP Ltd).In vitro virus indexed plants of the bananas 'Yangambi Km. 5', 'Fougamou' as well as the plantains 'Agbagba' and 'Muracho' were sent to Seychelles Islands. The black sigatoka resistant banana 'Yangambi Km. 5' was also sent to Cuba. This training course provided a forum to discuss the most important limiting factors for the production of plantain and banana in sub-Saharan Africa.Course participants from 10 countries (Cote d'ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Sao Tome & Principe, Zaire, Uganda, Tanzania/Zanzibar and Malawi) indicated that disease complex (mainly sigatoka, banana weevil and nematodes), yield decline, and post-harvest losses are the major constraints to banana/plantain production in Africa.Group training for Nigerian technicians evaluating the MET-2 (see Section 2m) was also provided in May, 1992. IITA scientists and PBIP senior staff based at Onne station were the resource persons.   M. a subsp. banskii: (112), ( 237), (BS 467), (BS 606), (BS 607), (BS 619), (BS 620), (BS 621), (BS 623), (BS 624), Higa 111-4 (BS 428), Higa 111-97 (BS 464). Hybrids: (BS 622 = hybrid with M. schizocarpa), Higa 111-4 (BS 378 = unknown male parent).Cavendish: 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Giant Cavendish', 'lacatan' (BS 176), 'Po masak hijau', 'Poyo', 'Robusta', '~'. Gros Michel: 'Gros Michel', 'Highgate'. Others: 'Biu Ketip', 'Green Red', 'Hungtu', 'Jawaka', 'lai', 'leite', 'Mambu' (111-181), 'Marauw', 'Muga', 'Mun', 'Ouro Mer, 'Padri', 'Po nangka', 'Red', 'Vangambi ~' (\"Klue Hom Bao).AAA: 'Bakurura', 'Chibulangombe\"', 'GashuHe*', Guineo' 'Igihuni', 'Igisahira Gizanzwe', '!Qi.t §Ui*', 'Ikigeregere*', 'Ikimaga', 'Imbogo', 'Indemera y'lmbihire*', 'Ingarara', 'Ingarama', 'Ingororooka*', 'Ingumba y' Inyarrunyo', 'Inkira*', 'I mama', 'Intariho', 'Intokatoke*', 'Inyonya', 'Inzirabahima', 'Isha*', 'Kagera', 'Kibungo 1', 'Kitawira', 'Makara*', 'Mbirabire', 'Mbwazirurne', 'Nakjtengwa', 'Nshika\"', 'Nsira', 'Nyamwihogora', 'Rugondo'.AS: Kamaramasenge (dessert banana). Kisubi*.'Come plantain'('Maia Maon'), 'Klue roi wee', 'laknau' (AVP-66), 'laknau' (11-22), 'Maqueno', 'Maritu' ('Sao Dorringos' 0 'Resplando\"),'Mbeta l' (Mysore), 'P. kelar, 'P. raja', 'Porne', 'Popou/ou', 'Rajapuri India', 'Silk', 'Thong Det'.continued over page ..... 0 co Table 4. Phenotypic correlations between bunch and vegetative traits in the AAB West African plantain germplasm. The significance level, (x, for false rejection of null hypothesis: p =0, is indicated in brackets.-  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Probability values> 0.05 indicate a non-significant correlation coefficient. % of total variation explained 79.409 14.239 a This was determined through the method of maximum curvature by plotting either variance index (VI) or coefficient of variation (CV) (Y axis) vs. number of plants per plot (X axis) (see Fig. 6)Table 8. Number of replications required to detect a significant (P < 0.05) mean difference (expressed in kg plant-1 ) for bunch weight between 2 plantain cultivars with 80% statistical confidence Mean difference (kg plant-1 ) 0. Table 9. Bunches pollinated, pollination success (100 x bunches with seeds/bunches pOllinated, total seed production and average seed set (seeds per bunch) in different types of mating during 1992 at Onne.    -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  17. Analyses of variance, based on production cycle means, for growth and yield parameters in 4x progenies (TMPx) of 'Obino I' Ewai' x 'Calcutta 4' along with the fungicide treated (OL-FT) and non-treated (OL-NT) at Onne, Nigeria (1990Nigeria ( -1992)).- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------   .... ....Table 18. Growth and yield parameters in 4x progenies (TMPx) of 'Obi no I' Ewai' x 'Calcutta 4' along with the fungicide treated (OL-FT) and non-treated (OL-NT) at Onne, Nigeria (1990Nigeria ( -1992)).------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------H = plant height at flowering (cm), OF = days to flowering, FFP = fruit filling period (days from flowering to harvest), O-H = days to harvest, HTSh = height of tallest sucker at harvest (cm), BW = bunch weight (kg), HIS = number of hands per bunch, FIB = number of fingers (fruits) per bunch, FW = average fruit weight (g), FV = fruit volume (ml), FL = finger length (cm), FC = finger circumference .Mean columns without letters indicated that the source of variation treatment was not significant in the ANOVA (Table 17) . Means followed by the same letter were not statistically different according to Student-Neuman-Keul's test at the 5%. Mean square of the production cycle x treatment was used for the estimation of the least significant difference.....Table 19. Preliminary evaluation a of growth and yield parameters in 2x I 3x and 4x progenies of 'Bobby Tannap' x 'Calcutta 4' (BT x C4) and 'Obi no I' Ewaj' x 'Calcutta 4 (OL x C4). (Onne, Nigeria 1991-1992) ..------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- bBut not significant contrast between 2x and 4x ploidy levels .   ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ a 'Pisang Lilin' and 'Agbagba' were missing at M'Balmayo due to somaclonal variation. Degrees of freedom decreased for C and CxL, error and total in all the traits evaluated at harvest because no data was collected for 'Calcutta 4' and 'Fougamou' at .-M'Balmayo. This last cultivar was not harvested yet when this report was written). -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------aprobably an off-type after in vitro propagation.Means followed by the same letter were not statistically different at the 5 % level according to Duncan's Multiple Range Test.BSR= black sigatoka reaction: HR = highly resistant, R=resistant, PR=partially resistant, LS = less susceptible and S = susceptible. This was determined by comparing the youngest leaf spotted of each clone with respect to the susceptible checks and the hybrids with their triploid parents, H = plant height at flowering (em), TNLf = total number of leaves at flowering of plant crop (em), OF=days to flowering. HTSh = height of tallest sucker at harvest (cm). BW:;:: bunch weight (kg), cFP = fruit filling period (days from flowering to harvest), HlB = number of hands per bunch. FIB = number of fingers (fruits) pt~r bunch, FW = average fruit weight (g), FL = finger length (cm), FC = finger circumference.Table 24. Clonal mean of growth and yield parameters evaluated in 17 genotypes at M 'Balmayo Station (1991-March 1993) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- MeansfOltowedbyttle-sarrieletter-werenotstatisticatiYdlffererltatthe5%lev9laccordingtoi5uncan75-MultiPieRangeTeSt~ BSR= black sigatoka reaction: HR = highly resistant (no leaf spots). R=resistant, PR=partially resistant, LS = less susceptible and S = susceptible. This was determined by comparing the youngest leaf spotted of each clone with respect to the susceptible checks and the hybrids with their triploid parents, H = plant height at flowering (em), TNLf = total number of leaves at flowering of plant crop (em), DF=days to flowering, HTSh = height of tallest sucker at harvest (em), BW = bunch weight (kg), FFP = fruit filling period (days from flowering to harvest), H/B = number of hands per bunch, FIB = number of fingers (fruits) per bunch, FW = average fruit weight (g), FL = finger length (em), FC = finger circumference.     (December 1991-March 1993).------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Tetraploid Hybrids:FHIA-      -----------------------------------------------------       Expected values for ' 1. 2 test of independence calculated assuming the ratio 4:2:2:1 instead of the 1:1:1:1 ratio for diploids due to duplex genotypes of the parents for these loci as well as trisomic segregation ratios. Also X2was adjusted by Yates' correction for small sample sizes Expected values for X2 test of independence calculated assuming the ratio 4:2:2:1 instead of the 1:1:1:1 ratio for diploids due to duplex genotypes of the parents for these loci as well as trisomic segregation ratios. Also X2was adjusted by Yates' correction for small sample sizes    - -------------------.-----_.---------------------------------------------------------------------------.----  5. Roguing nursery: seedling bags, labels, soil, manure, fiber. 6. Field trial: fertilizers (dosage depens on loCal conditions), herbicides (could be replaced by complete hand weeding), insectices (until production of banana weevil resistant hybrids). nematicides (until production of nematode resistant hybrids). \"machete\".Rustic cold-frame or greenhouse. building for tissue-culture lab and office, ripening room. workshop, furniture for office, labs and ripening room. Optional: computer (aid for data analysis) and microscope (cytological wOrk).aTo be calculated, depends on aneuploidy frequency. b Ferilization. thining. weeding, pnJnning alleys. Costs for land preparation are not included.    ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------   -AAA-TGA-ATC-ACC-GGC-3'-GCA-GCG-CGG-CGG-TAC-3'GCC-GGC-TTG-CCG-TAC-3'-TCA-TGG-TTT-CTC-TTG-3' 5'-CAC-AAG-AAA-AAT -CAT-3'-CGA-TTC-ATG-CAT-TTG-3'-AAT-CTT-TTT-GTC-AAA-3'-GAC-AGA-CAG-ACA-GAC-3'-TCT-TTT-CGC-TAT-TTG-3'-GAA-TAC-AGG-AAA-TAC-3'-CAC-TTC-AAC-TCA-TCA-3'-GAA-TAC-AAA-GAA-TTG-3 '   Table 90. Rank order of clones for acceptability based on quality and acceptance rating of boiled samplesQuality grade Rank Clone Acceptability score ------------------------------~----------------------  -----------------------------------------------------    100~----------------------------------------------------------------------~ r------------------,  4' and'Bobby Tannap' x 'Calcutta 4' (1988-1990).\"\" CD 20.c E Step Duration Type of trial    x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x xx 1 1 x , 1 x 1 , x 1 1 x , 1 x , , x x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0x 0 1 x , , x x , 2 x 3 4 x 5 6 x 7 8 x 9 0 x , 2 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 2 2x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x x 0 0x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0x 0 , x , , x x , 2 x 3 4 x 5 6 x 7 8 x 9 0 x , 2 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 3 3 x 3 3 x 3 3 x 3 3 x 3 3 x 3 3 x x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 , x 1 , x x , 2 x 3 4 x 5 6 x 7 8 x 9 0 x 1 2 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x xx 4 4x 4 4 x 4 4 x 4 4  x 4 4 x 4 4 x x 0 0x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 0 x 0 , x , , xx , 2 x 3 4 x 5 6 x 7 8 x 9 0 x 1 2 x x     Locus designation:as 1, major locus for black sigatoka resistance.FF, female fertility. P1, fruit parthenocarpy. MF, male fertility. NFPi , persistence of neutral flowers and male bracts. 0, centromere.   ","tokenCount":"33940"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be35b3424b84fdead4fcd030ecea81d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e010057-956c-428f-97a8-239c667907b6/retrieve","id":"-929600655"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9f883f6b-0b3d-4eed-8cd6-0adb2ac6bf5a","pagecount":"2","content":"The Australian Government recently launched an Africa Alumni Ambassadors initiative aimed at raising the visibility of Australia Awards in Africa. ILRI's Azage Tegegne, coordinator of the Livestock and Irrigation Value chains for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) project joined the first group.New advances in the battle against a major disease threat to cattle and people in AfricaAs part of ILRI's comprehensive fight against trypanosomiasis, the institute is now in the very early stages of a project to develop disease-resistant cattle, which could save the lives of livestock and people both. Thus far, ILRI and its partners have taken a preliminary step in the process, which involved successfully cloning a male calf from one of East Africa's most important cattle breeds, the Boran. The 2012 annual scientific meeting of the Wildlife Disease Association featured a workshop on capacity development in wildlife health management. ILRI was represented by Purvi Mehta-Bhatt, regional representative for South Asia, who gave a keynote presentation on capacity development in One Health and EcoHealth.In recent months, pig value chain assessment activities have been carried out in Masaka district as part of the Uganda Smallholder Pig Value Chains Development (SPVCD) and Safe Food, Fair Food (SFFF) projects. One farmer approached by the project team was unavailable to meet the team; but shared a letter capturing the project's objectives.Livestock data collected in Niger, Tanzania and Uganda to measure -and improvelivestock development 'Africa still suffers from a lack of good quality data on livestock that could be used to measure and improve progress as well as inform policymaking processes, scientists have said. 'Good data are crucial for identifying effective public and private sector investment opportunities, and in helping to improve the livelihoods of smallholder livestock producers in Africa, according to 'Livestock Data Innovation in Africa's initiative.Researchers at the University of Edinburgh and the International Livestock Research Institute are using GPS technology to track the movement of a different kind of asset that, though not motorized or electronic, is nonetheless of great value to resource-poor farmers in rural western Kenya: free-ranging domestic pigs.African cities test the limits of living with livestock Raising chickens has become so fashionable among some urban Americans that there's now a market for , as we reported this month. For a bit of a reality check, let's consider what it means to raise urban livestock in the developing world, where people are poorer and hungrier, and cities are much more densely populated. It's a starkly different picture of people and animals living together, and the question of how it's done has major implications for improving food security and preventing public health disasters.Keeping camels, and their keepers, free of disease in Kenya, where 'raw' camel milk is becoming popular 'Camels are known for their ability to travel long distances across the desert without water. 'But they're also becoming an increasingly important source of milk for people in droughtprone regions. That includes East African countries like Kenya, where camel numbers have skyrocketed over the past few decades.Scientists in Kenya have launched research of a vaccine to be used against African swine fever. The study is still at an early stage where scientists at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) are identifying antigens and best-bet delivery systems to be used. \"Research in this area, with the ultimate goal of generating resistant and productive domestic pigs, is just beginning,\" said ILRI molecular biologist Dr Richard Bishop.A new science program launched in Jordan last week-the CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems-is setting itself a huge ambition: To help many of the 2.5 billion people living in the vast drylands of the developing world raise their levels of both food production and security. A CGIAR Fund is supporting the program's first three years of work to the tune of 120 million dollars.From May 20-22, the CGIAR livestock and fish program held its first annual review meeting in Ethiopia. ","tokenCount":"642"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6c4843d22b6fc3a94f77005f702d70e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8505f57c-5a01-4138-b442-29187a85cb32/retrieve","id":"-47508406"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bea38b8f-7781-42fd-88b4-83655324c94f","pagecount":"9","content":"El maíz Zea mays L. fue domesticado hace más de 9.000 años al sur de México. Junto al arroz y el trigo, desempeña un papel importante al proporcionar al menos el 30% de las calorías alimentarias a más de 4.500 millones de personas en 94 países en vías de desarrollo. Entre estos, están 900 millones de consumidores pobres para quienes el maíz es el alimento básico preferido. Actualmente, el maíz es cultivado en casi 100 millones de hectáreas distribuidas en 125 países en desarrollo, posicionándolo como uno de los tres cultivos más importantes en 75 de esos países. En la actualidad, este cultivo alimentario alberga información genética de gran valor y una adaptabilidad notable a diversos ecosistemas, consolidándose como el cereal más significativo del planeta, con una producción anual que supera los 1.000 millones de toneladas métricas. A nivel global, el área dedicada al cultivo de maíz (para obtener grano seco) abarca una extensión de 197 millones de hectáreas, con una presencia destacada en el África subsahariana (SSA), Asia y América Latina. El maíz, como cultivo destinado a la alimentación humana, desempeña un papel crucial en numerosos países, especialmente en el África subsahariana, América Latina y ciertas naciones de Asia, donde aporta más del 20% de las calorías alimentarias. Su importancia y estabilidad como alimento básico son innegables, respaldando así su relevancia en la dieta de millones de personas alrededor del mundo.El Cesar abarca una superficie de 22.905 \uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC5A 2 , lo cual representa el 2 % del territorio (Figura 1). En términos económicos contribuye con el 1,7 % de la economía del país. A lo largo de su historia, Las actividades económicas más destacadas en este departamento han sido los cultivos de algodón, palma aceitera, el cacao, ganadería y la minería de carbón, siendo esta última el de mayor relevancia en la actualidad. Está ubicado al norte de Colombia, y cuenta con cuatro ecosistemas importantes:Los resguardos indígenas Kogui y Arhuaco están ubicados en el municipio de Valledupar. En particular, los Arhuacos han sido beneficiados por la iniciativa AgriLAC. Dentro de las comunidades Arhuacas, los Birwa, Ikarwa, Seymuke y Umuriwa fueron directamente favorecidos con semillas de cultivos Biofortificados, los cuales jugarán un papel importante en la difusión de estos cultivos en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Teniendo en cuenta los sistemas de cultivo tradicionales del pueblo Arhuaco, la incorporación de los cultivos Biofortificados son de rápida y segura adopción. La introducción de cultivos Biofortificados son de gran impacto, ya que según datos de la Estrategia Nacional para la Prevención y Control de las Deficiencias de Micronutrientes en Colombia, uno de cuatro niños entre los 6 y 59 meses de edad presenta deficiencia de hierro, y el 34 % de los niños en comunidades indígenas sufren de anemia. Además, a nivel nacional, el 56,3 % de los niños indígenas de 6 a 59 meses de edad presentan deficiencias de zinc (Figura 4).La variedad de maíz BIOMZn01 es de grano blanco, de libre polinización con alto contenido de zinc (Zn) apto para altitudes de 0 a 1.400 msnm. El cultivo necesita suelos profundos, fértiles, permeables, de textura franca, estructura granular, con buena capacidad de retención de agua, libre de inundaciones y encharcamientos, de alto contenido de materia orgánica, y un pH entre 5,5 y 6,5. Las épocas de siembra son de febrero -abril y Agosto -Septiembre. La floración masculina es a los 63 días después de la siembra, con una altura de planta de 210 cm, altura de mazorca de 100 cm, tipo de grano semi-dentado de color blanco y de tamaño pequeño. La longitud de la mazorca es de 16 cm, con 16 hileras y 33 granos por hilera. Un platillo preparado con este maíz puede aportar hasta 5 veces más Zinc que otro maíz tradicional.Tabla 1. Calidad nutricional y de rendimiento de variedad BIOMZn01.34 ± 4 Contenido de Zinc (mg/100g) 3,4 ± 0,4 Rendimiento (t/ha) 6 -8El objetivo de estudio fue la evaluación de la adaptabilidad y rendimiento con manejo agroecológico de Zea mays L. var. BIOMZn01. La variable evaluada fue rendimiento.Este menú de tecnologías validadas resume los resultados de los procesos investigativos en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, veredas La Montaña y El Palmar, Corregimiento Azúcar Buena (La Mesa), Municipio de Valledupar, Departamento del Cesar, Colombia. Tecnologías que no están incluidas en el menú tecnológico no han sido evaluados de manera científica o práctica.Puede sembrarse asociado y en simultáneo con cultivos que no generen competencia por luz. Los cultivos asociados recomendados son el fríjol, sorgo, ahuyama o zapallo y yuca. Para evitar erosión del suelo, a mayor pendiente menor separación entre surcos.La densidad de siembra en monocultivo para una hectárea es de 62500 plantas. Para un área de 1.645 m2, la densidad de siembra fue de 4.131 plantas: 0,8 m entre hileras, 0,5 m entre plantas, 2 semillas por sitio. Área: 1645 m (Figura 5).Figura 5. Densidad de siembra de Z. mays en sistema monocultivo. Creado con BioRender.com.La preparación del suelo en áreas planas puede hacerse con arado y rastillo. Con ello disminuirá la presión de plagas y enfermedades. Asimismo, el rendimiento es superior a las variedades tradicionales en condiciones de baja fertilidad del suelo.En esta etapa, es fundamental realizar un análisis del suelo en el área de siembra. Con ello puede evaluar el contenido nutricional del suelo, compararlo con el requerimiento del cultivo, y así garantizar un adecuado establecimiento (Tabla 2). La fertilización adecuada desempeña un papel clave para lograr un cultivo exitoso y rentable (Figura 6). Primera fertilización: abonado directo con bocashi donde ira el cultivo (5 -8 días antes de la siembra) con 4.000 kg en 10.000 \uD835\uDC5A 2 . Para una hectárea abonar con un total de 4.000 kg de bocashi y mezclar al abono 100 L de Supermagro + minerales sólidos.Segunda fertilización: a los 22 días se fertiliza directo al suelo con Supermagro en una concentración de 10 -30 %. Es decir, de 2 -6 L/ 20 Litros o bien mediante por el riego por goteo.Tercera fertilización: a los 40 días se fertiliza directo al suelo con Supermagro en una concentración de 10 -30 %. Es decir, de 2 -6 L/ 20 Litros o bien mediante por el riego por goteo. Para mejorar su adherencia y su respuesta nutricional en los cultivos, a la mezcla se le pueden agregar 80 ml de melaza de caña, este producto si lo tienen disponible, se debe filtrar con un colador de plástico.Figura 6. Etapas fenológicas de Z. mays. Creado con BioRender.com.El fertilizante Agrimins granulado ha sido formulado específicamente para cubrir las necesidades nutricionales de los cultivos en diferentes etapas de crecimiento. Su composición incluye una combinación equilibrada de elementos esenciales, como nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, magnesio, azufre, boro y zinc. Este fertilizante resulta especialmente recomendado para cultivos que requieren altas cantidades de potasio y nitrógeno. Además de satisfacer estas demandas, el fertilizante Agrimins granulado también promueve el desarrollo del follaje, el crecimiento y la formación de frutos, semillas y otros órganos de almacenamiento . Al utilizar el fertilizante Agrimins granulado, se proporciona a los cultivos una nutrición completa y equilibrada, lo cual favorece su óptimo crecimiento y desarrollo (35).El fertilizante Remital es un producto que ha sido desarrollado para cubrir las necesidades nutricionales de una amplia variedad de cultivos. Su formulación se centra en proporcionar los nutrientes esenciales necesarios para un crecimiento y desarrollo óptimos de las plantas, especialmente durante las etapas en las que se requiere un mayor suministro de potasio y nitrógeno. Además de nitrógeno y potasio, el fertilizante Remital también contiene otros nutrientes clave, como fósforo, magnesio, azufre, boro y zinc. Estos elementos desempeñan un papel crucial en el desarrollo del follaje, el crecimiento y la formación de frutos, semillas y otros órganos de almacenamiento de las plantas. Es fundamental seguir las recomendaciones de dosificación y aplicación proporcionadas por el fabricante para obtener los mejores resultados con el fertilizante Remital. Cada cultivo y etapa de crecimiento puede requerir cantidades diferentes de nutrientes, por lo tanto, es esencial ajustar la dosis según las necesidades específicas de cada planta.El fertilizante Supermagro es obtenido mediante un proceso de fermentación anaeróbica, es decir, sin la presencia de oxígeno. Este fertilizante se utiliza como nutriente para las plantas y puede ser aplicado en todas las etapas de crecimiento de los cultivos. Sus ingredientes principales incluyen estiércol fresco de vaca, melaza o piloncillo, suero de leche o leche sin procesar, ceniza vegetal y agua. Además, se pueden agregar otros elementos como levaduras, material vegetal verde, harina de roca y minerales como zinc, magnesio, cobre, boro, calcio, manganeso, sodio y hierro, según su disponibilidad. Cada uno de estos ingredientes desempeña una función específica en la preparación de este producto.El estiércol fresco de vaca aporta lignina, hemicelulosa y microorganismos, así como cantidades menores de azúcares, proteínas y almidón. La melaza o piloncillo proporciona carbohidratos, que son una fuente de energía para activar el metabolismo de los microorganismos. La leche o suero de leche enriquece la mezcla con proteínas, grasas, carbohidratos, vitaminas y aminoácidos valiosos durante el proceso de fermentación. Además, se pueden mejorar la mezcla incorporando material vegetal verde, cenizas o minerales, los cuales serán transformados por los microorganismos y las condiciones de fermentación. La adición de levaduras y/o pulque aumenta la diversidad de microorganismos y acelera el proceso de fermentación en el tanque biodigestor, contribuyendo a una mayor diversidad ecológica.La aplicación de micorrizas implica el uso de hongos benéficos que habitan en el suelo y establecen una relación simbiótica con las raíces de las plantas. En esta asociación, el hongo obtiene nutrientes y savia de la planta, mientras que la planta se beneficia de los nutrientes extraídos por el hongo del suelo. Algunos nutrientes que la planta puede adquirir a través de esta simbiosis son fósforo y zinc. Además de suministrar nutrientes, el hongo protege y estimula el crecimiento de la planta al actuar como una extensión de sus raíces, mejorando así su capacidad de absorber agua. Los propágulos infectivos del hongo se multiplican y pueden infectar a las plantas de interés. Esto significa que, si existen raíces colonizadas, esporas o hifas del hongo en el suelo, cualquiera de estas estructuras puede generar una infección beneficiosa para la planta y, en consecuencia, para el cultivo.Para garantizar una protección adecuada de los cultivos, es fundamental llevar a cabo un monitoreo regular y cuantitativo de las plagas y los enemigos naturales. Existen diferentes métodos de control que se pueden utilizar:1. Control físico: Implica el uso de barreras físicas, trampas, la recolección manual y la destrucción de las plagas de forma manual. 2. Control cultural: Se refiere a prácticas agrícolas que incluyen la preparación adecuada del suelo, la elección de la fecha de siembra y cosecha, y la rotación de cultivos para evitar la acumulación de plagas. 3. Control etológico: Consiste en el uso de feromonas, trampas de luz y trampas de calor para atraer y capturar las plagas de manera efectiva.4. Control genético: Implica el uso de variedades de cultivos que tienen resistencia incorporada a través de la introducción de genes de Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). 5. Control biológico: Se basa en la introducción de organismos beneficiosos, como parasitoides o depredadores, que se alimentan de las plagas y ayudan a mantener su población bajo control. 6. Control microbiológico: Consiste en el uso de microorganismos benéficos que son capaces de controlar las plagas de forma natural. 7. Control químico: Involucra el uso de productos químicos selectivos o de amplio espectro para el control de plagas, dependiendo de la situación y los objetivos específicos.También puede utilizar:Bacillus thuringiensis bio-thuringiensis: una alternativa biológica con gran actividad hacia estados larvarios del orden lepidóptero: dosis de 1 -1,5 L/ha. Se utilizarían 150 ml/bomba de 20 Litros.Metarhizium anisopliae RAXTER: es un insecticida biológico producido con una cepa patógena natural y selectiva. Capaz de parasitar insectos del orden Homóptera, Hemíptera y Coleóptera principalmente: dosis de 1 -2 gramos por litro de agua. Se utilizarían 40 gramos/bomba de 20 Litros.Oxicloruro de Cobre: (Sulfato de Cobre + Aloe vera como coadyuvante y acondicionador orgánico) protección para hongos y bacterias: dosis de 0,5 gramos por litro de agua. Se utilizarían 10 gramos/bomba de 20 Litros. Safersoil (Trichoderma sp. y Paecilomyces sp.): es un producto con base en la mezcla de los hongos, ideales para el control de hongos y nemátodos fitoparásitos en dosis de 1 gramo/L. Se utilizarían 20 g/bomba de 20 Litros. Aplicar después de emergencia, a los 3, 18 y 40 días.Las enfermedades tienden a prosperar en condiciones ambientales propicias para su desarrollo, como altas temperaturas, alta humedad relativa, vientos constantes y cambios abruptos de temperatura. Además, existen otras condiciones que también contribuyen a la aparición de enfermedades, como la presencia de material vegetal susceptible, ciertos tipos de suelos, mazorcas con una cobertura deficiente, insectos portadores de enfermedades, entre otros factores.Existen diferentes enfoques para controlar estas enfermedades:1. Control cultural: La implementación de medidas como la preparación adecuada de los suelos, la selección oportuna de fechas para la siembra y la cosecha, así como la práctica de la rotación de cultivos, son acciones clave para crear un entorno menos propicio para el desarrollo de enfermedades. 2. Control genético: Una estrategia eficaz consiste en utilizar variedades o híbridos de plantas que sean resistentes a las enfermedades que causan mayores pérdidas en una determinada zona. Esto ayuda a reducir la susceptibilidad de las plantas a dichas enfermedades y contribuye a proteger los cultivos. 3. Control químico: Una estrategia comúnmente utilizada implica el uso de productos químicos, tanto preventivos como curativos, que actúan inhibiendo el desarrollo y la propagación de los agentes patógenos responsables de las enfermedades. Estos productos pueden aplicarse de forma preventiva, antes de que aparezcan las enfermedades, con el fin de prevenirlas, o bien después de detectar su presencia para tratarlas.Monitoreo y erradicación de plantas con síntomas de virus u hongos.Bacillus thuringiensis bio-thuringiensis: una alternativa biológica con gran actividad hacia estados larvarios del orden lepidóptero: dosis de 1 -1,5 L/ha. Se utilizarían 150 ml/bomba de 20 Litros.Metarhizium anisopliae RAXTER: es un insecticida biológico producido con una cepa patógena natural y selectiva. Capaz de parasitar insectos del orden Homóptera, Hemíptera y Coleóptera principalmente: dosis de 1 -2 gramos por litro de agua. Se utilizarían 40 gramos/bomba de 20 Litros.Oxicloruro de Cobre: (Sulfato de Cobre + Aloe vera como coadyuvante y acondicionador orgánico) protección para hongos y bacterias: dosis de 0,5 gramos por litro de agua. Se utilizarían 10 gramos/bomba de 20 Litros.Safersoil (Trichoderma sp. y Paecilomyces sp.): es un producto con base en la mezcla de los hongos, ideales para el control de hongos y nemátodos fitoparásitos en dosis de 1 gramo/L. Se utilizarían 20 g/bomba de 20 litros. Aplicar después de emergencia, a los 3, 18 y 40 días.El riego desempeña un papel fundamental en el cultivo del maíz debido a su importancia para el desarrollo adecuado de las plantas y la producción de rendimientos óptimos. A continuación, consideraciones generales para el riego en el cultivo de maíz:1. Suministro de agua: El maíz requiere una cantidad adecuada de agua durante todo su ciclo de crecimiento para satisfacer sus necesidades hídricas. El riego proporciona un suministro regular y controlado de agua a las plantas, especialmente en regiones donde las precipitaciones no son suficientes o se distribuyen de manera irregular. 2. Desarrollo de raíces: El riego adecuado promueve el desarrollo saludable y profundo del sistema de raíces del maíz. Esto permite que las plantas extraigan nutrientes y agua del suelo de manera más eficiente, lo que a su vez favorece el crecimiento vigoroso y la resistencia a condiciones ambientales adversas.3. Maximización del rendimiento: El agua es un factor limitante en la producción de maíz, y el riego controlado puede ayudar a maximizar el rendimiento de los cultivos.Proporcionar la cantidad adecuada de agua en momentos críticos, como durante el llenado de los granos, contribuye a obtener mazorcas más grandes, más granos por mazorca y, en última instancia, un mayor rendimiento de maíz. 4. Reducción del estrés hídrico: El riego oportuno y adecuado ayuda a prevenir o mitigar el estrés hídrico en las plantas de maíz. El estrés hídrico puede provocar disminución del crecimiento, reducción de la producción de granos, marchitez y susceptibilidad a enfermedades y plagas. Al mantener un suministro de agua constante, se puede minimizar el estrés hídrico y mantener la salud de las plantas. 5. Estabilidad en la producción: El riego permite reducir la dependencia de las lluvias y proporciona una mayor estabilidad en la producción de maíz. En áreas donde las precipitaciones son impredecibles o insuficientes, el riego ofrece un control más preciso sobre el suministro de agua, lo que reduce el riesgo de pérdidas de cultivos debido a sequías o inundaciones.En resumen, el riego es esencial para el cultivo de maíz, ya que asegura un suministro adecuado de agua, promueve el desarrollo de raíces saludables, maximiza el rendimiento de los cultivos, reduce el estrés hídrico y proporciona estabilidad en la producción. Al implementar prácticas de riego eficientes, los agricultores pueden optimizar el crecimiento y la productividad de sus cultivos de maíz.En la Tabla 3 se muestra la prueba de comparación de medias para rendimiento de maíz donde se observa que los mayores valores se presentaron en el manejo agroecológico.Tabla 3. Valores promedios para las variables de rendimiento en plantas de maíz Además del manejo agronómico, los resultados obtenidos de maíz pueden estar relacionados con la zona agroecológica y también con los cuidados que han dado los Arhuacos a sus suelos que permite que, con manejos agroecológicos, los rendimientos sean mayor que los manejos convencionales. ","tokenCount":"2902"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cbe4b97650a667f01ad2c8b6999c8b25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f4581b7e-f617-4521-8cd8-85a8da2f7cbe/content","id":"722062320"},"keywords":["maize (Zea mays L.)","genome-wide association study","seedling stage","field drought tolerance","SNPs"],"sieverID":"96620d7b-779a-4da3-bbeb-d8db96d261e8","pagecount":"18","content":"Introduction: Drought stress is one of the most serious abiotic stresses leading to crop yield reduction. Due to the wide range of planting areas, the production of maize is particularly affected by global drought stress. The cultivation of drought-resistant maize varieties can achieve relatively high, stable yield in arid and semi-arid zones and in the erratic rainfall or occasional drought areas. Therefore, to a great degree, the adverse impact of drought on maize yield can be mitigated by developing drought-resistant or -tolerant varieties. However, the efficacy of traditional breeding solely relying on phenotypic selection is not adequate for the need of maize drought-resistant varieties. Revealing the genetic basis enables to guide the genetic improvement of maize drought tolerance.Methods: We utilized a maize association panel of 379 inbred lines with tropical, subtropical and temperate backgrounds to analyze the genetic structure of maize drought tolerance at seedling stage. We obtained the high quality 7837 SNPs from DArT's and 91,003 SNPs from GBS, and a resultant combination of 97,862 SNPs of GBS with DArT's. The maize population presented the lower heritabilities of the seedling emergence rate (ER), seedling plant height (SPH) and grain yield (GY) under field drought conditions.Results: GWAS analysis by MLM and BLINK models with the phenotypic data and 97862 SNPs revealed 15 variants that were significantly independent related to drought-resistant traits at the seedling stage above the threshold of P < 1.02 × 10-5. We found 15 candidate genes for drought resistance at the seedling stage that may involve in (1) metabolism (Zm00001d012176, Zm00001d012101, Zm00001d009488); (2) programmed cell death (Zm00001d053952); (3) transcriptional regulation (Zm00001d037771, Zm00001d053859,Maize (Zea mays L.) is a critical source of food, feed, and energy because of its high yield potential. Poor harvest of maize caused by environmental stresses will have a tremendous detrimental impact on human life. Any stage of maize vegetative and reproductive growth, such as germination, plant establishment, and flowering is threaten by globally water shortage (Lobell et al., 2014). The emergence rate, uniformity, and robustness of seedlings are crucial factors in determining the yield potential of maize, as they are directly influenced by the initial stages of maize development, namely seed germination and seedling establishment (Tian et al., 2014). However, in arid and semi-arid areas such as northern China, the sowing time of spring maize often encounters serious drought stress, which reduces the emergence rate, hinders the growth of seedlings and usually decreases the grain yield although sometimes the short and mild drought effect may be irreversible. Thus, improving the drought tolerance of maize during its early growth stages is crucial in enhancing both seedling establishment and subsequent growth.The drought-resistant varieties of maize have a higher, more stable grain yield than drought-susceptible varieties do in both arid, semi-arid zones, and occasional drought areas because of the erratic rainfall. Thus, if the drought-resistant varieties are widely planted in the drought areas, the yield loss caused by drought can be mitigated to a large extent. The drought resistance of crops is a complicated quantitative trait that is controlled by multiple genes (Wang et al., 2019). In the traditional breeding, breeders select drought resistant lines only depending on their performance under drought stress. The characteristics of drought-resistant varieties bred are limited by the drought circumstances under which breeders select the varieties. The breeders will inevitably miss some drought associated genes that are not expressed under those drought circumstances. As a result, the breeders are not able to mine the drought resistance potential maize and to meet the requirements of drought-resistant varieties of maize. Dissecting the genetic structure of drought resistance and identifying the molecular markers will underlie the genetic modification of drought resistance in maize.Genome-wide association study (GWAS) is an important foundation of molecular marker-assisted breeding technology, which can locate molecular markers related to plant target traits, thereby obtaining quantitative trait locus (QTL) available for breeding selection or for inferring candidate genes to analyze the genetic basis of complex quantitative traits (Aranzana et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2021b;Ren et al., 2021). Compared with traditional QTL mapping, GWAS has multiple advantages in identifying the genetic architecture of complex traits, which avoids the difficulty of screening large biparental mapping population (Dinka et al., 2007) and can verify gene function by fine mapping and cloning. For instance, a GWAS exploration, using the survival rate and high-quality SNPs of the associated population consisted of 367 maize lines, obtained genetic variations and identified candidate genes, of which the natural variation in ZmVPP1 (encoding a vacuolar-type H + pyrophosphatase) contributes most significantly to the survival rate, and transgenic maize plants with ZmVPP1 gene exhibited stronger drought tolerance (Wang et al., 2016). Yet the molecular mechanism of drought resistance of maize remains largely unknown.The maize plant drought resistance is a quantitative trait with complicated phenotypes, which is difficult to be evaluated. The most evaluations of maize seedlings are usually conducted under osmotic stress caused by PEG solvents or simulated drought by controlling soil water content in the indoor cultivation pool. In this circumstance, the physiological indices such as survival rate and root correlated traits are commonly used to identify the drought resistance. The survival rate refers to the ability of plants to maintain their viability under drought stress and restore normal growth after they obtain sufficient water again. For example, Qin Feng's team (Liu et al., 2013;Mao et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2016) transferred the three-leaf stage maize seedlings in the cultivation pool without water for drought treatment. When all the seedlings were severely withered, they were rehydrated for a week then to be investigated the survival rates. The team found the survival rates of maize from different genetic resources manifesting a great genetic diversity under drought stress (Wang et al., 2016). Root traits such as root length, total root number, and root surface area can reflect the ability of plants to absorb water and nutrients under drought condition (Guo et al., 2020a). But such physiological indices are not suitable to measure in high throughput in the field condition. Leaf rolling is one of the main responses of maize plants to drought stress which can be scored visually in the field. However, the leaf scoring technique does not meet the high-throughput requirements for efficient phenotypic determination by breeders (Baret et al., 2018). The grain yield (GY) of maize under water shortage is an ultimate index to evaluate its drought tolerance. But, if only depending on this index to research the drought resistance, we are not able to gain insight into the physiological changes that result in the yield declination under drought stress. When maize plants are subjected to drought stress during flowering stage, the development of female flower organs is inhibited more severely than that of male flower organs, and the silking time is delayed and the interval between anthesis and silking is enlarged, which leads to the pistil pollination failure and serious yield loss (Setter et al., 2010). Therefore, the anthesis -silking interval (ASI) is a desired method to evaluate the maize drought resistance under the field condition because it is yield-related, high throughput and cost-effective (Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2014;Farfan et al., 2015). However, so far there is no any index perfectly suitable to evaluate maize drought resistance at seedling stage under the field condition.An ideal sequencing platform should be high throughput, high genome coverage, high repeatability, and low cost. Among various platforms, genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) is one of the most extensively used sequencing technologies (Elshire et al., 2011;Guo et al., 2020b;Wang et al., 2020). DArT (Diversity Arrays Technology sequence) is a novel molecular marker identification technology based on gene chip (Kilian et al., 2012), and being used in molecular assisted selection of plants (dos Santos et al., 2016), however, its reliability in maize needs more exploration.In this study, a maize association panel (NCCP) containing 379 inbred lines were planted in the arid region for 2 years. SNPs genotyped by GBS and DArT, and the combination of SNPs from GBS and DArT were used to conduct GWAS for seedling emergence rate (ER), seedling plant height (SPH) and grain yield (GY) under natural drought conditions. Fifteen common independent and significant SNPs were obtained by BLINK and MLM models, and 15 corresponding candidate genes were identified. The expressions of most of them in the reference inbred line B73 of maize were significantly responded to drought treatment.According to our analysis, the drought resistance related traits in maize seedling in the NCCP panel exhibited extensive phenotypic variation. Normal distributions were observed for the 19SPH, 20SPH and SPH (from the across environment analysis); other traits, 19ER, 20ER, ER (from the across environment analysis), 19GY, 20GY and GY (from the across environment analysis) displayed slightly skewed normal distribution, which are consistent with the performance of quantitative traits (Supplementary Figure 1). When the phenotypic variances of traits in different environments were analyzed independently, significant differences were detected in emergence rate, seedling plant height and grain yield among the two environments (Figure 1). The median of 19ER was 0.86 and significantly higher than that of 20ER (0.70) and ER (0.77), and the variation range of the emergence rate in 2019 was also broader than that in 2020. The same trend was observed for plant height at seedling stage and grain yield at harvest (Figure 1). The phenotypic correlation between BLUE values of the three traits across two environments were positive and significant, as previously reported (Zhang et al., 2022). The results showed that yield trait could be used as the related trait of drought resistance in maize seedling stage, and could reflect the final impact of drought on maize seedling stage.The broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) of the emergence rate ranged from 0.32 in the across environment analysis to 0.88 in the 2019 environment analysis. H 2 of plant height traits at seedling stage ranged from 0.26 in the across environment analysis to 0.82 in the 2019 environment analysis. For grain yield, H 2 was 0.85 in the 2019 environment analysis, and 0.33 in both the 2020 environment analysis and across environment analysis (Figure 2). The analysisViolin plots of distributions of drought resistance related traits in maize seedlings. The horizontal axis represents different traits. In a violin plot, the inner black box represents the interquartile range. The central white dot represents the median value. The outer white shape on each side represents all measured data points and the thickness represents the probability density of the data. of variance on drought resistance-related traits in maize seedlings showed that genotypic variance had a significant effect (P< 0.01) in all analyses. Additionally, the interaction between genotype and environment (G × E) and environmental variance were also highly significant (P< 0.01) across all environments analyzed (Zhang et al., 2022).We obtained high-quality datasets after filtering, and the average missing rates were 0.073, 0.069, and 0.070 for SNPs from DArT, GBS and the combination of GBS and DArT (GBS -DArT) (Table 1). For inbred lines, heterozygosity was also an important index for marker filtering. In this research, the proportion heterozygous of the three marker datasets were less than 0.02 after filtering, which means our material was homozygous and implies the sequencing was accurate (Figure 3A). The principal component analysis using 97,862 SNPs of GBS-DArT revealed that there were significant differences among some inbred lines in the association population, and the panel had a strong population stratification structure. Meanwhile, the first three principal components explained 40% of the phenotypic variation rate (Figure 3A). A high genetic correlation among inbred lines in the population were shown in the heat map (Figure 3B).A rapid LD decay pattern in the entire panel was observed. The LD decay distance across the 10 chromosomes ranged from 29.46 Kb (Chr5) to 96.67 Kb (Chr8), and the average LD decay distance was 80.18 Kb at an r 2 value of 0.1. The LD decay distance of 10 chromosomes ranged from 7.43Kb (Chr5) -10.74Kb (Chr6), the average LD decay distance was 8.61Kb while r 2 = 0.15. When r2 = 0.2, the LD decay distance of 10 chromosomes was from 0.96Kb (Chr6) to 2.03Kb (Chr7), and the average LD decay distance was 1.09Kb (Figure 4). To ensure the accuracy of mapping, it is assumed that at least one SNP marker is in linkage disequilibrium with the QTL of the controlled trait. The minimum number of markers required for GWAS (minimum number of SNP markers = genome size/LD decay distance) are 27,438, 254,629 and 2,018,349 respectively when r 2 = 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2. Consequently, to assure that the markers have sufficient coverage in the whole genome, the LD decay distance of r 2 = 0.1 was selected in this study.To reduce the impact of environmental variability, phenotypic BLUE values across two environments (19FX,and 20FX) were also used for association study. The GWAS analysis was performed using 97,862 SNPs from the combination of GBS and DArT, with a threshold of P< 1.02 × 10 -5 , and the effects of population structure and kinship were considered. A total of 20 and 15 independently significant SNPs were found by applying BLINK (Supplementary Figures 2, 3 and Supplementary Table 1) and MLM models (Figures 5,6 and Table 2), respectively. Among them, 15 SNPs obtained by the two methods are common (Table 2). This result indicates that these common SNPs have high reliability. Therefore, the subsequent analysis mainly focused on these 15 common SNPs.For the emergence rate, there were five independent significant SNPs on chromosomes 1, 4, 6 and 8 above the threshold, accounting for 5.5-7.0% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Figures 5A-C and Table 1). For the plant height trait at seedling stage, seven  independent significant SNPs on chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9 above the threshold, accounting for 6.2-7.5% of the phenotypic variation respectively (Figures 5D-F and Table 2). For the grain yield trait, three independent significant SNPs on chromosomes 3, 5 and 8 above the threshold had been discovered, accounting for 7.5-8.7% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Figures 5G-I and Table 2). For these traits, the most significant SNP (2428947-36-C) from 20GY showed the largest phenotypic variation and higher reliability, which signified that the drought resistance in maize seedling stage was a complex quantitative trait controlled by multiple genes with minor effects.The allele effects of these 15 overlapping significant SNPs were also evaluated (Supplementary Figure 4). The phenotypic distribution differences for different traits between the major alleles and minor alleles were extremely significant for all 15 significant SNPs (P< 0.01). The allele effect of 2394080-64-C on chromosome 3 was the most significant for 19GY/GY phenotypic variation with P-value of 4.4×10 -11 and 1.1×10 -13 , which was consistent in MLM and BLINK methods (Supplementary Figure 4). This indicates that the significant locus identified by GWAS related to drought resistance traits in maize seedlings are reliable and can be utilized for further candidate genes determination. Through the above analysis, the drought susceptible and tolerant alleles of 15 independently significant SNPs were identified. Sequentially, the phenotypic values of 9 different scenarios were sorted from large to small, and the first 20 lines were selected to take the intersection, and 5 lines with a high degree of coincidence were discovered. As shown in Table 3, the distribution ratio of tolerant genes was 53.3%-86.7%, which indicates that the more tolerant genes contained in a maize inbred line, the stronger the resistance to drought. The relationship between these significant SNPs and drought resistance in maize seedlings was further verified by searching for candidate genes at significant SNPs and confirming the gene function. During maize breeding, if breeders know droughtresistant SNPs, they can select drought resistant inbred lines or cross combinations and exclude ones without marker SNPs via molecular detection. This approach does not require field planting the breeding materials for identifying drought resistance, thus   saving a large amount of manpower, land, productive expenses, and time.According to the B73 RefGen v4, nine significant SNPs (Marker.553171, 101239269-43-G, 2405469-50-C, 2432311-16-G, 242852468-C, 2484848-55-T, 2428947-36-C, 2436908-21-A and 2461151-33-G) were just located on the gene sequences, Zm00001d037771, Zm00001d031861, Zm00001d012176, Zm00001d038930, Zm00001d028417, Zm00001d012101, Zm00001d017495, Zm00001d044291 and Zm00001d028423, which are directly regarded as candidate genes associated with drought resistance. For the other six significant SNPs, not located on the gene sequence, we perform the linkage disequilibrium (LD) decay within 80Kb (Supplementary Figure 5). For 2387359-54-T, 2450059-7-C, 2427986-14-T, 2506549-24-A and 2394080-64-C, the nearest gene is Zm00001d053859, Zm00001d049400, Zm00001d045128, Zm00001d009488, Zm00001d043036, respectively. In terms of location, the significant SNPs and these candidate genes are within the linkage regions (Table 4). For Marker.425514, according to the location and gene function, Zm00001d053952 located upstream 26,466bp of the SNP was identified as a candidate gene. In this location, the LD decay was larger than 0.6 (Table 4 and Supplementary Figure 5).All 15 SNPs significantly related to drought resistance traits in maize seedling were identified by GWAS, and 15 candidate genes significantly related to drought resistance traits in maize seedling were obtained (Table 4). The 15 candidate genes were divided into five functional types, gene expression regulation, metabolic, programmed cell death, cell growth and development and autophagy (Table 4). Tissue specific expression analysis showed that each gene was expressed in different tissues, especially in roots. Interestingly, three genes Zm00001d017495, Zm00001d009488 and Zm00001d043036 related to yield traits had high expression in differentiation zone, elongated internode and primary root (Figure 7A). To further determine whether these genes have functions in drought conditions, their expression patterns were analyzed using published RNA-Seq datasets from control and drought-stressed plants at the V5/V6 developmental stage (Forestan et al., 2016), including 10 days of drought treatment (T0) and 7 days of rehydration (T7) (Figure 7B). Compared with Control_T0, one gene is not expressed (Zm00001d031861), two are up-regulated (Zm00001d044291, Zm00001d053859), and the other genes are down regulated under Drought_T0. Compared with D r o u g h t _ T 0 , t h e e x p r e s s i o n s o f Z m 0 0 0 0 1 d 0 2 8 4 2 3 , Zm00001d043036, Zm00001d053952, Zm00001d037771, Zm00001d038930 were up regulated after 7 days of rehydration and could basically return to Control_T7 level or even higher.Nevertheless, the expressions of the remaining genes were unchanged or even lower, which indicated that drought caused irreversible damage to the activation of these gene expression. In this study, we designed specific primers to verify the expression changes of 10 candidate genes under normal and drought condition at seedling stage (Supplementary Table 2 and Figure 8A). The realtime quantitative PCR indicated that all of 10 genes were sensitive for drought stress and their expression changed under drought conditions, especially Zm00001d009488 (Figure 8B), indicating that these significant SNPs and candidate genes may be potential genetic markers and genes for drought tolerance at seedling stage or in grain yield formation. In this study, we did not detect the change in the expression of the other five candidate genes.3.1 Genetic dissection of drought tolerance in maize seedlingDrought tolerance is a complex and inherent characteristic of maize (Wang et al., 2016). Especially in the early development stage, maize seedlings are susceptible to drought stress and the adverse effects generated by severe drought stress on seedling growth are irreversible (Liu and Qin, 2021). Along with rising temperature and dramatically fluctuated rainfall patterns due to the aggravation of the global greenhouse effect in recent years, global maize production has already showed stagnation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Fuxin County of Liaoning Province locates in the semi-arid zone of northeast China and the high frequency of spring drought is its typical climate characteristic. In this region, we can conduct larger scale field drought experiments without the use of greenhouses. In our current study, ER, SPH and GY traits exhibited a wide range of phenotypic variations and followed a normal or skewed normal distribution in the NCCP panel (Figure 1 and Supplementary Figure 1). A phenotypic variation analysis uncovered significant differences among different environments, which suggested that different environments could promote or diminish the effects of traits variance. Compared with 2019, 2020 has less precipitation and higher temperature at maize seedling stage, resulting in a smaller phenotypic value (Figure 9). According to our genetic analysis, the heritability of ER, SPH and GY were 0.32, 0.26 and 0.33 with a relatively low level, indicating that these traits were controlled by multiple small-effect genes (Figure 2). The genotype effects for ER, SPH and GY across two years were significant, indicating the involvement of gene action in the control of drought resistance related traits of maize seedlings (Zhang et al., 2022). The effect of G × E interaction on the traits was highly significant, consistent with the observed phenotypic variation in different years.The two major strategies, linkage mapping and GWAS, have been widely used to identify QTLs for drought resistance in maize, and result in the dissection of many agronomic traits related to drought resistance (Liu and Qin, 2021). In this study, we identified 15 common significant SNPs that contribute to 5.5-8.7% natural variation of drought tolerance in maize seedlings using the MLM and BLINK methods (Table 2 and Supplementary Table 1). There was a different distribution of these SNPs in inbred lines, ranged from 53.3% to 86.7% in 5 drought-resistant inbred lines detected (Table 3). For some significant SNPs, although not just located in gene sequences, they all were in the linkage interval (Table 4 and Supplementary Figure 5). These data are consistent with the fact that drought resistance is a complicated trait that may be controlled by multiple quantitative trait loci (QTLs).At maize seedling stage, the most research focus on the effect of artificial water control or stimulated drought under indoor condition. For instance, the functions of ZmDREB2.7 (Liu et al., 2013), ZmNAC111 (Mao et al., 2015) and ZmVPP1 (Wang et al., 2016) genes in drought resistance have been investigated. However, the mechanism of drought tolerance of maize seedlings in natural field environment is unclear. In this study, the functional annotation revealed that 15 candidate genes could mainly be placed into a few functional groups, such as metabolic, transcriptional regulation, autophagy, cell growth and development, and programmed cell death (Table 4). Here, we will discuss how candidate genes may respond to external drought stress.Transcription factors (TFs) play an important role in signal transduction networks spanning the perception of a stress signal and the expression of corresponding stress-responsive genes. Multigene families (AP2/ERF, bZIP, MYB/MYC, NAC and WRKY) have been discussed in regulating plant drought responses via ABAdependent and/or ABA-independent signaling (Yamaguchi-Shinozaki and Shinozaki, 2006;Hirayama and Shinozaki, 2010;Gahlaut et al., 2016;Hrmova and Hussain, 2021). TFs involved in water stress tolerance in plants may be utilized in future for developing drought-resistant varieties in maize and other crops.The APETALA2/Ethylene-Responsive Factor (AP2/ERF) gene family constitutes one of the biggest gene families encoding plantspecific transcription factors. This superfamily is characterized by the presence of the AP2/ERF domain, which spans approximately 60 to 70 amino acids and mediates DNA binding. The subfamilies within this superfamily include AP2, RAV, DREB, ERF, and Soloist (Guo et al., 2016;Zhu et al., 2021)  to be the major TFs controlling the expression of stress-inducible genes in the ABA-independent pathway (Yamaguchi-Shinozaki and Shinozaki, 2006), and are able to bind a Dehydration Responsive Element (DRE, core motif: A/GCCGAC) in the promoter region of stress-inducible genes (Liu et al., 2013). Two DREB genes (ZmDREB1A and ZmDREB2A) of maize belonging to DREB1 and DREB2 subfamilies, respectively, were cloned and proved to be upregulated in plants under drought, cold and heat stress (Qin et al., 2004;Qin et al., 2007). Liu (Liu et al., 2013) verified that the DNA polymorphism in the promoter region of ZmDREB2.7 (GRMZM2G028386, B73 RefGen_v3; Zm00001d031861, B73 RefGen_v4) is related to drought tolerance of maize seedlings, and overexpression of ZmDREB2.7 in Arabidopsis and maize showed enhanced tolerance to drought stress. Zm00001d045128 related to SPH, encodes DBP-transcription factor 3. DNA binding protein phosphatase (DBP) factors are important regulators that participate in both transcriptional regulation and post-translational regulation (Jiao et al., 2020). ZmDBP3 gene was isolated from maize seedlings and belongs to the A-1 subgroup of the DREBs subfamily. As a trans-acting factor, the ZmDBP3 protein is localized in the nucleus and activates genes containing C-repeat/dehydrationresponsive elements (CRT/DRE) under normal growth conditions in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. Overexpression of ZmDBP3 increased drought and cold resistance in transgenic Arabidopsis (Wang and Dong, 2009). Through transcriptional analysis, the ZmDBP3 gene was identified as a potential marker for early selection of drought-tolerant maize lines (Marques et al., 2019). Zm00001d053859, detected in 19ER, encodes ethylene-responsive transcription factor3 (ERF3), which directly interacts with the GCC box (TAAGAGCCGCC) in the ethylene-responsive element that is necessary and sufficient for the regulation of transcription by ethylene. Transient transfection experiments in tobacco showed that ERFs were localized in the nucleus (Ohta et al., 2000). Zm00001d053859 may thus regulate drought tolerance in maize by participating in ethylene signal transduction to change the physiological and biochemical reactions of maize seedlings.The development of lateral roots may be affected by drought. Zm00001d037771 identified from 19ER encodes bHLH133, pertaining to the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) family. The genome-wide analysis identified 208 putative bHLH family proteins in maize (Zhang et al., 2018). A study has indicated that bHLH133 determines the competence of the pericycle for lateral root initiation (Zhang et al., 2021), efficiently obtaining water and nutrients to resist water deficit. Similarly, LBD transcription factor 20 (LBD20) encoded by Zm00001d043036, whose Arabidopsis homologous gene AT2G30340 (Lateral Organ Boundaries Domain 13, LBD13) is a transcription activator located in nuclear, controls the formation of lateral roots in Arabidopsis (Cho et al., 2019).Zm00001d038930 encodes the transcription factor MYB36, belonging to the R2R3-MYB subfamily, which plays a central role in controlling plant-specific processes, including primary and secondary metabolism, development, and abiotic and biotic stress responses (Dubos et al., 2010). However, at present, only a few members of the R2R3-MYB family have been well described in maize. By analyzing the expression patterns of 46 ZmMYB genes under abiotic stress, researchers found that 13 ZmMYB genes responded to drought stress (20% PEG), and the relative expression of ZmMYB36 was higher at 6 and 12 hours of 20% PEG osmotic stress (Chen et al., 2018). But the mechanism through which this gene can contribute to drought resistance needs further research. The candidate gene Zm00001d049400 encodes global transcription factor group E7 (GTE7), and Arabidopsis homologous genes AT5G65630 and AT5G10550 encode GTE7 and GTE2, respectively. Arabidopsis GTE protein includes plant amphipathic domain (PAD), bromodomain (BRD), extra-terminal domain (ET) and transcriptional activation domains (TAD), which can interact with other TFs. In many cases, BRD can bind to acetylated lysine residues, forming a bridge between acetylated histones and TFs to activate transcription of target genes (Misra et al., 2018). Under drought stress in maize seedling stage, GTE protein may regulate gene expression and signal pathway by interacting with other proteins. But so far, little research has been done on maize GTE protein.The elongation and growth of plant cells will be inhibited under the condition of water scarcity, and the expression of related genes encoding expansins, aquaporins and XETs will also be affected (Wu et al., 2005;Liu et al., 2021a). Zm00001d017495 identified from 20GY encodes Expansin-B4 (EXPB4). Expansins, driving turgor-driven cell enlargement by unlocking a network of wall polysaccharides (Cosgrove, 2000), are classified into a-expansins (EXPA) and bexpansins (EXPB) (Wu et al., 2001;Cosgrove, 2015). Maize was found to have a total of 88 ZmEXPs genes (Zhang et al., 2014). An association study revealed a significantly negative correlation between the level of ZmEXPA4 expression and anthesis-silking interval (ASI), increasing ASI under drought will lead to low pollination rate and low yield. Furthermore, driving the expression of ZmEXPA4 using a drought-inducible promoter can significantly reduce ASI under drought conditions (Liu et al., 2021a). Further studies on the function of maize EXPB are still necessary.Many signal molecules, such as intracellular Ca 2+ , ABA, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), are very important for drought signal transduction. One of the first responses of plants to water deficit is the production of ROS. The moderate content of ROS is considered to mediate the induction of defense pathways and help plants adapt to the changing environment (Cruz de Carvalho, 2008). However, if stress continues to aggravate, the increase of ROS will lead to the damage of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and other cellular components in plants, and causes programmed cell death (PCD) (Çakır and Tumer, 2015). The conserved cell death suppressor Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) encoded by Zm00001d053952 plays a role in the downstream of PCD signaling and inhibits cell death. Studies have indicated that its Arabidopsis homologous gene AtBI-1 (AT5G47120) encodes an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane-associated protein, which modulates ER stress-induced PCD (Ruberti et al., 2018) by interacting with multiple partners to alter intracellular Ca 2+ flux control (Ishikawa et al., 2011) and fatty acids metabolism (Nagano et al., 2012;Nagano et al., 2019). Simultaneously, the expression of AtBI-1 cDNA from Arabidopsis thaliana in sugarcane, a C4 monocot species, might reduce the activation of cell death pathways initiated by hydric stress or chemical-induced ER stress (Ramiro et al., 2016). Therefore, suppressing the cell death of C4 grasses (including sorghum, maize, and other important crops) is an effective means to improve the long-term drought tolerance of crops. Moreover, ABA signal pathway is also the core of plant response to water deficiency, which has been clearly clarified by the identification of ABA receptors and other signal components. ABA binds to receptor PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE (PYR)/PYR-LIKE (PYL)/ REGULATORY COMPONENTS OF ABA RECEPTORS (RCAR), and then the ABA-receptor complex inhibits the activity of clade A type 2 C protein phosphatases (PP2Cs), resulting in the release of SNF1-related protein kinase 2s (SnRK2s) from PP2C-mediated inhibition, further phosphorylation or activation of downstream targets, ABA response transcription factors or ion channels (Danquah et al., 2014;Kumar et al., 2019;Chong et al., 2020;Lin et al., 2021). Zm00001d012101 encodes E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RGLG1, and its Arabidopsis homologous genes AT3G01650 (RGLG1), AT5G14420 (RGLG2) and AT1G67800 (RGLG5) have been proved to mediate the signal pathway of drought stress. RGLG1 and RGLG5 interact with PP2Cs, a critical negative regulator of ABA signaling, accelerating PP2CA ubiquitination and degradation under the action of ABA, thereby promoting the activation of the ABA signaling (Wu et al., 2016). Meanwhile, mitogen activated protein kinase 18 (MAPKKK18) may be ubiquitinated at lysine residues K32 and K154 through RGLG1 and RGLG2. The deletion of RGLG1 and RGLG2 can stabilize MAPKKK18 and further enhance the drought resistance of MAPKKK18 overexpressing plants (Yu et al., 2021). Besides, RGLG1 and RGLG2 can also mediate AtERF53 protein degradation by ubiquitination, which has an adverse regulatory effect on drought tolerance (Cheng et al., 2011). Autophagy-related protein 9 (ATG9) encoded by Zm00001d028417 is the only complete membrane protein in the core mechanism of autophagy and plays an essential role in mediating autophagosome formation (Lai et al., 2020). During a water shortage, autophagy proteins could selectively break down aquaporins to regulate water permeability and damaged proteins to decrease their toxicity. Furthermore, autophagy might also degrade hormone signaling pathway regulators to promote a stress response (Tang and Bassham, 2022).Zm00001d009488 encodes ATP synthase beta subunit, which is associated with the synthesis of ATP in photoreaction to drive carbon assimilation (Shi et al., 2014). Previous studies regarding the expression of ATP-related proteins in response to water deficit are contradictory. According to Tezara et al. (1999) and Valero-Galvań et al. (2013), the expression of ATP synthase beta subunit reduces during drought. They suggested that since the cells require less energy during drought, the content of ATPase is likely to decrease in these plants. However, Kottapalli et al (2009); Zhou et al. (2015) and Cao et al. (2017b) observed the opposite, which higher expression of the ATP synthase beta subunit might enhance the energy supply to protect plants from damage under drought stress conditions (Rashid et al., 2022). Zm00001d012176 encodes betahexosaminidase, a homologous gene of Arabidopsis betahexosaminidase 3 (hexo3), which can participate in the formation of paucimannosidic N-glycans (Liebminger et al., 2011), and Expression Pattern of Candidate Genes.The specific high expression of different genes in the primary root and differentiation zone endows maize plants with resistance to water stress (Figure 7). At the same time, the three genes (Zm00001d017495, Zm00001d009488 and Zm00001d043036) identified for grain yield are also highly expressed in primary tissues, which may play a crucial role in the drought resistance of maize seedlings. It also indicates that grain yield can be used as a drought resistance indicator of maize seedlings, reflecting the ultimate drought resistance of maize plants. In our qRT-PCR experiments, the results are basically consistent with Forestan (Forestan et al., 2016), but Zm00001d045128 was up-regulated in the leaves of B73 seedlings under drought stress in laboratory, which may be caused by experimental differences (Figure 8). In particular, Zm00001d009488 were down-regulated in the leaves of B73 seedlings under drought stress in laboratory, which is consistent with the results of Tezara (Tezara et al., 1999) andValero-Galvań (Valero-Galvań et al., 2013). Kottapalli (Kottapalli et al., 2009) indicated that ATP synthase beta subunits are only highly induced in drought tolerant genotypes, but B73 is drought susceptible genotype.4.1 Association mapping panel 379 inbred lines, collected from China, America, Mexico, and other regions, among them, most from Northeast China, regarded as the northeast China core population (NCCP), were utilized to conduct GWAS in the current study. The heterosis group of the NCCP can be divided into 13 groups, including the Jidan, Longdan, NSS, SS, Huanglvxi, Lvxi, Reid, France, PA, Lvdahonggu, Tangsipingtou, Mixed and Unknown. The CML series from CIMMYT are tropical materials, and only two can be grown in Northeast China, here they were classified into the Mixed group. Some small groups and inbred lines from the multiple parent selection were classified as unknown group.All 379 inbred lines of the association panel were planted in the Fuxin Mongolian autonomous county, Liaoning Province, China (42°06′N, 122°55′E) in 2019 (19FX) and 2020 (20FX), where drought occurs frequently and seriously in spring season. The seeds were sown on 12 May 2019 and 11 May 2020, respectively, and harvested on 7 October 2019 and 9 October 2020, respectively. During the 2019 maize growing season, the average temperature was 21°C and the average rainfall was 4 mm. In the 2020 maize growing season, the average temperature was 21°C and the average rainfall was 3 mm. During the maize seedling stage (May and June), maximum temperatures of 35°C across two years and average monthly precipitation of less than 5 mm caused severe drought stress at the seedling stage, maintaining three leaves throughout the growing season (Figure 9).The maize field in our study were not irrigated, but seeds were sown before precipitation according to weather forecasts for germination. A completely randomized block design with three replications was used in each evaluation environment. Inbred lines were planted using one seed per hole on a single plot of 3 m length, with 10 cm spacing between plants and 60 cm spacing between rows. The target traits of seedling emergence (ER), seedling plant height (SPH) at the three-leaf stage and grain yield (GY) at the harvest stage were evaluated to represent the drought tolerance of the tested plant line. ER and SPH were measured at the seedling stage, i.e. 20 days after sowing. ER was measured as the ratio of surviving seedlings to the number of seeds sown. SPH was measured as the distance from the base of the plant to the highest point of the seedling. While GY was measured at the maturity stage, moisture content readings were taken by the LDS-1G Grain Moisture Meter. The average dry weight of five evenly grown ears was considered as the final yield of each inbred line.The best linear unbiased prediction (BLUE) values and broadsense heritability (H 2 ) of ER, SPH, and GY were calculated within and across environments using the META-R software version 6.04 (http://hdl.handle.net/11529/10201). The linear mixed models used in META-R are implemented in the LME4 R-package, functions of lmer () and REML were used to estimate the variance components.Where Y ijk is the trait of interest, m is the overall mean, Gen i , Env j , and Gen i  Env j are the effects of the i-th genotype, j-th year, and i-th genotype by j-th year interation, respectively. Rep k is the effect of k-th replication.ϵ ijk is the residual effect of the i-th genotype, j-th year, k-th replication. Genotype is considered as the fixed effect, whereas all other terms are declared as the random effects. Years with heritability below 0.05 were excluded from the across environment analysis.Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) based on the entry means within trials was estimated as follows:Where s 2 g , s 2 , and s 2 ge are the genotypic variance, error variance, and genotype-by-environment interaction variance, respectively, and nreps and nEnvs are the numbers of replications and environments, respectively.Leaf samples were collected from each maize inbred line seedling for DNA extraction with a CTAB procedure, and genotyping was carried out by DArT and GBS platform. GBS was performed by the common protocol in maize in Wuhan Huada medical laboratory Co., Ltd (Elshire et al., 2011). The genomic DNA was digested with restriction enzyme ApeKI, and a DNA library was constructed in 96-plex and sequenced on Illumina-hiseq2500/4000 platform. Details in single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) calling and imputation have been previously described (Cao et al., 2017a). Initially, 768,558 SNPs evenly distributed on maize chromosomes were called for each line; 760,831 of them were assigned to chromosomes 1-10, and 7,727 could not be anchored to any of the chromosomes.DArT was completed in the SAGA sequencing platform established by Mexico DArT company and CIMMYT. It uses two enzymes (PstI and HpaII) to cut DNA samples to reduce the complexity of genome. After enzyme digestion, DNA from different samples was linked with barcodes of different base combinations and sequenced to construct a DNA simplified sequencing library. Combined with Illumina second-generation short fragment sequencing technology (150bp), the simplified sequencing DNA library of mixed samples was sequenced on a single sequencing lane (https://www.diversityarrays.com/) (Kilian et al., 2012). At first, 39,659 DArT SNPs were called for each line, of which 39112 were located on maize chromosomes 1-10, and 547 SNPs could not be anchored on any maize chromosomes.In DArT and GBS datasets, TASSEL 5 (Bradbury et al., 2007) was used to filter out markers with minor allele frequency (MAF)< 0.05 and a missing rate > 20%. There were 379 lines and 7,837 markers remaining in DArT datasets, 378 lines and 91,003 SNPs remaining in GBS datasets. The remaining markers of the two sequencing platforms were combined and filtered again. Imputation approaches used the method of Cao (Cao et al., 2017a). Finally, we obtained 97,862 GBS-DArT SNPs of 378 lines for subsequent analysis.We used the trait values of single environment and BLUE in the Tab separator format and performed the GWAS analysis using a genotype with 97,862 SNP markers from GBS-DArT combination (MAF ≥ 0.05 and missing rate ≤ 20%). The mixed linear model (MLM) of GAPIT (Genomic Association and Prediction Integrated Tool) package was used to perform the association analysis for drought resistance related traits, and it is one of the most effective methods for controlling false positives in GWAS. This model simultaneously incorporates both population structure and kinship (Yu et al., 2006). The MLM model is described as follows:Where X is the SNP marker matrix, Q and Z represent the subpopulation membership matrix and kinship matrix respectively, b and v are the coefficient vectors of SNP markers and subpopulation membership respectively, u is the random genetic effect vector, and ϵ is the random error vector (Yu et al., 2006;Fan et al., 2016).Simultaneously, association analysis for all the traits was also conducted with the model of Bayesian information criterion and Linkage-disequilibrium Iteratively Nested Keyway (BLINK) (Huang et al., 2019). The BLINK package can be downloaded from https://github.com/YaoZhou89/BLINK. The first three PCs were treated as covariates to perform GWAS. The principal component analysis (PCA) and kinship of 378 maize inbred lines were conducted using prcomp() and GAPIT.kinship.Zhang() function in R(v 4.1.1), separately.The linkage disequilibrium (LD) of the entire panel was analyzed using TASSEL software (Bradbury et al., 2007), and LD decay plots were done using the LD decay Plot Tool written by Zhang Ao based on the base functions using the R language. The plotting script is available online on the webpage https://aozhangchina.github.io/R/ LDdecay/LDdecayPlotTool.html. Then, we used the uniform Bonferroni-corrected threshold of a = 1 for the mixed linear model's significance cutoff as reported in previous studies (Mao et al., 2015;Liu et al., 2022). Therefore, the suggested P-value was computed with 1/n (n = 97,862, total markers used), and we obtained a P-value threshold of 1.02×10 -5 for GWAS.The most significant SNP was chosen to represent the locus in the same LD block (r 2 < 0.2). The physical locations of the SNPs were determined in reference to the B73 RefGen_v4. LD, which was calculated for each independent significant SNP within its surrounding regions (80Kb). Candidate genes were identified by the presence of significant SNPs directly located within the gene sequence. Alternatively, genes residing within a corresponding LD region also were considered, and their biological functions were annotated using data from the MaizeGDB and UniProt website.The expression levels of candidate genes from different tissues and different drought treatments of B73 were downloaded from the MaizeGDB qTeller (https://qteller.maizegdb.org/). The values used for heat map construction were calculated as normalized TPM value by row.4.8 RNA isolation and quantitative RT-PCR analysis B73 seeds were sown in a cultivating pot (upper diameter 6.5cm, lower diameter 4.5cm, height 7.5cm). The test soil was clayey brown soil, collected from the northern experimental station of Shenyang Agricultural University in 2020 and baked at 120°C until the soil weight was no longer changed. Four seeds were sown in each small pot and repeated three times for two treatments. The soil water content of normal control was 60% of the maximum water holding capacity, and that of drought treatment was 30% of the maximum water holding capacity. Total RNA from maize leaves was extracted on the 12 th day after sowing.Total RNA was extracted using SteadyPure Plant RNA Extraction Kit (AG2109S) of Accurate Biotechnology from at least three seedlings of B73. Subsequently, the concentration of RNA was determined by BioDrop. cDNA was using PrimerScriptTM RT reagent Kit with gDNA Eraser (Takara Biotechnology Dalian Co. Ltd.). The maize Ubi1 (UniProtKB/TrEMBL, Q42415) gene was used as an internal control to normalize the data, and the candidate gene primers were synthesized by Sangon Biotech company and purified by PAGE. qRT-PCR was performed on Bio-Rad CFX Connect Real-Time System (CA, USA) with a 10 ml reaction volume containing 4.6 ml of ddH2O, 3.6 ml of TB GreenTM Premix Ex TaqTM (Tli RNaseH Plus; TakKaRa), 0.4 ml of specific primers (10 mM) and 1 ml of cDNA. PCR conditions consisted of an initial denaturation step at 95°C for 40 seconds, followed by 39 cycles at 95°C for 5 seconds and 60°C for 1 minute, and a final stage of 60-95°C to determine melting curves of the amplified products. The quantification method (2 -DDCt ) was used and the variation in expression was estimated using three biological replicates.In this study, we have explored the genetic basis of the performance of drought tolerance at seedling stage of maize natural population under natural field condition by applying GWAS approach. Drought resistance related traits manifested a relatively low heritability and a broad variation in the association panel. According to the GWAS, multiple genetic loci with small effects regulate the natural variation in ER, SPH and GY in maize under drought condition. 15 commonly significant SNPs were obtained by the MLM and BLINK method, and the phenotypic distribution of major and minor alleles in different traits showed extremely significant difference (P< 0.01). Simultaneously, the distribution ratio of tolerant genes was 53.3% -86.7% in 5 drought-resistant inbred lines. We further found 15 candidate genes that may involve in plant cell developmental, cell signal transduction, and transcription factors. These candidate genes provide valuable resources for further investigation to dissect the molecular network to regulate drought resistance of maize seedlings to increase yield. In addition, the significantly associated SNPs found in this research will be helpful in facilitating marker-assisted selection of drought tolerance of maize seedlings in breeding programs.","tokenCount":"7340"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69f001345664f92ba26de75fac246c31","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8b080d52-ceaa-4a6c-bac1-4e36dfc7873f/retrieve","id":"967264885"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"825a8637-e114-41a9-be8b-17c60d8f94de","pagecount":"33","content":"to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).To develop a scoping paper on MFS in BangladeshThe soil, climate, and environment in a particular area are suited to a certain form of farming. This form of farming, practically the system of farm production is known as the farming system (FS). In the broad sense, FS is a farm production system where components of farming are assembled and organized by some forms of interdependence interaction where inputs are judiciously used and processed by the environment and management to get a desirable output in a sustainable way. Farming systems of particular areas greatly depend on several associated factors such as land topography, soil, hydrology, climate, and other biophysical and socioeconomic conditions.The features or the factors that determine the FS in a region are the determinants of FS. In a country like Bangladesh, there exists a great range of variation in its biophysical and socio-economic conditions and so are the determinants of its FSs. The country is a large delta with a warm, humid, and tropical climate (Haq et. al., 2000). Its agriculture is greatly influenced by the monsoon. It has fertile alluvial plainland and abundant water resources. Numerous rivers and rivulets across the country make a river network. Therefore, one of the key factors affecting its crop, agriculture, and FS is hydrology. Hydrological conditions of soil like dry, saturated, or standing water depend on the source of water, soil topography or surface shape, and land elevation. The major soil topographic features in Bangladesh are plain, undulating, and steep. The major land elevation categories are low-height hills (12 %) in the western region, slightly tilted region (8 %) in the central and eastern region, and floodplains (80 %) all over the country (FAO, 1988). Other than hilly areas, the whole country consists of slightly tilted regions and flood plain which together account for around 85% of the land and are classified as plain land (Haq et. al., 2000). The presence of flood-free land, seasonally flooded land, stagnant water land, and tidally flooded land are the common features of the plain land. Hills and uplands are featured in the hilly region. Land surface and associated hydrological and soil properties are major aspects to be considered for agricultural production (Brammer, 2016) and these are key factors that determine the FS of Bangladesh.Monsoon brings with it lots of rain in the warm rainy season saturating all the country's fields and causing flooding. During this time lots of water is also carried from the upstream countries by the rivers and overflow also causes flooding. Often nearly half of the country's land is flooded with water that varies in depth (FAO, 1988). Along the coast, there are tidal wetlands of both saline and non-saline type. In addition to surface water, underground water is easily accessible throughout the country and used extensively for agriculture. All these water issues predominantly determine its farming systems.A moderate, dry winter proceeds the warm monsoonal rainy season. The stagnant water from low-lying areas is gone and many of these low-lying areas are then prepared for upland culture. The country's winter is ideal for temperate crops like potato, maize, wheat, tomato, and cabbage as well as irrigated rice, while the rainy season is ideal for lowland rice. After then, a dry summer begins, at which point semiarid crops can be grown (Haq et. al., 2000;Brammer, 2016).The country with the highest population density has a massive population of 165.16 million people living in a small territory of 148 thousand square kilometers (BBS, 2022). Agriculture accounts for about 45 % of employment (LFS, 2022) and for 11.6 % of the nation's gross domestic product (BBS, 2022). For the vast population, all food is produced from crops, livestock, and fisheries from a net cropped area of 8.12 million ha (BARC, 2022). Small and dispersed land holdings are present here and farming is intensive as well as labor oriented. Because of the need for food and occupation, agriculture exerts a huge pressure on its natural resources like soil, water, and natural life.The farming system of Bangladesh is unique. To assess its FSs, it is important to understand its drivers. Embedded with biophysical and socioeconomic conditions its distinctive features and determinants shape up its farming systems. Monsoon rain, dry summer, and dry winter provide opportunities for a wide variety of crops, animals, and fisheries, land type and land elevation allow the presence or absence of water in different periods around the year, and other issues like management practices, high population pressure and lack of occupations and historic traditional lifestyle and advancement of technology are central to farming system development.Based on the above-described conditions the crop production system or FS of the country is traditionally seen to be characterized by a subsistence system where most of the products are consumed by farm family only a small excess is sold (Chowdhury et. al., 1993;Mamun et. al., 2011). Another characteristic of the farming systems is intensive. The development of irrigation systems, technological advancement, and farmers' reliance on farming from small holdings (Av. 0.05 ha, World Bank, 2022) make FS intensive. The other characteristic of the FS is seen to be the mixed type of farming where different agricultural enterprises, most notably crops and livestock are simultaneously grown (BARC, 2022). Mixed farming system (MFS) is practiced for increased land productivity and diversity, efficient use of farm resources like small holding, efficient utilization of by-products, efficient use of labor, minimizing risks that can arise from single crop production, generating additional and off-season income and increased productivity, diversity, and food security.In the mixed farming system, crops and livestock are predominantly present and they are often more diversified. Many options of farm enterprises are possible to integrate into it, such as crops, homestead production systems, orchards, agroforestry, livestock, and pond fisheries, etc. As in typical MFS in Bangladesh, the household manages a homestead production system where vegetables and fruits are grown on a modest scale, animal and poultry sheds are installed, and neighboring small lands are managed by family labor. In addition to that if a household has a pond for the fishery, orchard for fruits, and plantation for the timber he can add it to the mixed farming system.In the MFS, the cropping system (CS) plays a dominant role. Other than the homestead area, the rest of the land is used for CS. Based on biophysical and socioeconomic conditions in different agro-ecosystems, different CSs exist. To feed a huge population, rice is grown on around 70 % of the total cultivated land (BBS 2022) and Bangladesh is currently the third-largest rice producer in the world. Non-rice crops such as maize, wheat, potato, pulses, oil seeds, and vegetables are farmed in the remaining 25% of the land. Bangladesh has to produce a huge amount of cereals, vegetables, spices, fruits, meat, milk, eggs, and fish for the expanding population (BARC, 2022). These products must all originate from small farm households with MFS. The average of which is only 0.05 ha (World Bank, 2022) where the median part is for small and marginal landholders. Thus, MFS is a very essential part of this country's agricultural production system.Crop production systems are rice-based in Bangladesh. As mentioned earlier, about 70 % of the total cropped area is rendered to rice. Additionally, many other field crops are also cultivated. These crops are cultivated in three distinct seasons, called Rabi, Kharief-1, and Kharif-II season. Crops are cultivated in different sequence patterns around the year; however, it varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. The land use patterns are single-crop, double-crop, triple-crop, or even quadruple-crop. More than 51 % of the CPs are occupied by only rice crops of different seasons. Most of the remaining CPs have at least one rice crop in them, along with various kinds of nonrice crops (Nasim et. al., 2017). Thus, the lion's share of land use is of rice, which is a staple, and hence FS is rice-based. Based on this land use some authors termed FS as cropping pattern or crop sequence based as rice-based FS (Ali, 2014).In addition to CS, livestock and poultry are an integral part of MFS. Farmers maintain it for family consumption, cash income, off-season cash security, asset building, and women's employment. About 30-40 % of farm income comes from this enterprise. Pond fishery also plays an important role in farming (BARC, 2022). Many of the farmers have ponds in or adjacent to the homestead used for aquaculture. Homestead fruit and vegetable production are also an indivisible part of FS. Although it makes a relatively small economic contribution, it is very important for family nutrition.The common FS i.e., the MFS exists in the plain land i.e., about 85 % of the total land area. In the rest of the land, there are some unique agroecosystems and some specialized FSs are practiced, the examples are mentioned below: Gher fish production system: Along the coastal areas, in the south-western coastal region of the district, Satkhira, most of the arable lands are converted to gher (an earthen embankment or polder) fishery system where brackish water shrimps are cultivated. As the tide rose, saline water was forced into the gher, changing the nature of this area, and placing most of the area under salinity. Gher was also spread to slightly saline and non-saline areas. All year long, ghers are utilized just for the cultivation of fish. However, in some ghers, rainfed lowland rice called transplanted Aman rice is grown alongside fish as an intercrop, and when T. Aman is harvested, in some ghers, irrigated Boro rice is grown as a subsequent crop. The ability to grow vegetables all year round utilizing the current gher dykes presents a significant opportunity to raise the overall productivity of the gher system.Upland and hill farming system: In the southeast hilly areas the traditional farming systems are slash and burn or shifting cultivation practiced by trivial people. In this system, hill slopes are cleared for monsoon planting with a variety of crops, of which rice is the major one. This method is unable to meet the growing demand for food as the population grows. Nowadays plantations, orchards, bananas, pineapples, spices, vegetables, etc. are therefore grown with the traditional slash-and-burn crops. Floating agriculture production system: In the severely inundated region of Gopalganj, Sariatpur, Barisal, Pirojpur, and Jhalokathi districts, where floodwater is present virtually all year round, farmers have created a unique technique for floating cultivation called dhap. Dead water hyacinths and other floating weed leaves are accommodated on a bamboo-made framework that floats. These leaves are allowed to rot and soft and liquid farmyard manure is applied on the top layer. Thus, as a result, the bed acts as a compost media that floats on water. With this approach, vegetable seedlings are raised for sale, and different vegetables are also grown around the year.Sorjan system: Upland crop production is challenging in sweet water tidal wetlands due to the entrance of tidewater. Here, farmers create alternately raised beds and deep furrows. Tidewater intrudes into the furrow whereas raised beds are used for growing vegetables and fruits.Other minor production systems: Fruits, vegetables, livestock, poultry, and fish are mostly supplied by MFS. But in recent decades, some entrepreneurship has emerged. These entrepreneurs as a single company established considerably larger farms for fruits, vegetables, fish, livestock, and poultry. In the last couple of centuries tea gardening and even in recent decades timber and rubber plantations are also practiced (Hossain et. al., 1993). Now, considering of MFS, it varies in various ecosystems based on regional socioeconomic and biophysical variables. In a specific MFS, not all the enterprises are combined nor are all the enterprises integrated proportionately. Identification and characterization of these FSs are important to reveal their problems and prospects to harness their opportunities for improvement. Ali (2014) broadly classified FSs of Bangladesh based on the geographical location into four major types: 1. Rice FS (60.3 % of cultivable land), 2. Rice-Wheat FS (25.1 % of cultivable land), 3. Coastal artisanal fishing FS (13.3 % of cultivable land) and 4. Highland mixed FS (1.3 % of cultivable land). In all these FSs lots of field crops are cultivated except the third one where a negligible percentage of field crops are cultivated. The author also listed the enterprises practiced in these FSs and it was found that fruits, vegetables, and livestock are common in all the systems. So, all those systems are MFSs.Studying FS is important. In the existing MFSs of Bangladesh, the integration of enterprises like crop, livestock, and fishery are poor and needs improvement. In the production system inputs are processed using the available resources under the existing environment. Additionally, socioeconomic factors and farmer expertise, as well as knowledge-based management, are important. Once these are optimized together, a benefit-maximizing product is obtained in a sustainable way. Therefore, the identification of FS's challenges and prospects will create its scope for improvement for a sustainable production boost. In this study, we attempted to identify those things to delineate and analyze the existing farming systems. The objective of the study is to identify the characteristics of the MFS and its problem and prospect for exploring the opportunity for improvement.In a location, the existing farming systems have its own characteristics. The farming systems of a location also have many biophysical and socioeconomic determinants. These determinants or the factors influence farming system shaping up. In this study, we attempted to identify those things to delineate and analyze the existing farming systems. Farming system analysis was carried out mainly based on observation and dialogue. However, the investigation was carried out in two steps. Before gathering and analyzing secondary data, a comprehensive review of the literature was first done. The second step involved gathering primary data through focus group discussion (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), and field visits. This research approach helps formulate existing farming system delineation and challenges to overcome and opportunities to be implemented.In the first step, following a thorough review and available data analysis, we tried to identify any gaps and lapses in the body of literature. Secondary data were gathered through published sources, personnel of the Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE), Department of Livestock (DLS), and Department of Fishery (DOF), as well as other resource personnel. DAE has more personnel at the local level and can contract each farmer in a region. Crop records are kept at the block level, which includes field crops, vegetables, orchards, and agroforestry. By using the information at hand, the FSs of Bangladesh were shaped, and issues and opportunities were noted. What additional information was required was listed.In the second step, a semi-structured questionnaire was developed and lists for FGD were created. Two MFS representative locations, one in the northern part of the country and one in the southern part, were chosen for the gathering of primary data. To observe the FS of the regions, the writers visited the study locations. Farmers from various land categories participated in FGDs. Personnel from the DAE, DLS, and DOF participated in KII. As the data represent production systems in a locality not of individual farmers, FGD, KII, and field visit methods were used, instead of individual farmer surveys. Data and quantitative information thus gathered were used to sketch up MFS and its problems and prospects. Sketches of MFS and its problems and prospects were created using the data and quantitative information so acquired.Data from the FGD were thus obtained unanimously and they were checked by KII staff along with field visits and ground truthing. By using the Microsoft Excel application, data were evaluated. Data were presented using tally, addition, average, and descriptive statistics. Tables were created using this data.Farmers recall data were used. Giving information of an entire location by FGD groups was often difficult.Two sites were selected to conduct the FGD, KII, and field visit. One site is in the Rangpur and Nilphamari districts in the northern region and the other site is in Patuakhali district in the southern region of Bangladesh. Both the sites were situated on plain land. In the northern region, the study site is called the Tista Meander Floodplain Agroecological Region. The major soil texture is sandy loam with high and medium high land. Abundant groundwater exists at shallow depths. The major cropping patterns of the region are Boro-Fallow-T. Aman, T. Aman-Rabi-Fallow. In this region, four FGDs were done in four separate villages, eg., 1. Shahbazpur Kamarpara, No. 3 Chandanpat, Rangpur Sadar, Rangpur 2. Daskin Ramnathpur Pathanpara, No. 8 Ramnathpur, Badarganj, Rangpur 3. Dubasuri, Laxmichap, Nilphamari Sadar, Nilphamari and 4. Ghar Dharmapal Kalitala, Darmapal, Jaldhaka, Nilphamari.In the southern region, the study area is called the Low Ganges River Floodplain Agroecological Region. The region is characterized by a close network of interconnected tidal rivers and channels. The tidewater is nonsaline type. The major soil texture is clay loam with high and medium highlands. At a shallow depth, groundwater is abundant. There are two main cropping patterns in the area: Fallow-Fallow-T. Aman and Rabi-Fallow-T. Aman. In this region, two FGDs were done in two villages, eg., 1. Nishanbaria, Chakamaiya, Kalapara, Patuakhali and 2. Haldibaria, No. 5 Nilganj, Kalapara, Patuakhali.The focus group was chosen so that can represent the whole demography and the village ecosystem. A stratified randomly selected heterogeneous group of farmers of about 20 respondents were in FGD. The stratification was done for farmers who were split equally between male and female, from various farm categories and various paras, the subunit of a village.An appropriate yard of a homestead in the study village's center was used for discussion. In each issue of discussion, farmers discussed among themselves and consensus answers were recorded. An already designed semi-structured and openended questionnaire and list of topics of interest were created based on a review of the literature as well as the local biophysical and socioeconomic conditions for identification of the existing farming system, its characterization, problems, and prospects.To understand the biophysical and socioeconomic situation of the village and its production system, the authors visited farm homes and crop fields after conducting FGD.Following FGD and a field visit, KII was mostly carried out by extension personnel who have technical expertise and an in-depth understanding of the regional production system. The authors tried to understand the potential ways to improve the current system.In this paper, we tried to characterize some of these representing MFSs by the methods described in earlier section. Two MFS locations were selected, one in the northern Tista Meander Floodplain and the other in the southern Low Ganges River Floodplain agro-ecological zone (FAO 1988). As was said in the previous section, Bangladesh has different types of farming systems that are located in various regions in diverse ecosystems. Except for coastal and hilly regions, 85% of the country's entire geographic area is plain terrain, where MFS is performed. This plain land is very diverse, and the MFS varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. The majority of those are medium-high land and high land scattered throughout the country. Some of these areas are slightly tilted, having been developed during the Pleistocene era; some are low-lying, with the majority of which being medium low land to very low land and frequently are subject to flooding; still others are depressed low-lying vast areas in the northeast that are subject to deep flooding, known as haor. Our study sites represent medium-high land to highland. The northern region's site is flood free where dry season irrigation is possible using underground water whereas the southern region's site is a tidal wetland where irrigation is not possible as the water source contains saline water.The following paragraphs provide an overview of the study's findings as determined by the field visit, FGD, and KII. For accurate characterization, the data from the two sites were compared in the results.Highland and medium highland terrain types are major land elevation types as measured by inundation during the rainy season in both the study sites. Highlands are free of inundation. Medium highlands may be maximally inundated during the rainy season for a short period by accommodation of rainwater during the peak of the rainy season from 1 to 90 cm of inundation (FAO, 1988). Thus, both the sites were situated in the flood-free region (Table 1). However, they are distinctive land types in that one was developed by the action of the Tista River whereas the other one was developed by the Gangetic floodwater and tidal action. Sandy loam is the major type of soil texture in the northern region. Three out of four villages have one river that passes by the side of the village. In this region, there were two bils, a distinctive type of depressed large water bodies that accommodate surface runoff water which does not flow like a channel. The number of ponds in the northern region was quite low in comparison to the population resulting in a low percentage of 17.3 % ponds/farmer. Distinctively in the southern region, clay loam is the major type of soil texture. Two rivers pass by each village boundary. In this region, there were two bils, one in each village. The number of ponds in the southern region was quite high in comparison to the northern region, it was 125 in percentage. Thus, each family had more than one ponds (Table 1). The land holdings of Bangladesh are quite low. The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) categorizes farmers, based on their land holding size, which is presented in Table 2. In both the regions large and medium farmers' holdings were quite low. The large farmer's category which belongs to more than 7.5 acre land was also quite low in both the regions. Small, marginal, and landless farmers dominated land holdings. Landless farmers were those who had only homesteads with houses, however no own land for operation. Their predominance was remarkable. In both the regions a similar trend was observed. The lands in all the site villages were commonly used for homestead and crop fields and in addition for pond when farmers owned a pond (Table 3). The percentage of homestead areas was 14.4 %. The main land use was for crops, about 83 %. Some farmers have small ponds, near or inside the homestead, about 1.6 decimal in size. Forage land, orchards, agroforestry, cattle farms, factories, or other infrastructure were typically not used on-site land. Typically, the villages had more than mosques. The predominant cropping pattern (CP) was two rice crops, Boro and T. Aman based cropping pattern in the northern region. This CP, Boro-Fallow -T. Aman covered 10-70 % in 4 different villages. In some of these CPs Rabi crops were included like Rabi-Boro-T. Aman covered 4 -25 %. There were some CPs excluding Boro, and were T. Aman based, and with T. Aman, nonrice crops were sequenced, they covered 2-30 % of the area (Table 5).In the southern region, the dominant cropping pattern was Fallow-Fallow-T. Aman, covering 85 -90 %of the land. The second important cropping pattern was Pulses-Fallow-T. Aman. None of the sites practiced any form of agroforestry in the main field. In the homestead area, the agroforestry system might persist, however, we considered it a homestead production system.Farmers typically did not consider their entire production system. They don't plan for how its components will interact, how resources will be shared, how byproducts will be used, etc. However, they indirectly get some advantages from MFS. But it could have been better if he had planned and judiciously set his FS. Another important aspect of farming systems is control or decision-making. The farmer himself performs it. The knowledge foundation and technical expertise of farmers are crucial because modern-day agriculture is very much science-based. However, they lacked the necessary expertise in this area. Additionally, they were not exposed to farmer training.The agricultural product disposal pattern indicated that farmers of the northern region comparatively sold more agricultural products than they consumed. It was 52.5 % and 47.5 % respectively. However, in the southern region, the situation was different where 67.5 % of the product was consumed by the farm family and the rest 32.5 % was sold. So, the purpose of the farming system is both for subsistence and commercial in both the sites.By definition, when crop and livestock components are integrated into a farming system, they are considered MFS. In this study, since the crop and livestock (including poultry) enterprises were integrated, the farming systems were MFS type in both northern and southern regions (Table 4). Although field crops took up 83% of the land, their financial contribution was very low as compared to livestock, which did not use an additional piece of land, other than the shed and some space within the homestead. The other enterprises viz., homestead production and pond fishery (where farmers own a pond) and in some cases, the orchards were also integrated, however, their contribution was very minimal. So, these farming systems were purely MFS in nature.Based on the economic output, the percent contribution of major enterprises was crops and livestock. About 83 % of the land used went to crop production. So, the farmer's main activity was cropping production to meet the family demand for the staple food of rice, which was followed by pulses, oilseed, and vegetables, and the excess of all were for sale. Homestead production systems were for family consumption of fruits and vegetables. Occasionally timbers are produced for sale. Cattle and goats were mostly for cash, while poultry and pond fisheries were for family consumption and sale. However, cattle and poultry sheds are situated in the homestead and their rearing activities were done within the homestead. The pond fishery system is also situated in the homestead, as its water was traditionally used for domestic purposes fish for family consumption, and extra fish for sale.As stated above, the farming system in the northern region was MFS and their common enterprise combination was Crop-Homestead Production-Livestock-Poultry practiced by 83 % of the farmers. However, in the southern region, though the farming system was MFS type their common enterprise combination was Crop-Homestead Production-Livestock-Poultry-Fishery practiced by 90 % of the farmers.The holdings of MFS were fairly small. Even a good number of farmers were landless and only had land for a homestead. Farmers who just have homestead areas and no other cropland to operate are said to be landless. They usually rent land from others and operate farming. Bangladeshi farmers, on average have relatively small land holdings of about 0.05 ha (World Bank, 2022). Bangladesh has the highest population density living in a comparatively small land area and as a result, land holdings are small. The BBS categorizes land holdings as large, medium, small, marginal, and landless farmers (Table 2). Results revealed that small, marginal, and landless farm-holding categories dominated the land holdings in the study villages, while large and medium landholding farmers were very insignificant (Table 2). Landless farmers survived by renting land and appeared to be a key actor in farming.As almost all the farmers were fairly low in land holdings, due attention is required for their livelihood. To boost overall production, diversity, integration, resource sharing, intensification, and horizontal extension are crucial. Now let us take some of the determinants of the systems that made the systems in the two regions little different. In the northern region, the soil was light textured, sandy loam whereas in the southern region, it was heavy textured clay loam. As a result, pond excavation in sandy loam soil was difficult, and the existing ponds dried up in the dry season making the pond use seasonal. So, the presence of fishery enterprise in the existing FS was low only about 17.3 %. However, in the southern region, almost all the farmers had ponds and many of them had more than one pond (Table 7). The southern region was near the Bay of Bengal, the monsoon wind brings enough moisture and results in rainfall in the early monsoon period and as a result, ponds do not dry up quickly. So, the FS improvement plan in this region should emphasize the pond or pond refuse fishery system.In both the sites lots of water bodies like rivers, bils, and excavated pods were there. The water bodies are common throughout the country. In the southern region bils and ponds were very important as they contained sweet water of rain and accommodated in it. This was why so many ponds were excavated there.These water bodies contribute to FS and are often used as a source of irrigation and household use. High and medium-high land constitutes most of the land types of inundation in Bangladesh (FAO 1988). The study villages also belonged to these two land types (Table 1). In this land, the water regimes were so that the flood water did not accommodate for long as a result T. Aman rice cultivation was common. If the land elevation was below this, T. Aman would have drowned. Thus, for the cropping pattern improvement, T. Aman's rice crop should get priority. The major difference between the two study sites was the presence of sweet water in the northern region and salinity in the dry season in the southern region. These influenced the cropping systems. In the northern region, Boro-Fallow-T. Aman was the common CP (Table 5).In some of these CPs, Rabi crops were included, and intensification was done. There was still the chance of intensification left for the rest of Boro-Fallow-T. Aman CP. In that case, the use of short-duration T. Aman rice is necessary so that after T. Aman, the Rabi crop can be established in time. In these areas where the soil was lighter, the Boro crop was excluded otherwise it would require a lot of irrigation in the dry season. If Boro was excluded, Rabi-T. Aman CP was practiced. Here the chance of intensification can be achieved by the inclusion of some suitable Rabi crops.In the southern region, crop fields turn saline as soil dries up. Here, T. Aman crop is harvested late because of prevailing weather and soil remains wet, as a result inclusion of Rabi crops are difficult after T. Aman rice. Irrigated rice, Boro cultivation is difficult here as surface water is saline, on the other way underground water may or may not be saline, however, is restricted to uplift to reduce the chance of further saline water intrusion. Inclusion of a new crop, like pulses, maize or other considering their feasibility, in the existing cropping pattern might be another option. This opportunity might be created with the right variety and management choices. In case of cropping pattern improvement, the utilization of suitable varieties, inputs and management all offered room for improvement. In this area modified sorjan system of cultivation can be developed by digging sorjan ditches and preserving rainwater for fish and vegetable cultivation. On-farm research is necessary in this regard.Farmers' knowledge on this issue can be improved by training, hands-on demonstration, and field trials so that they can adopt the improved technology.Currently, there are many improved crop varieties available that are suited to various conditions. However, farmers used inappropriate varieties in most cases for all the crops they cultivated in both regions. Farmers were unaware of these suitable varieties, nor were seeds readily available to them. Many management practices are not optimum. Imbalance and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticide use were common. Farmers depend on others, like pesticide dealers for pesticide use but were misled frequently. Irrigation, labor, power tiller, and machinery and inputs were not available in time and were costly. Even, because of the scarcity of rental power tiller farmers were forced to delay crop establishment. On-time and good management practices were not followed. These factors contribute to poor crop yield. To overcome these situations, demonstrations and farmers' training are important. The development of service providers like seed, fertilizer, and pesticide dealers and machinery operators is important.The common feature of livestock was that no cropland was used by farmers for grazing or cattle and poultry sheds. They raised it on the homestead. They constructed a cattle and chicken shed close to the house. Cattle were fed concentrated feed, some roughages were collected, and if possible, they were permitted to graze on or near the farmhouse. The breeds used were not improved ones and management practices were not up to the mark. Artificial insemination facilities were far away from the farm. Poultry are reared by scavenging way. Usually, native poultry birds are used which has high demand but poor production. Livestock issues include a shortage of forage and feed, expensive feed, illness, inadequate vaccination, and medicine facilities, lack of breed, farmers' know-how etc. For the development of this sector, a lot of demonstrations, successful farmer's field visits, and farmers' training are required. Availability of breed, vaccine, and medicine and development of service providers are crucial for this sector. As in the southern region, cropping intensity was low because of the presence of saline water in the dry season; livestock production might get more attention.Fish is an integral part of the Bangladeshi diet. In the past, most of them were caught from freshwater natural sources, with some also coming from the sea. Pond fisheries have gained importance because of population growth. Farmers have traditionally kept ponds for family usage. Not all the farmers own ponds, however, these ponds are currently used for fish farming. Pond fisheries also currently have grown up as an entrepreneurship. The soil is light and well-drained in the northern region. As a result, many ponds dry up in dry seasons like winter and summer and become seasonal ponds. Moreover, pond excavation is difficult. Only 30 % of farmers own ponds whereas in the southern regions, more than one pond is present in each household. Fish is mostly consumed by families and no extras are sold. The fish sector also had problems with the livestock.Agroforestry is seldom practiced; however, there is scope for it. A planned agroforestry system using different tires in homestead is possible. In the crop field and on the bank of the pond there was scope of it as well.Now holistically, MFS provides some facilities like an efficient use of farm resources viz., smallholding, irrigation, labor, and efficient utilization of by-products, generating additional income and minimizing risks that can arise for a variety of causes. However, farmers do not have a clear understanding, thinking, or planning about it.There is a knowledge gap between already-developed technologies and farmers' current practices. In farming systems, some components are integrated and interact and together make the best use of resources efficiently for sustainable production and farmers' livelihood enhancement. However, farming is gradually turning subsistence into commercial. This was a comparatively better system as commercial farming is the most productive and at the same time cost-effective. Planned utilization of resources and byproduct sharing and commercialization of FS can improve its production system. In the FS, the control mechanism is maintained by the farmers, so their knowledge, technical know-how, skill, and attitude are very important. There was a clear gap in it in both the regions.Detail and sector-wise characterization of existing MFS are the foremost important tasks for its improvement. The biophysical and socioeconomic conditions of an MFS consist of many factors like inputs, processors, control, output, and feedback. In each and everywhere in the existing FSs, there are some scopes of optimizations and to identify these, characterization of MFS is a prerequisite.Because of the huge population living in a small country, farmers inherent small amount of land as a successor. At the same time, infrastructure development is reducing arable land at an alarming rate of 0.73 % (Hasan, 2013). Planned way intensification is a must of its FS. Not only the whole FS but also intensification within each enterprise is important. The introduction of CS with high-value crops and sustainable intensification to produce more food for the same piece of land with less input and without negative impact on natural resources is important. Analysis of the status, trend, and future dynamics of MFS and the conduct of system research for planned integration is necessary.The average land holdings of farmers are continuing to decline because of the fragmentation of land ownership to the successors and the number of landless and marginal farmers is increasing. So, vertical expansion in land use patterns and integration of farm enterprises is advisable. It will give farmers scope of periodic and time-to-time earnings. Therefore, integrated farming is assumed to be important for the sound management of farm resources to get enhanced production.In the MFS, the intensification of livestock positively contributes to the production of the agricultural system. On the other hand, from the intensification of crops, livestock is also benefited. Both improve natural resource management, input use, and byproduct utilization. This was especially important in the northern region study area. Their soil was sandy loam type. Farmers want to improve soil fertility by applying livestock byproduct, cow dung. The use of cow dung not only improves soil quality but also saves the use of inorganic fertilizers. But they do not have enough cow dung as they only reared a few cattle. Poultry manure can play a minor role similarly. So, the number of cattle heads can be increased. For increased livestock production, fodder production can be included in the existing system, in the fallow period in the existing CP and can be used for grazing, byproduct of rice like straw may be utilized as urea-treated molasses and maize production can be increased in the existing cropping system and leaves may be used as fodder, rice bran, and maize grain may be used as feed, livestock product may be diversified from beef fattening to dairy production and introduction of appropriate breed of livestock and poultry with improve management practices are advisable. Crops and livestock save not only fertilizer but also other inputs like water and labor reduce cost and increase profit. As livestock are solely sold at peak demand periods and when farmers need cash, it can give an option of livelihood improvement opportunity.Field crops occupy about 85 % of the land use. There are scopes of improvement of CSs in the existing FSs in both the study regions. Emphasis should be given to appropriate crop variety selection and management options to increase overall production. Short-duration crops should be selected to fit well in the CSs to intensify cropping to increase yield and bring diversity. In the southern region, salinitytolerant Rabi crop variety and fodder may be selected to include in the existing CP. Utilization of microclimates, short-duration variety, special management practices like double transplanting, etc. are some common issues for crop intensification and diversification.In the fishery sector, the integration of rice and fish, aroid and fish in the derelict pond, and improved use of sorjan ditches can be studied for their feasibility. In the southern region, high-value fish culture in sorjan ditch and vegetables on the ridge may be a good option. It appeared that based on sorjan, a farm family can survive from a minimum piece of land in comparison to that land used for field crop production. However, research is necessary for appropriate sorjan system development. The pond fishery system in both locations needs improvements. Fish species for the ecosystem, polyculture techniques, stocking density, liming, manuring and fertilization, feeding, and other management have enough scope for improvement. Emphasis should be given to resource sharing and integration.Planned agroforestry development may be another important aspect. It can be started from the homestead and spread to the main field where it is feasible. Before that, a survey and existing agroforestry system may be studied followed by proper planning. Farmers' knowledge development in this regard is very important. Making appropriate tree saplings available is also important.Other different aspects need due attention for the improvement of existing MFS. The government emphasizes shifting from traditional agriculture to mechanized agriculture. Usually, farmers cannot maintain and run machinery individually. In this regard, service provider development may be a good option. Lack of machinery service hampered the right operation in time and increased costs.Gender participation in agriculture, gender equity, and women's participation in decision-making are other study areas that need due attention. The involvement of rural youth in agriculture is important. Some specialized agriculture production like mushroom, honeybee, commercial pickle preparation, green fodder selling, pigeon raring, etc., and off-farm activities like van pulling, cloth sewing, etc. can be important for the development of existing farmers' livelihood improvement. Special emphasis should be given to the landless farmer who does not have operated land and works on rented land, these types of work should be good for their livelihood improvement. Service provider development in farm machinery, crop sector, livestock sector, and fishery sector can play an important role.Farmers' existing knowledge base is important. Modern-day agriculture is sciencebased and currently, a lot of technologies are being developed and used by farmers.To implement these, farmers must understand the whole package of technology, how it works, and so on. In the implementation of integrated FS farmers require various understandings of integrated FS and are experts in every type of agricultural production, technical skill, technological know-how, and managerial skill. So, for the improvement of the MFS, this should be supported by vigorous farmers' training.Training may be accompanied by method demonstrations, field days, field visits, etc.Training may be extended to other stakeholders like seed and pesticide dealers, extension workers, and system researchers.Finally for the improvement of the FS, potential intervention packages are to be identified and tested by the FS research and development approach and the effects are evaluated on the whole farm system. Designing and conducting adaptive trials to evaluate interventions in system research and implementing them for intervention allows feedback on the technology and creates an opportunity for finetuning. For demonstration of modern agricultural technologies, farmer selection and identification of extrapolation domain are very important for technology dissemination. Mass demonstrations instead of individual may be good and create a big impact. The demonstration should be accompanied by a field day. Incentives motivate farmers for sustainable adoption of technology. Therefore, some sorts of incentives may be provided to farmers. Crop variety, breed and fish species, and special management options are some common technologies to be used for methods demonstration.To improve MFS, research in this area is crucial. The development of MFS modules for each environment, the creation of on-farm component technology, and the dissemination of technology has a good impact. This can be achieved by site-specific on-farm technology generation and verification experiments. It's important to take a holistic approach to improve MFS. Emphasis should be given to managing interaction among enterprises. These improvements in integration lead to higher output at lower costs and more effective resource use. All will contribute to improving farmers' livelihood.equipment, seed, fertilizer, and pesticide dealers can be essential, and promotional activities for those were needed.It is essential to conduct research in this area to improve MFS. The creation of a database, development of MFS modules for each ecosystem, generation of on-farm component technology, and technology dissemination are important. Site-specific on-farm technology generation and verification trials can do this. It's important to take a holistic approach to MFS improvement. Emphasis should be given to managing interaction among enterprises. These integration upgrades may result in higher output at lower costs and more effective resource use. All will contribute to farmers' livelihood improvement.","tokenCount":"7271"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"614395ae139e4164fb28fcd8c52c3318","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.mel.cgiar.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:20.500.11766.1/FK2/0NCKCK/LQRYOW","id":"-604515341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2c489a8d-77c8-42f8-ac39-41c0b44517a8","pagecount":"31","content":"It is important that the enumerator and supervisor establish good rapport with the person to be interviewed. Below is an example of introduction.Hello. My name is XXX and I come from the International Livestock Research Institure. I came here to ask you a few questions related to your household, farm activities and animals. This work is for research purposes, and the figures you will give me are confidential. This means that we will not publish the data with your name, or give out this information to someone else. Only average data for your site, for example, average land size or herd size, will be reported without reference to your particular household. Your community will indirectly benefit from this work, as we will be able to better understand your situation and what needs to be done-in relation to livestock. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to ask. If not, let's start.After introduction, the task is to define the household which will be interviewed. For this survey, a household is defined as followed:Notes:• In the case where the household head is away for more than 8 months a year IF they remain as the main decision-maker in relation to cattle activities then they are still considered • In the case where there are multiple wives and we are surveying animals owned by different wives then the entire family (head + all wives) is considered to be the household• Ensure that the required number of households is surveyed in each village and site • Ensure that the unique identifier code is allocated to each household • Lead and guide enumerators, ensuring that they are performing their work according to instructions.• Review each questionnaire provided by the enumerators, check for any missing information or inconsistencies, and if need be, request the enumerator to go back to the farmer to complete the questionnaire• Ensure that all questionnaires are properly edited, accounted for, batched and dispatched to the data entry office• Take the GPS coordinates of each household, using the same code as the one used on the questionnaire• Ensure that each person taking part in the survey under his supervision carries his/her full load of work and that all work is completed quickly and accurately as specified by this manual.• Maintain cordial atmosphere in the team, and with the local communitiesThe roles of the enumerators are to:• Visit each household on their list (obtained from the supervisor) and conduct interview each selected household• Ensure all questions are addressed and data obtained is of good quality • Review the questionnaire with the supervisor and if need be, go back to the farmer to get additional information• Provide the final questionnaire as neat as possible to the supervisor • Maintain cordial atmosphere in the team, and with the local communitiesAs an interviewer, it is your responsibility to keep completely confidential anything you learn and observe during an interview. Never disclose any facts about anyone you interview to someone else. Respondents should be told that the information they provide will be used in statistical form only and that their names will not be associated with their answers when the data are analysed.• You must read and intensively study your manual to become thoroughly familiar with its contents in order to do your work efficiently.• You must introduce yourself on every visit and explain to the respondent the reason for your visit before starting the interview.• You must ask the questions in exactly the same way to each respondent and in the same order in which they are presented in the questionnaire, since, if the interviews are to be comparable the question order needs to be standard from respondent to respondent.• You must keep all information received completely confidential.• You must make every effort to write legibly, and keep the documents you are working on clean and free from damage.• You must attend to all `call-backs' as early as possible, and must be punctual in keeping all appointments made.• You are solely responsible for all documents issued to you in connection with the survey, and you must ensure that they are secure at all times Things You Must Not Do• You must not solicit or permit any unauthorized person to assist you with your work. No matter how intelligent they are, they will neither have had the training nor the authority to participate in interviewing.• You must not combine with the survey work any canvassing for personal gains, religion, political party or any other organization.• You should never become involved in religious or political discussions while you are on the job.First page: some of the information will be pre-printed on the 1st page of the questionnairethe household code, name of the household head, location of household (GPS coordinates), contact information (mobile telephone number) and ID of animals to be recruited (for later reference). Where possible, we need to interview the person who is in charge of the farm and livestock activities, and who has a good knowledge of the household activities in general. If this person is not available then you need to confirm permission to ask another person in the household AND that this person is knowledgeable about farm and livestock activities.Additional information to be completed on page 1 (Household Identification) includes: Country, Site, District, Division, Location, Village, Respondent name (if not HH head)Once the interview is completed, the site coordinator and enumerator review the questionnaire together carefully, looking for incomplete tables or sections, or inconsistencies. If need be, the enumerator goes back to the household to collect additional information to allow him/her to complete the questionnaire. Indicate name of supervisor, and date of reviews.Codes for some responses are always located after the question or table. If the household is unable to answer (for example the production parameters), put -88. For ALL questions which have a Yes or No answer the code is No = 0 and Yes = 1.1. For any question dealing with cattle type, breed grade and breed names, please use the following codes. • You should have a general knowledge of the measurement unit that is used in the area/locality• For land area, include all the land the farmer owns including grazing grounds and other lands left fallow. These may be land on different titles.• For land rented in, specify only where a farmer has obtained a land and usually pays money per time period. However, where land is offered and the farmer uses the land but does not pay any money, please indicate Area 'rented' but indicate rent as '0'.For land rented out, indicate the Area that the farmer has rented out to someone else and the rent paid to him/her. In cases where the farmer rents out the land for free, indicate the area and '0' for Rent.• NB: in cases where the farmer buys grass/napier/fodder etc from a farm of a particular size (area), this is not considered as renting in. Such information is captured under the \"feed purchase\" sections (5.8 and 5.9). • List all crops cultivated on land that the farmer owns, excluding that which is rented out.List the crops planted per plot/farm in both seasons, since different crops can be planted on the same plot in the cropping season and off-season.  Make sure the unit used for measurement is accurate i.e. Ensure if you use kg for unit make sure it is the correct one (The bag may be 90kg or 50kg)In the amount section, indicate the number of units eg Unit=50kg, Amount=100 means a farmer produced a total of 5000kg of the indicated crop.• If the farmer did not sell anything, obtain the unit price of the produce/crop. This is important so as to price the farmers' consumption/on-farm use for crops that are not sold.In cases where there are partial sales (especially for vegetables), take time to obtain the quantity sold since these are not obvious/easily determined.In \"quantity consumed or used on farm\", include amount kept as seeds for next planting season.• NB: The information provided for the crops should be consistent with the other information provided about the household e.g. a household in a decrepit state but having large area under fast moving cash crops does not make sense. • List the first name of all laborers including casual laborers for ease of referencing the other data required in the table.• List upto 3 activities, starting with the most labor intensive. It is important to categorize by season since activities vary by season.The unit code represents frequency of payment. Indicate the amount of money paid per unit Other poultry doesn't include chicken, e.g. ducks.. If the farmer has 2 or more breeds for the same type of cattle, each cattle should be entered in its own row. (Example: 2 cows, 1 high grade Friesian and 1 high grade Jersey -1 st Row: -4 in column 1; 2in second column, 1 in third column 2 and 1 in columns 4 and 5 respectively. 2 nd Row: 4 in the first column; 2 in the second column; 3 in the third column 2; and 1 in the 4 th and 5 th columns respectively).If the farmer has 2 or more animals for the same breed, the details should be entered in one row with the last two columns indicating the number of animals in this category of cattle and breed. (Example: 4 pure Friesian bulls owned by farmer -1 in first column 1; 1 in second column; 1 in third column; and 4 in column 4 and 5 respectively)• For the breed identification, the name code refers to the dominant breed in the cross.Even if there are mixes in there that you do not know, use the dominant breed for the name code. Do not use the \"I don't know\" code.  ","tokenCount":"1624"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d4cb04608c27e8690f8f387ed4a75d44","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a175f75-1366-494f-bf8e-f65f5054aca9/retrieve","id":"611905097"},"keywords":["indicators","participatory methodologies","resilience","socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes"],"sieverID":"66b684b4-3927-48db-9602-1440f18ee8d8","pagecount":"1","content":"to be used flexibly and can be customized to reflect the circumstances of each particular landscape or seascape and its associated communities. The resilience indicators' framework has been tested in more than 20 countries around the world across different ecosystems. A couple of case studies were described during the presentation.The simplification of agricultural production systems is highly concerning for the future of food and nutrition security for the Planet. Diversification of species and varieties is embedded in farmers' strategies to secure sustainable food production, create income options, fight pests and diseases, promote adaptation to abiotic stresses and support various ecosystem services. Scientific literature published in recent years has amply demonstrated that the narrower the crop diversity portfolio managed by farmers, the more vulnerable their livelihood. Documenting and monitoring diversity grown on farm is helpful to farmers to assess the spectrum of options they can rely on for building a robust climate change coping strategy. Whereas users have fairly good access to information related to ex situ gene banks, extremely poor is the understanding of what is currently conserved on farm and the extent of what is at risk or already lost. We argue that this condition requires the development of a new set of approaches, methods and tools to assess the status and dynamism of crop diversity on farm to prevent diversity from being lost and support its management for climate adaptation and other livelihood purposes. Over the last four years, Bioversity International and partners have been developing and testing a community-based participatory documentation approach with a special attention to neglected and underutilized species. The presentation will share the methodology applied in Bolivia, India and Nepal, present data and discuss lessons learnt. Authors will also offer their perspectives on how such a methodology could be leveraged for moving forward towards a global information system for agricultural biodiversity -that currently does not exist and that could be used to monitor the status and trends of these resources on farm to guide their proper conservation for the benefit of future generations.Key words: agricultural biodiversity, documentation and monitoring, ex situ-in situ linkage, information, participatory methods, climate change adaptation.","tokenCount":"355"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c4aa230f25711d243f34d8cdb611f1c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7e380325-ddab-462e-aa68-14193a27ce6e/content","id":"-1911041477"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4fd27e4c-4eec-4e37-ad9d-66004235489a","pagecount":"9","content":"Maize is the most important cereal in Sub Saharan Africa; however, yields are significantly lower than those possible with improvements in cultivars and management. Maize breeding programs need to produce material with improved resistance to increasing environmental stresses and incorporate the man and women farmer preferred traits that relate to yield, postharvest, nutritional, and processing qualities. This research uses genderdisaggregated data recorded during participatory on-farm maize trials by the Stress Tolerant Maize Program conducted in agroecological zones of Benin, Nigeria and Mali) to identify men and women farmer's expressed varietal and trait preferences in order to evaluate plant breeding strategy. A multi-stage varietal and trait identification process was used to identify gender shared and distinctive varietal trait preferences for product development and dissemination. The data indicates that progress has been made by the Project in considering the range of traits valued by both men and women farmers and indicates those that should be considered for genderfocused product pipeline development in the future. The study concludes by underlining the need for adjustment in breeding to improve partnerships with food scientists, postharvest specialists and private seed sector on the packaging and delivery of technologies to farmers and other value chain actors.World population is rapidly increasing, and global food production must increase to address that population's needs (UN, 2017). At the same time, the world is facing changes in climate that challenge both the productivity and sustainability of agricultural activities (Haussmann, 2012). The development of new technological innovations and their adoption by producers is vital to address this challenge. (Wheeler & von Braun, 2016;Aarts et al., 2014;Sewell et al., 2017). This paper examines the development of drought/ tolerant maize varieties in West Africa. The focus is on the identification of gender preferred traits that will improve the packaging and delivery of appropriate maize technologies to farmers and other value chain actors. Maize is the most important cereal and most widely cultivated staple crop in Sub Saharan Africa. It is a strategic and multiple purpose crop for the more than 208 million people who depend on it for food security and economic well-being in West Africa (see Abate et al 2017). It occupies the largest land area of all staples in the region and annual maize grain production is estimated at nearly 72 million metric tons (MT). However, average yields of maize in this area are considerably lower than those obtainable with improved cultivars and management and low cultivar turnover is a significant contributing factor (Abate et al., 2017) (Table 1).Decisions by men or women farmers to replace an existing maize variety with a new one depend upon their perception and experience of the benefits the new variety may provide (see Everson and Gollin, 2003;Laborte et al., 2015). Knowledge of trait characteristics preferred by men and women farmers, as well as other actors in the value chain, enables definition of new variety product profiles with a greater potential for adoption. The analysis informs the attractiveness of the market in terms of measurable customers, profitability, response to differentiated products and stable returns to justify investment (see Ahlman et al., 2014;Laborte et al., 2015;Slagboom et al., 2016;Christinck, 2017).Gender has significant impacts on farming/ agricultural activities.Men and women have unequal access to and control over key productive resources upon which agriculture depends. Gender differences also affect how crops are utilized in postharvest and food processing and marketing and how these are valued by different consumer groups (Weltzien, Rattunde, Christinick & Ashby, 2020: 246-247). Studies have shown that farmers' preferences for traits are diverse, depending on factors such as farm characteristics, production systems and farmers' production objectives (Ashby et al., 1994;Meinzen-Dick et al., 2007;Slagboom et al., 2016;Laborte et al., 2015). Women and men can select and grow the same crop varieties under similar or different circumstances for various reasons (Weltzien et al., 2020). They differ in trait preferences when they face different constraints, different roles and responsibilities in production and consumption systems, and different crop production goals (Christinck et al., 2017). Women's varietal trait preferences appear more frequently related to food security traits such as early maturity, postharvest processing and food preparation including storability, grain colour and texture (Weltzien et al., 2020). Women are also attracted to certain critical characteristics related to family food security such as earliness, multiple harvests, production potential during full growing seasons as well as productivity under sub-optimal soil fertility (Christinck et al., 2017). For some time breeding programs have recognized the need to consider gender differences in trait preferences and incorporate them in programs (Grando, 2017). However, there is still a lack of innovative and applicable techniques that that can be readily employed to effectively identify the gender dimension in their programs and their implications for improving breeding schemes (see Orr et al., 2018). This paper outlines an approach to examine the sex-disaggregated data recorded in multi-year participatory on-farm trials of maize in three selected West African countries (Benin, Nigeria and Mali) by the Tolerant Maize Project (STMA) funded by the Bill and Melinda Gate Foundation. The research employs farmers' responses to varietal and trait or other characteristic preference selections and uses the results of the analyses to identify specific gender preferred characteristics that relate to postharvest, nutritional and processing qualities with implications for future breeding of maize varieties appropriate for both male and female farmers.The term 'traits' as used among plant breeders generally refers to identifiable varietal aspects that can be measured and directly taken up by breeders themselves. Although some characteristics coincide with these kinds of 'traits' many others do not (e.g. good for food) and therefore 'traits' is used while referring to varietal selections and 'characteristics' employed when referring to preferences related to marketing, taste, colour, postharvest food processing, etc.Under the STMA, project stress resilient elite open-pollinated maize varieties (OPVs) and hybrids were included in regional trials and shared with the national partners for extensive testing in their countries. The national partners select the most promising stress resilient OPV and hybrids adapted to their conditions for further evaluation in participatory on-farm trials. It was recognized that these trials could be used as platforms to identify preferred traits of women and men small holder farmers that can be targeted by breeders to develop products attractive to the two groups. Consequently, participatory on farm trials involving the selected stress resilient OPVs/hybrids were planted alongside with farmers' preferred maize variety and used as platforms where both mean and women farmers closely assessed the varieties and provided their preferred varieties and traits to the researchers.The study is undertaken in the context of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) and Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (STMA) projects in West Africa that focus on addressing multiple constraints affecting maize production including the adverse effects of drought, climate change and low cultivar replacement (Abate et al., 2017;Ayedun, 2017;Shiferaw et al., 2011;Fisher et al., 2015). These projects involved the development, release, multiplication, deployment and monitoring of drought tolerant maize varieties in each country as well as the constraints impacting their adoption by farmers.A comprehensive strategy to integrate gender into varietal selection, identification of trait preferences, product development, and deployment was only developed and implemented in the final phase of the DTMA project in 2012. Building upon the learnings of the DTMA project, the STMA project encouraged a systematic documentation of men's and women's varietal preferences with special emphasis on the sets of characteristics that met consumption needs and addressed constraints of women farmers; access to quality seed, labour and the drudgery associated with production with data collected by project partners in Benin, Mali and Nigeria. Gender-focused approaches on drought and drought resilient varietal development have since been incorporated into the first phase of the Tolerant Maize for Africa (STMA) project expanding upon the legacy of DTMA's significant contributions.Since the STMA project launch in 2016 greater emphasis has been placed on increasing the impact of drought tolerant maize varieties through enhanced public-private partnerships and allocating resources to address gender-focused and livelihood-related concerns such as food security, nutrition, drought and postharvest issues. The project had four major outcomes (or objectives) (STMA, 2016). These were:Innovative breeding tools and techniques to increase the rate of genetic gain in the maize breeding pipeline; Increased commercialization of improved multiple-drought-tolerant maize varieties with gender-preferred traits by the sub-Saharan African seed sector; Delivery and out-scaling of released and new drought tolerant maize varieties through strong public-private partnerships; and Project management, monitoring and evaluation, and communication.Investment to narrow gender inequity gaps featured in a large proportion of program efforts in the third Outcome (obejective) and took a range of different forms: a commitment to supporting women-owned seed companies; employing gender-responsive approaches to promote and stimulate demand for newly released drought tolerant maize varieties to speed up variety turnover; developing and implementing a product dissemination plan, particularly targeting women and disadvantaged groups; strengthening the capacity of seed companies to deliver improved seeds particularly to women; supporting effective participation of women in seed value chains, and building knowledge on gender and maize-legume seed value chains (Rubin, 2015).The project also carried out gender capacity assessment for partners and provided technical support and training on gender integration in seed business development. A pilot gender certification standard for the seed sector was also developed.The On-Farm Trial dataset used in this study was obtained from the principal maize producing agro-ecological zones in Nigeria, Benin and Mali. These data sets were developed to identify differences as well as similarities in varietal and trait or other consumer based characteristic preferences that can guide gender-responsive approaches to enhance the demand for drought and drought tolerant maize varieties by both men and women famers.The data for Nigeria and Mali cover the period of 2013, 2014, and 2015 while the Benin data from the Northern Guinea Savanna is for 2014, 2015 and 2017. In each country standardized and harmonized semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions were employed in each of the study countries to collect on-farm trial data such as gender differentiated perceptions of the varieties, preferences of traits, and other consumer-based characteristics related to postharvest uses and benefits.Nigeria alone produces about 43% of maize grown in West Africa and women constitute 49.5% of the labour force in maize as well as legume and cassava based farming systems. (NBS, 2016). The crop is grown in virtually all the agroecological zones of the country. The Northern and Southern Guinea Savannah, where the on-farm trail data was collected are the largest maize growing areas of Nigeria. The data was collected from poor and resource limited men and women members of the farming households in the more marginal rain-fed agricultural areas of the Northern and Southern Guinea Savannah targeted by the Drought Tolerant (DT) Maize for Africa (DTMA) and Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project (STMA). It covers the period of 2013, 2014 and 2015.In Nigeria alone more than 40 DT open pollinated varieties (OPVs) of maize have been tested in farmers' fields, either as a combination of Mother and Baby trials or as on-farm trials, in which two DT OPVs are tested in farmers' fields with the farmer's variety as the check. This was undertaken in three states (Kaduna, Borno and Taraba) in the Northern Guinea Savannah (NGS) and three states (Kwara, Niger and Oyo) in the Southern Gunnea Savannah (SGS). The average annual rainfall within the study areas is 1500 mm (Ayanlade, 2009). The Mother-Baby approach tests a number of different technologies (in this case the DT maize varieties) in a central location (the Mother trial) while the Baby trial tests a subset of the technology, which in this case consisted of two of the DT varieties along with a farmer's variety (control) in farmers' fields, scattered around the central Mother trial location.In Benin, the study was conducted in the northern part of the country. It is characterized by a diversity of maize-based production systems with generally low productivity. This is mainly due to poor physical conditions such as a decline in soil fertility coupled with less than optimal fertilizer use and a low level of adoption of improved varieties and other productivity enhancing technologies. Maize farmers in northern Benin rely mainly on recycled traditional seeds with limited potential which contributes to the low productivity of traditional farming systems (Vernooy, 2003). The women population represents 51% to 53% (INSAE 2017 of the agricultural labour force. Despite recent subsidized programs in some countries, a lack of access to good quality fertilizers has also hindered farmers abilities to achieve the full potential of their maize farming operations.Within the study zone, average rainfall is low (950 mm) (Ibouraïma & Afouda, 2010) and changes dramatically from month to month, significantly affecting agricultural production. The Department of Alibori was chosen to conduct this study. According to Agbossou et al. (2010), the department has the greatest potential vulnerability to climate change in Benin. The selected sites were chosen because of their low level of productivity of maize and also because maize is viewed as the most sensitive food crop to the effects of climate change (Agbossou et al., 2010). In each selected village, five varieties were tested. Four of the tested varieties were drought tolerant. The fifth, a non-drought tolerant variety commonly planted in the village, served as a control.Producers who hosted the trials were selected in collaboration with technicians of the National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin (INRAB). At each site, 10 women and 10 men were selected to participate in the trial.The data from Mali were obtained from the Sudan Savannah, the largest maize growing agro-ecological zone in the country and covers the period of 2015, 2016 and 2017. Mali has four main agro-ecological zones. The Sudan Savannah with 600-1100 mm rainfall (Akinseye et al., 2016) accounts for about 70% of the total maize area. Major maize growing administrative regions include Sikasso (59%), Koulikoro (17%), Kayes (16%), and Ségou (7%). Women constitute 50.4% of the labour force (Enquête modulaire, INSTAT, 2015). In terms of land use, maize and cotton are the main crops, each occupying about 30% of the land under cultivation. They are followed by cereal associations (sorghum, maize, millet, etc.), legumes (peanuts, cowpeas, soybeans, Bambara groundnut, etc.), sorghum, the maize-sorghum complex, peanuts, etc. Intercropping of cereal and legumes remains a common practice. However, land coverage of maize is expanding and is presently the dominant crop followed by cotton.In summary, in the Northern and Southern Guinea of Nigeria and Benin, and the Sudan Savannah of Mali maize production has increased in recent years. The general upward trend in maize production could be explained by the increasing use of inputs (fertilizers, herbicides and improved varieties).Under the STMA, project stress resilient elite open-pollinated maize varieties (OPVs) and hybrids were included in regional trials and shared with the national partners for extensive testing in their countries. The national partners select the most promising stress resilient OPV and hybrids adapted to their conditions for further evaluation in participatory on-farm trials. It was recognized that these trials could be used as platforms to identify preferred traits of women and men small holder farmers that can be targeted by breeders to develop products attractive to the two groups. Consequently, participatory on farm trials involving the selected stress resilient OPVs/hybrids were planted alongside with farmers' preferred maize variety and used as platforms where both men and women farmers closely assessed the varieties and provided their preferred varieties and traits to the researchers.The present study used a three-stage process (Fig. 1). In Stage I, farmers identified their first and second most preferred varieties. In Stage II, the first, second and third most important preferred traits or other preferred characteristics of participating men and women farmers were selected. A summary of key preferred traits and postharvest and food processing characteristics that should be considered for breeding for the gender-focused product pipeline development in the future are presented in Stage III.During the participatory on-farm trial visits, respondents were asked to indicate their first and second preferred maize varieties. In each country and separately for men and women the varieties selected were listed in descending order based upon the proportion selected. Varieties selected by fewer than 20% of both men and women in Nigeria, 10% of men and 20% of women in Benin and 16% of men and 22% of women in Mali were then eliminated from the lists to retain just the predominantly selected varieties.For each selected variety, respondents were asked to indicate the visible traits which they considered important to their selection. The percentage of men and women respondents preferring each identified trait was then calculated and characteristics with less than 15% for both women and men in Nigeria, 14% for men and 12% for women in Benin and 11% for both women and men in Mali were eliminated.In this section, the first and second ranked maize varieties and hybrids identified by male and female farmers in the agroecological zones of each country are identified and the respondent's preferred characteristics described. The Distinct preferences reported in each table are those varieties identified only by men or by women in that region.The results for both the North and South Guinea agroecological zones of Nigeria are reported in Table 2.In the Northern Guinea Savannah zone, five drought tolerant maize hybrids were selected as first and second preferred varieties by women and men respondents. At the same time, few drought tolerant open pollinated (OPV) maize varieties and hybrids were uniquely preferred and ranked first and second by either men or women farmers. Most of the products ranked first and second by men and women farmers in Northern Guinea Savannah were drought tolerant maize hybrids. The underlying reasons behind these preferences are that the open pollinated and hybrids are both drought tolerant. However, seed of open pollinated maize can be saved at harvest and be re-planted by small scale producers whose resource endowment limits access to hybrids. It can also be multiplied and produced by the national seed production system and distributed to farmers in times of seed scarcity and food shortage. OPV's can respond to inputs but not as effectively as hybrid varieties. The hybrid has high yield potential and drought tolerance. Even though both these varieties are endowed with consumption and marketable characteristics, men value hybrids more for their marketability. Hybrids are also preferred by private sector partners who, in the long run, are the drivers of constant and sustainable seed supply systems.In the Southern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria (Table 2), two drought tolerant maize hybrids and three open-pollinated varieties were ranked first by both women and men farmers (see Column a), and three drought tolerant open-pollinated maize varieties and a hybrid ranked second by men and women farmers (see Column d). Men and women respondents in the North Guinea Savannah of Benin (Table 3) ranked four open-pollinated maize varieties as their first preferred products (column a) and an open-pollinated variety as the second preferred product (see Column d). Women specifically ranked a drought tolerant maize hybrid as their first preferred product (see column b) and two drought tolerant open-pollinated maize varieties as their second (see column e). In contrast men did not specifically rank any of the drought tolerant maize varieties or hybrids in either their first or second preference list.In Mali (Table 4), five drought tolerant open-pollinated maize varieties and two hybrids were ranked first by both men and women farmers (see Column a) and three drought tolerant open-pollinated maize varieties and three hybrids were ranked second by both men and women farmers (see Column d). Men and women farmers did not identify any distinct and specifically preferred first and second ranked drought tolerant maize varieties or hybrids in Mali.A summary of farmer preferred traits and consumption related characteristics associated with the varieties selected in Nigeria, Benin and Mali are presented in Tables 5-7. The selections reflect both shared and differing factors influencing specific production contexts; biophysical environment, socio-economic circumstances, ethnic and cultural background and the prevailing farming systems (see Table 8).In Nigeria (Table 2) the top three ranked characteristics include drought tolerance, grain yield and its related characteristics, maturity cycle, characteristics associated with consumption and animal feed as well as marketing. Income and food security characteristics dominated the Nigerian preference summary.In Benin (Table 3), the top ranked characteristics were drought tolerance, yield and its related characteristics, maturity cycle, characteristics associated with consumption, animal feed and fuel. The Benin trait summary primarily addresses food security.The most preferred characteristics in Mali (Table 4) include drought tolerance, ease of harvesting, yield and its related characteristics, maturity cycles, characteristics associated with animal feed and fuel. The selected characteristics highlight the importance of food security, use of labour at harvest time and the raising of domestic animals in producers' communities.The final stage of the analysis was summarizing the preferred characteristics associated with the selected varieties by men and women in the study countries (Table 5). The top three ranked characteristics are associated with drought tolerance, grain yield and its related  characteristics, maturity cycle, and characteristics associated with marketing, income, food security, labour requirement use at the time of harvesting and animal feed. Decision: so reject the overall ranking between men and women is the same at 1% significance level.The on-farm trial data from Nigeria, Benin and Mali did not show a clear distinction between most of the drought tolerant maize varieties and hybrids preferred by men and women farmers. These findings are consistent with observations of Ashby et al. (1994) and Doss and Morris (2001) who indicate that men and women farmers have different as well as similar preferences related to technologies. It appears that the inherent properties of the hybrids and open-pollinated maize varieties were the drivers of preferences of men or women farmers. Consequently, unravelling the underlying factors influencing varietal preferences by men and women farmers may help develop better breeding strategies that permit the development of gender-response products with greater potential impact on livelihoods in farming households.The result of the present study does not provide support for a dualistic classification of drought tolerant maize varieties and hybrids as merely \"men versus women\" preferred products (see Okali 2012, Glover et al., 2016). The fact that both men and women farmers preferred the same varieties and hybrids in our study provides private seed companies with an opportunity to market the same product to farming communities for both production and home consumption. Doss and Morris (2001), Doss (2002) and Ashby et al. (1994) underline the importance of including rural women in the evaluation of varieties, whether the crop is grown for household consumption or for marketing. They emphasise the challenges women farmers face, more   than their men counterparts, in terms of unequal access to complementary inputs that diminish their capacity to adopt technologies at the same rate as men. Adequate measures should thus be undertaken by agricultural research and development programmes to address these challenges to ensure equitable impacts of technological change in agriculture (Ashby et al., 1994;Doss and Morris: 28, 2001). The analyses of trait preference studies highlight the presence of both common and specific characteristics appealing to men and women farmers. It is evident that the preferred characteristics generally fall into production and consumption categories. Drought tolerance, yield and its related characteristics, maturity period, characteristics associate with ease of harvesting as well as source of firewood and feed for domestic animals have been preferred by both men and women farmers. In the meantime, gender-specific differences in characteristics preferences were also apparent with men focusing more on characteristics associated with marketability whereas women focusing on grain colour, taste and appearance.The result of this study does not provide any clear indication about whether the products developed under the DTMA and STMA projects favoured or disfavoured men or women farmers. The evidence highlights that considerable progress has been made under these projects in generating and delivering drought tolerant maize varieties favoured by both men and women farmers for cultivation. It is therefore fair to acknowledge that the breeding product pipelines are on the right track but need to be adjusted by including additional characteristics preferred by women in collaboration with food science and other disciplines during the development of products. Abate et al. (2017) highlighted the strong desire expressed by farmers to grow hybrid maize with high yield potential and drought tolerance that are endowed with consumption related characteristics. They suggested that maize breeding should consider a diversity of characteristics beyond drought tolerance and grain yield, including an array of production, processing and consumption attributes that are valued by farmers.This study also underlines the importance of considering specific characteristics that relate to postharvest, nutritional, and processing qualities for food preparation. These have implications for future gender-relevant research in maize breeding and we suggest more research investment to meet these needs and to generate data that will  help understand the socially-embedded processes and dynamics of technological change (Glover et al., 2016). The way forward is a prioritized package of traits and postharvest related characteristics that should be included in gender-specific product profiles. An additional component of the strategy should focus on strengthening partnerships with seed companies to encourage them establish an incentive structure for investing in gendered product development. Such a partnership should include assessing the rationale for developing a system of seed certification of products possessing preferred traits and related characteristics as a matter of social responsibility.Our study underscores the need for strengthening partnerships between breeding, postharvest technology, food science, extension and the private sector. Quality seed is critical for the development of agricultural input markets (Thiele, 1999;Doss and Morris, 2001;Palmer, 2005;Louwaars and de Boef, 2012;McGuire and Sperling, 2016). As indicated by Freeman and Kaguongo (2003) and Awotide et al. (2015), our study advocates for a vibrant and efficient seed sector that can take up maize varieties and hybrids with preferred traits for multiplication and widespread distribution to men and women farmers. The extent to which quality seed of improved varieties can effectively deliver their potential benefits depends on the organization and coordination between key value chain actors, including crop breeders, food science technologists, postharvest specialists, seed companies and producers (Doss andMorris, 2001, McGuire andSperling, 2016. This further demands an innovative partnership with the private seed sector to ensure seed is readily available to poor and non-poor, men and women farmers at an affordable price.The analysis of results has provided justification to support the continued multiplication and commercialization of drought tolerant maize varieties with the top three traits and consumer-based characteristics preferred by both men and by women farmers in the project's areas.The analysis indicates that although breeding varieties to match the preferences of target clients is a practical way to facilitate the uptake of new maize varieties, linking specific traits and postharvest processing characteristics with the preferences of women or men farmers is not straightforward. This contradicts what we already know about genderspecific crop and variety preferences because classifying trait-based varietal preferences into those of men or women does not seem to fit with the reality of agricultural practices in farming communities. Such an over-simplification has limited value in influencing breeding and agricultural policy adjustments to address gender concerns, nor will it provide tangible guidance to make any required adjustments to breeding and improved packaging of maize technologies.One of the lessons drawn from this research is the need to make an adjustment in breeding coupled with effective collaboration with food science and postharvest specialists as well as private seed companies on the packaging of technologies to reach both men and women farmers. The gender analysis of sex-disaggregated data captures the top ranked traits preferred by men and women farmers. Such analyses would guide monitoring and evaluation of project objectives as well as assess whether adjustments made in maize breeding pipelines have achieved both availability and equitable dissemination of maize varieties with gender-relevant traits.Breeders certainly evaluate cost-effectiveness and desirable returns on investment to justify initiation of new and differentiated product development. The size of market segments and number of resource-poor farmers, including women in each segment together with the associated potential for growth and profitability and returns on investment matter for both breeders and private seed companies. Seed companies need to be engaged and encouraged to invest in target group studies and to use socio-economic and gender indicators as a basis for segmentation of their markets. Such a shift in approach may encourage multiple-site focused market studies as a basis for information sharing and the effective linking of breeding programmes with product development and marketing strategies of seed companies.The gender concern arises when attention is not paid to women's unique trait preferences during product development. Attention to these preferences is required to improve the likelihood of adoption of maize varieties by women farmers. This study indicates that gender is but one of the required parameters to measure social differences related to packaging of preferred traits in maize varieties and hybrids. Other significant parameters such as ecological factors, socio-economic variables and policy-related matters need to be addressed as integral components of gender analyses. Separate breeding pipelines cannot be developed based upon gender alone Gender related characteristics should be weighted and combined with other diverse user preferences. Such insights can effectively help package gender preferred traits or characteristics and other consumer-based characteristics into maize varieties and indicate how these can be combined with other necessary factors to improve food security and poverty reduction (see Abate et al., 2017).More knowledge about changes in priorities of both men and women farmer's coupled with the monetary and other costs (Smith et al., 2017;Orr et al., 2017) may require investments in market segmentation involving agro-ecology, geographic location of markets, as well as other demographic and behavioural factors. Such analyses would inform the attractiveness of the market in terms of measurable customers, profitability, response to differentiated products and stable returns to justify investment.Finally, the study concludes with a recommendation on the adjustment of maize breeding product pipelines and on forging partnerships and collaboration with extension and the private seed sector. Breeders need to be guided by studies that identify market segments with clearly defined consumer characteristics and unique sets of preferred traits of men and women farmers as well as those of consumers (Orr et al., 2017). Such knowledge will help breeders match their product profiles with the needs of their customers.","tokenCount":"5021"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec147ab82ea712c5e57e305973a76367","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H046403.pdf","id":"741323389"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"593b762e-7bf5-4b69-9b2d-1f2692f7ec8f","pagecount":"12","content":"Manthri invited me to talk on groundwater governance in Lao PDR because the situation in Sri Lanka might be as bad, I think, as some areas in Lao PDR but at a worse level. We talk about very different kinds of reasons in comparison to the two countries. This is an IWMI-led project, which is 1-year old. The only opportunity in expanding groundwater use in Lao PDR is for agriculture in the country. Only a few people with skills in groundwater aspects were called upon to advise and get involved in other activities of groundwater. Having been in Lao PDR for just 1 year, let us talk about its groundwater use for agriculture there.• Small country in South East Asia but larger in comparison to Sri Lanka, which is called the \"landlocked developing country in Asia\".• Population: 6.5 million (population density very much lower than in Sri Lanka).• Geographical area: 237,000 km 2 .• Rainfall: 1,300 to 3,700 mm/year (wet country).• Forest cover: ~50%.• Main industries: Mining, hydropower, timber, tourism.• Low-middle income bracket.• Ranked 22 nd most land developing country.• Gross Domestic Product per capita ~ US$1,300/year (production not sufficient, so that there is a lot more to be done).• 33% below the International Poverty Line of <US$1.25/day (poverty areas are marked in red in the map (Figure 12.1.3), major economic activities going on in the North and the highland areas).There are three major millennium development goals. Lao PDR has to do a lot more work on food security.  ► Medium-term goals, short-term goals.• Improved water supplies (75% in rural areas by 2015).• Food and nutritional security (a lot more to do -more intensified agriculture needed).► Longer-term national development goals.• Expanding irrigation development is important in contributing to poverty alleviation. and livelihood improvements.► Climate change and climate adaptation.• Enhanced water storage, resilience, adaption (storages will be very important for groundwater as in Sri Lanka and anywhere else).   Groundwater irrigation is very minimal. Government is very keen to boost areas under groundwater irrigation in Lao PDR to 100,000 ha in the coming years. It will depend on research and activities going on now in the country. In rural areas rural water supplies need to be developed by the use of new boreholes or existing shallow wells. Government and NGOs are involved in the protection of these from contamination. In cities, groundwater is not used for drinking because of the perception of the public. In some smaller cities and towns where surface water is in short supply groundwater is used for water supplies. But most of the industries rely on groundwater as soft drinks, etc. Saline groundwater is productively used for some industries.There are more activities going on in the field, which are not reflected in the statistics. Some areas (60-70%) have access to groundwater. This is used for domestic purposes, livestock and homeland cultivation. It is being extensively used at the subsistence level. Also, there are more prospective uses of high economic-value, e.g., export agriculture of coffee cultivation.   In the context where greater groundwater utilization is necessary and certain:► How can use be encouraged without unduly compromising long-term sustainability and environmental services?► Can the level of risk/failure associated with new development be reduced?► Does significant and irreversible groundwater exploitation pose an imminent threat for a country characterized by high rainfall and low population density?► What is the right level of knowledge and governance sufficient to sustainably manage the resource?      • Groundwater is vitally important even in a water-rich country such as Lao PDR.• The major challenge for groundwater governance is to build the necessary human and institutional capacity which requires concerted efforts and extended time frames.• Groundwater governance is very much in its infancy in Lao PDR but efforts to improve it are underway.","tokenCount":"623"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f63931165c9bc96e30cd32856f840cb7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/56f709d4-8656-40bc-8056-d3ed96e72f34/retrieve","id":"1430950013"},"keywords":["chromosome evolution","evolution","genomics","pan-genome","pomegranate"],"sieverID":"805a2afe-4f91-4b63-a86b-1b70b511113e","pagecount":"12","content":"Pomegranate has a unique evolutionary history given that different cultivars have eight or nine bivalent chromosomes with possible crossability between the two classes. Therefore, it is important to study chromosome evolution in pomegranate to understand the dynamics of its population. Here, we de novo assembled the Azerbaijani cultivar \"Azerbaijan guloyshasi\" (AG2017; 2n = 16) and re-sequenced six cultivars to track the evolution of pomegranate and to compare it with previously published de novo assembled and re-sequenced cultivars. High synteny was observed between AG2017, Bhagawa (2n = 16), Tunisia (2n = 16), and Dabenzi (2n = 18), but these four cultivars diverged from the cultivar Taishanhong (2n = 18) with several rearrangements indicating the presence of two major chromosome evolution events. Major presence/absence variations were not observed as >99% of the five genomes aligned across the cultivars, while >99% of the pan-genic content was represented by Tunisia and Taishanhong only. We also revisited the divergence between soft-and hard-seeded cultivars with less structured population genomic data, compared to previous studies, to refine the selected genomic regions and detect global migration routes for pomegranate. We reported a unique admixture between soft-and hardseeded cultivars that can be exploited to improve the diversity, quality, and adaptability of local pomegranate varieties around the world. Our study adds body knowledge to understanding the evolution of the pomegranate genome and its implications for the population structure of global pomegranate diversity, as well as planning breeding programs aiming to develop improved cultivars.Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of the oldest and most popular fruit plants for its nutritional, medicinal, and industrial values. The tree has a unique plasticity to different environmental conditions and soil profiles ranging from tropical to subtropical or even temperate zones (Chandra et al., 2010), with the ability to survive in extreme temperatures above 44°C and below −12°C (Westwood, 1978). Pomegranate is one of the first domesticated fruit crops that might have originated in the most distant prehistoric centuries, estimated at least 4 millennia (Levin, 2006;Still, 2006). Vavilov attributed the origin of the pomegranate to the Central Asian center of origin for cultivated plants. The presence of large populations of wild pomegranates in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and India confirms that the core center of origin and cultivation/domestication of the pomegranate is the Middle Eastern mega-center (Levin, 2006;Holland et al., 2009). It was previously proposed that the domestication of pomegranates occurs independently in different regions, not only in the centers of origin (Narzary et al., 2021). At the population level, Luo et al. (2020) found high genetic differentiation between soft-seeded and hard-seeded cultivars using a set of 26 cultivars.The evolution of P. granatum is unique as different cultivars have different numbers of diploid chromosomes. The first cytological study on pomegranates indicated the presence of eight bivalents (2n = 16) in metaphase 1 of meiosis (Morinaga et al., 1929). Multiple subsequent studies also concluded that the diploid chromosome number is 2n = 16 (Nath and Randhawa, 1959;Sheidai and Noormohammadi, 2005;Levin, 2006). However, other studies found that different wild and cultivated pomegranate trees had a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 18 (Kostoff et al., 1935). With decreasing sequencing costs, considerable attention has recently been paid to the genomes of previously understudied plants, including pomegranates. Currently, four reference genomes are available on NCBI, including the two traditional Chinese cultivars 'Taishanhong' (2n = 18), which is semi-soft seeded (Chater et al., 2020;Gasic et al., 2020), 'Dabenzi' (2n = 18), which is hard-seeded, and the soft-seeded Tunisian cultivar 'Tunisia' (2n = 16), which has been widely adapted in China (Luo et al., 2020;Chen et al., 2022). Another soft-seeded Indian cultivar, 'Bhagawa' (2n = 16), was recently published as a reference originated from the pomegranate center of origin (Roopa Sowjanya et al., 2022). However, another hard-seeded reference genome originated from the pomegranate center of origin is required to fully understand the evolutionary history of the pomegranate. Moreover, the availability of multiple genomes facilitates the development of graph references and pan-genomes in which core genes that exist in all individuals as well as dispensable genes that are represented in some individuals are defined. These graph references are important to accurately identify structural variations such as presence and absence variations as well as copy number variations.In the present study, we carried out de novo sequencing and a transcriptome analysis of six organs of the \"Azerbaijan guloyshasi\" (AG2017) pomegranate variety, as well as re-sequencing of six pomegranate varieties at coverage >10×. We performed a pangenome study on the obtained re-sequencing data using the \"mapto-pan\" strategy (Wang et al., 2018), as well as the five available reference genomes and found highly conserved genetic content across cultivars. We carried out a comprehensive comparative analysis with Bhagawa, Taishanhong, Tunisia, and Dabenzi to study the unique evolutionary history of pomegranate chromosomes, and we detected two major chromosome evolutionary events. We also revisited the results of Luo et al. (2020) on the divergence between soft-and hard-seeded pomegranates after increasing the population size with the resequenced individuals in the present study to increase the accuracy of detecting genomic regions that differentially affect both seed types.Leaf tissues from multiple pomegranate genotypes (Table S1) obtained from the collection garden of the Genetic Resources Institute of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences were used for DNA extraction. For RNA-Seq, multiple tissue sources, including leaves, stems (new and old), petals, flowers, and roots, were harvested at various time points. The harvested tissue was snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80°C until performing DNA/RNA extractions. All plant materials can be requested from the Genetic Resources Institute, Ministry of Science and Education, Azerbaijan.DNA extraction was performed using the DNeasy ® Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) as per the manufacturer's instructions. Quality control was performed by resolving the DNA sample on a 0.8% (w/v) agarose gel. For RNA extraction, the method described by Zarei et al. (2012) was followed except for resuspending the RNA pellet in 20 µl of RNase-free TE buffer. The extracted RNA samples were resolved on a 1.2% (w/v) denaturing agarose gel to assess the integrity of the nucleic acid. Both the isolated DNA and the total RNA samples were quantified using a spectrophotometer (Thermo-Scientific, Wilmington, DE, USA) at wavelength ratios of A260/280 and A260/230.Cytogenetic studies were performed on four P. granatum local and two introduced cultivars (Gizili (Azerbaijan), Purpursid (USA), Goynar (Azerbaijan), Valas (Azerbaijan), Achygdona (Uzbekistan), and Fatima (Azerbaijan)) in 2021. Forty to 80 young flower buds (long-(bisexual), middle-(intermediate), and short (male) pistiled) containing meiotic divisions in the PMCs (pollen mother cells) were randomly collected between 9 and 12 a.m. and fixed in glacial acetic acid: ethanol 96% (1:3) for 24-72 h. After thorough washing, the experimental materials were transferred to 70% ethanol and placed in a cool place (+5°C) to be used for subsequent studies. Anthers were stained with 2% aceto-carmine, dissected out, and squashed on microscopic slides in 45% acetic acid medium (Darlington and Lacour, 1969). The cover slip was placed on it and heated on a hot plate repeatedly to avoid boiling the cell suspension. After heating, the slides were pressed firmly to get a good spread of chromosomes. The slides were then sealed and observed under a microscope (Nikon Eclipse) with oil immersion lens.For the genotype Azerbaijan guloyshasi, two paired-end libraries with 350 and 550 bp inserts were prepared using the Illumina TruSeq ® DNA PCR-Free Library Prep kit as per the manufacturer's instructions. To further generate a higher diversity of fragments with 2-15 kb inserts, one mate pair library was prepared using Illumina's Nextera ® Mate Pair Library Prep kit following the Gel-Free protocol as detailed by the manufacturer. The libraries were assessed on the Agilent TapeStation 2200 platform with High Sensitivity D1000 ScreenTape (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) following the manufacturer's protocol. The assessed libraries were further quantified using the KAPA library quantification kit (KAPA Biosystems, Boston, USA) according to the protocol described by the manufacturer prior to subjecting them to sequencing on three lanes of the HiSeq 1500 system (Illumina Inc., San Diego, USA). To minimize sequencing errors for assembly, raw reads from the Azerbaijan guloyshasi genotype were filtered for adaptor contamination and poor quality. Any reads containing more than three consecutive Ns or more than three nucleotides with a PHRED score of ≤20 or a median PHRED score of <20 or a read length of <50 nucleotides for paired end and 25 nucleotides for mate pair data were trimmed. De novo assembly was performed using SOAPdenovo software 1.05_127mer (Li et al., 2008). Reads were first assembled from the short insert size (c. 300-500 bp) libraries into contigs using de Bruijn graph k-mer overlap information. The long insert sizes of mate-paired libraries (≥2 kb) were not initially used, as the chimeric reads common to such libraries can generate incorrect sequence overlaps. To avoid this problem, a hierarchical assembly method was used through step-by-step scaffold construction by data addition from each library separately ranked from smallest to largest according to insert size. The number of reads can be found in Table S1.A total of six RNA-Seq libraries were prepared with the Illumina TruSeq ® Stranded RNA LT Kit according to the protocol described by the manufacturer. The libraries were assessed on the Agilent TapeStation 2200 platform with D1000 ScreenTape (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) following the manufacturer's protocol. Each RNA-Seq library was prepared with a unique indexing primer, and all six libraries were multiplexed at an equimolar concentration obtained from the TapeStation to generate a single pool. The multiplexed pooled sample was quantified using the KAPA library quantification kit (KAPA Biosystems, Boston, USA) according to the protocol detailed by the manufacturer. The quantified sample was subjected to pair-end sequencing using the HiSeq 3000 system (Illumina Inc., San Diego, USA).The raw sequence reads were filtered using a custom perl script and Cutadapt v1.9 (Marcel, 2011). Low-quality reads (reads with >10% bases with Q ≤20) and adaptor sequences were removed from the sequenced reads. Data trimming involved the removal of reads that had three or more consecutive unassigned Ns with a PHRED score of ≤20. Prior to the de novo transcriptome assembly step, sequence reads that were less than 50 bp were also discarded. The filtered data was primarily assembled using the transcriptome assembler, SOAPdenovo-TRANS (Xie et al., 2014), with a k-mer size of 101. Further, bubble, fork, and complex loci obtained from SOAPdenovo-TRANS assembly were further combined using the CAP3 assembler (Huang and Madan, 1999) with a minimum overlap of 50 bp and 95% identity to generate longer sequences. Transcripts having a total length of less than 240 bp were removed, as these were considered shorter than the length of a single pair of the sequence. The assembled transcripts were aligned with BLASTX against the NCBI non-redundant (Nr) protein database and the UniRef100 database version 1.0 with an E-value of <10 −10 .Pairwise whole genome alignment between different de novo assembled reference genomes was conducted using MUMmer V3.23 (Delcher et al., 2002) with a maximum gap length of 500 bp and a minimum cluster length of 100 bp. The resulted coordinates were visualized using the R package \"circlize\" (Gu et al., 2014) to present the synteny between chromosomes/ scaffolds for different reference genomes.Whole genome sequence alignment for the five de novo assembled cultivars Azerbaijan guloyshasi, Bhagawa, Taishanhong, Tunisia, and Dabenzi was conducted using the software MUGSY V1.2.3 (Angiuoli and Salzberg, 2011) with its default parameters. Scaffolds with a length of <10 kb were excluded from this analysis. Only aligned segments that existed in all five genomes were used to avoid bias due to incompleteness of genomes (e.g., the assembly size for Taishanhong was only 274 Mb while the estimated genome size was 322.7 Mb). The phylogenetic tree was constructed using IQ-TREE software V1.6.5 (Nguyen et al., 2015) with the model finder option \"mtree\" which finds the best model from 286 DNA models. The best model was \"GTR + F + I\" which represents the General time reversible model (GTR; Tavare, 1986) with unequal rates (+I: estimate the proportion of invariable sites to consider the heterogeneity rate between lineages and across sequence positions) and unequal base frequencies (+F: Empirical state frequency observed from the data). Phylogenetic trees were visualized with FigTree v1.4.4 software (https://github.com/ rambaut/figtree/).Six cultivars were selected for pan-genome analysis and resequenced with coverage ranging between 10× and 80×. The dataset included four cultivars from Azerbaijan, one from Uzbekistan, and one from the USA, plus the de novo assembled genomes (Azerbaijan guloyshasi, Taishanhong, and Dabenzi). The reads for each cultivar were mapped to the Tunisia genome using the software BOWTIE2 V2.3 (Langmead and Salzberg, 2012). Unmapped reads were pooled and de novo assembled for each cultivar independently using MaSuRCA V4.0.2 software (Zimin et al., 2013) to produce new sequences that are not located in the Tunisia genome, and only contigs with size >1,000 bp were kept. Assembled contigs were compared to all available bacterial, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes on NCBI (downloaded on 21 August 2021). Only hits with E-values <10 −8 and length >100 bp were kept. Contigs that had aggregated matches >25% of their lengths with >70% identity were filtered out and considered contamination. Remaining contigs were annotated using MAKER2 software (Holt and Yandell, 2011), while Augustus (Stanke et al., 2006) and SNAP (Schmid et al., 2003) software were used for de novo gene prediction using publicly available RNA and protein data for pomegranate (downloaded on 23, 8, 2021) as well as the RNAseq data produced in the present study. The cleaned and non-reference contigs were pooled, and redundant sequences were eliminated using the software CD-HIT (Li and Godzik, 2006). The remaining contigs were re-aligned to the Tunisia reference to ensure that they do not exist in the reference. These contigs and their annotations were pooled and added to the reference Tunisia to define the gene presence and absence variation among the cultivars and to build the graph reference. The graph reference was generated using vg V1.37 software (Garrison et al., 2018).Whole genome data for the eleven pomegranate cultivars (six resequenced cultivars as well as five de novo assembled genomes) were mapped to the Tunisia reference genome after adding the pooled nonreference contigs produced in the previous step using BBMap V35.85 software (Bushnell, 2014). The resulted BAM files were analyzed with the software SGSGeneLoss V0.1 (Golicz et al., 2015) to determine the gene presence and absence variation of the pooled genes.Genotype likelihoods at each genomic position from the BAM files generated when aligning the reads of each cultivar to the Tunisia reference were calculated using the \"mpileup\" command implemented in bcftools (Li, 2011). The output was processed with the bcftools command \"call\" to generate a VCF file for each genome with the -m option (alternative model for multiallelic and rarevariant calling). Finally, the VCF files for all cultivars were merged with the \"merge\" command implemented in bcftools.The re-sequenced cultivars in the present study were added to the 26 cultivars reported in Luo et al. (2020). Linkage disequilibrium decays for soft-seeded and hard-seeded subpopulations were estimated as the r2 value (Hill and Robertson, 1968) calculated between each pair of loci located on the same chromosome with the R package \"snpstats\" (Clayton, 2015). The r2 values were plotted against the physical distance between each pair of loci, and the second-degree Loess smoothing line was fitted and plotted using R. Principal component analysis (PCA) was calculated with PLINK V1.9 software (Purcell et al., 2007), and the first two PCs were plotted with R. Population structure was inferred using the software ADMIXTURE (Alexander et al., 2009). A hundred replicates of the analysis were conducted, with the number of underlying subpopulations (K) ranging from 2 to 10 with 20 crossvalidations. The optimal K value was defined as the lowest average cross-validation value over the 100 replicates, which was K = 3 (Figure S2). However, different replicates showed the lowest cross-validation value at K = 4, so we plotted the results for K = 2, 3, and 4. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using IQ-TREE software V1.6.5 (Nguyen et al., 2015) with the model GTR + ASC, which is designed to handle ascertainment bias in SNP data. The analysis was run with 1,000 bootstraps and 1,000 replicates of the SH-like approximate likelihood ratio test (Guindon et al., 2010).Genomic loci that were differentiated between hard-seeded and soft-seeded subpopulations were selected to have the reference allele fixed (or have a maximum of one heterozygote cultivar) in one subpopulation while the other subpopulation had the alternative allele fixed (or have a maximum of one heterozygote cultivar). The advantage of repeating this analysis in our study over that reported in Luo et al. ( 2020) is that we included the soft-seeded cultivar \"Purpursid,\" which was genetically clustered with the hard-seeded cultivars. Therefore, it is expected to have fewer and shorter differentiated genomic regions between soft-and hard-seeded subpopulations compared to the results presented in Luo et al. (2020).Cytological studies on the studied pomegranate cultivars showed that they all possessed 2n = 16 chromosomes, and at diakinesis and M1, the association of 8II was noted (Figure S1). Table S1 shows a summary of sequencing reads for each cultivar.Based on empirical testing for genome assembly, an optimal k-mer size of 91 was used for SOAPdenovo assembly. Initially, reads from short insert sizes were assembled into 908,448 contigs, with an N50 of 1,568 bp. After adding the long insert size mate-paired libraries, the final assembly consisted of 12,363 transcripts (>500 bp), representing a cumulative length of 371.6 Mbp with an N50 of 220,197 bp (Table S2). For RNA-Seq data, the optimal k-mer size of 101 was identified after empirical testing. Initial assembly resulted in 78,359 transcripts, representing a cumulative length of 67.7 Mbp with an N50 of 1,657 bp (Table S2). Following that, the CAP3 program was used to analyze and assemble a set of scaffolds that were identified as specific loci and contained multiple sequence entries described as forks, bubbles, or complexes. The final assembly consisted of 58,064 transcripts after filtering transcripts <241 bp, with a total assembly length of 56,497,814 bp and an N50 length of 1,561 bp (Table S2). All transcripts from this assembly were BLASTX against the non-redundant (Nr) and UniRef100 databases, allowing the identification of a total of 29,216 transcripts (50%) with significant matches to protein databases (28,972 and 29,019, respectively).The genome of the AG2017 cultivar showed a very high synteny with the cultivar Tunisia, which was assembled to a chromosome level. All scaffolds were completely and continuously mapped to a single chromosome except for scaffold4026, which was split into the centromeric region of chromosome 4 and the telomeric region of chromosome 7. Figure 1A shows the relation between scaffolds >250 kbp (400 scaffolds) of the cultivar AG2017 and Tunisia chromosomes. These large scaffolds seem to be in the telomeric regions, while short scaffolds are concentrated more in the centromeric regions. These two cultivars have eight diploid chromosomes. Interestingly, they both showed very high synteny with the Chinese cultivar Dabanzi, which has nine pairs of chromosomes, as well as the Indian cultivar Bhagawa, which has eight pairs of chromosomes. However, when compared to the other Chinese reference with nine diploid chromosomes, \"Taishanhong,\" 11 scaffolds were mapped to two different chromosomes, while one scaffold, \"MTJX01000087.1,\" was mapped to three chromosomes (1, 4, and 8). Figure 1B presents the synteny between these scaffolds with the Dabanzi and Tunisia sequences. It is clear from the figure that the breakpoints of these scaffolds have been mapped to different locations on both genomes, and the synteny of these locations is matched on the Dabanzi and Tunisia genomes.A whole genome alignment of the five cultivars (only scaffolds >10 Kbp) was conducted, and only genomic regions that were found in the five genomes were used to infer the phylogenetic tree. The total length of the matched sequences was 267.7 Mbp, which is equal to 98.9% of the total size of Taishanhong scaffolds with length >10 Kbp (270.8 Mbp) that were used in the analysis. Dabenzi and AG2017 have the highest relatedness among all cultivars (Figures 1C, D), followed by Tunisia and Bhagawa. This is a very interesting finding, giving that both cultivars have different numbers of chromosomes. Tunisia had an equal distance from both cultivars, while Taishanhong showed the highest distance from all cultivars. However, Taishanhong was most related to the Dabenzi cultivar, and they both have nine diploid chromosomes (Figure 1D).The pan-genome dataset (six re-sequenced and four de novo assembled cultivars) added up to a total of 1,941 contigs to the Tunisia reference genome with an aggregated sequence length of 4.1 Mbp (Table 1). The number of contigs ranged from 25 for Achygdona to 1,001 for Taishanhong, with total lengths ranging between 34.6 Kbp and 1.8 Mbp, respectively (Table 1). These results indicated very limited insertion/deletion variation among the studied cultivars despite the wide geographical and botanical variations in the population. The variant summary between the re-sequenced panel and the Tunisia genome can be found in Table S3. The total number of genes in the pan reference was 31,016 of which 25,210 (81.3%) existed in all eleven cultivars. A total of 552 (1.8%) were missing from only one cultivar, of which 324 (58.7%) were missing from Taishanhong and Tunisia (Figure 2C). The previous two categories were considered core genes (83.1%) that existed in almost the whole population (Figure 2A). On the other hand, 3,916 (12.6%) genes were cultivar-specific genes that existed in a single cultivar only, of which the majority (3,805, 97.2%) belong to the cultivars Taishanhong and Tunisia (Figure 2C). These genes were assumed to be cultivar-specific genes. The remaining 1,338 genes (4.3%) existed in different numbers of cultivars, ranging between two and nine cultivars, which were considered the dispensable set of genes. Interestingly, the gene content of the cultivars Taishanhong and Tunisia represents 98.9% (30,667) of the whole pan-genome genes, while the cultivar Purpursid added another 198 (0.64%) new genes to the set. The remaining eight cultivars combined added only 151 (0.49%) genes to the gene content of the reference pan-genome (Figure 2B).Our re-sequenced panel was added to the 26 cultivars that were previously used by Luo et al. (2020), which included eight hardseeded cultivars originated from China, to have a deeper understanding of the domestication of pomegranates and the diversion between soft-and hard-seeded subpopulations. Like Luo et al. (2020), hard-seeded cultivars seem to diverge from semi-soft and soft-seeded cultivars. However, the soft-seeded cultivar \"Purpursid\" from our re-sequenced panel was clustered with the re-sequenced hard-seeded panel (PAN) in the PCA, phylogeny, and ADMIXTURE analyses (Figures 3A-C). The PAN panel in the present study (all hard-seeded except Purpursid) formed an independent cluster that is most related to the hardseeded cultivars of Luo et al. (2020). The hard-seeded cultivars from the PAN panel showed the highest heterozygosity over all other groups (Figure 3D) and adding them to the hard-seeded subpopulation had a substantial influence on reducing LD decay,  especially within a distance of <1 Mbp (Figure 3E). The Azerbaijani cultivar Fatima and the Uzbekistani cultivar Achygdona showed some admixture with the Chinese hard-seeded cultivars, while the Chinese cultivar Pom23 showed some admixture with the resequenced group. Two soft and semi-soft Italian cultivars (Pom14 and Pom15) and one soft cultivar from the USA (Pom6) that belong to one of the soft-seeded subpopulations (colored blue in Figure 3C) showed some admixture with the Chinese hard-seeded cultivars.Having a soft-seeded cultivar with a genetic background related to the hard-seeded cultivars in the present dataset, \"Purpursid,\" increased the power of detecting genes that control seed hardness and reduced the confounding effect of population structure. Our analysis detected 10 genomic regions that are highly differentiated between the soft-and hard-seeded subpopulations, of which four were common with the 24 regions detected in Luo et al. (2020). The description of these genomic regions and the annotations of the closest genes to them are presented in Table 2. Of these, chromosome 5 seems to have the largest region between 11.36 Mbp and 11.50 Mbp, which involves a cluster of four candidate genes. All SNPs within this region had R 2 values >0.95. Many of the detected genes along the genome have dehydrogenase and CoA synthase functions, as well as other seed development and cell wallrelated activities.The basic number of chromosomes in the genus Punica is 2n = 14, with seven bivalent chromosomes. However, P. granatum evolved with 2n = 16 or 2n = 18 chromosomes with eight or nine biv alent chrom osom es ( Shilkina, 1973 ;Sheidai and Noormohammadi, 2005;Levin, 2006). We de novo assembled the genome of the cultivar \"Azerbaijan guloyshasi\" (AG2017), which has 2n = 16 chromosomes. Interestingly, we found that the closest cultivar to it is the Chinese cultivar Dabenzi (2n = 18), despite the presence of other cultivars \"Tunisia\" and \"Bhagawa\"The pan-genome of (A) Histograms showing the core gene clusters (present in at least nine genomes), dispensable gene clusters (present in two to eight genomes), and lineage-specific genes (present in a single cultivar). Only combinations that have five genes or more were plotted; (B) the increase of the number of genes with increasing the number of cultivars; (C) the total number of genes versus the number of cultivars in which they exist. For categories 1 and 9, purple and pink colors represent the number of genes that existed or did not exist in Taishanhong and Tunisia cultivars, respectively.with (2n = 16) chromosomes, which may indicate high gene flow between their populations. It was previously thought that pomegranates were first introduced to China from central Asia ~200 BC along the Silk Road (Yuan et al., 2007;Chandra et al., 2010). Tunisia was the closest to Bhagawa, meaning that it could have been geographically transferred (to Tunisia) from the Bhagawa population. Tunisia was introduced to China in 1986 (Chen et al., 2022), which might be a short period to progress sufficient gene flow to reduce its divergence from other populations, unlike Dabenzi, which is known to have a cultivation history of over 300 years in China (Chater et al., 2020). Taishanhong (2n = 18) showed the highest distance with the other cultivar with 2n = 18 chromosomes, Dabenzi, which means that it was evolved from a cultivar related to it with 2n = 18 chromosomes. The mother tree of Taishanhong was first found on Mount Tai in China in 1984, and it was over 140 years old (Ran et al., 2015). Despite the high level of chromosomal rearrangements in Taishanhong, it still has high synteny with the other genomes, given that >98.9% of its genome was aligned to the other four de novo assembled genomes.  Gene flow between pomegranate cultivars with different chromosome numbers is possible. For example, Jalikop (2007) made crosses between the cultivar \"Double Flower\" and the cultivar \"Ganesh\" without discussing the number of chromosomes in both cultivars. Nath and Randhawa (1959) earlier reported that the cultivar Double Flower had 2n = 18 chromosomes, while the cultivar Ganesh had 2n = 16 chromosomes. Such crosses imply high synteny between the eight and nine diploid chromosome sets where they are fertile. Our results indicated that Dabenzi (2n = 18) has a very high level of synteny with AG2017, Bhagawa, and Tunisia (2n = 16). Dabenzi was assembled to a pseudochromosome scale (Qin et al., 2017), but unfortunately, the scaffold order was not published and is not available to the public. However, the size of the largest Tunisia chromosome (chromosome 1) is larger than 55 Mbp, while the size of the pseudochromosomes of the Dabenzi cultivar ranges between ~10 Kbp and ~40 Kbp. This could imply that the variation in chromosome number for some cultivars is just a result of splitting a single chromosome into two chromosomes. However, in the case of Taishanhong, it seems that its extensive chromosome rearrangements affected its fertility when crossed with other cultivars. This is because Taishanhong has the highest distance from other cultivars, even though it seems to be the most recently diverged cultivar in our dataset, as discussed earlier. This restricted crossability limits gene flow to other cultivars, leading to such a high distance. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure in future research that these rearrangements in the Taishanhong genome are true rearrangements assembly errors. It is important to confirm if Taishanhong can crossed with other cultivars or not.The availability of multiple sequenced genomes as well as resequenced cultivars facilitates studying the pan-genome of pomegranate. Our results showed that the two cultivars Tunisia and Taishanhong almost represented the whole pan-genome gene content (~98.9%) of the 11 cultivars, despite multiple chromosomal evolutionary events. The cultivar Taishanhong could have more novel gene contents given that its estimated genome size was 336 Mbp while the assembled scaffold size was 274 Mbp (~81.5%) (Yuan et al., 2018). Therefore, it will be important to complete its genome and to further search for new diverse pomegranate genetic resources. To the best of our knowledge, such highly conserved gene content was only reported on cultivated soybean (Torkamaneh et al., 2021), but their results were contradictory with earlier reports on soybean that included exotic and landrace soybean germplasms (Li et al., 2014;Liu et al., 2020). In the case of pomegranates, wild trees are assumed to be as diverse as cultivated ones (Evreinoff, 1957) or even less diverse (Narzary et al., 2021). This is because many cultivars were selected from wild trees concurrently over the whole wild range, and gene flow is possible between both germplasms (Holland et al., 2009). Nevertheless, extending the present study to include wild and cultivated pomegranates from worldwide collections in the future is required. This will confirm if the limited sequences that exist in cultivars other than Tunisia (Table 1) are limited to the studied cultivars in the present study or if that is a common feature in global pomegranate germplasm.The previous study by Luo et al. (2020) reported a very high divergence between soft-and hard-seeded cultivars. Given that the hard-seeded cultivars have faster LD decay compared to the softseeded ones, it is more likely that they are the wild type, and they have a larger effective population size. Luo et al. used a small hardseeded set of eight Chinese cultivars that have limited diversity (compared to the whole hard-seeded population), which was inferred from their low heterozygosity. The PAN set seems to have the highest heterozygosity, and it further contributed to accelerating the LD decay of the whole hard-seeded population (Figures 3D, E), which means that it reserves higher genetic diversity. The Purpursid cultivar has soft seeds, but it was clustered with the PAN set. Therefore, the diversion between soft- and hard-seeded cultivars seems to be aided by breeding activities rather than occurring naturally. Spreading pomegranates around the world also seems to happen through multiple routes. The cultivar Pom23, which originated in Xinjiang, China, showed a level of admixture with the PAN set, which might be a result of being geographically closer to Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan than the other Chinese cultivars. Moreover, the two Italian cultivars Pom14 and Pom15 were clustered with another seven cultivars from the USA (blue color in Figure 3C). They both showed some admixture with the population of the Chinese hard-seeded cultivars, which means that they were migrated to Italy from China, and then another migration happened from Italy to the USA.The inclusion of the cultivar Purpursid in our dataset has the power to shorten the differentiated genomic regions between soft-and hard-seeded subpopulations compared to the results presented in Luo et al. (2020), leading to more precise detection of genes controlling seed hardness. Luo et al. (2020) identified two main genes (PgL0145810 and PgL0145770) that affect sucrose allocation and transport as candidate genes controlling seed hardness. However, comparing the sequence of these genes and their flanking regions (10 Kbp upstream and downstream of the genes) between Purpursid and the hard-seeded de novo assembled genomes did not show any unique variation in Purpursid. Therefore, further investigations of these genes should be considered to examine if the causal variant is an epigenetic variant or if seed softness in Purpursid is controlled by a different set of genes.Genes affecting biosynthesis, or the degradation of cell walls, are key factors affecting seed hardness (Cosgrove, 2005;Tateishi et al., 2005;Niu et al., 2018). In our study, two genes were annotated as 3ketoacyl-CoA synthase, which is essential in the biosynthesis of very long-chain fatty acids (Niu et al., 2018). On the other hand, another gene was annotated as peroxisomal fatty acid b-oxidation, which involves cytosolic acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase that catalyzes acetoacetyl-CoA synthesis (Lange et al., 2004). Previous studies showed that most 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase genes can significantly increase the thickness of cell walls (Xiao et al., 2016), which affects seed hardness. Another gene encodes secoisolariciresinol dehydrogenase-like enzymes that are involved in lignan biosynthesis (Gabr et al., 2021). Enzymes like pectinesterase can soften fruit tissues by decomposing pectic polysaccharides in the cell wall of the seed (Inari et al., 2002). The endoglucanase enzyme can loosen the xyloglucan-cellulose network and hydrolyze cellulose within the cell wall (Jara et al., 2019). Zhang et al. (2010) suggested that a higher level of epoxide hydrolase in the fruit could increase the level of lactones, which increases seed hardness (Qin et al., 2020). Deng et al. (2018) reported an F-Box protein that was associated with fruit firmness.","tokenCount":"5516"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"365006050a0e0c48bd330f5b972fc02c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b8cb89c7-aa0d-4772-86ef-27acc596fe2e/content","id":"1026216862"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69e63093-6742-4eb5-879f-87ed50bcf67a","pagecount":"22","content":"also made useful co~~ents on an early draft of the manuscript. Naturally, responsibility for any flaws in the final product rernai~s solely with the authors.Recent dramatic increases and shifts in Zaire's population have had significant influences upon both the supply and the demand for basic foods, with profound effects being re~istered OIl maize in urban Shaba and in the Kasai regions. Urban demand for food, such as maize, increased rapidly (Table 1). not only as a result of population increases. but also due to investrnen' and income distribution policies which favored urban areas [12, pp 2-6]. These factors present a problem of developing an expanded production sYstem. togeth~r vith -a distribution system capable of delivering mere food to the growing urban market. This paper focuses on the marketing of maize and is directed to improving the understanding of factors which influence the nature and effectiveness of the marketing process.Information presented here is based on a study of the production and marketing of maize in the distri~ts of Tshilenge, Gandajika. Mwene-Ditu, and Kaniama, in south-central Zaire. This included a 1974-75 survey of 299 producers interviewed in their villages, a separate survey of 93 producers who were selling their maize in rural and urban markets of the Kasai Oriental region. and the analysis of the retail pri~e shares re~eived by various marketing agents in each of three different types of rural-urban market channels. These results are more fully discussed in an Oregon State Unjversity Ph.D. thesis by one of the authors [12].In the four di~tricts where surveys were conducted. farmers were found to allocate the maize harvested among consumption needs, seed for future p:antings. gifts, payment to outside labor used for harvest. bartering. and sale. Table 2 shows that home consumption was found to be a universal use, and that setting maize aside for seed was nearly so. Ori the other hand, very few farmers used maize for animal feed. to pay hired harvest labor, or as a gift to the village chief. In all districts. except Kaniama, prcducer.s reported using maize for bartering more frequently than for sale. Over all four of the districts surveyed, 65 percent of the producers did report selling maize. The survey also showed that for those producers who do sell nwize. sales average 29 percent of total production.  -3-                            In consumption, maize and cassava flour are mixed with boiling water in the cooking of a thick paste called \"fufu\", \"bidia\", or \"nshima\" , which serves as the basic food in the survey districts. Maize is also used in the preparation of \"tshibuku\", \"tchorst\", and \"cinq cent\", which are three alcoholic beverages produced by villagers. Tshibuku and tchorst are cheaper than beer and many use it because of its unique taste, or as a substitute to the more expensive beer.All farmers interviewed in the study districts acknowledged using maize Of those interviewed, 87 percent said they used Some 81 percent reported eating fufu twice a day. area mix maize flour and cassava flour in the preparation of fufu, but the proportion of maize flour actually used varies depending upon availability. Where the average area planted in maize is larger, such as wa~t he case of farmers in Kaniama and Gandajika districts, farmers tend to use more maize flour in the preparation of fufu than farmers in distr~cts where the average maize area is smaller, such as was the case of the districts of Mwene-Ditu and Tshilenge. Nevertheless, the survey also showed that regional preferences for maize flour in-fufu do not coincide exactly with patterns of availability [12, pp. 159-161].The strength of preference for using maize flour in the fufu mix is important in determining whether or not a producer will sell maize, but the following analysis shows that several other factors also influence the decision to sell.-4-Factors Influencing the n~cision to Sell Maize Discriminant analysis was used as a means of isolating those factors which distinguish between producers who sell maize and those who do not sell. Discriminant analysis is a special technique of multivariate statistics which is similar to multiple regression analysis [13, pp. 434-467J. In this case, it was used to determine whether or not there was a significant statistical relationship between certain variables which were hypothesized to influence a farmer's propensity to sell maize and a special \"dummy\" variable which was coded one for farmers who sold maize and zero for nonsellers ):/ Results of the discriminant analysis are summarized in Table 3. All explanatory variables which were retained in the analysis after the preliminary variable selection procedures are shown in the table. Average values for the variables are shown for both maize sellers and for non-sellers. Table 3 I then lists the standardized weights for each variable in the final discriminant function. Those variables which are statistically significant at the ten percent leve1 J based on a partial F-statistic, are marked with an asterisk (*) in the table.Three variables had a significant and positive association with the group of fanu~rs who sold maize: (i) ownership of a bicycle or radio, (ii) length of participation in a government supervised production scheme, and (iii) total area ~,~anted to crops. The ownership variable was taken as a sign of'modernitYJ although a radio might serve as a source of improved informatio~/ and a bicycle might also be representative of the improved transportation from which the owner benefits. Participation in one of the government-sponsored production schl~es, CAKO or TABAZAIRE J signifies access to government extension workers, llSaie of maize was chosen as a means of identifying those farmers who particip,te in the marketing. process. It might be argued that maize which is bartered also ends up in market distribution channels. The decision to use sale and not bartering in this analysis is admittedly somewhat arbitrary.-Nevertheless, there are few, if any, regularly scheduled agricultural or macketing news programs for the areas surveyed. None of the farmers interviewed listed the radio as a primary source of information. as well as a certain amount of assistance from government-owned machinery.llThe positive influence of total ~planted ~crops is taken to mean that the larger an area a farmer is able to crop, the more likely he will be to have surplus left over for sale. The fact that l£Eal ~planted ~maize was not significant in distinguishing among maize sellers and non-sellers is perplexing. In view of the high correlation between total crop area and the total area in maize variables (r = 0.55), however, this is probably just a case of the former masking the significance of the latter.Four variables had a significant negative association with the group of farmers who sold maize: (i) years of formal education, (ii) size of the village, (iii) distance to market, and (iv) relative degree of maize flour used in fufu mix. Contrary to the results of the analysis, the prior expectation was that education would have a positive effect on the decision to sell maize. The negative loading for education may be a reflection of the fact that the more highly educated are both younger and (consequently)have larger family size. We speculate that it is the combined effects of these factors, rather than education per se, which mitigate ag~inst the decision to sell maize. The effect of village size was also contrary to expectation. It is known that producers in larger villages plant more total maize than those in small villages [12, Table 4.13]. Results of the discriminant analysis nevertheless suggest that farmers from large villages fall less frequently into the maize seller category.~1The negative effect of distance to market on the decision to sell maize was expected, as was that of the relative degree of maize used in fufu mix.The latter variable was included as a proxy to indicate the preference for maize in consumption. Thus, a stronger preference for consuming maize weakens the propensity to sell maize.llThis assistance comes in the form of tractorized plowing for either tobacco (TABAZAIRE) or cotton (CAKO). There is not.direct mechanized support for maize per se. Nevertheless, improved tillage for cotton or tobacco may have a residual effect on maize production in subsequent rotations.~/A different result might have been obtained, however, had both barter and sale been used as the indicator of marketing. See footnote I above. Of the four districts surveyed, Tsilenge has the highest population density and the highest average village size [12, pp. 63-64]. Yet, Table 2 shows that Tsi1enge relies more on bartering alone (i.e., f3rmers who barter but do not sell maize) than do the other districts. On ~he other hand, Kaniama, which ranks lowest in terms of population density and village size, ranks highest in terms of farmers who sell but do not barter.Government efforts to regulate 'the marketing of maize are focused primarily in price policies which affect the market for maize flour as well as that for maize grain. In addition to these price policies, which are imposed by the national government, many regional and local (municipal)governments have established regulations on the purchase of maize by licensed traders operating within their jurisdictions [12, pp. 203-204J.Potentially of most direct effect on farmers is a floor price which is to apply to the purchase of maize grain at the farm level. However, great confusion exists on the concept and application of floor prices.While top officials know what the floor price is supposed to be,ll this understanding does not seem to be shared by the many local and regional officials who would normally be expected to enforce it. Many of these officials in fact call it \"the official price\", \"the government price\", A second set of maize price policies is aimed at the milling process.On one hand, a ceiling price is set for the delivery of maize grain to flour mills, whereas, on the other, a ceiling is set on the wholesale price of flour produced by the mills [12. pp. 250-253J. These ceiling prices tend to reduce the incentive for traders to collect maize from the more outl~ing villages --those lying 30 to 40 or more kilometers from the main roads and railroad tracks. Thus, one result of the ceilings _.policy is a decreased incentive for farmers --especially those who are more distant from market to produce maize [12, pp. 257-263]. Because of the price ceilings and due also to slow response in changing these ceilings as conditions of national supply and demand for maize chanr,e, there tends to be a large differential between the delivery price of locally produced maize and the price which flour mills must pay for maize imports (Table 4). The exist~nce of this differential suggests that substantial reduction in imports (Table 1) and savings in foreign exchange might be obtained merely by permitting the domestic mill delivery price to rise, thus stimulating the local production and supply of maize. Local and regional officials frequently intervene in the maize market in a more direct fashion. These actions often have the effect of r~stricting trade between towns and regions. These interventions are usually motivated by seasonal shortages in local markets. In Shaba, a regional ordinance banned the export of maize beyond the regional boundary, and in 1975, the Kasai Oriental government was considering a similar edict as a form of retaliation. Licensing of traders. as required by local and regional governments in Kasai Oriental. Kasai Occidental, and Shaba, may also be designed to restrict trade. In the latter tw~regions, in 1975. the issuing of such licenses was contingent on the trader indicating which districts maize would be bought from. as well as on his agreement to sell to a designated flo',r mill. While such moves are eVidently intended to secure local supplies in the short run. they tend to limit the number of maize traders, and thus to limit competition in maize trade. Furthermore, by promoting disparities in maize prices among regions, these policies are likely to lead to an inefficient allocation of resources in the production of maize. A pattern whereby some districts produce \"too much\" maize, while others produce \"too little\",. will thereby be perpetuated.Farmers in the study districts sell maize in bulk. typically still on the cob, and in small loads which are measured out in a variety of unstandardized -9-containers. Many farmers sell their maize at home in their villages, while others take it to rural nnd urban markets where they sell to assemblers who collect for later sale to other intermediaries ot to consumers. The discriminant analysis' demonstrated that farmers who are located closer to organized markets show a greater propensity to sell maize.There are a number of different types of maize buyers who work in the various rural and urban markets and directly in the production areas. Small scale buyers who operate in isolated villages and in rural markets are referred to here as local assemblers. Buyers operating between rural and urban markets are called rural and urban assemblers. Truck-owner-licensedtraders operate all the way from remote rural markets to the centrally located urban markets. Data from the various study districts, shown in Table 5, indicate that from 29 to 52 percent of the farmers sell most of their maize to local assemblers and local consumers. From 20 to 64 percent sell to rural and urban assemblers, and 7 to 21 percent sell directly to licensed traders.  ------------------percent-------------------- Table 6 lists sales according to their locatioR. In most districts, farmers tend to sell at home in their village. But in more densely populated districts, such as Tshilenge, Gandajika, and ~ene-Ditu, there is a tendency \\ for farmers to take their maize directly to rural and/or urban markets.Many direct sales by producers were also observed in the town of Mbuji-Mayi.  ------------------percent------------------- In the more densely populated districts, numerous buyers are active in rural markets, particularly during the first two to three months after maize harvest. Because of bad roads and limited transportation services, most of the maize bought by these small-scale rural assemblers has to be carried in head loads to shipping points or other markets. This means that the activities of most rural assemblers are restricted to areas within short distances of main roads and some secondary roads.Truck-owner-licensed-traders who buy maize are unspecialized seasonal buyers who deal mainly in the buying and selling of consumer manufactured goods. These traders can devote larger sums of money to maize purchase and can reach more remote markets and villages. Nevertheless, their activities are also limited by the poor road network. Thus, the number of traders and assemblers who reach the more remote villages is limited; and this appears to limit the competition for the purchase of maize in such areas.The marketing chain nearer to the large consumption centers involves numerous intermediaries. During the survey, this was especially evident in the Mbuji-Mayi-Gandajika interurban link. The high price of maize in consumption centers, the prospect of positive retail margins, and high rates of urban unemployment in these cities have induced many to enter the maize retailing business. Because of limited working capital, these retailers run very small-scale operations. Thus, as maize travels in from the countryside, it is frequently split into smaller loads and handled by numerous retailers.The degree of competitiop LllIlong maize suppllprl-' in rural and urb.1fl markets depends upon the seasonal variation in supply. III the three to four months following harvest, many producers and assemblers are active in both rural and urban markets, and this results in a competitive environment which undoubtedly helps to keep prices down. As the period after harvest lengthens, however, wholesale supplies become dominated by urban and rural assemblers as well as truck-owner-licensed-traders, and the degree of competition in the maize market decreases gradually, particularly at the wholesale and semi-wholesale levels.Analysis of a subsystem of the marketing chain in the Mbuji-Mayi and Gandajika areas ~ndicates that most maize producers do not store maize for speculative purposes, to gain from seasonal price variations; rather, most producers sell maize to assemblers and traders, and it is this group who often store for future sales. The same analysis also indicates that as producers become rare in the market, competition among sellers is gradually affected [12, p. 220], and by July or August, the wholesale supply of maize grain is dominated by few truck-owner-licensed~traders who, in some cases, run an integrated operation from the wholesale to the retail level. This pattern of supply may be responsible for some of the price increases noticed in the last months of the marketing season [12, p. 223].Three rural markets and two urban markets were selected for the purpose of investigating price formation, seasonal price variations, and intermarket price relationships• [12, pp. 190-191]. The thre:~rural markets surround GandajikaCity, which has a population of 60,000. Nsona lies 10 kilometers west of the city, Kamanda 21 kilometers south, and Kaseki 18 kilometers east.The urban markets of ~fuuji-}~yi, a town of about 342,000 people located 85 kilometers northwest of Gandajika City, and mark~s in Gandajika City itself, were also examined. Maize producers in the Kamada, Kaseki, and Nsona production areas can sell their nmize in their respective rural markets, or take it to the Gandajika market where maize is sold either to ~pnsumers or assemblers.Some of the maize which reaches the Gandajika urban market is subsequently shipped t) the Mbuji-Mayi metropolitan urban market. During the period of high sho~tages of maize grain, some maize can also move from the Mbuji-Mayi metropolitan urban market to the Gandajika regional urban market, as was observed in October through December 1974. Seasonal price variations for the period of December 1974 to December 1975 are listed in Table 8 for rural and urban markets.Price figures in Table 7 indicate that the price of maize grain declines in all markets up to February, as many producers and assemblers literally invade rural and urban markets following the first maize harvest. The price of maize then rises until April, then declines in May and June, with the coming of the second harvest of maize. The price of maize subsequently rises to a peak high in October or November, then declines in December, with the forthcoming maize harvest in late DeceMt~r ana in Januar~/. The simultaneity of seasonal price changes in all markets suggests that there exists a relatively good flow of information on supply and demand between the markets studied here. Presumably, price changes in the metropolitan market in Mbuji-Mayi are transmitted to the regional urban'markets in Gandajika, then onto the non-isolated rural markets at Kamanda, Kaseki, and Nsona.Under perfect competition and perfect information in the spatially located rural and urban markets studied, maize prices would tend to move toward equilibrium. Equilibrium prices for Gandajika and any trading rural markets, as well as equilibrium prices for Mbuji-~~yi and Gandajika, would differ by the cost of transferring maize between trading markets. A price differential above the transfer cost of shipping maize from one market to another trading market would indicate that marketing agents could benefit from shipping more maize from their own markets to other trading markets.The following section investigates the performance of the urban rural link.The concept of parity price and price spreads [7-10; 12, p. 227] is used to investigate the effectiveness of the rural urban link for rural I ~(Discussions with various marketing agents indicated tha~the pattern obse~ved in 1974-75 was similar to that of other years in the markets s tu~' ied here.-13-markets located in geographic areas accessible from urban consumer centers. th By definition. the parity price. Pi~' of maize in the i relative to the th • th k market is the retail price of maize in the i market. Pi' less the cost of shipping it from the k~~to the i th market. T ki • The price spread of th th . maize be~een the 1 and the k markets is th~n defined as the par1ty th . price P ik , less the retail price of maize in the k market, P k • In theory, a substantially positive price spread would provide a potential opportunity for assemblers or producers to make more than normal profits while a negative spread would be a disincentive and wou1d serve to reduce the volume of trade between the k th and the i th markets.The price figures used in this analysis are those in Table 7 for Gandajika, Kaseki, Kamanda, and Nsona. Transportation costs were based on information provided by lorry transporters operating between Kaseki and Gandajika, and between ~nda and Gandajika. For Nsona, where no lorry transporters were operating, transfer cost was estimated by placing a value on the time required to walk from Nsona to Gandajika. Figures I through 3 present retail prices of maize for the three rural.~rkets and the parity price (P ik ) between these markets and Gandajika. -14-Table 7.Retail price of mail!:e in six markets of southern Kasai Oriental.!.  The analysis also indicates that producers who were able to get their maize to the Gandajika market and convey it to ~uji-Mayi were able to capture a larger share of the retail or wholesale price [12, pp. 239-243) (Table 9).  The single factor ~hich most affected the producers' share was the cost of transporting maize, particularly between rural oarkets and urban markets. Because of limited capital and because of the high cost of transportation, many producers located in the neighborhood of the Gandajika market carry their maize in headloads directly to the urban market. In so doing, many producers take weekly trips to markets. However, some crops have planting or ~eeding periods which coincide with the selling period for maize. Farmers who plant such crops s~mply may not have time available to perform their own marketing [12, p. 238-239).-17-The proportion of the seasonal price variations which is captured by producers is a function of how producers spread their sales over the maize season. Survey data indicate that 44.9 percent of the farmers in the district of Gandajika, 60.5 percent in Kanama, 67.9 percent in Mwene-Ditu, and 76.9 percent of the producers in .Tshilenge sell most of their maize within six months after harvest (Table 10) and, thus, do not benefit from price rises during the September to December period. Observation of marketing practices in the Gandajika, Tshilenge, and Mwene-Ditu districts also indicates that it is not the producer, but the rural and urban assemblers, and the licensed traders who collect and store maize for sale during the period of shortages. This study on the marketing and the uses of maize in rural Zaire was aimed at analyzing factors which affect the supply of domestic maize to urban areas. The analysis of maize suppliers in four districts of Kasai Oriental and Shaba indicates that just under two-thirds of the surveyed producers sell maize, and that these producers sell less than 30 percent of their maize.A variety of factors were shown to influence the decision to sell maize.On the one hand, factors which are difficult to control, such as the size of family, size of village, the preference for maize in fufu, and prior exposure to the \"modern\" or monetized economy affect the propensity to sell.Other factors, such as dista~ce to market and exposure to government-superviRcd production schemes, also influence the decision to sell. and these factors are subject to influence by government policies and programs.Distance to market, in particular. is affected by the condition and extent of the transportation network. The transportation system in the study area is rudimentary at best. Study of the marketing cost structure indicates that transportation costs account for between 15 and 27 percent of the final retail price. High transportation costs serve to reduce the price i.ncentive to the producer and are especially detrimental to marketing opportunities in more remote and isolated areas.The high degree of seasonal price variability, together with the fact that most farmers sell their maize within six months of harvest, when the price is relatively low. suggest that improved storage facilities may be a key to improving the incentive structure for farmers to sell maize. While the economics of storage require further investigation, it appears that improved storage could be useful in permitting producers to hold their maize until later in the marketing year, when scarcity begins to occur and prices rise. This could provide an added incentive for farmers to produce and sell more maize.A number of government policies were singled out as having possible detrimental impacts on maize sales and IDarketihg. \\fuile the floor price is intended to serve as a stimulus to production, there is widespread confusion among government officials as to what it means. In fact, few farmers are even aware that such a policy exist~, so it is difficult to argue that it could be serving as a production incentive. On the other hand. the official price ceiling on maize delivered to flour mills serves as a disincentive for farmers to produce and sell maize. There is a distinct price differential between this ~eiling price on domestic maize deliveries and the price which the same mills pay for import. The existence of such a differential suggests that reductions in imports and savings in foreign exchange could be attained by permitting the mill delivery price to rise to the import price level. This would simultaneously serve to stimulate local production and supply of maize.","tokenCount":"4184"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e0b7a2bd59d0dbb312594e8b91301bb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d104b518-20f9-4830-9e8a-e08827c315a2/retrieve","id":"-1612750428"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5a276a18-ded8-4499-8845-fce85f639d94","pagecount":"17","content":"The authors evaluate the impact of foot and mouth disease (FMD) and control of the disease in the Philippines using cost-benefit analysis. A scenario in which FMD control is maintained at recent levels with continued presence of the disease is compared to scenarios in which a publicly funded programme achieves eradication by 2005 (current policy objective), 2007 and 2010. Under varying assumptions regarding the development of exports of livestock products following eradication, estimated benefit-cost ratios for the investment in eradication range from 1.6 (2010, no exports) to 12.0 (2005, export of 5,000 tonnes each of low-value and high-value livestock products annually), indicating eradication to be an economically viable investment. The commercial swine sector is estimated to capture 84% of the benefits generated by the public investment in eradication, versus 4% by backyard swine producers. The implications of these results within the context of regional efforts to control FMD in South-East Asia are explored.As incomes increase in South-East Asia, demand for livestock products is growing rapidly, creating part of the so-called global 'livestock revolution' (2). Per capita meat consumption in the region, which rose from 11 kg in 1983 to 18 kg in 1997, is predicted to continue rising, reaching 29 kg by 2020 (3). Although much of this increase in demand is being met by higher production levels within each country, there may be opportunities for countries to capitalise on their comparative and competitive advantages to develop export trade of certain livestock products. Additional incentives are being provided by the liberalisation of trade and reduction of tariff barriers started under the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and on-going under the World Trade Organization (WTO) (7). These trends promise improved access, in particular to traditionally heavily protected highvalue markets. However, to be acceptable to importing countries, livestock exports are increasingly required to meet a range of stringent animal health and sanitary standards as permitted under the 1994 Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. Typically, a pre-condition to developing export trade in livestock products is establishing freedom from the Office International des Epizooties (OIE: World organisation for animal health) List A diseases, especially foot and mouth disease (FMD), in the exporting country.Foot and mouth disease has been endemic in the Philippines at least since the beginning of the century when the disease was introduced with cattle imported from Hong Kong in 1902. During the years prior to the Second World War, the disease was recorded virtually every year, but only in ruminants. During the Second World War, the livestock population declined significantly, and FMD was reintroduced during the restocking process in 1952. The first outbreak in pigs was recorded in 1955. The disease possibly reached a peak during the 1970s, prompting the first economic impact assessment (1), and the introduction of more intensive vaccination programmes. Prior to 1975, less than 1% of the animals at risk were reportedly vaccinated.The disease pattern of FMD has changed over the years, possibly influenced by the introduction and spread of different virus serotypes. The country recognises the presence of serotypes A, O and C. Serotype A was responsible for epidemics in the 1970s, but has not been identified since 1990. Serotype C was also introduced in the mid-1970s, reportedly in a vaccine importation from South America. This serotype has not been isolated from clinical cases in recent years, but there is some serological evidence of continued presence of serotype C in the country. Serotype O has been arguably the most prevalent, first identified in the country in 1952. A different subtype of O appears to have been introduced in late 1994, and this is highly specific to pigs, causing high piglet mortality, abortions and infertility. To illustrate this, there were approximately 98,000 pigs affected in 1995, compared to 200 carabao (Bubalus bubalis), whereas in 1975, there were reportedly 55,000 carabao and 9,000 pigs affected.There is considerable variation in the geographical distribution of FMD in the Philippines. This has been one of the driving forces in developing disease-free zones in the country, based on the fact that the country is comprised of a series of islands, separated from other neighbouring countries by water. As a general rule, FMD has occurred with high incidence in the northern island of Luzon, in parts of which the disease remains endemic, and low incidence elsewhere, particularly in the southern island of Mindanao. The disease has never been reported in 38 of the 43 provinces across the southern island groupings of Mindanao, Visayas and Palawan. However, there is considerable movement of people between the islands, and this is increasing with economic growth and development.There is a tradition of the carriage of meat, particularly pork products offered as gifts when visiting friends and relatives, as well as the transport of meat products to tourist destinations (such as on the island of Cebu).The control of FMD in the Philippines initiated in the 1970s was based on vaccination of all susceptible animals, supported to a lesser degree by movement control and other measures. For many years, a practice of mass vaccination appears to have been applied, although there is little documentary evidence available, and the programme seems to have varied considerably in intensity and effectiveness of application. In 1996, a new official Government strategy was launched, which broadened the range of control measures to be applied and modified the vaccination programme. The strategy has three phases (1996-1998, 1999-2002 and 2003-2004) of increasing control until complete freedom from FMD can be declared nationally, and comprises four components, namely: disease monitoring and surveillance (including laboratory support), information and education, animal movement management and vaccination. The key elements of the strategy were to increase the monitoring and surveillance of the disease and of the areas in which eradication had been achieved, enhance the control of animal movement through the introduction of checkpoints, modify the vaccination from 'blanket' vaccination to 'strategic' (in which 80% population immunity is achieved only within the high-risk population, designated as within 3 km on both sides of a national highway, a 5-km radius from the infected premises or zone, and a 3-km radius from affected slaughterhouses and markets). No vaccination is conducted in areas designated as FMD-free. Furthermore, within the areas in which vaccination occurs, the Government is now using monovalent serotype O vaccines instead of the trivalent A, O and C vaccines used previously.As indicated in Figure 1, this strategy has been generally successful, although there was a setback in September 1999 when an outbreak occurred in Iloilo (Panay) within the designated FMD-free zone. Following the Iloilo outbreak, the FMD zonation was revised as shown in Figure 2 and was accepted officially by the OIE, which now recognises Mindanao as an FMD-free zone without vaccination (8) (Figs 1 and 2).To ensure that support could be maintained for the eradication effort, the National FMD Task Force initiated an assessment of the economic impact of FMD and the proposed control programme and other options, adopting the general approach developed in the earlier study conducted in Thailand (11). This approach features two key elements. First, the evaluation requires a combination of epidemiological and economic modelling. The epidemiological modelling is needed to understand how different control strategies are likely to impact upon FMD risk and livestock productivity parameters. Using this information, together with additional inputs on prices and control costs, the economic modelling can then evaluate the relative benefits and costs and distributional impacts of different FMD eradication scenarios. The second feature is the need to begin at the sectoral level by disaggregating the analysis on the basis of production system (such as backyard versus commercial pig systems) rather than national aggregate populations represented by the single category 'pigs'.This framework is used to evaluate potential national FMD control strategies in the form of different FMD eradication scenarios. Four scenarios are considered as described below.Under the baseline scenario, which is used as a comparison point for the eradication scenarios, FMD is assumed to continue to occur in the Philippines based on historical trends. Specifically, Mindanao is assumed to generally remain free of FMD, as is currently the case, but with a 3% chance of an outbreak occurring, reflecting the last outbreak in Mindanao 20 years ago. The Visayas are assumed to remain free, but with a 20% chance of a periodic outbreak, again based on past frequency. In Luzon, the incidence of FMD is assumed to return to the endemic level experienced from 1996 to 1999 of approximately 400 outbreaks per year.Under this baseline scenario, FMD control efforts continue at the level they were implemented in 1999-2000.To meet this, the country would need to experience no more cases of FMD after December 2002 and no vaccination against FMD during 2003 and 2004. This is a challenging target given the 1999 extension of the disease into a previously free area but, given also the considerable progress in terms of overall reduction in FMD incidence, is one that merits serious  consideration. As part of this scenario, the strategic measures that will be necessary to achieve eradication by this date will be considered, such as intensive monitoring in currently FMD-free areas, intensified bio-security operations, intensified animal movement controls, enhanced public awareness, slaughter and compensation measures and the costs of such inputs.Eradication scenario 2: internationally recognised eradication of foot and mouth disease from the Philippines by the end of 2006The 1999 outbreak in Iloilo demonstrated the potential vulnerability of non-endemic areas of the country to reinfection due to the extensive movement of people, pigs and pork products from island to island. As such, it might be argued that a longer period of time will be required to consolidate the FMD-free areas in terms of greater movement control and public awareness, and thus benefits from national eradication will be delayed and additional costs will be incurred.A more pessimistic scenario would be that there will be recurring outbreaks at a lower level which, while not giving rise to large production losses, would incur continued and sustained eradication costs, and would delay the recognition of FMD-free status, thus continuing to deny the Philippines access to international markets.For each scenario, the impact of eradication in terms of avoided production losses and potential savings in control costs can be estimated by comparison with the baseline scenario.In addition to improving national productivity of livestock, the other major expected benefit of eradicating FMD will be improved opportunities for exports of livestock and livestock products. The Philippines is a net importer of livestock and livestock products. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) trade statistics (Table I), imports of live animals and meat products averaged US$130 million annually during the 1990s, versus exports of less than US$1 million. Exports consist for the most part of small volumes of speciality pork products to a limited number of countries within the framework of bilateral agreements. The most consistent destination for meat products has been Hong Kong. Annual exports of pork to Hong Kong were strong in the late 1980s, peaking at US$854,000 in 1990, but have been much more modest since, recovering to around US$100,000 in 1998 and 1999 (National FMD Task Force data). Meat products have been exported to a number of other destinations, but typically in small amounts of one to two tonnes or less per year. Exports began to increase to several new destinations beginning in 1998, including Taipei China (US$69,000 in 1999), Singapore (US$17,000 in 1999), the United States of America (US$16,000 in 1999) and the United Arab Emirates (US$14,000 over 1998-1999) (Table I).Despite the apparent deficit trade position for trade in livestock and livestock products of the Philippines, improving export opportunities is considered a priority reason for the need for FMD eradication. This was highlighted, for example, during informal discussions with commercial pig farming organisations represented by the National Federation of Hog Farmers. Improving exports would likely involve two strategies, as follows: firstly, strengthening existing trade of speciality pork products based on past bilateral agreements, particularly to Hong Kong and to Singapore and, secondly, developing new commercial export capacity. One scenario would be the establishment of an export slaughterhouse for pork adjacent to a port on the island of Panay. This would target the higher priced Asian markets as well as other potential markets within the South-East Asia region, particularly during the months of July and August when demand in the domestic market is usually weak. Another scenario that has been suggested involves establishing a beef export operation in Mindanao where cattle would be imported, fattened and processed for re-export to regional markets (especially the Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines-East ASEAN Growth Area).No data are currently available to permit projecting potential investments and returns, production levels and specific export markets that could be achieved if FMD were effectively eradicated nationally. Access to specific markets and the willingness of the livestock sector to pursue these markets will largely depend upon the trade agreements currently in effect, how these are expected to evolve under the WTO and specific regional and bilateral arrangements, and price incentives  created by domestic and international supply and demand dynamics. For the purposes of the analysis therefore, improved export opportunities are represented by assuming that new exports gradually develop once FMD freedom is achieved, from 0 to 5,000 tonnes annually to lower-priced regional markets as well as from 0 to 5,000 tonnes annually to higherpriced markets elsewhere. The results of this analysis will indicate to what degree FMD eradication would generate sufficient economic benefits based on enhanced national livestock productivity alone, or would require added benefits from improved export opportunities to justify the investment.A key component of the impact assessments involves substantiating the relationship between intervention activities (level of vaccination coverage, intensity of movement control, etc.) and FMD incidence. In a previous study conducted in Thailand (11), an epidemiological model was developed for this purpose that generated FMD incidence data for different levels of vaccination intensity, based on local data. However, there are several differences in the Philippines. Firstly, there is a marked difference in the predominant production system. Currently, pigs are the predominant species affected, mostly kept in so-called backyard systems, which are defined in official Philippines statistics as farms with twenty or less pigs (farms having more than twenty pigs are considered commercial). The epidemiological model for Thailand was developed on the basis of the 'village' system, comprising village cattle and buffalo, in which it was assumed that the disease was maintained, with spill-over into small-scale and commercial pig systems. This is clearly not the case in the Philippines. Secondly, the current Philippines vaccination programme (known as strategic) is reactive (ring vaccination following reported occurrence) rather than preventive such as the strategy evaluated in Thailand. This means that rather than trying to achieve high and sustained levels of population immunity at the national level, or even within the endemic areas, the current strategy is to respond rapidly to reports of FMD occurrence by ring vaccination, movement control and enhanced bio-security. Much greater emphasis is placed on movement control (and at a more local level) and public awareness.Reviewing the outbreaks that occurred from 1995 to 1999 suggests that an appropriate epidemiological model for FMD in the Philippines would need to capture both the temporal and spatial dynamics of the disease, according to the production system. Data available for monthly outbreaks from 1995 to 1999 in municipalities of three selected provinces where the majority of outbreaks occurred in the infected zone were examined (Fig. 2). The three provinces include Pangasinan in the northern part of the infected zone, Bulacan in the centre, and Laguna in the south. The data indicate that certain municipalities in Bulacan are particular 'hotspots' for FMD that may play a role in the persistence of the disease. A more detailed analysis to investigate trends in the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD outbreaks and the importance of these 'hotspot' municipalities could not be pursued due to data limitations.Pending such an analysis and given the emphasis on control and eradication through animal movement restrictions and public awareness, a much simpler model was adopted for the purposes of the present study. The model is needed for two reasons. First, the future incidence of FMD outbreaks must be predicted for the baseline scenario. In this scenario, FMD control is presumed to continue at current levels, but without successfully achieving eradication. The disease is therefore assumed to continue to occur consistent with historical trends for the period 1996 to 1999. In other words, FMD outbreaks continue to occur regularly in the infected and buffer zones, more sporadically in the surveillance zone, and rarely in the FMD-free zone. An implicit assumption is made that only the current strain of swine FMD remains present in the country and that no new strains are introduced. Total outbreak incidence is predicted for each FMD control zone, with the infected and buffer zones in Figure 2 treated as a single zone. Since outbreaks tend to be clustered both in time and space, the prediction is modelled as the probability that an outbreak occurs in a given year times the number of expected outbreaks if at least one outbreak does occur. Each probability is represented as a Poisson distribution, which is appropriate for modelling infrequent events such as disease outbreaks. The distribution parameters are specified in Table II by species and control zone.The second need for epidemiological modelling relates to the impact of additional intervention activities on FMD incidence. As noted above, eradication is anticipated to depend primarily on strengthened movement controls and public awarenesswhich are difficult to link to a change in incidence in a modelling framework -rather than on vaccination. Again, a simple model is assumed whereby effective implementation of the eradication efforts reduces incidence projected under the baseline scenario by 75% in the year immediately preceding that in which the disease is assumed eradicated.The proposed FMD eradication strategy for the Philippines involves three different phases of control, namely: preeradication, eradication, and maintenance of FMD freedom post-eradication. The pre-eradication phase covers the period from the beginning of the programme in 1996 through to 2001, during which some measures were gradually strengthened. Control measures undertaken during this period are listed in Table III. Certain measures are to be further intensified or added during the eradication phase beginning in    III, are assumed to continue after eradication is achieved to protect the country from re-introduction of the disease. The only difference between the eradication and post-eradication phases is the discontinuation of outbreak response measures (Table III).Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is used to assess the economic implications of the different FMD eradication scenarios defined above. The basic approach is to identify the various incremental costs associated with each eradication scenario, and to compare these with the expected incremental benefits derived from eradicating FMD (13). The economic impact of the various scenarios can then be evaluated in terms of their net returns over time.The baseline scenario serves as the basis for measuring the incremental costs and benefits of eradication and assumes that no concerted effort is mounted to eradicate FMD, but rather that the objective of control is to contain the impact of continued outbreaks in endemic areas and the occasional introduction of the disease into FMD-free zones. As described above, the epidemiological model provides estimates of the expected frequency of outbreaks and numbers of animals infected.The CBA could be approached from two different perspectives.The first, which could be termed 'project evaluation', would consider the complete life of the current national FMD control project since control activities were initiated in 1996, and would involve a mix of retrospective (ex-post) and prospective (ex-ante) evaluation. Such an approach would require modelling the counterfactual baseline or 'without project' scenario that assumed no national FMD control had been undertaken following the extensive outbreaks in 1995, and is not relevant to the present study. The second perspective, which can be referred to as an 'investment analysis', evaluates future eradication efforts only and so assumes that all earlier project costs and benefits (from 1996 to date) are sunk, and focuses instead on those from 2001 onwards. This second perspective is likely to be more useful to policy makers required to make decisions about the value of continued allocation of resources to the eradication effort.The analysis is conducted over a 25-year time horizon to ensure a minimum 15-year benefit period following eradication. As is standard in such analyses, both past and future cost and benefit streams are appropriately discounted to account for the time value of money. A discount rate of 7% is assumed. To value costs and benefits, historical prices are used for previous years and otherwise projected future prices are assumed constant at current 2001 levels.To conduct the analysis, a spreadsheet-based model was constructed in Microsoft ® Excel 2000, using the add-in @Risk © software (10). This software permits probability distributions, rather than single point estimates, to be assigned to key parameters in the model and then the analysis to be conducted repeatedly using Monte Carlo sampling techniques. Such an approach helps to compensate for the lack of reliable data for certain impacts and addresses the uncertainty inherent in projecting costs and benefits into the future.The cost side of the CBA comprises incremental control costs required to achieve FMD eradication, as well as any revenues foregone in the process. Incremental control costs are those associated with the various activities listed in the right-hand column of Table III  The various benefits incorporated into the CBA are listed in Table IV, together with a brief description of how they were valued. Four types of benefits are expected to be gained by eradicating FMD.The first is a reduction in some of the control costs currently incurred to protect commercial herds or due to outbreaks. With eradication, commercial swine producers in the current infected and buffer zones will no longer be allowed (or need) to vaccinate their herds as a preventive measure, thereby reducing their production costs. Similarly, private producers will no longer incur costs to treat infected animals, and public sector costs associated with actions to contain such outbreaks (last set of measures in Table III) will also decline accordingly, generating cost savings. A distinction is made between containment costs associated with smaller, more frequent, localised outbreaks in the endemic areas and those associated with the more urgent response to the occasional introduction of FMD in FMD-free zones. For outbreaks in endemic areas, representative costs per outbreak have been estimated based on FMD Task Force records, in operation since 1996. For outbreaks in FMD-free zones, a full cost assessment of the recent outbreak in Iloilo provides a representative estimate.Improved productivity at farm level is the second benefit of FMD eradication. Production losses avoided by improved FMD control were estimated based on the projected changes in numbers of outbreaks from the epidemiological model. Using Local movement controls when outbreaks occur constrain A rapid appraisal of the impacts of such delays in a producers to keep fatteners producers from taking fatteners to market, incurring representative commercial operation suggests that producers past optimal sale date extra maintenance costs and delaying the subsequent have found a strategy of using cheap alternative feeds to production cycle maintain overdue fatteners that avoid any such losses. Such losses are therefore assumed to be negligibleMovement controls and mortalities may cause temporary, No data were available to confirm or quantify these impacts localised shortages or surpluses, leading to temporary revenue windfalls or losses for producers and tradersConsumer concerns about zoonotic effects causing a No evidence was available to confirm that such consumer significant drop in pork consumption and prices scares are likely to be repeated in the future, so avoiding such scares was not includedIncreased export sales to lower FMD freedom will facilitate access to export markets Export sales allowed to vary from zero to 5,000 tonnes annually. value regional markets Production cost and export sale price each year sampled from triangular distribution with mean value of US$1.80/kg and US$2.00/kg, respectively Increased export sales to higher FMD freedom will facilitate access to export markets Export sales allowed to vary from zero to 5,000 tonnes annually. value markets Production cost and export sale price each year sampled from triangular distribution with mean value of US$2.50/kg and US$5.00/kg, respectively an average number of animals affected per outbreak and case fatality rates computed from historical outbreak data for 1996-2000 (Table II), aggregate changes in mortality and morbidity by species were estimated. Reduced mortality, which affects only piglets, is valued based on their sale price. Reduced morbidity translates into several different types of savings, mostly affecting pigs, including avoided weight loss among fatteners (also affecting cattle and carabao), avoided abortions in sows, avoided reproductive losses (litters lost when infected sows are treated) and avoided idled boar services. Other potential impacts on draught power in carabao, milk production in carabao and dairy cattle, and manure production are considered negligible given the very few, if any, animals affected in these categories.Third, FMD eradication will eliminate direct impacts of outbreaks on markets for livestock and products. These are often related to movement controls in and around outbreak areas where animals or products ready to be marketed may be blocked and forced to remain on farm, or temporary shortages or surpluses causing price fluctuations in local markets.Outbreaks can also provoke consumer scares. In 1995, public concerns over FMD infection of humans led to a sharp drop in pork consumption and prices, and substantial revenue losses for producers and traders across the principal Luzon markets. Appropriate data for measuring these types of impacts, however, were not available.Foot and mouth disease freedom is also expected to provide producers and processors in the Philippines access to new export markets. Predicting their capacity and willingness to respond to these opportunities and identifying which markets, products, volumes and prices are likely to be involved, are beyond the scope of this study. Instead, meat exports to both lower and higher value markets are allowed to vary from zero to 5,000 tonnes. The domestic cost of production of meat (both beef and pork) is assumed to follow a triangular probability distribution, with mode at US$1.80 kg -1 for lower value markets and at US$2.50 kg -1 for higher value markets. Similarly, the export sale price for each market is also modelled as a triangular distribution, earning a modal price of US$2.00 kg -1 in lower value markets and US$5.00 kg -1 in higher value markets, noting that a preliminary assessment cited premium markets in east Asia as offering up to US$5.80 kg -1 for pork imports (11).Foot and mouth disease eradication is expected to have a number of additional, indirect impacts, much more difficult to measure and value, which have not been incorporated into the analysis, but which are described below.Expansion of exports will generate additional foreign currency and improve the balance of payment. This is likely to translate into increased investment and economic growth.Improved productivity and expansion of exports will generate employment and demand for inputs from other sectors, generally referred to as the 'multiplier effects' of an injection of income into the livestock sector (4).Improved productivity and links to export markets will also affect the supply and demand dynamics of domestic markets for livestock and meat products. Improved productivity will shift the supply curve out, putting downward pressure on prices. (The CBA can be extended to include an economic surplus model that effectively captures the supply curve shift and impact on prices [6]. The incidence of FMD on supply in the Philippines context is very modest and so such impacts are considered negligible.) Links to higher-value export markets and demand for supplies for exports may have a counteracting effect, elevating prices, although this effect will depend on the strength of the links. Meat producers also noted that another anticipated benefit of FMD freedom would be the likely imposition of restrictions on low-priced livestock and meat imports from non-FMD-free countries, particularly carabao from India. This will provide protection for domestic markets from low-value imports.The eradication effort and subsequent need to protect the export sector will require strengthening and maintaining effective monitoring and surveillance systems for FMD, movement controls and emergency preparedness for potential re-incursions. An additional, intangible benefit will be the demonstration to the private sector of the benefits of publicprivate collaboration in disease control and the precedent this may set for improved collaboration for disease control. Both will serve to improve the control of other livestock diseases, further improving productivity in the sector. Participation in international trade will also increasingly require developing infrastructure and policies to meet international food safety and sanitary standards. These should also provide benefits to domestic markets in terms of improved food quality, food safety and control of zoonotic and food-borne diseases.Each of these indirect impacts requires additional macroeconomic modelling and economic analysis that are beyond the scope of the present study. Thus, within the CBA, benefits are likely to be underestimated and limited to measurable direct impacts.The differences between the baseline and eradication scenarios in terms of the evolution of the various costs associated with Under the eradication scenarios, the cost of FMD increases during the eradication period as the national FMD programme activities expand and commercial producers continue to vaccinate. Once the disease is eradicated (as of the beginning of 2003 in eradication scenario 1 in Figure 3, for example), the private sector no longer incurs any control costs or production losses, and the public cost of containing outbreaks is also eliminated. Total costs fall to a constant PHP124 million (US$2.4 million) per year, all of which are supported by the public sector for emergency preparedness and to protect from re-introduction of the disease. Eradicating the disease does not also eradicate the cost of the disease.A cursory comparison of the eradication and baseline scenarios in Figure 3 anticipates the likely result of the analysis. Only in the first year (2002) are total costs under eradication scenario 1 greater than those in the baseline. In all years that follow, the added PHP48 million (US$0.9 million) investment in eradication yields at least PHP110 million (US$2.2 million) in savings. Even after discounting future amounts, the benefits appear to be sufficiently greater than the investment cost to ensure a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) greater than one. If FMD freedom does indeed lead to expanding exports, then additional benefits could be added commencing two years after eradication is achieved (beginning in 2005 for eradication scenario 1 in Fig. 3).The results generated by the combined epidemiologicaleconomic model are summarised in Table V. Two standard investment indicators are considered: net present value (NPV) and the BCR. (A third indicator often used is the internal rate of return [IRR]. The IRR can only be computed if there is a distinct investment period at the beginning of the time horizon under consideration. In the present case, investment continues throughout the study period, so an IRR cannot be estimated.)The NPV is an absolute measure computed as the sum of discounted net benefits from each year of the study period. The BCR is a relative measure, computed as the sum of discounted annual benefits divided by the sum of discounted annual costs.A worthwhile investment project should generate sufficient benefits to at least cover the investment costs, which means the NPV should be positive and the BCR greater than one. The higher the values of NPV and BCR, the more attractive is the project in economic terms.Under the assumptions of the model, eradication is shown to be a worthwhile investment. The current official plan for eradication is represented by scenario 1. If successful, and even without benefits generated by expanded exports, this scenario achieves an NPV of PHP740 billion (US$14.6 billion) over the 25-year time horizon considered and a respectable BCR of 2.4, thereby providing returns of PHP2.4 for every PHP1 invested.Assuming that FMD-free status does indeed lead to exports, then the indicators improve substantially. Even if exports from the Philippines gain access to low-value markets only and reach a volume of 5,000 tonnes of meat products, the BCR increases from 2.4 to 3.4. Entering high-value markets raises the indicators much higher again. Figure 4 shows how the BCR  a) Assumes that low-value exports begin once foot and mouth disease (FMD) freedom without vaccination is officially recognised nationally (two years after eradication is achieved), with 1,250 tonnes of meat products exported the first year, 2,500 tonnes the second year, 3,750 tonnes the third year, and 5,000 tonnes every year thereafter b) Assumes that high-value exports begin once FMD freedom without vaccination is officially recognised nationally (two years after eradication is achieved), with 1,250 tonnes of meat products exported the first year, 2,500 tonnes the second year, 3,750 tonnes the third year, and 5,000 tonnes every year thereafter c) Assumes both of the export scenarios described above, with a total of 10,000 tonnes of meat products being exported four years after official FMD freedom is achieved nationally a) Assumes that low-value exports begin once foot and mouth disease (FMD) freedom without vaccination is officially recognised nationally (two years after eradication is achieved), with 1,250 tonnes of meat products exported the first year, 2,500 tonnes the second year, 3,750 tonnes the third year, and 5,000 tonnes every year thereafter b) Assumes that high-value exports begin once FMD freedom without vaccination is officially recognised nationally (two years after eradication is achieved), with 1,250 tonnes of meat products exported the first year, 2,500 tonnes the second year, 3,750 tonnes the third year, and 5,000 tonnes every year thereafter c) Assumes both of the export scenarios described above, with a total of 10,000 tonnes of meat products being exported four years after official FMD freedom is achieved nationallyBenefit-cost ratio Exports to lowervalue markets (tonnes)Exports to highervalue markets (continue to occur during this period, so public costs for containment and private costs for vaccination and production losses are extended at the same time as the added eradication investments are being made) and reduce benefits (which are pushed later into the future, thus reducing the benefit period and concentrating them in the portion of the study period with highest discount rates). As expected, the investment indicators decline accordingly; a six-year delay cuts the NPV by more than half, and reduces the BCR to 1.6. However, the fact that the indicator values remain so clearly favourable under such a pessimistic scenario provides evidence of the robustness of the overall conclusions to be drawn from the analysis.In addition to the sensitivity analyses regarding the time to eradication and export volumes built into the formulation of the scenarios, other sensitivity analyses were conducted by allowing key parameters in the model to be stochastically determined. Two sets of parameters in particular were allowed to vary: the number of predicted FMD outbreaks and the net margin earned from exports. The number of FMD outbreaks were allowed to vary from year to year and were modelled based on Poisson distributions (Table II). Net margins for exports were estimated based on separate triangular distributions for costs of production and export sale prices for both lower-and higher-value markets, with a single value used to value exports to each market in all years in a given simulation. The simulation was repeated 1,000 times, generating the estimates reported in Table VI. The distributions of the estimated BCRs are displayed in Figure 5.would vary under eradication scenario 1 for different mixes of exports to lower-and higher-value markets.Scenarios 2 and 3 measure the sensitivity of the results for the official scenario if eradication takes longer than expected. In scenario 2, eradication takes an additional two years and in scenario 3, an additional six years. Delays in achieving eradication serve both to increase cost (since FMD outbreaksAs demonstrated by the extremely narrow distribution of BCR estimates for the 'no exports' case, the results are insensitive to the epidemiological assumptions about numbers of FMD outbreaks. This is consistent with the small portion of costs affected directly by outbreaks, namely containment control costs and production losses (as evident in Fig. 3). The distributions of BCR estimates for the other export scenarios are much wider, highlighting the key and obvious role that export prices and net margins will play in determining the additional benefits to be derived from exports.In the analysis, a real discount rate (which assumes there is no inflation) of 7% is used to value future income streams. The discount rate reflects the marginal value of capital. In such analyses, the rule of thumb is to use a low rate (3%-5%) for developed countries with more capital available yielding lower average rates of return, and a higher rate (10%) for developing countries where capital is scarce and yields higher returns. The 7% rate therefore reflects the middle-income status of the Philippines. A final sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the impact of the discount rate on the BCR. As seen in Figure 6, the BCR for eradication scenario 1 (no exports) remains clearly positive over the full range of discount rates considered, confirming that the discount rate assumption does not significantly affect the conclusions.The distribution of the various costs and benefits are summarised in longer having to vaccinate their animals against FMD. The commercial sub-sector is also expected to be the primary direct beneficiary of any expansion of meat exports; backyard production systems are not well positioned to supply export markets, both in terms of quality and other sanitary considerations. Additional economic analysis would be required to determine to what degree increased commercial activity for exports would generate multiplier benefits in other sectors of the economy. Otherwise, only a small portion (4%) of the direct non-export benefits accrue to smallholder producers in backyard production systems, mostly related to avoided production losses (Table VII). Based on the results of the CBA, the proposed FMD eradication programme clearly promises a worthwhile investment of public funds, yielding PHP2.4 for every PHP1 invested, not including the additional gains from expanded exports should they be successfully developed. Even if the current goal of achieving full eradication by the end of 2002 proves to be unrealistic and is delayed further, the investment remains attractive.The commercial sector stands to capture nearly all of the benefits from FMD eradication. This has two implications. Firstly, this result suggests that policy-makers may be justified in expecting the commercial sector to contribute to the eradication effort, whether directly or through taxation. Eradication will not be a one-off investment but will require continued investment to protect the FMD-free status of the country once achieved. Sustained public funding of the necessary FMD surveillance and control may not be feasible, particularly given the commercial orientation of the expected benefits. Participation of the direct beneficiaries in the commercial sector would provide a more sustainable alternative. Secondly, the commercial orientation makes it difficult to reconcile the investment in FMD eradication with poverty reduction objectives. For this reason, mobilising resources may be difficult if access to funding is dependent on political or donor support.The strength of these conclusions obviously depends upon the quality of the data and comprehensiveness of the analysis. An indicator of the robustness of the results is provided by the various sensitivity analyses conducted, whether through the comparison of different scenarios or through the use of the stochastic model. In each case, despite liberal variation in the underlying assumptions and parameters, returns to eradication remain clearly positive. Moreover, since a number of the indirect or intangible benefits have not been included in the analysis, the benefits may have been significantly underestimated. On the other hand, the assumed level of effort required to achieve eradication may also be underestimated and this merits critical review.Two other important components of the analysis may also deserve further attention. The first concerns the analysis of potential exports. Providing access to export markets promises to increase dramatically the benefits from FMD eradication and provides yet stronger justification for the investment. In this study, simple assumptions have been made concerning the ability to develop exports. A full evaluation is needed of candidate export markets for livestock and livestock products from the Philippines, other non-disease restrictions that might affect trade, the likelihood of adequate price incentives and the potential for developing the required domestic supply capacity.Developing export capacity will entail other investments besides those for FMD eradication that would also need to be factored into the analysis but have not been incorporated into the present study. The recent recognition of Mindanao as an FMD-free zone without vaccination will provide an opportunity to learn how the private sector is able to respond to improved access to export markets, and the additional investments required or obstacles faced. A key question yet to be resolved is whether there will be sufficient incentive to export as long as the Philippines maintains an overwhelming deficit in domestic markets.The second component requiring further study is the epidemiological modelling. Again, the present study has adopted a rather simple model that assumes FMD outbreaks continue to occur based on historical patterns. No attempt has been made, for example, to link control actions to impacts on disease incidence. This probably is not very important for the economic analysis; assumptions on the disease incidence only marginally affect the analytical results, since related costs for containment and benefits in terms of avoided production losses account for only a modest portion of total costs and benefits. Improving the epidemiological modelling, particularly in terms of spatial and temporal dynamics, would nonetheless be useful for better targeting of control interventions and improving the cost effectiveness of these actions.The economic analysis provides evidence that FMD eradication in the Philippines will yield sufficient returns to expected costs, and therefore offers a worthwhile investment of public funds. This is a key criterion that policy-makers will need to consider, together with other policy objectives and trade-offs with alternative candidates for investment, when deciding whether to pursue the planned programme of FMD eradication.Based on the results of the study in the Philippines and earlier studies in Thailand and Laos, patterns begin to emerge regarding the economics of FMD and control of the disease across South-East Asia (11,12).First, the feasibility of effectively controlling and eradicating FMD varies considerably depending on the region. Foot and mouth disease is endemic in most countries where waves of outbreaks are experienced, with the exception of Indonesia and the islands of Mindanao in the Philippines, both of which are recognised as satisfying OIE requirements for freedom from FMD (8). The nature and economic impact of FMD in the different countries of the region vary considerably with the production systems in which the disease occurs, and the degree of risk of re-introduction from outside sources. In Thailand, for example, FMD is probably maintained primarily in village cattle, buffalo and village pigs and can be continuously reintroduced into these populations by the high frequency of animal movement from neighbouring countries drawn by attractive markets. Similarly, in Laos, animals in village systems along the various informal trade corridors that cross the country, face continuous exposure to infection. In the Philippines, FMD is currently concentrated in the more market-oriented backyard pig systems of Luzon. However, as the county is comprised of islands, the risk of FMD reintroduction into the Philippines is lower and potentially controllable.These factors influence the capacity of each country to achieve control and eradication. The presence of a significant commercial livestock sector becomes key, and this is particularly important with regard to the pig sector in the Philippines. The constant threat of FMD to the commercial sector requires commercial producers to incur high costs for preventive measures and likewise influences governments to invest in publicly funded FMD control in the small-scale and village sectors. A strong commercial sector also contributes pressure to capitalise on opportunities to develop export trade, which becomes an important driving force for eradication. Within the region, some of the countries with well-developed large-scale commercial sectors, such as the Philippines and Malaysia, also benefit from national borders that can serve as natural barriers to re-infection, thus making sustained disease freedom more feasible. In these countries, improved control and eradication are more likely to become economically viable and politically attractive. Other countries in the region, however, possess less-developed commercial sectors and lessprotected borders, so potential benefits from FMD control still remain limited and the challenge of controlling FMD is much greater given the extent of cross-border animal movements and constrained public resources.A second theme concerns the distribution of costs and benefits from FMD control. FMD often occurs in smallholder production systems in which the control costs to producers are often greater than the direct benefits gained, so incentives to participate in control efforts are low. Foot and mouth disease control is therefore typically considered a public good, and so is undertaken by governments at public expense. However, the benefits from effective control, and especially successful eradication, of FMD accrue primarily to large-scale commercial producers who can subsequently reduce their control measures and gain access to new export markets. This would suggest that considerable scope exists for governments to involve the private sector more actively in financing national FMD control efforts.These findings have clear implications for regional FMD control efforts. Given the diversity in the economic impacts of FMD and in national capacities for control of the disease, regional freedom in South-East Asia remains highly unlikely in the short to medium term. Investments to support regional control efforts will need to continue to be carefully evaluated based on individual country realities. In the meantime, demonstrating the benefits from improving access to export markets could enhance incentives for control efforts within the region. This can be achieved through establishing zone freedom in certain areas, or by developing animal product processing procedures acceptable to importing nations. To be successful, applications to the OIE for recognition of zone freedom within a country require the demonstration of ability to maintain that freedom through the use of buffer and surveillance zones, among other measures. There has been considerable discussion of the possible creation of FMD-free zones and recently, a new initiative has been established between the countries of Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia (MTM) to embark on a campaign for control and eradication of FMD in the peninsular area of South-East Asia that they share (9).Furthermore, importantly, the principle of understanding better the distribution of costs and benefits from FMD control needs to be applied at the regional level. Clearly identifying the beneficiaries of improved FMD control within and across the countries of the region can provide the basis for formulating innovative strategies so that those who stand to gain (i.e., countries better positioned to export, or the large-scale commercial sector) 'invest' in those who otherwise lack the resources or incentives to support the needed control efforts.Co-ordination at the regional level of these differential incentives to invest in control may be as critical as co-ordinating the implementation of the control efforts themselves. The OIE Sub-Commission for Foot and Mouth Disease in South-East Asia has recently commissioned a working group to examine ways of enhancing the communications between the public and private sectors within the countries of the region to promote such initiatives (9).The Philippines analysis presented in this paper, along with the earlier studies in Thailand and Laos, demonstrate the complexity of the issues involved in FMD and control of the disease in South-East Asia, and the valuable role that economic impact assessment can play in supporting responsible decisionmaking in the areas of policy and strategy. The challenge remains to improve further the quality of the data for such evaluations, and the scope and ability of the models upon which such analyses are based.Impact économique de la prophylaxie et de l'éradication de la fièvre aphteuse aux Philippines Analizando la relación costos-beneficios, los autores estudian las consecuencias de la fiebre aftosa y el control de la enfermedad en Filipinas. Tomando como punto de partida los niveles actuales de control y presencia de la enfermedad, comparan esta situación con la hipotética aplicación de un programa financiado con fondos públicos que culminara con la erradicación de la fiebre aftosa en 2005 (objetivo actual), 2007 o 2010. Una vez erradicada la enfermedad es de prever un cierto grado de desarrollo de las exportaciones de productos pecuarios. En función del nivel de desarrollo que se calcule, la estimación del cociente entre beneficios y costos (de las inversiones necesarias para la erradicación) oscila entre 1,6 (2010, sin exportaciones) y 12,0 (2005, exportación de productos pecuarios de escaso y de gran valor, 5.000 toneladas anuales de cada tipo). De ahí se deduce que la erradicación es una inversión económicamente viable. Se estima que el sector de la producción porcina industrial obtiene un 84% de los beneficios generados por las inversiones públicas en medidas de erradicación, frente al 4% que recae a los productores artesanales. Los autores, por último, examinan las consecuencias de estos resultados en el contexto de las iniciativas regionales de control de la fiebre aftosa en el Sudeste asiático.Análisis de programas -Análisis de la relación costos-beneficios -Control de enfermedades -Economía -Erradicación -Evaluación de las repercusiones económicas -Fiebre aftosa -Filipinas -Sanidad animal -Sudeste asiático.I","tokenCount":"8140"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"50683a5fea1c47385939117ba75560cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2a8b2ab-e6b0-4e4b-a3b5-02a9a4f948ad/retrieve","id":"-812987415"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1f12220f-bb6f-467a-8e90-bc75461ec50f","pagecount":"18","content":"Octavio Mosquera V.El Laboratorio de Servicios Analíticos tiene a cargo los análisis de suelos y plantas de todos los programas de CIAT. Durante 1984 se realizaron más de 150000 determinaciones, cantidad que indica claramente la importancia y el amplio uso de los servicios de análisis. Para llevar a cabo eficientemente la labor encomendada, el laboratorio cuenta por una parte con un grupo s eleccionado de Qulmicos y Analistas y por otra con moderno equipo. Sin embargo, el éxito del análisis no sólo depende del laboratorio, sino también de las personas interesadas en él desde el Científico que requiere los datos hasta el Técnico que realiza el muestreo y prepara las muestras para el análisis.En el presente trabajo se hace énfasis en la importancia de un mejor conocimiento, por parte de los usuarios del Laboratorio, de las metodologías usadas para los análisis, el porqué de su adopción en las condiciones de CIAT y el cómo y bajo qué circunstancias son aplicadas al tratamiento de los diferentes tipos de muestras analizadas. Al enterar a la comunidad sobre estos temas se espera que los datos generados puedan ser mejor interpretados y por tanto de mayo r utilidad en las evaluaciones en las cuales se requieren y por otra parte que haya una mayor eficiencia y economfa en el proceso de análisis.Desde el punto de vista analítico las variaciones en los resultados pueden disminuírse mediante el empleo de técnicas refinadas y equipo sofisticado. Sin embargo, subsisten serios problemas para lograr un muestreo representativo, diseñar métodos que reflejen exactamente la disponibilidad de los nutrimentos, calibrar los resultados del análisis con respuestas de los cultivos y estandarizar los procedimientos de análisis.En el análisis de plantas el paso más crítico es la selección de un tejido indicador del estado nutricional del cultivo. La concentración de un nutrimento en dicho tejido debe correlacionar significativamente con la cantidad del nutrimento disponible para la planta como también con el rendimiento del cultivo. Sin embargo, la concentración de los nutrimentos varía entre las partes de una misma planta y también en un mismo 6rgano con la edad del cultivo (Tablas 1,2). por otra parte, el manipuleo que se dé a las muestras puede influír notoriamente sobre los resultados del análisis. En la Figura 1 se presenta In inf~uencia del tiempo transcurrido entre el muestreo y el secado de las muestras sobre la concentración de varios nutrimentos en las hojas de yuca. Se observa claramente que la concentración de todos los nu t rimentos estudiados, aumenta a medida que se hace más amplio el período entre el muestreo y el secado. Este fenómeno se explica en base a l a pérdida de materia seca que ocurre debido al proceso respiratorio que continúa después del muestreo hasta el secado de las muestras. Las enzimas respiratorias convierten los azúcares en dióxido de carbono yagua, alteran el metabolismo proteínico y por tanto pueden ocasionar lecturas falsas del contenido de los nutrimentos. Por lo tanto es muy importante secar las muestras en un horno o al sol inmediatamente después de tomarlas. La t exactitud con la cual puedan interpretarse los datos del análisis depende de número y calidad de los trabajos de investigación en l os cuales se hayan basado las correlaciones. Existen varias maneras para determinar los niveles críticos, por tanto es importante saber de qué método de determinación se está hablando. Todos los métodos se basan en gráficas de calibración que relacionan el rendimiento abs oluto o relativo con el contenido del elemento en cierto tejido indicador. Los tres métodos más comunes sonsaquel que define el nivel crítico como el contenido del nutrimento que corresponde al 90-95% del rendimiento máximo.El segundo método llamado de \"Cate-Nelson\" utiliza un plástico transparente con una cruz dibujada sobre él que divide el plano en cuatro cuadrantes. Se mueve el pa pel transparente sobre la gráfica hasta encontrar la posición con el menor número posible de puntos en los cuadrantes I y III. Se define el nivel critico como el contenido indicado por el eje vertical (Fig. 2). El tercer método define el nivel crítico como el contenido del nutrimento por debajo del cual se producen síntomas de deficiencia o por encima del cual se presentan síntomas de toxic idad.Como bien sabemos, la mayor parte de la investigación realizada por el CIAT, se lleva a cabo principalmente en la región tropical de s uelos ácidos e infértiles. La caracterización de estos suelos es algo diferente a la caracterización de los suelos de las regiones templadas. En los suelos ácidos es muy importante determinar el Aluminio intercambiable el cual, en muchos casos, ocupa un alto porcentaje de la capacidad de cambio efectiva. La concentración de Al en la soluci6n del suelo está relacionada con el pH del mismo, el porcentaje de sa turació n de Al y la concentración de sales del sistema. Cuando el pH del sucIo baja de 5.5 la concentración de Al aumenta marcadamente. Igual acontece cuand o la saturación de Al pasa del 60%. Los Iones Al son adsorbidos fuertemente por el complejo de cambio del suelo. además el Aluminio desplazado sólo permanece en solución a pH menores de 5. Por tanto, para la • extracción del Al intercambiable es necesario que exista una alta concentración del ion que lo desplaza y que el pH de la solución sea suficientemente bajo para mant enerlo en forma soluble.En la actualidad ~e acepta que si el pH del suelo (en agua, relación 1:1), es menor de 5.5, el Al, el Ca y el Mg, i ntercambiables pueden extractarse con una solución normal de Cloruro de Potasio, mientra~ que si el pH e s mayor de dicho valor, los cationes cambiables pueden extractarse con una sol.ución normal de Acetato de Amonio. Determinados el Al, el Ca y el Mg, pueden calcularse sus respecti vos porcentaj es de saturación. Para el caso del Aluminio el valor obtenido según la fórmula %SAT. Al = Al X lOO, ha sido ampliamente usado tanto Al+Ca+Mg+K para caracterizar los suelos ácidos en cuanto a su posible toxicidad por Al, como para evaluar la tolerancia de especies y cultivares a dicho efecto. El la Fig. 3 por ejemplo, se presenta la relación entre el rendimiento de la yuca y el porcentaje de saturación de Al. Como puede apreciarse, la yuca es un cultivo bastante tolerante a la presencia de Al pues sólo cuando su saturaci6n pasa del 80%, se presenta una reducción drástica en el rendimiento. Algo muy diferente ocurre con el fríjol, cultivo susceptible al aluminio, en cuyo caso, una saturación mayor del 10% causa severas pérdidas en producción.-5 -Respecto a la determinación de los cationes intercambiables, tradicionalmente se ha efectuado extractándolos con Acetato de Amonio y en la mayoría de los casos los niveles crítico\"s se han establecido para esa metodología. Sin embargo, como puede observarse en la Tabla 3, los valores de estos cationes varían muy poco entre extractantes, al menos cuando los contenidos de estos nutrimentos son bajos. Por otra parte, para el caso del Potasio se han establecido comparaciones entre los niveles críticos en Acetato y en Bray 11 encontrándose que tampoco hay variaciones significativas (Ver Fig. 4).La capacidad de intercambio.catiónica se determina corrientemente mediante el desplazamiento de los cationes intercambiables con una solución normal y neutra de Acetato de Amonio. Sin embargo, en los suelos ácidos que en muchos casos presentan una cantidad significativa de carga variable, este método sobreestima enormemente la CIC. Por tanto es más conveniente considerar la CICE que es la suma de Al+Ca+Mg+K, para evitar problemas en la interpretación no sólo de los valores de la elC sino también el porcentaje de saturación de bases, los cuales dependen en gran parte de los métodos usados para su obtención.La deficiencia de P es la mayor limitante en la producción agropecuaria en extensas zonas de América tropical. Además del problema de su baja disponibilidad y de su alta fijación, existen también dificultades en su determinación. Las gráficas que correlacionan la producción de yuca con los niveles de P disponibles determinados por cuatro métodos aparecen en No todo es acidez e infertilidad en los suelos tropicales. Las 522 ha.de la granja del CIAT en Palmira están constituídas por suelos de neutros a alcalinos, algunas veces salinos y otras sódicos. En estos casos, la determinación de la capacidad de intercambio catiónico es de mucha importancia para el cálculo del porcentaje de saturación de Sodio y la determinación del grado de sodicidad que afecta el suelo. Además, la determinación de la conductividad eléctrica del extracto de saturación es básica para cuantificar el nivel de salinidad y tomar las medidas necesarias para evitar los problemas que origina.El análisis es un trabajo de conjunto. En cada uno de los pasos del proceso, muestreo, procedimiento analítico, interpretación de los resultados y conclusiones y/o recomendaciones, pueden ocurrir errores y esos errores son acumulativos. Al Laboratorio le corresponde el aspecto analítico propiamente dicho, pero conociendo el usuario, los factores del muestreo que puedan afectar los result ados, conociendo los métodos Ge análisis,sus virtudes y limitaciones, podrá realizar una mejor interpretación de los datos de análisis y por tanto podrá llegar a mejores y más confiables conclusiones y efectuar recomendaciones más acertadas.  Relación entre el rendimiento de raíces de yuca y el contenido de Hg en hojas superiores a•l05 3 meses de la siembra.Las flechas indican los niveles críticos de deficiencia según tres definic\"iones diferentes, y (e ) indica una planta con síntomas de deficiencia de Hg. (Howe1er, 1983) . Relación entre el rendimiento relativo de yuca (promedio de 42 vari edades) y el porcentaje de saturación de Al y el contenido de Ca. (Adaptado de CIAT, 1978) .. . ~ .., ., I   ","tokenCount":"1608"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2bdc194473541f2ef40f5fd692768466","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1ad7d8a-a873-497e-b870-6732659f7894/retrieve","id":"-884567070"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"42f5e19f-ef13-4fac-85fc-ab826998c451","pagecount":"7","content":"In general, landraces are the most diverse populations of cultivated plants (Frankel et al., 1995). Besides beingThe knowledge and understanding of the genetic structure of bean adapted to their natural and man-made environments, (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces is important for the implementation of measures addressed to their management and conservation. The landrace genotypes tend to be co-adapted. Hence, gepurpose of this paper was to study the pattern of genetic variation in netic variation within a landrace may be considerable, nine red-seeded landraces currently grown by farmers with molecular but is far from random (Qualset et al., 1997). The genetic and phenotypic markers. Twelve individuals per landrace were genodiversity among and within landraces makes them a typed with seven bean microsatellite markers. Fourteen phenotypic valuable resource as potential donors of genes for the traits were additionally measured in a field study in two localities.Molecular techniques are more expensive than most morphological approaches to the study of genetic or species diversity (Newbury and Ford-Lloyd, 1997), and consequently they should be used only where other tech-T he common bean, over a period of at least 7000 to niques are less powerful or not feasible (Bisby, 1995). 8000 yr, has been domesticated and evolved from Molecular analyses in conjunction with morphological a wild vining plant distributed in the highlands of Middle and agronomic evaluation of germplasm is recommended America and the Andes into a major leguminous food because these provide complementary information and crop, grown worldwide in a broad range of environincrease the resolving power of genetic diversity analyments and cropping systems (Gepts and Debouck, ses (Singh et al., 1991(Singh et al., ). 1991)). The cultivated bean is a morphologically diverseIn the context of in situ conservation of landraces, crop with large variation in growth habit, pigmentation, both molecular and morphological marker evaluations pod, seed, and phenology (Singh et al., 1991). The speare useful for identifying populations for conservation, cies is an annual with a predominantly self-pollinating optimum sites for germplasm collection, and ongoing reproductive system. Typical outcrossing rates are under 5% (Graham and Ranalli, 1997); however, higher levels changes in the pattern of diversity in the course of conhave also been reported (Gepts, 1993;Ibarra-Perez et servation practices (Newbury andFord-Lloyd, 1997). al., 1997).Few studies have analyzed the pattern of genetic diver-Bean production is performed in all regions of Nicarasity within landraces (Martin and Adams, 1987a; Briand gua and occupies Ͼ60% of the total agricultural area et al., 1998) as compared with that among landraces (Llano et al., 1998). Seed color and growth habit are held in large ex situ germplasm collections (Singh et the most variable traits between Nicaraguan landraces. al., 1991;Beebe et al., 2000;Islam et al., 2002). The Farmers predominantly grow small red-seeded beans, knowledge and understanding of the genetic structure although they also have landraces that have brown-or of plant landraces is important since it may serve as a cream-colored seed.basis for making decisions related to the selection of sites and populations for in situ conservation (Maxted et al., 1997). The above information is also valuable for O.J. Go ´mez, National Agrarian Univ., North Highway km 12.5, Managua, Nicaragua; M.W. Blair, Int. Center for Tropical Agriculture genebank curators in providing a more secure basis on ( Engels and Visser, 2000). In this study we hypothesized that (i) the genetic structure measured is independent of whether molecular or phenotypic markers are used, Published in Crop Sci. 44:1412-1418(2004).(ii) there is no genetic differentiation between agroeco-  For two microsatellites (GATS54 and BM114), the annealing among landraces within agroecological zones, and fitemperature was reduced to 52ЊC. The cycles were followed nally (iv) phenotypic traits are not affected by the testby a final elongation step at 72ЊC for 7 min. The microsatellite ing site.alleles were resolved on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and sized by comparison to 10-and 25-bp molecular weightstandards (Promega). Only bands clearly separated visually were accepted as different alleles.Seventeen common bean landraces presently cultivated byfarmers were used to study genetic variation at the molecularThe following indices were used to quantify the amount of level. Of these, only nine red-seeded landraces were chosen genetic diversity within each landrace: number of alleles per for the field study. They were collected from different sites locus, observed heterozygosity (H o ), and expected heterozyspread across four distinct agroecological zones (none close gosity (H e ). The values for each of these indices were calcuto the experimental site, Table 1). A seed sample of 450 g lated for each landrace per locus combination and across all was obtained from a local farmer at each site in April and loci according to Nei (1987). All calculations were realized by May 1999. All samples were multiplied for one generation the computer programs FSTAT V2.9.3 (Goudet, 2002) and to get enough seeds for further experiments during the first GENEPOP 3.3 (Raymond and Rousset, 2001). The particropping season (May-August) in 2000.tioning of variation within and among landraces and agroecological zones was calculated with an AMOVA computed withthe program Arlequin (Schneider et al., 2000). Wright's F In the first step, DNA from 12 individuals of the 17 lanstatistics as well as 99% confidence intervals of their mean draces was pooled and tested with 20 microsatellites [J04555, values were calculated according to Weir and Cockerham M75856, U18791, X04001, X60000, X61293, X80051, X57022, (1984) with the software Fstat V2.9.3 (Goudet, 2002). X04660 (Yu et al., 1999); AG1, BM53, BM98, BM114, GATS11, GATS11b, GATS54, GATS91 (Gaita ´n-Solı ´s et al., 2002); Experimental Sites BM15, BM19 (CIAT, 2002);and BMd36 (Blair et al., 2003)].The phenotypic evaluation of the nine landraces was con-The seven most polymorphic markers were chosen for further ducted at San Marcos (La Compan ˜ia Experimental Station) assays on the full set of individuals. The genomic DNA was and San Pedro (in a farmer's field) both in the department extracted from young primary leaves of 4-d-old germinated of Carazo, Nicaragua. The experiments were performed durseedlings according to Dellaporta et al. (1983)  soil preparation was done with oxen. The sites of the experiments are located 40 km apart from each other and differ in The PCR conditions consisted of a hot start of 92ЊC for 5 min, followed by 29 cycles of denaturation at 92ЊC for 1 min, soil and climatic variables (Table 2). The experimental layout was a randomized complete block design with four replicates. annealing at 60ЊC for 1 min, and extension at 72ЊC for 1 min.  The experimental plot consisted of four 4-m-long rows, spaced efficient) even higher (0.96). The F ST value indicates 0.5 and 0.4 m apart at San Marcos and San Pedro, respectively, that on average 34% of the genetic variation was exwith a plant-to-plant spacing of 0.1 m. Each plot was planted plained by differences among landraces.with 160 seeds, which resulted in plant populations of 200 000The AMOVA analysis showed that the variation atand 250 000 plants ha Ϫ1 at San Marcos and San Pedro, respectributable to agroecological zones was zero (variance 0,tively. These values are within the ranges of commercial plant-3 df; P Ͻ 0.48), while 36.5% (0.7, 5 df, P Ͻ 0.001) and ing densities in Nicaragua.63.5% (1.1, 207 df, P Ͻ 0.001) of the variation was distributed among landraces within agroecological zone Measurements and within landraces, respectively.Fourteen agromorphological traits were determined according to Mun ˜oz et al. (1993) (Table 3). Frequencies of eachclass were calculated for the three qualitative traits, namely, growth habit, wing petal color, and standard petal color.An average of 5.7 alleles were identified per microsa-For the analysis of growth habit, a square root transformation tellite locus, with a range of 2 to 13 distinct alleles in (√X ϩ 0.5) was performed.the full array of individuals per each landrace depending on the individual microsatellite (Table 4). Some of these Statistical Analysis of Field Data alleles were unique to an individual landrace as observed for V1 (one and three alleles from the loci BM114 Analyses of covariance were performed according to the and GATS91, respectively), V17 (one allele, locus, where Y ijkl ϭ response, ϭ an overall constant, ␣ i ϭ the BMd36), V-26 (two alleles from the locus GATS91), site effect, ␤ j(i) ϭ the block effect nested within site, ␥ k ϭ the and V29 (one allele, locus GATS91). The observed and agroecological zone effect, ␣␥ ik ϭ the site by agroecological expected heterozygosity values within populations averzone interaction, ␦ l(k) ϭ the landrace effect nested within agroaged across all loci fluctuated between zero and 0.04 ecological zone, and ε ijkl ϭ the experimental error.(average ϭ 0.01) and from 0.16 to 0.47 (average ϭ 0.35),The number of harvested plants was used as a covariable.respectively (Table 5). For some loci, specifically J04555The ANOVA analyses were performed with the software JMP and BM114 and for landraces mainly from the agroeco- landraces since all three of Wright's F statistics for thepooled set of loci were positive and different from zero. The mean F IS (inbreeding coefficient) value was high(0.95) with a 99% confidence interval from 0.88 to 1.0.Mean 2.3 1.6 1.9 2.9 2.9 3.1 2.7 2.3 3.3 5.7Landrace differentiation made F IT (total inbreeding co- # Total expected heterozygosity per locus across all individuals (independent of landrace).† † Total expected heterozygosity across all loci and across all individuals (independent of landrace).sity (H T ) averaged 0.51 across all individuals across all standard color, and growth habit (Table 7). There was analyzed loci. In general, the populations collected in a clear differentiation in earliness between the landraces the agroecological Zones B, F, and H showed higher collected in Zone H, and also to some extent between within-population gene diversity averaged across all loci landraces from Zone I. Furthermore, the landraces colthan Zone I.lected in Zone H had a clear differentiation in the proportion of plants with an indeterminate bush (type II)growth habit and color of the standard. Growing conditions were much poorer at San Pedro The ANOVA showed that the agroecological zones than at San Marcos, which resulted in a significant rewhere the landraces were collected and the experimenduction of growth, as reflected by reduced stem length tal sites had a great impact on the majority of the traits and leaf surface area and total bean yield, which was studied. Interactions between these factors were also 26% lower in San Pedro (data not shown). With the significant for some traits (100-seed weight, leaf surface exception of 100-seed weight, all yield components were area, and growth habit). In addition, significant differlower at San Pedro compared with San Marcos. With ences among landraces within agroecological zones regard to wing and standard petal color, the predomiwere found for growth habit and phenological traits nant variants were white and white with pink, respec-(days to flowering and days to physiological maturity).tively, and no significant differences between sites in the Landraces from the agroecological Zone B performed proportions of plants for these variables were observed. better in terms of yield than landraces from the agroeco-Although there was a tendency for seed weight from logical Zone I (Table 6). The landraces from the agroall landraces to be greater when grown at San Pedro ecological Zone B were characterized by both longer and than when grown at San Marcos, only seed weight for wider pods compared with landraces from Zone I, and landraces from the agroecological Zone H was signifithey had the most rapid days to flowering and maturity cantly greater (Table 8). At San Pedro, no difference of the landraces studied. Landraces from the agroecobetween landraces from different agroecological zones logical Zone H tended to have the longest stem length.was found in terms of leaf surface area at flowering, No variation in the proportion of plants showing either while at San Marcos landraces from Zone I had the of the variants of wing or standard color was observed largest leaflets. Landraces collected in Zone H showed among agroecological zones.fewer plants with an indeterminate bush (type II) growth Differentiation of landraces within the respective agroecological zones occurred for phenological traits, habit as compared with semivining (type III growth  habit) when grown at San Pedro than when grown at tion to the observed discrepancy in geographic pattern between molecular and phenotypic markers. San Marcos.We hypothesize that phenotypic traits are subject to both natural and artificial selection since environmental DISCUSSION conditions and farmers' selection criteria lead to diver-The results show that the pattern of genetic diversity gence between landraces. The clearly discernible differin the landraces studied depended on whether molecular ences in yield, morphological traits, and phenology obor phenotypic markers were used. This finding suggests served among the nine common bean landraces from that the state of genetic diversity in landraces may be different agroecological zones supports this hypothesis. better described when different markers are used in These results are in agreement with results obtained by a complementary manner. In our work, for example, Martin andAdams (1987a), Escribano et al. (1997), and microsatellites were ideal markers for detecting DNA Rodin ˜o et al. ( 2001) for bean landrace collections in polymorphism in the closely related but somewhat di-Africa and Europe. In Nicaragua, the environments vergent genotypes while phenotypic markers allowed us where the common bean is cultivated are quite heteroto measure variation of adaptive traits among landraces geneous and show differences in altitude, temperature, from different agroecological zones.rainfall, and edaphic conditions. Farm size, smallholder wealth, and consumer preferences can also vary among agroecological zones. As a result, the landraces studiedhere could have been subjected to different selection A specific pattern of geographic distribution of gepressures, which in turn could have resulted in their difnetic diversity was not observed based on the molecular ferentiation. marker data for the landraces from the different agroecological zones, but there was a pattern based on pheno-Variation among Landraces within typic traits. This finding did not allow us to categoricallyaccept or reject our second hypothesis. The contrast between the supposedly selectively neutral or near-neu-The partitioning of the total genetic variation between landraces and agroecological zones by molecular mark-tral nature of microsatellites (Jarne and Lagoda, 1996;Li et al., 2000) and the adaptive value of phenotypic ers indicated that a considerable part of the variation was attributable to differences among landraces within traits (Hill et al., 1998) might in part explain this apparent discrepancy. As pointed out by Lewontin (1984), the agroecological zones. A similar trend was observed for the phenological and qualitative traits. Therefore, we power of a statistical test to detect differences between quantitative characters is much higher than for polymor-had to reject our third hypothesis, which claimed that the differentiation of common bean landraces was low. phic neutral or near-neutral genes. Considering that we have few polymorphic microsatellite loci in this study, There are several possible reasons for the genetic differentiation of the landraces. The fact that there was we therefore refrain from giving any biological explana- no detectable differentiation between agroecological Zone H, which cover a large range of elevations and was perhaps the most differentiated of the zones studied, zones in the case of molecular markers suggests that the differentiation of landraces and populations within showed specific adaptation. These results are in agreement with several authors who indicate that estimates of landraces is because of founder effect. Another could be the predominantly self-pollinated mating system of genetic diversity within and between populations often depend on experimental location (Escribano et al., 1997; the common bean (Graham and Ranalli, 1997), which causes low rates of gene flow among populations, which Newbury and Ford-Lloyd, 1997;Pham and Van Hintum, 2000). Pe ´rez de la Vega (1996) also indicates that adap-in turn results in a spatial differentiation as was pointed out by Hill et al. (1998).tive traits are more easily observable in less-favorable environments than favorable ones. In the case of growth habit and phenological traits, it is possible that landrace differentiation has resulted from a high level of human selection pressure focused CONCLUSIONS toward adapting the landraces to new environments or Molecular and phenotypic markers complemented cropping systems. Meanwhile, variation in standard each other, and use of both allowed a more complete petal color would reflect natural rather than human description of the level and pattern of genetic diversity selection and could be explained by indirect selection of the landraces studied. The observed genetic structure of other traits or groups of traits.suggests that sampling for genetic resources of common beans in Nicaragua should be stratified with respect toagroecological zones to cover the effects of adaptation, In the present report, almost two thirds of the variaand from several farmers within zones to minimize the tion determined at molecular level was distributed effects of random drift. within landraces. This variation was evident in the high proportion of allelically different homozygous individu- sults have also been reported at the phenotypic level in Nicaraguan farmers, CIAT, and REGEN for providing the common bean, indicating that landraces in this crop tend plant material; and the staff of Germplasm Characterization to be heterogeneous populations (Martin andAdams Laboratory of CIAT andDr. Martin Lascoux for comments 1987a, 1987b;Tapia and Camacho, 1988;Briand et al., on the manuscript and help in data analysis. We are also 1998). to high levels of outcrossing have been reported (Wells Bisby, F.A. 1995. Characterization of biodiversity. p. 21-106. In V.H. et al., 1988;Gepts, 1993). Although most of the individu-Heywood and R.T. Watson (ed.) Global biodiversity assessment. als were homozygous for most loci, the higher frequency pothesis. In particular, landraces from agroecological","tokenCount":"2879"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9313a5e41e21e01b1ec3af0009a3a0af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c4f9aab6-cdca-4150-9e2b-e9283d9ddf41/retrieve","id":"1551047573"},"keywords":["data management","metadata","FAIR","ontologies","OBO foundry","DataPLANT","ISA"],"sieverID":"1b330842-3fae-4d84-9550-7c9376397fe4","pagecount":"15","content":"The importance of improving the FAIRness (findability, accessibility, interoperability, reusability) of research data is undeniable, especially in the face of large, complex datasets currently being produced by omics technologies. Facilitating the integration of a dataset with other types of data increases the likelihood of reuse, and the potential of answering novel research questions. Ontologies are a useful tool for semantically tagging datasets as adding relevant metadata increases the understanding of how data was produced and increases its interoperability. Ontologies provide concepts for a particular domain as well as the relationships between concepts. By tagging data with ontology terms, data becomes both human-and machine-interpretable, allowing for increased reuse and interoperability. However, the task of identifying ontologies relevant to a particular research domain or technology is challenging, especially within the diverse realm of fundamental plant research. In this review, we outline the ontologies most relevant to the fundamental plant sciences and how they can be used to annotate data related to plant-specific experiments within metadata frameworks, such as Investigation-Study-Assay (ISA). We also outline repositories and platforms most useful for identifying applicable ontologies or finding ontology terms.The field of plant research encompasses a huge range of experimental designs and analytical techniques in order to elucidate the complex, interconnected mechanisms involved in plant systems in a controlled manner, providing insights into the respective mechanisms and facilitating the development of new technologies and strategies for improving crop productivity, disease resistance, and environmental sustainability (Shah and Wu, 2019;Senger et al., 2022;Baekelandt et al., 2023). Documenting the experimental designs and resulting research data ranges from describing the experimental set up to its implementation, from sample characteristics to experimental or environmental factors, and from capturing phenotyping and imaging data to molecular analyses such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics data. The size and complexity of such experimental designs and the resulting data challenge good data management practices and the preservation of data. Conversely, some investigations result in scarce amounts of data that may be significant if combined with additional datasets, as long as they are properly preserved. For this reason, the FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable) principles were designed to guide data producers to maximize good data management practices (Wilkinson et al., 2016). FAIR data ensures transparency, reproducibility, and interoperability of plant science research, facilitating collaboration among scientists and enhancing the overall quality and impact of research outcomes. This in turn allows scientists to more easily contribute to, and more rapidly adapt to, the development of sustainable solutions for addressing global challenges such as food security and climate change (Mayer et al., 2021;Arend et al., 2022).One key component of research data management (RDM) is the comprehensive and accurate description of metadata, or data about data. Metadata provides essential information about the context, content, and characteristics of the data, helping researchers to organize, describe, and understand datasets and their production, enabling effective data discovery, sharing, and reuse (Wilkinson et al., 2016). The correct and complete recording of metadata relating to an investigation is especially important for plant research data as environmental conditions can have such a profound influence over the resulting data of sessile organisms (C ́wiek-Kupczyńska et al., 2016).With the large amounts of data being generated for a single research project, the potential and benefit of reusing and combining datasets to facilitate novel scientific discoveries is becoming ever greater. The challenge lies in the ability to find and integrate relevant datasets from different sources. Metadata is crucial for the correct interpretation of experimental data. Consistency in metadata annotation is important to ensure data is interoperable. It is crucial that datasets are both standardized as well as not only human-but also machine-readable, especially in the plant sciences, where diverse types of data are collected, analyzed and integrated (Shaw et al., 2020;Pommier et al., 2023).In recent years, ontologies have emerged as a powerful building block, supporting the standardization and harmonization of data annotation in plant sciences and increasing their FAIRness. Ontologies are systematic descriptions of knowledge used to describe a specific domain (Jensen and Bork, 2010). They are composed of a collection of terms as well as the relationships between them, which adds context and structure. Ontologies provide unique identifiers for concepts, making them machinereadable and retrievable. The standardized definitions for terms ensure that metadata tagged with ontology terms is interoperable between researchers.In addition to ontologies, metadata frameworks are important and widely-used data models for increasing the interoperability and shareability of data (Sansone et al., 2012). Metadata frameworks promote the structuring of data, ensuring it is in a consistent format which allows both data producers and consumers to effectively work with a diverse dataset. Well known examples of metadata frameworks include lightweight Bioschemas (Michel and The Bioschemas Community, 2018) and the ISA metadata framework (Investigation-Study-Assay) (Sansone et al., 2012;Gonzaĺez-Beltrań et al., 2014). Implementing metadata frameworks in conjunction with ontologies further facilitates the FAIRness of data.In recent years, several large-scale efforts aiming to provide services and tools that contribute to increasing the FAIRness of research data have been organized. Examples of such efforts are the German National Research Data Infrastructure (NFDI) (https:// www.nfdi.de/; Hartl et al., 2021) and Elixir (https://elixireurope.org/; Crosswell and Thornton, 2012). The NFDI comprises 26 consortia from different scientific disciplines, many of which offer software that facilitate standardized and comprehensive metadata annotation (Sasse et al., 2022). For example, the plant-focused NFDI DataPLANT consortium offers a metadata annotation tool, Swate, that incorporates ontologies necessary for the annotation of plantspecific experiments (Mühlhaus et al., 2021).While there is no 'one size fits all' approach to correctly annotating data with ontology terms, the task of selecting a specific term or ontology is often daunting and confusing to newcomers due to diverse and scattered resources. To aid researchers in this task, this review will provide an overview of ontologies most relevant to the fundamental plant sciences as well as their role and application in the annotation and integration of plant-specific experiments and how they relate to metadata frameworks, such as ISA. We will outline repositories and platforms most helpful for finding ontologies or ontology terms applicable to the annotation of metadata in the fundamental plant sciences. Finally, we will discuss the importance of community engagement for the interoperability of ontologies and ensuring that ontologies reflect the most recent scientific advancements.Ontologies are formal descriptions of knowledge that define concepts or terms and categories within a specific domain, as well as the relationships between them (Figure 1) (Gruber, 1993). While structure and semantic language of an ontology facilitate automatic reasoning, ontologies created within the biological sciences often focus on hierarchically describing their concepts and terms, meaning that they can be used as a well-organized controlled vocabulary for a specific domain. In the context of RDM, they are important for the structuring and standardization of data, improving interoperability and facilitating data integration and reuse.Ontologies need to fulfill certain technical requirements and structures to contribute to standardized metadata annotation. They are made up of two primary components: classes and the relations between them (Figure 1A). Classes define general concepts, terms or types of objects within a particular scientific domain. For example, terms such as 'plant structure' and 'abiotic plant exposure' are concepts that could be necessary to annotate a plant-related experiment. Relations describe how classes are connected and create semantic context within ontologies, giving them (often hierarchical) structure (Figure 1B). The most commonly found relation in an ontology is SubClassOf (is_a).Classes contain information, or annotations, about the particular concept or term, including a human-readable name or label, definition, equivalent terms, and synonyms. Most importantly, ontology classes contain a unique identifier, such as a persistent identifier (PID) or a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). These are permanent and unique, which allows the term to be permanently identified (Osumi-Sutherland, 2020). An ontology term's PID can be used to 'tag' metadata within a document, thereby making it machine-readable (Figure 1C).Ontologies can be expressed in a number of ways which vary in their human-readability and usage. The most commonly expressed forms within the biological and plant sciences are the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontology (OBO) file format and the Web Ontology Language (OWL) (Antoniou and van Harmelen, 2004;Golbreich et al., 2007). While ontologies vary in terms of content, one nearly ubiquitous characteristic of ontologies, especially within the biomedical and plant sciences, is the open and collaborative mindset with which its developers work to increase interoperability. One way of accomplishing this is to reuse, or import, terms from an existing ontology if the term adequately describes what is needed (Xiang et al., 2010), or else to use import from an upper-level ontology to organize terms at the most general level (Figure 1C). Other reasons for importing terms are, for example, commonly used measurement units, or the creation of a very specific application ontology, which may require terms from a related domain ontology to give proper context or structure.An additional benefit of term reuse and importing is that even if an ontology project runs out of support or funding, proper integration and cross-referencing of terms in other ontologies ensures that their knowledge is not lost. Interoperability can also be increased via community engagement. Contributions from domain experts (researchers) help grow and improve ontologies, keeping them up to date as the science itself develops and scientific discoveries are made. Git technology (Chacon, 2014) and GitHub (https://github.com/) have been transformative for the ontology community for facilitating open source work and version control. Researchers are able to interact with ontology providers to suggest terms and term improvements via the issues tab, and files are transparent and traceable, with changes and updates clearly marked and easily findable. Ontology structure and functions. (A) Ontology classes (blue circles) contain information such as a unique identifier, name, definition and synonyms for describing the class. Relations (arrow) connect classes, giving ontologies structure and context. (B) Ontologies can import and share terms from other ontologies to enable consistent representation of a term (concept) or domain, increasing the interoperability and standardization of ontologies and the terms they contain. Pictured here is an excerpt of the Plant Ontology (PO, blue nodes) (Walls et al., 2012;Cooper et al., 2013), containing terms from the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO, orange nodes) (Arp et al., 2015), the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON, red nodes) (Mungall et al., 2012) and the Ontology for Biomedical Investigations (OBI, purple nodes) (Brinkman et al., 2010). (C) An example of how ontology terms can be incorporated into metadata sheets to 'tag' information, facilitating machine-readability and increasing the FAIRness of the data. Columns A and C depict terms and columns B and D depict the corresponding ontology ID, respectively. Row 2 depicts the experiment characteristic and row 3 is the corresponding value.While the benefit of tagging metadata with ontology terms is clear, determining how to select an appropriate ontology or term is often less clear. Over recent years, a number of resources involved with the collection, curation and development of ontologies for particular scientific domains have been developed. These are often good starting points when deciding what term is best for metadata annotation. As they are easily searchable and often give the current developmental status of the ontologies they include, researchers can find the information they need to select a suitable ontology, or ontology term, for their particular data.Among these is the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontology (OBO) Foundry (https://obofoundry.org/; Smith et al., 2007), a collaborative initiative with the aim of developing a set of interoperable ontologies intended for the biological sciences. The OBO Foundry is a development community with a set of guiding principles that are seen as good practice, working to increase interoperability of ontologies. The principles are improved and refined at regular intervals and many are operational, allowing for easier interpretation and adherence (Jackson et al., 2021). The principles cover all aspects of ontology development, from licensing and formatting to documentation and commitment to collaboration. Ontologies wishing to be accepted into the OBO community are checked against these principles before being accepted. While not a classic ontology repository, the ontologies included in the OBO registry are considered to be adhering to best practices and that terms and relations found within are actively maintained. The registry covers a wide range of ontologies spanning general topics such as biological processes, molecular entities and scientific protocols and investigations, including a number of plantfocused ontologies.While the OBO Foundry includes a number of plant-related ontologies, topics more relating to the plant sciences, such as plant genomics, phenomics, or agronomy domains are not the focus and lack the same level of community involvement as the biomedical domain ontologies. For this reason, a number of ontology repositories specifically geared to different facets of the plant sciences have been developed. Among these is AgroPortal, a vocabulary and ontology repository founded by the Montpellier scientific community to facilitate open and collaborative science in agronomy (http:// agroportal.lirmm.fr/; Jonquet et al., 2018). AgroPortal was specifically designed for agronomy and related domains and reuses the openly available OntoPortal software (https://ontoportal.org/; Jonquet et al., 2023) to build the repository and services platform. The project aims to provide a reliable service involving hosting, searching and improving ontologies, allowing users to actively participate in the platform by uploading content and commenting on others' content (Jonquet et al., 2018). The original motivation for AgroPortal was guided by five agronomic use cases, which cover a range of agronomic topics from germplasm to livestock and contribute to the design and focus of the portal (https:// agroportal.lirmm.fr/about). These use cases include the Agronomic Linked Data knowledge base (http://agrold.southgreen.fr/aldp/; Venkatesan et al., 2018), a knowledge-based database for plant molecular networks such as genes, proteins, metabolic pathways and plant traits, and the Crop Ontology (CO) Project (https:// cropontology.org/; Arnaud et al., 2022) of the Integrated Breeding Platform (https://www.integratedbreeding.net/), described in greater detail below. AgroPortal includes projects, vocabularies and ontologies which cover the entire range of agronomic research, from livestock and plant species to environmental conditions and land governance.The Planteome database is heavily based on ontologies and is an informative resource for scientists searching for terminologies applicable to plant research and describing plant traits and experiments (https://planteome.org/). The database contains a collection of general reference ontologies aimed at improving annotation of an array of plant-related research data, ranging from genes to phenotypes (Cooper et al., 2018). Planteome also actively maps the species-specific ontologies of the Crop Ontology against the species-neutral reference ontologies, allowing users to search for a trait without having to consider the specific species. This is particularly useful for studies in comparative genomics or investigations of a family or clade (Cooper et al., 2018). As with the previously mentioned platforms, the Planteome ontologies are publicly available and openly maintained via GitHub repository (https://github.com/Planteome) to encourage sharing, tracking of revisions and new term requests (Cooper et al., 2018).A number of additional repositories for finding and querying ontologies are also available and include Ontobee (https://ontobee.org/; Ong et al., 2017), BioPortal (https://www.bioontology.org/; Whetzel et al., 2011), the Ontology Lookup Service (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ols/ index; Cotéet al., 2006), and the newly developed TIB Terminology service (https://terminology.tib.eu/ts; Strömert et al., 2023). While their collections do not focus heavily on the plant sciences, all aim to facilitate data sharing, ontology visualization, querying, integration and analysis. As the plant sciences cover a wide range of different technologies, many of the ontologies collected in these repositories will contain terms relevant to experimental set up and analysis. For example, all repositories listed above contain the Chemical Methods Ontology (CHMO) (https://github.com/rsc-ontologies/rsc-cmo), an ontology developed to describe chemical methods applicable to experimental assays, such as electron microscopy, preparations of materials to be separated for further analysis, such as by electrophoresis, and the synthesis of materials. Terms included in CHMO are relevant to many common techniques used throughout plant-related experiments, making it crucial the annotation of metadata for plant-related research.One challenge of identifying ontologies relevant to fundamental plant research is the diverse range of methods and technologies that can be and are utilized for an average investigation or research project. The mechanisms governing processes such as plant development or resistance to stress and disease are complex and oftentimes a variety of techniques spanning different scientific fields are required to comprehensively elucidate these pathways and responses. For example, physiological changes such as photosynthesis, chemical changes to the soluble leaf fraction, and changes in gene expression of target pathways must all be combined to comprehensively characterize how progressive soil drought stress influences sugar alcohol accumulation in soybean (Dumschott et al., 2019). To properly annotate the metadata accompanying such a study, ontology domains covering plant traits, experimental conditions, experimental protocols, equipment and technologies, and measurement units must all be incorporated (Figure 2). In this section, we will outline the ontologies most relevant to the fundamental plant sciences, divided into two subsections: general scientific ontologies and plant-related ontologies. A list of relevant ontologies and their domains can be found in Table 1. An extended version is available in Supplementary Table S1.General scientific ontologies cover concepts, relationships, and properties within a particular domain that can be applicable to wider scientific fields. We identified both upper-level and domainfocused ontologies as being relevant and important for the annotation of research data within the fundamental plant sciences. These ontologies provide a common vocabulary for representing and integrating scientific knowledge from different scientific domains, covering topics such as experimental set-ups or measurement units used, or else provide a framework for unifying ontologies for increased interoperability. In this section, we outline examples of general scientific ontologies, both domain-specific and upper-level ontologies, that are most relevant to contemporary fundamental plant research.Upper-level ontologies provide a foundational framework for other ontologies to incorporate in order to create semantic interoperability (Hoehndorf, 2010). As they are independent of any particular domain or application and provide the most general concepts, they can be easily integrated into ontologies and facilitate data integration across different systems and domains (Mascardi et al., 2007, Figure  1C). We identified the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the Core Ontology for Biology and Biomedicine (COB), and the Relation Ontology (RO) as being upper level ontologies most relevant to the fundamental plant sciences. BFO provides a framework for building more specific domain ontologies. It aims to provide a common foundation of concepts and relationships that can be used to represent knowledge in a wide range of domains such as biology, biomedical informatics, natural language processing, and philosophy (Arp et al., 2015). COB is a basic and structured framework that serves as a foundational resource for the life sciences (https://github.com/OBOFoundry/COB). By capturing essential concepts and their relationships, it serves as a foundation for the development of advanced ontologies for biology and biomedicine (Abdelmageed et al., 2021). A general scientific ontology that defines all properties used by the OBO Foundry ontologies is the RO. It is a formal ontology that provides a framework for interoperability between different ontologies and can therefore be used for different contexts (Smith et al., 2005).An example of how ontologies can be used for annotating a plant science experiment to increase the FAIRness of data. Terms must adequately cover the location and condition under which the plants are grown, the samples collected, and how the samples were processed and analyzed. For this reason, a diversity of ontologies is required to capture the multidimensional nature of the experiment. Also shown are the ISA metadata sections describing the growth and sample preparation protocols and samples in the Study and the protocols and research data related to an Assay.  One crucial aspect of successfully understanding the context of a dataset, is understanding how an experiment was performed.Variations in what treatment was performed on a sample, what protocols were used to extract a target material, or how a sample was collected must all be properly annotated for the resulting data and analysis to have any meaning. For this reason, the Ontology for Biomedical Investigation (OBI) (Brinkman et al., 2010) and the Experimental Factor Ontology (EFO) (Malone et al., 2010) were developed. Although it has 'biomedical' in the name, OBI is an integrated ontology for the description of all aspects of life-science investigations, even in the plant sciences, covering all phases of investigations, from planning to reporting (Bandrowski et al., 2016). OBI reuses terms from other well-established ontologies, in order to cover the wide range of projects it is intended for. It defines terms for assays such as mass spectrometry assay (OBI:0000470), instruments such as chromatography device (OBI:0001139), objectives and other concepts needed for data collection and analysis, including those involving omics and multi-omics approaches. As the methods used in the plant sciences encompass a wide range of technologies, researchers will find many relevant terms described in OBI. EFO is developed and maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) to support the annotation, analysis and visualization of data handled by groups involved in the organization. Although focused on gene expression data (Malone et al., 2010), describing experimental factors requires concepts taken from many disciplines, ranging from cell biology and proteomics to anatomy and environmental science. There are many terms within EFO that are relevant to describing sample collection and experimental factors within plant science investigations. For example, EFO contains terms that can help annotate the conditions under which a plant was grown (growth condition, EFO:0000523) (Figure 2) or else what part of a plant was sampled for an analysis (sampling site, EFO:0000688) (Figure 2). It is important to note that there are overlaps in terms between OBI and EFO. For example, both ontologies contain terms describing instruments such as Illumina NovaSeq 6000 (OBI:0002630, EFO:0008637) (Figure 2). Deciding on which term to use comes down to the personal preference of the researcher or else common practices within the research community.When annotating investigations involving molecular pathways and the characterization of gene expression and function, ontologies such as the Gene Ontology (GO) (Ashburner et al., 2000) and MapMan (Schwacke et al., 2019) are good resources to consider. GO is a widely used standardized classification system that provides a controlled vocabulary and framework for describing the functions, processes, and cellular components associated with genes and gene products, such as proteins, across different species (Ashburner et al., 2000;Gene Ontology Consortium et al., 2023). It helps researchers annotate and interpret genomic data by assigning functional terms to genes based on experimental evidence and computational predictions. Terms within the ontology are divided into three main categories: biological processes, molecular function and cellular component. Terms are connected within these categories, forming directed acyclic graphs. GO enables the comparison of gene function across diverse organisms, facilitates data integration and analysis, and supports the discovery of new In contrast to GO, the MapMan4 ontology was developed specifically for the characterization of gene expression and biological functions in plants (Schwacke et al., 2019). Built upon the original MapMan framework (Thimm et al., 2004), MapMan4 represents common biological processes and genetic information gathered from a wide range of plant species. It is organized in a tree structure, with top levels being main biological concepts and subsequent sublevels becoming more specialized to ensure the most precise protein characterization possible. The tool Mercator is used for the automatic annotation of protein sequences with the MapMan4 ontology (Schwacke et al., 2019).As the field of fundamental plant research incorporates many different scientific domains, there are a number of ontologies in other natural and life-science disciplines that are often applicable for a plant science investigation, depending on the topic and scope. Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) (Degtyarenko et al., 2008) and the Environment Ontology (ENVO) (Buttigieg et al., 2013;Buttigieg et al., 2016), covering chemical and environmental aspects, respectively, are two such often-utilized, cross-discipline ontologies. Developed by EMBL-EBI, ChEBI provides a classification of chemical entities (Degtyarenko et al., 2008). The ontology can be divided into three main branches: chemical entities, the role the chemical entity can have, and subatomic particles. Its importance to the wider scientific community is evident as ChEBI is widely incorporated into various databases, such as UniProt (The UniProt Consortium, 2015), and is heavily reused in well-established ontologies, such as GO, OBI, and EFO, as well as plant-specific ontologies. Within the plant sciences, ChEBI contains many terms for metabolites commonly found in plants, including primary metabolites such as glucose (CHEBI:17234) and fructose (CHEBI:287570), secondary metabolites such as pinitol (CHEBI:372080), and a wide range of terms for carotenoids (CHEBI:23044 and child terms). For environmental entities, ENVO is a widely-used ontology for describing ecosystems, environmental processes or even entire planets. Originally designed to provide information regarding biomes and environmental features of genomic and microbiome samples for the Genomics Standards Consortium (Field et al., 2011), ENVO has since evolved into a cross-discipline resource, spanning domains from biomedicine and omics to anthropogenic ecology and socioeconomic development (Buttigieg et al., 2016). As ENVO evolved, developers implemented changes to better align to OBO Foundry principles to ensure increased interoperability, such as incorporating terms from RO and BFO and moving the ontology to its own GitHub repository for better version control.Finally, there are a number of ontologies specifically relating relevant metadata important for describing the measurement of samples and subsequent data analysis. For example, the Human Proteome Organization-Proteomics Standards Initiative (HUPO-PSI) developed the PSI-Mass Spectrometry (MS) controlled vocabulary to logically structure and capture all terms relating to an MS pipeline-from sample preparation (in-solution digestion, MS:1002986) to instrument models (LCMS-9030, MS:1002998), parameters (Mascot : SigThreshold, MS:1001316) and related software (Spectronaut, MS:1001327) (Mayer et al., 2013). Examples of ontologies for the annotation of software used during the analysis of data collected within the life sciences are the Software Ontology (SWO) (Malone et al., 2014) and the Ontology of Bioscientific Data Analysis and Data Management (EDAM) (Ison et al., 2013). The need for such ontologies was realized as bioinformatic analysis became ever more prevalent. Just as metadata annotation is crucial for the reproducibility of laboratory experiments, knowing what versions of what tools were used to analyze a dataset is necessary for the reproducibility of said analyses. The scope of SWO is broad as it incorporates tools and software versions not only used in bioinformatics analyses (SAMtools, SWO:1100143), but also tools (and their versions) used for the management, analysis and presentation of biological data (R software, SWO:1100075) (Malone et al., 2014). EDAM covers topics, operations, types of data and data identifiers (Database ID, EDAM:1048) and formats (RNA annotation format, EDAM:3824) relevant to data analysis and management in the life sciences (Ison et al., 2013).While a number of ontologies and their applications have been described above and in Table 1, they are just a small subset of ontologies available to fundamental plant scientists. Depending on the particular investigation and technologies being employed, researchers may require an ontology that covers a domain not covered in this review, like food and nutritional ontologies. For this reason, it is always recommended to consult established ontology repositories to find a term or ontology that most closely matches the metadata being annotated.There are several ontologies well suited for describing and annotating experiments, phenotypic traits, structures and experimental conditions relating to plant research. In the following section, we will describe the most relevant ones in greater detail.The Planteome project (https://planteome.org/; Cooper et al., 2018) develops and maintains a number of species-neutral reference ontologies, including the Plant Ontology (PO) (Walls et al., 2012;Cooper et al., 2013), the Plant Trait Ontology (TO) (Cooper et al., 2018) and the Plant Experimental Conditions Ontology (PECO) (Cooper et al., 2018). The PO is crucial for the consistent annotation of anatomy, morphology and developmental stages of both plants and plant parts (Walls et al., 2012). Originally focused on Arabidopsis thaliana (mouse-ear cress) Zea mays (corn) and Oryza sativa (rice), it was broadened to cover all Viridiplantae (green plants). The primary aim of the PO is to bridge the diversity of data that can be collected during plant research-from genetics, molecular and cellular biology to taxonomy and botany research (Walls et al., 2019). The PO is divided into two main branches: 'plant anatomical entity' and 'plant structure development stage'. Terms in these branches are organized hierarchically via subclass, or subClassOf (is_a) relations. All other relations depicted in the PO come from the OBO RO (Walls et al., 2019). The branch 'plant anatomical entity' includes terms for plant morphology and anatomy, such as structures (leaf, PO:0025034) (Figure 2) (Walls et al., 2012), whereas the branch 'plant structure development stage' covers terms relating to stages of life either of a whole plant or plant part during which the structure undergoes developmental processes, such as growth (rosette growth stage, PO:0007113), differentiation (root cortex differentiation stage, PO:0007513) or senescence (sporophyte senescent stage, PO:0007017) (Walls et al., 2019).Two other plant reference ontologies used in the Planteome database are the TO and PECO. Both ontologies were conceived and developed with the aim of improving data interoperability for the advancement of plant research. One common issue within the fundamental plant sciences is the semantic inconsistencies that exist between species, especially for phenotypic descriptions, meaning data integration is often not possible without the manual identification of corresponding concepts (Arnaud et al., 2012). For example, what is referred to as a 'leaf' in some species is known as a 'frond' in others. It is therefore crucial to standardize trait terms between different species and projects in a way that allows for the easy integration of phenotypic and trait data from different sources. The TO was developed to address the discrepancies in trait descriptions and to increase interoperability of plant trait data between species (Cooper et al., 2018). Terms within the TO are structured according to an Entity-Quality pattern (Arnaud et al., 2012). Entity terms are imported from other wellestablished ontologies, such as the PO, the GO and ChEBI, while quality terms are taken from the Phenotype and Trait Ontology (PATO). In this way, terms and descriptions are kept general enough that they can be successfully applied to most plant species and importing terms from other ontologies facilitates its interoperability. For example, the term biological process trait (TO:0000283) is a subclass of the PATO term process quality (PATO:0001236), and subclasses of biological process trait include terms such as fruit ripening trait (TO:0000929), net photosynthetic rate (TO:0001027) and starch grain synthesis (TO:0002658). Finally, PECO covers terms specifically needed to describe study types (greenhouse study, PECO:0007248), growth conditions (long day length exposure, PECO:0007199) (Figure 2) and treatments assessed during an experiment, including abiotic treatments such as sodium chloride exposure (PECO:0007048), or biotic treatments, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal exposure (PECO:0001059) (Cooper et al., 2018).The Crop Ontology (CO) was developed by several members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to harmonize the annotation of phenotypic and genotypic data between different crops (https://alliancebioversityciat.org/toolsinnovations/crop-ontology). As traits, measurement methods and scales can vary greatly between different crops, controlled vocabularies and ontologies are required to enable comparisons between how a trait is assessed in different species (Shrestha et al., 2012). The CO provides crop-specific trait ontologies for increased plant data annotation and integration (Shrestha et al., 2012;Arnaud et al., 2016;Arnaud et al., 2020). Terms are cross-referenced with synonyms in PO and TO, increasing the interoperability of data as users are able to search for a trait without having to consider a specific species (Arnaud et al., 2012). This feature is important for studies in comparative genomics or when searching for traits shared by a family or clade of plants (Cooper et al., 2018). At the time of writing, 37 species-specific ontologies are included, covering a wide range of different crop species, including staple crops (wheat, maize, cotton, soybean), fruits and vegetables (banana, brassica) and legumes (chickpea, mung bean, lentil, faba bean).While a number of large continental-scale data sources for plant phenology exist, the ability to conduct analyses of plant phenology on an inter-continental scale was hindered by the lack of standardized language and terminology used to describe the data found in individual repositories, resulting in data incompatibility. For this reason, the Plant Phenology Ontology (PPO) was developed to address this communication gap and help to facilitate interoperability of plant phenology data (Stucky et al., 2018). Six principles guide the design and goals of the PPO to ensure it is both broadly applicable as well as interoperable and that data based on PPO annotation is reusable. The PPO aims to reuse terms from other ontologies, such as the PO and Biological Collections Ontology (BCO) wherever possible (Walls et al., 2014). The classes and concepts included in the PPO can be divided into three main topics: plant structures, phenological traits and observations of/data about phenological traits (Stucky et al., 2018).One of the most challenging fields of fundamental plant research is that of phenotyping, due to its heterogeneous nature and the sensitivity of phenotype to environmental conditions. The ability to correctly interpret phenotypic data is therefore heavily reliant on how completely environmental conditions and metadata relating to experiment setups is recorded (Papoutsoglou et al., 2020). Therefore, C ́wiek-Kupczyńska et al. (2016) created the \"Minimum Information About a Plant Phenotyping Experiment\" (MIAPPE) to outline the list of attributes, or metadata, necessary to adequately annotate a plant phenotyping experiment so that the resulting data can be correctly understood. Attributes included within MIAPPE are organized into different sections according to the ISA framework (described in more detail in Section 5) as it is able to handle a diverse range of phenotyping data and experimental designs due to its generality and flexibility (C ́wiek- Kupczyńska et al., 2016). To facilitate the implementation of MIAPPE, the Plant Phenotyping Experiment Ontology (PPEO) was created. Whereas most of the plant-specific ontologies described above focus on defining terms for metadata description, PPEO represents the MIAPPE structure, incorporating the different sections of the framework as the primary backbone of the ontology, then adding the required attributes (https://github.com/MIAPPE/ MIAPPE-ontology). PPEO is therefore an important resource for organizing metadata collected during plant phenotyping experiments (rather than defining metadata terms), as all attributes have their own ontology id, making them easily searchable.The NFDI funded DataPLANT consortium has developed its own ontology, the DataPLANT Biology Ontology (DPBO) (https:// github.com/nfdi4plants/nfdi4plants_ontology), to assist researchers with metadata annotation and help close the ontology gap. In conjunction with a collection of external ontologies, the DPBO helps users annotate their experimental metadata via DataPLANT's Swate tool (https://github.com/nfdi4plants/Swate; Mühlhaus et al., 2021). The DPBO contains terms from established ontologies needed by users as well as new terms not yet found in any ontology. Users suggest the terms they need via the GitHub issues tab and the DPBO curators provide quick feedback to term suggestions and incorporate them into the DPBO. For new terms, curators find the most fitting ontology and suggest the terms to be incorporated. In this way, researchers can use their needed terms for metadata annotation without having to go through the time and effort to select the most relevant ontology and DataPLANT acts as the middle man between researchers and ontology providers. Once a term has been accepted to the external ontology, the DPBO term is deprecated with a reference to the new term id. Thus, the DPBO provides a low-friction way for researchers to contribute to closing the ontology gap.Challenges in data harmony and integration often arise when bringing together data from multiple sources to answer complex scientific questions. These challenges involve differences in terminology descriptions, a lack of sufficient context, or else the data is structured in a way being difficult to comprehend, thereby hindering its reuse. To address these challenges and facilitate the management and integration of experimental data across different research domains, a number of community-driven efforts have been founded that aim to develop metadata standards and frameworks for improved data sharing and handling. Some well-known examples are Bioschemas (Michel and The Bioschemas Community, 2018) and the ISA (Investigation-Study-Assay) framework (Gonzaĺez-Beltrań et al., 2014;Sansone et al., 2016).The ISA framework aims to ensure scientific data is accompanied by metadata that describes the context in which the data was generated. This context includes information about the experimental design, sample characteristics, data acquisition and processing, and data analysis. The ISA data model is structured around three entities: Investigation, Study, and Assay (Figure 3). The Investigation entity represents the overarching research project and provides general information about the research questions and goals. The Study entity describes the subject under study and the experimental design. For a plant study, this could include factors and protocols with respect to growth of the plants or generation of samples of plant origin, either parts of a plant or the plant itself. The Assay entity represents the measurements taken on the collected sample as well as the data generated from those measurements, including raw and derived data files. For a plant assay, this could include protocols on how a sample was processed, such as for a DNA extraction, and information on the measuring instrument used (i.e. sequencer used to process the extraction sample).One advantage of the ISA framework is its flexibility and adaptability, which allows for a wide range of experimental designs and research data to be represented within a single investigation. Its flexibility is exemplified by the ability to gather metadata in a user-friendly spreadsheet format, which is not only human-readable but also effortlessly convertible into machinereadable formats essential for numerous applications and software systems (e.g. ISA-Tab, ISA-JSON etc.) (Gonzaĺez-Beltrań et al., 2014). Different types of biological data, such as transcriptomic, proteomic, or metabolomic data, as well as non-biological data, such as environmental conditions, can be represented by the ISA model (Sansone et al., 2012).Ontologies play a crucial role in the ISA data model by providing a standardized vocabulary and sets of concepts that can be used to describe experimental metadata in a consistent and structured way. Each ISA entity has a list of required metadata, where ontology annotations are preferred over free-text to give the proper context for the entity (Figure 3A). According to the ISA specification, each entity has additional nodes to describe material or data related to the experiment, where ontology terms can further be annotated. For example, under the Assay entity is the 'material node', where researchers can describe materials consumed or produced during an experimental workflow. Within this node is the property \"material type\", which should be described using an ontology annotation (Figure 3B). This makes the description of experimental metadata both precise and unambiguous, reducing the potential for errors and misinterpretation, enabling data to be more easily integrated and shared across different research projects, domains and platforms. Ontologies can also be used to map the relationships between different concepts and terms, which can facilitate potential connections and correlations between different datasets.There are a number of ways that plant-related ontologies can be incorporated into one of the ISA entities depending on the investigation that is being represented (Figure 4). For example, OBI and EFO can be incorporated into the Study and Assay entities of the ISA framework as they contain terms relating to experimental setup, sample processing and analysis. ENVO is particularly relevant for annotating Study metadata as terms can be used when describing the habitat or environmental conditions of a location when a plant sample was collected (for example, ENVO_1000745: drought).One of the key benefits of using ontologies in the ISA data model is that it allows for more effective data integration and analysis, by controlling the values that a metadata element can take (for example Ho Sui et al., 2013;Peters et al., 2019). Using ontologies to standardize the terms used to describe experimental variables allows researchers to more easily compare datasets and identify similarities and differences between them. This can be especially important when analyzing large datasets, where manual inspection and interpretation of the data may be difficult or timeconsuming. In addition to providing a standardized vocabulary, ontologies also help to improve the accuracy and consistency of the data itself. By using an ontology to specify the units of measurementThe ISA metadata framework (Sansone et al., 2016), designed to capture experimental metadata. (A) The framework consists of three core entities: Investigation, Study and Assay. The structure allows for multiple studies to be described within one investigation and multiple assays to be described within one study. Each entity has metadata requirements that should be included to ensure the complete description of the entity. Within the Study and Assay entities, an ontology annotation is the required input for included metadata, such as design type in study and measurement type in assay (marked with blue boxes). (B) An example of the 'material node' that Assay entities can contain to describe material consumed or produced during an experiment. The required metadata for this node are 'characteristics,' which may-but does not have to be-an ontology annotation (marked with a dashed blue box) and 'material type,' which required an ontology annotation (marked with a blue box).Visualization of the domain-specific ontologies relevant for the plant science community and their relation to ISA. Left: hierarchical structure of ISA concepts. The ontologies on the right are linked to ISA concepts via symbols. Green boxes highlight plant-specific ontologies. While this figure gives an idea of where ontologies can be incorporated within ISA, there are likely scenarios where an ontology can be incorporated that is not depicted here.used in an experiment, researchers can avoid errors that might arise from using different units or from converting units incorrectly. This can be especially important when working with complex datasets that involve many different types of measurements and units.Overall, ontologies are an important tool for enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of the ISA data model (Johnson et al., 2021). By providing a standardized vocabulary and set of concepts, ontologies help to ensure that the experimental metadata is precise, consistent, and easy to interpret and share across different research projects and domains.As the potential of integrating modern techniques becomes evident, the need to properly integrate and manage the data produced becomes evermore important. Ontologies play a crucial role in this management, ensuring that data is both reusable and interoperable by 'tagging' data. Tagged data is then both humanand machine-readable, allowing for the subsequent retrieval and standardization of data. Incorporating terms into metadata frameworks, such as ISA, further increases the FAIRness of data. However, despite the obvious advantages of incorporating ontologies into data management schemes, determining what ontology or ontological term is most appropriate at any given time can be challenging due to the confusing and overlapping nature of the ontological landscape. For example, both OBI and EFO include terms for sequencing instruments (Figure 2, Section 4.1) and either ontology can be selected for annotation. The reality is that there is no 'one size fits all' approach to what terms should be used to annotate metadata, and it is often a matter of familiarizing oneself with what ontologies and terms are available. Fortunately, there has been a push in recent years to provide more comprehensive overviews of ontologies that are available to the wider scientific community. A number of ontology repositories have been developed, all aiming to facilitate researchers in finding terms most fitting for annotating metadata. Ontology repositories and service platforms such as Planteome and AgroPortal are good resources for users trying to determine where to begin when annotating fundamental plant research data with ontology terms. Both are designed specifically for plant research, agronomy and related fields and encourage the active participation and collaboration of users for the improvement of included ontologies. As the number of agricultural genetics, genomics and breeding databases increases, the need for better data and metadata sharing will too, and ontology use and promotion of data standards will grow (Clarke et al., 2023).Another potential challenge facing users is where to actually begin with when it comes to metadata annotation as it is not always clear what should be included when describing an experiment. This challenge has been recognized by the wider scientific community and a number of resources, tools, and projects have been developed in recent years to address these hurdles. Minimum information standards, such as MIAPPE (C ́wiek-Kupczyńska et al., 2016), often provide comprehensive lists of required, recommended and optional attributes needed for the complete description of an experiment. Tools such as DataPLANT's Swate (https:// github.com/nfdi4plants/Swate; Mühlhaus et al., 2021) and ISA's OntoMaton (Maguire et al., 2013, https://github.com/ISA-tools/ OntoMaton) can be utilized to help users when beginning the process of annotating their spreadsheets with ontology terms. Swate has a number of templates available that can be used when submitting to repositories or if the researcher wants their data collection to comply with a minimum information standard. A number of recent collaborative projects have also recognized the need for better metadata management for the submission to repositories. For example, a data brokering prototype developed at the 2022 European Biohackathon provides a high-level alignment of ISA-JSON to the ENA (European Nucleotide Archive) XML submission template with the hope of streamlining the submission process (D'Anna et al., 2023), with future plans to expand to other repositories (https://github.com/elixir-europe/biohackathonprojects-2023/tree/main/27).One common theme apparent throughout the ontologies covered within this review is the importance of open and collaborative efforts for increasing the FAIRness of data. It is widely accepted by the greater scientific community that making data more FAIR will greatly benefit data reproducibility and data management practices (Rocca-Serra et al., 2023). However, the actual task of making data FAIR remains costly and time consuming, hindering progress. Ontology providers therefore rely on and encourage community engagement and interdisciplinary collaboration for the continuing expansion and improvement of concepts and their relations. Through technologies such as Git, coupled with open licensing and standardized ontology languages, ontologies such as EFO (https://github.com/EBISPOT/ efo), OBI (https://github.com/obi-ontology/obi), the Planteome ontologies (https://github.com/Planteome) and many others encourage communication and collaboration with researchers to help fill ontology gaps. Fundamental plant research is diverse by nature, incorporating techniques and concepts from all corners of the life sciences, and benefits greatly from this community push for the standardization and improvement of ontologies for metadata annotation.The evolving nature of science requires that data can be reevaluated and benefits from a flexible data structure. For this reason, efforts such as NFDI (https://www.nfdi.de/; Hartl et al., 2021) and Elixir (https://elixir-europe.org/; Crosswell and Thornton, 2012) have been established in recent decades. These efforts recognize the importance of well-curated and managed datasets for the increased management and archiving of research data. One potential outcome of these efforts is the possibility of creating integrated repositories and enabling semantic searches upon those, facilitating the reuse of datasets to answer novel research questions. Similar work is already being done within the biomedical sciences with the development of resources such as GenoSurf (http://www.gmql.eu/genosurf/; Canakoglu et al., 2019), specific to human genetics. Databases such as the European Bioinformatics Institute's BioSamples (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ biosamples/; Courtot et al., 2019) contains datasets from a wide range of different species, including many plant species. Also part of Elixir's infrastructure, BioSamples contains results from biological samples stored in archives such as ArrayExpress (https:// www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/arrayexpress; Kolesnikov et al., 2015), the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena/ browser/home; Silvester et al., 2018) and the European Genomephenome Archive (EGA) (https://ega.crg.eu/; Lappalainen et al., 2015). Specifically for plant data, the NFDI funded consortiums FAIRagro (https://fairagro.net/en/, Specka et al., 2023) and DataPLANT have developed their own infrastructure for data curation and archiving. The FAIRagro infrastructure contains a number of data repositories, including e!DAL-PGP (https://edalpgp.ipk-gatersleben.de/; Arend et al., 2016), for the storage of data relating to agricultural research. DataPLANT has developed the PLANTdataHUB. Users have the option of submitting their datasets to the Annotated Research Context (ARC) registry, which provides an advanced search interface for locating relevant data via indexed metadata found within the datasets (Weil et al., 2023). With the recent push for sustainable RDM and FAIR data practices, the potential that ontologies provide to the plant research community becomes evermore apparent. However, knowing where to begin when annotating experimental metadata with ontologies is sometimes a daunting task. Here we have outlined ontologies most relevant to the fundamental plant sciences and discussed resources available for finding ontology terms. This review is meant as a starting guide for plant researchers when considering the metadata annotation of their next datasets. The complexity of both the ontology landscape and the data produced within plant experiments means that there is no 'one size fits all' approach to metadata annotation and makes a comprehensive guide impossible. Instead, researchers are encouraged to explore the resources outlined here and familiarize themselves with ontology terms to help them decide on the terms best suited to their individual experiments. The proper annotation of metadata with ontology terms will no doubt further good RDM practices, not only for the fundamental plant research community, but the wider scientific research community, making it the responsibility of every researcher to implement these annotations within their own research. Arnaud, E., Cooper, L., Menda, N., Nelson, R., Matteis, L., Skofic, M., et al. (2012). owards a reference plant trait ontology for modeling knowledge of plant traits and phenotypes. doi: 10.13140/2.1.2550.3525 Arnaud, E., Hazekamp, T., Laporte, M.-A., Antezana, E., Andres Hernandez, L., Pot, D., et al. (2022). Crop ontology governance and stewardship framework 14.","tokenCount":"8106"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f92180669393c18fc81b93a413f226d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c13deca-c842-453c-8698-07c126e7d3aa/retrieve","id":"1190860852"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c1ef7853-d483-4abc-9b34-18274da27249","pagecount":"8","content":"Crops and livestock form integral components in providing for the human population in semi-arid Kenya. This has necessitated re-orientations in developing technical packages that integrate the two production systems. Several studies have reported on dry matter production and distribution in sweet potato (Ipomea batatas (L.) Lamb) during growth and development (Austin, 1973;Huett and O'Neill, 1976;Karachi, 1982a andBourke, 1984). Attempts were further made (Karachi, 1982b) to broadly classify Kenyan materials into dual purpose tuber and vine producing types based on tops: tuber yield ratios.The dual purpose types have a potential role in the development of production technologies that aim at integrating crops and livestock commodity factors into an integral production system. The following investigations were initiated to study production characteristics, forage quality and animal production potential of some selected Kenyan sweet potato accessions for inclusion into crop/livestock production systems.Experiment 1: Fibrous root development Experiment 2: Tuber development and vine quality Experiment 3: Effect of supplement sweet potato vines and cottonseed cake (SCS) on growth of weaned Boran calves.Twelve accessions, Mania, Namala, Mkizumu, 3011, Kiganda, Munyoka (R), Calorine Lee, Musinya, Widowi, Mulenjet, Opiemo and Lunyulule were used in each experiment.The experiment was conducted in an open grasshouse at National Dryland Farming Research Centre, Katumani. The aim was to determine whether there were differences in fibrous root initiation and growth between the accessions under adequate moisture conditions.Five 30 cm long apical vines from each accession were cut at a node, tied loosely together with cotton thread and put in 10 cm diameter, 20 cm long polythene bags. The cut vine tips were bedded into 3 cm depth of water. The experiment was a randomised complete block design with three replications. Indications of root initiation were recorded on each vine daily as swellings at the nodes. Mean root lengths and numbers were recorded 10 days from root initiation for each accession. Water in polythene bags was not changed during the experimental period.Two experiments involving yearly replanting were conducted under rainfed conditions at Beef Research Station, Nakuru. Each experiment was established after 30 mm establishment rainfall was received; a total of 610 mm (year 1) and 590 mm (year 2) was received during the growth periods.Plot sizes were 6 m × 3.6 m. The design was a split-plot with accessions as main plots and sampling dates as sub-plots. There were three replicates. Vine cuttings, 30 cm long, were planted on flats at 60 cm within row spacing and 30 cm between row spacing. Fertilizers at the rates of 20 kg P/ha, 15 kg K/ha and 10 kg N/ha as single superphosphate, muriate of potash and calcium ammonium nitrate, respectively, were placed in small furrows about 3 cm depth and width adjacent to vine rows and immediately covered. The plots were clean weeded throughout the experiment.Trends in tuberisation and dry-matter accumulation were monitored over four harvest dates ranging from 120, 150, 180 and 210 days after planting. Six randomly selected adjacent plants were harvested by hand digging leaving the border plants. On each harvest date, total number and fresh weight of enlarged tubers, >3 cm diameter, clean of soil and total fresh weight of vines were recorded. Subsamples, on replicate basis, of enlarged tubers (sliced) and vines were dried in a forced draft oven (105°C for 24 h) for dry matter (DM) determination. Another set of subsamples was dried at 60°C for 24 h, ground to pass through 2 mm sieve and stored in airtight plastic bottles for chemical analysis. Crude protein (CP) was determined by microkjedahl method and ash content as described by AOAC (1970). The fibre fractions were determined according to Goering and Van Soest (1970).Bulking plots of the same accessions were established at the same time for a feeding trial.The experiments were conducted aimed at comparing growth rates of penned Boran calves fed on chopped (approximately 3 cm length) Rhodes grass hay as basal roughage supplemented with either sweet potato vines (mean CP, 13% on DM basis) or cottonseed cake (mean CP, 33% on DM basis). Sweet potato vines were 210 days old from transplanting. The vines were harvested, air dried and chopped (approximately 3 cm length) before commencement of the trials. All weaners were dewormed before the start of the experiment using Ranzole (Merk, Sharp and Dohme B.V. Netherlands Commercial) mineral supplement 'stock lick', from Unga Feeds Ltd. Nairobi and water were provided ad libitum Calves, 131±5, 134±7 and 140±4 kg (experiment 3a) and 132±6, 129±3 and 126± kg (experiment 3b) initial mean fasted liveweights (16h without water or feed) were either fed hay (ad lib), hay + 500 g vines DM and hay + 200 g DM cottonseed cake head/day. The supplements provided additional 65 and 66 g crude protein/head/day respectively. In experiment 3b the weaners were supplemented with additional 100g urea/molasses, (4% CP) head/day to improve forage intake. Each experiment consisted o a preliminary period of 14 days to allow adjustment of weaners diets and facilities. Calves were randomly allocated to treatments in groups of nine per pen. Half of the estimated has intake (established during the adjustment period) was mixed witl the supplements and offered at 09.00 h. The remaining forage component was offered at 14.00 h allowing 15% more forage than that consumed the previous day. The experimental design was a randomised complete block with two replications.Records were kept of feed offered, less refusals, to obtain intake data. The dry matter intake was calculated on a basis of 7 day totals of dietary components offered, less refusals. At the start of each experiment and after every 15 days during the feeding period, starved weaner liveweights were taken.Chemical composition of feeds on offer was determined as described in experiment 2. In vitro dry matter digestibility was estimated by Tilley and Terry (1963) procedures. Statistical analyses of all data was done according to Steel and Torrie (1980). Means were subjected to Duncan's multiple range test for determination of significant differences.Time to fibrous root initiation was not significantly different (P<0.05) between the cultivars but significant differences (P<0.05) were observed with fibrous root numbers and root length (Table 1). However, relationships between these rooting characters are not apparent. This experiment should be conducted under field situation to examine whether the accessions exhibit similar growth trends under limited moisture conditions.Time to production of thickened tubers as measured by roots >3 cm diameter (Table 2) differed significantly (P<0.05) among accessions. Generally, accessions Mania, 3011 and Muyoka (R) could be classified as early tuber initiators (<than 150 days from transplanting) while the others (except Namala, Mulenjeti and Lunyulule) which did not produce tubers are late tuber initiators. The late tuber initiators also tended to have significantly higher (P<0.05) root tuber numbers. Root tuber numbers and tuber weight varied among accessions confirming the results of Karachi (1982b) and Randle (1987). Accession 3011 had the highest and significant (P<0.01) mean tuber weight (21.4±2.2g) while Muyoka (R) had the lowest and significant (P<0.01, 3.3±0.4g). Accession Opiemo had the highest and significant (P<0.01) mean tuber numbers (13.3±1.5g) and Muyoka (R) the lowest and significant (1.7±0.1g). No apparent relationship between root tuber numbers, tuber weight or time to tuber initiation was evident.Changes in dry weights of tops components are shown in Figure 1. A significant (P<0.05) harvest time × species interraction was detected. Accessions showed declined trends in leaf and stem DM accumulation after day 120 from transplanting but at different rates. The leaf component declined at a higher rate than that of the stem fraction leading to a reduction in leaf contribution to total DM with maturity which conforms with Randle (1987). This could eventually result in reduction of the nutritive value of the vines (Karachi 1982a). The declining trends were most marked when enlarged root tubers were recorded suggesting most assimilates were directed to tuber development (Austin, 1973 andBhagsari andHarmon, 1982).  Chemical composition of tops (Table 3) showed significant (P<0.05) differences in protein content (CP%), cell contents (CC%), cell wall constituents (CWC%) and acid detergent lignin (ADL%). Acid detergent fibre (ADF%) and ash contents were not significantly different (P>0.05). The content of these attributes ranged by approximately 5, 13, 11, 4, 6 and 2 percentage units respectively between the accessions indicating that selections could be made that optimises vine nutritional qualities. Overall, the materials show protein levels are adequate to meet animal requirements for beef production (Church, 1980). However, the lignin levels are high which is characteristic of forbs (Van Soest, 1982). A.N. Said (unpublished data) recorded low water intake and high urination rates by sheep fed sweet potato vines.Fractionating the mineral content in the ash and the DM content in the forage may assist in explaining this observation.Chemical composition of rations offered (Table 4) indicate protein content was slightly above levels that intake is depreseed (6-8% CP, Van Soest 1982). In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD%) show that the feeds were of medium quality and generally improved with supplementation. Namala 13.9 ± 1.9 47.0 ± 5.8 53.7 ± 0.7 42.0 ± 0.2 13.2 ± 1.2 12.2 ± 1.1 Mkizumu 12.1 ± 1.3 45.5 ± 1.3 54.5 ± 2.4 39.0 ± 2.2 14.4 ± 0.4 11.3 ± 0.3 3011 14.0 ± 0.5 44.6 ± 5.9 55.1 ± 0.3 37.6 ± 1.3 13.1 ± 0.7 11.6 ± 0.3 Kiganda (K) 10.6 ± 0.6 45.4 ± 2.6 52.2 ± 4.2 43.6 ± 1.2 14.6 ± 0.9 11.2 ± 1.6Muyoka (R) 12.8 ± 0.6 54.4 ± 1.8 52.0 ± 0.1 42.8 ± 3.4 14.0 ± 0.5 10.0 ± 0.5 Calorine Lee 12.6 ± 0.1 49.2 ± 1.3 51.0 ± 2.3 40.4 ± 1.8 13.5 ± 1.3 10.0 ± 0.8 Musinya 12.2 ± 0.2 47.8 ± 4.1 47.9 ± 1.7 38.2 ± 2.1 12.1 ± 0.3 11.5 ± 0.4 Widowi 9.6 ± 0.8 43.8 ± 3.9 56.2 ± 1.9 41.8 ± 1.7 14.4 ± 0.6 9.9 ± 1.  Weaners supplemented with vines and cottonseed cake consumed 30 and 50% more (P<0.01) total DM respectively than those fed on grass alone (Table 5 experiment 3a). The improved feed intake was associated with 2.5 to 3.4 times (P<0.01) gain in calf liveweights and 49 to 55% improved (P<0.01) efficiencies in utilising the feed above that of calves fed on grass alone. Inclusion of urea/molasses (experiment 3b) increased (P<0.01) total DM intake, liveweight gains and feed utilisation efficiencies. The magnitude of gain was 1.9 and 2.2 times (P<0.01) and feed efficiency, 38% (P<0.01) above that of control calves. Molasses was probably associated with overcoming dietary energy deficits since liveweight gains were similar among the supplemented groups. Cottonseed cake contains substantial levels of energy.Inherent climatic constraints in semi-arid bimodal rainfall zones with <120 growing days, entail that the cultivars/accessions should initiate fibrous and fresh root growth and the partitioning of assimilates between tops and root tubers within relatively short growth periods. Although no differences were exhibited on time to fibrous root initiation, data on root numbers and lengths suggest that differences may exist in the ability of the accessions to exploit the available moisture. This could be a critical determinant of successful establishment under unreliable and limited moisture conditions typical in semiarid environments. Freshy root initiation by accessions 3011 and Muyoka (R) indicate their ability to produce tubers within the period effective moisture is expected (in Machakos). The other accessions appear suitable for semi-arid unimodal rainfall high altitude areas, 150-180 growing days (in Nakuru) while accessions Namala, Mulenjeti and Opiemo are essentially vine producing types under these growth conditions.Sweet potato tubers are used as dry season human food security. Prolonged storage of tubers in the soil leads to leaf shed and increased synthesis of fibre fractions in the stem which are antiquality characteristics. Vine DM accumulation rates declined within 120-150 days from transplanting but showed minimal change at 210 days suggesting this would be the optimal feeding period. Therefore the use of sweet potato vines as feed supplement in the dry season may require selection of materials with capacity to retain leaves. Another possibility would be to cut vines before leafshed for storage. However information on effects of cutting vines on tuber storability is lacking.Supplementing weaners with 500 g/head/day of vines effected growth equivalent to that of calves fed 200 g cottonseed cake head/day. At the current price of KShs. 7.00 (USD 0.35)/kg high grade cottonseed cake it is apparent that compounding feeds based on vines rather than cottonseed cake would be an attractive venture. Greater value would further be obtained from supplementing vines to dairy stock or replacement heifers than beef-animals. Nevertheless, the DM content of fresh vines is usually <30%, necessitating feeding substantial amounts.","tokenCount":"2080"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c732e7be2a9684833a7fae4e703b75f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a4346d5a-f4e2-4933-9598-1a04df25c7e3/content","id":"1754343033"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"50bae09a-a014-46c0-bc22-4573d2fc50e2","pagecount":"11","content":"The dynamics in intra-household decision-making are often neglected in literature on the adoption of agricultural innovations. However, households' farm management decisions are often made following negotiations between female and male farmers. These may differ in terms of individual bargaining power and personal preferences. A better understanding of the links between gender roles in household decision-making and the adoption of technologies is postulated to enhance the uptake of innovations in smallholder farming systems. In this study, we use survey data from 1,088 wheat-producing households in Ethiopia to analyze the links between women's role in household decisions concerning crop production and the adoption and turnover rates of rust-resistant wheat varieties. We interviewed female and male respondents from the same households, but separately, which facilitated capturing individual perceptions and the intra-household dynamics in decision-making. To account for observed heterogeneity that may simultaneously determine the level of women's agency and varietal adoption by households, we employed Inverse Probability-Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA). A positive association was found between women's role in decision-making concerning choice of wheat seed and household adoption of rust-resistant wheat varieties and wheat varietal turnover. Spouses may be in agreement or have different opinions regarding their decision-making roles. The disagreement scenario in which the wife claims to have a role in decision-making is associated with lower adoption rates of rust-resistant wheat varieties and less frequent testing of new varties in recent growing seasons, compared to a scenario where both spouses agree that wives do not have a role. We conclude that gender-disaggregated data and the examination of intra-household decisionmaking can offer novel and valuable insights for designing and implementing strategies to enhance the uptake of agricultural technologies among smallholders. The results emphasize the need to include complementary perspectives on the intra-household decision-making process.Household decisions often result from negotiations between wife and husband. While the literature offers different models to conceptualize the intra-household decision-making process, empirical evidence suggests that women's empowerment has positive effects on a range of outcomes (Doss, 2013). These include household dietary diversity (Sariyev, Loos, Zeller, & Gurung, 2020;Sraboni, Malapit, Quisumbing, & Ahmed, 2014), agricultural production diversity (Sariyev, Loos, & Khor, 2021), reproductive, maternal, neonatal, and child health (Becker, Fonseca-Becker, & Schenck-Yglesias, 2006;Pratley, 2016), children's education (Hatlebakk & Gurung, 2016), and nutritional status (Carlson, Kordas, & Murray-Kolb, 2015). Malapit and Quisumbing (2015) suggest that the relationship between women's empowerment and nutritional outcomes can be complex and context dependent, i.e., women's empowerment in household credit decisions was found to positively correlate with women's dietary diversity, but not with their body mass index.A growing body of literature also focuses on the linkages between the level of agreement of wife and husband in dual-headed households and health and welfare measures. For instance, in Nepal, Allendorf (2007) find that maternal and child healthcare outcomes improve when spouses agree that the wife is the main decision-maker. Based on national household data from Bangladesh, Story and Burgard (2012) show that the use of antenatal services and skilled delivery care improve when couples agree that decision-making is joint, and worsen when both agree that the husband is solely responsible or when the couple are in disagreement with each other. Ambler, Doss, Kieran, and Passarelli (2021) find that measures of Bangladeshi women's well-being across health, employment, and participation in outside programs improve significantly when both spouses agreed that the wife is involved in decision-making. Based on data from 23 sub-Saharan countries, Annan, Donald, Goldstein, Gonzalez Martinez, and Koolwal (2021) show that well-being outcomes for women and children are high in households where the woman's agency is recognized by her husband. The study also shows that when women take poweri.e., assign more decisionmaking power to themselves than their husbands dohouseholds have better reproductive health and better children's health outcomes. Donald, Doss, Goldstein, and Gupta (2023) find joint decision-making to be associated with lower levels of intimate partner violence and emotional and sexual violence among 31,243 couples from 12 African countries. Despite these well-documented welfare implications of intrahousehold decision-making dynamics, most household surveys focus on male household heads as the main source of information, potentially reducing the chance of adequately capturing the intra-household decision-making process (Acosta et al., 2020;Anderson, Reynolds, & Gugerty, 2017).The level of the wife's bargaining power and of the husband's agreement to her bargaining power may also influence the uptake of agricultural technologies. If empowered, women farmers may advocate for the adoption of agricultural technologies if these enhance individual or overall household well-being. Although extension and advisory services that incorporate female farmers can benefit households' agricultural performance (Azzarri & Nico, 2022), extension systems often do not perceive women as training targets, thereby focusing on male farmers, and largely ignoring the preferences of female household members (Mudege, Mdege, Abidin, & Bhatasara, 2017). Although the adoption of agricultural technologies has received considerable attention in the literature (e.g., Schulz & Börner, 2023), only a small share of technology adoption studies explicitly include gender dynamics in intrahousehold decision-making in analytical frameworks (Fisher & Carr, 2015;Haider, Smale, & Theriault, 2018;Shibata, Cardey, & Dorward, 2020). Among these, Shibata et al. (2020) show that there are gender disparities in decision-making about innovation uptake and benefits in Uganda, whereas Fisher and Carr (2015) find that differences in access to land, information, and credit shape women and men farmers' adoption of drought-tolerant maize in Uganda. Haider et al. (2018) show that fertilizer adoption patterns differ between individually and collectively (female and male) managed plots in Burkina Faso.A better understanding of the links between gender dynamics in household decision-making and related adoption decisions can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of public extension systems, the uptake rates of modern innovations, agricultural productivity, and livelihoods in smallholder agriculture. In this study, we use survey data collected from Ethiopian wheat farmers to analyze how women's role in wheat production decisions influences adoption dynamics and the turnover rates of rust-resistant wheat varieties. Different wheat rusts (stem, yellow, and leaf rust) pose a significant threat of causing devastating epidemics in Ethiopa (Jaleta, Hodson, Abeyo, Yirga, & Erenstein, 2019). To identify the factors affecting the adoption and turnover of rust-resistant wheat varieties in rural Ethiopia, we analyzed data collected from 1,088 wheat-producing households. In dual-headed households, both wife and husband were interviewed individually. We postulate that the adoption of newly released resistant varieties is positively associated with women's role in decision-making and spousal agreement thereon. Our assumptions are based on two main expectations. First, building on empirical evidence suggesting that women farmers tend to be more risk averse (Ahmad, Afzal, & Rauf, 2019; Jin, He, Gong, Xu, & He, 2017), we hypothesize that men farmers are more eager to adopt high yielding varieties and more willing to mitigate rust pressure by application of fungicides within the season. We further hypothesize that due to their greater risk aversion, women farmers advocate for the adoption of rust resistant varieties to avoid liquidity problems that may arise from fungicide purchases in the growing season, which based on our survey data accounted for around 19 % of the average input costs in the 2021 wheat growing season. Second, it has been shown that intra-household communication and shared negotiation strategies lead to better health outcomes (Mullany, Hindin, & Becker, 2005). In the context of the adoption of agricultural technologies, women's engagement in decisionmaking is expected to enhance the household's exposure to relevant information on the benefits of the technology mainly due to spouses' complementary social and institutional networks. Women's participation in decision-making may also stimulate spousal discussion and reflection on potential implications of the varietal choice decision. The use of gender-disaggregated data allows us to capture and contrast different perceptions on intra-household decision-making, as well as potentially diverging perspectives on varietal choice and seed acquisition channels.The rest of the paper is structured as follows. The next section briefly introduces the Ethiopian wheat sector and the relevance of rust-resistant varieties. Section 3 presents the empirical strategy, and Section 4 the underlying dataset. Section 5 contains the estimation results and a discussion of the findings. Section 6 concludes.Ethiopia is the second-largest wheat producer in Africa, with an aggregate grain production of 5.5 million tons (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022) and 4-5 million farmers engaged in cultivation (Central Statistics Agency, 2018). Since 2000, the country's wheat area has increased by over 70 %, making it the third most cultivated crop after teff and maize (FAO, 2022). However, wheat yield in the country (2.67 metric tons per hectare in 2021) is significantly below the global average (3.49 metric tons) (FAO, 2022). The Ethiopian Highlands have long been known as a hot spot for wheat rust (Saari & Prescott, 1985). Stem rust and stripe rust are major biotic constraints to wheat production in the country (Meyer et al., 2021). With recurrent epidemics in the last decade, the emergence of new strains of wheat rust exacerbated production risks. During the wheat stripe rust epidemic of 2010 (Olivera et al., 2015) and the stem rust outbreak in 2013 (Hodson et al., 2020), the average loss amounted to about 50 % of the national crop yield, and in some regions the total production was lost (Olivera et al., 2015).The breeding and diffusion of resistant wheat germplasm form a crucial component of the research-and-development (R&D) strategy against the risk of rust outbreaks (Jaleta et al., 2019;Meyer et al., 2021). Two important ex ante mitigation strategies to curtail the risk of rust outbreaks in smallholder systems include expanding the area under resistant varieties and increasing the genetic diversity of wheat varieties (Jaleta et al., 2019). Recent evidence based on DNA fingerprinting shows that rust-resistant bread wheat varieties released since 2010 have been widely adopted by smallholder farmers across Ethiopia (Hodson et al., 2020;Jaleta et al., 2019). Farmers seem to be responsive to the management of rust diseases, as evidenced by a large-scale disadoption of susceptible varieties and replacement with newer, rust-resistant varieties after the 2010/11 epidemic (Jaleta et al., 2019).Our analysis focuses on the links between women's bargaining power and the adoption of new and resistant wheat varieties (released after the 2010/11 rust epidemic) and wheat varietal turnover in Ethiopia. To do so, we identify and estimate the determinants of women's intra-household bargaining power in wheat production decisions. As bargaining power cannot be observed directly, we rely on proxy variables. The literature suggests several ways to indirectly capture women's bargaining power in household decision-making, including the share of income earned by women, employment outside the home, control over and ownership of household assets, influence in household decision-making, etc. (Doss, 2013). Since our prime interest is to capture the level of women's bargaining power in the context of crop production and wheat varietal choice, we rely on two proxy variables: i) the role of the wife in household decisions concerning varietal choice in wheat production; and ii) the level of agreement between wife and husband in terms of women's engagement in household decisions on wheat varietal choice.The outcomes concerning women's role in household crop production decisions are constructed based on interviews conducted individually with wife and husband from the same household. We have two sets of observations for each outcome: decision-making agency within the household according to the wife and husband. Both respondents were asked separately to assign themselves to one of three decision categories describing their individual role in household decisions on wheat variety choice over the past 12 months. The responses were categorical: \"decisions taken independently\", \"joint decisions\", and \"not involved in decision-making\". Comparing the responses of wife and husband within a household, the level of intra-household spousal agreement variable was developed as follows: \"agreement that the wife has no role\"; \"agreement that the wife has a role\"; \"disagreement: the husband claims that the wife has a role, but the wife denies this\"; and \"disagreement: the wife claims that she has a role, but the husband denies this\".These four agreement/disagreement categories not only capture the recognition of women's power (\"agreement on the wife's role\") but also distinguish between households in which female farmers are \"powertakers\" (the wife claims that she has a role, but the husband denies this) and households in which male farmers are \"power-givers\" (the husband claims that the wife has a role, but the wife denies this). These two disagreement categories enable a more nuanced understanding of women's empowerment (Annan et al., 2021) because empowered individuals may both recognize and claim their rights (O'Hara & Clement, 2018).Given the categorical nature of the established proxy variables for women's bargaining power, we used binominal and multinominal logistic regression models to identify their determinants and estimate the strength of their influence. The commonly used explanatory variables found in the literature are women's education, age, asset holding, and income, and the difference in these variables compared to those of her husband (Annan et al., 2021;Doss, 2013). Together with the characteristics of the household members, general household features, the household's engagement in personal and institutional networks, and location dummies are used as regressors.In the next step, we modeled the influence of women's bargaining power proxies on households' adoption of varieties released after 2010 and varietal turnover. As indicated in Section 2, Ethiopia experienced several wheat rust epidemics in recent years, including the yellow rust epidemic in 2010 (Jaleta et al., 2019). A crucial coping strategy to deal with constant rust pressure is rapid varietal turnover and constant replacement of older germplasm. Several resistant varieties have been released since 2010 (Jaleta et al., 2019). Against this background, we estimated the effect of women's bargaining power proxies on the following: i) households' adoption status (binary variable) in the 2021 growing season of wheat varieties released after 2010; ii) the average age of the wheat varieties grown on the farm (in years, as of 2021); and iii) whether the household introduced/tried any new wheat varieties during the main growing seasons between 2015 and 2021 (binary variable). Relying on the terminology of treatment effects estimation, we considered women farmers' influence on households' decisions on wheat varietal choice as the treatment, and estimated the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT), which is the average difference in outcomes of households with and without active participation by women farmers in decisions about wheat varietal choices (Takahashi and Barrett, 2014):With E {.} being the expectation operator, the potential outcomes for households with (Y iP ) and without (Y iN ) women farmers' participation in decisions on wheat varietal choice, and T i the treatment indicator equal to 1 if women farmers participate in decision making and 0 otherwise. E(Y iN |T i = 1} -the outcome of households with womens' participation in decision-making had women not participated in decision-makingcannot be observed. Using outcomes of households without womens' participation on decision-making E(Y iN |T i = 0} instead of unobserved counterfactuals can introduce a bias in ATT estimates (Takahashi & Barrett, 2014), especially if covariates of the treatment and outcome equations are correlated. We use the Inverse Probability-Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) proposed by Wooldridge (2010), which has been employed in a range of studies that assess the impacts of agricultural technology adoption with observational data (e. g., Wossen et al., 2017). The IPWRA estimator is double-robust, as it produces consistent results if either the treatment or the outcome equations are misspecified (Wooldridge, 2010), and accounts for observed heterogeneity that may simultaneously determine the level of women's role in decision-making, spousal agreement thereon, and the set of outcome variables. After Imbens and Wooldridge (2009), the ATT in the IPWRA model is estimated in two steps. Assuming the linear outcome equationfor i = [0 1], propensity scores are modelled as ê(x i ) = p(x; γ) , after which linear regression is used to estimate (α 0 , β 0 ) and (α 1 , β 1 ) using inverse probability-weighted least squares. Formally:The ATT is the difference between Eq(4) and Eq(3).With (α 1 , β1 ) being the estimated inverse probability-weighted parameters for treated households, i.e., households with participation by women in wheat varietal choice decisions, and (α 0 , β0 ) the estimated inverse probability-weighted parameters for untreated households, i.e., households with no particpation by women in wheat varietal choice decisions and Np the number of observations with women's participation in decision-making. The IPWRA relies on three assumptions. The first is the conditionalindependence (CI) assumption, which states that potential outcomes are not correlated with treatment once all observable variables are controlled for. In other words, no variables should influence the treatment and outcome equations simultaneously. Including a wide range of control variables in x i is a strategy that minimizes the chances of violation of the CI assumption (Wooldridge, 2010). In this study, the covariates included in the models represent a diverse set of individual, household, and context variables that are expected to influence women farmers' participation in decision-making. The selection of covariates is guided by empirical work on the correlates of individual bargaining power in household decision-making (e.g., Annan et al., 2021;Johnson, Kovarik, Meinzen-Dick, Njuki, & Quisumbing, 2016;Mishra & Sam, 2016). The second assumption is the overlap assumption that stipulates that each individual has a positive probability of receiving treatment. This assumption holds when for each household with womens' participation in decision-making in the sample, we observe households without womens' participation in decision-making with similar covariates (Manda et al., 2018). The third assumption is the independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) sampling assumption. The i.i.d. ensures that the outcome and treatment status of a household are independent of the outcome and treatment status of other households in the population.While IPWRA accounts for observed heterogeneity, we cannot rule out the existence of unobserved confounders that may simultaneously influence the level of women's bargaining power in the household and the decision to adopt rust-resistant varieties. Unobserved factors include individual norms, concepts, and beliefs regarding gender roles in household decision-making. The use of instrumental variables (IV) is one strategy to establish causality. Due to the lack of a relevant, exclusive and unconfounded IV, we rely on IPWRA estimates and avoid the use of causal language in interpreting the results. As robustness check, we also estimated treatment effects using propensity score matching, which yielded very similar results compared to IPWRA estimates.To assess the links between intra-household gender inequalities and the uptake of innovations, we designed a survey to interview the wife and husband from the same household separately, allowing us to record and contrast perceptions on intra-household decision-making, wheat variety choice, and varietal turnover. Differences in intra-household decision-making regarding farm activities were elicited through questions on their role in decision-making regarding wheat production, variety choice, plot and seed selection, marketing, and allocation of seed for the forthcoming season. This approach allowed capturing the level of women involvement in household-level decisions on wheat varietal choice, as well as the level of agreement among the wife and husband on their roles within the household. The survey also included questions on socioeconomic household characteristics, use of inputs in wheat production, farmland endowments, access to markets and institutions, food consumption and food insecurity, etc.The sampling framework of the survey was structured with the objective of obtaining a proportional distribution of observations across Ethiopia's major wheat agroecological zones (Jaleta et al., 2019). The survey was conducted between July and September 2021 and constituted the third survey round with previous data collections in 2011 and 2014. We used the latest survey round in the analysis, as data on intrahousehold decision-making was only elicited in the 2021 interviews. As shown in Table 1, the 2021 survey covered households from Ethiopia's major wheat-growing regions: Amhara, Oromia, and the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) Regional States. In the original sampling framework, a stepwise stratified random sampling was followed. First, wheat-growing districts were randomly selected from each region. Second, wheat-growing kebeles, the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia, were randomly selected from each district. Finally, in each kebele, 14-18 randomly selected wheat-growing households were interviewed (Jaleta et al., 2019). The survey contained 9.6 % femaleheaded households (n = 104). In 86.8 % of the interviewed households, both female and male spouses were present (n = 944).Table 2 shows the role of women farmers in household decisions concerning wheat varietal choice over a period of 12 months, as perceived by the wife and husband. In general, decision-making is malecentric: according to wives' perceptions, they are not involved in decision-making in 54 % of households. In about 39 % of households, they contribute to joint decision-making, and only in 8 % of households do wives make decisions independently. These values are slightly different when elicited from husbands. Most notably, a significantly larger share of men farmers indicate that the wife is the sole decisionmaker in wheat varietal choice. This contrasts with observations made in the context of the uptake of agricultural innovations in other African countries. For instance, husbands over-proportionally claim the position of main decision-maker regarding the introduction of innovations compared to their wives in Uganda (Shibata et al., 2020). The differences may be related to the fact that the questionnaire administered for this study did not frame decision-making on wheat varieties around the introduction of innovations. Nonetheless, it is not unusual that women contribute more to production and management of wheat than men in certain locations of Ethiopia (Ogato, Boon, & Subramani, 2009).In Table 3, we summarize the degree of agreement between wife and husband regarding women's role in household decision-making on wheat varietal choice. Following an approach suggested by Annan et al. (2021), the answers can be grouped into four categories: agreement that the wife has no role in household wheat varietal choice decisions (scenario A); agreement that the wife has a role in decision-making (scenario B); disagreement: \"power-giving\", with the husband assigning a greater Notes: N stands for the number of observations. Missing observations (n = 40) are male-headed households without a wife. Notes: N stands for the number of observations, and % values are that of column totals. Wife's role in wheat varietal choice decisions as perceived by wife ( ) and husband ( ). *** denotes that differences between responses are statistically significant at 1%, based on the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for equality of matched pairs.role in decision-making to the wife than the wife assigns to herself (scenario C); disagreement \"power-taking\" with the wife assigning to herself a greater role in decision-making than the husband assigns to her (scenario D). While implications of scenarios (A) and (B) are straightforward, scenarios (C) and (D) differ in terms of intra-household bargaining power dynamics, as recognition and claim of power (scenario D) could be considered greater empowerment than the delegation of influence by someone else (scenario C) (O'Hara & Clement, 2018). About 40 % of couples disagreed on the woman's role in household wheat varietal choice decisions. Similar patterns have been reported by Annan et al. (2021), who find that spousal responses regarding decisionmaking on major household purchases systematically differ in 21 out of 23 sub-Saharan African countries. Ambler et al. (2021) report 39 % of spouses to disagree on their mutual role in agricultural production decisions in Bangladesh, with 33 % of disagreements stemming from the wife claiming power (scenario D). Disagreement over authority in household decisions between spouses has also been reported for production decisions made by rural households in Tanzania (Anderson et al., 2017), innovation uptake and benefits in Uganda (Shibata et al., 2020), and uptake of agricultural practices also in Uganda (Acosta et al., 2020).Before assessing the implications of women's bargaining power proxies on variety adoption and turnover, we assess the factors that contribute to woman's role in making decisions on wheat varietal choices and the level of agreement among spouses on this role. When analyzing correlates of women's bargaining power proxies, previous studies have used individual attributes of wife and husband, such as education, employment status, earnings, asset ownership, and the differences between individual household members regarding these attributes, as well as common household characteristics (Anderson et al., 2017;Annan et al., 2021). We use a set of individual socio-demographic characteristics of the wife and their relative expressions in relation to the husband, as well as overall household features, personal and institutional networks, information access variables, and location dummies to model the level of women's role in household wheat varietal choices and of spousal agreement on this role.We first model correlates of a woman's role in making decisions about the household's wheat varietal choices. Due to the unbalanced distribution of observations across decision-making categoriesas only 7.5 and 15.4 % of observations fall into the \"wife makes the decision\" category in the wife and husbands interviews, respectivelya binary logit model is estimated. The dependent variable of the model is binary and takes on the value 1 if the wife is the main decision maker or if the decision is joint, and 0 otherwise. Table 4 shows the marginal effects for selected covariates. Marginal effects indicate how the probability of observing the outcome variable changes when the covariate changes by one unit. Since participation in decision-making is subjective to wives' and husbands' perceptions, we estimate two models. This approach allows us to contrast the spouses' perceptions. The full model results are provided in the supplementary material (Table S1).The results indicate that formalized agricultural land use rights are strongly associated with a woman's active role in making household decisions on wheat varietal choices. Wife's or joint use rights of an equal (model 2), or larger (models 1 and 2) area of agricultural land in relation to husband's sole use rights increases the likelihood of a woman's engagement in making household decisons on wheat varietal choice. In Ethiopia, access to agricultural land is only by government allocation, inheritance, gift, and land leasing. As such, land cannot be sold, exchanged, or mortgaged (Bodurtha et al. 2011, cited in Leta, Berlie, & Ferede, 2021), which makes it a scarce resource and potential lever in intra-household bargaining process. However, both men and women farmers can obtain formalized rights to land, including the right to use land for agricultural purposes, lease out, and bequeath land to family members (Tura, 2018).Women's or joint ownership of agricultural and non-agricultural household items in relation to exclusive men's ownership enhances the chances of participation in wheat varietal choice. Notably, the associations are stronger for model specifications based on wives' perceptions. Previous studies on intra-household decision-making have identified control over and ownership of household assets as significant determinants of bargaining power (Annan et al., 2021;Johnson et al., 2016;Mishra & Sam, 2016;Shibata et al., 2020).As shown in Table 2, perceptions of the women's role in household decision-making can differ between wife and husband. Table 5 presents correlates of spousal agreement on the women's role in household crop production decisions. Data points are relative risk ratios for selected  S1.covariates based on multinominal logit models, indicating the change in relative risks of observing the outcome variable as the independent variable increases by one unit. Full model results are contained in the Supplementary Materials (Table S2).The results show that women's or joint use rights of agricultural land, ownership of non-agricultural and agricultural items are strongly associated with agreement scenario B (both spouses acknowledge women's role in decision-making), or with scenarios in which either the male spouse (scenario C) or the female spouse (scenario D) claim an active role by the woman in decision-making. Notably, wives' or joint ownership of agricultural land increases the likelihood of spousal agreement on an active role by the woman, the likelihood of the husband assigning a role to the wife even if she claims not to have one (scenario C), as well as the likelihood of wives claimng an active role in decisionmaking (Scenario D). Annan et al. (2021) also find that women's ownership of land is associated with women claiming power in household's decisions on large purchases.Is the woman's role in household decisions on wheat varietal choice and spousal agreement thereon associated with the adoption of rustresistant wheat varieties and the age of the varieties in farmers' plots? Before presenting the estimation results, we summarize the set of outcome variables by the level of women's role in decisions on wheat varietal choice in Table 6. The level of the woman's role is based either on the interview with the wife or the husband. Outcome variables are (1) whether the household is cultivating a wheat variety with rust-resistant traits released after 2010 (dummy); (2) the average age of the wheat varieties grown by the household across all wheat plots in the 2021 cropping season (years); and (3) whether the household has tried out new wheat varieties between 2015 and 2021 (dummy). Outcome variables are also computed based on information reported by either the wife or the husband.The means of outcome variables are compared between the scenario in which the wife is the main decision-maker and the scenario in which the wife has no role in decision making (in column 'I = III'), and between the scenario of joint spousal decision-making and the scenario of no role for the wife in decision-making (column 'II = III'). Comparisons of scenarios are based on the information collected from either the wife or the husband in constructing the outcome variables and the levels of the woman's role in decision-making.Results show a more frequent adoption of varieties released after 2010, as well as faster turnover of wheat varieties when the wife has an active role in decision-making compared to the wife having no role in decision-making. Differences are observed when the wife is either the main decision maker (column I) or when decisions are made jointly (column II). We find results to be sensitive to whether wives' or husbands' interviews are considered. For instance, when based on husbands' interviews, the oldest wheat varieties are used by households where the wife is the main decision-maker (column I). Likewise, husbands indicate that a significantly larger share of households has tested new varieties between 2015 and 2021 when the wife has a role in household wheat varietal choice decisions. When, in turn, based on the wives' information, households are found to test new varieties significantly less frequently when women are the main decision-makers (column I).Does the level of women's role in wheat varietal choice affect wheat adoption decisions and varietal turnover? The descriptive results in Table 6 do not control for the presence of potential confounding factors which may influence observed group means of outcome variables. Table 7 shows the results of IPWRA models for the set of outcome variables. Outcome variables and treatments are generated based on the information of either the wife or the husband. Accordingly, we have two observations for outcome variables and treatments for each household. Table 7 shows the average treatment effects on the treated (ATT) of the perceived role of the wife in household wheat varietal choice. All the models contain additional covariates, including characteristics of individual household members, household and farm features, agricultural asset holdings, and information access dummies. The full list of covariates contained in the models is included in the supplementary materials (Table S3). One assumption of IPWRA is that each individual has a positive probability of receiving treatment. In the present case, women's participation in wheat varietal choice must have a positive probability across the distribution of covariates included in the models. Corresponding tests for deployed IPWRA did not reject the hypothesis of balanced covariates. Graphical representations of estimated densities of probabilities of treatments are contained in the supplementary materials (Figures S1 and S2).Estimation results suggest that women's engagement in wheat varietal choice is associated with a higher likelihood of growing rustresistant and younger wheat varieties. However, results are sensitive to who in the household responds (wife or husband) in two out of three outcome variables. For instance, results based on wives' interviews show that women's role in decision-making is associated with significantly younger wheat varieties (model 3), which is not observed in the model using information from the husbands (model 4). Similarly, the testing of new varieties is more likely when male farmers perceive the wife to have a role in crop production decisions (model 6), and less likely when models are based on wives' interviews (model 5). While we cannot assess whether results based on wife or husband interviews more accurately reflect real-life conditions, the findings underline potential shortcomings when including only one perspective on the intrahousehold decision-making process.We have seen that differences in the perception of the woman's role in household crop production decisions between wife and husband can be significant. Several empirical studies have shown associations between spousal agreement on the woman's role in decision-making and socioeconomic welfare indicators (Allendorf, 2007;Ambler et al., 2021;Annan et al., 2021;Story & Burgard, 2012). In the context of the adoption of rust-resistant wheat varieties, spousal agreement on the woman's role in wheat varietal choice decisions may affect varietal adoption and turnover. Table 8 presents means of outcome variables by level of spousal agreement on the woman's role in decisions on wheat varietal choice. Corresponding tests of differences of means of outcome variables by level of spousal agreement are shown in Table 9.According to the descriptive results and related tests of equality of means, spousal agreement on a woman's active role in variety selection (scenario B) is associated with more frequent cultivation of varieties released after 2010 and with growing younger wheat varieties, compared to scenario A, where couples agree that the woman has no role, and scenario C, where the husband is \"power-giving\". While the youngest varieties are grown by couples in which the wife is \"powertaking\" (scenario D), couples in this scenario are found to have tried out new varieties between 2015 and 2021 less frequently. This may be an indication that albeit growing relatively younger varieties, households in disagreement scenario D introduced newer wheat varieties some time ago. Using DNA fingerprinting for wheat variety identification, Hodson et al. (2020) have shown that the adoption of rust-resistant varieties largely occurred between the 2014-15 and 2016-17 growing seasons.The mean outcomes shown in Table 8 do not control for potential confounding factors. We analyze associations between spousal agreement on the woman's role and influence in household wheat varietal choice using IPWRA. The results are presented in Table 10. The underlying treatment and outcome models include the same set of additional covariates as in previous models (Table 7, Table S3).The estimation results indicate that spousal agreement on the womanSummary statistics for the adoption and turnover of wheat varieties by the level of women's role in household decisions on wheat varietal choice. having a role (scenario B) is associated with higher adoption rates of wheat varieties released after 2010 and lower age of varieties, compared to spousal agreement on no role for the woman (scenario A). Joint decision-making with mutually uncontested spousal roles may yield better outcomes due to larger combined exposure to information, as well as spousal discussion and reflection on potential implications of the varietal choice decision. Although conducted in different domains, previous studies have also found positive effects of spousal agreement on a women's role in household decision-making on using healthcare services (Allendorf, 2007), and on women's (Ambler et al., 2021), and children's well-being (Annan et al., 2021).The results further indicate that the disagreement scenarios (scenarios C and D) are not associated with better outcomes, compared to the scenario of spousal agreement that the woman does not have a roleAssociations between women's role in decisions on wheat varietal choice and outcome variables.  S3 and Figures S1 and S2).Summary statistics for the adoption and turnover of wheat varieties by level of spousal agreement on the women's role in household decisions on wheat varietal choice. Tests for significant differences of means of outcome variables by spousal agreement on women's role in wheat varietal choice. (scenario A). Treatment effects for the \"power-giving\" scenario (scenario C) are not statistically different from the scenario of agreement on no role for the woman (scenario A). One possible explanation is that some men may be stating what they perceive is expected from them when they say that their wives have a role in decision-making (scenario C). Households in the scenario in which the wife is \"taking power\" (scenario D) even tend to adopt and test rust-resistant cultivars less frequently. This is in contrast to the findings of Ambler et al. (2021), who report the \"power-taking\" scenario to be correlated with better well-being outcomes for women in Bangladesh compared to the scenario of spousal agreement on the wife having no involvement, but resembles the findings of Story and Burgard (2012), who found that the disagreement scenarios were also negatively associated with the use of reproductive health care services in Bangladesh. Annan et al. (2021) find that taking power is better for reproductive and child health, but worse for emotional violence. These findings highlight the complex links between the perception and contestation of individual power bargaining.Household decisions, including the decision to adopt agricultural technologies, often result from negotiation, contestation and consensus between wife and husband. In other words, the decisions are taken inside the household, not at the household. This process is shaped by diverging interests, motivations, and objectives, while its results are determined by different levels of individual bargaining power. While an emerging body of literature shows that the increased influence of women in household decisions is associated with positive socioeconomic, health and nutritional outcomes, few studies have analyzed the links between decision-making and the adoption of agricultural technologies.In this study, we used a dataset from Ethiopian wheat-producing households in which we captured perceptions of both wife and husband in dual-headed households with regard to their respective roles in the decision-making process on wheat variety choices. In contrast to most studies analyzing the adoption of agricultural technologies, we collected data from wives and husbands separately, to assess the correlates of women's role in household decisions and its effects on a household's crop variety choices and turnover. Our findings indicate that women's ownership of agricultural land and household assets is strongly associated with their active role in household decisions on wheat varietal choice, and with spousal agreement thereon. Women's engagement in wheat varietal choice, in turn, is associated with a higher likelihood of growing rust-resistant and younger wheat varieties. In terms of spousal agreement on mutual roles in decision-making, we found that spousal agreement on the woman having a role in making crop variety decisions is weakly associated with higher adoption rates of wheat varieties released after 2010 and lower varietal age, compared to spousal agreement that the woman should have no role. The disagreement scenario in which the woman claims to have a role in household decision-making regarding wheat variety choice (and the man claims she has none) is associated with lower adoption rates of rust resistant wheat varieties, and less frequent testing of new wheat varieties in the 2015-21 growing seasons. However, the results are sensitive as to whether the wives' or husbands' interviews are used to construct treatment and outcome variables. In this context, the following implications arise:The dynamics in intra-household decision-making are likely to influence households' adoption of agricultural technologies. Obtaining a more nuanced view of intra-household decision-making seems essential to enhance our understanding of the diffusion of agricultural technologies, and may guide actions to accelerate the replacement of varieties by farmers and contribute to increased crop yields and improved farmer livelihoods. Ignoring the dynamics in decision-making equals implicitly assuming that households are unilateral decision-makers (Quisumbing & Maluccio, 2003), a scenario which probably does not hold true considering the degree of spousal disagreement on mutual roles and influence in crop variety choice.While enhancing women's bargaining power and spousal agreement thereon is a development objective in itself, it may be a strategy to accelerate crop varietal uptake and turnover to enhance cropping system resilience and productivity. Finally, our results that indicate that women's ownership of agricultural land is associated with a more active role in decision-making and an acknowledgment of this role by the husband. The promotion of land titles for female farmers or the issuing of joint ownership or usage rights for both spouses may be an avenue to strengthen women's agency in household decision-making.Michael Euler: Writingoriginal draft, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Moti Jaleta: Writingreview & editing, Data curation, Conceptualization. Hom Gartaula: Writingreview & editing, Conceptualization.Associations between agreement on women's role in wheat varietal choice and outcome variables.  S3).","tokenCount":"6683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b415ddd2cf6384801d994c52ad590931","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ca2aa9dd-1b96-48b0-9575-18e7e0ea1a9b/retrieve","id":"-712731721"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7f088a08-91cf-4d02-9f22-bb17b4b98827","pagecount":"64","content":"years 1985-2010 IWMI Celebratingvii improvements in water management for rain-fed systems are likely to be the most cost-effective strategies in increasing food production in the region. Because of the importance of the freshwater capture fisheries to regional food security, freshwater ecosystems must be seen as an integral part of agricultural production systems and managed accordingly. This requires attention not only to environmental flows but also to fish migration paths, and wetland habitat coherence and connectivity at the landscape scale.Proposed hydropower development in the major river basins of the GMS will result in changes to river flows at a previously unprecedented scale and rate. In the Mekong, the projected increase in the discharge during the low-flow season is larger than projected irrigation demands from all Lower Mekong countries and could provide significant opportunities for irrigation development. However, the importance of freshwater fisheries to food security in the region underscores the importance of protecting the productive capacity of freshwater ecosystems from the impacts of hydropower and other developments.Adaptation to climate change will take place in a highly dynamic and uncertain context. There are no defined boundaries between climatespecific and non-climate-specific adaptations. Response strategies must be formulated in the context of the whole range of impacts and drivers. A robust approach to adaptation is needed, seeking solutions that address current problems in a manner that builds resilience regardless of the direction of change. One of the major factors determining resilience is economic status and, therefore, poverty reduction is critical to underpinning adaptation efforts in all sectors.The report reviews the current status and trends in water management in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS); assesses likely impacts of climate change on water resources to 2050 based on historical patterns and simulated projections; examines water management strategies in the context of climate and other changes; and identifies priority actions for governments and communities to improve resilience of the water sector and safeguard food production.The impacts of climate change in Southeast Asia on agriculture and food production will be largely mediated through water, but climate is only one driver of change. Rapid economic development and population growth mean that water resources in the region will be shaped by a complex mixture of social, economic and environment factors. The magnitude of these changes is at least the same as, or greater than, those driven by climate change and will occur in a shorter timespan.Current climate models indicate no clear regional trends in rainfall and water availability, and the degree of uncertainty associated with projections is very high. Given this, it is more useful to characterize likely change as an increase in the variability and uncertainty of water availability and to take a \"no regrets\" approach to water management, with actions to improve both water productivity and access to on-farm and off-farm storage (both surface water and groundwater) and reduce water-related risks.National governments see expansion of irrigation as an important priority to increase agricultural production and reduce risk from climate change, but water management must go beyond irrigation. Rain-fed agriculture dominates crop production in the GMS, andThe Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) comprises the five mainland Southeast Asian nations of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam; plus the southern Chinese province of Yunnan, which is the source of four of the region's five major rivers (Figure 1). It is home to a population of around 275 million, and rapid development over the last 20 years has made it a new frontier of Asian economic growth (ADB-GMS 2010).A spate of recently published reports (e.g., ADB 2009a;WWF 2009;TKK and SEA START RC 2009;Eastham et al. 2008) reflects growing international concern about the potential impacts of climate change in this region, which is highly dependent on agriculture and fisheries for food security and income generation. These sectors are particularly vulnerable to changes in climate. Impacts of climate change on agriculture and food production will be largely mediated through water, and most countries in the region have identified water resources as a priority sector under National Adaptation Plans of Action (NAPAs;see, e.g., MOE 2005;MONRE 2008;WREA 2008).Effective strategies for adaptation in the water sector to safeguard food production are not clearcut. Neither the direction nor the magnitude of projected changes in water availability is well established. The region's water resources are already undergoing rapid change as a result of other pressures such as population growth and economic development, and all countries have ambitious plans for water resources development in the next 10-20 years. Climate change is only one driver of change, and adaptation will occur in a highly dynamic social, economic and policy environment.This report addresses the following questions:• What are the projected impacts of climate change on water resources in the GMS in the short to the medium term (to 2050)?• How do these relate to other changes impacting on the water sector?• What are the most effective adaptation strategies in the water sector to safeguard food production in the context of climate and other changes?The report reviews the current status and trends in water management in the region; assesses likely impacts of climate change on water resources, based on historical patterns and modeled projections; examines water management strategies in the context of climate and other changes; and identifies priority actions for governments and communities to improve the resilience of the water sector and safeguard food production. It focuses primarily on the short to the medium term, since decisions taken now will lay the foundation for longer-term adaptation. It draws upon a broader study on the interactions between agriculture, environment and climate change conducted by IWMI for the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), reported in Johnston et al. 2009. Table 2; and described in more detail in Johnston et al. 2009: • The mega-deltas of the Red, Chao Phraya, Irrawaddy, Salween and Mekong rivers and the Tonle Sap floodplain.• The plains and plateaus of the Isan Region of Northeast Thailand, Central Thai Plain, Myanmar dry region, Lao PDR, Mekong floodplains, and North and Northeast (NE) Cambodia.• The upland regions above 250 m altitude, including:o intensively farmed uplands of Yunnan, Northern Thailand, Central Highlands of Vietnam and Bolavens Plateau in Lao PDR.o forested uplands of Northern Lao PDR, Eastern and Western Hills in Myanmar, and Northwest (NW) Vietnam and Yunnan.• Coastal zones -narrow coastal plains rising rapidly to coastal ranges, usually within 50 km of the ocean (Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar).The three major water-dependent sectors in the GMS are agriculture, fisheries and hydropower. Though important in social and economic terms, industrial, domestic and municipal withdrawals are relatively minor (Table 1) and do not impinge significantly on agricultural production or food security, and are therefore not considered in this study.Water resources in the GMS are abundant but spatiotemporally unequally distributed. All countries in the GMS have strong monsoonal climates, with up to 90% of the year's total precipitation occurring during the wet season (May to October;MRC 2005;FAO 2008). Average annual rainfall varies from 700 mm in the dry zone of Myanmar to more than 5,000 mm at some places in the coastal regions of Cambodia, Myanmar and Vietnam (MRC 2005;FAO 2008;SCW 2006).Table 1 sets out summary statistics for water resources in GMS countries. In terms of total water resources, all GMS countries lie well above the level at which water availability is considered to be a constraint to development (1,700 m 3 per capita; Falkenmark and Widstrand 1992). However, the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA 2007) ranked all countries except Thailand and Yunnan Province of China as economically water-scarce, i.e., human, institutional and financial capital limits access to water, even though sufficient water is available to meet human demands.The GMS includes five major river basins (the Mekong, Irrawaddy, Salween, Red (Hong) and Chao Phraya) as well as a large number of smaller coastal rivers 1 (Figure 1). Physiographically, the region can be considered in terms of five broad agroecological zones which share common water resource characteristics and agricultural production systems. These are not rigidly defined, but are a useful construct for discussing systems at the regional scale. They are shown schematically in Figure 2 and major characteristics are set out in   Agriculture is by far the largest consumer of water in all GMS countries, estimated to account for 68% (in Vietnam and China) to 98% (in Cambodia) of total withdrawals (WRI 2009; Table 1). Despite this, the proportion of irrigated land in GMS countries is relatively low by world standards (ranging from 7% of total cropland in Cambodia to 31% in Vietnam; World Bank 2009a) and rain-fed agriculture dominates production. Agriculture in the GMS is thus particularly vulnerable to climate variability, with significant risk from both floods and droughts even under current climate conditions. Safeguarding production will require improvements in water management in both rain-fed and irrigated systems.Agriculture in Southeast Asia is in transition from traditional subsistence systems to modern commercial production of a wide range of commodities for both local consumption and export, with significant implications for water demand and water quality. Agricultural production in the GMS over the last 20 years has seen steady increases across all subsectors and all countries. Production in major commodity groups has more than doubled since 1990, outpacing the region's rapid population growth (FAO 2009b;see Johnston et al. 2009 for a more detailed discussion of agricultural trends). Most of this remarkable increase has come from intensification and increases in yield, rather than from expansion in agricultural area, which grew by less than 5% over the same period (FAO 2009b). Increases in crop yield have resulted from the range of new technologies and approaches that underpinned the 'green' revolution (IRRI 2008): uptake of improved varieties; increasing use of fertilizers; improved farming practices; and the expansion and more efficient use of irrigation.  All national governments see expansion of irrigation as an important priority, to increase production and reduce risk from climate change. FAO statistics indicate that irrigated area in the region (excluding Yunnan) increased by at least 1 million hectares (Mha) between 1990and 2003(World Bank 2009a), but national figures suggest an even larger increase. UNDP (2006) reports that government programs in Myanmar have doubled the area under irrigation over the last 20 years to 1.4 Mha; and the Cambodian government estimates that over 0.73 Mha of land now have access to irrigation compared to less than 0.25 Mha in 1990 (MAFF andMOWRAM 2007;FAO 2009b).The largest irrigated areas are found in the mega-deltas and low-lying floodplains of the Red, Mekong, Chao Phraya and Irrawaddy rivers, the \"rice-bowls\" of the region. Although they constitute only 10% of the total land area, they produced almost 50 million tonnes of rice in 2005, half of the region's production (excluding Yunnan) and around 8% of the global crop (FAO 2009b; national government statistics). In these areas, complex systems of dykes, levees and canals are used to divert and retain the floodwater of the monsoon. Only the Red and Chao Phraya deltas have significant upstream storages to regulate supply (Water Resources e-Atlas 2003). Cultivation of traditional wet-season rice with supplementary irrigation is increasingly being replaced by fully or partially irrigated crops before and after the wet season, taking advantage of higher solar radiation and lower flood risk. For example, in the Mekong Delta, the traditional (long duration) wet-season rice crop has declined to only 10% of total production, which is now dominated by two irrigated crops in winter-spring and summer-autumn (Government Statistical Office of Vietnam 2009). This trend has produced significant increases in both yield and total production, but places water resources under stress.The extent and success of irrigation development in the inland plains and plateaus have been more variable. In Thailand, there has been substantial investment in irrigation storage for the inland plains, with large multipurpose storages in both the Chao Phraya Basin and the Isan Plateau, and thousands of small dams and reservoirs servicing small to medium schemes (Molle 2004). Despite this, the area planted to dryseason irrigated crops is significantly lower than the total irrigable area. Similarly, in Cambodia the majority of irrigation schemes in the inland plains around Tonle Sap are used mainly for supplementary irrigation of wet-season rice; only 13% of the total rice crop is grown in the dry season, mostly on the Mekong floodplains in the south (MAFF 2009b). In Myanmar, programs begun in the 1980s have expanded irrigation to cover approximately 25% of crop area, with significant development in the inland plains of Sagaing, Magway and Mandalay provinces (UNDP 2006;FAO 2008). However, irrigation intensity is generally suboptimal, for example, the Sedawgyi Dam project runs at 61% of its total command area, with the remaining area utilized as rainfed (UNDP 2006). Low uptake of dry-season irrigation in the region is attributed to a mixture of factors including inappropriate infrastructure, a lack of farmer knowledge of dry-season cultivation techniques, other labor opportunities in the dry season (seasonal migration to the cities) and operation and maintenance (O&M) problems.Small-to medium-scale irrigation, mainly pumped directly from rivers, is common in the intensively farmed upland river valleys of Northern Thailand and Yunnan, for high-value horticultural produce and other cash crops. Groundwater irrigation in the Central Highlands of Vietnam and the Bolavens Plateau of Lao PDR has allowed the establishment of large areas of coffee, but overexploitation has threatened the sustainability of groundwater resources in some areas. Similar threats have recently been observed in the lower northern region of Thailand due to excessive groundwater pumping to support year-round rice production. In other areas of the uplands, irrigation is generally limited, and usually very small-scale.Overall, withdrawals are only a small fraction of total renewable resources (maximum of 22% in Thailand; Table 1), but demand for agricultural water is increasing and the strongly seasonal patterns of rainfall and irrigation demand mean that seasonal shortages are common. Pech and Sunada (2008) estimate that more than 80% of flows are extracted for irrigation in the Mekong Delta during the critical dry-season months of March-April, resulting in local shortages and intrusion of seawater. Both the Chao Phraya and the Red are essentially \"closed\" basins (Molle 2004). In the Isan Plateau in NE Thailand, seasonal water shortages have led to conflict between urban and agricultural users (MRC-TNMC 2004).The current trend towards the establishment of large commercial plantations (for rubber, oil palm, cassava, coffee and other crops) is also likely to impact on agricultural water demand. Concessions to develop plantations have been granted over large areas of land, particularly in Cambodia and Lao PDR (Rutherford et al. 2008;MAFF 2009a;MPI 2008). It is not clear what the ultimate impact of these plantations will be on water availability and demand. Most of the current development is rain-fed, but at least some of the investment deals have included funding to build irrigation infrastructure: e.g., the Kuwaiti loan of $546 million to Cambodia to build an irrigation dam on the Stung Sen (Economist 2008); and Chinese loans to Myanmar to construct joint hydropower and irrigation infrastructure (International Rivers 2009). Even if large-scale irrigation is not developed, the impacts of widespread conversion of forest or grassland to agriculture on runoff and water use are likely to be significant, though difficult to predict. Clearing generally increases runoff, while reforestation (or establishment of tree crops) has been demonstrated to decrease overall water yield from catchments by up to 30% per year in tropical southern China (Sun et al. 2006).Water quality in most of the region is generally not limiting for human use (see, e.g., MRC 2010). However, serious issues of water quality occur in all the deltas, associated with high population density and inadequate treatment of sewage and industrial effluent downstream of the major cities. Fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide inputs from agriculture are significant in the Chao Phraya, Red and Mekong deltas; some aquaculture practices are highly polluting; and intrusion of seawater in the dry season and acid sulfate drainage from poorly managed pyritic soils affect large areas in all the deltas (see, e.g., MRC-VNMC 2004). Levels of agricultural pollutants in most other areas are low, though high concentrations may occur in some places during the dry season as a result of unregulated use of pesticides and fertilizers. Irrigation-induced salinity affects parts of NE Thailand and Central Lao PDR, exacerbated by saline groundwater (Eastham et al. 2008). Soil erosion is widespread in both the plains and uplands, with associated problems of stream water quality and sedimentation (UNDP 2006). Traditional swidden systems have low to moderate overall soil loss (high in cultivated years, low in fallow years), but decreased fallow periods and changes in cropping systems can result in serious erosion under extreme rainfall events (Valentin et al. 2008).Groundwater use in agriculture varies across the GMS but is generally not extensive. In much of the region, groundwater is used to supplement surface water supplies, or in areas remote from surface water resources. Groundwater consumption is more prevalent during the dry season and in low rainfall years.In Thailand, groundwater is used for irrigation as a substitute for surface water during the dry season, particularly in the Central Plain and parts of the Chao Phraya Delta. In the Lao PDR, groundwater offers a vast resource but there is no known groundwater-based irrigation development as yet (World Bank 2006). In Cambodia and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, groundwater is used primarily for small-scale irrigation of vegetables and fruit trees; but in the Central Highlands of Vietnam, groundwater provides the major source of irrigation for the commercially important coffee crop.Groundwater resources in the Mekong River Basin have not been assessed comprehensively, but it is thought that it has a large untapped potential (MRC and UNEP 1997;MRC 2003;Eastham et al. 2008). Recharge rates are high in most of the region, and particularly within the major alluvial plains and deltas (Figure 3) where recharge from rainfall is enhanced by seepage from areas inundated by seasonal flooding. In Thailand, the reserves of freshwater in the major sedimentary aquifers are large: in the Chao Phraya Basin alone, the estimated reserves are 13 km 3 , with an estimated safe yield of 3 km  (Sinath 2001).The deltas are characterized by surficial aquifers overlying multiple sequences of confined aquifers with variable yields and water quality. In the Chao Phraya Delta, for example, the Bangkok aquifer has eight confined aquifers underlying the surficial aquifer, is over 400 m thick and constitutes a major resource (Ramnarong and Buapeng 1992) with usage in 2005 at 1.5 m 3 /day. The aquifers underlying the Irrawaddy Delta are thought to be some of the thickest alluvial artesian sequences in the world (up to 1,800 m in depth) (UNDP 2006). The surficial aquifers in the deltas and floodplains are typically closely linked to, and seasonally recharged by, the rivers. For example, Raksmey et al. (2009) showed that groundwater in the Mekong floodplain is closely coupled with the rivers, which act as both a gaining and losing stream at different locations and seasons; and CIAP (1999) found that groundwater levels up to 30 km each side of the Bassac River closely follow water levels in the river. Alluvial and deltaic basins composed of relatively recent sediments are vulnerable to developing groundwater arsenic problems (WHO 2008), and naturally occurring arsenic contamination is reported in many of the major deltas in the region. The World Bank (2005) offers an exhaustive review of the occurrence of arsenic contamination across Southeast Asia and South Asia; in Southern Thailand, for example, 25 of 76 provinces are contaminated by arsenic, with average concentrations of 20 mg/l or twice the limit recommended in WHO drinking water guidelines. Groundwater in the Mekong Delta is severely affected by seawater intrusion and acid sulfate soils due to leaching from geochemical processes arising from lowering of groundwater levels (WEPA n.d.a;MRC-VNMC 2004). Pointscale or localized contamination from a range of chemical and microbial constituents is also prevalent in shallow aquifers in some locations as a result of pollution from poorly maintained sewerage infrastructure, landfills, industrial waste and urban areas (Danh 2008).In the plains and plateaus, local alluvial aquifers of the major rivers often overlie larger regional aquifer systems formed by complex sequences of sedimentary rocks. In the Central Plain of Thailand and central Lao PDR, these include both extensive limestone deposits which constitute major aquifers with yields of 1,000-2,000 m 3 /day (WEPA n.d.a) and deposits of gypsum, anhydrite and rock salt. This results in the occurrence of not only naturally saline groundwater unsuitable for drinking or irrigation in some aquifers but also pockets of fresh groundwater suitable for small-scale irrigation (MRC 2005). As an illustration of the extent of the problem, Saraphirom (2009) notes that almost 35% of the Isan Region has salt-affected soils.Groundwater systems in the uplands are highly variable, characterized by both local fractured rock aquifers with high-quality and low to moderate yields (up to 400 m 3 /day), such as those found in the Central Highlands of Vietnam and Bolavens Plateau in Lao PDR. Overexploitation of these systems has resulted in rapid depletion in some areas. In the Central Highlands of Vietnam, for example, groundwater tables have fallen significantly as a result of pumping to irrigate coffee and other crops.The region contains extensive and diverse wetland ecosystems, comprising riverine floodplains, fresh and brackish-water deltaic wetlands and major lake systems, including Tonle Sap (Southeast Asia's largest freshwater lake), Lake Inle in Myanmar and large upland lakes in Yunnan. Traditionally, wetlands have played an important role in livelihoods, providing fish and other aquatic animals, as well as reeds and a range of food and medicinal plants (MRC 2003). Altogether there are 19 designated Ramsar Convention wetland sites in the GMS (Ramsar 2009).F o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e G M S h a s a high degree of dependence on freshwater ecosystems, which must thus be seen as an integral part of agricultural production systems. Consumption of fish and other aquatic animals is an important part of Southeast Asian diets, and the bulk of consumption is from freshwater sources. Average per capita fish consumption is estimated at 23-45 kg/capita/year, and fish provide between 50 and 80% of the total protein (Hortle 2007;Soe 2008). Studies on the socioeconomics of fish production in the GMS suggest a very high level of participation in fishing, significantly higher than appears in official statistics which do not mention those who fish or farm fish on a part-time basis. For example, a fishery survey conducted in Luang Prabang District in the uplands of Lao PDR (Sjorslev 2000, cited in van Zalinge et al. 2004) revealed that 83% of households reported participation in fishing, mainly for home consumption. Van Zalinge et al. (2004) cite a survey of fishing communities in the Tonle Sap floodplains in Cambodia indicating that 98% of all households reported are involved in some kind of fishing activity throughout the year. A survey conducted in the Mekong River Delta Province of Tra Vinh (where rice farming is considered to be the most important economic activity) noted that 58% of the households reported part-time fishing in the canals, rivers and ponds (Phan et al. 2003). These findings emphasize the importance of the inland capture fishery for small-scale livelihoods and food security.Fisheries also make an important contribution to the regional economy; estimates of the total value of the Mekong fishery alone are as high as $2 billion per year (Dugan 2008). The fisheries industry accounts for between 4% (Thailand) and 11% (Cambodia) of GDP (Sugiyama et al. 2004;Soe 2008); in Cambodia, this places it ahead of rice production (Starr 2003, cited in Hortle et al. 2004).There have been dramatic increases in both freshwater and brackish-water aquaculture production since the turn of this decade, with official increases of over 300% in brackish and over 500% in freshwater systems (FAO 2009b;Department of Fisheries, Thailand 2009). Inland freshwater cultivation of finfish (e.g., tilapias, carps, catfish) takes on a diversity of practices (e.g., pond, cage, pens) using land and water areas all over floodplain and plateau areas; and in some cases this cultivation is integrated into farming systems (rice-fish culture, integrated agriculture-aquaculture). Commercial cultivation of brackish water species (prawns, euhayline finfish), mainly for export, has expanded rapidly in the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Irrawaddy deltas, resulting in clearing and conversion of marshes and mangroves, and in water pollution and encroachment on to agricultural land (Gowing et al. 2006). Aquaculture depends on the capture fishery for stocks and feed.Official statistics indicate that the overall freshwater catch in the region increased between 1990 and 2000 (FAO 2009b), and there is no evidence of a decline since then. In fact, both Thailand and Myanmar have reported significant increases in actual production in recent years. Myanmar has reported a 65% increase in production over 5 years from 1998 to 2003 (FAO 2009b), purportedly achieved through environmental restoration and rehabilitation, restocking floodplains and improved governance (Coates 2002). Statistics on fisheries are notoriously unreliable, and interannual variability is high, so that establishing firm trends is difficult.However, there is a common perception that the region's inland fish catch is declining; there is also a high degree of concern regarding the sustainability of the capture fishery. The perception of decline is related mainly to a significant (40-50%) decrease in catch per fisher as the total population and the number of people engaged in fishing have increased (Baran 2005). Concerns about sustainability remain, as there is evidence that large and medium migratory species have declined compared to small migratory and nonmigratory species, and the average size of these small fish has also declined, a pattern typical of overfishing (Hortle et al. 2004). Ten of Cambodia's freshwater fish species are now listed as endangered (Baran 2005).Changes to river flow regimes, loss of habitat and disruption of migratory paths pose significant risks to inland fisheries in the GMS. The fish catch is strongly dependent on the extent, duration and timing of flooding, and access to productive floodplain and wetland habitats for feeding (van Zalinge et al. 2004;Krittasudthacheewa and Apirumanekul 2008). Increasing areas of the floodplain are being cleared or converted to agricultural use: for example, the area of flooded forest around Tonle Sap fell from over 1 Mha in the early 1970s to 0.45 Mha by 1997 (Evans et al. 2004). Infrastructure, such as dykes and roads, disrupts access to the floodplain for spawning and feeding. Proposed development of large-scale hydropower storages (see next section) will modify river flows and flooding regimes and block migratory routes. The ecological impacts of these changes are not well understood, but they are predicted to have potentially serious consequences for the fishery.The freshwater capture fishery is critical to food security and livelihoods of rural communities, as well as supporting commercial-scale operations in the Tonle Sap fishing lots of Cambodia (Hortle et al. 2004;Sithirith and Mathur 2008). Sustainability of freshwater fisheries is inextricably linked with water resources management, and protection of the ecological systems that sustain the fishery is an important regional priority.The GMS has estimated potential hydropower resources of over 200,000 MW (Box 1). Demand for energy within the region is growing rapidly, and all governments are considering major hydropower developments to meet part of that demand. A review of hydropower in the GMS (King et al. 2007) compiled an inventory of 82 projects existing or under construction and a further 179 planned and proposed projects. Box 1 and Figure 4 outline the main planned developments within each of the major basins in the region. Hydropower development is considered as a relatively cheap, independent solution for energy demand, and also contributes less greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than alternatives such as charcoal, oil and biofuel. However, existing and proposed major hydropower development will result in changes to flow regimes and river ecology with significant implications for both agriculture and fisheries.Many of the proposed projects include considerable storage, and so have the potential to modify river flows significantly. For example, current development in the Mekong provides a storage of around 12 km 3 (2.5% of total annual flow); Hang and Lennaerts (2008) estimate that, under a \"definite future\" scenario, this will increase to 44 km 3 and under \"full development\" to more than 75 km 3 (16% of total annual flow). A preliminary assessment of the hydrological impacts of the \"definite future\" scenario (Hang and Lennaerts 2008) predicts an increase in discharge in the low-flow season of around 50% at Chiang Saen, declining downstream to an increase of only 9-13% at Chau Doc. Accompanying decreases in discharge in the high-flow season are proportionately smaller (15 to 4-7%, respectively). The projected increase in the discharge in the low-flow season is larger than projected irrigation demands from all Lower Mekong countries and could provide significant opportunities for irrigation development and for mitigation of current dry-season shortages and saline intrusion in the delta.The ecological consequences of such large changes are not well understood but there are potentially large impacts on wild fish populations.Fish recruitment patterns are strongly influenced by hydrological processes that trigger the timing of spawning and affect fecundity rates, larval survival rates and food availability. Very little is known of the biology and ecology of the diverse species and differences in how they respond to these changes. Empirically, it has been observed that exploitable biomass in fisheries is more sensitive to dry, than flood-season, conditions (Halls et al. 2001), so fisheries are vulnerable to decline in dry-season flows. There are specific concerns that changes to the flow regime could impact negatively on the ecology of the Tonle Sap system, which underpins two-thirds to three-quarters of the inland capture fisheries of Cambodia (Baran 2005). At Kratie, upstream of the confluence with the Tonle Sap, dry-season flows are projected to increase by 20-30% and wet-season flows to fall by 4-8% (Hang and Lennaerts 2008). Kummu and Sarkkula (2008) concluded that relatively small rises in the dry-season level would permanently inundate a disproportionately large area of the floodplain, threatening the gallery forest; and that a smaller flooding amplitude would decrease ecosystem productivity. Changes in the pattern and timing of flooding are also likely to disrupt physiological cues for fish migration.Blockage of fish migration paths by dams has serious impacts on recruitment and spawning (van Zalinge et al. 2004;Thanh et al. 2004). A high proportion of fish species in Southeast Asian rivers are migratory, with seasonal movements over large distances to access spawning and feeding grounds (Baran 2006); Dugan (2008) reports that up to 70% of the Mekong fishery depends on long-distance migrant species. Halls and Kshatriya (2009) investigated the impact of barrier effects of proposed Mekong mainstream dams on fish populations using population dynamic models, and concluded that structures would need to pass at least 60-87% of upstream migrating adults to maintain viable exploited populations. These estimates were even higher for larger species, or if multiple dams were included in the analysis. They comment that \"We were unable to find evidence in the literature to suggest that the necessary rates of upstream passage success to sustain even the small species summarized above have been achieved elsewhere.\" Mainstream dams thus pose a significant threat to the viability of migratory fisheries, and it is essential that these impacts -and their economic and social consequences -are taken into account in feasibility and impact studies.Large dams trap sediment carried by rivers and can significantly reduce suspended sediment load and delivery of sediment to downstream areas. Removal of sediments results in geomorphological changes in the river (increased bed scour, channel and bank erosion) and decreased ecosystem productivity in the floodplain (since nutrients are carried with sediments). Kummu and Varis (2007) estimate that the major Chinese reservoirs on the Upper Mekong (Lancang) will have sediment trapping efficiencies of 66-92%, with large potential impacts on downstream areas.Mekong: The Mekong River Commission lists 23 existing large and small dams, 13 under construction and up to 80 planned or proposed in the Lower Mekong, including 11 proposed dams on the mainstream Mekong. The combined live storage of existing large dams in the Lower Mekong Basin is about 9.6 km 3 ; of the dams planned and under construction it is 44 km 3 . This is in addition to a cascade of eight dams on the Lancang (Upper Mekong) of which two are complete and three under construction -these include the Xiowan and Nuozhadhu dams with a combined live storage of 22,200 million m 3 (MRC 2009a). These bring the total live storage of the whole Mekong to 75.6 km 3 , about 16% of the total discharge of 475 km 3 .Red River: Currently there are two operating hydropower projects, with another four proposed (ADB 2009c), in addition to a total of 27 existing and planned small dams for irrigation (Water Resources eAtlas 2003).Chao Phraya: There are three operating dams for hydropower and irrigation with no additional dams planned.Yangtze: A series of eight dams are planned on the Upper Yangtze in Yunnan (upstream of the Three Gorges Dam), including a controversial proposal for a dam at Tiger Leaping Gorge (IRN 2009a).In 2006, the Thailand and Myanmar governments signed an agreement to build the Ta Sang Dam, the first of a cascade of five large dams on the Salween. Plans for a cascade of 13 dams in the Upper Salween (Nu) in China have apparently been shelved (IRN 2009b).Irrawaddy: Two dams are currently under construction, including the Myitsone Dam being built in cooperation with China, one of seven hydropower developments planned for the Irrawaddy (Irrawaddy 2009). in Southeast Asia for different purposes:• Characterizing likely future climate changes (Ruosteenoja et al. 2003;Snidvongs et al. 2003;Mac Sweeney et al. 2008a, b, c).• Projecting future river discharge and water level 2009).• Assessing vulnerability (Anshory-Yusuf and Francisco 2009).• Proposing recommendation for mitigation and adaptation (Eastham et al. 2008;TKK and SEA START RC 2009).All have been based on climate scenarios developed for the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Emissions Scenario (SRES) (IPCC 2000), and in some cases downscaling of general circulation models (GCMs) to regional scale (e.g., Snidvongs et al. 2003;TKK and SEA START RC 2009). As part of this study, an analysis was carried out by IWMI of observed  and projected (1960-2049, using PRECIS climate model) rainfall and temperatures in the region, to identify climate trends. The results of these studies are summarized in Table 3 and analyzed in more detail in the sections below.Based on the results of studies in the region by IWMI and others, anticipated climate changes in the GMS to 2050 can be summarized as follows:• Increase in temperature of 0.02-0.03 °C per year across the entire region in both warm and cold seasons, with higher rates of warming in Yunnan and northern Myanmar.• H i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s w i l l i n c r e a s e evapotranspiration, increasing the water demand of crops and pastures in both rainfed and irrigated systems. Irrigation demand in semiarid regions of Asia is estimated to increase by 10% for each 1°C (Fischer et al. 2002).• No significant change in annual rainfall across most of the region (projected changes in rainfall vary from decreases of a few millimeters per year to increases of up to 30 mm, with a high degree of uncertainty).• Some (small) seasonal shift in rainfall, with drier dry seasons, and in some studies shorter, more intense wet seasons so that even if total annual rainfall does not change significantly, it is possible that the availability of water for agriculture may change, with increases in the incidence of both droughts and floods.• Sea level is expected to rise 33 cm by 2050 (MONRE 2008) in addition to an observed rise of 20 cm over the last 50 years (Hien 2008).• Increase in temperature of sea surface may increase the intensity and incidence of typhoons during El Niño years (MRC 2009b).To date, only the increases in temperature and sea level have been observed. An analysis of historical rainfall records indicates a high degree of variability, but no trend in either overall amount or seasonality of rainfall. This contrasts with the widespread perception, reflected in a number of recently published reports (e.g., ADB 2009a; WWF 2009) that climate change is already being felt in the region as increases in the incidence and severity of extreme climate events. This perception is a result of confounding climate change with climate variability (or sometimes even with land use change). For example, ADB (2009a) quotes Mekong floods in 2000 and droughts in Lao PDR and Vietnam in 1997 and 1998 as examples of extreme events attributed to climate change. However, there is no convincing evidence that these events are outside of the range of \"normal\" climate variability, or that the frequency of such events has increased, at least in the mainland Southeast Asia (this study; MRC 2005). In the Mekong Delta, the reported increase in flood damage can be attributed to demographic and land use changes, as increasing population has resulted in settlement of areas previously not used precisely because of their vulnerability to floods.There is a high level of uncertainty associated with rainfall projections, particularly in the period to Given the high degree of uncertainty around projections of rainfall and runoff, it is counterproductive to use them as the basis for adaptation planning until more consistent estimates are available. It is more useful to characterize likely change as an increase in the variability and uncertainty of water availability and to take a \"no regrets\" approach to water management, with actions to improve both water use productivity and access to on-farm and offfarm storage, and to reduce water-related risks.Most of the studies on climate change undertaken in the GMS have attempted to quantify the impact of global warming on the regional climate by comparing mean annual temperature and rainfall averaged over successive periods whose length generally varies from 10 to 30 years. For instance, Mac Sweeney et al. (2008c) examined potential change in rainfall and temperature time series in Southeast Asia by comparing averages from a baseline period  with mean projected values for the 2030s, 2060s and 2090s. Ruosteenoja et al. (2003) calculated changes in seasonal surface air temperature and precipitation in Southeast Asia between a baseline period (1961-90) and three 30-year periods centered on the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s. However, caution must be used in quantifying climate changes using this approach. The analysis of three 52-year (1953-2004) time series of rainfall observations in Thailand, undertaken as part of this study, indicates that differences between 10year and 30-year means can reach 30 and 12%, respectively, whereas no long-term monotonous trend was observed in the three time series. Thus these changes cannot be attributed to climate change, but rather reflect natural multidecadal climate variability.In order to better distinguish natural climate variability from climate change in the GMS, this study applied a rank-based statistical test designed to detect monotonous trends in annual time series of rainfall and temperature variables derived from daily projections produced by the PRECIS regional climate model over the period 1960-2049 under the SRES scenarios A2 and B2 2 (IPCC 2000). Providing Regional Climate for Impact Studies (PRECIS) (Jones et al. 2004), a regional modeling system developed by Hadley Center, UK, provides data at a spatial resolution of 0.2° x 0.2°, which is appropriate for regional climate studies, compared to an order of magnitude of coarser resolutions provided by GCMs. PRECIS was applied to the GMS by the START (SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training) Southeast Asia Regional Center, using the output from ECHAM4 GCM 3 (Roeckner et al. 1996). Fourteen annual climate variables were derived from these daily rainfall and temperature series to describe regional possible monotonous changes significant at the 95% confidence level. Some outcomes of this analysis are presented in Figure 5. Temperature increases over the entire GMS during the period 1960-2049 in both cold and warm seasons (+0.023 °C/year). The highest rates of temperature increase (+0.035 °C/year) are anticipated in the northern parts of the GMS (north Myanmar and north Yunnan) and the lowest rates correspond to maritime areas (+0.016 °C/year). For the same period annual rainfall increases in Myanmar and in the Gulf of Thailand from +23 to +55 mm and from +341 to +693 mm, respectively, and rainfall decreases in central Vietnam and southern Lao PDR from 0 to -189 mm, and in the Andaman and South China Seas from -204 to -402 mm. In general, increases of annual rainfall are due to increases of heavy rainfall during the rainy season, and the decreases in rainfall are explained by a reduction of light rains during the dry season. Time-lags in the seasonal patterns mostly result in a slight delay at the onset, the peak and the end of the rainy season. From 2009 to 2049, these delays range from 0.1-0.4 day in the northwest of the GMS to 3.8-7.1 days in the southeast. Most of these results are consistent with those from Snidvongs et al. 2003, Mac Sweeney et al. 2008a, b and Ruosteenoja et al. 2003. However, the spatial extent of the areas which experience rainfall changes is smaller in the present case. This discrepancy is probably due to the differences in the length of the study periods (which are deliberately shorter in the current study since it targets the short-to mediumterm changes), methods used to detect changes (the rank correlation test only detects significant changes within a specific confidence interval) and the use of distinctive climate models.Projections of future climate in the GMS from different studies are compared in Table 3. While there is a degree of consistency in projections of future temperature trends, there are significant discrepancies between projections of rainfall changes in different studies, and clear trends cannot be identified. This is particularly marked for the first half of the twenty-first century, e.g., model estimates reported by TKK and SEA START (2009) indicate that precipitation will fluctuate in the first half of the century, and there were differences between the estimates derived from the A2 and B2 scenarios.Three rivers within the GMS originate from the melting of glaciers: the Mekong, the Irrawaddy and the Salween. Eastham et al. (2008)  Even if the estimated melting rate was 100% underestimated, the glacier melting would still remain insignificant. The surface area of the high-altitude wetlands (IUCN et al. 2003a, c) and the spatial covering of the glaciers (National Snow and Ice Data Center of the Colorado University) in the Irrawaddy and Salween catchments are both much smaller than in the Mekong catchment. The contribution of ice melt to the mean discharge of the Irrawaddy (13,500 m 3 /s) and Salween rivers (1,500 m 3 /s) is equivalent to essentially 0 and 9%, respectively (Jianchu et al. 2007).The impact of the glacier-melting is thus negligible in the two main catchments of the GMS (Mekong and Irrawaddy). The situation may slightly differ in the Salween catchment where the 21 ice-melting contribution to total runoff is higher, but the population that would be potentially impacted by such changes represents only 2% of the total population of the GMS.Global mean sea level has risen by 1.7 mm per year over the last century. During 1993During -2003, the rate increased to 3.1 mm per year, but it is not clear whether this is due to decadal variability or to an increase in the long-term trend (Bates et al. 2008). In Vietnam, Hien (2008) reports an observed rise of 20 cm over the last 50 years while Chaudhry and Ruysschaert (2007)  Rise in sea level is expected to accelerate with global warming. An additional rise of 33 cm is expected on the Vietnam coast by 2050 (MONRE 2008), and levels are projected to reach at least 1 m above current levels by 2100 (GCP 2008;IPCC 2007) posing a significant threat to the deltas and coastal regions. Wassmann et al. (2004) predict that a rise of 20-45 cm will seriously aggravate flooding in the Mekong Delta, with impacts in all three seasons of rice cropping. Dasgupta et al. (2007) estimate that more than 5% of Vietnam's total land area and 10% of population would be affected by a rise in sea level of 1 m, with 5,000 km 2 of the Red River Delta and 15,000-20,000 km 2 of the Mekong River Delta being flooded. The Red, Chao Phraya and Irrawaddy are steeper deltas, and so less prone to a rise in the sea level; Dasgupta et al. (2007) estimate that a 1 m rise in sea level would have smaller but still significant impacts, affecting 1-2% of both total land area and population. These projections do not take into account the impacts of storm surge or salinity intrusion. While the more severe impacts of the rise in sea level will not be felt until after 2050, it is essential to take longer-term impacts into consideration in planning and investment.Translating changes in rainfall into changes in availability of surface water and groundwater depends on a complex set of hydrological factors. Hydrological models to translate climate change impacts into changes in flow are not available for river basins in the GMS, with the exception of the Mekong. In large river basins, small changes in precipitation can accumulate to significant changes in flow. For example, Eastham et al. (2008) modeled hydrological impacts of climate change in the Mekong to 2030 and, based on the assumption of an average increase in rainfall of 0.2 m (13%), projected a 21% increase in overall flow in the river and an increase in probability of \"extreme wet\" flood events from 5% under historical conditions to 76% under future climate conditions. Such projections are specific to the input of the climate scenario, including both the volume and timing of rainfall, and to other assumptions including land use, but the results illustrate the magnifying effect that hydrological conditions can have on climate impacts. Attempts to quantify potential flow changes in the GMS have been made only in the Mekong Basin, where several studies have estimated river flows under different climate scenarios (e.g., Eastham et al. 2008;TKK and SEA START RC 2009;Hoanh et al. 2004;Kiem et al. 2008). TKK and SEA START RC (2009) compared results from these studies and found general agreement that rainy-season precipitation, runoff and discharge will increase in the first half of the twenty-first century, although there were significant differences in projected magnitudes of changes in water level and flooded area. However, estimates for dry-season changes differed, with projections of both increased and decreased flow in dry-season months. A recent study of the projected changes in floods and droughts globally to 2100 (Hirabayashi et al. 2008) indicated that the incidence of flooding in the Mekong is not likely to increase, despite an overall increase in annual flow but that the number of drought days will increase. Results presented graphically for the rest of the region indicated significant variations across the region, with no clear regional trend. Studies are underway to improve estimates of hydrological impacts of climate change in the Mekong (e.g., current collaborative projects between MRC and IWMI; MRC and CSIRO; and the Water and Development Research Group of Helsinki University and Southeast Asia START Regional Center).H i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s w i l l i n c r e a s e evapotranspiration, thus increasing the water demand of crops and pastures in both rainfed and irrigated systems. Irrigation demand in semiarid regions of Asia is estimated to increase by at least 10% for each 1°C rise in temperature (Fischer et al. 2002). Livestock demands per head will also increase. Increased water use by crops and pastures will impact on the availability of water for environmental and other uses.Changes in timing of the wet season could also affect irrigation demand (either positively or negatively, depending on the crop calendar) and impact on crop yields. For example, Hasegawa (2006) reports that in Northeast Thailand, rice transplanted early gives a substantially higher yield than that transplanted later.G l o b a l p r o j e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e incidence of extreme climate events is likely to increase (IPCC 2007). Vietnam is one of the ten countries worldwide most at risk to tropical cyclones (Chaudhry and Ruysschaert 2007). These cyclones are responsible for a significant component of annual rainfall (MRC 2005), and changes in the patterns of storm activity could impact on rainfall and runoff distribution. During the recent storm Ketsana in September 2009, damage due to flooding was more serious than actual storm damage, not only along the Vietnam coastal zone but also in the highlands of Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam.A combination of population growth and rising living standards is posing a new set of challenges in meeting future food demand in the GMS, and economic development is placing increasing pressure on land and water resources. Global markets are driving changes in agricultural production to meet export demands, and have opened up external sources of capital for investment in agriculture and infrastructure. China's economic growth and reemergence as a major trading partner is placing an everincreasing demand on the natural resources of the region (Rutherford et al. 2008). Increased energy requirements are driving large hydropower developments which will impact on freshwater ecosystems and water availability for agriculture. All these trends have implications for water management, but two forces are currently reshaping water and land management in the GMS at an unprecedented rate: population growth, and investment and trade.The population in the GMS is projected to grow from its current level of 275 million to reach over 340 million by 2050 (World Gazetteer 2009; World Bank 2009a; Figure 6). Thus, based simply on population growth, if no new land is brought into production, a 25% increase in average per hectare productivity will be needed simply to maintain current levels of per capita food production. This could only be achieved with significant increases in irrigation, placing heavy additional demands on water resources. Alternatively, to hold the current ratio of land per capita constant would require an additional 7.2 Mha of arable land (see Table 4, FAO 2009b), again, inducing large increases in water demand. Such increases in agricultural water demand are likely to come at the expense of flows for the environment, and will place significant pressure on ecosystems and biodiversity.Changes in diet and globalization of food markets mean that the picture is much more complex. As incomes increase, there is a general trend common across the world to more diversified diets with a higher proportion of food from animal sources and high-value fish, a shift from cereals to noncereals, and an increase in consumption of high-value foods such as fruit, sugar and edible oils (Pingali 2004). These trends are observed across Southeast Asia, although cultural and regional differences are pronounced, e.g., Thailand consumes significantly less animal products than China, even with much higher GDP. Changes in dietary preferences have significant implications for food production systems: a more meat-based diet requires a much higher level of resource inputs, including water (CA 2007).Agriculture in the GMS is transforming in response to global markets, directly through investment in agribusiness, and indirectly, as export markets (particularly in China) influence production trends. International demand for commodities such as rubber, cassava, sugarcane, corn, palm oil, cashew, coffee, pepper and eucalyptus has driven a large shift in production, with an increase in commercial plantations and contract cropping. Governments in Lao PDR and Cambodia are promoting commercialization and industrialization of agriculture, and seeking private investment (foreign and domestic) to fund the transition.This has resulted in an upsurge of investment in plantation agriculture which is profoundly altering agricultural production, with a rapid rise in planting commercial (often nonfood) crops such as rubber, oil palm, grains and legumes for feed stocks. In Lao PDR, direct foreign investment in agriculture between 2001 and 2007 totaled $665 million, with a huge influx of $458 million in 2006 (Rutherford et al. 2008). Similarly, recent investment flows into Cambodia have been very large: in 2007, $363 million went to agriculture and agroindustry, and land concessions (domestic and foreign) covering a total area of 943,069 ha (15% of Cambodia's arable land) had been granted in 2006 (MAFF 2009a). If realized, these concessions will change the face of Cambodian agriculture, bringing extensive new areas into production. The extent of foreign investment in agriculture in Myanmar in the past has been limited (UNDP 2006), but there are recent press reports of Chinese investment in plantations for rubber, palm oil and pulpwood (Associated Press 2009).Investment is also driving rapid expansion in the mining and energy sectors. Most activity in hydropower in the GMS is funded through foreign investment, except in Vietnam and Yunnan, where domestic and government companies dominate. For example, in Lao PDR and Cambodia, China is currently involved in over 20 hydropower projects either as an investor or developer (Rutherford et al. 2008), with a large number of potential projects in the pipeline (King et al. 2007), and International Rivers (2009) lists over 50 current and proposed hydropower projects in Myanmar funded or built by Chinese companies. International investment has financed the development of large-scale mines in the region: for example, in Lao PDR, the gold and copper mines at Phu Bia (Chinese investors) and Sepon (Australian/Chinese investors), and coal mines in Xayabury (Thai investors).Recently, extensive deposits of bauxite have been identified in southern Lao PDR, Northeast Cambodia and the Central Highlands of Vietnam. Chinese, Vietnamese and Australian companies, amongst others, have put forward proposals for large-scale extraction and processing. Development of these deposits could have significant impacts on water resources and the environment locally. In addition to water demand for mining and processing, and questions of disposal of the large volumes of \"red muds\" produced as wastes from processing bauxite, smelting of alumina requires enormous amounts of energy, and the viability of bauxite extraction may ultimately depend on concomitant development of hydropower as an energy source (Lazarus 2009).Climate change is incremental with small changes from year to year that, initially at least, are within the range of observed natural climate variability and will be masked by them. At this stage, there is no convincing evidence that climate change has yet significantly affected either the availability or distribution of water in the region (see above).In contrast, social, demographic and economic drivers are already forcing rapid and visible change in the water resources of the GMS. Withdrawals for irrigation regularly cause seasonal water shortages and water use conflicts in some areas (see, e.g., Pech and Sunada 2008;MRC-TNMC 2004). Construction of dams for irrigation and hydropower has significantly changed local downstream flow patterns (e.g., at Nam Theun 2 in Lao PDR; ADB 2004) and productivity of local fisheries (e.g., at Pak Mun in Thailand; World Commission on Dams 2000a).Quantifying the relative impacts of different drivers of change is not easy, but it is clear the impacts of demographic and economic changes are of at least the same magnitude as, or greater than, the impacts driven by climate change, and will occur in a shorter time span. For example:• Published projections of climate-induced changes in mean annual flow in the Mekong range from 5% (Hoanh et al. 2003) to 20% (Eastham et al. 2008); planned large hydropower projects in the Mekong are projected to increase dry-season flows by 10-50% and decrease wet-season flows by 6-16% (Hang and Lennaerts 2008).• Estimates of changes in crop productivity due to climate change are in the range of 2-30% over a 20-30 year period (Eastham et al. 2008;Cruz et al. 2007;Hoanh et al. 2004); in comparison, total agricultural production has increased almost 80% in Vietnam and over 200% in Cambodia over the last 15 years, with even faster growth in specific sectors and regions.• Dasgupta et al. (2007)  Thus, in the next 20 to 30 years, management of land and water resources will be shaped by a complex mixture of social, economic and environment factors, with impacts of at least the same order of magnitude as, or greater than, direct impacts of climate change. Some, like climate change and population growth, are cumulative while others such as food prices, oil prices, financial crises and political fluctuations can have immediate and severe effects, but these effects fluctuate over time and tend to even out. In the longer term (beyond 2050) climate may become the most urgent driver of change, as rise in sea level -without any adaptationmay force abandonment of significant areas of productive land in the mega-deltas and coastal zones, requiring a radical rethinking of production systems to maintain food sources for the inevitable increase in population.Water and its efficient use comprise the key to future food security and economic growth in the region. Whilst the region may not be seen as suffering from water scarcity, difficulties in access and dry-season shortages already induce economic water scarcity and conflicts over water use in some areas. Increasing demands from agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, mining and hydropower development will place greater pressure on maintaining flow regimes, water quality and aquatic habitats.In devising strategies to improve future water management in the GMS, three important issues have to be addressed. The first is to define and quantify the water resource, to understand a) the physical, social, political and economic drivers that determine water availability and access (including transboundary constraints) and b) the ways in which changing water availability and access affect food production, livelihoods and the environment. The second is to improve understanding of the impacts of climate change on runoff, infiltration and water availability. The third is to identify adaptive management strategies and trade-offs to balance changing water availability against increasing demands, in order to cope with uncertainty and change. Key components of adaptive management are water-allocation strategies, development of appropriate water storage, and adoption of key policy instruments providing incentives to use water differently. Clearly, all of the above will require significant financial investments and a commitment by policymakers to change. This will not occur until water is valued and priced at an appropriate level.Priority areas for improving water management in the GMS are set out below. Because agriculture dominates water withdrawals, it will be required to play a major role in improving efficiencies. Within the agriculture sector there are a range of approaches that could improve water use efficiencies, reduce risks and protect water quality in both rain-fed and irrigated systems. Maintenance of aquatic ecosystems is essential to food security in the GMS, because of the dependence on fisheries in these ecosystems.Rain-fed agriculture dominates production in the GMS, due to a long rainy season with high rainfall. Most of the wet-season rice crop is either rain-fed or has only limited supplementary irrigation (Mainuddin et al. 2008). Despite a strong focus by regional governments on increasing access to irrigation, significant areas of the plains and uplands may never be irrigable because of topographic, hydrologic or soil constraints: for example, FAO estimates that only 20% of the total potential cropland in Cambodia is irrigable (MAFF and MOWRAM 2007). Thus a large proportion of cropland is likely to remain rain-fed, and it is essential that water management options for rain-fed agriculture are not neglected. Drought is the major risk in the plains and uplands, but rain-fed production in the deltas and floodplains is prone to risks from both floods and droughts: in the major Mekong floods of 2000, over 400,000 ha of rice in Cambodia (MAFF 2009b) and 93,000 ha in Vietnam (Kazama et al. 2002) were estimated to have been destroyed.Technologies and practices for improving water management at the farm scale are loosely grouped as \"agricultural water management\" (AWM) technologies. These range from traditional techniques to modern innovations, and include (IWMI 2006) the following:• In-situ soil and water conservation technologies including conservation agriculture (e.g., planting pits, infiltration ditches, mulching, contour banks).• Ex-situ rainwater harvesting and water-storage technologies (e.g., small earth dams, tanks, hand-dug shallow wells, runoff harvesting).• Water-lifting technologies (e.g., treadle pumps, hand pumps) for transferring water to, and/or removing water from, fields.• Technologies for efficient application of water to plants (e.g., clay pot subsurface irrigation, bucket irrigation, direct application by hose).Conservation farming approaches can increase production by reducing the risk of intermittent drought stress that is common to rain-fed production systems. Simple approaches to improving the quality of soils through the application of organic matter (waste materials) and/or inorganic natural minerals (clays) will have a positive impact on the water-holding capacity of soils and their nutrient-holding ability. Noble and Suzuki (2005) report typical yield increases of 30-100% in rain-fed lowland, organically grown rice when soils were treated with bentonite clays in field studies in Northeast Thailand to improve nutrient retention and water-holding capacity. Reduced tillage, stubble mulching and other soil conservation practices that reduce evaporation from the soil surface also have a positive impact on the water-storage capacity of soils.Water harvesting and small-scale water storage for supplementary irrigation in dry spells during flowering or grain-filling can significantly improve yield and reduce risk of crop failure (CA 2007). Small-scale water storage and irrigation systems permit flexibility for farmers to select diverse cropping systems with staggered planting dates that better suit the uncertainties in water availability from season to season, while the water-storage ponds can provide additional income from fish culture (van der Mheen 1999). Small-scale water harvesting using on-farm storage has been successfully implemented in Northeast Thailand as part of the \"integrated farming system\" promoted by King Bhumipol (Setboonsarng and Gilman 2009) where ideally 30% of farm area is set aside for ponds for water storage used for irrigation and fish culture. In a study in Tamil Nadu, Jayanthi et al. (2000) found that integrated farming requires less water per unit of production than monocropping systems. IWMI (2006) reviewed a wide range of smallscale AWM technologies available for southern Africa, and concluded that when used appropriately they can provide substantial improvements in household food security and incomes in a costeffective manner. It was stressed, however, that these approaches are highly specific for particular systems, and must be targeted to suit agroecosystem, soil, microclimate and social contexts. However, water saving techniques are effective only where water availability is a major constraint to production. This may not be the case in many places in the GMS where labor, capital and markets are defining factors.Breeding drought-tolerant crop varieties that have high water use efficiencies will also contribute to yield increases in water-limiting environments. Trials of drought-tolerant rice varieties in Kampong Cham and Siem Reap in Cambodia increased yields on farmers' fields by 1.0 to 1.6 t/ha (from 1.9 to 3.5 t/ha) compared to currently used varieties (CURE 2009). Similarly, submergence-tolerant varieties currently being introduced in India and the Philippines can significantly reduce crop losses due to flooding (IRRI 2009).The Cambodian Strategy for Agriculture andWater (2006-2010) concluded that \"introduction of improved water management technology for rain-fed agriculture would be more cost-effective, more easily managed, and have more widespread benefits in the long run. It is not a question of one or the other approach, but of choosing where different technologies are appropriate, how their relative monetary and social benefits compare, and how to achieve equitable investments that benefit the whole rural population\" (MAFF and MOWRAM 2007).Recent FAO studies found that large-to mediumscale public irrigation systems in Asia generally performed well below their potential (Mukherji et al. 2009;Facon 2007). Problems stem mainly from inappropriate design and O&M. Given the high level of existing and planned investment in irrigation infrastructure, improving the performance of these systems must be a high priority. In many older irrigation systems in the GMS, water use is highly inefficient due to poor design of conveyance and application systems combined with a tendency for overirrigation. Increased water use efficiencies can be achieved through upgrading of distribution systems (channel lining, use of pipes) and the adoption of improved technologies, such as drip and pivot irrigation; deficit irrigation, and the production of wet-dry (aerobic) rice.Intensification of cropping systems through both full and supplementary irrigation in the dry season is needed to realize the full value of irrigation infrastructure. Many systems were initially designed around rice production (for example, low drainage requirements, inflexible scheduling), making it difficult for farmers to diversify into higher-value dry-season crops (Nesbitt 2005). More flexible systems are needed to allow farmers greater control and autonomy of irrigation scheduling, thereby encouraging diversification of farming activities. In South Asia and China, there has been a massive shift to farmer-managed small-scale pumping, even in areas where public irrigation previously dominated -the \"atomization\" of irrigation (Mukherji et al. 2009). There is evidence of a similar shift in Southeast Asia with a rapid increase in the number of small pumps installed in Vietnam (>800,000 by 1999), Thailand (>3 million by 1999) and more recently in Cambodia (120,000 in 2006) (Mukherji et al. 2009;MAFF 2009b). Small-scale pumping often relies on groundwater sources (see below).If the risk of flooding of lowland areas increases as a result of climate change, and irrigation is possible, it may be appropriate to shift the main cropping season to the dry season to capitalize on higher yield from higher solar radiation. This trend can already be seen in the Mekong Delta, where the traditional wetseason rice crop accounts for only 10% of the total production, which is now dominated by two irrigated crops in winter-spring and summer-autumn (Government Statistical Office of Vietnam 2009). Such a shift would require major investment in irrigation, but may be an opportunity to implement new and more flexible approaches. In Bangladesh, tracts of flooded ricelands in lowlying areas that are no longer cultivated with deepwater rice, in favor of dry-season irrigated rice, are now under community-based management for floodplain fisheries during the monsoonal season (WorldFish Center 2007).The inefficiency and low utilization of large-to medium-scale irrigation schemes are frequently attributed to failures in O&M and management (Facon 2007;World Bank 2006;Mukherji et al. 2009). This is due to inadequate funding, training and technical support for agencies managing irrigation schemes, and to institutional failures where central bureaucracies and public-sector irrigation institutions have often lacked the structure and incentives to optimize productivity. It is also due to mistakes in planning and design of the irrigation project that did not take into account the slack time from project completion until farmers could fully change their production systems to adapt to new water conditions that might take many years. The response has been for donors to encourage governments to hand over responsibility for managing irrigation back to farmers through Participatory Irrigation Management/Irrigation Management Transfer (PIM/IMT). However, based on a major review, Mukherji et al. (2009) concluded that \"in most of Asia, transferring management from bureaucratic irrigation systems to farmers' groups has neither significantly improved productivity, operation and management, nor has it produced other net benefits…many experts now believe there is a need to look beyond conventional PIM/IMT.\" Suggested approaches include public-private partnerships for irrigation management, farming out of management services, and unbundling of system management into smaller components.In all surface irrigated systems there is significant return-flow that needs to be managed in a sustainable manner to prevent long-term negative impacts, as is evident in parts of Northeast Thailand. These return flows often contain high levels of dissolved salts, pesticides and minerals. There are a number of innovative approaches that include sequential (or serial) biological concentration (Paydar et al. 2007) that could effectively utilize this otherwise problematic water thereby increasing water use efficiencies and adding an economic value to wastewater.With rapid urbanization in GMS countries, the role of urban wastewater within the agriculture sector in the region could hold significant potential in increasing water use efficiencies. This is an area that has not been promoted and one that holds significant implications for closing the nutrient cycle, reducing the costs associated with wastewater treatment plants and increasing water use efficiencies.The development of groundwater resources, either as a sole source or in the context of conjunctive use, may emerge as a key factor in addressing future water issues in the region. Groundwater currently accounts for only a small proportion of irrigation in the GMS, but its use is increasing. In many parts of Asia, there has been a substantial move to use groundwater for irrigation, often even where surface water is available (Mukherji et al. 2009;Shah 2009). This trend is also emerging within the GMS.Currently, groundwater is used in the GMS primarily to supplement surface water irrigation, often in locations or seasons where water is scarce. As pressures on surface water sources increase due to growing population and climate change, reliance on groundwater is likely to rise. In addition, groundwater can offer an attractive alternative to large, centrally controlled irrigation systems, since it provides smallholder farmers with individual control over their water supply, autonomy in water use and greater flexibility in production systems.Groundwater plays a major role in the provision of domestic supplies, particularly in smaller settlements, where it is preferred to surface water due to year-round availability and better quality, particularly since it is less prone to microbial contamination. In Cambodia, more than half of the population uses groundwater for domestic needs (MRC 2003), whilst in Lao PDR groundwater is the main source of drinking supplies for the rural population (World Bank 2006).Technologies are being developed to take advantage of the potential of aquifers to store and transfer water. Managed aquifer recharge, storage, transfer and recovery can be used to enhance water supplies, reduce the need for infrastructure, decrease evaporative losses and improve groundwater quality through dilution. For example, flood water can be pumped to aquifers for later recovery and use; and in highly connected floodplain systems, shallow aquifers can act as delivery systems carrying river water to the floodplain. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) can also be used to preserve water levels in wetlands that are maintained by groundwater, and to mitigate or control salt-water intrusion into coastal aquifers (NWC 2009). Such technologies could offer significant benefits for dealing with the impacts of climate change in the GMS region. In Thailand, MAR trials are currently underway on ponding-based methods of aquifer recharge in the Phitsanuloke irrigation area (Srisuk et al. forthcoming), riding on the success of similar trials in Vietnam (Nguyen Thi Kim Thoa et al. 2008).Groundwater resources are thus of emerging but vital importance, but little is known about the size and sustainability of groundwater resources in the GMS. The continued provision of adequate volumes of good quality supplies is under growing threat from falling water tables, contamination, intrusion of salt water and land subsidence. There is a significant risk of unregulated overexploitation of groundwater: over-pumping has already significantly depleted groundwater resources in several areas in Vietnam (MONRE 2009). Unregulated groundwater use may also impact on linked surface water, particularly in the deltas and floodplains where groundwater and surface water are highly connected and must be managed conjunctively to be sustainable.A comprehensive assessment of groundwater resources, use and potential in the region is urgently needed, as the basis for management plans for the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater and to assess the potential of new technologies to contribute to water management under climate change.High-yielding agricultural production systems are dependent on the addition of synthetic fertilizers, in particular industrially produced nitrogen (NH 4 and NO 3 ) and phosphorus. A significant amount of the applied N and P added to crops is lost from agricultural fields, and ends up in waterways. Excess of nitrogen and phosphorus leads to water-quality problems including eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia and declines in wildlife and wildlife habitat, and can impact on human health. As well as the financial cost, nitrate and phosphate fertilizers have high embodied energy; and breakdown of excess nitrogen fertilizers contributes to GHG emissions as nitrous oxide (Galloway et al. 2008).Reducing the input of industrialized fertilizers is thus an urgent priority. This can be achieved by increasing nutrient use efficiencies: in the USA, nitrogen fertilizer efficiency has increased by 36% since the mid-1970s (Frink et al. 1999). These improvements are a result of significant investments in research and extension education, soil testing and timing of fertilizer applications. Other strategies that could be implemented to increase nutrient efficiencies in cropping systems are the use of crop varieties grown for efficiencies in higher nutrient use; cover crops or reduced tillage to reduce losses associated with leaching, volatilization and erosion; and closing the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles through the application of livestock and human wastes as fertilizers.Opportunities exist for agricultural reuse of urban wastewater, which provides multiple benefits in terms of enhancing food supply and recycling nutrients although health risks from the use of polluted water must be managed carefully (Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008).Livestock production will become an increasingly important regional component in the agriculture sector as per capita incomes rise. Whilst industrial-scale production of livestock in the region is still in its infancy (e.g., chicken and pork production for global markets) this trend will increase rapidly. The safe handling and sustainable disposal of animal wastes from high-density animal confinement facilities are a challenge but could be viewed as an opportunity. The composting of animal waste to create crop fertilizers and soil amendments offers an opportunity to close the nutrient cycle and improve the quality of soils. The closing of the nutrient cycle will decrease dependence on synthetic fertilizer production.There are possible advantages of improving efficiencies and minimizing losses through combinations of organic and inorganic fertilizer use. Organic matter effectively acts as a slowrelease form of nutrients, but can be fortified with inorganic fertilizers to synchronize releases to meet crop demand. The advantage of such an approach would be a dramatic decrease in the need for inorganic nutrients that would have significant positive implications with respect to energy saving in the manufacture of inorganic fertilizers. Research is needed to develop innovative fertilizer delivery platforms that supply nutrients in a far more efficient and sustainable manner.Nutrient management may take on new urgency as global supplies of phosphorus are depleted. Most of the world's farms do not have or do not receive adequate amounts of phosphate and demand for P fertilizer is increasing. Projections of the life span of the remaining P reserves range from 60 to 130 years (Dery and Anderson 2007);in 2007-2008, the price of phosphate rose by 250% (Jung 2008). The key response to \"peak phosphorus\" is to re-create a cycle of nutrients by returning animal and human wastes to the soil.The significance of freshwater fisheries to both food security and the economies of the GMS countries means that maintaining the health of freshwater ecosystems is a very important priority. Aquatic ecosystems also provide a wide range of ecosystem services beyond fish production: wetlands and lakes provide flood attenuation, groundwater recharge and water purification (Foley et al. 2005;CA 2007). Wetlands are important agricultural systems: both deepwater and recession rice capitalize on natural wetland habitats, and paddy fields essentially mimic the water retention of natural wetlands (McCartney et al. forthcoming).Aquatic ecosystem health and associated environmental services deteriorate when natural flows of water, sediments and organic materials are substantially disrupted or modified, for example, by damming or diversion of rivers, or alienation of floodplains by construction of infrastructure. Hydropower development, diversion of water for agriculture and urbanization and road construction all place increasing pressure on the aquatic ecosystems of the GMS. Proposed hydropower development in the major river basins of the GMS (described above) will result in changes to river flows at an unprecedented scale and rate, bringing larger changes than those predicted from climate change and in a much shorter time frame (TKK and SEA START RC 2009).Definition of the magnitude and timing of flows needed to maintain rivers, lakes and wetlands in an ecologically acceptable condition (environmental flows or environmental water demand) has been the subject of extensive debate and study internationally (Arthington et al. 2006;Richter et al. 2006). A preliminary assessment of the environmental impacts of flow modification has been conducted for the Mekong (MRCS/IBFM 2006), but few studies have been carried out elsewhere in the GMS. However, methods have been developed for assessing and managing environmental flows where detailed hydroecological data are not available (Smakhtin et al. 2007;Smakhtin and Eriyagama 2008;Abbasov and Smakhtin 2009;Poff et al. 2009) and can provide the basis for adaptive management programs until more comprehensive studies are available. There is an urgent need to incorporate these approaches into water resources planning before extensive developments are undertaken, to prevent degradation of fisheries and other environmental services observed in other parts of the world (World Commission on Dams 2000b). A major constraint in the adoption of these approaches is seeking agreement between the range of stakeholders and managers from different sectors and locations, in particular for the transboundary international rivers as in the GMS.Maintenance of flows, though essential, is not the only factor in maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystems. Aspects such as maintaining wetland vegetation, connectivity of wetland habitats, migration paths and water quality must also be taken into account. For example, in the Tonle Sap system, clearance of flooded forests, alienation of the floodplain by construction of roads and levees, and changes in the flux of sediment and nutrient into the lake all pose threats to the viability of the lake's ecosystems (Baran et al. 2007;Kummu and Varis 2007;Krittasudthacheewa and Apirumanekul 2008). In river systems, migration paths and refuge habitats such as deep pools must also be maintained (Poulsen et al. 2002). Thus environmental flow studies must be carried out in conjunction with a landscape-scale assessment of the functioning of aquatic ecosystems.The discourse around environmental flows relies heavily on the concept that thresholds of \"acceptable\" impacts can be defined and that trade-offs can be made balancing allocation of water in different sectors. Friend and Blake (2009) argue there is increasing evidence that the scale of impacts of dam construction on aquatic ecosystems is so great that it does not allow for trade-offs. McCartney (2009) cautions that although a wide range of measures has been developed to ameliorate the negative impacts of dams, many interventions fail, either for technical reasons or as a consequence of a variety of socioeconomic constraints, and that lack of hydroecological understanding remains a key constraint to successful environmental protection.In the low GDP countries of the GMSas in much of the developing world -water infrastructural projects are an important component of national development plans. In this context, it is difficult for decision makers to prioritize reserving flow for the environment over the more urgent requirements of income generation and poverty reduction. Environmental flows were expected to help minimize conflicts among water-use sectors but, in practice, they have caused confusion because of the difficulty in quantifying the needs and impacts of different uses. Thus in the developing world, environmental flows have often been dismissed as irrelevant, encapsulating an antidevelopment stance, largely about conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity for their own sake.However, there is increasing recognition of not only the much broader economic and social importance of environmental flows but their role in both alleviating current poverty and maintaining options for the future (SWH 2009). In the GMS, subsistence livelihoods are inextricably linked with ecosystem health, and maintenance of aquatic ecosystems is an essential component of food security for the poor (see section on Water, fisheries and aquatic ecosystems, p. 11). Equally importantly, environmental flows can be seen as preserving options for future use: if people use the flow for certain production benefits now (e.g., hydropower), they may lose other current and future benefits (such as fisheries), incur future costs (such as loss of fertile sediment trapped in the reservoir) or restrict alternative development options (such as ecotourism). These dimensions of environmental flows have been explicitly recognized in the methodology of Downstream Response to Imposed Flow Transition (DRIFT) which focuses on both environmental and sociological benefits of flows, including subsistence uses (King et al. 2003).To gain more policy traction in a development context, the definition of environmental flows needs to be broadened to explicitly include subsistence uses and the concept of \"flows for the future.\"Over the last few years, considerable effort has gone into initiating response strategies for climate change in the GMS. All countries in the region are preparing National Adaptation Action Plans (NAPAs), many studies have examined options for adaptation, and a wide range of potential technical and social responses have been identified (see, e.g., Resurreccion et al. 2008;MRC 2009b). As part of adaptation planning, options for mitigating GHG emissions from GMS countries have also been considered. Agriculture is the major contributor of GHG emissions from all GMS countries, and could thus play a correspondingly large part in mitigation efforts (Smith et al. 2007;World Bank 2008;ADB 2009a).In formulating adaptation priorities and strategies in the water sector, two important points must be taken into consideration: the high degree of uncertainty surrounding the pace and direction of changes in water availability and the rapid rate of change due to other, non-climate factors. There are no defined boundaries between climate-specific and non-climate-specific adaptations (Resurreccion et al. 2008). Response strategies must be formulated in the context of the whole range of impacts and drivers. Responses range from planned (such as macroeconomic policies) to autonomous (such as decisions by individual producers to change crops in the face of fluctuating prices and demand).McGray et al. ( 2007) point out that adaptation and development are intimately interlinked, and that it is not always possible or productive to draw a distinction between the two. They define a continuum of responses between development activities (aimed at reducing vulnerability through building capacities that can help address a range of challenges, including the effects of climate change) and explicit adaptation measures (addressing specific impacts of climate change); see Box 2. In a context where there is uncertainty around climate projections, there is a high risk in implementingThe range of adaptation activities may be framed as a continuum of responses to climate change, roughly divided into four types of adaptation efforts:At the development end of the spectrum are activities that not only reduce poverty and address other fundamental shortages of capability but make people vulnerable to harm. Very little attention to specific climatechange impacts is paid during these interventions although they help buffer households and communities against climate trends or shocks. Sample activities include efforts to improve livelihoods, literacy, and women's rights, and even projects that address HIV/AIDS.Adaptation activities focus on building robust systems for problem-solving. These capacity-building efforts lay the foundation for more targeted actions, and substantially overlap many institution-building and technological approaches familiar to the development community. Examples include the development of robust communications and planning processes, and the improvement of mapping, weather monitoring, and management practices of natural resources.Climate information is incorporated into decisions to reduce negative effects on resources and livelihoods, accommodating the fact that often the effects of climate change are not easily distinguished from those of hazards within the historic range of climate variability. Examples include disaster-response planning activities, drought-resistant crops, and efforts to \"climate-proof\" physical infrastructure.Actions focus almost exclusively on addressing impacts associated with climate change, typically targeting climate risks that are clearly outside historic climate variability, and with little bearing on risks that stem from anything other than anthropogenic climate change. Examples include communities that relocate in response to sea-level rise and responses to glacial melting.(Source: McGray et al. 2007) explicit adaptation measures since these may turn out to be maladaptive. This underscores the importance of planning in terms of recognizing and maintaining the distinction between climate change and climate variability; if short-term variability is mistaken for trend, and adaptation responses are planned on that basis, serious errors could occur.In contrast, response strategies that have, at their core, measures to reduce vulnerability, build resilience of production systems and improve adaptive capacity of rural communities constitute \"no-regrets\" options. A robust approach is needed, seeking solutions that address current problems and build resilience, regardless of the direction of change (World Bank 2009c; Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Partners 2009). In the context of water management, options such as those described above which increase water productivity and decrease water-related risks will generally constitute \"no-regrets\" options, in that they also provide benefits in terms of production or environmental outcomes. Similarly, producers in the region have always lived with climate variability and have many coping strategies for droughts and floods that will form the basis for adapting to climate change (Friend et al. 2006), and many of these are \"no-regrets\" responses. Incorporating the concept of climate risk into planning and investment decisions is an important strategy for managing current as well as future climate variability.Appropriate responses will be highly context-specific, depending on physical and social conditions as well as interactions with measures that might be recommended in other sectors. Trade-offs between sectors, or between short-and long-term outcomes, may be required. Changing conditions may mean that previously viable strategies become infeasible or maladaptive, for example, expenditure on water storage may be lost if upstream changes in either climate or infrastructure result in changes in water availability. Adaptive management strategies will be required to deal with uncertainty and change.All countries have recognized the importance of building adaptive capacity in communities so that they are better able to deal with unforeseen changes. Social adaptation will be as important as technical measures in ensuring the long-term viability of rural communities and agricultural production. It is widely recognized that capacity to adapt to change is closely linked to socioeconomic factors such as poverty, diversification of income sources, level of education, and access to infrastructure and technology (Anshory-Yusuf and Francisco 2009;IPCC 2007). Promoting broadly based agricultural development to lift rural communities out of poverty is probably the most effective adaption strategy available.In the same way as water management strategies, effective adaptation responses must be tailored to fit specific physical, social and economic conditions. Priorities in different physiographic zones will be very different, and an analysis of options for responding to climate change in the different physiographic zones is set out in Table 5. However, even within similar physical environments, the social and economic context will determine the relevance of particular approaches.In the deltas the threat of sea-level rise will dominate longer-term planning, with difficult decisions to be made now regarding protecting or abandoning low-lying productive land and infrastructure under impacts of this slow process. Flood protection and disaster preparedness programs have high priority in these zones under all the NAPAs, to protect vulnerable coastal populations. Major investments in infrastructure to protect crops from floods and salinity intrusion (dykes, pumps) are already planned and/or underway in some areas, for example, in the Mekong Delta (Tuan et al. 2007).Because they are the end points of the river systems, water impacts from the upstream will be passed on to the deltas, and basin-scale planning and water allocation agreements are needed to reduce vulnerability of deltas to upstream use and optimize multiuse water systems, including hydropower. Pressure on dry-season water availability could be reduced by shifting crop calendars to balance full dry-season irrigation with supplementary irrigation of early or late wet-season crops, as well as by improvements in irrigation efficiency. Reuse of wastewater from major cities for peri-urban agriculture offers benefits in nutrient recycling as well as in reduced water use. Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water may reduce the pressure on surface water resources, but in most cases, little is known about the extent of groundwater resources and the sustainable limits for their use. Overpumping from groundwater has already resulted in declining water tables and saline intrusion into aquifers in the Mekong (MONRE 2009) and subsidence in urban areas of Bangkok (Phien-wej et al. 2006).Improvements in brackish water aquaculture, integrated mangrove/shrimp cultivation, expansion of freshwater aquaculture and integration into rice production systems will be important components of maintaining and increasing productivity in the deltas. Changes in rice cultivation methods to reduce methane emissions (wet-dry cultivation; Allen et al. 1996) may involve trade-offs against aquaculture potential in flooded systems. Aquaculture of mollusks and seaweed can provide carbon sequestration as well as high productivity (de Silva and Soto 2008). freshwater species, move culture further upstream, select faster-growing species or strains.• Improve aquaculture, e.g., proper infrastructural design and water management, enhance aquacultural skills and provide infrastructure.• Promote ecologically friendly integration of aquaculture with other food-production activities, e.g., rice-fish systems, mangrove-crab and mangrove-shrimp systems.• Hatchery technology to replace wild seed stock.• Increase monitoring of harmful algal blooms.(Continued) (continued).In the plains and plateaus, responses to climate change will be mainly about management of scarce water. A range of crop management techniques are available to reduce water use, for example, retention of traditional cultivation methods which use the flood pulse and rainfall, and changes in rice cultivation such as direct seeding and wet-dry cultivation methods. Rainfall conservation practices in rain-fed areas (smallscale water storage, conservation farming) can improve crop yields and reduce production risks. Supplementary irrigation and use of crops such as groundnut and soybean with low water demand can reduce irrigation demands, assuming the market limitations of these crops can be solved. Low levels of utilization of irrigation over much of the plains suggest potential to increase production by expanding and improving irrigation, but Molle and Floch (2008) caution that ambitious projects for irrigation expansion (such as \"Greening Isan\" and Thai Water Grid) have not come to fruition for a range of social and economic reasons. Wet-dry rice cultivation to reduce methane may be more feasible here than in the deltas, with co-benefits through decreased water use. However, labor and capital are major constraints for application of new cultivation techniques. Large-scale agroforestry plantations and cultivation of biofuels could provide significant carbon sequestration, but these options need to be assessed carefully since there are significant risks of competition with food crops (both land and water); and social disruption accompanying large-scale plantations. Assessment of land suitability of lowland zones is urgently needed to identify areas of high potential for conversion to permanent agriculture (and conversely, to identify areas not suitable for conversion), taking into account possible changes in crop suitability over time. Coordinated planning is important in order to optimize opportunities for irrigation and reservoir fisheries in conjunction with hydropower development.In the uplands, there is a range of \"winwin\" solutions which offer increased production, improvements in water management and reductions in GHG emissions. Conservation farming techniques (reduced tillage, improved fallow, mulching) sequester carbon, improve water productivity and reduce soil erosion as well as increase production (Valentin et al. 2008;Fowler and Rockström 2001;Hobbs 2007). Improved livestock management systems (forage crops, improved pastures, semi-intensive cultivation) reduce grazing pressure on steep lands all of which have potential mitigation benefits through decreased methane emissions (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Reversion of steep lands to forests (already observed in parts of Vietnam, Yunnan and Thailand; UNEP and TEI 2007) reduces soil erosion and increases carbon sequestration. Protection and reestablishment of forests also protect water-regulating functions of catchments and potentially result in significant GHG sequestration (Angelsen 2008). However, in reality this alternative is only possible in areas where economic development has reached a level where conversion of forest to agriculture is less profitable than other, nonfarm activities.In the coastal zones, significant areas of the coastal plains are vulnerable to sea-level rise, particularly in Vietnam and the Rakhine Delta in Myanmar (Dasgupta et al. 2007). Production in these areas is more dispersed than in the deltas, and protection works are less likely to be economically viable. The coastal fishing populations are most vulnerable to inclement coastal-and sea-weather conditions, and being located right at the water's edge, fishing and fish farming equipment and structures bear the brunt of storms. High dependence on marine and wetland resources means that these areas are vulnerable to ecological changes due to sea-level rise or increase in the temperature of the surface of the sea, and diversification of livelihoods will be an important priority. Reduction of disaster risks and preparedness for storms, floods, and post-disaster interventions can reduce vulnerability to climaterelated disasters. There is some potential for mitigation of GHG emissions through agroforestry, and improved livestock management.Two aspects of climate change mitigation efforts are likely to have important ramifications for water management: attempts to reduce GHG emissions from agriculture and land use change; and increased production of biofuels.The forestry and agriculture sectors contribute 80% of total emissions from Lao PDR and Cambodia, and 60% from Vietnam (Morton 2008;ADB 2009a). Emissions result mainly from the release of CO 2 due to land use change, deforestation and forest degradation; release of CO 2 and N 2 O from soils; and methane emissions from rice paddies and livestock (Smith et al. 2007;Galloway et al. 2004). Smith et al. (2007) estimated that Southeast Asia has the greatest technical potential for mitigation of any region globally, through a combination of direct reduction of emissions (by reduction of forest clearing and conversion), enhancing GHG removal (by increasing carbon sinks in both vegetation cover and soil carbon) and displacing emission (e.g., by the use of biofuels). Mitigation opportunities from agriculture include the following:• Increasing soil carbon storage by improved agronomic practices such as minimum tillage, residue return, use of cover crops, legume rotations (though there may be offsets between C storage and release of N 2 O, depending on the nutrient status of soils).• Reversion of cropland to pasture or tree cover, over the entire land area, or in localized spots, such as grassed waterways, field margins, or shelter belts.• Reforestation and improvement of forest quality addressed under the UNFCCC through the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) program, and a system of financial incentives and payments for reducing carbon emissions associated with deforestation (Angelsen 2008;Vickers 2009).• Nutrient management and use of urban wastewater and livestock wastes as fertilizers to reduce N 2 O emissions.• Reduction of methane emissions from rice by wet-dry cultivation (Allen et al. 1996) and by minimizing incorporation of crop residues prior to planting (Sass et al. 1991). There is also evidence that methane emissions decrease as yields increase (Denier van der Gon et al. 2002).• Reduction of methane emissions from livestock through the use of improved forages, improved pastures and breeding of animals with a higher efficiency of feed conversion (Steinfeld et al. 2006).• Culture of aquatic organisms lower down the food chain, such as mollusk and seaweed, can contribute to carbon sequestration.Seaweed culture far exceeds the potential carbon sequestration that could be obtained through other agricultural activities for a comparable area ( de Silva and Soto 2008).All these practices have implications for water use. In some cases, there may be synergistic benefits: for example, minimum tillage can improve retention as well as carbon storage. In other cases, trade-offs will be required and a careful analysis must be made of overall benefits: for example, large-scale reforestation to increase carbon sequestration may decrease water yield for protracted periods.Internationally, there is increasing recognition of the potential role of agriculture and land management in mitigation efforts, and this calls for inclusion of mitigation from land use changes as measures eligible for payment for carbon credits (Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Partners 2009). If successful, this could result in major shifts in land use in some areas, including parts of the GMS (particularly in the uplands, where reforestation may become economically viable). It is important that the implications for water management of large-scale land use changes are taken into account in planning and implementing mitigation initiatives under schemes such as REDD (Angelsen 2008).Concerns about CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels and rising oil prices have driven international interest to biofuels, solid fuels such as wood and charcoal, used mainly for cooking and heating, and liquid fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, produced from crops as a replacement for fossil fuels in transport (Howarth et al. 2009). Both have implications for water management, in different ways.The GMS region has traditionally relied very heavily on solid biofuels as an energy source, for example, Messerli et al. (2008) report that 95% of Lao PDR households use wood or charcoal as the main energy source for cooking and, similarly, UNDP (2008) reports that almost all rural households in Cambodia rely on fuelwood or charcoal for cooking. Demand for fuelwood has been a significant driver of deforestation in the GMS (UNEP and TEI 2007), and governments and conservation agencies in the region have promoted shifts to alternative fuels (biogas, kerosene, electricity) as an important component of strategies to combat loss of forests and resulting watershed degradation. However, proposed changes to the Kyoto Protocol to broaden the application of carbon credits for afforestation and reforestation could mean that managed agroforestry for fuelwood (combined with more efficient stoves and improved technologies for charcoal production; GERES 2009) will become an economically viable option. Changes in the carbon markets could drive significant increases in reforestation, with concomitant impacts on the quality and availability of water.Demand for liquid biofuels in the GMS is increasing rapidly. China expects biofuels to supply 15% of its transportation energy needs by 2020 (USDA FAS 2006). The Government of Vietnam is committed to developing biofuels for the transport sector, aiming to reach 5 billion liters per year of bioethanol and 500 million liters per year of biodiesel (Morton 2008). The Government of Thailand is strongly promoting the production and use of biofuels through tax incentives, mandatory biodiesel production, and low interest loans to palm-oil producers. As a result, demand for palm-oil is predicted to grow from 31 million liters in 2006 to 492 million liters per year by 2010, requiring an additional 400,000 of palm-oil plantings (USDA FAS 2007). Neither Lao PDR nor Cambodia has set targets for biofuel production, but many of the large plantation concessions granted in the last 5 years have been for crops suitable for biofuels (oil palm, sorghum, jatropha;Voladet 2008;MAFF 2009b). When global fuel price increased during the last few years the Government of Lao PDR approved plans to plant 100,000 ha of jatropha to ensure supplies for a biodiesel plant (Theuambounmy 2007).Several studies have pointed out the potential risks of biofuel production competing with food crops for land and water (e.g., de Fraiture et al. 2008;Howarth et al. 2009). Pursuing biofuel production in water-scarce areas will put pressure on an already stressed resource, especially if it is using a crop that requires irrigation (such as sugarcane). However, de Fraiture et al. (2008) point out that crops such as sweet sorghum, which use much less water, may be a viable option in rain-fed areas and on marginal lands; and tree crops such as jatropha could be incorporated into agroforestry systems.The economic viability of biofuels will depend on market forces, including fuel and food prices, and may be heavily influenced by global policies affecting carbon markets. Subsidies for biofuels or establishment of carbon credits for biofuels (e.g., under the UNFCCC Clean Development Mechanism) could drive significant land use change, and the impacts of such policies on land use, water availability and food production must be carefully assessed.Models of climate change in the GMS to 2050 consistently indicate a rise in temperature across the region, but there is no clear regional trend in projections for rainfall. The degree of uncertainty associated with projections is high, and becomes even greater when changes in rainfall are translated into changes in runoff, river flow and water availability. There is some consensus that an increase in the incidence of both floods and droughts may occur, but the magnitude, timing or spatial distribution of such changes are not clear. Water availability in the GMS is already quite variable -the annual pulse of the monsoon is regular, but has a high degree of interannual variability so that floods and droughts are both common. Despite reports of observed changes in climate patterns in the region, statistical analysis of climate records provides no compelling evidence that observed patterns over the last 10 years are outside the bounds of historical variability.In the short to the medium term (10 to 40 years), the incremental impacts of climate change are likely to be within the range of natural variability and will be masked by it. In contrast, social and economic drivers are already forcing visible regional change at a rapid pace. Changes in agricultural production and development of hydropower are modifying both demand for, and availability of, water resources, and these trends are predicted to accelerate. Climate is only one driver of change, and adaptation to climate change will take place in a highly dynamic and uncertain context, with systems responding to a wide range of pressures and no defined boundaries between climate-specific and non-climate-specific adaptations.Given the high degree of uncertainty associated with climate projections and the prospect that stationarity may no longer apply in hydrological assessments (Milly et al. 2008), it is counterproductive to rely too heavily on current modeled projections as the basis for adaptation planning to address specific impacts. A more robust approach is needed, seeking solutions that address current problems and vulnerabilities, and build resilience, regardless of the direction of change. One of the major factors determining resilience is economic status -poverty reduction is critical to underpin adaptation efforts in all sectors.Meeting the region's food requirements over the coming decades will require large increases in agricultural water or significant increases in water productivity in both irrigated and rain-fed production systems. All countries have policies promoting commercial, export-oriented agricultural development which will place even greater demands on water resources. There is a range of technically feasible \"no-regrets\" options to increase water use productivity and reduce water-related risks. Rain-fed agriculture is likely to continue as the dominant production mode in the GMS for the foreseeable future, and small-scale, on-farm water management approaches should be an important priority. Since changes in land and water use practice are sought from poor farmers whose livelihood options are limited, new mechanisms for promoting sustainable water use are needed, drawing on the experience from emerging financial models such as payment for environmental services, mitigation payments through schemes such as REDD and harnessing global trade to promote change.Groundwater is likely to supply at least some of the additional water demand, but information on the extent and sustainability of groundwater resources in the region is limited. A comprehensive assessment of groundwater resources (including surface water and groundwater connectivity) is needed as the basis for coordinated water resources planning. Beneficial outcomes from the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater are dependent upon evolving institutional and management arrangements. Typically, the management of both surface water and groundwater is fragmented and both resources are planned and managed quite separately.Proposed hydropower development in the major river basins of the GMS will result in changes to river flows at an unprecedented scale and rate, bringing larger changes than those predicted from climate change and in a much shorter time frame. The importance of freshwater fisheries to food security in the region underscores the importance of protecting the productive capacity of freshwater ecosystems from the impacts of these changes. This requires attention not only to environmental flows but also to habitat coherence and connectivity at the landscape scale. Preliminary assessments of environmental-flow requirements of all major rivers in the basin should be an urgent priority, with a coordinated research effort on hydroecological processes and relationships across the GMS in the longer term.A high proportion of the research effort in the region has focused on the Mekong, the largest of the region's river basins. Hydrological and ecological information for the region's other major river basins is limited, and this lack will severely constrain planning and monitoring of water resources. Compilation of consistent hydrological data and models across the whole GMS is an important research priority.Much of the development of agriculture, mining and hydropower that will define water resource use in the GMS over the next 10 to 20 years is driven by private, often external, investors. A coordinated approach to planning is generally lacking, even within countries. While the benefits and impacts of individual projects may be assessed, there is rarely adequate analysis of the cumulative benefits and impacts of multiple projects at the basin, catchment or national scale. Strategic environmental assessments help find a balance between economic development, social equity and environmental sustainability in planning infrastructural development, but such approaches will only be successful if ways can be found to involve private-sector investors in planning at the early stages.Projections indicate that the impacts of climate change on water resources in the GMS over the next 20-30 years are likely to be small compared to those of economic, demographic and environmental changes. This \"breathing space\" provides an opportunity for countries and communities to reshape their water management systems, to enable them to deal with the more extreme changes expected after 2050. The most effective strategies for adaptation will be those that promote more productive water use, reduce water-related risk and vulnerability, and build the overall resilience of rural communities.","tokenCount":"17402"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69019228f11b306adcb68c729d7c5e95","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2c28c890-6565-47a3-abb6-75fdd2274cbd/content","id":"-1893104058"},"keywords":["Cereals","Maíz","Zea mays","Wheats","Triticum","Crop performance","Yield factors","Environmental factors","Drought stress","Rain","Temperature resistance","Heat","Nutrient deficiencies","Crop yield","Yield increases","Models","Simulation models","Tropical zones","Mexico","Research projects CIMMYT","CERES AGRIS category codes: F01 Crop Husbandry","H50 Miscellaneous Plant Disorders Dewey decimal classification: 633.1"],"sieverID":"282494a6-8217-4482-835c-39410089bd04","pagecount":"75","content":"ii CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises over 55 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT's research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies.CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture: peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org).For the past several years, CIMMYT has worked hard at shaping its research endeavors and collaborative activities around a new paradigm, known as G x E x M x P (germplasm x environment x management x people). CIMMYT aims to help develop sustainable maize and wheat systems for the poor by combining the right germplasm for the right environment, using suitable crop and system management practices, in ways that are consistent with people's needs. This new paradigm requires the use of a systems perspective, in which biophysical factors and policy and institutional factors guide technical change, in turn consisting of interacting crop and system management practices and new varieties.Understandably, then, CIMMYT is increasing its reliance on systems tools. This embraces \"soft\" systems tools (e.g., farmer participatory research and farmer experimentation), as well as \"hard\" systems tools (e.g., simulation models and geographic information systems, or GIS). Much of CIMMYT's capacity to engage in systems research is housed in a new Program: the Natural Resources Group, or NRG. The NRG is keenly interested in the use of simulation models for a variety of purposes:• To understand the biophysical processes underpinning resource degradation.• To understand the processes whereby new sustainable technologies make their favorable effects felt.• To anticipate longer-term consequences of technical change for system productivity and resource quality.• To understand (and thereby help manage) the variability of performance in new technologies across production environments (including weather conditions and soil types).• To assist with extrapolating and scaling up research results.The NRG is committed to improving the capacity of simulation models to address these kinds of questions. This is why the NRG was delighted to host this workshop. It is the second modeling workshop in as many years, and we anticipate making these workshops an annual event to promote continued development of simulation models for maize and wheat systems in developing countries.We would like to thank CIMMYT science writer, Mike Listman, for the style editing and layout of this publication.Director Natural Resources Group (NRG) CIMMYTMaize and wheat simulation models have been developed largely for favorable production environments in temperate regions. They function well for the yield ranges representative of these regions (e.g., 4 to 10 t/ha), but simulations for conditions in developing countries are often less satisfactory, both for high and low yield potential environments. This four-day workshop looked at opportunities for improving model responses for both types of condition. In brief oral presentations, speakers examined various features of maize and wheat modeling related to the workshop theme:• Upendra Singh (IFDC) presented data showing increases in the anthesis-silking interval (ASI) of up to 20 days for severe nitrogen stress in West Africa. His initial impression is that the phenology effect alone is enough to explain most of the yield decline, and he will incorporate this effect.• Andre du Toit (ARC-Grain Crops Institute, South Africa) reviewed statistical approaches for identifying algorithms that need improvement in models. For CERES Maize, the number of ears per plant and water stress before and during silking were identified as priorities for further improvements.• Dewi Hartkamp (CIMMYT NRG) explained how she simulates spatial variation in rainfed maize yield in Jalisco state, Mexico, and in Honduras. Handling variation in soil parameters is still a major challenge.• Jeff White (CIMMYT NRG) examined the temperature response of CERES Wheat using data extracted from the International Wheat Information System (IWIS). CERES predicts that the highest yields occur at very low temperatures, while IWIS data shows a plateau of yields of 10 to 12 t/ha from 10° to 22°C.• Garry O'Leary (South African Sugar Association Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa) compared published reports on wheat model errors over various yield levels. For stress conditions, models will need to include improved translocation of stem reserves and responses to low populations.• Tony Hunt (University of Guelph, Canada) reviewed the new ICASA file standards. These are an evolutionary step beyond the widely used DSSAT formats. Software using the new formats will be available by the end of the year to ensure Y2K compatibility.On the second day, Joost Lieshout demonstrated a prototype shell for decision support tools that might be used to launch databases and crop models. The \"TACO Shell\" (Texas and CIMMYT Object Shell) will be used in the International Crop Information System (ICIS). He and Marvin Stapper subsequently demonstrated how ICIS could be used to store and export files in the ICASA formats.The following three days focused on \"hands-on\" model testing and code modification. For CERES Wheat and Maize, a critical distinction was made between changes that are appropriate for a service release of CERES V3.5 and modifications that should considered in beta testing.For wheat, considerable effort was devoted to modeling temperature response for flower and grain development. CERES Wheat 3.5 assumed an optimal temperature of 26°C throughout development. An optimum of 15° appears to be more realistic for pre-anthesis development and will be used in Service Release 1.Discussions on maize focused largely on handling of grain number both at very high yield conditions and under stress. A strategy is needed for modeling differences by cultivar in the tendency to form barren plants at high populations and to set multiple ears under low populations.For both maize and wheat, the temperature effect on radiation use efficiency (RUE) has too high and narrow an optimum. This has major effects on the yield to temperature; identifying a more appropriate response should be a research priority in coming months.Various \"bug fixes\" will be incorporated in the Service Release 1 of CERES. The upcoming modeling workshop at IFDC will be used for final testing of SR1. Various beta versions will be created in 1999 and reviewed at the next CIMMYT NRG modeling workshop. Key to this work is developing a set of quality model validation datasets for maize and wheat.Maize and wheat simulation models have been developed largely for favorable production environments of temperate regions. While they function well for the yield ranges representative of these regions (e.g., 4 to 8 t/ha), simulations under conditions found in developing countries are often less satisfactory, both for high and low yield potential environments. This workshop was proposed as a means to examine the performance of maize and wheat models under extremes of environmental conditions and to suggest priorities for further model improvement. Since it may not be clear why high and low yield situations should be addressed in a single workshop, we provide further background for this workshop, including offering specific challenges to crop modelers.The foremost reason for examining the extremes represented by high and low yield environments was circumstantial evidence that maize and wheat models perform poorly for such conditions. At the high yield extreme, one of the authors (J. White) was unable to simulate wheat yields as high as reported in credible agronomic trials for CIMMYT's station at Cd. Obregon. At the low end, water and nitrogen deficits both can delay silking in maize crops. Underlying this effect is a shift in partitioning that results in a disproportionate reduction in grain yield as compared to overall growth. However, these stress responses are not incorporated in current maize models and, not surprisingly, current maize models have problems simulating grain yield under extreme nitrogen and water deficits.There is also wide discussion on the relative environmental and social impact of seeking production increases in favorable, high-yield environments vs. in marginal production areas (Heisey and Edmeades 1999). Systems offering high yield potential are perhaps easier to improve both in terms of biological \"leverage points\" and of the ability of farmers to adopt promising technologies. Particularly, the economic risks of adoption are buffered in these systems. Improving production in high-yield areas can also relieve pressure on marginal lands. This is easily noted in developed countries. Near-subsistence farming in marginal areas was often associated with severe environmental degradation, including soil erosion, deforestation, and nutrient depletion. However, modern agricultural, coupled with industrial development, has not resulted in adoption of improved production practices for marginal areas. Rather, crop production has simply disappeared in many such areas.Counter arguments that favor research for low-yielding environments correctly note that crop yields of most developing countries are far below yields in other regions (Fig. 1). Furthermore, since low yields influence rates of resource degradation, particularly through soil erosion, improving these systems may reduce degradation. It is worth noting that modeling has a special role to play in addressing climatic risk in lowyielding environments, because it offers one of the few approaches for assessing the risk and long-term consequences of new technologies.A further justification for examining model performance under high yield conditions is that if model performance is suspect in the absence of stress, results under stress conditions will usually be worse. A model has to have the basics of growth and development right. And from a more political view, we note increasing interest in robust estimates of yield potential as a tool for policy making (Hobbs et al. 1998). Such interest is usually linked to \"yield gap analyses,\" where the analytic powers of models can help in prioritizing subsequent research activities.In a four-day workshop, we do not expect to revolutionize modeling of maize and wheat systems. However, we hope the workshop will challenge our views on how to model such systems and lead to insights on how to improve models. Below are five questions that suggest possible directions our discussions and modeling efforts might pursue.Recent years have seen a rise in interest in models that use radiation use efficiency (RUE) as a key determinant of growth and grain production (Muchow et al. 1990). While simplicity is usually a commendable research criterion, one can question whether simplified models of complex systems can predict critical aspects of system behavior.Consider a very simple RUE-based crop model:where CWAM is crop dry weight at maturity and ΣSRAD is the sum (integral) of intercepted solar radiation from crop emergence to maturity. Assuming a constant harvest index (HI), thenwhere Y is grain yield. Thus, RUE = Y/(HI x ΣSRAD).Given the direct relation between RUE and grain yield, it is difficult to see how a simple RUE-based model will provide more insights into variation in yield potential than direct measurement of grain yield. While we would not argue that the more mechanistic the model, the better the estimate of yield potential, oversimplification carries significant risks.Whereas heterosis is recognized as a source of high yields in hybrid maize, wheat crosses can also show significant heterosis (Cukadar et al. 1997). To our knowledge, no crop models explicitly deal with heterosis-probably reflecting our poor understanding of the underlying physiological mechanisms. Stuber (1997) commented that \"the causal factors for heterosis at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels are today almost as obscure as they were at the time of the conference on heterosis held in 1950.\"Interestingly, data both for wheat and maize (Cukadar et al. 1997;Gaytan-Bautista and Padilla-Ramirez 1997) suggest that heterosis results in greater overall growth in a shorter time span. This implies that the efficiency of growth is even greater than is suggested by heterosis for yield per se, and this presents an even greater challenge for models that assume that potential growth and yield are assimilate limited.In modeling crop adaptations and responses to stress, it is reasonable to consider whether crop species share basic mechanisms of stress tolerance. Common mechanisms should lead to simplifications in model development and testing, and many lines of evidence certainly support such commonality.Cereal genomes are highly similar (Paterson et al. 1995), suggesting that biochemical pathways for basic stress response processes must also be similar. Free proline accumulates in water-stressed leaves of crops, including wheat, barley, rice, sorghum, and cotton (Stewart and Hanson 1980) and is presumed to play a critical role in osmotic adjustment. Various stresses induce synthesis of groups of proteins, such as those produced by plants under heat shock, which share characteristics across species (Ho and Sachs 1989). And at a level nearer the process complexity managed by most crop models, abscisic acid (ABA) plays a key role in root-to-shoot signaling of water deficits, soil compaction, and other soil-based stresses (Sharp and Davies 1989;Davies and Zhang 1991), causing a rapid reduction of leaf and shoot expansion.By the same token, we must not undervalue the differences between crops such as maize and wheat. Maize has a short day response to photoperiod and requires no vernalization. Its C 4 photosynthetic pathway is usually argued as conferring greater tolerance to water deficits, high temperatures, and nitrogen deficiencies (Loomis and Connor 1992). Conversely, maize's monoecious reproductive system and extreme determinant growth reduce the ability of the crop to compensate for stresses during flowering and grain filling (Denmead and Shaw 1960;Edmeades et al. 1997).The long day photoperiod response and vernalization requirement of wheat may suggest totally different physiological mechanisms but, in practice, very similar modeling approaches can represent temperature and photoperiod effects on development for the two crops, as well as many other cereals. The C 3 photosynthetic pathway of wheat, however, may require substantial differences in modeling responses to temperature and to water and nitrogen deficits. Furthermore, although wheat tillers are morphologically determinate, wheat plants show a much greater ability to compensate for stresses during grain filling than is found in maize.How Can We Measure the Impact of Weeds, Insects, and Diseases? Various approaches have been used for modeling the impact of weeds, insects, and diseases on maize and wheat production. In many cases, the underlying processes are well understood, and the main constraint is the availability of field data.We would cite soil-borne diseases, however, as a specific challenge. Plant responses are less well understood and potentially involve changes in root growth and metabolism that are notoriously poorly represented in simulation models. Furthermore, soil borne diseases often have complex interactions among themselves, with water and nutrient deficits, and with soil organic matter. Relationships with soil organic matter link these diseases to conservation tillage and residue management, which most agronomists would agree are key to obtaining sustainable increases in tropical wheat and maize production.Most workshops emphasizing systems approaches note the need for measuring relevant parameters correctly and exchanging data with colleagues. This workshop provides an opportunity to query whether data are still a major constraint. One might ask whether we measure the wrong things the wrong way and at the wrong locations. A glance at smallholders' fields in developing countries often reveals sparse and very irregular plant stands. Perhaps models should move away from the concept of an \"average plant\" and consider plant populations.Incorrect measurement procedures include too small and improperly bordered plots, lack of clarity on whether grain weights are dry weights or at commercial grain moisture contents, and incorrectly calibrated instruments. The proposed file format standards being developed by ICASA (Hunt et al., these proceedings) offer one obvious vehicle for improving data exchange. However, the flexibility of these standards precludes requiring users to report details of methods and instruments used to obtain data. The International Crop Information System (ICIS) offers the promise of providing much more extensive documentation of research procedures, while still allowing modelers to use the ICASA standards (Lieshout et al., these proceedings).We can also question whether research is conducted under relevant field conditions. The problems of experiment station biases are well known. Research sites are often selected for reasons related to suitability for plantation crops or ease of access and may lack soil or climatic regimes representative of smallholder, low-yield conditions. Another dimension for crop modeling, however, is whether enough extreme environments are incorporated. Crop research seldom includes environments that are hot or cold enough to shed light on the transition between crop failure and commercial viability. The large systems of international trials conducted by centers of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) offer one under-exploited resource for such work, but access to \"model ready\" data is lacking.Simulating performance of maize or wheat crops in environments offering extremes of high or low yield potential presents special challenges for crop modelers. However, such conditions are of relevance for a range of problems facing researchers both in developed and developing countries. The duration of growth for a particular cultivar is highly dependent on its thermal environment and photoperiod. Hence, the phenology of a crop is one of the major determinants of yield (Rabbinge et al. 1993). Accurate modeling of crop duration and growth is necessary for reasonable yield prediction. The essence of genotype x environment interaction is primarily associated with the timing of phenological events and environmental conditions (rainfall, temperature, radiation and photoperiod). Optimum timing of irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticides is also dictated by a crop's phenology, and any delay or acceleration of phenology affects the above management inputs and harvest operation. This paper summarizes the effect of temperature, photoperiod, and nitrogen deficiency on crop development in maize as reported by Singh et al. (1999).As an approximation, one can consider crop development to be independent of growth. The phasic development or phenology is an ordered sequence of processes punctuated by discrete events, such as sowing, emergence, floral initiation, anthesis, and maturity. It is implicitly assumed that the plant, or part of the plant, possesses a development clock that proceeds at given rate (day -1 ) for each of the above phases (Thornley and Johnson 1990). Variation between modern annual cultivars within a species is usually most evident in the duration of growth, duration of the vegetative and reproductive phases, and the least in the rate of growth. Growth and development processes have different degrees of variation and sensitivity to environmental and management factors (Table 1). Crop development has two distinctly unique features: phasic and morphological development. There is greater genotypic diversity for phasic development than for morphological development (Table 1).The current version of the CERES-Maize model, which is distributed in the DSSAT package (Tsuji et al. 1994) simulates nitrogen (N) response for growth, leaf area, leaf weight, stem weight, grain yield, and yield components (grain weight and grains per ear). The model uses two sets of N stress indices as a function of the N deficiency factor (NFAC) to simulate the effect of N stress on leaf expansion and photosynthesis. The NFAC is estimated as the ratio of N supply (from soil and fertilizers) to plant N demand. Godwin and Singh (1998) have presented a complete description of the N model. The model, however, does not simulate the effect of N stress on phenology.N stress was shown to delay slightly the appearance of leaves. However, due to delayed silking, the final number of leaves was quite similar at low and high N rates (Bennett et al. 1989). Associated with the delayed silking, anthesis-silking interval (ASI) increased with N stress. A drastic reduction in grains per ear occurs as ASI goes beyond five days (Elings et al. 1996). The modifications to the CERES-Maize model to simulate the effect of N stress on crop development have been fully discussed by Singh et al. (1999).The delay in phasic development prior to silking was modeled with severe N stress, resulting in a decreased rate of thermal time accumulation. For the same degree of N stress, the delay was more pronounced during the reproductive phase (tassel initiation to silking) than during the vegetative phase (emergence to tassel initiation). The relationship was based on results from field trials and greenhouse studies (Singh et al. 1999).The average N stress effect over the reproductive period (tassel initiation to silking) was used by the model to modify ASI, which in turn determines the number of grains per ear. As illustrated by the sensitivity analysis on maize cultivar Pioneer X304C sown during the dry season in Waipio, Hawaii (Singh 1985), the days to silking increased from 78 to 108 as N deficiency in the plant increased (Fig. 1).In association with the delayed silking, ASI also increased.The phyllochron, or leaf appearance rate, is least affected by N stress; as a result, the final leaf number changes only slightly. In contrast, P deficiency resulted in an up to 32% increase in phyllochron (Rodriguez and Goudriaan 1995). Under increasing P stress conditions, final leaf numbers were reduced.Nitrogen stress during grain-filling shortens the duration of this phase; the opposite effect of stress during pre-silking (Table 2). However, the combined effect of N stress on the duration of sowing to maturity may be small. Under N limiting conditions, both the effect on growth and the shortened duration of the grain-filling stage contribute to lower grain yield.Grain number per unit area is usually the most critical determinant of maize grain yield (Ritchie et al. 1998). Since maize cultivars vary in grain numbers, the CERES-Maize model uses a cultivar coefficient for a reference grain number, G2 (Ritchie et al. 1989). The model uses the concept of Edmeades and Daynard (1979) to estimate grain number from the average rate of photosynthesis around silking. The effect of N stress on grain number occurs indirectly through N stress effect on photosynthesis and also via its effect on silking date and ASI.The sensitivity of grain number and hence grain yield to mean N stress during the reproductive phase is apparent on the maize cultivar Pioneer X304C, grown in Hawaii (Fig. 2). The cultivar coefficient, G2, for X304C is 690 grains per ear. The CERES-Maize model simulated 50-500 grains per ear over the range of N deficiency. Grain yields for these treatments ranged from 555 to 7,180 kg/ha.The effect of N stress on growth (expansion and mass), phasic development (growth stages), and morphological development (leaf numbers and grain numbers) was simulated by the modified CERES-Maize model. The performance of the model on actual field trials from Zaria, Nigeria (Oikeh et al. 1997), Gainesville, Florida (Bennett et al. 1989), and Waipio, Hawaii (Singh 1985) is presented in Figure 3. The model accurately captured the observed delays of up to 10 days to silking and a reduced grain-filling duration of up to 14 days. Further validation of the model is planned with tropical maize data from IFDC-Africa, CIMMYT, and IITA.The availability of nutrients and water is a primary constraint to agricultural production in much of sub-Saharan Africa. With increasing population pressure and continued soil nutrient mining, these limitations will become even more pronounced. Implicit with managing cropping systems under nutrient-limited conditions is quantifying the duration and timing of phenological development to utilize limited water and nutrient resources more effectively. The modified CERES-Maize model is sensitive to changes in crop duration based on the effect of environment and nutrient management. The model coupled with realtime weather will facilitate and enhance the ability to forecast yields under limiting conditions, improve resource use efficiency, and minimize deleterious effects of cropping practices on the environment.  Source: Singh et al. (1999).Water is the most limiting factor in dryland maize production in South Africa. Use of low population densities, in combination with wide rows and prolific cultivars, makes it possible to produce maize under these semiarid conditions.To verify and calibrate a crop growth model, criteria are needed to evaluate model performance. It is generally accepted that the ultimate test of a simulation model is the accuracy with which it describes the actual system, thus requiring comparison of simulated and observed data (Willmott 1982;Jones and Kiniry 1986;Oreskes et al. 1994) . A number of statistical methods are available to analyse model performance, including linear regression techniques (Jones and Kiniry 1986;Flavella 1992), D-index and systematic and unsystematic mean square errors (Willmott 1982).Jones and Kiniry (1986) used linear regression techniques of the form y= a + bx with simulated results as the independent variable. Good model performance was obtained when the intercept (a) approached zero and the slope of the regression (b) approached unity, indicating a near perfect relationship between observed and simulated values. Complementary to this regression, the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) can also be calculated, indicating the similarity or inverse similarity of a response in y for a response in x.The coefficient of determination (r 2 ) can be obtained from r, signifying the percentage of variance accounted for by the model.Deficiencies in the above-mentioned statistical parameters were noted by Willmott (1982) and Harrison (1990). Observed and simulated data may occur in a narrow band, whereas this is usually not the case with the coefficients. Secondly, it is difficult to identify the point at which a model ceases to be valid or invalid. Savage (1993) warned against the use of a correlation coefficient if data are not randomly distributed. Willmott (1982) recommended use of the D-index (index of agreement), RMSEs (root mean square error systematic), RMSEu (root mean square error unsystematic), and RMSE (root mean square error) for model evaluation. Due to limitations in the use of correlation coefficients as an agreement index, Savage (1993) stated that the statistics defined by Willmott (1982)  where n is the number of treatments and i the number of a specific treatment. These statistical parameters quantify the mean difference between observed (Oi) and predicted (Pi) values (Willmott 1982).The advantage of RMSEs is that it indicates the bias (deviation of the actual slope from the 1:1 line) in a particular model, compared with the random variation (RMSEu) that may occur (Savage 1993). The RMSEs and RMSEu are calculated as follows:where P i ^ is regarded as the best estimate of the predicted quantity (Savage 1993) calculated with the intercept (a) and slope (b) of the least-squares regression, P i ^ = a + b0i (Willmott 1982). Willmott (1982) proposed an \"index of agreement\" (D) of the formwhere P ' i = Pi -O _ (average of the observed) and O ' i = Oi -O _ . The index (D) is intended to be a descriptive measure, which is both a relative and bounded measure and can be widely applied to make cross-comparisons between models (Willmott 1982).Observed vs. simulated graphs, also known as 1:1 graphs, are widely used in simulation evaluations (Willmott 1982;Jones and Kiniry 1986). Harrison (1990) stated that any statistical method can be combined with 1:1 graphs, to help identify the pattern of differences between the predicted and observed values.The evaluation of CERES3 using different statistical parameters for this particular trial was done for yield, kernel number, and silking date. These where chosen because of the low accuracy experienced in yield simulations under certain climatic conditions and management practices (Carberry et al. 1989;Du Toit et al. 1994), in the simulation of kernel number (Jones and Kiniry 1986;Carberry et al. 1989;Ogoshi 1995), and in the simulation of silking date, which contributes to a low accuracy in yield simulation.In this study, we evaluated the ability of CERES3 (Hoogenboom et al. 1994) to simulate the compensation potential of the maize plant under local conditions of reduced plant populations, comparing model outputs against field data. The purpose was to identify the most sensitive algorithms in the model and thus improve the accuracy of simulated yield.For the present study, we chose a trial from the so-called \"Phoenix project\" 1 (De Vos and Mallett 1986) in which data were taken for both low yields (indicating a low or negative level of yield compensation) and above average yields (indicating a high level of yield compensation) for the particular management practices. Data on silking date, grain yield and kernel number were taken from the trial for Potchefstroom, (26 o 44' S, 27 o 06' E, 1,345 masl). The trial included six cultivars-two early maturing, two of intermediate maturity, and two late maturing-sown at 1.8 plants/m² in 1.1 m wide rows (Table 1). Yields ranged from 1,214 to 5,323 kg/ha for the three planting dates.The crop model used was CERES3, in which the CERES models for maize, sorghum, wheat, millet and barley are combined to provide a generic, multicrop model to run with a single set of code, incorporating the development and growth sections for each individual model into a single module with a single soil component (Tsuji et al. 1994). According to Ritchie (1991), generic models should allow users to have more uniform procedures for validating models or to link with components not included in the sole crop model. The generic CERES3 (Hoogenboom et al. 1994) was used for the simulations.The simulation accuracy of yield was extremely low (r 2 =0.0001; Table 2, Fig. 1). This contrasts with previous results of Thornton et al. (1995), who reported r 2 values of 0.94 (CERES-Maize v2.1) for trials in Malawi, but agrees with the assessment by Mbabaliye and Wojtkowski (1994), who reported an r 2 of 0.10 (CERES-Maize v1.0) in Rwanda.Comparing the observed and simulated means in Table 2, CERES3 shows a slight under-prediction. The RMSEs value of 1,001 kg/ha in comparison with the RMSE value of 1,374 kg/ha shows that a high level of bias is associated with the model. Willmott (1982) observed that the differences described by RMSEs are a linear function. This could easily be reduced by new parameterization, such as changing soil parameters or genetic coefficients, or by recalibrating existing functions. Savage (1993) observed that the model might become site specific in such cases. The fact that both systematic and unsystematic errors were relatively close to RMSE indicated the error to be biased and random. The D-index of 0.39 and r 2 of 0.00 suggest that the model does not adequately simulate yield regardless of the statistical measurement used. The slope of the linear regression line of 0.0087 in Figure 1 indicates a tendency to over-predict at low grain yield and under-predict at higher values. Jones and Kiniry (1986) suggested that input errors are more likely and, in practical terms, a more serious source of poor model predictions than are logic or calibration errors. The following input data were investigated as possible sources of error in the simulation of grain yield.Genetic coefficients. The genetic coefficients for the Phoenix project were determined in different field trials subjected to minimal water stress as described by Jones and Kiniry (1986). In this study it was assumed that those genetic coefficients were correct and not the factor causing error. Genetic coefficients could be used to decrease the variation between observed and predicted values (the error), but these could possibly be site specific (Ogoshi 1995).Soil input data. Sensitivity analyses done on CERES-Maize V1.0 (Jones and Kiniry 1986) with regard to soil input data showed that simulated yield was sensitive to factors such as initial soil water content, lower limit of plant extractable water (LL), and drained upper limit (DUL). In the Phoenix project, the initial soil water content was measured (gravimetrically) for each of the planting dates, so this variable is unlikely as a possible input error in the simulation of the trial. Both the visual analysis of Figures 2 to 4 and the quantitative measures in Table 3 indicate that CERES3 gave a reasonably accurate prediction of the change of plant extractable water over the growing season for the three planting dates of the historical data. The error in simulation could not therefore be attributed to errors in LL and DUL.Plotting the difference between observed and simulated yield (error) in Figure 5 indicated a strong negative correlation between yield and error (r 2 = 0.52). Yields below 2,908 kg/ha showed a positive error, whereas yields above this value showed a negative error, implying that it is possible that the positive (underestimation) and negative (overestimation) errors could have been caused by different factors. These factors need to be identified to explain the bias of the model with the observed range of yields.• Positive error. One possible factor was water stress, which Carberry et al. (1989) identified in CERES-Maize v1.0 as the reason for low simulation accuracy at low yields. To identify whether water stress could explain the positive error, the observed yields (Fig. 5) where replaced by the simulated water stress index during different growth stages and incorporated in a linear regression (Table 4). These results indicated that 30% of the error could be explained by water stress before silking and 44% by water stress during silking, both of the correlation coefficients being significant. Inaccurate water stress simulations could therefore explain the positive error in Figure 5.• Negative error. Another possible factor is ear prolificacy, which Du Toit, Booysen, and Human (1994) identified in CERES-Maize v2.1 as one of the main reasons for low simulation accuracy at above average yields. The observed numbers of ears per plant, as an indicator of prolificacy, replaced observed yield (Fig. 5) and were fitted against the error in a yield simulation (Table 4). These results indicated that 42% of the error could be explained by the inability to simulate ear number per plant, as indicated by the significant correlation.Grain yield simulation represents the net integration of every operative system in the model. In Table 4 water stress during silking was identified as a reason for low accuracy in yield simulation. The algorithm that is directly influenced by water stress during silking is the simulation of kernel number. If accuracy in the simulation of kernel number is low, accuracy of the simulation of grain yield can be expected to be inadequate (Jones and Kiniry 1986).The simulation of kernel number per plant was identified as a system of CERES-Maize in need of calibration by both Jones and Kiniry (1986) and Carberry et al. (1989) for version 1.0, and Ogoshi (1995) for version 2.1. This was confirmed in the present study as indicated by the quantitative measures provided in Table 5. Kernel number was simulated with low accuracy, explaining the low accuracy of yield simulation. Comparison of RMSEs with RMSE indicates a high level of bias in the kernel simulation of CERES3, whereas RMSEu compared to RMSE shows a low level of random error. In Figure 6 the slope of the regression (broken line) of -0.005 for the simulation of kernel number per unit area indicates a similar tendency in the regression for yield simulation (Fig. 1). Both the statistics and the 1:1 graph indicate that the low accuracy of kernel number simulation could explain the low accuracy in yield prediction.The effect of water stress and ear prolificacy on simulation error associated with kernel number were recalculated, using the same procedure described for yield in Table 4. Water stress during silking explained 61% of the error associated with simulation of kernel number, while ear number per plant contributed 52% to the error. Both correlation coefficients were significant at P= 0.001. The sensitivity of kernel number to water stress during silking has been well documented (Herrero and Johnson 1981;Schussler and Westgate 1991;NeSmith and Ritchie 1992;Basseti and Westgate 1993;Otegui et al. 1995). It appears that the simulation error for kernel number should decrease, if the effect of water stress is calibrated and prolificacy is simulated (Table 6).Errors in the prediction of silking date may have contributed to errors in kernel number simulation and, consequently, in yield simulation. This was indicated by Carberry et al. (1989), who reported improved yield simulation by CERES-Maize v1.0 through improving the simulation of silking date. The four days for which the simulated mean was lower than the observed mean (Table 7) indicate an underestimation by CERES3 as confirmed by a MAE value of 3.94 days. The RMSEs value of 3.98 days against the RMSE value of 4.51 indicates that, by calibrating the functions that simulate silking, error in silking simulation would decrease. The simulation of delayed germination and of leaf number (Carberry et al. 1989;Du Toit et al. 1994) are functions in need of calibration because of their influence on silking date.A plant population of 1.8 plants/m 2 in combination with row widths of 1.1 m for this trial was beyond the limits for which CERES was originally developed. Prolificacy simulation is not relevant at populations of 6.0 plants/m 2 but is applicable to densities of 1.8 plants/m 2 . These factors could have contributed to the low accuracy of the yield simulation of the 1986/87 trial.Grain yield simulation represents the net integration of every component in the model. The differences between the observed and simulated yields (error) revealed a significant correlation with water stress and ears per plant. Simulation of these two variables was poor and needs to be improved to minimize the error in simulated grain yield.Kernel number is an important component of grain yield and is sensitive to environmental stresses during silking. The lack of simulation of sensitivity of kernel number to water stress during silking explains the consequent errors in kernel number and yield simulation. The significant correlation between prolificacy and the simulation error in kernel number highlights the need to include simulation of prolificacy in models such as CERES3.       Geographic information systems (GIS) and crop simulation models can allow researchers to evaluate the performance of technologies in space and over time. Integrating these tools can help significantly in overcoming the site-specific nature of much agronomy and natural resource management research. It can also expand the time horizon of such research far beyond that possible in conventional field trials, providing a truly long-term view. The variable spatial and temporal performance of a given cropping system can be examined to improve targeting based on biophysical suitability. Staff in the geographic information systems/modeling laboratory (GIS/ML) at CIMMYT are studying spatial variation in the performance of conservation tillage in Jalisco, Mexico, as a test case to evaluate approaches for integrating GIS and crop models.Jalisco State is in western Mexico, on the Pacific coast. Annual precipitation ranges from 400 to 2,000 mm. The main growing season is from May or June to November. Maize area occupies 60% of agricultural land. Jalisco is the largest producer of maize, accounting for 15% of Mexico's maize production (INEGI 1994;SAGAR 1997). Production is in valley bottoms and on hillsides and is primarily rainfed. Average yield is 1.8 t/ha; around half the systems are mechanized. Typical row spacings for maize are 80 cm, with plant densities between 3 to 4 plants/m 2 . In general, local varieties are grown on hillsides and hybrids are grown in mechanized systems in valley bottoms. The main alternative crops are sorghum, sugarcane and soybean (INEGI 1994).Major natural resource management problems related to agriculture in the region are soil erosion (caused by deforestation, overgrazing, leaving soil bare and natural phenomena such as slope, weather), and contamination of soil, water and aquifers (INIFAP 1996). Furthermore, demand for maize continues to rise in Mexico. In 1998-99, maize imports were at least 5 million tons per year (CEA-SAGAR 2000).CIMMYT and its partners are evaluating the potential of conservation tillage for the region (Erenstein 1999;Scopel 1997) to increase the productivity of maize systems in an environmentally sustainable manner.Various strategies exist to integrate crop models and GIS (Hartkamp et al. 1999a). Our approach used an interface between ArcView GIS (gridded surfaces) and DSSAT-compatible crop models (sequence simulations). This software was developed at Texas A&M Research Center (Collis and Corbett 1999) and applies the following procedure:• Gridded climate surfaces (1 km 2 scale) are created and clustered in SAS to create an 'effective environment' layer, which is then processed to obtain climate profile (*.cli) files. Daily weather files are generated from these climate profiles. • An optimal season layer-the growing season-is defined from monthly climate surfaces based on the precipitation to potential evaporation ratio (P/PE). This determines the planting date for the simulation model. • A soil profile layer is created, which can be based on soil taxonomy group.A simulation layer is generated by overlaying the spatial layers for effective environments, start of the optimum season, and soil profiles. This simulation layer represents grid cell groups with unique combinations of planting date, daily weather data, and soil information, and forms the basis for any subsequent simulation scenario or experimental file configuration. The model is then run for the unique groups of the simulation layer. Model outputs are processed statistically and variables may be mapped and undergo further manipulation or analysis in the GIS.Before integrating GIS and modeling software, spatial interpolation techniques that create spatial climate surfaces from meteorological station data were evaluated. Three techniques were compared: inverse distance average weighting (IDWA), cokriging, and thin plate smoothing splines for climate variables (Hartkamp et al. 1999). Inverse distance showed a better performance for rainfall, while thin plate splines were preferred for temperature variables. The IDWA method gave a smaller rainfall range than thin plate splines. Crop yield potential varies greatly with environment. In the absence of nutrient or water limitations, yield is still influenced by solar radiation, temperature and day length. Whereas there is extensive research on how wheat yields vary with these factors at specific locations, model-based characterizations over diverse geographic regions appear to be lacking. There is a growing need for such information, given increasing interest in regional analyses of potential productivity, particularly in relation to impacts of global climate change.One reason for this apparent deficiency is limited access to diverse sets of field data. The International Wheat Information System (IWIS; Fox et al. 1997) provides a readily accessible source of digital data for phenology and grain yield from CIMMYT Wheat Program international trials. This paper examines variation in yield response of spring wheat as affected by temperature, using both simulations and IWIS data.Field data were extracted from IWIS for cv. Seri M 82, one of CIMMYT's highest yielding spring wheat lines. A total of 316 datasets were used, representing four international trials with approximately 160 distinct locations. Because reports from individual locations did not include temperature data, we used interpolated monthly climate surfaces linked to a GIS (Corbett and O'Brien 1997) to estimate climatic conditions for each location and planting date. For each location, we estimated the mean temperature from date of planting through the subsequent four months. Due to incomplete geographic coverage of the surfaces, this resulted in 185 datasets.For simulation experiments, CERES Wheat V 3.5 was used (Godwin et al. 1989;Hoogenboom, et al. 1996;P. Wilkens, personal communication, 1999). Due to concerns about temperature effects on phenology being unrealistic, we considered two sets of optimal temperatures. One case posited a lower limit of 15°C for optimal temperature range from emergence to maturity; the other, a lower limit of 26°C during grain filling. Performance of a hypothetical cultivar with no vernalization or photoperiod response was simulated for mean temperatures from 6° to 32°C (constant day/night range of 10°C and 12 h photoperiod) with daily solar radiation of 20 MJ/m 2 day. No water or nitrogen stress was allowed; population density was set at 250 plants/m 2 , row width at 0.2 m.IWIS grain yields show a broad optimum of 10 to 12 t/ha for mean temperatures from perhaps 9° to 22°C (Fig. 1). In contrast, CERES predicted near-linear yield declines from 6° to 32°C. The simulated yield response was driven by a large temperature effect on growth duration. Cooler temperatures delayed time to anthesis and maturity (Fig. 2 A and B), with much less effect on growth or partitioning to grain. Thus, the relationship between yield and days to maturity for CERES implies that yield will increase indefinitely as the growth cycle is extended (Fig. 3).Since no vernalization or photoperiod effect was assumed for CERES, simulated days to anthesis and maturity should represent estimates at or very near the minimum field values. The simulation values should follow the lower boundary of the data from IWIS. Allowing for possible errors in measuring site mean temperatures, the IWIS data for anthesis and maturity do seem to approximate this lower limit, with the 15°/26°C model providing a slightly better match to the IWIS data. Efforts to improve the modeled response to temperature should first consider temperature effects on growth and partitioning.Linking international trial data to modeled responses offers considerable promise for more extensive and robust testing of crop simulation models. However, various improvements would enhance data reliability. IWIS data could be filtered further to exclude values where low yields were attributable to disease, pest, or water deficit effects. IWIS allows data providers to report such information, but the querying structure does not allow data to be filtered prior to export. High temperature sites are a particular concern, because extreme disease pressure often limits yields under such conditions.Because only climate for the first four months from planting was considered, estimates of mean temperatures for some sites were undoubtedly biased. Of particular concern are high latitude sites where wheat was sown in cooler months (e.g., November), survived through a cold winter period, but probably achieved most of its growth in warmer months after the first four months. For sites where time to maturity was provided, this problem could be avoided by matching the number of months used to estimate the mean temperature to crop duration. A further limitation of the climate data is that the location information (e.g., latitude and longitude) contains positional errors and the interpolated surfaces themselves have estimation errors.IWIS data show enough promise to justify examining additional cultivars. Most modern spring wheats grown in the tropics have low vernalization and photoperiod responses, but CERES calibrations suggest that the variation present can cause differences as large as 20 to 30 days in time to anthesis.  Recent tests of wheat simulation models have shown varying levels of accuracy for predicting grain yield over a range of yields. The error of the models measured against observed yields is typically around 0.4 to 0.8 t/ha over the range 1 to 5 t/ha, in stressed environments (Asseng et al. 1998;O'Leary andConnor 1996a and1996b) and around 0.6 to 1.4 t/ha over 0 to10 t/ha in both stressed and non-stressed environments (Otter-Nacke et al. 1986;Arora and Gajri 1998;Jamieson et al. 1998). Indeed, Angus et al. (1993) showed that model accuracy was very much less than that of classical field experimentation. The question arises whether this level of accuracy justifies model use for low-yield circumstances, particularly environments where yields are less than 1 t/ha. This paper examines the errors of various wheat models, highlighting weaknesses and suggesting ways to improve performance in crop modeling for low-potential environments.An analysis was made of reported errors for several models. To compare models that have employed datasets of varying ranges and degrees of freedom, Root Mean Squared Errors (RMSE) or the Root Mean Squared Deviations (RMSD) were plotted against simulated mean yields. For large degrees of freedom, the RMSD approaches the RMSE, reflecting the true population error. However, no distinction was made here for sample size; quoted errors were accepted as the best measure of accuracy.Where the mean simulated yield was not given, it was estimated as the mean of the range of simulated yield. Although this is not precise, it is a better measure than quoting, for example, the maximum yield, since the error is likely more applicable at the mean than at the extremes.Figure 1 shows the published error for eight wheat models in relation to their simulated mean yield. A clear trend of error increasing with mean yield is seen. This indicates that the yield of low-potential yield models could be much lower than those quoted in wide ranging tests that have a high mean simulated yield. What is needed is a performance test over a low yield range, certainly below 1 t/ha.An important feature of wheat crops subjected to significant water stress is their ability to re-translocate photosynthate stored in the stems into grain, to meet grain growth demands. The amount that may be transferred varies from 5 to 25% of the total biomass at anthesis and can account for up to 90% of the final grain yield. Grain growth models have been rather conservative and used average values (e.g., 10%), but to capture the response in drought years it was necessary to adjust the transferred amount to around 25% in semiarid environments in southeastern Australia (O'Leary and Connor 1996a).The model of Arora and Gajri (1998) used 10% of the total reserves that could be transferred to simulate the pre-anthesis contribution to grain. However, this was probably insufficient in the dry years where they underestimated yield, despite their suggestions that non-grain growth contributed to the error. Similarly, the wheat model of Asseng et al. (1998) also underestimated grain yield in drought conditions for the same reasons. What is needed is a better model of crop response under drought conditions.An obvious conclusion is that a model with a large error -on the order of the low yields that might be sought -is inappropriate for such analyses. This will certainly be the case if the model is biased at low yields, such as those of Arora and Gajri (1998) and Asseng at al. (1998). However, one might expect that a well-constructed model that copes well with drought response should exhibit satisfactory error performance. Of course, the question still remains: how low can our models go? When does the crop cease to be a crop? If a crop is comprised of what are effectively isolated, individual plants, then the assumptions used in models designed for higher yield potential need to be questioned. Under these circumstances the model becomes a spatial-plant model requiring new concepts for light interception, transpiration, growth and partitioning.Despite a limited examination of the errors of current wheat models, there is evidence that the error in simulating yield below 1 t/ha would be less than those at much higher yield levels. To simulate yields at low extremes, models need to take crop behavior fully into account. This is particularly important for processes such as stem reserve translocation in wheat. As plant populations decrease, attention should also be placed on the three-dimensional nature of response. The ICASA File Standards *The IBSNAT project developed data file structures and standards to be used for both experimental documentation and for model input. The files have eased the interactions between some experimenters and modelers (Hunt et al. 1994;Jones et al. 1994), have been used widely by experimenters and modelers using the DSSAT system (Tsuji et al. 1994), and have been adopted by the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystem project (GCTE) for use in documenting experiments and regional yield investigations. Within GCTE, the standards have greatly assisted model comparisons (Goudriaan 1996;Jamieson et al. 1998;Hunt 1998;Hunt and Boote 1998) that have led to model improvements. The formats have also been used for direct recording of information from a researcher's diary or field-book (e.g., within the Ontario, Canada, Winter Wheat Co-operative Performance testing system).Experience with IBSNAT file structures has shown, however, that they contain ambiguities and are not entirely suited for generic use. Members of ICASA and other organizations have thus defined a revised set of standards for file structures that are unambiguous and easily read by a broad range of software tools. This paper provides a brief overview of the new file structures. A full description with additional examples can be found at the ICASA web site (http://icasanet.org).The basic file structure uses ASCII characters with a line length restriction of 254 characters, and with information arranged in columns headed by associated codes. A file may also contain certain special symbols and headings and have data aggregated into sections. The structures make use of 'keys' and character strings to link information in different parts of a file and in different files. In essence, this constitutes a relational database in an easily edited and transferred ASCII file format. Figure 1 presents an example of a file that describes an experiment, including all components that are associated with experimental methods and procedures.Codes are character strings (maximum length of 31), with no distinction being made between upper and lower case. They are presented above the variates or level indicators on a line (the 'codes line') that begins with an '@' symbol. Multiple codes can occur on one line.Variates can be numbers (real or integer), character strings without blanks, or text to a maximum length of 31 characters. Text must be specified by a string of dots after the data code, and the text itself must be presented below the code plus dots. For data items at the end of a row, however, text can be used without the dots that are necessary elsewhere, and the maximum length including blanks can be 80 characters. Variates associated with one data code must be of the same data type.Data items are organized into a hierarchy with three levels: The character strings IRRIGATION and FERTILIZERS constitute the defining text for the respective groups.The third and highest level of aggregation is the DATA UNIT. This allows a complete set of related data to be kept together. Examples of data that might be so aggregated are:• Details of a particular experiment • Weather information from different sites within a region.• Collections of soil information from one institute.• Results of a particular experiment that involve several sites.Data units begin with an indicator line that has a unit symbol ($) in the first column followed by defining text (maximum of 31 characters with nor blanks). Examples are given below:$EXPERIMENT:UCEA9601SB $CULTIVAR:SBGRO960 $SOIL:UCAs with data groups, explanatory information can be placed after the defining text if it is separated by at least one blank. Figure 1 shows a data unit with a number of embedded data groups.Other Syntax or Forming Rules Specific rules for comments, missing data, data flags, including software commands, blank lines and endof-file markers are summarized in Table 1. For further details, see the full ICASA documentation (http://icasanet.org).The ICASA standards can be used with codes specified locally for use within one research group. However, to ensure that files can be interchanged among workers or research groups, a number of reserved data and variate codes can be defined for use within specific subject areas. The many codes defined by IBSNAT have been updated by ICASA and are used as an initial standard. Preferred units for numeric variates are largely SI, but \"cm\" and \"ha\" (hectare) are sometimes used to conform with dominant practices (e.g., by the American Society of Agronomy).The dates on which operations such as planting or fertilization are carried out are usually recorded using both a year and a day of year (Gregorian) under individual data codes, as demonstrated below for planting information:This convention differs from the previously used, year-within-century-plus-day-of-year approach (e.g., 81289). Dates of operations on established crops can also be recorded in terms of the time elapsed since planting (days after planting) by entering -99 for the year and the appropriate days after planting for the day:The same convention can also used for rotational sequences, to specify that the next crop should be planted a certain number of days after harvesting:Clusters, Groups, and Units As with codes, the file structures used with data clusters, groups, and units can be defined locally. However, for exchange among researchers, clusters should be similar and data units and groups identified uniformly. ICASA has reviewed and slightly modified the set of files used by IBSNAT. The clusters and groups in these files provide a set of standard configurations and the files form a set of standard units. The standard file units defined to date are:These units can be placed in separate files or be aggregated into one OVERALL file to facilitate data transfer.File names follow the IBSNAT convention. It has two components: 1) the file extension, used to specify the type of file, and 2) the prefix, used to identify the data source of data. File extensions are given below: ccD Plot data (ie., experimental results). ccX Experimental details. SOL Soil profile characteristics WTH Weather data where \"cc\" is a prefix indicating a crop code (e.g., \"WH\" = wheat and \"MZ\" = maize).File prefixes for the experimental data and details files are constructed from an institute code (two characters), a site code (two characters), the year in which the experiment was planted (two characters), and an experiment number (2 characters). For example, the first experiment conducted by the University of Florida (UF) at Gainesville (GA) in 1988 (88) would yield a prefix of UFGA8801. For the weather files, the prefix is constructed from the institute and site codes plus, if needed, the starting year (2 digits) followed by the number of years of data, or a full 4 digit year specification. For soil, the institute code is used as the prefix.For files that contain experimental details and results, soil characteristics, and possibly weather data, the file name should follow that which would be used for an experimental details file, but with the final 'X' replaced by a '$'. UFGA8801.SBX would thus become UFGA8801.WH$.A valid file has no data item codes repeated within a data group, uses unique data group names within a data unit, and uses unique data unit names within a file. This is distinct from data verification, which involves consideration of consistency between components of data items, ranges of values, etc. Data verification is crucial to data exchange and can be aided by including information on the range of values to be expected, units, and a brief description of data associated with each data code, along with a specification of the missing value identifier. An example of how such information could be conveyed is: The new file structures and standards will be used in the next major release of the DSSAT software. This will overcome problems that would occur if the old file structures and standards were to be used well after the Millennium change. Within the DSSAT system, software will ultimately be able to handle both the old files and the new, so no conversion of old files will be necessary. Dates in the previously used year within century plus day of year approach will be interpreted by assuming that they belong to the 20th century if the year if greater than 09. It is recommended, therefore, that researchers begin using the new structures and standards right away, and that they use the new standards exclusively once the new Millennium is underway. Comments On a separate line with '!' as the first character.Are indicated by one of the following symbols: '-99', '*', '-' and '.' The preferred value is '-99' following the IBSNAT standard.Non-applicable data Marker of '-99' also is used where data are not applicable as opposed to missing per se. For example, row width and spacing for a crop that is broadcast sown.Data \"flags\" A single letter following a numerical variate can be used to indicate outliers, data filled with an estimate, etc.The symbol '#' is used at the beginning of a line to indicate the start of a file statement that can be interpreted as a command by software (e.g., '#INCLUDE C:\\Icasa\\Newdata\\FileA.dat').Blank lines Blank lines may be placed anywhere in a file.The symbol '=' as the only character on the last line of a file is used to indicate the end of a file. Its use is optional but recommended for electronic file transfer to indicate whether a file has unintentionally been truncated. To demonstrate the new ICASA data standards @ ANALOGIES Ashland site considered representative of production area of Kansas. @ MEASUREMENTS Canopy biomass,component biomass,and LAI at intervals during growing season. @ METHODS LAI using air-flow planimiter on subsamples. @ DESIGN Assumed to be a randomized complete block. @ LAYOUT Not known.@ PLTA PLTR# PLTLN PLTOR PLTOD PLTSP PLTHA PLTH# PLTHL PLTHM 11.5 16.00 4.000 90.00 90.00 18.00 0.72 4 1.0 Hand @ SEED From University plant breeder. Germination in standard test 97% @ CONDITIONS Soil well prepared for planting Weather well within normal range for site. @ PROBLEMS Seed mixed for 2 plots in rep 1. (Hypothetical to illustrate problems that could be entered here). @ NOTES File based on KSAS8101.WHX but with many modifications. It should only be taken as a 'fictitious' experiment. @ QUALITY Overall quality assumed to be good although no error terms available. @ PUBLICATIONS Wagger,M.G., 1983 N cycling in the plant-soil system. Ph.D.,Kansas State @ DISTRIBUTION Public ! The following six data groups are necessary in all files. Some of the ! clusters within a group may not be required, however (e.g. the second ! cluster shown in the fields and initial conditions groups, or the third ! cluster in the planting group). The ICIS-ICASA Data Interchange Tools Crop modelers have frequently expressed interest in extracting data from the SFSD and other ICIS implementations. The recently described crop model file formats for the International Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications (ICASA; Hunt et al., these proceedings) provide a logical framework for such data export. Furthermore, field data used by modelers often provide a ready source of well-tested and documented data that might be included in the SFSD.The SFSD is a logical test-case for developing tools that allow data exchange between ICIS and ICASA. Begun in April 1999, work has first addressed the convertibility of ICASA data to ICIS formats and vise versa. Two DSSAT files were loaded into the SFSD by hand and several queries were run to extract the data in a form as close to the original ICASA file format as possible. The results showed that data extraction from the SFSD is fairly straightforward. A prototype with this function was developed and is being equipped with diverse querying tools by which users can select subsets of data.Work continues to focus on extracting data from the SFSD into ICASA formats; specifically, a user interface with query capabilities that match crop modelers' data needs. Important search criteria already identified are study name, country, treatments used, species or cultivars, field locations, planting information, use of irrigation and fertilizers, traits measured and availability of time series data. For each study selected, the software will create a template for any ICASA file, fill it in using available information, and save this \"skeleton\" file. Since very few datasets are complete enough to be model ready, files will have to be edited for model use. An initial version of the data conversion tool is available on CD (ICIS Project 2000).Development of the user interface will follow the standards of the Texas and CIMMYT Object Shell (TACO), which allows programmers to integrate and share application modules. Following the oral presentations, participants examined various aspects of model performance relating to high and low yield potential conditions. Outputs of these \"hands-on\" activities are summarized below.Garry O'Leary and Tony Hunt first checked that CERES 3.5 as released had the intended temperature response. Some unintended discontinuities (bugs) were noted. Paul Wilkens fixed these as part of a proposed Service Release 1.Several people have reported problems calibrating CERES 3.5, and the suspicion was that the single temperature response (with BASE = 0 and TOPT = 15) is incorrect. Paul Wilkens created a V3.5x that allows the optimum temperature for grain filling response (ROPT) to be set independently, and this version was tested for various datasets.Jeff White compared TOPT = 15° vs. TOPT = 26° (with ROPT = 26° for both), using planting date data from Punjab Agricultural University and cv. PBW 34. TOPT = 15° allowed for slightly better simulation of phenology.Tony Hunt examined 1993 and 1994 U. Guelph data for planting date effects on leaf appearance:• For a May planting in 1993, 15°C is under-predicting leaf number, as compared to a 0-22-33°C response.• 5 July showed a similar effect.• For 22 September, 15°C resulted in over-prediction.• For 9 June 1994, 15°C was still under-predicting • 10 Aug, 1994 gave similar results for all temperature responses.The conclusion is that 15°C is probably too low but much better than 26°C.Tony also examined the effect of other temperature regimes for time to anthesis, using cv. PBW 34 and the PAU 1985 dataset. Again, 15, 18 and 22°C can give reasonable fits, and 26°C is too high. He also emphasized that we are still vague on the best approach for temperature effects from anthesis to onset of grain fill. (Most of this work was done with CROPSYS but taking advantage of common DSSAT file formats.) Joe Ritchie said his experience suggests that phyllochron varies with photoperiod (e.g., Siberia vs. England -and England in fall vs. N. Dakota or Canada). Tony noted that his work with Piara Singh suggested no such effect, and he showed data for leaf appearance of cv. Norseman with natural and artificial photoperiod where no photoperiod effect was found, except for a slight effect once reproductive development started. This issue merits further attention, but we need more data where photoperiod and temperature effects can be separated.","tokenCount":"10802"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a5d241267f844394e85c35d480071238","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_ciat/ipm/pdfs/reuben_2.pdf","id":"1957655609"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"52a69ff5-b9fa-4caf-9183-fc250e4211cb","pagecount":"1","content":"Bean root rot caused by several Pythium species is a relatively recent problem in East and Central Africa that is increasing in importance. Yield losses of up to 70% in popular commercial bean cultivars have been reported in Rwanda. In order to curb the effects of this disease, identification of resistance and transfer of resistance to bean genotypes preferred by resource poor small holder farmers is an important consideration.To identify sources of resistance within major market class, determine the nature of inheritance and through breeding transfer the resistance into well-adapted market class bean cultivars.Populations have been developed between resistant and susceptible well adapted cultivars (Fig. 1). F 2 populations of SCAM 80-CM/15, RWR 719 and MLB 4989A were used in this study.Evaluation of bean plants was done in a root rot hot spot nursery in Vihiga Western Kenya in August 2001. F 2 progenies alongside their parents were evaluated for root rot severity in a CRBD based on a 1-9 CIAT scale (Abawi and Pastor-Corrales., 1990). Fifty plants from each plot were sampled from parental plots while 150 plants were sampled from F 2 generations. Chi-square values (X 2 ) were calculated based on actual number of plants counted in each of the resistant and susceptible categories.Bean root rot score of F 2 plants from crosses involving resistant parents RWR 719 (KK22) and MLB 49-89 (KK15) segregated in the ratio approximately 3:1.The segregation of F 2 progenies derived from resistant parent SCAM-49-89 A (KK8) did not fit any expected ratio in all the crosses. This indicated that the resistant gene in RWR 719 and MLB 49-89A is most likely a single dominant gene. The mode of resistance in SCAM-cm/15 could not be predicted. Further evaluation in the screen house and laboratory (using protein and DNA polymorphism) involving the parents, F 1 , F 2 and backcrosses is underway and  S u s c e p t i b l e P a r e n t s   ","tokenCount":"327"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d3266a47aa55959a158fdc296f9a1ed8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/aa6f497c-5b7b-45e4-b6bd-306885b1eb70/content","id":"539619077"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e0116d7f-0863-4b4a-b058-77e143b0cb15","pagecount":"99","content":"Objectif ❑ Réaliser en toute autonomie les opérations culturales dans le respect des normes de qualité, sécurité et de l'environnement.❑ Identifier les outils agricoles adaptés aux opérations culturales à réaliser. ❑ Conduire un tracteur agricole ❑ Réaliser les entretiens courants ❑ Gérer un parc de matériels agricoles.❑ Toute personne motivée voulant entreprendre dans le domaine de la conduite des engins agricoles ou tractoriste exerçant déjà et voulant se professionnaliser.❑ Âge : 16 ans minimum ❑ Niveau scolaire : Avoir achevé l'enseignement primaire (la classe de CM2) ❑ Atouts : avoir un permis de conduire ❑ Exigence : s'engager à obtenir un permis de conduire catégorie B au moins❑ 72 jours en mode dual (3 mois) ❑ 18 jours de formation. ❑ 54 jours en situation professionnelle.❑ Identification des outils agricoles adaptés aux opérations culturales. ❑ Conduite des opérations culturales dans le respect des normes de qualité, sécurité et de l'environnement. ❑ Réalisation des entretiens courants ❑ Suivi de la maintenance du matériel. ❑ Gestion d'un parc de matériels agricoles. Le tractoriste professionnel, est un ouvrier qualifié pour l'utilisation voire la gestion d'un matériel ou d'un parc de matériel. A ce titre, il est chargé de la conduite de différents types d'engins, de l'entretien courant, puis veille à la maintenance. Il est le premier garant de l'état du matériel.Il exerce son activité dans le secteur de la production agricole.-Exploitations agricoles (fermes agropastorales) -Entreprises de travaux agricoles (Entreprise de prestation) -Organisations Professionnelles Agricoles (OPA) -Institutions : Centre de recherche, Ecoles et Centres de formation, Entreprises de distribution et de réparation des machines agricoles.Les appellations suivantes sont liées à la fonction : Tractoriste, Conducteur d'engins agricoles, Conducteur de machines agricoles.Le conducteur de machines agricoles assure principalement trois fonctions qui sont liées :la conduite ; la l'entretien courant des machines ; la communication.La maintenance des matériels constitue souvent pour les entreprises une réponse à la saisonnalité de l'activité agricole pour gérer la main d'oeuvre permanente. Cette activité est plus ou moins importante en fonction du choix de l'entreprise (l'intégrer ou la sous-traiter), du niveau d'équipement de l'atelier et des compétences dont elle dispose.Elle peut se limiter à l'entretien courant et à la maintenance de premier niveau, confiées généralement aux conducteurs. Elle peut aller jusqu'à la prise en charge par l'entreprise de tout ou une partie des réparations et de la remise en état, particulièrement lorsqu'elle emploie un mécanicien.Le conducteur de machines agricoles salarié en exploitation ou en Entreprise de Travaux Agricoles (ETA) travaille sous la responsabilité directe d'un supérieur (responsable d'exploitation, chef d'entreprise, chef d'équipe, etc.), qui planifie le travail et organise les chantiers. La mécanisation agricole est l'emploi des machines dans le secteur agricole pour la production végétale, animale, halieutique, la transformation et le transport des produits agricoles.En résumé, c'est la substitution des opérations manuelles par celles des machines, pour réduire la pénibilité du travail et accroitre la productivité et la qualité des produits.C'est la substitution de la force humaine ou animale par un moteur (thermique, électrique, hydraulique, éolien, etc.).Il faut noter que la mécanisation n'est pas que la motorisation. La culture attelée est une forme de mécanisation.Les machines agricoles désignent l'ensemble du matériel (équipements) utilisé dans le domaine de l'agriculture pour les productions végétale, animale et halieutique et pour la transformation des produits agricoles.Une machine agricole est un équipement pouvant produire, transformer, communiquer un mouvement, effectuer un travail ou produire un effet (chaleur, froid, etc.) pour accroître la productivité.L'unité motrice est une source d'énergie mécanique (qui produit de la force) destinée à mettre en mouvement une machine ou mécanisme.Il s'agit entre autres de : l'homme, l'animal, le moteur (thermique, électrique), le tracteur, le motoculteur, l'automoteur. L'agronomie est l'ensemble des sciences et techniques de l'agriculture. Elle étudie les relations entre les plantes, le sol, le climat et les techniques de culture pour une bonne pratique de l'agriculture.Exemples de Cultures :-Maïs, sorgho, mil, riz, niébé, soja, coton, canne à sucre, coco, palmier, etc.-Manioc, igname, patate, taro, pomme de terre, arachide, voandzou, etc.Pour une bonne production les plantes ont besoin d'un environnement favorable pour leur développement. Le climat et le sol sont deux facteurs principaux :-Climat : Lumière, air, eau, température, -Sol : bonne texture, riche en minéraux (fertile) Le sol est le support de la plante et son réservoir en eau et nutriments.Pour cultiver un champ ou une parcelle, il faut l'aménager. Surtout lorsqu'il s'agit de la mécanisation (utilisation des machines agricoles).Pour ce faire, il est nécessaire de réaliser une succession de travaux et d'opérations. Ils peuvent se regrouper à titre indicatif en (4) phases.   Le sol est la partie de terre travaillée avec les outils agricoles. Il est constitué de plusieurs couches.Le sol est un milieu vivant qui a trois fonctions pour les plantes :-Physique : support des plantes ;-Chimique : nutrition minérale des plantes ;-Biologique : milieu vivant (activité biologique).Selon sa nature l'on détermine le mode d'exploitation le mieux adapté. Les activités de mécanisation en agriculture doivent préserver l'équilibre naturel de l'environnement. Ceci est nécessaire pour une production durable.Les effets du changement climatique combinés avec les mauvaises pratiques culturales entrainent la chute de la production.La mécanisation de la production végétale exige des terrains bien préparés (essouchés) et aménagés. Il s'agit surtout d'abattre les arbres et d'enlever les souches. Ce qui entraine le déboisement (la déforestation) donc des conséquences sur notre environnement.Autres effets néfastes de la mécanisation est la dégradation des sols par le compactage et la perte de fertilité. La dégradation est causée par le poids des engins, leur passage répété sur le sol, les mauvaises techniques pratiquées en général et le travail des sols en particulier entrainent le compactage et la perte de fertilité.Depuis toujours, le travail mécanique du sol (le labour) est l'opération de préparation du sol la plus répandue et pratiquée de façon quasi systématique annuellement.Face aux accusations de plus en plus portées contre cette pratique de labour dit conventionnel (à la charrue à socs ou à disques), aggravée par la motorisation, des techniques alternatives visant à « réduire la fréquence et l'intensité du travail du sol » ont été développées. -A défaut, il faut faire la parcellisation du champ et installer les haies vives autour.-Réaliser des aménagements en courbe de niveau et pratiquer les labours suivant ses courbes ou perpendiculairement aux pentes.-Contre la dégradation des sols agricolesLes TCS constituent un ensemble de façons culturales visant à préparer le sol à des profondeurs variables mais sans retournement de la terre. Au nombre de techniques préconisées il y a :-Les pseudo-labours : ils consistent à mélanger les résidus en surface au sol et à l'ameublir superficiellement (15-30 cm).-Le travail superficiel : c'est une pratique sans retournement, il mélange les résidus de culture et les laisse partiellement en surface pour limiter l'érosion. Il correspond à un pseudo-labour sur moins de 15 cm de profondeur.-Le strip-till : C'est une technique de « Travail du sol en ligne ou en bande ». Il repose sur l'implantation de cultures sur les lignes ou dans des bandes de terre travaillées. L'interrang intact est couvert par des résidus végétaux ou un couvert vivant.▪ L'Agriculture de Conservation (AC)L'un des principes de l'AC est le travail minimum du sol qui implique la mécanisation qui focalise l'attention. Globalement, il exclue toute forme de travail du sol avec retournement des horizons, par conséquent, l'usage des charrues. Ainsi, Elle préconise les outils à dents qui travaillent le sol, l'ameublissent sans retournement.Dans ce cadre on peut avoir : Le travail localisé sur la ligne de semis, et même le non labour ou le semis directe. Présentation de quelques outils de travail du sol. Il s'agit d'outils à dents tels que les cultivateurs ou canadien, chisels (outils à dents rigides ou vibro) qui sont préconisés.   − Les matériaux de revêtement des métaux : les peintures, les chromes, etc.Les machines agricoles sont très exposées aux intempéries. De ce fait, les matériaux se dégradent dans le temps sous les effets combinés de l'utilisation (les forces, vibration, contraintes et frottements) et des intempéries (soleil, chaleur, humidité, pluie, vent, etc.). Au nombre des dégradations on peut citer : Le relâchement des fixations, l'usure, la rouille/corrosion, les ruptures et casses, les torsions, les fissures, les crevaisons, le dessèchement, le ternissement.A toutes ses situations, le tractoriste doit veiller et prendre des dispositions en prévision des pannes.   -Empattement (en mm) : C'est la distance entre les centres des roues avant et des roues arrière (pas des essieux).-Largeur de voie (en mm) : C'est la distance entre les centres des pneus d'un essieu (avant ou arrière). Pour les pneus jumelés, la distance entre les centres des deux pneus jumelés sur un essieu s'applique.-Garde au sol (en mm) : C'est la plus petite distance entre le plan d'appui et le centre de l'essieu lorsque le véhicule est entièrement chargé.-Rayon de braquage (en mm) : C'est la ligne de cercle générée par le contour extérieur du tracteur lorsqu'il parcourt le plus petit cercle possible.-Poids à vide (en kg) : C'est la masse du véhicule prêt à l'emploi, mais avec en plus un équipement complet tel qu'un extincteur, une roue de secours, etc. En outre, 75 kg sont ajoutés pour le conducteur.-Charge utile (en kg) : C'est la masse que le véhicule prêt à l'emploi peut transporter (charge) sans dépasser les charges autorisées par l'essieu ou le poids brut autorisé.-Poids total (en kg) est la somme du poids à vide et de la charge utile réellement chargée.-Vitesse (en m/s ou km/h) : C'est la distance parcourue dans le temps. La vitesse maximale est la vitesse la plus élevée que le véhicule peut soutenir sur une distance mesurée de 1000 m de long.Le tracteur ou motoculteur a essentiellement cinq (5) fonctions :❑ Tirer : charrue, remorque, citernes, etc… ;❑ Pousser : les outils fixés devant ou derrière (charrue, bélier, lame niveleuse, etc.) ;❑ Porter : travailler avec des outils fixés devant ou derrière (avec partiellement ou sans appui au sol) ;   Un tracteur est constitué de plusieurs composantes ou mécanismes. Ces composantes sont aussi constituées de plusieurs sous-ensembles qui travaillent en interdépendance. -Bloc moteur : C'est l'élément principal qui supporte toutes les composantes du moteur. Il comporte les cylindres et les trous de circulation de l'eau de refroidissement du moteur ou dispose d'ailettes de refroidissement par air.-Carter moteur : il ferme le bas du moteur et sert de réservoir d'huile à moteur pour graisser le moteur et protège la pompe à huile.-         Assure le fonctionnement du système d'attelage 3 points et des appareils hydrauliques (remorque).    Les roues sont les organes de déplacement du tracteur. Elles sont fixées au pont par le moyeu. Elles sont motrices, directrices ou porteuses. Les roues arrière des tracteurs sont généralement plus grandes que celles de devant, elles sont motrices et supportent plus de 70% du poids du tracteur, ce qui assure une bonne adhérence grâce à ses crampons qui limite les glissements.Une roue de tracteur peut être entièrement métallique (roue cage) ou constituée d'une jante métallique sur laquelle est monté un pneu (roue pneumatique).   Le poste de conduite du tracteur (la cabine) est équipé de diverses commandes (boutons, leviers, pédales, etc.), d'instruments de contrôles et de suivi du fonctionnement du tracteur. On trouve la description dans les manuels techniques des tracteurs. Ainsi, il est recommandé aux utilisateurs de lire attentivement cette section du manuel afin d'avoir une maitrise parfaite de l'emplacement et les fonctions de tous les dispositifs du nouveau tracteur.   Il se prête à la quasi-totalité des opérations culturales, du travail du sol à la récolte et au transport.Son moteur s'adapte sur les motopompes, générateurs électriques, machines de transformation (moulins, batteuses, vanneuses, etc.).On l'utilise aussi pour réaliser les travaux d'aménagement, selon la disponibilité des équipements.De façon spécifique, les motoculteurs conviennent très bien aux travaux dans des conditions difficiles, qui ne sont pas accessibles aux tracteurs conventionnels là où ils ne seront pas performants : enclaves, basfonds, sols lourds, présence de digues et obstacles divers (souches, arbres, reliefs accidentés, etc.). Classé dans la petite motorisation, les motoculteurs conviennent pour les travaux intensifs dans les exploitations/parcelles de petites et moyennes tailles, même sommairement aménagées. De puissances variables allant de 9-22 HP, il s'adapte aisément aux diverses utilisations citées.Le motoculteur est constitué d'un châssis supportant son moteur et reposant au sol par l'intermédiaire de 2 roues motrices entraînées par une transmission à courroies et une boite à vitesses. Sa manipulation est assurée par un conducteur qui suit la machine à pied en la contrôlant par ses 2 mancherons (guidon). Le guidon est équipé des manettes/leviers de commandes (accélérateur, embrayage, direction, sens de marche, freins, etc.)Certains attelages offrent au conducteur le confort de s'asseoir opérant ou en mode transport.Pour une meilleure manoeuvrabilité de l'attelage, des options sont proposées. Il existe différents types de mancherons (guidons) de longueur variable (court, moyen et long), réglables en hauteur pour s'ajuster à la taille de l'opérateur ; orientables (réversibles) à 180° ce qui permet d'opérer dans les deux sens (des 2 cotés) ou en biais sur les flancs.Les motoculteurs sont équipés non seulement pour tracter les outils mais aussi pour les animer grâce à leurs prises de forces. Pour opérer dans les sols lourds ou en condition de mauvaise portance du sol (adhérence), il est prévu de roues métalliques, roues cages ou roues squelettes, pour substituer les roues pneumatiques. Assimiler la description des outils agricoles, leur utilité et mode opératoire (utilisation).Les outils agricoles constituent un grand ensemble d'équipements qui sont attelés au tracteur ou motoculteur pour réaliser :les travaux agricoles : essouchage, nivellement, etc.les opérations culturales : labour, hersage, pulvérisage, semis, sarclage, pulvérisation, récolte, etc.Les matériels d'aménagement sont utilisés pour préparer les champs à l'utilisation des machines agricoles sans obstacles : Les équipements d'aménagement sont (entre autres) :-Les essoucheuses -Les niveleuses -Les bulldozers -Les pelleteusesLe rendement d'une culture dépend entre autres de la qualité de préparation du sol de façon générale et du lit de semis en particulier.Le travail du sol peut être réalisé par différentes techniques qui toutes vont avoir des impacts sur lui. Ainsi, il convient de faire un choix judicieux en tenant compte des contextes (opération, conditions de réalisation : état du sol, type d'outil, le plus approprié, etc.) puis d'adopter celle qui aurait le moins d'impact sur le sol et bénéfique les cultures.La préparation du sol consiste à le travailler afin de créer un environnement favorable au développement (croissance) optimum des plantes durant leur cycle végétatif (de la germination, la levée jusqu'à sa pleine croissance ou fin de cycle végétatif).Les outils de préparation du sol sont :-La déchaumeuse, la faucheuse, le gyrobroyeur, le rotavator. Ce sont les débroussailleuses.-La sous-soleuse Réaliser les opérations culturales avec les outils appropriés dans le respect des normes agro-pédologiques et sécuritaires.Le conducteur de machines agricoles assure entre autres les fonctions suivantes :− la conduite (conduite au champ : réalisation des opérations culturales et conduite sur route : le transport) ;− le choix des machines en rapport avec les opérations à réaliser et les conditions de travailRappel des règles de circulation pour le permis de conduire du tracteur ou à défaut le permis catégorie B ou D.Les mauvaises utilisations des machines sont les causes de nombreux accidents invalidants voire mortels. Ainsi, le respect des règles de prévention (de sécurité), permet de réduire les accidents.Les conducteurs de machines agricoles ont l'obligation de connaitre et d'observer ces règles.Ci-après, quelques règles de sécurités et de bonnes pratiques à suivre :-La conduite du tracteur ne doit être confiée qu'à des personnes instruites et déclarées aptes pour le faire (au moins 18 ans, après visite médicale, avoir un permis de conduire) ;-Le matériel doit être en bon état de fonctionnement (visite technique) ;-Le conducteur doit se vêtir d'un accoutrement de sécurité approprié : vêtements, chaussures, casque, lunette, etc. de façon particulière, les chaussures doivent être décrassées avant que le conducteur ne s'installe aux commandes du tracteur pour avoir une bonne prise sur les pédales ;-Avant le démarrage, procéder méthodiquement aux vérifications et entretiens courants et s'assurer de l'absence de personnes gênantes aux alentours du tracteur de même que des obstacles ;-Toujours utiliser les outils appropriés pour les opérations de réglage et d'entretien ; -Eviter toute consommation d'alcool, de stupéfiants et de médicaments pouvant provoquer la somnolence.L'objectif est d'utiliser le tracteur pour réaliser les opérations agricoles dans le strict respect des règles de sécurité. Elle porte sur la conduite, l'attelage, les manoeuvres, l'exécution des opérations culturales, etc.-Passer avec succès le stage de prise en main de l'engin ;maitriser les règles de circulation routière ;avoir l'autorisation de conduire ;en période de rodage, c'est-à-dire au cours des 50 à 100 premières heures de travail, le tracteur ne doit pas travailler à pleine charge. En cas de travaux difficiles, on adoptera une vitesse modérée, une réduction du nombre de pièces travaillantes, de la profondeur ou la largeur (l'apparition de fumée à l'échappement peut être un signe de surcharge). En tout cas, le tracteur ne doit absolument pas « souffrir » ;ne pas surcharger le tracteur, c'est-à-dire le faire travailler au-delà de ses capacités (optimisant l'effort de traction par une bonne combinaison de rapport de vitesses et du régime moteur) ;lors de manoeuvres sur le chantier, ne pas faire chuter le régime à la manette, mais rétrograder, en gardant le même régime ;ne pas laisser tourner un moteur au ralentir longtemps et inutilement (le gasoil non brûlé peut diluer l'huile et entraîner des gommages) ;ne pas accélérer trop brutalement le moteur au démarrage. Après le démarrage, accélérer tout doucement pour faire monter progressivement la température ;lorsque le moteur ne démarre pas, ne pas actionner et insister sur le démarreur ou répéter aussitôt les tentatives. Il faut observer un temps de pause entre chaque essai ;ne jamais forcer des vitesses qui grincent (s'engagent mal). Lever le pied et débrayer à nouveau avant de passer la vitesse ;ne jamais conduire un tracteur en laissant le pied sur l'embrayage, ou en faisant varier la vitesse d'avancement avec l'embrayage ;-Le poste de conduite doit être propre (tableau de bord, volant, plancher, pédales) ;-Les marchepieds doivent être propres (exempts de boue) pour éviter de glisser en montant ou en descendant ;-Pour monter ou descendre du tracteur, utiliser les marchepieds et poignées prévus à cet effet ;-Le maintien en parfait état du tracteur, le respect des périodicités d'entretien (Vidanges, niveaux, révisions, réglages, ainsi que le nettoyage complet) permettent de travailler dans les meilleures conditions de rentabilité et de sécurité.-Surveiller en particulier les éléments de sécurités suivants :− Freins : -S'assurer de l'efficacité du freinage ; -Vérifier le bon fonctionnement du frein de stationnement ; -Vérifier le niveau du liquide de frein (repère maxi).-Vérifier le bon fonctionnement de la direction hydrostatique ; -Contrôler le bon état de l'installation circuit (raccords, tuyaux, flexibles) en particulier les flexibles d'alimentation du vérin de direction.-Vérifier le bon état d'installation électrique (accumulateurs, câblages, phares, clignotants, feux de détresse, essuie vitres, etc.) ; -Tous les éléments d'éclairage et de signalisation doivent non seulement être en état de marche, mais ils doivent être parfaitement visibles. Les nettoyer ; -Se munir d'ampoules de rechange ; -Avant de mettre le moteur en marche s'assurer que toutes les commandes sont au point mort, en particulier le levier de prise de force.-Ne faire fonctionner le moteur que dans des lieux correctement ventilés ;-Avant la mise en route du tracteur, vérifier qu'il n'y a personne autour ;-Desserrer complétement le frein à main avant de démarrer ;-Il est recommandé d'avoir à portée de main un extincteur et une trousse de premiers secours ;-Ne pas commencer un travail si l'état du tracteur n'est pas correct Avant de conduire un tracteur ou tout autre engin, le tractoriste doit avoir les connaissances et aptitudes techniques nécessaires et procéder à la prise en main du tracteur : maitrise de la conduite, connaissance du matériel, etc.Avant de mettre en marche (conduire) un tracteur, il faut procéder aux contrôles d'usage. Il s'agit de pratiquer l'entretien courant. (Cf. fiche d'entretien)La conduite du tracteur comporte des étapes que le conducteur doit suivre pour garantir sa propre sécurité, celle des autres, du matériel et de l'environnement.❑ Démarrage actionner le contacteur de masse (mise sous tension) ; -s'assurer que les freins de stationnement sont actionnés ; -s'installer au poste de conduite, bien régler le siège et mettre la ceinture de sécurité ; -mettre les leviers de la boite de vitesses en position neutre (vitesse et gamme) ; -s'assurer de que la manette d'arrêt n'est pas en position arrêt ; -appuyer à fond la pédale d'embrayage ou les freins (dispositif de sécurité) ; -actionner le contact en position on (marquer un temps, les voyants du tableau de bord doivent s'éteindre surtout celui du préchauffage) ; -tourner la clé en position START/ON pour démarrer le moteur ; -après le démarrage ajuster le régime de ralenti avec la commande manuel de l'accélérateur. Pour cela il faut veiller : au poids de l'outil, aux dimensions des éléments d'attelage, à la force de traction, aux possibilités de réglages, à la sécurité, à la vitesse de travail (avancement et/ou prise de force), etc. ;En résumé : Un tracteur doit pouvoir s'adapter aux situations de travail auxquelles il est prédestiné. Cette adaptation est possible grâce aux dispositifs prévus sur le tracteur et les outils et aux dispositions techniques de faire des réaménagements (ajouts).    -La Déchaumeuse : à une (1) rangé (train) de disques, disposée obliquement ; -Le Pulvériseur Offset : à deux (2) rangés (trains) de disques, disposées en « V » ; -Le Pulvériseur Tandem : à quatre (4) rangés (trains) de disques, disposées en « X ». − Profondeur de travail Elle varie entre 5-10 cm voire plus pour les modèles lourds et dépend essentiellement du poids de l'outil. La pénétration est accentuée par augmentation de l'angle d'attaque et l'emploi de disques crénelés à l'avant. Au besoin l'on procède au lestage de l'outil avec des masses judicieusement disposées sur le châssis. Sur les modèles équipés de roues de jauge et autres roues, il faut les régler en suivant les indications du constructeur. Il faut savoir que le système hydraulique est aussi sollicité dans le réglage (levier de commande hydraulique, les butées sur les vérins).− Dévers, aplomb (équilibre de travail) Il est recherché que le train avant et arrière puissent travailler à la même profondeur. Il en est de même pour les deux côtés. En somme, l'outil doit être perpendiculaire et horizontal au sol. Pour se faire, il faut agir en combinaison sur les chandelles et le 3ème point du tracteur.-Utilité Les charrues sont des outils de labour qui est une opération de travail du sol sur des profondeurs de 15-30 voire 40 cm, dont le principe consiste à découper une bande de terre puis à la retourner. Il existe deux grands types de charrues : Les charrues à disques et à socs (ou charrue à versoirs).-Charrue à disque   La vitesse de travail a une influence importante sur la qualité du travail. A cet effet, il revient au tractoriste d'apprécier sa vitesse par rapport à la qualité du travail.Par ailleurs, selon la puissance disponible, il est possible de moduler le nombre de dents sur l'outil.La profondeur de travail dépend de l'objectif visé. Elle peut varier de 5 -40 cm voire plus et selon le type d'outil.En règle générale, la profondeur de travail dépend du poids de l'outil. Le poids de l'outil est donc un facteur à prendre compte dans le réglage de la profondeur de travail. Il est parfois nécessaire de lester l'outil pour parvenir à un bon résultat. Par contre les cultivateurs lourds sont équipés de roue de jauge. Ainsi, il contribue à régler et à contrôler la profondeur de travail. Le système hydraulique est réglé et intervient pour lever et descendre l'outil. Il est sollicité en position flottante avec contrôle d'effort.L'angle d'entrure à un effet sur la capacité d'auto pénétration de l'outil dans le sol. Ainsi, on l'utilise en complément au besoin en agissant sur le 3 e point.Il est nécessaire parfois d'ajuster la largeur de travail de l'outil pour certaines raisons techniques :-Pour la faire correspondre l'outil à la puissance du tracteur ou aux conditions de travail, -Selon le résultat recherché : travail intégrale du sol ou en ligne o Pour ce faire, il faut mettre hors service quelques dents et l'on repositionne le reste des dents selon l'écartement souhaité, etc. et l'effet recherché sur le sol.o Les différents types de socs produisent divers effets sur le sol.-Utilité Une herse est un outil dont les pièces travaillantes sont des pointes rigides (de section carrée) ou flexibles et longues de 30 à 40 cm et au nombre de 10 par mètre de largeur de travail, elles sont disposées verticalement et en quinconce (ceci accroit l'effet de fragmentation) sur un bâti rigide ou déformable (structure articulés) ce qui lui permet d'épouser au mieux la configuration de la surface du sol.Par ailleurs, les pointes peuvent être droites ou recourbées vers l'avant, plates et tranchantes (lames), courbées.Elles sont généralement associées à un rouleau émietteur qui vient compléter leur travail. Le rouleau émietteur permet de réduire la taille des mottes, tasse la terre et nivelle la surface, de même qu'il contrôle la profondeur de travail.Herse avec rouleau émietteur  La mise en service des machines et la fiabilité de leur fonctionnement (durée de vie) dépendent essentiellement de la qualité des soins (système de maintenance) qui accompagnent leur utilisation.L'entretien est une sous composante de la maintenance. C'est une fonction importante qui relève de la responsabilité et de la compétence du tractoriste.Ainsi, la maintenance est l'ensemble des actions mises en oeuvre qui permettent de conserver des machines en bon état de fonctionnement et ce qui permet :d'augmenter la durée de vie des matériels ; d'assurer la continuité du travail (évite les pertes de temps, réduit la probabilité de survenance de panes) ; le respect des normes de qualité des services ; d'assurer la sécurité de l'utilisateur (Améliore le confort de l'opérateur, Supprime ou réduit les causes d'accidents graves) ; d'éviter les pertes de ressources financières ; d'assurer la satisfaction des clients. Les directives à suivre sont entre autres :le respect des prescriptions (règles) de maintenance ; la mise en service (le rodage) ; la bonne utilisation (la conduite) ; la conservation (le garage et le remisage).Dans le cadre de l'exploitation des machines agricoles, c'est la maintenance (entretien) préventive et corrective qui sont appliquées.➢ La maintenance préventive : c'est le type de maintenance effectuée selon des critères prédéterminés qui a pour but de prévenir les pannes et les situations d'accidents. Elle évite la probabilité des défaillances des machines en cours d'utilisation ou la dépréciation de la qualité du travail.➢ La maintenance corrective, elle s'effectue pour corriger (réparer) une défaillance après panne, incident ou accident) avec des conséquences parfois graves et onéreuses.En conclusion, la maintenance préventive à l'avantage d'anticiper sur les pannes. Ainsi, elle évite les pannes surprises surtout en période de fortes demandes et en condition d'agriculture pluviale ou une panne subite va engendrer des pertes de jours de travail et une désorganisation de la programmation.Les pannes détectées lors des opérations de maintenance préventives (entretiens courants) sont programmées d'avances pour être réparées selon les exigences de la maintenance corrective.Les opérations de maintenances proprement dites sont :-L'entretien courant : c'est un ensemble d'actions préventives réalisées quotidiennement ou à chaque intervalle de 6 -10 heures d'utilisation des machines pour garantir le bon fonctionnement ;-La surveillance : c'est la somme des actions de contrôles, visites, inspections. Elle permet de suivre l'état réel des machines. -Fermes agricoles mécanisées ; entreprises de prestations pour la réalisation des opérations agricoles ; entreprises de maintenance ; initiatives : individuelles ou associatives ; centre d'exploitation des machines agricoles (CEMA) ; coopératives d'utilisation de matériels agricoles (CUMA) ; organisation professionnelles agricoles (OPA).La gestion du matériel s'applique à un parc-machines (un ou plusieurs tracteurs, motoculteurs et des outils), au personnel et aux infrastructures (atelier, outillage, équipement, etc.).La gestion des machines agricoles comporte les fonctions ci-après :l'organisation, l'exécution et le suivi des opérations culturales (prestations) ; les prévisions (planification/programmation) ; l'approvisionnement et la gestion des stocks de consommables et pièces de rechange :la maintenance des machines ; la gestion du personnel.Pour cela, il faut disposer :des équipements en bon état d'une base technique :aire de stationnement avec ou sans hangar (garage), -atelier mécanique ou une section de mécanique aménagée dans le garage bureau des outils et équipements de mécanique du personnel : tractoriste, aide tractoriste, mécanicien, gestionnaire En conclusion, il est avantageux de travailler dans le sens de la longueur de la parcelle s'il n'y a pas de contraintes agrotechniques. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0137f065a929c98e38c04a8ccfbc1b7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a89cfdee-03db-485a-8aaa-8668646df2cd/retrieve","id":"826408993"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"70fff884-ae3c-4752-8d27-f7d67e5170cb","pagecount":"2","content":"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a significant public health problem in Kenya, affecting approximately 20% of children in Nyanza province. In Kenya, the SUSTAIN project is working in Nyanza province, where over 50% of women do not receive vitamin A supplementation post-partum and over 60% of children under 6 months are likely not to receive vitamin A supplements. Given the prohibitive cost of animal source foods, plant source foods such as biofortified orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) can serve as a major source of vitamin A as well as enhancing food security as the OFSP varieties mature quickly (3-4 months).SUSTAIN Kenya sets out to reach 35,000 households with children under 5 years of age with OFSP vines and nutrition education by 2018. We expect that these households will produce OFSP at least twice a year and consume OFSP at least twice per week when it is in season. We will also work with a commercial partner to establish at least one commercially traded processed product in the market that uses OFSP as a major ingredient. The target is to reach at least 100,000 consumers with this product. Our expected impacts are: 1) Signifi cant increases in the frequency of OFSP consumption and 2) enhanced infant and young child feeding practices.Where are we working?We are working in Homa Bay, Migori, Nyamira, Kisumu and Siaya counties in Nyanza province (Fig. 1). Each project site had to meet the following criteria: (1) Supported by APHIAPlus Western Kenya Project and implemented by PATH (a key project health partner); (2) Potential for production of OFSP with some currently being cultivated; (3) Access to moist lowlands in dry season to aid in conservation of OFSP vines; (4) Ability and willingness to use land for cultivation of OFSP vines; and (5) Proximity to roads that facilitate linking producers to market opportunities.Through the now completed Mama SASHA project in Bungoma County the International Potato Center (CIP) and partners used an integrated model to link nutrition counselling with ante-natal and infant health services, OFSP dissemination and agricultural extension. This model was very eff ective in increasing OFSP adoption and utilization of health services. SUSTAIN Kenya is building on this experience and working partnerships through two approaches. First, we are testing a less intensive integrated agriculture-nutrition approach to get OFSP into the farms and diets of households with children under 5 years of age in Nyanza Province. Secondly, we are working with commercial food processors to determine whether existence of commercial markets for OFSP-based products can provide incentives for accelerated OFSP adoption by smallholders; and whether a more diversifi ed market will lead to an overall increase in investment in the entire OFSP value chain. We emphasize and promote the fi rst 1,000 days approach, which targets pregnant women and children up to 2 years of age for key nutrition interventions. We deliberately focus on reaching women and children during ante-natal and postnatal healthcare attendance at selected health facilities. We have established a coupon system, whereby a mother is issued with a coupon at the health facility, which she presents to receive vines from a trained, decentralized vine multiplier  Oyugis Homa Bay Mbita Kisii(DVM) located near the facility (Fig. 2). In total, 28 health facilities are linked to 66 DVMs. Parallel to this intervention, we have phased in the development of a commercial OFSP value chain that links smallholder producers to commercial processors. We expect that this partnership will create incentives for wider adoption of OFSP varieties in Nyanza Province and lead to increased investments in various stages of the overall OFSP value chain.SUSTAIN expanded from three counties (2014) to fi ve counties (2015) in Nyanza province and Busia County in the Western Province of Kenya. The number of DVMs increased from 18 in 2014 to 66 in 2015. Fifty per cent of these DVMs are women. We trained 126 health workers on delivering agriculturenutrition messages with a focus on OFSP (Fig. 3). Their buy-in has been instrumental in mobilizing farmers at the community level. Through an integrated agriculture-nutrition approach, we have reached 9,707 households, most with children under 5 years and/or pregnant women, with OFSP vines and nutrition education. Lessons focus on how to use OFSP for infant and young child feeding. Seventy-fi ve mother-support clubs have been set up at the community level to enhance infant and young child feeding practices. These monthly trainings are attended by pregnant and/or lactating mothers and provide a forum for demonstrations on complementary feeding and child health.SUSTAIN solicited proposals from agro-processors interested in investing in starting an OFSP purée factory in Nyanza Province that would supply purée to the bakery division of Tusky's supermarket, the second largest supermarket chain in Kenya. Organi Limited won the bid, and opened a processing facility in 2015 with technical support from CIP and Euro Ingredients Limited (Fig. 4). In June 2015, Organi began supplying 200-250 kgs of OFSP purée to Tusky's on a daily basis. The OFSP bread and buns being sold in 4 pilot stores in Nairobi are being sold out on a daily basis (Fig. 5). As a result of intense community mobilization in 2014, the acreage under OFSP is starting to increase. The fact that farmers have started delivering OFSP to the processing facility less than 4 months after the onset of the rains is an indication that they will adopt OFSP production if a ready market is available. We also observed an increased use of OFSP roots for home consumption in July, when hardly any other crop was mature.In the coming year, we expect to reach at least 12,000 households with the ag-nutrition-health service intervention. On the marketing side, we are working with partners to organize farmers to produce suffi cient OFSP to supply the Organi Ltd purée factory. We expect at least 100 acres to be planted by November 2015. Technically, we will continue to assist Organi to be able to scale-up to at least 2000 kgs of purée daily by mid-2016.SUSTAIN is a partnership between agricultural and health institutions. The Ministry of Health and PATH (a leading international health NGO) collaborate with CIP and the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure nutrition and agricultural interventions are linked eff ectively and can share skills and experiences. SUSTAIN is also working with Tuskys chain of supermarkets on the production of commercial OFSP products and marketing strategies, with additional technical inputs from a private sector food technology fi rm Euro Ingredients Limited (EIL). Organi Limited is a private company that processes puree and delivers to Tuskys for development of bakery products.Penina Muoki (CIP), p.muoki@cgiar.org Sammy Agili (CIP), s.agili@cgiar.org ","tokenCount":"1092"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"053b9deff798a793c01e9b79c75062a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f456e73b-3e78-4115-8063-e5318791a341/retrieve","id":"1238761794"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"00f97037-83f0-4f0a-ac1d-6319e37a494a","pagecount":"7","content":"Myth 1. Men are the main decision makers.Myth 2. Women don't do much in wheat and maize. Myth 3. Women don't innovate.Myth 4. Women lack resources for innovation.A resource for scientists and research teams 1. For more information, including individual reports from across the CGIAR, please visit https://gender.cgiar.org/themes/gennovate/.This technical note provides research evidence debunking these myths. Women's and men's roles in wheat and maize are changing rapidly due to high levels of male outmigration, improved educational opportunities, and development activities which promote gender equality and women's empowerment. Agriculture in Nepal is becoming strongly feminized. Women are working ever longer hours in the field, and, increasingly, taking control over decision making in wheat and maize, including in communities where women have previously been secluded.Understanding and working with women in wheat-or maize-related innovation processes will help to improve the design and relevance of innovations, and contribute towards adoption and adaptation of technologies and practices. However, there is a mismatch between the reality of women's roles and responsibilities in wheat and maize on the ground, and the almost complete lack of targeting of women for capacity development by rural advisory services, particularly in wheat. Fortunately, policies in Nepal are encouraging to women, there is a thriving research sector, and civil society actors are generally strong. Supporting women alongside men to innovate in maize and wheat is very feasible.Research data for this technical note is drawn from GENNOVATE (Enabling Gender Equality in Agricultural and Environmental Innovation) research in Nepal conducted in 2015 1 . Six case studies, three for wheat and three for maize, were developed in Myagdi, Chitwan, Rupandehi, and Jajarkot Districts. Whilst each location had specific socioeconomic characteristics, the study findings are comparable across all sites.A widely held myth in Nepal is that men are key decision makers in all aspects of life. Farmers reflected these norms in discussions. One man said, \"I am the household head. So I decide everything.\" Another man explained that \"without the support of the husband, the wife can't act. Her husband's agreement is needed. His support and advice is needed to bring change in the field.\" A young woman commented on the effect of male dominance, \"Men do not allow women to go ahead. They prohibit us from taking decisions. If women go out or take decisions, men raise questions about their character.\" However, the majority of men discuss innovation options with their wives, parents, seed sellers, extension agents, and friends. The \"soft power\" and influence of the spouse is important. As one man commented, \"My wife and I discuss together if hired labor is needed or not. We make a crop calendar and manage all the things accordingly. I am the household head and I consult with my wife. I share everything with my wife. We discuss and come to a conclusion as to what to do. We decide together.\" Another man added, \"When selecting hybrid seed we, the couple, argue. I may say we should plant the same seed across the whole plot and my wife may say -based on her observations in a friend's field -'No, we will plant multiple varieties.' We decide together.\"The GENNOVATE data further shows that extended families increasingly recognize that, in the absence of men who have migrated to other countries, their daughters-in-law must be empowered to take important farming decisions. According to the men, \"A wife consults with her husband and if the husband is away she consults with in-laws.\" Women who are successful in gaining the backing of their extended family benefit strongly from their wholehearted support and provision of resources.The reality of male outmigration means that women's mobility is increasing as well, including in districts where women's mobility has been strongly limited in the past. This relaxation enables women to market crops and livestock, attend agricultural training events, and to join community groups. As a consequence, women are becoming more knowledgeable about wheat and maize innovations, contacting agricultural experts for advice, and sharing ideas with other women on how best to proceed. These new roles build on domains where women have traditionally held key decision-making responsibilities in seed selection, post-harvest processing, and storage.Nevertheless, marital status, age, religion, socio-economic status, caste, and literacy levels can all play a role in limiting women's ability to innovate. Mothers often exert strong influence over their adult sons' decisions. Newly married younger women generally experience the least influence, particularly in extended families. Women in some castes/ethnicities generally enjoy more decision-making power than in other castes/ethnicities, though the GENNOVATE data cannot make categorical associations between caste/ethnicity and innovative behaviors.Overall, however, the GENNOVATE data shows that enormous changes have occurred in a very short time span, generally over the past 10 years. It is no longer true for most locations that men are the main decision makers.It is often assumed that women are primarily responsible for work in the household and for looking after children. Empirical evidence of women working in the fields across the production cycle of wheat and maize is overlooked, with the result that men are typically targeted by the rural advisory services for training in wheat and maize innovations. As one woman observed, \"Women do not get opportunities like men.\" However, women generally conduct the same work in the fields as men (apart from ploughing). One woman said, \"We don't have such a thing as men working on men's plots and women working on women's plots. All tasks are done together regardless of who owns the farmland and other assets.\" However, the absence of working-age men in many communities means that women are taking on the burden of any added labor associated with innovations. A woman explained, \"The key issues here are how to control pests and to get good seeds. We all try laborsaving methods because it is difficult to find laborers, and it is expensive to employ them. Only a limited group of women have access to training and information; others do not have any opportunity.\" In some cases, men retain control over the marketing of wheat and maize, but in other cases, men as well as women agree that women can and should sell.Young men help in farming, but many lack motivation because they expect to out-migrate. Conversely, many young women are strongly active in farming because few leave the community to work elsewhere. In some communities this allows them to participate actively in learning processes, as reflected by this quote from a young women's focus group: \"Women do not go abroad for foreign employment. Therefore women are getting more opportunities. Girls are taking up further education, attending training courses and excursions, and joining groups and associations.\" Other young women reported, however, that social norms hamper their participation in innovation processes. They are being groomed for early marriage and to fulfill household duties and future maternal responsibilities.Across the case studies, there was little evidence that rural advisory services actively target women in these crops as part of their institutional level targeting strategy. As a consequence, men have better access to sources of information, and to networks which facilitate innovation. Since they are trained directly by agricultural technicians, men are able to learn rapidly and to try out their ideas straightaway under expert guidance. Men are also much more likely than women to operate tractors and other labor-saving machinery. Women remarked on their isolation: \"If there had been a woman technician, she would have visited our village regularly, and we could have asked about many things regarding agriculture. But we don't have a woman technician.\" Taken together, these factors explain the common belief that women do not innovate in wheat and maize. However, despite these constraints, the GENNOVATE data overwhelmingly shows that many women farmers are active innovators. Women negotiate with their husbands and extended families to get training and to join groups. Some women seek out extension advisors and successful farmers to learn more. According to one woman, \"We have learned to use improved wheat seeds, agricultural machinery, and different types of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, we can produce more wheat and earn more money. We cultivate all crops for sale.\" Another woman remarked, \"We are cultivating wheat on a large scale. We really need improved varieties.\" There is also evidence that individual extension agents work with women due to their personal commitment to women's development. This support really makes a difference. As explained by one woman:I was the first person to innovate in the village. I was selected to test improved varieties of wheat using new cultivation methods. Another woman was selected to continue with the traditional method of sowing. I prepared rows at a distance of 20 cm and sowed seeds. As a consequence, the wheat plants grew very nicely with 8 to 9 bunches in each plant. Later the extension officer came and compared production on my land and the woman following the traditional method. They found mine was better with big bunches and more wheat production.Despite this experience, many women innovate without any support from extension services. They explained that they watch other farmers experiment and then create their own experiments. Women highlighted how they feel strongly motivated through working with other women innovators: they share ideas and advice with each other. The lack of extension support usually means that their learning cycles take longer than for men, but this does not appear to discourage women, and some have become very successful. As one woman observed, \"At first I was not aware of new technologies in agriculture. However, these days I plant improved varieties of wheat and use chemical fertilizers and mechanized agricultural tools. I am making a lot of money.\" Women inspire and support other women, and they act as role models for each other.Photo: Andrew McDonald/CSISA.In Nepal, it is quite common to hear the adjective \"destitute\" used to describe the state of women. In agriculture this concept shades into a belief that women lack the resources required for innovation in wheat and maize. In common with the other myths, there is some veracity to this. Negative feedback loops caused by the myth that women do not innovate to a paucity of resources being made available to women innovators.For instance, agricultural equipment is rarely designed to suit the needs of women farmers and few efforts are made to gain social acceptance for women to use rotavators. Working and investment capital can be problematic: it can be more difficult for women, in the absence of their husbands, to obtain enough money to finance their innovations, even when they hold land title. Time is a particularly prominent constraint. Housework, managed almost exclusively by women, is very time consuming. One woman explained that \"the workload of women has increased due to the absence of our husbands. Now we have to do housework and go out to hire machinery, manage labor, and do irrigation ourselves.\" In some cases, women address labor constraints by engaging in reciprocal labor exchange schemes. This is very common in hilly districts.Nevertheless, women are gaining improved access to some resources. Credit providers increasingly target women. This is assisting poorer women and their families to escape bonded labor conditions and sharecropping, and to enter own account farming. For the first time, some of the poorest women and men are starting to innovate.The data is clear that women are innovating in wheat and maize through necessity and sometimes the sheer pleasure of doing things differently. Many women linked their drive to innovate, despite all the difficulties, to their roles as mothers and aspirations for their children's future. They continue to attend to family responsibilities, but equally are becoming breadwinners. Success is not only associated with higher yields or more income. An improvement in technical capacity translates into women being seen as competent, respectful, and progressive farmers. Women stressed how success in innovating in wheat and maize helps them meet cultural values. These include harmonious relationships with friends and family, raising children with good values, spiritual wellbeing, and being content in life.Finally, community groups are pivotal in spreading the concept of equality between women and men. Women frequently emphasized that the active promotion of equal treatment for women and gender equality in these groups is fundamental to building their confidence and willingness to innovate. Indeed, some women said it was a precondition. Believing they are as good as men provides women with the courage to succeed.Moving ahead: Opportunities for research and development occupation as viable for their sons? Young women are Nepal's future farmers. How can extension services encourage and support them to innovate, and how can this learning be sustained through periods when young women, for example upon marriage, may experience mobility and other constraints? How can parents be persuaded to encourage their daughters to become active innovators?Photo: Peter Lowe/CIMMYT.myths about what women \"don't decide\" and \"don't do\" in wheat and maize, and the reality of what women actually decide and do, is important. Widely held gender norms (from which myths are drawn) continue to structure expectations of what men and women should do, but in myriad ways these norms are being \"hollowed out\" and renegotiated in ways which support important cultural values whilst allowing change to happen. Understanding, recognizing, and building on these change processes is essential if innovation processes in wheat and maize are to be successful. A few thoughts on how key actors can support women in innovation are given here.More research studies into how women innovate are needed. Potential areas of inquiry include: How do women develop formal and informal innovation networks with other women, and with local experts? In what ways do women expand their decisionmaking power in intra-household discussions with their spouses, and with their extended family, in order to promote their innovation capacity? Does the absence of men in the household facilitate, or hamper, women's innovation? In what ways are men, including men decision makers at the community level, supporting women to innovate? How are gender norms shifting to accommodate women as innovators, and are changes to norms likely to be permanent? How are innovation processes supporting valued concepts of a \"good life\"? Research into intersectionalities between gender, socio-cultural markers of identity (caste, religion, ethnicity), age, economic status, household typology, and participation in innovation processes would provide valuable information for project design.Agronomic research, preferably crosscutting with some of the above areas of inquiry, into women's preferred technical innovations is essential, including with respect to labor-saving machinery. Research into gendered trade-offs between different kinds of innovation is also needed.It is critical for rural advisory services, at an institutional level, to recognize women as innovators in wheat and maize. Gender-sensitive targeting and capacity development strategies need to be developed. Women-friendly training events are essential, as is ongoing support. This may require the deployment of more women extension staff (with support as necessary) in some locations, and re-orientating men staff to recognize women as wheat and maize innovators.Few young men see a future in agriculture. Is it possible to turn this around by finding ways to support some young men in agricultural innovation processes? What needs to happen to allow parents and other family members to see an agriculturalGender equality messages set out by development partners and the government make a difference. Community organizations which walk the talk on gender, for instance by training women in budgeting, planning, public speaking, and leadership, help women to feel powerful and be able to innovate.Development partners can help to introduce labor-saving machinery to save women's time in wheat and maize, and in other agricultural tasks. It is equally important to develop and introduce labor-saving devices to help women manage house and care work.Household methodologies can help women and men to develop shared visions for their lives, and to recognize and work together to overcome gender barriers to innovation. Household methodologies encourage women and men to share household chores and care work by helping spouses and the wider family to see the win-win situation this creates. Other gendertransformative approaches include some which recruit women and men as farmer scientists. This helps them to develop their research skills on their own land with their own crops and animals. They are trained to develop hypotheses, to set up study conditions, and to record and discuss results. The field research underpinning this note was implemented in collaboration with Women Leading for Change in Natural Resource Management, (W-LCN), Nepal.To learn more visit: ","tokenCount":"2718"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6aeb614f270b8df2187dddaede300f18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/02b8f63a-867d-40cf-b4cf-eede1edba82a/retrieve","id":"545183025"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5f0c357d-f30e-4972-b039-2c1710cf40d3","pagecount":"92","content":". Input supply (qt) in Alaba Special Woreda (2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)  By IPMS team (names)The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) initiated a 5 year project in June 2004 with the financial assistance from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The project, entitled: \"Improving productivity and market success\" (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers, aims at contributing to a reduction in poverty of the rural poor through market oriented agricultural development.The IPMS project will assist by bringing knowledge on technologies generated by International and National Research Institutes as well as from other sources to the attention of the technology transfer agents and the farming community. It will also facilitate the feedback on these technologies. Such assistance will be provided to 10 pilot learning sites (PLS) across the country; (See map 1). Alaba district (woreda) is one of the 10 sites selected. To further enhance the utilization of such knowledge and the introduction of technologies, the IPMS project will also provide assistance to extension, input supply, marketing and finance institutions, including cooperatives. Such institutional support will be in the form of technical assistance, capacity building, supply of demonstration and training materials, some limited funds for innovative institutional arrangements and studies aimed at developing innovative institutional arrangements.Map 1. Map of Ethiopia with IPMS Pilot Learning Sites (PLS)Alaba woreda is located 310 km south of Addis Ababa and about 85 km southwest of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional (SNNPR) State capital of Awasa. The woreda is geographically located 7 0 17' N latitude and 38 0 06' E longitude. It is located west of Oromiya region, north of Hadiya (Sike), east of Kembata Tembaro, south east of Silte and Hadiya zones. It is a special woreda and has a special status where the administration directly reports to the regional state.There are 73 peasant and 2 urban associations. Alaba Kulito, the capital of the woreda, is believed to have been found towards the end of the 20 th century (around 1895). According to the recent woreda population reports (2004/05), the total number of rural households in 73 peasant associations (PA) in the woreda is 35,719. Out of these, 26,698 (75%) are men and 9,021 (25%) are women households. The total woreda population is 210,243, out of which 104,517 (49.7%) are male and 105,726 (50.3%) are female (Annex 2). Economically active population of the woreda (15-55 years of age) are 102,176 people out of which, 55,668 are male and 46,508 are female. Ethnically, there are about 6 major groups in the woreda, but Alaba and Grarage ethnic groups are the dominant groups constituting about 81 and 10 % of the total population, respectively.Attitudinally, the woreda ranges from 1554 to 2149 m above seas level (m asl), but most of the woreda is found at about 1800 m asl (Map 2). Except for few hills, the woreda has an agriculturally suitable land in terms of topography. Despite the recurrent drought, flood has also been a major problem in the area. The latter is induced as a result of dominantly level topography.Rainfall is a major limiting factor in agricultural production in the area. As a result, it is one of the woredas in SNNPR where drought is observed recurrently affecting many households. Agroecologically, the woreda is classified as Weina Dega. The annual rainfall varies from 857 to 1085 mm, while the annual mean temperatures also vary from 17 O C to 20 O C with mean value of 18 O C. The area receives a bimodal rainfall where the small rains are between March and April while the main rains are from July to September (Annex 8). The reliability of the small rains is low that farmers do not or mainly raise pepper seedling to be transplanted during the main rains. However, during the main rains, all crops grown in the area are planted, including maize, teff, wheat, pepper, haricot bean, sorghum and millet. Rainfall during the main rains are erratic that most of the time crops fail due to un even distribution of rainfall over the growing period. That is why the woreda faces crop failures almost every 3 years.According to FAO/UNISCO Classification system the major soils of the woreda are Anosol (ferralic), Andosol (Orthic), Chromic Luvisols (Orthic), Phaeozem (Orthic), Solonchak (Orthic). The FAO soil map of the woreda at 1:2 million scale indicates that the most dominant soil of the woreda is Andosol (Orthic) which is followed by Phaeozems (Ortic) and Chromic Luivisols (Orthic) in the second and third order. The soils of the area are believed to be relatively fertile and during good rains farmers can harvest good yield even without fertilizer application.The total land area of woreda is 64,116.25 ha of which 48,337 ha (75%) are considered suitable for agriculture (Table 1). As a result of long history of agriculture and high population in the area, vegetative cover is very low. Consequently, erosion hazards in the sloppy areas are enormous. Huge gullies are observed towards the southern end of the woreda, where soils are totally removed beyond recovery. This is believed to have been aggravated due to the easily detachable nature of the soil. Even though there were some efforts of soil and water conservation (SWC) over the last twenty years, these efforts were fruitless. Many NGOs were involved in soil and water conservation efforts in the woreda. Around Bilate River (south of Alaba Kulito town), there were some trees planted even though none seem to exist now. The tree planting efforts by Kale Hiwet Church, Food for the Hungry International (FHI) and World Food Programme (WFP) were not effective possibly because of human intervention and soils could not support the growth of these trees. On the other hand, this could also be due to selection of inappropriate tree species, which may have not been suitable to such degraded areas. On the other hand, development of quarry sites in the area has also been believed to counteract the soil and water conservation efforts in the woreda.The commonly observed remnant tree species in the area are Acacia species, Cordia africana, Croton spp. and Eucalyptus spp.These tree species are observed throughout the woreda land standing in scattered pattern. As a whole, Tree density is small on the land surface of the woreda. Eucalyptus tree are dominant around Bubisa mountain which lacks undergrowth grass and other species. This has contributed to formation of extensive gullies in the area.The recently initiated USAID supported Safety net programme for Natural Resources (NRM) rehabilitation is being encouraged. In addition other NGOs like SNV, VOCA, Water Action and other EU supported programmes are planning to be involved in SWC activities.Cropping patterns in the area follow rainfall, as cropping totally depend on rainfall. Efforts in the use of irrigation water are a recent development in the area. The area has 4 rivers but the biggest river crossing the woreda is Bilate. This river is the source of many farming families and commercial farms south of Alaba woreda. However, the use of this river in this woreda is minimal. This is because the river is a boundary of another woreda. Developing this river for irrigation purposes in Alaba will require political decision. There are many areas that could potentially be irrigated using Bilate and other rivers. Currently, there are two irrigation sites developed through funds from International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and World Vision-Ethiopia. These irrigation schemes, Bedene Alem Tena and Lebeko irrigation schemes are using Bilate and Ebala rivers, respectively. Bedene irrigation scheme irrigates 225 ha and supports 300 farm households while, Lebeko irrigation scheme irrigates 25 ha and supports 75 farm family households. The major crops grown using these schemes are maize, pepper, onion and livestock feeds like Rhodes grass, cowpea and others. Recent studies have indicated that two additional areas (Jejebicho dam and Lobe Chore pond) could be developed with a total potential irrigable area of 155 ha. Bilate is a perennial river, even though the volume of water decreases substantially during the dry season. The current government efforts of household level water harvesting schemes are also wide spread in Alaba.Prior to this, community managed ponds were common in the area. Over twenty years ago, domestic and livestock sources of drinking water were scarce. This is aggravated during drought periods. Owning to these the community managed water ponds are wide spread in the woreda currently. The topography of the area is suitable for irrigation, if appropriate water harvesting mechanisms are put in place, Alaba could have a substantial amount of irrigable land. However, unlike other PLSs, the water table for Alaba is very deep and use of underground water as a source of alternative irrigation is limited.As is the of other PLSs, livestock are a major source of farm power and cash income in Alaba. Oxen are the major source of draught power. In addition, as sources of water for both domestic and livestock watering is limiting in the woreda, use of donkey for transport is very high. In addition, donkey is also used for transporting other goods for the farm households. One can easily notice that livestock in the area are suffering from shortage of feed. Free grazing and use of supplemental crop residues are common sources of livestock feeding in the area. Animal and animal products are good sources of cash to farm households. Sale of butter, especially when there is fluffy grass growth earns additional income for women to fulfil household needs. However, all livestock observed on the road to and from Alaba are skinny and show the unsustainability of feed resources. In addition to the shortage of feed resources, many livestock diseases are also reported. The common animal diseases reported include, anthrax, blackleg, internal and external parasites. Farmers complain that major resources are spent for treating their livestock.Two major farming systems were identified in consultation with woreda agricultural experts and farmers in selected sample PAs. Use of altitudinal, vegetation and soil variabilities were difficult due to similarity of these factors, almost throughout the woreda. However, other means of classification where, dominance of one crop/livestock species in one area than the other, was employed to distinguish between farming systems. As a result of this exercise, two farming systems were identified.1. Teff/haricot bean/livestock farming system 2. Pepper/wheat/goat/apiculture farming system (hereafter referred to as pepper/livestock farming system) 1. Teff/haricot bean/livestock farming system Forty-three out of the 73 PAs belong to this farming system, where 4 Farmer Training Centres (FTCs) are also located. According to the 1994 census projection for 2005, the total human population living in this farming system is around 119,353 people. While, the total cultivable land is estimated at 27,246 ha. Teff and haricot bean are the major marketable crop commodities, while sheep and cattle are dominant livestock commodities in the area. The PAs belonging to this farming system are found in many parts of the woreda. This is as opposed to the conditions of other PLSs, where farming systems are located in one corner of the woreda. This happens so mainly when altitude, soil type or vegetation is considered during the identification of farming systems. The identification of farming systems in this PLS was based on dominance of one crop/livestock species in one area than the other. This is because almost all factors needed for identifying farming systems were similar. According to the woreda experts, there are 10 zones, which have between 6-8 PA each. According to the woreda experts, 6 out of these 10 zones were categorised as belonging to this farming system. Out of these 6 zones (group of PAs) again, 2 each zones are located west and northwest, while the remaining 2 zoness are situated east and southeast of the woreda town. The soil of this farming system is similar to the other remaining and mostly dominated by Andosols. These soils, found in both farming systems, are easily detachable soils and as a result, a number of gullies can be observed in almost all areas in the woreda. The only two irrigation schemes are also found in this farming system. These irrigation schemes can collectively irrigate 250 ha and are supporting 375 farm families. Another small river is also found in this farming system.Maize, teff, wheat, pepper and haricot bean are the dominant crops in with regards to area coverage. A group of woreda experts and farmers were asked to rank these crops based on their market demand, source of income, household consumption use, area coverage and drought tolerance (Annex 3). Based on market demand, the ranking exercise revealed that pepper, teff and haricot bean were among the top marketable crops in this farming system. Among these crops, pepper is not widely grown in this farming system. It should however be noted that the woreda is suitable for all types of crops and livestock, in general, but the degree to which these commodities are grown/raised varies by farming system. The major limiting factor for crop production is moisture stress (shortage of rainfall). Farmers are used to growing chat in their backyards and consumption of chat is very common.Sheep and cattle are the most dominant livestock types in this farming system. Shortage of feed is one of the limiting factors in livestock production in both farming systems. This is aggravated by both shortage of grazing land (caused due to population pressure) and shortage of rainfall, which denied the growth of sufficient feed resources. All of the livestock observed in this farming system are so skinny that livestock owners are desperate of the situation. Farmers were complaining of the low prices of livestock if they intend to sell their livestock when they are in bad condition. There is hardly milk produced from these cattle except from those that are found close to the Alaba Kulito town. These farmers around the town own crossbred cows, which are stall-fed and are well taken care. Farmers around the town keep livestock targeted for market (sale of milk). Farmers in the woreda believe that the productivity of livestock has decreased substantially due to population pressure, which has forced people to convert natural grazing lands into crop lands. Farmers are heavily dependent on oxen power for all crop operations. Livestock products are generally limited and expensive. During the periods of high feed availability, which is mainly during crop harvest and crop weeding periods, the livestock body conditions become good and sale of livestock earns a reasonably good income. It is also during this period when livestock products like, milk and butter become easily available and earn some cash to farmers The most important marketable livestock types/commodities are shown on Annex 4 of this document.There are 30 PAs that belong to this farming system and 2 FTCs are also located. In these PAs, the total population is 67,450, as has been projected for 2005 in the 1994 census. While, the total cultivable land is estimated at 19,188 ha. Pepper and wheat are the top marketable crop commodities (Annex 3), while goats and apiculture are the top marketable livestock and livestock commodities (Annex 4). There is no cultural barrier in the sale of milk in this farming system. Goat milk is believed to be medicinal, especially for children. It is also common for older men and women also to consume goat milk with coffee. This is unlike our experiences in other PLSs. In both farming systems, maize, teff, wheat, pepper, haricot bean, sorghum and finger millet (in their order of importance in terms of area coverage) are important crops grown by farmers. While, cattle, goats, sheep, donkey, horse, mule and poultry are the livestock types which are dominant in the woreda. In addition, there is substantial number of bee colonies. With in this farming system, the Besheno zone is believed to have the highest bee colonies.Farmers in this farming system complained about the cheating by traders in town by manipulating the weighing scale. As a result to this farmers also sprinkle water on to the dried pepper so that the produce will weigh more. On the other hand, farmers argue that water is sprinkled on the dried pepper to keep the pepper from breaking but not to increase weight only.Use of irrigation is not a common practice in the whole woreda, except in newly developed irrigation schemes. There are also a number of family level water harvesting ponds in the area, mainly for livestock watering. The depth of water wells dug drilling rigs could go as deep as 300 m. Therefore, getting shallow well for both domestic and livestock use is not easy. Consequently, water is a scarce resource in the area. Over twenty years ago (during pick drought periods), it was common for farmers, along the road side, to come out with their containers and ask for any passing vehicle to give them water. There is however a lot of improvement in the area since then. It is now common to see a number deep wells developed by different NGOs including FHI, Water Action and others.Maize, teff, wheat, pepper, haricot bean, sorghum and millet are the dominant crops in with regards to area coverage. Other than these crops many other crops are also grown, but economically less important. In most cases, maize is grown in more than 50% of the cultivable land in the woreda, while the all other crops account for the remaining 50% of the area. Despite the size of land allocated for this crop, yield/ha is substantially low (Table 5). In most cases, because of the irregularity of rainfall, production fails and hence the woreda becomes drought-affected. Considering the amount of rainfall in the woreda, one may say that the rainfall is sufficient to support crop growth, but the distribution is very erratic. The rain falls in a very short period of time exposing the crops for moisture stress. Alaba is one of the woredas in SNNPR which is food insufficient. In most cases, production of crops (Table 4) is strongly associated to the amount and distribution of rainfall. However, distribution is more important than even the amount of rainfall received. Until recently, use of irrigation water was not common. However, efforts by both NGOs and the government are showing some results. There are two irrigation schemes already operational since late last year.Few crops have been identified as priority marketable commodities in the area. Two of the crop commodities selected (pepper and haricot bean) as marketable commodities by farmers and experts, are covered in specialisation extension programs. Most of the remaining commodities are produced for consumption purposes. According to the studies made Co-SAERSAR (1997), woreda Office of Agriculture, proportion of each crop commodity for consumption, market and other purposes are indicated in Table 2. *Among the haricot bean types, Red Wolyita is a staple food and is mostly consumed. As can be seen from Table 2, more than 50% of the Red Wolyta type is consumed, while the remaining is sold. However, the newly introduced white types are totally sold. This is because farmers are not used to growing and using this type of haricot beans. Therefore introducing the white types means increasing the marketability of this crop.In addition to pepper and haricot bean, teff and wheat are also marketable crops.A group of experts and farmers were asked to identify crops based on their utility (Annex 3). As can be seen from the table above, marketable commodities are the ones that were selected by the woreda experts.Group discussion result with staff in Alaba special woreda OoANRD agrees with findings of Co-SERSAR (1997). There are three types of commodities in the woreda. The first category is priority marketable commodities. This refers to commodities which are produced and harvested mainly for sell in the market. Average estimated yield of 75% of these groups of commodities is used for market, while 25% is used for household consumption. Priority marketable commodities are the main sources of cash for farmers. This group of commodities is also addressed in specialization commodity by the extension program in the woreda. The second category is commodities for household consumption. Production from these commodities is mainly for household consumption (average estimate of 85%) and a smaller proportion of the produce (15%) could also be used for sell. These groups of commodities are addressed as diversification commodity by the extension program (Table 3). The last category of commodity is called potential commodities. Potential commodities refer to the commodities which are known in the community but are not widely grown for various reasons. Over three years, (2002)(2003)(2004) crop cover shows that maize had covered 43, teff 26, Wheat 9, pepper 7% (but in 2004 it had covered 15%), haricot bean 6%; and sorghum and finger millet 3% each of the total cultivated land of the woreda. While the remaining proportion of the cultivated land was under perennials, root crops and others, accounting for 3% of the total cultivable land (Table 4). Agroecologically, Alaba is suitable to grow a variety of crops, but the main limiting factor is lack or poor distribution of rainfall. As a result, productivity of most crops is very low. Vegetables and tropical fruits (avocado, papaya and mango) could easily be grown in the irrigated areas On the other hand, after verifications, based on small adaptation trials, vernonia could also be a potential commodity. Experiences from other PLSs, like Alamata and Metema, have shown that this plant can easily be grown in similar climates like Alaba. The following table shows the productivity of the grain crops grown in the wordea, over 3 years. ***This is another potential crop which could be grown in Alaba. It would however require high rainfall compared to haricot bean. Some farmers have the experience of growing it but because of lower prices they have stopped growing it. If market arrangements are made, it is possible that this crop could be of higher potential. Current prices seem to be encouraging (~35o birr/qt). The other added advantage is that Awassa Research Centre is the national coordinator for soya bean research. Currently 7 soy bean varieties were released.Alaba being one of the commonly drought affected areas in SNNPR, livestock production is poor. Grazing lands are converted into farmlands due to human population pressure. Most of the time, livestock graze on farm boundaries, road sides or on un productive backyards. In addition, crop residues are also important feed resources. Body conditions of big ruminants can easily show the magnitude of the problem. This is aggravated because rain started late this year, which resulted into low feed availability, which could have otherwise helped to grow some grass for livestock. Many farmers were complaining that because of the poor body weight conditions of their livestock, the market value is very low. Small ruminants are better in their body conditions. It is common to see tethered livestock in the area. The common livestock types that were marketed in Alaba were chicken and eggs. Lack of feed is the major problem in livestock production in Alaba.The common animal diseases reported include, anthrax, blackleg, internal and external parasites. Poor body condition of livestock is also believed to contribute to the lack of resistance to many of the diseases. Farmers complain that major resources are spent for treating their livestock. The livestock population is very high though the output is poor (Table 6). The woreda is vast, as a result the coverage of veterinary services is poor and most farmers depend on traditional medical practices. Use of illegal drug is very common in the area. The veterinary technicians are very small in number to cover the whole woreda. There is one veterinary clinic and two artificial insemination sites in the woreda. There are also efforts to introduce different forage species. These included sesbania, cow pea, lablab, vetch, Napier grass, alfalfa and Desmodium sp. Cattle and oxen holding per household is 6.7 and 1.90 respectively. Small ruminants and poultry are important livestock commodities contributing to the livelihoods of farm households.According to woreda BoANRD development plan, in addition to crop husbandry, animal resources development is a key issue for ensuring food security and improve livelihoods. To this effect, special focus is given to sheep and goat, poultry, apiculture and production of forage for livestock. The woreda administration has been undertaking soil and water conservation in the woreda for the past 3 decades and the effort has involved both NGOs and GOs. The most common soil and water conservation structure in the woreda are: area closure, stone and soil bund, micro basins and fannyajuu, check dam, gully treatment and shaping. There are efforts of plantation on bunds with elephant and vetiver grasses. These conservation measures are visible in certain areas both on communal and privately owned lands. Major afforestation efforts are in Arsore, Wanja, Sekate, Wolegeba and Chokore PAs. Afforestation programme was carried out around Rekame and its surroundings by FHI. Currently, there are about 560 ha of eucalyptus plantation, which was planted by FHI on the mountains around upper Tuka PA. The major problems associated with natural resource use and management in the woreda is lack of awareness to farmers, lack of initiatives to take care of land, severe problem of over grazing, lack of joint effort for soil and water conservation. Conversion of grazing lands to crop land is another major problem. As a result livestock are restricted to very small areas and are mostly tethered.Despite the fact that most of the woreda is flat, land degradation is wide spread. This includes the Reakame area, which is close to Bilate River. The degraded areas have big gullies, which are wide spread. Most of the dissected gullies extend for long distances. The damage made to some of these areas is beyond recovery. However, there are some soil and water conservation efforts in the area through funds from WFP and UNDP. There are 3 nursery sites, which are used for raising tree seedlings. One of thiese nursery sites, Choroko, raises both tree types (fruit trees and trees for afforestation). Over 1 million seedlings from 12 different species will be raised in the 3 different nursery sites and transplanted during 2005 (Annex 6).The practice of irrigation is at its infant stage. The biggest irrigation scheme (Bedene irrigation scheme) became operation only last year (around May of 2004). Crops grown using the irrigation water include, different vegetables (onion, pepper, cabbage, carrot and tomato) and tropical fruits (Casmir, papaya, avocado, mango, guava and banana). The total irrigated land is about 250 ha. Most of the fruit tree seedlings produced in Choroko are distributed to farmers around these irrigation sites.As a result of population pressure, vegetative cover is very low. Consequently, it is common to see small hills without trees, which are also with dissected gullies. However, the common tree species available on farm boundaries, back yards and scattered trees include, Acacia, Croton and Cordia species. The common plant species around homesteads is Euphorbia sp., which is used as live fence material.Alaba woreda is predominantly flat. As a result, many areas are vulnerable to flooding. Most frequently flooded areas are: Geleto, Gedeba and Wanja PAs.Cooperative movement in Alaba Special woreda started in 1960S. During the period (1960 to 1978) 26 cooperatives were established with a total membership of about 26873. The movement had a set back in 1974 during the regime of derg as cooperatives were liquidated and their properties were nationalized. Cooperatives in the former days were not producing demand driven products and they were forcing farmers to sell the produce at dictated price. The effect has depleted the faith of farmers to members of any cooperative. In earlier days only cooperatives with strong leadership survived and they could continue to thrive due to insulated effect from government intervention.The agricultural cooperative societies proclamation no 85/94 and proclamation No 147/98 at the present provides necessary ambience for the rejuvenation of cooperative movement in the woreda. At present there are 12 agricultural cooperatives with a total member ship of 4000. The cooperatives were established based on international principles and they have been undertaking input supply, product marketing , floor mill service and house rent.A cooperative development desk, now under the Rural Development Coordination Office, is mandated for the organization and development of cooperatives in the woreda. The desk is organized with 3 teams: credit and marketing; cooperative organization; and auditing, inspection and registration teams. There are 8 staff working for the desk.There are three types of agricultural cooperatives society. The first is agricultural marketing cooperatives, the second is Multi-purpose farmer's cooperative society and the third is Irrigation water users' cooperatives society. The process of cooperative establishment takes a serious of steps. Initially need assessment and surveys are undertaken which is followed by training and election of committee and board establishment. Then documents are sent to regional cooperative's office for registration.Today all cooperatives in Alaba special woreda are at primary society level. The most common inputs/ technologies used by cooperatives are fertilizers (DAP and Urea) and improved seeds.There are also current efforts which are undergoing to promote cooperative in the woreda through NGO and GO efforts. The notable example is the provision of loan, capacity building effort for cooperative members, committees. Provision of loan for purchase of inputs by cooperatives was from local MFI, Development Bank and commercial Bank.The major problems identified in association with cooperatives in the woreda is lack of advice on inputs supply, absence of need assessment, absence of extra economic activity for members, absence of freedom for member to enter and leave cooperative membership, poor networking with concerned bodies working on input and cooperatives,The cooperative desk is mandated to give legal entity to multipurpose cooperatives. Legal entity to saving and credit, and irrigation cooperatives, and to unions is currently the authority of the regional sector of cooperative development. VOCA-Ethiopia is currently working for establishment of Union in a couple of months. A study initiated by World Bank is being conducted in the woreda and the study focuses on insuring farmers in times of natural disaster leading to crop loss. According to Regional Abstract ( 2002), the total number of traders involved in marketing in Alaba is 483, with a capital of birr 8.48 m.In put supply desk, now under the Rural Development Coordination Office, is mandated to oversee the supply and provision of agricultural inputs in the woreda. Although there are several farmers using input in the woreda, there is little success for farmers to be productive while using new technology.The most common inputs used by farmers in the woreda are: fertilizers, improved seed, vegetable seeds, poultry and improved farm tools. Most of the farmers in the woreda get technical support from DAs and experts at woreda OoANRD. Little attention was given to monitoring and evaluation of inputs in the woreda. Women farmers were targeted mainly in provision of vegetable seed, poultry, goat and sheep supply.The over all trend in use of input at woreda level is increasing over the years. The quantity of input supply and number of users has increased over the years.There are several organization which are taking part in provision of input to the woreda. Wondo trade company and Agricultural input supply organization(AISCO) take part in supply of fertilizer. PIONNER, Ethiopian Seed Enterprise take part in supply of improved seed. There are also retailers (shop keepers) involved in supply of fertilizers.Common problems observed in supply of inputs are: mismatch of demand and supply, untimely supply of inputs, improper use of inputs, misuse of input ( some sell out), there are needs of input but lack of capacity to purchase, there are also defaulters in use of inputs loans. There is a need to have coordinated effort to solve some of the above problems. Promotion of input supply in the woreda should be accompanied by training, it is also worth to consider appropriate developed in the centres. There are efforts by VOCA-Ethiopia to build capacity of cooperative members and there is a plan to establish Union and provide various supports for cooperatives. World Bank is currently undertaking to find a means of insuring farmers in times of disaster that may influence agricultural production. OMO MFI is the major supplier of credit and saving services for the rural population in the woreda. Three branch offices are based in Durame and the office in Alaba Kulito town is sub branch with three staff. The sub branch provides the service to the rural and urban people and the current credit supply is to about 945 clients.The credit given to the rural and urban areas in the woreda can be classified into two types: Regular credit and Package Credit.The Package Credit program started in 2005 and it is a new approach. The program runs in cooperation with small scale industry and trade promotion agency and it mainly focuses on the urban beneficiaries. This credit type runs in 14 regional centres of OMO MFI. There are currently 7 packages (groups) with a total of 84 beneficiaries (Female: 37 and Male: 47). A package or (group) consists of 10-20 people. The loan duration is up to 3 years and the interest rate depends on type of loan installment. There are 2 interest rates for the package credit. 15% interest rate is for loan installment of loan period and 10 % interest rate is for monthly installment.The package program is implemented through small scale industry and trade promotion agency and the fund is from rural finance service. The term of the package credit is 3 years.The Regular Credit program focuses on rural areas and the program has continued for many years. The interest rate for this programme is 18%. The installment in regular credit is on monthly bases or by term. In agriculture sector credit is mainly for those who are involved in management of cattle, goat , sheep, fertilizer and seed.The term of the regular credit is 1 -2 years. The range of loan in is from Birr 500 to 5000 Birr. The maximum loan according to recently issued regulation can go up to 20,000 Birr. A mandatory saving of 5% of the principal plus Birr 2/month saving is required of borrowers. It seems that the availability of loan fund in the woreda is not a problem.Before the formation of groups, screening of beneficiaries, disbursement of loan the sub-branch office in Alaba Kulito town gives education and awareness creation to farmers regarding the nature of credit, loan and repayment procedures. Organization of the interest group can be done by OMO (MFI) or through interested government bodies like the small scale industry and trade promotion agency.Beneficiaries in PA are usually those who know each other and live in the same locality. For each group organized there will be a leader to be elected. Collaterals could be government staff in the area. If a husband takes the loan the wife becomes collateral. The sub-branch office ensures that beneficiaries screened are eligible for disbursement. Farmers with out outstanding debts, hard working, with \"good\" habits, able to work, healthy, and resident of PA are eligible. The only ineligible category of population for loan are those under the age of 18. The landless and singles can also get credit. However, not all members of a group may be landless.There is no loan insurance system used. However, group saving (tax) is used as a guarantee and it accounts for 10% of the loan. There is a recent study initiated on insuring of loans by World Bank in the woreda.The repayment rate of the regular and package credit to date was estimated to be 75%. The major problems encountered by OMO MFI so far in Alaba Special woreda includes few number of staff, low level of understanding of the people on credit and saving, and scarcity of fund (there are more number of beneficiaries that the amount of available fund). As a whole one can see that the existing rules and regulation is becoming better and the service coverage is increasing.This bank is involved in provision of loan for the purchase of inputs by cooperatives in Alaba Special Woreda. There are currently 10 cooperative which took loan from this bank. These cooperatives were established before 10 years and the total number of beneficiaries is 200. Three of the cooperatives have taken the second round loan recently and the reaming 7 cooperatives have not paid back the loan. The total amount of loan disbursed far is 70,000 birr. Peasant Associations representatives mainly do follow up of the cooperatives and woreda staff of small scale and trade Industry. Woreda small scale Industry Development plays role in training, organizing and ensuring the registration of the cooperatives.The agricultural extension service in the woreda is provided by the woreda There are various types of technologies which are introduced and disseminated to the farmers in the woreda. The major ones includes: Triddle Pump (for irrigation) , Tide ride ( for NRM), Moder Beehives (for Bee -farm), Energy Saving stove ( for household management), Maize seed processor ( for crop production ) and horse carts ( for transportation). The nearest technology centre for the PLS is in Soddo Rural technology centre.There are plans for the farmers to introduce new technologies especially on storage of crop products and to reduce post harvest loss. There is an increasing trend for the need of introduced technologies as manifested by farmer's initiation for purchase of the technology instead of looking for loan purchase.The major problems in agricultural technologies include absence of maintenance and service centers for the technology, technology un availability on market, poor level of understanding on technology, expensiveness of technology which often goes beyond the purchasing power of the farmers.There are various types of trainings, which are offered through OoANRD. Trainings have focused on farmers and agricultural experts working in the woreda. In recent years trainings organized for farmers and DAs includes: trainings on modern livestock husbandry, apiculture, sheep and goat management, Silk production, modern dairy farming. So far the major problems associated with agricultural trainings were not supplemented by practical and lack of follow up after trainings, scarcity of budget to cover needy beneficiaries; woreda level trainings are not supported with proper trainings aids materials like overhead projector.  There are 3 staff assigned to each FTCs in the woreda. The 3 graduates correspond to the field of natural resource management, animal husbandry and crop husbandry and are graduates of the TVETS. Construction of additional 10 FTCs is also undergoing.Woreda Net Program for Alaba Special woreda is mainly meant for provsion of Video conferencing, internet and related services. The mandate of undertaking the program is at the hand of woreda capacity building office and the Ethiopian Telecommunication Agency installs the system. As part of the effort, all the materials are in place and are being assembled in a serious of phases as planned by woreda capacity building office and Ethiopian Telecommunication Authority. In the woreda meeting hall the materials assembled are server with its accessories in a server room and the plasma with its accessories in the meeting hall. Other materials for the system includes the satellite dish, TV sets and computers.Current effort indicates that the program will become operational in this fiscal year.Staff has already been employed as IT expert and electrician. Employed staff is to be trained and existing telecommunication service quality is expected to be upgraded in the year 2005.School net program for the woreda has already stared service for the first (garde 9-10) and second phase (grade 11-12) secondary school located in the urban areas.The service commenced service since Oct 2005. There are a total of 15 Plasma TV sets and of this 14 are functional while the remaining one is not. The satellite dish is well placed and operating properly. There were accessories sent with the materials as teaching aid. Accessories include CDs as teaching material. A staff trained for school net provision has been transferred and there is a need to train another. The existing teaching guide is not complete and that needs focus. The future direction indicates that the service will improve when the woreda telecommunication commences digital service and if net worked.Though the program was planned to be implemented as pilot project in 18 woredas of SNNPR, it is not clear if Alaba was one of the sample woreda. Watever the case may be, there is no activity running as agri net in Alaba.Women account for 50% of the total population in Alaba Special Woreda. The woreda women's affairs office was established in 2002.The role of women in agricultural sector is quite evident in land preparation, weeding and harvesting. There is a special role women play in transporting harvest and household gardening. Women also take care of livestock at home. Women equally take part with men in water harvesting schemes and pond construction.There are NGOs and GO efforts contributing to engendering of development program in Alaba Special woreda. European Union program is targeting women for economic empowerment through goat and sheep program. There is also credit and input access to women through various programs in the woreda. Woreda women office annual report indicates that there are various types of trainings which are conducted to address gender issue. Trainings include prevention and control of HIV/AIDS , income generation, counseling service, family planning, home science extension focusing on house management and small scale agriculture. Gender training was organized in the past years in the woreda and changes are there in attitude as a result of the training. Men have also started taking responsibility of undertaking jobs culturally left for women as a result of the trainings.Women involvement in community leadership in the woreda is totally absent. However, women in Alaba special woreda have special respect for the peace reconciliation they play in the society. Women have taken committee positions for \"MERET Project\" and water activity committee, reflecting their representation in the development programs. As a whole the exist fact reflect that a lot has to be done in promoting women leadership and economic empowerment.The main problems associated with women in the area are: FGM, early marriage, polygamy, absence of pre-martial test, marriage inheritance, forced marriage, multiple marriages leading to high HIV/AIDS vulnerability, denial of the right to own land. Women at home suffer with the community for having water problem, fuel wood scarcity, lack of mill house locally and poor health coverage.There has never been previous study undertaken to investigate HIV/AIDS in the woreda. The existence of NGOs operating in the woreda on HIV/AIDS, reflect that situations has been examined by organizations at the level of their interest. It is difficult to quantify the awareness level of people on HIV/AIDS and issues of transmit ion, but responses from woreda HAPCO indicates that the level of awareness is high.There are no associations established for/by people living with HIV/AIDS. Inventory of NGO in the area indicates that FGA, KmG are NGOs intervening on HIV/AIDS in the woreda. On Government side Global fund is contributing a lot.There are efforts to organize skill training for victims, increasing awareness level on reducing harmful traditional practices, condom promotion and gender, HIV/AID workshops. Impact of HIV/AIDS on the community and role of region leaders on prevention and control was informed to selected segments of the society. The average annual budget of the woreda HAPCO is so small that it is mainly used as running cost and office management. There is a woreda level executive board responsible to over see HIV/AIDS prevention and control. The board consists of 5 members representing different segments of the society in which the woreda HAPCO acts as secretary. HAPCO has plan to enhance use of existing VCT and combating traditional harmful practices with its stakeholders in the woreda.There are 10 functional anti HIV/AIDS clubs in the woreda. The main ones are the Alaba Fere, Nardos and Mahelet. There is poor networking between partners in the woreda. There are 2 HIV/AIDS counselling services in the woreda and the estimated beneficiary is close to 1300.The total number of HIV/AIDS orphans in the woreda is 570, however, the numbers of people living with HIV/AIDS is not known. Threre are 2 VCT in the woreda. However, the estimated HIV/AIDS prevalence rate in the woreda is estimated to be at 4.4 %. In addition to the low level of poverty, the major aggravating factors for HIV/AIDS spreading in the worea are thought to be abduction, polygamy, female genital mutilation (FGM), Chat chewing and alcohol use among the residents of the woredaThe following tables provide a brief description of production, input supply and marketing aspects of the priority commodities together with areas requiring attention and potential interventions as suggested by farmers and professionals during the Woreda PRA and planning workshop. In addition, the possible institutions to be involved in executing these activities are also shown.Table 10 Spices-Pepper Farming system 2 (Pepper/livestock farming system) Production Farmers in Alaba depend on rainfall for the production pepper. Local pepper varieties are used as a source of planting material. Alaba is known for its pepper production and is a major cash crop in the area. It is also the main source of pepper to Addis and other nearby markets around it. Productivity of pepper is about 8-10 qt/ha, but could sometimes be lower depending on the season. Land preparation is by oxen based. Hoe is often used during weeding. In the pepper dominated PAs, it is common for farmers to grow pepper in about 0.25-0.5 ha. Pepper seedbeds are normally located around residential areas. However, pepper fields could be as far as 1 km away from the house. Pepper from Alaba could go as far as Dessie and Dire Dawa. Production of pepper is traditional practice in the woreda. The small rains are used for raising seedling at nursery (seedbed preparation and raising seedling in the nursery), which extend from mid February to mid March. Farmers know that pepper that if poor quality of pepper is produced that it will affect the price. However, because of cheating by traders in the towns, with their weighing scales, farmers have started to adulterate the produce by sprinkling water to the already dried pepper so that it will raise the weight of the produce.Responsibilities/tasks OoANRD -Extension, IPMS -TA Credit OMO Micro Finance (OMF) is operational in the woreda, but there is no special credit scheme directed towards pepper production only. It is treated as one of the common crops in the area.Limited use of credit Encourage use of improved inputs on credit/cash on handThere 4 market places in the woreda (Alaba Kulito, Guba, Besheno and Kobo). Among which Alaba Kulito is the biggest of all. Individual farmers carry out marketing of pepper. Sometimes however, farmers may organise themselves to transport their pepper from their village to any one of the market places in the woreda. The local market for pepper is highly season dependent, where at harvest it is around 4-5 birr/kg, while 8-10 birr/kg during other seasons. However, the price of pepper is private traders dependent as is the case in other PLSs. There are many pepper traders in Alaba, but 3 are the biggest traders. Traders are known for cheating the farmers by manipulating the weighing scale and farmers has developed a habit of adulteration of the pepper by sprinkling water in to the already dried pepper so that it will weigh high and earn them better prices. Teff/haricot bean/livestock farming system Production Haricot bean fields are ploughed 3 times before planting. Usually farmers are used to planting haricot bean in March. Later on haricot bean fields will be used for either wheat or teff to be planted in July. However, experts believe that planting haricot bean in July is most preferred because of more reliable rainfall. Normally, one time weeding is carried out. In most cases haricot bean is harvested green and sometimes it is left to dry in the field. Consumption is in the form of boiled beans (whether bean is green or dry). Some of the produce is also sold in the marklet. Earlier studies indicate that up 42% of the red Wolyta type could be sold. If farmers produce white haricot bean, all is usually sold. Haricot bean is grown during both the small and big rains and the average yield is between 7-10 qt/ha. Haricot requires about 80 -100 kg/ha of seed. This crop is a staple food for the area. During planting, about 100 DAP is applied. The use of improved seed is low, however, the government is trying to introduce the white haricot bean types since recently. The white improved haricot bean varieties of Mexican 142 and Awash Melka have been introduced. The price of the improved varieties (seed) for last year was 385 birr/qt. The produce from this was sold at 160 birr/qt. Currently, the planting was planned to be sold at 170 birr/qt. The price became low because these seeds are not the breeders seed.Responsibilities/tasks Limited use of credit Encourage use of improved inputs on credit/cash on hand OMF, OoANRD -Production and Technology Distribution Desk IPMS-TA Marketing Currently, the local price for haricot bean in Alaba Kulito is about 140 birr/qt. Sometimes price of haricot bean becomes discouraging. As a result, some cooperative are trying to buy the members' produce to sold to traders collectively. However, the capacity of the cooperatives so limited that their intervention to stabilising the market becomes fruitless. In some rural market places, price of haricot bean is in the range of 80-160. However, the market channel for haricot development attempts is unclear and this might affect the current initiatives. Marketing of haricot bean is done individually as is the case for other crops.No Teff/haricot bean/livestock farming system Production Production of teff covers around 20% of the total cultivated land and is the second highest in terms land cover. Productivity of teff is very low and the average yield is about 8 qt/ha. Unlike other areas in the highlands, trampling of the soil, during planting is not practiced. It is the second most dominant crop grown in the area, with respect to number of ha under. At an average, farmers in most of the major teff growing PAs in this farming system cultivate 0.5 ha. Production of teff is becoming an important practice because of 3 main reasons. This is because farmers think that teff has quality feed, is drought tolerant and helps earn more cash because of reliable market. Teff is grown during the main rain season. Teff is a labour intensive crop where weeding becomes a major activity. Most farmers are using herbicides to avoid this.Responsibilities/tasks OoANRD, IPMS -TAIn put supply is carried out by OoANRD. Currently, in put supply for teff means mainly fertiliser, and herbicides. Some years back, improved seeds of teff, developed at Debre Zeit Research Centre, were introduced to the area. Varieties known as DZ-354, DZ-196 and Cross-37 were growing well. Farmers had the interest of using these seeds. However, since recently, these varieties are no more with farmers. As a result, farmers are using own planting materials. Delivery of fertiliser and herbicide also has their own problems as well.Late arrival or insufficient amount of fertilisers and herbicides supplied There is no special credit scheme targeted towards teff. OMF is the only institute involved in the rural sector. The requirement of collateral is deterring farmers from taking loan from OMF. Farmers can take credit from OMF, but need to fulfil the requirement of either the Package or Regular credit schemes.Un The third largest crop in terms of area cover and source of income is Wheat. As is the case for teff, yield is poor. This crop is significantly affected by shortage of rainfall. It is predominantly grown in about 22 PAs. In 2004, wheat was grown on about 5,000 ha (13%) out of the area under crops. Productivity of wheat is very low considering its potential. Different wheat varieties were introduced last year, but the out put from these varieties were not encouraging due to shortage of rainfall.Responsibilities There is no special credit scheme targeted towards wheat, as is the case for most commodities. OMF has a sub-branch office in Alaba Kulito town and can serve the purpose.High  (2000)(2001)(2002) of this crop shows that the price could go as low as birr 100/qt. Coupled with poor genetic material, un availability of fertiliser and small plots, the production of wheat is very small.Responsibilities/tasks Teff/haricot bean/livestock system Production Vegetable production has started recently with irrigation promotion. Because of the need for irrigation water, nearly all of the vegetable production (except pepper) has concentrated around the irrigation schemes. In addition to irrigation, most pepper production is rainfed. There has only been one harvest since the irrigation scheme became operational. It will be difficult to fully understand problems related to production. In addition, farmers have very small plots, which are irrigated, up to 200 m 2 . Farmers are currently own or locally available planting materials. Onion is the second most important; following pepper, but storage related problems would arise soon, if appropriate measures are not taken. With increased efficiency of the irrigation schemes, volumes of produce are expected to increase, and problems will be identified. It will be easier here to introduce contract farming of most of the vegetables, as it is a common practice by vegetable markers from Addis. The following problems are anticipated if these vegetables are to be produced.Responsibilities Most of the inputs in relation to vegetable production are exchanged among farmers themselves. There have been no improved varieties of vegetables, including onions and pepper. In case of out breaks of migratory insects, the OoANRD avails chemicals. Other wise, specific chemicals are also available through cash or credit from OoANRD. However, there are problems because these chemicals do not arrive on time. Vegetable seeds are also bought from local traders, which is poor in viability. On the other hand, farmers may end up buying vegetable seeds which they did not intend to buy because of lack of knowledge. In most cases, farmers end up using the poor but easily available planting materials from their surroundings. Hand tools necessary for vegetable production are also available in the local market.Responsibilities There is a fruit nursery at Choroko. Few farmers in Lebeko irrigation scheme are used to growing some fruits. Production systems are mainly traditional. As a result the fruit species in use are not of good quality. With the possibility of intensifying the irrigation, market needed better fruit types should be introduced. As the bigger irrigation scheme is new, it is possible to make impact through the introduction good fruit varieties. Few farmers are growing mango trees. Two types of banana are grown in the area. Farmers are willing to expand the Cavendish dwarf banana type. Development of fruit production other than these irrigation schemes might be difficult due to lack of other flowing rivers. Attempts are under way however to try to use small ponds for both vegetables and fruits.Responsibilities Some of the planting materials like mango and guava are delivered through the OoANRD. However, the types distributed to farmers are not the right types. Most planting materials come from already existing old stock around the irrigation schemes. Better types of planting materials need to be introduced at its early stage. There is a high demand for fruit seedlings by farmers in the irrigation schemes.Responsibilities Both farming system Production Dairy farming in Alaba special Woreda is based on local cattle breeds. Production scale is small. Milk productivity is small and average productivity is estimated to be 2 Lit/cow/day. Dairy farming has focused on meeting the need of household consumption. There are, however, exotic breeds (Holstein) in urban dairy farming where Milk is the commodity as opposed to butter in rural areas. Survey by woreda Micro and Small scale Trade and Industry Development Office indicate that the daily milk production in two of the urban association is 1213 litre. Cattle management is traditional as there is no effort to feed, process, keep and market in modern and organized way. There is an intervention by EU to introduce improved local breeds. Feeding systems is based on low quality feeds with little effort to improve feed. Livestock health service coverage is inadequate and it is limited to vaccination and outbreak control programs. The average livestock holding per household is estimated to be 6.7. Based on this estimation, the average monthly butter production ranges from 0.5 kg (dry season) to 1 kg (wet season). The average price of a kilo gram of butter ranges from birr 25-30. Commodity seasonal calendar shows that Milk and milk product supply from rural areas is seasonal and greatly confined to availability of feed during the rainy season (May-Oct). The decreasing commodity ranking order of milk and milk products includes Butter, Cheese and Milk. Milk production is mainly for HH consumption in rural areas and it is only the urban farmers who often sell it out at small scale. Milk production and management appears to be modern in urban areas where the supply in lower compared to the demand from hotels and local residents. Thus dairy farming for rural area focus on Butter as source of income. The current focus of OoANRD is to increase the quality and quantity of honey production at woreda level. Some of the problems associated with bee-farm is that the modern beehives are expensive and can also be susceptible to insects (ants). Several farmers lack management of bee and they often lose bee colony. There are efforts to introduce transitional and modern beehives with down payments. Bee-farm in Alaba special woreda is quite traditional. The bee-hives are traditional and made out of bamboo, maize stalk and local materials. The beehives are kept around homesteads and hanged on trees. Farmers lack knowledge of bee foraging and bee colony management. Average yield from traditional beehive is 7 Kg/beehive/season. Efforts exist to introduce modern beehives (transitional, Kenya and German Model). In 2004, about 320 Kenya model and 100 German Model were introduced to the woreda through support by EU. The average yield from modern beehive ranges from 20-25 Kg/beehive/season. Current population of bee colony is 10,000. Honey market is confided to the times of availability and attention is not given to it as source of income. Marketing is done on an individual basis as for the other commodities. There is more demand for honey than supply at woreda level. Market value of honey harvested from modern beehive is 18 Birr/Kg while traditionally harvested honey is 12 Birr/kg Areas which need to be addressed Table 19. Skin and Hides Both farming system Production Skin and hide production in both farming system in Alaba special woreda is similar. Skin and hide is mostly collected during holidays. Estimated number of livestock head that reaches Alaba kulito modern abattoir is 12/day while there are 4 skin and hide stores. There are levels in livestock market and there are 8 butcher houses. There are few traders to collect, salt, dry and transport skin and resource from local markets. The quality of product does need improvement. Input supply for skin and hide production is limited. Disease control and prevention efforts are there by OoANRD but service coverage compared to the demand is too little. Poor handing and disease is the main cause for quality deterioration in skin and hides. Traditional skin and hide processing effort in rural area by individual farmers' leads to reduce in their quality and market value. Areas which need to be addressedLimited vet service Train experts and farmers on improved skin and hide production and expand service OoANRD IPMS ILRI Credit Credit service is not as such focusing on skin and hide business but information from existing MFI in the woreda indicate that it is possible to get loan for it. There are no cooperatives involved on this activity. Areas which need to be addressedNo organized activity Develop market linkage OoANRD IPMS Marketing Marketing is based on individual base. There are few skin and hide traders in the town. They collect the products from villages and farmers bring to them. There is decline in quality of skin and hide at every stage as the product goes from the source to skin and hide traders who act as terminal market for the product in the woreda. There is considerable variation in price of the product and there is lack of \"price\" set based on certain standards. Poultry farm in Alaba special woreda is traditional. Pullets and cockerels are dominantly local breeds except for a few improved chickens distributed to farmers. The most common breeds are the Rod Island red and it is sourced from Awassa and Debre Zeit. Feeds and vaccination is provided as a support for the improved chickens at the time of distribution. The feed is concentrate and once the vaccination is given there is no follow up or continued support. Average poultry holding per HH varies from 3 to 6 chickens. There have been efforts to introduce modern improved chicken over the past 3 years and the total number introduced so far is 5977 Pullets and cockerels. 20 % of supply was in the last year and efforts are done by EU and through government extension package. The common diseases in the area are Toxidocins and New Castle. Poultry production focused more on eggs that meat. Areas which need to be addressedNo effort to introduce improved management at large scale and small production Train and introduce more poultry supportInadequate training/ skill of farmers Train farmers and staff, encourage cooperatives OoANRD, IPMS-TAIntroduce improved breeds and its services EU IMPS BoANRD Input supply Extension support for improved poultry is limited to supply of inputs. There are a few farmers who take chickens to get health service. Supply of drug is limited and the common disease reduces the population on the on set and off set of rainy season. Supply of feed is timely and often done at time of supply. Poultry is as source of income for most farmers and market supply is undertaken individually. There is more demand for eggs and chicken on the market than supply at woreda level. There is a good potential to sell of chickens out of Alaba to other markets as the case in the surrounding woreda. Market value of pullet varies from 15 birr at time of scarcity to 6 birr/pullet at time of abundant supply. There is supply shortage for both egg and poultry at the market. Major bottleneck in Ethiopian agricultural knowledge management system is: Lack of knowledge as one of the key impediments to the development of agriculture. This may mean lack of or poor dissemination of knowledge (awareness of on shelf research outputs, inadequate understanding of the market dynamics and availability of markets for agricultural outputs), lack of awareness of the impact of quality production, lack of awareness for improving production and productivity of selected commodities, poor dissemination of indigenous knowledge.To improve the capturing and sharing of knowledge on priority commodities and the supporting NRM technologies in the PLS, the state of knowledge and knowledge requirements will have to be assessed on a continuous base during the project life. The initial PRA and the subsequent assessment will form an integral part of this process. Several information gaps that deserve attention have already been identified in relation to priority commodity. The knowledge will be synthesized and assembled at the federal level in a resource Information Centre using electronic database formats. To share this knowledge with institutions and communities, various process and mechanisms will be used including the distribution of appropriate printed materials (manuals, trainings materials, posters, leaflets in local language), radio programs local exhibitions etc.To link the PLS institutions with Resource Information Centre, electronic linkages with the Woreda Agricultural Sector will be established. This effort will have to be integrated and synchronized with other activities in this field. i.e. Woreda Net and School Net. School net is operational in the woreda and Woreda Net will be operation in the year 2005. Recently employed staff for woreda net will be trained this year and installation of the equipments and the program will resume this year. The School net is operational since Oct 2005 and it is transmitting lessons form the Educational Media Agency (EMA) in Addis Ababa. Fifteen Plasma TV sets are there of which 14 are functional. There is a need to train a staff for School Net because the trained one has been transferred.Simultaneously innovative ways of creating a culture of knowledge capturing and horizontal knowledge sharing between the actors in the PLS and between the actors at PLS, regional and the federal level will have to be developed -see section 5.3 on capacity building.  Some extension and training materials exist, especially at the regional level. The resource persons for farmers', DAs' and supervisors' trainings are woreda experts. Woreda experts often get training to go out of the woreda on the basis of invitation from institutions. For example, SNV advisors have recently started training staff in the woreda OoANRD. Similarly, the senior staff from the regional BoANRD also trains experts of the woreda on various topics. However, they need to be customized to the priority commodities and the PLS level situation, including the use of innovative extension methods. Moreover, since the focus of the extension work for the priority commodities will be the FTCs, new extension and training materials need to be developed that fit the requirements and operation of the FTCs. Annex 2 presents the type of demonstration materials required for each commodity.The objective of the second pillar of the project is to build and strengthen existing institutional capacity and foster institutional learning and change so that new collaborative arrangements across sectors and levels are developed to better support the dissemination, use and impact of demand-driven sustainable agricultural technologies and information. The outcome of the second pillar is strengthened institutional capacity of agriculture public organizations to support the development of farmer-based, market-oriented agricultural production systems. In order to introduce the project, and to train institutional staff in innovative technology transfer methods, inter-institutional collaboration and cross cutting themes like gender and environmental assessment, various trainings will be conducted for Woreda staff. (Materials for such training will be prepared by the project with the help of consultants and contributions from the project partners). To stimulate the integration with private institution staff, some staff from the private institutions will also be involved in this training. The training will be continuous during the project life and the effectiveness of the training will be assessed regularly. Lessons learned will become an integral part of follow up training events. One of the critical trainings to be given will deal with innovative methods of agricultural institutional service delivery. The trained Woreda staff (TOTs) are expected to introduce the innovation concepts to Development Agents in the FTCs, who in turn will use these concepts during their daily work with the farmers and communities (see section 5.4). Use of these innovative methods by FTC staff will be monitored and evaluated by the project staff and form the basis for adjustment in the TOT trainings.Besides the building of the capacity of the Woreda and FTC staff in the use of innovative methods and institutional arrangements, technical training on the priority commodities, including new production methods/techniques, farmer/group/cooperative based input supply and marketing systems will be provided (Materials for such training will be prepared by the project with the help of consultants and contributions from the project partners). Details for such training are included in the PLS sustainable livelihood development activities described in section 5.4. An integral component of the capacity building activities at the Woreda level is the development of the FTCs. In the initial phase, the project will support selected FTCs with printed materials and demonstration materials (see 5.2) in support of the priority commodities and supporting NRM technologies (see section 5.4 for details).While many capacity building activities have been undertaken by numerous projects operating in Ethiopia, the actual use of the increased capacity by the staff in their daily work is often minimal because of a host of other bottlenecks and a lack of reward for those staff which have made progress despite the presence of these bottlenecks.The project will introduce various other capacity building initiatives at the PLS level to alleviate some bottlenecks in order to facilitate the introduction of technologies and institutional innovations. This will include the supply of credit funds and financial and technical support for market studies and linkages for priority commodities and operational cost of experts to supervise and guide the DA staff at FTC level. These activities are integrated in the PLS sustainable livelihood activities (see section 5.4).The project will furthermore set aside some funds for rewarding experts and FTC staff which have made good progress in technology and institutional innovations.One potential reward may be in the form of visits to places of interest (this will be introduced in the second project year).Finally, an integral part of the PLS capacity building support is to create a learning system between the region and the PLS and to create an inter-institutional learning system at the Woreda and FTC level. To facilitate this arrangement the project has established Regional and Woreda level Advisory and Learning Committees (RALCs and WALCs). A budget will be made available to use/develop various learning mechanisms including field visits and small workshops. An integral part of this learning will be the sharing of knowledge between the regions and institutions concerned. This is the third component of the Project which is aimed at enhancing capacity of farmers, community based organizations (CBOs) and private sector institutions and technology uptake based on market-oriented data. The project will concentrate its efforts on introducing innovative technology (practices) and institutional innovations with farmers and communities near Farmer Training Centres (FTC) which have a potential for the identified market oriented priority commodities and supporting NRM technologies. These potentials were identified by Woreda staff during the national planning and PLS level workshops and will be (re-) assessed during the project's initial implementation phase with the farmers near the FTCs. every year. Assuming the productivity to be at about 4 qt/household and the number of farmer household heads in this farming system, the total pepper production from this farming system would be about 27,000 qt/year. This therefore requires proper market linkages. Currently farmers complain of cheating and also late payment by traders. As a result of this farmers become forced to adulterate the produce by adding water. Hence, quality of the produce is affected and the price. Alaba PLS is known for its good potential of pepper production and the substantial income from pepper production is well recognized by farmers of the area. Market in silte area is now producing quality and more pepper and there is a need to focus on production constraints in PLS. The major constraints are dominance of local variety, poor linkage between water harvesting technology and pepper production, lack of quality focused production and low awareness of demands at terminal market. Innovative input supplies system, capacity building of farmers and cooperatives, focusing on market oriented production, introduction of appropriate technology at market and production site, establishing of market oriented facilities are essential focus of intervention. Haricot bean is the second most important source of market income for farmers in the woreda next to pepper. The major marketing problem with haricot bean production is lack of linkage and this calls for introduction of innovative marketing system. Formation of farmers' marketing groups, strengthening of existing cooperatives, training of people on haricot bean marketing is also essential. Study on market system and improved knowledge (using innovative methods) and transfer to FTC is needed. Wheat is the third important crop in terms of area coverage but productivity is poor. This is as a result of pests, reliability of rainfall, availability of fertilizer, potential of currently used wheat cultivars. Price of of wheat is low due to marketing problems. Innovative marketing systems are required, in which marketing groups or use of existing cooperative arrangement could also be thought of. .To do this, however, training is essential. Study on market system and improved knowledge (using innovative methods) and transfer of knowledge to FTC is needed. Innovative input supply system for wheat production is important. Lack and late arrival of input supply is a major issue in almost all PLSs. As a result, local planting material is used. Pullets and cockerels are predominantly local except for a few improved chickens distributed to farmers, recently. The most common breeds are the Rod Ireland red obtained from Awassa and Debre Zeit Poultry Breeding Centres. Feeds and vaccination was provided as a support for the improved chickens at the time of distribution. Once these inputs are delivered there is no continuation into the supply. There have been a total of about 6 thousand pullets and cockerels distributed to farmers in the last 3 years. The supply was made by the help the European Union through the government extension package system. However, there were very few farmers who benefited from this scheme. Production of sheep and goat exists in both farming system. Sheep and goat are reared in a traditional way and marketed in the local market to local traders. Private traders buy animals from the woreda for sale in Addis Ababa. The aim is for the project will provide support for the improvement of sheep and goat marketing from a commercial orientation point of view. Poor veterinary service coverage, low awareness on improved production has reduced the potential benefit from sheep and goat production. Innovative marketing strategies will be necessary. Cooperatives or marketing groups could be established to market the small ruminants. Veterinary services and drugs, breeds essential for fattening and fodder are lacking. Innovative input supplies system, capacity building of farmers and cooperatives, establishing of market oriented facilities are essential focus of intervention. The production constraints of the sheep and goat production in the woreda include poor genetic base, diseases and parasites, and feed shortage. Sheep and Goat management in Alaba special woreda is traditional and the breeds are local. The current traditional management has not also focused on any improved feeding and housing system. There has never been effort by NGOs to promote neither sheep nor goat husbandry in the woreda except for the food security program of EU. Project will attempt to intervene in these areas in order to help establish an improved and market oriented production system There is a potential for commercialisation of milk in urban association (in two of the Kuilito town sub city) and butter in peasant associations. Existence of dairy cooperatives in urban association is an indicator of the existing local demand and products. Diary framing in rural area is traditional. Poor veterinary service coverage, lack of feed, poor knowledge on modern dairy production and the existence of low market oriented dairy production system have reduced the potential benefit from dairy sector. Low or erratic rainfall is a problem in Alaba and hence feed/fodder is a limiting factor. In order to improve the supply of (protein rich) feed for the dairy animals the project will support innovations in the seed multiplication system. The supply of concentrates for animals is also very limited; project will attempt to facilitate the supply of concentrates. Dairy production is based on local cows, milk yield is very low. Moreover, supply of inputs and services for the dairy are mainly in the hands of government. The project needs to aim at introducing/strengthening of innovative systems for input and service supply. The supply of improved dairy breeds or crossbred cows is very limited. Innovative ways of input supply, including AI/breed supply, is critical to improve dairy production in the woreda. Innovative input supply system and training to meet the objective is essential. Moreover, the existing input supply system will be studied in order to help understand what innovative input supply systems will be required. Privatization of the existing input supply and services will be introduced/supported in the second year, including the sale of drugs and veterinary services from private (licensed) shops or cooperatives. Innovative input supply system, capacity building of farmers and cooperatives, clustering of farmers for market oriented production, introduction of appropriate beehive, establishing of market oriented facilities are essential focus of intervention. One of the most important inputs for honey production is bee colony. Modern beehives have started to be supplied in the woreda. However, problems ranging from quality to unavailability of accessories are real concerns of farmers. The project will provide support in alleviating the input supply problem faced by honey producers. There are areas where honey could be produced from which farmers could benefit. However, the production has been constrained by traditional management, lack of awareness on bee forage, expensiveness of bee-hives, and lack of market oriented honey production. In addition, pests and diseases and shortage of bee forage are contaminants in Alaba. Production of honey is confided to individual farmers and supply is seasonal. Other constraints include shortage of improved beehives and accessories, and colonies. The project will provide support to contribute to the alleviation of these constraints  The fourth component of the project is developing recommendations on technology, institutional and policy options. The objective of the fourth pillar of the project is to develop recommendations, policy options and strategies to enhance the impact of public policies and programs. Outcome of the fourth component of the project is recommendations (strategies, policies, technology options and institutional innovations) developed from both research and lessons learned. This component has five sub components: (1) undertaking research on the adoption and impact of alternative technologies within the PLSs, (2) undertaking research on alternative and innovative institutional arrangements for extension systems, input supply, rural finance and markets, (3) conducting and synthesizing environmental studies, environmental assessments and analyses in relation to the market oriented commodities, (4) conducting gender analyses and studies related to priority commodities, technologies and services. ( 5) Conducting studies on the interrelationship between HIV/AIDS and agricultural productivity and production visà-vis the priority commodities. The project also generate knowledge on innovations mainly based on studies ","tokenCount":"12955"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6878577e1eb9e36c49e79cdc7ad25668","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H047035.pdf","id":"-978146505"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9da93ab6-a7d2-41e7-a3ec-d95d8222f008","pagecount":"4","content":"Simon Langan, Head, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), East Africa and Nile Basin Office, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaAbundant research evidence confirms that smallholder farming is the main engine for economic growth, poverty reduction and food security in Ethiopia. However, farmers frequently suffer from limited access to technology and market infrastructure. The technologies are usually not capital intensive and can be financed by farmers themselves. They can be used on diversified types of water sources, such as lakes, rivers, ponds and shallow groundwater wells. These smallscale affordable technologies and approaches enable farmers to produce crops in the dry season, which will provide them with an additional income through the production of cash crops for markets. Smallholder irrigation technologies provide an opportunity for women farmers to earn an income, as they can be used for backyard cultivation and cultivation of horticultural crops. All these great potentials necessitated the AgWater Solutions Project to identify factors that influenced the adoption of water-lifting technologies (particularly motor pumps) by smallholder farmers and to look for market access.Trends and data collected from four regions (Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray) and also across the country (Ethiopia, Ghana and Burkina Faso) show that investing in smallholder irrigation technologies is crucial to enhance income and livelihoods of the rural people.Findings on smallholders' awareness of various irrigation technologies and average costs of investment for water-lifting pumps showed that 77-87% of smallholders had a very high awareness about irrigation technologies. Nevertheless, actual adoption of the technologies is low (ranging from 27-30%). The technologies were mostly adopted by better-off and male farmers. Adoption rate was very low among women farmers. Various types of taxes made up 36% of the price of the motor pumps.The major factors found to hamper adoption of the irrigation technologies were as follows:• High upfront investment costs involved in implementing the technology, and lack of credit and information about markets. • Poorly developed equipment supply chain, low-quality pumps, limited choice, high taxes and transaction costs. • Frequent breakdown of pumps, high maintenance cost, limited supply of spare parts and maintenance service. • Farmers lack of information and knowledge on irrigation, and poor access to inputs such as improved seeds and markets.To address these problems various interventions are needed at different stages of the smallholder irrigation technologies input supply chain.The discussion on the small-scale irrigation session was facilitated by Simon Langan, IWMI. The following key points were raised during the discussion.• In the Ethiopian irrigation sector, the focus so far has mainly been on physical infrastructure with limited attention being paid to the agronomy part and also to irrigation value chains. We need to move away from sub-sector debates and discussions dominated by irrigation engineers, and include other aspects of irrigation. There should be better integration between the small-scale irrigation unit under NRMD and extension section within MoA. Although both MoA and ATA are working to build the capacity of various actors in the irrigation value chain, starting from production to marketing, more effort is needed to improve involvement of the private sector. • Farmers' affordability of household irrigation technologies was discussed. Participants suggested there may be a need for subsidies for irrigation technologies to improve adoption by farmers. According to the results of the AgWater Solutions project, about 38% of the cost of the pump is tax. Cutting down some of this tax can be one way of making the pumps more affordable and improving the adoption rate. • Quality of water-lifting pumps used for irrigation is a serious challenge in the sector.Some of the imported pumps do not fit the local context and farmers refuse to adopt the technology once they experience failures. To address the need for quality control of pumps, the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority has set up a standard, and all the engine pumps pass through the examination of the authority. • Efficient use of irrigation water is an area where there is a huge gap in the country.Participants appreciated the presentation made by the Melkassa Agriculture Research Center on irrigation water-use efficiency, but noted some of the water measurements may be difficult to explain to farmers. They also asked about the plans to document and disseminate the researcher recommendations. It was explained that the experiments are all field trials and need to be verified on farmers' plots before they can be recommended to end users. Although the water management measures used in the study are difficult for farmers, there are simple water measurement devices that can be suggested. The last session on the way forward was facilitated by Simon Langan, IWMI. Accordingly, Simon invited Helen Pankhurst, Senior Advisor, CARE, and HE Ato Sileshi Getahun, State Minister, Ministry of Agriculture, to lead the closing session.Helen Pankhurst thanked the organizers of the workshop and summarized some of the main themes that emerged. These included the fact that there was much to be learned from the different initiatives currently in place by different actors, the government, NGOs, research institutions and the private sector. The need for better information flow, collaboration and coordination was also very clear. She reiterated the fact that Ethiopia was a country where there was significant potential for water-smart agriculture, but in a context of complexity and variation. This was particularly the case given that the solutions cut across water, land and climate considerations, and involved people and their different motivations and livelihood choices. Solutions had to be tailored to specific contexts, which themselves were liable to change. There was a clear will to continue the dialogue across differences, and she hoped the AWMP under MoA would do just that.In his concluding remarks, HE Ato Sileshi Getahun underlined that during the two days of the launching workshop of the AWMP, a series of papers were presented and discussed. The topics covered included lessons and experiences of innovation platforms, research findings and recommendations of irrigation technologies, and improved water management practices, particularly in the area of SWC and small-scale irrigation development. In addition, agriculture sector policies, strategies and priority interventions for enhanced AWM were highlighted. The presentations and discussions have helped to share experiences, draw lessons and identify important issues that need attention and action.At the end of the concluding remarks given by HE Ato Sileshi Getahun, action points were suggested on immediate and future priority areas to further strengthen the AWMP:• After returning back to their respective working areas or organizations, participants are expected to provide short debriefs or feedback reports on the main issues entertained during the launching event, and the main objectives and operational modalities of the platform to create awareness among the officials of the respective institutions/ organizations. • The proceedings of the launching event will be finalized and distributed to all participants and members of the platform to facilitate the experience sharing and learning more widely. • The chair, in close consultation with the co-chair and secretariat of the platform, will further refine the draft ToR developed for the AWMP by taking into account the inputs obtained from participants during this launching meeting, and further decisions will be taken based on consultation with key stakeholders regarding the need for two cochairs for the platform to encourage participation of stakeholders. • In order to keep the momentum, it will be very important to arrange agenda items and call the next meeting as soon as possible, focusing on outstanding issues that emanated from the launching meeting.• Considering the critical research gaps observed, there is a need to call core members of the platform to prioritize research agendas and identify key research institutions, both national and international, to involve, assist or fund identified researches. • To keep the momentum going and move forward, it is suggested that the annual action plan developed by the former SSI-TF and endorsed by the SLM TC needs to be adopted and used by the AWMP to kick-start the process. For this purpose, a hard copy of the former SSI-TF action plan developed and endorsed for the 2007 Ethiopian Fiscal Year (2014/2015) is circulated to all members of the platform.Finally, HE Ato Sileshi Getahun thanked all the participants for their active contribution to the discussions. He appreciated presenters and facilitators for effective deliberations and shared experiences. The active involvement of co-organizers, CARE, Ethiopia, and IWMI, in initiating discussions, organizing this launching event, and supporting logistics and the provision of the conference hall with full facilities was also acknowledged.","tokenCount":"1390"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ea820c7689d5e431b58d07be4059b599","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/11e04c81-3a71-4305-b009-53542c26ed8c/retrieve","id":"-429618229"},"keywords":["Rt\"","'ldu~' hcrbicide erfeel.;","The knolgr","tss problem"],"sieverID":"82dd0442-9ad3-47ca-8aad-41fecdd7f3ed","pagecount":"20","content":"ClA T i:, a nonprofit organizalion devoled lo Ihe agricultural and economic developm ent of the lowland tropics , The GO\\'crnmenl of Colombia pro,'ides s upport as nosl caunlr)' fo r ClAT :lnd rurnishts a 522-heclare farm nellT Ca li for CIA 1\"s headquarll\"rs. Collaboralivl' \"ork \" 'ilh Ihl\" Institul o Colombiano Agropecuario (JCA) is cioIrried o ut mainly at jls Experimentlll Centers al Turipami and Carimagua , ClAT is financed by a numb er or donors repr esenten in th e Consultatin Croup f(lr Inlernalion a l Agricultura! Rese arch. During Ih e currenl year these dono~s are the lInited Slat es Agenq' for Inl ernat ional Oe\\'etopme nf (1 SAlO), Ihe R ockefelter Foundation. thl' l\"ord Fo undation. the W.K . Kl'Ilogg Foundiollion, Ihe \\.lInadian Inlernalional De\\'elopment Agency (C I DA), the Internationa l Bank ror Reconslruction and Develop menr (I8RD) Ihr oug h Ihe Inlun atio nal Developmenf Associati on (IDA), the Interamerican Development Ban!.: (IBD). th e Uniled Nalions Emironment Programme. the Minislry of Ü,'crscas Oen:lopmenl of the United Kingd o m and Ihe govc rnments or Australia. Belgium. the Federal Republic of Gerrnany. ¡he Nelherlands and Switzerland. In additiun ... pedal projecl funds are s upplied by \\'ari()u~ uf ¡he aroremenlioned enlides plus Ihe Inl crnlU io nal DtvelopmcI11 Researeh Cen tre flORe) uf CIHmda . Informalion and conclusions reporl ed hercin do not nect'ssarily ren ecl the position o f an,v 01' the aforcm enlioned agencies, roundalion s or gOn'rnmclIls. ' \" Lell dunng 197 5 *-A S!rIigl1l11ent d ivided hetw('ell 1\"\"0 programs.rRAI. 1'1 (;Rice production systems HIGHLIGHTS IN 1975 Ex tensive testing of 14 promising rice ¡ines was co mpleted and six were sclec ted for rurther evaluation, purificalion and muhiplica tion . It ¡s expecled (hat one or IWQ ortne most promising lincs will be named an d rel eased as varieties in 1976.Breeding to develop a large qua ntit y of ge rmplasm with resistance to the rice blast discase has progresscd along tw o ap proaches. One approach attempts to com bine multiple sa UTces of resistance int o new varieties. A total of 587 multi ple crasses were produccd and from these, resistant plants we re selected and trans planted in the rield to prov ide an e normous SO U Tce o C resistance . lo the second approach, a modified, multilin e procedure is being employed to com bine blas t resista nce with fav orable agronomic characteríst ics.Progress has been made in the chemical con trol of weeds and volunt eer and red rice. Thc problcm is especially difflcult as selective her bicides are nol errective agains t the volunteer ri ce as a weed . Co mb~n a ti o n s of he rbicides we re tested a nd sorne e rreclive ly controlled pest plants whil e not hanning the later seeded ric e, K notgrass. another importa nt weed in rice, propaga tes bo th by seed and sto lo ns and a Iwo-slage pro gram is necessa ry to ac hi eve pro per co nt ro l. Sto lo n5 mu st be elimi nated befare plant ing the era p, then standa rd herbic ides for co ntrolling germ ina ting grass seed s eH n be used .A n irrigatio n pump was devc loped wh ich combi nes l ow product ion and o perating costs with a simple rneth od of insta Ha tion in a concrete culvert. The pump is po wered fro m the PTO or a tr acto r. Fina l design plan, \\V iII be relea sed in 1976.T heoretical work was don e lO lmp rove mac hine m obi lJty in so ft fiel ds a nd th e res ult s successfull y applJed a l lhe Pal mi ra station. Whe n lugs a re removed fr om Itl rge tires a nd the tires ¡nna led to a Jow p ress ure I he ¡ncrcascd de neclion and sur face contact arca provides improved traction and superi o r mobiJity. Economics research in the Rice Program has been direeted to doeumenting and ana\\yzing the impact of new rice varieties in Latin Ameriea. The study is eomposed of two major parts: (a) a general review of rice areas, yields, production and trade in L a tin Ameriea and the Caribbean, with emphasis on measuring thecontribution to output of the new high-yielding varieties (HYV's): and (b) a detailed analysis of the economic benefits rrom the new varieties in Colombia with attention to the distribution of the bonefits.survey of all majar rice producing countries in the region, to obtain the data foc estimating the contribution of the new va rieties lo production . This survey. now being conducted in collaboration with nahonal and international agencies, wiU provide data to up-date the information provided in the 1972 Annual Report . shown by regio n in La tin Ame rica . Brazil has been exc\\uded from the analysis. While she produces about one-half of Latin America's rice, the majority comes from the upland sector, where yields are very low. Inclusion of Brazi l .would mask the impaet of the HYV's in other regions . For Latin America (exeluding Brazil), the prelimin ary estima te is that rice production was 40 pereent higher in 1974 than it would ha ve been in the absenee of HYV's. This figure eould be overstated due 10 sorne eonfounding with irrigalion (espeeially in the data shown for South Ameriea), but conversely no allowance is made for the fael that sorne of the expa nsion in areas may not have taken place in the absenee of HYV's. . .   This pattern of the di stribution of the benefits has resuhed because the extra production was very largely sold on the domestic market, where the demand for rice is moderately ineJa stic. Rice exports have been indirectly discouraged because of the tariff policies [avoring the manufaeturing sector. With these tariffs, the exchange Tate can be maintaioed a l a leve} lower than would apply io their absence, thereby making exporting less 3uractive.The retail price of rice in Colomb ia has nol te nded to cheapen as has farm price (Table 2). As a res ult , the rice ma rk et ing margin has risen very substant ia ll y. This margin is the difference between the retail price aod the farm price expressed as a percentage of the farm priee. Prior to 1968 it had beeo eonstant or (alling. With greatly expanded production, the milJiog, transport and distribution activities had to handle almost twice the volume of rice between 1968 and 1973. However, preliminary analyses suggest that an increase in the margin from 115 percent(in 1968) to 218 percent (in 1973) was much greater than could be accounted for by rising casts in th ese activities. Thu s, sorne benefits attributed to consumers may have .. 100 ¡ Reta,1 Pricc -P roducer Pr¡ce) I P roduccr I'r~e ... L en th an 2 pcrcc nt of the a.ea was sown 10 HY V•¡.aeerued as ret urns 10 factors in this sector.Whíle not al teríng the total benefíts from new rice varieties , this aspect has important dístríbutíonal ímplicatíons, and ruture work will exa mine the component s of this merease.In 1975. the CIAT Rice Program continued cooperation with lhe Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (I CA) In developíng, testíng and multíplying prornising lines fo r future varieties. Fourteen lines were tested al 2 1 loea tions with ¡rrigation and at three locations withoUl irr igati on in majar rice areas of Colomb ia . These regional IríaIs were financed by the Federación Nacional de Arroceros ( FEDEAR RO Z), conducted by personoel of F EDEA RROZ and ICA , and eva lua ted by staff of those groups and CIAT.  Extensive purif\\ca ti o n a nd multiplicalion of Ihe 14 advaneed genelic lines were accomplished during 197 5. Two-hundredfifty panicle seleetions of eac h line were planled in seedbeds and malerial of eaeh  5 shows Ih e pedi g rees and amounl o f seed produeed fo r these lines. The resistant linos 4440 and 4444 were seg regaling for grain Iype a nd will be repu rified and mulliplicd .gain in 1976.A new system of conti nuous rice producti o n discussed later in this rep o n will be used for multipl ying seed as necessary.   The seco nd approaeh to blast resistance breeding is a modified muhiline proeedure featuring two hig hl y produetive lines welladapted in the Amerieas. The lines 4417 and 4421 were each crossed with a series of sourees of broad re sista nee ha ving good to excellent agronomic characters. f I combinations will be baekerossed in 1976 to lines 4417 and 4421 to recover their plant and grain types. Resistant selections [rom these baekerosses will be carried th rough the segregating generations while seleeting for the phenotypes of the ree urre nt parents. By the F7 gene ra ti o n a la rge nu mber of phenotypieally similar lines having distinct genes for resistanee will be available for international evaluation. National programs can bulk seed of several similar lines carrying distinct resistance facto rs lo produce their Qwn muhiline varieties.The Rice Program has trained 68 rice teehnieians from 13 Latin American and Caribbean countries . Upon retuming to their home countries, sorne of these persoos continue 10 work closely with CIAT in evaluating genetic material d eveloped at both IRRI and eIAT.provide valuable information on the adaptation of certain genetic Iioes or varieties ove r a broad arca and under roany clima tic and so il eonditions. In reeent yoars, CIA T has sent seed of promisi ng lioes and variet ies 10 every rice-producing country in Latin Amer ica ror evaluation . The rice agronomist has made annual visits lO most of these nalional resea rch siles to assist in eva luating the material, to assess the reliability of resea reh res uhs and to try to advise on ways of strengthe ning and improving the programo In genera l, praetieally all the C IAT-I RR I lines a re resis tant to th e ra ces of biaS! f•9 in C entra l and S a ut he rn Bral il , Urug ua y, Argentina , Paraguay and Bolivia. Lines and va ri eties that are susceptible to blas t in Colombia are al50 u5ually susce ptible in Guyana , Venezuela, Ecuado r, Peru,a nd in Cen tral American and Caribbean countries. Wherever the varieties a re resistant and good cultural practices are used, ¡he beller dwarf plant , adapted material is yielding from one to two tons more per hectare than traditional local varieties .Weed and volunteer rice control \\\" Mechanical land prepa ration ean ) destroy weed s and voluntee r rice, however, 1 this practicc also hrings up more weed seed la germinate laleT. Certain herbieides ca n control weeds d uring ge rmin a ti o n while others control estabJished weeds. The objeclive is lo seIeet single herbicides or combinalio ns which cont ro l weeds and which can also be applied in a rna nner to control volunteer and red rice. Control of the two rice weeds is urgentl y needed. especially in direct-seeded ri ce area s wherc two or more crops pe r year are possible.The dual control of weeds a nd volunteer or : red rice rules o ut the use of seleetive herbieides.M echanica l ¡a nd prepara tion was compared to tw o applications of paraquat after rice aod weeds had germinaled. Three successive weed erops were killed by rotary tillin g in dry so il in one treatme nt while paraquat was a p pli ed twiee at ten-day intervals (0.5 kgl ha a.i. eaeh time) in anot he r treatment. Pregerminated seed was broadcast ove r the enlire area. No additional weed control mea sures we re made afte r seeding, howeve r, had they bee n ap plied , it is possible that y ields would not have differed. Rcs ults of th ese explorato ry trials sbow that two applications of paraquat may be superior to dry land preparation. Much higher weed )lod voluntee r rice infestations accurred in F-tO th e rotary tiHed plots due to bringing up \\Veed seed from lower d e pt hs. Res ults with paraquat indica ted t hat apply in g nonselectlve herbicides may effectiveJy control weed s a nd vo luntee r rice befare pla nting the m<iin erar.A series of ex periments followed , ane in which he rbjcides were applied to the soi! befa re ge rmina lion of weeds and volunteer rice, while in the secand, herbicides were ap plied to the gro wmg weeds and volunteer rice 18 to 25 days after germinali o n.Although sorne rice herbic id es in the first ex pcrirne nt considerabJy reduced wecd infestatio n, none wa s sufficient ly effeetive in co ntrolling voluntee r rice germi nation. Only atrazine, a corn herbicid e used as a check at I kg l ha ac ti ve ¡ngredie nl, effectively controlled germinating volunlee r rice and weed s. In lhe second experimento growing weed s a nd vo lunLec r rice were best controlled by two applications of paraquat (0.5 kg l ha , each application) at 18 a nd 25 d ays after germina tion, alt hough glyphosate a t the sarne ra tes and times was almost as effeetive. A mixture of 4 kgl ha of M S MA + I kgl ha of 2,4-D also gavc good co ntrol when applied 18 days after weeds and volunteer rice germinated .Atrazine, whieh eontrolled volunteer rice, grasses and broadJcaf wceds best, no rma lly has a residual effeet in the soil for several rnonths. P reliminary tests in 1974. with differen t flooding periods ind icated that fl ooding nullified the residual effee t of atrazine and severa l o lher herbicides. Addiliona l herb ic ide trials with al razi ne, metribulin , a lachlor, 2,4-D, terbutryn and RH251 2 were made in 1975. After flooding for 30 days the areas were drained and seeded wit h pregermina ted rice. ;•:ig ure 2 illustrales good control of vo lunteer rice and weeds with a mixture of a lac hlor and  \\ alrazine whi le Figure 3 shows no residual effecl on growlh of rice seeded afler flooding for 30 days.and lúnuron, were a pplied at recommended, d ouble, lriple and I or quadruple ra les.Volunleer rice and weed conlrol and the residual effecl on rice planled after one monlh of flooding \\Yere eval uated with the res ults shown in Ta ble 6. Atrazine controlled volunteer rice and weeds best bUI a lso kiriéd [ro'mIl, to 40 ¡iercenl cTlhe rice p[ante¡r-.fte r O\"-áa)'s of flOQ . ..!.ng. Merfí1íÜzinand finuron controlled both rice a nd weeds well and a lso had Iittle or no residual effeel o n reseeded rice after (he flooding period , altho ug h the 2.0 kgl ha rate of metribuzin did retard growlh of a few o f the rice plants. Furlher experiments are in progress lo bette r define the herbicide, rate a nd time o f flooding a nd ot her cu ltural praclices before recornmending residual herbicides to control vol unteer rice and weeds.The grassy weed Paspalum diSlichum (knotgrass) is sp reading rapidly in ri ce growing areas . It usualIy encroaches [rom th e edge of the fie ld and bund s by means of stolo ns but it a lso is a prohfic seed p roducer. Jn the screen ho use. six her• bicides \\Yere evaluated for control of knO lgrass eSlablished by seed or stolons. None of t he herbicide, tested was effective against 5t010n5 while several were excellenl in killing germinating seeds. Propanil was mOSI effective when applied al the 2-3 leaf slage si nce knotgrass hadn't complelely emerged when the application was made a lthe single Ica f slage. Oxadizon a nd butachlor also con troll ed germinating seeds well. No herbicide se riously injured lhe rice.If knolgrass arises from sto lo ns, no effec ti ve pre-or poslemergence trea tm ents can be recornmended roc use in rice. S lolons sho uld be eliminaled befo re planling rice by mec hanical or chemical means, then germinating seeds may be co ntrolled by sta ndard herbicide ap plicatio ns for con tro l of germinating grass seed and grasses in the 1•31ea[ slage.The \"hoja blanca \" threat .. Hoja blanca\" is an important disease  Anticipating a possible new cycle of hoja blanca or the appearance of a new race of the inseet vector, CIAT has requested cooperating national programs to report virus or inseet damage in commercial dwarf varieties. Two reports of problems with the IR 8 variety in Colombia were investigated this year. In one instance a field was severely damaged by hoja blanca and Sogatodes. lnseets were eollected at both of the locations, multiplied at CIAT and evaluated on a set of varieties of known reaction to direct feeding injuey. None of the insects eollected werefound to be from a new race.In Peru a report of virus damage in IR 8 and 10cal varieties was investigated and severe hoja blanca attaek was confirmed although few insects were presen!. The affected ficlds were al1 transplanted craps. \\ lt is apparent that virus infection occurred in the seedbeds before transplanting, an early growth stage when no variety is resistant lo the virus. An insecticide application in the seedbeds was reeommended to control Sogatodes. and thus the virus, in fUlure craps. Noevidence \\ suggests the presence of a new race of \\... Sogatodes in Peru.A repon of heavy virus and ¡nseet damage in IR 8 and othervarieties was a1so received from Cuba. A set of differental varieties was sent lO Cuba lo clarify varietal reaclions . A rec iprocal set of Cuban varieties was requested for evaluation at CIAT but has notyel beeo reeeived.A 24-ineh diameter, axial Oow pump was completed, installed and tested during 1975. This pump, when driven at 54Q rpm from the power takeoff of a tractor, delivered 55 to 63 cubie meters per minute against a variable head from O to 180 eentimeters. The pump is designed forease of local manufacture and low eost -both of the pump and its instaUation and operation. Design changes are being made before release of Ihe designs in 1976. The most interesting feature is the simple mounting of the pump in a horizontal, concrete pipe culvert instaUed in a drain crossing under a road or protective levee.Sinee tractor mobility in sa turated tields in an important factor in rice production for enabling efticient water leveling, wetland preparation and transport of harvested graJO from fields, the ag ricultural engineer worked on this problem while on study leave at Louisiana State University. Prediction equations were developed for torque, traction, rolling resistance. and sinkage of pneumatic tires in soft elay soils. These equalions combine the variables of tire width. diameter, deOection, weighl on tire and soil cone index values. Figure 4 iIlustrates the relationship between measured puU and predieted pull . In a practieal application of the theory at CIAT, worn-out lugs were removed from a us ed 23.1 x 26-inch rice and cane tire to permit the tire lo fit within the limited space of a combine made for smaller tires. The smooth tires were inOated to about 3 psi or less allowing a large deOection on the soil surface. This deOeetion provided beller mobility.  -------------------------, -------- Combining secd production ioto the program will r orm a complete package of rice techno logy: la nd development , land preparati o n, irriga tion , planting, fertilizing, weed and insect cuntrol, problem identification, harvesting, drying, processing, marketing, and management of labor, machines and money. This integraled Iraining wil1 be 00 a field scale where the best praclices are us ed and new technology or modifications a re field tesled before being recommended to farmers. Cost data wil1 be obtained; mosl budget costs wil1 be m et from sa les of seed and commercial rice. The efforl is expected to serve as a pilot project . for possi ble within-country productlOn. demonst ration and training cen ters.Extensive travel to all rice-growing countries in Latin America has enabled program staff lo col1ect photographs of almost every problem Ihal might be found in growing rice. An identification manual containing color photographs of the most important iosect, di sease and other rice production problems of the region was published Ihis yeaL The booklet is expected lo be or great value to rice technicians and producers in identifying production problems.E CA","tokenCount":"3472"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7d93634378f003bc421399a1142af0af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b056fdd2-5f12-49fe-b130-1dfcacac0a75/retrieve","id":"146841627"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0ff8b5a3-aacf-4604-9344-3968b9b08486","pagecount":"2","content":"The project is financed by the European Union. It works in four woredas (districts) in the Sidama and Gedeo zones in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) in Ethiopia: Dilla Zuria, Kochere and Wonago in Gedeo and Aleta Chuko in Sidama. Farming is dominated by perennial enset (basic staple), coffee and khat (important cash crops); the average holding has 0.47 ha.The project tests the combination of a specific agriculture-nutrition-market based approach supported by formative research. OFSP roots and leaves are promoted to achieve dietary diversity and increase the intake of vitamin A by young children and their households. It will evaluate the use of feeding toolkits combined with nutrition training of mothers and fathers in \"Healthy Living Clubs\" (HLCs) to ensure that parents give their children enough nutritious food. Value chain development is expected to generate additional income and initiate a flow of OFSP roots and leaves and derived products to urban consumers. The feeding toolkit is designed to help mothers provide the appropriate number, size and consistency of servings to their children (Fig 2). Malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency are widespread in Ethiopia. Prevalence of stunting among children under 5 is 38%. A diet built around only a few staples means that many people have an insufficient intake of micronutrients. Complementary feeding practices for infants and young children are often deficient in frequency, quantity and nutrient density. Only 7% of infants 6-23 months of age meet the criteria for a minimum acceptable diet (EDHS 2016).The project started in January 2017. By 2020, it will support 15,000 rural households (15,000 mothers and 10,000 fathers of young children) to improve their infant feeding practices and diets after receiving OFSP vines ( By the end of the project, we want to see OFSP integrated into government agriculture and health programs in SNNPR, with ATVET Sodo having incorporated OFSP in their training programs for extension personnel.Stakeholder meeting: In March and June 2018 stakeholder meetings at the zonal and regional levels brought together 146 representatives from kebeles, woreda, zonal and regional agencies to assess the project's performance. Stakeholders were satisfied with the project's technology and training packages and urged rapid release of the OFSP varieties under evaluation. The Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Sweetpotato TOT was organized for the second time to allow for an early scaling out of OFSP knowledge and awareness into additional woredas, zones and regions and to stimulate institutionalization at the Sodo ATVET. The 33 participants were sponsored by EU-QDBH and Irish Aid.HLCs: HEW and HDA volunteers have been trained in HLC curriculum to run the HLC nutrition trainings. Over 2017/2018, they ran eight training sessions of 26 HLCs with 778 member-households. The 8 sessions were attended by on average 1,117 persons of which 46% were men.In December 2017, 1,451 households in 26 kebeles were interviewed to obtain the project's baseline dataset. The results show differences between the three woredas regarding livelihoods and sweetpotato farming. Low dietary diversity, medium food insecurity, lack of vitamin A rich foods in the diet are common features.The dissemination of OFSP is integrated with nutrition training in HLC. Since late 2017, 605 households, HLC members and a control group, are followed to evaluate the impact of OFSP, nutrition training and the Healthy Baby Toolkit on their dietary practices and the development of their children.The release of locally adapted, high dry-matter and drought tolerant OFSP varieties expected for next year will kick off their rapid dissemination among farmers. Study outcomes will provide guidelines to farmers, direct value chain development and increase the effectiveness of the project's strategy for dietary improvement and the reduction of vitamin A deficiency. Lessons learned will support out-scaling into new areas at the end of the project.","tokenCount":"619"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..46b4b21fa310a0aceba367cfad948098405ec83b
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec6d203558b473d481dc074cd08e00a9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78d34e91-e68b-4447-8df5-19e00097fe29/retrieve","id":"985876770"},"keywords":["Any methods","additional references","Nature Research reporting summaries","source data","extended data","supplementary information","acknowledgements","peer review information"],"sieverID":"7b562868-bca9-4e58-b5c8-2db0a7fcb629","pagecount":"31","content":"Aegilops tauschii, the diploid wild progenitor of the D subgenome of bread wheat, is a reservoir of genetic diversity for improving bread wheat performance and environmental resilience. Here we sequenced 242 Ae. tauschii accessions and compared them to the wheat D subgenome to characterize genomic diversity. We found that a rare lineage of Ae. tauschii geographically restricted to present-day Georgia contributed to the wheat D subgenome in the independent hybridizations that gave rise to modern bread wheat. Through k-mer-based association mapping, we identified discrete genomic regions with candidate genes for disease and pest resistance and demonstrated their functional transfer into wheat by transgenesis and wide crossing, including the generation of a library of hexaploids incorporating diverse Ae. tauschii genomes. Exploiting the genomic diversity of the Ae. tauschii ancestral diploid genome permits rapid trait discovery and functional genetic validation in a hexaploid background amenable to breeding.T he success of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) as a major worldwide crop is underpinned by its adaptability to diverse environments, high grain yield and nutritional content 1 . With the combined challenge of population expansion and hotter, less favorable climates, wheat yields must be sustainably increased to ensure global food security. The rich reservoir of genetic diversity amongst the wild relatives of wheat provides a means to improve productivity 1,2 . Maximizing the genetic potential of wheat requires a deep understanding of the structure and function of its genome, including its relationship with its wild progenitor species.The evolution of bread wheat from its wild relatives is typically depicted as two sequential interspecific hybridization and genome duplication events leading to the genesis of the allohexaploid bread wheat genome 2,3 . The first hybridization between T. urartu (AA) and a presumed extinct diploid (BB) species formed tetraploid emmer wheat, T. turgidum (AABB), ~0.5 million years ago 4 . The gradual process of domestication of T. turgidum started with its cultivation in the Fertile Crescent some 10,000 years ago 5 . Subsequent hybridization with Ae. tauschii (DD) formed the hexaploid T. aestivum (AABBDD) 6 . Whereas ancient gene flow incorporated the majority of the AABB genome diversity into hexaploid wheat, only a small fraction of the D genome diversity was captured 7 . Indeed, hybridization between T. turgidum and Ae. tauschii was thought to be restricted to a subpopulation of Ae. tauschii from the shores of the Caspian Sea in present-day Iran 8 . Despite sampling limited diversity, this genomic innovation created a plant more widely adapted to a broad range of environments and with end-use qualities not found in its progenitors 1 .The low genetic diversity of the bread wheat D subgenome has long motivated breeders to recruit diversity from Ae. tauschii. The most common route involves hybridization between tetraploid wheat and Ae. tauschii followed by chromosome doubling to create synthetic hexaploids 9 . Alternatively, direct hybridization between hexaploid wheat and Ae. tauschii is possible. This approach usually requires embryo rescue but has the advantage that it does not disrupt desirable allele combinations in the bread wheat A and B subgenomes 10,11 . Notwithstanding, the products of all these wide crosses require backcrossing to domesticated cultivars to remove unwanted agronomic traits from the wild progenitor and restore optimal end-use qualities. The boost to genetic diversity and resilience therefore comes at a cost to the breeder 9 . However, if haplotypes underlying useful traits could be directly identified in Ae. tauschii, this would mitigate a critical limitation in breeding wheat with Ae. tauschii; such haplotypes can be tagged with molecular markers for accelerated delivery into domesticated wheat by combining marker-assisted selection 12 with rapid generation advancement 13 . Furthermore, a gene-level understanding would permit next-generation breeding by gene editing and transformation.In this study, we performed whole-genome shotgun short-read sequencing on a diverse panel of 242 Ae. tauschii accessions. We discovered that an uncharacterized Ae. tauschii lineage contributed to the initial gene flow into domesticated wheat, thus broadening our understanding of the evolution of bread wheat. To facilitate the discovery of useful genetic variation from Ae. tauschii, we established a k-mer-based association mapping pipeline and demonstrated the mobilization of the untapped diversity from Ae. tauschii into wheat through the use of synthetic wheats and genetic transformation for biotic stress resistance genes.Multiple hybridizations shaped the bread wheat D subgenome. We identified a set of 242 non-redundant Ae. tauschii accessions with minor residual heterogeneity after short-read sequencing of 306 accessions covering the geographical range spanned by diverse Ae. tauschii collections (Fig. 1a, Extended Data Fig. 1a-d, Supplementary Tables 1-5 and Supplementary Note). To capture the genetic diversity of the Ae. tauschii species complex, we generated a k-mer matrix specifying the presence and absence of a comprehensive set of 51-mer variants in the sequenced accessions and a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) matrix relative to the AL8/78 reference genome 14 .Ae. tauschii is generally categorized into two lineages, lineage 1 (L1) and lineage 2 (L2) 15,16 , with L2 considered the major contributor to the wheat D subgenome 8 . To better understand the relationship between Ae. tauschii and wheat, we randomly selected 100,000 k-mers and checked their presence in the short-read sequences of 28 hexaploid wheat landraces 17 . We used a tetraploid wheat accession as an outgroup in the phylogenetic analysis and included a recent Ae. tauschii L1-L2 recombinant inbred line (RIL) 15 as a control in our population structure analysis. We generated a phylogeny based on the presence/absence of these k-mers and found it to be consistent with earlier phylogenies generated using molecular markers in that Ae. tauschii L1 and L2 formed two major clades, whereas the wheat D subgenome formed a discrete and narrow clade most closely related to L2 (Fig. 1b) 8,15,16 . This supports the L2 origin of the wheat D subgenome and its limited genetic diversity relative to Ae. tauschii. A group of five accessions formed a distinct clade separate from L1 and L2, as previously observed 15,16 , which seems to be a basal lineage based on the split from the outgroup. Matsuoka et al. hypothesized that this group could be a separate lineage 18 , whereas Singh et al. hypothesized that it could have arisen from interlineage hybridization followed by isolated evolution 15 . To resolve this question, we conducted Bayesian clustering analysis using STRUCTURE 19 . Because this algorithm does not reliably recover the correct population structure when sampling is uneven 20 , we randomly selected ten accessions from L1 and from L2 for this analysis along with the five accessions of the putative lineage 3 (L3) and the control L1-L2 RIL (Supplementary Table 6). Performing STRUCTURE analysis with the number of subpopulations, K = 2 showed the putative L3 accessions as an admixture of L1 and L2, similar to the L1-L2 RIL; but with K = 3, these accessions were assigned to a distinct lineage (Fig. 1c). Further increasing the value of K did not reveal any discernible substructure. This interpretation was supported by the ΔK curve, which showed a clear peak at K = 3 (Extended Data Fig. 1e). Principal-component analysis (PCA) also separated the population into three clusters corresponding to L1, L2 and L3 (Extended Data Fig. 1f). Computing the genome-wide pairwise fixation index (F ST ) between the three lineages using SNPs in a sliding window of 1 megabases (Mb) with a step size of 100 kilobases (kb) indicated a high level of population differentiation across the genome, with values near 1.0 in the centromeric regions and around 0.3-0.5 near the telomeric ends (Fig. 1d). These observations demonstrate the existence of a differentiated third lineage within Ae. tauschii. Consistent with the above population structure, we found that 64% of the Ae. tauschii k-mer space, obtained by summing up the percentages in the non-overlapping sections of the Venn diagram (Fig. 1e), is lineage specific. We used the lineage-specific k-mers to understand the origin of the wheat D subgenome by representing the D subgenomes of the available chromosome-scale wheat assemblies 21 as 100-kb segments and assigning them to the Ae. tauschii lineage predominantly contributing lineage-specific k-mers to that segment (Extended Data Fig. 2). To account for recent alien introgressions in modern cultivars due to breeding, only those k-mers that were also present in the 28 hexaploid wheat landraces 17 were used. The differential presence of L2 and L3 segments at multiple independent regions in these wheat lines (shown for chromosome 1D in Fig. 1f and chromosomes 2D-7D in Extended Data Fig. 3) suggests that at least two hybridization events gave rise to the extant wheat D subgenome (Fig. 1g) and that one of the D genome donors was of predominantly L2 origin, while the other was of predominantly L3 origin. The total L3 contribution across all the seven chromosomes ranges from 0.5% for Spelt, T. aestivum spp. spelta, to 1.9% for T. aestivum ssp. aestivum ArinaLrFor, with an average of 1.1% for all the 11 reference genomes (Extended Data Fig. 3).Identification of genes or haplotypes in Ae. tauschii underpinning useful variation would permit accelerated wheat improvement through wide crossing and marker-assisted selection or biotechnological approaches to introduce them into wheat. To identify this Points on the y axis show k-mers significantly associated with resistance (blue) and susceptibility (red). b, k-mers significantly associated with flowering time mapped to Ae. tauschii reference genome AL8/78 with early (red) or late (blue) flowering time association relative to the population mean across the diversity panel. candidate genes for both phenotypes are highlighted. Point size is proportional to the number of k-mers (see inset). The association score is defined as the -log 10 of the P value obtained using the likelihood ratio test for nested models. The threshold of significant association scores is adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni method.variation, we adapted our k-mer-based association mapping pipeline, previously developed for resistance gene families obtained using sequence capture 22 , to whole-genome shotgun data (Extended Data Fig. 4a). The significantly associated k-mers were not just directly mapped to the Ae. tauschii AL8/78 reference genome but were also mapped to the de novo assembly of a relevant accession, which was anchored to the reference genome. In theory, using a set of de novo assemblies (either reference or anchored to a reference) covering the species diversity in this manner would enable us to determine the genomic context of all the significant k-mers. To demonstrate the advantage of this approach, we generated a de novo assembly of accession TOWWC0112 (N50 = 196 kb; Supplementary Table 7), which carries two cloned stem rust resistance genes that could be used as controls, and then anchored this assembly to a reference genome 14 . This enabled identification of the cis-associated k-mers rather than those linked in repulsion to the corresponding region in the reference genome (Extended Data Fig. 4c,d). Note the improvement in the association signal with the improvement in the quality of de novo assembly; when the quality is poor (Extended Data Fig. 4c), some of the short scaffolds with the significant k-mers are anchored outside the true locus, but with the improved de novo assembly (Extended Data Fig. 4d), most of the scaffolds with the significant k-mers tend to concentrate around the true locus. We also determined that the sequencing coverage could be reduced from tenfold to fivefold with no appreciable loss of signal from the two control genes (Extended Data Fig. 5). To test our method further, we performed association mapping for resistance to additional stem rust isolates and flowering time. For stem rust, we identified a peak within the genetic linkage group of SrTA1662 (ref. 23 ) (Fig. 2a, Extended Data Fig. 6a and Supplementary Table 8). Annotation of the associated 50-kb linkage disequilibrium (LD) block revealed two genes, of which one encoded the nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat (NLR) gene previously identified in our sequence capture association pipeline 22 (Fig. 2a, Supplementary Tables 9 and  10 and Supplementary Note). We also recorded flowering time and found that it mapped to a broad peak of 5.46 Mb on chromosome arm 7DS containing 35 genes, including FLOWERING LOCUS T1 (Fig. 2b, Extended Data Fig. 6b,c and Supplementary Tables 8 and  10), a well-known regulator of flowering time in dicots and monocots, including wheat [24][25][26] .We next screened the Ae. tauschii panel for leaf trichomes (a biotic and abiotic resilience trait 27,28 ), spikelet number per spike (a yield component), infection by Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (cause of powdery mildew) and resistance to the wheat curl mite Aceria tosichella (vector of wheat streak mosaic virus) 29 (Supplementary Table 8). All four phenotypes presented continuous variation in the panel (Fig. 3a,b and Extended Data Fig. 7a). Mean trichome number along the leaf margin mapped to a 530-kb LD block on chromosome arm 4DL (Fig. 3c,d and Supplementary Table 10) within a 12.5-cM region previously defined by biparental linkage mapping 30 . The 530-kb interval contains seven genes, including an α/β-hydrolase, a gene class with increased transcript abundance in developing trichomes of Arabidopsis thaliana 31 . The number of spikelets per spike was associated with a discrete 100-kb peak on chromosome arm 1DL containing six genes (Fig. 3c,d and Supplementary Table 10).One of these encodes a trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase that is homologous to RAMOSA3 and TPP4, known to control inflorescence branch number in maize 32 , and SISTER OF RAMOSA3 that influences spikelet fertility in barley 33 . Powdery mildew resistance mapped to a 320-kb LD block on chromosome arm 7DS containing 19 genes in the resistant haplotype, including a ~60-kb insertion with respect to the reference genome AL8/78 (Fig. 3c,d and Supplementary Table 10). No NLR immune receptor-encoding gene was detected; however, the insertion contains a wheat-tandem kinase (WTK), a gene class previously reported to confer resistance to wheat stripe rust (Yr15) 34 , stem rust (Rpg1 and Sr60) 35,36 and powdery mildew (Pm24) 37 . Resistance to wheat curl mite mapped to a 440-kb LD block on chromosome arm 6DS within a region previously determined by biparental mapping [38][39][40] (Fig. 3c,d, Supplementary Table 10 and Supplementary Note).The interval contained ten genes, including an NLR immune receptor, a gene class previously reported to confer arthropod resistance in melon and tomato 41 . These results highlight the ability of the panel, with its rapid LD decay (Extended Data Fig. 8) and k-mer-based association mapping combined with de novo genome assembly and annotation, to identify candidate genes, including those in insertions with respect to the reference genome, within discrete genomic regions for quantitative traits of agronomic value.L1 and L2 share regions of low genetic divergence. We investigated the population-wide distribution of the candidate genes controlling disease resistance and morphology identified by association mapping (Figs. 2 and 3) across a genome-wide phylogeny of Ae. tauschii and a worldwide collection of 28 wheat landraces 17 .The absence of the alleles promoting disease resistance, more spikelets and higher trichome density in the wheat landraces for the new candidate genes suggest that they were not incorporated into the initial gene flow into wheat (Fig. 4a). We next examined the distribution of these alleles between the three lineages of Ae. tauschii. The Cmc4 gene candidate for resistance to wheat curl mite was largely confined to L1, whereas the allele variants promoting higher trichome density, spikelet number and resistance to wheat stem rust and powdery mildew were largely confined to L2 (Fig. 4a). Exceptions included three occurrences of the Sr46 gene in L1 and five occurrences of the candidate Cmc4 gene in L2. To investigate whether this was due to a common genetic origin or convergent evolution, we generated phylogenies based on the SNPs within the respective 200-kb and 440-kb Sr46 and Cmc4 LD blocks. This showed that all functional haplotypes clustered together  irrespective of genome-wide lineage assortment, indicative of a common genetic origin and not convergent evolution (Fig. 4b,c, Supplementary Table 11 and Supplementary Note).After domestication delivery of Ae. tauschii genes into wheat. The ability to precisely identify Ae. tauschii haplotypes and candidate genes for target traits provides an opportunity for accelerating their introduction into cultivated wheat. We selected 32 non-redundant and genetically diverse Ae. tauschii accessions, which capture 70% of the genetic diversity across all lineages, and crossed them to tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum var. durum; AABB) to generate independent synthetic hexaploid wheat lines (Fig. 5, Supplementary Table 12 and Supplementary Note). From this 'library' , we selected four synthetic lines with the powdery mildew WTK candidate resistance gene. These synthetics as well as their respective Ae. tauschii donors were resistant to powdery mildew, while the durum line was susceptible (Fig. 6a and Extended Data Fig. 9a). Annotation of WTK identified seven alternative transcripts, of which only one, accounting for ~80% of the transcripts, leads to a complete 2,160-base pair (bp) 12-exon open reading frame (Fig. 6a, Extended Data Fig. 9b, Supplementary Tables 13 and 14 and Supplementary Note). Next, we targeted two exons with very low homology to other genes for virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS; Supplementary Note). WTK-containing Ae. tauschii and synthetics inoculated with the WTK-VIGS constructs became susceptible to powdery mildew, whereas empty vector-inoculated plants remained resistant (Fig. 6a and Extended Data Fig. 9a). This supports the conclusion that WTK, hereafter designated WTK4, is required for powdery mildew resistance and remains effective in synthetic hexaploids. Thus, these synthetic lines can serve as prebreeding stocks for introduction of the trait into elite wheat.Developing wheat cultivars improved with traits from Ae. tauschii can also be achieved by direct crossing between the diploid and hexaploid species 10 . The wheat curl mite resistance gene Cmc4 was originally transferred by crossing of Ae. tauschii accession TA2397 (L1) into wheat 42,43 and genetically localized to chromosome 6D in agreement with our association mapping [38][39][40] . Given the common resistant haplotype of Cmc4 in L1 and L2 (Fig. 4), we hypothesized that Cmc4 is the same as a gene originating from L2 accession TA1618, which was introgressed at the same locus into wheat cv. TAM 112 via a synthetic wheat 39,43 . Consistent with this hypothesis, we observed the same haplotype at the wheat curl mite resistance locus across all derived resistant hexaploid wheat lines and in the Ae. tauschii donors of Cmc4 and Cmc TAM112 (Fig. 4c). We delimited the length of the introgressed Ae. tauschii wheat curl mite fragments by comparing SNP data for resistant wheat lines and the corresponding Ae. tauschii donors. The TA2397 (L1) introgression spanned 41.5 Mb, whereas the TA1618 (L2) introgression was reduced to 7.9 Mb in wheat cv. TAM 115 (Fig. 6b, Extended Data Fig. 7b,c and Supplementary Note).As an alternative to conventional breeding, we targeted the SrTA1662 candidate stem rust resistance gene (Fig. 2d) for introduction into wheat by direct transformation. We cloned a 10,541-bp genomic fragment encompassing the complete SrTA1662 transcribed region as well as >3 kb of 3′-and 5′-untranslated region (UTR) putative regulatory sequences; this was sufficient to confer full race-specific stem rust resistance in transgenic wheat (Fig. 6c, Extended Data Fig. 10, Supplementary Table 15 and Supplementary Note).The origin of hexaploid bread wheat has long been the subject of intense scrutiny. Archeological and genetic evidence suggests that diploid and tetraploid wheats were first cultivated 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent (Fig. 1a) 5,6 . The expansion of tetraploid wheat cultivation northeast into Caspian Iran and towards the Caucasus region resulted in sympatry with Ae. tauschii and the emergence of hexaploid bread wheat 6 . Ae tauschii displays a high level of genetic differentiation among local populations, and genetic marker analysis suggests that the wheat D subgenome donor was recruited from an L2 population of Ae. tauschii in the southwestern coastal area of the Caspian Sea 8 . However, not all the diversity within the wheat D subgenome can be explained by a single hybridization event 6,44,45 .Our population genomic analysis revealed the existence of a third lineage of Ae. tauschii, L3, which also contributed to the extant wheat genome. For example, a glutenin allele required for superior dough quality was recently found to be of L3 origin 46 . L3 accessions are restricted to present-day Georgia and may represent a relict population from a glacial refugium as observed in Arabidopsis 47 . We observed genomic signatures specific to L2 and L3 in hexaploid wheat supporting the multiple hybridization hypothesis (Fig. 1g).The creation of hexaploid bread wheat, while giving rise to a crop better adapted to a wider range of environments and end uses 1 , came at the cost of a pronounced genetic bottleneck 7 . Our analysis suggested that only 25% of the genetic diversity of Ae. tauschii contributed to the initial gene flow into hexaploid wheat (Fig. 5). To explore this diversity, we performed association mapping and discovered new gene candidates for disease and pest resistance and agromorphological traits underpinning abiotic stress tolerance and yield, exemplifying the potential of Ae. tauschii for wheat improvement (Fig. 6). We obtained discrete LD blocks of 50 to 520 kb, with the exception of flowering time, which resulted in a broad LD block of 5.5 Mb around the FT1 locus (Figs. 2 and 3). The low degree of historical recombination around FT1 is likely imposed by the reduced probability of intraspecies hybridization between populations carrying alleles promoting different flowering times. In contrast to the discrete mostly submegabase mapping intervals we obtained by association mapping with k-mer-based marker saturation, conventional biparental mapping studies on the D subgenome resulted in large intervals with a median of 10 Mb (Supplementary Table 16 and Supplementary Note).In polyploid wheat, recessive variants are not readily observed; hence, genetics and genomics in wheat have mostly focused on rare dominant or semidominant variants 48 . Reflecting this, of 69 genes cloned in polyploid wheat by forward genetics, at least 62 have dominant or semidominant modes of action (Supplementary Table 17). This constraint is removed in Ae. tauschii by virtue of being diploid, which along with its rapid LD decay makes it an ideal platform for gene discovery by association mapping. Genes and allelic variants discovered in Ae. tauschii can subsequently be studied in wheat by generating transgenics or mutants or by using synthetic wheats. The first synthetic wheats were created in the middle of the last century by E. Sears and E. McFadden 49 , and since the late 1980s, synthetic wheats have been used extensively in breeding, for example, by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 50 . However, without the use of high-resolution genomic information, the use of synthetic wheats was not precisely tracked. As illustrated here for wheat curl mite resistance, this led to the same gene being introgressed from two different Ae. tauschii lineages. Our study highlights how synthetic wheats can now be explored in a more directed manner. Our public library of synthetic wheats, which captures 70% of the diversity present across all three Ae. tauschii lineages, allows immediate trait assessment in a hexaploid background. The trait-associated haplotypes can be used to design molecular markers to precisely track the desired gene in a breeding program. In conclusion, our study provides an end-to-end pipeline for rapid and systematic exploration of the Ae. tauschii gene pool for improving modern bread wheat.Publisher's note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/. © The Author(s) 2021Methods SNP calling relative to the AL8/78 reference genome. Following whole-genome shotgun sequencing, we called SNPs across the panel relative to the Ae. tauschii AL8/78 reference genome assembly. The 306 Ae. tauschii samples were aligned to the Ae. tauschii AL8/78 reference genome 14 using HISAT2 default parameters 52 . All alignment BAM files were sorted and duplicates removed using SAMtools (v.1.9 'view' , 'sort' and 'rmdup' sub-commands). All BAM files were fed into the variant call pipeline using BCFtools (-q 20 -a DP,DV | call -mv -f GQ) with parallelization '-r $region' of 4-Mb windows for a total of 1,010 intervals (regions). The raw variant files were filtered or recalled using a published AWK script based on DP/ DV ratios (the ratio of non-reference read depth and total read depth) with default parameters (https://bitbucket.org/ipk_dg_public/vcf_filtering/src/master/) except minPresent parameter (we used minPresent = 0.8 and minPresent = 0.1). The minPresent=0.8 dataset was used for redundancy analysis. The minPresent = 0.1 and minPresent = 0.8 were both used for genome-wide association study (GWAS) analysis. The resulting matrix (104 million SNPs for minPresent = 0.1 concatenated using BCFtools v. 1.11) were uploaded to Zenodo.A total of 100,900 (100 every 4-Mb window) SNPs were randomly chosen to compute pairwise identity by state among all samples for a total of 46,665 comparisons using custom R and AWK scripts (https://github.com/wheatgenetics/owwc). For every sample pair, a percent identity greater than 99.5% was deemed redundant based on the histogram distribution of all identity by state values (Extended Data Fig. 1c). This analysis confirmed the results of the KASP analysis conducted on the L2 accessions (Extended Data Fig. 1b and Supplementary Note).For each accession (except TOWWC0193, which is related to the reference genome AL8/78), the fraction of heterozygous SNPs in the total number of biallelic SNPs was computed. Based on the distribution of these values (Extended Data Fig. 1d and Supplementary Table 3), 0.1 was deemed to indicate a low degree of residual heterogeneity. BW_26042, with a value of 0.17, was found to be the only outlier exceeding this threshold.Based on these quality control analyses, a non-redundant and genetically stable set of 242 accessions was retained for further analysis. The redundant pairs, along with the different similarity scores, are given in Supplementary Table 4, and the set of 242 non-redundant accessions is provided in Supplementary Table 5.De novo assembly from whole-genome shotgun short-read data. The primary sequence data of non-redundant accessions were trimmed using Trimmomatic v.0.238 and de novo assembled with the MEGAHIT v.1.1.3 assembler using default parameters 53 . The output of the assembler for each accession was a FASTA file containing all the contig sequences. The assemblies are available from Zenodo.Genome assembly of Ae. tauschii accession TOWWC0112. TOWWC0112 (line BW_01111) was assembled by combining paired-end and mate-pair sequencing reads using TRITEX 54 , an open-source computational workflow. A PCR-free 250-bp paired-end library with an insert size range of 400-500 bp was sequenced to a coverage of ~70. Mate-pair libraries MP3 and MP6, with insert size ranges of 2-4 kb and 5-7 kb, respectively, were sequenced to a coverage of ~20. The assembly generated had an N50 of 196 kb (Supplementary Table 7). The assembly is available from the electronic Data Archive Library (e!DAL).Genome assembly of Ae. tauschii accession TOWWC0106. Accession TOWWC0106 (line BW_01105) was sequenced on a PacBio Sequel II platform (Pacific Biosciences) with single-molecule, real-time chemistry and on the Illumina platform. For single-molecule, real-time library preparation, ~7 μg of high-quality genomic DNA was fragmented to a 20-kb target size and assessed on an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer 55 . The sheared DNA was end repaired, ligated to blunt-end adaptors and size selected. The libraries were sequenced by Berry Genomics. A standard Illumina protocol was followed to make libraries for PCR-free paired-end genome sequencing with ~1 μg of genomic DNA that was fragmented and size selected (350 bp) by agarose gel electrophoresis. The size-selected DNA fragments were end blunted, provided with an A-base overhang and then ligated to sequencing adapters. A total of 251.8 Gb of high-quality 150 paired-end PCR-free reads were generated and sequenced on the NovaSeq sequencing platform.A set of 11.35 million PacBio long reads (289.6 Gb), representing a ~66-fold genome coverage, was assembled using the CANU pipeline with default parameters 56 . The assembled contigs were polished with 251.8 Gb of PCR-free reads using Pilon default parameters 57 . The resulting assembly had an N50 of 1.5 Mb (Supplementary Table 7). The assembly is available from e!DAL.Phenotyping the Ae. tauschii diversity panel and synthetic hexaploid wheat lines. Wheat stem rust. The wheat stem rust phenotypes with P. graminis f. sp. tritici isolate 04KEN156/04, race TTKSK, and isolate 75ND717C, race QTHJC, were obtained from Arora et al. 22 . As part of this study, we also phenotyped the same Ae. tauschii lines with isolate UK-01 (race TKTTF) 58 (Supplementary Table 8) using the same procedures as described in ref. 59 . UK-01 was obtained from Limagrain.Trichomes. For counting trichomes and measuring flowering time in Ae. tauschii, 50 L1 accessions and 150 L2 accessions were pregerminated at ~4 °C in Petri dishes on wet filter paper for 2 d in the dark. They were transferred to room temperature (~20 °C) and daylight for 4 d. Three seedlings of each genotype were transplanted on 22 January 2019 into 96-cell trays filled with a mixture of peat and sand and then grown under natural vernalization in a glasshouse with no additional light source or heating at the John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK. Trichome phenotyping was conducted 1 month later. Close-up photographs of the second leaf from seedlings at the three-leaf stage were taken and visualized in ImageJ, and trichomes were counted along one side of a 20-mm leaf margin in the mid-leaf region. Measurements were taken from three biological replicates (Supplementary Table 8).Flowering time, biological replicate 1. Three seedlings used for trichome phenotyping (see above) were transferred on 25 March into individual 2 l pots filled with cereal mix soil 60 . Flowering time was recorded when the first five spikes were three-fourths emerged from the flag leaf sheath, equivalent to a 55 on the Zadoks growth scale 61 (Supplementary Table 8).Flowering time, biological replicates 2 and 3. A total of 147 Ae. tauschii L2 accessions were grown in the winters of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 in the greenhouse at the Department of Agrobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria. Seeds of each accession were sown in multitrays in a mixture of heat-sterilized compost and sand and stratified for 1 week before germination at 4 °C with a 12 h day/12 h night light regimen. Thereafter, the seeds were germinated at 22 °C and at the one-leaf stage vernalized for 11 weeks. Five seedlings per accession were transplanted to 4 l pots (18 cm in diameter, 21 cm in height) filled with a mixture of heat-sterilized compost, peat, sand and rock flour. In the winter of 2018/2019, one pot (= one replicate) per accession was planted, whereas in 2019/2020, two pots (= two replicates) were planted. The pots were randomly arranged in the greenhouse and maintained at a temperature of 14/10 °C day/night with a 12 h photoperiod for the first 40 d. At spike emergence, the temperature was increased to 22/18 °C day/night with a 16 h photoperiod at 15,000 lx. At least ten spikes per pot were evaluated for beginning of anthesis, taken as 60 on the Zadoks growth scale 61 , resulting in a minimum of 30 assessed spikes per accession. Flowering time was recorded every second day.The flowering date was analyzed using a linear mixed model, which considered subsampling of individual spikes within each pot as follows:Here, Y ijkl denotes the flowering date observation of the individual spikes, μ is the grand mean and g i is the genetic effect of the ith accession. The environment effect, e j , is defined as the effect of the jth year, and the genotype-by-environment interaction is described by ge ij . r jk is the effect of the kth replication within the jth year, p ijk is the effect of the ith pot within the kth replication and jth year and ε ijkl is the residual term. Analysis was performed with R v.3.5.1 (ref. 62 ) using the package sommer 63 with all effects considered as random except g i , which was modeled as a fixed effect to obtain the best linear unbiased estimates (Supplementary Table 8).Spikelets per spike. For Ae. tauschii spikelet phenotyping, 151 accessions from L2 were vernalized at a constant temperature of 4 °C for 8 weeks in a growth chamber (Conviron). After vernalization, the accessions were transplanted to 3.8 l pots in potting mix (peat moss and vermiculite) and placed in a temperature-controlled Conviron growth chamber with diurnal temperatures gradually changing from 12 °C at 02:00 to 17 °C at 14:00 with a 16 h photoperiod and 80% relative humidity. To represent biological replication, each accession was grown in two pots, and each pot contained two plants. At the transplanting stage, 10 g of a slow-release N-P-K fertilizer was added to each pot. At physiological maturity, 5-15 main stem/ tiller spikes per replication (that is, per pot) were collected, and the number of immature as well as mature spikelets were counted. Any obvious weak heads from late-growing tillers were not included. Least square means for each replication were used for k-mer-based association genetic analysis (Supplementary Table 8).Powdery mildew. Resistance to B. graminis f. sp. tritici was assessed with Bgt96224, a highly avirulent isolate from Switzerland 64 , using inoculation procedures previously described 65 . Disease levels were assessed 7-9 d after inoculation as one of five classes of host reactions: resistance (R; 0-10% of leaf area covered), intermediate resistance (IR; 10-25% of leaf area covered), intermediate (I; 25-50% of leaf area covered), intermediate susceptible (IS; 50-75% of leaf area covered) and susceptible (S; >75% of leaf area covered) (Supplementary Table 8).Wheat curl mite. A total of 210 Ae. tauschii accessions, 102 from L1 and 108 from L2 (Supplementary Table 8), were screened for their response against wheat curl mite. Aceria tosichella (Keifer) biotype 1 colonies (courtesy of M. Smith, Department of Entomology, Kansas State University) were mass reared under controlled conditions at 24 °C in a 14 h light/10 h dark cycle using the susceptible wheat cv. Jagger. The biotype 1 colony was previously reported as avirulent toward all Cmc resistance genes 38,[66][67][68] . A single colony consisted of an individual pot with ~50 seedlings, and 20 colonies were grown to have sufficient mite inoculum to conduct the phenotyping. Colonies were placed inside 45 cm × 45 cm × 75 cm mite-proof cages covered with a 36-µm mesh screen (ELKO Filtering Co.) to avoid contamination until being used to infest the Ae. tauschii accessions. Accessions from L1 and L2 were evaluated in independent experiments. Six plants per accession were individually grown in 5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm pots under controlled conditions at 24 °C in a 14 h light/10 h dark cycle. Pots were arranged randomly in an incomplete block design where the block was the tray fitting 32 pots (8 rows and 4 columns). A single pot with the susceptible check cv. Jagger was included in each tray. Accessions were infested at the two-leaf stage, with mite colonies collected from infested pieces of leaves from the susceptible plants and spread as straw over the pots. Plants were evaluated individually 10-14 d after infestation. Wheat curl mite damage was assessed as curled or trapped leaves using a visual scale from 0 to 4, with 0 indicating no symptoms and 1 to 4 indicating increasing levels of curliness or trapped leaves (Extended Data Fig. 7a).The adjusted mean or best linear unbiased estimator for each accession was calculated with the 'lme4' R package 69 using the following linear regression model:Here, y ijkl is the phenotypic value, µ is the overall mean, G i is the fixed effect of the ith accession (genotype), T j is the random effect of the jth tray assumed as independent and identically distributed (iid) Tj ≈ N(0, σ 2 T ), R k(j) is the random effect of the kth row nested within the jth tray assumed distributed as iid R k(j) ≈ N(0, σ 2 R ), C l(j) is the random effect of the lth column nested within the jth tray assumed distributed as iid C l(j) ≈ N(0, σ 2 C ) and e ijkl is the residual error distributed as iid e ijkl ≈ N(0, σ 2 e ).k-mer presence/absence matrix. k-mers (k = 51) were counted in trimmed raw data per accession using Jellyfish 70 (version 2.2.6 or above). k-mers with a count of less than two in an accession were discarded immediately. k-mer counts from all accessions were integrated to create a presence/absence matrix with one row per k-mer and one column per accession. The entries were reduced to 1 (presence) and 0 (absence). k-mers occurring in less than two accessions or in all but one accession were removed during the construction of the matrix. Programs to process the data were implemented in Python and are published at https://github. com/wheatgenetics/owwc. The k-mer matrix is available from e!DAL.A random set of 100,000 k-mers was extracted from the k-mer matrix to build an unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) tree with 100 bootstraps using the Bio.Phylo module from the Biopython v.1.77 (http://biopython.org) package. Further, a Python script was used to generate an iTOL-compatible (https://itol.embl.de/) tree for rendering and annotation. The Python script and the random set of 100,000 k-mers used for generating the tree are available at https://github.com/wheatgenetics/owwc.Bayesian cluster analysis using STRUCTURE. Bayesian clustering implemented in STRUCTURE 19 version 2.3.4 was used to investigate the number of distinct lineages of Ae. tauschii. To control the bias due to the highly unbalanced proportion of the three groups 20 in the non-redundant sequenced accessions (119 accessions of L2, 118 accessions of L1 and 5 accessions of putative L3), 10 accessions each of L1 and L2 were randomly selected for each STRUCTURE run along with the 5 accessions of the putative L3 and the control L1-L2 RIL. The random selection of 10 accessions each of L1 and L2 was performed 11 times without replacement, thus covering a total of 110 accessions each of L1 and L2 over 11 STRUCTURE runs (Supplementary Table 6). STRUCTURE simulations were run using a random set of 100,000 k-mers with a burn-in length of 100,000 iterations followed by 150,000 Markov chain Monte Carlo iterations for five replicates each of K ranging from 1 to 6  71 to generate a ΔK plot for each run. For each STRUCTURE run, a clear peak was observed at K = 3 in the ΔK plot, suggesting that there are three distinct lineages of Ae. tauschii 19,71 . STRUCTURE results were processed and plotted using CLUMPAK 72,73 (http://clumpak.tau.ac.il/; beta version accessed on 11 May 2021) to maintain the label collinearity for multiple replicates of each K.Determination of genome-wide fixation index. Genome-wide pairwise fixation index (F ST ) between the three Ae. tauschii lineages was computed using VCFtools 74 v.0.1.15 with the parameters '-fst-window-size' and '-fst-window-step' set to 1,000,000 and 100,000, respectively.Admixture analysis of the wheat D subgenome. To assign segments of the wheat D subgenome to Ae. tauschii lineages for each of the 11 chromosome-scale wheat assemblies 21 , we considered only those k-mers as usable that were present at a single locus in the D subgenome. Furthermore, out of these k-mers, for nine modern cultivars, only those k-mers were considered usable that were also present in the short-read sequences from 28 hexaploid wheat landraces 17 . For the assembled wheat genomes, each chromosome of the D subgenome was divided into 100-kb non-overlapping segments. A 100-kb segment was assigned toAe. tauschii if at least 20% of 100,000 k-mers within that segment were usable as well as present in at least one non-redundant Ae. tauschii accession. A segment assigned to Ae. tauschii was further assigned to one of the three lineages (L1, L2 and L3) if the count of usable k-mers specific to that lineage exceeded the count of those specific to the other lineages by at least 0.01% of 100,000 k-mers. Scripts to determine the counts of lineage-specific and total Ae. tauschii k-mers per 100-kb segment are published at https://github.com/wheatgenetics/owwc, and the output files obtained for 11 wheat assemblies were collated in an Excel file that is available from Zenodo.Anchoring of a de novo assembly to a reference genome. The contigs of a de novo assembly were ordered along a chromosome-level reference genome using minimap2 (ref. 75 ) (version 2.14 or above), and the genomic coordinates of their longest hits were assigned.Correlation prefiltering. For each of the assembly k-mers (including those present at multiple loci), if also present in the precalculated presence/absence matrix, Pearson's correlation between the vector of that k-mer's presence/absence and the vector of the phenotype scores was calculated. Only those k-mers for which the absolute value of correlation obtained was higher than a threshold (0.2 by default) were retained to reduce the computational burden of association mapping using linear regression.Linear regression model accounting for population structure. To each filtered k-mer from the previous step, a P value was assigned using linear regression with a number of leading PCA dimensions as covariates to control for the population structure. PCA was computed using the aforementioned set of 100,000 k-mers.The exact number of leading PCA dimensions was chosen heuristically. Too high a number might overcorrect for population structure, while too few might undercorrect. In the context of this study, three dimensions were found to represent a good trade-off.Approximate Bonferroni threshold computation. For each phenotype in this study, the total number of k-mers used in association mapping varied between 3,000,000,000 and 5,000,000,000. In general, if the k-mer size is 51, a SNP or any other structural variant would give rise to at least 51 k-mer variants. Therefore, the total number of tested k-mer variants should be divided by 51 to get the effective number of variants to adjust the P value threshold for multiple testing. Assuming a P value threshold of 0.05, a Bonferroni-adjusted -log P value threshold between 9.1 and 9.3 was obtained for each phenotype. The more stringent cutoff of 9.3 was chosen throughout this study.Generating association mapping plots. Association mapping plots were generated using Python. For a chromosome-level reference assembly, each integer on the x axis corresponds to a 10-kb genomic block starting from that position. For an anchored assembly, each integer on the x axis represents the scaffold that is anchored starting from that position. Dots on the plot represent the -log P values of the filtered k-mers within each block. Dot size is proportional to the number of k-mers with the specific -log P value. The plotting script is published at https:// github.com/wheatgenetics/owwc.Optimization of k-mer GWAS in Ae. tauschii. We used previously generated stem rust phenotype data for P. graminis f. sp. tritici isolate 04KEN156/04, race TTKSK, on 142 Ae. tauschii L2 accessions 22 . Mapping k-mers with an association score of >6 to the Ae. tauschii reference genome AL8/78 gave rise to significant peaks for the positive controls Sr45 and Sr46 (Extended Data Fig. 4a). The peaks contain k-mers that are negatively correlated with resistance (shown as red dots) because the AL8/78 reference accession does not contain Sr45 and Sr46. To identify the true Sr45 and Sr46 haplotypes, accession TOWWC0112 (which contains Sr45 and Sr46) 22 was assembled from tenfold whole-genome shotgun data using MEGAHIT (N50 = 1.1 kb) and used in association mapping. However, noise masked the positive signals from Sr45 and Sr46 when the short scaffolds were distributed randomly along the x axis (Extended Data Fig. 4b). Anchoring the scaffolds to the AL8/78 reference genome considerably improved the plot and produced positive signals for Sr45 and Sr46 (blue peaks; Extended Data Fig. 4c). An improved assembly (N50 = 196 kb), generated with mate-pair libraries and again anchored to AL8/78, further reduced the background noise (Extended Data Fig. 4d).Performing k-mer GWAS in Ae. tauschii with reduced coverage. The trimmed sequence data of each non-redundant accession was randomly subsampled to reduce the coverage to 7.5-fold, 5-fold, 3-fold and 1-fold. For each coverage point, the k-mer GWAS pipeline was applied, and k-mers with an association score of >6 were mapped to the Ae. tauschii reference genome AL8/78 (Extended Data Fig. 5).Computing genome-wide LD. The Ae. tauschii AL8/78 reference genome was partitioned into five segments (R1, R2a, C, R2b and R3; Extended Data Fig. 8) based on the distribution of the recombination rate, where the boundaries between these regions were imputed using the boundaries established for the Chinese Spring RefSeqv1.0 D subgenome 51 . PopLDdecay 76 v. ","tokenCount":"7431"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21c3eeca0bb85d87cb7c99a25f35e99f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5864208c-9a20-47b6-802b-bfda8662c512/retrieve","id":"-2085377282"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c8816ca9-3378-4716-a0b3-8f27f1336372","pagecount":"8","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.The Integrated Nutrition Package 1 , guided by a digital advisory tool, is one of the innovations developed and piloted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nepal. This innovation was born out of necessity to support farmers in formulating a balanced animal diet onfarm at cheaper cost. This tool helps frontline extension workers to give proper advise and necessary support to farmers, thereby helping them to make the right choices for optimizing milk production by dairy animals.The innovation which has been piloted in Madhesh and Koshi provinces in Nepal where it has shown great benefits to farmers and enabled extension workers to deliver feed advice with minimum effort. To further improve adoption and spread of this innovation across the country, the CGIAR Initiative on Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender inclusion (SAPLING) team adopted the Innovation Packages and Scaling Readiness (IPSR) framework to package this innovative technology.The Scaling Packaging Workshop in Nepal aimed to explore the potential of scaling the innovative Integrated Nutrition Package guided by the digital feed advisory tool and improving the design packaging process for agricultural products. The framework would help in evaluating various aspects of the innovation, identifying potential challenges and risks, and developing strategies to overcome them. The workshop was led by ILRI's Padmakumar Varijakshapanicker and Ijudai Jasada.The workshop was designed based on the IPSR methodology. Key stakeholders from key ministries, government departments, research organizations, feed companies, and cooperatives were invited and represented at the workshop. CGIAR colleagues were also present. Varijakshapanicker introduced the workshop objectives, the nutrition package and provided a comprehensive information on the scaling ambition.The packaging objectives, and key stages were introduced by Jasada who facilitated the packaging workshop. The 23 participants were divided into five groups.The workshop started by reviewing of challenges in animal feeding in Nepal.Various challenges/bottlenecks were identified and captured as impediments to the actualization of the scaling ambition. Through collaborative discussions and expert insights, the identified problems were prioritized based on their potential impact and feasibility of addressing them.After prioritizations, solutions /enablers /complementary innovations were proposed by the participants.The key challenges identified by participants include:• Lack of motivation: Some stakeholders lacked the motivation to adopt new packaging techniques and processes due to ingrained traditional practices. • Low digital literacy: A significant portion of the population, including extension workers, faced challenges in using digital technologies effectively. • Lack of awareness: There is limited awareness about the benefits and potential impact of the Integrated Nutrition Package innovation hindered its widespread adoption. • Limited access to smart devices and internet: The availability of smart devices and a reliable internet connection is scarce in certain regions, restricting the implementation of digital solutions. • Motivation to use the Innovation: Farmers and stakeholders were hesitant to use the innovative packaging, as they were unsure about its effectiveness and long-term benefits. • Non-inclusion of locally available feed resources: Locally available feed resources have not been included in livestock feeding processes to ensure the suitability the feeding practices in the country.• Exclusion of female extension workers: Female extension workers face gender-based barriers that limit their participation and contributions to livestock development.• Expensive mobile phones and data packages: The high cost of mobile devices and data packages prevents some stakeholders from utilizing digital tools effectively. • Previous experience of village livestock promoters (VLPs): Past experiences with VLPs in similar projects had been mixed, leading to scepticism about the effectiveness of agricultural development projects. • Lack of complementary policies to facilitate adoption and usage of technology.To address these challenges and complement the nutrition packaging innovation, the workshop participants proposed the following solutions:• Enhancing the legal framework and national priorities: They called for the establishing of a legal framework and aligning of the innovation with national priorities to ensure support from relevant authorities. After identifying the solutions, the innovation readiness and innovation use of each enabler was identified and were plotted on a scaling readiness graph (Figure 1) The Scaling Packaging Workshop in Nepal brought together stakeholders from various sectors to address the challenges and opportunities of the integrated nutritional packaging innovation in the animal feed sector. The identified solutions will serve as a roadmap for scaling the innovation effectively and ensuring its positive impact on milk production and nutrition. By building a scaling strategy and implementing these solutions, the stakeholders aim to overcome barriers and create an enabling environment for the successful adoption and scaling of the digital advisory tool-based innovation.A final report will be produced after conducting quality assurance on the evidence provided to support the enablers. ","tokenCount":"795"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5f6e6c20ddb72d8863771fa328b42fb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/aa6027b4-b23e-4b80-83d9-5baa5951b55c/content","id":"-363776140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a5603e7-e8af-4fca-9b86-1acb1449b8a3","pagecount":"36","content":"ii CIMMYT -the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (www.cimmyt.org) -is the global leader in publicly-funded maize and wheat research and related farming systems. Headquartered near Mexico City, CIMMYT works with hundreds of partners throughout the developing world to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat cropping systems, thus improving global food security and reducing poverty. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR System and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on Maize and Wheat and the Excellence in Breeding Platform. The Center receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.Part of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and comprising a multidisciplinary team of qualified scientists and engineers with well-equipped laboratories and weather stations, the Climate, Energy and Water Research Institute (CEWRI) conducts problem-oriented, strategic, operational and inter-disciplinary research to devise economically viable, technically feasible and socially acceptable solutions and management strategies for climate change, water resources and alternative energy.The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) works to end extreme global poverty and enable resilient, democratic societies to realize their potential. USAID invests in ideas that work to improve the lives of millions of men, women and children by: investing in agricultural productivity so countries can feed their people; combating maternal and child mortality and deadly diseases like HIV, malaria and tuberculosis; providing life-saving assistance in the wake of disaster; promoting democracy, human rights and good governance around the world; fostering private-sector development and sustainable economic growth; helping communities adapt to a changing environment; and elevating the role of women and girls throughout all our work. For more information, visit www.usaid.gov.The Agricultural Innovation Program (AIP) for Pakistan is working to sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes in the agricultural sector through the promotion and dissemination of modern technologies/practices in the livestock, horticulture (fruits and vegetables) and cereals (wheat, maize and rice) sector. The CIMMYT-led project aims to foster emergence of a dynamic, responsive, and competitive system of science and innovation in Pakistan.Pakistan is a country whose economy depends predominantly on agriculture, a sector that contributes 18.5% to the country's GDP and absorbs 38.5% of the national labour force (Pakistan Economic Survey, PES, 2019). It provides raw material for several value-adding commodities and contributes to the livelihoods of 62% of the population (PES 2017-18). Supporting the agriculture sector and farming communities through input and credit supplies, subsides, price supports and rural infrastructure development, the national government fosters increased crop production to meet future food requirements of the expanding population (203 million; United Nations, 2019) and provide for agriculture-based livelihoods. But for farmers to profit, optimal cropping patterns that ensure efficient use of available resources are required (Hassan et al. 2004).\"Cropping pattern\" refers to the time and spatial arrangement or sequence of crops in a particular area. Changes in cropping pattern are changes in proportion of land under particular crops or in the time and space sequence of crops. Cropping patterns are vital in determining the level of agricultural production and the agricultural economy of an area and may be affected by factors such as changes in agriculture policy, improvements in technology and the availability of inputs.Pakistan serves as a major producer and supplier for many crops and related products. The main crops, wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane, constitute almost 3/4 of national crop production. A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in two main agricultural seasons, Rabi and Kharif. Rabi (October-March) pertains to the winter season, marked by dry weather with little rainfall. Wheat is the main crop of this season. Kharif (April-September) is the summer season and is marked by high temperature with lots of monsoon rain and humidity; cotton, rice and sugarcane are the main crops of this season. Typically, more than one crop is grown in succession on a single field each year in Pakistan, generally called \"multiple cropping,\" and when two or more crops are grown per season this is known as double, triple or quadruple cropping, depending on the frequency. Despite its intensity, farming in Pakistan is largely traditional or subsistence agriculture dominated by the food grains. Variations in food grain cropping depend on water availability, landholding size, financial status, judgment, and farmers' capabilities. Farmers are most likely to adopt cropping patterns that raise their incomes from relatively limited land holdings.The choice of crops, the diversity of cropping, and the area under different crops also depend on soil conditions, temperatures and rainfall, crop price structures, labour availability, capital marketing, transport facilities, as well as terrain, topography and slope (Husain, 2010). With climates characterized increasingly by higher temperatures, erratic rainfall, and more frequent weather extremes, cropping pattern decisions are of the utmost importance for risk mitigation and adaptation. In particular, farmers in recent times have faced increasing aridity, more erratic rains, and unpredictable energy shortages, challenges that undoubtedly impact on their decisions regarding the type and extent of crops to grow.Despite the regular updating of provincial and national crop data, geospatial zoning of cropping sequences has not always received due attention, representing a gap in rapid decision making and planning for agriculture development from the micro to the macro levels. The focus of this study is cropping pattern zonation for major and minor crops using geospatial modelling, as a tool for future resource planning, policymaking, and, especially, to address opportunities, challenges and risks for farm productivity and profitability.Data for 25 major and minor crops grown in 144 districts of Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Balochistan Provinces were collected for a 5-year period (2013-14 to 2017-18) from Department of Agricultural Statistics, Economics Wing, Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Islamabad. Crops grown on large areas were segregated by Kharif (12 crops) and Rabi (13 crops) and categories such as vegetables, pulses, and oilseeds. Kharif crops included cotton, groundnut, maize, mashbean, mungbean, rice, sesame, sorghum, sugarcane, sunflower, along with kharif pulses and turmeric. Rabi crops included barley, chickpea, coriander, garlic, green peas, lentil, linseed, onion, potatoes, rapeseed and mustard, sugar-beet, wheat, and other rabi pulses. The department for spatial database development and zonation analysis provided crop data of 13 fruits (almond, apple, apricot, banana, citrus, dates, guava, grapes, mango, peach, pears, plums and pomegranates) and 4 vegetables (green peas, potato, sugar-beet, and tomato for 2013-14 1 ).The 5-year average area and percent coverage of each crop were computed against its respective district. Single crops whose area coverage was ≥75% of total cropping area were designated as the dominant crop of the season, and crops grown on <75% of the total area were represented by double cropping in their respective districts. Due to large variations in cropping from district to district during Kharif, crops were grouped into categories; e.g., oilseeds (groundnut, sunflower and sesame) and pulses (mashbean, mungbean and others). For annual cropping pattern zonation, the dominating crop from both seasons was taken and vegetables grown on minor areas together with major seasonal crops were not representable, so we processed them separately to analyse their spatial distribution and trending. For mapping of fruit and vegetable crops, the similar criteria as adopted for major crops were applied.Based on percent area coverage, crops were individually reclassified for both seasons by giving them identical cropping pattern IDs for their respective districts. District-wise tables were formatted in the GIS interface. For seasonal and annual maps, attributes were joined to the district-boundary layer of the country acquired from the Global Administrative Unit Layers (GAUL) site (http://www.foodsecinfoaction. org/). The district boundary map is shown in Annex 4 for reference. The national map was split into 4 provinces with detailed crop cover area attributes.1 Obtained with help from CIMMYT-PakistanIn Kharif, cotton, maize, oilseed crops (groundnut, sesame, and sunflower), pulses (mashbean and mungbean), rice, sorghum, and sugarcane accounted for significant area (Figure 1). Kharif food grains (rice, maize and sorghum) were grown on 43% of the total area, with pulses covering 48.7%. Rice was a major food as well as a cash crop during Kharif season, accounting for 3% of the value added in agriculture and 0.6% of GDP (PES, 2019). Pakistan produces high-quality basmati rice that is popular worldwide. Punjab contributed 50% of national rice-growing area. Major rice districts were Gujranwala, Sialkot, Sheikhupura, Hafizabad and Narowal, where rice was grown on over 90% of cropped area. Major ricegrowing districts in Sindh were Qamber Shahdad Kot, Kashmore, Shikarpur, Jacobabad and Larkana, where over 95% of the cropped area was devoted to rice.For Kharif crop analysis, groundnut, sesame, and sunflower were grouped as oilseeds. Groundnut was grown on a large area in Karak District of KP, and Chakwal and Attock districts of Punjab Province. Sesame was grown in Tharparkar District of Sindh and to some extent in Jhal Magsi of Balochistan. Sunflower was cultivated mainly in the Mastung and Kalat districts of Balochistan and to some extent in the Umarkot and Thatta districts of Sindh. Among all Kharif pulses, mungbean and mashbean accounted for a large area, especially in Balochistan; e.g., mungbean in Killa Saifullah and mashbean in Gwadar and Zhob districts. Punjab was the major mungbean growing province, alone accounting for 88% area and 85% of total mungbean production. Cultivation was concentrated in the districts of Layyah and Bhakkar, which are known as traditional irrigated mungbean areas.Sugarcane is a high value cash crop and its production accounts for 2.9% of agriculture's value addition and 0.5% of overall GDP (PES, 2019). At 56 t/ha, the Cotton is a cash crop that accounts for 0.8% of the GDP and contributes 4.5% of agricultural value addition (PES, 2019). Sindh is the leading cotton-growing  province. In 11 districts of Sindh, cotton is grown on >50% of cropped area, with the leading districts being Jamshoro and Sanghar. Eleven districts in Punjab also grow cotton on >50% of the cropped area, with the leaders being Lodhran, Bahawalpur and Multan. Of the six districts where cotton is grown in Balochistan, the leaders are Noushki, Kharan and Sibi. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, cotton is grown mainly in D.I. Khan, Charsadda and Mardan districts.Maize is the third most important cereal crop in Pakistan, after wheat and rice, accounting for 2.6% of agricultural value addition and 0.5% of the GDP (PES, 2019). The crop is consumed as human food and provides silage for livestock. It is grown on >10,000 ha in 17 districts of Punjab, 13 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and 11 districts of Sindh. Major Kharif crop-growing districts in four provinces are shown in database form in Annexes 1a-d and Figures 2a-d.  Wheat is an important staple food crop in Pakistan, accounting for 8.9% of the value added in agriculture and 1.6% of the GDP (PES, 2019). Pakistan is the world's seventh-largest producer of wheat, harvesting more than all of Africa and South America. The 25 million metric tons of wheat produced every year in Pakistan is still not enough to meet the country's needs. Wheat is grown on over 75% of the cropped area of 104 districts nationwide (Figure 3). Wheat grain yield varies considerably by land type, irrigation source and rainfall in different ecologies.Wheat with rapeseed/mustard is the predominant intercrop in lower districts of Sindh Province. Wheat and chickpea are intercropped mainly in Thal Doab of Punjab and a few rainfed districts in Lower Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Chickpea is an important food and animal feed crop in rainfed areas and other marginal lands in Pakistan, the world's third-largest producer of the crop. Wheat with barley is dominant in     Cotton-wheat is a major rotation in the southern districts of Punjab, central districts of Sindh, western districts of Balochistan and southern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Figure 5). The rice-wheat rotation prevails in northeastern districts of Punjab and northwestern and southern districts of Sindh. This sequence is also found in four districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Malakand, Upper Dir, Lower Dir and Kurram) and two districts of Balochistan (Nasirabad and Jafferabad).  Varied agro-climatic conditions favour year-round production of diverse vegetables (Figures 6 and 7a-d). Kharif vegetables include arum, beans, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, brinjal, cucumber, long melon, okra, onion, tomatoes, and tinda gourd. During Rabi, farmers grow beets, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, fenugreek, garlic, knol kohl, lettuce, peas, potatoes, radishes, spinach, sweet potato, and turnips.Potatoes are grown on over 169,000 hectares in Pakistan, about 97% of which is contributed by Punjab Province, where farmers grow the crop on at least 1,000 hectares and at least once a year in each of 14 districts (Chiniot, Faisalabad, Jhelum, Kasur, Khanewal, Khushab, Multan, Okara, Patpattan, Sahiwal, Sheikhupura, Sialkot, Toba Tek Singh, and Vehari). Chitral is the only area in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province where potatoes are cultivated at high altitudes. Tomato is grown in Pakistan on nearly 63,000 hectares, 43% of which is found in Sindh Province. Districts where more than 500 hectares are grown are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Charsada, D.I. Khan, Kurram, Malakand, Mohmand, Swat, and Tank); Punjab (Gujranwala, Khushab, Musaffargarh, and Sheikhupura); Sindh (Badin, Karachi, Mirpurkhas, Sanghar, Thatta, T.M. Khan, and Umarkot) and Balochistan (Barkhan, Kalat, Kila Saifullah Khuzdar, Lasbela, Loralai, Nasirabad, and Pishin). Two crops (Rabi and Kharif) each year are grown in Balochistan, while other main vegetable crops are onions and coriander. Coriander is nearly always inter-cropped with onion. Green peas are grown in Pakistan on nearly 44,000 hectares, about 47% of which is found in Sindh Province.    Fruit crops constitute a major sub-sector of agriculture in Pakistan, being grown in different ecologies on about 688,000 hectares (Figures 8 and 9a-d). The largest fruit-producing province is Punjab (47% of the national area), followed by Balochistan (29%) and Sindh (20%). Major fruits include apricot, banana, citrus, dates, and mango (Figure 8). Varied citrus crops (grapefruit, lemon and lime, mandarin, and oranges) are the major fruit, covering some 190,000 hectares, and Pakistan is the world's sixth-largest orange-producing country. Punjab produces over 95% of the orange crop, due to its greater population, favourable growing conditions and adequate water. The main citrus growing districts in Punjab are Gujranwala, Jhang, Lahore, Mianwali, Multan, Sahiwal, Sialkot and Sargodha. Citrus-growing districts in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are Hazzara, Mardan, Nowshera, Peshawar, Swabi, and Swat. In Sindh, citrus fruits are grown in Khairpur, Nawabshah, and Sukkur. The main citrus districts in Baluchistan are Kech, Mekran, and Sibi. Mango is the second major fruit crop, grown over about 170,000 hectares, and Pakistan is the world's fourth-largest producer. Chief mango-production districts in Punjab are Bahawalpur, Multan, Muzzaffargarh, and Rahim yar Khan. In Sindh, farmers grow mangoes in Hyderabad, Mirpur Khas, and Thatta. Production of the fruit in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is centred in Mardan and Peshawar. The climate of Sindh warms about a month earlier than in Punjab, so Sindh farmers are able to grow early varieties of mango. Apples of great diversity in size, shape, colour and taste are grown throughout Pakistan and particularly at high elevations (1300 meters above sea level). National apple area is about 105,000 hectares, 92% of which is found in Balochistan Province. Guava is grown in all provinces over a total area of about 37,400 hectares, an area of which Punjab accounts for 73%. The major guava-growing districts are Gujranwala, Kasur (Shariqpur), Lahore, and Sheikhupura (Sangla Hills), Gujranwala in Punjab; Bannu, Haripur, and Kohat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; and Hyderabad and Larkana in Sindh. Apricot is produced nationwide on more than 28,000 hectares, 90% of which is in Balochistan, and exported both in fresh and dried forms. Peach is grown on over 15,400 hectares, mostly in Kalat and Quetta districts of Balochistan and Peshawar, Swat and parts    Annex 1a. 5-year average of kharif crop area (ha) in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (2013-14 -2017-18).  Annex 1b. 5-year average of kharif crop area (ha) in Punjab Province (2013-14 -2017-18). ","tokenCount":"2588"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54d0b581dceb1d4cc5a8cfa4491c034b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/34de5b22-2c04-4183-9cfe-76b2f31a3d13/retrieve","id":"252556023"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"906ebda6-99b6-4907-9647-3a13fc6fbaae","pagecount":"82","content":"ANEXO 9. El Salvador: Rendimiento (qq/rnz) de frijol, por épcca de siembra; perícdo 1980-1990. ANEXO 10. Mapa pedolégico de El Salvador. ANEXO 11. El Salvador: Costos de prcducción de frijol tecnificado. vi 58 59 60 61 ANEXO 12. El Salvador: Costos de producción de frijol semitecnificado., o sea que el frijol suministra el 8% de la disponibilidad total de proteínas. De las fuentes de proteínas completas, el frijol es el segundo en importancia después de la leche, maíz y trigo suministran más proteínas que frijol pero no son completas mientras que la importancia del maicillo es similar a la del frijol. El frijol es considerado como una fuente económica de proteínas, y su importancia en la dieta es muy grande para los consumidores de bajos recursos. Para la mayor parte del pueblo salvadoreño el frijol constituye un componente esencial de la canasta familiar y de la dieta diaria.2. OBJEl'IVt:S 2.1 Detennínar la importancia del cultivo del frijol en el sector agrícola y de sus i.Jrq:¡licaciones en la política agraria, :más específicamente con respecto a investigación, extensión, crédito y suministro de insurnos.2.2 Caracterizar al productor de frijol en cuanto al tipo de tenencia de la tierra y al acceso al sistema tecnológico y crediticio.2.3 Determinar los factores bióticos y abióticos que limitan la producción.2.4 Retroalimentar a las entidades gubernamentales y privadas sobre posibles mecanismos de fanento del cultivo.El procedimiento y las técnicas empleadas son sencillos, pero fueron sistematizados para obtener datos coherentes. la información procesada fue mixta: documental y de campo.In::I.!lOO.ntas En diversas instituciones públicas y privadas, incluso en organismos internacionales, se consultaron dOClllllel1tos especializados, relacionados con el cultivo del frijol.Trabajo de canpo visitas a varias agencias de extensión de las cuatro regiones del país, con el propósito de obtener infonnación actualizada en relación con el cultivo.3.3 Ordenamiento de la infonnación. Según proyecciones de la FAO, hechas para el período 1980-1989, la población para 1989 es de 5,138,000 habitantes, de los cuales algo más de la cuarta parte es agrícola; la población económicamente activa es el 31.4% del total, Y de ese porcentaje 37.1% es agrícola.De acuerdo con proyecciones realizadas por la Dirección de Población del Ministerio de Planificación y Coordinación del Desarrollo Económico y Social (MIPIAN), Ministerio de Econania y Dirección de Estadísticas y Censos (DIGESTYC), la población para el año 1990 era de 5,251,678 personas, de las cuales 49% corresponde a hombres y 51% a mujeres. En el Gráfico 1 Y Anexo 1 se encuentra información más detallada. Fuente: Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. Dirección General de Economía Agropecuaria.ESmlJCIURA DEL a:lNSIJM) DE FRIJOLEl consumo aparente está determinado por la fórmula, CA';' P + M -X, donde se refleja la demanda inte:rna de un producto o bien (CA), tomando en cuenta la producción interna (P), añadiendo lo que se importa (M), y deduciendo el volumen exportado (X).En el cuadro 2 se observa que, en los últimos años, toda la producción se consume internamente y no ha habido exportaciones; para sup1:ir la demanda inte:rna, ha sido necesario hacer importaciones de frijOl rojo y frijol de negro de Costa Rica, Argentina, Nicaragua y Estados Unidos.El consumo aparente (consumo humano y semilla) durante el periodo referido (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)  ID anterior sugiere que, en el área rural, las necesidades alimentarias de frijol están satisfechas, mientras que en el área urbana existen deficiencias.Se presentan diferencias regionales de consumo, con respecto al color del frijol (Cuadro 4).Se nota, además, que en la medida en que aumenta el ingreso hay mayor tendencia por el consumo de frijol rojo; los estratos de ingresos bajos consumen más frijol negro.En ténninos globales se consumen 12.88 kilos/cápita/año de frijol rojo, 1.08 de frijol negro y 1.40 de blanco.En El Salvador existen diferentes hábitos de consumo y preparación del frijoL El grano se consume generalmente en estado seco, y como frijol fresco en tiernoo de cosecha: el friiol enlatado se usa nocI'lS V~_,,_ T\",,,, ,..\",l\"It-;\"\",,= consumidas (kilosjcapita¡año) son respectivamente 15.36, 0.39 Y 0.06 a nivel nacional en la zona urbana. la forma de preparación más =riente es como frijoles enteros en sopa que se consumen principalmente en el almuerzo; molidos y fritos con mayor frecuencia en el desayuno; enteros y refritos se consumen en las tres comidas; salcochados sin mayor proceso y secos, para las tres comidas.Se acostumbra, 1 a 2 veces por semana, poner los frijoles en agua para que se ablanden, y posterionnente cocer los que se consumirán durante la semana. presenta tendencia ascendente, con una tasa de incremento total de 4.29%, ya que de 24, 100 mz sembradas en 1959 se pasó a 96,100 mz en 1989; existen años en que el área disminuye con relación al año anterior, como es el caso de 1961, con reducción de 6.8% y en 1965, con reducción de 23% con respecto al 64; a partir de 1967 el área se ha incre:rnenl:ado, y las oscilaciones han sido peco relevantes.En la década 59-69 el incremento neto fue de 4.50%, en el periodo 70-79 de 5.62%, Y en el 80-89 de 2.55%.ILI producción se ha incrementado a través de los años a una tasa general de 5.21%, debido principalmente al incremento en el área de siembra. Como puntos relevantes se anota que para 1973 ésta disminuyó con relacián al año 72 en un 20.5%; en 1986 bajó en 28.8% con respecto al 85 por problemas atribuibles al clima (exceso de lluvia); y en 1988 se sufrió la peor disminución de 51.4%, causada por el período de sequía que afectó al pais durante ese año. Por tanto, las disminuciones bruscas son debidas a las variaciones en rendimiento y no en área. ILI tasa de crecimiento de la producción en el período 1959-1969 es de 6.76%, Y en el periodo 1970-1979 de 4.25%: en el periodo 1980-1989 descendió en -0.23%.ReIrl:i:miento nacionalEl rendimiento nacional promedio se halla lIIIlY por debajo de los rendimientos reportados con las variedades ¡oojoradas de frijol, que son de 25 a 30 quintales por manzana; esto puede deberse a la poca utilización de variedades ¡oojoradas pues la mayoría de los productores siembran variedades criollas.El rendimiento muestra un incremento paulatino en la primera década pero en años posteriores ha tenido descensos que afectan la producción; los descensos más marcados se dieron en 1986 por exosso de lluvia durante el periodo de cosecha (9.0  en importancia, se ha mantenido en ascenso pero sin alcanzar los valores de la región I, con la tinica excepción de 1990 cuando superó a esa región sembrando 39,400 roz equivalentes al 43% del área total.la región III (Paracentral) aporta en 1990 al área total el 10% (9,400 roz), cuyo valor es menor que en años anteriores debido a la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades, principalmente el virus del Mosaico Dorado. la región IV (oriental) es la que menor área dedica a la produ=ión de frijol y durante el decenio analizado mostró una tendencia decreciente;presentó el menor valor (7,300 roz) en 1990, que representa el 8% del área total, a causa principalmente de la presencia de periodos de sequía en la región que inducen a los agricultores a sembrar maicillo.la información anterior se condensa en el Gráfico 4, donde se observa el crecimiento acumulado de área en las regiones r (6.57%) y II (3.70%), Y el descenso en las regiones III (-5.15%) Y IV (-3.82%).Producción por regiones En la región I hay un incremento acumulado de producción de 2. 34%, Y de 2.74% para la región II, debido al a\\lJllel1to en área sembrada. la producción en la región III decreció en -7.6% y en -8.6% la región DI, por efecto de disminución en área y en rendimiento (Gráfico 5).Ren:iimiento por :ta:Jiones frijol en relevo del maíz, preferiblemente en la época de agosto, cuarrlo el maíz ha logrado su madurez fisiológica, y el frijol utiliza como tutor la caña del maíz; dado que en este sistema no existe canq;¡etenc:ia entre los dos cultivos, para efectos de análisis se torna como frijol solo. Un tercer sistema es sembrar el frijol en asocio generalmente con maíz para elote en las cuatro regiones, con caña de azúcar en la región lII, con henequén en la IV, y muy poco con cítricos en la región 1. Se siembra en surcos en medio de los otros cultivos y aquí si hay competencia con ellos: su principal época de siembra es en primera, y algo en segun:la con caña.área. El sistema en asocio continúa siendo el segundo en importancia y el l11OllOCU1tivo, el tercero.En la región IV, la que menor área dedica al cultivo, el sistema en asocio era el más importante en 1980-1982; desde 1983 a 1986, el monocultivo supera a los otros dos sistemas; para 1987 el sistema en relevo es el más importante con un 47.2% del área dedicada al frijol. En 1990 participa con un 54%, el monocultivo con un 32% y el asocio tan solo con el 12% (Gráfico 7) .8.2 Produoción por sistema de cultivo la producción de frijol bajo el sistema en relevo, en 3.as regiones 1 y II, es mayor durante todo el período analizado pero con grandes descensos en 1986, 1988 Y 1990, debido a problen:as clllnáticos principallrente; las producciones para los otros sistemas son bastante menores pero más estables.En la región III, hasta 1984, la producción bajo el sistema en relevo es menor que en monocultivo y en asocio; a partir de este año, este último sistema tiene un auge pero con decrecimiento fuerte en 19B6 y 1988 por problemas climatológicos.Para la región IV, la producción en monocultivo ha sido superior a la de los otros sistemas; el asocio, que en los años 1980-1982 fue superior al relevo y al monocultivo, a partir de 1982 experimenta un descenso que se mantiene hasta el año 1990 (Gráfico 8).Los rendimientos del frijol son superiores bajo el sistema de monocultivo, para las cuatro regiones, durante el período analizado. El sistema en relevo presenta mayores rendimientos que el asociado en las regiones 1, 11 Y 111, siendo superado en la región IV por el sistema en asocio. Algo importante es que el sistema en relevo ha sufrido las mayores bajas en rend:i1niento en los años con problemas climatológicos en el país, como son 1986-1988 asociado posiblemente con el pericdo de siembra de agosto-septiembre (Gráfico 9).En El Salvador se identifican tres épocas de siembra para el frijol (cuadro 6). CUadro 6. Epocas de siembra del frijol en El Salvador. Epoca la. mayo 2a. agosto ::la. apante lluvia lluvia humedad residual ó riego 15 mayo -15 junio En general, el área de siembra para las cuatro regiones se ha ido incrementando paulatinamente en la segunda época, mientras que el área en la primera epoca ha decrecido, aun cuando registra aumento en el año 89 en las cuatro regiones. El área en tercera época se ha nantenido más o menos estable, con un ligero descenso en las regiones III y IV (Gráfi= 10).Produooión por época de siembra La mayor producción de frijol en las cuatro regiones se obtiene en la segunda época, especialmente para las regiones 1 y II; en éstas se observan mayores diferencias en producción =n respecto a las épocas 1 Y 3. En la regiones III y IV le sigue en importancia la época 1; en ésta la producción se incrementó en el último año y superó la de la época 2 en la región IV. La época 3 tiene poca producción en las cuatro regiones, lo cual es =ngruente con el área de siembra (Gráfico 11).Rerrlimiento por época de siembra Es importante observar = los rerrlimientos en la época 1, en las regiones II, III Y IV han venido descendiendo I pero con mayor frecuencia en las dos últimas regiones; los rendimientos en la época 3 son más altos Y más estables que los obtenidos en las épocas 1 Y 2; éstos han tenido tendencia decreciente debido a problemas de clima y a la incidencia de enfermedades que atacan el cultivo. (Gráfico 12).Existen múltiples limitantes de la producción de frijol en El Salvador, y para efectos del análisis se clasifican en abióticos, bióticos, tecnológicos y de otra indole. El Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería estima que las pérdidas =idas en los diferentes pasos de las labores de postcosecha del frijol, desde la recolección hasta el almacenamiento y el empaque, alcanzan al 5% del volumen total de la produo::;ión; el agricultor generalmente no contabiliza dichas pérdidas.Centro de los causales de pérdida se mencionan los siguientes: de¡lX)ra en la recolección, la cual afecta la calidad del grano y permite el ataque de plagas y enfermedades; mal arranque de las plantas y aporreo deficiente o excesivo; mal secado; :inadecuados sistemas de almacenamiento, que afectan además la calidad nutricional del grano.Por 10 general, el agricultor almacena el frijol en sacos, junto con la basura que se obtiene del aporreo, pues considera que ésta ayuda a preservar el producto; unos po:::os la guardan en graneros de lámina, fumigados con pastillas de bisulfuro de cari:lono ó phostoxin, al inicio del almacenamiento.Factores 1:ecocllógicos 10.3.1 Semilla mejorada El frijol, a pesar de ser un cultivo prioritario en El Salvador, carece de un sistema de abasteciIniento de semilla mejorada; el maíz en cambio si lo tiene. Existe alguna produo::;ión de semilla a través de cooperativas y otros grupos asociativos, en forma artesanal.El Centro Nacional de Tecnología Agrícola (CENTA), ha liberado las siguientes variedades: En 1981, CE:Nm. Izalco, de grano pequeño de color rojo oscuro; esta variedad es precoz, tolerante a mustia hilachosa y tiene buena productividad. En 1988, CE:Nm. J:iboa, de grano pequeño de color rojo y forma redonda; es resistente al mosaico común y tiene buen rendimiento. En 1990, la variedad CENTA Olzcatleco, de grano pequeño de color rojo; es resistente al mosaico dorado y tiene buen rendimiento.A pesar de esto, el productor salvadoreño sigue sembrando variedades criollas y usa muy poco las variedades nuevas. En el caso de omt:a Izalco esto ocurre por la deficiencia de semilla y por la falta de correspondencia con las cuaJ.idades agronómicas y comerciales que busca el agricultor; sobre las variedades liberadas en 1988 y 1990 es prematuro hacer una apreciación.  (solo y con maiz), en el sector no refonnado, es de propiedad del productor, y el 9.4% es área en arriendo; según estos datos, el tipo de tenencia de la tierra no es una limitante en la producción de frijol.Cuadro 11. Tipo de tenencia de la tierra en el sector no reformado, 87/88.--~~~--~-------_.~------ Incluidos los diferentes sistemas de cultivo del frijol (solo o con maíz), en el l!IÍS!ro cuadro se presenta la contribución de esta leguminosa al área en granos bási<XlS, al área en cultivos y al área total de la finca, según el tamaño de la explotación.A nivel global, el frijol contribuye con 15.8% del área en granos bási<XlS, con 8.0% del área cultivada y con 2.7% del área total de la explotación. la dependencia del frijol en las explotaciones es alta, ya que no es posible mucha arrpliación del terreno.CUadro 13. Importancia del frijol dentro de la explotación, 1987-1988. ------------_ Según el Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, en estudio realizado en 1986, la demanda de mano de obra para el cultivo del frijol asciende a 56 díasjhornbrejmanzana, desde siembra hasta cosecha; de acuerdo con esos datos agrega que los jornales a nivel nacional, generados en el año agricola 1984-85, ascendieron a 4.62 IlÚllones de diasjhombre para un area de 82,500 manzanas. De las tres épocas de siembra del frijol en el pais, la que mayor mano de obra absorbe es la segunda, después la primera, y finalmente, la tercera.No se obtuvo más infonnación con respecto a la mano de obra, pero las autoras cresn que la mayor parte es mano de obra fanúliar, ya que el frijol es un cultivo manual, de baja productividad. Consideran adenás que hay escasez de mano de obra debida entre otras cosas, a la enúgración de la población a otras zonas por problemas politicos, y a la estacionalidad del cultivo y de las labores inherentes al IlÚsmo. 10.4.4 Mercadeo 10.4.4.1 Destino de la producción Se observa en el Cuadro 14 que la mayor parte de la producción, 65.4%, es para autcconsumo. El 34.6% restante se distribuye al mercado por los diferentes canales de comercialización; este porcentaje va de acuerdo con el tamaño de la explotación, asi: productores con fincas menores de 1 mz dejan toda su producción para el consumo, productores con 1 a 2 mz sólo llevan al mercado el 14.7% de su producción, aquellos con 2 a 5 mz llevan al mercado el 24.2%; los de 5 a 50 mz, un promedio de 50% de la producción; y los productores de 100 ó más manzanas mercadean el 73% de su producción total.En el IlÚsmo cuadro se observa, adenás, comercialización son los intermediarios directos (43.0%). que el principal canal de (56.4%) y los consumidores ütadro 14. Canales de distribución utilizados por los prcrluctores de frijol, según el tamano de la explotación, en 1987/88.  En el período bajo estudio , los precios del IRA han mostrado un incremento negativo del -8.76%; los precios al productor un incremento del 7.32% (para los últimos seis años); para el transp::>rtista, la tasa de creci.miento es negativa (-6.93%); para el mayorista es de -6.66%; y para el consmnidor, es igual a -6.58% (Oladro 15 y Gráfi= 13).Se observa, además, que generalInente los precios de sustentación fijados p::>r el IRA están p::>r encima de los precios pagados al productor, =n excepción de 1986 y 1988; en estos años los productores obtuvieron mejores precios a causa del bajo volumen de producción debido a los problerras climáticos anteriormente mencionados.La estacionalidad en los precios es efecto de la estacionalidad en la producción. En los meses de abril a julio se incrementan los precios p::>rque hay poca disponibilidad de frijol en el mercado, y de noviembre a diciembre cuando se cosecha y hay mayor producción en el mercado, los precios bajan.La situación scciopolitica reinante en el país ha incidido, no sólo en la producción de frijol, sino en todo el sector agropecuario, especialInente en la región rv (Oriental), que ha sido la más afectada p::>r los conflictos.Los costos de producción del frijol que se presentan en el presente dClCUll'el1to son el resultado de la investigación de canp:> que realizan los técnicos del Programa de Frijol en colaboración con la Unidad de Economía; ésta se encarga de analizarlos y ajustarlos mediante consultas hechas a los agricultores. En 1990, se dedicaron 679,000 manzanas a la producción de granos básicos; 58.13% del área se sembró con maíz solo, o en asocio principalIrente con frijol; 25.03% con maicillo; 13.48% =rresporxlió a frijol, y 3.27% a arroz.El índice de crecmento de la producción de maíz para el período 1951-1977 fue de 3.3%, pero durante los últimos nueve años (1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987) apenas alcanza el 1.5% anual. Para el frijol la tasa de crecmento general del período 1959-1989 es de 5.21%, sin embargo. en la últi1lla década ésta se vió profundamente afectada por las reducciones de rendimiento causadas por el exceso de lluvias de 1985 y por la fuerte sequía de 1988.El 88% de la producción de frijol es para consumo humano y el 7% para semilla; en maíz, el 77% es para consumo humano y 17% para consumo industrial.El principal sistema de cultivo de maíz es el monocultivo (73.8%); el 26% está en asocio con frijol. El principal sistema del frijol es en relevo con maíz.El 99% de la producción de maiz se obtiene en la primera época; para el frijol, la principal época de siembra es la segunda.Para maiz hay producción de semilla certificada, sin embargo ésta ha descendido del 80% al 45% de los requerimientos nacionales de semilla; en frijol no hay producción de semilla certificada.I.a población de El Salvador presenta una tasa de crecimiento global de 1.45% para el periodo 1980-1990; la producción de frijol en el pais, en la década de los 60, presentaba una tasa de crecimiento del 6.76%, en la década del 70 de 4.25%, y en la última década su tasa ha sido negativa (-2,34%) • El consumo aparente de frijol presenta una tasa de crecimiento acumulado para el periodo 1974-1989 de 0.7%. Esto da una indicación de la eminente necesidad de aumentar la producción para poder suplir la demanda interna, ahorrando divisas por importación.Los mayores esfuerzas para aumentar la produ=ión de frijol se deben hacer aumentando tanto el área de cultivo -ésta ha disminuido 'de 4.50% en la década del 60 a 2.55% en los 80 --como la productividad (produ=ión por unidad de área), pues ésta ha decrecido considerablemente: sus tasas van desde 2.37% en los 60 y -1.40% para los 70 hasta -2.74% en los 80.Se hace también necesario buscar mecanismos de producción de semilla mejorada pues su abastecimiento es aún incipiente a pesar de la liberación de nuevas variedades tales como ~ Izal= (1981), ~ Jihoa (1988) Y CEN'.I2'. CUzcatle= (1990), con caracteristicas ventajosas, tolerantes a enfermedades y rendidoras. A veces, estas variedades no se ajustan a los requerimientos agronómicos y comerciales que busca el productor (caso de CEN'.I2'. Izalco) • Se debe fomentar el =édito directo para frijol, es decir, sin atarlo al de maiz 8.l:gUll\\eI1tando que el principal sistema de cultivo de frijol es en relevo con maiz. Efectivamente, se siembra el frijol cuando el maiz se encuentra en su madurez fisiológica y cercano a la cosecha, época en que el maiz ha absorbido todo el =édito dejando sin recursos financieros al frijol, que es el cultivo posterior.En vista de la situación sociopolitica de las regiones 111 y IV, se debe incentivar la producción incorporando nuevas áreas de las regiones 1 y II, Y hay que incrementar el rendmento.El COIlS1.llI1O aparente de frijol presenta una tasa de =ecmento en el periodo 1974-1989 de 0.7%; la población =oca a una tasa de 1.45%: se hace necesario por tanto incrementar la producción de frijol cuya tasa de =ecmento ha sido negativa para el último decenio (-2.34%).El in=emento en área para la última década es de 2.55%; sin embaJ:go, la producción tiene una tasa negativa (-0.23%) por efecto de las variaciones en rendimientos, no en área.La principal área dedicada al cultivo del frijol está locali,'da en la región 1 (Occidental) y canprende el 39% del área total de producción.Se ha disminuido el área de siembra del frijol en la región IV, debido a problemas de sequia, y el cultivo está siendo desplazado por el maicillo.IDs promedios de rendmento en cada decenio han ido mejorando, aunque en la última década la tasa de =ecmento ha pasado a ser negativa, debido principalmente a problemas climáticos y a incidencia I.os mayores rendimientos se obtienen en la región 1, seguidos por los obtenidos en la región IU; sin embargo ambos se han visto afectados por excesos de lluvia y por sequía.La principal época de siembra para frijol es la segurrla, Y el principal sistema de cultivo es en relevo, preferiblemente con maíz.El área de siembra en la época 2 se ha incrementado para las cuatro regiones y ha disminuído en la época 1.Los mayores rendimientos se obtienen en monocultivo.El sistema de cultivo en relevo ha sido el más afectado por factores de clima adversos debido a que su principal época de siembra es la segunda.Las pérdidas ocasionadas por las labores de postcoseCha generalmente no son tenidas en cuenta.No existe un sistema de producción y abastecimiento de semilla mejorada para el frijol.Considerar, a ccrto o mediano plazo, la capacitación en suelos y en manejo de los problemas nutricionales que afectan el cultivo.Liberar variedades que tengan tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades, principalmente virales, y que estén accrdes con los requerimientos de los productores.Un estudio sobre demanda de semilla es indispensable.Trabajar en la producción de semilla artesanal para que los agricultores tengan semilla limpia y de mejor calidad.Para la zona IV son recomendables las variedades tolerantes a la sequía, precoces y con buenos rendimientos.Para la liberación de variedades se deben tener en cuenta las preferencias regionales por color.Estudio de gustos y preferencias del productor, del int:enrediario y del consumidor por el frijol, con el fin de producir las variedades que se ajusten a dichas preferencias.Estudios sobre pérdidas en postcosecha, y sobre manejo del frijol en postcosecha son también necesarios.Con el fin de mejorar la producción de frijol, se requieren análisis sobre política de precios y mercadeo.Para incentivar la producción, son necesarios esquemas eficientes de asistencia técnica y crediticia.Complementar la información recopilada en este documento.Alfara, E.A., 1990. Investigación de la capacidad de almacenamiento de granos básicos en El salvador.   :1     e. ,: \" ,m Ji:; •     ","tokenCount":"4055"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b4f2c7d3675fbd1c8ea2f78ce500b432","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/Digital/SB191.R5_A7_C3_Arroz_Investigaci%C3%B3n_y_producci%C3%B3n_Referencia_de_los_cursos_de_capacitaci%C3%B3n_sobre_ar.pdf","id":"1620393526"},"keywords":["Fuente FAD","Trade Vearbook ~","«",".. '","-","---.","._~_"],"sieverID":"6f4d42cc-72c5-43b4-aa61-7ee87aa94d81","pagecount":"706","content":"Finaimente, a los usuarios de este libro, confío en que lo encontraran interesante, útil y motivador para que contribuyan a la producción del drraz y al avance del conocimiento y la tecnología 'Sobre este importante dlimento humano.Si algún cultivt,; ha tenido ~Y.ito en Am6rica Latina en aumentar sus rendimientos para ayudar a satisfacer la demanda creciente de alimento, ha sido el arroz. El incremento r~pido en las cosechas de este cereal se inició a finales de la década del sesenta con la introducci6n de las variedades enanaS de alto rendimiento, la primera de ellas la IR~8~ traída del IRRI, Filipinas. pcr uno de sus creadores, el Dr. Peter Jennings. Hasta ese entonces el panorama de la producción arrocera en América Latina estaba dominado por el Blue Bunet 50, el StH Sonet, el Blue S.l1. y el Selle Patna, provenientes de los Estados Unidos y por otras variedades seleccionadas de diferentes fuentes. como el Magnolia, el Rexoro, el Nira y el Tapuripa y los Nilo!> introducidos de Sut'inam.Desde 1968, la investigaciOn agr1cola que se efectu5 en el CIAT, (que habla sido iniciada por la Fundación Rockefeller y el ICA en Colombia), y que luego se extendi5 a la colaboración cón otras naciones, generO las variedades mejoradas de la serie CICA (CICA-4, CICA-6, ClCA-7, CICA-B, CICA-9) y sus parientes de distintos nombres en varios países.Conjuntamente con el mejoramiento, prueba e intrQducciOn de esas variedades de ~lto rendimiento y resistentes a sogata y a piricularia y hoja blanca, se desarrollaron mediante la ir¡vestigaciOn mejores métodos agronómicos y de manejo del cultivo, se expandió el área bajo irrigación y se aumentó y tecnific6 la producción de semilla. SirnulUneamente se cdpacitaron numerosos profesionales, investigadores, extensionistas y educadores, especializados en arrOz~ Asi mismo, en el Asia se aumento el cOflocimiento sobre el cultivo. Este proceso de investigación, capacitaCión y producción continQa hoy en d~a hacia el futuro~ y es necesario para enfrentar nuevos problemas y desafios en la producción. Para ayudar a este proceso, hemos. tomado en el CIAT la iniciativa de producir este manual sobre investigación y producción de arroz, en forma de un compendio de artlculos de diversos autores, cada uno de el10s autoridad en el tema.Este libro pretende ofrecer a los investigadores. extensionistas, productores t instructores y es tud i antes. un i vers itarias, un texto de referencia y un material de enseñanza, complementario a sesiones de discusión y pr~ctica con especialistas en el cultivo_ Para su integraci6n se nan seleccionado los tópicos más importantes relacionados con la investigación que el CIAT realiza en arroz y con otros aspectos de la producción de arroz en el tr6pico de América Latina. Se han incorporado tdmbi~n los resultantes de investigaciones y experiencias individuales de numerosos investigadores y de otros profesionales de los pa1ses de la regi6n.los articulos lnclu1dos provienen de los materiales de capacitación que bajo los auspicios de la Oficina de Capacitación Cientlfica y del Programa de Arroz del CIAT, durante quince años se han venido preparando por parte de investigadores del Centro y de otras instituciones colaboradoras t como el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, ICA;la Federación Nacional d. Arroceros, FEDEARROZ; la Facultad de Agronom1a de la Universidad Nacional) Palmira; y la empresa privada. Estos materiales de enseñanza cubren todos los temas principales sobre la tecnolo91a de producci6n del arroz en la actualidad y se han utilizado ya VII extensamente en programas de capacitación posgrado de numerosos profesionales, tanto en el CIJ\\.T como en muchos países de América latina, han probado Su efectividad y han sido refinados y actualizados a~o a afta.Igual de importante, las variedades, tecnologhs y métodos de Que trata es te manua 1, donde es tán siendO ap 1 i cadas, logran aumentos de rendimiento, que como en el caso de Colombia se han dúp1icado desde los comienzos de la década de los años setenta hasta el presente. Si bien este impacto ha sido sobre todo. hasta ahora. en zonas de cultivo bajo riego; en variiis partes de1 libro se cubren ternas referentes al arroz de secano favorecido, y los métodos de investigación que Se presentan son aplicables en gran parte a las condiciones de secano. A través de los 12 capítulos con 38 articulos. los cuales han sido revisados por los autores y adaptados por los editores t~cnicos, Ingenieros Eugenio Tascón y Ellas Garcla, se ha procurado mantener el estilo y contenido propios de cada original.Deseamos expresar nuestro agradecimiento d todos los autores y a las demás personas gracias a cuya labor ha sido pOSible levantar los textos. elaborar las ilustrdciones e imprimir esta publicaciOn, espeCialmente a. Libia de Benavídes, Luz Stella Pérez y A1círa Arias. Igualmente al personal de artes gr&ficas y publicaciones de la Unidad de Servicios de EL ARROZ EN EL MUNDO Y AMERICA LATINA R. Posada En este artículo se revisan en la primera parte, las tendencias de la producción de arroz, los rendimientos y el área sembrada en el mundo y en América Latina, con el objeto de dar una perspectiva más clara de la importancia del arroz en la región, su desarrollo más reciente y probable estructura futura. A pesar de que América Latina representa solo un peque~o porcentaje del área sembrada con arroz y del total de la producción en el mundo, el arroz ha empezado a ser un producto importante en la dieta de la región, a medida que se incrementa el consumo percápita, principalmente como resultado del incremento de la producción en casi todos los países.La segunda parte presenta una vista general de la producción de arroz en América Latina, haciendo énfasis especial a los sistemas de producción que actualmente se utilizan en cada país. o que pueden tener probabilidades para un desarrollo futuro. Aquí se planea ilustrar dos aspectos importantes de la investigaci5n de arroz en América Latina: a) por una parte 10 complejo del sector, inducido por la gran variedad de sistemas de producci5n y b) por otra parte, la dependencia del sector en políticas gubernamentales para guiar su futuro desarrollo.En la parte final se hacen algunas preguntas, aún sin respuesta, relacionadas con la estructura futura del sector arrocero en América Latina. Las respuestas a éstas serán muy importantes como ayuda a formar criterios para la distribución de los recursos de investigación, entre algunos sistemas de producción. Teniendo en cuenta algunos problemas inesperados como la intervención gubernamental, los sistemas de producción y la capacidad nacional para la investigación en arroz se propone una lista de investigaciones económicas. Específicamente se sugiere un modelo de simulación del sector arrocero.Las tendencias de la producción de arroz en el mundo, las áreas y los rendimientos, se han mantenido estables durante las últimas dos décadas. El área cosechada creció a una proporción anual de 1.09 por ciento durante el perIodo 1960-69 y de 1.02 por ciento durante el perIodo de 1970-79. El incremento absoluto del rendimiento de arroz fue de 390 kg/ha en los años 60 y 290 kg/ha en los 70. Por 10 tanto, la producción ha estado creciendo regularmente durante los últimos veinte años con dos excepciones notables, las cosechas de los años 1965-66 y 1972-73. La proporción del arroz molinada se ha mantenido igual durante todo el peri oda ana 1 izado. Las exportaci ones en proporci ón con 1 a produce i ón de grano 100 1 i nado, tambi ~n se han manteni do cons tantes, pues to que tanto el volumen de las exportaciones como el de la producción, se han duplicado. La infonnación de los setenta, muestra una tendencia a un aumento de estas exportaciones. Las reservas se han triplicado durante los últimos 20 años, pero cuando se midió como porcentaje de utilización, sólo se incrementó Cuadro 3. Comercio neto de arroz, América Latina. 1960-1980. Exportaciones netas están en números negativos. Todos los datos en miles de toneladas. Y Estimado como residuo Fuente: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Circular FG38-80, Diciembre 19.1980 nueva tecnologí'a. Además, su crecimiento prmr.edio de ttreas sembradas en arroz es mucho mayor que en otras áreas del resto del mundo. lo cual sugiere que la importancia de esta región. en términos de producci6n de arroz, se incrementará en un futuro cercano.En el Cuadro 6 se puede observar el comercio neto del arroz. Las más grandes regiones importadoras son Medio Oriente y América, seguidos por Europa y URSS, América Latina comprende Sur América, América Central y el Caribe, están cerca de su autoabastecimiento. Las exportaciones estan principalmente dominadas por USA, Con el 50 por ciento del total de exportaciones, y el Lejano Oriente-Oceanía.En términos generales el arroz es producidO bajo dos sistemas: con riego y en secano. El sistema de producci6n con riego tiene como principal caracteristica el control sobre el manejo del agua y se obtienen mayores rendímientos. El sistema de producción en secano es caracterizado por las llUVldS como única fuente de agua. La distribución y la cantidad en las lluvias a través de las regiones, es una de las razoneS para la gran variedad de rendimientos observados en el sistema. Otras razones para éll0 son la calidad del suelo y los factores del medio ambiente agrícola. Existe la necesidad de asignar una importancia potencial relativa de cada sistema para establecer una estrategia de investigación.En México existen dos sistemas de producción: Uno basado en el riego y el otro que es abastecido por las lluvias. El sistema de riego esU loca 1 izado pri nci pa lmente en 1 a rey i óo de I Pac1 fi co, re~resentando un 57 por ciento del area sembrada. El sístema de secano está localizado en el sur en Yucatán. En términos de futuras tendencias, se espera un énfasis en la disminución del sector de riego, debido a los altos costos de producción y la competencia con las cos~chas de hortalizas. Por otro 1ado, se espera un aumento en el sector de secano, debido a los costos bajos y a la decisión del gObierno de extender el área para arroz secano en el Sur y Sur~Oriente. En efecto , ha ocurrido una disminución de 15.000 hectáreas en el total de área sembrada bajo condiciones de riego entre los años 1969 y 1978 ( Cuadros 7,8 Y 9).El sistema de producción de arroz predorr.indl'lte en América Central es el de secano, con un ~tea equivalente al 87 por ciento del total de la región.Los mayores productores en el Caribe son Cuba y República Dominicana.El sistema de producción predominante es el de riego y está concentrado en Cuba. En el Caribe, tanto el incremento en área come en rendimiento s.on igualmente importantes en la explicación del aumento total de la producción de arroz (Cuadros 7,8 Y 9).  1.7 Total América Latina 7726 11219 100.0 Fuente: FAO. Production Yearbooks. En Ecuador, Bolivia y Perú se espera un aumento en la producción de arroz Secano puesto que los tres palses se enfrentan a limitaciones relacionadas con infraestructura de riego y el abastecimiento total de agua. En Paraguay el sector de secano decaerla en términos de área sembrada debido a problemas de sequía (Cuadros 7,8 Y 9). Sur América, Cono Sur Brasil es el mayor productor de arroz en América Latina. Del total del &rea que siembra, el 86 por ciento corresponde al sector de secano. En ténninos de producci6n, el secano contribuye con el 66 por ciento del total. Los rendimientos en riego son 4.0 ton/ha, mientras que los rendimientos de secano son de 1.28 ton/ha. Durante la Q1tima década, los aumentos en la producción se han obtenido principalmente a trav~s de aumentos en el area sembrada porque los rendimientos se han mantenido constantes. (Cuadros 7,8 Y 9). En términos de desarrollo futuro, se espera un aumento en ambos sectores~ el de riego y el de secano, pero el Objetivo final es aumentar el sector de riego hasta real izar una relaciOn de producclOn de 1:1 para los dos sistemas. En la regiOn del Sur Oriente, especlficamente en Rio Grande do Sul, región productora de arroz con riego, un cambio dramatico est& en camino. Se espera que una variedad enana 1 la IRGA 409., incremente el promedio de rendimientos en una tonelada. Sí las 600 mil hectáreas de arroz en esta región son sembradas con esta nueva variedad, la producción nacional se aumentar1a en un 10%* .• Este cambio realmente se ha efectuado durante 1983-84. Nota de editor.Los paIses de la zona templada de Sur América son productores de arroz con riego. En ténninos de la producci5n, la contribuci6n de Argentina, Chile y Uruguay es menos del 5 por ciento del total en América Latina. En Chile y Uruguay la producci6n de arroz ha estado aumentando r~pidamente, mientras que en la Argentina se nota una tendencia. la disminución de ¡a producción de arroz. las condiciones del medio ambiente par. la producci6n de arroz en esta región, var1an con respecto al resto del áerea, debido principalmente al clima frlo. Los rendimientos son tan altos como en cualquier otra parte del mundo con clima templado (Cuadros 7,8 Y 9).La informaci6n de Guyana y Surinam es eScasa. Estos palses son básicamente productores de arroz con riego, aunque Guyana tiene algo en secano. Los rendimientos esUn alrededor de 3.0 ton/ha. En tendencias futuras, se espera un incremento en el ~rea de riego. pero dicho incremento puede verse limitado por los altos costos en 1. infraestructura, asl como tambi~n por los mercados, puesto que ambos paIses producen principalmente para exportación.las proyecciones de tendencias indican que Am~rica Latina podrá satisfacer su demanda total de arroz durante las pr6ximas dos décadas. Esta es una apreciación muy optimista puesto que hay algunos palses, como Brasil y México, donde el crecimiento de la demanda es mayor que el crecimiento de la producci6n. No se sabe si el resto de los paIses del ~rea, con el potencial para el comercio exterior, podrlan competir en precios con otras regiones exportadoras. Por ésto se hace necesario identificar paIses y sistemas con el mayor potencial de incremento y con bajos costos de producción. Dicha información puede contribuIr al establecimiento de las prioridades para la investigación, asl como para dar recomendaciones que apoyen programas nacionales.Tres problemas actuales, altamente interrelacionados, deben ser examinados con el ffn de intentar trazar posibles estructuras futuras. para la producción de arroz: 1. En la mayorla de los paises el arroz es un cultivo comercial, 10 que hace que el mayor otjetivo de los agricultores es el de prOducirlo para la venta t buscando una ganancia razonable de acuerdo a su inversiOn. Por lo tanto t la ganancia relativa en la producci6n de arroz, comparada con la de otras actividades, es un determinante importante del nivel de inversión y producción. De M~xico a la Argentina es posible encontrar algún grado de intervención gubernamental. que resulta ser distorsionante, tanto positiva como negativamente para el sector arrocero. En casi todos los paises la intervención gubernamental más directa es con relación a los precios de sustentación; otras formas inCluyen créditos subsidiados, imposiCión de precios, la construcción de infraestructura (principalmente proyectos de distritos de riego), gastos en investigación y extensión. Todas estas variables pueden ser relacionadas con un nivel de aceptación o el uso de nuevas variedades liberadas por el programa nacional de cada pals. Por lo tanto, un proyecto dirigIdo a predecir la adopción de nueva tecnologia para arroz en América Latina, debe incluír un cuídadoso repaso del comportamiento del gobierno y sus objetivoS con respecto al arroz y otros cultivos. 2. Otro problema a considerar es el número de sistemas de producci6n disponibles en cada país. El sistema que prevalece en cierto país o regi6n, depende de los siguientes costos: a) Infraestructura, b) Costos de transporte y c) Costos de producci6n. Igualmente depende de otros factores como: tíerra, recursos disponibles, objetivos gubernamentales y tecnología disponibles para cada sistema. La identificación de estos costos y factores es esencial para cuantificar las relaciones económicas, de los cuales uno de los ~s importantes es el grado de sustituci6n O complementabilidad que existe entre los dos mayores sistemas de producción: secano y riego. 3. La generación y difusión de las nuevas variedades en cada país. están altamente correlacionadas con la fortaleza del programa nacional.Aunque algunos datos estan disponibles, un inventario de la capacidad actual de investigación en arroz es necesario y las proyecciones del estado del conocimiento de la producción de arroz, deben hacerse en el futuro.Diferentes estrategias de investigación dependen de las posibilidades que los programas nacionales puedan tener para una investigación adaptíva o innovativa. los pa1ses con un pequefio capital humano, solo estar1an en capacidad de adaptar materiales en estados avanzados de selección, mientras que los países con programas fuertes de investigación, podrían trabajar COn materíales de generaciones tempranas.Una evaluación de programas de extensión es también importante, puesto que su fortaleza esta relacionada con el promedio de adopción de las nuevaS variedades liberadas.Por lo anterior, se puede deducir la complejidad y el tamano de la tarea de predicción del desarrollo del sector arrocero en América Latina. De cualqUier forma •un vistazo l' general ser1a errado puesto que hay muchos parametros que constantemente están cambiando, lo cual afecta la estructura final del sector. Aparentemente, técnicas de simulaci6n podrían ser usadas en esta situaci6n. La construcci6n de un modelo de simulación requerirh investigadOn en un número de t6picos: a) la ovaluacMn de parámetros criticos como precio y elasticidad de ingreso de oferta y demanda, b) identificar y cuantificar relaciones espec1ficas como precios de sustentaci6n y promedios de adopción dé nueva tecnolog1a; cambios tecnológicos y precios de tierras etc~; c) observar como 1a producción total responde a los cambios siste~ticos en .1 valor de los parametros.Una vez el modelo de simulaci6n está ensamblado puede usarse de dos formas: 1) para evaluar las implicaciones de las pol1t1cas seleccionadas y 2) para El afroz se cultiva en una diver-sidad de condiciones ambientales y algunos autores sostienen que es un cultivo especial para las zonas húmedas del tr6pico o para el imas con temperaturas altas. Otros consideran que el arroz florece en un amplio rango de condiciones que van desde los 45 grados de latitud norte a 40 grados al sur del Ecuador. También se afirma que el arroz se puede cultivar desde el nivel del mar hasta los 2.500 metros de altitud, 10 cual permite que en 1as ~reas arroceras, la temperatura y la longitud del dla, al igual que las condiciones de disponibilidad de agua sean muy diversas.Las diferentes consideraciones en el análisis de los factores que regulan el crecimiento de la planta de arroz, ha hecho que muchos investigadores estudien los limitantes relacionados con el desarrollo y adaptabilidad del arroz al medio.El punto de vista en el cual coinciden la mayor1a de los investigadores, es que una temperatura alta y abundante radiaci6n solar~ son necesarias para el arroz, sin embargo~ un concepto universal eS que una alta disponibilidad de agua, es el requisito mas crítico en su producción y que la magnitud del gasto de agua es una función de la evapotranspiraci6n local, combinada con factores de pérdidas por percolación y escorrent~a4De acuerdo a lo anterior; se analizan separadamente los distintos factores ambientales que influyen en la producción del cultivo del arroz~ FACTORES CLIfmTICOS QUE AFECTAN EL ARROZ TEMPERATURA La temperatura afecta no solo el crecimiento, sino el desarrollo ae la planta de arroz. No todas las distintas fases de desarrollo para su normal manifestación tienen los mismos rangos de temperatura~ sino que cada una de éstas son favorecidas por diferentes temperaturas~ Los fitomejoradores desarrollan variedades que pueden adaptarse bien a los distintos rangos de temperatura. Estudios sobre el efecto de temperaturas bajas en la planta de arroz, se han hecho principalmente al punto de congelación, sin embargo un interrogante be presenta a temperaturas por encima del punto de congelación entre 10 y 21 C, rango en el cual los cambios bioqulmicos ocurridos en la PÓanta de arroz, no nan sido bien estudiados y por el contrario entre O y 4 e están bien determinados.El arroz expuesto a temperaturas bajas durante el estado de plántula. puede sufrir un estancamiento en su crecimiento, debido a la disminución en las reacciones qUlmicas y procesos ffsícos~ pero este fenómeno puede ser reversible por cuanto la planta se recupera cuando las condiciones favorables de temperatura se presentan.El proceso de elongación de las hojas se afectara únicamente en aquellas hojas que se formen durante )a exposición a la temperatura baja, mientras aquellas que se forman después de temperaturas nonnales. tendrán un tamafio normal.Condiciones de temperaturas bajas pueden causar en otros estados de desarrollo un daño irreversible y la planta puede sufrir un colapso permanente y en algunos casos hasta la muerte. Ejemplo de lo anterior se presenta cuando por temperaturas bajas, el vaneamiento de 105 granos puede ser total, mientras que la muerte puede llegar a ocurrir como consecuencia de un intenso amarillamiento de las hojas~ causado posiblemente por la importancia de las racles al absorber nutrimentos del suelo.Temperaturas bajas del orden de ISO a 19°C durante el estada de maios1s en las células madres, 10 a 11 dlas antes de la floración, causa alta esterilidad (Stake, 1969).Por otro lado Nakayama (1974), sostiene que el efecto de temperaturas altas es considerado como un factor adverso a la producci6n, inclusive en algunas regiones frias del Japón. La combinación de temperaturas altas y baja radiación so1ar durante 1a maduraci6n del grano, causa un acortamiento en este per1odo, siendo un factor determinante en los rendimientos pobres.En condiciones controladas, Moriya y Nara (1971) observaron un alto porcentaje de esterilidad y granos parCialmente llenos, cuando la planta de arroz fue expuesta durante el estado de floración a ~n promedio de t'!W!'eratura de 31.5 0 C siendo 1. m3xima  TEMPERATURAS CRITICAS las temperatu&as crlticas para la p1anta de arroz, están genera1mente por debajo de 20 e y superiores a 30 e, y varían de acuerdo con el estado de desarrollo de la planta. Por otro lado, éstas cambian con la variedad, el tiempo de duración de la temperatura cr1ticd t los cambios diurnos y nocturnos y el estado fisiológico de la planta. El Cuadro 1 muestra la variación de la temperatura con las distintas fases de desarrollo de la planta.Cuando se somete la planta a una temperatura por debajo de 20 c C durante el estado de reducción en la división celular del ~olefl.normalmente se induce a un alto porsentaje de esterilidad (Stake 1959,. Sin embargo, temperatura hasta de 12 e no producirán dicha esterilidad, si el tiempo de exposiCión no sobrepasa los dos días} pero causará hasta un 100% de esterilidad, si la exposici6n Se prolonga por seis dlas. la esterilidad producida por temperaturas bajas es generalMente atribu1da a efectos de temperatura durante la noche, pero una temperatura alta en el d1a, puede contrarrestar el efecto de la temperatura baja en la noche. Lo anterior se pudO demostrar ffieaiante la exposición de la planta de arroz a una temperatura constante de 14 e (d1a y nOChe) durante r.ueve días en el estado de reducción celular, 10 cual causó una esterilidad del 41% sin embargo, el porcentaje de esterilidad se redujo a 12% aumentando la temperatura diurna a 26 C. Tomado de Yoshida, 1977A.(1) Se refiere a la temperatura media diaria, excepto para la germinaCión.Dentro del rango critico de bajas y altas temperaturas, éstas pueden afectar e 1 rendimiento de 1 a planta. a través de su i nfl uenei a sobre el macollamiento~ la fonnación de espiguillas y su maduraci6n, lo cual puede cambiar de acuerdo con la variedad~ Experimentos realizados por Yoshída (1973) demuestran que la tasa de crecimiento de la planta de aóroz aumenta linealmente con la temperatura dentro del rango de 22 a 31 e (Figura 1). Durante el estado inicial, comprendido entre 20 a 35 d1as después de la siembra, la temperatura afecta muy levemente el macollamiento y la r51ativa tasa de crecimiento, excepto a la temperatura más baja estudiada (22 e).El mismo autor encontr6 que el efecto de la temperatura sobre e1 macollamiento es regulado por la intensidad de radiaci6n solar. Básicamente determin6 que con temperaturas altas, se aumentó 1a tasa de emergencia de Efecto de la temperatura sobre el erecimíento de IR-8 en condiciones controladas (Tomado de Yoshida, 19731. hojas y permiti6 un mayor número de yemas (macollas). sín embargo. en condiciones de iluminación baja, algunas de las yemas no se desarrollan hasta convertirse en macollas por deficiencia de carbohidratcs necesarios paré su crecimiento.Por otro lado. el mismo experimento mostró que durante la fase reproductiva de la planta. el número de espiguillas por planta aumentO cuando la temperatura disminuyó, 10 cual indica que a la inversa de 10 anterior) la temperatura óptima cambia de alta a baja, a medida que se avanza en el crecimiento de la planta, de la fase vegetativa a la reproductíva~ La temperatura media óptima para la madura5ion de las variedades japónicas está reportada en un rango de 20 a 22 e (Aimi y otros. 1959, Matsushima y otros, 1957; Matsushima y Tsunoda, 1959). Resultados de experimentos realizados por Murata (1976), mostraron que el peso de 1.000 granos de la misma variedad varia de 24 a 21 aramos. cuando se expuso la planta a un cambio de temperatura de 22 a 28 e durante un perIodo de 21 dlas a partir de la floración (Figura 2). TEMPERATURA IT OC)Efecto de la temperatura sobre el peso de 1.000 granos durante el periodo de maduración de atroz.Por otro lado. en el trópico a una temperatura promedia diurna de 29°C no resulta muy perjudicial en presencia de suficiente radiación solar J lo cual permite concluIr que las variedades del tipo indica se adaptan mejor a temperaturas altas, mientras que las japOnicas necesitan de temperaturas bajas para una adecuada madurez del grano, como lo demuestra el trabajo de Yoshida y Hara (1977) quienes encontraron en experimentos bajo condiciones controladas, que la temperatura promedia dia~ia para el llenado del grano del arroz de tipo indicaoestá entre 10 y 25 e, mientras que para el tipo japOnica varia de 16 a 22 e (Figura 3). Relación entre el peso de 1.000 granos y la temperatura media para dos variedades de arroz (Adaptado de YQshida and Hara 1977). promedio de 3 axperimentos.El desarrollo de la planta de arroz en condiciones de inundaciOn y bajo diferentes niveles de lamina de agu3 t es afectado directamente por la temperatura. En estas condiciones la mayor dependencia estA relacionada con la posición de los puntos de crecimiento respecto a 1. profundidad del agua (Tsunoda y Matsushima, 1962). Desde los primeros estados hasta 1. iniciación de la panlcula. las yemas responsables de las hojas. macollas y panícula permanecen bajO agua y su desarrollo es afectado por la temperatura del agua. Sin embargo. el crecimiento y elongación de la planta es influenciada por las dos temperaturas, del aire y del agu •• principalmente porque el ciclo de vida es completado en un ambiente aéreo.A medida que la panícula se desarrolla y sobresale del nivel del agua. la influencia de la temperatura del agua para el crecimiento y madurez de la panleu1. disminuye y aumenta la dependencia de la temperatura del aire (Tsunoda y Matsushima, 1962; Matsushima y otros 1964). Por 10 anterior Se puede concluír que el efecto de la temperatura del aire y del agua varían con el estado de crecimiento de la planta. Así. de acuerdo con ~latsushima.1964C durante los estados iniciales de la planta, la temperatura del agua afecta los rendimientos a trav~s de su influencia sobre el número de panleulas por planta. número de granos por panícula y el porcentaje de granos maduros, mientras que en los estados ~s avanzados, la temperatura del aire puede afectar el rendimiento, influenciando el porcentaje de granos llenos y su peso.Se ha establecido que el efecto de la temperatura del agua es determinado por su magnitud y la profundidad de la l~mina aplicada. En la mayor1a de los casos, la temperatura del agua es mayor que la del aire y a medida que se aumenta la profundidad de la misma, se hace mayor la dependencia del crecimiento de la pan1cula de la temperatura del aire~ As', cuando la temperatura del aire desciende por debajo del nivel crHleo. aumentando la profundidad del agua hasta 15 o 20 cms durante el estado de reducción en la divisi6n celular. se protegera la planta contra la esterilidad que puede causar la temperatura baja del aire (Nlshiyama y otros, 1969).Dependiendo del estado de desarrollo. la planta puede 5ufr~r da~os cuando la temperatura promedia diaria desciende por debajo de 20 C. Así, el dal'io por frto~ puede ocurrir no sólo en las regiones templadas, sino durante el verano en el trópico y subtrópico. Se han reportado diferentes paIses con danos causados por frío. entre los cuales estan Australia.Blangadesh, Chiná, ColOmbia, Cuba t India, Indonesia, Irán, Japón. Corea, Nepal, Pakistán. Perú, Sri Lanka, USA. URSS y otros. Entre los principales efectos se han observado: no germinación de la semilla. retraso en la emergencia de la plantula. enanismo, amarillamiento de las hojas. esterilidad apical. emergencia parcial de la paolcula, retraso en la floración. alto porcentaje de granos vanos y maduraci5n desuní forme, (Yoshida, 1978).Estudios reaHzados por Sasaki y Wada, 1973, indican que el arroz tiene su mayor susceptibilidad a temperaturas bajas durante el lI el'!'buchamiento ll , alrededor de 14 a 7 dtas antes de la salida de la pan1cula, mientras que la floración le sigue en im~Qrtancia~ Por otro lado Shibata, 1970, encontr6 que cuando la planta de arroz es sometida a temperatura baja durante tres días, ~sta es mAs sensible en el estado de floración, es tan sensible, e incluso rn~s~ que en el uembuchamiento\".I1Stress ll causado. por temperaturas altas* Un alto porcentaje ~ esterilidad se puede presentar cuando la temperatura excede los 35 C en el estado de antesis y el tiempo de exposici6n sobrepasa al de una hora. Yoshida, 1978, reportaJlue cuando la planta de arroz es expuesta a temperaturas superiores a 35 e, los daños causados en la planta dependen del estado de desarrollo de la misma. Asi, durante la fase vegetativa se pueden observar slntomas tales como: la punta blanca de la hoja, bandas clorOticas, reducción en el macollamier,to y la altura. la fase reproductiva tambi~n puede ser .fectada mediante la apariciOn de la panlcula blanca, reducc16n del nGmero de granos y mayor esterilidad, mientras que en la etapa de maduraci6n se reduce el número de gr.nos llenos por panlcul •• El mismo autor concluye que el estado de desarrollo mAs sensible a temperaturas altas es el de la floración, seguido por el llembuchamiento U alrededor de nueve dlas antes de 1. salida de 1. panlcul •. Una o dos horas de temperatura alta durante la antesis, es definitiva en el porcentaje de .steril i dad.Interacd6n entre la telTlperatura~.l suministro de nutrimentos~~ En la mayor~a de los casos 10 que determina el rendimiento, es el número de granos por unidad de are •• Yoshida. (1978). reporta que existe una alta correlaciOn positiva entre el nGmero de granos por unidad de área y el total del nitrógeno tomado por 1. planta al momento de la floración.El observ6 que el n(¡mero de granos es mayor a medida que aumenta 1 a cantidad de nítr6geno suministrado. Por otro lado en un ensayo sirni lar realizado bajo condiciones controladas, se encontr6 que el namero de granos aumenta a medida que la temperatura disminuye bajo un determinado nivel de nitrOgeno~ siendo mas evidente este resultado con un mayor nive1 de nitrógeno. Sin embargo, la mayor eficiencia es a1canzada con las temperaturas y al nivel de nitrógeno m~s bajos (Cuadro 2). Cuadro 2. Efecto de la temperatura sobre el número de granos y la eficiencia del nitrógeno para producir granos. 24.400 28.800 27.800 27.500 30.800 29.900 28.800 31.300 37.600   32.600 40.900 48.200 ~úrnero de sranos por Illg de ti absorbido SON lOON IS0N Experimentos realizados por Sasaki y otros (1973), demostraron que el nitróger.o puede variar el porcentaje dé esterilidad causado por bajas temperaturas durante la reducción de la división celular.Cuando la temperatura está por encima 1) muy por debajo de la temperatura crYtica, e1 suministro de nitrógeno tiene muy poco efecto s0'bre la esteril idad, sin embargo bajo una temperatura moderada a (16 C) el porcentaje de esteril ídad Se aumenta con un incremento en el nivel del nitrógeno. Otras experiencias reportadas por Sasaki y Wada (1975), indican que los efectos negativos de una alta dosis de nitrógeno en condiciones de temperatura baja durante la fase reproductivd J puede ser contrarrestada mediante el aumento en el nivel del fósforo aplicado, (Figura 4).La mayoria de la energía solar proveniente del sol ~ tiene una longitud de onda comprendida entre 0.3 y 3.0 micrones y normalmente se denomina radiación de onda corta. Por otro lado la tierfa emite radiación de onda larg3 entre 3 y 50 micrones~ E1 tejido verde de las hojas utiliza para su fotoslntesis la energh solar en una longitud de onda de O~4 a 0.7 micrones, la cual Sé ha llamado nOrnialmente come ItRadiación fotosintética activa>! (PAR) o simplemente luz solar y el total de la radiación solar estA alrededor de O~50t tanto en el trOpico como en la zona templada (Montejtn, 1972;. la unidad de radiaci6n solar más conveniente empleada en agricultura es Cal/cm2/día~ aunque muchos flslcos y cient1ficos emplean otras. unidades. Yoshida (1978) , afirma que la radiación solar media en 26 sitios de 15 paises arroceros varía de 50 Calícm2/día en ~1ilano (Italia) a 700 cal/M2Idia, o más en Junio-Julio en Lisboa (portugal) y Davis (California, USA). Sin embargo, la mayoría de los. sitios reciben un promedio alrededor de 300 cal/ene/dI, o un poco más, durante el perIodo de madurez del arroz. Las necesidades de radiaci6n solar para el cultivo d~l arroz varían con los diferentes estados de desarrollo de la planta. Una baja radiación solar durante la fase vegetativa, afecta muy ligeramente los rendimientos y sus componentes, mientras que en la fas.e reproductiva existe una marcada disminución en e1 número de granos~ Por otro lado durante el per1odo de llenado a maduraci6n del grano, se reducen drásticamente los rendimientos por disminuci6n en el porcentaje de granos llenos.Una relación cuantitativa entre el rendimiento y la radiación solar, se puede observar en el Cuadro 3, presentado por Yoshída y Parao (1976). Dicho cuadro muestra que la radiación solar tiene su mayor influencia sobre los rendimientos durante la fase reproductiva de la planta. seguida por la fase de maduración, mientras que durante la fase vegetativa tiene muy poco efecto (Figura 5), RENDIMIENTO (tilla) Figura 5.RAOIAC10N SOLAR (Calicm 2 /dí .. )Efecto de la radiación solar en diferentes etapas de crecimiento sobre el rendimiento de IR•747b2-6 {tomado de Yo.hida y Parao, 19761.Fotoslntesis es el proceso por medio del cual la energla solar eS atrapada por el tejido verde de las plantas y convertida en energla qu1mica, para ser almacenada en forma de carbohidratos. Cerca de 80 a 90% del peso de la materia seca de las plantas verdes, es derivado de la fosot1ntesls. mientras que el resto, normalmente proviene del suelo como minerales.La fotoslntesls en un cultivo de arroz está principalmente determinada por la incidencia de la radiación solar, la tasa de fotos'ntesís por unidad de área foliar, el 1ndice de Area foliar. la orientaci6n de la hoja. Sin embargot es importante anotar que una al ta radiaci6n solar es un pre-requisito para una tasa alta de fotosíntesis.El arroz se cultiva no solamente en condiciones de irrigación, sino tambl~n en zonas bajas con alta precipitación, zonas con 16minas de a9ua profundas y en secano en condiciones regularmente drenadas. En estas circunstancias el arroz puede estar sUjeto a danos causados por la sumersión de la planta debido a la inundación de las tierras bajas, mientras que en zonas altas, la sequía puede presentarse lOOy frecuentemente. Cuadro  •Se tiene conocimiento que la precipitación puede agravar características de volcamiento de la planta; factores tales como hojas largas, pesadas y humedas, tienden a juntarse y causar volcamiento.Ee la explotación del arroz con agua lluvia y cuando la temperatura se encuentra dentro del rango de los niveles crHicos, la precipitac16n es el factor limitante. Cuando se hace suministro de riego, el crecimiento y los rendimientos de la planta, están determinados en gran proporción por la temperatura y la radiación solar. fRANSPIRACION la transpiración se refiere a la pérdida de agua en fonna de vapor a trav~s de la superficie de la planta. En este orden de ideas, la planta Se marchitará o morira, al menos que Se suministre agua para compensar la pérdida por transpiración. Este proceso nonnalmente se lleva a cabo a través de 105 estomas, y una pequeña proporción, a través de la cutlcula.La pérdida de agua en la transpiración está directamente relacionada con la tasa de crecimiento, as1 la transpiración se puede considerar como el número de gramos de agua traospírada por cada gramo de materia seca producida. Sin embargo ésto varia con la humedad del suelo. el el ima t la variedad, estado de crecimiento y el perIodo vegetativo. Según Matsushima (1962), Yoshida (1975), normalmente esta relación varIa entre 250-350 gramos de agua por gramo de materia orgánica seca producida.El agua es indispensable para la vida de la planta de arroz. El contenido del agua en la planta varIa de acuerdo con la estructura y con el estado de desarrollo de la misma. La mayorla del agua empleada por la planta para su formación es tomada a través de las raíces. La planta emplea menos del 15% del agua absorbida mientras que el resto se pierde a la atmósfera por medio de la transpiración de las hojas. Un adecuado suministro de agua es uno de los factores más importantes en la produccí5n de arroz. En muchas áreas el arroz sufre los eXCeSOS de agua o sequfa, espeCialmente por la irregularidad en las lluvias y/o suministro de irrigación.La principal razón para la inundación en el cultivo del arroz es porque la mayoría de las variedades de arroz presentan un mejor crecimiento y mayor rendimiento cuando se cultivan bajo inundación del suelo. La función esencial del agua es la modificación de las características físicas de la planta, el status nutricional y flsico de los suelos y la naturaleza y extensión del crecimiento de las malezas.En el medio del cultivo de arroz de riego se pierde agua a través de la transpiración 1 evaporación y percolacHSn. Dentro de las pérdidas, las ocasionadas por percolaci5n son las más variables y esUn afectadas por factores de suelos como son: textura, topografla y nivel freatico.Un promedio de requerimientos de agua para arroz irrigado en 43 diferentes localidades del mundo, se presentan en el cuadro 4. El viento juega un papel muy importante durante 1. vida de la planta de arroz. Estl reportado que el viento Con una velocidad lenta, aumenta los rendimientos por acción de la turbulencia en el medio de una comunidad de plantas. Yabuki y otros (1972), afirman que la tasa de fotosíntesis es mayor con el aumento suave de la velocidad de1 viento, ya que el aumento en la turbulencia incrementa el suministro de gas carbónico (CO?). Wadswoeth (1959) encontró que velocidades mayores de 0.3 a 0.9 metros po~ segundo, no tienen mayor efecto en la fotoslntesis de la planta.Por otro lado vientos fuertes con características de vendaval ~ Son perjudiciales para la planta, como quiera que aumenta el volcamiento. Tarmién vientos muy secos han mostrado causar secamiento de las hojas, fenómeno ~ste que es grave en condiciones de secano~ También vientos secos y calientes, pueden causar lacer-aciones de hojas y granos, presentando además en muchos casos abortos en las flores HUMEDAD RELATIVA La evaporaci6n es una funci6n inversa de la humedad relativa (contenido de vapor de agua en el aire). Se ha demostrado que teniendo los demas factores constantes, un aumento en la humedad relativa reduce la intensidad de la evapotranspiraciOn, ya que el gradiente de presión de vapor de agua, entre la atmósfera y la superficie húmeda, es baja. La capacidad del aire de retener vapor de agua aumenta r&pidamente con la temperatura, por lo tanto, el aire caliente del tr6pico toma mayor vapor de agua que el aire fria de otras zonas.El suelo en el cual se puede desarrollar el arroz es tan variado, como el rango de climas, al cual se puede exponer el cultivo. La textura varia de arena a arcilla, con extremos de pH entre 3.0 a 10; contenido de materia org&nica della 50~, concentraciones de sal de 0-1% y disponibilidad de nutrimentos desde muy marcadas deficiencias hasta el exceso. La productividad de la tierra empleada para arroz, esU determinada en su mayoría por las condiciones del suelo y el agua disponible.El arroz es el único cultivo que se produce en suelos saturados de agua, e incluso sumergidos durante parte o todo el ciclo de vida de la planta y por esta razón las propiedades fi.leas del suelo son relativamente poco importantes a medida que haya un adecuado suministro de agua.La textura del suelo Juega un papel muy importante en el manejo del agua de riego y de la fertilizaci~n. Un tamaño pequeM en los poros de suelos de textura fina~ permite un lento movimiento del agua, mientras un excesivo suministro de é11a y fertilizantes en suelos de textura liviana, aumenta las pérdidas por lavado y percalación.El arroz soporta bien suelos con pH entre 4.0 y 8.4 sin embargo su mejor desarrollo lo obtiene cuando la acidez no baja de 5.0 ni pasa de 6. 5. Tolera bastante 1. salinidad, permitiendo buenas producciones en suelos salinos, los cuales a su vez van siendo lavados con los permanentes riegos requeridOS por la planta de arroz. a. Efectos químIcos: l. El suelo no tiene oxIgeno, excepto en un. capa delgada de la superficie, o sea que está reducido. 2. El pH sube en suelos ácidos (excepto en suelos hidromórficos) y baja en suelos calc~reos a niveles no daninos. 3. Reduce los compuestos de hierro. de férrico a ferroso, liberando cantidades aprovechables de Fe. 4. Aumenta 1. disponibilidad del N,P,Si, Fe y Mn. 5. Favorece la fijación de nitrógeno del aire por bacterias, Alolla y algas verde-azuladas. Helminthospor um ofyzaeMe oidogyne sp.: p elencholdes sp.El riego trae como desventaja la incidencia de algunas plagas, enfermedades y desOrdenes fisiológicos, tales como:Espiga erecta oryzophilus =~\"-'-(Sclerotium \"a de Zn Toxicidad indirecta del hierro en suelos acidos Relacionado con falta de drenaje y factores del suelo Se puede considerar el arroz con riego de América Latina tropical, como un ecosistema relativamente uniforme en los 1 imitantes importantes con las excepciones de \"Sogata\" (Sogatodes ~zicola) y Piricularia p ricularia~e), 1. cual es problema --severo en ciertas e nac,ones deSiJe10 y clima. Pirieularia es menos importante en zonas templadas. Es posible que un Centro Internacional como el CIAT desarrolle lIneas de arroz de buen comportamiento para todo el area tropical, si el programa de mejoramiento trabaja en sitios donde se presentan los limitantes mas importantes.En comparaciOn con el arroz de riego, el cultivo en secano es ~s dificil. Secano se refiere al cultivo que depende de las lluvias para su normal crecimiento, sin caballones o muros en el campOl Y que por 10 tanto, no puede retener una 1amina de agua sobre la superficie~ La ausencia de una lamina produce interacciones entre la variedad, la acciOn de los herbicidas, la nutriciOn mineral (deficiencias de elementos menores y desbalances de elementos mayores), la sequía. las plagas y enfermedades, resultando as~ un complejo de limitantes diferentes a los de arroz con riego. Por ejemplo el arroz de secano es atacado por patógenos considerados como problemas menores en arroz de riego. El caso cl&sieo es He1minthosporium ryz~e. Adem1is otros patógenos causan: escaldado (Rh~ncl\\osporlum orr.,ae , a ub10 de la vaina Thanate horu. eueumeris), pu rk,ón de a vaina (Aerocylindrium oryzae y mancha ojival (Oreehs1er. gigantea).Hay tres conclusiones ai respecto: l. El arroz de secano, es mas inestable, variado y complejo que el de riego. 2.Mejoramiento de Secano es mas difIcil, con mSs limitantes y variabilidad en los ecosistemas, por 10 cual se tiene menos probabilidad de avance gen~tico. 3.Mejoramiento de secano requiere materiales gen~ticos y métodos distintos a los empleados en el cultivo con riego. Esto debido a que en secano se trabaja mucho más con tolerancias varteta1es; mientras que en riego con resistencias varietales.Observemos los diferentes tipos de secano desde el punto de vista del clima, el suelo, los pat6genos y las pr~cticas culturales, en relaci6n con el mejoramiento varietal. Entre los ecosistemas de secano, cada uno tiene su propio grupo de limitantes. Tratemos de definir cuSles ecosistemas son posibles de mejorar y cuáles son difíciles. Ante todo conviene establecer que no se puede decir con precisi6n donde termina un ecoslstema y comienza el otro. Asi pues, para estudiarlos se ha optado por agrupar los ecosistemas en dos categor!as amplias: favorecidos y no favorecidos. La buena fertilidad cel suelo y la adecuada humedad son 10~ factc-res constantes que distinguen el secano favorecido del no favorecido La densldad de siembra es funci6n agronómica de la humedad en el suelo. L tendencia es utilizar una alta densidaa cuando la capacidad de retención di numedad del suelo ~s baja 1 resultando en Uestrés ll de sequ1a.Selano moderadame~te favorecido a desfavorecido. Existen tres tipos diferentes de ecosistemas los cuales se describen a continuación: Ti¡Jv 1. Secano de Sabana. Llanos Orientales de Colombia Suelos muy ácidos, infértiles y erosionables~ con toxicidad de .A.L, deficiencias de fós.foro~ potasio y de bases intercambiables.-Excelente cantidad y distribución de lluvia, donde la sequía{\"Veranico\") no es problema Su~los lívi¿nc$ fácii~&ote mecanizables -La densidad de s~embra normal, es similar a la utilizada en nego -las malezas no son problema grave en las primeras siembras.Piricularia. hoja blanca, manchado riel grano y escdldado de 1 a hoja son importantes -Otros factores limítantes Requisito: Variedad tolerante a altas concentraciones de aluminio en el sue10, tales como las brasileras, africanos y Monoalaya (tradicional de la zona).Estrategia: Insumos mínimos y sembrar en surcos, aplicdndo calc~G + fósforo en banda, debajo de la 5emil1a.Se estima un rendirdento potencial de 2 ton/ha con variedades criOllas altas y 3 ton/ha con las variedades mejcraddS de porte interrnedio~ resistentes a enfermedades y tolerantes al aluminio. Este es un ecosistema teórlco, puesto que el arroz de secano en el área.estA restringido a suelos aluviales o de vegas, el cual corresponde a un secano favorecido. Tipc 2. Secano moderadamente favorecido. Areas de ti.ato Grosso , Maranhao y Pará en el Brasil.-Parecido al No~ 1, quiza con suelos no tan ácidos. El régin~n de lluvias es menos favorable, pero aceptable. pues la sequía no es muy fuerte. -Densidad normal de siembra, con rendimientos de 3 a 4 tons/ha posibles.Perspectivas favorables: áreas vas.tas y de bajo costo con buena Huvia para un sistema de cultivo econ6mico.Soluciones qenéticas para los tipos 1 y 2. Tres requisitos importantes que las variedades obtenidas deben cumplir: a. Que sean tolerantes a problemas de fósforo y aluminio b. Que sean toleantes a Piricularía y otras enfermedades fungosas c. Tolerantes a sequía moderada Estas tolerancias se encuentran en las variedades nativas, crio11as de sabanas del Africa y América del Sur.Tipo 3. Secano no favorecido, Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, Goiás-Caracter1sticas: Suelos ~cidos e infértiles. Lluvias menores y mal distribuidas. Sequla (canlcula)fuerte. Densidad de siembra muy baja, con surcos hasta de 60 centimetros entre si.Requisitos genéticos: La to1erancia a sequía eS crucial; tolerancia a Pirieularia y variedades altas (debido a densidad baja). El rendimiento promedio de 1.0 tonIna se debe tratar de subir a 1.5 ton/ha.Este sistema ha persistido no obstante los bajos rendimientos obtenidos, debido a subsidios gubernamentales en forma de crédito barato y seguro de cosecha. La decisión de tratar de aumentar la prOductividad del ecosistema es más po11tica que cient1fica~ ya qUé existen otras &reas con mejor precipitaci6n.Problema: Las variedades brasileras figuran entre las mas tolerantes a la sequía en el mundo. Parece muy difícil, aunque es posible, aumentar ligeramente el nivel actual de tolerancia a la sequíd.El intento de aumentar el rendimiento debe concentrarse mas en la tolerancia a la sequía que en Piricularia o en el suelo~ como factor límitante. Esto requeriría estudios basicos de dos tipos:a' El sistema de raíces en relación a la tolerancia a sequYa.Algunas variedades de porte bajO tienen un sistema radicular profundo, t1pico de variedades altas.b) Reducción de la transpiración de la hoja para combatir la tensión por sequía.Estrategias en mejoramiento:1) Entrecruzar las mejores variedades mundiales en cuanto a tolerdncía a sequía (BraSil x Africa x Asic), para aUIT~ntar nivel de tolerancia. Si los mecanismos de la tolerancia tienen gene$ diferentes, existe posibilidaa de dumentar la tolerancia.2) Irradiar variedades Brasileras y seleccionar plantas mAs bajas COn mejor macQ11amiento y probarlas a una mayor densidad de siembra en surcos a menos de 60 centímetros entre 51.En relación con los tres ecosistemas de Sabana puede concluirse que existen mayores posibilidades genéticas para zonas de a:ta precipitación y pocas para zonas de baja precipitaci5n. Características:Zona originalmente cubierta COfl bosque, con suelos 1 ígeramente ácidos, livianos y ~~s fértíles que los de sabar.a.Preci pi taci ón tata 1 buena a ex ce lente, lI ean ; CU 1 a u corta presente en algunos años.Densidad normal: Siembra en surcos de 17 a 34 centímetros. -Cultivo mecanizado y con alto uso de insuwos.Las nalezas son rr,ás limitantes que en sabana a causa de los suelos férti'es~ -Deficiencias en elementos ta1es con~ zinc, azufre~ manganeso. hierro y fósforo.Las enfermedades Süli un factor 1 imHante. Entre otrds Pyricularia Qryzae t Helmintho.sporilifli Qryz~~ y j3hynchOSyorium oryzag -Los rendimientos van desde cero en años ma os hasta 5. tn/ha en años excelentes, cen prolTl€díos de 2.5-3.0 ton/ha.Las variedades de riego han tenido cierto impacto~ desplazando a las tradicionales. Los productores en el ecosistf'P'Ia siembran semienanas, fertilizan, aplican herbicidas y el cultivo es mecanizado. La ventaja principal del tipo semienanc es facilitar la mecanización de la cosecha debido a poco vuelco. Los rendimientos han aumentado en los últimos años.las variedades IR 8, CICA 4 Y Tika! 2 entre otras, han sido inestables debido a la sequía, o \"canícula\"! situación que agrava los problemas de deficiencias nutricionales y enfermedades. mientras que Costa Rica 1113 y otras selecclonadas localmente se comportan mocho mejor.Estrategias para mejorar el rendimiento: a. Seleccionar progenitores del tipo semi enano, con resistencia estable a Piricularia y tolerantes a sequía.b. Sele~cionar en la zona a partir de la F2 y no con líneas avanzadas (F S _ 6 ) de los centros internacionales.  l. Suelo lívianc, alto y en período de sequia 2. No regar durante la \"canícula ' \\ 3. Aplicar cantidades moderadas de nitrógeno y cero, o poco fósforo 4. No aplicar insecticidas o fungicidas.$olarr:ente aplicar insecticíd3S cuando aparezca Spodt)p~era sp. en cultivos jóvenes f. Alternar sitios de sel€\"cción de semestre a semestre, para ganar una segunda generaciór por año, pero sin riego en el segundO semestre.g. Ensayos de rendimientos: conducir la n~yoría en fincas t1picas y usar diseño de parcelas largas y angostas, para aprovechar variabilidad en el suelo y e~ la humedad. Estudiar las variables nitrógeno y fósforo prln~ipalmente.Sur de Mexico, Chocó er Colombia, Amazonia en Perú y Brasil, Bolivia y Oarién en Panamá.Secano trddi ci ona 1, pequeños productores de 1/2 a 1 ha sistema II primitivo!! en tecnolog1a. Caracter1sticdS de producclón: En este sistema hay pocos problemas evidentes, fuera del bajo rendimiento. El sistema, en base de variedades criollas, está en balance con el ecosistema total.los problemas que se observan con la introducción de variedades modernas en densidades altas son: a. Panículas pequeñas ~ue complican la cosecha b. Si se aplican fertilizantes o Se aumenta la densidad {lo cual es necesario para las variedades modernas}, aparecen problemas con patógenos. debido a cambíos en el microclíma dentro del fOllaje ó cambios en base de la alimentación de los microorganismos.Existen dos a1ternativas de solución para el ecosistema:1. ~o hacerle nada. No correr el riesgo de empeorar la situaci6n por falta de entendimiento de él10. Definitivamente olvidarse del nitrógeno, la alta de~sidad y la mecanización. 2. Convertir al agricultor de parcela pequeña a productor mediano; con crédito t reforma agraria, cooperativas e intervenciones sociales, para permitir mecanizar la preparación de1 suelo y sembrar manualmente 5-20 hect&reas con variedades mejoradas y cosecha manual. Solo as! la cosecha total de la finca llegara a una cifra que le permita al productor ganar y ahorrar dinero. los árabes fueron muy eficientes en la expansión del cultivo, desde el siglo IX antes de Cristo cuando lo introdujeron a Egipto, hasta los siglos VIII a1 X en que hicieron la introducción del arroz asiático de grano largo al Africa Oriental en el r.oreste de Madagascar, y 10 llevaron a Marruecos y a España cuando la invasión de la Península Ib~rica (Angladette, 1969). Gracias 3 las colonias portuguesas, holandesas y españolas de Africa, se íl1trúdujerol1 1as vdriedades asiáticas d ese continente.No hd sido posible estab1ecer con exactitud de donde vino y cuando llegó el arroz al Hemisferio Occidental, algunos autores afirman que Crist6 bal Co16n~ en su s~gundo viaje en 1493. trajo semillas, pero no germinaron (Cheaney, 1974). El hi:;tOrlddor Simón~ citado por Jenníngs, 1961, afirma que en el Valle del ~agdalend en Co1ombia hubo siembras en 1580. Los holandeses y los portugueses a finales del siglo XVIl introdujeron e 1 a rroz a Améri ca del Norte ~ más exactamente a Ca ro li na. Un ba reo procedente de Madagascar dar.a.co por una tempestad tocó puerto en Charleston y dejó 40 libras de seQil1a en 1685 (Cheaney, R.L. 1974).La otra especie cultivdda Q!yza claberrilnd Steud, es originaria del Oeste de Africa, posiblemente del de1t~ Cerit~del Rio Niger y su área de dispersión est~ circunscrita a su lugar de origen (Angladette, 1969).Según Porter 1959~ el cLlltivo de arrez africano comenzó 1500 años antes de CrístQ~ y durante este período ha evolucionado con limitación. Q.rYZil .a!..aberríma Steud, no es cultivada fuera de su zona de origen. 'j actualmente esta en retroceso~ 1as variedades que allí se cultivan disminuyen poco a poco y son sustituidas por variedades asiaticas con mayor adaptación y que en general tienen la cariopside de color blanco, más aceptado que el rojo del Oryza alaherrima. La figura 1 muestra las posibles rutas colonizadoras del cultlvO, segun Chear-eYt 1974.  Se caracteriza por las espiguillas en racimo o en panícula, unas veces uniflorales con frecuencia carentes de glumas~ o bien con dos o tres flores, las inferiores poseen una sola pieza. 1a glumela. siendo fértil la f10r terminal únicamente. Los estambres son frecuentemente seis, pero a ve~ ces sen n:enos e iocluso pueden reducirse a lino. Según Prodoehl y Bewo, ti tados por Angladette, la tribu comprende dos ,ubtribus: al las oryzineas y b} las z1zanineas que incluyen cuatro géneros según sus caracter1sticas sexhales y la presencia O ausencia de 91uma$..Presencid de g1umas : Con frecuencia rudimentarias, pero bien visibles.Espiguillas comprimidas lateralmente, aristadas o rnúticas~ cariopside estrechamente encerrada por las glumas endurecidas .•. Género ~Espiguíl1as sobre pedúnculos muy cortos, mútícas, muy comprimidas latera1mente bastante parecidas a las de Oryza pero más pecueñas 3Espiguillas sobre pedúnculos de longitud variable, solitarias o po co numerosas~ lanceoladas, de glumelas papiraceas. Género Hygroryza SUBTRIBU ZIZANINEAS: Espiguillas unisexuales inflorescencia en pan1cula estrecha, numerosas ramas suberectas. sin glumas, glumelas membranosas, estrechas y Oblongas prolongándose la inferior por una larga arista de 8 a 10 mm en la espiguilla macho y de 15 a 20 mm las espiguillas hembras .•.    las variedades de tipo Iljapónica ll tienen hojas erectas de color verde intenso, con menor capacidad de macollamiento que las 1ndicas; con mayor respuesta al nitr6geno en rendimiento; son insensibles al fotoperfodo y tolerantes a bajas temperaturas. Los granos son cortos y anchos. con contenido de arnilosa bajo, son pegajosos y tienden a desintegrarse en la cocci6n.El tipo \"javánica o bulú\", es morfo16gicamente similar al tipo japQ nica~ pero sus hojas son más anchas y pubescentes, su macollamiento es bajo. pero la planta es fuerte y rígida. insensible al fotoperíodo y los granos son aristados.ANATOMIA DE LA PLANTA ;.la estructura anat6mica de las ra1ces es similar a la de las plantas acu~t i cas, aCm cuando di f i ere de é 11 as por poseer pelos absorbentes en abundancia. Consta de seis diferentes estructuras, como puede apreciarse en la Figura 2.EPIDERMIS: Es la primera capa de células y en élla se inici.n los pelos absorbentes, los cuales tienen vida corta, pues en poco tiempo desaparecen.EXODERMIS: Es la cap. m&s exterior de la corteza, formada por una o mas capas de células. Está diferenciada como tejida protectivo y sus células contienen corcho en las paredes.ESCLERENQUIMA: Se encuentra debajO de la exodermis, protege a la raiz después de la desaparición de las dos capas antes mencionadas. Está formada por capas de céiulas con paredes gruesas que son un aislamiento al paso de agua hacia dentro y fuera de la ra~z.PARENQUlMA CORTICAL: Compuesto por células con protoplasma vivo nuc1eado, concernientes con las actividades metab61 leas de 1a p1anta_ Sus células var1an en tamaño, forma y espesor de las paredes. Los tejidos del parénquima tienen espacios intercelulares grandes. La parte central del tejido cortical es la que ocupa el mayor vo1umen, se compone de varias capas, con agua en las ra1ces jóvenes, siendo una unidad compacta; pero conforme crece la planta se separan en espacios aéreos t que forman cámaras de aire t f picas en 1 as p iantas que se desarro 11 an en suelos inundados y tienen una funciOn importante en la respiraci6n de las ralees, us~ndose el término \"Parénquima 1t • CILINDRO VASCULAR: Son tejidos vasculares que asocian el tallo a las raices y comprenden las siguientes partes : * Adaptado de Chan, T.T. y C. Loresto. 1968 Pelo radic.a! absm'iJente Ep¡dermi,-----.. Eododermis, c~lulas alargadas de paredes gruesas en 1. ralces desarro 11 adas.Periciclo o parénquima medular, que es la parte de los tejidos de la r.íz que forman 1. estela localizada entre el endodermis.Floema, es el principal tejido conductor de alimentos dentro de las plantas vasculares, básicamente está compuesto por elementos criba, c~lulas de parénquima, fibras y escleroides.Xilema, es el tejido principal conductor de agua, se caracteriza por sus elementos en forma de tráquea.Médula, también llamada vaso lenoso central eS un crecimiento celular en el centro, la médula generalmente se desarroll. cuando aUn no se ha formado el xilema en el centro.COFIA: Masa de células en forma de dedal que cubre el meristema apical de la raíz, sirve de capa protectora del meristemo y ayuda a la penetración de la ralz en el suelo.La Figur. 3 nos muestra un corte de un entrenudo desarrollado en el cual se diferencian 7 estructuras.EPIDERMIS: Capa de células con p.redes gruesas, sus funciones son restricción a 1. transpiración, protección mecánica, intercambio gaseoso a través de los estomas y almacenamiento de .gua y productos del metabolismo, comprende :C~lulas guardas, en los estomas, son dos células que al cambiar en turgencia abren o cierran la apertura del estoma Tricomas, crecimientos hacia afuera de la epidermis~ variables en tamano Células cortas que son vivas. se dividen en: c~lulas s11ice, las cuales han perdidO su protoplasto al madurar y subsecuentemente se llenan de sllice, y células de corcho, suberizan sus paredes siendo impermeables al agua.Células largas, onduladas, con paredes delgadas epidermales ESCLERENQUIMA: Es un complejO de células de paredes delgadas, generalmente limnificadas, las cuales dan resistencia a la planta. Tiene varias capas cuyo resultado es darle fortaleza contra el doblez, el peso y la preSión; estas células de esclerénquima est~n interconectadas formando bandas delgadas hacia la panlcula. Hac~ vascvlares externos PARENQUIMA: Son c€lulas vivas, con paredes delgadas en forma de pOliedro y tienen que ver con las actividades metab61icas.ESPACIOS INTERCELULARES LlSrGENOS: Son espacios dentro del parénquima. células de tejidos resultantes de la disoluci6n de otras células cuando maduran. Los tejidos lislgenos de los nudos más bajos, conectan los entrenudos adyacentes proveyendo pasos de aire de la parte del tallo que crece fuera de la tierra hacia las ra1ces; estos tejidos son llamados aerénquima.HACES VASCULARES. EstAn envueltos por un. vaina u hoja de células de esclerénquima. Existen cuatro tipos de haces vasculares y son:Floema, el cual a su vez comprende: elementos o vasos cribados que son células longitudinales para la conducción de materiales alimenticios. células de parénquima para almacenamiento y translocación de sustancias alimenticias; células de esclerénquima, fibras de esc1erénquima para soporte y en algunas oportunidades puede almacenar alimentos.Xilema: son elementos en forma de tr~quea para la conducción de agua.Fibras para soporte y almacenar alimentos. celula parénquima par.almacenamiento y translocación de sustancias energéticas.Fibras: Células de esclerénquima alargadas, ahusadas, con pared delgada y una pared secundaria Con o sin 1ignina para soporte.MEDULA: Es el tejido central, la médula se convierte en un. porci6n hueca cuando el entrenudo madura.Tejido derivado del meristemo apica1 que continúa sus funciones meristeIDaticas a alguna distancia del meristemo principal, esta localizado en 1.s axilas.Deben diferenciarse en ella dos partes : la vaina y la l~mina. La vaina se caracteriza por la presencia de lagunas aerlferas en el mes6filo, que se hacen m!s importantes con la altura, los haces vasculares están dispuestos en dos círculos concéntricos, uno de haces pequeHos exteriores, otro de haces grandes que alternan con los primeros hacia el interior.ESTRUCTURAS DE LA VAINA DE LA HOJA (Figura 4A) Epidermis:Se diferencia de la epidermis de la lAmina de la hoja, princi~a1mente en la ausencia de c~lulas ruótrices. La epidermis ~rotege los tejidos de la pérdida excesiva de agua y ofrece proteCCión mecanica4 las células exteriores contienen celulosa en la cut¡cula.Formadas por dos tipos de células -Células largas Células cortas, que comprenden células de sílice, tri comas y c~lulas guardas. encerrando los estomas. Protege los tejidos de la hoja de la p~rdida excesiva de agua y tambi~n ofrece protecci6n mecánica, gracias a la cutfcula t de células con celulosa. Está formada por : c~lulas largas; células cortas formadas por células de sflice y de corcho, por los tricomas que son pelOS y papllas 7 y por las c1l!lulas guardas de los estomas; c~lulas motoras, son células epidermales agrandadas que ocurren en surcos longitudinales de células similares f cuya funci6n es el enrol1amiento y desenrollamiento de la l&mina foliar.Son tejidos de parénquima fotosintetizantes de la lámina de la hoja, loca 1 izados entre dos capas epi derma 1 es f con 1 agunas aerf feras. En el mesOfilo no hay diferenciación d. células de parénquima dentro de palizada y esponja. Sin embargo los surcos de células debajo de las capas epidermales tienen un arreglo más regular que el resto del mes6filo.  Corte transversal de la lámina y de fa vaina de la hoja.59 Epidermis los haces vasculares; en la lAmina foliar estAn en posición abxial y adxial, son bandas irregulares en la epidermis de la lámina.Haces vasculares :Floema, xilema, y parénquíma del flaema. La vaina de haces vasculares, son capas de células que envuelven un grupo vascular y puede consistir de par€nquima o de esclerénquima y células sube rizadas.Es una hilera doble de haces vasculares, una hacia la haz y otra hacia el envés de la hoja. y entre los dos parénquimas contiene lagunas aerHeras DESCRIPClON DE LAS ESTRUCTURAS DEL EJE PRINCIPALDE LA PANlCULA El eje principal conecta el tallo con la base de la panleula. Soporta las estructuras reproductivas de la planta y tiene actividad fotosintética. Su prolongaci6n en élla se conoce como raquiS, el cual posee nudos y ramas primarias y secundarias. Consta de las siguientes partes (Figura 5) EPIDERMIS, Semejante a nudos y tallo HIPDDERMIS: Capas de células de parénquima debajo de la epidermis, corresponde a la exodermis de las ra1ces. La capa exterior, con clorofila y la interiof t sin clorofila. Cubierta exterior del grano, con varias estructuras asociadas.-Lernma, palea, arista, no siempre presente -Lernmas estériles situadas a cada lado del fruto sobre la b.se de gr. no o raquilla Raquilla: unión del pedicelo y 1. semilla -Caripside: Compuesto por varias capas exteriores y el endosperrno. ~ Pericarpio. Posee consistencia fibrosa, variable en espesor; está seguido hacia adentro por el mesocarpio y 1. capa de células entrecruzadas. -El tegumento y la aleurona se encuentran a continuación y constituyen la cubierta interior de la semilla la cual esta compuestá por el embrión y el endospermo.NOTA: La taxonomla y la anatomla hasta aquí descritas son la base que permite continuar con el estudio de la morfología de la planta de arroz, que tatmién está en relación directa con el crecimiento, desarrollo y producci6n del arroz, y cuyo conocimiento sirve a fitomejoradores, agrónomos, productores de semilla. fisiólogos y cultivadores para un mejor conocimiento del cultivo.El conocimiento de la planta de arroz (Oriza sativa L.) Y de su morfologla, es importante en la investigación porqu.,..-¡¡¡;-e, se basa la diferenciaci6n de las variedades y los estudios de fisiologla y mejoramiento. En este articulo se describen la forma de los Organos de la p1anta: rah, tallo!-hojas, inflorescencia, grano y la germinación de la semilla. MORFOLOGIA GENERAL El arroz es una gramlnea anual, de tallos redondos y huecos compuestos de nudos y entrenudos, hojas de lámina plana, unidas al tallo por la vaina y su inflorescencia es en pan!cula. El tamano de la planta varia de 0.4 ro (enanas) hasta 7.0 m (flotantes).Para efecto de esta descripción, los órganos de la pl anta de arroz se han clasificado en dos grupos: Las raíces seminales, poco ramificadas, sobreviven corto tiempo despUés de la genninaciOn, y son reemplazadas por las raíces adventicias que brotan de los nudos subterráneos de los tallos jOvenes; en algunos casos también de nudos aéreos, como en arroz flotante. (Figura 1).En los primeros estados de crecimientos las ra1ces son blancas, poco ramificadas y relativamente gruesas. a medida que la planta crece, se alargan, adelgazan y se vuelven flácidas, ramificándose abundantemente.Las ralces adventicias maduras son fibrosas, con rafees secundarias y pelos radicales. Con frecuencia forman verticilos a partir de los nudos que están sobre la superficie del suelo.La punta de la ra1z esta protegida por una masa de células de forma semejante a la de un dedal, llamada coleorriza la cual facilita su penetraoiOn en el suelo. cada nudo o región nOdal, se forman una hoja y una yema, esta última puede desarrollarse y fo\"'ar un hijo. La yema se encuentra entre el nudo y la base de la vaina (Figura 2A). El septo es la parte interna del nudo que separa dos entrenudos adyacentes (Figura 2B). El entrenudo maduro, con excepción a los inferiores en el tallo es hueco. finamente estriado con superficie glabra. Su brillo y color dependen de la variedad. La longitud del entrenudo varla, siendo mayor en los entrenudos de la parte superior del tallo. Los entrenudos en la base del tallo son muy cortos y se van engrosando hasta formar una secci6n sól ida.La altura de la planta de arroz es una función del número y la longitud de los entrenudos. Tanto la longitud como el número de los entrenudos. son caracteres varietales definidos y pueden variar por efecto del ambiente. pero en condiciones semejantes~ tienen valores constantes. La altura del tallo se mide desde el nivel del suelo hasta la base de la panleula que es el nudo ciliar. La altura de la planta incluye la pan!eula.Los hijos se desarrollan en orden alterno en el tallo principal. Un hijo es un tallo con sus hojas~ los hijos primarios se originan en orden ascendente en los nudos más bajOS, a su vez producen hijos secundarios. Estos últimos producen hijos terciarios. El conjunto de hijos y el tallo 57 principal forman la macolla caracterlstica de la especie Oriza !!lli!!.. los hijos primaríos van emergiendo del primero, segundo y siguientes nudos del tallo principal. Los hijos secundarios nacen a partir del segundo nudo de cada hijo primario, lo mismo que los hijos terciarios (Figura 3).El &ngul0 que forman los hijos secundarios y terciarios en relaci6n con el eje principal origina los siguientes tipos de ramificación: Erecto. Angulo menor de 30 grados Abierto, cercano a los 60 grados Disperso, Angula mayor de 60 grados Procumbente, &ngulo de 90 grados; el tallo o la parte m&s baja de éste est~ sobre la superficie del suelo.M \" Tollo principal S = Hijo secundario P \"\" Hijo primario T \"' \" Hijo terciario Figura a. Modelo de macoUamiento.El namero total de hijos por planta es una caracterlstica varietal, que puede variar según el sistema de cultivo y el medio ambiente: En campos con poca densidad se ajusta una curva coman en la mayoría de los procesos de crecimiento, la cual declina después del IMxioo macollamiento por la mortalidad de algunos hijos, para continuar luego ~.r.lel. al eje de las abeisas, representando los hijos fértiles o v~lidos (Figura 4).Las hojas de la planta de arroz Se encuentran distribuIdas alternadamente a 10 largo del tallo. La primera hoja que aparece en la base del tallo principal o de los hijos se denomina prOfilo (Figuras 1 y 2), no tiene lAmina y esta constituIdo por dos brácteas aquilladas. Los bordes del pn;filo aseguran por el dorso los hijos jOvenes al tallo.En cada nudo, con excepeiOn al nudo de la panteul., se desarrolla una hoja; la superior que se encuentra debajo de la pan1cula se la conoce como la hOja bandera.En una hoja completa se distinguen las siguientes partes: la vaina, el cuello y la lAmina (Figura 5). La vaina o base de la hoja, parte de un nudo y envuelve el entrenudo inmediatamente superior, en algunos casos hasta el nudo siguiente. Está dividida desde su base, finamente surcada y es generalmente glabra. Puede tener pigmentos antocianas en la base o en toda su superficie~ El pulvlnulo de la vaina es una protuberancia situada encima del punto de uni6n de la vaina con el ta110, en algunos casos es confundido con el nudo (Figura 2B).El cuello es la unión de la vaina y la l~mina y en él se encuentran la llgu1. y las aurlculas. La llgula es una estructura triangular apergaminada o membranosa, localizada en el interior del cuello. contigua a la vaina y que difiere en tamano, cQlor y forma segOn la variedad del arroz. las auriculas son dos apéndices que se encuentran en el cuello~ tiene forma de hoz con pequefios dientes en la parte convexa y abrazan el tallo. la llgula y aurlcula de la planta de arroz pueden servir para diferenciarla de algunas malezas comunes en estado de pl&ntula.La lamina es de tipo lineal, punta aguda, larga y más o menos angosta. según las variedades. En la haz, O cara superior. sobresalen venas paralel.s que conforman el sistema vascular (SS). La nervadura más prominente en el env~s de la hoja eS la vena central y sobre ella, en algunos casos se enrolla la lAmina (5e).  Angulos formados por la hoja bandera y su tallo.La lámina de la hoja bandera es más corta y ancha que las anteriores~ según la variedad, foma diferentes &ngulos con el tallo; erecto, intermedio, horizontal o descendente (Figura 6). Su tamafio esU altamente correlacionado con la fertilización nitrogenada.En el tallo principal se desarrolla mayor número de hojas que en los hijos primarios y en éstos mlis que en los secundarios~ El número total de hojas cambia mucho entre variedades (de 9 a 23 hojas en el tallo principal)Los arroces fotosensitivos pueden desarrollar mayor número de hojas, por su fase vegetativa retardada.La vida de las hojas es corta y para la época de floraci6n solamente hay 4 o 5 hojas verdes en cada tallo o hijo y de ,mas, las dos hojas superiores son responsables de la fotoslntesis de un 75% de los carbohidratos que van al grano.las flores de la planta de arroz estan agrupadas en una inflorescencia compuesta denominada pan,cula (Figura 7).La panleula está situada sobre el nudo apical del tallo, llamado nudo ciliar o base de 1a pan1cula, y generalmente tiene la forma de un arco clliado. El nudo ciliar carece de hojas y yemas, pero alll pueden originarse la primera o hasta cuatro primeras ramificaciones de la panlcu1a y se toma COIOO punto de referencia para medir la longitud del tallo y de la panlcula.El entrenudo superior del tallo en cuyo extremo se encuentra la panlcula se denomina pedúnculo. Su longitud varía considerablemente según la variedad de arrOI; en algunas variedades puede extenderse mas allá de la hoja bandera o quedar encerrado en la vaina de ~sta.Despu~s de la floraciOn, la emergencia de la panlcula con relaciOn al cuello de la hoja bandera, se clasifica .sl: Emergencia completa: la base de la panlcula sale completamente de la vaina y está distante del cuello de la hoja bandera.Emergencia semicompleta: la base de la panlcula está arriba del cuello de la hoja.Emergencia: 1. base de la panlcula coincide con el cuello de la hoja bandera.Emergencia parcial: la base de la panícula está abajo del cuello de la hoja bandera.Sin emerger: la panlcula estA encerrada dentro de la vaina de la hoja Figura 7.Estructura de la panícula.El raquis o eje principal de la panlcula es hueco, y de sus nudos nacen las ramificaciones. Las protuberancias en la base del raquis se denominan pulvlnu10s paniculares.En cada nudo del eje principal nacen, individualmente o por parejas, ramificaciones que a su vez dan or~gen a ramificaciones secundarias de donde brotan las espiguillas.  la pan1cula se mantiene erecta durante la floraci6n. pero generalmentl se dobla debido al peso de los granos maduros. Existen algunas variedade, de tipo muy cerrado que no se doblan al madurar.Espi 9uill a. la espiguilla es la unidad de la inflorescencla y est~ unida a la, ramificaciones por el pedicelo. La espiguilla del g~nero Oryza se campon. de tres flores. pero s610 una es f~rtil y se desarrolla.Una espiguilla consta de la raquilla, la florecilla y de dos lema, estériles (Figura 9). Las lemas esUriJes o glumas nJdimentarias son 1., brácteas alargadas del pedicelo. La raquilla es el eje que sostiene la flol y las lemas estériles la envuelven por debajO de la raqullla.las brácteas superiores llamadas glumas florales, o simplement. glumas t son: la lema, que tiene la forma de un bote con cinco nervios, y 1¡ palea, con tres nervios y ocupa la posición opuesta. Estas brácteá~ superiores posteriormente formarln la c~scara de la semilla. Estructuras de una espiguiUa.El nervio central de la lema, llamado quilla, puede ser liso o pubescente. La arista~ una prolongación de la quilla, es una fonnaciOn filifonne ubicada con el ~pice de la lema, y puede ser corta o 1.!'!Ja (Figura 9); su tamano est~ condicionado por factores hereditarios e influenciado por el medio ambiente. Después de la floración completa es posible detectar la presencia, la cual puede ser parcial en la pan1cula, o ausencia de arista.La flor consta de seis estambres y un pistilo. Los primeros son filamentos delgados que sostienen las anteras alargadas y blfidas, las cuales contienen los granos de polen. En el pistilo se distinguen el ovario, el estilo y el estigma. El ovario es de cavidad Simple y contiene un solo Ovulo. El estilo es corto y termina en un doble estigma plumoso (Figura 10).Según la variedad el estigma presenta diferentes colores: blanco, verde pálido, amarillo, pOrpura pálido o pOrpura. Las lod~culas son dos protuberancias redondeadas y transparentes qUE se encuentran en la base de la flor responsables de la apertura flora1.Durante 1. antesis las 10dlcu1as se ponen turgentes logrando que 1, lema y la palea se separen, sjmu1t~neamente se alargan los estambres y las anteras emergen. La dehiscencia de las anteras puede efectuarse antes o al mismo tiempo en que Se abren 1.s glumas, mostrando tendencia a 1, cleístogamia. Despu~s de que las anteras hayan derramado el pOlen las glumas se cierran, lo cual dura de 5 a 60 minutos.Estructura de la semilla la semilla de arroz es un ovario maduro, sec!) e indehiscente. Const<l de la cáscar., formada por 1. lema y la palea con sus partes asociadas, lemas estériles, la raquilla y la arist.; el embrión situado en el lade ventral de la semilla cerca de l. lema, y el endo.penno, el cual provee alimento al embri6n durante la germinaCión (figura 11).  Estructuras de una semilla de arroz.Oebajo de 1. lema y 1. palea se encuentran el pericarpio formado por 3 capas de c~lulas fibrosas muy duras. Debajo de éstas se encuentran dos capas ricas en prote1nas, el tegumento y la aleurona.Cuando las espiguillas maduran, las glumas fArtiles, lema y palea, presentan diferentes colores según la variedad: color de paja, dorado, surcos dorados, manchas oscuras marrones sobre fondo paja, marrOn amarillento, rojizo a púrpura, púrpura o negro.La lamea y la palea que presentan diferentes grados de pubescencia según 1. variedad, pueden ser: glabras, pubescentes en 1. quilla de 1. lem., pubescente en la poreiOn más alta y de vellosidad muy corta o 1.rga (Figura 12). Figura Tipos de grano de arJ'Ol.El embribn se encuentra separadO de endospermo por el escutelo, consta de la plúmula u hojas embrionarias y la radlcula o ralz embrionaria primaria. La p1ú11l!1. esta cubierta por el co1e5ptilo. y 1. radlco'a está envuelta por la co1eorriza.El grano de arroz descascarado es un cariQpside, conocido como arroz integral, y aún Conserva el pericarpio. Este puede ser de los siguientes colores: blanco t marrOn pálido, rojo, púrpura leve o intenso. El denominado arroz rejo tiene el pericarpio de color rOjo y en algunos tipos también el tegumento es cploreado.En las variedades con endospermo glutinoso o ceroso, la fracci6n a1midonosa es opaca, compuesta casi lntegramente por ami1opectinas. Se 1.reconoce porque toman una coloraci5n marrón rOjiza en presencia del lugo! mientras en los tipo comunes de endospermo almidonoso, o no glutinoso, la fracclOn a1midonosa contiene amilosa más amilpectina, y se tornan azul oscuro con el 1ugo1. Si las semillas genuinan bajo agua el cole6ptil0. que contiene las hojas embrionarias, emerge antes que la coleorriza (Figura 13). Cuando las semillas genninan en un ambiente alreado, como el de los suelos cón buen drenaje, surge primero la coleorr1za~Poco después de emerger la radícula rompe la coleorriza y se alarga. La siguen dos o más raíces seminales, las cuales desarrollan raíces laterales (13C). Estas ralees posteriormente mueren y son reemplazadas por ra'ces secundarias adventicias~ El coleóptilo emerge como una estructura ci11ndrica, y al romperse por el §pice sale la hoja primaria y posteriormente la secundaria. (13E).El mesoc6tilo se alarga cuando las semillas germinan bajo el fuego a fin de elevar el coleóptilo sobre la superficie del suelo, 10 cual permite a la plúmula emerger. Germinación de la semitla de arroz. Desarrollo de 6rganos a partir del embrión.Chang Te-Tzu and Elísea A. Bardenas. 1965. Ensayos genéticos. de rendimiento, fertilizaci5n, ataque de insectos, etiolog1a de enfermedades. resistencia a sequ1a, adaptación a inundaci6n y aguas profundas. y de prácticas agron6micas, tienen relaciOn con una o más etapas de crecimiento y desarrollo. El manejo efectivo de parcelas experimentales también depende del conocimiento que se tenga sobre el crecimiento de la planta.la escala (de O a 9) de las etapas de desarrollo del sistema de evaluación estándar para arroz, es utilizada en este manual para la identificación de cada etapa. Se espera que esta descripci6n ayudará a los usuarios de la escala SES. (Standar ivaluation Sjstem).Los datos e ilustraciones aqu1 presentados han sido tomados de la variedad moderna enana IR 36, de alto rendimiento (8 ton/ha), de ciclo corto (105 dias) e insensible al fotoperiodo y sembrada mediante el sistema de transplante. Para la mayoria de los Casas y con las excepciones anotadas, las etapas y descripciones se aplican a la generalidad de las plantas de arroz.El crecimiento de la planta de arroz es un proceso fisiológico conHnuo que comprende un ciclo completo desde la genninaciOn hasta la maduraci5n del grano. Este crecimiento muestra un patrón común en el tiempo, que puede variar ligeramente dependiendo de earacterlsticas genéticas de la planta o la influencia del ambiente.El ciclo de vida de la planta de arroz está generalmente comprendido en un rango de 100 a 210 dlas. con la moda entre 110 a 150 dlas (7). Variedades con ciclos de 150 a 210 dlas son usualmente sensibles al fotoperíodo y plantadas en áreas de aguas profundas.El crecimiento de la planta de arroz puede ser dividido en tres fases: El crecimiento y desarrollo de la planta de arroz son principalmente afectados por la temperatura y la longitud del d~a.El Cuadro 1 ilustra el comportamiento de crecimiento en los trópicos, de una variedad insensible al fotoperlodo que madura en 105 d1as (IR 36) o en 120 dias (IR 8), comparadas con una variedad tradicional sensible al fotoperlodo y que madura en 150 días (Peta). La duraciOn de la fase reproductiva (35 dias) y de maduraciOn (30 dias), son m~s o menos constantes para las tres variedades bajo condiciones tropicales. La diferencia en 1. duraciOn total del crecimiento es el período vegetativo retardado que ocurre en la parte final de la fase vegetativa que incluye el máximo maco1l,miento, 1, iniciación de 1. panícula y la elongaciOn del entrenudo (11). En 1. variedad de maduración temprana, estos tres estados ocurren casi simultáneamente o se tras1apan en un corto período; la iniciacibn de la panícula ocurre en un solo tiempo, independiente del fotoperlodo. En las variedades de período fotosensitivo largo, primero las plantas alcanzan su máximo número de hijos, y continúa la fase vegetativa retardada, durante la cual sigue produciendo nuevos hijos, mientras que otros mueren, y la elongaci6n del tallo hasta cuando los días cortos inducen la iniciación de panícula. La longitud de la fase vegetativa depende de la sensibilidad de la variedad a la duración del dla, a la temperatura y a su fase vegetativa básica heredada.Si IR 8 es cultivada en áreas templadas o altas latitudes en los trópicos, 1. duración del crecimiento puede ser tan larga como 180 a 210 días comparada con 120 días en las tierras bajas de los trópicos. La dilación en la madurez es el efecto de la baja temperatura, principalmente en las fases vegetativas y de maduración. La fase de maduración se prolonga de 2S a 35 d'as bajo condiciones tropicales hasta 60 d'as en condiciones templadas.El desarrollo de la planta puede ser medido cuantitativamente por varios parámetros, por ejemplo altura, nOmero de hijas, número de hojas, lndice de área foliar, acumulación de materia seca. producción de carbohidratos y absorci6n de nutrimentos. De ~stos~ el número de hijos ser~ discutido en las etapas de m6collamíento y máximo macollamiento.En esta sección se tratarán la altura de la planta y el desarrollo de las hojas, y las ralees que ayudarán a entender mejor las etapas de crecimiento de la prbxima secci6n .. La acumulación de materia seca, la absorción de nutrimentos y la producción de carbohidratos ser~n discutidos al final.  es baja G cuando el agua es profunda. Es normalmente medida de la superficie del suelo al extremo superior de la hoja más alta O la panoja.Después del lento crecimiento durante el estado de plántula, la altura de la pi anta aumenta rápida y casi linealmente (Figura 1) hasta la floración cuando el crecimiento vertical Césa. Un atraso temporal del crecimiento ocurre generalmente después del transplante a medida que se inicia el macol1amiento activo.Las variedades enanas alcanzan una altura menor de 1.0 m. las semi-enanas crecen hasta 1.3 m y las variedades altas tradicionales alcanzan 1.5 ID; estas Se vuelcan espeCialmente cuando se les fertiliza con nitrógeno y la densidad es alta.Variedades altas se encuentran bajo condiciones. de aguas profundas (1.5 m o máS), donde las variedades crecen por la elongación de los entrenudos a medida que aumenta la profundidad del agua, alcanzando longitudes de tallo de 2.0 hasta 4.0 m. En las áreas de aguas profundas, la altura de la planta es un parámetro importante, puesto que a menudo determina la sobrevivencia de la planta.La estatura baja y la dureza del tallo son cualidades esenciales en variedades de altos rendimientQ$~ ya que minimizan e1 volcamiento j poseen una mayor relación grdno!paja; por otro lado, las variedades altas son mAs competitivas con las malezas y más adaptadas a áreas de secano# El rendimiento y la respuesta al nitr6geno de 1as variedades de arroz estan a menudo correlacionadas inversamente con la altura de la planta (12).La altura de la planta es también un criterio importante para determinar el ataque de barrenddores~ el efecto de enfermedades virales y el daMo de roedores~El patrón de desarrollo foliar ha sido usado como un indicador de crecimiento en maíz (2) y en sorgo (lOJ, en los cuales el tallo lo define en forma fácil de seguir. Sin embargo en arroz~ especialmente el transplantado, ésto no es f~eil debido a la producción de macolla en cada postura., la variación en el nümero de hojas entre variedades y el corto tiempo de vida de la mayoría de las hojas. El desarrollo de las hojas en el tallo principal y en las macollas de IR 36 muestra un patrón de hojas de corta duración, las cuales se desdoblan (cuello visible) sucesivamente. En esta variedad que posee un total de 14 hojas~ la primera se marchita y se muere al doceavo d1a t la segunda y la tercera permanecen en la planta por 25 días; la cuarta hasta la doce, tienen un promedio de vida de 35 dlas y las dos últimas permanecen hasta el final del ciclo de crecimiento de la planta, por 47 y 35 días respectivamente. Solamente 4 Ó 5 de las 14 hojas estan presentes en el tallo o hijOS, a la floraci6n; de é11as las dos hojas superiores permanecen hasta el final y Son responsables por la fotosíntesis Desarrollo de la planta a través de las etapas de crecimiento.f'I1lIdurez--l9 gr..,o \",\",,0\"' J8 grano t.choto     El nQmero de hojas varía extremadamente entre variedades de 9 a 23 hojas en el tallo principal y hay una correlación positiva entre el tiempo de maduración y el número de hojas (5). El número de hojas puede variar también de estaci6n a estación para una variedad dada, por ejemplo Peta, desarrolla 21 hojas en la estación seca y solamente 16 durante la estación lluviosa. Una variedad fotosensitiva también cambla el número de hojas con la variación en la duraClón en la fase vegetativa~ dependiendo de la época en la cual se siembre* Las variedades del ciclo largo tienen mayor flClmero de hojas en el tallo principal.El tamaño de las hojas se incrementa linealmente en orden de emergencia. hasta la treceava en IR 36. La última hoja u hoja bandera. na nClmero 14 en IR 36), es más pequeña que sus predecesoras y usualmente más ancha.Otro aspecto importante lo representa la medida de las hojas en relaci5n con la superficie. El cálculo del nOmero de hojas por unidad de área es impráctico por su poco significado. Mas significativo es el Indice de área foliar o 6rea de las hojas por metro cuadrado, la cual se relaciona con el rendimiento.Si las semi llas germinan en agua el coleópti1o emerge antes que la coleorriza; cuando las semillas germinan en un ambiente aireado, surge primero la coleorriza. luego la radlcula rompe la coleorriza poco despuéS de que ésta aparece. Durante los primeros siete días después de la siembra~ 1. radleul. y las ralees seminales crecen y desarrollan ralees laterales. Estas ralees son temporales y son reemplazadas por ralees fibrosas pennanentes t raíces adventicias, que se desarrollan a partir del primer nudo de1 tallo arriba del escutelo~ y luego a partir del segundo, tercero y más nudos. en la base del tallo. Al momento de 1. floración, la planta ha desarrollado al m.!ximo el sistema radical que se inició con las raíces nodales o adventicias. en la etapa 1 (plantula).El crecimiento y desarrollo de la raíz es c.aracterística varietal afectada por el medio de cultivo y los niveles de fertilización (1.9). La longitud de las raices decrece con un incremento en el nivel de nitrógeno en el medio de cultivo. Las raíces de las variedades de baja respuesta al nitrógeno son más largas que 1as de las variedades de alta respuesta. en condiciones de bajo nivel de nitr6geno (g). La longitud de las raíces también puede ser afectada por la concentración de aluminio en la solución; la relación entre la longitud de 1. raiz a 30 ppm ya 3 ppm de Al, a las tres semanas de edad de la planta. se llama longitud radicular relativa (LRR) e indica la tolerancia al aluminio (1).Un sistema radícal profundo con una alta relación ratz/parte aérea es una caracter1stica deseable para variedades de Secano. Sin embargo, un argumento en contra de una alta relacil5n rafz/parte iierea~ es la menor distribución de asimilados en la parte aérea. 10 cual puede ser una barrera para alcanzar altos rendimientos (12).Las etapas de desarrollo de la planta son fáci1mente identificables, marcan cambios fisio15gieos y morfológicos de gran importancia en la vida de 1. planta. El Cuadro 1 da los diez principales estados con un c6digo de un solo dígito y que identifica una caractertstica principal en relacibn con el tiempo, para variedades de diferentes ciclos. Hay que anotar en relación al desarrollo que el máximo nGmero de hijos y las etapas iniciación de la panícu1a y elongaCión del tallo~ coinciden sustancialmente en las variedades tempranas como la IR 36, pero ocurren en sucesión o con ligero traSlape, para las variedades tardías.De la siembra a la aparición de la primera hoja a través del coleóptilo. La siembra usualmente se efectúa después de remojar e incubar las semillas por periodos sucesivos de 24 horas. Ourante esta pregerminaci6n, las semillas absorben agua, se hinchan, comienzan el metabol ismo de sus reservas. de almidón y proteína y se inicia el crecimiento del embrión (7). La rata de respiración viene a ser alta durante este período.A una temperatura media de 26°C la emergencia ocurre dos a tres dias después de la siembra de semillas pregerminadas. La primera hoja, la cual carece de l §mina, rompe el cole6ptilo y viene a ser visible sobre la superficie del suelo. Cuando la siembra se efectúa con semilla seca en suela seco! el proceso de germinación se dilata en función de la humedad y d. 1. profundidad de siembra, puede demorar entre 5 y 10 dias.De la emergencla hasta justo antes de aparecer la primera maco11a. Durante esta etapa, cuatro hojas emergen totalmente y la primera hoja muere al dla doceavo (Figura 2). En los semilleros el macol1amiento Se inhibe debido a la alta densidad.Al principio la plantul. depende totalmente de la energla, protelnas y minerales de la semilla. Entre el séptimo y el octavo dla, la plántula comienza a fotosintetizar sus propios requerimientos de energta y a absorber nutrimentos y entonces viene a ser independiente de la semil1a. De aqu1 en adelante, la acumulación de materia seca en la plantula se i ncrementa m~s r~pidamente.El transplante (Estado lT) se hace usualmente cuando la planta tiene tres a cinco hojas totalmente desarrolladas a los 16-18 días, algunas veces mtis temprano, O más tarde~ especialmente para variedades tard1as o en ambientes más frescos donde el desarrollo es lento y se planta entre 25 y 45 dias de edad.De la aparición del primer hijo hasta cuando la planta alcanza el máximo número de éllos~ o hasta el comienzo del siguiente estado. El macallamiento es el estado más largo y tarda de 45 a 50 dlas para variedades tempranas (l05 dlas) y variedades tardías (150 dlas) respectivamente. Aún puede ser mayor en variedades fotosensitivas.A 26°C, en arroz transplantado, los hijos comienzan a emerger lentafl1€nte, luego ocurre más rápidamente a medida que surgen hijos secundarios y terciarios.En el Cuadro 2 se da el número de hijos producidos por la planta de IR 36 separados en primarios, secundarios y terciarios. A medida que los hijos se desarrollan en arroz transplantado, la base de la planta aumenta el di~metro y las hojas inferiores del tallo principal se desplazan y s. parten, a medida que los hijos crecen y producen sus propias ra'ces. Puede observarse también en el cuadro la simultaneidad en el macollamiento con las dos etapas posteriores, puesto que la precocidad de la variedad hace que el ~ximo macollamiento (2 Mx) se alcance después de la diferenciaciOn del primordio.De las 14 hojas produtidas por una variedad temprana transplantada, seis han muerto cuando se alcanza el ~ximo macollamiento.A 10 largo del estado de macollamiento, las raíces adventicias continu!n su desarrollo a partír de nudos inferiores de los hijos primarios, secundarios y terciarios expandiendo considerablemente el sistema radical fibroso.Esta parte del ciclo de crecimiento es muy importante porque tiene una estrecha relación con el mejoramiento del cultivo y de las practicas agronómicas. En variedades tempranas el número ~ximo de hijos se alcanza casi simult!neamente con la iniciación de la panícula o ligeramente después (Figura 3), pero en variedades tardías puede bien presidir la elongación del tallo y la iniciación de la panlcula (7,8).En arroz transplantado se pueden desarrollar mas de 30 macollas por planta o 750 por metro cuadrado, cuando se transplanta una planta por sitio a 20 x 20 cm y se aplica abundante fertilizante; alcanza el mAximo macollamiento en 60 días. En siembras directas densas, en hileras o al vo,eo, se alcanza el número m&ximo de hijos a los 30 días y se desarrollan sólo dos o tres hijos primarios por planta, pero hasta un máximo de aproximadamente 1000 por metro cuadrado (Figura 3). El número de macollas puede incrementarse con fertilización con N y P.Plantas aisladas en variedades de alto macollamiento pueden presentar hasta ~s de 100 hijos.Incrementando el número de plantulas por postura o acortando la distancia de transplante. cada planta produce menos hijos. Un ~ximo aproximado de 1000 hijos por metro cuadrado se puede alcanzar haciendo caso omiso de la población inicial, ya sea con una densidad normal de transplante o mayor de 100 kg!ha en siembra directa. Independiente del número de hijos que la planta alcance en la etapa de macollamiento máximo, el número de hijos efectivos alcanza alrededor de 450 por metro cuadrado. En ciertos ambientes donde las plantas crecen poco es pasible encontrar 700 o más hijos va1idos en siembras densas. El número de pan1culas que la planta tenga es determinado en el estado de iniciación de la panícula.Oesde el I1klmento que el cuarto entrenudo del tallo principal por  cebajo de ld inflorescencia, comienza a hacerse nctab1e en longitud, hasta cuando esta totalr:1Erte eiongado o hasta cuando el siguiente estado comienzo. En variedades fotosensitivas y tard1as la elongación del talle comienza después del m&ximo macol1amiento y se alarga considerablemente antes de la iniciaci6n de la panícula, que es iniciada por fotoperíodos de días cortos (7 ,8~11). En v3t'iedades semienanas t fotoinsensibles y tempranas, el cuarto entrenudo debajo de la pantcula se elonga solamente 1 á 3 cms antes de que la panícu1a sea visíble, pero continúa su elongación rilpidamente inmediatamente des.pués de la iniciación vis.ual de la panícula, hasta que la inflorescencia esté completamente emergida sobre 1a hoja bandera.Esta elongación coincide con el desarrollo de la inflorescencia y ocurre en los cuatro entrenudJs debajo de la pan1cula. Los demás entrenudos debajo del cuarto nunca se elongan en arroces fotoinsensitivos y tempranos.Al mismo tiempo, la hoja número once emerge totalmente en el tallo principal de IR 36, mientras que las primeras tres hojas han muerto y sólo ochc quedan en el tallo.Iniciaci6n de la panícula (Etapa 4)La diferenciación del meristema en el punto de crecimiento, inicia el primordio de la panícula {o diferenciación del nudo-cuello). y marca el final de la fase vegetativa y 01 comienzo de la fase reproductiva. Esta Se traslapa con 1. elongación del tallo y el estado de IllÓximo macollamiento, en variedades semi-enanas y tempranos (7~11). sucediendo a un tiempo fijo, independien~<.e de la longitud del día. Mientras que en variedades fotosensitivas, la panícula se iniciar~ solamente cuando la planta que haya cumplido la fase vegetativa básica sea expuesta a dlas cortos, de este modo depende de la fecha de siembra y l. época del aro, por 10 tanto el número de días de la siembra a la iniciación de la panícula será variable (11).El primordio de la panícula no es aún visible en este n\",omento. Solo viene a ser visible once días más tarde en el extremo del punto de crecimiento, como una estructura cónica plumosa de 0.5 a 1.5 mm de longitud la cual marca el final de la etapa (Figura 4).Removiendo cuidadosamente la vaina de la hoja que están a su alrededor,se puede observar en este momento que en la joven panícula se inicia la diferenciación de los prilflOrdios de las ramas secundarias en el raquis, con lo cual se inicia el desarrollo de las espiguillas.Durante e1 período entre 1a diferenciación del nudo del cuello y de los primordios de las espiguillas se determina el número potencial de granos localizados en la pan1cula (13). En este momento es cuando el rendimiento se afecta más severamente por condiciones adversas. La hoja número 12 emerge totalmente y en este momento en el tallo principal de IR 36 las primeras cinco hojas han muerto~ En arroces fotoínsensltivos y densamente sembrados, la iniciación de la pan1cula ocurre uniformemente en el campo, pero nO ocurre en arroz transplantado, donde hijos secur.darios o terciarios brotan después del primario. DeterminacIón de la iniciación del primordio de Ja panícula.Desarrollo dé la panlCula (Etapa 5) Desde cuando la panícula diferenciada es visible hasta cuando la punta de ella está justo debajo del cuello de la hoja bandera. En variedades tempranas el desarrollo de la pan1cula sucede al mismo tiempo que la elongación del tallo. Cuando la panlcula alcanza una longitud de 5 cm comienza la diferenciaciOn de las espiguillas.En esta etapa del primordio se diferencian las espiguillas, las cuales forman con el raquis la inflorescencia, que crece dentro de la vaina de la hoja bandera causando un abultamiento llamado comúnmente 'Iembuchamiento\" (Estado 5E). Esta etapa es muy critica debido a que durante la diferenciación de Ids espIguillas el número total de granas por pan1cula es determinado. En este momento condiciones ambientales desfavorables afectan el rendimiento al reducir el número de espiguillas diferenciadas y f~rtil.s.La última hoja u hoja bandera~ crece durante la etapa hasta casi emerg~r totalmerte. C'Jandc el cuello de la hoja bandera y la precedente están dl rnisoo r.ível ~ esta ocurriendo la meiosis en las flor'ecil'l¿¡s de la mitad de la panícula. En este estado las temperaturas frías prolongadas pueder. causar esterilidac de las flores. El desarrollo de la panícula ocurre un; fOrmef71eflte en \\.m campo sembrado di recta y densamente con variedades foto~nsei)sibles~ pero es 1 igeramente variable en arroz transplantudo.La salida de la panícula de la vaina de la hoja bandera marca el comienzo de la etapa de floración, y es seguido inmediatamente por la antesis de las flores en el tercio superior de la panícula. Esto es notado por la salida de las anteras de aparier.cia blanquecina. Las flores en el medio y en el tercio ir¡ferior abren en los días. sucesivos. La antesis en IR 36 se completd en cuatro días por panícula. Para completar la floración se tarda cuando mucho 7 días en variedaces de ciclo largo. de pan,cuias grandes y en temperaturas frías. Debido d la diferencia en el tiempo de formación y Cl\"ccimiento de las macollas. lI e 1 embuchatl'.iento'¡~ la ante-s1s y fertilizacHk del ovari0 no ocurren uniformemente en cada sitio de transplante. El arroz transplartado, tarda hasta 10 días para completar ia floración y fertilización de todas las espiguillas en un sitio~ mientras que en el arroz en siembra directa y densa, se desarrol1an tan sólo 1 Ó 2 talios POI\" planta y la floración es muy uniforme, igual que en variedades sensibles al fotoper1odo. Aparte ce lo anterior se presentan diferencias ¡:>equeflas entre plantas~ debido a cierto grado de heterosis en variedades de pOlinización más abierta.En este estado~ 1a planta ha alcanzado, o está cerca de hacerlo, Su máxima altura. El número de hijos fértiles se ha estab1ecido alrededor de 450 por metro cJadrado y solar:lente cinco nojas están aún en el talio principal de IR 36. Tres a cinco hejas pueden permanecer en cada tallo~ siendo mayor el número en el tailo prircipal que en ¡os hijos.Después de la fertilización de las flores, los carbohidratos almacenados son translocados rápidamente de los tallos y otras partes de la planta; muchos más son fotosintetizados y se mueven rápidamente para llenar e 1 grano con un 1 í ~ui do 1 echoso (puede ser sacado 3 pres i ón con los dedos).A los cinco días después de la antesis, los granos son todav13 de un c-o¿or verde y la panfcu1a cuando se sostiene vertical se dobla en arco a 90 por el peso de los granos llenos en el tercio superior. f:n IR 35 la hoja 11 en el tallo principcl envejece en este estadú~ quedando sólo tres los cuales producen 85 por cientc de los fotosintatos que van al grano, causando una rápida ganancia de su contenido er¡ matería seca (Figura 5:.La consistencia del grano cambia prímet'o a pa<;tosd suave y luego se endurece en cerca de quince d1as; el colorocambia d verdoso amarillento. La panícula dobJa su punta en arco de 180 y las ramas de la mitad del raquis a 90 formando un arco en su punta, debidO a que sus granos incrementan en peso. La hoja 12 se marchita y sólo dos permanecen en cada macolla. la planta alcanza un máximo peso en materia seca y alrededor de la mitad de ésta se encuentra en el grano al ~inal de esta etapa.A los 30 días después de la floración, los granos dlcanzan el estado de madurez en el trópico cálido; en áreas más frescas el proceso Se retarda con ganancia en el llenado y peso de los granos. La planta en tara est:l fisiológicamente madura. cUdndo el 90 POt ciento de los gtanos han madurado y muestran un color amarille pajizo. Algunas espiguillcs nunca se llenan y pueden ~ermanecet de color verde.Las dos hoj as remanentes en todos los ta 11 os es:ár marcl'¡ ita s, aunque en algunas ~ariedades perl'Mnecen de color verde pálido. La panícula se dobla d 180 Y se apoya adelante er el nudo del cuello. Las ramdS del raquis en la mitad de la panícula tit!nden a separa1\"se y se cuelgan debido al peso de los granos. la prOducción de materia Seca ha cesado y puede presentarse una ligera disminución, lo cual se acentúa al sobremadurar el grano por la dehisencia del mismo~ En 16 planta aOn pueden permanecet algunos hijos que no desarrollaren, son los hijos no válidos.PRODUCCION DE MATERIA SECA la produce í ón de materi a seca en 1 a planta de a rroz es muy 1 enta durante los primeros 30 a 40 días, cenos del 3 por ciento de las 15.6 toneladas producidas por IR 36 hasta la etapa pastosa. DespuéS de los 40 d1as 9 la producción de materia seca viene a ser Jlluy rtipida por el irdcio del macollamiento activo y el crecimiento de varias partes de la planta.Este incremento en la materia seca total es casi lineal en IR 36 hasta el comienzo de la etapa 9~ rIostrando una ligera disminución en la tasa de acumulación justo ai terminar el estado de rMximo macollamiento y durante la etapa de grano maduro. La Figura 5 muestra la distribución relativa de la w4tería seca en las partes de la planta durante los estados de crecimiento.La cantidad de materia seca cambia con la varif::dad; está tambi~n influida por los factores ambientales y la disponibilidad de nutrimentos, pero el patrón de acumulación es simi lar en casi todos los arroces. Un quinto de acumulación en la planta ocurre antes de la iniciación de la panlcula~ etapas 1.2 y 3;. la mitad se alcanza al estado de floración (etapas 1-6) y la otra mitad durante la formación del grano (etapas 7,8 Y 9). En variedades de alto rendimiento, alrededor de la mitad de la materia seca total termina en los granos~ dando como resultado un índice de cosecha del 50% o una relacibn grano/paja cercana a 1. unidad. Al fínal casi el 18por ciento de la materia seca viene a ser inactiva como hojas muertas, la mitad de ésta a partir del estado de floración. Producción de matería seca a través de las etapas de desarrollo de la planta de arroz.Acumulación de farbo~\"idcatos ~enos de 1/5 de los carbohidrato, translocables (azúcar y almidón), formados en los tejidos veraes, Son acumulados en la planta antes de la floraciOn, la mayoría se encuentra en las vainas y en los talios~Fi9ura 6). Durante el desarrollo de la panícula, los azúcares van a las esp'guil1as.Cuando los granos comienzan a llenarse después de la fertilización del ovarlo~ ocurre una rápida translocación desde el tal10 y las vaindS al grano durante la etapa lechosa, lo cual se completa cuando la etapa pastosa comienza. Simultáneamente durante la etapa lechosa y en la etapa pastosa, la glucosa fotosintetizada por las últimas hojas viene al grano. En la madurez, alrededor del 95% de los azúcares de la parte a, §rea de la planta est~ en el grano y sólo un 5% permanece en tallos y hojas. Acumulación de carbohidrato$ translocables en las: diferentes partes de la planta a través de las etapas de desarrollo, Es flicil conclutr que danos en las hojas activas durante las etapas lechosa y pastosa, afectan seriamente los rendimientos, cosa muy diferente a 10 que ocurre durante los primeros estados de crecimiento.El rendimiento en grano de 1as plantas de arroz esta condicionado por tres factores:1. El nOmero de pan1cula, por unidad de superficieEl número de granos llenos por panlcu1a, y 3. El peso medio de los granos individuales.El nGmero de panlculas por unidad de superficie (o por planta), es determinado en gran parte durante la fase vegetativa y depende del número dé macollas formadas; 1 as restri ce iones de nutri mentas f agua Y de espaci o, limitan el número de macollas que producen pan1culas.El número de granos por panícula es controlado durante la fase reproductiva. Numeroses estudios han demostrado que la disponibilidad de nutrimentos y el nOmero de granos por panícula tienen una correlación positiva. También la actividad fotosintética~ durante los estados de floración hasta w.aduracióíl, tiene gran influencia. Debe considerarse una esterilídad normal de las espiguillas que fluctúa con la variedad entre un 8 y un 15%.El peso medio del grano es deterMinado durante la fase de maduración. Las plantas expuestas a un óptimo suministro de N en cada fase de crecimiento, con numerosas hojas activas y en condíciones adecuadas de ambiente, producen gran cantidad de carbohidratos durante las fases reproductiva y de madu,ración. 10 cual. a su vez~ da como resultado un gran número de granos con buen peso por panicula. la paja es el producto del crecimiento durante la fase vegetativa y el grano es el producto del crecimü:nto durante las fases reproductiva y de maduración, la suma de ambos es el rendimiento biológico total y la proporci6n de grano se denomina lndice de cosecha.Cuanto más largo sea el perlodo de crecimiento de una variedad, tanto mayor será e1 peso total de la planta, en tanto que la proporci6n grano!pajd disminuye. Asi el rendimiento en grano aumenta al prolongarse el período de crecimiento~ pero 5010 hasta alcanzar una duración óptima {120 a 140 dias en el trópico) (4). Las variedades más precoces o tardías tienen rr.enor capacidad para fOr'ffidr granós. La siembra de las variedades de alto rendimiento y el manejo adecuado de los cultivos, permiten obtener mayor cantidad de grano por cada kilogramo de fertilizante aplicado, hasta un nivel óptimo de respuesta. El conocimiento de cómo los nutrimentos contribuyen a aumentar los rendimientos a través de las etapas de desarrollo es importante pO\"1ue permite un uso eficiente de los fertilizantes.El objetivo principal de una aplicación suministrar una cantidad razonable de nutrimentos demanda durante sus diferentes etapas de desarrollo.de fertilizantes es cuando la planta 10 Para comprender cómo la cantidad de nutrimentos afecta los rendimientos es preciso analizar en primer lugar, cóoo se determina el rendimiento en grano a través de los procesos de acumulación de materia seca; luego las funciones de absorciOn y distribución, slntomas de deficiencia y requerimientos de nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, ca1cio, magnesio y azufre.El rendimiento en grano de un cultivo de arroz est~ detenninado por el número de panlculas por unidad de área, por el número de espiguillas por panlcula, por el tamafio de 1. chcara y el peso de los carbohidratos (prote;nas, grasas, etc.) almacenados en el grano.El número de panlcula, por unidad de área 10 detel1llina el número de hijos formados durante la etapa de macoll.mienta, por el porcentaje de hijos efectivos que se decide unos 10 dI as después del estado de máximo maca11amiento. El número de espiguillas por panícula y el tamaño de la cáscara (glumas) se establecen durante 1. etapa de desarrollo de la panlcula.La mayor cant i dad de roa teri a Seca se floraciOn y el proceso es controlado por respiraciOn durante el llenado de los granos; determina su peso.produce después de la la fotosíntesis y la el contenido del grano El número de panlculas por unidad de área. el número de espiguillas llenas por panícula y el peso del grano, .sUn correlacionados con la cantidad de nutrimentos absorbidos por la planta, durante sus etapas de desarrollo.Las plantas con numerosas hojas en capacidad de intervenir en la fotos1ntesis y con un óptimo suministro de nutrimentos en cada etapa de crecimiento. producen gran cantidad de carbohidratos durante las fases reproductiva y de maduración, lo que a su vez\" da como resultado un gran !lOmero de granos llenos por panícula.La producción de materia seca en la planta de arroz puede ser dividida en dos épocas : a. Antes de la floración. las sustancias producidas se almacenan en las hojas, raíces y los tallos.b. Oespu~s de la floración. Un 90% de 1. materia seca total acumulada en los grano se produce después de 1. floración, el 10% restante procede de los tallos y de las hojas donde se acumuló antes de la floración.La materia seca producida durante este per1odo, t1ene una estrecha correlación con el rendimiento en granos.La cantidad de materia seca producida depende de la variedad, de la disponibilidad de nutrimentos y también est~ influenciada por los factores ambientales; pero el patrón de acumulación es similar en casi todas las variedades de arroz. la variedad CICA 8, para un rendimiento de 6.0 ton/ha en el CIAT (perdomo, et al, 1982) presenta una tasa de producción de materia seca, por d1a, desde la germinación hasta el inicio del macollamiento (30 dlas después de la siembra) de 3.5 kg/ha en promedio; hasta la iniciación de la panícula de 22.98 kg/ha; hasta la floración 41.08 kg/ha. Esta variedad al macollamiento ha producido el 0.87% de la materia seca total, a la iniciación de la panícula el 14.42%, a la floración el 36.20% y de este estado a la madurez se produce el 63.9% restante equivalentes a m&s de 200 k9 de materia seca por día, lo cual es un indicativo de la muy alta actividad fisiológica durante el perlada (Figura 1).La Figura 2 muestra la distribución relativa de la materia seca en la parte aérea de una planta de IR 36 durante sus etapas de crecimiento. Casi el 18% de esta materia seca total se pierde al quedar en las hojas muertas (Fetn'ndez, 1978).la mayor o menor cantidad de granos es el resu1tado de la relaci6n entre la fotosíntesis y la respiración, y estas son actividades que estan influIdas directa o indirectamente por el contenido de nutrimentos. Por ejemplo, el nitrógeno es un componente de las prote'inas t las que a su vez son constituyentes del protoplasma, cloroplastos y enzimas. El fósforo, como fosfato inorg~nico, es un compuesto rico en energla. 'i coroo una coenzima esta. directamente involucrado en la fotos'ntesis. El potasio, .1 actuar en la apertura y cierre de los estomas, tiene que ver en el control de la difusión del CO en los tejidos verdes, que es e1 primer paso de la fotos1ntesis; el potasi& tambi~o es esencial en la actividad de las enzimas.   Figura 2. Producción de materia seca y su distribución en la parte aérea de la planta a través de las etapas de desarrollo de la variedad I R-36 (Fernández. 19781, El calcio hace parte de las paredes de las células y es necesario para la divisiOn celular. El magnesio es un componente de 1. clorofila. El azufre es parte de las protelnas y se requiere para la slntesis de las vitaminas.Las funciones del silicio en el crecimiento del arroz no son muy claras, y aunque los resultados de varios estudios difieren, parece que un incremento en la absorci6n de este elemento por parte de las plantas, las protege de las infecciones de hongos y el ataque de insectos, mantiene erectas las hojas, disminuye tanto las pªrdidas por transpiradOn como la absorción de1 hierro y el manganeso, e incrementa el poder oxidante de las ra1ces~ ?intomas de deficien~ias Los slntomas visibles aparecen en la planta cuando hay deficiencia aguda o toxicidad de algún nutrimento, o por interferencias de otras sustancias tales como ~cidos org~nicos, CO 2 y H 2 S.La movilidad de los nutrimentos en la planta y la posiciOn de la hOja en la cual aparecen los sintomas de deficiencia est~n relacionados. Cuando se trata de un nutrimento de poca movilidad, como el calcio y el hierro, por ejemplo. los slntomas normalmente aparecen en las hojas superiores. Por el contrario, cuando el elemento es m6vil, los s1ntomas aparecen en las hojas inferiores, debido a que el nutrimento ha sido translocado a las hOjas superiores o al punto de crecimiento. El nitr6geno, el fósforo, el potaSio y el azufre son ejemplos de nutrimentos móviles.La cloresis, en el caso de deficiencias, es diferente segOn el elemento que estll por debajo del nivel crHico; las deficiencias de potasio o magnesio causan clorosis intervenal t mientras Que la de nitrógeno o azufre prodUCe clorosis total. Las p1antas con deficiencia de nitr6geno son raqulticas y con pocos tallos. Con excepci6n de las hojas j6venes que son verdes, las demás son angostas, cortas, erectas y amarillentas. Las hojas inferiores presentan secamiento del ápice a la base.Las plantas con deficiencia de fOsforo son también raqulticas y con escaso matol1amiento.Las hojas son angostas, cortas, erectas y con un color verde-grisoso opaco~ Las hojas jóvenes son sanas y las inferiores se tornan de co1or marron y mueren. Si 1a variedad tiene tendencia a producir pigmentos antocianinos 1as hojas pueden desarrollar un co1or púrpura o rojizo.La deficiencia de potasiO reduce el macollamiento y las plantas pueden sufrir de raq:uitismo moderado.. A medida que 1as plantas crecen las hojas inferiores toman un color verde amarillento entre las venas y se inclinan. Con el tiempo 1as hojas inferiores se tornan de color marrón y 1a co1oraci6n amari1lenta pasa a las hojas superiores.La deficiencia de azufre es similar a la de nitrógeno y diferenciarlas visualmente es casi imposible. La deficiencia de calcio afecta muy poco la apariencia general de la planta. excepto cuando es aguda. en cuyo caso el punto de crecimiento de las hojas superiores se torna blanco. enrollado y encrespado, la planta es raqultica y los puntos de crecimiento mueren.La deficiencia de magnesio cuando es moderada, afecta levemente la altura y el maco11amiento. Las hojas son onduladas y se doblan debido a la expansión del &ngulo entre la lamina foliar y la vaina. La clorosis intervenal ocurre en las hojas inferiores y se caracteriza por un color anaranjado.El proceso de absorciOn de nutrimentos a través de las diferentes etapas de crecimiento es una función de las propiedades del suelo. cantidad de fertilizante aplicado. la variedad de arroz y el sistema de cultivo ( Shizuka.1964); se ha observado también que la capacidad de absorciOn de nutrimentos por las ralees de las plantas de arroz, se adapta fAcllmente a condi ci Ofies de crecimi ento poco favorables, como 1 Q demuestran experimentos bajo sombra y a baja temperatura (Yoshida. 1976). la Figura 3 muestra las curvas de .bsorelOn de nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio a través de las etapas de desarrollo de una planta de la variedad IR-36 bien fertilizada (130-40-40) que ha crecido en un suelo con adecuada disponibil idad de P y K; las ralees de las plantas fueron sumergidas en loO antes del transplante. para corregir deficiencia local de este mieronutrimento.El nitrógeno es absorbido rapidamente durante las primeras etapas de desarrollo hasta el final del perlado vegetativo. decae ligeramente durante el estado de ~ximo macollamiento y diferenciaciOn y vuelve a ser absorbido con rapidez hasta la etapa de grano pastoso. la absorción de fesforo es lenta hasta cuando se inicia el primordio flora1, posteriormente es un poco mas rápida hasta poco despuéS de la floración, cuando las necesidades de fósforo de la planta están satisfechas.El potasio es absorbido se90n el crecimiento de la planta hasta el final de la etapa lechosa del grano, 1uego decae alcanzando su máximo contenido en la planta al final de grano lechoso. la planta ya no requiere más potasio. -------  La mayur'ía del nitrógeno tOlf'>óOO por ld planta es almacenado el\": lálllina y vdlnas de las hOjdS hasta la etapa de flot'ación, liíonento en el cual de toddS las partes de la plantó se translúc.a rdpidantef1te al grJflO~ ta 1 prcporc lón que d 1 rededor de 1 a mi tad de 1 ni tróc(,no d 1 mi.1cenado en u planta, bien fí~rtiliz.ad\\l~ va a los granos (Figuras 5 -j 6}. La absorción e <Jtro 5Cx: del nitrógenú conter:ido en el grar,c ocurre después de jd floraciZ  Figura 6, Distribución del N en una planta de arroz de la variedad IR-36 a través de las etapas de desarrollo (Femández, etal, 1978),Cierta cantidad de f6sforo se acumula en las raíces y en las hojas hasta la iniciaci6n de la panícula. A medida que el tallo se e100ga. una cantidad considerable de fósforo circula en el tejido vegetativo hasta la etapa de floraci6n; de 311í en adelante se transloca rápidamente a los granos donde se acumula alrededor del 75% del total del P tomado. Solamente un quince por ciento o menos permanece en la paja del IR-36 (Figura 7).  A diferencia del nitrógeno y el fOsforo, s610 una pequefia cantidad de potasio, menos del 12 por ciento del total tomado por IR-36,va al grano. Este elemento se acumula en las partes vegetativas donde sirven para su formaeiOn y permanece en el tallo hasta la cosecha. Alrededor del 90 por ciento del potasio absorbido del suelo y de los fertilizantes, permanece en 1. paja   _ _ d. deoarrollo  (Fernández, et al, 19781. El calcio es absorbido de acuerdo con el crecimiento de la planta de manera cont1oua hasta la etapa pastosa. Al igual que en el caso d los elementos mayores la absorción aumenta paralelamente al increment de materia seca.En la Figura 9 se observa la absorción de calcio, magnesio y azufr a través del periodo vegetativo. En la etapa de iniciación de 1 pan1cula el cultivo ha absorbido el 14.10% del total de calcio; de est período a la maduración toma el 85.90% restante. Respecto al magnesio hasta la iniciación de 1. panícula  1. planta toma el 12.71% y de esta época a la maduración el 87.28%. En cuanto al azufre hasta la etapa d iniciación del primordio floral la planta toma el 24.2% del total y de est etapa a la maduración el 75.8% ( Perdomo. etJll. 1982). El contenido de calcio en las hojas y los tallos se incrementa después e la floración. El calcio muestra poca translocación de las hojas a la anlcula y el aumento de la cantidad de calcio en la planta después de la loraciOn es causado por el incremento de este elemento en la panYcula En el Cuadro 1 se observa el empleo de este elemento por el cultivo arroz, su absorción es paralela al aumento de materia seca a través 1as diversas etapas de desarrollo del cultivo. La cantidad empleada este elemento Qtíl por el cultivo es mayor que la de los elementos 'nciales. Alto contenido de sllice (Si0 2 ) en los suelos mejora absorción de otros nutrimentos.Cuadro 1. Absoreión de $ilicio por la variedad CICA 8. en el CIAT (Perdomo,et al. 1982). La figura 11 muestra los cambios en el contenido porcentual de nutrimentos de la variedad IR 8 en los órganos vegetativos (paja) y en el grano. El contenido de nitrógeno, fOsforo y azufre en los 6rganos vegetativos es generalmente alto en las primeras etapas de crecimiento~ pero luego decrece hasta que la planta alcanza su madurez .. en cO'ntraste con el s11ice, cuyo contenidO' aumenta continuamente, según estudio ~e Yoshida, 1981. El contenido de calcio en los órganos vegetativos va aumentando a medida que transcurren las etapas de crecimiento, mientras que disminuye en el grano durante so formaci6n. En esta variedad el contenido de magnesio y silicio en la paja y en e1 grano se comportan igual. El contenido de silicio en la paja, es a la madurez, casi el doble que en el estado de pH1ntula. mientras que su contenido en el grano ha disminuIdo un 33% al madurar.Al final del ciclo biológico, los contenidos de nitr6geno y f6sforo son generalmente m&s altos en la panlcula que en la paja (hoja     En otro estudio hecho en .1 CIAT sobre aplicación de nitrógeno (Cuadros 3 y 4 adaptados de Rubl, 1982) se presentan los contenidos de nitrógeno de las varIedades IR 42 Y CICA 8 a los 35 dlas después de 1. sie\"'r., al macoll.miento. a la floración y a la madurez. cuando se hizo siembra directa y transp1ante. En general se observa que las dosis mayores de fertilizante resultan en altos contenidos de nitrógeno y que cuando se hizo transplante el contenido fue mayor para las dos variedades, en todas las etapas de crecimiento. la variedad IR 42 tiene IMS alto contenido de nitrógeno que la variedad CICA 8 en los primeros 35 dI as después de la slembra y en la etapa de IMxlmo macoll amiento , pero en la etapa de madurez la variedad CICA 8 presenta un contenido ligeramente mayor.Influencia de la fertilizaciOn nitrogenada sobre la nutrición leihner (1975) estudió el efecto de la fertilización nitrogenada en el contenido de nutrimentos de la variedad IR 8. en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia y encontró que con excepción del calcio, el magnes.io y el silicio, el contenido de los demás elementos aumenta con la aplicación del nitrógeno (Cuadro 2).Cuadro 2. Contenido de nutrimentos de la variedad IR 8 en las etapas de máximo macolla~ miento y madurez, con dos dosis de N fLeihner, 1975}.  Cuadro 3. Contenido de nitrógeno de tas tres hojas superiores de dos variedades bajo diferentes dosis de N a 10$ 35 días después: de la siembra, al máximo maoollamiento, a la floración ya la madurez, en siembra directa (Rub (. 1982).Etapa de dIlwrollo del cultiyo 35 \"\",.Ifl~ CICA-.8 .... ' .38 '.40 3,11   2.87   , ... , ,. .Para las dos variedades el contenido porcentual de nitrógeno en las hojas es m~s alto durante las primeras etapas de desarrollo, declina levemente al m6ximo macollamiento, baja drásticamente a la floración y l1ega al punto m1nimo a la madurez; en promedio el contenido de nitrógeno con las diferentes dosis de este elemento fue 3.21-3.04-1.82        Efecto similar <le la <losis <le nitrligeno sobre su concentraci5n en el follaje se observa en el Cuadro 5. A la floración, el contenido de fOsforo en el follaje es menor que a la cosecha y se nota poco efecto de la dosis de nitrógeno en el contenido de este elemento. En el caso del potasio, es mayor su contenido durante la floración y menor a la cosecha. El contenido de potasio aumenta con la dosis de nitrligeno, tanto en la etapa de floración COlOO a la cosecha; el elemento que más contiene el follaje es el potasio, seguido por el nitrógeno y luego por el fósforo (Nossa 1980    El contenido de nitrógeno en el grano determina la cantidad de este elemento que se retira del campo a 1. cosecha. En el Cuadro 6 se observa el efecto de ocho dosis de nitrógeno en el contenido de este elemento en el grano (Rub1 1982); se observa que aumenta a medida que se incrementa la dosis y que existe poca diferencia entre las tres variedades En promedio el grano contiene~ respectivamente, de 0.95% y 1.19% con O y 210 kg/ha de nitrógeno aplicado. Cuadro 6. Efecto de la dosis de nitrógeno aplicado en el contenido de nitrógeno en el grano de tres variedades, en siembra directa (Rubl', 1982). El contenido critico de varios elementos, por debajo del cual se pueden presentar deficiencias en la planta se incluye en el Cuadro 7. Estos datos solo deben ser usados COfOO una guia para el diagn6stico de una deficiencia, ya que pueden variar según las condiciones del suelo~ la etapa de desarroilo de la planta, la variedad y el sistema de cultivo. Durante el crecimiento los cambios de la disponibilidad de un elemento en el medio de cultivo tienen una marcada influencia en el contenido crltico~ Cabe anotar que el conenido critico obtenido en estudios de invernadero es a veces muy alto y no es aplicable a las condiciones de campo.contenido cr1tico de fotonsintética se ha estimado en Kz0, 0.4% de MgO y 0.5% de S03' nutrimentos para una un 2% de N, 0.4% de Matsushima (1964), cita varios autores quienes confirman que las plantas de arroz necesitan durante las primeras etapas de desarrollo hasta el estado de mAximo macol hmiento una concentración Optima de 40 ppm o menos de nitrógeno para obtener altos rendimientos; para las siguientes etapas (elongación del tallo, iniciación y desarrollo de la panlcula) 40 ppm o más, para la floración y la fase de maduración 20 a 40 ppm. la absorci6n de f6sforo y los niveles crHicos de este elemento en la planta de arroz han sido determinados por el IRRI (1963), Fageria (1976), Ageeb y Vousif (1978); estos últimos coinciden con el IRRI en que una concentraci6n de 1000 ppm de P en la hoja es un nivel crHico para los rendimientos (Figura 12). En cuanto al potasio, el IRRI (1976) cita COIllO nivel crHico de este elemento en las hojas, en la etapa de máximo macol1amiento J un contenido de 1.0%;posteriormente Fageria, (1976b) encontró que el contenido de potasio aumenta en la planta a medida que es mayor la concentraciOn de este elemento en la 501uci6n nutritiva y con la edad de la planta y que el máximo crecimiento fue obtenido a una concentraciOn de 250 uM de potasio en la solución nutritiva.La cantidad de nutrimentos removidos del suelo por las plantas de arroz depende de la cantidad de materia seca prOducida (kg/ha) y su contenido de nutrimentos, 10 que a su vez vada según el contenido de nutrimentos del suelo disponibles para la planta.En el Cuadro 8 se detalla la cantidad de nutrimentos relllOvidos del suelo por algunas variedades, según diferentes autores. Se observa que la variedad CICA 8, en suelos con alto contenido de materia orgánica, utiliza los macroelementos en la siguiente proporción N > K > P. Sin embargo la misma variedad bajo condiciones de riego, en suelos de niveles medios de fertilidad, se comporta en forma similar a las demás variedades K> N > P. Para Perola elAC 165, los resultados en cultivo de secano y en suelos de bajo nivel de fertilidad son semejantes al CICA 8, en suelos con alto contenido de materia orgánica (Perdomo et al, 1984). Cuadro 8. Cantidad de macronutrimen'tos removidos del suelo por diferentes variedades de thTO.z en kilogramos por hectárea. SegOn Yoshida (1981), independientemente de 1. diferencia en rendimiento, la remoei6n de nitr6geno, f6sforo y potasio es bastante similar entre las variedades de alto y moderado rendimiento. La diferencia en la cantidad de nitr6geno removido se explica por el índice de cosecha. Un cultivo con alto Indiee de cosecha requiere menos nitrógeno porque menor cantidad de este elemento es retenido por 1.En el Cuadro 9 se muestra la cantidad de cada uno de los elementos mayores, secundarios y de silicio, necesarios para producir 1 tonelada de arroz con cascara en el IRRI y en el CIAT.En promedio, para producir 1 tonelada de arroz en el trOpico se necesitan de 18 a 27 kg de nitrOgeno, 4-5 kg de f6sforo y 15-35 kg de potasio; 3-8 kg de cal cio, 3-4 kg de magnesio y de 1.5 a 2.5 kg de azufre.Cuadro 9, cantidad de nutrimentos necesarios para producír 1 tonelada de arroz con \"cara.     La absorci6n de un nutrimento varia según la cantidad de fertilizante que se aplique. En el Cuadro !O se obserya que la cantidad total de nitrógeno que utilizan las variedades IR 42, CICA 8 Y CICA 4 aul1lenta a medida que se incrementa la dosis de nitrógeno. Aunque hay diferencias entre variedades, se nota mayor absorciOn en plantas de la variedad CICA 4 en siembra directa; en este caso, la variedad absorbe la mayor cantidad de nitrógeno (163 kg/ha) a una dosis de 210 <g/ha de nitrógeno.Según yarios estudios efectuados en el CIAT, la utilizadOn de los nutrimentos por planta de arroz es similar tanto en transplante como en siembra directa.   En la parte aérea de la planta la proporción entre las cantidades extraídas de N. P Y K es de 7:1:3 para la variedad CICA 8. MalavoH., (1978) reporta para la variedad IAC 435 una relación 6:1:4, mientras que Fur1an; et al, 1977 obtuvieron una relación 6:1:7. En el CIAT (Perdomo, et al, 1982) encontraron que para la variedad CICA 8 con O kg/ha de nitrógeno una relación de 7:1:3 y con 200 kg/ha de nitrógeno 8:1:3 (Cuadro 11); en este cuadro se presenta ademA s 1. relacíón N:P:K en la parte aérea, para otras variedades y líneas con O y 200 kg/ha de N. Los problemas de deficiencia de fósforo en suelos ácidos del trópico usualmente ocurren junto con la toxicidad de aluminio. Los dos problemas son dif1ciles de separar debido a la afinidad química entre ambos elementos. Consecuentemente, interacciones aluminio-fósforo tienen que ser consideradas al evaluar la tolerancia de variedades y especíes a ambos problemas (Salinas y S&nchez, 1979.)  La Figura 14 ilustra la reacción de dos variedades a la toxicidad de aluminio en un Oxisol de Carlmagua, Colombia con 4.5 de pH y 80% de saturaci6n de aluminio, antes de la aplicaci6n de cal. la variedad alta Colombia 1 produce dos veces más sin cal que la variedad IR 5 de baja estatura. Colombia 1 responde positivamente solo al primer incremento de cal (0.5 ton/ha) y negativamente a mayores dosis; Spain et al (1979) atribuyen este comportamiento a una respuesta al calcio y al magnes10, contenidos en la cal dolomltica y al voleamiento cuando se incrementa la dosis de esta enmienda. En contraste, IR 5, desarrollada bajo condiciones de alta fertilidad en las Filipinas, responde de una manera cuadrática tiple. a la cal y logra su máximo Nlndimiento a la más alta dosis de cal, o sea la dosis necesaria para neutralizar un suelo hasta el 15% de saturación de aluminio. El m&ximo Nlndimiento alcanzado por la variedad IR 5, es más bajo que el m&ximo alcanzado por Colombia 1 con la décima parte de la cantidad de cal.las diferencias encontradas entre las variedades pueden ser explicadas por mécanismos fisiológicos como! diferentes tasas de absorción y translocación de fósforo y diferencias morfológicas en la extensión radical como respuesta al medio. satul1Ición de Al, 010. \"\" .      Salinas, 1974 (datos no publicadOS), al trabajar con doS variedades de arroz, IR 5 Y Bluebonnet 50, observó diferencias varietales en las tasas de absorción de fOsforo, tal como ílustra la Figura 15. Estos resultados sugieren que IR 5 tiene un sistema radical m!s eficiente con relación al empleo de P que Bluebonnet 50, dado que la m!xima absorciOn de fósforo de Bluebonnet 50 ocurrió a una concentración de 0.2 ppm, mientras IR 5 mostró la misma tasa de absorción de fósforo a una concentración de solo 0.05 ppm.Bajo condiciones de campo en Tailandla, Koyama y Chammeck (1971) (citados por Salinas y S&nchez 1979) encontraron que a niveles altos de fósforo (100 kg/ha de PO) no hubo diferencias en los rendimientos de dos variedades de arr&; 5 (Figura 16). A niveles bajos de fósforo el rendimiento en grano de la variedad de arroz Muey naung fue Significativamente menor que el rendimiento de la variedad Oawk mail 3 y cuando no se aplicó P las diferencias fueron mayores.En el CIAT (1973) al evaluar la tolerancia a la acidez de las variedades de arroz, se adoptó la medida lRR (Longitud Relativa de la Ralz) como un índice de tolerancia al exceso de aluminio. Las variedades mas tolerantes fueron: Colombia 1, Monalaya y Bluebonnet 50.Recientemente en el CIAT, para conocer la influencia del tamafio y el grosor de las ralees en la tolerancia de la planta al aluminio, se comparó el desarrollo radical de las plantas de arroz de cuatro variedades lAG 25 Y Monolaya (tradicionales), CICA 8 Y Metica 1 (modernas) bajO diferentes tratamientos con fósforo y calcio. Los resultados obtenidos indican que IAC 25 y Monal.ya tienen mayor capacidad de adaptación a los suelos !cidos con alto contenido de aluminio ~ sus raíces Se desarrollan satisfactoriamente en condiciones adversas (Figura 17). Mientras que el pobre desarrollo de las plantas y la producción exigua de las variedades Metíca 1 y CICA 8, no Justifican su siembra en condiciones de suelos ácidos con altos contenidos de aluminio, ni aún en parcelas con niveles altos de fertilizaciOn. Posteriormente (CIAT, 1983) se compararon en condición de secano 15 variedades en suelos ácidos de los llanos Orientales de Colombia. las variedades IAC 5544, To. 1011-4-1 y otras cinco presentan rendimientos que superan las variedades testigos IAC 25 y Manolaya (Cuadro 12).  La Figura 18 muestra los rendimientos relativos de algunas variedades de arroz a una dosis alta de superfosfato (1.363 kg/ha de P20S) aplicado al voleo. Esta dosis provee un alto nivel de fósforo d,sponible (26 ppm de P por el método Mehlich 2). La mayoría de las variedades producen su máximo rendimiento con la dosis. alta de f6s.foro pero a diferentes niveles de saturación de aluminio. Cuando la saturación de aluminio decrece a 63% por la adición de 500 kg/ha de cal. la cual suple calcio y magnesio como nutrimentos~ las primeras tres variedades (Batatais. Flotante y la IAC 1246) no alcanzan el BOl del rendimiento I11&x11OO, como lo hacen 10s otras dos que tienen los 1M5 bajos requerimientos externos de fósforo (10 ppm) bajo condiciones de exceso de aluminio. (Sánchez y Salinas, 1981).Cuando la saturación de aluminio se reduce al 38% por la adición de 1.5  Las técnicas y el proceso general del diagnóstico son estudiados en la Etiología~ discipl ind que tiene por objetivo el conocer la naturaleza y clasificación de los agentes primarios causantes de enfermedades. Es importante señdlar que predomina la tendencia a asociar el término uenfermedadl< cor, agentes primarios causales como hongos~ virus y bacterias. Sin embargo~ una conceptualización más amplia consldera que también factores ambientales, como suelo y clima t pueden ser causantes de enfermeaades. En otro sentido es muy frecuente asociar los términos 1jproblema tl , uenfermedad H , lIdisturbio l' , IIdesorden u • El diagnóstico es la fase inmediata a la \"observación sensorial del problema\". Segan Mu~oz (15), el diagn6stico de una enfermedad debe ser el punto de partida y la base cientlfica para la formulación de planes de El diagn6stico vegetal p~esenta algunas características especiales~ en relación al diagnOstico en el caso de los animales; 1. En general, las estructuras (órganos, tejidos) vegetales son mas sencillas que las estructuras animales.Los animales exteriorizan en una forma más evidente los problemas que los afectan; aumento de temperatura~ postraciOn, sudores, diarreas.erizamiento.Tambi~n los animales manifiestan en forma más rápida el problema. Además es rápida, Su reacción al tratamiento positivo del mismo.Algunas manifestaciones del problema en los vegetales, como por ejemplo los s1ntomas, son de dif1cil interpretación. 5. Algunos de los órganos vegetales, por ejemplo las raíces, no son visibles y su exploración puede conducir a la muerte de la planta.En el diagnóstico vegetal interesan las afecciones que comprometen a conjuntos de plantas. a poblaciones; el individuo aislado generalmente no tiene significancia en fitopatología; en cambio en el diágnostico humano y animal. el interés se centra básicamente en el individuo (Muñoz 15).En el caso del diagnóstiCO de problemas en arroz. hay necesidad de precisar algunas situaciones especiales: 1. Generalmente el arroz crece mejor en suelos inundados que en suelos no inundados.Las propiedades qUlmlcas. físicas y biológicas de un suelo seco cambian significativamente con la inundación. En estas condiciones predominan las reacciones de reducción.El arroz responde en forma diferente al encalamiento y a la fertilización, según se siembre en suelos inundados o en suelos no inundados.Los principales cambios que ocurren con la inundación son: a) cambio en el pH; b) disminución del potencial de reducción-oxidación (redox); c) aumento de la conductividad.Cualquiera que sea el pH original del suelo. después de inundado llega, aproximadamente en tres semanas. a valores entre 6.5 y 7. 5. los cuales se mantienen. mient~dura la inundación.Diferentes problemas pueden presentar síntomas similares. Por otra parte, un mismo problema puede manifestarse en forma o en grados diferentes. Todo esto complica la caracterización visual del problema y conduce a tratar en el futuro de caracterizar, no síntomas típicos, sino \"cuadros sintomatológicos\" o \"síndromes\" del problema.El comportamiento de diferentes variedades de arroz ante un mismo problema es diferencial. Por lo tanto pueden existir variedades que soporten mejor que otras ciertas condiciones limitativas del suelo y el ambiente en general.Los requerimientos nutricionales del arroz son muy variables. El Cuadro 1 muestra la cantidad de macronutrimentos removidos del suelo por diferentes variedades y según varios autores.El orden de absorción de nutrimentos de mayor a menor variedad CICA I absorción de otro, evitando la posible toxicidad de este último); b) sinergismo (la presencia de un i5n aumenta la absorción de otro). 13. Todos los notrimentos esenciales deben estar presentes en la planta, pero no todos los elementos presentes en ella son esenciales.14 Algunas pr~cticas del cultivo como la nivelación, producen cortes en ciertas zonas del terreno y removiéndose por 10 tanto algunos nutrimentos; el zinc por ejemplo que se distribuye especialmente en unos pocos centlmetros del horizonte superior, produciendose de esta manera parches con deficienclas de este nutrimento. 15. las plantas con deficiencias nutricionales tienden a ser más susceptibles a la invasión de organismos patógenos, aunque aquellas plantas sanas y con una nutrición balanceada parecen ser más susceptibles a los virus (Barley, et 1)El proceso de diagnóstico, por otra parte, requiere de una ayudas y de técnicas, llamadas corrientemente \"recursos diagnóstico;1 y dentro de las cuales están:La caracterización visual de s1ntomas serie de para el los análisis qulmicos de suelos y de plantas, con los correspond1entes univeles cr1ticos\" la observación macroscópica y microscópica de la planta o parte de la planta afectada.El aislamiento de pOSibles patógenos y las pruebas de patogenicidad respectivas.la consulta bibliográfica la experimentación la observación de otras plantas y cultivos; plantas indicadoras.Puede afirmarse en general que un proceso de diagnóstico. requiere del uso de varios de los anteriores reCur50S~La caracterización visual de los stntomas La experi enc i a adqu i ri da en la caracteri zaci ón vi sua 1 de 51 ntomas de deficiencias o toxicidades de nutrimientos, es un elemento de indudable importancia para el diagnóstico. Debe tenerse cuidado con el pe119ro de definir problemas con base en los II s 1ntomas t1picos\"; el autor considera * Tlplco (latln Typicus): 10 propio, lo caracterjstico de algo; lo que i nc 1 uyen en s 1 1 a representac; ón de otra cosa, siendo emblema o fi gu ra de ella. (DiCCionario Heal Academia, 1977).que este concepto tradiciona1mente usado en fertilídad de suelos, s510 es vá1ído en casos muy espec1ficos y por 10 tanto debe ser usado con prudencia; sugiere como alternativa el uso de expresiones como \"cuadro sintomatológíco\", u S1ndrome tl , \"cuadro de síntomas!!, expresiones que se refieren al complejo \"s1ntomas y signos!! con sus diferentes intensidades.Tres categorías de síntomas son importantes de recordar: l.S1ntomas necr6sicos: muerte del protoplasma y 10s tejidos. Son de naturaleza \"regresiva)!. Aquí figuran, el marc~itamíento, la quemazón, el vaneamiento l la mowíficac;ón. Por otr'a parte también eS necesario considerar' que no hay solamente \"síntomas visibles\", tales como algunos de los mencionados anteriormente. También hay \"síntomas: citclógicos ll (por ejemplo: cloroplastos pequenos), II s íntomas químicos: (por ejemplo; bajo contenido de clorofila, bajo contenido de almidones), II s 'intomas metabólicos\" {por ejemp)o: reducción en la intensidad de la síntesis de proteínas).Fageria {4}, presenta una guía en la Figura 1, para identificar síntomas de deficiencias nutricionales en arroz.Cheaney y Jennil1gs (3), seiíalan en el Cuadro 2 los nutrimentos más importantes y las condiciones que favorecen su deficiencia o toxicidad •.h~s análisis químicos d€ .. suelos y de plantas En cuanto a los análisis químicos de suelos y de p1antas con fines de diagnóstico, el uso de la técnica del Ucontraste\" o comparaCión entre suelo problema y suelo normal, o entre planta/órgano problema y planta/órgano normal, no sOlo simplifica la interpretaci6n pues la conduce a una sencilla tomparación, sino que permite un uso más lógico de este recurso, en comparación con la sola ínterpretaci6n del análisis del suelo problema o del tejidO problema. Los an&l isis rutinarios de fertilidad no parecen ser los mas apropiados para fines de diagnóstico. Lo recomendable es solicitar aná 1 i s 1s para macronutrimentos y mi cronutrimentos, y en casos especi a les incluír Al, Na, sales. SegQn Guerrero (8), el diagnóstico químiCO de la fertilidad del suelo requiere que el método químico de extracción de determinado nutrimento, obter.ga verdaderamente la fracclón que estará disponible al cultivo; además se requiere contar con niveles críticos confiables. Estos dos supuestos h.sicos del an.lisis, son el resultado de la investigaciOn y de la calibraciOn del análisis. El Cuadro 3 presenta como un ejemplo 1. aproximación de niveles criticos de nutrimentos en el suelo para arroz de acuerdo al MAG-Costa Ri ca. Esta i r.fonnación se presenta a ni ve 1 de s imp 1 e referenc; a, pues 10 deseable es que estos niveles críticos se obtengan o se ajusten a condiciones locales. Para fines de diagn6stico. el analisi, del suelo ha producido mejores resultados que el anaH,i, de, tejido. Sin ernhargo, y también a nivel informativo, se presenta ei Cuadro 4, como una aproximación a los niveles críticos de n~t:\"i:¡tt;'lto':. en varias pa',\"'tes de la planta y estados de crecimiento SEgún lanak-i! y YOló¡ttidi. 'l,citados por Howe:er (11 Las dos situaciones mencionadas en la experimentación lI un ifactorial 11   , son meros ejemplos ilustrativos de un sinnúmero de posibilidades que dependen de la habilidad de la persona que está orientando el proceso o ruta del diagnóstico. La observaci6n de otras plantas como malezas y cultivos vecinos al sitio en donde está el prOblema cuyo diagn6stico interesa, es un recurso valioso pero muy poco usado: algunas plantas son especialmente sensibles a bajas cantidades de un nutrimento particular en el suelo y muestran los síntomas de su deficiencia más fácilmente que otras plantas. Chapman, citado por Barley (1) con el posible agente fitopat6genú en cultivo puro, deben reproducirse los 51ntomas característicos de la enfermedad. 4. El agente fitopatOgeno debe ser reaislado de hospedante inoculado y debe mostrar las nlismas características en cultivo puro que el que se ais16 anteriormente.Para finalizar es importante tener en cuenta que hay dos vías o rutas no excluyentes que permiten orientar el proceso de diagnóstico:al El diagnóstico por inducción, muy usado para el caso de fitotoxicidades b) El d,agnóstico por deducción, muy usado en fertilidad de suelos para el caso de defíciencias. Al oriente de las cordilleras de Colombia, se encuentra una regi5n inmensa de tierras planas. con vegetación de sabana natural. La región es conocida como los Llanos Orientales de Colombia. pero los suelos y la vegetaciOn Son parecidOS a los de los Llanos de Venezuela y el Campo Cerrado del Brasil. Los suelos se han clasificado como Oxisoles. muy &cidos (pH 4.0-4.6) Y pobres en casi todos los nutrimentos. especialmente P, K. Ca y Hg. En el piedemonte de la cordillera existe una agricultura comerclal. princi~lmente de arraz con riego, pero en el interior del Llano se utiliza la tierra únicamente para producc16n extensiva de ganado de carne. En general. los rendimientos del arroz con riego son bajos. de 3-4 toneladas/ha, y el crecimiento de las plantas no es vigoroso. Además con el uso de las variedades enanas, especialmente IR-S. se observO una enfermedad fisio16gica conocida como IIAnaranjamientou. Entre el primero y segundo mes, las hojas toman un color amarillo o anaranjado, empezando por las inferiores y siguiendo hacia las hojas superiores. En casos graves la mayorla del follaje se seca.Oebldo a que las condiciones fis!cas y ambientales de esta región son favorables al cultivo comercial de arroz con riego. en 1970 el CIAT comenzó a estudiar la causa del problema de 11 anaranjamiento U • Una gran ventaja del arroz con riego en suelos ácidos. es que a causa de la inundación el pH del suelo sube. por 10 cual no hay necesidad de aplicar grandes cantidades de cal y el cultivo no sufre por toxicidad de Al, como casi todos los cultivos de secano que se siembran en la región.Es bien conocido por los trabajos del lRRl (lnternational Rice Research Institute) en las Filipinas, que en suelos ácidos con alto contenido de hierro, el arroz con riego puede sufrir por toxicidad de este elemento. Esta enfermedad que eS común en Sr! Lanka, se llama I!bronceamiento ll • pero en los Llanos de Colombia\" los s1ntomas no son de Ilbronceamiento ll porque las concentraciones. de Fe no s.on 10 suficientemente altas para una toxicidad directa de' elemento,. Sin embargo. los estudios indican que el \"anaranjamienton se observa Unicamente en suelos inundados. y que la aparici6n de los s~ntomas está relacionada con el aumento de la concentración de Fe en la soluci6o~ Cuando se inunda un suelo, ; nmedi a tamente ocurren cambi os fí si cos) qu1micos y microbiales. Al llenar los poros del suelo con agua, se disminuye drásticamente la difusi6n del oxigeno en el suelo. Los micro-organismos aeróbicos. consumen el oxlgeno todavla presente y mueren para Ser reemplazados por micro-organismos anaeróbicos~ quienes en vez de reducir oxígeno, reducen varios compuestos oxidados en el suelo como nitratos y Oxidos e hidróxidos de Mn4+ y Fe3+. Debido a la entre 6.5 Y 7.0. Después de cierto tiempo todo el suelo queda reducido, con excepción de una pequeña capa en la superficie que esta en contacto con el oxíge!lo disuelto en el agua. Esta capa de pocos milímetros de eSDesor~ se mantiene oxidada y en élla hay Ufl gradiente fuerte en la concentración de oxígeno; también hay un gradiente de Fe causado por la difusión de Fe2+ hacia la capa oxidada, donde se predpita como óxido o hidróx\"ido de Fe3+.El arroz es una planta semi acuática q~e puede creCer ~n suelos inundados y por lo tanto reducidos, porque tiene un sistema especial de canales, llamados aerenquima que conduce el aire a través de, las hojas y el tallo hasta las raíces. las raíces utiliza~ el oXlgen~ para su respiración~ pero parte del aire puede difundirse hacia afuera y oxida una pequeña capa de suelo a 1 rededor de 1 a ra'i z. Entonces, aur.que e i arroz es té cree i ende en un suelo reducido, el suelo al rededOf~ dE cada raíz? puede ser oxidado y se acumula Fe, por la difu$~óf\\ de Fe2+ hacia la ra'!z y la precipitación de compuestos de Fe3+ al ponerse en contacto con el oxígeno.Para estudiar el efecto de varios tratamientos de fertilización y el manejo del agua sobre la tasa de reduccíón y la concentración de Fe en 1a so1ución del suelo, se hicieron varios ensayos en el 1nvernddero. En el Cuadro 1 se presef1tan las caracter1sticas químicas de los suelos util izados en 105 experimentos.Los resultados de dichos e'r'lsayos indican que el j'anaranjamíento j ' ocurre únicamente después de í~unddr sueios acidos con altos contenidos de Fe. Las plantas crecen normalmente hasta Que la concentraci6n de Fe eMpieza a aumentar en lo solución del suelo, causando un revestimiento de las ralees con óxido de Fe. Con el tienpo esta coloración se intensifica hastrl que: las ralces se afectdn y no queda raíces b'ancas y activas. En esta estado las raíces son cortas. muy ramificacas y los puntos de crecimiento tienen un color rojo oscuro y engrosado. En el Cuadro 2 puede verse como los suelos 1, 3, 5, 6, 14 Y 15 fueroli afectddos en su formación de ma:eria seca, como grano y paja! a diferencia del sue10 2 de sabana baja inundabie, donde el hierro no aumentó y el cultivo creció norrr,almente.Si el suelo se reduce rápidamente y el aumento de la concentración de Fe es ligero~ las plantas sufren inicialr:lente! pero después tienden a recuperarse. Si ld reducción es. lenta y el nivel de Fe en la solución es bajo durante varias semanas, el crecimiento de las plantas es inicialmente muy vígoroso. con mucho macollamiento. Sin errbargoJ cuando las concentraciones de Fe empiezan a aumentar, las plantas ya grandes son más dfectadas por uanaranjamiento\" que 1as plAntulas. Igualmente l tona alta fertílizacion con N. P Y K, resulta en un crecimiento inicia1 muy vigoroso. pero estas plantas grandes sufren mas de anaranjamiento que las plantas pequeñas.Los slntorcas de lIanaranjamientol< son muy distintos a los de IObronceamiento U , causado por toxicidad directa de Fe, ya que el \"anaranjamiento lf puede ocurrir con niveles bajos de Fe en el tejido. La severidad del lIanaranjamientoU parece estar relacionada con bajos niveles de P, Ca, Mg y K en los tejidos. El Cuadro 3, muestra los análisis de tej i dos en va ri os suelos y se ve claramente, como los sue 1 os mayormente afectados no sen necesariar.~nte ¡os más altos en hierro. Palmira (5) Carimagua-Sabana Alta (6) \"Suelo Nuevo\" CarimAgua-Sabana Alta (7) \"Utilizado\"   Los slntomas de lIanaranjamiento'l se agravan debido a la compactación del suelo, o con el IIfangueo\", con el corte de rafees, y con la sienbra de demasiadas plantas por maceta o matera. En el Cuadro 4 t se pue~e observ~r este fenómeno 'j su efecto -sobre le producción de grano. En -este caso los slntomas pueden ocurrir aOn con bajos niveles de fe.De estas observaciones, se conduye qUE el uanaranjaniento\" (10 es toxicidad directa de Fe~ sino que es una deficiencia en la absorción de nutrimentos (especialmente P y Mg) por la planta. Normalmente es causa~a por niveles altos de Fe en la solución del suelo.En suelos con alto contenido de Fe, el arroz puede sufrir tanto de lIanaranjamiento\" como de IIbronceamiento ll • dependiendo de la edad de las plantas afectadas y del manejo del agua. En muchos casos el arroz de riego sufre de una combinación de toxicidad airecta e indirecta de Fe y como resu 1 tado de un amp 1 i o rango de i ntens i dad de 1 I! anaranjami ento ll • La severidad de ambos tipos de toxicidad •de Fe, se puede reducir con las siguientes prácticas: l. Usar variedades resistentes 2. Producir arroz con riego solo en lotes anteriormente cultivados, incorporando los residuos de cosecha 3. Aplicar altos niveles de cal 4. Drenar el campo a los 2 meses, o antes, si se observan s1ntomas y volver a inundar 5. Alternar la inundación con perlodos de secado a capacidad de campo 6. Mantener cierto drenaje interno, (percolación) para 10 cual no Se debe \"fanguear\" 7.Hacer aplicaciones foliares de p~practica~ ayudan a reducir el problema de \"anaranjamientoU, no es muy probable que 10 elimine completamente. Se deben tomar en cuenta consideraciones econ6micas para detenninar si valdr,a la pena cultivar arroz con riego en suelos can altos contenidos de Fe. y cuales prácticas resultan más aconsejables. LO 111 84'\"'\"Inundación rotacional-ciclo de semana LO 94 141 7.Inundación rotacional-ciclo de 3 semanas La preparacibn del suelo es una de las labores m&s importantes para la siembra de arroz, ya que de ella depende un buen establecimiento de las plantas, as' como la mayor o menor dificultad que presenten los trabajos posteriores, tales corno el manejo del riego y el control de malezas.En las áreas donde el arroz se cultiva por el método de siembra directa, la preparación se hace en suelo seco y en forma similar que para otros cultivos. En este caso, las operaciones de labranza consisten en arar el suelo, rastrillarl0 convenientemente y emparejarlo para luego sembrar semilla seca.En América Latina existen áreas húmedas y mal drenadas, en donde la prepar.cibn en seco se dificult.. En estas lonas es más práctico hacer esta operación bajo agua o combinar una fase de la preparación en seco, con la preparación bajo agua. En este caso el cultivo se realiza bajo inundación~ lo eual requiere que los campos sean bien nivelados.La nivelaciOn puede hacerse en SecO siguiendo un método convencional de ingenierla , o puede realizarse bajo agua por el método del Ilfangueo ll OPERACIONES PARA DESARROLLAR V PREPARAR UN LOTE PARA ARROZ SELECCION DEL TERRENO Para 13 producciOn de arroz con riego se requiere un lote que nene determinados requisitos, en cuanto a disponibilidad de agua, topograffa y suelos. A continuación se analizan cada uno de estos requisitos: al Dis~onibilidad de agua. El agua es el factor más importante para la pro uceion de arroz con riego) por 10 tanto conviene hacer previamente un estudio del agua disponible, que incluya:-Las fuentes de agua superficiales (ríos, arroyos, lagos) o de aguas subterraneas (pozos profundos).-La ubicación de las fuentes de abastecimiento, influye en el costo de aprovisionamiento de agua, por lo tanto, debe conocerse: la facilidad de acceso para operación y servicio; la distancia al sitio de riego; posibilidad de movimiento del agua por gravedad o por bombeo, y pOSible localización de embalses temporales.El caudal disponible es factor b~sico para la produccibn de arroz con riego y limita la extensión de terreno que pueda cultivarse. Para el cultivo de arroz son preferibles 105 suelos de textura arcillosa por su poca permeabilidad; éstos y los suelos ligeros deben tener una capa limitativa con un índice máximo de permeabilidad de 0.5 mm por hora. Los suelos de textura arenosa tienen muy poca capacidad de retención de agua. En el Cuadro 1 se presenta la relación entre 1. permeabilidad del suelo y la cantidad de agua que se requiere para mantenerlo inundado. Vemos como suelos con alta filtraciOn requerir4n caudales muy altos de agua para mantener la inundación, 10 cual los hace antiecoll5micos~ d) Los suelos con alto contenido de arcilla o suelos apropiados para ser preparados por IIfangueo\" en 1 a one,du,oción de arroz. Cuando estSn inundados son r&ciles de preparar porque proporcionan mayor soporte a las ruedas del tractor, causan menos desgaste a las cuchillas de los implementos y sus partlculas pequeñas permanecen suspendidas en el agua, facilitando el transporte del suelo. Por esta razbn los suelos arcillosos son mas f&ciles de nivelar bajo el agua, contrario a 10 que ocurre cuando se les prepara en seco.Cuadro 1. Permeabilidad del suelo y cantidad de agua (lts/seg/ha) requerida para mantenerlo inundado.L. g) Topy g rafla. La pendiente de1 terreno y el espesor de la capa superior de $ue o r.ertil, influyen en el tamafto de las parcelas a construir yen el n~nejo de éllas. Los terrenos con una pendiente promedio de 5 por milo menos, son los más apropiados para la siembra de arroZ. Suelos con pendientes mayores de 7 por mil pueden adecuarse, pero a un costo mayor que los anteriores, pues habrá que remover mAs tierra, tener parcelas mas peque~as y proporcionalmente mayor número de caballones que reducen el área a sembrar. Con los datos tomados en e1 terreno se procede al trabajo de oficina que consiste en:-Cálculo de cotas -Oibujo de un plano con curvas a nivel a intervalos generalmente de 10 cms. También se deta11an en el plano los accidentes topogr&ficos. La Figura 1 representa un diagrama de lote en su forma original.-C&lculo de cortes y rellenos. Existen diferentes métodos para ca1cular los cortes y rellenos: perfiles simplesi perfiles dobles; centroide y método del momento (utilizado en CIAT)...:-Conociendo la magnitud de los cortes y los rellenos~ se procede a marcar las estacas en el terreno. Se torna un plano de referencia a 30 erns sobre el plano calculada: 10$ cortes se marcan con una línea en la estaca, de tal forma que al ejecutar el corte, el plano final quede a una distancia vertical de 30 cms de dicha línea. Los re11enos se marcan en la estaca con una linea de 30 cms del plano original. mAs la dimensi6n que haya que rellenar de tal forma que al finalizar el trabajo~ la superficie quede a 30 cms de la línea marcada en la estaca.Se acostumbra marcar los cortes de color rOjo y los rellenos de color azul, con el fín de dar una gu1a al operador de la maquina.-La operación de macronivélación se ejecuta con una trailla y es como sigue:El desplazamiento de la mAquina para efectuar el corte, transporte y relleno se predetermina en un plano de trabajo, en e1 cual se busca la forma mas eficiente de realizarlo.El primer corte se hace siguiendo una línea de estacas que marque cortes, hasta obtener una razante, de acuerdo con las 1íneas de referencia en las estacas.Se busca una línea de estacas que marque rellenos y Se hace la razante de. acuerdo con las lineas de referencia marcadas en las estacas~ depositando el suelo cortado en el paso anterior.Se efectO a la misma operación en las siguientes l1neas de estacas que marcan un área de 25 x 25 m.Este procedimiento produce una serie de planos de diferentes alturas de acuerdo con las pendientes calculadas y escalonadas en el sentido perpendicular al desplazamiento de la máquina.El Siguiente paso tonsiste en producir un plano continuo en el sentido perpendicular a los cortes y rellenos ya efectuados y que tendrá la pendiente calculada. Para el efecto~ se hace trabajar la máquina en forma perpendicular a los planos escalonados para producir una pendiente continua igual a la calculada en esa dirección. Las Figuras 2 y 3 representan el plano teórico de cortes y rellenos, y el plano cont1nuo logrado por la nivelación. La nivelación del lote produce un plano de pendiente continua. El lote debe ser adecuado para establecer el sistema de riego por ;nundaciór En este caso l es necesario delimitar las parcelas y nivelarlas a cero '\",\"u. t--J pendiente, conformando ast terrazas o meigas. Una buena nivelación dentro de 1a parcela permitirá un fAcil manejo del agua, una buena distribución y econom1a de ésta\" un mejor control de malezas y mayor eficiencia en la utilización de los fertilízantes.(Fíguras 4 y 5).El procedimiento a seguir para nivelar las melgas a cero, consiste en construlr caballones a intervalos. según convenga, entre 7 y 15 cms de distancia vertical. la distancia horizontal estará determinada por la pendiente; si un lote tiene una pendiente de 0.4% y se construyen caba110nes cada 10 cms de diferencia de nivel, la distancia entre caba110nes ser~ de 25 mts, pero si se desea tener diferencias sólo de 5 cm, los muros se ubicar&n a sólo 12.50 mts. (Figuras 6-7 y 7A). la operaci6n de nivelaciOn a cero se puede efectuar con una motoniveladora y el acabado hacerlo mediante el \"fangueo ll O se puede realizar la nivelación bajo agua o Ilfangueo U directamente.PREPARACION DE SUELOS MEDIANTE El SISTEMA DE \"FANGUEO\" PARA EL CULTIVO DEL ARROZ Los objet ivos de la 1 abor de prepo ración de sue 1 os medí ante el IIfangueo l1 SQn ! Mezclar la materia organica con el suelo. Las malezas y los residuos de cultivos anteriores se mezclan con el suelo. En esta forma 1 se descomponen y liberan los nutrimentos.Ayudar a controlar las malezas, impidiendo Que crezcan y compitan con las plantas del cultivo.Oestru1r la estructura del suelo en la capa arable. para reducir 1a pérdida de agua y nutrimentos por lixiviaci6n.Convertir el suelo en \"fango\" o lodo, para facilitar el transplante o la siembra de semillas pregerminadas.Equipo mecanico.Un factor importante en la preparación de tierra bajo inundación es el equlpo mecánico, el cual consiste básicamente, en un tractor y tres accesorios: el Urototiller U o arado rotatorio, la cuchilla o pala y el rastrillo de púas.Debido al tipo de labor y las condlciones en que se realiza e1 trabajo, el tractor debe reunir las siguientes características. según Dial Johnson (1974): Debe ser liviano. como máximo 75 a SO HP de fuerza.  Perfil del mismo eampo nil/elado para riego de inundación, Lote con una pendiente de 0.4% continua y diques cada 25 metros., con 10 ems de diferencia y listo pata \"¡\\lelar.El mismo lote con melgas nil/eladas a caro y diferencia entra melgas dtl10 ems, El mismo lote con difereneia de 5 ems entre malgas o 001M.Enganche de tres puntos con capacidad para levantar y sostener, permanentemente, un arado rotatorio pesado# Eje tomafuerza 10 suficientemente fuerte que pueda soportar el uso cont1nuo. La velocidad patrón de que están dotados los tractores, 540 revoluciones por minuto, es aceptable, pero seria mejor uno de 1000 revoluciones en el eje cardan.Por otra parte, el eje no debe ser ni muy corto~ pues se desconecta al bajar el implemento, ni muy largo porque puede romper la transmisión del tractor al subirle.El sistema de frenos debe trabajar bajo un cont1nuo baño de aceite y estar completamente sellado.Para mantener la estabilidad del tractor, es necesario instalarle pesas en la parte frontal~ para ésto se hacen unos huecos en el marco, o se usan ganchos a los cuales se amarra una cadena de trabajo pesado, de 20 a 30 mts de largo. que sirva para halar el tractor en caso de que se atasque. (Figura 8).Las llantas traseras ori9ínales se cambian por otras más anchas y altas (23.1\" x 26\" 630\") para aumentar la flotabilidad. Para usar estas llantas se les saca Inicialmente el agua y luego se les introduce una presión de aire de 5 libras por pulgada cuadrada.los tractores de doble transmisión con altura y radio de giro normales t trabajan mejor en e1 lodo que los de tracción sencil1a~ aún cuando las llantas de ambos sean las mismas.LoS accesorios normalmente utilizados son:El II ro totiller lJ o arado rotatorio. Son preferibles los diseñados para trabajar en tampos fangosos. Las caracter1sticas prinCipales que deben tener son: cojinetes y transmisi6n completamente sellados, para evitar la entrada de agua y fango, y ser constru1dos de materiales de probada resistencia (Figuras 9 y gAl.La cuchilla 1) pala trasera. llamada tambiªn niveladora; consiste en una hoja pesada montada sobre~el enganche de tres puntos del tractor y cuyo profundidad de corte es regulada por el sistema hidr6ulico. Se utiliza para remover el suelo de las partes más altas y duras hacia las partes bajas del terreno (Figura la).El rastrillo de púas .. Es un marco con uno serie de dientes fuertes, y a veces platinas l perpendiculares al terreno; el conjunto pende por medio de cadenas de una barra con sus brazos; la barra se monta en el enganche de tres puntos del tractor (Figura 11 y IIA).Además del equipo mencionado se pueden utilizar tractores con rastras Figura 8.PeS8$ para equilibrio y cadena en la parte frontal del tractor, Figura 9.Arado rotatorío diseñado para trabajo en campos inundados.Figura 9A.Arada del terreno con arado rotatorio o \"rotavator\". En otros casos, se puede iniciar la preparaciOn en seco con implementos convencionales y luego nivelar bajo inundación con una rastra de púas.Los pasos a seguir para la preparación de tierras bajo agua varían según se efectúen en lotes nuevos O en lotes ya adecuados. Aqu'i nos referimos a lotes que ya han sido sembrados.Se procede a su p1aneación haciendo: a) un levantamiento topográfico.Posteriormente se trazan en base al estudio topografico del campo caminos, canales de riego y drenaje; b) localización y construcci6n de los caballones. La preparaci5n bajo agua consta de los siguientes pasos: inundación, primera arada, segunda arada y nivelación.Inundación del terreno. Los suelos muy arcillosos y compactos se deben inunda-r~¡¡nao-dos •Semanas antes de la primera arada; la anticipación con que la inundación se haga, depende de la dureza del suelo y de la cantidad de residuos de la cosecha anterior. Los suelos francos o menos pesados se deben comenzar a arar tdn pronto el campo esté inundado, para que puedan soportar el peso de la maquinaria y evitar atascamiento. En suelos profundos se prefiere drenar y hacer la primera arada en seco, para evitar atascamiento de los tractores~ En este caso se emplean rastras pesadas y el trabajo es mas rápido. Primera arada. El objeto de esta arada eS vol tear la tierra para incorporar todaTa•macer•ia orgánica. Comienza cerca del caballón paralelamente a éste, se continúa arando en el sentido de las manecillas del reloj, con el fín de retirar la tierra de la base del caballón y facilitar la reparación del mismo. Posteriormente se ara en el sentido inverso al de las manecillas del reloj.Después de la arada se debe mantener el terreno inundado con una 1 Ami na dei gada de agua, entre 1 a 5 cms de espesor t mientras se \"le s i es necesario arar por segunda vez y permitir que gennine buen número de semillas de malezas.sefund~~~~~. La segunda arada se justifica, cuando debido a la dureza de suelo o excesiva carga vegetal, la primera se hizo de manera ITR./y superficial y la materia orgánica no se incorpor5 satisfactoriamente; también para eliminar malezas con diferentes perlodos -de germinaci6n. de ahí la conveniencia de espaciar un poco las aradas. El procedimiento es exactamente igual al de la primera. Cuando la primera arada se efectúe en seco, el suelo s5:10 requiere de una arada bajo agua, pennitiendo que transcurra un periodo de tiempo suficiente para la germinaci6n de malezas antes de la siguiente labor. bajas del mismo.Posterionnente, se procede a drenar o se deja consumir el exceso de agua, hasta que quede la cantidad suficiente que permita observar las partes altas para luego hacer la nivelación final con el rastrillo de púas. Durante el proceso de rastrillada se transporta el fango de las partes altas a las bajas~ para finalmente lograr una excelente nivelación. Dos rastrilladas a 10 largo y una a lo ancho, generalmente son suficientes para nivelar bien el terreno y borrar las huellas de las llantas del tractor.Anterionnente se describió y analizó el sistema de Ufangueo ll a partir de lotes que han sido previamente adecuados. Veamos ahora otras formas posibles, siguiendo curvas a nivelo cuadrículas l donde los suelos son muy planos.Trazado de curvas a nivel _.~irectamente sobre el terreno~ nivelación y preparación baJO agua.Este método consiste en buscar los puntos de igual altura con la mira y estacarlos, las Hneas resultantes se corrigen para evitar que queden esquinas o curvas pronunciadas que dificulten el movimiento de la maquinaria. La diferencia de nivel entre l1nea y línea debe ser menor de 10 centímetros. Una vez marcadas y arregladas las curvas a nivel, se trazan los caballones con una maquina apropiada; luego se procede a inundar, nivelar y preparar el suelo bajo agua, siguiendo el procedimiento anteriormente descrito.Levantamiento topográfico, trazado de curvas corregidas, nivelación y j~r~paraci6n baJO el agua, Este método requiere el levantamiento topográfico del terreno con base en el cual, se dibuja un plano y se delinean las curvas a niveL Se corrigen las curvas en el plano de tal forma que queden tramas rectos, siguiendo la topograna del campo. Se requiere que las parcelas entre dos curvas de nivel, tengan una forma adecuada para permitir un facil desplazamiento de la maquinaria. Las lIneas deben tener una diferencia de nivel de 10 centlmetros.Con el plano dibujado y las líneas a nivel trazadas en él ,se va al campo y se trazan tal como aparecen en el dibujo, marcandolas con estacas.Luego se construyen los caballones; una vez construidos los caballones, se inunda el terreno para proceder a la nivelación y preparación. Una variante que ha sido utilizada en algunos paises de Am~rica Latina t consiste en nivelar en seco las parcelas y terminar la preparación bajo agua.Trazado de cuadrí~ula, nivelación y prepar~ción b~jo agua. Cuando l. topografl. es del 3 por milo menos, Sé puede trazar una cuadricula cuyos intervalos sean de 25 metros o más. Para el efecto no es necesario hacer levantamiento topo9ráflco, sino que simplemente se busca una linea recta permanente, como un canal~ un cerco) etc. para tomarla de base y se hacen alineamientos paralelos y perpendiculares a ella, al intevalo adaptado. Luego, siguiendo las lineas de estacas, se construyen los caballones. Esto dará como resultado un lote cuadriculado con intervalos de 25 a 50 metros en un sentido, y 50 a 100 incluso a 200 metros en el otro, a f1n de facilitar el trabajo de la maquinaria. Posteriormente se nivela y prepara bajo agua.COMBINACJON DE \"FANGUEO\" y PREPARACION EN SECO En el CIAT y en varios paises del trópico, cuando existen condiciones que permiten secar e1 suelo, se combinan el ufan9ueoll con la preparación convencional a profundidad no mayor de 15 cent1metros, con 10 cual no sOlo se evita profundizar los suelos 11 fangueados 11 t sino que se aprovechan los periodos secos para dejar los terrenos en una condición cercana a la siembra. las observaciones en 1 ates comerc1 al es i ndi can -que en suelos endorec•idos por IIfangueos ll anteriores. puede bastar un batido final con el rastrillo de púas para mantener las ventajas de la preparación en húmedo.Hay varias combinaciones dentro de este tipo de preparaci6n:1.Rastra pesacta~ rastra liviana, inundaci6n, Ilrotavator U y rastrillo de pOas.Arado o rastra pesada, rastra liviana, emparejador {lIlandplane ll ) .inundación y rastrillo de púas.Rastra pesada t inundación, ílrotavator\" y rastrillo de púas~Rastra pesada, rastra liviana, inundación y II rotavator ll modificado.Existen dos tipos de arados rotacionales modificados que vienen prob~ndose en el erAT con resultados promisorios. El primero consiste en un cilindro colocado alrededor del eje del arado, y en sustitución de las cuchillas sobre él, van soldados dientes no mayores de 10 cms. Este equipo eS suficiente para dejar el suelo bien nivelado (Figura 12).El segundo equipo~ parecido al anterior. consiste en un cilindro de barras semejando las ruedas fangueadoras que realiza similar trabajo. Este equipo es comercial y viene con algunos tractores japoneses. (Figura 13).Ambos equipos dejan el suelo bastante parejo, el iminando en ocasiones el empleo del rastrillo de púas para nivelaci6n final. El sistema de preparación de tierras mediante inundación, ofrece las sigUientes ventajas sobre el sistema tradicional.La preparación del terreno se puede iniciar en cualquier momento, ya Sea Con agua de lluvia o riego, permitiendo producir continuamente y obtener mayor nOrnaro de cosechas por afto, especialmente cuando se transplanta. Comparación entre \"rotavator\" modificado de tambor con dientes cortos y euchillas de \"rotavator\" convencional (arriba). Equipo Honda de 65 HP, dotado con \"rotavator u de varillas o barras transversales.Se puede reducir el número de caballones y lograr una buena nivelaci6n del terreno.Al momento de la siembra, el suelo se encuentra libre de malezas germinadas y el cultivo toma ventaja, especialmente si se usan semillas pregerminadas o se hace transplante.El manejo del agua es más eficiente y se reducen las pérdidas por percolación prOfunda.A pesar de las inundaci6n tiene tradicional: ventajas enumeradas, la preparaci6n de las siguientes desventajas respecto suelos bajo al sistemaNo se puede utilizar en toda clase de suelos. especialmente en aquellos excesivamente arenosos, con pendientes fuertes o con muy buena estructura, ta1es como los Oxisoles.la labor de mantenimiento de los tractores y de los accesorios debe ser frecuente 7 debido a que las condiciones de trabajo ofrecen mayor riesgo de dano de las partes móviles.Puede dificultar la operación de cosecha, cuando se \"fanguea ll continuamente y se utilizan llantas de caucho o cuando el campo no puede ser bien drenado. En el CIAT se cambian las llantas de la combinada por unas de mayor tamaño y se inflan aproximadamente con 3 libras por pulgada cuadrada, 10 cual facilita el movimiento de la máquina.A partir de Noviembre del desarrollado un plan de nivelación CIAT. año 1978 Y hasta la fecha, se ha para los lotes de investigación en elEl método de c~lculo que se ha utilizado ha sido el \"método del mOfli€:nto 11 ~Los datos tomados durante las diferentes labores que involucra la nivel.ción se presentan en el Cuadro l. en el cual se puede observar la eficiencia de los diferentes equipos utílizados y su variación en los distintos lotes nivelados.Las earacteristicas de cada uno de los implementos y méquinas utilizados en el estudio es el siguiente: • El rend ¡miento (M3/hora) se toma en base al tiempo trabajado po r la traf11a y la motoniveladora conjuntamente. Aproximadamente un cuarto del tiempo empleado por el marco nivelador, se utilizó para pulir el terreno antes de tomar los datos de nivel.El aná1isis de regresiór. lineal entre el volumen de tierra movido y el tiempo empleado en transportarla (traIlla y motoniveladora) es de 0.8019. y = O.02187X + 28.17 donde Y tiempo a emplear (en horas) para mover el volúmen de tierra. X = volumen de tierra (en M 3 ) a mover.En el caso de tener un lote 3de 8 hectáreas y cuyo volumen de movimiento de tierra es de 2.750   12.8 10.96 Si se posee solamente un implemento~ el tiempo empleado en la nivelación y preparación seria: Rastra pesada y marco nivelador Motoniveladora, traflla y marco nivelador Cince1, rastra pesada y rastril10 12.8 horas 88.32 horas 12.8 horas TOTAL: 123.04 horas (= 3 semanas de 5 dlas/semana y 8 horas/día) Cuando no se tiene motoniveladora, el trabajo se puede ejecutar con una tralll., buscando que el operador sea una persona hábil. Todos los implementos fueron movidos con tractores.Con el dato de rendimiento de la maquinaria (hora/ha y M 3 /ha) se puede calcular el tiempo requerido para una nivelación y preparaci6n de un lote determinado, o decidir cuanta ~red se puede nivelar en un per1odo dado.Con estos datos de tiempo requerido para trabajar una &rea determinada, se puede elaborar un diagrama tipo PERT o simil.r.Tener definidas unas pendientes que permitan en un momento dado cambiar de un método de aplicación a otro en el riego. Actualmente el CIAT está interesado en complementar el sistema de riego por gravedad para hacerlo con tuberla de compuertas~ El \"método del momento U para nivelaciOn de tierras, es un método confiable, ya que ~ste se ha probado con el riego en CIAT y funciona bien. E. Taseón J.En I\\rnériea Latina se utilizan diferentes fonnas de siembra directa y de transplante, pero éste cubre solo una pequena proporci6n del área total cultivada. Lo anterior se debe a que la mayor !rea se cultiva en secano, cerca de 3/4 partes del área total. Solo unos pocos países emplean el transplante, como san República Dominicana, Ecuador, Perú y Haití y en los dos primeros hay la tendencia a cambiar por siembra de semillas pregerminadas. Colombia transplanta un área pequen., básicamente para multiplieaciOn de semillas e investigaci6n.Los autores en general refieren los rendimientos del cultivo a las condiciones dadas .1 momento de la siembra y los cuidados al cultivo durante los primeros 30 dias.Según R. Cheaney (9) los factores que favorecen una buena germinación y establecimiento del cultivo son: a) Buena nivelaciOn y preparación del suelo; b) Empleo de semillas de buena calidad y germinaci6n; e) Buen sistema de riego y drenaje; y d) Siembra bien hecha. Además de los anteriores factores deben tenerse en cuenta otros factores de producción, tales como adecuado control o prevención de enfennedades. plagas y malezas, que limiten el establecimiento de una población normal para el sistema empleada.No existe en el cultivo, a diferencia de otras especies, una sola cantidad óptima de semilla, precisamente por la diversidad de los métodos de siembra y la variedad en los ecosistemas empleados. Ello se debe a que en las variedades modernas, el macol1amiento tiende a compensar o nivelar la poblaCión, cuando las condiciones de humedad, fertilidad y control de plagas y malezas son adecuadas (15). En la Figura 1 se observa 1. din&mica del cultivo, en 3 diferentes siembras, corroborando lo antes afirmado.Podría definirse la población óptima de plantas de arroz, para variedades modernas, como la población inicial adecuada para prOducir a la cosecha. un namero da panículas/m2 superior a 400, con promedio de granos i gua 1 o mayor de 60_ Lo anterior puede alcanzarse sembrando desde 16 plantas por m2, en transplante, hasta con 200 ó más kg/ha, en siembra directa con semilla seca. Con variedades de panojas o granos grandes y en transplante t el número de pan1cula puede ser menor.El Cuadro 1 permite observar la variación del rendimiento en función de dos variables principales: número de panlcu1.s y \"Omero de granos promedio. • ,• ' *' ¡\"l peso del grano es el componente de rendimiento menos variable en el cultivo -Rendimientos poco probables de ocurrir en condición normal Pedroso ( 26) recomienda selllbrar 400 a 500 semillas viables por m2.Amaral (2) dice que con 100 plantas/m2 pueden obtenerse buenos rendimientos, pero que 200 constituyen un buen II s tand\" en siembra directa con buena distribución. En transplante entre 50 y 100 plantas son suficientes, distribuIdas de 2 a 6 por sitios (5). Para Cheaney (9) 16 plántulas/m2 colocadas una por sitio, a 25 eros en cuadro, son suficientes para lograr una buena producción de arroz.Las formas de sembrar el arroz se agrupan dentro de dos grandes sistemas: siembra directa y transplante. Mabbayad y Obordo, (22). Además en algunas zonas de América se utiliza el cultivo de socas o retoño, come una forma de obtener una nueva cosecha.Los métodos de siembra directa se dividen en : La semilla puede plantarse seca, húmeda o pregerminada. Ventura (35).Las siembras por transplante se dividen según el tipo de semilleros: camas secas, húmedas y \"dapog\", y por la forma del transplante, manual o mecánico. Además se tiene el método del \"claveteo\" o doble transplante: el transplante IItradicional\" en secano y la \"siembra de tallo llEl transplante mecánico es utilizado en el Japón y otros países asiatlcos, pero en América, apenas se inicia su introducci6n.Siembra directa a.Esta forma de siembra es utilizada en toda América por agricultores pequefios, generalmente ubicados en zonas de colonización o montafia. Frecuentemente estas siembras se encuentran asociadas con otros cultivos como maíz, fríjol e incluso yuca. Se utilizan variedades tradicionales.El método consiste en colocar las semillas en orificios hechos en el suelo por medio de un palo con punta, Ilchuzo\" o \"espeque\". Arregocés y Gonzalez (5), Gonz.lez  Para este tipo de siembras se utilizan máquinas haladas por un tractor, las cuales depositan la semilla a chorro a una distancia de 15 a 17, en algunos casos hasta 50 cms. Las hay también de tiro animal, pero son poco comunes hoy en día. Se requieren suelos bien preparados, que permitan una adecuada y uniforme colocaci6n de la semilla, entre 2 y 5 cms de profundidad. Tiene como ventajas, en comparaci6n con siembras al voleo, un menor gasto de semilla 100 a 150 kg/ha, una germinación y distribuci6n más uniforme y facilidad para las labores manuales.También se emplean máquinas sembradoras abonadoras, las cuales depositan el fertilizante bajo el surco de siembra para un mejor aprovechamiento del mismo. En algunos sitios de Centro América surcan con arado de buey y siembran a mano.En Colombia el empleo de sembradoras de chorro es poco util izado por agri cul tares con á reas grandes por su 1 ent itud, en campa rac i 6n con 1 a siembra al voleo, en tanto que en Panamá, área de Chiriqui, es el preferido. Los panameños por la naturaleza liviana de los suelos, utilizan un cilindro compactador después de la siembra, con 10 cual logran una germinación del cultivo uniforme; según Durán ( 14) también se utilizó en Colombia. En el Brasil, en áreas de secano, la siembra se hace por este método, pero los surcos son muy distantes, 40 a 50 cms, a f1n de permitir el cultivo mecánico y tener mayor seguridad de humedad en épocas de IIveranicoll. Para riego siembran a 17 cms. empleando 120 a 150 kg de semilla. Amaral (1), Pedroso (26), Carmona (7). El método de siembra en surcos se prefiere al de voleo para producción de semillas. Amaral (1).Es una de las formas de siembra más generalizada en América, por lo rápida y económica. Existe el voleo manual o con máquinas esparcidoras manuales, la siembra con voleadora de tractor y la siembra con avión (19). Además pueden utilizarse semillas secas, húmedas y pregerminadas, según el tipo de preparaci6n del suelo. Las siembras son más irregulares y la Siembra con voleadora de tractor. Se emplean máquinas de tolva con mecanismc distribuidor. accionado por el toma fuerza del tractor a 540 rpm, las cuales tambi~n Se emplean para abonar. Oistribuyen la semilla en franjas que van de 10 a 15 mts de amplitud y una velocidad que puede alcanzar 10 km/hora. con 10 cual la siembra eS r&pida. La densidad de siembra se gradúa con la salida de la voleadora, la velocidad del tractor y el ancho de la faja; y varIa en Colombia entre 150 y 250 kg/ha.Tras la sembradora se ubican tractores con rastra 1 iviana a fin de incorporar 1. semilla al suelo. La profundidad de incorporación no debe ser mayor de 5 cms, ni dejada superficialmente, por riesgo de obtener una deficiente pob1aci6n. La germinaci6n es desuniforme puesto que las semillas quedan a diferentes profundidades.Particularmente importante para siembra de semillas húmedas y pregerminadas, en agua o lodo. Según Silva y 8ugnoni (31) un aviOn puede sembrar hasta 240 has en un día.Los aviones agrleol.s con capacidad entre 300 y 600 kg de semilla (algunos hasta 1000 kg) est~n equipados con un aplicador rotacional, o de tipo \"venturi\", localizado debajo del fuselaje. La siembra la efetúan volando entre 6 y 10 mts de altura y velocidad de 90 a 150 millas por hor •• Oistribuyen la semilla en franjas que van de 10 a 18.3 mts según tipo de distribuidor y altura de vuelo.Para tener una siembra uniforme es necesario el empleo de marcadores o \"banderas ll , que indiquen cada pasada del avi6n a la distancia adecuada, evitando dejar franjas sin semilla o translapes exagerados. Cuando la siembra es en seco se requieren varios tractores con rastra para incorporar Tipos de semilleros Semilleros en cama húmeda. Se realizan sobre suelo fangueado y muy bien nivelado, confeccionando bancos o camas levantadas entre 5 y 10 ems y dejando entre ellas canales que permitan el drenaje. Arregoc!s y Gonz&lez (5). El ancho varIa entre 1 y 1.5 mts con longitud de 20 a 30 mts, aún m&s dependiendo del ancho de la melga en que se realicen. Como una norma para escoger el lote de semilleros se prefiere un lote no sembrado con arroz y no salino. Si ha sido sembrado debe prepararse cuidadosamente, permitiendo nacer varias poblaciones de arroz espontaneo y malezas, para proceder a su destrucciOn. En el CIAT para siembra de lotes para semilla, se emplean semilleros de 3 mts de ancho. En Perú, Ventura, ( 35) recomienda hacerlos en pozas de 6 mts de ancho por 30 de largo y no emplean camas elevadas. Algunos agricultores del Ecuador también efectúan los semilleros sin levantar camas, nivelando muy bien las pozas.La siembra del semillero se efectúa con semilla pregenninada a razOn de 100 gramos por m2, Cheaney (9) Arregocés, Gonz&lez (5). En Perú emplean entre 100 y 180 g/m2, Ventura (35). la fertilización del semillero debe hacerse cuando Se observen síntomas de deficiencia, con 5Q alOa gms de sulfato de amonio ó 20 a 40 gms de úrea por m2, IRRI (20).Se recomienda plantar 300 a 500 m2 de semillero para transplantar una hectárea, con un gasto de 35 a 45 kg, de semilla por ha Macalinga y Obordo (23).En los semilleros para transplante mecánico en el CIAT, según información preliminar, se emplean 200 cajas de 30 x 60 cms, con 200 gms de semilla prcgerminada por caja. lo anterior corresponde aproximadamente a 36 m2 y 40 kgs de semilla para cada hectárea.Este tipo de semilleros es poco común y se efectúa en sitios donde existe poca agua para fanguear o en tierras altas. Se construye pulverizando muy bien el suelo y procediendo a levantar las camas unos 10 ems, dejando entre ellas: canales para r;ego~ La siembra se efectúa con semilla seca, en igual proporción que en las camas húmedas, cubri~ndolas con una capa de suelo fino. la aplícaciOn de riego se efectúa con regadera o salpicando agua con pala desde los canales intermedios. El manejo en general es semejante al de los semilleros en hOmedo. TascOn (33) observó que 1as plantas de semilleros en seco presentaban menor desarrollo y problemas nutricionale. atribuIdos a deficiencia de hierro por la alcalinidad de los suelos del CIAT. También comprobó que el empleo de semill as jiregermi nadas 1 con o s in i ncorporaci6n, presentaban pOblaciones deficientes cuando se las siembra en seCo. Según Macalinga y Obordo (23) se requieren 44 kg de semilla en este tipo de semilleros para transplantar una hecUrea.Con este nombre Se conoce en el Asia los semilleros sin tierra. En él las plantas carecen de un substrato de alimentación y cuentan solo con las reservas del cotiled6n para su desarrollo~ Es requisito para este tipo de semilleros que exista '9ua abundante. las camas se construyen igual que para siembra en húmedo y sobre él1as se coloca un material, como hojas de banano, papel o polietileno, que impida a las ralees contacto con el suelo. En los bordes se colocan brácteas de plátano o maderos, a fIn de mantener las semillas sobre la Cama. También pueden hacerse sobre piso de cemento.La siembra se efectúa con semillas pregerminadas con 48 horas de incubaciOn en un. capa gruesa, depositando 45 a 65 kgs en 40 m2, los cuales son suficientes para transplantar una hecHrea. Macalinga y Obordo (23).Inicialmente se requiere compactar la semi11a para que mantenga contacto con la humedad y aplicar riegos contínuos por salpique y después de 5 días se aplica una lamina de agua de 1 a 2 ems. Estos semilleros se cortan en pedazos y enrollan con las rafees hacia afuera~ como ufla alfombra, para llevarlos al sitio de transplante. Requieren un terreno muy bien nivelado y con excelente control de agua, puesto que las plantas solo alcanzan 10 a 15 cms~ Una comparaci6n hecha en el IRRI, ( 23) Cuadro 2, en dos épocas de siembra y utilizando los tres tipos de semilleros, indicó una menor altura de las plantas y menores rendimientos en cultivos provenientes de semilleros en seco, que en semilleros \"dapogJl y cama húmeda, los cuales Se comportaron igual en época húmeda, pero superior \"dapog\" en el perfodo seco. En otro ensayo en IRRI, 1910 (21) también se obtuvieron resultados superiores en rendimiento uti 1 izando semilleros \"dapog\". de panojas (dias) Húmeda ...... 99.4 ...... 99.4 ...... 99.2   Rendimiento (kg/ha) Seca 3291 3167 2974lentamente, mientras las menores de 20 son muy cortas para introducirlas en el suelo y tambi~n pueden quedar sumergidas o flotar donde el nivel del agua es alto.Fernandez (15), en sus estudios sobre crecimiento y desarrollo de la planta, dice que el transplante debe hacerse entre los 16 y 18 dI as cuando se ha completado el estado de plantulas y comienza el maco11.miento en IR 36, variedad muy precoz.Para los semilleros tipo \"dapog\" Se indicó que la edad mlíxima es de 14 dlas, puesto que alrededor de los 10 días las plantas han consumido totalmente las reservas del cotiledón. En el \"dapog\" modificado. se recomienda emplear plantas entre 14 r.17 días, mayor edad crea problema de separación en las mlíquinas.Sin embargo. la edad puede variar dependiendo de la temperatura del lugar y el perlado vegetativo de las variedades p.e. en el Japón, según Ortega (25). los semilleros abiertos se transplantan entre 45 y 50 dlas, mientras que semilleros protegidOS del frlo están listos a los 40 dl.s. Ello se explica por un desarrollo mas lento de las plantas que alcanzan a esa edad 20 cms de altura y desarrollan 6 a 7 hojas. En re1aciOn con el ciclo de la variedad, Sánchez y Larrea (30), demostraron que variedades de ciclo mayor son menos afectadas por el transplante tardl0 que variedades precoces y tempranas. Ventura (35) indica que por cada dla, despu~s de los Edad de plántliJ8'EfectQS de la edad del transplante en el período vegetativo de 2 cultivares en Lambayeque¡ Perú.Ventura 1972.Para efectuarlo se utilizan cordeles a tr.v~s de las melgas que sirven de gula a los operarios. En el CIAT se ha adoptado un sistema. Tascón (34), con el cual dos operarios con un cordel siembran un surco COn gu1a y otro intercalado. lo cual les permite mover la gula ( a doble distancia de surco) sin pérdida de tiempo. Con éllo se 10gr6 reducir la mano de obra por hect!rea de 30 a 16 jornales. incluidos el arranque y transporte de las plantas, La distancia a 1. cual se efectúa el transplante ha sido muy investigada. asl como el número de plantas por sitio y se acepta como las mejores, plantar entre 15 x 15 cms hasta 25 x 25 cms Ó 30 x 20 cms. Distancias mayores a 30 x 30 afectan rendimiento y favorecen la competencia de malezas, mientras que las muy cortas requieren demasiada mano de obra. El número recomendado de plantas por sitio se fija entre 2 y 6, ( 5), prefiriéndose el mAs alto para pl!ntulas de mayor edad. Ademas existe una correlaciOn inversa entre el número de plantas y el peso seco de malezas.Las malezas a su vez estan en relación directa con la distancia de siembra.El Cuadro 3, citado por Arr\"gocés ( 5) nos muestra claramente esas interacciones. El transplante en cuadro es una variaciOn del transplante por surcos, cuando se utilizan iguales distancias entre surcos y plantas. Se emplea básicamente en investigaci5n a fln de uniformizar la competencia entre plantas. En Filipinas Mabbayad y Obordo ( 22) citan un sistema conocido como \"margate\" en el cual siembran a 50 x 50 eros en cualquier estación y tipo de suelo.Cuadro 3. Efecto de la distancia de s:iembra y el número de plantas por sitio en relación con las malezas y el rendim1. cnto. CIAT 1978, Arregocés(5).  Es un sistema que toma auge en el Asia, pero en A~rica por falta de adecuada preparación del suelo y personal espeCializado, los ensayos realizados han tenido poco ~xito hasta la fecha. Solo hoy en d1a se conoce que 10 vienen introduciendo República Dominicana y Colombia donde CrAT realiza pruebas comerciales.Son comunes dos tipos de sembradoras: (Mari 24),una para dos surcos guiada por el operario\" y otros modelos de cuatro SurCos y operario montado, en algunos de ~llos. Además se prueban modelos mayores hasta de 16 surcos.los resultados de una prueba nacional hecha en Japón para diferentes tipos de transplantactoras en 1974, dados por Mori (24), indican: surcos entre 28 a 33 cms, según tipo de máquina; distancia entre sitios de siembra 11 a 20 cms, ajustable con 2 a 4 niveles, 11 a 20 cms; densidad teórica 16.3 • 27.9 sitios por metr02 número de plantas por sitio 3 a 5 y; profundidad cte siembra 1.7 a 3.6 cms (ajustable). Los semilleros utilizados son hechos en cajas de aluminio o plástico, sobre arena y suelo, y su tamaño es igual a los planos de siembra de la máquina. los mejores rendimientos de siembra fueron obtenidos utilizando lotes de 10 x 50 m, los cuales se plantaron en 53 minutos, con m~quinas de dos surcos, y en 36~7 minutos en promedio con m&quinas de cuatro hileras. Las siembras se realizaron sobre agua con una altura entre 1.9 y 3.9 ems. Cada máquina con su operador y un ayudante proveerlor de plantas. Los anteriores datos nos permiten visualizar el rendimiento obtenido asl como la economla de mano de obra.Existen otras modalidades de transplante utilizadas en algunos sitios de América por agricultores de zonas bajas, húmedas y en ocasiones inundables t como son Uclaveteo\"' o doble transplante en Ecuador, transplate de Utallo 11 en República Dominicana y transplante ITtradicional ll en Colombia y Panam&.El \"claveteo\", Guamiín y Calle, ( 16). Andrade. (3). es un doble transplante efectuado para aprovechar las lagunas o \"pozas\" dejadas por las inundaciones, del Valle del Guayas. Se realiza efectuando semilleros en seco en las zonas altas, seJlÍJ:rando grupos de semillas con lIespequeU y riego manual. Estos semilleros son transplantados en manojos cuando alcanzan unos 30 cms. Posteriormente los manojos son arrancados y separados cuando las plantas tienen 50 a 60 dlas, para transplantarlas a aguas más profundas que aseguren riego hasta el final del ciclo. La 1abor es escalonada~ avanzando hacia el centro de las pozas a medida que el nivel del agua baja. Las variedades utilizadas son tradicionales y el rendimiento puede variar entre 3 toneladas en años buenos hasta O cuando las pozas se secan muy temprano.La \"siembra de tallo\" es utilizada por los agricultores de Limón de '(una, en RepOblica Dominicana, quienes aproveChan plantas fotosensitivas, de IIsoca ll o semilla, que crecen espontáneamente en el primer ciclo del ano. Al intensificarse las lluvias en la zona, durante los meses de Julio y Agosto, (20. ciclo). arrancan las plantas y separan y podan los tallos, los cuales son transplantados en suelo saturado a distancias amplias. As' logran obtener cultivos de aceptable desarrollo y producci6n. Fue una prlctica de cultivo muy generalizada en Colombia en la primera mitad del siglo. Agricultores de Gioebra. Valle, cueotan haber llegado a obtener hasta 17 cosechas a partir de una sola siembra. los agricultores acostumbraban a cortar los ta11 os, resembrar e1resa lar\") y pi sotear con ganado uoa vez aplicaban riego, Garela (17), Castro (9).Rica, El Salvador, Brasil y sobre todo en RepOblica Dominicana, Cuevas y NQ~ez (13), donde obtienen soca de 19.750 hectáreas por año. Para la obtención de una segunda e incluso tercera cosecha, se procede a cortar los tallos manualmente o con una segadora acoplada .1 tractor, para después aplicar riego y fertilizar, Solórza\"o (31). En el CIAT (12), Cheaney (11), realizó ensayos de soca con CICA 4, cortando los tallos de 1 a 15 cms y utilizando niveles de Q y 50 kg de nitrógeno. Obtuvo los mejores resultados del tratamiento con corte a 15 cms y con 50 kg; de nitrógeno por hectárea.También en Brasil (28) se han obtenido los mejores resultados con corte a 15 cms.no puede prepararse el campo, o cuando la humedad nO alcanza para obtener una nueva siembra. los costos de producción son muy bajos, puesto que el ciclo se acorta a unos 90 dias y son mlnímos los requerimientos de maquinaria ( 13), (32).El rendimiento alcanza .lrededor de un 50% del obtenido en la primera cosecha y dada la disminuci6n de gastos puede resultar más barato el costo unitario de producción, Cuevas y Núftez (13). El Cuadro 4 nos muestra el comportamiento de dos variedades: Mingo10 (tradicional) e ISA 21 (CICA 4) en el estudio hecho en República Dominicana y en él se destacan las ventajas antes anotadas.puede favorecer la Intenslficaci6n de problemas tales como algunas plagas (barrenadores y Sogata), varías enfennedades (hoja blanca y pudrici6n del tallo) e incremento de malezas de tipo perenne y el arroz rojo. Gris (18) indica que no se recomienda este método por los problemas con insectos-plagas en el Asia. Por otra parte, en la actualidad se considera que cuando existen condiciones para una nueva siembra con variedades de alto rendimiento, el sistema no se justifica.COMPARAc\"lON DE METODOS DE SIEMBRA Existen numerosos trabajos que comparan los diferentes métodos de siembra y no puede afirmarse que existan diferencias notables de rendimiento entre las formas de plantar el arroz. Hay interacciones entre las variedades, poblaciones, distancias de siembra, fertilización y malezas que deben analizarse para diferentes métodos de siembra. Por ejemplo: un trabajO realizado en el CIAT, muestra para transplante a 3Q x 30, siembra con semilla pregerminada 80 kg/na y, siembra al voleo con semilla seca, rendimientos de 7.8, 7.5 Y 6.6 ton/ha respectivamente (5). Otros trabajOS en IRRI y CIAT muestran rendimientos semejantes para siembra en hileras con semilla seca, semillas pregerminadas al voleo y transplante.sistema de siembra, para comprender mejor la conveniencia de un método u otro.Ven~ajas y desven~ajas de la siembra directa Según Maca1inga y Obordo (23), su principal ventaja es el menor costo L . . . .de siembra, además de que el ciclo es de 7 a 10 dlas menor que en arroz transplantado, especialmente cuando se utiliza semilla pregerminada.Otra ventaja es 1 a rapi dez de 1 a operac i 5n, 10 cual pennite plantar grandes áreas en poco tiempo.Las desventajas se refieren primero al daño que las semillas pueden sufrir al quedar expuestas al ataque de ratas~ aves e insectos. Se calcula que la genninaci6n de campo puede estar alrededor del 50% con semi1la de buena calidad. Por otra parte, el problema de las male:Zds es mayor, espeCialmente cuando se emplea semilla seca que permite un establecimiento primero de ma.lezas t Cheaney (8). Este problema es menor cuando se emplea semilla pregerminada o se siembra en hileras, pues se acelera el establecimiento del cultivo en el primer caso o facilitan las labores de cultivo y aplicación de control qutmico en el segundo# Ventajas y desventajas del transplate Entre las ventajas de este método podemos citar en primer lugar 1. ecanomla de semilla. Comercialmente se requieren solo entre 20 y 45 kg/ha, mi entras que en mu 1 ti P 1 i caei ón de semi 11 a pueden ser 10 kgs y aún ¡nenas.Además se requiere cultivar inicialmente áreas 20 a 40 veces menores (semilleros) y se obtiene un ahorro considerable de agua y otros insumos Sánchez y larrea (30). En relación con las malezas se tiene una de las principales ventajas, puesto que el sembrar plántulas, éstas tienen mayor capaCidad competitiva con las malas hierbas. además de poder colocar desde un principio una lámina de agua} la cual inhibe el establecimiento de muchas especies dañinas.Como una ventaja agronómica debe citarse la posibilidad de hacer siembras sucesivas aproveChando el menor cido de campo. En el IRRI.Yoshida y otros (35), en 1971 lograron obtener cuatro cosechas combinando tres variedades en un mismo suelo y en el año, para un rendimiento cercano a 26 ton/ha/año. Cuadro 5.Otra ventaja derivada del sistema, es el empleo de doble hasta triple transplante, a fin de incrementar rápidamente los materiales genéticos promisorios o semillas. Consiste en deshijar las plantas una o dos veces durante la fase vegetativa de crecimiento~ plantando los hijos individuales. con 10 cual se tiene un tirea mayor de siembra con la misma semilla. Un trabajo hecho en CIAT por Calle, ( 6), lllJestra claramente el valor del método para tal fín, como puede verse en el Cuadro 6.En resumen puede afirmarse que con cUd1quier sistema se logran buenos resultados cuando existen las condiciones adecuadas y el cultivo es bien manejado. Asi pues~ para la elección del método de siembra debe tenerse en cuenta, además del ambiente favorable, los recursos y la tecnolog1a disponibles. También la capacidad del productor y la experiencia acumulada en la zona. El cambio de un sistema a otro, si no es bien estudiado e implementado, puede generar serios problemas técnicos y administrativos, con resultados econfimicos negativos para el productor. Nuevo r~cord mundial de arroz. Adaptado de S. Yoshida, F.T. Parao y H. Seachell. Laguna, Filipinas. 1972   El desarrollo de variedades más productivas para uti 1 izarlas a nive1de finca es el objetivo primordial de los fitomejoradores y lo que justifica su labor ante la sociedad. Todo 10 demás es secundario o respalda este objetivo. El ~xito de Un cientifico en desarrollar variedades mejoradas de arroz, es directamente proporcional a su habilidad para identificar acertadamente las prioridades de investígaci5n y para orientar correctamente sus metas y actividades.La gran diversidad de problemas que limitan la producci5n de arroz en los tr6picos obl iga a los científicos de los programas productivos de mejoramiento de arroz él adoptar un enfoque de equipo ínterdiscip1 inario para encontrar soluciones. E1 ideal es que los científicos sean ante todo especialistas en producción de arroz y, en segundo lugar, fitomejoradores, patólogos, agrónomos.Para responder el desafl0 del mejoramiento del arroz, los integrantes del equipo deben determinar las áreas de responsabilidad, discutir constantemente los problemas y progresos y efectuar frecuentes revisiones informales.El agricultor deberl. formar ~arte de todo equipo de investigación pero con frecuencia se le omite. Su experiencia es uno fuente de informaci6n prAct i ca que 1e permitirá a los ci ent í fi cos ori entar sus objetivos a problemas que no se encuentran normalmente en las parce1as experimentales+ [s importante que el fitomejorador de arroz entienda los sistemas de cultivo y los problemas relacionados con 1a siembra comercial de las distintas variedades. Como los agricu1tores casi siempre encuentran dif1cil evaluar parcelas pequefias en estaciones experimentales; uno de los mejores medios de comunicarse con énos es realizar ensayos reg~ondles de los mejores materiales en las fincas. Esto no solamente brinda al equipo de investigación infonnaci6n adicional sobre las interacciones genotipo-ambiente bajo las condiciones de finca, sino que también proporciona sitios para una serie de dlas de campo. durante los cuales los agricultores vecinos pueden evaluar nuevas variedades potenclales y prácticas culturales.El mejoramiento de arroz requiere anos de trabajo constante, duro y sucio, con muchos fracasos y escasos éxitos. Quizás un cruce en 500 o más da origen a una nueva variedad que llega a manos de los agricultores, decenas dé miles de 1 íneas se evalúan y descartan. No existe una foma fácil de mejorar la producci6n de arroz; ésta demanda paciencia, dedicación. continuidad y una total entrega físlca y mental a1 trabajo de campo. Los cient1ficDS arroceros que triunfan viven cap sus plantas; aquellos que delegan el trabajo pesado no obtienen resultados satisfactorios.* Condensado y adaptado del 1 ibro !lMe~oramiento de arroz adaptado!! de los autores citados.Paradójicamente, a medida que el cientlfico gana experiencia y e reconocido por sus contribuciones~ aumentan las oportunidades y tentacione' para pasar el tiempo alejada del campo. No obstante, el nOmero de jóvenes que dedica sus vidas al mejoramiento del arroz está aumentado. Esto' investigadores de arroz pueden contribuir al bienestar de la humanidal mediante el mejoramiento del cultivo alimenticio m&s importante del mundo. La satisfacción de que sus nuevas variedades serán aceptadas por lo agricultores y consumidores, compensa todas sus privaciones.los textos corrientes de fitomejoramiento describen detalladamente 10 procedimientos generales, ventajas y desventajas de los sistemas di mejoramiento masal! pedigrí Y retrocruzarniento. Por esta razón sólo SI discutir~n sus méritos relacionados espec1ficamente con 10$ programas ÓJ mejoramiento de arroz.La intensa cornpetencia entre plantas en las generaciones segregante tempranas es uno de los factores más críticos que afecta la elección di sistemas de mejoramiento genético. La competencia fuerte es más pronunciad, en cruces de Hneas enanas x altas y siempre ocurre cuando los do' progenitores de un cruce son morfo16gicamente distintos.El arroz compite principalmente por la luz. la competencia comienz. temprano en el estado de rnacollarnjento y Su intensidad aument. proporcionalmente al crecimiento rle la planta y la densidad de siermra. L competencia por nitrógeno puede presentarse en los estados de crecimient, posteriores al macollamiento, pero se puede superar afiadiendo fertilizante No obstante, al agregar nitrógeno se agrava la competencia por la luz tod.vez que éste estimula aún más el crecimiento de las plantas altas. L competencia por la luz tambj~n se aumenta con espaciamientos cortos, l, duración e intensidad de la estación lluviosa. las malezas y otros factore que reducen su penetración en la poblaciOn.La competencia es causada por las tasas diferenciales de crecimiento, tamaño de las plantas vecinas. Las plantas grandes invaden el espac11 ocupado por 1as pequeñe.:5, dan sombra a las otras plantas y capturan una porción desproporcionada de la radiación solar. Las plantas más pequenas macollan poco_ producen tallos débiles y delgados, acumulan menos mater;, seCd, y muestran una senescencia prematura de hojas y una esterilidal pronunciada de grano.El resultado crítico para los fitomejoradoes es la asociaci5n de 1. habilidad competitiva con el valor agron6mico. Se ha de!l1Ostrad, repetidamente que la habilidad competitiva en el arroz está correlacionad negativamente con el va lar agronOmico para áreas con un control razonabl de agua. De aquf que las plantas mas competitivas sean las menos valiosas las deseables se pierden por la competencia.Los experimentos de rendimiento Con arroces de conocida habilida competitiva demuestran invariablemente que los competidores débiles rinde más cuando se cultivan en estado puro. Los competidores fuertes pueden dar mejores rendimientos que los débiles con prácticas agronómicas primitivas y severamente limitantes t pero ninguna variedad resulta satisfactoriamente en tales condiciones.Es importante no confundir o igualar la habilidad competitiva con la selección para caracteres adaptables, 10 cual ocurre en poblaciones mejoradas cultivadas en ambientes con problemas tales como baja temperatura y condiciones edáficas desfavorables.En raz5n de la extrema variabilidad en la mayoría de las poblaciones F de cruzamientos simples. es difícil identificar y seleccionar las p~antas deseables incluso cuando no hay competencia. La dificultad es mayor cuando se tiene en cuenta el efecto de la competencia en los fenotipos deseables, especialmente en cruces de l1neas altas x enanas. Si se permite que la competencia continúe sin reprimirla hasta que el grano \",.adure. el proceso de selecci6n llega a ser casi imposible en la F 2 • pues la mayoría de las plantas m~s deseables recíben tanto sombra que se vuelven parcialmente estériles o son tan anormales que aquellas que sobreviven parecen inservibles y son erróneamente rechazadas.Competenci ~ en re~.rocruzami entos Los retrocruzamientos simples, o cruzamientos triples a progenitores. se practican frecuentemente cuando se buscan una o dos características de arroces altos y frondosos. Las plantas F 1 de los retrocruzamientos. 50% de las cuales son enanas. pueden cultivarse en casas de malla de tres a cinco plantas por maceta. Las plantas enanas seleccionadas individualmente, producen en el campo familias F que son enanas homocigotas o que segregan para a1tura. La competencí~ no afecta mayormente las familias F2 enanas homogéneas, pero s1 a las familias que segregan en altas y enanas en la proporci6n de 3:1 10 mismo que a las poblaciones F 2 de cruces simples.Los efectos de la competencia pueden reducirse usando espaciamientos ampliOS para las plantas F 2 o no aplicando nitrógeno. Sin embargo, ninguna de estas pr~cticas es satisfactoria ya que ambas reducen el tamaño de las plantas genéticamente altas.Existe un procedimiento. m~s bien poco satisfactorio, para reducir la competencia en las poblaciones F de cruzamientos simples y retrocruzamientos que involucren progJnitores altos y enanos. Primero inspeccionar la p1anta~ cuando comienza la floración y cortar a ras del suelo. por debajo del nivel del agua a los fenotipos altos. Se hace una segunda ronda despu~s de que todas las plantas hayan florecido para eliminar las plantas altas que quedaron en el primer corte.La mayada de los programas se concentran en cruces múltiples. que incluyen ambos padres altos y enanos~ y en producir un gran número de plantas Fl en la última combinación de cruces y únicamente se llevan a F? en el campo las plantas. enanas para producir poblaciones que son muy uniformes en altura.Cuando se desean plantas de altura intermedia. este procedimiento es menos satisfactorio y requier-e una supervisión estricta del fitOlnejorador.Aún no se ha definido claramente un buen procedimiento para la seleccian de dicho tipo de plantas. El procedi:niento masal no r¡a producido avances importantes en la productividad del arroz tropical ~ por cuanto los cientificos generaltlente no han estado conscientes de dos prir;cipios básicos del mejoramiento del arroz:La influencja de la morfología de la planta en la habilidad de rendimiento y la necesidad de reemplazar los fenotipos predominantemente altos y frvndosos por tipos más prOductivos; yEl efecto perjudicial de la competencia en las pOblaciones segregantes y la pérdida consecuente de segregantes valiosos.Recientewente, el conocimiento de las interacciones del ti~o de planta, la habilidad de rendimiento y la competencia han conducido a la mayada de los fitomejoradores a evitar completamente? o a modificar~ el s i s tema rna sa 1 convenciona l. Actua 1 mente se reconoce que el mejorami ento masal irrestricto es inútil cuando se busca aumentar los rendimientos en cruzamientos que segregan ampliaw€nte por el tipo de planta.Sin embargo; un sistema mocificado de mejoramiento masa1 tiene un buen potencial en el mejoramiento del arroz. El sistema modificado comprende la selección de una o dos panículas de cada una de las mejores plantas de cada población. El siste!l'.a masal continlÍa hasta la F S o F cuando las plantas super; ores son sel ecci onadas y purífi cildas. La se~ ección masa 1 modificada es probablemente más satisfactoria que la seleccibn genealógica o de pedigr1 cuando el área de cultivo en cuestión tiene una productividad moderadamente baja. Un ejemp10 ser1a los programas de mejoramiento de arroz de secano enfocados a combinar tolerancia a la sequía, enfermedades~ y condiciones adversds del suelo.El defecto del sistema masal de no pennitir evaluaciones tempranas para problemas tan limitantes como resistencia a sogata.calidad del grano, etc. puede obviarse manejando la F2 por el sistema de pedigri. a fin de evaluar plantas individuales por familla o cruce. para proceder a lT'.ezclar las seleccionadas y continuar su manejo masal hasta la quinta generacíbn.Los fitomejoradores de arroz no han usado en gran medida el método de retrocruzamientú, por medio del cual se transfiere un carácter de una variedad mejorada usandola repetidamente como progenitor recurrente. La principal desventaja del retrocruzamiento es que ninguna variedad es tan cercana a la ideal que únicamente sea necesario mejorar una sola característica.El retrocruzamiento convencional puede ser útil para ciertos problemas especificas. Por ejemplo, la linea Colombia 1 tiene resistencia dominante monogenica a la enfermedad hoja blanca~ Miles de selecciones en generaciones tempranas de cruces de Colombia 1 con l1neas enanas mejoradas han mostrado que los segregantes resistentes ocurren con las frecuencias pronosticadas, pero sus tipos de planta o grano son invariablemente deficientes. Esto sugiere una marcada .soeiaciOn entre la resistencia y los caracteres pobres de planta y grano de Colombia 1. En este caso, los retrocruzamientos repetidos a progen; tores mejorados enanos, junto con 1 a selección rigurosa en la FI después de cada retrocruzamiento pOdr1an romper la asociación.Método de retrocruzamiento simple Un procedimiento útil en todos los cruces que incluyan un progenitor enano y uno alto frondoso, es un retrocrtlzamiento simple al progenitor enano. Este procedimiento se hace rutinariamente y con éxito en los programas del IRRI y del CIAT. Una modificación del retrQcruzamiento simple es cruzar la F1 con otro padre de buen tipo de planta y calidad de grano para producir un cruzamiento triple. A/BI!C f el cual se maneja similar a un retrocruzamiento. En CIAr no se siembran en el campo los cruceS simples~ pues han dado resultados inferiores a cruzamientos triples o retrocruces.La apariencia de la f2 de un cruzamiento simple es un indicativo razonablemente acertado del valor del retrocruzamiento. Pero algunas veces la F2 de un cruce simple produce pocos segregantes deseables~ mientras que la F2 de un retrocruzamiento, o cruce triple, es excelente~ Utilizando solamente un retrúcruzamiento se obtiene una segregaci6n y recombinaclón suficientemente amplias para producir muchos segregantes con características de planta y grano superiores a aquellas de los progenitores enanos recurrentes.El éxito de un retrocruzamiento Simple o del cruzamiento triple, está directamente relacionado con el número de plantas y la intensidad de la presión de selección apl icada a la población Fl. Para obtener una Fl grande, usualmente se producen de 50 • 100 o más semillas. A continuación se descartan aquellas plantas que son altamente estériles, de maduración muy tard1a, O cuyo grano tiene una forma o tamaña inferiores. El retrocruzamiento de una Fl, heterozigota para el enano, al progenitor enano produce un 50% de plantas altaS en la poblací6n Fl del retrocruzarniento. Las plantas altas con caractedsticas aceptables se avanzan~ en a1gunos programas, a la F2 junto con las mejores plantas enanas. De cada familia F2 se cultivan de 200 a 400 plantas. Las familias F2 que se derivan de plantas altas de F1 retrocruzadas, segregan en plantas altas El programa del CIAT practica una modificación del procedimiento tlpico para manejar cruces altos x enanos. Las plantas f 1 se cruzan con otro progenitor enano hasta obtener 200 o m~s plantas F . Todos los segregantes a.ltos se descartan, aún cuando puedan ser heterOzigotos para enanislTlo, a f1n de eliminar la necesidad de depurar los segregantes altos en las familias F Esto deja un mínimo de 100 enanos homozigotos y solamente se cosec~({n los enanos fértiles con buen grano que luego se siembran en el campo para establecer las familias F . La semilla F del cruzamiento simple original se cosecha y se almacena, ~ero no se s1emb~a en el campo como antes se explicó.El gran número de plantas F del retrocruzamíento garantíza la disponibilidad de numerosas famil~as f, con una concentración de caracteres deseables de la planta y grano, ~ara continuar con la selección.Cuando el progenitor alto no recurrente~ sirve de fuente de resistencia a una enfermedad con herencia simple. como es frecuentemente el caso de la resistencia a la pirícularia J se evalúa la reacción a la enfermedad de algunas plóntulas F, de cada planta enana F seleccionada del retrocruzamiento, ante~ de sembrar las famíl ias F? LA mitad de las famil ias seleccionadas portar~n el gen de resistencia. lasI\"\"estantes, las cuales no segregan plantas resistentes, se descartan y solamente se siembran en el campo las familias portadoras de resistencia.En un ejemplo alta x enana, 100 de las 200 plantas F resultar1an enanas;de éstas~ quizás 20 se descartan por esterilidad o mal tipo de grano y del resto, cerca de la mitad 1 son portadoras de resistencia a piricularia, o sea que 40 familias F 2 se siembran en el campo.El método de pedigrl ha sido el m~s común y exitosamente usado en el mejoramiento del arroz, aunque todavia tiene ciertas desventajas~ Este método requiere mucho tiempo para evaluar periÓdicamente 1as l1neas durante la estación de cultivo y mantener los registros, en los cuales se basa la selección en el momento de la madurez y puesto que cada planta seleccionada se maneja independientemente, el material a evaluar crece piramidalmente e incrementa la carga de trabajo de manera notoria~ Por otra parte, es muy laborioso porque cada selecci6n se debe preparar~ no solamente para la siembra en el campo sino también para la eva'uaci6n en laboratorio, y en viveros especiales para la calidad del grano, resistencia a enfennedades e insectos y otros carac.teres. De todos los métodos de mejoram;ento~ el de pedigrl es el que exíge mayor familiariadad COn el material y con los efectos del genotipo y medio ambiente en la expresí6n del caracter.Sin embargo, son muchas las ventajas que explican su vasto uso~ Cabe destacar que las generaciones tempranas de 1as plantas seleccionadas en el campo pueden evaluarse en pruebas especiales para caracteres tales como resistencias.Esto suministra una base sólida para descartar las lineas indeseables y concentrarse en el material útil. Los datos de las evaluaciones de estas progenies de plantas individuales se obtiénen mientras 1as nuevas líneas pedigrí están creciendo en el campo. Asi, las lIneas que resultan de mala calidad, con susceptibilidad u otros efectos, se eliminan inmediatamente de los libros de campo para no perder tiempo con ellas.Ocasionalmente una de estas pruebas falla y da resultado inciertos. Los registros del sistema pedigrí para generaciones previas, permiten al fitomejorador conocer el comportamiento del caracter mejorado en cuestión. volviendo a los surcos de los cua1es se hicieron las selecciones. Esta infonnaciOn m&s temprana pennite al fitomejorador predecir., hasta cierto punto, el comportamiento de las lIneas en el vivero de campo.La tendencia actual es proponer 1a inducción de mutaciones como fuentes de variabilidad de una característica, especialmente entre los investigadores que desconocen la existencia de la diversidad natural. Una revisi6n de la literatura sobre mejoramiento genético por mutaci6n en arroz muestra que el mayor vo1umen de trabaja se ha hecho para inducir caracteres comunes y naturalmente abundante como tallos cortos, precocidad, tamaño de grano, resistencia a1 desgrane, o alto macollamiento. No hay razón a1guna para inducir mutaciones como fuentes adicionales de caracteres a costa de las prácticas convenciona1es de mejoramiento, cuando la mayoría de las fuentes naturales no han sido todavía explotadas. Una evaluación realista de las prioridades de mejoramiento, basada en las necesidades de la industria y de los consumidores de arroz, mostrar1a que el mejoramiento gen~tleo por mutaei6n es normalmente ~s perjudicial que benéfico durante los primeros años de los programas de mejoramiento tanto en regiones tropicales como templadas. No obstante, la inducción de tallos sólidos., endospermo amarillo, o glumas frágiles, como las del trigo, serIa una contribuciOn extraordinariamente valiosa al mejoramiento del arroz~ El uso de mutaciones inducidas debería limitarse exclusivamente a un programa establecido, altamente productivo, que haya agotado la mayoría de las fuentes o caracteres naturales.En el CIAT 1as mutaciones inducidas con irradiación con rayos gamma, Se han utilizado en dos proyectos de mejoramiento, en los cuales se requerja mantener las condiciones de adaptaCión y otras buenas caracterlsticas del material. lo.) Inducir enanismo en variedades criollas, con buena adaptación a suelos ácidos y resistencia a Piricularia, a f1n de obtener tipo corto con mayar facilidad de combinar en los cruces; y 2) Obtenc16n de mejor calidad de grano de la variedad chilena Oro, tipo japónica y conservar su buena tolerancia a frío. El resultado en este caso fueron varias Hneas de Oro. con calificaciOn menor de 1 para centro blanco.El éxito del fitomejoramiento depende de tres factores principales:Recursos genéticos satisfactorios de las caracterlsticas deseables~ y 3~ Pruebas adecuadas para ídentificar las plantas superiores.Los objetivos inciertos como IImejoramiento para alto rendimiento'¡ sólo producen frustación y fracaso. La pregunta pertinente es \"qué factores limitan el rendiniento?\". Tales factores pOdrían irelu;r tallos débiles y volcamiento; macollamiento inadecuado; sombrío mutuo debido a la morfología foliar pobre, período de crecimiento inapropiado debido al clima; sensibilidad a la temperatura baja; susceptibilidad a en'ermedaaes o insectos; o combinaciones de éstos y otros factores. Una vez que se conocen los problelfuls básicos, pueden establecerse los objetivos específicos del mejoramiento genético.Para ~ue las variedades nuevas~ con tipo dé planta mejorado, sean aceptadas comercialmente, es necesario que tengan las características específicas de grano preferidas y es más fácil cambiar las características de calidad que alterar las preferencias humanas.Ya existen fuentes excelentes de casi todos los caracteres importantes de 1d planta y grano dentro de las innumerables vdriedades de arroz, y otras podrían encontrarse a través de futuras selecciones.El arroz ha sido objeto de considerables estudios genétiCOS, muchos de los cuales han sido útiles a los fitomejoradores de arroz t pero desafortunadamente tamhi~n se ha gastado mucho tiempo y dinero estudiando caracteres de poco o ningQn valor económico. Más aún, la genética de varios caracteres importantes no ha sido cOJl1pletamente estudiada, incluyendO la proteína total. distribuci6n de materia seca, contenido de aminoácidos. contenido de amilosa, temperatura de gelatinización, opacidad del endospenna, tolerancia a temperatura baja y resistencia a Muchas enfermedades, insectos y problemas del suelo~ Pero los fitomejoradores generalmente no tienen tiempo para estudios genéticos. Cuando trabajan con un caracter de herencia desconocida, no pueden esperar los análisis genéticos para iniciar los cruzafilientos y la selección. La información genética no es indispensab1e para el éxito del mejoramiento, como 10 comprueba el extraordinario mejoramiento del arroz hecho por e 1 'nombre primit i '10 ~ as í como 1 as vari edades mej orada s desarrolladas recientemente por los científicos. No obstar,te, la información sobre formas: de herencia y estimaciones de la heredabi1 idad hacen más efectivos los procedimientos de selección y la formtJlación de objetivos de mejoramientos.LoS tallos cortos y fuertes, rrk' í:s que ningún otro caracter~ deteminan la resistencia al volcamiento, una proporción favorable de grano/paja; la respuesta al nitrógeno, y la alta capacidad de rendimiento.El acame o volcamiento temprano de tallos largos y delgados. altera la distribución de las hOjas, aumenta el sombrío mutuo, interrumpe el transporte de nutrientes y fotos intatos, causa esteril idad, y reduce e i rendimiento. Los tallos cortos y gruesos resisten el volcamiento y reducen las pérdidas de respiración de los tallos.El avance más sobresaliente en el mejoramiento gen~tico del arroz en anos recientes, fue el descubrimiento de la importancia y utilidad de las variedades chinas enanas Oee-geo-woo-gen-tze, y Taichung Native l. El gen mayor recesivo de Dee-geo-woo-gen para enanismo~ se introdujo en un gran número de variedades y l1neas indicas mejoradas y, más recientemente en japónicas. Estos materiales mejorados son m §s ütiles como progenitores que las tres variedades chinas enanas originales porque a su porte bajO aunan muchos otros caracteres deseables.Existe un núrrero 1 imitado de fuentes útiles de tallo corto, r1gído t que incluyen varieóades de porte bajo con herencia poligénica y enanas mendelianas. Se conocen algunas variedades con tallos cortos heredados cuantitativamente como Century Patna/SLO 17. Estas son menos útiles que algunas de las enanas monogénicas porque, cuando se cruzan con genotipos altos, segregan amplia y continuamente para la altura de la p1anta. En los programas de fitomejoramiento no se ha encontrado una enana útil con uo solo gen dominante que controle el porte bajo.La heredabilidad del enanismo es alt3 y fácil de identificar, seleccionar y recombinar con otras caractedsticas. Las l1neas segregantes enanas se pueden identificar con bastante exactitud entre las pl §ntulas arrancadas de los semjl1eros~ 10 que permite descartar las plántulds demasiado altas en pOb1ac;ones que van a ser transplantadas~ En los estados posteriores de desarrollo, las enanas se identifican fácilmente en el campo, porque tienen tallos y hojas cortas, a menudo de una coloración verde azulada y usualmente t macollan profusamente.Las líneas segregantes enanas varían muy poco en altura, presumiblemente por la acción de un gen menor. La gran mayoríd caen dentro de los llmites útiles de 80 a 100 cm y algunas alcanzan los 120 cm bajo ciertas condiciones.Aunque la resistencia al volcarniento está relacionada principalmente con la poca altura. depende también de otros caracteres incluyendo el di~metro del tallo, el espesor de las paredes del tallo y el grado hasta el cual la vaina de las hojas se adhiere a los entrenudos. El fitomejorador no puede evaluar en el campo las caracter1sticas anatómicas o a la adherencia de la vaina, pero si puede aplicar altos niveles de nitrógeno y observar la altura y grosor del tallo.Es casi imposible identificar y evaluar las segregantes enanas en pOblaciones deficientes en nitrógeno.Vigor ~~tat;vo Las: plantas con vigor vegetativo inicial (que llenen rápidamente los espacios entre plantas y surcos) son deseables si tal vigor no conduce a un crecimiento excesivo y al sombr10 mutuo después de que corrdenzan a formarse las panículas. El vigor est~ asociado con varias combinaciones de emergencia y desarrollo rápido de plántulas, precocidad y alto macol1amiento, hojas moderadamente largas e inicialmente f1ácidas, y un aumento temprano, r~pido en la altura de las plántulas. El vigor vegetativo es bajo en tipos moderadamente cortos, de pobre macollamiento, jncluyendo variedades de los Estados Unidos y Surinam, as' como 1a mayor1a de las variedades de secano y japónicas. Unas pocas variedades altas, de bajo macollamiento, adaptadas a la siembra directa son muy vigorosas durante el crecimiento inicial. El vigor inícia1 es usualmente alto en las variedades tropicales no mejoradas, pero su follaje suele ser excesivo en la floraci6n y son demasiado altas y propensas al acame. Varios tipos índica, enanas t incluyendo la CICA 4, IKTl Y CICA 8, tienen excelente vigor vegetativo combinado con flacidez inicial de hojas, h~bíto erecto de la planta adulta, y una tasa de crecimiento lenta después de que alcanzan el área foliar crítica.Los materia les deberí an el as ifi carse cuando se observan dHerenci as claras en el vigor inicial en los viveros pedigri, o sea aproximadamente 40 a 50 d1as después de la genninacíón de la semilla, aunque puede ser miís tarde en .1reds menos cálidas o si el nitrageno es deficiente. Es difícil evaluar el vigor en las plantas individuales, razón por la cual primero se toman notas de cada línea comenzando en la F3 y se continúa hasto los ensayos de rendimiento.Una combinación de la habilidad de alto macol1amiento y una agrupación compacta de ta 1105, moderadamente rectos, permiten que 1 as macollas red ban mayor radiación solar y. por consiguiente~ el sombrío mutuo por unidad de superficie es menor* En las plantas mejoradas, se prefiere un alto macollamiento al w~col1amiento medio o bajo. Como las variedades enanas no tienen un índice de área foliar óptimo, el macollamiento alto no ocasiona el crecimiento excesivo de la plaflta ni el sombr10 mutuo.Con densidades altas de semilla o plántulas de arroz, las variedades que maco 1 hn profusamente formarán pocos ta 110$ por planta, pero darán una producción total más alta que las variedades de bajo macollamiento. Un buen macollamiento compensa las pl antas que se pierden con densidades de: siembra bajas, pero las variedades con capacidad de macollamíento limitada carecen de esta plasticidad? Desarrollar buenos tipos de plantas con alta capacidad de macollamiento es mas bien sencillo. Muchas fuentes de alto macollamiento se encuentran disponibles en arroces tradicionales tropicales~ Cuando se redUCé el tamaño del tallo, su habil idad de macollamiento generalmente no disminuye e incluso puede aumentar. Los cruzamientos que incluyen un progenitor de buen macollamiento~ a menudo producen segregantes que macollan bien.El macollamiento alto como un objetivo del mejoramiento genético, requiere cuidado particular en los programas de arroz de siembra directa.Hay evidencia emplrica contundente de que las poblaCiones sembradas directamente conducen a una selección natural lenta, pero progresiva de las poblaciones en contra de un buen macollamiento y eventualmente producen mater; a 1 es de bajo maco 11 ami ento. Es ta pérdi da de maco 11 ami ento se puede contrarrestar sembrando a densidades bajas en la F2 pard facilitar la identificación de plantas profusamente macol1adoras, mediante una selección estricta para alto macollamiento y~ cuando sea posible~ transplantando periódicamente la F2 y las parcelas de observaci6n~Erguimiento de la hoja El caracter mas importante de la hoja es el erguimiento después de la iniciación de la pan1cula, asociado con la alta capacidad de rendimiento.Todas las progenies de fuentes de enanismo chinas tienen hojas de moderada a altamente erectas después de la iniciaci6n de la pan1cu1a. Las hojas de algunas l1neas son excesivamente erectas; esta caracter1stica esta a menudo asociada con el bajo macollall1iento, que ocasiona una pérdida de interceptación de la luz. Las hojas de tinas cuantas variedades enanas, incluyendo las selecciones IR930. son algo flácidas durante el crecimiento vegetativo. pero Se tornan erectas cuando comienza a formarse la panícula. Estas son probablemente más deseables que las hojas que son erectas durante todo el ciclo de vida, ya que contribuyen al vigor vegetativo inicial. En el CIAT y en el IRRI las selecciones altas con hojas flácidas se desechan automaticamente, des~ués de la iniciación de la panlcula. las 11neas que tienen hojas flácidas antes de que la panicul. comience a formarse y hojas erectas después, son especialmente valiosas.Longitud t ancho y grosor de la hoja la longitud de 1. hoja es variable en el arrOl. El ángulo de la hoja est& asociado directamente con la longitud; las hojas cortas son m8.s erectas que las largas. las hojas cortas están distribuidas más uniformemente, de tal suerte que el sombr10 mutuo es menor y la utilización de la luz mas eficiente.La anchura de la hOja es menos variable que la longitud, pero hay diferencias obvias dentro de los materiales enanos y altos.Observaciones de campo sugieren que son preferibles las variedades con hojas más angostas que aquellas Como las de IR 8. Varias líneas más recientes combinan hojas angostas, vigor inicial, buen waco11amiento, panículas largas y una excepcional habilidad de rendimiento.Se presume que las hojas angostas contribuyen a los mayores rendimientos por cuanto están distribuldas m~s uniformemente que las anchas y causan menor sombr10 dentro del follaje.El grosor de la hoja ha sido relacionado con alta habilidad de rendimiento, por tener una tasa fotosint~tica mayor por unidad de Area foliar. Sin embargo, algunas variedades altamente productivas tienen hojas relativamente delgadas. Esto sugiere que esta caracter1stica nO tiene una relación directa importante con el potencial de rendimiento.Rigidez, color y senescencia de la hoja La rigidez de la hoja es deseable únicamente en áreas donde los vientos intensos las desgarran y las parten. La rígidez parece estar asociada directamente con el grosor de la hoja y la lignificación de los tejidos foliares.Las hojas verde oscuro se asociaban antiguamente con la habilidad de a1to rendimiento.Variedades ~nanas de altos rendimientos, incluyendo la CICA 4, tienen hojas pálidas 10 cual sugiere que ~1 color de la hoja es de poca importancia práctica, en la selección por capacidad de rendimiento.Algunos fitomejoradores opinan que la senesce~cia lenta de las dos o tres hojas superiores es deseable, porque, teóricamente, activa la fotoslntesls y la formación del grano hasta su completa madurez. Esta tesis no está respaldada por ninguna evidencia fisiológica, ni por los resultados del mejoramiento genético~ pero las observaciones de campo sugieren que la senescencia lenta de la hoja puede ser importante.Las hojas y espiguillas de 1a mayoría de las variedades del arroz son pubescentes, pero las de unas pocas son glabras, con poco O ningún tri coma bitelular. Sin embargo, \"íngur,a variedad tiene hojas pubescentes y glumas lisas~ o viceversa. Los arroces glabros no irritan la piel de los obreros durante la cosecha! desgrane~ secamiento y moliner1a; por consiguiente, la glabrescencia es bastante deseable. Las partes lisas de las plantas no estdfi aparentemente asociadas con la habilidad de rendimiento O la reacción al ataque de insectos o enfermedades.Estados Unidos, y algunas están disponibles en el IRRI.Las hojas banderas son importantes pSl'\"a la habl1 idad de rendimiento por cuanto suministran directamente fotosintatos a las panículas. También ayudan a estabilizar el rendimiento ya que las hojas banderas erectas, moderadamente largas, tales como las de CrCA 4, ayudan a proteger el grano maduro contra el daño ocasionado pOI' \" los pájaros. Las hojas banderas de las variedades altas rara vez cubren totalmente las panículas.La longitud y rigidez de las hojas banderas son variables. Muchas variedades enanas como la IR22, tienen hojas banderas cortas y erectas; otras tienen hojas bandetas largas y fUcidas aunque las hojas interiores son cortas y rectas. O sea que el taw.año de la hoja bandera parece ser independiente del tamaña de las hojas mas bajas.Caracteres de la panlcul.Muchos investigadores se preocupan innecesariamente por el tamaño de la panlcula como un objetivo del mejoramiento. Generalmente hay una asociación compensatoria entre el tamafio de la panícula y la cantidad de macollas. Por otra parte, los caracteres de la pan1cula no causan o determinan estrictamente el rendimiento. El caracter de la panlcula que r.o ha recibido mucha atenci6n pero que puede ser de valor. es el grosor del raquis, el cual puede estar asociado con el de los tallos.Deber1an esperarse rendimientos m&s altos de lineas que combinan buen ~collamiento con pan1culas largas. Observaciones de campo recientes sugieren que 1 as hoj as moderadamente angos tas y un v; gor i ni el al excepcional en materiales enanos~ esUn a menudo asociados con un buen macollamiento. panlculas largas y habilidad de rendimiento mas alta.Las panículas dispersas son consideradas universalmente Como indeseables, aunque las variedades de arroz con este caracter no tiene necesariamente menos espiguillas. En algunos casos, la herencia de panículas dispersas en controlada por un solo gen recesivo simple, pero parece ser poligónica en otros. la selección para la panlcula compacta normal es fácil y efectiva en poblaciones segregantes.Exerción de la panlcula las panículas deben emerger completamente de la vaina de la hoja bandera. la panícula completamente exerta es supuestamente dominante sobre la pan1cula parCialmente encerrada, pero la temperatura del aire y, posiblemente, el sombrío modifican dr~sticamente la expresión. En muchas Hneas 1 las panículas sobresalen completamente si el tiempo es caliente después de la iniciación de la panícula. pero la exerción es incompleta si el tiempo es algo frío. Duración de. 1. .. Se ha observado repetidamente que el período prolongada de llenado del grano está asociado con un incremento del rendimiento, aunque no se ha probado. El per!odo de la floración a la maduración fluctúa de 45 a 60 d!as en ~reas templadas. En los trópicos, promedia alrededor de 30 días, pero fluctúa entre 25 y 35 dlas según la variedad. la duración del periodo de llenado de grano de 1as variedades japónicas es con frecuencia ligeramente más largo que el de las variedades Indicas.El peso del grano var!a de menos de 10 a más de 50 mg/grano. Este caraeter es m&s comúnmente expresado como peso de 1000 granos al 14% de contenido de humedad. El peso de la cáscara es normalmente de 20 a 21% del total de grano. Aparentemente no es posible mejorar el rendimiento del arroz molinada disminuyendo el peso de la c&scara. Sin embargo, el rendimi en to se podrf a aumentar incrementado el peso del grano, ya que 1 as variedades con granos grandes acumulan más eficientemente el almid5n durante el perlado de maduración. los de mayor potencial son los tipos de grano largo (6.61 a 7.50 mm).El peso del grano largo a extra largo, de las variedades populares comerciales, fluctúa de aproximadamente 20 a cerca de 35 g/IODO granos.El grano de muchas variedades modernas de alto rendimiento pesa relativamente poco. Por ejemplo, en las variedades IR 28, IR 29, IR32 Y CICA 4 fluctúa de cerca de 21 a 23 g/1000 granos. Esto indica que es posible obtener altos rendimientos con granos relativamente largos y delgados.La fertilidad de las espiguillas es un prerrequísito obvio para obtener altos rendimientos. Una esterilidaa normal de las espiguillas es de 10 a 15%. Un porcentaje más alto de esterilidad es preocupante. La esterilidad es común en materia1es mejorados de arroz y tiene tres causas principales; temperaturas extremas, volcamiento y esteril idad híbrida o incompatibilidad genética.Los híbridos resultantes de cruces entre las variedades tropicales indica y japónica o javánlca son casi siempre parcial a completamente estériies, pero la esteri1idad también ocurre en híbridos lejanos de 1ndica x índica. Aunque los híbridos Fl tienen comúnmente del 20 al 80% de espiguillas estériles~ algunos son completamente estériles. Por ejemplo, 105 cruces de variedades enanas con la variedad Mudgo (una buena fuente de resistencia a sogata) son frecuentemente estériles en un 99% en la F • En un caso tan extremo, es obviamente impráctico producir una cantidad e~orme de plantas F¡ para cosechar suficiente semilla para la F 2 .. ~\"ª_º~t_ª_~Jº_n y sensíbil idad fotoperiódica las condiciones climáticas y agronómicas predominantes, determinan el nOmero ideal de dlas desde la siembra de arroz hasta la cosecha. El germoplasma varia ampliamente en maduración, 10 que permite a los fitomejoradores crear variedades adecuadas para las condiciones y prácticas de cultivo locales. En lOS tr6picos, el período de maduración de las variedades insensibles al fotoperíodo fluctúa de cerca de 90 a 160 días.Las variedades que madurar. en mas o menos 110 a 135 días usualmente rinden más que aquellas que maduran más pronto o W~$ tarde, bajo la mayoría de condiciones agron6micas favorables.La mayor parte de las variedades modernas son de maduración intermedia. Hay unas cuantas fuentes de maduración muy tard1a, especialmente en Surinam. Las buenas fuentes de maduración muy precoz para los trópiCOS (90-105 días) incluyen japónicas insensibles al fotoperlodo y varios arroces del sur de los Estados Unidos y del IRRI. Los materiales estadounidenses son mejores que las japónicas como fuentes de madurez muy precoz para los trópiCOS, a pesar de su bajo macollamiento y vigor inadecuado, porque se combinan mejor con indicas tropicales.En casi todos los programas. se re9istran notas sobre el 50% de floración para todas las 1 'ineas pedigrí ~ empezando por la F3~ ya Ciue el perl0do de la floración a la maduración del grano es relativarr~nte constante en todas las lIneas. La cambinac10n de su precocidad con el macollamiento. vigor y habilidad de rendimiento, de las variedades enanas tropicaies mejoradas, sigue siendo un desafIo fascinante. El IRRI ha desarrollado lIneas relativamente productivas (5 ton/ha en la estaciOn húmeda y de 6 a 7 ton/ha en la seca) que maduran en 100 a 105 dlas.La ; nsens ibil i dad al fotoperl odo es una razón importante por 1 a eua 1 muchas de las variedades enanas modernas son tan ampliamente adaptables. Esta característica ha sido muy bien acogida en muchas ~reas tropicales, por cuanto permite cultivar las variedades en un amplio rango de latitudes, producir dos o tres siembras por año y tener mayor flexibilidad en 1as fechas de siembra.Todas las variedades importantes en el trOpieo de A.~~rica Latina son insensibles o poco sensibles a la duración del día.Ningún caracter ha recibído tanta atención, con tan poco justificación. La pigmentación. en cualesquiera de sus posibles combinaciones, no parece estar relacionada COn el desarrollo del cultivo, la resistencia a plagas, el rendimiento del grano t o cualquier otro caracter importante del crecimiento o de la calidad. Una pequeña excepci6n son los granos precocidos porque un ap'iculo o cáscara pigmentados puede manchar el endosperma. los patrones de pigmentación y Su herencia constituyen un pasatiempo para algunos genetistas~ El color Msico del arroz es pajizo o dorado. la chcara dorada, recesiva a la cáscara pajiza, es muy común en las variedades comerciales. El color de la cáscara no afecta el rendimiento del grano ni característica alguna importante. y merece poca atenci6n. Debido a su herencia Simple es útil para verificar la autofertilización de plantas F 1 en cruzamientos donde la variedad de cáscara dorada es el progenitor femenino.Casi todos los fítomejoradores seleccionan granos sin aristas porque éstas son duras~ persistentes, e inconvenientes para el desgrane y la mo1iner1a. La arista no contri huye Significativamente al llenado del grano, no lo protege de los p&jaros. y aparentemente no tiene una función Qtil.La mayoría de las variedades no tienen aristas o tienen unas pocas en el ~pice, de modo que de este caracter rara vez constituye un problema en el mejoramiento. Desechar los individuos completamente aristados en las poblaciones F 2 y F~! elimina la mayor parte de la dificultad en los cruces ocasionales que comprendan un progenitor completamente aristado.El desgrane o calda del grano, el cual depende del grado de adherencia de la espiguilla a su pedícelo, es de gran importancia económica y uno de los principales objetivos del mejoramiento genético. La manera como la espiguilla se adhiere se clasifica como fuerte, intermedia o floja.Las variedades que se cultivan en áreas donde los vientos son fuertes, deben resistir la sacudida al madurar el grano. La resistencia al desgrane es especialmente importante en variedades de tallos rlgidos, resistentes al acame~ cuyos tallos erectos, a diferencia de los de las p1antas sensibles al volcamiento, no están protegidos de severas sacudidas. Las varieaades que se cosecha sacuden y almacenan temporalmente en el campo antes de ser degranadas, una prActica común en Perú y otros pa1ses, requieren una gran resistencia .1 desgrane.con resistencia intermedia al desgrane pueden trillarse más con menor pérdida de grano, cuando se cosechan Las variedades japónicas son altamente resistentes al desgrane, 10 mismo que algunas Indicas. El arroz rojo es muy susceptible y la mayoría de las variedades indicas ocupan una posición intermedia entre estos extremos.Los fitomejoradores no disponen de métodos eficientes para evaluar la habilidad del desgrane. La mejor técnica, aunque lejos de ser la ideal, es SQstener las pan'iculas de una planta flojaw.ente en la mano, apretarlas levemente con los dedos, y calcular .1 número de granos desprendidos.La latencia del grano se refiere a la baja habilidad de gernllnac10n del grano viable, recientemente cosechado. Como el desgrane y la abundancia de aristas! la latencia es una caracterlstica primitiva que favorece la supervivencia en la naturaleza. La latencia es también deseable para la mayor1a de los ambientes agronómicos, porque evita que el grano germine en las panículas antes de la cosecha.Las variedades japónicas. como grupo~ tienen poca o ninguna latencia. La mayoría de las indicas tienen alguna latencia y muchas~ espeCialmente aquellas del Asia Tropical J tienen una latencia fuerte.Bajo condiciones normales de desarrollo del grano, la latencia es controlada~ en gran parte. por la lema y la palea, y en menor grado por el pericarpio y el embrión. El medio ambiente afecta fuertemente esta caracterlstica~ La duración del per1odo de latencia debería detenninarse solamente cuando se vayan a preparar recomendaciones para los agricultores sobre nuevas variedades~ nunca para material segregante. Es importante probar lotes de semilla de distintas ~reas de producci6n.Apariencia del endosperma la apariencia del arroz molinada es importante para el consumidor y por consiguiente, para el prOductor y el molinero. Las variedades que tienen un comportamiento superior en el campo~ son aceptadas con dificultad por la industria molinera. si el grano tiene una aparienCia inferior una vez molinada. De aqu1 que esta característica sea de suma importancia en el mejoramiento.zzo Las &reas opacas se conocen como panza blanca, centro blanco, o dorso blanco, según su localizacion en el endosperma. Para evaluar el material de mejoramiento es más conveniente agrupar las manchas bajo el término panza blanca que utilizar tres clasifiCaciones diferentes. La opacidad no debe confundirse con l •• pariencia superficialmente simil.r del arroz glutinoso o ceráceo, o con aque11a de granos inmaduros, yesosos, cosechados con un alto contenido de humedad antes de su madurez fisiológica o por causa de algunas plagas.La presencia y grado de centro blanco están parcialmente bajo control genético, aunque ciertos factores ambientales afectan marcadamente su expresión. Los granos individuales de una misma panícula pueden diferir en opaci dad. Algunas variedaáes, COI11O 1 a Oryz i ca 1, presentan poco centro blanco en diferentes ambientes, mientras que otras, como la CICA 4 tienen endosperma claro en algunos ambientes y considerablemente opaco en otros. La variedad IR B Y otras son severamente afectadas con panza blanca en casi todos los ambientes.El principal factor ambiental que influye en la opacidad parece ser la temperatura inmediatamente después de la floración. Los materiales con endosperma claro, seleccionados en las áreas frescas, se deben examinar rigurosamente en ambientes más calientes. Se sospecha también que la fertilidad del suelo y el manejo del agua afectan el grado de panza blanca de manera aún desconocida.Longitud, forma y calidad de molinería del grano Las normas para evaluar la longitud y la forma del grano del material de mejoramiento varlan entre paIses y áreas de mercadeo. El Cuadro 1, muestra una clasificaciOn razonablemente útil para las evaluaciones rutinarias de mejoramiento. El ancho y grosor~ o la forma, son menos variables y menos importantes que la longitud, aunque los mercados de mejor ca1idad usualmente exigen un grano de forma delgada a media (Cuadro 1). El grano ovalado es a menudo rechazado debido a que se parte durante la molinería. Una excepci6n son los arroces de secano elel Brasil~ los cuales son de grano largo y ovalado, de buen peso específico, y buena calidad de molinería. Usualmente, pero no Siempre, los. granos de longitud corta a media se parten menos que los largos durante la molinerla. Por 10 tanto, el tamaño y forma del grano están estrechamente relacionados con los rendimientos del lndice de pilada o grano entero .. Los fitomejoradores deberían hacer más ~nfa5is en el mejoramiento del arroz entero que en el rendim; ento del arroz tota 1 ~ por cuanto comercialmente es mas importante el arroz entero, varh más y es mas fácil de mejorar.Los cient1ficos en programas tropicales de mejoramiento de arroz han desarrollado muchas selecciones con caracterlsticas típicas de plaotas enanaS y excelente grano, adecuado para el comercio internacional? mediante el intercruzaw.iento de líneas promisorias durante varios ciclos y la seleccibn estricta para el ti po de grano y endosper\",. claro. No obstante.el tamaño y la fonna del grano son caracteres. relativamente diflcíles de manejar.Tipos de plantas enanas n~joradas con todas las combinaciones esenciales posibles de forma y longitud de grano están cada vez más al alcance del fitomejorador para usarlas como padres en cruzamiento. Así que no '2$ necesario emplear por más tiempo plantas no mejoradas como donantes df> buen grano.Las mediciones directas de la calidad de molinería usualmente comi enzan con él grano masa 1 de Hneas superiores f o F.seleccionadas tentativamente para incluirlas en ensayos pren~inares 8e rendimiento. La evaluación debe incluir variedades testigo, bien conocidas, Que se scr:~ten a tOClas las pruebas de rendimiento y multiplicación. Un procedimiento usado comQnmente es secar muestras de 1 kg de grano hasta que lleguen a menos de 14% de humedad. Las reuestras se descascaran y se molinan con el equipo de laboratorio, SiguiendO cuidadosamente las recomendaciones del fabricante para el tiempo y el peso apncado al molino. VerifiQue dos veces las l1neas con rendimientos de arroz entero excesivamente bajos. y descarte todas las que confirme como no satisfactorias. La correlación entre los resultados obtenidos con 1 kg de arroz molinado en el laboratorio y con muestras en grandes molinos comerciales es generalmente satisfactoria.Es imperativo hacer por lo menos una evaluación de la calidad de r:Jo1iner~a~ preferiblemente más de una~ en un molino comercial antes. de lanzar una nueva variedad. Como la evaluacifin requiere de 2 a 4 toneladas de arroz! ésta se hace con el grano producido en la primera etapa de multiplicación de semilla en grdn escala. Cuando sea posible esta prueba se deber~ repetir después de tres a cuatro meses de almacenamiento del grano, porque éste aumenta al máximo la dureza del grano y el rendimiento de arroz entero~ Contenido de amilos.La amílosa es la fracción lineal del almidOn en las variedades no glutinosas; la amilopectina, o fracción ramificada, constituye el resto del almidón. Las variedades de arroz se agrupan con base en su contenido de amilosa, en glutinosas (1-2% de ami losa), bajas (8-20% de amilosa) e intermedias (21-25% de amilosa). Por encima de 25% son altas en ami los •• Las variedades no glutinosas. las cuales constituyen la mayor parte del arroz en el mundo, tienen de 8-37% de amilosa, aunque 1a mayorla fluctúa de 13 a 32%.El medio ambiente modifica parcialmente el contenido de amilos. de muchas maneras desconocidas. Las temperaturas altas durante la maduración del grano disminuyen el nive1 de amilosd. El contenido de una variedad puede variar tanto como el 6% de un periodo de siembra a otro o en ambientes diferentes.Hasta que se disponga de técnicas más simples de evaluación, los programas con restricciones financieras pueden limitar los an!lisis a las líneas puras a medida que se avanzan a ensayos de observación.El arroz se clasifica en grupos amplios de calidad de cocción mediante la evaluación complementaria del contenido de amilosa, consistencia de gel y temperatura de gelatinización. Sin embargo, las variedades dentro de cada grupo difieren en cuanto a palatabilidad, una diferencia que invarlablemente detectan los consumidores~ por 10 cual los fitomejoradores deber&n cocinar y probar\", tanto el arroz cocido caliente como fr10, de los materiales promisorios antes de distribuirlos como variedades.El arroz en cáscara debe almacenarse m1nimo cuatro meses después de la cosecha, antes de la prueba de degustación. El tiempo de almacenamiento aumenta la absorci6n del agua y la expansión del grano durante la cocción) 10 que pennite obtener un arroz más suelto y esponjoso que cuando se le cocina recién cosechado. En Am~rica Latina se prefieren los arroces intermedios en contenido de ami losa y temperatura de gelatínizaciól'l. En secano parece existir una asociaciOn positiva entre calfdad intermedia del grano con manchado del grano.El contenido de prote1na del grano, aunque sujeto a cambios varietales y ambientales, promedia cerca del 7% en el arroz molinado y 8% en el arroz integral. El balance de amino~cidos de la proteína del arroz es excepcionalmente bueno. El contenido de lis;na~ por ejemplo, representa en promedio cerca del 3.8 a 4.0% de la protelna.Un hecho importante y bien documentado es Que el grano de las variedades nuevas de alto rendimiento contiene tanto prote1na como la de las variedades tradicionales, ya sea que se les aplique o no algún fertilizante nitrogenado. No obstante, tanto el rendimiento de grano como el contenido de prote1na de las nuevas variedades aumenta cuando se utiliza abundante nitrógeno y prActicas de cultivo mejoradas.El desaflo de incorporar resistencia estable a las principales enfel'iTledades e i nsectas ~ en 1 as vad edades trap; ca 1 es modernas 1 supera cualquier contribución anterior del mejoramiento del arroz. Varios factores hacen de la resistencia a plagas un objetivo importante de tal mejoramiento.El arroz se cultiva ampliamente en los trópicos húmedos cálidos, donde las plagas abundan mucho mS, que en las regiones templadas, porque los pat6genos no invernan en los trópicos y los insectos no entran en dispausa.La amplia adopción de los nuevos arroces enanos ha creado condiciones altamente favorables para algunas plagas. Las aplicaciones altas de nitrógeno, los espaciamientos cortos y las siembras contínuas han aumentado la severidad de la piricularia, añublo bacterial, añubl0 de la vaina 1 e ;ns~ctos chupadores.El costo de 10s productos químiCOS agrícolas está aumentado~ y el público cada vez es más consciente de sus efectos nocivos sobre el r.ledío ambiente. Por lo tanto, la alternativa es ganar la confianza del público en la resistencia de los hospedantes. a fln de disminuír la contaminación. los cestos de producción y reducir las pérdidas de campo.La diseminación de tan sólo unas cuantas variedades nuevas en millones de hectáreas~ amenaza con sofocar genéticamente a cientos de variedades locales+ Este incremento de 1a uniformidad genética y fenotípica ha destruido una importante barrera natura1 a la dispersión de epidemias. Aunque el número de nuevas variedades creCe constantemente y continuará en ascenso, la cantidad de variabilidad genética jaffids se aproximará a su nivel anterior.Afortunadamente, la amplia variabilidad genética en el arroz suministra una resistencia útil a la mayoría de las plagas principales. Sin embargo~ esta resistencia apends ha empezado a explotarse apropiadamente.El mejoramiento de la resistencia a enfermedades en el arroz troplcal alcanzó cierto éxito en el pasado. Por ejemplo, la resistencia de las variedades enanas a piricularia no ha sido adecuada para las áreas endémicas en América Latina. pero ha sido generalmente m~s ampl ia que la resistencia de muchas variedades ind1genas en las. regiones. délticas del Asia Monzónica.CICAS, eliminando el insecto como una plaga de importancia económica.El mejoramiento por mutación del arroz no ha contribu1dosignificativamente a la resistencia a plagas, a pesar de las cuantiosas inversiones de dinero y tiempo. Por 10 tanto, el principal objetivo de todos los programas deberla ser explotar la variabilidad genética existente en el arroz cultivado, mediante las prácticas convencionales de mejoramiento.Las variedades mejoradas resistentes a 1as plagas, probablemente se cultivan en menos de la mitad del área mundial arrocera irrigada. La mayor1a de ~l1as son resistentes únicamente a una o dos plagas, pero los fitomejoradores pueden ahora desarrollar nuevas variedades. con resistencia combinada a la mayor1a de las principales enfermedades y plagas.El principal objetivo de todos los programas de mejoramiento para resistencia. es identificar y utilizar efectivamente la resistencia estable a las principales plagas. Una fuente amplia de resistencia estable a las plagas deberla mantener un nivel satisfactorio de resistencia, a largo plazo, contra las diversas razas y biotipos en muchas regiones. Las plantas hospedantes generalmente poseen uno de los dos tipos de resistencia a las enfennedades:Resistencia vertical o especifica~ que consiste en restringir el proceso de infección, o   Resistencia horizontal o no específica, que consiste en restringir la colonización, crecimiento y dispersión del parásito antes de la infecciOno El tipo especifico de resistencia dura generalmente poco tiempo.mientras que la resistencia no especifica tiene mayor duración.Casi toda la resistencia identificada y utilizada hasta ahora para las principales enfermedades del arroz es verticaL La resistencia vertical ha sido de larga duración para lO's virus hoja blanca, tungro y el enanismo, intermedia para e1 aftubio bacterial I y corta para la p;rícularia~ En áreas en donde el escaldado de la hoja. el añublo de la vaina y la helmintosporiosis son endémicas, los fitomejoradores seleccionan las plantas menos afectadas. Las diferencias observadas en la reacción de la planta probablemente obedecen a la resistencia horizontal.La resistencia a insectos está clasificada en tres categorias amplfas:No preferencia, porque los factores de la planta la hacen poco atractiva para la oviposici6n. alimentación o convivencia de los insectos;Antibiosis. la cual afecta adversamente la alimentación y multiplicación de los insectos en la planta; y Tolerancia~ mediante la cual las plantas soportan poblaciones grandes de insectos sin sufrir mayor danDo La no preferencia y la antlbios1s son los tipos más afectivos de resistencia para controlar la mayof13 de los insectos, porque reducen las poblaciones~ La tolerancia, en cambio, no inhibe la multiplicación del insecto y puede contribuir a que se multiplique aún más.La herencia simple de la resistencia ha sido duradera en el caso del saltahojas verde y $ogatodes oryzicola, pero muy breve para el saltahojas café (Nilaparvata lugens). El efecto de la resistencia multigénica en los barrenadores ha sido difIcil de evaluar por cuanto los niveles de resistencia nan sido generalmente bajos y las poblaciones de las principales especies de barrenadores han SidO relativamente pequeñas.La tolerancia genétic~ de las variedades de arroz a las diversas condiciones edáficas adversas 'lada enormemente. Nurrerosas variedades de arroz con alguna tolerancia a la salinidad, alcalinidad, toxicidad de Fe~ acidez fuerte, deficiencias de Zn y P y suelos org~nicos, han evolUClonado o se han seleccionado durante Siglos. Sin embargo, la mayorfa rinde muy poco y carece de resistencia a las prinCipales enfermedades y plagas.Los químicos de suelos han desarrollado procedimientos de selecci6n para identificar variedades tolerantes a la mayor1. de los problemas edáficos. No obstante, las interacciones entre la planta de arroz y muchos factores del suelo son tan complejas. que los procedimientos aún están s 1 endo depuradOS y mejorados t y los tipos de suelos con problemas es tan siendo mejor cardcterizados. Recientemente Se han hecho grandes progresos en la modificación de los suelos en los invernadores y en el campo para expandir las áreas en donde puede efectuarse la seleccíón. Sin embargo, la capacidad de selección es áun baja para la mayoría de las pruebas. Los fitomejoradores recientemente han empezado a transferí r 1 a tD leranc la a suelos problema a ur. ampl;o rango de variedades de alto rendimiento, las perspectivas ahora son buenas para el desarrollo de nuevos arroces con tolerancia estable a los principales problemas del suelo. Esta tolerancia genética, complementada con prácticas culturales, puede ayudar a incorporar tierras nuevas a la producción arrocera.El problema edáfico más difundido. Niveles tóxicos de sal impiden o I imitan el cultivo del arroz en más de 50 millones de hectáreas de tierras ~ridas o planicies costeras del sur y sureste del Asia, y las regiones tropicales y subtropicales en Afrio. y América del Sur.Gran parte de los suelos salinos, pueden convertirse en productoras de arroz sin la inversi6n de grandes capitales~ si se cuenta con variedades de alto rendimiento, tolerantes a la salinidad.La salinidad en las regiones costeras fluctúa de acuerdo con la lluvia y las mareas. Además como la salinidad no siempre está distribu1da uniformemente, es díffcil hacer una evaluaci6n uniforme. Las plantas de arroz son mas susceptibles en el estado de plántula, pero con la edad se tornan tolerantes. las concentsaClones salinas, con una conductividad espedfica de 8-10 IMIho/cm a 25 C, marcan c.laramente la diferencia entre arroces susceptibles y tolerantes. Se requieren temperaturas moderadas a calidad para poder efectuar una selecci6n adecuada.Los suelos moderadamente alcalinos pueden adecuarse mediante la aplicación de yeso, el manejo apropiado del agua y el cultivo de arroces tolerantes. El arroz tolerante a la alcalinidad es el mejor cultivo para sembrar durante y después de 1a adecuación de aquellas áreas con suelos cal cáreos.Se han desarrollado procedimientos efectivos de invernaderos para evaluar la tolerancia a la salinidad y alcalinidad. Los procedimientos de selección en el campo han sido desarrollados en conjunto, con cientfficos de varios pa'ísE:s, pero se están mejorando continuamente a medida que se logra experiencia adicional.La toxicidad de hierro es un desorden nutricional del arroz que ocurre ampliamente en Ultisoles y Oxisoles altamente , §cidos, y en suelos con sulfatos ácidos (conocidos también como bisulfatos). El dafio va desde la muerte de la planta hasta rendimientos pobres de grano~ a pesar de un buen crecimiento vegetativo. Varios factores influyen en el nivel de daño, tipo de suelo, manejo del a9ua~ variedad, edad del cultivo, situación nutricional general de la planta y condiciones del tiempo.La mayoría de las selecciones se efectúan en áreas donde la toxicidad de hierro se presenta naturalmente. Es difícil mantener un nivel adecuado de hierro en suelos acondicionados en el invernadero o en el campo. Se han obteniao buenos resultados de selección en Colombia y Brasil.Se considera como otro problema nutricional que limita rendimientos del arroz en áreas húmedas, y lo que es m~s importante, la severidad de la deficiencia de zinc puede aumentar debido a : La absorción de mayores cantidades de zinc al cultivar variedades de altos rendimientos~ La sustitución del sulfato de amonio (fertilizante ~cido) por úrea.El uso cont1nuo de fertilizantes fosfóricos, y La producción de dos y tres cosechas consecutivas de arroz de fangueo.Por 10 tanto, las variedades con alguna tolerancia a la deficiencia de zinc, reducirán la cantidad requerida de ~ste para corregir el problema.Se han real izado pruebas en suelos con un contenido de zinc tan bajo como 0.04 ppm, pero sólo unas pocas variedades sobrevivieron. Los sue'¡cs con un contenido disponible de zinc de 0.5 ppm parecen ser adecuados para la mayoría de las pruebas de selecci6n, tanto en invernadero como en el campo.En lOS trópicos muchos tipos de suelo son deficientes en fósforo y fijan grandes cantidades del fertilizante fosfatado. Esta deficiencia está ampliamente distribuida y frecuentemente es Severa en toda el área de arroz de secano ae Aw~rica Central. Las variedades de arroz que utilizan eficientemente el fósforo que extraen del suelo, serían de gran utilidad para lOS pequeños agricultores.La deficiencia de f5sforo del arroz puede evaluarse en el invernadero y en el campo. En el primer caso, se debe preparar una solución nutritiva que contenga los siguientes eiementos: 40 ppm de N:; 40 ppm de K; 40 PPI1' , de Ca: 4.0 ppm de Mg: 5.0 ppm de Fe; 0.5 ppm de Mn: 0.05 ppm de Mo; 0.01 ppm e Zn; 0.02 ppm de B y 0.01 ppm de Cu.Los esfuerzos de investigación no se habian dirigido, sino hasta hace poco, a la reslstencia del arroz a la sequfa. Esto se debe principalmente a la complejidad del problema, m~s que a la falta de reconocimiento de Su importanCia • Las variedades difieren considerablemente en su habilidad para sobrevivir y rendir cuando no hay suficiente humedad; sin embargo, este fenómeno es al tamente complejo y puede involucrar varios mecanismos~ Los científicos del IRRI han encontrado que los mecanismos de resistencia a la sequ1a, en relación con las condlciones climáticas t edáficas y culturales, son inherentemente diferentes y especHícas pára cada jocalidac~ Su propósito es buscar mecanismos que funcionen en un sinnúmero de ambientes.El programa de sequía del IRRI tiene tres objetivos principales:Comprender mejor 1as bases fisiológicas de la resistencia. tolerancia y recuperación de la sequía, en relaci6n con las diferencias varíetales respecto a estos componentes.Desarrollar y perfeccionar técnicas que permitan a los investigadores identificar rápidamente los diferentes componentes de resistencia a la sequ1a, cada uno de los cuales puede operar en un estado particular del crecimiento de la planta; y Utilizar las t~enicas apropiadas para evaluar la adaptabilidad de las lineas mejoradas e introducciones del banco de germoplasma, a diferentes regímenes de agua.Numerosas t~enicas de diversos grados de complejidad pueden utilizarse para evaluar la resistencia a la sequla. Actualmente el método más práctico es simplemente sembrar en el campo simulando el cultivo de secano o secano favorecido durante la estación seca. las plantas pueden regarse en la época del establecimiento, ya sea por aspersión o gravedad. El riego se suspende para someter las plantas a un perIodo de escasez en el estado apropiado de crecimiento, el cual puede determinarse examinando los datos climatológicos de la región estudiada para las variedades en desarrollo.En muchos suelos se requieren por 10 menos dos semanas sin lluvia para que aparezcan diferencias marcadas en susceptibilidad a la sequ~a durante el estado vegetativo, y una semana durante el estado reproductivo Los slntomas de sequía y la habilidad de recuperación, después de aplicar agua de las lineas en prueba, se evalúan en la época apropiada. En la evaluación se utiliza la escala del Sístema de Evaluación Standar para Arroz.Los resultados de estas pruebas en la estación seca deberán verificarse durante la estación lluviosa en condiciones naturales de sequía. los cientifícos del IRRI han encontrado una buena correlación, pero ésta podría na ser v~lida para todas las localidades.Introducciones del banco de germopiasma, así como también lineas mejoradas Cún algún grado de resistencia a la sequia, pueden solicitarse directamente al IRRl • través del Programa de Pruebas Internaelonales de Arroz (IRTP). especialmente del Vivero lotern.cíonal de Observ.ciOn de Arroz de Secano (VIOAL-S). los investigadores de áreas en donde 1. sequía es un problew4 grave deber1an mantenerse al tanto de los trabajos realizados en el IRRI y otros centros de investigación.Temperatura baja Los cient1ficos de los programas de arroz para regiones templadas han seleccionado por resistencia a temperaturas bajas durante décadas, y han producido variedades reconocidas hoy en d1a como de gran tolerancia a temperaturas bajas.Actualmente, la tolerancia al frio eS considerada como un objetivo de mejoramiento muy importante para los programas nacionales en la zona costera de Perú. Sur del Brasil. Argentina, Uruguay. Chile y Cuba.Hay disponibles muchas fuentes de tolerancia a temperaturas bajas. las variedades japOnicas del norte de Japón. Corea, Hungría, Italia y del Occidente de los Estados Unidos tienen buena resistencia. Muchos arroces de tipo índica de altas latitudes provenientes de Nepal, India y las Filipinas son tolerantes al frlo, y algunos del sur de los Estados Unidos tienen tolerancia moderada. Unas cuantas variedades tropicales tiensn suficiente tolerancia como para cultivarlas con éxito hasta los 25 o 30 de latitud. Es el caso de las variedades IRGA 409 (P790-B4-4 IT) e IR-GA 410) (P971-B-4-17-1) provenientes de cruces de variedades índicas realizados en el CIAT y seleccionadas en el Brasil para el ~rea sur con temperaturas moderadas.Los ciclos repetidos de selección natural a temperaturas bajas apropiadas, aparentemente se manifiestan en un avance progresivo y acumulativo hacia la tolerancia. La variedad Caloro, seleccionada en Califorri. en 1913 de una introducción japonesa, Early Wataribune, ilustra esta situaci6n. la selección natural durante 60 años aumentó consistentemente la tolerancia de Caloro, sin cambiar apreciablemente otras carae ter~ st i cas varieta 1 es; Ca loro posee ahora una excelente tú 1 eranei a al agua fria y pl!ntulas sumamente resistentes.La tolerancia al daño en una fase de crecimiento no está necesariamente relacionada con la tolerancia en otras~ Aunque Ca1oro es altamente tolerante al frío en los estados de pl' §ntula y en el perlodo vegetativo temprano de crecimiento, es susceptible a la esterilidad inducida durante la floración, presumiblemente por las temperaturas bajas. Otros materiales resisten las temperaturas bajas durante la floración y la maduración, pero son susceptibles durante la genninaciOn y desarrollo de las plántulas.La susceptibilidad se manifesta de diversas formas en las diferentes fases de crecimiento, 10 que indica que la evaluación del m3terial únIcamente en una fase no es sufIcIente. la temperatura baja r.tarda el crecimiento vegetativo. Las plántulas y las hojas inferiores, más viejas, a menudo Se tornan de color naranja amarillento. No Se observa prácticamente exerci6n de las panículas, y éstas son parcialmente estériles. Las espículas o espiguillas superiores, a menudo se degeneran y se ramifican fOlimando .structuras blancas fr §giles. La temperatura del aire de 15 a los materiales de fitomejoramiento se evalOan más consistente y confiablemente, en Japón y otras áreas templadas. mediante la irrigación de los campos con agua frh durante la noche. En los trópicos, ésto seria práctico únicamente en regiones altas.En muchos paises tropicales, la altitud varia 10 suficiente para permitir localizar estaciones experimenta1es de mejoramiento en ~reas calientes, a fin de evaluar el material fuera de la estación. Evaluar la progenie de todas las selecciones en cada generación no es práctico, pero la evaluaciOn de todas las lIneas puras que entran a parcelas de observación suministrarla información mucho más Otilo El IRRI ha desarrollado una técnica artificial para seleccionar por tolerancia al agua fr1a~ la cual consiste en colocar bandejas que contienen plantul.s de siete dlas de edad en tanques con agua a una temperatura de 13 e durante 10 dlas.La selección en el campo es más conveniente para areas que requieren tolerancia al agua fría. Si bien es imposible mantener una temperatura uniforme del agua en todo el vivero, cuando éste es de tamafio apreCiable, es relativamente fácil establecer una gradiente uniforme de temperatura, y corregir los resultados a intervalos frecuentes, por medía de variedades testigo estandar apropiadas.La selección para temperatura baja del aire es mucho más diflcil porque ésta es impredecible e incontrolable. excepto con un equipo costoso de contro1 ambiental. Sin embargo, si la temperatura del aire es uniforme~ puede ser manejada de tal suerte que se pueden probar fácilmente los materiales por tolerancia al frlo utilizando variedades testigo apropiadas.La clasificaclón por tolerancia es quizás el aspecto mlis crucial de las pruebas. Es esencial indicar la aceptación fenotípica a l. madurez. Los materiales usualmente se clasifican con base en una escala de uno a nueve. los puntajes de uno a tres muestran el potencial varieta1 en condiciones locales, en tanto que de siete a nueve significan que el material es completamente inadecuado. Otros datos tales como el grado de esterilidad y exerción de las panículas, altura de 1. planta y capacidad de macollamiento son Otiles pero no esenciales.En América Latina se siembran aproximadamente 8.2 millones de hectAreas en arroz, con una producción total de 16.3 millones de toneladas y un rendimiento promedio de 2.0 ton/ha. El arroz Se cultiva predominantemente en fincas medianas y grandes, pero existe una gran variedad de sistemas de producción, que van desde cultivos intensivos con riego a sistemas de secano muy extensivos. Los factores principales que determinan el sistema de producción incluyen los regímenes de lluvias~ costos d<¡ irrigación, tipo de suelos, topografla y la disponibilidad de infraestructura~ Los rendimientos promedios en los diferentes sistemas de producción varian marcadamente, entre menos de 1 ton/ha, secano no favorecido. hasta 10 ó más, con riego en ~reas ecológicamente beneficiadas~ M~s del 70% del área destinada al cultivo del arroz en América Latina corresponde al sistema de secano. Según la definición adoptada en la reunión sobre arroz secano realizada en Bouake, Costa de Marfil~ en Octubre de 1982, el \"arroz secano es aqu~l que depende exclusivamente de las lluvias y que Sé siembra en suelos bien drenados 1 sin caballones o bordas, y en donde normalmente el nivel fre&tico no aporta humedad al cultivo!!. Esta definición es bastante aplicable a la mayor parte de las 6.2 millones de hectáreas sembradas con arroz secano, con la excepción de algunas áreas en donde 10$ campos se inundan esporadicamente en ciertas épocas.La mayor parte del área cultivada con arroz secano corresponde a Brasil, pero el sistema tiene gran importancia en otras regiones como América Central! en donde casi toda la prOducción de arroz proviene del secano;, México por su parte, decidi6 incrementar e1 cultivo de arroz bajo condiciones de secano en la Penlnsul. de Yucatán, con el fIn de aprovechar las lluv;as para la producción de granos básicos, dados sus altos costos de irrigación; en Colombia, Venezuela y Ecuador~ el sistema de secano representa partes significantes del 6rea arrocera total; por último, la producción boliviana, procede esencialmente del sistema de secano. los objetivos principales de este artIculo son: discutir brevemente cuá les son los factores limitantes del arroz de secano y los diferentes tipos de secano, describir los sitios en donde e1 Programa de Arroz del CIAT realiza las labores de evaluaci6n y selección de los materiales genéticos, y presentar algunos datos sobre los avances obtenidos.En las condiciones de secano, 10$ limitantes del arroz son ~s severos que en el sistema con riego, ya que el agua aplicada permanentemente: Elimina la sequfa Aumenta la disponibilidad de algunos nutrimentos y disminuye las deficiencias nutriciona1es.Reduce las perdidas de nitrógeno Facilita el control de las malezas Reduce la incidencia severidad de ciertas enfermedades fungosas Pyrícu1aria oryzae, R~rr,~~~~~:sor;yzae (escaldado de la hoja), manchado del grano y-Observaciones realizadas en 1. gran mayorla de los paIses productores de arroz secano en América Latina, han permitido la identificación de tres grandes lirnítantes para aumentar la producción de arroz secano:Factores acronóm;cos. Control de malezas y de arroz rojo, épocas y métodos de fertilizaci5n y cantidad de fertilizantes, épocas y métodos de siembra y de preparación del suelo.Falta de resistencia estable y duradera a piricularia y de tolerancia a otros estreses del suelo yagua, en variedades de rendimientos altos.Las plagas y enfermedades, no tan diseminadas como la piricu1aria, pero que pueden causar grandes pérdidas en ciertas ~reas específicas. En este grupo se encuentran el escaldado de la hoja .lB.:. or)'ae), el manchado o decoloración del grano (causado por varios patógenos y el virus de la hoja blanca. Entre las plagas, el Sogatodes oryzico1a, los chinches del grano y los barrenadores del tallo son fos de mdyor importancia.Seria incorrecto pensar que el arroz secano en América Latina representa un sistema uniforme, en el cual las prlcticas agronómicas y los límitantes de producci6n son similares; por el contrario, se caracteriza por presentar una continuidad de ecosistemas, que van desde los niveles más bajos en productividad hasta los ~5 altos; los suelos utilizados, así como también la p1uviosidad y la distribución de las lluvias son muy variables.En el Cuadro 1, se describen los principales ecosistemas existentes en arroz secano en América Latina.Debido a la variedad de ecosistemas y de limitantes tecnolOgicos, no se puede esperar que la evaluación y selección de materia1 genético en un so lo si ti o, of rezea so 1 uci en a los prob 1 emas encontrados en todas las regiones productoras. Asf, el Programa de Mejoramiento de Arroz Secano Se está realizando en tres sitios que el CIAT considera representativos de las principales regiones productoras de América Latina Los análisis de suelos (Cuadro 2) indican que estos sitios difieren en cuanto al contenido de materia org&nica. pH del suelo, fertilidad, textura, etc.; el contenido de aluminio es alto en La Libertad. La capacidad de retención de agua de los suelos es muy baja en La Libertad y Rio Hato y alta en Santa Rosa. Además, la precipitación total en Santa Rosa y La Libertad es alrededor de 2.800 mm/afta y bien distribuídos. mientras que en Río Hato es muy baja (aproximadamente 1000 mm) y bastante errática, por 10 que normalmente se presentan perlados de sequla.La presión de enfermedades es más alta y severa en Santa Rosa y La Libertad, donde predominan la piricularia, el virus de la hoja blanca, el escaldado de la hoja y el manchado del grano, entre otras. El programa comenzó con la evaluación de materiales segregantes y líneas avanzadas del Programa de Mejoramiento de Arroz Riego del CIAT; simult&neamente se empezó la introducción, colección y evaluación de variedades de arroz secano, con las cuales se iníci6 posteriormente la fase de hibridación.Programa de Mejoramiento de arroz riego, rinden más que las altas en las condiciones de secano favorecido; sin embargo, dichas variedades han mostrado inestabilidad en los rendimientos, debido a piric\"laria (CICA 4, CICA 7, CICA 8, CICA 9, etc) y vuelco (CICA 8). Además. varios semestres de evaluación y selección de materiales en Santa Rosa. han puesto de presente que cuando el germoplasma de riego se expone a las condiciones de secano, * Centro Regional de Investigación del Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario,ICA. Análisis de suelo correspondientes a las 3 localidades en donde se realizan los trabajos de mejoramiento varietal  En el semestre 1984A se evaluaron 45 lineas avanzadas (H y Fa) en ensayos de rendimiento en Santa Rosa y algunas de ellas tambien se sembraron en la Finca San Luis, Puerto L5pez~ Meta~ con el fín de determinar su comportamiento fuera de 1. estación experimental. En el Cuadro 6 se presentan los rendimientos y gene,10g1, de esas 11neas. Se observa que los rendimientos, tanto de las lineas como de los testigos fueron mas altos en San Luis, 10 cual podrla explicarse por la mayor presión de enfermedades existentes en Santa Rosa; la incidencia y severidad de piriculari., escaldado de la hoja, he1minthosporium y manchado del grano, fue mayor en Santa Rosa. La linea 1193 rindió 6.4 ton/ha en San Luis, pero en Santa Rosa tuvo un ataque de Piricu1aria .1 cuello de 1. panicula  Contrario a lo ocurrido en Santa Rosa, el tipo de planta enano a semienano f de buen macollamientú y Con raíces delgadas , abundantes y superficiales, muy apropiado para riego y secano favorecido, no es apto para 10s suelos de sabana según se deduce de las experiencias provenientes de los programas de mejoramiento del lITA (Nigeria) e lRAT (Costa de Marfil). los trabajos experimentales efectuados durante varios semestres en el CRI La Libertad, en condiciones de sabana, han confirmado estas observationes. Este tipo de planta tampoco combina bien en cruces con las variedades tradicionales altas de secano, adaptadas a las condiciones de Sabana, y presenta mucha susceptibil idad a enfermedades y a prOblemas de suelo cuando se siembra en sabana. Por consiguiente, para las condiciones de sabana se buscan variedades o líneas mejoradas de altura y macollamiento intermedios, que posean ralces gruesas y profundas, hojas superiores erectas que se mantengan verdes y limpias hasta la época de cosecha y con porcentaje de fertilidad floral bastante alto.Se han introducido líneas avanzadas y variedades de Brasil t de los Centros Internacionales (lRRI, IRAT e lITA) y de algunos programas nacionales, con el f~n de identificar germoplasma adecuado para iniciar un programa de mejoramiento. En 1984 se evaluaron alrededor de 1.200 cultivares que incluían lineas mejoradas, variedades nativas y materiales tradicionales. Se usó un diseño de campo consistente en Ufranjas áCldas ll formadas por dos bandas, de alta y de baja acidez. Esta última Se obtuvo aplicando 3 ton/ha de cal dolamnica, 15 días antes de la siembra, par. aumentar el pH del suelo y neutralizar el aluminio; la banda de acidez alta no recibió cal. De acuerdo a los datos obtenidos en La Libertad, los materiales enumerados en el Cuadro 6 muestran buena adaptación, buen tipo de planta y un potencial de rendimiento moderado en suelos de sabana; bastante resistentes al virus de la hoja blanca. Con todo este material se está desarrollando germoplasma mlis apropiado a nuestros requerimientos de calidad. tolerancia a enfermedades y exigencias de rendimiento (3)(4) ton/ha), adaptado a las condiciones de los suelos ácidos infértiles; este genmoplasma será un componente dentro de un sistema de prodUCCión de arroz-pastos~ que busca el empleo de bajos insumos en el manejo de oxisoles y ultisoles de América Latina.En el cultivo de tejidos del arroz generalmente se distinguen dos etapas: a) la inducción de callo (dediferenciación) y b) la organogénesis (rediferenciaci6n). Se denomina callo, 31 crecimiento indiferenciado de células que forman masas a manera de tumores, a partir de cualquier tejido diferenciado o aOn de células individua1es. La organog~nesis comprende 10s procesos por los cuales se rediferencian tejidos especializados y órganos a partir de las c~lulas del callo (Figura 1).Existen varios factores que influyen en la dediferenciaci6n de los tejidos de explante usado para el cultivo, asi como en el crecimiento de los callos y la rediferenciación de órganos y plantas (22).El genotipo es el que generalmente determina la respuesta primaría de cualquier tejido al cultivo in vitro (11,18) (Figura lB), mientras que los factores del medio de curtlvo pueden incrementar las frecuencias de inducción de callo y regeneración de plantas (4,22).Se ha encontrado que ciertos componentes del medio de cultivo son neces.arios para incrementar la frecuencia de inducción de callo y el crecimiento de los mismos, pero su concentración parece no tener la misma importancia (2,22).Entre las fitohcrmonas, la aux;na determ~na en gran Medida la inducción de callos y la rediferenc;ac;ón de tejidos de arroz cultivados in v;tro. Altas concentraciones de auxina promueven la dediferenciacion, mientras que su remoción del medio de cultivo pE'rmite la rediferenciación. Las citoqu;ninas parecen no ser necesarias (2 t ).Al parecer, los diverso~ .CoIT,ponentes del medio de cultivo, como fi~(¡rormonas y dditivos organlcos, fjtfCen una acción combinada o sinergíst;ca (15). Se ha observado ( 14) oue la cinetina tiene un efecto estilliulante sobre la organoqénesis, exclusivamente en canus de arroz que han sido inducidos en un IT'.edio que contiene caseína hidrolizaaa ú extracto de levadura. Por le tanto, las condiciones bajo las cuales se producen los cal1os, pueden influir también en su capaciddG r;órd responcer en el proceso de diferenciación de órganos (12,15).La edad de los callos influye también en su capacidad organogemca. A medida aue Clvanza su edad, disminUye su habllidad para rE'diferenciar órganos (22,32).Un fenómeno de común ocurrencia en el cultivo de tejidOS del arroz es el albinismo. La frecuencia de pl{\\f1tas albinas varía con las variedades de 5-90%. Hoy se conoce que el deterioro del AON es la causa básica de la aparición de alb'ir~Gs (6,26).El nivel oe ploidía de las células de un callo puede ser llIuy variable (26). Sin embargo, las plantas regeneradas de callos derivados a partir de tejidQ somá.tico sor. generalmente diploides (23). Por otro lado, las plantas provenientes de callos derivados a partir de anteras pueden ser haploides, diploides. triploides, tetraploides y aneuploides. La proporCión de plantas dip10ides puede ser de 50 a 60% y de plantas haploides, de 30-40% (26,33,34). Puesto que las plantas diploides son generalmente homocigotas, se concluye qUE. ellas se originan por ld dupl icación espontánea de los cromosomas durante el cultivo in illr.o. (haploides doblados). Las plantas haploides son fenotípicamente n-•enos vigorosas que las diploides, destaca'ndcse por su menor altura, tdmaño de sus hojas y panículas y su esterilidad (Figuras 1 DE) (22,34).Esporádicamente se pueaen presentar cambios morfológicos manifiestos en plantas regef1eradas a partir del cultivo de tejidos; estos cambios se pueden atribuír a mutaciones que acontecen en los procesos de fonnación de callo y rediferenciacion. Estas variaciunes incluyen cambios en la altura, macollamiento. tamaño de las hOjas, peso y longitud de la panícula, esterilidad, etc. (13,23,26,33). aSl desarrolladas se obtienen asªpticamente 10$-stgmentos de raíces 'i hojas. En el caso de ralces, se toman porciones de 10-20 tmI de la raíz primaria, 5-10 l11l1 detrás del meristema épical y las porciones de: hoja de 5-10 mm de longitud, 1-5 mm a partir de 1. base del talluelo [Figura 2e-D) ( 13) •Se seleccionan las primeras pan1cu1as de cada plant.a, sigt..iendo la técnica de Chen y Lin (3), las curdes son extraídas a(in epvlJeltas e:n :0 vaina de la hoja bandera e inmectiináfocnte deposit.:.das en agua desti1cti3 para evitar su desecamiento. Posteríormf>nte se deslnfestan sumergiéndolas en una solución de hipoclorito de Calcio al 1% durante cinco minutos~ enjuagándolas luego 4-5 veces con agua destilada estéril (Figura 3).Se deben emplear rlnteras que contienen microsporas {pOlen inmaduro; entre los estados de desarrollo uninucieado tardlo y binucleado temprano (Figura le) que son los más adecuados para el ct.itivo de antCl'dS del arroz (32,22). La tinción de los granos de polen se rl?aliza con acetocarrr¡ht férrico (16).Se ha encontrado ql.<C el trdtdn~~f1to de las anierdS del ¿:rroz con fria, estimula la formaciofi de cállos (lO). \" '-Mille,' (19). Recientemente (4). se ha desarrollado un medio efectivo p.ra el (Va i\\lO de anteras de arroz denominado N6. el cual ha superado en eficier,ci. a los utros medios (5). Dependiendo del ensayo y 1. clase de tE'jldo. los r;!(::díos basales se suplementan con los fitoreguladores de crecimiento: acidc 2,4-diclorofeno-xiacético (2,4-D), ácido naftaleno dCL-t1CO {ANA). ácido inGolac~t;co {AlA}, Cinetina, bencil adenina (SA) o 2-isopentenil adE:líina (2iP), Los aditivos orgánicos: leche de coco (Le), extracto de levadura (EL). casefna hidrolizada (eH). lactalbúmina hidrolizdda (Lr\") o ácidos nucléicos hidrolizados. y diferentes concentraciones de sacarosa pueden también ser uti1 iLados en el medio de cultivo (12).El prJ de los medios se ajusta siempre a 5. 8. antes de semisolidificerlos con 0.8% de agar. Posteriormente. los medios se esterilizan en un autoclave a 15 lbfpulg2 durdnte 10 minutos. Las p 1 á ntu las regeneradas j¡¡ l'ÍlC.Q son removi das de los ca 11 os y transferidas a potes. Pdra determinar el nivel de ploidia de 1as plantas existen VdrlOS métodos. Para el arroz, se recomienda la técnica descrita por Mukherjee y Mul;herji (20).El cultlVO de anteras o polen$ constituye un complemento nuevo para el mejoramiento genéti co convenciona l. la técnica proporciona una mayor economía de tiempo, espacio y mano de obra en la obtención de l1neas p~as O En un programa de mejoramiento que no requiere una extensiva recomb i nac i ón genét i ca) el cu lt; vo de anter\"i1S puede ser r,¡ej or aprovechado. Por ejemplo, en la combinación de caracteres deseables de des varír:dac€s aceptables que poseen caracter'tsticas compleJf\\entarias (tales como japónica x lodica), un nuevo genotipo podda estabiHzarse inmecdatdmente por el cultivo de anteras, evítand'o así la segregación en generacicnes suceS'v3S (2). Ademcts el cultivo de antenAS de h1bridas distantes t'n el género üryzd puede ser productivo y de gran uso en investlgacknt:s citogenéticas y ('n el mejoramiento del arroz (6,25).Ba~o ciertas co~dícíones, la hOffiocigosis es necesaria para reducir el error experi;r,ental! tal como ocurre HI el uso de Vi'.rledddes Pily•a identificar razas de patógenos y biotipos de insectos, ti para ser usadas en estudios de fisiología o genétíca{2E:). 'El desarrollo de lir,eas 1S0981',1Ca$ cercanas con diferer:tes fuentes de resistencia a razas de pat6genos se facilitaría weciante ei cultiv0 de anteras. tstas lineas pueden uSarse en el desa rro ~ lo de va ri eda{ies mu 1 ti 1 i nea 1 es cOn res i stenci d a enfermec2(!és (28,35) , Puesto qUE' la frecuencia de formación de callos y plantas verdes depender1 del genotipo de la p1anta~ debe hacerse énfasis en seleccionar varie<lades que respondar:, para luego cruzarlas con variedades comerciales (2 ) CULTIVO DE EJ\\BRIONES y OTROS ORGANOS El cultivo de tejidos ha sido comúnmente utilizado en la Multiplicación masiva con propósitos comerciales! en el caso de plantas que normalmente se propagan 'VE.'getativaf11ente. Recientemente, el cultivo aséptico de nudos de arroz se presenta como un sistema promisorio de multipl lcación para restaurar líneas estªriles masculinas y en la fijaci6n de heteros;s para la producción de híbridos comerciales (9).El cultivo in.'t.it..t:Q de semillas débiles y pequenas O extreJ11adamente sales minerales O on&logos bioqulmicos, se puede inducir variabilidad en forma de resistencia o tolerancia a estos factores (Figura 4) (1,2,7,30). Se debe notar sin embargo que la aplicaci6n de esta técnica se limitarla para seleccionar aquellas alteraciones funcionales de las plantas que se expresan a nivel celular y que además, son el resultado de control genético simple. El cultivo de protoplastos (células desprOVistas de la pared celulósica) es una técnica de gran potencial para el mejora,niento de las especies. Sus aplicaciones se centran en la selección de variantes somaclonales y 1\" producción de híbridos somáticos, mediante la fusión de cé lul aS procedentes. de variedades. especies, y aún géneros diferentes. Aderrkis, los protop 1 as tos consti tui r1 an los receptores más apropi ados para la transferencia de genes. macromol~culas y organelos con la concomitante incorporación de control genético para la produ(:cidh de enzimas y otros componentes, antes no producidos por las especies o variedades (25,27,31).El arroz como en muchas otras especies} no ha sido posible aún la regeneración de plantas a partir de protoptastos, evento indispensable para el aprovechamiento de 1. ingenierla genética (8,29). Cambios fenotípicos que pueden ocurrir en plantas regeneractas del cultivo irL~ de tejidos. En la historia de la agricultura se encuentran varios ejemplos en los cua les una enfermedad o una pI aga har, ocas j onodo grandes pérdidas económicas. Millones de personas murleroo como consecuencia del hambre desatada en algunas regiones del rr~ndo, debido a desastres ocurridos en 1a producción de alimentos en Irlanda en 1840 y en 1. India en 1943 (11).El arroz no eS una excepción y desde 1637 Se conocen informes de enfermedades que lo atacan. Numerosas enfermedades causadas por hongos:> bacterias t vi rus y nemátodos se han reportado en las di ferentes zonas arroceras cel mundo. (9,14). Mas que ningún otro factor. ~ orlzae reduce el rendimiento del arroz virtualmente en casi toda América Latlna, en donde se le considera como el 1 imitante de producción más importante y el mAs comOn. En contraste con muchos paises asiáticos y africanos, la producción de arroz en América Latina es bastante intensiva y utiliza gran cantidad de insumo; además, en muchos caSos las condiciones clin~ticas favorecen la incidencia de la enfennedad. Una gran diversidad de sistemas de producción -que va desde los varios tipos de secano nasta el sistema con riego. la siembra de lotes comerciales grandes en forma continua y en los cuales generalmente se utiliza una alta densidad de siembra y se aplican grandes cantidades de fertilizantes~ es especial los nitrogenados, agravan la situación~ Por otra parte, la variabilidad genética del cultivo es bastante reducida, ya que unos cuantos genotipos se cultivan en grandes extensiones en donde antes se sembraban innumerables variedades locales.El objetivo de este artículo es el de revisar las estrategias gen~ticas que se exploran para la obtención de variedades de arroz resistentes a f.:.. El hongo produce lesionEs en las hojas, nudos y en diferentes partes de la panícula y el grano. Las lesiones en las hojas Son el ipticas; el centro de 1a lesión es usuall:1ente de c;olúr gr1sáceo blancuzco, mientras que los bordes de la lesión son de color pardo o pardo oscuro. la forma, color, tamaño y núrrero de las lesiones var1an de acuerdo a las condiciones ambientales reinantes, edad de la lesión y el grado de susceptibilidad de la variedad. Desde el punto de vista de la epidemiologla de la enfermedad es importante considerar que en promedio Una le,iOn puede producir de 4.000 a 6.000 canidias por noche durante dos semanas (2,14).La enfermedad puede presentarse en las diferentes fases de crecimiento del cultivo. En algunos sitios los s~ntomas más severos se presentan en estado de pl~ntula. mientras que en otras partes éllo puede ocurrir durante el macollamiento. En otras zonas, los ataques m §s severos se presentan en el cuello de la panícula (14). Las lesiones en los nudos y en los entrenudos son menos frecuentes.Este hongo es más activo en las horas de la noche, ya que todos los procesos vitales del ciclo de la enfermedad tales como la liberación, germinación t y producci6n de las esporas y el proceso de infección requieren agua, la cuales aportada por el rOelo que se forma sobre la superficie de las hojas en las horas de 1. noche. Entre más tiempo permanezca el rocío sobre las hojas. mayor número de lesiones se produce (13).La enfermedad es más severa en condicíones de secano; si bien las causas no están bien determinadas t se considera que los siguientes factores est&n implicados: a) los contenidos de azúCareS y proteínas son mayores en arroz secano que en riego; b} la duración del rOelo. es mayor en arroz secano que en riego; e) estreses nutricionales y de agua en arroz secano (l3) • VARIABILIDAD DEL PATOGENO P. oryzae es un hongo bastante variable .. La existencia de razas que diferTan en su patogenicidad se observó desde 1922. SASAKI (l9) notó qUé ciertas variedades de arroz eran resistentes a unas razas pero susceptibles a otras. Los resultados obtenidos en el Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones del Arroz (IRRI) • partir de 1962, indican que este hongo es bastante variable desde el punto de vista genético (6).Mediante el uso de variedades diferenciales se ha tratado de determinar el número de razas existentes en una región. Se han identificado unas 18 razas en el Japón, 27 en Taiwan y 116 en las Filipinas (9,14,16) y el númerO va en aumento. También se ha reportado la existencia de muchas razas en la India, Korea y Estados Unidos (9,16). En Colombia Gálvez y lozano (4) identificaron 14 ralas diseminadas en las diferentes zonas del país. En el tr6pico la cantidad de esporas presentes en el medio ambiente es bastante alta a través del afto y la prevalencia de las distintas razas varía con frecuencia.Por otra parte, Se ha encontrado qUE' aislamientos de P. o{yzae difieren en características morfológicas, requerimientos nutriciona es y patogenicidad. Recientemente se delTlOstró que en una misma lesión existen canidias pertenecientes a razas diferentes de 1:..:. o{yzae. Más aún, cultivos provenientes de una sola conidid han dado or gen d razaS distintas (2,3,14). Giatgong y Frederikeen, citados por Khush (9), desarrollaron 20 cu lti vos monoeon i di a 1 es y durante tres generaci ones suces i vas observa ron variaciones en 'as razas producidas~ No obstdnte, laterel1 citada por Day (2). encontró que tales cambios son raros. Diferencias en la interpretaci5n de la variaciOn, asl como en los métodos empleados podrla explicar dichas discrepancias.La gran variabi 1 idad observada en ~ oryza€ se ha expl icado en los siguientes términos: 1. Presencia de células multinucleadas: generalmente, las conidias de P. oryzae están formadas por tres células, la gran mayoría de las cuares poseen un solo núcleo; sin embargo, en algunas razas del hongo se ha encontrado que 13-20% de las células tienen de 2 a 6 núcleos. ( 14).en la cual una célula tiene dos o más núcleos diferentes genéticamente.Susuki, citado por Ou (11), estudió dicho hongo por varios años y encontró que las conidias. apresorios y micelios poseen células hetero-cariúticdS. Vamasaki y Nuzaki ( 26) llegaron a la misma conclusión. Oe-De tenerse en cuenta que la fusión de núcleos genéticamente diferentes puede dar origen a nuevas razas.Recientementé~ Fatemi y Nelson {3} aportaron evidencias sobre la existencia de este fenómeno de f. orYZde~ Hicieron aislamientos de lesiones provenientes del campo y de ca a uno de ellos efectuaron 30 cultivos monoconidiales y los cuales posteriormente fueron apareados entre sí. Encontraron que en varias combinaciones aparecieron tipos similares a los padres. así como también tipos diferentes a los progenitores; en otras combinaciones los tipos resultantes fueron iguales a los progenitores. Esto sugiere que algunas razas de ~ oryzae son heterocarióticas mientras que otras son homocarióticas.3. Mutación: la capacidad reproductiva de este hongo es grande, bajo las condiciones norma1es encontradas en el campo~ Datos obtenidos en el laboratorio de Fitopatolo91a del IRRI (6), sugieren que una planta de arroz moderadamente susceptible puede producir dos millones de esporas por dia. Cualquiera de estas esporas reproducidas a través de mitosis est~ en capacidad de sufrir canbios en patogenicidad o mutaciones, dando origen a una nueva raza.Por otra parte, la obtencibn de aislamientQs de P. orY~he tolerantes al fungicida Blasticidin S. fue reportada por Hwang y ung (5). Ellos tomaron 13 aislamientos de P. 16YZae recolectados en camas de infección y los sometieron a la acc n e rayos ultravioletas y altas concentraciones d. B1astieidín-S. Ademas Toga-et al (20), también reportaron la presencia de aislamientos P. ory~aeresistentes al fungicida Kasugamycin. Los datos citados (5,2ar sugleren que agentes mutag~nicos físicos y químicos pueden inducir cambios en la patogenicidad deJe. 9!yzae. 4. Diferencias en el namero de cromosomas presentes en el nOcleo: Dos grupos de investigadores, Tanaka et al ( 21) y Tanaka y Yamada, (22), encontraron que el número de cromosomas en el núcleo var1a de 2 a 12.Esto puede ser debido a : falta de sincronización en el proceso de mitosis. la no separación de cromosomas homólogos ° de las cromatidas, o a la presencia de Cromosomas que durante la metafase O ana fase se quedar rezagados. Estas irregularidades en 13 división nuclear y el número variable de cromosomas en el núcleo parecen ofrecer la mejor explicación de la v3rlaciOn observada en la patogenicidad de este hongo.Desde 1900 se observó que las variedades de arroz reacción a ~ ,ryzae (7). La reacción de las variedades a var1a de un pa s a otro , de una localidad a otra y de un dentro de la misma localidad.diferian en su esta enfermedad semestre a otro A. través de 1as camas de infecci6n se determina la resistencia a un gran número de variedades y líneas en un tiempo corto. En dichas camas se proveen condiciones altamente favorables para la incidencia de la enfermedad: bastante nitrógeno, alta densidad de siembra y humedad relativa alta {9.14}.Una escala internacional de 1 a 7 se utiliza para calificar la resistencia de 10$ materia1esj. de 1 a 4 la cal ificación se basa en el tamaf\\o de la lesión y de 5 en adelante en el porcentaje de área foliar afectada. Una calificación de 4 o más, indica que la variedad 5 Hnea es susceptible.A trav~s de los Viveros Internacionales de Pi ricularia (Cuadro 1) se ha deterMinado que na existe una variedad de arroz resistente a todas las razas; también se ha observado que no ex i ste una raza de ~ oryzae capaz. de atacar a todas las variedades (14). En el Cuadro 1 se observa, por ejemplo.que Tetep ha sido cal íficada como resistente solamente en el 98% de las pruebas realizadas. De tal manera que en un programa de mEjoramiento que busca resistencia varietal a t:. oryzae los progenitores resistentes se seleccionan de acuerdo a su comportamiento en los Viveros Internacionales. .(a) Tomado de: Khush. 1978. Disease and insect resistance in rice.(b) Se refiere al porcentaje de pruebas en las cuales la variedad ha sido calificada como resistente.Muchos estudios se han hecho al respecto pero la mayor parte de él10s tiene poco valor ya que no se usaron razas puras del hongo sino mezclas de varias razas. Parece que el número de genes que determina la resistencia a P. OryZ?ti varh de 1 a 3 pares, siendo ia resistencia dorr.inante sobre la suseeptl ilidad. En el JapOn se han identificado 13 pares de genes, algunos de los cuales presentan varios alelas. Estos genes se encuentran distribuidos en cultivares sembrados en varias partes del mundo. (9,14).Los genes identificados en Japón~ China, Estados Unidos y en otroS sitios, por ejemplo~ no se han relacionado entre sí; es decir, en muchos casos no se conoce la relaci6n existente entre ellos. Por otra parte, se necesitan con urgencia estudios genéticos coordinados con el f1n de identificar genes de resistencia en las zonas tropicales de Asia, Afr1ca y América latina. Dichos estudios ayudar~n grandemente en el desarrollo de variedades resistentes a ~ oryzae.Van der Plank {23} fue uno de los primeros en llamar la atención sobre la existencia de dos tipos de resistencia que operan contra los agentes patógenos que producen enfermedades en las plantas; estos tipos son: resistencia vertical y horizontal. Nelson (20) definió tales conceptos en términos de epidemiología. la resistencia vertica1 reduce drásticamente la cantidad inicial de ;nóculo del patógeno; por otra parte, este tipo es de facil manejo e in(Qrporación en materiales genéticos.Sin embargo~ en casos como ~ ~zae en donde existen muchas razas y tan variables, la presencia de un solo gene de resistencia vertical en una variedad, faci1ita la multiplicación y rápida diseminaci5n de razas capaces de atacar dicha variedad.La resistencia horizontal reduce la velocidad a la cual la enfermedad puede propagarse disminuyendo el peligro de cuantiosas pérdidas COIOO las que ocurren cuando se rompe la resistencia vertica19 la resistencia horizontal permite la presencia de cierto grado de enfermedad, es decir~ a un nivel no economico. Se dice que la resistencia horizontal es ~s estable y duradera que la vertical (23). Sin embargo, la detección y manejo de la résistencia horizontal es bastante dificil, especialmente en poblaciones segregantes.Las actividades de selecclón y evaluación de los materiales genéticos del Programa de Arroz del CIAT, se realizan en Villavice\"eio, Meta, bajo condiciones de secano. En este sitio la enfermedad es endémica y está favorecida por la presencia de temperaturas nocturnas apropiadas, humedad relativa alta t nljcha nubosidad y la presencld de roc10 por bastante tiempo; adem~s, los suelos son ~cidos. Se utilizan diseños experimentales adecuados para exponer a las poblaciones segregantes y líneds dvanzadas. al inóculo procedente de bordes esparcidores constituidos por una mezcla de variedades susceptibles.El mejoramiento varietal encaminado a 1. obtención de variedades resistentes a ~ 2!yzae empezó en 1967 y aan continúa siendo el ObjetiVO principal del Programa de Mejoramiento varietal de Arroz del CIAT, el cual desde un principio ha trabajado en estrecha calaboracion con el Programa de Arroz del ICA. Muchas variedades resistentes se han obtenido pero su resistencia a pirieularia fue más bien corta; solamente CICA 7 Y CICA 8 retuvieron cierto grado de resistencia por un tiempo un poco mayor.La obtención de variedades que exhibieran el tipo de resistencia varieta 1 recibió la mayor atención durante los primeros 10 años de este programa. Se utilizaron como fuentes de resistencia las variedades IR822~ Co10mbia 1, T SOJe, Tetep, Oissi Hatif, Mamoriaka y e 46-15; este material fue seleccionado con base en la gran resistencia a piricularia detectada en las camas de infección en Villavieencio (18). Las variedades CICA 6, CICA 7, CICA B Y CICA 9 posiblemente constituyen ejemplos de este tipo de resistencia en las cuales IR 822, Colombia 1, respectivamente, han sido los donantes de esa resistencia.En 1972 se inició un proyecto en e1 Centro Regional de Investig3ciOn La Libertad en el cual se efectuó una selecci6n doble por resistencia a p~ J?zae. Se seleccionaron líneas resistentes al hongo 00' s610 en estado <re J ántula en las camas de infección, sino ademá.s resistentes bajo ::ondiciones de campo a los ataques del hongo en el cuello de la pan1cula. 5e identificaron seis l1neas promisorias (Cuadro 2), con buen potencial de rendimiento, buena calidad de grano y cocina. resistentes a Sogatodes, )iistante resistentes a ~ orlzar; en estado de pUntula y con un porcentaJe Jajo de infección de piricu ana en el cu-ello de la pan1cu1a. Las lineas ,006 y 5029 fueron nombradas como Metica 1 y Metica 2, respectivamente y los genes de resistencia supuestamente provenían de Colombia; sin embargo. luego de dos semestres de cultivo en forma comercial la Metica 1 presentO problemas de ataques de pirieulari •• tanto en el follaje como en 1. (1) = En base al Area foliar afectada (2) = Escala de O a 9La estrategia de entregar en forma periódica variedades con determinados genes de resistencia. se ha utilizado no sólo eo Colombia sino además en otras partes; por ejemplo, según Watson y luig (25), se usó con éxito eo Australia eo el control de la roya del tallo de trigo desde 1938 hasta 1950. No obstante. este método presenta estos inconvenientes: 1. Rápidamente se pueden agotar los genes de resistencia 2. la obtención de variedades mejoradas con diferentes genes de resistencia en tiempo corto, impone una gran carga sobre los fitomejoradores y el cambio frecuente de varied~des causa traumatismos a los agricultores ya1 programa de certificación de semillas. 3. las pérdidas económicas que sufren los agricultores ocasiooadas por la ruptura inesperada de la resistencia son grandes.La pérdida de la resistencia a piricularia de las CleAS en tan corto tiempo. ha impuesto la necesidad de explorar otras alternativas que permitan la obtención de variedades que posean un tipo de resiste~cia más estable y duradero. Las alternativas genéticas que se estan explorandO en e; momento se pueden agrupar en dos estrategias generales: la primera se refiere al desarrollo de un genotipo que tenga la habilldad de reduClr el daño o el impacto de la enfermedad, a través de la acumulaci6n de varios factores de resistencia y la segunda al desarro110 de una población constltu1da por muchos genotipos que posean genes de resistencia distintos, lo cual se traduce en menor daño de la enfermedad. Se seleccionaron 10 ]joeas mejoradas (4418,4425,4426,4436,4438,4440,4452,4462,4463,4467) de buena calidad, buen potencial de rendimiento y resistentes a ~ 0Ó~za~ . Los genes de resistencia en dichas l1neas provenían de Colombia 1,1S51 Hatif, e 46-15, 7etep y Garreón. Las l1neas se entrecruzaron en todas las combinaciones pOSibles resultando aSl 45 cruzami entos simples, los cuales fueron posteriormente entrecruzados para combinar :3 Ó 4 genes de resistencia. Las poblaciones F2 y F4 se evaluaron y seleccionaron bajo condiciones de campo en La Libertad~ Villavicencio, mientras que las restantes generaclOnes se evaluaron en el Centro Experimental Palmira. De un total de 26.000 plantas f2 seleccionadas se identificaron alrededor de 100 líneas avanzadas, de las cuales 11 se evaluaron en pruebas regionales en Colombia (Cuadro 3). La línea 5738 fué nombrada como Oryzica 1 por el ICA en 1982 y hasta el momento conserva su tolerancia a piricularia. Las fuentes de resistencia que intervinieron en el cruzami ento mú 1t i pIe (P1429-8-9M-Z-IM-5) que di ó ori gen a Oryz i ca 1 fueron C46-15, Colombia 1 y Tetep. La variedad Oryzica 1 es bastante popular en Colombia, no sólo por su tolerancia a pirícularia, sino también pur su excelente calidad de grano y precocidad. Cuadro 3. Rendlmlento y calidad del grano de cuatro líneas de arroz (l) Sinombargo, su utillZacion ha sido difícil debido a la falta de métodos adecuados de campo para la identificación y selección de plantas o progenies que exhiben dicha caracterlstica.Se considera que los componentes principales de la resistencia horiz.ontal en arroz son: per10dó latente prolongado, un número bajo de lesiones, lesiones pequeñas y esporulación reducida.A través de cruzamientos especificas es posible concentrar en una variedad genes menores dispersos en diferentes variedades~ Se introdujeron y evaluaron en las camas de infeccf6n y bajo condiciones de campo 12 variedades caracterizadas por exhibir resistencia horizontal en varias partes del mundo (Cuadro 4). rendimiento y evaluaciones en varios países a través de los viveros del lRTP. Observaciones de campo hechas en varios sitios indican que algunas líneas provenientes de los cruzamientos IR 11-452/Camponi e IRAT 8/Camponi, presentan buena tolerancia a piricularia, escaldado de la hoja y manchado del grano COMBINACIOH DE GENES MAVORES y ME~ORES Esta idea fué propuesta inicialmente por Vandder Plank (24), quien sugirió que las dos formas de resistencia (vertical y horizontal) pueden comb lna rse uti 1 izando una va ri edad con res i stenc1 a hori zonta 1 COfOO padre recurrente en un programa de retrocruzamiento. La combinación de estos dos tipos de fesistencia debe impartir mayor estabilidad, ya que Se estima que los genes que condicionan resistencia vertical y horizontal se complementen en su efectividad.La Fl de cruzamientos entre variedades que poseen ese tipo de resistencia horizontal (Camponi, Ceysvoni, 63-83, IR 11-452, Tapur;pa e IRAT 13), se cruz6 con variedades o lIneas avanzadas que bajo condiciones de campo exhiben el tipo de resistencia vertical. Alrededor de 900 selecciones se evaluaron en Villavlcencio en 1982 y 30 lineas F6 se identificaron y seleccionaron por su resistencia a piricularia) al manchado del grano 'j por su buena calidad y alto potencial de rendimiento. Las progenies. mejores resultaron de los siguientes cruzamientos: Camponi Con frecuencia se aduce que una de las razones principales por la cual las variedades de arroz pierden rápidamente su resistencia a piricularia, radica en el hecho que la variedad no recibió todo el complemento de factores de resistencia (genes) presentes en el progenitor resistente utilizado como donante. Normalmente, este progenitof resistente está representado por una variedad alta~ no mejorada y que posee varios caracteres agronómicos indeseables. E1 procedimiento corriente consiste en cruzar esta variedad alta con otra local enana bien adaptada, de buen rendimiento y calidad pero susceptible a piricularia; posteriormente, la Fl se cruza con otra variedad o l1nea mejorada. De ahí en adelante empieza el proceso de evaluci6n y selección de las generaciones segregantes bajo condiciones de campo. Este proceso puede conducir a una oi1uci5n de los factores de resistencia que posee el progenitor resistente. Se estima que si se efectúan retrocruzamientos hacia el pr-ogenitor resi stente alto se reduce dicha dilución.La transfefencia del Ilpaquete de factores de resistenc;a n hacia variedades enanas mejoradas, se intentó a través de este proyecto mediante el método del retrocruzamiento. Dos caminos distintos se escogieron en el primer caso se efectuó un solo retrocruzamiento hacia los progenitores altos (Tapuripa, IAe  La generación f2 de 21 cruzamientos se sembró en el CIAT; varias poblaciones se descartaron debldo a esterilidad, susceptibilidad a barrenadores del tallo (especialmente las pOblaciones con IAC 25) y '10) cdmi ento; se efectua ron 900 selecciones, 1 as cua les se eva 1 uaron en surcos pedigree F3 en Vil1avicencio. La mayoría de las selecciones presentaron una calidad de grano excelente. pero fueron afectadas por hoja blanca; esta gran susceptibilidad provino de los progenitores recurrentes; no obstante, se seleccionaron algunas progenies de los cruzamientos: Campon; 2/ CICA 4; Campo\"; 2 / 5863; Camponi 1/ CICA 4 ¡ IAC 25 y Eloni /1 CICA 4 ! Costa Rica.El m~todo de selecciOn recurrente es un procedimiento mediante el cual se busca incrementar la frecuencia de ciertos genes-en una población, espeCialmente en el caso de caracteres cuantitativos. Es un procedimiento c1c1 ico que comprende dos fases importantes: selecci6n de un grupo de individuos. dentro de la población, caracteriza~orposeer los genes deseados y cruzamiento entre esos individuos con el fin de incrementar la recombi nación genlftica; ésto resul ta en una concentración gradual de los genes deseados a trav~s de varios ciclos de seleccibn y entrecruzawiento.Se utiliza con mayor frecuencia en el caso de 10$ cultivos de polinización cruzada como el ma1z; en el caso del arroz) po?'\" se?'\" una especie autógoma. habría necesidad de efectuar ~udí ;ma~ emasculaciones y polinizac:of;es. 10 cual es demorado y tHSp~:\",,;iO;!; !~a uti1~zac;ón dé la esterilidad genHica o de esterilizantes químicos se han sugerido como posibles soluciones. S. obtuvieron del IRRI líneas mejoradas (IR 36) genéticamente estérl1es y se cruzaron con 10' ,igu,entes cultivares: Colombia 1, lAC 165, Metica 1, CICA 4, lItA 7. CILA b, ;RAT 13, Suakoko, Campon\" Qryzica 1, TOX 1010-45-1-1,5869, 17631, 1;838, 17067,17100, 15352, 17050 Y 18868. La FI se cosechó en el CIAT y las pOblaciones segregan tes resultantes se han evaluado en Santa Rosa, Vl11avicenc1oEl procedimiento a seguir es el siguiente: Se seleccionan plantas F2 en cada poblaclón basados en f4!irtllidad) resistencia a enfermedades, tipo de planta y grano, y ciclo vegetativo; se mezcla la semilla de todas las selecciones hechas en todas las poblaciones F2 y se siembra una sola poblaci6n F3, en la cual se seleccionar~n plantas que tengan una fertilidad baja (plantas esteri1es pero con unas pocas semillas resultantes de polinizariOn cruzada); estas semillas representan los individuos r.combin?otes d.1 primer ciclo. Repita el procedimiento a partir de estos ind•viduos.Cada uno de los proyectos expuestos anteriormente, presentan dos debi1,dades generales: a) los factores de resistencia se acumulan en un solo genotipo que puede o no permanecer estable a través del tiempo, ecosistemas y sistemas de producc,ón; b) hasta el momento, es bastante difícil o requiere I1lJcho t,empo y dedicaciOn determinar si este genotipo resistente posee uno o varios genes de resistencia« Estas debilidades desaparecen cuando se util ilan alternativas .. •lsenad::s para aCJmular los factores de resistencia en una población en lugar de un solo genotipo. Los proyectos que se están considerando en este sent1do son: mez~lds varietales y poblaciones masales heterogéneas.L1neas promisorias con un buen potencial de rendimiento, buena calidad y fenotípicamente similares, se mezclan en una proporción dada; las l1neas seleccionadas deben tener una base genHica distinta. Se espera que esta mezcla resulte en una reducción del progreso de la enfermedad y se extienda 1, durabilidad de 1, resistencia.Estos resultados sugieren que las mezclas varietales pueden constitulr un medía eficaz para el control de piricularia; no obstante, ciertos aspectos tales como la influencia de las mezclas sobre la estabi1idad de la patogenicidad del hongo, la posib1e aparición de super-razas~ el comportamiento agron6mico en diferentes sitios y épocas, el número óptimo de los componentes de las mezclas deben ser estudiados.Este proyecto se in;ciar~ pronto y a continuación se detallan 105 pasos a seguir (Jennings. 1983): a) identificación de algunas lineas promisorias o variedades superiores.b) Cruzamiento de cada una de ellas con diferentes fuentes de resistencia a pirícularia.Retrocruzamíento hacia la l1nea o variedad superior.d) Sembrar la F2 bajo condiciones de secano y seleccionar plantas resistentes; mezclar la semilla de todas las selecciones.el Sembrar la F3 bajo condiciones oe secano; sembrar cada pOblación separadamente y seleccionar plantas resistentes~ Separar las selecciones con base en el ciclo vegetativo; 110, 120, 130 dlas. etc. mezclar todas las selecciones de igual ciclo vegetativo provenientes de todos los cruzamientos que tengan el mismo padre recurrente; inclu1r por 10 menOS 30 selecciones de cada cruzamiento. Repetir 10 mismo con las otras selecciones de período vegetativo distintos. En este caso, tendremos 3 poblaciones masales de 110, 120 Y 130 d1as.f} Sembrar la F4 bajo condiciones de secano; seleccionar en cada grupo con base a la altura, ciclo t tipo de grano .. enfennedades, etc; no tener en cuenta diferencias pequeñas en tipo de planta.g} Sembrar la FS en varios sitios estratégicos; continuar la selecci6n procurando desarro~lar una población uniforme agronOmicamente.h) Conducir ensayos de rendimiento de las distintas pOblaciones en áreas donde se presente buena incidencia de piricularia.La mayor ventaja de este tnétodo radica en el gran número de plantas resistentes de distinto origen que forman la pOblación final. Las variedades multilineales y las mezclas varietales generalmente estan formadas por menos de 10 componentes. Difiere de ambas en que la mezcla se efectúa a partir de la F2 y no como lIn •• s fijas. El producto final debe ser heterogéneo en cuanto a la resistencia a pirícularia t pero uniforme fenotípicamente.El arroz se cultiva continuamente en varias zonas de Colombia y las condiciones climAticas (temperatura, humedad, precipitación) son altamente favorables para la presencía y diseminación de piricularía; además, los arroceros en general utilizan una alta densidad de siembra y mucho nitrógeno, 10 cual también es favorable para la enfermedad. Estas condiciones unidas a la gran variabil idad que exhige f.:. o,nzae, hacen difícil la obtención de variedades de arroz con resistencla estable a piricularia.Los trabajos sobre resistencia varietal P. ir,yzae se iniciaron en 1969. Cruzamientos simples, dobles y triples seh Cleron para incorporar los genes de resistencia provenientes de IR 822, Colombia 1,Tetep,Dissi Hatif, Mamoriaka, e 46-15 y Carreón en materiales más promisorios.Varios años de selección dieron C011lO resultado 1. obtención de las variedades CICA 4, CICA 6, CICA 7, CICA S Y CICA 9, además de IR 8 e IR 22 (introducidas de las Filipinas) causaron un tremendo impacto en la producción arrocera nacional. la siembra de variedades de gran potencial de rendimiento, con mayor resistencia a ~ afyzae y al insecto Sogata (Sogatodes oryzieo1o Muir) y el uso de meJores prácticas de cultivo, sentaron las bases para un gran cambio tecno10gico de la producci6n de arroz en Colombia. La prinCipal implicación de ~sto ha sido la estabilidad de la producción arrocera nacional. El rendimiento promedio nacional pasó de 1.8 ton/ha en 1961 a 4.3 ton/ha actualmente y mAs importante aún, el pals se convirtió en autosufíciente en arroz y a veces exporta pequeñas cantidades~ La entrega frecuente y periódica de estas variedades ha tenido un éxito relativo, si se tienen en cuenta que las variedades CrCA 4, CICA 6, CICA 9 Y Metica 1 perdieron rápidamente su resistencia a piritularia. De ahí que sea necesario explorar otras alternativas que permítan la obtención de variedades con resistencia más estable y duradera a ~ oryzae.No obstante, la falta de información de varios aspectos genéticos, patológicos y epidemiológicos, difitulta dicha labor. Existe poca información relativa al nQmero de genes presentes en las fuentes de resistencia disponibles. y sobre la relaci6n existente entre dichos genes~ Por otra parte~ los datos de los viveros internacionales de Piricularia indican que las variedades Tetep y Carreón poseen un espectro amplio de resistencia a !:.:. oryzae; sin embargo, la trans.ferencia de esos genes. a materiales m8s promlsorios pero susceptib1es, no ha sido muy satisfactoria.Es posible que durante el proceso de cruzamiento y posterior selecci6n no se haya podido recuperar el \"paquete completo de factores de resistencia ll presente en dichos progenitores; también es probable que dichos genes se comporten en forma distinta al ser transferidos a otro ente genético l como se ha reportado en varios cultivos.Se ha sugerido emplear las fuentes de resistencia antes mencionadas corno padres recurrentes en un programa de retrocruzamientos, 10 cual tiene sus inconvenientes. Generaimente esos progenitores resistentes son altos y susceptibles al volcamiento. tienen bajo potencial de rendimiento y mala calidad de grano y cocina, y fácilmente se puede terminar con lineas resistentes pero con las caracter1sticas indeseables ya anotadas. Estos progenitores resistentes han sido irradiados con Co 60, con la idea de inducir y recuperar mutantes enanos y resistentes a piricularia para ser usados posteriormente en cruzamientos.Algunos estudios (1,10,15 y 17) han indicado 1. poslbilidad de desarrollar van edades en arroz con resistencia hcr;zcHlti'll (} de f:ampo el P.~ae; s1n embargo., también se presentan vanos problemas. Dependen de ras condiciones naturales existentes en el campo resulta muchas veces en niveles inadecuados de infección, 10 cual no permite una buena evaluaci6n de los ma teri a 1 es genéti coso Por tanto, hacen falta med i os pract i cas para inducir la ,nfermedad y métodos adecuados para evaluar poblaciones $.,•gr\"~•nt\",.~\"Villavicencio se han inlciado algunos experimentos tendientes a desarrollar la metodología apropiada.De las diferentes e~trategias en estudio, se ha logrado mayor pr~greso en el de resistencia piramidal. Once l1neas pror;¡i!)o(idS (Cuatro 3) !:.e evaluaron en las diferentes zondS arroceras del pats y otras l~nea~ ~5r~rQn turno. El progreso de este proyecto ~c G~'ht\" poslblellleutt:: a que ya \\:~ 'st1ao H••~a~ p•offl1S0nas denvadas de los p ogemtores res1stentes¡ esas Hneas sirvieron de base para iniciar el projecto mit:r.tras q,!e e\" 1as otra.s alternativas se en¡pezó practic3'T'cr,'tP df' CefJ. Con relaci6n a este proyec:-o de reslstencia piramidal se deben tener en cuenta las siguientes Con el fin de evitar las malas caracterlsticas agronómicas de los padres resistentes (Tetep, Carre5n, Oissi Hatif, Colombia 1, tales como bajo potencial de rendimiento, mal tipo de planta, voleomiento y mala calidad, se partió de lIneas avanladas resistentes der1vadas de cruzamientos en los cuales se utl1i7aron los progenitores arriba ~~rionados. Es poslble que esas l'neas derivadas no tuvieron el ¡¡paquete completo de factores de reslstencia 1 presente en los padres resistentes.Hasta el momento no se puede decir que la combinación de los diferentes genes de resistencia, se ha logrado en estas líneas piramidales en evaluación. Para ~110 se requiere la formación de un conjunto de variedades diferenciales y la identificación de razas de1 hongo que permitan discriminar la presencia de los diferentes genes en las líneas evaluadas.En diferentes zonas existen distintas razas de ~ 0dtzae~ Por consiguiente, la evaluaci6n de estas l1neas en una gran versidad de localidades es totalmente deseable con el fín de determinar qué tan amplía es la resistencia que poseen .1 hongo.El hongo P. ií1~a~ es muy variable y entre las causas que explican dicha vartab a ~ se mencionan su carácter heterocariótico, la presencia de recombinaci6n mit6tica, su capacidad de mutación y un número variable de cromosomas en los nOcleos de l.s células que forman la conidia.2. Las condiciones ambientales y las prácticas de cultivos empleados por los arroceros en Colambia t favorecen la incidencia de piricularia. 3.Las circunstancias anteriores y la falta de información en ciertos aspectos genéticos, patológicos y epidemiológicos hacen dificil la obtenciOn de variedades de arroz con resistencia estable a piricularia. 4. En vista de que la incorporaci6n de un solo gene de resistencia en una variedad no ha tenido el éxito deseado, se ha decidido explorar simul-t&neamente var13S alternativas. 5. Se han ldentlflcddo varias lineas promisoria, que pOdrían tener resistencia plramidal a pitic\"laria. Estas lineas djfierpn en tipos de planta, ciclos vegetativos y altura, pero se caracterizan PO general por presentar resistencia a píricularia y al insecto sogata, tolerancia al escaldado de la hoja, y por toner buena calidad de grano y moliner!a y un alto potencial de rendimiento. Estas l1neas se están evaluando en diferentes lonas arroCeras con el ftn de determinar su adaptdcl0~ y comportamiento con relaci6n a !::.. oryz:ae.El rendimientc de una van,;,:(;arl es und fuOC1ÓJ\"; (le la capacid.:d Ce producción, la resistenc1d a irsE>ctos daninos y enfermedades, la adaptabilidadd al medio ambiente~ y al empleo de ciertas oracticdS agronóm;ccts. lus fitomejoradors'j pueden calcular la habl1 idad del t'endimiento de una variedad, con base en sü potencial genético, sin embargo el comportamiento real de dlC . . tk: ff!i1tcrial baJo condiclones específicas a nivel de fiJ1cas de ¿F)r;, t,.1tores. puede tener otras manifestaciones. Por lo tt:nto es importante contar con información de resultados obtenidos en 5itlos fuera de las estaciones experimentales.Una vel evaluado el germopldsrra d través de upa sene de etapas en parcelas de observaclón y ensayos ce rendlmiento en la estdc.ián experimental, el fltomeJorador selpcc10na 10$ matenales r::8.S promisorlOs aue p:)tcficirllmente ¡Jueden repl\"p.ser:tar U;'¡d; varledad. LdS selecciones deben ~er estuoHdas en pruebas regionales tanto en las estanone<; experimentales como en fincas de agrlcultores. con el objpto de obtener mayor información y para mostrar a los c\\.t1tivadores su potencial durante los días ce campo que se prograPlen.Para la localizaciór; de las pruebas reqionales se debpn seleccionar sitios repn:s€ntdtivos en las diferentes zonas arroceras y escoger (lgricultores progresistas dispuestos a cooperdf en el manteniflliento y supervisío\"': de la prueba, El sitio seleccionado debe estar en un lugar estratégico con fiicil acceso. El responsable de la prueba debe ser un especialista en arroz. o extensionista capac1tado a HI1 de brindar supervislcn y cuidado permanente, ya cue un manejo lnadecuadú ouede dísllllr:ufr el rendimiento de las luleas y afectar los resultados.En ColtH:¡bld. la Federación Naclonal de Arroceros, FEDEARROZ. al respor.sabllizarse de la realización y ejecución de las pruebas regionales~ ha facilitado una w~yor eficlencia en el trabajo de 10$ fitomejoradores del CIAT e ICA. factor que ha permitido alcanzar 105 niveles de desarrollo que tiene actualmente el cultivo.Con base en una amplia experiencia y conoCFíllento de las dlferentes areas arroceras, se determinan 10$ sitios mas representativos dentro de cada lona, a la vez que se escogen fincas de agricultores progresistas, con el objeto de situar las pruebds regionales. En cada zona arrocera se deberá hacer el mayor número de ensayos posibles~ toda vez que cacta !;itío será un T11crocl1ma especHlcO. De esta !Ilanera se tendrA la oportunidaa de estudiar los materiales bajo un amplio rango de condiciones, dentro de cada regl0n y servirá como un criterio de mayor juicio en 1a selecci15n final de una variedad.E 1 s iti o escog i do pa ra Una prueba reg lona 1 debera reuní r condi cí ones especiales tales como: fácil acceso. buena disponibilidad de agua duranteLas. Hneas promi sod as proveoientes de ensayos de re'ldimiento, será., motivo de evaluación en pruebas regionales. El r,úrrero de líneas en cada prueba, nonnalmente debe estar entre 10 y 15~ incluyendo además 2 a 3 testigos que corres.ponden ti las variedades comerciales m~s sEmbradas en la zona~ Sin embargo, es importante anotar que en a19unas oportunidades dicho número puede excederse. dependiendo de la presión que pueda existir* no solo por parte de los agricultores que reclaQJn renovación de las variedades actuales~ sino también por el númeru de líneas que necesitdñ ser evaluadas.Cuando el fitornejorador dispone de un número elevado de líneas qUe en su concepto reunen características especia1es, éstas: deben reunirse de tal forma que cada grupo se pueda estudiar independientemente como una prueba. aunque estén localizadas a continuación de otro grupo. La agrupación se puede hacer tomando parámetros. especificas. tales como período vegetativo, generación en 10 cual se encuentro el materiai~ altura de las plantas, calidad del grano y otros.TAMA~O DE LA PARCELA El tarnaño de 1a parcela para cada Hnea pUE:de variar de 100 a l.OOe metros cuadrados. Existen casos en los cuales es necesario emplear árE:as más pequeñas. y f.':sto puede estar relacionado con la disponibilidad dE semilla. tierra o el número de l1neas a evaluar. Sin embargo~ parcela: rr,ennres de 100 metros cuadrados, no son aconsejables. y cuando se utilizan es necesario lnclulr un mayor número de repeticiones. Cualquiera que sea el tamaño ae la parcela, es importante que su distribuc.ión sea en forma rectangular.Generalmente el número de repeticiones incluIdas en una prueba regional es de tres, sin embargo por falta de suministro de semilla a veces es necesario sacrificar una repetición. En este tipo de evaluaciones cada 1 í nea debe repet irse a 1 menos una vez.El manejo de las pruebas regionales básicamente tiene que ver con el empleo de determinadas prácticas culturales, pero en genera1 se siguen los lineamientos generales de un cultivo comercial, es decir, se tratan de evaluar las Hneas bajo las condiciones a que serían expuestas cumercialmente en cada región.En la gran mayada de los casos en Colombia la siembra se hace en forn~ convencicnal. es decir que se distribuye la segilla al voleo sobre el suelo preparado en seco y luego se procede a taparla. En estas condiciones 120 kg/hd de semilla con más del 80% de germir.ación, son suficientes para conseguir und adecuada población de plantas por unidad de drea. El éxito de una conveniente densidad de plantas~ está relacionadu con el grado de preparación del suelo y una buena incorporación de la semille.. Areas mal preparadas o en sitios pendientes~ contribuyen a una pobre densidad de plantas y desde luego a problemas severos de malezas.El ~todo convencional en Colombia es el rieao corrido, con caballones o muros para contención del agua, en el cual se empieza con baños sucesivos durante los estados iniciales del cultivo, para facilitar la germinación y establecimiento de las plántulas. la apl icación de una lámina de agua se hace después del cantrol de malezas y 5\" permanencia en el campo debe ser hasta el llenado del grana. En l.s siembras hechas sobre suelo preparada bajo agua~ la aplicación de lámina de agua permanente~ se hace una vez las plantas h«yan alcanzado una altura adecuada o sea entre los 10 a 15 días de edad.t:1 control de 1TId1ezas se hace a criterio del técnico, SigUiendo las prácticas nonnalmente empleadas en la. zona. Se debe garantizar un buen control de malezas, sin afectar el material en prueba con el objeto de permitir que las líneas evaluadas muestren todo su potencial genético. El control de plagas, se debe hacer de acuerdo al tipo de especie que se presente. Normalmente se controlan larvas del suelo y comedores de hoja, empleando productos que no tengan efecto sobre \"Sogata\" (SoQatodes oryzicúla), como quiera que la resistencia a esta especie y a la enfermedad que transmite (hoja blanca) es uno de los objetivos perseguidos por el fitomejorador. Cuando se presenten pot>laciones altas de chinches desde floración hasta llenado de grano, se requiere hacer aplicaciones para evitar el daño. Por otra parte, las pruebas deben vigilarse para evítar dafios de vertebrados, especialmente cuando se ubican en los bordes de lotes. Además en relación a este punto, es recomendable que la siembra se efectúe simultáneamente con el cultivo comercia1.La reacción de los materiales evaluados a las distintas enfermedades que afectan los rendimientos del arroz~ es un criterio basico de selección empleaoo en las pruebas regionales. Por 10 tanto es una norma genera1~ no hacer apl icaciones de fungicidas para su control.La cosecha de las pruebas regionales es dificil, toda vez que el tal1lafio de las parcelas es grande y generalmente loca1 izadas a mucha distancia de las estaciones experimentales. A pesar de existir trilladoras pequeñas con motor de gasQ1ina, la mejor forma de manejar la recolección de las pruebas, es cortar manualmente el área seleccionada como muestra representativa en cada parcela. El material cosechado se desgrana en el campo, golpeándolo contra tanques de combustible vacíos ti otros Objetos adecuados colocados sobre tela o plástico t en los cuales se recoge y limpia el grano. Luego el material es empacddo e identificado debidamente~ para Ser llevado a la estación experimental en donde se seca, limpia y pesa para determinar el rendimiento~ DATOS A TOMAR Con el objeto de poder contar de todas las observaciones realizadas sobre los materiales en prueba, es importante que éstos se registren dü~ectamente en el libro de campo. Existen libretas diseñadas especialmente para este tipo de labor, de tal forma que cualquier anotación importante para la evaluación y selección final de las llneas debe aparecer en él1a. Como norma general las lecturas se hacen tomando como base las tablas de evaluación consignadds en la publiéacil5n \"Sistemas de Evaluación Estándar para Arroz h del Programa de Pruebas Internacionales de Arroz para América Latina de IRRl/CIAT.Entre los datos a tomar están los siguientes:Materiales con un vigor inicial que cubra rapidamente los espacios entre plantas es lo más aconsejable, en la medida que dicho vigor no signifique un sobrecrecimiento y permita sombreamiento entre plantas. Un buen vigcr inicial es importante. especialmente en sielP.bra directa al voleo, ya que esta característica disminuye la competencia de las malezas y facilita un adecuado estab-lecimiento del cultivo, alcanzando el índice de área foliar necesario durante la floración para un buen rendimiento.Una capacidad alta de macollamie:nto. combinada con una estructura de planta compacta, con tallos moderadamente erectos que faciliten la penetración de la luz solar, es la condición ideal para al tos rendimientos. Variedades con altc macollamiento compensan la pérdida de plantas o bajas densidades, mientras que variedades con baja capacidad de macollamiento s f>O poseen alta plasticidad, siendo menos efici,entes comercialmente. Para determinar esta característica se toma el número de macollas por unidad de area mediante dos muestras por rarcela emplean un marco de 25 x 25 cm5 (0.0525 M2.)Se refiere a la incidencia de las distintas enfermedades que afectan al cultivo. Entre las enferrr:edades principales y que son objeto <le un serio análisis en el campo están :PIRICULARIA (PfriCUlaria oryzae). Su calificación se hace tanto en la hoja cUino en el cue 10 de la panlcula. las notas en la panícula se clasifican de acuerdo al grado de vaneamiento causado, es decir, indicando si es ataque temprano o ta rdí o 'j se representa en porcentaj e de paní cu 1 as afectadas, mi entras qtte en 1 a infección fa 1 i a r se tí ene en cuenta tanto el tipo de mancha como el área afectada.HOIlA BLANCA. La evaluación se hace permanentemente, s.e menciona el estado y epoca de aparición para posteriores referencias. La muestra se desgrana y se detennjna el por-centaje de granos manchados, especificando el grado o intensidad de la mancha asi: Manchas (pecas) cubriendo parcial o totalmente el grano; manchas coalescentes que cubren parcial o tota1mente el grano.ANARAnJAt~1 ENTD Esta observaciOn 'Se refiere al disturbio fisiológico causado en la planta por efecto de suelos &cidos inundados. La reacción de los materiales a este fenómeno se califica como susceptible, moderadamente resistente y resistente.Esta evaluación se toma en dios contados desde el \"\"mento de la emergencia (germinación) hasta que el 50% de las plantas hayan florecido.Ademas pueden tomarse datos tales como inicio de floración (5% de paniculas emergí das).Es la medida en centímetros, desde la superficie del suelo hasta 1a punta de la panlcu1a mAs alta de la planta. Esta medida se toma generalmente antes de la cosecha.En la época de emergencia de la panicula hacia la fertilidad de las espiguillas, se deben hacer observaciones de los posibles efectos de factores ambientales sobre la fertilidad de las espiguillas. Es importante eXdminar adecuadamente dichos síntomas~ con el objeto de poder distinguir si se trata de esterilidad apical o dailo mecánico, causado por insectos durante la última etapa del embuehamiento (antes de la emergencia de la pan1cula). Nateriales con porcentajes de esterilidad por encima del 10%, tendrán que ser observados en las demás cdractedsticas, S1 se quieren mantener' o de 10 contrario deben ser descartados.Se refiere al número de espiguillas que no han logrado llenar el total de I::spiguillas potenciales. Para determinar este parSmetro, se sugiere tomar en cada parcela una muestra al alar de 10-15 panículas con el objeto de contar el número de granos llenos y vanos, para luego convertir el dato d porcentaje.Corresponde al número de dios transcurridos desde la emergencia de la p1ántula, hasta la maduración del grano. La duración del ciclo del cultivO es un dato importante de selección, para las condiciones ecológicas de una región.El objetivo final de una buena varieddd es un alto potencial de rendimiento. Este parámetro s.e evalúa tomando el rendimiento por parcela al 14% de hUlredad, y luego se convierte a kgs/ha. La capacldad de una linea para producir es un criterio muy severo de selección, en el cual los materiales evaluados y candidatos a selección, deben rendir por enciMa de 10$ testigos comerciales o en su defecto igual al mejor rendimiento de la variedad testigo, considerándola como representativa de la zona.Son todos aquellos datos referentes a observaciones que se consideren de importancia pdf'8 ayudar a interpretür los resultadas y expl lear un detenninado comportamiento de los materiales. Datos tales como: fecha de germinaci6n, riegos, épocas de aplicación de fertilizantes y plaguicicas. ayudan al an~lisis de las observaciones. También es importante anotar todos Se deben estudiar las condiciones qUlmicas de los suelos inundados que se vayan a dedicar al cultivo del arroz, porque las propiedades físicas y qu1micas de un suelo seco cambión dr §sticamente cuando se inunda. y por lo tanto, la planta responde en forma diferente a la fertil ización y al encalamiento t que cuando se cultiva en condición aeróbica.La inundación de un suelo pone en marcha una serie de procesos físicos. qulmicos y microbiológicos que afectan profundamente, tanto l. absorci6n de los nutrimentos por parte de la planta de arroz, como l. disponibilidad y pérdida de nutrimentos en el suelo.Debido a 10 anterior hay que aplicar ideas diferentes a las convencionales para el análisis de suelos inundados y su manejo a9ronOmico~Cuando un suelo se inunda~ tanto los poros como los 3qregados estructurales se saturan de agua, las arcillas del tipo 2:1 se expanden, el aire atrapado en los poros se comprime y hace que los terrones se desmoronen. La concentración de oxígeno en el suelo depende de la tasa de difusión del gas, de su consumo por parte de los microorganismos del suelo y de la respiración de las raíces.La tasa de difusión del oxigeno en el agua es muchas veces mas lenta que en el aire; por 10 tanto, en un suelo inundado la difusión de oxfgeno es mucho menor que en un suelo aireado.En un suelo recientemente inundado la tasa de consumo de ox1geno por parte de los microorganismos es más alta que la tasa de difusi6n y los microorganislOOs aeróbicos consumen todo el oXlgenoj al agotarse éste~ se reduce su pOblación casi a cero y comienzan a aumentar los microorganismos anaeróbicos que utilizan el oxígeno de compuestos oxidados, reduciéndOlos.La cantidad de oxIgeno va disminuyendo desde la superficie del agua hasta las capas profuó:das del suelo. En la superficie del agua, a una temperatura de 25 C, tenemos una concentración de oxígeno aproximadamente 8 ppm; a los 5 cm de profundidad hay 6 ppm;en la superfiCie del suelo en contacto con el agua (capa oxidada) la concentraciOn de ox1geno es igual a la que tiene el agua en esa profundidad, pero luego del primer cent~metro del suelo, la concentraci6n de oxígeno desciende bruscamente hasta 1 ppm Y en capas inferiores est~ casi en cero (Figura 1)#La desaparición del ox1geno es seguida por la evolución de N?, luego por un rápido incremento de CO 2 y finalmente por una disminlltión de COZ y un incremento de CH 4 , La cantidad de cada uno de los gases que se encuentran en un suelo inundado varia, como sigue: del 10 al 95% de nitrógeno; del 15 .1 75% de metano; del 1 al 20% de dióxido de carbono, y hasta un 10% de hidrógeno,En la parte superior de un suelo cubierto por una lámina de agua encontramos una capa oxidada de sue10 de mas o menos 1 cm de espesor~ donde 1. difusión del ox1geno es suficiente para el consumo de los microorganismos. Dentro de esta capa la concentración de oxigeno en solución no es constante; varía entre la saturación en la superificie hasta casi cero en el l'imite de la capa reducida. como se observa en la Figura 1.El espesor de la capa oxidada depende del equilibrio entre 1. difusión y el consumo de oxígeno. En suelos con alto contenido de materia orgánica y una alta pOblación de microorganismos, el consumo de oxIgeno es grande y la capa oxidada por conSiguiente es delgada. rn suelos con poca materia orgánica o con pH muy bajo, los microorganismos son inactivos y esa capa puede ser un poco más gruesa, la capa reducida va prácticamente desde 1a superficie del suelo hasta unos 15 cm de profundidad; luego sigue el subsuelo que puede estar reducido y oxidado dependiendo hasta que profundidad el agua haya saturado el suelo. Además de la pequei1a capa oxidada en la superficie del suelo, existe otra zona oxidada que es la rizosfera del arroz, originada por translocacibn de aire de las hojas a las ralces de la planta. Se nota por 1a co1oración rojiza que toman las ra1ces debido a la oxidación del hlerro en dicha parte de la planta.En la capa reducida del suelo se encuentran la mayoría de las raíces del arroz; all\\ no hay oxigeno y los microorganismos son de tipo anaeróbico.Enesta lana suceden cambios muy importantes para la planta de arroz.CAMBlOS FISICO-QUIMICOS y QUIMICOS Cambios flsico-qulmicos En un suelo inundado la disponibilidad de oxigeno baja a cero en menos de un día. Los microorganismos aeróbicos consumen rápidamente el poco oxígeno que haya quedado y se vuelven latentes O mueren. Los microorganismos anaerúbico$ se multipl iean rapidamente y llevan a cabo la descomposici5n de la materia orgánica utilizando compuestos oxidados del suelo (nitratos, óxidos de manganeso, óxidos férricos, etc~) para su respiración.Como resultado de estos procesos se suceden en el suelo algunos cambios electroquímiCOS como: cambios del pH; disminución del potencial redox. y aumento de la conductividad eléctrica.Cambios del pH. En suelos no reducidos cualquiera que sea el pH original) después de inundado llega, aproximadamente en tres semanas., a valores entre 6.5 y 7.5, los cuales se mantienen mientras dure la inundación (Figura 2). En los suelos ~cidos. el pH aumenta debido a la reducción de óxidos mangánicos e hidróx1dos férricos, 10 cual deja libres iones OH-. En los suelos alcalinos el pH disminuye debido al aumento de la presión parcial y la producción de CO 2 los slguientes factores detenninan cualquier variación del pH del suelo: • ( Ponnamperuma. 1965Ponnamperuma. . 1976).  A manera de ejemplo se muest~an los cambios ocurridos en cuatro suelos sometidos a inundación (Figura 3), Se observa 1. influencia d. la materia arganica y del contenido de hierro en la variación del pH. En suelos acidos de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia. como el de la libertad, con bajo contenido de materia organica (2.4%) y alto contenido de hierro (1.54l), el pH se estabiliza en valores más bajos que en el de C.rlmagua. s.bana alta, de alto contenido de materia organica y alto contenido de hierro (4.1% y 1.8%~ respectivamente). El suelo de Carimagua, sabana baja, con alto contenido de materia org&nica (24.3%) con bajo contenido de hierro (0.7%) y con pH ácido (5.5). no mostró cambios significativos en su pH por tener pocos compuestos reducibles. Lo mismo ocurri6 con el suelo de Palmira que mantuvo su condición de neutral;dad~ Cuando un suelo ácido (pH 4.0) se cultivó por primera vez después de que se inundó (Figura 4). el pH subió hasta llegar a 6.5 después de 12 semanas de inundación. En el siguiente cultivo, el pH inicial del suelo fue mucho más alto que el pH original y luego se alcanzó en equilibrio (pH 6.5) en mucho menos tiempo de inundación ( 5  Algunos acidos orgánicos con hidrogeniones forman alcoholes. Por ejemplo el acido etan6ico forma alcohol etllico.El iOn sulfato ~uede pasar a i5n sulfito y prOducir OH-el i5n sulfito a su vez puede reducirse para dar iones de azufre con dos cargas negativas y liberar más OHde acuerdo con las siguientes reacciones: 0.49 voltios 0.20 voltios El potencial redox en suelos inundados desciende bruscamente despuéS de la ínundaci5n y llega a un mínimo en pocos di.s; luego sube rápidamente a un mAximo y después decrece asintóticamente con el tiempo. En la Figura 5 se compara el cambio del Eh de un suelo inundado con él de un suelo bien Factores %ue influyen en la disf!iinución del pot.enc1al redox. La tasa de descendo el E depende del pA lnlcial de' suelo, de su contenido de materia Qrg~nic~, de la temperatura y de la cantidad de aceptadores de electrones que contenga el suelo. A manera de ejemplo, se muestra en la Figura 6 el cambio sufrido por cuatro suelos con la inundaci6n. Cuando suelos 6cidQS (Nos. 3 y 4), con un alto potencial redox y contenidos relativamente altos de materia orgánica y de hierro. su E baja drásticamente y a los 50 días de inundaci6n se encuentra por debajo ~e -100 milivoltios. También en esta Figura se obserlJa~ como el E de suelos con pH cercano a la neutralidad y contenidos medios de materia horgánica, (Nos.1 y 2) desciende pero no tan drásticamente como los anteriores. La dis;n~nución del púter::ia1 redox del s'Je 1 Q ír.':.mcado. depende también de ¡as pY'opieéades físicas cel SJPlo y de si §ste se cultiva por Drimc:ra vez o no. CViineo se (¡dee 1] primera cosecha. el potencial redox de 1..11 sue1u ir,undado desciende lental1lf;mte y llega a un equilibrio 1 aproxi:ndc3men:e a l:,'.s T'Geve sernar¡as (Figura nI en cambio, con la segunda siembra. el potencial recox, que es conparativa~le:-,::e m §.s bajo ai principio. desciende y a lo cuinta SCf11apa dl:::anli:\\ el eql,ilibriO que se había logrado rflás tarde durante la pr~f1\\erd 'iiellbra. Cambios en la oonduétívidad eléctrica de un suelo después de ser inundado en dos semestres de cultivo.Los cambios qu1micos más importantes que suceden en un sueTo continuamente inundado son:Transformaciones del nitrógeno Reducción del manganeso y del hierro ,n cremento en la disponibilidad del fósforo y de sílice, entre otros Transformaciones del nitrógeno El nitrógeno que existe en el aire y también disuelto en el agua de i nundaci ón, puede ser fi j ado por a 1 gas y bacteri as trans formándo 1 as en nitrógeno orgánico. Este nitrógeno y el proveniente de los residuos de pl~ntas y animales, puede sufrir una mineralizaciOn hasta transformarse en NH 4, compuestos utilizable por las plantas de arroz.Si en la capa oxidada está presente el ión amonio, ya sea porque existe en el suelo y porque se ha agregado como fertilizante, éste se puede oxidar hasta convertirse en nitratos; estos nitratos pueden ser tomados por las plantas o descienden hasta la capa reducida en donde pueden quedar inmovilizados como materia orgánica o bien perderse lixiviación o denitrificación. Semanas después de la inundá~íón 6 Figura 9. Ca:mbió$ de la concentración de nitratos en la solución de varios su-aJos después de la inundación, Der.itrificación. La denitrificacíón es el proceso de la reducción que sufren -Tos'7'tratos ¡:;ara tr3nsfonYldrSe en 6xidos de rdt:-ógeno y en rdtr6gero elerr;ental. ~os nítl~atos en la capa red~cida de: suelo Se convierten pri::'ero en nHritos y :uego se transforman en gases tales como :4 2 0 y N 2 > los c\\Ja1es escapar, a ~a atmósfera,. El cOrltenido de p~tratos cis:ninuye rápidamente dependiendo del suelo, durante la primera ser;¡óna de inundación y luego contirJa descendiendo más lentamente hasta lleg,3'r' c. cant1daC0S bajas en un tiempo hasta de seis s.err¿nas de sumersión U~-iqlird 9j.Acumulación de amonio. La mineralización de' nitr6geno orgárico tiene lugar solal'lentenasta-~la prCQ..¡cctón de \\H,+. Que es estable bajo cündicio'1es reducidas del suelo y til?Poe a' \"\" acunularse en suelos inuno?dos :Ponndr¡mperu~a, 1965). tn la mayoría de jos suelos cuyo contenido de Il:ateria orgánica es alto, el ión arrof110 aumenta ráp~damente con el tielfpo de inundación y puede liegar a un equllibric antes de 100 dfas después de inundado. En otros SJe10S el d'JT*ento c:e amonio es tan elevado, €s ... ableciéndose un eql;ilibrio er diferentes tiempos después de ~a lnt,Hidaciór.. Los suelos C011 boj:; contenido de materia orgánica. 110 producen oil1onio en altoS car.t:oddes y 0'3 'óg'ico SJpO'ler que deber responder a los fert,lizaf~tes nitrooen3dos. La Fi~ura :0 nos ilústra ei cambio de contenido de la NH4 en V5r'ÍOS sJe\"¡os.  En relaci6n con el hierro, uno de los cambios qUlmicos más importantes que tiene lugar cuando un suelo se inunda es la reducción del hierro de 1. forma férrica a ferrosa y el consecuente incremento de su solubilidad. La reducción del hierro resulta favorecida por: la ausencia de sustancias de .1to nivel de oxidación como NO' Y MnO; la presencia de materia org&nica de f&cil descomposición y ~r un alt~ contenido de hierro activo.En los suelos ácidos inundados, el hierro soluble puede llegar al cabo de unos 50 dlas o menos, a altas concentraciones (200 • 300 ppm) en 13 solución del suelo (Figura 12), mientras que en otros suelos de pH cercano a la neutralidad, el hierro aumenta con la inundación, pero no alcanza niveles tan altos como en los suelos ácidos y la máxima concentración que a lcance depende de las propiedades del suelo. la concentraci6n disminuye con el tiempo hasta llegar a un equilibrio, situado siempre en un nivel de mayor concentración respecto al que tenía antes de 1. inundación. También las aplicaciones de materia orgAnica al suelo y la forma como se maneje el riego, pueden aumentar la concentraciOn del hierro en la solución del suelo. Cuando la inundación es constante la concentración de hierro aumenta durante las primeras semanas y luego disminuye; pero si además de inundarlo constantemente, se incorpora materia orgánica al suelo, el incremento en la concentraciOn de hierro es acelerada y alta, y puede llegar a niveles tóxicos. más tarde esa concentración baja al mismo nivel que tendr~a si solo se hubiese inundado. Cuando se alternan inundación y secado del terreno, el incremento en la cantidad de hierro del suelo es menor y se mantiene en niveles bajos a partir de la quinta semana de inundación (Figura 13). En cambio cuando el suelo está provisto de drenaje interno y se inunda, la concentración de hierro aumenta poco y muy lentamente. alcanzando su máximo nivel despuéS de 10 semanas de inundar. Semanas después de la inundación Figura 13. Cambios de la concentración de hierro en la solución de un suelo de Carimagua despuás de la inundación.En el cultivo de arroz con riego, la cantidad de hierro que se ¡olubiliza durante el primer cultivo es mucho mayor que durante los ;iguientes. debido posiblemente al efecto del drenaje sobre el Fe soluble; I tal vez por esta razón las plantas no sufren daños fisiológicos por !xceso de hierro a partir de la primera siembra.Disponibilidad de nutrimerto$ Según varios autores. e¡¡ 1a sOlución de; suelo la cOllcen:ració'1 dE elemer:tos tales como f6sforo. hierro. manganeso y síiice. aumef',ta después de la inundación. La mayor disponibilidad de estos elementos beneficia generalmente el arroz, pero en aigúnes casos el aumento excesivo de hierre o manga~eso puede causar toxicidad. los cambios en 1a cOllcer:tración de fósforo ero la solución del suele después de 1 a i nundac i ór, dependen ce 1 ti po de $oue 1 o. En sue los de pIalcalino ( 1.6)   En les sue'los ferralíticos ác:dos, el dUme;¡to en la concer::ración de1 fósforo sQluble er¡ ag:,Hl es rrrínimo; ocrque el fósforo liberado es reabsorbido por 1as .arci~1as e hidrbxidos de alumínio en la capa reducida, o si se difunde-¿¡ la capa oxidada, es precipitado por el hierro.lncr~ment~en 1A-~üni~i!i~ad _de s11ice. La solubil1dad del sílice aumenta CO'1 ertiempo '(f'8inunaa:c1on del suelo. Este au:r.ento depende del contenido de materia orgánica de1 suelo y es independiente del pH.RLACION PLAN1A-Sl:ELO-IN~:NiJA.DO Algunas proDiedades de los suelos inundados eJercen Jn influjo específico sobre ia planta de arroz, corro la d~sPQnibi1idad de oxígeno y otros elementos.La baja concentración de oxigeno poco afecta la gerrr:lndclon de 12.5 serril1as ce arroz en zona terlp1ada, debido a que son C3:JiJ,CeS ae ger!{jina r COf! muy poco oxígeno y en cambio favorece la elongaci6n de 10 p1úmula~Se sabe ya que la defit:iencia de oxígeno er un suelo inurdado. ne perjudica el crecimiento de la p\"¡anta de arroz porque ella posee ur,d estructura especia:~ aerénquima. para el transporte de aire desde las ~ojas hasta las r31ces.Cambios del pH. El incre~en-r\"o del pH ell los suelos ácidcs y su d\"smir.ución e¡;-'!OS' slJe:ús calcáreos alcalinos, €S Lln bereficio importante de 'a ir.undaci6n del suelc. Así se evitan para la planta de arroz: La toxicidad ;:Wf alur:~in;o en algunos suelos írCiy ácidos y la de~icien~ia del fósforo, en otros ~a toxicidad por manganeso en suelos moderadamente ácidos La deficiencia de hierro en suelos calcareos y sódicosUn potencial redcx inferior a 200 milivoltios con un pH 7~O. bCl1eficía el cultivo del arroz. Al descéflder el pote'icial redox aJ'1lenta la dispon:bilidac del nitr6gepc, fósforo~ hierro y sílice; pero disminuye la de azufre~ zinc j cobre, los cuales pueden resultar en ocasiones li~i~antes.Cuando se inunda un suelo. los r-¡itratcs desaparecen en pocos d1'dS y a glinos de éllos se ttansfor'Tran en c0mpues:os gaseoses • .Pero la pérdida de n trato 110 es mayor desven::aja pOr' la subsiguierte acumulación de amonio; o r;éfico al arroz.Cuando se inunda un suelo. la disponibilidad de oxIgeno baja a cero antes del primer dla de inundación. Los microorganismos aeróbicos se vuelven latentes o mueren; los anaeróblCos descomponen la materia organica~ utilizando oxIgeno de compuestos oxidados del suelo como aceptadores de electrones. Con ésto se causan una serie de cambios tales como: l. El pH del suelo aumenta si es ácido. o disminuye si es alcalino. hasta llegar en ambos casos a valores cercanos a 7.0. Se exceptOan los suelos sometidos a inundaciones frecuentes y prolongadas, que carecen de materiales reducibles.2. El potencial de oxidación-reducción generalmente disminuye hasta O milivoltios o se hace negativo.3. Algunas propiedades del suelo como pH, contenido de materia orgánica, la temperatura y el número de cultivos con riego, afectan la tasa de cambio del pH y de potencial redox • 4.6.Los nitratos son reducidos a NH + o denitrificados a N O Y N (gases que escapan a la atm6sf.1a). La mineralizaci6n 8.1 ni~rógeno org&nico llega hasta NH 3+ estable en un medio reducido, y tiende a acumularse en suelos in ndados. Estos dos procesos también son afectados por la temperatura y por la cantidad de la materia org&nica del suelo.Los óxidos de hierro y manganeso se reducen y aumenta su solubidad, 10 cual eleva su concentración en la solución de1 suelo, hasta llegar a valores que pueden causar en algunos casos toxicidad a las plantas de arroz.La inundaci6n aumenta la concentración de fOsfara y sil ice en la soluci6n del soelo, favoreciendo su absorci6n por la planta. De \"'oterés parti::ular entre estos ú1timos E:stá el nitr6genLi.El nitrogeJlQ es qu~zás el nutrimento que más ir¡fluye en los rendimierrtos. y en la [!layoría de les casos, se le co¡,sidera C0f,10 Lln factor limtcr.te ce ia pr'oC:lccióf1. Aunque d veces se ha encontrado :.lna resp<JEsta negativa, la correlaciór lineal übte l l1dd en 20 países. ir:Clca un ;:¡rOff'eclo ;¡¡undial de lncre¡f¡entJ en ei rendiniel'lto de 12.7 kg de arn¡z en cáscara por cada kg de nltrógeno aplicado (8oy1e 1 1966) (Figura 1).Recie(ltemente, Tejeda et al (1980), al revisar Vdr~GS trabd~C;s sobre nuevas formas de úrea, vórieda~des :'Tlodernas y ruevos mé:od8s de apl ~ca (.i5n, encontraron qJe el ir.cremento en rendimiento puede negar has:a 41 kg de ar(oz por kg de nitrógeno aplícado y promedio Cíe 21-24 k~ de ¡¡rrO\"l por unidad de nitrógenJ.En el JapCif1, para un período de -;3 años se encontró ur,a alta correlación posit~va ~r\"\" 0.932***: entre el re:¡di:liento y lci cantioad de fef'ti1 iZdnte nitrcgenado ap: kado (r~urayama! 1975!, NATURALEZA DEL NITROGENO Eti lOS SUELOS Como e! drroz es e! ur;~co cul+.ivo de illlpúr;:~rcia que p~ede desarrollarse et1 suelos ir,unüados. durante porte o la total';cad dE su ciclo de vida, se estudiará la natufdleza del nitrógeY10 en dichos suelos 'j los c.allbios que sufre en ese ambiente.El r,itrógeno utilizaco por las plantas de arr:;z ~H'ocede: dl' ;a. materia orqárica dei suelo; de la atrn5sfera, aCi'lrreaéo por 1.:; lh,via fijado por microorgoP1smos; de lás plantas; de abowis 0V'9ár.~cos y de fertil izantes minera les.Práct~camer'Ce casi todo el r~tróc;erL} prtJSEl1tt! en la supc(+'ic12 del suelo, se encuentra cor:¡binado en formó ergéil;lca. Este pitrógeoo I~U puede ser uti1iudo directamente pDr las p1¿ntas. per0 porte de C' 0S :l'lneralizado por procesos mlcrobíales, los cdales ponen tI le disposí:::lvrl de 'as plar;tas una buena car:tidad de nitróJeno en \"'\"ormd dDY'ovech?b1e.La disponibilidad del nitrógeno del suelo para las plantas, deDende de la magnitud relativa de dos procesos opuestos: la ínmovi1izaci6n y la mineralización. Esta disponibilidad se reduce cuando hay pérdidas del nutrimento una vez mineralizado.En suelos secos o en condiciones aeróbicas, el producto final de la mineral izaciór: del nitrógeno orgánico son los nitratos. Cuendo los suelos son inundados se crean condiciones químicas y biológicas que afectar las transformaciones del nitrógeno; debido a la ausencia de oxígeno+ la nineralización del nitrógeno orgánico cesa a1 llegar al estado de afiloniQ~ el cual es estable en condiciones reducidas y tiende a acumularse.En condiciones. anaeróbicas la forn:aciór. de nitratos tiene dos desver,tajas; en prir.ter lugar~ el anión es fácilmentE: lixiviado; y en segundo lugar, las bacterics denitrificantes convierten el nitrato a N 2 y N 2 0, los cuales se pierden en fOrlra gaseosa.En los suelos inundado:. la ausencju de N03-y la acumulaciofl del NH¡¡+, se consideran benéficas para el arroz por la!> siguier:t-es razones (Ponnampercwa, 1964):El arroz utiliza mejor 1:1 NH 4 + que ei N0 3 -;Los productos de la reducci6n del N0 3 -son t6xicOS para el arroz; La pre 5i:nC i a de N0:i-profilUeve, Q a ltera ~ el orden de absorc ión de nlltrimentos. esoecialmerte 13 abscrci6n de manganeso; y Los excesos de NH 4 + no son tóxicos Pérdidas de nitrógeno .. del s~_~ Además del nitrógeno extraído en la cosecha~ los procesos que conducen a pérdidas de nitrógeno incluyen;Volatilización del amonioLa Figura 2 representa ~os procesos de transformación y pérdidas resultantes del nitr6geno aplicado como amonio y nitrato. En términos generales, los factores más importantes que controlan las pérdidas de nitr6geno incluyen : la humedad, la textura y el pH del suelo; la temperatura y otras condiciones atmosféricas; las pr~cticas de cu1tivo~ tales como dosis y fuentes de nitrógeno; la época de aplicación durante el ciclo de cultivo y el método y la profundidad de aplícaciOn de los fertilizantes nitrogenados.   V01;:;.tl:iZjción del amm:lo. Con has'\" 0''' Gf'0 \"r'::Jli'1 r0v~\",ión di-' li~\"\",,}r'''~l-l'(! ;:'11is0fi \"{1966) rild~C0 c;'L1e-1c:s 'P{r(lidds de nH(5g0no fl('l-vo1atl11::uiór' JillOnio, t~enEn en la act\\Ji:did5.d may:'''-' in,~or~. Entre los factores del suelo que influyen en la eficiencia de aplicaci6n de los fertilizantes nitrogenados se destacan; el contenido de materia orgánica; la capacidad de intercambio catiónico (elC); el pH, el conten; do de 5a 1 es y 1 a escasez O el exceSQ de al 9ún otro nutrimento diferente al nitr6geno.Al hacer la evaluación agroeconómica de la respuesta del arroz con riego a la aplicación de nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio en el Alto Magdalena, Colombia, Ramirez (1979) concluyó que la respuesta inicial al nitrógeno era influenciada negativamente por la cantidad de materia org!nica en el suelo. En todos los casos~ la respuesta inicial fue mayor para los niveles bajos de materia org~nica en el suelo, en comparación con los niveles medios y altos.Al analizar los datos de 114 experimentos efectuados en 11 paises asiáticos, Tejeda g! JI.! (1980), encontraron que la cantidad de materia orgánica tenía poca relación con la respuesta a la aplicación de varias formas de urea, cuando la altitud de la localidad era menor de 300 msnm, pero mostraba una alta correlación con todas las formas cuando 1. altitud era mayor.Según Sánchez (1972), la ele es la caracterlstica del suelo que más afecta la respuesta al nitr6geno; entre más alta sea la elC, mayor ser! la capaCidad del suelo para suministrar y retener el amonio.El pH del suelo afecta la respuesta al nitr6geno aplicado, puesto que a medida que el pH aumenta. se incrementan las pérdidas de amonio por volatil lzación.En los suelos salinos con cualquier dosis de nitr6geno, el rendimiento del arroz es menor que en suelos no salinos. En la Figura 3 se observa este efecto en las variedades de arroz IR 8 Y Padma.El contenido de otros nutrimentos en el suelo, tales como el f6sfúro t el potasio. el calcio y el magnesio. también afecta la respuesta al nitrógeno.Es lógico Supcner que la respuesta será Rayar cuar,do las cantidades de los otros nutrimentos sean los óp:imos.Er, el CIAT (1971; se encof\":::.ró Que en suelos con deficie-ncia de zinc! no hubo diferencia en rendimiento al aplicar nitrógeno. ya sea en la forma de úrea o de sulfato de amonio, pero los rendimientos fueron mayores al apl leer nitrógeno con 1dS dosis Ifi~$ altas de zinc (120 k.g/ha).Cuando en e1 suelo hay exceso de a1gGn nutrimento. como por ejemp10 hlerro~ $lJ toxicidad afecta el desarrolle de la planta y la respuesta a la aplicación de nitrógeno.Hay dos maneras müctl&nte las cuales los factores cHmáticos, tales como la teMperatura, la radiación solar 'j 1(1 precipitación. influyen en el crecinien-:o, }' con élla. en la absorción del nitrógeno y en 121 rendimiento del arroz. ;'J:)r urld parte~ aFectan directamente los procesos fisiológicos i nvo 1 ucrados en 1 a produce i ón, CDIHO son el crec;mí ento vegetdt i va. la formaci6n de 10$ órganos de almacenamiento y el llenado de los granos.Además afectan directawente el rendimiento al favorecer l{\\ incidencia de enfermedades, insectos y rr.alezas.Radicción solar: Cuando se util iza una variedad con un buen t~po de pTanta •Ye1•suministro de agua es adecuado. e1 cultivo debe recibir suficiente eJ1erg1a solar durante el per~odo de reproducción para obtener respuesta -3.1 nitrógenc. Datta et al (1968) indican que e1 aumento del contenido de materia seca desde fa iniciación de la panícula hasta ~a cosech-:1~ tienE' alta correlación con la producción de grano (Figura 4); ésto depende especialmente de la tasa fotosintéttca durante este período, la c~al a su vez depende de ia cantidad de energla solar recibida.En el lRRI, los B.años~ Filipinas, la radiación solar vada marC3damente erctre la estación seca y la lluviosa. De Datta y Zarate. (1970L encontraron una correli:Kión positiva y altamente significatil/d entre los valures: de la radidci5n solar total (45 d1as antes de la cosecha) y el rendimiento. los valores de radiaci6n solar reportados van de 10.000 a 20.000 Cal-g/cm2/45 días antes de la cosecha, los que equivalen a promedios diarios que var de 222 a 444 cal-g/cm? Jana y De Datta~ (l971) al relacionar con la radiacion solar el rendimiento de cuatro variedades, bajo condiciones de secano, encontraron que dos de ellas (IR8 e IR400-28-4-5) respondlan al aumento de radiación durante la fase reproductíva, pero las otras dos ~li1for-6(2) y Pa18\\~an no respond'ian.En la costa norte del Perú la variedad IR8 dió rendimientos experimentales hasta de 9.5 ton/ha con 200 kg/ha de N y radiación solar de 490 calorías g/cm2/ Idia, pero su rendiMiento se redu,;o a 5.6 ton/ha cuando la radiación se redujO artirlcialmente al 57% cal-g/eme ¡día con    igual cantidad de nitrógeno (SancJ!ez et al 1979), 10 que demostró la infiuencia de la alta radiación solar en la respuesta al ti en esta localídad.En algolnas localidades del trópico en ftil\"ér;Cñ la cantidad de energía solar tiene poca variación entre una estación y otra. la diferencia dI el rendi;niento entre variedades en diferentes estaciones no se puede dtrlbll~r al efecto de la radiaci6n solar dado que, cono en el caso de Cuba (Lerch, 1974)  Filípinas~ corroboró experimentalmente que la producción de arroz de riego es mayor en la época lluviosa que en la época seca, debido posiblemente al efecto de condiciones edaficas adversas el' esta última. especialmente durante las priflleras etapas de crecímlento.Temperatura: El efecto de la temperatura en la absorción de nutrimentos por las raices~ varia con la edad de la planta y la duración del perlodo de alta o baja temperatura. La temperatura afecta tanto a la denitrificaciOn como a la acumu 1 ad ón de amoni o. A baj as temperatura s (menos de 15:::e) ~ 1 a tasa de denítrifícaci6n es lenta, pero aumenta muy r;pidamente cuando la temperatura sube d 45 Q C.La amonificación se refleja en la concentntción de NH 4 + soluble en agua.~ la cual decrece cU.;Indú la temperatura baja de 45 a 15°Cj d esta última temperatura se pueden observar sfotomas de deficiencia de nitrógef\\Q (Po\"namperuma 1976).Las temperaturas bajas reducen la cantidad de nutrimentos tomados ¡Jor las ra1ces de las plantas; sin embargo, el efecto de temperaturas bajas extremas en el rendimiento, se debe al daño directo per el frfo y no por deficiencia de nitrógeno. la fertilización nitrogenada tiene efectos sobre la esterilidad causada por la baja temperatura durante la mitosis. Cuando la temperatura esta por encima o Cerca de la temperdtura cr1tica (20\"C). el nitrógeno aplicado tiene poco efecto en la esterilidad. Sin embargo, a temperaturas moderadamente bajas (16 C C), el porcenti:lje de esterilidad aumenta, al íncrementar la cantidad de nitr6geno aplicado (Figura 5).La respuesta al nitr6geno en temperatura vada considerablemente con y la época de siembra (Sánchez, 1972). Contrario a la creencia popular, las variedades modernas de alta capacidad de rendimiento. no dependen enteramente de los fertilizantes nitrogenados para alcanzar producciones altas si crecen en suelos f~rtiles. Cuando reciben un buen manejo de cultivo (especialmente control de malezas y plagas), estas variedades generalmente producen más que las tradicionales, aOn cuando no se les apliquen fertilizantes. En Colombia, Martlnez y Rosero (1978) compararon el comportamiento de la linea mejorada 4444 con la variedad tradicional Bluebonnet 50 y encontraron que la l1nea, adem!s de responder a la aplicación de nitrógeno, también producia más que la variedad, sin la aplicaCión de este elemento (Figura 6).La diferencia en la respuesta de una variedad enana (IR 8) Y una tradicional de porte alto (l4inabir 2) en condiciones de alta radiación solar eo Lambayeque. Perú. se ilustra en la Figura 7 (Sánchez. 1972). A pesar de esta diferencia en rendimiento, no se encontró diferencia en la asimilación del nitrógeno, la cual indica que pese a que asimilan el fertilizante aplicado, las variedades de porte alto no lo usan para la produccí6n de gra~o. debido a factores fiSiológicos limitativos como la baja de relación grano/paja.El Programa de Arroz del CIAT está buscando entre las nuevas variedades, aquel1ds con potencial o habilidad para aprovechar eficientemente los nutrimentos aplicados. especialmente el nitrógeno.Según Tanaka et al (1966). las caracterlsticas varietales con la respuesta al nitr6geno meluye\" : las caracterhticas foliares, la altura de la planta y la resistencia al voleamiento, la capacidad de macollamieoto y la duración del ciclo de vida.Características foliares. El lndice de ~rea foliar (lAr) es la relación entre el area foliar y una superficie de suelo dada. Es una función del nüroera y tamaño de las hojas por unidad de superficie.El IAF aumenta con el crecimiento debido a la fonnación cont1nua de hojas nuevas t alcanza su m&ximo valor a la floración y luego decrece cuando mueren las inferiores, sin que se formen nuevas hojas.Como se observa en la Figura B~ en las variedddes modernas existe una correlación estrecha entre el rendimiento y el IAF en la floración. El rendimiento es una función estable del IAF, tanto en la estación seca como en la estación lluviosa.Ahora bi en, 1 a causa de 1 aumento del IAF no es 19ua 1 en toda s 1 a s variedades de arroz. En las variedades de alta respuesta al nitr1igenó (ej.Tainan 3', el incremento del IAF se debe principalmente al aumento del D6sis de nitrógeno, g/matero figura 5. Efeeto de la d6sis de nitrógeno en el por. centiije de esterHidad atribuible a baja temperatura durante la mitosis (Sasaki et . 1., 1973;tomado d. Yo,hida, 1981).Rand¡mianto, ton/hfl Efecto de la dósis de nitrógeno en la asimilación de N y el rendi~ miento de una variedad de arroz de porte alto (Minabir 2) y otra enana (IR 8) en Lambayeque, Perú (Sánchez, 1972). númerc de tallos. 10 cual a su vez aumenta el número de hojas. Por otra parte+ en las variedades de baja respue::ta al nitrógeno como Peta, el increfTlér:to de1 IAF se debe al aumento en tamaño de las hojas~ especialmente e;¡ Su longitud; lo cual ocasiona sombrío mutuo y hace que la planta pierc<l su capacidad para produci r suficiente materia seca después de la flora;:; 011 Y ~ por r.nde, que el rendimi ento de grano sea bajo.(¡tras características muy importantes de las hojas de ias cuales depende el esparcinier.to foliar incluyen su ángulo de inclinación con respecto al tullo y la curvatura que forma al expandirse.Tedas estas Cdracterísticas, más el número de hijOs/m 2 el número de hojas por hijo~ el tamafio de la hOJa y el esparcimiento follar, afectan al IAF~ le cual a su vez. altera el coefíciente de extinci6n de luz. A niveles aHos de nitrógeno el IAF tiende a ser mayor, el sombrío mutuo entre las hojas aumenta y el coeficiente de extinción de luz decrece; de esta manera, las hojas que permanecen en la sombra pierden su capacidad de fotosíntesis. Las variedades con un crecimiento muy vigoroso en la fase vegetctiva y con nivf\"les altos de nitrógeno. tienden a produCir un área foliar excesiva. pierden su capacidad para producir materia seca después de la floración, debido al sombrío mutuo de sus hojas y producen bajo rendimiento dé grano (ianaka et ~ 1964).lILt~ra de la ~la~~~_ y resistencia al volcamiento la altura de la planta es otra caracter stlca varietal que: influye en 1a respuesta del arroz a 1a aplicación de nitrógeno.Estudios efectuados en el IRRI indican que existe una estrecha correlación entre la altura de la planta y la relación entre el peso de los granos y el peso total de la planta (Figura 9) (T, nak. et al, 1966). Las variedades altas tienen un bajo índice ce cosecha y cuando se aplica nitrógeno, aumenta la altura y decrece esta relación.Las variedades enanas y semi enanas , responden positivamente en rendimiento de grano a la fertilización nitrogenada~ en tanto que las variedades altas responden negatívarrente a pesar de que su altura aumenta (Figuras 10 y ll) (Tar ..ka, et al. 1966;Sánchez 1912). La respiracion de los entref'ludos a 1 argado!') especW1nente , os ae la ba se de los ta 11 os, es \"¡ a razón principal de la baja eficiencia en la producción de materia seca después de l. floración (Tanaka et !.1_, 1966).La elongación excesiva de los entrenudos hace que las plantas sean más susceptibles al volcamiento. El volcamiento interfiere en la transmisión de la 1 uz, la fotos í ntes i s y la trans 1 Deae; 6n de nutrimentos t causa esterilidad y baja respuesta al nitr6geno~ y reduce el rendimiento. Capacidad de macol1amiento. Otra característica varietal asociada con la respuesta ar nitrógeno y el rendimiento, es la capacidad de macollamiento.El número de pan1culas por unidad de superficie es uno de los componentes del rendimiento y depende del número de híjos efectivos al momento de la floración. Las v3ri23ddes con baja respuesta al nitr6geno tienen mucha cO(':lpe~encia por 11)! en el macollamieno durante la fase vegetativa, lo cual reduc<~ el número de tallos efectivos, en tanto que las variedades de alta respue<:.ta, tien(:r1 menos compc-:':encía por luz en los primeros estados de crecll,liento y 2; número de pardculas aliMenta al incrementar la dosis de nitrCgeno (Taraka ~t !!., 1966}. Tanaka al, (1964 cc~parando una variedad ~lta y una enana enCOntraron qve er:las variedades Tainar 3 y Peta, transplantadas a 30 x 30 cm., el número de hijos por sitio aumentd con la aplicaci6n de nitrógeno {O y 120 kq/haj duran:e su crecimiento, alcanza un !l1áxlnO y luego decrece; con la varieddd Peta alcanza el r:óximo núnero de hijos en las. primeras etapas de crecimient.o y Juego disflinuye hasta llegar a un nUMero if!ual al obteni¿-o cuand:: no se aplicó nitrógeno e inferior al número alcanzado po'\" la variedad Tainam 3~ con igual dosis (Figura 12). la relación entre el número df! hijos y el porcentaje de hijos efectivos es inversa. P.e: la variedad Taínam 3, Que alcanza entre 100 y 250 hijos/m2, presenta un mayor f.<orcentdjc de hijos efectivos que Ta variedac Peta que prGduce hasta 500 hijos/m2.Las variedades que poseen ~ijos erectos o intermpdios, o S€án aquellos que fcrman ángulos menores de 60° con la perpendicular, también presentan una f.lejor distribución de ha y un mayor número de hijos efectivos.Lo anterior indica que, cuando se aplican altas dosis de nitrógeno, las variedddes con baja capacidad de macollarliento, se deben sembrar en densldades altas y las de alt~ capacidad en densidades w~dias a bajas.Ouraci6n del ciclo de vida. Reslllt.,'H:!OS de varios experimentos real izados eneriRRf (Tanaka et al 1966)) con muchas variedades, demuestrofl que la duración del ciclo vegetativo no solo afecta el rendimiento de grano, sine también varías de 1ilS características asociadas con el rendimiento, tales como: el peso de la planta. la relacion grano/paja, la respuesta al nitrógeno, la altura de la planta, el IAF, la tasa fotosintética y la respiración. En los trópicos se considera que el ciclo de vida óptimo es Ce 120-140 días.L~S variedaces modernas que tardan 85-90 d1as hasta la floración. por 10 general dan mayor rendimiento de gra;¡n cuando se aplican altas dosis de nitr6geno. en tanto que las variedades que t:ardar¡ 140 ClaS o más, requieren dosis menores pard dar su rendimiento más aHo.Cuando se aplica nitrógeno, principalmente en variedades tempranas~ el peso de la plat\"lta a la cosecha aumenta. Sin embargú~ sin aplicación de nitrógeno .. el peso de la planta al momento de la cosecha, tiende a ser Illdyor entre más largo sed el ciclo de la variedad.La relaciól1 grdno/paja y el índice de cosecha, decrecen a medida que aumentan los dlas hasta la floraci6n. Esta correlación se acentúa aOn más al aplicar nítrogeno (Figura 13), Bajo condiciones del campo existen razones por las cuales las plantas no alcanzan la máxima eficiencia cuando se les aplica nitrógeno: l. El fertilizante puede ser tomado por el cUlt1VO, pero no ser utilizado en la prodUCCión de grano, debido a la incidencia de factores que limitan el crecimiento, tales como la poca disponibilidad de agua, luz o la falta de otro nutrimento diferente al nitrógeno. las prácticas de manejo del cultivo que modifican la respuesta al nitrógeno, incluyen: el sistema de cultivo, la densidad de siembra y el control de malezas. plagas y enfermedades.2. El fertilizante no puede ser tomado por las plantas si se aplica en foma inadecuada. a destiempo, O si las condiciones del suelo lo hacen no asimilable temporalmente.Sistema de cultivo. El sistema de cultivo\" secano o riego, es uno de los factores-que m5s afecta la eficiencia de los fertilizantes nitrogenados. El mayor efecto de la inundación, es impedir la difusión del ox1geno, creando condiciones en las cuales el nitrógeno sufre algunos cambios que benefician al arroz.El Cuadro l w~estra la forma como diferentes condiciones de manejo del agua afectan la respuesta al nitrógeno como rendimiento. Con un suministro adecuado de agua, el rendimiento aumenta con el increnento en nitrógeno, mientras que en secano, las rendimientos son extremadamente bajos. ya que la mayor parte del nitrógeno aplicado no puede ser aprovechadO. Dos prácticas inherentes al cultivo de arroz con riego son~ la preparación del suelo bajo inundación y el manejo del agua.Varios autores (Pande y Singh, 1969;Sánchez 19730; De ¡¡atta y Kerim. 1974;IRRI 1975;Singh et al 1977) han determinado los efectos benéficos del IIfangueo U en la nutricHfrldel arrOl~ El principal efecto benéfico de la preparación del suelo en el sistema de inundación, es la disminución del movimi ento de agua a través de 1 sue 10. 10 cua 1 puede aumenta r significativamente la eficiencia del nitrógeno aplicadQ debido a menores pérdidas por lixiviación (Sánchez, 1973a). J Adaptado de Wu, 1966 De Datta y Kerlm (1974) indican que con, o sin, aplicaci6n de nitrógeno, se obtiene Mejores rendimientos. en suelos fangueados que en suelos no fangueados. En el Cuadro 2 se comparan dos métodos de preparación de tierra, dos niveles de nitrógeno y tres m~todos de siembra; los mejores rendimientos se obtuvieron con 75 kg/ha de N en suelos fangueados con transplante y con sier.1bra directa al voleo, y los menores rendimientos cun O o 75 kg/ha de nitrógeno, 'cuando no se fangueb y se sembró en hileras sin inundar. En la Figura 14 se observa el efecto de la inundación constante en el estado y l. cantidad de nitrógeno presente en el suelo. En condiciones de inundación, el ión amonio se acumula en el suelQ, en tanto que los nitratos desaparecen en menos de tres semanas; en condiciones de inundación intermitente la cantidad de amonio disminuye, en tanto que la de nitratos fluctúa con los ciclos y luego se mantiene constante. La inundación intermitente incrementa las pérdidas de nitrógeno por denitrificaci6n y pueden ocurrir deficiencias* en suelos que se hayan mantenido bajo esas condiciones, antes del establecimiento del cultivo de arroz.En el Cuadro 3 se muestra el efecto de inundar inmediatamente después de aplicar la úrea o esperar hasta 9 días para hacerlo. Los datos indican que 1a demora en inundar resul ta en pérdidas de nitrógeno y que 10$ rendimientos m&s altos se obtienen inundando, tan pronto como sea posible. después de la aplicaci6n del nitr6geno. En otros ensayos, la aplicación en agua ha mostrado ser preferible a la demora prolongada de inundar, después de fertil izar con nitrógeno.Cuadro 3. Densidad de siembra. La fertilizaciór¡ nitrogenada aumenta ü 1 número de hijos (Tanaka et al 1964;Tanak, et al 1966, ragade y De Datta, 1971) influyendo así en el efecto de la deñsTdad. Según Nguu y De Datta (1979), cuando no se ap 1 i ca n it r6geno ~ el rendi mi ento aumenta 1 i nea 1 mente con el incremento en la densidad debido a que las mayores densidades compensan el efecto adverso del poco macollamiento. La aplicación de nitrógeno estimula el maccl iamiento y, por 10 tanto., el rendimiento obtenido es mayor que sin aplicación; a medida que aurrenta la densidad y el nivel del nitrógeno aplicado, el rendimiento asciende hasta alcanzar un máximo (Figura15).En el Cuadro 4 se observa la respuesta en rendimiento de cuatro variedades, a dos niveles de fertilización con flitrógeno y dos distancias ce siembra en transplante. ten bajos niveles de nitrógeno hay pocas diferencias entre variedades, pero si entre distancias de siembra~ especialmente con las variedaóes Nay)amp y Chic1ayo. En experimentos realizados en el IRRI (1975}~ se encontró que sin control de malezas~ la aplicaci6n de nitrógeno solo dumentó el rendimiento en 0.5 ton/ha~ en tanto que sin fertilizantes y con control de malezas, el   1. ein, 1974 El ataque de enfennedades tambi~n influye en la respuesta al nitrógeno En regiones donde hay alta incidencia de Pyricularia oryhzae, como en los ~1anos Orientales de Color.lbia se ha demostrado que ay una relación estrecha entre la infección por el hongo y la dosis de nitrógeno {Figura 16) Var9as,1975; Sánchez y Owen, 1984. En condiciones de riego, un aumento en ia dosis de nitrógeno no aumenta considerablemente la severidad de piricularia en el cuello de ia panlcula pero si los rendimientos, en tanto que en condiciones de secano~ un aumento en la dosis de nitrógeno aumenta la severidad de la enfermedad y disminuye los rendlmientos (CIAT, 1981).Con un alto nível de infección, el rendimiento de variedades que responden a 1 a ap 1 i cae i 5n de fert íl i zantes ni trogenados., se reduce cuando se usan altas dosis de nitrógeno; esta reducción se acentúa aún más cuando se siembran variedades susceptibles al hongo en cultivos de seCano o cuando se usa sulfato de amonio como fue~te de nitrógeno. Efecto del nitrógeno sobre el rendimiento e incidencia de Pyricularia en CICA 6 con nego, en la Libertad, Llanos Orientales, Colombia. 1974. (Vargas, 1976).Fuentes de nitrógeno. Un resuw~n de Oe Oatta y Magnaye (1969) y un. serie de experlmentos de campo con N15 conducidos por la Agencia Internacional de Energía At6mica en 15 palses (lAEA,1970) y posteriormente en otros 9 raíses (IAEA,1978), confirman que no hay diferencia significativa entre el suHato de amonio y la (¡rea , y que la eficiencia de cada uno de ellos depende de las propiedades del suelo y del método de aplicación.El amon1aco anhidro presenta agron5micamente igual efectividad que el sulfato de amonio. pero para su aplicaci6n se requiere de equipo y condiciones de suelo especiales.Las fuentes de nitratos no son satisfactorias cuando se aplican al momento de la siembra, pero se pueden utilizar en aplicaciones pvsteriores cuando el sistema radical, cercano a la superficie del suelQ, est § bien desarrollado (Wahhab y Bhatti, 1957; De Oatta y Magnaye, 1969).La Orea es la principal fuente de nitr6geno para el cultivo del arroz. Los prOblemas del uso de la úrea incluyen su higroscopícidad! Su rápida descomposicí6n por la encima ureasa a amonio y dióxido de carbono. y el i llcremento temporal Que produce en el pH del sue 1 o~ Las pérd i das de nitr6geno de la úrea oscilan entre el 40 y 80%.Recientemente se han desarrollado algunas formas de úrea que se pueden clasificar como : granulares y de lenta 1 iberaciOn. La úrea de lenta liberación es de dos clases Compuestos químiCOS con tasas lentas de disoluci6n ~ se, y Fertilizantes convencionales revestidos para reducir su tasa de di so 1 uel 6n.Las caracter'sticas de estos materíales aparecen en el Cuadro 6. Los gránulos de mayor tamaFlo facilitan su colocación en la capa reducida del suelo y los de lenta 1 iberación proporcionan a las plantas el nitrógeno en la cantidad que requieren en cada etapa de crecimiento.  La úrea revestida con azufre se ha evaluado ampliamente (IRRI, 1975(IRRI, , 1979(IRRI, , 1980;;Parish et al, 1980) y h. dado rendimientos más altos o ha mostrado a1gunas ventajas;en comparaciOn con la Orea corriente, aplicada en forma dividida (Arregocés, 1981).Los fijadores biol6gicos son otra fuente de nitr6geno. Actualmente se investiga en el CIAT (CIAT, 1981) la forma más eficiente de multiplicar el helecho acuático Azol1a que vive en simbiosos con el alga Anabaena azol1ae Straus (Nostocace\"iie}.Hasta el momento se ha comprobado que el helecho S•\" desarrolla mejor en suelos alcalinos o neutros que en suelos Aeidos y que la adición de nitrógeno es contraproducente para su desarrollo. Aplicando a la siembra materiales que liberen la cantidad de nitrógeno requerida, en cada etapa de crecimiento.El arroz necesita asimilar nitrógeno durante todo Su pedado vegetativo, pero existen dos etapas de mayor exigencia: durante el .. acollamiento y al inicio de la formación de la panícula.Al morr.ento de la floración, el nitrógeno tomado por la planta se encuentra almacenado en las l~minas y vainas de las hojasj en este momento se inicia su translocaci6n, de tal manera que cerca de la mitad del nitrOgeno almacenado va a los granos. La otra mitad del nitrógeno contenido en los granos, es absorbida por la planta durantp. la formación de ellos.La ~poca de aplicación depende de la variedad y de 1. fuente de nitrógeno utilizada. En el CIAT en 1972. se encontró que para la variedad CICA 4 (120-130 djas de ciclo vegetativo). una aplicación de úrea a razón de lOO/kg ha de N a los 25 di as produjo un rendimiento superior al que se obtuvo cuando se incorporo al suelo inmediatamente antes de la siembra (figura 17). Celis et al (1974) observaron resultados similares con la mísma variedad en El tspTnal) Colombia. En una serie de experimentos, la IAEA (1978) encontró que el nitrógeno aplicado al momento de la siembra es utilizado con una eficiencia de apro ximadamente un 12% y al momento de la iniciación de la panlcula~ de un 34%.La eficiencia: promedio de dos aplicaciones fue del 23%. En general, la recuperación del nitrógeno aplicado despuéS de la siembra es usualmente alta por l/arias razones: l. Es mayor la denitrificación e in~ovilizaci6n del nitrOgeno aplicado en etapas tempranas. en comparación con el aplicado en etapas tardías. por falta de capacidad de la planta para aprovecharla.El sistema radical ya desarrollado tow.a rápidamente el nitrógeno aplicado.en las hojas que caen.En el Cuadro 7 se observa que, con la variedad CICA 8, la apl ;cación dividida de las forma . . . de ú'I'ea granuldr y corriente, produce el mismo efecto que una sola aplicación a la siembra de la úrea revestida con azufre y que la apl icación basal de las otras formas no tiene ninguna ventaja (Arregocés. 1981).Método de aplicacino. La eficiencia del nitrógeno aplicado puede mejorar considerablemente si el fertil llante se coloca en la capa reducida del suelo y no sobre la superficie.la fuente de nitr6geno y su forma de apllcación ayudan a disminuír las pérdidas de nitrógeno por volatilización (Figura 18). La incorporación al suelo de sulfato de amonio o úrea, puede disminu1r las pérdidas de nitr6geno en comparación con la apl icaci6n al voleo sobre la superficie.Las aplicaCiones de nitrato de potasio o diurea isobutilidina disminuyen las pérdidas en un 8%. los fertillzantes nitrogenados aplicados antes de la siembra, se deben incorporar durante la preparación del suelo y ªste se debe conservar húmedo. Algunas nuevas fo\"\"as de urea (supergránulos, briquetas, etc.) producen mayores rendimientos cuando se colocan a profundidad (IRRI, 1979) ~ pero esta técnica r€quiere de mayor cantidad de mano de obra. En suelos con una tasa de percolación mayor que 5 mm/d1a~ no se recomienda esta práctica puesto que el nitrógeno se pierde por lixiviacion (Vleck et 21,1980 Otra forma de aplicación del nitrligeno es la foliar, pero ésta no compite con 1a aplicación al suelo debido a 105 requerimientos altos del elemento en perIodos definidos de la planta. En el IRRI se ensayO la ap 11 caci ón fo 1 i ar de úrea div idi da pero los resu Hados no fueron tan favorables como las adiciones al suelo (De Datta et ~, 1974) DETERMINACION DE LA CANT1DAD DE NITROGEND QUE SE DEBE APLICAR El nitrógeno es el insumo que mayor relación tiene con el rendimiento y con otras prScticas del cultivo. El hecho de que la respuesta de las plantas a la aplicación de fertilizantes nitrogenados dependa de tantos factores y de que aún no se han determinado las condiciones del suelo que permitan predecir una respuesta, ha llevado a los investigadores a recomendar que las dosis de nitr6genQ se establezcan con base en experimentos de campo Que combinen los factores variedad-nitrégeno-densidad en cada una de las regiones y durante las diferentes épocas de siembra de cada localidad.Para obtener de estos experimentos las dosis de nitrógeno, Que se deben recomendar, las pruebas se deben planificar, ejecutar y evaluar teniendQ en cuenta los siguientes aspectos 1La p 1 aneací 6n debe ser responsabil i dad de especi al i s tas en agronomfa f estad1stica y economía agrlcola.Se deben hacer evaluaciones cuantitativas de todas las variables bajo contro1 y fuera de control experimental, que se asuma pueden influ1r en el rendimiento O en cualquier otra variable dependiente en estudio.Los dise~o5 experimentales deber'n caracterizar las superficies de respuesta con campos de exploración adecuados y amplios rangos para las variables en estudio, a fin de poder extrapolar 10$ resultados a &reas similares y permitir el c&lculo de los niveles óptimos con base en la precisi6n de los diseños empleados. 4. la selección apropiada de los sitios y el nGmero de eilos donde se van a realizar los experimentos~ permitirá cubrir los diferentes rangos de las variables no controladas.Con el ffn de mantener el equilibrio de 10$ nutrimentos en la planta y en el suelo, se recomienda la aplicación equilibrada de nitrógeno, fOsfara y potasio y la corrección de algOn otro limitante para lograr la m&xima eficiencia del nitrógeno.Para la interpretación de los resultados de los experimentos, además de1 análisis estad1stico, se deben tener en cuenta los demás factores bioHjgicos y hacer consideraciones sobre la economla de la producción t aplicada al uso de fertilizantes. Por esta razón los cultivos en secano son generalmente más afectados por la deficiencia de este e1emento que los de riego.Aunque el efecto de las aplicaCiones de fósforo en el rendimiento de las plantas de arroz no es tan espectacular ní generalizados como cuando se aplica nitr6geno. excepto para los suelos muy pObres en él) es necesario realizar fertilizacHm fosf6rica en los suelos medios y bajos en este elemento! porque esta insuficiencia puede limitar significativamente la producci5n con va~iedades modernas.Para el an~lisis de los procesos que ocurren con el f6sforo del suelo, es necesario contemplar varios aspectos, como son: el ciclo del fósforo en un sistema suelo-planta-animal. la fijaCión y su disponibilidad en los suelos inundados. CICLOJlll.lQSFORO ENJ!.Ii..giIEMA SUElO-.~ANIMAl El ciclo del fósforo fue representado gr&ficamente (Figura 1) por Fax y Benavides (1974). Presentan en forma simplificada los caminus mas importantes por los cuales se mueve el f6sforo en un sistema suelo-planta-animal. El número de flechas que parten de la caja que rep~esenta la solución del suelo o llegan a él1a. corresponde a las hip6tesis sobre la forma en que las p1 antas obtienen o derivan su fOsforo de esta solución.Las plantas toman de la solución del suelo la cantidad de fósforo que necesitan para su desarrollo. Cuando las plantas son cosechadas, e1 fósforo que contienen los residuos puede retornar a la solución del suelo) ya sea directamente al descomponerse los residuos o indirectamente al ser éstos consumidos por microorganismos y convertirse ~s tarde en parte de la materia orgánica.A1 pasar el f5sforo a ser parte de la materia org6nica del suelo se inmoviliza, y su mineralización 10 restituye a la solución del suelo~ Cuando los animales superiores consumen plantas} pueden almacenar fósforo en su organismo y lo ceden parcialmente despu~s en la orina y en las heces, y al descomponerse sus cuerpos cuando mueren.  El f6sforo se puede inmovilizar temporalmente por distintos mecanismos; primero, este e1emento reacciona con los componentes del suelo y se precipita t formando varios compuestos que en muchos casos no pueden ser tomados inmediatamente por las plantas, pero con el tiempo, pueden ceder f6sforo a la soluei6n del suelo; segundo, el fósforo puede ser .dsorbido en la superficie del suelo mediante intercambio con otros aniones, quedando así parcialmente retenido y puede pasar nuevamente a la solución para ser tomado de ésta por plantas y animales inferiores; y tercero, cuando hace parte de la materia org&nica.El fósforo se pierde definitivamente del suelo cuando al cosechar se retiran plantas completas t cuando 105 animales superiores 10 sustraen del sue1o j cuando se lixivia o es eliminado por el proceso de erosión.Las diferentes formas en que el fósforo se encuentra en el suelo son: fósforo soluble en agua y en una solución de cloruro de amonio; fósforo unido al calcio (apatltíco y no apatitico), puede hallarse en cantidades relativamente altas; fósforo unido al hierro y al aluminio, compuestos que en muchos casos pueden ser abundantes y constituyen~ junto con los anteriores$ el fósforo mineral. Para comp1etar a~adiremos el fósforo org~nico componente de la materia orgánica que representa en general una cantidad bastante grande; el fósforo reductible, determinado al agregar una soluciOn reductora a una muestra de suelo; y el fOsforo ocluído o inerte. componente de minerales primarios.Todas estas formas, especialmente las primeras, junto con el fOsfare org~nico, constituyen el llamado factor de capacidad, o sea, el que representa la capacidad del suelo para suministrar fosfatos a la solución (Figura 2). Representación esquemática del sistema suelo-planta (F ... bender, H. 19741. la cantidad de f6sforo que las plantas pueden absorber en un momento dado de la solución del suelo es 10 Que se llama factor de intensidad. En otras palabras, el factor de capacídad lo constituye el fósforo que está en la fase sólida del suelo y el factor de intensidad lo representa el fósforo de la solución del suelo. Ambos factores conforman con la planta un sistema del cual se nutre esta última. S1 la cantidad del fósforo que suministra la parte sOl ida a la solución del suelo t no es suficiente para reemplazar el que toma la planta en un momento dado, entonces aparecerán s1ntomas de deficiencia de f6sforo en la planta.la fijación es el fenómeno mediante el cual el fósforo es retenido en el suelo en forma no extraible con acidos diluIdos, por 10 cual se considera como no aprovechable inmediatamente por la planta.La retención del fósforo en el suelo puede Sér débil, es decir, una simple adsorción debida a las cargas positivas del suelo, o fuerte cuando el fósforo reacciona químicamente con sustancias del suelo para formar compuestos insolubles. Este fenómeno es muy grave en los suelos muy acidos, donde la fijación es el resultado de la reacción del f6sforo con compuestos de hierro y aluminio, generalmente óxidos e hidróxidos. y con arcillas de tipo caolinítico, todos muy abundantes en dichos suelos. En los suelos alcalinos, generalmente la fijación se debe a la reacci6n del fósforo con el calcio para formar compuestos insolubles, y también a que es retenido por las arcillas formando puentes arcilla-calcio-fosfatos.Los factores principales que influyen en la fijaCión del fósforo en el suelo son: el tipo de arcilla; el tiempo de reacción; el pH de suelo; la temperatura y la materia orgánica.Si un suelo contiene arcillas de tipo cao1inítico. o sí estas arcillas est6n recubiertas por 6xidos de hierro o de aluminio, resulta altamente fijador de f6sforo. las arcillas amorfas de tipo \"alófana 1 ¡ . derivadas de la depOSición de cenizas volcánicas, son aún más activas que las caolinlticas y pueden fijar más fósforo.  El grado de acidez o alcalinidad del suelo también afecta la fijación del fósforo. Existen varios tipos de fosfatos según el pH del suelo. En la solución del suelo el fósforo existe como ión H2PO\"4(ortofosfato primario) o como ión HPO\"4(ortofosfato secundario). Cuando el pH es ~cido predomina el iOn H2PO\"4 y cuando eS alcalino, el iOn HPO 4; el que toman usualmente las plantas es el lión ortofosfato primario, generalmente más abundante en los suelos.El f6sforo aprovechable es bajo en los suelos alcalinos, o muy &cidos. aumenta a medida que sube el pH y l1ega a un máximo en los suelos neutros~ Cuando el pH es menor de 4.5 el fósforo aprovechable disminuye sensiblemente. puesto que en los suelos ácidos, parte del fósforo es fijadO por 10s iones de a1uminio, de hierro y de manganeso. Ad€i'Ms, parte del fóSfoN) puede reaccionar con las arcillas. tipo 1:1. Cuando el pH está cercano o es neutro, parte del fósforo es fijado por las arcillas y un poco por su reacción con óxidos o hidróxidos de hierrú y aluminio. Cuando el pH es alcalino~ gran parte del fósforo se fija al reaccionar con carbonatos produciendo fosfatos de calcio insolubles (Figura 4). La temperatura del suelo afecta la fijación del fósforo porque acelera las reacciones qu1micas:a > temperatura la fijación será mayor. Sin embargo, en suelos ácidos de regiones frías, donde predomina la alófana, la fijaci6n puede ser muy alta a pesar de las bajas temperaturas.En relaciOn con la materia org6nica cuando su contenido es alto y espec.ialmente si se encuentra asociada con compuestos de aluminio o con arcíllas de tipo alofanico, puede r'eaccionar con el fOsforo para formar compuestos complejos.Muchas investigaciones indican que la disponibialidad del fósforo aumenta después de la inundación (IAEA, 1970;De Datta, 1978), lo que s. refleja en aumento de 1 a ca\"ti dad del fósforo sol ub le en agua (Figura 5), en el incremento de la cantidad de fósforo disponible {extractable mediante varios métodos como el de Bray J, Bray 11,Olsen,etc.) yen el aumento del contenido de fósforo en la planta de arroz cultivado bajo riego, en comparación con el cultivo de secano (Figura 6).  Ponnamperuma, citado por Howeler (1974), atribuye el aumento en la concentración d~+!ósforo soluble en agua a tres factores: a) Hidrólisis de fosfatos de Fe ; b) liberación del fÓSf~¡O ads'f¡:~ido por intercambio aní~~ico a .l,a arcilla e hidróxidos de Fe y Al Y el reducción de Fe a Fe , con la liberación del fósforo adsorbido y fijado. Las dos prlmeras reacciones ocurren como consecuencia del aumento en el pH.debido a la reducción del suelo inundado. En suelos ácidos ferraliticos, el aumento en la concentración de fósforo soluble en agua es muy pequeño porque el fósforo es readsorbido por las arcillas y los hidróxidos de aluminio presentes en la zona reducida~ o se difunde a la capa oxidada donde puede ser reprecipitado por iones de hierro. Ejemplo de ~sto ocurre con el suelo alto en Fe de la Figura 5.Las plantas absorben el fósforo como iones ortofosfatos, primario y secundario, presentes en la soluci6n del suelo. La concentración de estos iones en la soluci6n y el mantenimiento de esta concentraci6n, son de gran importancia para el crecimiento de las plantas.El fósforo es absorbido rapidamente por 1. planta de arroz durante su crecimiento y alcanza una acumulación mlixima en la época de floración.Durante el periodo de llenado y maduración del grano, el indice de absorción es bajo. La Figura 7 il ustra la curva de absorción del fósforo como P, en diferentes estados de desarrollo de la variedad IR-36, en elFÓsforo absorbido kg/ha 40 figura 7.Absorción de fósforo por un cultivo bien fertilizado de IR•36 durante su crecimiento (Fernández, F. 1978),Poca cantidad de fósforo se acumula en las raíces y en las hojas del arroz hasta la iniciación del primordio floral, pero a medid. que el tallo se elonga y crece la panícula, una cantidad considerable de f6sforo circula por él hasta la etapa de floración. De a111 en adelante continaa 1 a absorción hasta el perIodo de llenado del grano y el fósforo es rápidamente traslocado a los granos que acumulan alrededor del 75% del fósforo absorbido. Solamente el 15%, o menos, permanece en las estructuras vegetativas y el resto vuelve al suelo con las hojas muertas.El fósforo es indispensable en la planta de arroz para el desarrollo de las ralees, el crecimiento y la producción de hijos y frutos. Por ésta razOn, en suelos deficientes en este elemento el crecimiento de las plantas de arroz es raquítico y su macol1amiento pobre.Cuando se presentan deficiencias agudas, las hojas pueden ser de color verde grisáceo con visos color púrpura~ se tornan amarillentas cuando envejecen y sufren necrosis de la punta hacia abajo~ AderMs, la fonnación de 1. panlcul. se retarda y sólo ocurre en pocos hijos de la planta.RESPUESTA OEL CULTIVO A LA FERTILlZACION CON FOSFORO Además de las condiciones estudiadas en el sistema de cultivo y del tipo de suelo, existen otros factores que afectan la respuesta del arroz al fOsforo aplicado como son: la variedad, la fuente de fOsforo, la época de aplicación y el método de aplicación del fertilizante fosforado. En un suelo de Carimagua, Colombia. se hicierún aplicaciones de 0,50 y 100 kg/ha de PZO en dos lotes, el segundo de los cuales ademas habla recibido la aplic~ciOn de 600 kg/ha de P20_, un aM antes. El resultado de este ensayo se presenta en la Figura I.f y permite observar que las variedades altas, Bluebonnet 50 y Monolaya, produjeron más que las variedades enanas IR 8 Y CICA 4, incluso sin aplicación del fertilizante. Por otra parte, s610 la variedad alta Bluebonnet 50 respondió a 'a fertilización con 50 kg de P20 5 • Por otra parte el ensayo permitió comprobar la alta fijaCión ocurrida, pues no se observó diferencia entre el lote con fósforo aplicado un semestre antes y el lote nuevo.Las fuentes más comunes de fósforo son: el superfosfato simple y triple, el fosfato diamónico, DAP, las rocas fosfóricas y las Escorias Thomas, SUbproducto de la funci6n del hierro.   En la Figura 9 aparece el contenido de fósforo en dos perIodos, en las hojas de plantas de arroz, cultivadas en potes con suelo de Carimagua. Colombia. al cual se incorporó el equivalente a 200 kg/ha de P20h5 y las rOCas de Carolina del Norte (CAR.N.), de Florida Central (FLOR.e) y la roca local fosfórica 22 (FOSF.22). Se puede observar que no existe diferencia comparando superfosfato triple (SPT), Escorias Thomas (E. T.) entre plantas fertil izadas con 5 diferentes fuentes de fósforo, aunque el superfosfato triple al principio es un poco mejor que las de~s. debido probablemente a su mayor solubilidad. La roca fosf6rica 22. fue la menos efectiva, aunque elevó el contenido de fósforo de la planta joven en comparación con el testigo sin P. El contenido de fósforo en plantas de tres meses de edad disminuyó con cualquiera de las fuentes aplicadas y las diferencias entre tratamientos fueron menos notorias a esa edad que a la edad de un mes.Los resultados para rendimiento~ en otro ensayo hecho en Carimagua, con varias fuentes de fósforo aplicadas en diferentes dosis, se presentan en la Figura 10. Las mejores fuentes fueron el superfosfato triple (SFT) y la roca fosfórica de Carolina del Norte (CAR.N) al nivel de 100 kg de P20 Iha; la roca fosfórica local (Boyacá) fue la menos efectiva. (los bajas rendimientos generales se debieron a ataques de piricularia}.  L. Figura 11 corresponde a un ensayo de rendimiento de la variedad deArroz IR-22, fertilizada con distintas rocas fosfóricas o con mezclas de éllas más superfosfato triple.La roca fosfórica con algo de superfosfato triple diO rendimientos tan buenos como el superfosfato triple solo y los obtenidos con Escorias Thomas también fueron muy buenos. El ensayo permitió observar como con la adición de una pequena cantidad de SPT, a las dos rocas utilizadas, l. respuesta de la planta fue igual a cuando se emplearon el superfosfato o las escorias, los cuales representan excelentes fuentes de P en arroz. La baja de rendimiento con SPT, 400 kg, posiblemente se debió a inducción de deficiencia de algún nutrimento como zinc.La Figura 12 describe los rendimientos de 1. variedad CICA 6 en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia, cuando se aplicaron las siguientes fuentes de fOsforo; superfosfato triple (5FT), roca fosfórica colombiana de Turmequ~ (FOS.22) y Escorias Thomas (ET). Los rendimientos m&s altos se obtuvieron con Escorias Thomas. La roca fosfórica a partir del nivel e 120 kg/ha de P20 S superó al superfosfato triple.  • SFT al voleo (')• Huila Efecto de varios nivefes de superfosfato triple y de tres: rocas fosfóricas colombianas en el rendimiento del arroz sembrado an un Ultisol en Santander de Quilíchao. Colombia (León. LA. y W.E. Fenoter. 1979).Los anteriores ejemplos ilustran muy bien las diferencias entre fuentes, asl como también para variedades y lugares.En general el fOsforo en forma de superfosfato se aplica al momento de la siembra, aunque se pueden hacer aplicaciones posteriores hasta el final de la etapa de máximo macollamiento, unos 50 dlas de siembra, porque durante élla en planta se usa más efectivamente el fósforo para la producciOn del grano. Sin embargo cuando se siembra en suelos muy pobres en fósforo, tener en cuenta que la aplicaciOn en las primeras etapas del crecimiento es esencial para el desarrollo de las ralces y el macollamiento.Dividir la cantidad recomendada de fósforo en dos o más aplicaciones. no ha ofrecido ventajas contra la aplicación única inicial, debido a que la solubilidad de ese elemento en el suelo aumenta Con el tiempo de inundación y a que SuS pérdidas por lixiviación son bajas. Sín embargo el f6sforo como fosfato dí y mono amónico, se viene utilizando en aplicaciones post•siembra, o post~transplante con buenos resultados.~de apllcaciOn Se ha considerado que la roca fosfórica se puede aplicar mucho tiempo antes de la siembra, para que ~sta reaccione con el suelo y se encuentre disponible para el arroz al momento del establecimiento del cultivo. La Figura 14 muestra que Su aplicaci5n al momento de la siembra, o si se quiere 20 días antes, da resultados satisfactorios.Aparentemente cualquíer tipo de fosfato puede aplicarse a los suelos inundados, en banda o .1 voleo, al momento de sembrar. No se ha observado ninguna diferencia en los resultados obtenidos con ambos métodos y por conSiguiente se recomienda aplicar el f6sforo .1 voleo en el momento de la siembra. SI se cultiva en cambio arroz de secano,las fuentes fosfóricas solubles en aguas pueden incorporarse en banda mientras que las insolubles (rocas fosfOricas y escorias) se deben adicionar al voleo e incorporarlas.Ensayos real izados por la Agencia lnternacion.l de Energla Atómica ( AlEA. 1970) han demostrado que cuando un fertilizante fosfatado se aplica al voleo en la superficie del suelo. la absorci6n del fósforo se reduce cuando se aplica nitr6geno incorporado al suelo entre 5 y 10 cms de profundidad. Esta incorporación del fertilizante nitrogenado aumenta la absorci6n del nitrógeno, pero disminuye la del fósforo. (Cuadro 1). Cuando el fertilizante nitrogenado y el fosf6rico se mezclan y se aplican en bandas o al voleo, se estimula la absorción del fósforo. . \".  Efecto de la época de aplicaci6n de la Roca Fosfórica 22 en el rendimiento del arroz (LA Leónetal. 1978).Existen varios métodos para detenninar la cantidad de fósforo que se debe a~adir al suelo, con el objeto de que el cultivo produzca buenos rendimientos. El síguiente ha sido utilizado por Fax en Hawaii: se toma una muestra de suelo y se le agregan cantidades crecientes de fOsforo, Se agita media hora~ dos veces al día. durante seis días y después se determina el fósforo que quedó en l. soluci6n sobrenad.nte. Con estos d.tos se elaboran curvas llamadas isotermas. Efecto de la profundidad de colocación del nitrógeno y de la mezcla de los ferti• lízantes nitrogenados y fosfóricos en la utilización por la planta del nitrógeno y del fósforo procedentes de esvs fertilizantes (IAEA, 1970L En 1a Figura :5 se cbservan las isotermas de dos suelos: en el de Palmira, para obtener r:':\"e1es altos de f6sforo en la solución del suelo, basta con ar.ódirle cantidades pequeñas de fósforo; en un suelo de Carimaglia, en cambio, para ubtener la misma cantidad de f6sforo soluble hay Que agregdf cantídddes mucho más altas. Algunos cultivos, como las es.pecies horticolas. requieren concentraciones relativarrer,te altas de fósforo en la solución para su crecimiento normal. Por ejemplo ur cultivo /1, que requiert: 0.2 ppm ce fósforo en la solución del suelo, para suplir esa cantidad (Figura 15) en Carimagua, SE' necesítaTá añadir al suelo 450 ppm(#910 kg de ?20!=/hd) de ese elemento; el misJTlo cu1tivo en el suelo de Palmira, nec~sitaríd menos de 100 ppm (#200±kg ce P2ú S )' En cambio, para el cultivo B (menos exigente en fósforo) en el suelo de Carímagua habria que af;ódír ur poco más de 100 ppm de f6sforo~ pero no es preciso aplicar si se siembra en el suelo de Palmira. En pocas palabras, ia cantfdad de fósforo que SE' debe aBr:!dir a un suelo~ depende del cu1tivo y el suelo.Fox y Beni1vídes (1974) utilizan el siguiente método: calculan los rendimientos relativos de un cultivo Con distintas concentraciones de fósforo en la solución del suelo y elaborar; curvas. Por ejemplo, la Figura 16 mU2stra un ensayo seMbrado con maíz en dos suelos; valiéndose de 1as curvas isotermas~ se ca:cula la car.tidad de fósforo que debe tener la :..ol,Jc~ón para que el cultivo alcance un rendimiento relativo del 951; el rer,ctir,;iento máximo Se obtiene cuando la concentraci6n de fósforo en la solución de los suelos varía entre 0.05 y 0.10 ppm. Curvas de ese tipo rueden traz;1rse para cualquier CLi:tlvO.C(¡la() estos mé . . . . céos SQ\" dispendiosos~ lo que se hace generalmente es medir el fósforú que una solución extractora toma del suelo; luego al cor:~elac;onar leS cantidades de fósforo extraídas por la solución, con la t'€spuesta del cultivo a las fuentes de fósforo previamente añadidas al suelo, es pOSible saber si ciert.a cantidad de fósfaro encontrada en el suele i;CS $uficier,te o no :Jara el creciniento norffidl de un cultivo. El agua es una soluciór: extractora f;luy débil y se usan soluciones especiales comó la mezcla de dcido clorhícrico 0.05 N con ácido sulfúrico 0.025 N conocida COrilO l~ehlid: 1 o Caro1ína dl?1 Norte; la solución de bicarbonato de sodio d pH 8.5 (llarnadd de Olsen); urw súluciün de f1uoruro de amonio 0.03 '~ Y ácido clorhídrico 0.1 N (denOMinada Bya,)' Ir). La clasificación de la cantidad de fósforo aprovechable de los suelos en baja. media y alta. está basada en la probabilidad ce respuesta de la cosecha a la adición de fertil izantes fosforados. Cuando el fósforo de en suelo ha sido clasificado como baja, la probabilidad de una respuesta significativa a su aplicación es mucho m&s alta que en otro suelo, en donde ese nutrimento se considera alto. Rendimiento relativoFÓ1foro requerido étl la soluciÓll (1&1 suele (ppm)Aequerimkm10s de fertilizante msforado para 00$ cultivos en dos suelos de Colombia (modifícado de Fox, R. y S, Benav¡des. 1974).  Usando el método Bray 11, se han encontrado los niveles críticos que aparecen en el Cuadro 3; un suelo con menos de 15 ppm serh clasificado como bajo y alto con más de 30 ppm. Estos niveles son v~lidos cuando se cultiva arroz de secano, pero no son adecuados para el arroz de riego (Cuadro 4) • Por ejemplo, en .ste caso, un suelo con 10 ppm de fósforo, clasificado normalmente como bajo, cuando se inunda experimenta un aumento en la concentraci6n de fósforo de la solucí6n del suelo, lo cual hace probable que no se obtengan en él una respuesta del cultivo a la adición de un fertilizante fosforado.En cambio, si se cultiva arroz de secano en suelos con menos de 15 ppm de fósforo, el .nadir este elemento existe alta probabilidad de obtener una respuesta significativa en el rendimiento, cuando las condiciones de cultivo son adecuadas.  ----------------------------------  MM d. 20 Mi. d. 93.4 AltoBajo!• Relación aproximada.En el Cuadro 5 se muestran las recomendaciones para aplicar fl;;'('tilizarot¡;s fosforados ai arroz cultivado bajo inundación o en secano~ segun los análisis en suelos hechos por el método Bray Il y la investigación de campo adelantada Dor el lCA (Colombia). Como puede verse, las recomendaciones son siempre IfldS altas cuando se trata de arroz de secano y tambjén clfondo los suelos son ácidos. Esta es una situación muy común en Oxisoles, :Jltisoles y algunos inceptisoles en donde se cultiva ¿rruz en América Latina. Cuadro 6.Recomendaciones mínimas de fósforo para el cultivo de variedades enanas de arroz oon inundación o en secano mecanizado, C()l'Idicil)09S del cultiyo y del suelo Inundación SuelO$ con pH iguala 1) mef'lOr de 5.6 Inundación• Suelós con pH mayor de 5.5 SecanQ' Suelos Con pH igual a o menor de 5.5 Sooano ~ Suelos con pH mayor de 5.5P20V kg/ha Aruilish del p. Al hablar de fuentes se mencionaron algunos trabajos realizados incluyendO productos diferentes al superfosfato. En este aparte se busca ampliar el concepto sobre el empleo de estas fuentes no convencionales como las rocaS fosfóricas.En América Latina hay un gran nÚJr,ero de suelos cuyos requ€rimiento~ de fósforo son altos o que fijdn este elemento inutilizándolo así para las plantas.Puesto que el fósforo es un nulrimen:o costoso cuyo transporte a largas distancias lo encarece aún más t es necesario idear una estrategia de bajo conSUffiO de energ1a, es decir, un método económico de usar el fósforo como fertilizantes. Esta estrategia se basd prinCipalmente en los seis puntos siguientes: 1. Uso de fuentes baratas de fósforo. Una de las flEjares soluc ones y ~a más sencilla es el empleo de fuentes locales de roca fosfór ca. En la Figura 17 aparecen algunos de los depósitos de rocas fosfór cas que existen en América Latina, Aplicaciones localizadas del fer:ilizante fGsfóríco~ cuando se cu1tive arroz de secano.Oismínuci6n de la fijacHm del f6sfaro €I, el suelo mediarte encalamiento o aplicación de silicatos; en este últifru caso el fósforo aparentemente se fíja menos y el arroz responde a la fertilízaci6n sol icitada.Uso de la mezcla de rocaS fosfóricas con sustdrlt.1aS spneradarcs ce ácidos, para Que disuelvan las rocas fosfóricas y liberen el fósforo, para que pueda ser aprovecJwdo rr:&s rapidamente por las plantas. Se están ensayando también, un gránulo pequeño, llamado minigrám;1o, el cual puede contener roca fosfórica parcia!mene acidulada o r.l€zclada con superfosfato o Con azufre. L0S resultados obtenidos con grá¡1u1os pequeños, aún comparados con fertilizantes conve¡1c;onales de granulas regular~ han sidc excelentes; además, estos son materiales l'IIuy fáciles de manejar manual y mecánicamente.Uso de termofosfatos, es decir) productos de la fusión de rocas fosf6ricas y minereles de magnesio como la o1ivina o la seroentí~.Selecci6n ce plantas que toleren riveles bajos de f6sforo en el suelo; a este aspecto de la estrategia se le está prestando gran atención en el eIAT.   Para estudiar la efectividad agronómica de tres rocas fosfóricas colombianas, solas y combinadas con superfosfato triple (SFT) , se' estableció un experimento en un Ultisol (eIAT, Quilichaol cultivando en rotación de arroz (CICA 8) con maní (Tatul 76). Hasta el presente se han obtenido dos cosechas de arroz y una de maní con los resultados que se muestran en el Cuadro 6.En 1. primera cosecha de arroz (1978B) los rendimientos aumentaron con cada incremento de la cantidad de fósforo aplicado como roca fosfórica\" a excepción de la roca Huila que produjo con 50 kgl ha de 020\" rendimientos de arroz cercanos al m~ximo obtenido en el ensayo. Aún ton las rocas fosfOritas menos activas, Pesca y Sardinata, las mezclas 1:1 de RF: SFT en 1 as dos; s más baj as de fós foro (50 Y 100 kgl ha), di eron genera lmente rendimientos más altos que las mismas rocas solas. Este resultado demuestra la conveniencia de una fertil izaci6n inicial con una foma soluble de fósforo cuando se aplican dosis bajas de ese elemento.Los rendimientos de mani (1979A), no reflejaron ventaja para las rocas o las mezclas de ellas. Solo la roca fosfórica Huila produjo rendimientos cercanos a los obtenidos con el SFT (95%), cuando se usó la dosis más alta de P20 S 'Los rendimientos de maní (1979A), no reflejaron ventaja para las rocas o l.s mezclas de ellas. Solo la roca fosfórica Huna produjo rendimientos cercanos a los obtenidos con el SFT (95%), cuando se usó la dosis más alta de P20 5 •En la segunoa cosecha de arroz (1979B), se incrementaron considerablemente 10s rendimientos en grano, con todas las dosis y combínaciones del fósforo ap 1 lcado, demostrando mayor di sponibil idad de esté elemento, tanto en el SPT~ como posiblemente por condiciones de ambiente. Los rendimientos de arroz obtenidos en éllas fueron comparables a :os dlcanzaóGs con aplicaciones similares de fósforo como superfosfato triple. Nee,amente Id roca Huíla superó a SPT en dosis de 5Q y 200 kg/ha de P20 5 •En el Cuadro 7 se presentan los resultados de un experimento hecho con 10 vdrieddc CICA 8 en un cultivo de secano establecido en un oxisol en Carimag'Ja, para determinar la efectividad agronómica de rocas fosfóricas ~cidulada~ en H?S04, en polvo y en minigránulo. La acidulación fue parciól, es decir~ con el 20~ del ácido necesario para obtener una reacci6n completa cuyo prOducto fina' f:S sLlperfosfato simple. Con la dosis m&s alta de fós,foro, todos los tratdf1lfentos se comparan favorab1emente con el SFT, excepto para la roca de Carol ind en polvo con o sln dcidular~ a nivel (le 200 kg.A ffidnera de resumerl pltec!e concluirse que pdra el cultivo de arroz él empleo de rocas fosf6\\'icáS~ con e sin acidulación~ ofrecen una buena alternativa de sustituciór, a los superfosfatos~ Sin embargo~ cuando se emplean dOS1:> menores de fosfato. part'ce que es co~venieote mezclar las roed::' COl' urjO fuente mas solubl~ de fósforo. ..{5.5i 31 .  América Tropical, comprendida entre 23 0 N y 23 0 5 posee un gran potencial agrlcol0 en sus regione, de bosque hUmedo tropical y de sabana. Dichas regiones est~n dominadas por suelos kidos e infértiles. En unos 1043 millones de has de un total de 1493 millones que comprende el trópico americano. más de un 90% de éllas presentan deficiencias de N y P, un 77% son deficientes en K y un 70% son deficientes en Ca y Mg Y muestran problemas por toxicidad de Al (Sánchez y Salinas, 1983.) En América Tropical 502 millones de has. han sido clasificadas como Oxisoles. 320 como Ultisoles. con áreas un poco menores para lnceptisoles, Alfisoles y Entisoles: 204. 183 Y 124 millones de has. respectivamente (Cuadro 1).A pesar de que las condiciones tlsleas y topogrHicas de la región tropical dominada por suelos ácidos, en su mayor'ia bajo bosque o sabana, son adecuados para adelantar una agricultura mecanizada. como ya Se indic6 arriba, sus suelos poseen unas propiedades qulmicas que los hacen poco atractivos para este tipo de empresas ya que se requieren cantidades altas de insumos para suplir sus deficiencias de nutrimentos. (McNeil, 1964;Goddland e Irwin, 1975). Sin embargo, con un manejo adecuado y estratégico se pueden llegar a obtener altos rendimientos de cultivos anuales y perennes tal como lo han demostrado recientemente numerosos investigadores citados por Sánchez y Salinas (1983).Si por definición consideramos un suelo ácido como aquel cuyo pH en agua. relación suelo-agua 1:1, es menor de 5.5, podremos observar que en mayor o menor grado su capacidad de 3+intercambio catiónico efectiva (CICE) se encuentra saturada por iones Al • Dicha saturación puede ir desde un 10-20% en suelos con pH 5.5-5.2 hasta un 80-95% en suelos con pH 4.5-4.0 (AbruM. et al 1975;Kamprath 1978). Cuando el 3./'orcentaje de saturación de Al sube del 60% la concentración de iones Al en la solución del suelo aumenta rápidamente hasta llegar a niveles tOxicos para las plantas. 10cual limita su crecimiento normal (Kamprath, 1980).Otra de las restricciones posibles para una buena producción de cultivos en suelos ácidos es la toxicidad causada por el Mn. Son suficientes 2 ppm de Mn soluble en agua (relación suelo-agua de 1:2) para que se observen síntomas de toxicidad de Mn. (Morris, 1948). la concentración en la solución del suelo en un suelo ~cido depende de la cantidad de Mn f~cilmente reducible que éste tenga y de su pH. la cantidad de Mn fácilmente reducible en un suelo depende del material parental del cual éste fue formado. (Kamprath, 1980). A pesar de que la mayorla de los problemas de los suelos ~cidos eo cuanto a toxicidades se debeo al Al, existen en América Tropical algunas regiones eo las cuales el Mn es tOxico para las plantas (Pearson, 1975).Problemas de deficiencias de calcio y magnesio eo suelos ácidos Como es de supooer, eo suelos ácidos del trOpico cuya capacidad de intercambio catiOnica efectiva, CICE. (suma de Al. Ca, Mg y K intercambiables) es baja, los cationes intercambiables Ca y Mg son generalmente muy bajos debido a que el Al se encuentra saturando eo uo alto porcentaje el complejo de cambio (Cuadro 2). Con valores de Ca intercambiable tan bajos como 1.0 me/l00g y de Mg de menos de 0.5 me/100g es de esperarse que muchos cultivos sufran por deficiencias de alguno de estos dos nutrimentos.Cómo medir e interpretar la acidez del suelo La informaciOn sobre el pH del suelo no es suficieote para predecir si un suelo puede presentar problemas de toxicidad o deficiencias de nutrimentos que lleguen a influIr en el crecimiento normal de un cultivo.Por este motivo se han encontrado métodos para determinar los cationes intercambiables de un suelo, sus saturaciones con respecto a la CICE y las relaciones que ex.isten entre las saturaciones J el pH del suelo y el crecimiento de un cultivo (Kamprath, 1980).  Kamprath, 1970;León, 1971). Seasume, claro está, que la sol'lil/ión extractora debe adquirj-r el pH del sistema del suelo, pues a medida que el pH se aumenta el Al intercambiable se hidroliza para fonnar Al (OH)++ ,Al (OH) ¿ Y Al(OH)3.El pH del suelo está relacionado con la saturaciOn de Al de un suelo  que no están adaptados a las condiciones de extrema acidez de un suelo (Sanchez y Salinas, 1983).Con el fin de saber cuál es el valor critico de pH y de saturación de Al para que un cultivo pueda rendir mAs del 90% ó menos del 50% del mA.imo rendimiento, es necesario hacer ensayos de encalamiento en invernadero y campo con los cultivos en estudio. De esta manera se han encontrado valores crHicos de saturación de Al para que un cultivo produzca un 90% de su rendimiento máximo. Para el malz. por ejemplo, está entre ellO y 20% (Soares, et . Cuando se estable<:en niveles cdticos se debe tener en cuenta que existe una amplia diferencia en cuanto a la tolerancia de las variedades al aluminio dentro de una misma especie. Hay variedades de arroz que producen rndS del 70% de su máximo rendimiento con una saturación de Al del 25% mientras que otras producen el 80% de su rendimiento máximo con un 64~ y otras inclusive con mdS del 70% de saturación de Al (Salinas 1978).Alternativas para mane;.r los problemas de. acidez del suelo en el cultivo del arroz.Cuando el ~roblema de un suelo ácido es su alta saturaci5n de Al, éste será más o menos difícil de resolver si se trata de cultivar arroz de secano o bajo ínundaci5n. La toxicidad de Al será un factor limitante de la producción en el caso de cultivar affOZ de secano en suelos ácidos de América Tropical ( CIAT. 1973). Es posible que cuando el arroz se cultive bajo riego permanente el Al no sea un problema, pues en un suelo ácido inundado, al cabo de unas pocas semanas, el pH aumenta pudiendo llegar casi a la neutralidad y el Al intercambiable disminuye a contenidos que dejan de ser tOxicas, (CIAT 1981).Como un elevado porcentaje del arroz que Se siembra en Anérica Tropical es de secano, resulta de importancia estudiar qué alternativas se presentan para contrarrestar los efectos negativos de la toxicidad del Al. En este caso hay que tener en cuenta tres puntos importantes: cuánta cal debe aplicarse, la calidad química y física de la cal y cu~nto tiempo durara su efecto en el suelo.Como es bien sabido, la cal agrícOla y la cal dolomítica son materi.les obtenidos de depÓSitos naturales de carbonato de calcio y de carbonatos de calcio y magnesia, respectivamente. Estos carbonatos t en contacto con el suelo húmedo reaccionan para dar como productos finales C02, H20 y Ca2+ ó Ca2+ y Mg2+. El Ca2+, que se encontrar~ en l. solución del suelo en una alta concentración, desplazar~ al A13+ intercambiable de los coloides del suelo. El A13+ en la solución se hidroliza hasta llegar a Al(OH)3 que tiene una solubilidad muy baja y ~or esta razón se precipita separándose .s! del sistema. Como la reacción hace que el A13+ en solución baje de concentración, más Al intercambiable pasará a la solución del suelo. Los sitios de intercambio dejadOS por el Al pasarán a ser ocupados por el Ca y el Mg (Pearson, 1975). Este es el fenómeno denominado neutralización de 1. acidez de un suelo.La cantidad de Al desplazada de los sitios de intercambio dependerá en gran parte de la cantidad de cal que se añada a un suelo. Como esta cantidad cambia de acuerdo con las características del suelo, seria necesario hacer \"curvas de encalamiento\" para cada suelo~ 10 cual resulta poco práctico y muy costoso. Un ejemplo de este tipo de curvas se presenta en la Figura. 1. Si la intención .5 neutralizar la mayor parte del Al del suelo, se puede aplicar la siguiente fórmula que ha dado buenos resultados para suelos minerales (menos de 10% de materia orgánica) con pH menor a 5.5.(1) me Cal100 g suelo: 1.5 x me Al interc./I009 suelo (2) t CaCQ3eq/ha : 1.65 x me Al interc./I00g suelo.La cantidad de cal así calculada hará aumentar el pH del suelo a 5.2-5. 5.Si se trata de un suelo con m~s del 10% de materia orgánica y con un pH menor de 5.0 la cantidad de cal necesaria será:(3) me Ca/100g suelo: 3.0 x me Al interc. /IOOg suelo. Ca CO, (ton/ha) Efecto de varias dosis de CaCO:j en el pH del suelo y en la saturación de Al de dos suelos colombianos después de 30 días de incubación.Si se aplica la fórmula (2) para calcular cuánta cal aplicar se obtiene:t CaC03-eq/ha = 1.65 x 2 = 3.3 Aquí se estaría aconsejando aplicar 3.3 t de cal/ha cuando posiblemente para muchas variedades de arroz un 40% de saturación de Al del suelo no sería un obstáculo para obtener un buen rendimiento.Las recomendaciones de cal en suelos ácidos del Trópico Americano deben tener un sentido práctico y económico que tienda más bien a encontrar un equilibrio para cada sistema específico suelo-cultivo y no darle aquel enfoque tan común de encalar el suelo para eliminar casi todo el Al intercambiable y lograr una respuesta óptima del cultivo (Sánchez y Sa 1 i nas, 1983) . Con es te obj et i va en mente, Cochrane et al (1980) desarrollaron una fórmula para determinar la cantidad de cal que se necesita para disminuir el nivel de saturación de Al de la capa superficial de un suelo un valor más apropiado para que una variedad de un cultivo produzca al menos por encima del 80% del rendimiento máximo.Cal requerida (tCaC03eq/ha) = 1.8  Otro problema que se presenta en el uso de la cal es el poco tiempo que los agricultores dejan para que ésta reaccione en el suelo.Generalmente se aconseja hacer apliaciones de cal por 10 menos treinta d13S antes de sembrar} pues se considera que en este tiempo una gran parte de la cal ha reaccionado con el suelo bajando su saturaci6n de Al. Sin embargo, el tiempo para que la reacción se complete depende de qué porcentaje de saturación de Al se desea obtener finalmente.Al dependiendo del tiempo de contacto de ésta con el suelo. Si queremos obtener una cierta saturación de Al del suelo, en un tiempo más corto del que generalmente se acostumbra~ se deberá añadir una dosis mas a1ta de cal que la recomendada (Sánehez, 1977).Es importante también tener en cuenta la profundidad a la cual se incorpora la cal. Una cal aplicada muy superfiCialmente puede producir resultados negativos en el caso de cultivos cuyas ralees se localizan en una zona relativamente profunda. (NCSU, 1975).Otro punto de gran inter~s agronómico y económico es el del efecto residual de una aplicación de cal. Como los s.uelos del trópico est~n sometidos a una lix;viaciOn debido a la precipitaci6n alta y a una elevada temperatura, el efecto residual del encalado dura menos que en las regiones templadas (Lathwell 1979). Este efecto también depende del ecosistema. Villachica (1978) senala que en las regiones húmedas tropicales el efecto de la cal dura menos que en las sabanas con una estación seca bien definida.En los suelos de las regiones húmedas ~l Al ligado con la materia organica se libera maS rápidamente y las bases son removidas por las plantas en mayor cantidad cuando se cultiva intensamente, adema s de que éstas se pierden por la alta líxiviación~ Gualdr6n y Spain (1979) encontraron que en un Oxisol de Carimagua se perdieron de 1-2 toneladas de cal/ha en 4.5 aMs. Para contrarrestar esta pérdida, según Howeler (1975), seria necesario adicionar anualmente al suelo de 200-500 kg de cal/ha. Buen efecto residual se encontró en un Oxiso1 de Brasilia después de 66 meses de haber encalado con 1 ton de cal/ha pero con un cultivo y una ,ariedad tolerante al Al (61% de saturaci6n de Al y pH 4.2) (Sanchez y Salinas 1983).Madir Cal para nutrir la planta con Ca y Mg.A pesar de que existe en Allérica Latina Tropical 111Uy poca investígación sobre el Ca y el Mg COIllil nutrimentos para las plantas (Guerrero,1980), de acuerdo con los níveles crHicos tentativos indicados en el Cuadro 3, se puede decir que habrá altas pOSibilidades de encontrar deficiencias de éllos en los suelos ácidos, en Oxisoles y Ultisoles, en Andosoles con baja saturación de bases (Dystrandept), en suelos arenosos de regiones húmedas, en suelos orgánicos fuertemente ácidos y en suelos derivados de materiales parentales pobres en magnesio. En el Caso de los Oxisoles y Ultisoles del trópico americano los niveles de calcio y magnesio intercambiables son muy bajos y generalmente en la capa superior del suelo est~n entre 0.1-0.7 me de Cal100 9 y 0.06-0.4 me de Mg/100 g, siendo mucho menores en el subsuelo (Sánchez y Salinas 1983).El calcio y el magnesio se consideran para el arroz, junto con el potasio y la s!lice, como los elementos que ayudan a la resistencia de algunas enfermedades fungosas como \"Bruzone\", la pudrlciOn del tallo y las ra1ces. El calcio mejora la estructura del suelo, d.a resistencia al arroz contra el vol camiento , limita la reducción de sulfatos a H2S, promueve el crecimiento de algas fijadoras de nitrógeno atmosférico y acelera la liberación del nitrógeno y del fósforo or9&nicos. Aparentemente el arroz es bastante exigente en magnesio (Frye, 1984).No es mucha la información que existe sobre las dosis de compuestos portadores de calcio y magnesio necesarias para satisfacer los requerimientos de las plantas de arroz pero las experiencias obtenidas por Calvo. et al (1977) y por Alvarado (sin fecha). en Oxisoles de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia, con niveles de 0.1 -0.4 me/IDO 9 de estos dos nutrimentos, sefialan que para arroces de estatura alta son recomendables unos 250 a 500 kg de cal por hectárea, mientras que los arroces de estatura baja requieren adiciones de 2 o mas toneladas de cal por hect&rea. Clase ¡!l, cuando se establece arroz inundado no hay peligro de que se presente una toxicidad por aluminio, pues ~ste baja con la inundación. Oe todas maneras hay que suministrar calcio a las plantas mediante adiciones de cal. El lCA (S~nchez y Owen, 1982) recomienda el uso de la siguiente fórmula para las variedades de arroz que se siembran actualmente.Cal requerida en t/ha = 0.35 x Al(me/100 g)rastrillo unos 15 a 20 dlas antes de la siembra.Generalmente el crecimiento pobre de1 arroz de secano se atribuye a déficit de agua o a competencia con las malezas, pero se olvida que muchos de los suelos que se usan presentan altas saturaciones de aluminio intercambiable o altos contenidos de manganeso~ Aparte de inundar el suelo no hay soluciones Simples para mejorar esta situación t pues muchas veces no es posible encalar un suelo o resulta antieconómico. Por esta razOn hace algunos anos ha adquirido gran importancia 1a selección y el mejoramiento de plantas tolerar,tes a eXCesos de aluminio o manganeso en el suelo. (Ponnamperuma, 1976).Según Salinas (1978) se han realizado varios intentos para explicar las causas de la tolerancia al aluminio por las plantas y han sido separadas en: (1) cambios diferenciales en la morfología de la planta y (2) cambios diferenciales en la fisiología y bioquímica de la planta,. pero parece que el grado de tolerancia es. una combinac;!)n estas dos causas.La selección de un gran número de ecotipo5 que sean tolerantes a la toxicidad del aluminio se puede hacer en soluciones de cultivo, en el jnveroadero, en el campo o mediante la combinaci6n de estos tres (Sanchez y Salinas, 1983). La selecci6n en soluciones nutritivas se puede hacer midiendo el crecimiento relativo de las raíces de plantas: que crecen en sol tici anes con concentrac; anes altas y baj as de A 13+ (Howe 1 er y Cadavi d, 1976) 6 mediante la prueba d. la hell1iltoxilina (Polle et al., 1978). Los resultados obtenidos deben ser validados en el campo para continuar con una selección apropiada tal como están haciendo numerosos investigadores (Sánchez y Salinas, 1983). Los cultivares se pueden clasificar por el nivel cr\\tico de saturaci6n de aluminio del suelo necesario para alcanzar un determinado porcentaje del rendimiento mSximo.Este nivel crHico para un determinado suelo se puede expresar en términos de la cal requerida para llegar a dicha saturación de aluminio, usando la f6rmtJla desarrollada por Cochran. et  al., (1980). Es as; como Salinas (1978) encontró que algunas variedades de arroz cultivadas en un Oxisol de Brasilia podrian prodUCir el 80% de su rendimiento mAximo cuando la saturación de Al iba desde no más del 25% (para Batatals) hasta más del 70% (para Pratao precoce). Par. lograr estas saturaciones tendria que anadir al suelo desde 1.,4 tonlha hasta solo 200 k9 cal/ha, respectivamente.A Pésar de que la toxicidad del manganeso es menos común que la del aluminio, ésta puede ser un factor limitante en algunos suelos dedicados al cultivo del arroz. Generalmente se encuentra en suelos altos en manganeso fácilmente reducible, con altos contenidos de Il1ilteria orgánica qUé pueden causar condiciones anaeróbicas temporales. A pH menor de 5.5 el manganeso es muy soluble y 10 es mas~ bajo condiciones anaer6bicas llegando d ser tóxico aún a pH 6.0 (Sanchez y Salinas, 1983). Como para incrementar el pH de un suelo ácido hasta 6.0 generalmente requiere de altas adiciones de cal ~ es más aconsejable buscar variedades tolerantes al manganeso que invertir grandes sumas de dinero en el encalado de un suelo.A pesar de que puede haber variedades dé arroz tolerantes a altas saturaciones de aluminio en el suelo o de manganeso fácilmente reducible, que pOdr1an eliminar la necesidad de encalar, de todas maneras las plantas requieren calcio y magnesio. Dichos requerimientos pueden ser suplidos con pequeñas adiciones anuales o semestrales de cal dolom1tica que en muchos casos resulta más econOmica que la fertllizaci5n con otras sustancias portadoras de estos dos nutrimentos.FERTILIZACION CON POTASIO PARA EL CULTIVO DEL ARROZ La mayor\" de los Oxisoles y Ultisoles' en Wrica Latina presentan bajas reservas de potasio y con el tiempo su deficiencia Va en aumento (Ritchey, 1979). Por añadidura parece que la aprovechabilidad del potasio tiende a disminuYr en condiciones de inundación pues forma compuestos insolubles con el aluminio y el hierro reducidos, también porque el exceso de C02 y de ácidos orgánicos y la falta de ox1geno hacen que la planta pierda su capacidad de absorber este elemento.Por otra parte el potasio se puede perder por lixiviaci6n, especialmente en suelos con baja eIC y cuando es desplazado por el NH4+ que proviene de la adición alta de fertilizantes nitrogenados.Aproximadamente el arroz extrae unos 17 9 de K20 por k9 de paddy ó 120 k9 K20/ha con una producción de 7 ton/ha de paddY. Su absorci6n es mlis rápida que la de otros nutrimentos y mayor que la del N en los primeros estados del cultivo. Es crHica poco antes y después del macollamiento (Frye, 1984). A los sesenta dlas un buen contenido de K20 en las hojas de arroz es del 2.7%. aplicar potasio al arróz cuando: 1) Se hacen altas aplicaciones de nitrógeno, 2) se siembra en suelos compactos de mal drenaje\" 3) hay condiciones climHicas y fitosanitarias desfavorables, 4) Se siembra en suelos livianos lixiviados pobres en potasio y 5) hay en el suelo exceso de calcio, magnesio o sodio con respecto al potasio (Frye, 1984).Mundialmente se considera que en promedio se incrementa la prodUCCión en 2 kg de arroz por cada kg de K20 aplicado. En promedio en el mundo se aplican en arroz 80 k9 K20/ha, variando entre 30 y 140 kg K20/ha. Antiguamente se aplicaba todo el potasio antes de la siembra t pero el fraccionar el fertilizante parece que mejora los rendimientos. Generalmente el ICA en Colombia recomienda .pl icar 60 kg K20/ha cuando el suelo tiene menos de 0.15 mellOO 9 de potasio intercambiable, aftadidos antes o a la siembra (S~nchez y Owen, 1982).Estas generalmente se basan en el análisis del suelo.1) Si el contenido de potasio intercambiable es mayor de 0.15 me/lOO 9 y la relaciOn Ca.Mg,Na esta entre 30 y 40, pero no eS mayor de 40, se K deben aplicar entre 20 y 40 k9 K20/ha.Si el K intercambiable es menor de 0.15 me/IDO 9 o la relación Ca, Mg. Na/K es mayor de 30-35, se deben recomendar entre 50 y 120 kg K20/ha.A medida que el contenido de potasio se hace más bajo en el suelo, Se deben incrementar la adición de éste, igual que cuando la relación Ca, Hg, Na/K va aumentando. Si se han recomendado altas dosis de N y P se debera incrementar 1. dosis de potasio pues asl se disminuirán los efectos desfavorables del exceso de N 6 de P y se logrará una mayor eficiencia de estos dos nutrimentos.Epoca. de aplicacibn del potasio 1) Si los suelos son pesados y/o la recomendación es menor a 40 kg K20/ha: incorporar superficialmente el 50% a la siembra o un poco antes y aplicar el otro 50% al iniciar el macollamiento.2) Si los suelos tienen buena infiltraci6n y/o baja CIC y la dosis es mayor de 40kg K20/ha: repartir un 40% a la siembra, un 30% al iniciar el macollamiento y el 30% restante unos 15 a 20 dias antes de iniciar el embuchamiento (45-50 dlas despuéS de la germinación para variedades tempranas).Fuentes de potasio la fuente más utilizada es el CKl que contiene generalmente un 60~ de K20. Se puede usar tambi~n el K2S04 en el caso de suelos pobres en azufre, siempre y cuando resulte más econ6mico que usar otro fertilizante que contenga azufre. los ensayos realizados no han mostrado diferencias significativas cuando se compara el uso de estas dos fuentes (Howeler y Spain. 1978). Cuando hay en el suelo deficiencias de magnesio se puede usar un fertillZante doble como el sulfato de potaSio y magnesio o sulfomag. Recientemente se está ensayando otras fuentes de potasio de lenta disponibilidad como los feldespatos o productos \"compactados\" a base de KCl pero hasta el presente no se tienen resultados concluyentes ni halagadores.Desafortunadamente en el caso del potasio no se han encontrado soluciones de tipo lI geoético u como con el aluminio y el fósforo, pues ntl hay diferencias intrr o intra espec1ficas mayores en términos de tolerancia de las plantas a bajo potaSio disponible en el suelo.Aparte de hacer aplicaciones divididas de potasio para aumentar su eficiencia., se debe evitar e1 remover los residuos de las cosechas con el fin de practicar un cierto reciclaje del elemento (Sánchez y Salinas, El agua es cada vez mas escasa y costosa. El aumento de la poblaci6n humana 'j la creación de nuevas industrias, compiten con la disponibilidad del agua para la agricultura. Por otra parte, la deforestac.ión de las cuencas hidrográficas ha ocasionado una disminución de los caudales naturales, Todo ésto ha impulsado a que se desarrollen cada vel mayores esfuerzos para mejorar el uso del agua de riego en la agricultura.Por estas razones, las áreas agr1cQlas a medida que se desarrollan t van cambióndo gradualmente el patt\"ón de cultivos. Solo perduran aquellos cultivos que permiten un uso más eficíente del agua de riego. El arroz, por ejemplo, se considera como uno de los cultivos que demanda una mayor cantidad de agua, de 10.000 hasta más de 30.000 m3/ha/cosecha. de acuerdo con la eficiencia en el riego. Ha sido esta la Cf!usa fundamental por la cual se ha ido desplazando el cultivo a regiones donde existe abundante agua. disponible para riego y su precio no represente un incremento notable en el costo total del cultívo.ne all' la importancia de que a medida que se obtienen variedades más pruductivas y se crean prácticas de cultivo más adecuadas, se desarrollen paralelamente métodos eficientes en el uso del agua de riego. De 10 contrario podría ocurrir que los beneficios obtenidos con ¡as nuevas variedades y pr~cticas. solamente sirvan para compensar el incremento de 10.$ cos.tos en el riego. Por consiguiente, existe 1a necesidad de dar una mayor atenciOn a aquellos factores que determinan el uso eficiente del agua, como son. el diseño del sistema de riego y los aspectos telacinnados estrechamente con éste, tales como el tipo de suelo~ la topografia y las caracterlsticas geográficas del terreno.En el ri ego de 1 arroz, el sue lose cubre con una capa de agua a una profundidad que ayuda a controlar el crecimiento de las malezas sin dañar el cultivo; ésto es conocido como inundaci6n. DespuéS se adiciona continuamente el agua perdida por evapotranspiración, percolación profunda y en las filtraciones de los diques~ 10 cual se llama mantenimiento de la inundación. El exceso de agua aplicada es luego drenada por gravedad y se usa en melgas similares de menor elevación.El riego por inundación se adapta a suelos de textura media a pesada. cor. una capacidad de retenci6n de humedad aprovechable no menor de 1.0 nm/cm (10%), para una profundidad de rajces superiores a 10 CM'. Oebido a la dificultad de mantener la inundaci6n, los suelos deben Ser pesados de lenta infiltración. o contener una capa impermeable cercana a la superficie, con una tasa de permeabilidad menor de 0.05 cm/hr. Los mejores resultados en arroz inundado se obtienen cuando la pendiente del terreno es menor de 0.5%. No obstante, se pueden emplear terrenos con pendientes mayores, pero se incrementan proporcionalmente 10$ costos de nivelaci6n y las melgas son más angostas. En este caso los suelos deben ser 10 suficientemente profundOS para permitir 1<1 nivelación sin pérdida de su productividad.Tradicionalmente, en el cultivo del arroz se han venido utilizando dos métodos de diseño para riego en arraz: el de pozas o parcelas de inundación y el de melgas en contorno. E1 método de pozas esencialmente consiste de secciones cuadradas o rectangulares con la superficie a nivel; generalmente se usa en unidades agr1colas pequenas.En el mtHodo de melgas en contorno las secciones son mayores y se trazan en franjas casi a nivel. El agua aplicada es retenida en cada lote por diques pequeños (caballones o rebordas) que rodean cada franja. construí dos longitudinalmente siguiendo una curva a nivel.Existen otras formas de riego que no incluyen nivelación, 10 cual no permite mantener una lámina de agua sobre el suelo, excepto en terrenos de m1nima pendiente.La planificación del sistema de riego debe estar precedida de un estudio completo y detallado del ~rea. con el objeto de que la planificaCión del proyecto se base en una información sólida. La mayor parte de los fracasos de los sistemas de riego radican prinCipalmente, en que no se conocen con detalle los suelos, la topografla, el agua disponible, etc. del área en consideración. l. Se requiere de un mapa detallado de suelos del área a irrigar con el sistema de inundación, considerando lotes o fincas medianas o grandes.Se deben conocer las caracter1sticas de infiltración de cada uno de los tipos de suelos. También es esencial conocer la capacidad de retención de humedad aprovechable de las capas más importantes del suelo y la permeabilidad de 1. capa restrictiva cuando exista.El mapa topográfico del área facilita la planeación del sistema de riego. En adición a las ltneas de contorno, el mapa debe indicar la localización y altura de las fuentes de agua y la salida de las aguas de drenaje. También los canales, caminos y construcciones existentes.3. Se debe medir o estimar el caudal de las aguas de riego disponibles, a fín de determinar el número de hectáreas Que se pueden regar.Las Figuras 1,2,3 y 4 ilustran los diferentes grados o formas, en que se pueda adecuar un mismo terreno para riego en arroz. Sin ninguna nivelación (Figura 1), Se puede requerir una gran longitud de diques o caballones y canales; el agua no se puede aplicar uniforme o eficientemente; el manejo del agua es dif1cil; y los costos de prodUCCión, especialmente por la cantidad de mano de obra y cantidad de agua usada, son altos. Topografía típica de un lote de 16.2 ha; pera se, regado por meIgas en contorno mostrando rtbordas y drenes.CAMINO Mels,?s en contorno Previo a la nivelación del terreno se requiere un emparejamlento~ mal llamado por algunos nivelación. Se trata de la eliminación de las pequeñas irregularidades de la superficie del terreno. 10 cual mejora la topograffa del terreno sin cambiar la pendiente natural. Este aislamiento de la superficie se hace generalmente con un marco nivelador y permite el establecimiento de un sistema de riego y drenaje~ pero todav1a los diques. canales de riego y drenajes resultan demasiado largos y las melgas son irregulares en forma y variables en tamaño, lo cual dificulta el riego eficiente (Figura 2).Para una más eficiente operación en preparacíOn y siembra, manejo del cultivo y del equipo de cosecha y para un mejor manejo del agua de riego, los diques o caballones deberían ser paralelos y las melgas tener un ancho uniforme~ Para obtener este resultado es necesario efectuar una labor de nivelación del terreno de manera tal, que se puedan obtener curvas de contorno ligeramente rectas y uniformemente esparcidas.Existen varios m~todos de nivelación de terrenos. Estos métodos se pueden dividir en dos grupos: a) En el primer grupo el terreno Se nivela en planos o serie de planos. Este método generalmente se emplea para el riego por melgas rectangulares y requiere de un gran movimiento de suelo (Figura 3). b) El método de las superficies plegadas (Figura 4) hace uso de la topograf~a natural y como resultado los cortes y rellenos, las distancias de acarreo y los costos son minimizados. Además, se disturba menos el suelo durante la labor de nívelací6n y hay menor prObabilidad de exponer en la superficie capas improductivas debido a cortes profundos.Método de contorno. En el método de superficies plegadas. Se presentan •\\¡arias ventaJas para la nivelaciOn de terrenos donde se sembrará arroz.Básicamente en este método se ajustan o corrigen las líneas de contorno de un mapa topogr&fico. para luego nivelar dentro de ~11a.Las ventajas practicas de este ~ktodo son: a.Se pueden ¡¡suavizar ll las curvas de contorno ahorrando un gran movimiento de tierra y facilitando labores mecánicas. El miWlG lote después de la construcción de 18$ \"\"bordas paralel.s y la nivelación de las melgas..  EjemplQ de \"\"¡culos de nivelación por.1 método del contorno. L. C. repretenta la curva corregi. de eoUl100.00.hasta 15 cm en suelos profundos de mayor pendient~.Debe anotarsp. que siquiendo el procedimiento descrito, la superficie de cada melga queda con la pendiente natural de terreno. Esto es, la superficie es inc1inada~ Cuando se qUiere mejorar aún m~s la efic1encia del riego, se pueden proceder a hacer una segunda nivelación bajo agua por el metodo conocido como IIfangueo!l aunque también podrh realizarse en seco, es menos práctico. En este caso, la superficie de cada una de las melgas queda a nivel.La Figura 4 presenta un 10te de terreno donde se efectu6 previamente una nivelación, y posteriormente a ésta se construyeron las rebordas. Puede observarse en este caso, que las rebordas tienden a ser paral~las entre sí, no presentan quiebres abruptos y la longitud de las mismas tiende a ser mucho menor que en suelos sin nive1ar~ Por otra parte, se puede también observar que el tamafto de las melgas es ltuy similar entre s!. La Figura 3 presenta el mismo lote, donde pr1mero se construyeron las rebordas conformando melgas rectaflgu \\ares de i gua 1 tamaño, PQsteri ormente se ni ve 16 independientemente cada melga, hasta obtener una superficie plana. En este último método los cortes y rellenos de tierra fueron mayores, y consecuencialmE:nte su costo fue más alto, pero en compensaci6n la eficienció en el manejo del agua de riego es mayor y los CO'itos de producción pueden ser menores.Ob~etivos del disefto. Los objetivos Msicos de un disefto de campo son: obtener un eflciente uso del agua de riego, reducción de los requerimientos de mano de obra, facilidad de operación de la maquinaria de preparación y cosecha, y facilidad de acceso para efectos de supervisión del cultivo.Tamano de las melgas. El primer paso a seguir en la construcción de los dfques o caballones. es definir el tamai'lo IMxímo que pueden tener las melgas para que puedan ser irrigadas eficientemente t con el caudal disponible de riego. El tamaño mlnimo aceptable es de 1/4 a 1/5 de hect~rea.Forma de las melgas. La fonna de las melgas es muy importante, por 10 tanto) se debe• buscar que 1a forma final se aproxime a la rectangular por las razones antes expuestas. Las rebordas o cabdllones deben se rectos o en curvas muy suaves y paralelas entre 51. La forma rectangular constitulr& la forma ideal por cuanto facilitará la ap1icación del agua de riego y la operación de la maquinaria de preparación y de cosecha.La longitud máxima de ¡as melgas debe ser de 200 m. cuando se drena en un solo extremo o hasta 400 m. cuando se drena en ambos sentidos~ El ancho mloírno de las melgas debe ser de 12 ID para permitir espacio suficiente para la operación de la maquinaria* Distancia vertical entre rebordas o cabal1ones~ El intervalo vertical ideal entre diques varia entre 5 a 12 cm, segun la menor o mayor pendiente natura 1 del terreno. Intervalos verti cales menores a ~stO$ pueden utilizarse en terrenos muy planos para reducir el tamano de las melgas y hacerlas compatibles con el caudal disponible de riego~ Algunas veces los intervalos verticales pueden ser mayores en peque~as partes, para mantener un ancho mínimo de las melgas de 12 m.Oimens, afies de los caba 11 ones. La altura de 10$ caba 11 ones previ amente asentados debe ser 19ual a la suma de la distancia vertical entre caballones, mas la profundidad del agua a aplicar y de un bordo libre no menor de 9 cm. ~ para proveer protección contra la acci6n de las olas. Para caballones no compactos se debe adicionar por 10 menos 9 cm para asentamiento.La altura de construcción de un dique de riego t1pico con intervalo de La pend í eote de los 1 ados de 1 di que no debe ser menur de 3: 1. Esto Significa Que para un dique de 25 cm (asentado; y JO cm de coronO t el ancho de la base debe ser aproxlvlaaamente de 1.80 m~ Usualmente se construye un pequeño canal en el lado superior de lOS diques. Este canal tiene una profundidad no menor de 15 cm con taludes de 1.5:1. El material excavado para la construcción del canal se usa en la conformación del caballón. Este canal es usado tanto para drenar cada melga~ como para dirigir dentro de la melga al agua de riego.V1as carreteables Cada una de las meigas en contorno debe tener acceso a través de una vía carreteable. Estas vfas tienen una particular importancia si la cosecha tiene que racerse dtlrante un el ima 11 uvio$o. La Figura 6 pr'esenta el diseño de un lote de arroz con fllelgas en contorno. En la miSfi1dT\"ho~d~ cu\",:r\",\",,,,,,,, ___ , \\J vil'iwade. ilustración se pUéde observar la forma y dinY:nsiones de los caminos~ los caballones y los métodos para la aplicación y control del agua.El sistema de distribuci6n consiste de las facilidades requeridas para conducir el agua, desde la fuente de suministro hasta el punto más alto de cada lote a irrigar. Generalmente el agua es conducida por canales abiertos elevados. Estas facilidades tal11bién incluyen las estructuras y v~lvulas de distribución y medición, requeridas para controlar y dirigir el agua de los canales a los campos, en las cantidades adecuadas.La capacidad del sistema de conducción debe ser igual o mayor que la suma de los caudales de riego mlnimos requeridos de cada lote. Debido a que la entrega del agua a los lotes se hace por gravedad, el agua se debe conducir más alta que la su~rficie del terreno y la cabeza hidráulica no debe ser menor de 15 cm. El bordo libre del canal de conducciOn no debe ser inferior de 45 cm y sus taludes deben tener pendiente de 1.5:1.En el riego del arroz hay cuatro operaciones diferentes. La Figura 7 presenta esquemAticamente, a manera de ejemplo. el manejo del riego durante un ciclo completo del desarrollo del cultivo. Este esquema solamente se presenta como una guía general, por cuanto pueden haber variaciones con el tipo de preparación del suelo, variedad del arroz~ el clima, las caracter1sticas de los suelos y el manejo de la inundaci6n. Además en la práctica c;e pueden presentar tlecesidades imprevistas que obligan a cambiar el esquema propuesto.Por cada una de las operaciones del riego se debe contar con dos tipos diferentes de estructuras. La primera de éllas se refiere al control y derivaciOn del agua del canal de riego a las melgas. Generalmente consta de; a) el regulador del nivel del agua; y b) compuerta de entrada de agua. los reguladores de agua del canal regador pueden ser simplemente trinchas de bambú o de madera~ como el que presenta la Figura 8. Las compuertas de entrada pueden ser tubos de aluminio corrugado como el que presenta la Figura 6 o compuertas de madera como la que aparece en la Figura 9.El segundo tipo de estructura esencial para la operaci6n del riego es el canal que se construye en el lado superior de cada dique. Este conduce al agua, primero a 10 largo de la parte inferior de cada melga, después cuando 1 :t Fi,ego. d;¡¡ !fQrm;\"MC><'''' y f'tta\"lue,,,,¡e\"1e :3 _\" í~ m.') R.,¡gtI re''';:''''''al 7I,.,,,,,daden ?r;l\"\"\"fl~W. ,,,,,,,na m¡j~ ~!Ia U Or\"r\"~J;¡ ;;:0\"'1>1''110 Figura 7.Esquema dé! manejo del agua en un affozal en función de las etapas de desarrollo de la planta para variedades de 140 días..  00$ si,temas ,para regar un campo, A, riego por grupol de terrazas, lotes pendientes, (1 entrada de agua pata 3 tertazas en el caso de la figura); B, riego por terrazas inde.pendientes (1 entrlldll de a9'la por tenaza). Se nota qué ra pel'\\diellte débíl ha permi• tido reducir elllÓmérQ d4I tenaas y de reguladores en el canal, En ambos caros, el drenaje-puede hacerse por terraza, el canal está lleno. el agua empieza a cubrir unifonnemente el área sin erosionar. Además es importante cuando se trata de desaguar el terreno, asi que debe tener acceso a un canal de drenaje. El correcto uso de este canal puede mejorar sustancialmente la eficiencia del riego y por consiguiente representa una gran econom1a del agua.la entrada del agua al terreno se puede hacer en dos formas, bien Sea Con una compuerta para un grupo de melgas y paso entre él1as, o haciendo una entrada individual para cada melga. La Figura 10 representa estos dos sistemas. La desventaja del primer sistema estriba en que se deben constru1r vertederos en los diques que regulen el nivel del agua a cada melga del grupo~ pero se requieren menos compuertas de entrada y de reguladores de nivel en el canal regador. La segunda fonna pennlte una mejor regu1aci6n de entrada de agua a cada parcela. disminuye roturas de los d;ques~ evita al regador la entrada al campo para revisar los vertederos y permite manejar el riego de una me1ga en forma independiente de las demás cuando sea necesario. Esta forma presenta como desventaja e1 que se necesita una mayor cantidad de estructuras, 10 cual en suelos no planos {con melgas pequeñas) tienen una mayor incidencia en los costos.COíll;) en los otros métodos de riego por gravedad, la eficiencia en el uso del agua en el método de melgas en contorno t depende de las características físicas del suelo, el diseño, planeamiento y construcción del sistema, y el cuidado en la operación. Asumiendo una buena planeacíón. construcción y operación, se puede obtener una eficiencia de riego del orden del 50 E. Tascón J.El desarrollo del cultivo en el mundo ha sido paralelo a los avances en irrigación. ehandler, (1979) indica que el aumento de la producción arrocera en Colombia ha sido consistente con el incremento en el lirea irrigada, aparte del empleo de nuevaS variedades y otras tecnologlas. Por otra parte, es importante considerar que el agua afecta, tanto el earacter flsico de la planta de arroz, como su nutrición y competencia con las malezas; incidiendo estas interacciones sobre el rendimiento (Oe Oatta, I98l) .En este art1cul0 se discuten, los requerimientos de agua, los efectos de su manejo y los métodos de riego.Los requerimientos de agua para una cosecna normal var1an con las condiciones climáticas\" las condiciones fhicas del suelo, el manejo del cultivo y el periOdo vegetativo de la variedad. EsUn representados por el uso ~onsuntivo y las p~rdidas de agua.Se COnoce como uso consuntivo, el agua necesaria para cubrir la transpiración de la planta, la evapora~ión desde la superficie del suelo y la usada en formación del follaje. El uso consuntivo (E.T.) constituye un componente fundamental del gasto de agua por el ~ultivo. la otra parte del gasto esta representada por la percolaciOn profunda y laS pérdidas laterales por filtración a través de la capa superfícial del suelo, incluidos los nruros o diques finales. A nivel de finca deben tomarse en cuenta otras pérdidas que ocurren en la conducción y aplicación del riego, las cuales pueden alcanzar un volumen tan grande corro 30% del total disponible.En la Figura 1, puede verse esquematicamente el balance de agua para una parcela sembrada de arroz* donde el riego, la lluvia y en menor grado el agua capilar, compensan el gasto del cultivo.Analicemos cada uno de los componentes del sistema .svaporacíOn Se refiere a la pérdida de agua desde el suelo saturado o sumergido generada por la diferente presión de vapor entre la superficie del suelo y la atmósfera. Está directamente relacionada Con la radiación solar y 1a temperatura, y en relación inversa con la humedad ambiental y la cobertura del suelo por el cultivo. la capacidad de retener el vapor, o sea la energh advectíva del aire, y su velocidad inciden directamente sobre 18 evaporación incrementándola.  Estudios realizados en el IRRI (1970), indican que la evaporaciOn en el cultivo durante los primeros días, es casi igual a la obtenida en tanques (evaporímetros) pero a medida que el cultivo se desarrolla y cubre el suelo, la evaporación se reduce en forma acentuada mientras que la transpiración aumenta (Figura 2).Est& relacionada igualmente con el ambiente, principalmente la radiación, e influida por el aumento de Momasa del cultivo. El agua incluída o sea la cantidad de agua retenida por la planta para formar tejidos. sólo alcanza el 2%, según Mela 1971. siendo el resto evaporado a través de los estomas. la transpiraci6n ocurre principalmente en horas diurnas, ya que en la noche. sólo transpira entre un 5 a 10%. Johnson (1972) indica que la planta evapora aproximadamente 1.1 1111\\ de agua diariamente por cada 100 cal-gr/cm2/dla. 10 cual representa entre 3.3 y 6.6 mm/día para lugares del trópico.Normalmente los anteriores fen6menos se estudian conjuntamente y se les denomina evapotranspiración (E.T.) (Figura 2). Según De Oatta (1975), la evapotranspiración en el trópico en ~poc.s húmedas varla entre 3-5 mm y en épocas secas de 5-7 mm como promedio del ciclo del cultivo. Ougkingo y levine (1975), dan para el trópico valores promedios de 4 a 6 y valores altos de 6 a 8 m para épocas secas con viento. En República Dominicana, Castillo !lk.Al. (1977). realizaron estudios de LT. y detenoinaron un promedio varietal de 6.8 a 7.2 mm por dia en primavera (época de lluvias).con variaciOn entre 3 y 11 1Ml. Para la época seca, el promediO varietal estuvo entre 7.5 y 8.1 mm/dia y varió entre 3 y 12 mm/día. según edad del cultivo y las condiciones ambientales; la diferencia en LT. varietal se debió a la duración de su ciclo. En la Costa del Perú. Cumpa (1981) encontró un uso consuntivo medio de 7.37. 6.82 Y 6.09 para los años 76. 77 Y 78 respectivamente~ La evaporaci6n fue en todos los casos baja, menor de 3.5 La relación entre estas dos variables ha sido utilizada en algunos lugares con el f1n de ca1cular el uso consuntivo en base a la evaporación en tanques con fondo. Ensayos realizados en IRRl (1978), arrojaron los siguientes resultados:Relación E.T. = 396 = 1.29 (1966 per1odo  Las anteriores cifras indican una menor relación, E.T./E. durante la época húmeda, mientras que en los periodos secos la relación tiende a ser mayor. Esta nos permite realizar cálculos teóricos sobre el uso consuntivo, en base a la evaporación registrada en el área, para una época de cultivo.Existen otras fórmulas teóricas, basadas en estudios hidro16gicos, para calcular el uso consuntivo, p.e. Penman y Thornthwhile, pero su empleo es más dispendioso y requierede mayor informaci6n el imática.Depende de la topograf1a, textura y estructura incrementa con la altura de la lámina de agua embalsada, los caballones y presencia cercana de canales de drenaje conoce como pérdida por drenaje. del suelo. Se permeabilidad de prOfundos. Se le En CIAT, Valderruten (1979), determinó pérdidas de agua de filtración por metro de longitud de dique o cabal16n de 20 lts/hora, con láminas hasta de 8 cms y hasta 60 lts por hora por metro, con alturas de agua mayores.Según Johnson (1972), estas pérdidas son mayores en lotes pequeños, pues tienen una proporción alta entre los diques perimetrales y el área inundada.Se refiere a la pérdida de agua por infiltración profunda. Esta pérdida se relaciona también con la textura y estructura del suelo. Además suelos con niveles freáticos altos y formaciones impenneables nClay-pan\", \"Hard-pan\", no permiten pérdidas mayores por percolación. Por el contrario l&minas altas de riego incrementan la percolaci6n y numerosos trabajos han demostrado su relación directa con el gasto de agua por el cultivo. Se ha demostrado que el IIfangueo ll disminuye las pérdidas por percolaci6n, lo cual contribuye a mantener la inundación y a espaciar el riego. Los suelos livianos presentan altos consumos de agua (hasta 10 rrm/día) debido a la rápida percolación, Cheaney (1975).Suministro artificial de agua proveniente de r10s, lagos o pozos. La procedenci a de 1 agua genera 1 mente se re 1 aci ona con su ca 1; dad, en func i ón al contenido de sales disueltas en élla. También con el costo en su suministro y las pérdidas de conducción, según la distancia de la fuente, la naturaleza del suelo y las estructuras disponibles.Se refiere al total de la precipitaCión, retenida por el suelo, que puede ser aprovechada por la planta. El resto del agua se pierde por escorrent1a lateral y puede ser un factor de erosión. Los principales factores que afectan la efectividad de la lluvia son: frecuencia e intensidad, pendiente del terreno, velocidad de infiltración del agua, y la capacidad total de retención del suelo. Además la cobertura y rugosidad del suelo, favorecen la retención e inflltración y 10 contrario sucede con ld compactación superficial.Artificialmente puede mejorarse la eficiencia del agua lluvia, mediante la construcción de caballones y desde luego, la nivel.ción e incluso el faogueo. como se realizQ en algunos lugares del Asia.Es el agua que asciende a travlis de los tubos c.pilares del suelo. Solo tiene alguna importancia, como fuente de agua~ en suelos finos que poseen nivel freatico alto.Los estudí os efectuados en re 1 ac i ón con 1 a i nteracc i 5n ri ego-cu 1t i \\JO demuestran que el agua influye no sólo en el aspecto físico de las plantas, sino en la disponibilidad de nutrimentos y en la pobl.ciÓn y especies de malezas presentes. Además influye en la incidencia de algunas plag.s y enfermedades.los per1odos de mayores requerimientos de humedad son el establecimiento de las plantas, el macollamiento y, desde la diferenciación hasta el llenado del grano. Situaciones de \"stress\" iniciales inciden sobre 1. población del cultivo y el número de hijos por planta, mientras que en la fase reproductiva pueden afectar el número de panojas diferenciadas~ el número de granos llenos y el peso de los mismos, según el momento en que el agua falte. El período más crHico se considera el momentu alrededor de la diferenciación de la panícula. IRRI (1972). Otros estudios, citados por Alvarodo, (1978), atribuyen incrementos en el rendimiento a drenaje aplicadO un poco antes de la diferenciación del primordio. Dicho aumento es explicado por la eliminaciOn de sustancias tóxicas en algunos suelos o, por cesar la producción de hijos no validos.Estuoi os de 1 I RRI (1970), Se presentan en el Cuadro 1, perro; ten ver efectos sobre el ciclo del cultivo, el rendimiento y el total de agua consumida~ en relación con diferentes períodos de Ustress\" y demuestran que la deficiencia de a9ua en cualquier momento del ciclo afecta al cultivo.En relación con las malezas~ existe diferencia notable entre especies y el desarrollo de las mismas, de acuerdo con el manejo del agua. Estudios del IRRI, citados por Vega y Paller (1975), muestran que con saturación del suelo o Uminas bajas (2.5 cms), crecen más gramíneas y ciper~ceas, las cuales son eliminadas con láminas de 15 ems desde el transplante; en cambio, malezas de hoja ancha se disminuyen pero no pueden ser eliminadas.La Figura 3, muestra los cambios mencionados en la poblaCión y tipos de malezas en arroz transpTantado. T = transplante; MMmáxima producción de macollas; JP = inicio panoja E aparición de panoja; M = madurez s stress a 50 eb; i = inundaci6n contYnua La profundidad de la lámi~a de agua también influye sobre su co~sumo y el rendimiento. Los trabajos del IRRi han demostrado que la altura del acua afecta no sólo lQS rendimientos sino que incrementa el uso del aguo.. Trabajos rea 11 zados en CAT confi rmaron los efectos negat i ves. T asc(m (1982), para láminas altas de agua (Cuadros 2 y 3). Cuadro 2. Efectos de la altura del agua y el drenaje (7 dlas' pc    Las fonuds ce a;:dicación y Manejo del agua en el cultivo en Améric.a Latina, son muy variadas dependiendo de la infraestructura desarrollada, el tipo de cultivG y la topografía de la zona. Es factible encontrar desde IIterrilzas\" en valles altos clel Perú y en República Dominicana, hasta métcdos de riego \"corrido ll y de aspersión. Para describir los ~todos de riego 01~S. comunes se han dividido de acuerdo al modo y frecuencia de aplicación y a la permanencia del agua sobre el suelo. A continuac1(m Se reseñan los nás comunes.En este métOdo el agua es apl icada permanentemente, manteniendo la a Hu ra cons~ante. Ex i ge de una buena ddecuac i 6n y contro 1 de 1 rí ego. pero tiene potencial para rendünientos óptimos. Cliando la lámina es baja, 2.5 crns. lJis plantas tienden a ser de menor tamaño. con mayor número de hijos; además de tener menor tendeo¡cia al vuelco# Requiere de óptima nivelacién y eficiente control de malezas. (De Datta et al~ 1975).Láminas medias (2.5 a 7.5 c¡:\\s) son igualmente eficientes para producir rendimientos altos. con menores proolemas de malezas y sin requerir nivelación muy afinada. al igual que cop lámina baja se requiere un mínimo de agua,2ntre 6 y 8 mil m3 ¡ha para \\Jn ciClO de 100 días de riego.Cuando la lámina es mayor de 10 cms se le considera alta y las oiferencias con las anteriores radicar en mejor control de malezas, menor número de hijos por planta y mayores pérdidas de ague por percolación e infiltración lateral.Las. plantas tienden a ser altas con predisposicí6n al vuelco. Se requieren, como mfnino 7 a 10 mil m3 de agua/ha y los rendimientos pueden ser menores (De Datta, 1975).Dentro de este método podr1a estar la mayor parte de los cu1tívo~ con riego en nuestros países. La variación de Umina obedece a nivelación desuni forme , pendiente dentro de los lotes o melgas y aplicaciones escalonadas del riego que permiten cambios en el nivel de agua.Cuando no se tienen problemas por nivelación y la frecuencia de aplicación es adecuada~ sin permitir secar el suelo t el potenCial de rendimiento es alto. El consumo de agua es variable~ report&ndose gastos de agua entre B y 15.000 m3/ha.Se diferencia del anterior en que la frecuencia de aplicación es amplia; permitiendo secar el suelo entre riegos. Las plantas son más cortas y las malezas son favorecidas. Algunos ensayos muestran que cuando se permite secar el suelo para volver a inundarlo, las cantidades de agua utilizada por el cultivo son mayores y el rendimiento puede verse afectado~ especialmente cuando se tiene Il stress ll de humedad durante la fase reproductiva.Sistema muy utilizado en Colombia en suelos no sometidos á nivelación.Se practica este método levantando pequefios diques, con tractor o pala, para distribuci6n del agua, siguiendo las curvas a nivel. El agua es apiieada en el sitio .\"s alta del lote y llevada de una franja a otra por rebozamiento en los muros. El método no permite embalsar o tener una l~mina de agua. salvo en sitios bajos, al lado de los caballones o en áreas con mínima pendiente. En lotes inclinados existe riesgo de erosión, especialmente cuando se rompen los diques altos.Según la forma como el agua se suministre hay dos sub-métodos, el agua es aplicada continuamente sin permitir que el suelo se seque, o el agua es aplicada rotacional y el cultivo puede sufrir deficiencia, especialmente en partes altas del terreno. En ambos casos se tiene un potencial para rendimientos altos § pero e1 segundo puede tener reducciones, especialmente en épocas muy secas~ Las malezas son un factor critico en ambas formas de cultivo.Utilizando este método, los distritos de riego en el Tolima reportan un gasto promedio de 13.300 m3 de agua por hectlrea (Colombia, 1980). En la misma zona los agricultores que \"fanguean\" solo emplean 7 a 8.000 m3(ha.Los prOblemas que tienen estos métodos, en general son:1. Altos requisitos de mano de obra especia1izada en manejo de1 riego 2. Incremento en el gasto de agua por escorrentía y pérdida de conducción 3. Mayor problema con malezas, por germinación escalonada, haciendo dificil un control eficiente Las prinCipales ventajas son: bajo costo en adecuaci6n del suelo y la factibilidad de rotación • . Riego pq.r aspersión El sistemd por riego aéreo ha sido tenido como un recurso de suplementación para cultivos de secano, en pertodos críticos de humedad. Sin embargo) con el sistema de Upivote central u (automatizado), en Estados Unidos y algunos paises centroamericanos, se ha venido utilizando en arroz. Un ensdyo realizado por Ferguson y Gilniour (1977), en Arkansas con diferentes frecuencias de riego, tuvo 10$ mejores resultados cuando se regó dos veces semanales hasta la fase reproductiva y luego diariamente; los rendimientos fueron semejantes a los obtenidos bajo inundación (5000-5200 kS). ConCluye que este método gasta solo la mitad del agua y no requiere nivelaeiijo. Mientras que en el Brasil, ensayos hechos por Cruz (1975) y Diniz 0976}, tuvieron menores rendimientos con riego de aspersi6n que con inundación. Encontraron en ambos casos alta proporci6n de espiguillas estéril es.En América Latina alrededor del 70% del cultivo depende de las lluvias para su abastecimiento de agua. Son los arroces llamados de secano o tempúfdl.El rem:'imiento está condtcionado al volumen de la precipitación, su distribución y al suelo. SegUn De Datta (1981) 900 a 1000 mm durante la temporada de cultivo son suficientes para obtener buenos rendimientos. Para éllo se requlere que los suelos sean fértiles y la topografía plana.El rnanejo del agua dentro de este sistema de .cultivo puede inclulr drenajt: cuando se trata de áreas bajas y planas, con lluvias superiores a ¡OOO 1Tfl1) las cuales se acumulan causando buen desarrollo de 'as plantas, pero dificultddes en la mecanización del terreno. Cuando las lluvias son menores de 1000 mm~ o superan esta clfra pero son irregulares, se requiere construcción de diques e incluso nivelación, a fin de hacer mas aprovechab\"¡e el agua de lluvia (De üatta, 1981).Dentro de la parte correspondiente a manejo del agua, se trató sobre los efectos que, durante el cic10 del cultivo, tiene la falta de agua; ahora bien: la pregunta es~ hasta cu~ndo debe mantenerse la inundación o riego para lograr el máximo beneficio? Trabajes realizados en e1 IRRI y ei Brasíl~ den~estran que e1 corte del riego pasada la floración, es decir. 30 d1as antes de 1 a cosecha f produjeron igud i que tratamientos regados posteriormente y que la demora en el drenaje puede afectar la calidad del grano; sin emba.rgo, el corte del riego, y sobre todo el drenaje O retiro del agua del campo~ debe consultar varios aspectos como lámina de agua existente t capacidad de retención de agua, drenaje interno del suele y el cl1ma, puesto que el tiempo entre floración y maduración, representa el per'odo de mayor acumulación de materia seca~ lo cual se refleja en el m~ximo uso consuntivo del c1c10 t alcanzando d veces 12 o m;js m/dh. Castillo y otros (1977). As; pues, en épocas secas y sobre todo en suelos sueltos de baja. retención de humedad, el riego debe prolongarse hasta una o dos semanas antes de madurez (Cheaney, 1975). Lo anterior es también v~lido para los métodos donde el agua no es retenida sobre el suelo y los terrenos son pendientes.Por otra parte • • 1 drenaje tardío se atribuye la posibilidad de sobremaduraci6n y rotura del endosperma del grano y puede dar lugar a incremento del desgrane, vuelco y problemas para efectuar la cosecna (Ortega. 1971).El riego contribuye a estabilizar los rendimientos del cultivo.La aplicación de láminas de agua al cultivu favorece la nutrición, el control de malezas~ plagas, enfermedades y la eficiencia de los fertilizantes aplicados.Los requerimientos de agua durante la fase vegetativa son bajos y el riego puede ser aplicado rotacionalmente, con 10 cual se favorece el macolJamiento y se tienen planta mas bajas.Para la fase reproductiva y a partir de iniciaci6n del primordio floral. se incrementa el gasto de agua par la planta y de preferencia el cultivo debe w4ntenerse inundado en esta fase. Debido a que la anterior informaci6n no es espec1fica sobre América Latina se efectu6 un estudio (Gonzalez, et al, 1981) para determinar cuáles eran las malezas comunes en esta zona, su distribución y su importancia en los dos sistemas de cultivo: riego y secano. En el Cuadro 1, se detalla la distribución y clasificación de las malezas príncipd'ies en América Latina según el sistema de cultivo, su difusión, la capacidad de invasión y agresividad. La región se dividiO en cuatro zonas según las malezas que predominan en éllas l así: América Central, El Caribe, Sur América tropical y Sur América templada. Se observa en el Cuadro 1 que en la zona templada de Sur América la especie de Echinochloa que predomina es E. crusgal1i en vez de E. colonum, y que 1as otras malezas tampoco son importantes en la zona troPícal. También se OJta que en la zona del Caribe unaS de las malezas más difur,didas dlfieren de las de Centro América y Sur América Tropical. En general la maleza con más amplia distribución en Alrerica es Echinochloa cQlonum (L.) Link. La determInación de una espeCie en el campo debe seguir un proceso de secado, montaje y consulta directa en herbarios o en forma indirecta, por revisiones taxon6micas, en publicaciones en donde se presenten tratamientos taxonómicos; de aM que existan más de un nombre científico para una planta. Por 10 anterior puede haber confusión para el aprendizaje, pero la actualización taxonómica se hace necesaria para lograr la identificación correcta~ s.obre todo en especies muy emp¡lrentadas filogenéticamente ~ publicaCiones, tales como Weed Abstraste y Weed Science, porespecies conocidas como ¡'Clavitos de Agua\" aparecen tªcnictv\"\"'\" género Ludwigia, quedando relegado a la sinonimia, el géo' ejemplo, ser1a el de la especie Brachiaria mutica {¡:ors~ en nuestro medio como 'lpasto Para\" quedandODiJo sinon Panicum ~ascens Raddi.De vital importanCia para lograr la mejor ubicación ta malezas seria buscar la distribución geogrAfica en donde se ya que muchas de él1as se consideran adventicias en establee•, cultivos en otros centros fuera de origen.Las malezas, como miembros del reino vegetal, se clasiL grandes clases: las monocotiledOneas y las dicotiledóneas; tal unas como en las otras, encontramos malezas de gran importancia pt que cauSan al cultivo del arroz~La ra'iz primaria tiene relativamente poca duración, siendo reemp~ por raí ces secunda ri as (advent i ci as ) que se desa rro 11 an en 1 d POI epicotiledonar de la pl~ntula.Plantas generalmente con hábito herbáceo perenne~ que crecen bulbos, carmes o r;zonas. No existe cambium# Las hojas son de forma muy variada qL,/¿' por lQ gen€ral SOfl muy angostas., alternas Sitl est1pulas, con venóción paraléla, y una base generalmente envainadora (amplexicaule). En algunos mier1bros se desarrolla un corto pec1olo. los pasos florales sor. en nú~~rc de 3 o múltiplo de 3.A la clase moflocotiledónea pertenecen~ en general. plantas casi ::.ier.ipre herbáceas, oe hojas alter'nas, angostas y paralelinervias.Existen varias familias de monocotiledóneas reconocidas como malezas en el arroz. de las cuales las más importantes Son: Gram1neae; Cyperaceae, Pontederi aceae;  Dentro de las gramíneas encontramos malezas de importancia en cultivos de arroz en secano e inundación, algunas de éllas son muy comunes y dañinas; el arroz es también una gram1nea y debido a esta afinidad! se dificulta el control de las malezas de dicha familia; por ejemplo, el l1arroz rOjol! orYZá sativa L. pr&cticamente incombatible, no s610 caUSa pérdidas en el ren imlento del cultivo sino también en la calidad del grano cosechado.Las Siguientes son características tlpicas de esta familia: Hábito de crecimiento postrado, decumbente o erecto.Los tallos son generalmente huecos, pero pueden ser macizos. Poseen nudos y entrenudos.Las vdinas pueden Ser abiertas, sea con los márgenes separados o superpuestos; o bien cerradas. es decir con los margenes soldados.Pueden ser glabras o vellosas.Presentan aur1culas, las que permiten separar fácilmente un número de grami neas.Las láminas generalmente angostas y paralelinervias tienen gran variabialidad en cuanto a la consistenc1a~ a la longitud, al ancho, a 1. disposicibn (Que generalmente es dística), a la pubescencia ya la terminación del ápice.Presentan 11gula~ la que se considera de importancia ya que en algunas gramíneas falta y en otras está reducida a cilios o pestafias.Presentan inflorescencias improvistas de br~cteas.Presentan aristas~ elemento indispensable para separar grupos de gramíneas. En algunas faltan.Entre las malezas más importantes de la familia están: Echinochloa colonuro (L.) Link (Anu.l);t,~!'!'.!~2.'¡..'r!:-'~_~;L~~.,::; (Anual); Leptochloa fi hformis (Lam) Beauv. sanguinal;s (L.; Scop. {Anual; Figura 2; Oriza sativa L. indica (L.} Gaertn (Anual) Panicum faSCfCufatÜrñ-Sw.•dactyloo (L.) Pers. Ra~ces sin bulbos ni rizomas Las juncaceas por ser plantas palustres se parecen a las de las especies del género fimbristylis, pero su tallo es ci11ndrico, su fruto una cápsula globosa, sus flores con verdaderos sépalos y pétalos penniten identificarlas. Ejemplo de esta familia es ,luncujC biflorus Ell.Pertenecen a las commelináceas los gªneros de plantas de tallo carnoso, nudoso y cilíndrico, cuyas hojas, de vaina sesil, lo envuelven con su base; una característica importante es la savia mucilaginosa de estos tallos, que permite diferl2nciar las comme1in~ceas de otras familias monocotiledóneas. La especie mas importante en 105 cultivos de arroz es la CJn~lina diffusa Burm f. que puede ser anual o perenne. Anailema m\"llfTO•rum (L.) Kunth. ( 2  Existen otras familias lOOnocotiledóneas de menor importancia actual, pero con especies acuáticas de importancia regional y potencial de daño alto. Estas son : la Al i smataceae , a la que pertenecen los g~neros Sagitaria y Alisma; y la familid Butomaceae con su género limnocharis. El fruto es t1picamente una legumbre.Las ra1ces casi siempre poseen nódulos poblados de bacterias del g~n.ro Rhizobium. La maleza mis importante en esta familia es Eclipta alba (L.) Hass' de ciclo de vida anual y de ambiente húmedo.-la familia de las Euphorbiaeeas (Euphorbiaceae) se caracteriza por:Tallos y hojas laticlferos, o ju~o abundante, hojas generalmente simples, alternas, con estipulas. (Existen algunos gªneros sin latex).Caperonia palustris (L.) Sto Hil, Euphorbia hyperieifolia y L. son malezas anuales que ilustran esta famlJia.Las Convolvulac.as (Convolvulaceae) se identifican por:Plantas volubles, con hojas alternas sin estipulas y sin zarcillos Corola en forma de embudo (tubiflora)Flores vistosas, hermafroditas y actinomorfas Cinco estambres de tama~o desigual Fruto en cápsula deshiscente por 4 valvas.Las malezas mis importantes de esta familia son las especies del género lpomoea (Figura 7) de ciclo anual, como l. cansesta R. Br., 1 hirta Choisy e h reptans Poi r.-Las Amaranthacea (Amaranthaceae) se caracterizan por tener:Flores muy pequei'\\as con cáliz y coro1a reducidos a un involucro de brácteas de consistencia pajiza.Las especies del g~nero Amaranthus del ciclo anual, constituyen las  Ejemplo de malezas que producen gran número de semillas por planta ,on: Amaranthus dubius Mart. que produce al rededor de 117.400 semillas Eleusine indica (r:¡-¡;¡¡-ertn entre 50.000 y 135.000'7:\"@~~~~f# lo ,ímbri sty1TSiñll iacea Vahl. un promedio de 10.000 I \".::==l.:,i (L.) Beauv. de 5.000 a 7.000 semíllas. En el sistema de riego tenemos una mayor homogeneidad del suelo, debido a que el agua uniformiza las reacciones qulmicas a nivel de parcela y entre parcelas; sin embargo la diversidad de vida aumenta (insectos, malezas, etc.) lo que produce un ecosistema más estable.En el s i s tema de ri ego se dan subti pos de ecos i s tema, en base al manejo de agua, frecuencia del riega y naturaleza del suelo. Esto permite diversidad por tipos de malezas.Dentro de los ecosistemas inundados (Figura 8) las malezas se clasifican según el habitat que ocupen, de la siguiente manera:  De la gran variedad de malezas en arroz, algunas aparecen sólo en sistemas bajo inundación, otras en sistemas de secano y otras. son comunes en ambos sistemas.Un ejemplo de malezas existentes sólo en cultivos de secano en Latinoamérica son las especies Elli'salis angulata L .. Euphorbia hirta L, Emil;a sonchifolia (L.) OC. Y ~ra~spp.en sistema bajo inundación son por ~~~~~si1~~!sp~(,~R1af) Cory. Am¡nanl, sPP•. Existen géneros comunes en ambos sistemas como es e1 caso de Ech!nochloa y l.ptochloa, las especies Oryza k sativ, L .. Co\",,\",l ina difusa Burm. Cassia tora L., Eclipta alba (L.) Hass ,~hra spp •• Ludwig;, SPP (Juss!,.,) y rtmbristylis ,nnu¡--rAll.) R. y S.Algunas especies de Cyperus son comunes en los dos sistemas pera otras no; C. difformis (L.) es más común en sistemas bajo riego, lugares en los cuales C. rotundus lo no presenta mayor problema; del género Ipomoea la especie r.hederifol1a L no es común en arroz de inundación, pero en estas condiciones la batatilla de agua, Ipomea tili,cea, suele ser un problema grave cuando el riego es deficiente.Las malezas afectan directa o indirectamente el rendimiento del cultivo del arroz; este fenómeno se conoce can el nombre de ninterferencia\" y es de dos tipos: alelopat'a y competencia. Alelapat1a es el efecto que una planta ejerce sobre otra mediante la liberación de sustancias qu1micas; en arroz no se presenta este fenOmeno marcadamente.Competencia es la lucha de una planta con otra por los recursos del medio.En el Cuadro 3, se aprecia el efecto de la competencia de las malezas durante el ciclo de varios CUltivos; en arroz se encontr6 que las pérdidas en Colombia fluctuaron entre 30 y 73 por ciento, con un promedio de 54 por ciento. Arregocés et al, 1979, encontraron que la pérdida en la producci6n de arroz t en función de la cantidad de malezas, es de 0.815 kg de arroz por cada kg de materia seca de malezas. Medianamente nocivas: aquellas malezas dé amplia distribuci6l1~ ya establecidas pero de fácil control, o difídles de controlar perc que toduv~a no se han establecido; por ejemplo el botoncill0, Eclypta alba (L.)levementt! nocivas; sor' aquellas malezas nciles de controlar y que no son agresivas; cor;IO la paja blanca, Chloris pclydactila (L.) $wartz.En un experirner,t.o en suelos fangueados Arregocés. et  Si bien el efecto de la competencia de las plantas por diferentes factores ambientales de la producción: Agua. luz, espacio, nutrimentos y CO, se realiza en forma integral, es cornunmente aceptada la pr~ponderancia de algunas malezas sobre otras, en la interferencia hacia el CUltivo de alguno de los factores anotados. En este sentido las malezas se agrupan espeCialmente teniendo en cuenta su morfología y fisiologla.Las especies de plantas más altas que el cultivo, con capacidad para interferir la cantidad y calidad de la luz sobre las plaotas de arroz, especialmente durante sus estados iniciales de desarrollo. son consideradas como competidoras por luz, independientemente de la interferencia alta o baja por otro factor. Dos especies de malezas que compiten especialmente por luz son Rottboellía exaltata L.F. y Sesbania exaltata (Raf). Cory, pues tienen 1 a capad dad de sobrepasar 1 a altura de 1 arroz ( Locate 11 i Y 0011, 1977). Tamilién pueden incluIrse entre ellas E. Crus-galli y arrOl rojo.Caso cont,..arlo se presenta con uoa maleza acuátlca de •poca al tura, que prospera en cultivos de arroz~ Heteranthera reniformis R. et P •• debido a que esta maleza se desarrolla blen bajo condlclones de poca luz, especialmente cuando la tasa de transmisión de luz se reduce a menos del 25 por ciento (Gabela,1975).En campos sembrddos con la variedad IR 5 la competencia de las m31ezas por luz causó una reducción significativa en el fndice d~ área foliar y en la tasa de transmisHm de luz, 10 que a su vez reduce los rendimientos (Okafor y De Datta, 1976).Las pl antas var1an mucho en cuanto a sus requeriMientos de agua~ La competencia pOr' agua es generalmente más ímportante que la competencia por luz porque comienza antes que éstd. La competencia por agua es mayor cuando las raíces del cultivo y de las malezas están intercalados ú muy cerca unas de otras s y obtienen agua df!l mismo volumen del suelo. Esto significa que la competencia de las malezas por el agua es mayor en arroz rle secano que en el de riego~ Cuando se presentan períodos de sequla y el arrozal está poblado de cesarrollo, afectacus, malezas.mientras el arroz sufre deficiencia de agua y reduce su los cultivos libres de ma1ezas resultan menosEn la cOM¡it:tencia por nutrimentos las malezas generalMente absorben tanto o wás elew€ntos que leS plantas de cultivo.En tJr'l experir,¡ento realizado en el CIAT {1974} , se encontró que sin control de malezas el rendimiento de arroz fue inferior donde se aplicaron 100 kg de nitrógeno por hectárea, que donde se no aplic5 dicho fertnüante. Por el contrario. cer-un buen control de malezas la apl icación de N perm-:tió el dumento en los rendimientos en 800 kg de drrozlhd.El efecto de las malezas en el rendimíento del cultivo de arroz.  Relación entre el peso seco de ta maleza C. rotundU$ y el rendimiento del arroz en secano, con diversos niveles de N. 'RRI, 1972 estación lIu• viosalDe Datta, 19741. negativa entre el peso de la maleza Cye;!US rotundu, L. y el rendimiento en la vanedad IR 5, Y que esta correlaclón es afectada por la fertilización nitrogenada. La apl1caci5n de 60 a 120 kg de N/ha incrementa significativamente los rendimientos de IR 5 con respecto a la no aplicación de N; sin embargo. los rendimientos decrecen significativamente cuando se incrementa el peso seco del Cyperus rotundus l. debido a que ai ser mayor su poblaciOn aumenta también ra competencia de ~ste con el arroz.  b) La distribucibn relativa del total de materia seca entre el cultivo de arroz y las malezas fue equilibrada.cl Hay diferencia en la absorcibn de los nutrimentos por las malezas y el cultivo de arroz. Los niveles de fósforo, cobre, manganeso y zinc fueron más altos en las p1antas de arroz; en contraste. los niveles de nitrógeno, potasio. calcio, magnesio e hierro fueron más altos en las malezas.Moody, 1981, efectub 1. más completa revisibn sobre 1. interacciOn maleza fertilizante en arroz. De manera general afirma Que las ma1ezas tiene altos reQuerimientos de nutrimentos y pueden tener mayor contenido de minerales que el arroz (Cuadro 4). la cantidad de nutrimentos requer1da por las malezas que crecen en asociaci5n con el arroz es extremadamente variable y depende de muchos factores como: per1odo de competencia, dosis de fertilizante, tiempo de ap1icación, variedad de arroz, composici6n de la comunidad de malezas y su control.El principal efecto de la competencia por espacio es e1 alargamiento excesivo del tallo y un bajO macollamiento, 10 cual produce el volcamiento de las plantas. La competencia por espacio de los cultivos de arroz se estima que es más crítica en la etapa de macollamiento; éste puede reducirse al igual que el 1ndice de área foliar~  En el Cuadro 5 vemos 1 d cornpetenci a que se da entre ma 1 ezas de diferentes tipos y el atroz, en un ecosistema inundado. En estos ecosistemas no hay~ o es muy poca, la corr,petencía por agua, pero sí existe fuerte COfllpetencla por espacio~ especialmente por parte de malezas flotantes como Eichornia sp. y por espacio y nutrimentos t en particular por ma lezas emergentes'cofficCyperus. difformi s (L.) Retz. Son hos edantes de la as a entes CO onum l.ln y otras eSpeCl€S e gram neas t que crecen en los arrozales. son hospedantes de insectos, como Sogatodes OI t zicOla Muir t transmisor de la enfermedad uvirus de la hoja btanca u • arias de las enfermedades importantes, tienen entre las malezas sus hospederos alternantes.Aumentan los costos de producción. los agricultores arroceros acostumbran hacer preparaciones de suelos muy especiales con el objeto de eliminar el mayor núrrero de malezas. Muchos agricultores hacen un riego, esperan la germinaCión de las malezas, preparan el suelo, hacen otro riego, esperan la nueva germinaci6n de malezas y preparan nuevamente con el objeto de evitar .1 cultivo la competencia de altas pOblaciones de malezas. El control de las malezasfya se haga manualmente o con herbicidas, eleva notoriamente los costos de producción, especialmente para especies difíciles.Limitan la selecci6n de los cultivos. En campos arroceros sembrados consecutlVamente por varios años, y debido a las condiciones ambientales que este cultivo exige y al sistema de siembra que se adopta, se incrementan algunas especies de malezas hasta que llegan a hacer el cultivo del arroz poco remunerativo y obligan a sembrar otra especie. Este es el caso de malezas como el lIarroz rojol! Oryza ~ L Y Rottboellia exaltata L.F.Disminuyen el valor de la tierra. Malezas de particular agresividad y de fáci I multiplicaCión como Cyperus rotundus L. que se propaga mediante bulbos,tubérculos y rizomas, afecta el valor de la tierra donde prolifera por la disminución que causa en los rendimientos y las dificultades para su control.Dificultan la cosecha. Malezas como Echinochloa !ip., Leptochloa spp. y Qi[ltaria sp~~ forman una masa vegetal abundante, por la cantidad de hojas y tálTOs\"-qve producen, lo que dificulta el corte con las combinadas y en el corte manual hacen difícil y dispendiosa la tarea. Otras malezas de tipo voluble) de 10s géneros Ipomoea y Cucumfs, producen tallos muy largos que se enredan en las plantas y forman masas compactas que dificultan el avance de las cosechadoras. En muchas oportunidades también pueden causar el volcam;ento del arroz. con pérdidas de grano apreciables.rano o rechazo de rano para sem1l1a* T.mbi~n afecta la calidad del arroz el Phaseolus lathyroides L.(Macroptilium lath~roides (l.) Urb. (nombre nuevo) cuando se cosecha junto con el arroz, debi O a que su semilla tiene similar peso a la de éste y es difIcil de separar durante las labores de beneficio. El consumidor rechaza grano con semillas negras y el precio se demerita.Otras semillas de malezas que se mezclan con las del arroz y que son di fj ei l es de separar son: SOr¡¡hUm ha le~ense (l.)   El propósito del presente artIculo es proveer informaciOn en el manejo de las malezas, fncluyendo las técnicas agronómicas convenientes y los productos herbicidas de mayor uso actual. a fIn de tener una referencia fácil para técnicos de campo.El control de las malezas en 105 arrozales es indispensable, pero el grado de efectividad y el logro de los propósitos, se puede conseguir por varios sistemas, basados en el conocimiento del suelo, de las condiciones ecológicas, de los costos regionales y de la población de malezas; para tener una medida de su valor y seleccionar los sistemas más adecuados, el análisis envuelve elementos técnicos. económicos, sociológicos y políticos.Existen varios métodos de control que pueden ser usados. Algunos tradicionales que est!n basados en técnicas comunes, adaptadas a la región y a cada sistema de cultivo; otros más rectentes~ generalmente incluyen los herbicidas. los cuales son utilizados por menos gente. Debe tenerse en cuenta que una medida de control, por si sola, no es suficiente, mientras que la combinación de varios sistemas puede ser empleada para lograr los mejores resultados dentro de condiciones econ6micas.Las técnicas de control tradicionales son bien conocidas y utilizadas por los cultivadores de arroz, por 10 cual se revisarfi:n sin entrar en mayores detalles en la descripción de éllas.El principio del manejo de malezas consiste en crear condiciones favorables al cultivo y desfavorables a la maleza, p.e., cuando hay pOSibilidades de riego yagua abundante, una irrigación previa a la siembra, seguída por drenaje, puede causar la germinaci6n de malezas que estén en condiciones de hacerlo y permitir su destrucción antes de sembrar. Otro ejemplo se reftere al uso de semilla limpia. La efectividad de cualquier medid. de control ser~ reducida si la semilla de arroz para la siembra lleva semillas de malezas, sobre todo las clasificadas como nocivas. La importancia de un programa de producción de semilla pura, se enfatiza lo mismo que el uso de la variedad mejor adaptada a la región, la cual competira mejor contra las malezas. Se efectúa con herramientas accionadas por la fuerza humana~ animal {) rliecanica. Es el arral\"qlJe de las ma1ezas a man0 7 la destrucci6n de ellas con aZildóri~ pala y otra l1etTi'fIdenta manua1 o mecánica~ y con el uso de máquinas e implelf.entos.Arranoue a mano. Ej arranque de plantas con 1a mano t es un método eficaz para• elimlnar-Tas :nalas hierbas ubicadas dentro de los surcos del cultivo.cuando sea difici1 el uso de azadón, ¡¡¡aquinaria u otro método. En 10 posible debe ser practicado antes de que la maleza florezca para evitar su multiplicación por semina.La deshiérba trlliTlucl está generalmente lirlitada a pequeñas areas o lotes de selección de varledaces o multiplicación de semlllas. donde se justifica la el íminación total de las malezas y matt:riales indeseables.Labores mecalllzadas~ Pctra un efectivo control de las malezas mediante el -eniPreo~de máqulnas, las labores det'1en ser hechas en el roome\"ta oportuno.con eSPlero y repe~idamente~ El objetivo primario del arado y las rastras o rdstrillos, eS el de destruír r.~lezas por asfixia o por medio de ruptura de su parte aérea y su exposición junto con las ralces al sol. Además por colocación en condicior,es favorables para la genrinación de las semillas y partes de: propagacióf1 que serán destruidas en la próxima labor. Con la I\"laoipuhclón fTI€cánica se obtiene. dderr.ás de la destrucción de las malas hierbas, el cambio en las propiedades fisicas y de la actividad químicú~bíclógicd del suelo.Quema (1 ca1or. El calor mata las células porQ'J€ coagula el protoplasr.¡a~ El puntote' §11fco~ letal para la mayor parte de las células vegetales, se inicia a los 55 e aplicado por un tier.'.po prolongado l siendo la muerte rrás rapida a temperaturas más elevadas. Las semillas secas resistl\"'n temperaturds más dltas. y ?or mayor tiempo. que las estructuras verdes~ en las cuales las células pOSE€n mayor dctividad.Inundación. El control de rr:alezas por inundación del suelo, se efectúa ~o-aeando-con diques o caballones, la parte del terreno que se desea tratar, para luego aplicar' una lámina de agua de espesor no inferior a cinco centímetros. A menos que la lámina sea profunda y permanerte~ el problema no se solucionará porque en algunas especies las semillas tienen 1a capacidad ae germinar bajo el agua, aún a una profundidad mayor de 5 cm o sobrevivir en el suelo por más de un año.En un experimento de invernadero en el CIAT, 1973, se estudió el efecto de la inundación y la posterior preparación de la tierra por \"fangueo U para el control de \"arroz rojo\" ~ Los resuHados obtenidos indicar.que el anegamiento contínuo por un per1odo de tres a cuatro semanas, reduce de manera considerable la germinación de semillas de \"arroz rOjou.[s aquel en el cua 1 se ap 1 i can, de una manera integrada, ciertas prácticas agronómicas para crear ambiente inadecuado para las malezas.Rotación de cultivos. Algunas especies de malezas van haci~ndose caracteristlcas del cu1tivo, debido a factores an&lo905 de adaptaci6n al medio y de escape a los sistemas de control empleados en él. Por esta razón, al rotar el cultivo Con otro que requiere diferentes prácticas de manejo, o proyecta mayor o menor cantidad de sombra, O necesita un ambiente más seco o el empleo de otros agroquimicos, es un medio para hacer inadecuada las condiciones a las w~lezas y constituye un sistema de control excelente para especies dificiles, Caso plantas acuaticas como Heteranthera sp. o l_t~p~~.aris sp.Distancias y densidades de siembra. Un objetivo dentro del control de malezas en ca~stemd de siembra, es el hallar una determinada pOblaCión y distribución espacial de las plantas del cultivo, para que por medio de la competencia* principalmente por espacio, agua y luz, inhiba las plantas de malezas y no les permita progresar~ Es un hecho conocido que en arroz, con siembras ralas o transplantes amplios, traen consigo dificultades en el contro 1.Sistemas de siembra. El arroz puede ser sembrado en diferentes sistemas y densidades, puede plantarse en hileras o al voleo, con densidades muy diferentes. P,e* al utilizar semilla pregerminada o transplantet en suelo prepdrado bajo el sistema de fdngueo, con una delgada Umina de agua, se obtiene central de la mayor parte de las malezas no acu&ticas.El control de malezas causado por el transplante, se basa en varios factores. Uno en la síew.bra de semi11eros en areas pequeñas, bien preparados y libres de malezas nocivas. donde la densidad de siembra muy alta~ dificulta el desarrollo de plantas extrañas, además de que en el arranque al gur.BS pueden ser el i mi nadas antes del transp 1 ante en e 1 campo definitivo. El otro factor es que el fangueo del suelo previo al transplante, destruye la mayor parte de 105 vegetales que hubieran iníciado su desarrollo y asl dan al arroz 20 o 30 dlas de ventaja sobre las malezas, permitiendo que la competencia entre plantas sea ejercida del arroz sobre las malezas y no en el sentido contrario.Se basa en el empleo de insec.tos o de patógenos para controlar las plantas indeseables, sin causar daño a las cultivadas. Su utiUzaci6n en represión de malezas es reciente y aún no se presentan trabajos en arroz.come si en otros cultivos.Oúbi do a que algunas técni cas cul tura 1 es han resu 1 tado i nsufi dentes para resolver el problema de las malezas, el empleo de herbicidas ha a umentado en importanci a en los Ú 1 timos años, siendo esta la ci enei a agr1cola con más rapido desarrollo reciente. Sin embargo, la correcta apl icac;ór, de las prácticas culturdles es la base de un buen control y los nerbicloas deben ser cün::.iderddoS COitO un complemento a la deshierba ¡r:ecihdcd y a los otros r.1étodos culturales, cuar,do el nivel de efectividad de éstos e~ inadecuado para producil A los efectos conducentes a rendimiertos altos.En lOS paises de América Latina se encuentra una gama amplia de herbicidas de uso común en arrozales de riego 0 de secano. Una forma de agruparlos es clasificarlos por las pldntas que atacan~ como selectivos y no selectivos, y dentro de éllos por la época de aplicación en presiembra, preemerger,cid y postemergencia.Tres características son 1mportan:es en el manejo de 10$ herbicidas! selectividdd, época de aplicación y su residualidad o permanencia en el suelo.Son los que destruyen ciertas especies de malezas sin causar daño a las plantas del cuitivo~ Aún cuando su definición parece ~uy simple. la selectividad €s-e1 resu1tado de interacciones muy co;nplejas. Sin entrar er, detalles de los mecanismos, hay dos categorías principales de selectividad.Selectividad verdadera o fiSiológica. La planta r,o es afectada por el herbicida por causa de alguna de sus caracterlsticas: la presencia de una cuticula gruesa, la naturaleza de su epidermiS en relación con ia polarldad del herbicida o 1a prt:'sencia de un sistema enzimático~ Un ejemplo I\"'eciso de la selectividad fisiológico es la detoxicdción del herbicida propanil por la enzima arilacilamilasa, presente en mayor proporción en el arroz que en las malezas. la selectividad depende de la dosis del herbicida. El término selectividad, es variable, define condiciones específicas de uso de ambientes.Selectividad indirecta. Si las condiciones para la maleza y para el arroz fuerdn---las mismas, los dos serian destruidos, sin embargo. hay técnicas agronómicas que crean condiciones favorables al arroz y desfavorables a la maleza. Dependiendo de los herbicidas~ algunas de estas técnicas puefler, ser: siembra profunda, abajo de la capa del suelo tratada con herbicidas; transplante. para escapar de herbicidas q~e actúan sobre los semilleros. 10 cual da al arroz ventaja de 20 a 30 d1as sobre las n~lelas~ En ambos casos, e! cultivo escapa de la acción herbicida por el creciniento rápido de sus raíces mbs abajo del &reo tratada~ Además las aplicaciones dirigidas o localizadas, asi como la época de aplicación puede crear situaciones de selectividad en algunos casos.Por definici6n, un herbicida nO selectivo debe destruir toda la vegetac i ón presente. En efecto. algunos herbi ci das son n-o se 1 ect i ves a dosis altas. y se1ectivos a dosis bajas y pueden ser usados por el costo comparativamente bajO de su tratamiento 1 otros son no selectivos o generales a cualquier dosis. fpgca de aplicaci5n.El tiempo de aplicación de los herbicidas, debe estar de acuerdo con el estado de ld vegetación al momento del tratamiento. Dichas aplicaciones pueden red 1 izarse antes de 1 a siembra o de 1 transp 1 ante f después de 1 a siembra~ antes O después de la emergencia, y después de que hayan desarrollado las plantas. Las situaciones siguientes pueden ocurrir: Presiembra Tratamientos aplicados antes de la siewbra del arroz y antes o después de que las malezas hayan emergido. Ejemp10 Paraquat o Gliphosato, son herbicidas generales aplicados sobre el follaje de las malezas. Oxadiazon (Ronston 12L) o Bentiocarbo granulados aplicados sobre lámina de agua en suelos después de fangueados y uno a dos días antes de retirar el agua y sembrar el arroz con semilla pregerminada o seca. Entre 1 as ap 1 i caei ones en presi embra t hay tra tam; entos de pres iembra incorporada al suelo (P.l.S.). En éllQS se emplean productos de rápida volatilización. la que se evita al mezclarlos con el suelo, o herbicidas tnrnovibles en el suelo, a los cuales se les mejora su distribuci6n por medio de la incorporación.Aplicación después de que el cultivo ha sido sembrado y la semilla recibió agua para germinar~ pero antes de que las plantas del cultivo y la maleza hayan emergido del suelo, los preemergentes por ejemplo, deben ser aplicados antes (le que las malezas emerjan porque van disminuyendo su eficiencia a medida que él las crecen, a la vez que pierden la selectividad al Cultivo. El transp1ante permite una variación a este método como son las apl icaciones p05temergentes. al cultivo y preemergente a las malezas~ para lo cual sor. muy comunes los herbicidas granulados que no tienen contacto con el follaje del arroz.Tratan;ientos después de la siembra, cuando ya las malezas y el arroz hayan emergido del suelo. Se considera como postemergeocia temprana las aplicaciones hechas cuando las malezas hayan alcanzado el estado de una a dos hojas. Se considera postemergencia tardía las aplicaciones sobre plantas de mayor follaje. Los herbicidas hormonales son un buen ejemplo de productos de este tipo. mientras Propanil O Bentazón son productos aplicados en ambas épocas.La persistencia de un herbicida es el tiempo durante el cual la emergencla de las malezas eS inhibida. Los herbicidas con larga persistencia son preferidos pa~a lograr que el follaje del arroz sombree el suelo antes de que la maleza emerja. La peri;stencid en el suelo depende del herbicida, de los factores ambientales, de la '!:extura y del contenido de materia orgánica del suelo. E.n los climas tropicales es más difícil ex tender la ~ers i s tenci a de 1 herbicí da, la cua 1 comúnmente es llamada \"efecto residual ll • FACTORES QUE INFLUYEN EN LA ACClON HERBICIDA Las propiedades de los herbicidas son constantes. Si un producto es graminicida permanecerá con esa característica a pesar de las cor.diciones ambientales, pero su grado de eficiencia puecE' vatiar de acuerdo con las condiciones de su uso, por 10 cual cada producto requiere ser 1nvestigaclo antes de Lsarlo comercialmente. en una nueva regi6n ecológica o diferente sistema de producción.Los principales factores a tener en cu~nta son:Algunos herbicidas son fL!ados por los coloides del suelo y la disponibilidad para la maleza l varía de acuerdo con e1 tipo y la aC-tívidad biológica del suelo. La dosis aconsejada para los sue10s lh;¿nos deberá ser aúmentada en los suelos pesados o altos en r'loteria organica, e inversamente la dosis póra estos suelos puede causar fitotoxicidad al cultivo en los livianos. Adell'ás, el ldlJado de los herbicidas está en relación con la textura del suelo, la solubilidad del herbicida en agua y lct cantidad de lluvia o riego.Mucl-¡os herbicidas son sensibles a 10$ rayos ultravioleta, los cuales aceleran su descomposición. Algunos. müy sensibles a la luz, p.e. El propan; 1 se recomienaa apl icarlo en la mañana para su mejor efecto de control, porque requiere 1uz para ejercer Su acción herbicida. Otros requieren ser ircorporados en el suelo poco después de la aplicación. Las etiquetas cOtTespondientes adheridas en los envases indiCiJrl las exigencias de la luz para el producto.Si la;:\" l\"iuvias caen pocas horas después de la aplicaci6n~ antes de que se haya ejercido la acción herbicida, o haya habido absúrci6r: en las maieza5~ se procuce lavado, e1 cual reduce la efiCacia del producto~ En la descripción de algunos productos comerciales se anotan las indicaciones al respecto.Hum~~~1-_~~ratura del aire y del suel_~~ la temperatura y la humedad afectan la velocidad de las reaccíones químicas y la actividad de la vida microbia1 del suelo, las cuales contribuyen a la degradación de algunos herbicidas. Los productos de absorción radicular requieren de buena humedad para su eficacia de control. las condiciones clin~ticas influyen además en la fislología de los vegetales. Una planta en el estado de crecimiento activo, con sus estomas abiertos~ absorbe los herbicidas en tiempo más corto que otra con actividad 1 enta.TOxicidad a humanos y animales .. La toxicidad de los herbicidas es muy variable, sin embargo, aún cuando sea baja debe encausar precauciones de manejo y almacenamiento. Los agroquímicos deben ser almacenados en cuartos ventilados, lejos de los alimentos y del alcance de los ni fías, deben permanecer en su empaque original, con la etiqueta que indique la naturaleza y peligrosidad del producto y el ant1doto a ser usado. La toxicidad se expresa en varias famas, la toxicidad crónica que es un efecto de absorción de pequeñas cantidades durante largo tiempo, por el contrario, la aguda es el efectD de absorción de gran cantidad en corto tiempo.La dosis Letal Media o LO-50, indica toxicidad aguda y representa la dosis media con la cual mueren individuos de determinada especie. El número LO-50 expresa los miligramos de pesticidas que resultan fatales al ser absorbidos por vía cutánea u oral. por kilogramo de peso vivo de la especie animal en relaciOno Entre más baja sea la cantidad indicada más tóxico es el producto. p.e. el LO-50 de 20 miligramos por kilo, para ratas, indica que en promedio 5 miligramos son suficientes para matar una rata de 250 gramos O 1 miligramo para un ratón de sólo 50 gramos. La mayoría de los herbicidas tienen toxicidad baja, pero se recomienda manejarlos con cuidado y tener en cuenta otros efectos, pues algunos son teratógenos o actúan sobre la genética.La literatura científica de América Latina menciona 21 herbicidas que hasta la fecha llegaron a ser comerciales, siendo probados como efectivos por los pa1ses que hacen investigación. Cada producto tiene manejo espec1fico y el uso correcto es importante, siguiendo las indicaciones aquí resumidas, como complemento a la hoja técnica que se agrega a cada recipiente. El texto de la misma se basa en el trabajo de la entidad fabricante. de los institutos de investigación y de los servicios de extensión.El Cuadro 1 presenta información sobre los productos más comunes en el medio, con algunas características de su 2mpleo. Debe hacerse la ac1araci6n de que buena parte de éllos son utilizados en secuencia, (2 a 3 aplicaciones por cultivo). o en mezclas. teniendo estas últimas el Py\"opanil como base general combinado con un preemergente u otro postemergente de tipo hormonal.Factores que afectan la efectividad de los herbicidas Un porcentaje alto de las fa11as y de los problemas que se presentan en la utilización de los herbicidas se debe al descuido, a desconocimicrto de su manejo, a inadecuadas formas de aplicación o a falta de mantenimiento de los equipos de aplicación, 10 que trae como consecuencia alteración de las dosis indicada.Es fundamental que el equipo de aplicación se encuentre en buenas condiciones. por tanto se debe d~r un buen y frecuente mantenimiento. I \"\" \" , \"' \",,\" P,pere!,,:! th'L1\"tn\"',,~r 1\",' n\"\",rtNlfen Lista de los prouucLos hcrbiclOJ8 de mayor uso p:.\\ra el control de malezas en arrüzaJe8. ( r\"\"pectlJa\",?-\"cll) fónn,L¡ ,¡\";,,, \"S-2-H ... tll, pi¡wr:t;:\\0nV,¡¡rh\"nU eJ. \\),5  , , cada vez que se haga una aplicación o Se cambie de terreno. Una calibración frecuente de los equipos reduce a un mínimo las posibilidades de hacer aplicaciones con dosis diferentes inapropíadas.Velocidad. Durante la aplicación, la velocidad debe graduarse de acuerdo a la presión, topografía del terreno, ta~año del aguilón y forma de aplicación. Un exceso o disminución en la aplicación, altera fácilmente la dosis recomendada para una superficie determinada.Agitación. Se debe mantener una agitación constante de la mezcla dentro del tanque de la aspersord para evitar sedimentaciones las cuales obstruyen las boquillas afectando la aplicación. Este hecho se relaciona principalmente con productos cuya formaci6n es polvo mojable~ Aguílón. La posición horizontal y la distancia adecuada y uniforme del suelo o de la vegetación a las boquillas, es uno de los requiSitos para que la distribución sea uniforme y se asegure la efectividad de la misma.Boguillas. Es otro factor decísivo en la distribución uniforme del herbicida. El desgaste de una boquilla puede aumentar o disminuír la capacidad de descargue.En el comercio se consiguen boquillas de diferentes marcas, tipos y cal ibres, 10 mejor eS usar todas las boquillas iguales. para asperjar herbicidas se recomiendan las de abanico o las decortina y no las de cono~ Filtros. Su principal finalidad eS la de impedir la obstrucci6n de las boqull1as con gránulos o part'iculas gruesas provenientes del agua o del producto~ Hay filtros con mayor o menor número de hilos por centímetro cuadrado, uno con un número alto de hi10s tiene orificios más pequeños, e impide el paso de mezclas gruesas como suspensiones de polvos mo5ables o emUlsiones concentradas Mantenimiento. No se debe dejar herbicidas en el tanque de un dla para otro. Pueden ocurrir prOblemas de toxicidad cuando se utiliza la misma aspefsora para aplicaciones de agroqulmicos diferentes,sin un lavado adecuado.Cal idad del agua. Aguas muy turbias pueden anular la efectividad de los productos como en el caso de Paraquat (Gramoxone). Algunos herbicidas se fijan do los coloides suspendidos en el agua de la mezcla y disminuyen su efectividad.Aguas duras. Calcáreas o ferruginosas pueden afectar la solubilidad del herbicica causando su sedimentación. recomienda un volumen de agua entre 200 y 300 lt/ha. El empleo del mayor volumen eStd determinado por la cantidad de follaje al hl..imedecer. Hay asperS0r'as de bajo y ultrabaja volumen pero su uso en control de malezas debe ser cuidadoso para evitar lugares sin as.perjar o en insuficiente nltmero de gotas.Profundidad. La incorporación de los herbicidas en presiembra se debe realizar en los cinco cent1metros de suelo. Si se hace muy superficial los t'ésultados serán erf\"AtlcoS y s; es pn.:r*'unda puede causar toxicidad a la semilla del cultivD« De preferencia. la incorporaCión se debe hacer inmediatamente después se realice la ap1icación, para evitar pérdidas por foto-descomposición o volatilización. Ej. Trifluralina (Treflan) en algodonales.~1ezclds. Es. necesario tener precauciones en e1 uso de mezclas de herbicidas con insecticidas~ fertilizantes, fungicidas y compuestos aditivos, ya que cuando se pueden obtener efectos sínergeticos j también se puede presentar problemas de incompatibilidad como el Propanil y los insecticidas fosforados y carbamatos.Cuando se trata de mezclas entre herbicidas~ debe verificarse su compatibilidad para evitar problemas. El príncípal se presenta cuando se mezclan polvos mojables con emulsiones o herbicidas de diferente formulación.Los factores a~bientales tienen mucha influencia en la efectividad y aplicación de los herbicidas y aunque algunos de éllos no son controlables por el hombre, se deben tener en cuenta para rea' llar las aplicaciones en momento óptimo.Para apl leaciones de herbicidas al suelo (preemergentes-presiembra incorporados) Se prefiere la humedad de campo o de germinaCión, suelos muy secos o muy hGmedos, alterar la efectividad y la aplicación de los herbicidas. Las productos hormonales requieren una humedad adecuada y condiciones generales que favorezcan un crecimiento activo de las malezas y as~ facilitar la translocación de estos herbicidas. lluvia. En aplicaciones posterr~rgentes la lluvia puede disminuir el efecto. !ñ'\"iiP1icaciones al sue10 es deseable una lluvia o riego moderadó~ para obtener una penetraci ()p adecuada) sin embar-go, un exceso de e 11 os puede ocasionar lixiviación o arrastre del producto.Viento. La distribución de la aspersión es afectada por el viento, cuyo efecto aumenta con la volatilidad del prOducto, ocasionando perjuicios a cultivos susceptibles cercanos.Es preferible no efectuar aplicaciones cuando la velocidad del vi~rto sea mayor de 10 kilómetros por hora.Las tempé~aturas elevadas Aumentan la toxicidad del producto hacia el cultivo Interfieren la traslocación del herbicida por las malezas Inactivan 105 herbicidas por volatilización o degradación en el suelo Aumentan la actividad de algunos herbicidas postemergentes permitiendo disminuir sus dosis. Ejemplo [;NBP.Las temperaturas bajas pueden disminuir la actividad ce los herbicidas debido a una menor rata de crecimiento de las malezas. Ej. el 2,4-0.En suelOS livianos se puede presentar mayor pérdida por lixiviación y en suelos pesados por degradación microbiana relacionada directanente con el contenido de rr.ateria organica. También eS afectada por exceso de acidez, alcalinidad y presencia de sales calcáreas o ferruginosas. En general, se recomiendan las dosis bajas para suelos livianos y las dosis altas para suelos pesados.Se presentan prOblemas respecto a la selectividad de los herbicidas a plantas y CJltilJos. Oicha se~ect;vidad puede ser parctal para algunas Yarieddóes de un mismo cultivo.~ambién se pueden presentar fallas cuando se realizan aplicaciones en épocas o estados de crecimiento no adecuados. La mayada de los herbicidas se aplican en una época determinada o en un estado de crecimiento definido del cultivo y de la maleza.Son escasos los matamalezas que se pueden aplicar en momentos difere~tes ~ los recomendados.En las recomendacior.es de herbicidas es importante tener en cuenta la población de w~lezds existentes, ya que ningún herbicida selectivo controla todo tipo de ma1ezas. Al eliminar la competencia de las malezas predomir,antes toman importancia las malezds secundarias.Otro aspecto 1mportante es el de que a medida que aumenta el crecimiento de las malezas disminuye la susceptibi11dad al herbicida.Lds malezas perennes son más resistentes a los herbicidas que las anuales.Se presentan casos en los cuales la calidad de los herbicidas se afecta en tal forma que su poca efectividad trae consecuencias antieconómicas para los usuarios. Esta situación esU relacionada con dos aspectos principales :Se recomienda no usar productos que hayan permanecido más de un año guardados porque al cabo de un tiempo empiezan a degradarse o sedimentarse, lo cual anula su actividad, Antes de ser usados se deben agitar bien para evitar posible se-dimen tac; ón.Volumen del .. ~, El volumen de agua utilizado es menor que en las aplicaciones terrestres debido principalmente a :Mayor velocidad de aplicación Mayor pres ión Mayor desplazamiento de la solución Altura de la aplícación+ Es importante aplicar a la altura determinada para cada tlpO de aplicación (alto, bajo volumen) para evitar el acarreo de la solución y el perjuicio a cultivos cercanos susceptibles. Faja de asperSión, Evitar que suceda repetición de la apl!caciOn en una misma faja• del terreno o que no reciba apl icación. Esto se puede obviar conociendo el ancho de la aspersión y bandereando adecuadamente el campo. Joaquln Gonz~lez F.El arroz rojo (Cryz. sativa L.) es una maleza común de difIcil control en los arrozales~ fñaeSeable porque puede causar una serie de perjuicios a la producciOn debido a vatios factores tales como:Compite con las variedades bajando el rendimiento del arroz blanco.El rendimiento total es reducido debido al desgrane del roja antes de 1 a cosecha.Causa volcamiento y pérdidas en el cultivo.El grano tojo baja la calidad comercial y el precio del arroz.El arroz blanco mezclado con rojo, al ser pulido en forma más estrecha, reduce 105 granos enteros y la calidad molinera.El grano rojo no es aceptado para consumo humano en la mayoría de los pa1ses.El control de esta maleza es costoso, dispendioso y requiere varios perlados de siembra o largas rotaciones para su eliminaci6n.El arroz rojo también es maleza en los cultivos alternos, eleva sus costos y causa cambios en los sistemas de control de malezas.En cuanto a su origen como prOblema en América hay poca información, es probable que el arroz rOjo haya entrado a Estados Unidos en semillas enviadas desde Asia por la compaMa IIEast Indian Cityll, El rojo estuvo presente en los campos de arroz de Amílrica en los tiempos de la colonia, antes de que las variedades mejoradas comenzaran a ser sembradas. (Stubbs J:l ¡¡j. 1904).Las fuentes principales de contaminación con arroz roja son la siembra de semilla impura y el desgrane antes de la cosecha t el cual se convierte en semilla en reposo que permanece en el suelo y luego germina y reÍnfesta.También 10 son la maquinaria agricola, el agua de I\"iego y el ganado proveniente de los lotes infestados.A continuación se hace la de:.cripción de los daños que causa; se describe la planta, su fisiología, morfología y genética, y los diferentes sistemas de control para promover un método integrado de n~nejo, que es la forma mas adecuada de atacar el problema.Cada afto, un mayor número de campos de arroz son infestados con esta maleza. Son muchos los factores que contribuyen a este aumento , siendo el m~s importante el uso de semilld contaminada junto al desconocimiento inicial del problema.La demora en establecer programas de semillas certificadas ha sido la principal causa por la cual existen hoy en d'ia problemas con el rojo en muchos países. Una vez el arroz rojo se introduce a un campo~ y Se deja madurar, su semilla cae al suelo, donde puede permanecer viable, en reposo, por muchos años y producir la reinfestación.El arroz rojo no es deseado por molineros. consumidores, productores de semilla y agricultores, por las razones que a continuaci6n se enuncian: ~to1ineros~ Deben sobrepulir el grano para remover la capa ro~a y ésto baja el porcentaje de granos enteros~ El arroz rojo posee mAs centro blanco, y se quiebra con mayor facilidad. Además el arroz comercial reduce su precio por la mezcla de rojo y por mayor proporción de quebrado.Consumidores. Rechazan el grano mezclado con rojo por su mal aspecto, aún cuando éste tiene el miSMO valor nutritivo.Productores de semill a. Su reputac; 6n como proveedores de semi n a de calidad es afectada. El mercado está para quien ofrezca arroz libre de rojo~ aún a preCios más altos. Aparte de 10 anterior, tener en cuenta que la depuración de 10$ campos es costosa y no siempre efectiva.Productores de arroz. El rojo decrece los rendimientos, la calidad y los beneficios en el cultivo. El central de arroz rojo es difícil y costoso. En ocasiones requiere rotación del cultivo para controlarlo. Afecta la selección varietal. las fechas de siembra y los métodos de deshierba. El rojo causa vuelco, lo cual incrementa las pérdidas y los costos de cosecha. Según Baldwin, 1978, 32 panle\"l.s de rojo por m 2 pueden reducir el rendimiento de arroz en un 64%. Una planta de arroz rojo sin contro'iar~ te6ricamente puede llegar a generar 151 kg/ha de semilla después de dos ailos. Ha habido campos dejados de cosechar a causa del arroz rojo.En una encuesta en Guyana. el 80% de las muestras de arroz tenían mAs del 2% de rojo y algunas tuvieron hasta 40t, (RaL 1973). La mezcla afectó ia calidad, pero las pérdidas financieras fueron diHciles de calcular porque el descuento por rojo varía según las condiciones del mercado~ En Louisina, 33% de las compras de arroz sufrieron descuentos que promediaron US$6.17 por tonelada a causa del rojo. (Traylar y Hlll, 1963).El arroz rojo puede ser definido como seMillas de arroz distintas. por tener la parte más externa del grano coloreado. Hay varios tipos: el rojo con glumas claras, el rojo toro; el rojo bermellór.; los rojos de grano largo y el rojo de glumas negras entre otros.$010 hay dos especies de génerQ'Oryza que se cultiva comercialmente O~ sativa L. de origen asatico y O. glaberrima Steud, de odgen africana:TAn91ddete A. 1969). El endospenila de la primera tíene un color mas claro que el de la segunda, el cuai ?resenta tonos marrón, rojo y gris. Segun Tateoka, 1963, lryza rufi~OgOn, Griff, es nombrado para abarcar un rango amplio de tipos e arroz sa VdJe. rojo y negro § relacionados cOn Q. satíva y dif1ciles de distinguir de él.Holm fU Al. (1979) hacen una lista de siete especies del género Oryza como malezas en 41 países.Segun Craigmiles, J. P. (1978), botánicamente, el arroz rojo y el blanco son clasificados, por algunos autores~ dentro de la especie Oryza sativa L. Las principales diferencias morfológicas que distinguen el rojo d\"eTbTanco ~ son:La semilla tiene el pericarpio coloreado la semilla desgrana fácilmente y en forma escalonada La semilla mantiene reposo, sin perder la viabilidad. durante un perlado largo de años.Las plantas son generalmente más altas y precoces que 1as variedades cultivadas.Las plantas son generalmente pubescentes. las plantas pueden tener un color más claro Según Sonoier EA. (1978) las variaciones que ocurren actualmente dentro del arroz rojo; pueden ser clasificadas dentro de dos grupos principales: rojo con glulllils color paja y rojo con glumas color negro. En términos generales. el rojo con glumas color claro tiene planta abierta, con relativamente pocos tallos. panlculas decumbentes y pueden o no tener aristas. El roja con 91umas negras tiene un tipo de planta mh compacta, con mas tallos, hojas angostas, ere<:tas y la semilla casi siempre tiene aristas. Otras diferencias están en la facilidad de quitar la capa coloreada de la almendra y el tamar,o, la fonna y 10 traslúcido de los granos molinadas. El rojo de glumas claras tiende a contener más centro blanco en su endospermo. Lo que ambos tlenen en comOn es Que son malezas, plantas vigorosas, capaces de resistir condiciones adversas y cuyas semillas tienen una gran longevidad en el suelo. Antes de florecer la planta. de arroz rojo, es dif1cil de distinguir las plantas de variedades comerciales.Varhs caracterí.sticas del rojo son dominantes sobre sus alelos en arroz blanco y pueden ser transferidos por cruzamiento. Por él1o~ nuevos tipos de arroz rojo pueden aparecer en diferentes localidades al cruzarse el rojo con las variedades blancas (Sonnier, 1978).Las primeras investigac.iones sobre antociar.ina en arroces de tipo Indico parecen haber sido rea:izadas por Héctor y Parnell (1922) y por Parnell .el U (1971). Los investigadores estuvieron de acuerdo que el pigmento antocianinico presenta en la fl dominancia completa en todos los órganos.Pareell et al, citado por Nagai (1959) observaron la progenie de cruzaíllientos naturdles encontrados en variedades indicas, algunos de los cuales segregdfon rojo, marrón y blanco en relaciOn 9:3:3 y otros, rojo y marrón en 3:1. Las plantas nacidas con almendras rojas tuvieron color púrpura en cualquier otro órgano vegetativo como estigma, 91uma, 1ámina folíar o vaina, pero las nacidas de almendra marrón no tuvieron coior púrpura y las de almendra blanca fueron independientes de color en los órganos vegetativos. Cruzando marrón con blanco, aparecen granos rojos en la tI, y granos rojos y blancos en la F2, en proporción 3:1 en las plantas con color púrpura y en las plantas sin partes púrpura, en relacibn 9:12:7, rOjo, marrón y blanco como se presenta en el Cuadro l. Según Grist (1975), el pigmento en el grano, el cual no es una antocianina, es generalmente heredado como un par de genes con dominancia del rojo, pero los trabajos de Nagao y Takahashi (1947) mostraron que están incluírlos dos genes complementarios Re y Rd. El Re es responsable de la produccíón del pigmento en los llamados arrOceS gris-marrón 7 que tienen marrón en fajas irregulares sobre un fondo marr5n-rojizo~ Rd cuando está presente junto con Rc causa la aparición del color de Re produciendo arroz raje. Rd por si mismo no causó pigmento. Se asume que el arroz rojo es RdRc, el arroz gris-marrón Rcrd y el blanco rcRd o rcrd. Cruces entre arroces con granos rojos y blancos segregan 3:1 o en algunos casos 9:3:4.El arroz es autopolinizador o autógamo en más de 99.99%~ el cruzamiento natural es muy bajo. Cuando éste llega a ocurrir? \"la primera generación y 3/4 de la segunda tienen granos con almendras rojas~ Como producto de 10$ cruces naturales de rojos con blancos~ algunas plantas de rojo pueden tener las misrr.as caracteristicas de la variedad de granos blancos y es imposible diferenciarlas para 5acarlas del campo al haCer la descontaminación, éstos son los conocidos como rojos varietdles.El arroz rojo en sus primeras etapas crece m&s rapido que algunas de las variedades comerciales mejoradas~ lo cual hace pOSible disminuir oportunamente la competencia, removiendo las pl~ntulas de rOjo existentes en el campo. Reposo de la semilla después de floración. Un estudio de Helpert y Eastin 1978. en panlculas marcadas al florecer de arroz rojo con glumas negras. rojo con glumas color paja y el testigo \"Lobel1e\", variedad que tiene reposo inicial corto. colectando muestras cada tres dlas a partió. de la floración, unas Se colocaron inmediatamente en germinadgres a 30 C y otras fueron primero almacenada secas por 2 semanas a 30 e para luego tomar muestras cada 3 d1as para probar la germinación.El Cuadro 2 nos muestra los resultados del ensayo, indicando una mayor latencia de los arroceros rojos, lo cual explica su mayor permanencia en el suelo sin perder viabilidad.Efecto de la temperatura en la germinación del rojo con glumas negras Eastin, E.F. 1978 informa sobre experimentos con~cidos con semillas en platos petri, Incubados a 15, 20, 25, 30, d5 y 40 C. donde el bimite m¡\\s baja de germinación ocurrió entre 30 y 35 C comparando con 30 e en las variedades comerciales. pero a cualquier temperatura el rojo germinó un día antes que los blancos.cualquier parte de la planta y su color cambia con la acidez; el mismo pigmento puede ser rojo en una flor y azul en otra.La acumu 1 ae; ón de azúca res t y a veces el efecto di recto de 1 a 1 UZ, estimulan la fonnac;ón de antocianinas. En investigaci5n realizada por Nagai $uzuki citado por Diaz 1978 sobre 82 variedades de arroz y 29 espeCies silvestres del género Oryza, en diferentes partes de la planta identificaron las siguientes antocianinas: Cyanin (tyanidin 3,5-g1ucoside) Chrysanthemin (Gyanidin 3-g1ucoside) Karacyanin (Cyanidin 3-rhamo glucoside) Ulginosin (Malvidin 3-gelactoside)El primer paso a manejar el arroz rojo es prevenir la infestaci6n de los campos, para 10 cual el uso de semi1la pura tiene importancia especial, junto con el uSo de equipos y maquinaria limpios, en las operaciones de la finca.Esta es una práctica en la cual se remueven con las manos las plantas de arroz rojo junto con otras mezclas y malezas nocivas. mientras Que el cultivo está creciendo. Las ventajas y desventajas de la deshierba pueden ser resumidas así: si la labor se hace apropiadamente arrancando con ra'z, evitando el desgrane y sacando 1as plantas del campo, e1 costo puede ser \"\" ~ alto. En muchas situaciones, especialmente en arroz sembrado al voleo, la deshierba puede causar daño a las plantas dentro del cultivo. El control manual solo es costeab1e donde los jornales sean bajos. la infestaciOn poca, o donde el valor mayor por la pureza de la cosecha 10 compense.En las siembras en surcos se puede hacer un control cultural efectivo en las calles, pero no dentro de los surcos. Mientras que el transp1ante con pauta lo facilita en surcos y calles.Densiddd y manejo de la siembra Siembras mas densas de 10 normal, con semilla libre de rojal pueden dar ventajas en la competencia al arroz blanco sobre el rojo, disminuyendo la producci6n de semilla de este último . Sonnier, (1978) encontró que duplicando la cantidad de semilla, de 100,8 kg/ha a 201.6 kg/ha, se redujo 1. producción de semilla de rojo entre un 31 y un 56%.Rai 1913, sugiere la siembra de variedades precoces que maduren antes que el rojo, complementados con la aplicaci6n de un desecante, antes de la cosecha del blanco, a la floración de rojo, para detener la producción de semilla de arroz maleza.En las variedades comerciales, que en su mayoría son más tardías que el rojo. se pueden usar los reguladores de crecimiento que prevengan la formación de las panículas de rojo antes de florecer las variedades cultivadas. Esta posibilidad es digna de ser investigada.Demorar 1 a época de si embra perroi ti rli 1 a germi nae ión de semi 11 as de rojo presente') en el suelo y $U posterior destrucciOn con equipos de preparación de suelos o herbicidas O lanzallamas, antes de la siembra.Huey y Baldwin 1978, recomiendan mantener los arrozales húmedos y pasa r rodillos sobre los residuos de cosecha pa ra í nduc ir 1 a germí nací On del arroz voluntario que puede ser destruido sin florecer antes de sembrar la próxlr:ld cosecha. Tambi~n podrlan colocarse ganados y otros animales que consuman p'antas de rojo en el campo~Es un sistelna muy antiguo, se estima que fue un adelanto que introdujo el hombre en su lucha contra las malezas cuando cambi6 de siembra directa a transplante y hoy aún es una forma aconsejada de contro1ar malezas difíciles como arroz rojo. Se deben hacer alrnllcigos usando semilla pura a razOn de 400 kg/ha, eH un lugar con suelo fértil y libre de ma1elas, cercano al campo definitivo el cual se mantiene inundado durante los 20 o En estudios de emergencia. los tipos de arroz rojo. fueron capaces de germinar y emerger más r~pido, y desde mayor profundidad del suelo, que las variedades comerciales. Al usar los herbicidas desarrollados para el control de arroz rojOt se debe tomar en cuenta este factor porque hay herbicidas que son absorbidos por las ralces! otros por la semilla en procese de germinación y algunos otros por las plantas en emergencia. Si el herbicida es absorbido por las plántulas emergiendo, habrá buen control sin importar deSde que profundidades venga la planta emergente, pero si es absorbido por la raiz, el herbicida tendrá que estar en el área radical en concentración suficiente para producir el control. Esto ocurre con la incorporaci6n del Molinate (Ordran) a profundidades de 2.5 cms, en el suelo seco, di6 un 90-95% de control de las plantas de rajo en la zon, superii ei a 1 tra tada, pero solamente de 3!J a 50% de control cuando 1 as semillas estaban entre 5 a 6.5 ems de profundidad.Una integración importante es el manejo del agua en conjunto con la siembra en agua. Hay que insistir en la siembra en agua, porque si el arroz es sembrado sobre el suelo seco t no se obtienen las ventajas pr~cticas del ~anejo del agua.El control con agua está basado en Que el arroz rojo no puede germinar cuando está cubierto por suelo y agua l pero si pOdrá germinar cuando está cubierto s610 por uno de los dos.Después de la siembra de semi11a pregermínada, O el transplante, en el suelo fangueado y saturado, hay tres opciones para el manejo del riego, Primera. mantener inundación continua desde la siembra hasta poco antes de la cosecha4 Segunda, drenar el campo a la sieITtra y reinuncario gradualmente tan pronto como las plántulas de arroz blanco hayan enraizado.Tercera. la práctica tradicional en la cual el agua es drenada a la siembra y el campo se demora en ser inundado hasta que el cul tívo sea suficientemente alto pard soportar una inundación completa.La primera opciOn, inundación continua. tíene ventajas pero es difícil con semilla pregerminada en el tr6pico donde el sol aumenta la temperatura del agua, la cual pierde ox1geno con el calentamiento y las plantas mueren. Además, en suelos con contenido alto de materia org!nica es dif~cil establecer una población bajo agua. La segunda, inundaciones interrumpidas, mantiene el suelo húmedo y ayuda a suprimir la germinación de algunas plantas de rojo, mientras que el arroz blanco en el estado de plántula forma raíces r~pidamente y se ancla en el suelo evitando ser arrastrado. En la tercera opción el cultivo se establece bien pero no hay control de rojo.Según Sonnier (1978), en experimentos en Crowley con inundación continua; solamente el 3.3% del rendimiento total fue arroz rojo, mientras que con drenaje prolongado hay reducción del rendimiento total y el 40% fue arroz rojo. Huey, (1978). afirma que el manejo de agua puede combinarse con la aplicación del herbicida Molinate, en presiembra incorporado, seguida por la siembra del arroz en agua con inundación continua, y puede esperarse entre un 70 a un 80% de control.Según Sarker y Sonoier (1982), los arroceros de Louslao. usan las siguientes prácticas : labranza mfnima. Inundación; preparación del suelo bajo agua; siembra de semilla pregerminada en agua y mantenimiento de la inundación. Esta práctica es posible porque el contenido de oxigeno en aguas frias permite la germinación y establecimiento del arroz.Otro método de control muy usado es la preparación frecuente del suelo, roturándolo varias veces durante la época en que no hay cultivo, para destruir las plantas de maleza y el arroz espontáneo antes de que puedan prodUCir semillas. Sonnier, (1978) afirma que en un campo en Crowley se contaron 161 plantas de arroz rojo por m2 antes de la preparación inicial y pocas semanas después, antes de 1a segunda preparaci6n) se encontraron entre 323 y 344 plantas por mZ. Se continuó arando a través de los meses siguientes y el arroz rojo fue disminuyendo gradualmente. Sin embargo, en el Siguiente año hubo abundante i nfestac i6n, 1 a cua 1 fue dec 1 i nando con 1 as aradas siguientes. El problema en estos casos es el reposo de las semillas de arroz rojo, el cual es más duradero que el de las variedades domésticas y la dísturbaci6n de la capa superficial del suelo que coloca semillas profundas cerca de la superfiCie y en condiciones de germinar.Algunos agricultores colocan fuego a los residuos de cosecha para destruir las semillas de arroz y malezas de 1. cosecha. Esta pr~ctica, aparte de poder afectar la materia organica del suelo, tiene el inconveniente de no ser el calor 10 suficientemente intenso para destruir las semillas que est~n en contacto con el suelo, por 10 cual es posible encontrar semillas no afectadas. Ademas el calor ayuda a acortar el perioDo de reposo de algunas semillas.Es pOSible utilizar el lanzallamas para mejorar el control, pues el fuego va dirigido directamente al suelo, siendo esta una labor que se debe hacer muy lenta y puede resultar costosa.Mo hay aún ninguna via perfecta para limpiar los arrozales del rojo, un sistema recomendable es rotar el arroz con otros cultivos y usar métodos efectivos de control de malezas para el cultivo de rotación.Rotación con cultivos de secano. Puesto que el arroz crece mejor en un habitat acuático, los campos infestados cuando son sembrados con cultivos diferentes al arroz reducen la producción de semillas de rojo. Siembras de soya. sorgo o algodón, durante dos per10dos causan control del arroz espont8neo hasta un nivel facil de manejar.Rotación de cultivos, m8s herbicidas. Según Baldwin (1978), en ensayos efectuados por Smith en South Arkansas, el rojo fue reducido combinando control químico y prácticas culturales en una rotación soya-soya-arroz O soya-sorgo-arroz. La rotación con soya dió el 99% de control de rojo durante el primer año y 92% en el segundo cultivo, al regresar al arroz Se lleg6 5610 a un 26% de control de arroz rojo. La rotación sorgo, soya y arroz, dió un control m8s rápido, sin importar en que turno est~ el sorgo en el ciclo. Al volver a cultivar arroz hubo 73% de control y despuéS de dos. c; e 1 os de 1 a rotac i 6n sorgo, soya, arroz se logro el 90% del control de rojo. Smith (1976), presént6 rotaciones de dos afios con soya, sorgo de grano y arroz incluyendo labranza para estimular la germinación de la maleza. Labranza, sorgo y el herbicida propazine causaron un control total de rOjo en e1 sorgo. Labranza, soya y herbicida causaron 98 a 100% de control. En el cultivo de arroz hubo 70 a BO% menos rojo después de un ciclo de rotación y 90% menOS despuéS de dos ciclos. Baldwin (1978), en Arkansas afirma que en la rotación con soya se puede incluir herbicidas en presiembra incorporados. porque en esta forma causan mejor control. Por ejemplo, el alaehlor como preemergente puede dar un 99% de control de arroz roja si hay lluvias, pero solamente un 5Q% de contro1, o menos, si la época es seca; con la incorporación toma menor dependencia de las lluvias para la actividad de los herbicidas. Alachlor a la dosis máxima recomendada de 3.88  Fluchloralin, Pendimenthalin, etc., dan un buen control de arroz rojo.SegQn Eastin (1978) los herbicidas para soya que dieron un 90% y más de control de arroz rojo fueron: al Alachlor a razón de 3.3 a 4.4 kg/ha, con lluvias adecuadas y el Antor, simílar a Lasso pero activo a dosis más bajas. Otros herbicidas preemergentes para soya, Metribuzina y Pendímenthalin , no dieron los mismos niveles de control.En soya~ los herbicidas postemergentes son aplicados cuando el arroz rojo est~ comenzando a macollar, asperjándolos sobre las plantas, según Eastín (1978), Paraquat a razOn de 0.13 kg/ha diO un control excelente. Dichlorofobmethyl, diO buen control después de 4 semanas. Linuron 1.1 kg lA/ha, m8s un surfactante, resultó en un buen control de arroz rojo. Paraquat y Linuron deben ser postemergentes dirigidos mientras que Dichlorofob-methyl puede ser asperjado sobre las plantas de soya; si la soya está alta puede caUSar problemas en los surcos porque no hay un cubrimiento completo. Su control 00 es bueno cuando el arroz rojo ha macollado.Buen control postemergente de arroz rojo en soya es obtenido con doble aplicaci6n dirigida del Paraquat a razón de 0.13 kg lA/ha sobre soya de 15 a 20 cms repetida 7 dlas despu~s. Griffin y Haryer (1982), condujeron estudios en la estación experimental de Louisian. para evaluar el control con postemergentes en soya. Los herbicidas inclulan Sethaxydím, Fluazifop. eGA 82725 y se 1058 a 0.27 y 0.55 ky/ha. Dowco 453 y HOE 33171 a 0.13 y 0.27 ky/ha y Mefluidade a 0.13 + Sentazon a 0.8 kg/ha, aplicados sobre .1 rojo de 10 • 15 cm de altura. Se agregó aceite concentrado a razón del 1% del volumen de mezcla COn los herbicidas excepto para Mefluidide + Bentazon. El control de rojo estuvo en un rango de 100% para Oowco 453 (0.27 kg/ha) a 50% para HOE 33171, (0.130 ky/ha). Con la excepción del HOE 33171, el control de rojo fue mayor del 80%. La combinación Mefluidade + Sentazon dió un 95% de control con poco dano temporal a la soya.Los herbicidas evaluados por Eastin (1978) en sorgo fueron las triazlnas preemergentes. Las que causaron mejor control fueron Atrazina, Propazina, Cyanazina a las dosis m&ximas utilizadas para el cultivo. Estos herbicidas como preemergentes sobre la superficie. dan buenos resultados cuando se aplican con lluvias adecuadas t pero con 2 semanas sin lluvias después de la apllcacíOn el control de arroz rojo es inadecuado. Por éllo. para resultados consistentes se sugiere la aplicación en presiembra incorporada.Según KilI (1978) Y Huey y Ea 1 dwi ny (1978), si el arreZ debe ser sembrado en campos infestados con rojo, se puede utilizar el herticida Molinate (8E) a 4.4 kg/ha, o Molinate yranular 44 ky/ha P.C. en presiembra incorporados al suelo a una profundidad de 4 cms. Este tratamiento, combinado con Un buen manejo de agua, da un control parcial de rojo y un excelente control de gram!neas, pero si después del tratamiento con herbicidas! el arroz es sembrado dentro del agua y la inundación es contlnua, se consiguen los mejores resultados; el uso de Molinate con la siembra en ayua y el manejo de agua da un control de rojo entre el 80 y 90%.El control selec.tivo del rojo anual en arroz ha sido conseguido utilizando el herbicida EPTC incorporado aplicado un mes antes de la siembra. Gliphosato y Paraquat tambi~n han sido usados exitosamente para matar el arroz rojo emergido antes de sembrar el arroz.Antldotos con la semilla.Actualmente se viene trabajando con sustancia (antldotos) que protegen la semilla del arroz contra los herbicidas no selectivos al cultivo. Andrade (1979), en un experimento preliminar. informa que el antidoto 1.8 Naptaleno Anhidro aplicado como tratamiento de semilla, a razón de 0.5 y 2%, protegió el arrOZ Bluebonnet. hasta cierto punto, contra el dano de los herbicidas Al.chlor. Sutachlor, Oowco 221. Molinate y Perfluidone, ninguno de ellos daM el arroz, pero el tratamiento al 2% dió mejor protección que el tratamiento al 0.5%. El antldoto N,N-Diallyl-2.2 Oichloraoacedamindg (R25788) mezclado con la Semilla a razón 0.5 y 2.0 <9s/ha, no permitió efecto dafiino pero el control fue pobre.Durante los aftos 1982-1983, en el CIAT Palmira, se condujeron una serie de experimentos a fin de identificar métodos adecuados para controlar el arroz rOjo, así como el arroz vo1untario proveniente de cultivos anteriores. El objetivo de varios experimentos relacionados entre sI, fue buscar los medios practicos para controlar el arroz rojo y disminuIr el espontáneo en forma económica, como un complemento del uso de semilla libre de contaminación.En tres experimentos se comparó el sistema químico contra el mecánico empleado por muchos agricultores, quienes estimulan la germinación de las semillas de arroz y malezas presentes en el suelo, para luego destruir,as mecánicamente roturando la capa superficial, antes de sembrar el cultivo.El método empleado consistió en preparar un suelo donde previamente Se habla cultivado arroz y adem~s se habla sembrado semilla de arroz púrpura como contraste; posteriormente se irrigó para causar la germinación de las semillas de arroz y otras malezas y 15 dlas después aplicar los tratamientos buscando destruir las plantas nacidas. Hecho 10 anterior se esperó 10 dIos para sembrar la semilla de arroz libre de contaminación.De los herbicidas inicialmente probados se seleccionaron como los más promisorios: Linuron, Oxyfluorfen y Alachlor, y cada uno de éllos se combinó con los herbicidas generales Glifosato y Paraquat, para compararlos contra testigos mecánicos, manuales y absoluto$~ En el Cuadro 3, se presentan los tratamientos usados y los rendimientos transformados a tone1adas de arroz cáscara seco por hectárea, tanto del arroz cultivado como del arroz espont&neo y el púrpura.Las mezclas Oxyfluorfen + Glifosato, Oxyfluorfen + Paraquat y Oxifluorfen + Propanil + Carbaril, presentan los mayores rendimientos de arroz t pero solo la primera de ellas permitió la menor contaminaci6n de espont&neo superando al testigo manual, y a la vez mantuvo un efecto residual en control de malezas después de 27 dlas.En la Figura 1, se observa la población de tallos de arroz, de arroz espontaneo y plantas de malezas gramlneas y ciperaceas por m2, a los 27 dlas después de la siembra. Se puede observar que los tratamientos (Oxyfluorfen + Paraquat), (Oxifluorfen + Gllfosato), (Oxyfluorfen + Propanil + Carbad]) y (Propanil + Glifosato), presentaron a los 27 dlas alta población de arroz y baja de malezas y arroz espontáneo (púrpura).El tratamiento (Alachlor + Glifosatol permitió alta población de malezas gram'ineas y el (Linuron + Paraquat) mayor de ciperáceas, sólo superados por los testigos.Los resultados obtenidos son importantes para los palses donde la infestación con rojo esU deprimiendo los rendimientos y la calidad del  LA/ha • Tratamientos con la misma letra son iguales estad1st.icamente. según la prueba de Duncan al 5%Aún cuando los resultados indicados son Otiles en la lucha contra la maleza se puede afirmar que el arrOl rojo seguirá siendo un problema grave en el cult1vú y beneficio del arroz~ si no recibe atención de la investigación y si los resultados de ella. no son transferidos y aceptados por los agricu1tores.Para lograr éxito en la lucha contra el rojo. se debe evitar la i nfes tac; ón de 10$ campos que están 11 bres de él usando semi11 a pura) limpiando la maquinaria proveniente de campos. infestados, impidiendo 1a entrada de ganados que nayan pastoreado en campos con rojo. no usando agua que haya regadO otros ca~pos.Si los suelos ya están infestados. se puede buscar un programo de rotacMn de cultivos y uso de herbicidas pero si no se puede rotar y hay que continuar Con arroz, la ciencia del control de malezas ha aportado los métodos que se hdn descrito con herbicidas en presiembra Que aún cuando exigen dedicación y trabajo son eficientes. El daño causado por los insectos a las plantas es uno de los factores que incide sobre la producción de arroz. El comportamiento de los insectos plagas varia dependiendo de las condiciones clim!ticas, sistema de cultivo, época de siembra, estado de desarrollo de la planta y de la variedad.la identificación de los insectos, 10 mismo que el conocimiento de sus h~bitos, del da~o que ocasionan a la planta. de la edad del cultivo en que atacan y la época del afto en que aparecen, permite un manejo y control eficiente de los insectos plagas para lograr un aumento en la producción del cultivo.El presente artículo tiene por objetivos: describir los principales insectos y ácaros que atacan el arroz en América Latina, los daños que ellos causan a la planta e informar sobre su distribuci6n geografica.Los insectos que danan al arroz son bastante especificos en cuanto a los lugares donde se presentan. Algunos insectos de importancia económica en el Asia, nunca han ,ido reportados en América y viceversa. Los insectos plagas que aparecen en todas las zonas arroceras del mundo son: Nezara viridula (1.). Agrotis ypsilon (Hufnagel) e Hydrellia griseola (Fa1Tei\\T (Figura 1).Como plagas exclusivas del Continente Asiático se encuentran, entre los m&s importantes, los delf&cidos furcifera (Howard) y el Nila par.ata lU9(WS Stal; los inferens (Walker), Try~Oma incartulas alker) T. innotata y Chilo suppressalis (ila ker), este ultimo, se ha ccmvertido en plaga grave ~ 01timos años, y se 10 encuentra también en España (Schnitzler, 1976).Otros insectos Que aparecen solo en el Asia son: Nephatettíx spp, algunas especies de S%Odoptera y del escarabajO Verania sp. ( !'scuela de agricultura Universida de filipinas, 1975}.En cuanto d las plagas que se presentan en Arr~rica, éstas aparecen ubicadas en mayor o menor preferencia en la parte Norte. Centro o Sur América. según el sistema de cultivo (Fi ra 2). Encontrándose como plagas graves de Norte Améri ca e 1 !epi dliptero (Fabri ei U5) y el Spodoptera frUgi~rda (J.E. Smith).inche Bllssus leucopterus (5ay), a os cuales también se los puede encontrar en otrás Ha sido reportada causando daño en cultivos comerciales de Perú, Ecuador, Venezuela y Colombia, la mosca Hydrellia sp. La chinche hedionda {Tibraca sp.} se encuentra en la mayor parte de las &reas arroceras pero es una plaga de gravedad en el sur de Brasil Argentina y Bolivia. (Che3ney y Jennings. 1975  Adulto de Neocurrilla hexadacl)'la.Inundar los lotes y aplicar insecticida carbofuran sobre los 10 que también es útil contra otras especíes de grillos del el Sc\"pteriscus didactylus y el Grillus asimilis.El adulto es un chinche muy pequeño que mide alrededor de 3.5 \"'\" de longitud. Es de color negro o gris oscuro can las alas blancas en las cuales hay unas lineas color marrón en la base y dos manchitas de color marrOn oscuro (Figura 4).Se desplaza, volando o caminando rápidamente. Se puede presentar en altas poblaciones después de un periodo largo de sequia.Los huevos miden 1 \"'\" de longItud. son alargados de color blancuzco pero cerca a la eclosión toman color rojo oscuro. El perlado de oviposición suele ser de 1 mes y los huevos son colocados cerca a la base de las plantas sobre ralees o en los tallos cerca a la superficie del suelo. (Gonzále! y Murnlo, 1981).Las ninfas son de color amarillo y poseen una franja anaranjada en el centro del abdomen que toma una coloración rojiza al madurar~ son apteras y miden 3 mm de longitud. Este perlodo dura alrededor de 40-50 dias.Control: Las medidas de control cultural son muy efectivas. Consisten en destruir los residuos de cosecha y las malezas, preparar los lotes con suficiente anticipación y prestar especial atención a la población t la cual se incrementa en los períodos secos.  Phyllopnaga sp. Coleóptera: Scarabaeidae Llamada comúnmente mojojoy o gallina ciega. El adulto es un escarabajo que mide entre 13 a 25 mm de longitud de color café ° negro, con los ojos pronunciados y el pronota ancho (Figura SAl. La duraciOn del ciclo de vida es de aproximadamente un año. La larva de gran voiumen, con el cuerpo curvo y de color blancuzco tiene la parte posterior brillante que permite observar a través de la piel el contenido oscuro (Figura 56). La cabeza esclerotizada es de color café y en el tOrax tiene 3 pares de patas prominentes.. Se le encuentra en cultivos de secano y en suelos que hayan sido sembrados anteriormente con pastos o en 10tes a los que no se les haya aplicado insecticidas (Coronado y Marquez,197B) Control: La inundación permanente del campo es un buen método de control, pero este insecto ataca principalmente arroces de SeCano y en cualquier etapa de desarrollo del cultivo puede danar el sistema radicular.Con una arada profunda y varios cruces de rastra t se logra colocar las larvas en la superficie del suelo, donde resulta más fácil su control natural o químico. es de color café grisáceo siendo un poco más oSCUfO en el dorso y sobre el agua se ve más oscuro; algunas veces puede tomar un tinte verdoso. La cabeza es de forma esférica y en el extremo del aparato bucal tiene un pico que utiliza para raspar la epidermis de las hojas y que la hembra utiliza para hacer una cavidad donde colocar los huevos; 1as antenas son de .color rojizo y en el dorso tienen estrlas longitudinales (Figura 6). Puede vivir sobre la superficie del agua o bajo ella. Los huevos son blancos, cllíndricos~ con los extremos redondeados. Son colocados bajO la epidermis de las raíces principales, y el periodo de ineubaciO\" dura en promedio 7 dias (Beltran, 1967) Las larvas sOn blancas, ápodas y miden 6 a 12 mm; la cabeza, de color marrón claro, es muy pequefia en proporción con el cuerpo. Este estado dura 30 dias. La pupa es de color blanco y mide 3 mm de largo; aparece en un saco de seda en una celda ovalada hecha de barro impermeable al agua y adherida a las raíces del arroz. El estado pupal tiene una duración de 5 a 14 dlas (Beltr6n 1967).Control: El drenaje de los campos ayuda a evitar o disminuír el ataque, especialmente el de las larvas. En Cuba, los hongos Beauvaria bassian. y Metarrhizium anisopliae han controlado el lissorhoptrus brevirostris (Suffr). El adulto es un escarabajo que mide cerca de 10 mm de longitud y su color varIa de negro a café oscuro (Figura 7). Los huevos son blancuzcos de apariencia algodonosa y forma ovalada, ligeramente achatados con un diámetro de 1,5 mm; son colocados bajo la superfiCie del suelo.Las larvas son blancas, de forma abultada y unos 10 mm de largo, con la cabeza negra quitinosa (González y Murillo. 1981).Control: En los Llanos Orientales de Colombia la época de siembra atrasada, en relación con la iniciaci6n de las lluvias, es una práctica adecuada para que la incidencia de su ataque sea menor.En lotes donde se haya reconocido la inminencia de su ataque se puede aplicar Carbofurán a razón de 0.75 a 0.90 Kg de ingrediente activo por hectárea, distribuido al voleo e incorporado con la última rastrillada, o despu~s de la siembra sin incorporarlo, cuando aparezcan los primeros sintomas de da~o. También se recomienda asperjar Methil Parathion mas Triclorfon, en proporciOn uno a uno.La instalación de trampas de luz permite atrapar insectos adultos que son atraídos durante la noche. Es frecuente encontrar adultos afectados por el hongo M. anisopliae.La hembra del A~rDtis es una mariposa que oviposita sobre la superficie o en las cavlades d.el suelo, y aún sobre el envés de las hojas superiores~ Los huevos colocados aisladamente o en masa. son globulares, de superficie estríada y eclosionan a los 5-6 días, dando origen a larvas de color grisáceo con rayas claras. Las larvas se al imentan de la parte basal del talle y duran en estado de 20 a 30 dlas. la pupa se la encuentra en el suelo o debajo de los residuos de las plantas.Control: La preparación del suelo, rastrilladas, ayuda a destruir pupas inundar los lotes. con aradas profundas y varias y larvas. También se recomienda A Spodoptera frugiperda lepidóptera: Noctuidae Su forma IMS común de ataque es como defol iador pero también actOa corno trozador. Aparece en altas poblaciones durante los periodos secos que siguen a los tiempos de lluvia (Beltrán,1967).El adulto. cuyo vida es de 10 a 12 días, es una mariposa de cuerpo robusto de color gris, con marcas blancas y gris claro sobre el primer par de alas; los ojos son grandes y bien diferenciados. En tota1 la mariposa mide 20 l1111 de largo y 40 lTIn de envergadura. Los huevos sao puestos en masa t sobre la lámina foliar O sobre el suelo y est~n recubiertos por escamas que provienen del cuerpo de la hembra (Figura 8).Las larvas al completar el desarrollo son verdes o negras, de acuerdo al alimento ingerido. En la parte dorsal tienen 3 bandas más claras que van desde la cabeza hasta el extremo del abdómen. En la cabeza, que es de color negro o café, tienen un dibujo en forma de V invertida de color blanquecino.El estado larvario dura de 16 a 20 dias, y después de 7 instares llegan a medir hasta 40 mm de longitud. la pupa mide alrededor de 15 a 20 mm de longitud y es de color eafe oscuro o negro, se la encuentra en el suelo a una profundidad de 20 a 100 mm (Beltrán, 1967).Control: Para el control de ésta y otras plagas del suelo se recomienda a} Preparación del suelo y destrucción de los residuos de la cosecha anterior~ b)Reconocimiento del control natural; los pájaros y particularmente las garzas (Subulcu, ibis) ejercen acción predadora; insectos benéficos de las familias Ca ral)1(fae , Tachinidae y Reduvlida. ayudan parasitando o predatando.e)Inunrlací6n profunda y completa de los lotes. Entre los insectos, los barrenadores constituyen un grupo que ocasiona pérdidas en la produccibn en algunas regiones de América Latina.Diatrae saecharalis (Fabrieius) Rupela albinel1a (Cramer). y Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zell.r) Diatraea sáccharalis, barrenador de la caña de azúcar, Lepidoptera: Pyralldae. la hembra es una mariposa de color crema y h §bito nocturno; se caracteriza por las estrias bien marcadas de las alas y por los palpos extendidos a manera de pico corto. El tamaño de la mariposa var1a de 20 mm a 26 mm según 1. cantidad de alimento que haya ingerido durante su estado larval (Figura 9). La duraci5n del estado adulto es de cuatro a seis días. las hembras normalmente ovipositan durante la noche, tanto en la haz como en el envés de las hojas superiores de las plantas de arroz. los huevos son ovalados. planos, de color crema recién ovipositado$ y rojizos al aCercarse la eclosión; miden alrededor de 1 mm.Estos huevos son colocados en masas, en forma imbricada, es decir, sobrepuestos, como las escamas de los peces, en número de 10 a 60; el perlado de incubación es de cinco a ocho dl.s (Beltrán, 1967).Las larvas completamente desarrolladas se encuentran dentro de los tallos, miden de 25 a 35 mm, son de color crema con la cabeza parda oscura; tienen tres pares de patas toráxicas y cinco pares de patas abdominales. En la parte dorsal de cada uno de los segmentos del cuerpo tienen cuatro manchas ovaladas de color gris oscuro, dispuestas en forma de trapecio y de cada una de ellas sale un pelO o seta.El periodo larval es de 18 a 25 dlas, durante el instares. Antes de empupar la larva hace un orificio facilitar l. salida del futuro adulto. cua 1 pasa por sei s en e' tallo para La pupa es de forma alargada y color café claro. mide de 10 a 20 mm de longitud; este estado transcurre dentro de' tallo y dura de 8 a 14 d!as.En resumen, el ciclo biológico del Diatraea dura de 35 a 53 días distribuIdos entre los diferentes estados. El adulto es una mariposa blanca con el cuerpo cubierto de escamas planas, superpuestas; mide hasta 30 mm. la hembra vive 5 a 8 días y generalmente es más grande que el macho, el cual vive 4 a 6 días.En las hojas jóvenes las hembras efectúan 2 o 3 oviposiciones, cada una de 80 a 120 huevos de color verde amarillento, cubiertos por una nasa algodonosa blanca. Los huevos son lisos y ovalados, de 0.75 mm de largo y 0.5 mm de ancho. El perlado de incubación es de siete días.Las 1 arvas son blancas {) de co 1 or crema y se reConocen fác il mente por su cabeza pequefta y rojiza. El abdómen, que termina en punta, tiene una linea dorsal longitudinal de color marrón claro.El periodo larval consta de 6 instares y dura 35 a 50 dias; al final de éste la larva mide 25 • 30 mm de longitud.La pupa completamente desarrollada mide en promediO 20 mm de longitud, presenta una coloracHm blanca cremOSa y Su per1odo de incubación, de 7 a 12 dias, 10 cumple dentro del tallo del huésped en un capuno de seda blanca.Rupefo n/bine/la 54-77 días. El adulto es una polilla de cuerpo delgado (Figura 11), con alas anteriores de color café grisáceo y las posteriores de color blanco; cuando está en posici5n de descanso, las alas se doblan sobre el dorso (Cheaney y Jennings, 1975).La hembra oviposita sobre las hojas, los tallos o sobre el suelo; las posturas son individuales y de color verde pal ido. La larva es de color verde azuloso con franjas café y mide aproximadamente 15 mm. La larva vive en el suelo y permanece en el tallo únicamente mientras Se está alimentando (Cheaney y Jennings, 1975).La pupa se encuentra cerca de la base de la planta en una cámara pupal construida con tierra. Los adultos de estos coleópteros de la familia Chrysow~lidae atacan el follaje del arroz y las larvas las raíces del arroz de Secano. Los adultos de Diabrotica son de color verde con manchas amarillas en las élitros; esta coloración puede cambiar segOn las condiciones ambientales y de alimentación (Figura 12). Estos adultos son cucarroncitos pequeños de 4.5 a 5.5 mm de largo y muy móviles. El adulto Epitrix, pulga saltona, es de color negro brillante y mide aproximadamente 2 mm de largo y su nombre 10 debe a su forma earacterfstica de saltar (González y Murillo, 1981); Chaetocn~ so. es Su nuevo nombre.La larva y el adulto de la especie Oisonycha son plagas graves del arroz en el norte de Brasil. El adulto es un eucarrón con los ~litros de color azul oscuro con franjas amarillentas y la cabeza de color claro.Spodoptera sp., Macis sp. Lepidoptera:Noctuidae Aunque el Spodój,tera actúa como trozador; la larva, al igual que la de Macis se alimenta.1 follaje y puede causar serias defoliaciones.Los adultos de Macis son \"mariposas\" de color café gris&ceo de aproximadamente 30 mm-ae-expansi6n alar. Cuando son perturbadas, tienen un vuelo corto y errático y luego posan con las alas extendidas. Las larvas.son por 10 general de color naranja con bandas longitudinales oscuras sQbre el dorso y pueden medir hasta 50 mm (Figura 13).Estigmene sp., gusano peludo. Lepidoptera: Arctiidae Caracter1stico de este insecto es el hecho de que 1as larvas en sus primeros estados viven en forma gregaria; posteriormente viven solitarias. Panoguina sp. enrollador de las hojas, Lepidóptera: Hesperiídae El adulto es una maripos.a de color café oscuro, con el cuerpo IT',dS a menos grueso y con manchas amarillentas en el primer par de alas~ de aproximadamente 30 fTlIl de expansi6n alar. La cabeza es negra Con los ojos pronun ciados y las antenas terminan en ganchos que utiliza el macho para coger a la hembra en la cópula (Figura 14).La larva es de color verde claro, mide alrededor de 35 mm de longitud, con la cabeza en forma de corazón de color café claro se le encuentra en el tubo que forma al doblar los bordes de l.s hojas. Los huevos son colocados en las puntas de las hojas de las plantas más altas y verdes.La pupa es. inicialmente de color verde amarillento y luego de color café claro. Mide alrededor de 25 mm y se encuentra dentro de la c §mara que construye la larva al enrollar las hojas para protegerse.-¡/ ~.:._ •., ,* Descripcíon:Pyral idae. Nombre vulgar Enrollador de la Adulto, Una polilla de vuelo incierto, de 10 rnn de longitud.color castano claro, palpos prolongados hacia adelante típicos de su familia, con tres rayas transversales en las alas de color café.Huevos~ Son ovalados, planos y puestos en una o más hileras, semejan escamas de pescado. inicialmente de color amarillo crema 1 al final aparece en la parte central una franja color rojo correspondiente a los intestinos de la futura larva, casi siempre son ovipositados en la haz de las hojas superiores. (Figura 15).Larva. De piel transparente, cabeza fuertel!lente esclerotizada color amarillo oscuro, de protórax incoloro. el resto del cuerpo toma el color verde de intestino. tiene las patas verdaderas hialinas, fuertes y presenta 5 pares de seudo patas , es muy nerviosa, alcanza un máximo de 12 rrm de longitud. Todo su período 10 pasa en las hojas.Pupa. Alcanza un máximo de 10 mm de largo x 2 1 /2 mm de ancho, bastante tubular de color amarillo claro. En el sitio donde aparecerán los ojos del adulto, presenta dos puntos oscuros~ el estado de pupa transcurre dentro del tubo formado por la hoja.Oafio: La larva causa roeduras en la hoja por la haz, posteríormente enrolla las hojas y con la seda va haciendo puntadas, procurandose un tubo en donde vive hasta que agota el alimento, luego cambia de hoja efectuando nuevamente el mismo daño, la parte inferior del tubo la tapa con los excrementos, se han encontrado hasta 400 hojas banderas dafiadas en un metro cuadrado.Las roeduras son siempre longitudinales y paralelas a la nervadura central ~ En los Qltimos ínstares t un tubo fonnado por la larva puede alcanzar hasta 40 cm con una puntada en cada cm.Control biológiCO: Es muy frecuente el parasitismo sobre las pupas por varios himenópteros de la familia Braconidae y Cha1cídidae, algunos dípteros ne la familia Tachinidae; también se han encontrado pupas y larvas parasitadas por Metarrhizium anisopl iae, existen nemátodos parásitos (le larvas y el Trichogramma sp. paraslta los huevos.La poblaCión de este insecto puede ser incrementada por el uso inadecuado de insecticidas. Larva y adulto de SyngamiQ sp.Conocephalus sp., eaulops;s sp., chapules:ürthoptera: Tettigoniidae -Tetrigidae.Son dos tipos de chapules que se alimentan del arroz. El Tettigoniidae Conocephalus sp. es de color verde, cabeza terminada en ángUlO, antenas largas y de tamaño variable, llega a medir a veces hasta 70 mm de larga (Cheaney y Jennings, 1975).La hembra pone los huevos en hileras dobles~ insertándolos en el tejidO de la hoja a colocándolas en los bordes de ella.El otro tipo de chapul, el caulaPSii sp.(Tetrigidae), es de calor café verdoso, mide alrededor de 40 l1TIl e argo y tiene las antenas cortas (Gontálet, 1981). los adultos y ninfas de estos ortópteros causan dano al alimentarse de la vaina y la lámina de 1a hoja bandera, dándole una apariencia deshilachada a desgarrada y causando la aparición de espigas blancas. Los chapules de antena corta también afectan los granos en formación.Los chupadores constituyen el segundo grupo de las plagas que atacan el follaje de arroz. Se incluye en este grupo a los ácaros.Insectos. Sagatodes oryzicol. (Muir), Sosatodes cubanus (Crawford), Oraeculacephala clypeata (Osborn), Hortensia ,imilis (Walker), Sipha flava.Sogatodes aryzicola. HOmOptera: Delphacidae El transmisor del virus de la hoja blanca del arraz es el Sogatodes orrl;cola, pequefio hom6ptero, cuyas ninfas &pteras son inicialmente de ca or blanco verdoso con franjas negras a 10 largo del cuerpo y a medida que avanza el desarrollo se tornan de color amarillo intenso {Figura 15A} y después de 5 instares\", que duran de 16 a 20 dias~ se transforman en adultos.La hembra con su estilete ovipositor hace varias incisiones en fonna vertical de 1 a 5 mm ,obre el tejida esponjosa de la nervadura central en las hojas, espeCialmente en la haz, colocando los huevos alineados uno al lado del otro. En la incisión deposita de 2 a 8 huevecillos que inicialmente son m~s o menos transparentes y luego. toman un color blancuzco; son ligeramente curvados, y miden 0.7 1TIYI de largo (Beltr.tin 1967).El macho adulto mide de 2 a ;3 rml Y es de color castana, presentando una zona rr.~.soscura hacia el ano y una banda blanca en la cabeza. las hembras adultas son de color amarillo, miden de 3 a 4 mm; los adultos generalmente tienen alas normales, aunque algunos tienen alas hlUy cortas, especialmente las hembras. Son sedentarios y difícilmente abandonan el El control mas eficiente y económico es el uso de variedades resistentes.En siembras comercia1es de variedades susceptib'es~ la Sogata se multiplica rápidamente una vez que las hojas cubren el suelo y el daño 10 inicia antes de la floracion.La eficiencia de una pOblaCión normal de Sogata en el campo. para transmitir el EHB entre plantas de arroz, es en promedio del 10 al 15% durante las epidemias, en ausencia de ellas el porcentaje de insectos vectores disminuye a menos del 1%.La Sogata en los estados de adulto y de ninfa es altamente parasitada por Elenchus sp. El adulto de Draeculacephala tiene la cabeza larga y puntiaguda. Mide .lrededor de 10 Il1lI de 10ngidud, es de color verde y las alas son atravesadas por unas rayas blancuzcas lontigurlinales muy finas. En el protórax tiene un triángulo de color más claro que el resto del cuerpo, La ninfa es verde pálido con los ojos claramente diferenciados y la cabeza mas oscura que el resto del cuerpo.El adulto de Hortensia es más pequeño que el de Draeculacephala. Se distingue la Hortensia además del tamaño. porque tiene la cabeza redondeada y un patr6n caracterlsticl') de manchas y figuras negras del ineadas en la cabeZR (Figura 16B). Control: Generalmente no es necesario tomar medidas de control. Se han encontrado en arroz de riego adultos infectados por pat6genos entre otros por Beauved. sp.El contro 1 qu' mi co de 1 a Soga ta también afecta 1 a poblaci6n de Draecul.cepo.la. Inundacion Q rIego puede contrarrestar el daño de los chupadores.Generalmente los ~caros que se encuentran en el arroz, son especies de la familia Tetranychidae los cuales se caracterizan,.entre otras,por tener 3 pares de patas en el estado larval y 4 pares de patas en 105 demás estados biológicos (protoninfa-deutoninfa-adulto). De forma globosa a piriforme y pueden medir hasta 0.8 mm de longitud.En América Latina la especie que más se ha encontrado atacando el arroz es SChizotetran~chus oryzae. Esta especie presenta una coloración verdosa y varias mane aS negruzcas a ambos lados del cuerpo. En el CIAT en cultivos de arroz, se han encontrado en poblaciones bajas, las especies Tetranychus urticae y cinnabarinus.Los huevos son redondos, ligeramente achatados y blanquecinos. Los ácaros se localizan en ambos lados de la hoja. Producen cierta cantidad de telaraña que se puede observar sobre la hoja.Control. Generalmente aparecen en las últimas etapas de desarrono del cultivo. Cuando su ataque sobreviene durante las primeras etapas nel cultivo y se vea favorecido par escasas lluvias. puede causar da fío de consideracion y entonces se puede hacer la aplicación de Tetradifon (0.16 Kg ia/ha)o Azufre 80% PM (2.0 kg ia/ha).Sipha flava: (HomOptera: aphinidae) el afido o pulgón amarillo, vive en numerosas colonias en el envés de las hojas, causando con su hábito de al imentaci6n in; cia lmente puntuaciones amari1l entas t que se pueden tornar de color rojizo. Tiene más de 25 hospedantes y últil¡lamente sus pOblaciones en el cultivo de arroz no inundado se vienen incrementando. en ocasiones sus ataques son tan severos que las plantas se ven retrasadas en su desarrollo normal.Sipha tiene numerosos eneffiigos naturales que regulan sus pob 1 aciones. En caso necesario se puede ap 11 car Dí metaa tú a razón de 2 ce por litro de dgua de producto comercial. En plantaciones iniciales la inundacion de los campos ejercen buen control sobre el afido.El último grupo de las plagas que atacan el follaje es el minador y est~ representado por la mosca Hydre11ia sp.Este minador es un díptero de la familia Ephydridae clasificado por Fallen como Hydrellia griseola.El adulto es una mosca que míde de 2 • 3 mm de largo y de 3 a 4 mm de envergadura, de color negro opaco y alas translúcidas. Tiene 1a antena de tipo plumoso y el t6rax dividido en franjas de color gris claro (Figura 17).Las mosquitas pueden volar a distancias cortas y tienen capacidad para posarse y moverse en la superficie del agua.Los huevos son de color b1anco, estriados y de forma ovoide, son colocados en forma individual y preferentemente en la haz de la hoja cerca a la superficie del agua.Las larvas son áoodas de color blanco, miden 1,2 a 1,5 llUTl. La pupa de forma ovoide y de color café claro se encuentra en las galerías abiertas por la larva en el parenquima foliar.Control: En experimentos realizados en el CIAT se probó la eficiencia de varios insecticidas y de algunas prácticas culturales. El drenaje del lote por 3 o 4 días resultó ser tan efectivo como muchos insecticldas aplicados en diferentes épocas y dosis. Este método de control presenta el inconveniente que puede promover el enmaleza~iento. Cuando el ataque no es severo, las plantas se recuperan del dafto. En ataques localizados se puede aplicar Diazinon (O.6 Kg. ia/ha) O earbofuran 3G 0.6 kg ia/ha). El adulto es de color café claro con el cuerpo cubierto por una coraza en forma de escudo y en él1a tiene manchas amarillas. Mide cerca de 10 mm de largo. La cabeza es pequeft., hipognat. y triangular. En cada ala tiene un punto blanco (Figura lSA). Los huevos entre lO y 200 son colocados en hileras sobre la haz de las hojas o en las panículas, ti enen forma de barril y son de color rojo oscuro cerca a la eclosión .. La ninfa es ovalada, tiene los ojos rojos, el cuerpo fr&gil y sobre la parte media del abdómen se diferencia dos puntos blancos.~ viridula (L) Hemíptera: Pentatomidae El chinche adulto es ovalado, ancho y por lo general es de color verde. aunque algunas veces el color puede variar. Mide de 15 a 20 ll1l1 de largo y 15 ll1l1 de ancho. Como todos los pentatomidos tiene forma de escudo (Figura 188). Se 10 encuentra a menudo en los arrozales, aunque no siempre ataca el cultivo.Los huevos de forma redonda, son colocados en filas sobre el envés de las hojas; son amarillos y próximos a la eclosión se tornan rOjos. Las ninfas emergen de los huevos al cabo de una semana y en la primera se las encuentra alrededor de las cáscaras de éstos y en los últimos estados son de color tanto verde como negro,con unos puntos b1ancos dispuestos en hileras a través del cuerpo y carecen de alas (Schnitzler. 1976).Thianta sp. y posiblemente Acrosternum sp.Al Igual que los otros es llamado chinche hediondo. Tiene el cuerpo cubierto por una coraza en forma de escudo (Figura ISe), es el chinche de mayor tamano, es de color café y presenta a cada lado de la parte frontal del escutelo dos pequeñas formas triangulares (González y Murillo, 1981).~ meditabunda. Hemlptera: Pentatomidae.El adulto tiene cuerpo oval, ligeramente conveXO en el dorso y en 1. región central. (Figura 180). Mide 12 llIIl de largo por 6.6   Daño: Cuando se alimenta! introduce el estilete y da~a los tejidos en crecimiento produciendo corazón rr~erto. la lámina de agua tiene mucha influencia en la recuperación de 1as plantas afectadas e impide que el daño se efectúe muy abajo y pueda matar la planta.Control: Un pequeño Pteromalidae efectúa un excelente parasitismo de los huevos de esta plaga, es corriente que el promedio de posturas parasitadas sobrepase el 90%.!!J.~.ssus leucopterus. Hemiptera: Lygaei dae Debido a que la larva causa daftos a la ra1z, este chinche cuyo adulto ataca la panícula se describió en la sección de plagas del suelo.Control: Un buen control de malezas, disminuye la poblacion en forma considerable. Para decidir el uso del control químico. es necesario muestrear el lote si se presenta un nivel de infestación de 3 chinches por pan~cula, se puede aplicar alguno de los insecticidas recomendado para el control de la Sogata.Para lograr un adecuado maneja y con~rol de los insectos plagas t es necesario que los técnicos además de identificar al insecto, puedan detectar su presencia en el campo. conozcan su ciclo y evaluen correctamente el daño que ocasiona al cultivo.Conociendo los danos caracter1sticos de cada uno de los insectos y los otros signos visibles de la presencia de la plaga, se puede determinar si est&n atacando las plantas de arroz.Como varias especies plagas muestran cierta preferencia por un determinado estado de desarrollo del hospedante en el cual pueden encontrar su alimento, se har& este descripción siguiendo las etapas de desarrollo del cultivo haciendo enfasis en los signos visibles. Se reconoce que el da~o es causaao por el adulto del Gryilota1pa sp.por la presencia de túneles que construyen en la tierra para llegar hasta las raíces de las plantas. Cuando estas galerlas no se presentan se puede escarbar alrededor de las pUntulas atacadas; en lotes donde se siembra arroz por primera vez, es frecuente encontrar cerca de las raíces de las plantas gusanos blancuzcos en forma de U (larvas de PhYllopha~a ,p.) o gusanos de color caf~ que permanecen enroscados (SpodOptera ogrotis) o adultos de Euetheola sp.Al observar en el campo parches de diferentes tamaños que se van extendiendo, con plantas a!llarillentas atrofiadas. muertas o con un crecimiento deficiente, se puede sospechar de ataque por B1i,sus, Euetheola o Líssorhoptrus. Los dos primeros atacan arroz de secano1aunque el dano de Blissus es ocasional y Se presenta después de periodos prolongados de sequía y el Euetheola prefiere suelos hOrnedos y sembrados anteriormente en pastos; el Lissorhoptrus es plaga exclusiva de arroz inundado.Los adultos y las ninfas de Blissus que por 10 general se encuentran en el suelo, Chupan de las ralces 'y de los tallos; cuando se encuentran en altas poblaciones afectan el crecimiento de las pl~ntulas. provocando su amari11amiento y finalmente su muerte (eheaney y Jenr,;ngs, 1975). Su ataque se presenta en parches de diferentes tamanos. El gorgojito de agua, destruye el sistema radical al alimentarse de él o al ovipositar la hembra mastica 1a superficie de la raíz para insertar el oVipositor y dejar sus huevos debajo de la epidermís de las ralces principales {Beltr&n~ 1967).Las larvas de Spodóptera producen volcamiento de las p1&ntu1as al alimentarse de la base de los tallos tiernos de las plantas, se presentan en forma ocasional, pero si las condiciones ambientales son propicias puede presentarse en altas poblaciones.El volcamiento de las plantas puede ser producido por la larva de AgrQtis ypsi10n .1 cortar las plantas a ras del suelo. larvas llegan a comer toda 1. lamina de la hoja dejando solo la nervadura central.Se detecta el dano de Mocis en el campo porque los parches de las hojas trozadas pueden llegar a ser muy grandes y ademas porque en los d1as próxilOOs a existir una alta infestación de larvas. se encuentra abundancia de adultos.Durante el macoll.miento debido a la destrucci5n del punto de ere• cimiento por los barrenadores (Oiatraea y Elasmopalpus), es caracterlstico el signo V1Slble \"corazón muerto\", o sean tallos jóvenes que se secan y mueren. Como consecuencia de este ataque en algunos casos se pre senta amar,1lamiento de las hojas inferiores y aChaparramiento, mostrando como slntoma inicial la presencia de manchas translúcidas que luego se to,n.n pardo oscuras, en las vainas foliares.Los danos de Oiatraea son causados por las larvas; éstas inicialmente se alimentan de las hojas tiernas; depu~s de la primera muda penetran en el tallo, preferiblemente por la parte aplcal, debido a que los huevos son depositados en las hojas superiores, lo cual determina que el movimiento de la larva sea, en la mayorla de los casos, descendente. Dentro del tallo se localizan en los entrenudos superiores, se alimentan del tejida esponjoso y van construyendo galerlas longitudinales; a veces salen de estas galerlas y por otro sitio penetran nuevamente en el tallo, o pueden pasar a otro tallo o • otra planta. Los tallos debilitados por los tQneles aparecen doblados o a punto de caer; en la base de las plantas dejan residuos parecidos al aserr1n.El dano de Rh'pela albinella 10 inicia la larva pequen. tan pronto emerge del huevo; ace un oriricio en el tallo, unoS pocos centlmetros arriba del cuello de la falz por donde penetra, y luego perfora los entrenudos y abre galerlas. Generalmente la larva se localiza en los dos tercios inferiores del tallo, 10 cual la diferencia de la de Oiatraea que se encuentra, en la IDa,1or1a de los casos, en el tercio superior del tallo~ donde se notan los orificioS que hace la larva antes de empupar, mientras que los orificios que hace la larva de Rupela antes de empupar s' encuentran en 1. base del tallo (CIAT,19aO).El Elasmo~alpus sp. tambien puede causar p~rdidas cuando suceden condiciones pro ongadas de sequia. La larva ataca al arroz en estado de plantula~ perfora la base del tallo y produce IIcorazones muertos lt y luego 1. planta se seca. Si el ataque se presenta despuéS del macollamiento, los hijos más jóvenes son dañados del mismo modo ( González y Murlllo,19B1).Otro daño que se puede observar en el follaje durante esta etapa es el enrollamiento de las hojas, causado por la larva de pano~uina sp. El insecto dobla o enroSCa los bordes de una o m~s hojas, obten endo en esta forma un área de alimentaci6n protegida. Dentro de este tubo forma un capullo de seda donde se encuentra la pupa.Como chupadores y masticadores del follaje actOan los cicadelidos Oraeculacephala sp y Hortensia sp. y los delfácidos So.atodes oryzicola y 5. cubanus.Los dos primeros t aunque a veces 5e encuentran en altas poblaciones. causan poco daño, cuando las plantas de arroz son muy j6venes, pueden llegar a causar disminución de altura de la planta y reducir el número de hijos. Las lesiones de su alimentación y las perforaciones que hacen para ovipositar predisponen las plantas a infecciones y favorecen la producción de Ufumagina\". Su darto se puede hacer visib1e en el 10te por los parches amarillentos o rojizos que a veces se confunden con toxicidades o deficiencias de algunos elementos.Las sogatas causan dafio mecánico a la planta de drrQZ al perfor~r las hojas para alimentarse ti Qvipositar~ cuando el ataque es severo hay producción de fumagína y secamiento total de la planta pero su principal daño consiste en ser vector del virus de la hoja blanca. No existe asociaci6n entre la resistencia varietal al virus de la hoja blanca y al dafio mecánico del in~ecto.Al S09atodes oryzicola se considera el único insecto capaz de transmitlr el Vlrus de la hoja blanca a planta de arroz j pas&ndolo de unas a otras. También 10 transmitir a malezas como las especies de Echinoehloa sp..y Digitaria sanguinalis. Tambi~n puede transmltirl y a la avena, pero no se ha logrado experimentalmente a virus de estas plantas huéspedes al arroz.los sintomas caracterhticos de la hoja blanca en el arroz difieren según la variedad y la edad de la planta infectada. Los primeros slntomas solo se observan en las hojas que emergen despu~s de la inoculación del virus y consisten en un moteado blanco amari1lo en la base de la hoja. Luego las áreas cloróticas. al hacerse más numerosas, se fusionan y forman rayas de color amarillo pálido. blanco, paralelas a la nervadura central, desde el &pice hasta la vaina? Estos sintomas eston acompa~ados de un secamiento descendente de las hojas, y son más notorios cuanto más jóvenes sea la planta, a la vez que se observa enanismo en las macollas que se presentan mezcladas con las sanas.El dañO causado por los ácaros se n~nifiesta en las hojas por pequeños punto,; a-!f!\\~iller)tos que aumentan progresivamente con el desarrollo de la población del áoaro, luego se observan en las hojas estrlas longitudinales amarillentas y manchas blanquecinas debido a la presenCi,; de telaraña producida por ~,1') ácaros. Alcanza su :,lfixirr.o ddño .en época!:! secas.TEBCERA ETAPA: DE FLORACION A LA COSECHA Durante esta etapa se pueden observar signos visibles como II panícula blanca\", pan1culas deformes o manchadas.Cuando los barrenadores atacan plantas que inician la f1oracion, las hojas se caen, los granos no se fonnan 1 daodo lugar a la aparición de: panlculas blancas, vanas y erectas~ las cuales al ser haladas~ se desprenden fácilmente.Tí raca límbatíventrís .Se reconoce que el ataque causado por grillos, o por roedores y no por barrenadores porque los huecos que dejan los roedores y los grillos son más grandes.hoja blanca por S. oryzieola las pan'culas se deforman y las espiguillas son de color marro¡¡ y vanaS ( Ling. 1972).El principal daño en esta etapa, 10 cauSan las chinches. Oebalus sp., Nezara sp. BHs.us sp. y Al~indus sp. Tanto los adultos como los estados inmaduros de estos insectos se alimentan de los granos en formaci6n, causando su vaneamiento y malformación.El dano de los chinches en el grano de arroz sin descascarar, se puede detectar por la presencia de manchas de color caf~ causadas por hongos en el sitio donde el insecto perforó el grano.Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos hidráulicos. Gula para la a51stencia técnica a9rlcol La mayor parte del arroz se cultiva en el trópico cAlido y hOmedo. y estas condiciones favorecen la proliferación de las plagas del arroz, ast como de sus enemigos naturales. Además el problema de los insectos se acentúa en las regiones en donde se cultiva arroz durante todo el afio, ofreciendo condiciones de vida permanentes s por lo cual los insectos no pasan por un período de diapausa definido, sino que se presentan todo el tiempo en generaciones escalonadas o sucesivas (Cárdenas y Pachón, 1977).Debe considerarse también que una diversidad de insectos atacan este cultivo, desde 1a siembra hasta la cosecha, con 10 cual le -causan pérdidas en germinación, en la población de pl&ntulas, en los rendimientos de grano, perjudican su desarrollo y calidad, transmiten enfennedades y otros daños (Gonzalez y Murillo, 1981).Para determinar la fluctuación de algunos insectos perjudiciales al arroz, en relación con las diferentes etapas de desarrollo del cu1tivo y las diferentes épocas del año, se realizó una investigación en el Programa de Arroz del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, elAT, en Palmira. Colombia. LoS objetivos de este trabajo fueron: conocer la incidencia de los insectos en e1 cultivo y las fluctuaciones en relación con la época del año, el desarrollo O estado de la planta y la variación del parasitismo de Rupela albinella t barrenador de mayor incidencia en el medio.El ensayo se realizó en el campo experimental del Centro. cuyas condiciones ambientales más significativas son: altura 1000 msnm, lluvia promedia anual 1000 mm} con dos épocas de mayor precipitación abríl, mayo y junio} la primera; y septiembre~ octubre y noviembre la segunda f y dos períodos intermedios más o menos secos.En la Figura 1 se pueden observar las condiciones ambientales promedias~ ocurridas durante e1 períOdO del ensayo. Condiciones ambientales, promedio de los dos años de estudio, Se efectuaron siembras en suelos fangueados cada mes durante 2 aftos, en parcelas de 450 m2 cada una. La variedad utilizada fue CICA 8, con densidad de 100 kg/ha de semilla pregerminada. En cada una de las parcelas se ubicaron dos franJas en sentido diagonal de 1 m de ancho y 16 m de longitud cada una (Figura 2), para tomar muestras de la población de insectos con una aspiradora O-Vac, alternando para éllo las franjas demarcadas cada semana. Con base en los datos obtenidos, se pudieron identificar tres grupos de insectos: el primero cuya población fluctúa segOn la edad y desarrollo del cultivo, el segundo cuya población fluctúa según la época del ano y, el tercero, en .1 cual la población fluctúa sin tener ninguna relación con la edad del cultivo, ni con la época del año.Insectos gue fluctúan con la edad del cultivo En el primer grupo se clasificaron seis especies cuya población varió de acuerdo con la edad. La primera fue Hydrellia sp.; se encontró que su población aumenta hasta los 30 primeros dlas del cultivo, época que corresponde a la iniciaci6n del maco11amiento y luego declina fuertemente hasta los 90 días; después se encuentran pocos adultos del insecto. La IInovia del arroz\", Rupela albinella también fluctüa según la edad del cultivo, pues inicialmente su poblaci6n fue baja y presentó el mayor número üe aüultos cuando el cultivo tenia entre 60 y 90 dlas, periOdO de desarrollo del tallo y la panlcu1a; disminuyó hacia los 120 dlas y luego se mantiene constante hasta el final del ciclo, 140 dl.s para la variedad.También la pOblación del chinche del grano, Oebalus poecilus. demostró estar relacionada con la edad del cultivo. Hasta el tercer mes su pOblación fue muy baja; en este momento, que corresponde a la etapa de desarrollo de la pan~cula, comienza a aumentar el número de chinches hasta alcanzar su máximo a los 120 dlas. cuando el grano se encuentra en estado lechoso, y luego declina ligeramente hasta el momento de la cosecha, cuando todav!a se encuentran adultos en el campo. La Figura 3 compara la variación de adultos par muestra de las tres especies anteriores, destacando momentos diferentes para la máxima incidencia de cada uno.Tres especies de HoffiÓpteros fueron igualmente influIdos por la edad de la pldnt.: Hortensia similis, Sogatodes oryzicola y Draecu1acephala clxpeata. Tuvieron un comportamiento muy similar 1 pues su máxima pOblaci6n se presentó alrededor de los 60 dlas, para luego declinar hasta la época de cosecha (Figura 4). fueron también las plagas ~s numerosas.    Fluctuación de la pOblación de Hydrellia griseola segun la época del año {promedio 28 meses),Insectos que varían sin relaci5n con la ~poca o edad del cultivo Solo una especie de las estudiadas, Epítrix sp., no mostró consistencia en su comportamiento poblacional al relacionarla con los meses del año, ni con la edad del cultivo.En relación con el dano del minador Hydrellia pos ¡riSeOla L se encontr6 que el mayor número de hojas afectadas ocurre en pI ntulas hasta la cuarta semana, disminuyendo luego el daño para ser minimo a medida que aumenta la edad del cultivo (Figura 7). Este daño es consistente con la voriaci6n de la poblaci6n antes registrada e independiente de la época del dlio. Relación entre el número total de hojas de la planta del arroz y las dañadas por Ifydrellkl pos griseola,Cuando se comparO la fluctuación de la población de insectos adultos de R1pela albinella y sus parásitos Tratala sp. y sp, se encontró que a reducci6n en la poblaci6n del barrenador, i6 a un notable aumento a los parAsitos que 10 contro1an en forma de arva, especialmente la segunda de éllas, la cual llega a superar en el cuarto mes la de su hospedero Rupel. sp. (Figura 8).Al determinar el nivel de parasitismo por parte del himenOptero Telenomus sp. en las posturas de Rupela, ~ste resultó ser muy alto. confirmando estudios precedentes hechos en CIAr. Se observa adem&s cierta relaciOn en su poblaciOn con el nOmero de posturas, m&s nO Con el número de larvas que presenta poca variación.Adem&s, al relacionar parasitismo en posturas de ~ con la época del ano, el mayor número de larvas del parasito se encantrO en el mes de Mayo (Figura 9).  Los insectos cuya población fluctúa con la edad del cultivo, son el Sos,todes oryzlcol., Ru~el. albinella, Hydrellia E.;¿¡Mi~~'t:e Oebalus poeeilus, Draeulaeephala e ypeata y Hortensia slmil1s.alt1mo. todas parecen no reciblr influencia amblental.Sogatodes cubanos y Hortensia similis son insectos euya poblacibn fluctOa con la epoca del ano. aunque el perlado estudiado pudiera resultar corto para definirlo. por éllo se debe continuar con la investigación. para confirmar 1. influencia en 1. población de condiciones ambientales tales como precipitación, temperatura y por 1.  Generalmente la importancia que alcanza una plaga en un cultivo, es el resultado de las actividades del hombre transportando1a a regiones antes no infestadas, introduciendo a su medio nuevas plantas y animales exóticos, produciendo variedades o razas de organismos y simplificando los ecosistemas como un resultado de las actividades agrlcolas e industriales.Antes de tratar de controlar a los insectos plagas debemos aprender a convivir con ellos. a realizar un inteligente manejo de nuestros recursos, razonando no 5010 en funciOn econOmica sino también en función eco16gica.Es frecuente la opiniOn de que en el cultivo del arroz en América Latin. son pocas las plagas que tienen importancia econOmica. También es común que cuando aparece un insecto plaga en altas densidades de población.se hacen aplicaciones de insecticidas no selectivos, los cuales pueden producir dr&sticas alteraciones en 1. entomofauna del cultivo con consecuencias impredecibles.En el cultivo del arroz existe un excelente equilibrio biolbgico para muchas plagas, debido en parte a la presencia de numérosos agentes ben~ficos que regulan sus poblaciones. Esta situación favorable es conveniente que perdure, evitando al ~ximo la utilizaciOn de insecticidas de alta toxicidad para organismos benéficos. Con el ~nimo de contribuir a que se cumpla este propósito. se presentan a continuación algunas consideraciones sobre el manejo de plagas, con énfasis en arroz.Desde hace IIlJchos anos se viene insistiendo en la conveniencia de ejercer un control integrado de plagas y enfermedades, sin embargo en la mayor1a de los cultivos su control se ha realizado casi exc.lusvamente en base a agroqulmicos nO selectivos.Es indispensable analizar profundamente cuales son los factores que impiden o retrasan 1a aplicación por parte de los agricultores, de las diferentes técnicas de control integrado. El agricultor es consciente de ¡. conveniencia del control integrado, pero sin enbargO t no quiere correr nin96n riesgo y prefiere recurrir a la aplieaciOn de insecticidas no selectivos. antes de pensar en 1. pOSibilidad de que ocurra una disminución en los rendimientos de sus cosechas. Es muy posible también de que no existan en las fincas las condiciones necesarias para su aplicaci6n t o quiza se requiere conocer muchas más de la parte pr~ctica de su empleo.Cualquiera que sean las causas que retrasen su aplicaci6n, es necesario considerar que no basta con desarrollar tacnologlas mejoradas para el manejo de plagas, sino que es indispensable contar con personal capacitado a todos los niveles, que pueda realizar demostraciones convincentes en l.s propias fincas. para darles plena confianza a los agricultores en la adopción del método de manejo integrado de plagas.Este manejo se debe realizar considerando que es necesario producir los m&ximos rendimientos con costos m1nimos de control, estableciendo niveles de dano econOmico para cada plaga y haciendo todo 10 posible para proteger, preservar y aumentar los agentes benéficos que regulan las poblaciones de insectos plagas, en los distintos ecosistemas.Los insecticidas se deben considerar como componentes indispensables para el control de insectos plagas, pero aplicados en el momento preciso y cuando fallen las otras alternativas de control. Su utilizadOn i ndi scrimi nada a trav~s de 1 as Olt imas décadas, ha puesto al des<;ubi erto los problemas que se generan de su excesiva utilizaci6n tales como: contaminación ambiental, residuos tóxicos en los alimentos, aumento en los costos de producción. disminución de las poblaciones de par~sitos y predadores, apariciOn como plagas de arropados que se consideraban como secundarios, y un creciente aumento de la resistencia de los insectos plagas a los insecticidas, por muy tOxicos y complejOS que sean. Existen en la actualidad mlis de 300 especies de insectos resistentes a insecticidas, entre los cuales est~n varias que atacan el cultivo del arroz.En relación con la resistencia de los insectos a los insecticidas, debe considerarse que el insecticida tiene como función primordial, bajar la densidad de la pOblación de una plaga a niveles sin importancia económica~ en donde se espera que permanezca por largos per1odos, gracias a la acción de otros mecanismos de control, tales como resistencia varietal del cultivo, par~sitos y predadores, practicas culturales y otros factores reguladores.El efecto de la resistencia varietal de un cultivo sobre la densidad de poblaciOn de una plaga, se aumenta por la acciOn de parásitos y predadores, llegándose a creer que todo se debe a la variedad mejorada. Este efecto complementario de la resistencia y agentes benéficos, se puede detectar cuando se eliminan los parásitos y predadores por las aplicaciones de insecticidas no selectivos. caso en el cual se intensifica el dano en la variedad resistente. la crisis sufrida por cultivos que han dependido de los insecticidas para el control de las plagas, ha obligado a técnicos y agricultores a entender que el control integrado, es la manera más racional de regular las poblaciones de las especies dañinas.El control integrado consiste en la combinación e integración de todas las técnicas disponibles, para que aplicadas en forma armoniosa, mantengan los insectos plagas a niveles que no produzcan da~o de importancia econOmica a los cultivos. Parte basic. del control integradO es el control biolOgico, el cual puede definirse como el combate de plagas mediante la deliberada y sistemlitica utilización de sus enemigos naturales. La acci6n de parasitos, predadores y patógenos, mantienen la densidad de otros organismos a nivel mis bajo del que podrfa ocurrir en su ausencia.La exHosa aplicaciOn del control integrado a insectos plagas no es tan fácil. puesto que requiere un profundO conocimiento de la correcta identificación de la especie, de su biologla y comportamiento, de los factores Que regulan sus poblaciones. entre las cuales tiene mucha importancia los par~sitos y predadores. Es igualmente indispensable establecer sistemas de muestreo que faciliten determinar los niveles de población de las distintas plagas, con posibilidad de ocasionar p~rdidas de importancia econ6mica, durante los diferentes estados de desarrollo del cultivo (Figura 1). Posición de equifíbrio de una población de insectos, umbral econó• mico y daño ewJ1Ómico ¡Plaga ocasional).El nivel de daño económico no se puede determinar por un simple número o porcentaje, es un factor variable que depende de muchos parámetros, tales como: vigor de la planta, parte afectada por la plaga, condiciones clim!ticas y edAficas, exigencias del mercado en calidad y presentaciOn.Los tres componentes básicos para tomar decisiones en los programas de manejo de plagas son: a) loS muestreos para determinar la densidad de población de los insectos plagas; b) el nivel de dano econOmico para detenninar la densidad de poblaci6n que causa pérdidas a un cultivo; y e) los factores de mortalidad que regulan las pOblaCiones de los insectos. la determinaci6n y evaluación del daño ocasionado por un insecto plaga es muy dif1cil t por cuanto se tienen experiencias de que el daño causado por una plaga a una planta, puede o no resultar en pérdidas económicas; inclusive, en ciertos estados de desarrollo de la planta, el daño producido por un insecto se puede traducir en un incremento de la producción. A pesar de esta dificultad, el t~cnico insiste en encontrar definiciones o f6rmu1as que le permitan determinar con facilidad, en la práctica) los niveles de dano econ6mico. En el cultivo del arroz lograr ésto va a demorar unos cuantos años, por cuanto se necesita más investigación y mucha experiencia sobre las plagas de un ecosistema dado.~o se pretende con los temas siguientes satisfacer esta inquietud, sino ~s bien discutir sobre las causas de la fluctuaciOn en las poblaciones de insectos plagas y las épocas en que su densidad y su daño, afectan econ6micamente a los cultivos; en segundo lugar comprender que los técnicos no solo son quienes ofrecen soluciones a los problemas que se presentan con las plagas t sino que en la mayorla de los casos son los responsables de su ocurrencia. por desconocer los principios bSsicos del maneja de plagas.los factores naturales de mortalidad cumplen un papel muy importante en la regulación de las poblaciones de los insectos plagas. Howard and ,iske (1949) distinguieron dos categorías de Causas naturales de mortalidad entre los insectos. En una categoría est~n los factores que causan un porcentaje constante de mortalidad, sin importar la ahundanci a de los i nsec.tos; se 1 es denomi na factores catastr6fi cos. En 1 a otra categorta estan los factores que causan porcentaje creciente de mortalidad, a medida que el número de insectos hospederos se incrementa; éstos se denominan factores facultativos. Smith (1935) citado por Soria (1982), los llam~ como factores de mortalidad independientes de la densidad los primeros y dependientes de la densidad los últimos. Puede entenderse facilmente que los factores físicos, clima y tiempo, que ofrecen resistencia ambiental, SOn independientes de la densidad, o sea que su acción varia independientemente de las variaciones en la pOblación de insectos, y que los factores biolbgicos, tales como competencia por alimento, por espacio y por abrigo, los depredadores y los parásitos, son dependientes de la densidad, esto es, que §llos son afectados por el aumento o descenso en la poblaCión del insecto hospedero.El ent0m610go agrícola está interesado en los factores de mortalidad que pueden determinar la densidad de poblaCión promedial o la posiCión de equilibrio de una especie. Si tales factores tienen éxito en mantener una posiciOn de equil ibrio bajo el nivel de daño econ6mico \"cero econ6mico ll entonces son importantes, de otra manera no 10 son. SlIIith (1935), ha mostrado que los factores de mortalidad dependientes de la densidad pueden determinar la posici6n de equilibrio en la pOblaci6n de una especie, y que los factores independientes de la densidad) no pueden hacerle nunca si operan solos. En el caso de un insecto hospedero bajo control biológico, el porcentaje de mortalidad causado por factores bióticos, particulannente insectos entomOfagos, incrementa su valor porcentual cuando la densidad del hospedero tiende a disminuir. Los factores dependientes de 1. densidad son los Onicos que son realmente reguladores.Las variaciones en el ~lima pueden causar fluctuaci6n en el nOmero de insectos hu~spedes de un cultivo, cambio que puede tener importancia econ6mica. Sin embargo, se debe hacer una distinción entre estas fluctuaciones y las densidades de población promedias controladas por factores bi6ticos.A menudo han sido trasladados accidentalmente insectos perjudiciales desde un país, donde la densidad promedio de población ha sido satisfacto-riamente baja desde un punto de vista económico, hasta otro pa1s donde la densidad promedio de población se incrementó r5pidamente hasta un. extensión alarmante. Este incremento no fue causado por un el ima m5s favorable, pues efectivamente, el clima fue algunas veces menos favorable; el incremento fue causado por la ausencia de los factores dependientes de la densidad, que operaban en el ambiente anterior, pero no en el nuevo. En vista de que algunos factores dependientes de la densidad, tales como competencia por alimento, por espacio, etc. supuestamente operarlan en el mismo grado tanto en el nuevo ambiente Como en el viejo; los factores dependientes que no fueron alcanzados o ejecutados autom5ticamente en el nuevo ambiente, prinCipalmente predadores y parlsitos, podrla lógicamente ser considerados como .1 \"eslabOn perdido\" en la combinación de factores que prove'an un control exitoso de la plaga en el ambiente anterior (Sorla 1982).SegOn 10 anterior, se puede entenaer que en los ecosistemas naturales todos los seres vivos estan regulados por factores de mortalidad y de no existir estos factores reguladores. el incremento de una poblaciOn serIa infinita. Se sabe que no ocurre as', sino que las poblaciones tienen una fluctuaci6n muy din~mica sobre la cual se establece la posición de equilibrio. Esta es el promedio de la densidad de la pOblaci6n sobre la cual la cantidad de individuos fluctOa (Figura 1). La frecuencia con que ocurren estas oscilaciones depende del tipo de organismo, en el caso de bacterias pueden ser horas, en el caso de insectos d1as o meses, en el caso del hombre décadas, y en el caso de algunos árboles miles de años (Falcon 1982).En los ecosistemas artificiales o manejados (agroecosistemas), 10 que interesa a los técnicos es conocer cuándo la poblaci6n de un insecto alcanza densidades que causen disminución econOmica en los rendimientos de las cosechas o \"nivel de dano econ6mico\", y cuál seria la densidad de población a 1. cual se deben aplicar medidas de control para que no ocurra ninguna pérdida, \"umbral económico\", (Figura 1). En la aplicación práctica del control integrado, si una plaga tiene su posici6n de equilibrio en el nivel A (Figura 2), se pretende causar una reducción de su densidad de pob1aci6n hasta otra posiCión de equilibrio donde no caUSe dano al cultivo. como el nivel B., mediante la introducción de un enemigo natural o por cualquier otro factor regulador (Fa1con 1982). Pero 10 que se pretende con un buen manejo de plagas es que no ocurra 10 contrario, es decir, que por cau.a del abuso con los insecticidas, Se eliminen tambi~n los enemigos naturales de alguna plaga secundaria, provocando un nuevo nivel de equilibrio del insecto que 10 convierte en plaga de importancia econ6mica; paso del nivel B a A en el ejemplo dado. Cambió de la posición _ a l de equilibrio de un íns8cto plaga.Para entender el efecto de estas fluctuaciones sobre los cultivos y para facilitar las decisiones que se deben tomar dentro de un programa. se discuten someramente algunas posibles posiciones. Un insecto cuya densidad de población ocurra alrededor de su posición de equilibrio. sin que llegue al punto de umbral económico. se considera un insecto que no es plaga (figura 3). Puede ocurrir que en la fluctuación de su población una plaga llegue a sobrepasar temporalmente el umbral económico. como se vió en la Figura 1, tenemos entonces una plaga ocasional. En este caso no se quiere permitir que la plaga llegue a niveles de daño económico, por lo cual las medidas de control se deben iniciar cuando sus poblaciones lleguen al umbral económico (nivel de control). CuandO la densidad de población de un insecto dañino sobrepasa en fonna frecuente el umbral económico (Figura 4), nos encontramos con una plaga clave, que requiere frecuentes medidas de control. Estas situaciones son provocadas generalmente por el uso indiscriminado de insecticidas;normalmente durante estas situaciones las pob1aciones de insectos se recuperan r&pidamente después de cada aplicación y plagas que en raras ocas iones causdban daflo t se convi erten en plagas e 1 aves; se 11 ega a una época de crisis seguida por una etapa de desastre, en la cual el usu continuado de agroqulmicos eleva los costos de producción hasta tal punto que el cu1tivo pasa a ser antieconámico y los agricultores prefieren cambiar de cultivo. Figu\", 4.Plaga cl ....En la gran mayor1a de los casos, los técnicos encargados de atender cuHivos comerciales, presionados por el temor de los agricultores, con justificada raz6n se preocupan por COnocer la plaga, saber sobre un indicativo del nivel con que se deben controlar y la dosis de los productos más efectivos que son por 10 general los que más efectos letales tienen sobre todo tipo de vida (bi6cidas) de un ecosistema. Esta situación debe cambiar en el futuro por una condicien más favorable y menos azarosa que brinda el control integrado.Painter, define la res1stencia como la suma relativa de cualidades heredables posetdas por una planta! que influencian en último grado el dafio causado por los insectos.La resistencia lJarietal es base fundamental para poder tener éxito en un programa de control integrado de plagas y enfermedades, De poco sirve a un técnico entender y querer aplicar las diferentes técnicas de-control integrado, si no hay resistencia varietal.Lo anterior se puede comprender mejor con un ejemplo muy común en América Latina; cafla de azOcar versus algodonero9 ACm personas con pocos conocimientos en manejo de plagas, no aplican insecticidas contra Oiatraea spp. en cana de azúcar, porque históricamente conocen que el cultivo es tolerante a estn plaga y se recupera con facilidad de sus daMs; sin embargo, el mejor entomá1ogo en el cultivo del algodonero se ve en la necesidad de realizar varias aplicaciones de insecticidas contra HeHothis virescens, porque sabe que este insecto destruye las estructuras fructíferas, reducíendo considerablemente la producción y existe poca posibilidad de que la planta se recupere durante ciertos perlados de desarrollo del cultivo.El cultivo del arroz afortunadamente se encuentra entre los que tienen resistencia o tolerancia a varias plagas y enfennedades, y aunque esta resistencia se pierda despu~s de largos perIodos, es de los pocos cultivos en que los fitornejoradores tienen la fortuna de poder entregar .1 agricu1tor variedades resistentes y con a1ta productividad. Esta condici6n tan favorable brinda la posibilidad de que en el cultivo del arroz se puedan establecer exitosos programas de control integrado, siempre y cuando se complete la informaci5n requerida sobre plagas, parásitos, predadores e insecticidas se1ectivos.Son numerosas las ventajas de utilizar plantas resistentes a los ataques de los insectos~ tales tomo: no implican costo adicional al dgri cu ltor, no ofrecen ri esgo de res iduos dañi nos o po 1 uci ón, no hay efectos adversos sobre la fauna benéfica, se integra iIlUy bien con otros métodoS de control y es un método permanente de control de insectos (Haxwell, F.G.1970).La naturaleza de las variedades resistentes a plagas de insectos estA clasificada en tres amplias categor~as: No preferencia o Antixenosis, Tolerancia y Antibiosls.Una planta posee diferentes factores que no la hacen atractiva al insecto para la oviposición, alimentaci6n o refugiO (Painter). Antixenosis: té\"\"ino propuesto por Kogan y Ortman (1978), para reemplazar la categorla de lino preferencia!! de Painter~ Si los mecanismos de defensa afectan el comportamiento del insecto J 1 a res i stencia es anti xenos i s que defi ne 1 a forma como la planta afecta el establecimiento de 1. plaga. El mecanismo de antixenosls incorpora 10 que se ha definido como preferencia, pero es más amplio porque involucra los mecanismos de defensa mec~nicos y los quimicos que afectan al insecto, a nivel de selección de la planta, antes de que inicien la ingestión del alimento (Kogan, 1982).Las plantas que presentan mecanismos ce defensa que no afectan directamente al insecto. se consideran como plantas tolerantes~ las plantas tienen capacidad para recuperarse del daño y es un mecanismo defens.ivo eficiente, puesto que el costo metabólico se realiza sólo si existe el daño del insecto (Kogan, 1982).Las defensas que afectan 1 a fi S i 01 ogl a de 1 insecto des pué s de 1 a ingestión son los factores antibióticos (Kogan, 1982). En la mayoría de los casos estudiados, la antibiosis parece deberse a diferenci.a~ en los constituyentes qu1micos de la planta. Estas diferencias pueden ser cuantitativas o cualitativas, pueden existir sólo en ciertas partes de la planta, o en ciertos estados de su crecimier¡to~ Los-factores bioqulmicos que intervienen en la ilntibiosis han sido clasificados en dos -grandes categorías:ir.hibidores fisiológicos y deficiencias nutricionales (Maxwell,1970).Una aplicaCión práctica del control biológico consiste, en la introducclón de insectos benéficos efectivos de una región a otra donde no existan, para controlar una plaga y posteriormente evaluar su impacto sobre la población del insecto que se qlJiere controlar. Es lógico que para poder seleccionar un buen parásito o predador, resulta indispensable real iZélr investigación sobre la cantidad y diversidad de enemígos natur.ales, sobre su distribuci~n y capacidad de reducir la poblaci~n de una plaga, aOn en condiciones de baja densidad de esta última.Nidel en 1964, real izó un estudio muy completo sobre la posibilidad de utilización del control biológico en la regulación de los barrenadores en el cultivo de arroz, reportando más de 80 parásitos de dichos barrenadores y su distribución geográfica. Destaca además que los parásitos encontrados difieren significativamente de región a región, 10 cual ofrece la oportunidad de introducir parásitos deuna región a otra, para reducir las poblaciones de barrenadores en este cultivo. El mismo autor comenta que existe la posibilidad de tener éxito con programas de contro1 biológico de barrenadores en el cultivo del arroz. pero eS indispensable realizar investigaciones bien planeadas sobre control biológico, con el suficiente soporte de capital y personas capacitadas en este campo; resultados positivos no se pueden esperar con esfuerzos a medias.Desafortunadamente en América latina, la entomolog1a en el cultivo del arroz ha recibido poca atención; se sigue pensando que los insectos plagas no causan suficientes pérdidas como para destinar a su estudio capitales adecuados. Quizás haya razOn en que no son muchas 1 as plagas que caus.en reducciones drásticas en el cultivo, pero 10 que no se ha entendido. es que esta afortunada situaciOn es debida en gran parte. al excelente ~cuilibrio bio16gico, ocasionado por la presencia de eficientes enemigos naturales. Por 10 tanto, debemos entender que es parte de nuestra responsabilidad tratar de que esta situaci6n tan favorable perdure, para lo cual es i ndi sp€:nsab le dedi car es fuerzas y capac; tar profes i ona 1 es t pa ra que hagan del control biológico un ~todo de control eficiente.La utilización de productos biológicos en el control de plagas del a rroz no es una practi ca comerci a 1 a m¡> 1 i amente ut i 1 i lada. Considerando el comple~o $ogatodes orYZ1co1~ -Virus de la Hoja Blancd t las posibilidades de encontrar variedades l\"t:sistentes son iIliy favorables, pero sobre los controladores naturales de Sogatodes~ qUE deben ser un complemento en el manejo de este complejo, poco se conoce. Existen escasos trabajOS sobre sus parás;tos~ depredadores y en ocasiones solaMente se han i dent i f i cado algunos (Cuadro 1), por 10 tanto es recomendab 1 e que los investigadores de arroz le den prioridad a conocer el papel de los agentes controladores de Sogatodes en la regulación de sus poblaciones.Se ~iscutió al inicio del presente articulO que las poblaciones de los enemigos naturales de los insectos plagas pueden ser reducidas considerablemente por las aplicaciones indiscriminadas de insecticidas. lo que se traduce en un incremento de las plagas y en una mayor frecuenc1d de sus aparicion~s sobre los cultivos, Un buen ejemplo de 10 anterior se observa en 1as investigaciones realizadas por Tr6chez (1984) en Colombia en cuatro fincas con la variedad CICA 8. En las fincas donde se aplicaron insecticidas para el control de Sogdtodes oryzicola (El Refugio 1984A y Santa Isabel 1984B). Las poblaciones de esta plaga fueron considerablemente mayores que en loS fincas donde no se apliCÓ (Figura 5).Esta experiencia de Colombia puede aprovecharse para discutir sobre la forma como se debe proceder para evitar situaciones similares. Es indispensable antes de recomendar 1a eplicaci6n de un ins,ecticida estdr :seguro si la densidad de población de la p1ag3 que está sobre e\"1 cultivo puede ocasionar pércudas de importancia econOmica si decidimos no controlarla. Sí por el contrario se determina que si es indispensable su contro 1 qu1 mi co debe en es te caso recu rri rse a 1 uso de productos que ofrezcan algOn grado de selectividad a ld fauna ben€:fica, lo cual implica no )\"ecurrir a la apllcación de mezcla de insecUcidas que afectan a todo tipo de vida inc1uyendo al hombre y sus animales. Debe tenerse muy presente que la decisíón mAs dif~cn es 1a de no apl icar un producto para lo cual s.e deber. utilizar ddecuados sistemas de muestreo y disponer de información Poblaciones de SOj!alodes f1ryzkola en cuatro fíncas del Valle del Cauea en variedad CICA 8. 1984 (A Y B) con y sin aplicación de insecticidas.Fwmte: Trochez.1984, ~recis. sobre los niveles de da~o económico.De la infonnación revisada ~ara la elaboración del presente artículo se puede concluir que existe poca infonnacibn sobre manejo de plagas del cultivo del arroz en América Latina. Los estudios realizados son mas informativos y en su majoría no obedecen a una política clara de desarrollar programas bien planeados, que conduzcan a la realización y establecimiento de metodologías de control integrado. Esta situación debíera ser discutida ampliamente por los programas nacionales para establecer; si realmente es necesario realizar investigación s61ida y continuada sobre las plagas del arroz y sus agentes reguladores especialmente parásitos y predadores.INSECTOS QUE ATACAN LOS GRANOS ALMACENADOS Y SU CONTROL R.L. Cheaney y E. Tasc6n J.A nivel .. ¡odial las pérdidas de grano se calculan en un 101, pero en algunos paTses de América Latina, pueden alcanzar niveles mayores (TrOchez). Pérdidas enormes son causadas en los almacenes por el ataque de insectos daftinos; se estima en un 2% la destrucción mensual de los granos almacenados en las fincas.El grano de arrOz puede ser infestado por varias especies de insectos desde antes de la cosecha~ hasta que se almacena en las fincas o en los silos y las bodegas de la ciudad. Algunos de estos insectos pueden volar y se mueven de los depósitos a los campos cercanos de arroz. para depositar sus huevos sobre los granos e iniciar su infestación~ Además de la pérdida de peso. los insectos pueden causar daftos considerables al arroz debido al calor. Los insectos activos generan temperaturas altas en sus cuerpos y como resultado pierden humedad; luego el calor y la humedad son absorbidos por los granos, causando su rApido deterioro. los danos a los granos por los insectos también aumentan el porcentaje de granos partidos y reducen su valor comercial por la contaminación con las heces y olores.Los insectos que atacan los granos de arroz almacenado son clasificados como primarios, los que atacan los granos en cAscara y hacen su desarrollo completo en su interior J también atacan el arroz industrializado; y secundarlos, los que atacan solamente los granos fracturados o rotos~ el arroz mol inado y los subproductos, ya que no tienen capacidad de invadir granos con cascara~ INSECTOS QUE ATACAN EL ARROZ EN CASCARA 1. Gorgojo de los ~:;~:.~iil¡g~~~OI~u::1!!i l.:; Este grupo de insectos no penetran los granos, sino que se alimentan de la superficie y afectan mucho su calidad. También debe anotarse que el dano realizado por los primarios fa.orece el ataque de este grupo.Los principales Insectos secundarios son 1. Polilla indígena de 10s.,g:~r~aino~sl!!-@~j:~~Q.!!!~\".!.!2. (Hubner) 2. la cadella -Tenebroide~.Gorgojo dentado de los 4. Carcoma achatada de los 5. Gorgojo rojo de la har; 6. Gorgojo de l~:~~h~~a~rii:;n;:a:~-~~$i~~f~~~~ j.Pol illa del arroz -8.En el Apéndice se describen las 12 especies antes mencionadas.A fín de poder seleccionar los métodos de control es preciSO conocer la forma como son infestados los granos. Se sabe que algunas especies como $. Orizae y Sitrotoga sp. pueden volar a los campos de arroz e iniciar su Tnfestación ovipositando en los granos aOn no maduros, con 10 cual la plaga es introducida con la cosecha en los depOsitos. Los focos de infestaci6n también pueden provenir de la maquinaria utilizada, en el acondicionamiento y de los depósitos. En todos éllos pueden existir restos de grano y residuos~ especialmente en grietas, rincones y sacos sucios, así como en existencias viejas de grano y otros productos almacenados. comunmente infestados por especies como la polilla de los granos y otras especies ornn1voras~ Algunos como la \"Cadena ll perforan la madera y asi sobreviven.Las plagas también pueden venir de otros depOsitas cercanos, de alacenas domésticas y de los desperdicios de grano. como la c~scara del arroz arrojada cerca de los molinos.Se consideran tres pasos fundamentales para el control de las plagas de almacén: saneamiento, protecciOn y control.La primera medida para evitar la infestaciOn del grano es completa de los empaques. depósitos y maquinaria que utilizados. Como regla general se puede decir que los insectos una limpieza van a S€f que quedan en los residuos de granos, harinas y desperdicios, son la principal fuente de infestaciOn del grano nuevo (Tróchez). Es necesario que los almacenes estén limpios, libres de insectos y cerrados~ Además se requiere que otras fuentes de infestación cercanas al depOsito sean eliminadas.En relación con el tipo de depósito se prefieren los metálicos por ser ~s fáciles de limpiar y ofrecen menor protección a los insectos que los de madera o cemento.El saneamiento también exige la desinfestación de los recipientes, depósitos y maquinaria. Para el tratamiento de almacenes de metal o madera y la maquinaria, se recomienda el empleo de Ma1athion 57%, grado premio, a razón de 120 c.c. por galón de .gua. Para los de madera se puede utilizar aspersión con Metoxiclor al 25% e.E. y 460 c.c. por galón de agua. Las piretrinas al 6% pueden utilizarse para uso general, lo mismo que Vapona 24 e.E. en aspersión. La des infestación de los empaques util izados requiere tratamiento con productos fumigantes, en las mi smas condi Clones y precauciones, que la que se emplean para los granos.Se refiere a las medidas tendientes a evitar que las plagas invadan y proliferen en el grano. Comprende Una serie de medidas f1sicas y tratamiento preventivo del producto a almacenar. Entre las fisicas tenemos: Secamiento. La actividad de los insectos se ve favorecida por una alta humedad del grano Me. Neal (1961) encontró que existe una alta correlación entre la humedad del grano, la temperatura y el dano ocasionado a los granos por los insectos.Temperaturas de 10°C inactlvan l. mayor,a de insectos, un pueden prolongar su ciclo, pero temperaturas altas como las favorecen la actividad y daño de los insectos del grano. Incluso los focos con mayor temperatura dentro de la masa del grano, son Indicativos de presencia alta de insectos. lo cual también aumenta la humedad del grano. propiciando el ataque de otros organismos como hongos y bacterias.Tratamiento. Se realiza al aplicar prOductos residuales, los cuales, aparte de controlar la infestación natural existente al momento de almacenar, protegen el grano por un perIodo relativamente largo. Los prOductos empleados esUn en relación con el destino del grano. Por ejemplo para semilla es posible utilizar los insecticidas clorinados, los cuales son vedados para arroz de consumo. Los productos fumigantes no son empleados como protectores. sino para el control de pOblaCiones existentes, dada su carencia de efecto residual.Algunos productos aprobados para ser utilizados como protectores del grano son: Puede decirse que el control es la desinfestaci6n del grano almacenado a fIn de asegurar su conservación. la cual requiere de una debida inspecciOn y muestreo. Las técnicas de muestreo son muy diflciles por la ubicaciOn de las plagas dentro de volúmenes de dificil inspeceiOn y la posiciOn de insectos jOvenes dentro de los granos. Los silos con control de temperatura pueden indicar focos calientes. los cuales generalmente presentan alta humedad y un crecimiento acelerado de hongos e insectos. Una inspecci6n general debe ineluír muestras de granos vertidos, barreduras, sacos y utensilios dejados en los almacenes.Por otra parte. para bodegas se pueden utilizar trampas para detectar la presencia de insectos adultos, aunque no penniten evaluar su cantidad, pero si detectar su presencia y variedad. En la pr~ctiea el control _se realiza en base a productos fumlgantes, los cuales tienen l.ventaja \"'de controlar los insectos en diferentes fases de su desarrollo, graCias a su poder de penetración dentro de la masa de granos.Los fumigantes son productos yolatiles a la temperatura ordinarla y pueden venir en forma lIquida. s6lida y gaseosa. pero todos se gasifican al ponerles en contacto con el aire. Por esta raz6n, unida a la alta toxicidad de la mayor parte de los fumigantes, se requiere tomar muchas precauciones para su manejo y aplicaci6n.El fumigante a utilizar puede variar con el destino del producto a tratar, con el tipo de construcciOn, el tipo de fumigaci6n, con el equipo y la experiencia del personal que la efectúe. En relaciOn con el destino del producto. se debe tener en cuenta Que algunos fumigantes afectan la germinati6n de las semillas, otros pueden dejar residuos por largo tiempo.de fumigantes serian peligrosos. Adem.ls, cuando no se dispone de equipo especial o personal bien entrenado, se deben seleccionar 105 productos menos t6xicos.M~todos de fumigación 1.Mezclado directo. Se emplean polvos o tabletas, no productos l'quldos. La aplicación se hace mezclando el insecticida con la corriente de granos al llenar un depósito, o cuando se traslada el producto de un depOsito a otro.Aplicaci6n superficial. Los lIquidas se rocian uniformemente sobre la superficie del conductor de granos. Estos lIquidas se convierten en gas que pesa m.ls que el aire y penetran al grano por gravedad. Acido cianhfdrico (HeN). Bueno para semillas secas, pero no se recomienda para frutas y hortalizas frescas.Bromuro de Metilo (e H3 Br). Es empleado como fumigante para las semillas, debido a su facultad de penetrar en grandes montones de sacos y bolsas~ Sin embargo, en algunas circunstancias el tratamiento ha originado una pérdida de viabilidad. La semilla de arroz debe contener menos del 14% de humedad para evitar mayor dano. ** La dosis total del producto se coloca en el pisa sobre láminas de metal, 1/4 en cada esquina del arrume. Las lonas deben estar bien pegadas al piso con los saquitos de arena.En este sistema~ es necesario que el deposito sea cerrado herméticamente y que tenga instalado unos ventiladores y conductos. que permitan 1. circulacíon continua de los vapores de los fumigantes.Los productos y dosis más utilizados son: a. Bromuro de Met110 a raZÓn de 1 1/2 -2 libras por cada 1000 pies 3 de granos y b, Acido cianohidrico en dosis de 3 1/2 libras para igual volumen. Después del per1odo de fum;gacion~ hay que pasar aire para renovar los vapores del fumigante,Seguir precisamente las instrucciones en la etiqueta del producto y usar máscaras protectoras en buen estado y el equipo con el mecanismo de distribuci6n correcto y recomendado para el fumigante utilizado.Tener en cuenta la residualidad de los productos a fin de seleccionarlos de acuerdo al destino de las mismas (Cuadro 2).Marcar adecuadamente las bodegas y sitios donde se estén aplicando venenos.Observe todas las advertencias con respecto a la mezcla, manejo de equipo y recomendaciones en los recipientes para evitar accidentes.  Tanto el adulto~ como la larva, se alimentan del lnterior de los granos.Muchas veces el grano queda reducido a la c~scara; varios insectos pueden ser encontrados en un solo grano. Constituye plaga del arroz, ma1z y trigo y prinCipalmente; también se a1imenta de semillas, raices secas y drogas. Con alguna frecuencia perfora la cubierta y hOja de los libros; también ataca maderas.  Las larvas totalmente desarrolladas, tienen el hábito de perforar la madera de las bodegas. Dentro de las galerlas que construye, el insecto puede permanecer 1argos periodos l para solo sal ir cuando se almatenan granos en la bodega. Las galerias sirven también de refugio para otros insectos~ Cuando este insecto aparece en gran número, se convierte en seria plaga de los graneros; usualmente ataca el embrión de granos y semillas. Como es un insecto relativamente grande, las perforaciones que hace en los empaques, son serias molestias en las bodegas y almacenes de vfveres. S1milar a la anterior.Uno de los factores llmitantes en la producciOn de arroz es el daño ocasionado por plagas, entre las cuales encontramos a los vertebrados como causantes de p~rdidas en la mayorla de las areas arrOCeras del mundo.En América Latina se han estudiado diversas clases de aveS y roedores que atacan 105 cultivos de arroz en diversos estados de desarrollo y ~pocas de siembra. Adem&s de Colombia, han reportado problemas con aves y roedores\" pa1ses como Venezue1a l República Dominicana, Brasil, Argentina.Uruguay y Nicaragua.Colombia es un país que debido a su estratégica posiclOn geografica y a su gran variedad de mlcroclimas, recibe 1. visita de aves, las cuales sumadas al gran numero de especies nativas, 10 colocan como el primero en el mundo con el mayor número de especies de aves. Entre ellas se encuentran insect1voras, que no son problema en arroz, y aves omn1voras y consumidoras exclusivas de granos, donde se ubican las especies daninas al cultivo.Es indudable que la nueva tecnologla sobre tierras ocupadas anteriormente por bosques y pastos, sumada a una r&pida expansi6n de nuevos cultivos, crean un medio altamente favorable para la alimentaciOn y desarrollo de aves y mam1feros, nativos O migratorios.Tal combinación de factores desencadenantes del problema, ha sido estudiada en detalle en Argentina (Bucher 1970) y resulta un claro ejemplo de como los cambios que el hombre introduce en el ambiente alternan muchas veces Helicados balances y se traducen en sHuaciones negativas para el mismo.El impacto visual de un gran nOmero de aves sobre un cultivo de arroz, produce muchas veces falsos cálculos en el daría que puedan causar. pues no siempre a mayor nOmero de aves hay mayor porcentaje de dano. Los estimativos de daría de aves en el arroz, deben hacerse directamente sobre la planta afectada y nunca con base en la pOblación de las aves. la Figura 1, muestra el daMo causado por Porphyrula sp. el anidar, ave cuyo daño por consumo no tiene importancia.Las técnicas de evaluación de dano de aves en arroz no estan muy avanzadas, pero se sugiere el muestreo al azar de un metro cuadrado para determinar el porcentaje de plantas afectadas y el pONOentaje de granos dañado., conociendo la. caracterlsticas del dano que causa el ave y comparándOlo con una mues.tra testigo o normal. Este tipo de observaci6n es de mucha importancia para no confundirlo con el dano de roedores y evitar tratamientos innecesarios de control de aves en los arrozales.Son muchas las especies. de aves involucradas en el daño de arroz_ Sin entargo, se reconocen únicamente aquellas que pueden registrar daf'¡os de importanCia econOmica (Cuadro 1).'\"  Nido hecho COn plantas de arroz. Métodos de control de aves.Las labores de control se basan en la actualidad en métodos flsicos, uti1izando personas {pajar-eros} que espantan las aves con pitos, ruidos y sonidos fuertes como pólvora. Estos métodos en el caso de aves migratorias especialmente, no trabajan con eficiencia, ya que la mayorla de estas aves llegan en horas cuando el control no esta en funcionamiento.También se emplean otros métodos flsicos como ca~ones de gas, cintas gravadas y banderas de colores, pero la utilidad de todos los mHodos se oasa en su empleo rotacional, ya que las aves se acostumbran a é11os.Existen por otra parte los métodos químiCOS basados en tóxicos agudos y repelentes químicos. Entre los primeros se emplean generalmente insecticidas mezclados con grano. pero en Colombia es un método vedado.Dentro de los repelentes químicos se conocen dos productos comerciales. a base de Methiocarb (carbamato), los cuales han presentado buenos resultados de control de daño a nivel experimental.En el ~ultivo de arroz se sugiere la aplicaciOn de cebos con arroz o malz partido, mezclado con Methiocarb al 0.5% en peso y distribuIdo sobre los caballones} terraplenes o lugares SecoS accesibles a las aves. El prOducto irríta inicialmente el sistema digestivo y posteriormente afecta el sistema nervioso, obligando a las aves a abandonar lenta y progresivamente los lotes tratados, 10 cual se traduce a una disminución notable de la poblaci6n. Las observaciones iniciales señalan resultados promísorios para el control de chalOOnes~ chisgas y palomas o torcazas, utilizando cebos.En relación con las aves migratorias cuando se conocen las fechas de llegada y el periodo de permanencia normal, el agricultor puede estar prevenidO y alterar los perlados de siembra y cosecha para evitar danos de aves por consumo.Existen dos grupos de roedores: ratas y ratones, que realizan daño en el arroz. Cuadro 2.Por la dificultad para observarlos durante el día y por su gran habilidad para esconderse entre la vegetación, el da~o ocasionado por los Danos del 14% ya justifican econ6micamente el tratamiento para el control de ratas y ratones en los arrozales. El daflo de las ratas se presenta durante todo el ciclo del cultivo. Consumen inicialmente las semillas, luego cortan los tallos y conSumen parte de ~llos (Figura 6).Utilizan las hojas del material en desarrollo para construír el nido en las madrigueras cercanas a los canales de riego o junto a los caballones; posteriormente el ataque se dirige a la panícula, para éllo cortan las plantas de las cuales s610 consumen una parte del grano y el resto se pierde.Las poblaciones de roedores crecen en forma intempestiva porque en el arroz encuentran agua, alimento y vivienda, factores éstos indipensables para 1. reproducción y desarrollo de una población. Cuando uno de estos factores se reduce o controla, la población se ve afectada y disminuye.En el arroz tan sólo se puede controlar el ~rea de vivienda, con una limpieza de canales y eliminaci5n de residuos de cosecha que destruya las posibles zonas de anidamiento ya mencionadas. La renovaciOn de los caballones cada 2 o 3 cosechas es una medida importante cuando la población es alta.El control qu1mico debe hacerse en base a cebos portadores de un tóxico agudo o productos anticoagulantes de acción más 1enta que no causen rechazo.para el éxito de un cebo los productos utilizados como portadores y atrayentes. La harina de mah y el arroz molido, por ejemp 10, pueden ser 1 a base de un buen cebo; un 90% de cual qu iera de los anteriores cereales más 5% de aceite de ma'fz o soya y 5% de azúcar en polvo, completdn una buena mezcla atrayente. Una vez preparada la mezcla, se agrega el ingrediente activo o raticida. en la proporción recomendada. tales como warfarina al 5%, f6sforo de zinc al 2%, fluoracetato de sodio al 2% o cualquier otro ingrediente raticida disponible en el mercado. La warfarina es un producto anticoagulante efectivo. pero requlere un consumo alto por el individuo. De ella existen varias marcas comerciales ya preparadas como cebo.El cebo-raticida se debe colocar en lugares secos o dentro de estructuras como trozos de bambú, \"guadua\", o recipientes plfisticos que permitan la entrada de los roedores a consumir el raticida; esta fonna de aplicaci6n evita que el producto se descomponga física y qulmicamente y además asegura que consuma .1 cebo en una mayor cantidad (Figura 7). Otra forma de aplicación es empacar el cebo raticida en pequen as bolsas plásticas y en cantidades de 30 a 50 gramos, lo cual facilita aún más el manipuleo para el tratamiento en el campo.El Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (rCA), en Colombia, experimenta en la actualidad cebos raticidas con parafina como material aglutinante y como protector contra la humedad; la preparación de los cebos parafinados,   Rata noruega, especie Rattus norvegicus cuerpo rollizo, orejas: y cola pequeñas hábil nadadora, Figura 6. Daño de ratas a las plantas de arroz.requiere pe~sonal entrenado para el manejo de la parafina caliente; estos cebos han mostrado mucha eficiencia en el campo y mayor duración bajo condiciones de humedad. Los cebos raticidas en lotes de arroz. deben colocarse cada 5 metros en los caballones y terraplanes cercanos a los canales de riego y a 10 metros o más, en los caballones intermedios.Definitivamente la alteración de las condiciones ambientales. afecta directa o indirectamente la población de aves y roedores en zonas agricolas; por otra parte la eliminación de predadores o enemigos naturales, serpientes y carn'\\/oros principalmente. favorece la proliferación de vertebrados plagas en cultivos agricolas. Aunque se ha infonnado de la existencia de m6s de 70 enfermedades del arroz producidas tanto por agentes bióticos como abi~ticos (Ap~ndic. 1), se considera que cerca de una docena de estas enfermedades limitan la producción del arroz en América Latina (Cuadro 1). La mayoría de estas enfermedades est&n comprendidas dentro de las causadas por hongos. Esta enfermedad es causada por el hongo P~ricularia oryzae y será por mucho tiempo el problema ~s complejo del CUltlVO del arroz, especialmente en las ~reas tropicales. Más de 70 paIses en los cinco continentes han registrado la presencia de dicha enfermedad. Las pérdidas que ocasiona en el cultivo del arroz pueden ser totales en algunas localidades. Existen muchos ejemplos de variedades resistentes que han sido eliminadas debido a 1. apariCión de nuevas razas fiSiológicas del patógeno. Se ha Informado de la existencia de m&s de 260 razas (13). Aunque el hongo puede atacar tanto en el estado de plantula Como en el de floración, el dafto económico m6s grave se produce en este último.Tanto la humedad del suelo como la del ambiente, estan en intima asociación con el desdfrollo de la enfennedad. Las plantas que creCen en condiciones de suelo seco 1 llegan a ser más susceptibles al hongo, en tanto que una alta humedad relativa, favorece el desarrollo de la enfermedad.El grado de resistencia parece aumentar en proporciOn con la aplicación de silicatos y con la cantidad de siliee aculllUlado en el tejido de la planta. Por el contrario, la fertilización con altos niveles de nitrógeno predispone 1. planta del arroz .1 ataque del hongo. Existe una 'ntima relación entre el nitrógeno soluble y la susceptibilidad. La i ntensi dad de 1 a I nfl uenci a del sumi n i s tro de nitrógeno en la enfennedad, var1a segfm las condiciones ed §ficas y climáticas, y tamb'ién con las ~todos de aplicaCión de fertilizantes (16). Se h, encontrado que la enfennedad ataca más drlist1camente, cuando se aplican fertilizantes nitrogenados de acción rápida, tales como el sulfato de amonio en una sola aplicación, o cuando los efectos retardados de la fertilización ocurren, ya sea par aplicación muy tard1a o muy fuerte, o por temperaturas muy bajas en las primeras etapas del crecimiento de la planta (16)  El hongo puede sobrevivir como coni:dias o micelio en la semilla, en los residuos de la planta en el suelo y en muchas gram1neas.El interés creciente por 1. corta duraci6n de la mayorl. de las variedades comerciales, ha conducido. los investigadores a la búsqueda de alternativas; la resistencia varietal, las prácticas de cultivo y el control qulmico, se han util izado en el control del pat6geno. Cuando las plantas j6venes son atacadas, se puede reducir el desarrollo de la enfermedad mediante la inundación t o por la elevaciOn del nivel de agua. la siembra temprana puede reducir significativamente la incidencia de la enfermedad.El hongo Cochliobolus miyabeanus; estado conidial Helminthosporium oryzae, puede atacar tanto plántulas como plantas adultas, siendo mAs común en estas últimas. Esta enfermedad se asocia con suelns deficientes en nutrimentos, o con suelos reducidos donde se han acumulado muchas sustancias t6xicas. La enfermedad es iTh §s severa en aquellas plantas Que crecen en suelos deficientes en silicio, potasio~ magnesio, hierro y zinc (21). El bcido sulfúrico, los compuestos férricos y algunos acidos orgánicos que se encuentran en el suelo, dañan las raíces del arroz, reduciendo la tasa de absorción m5neral y por consiguiente, aumentando la severidad de la enfermedad. Parece que la ~lanta se ve más afectada por la pudrición de la ralz que por la enfermedad propiamente dicha.La medida más eficiente de control de este patógeno, consiste en la utilizaci6n de variedades resistentes, cuando están disponibles comercialmente. Las prácticas de cultivo. tales como la buena preparación del suelo, la nivelación de tierras, la fertilizaci6n balanceada y sobretodo buen manejo del agua, son medidas eficientes para reducir la incidencia de la enfermedad.Es probable que en aquellas áreas donde sea común la infecci6n de las semillas. el tratamiento qulmico de las mismas, sea útil en Id reducci6n del daño\" También se ha ensayado la asperSión de fungicidas en el campo para prevenir infecciones secundarias que pueden provenir por corrientes de aire; sin embargo~ es dudosa la utilidad práctica de dicha aspersión.Esta enfermedad causada ~or Metas~haeri. albescens, estado conidial Rhynfc~_osporium ofYza,. afecta más las p antas--adu1tas~ después del estado de ormaci6n de pan culas, siendo ffitt5 severa en campos de secano yen. condiciones de alta humedad relativa. El aumento del nitrógeno del suelo favorece el desarro11o de la enfermedad.Control la resistencia varietal es la forma rn&s econOmica para el control del hongo. Se recomiendan prácticas de cultivo, tales como evitar la aplicación excesiva de fertilizantes nitrogenados y la siembra de variedades susceptibles en campos de secano; también puede ser útil el control qulmico.Se ha observado que esta enfermedad que causa el hongo Sphaerulina oryzina estado conidial Cercorpora Q!Yzae. ataca m!s frecuentemente plantas adultas. En condiciones ~ednlcas deSfavorables, tales coma deficiencias de fOsfora y potasio, este patógeno puede causar danos severos. Es común encontrar esta enfermedad asociada con Helminthos~rium oryzae.Control la medida rn&s importante en el control del hongo es la utilización de variedades resistentes. las prácticas de cultivo tales como la siembra de variedades de madurez temprana y el evitar la aplicaciOn excesiva de fertilizantes potasieos, conducen a la reducción de posibles pérdidas ocasionadas por esta enfermedad.Es causada por el hongo Ma¡llnaporthe salvini;; estado conidial Sclerotium oryzff. Cuando esta en ermedad se presenta, produce dafios severos. la ap caciOn de altos niveles de fertilizantes nitrogenados favorece el desarrollo de élla; por el contrario, la fertilizaciOn a base de potasio aumenta la resistencia de la planta .1 ataque del hongo. De aqul que las relaciones K/N y C/K en el tejidO de la planta sean muy importantes en la determinación de la resistencia o susceptibilidad a la pUdrición del tallo.La aplicaCión de silicato de sodio reduce la incidencia de esta enfermedad, mientras que el efecto del fósforo es similar al del nitrógeno favoreciendo la enfermedad pero en grado más bajO.El agua de riego constituye un agente importante de diseminación del patógeno, puesto que ella transporta lQS esclerocios del hongo de un campo a otro. Por lo tanto~ su manejo adecuado desempeña una importante función en el control de las infecciones del talloa Con frecuencia, esta enfermedad se puede controlar variando el nivel del agua durante la etapa de cretimiento vegetativo; cuando las lesiones de la parte exterior de la vaina están cubiertas de agua, éstas se pudren rápidamente y el hongo no penetra en las vainas interiores y posteriormente se reduce el nivel de agua y la mayor parte de las vainas se secan y se desprenden del tallo, preViniendo as' la penetración del patógeno en el tallo.El hongo que causa el anublo de la vaina es Thanate~horus cucumeris, estado imperfecto Rhizoctonia solani. Esta enfermedad rec1 i6 poca atenci6n hasta muy recientemente;-cuandOS.-econvirtió en un problema importante de 1 as variedades de alto rendimi ento. La edad de 1 a planta i fifl uye considerablemente en la incidencia de esta enfennedad. las plantas que tienen entre dos y tres semanas de edad, son más resistentes a la infecci6n que plantas adultas. En el estado de fonnación de paniculas, las plantas son muy susceptibles al hongo. Las variedades de porte alto con escaso macollamiento son más resistentes a la enfermedad que las variedades enanas con mucho macollamiento. La alta densidad de plantas favorece el desarrollo del hongo, debido al microambiente y a la mejor adherencia de los esclerocios a la superficie del tallo, favoreciendo así la diseminación de la enfermedad medíante el micelio. la fertilización con nitrógeno y f6sforo o la deficiencia del potasio, predisponen 1as plantas de arroz al añubl0 de la vaina.El hongo sobrevive como esclerocios o micelio en residuos de la planta en e1 suelo~ en malezas y en otras plantas de cultivo.Como la resistencia esU condicionada a las condiciones ambientales, la enfermedad se debe prevenir, primero mediante el uso de prácticas de cultivo que no favorezcan e1 desarrollo de la enfermedad, tales como el uso de niveles bajos de ferti1izantes nitrogenados, de menores densidades en siembra directa y un espaciamiento mayor en el arroz transplantado. los cua 1 es reducen si goi fi cat i vamente 1 a incidencia de 1 a enfemedad. Otro aspecto a considerar es que el hongo tiene una amplia gama de hospedantes. por 10 cual es muy importante controlar\" las malezas gr\"amfneas~ El control químico tiene sus limitaciones.Otras enfermedades fungosas ta1es como la pudrici6n de la vaina, causada por el ACrOCY{ifdriUm orlfae, la mancha ojival causada por Drechslera ~igantea. yerno car on causado por Qill,la,inOid~~ virens_, son hasta a ora ocasionalmente epidémicas o de importanc13 oear.Estas enfermedades se controlan usualmente mediante la utilizaci6n de la resistencia varietal cuando ésta se encuentra disponible en variedades comerciales y también se utilizan las prácticas culturales.ENFERMEOADES BACTERIANAS MARCHITAMIENTO 8ACTE~LANO DE LA fIOJi! la bacteria Que causa afecciones en las plántulas, as1 como necrosi~ foliar se llama Janthomanas campestris ps. oryzae. Recientemente se informó de la existencia de esta enfermedad en México, América del Sur y Centro América. Sin embargo, la severidad de la enfermedad en América Latina ha pasado de ligera a moderada. Un clima lluvioso, la deficiencia de potasio y el exceso de nitrógeno, son factores que predisponen las plantas de arroz al ataque de b campe~tris ps oryzae.La enfermedad se controla principalmente mediante el uso de la resistencia varietal y de ciertas pr!cticas culturales que reducen la cantidad de inóculo sobreviviente entre un cultivo y otro. La bacteria ha llegado a ser r3pidamente resistente a varios antibióticos. No hay disponible una medida de control unilateral de la enfermedad, por lo tanto, se recomiendan medidas de control integrado.HOJA BLANCA • Desde que se informó sobre el enanismo del arroz en Japón en 1883, se han registrado m3s de 15 enfermedades virales y enfermedades producidas por patógenos similares a virus (lB). La Hoja Blanca del arroz es Onlca en las Américas.La enfermedad se controla prinCipalmente mediante el uso de variedades resistentes al vector, Sogatodes o~zicola, al virus, O a los dos. Es útil el uso de insecticidas para I1mitar la pobladón del vector, cuando se presentan epidemias. Esta enfermedad es común en suelos nuevos con poca capacidad de drenaje o con alto contenido de materia orgánica.La mejor medida de control contra esta enfermedad, es la utilizadOn de variedades resistentes. Las prácticas culturales. tales como evitar la siembra en suelos franco arenosos que no están completamente drenados~ el drenar justo antes de la elongación del tallo y también evitar las aplicaciones repetidas de insecticidas que contengan arsénico, reducen significativamente la incídencía de esta enfermedad fisíol6gíca. Se cuenta además con resistencia varietal.MEDIDAS GENERALES DE CONTROL g¡:;;ISTENCIA DEL HOSPEDANTE La utilización de la resistencia varietal es uno de los métodos más baratos y seguros en el control de las enfermedades de las plantas. La mayoria de los agricultores aplican productos Qulmícos para reducir el daño ocasionado por las enfermedades. Aunque para las zonas templadas hay disponibles controles qu1micos efectivos, es cuestionable su uso en los tr6picos debido a las lluvias frecuentes y fuertes. Por 10 tanto. el desarrollo de variedades de arroz resistentes es esencial~ Se han desarrollado m~todos para seleccionar y probar la resistencia de las variedades a las enfermedades más graves del arroz) mediante la infección natural en el campo o mediante la inoculación artific1a'~ tanto en el invernadero como en el campo.El Programa de Pruebas lntern.cionales de Arroz (IRTP) ha organizado viveros para pruebas de res.istencia a varias de las enfennedades más severas~ El objetivo de dichos viveros es identificar variedades con resistencia a diversas enfermedades y determinar la variación del patógeno sobre las variedades se1eccionadas. Como resultado de este intenso programa de selección, se han identificado varias fuentes de resistencia a las enfermedades del arroz. Aunque los fitomejoradores la esUn incorporando activamente en las variedades comerciales, aún no se han encontrado fuentes de resisten,ia estable para varias enfermedades importantes.Es muy común observar que las variedades de arroz que tienen resistencia a una enfermedad importante, son susceptibles a otras enfermedades (Cuadro 2). Por consiguiente. el mejoramiento para resistencia a las enfennedades, debe hacer ªnfasis en variedades que resistan un complejo mas amplio de enfermedades. La incorporación de resistencia mOltiple en las variedades comerciales es un esfuerzo complejo a largo plazo y la llamada \"obtención de genes piramidales de resistencia\" solamente ha tenido éxito limitado. La desventaja más importante ha sido la ruptura de la resistencia, debida principalmente al desarrollo de nuevas razas fiSiológicas de los patógenos. Esto es particularmente cierto para Pyricularia 0fazae~ Este hongo es altamente variable y la resistencia se vence muy ráp amente en los trópicos.Unas pocas variedades comerciales han sido altamente resistentes al patógeno. pero solamente durante un corto lapso (Cuadro 3). Se espera sin embargo. que esta desventaja sea superada mediante el uso de estrategias de mejoramiento, tales COmo la utilización de moHilíneas. el despliegue de genes, la diversificación de variedades o la concentración sobre una misma variedad de componentes de desarrollo lento de la enfermedad. No obstante, el mejoramiento con miras a la obtención de resistencia a un nCimero limitado de enfermedades del arroz debe ser obviamente\" una estrategia permanente donde quiera que el ambiente sea favorable para el desarrollo de la enfermedad.Las prácticas culturales para el control de enfenmedades, frecuentemente se han integrado con otras prácticas.Aunque el agricultor opera en un ecosistema simple, aún tiene que ejercer un gran control. El puede decidir cuando empezar la sucesión de prActicas y cuando terminarlas, lo cual debe decidir en términos del dano produe; do por la interacciOn el ima versus enfermedades. En su ambiente natural. la tasa de desarrollo de una enfermedad depende. en primera instancia, de la disponibilidad de tejido susceptible, y cualquier acción que influya directa o indirectamente en el suministro de alimentos, causara un cambio correspondiente en la poblaCión de los patógenos. Consecuentemente. algunas de las técnicas mejoradas del cultivo son indirectamente responsables del aumento en la pob1aci6n de patógenos.El arroz es el único cultivo que comunmente se efectúa en condiciones de inundación. La utilización controlada de las aguas de riego se traduce en mejores condiciones de crecimiento no solamente para 1as plantas, sino también para las malezas, muchas de las cuales son hospedantes alternantes de plagas. Por 10 tanto, dichas aguas deben ser utilizadas para controlar las malezas en los arrozales.La siembra y la cosecha en fonna oportuna, el almacenamiento de la semilla. las dosis de fertilizantes. la rotación de cultivos y la quema de residuos o socas y las medidas de control de malezas, frecuentemente producen efectos en el control de enfermedades~ Estas y otras prácticas culturales~ tales como las medidas de control físico y regulatorio, pueden manipularse para minimizar la prodUCCión de inócul0, la supervivencias la  diseminación, asl como la infección y el desarrollo de las enfermedades.Este campo de control de enfermedades del arroz, es el que recibe la menor atención por parte de la investigación organizada y sin embargo, tiene uno de los potenciales más altos para reducir las p~rdidas de rendimiento ocasionadas por enfermedades.El descubrimiento de la mezcla Bordelés, hace un siglo, puede ser considerado como el primer acontecimiento importante en la historia del control de enfermedades de las plantas. La producción comercial de muchos cultivos, incluIdo el arroz, serla difIcil O imposible sin el uso de productos qulmicos que controlen las principales enfermedades. Sin embargo, la actitud pública de hoyes negativa con respecto al uso de agroqulmicos, inclulGos aquel)os utilizados para controlar las enfermedades de las plantas.descubrimiento de los fungicidas sistémicos a base de ditiocarbamatos, hacia el final de la década de los 60, se considera el segundo evento más importante en la ya centenaria historia del control qulmico de enfermedades (4).En la población de una especie fitopatógena que en general es sensible al control qulmico de enfermedades, pueden existir o surgir cepas que sean signifleaMvament. menos sensibles al compuesto. A medida que aumenta la frecuencia de estas cepas bajO la presiOn selectiva del agente qulmico, disminuye progresivamente la efectividad del compuesto. Este problema de resistencia' era pr&ctieamente desconocido para la patologla vegetal, mientras que se usaron únicamente qu1micos inorgánicos para el control de enfermedades de las plantas. Con unos pocos protectores orgAnicos se observó resistencia en instancias aisladas, pero resultó ser un problema serio después de que se introdujeron los fungicidas y antibióticos de acción especIfica (4).La resistencia fue la responsable del fracaso total de los fungicidas a base de benzimidazol (benomyl t tiabendazol, carbendazim t tiofanato de metilo), contra enfermedades producidas por un nOmero de hongos patógenos; la blasticidina-s y la kasugamicina contra Pyricularia oryza~; y la polioxina contra Thanatephorus cucumeris del arroz (4,6,9) para Cltar unos pocos ejemplos.Parece probable que la resistencia llegue a ser un factor importante en el control de enfermedades de la planta durante esta rl~cada. Sea que los problemas de resistencia surjan en la practica, dependera ulteriormente de la adaptaCión y virulencia de los mutantes resistentes. del tipo de enfermedad, de las condiciones ambientales y de la persistencia y el ~todo de uso del fungicida. Una presión selectiva continúa ejercida por un tipo de,fungicida, puede favorecer el desarrollo de una población resistente y, por consiguiente, ésto se debe evitar (9). Merece prestarle atenci6n a la posibilidad de reducir la importancia de la resistencia~ mediante el uso de mezclas qulmicas para el control de enfermedades o mediante la aplicación alternada de dichos productos al cultivo.Ha venido aumentando el uso de fungicidas para el control de enfermedades y existen en el mercado diferentes fungicidas que son útiles en la reducción del daño ocasionado por algunas enfermedades del arroz (Cuadro 4). Los fungicidas pueden ser especlficos contra una sola especie de hongos, por ejemplo, el tricyelazol y Piricul.ri. 0Jyzae (22), o pueden tener un amplio espectro y controlar varias enfermeda es~ El Benornyl, por ejemplo. controla !' ..:... orf,ae, Sphaerul ina ~ryzina, Thal}!tephorus cucumeris y Metasphaeria a1beseens , 14,22,23).Las pruebas de campo con fungicidas foliares para controlar P. or y za 1 pueden producir un incremento del rendi\"iento de 1-2 ton/ha (7):10 cua indica que las enfermedades fungosas tales como Piricularla, pueden destruir hasta el 25% de la cosecha potenciaL Esto significa que el desarrollo y el uso de fungicidas para el control de enfermedades del arroz, debe ser un elemento esencial de cualquier programa de manejo o control de enfennedades. Los programas integrados que incluyen prácticas sanitarias, buenas prácticas culturales y variedades resistentes. Qeben ir de la mano con la aplicación racional de agroqulmicos (Apéndice 2). Existe la necesidad de mejores productos químiCOS. mejores métodos de aplicación y consistencia en los programas de control. Los agroqu1micos se deben utilizar junto con buenas prácticas y no como una alternativa (20).Finalmente, el contro1 integrado mediante una resistencia más estable, combinada con tratamientos qulmicos, se convierte en una alternativa fascinante~ La resistencia húrizontdl a menudo es imcompleta, parcia1 y, en algunas estaciones, excepcionalmente conduce al desarrollo de la enfermedad y puede no proteger la planta de manera adecuada. Hay evidencia de que esta deficiencia de la resistencia horizontal~ se puede solucionar mediante el uso de fungicidas que no sean suficientemente efectivos en variedades susceptibles (24). Tiempo de aplicación en relación con las propiedades fungicidas de los agrogulmlcos.Si se toma como ejemplo la enfermedad más importante del arroz, la Piricularia, causada por Pyricularia oryza e ( existen varios fungicidas excelentes para su contro1.' pero son un poco iferentes entre sí en su modo de acción. En el Cuadro 5~ por ejemplo, se puede observar que el antibiótico Kasugamicina no ofrece ninguna actividad protectora contra la penetrdción del hongo, pero si tiene un marcado efecto preventivo en el crecimiento del micelio despu~s de la penetraclón~ con uno actividad residual lMS bien corta; por su parte, la blastina (un compuesto organoclorado) tiene un fuerte efecto protector en la penetración, con una larga acción residual. pero no en e1 crecimiento del micelio despuéS de la penetraciOn, mostrando de esta manera, un marcado contraste con las caracterlsticas de la kasugamieina (17). Por otra parte. el benomyl, un compuesto carbamato. tiene propiedades tanto preventhBs como de erradicación. El producto es sistémico en su actividad como fung1c1da efectivo para aplicar al suelo :; con una prolongada acción residual, penetra a las ralees en las áreas tratadas (lO). Si la kasugamicina, la blastina y el benomyl se aplican varios dlas antes de la infección pri mar; a, 1 a Kasugami ci na no ejercer! un control sati sfactorio.. pero 1 a blastina y el benomyl proporCionarían un excelente control~ Contrariamente~ --+++ +++  Plantas que crecen bajo condiciones de alta fertilidad favorable para el crecimiento vegetativo del arroz, son más susceptibles a la enfermedad.Por consiguiente, un manejo adecuado de la fertilidad del suelo, ayuda a reducir los da~os.El control qulmico no garantiza una medida efectiva contra la enfermedad. Con un entendimiento mejor del ciclo de vida del hongo es posible combatir el falso earbOn, mediante la aplicación oportuna de un fungielda apropiado pocos dI as antes de la f1or.cIOn.  Si el nemitodo estl dentro de la semilla, el tratamiento de e~ta con agua caliente y agro-qulmícos tales como Benomyl, Tiocianoacetato de etilo (tambi~n llamado Sassen) o Tiocíonoacetato de buti10, reduce de una manera significativa 1. incidencia de la enfermedad.=====-fisio16gica Por ser los daños ocasionados por este insecto una de las caUSdS de jos bajos rendimientos y debido a 10 dificil y costoso del control quí~ico, el Programa de Arroz del CIAT ha dado gran importancid a 10 selecció~ de variedades resistel1tes a la Sogata.En el presente artículo se discuten la biología del insecto y los daños que ocasiona al cultivo del arroz; se describen los prC'cedill'.ientos para la evaluación de la resistencia de líneas o variedades al insecto y al virus de la hoja blal1cd.B IOLCGIA DE:. Soga todos Qryz i ca 1 a El transmisor del virus de la hoja blancd es el Sogatodes oryzicola, pequeño hom6ptero, cuyas ninias dpteros,rle color blanco verdoso con franjas negras a lo 1 á [\"'90 de 1 cuerpo. de~p\\lés de 5 instares que du ran unos 15 d 1 as ~ se transforman en adultos (Figura l).El macho mide de 2 a 3 mm y tiene en las dlas anteriores y en el cuerpo una coloración mas oscura qUé en las ala~ posteriores.La hembrJ adulto es de color amar; no, mide de :; a 4 mm, y sus alas son f;'iás pequeñas que las del r.Jdcho; estos insectos son sedentarios y dífícilmente ahar.donan el hospedante. La GuraciOn de1 estado ¿H~U1tO, aunque está deternllf1ada por las condiciones ambientales, es apfoximadar.1ente de 24 \" 36 dlas (Figura 2). la hembra~ una vez alcanza su estado adu1to. es fecundada al segundo o tercer dla, e inicia la ovipesición del tercero al quinto did (Everett, 1967) .Para depositar sus huevos la hembra hace con su esti lete ovipositor de 8 d 10 incisiones. de 1 a 5 mm de largo en la hoja. Sóio en una de estas incisiones deposita entre 2 y 10 huevecil10s blancuzcos, ligeramente ~urvados, que miden de 0.7 mm de ¡argOt de esta wanera en 2 o 3 d1as puede poner hasta 200 hucvecillos.El per1odo de incubación depende de la temperatura y la eJ-,osión ocurre en 8 d'as~ aproximi.:tda~ente; en un mlnírno de 7.4  La hoja blanca es una enfermedad cfclica; las epidemias duran varios años, seguidas por períodos más largos libres de la enfermedad.La eficiencia de la pOblaCión de sogata en el campo para transmitir el virus de la hoja blanca a plantas de arroz, durante las epidemias es, en promedio, del 10 al 15% (Gálvez y Jennings, 1959). Durante la ausencia de ataques de hoja blanca. el porcentaje de insectos vectores disminuye a menos del 1%.La capacidad de transmitir el virus se controla gen~ticamente, 10 cual hace posible desarrollar, por medio de cruzamientos selectivos, una colonia con un 70 a un 95% de eficiencia de transmisión (Everett, 1967). Cuadro l. Longevidad y oviposición de hembras virullferas y no virullferas en las variedades de arroz Mudgo y Bluebonnet SOl.No. de hembras 48 longevidad hembras (dlas) 5.9 No. de hueVOS/hembra 29.5 Huevos/hembra/día 5.0 Resistencia varietal a la Sogata Investigaciones recientes indican que hay variedades de arroz con alto grado de resistencia a ~ oryzicola. las variedades resistentes infestadas de sogatas muestran poco o ningún daño . Jennings y Pineda, (1971) sugieren que esta resistencia por antibiosis y por no preferencia es altamente hereditaria y que puede ser combinada fácilmente con otros caracteres corno altura de la planta, resistencia al vuelco, rendimiento, etc. la resistencia al insecto no protege a la planta contra la hoja blanca, por lo tanto es necesario que la variedad sea resistente tanto al insecto como al virus. la relación entre la edad de la planta y la reacción al daño causado por el insecto fue determinada por Jennings y Pineda (1971). los resultados indican que las pl~ntulas de 15 dfas de edad de variedades resistentes conservan su resistencia hasta edades avanzadas. las variedades susceptibles en estado de pl~ntula también lo son en edades avanzadas. la única diferencia que observaron entre los estados de crecimiento fue que el insecto requería más tiempo para matar las plantas más viejas de las variedades susceptibles.En términos generales variedades de secano, japónicas y de los Estados Unidos son susceptibles a Sogata. Util izando fuentes de resistencia del Asia, el CIAT ha producido materiales resistentes al daño. Todas las lIneas avanzadas del CIAT son resistentes al insecto.Se ha encontrado que existen variedades de arroz resistentes al virus de la hoja blanca y que esta resistencia, también hereditaria, no está relacionada con la resistencia a la sogata (Gavidia, 1970) Existe sólo un tipo de resistencia confirmada al virus. Entre las variedades que cuentan con esta resistencia están: Colombia 1, leA 10, Taichung 176 y otras japónicas y unas lIneas de IRAT (IRAT 120, 121 Y 124). Todas estas fuentes de resistencia son japónicas o provienen de éstas. Este tipo de resistencia funciona en el campo tanto como en el invernadero y en todos los estados de desarrollo de la planta. Otras variedades (Mudgo, Metica 1 y CICA 7) • veces presentan poco daño del VHB en el campo cuando la poblaci6n de 50g.ta es baja. Pero ellas demuestran mayor susceptibilidad cuando hay w~chos vectores, lo mismo en el invernadero y en estado de plántula.EVAlUACION OE LA RESISTENCIA VARIETAL A LA SOGATA y P.L VHB En un progran:a de mejoramiento en el cual se manejan millares de selecciones t es de importancía b~sica contar con una t~cnica para evaluar la resistencia varietal a los insectos y a las enfermedades. La t~cnica debe ser fiable, f~ci1 y d. rápida aplicación a fin de evaluar en corto tiempo, y preferiblemente en estado de plántula, todo el material.A continuación se detalla el procedimiento para la evaluación de la resistencia var1etal a la sogata y al virus de la hoja bIcnca, desarrollados por el Programa de Arroz lCA-CIAT; estos procedimientos son similares~ con la diferencia de que en el primer caso se trabaja con insectos no transmisores y en el segundo con insectos de alta capacidad transmisora. criados especialmente para esté fto. g. Un aspirador para el manejo de los insectos la instalación principal es una jaula de madera de 2.20 m de largo x 1.80 de ancho y 1.00 m de alto, cuyas paredes son de plástico y las puertas de vidrio (Figura 3).El plástico que se utiliza para la fabricación de esta jaula debe ser de butirato de celulosa. ya que el de acetato de celulosa segrega una sustancia tóxica que mata a los insectos.El procedimiento se ha dividido en tres partes: Manejo del insecto, ~anejo del material en prueba y evaluación del material en prueba. Plantas en E 2 o de generaciones avanzadas (Figura 4). El fitomejorador envía la semill. del material que ha seleccionado en el campo, debidamente identificada en sobres que contienen de 0.5 • 1 gramo de semilla. la identificaci6n de las muestras de cada material se hace    Procedimiento para evaluar la resistencia a la sogata.marcando las estacas según la numeración que traiga el sobre de las semil1as~En materas se colocan las estacas y se siembran las semillas de cada selección en número suficiente para obtener un mfnimo de la plantas.Se colocan dos selecciones en una sola matera cuando se tienen muchas líneas o variedades para evaluar~ El número .de semillas que se siembre debe calcularse para que despuh del raleo, el cual se efectúa 10 a 12 dlas después de la siembra, queden 10 plantas.Cuando las plántulas tienen 15 dlas de edad se introducen a la jaula donde se multiplica el insecto; las plantas en las que se ha multipl icado previamente la 50gata se sacuden y se retiran de la jaula.Para hacer una buena evaluación se considera que debe tenerse una población promedio de 10 insectos por planta. Se ha encontrado que esta población es suficiente para causar la muerte a plantas de 15 dI as de edad de yariedades susceptibles.Como testigo Se utilizan las variedades Bluebonnet 50 (susceptible) y ~ludgo (resistente); de cada una de estas yariedades se siembran 100 plantas en cinco materas, de a 20 por matera.La evaluación se realíza cuando el testigo susceptible (Bluebonnet) muere. El procedimiento es el siguiente: Determinar el número total de plantas de cada selecci6n Determinar el número de plantas muertas de cada selecci6n. si las hay Al resto de plantas se les da una califícaciOn siguiendo la siguiente escala: l. Libre de daño 2. Hojas primarias y secundarias parcialmente amarillas en el ápice y bordes.3. Amarillamiento pronunciado, principios de enanismo y marchitamiento.4. Oeco1oración total de hojas, marchitamiento y pronunciado enanismo.En la escala de evaluación del daño se consideran como selecciones resistentes las calificadas con 2 6 menos, intermedias con 3, susceptible con 4 a 5. Ejemplo: Si tienen 10 plantas y se les da la siguiente calificaciOn: 4(10-3 El numerador i ndi ca el número de pI antas muertas. El denomi nador el número total de plantas.El segundo número es la calificación de las 6 plantas restantes de acuerdo con la escala correspondiente. En este caso la 1 ínea en prueba segrega para resistencia y susceptibilidad.Evaluación de la resistencia al virus de la hoja blanca Como se mencionO anteriormente la resistencia de una variedad o 11nea al ataque del insecto y la resistencia al virus son diferentes.En el CIAT se trata de desarrollar un mlltodo confiable para hacer evaluaciones en el invernadero, pero se han encontrado a1gunos problemas tales como:1. Se necesita una colonia estable, vigorosa y de alta capacidad vectora.Las condiciones del invernadero son diferentes a las condiciones del campo.En el Cuadro 3 se muestra la reacci6n de cinco variedades al virus de la hoja blanca evaluadas en el invernadero. Se observa que variedades susceptibles como Bluebonnet 50 y CICA 8, muestran susceptibilidad en todas las edades. Pero las variedades resistentes tienen dos tipos de reacciOno La variedad Colombia 1 es altamente resistente tanto a los 10 como a los 40 d1as de edad, mientras que las variedades Mudgo y Metica 1 sólo demuestran resistencia en el invernddero a las infecciones tardlas de 30 y 40 d'as~ Debido a que la evaluación en el invernadero no ~~ muy confiable, se recomienda hacer también la evaluación de los materiales gen~ticos al virus de la hoja blanca en el campo en épocas de epidemias.La severidad de la infección O reacción de la variedad en el campo se puede evaluar a los 90-100 días sega n la siguiente escala Severidad de la infección Calificación Tres aspectos fundamentales deben ser tenidos en cuenta para la recolección del cultivo de arroz. Cuando cosechar, el método de cosecha y las pérdidas en rendimiento y de calidad del grano.La determinación del momento óptimo de cosecha resulta fundamental dentro de la ecanom!a del cultivo en una región. La Figura 1, tipifica las situaciones posibles en relación con el tiempo de cosecha, as! como las pérdidas que ocurren y el rendímiento efectivo de grano.Pdra determinaciOn del momento de cosecha se debe tener en cuenta la humedad del grano, el contenido de materia seca del mismo, la germinación y el vigor de la semilla, el porcentaje de granos inmaduros o yesosos y el rendimiento en molino de granos enteros y quebrados. Varios trabajos se han realizado a fln de determínar el momento de madurez a partir del período de floración. Esta tarda en ocurrir un tiempo diferente para caoa variedad y en la misma variedad con diferente ambiente J mientras que el periOdO de floracíón a madurez en el trópico cálído ha demostrado ser bastante cQnstante~ Las características que se afectan a medida que el grano desarrolla y madura son: el contenido de humedad y de materia seca, la germinación y el vlgor; mientras que el tama~o del 9rano está condicionado al de las glumas, las cuales se han formado previamente y permiten poca variación.Tard{o Tiempo de Cosecha 613 Figura 1.Cambios t( picos 8 través del tiempo en el rendimiento y las pérdidas del grano.A) Desgrane natural y por clima.Bl Desgrane por cortadora.el Pérdidas en triUa.O} Pérdidas en la limpieza Contenido de humedad Matsuda, citado por Garela 1978, indica que en arroz la humedad del grano en el momento de la fecundaci6n alcanza el 90%. Después la hU!1l€ctad disminuye gradualmente hasta alcanzar la hU!1l€daó de equilibrio, entre 20 y 14% según el ambiente. Se acepta que la madurez fisio16gica del grano se alcanza alrededor del 27% de humedad promedia de los granos. Las Figuras 2 y 3 muestran 1 as variaciones que se presentan en la humedad y relaciones entre este aspecto y las demás caracter~sticas analizadas.Puede decirse que el contenido de materia seca es inverso a la humedad del grano, hasta alcanzar la madurez fisiológica. El incremento inicial es ba~o hasta unos 7 dlas; despu@s sufre un incremento muy rápido hasta el 22. d1a y sigue un incremento menor hasta alcanzar el maximo peso seCO t alrededor de 30 días desde la floración. Posteriormente los procesos fisiológiCOS consumen parte de la materia seca y el contenido en el grano se hace menor. (Garcla 1978, Rajanna 1970, Fernández 1978).Según Fernández 1978, el m!xi roo con ten ido de ma teria seca alcanza al final de la etapa 8, o estado de maza dura. DespuéS viene la etapa de grano maduro en la cual @ste pierde agua hasta alcanzar la humedad de cosecha. con consu\"\" de una parte pequeM de la materia seca acumulada en los procesos fisiológicos deBde la siembra. En §reas subtropicales o templadas, con temperaturas de 20 e o menos, durante e1 llenado del grano, este proceso se dilata hasta unos 45 dlas, lo cual tambi@n incidemun mayor número de granos llenos con mayor tamafio y peso.Es una característica del arroz y de otras gram1neas, que sus semillas pueden germinar poco después de la fecundación del 6vulo, la cual se incrementa rápidamente hasta los 20 o 25 días cuando se hace constante por un período de varios meses. (Ver Figuras 2 y 3).       :>1; e ~ \" 12.5 ¡¡ \" M e :> 11.5   .~'\"   Relación entre los datos observados en la prueba de germinacíón V los datos calculados obtenidos en las pruebas de vigor: V•l~ V•2, V•3, de materia seca y de humedad realizadas en semUlas identificadas, cosechadas en diteren• tes épocas. y encontró que a la edad citada tanto el rendimiento de grano, como en el molino eran m&ximos. También en CIAT, Cheaney y S&nchez 1973, realizaron un ensayo con la LInea 13 (Figura 5) y encontró ~ue el número de granos enteros era m&ximo a una humedad entre 25 y 27%, mientras que el número de granos inmaduros tendía a ser constante por debajo del 27% de humedad. Vélez, 1971, en el &rea c&lida peruana y Can tres variedades, encontró rendimientos m&xlmos a los 30 días del 50% de la floración para 2 variedades y a los 40 para otra, y una reducción a partir de los 40 días en las tres variedades; el rendimiento de arroz pilado tambHm se afectó después de los 40 días en todas las variedades y el grano quebrado disminuyó hasta los 30 días y se aumentó después de esa fecha.Con base en las anteriores consideraciones y teniendo en cuenta los riesgos por dehiesencia natural del grano .. 'Iolcamiento, aves y ratas, desastres y pérdida de valor comercial, la cosecha debe realizarse tan pronto el grano alcance su madurez (IRRI, 1968), para lo cual .1 mejor indicador es la humedad del grano, pero también puede tomarse el color del mismo. Cheaney y S&nchez, 1973 y otros autores, recomiendan cosechar cuando el 95% de los granos en las panojas tengan color paja y el resto estén amarillentos.Mayor de 27%: menor rendimiento y granos yesosos Entre 20 y 27%: Humedad 6ptima Menor de 18%: Pérdida de granos, de calidad y mayor riesgo.La cosecha de grano para semilla se prefiere hacerla alrededor de 20% de humedad del grano, a fín de evitar riesgos de dano a la viabilidad de la semilla. por calentamiento tuando se demore el secamiento de élla.En Latinoamérica la cosecha se realiza en variados sistemas para 1as diferentes áreas productoras, de acuerdo con su grado de desarrollo tecnolOgico o sistema de produccíOn.  La trilla con mAC[uina portátiL_ Se trata de un equipo menos voluminoso y liviano que el anterior y puede ser transportado dentro del campo, as' que permite real izar muchos montones pequenos; con lo cual se ahorra mano de obra. Su trabajO es más lento que el anterior; las iM:quinas pueden ser accionadas por un motor pequeño o pueden ser de pedal.Un sistema muy extendido de cosecha semlmeeaoizada se desarrolla en el Perú y tiene los siguientes pasos: (López, 1983). a) Siega con hoz y extensión de haces para el secado por 6 hasta 10 dlas:11 jornales/ha.    La mayor parte del grano se separa en la rejilla y la criba del cóncavo, pero parte del grano permanece entre la paja y es expulsado del cilindro hacia los sacapajas donde se completa la separación. La limpieza se realiza en 1as zarandas en ayuda de aire. Las partes del sistema son:B~~~~~~ii~il~n~Se~p~a~:r~ador de paja que la retira hacia los sacapajas, ñ al cilindro, sobre la criba de u~as.tamo hacia la salida posterior de la maquina. la agitación que paja, terminan de separar el grano trillado.Cortinas deflectoras. Sobre los sacapajas están colocadas dos láminas cuyo objeto es evitar que los granos lanzados por el batidor salgan junto con la paja.Zarandas. Las cosechadoras nonnalmente traen dos zarandas semejantes a las máquinas desbrozadoras. La superior, llamada zarand6n t tiene un sistema de persiana con rejillas dentadas graduables que penníten el paso de grano y otros materiales de tamaño similar. Al final posee una extensión, articulada en ángulo con aberturas mayores por donde pasan las espigas no trilladas, cayendo al sinfín de retorno que las regresa al cilindr'<)o La za randa inferior es cribada con orifi ci os adecuados a 1 tama~o de 1 grano.Esta zaranda es removible sega n el grano que se coseche. Se ubica con inc1inaciOn al igual que el zarandón para permitir la acci5n del aire. El grano que atraviesa la zaranda cae al sinf1n recolector de grano 1 impío, donde es tomado por un transportador hacia la tolva de grano o ensdcadora~Ventilador. Suministra una corriente de aire constante que retira los materiales livianos de las zarandas hacia la salida posterior. Su dirección e intensidad son graduables.Está compuesto por tres partes:Elevador de granos. Transporta eficientemente el grano a la unidad ensacadora o depOsito.Criba rotativa. Posee un sinfln interior y tabiques para clasificar el grano.%f-ifej\"'-¡feiifsiitc.~on canalones y compuertas el primero o conEstos tienen capacidad de 500 a 1600 la maquina y su diseño, que permita el avanceLas pªrdidas de granos pueden ocurrir en cualquiera de las etapas que constituyen el proceso de cosechar~ ésto es: corte y alimentación, trilla, separaciOn y limpieza. l. Pérdidas en la barra de corte. Consiste en grano picado por la barra de corte, espigas que no son cortadas o son lanzadas hacia adelante y no entran a la plataforma, y grano desgranado por la acción del molinete. Plantas descabezadas o granos sobre 1. superficie del suelo antes de que la ~quina entre al lote, no constituyen pérdidas en la barra del corte, es la denominada pªrdida natural que se acentúa con la demora en la cosecha y la variedad.2. Pérdidas en el cilindro. Est!n constituidas por granos sin trillar, los cuales permanecen en la paja luego de pasar a través de la combinada. También los granos partidos o molidos.P~rdidas en el transportador del tramo o paja. Consisten en granos sueltos los cuales no han sido separados de la paja a medida que pasan sobre el transportador y las zarandas. y son lanzados hacia afuera de la ~quina mezclados con los residuos. (1) Expresadas como % de r-endimientoEn el estudio citado 6.46t de pérdidas correspondi6 a 366 kg/ha sobre el rendimiento medio de 5.663 kg/ha. Estas pérdidas según los autores superan las normales que varlan entre 3 y 5%. Cheaney y LOpez 1973, reportan pérdidas para condiciones norma1es de trabaja de 50 a 60 kg/ha en mecanismo de trilla, 40 a 45 kg/ha en el sacapajas y unos 10 kg en otras operaciones, para un total de 100 a 115 kg/ha.Asumiendo que la cosechadora está en buenas condiciones mec~nicas los ajustes deben hacerse en el siguiente orden: l. Revisión de la velocidad de la máquina. Comprobar si la combinada est& trabajando a las revoluciones por minuto recomendadas. Refiérase al manual de instrucciones en cuanto a la velocidad b~s;ca de la máquina. Esta puede ser dada en t~rminos de las revoluciones del motor; del sinfln de la plataforma, etc.Z. Ajuste de la luz entre el cilindro y c6ncavo, y la velocidad del cilindro. Estos ajustes deben hacerse de tal modo que se pueda obtener la mayor cantidad pOSible de grano separado de las espigas (grano trillado).La norma general a seguir en el ajuste de esta unidad es la de establecer la máxima luz posible entre cóncavo y cilindro, Al tener una luz reducida O alta veloc;dad~ se obtendrií el mismo efecto que resulta al sobrecargar la miíquina. esto es, fragmentación excesiva la cual aumenta los residuos en el cilindro, los transportadores y las zarandas, afectando la limpieza. Si cantidades grandes de grano permanecen en la espiga (revisar el elevador de retorno), se recomienda lncrementar la accí6n de trilla aumentado 1a velocidad del cilindro~ Si aún se requiere una mayor acción de trillado se debe reducir la luz entre cóncavo y cilindro, Aparentemente hay menor tendencia a aumentar la velocidad del cilindro que reducir la luz entre cóncavo y cilindro. Evite el sobrecargar la máquina conduciendo muy rápido, pues las perdidas en el sacapaja o transportadores aumentan considerablemente.3, Ajuste de barra de corte y molinete, Ajuste el molinete de tal forma que las paletas golpeen las plantas un poco abajo de las espigas más bajas y su velocidad de manera que el golpe no desgrane e1 arroz.4# Ajuste la corriente de aire y las aberturas de las zarandas. Las pérdidas en las zarandas pueden ser ocasionadas por la sobrecarga de la máquina y el sobretrillado del grano; por inadecuadas cantidades y dirección de la corriente del aire, as1 como deficiente graduación de las zarandas. El material debe ser levantado desde el frente de las zarandas por la corriente de aire para flQtar hacia atrás. Una separaci6n pobre resulta cuando los residuos permanecen sólidamente como formando una manta sobre las zarandas. La corriente de aire debe ser incrementada hacia el punto de que solamente una ligera cantidad de residuos apdrezca con el grano. Cuando las aberturas de las zarandas están muy cerradas, grandes cantidades de grano pasarán por el sinfín y elevador de retorno para regresar al cilindro trillador. y entonces esta excesiva cantidad de material ocasiona su ruptura en el eH indro. En un molino arrocero se ejecutan dos procesos bien definidos que son: secamiento y moliner1a. Para realizar el primer proceso, el arroz que llega del campo con contenidos de impurezas (4 a 10%) y humedad (18 a 24%) altos son somet i dos a pre 1 ímpi eza y reduce ión de 1 porcentaje de humedad con el objeto de facil itar las condiciones de aptitud que permitan que el grano pueda ser trabajado con los equipos de molineda sin interrupción del proceso que perjudique su rendimiento.Es de anotar que estos dos procesos se ejecuten en fanna diferente, pues mientras en la mayoría de los casos, el secamiento se ejecwta por batches o cachadas; el proceso de molinada se lleva a cabo en foma continua.De otra parte, debido a que los picos de cosecha solo duran de 45 a 60 días por semestre, se hace necesario tener una buena capacidad de recibo~ secamiento y almacenamiento a fin de tener materia prima suficiente para mantener en continua actividad al molino durante 4 65 meses por semestre. Esto es de vital importancia si se tiene en cuenta que tanto la nómina de empleados y obreros. así como el flujo de caja para la mayoría de gastos de admioistración, se mantienen constantes y deben ser cubiertos con el producido del molino.Es pues la molinería un proceso que requiere no sólo una buena capacidad técnica y administrativa para ejecutarla, sino que también necesita de una buena cantidad de recursos. tanto monetarios como de almacenamiento, a fin de obtener buenos resultados en su funcionamiento.El proceso de molinería propiamente dicho se ejecuta partiendo del arroz cáscara (paddy seco 13% de humedad), el cual pasa por diferentes máqUinas para dejarlo en condiciones aptas de consumo.Como puede observarse en el diagrama de flujo, el arroz con cascara proveniente de la sección de secamiento, es depositado en la tolva de recibo. para alimentar de manera permanente e1 molino en donde mediante elevadores de canjilones se transporta a las diferentes máquinas que componen el molino, s~friendo en cada una de ellas procesos intermedios, hasta obtener el produc.to final llamado arroz blanco entero, el cual, se ofrece ai mercado con un porcentaje de partido que varia de acuerdo con la calidad que se desea.En Colombia el arroz blanco entero puede venderse en tres categorlas principales a saber: EXCELSO:El cual es un arroz que teóricamente debe tener un máximo de partido inferior al 5% en peso res~ecto al entero. Por otro lado en el mercado, los precios de éstos arroces var1an de acuerdo con sus procentajes de partido, siendo la primera categoría el EXCELSO ya que es ~ste el arroz que s. obtiene de las mejores calidades de a rrOl cásca ra.Tambi~n, si se analiza el diagrama de flujo, se notará que durante un proceso completo se obtienen varios tipos de subproductos, 105 cuales se clasifican hasta el momento en dos grandes grupos a saber:Son aquellos que salen del proceso, pues adem~s de ser indeseables, no ofrecen ninguna entrada para el molino. Estos son: Las impurezas o basura extraldas por la prelimpiadora y la cascarilla, la cual es obtenida en la separadora neumática. Es de anotar que con la cascarilla se han real izado varias investigaciones con resultados promisorios en la fabricaciOn de bloques para construcci6n~ cemento de caracter1sticas similares al cemento postland, etc., pero que hasta ahora no se ha producido a nivel industrial, ya que el uso de la cascarilla no disminuye los costos de producción cuando se pretende usar como sustituto o relleno.Sinembargo se anota que varios molinos, a los cuales se les ha venido aumentando en forma preocupante los costos de energla y/o de combustibles, han venido adaptando sus intalaciones para producir calor para secamiento con el uso de quemadores de cascarilla, o para producir vapor y/o energla con la que se pueda mover el molino empleando la cascarilla como combustible para calderas.Son aquellos que después de ser sacados del proceso, pueden ser vendidos en el mercado con el f1n de obtener una entrada extra, que en la mayor1a de los casos sirve para sostener los gastos de funcionamiento del molino. Estos son: La Harina de Blanqueo o de Pulimento utilizada en las nbr1cas de concentrados; el UPartido Grande ll llamado \"Arroz Cristal!! el cual se vende en el mercado como arroz para sopa, a ser utilizado por 1a industria cervecera, y los partidos pequeños (o sea de tamaños inferiores a 1/4 de grano) los cuales son conocidos en el mercado como \"Granza ll y cuya utilizaci6n también la tienen las fábricas de concentrados para animales.Es de anotar que el mejor rendimiento en un molino arrocero se obtiene mediante una adecuada calibración y mantenimiento de las maquinas que componen el molino) para lo cual,> es de gran importancia contar con un operario calificado, ya que pequeñas variaciones en los porcentajes de rendimiento del molino afectan notoriamente las entradas del mismo, puesto que el preCio del arroz blanco entero es muy superior al partido o a la harina. Sin embargo a manera de guia~ los rendimientos que pueden ser obtenidos en un molino arrocero son los siguientes:  variedades como en las pr&cticas de cultivo utilizadas en el arroz. Esto se refleja a nivel mundial, regional y nacional.En el plano mundial se observa que aproximadamente el 25~ del &rea arrocera se siembra con variedades mejoradas de alto rendimiento ( 8 El objetivo de este articulo es el de comentar algunos aspectos relacionados con el nombramiento, la multiplicaci6n y el mantenimiento de variedades mejoradas de arroz.En esta parte hay que distinguir dos procesos distintos (6): uno informal o no oficial y otro formal u oficial. En el proceso informal, la partlclpaC16n de una agencia oficial o gubernamental es muy poca o nula, mientras que la mayor responsabilidad en la diseminación de la semilla de la ¡¡nueva variedad\" recae en agricultores, comerciantes, empresas distribuidoras de semilla, entre otros. En este caso se trata de ~teriales introducidos al país por agentes distintos al programa nacional de investigación o del Ministerio de Agricultura, o de materiales mejorados que llegaron a manos de agricul tares a través de las pruebas regionales o de la multiplicación de semilla de lineas promisor;as. En todo caso, la unueva variedad\" no ha sido oficialmente nombrada por la entidad encargada~ En a19unos casos estas variedades no oficfales. pueden negar a ocupar un porcentaje significativo del área arrocera en una región y se las conoce con nombres regionales, o de fincas, o de personas. POt lo general, no existe un programa de multiplicación y certificación de semillas de estos materiales. por 10 cual en poco tiempo pierden su pureza e identidad.Pot el contrario. los mayores partiCipantes en el proceso formal u oficial son entidades oficiales a las cuales se les ha asignaOO'ilícha responsabilidad y adem~s, la industria de semillas también interviene. Casi siempre la entrega oficial de la nueva variedad se hace mediante una réuni6n, dfa de campo, etc.Cada pals tiene sus propias reglas relacionadas con el nombramiento y entrega oficial de nuevas variedades. Al1ard (1) identifica los sigUientes pasos: a) qui ln toma la decisión; b) nombre de la variedad; e) producción de semilla genética; d) multiplicación y distribución de la semilla b!sica y e) ptoducción de semilla certificada.En algunos paises como Estados Unidos, Canad& y Filipinas existe un comité especial nombrado por el gObierno para revisar y estudiar toda la infonnacH'ln pertinente a los materiales que se consideran como posibles variedades. En Colombia. el Ministerio de Agricultura delegó esa funci6n en el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, ICA. El Programa de Arroz de dicho organismo debe presentar evidencias acerca de la bondad y ventajas del nuevo material que pretende lanzar como variedad.Estas evidencias se refieren a observaciones sobre el comportamiento agronómico y adaptaci6n en las diferentes zonas arroceras del pals. potenCial de rendimiento en comparación con otras variedades comerciales, reacción a las prinCipales plagas y enfermedades. calidad de cocina y mol inería. El rango de adaptación y potencial de rendimiento se determinan mediante pruebas regionales en fincas de agricultores. ubicadas en todas las ~reas arroceras del pais y por un perlodo no menor de dos semestres~ La información se revisa con cuidado y se determina cuales son las pOSibles ventajas de la nueva variedad sobre las ya existentes. Como mínimo se considera que la nueva variedad debe superar a las ya existentes en una caractertstica ímportante~ Cuando se piensa nombrar una variedad, la pregunta clave que surge se refiere a la superioridad de ella. Esto es, tanto el agricultor, como el agrOnomo extensionista~ y el especialista en semillas, entre otros, desear&n saber pOI\" qué o en cua.les caracterlsticas la nueva variedad es superior a otras ya conocidas. Según 8riggs y Knowles (2), \"uoa variedad superior es el resultado de la combinaci6n de un grupo de genes que interactGan bien con el medio ambiente l ' .Sin embargo, a medida que las variedades se van mejorando en cuanto a rendimiento, resistencia a plagas y enfennedades, calidad, etc .. se va haciendo más diflcil la labor del mejorador en su afSo por crear variedades superiores. Las caracterfsticas propias de una variedad estan determinadas por muchos genes portadores de los caracteres que se transmiten de padtes a hijos. la recombinación de esos genes se efectúa al azar y el mejorador no tiene control sobre este proceso genético. Al mejorador s610 le queda la posibilidad de identificar y seleccionar, en una población segregante, aquellos tipos que puedan representar nuevas recombinaciones de genes que pudieran dar origen a una variedad superior. De tal manera que como indica Carter (3), lilas nuevas variedades rara vez resultan por azar, ellas son generalmente producidas por mejoradores de plantas conocedoras y Mbiles Jl • Nombre de la variedad.La denominaciOn de las nuevas variedades varía de acuerdo a los diferentes países e institutos. En general, se prefieren nombres cortos y sencillos. En el caso de Colombia, las variedades provenientes del proyecto cooperativo ICA-CIAT-FEDEARRDZ se denominaban como CICAS, seguido por un número que indica el orden de aparición. En la actualidad la nominación se realiza tomando en cuenta la especie y la instituci6n (Dryzica).Una vez que se ha decidido nombrar una línea promisoria como variedad, el mejorador tiene que hacer una descripciOn de ella, la cual debe ser 10 mas completa posible. Deben mencionarse tanto las virtudes como los defectos. Es más honesto y fácil indicar cuáles son los defectos y las precauciones necesarias en el momento de hacer la descripci6n, y no después cuando los defectos sean obvios en fincas de los agricultores o en los molinos. Cuando no se han indicado cu~les son las debilidades de la nueva variedad, especialmente en condiciones de campo, se corre el grave peligro de causar un dano irreparable a la credibilidad en las variedades por parte de los usuarios.Por otra parte, debe tenerse especial cuidado al describir aquellas características que pueden presentar modificaciones debidas al medio armiente, como es el caso de la expresi6n de la arista en arroz. Por ejemplo, las variedades IR 22 Y CICA 4 fueron descritas como no aristadas, pero posteriormente en ciertas zonas se observaron lotes de multiplicaci6n de semilla en donde algunas plantas presentaban granos con arista, lo cual di6 origen a rechazos por los organismos certificadores de semillas.Sin embargo, luego se determinó que esas plantas no constituían mezclas. Hubiera sido mejor indicar en la descripci6n que bajo ciertas condiciones ambientales esas variedades pueden presentar algunos granos aristados (8).En el proceso de nombramiento de una nueva variedad deben evitarse dos situaciones: la entrega prematura y la entrega tardía. El primer caso se refiere a aquella situaclón en la cual no hay suficiente información sobre el comportamiento de la nueva variedad, especialmente en medios ambientes distintos a aquel en donde se seleccionó la variedad; si no existe suficiente confiabilidad en los datos existentes es mejor esperar un poco. Por el contrario, es frecuente encontrar casos en los cuales los programas nacionales esperan demasiado tiempo para tomar la decisión. Si existe información adecuada y élla es confiable, no se debe demorar dicha entrega ya que la evaluaci6n prolongada de materiales genéticos recarga las actividades del programa nacional, entorpece la evaluación de otros materiales nuevos y puede demorar la solución a un problema a través de la nueva variedad. Es preciso tener presente que es casi imposible producir una variedad perfecta. y que solo 1. siembra y evaluaciOn de las variedades por parte de los agricultores. determinara cuáles permanecen en el mercado y cuáles salen de él.En cuanto a los criterios para nombrar variedades. es bueno mencionar para el caso de materiales. que el Programa Nacional ha introducido de otros programas o de otras instituciones. se acostumbra mantener el nombre original con que fue introducido. Sin embargo. en el caso de que el Programa Nacional haya realizado alguna selección adicional, entonces queda en completa libertad de darle el nombre que estime más apropiado.Llamada tambi~n fundación o 'breeder seed\". es la semilla que ha sido producida por un programa de mejoramiento varietal con total pureza genética y f1sica, y constituye la fuente de aumento de la semilla básica. Puede decirse también que es el producto final en el proceso de selección seguido por los mejoradores.Con frecuencia el fruto de varios a~os de trabajo del mejorador. est& representado por un puñado de semillas, las cuales para llegar a las manos de los agricultores. y producir el impacto esperado. deben multiplicarse muchas veces (3), proceso en el cual la semi 11a no debe contaminarse y perder su identidad.Por lo general, luego del proceso de y pruebas regionales, el mejorador está en capaCidad de detenninar cuáles son las lineas promisorias con mayores posibil idades de llegar a ser variedades e iniciar su multiplicación. Esta multiplicación debe iniciarse una vez que unas pocas l1neas entran en e1 segundo ciclo de evaluación en pruebas regionales, a f1n de contar con suficiente semilla tan pronto como se tome la decisión de cual ser~ lanzada.En las parcelas de ensayos de rendimiento o en los surcos pedigree. se seleccionan de 200 a 600 panículas representativas de 1. linea. Estas panlculas son inspeccionadas cuidadosamente en el laboratorio a fin de eliminar aquellas que presenten diferencias en cuanto a tipo. forma, tamaño y color del grano o presencia de arista.Cada panlcula seleccionada se desgrana y guarda separadamente de las otras. Posteriormente, cada una se slembra en un surco en el campo~ o en un semillero, ya que el transp1ante facilita la identificaci6n y eliminaci6n de las plantas fuera de tipo y permite plantar mayores ~reas acelerando .1 aumentó de semilla.Cada surco o parcela transplantada, se inspecciona frecuentemente durante el desarrollo del cultivo y se el iminan aquellos que presenten caracterlsticas diferentes a las exhibidas por la línea en multiplicación. La semilla de los surcos o parcelas escogidas se cosecha masalmente, se desgrana y Se seca; luego se mezclan e identifica en forma apropiada. En este momento se ha obtenido la semilla genética para Una nueva variedad, donde el proceso total ha sido vigilado por el mejorador, creador de la misma* Una parte de la semilla genética se guarda como reserva en un cuarto fr10 para multipl icaciones futuras y el resto se siembra para obtener 1 a seI11illa basica. la tarea del mejorador no termina con el lanzamiento de la variedad y la entrega de la semilla genética. Por e' contrario, es responsable de mantener un suministro continuo y oportuno de semilla genética que represente el concepto que él tiene de esa variedad y evitar as' que, a través de multiplicaciones sucesivas, nos alejemos de las caracter1sticas de la variedad (5). En el caso de terminarse la reserva de semilla genética, él deberá volver a obtenerl. seleccionando dentro de una población los genotipos que él conoce, correspondientes a la variedad y repitiendo todo el proceso inicial.Por otra parte, el fitomejorador debe hacer una especie de seguimiento sobre el comportamiento de la variedad, con el fin de determinar el grado de aceptación por parte de los agricultores.Producción de semilla básica.La semilla básica es la producida a partir de la semilla genética, bajo la supervisión de un programa de mejoramiento y la vigilancia del servicio de certificaciOn de sem.illas, de tal manera que la pureza sea preservada. Posteriormente, esta semilla se entregará a los productores autori zados para su mu lt i pI i cac i ón, CCnS tituyéndose en 1 a fuente de 1 as categorlas comerciales de semillas registradas y certificadas.En algunos países el mejorador está encargado de producir la semilla básica de las variedades prOducidas por él y también se le encomienda la IllUltiplicación de semilla de variedades introducidas. En este caso, la eliminación de plantas fuera de tipo (aquellas que difieren del resto de la población en cuanto a altura, floración, tipo de grano o de planta. etc) se facilita~ ya que él es quien conoce mejor 1as características inherentes de cada variedad. Las fallas' en el mantenimiento de la pureza en la semilla genética o básica. complican bastante el proceso de mantener la pureza de la variedad en las generaciones siguientes (5).Con el fin de facilitar la Identificación y eliminación de las plantas fuera de tipo y de las mezclas varietales, la semilla biísica de arroz en Colombia y otros pa1ses se viene produciendo por el sistema de transplante~ utilizando una sola planta por sitio. Esto resulta aderMs en un ahorro significativo en la cantidad de semilla genética requerida por unidad de área, lo cual permite obtener mayor volumen de semilla y un mejor control de pureza.Es muy importante disponer de un suministro permanente y adecuado de sel11í11a básica porque de 10 contrario el ciclo de multiplicación de las categorías registrada y certificada se rompe, con los consiguientes perjuiCiOS para los productores y agricultores. Debe mantenerse cierta reserva de semilla b~sica como protección contra imprevistos en el campo.CONSIDERACIONES SOBRE LA UNIFORMIDAD Y PUREZA DE LAS VARIEDADES.El especialista en semillas desea que la variedad sea, lo más pura y homogénea posible, ya que éllo facili taria sus labores de inspecciOn y ensenanza a los productores de semilla. Sin embargo, la situaciOn real es algo diferente. El mejorador se encuentra bajo una gran presión para nombrar y entregar, 10 más pronto posible. cualquier línea superior que tenga en sus manos (5). Por otra parte, el mejorador est~ más interesado en el comportamiento, estabilidad y rendimiento de una variedad, y para él cierta variabilidad genética en el material no es muy grave.La gran mayoría de las variedades modernas de arroz proceden del cruzamiento de dos o más progenitores, los cuales difieren en muchos pares de genes. las variedades resultantes distan mucho de ser lI una l'nea pura\" ya que cierta segregación residual permanece escondida en la variedad (4,8). El grado de pureza genética est~ relacionado con la intensidad de la selección practicada y la purificación hecha en las etapas de multiplicaci6n. Sin embargo, Chang (4) reconoce que aún variedades muy puras pueden mostrar signos de segregaci6n cuando son cultivadas en un ambiente diferente, o aOn, en un semestre distinto. Este tipo de segregación debida a la influencia del medio ambiente se puede expresar COOlO cambios en la época y modo de la floración, altura de la planta, exerción de la panfcula, nClmero de pan1culas, arista, etc., lo cual puede deberse a la interacción entre el genotipo de ciertas plantas con un componente espec1fico del medio ambiente como fotoperlodo, temperatura del aire o del agua, calidad de la luz, precipitaciOn, humedad relativa etc. Esto es, algOn factor en el medio ambiente puede inducir la expreSión de esa 'pequena segregación residual\" que quedó escondida dentro del genotipo de la planta y que no puede ser detectada por el mejorador en sus parcelas de multiplicación. Por ejemplo, bajo las condiciones del IRRI, en Filipinas, la variedad IR 2Q era muy uniforme, pero cuando se sembró en un medio ambiente en donde el fotoperlodo era diferente entonces apan.cieron plantas precoces y tardlas (4).En el caso nuestro, ya se indicó que en las parcelas de ensayos de rendimiento O en los surcos pedigree correspondientes a cada 1 inea promisoria, se selecciona un detenninado número de panlculas para multiplicarlas y obtener la semilla genética de la futuro variedad. Esas pan1culas proceden de varias plantas las cuales, aún cuando se encuentran en geraclones FS o F9 y pr~cticamente lucen muy similares, sin embargo, pueden diferir en alguna caracterlstica no visible en ese momento pero que más tarde debido a la interacción con un medio ambiente distinto puede expresarse ocasionando la aparición de 'plantas fuera de tipo\".Según De lcuche (5) esas plantas \"fuera de tipo\" no afectan el comportamiento general de la variedad. Sin embargo, pueden darle un aspecto feo 31 campo de multiplicaciOn, y entonces representan un problema para el especialista en semilla, principalmente porque él no siempre sabe cuando una planta \"fuera de tipo\" es caracter1stica o nO de la variedad~ De ahí que la relaci5n entre el mejorador y el especialista de semilla es muy importante y necesaria en este aspecto.La obtención de variedades mejoradas requiere esfuerzos ingentes por parte de los mejorado res y sus auxiliares; ademas, es una labor continua que requiere dedicación, tiempo y buenas facilidades. En otras palabras, es muy costoso producir nuevas variedades. Es obvio esperar que estos materiales sean manejados adecuadamente para evitar mezclas O contaminaciones que rebajen su calidad. Un programa de certificación de semillas garantiza que la multiplicación de esas variedades se realice cumpliendo ciertas normas.La semilla b&sica es un material de alta calidad producido con la mayor atención y culdados posibles. Sin embargo, es f&cil que esa semilla se contamine inadvertidamente durante el proceso de multiplicación o de beneflcio y es posible tamblén que esa contaminación escape al control del laboratorio. Es físicamente imposible examinar detenidamente cad. planta de arroz en un lote de multiplicación o analizar todos los granos en un lote de semilla. De ahi que se proceda a muestrear dicho lote; aún asi, varias muestras de un mismo lote pueden dar resultados distintos. Un productor de semillas debe estar consciente de esta situación y debe hacer las descontaminaciones que sean necesarias para no sobrepasar las tolerancias exigidas por certificación.La semilla bhica es costosa y por ende, debe manejarse en la mejor forma posible y debe ser entregada para su multiplicación únicamente a agricultores calificados y progresistas que posean todas las facilidades para él10. Se prefiere que sea multiplicada mediante el sistema de transplante dadas las ventajas que representa, sobre todo en 1. facilidad de revisar y descontaminar el lote. Por otra parte, la multiplicación de un kilo de semilla mediante este sistema produce mayor cantidad de semilla que cualquier otro sistema, según se puede apreciar el Cuadro 1 tomado de Gonzá lez (7). Las semillas constituyen la base y e' elemento más importante en la producci6n agrícola, por ser ellas las portadoras del potencial para obtener altos rendimientos y frutos de buena calidad.Para que las semillas sean un elemento básico de prosperidad, la agricultura moderna cuenta con un sistema, la certificación de semillas, que garantiza el mantenimiento de la pureza e identidad genética de las variedades mejoradas, obtenidas por los fitomejoradores.En este articulo se expondrán los mecanismos legales y técnicos que sirven de base a los programas de producci6n y beneficio de las semillas certificadas de arroz~ Con el Objeto de documentar a los interesados en la organización y ejecución de dichos pro9~amas.Para alcanzar ese objetivo se definen las diferentes clases de semillas y sus caracterlsticas fundamentales, 1. función de cada uno de los grupos que intervienen en la producción de semillas certificadas; se enuncian las normas legales y U!cnicas referentes a los terrenos, la siembra, el cultivo, la cosecha y el beneficio de las seminas, asi como también las de su almacenamiento, transporte y distribución.La certificación de semillas es un sistema integrado, en el cual las semillas de variedades mejoradas! de un determinado cultivo. se siembran bajo ciertas normas que incluyen la supervisión de los lotes y las pruebas de calidad de las semillas, para asegurar su sanidad, identidad y pureza genética, antes de ponerlas a disposición de los agricultores.Clases de semillas.Las semil1as de arroz que se siembran en campos seleccionados para certificaci6n~ generalmente están clasificadas en cuatro grupos: a) Semilla genética b) Semilla básica e) Semilla registrada d) Semilla certificada Semilla genética Es la que ha sido producida y controlada por el fitomejorador o genetista y es la fuente de la cual se obtiene la semilla b~sica. Es la clase de semilla más pura y se produce en pequefias cantidades. También se la conoce como semilla de fundación.Esta semilla se produce, a partir de la semi11. genética, en es.taciones experimentales o fincas estatales l bajo riguroso control para mantener la identidad y pureza genetica, y sirve como fuente para la producci5n de las categorías certificadas. Su producción es normalmente supervisada o directamente hecha por el mejorador.Se obtiene a partir de la semilla bhica. Puede ser producida en fincas estatales o privadas y debe responder a las normas de calidad establecidas por la entidad oficial de certificación de semillas.Semilla certificada Es 1. descendencia de la semilla registrada. En élla se mantienen la identidad genética y la pureza exigidas por 1. Entidad de Certificación de semilla.Cara¡:ter'sticas fundamentales de las semillas.La-s cuatro clases de semilla deben tener las siguientes características fundamentales:Identidad varietal Pureza f1sica Sanidad y Capacidad para germinar la identidad varieta1 significa que una semil1. debe reproducir exactamente en la progenie las características genotípicas y fenotípicas de la planta original. la pureza nsica es otro concepto bfi:sico que, entre otras cosas, implica que la semilla debe estar limpia y libre de materias extra~as.La sanidad de la semilla se refiere a que debe estar libre de plagas y agentes patOgenos. la capacidad para germinar es un factor importante. Las semillas al sembrarse en condiciones apropiadas, deben tener 1 a capaCidad para dar or1gen a nuevas plantas que sean capaces de desarrollarse y prodUCir buenos frutos.En un programa de Certificación deben participar los organismos encargados de la investigaciOn agr1cqla, los organismos oficiales responsables de vigilar la producción de las semillas, las empresas productoras de semillas) los que intervienen en su dtstr1buciOn y los agricultores organizados que participan en la produéci6n y el empleo de las semillas (Figura 1). De estos organismos, el oficial, necesariamente designado por el Estado, prepara la legislación, vigila el funcionamiento del programa y tiene todas las atribuciones que le otorga la ley para garantizar buenos resultados en la producción.La investigación agrlcola oficial, los centros privados de investigación y los técnicos particulares que se dedican al mejoramiento, son los creadores de las nuevas variedades y producen las recomendaciones t~enícas que hacen posible obtener con ellas altos rendimientos.La Entidad Certificadora.El papel de la Entidad Certificadora es decisivo, pues la ley de certificación de semilla le encarga que sea la responsable de su cumplimiento. El organismo que la ley designe sera el que coordine todo el sistema de certificación y lo lleve a un buen término; sus funcionarios efectuarAn las inspecciones y los controles de registro, certificación, multiplicación y distribución de las semillas, bien sea que estas actividades sean realizadas por otros organismos oficiales o por particulares y actuarán camo tlministros de fé\".El prOductor de semilla no puede ser ocasional, pues pata ser efectivamente productor debe contar con las caracter1sticas morales; tilcnicas y financieras que le permitan efectuar oportunamente todos los trabajos que su función le exija y los que la Entidad Certificadora le indique.El distribuidor tiene la obligación, ante el comprador, de ofrecer un producto de buena calidad. La semilla certificada le brinda esa posibilidad y si cumple las normas de almacenamiento y transporte requeridas por la Entidad Certificadora. El organismo encargado por el Estado para ejecutar le ley de semilla, establece los requisitos mfnimos para la producci6n de semilla certificada de arroz.Requisitos para ser productor de semilla certificada de arroz.Los requisitos especlficos para ser productor de semilla certificada de arroz difieren de un lugar a otro. Sin embargo, en general, son necesarios estos pasos:Comunicar el interés en $'er productor de semil1a certificada de arroz~ por medio de una solicitud a la Entidad Certificadora.Acreditar informaci6n sobre cOmo se efectuará la producciOn, el beneficio, el almacenamiento y venta de la semilla.Suministrar información en relación con las variedades y las clases de semilla que se desea producir y el área en donde se va a producir.Si el peticionario reune los requisitos, la Entidad Certificadora le otorgará la autorización como productor de semilla certificada de arroz.Materiales autorizados para certificaci6n.Son materiales de certificacHm las variedades comerciales de arroz inscritas en la Entidad Certificadora y aprobadas por ésta. Para efectos de certífícación se admiten semillas básicas, registradas y certificadas.~~isitos del lote.Los requisitos que se deben llenar para la certificación de un campo de arroz son en primer lugar, inscribirlo ante la Entidad Certiflcadora~ El formulario de sol icitud de certificación debe proporcionar la siguiente información: clase y orlgen de la semilla a multiplicar, ubicación y ~rea del campo; fecha aproximada de siembra y datos sobre la siembra anterior en dicho campo (historia del lote). los campos de arroz para certificacibn deben sembrarse 5ólo con semi 11a genética 1 bás i ca, o regí strada y no con semi 11 a comerc; al. Además estos campos pueden haber sido sembrados con otros cultivos pero no con arroz de variedad diferente a la que es objeto de certificación, durante la cosecha anterior o per1odo$ inmediatos. Puede aceptarse un campo que en el ciclo anterior de producciOn haya sido sembrado y aprobado para certificación con la misma variedad de arroz. Para comprobar su procedencia la Entidad Certificadora puede exigir los documentos que estime necesarios.El campo de producción de semilla certificada debe en primer término tener Ucil acceso, de manera que permita las inspecciones necesarias y facilite el manejo y cosecha oportunos.Cada campo de multiplicaciOn de semilla debe constitu'r una unidad deEstos campos deben ser inspeccionados por un representante de la entidad de certificación, el cual tendrá bajo su responsabilidad hacer cumplir las nonnas de certificación. Se les conoce como inspectores de campo. Solamente aquellas personas adiestradas en esta labor y calificadas por la Entidad Certificadora, podran hacer las inspecciones. El inspector conoce las características de la variedad que va a inspecc;onar~ tiene habi 1 idad para reconocer las enfemedades, insectos o ma lelas que puedan disminuir la calidad de la semilla. Debe estar capacitado para orientar al agricultor sobre pr~cticas culturales especiales requeridas para la producción de semillas, sobre las precauciones necesarias durante la recolección, secado y almacenamiento de la semilla cuanda él deba realizarlo. En resumen puede decirse que el inspector de campo es quien aplica las normas exigidas por la Entidad Certificadora y es capaz de interpretar las reglas y requerimientos de las leyes. Tiene autoridad total para rechazar los campos que no cumplen con los requisitos que exige la ley.Para realizar una eficiente labor el ínspector de campo necesita contar con transporte adecuado, formularios con el nombre del productor, variedad y ubicación de cada campo, copia de las Normas de Certificación y material para escribir (libretas y sobres ofiCiales).La primera visita de inspección oficial debe efectuarse antes de la siembra o dentro de los primeros treinta dlas del periodo vegetativo si el campo ya ha sido sembrado para certificación. En élla se determinan: La localización y extensión del lote; los cultivos efectuados en él durante los dos anos anteriores (historia del lote); el aislamiento requerido; el or1gen de la semilla sembrada y la germinación y estado general del cultivo.La segunda visita puede realizarse entre los 50 y 80 dios. En ésta debe observarse: presencia de malezas; plantas de otros cultivos; mezclas varietales y ataque de plagas o agentes patógenos.La tercera visita se efectúa entre los 100 días y la recolección; en éll. Se determina si las recomendaciones de la segunda visita se cumplieron, y adem&s se puede detallar mejor los factores observados en la segunda vi sita. especi a lmente en 10 referente a mezc 1 as vari eta 1 es. Con base en las observaciones realizadas, se procede a dar las recomendaciones que se consideren necesarias para que se pueda aprobar el campo y utilizar la semilla como certificada.En cuanto a la metodolog1a de inspeCCión ésta debe seguir los siguientes pasos: Informdr a los 3gr1Cultcres o su representante con anticipaci6n. para que puedan estar presentes durante la inspección de sus campos.Recorrer la mayor superficie posible del campo inscrito. Inspeccionar todas las esquinas y áreas potencialmente problemáticas 4. Examinar los campos adyacentes para observar si éstos pueden ser fuentes de contaminación 5. Verificar que el campo esté completamente aislado.de otros campos. y 6.Entregar al agricultor copia de las recomendaciones hechas con base en las inspeccíones de campo y eXPlicarle claramente si se requiere alguna práctica cUltural para la aprobación del campo.Para efectuar la inspecci6n se puede seguir cua1quiera de 1as siguientes técnicas de muestreo que se ilustran en la Figura 2. Puede realizarse al azar, en caracola siguiendo las manecillas del relOj. en diagonales y muestreo alrededor del campo.Al entrar en el lote debe primero identificar 1a variedad. Luego para determinar la pureza varietal, inspeccionar las pldntas del cultivo en los tres aspectos diferentes citados a continuación: a} Si la fecha de floración es 1a fl'.isma para todo el campo. para recomendar la eliminación de aquellas muy precoces o tard1as.b} Si la altura de las plantas es uniforme. Localice aquellas plantas que tienen diferente altura y distinta apariencia y ordene su eliminación para evitar que se mezclen a la maduración con la semilla certificada.Si la fecha de madurez de 1as plantas de arroz es uniforme. Cuando la mayoría de éstas ha llegado a la etapa de madurez, se deben eliminar las pocas plafitas que ten9an panículas verdes.Las siguientes características de la planta pueden ayudar en la identificación de las variedades: macoilamiento; resistencia al volcamiento o acarr~; longitud y ancnura de las hojas; coloración de las hojas y de 105 tallos; presencia o ausencia de vellos en las hojas; longitud y forma de la pan~cula; coloración de la cAscara y porcentaje de desgrane, Angulo de la hoja bandera y la exercibn de la panícula; presencia o ausencia de arlsta y pelos en los granos, adem&s de otras características como longitud, anChura y color de la cáscara. las Figuras 3 y 4 muestran diferentes formas de panlculas y tipos de grano.Otra caracter1stica que taMbién puede observarse es el color del estigma al iniciarse la floración. que puede ser blanco, verde} amarillo o púrpura.El agricultor tiene la responsabilidad de estar presente cuando se  Control de malezas.Las malezas, en los campos para semillas, constituyen uno de los principales problemas de 1. producción de semillas. Además de competir con .1 cultivo por los diferentes factores de producción, afectan la calidad de 1. semilla y pueden generar su rechazo para certificación, aparte de su efecto sobre el rendimiento del cultivo.Las semilldS de malezas que tienen poca diferencia en fama o peso, con las semillas de arroz, Son diflciles de separar por medios mec~nicos y se constituyen en plagas importantes del cultivo. p.e. el arroz rojo es una de las malezas más nocivas en el cultivo y no puede separarse de él. Otras malezas nocivas son : Stenotaphrum secundatum, Rottboellia exa1tata, rschaemun rU90surn, etc.Las semillas de algunas malezas comuneS como Echinochloa spp., Leptochloa flliformis y Oigitaria son fáciles de separar de 1.s semillas de arroz Con equipos 'en calibrados por 10 cual no son factor de rechazo cuando est&n presentes con la semilla proveniente del campo. Sanidad de los campos.intercambian semillas de nuevos materiales para probar su capacidad de rendimiento en diversos sistemas agroecolbgicos, por lo cual es esencial que estas semillas estén libres de agentes patógenos, para evitar 1. diseminación de las enfermedades.Las enfermedades del arroz que pOSiblemente son transmitidas a través de la semilla son \"carbón de grano\" (Tilletia bare1.yana) y el \"falso carbón\" (Ustllarinoidea virens), pero éstas no tienen importancia económica actual, ni requ eren med~speclficas de control en este continente. Cosecha La cosecha de la semilla de arroz debe efectuarse cuando haya alcanzado su madurez de campo, es decir después que haya logrado su madurez fisiológica.La madurez fisiológica se refiere al punto en el ciclo de maduración en el cual se obtiene una semilla completamente desarrollada. el grano se torna cr-istalinO'. Todos los procesos bio16gicos han alcanzado a su mayor nivel y las semillas son funcionalmente activas y maduras. Sin embargo, a este nivel. el contenido de humedad es suficientemente alto, entre 35-50% dependiendo de la especie y variedad, lo que impide una cosecha exitosa y un manejo suficiente. la madurez de campo {o de cosecha)~ por otra parte, es aquel punto en el ciclo de maduración en el cual la semilla se equilibra con las condiciones ambientales a las cuales está expuesta. Este no es un verdadero proceso de desarrollo, sino mas bien un proceso mecánico debido a que la semilla cede su humedad a un ambiente con una humedad relativa y temperatura espeCificas. La numedad del grano para la cosecha debe ser de 15 a 22%.El lapso entre siembra y cosecha depende de la variedad. En las variedades comerciales en América Latína. fluctúa entre 100 y 150 dlas. Es importante que los a9ricultor~s recuerden que el campo debe estar previamente inspeccionado antes de efectuar la cosecha.Cuando la cosecha se realiza mecánicamente es necesario que la combinada esté perfectamente limpia. Se recomienda descartar los tres a cinco primeros bultos que salgan de la fl¿quina y a veces el borde de cada lote si su madurez es desuniforme. Cuando se trilla o desgrana a mano, se debe limpiar cuidadosamente el equipo utilizado para esta labor. Proceso de la semil1~m.~n la planta de beneficio.Las semillas, tal como salen del campo no están en las condiciones requeridas para la siembra. por 10 cual se deben someter a un proceso que les permita alcanzar sus condiciones óptimas de pureza y calidad.En la planta de acondicionamiento se procede a la toma de muestras para determinar el contenido de humedad y pureza flsica según se presenta en el diagrama de la Figura 5.El objetivo de esta labor es eliminar las ímpurezas de mayor tamaño que puedan ocasionar un mal secamiento. debido a la formación de bolsas de aire. La prelimpiadora funciona a base de ma11as y corrientes de aire.En el secamiento se elimina parte de la humedad que tiene la semilla. con el objeto de protegerla del ataque de hongos e insectos. durante el tiempo de almacenamiento. El secamiento implica un aumento de la tempera tu ra y una di smi nuc ión de 1 a humedad a 1 rededor del grano. lo cual hace que éste pierda humedad.Hay varios sistemas de secamiento de las semillas. Los mas comunes son el de silo y el de túnel. Ambos consisten en hacer circular aire a temperatura ambiente. si la humedad relativa es baja, o aire cal iente. a trav~s de la masa de semilla. Diagrama del proceso de beneficio de las semillas.La humeddd adecuada en la semilla de arroz es de 12%, a la cual se inhiben en alta proporción los procesos metabólicos de la semilla y le penniten permanecer almacenada durante periodos largos sin deteriorarse. En el tr6pico, sin embargo, la humedad de la semilla se estabiliza alrededor del 14% de humedad (base húmeda).Clasificaci6n la clasificaci6n consiste en separar las semillas de arroz de un mismo diámetro y longitud, de materia1es tales como impurezas, semillas de malezas, de otros cultivos, o de distintas variedades, por la acción combinada de zarandas, cilindros alveolados o discos.Una vez que las semillas han sido aprobadas por la Entidad Certificadora. son tratadas con una mezcla de fungicida e insecticida, con el objeto de evitar el ataque de insectos y agentes patógenos durante su a1macenamiento y primeros estados de crecimiento del cultivo.La semi1la se debe empacar en sacos nuevos con el f1n de que no exista la pos ibi 1 i dad de cántami naci 6n. En cada uno de é 1105 debe aparecer en forma facilmente visible la siguiente informaciOo: Nombre del productor, variedad, •clase de semilla. la leyenda : \"NO APTA PARA CONSUMO\" Y el nombre gen~rico de la sustancia utilizada en el tratamiento. En la parte superior de los sacos se debe adherir el marbete suministrado por la Entidad Certificadora, en el cual están detallados los requisitos mlnimos que garantizan la calidad de la semilla, clase e identificación del material contenido, productor y fecha de analisis.Las semillas se deben almacenar en lugares cuyas condiciones de humedad y temperatura permitan conservar su calidad durante el mayor tiempo posible. Una instalación destinada para almacenamiento de semillas de arroz debe estar bien situada. sólidamente constru1da, seca, aireada, con buena luz y ser de f~cil limpieza.La temperatura de almacenamiento es un factor importante, ya que la actividad biológica y el ataque de hongos aumentan cuando la temperatura asciende. Observemos en él Cuadro 1 el tiempo de vida de la semilla almacenada, a diferentes contenidos de humedad y a temperatura.s que no excedan de 32 grados cent1grados.Los niveles de humedad de la semilla a los cuales empiezan los peligros en el almacenamiento se presentan en el Cuadro 2.Supervisión a plantas de acondicionamiento.La Entidad Certificadora, a través de un representante, debe supervi-transporte o proveer las condiciones que minimicen el efecto de la temperatura y de la humedad relativa.OISTRIBUCION Generalmente, las semillas que cumplen las normas de certificación talr.bién necesitan ser alma-cenadas por el distribuidor durante un perlodo corto o largo de tiempo. Estas semillas deben ser inspeccionadas por un representante de 1 a Enti dad Cert i fi cadora ~ quien puede rechazar el lote como semilla certificada por cualquiera de las siguientes causas: a) Si las instalaciones de almacenamiento no se han limpiado antes de almacenar la semnla~ b) Si las instalaciones no est&n en capacidad de mantener la semilla seca y de protegerla contra la humedad, contra el ataque de hongos. insectos, ratones y pájaros.e) Si las semillas han perdido su poder de germinaci6n. la determinaciór. de la calidad en el laboratorio mediante la utilizaci6n de diferentes pruebas, eSe importante en la producci6n de semillas genética, básica j cértificada, evitando los efectos adversos que pueden presentarse en la introducción de nUévas vari~aades que no cumplen con todos 1es requisitos.El corMol de calidad para las des ~ri\",era, categerlas de semillas debe ser muy estricto, ya que cualquier falla en la observación de mezclas varietale:s ú ff.atezas, puede traer graves consecuencias efl los pasos si9uientes de multiplicación.Lós n.uestrll& pó-ra efectuar e1 an~1isis. cte ca1 idad se deben tonar en la planta de beneficio, una vez finalizac!ü el pt'oceso de clasificación, antes óe iniciar el tratamiento de las serrinas, y duranteel almacenarriento de reposo.La muestra para un anSlisis oficial debE: ser tomada por tlO inspector de la entidad certificadora. Cuando se trata de semilla genética, O de un control dé! calidad interno, el muestreo 10 puede hacer el r:'!hme. geJ'1etista, o el encargaéú del laboratorio de la HltidoG productora. la muestra oficial va al lá.bcratorio en un recipü:r,te cerrado, para evitar El efecto de los cambios en su eontf:flido de hun:€'dad. Al recibir la muestra en el laboratorio se la numera, de acuerdo corl Bl orden de llegaca, y se anotan en e1 libro de entrada todcs los datos necesarios, para iC:uitificar adecuadamente el lote d. semillas ~el cual se tomó la muestra. Toaas las técnicas de muestreo Se hacen de acuerdo a 1as nor~as del ISTA.* PROCEDIMIENTOS EN EL LABORATORIO Una de las prácticas rutinarias en el laboratorio, una vez rt:!cibida la muestra~ es su homogenizaci6r. qUE Lonsiste en mezclarla de tal manera que el materia1 de donde se toman las subrr.uestras sea cOlf.plet1:lIll€:Ylte uniforme. En arroz s.e puede usar para how.cgenizar un divisor centr1fugo del tipo Gamet.La otra pr&ctica es la obtención de submuestras a partir del material homogenizado, del cual se toman 400 grs, para el análisis de pureza, 40 grs para guardar en el archivo como testigo y 100-200 grs para la determinación del contenido de humedad, dependiendo del f'1I!todo o equipo que se vaya a utilizar.Una vez obtenida las subrr¡uestras, se: procede al análisis de las *International Seed Testing Association mismas, que comprende tres pasos fundamentales: determinación del contenido de humedad de la semilla, anAlisis de pureza y análisis de viabilidad.Determinación del contenido de humedad de la semilla Al hablar del contenido de humedad, ya sea de la semilla o de los granos en general, se trata únicamente del agua adherida flsicamente y no se considera el agua de composición. El contenido de humedad se puede expresar en dos formas: en base seca y en base hameda. Normalmente al referirse al contenido de humedad de las semillas se hace en base hÚJllE!da (proporción de agua del peso total). Para el arroz, la ISTA recomienda utilizar un horno para determinar la humedad. Se colocan en la estufa dos mue¡¡tras molidas de 4 a 5 grs •• a una temperatura constante de 130 a 133 e por dos horas, tiempo suficiente para eliminar el agua. Luego se procede a calcular el porcentaje de la fracción de peso perdido. Cuando la muestra tiene más de 13% de humedad, se recomienda el presecado antes de molerla.También se emplean para determinar la humedad del grano. mlitodos indirectos de medida que util ilan la constante dieléctrica; entre estos determinadores se conocen el Steinlite, el Burrows, el Motomco, entre otros.El objetivo del análisis de pureza es detennínar: la composición en peso de la muestra que se procesa, y por consiguiente, la composición del lote de semilla y la identidad de las distintas fracciones que constituyen la muestra~ El an~lísis de pureza se realiza examinando e identificando cad. semilla o partícula de la muestra, clasific~ndolas luego según las siguientes categor1as:Otras semillas, la cual comprende: semill.s de otros cultivos y semillas de maleza Semilla fura: Se considera semilla pura, cualquier espiguilla de arroz con 91umas ( ema y palea) y cariopside, Esta categoría incluye: Semillas maduras no danadas Semillas de tamano menor que el normal t arrugadas o germinadas Pedazos de semilla que tengan mlis de la mitad del tama~o original del grano; también, semillas afectadas por hongos o atacadas por insectos, excepto cuando han sido invadidas totalmente por hongos o nemátodos Cariopsides de arroz con lema y palea removidos ,emillas de otras variedades de arrOl Materia inerte: Son matería inerte: Pedazos de semilla de arroz .. cuyo tamaño sea menor que la mitaa del tamaño original del grano; lemas~ paleas y granos vac10s o vanos; semillas de malezas sin embrión o sin endospenma; otros materiale$~ ta1es como terrones, piedras, pedazos de tallo, hojas, raíces, flores, cuerpos de insectos, etc.Para una mayor rapidez en el análisis de pureza, se emplean aparatos de aire. \"sopladores\", para separar los constituyentes ligeros como pajas y otras fracciones ínertes.Otras semillas: a) Semillas de otros cultivos. Son las semillas enteras o con m&s de la mitad de su tamaño, de especies diferentes al arroz. Se expresan como número de semillas de otros cu1tivos por kilogramo de semilla de arroz o en porcentaje. b) Semillas de malezas. Son todas aquellas semillas, bulbos o rizomas, de plantas catalogadas en documentos o reglan~ntos oficíales como malezas, o reconocidas como tales por los agricultores. Se expresan en número de semillas de malezas por kilogramo de semilla de arroz.En el análisis de semillas de malezas se deben diferenciar dos tipos: Semillas de malezas comunes. Son f&ciles de separar y no constituyen ríesgopara el cu1tivo. La mayor parte de ellas son retiradas en el acondicionamiento inicial y la clasificación. Semillas de malezas nocivas. Existe en cada país una lista de malezas problema, como el arroz rojo que es una de las malezas ~s perjudiciales en el cultivo. Algunas de estas malezas pueden ser nocivas en un pals perú no en otro, dependiendo de los sistemas de cultivos empleados, o su existencia.En un análisis de laboratorio se define la germinaciOn como la emergencia y desarrollo. a partir del embrión de la semilla, de aquellas estructuras esenciales que para la clase de semillas que Se están el1sayando, indican la capacidad de la semina~ para desarronarse como planta norma1, bajo condicíones ed.1ficas y ambientales favorables. En un conteo se deben díferenciar: Plántulas normales: Representan semillas que tienen la capacidad para producir plantas normales y vigorosas, bajo condiciones favorables de humedad y temperatura, en un buen suelo o en el laboratorio (Figura lA). Deben poseer los siguientes 6rganos: Sistema radical bien desarrollado, incluyendo una ra1z prinCipal con ralees laterales y las rafees per~nentes que nacen en el primer nudo.Un mesocOtilo intacto y bien desarrollado; tejido adyacente sin mostrar daño. P10mula intacta con una hoja verde bien desarrollada pero poco hendida, dentro o saliendo del coleóptilo.Además se pueden considerar normales aquellas plántulas con los siguientes pequeños defectos. pero que muestran suficiente vigor y desarrollo en las estructuras esenciales.Plantulas con á.fio superficial o pudrición en el mesocótilo o el cotiledón; este daño debe tener una limitación en área y no afectar el tejido adyacente.Plántulas completas que presentan pudriciones causadas por hongos O bacterias, pero en las cuales sea evidente que la fuente de infección no estaba en la semilla.P1antu1as anormales: Son aquellas que, por factores morfológicos o fiSlOlógicos, no pueden prOdUCir una pUntu1a normal; les falta una o más de las estructuras esenciales~ o sus estructuras esUn tan dañadas t que tienen afectados los tejidos conductivos del mesocótilo o la ralz. Tipos de plantas deformes: (Figura 1) Tienen ralees primaria corta y atrofiada Carecen de ra'z primaria o de raíces adventicias Carecen de co1eóptilo o tienen el coleóptilo atrofiado Tienen el colefiptilo y la hoja primaria cortos y gruesos y las ralces cortas y atrofiadas Tienen hojas priffldrias con hendiduras y desarrollo anormal y ra~z primaria débil A continuaci6n se dan las prescrlpciones para la prueba de germinaCión en arroz, de acuerdo con las reglas del ISTA: (Cuadro 1) Cuadro 1. Prescripciones para la prueba de germinaci6n, ¡STA, 1976 Latencia: En la prueba de germinación, para la mayor parte de las yariedades modernas. los lotes nuevos no germinan inmediatamente, si no se someten las semillas a tratamientos de rompimiento de latencia por método térmico o químico.El tratamiento térmico es el mas usa~ en el laboratorio y consiste en colocar las semillas en una estufa a 50 e durante 3-5 días, dependiendo de la variedad. El tratamiento químiCO con KN03 no presenta los mismos resultados que el tratamiento térmico.La ventaja de romper la poder dar un resultado real esperar su termfnac16n normal latencia en 1as pruebas de germinaci6n, es de la germinación del lote analizado, sin que puede tardar hasta dos meses o más. Prueba de Tetraz\"lio (TZ)El objetivo de este ensayo bioqulmico es detenninar rapidalOOnte la viabilidad de las muestras de semilla en especies que germinan nonnalmente con lentitud o que presentan latencia.En un ensayo bioqulmico la presencia de los procesos de reducci6n, que tienen lugar en las células vivas, se hacen visibles por la absorci6n de un indicador. El indicador empleado es una solución incolora de una sal de TetralOl io que es embebida por l. semi 11a. Esta solución penetra en los tejidos de la semilla y toma el hidrógeno liberado por la deshidrogenasa en los procesos de reducci6n de las c€lulas vivas.Por hídrogenaciOn del cloruro, o bromuro, 2-4-5 Trífeníl-tetrazol10 se forma en las c€lulas vivas una sustancia roja estable y no difusible, Cuadro 2. 1 nterpretaci 6r de. 1 a ce lerad ór, ce 1 a s Sf:jT-i1 i &S H, 1 a prueba de l'e\",I11.  de 1a planta, que aumentó un poco y con menor requerimíento de nitrageno~ manteniendo altos los rendimientos. Ademas el vigor inicial es mayor en estas variedades, buscando competencia mas efectiva con las malezas. Estos cambios fundamentales entre los dos tipos de variedades, han tenido repercusiones favorables en los costos de prodúcci6n, con beneficio para el agricultor que sin sacrificar rendimientos, ha disminu1do el costo por tonelada producida.El Programa de Arroz del ICA con la cooperacibn de fedearroz en 1980, lanzó dos nuevas variedades Metica 1 y Metica 2 para los Llanos Orientales del pals, en riego y secano favorecido; en 1982 selecciona la variedad Oryzca 1 para riego y en 1984 nombró l. Oryzica 2 para cultivos con riego y secano favorecido. Las caracterlsticas mas sobresalientes de las variedades sembradas en Colombia pueden observarse en los Cuadros 3,4,5 Y 6. El impacto de las variedades enanas de altas rendimientos ha sido tal. que casi el 99% del &rea arrOCera de riego y secano favorecido, se siembra can estas variedades. La variedad mas cultivada en 1. actualidad es Oryzlca l.Sega n EMBRATER (9), eo el Brasil el arroz ocupa el tercer lugar por &rea y valor de la produccion. Se siembra én dos sistemas de cultivo. en secano que corresponde la mayar &rea y en riego. Las variedades recomendadas en secano para las zonas arroceras de Mato Grosso. Goiás, Piaui y Maraohao son: IAC 1246, IAC-47, Pratao Precoce, IAC-25, IAC-5544, Dourado Precoce, A-19, 8ico Ganga, IAC-120 y Lageado (Cuadros 7 y 8). Las variedades para zonas irrigadas del Centro-Oeste y Sub-medio, Sao Francisco y otras son: IR 8, Suvale 1, CICA 4, IR-841, IR-22, IAC-435, IAC 120 y otras.En el estado de Santa Catarina para el sistema de riega, las variedades se agrupan de acuerdo con sus earaeterhticas agronómicas as' ( 21) : Grupa tradicional, grupo moderno y grupo americano. En el grupo tradicional se encuentran EMPASC 100 e IAC 435 que s. caracterizan por presentar porte alta a medio, macollamiento medio, hojas largas y decumbentes, buen vigor inicial, grano larga a medio, pubescente a glabro. La mayor parte de las variedades de este grupo son susceptibles .1 vuelco, principalmente en tierras con alta fertilidad natural, o cuando recibe dosis altas de nitrógeno. Paseen buena capacidad competitiva con las malezas. En condiciones de buen manejo el potencial de rendimiento es de 5.  Pyricul\"ria oryzae tiene Una alta capacidad de recuperación despu~s de ataques muy severos de la enfermedad, llegando en la mayorfa de los casos a producir en forma normal. Los ataques de esta enfermedad en el cuello de la panfcula OCurren tardiamente t ocasionando pocas perdidas al cultivo. Entre 1975-80 la variedad CR 1113 Se ha sembrado entre un 63 a 96% en las zonas arroceras del país (19). En la actualidad estos porcentajes se han mantenido~ GUATEMALA Las variedades que se siembran en este país se dividen en tres grupos: las tradicionales o criollas, las norteamericanas mejorarlas y las enanas de altos rendimientos. las criollas Lira blanco, Lira Grueso y America\"ito, ocupan un 5% del ~rea; las norteamericanas como Lebonnet, New Rex;Starbonnet J Bluebonnet SO un 75%, y las enanas como Tikal 2, ICTA Cristina, leTA Virginia, leTA Tempisque y otras un 20% del área.En el Cuadro 12 se pueden observar algunas características de las variedades nombradas por el Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícola, ¡CTA.Este paTs siembra arroz con riego solamente y los agricultores tienen preferencias por las variedades altas. como Fortuna, de tipo tradicional que ocupa 25% del área, un 55% se siembra con variedades a Itas mejoradas: Bluebonnet 50, Bluebelle, Lebonnet, Bonnet 73, ¡tapé, Cala, Arroyo Grande y Yervá. La variedad enana IR 841 01timamente ha desplazado a las altas en el 20% del área. BELlCE las variedddes enanas han tenido buena aceptaciOn por parte de los agricultores del pals. Las que más se siembran son CICA 8 con un 50% del área y CR 1113 con un 40%, ambas en riego y secano: CICA 4 ocupa en secano un 5% del total y las variedades altas mejoradas Bluebelle, Texas Patna, Berley Rice, Belle Patna y otras~ el 5% restante del §rea arrocera. BOLIVIA El 99% del área en arroz se siembra en el sistema de secano y se emplean variedades altas tradicionales y enanas de altos rendimientos.Entre las tradiciona1es se destacan Dourado y Pico Negro con un 25%; entre las altas mejoradas tienen preferencias Bluebel1e y Bluebonnet 50 con un 25% y entre las enanas CICA 8, IR 1529, IR Dominicana y C1CA 9, con 50%. La poca área con riego que existe en el pais, se siembra con CICA 8 Y CICA En Cuba el arroz Se cultiva en el sistema con riego y el área total se siembra con variedades enanas. Las var1edades que predominan SQn : J-l04,rR 880, Naylamp, Caribe e IR 1529. La variedad más sembrada es IR 880 con 43% le sigue en importancia J-l04 con un 31%. ","tokenCount":"119868"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c5eb8b660a775060824574c480100214","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bc051157-4611-44c4-b4d4-d40a86862150/retrieve","id":"-22671021"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17159a14-aae0-4409-bc2a-1e4052939dd5","pagecount":"29","content":"The in vitro collection of the genus Manihot of the Genetic Resources Program (GRP) of the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) is currently represented by 6,467 materials, of which 5,184 are cultivated cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) from 28 countries, 883 materials are wild species of the genus Manihot (33 species) and 400 are hybrid materials.Since 1994, these materials have been designated to FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) under the FAO-CGIAR agreement and have been registered in the Multilateral System of Access and Benefit Sharing of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture within the framework of the agreement between the Governing Body of the Treaty and CIAT, and meets the standards for genebanks.FAO is the entity that through collaborative programs (agreements and/or treaties) between governments of different countries of the world promotes the safe movement of germplasm by following the mandates of quarantine plans of each country. FAO stated that only plants in vitro of the genus Manihot may be used for the exchange throughout the world and indicated that each cassava material that is distributed from CIAT should be evaluated for certain problems of quarantine importance, which are basically causal agents of diseases that can bring serious economic damage to the crop (Frison et al. 1991).In the specific case of cassava, and because the plant material used for the exchange is produced in vitro, the phytosanitary characteristics are inspected since the moment of the selection of mother plants during the process of introduction until before packing up the materials for distribution.The activities in Manihot germplasm conservation and distribution comprise a set of processes that include: Introduction, Quarantine, Elimination of pathogens, Indexing, Micropropagation, Conservation, Characterization, Distribution, and Security Duplicates (Flowchart 1). To learn more about the different stages of flow management of this germplasm the manual of procedures for in vitro conservation of germplasm of the genus Manihot can be consulted (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/urg).Health certification of cassava collection is done at the Germplasm Health Laboratory (GHL) of the Genetic Resources Program (GRP). The detection of Cassava Common Virus (CSCMV), Cassava Virus X (CsXV), and Frog Skin Disease (CFSD) is performed (Flowchart 2).The chances of contamination by fungi and bacteria are almost nil, because of the aseptic conditions in which the in vitro material of the cassava collection is multiplied and conserved.On CIAT campus, there is an office of the Division of Plant Health (Department of Inspection and Quarantine) of the Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA), an agency under the Ministry of Agriculture of Colombia, which is responsible for issuing phytosanitary certificates based on the tests conducted in the Germplasm Health Laboratory.The GHL is located within the GRP, with responsibilities to report about the phytosanitary status of the germplasm that GRP and other CIAT programs distribute, certifying that it is free of quarantine diseases. The Manual of Procedures for the health evaluation of beans and tropical forages includes the detailed description of this laboratory (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/urg).The introduction of materials for starting the conservation process is usually done in three ways:1. From plant material (cuttings) from experimental stations or collections made in the host country.2. As in vitro materials: from donor countries.3. In form of botanical seeds and subsequent rescue of embryos, specifically for wild species.Whatever the form of introduction, a record of basic information or passport data that are stored in the database of the GRP should be done (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/urg).Quarantine activity also has a documentation system that allows us to better manage the information from ICA-CIAT. All information related to the introduction of materials is recorded in this system.By agreement between ICA and CIAT, procedures have been designed to manage the germplasm that is introduced into the Manihot in vitro collection. Within this procedure the review of the documentation, which must arrive with the germplasm, is done (Import permit issued by ICA, phytosanitary certificate issued by the official agency of the donor country, and list of varieties shipped) and the inspection of plants to determine whether any particular plant health problem such as mold and bacteria exists.When the introduction is made from cuttings, a disinfection process, seeding and thermotherapy treatment is performed. After completing this process an aseptic isolation of the meristem and its seeding in a nutrient and sterile culture medium is done (see details in the Manual of Procedures for in vitro conservation of germplasm of the genus Manihot (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/urg).The materials that were introduced in vitro must be initially subjected to a phase of establishment.After this stage, a greening of seedlings is expected, and one proceeds to make a new evaluation of the physiological and plant health status of the crop. This information is reported to the ICA officer who is responsible for carrying out the nationalization of the material, and therefore, gives approval to continue the micropropagation process.In the case of the introduction of material in form of botanical seed, aseptic excision of the seed embryo is performed, and seeding in a sterile culture medium. Afterwards, these embryos are transferred to normal growth conditions and one proceeds with the micropropagation, thermotherapy and conservation stage.Meristem culture techniques related to thermotherapy were developed at CIAT with the purpose of eliminating the viruses from infected cassava varieties. The development of this technique has greatly contributed to the production of cassava clones in which the absence of pathogenic organisms has been proven (Roca et al. 1991).Established plants that have been obtained after being subjected to thermotherapy treatment, either from cuttings or in vitro thermotherapy, should be evaluated for the different viruses of quarantine importance in the germplasm health laboratory.If there is presence of pathogens, the materials must be sterilized for disposal. No material may be distributed until the whole process of eliminating pathogens and certification is completed.To see more detailed information on the stages of the introduction of cassava material one can consult the Manual of Procedures for in vitro conservation of Manihot germplasm at the web site: (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/urg).Because the plant material used for the exchange is produced in vitro, and that the chances of contamination by fungi and bacteria are almost nil, only tests for some viruses of quarantine concern are conducted in the process of health certification.When a country requires additional tests regarding health care for other pathogens, the GHL is able to perform them. Besides, this laboratory has the human and physical resources to perform molecular diagnostic tests of various pathogens.The distribution includes the relevant phytosanitary certificate issued by ICA, which explains the treatments and tests for the detection of diseases applied to the plant material. Previously, the applicant must submit the relevant import permit issued by the competent authority of the country of destination of material, or the relevant written communication reporting the absence of this requirement for entry of plant material into the destination country.Some of the Neotropical viruses are asymptomatic and without deleterious effects, however, three viral diseases justify careful attention, which will be described below.This disease was initially reported in southern Brazil (Silberschmid, 1938;Costa, 1940). It has been recorded in other South American countries, and there are reports in Africa and Asia. It is more prevalent in southern Brazil and Paraguay.There is no known vector for CsCMV (for its initials in English), and the main source of inoculum is the infected plant material. Because the virus spreads systemically in the plant, the cuttings from an infected plant will also be infected. The virus is very stable and can be spread by mechanical transmission. In general, the disease is not of great importance, although its prevalence in some areas requires a control.The cassava common mosaic disease is caused by cassava common mosaic virus which infects species belonging to several families of dicotyledonous plants (Kitajima et al. 1965). This virus was originally classified in the potexvirus group, which is now referred to as genus Potexvirus. The virions of CsCMD are elongated semiflexuous particles of 15 x 495 nanometers that contain RNA as nucleic acid. Typical nuclear inclusions of potexvirus are present in cassava as in the herbaceous host Nicotiana benthamiana. It is known that CsCMV infects cassava systemically, Euphorbia spp. Cnisdoscolus aconitifolius (chaya), N. benthamiana and different species of dicotiledons (Costa & Kitajima, 1972).CsCMV viral particles contain a single coat protein with a relative molecular weight of 26,000 daltons.The genome consists of a single-stranded RNA from which the entire sequence is known (Calvert et al. 1996). The overall structural organization, protein and molecular weights are similar to other potexvirus.The leaves of the cassava plant infected by CsCMV develop symptoms of mosaic and chlorosis (Figure 1). In some cases, some of the affected leaves appear light green with dark spots delimited by the veins. The symptoms are more severe when the relatively cold periods are longer; this situation is common in subtropical zones of South America. Under these conditions the affected plants are often dwarf and yield losses can reach up to 60% (Costa & Kitajima, 1972).The elimination of plants expressing symptoms of CsCMV allows an adequate control. The best opportunity to identify and remove infected plants is on the sprouting, since the symptoms on the first leaves are evident. The care in selecting healthy plant material will lead to the eradication of CsCMV or will minimize the economic damage. It is an asymptomatic disease caused by the virus X of Cassava. The CsXV produces no symptoms in infected plants; so it is considered of minor importance, since it does not cause a significant drop in crop yields. It was reported in the northern zone of Colombia in 1983 (Lennon et al. 1986).This virus was originally classified in the potexvirus group. It is transmitted by vegetative propagation and mechanical inoculation. This virus is detected by the ELISA serological technique.The disease called \"frogskin\" was first reported in 1971 in the Department of Cauca, southern Colombia (Pineda et al. 1983). Its origin seems to be the Amazon region of Brazil or Colombia. Besides Colombia, it has been reported in Brazil, Costa Rica, Panama, Peru and Venezuela. Among cassava diseases the \"frogskin\" is considered one of the most damaging to the crop, as it affects directly the production of roots, with yield losses of 90% or more. The expression of symptoms varies according to temperature and genotype. In some varieties affected plants show no visible signs in its aerial parts and, in some cases, may look healthy and vigorous (Lozano & Nolt, 1989).In the roots, symptoms range from very mild to severe, depending on the age of the plant and climatic factors. The hot and dry conditions tend to inhibit the development of symptoms, while cooler conditions favor their development. Even in mildly affected plants, the economic losses persist due to the lower accumulation of starch. The symptoms consist of small longitudinal cracks, located near the stem where the roots originate and then extend along them. As the rootlets increase in diameter, cracks tend to heal, giving to the lesions a lip shape. The skin or epidermis of the roots has a corky appearance that peels off easily. Depending on the severity of symptoms, the depth and number of injuries increase up to deform the root.In general, the root system of affected plants is not strong enough to have the same development that healthy plants have; the roots remain thin, woody, thick-skinned and corky and its starch content is very low (Figure 2) (Calvert & Raven, 2002). The detection of the disease can be done by visual examination of the roots, observing them carefully in order to detect the characteristic symptoms, whether mild or severe.Because this disease is easily transmitted through grafting, this technique can be used as another diagnostic method. This test consists of grafting on the plants to evaluate an indicator variety (Secundina: accession CIAT, MCol 2063) properly certified as virus free. It is advisable to remove the buds of the root stocks to increase the sprouting percentage of the scion stakes. After 3 or 4 weeks, the plants should be checked for the presence of mosaic symptoms in the foliage of the stakes, indicating the presence of the disease (Figure 3). The disease can be eliminated by thermotherapy and in vitro meristem culture technique (Mafla et al. 1984), requiring that after this process the respective tests are performed to confirm the health of the material.In the latest research at molecular level, a virus of the reovirus group has been consistently associated with this disease (Cassava Frogskin Virus CFV) and the existence of different strains or genetic variables has been confirmed (Calvert et al. 2008).In some research this disease has been associated with phytoplasms. The presence of a phytoplasm in leaves infected by frog skin disease was detected by PCR (Alvarez et al. 2009).Due to the remarkable progress in the characterization and detection of the virus associated with this disease, a molecular diagnostic method by RT-PCR which has great comparative advantages over the grafting method, was developed being more effective and reliable.The production of basic and certified material for cassava propagation is the best strategy to control the cassava frogskin disease.The seedlings from the in vitro Conservation Laboratory are grown in the greenhouse, giving them the required conditions for development and for keeping in good agronomic conditions and health under controlled conditions, for the later indexing.The way of planting these seedlings is as follows:In a plastic flower pot, with two-liter capacity, add two inches of granite and over this, put a substratum composed of a 2:1 ratio of sand and steam sterilized soil at a temperature of 150 °C for four hours (Figure 4 , and Figure 5). The bottom part of the test tube is hit with the hand to dislodge the tube culture medium and one removes the seedling with tweezers which are disinfected in 70% alcohol after use (Figure 6 and Figure 7). The root is washed from the seedling with distilled water by removing the waste from the culture medium (Figure 8). With the base of a test tube, open a hole in the substratum, introduced the seedling and add the substratum so that the plant is firm. In case that the plant because of its size be bent, it is necessary to use a plastic straw as a guide or support to keep it straight (Figure 9 and Figure 10). It is essential to disinfect all utensils and hands with alcohol 70%, to go from one accession to another during the planting. Once each material is transplanted, it is covered with a transparent plastic bag (with holes to allow air exchange) for a three (3) weeks period, until they adapt to the new environmental conditions of the greenhouse (Figure 11).Once the plants are already adapted, they are transplanted to plastic flower pots (Figure 12).The plant is kept in the greenhouse for 3 to 5 months, until reaching a size that enables it to be used as a rootstock to make the process of grafting onto it the clone Secundina and to detect the presence of Frogskin Disease (Figure 13). The plants are established and maintained in greenhouse conditions for symptom expression (20-30 °C) and 2000-5000 lux of illumination, and when tissue or material is available samples are taken to perform the necessary tests. For detection of CsCMV and CsXV ELISA technique is used (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay), which is a fast and efficient serological method for the detection of virus. There are several types of ELISA; the one used for these viruses is the double-antibody sandwich (DAS-ELISA) (Velasco et al. 1985).The gammaglobulins used in these tests were obtained from CIAT Virology laboratory. In all tests negative controls are used (healthy plants) and positive controls (plants affected by each disease) maintained in isolated conditions. Before performing the evaluation, a scheme must be conducted to describe the exact position of each accession to evaluate within the ELISA plate; this way, the respective result will be easily located for each accession (Annex 1). The preparation of solutions can be read in the appendixes chapter (Annex 2). The steps for the implementation of this methodology are as follows:1. Dilute the gammaglobulin with the coating buffer at previously standardized concentrations (CsXV dilution 1/1600, CCMV dilution 1/2500) and add 100 μl of this solution to each of the wells of a microtiter plate. Incubate at 37 °C for 3-4 hours.2. Wash the plate with PBS-Tween buffer 4 times. In the initial wash, rinse the wells, and discard the buffer immediately. This step is performed mechanically in a plate washer machine previously scheduled for 3 washes, three minutes each.3. Macerate the samples to evaluate in a 1/10 dilution with the sample buffer and add 100 µl in each well of the titration plate. Incubate at 4-6 °C overnight. Include samples of known controls: healthy, infected and also the sample buffer, with the purpose of checking the reaction. The samples are added along a pre-established order where each accession is specifically located for the evaluation (Annex 1).4. Wash the plate again, the same way as in step 2, taking care to remove any sample residues.5. Dilute the gamma-globulin labeled with the enzyme (conjugated) with the buffer for the conjugated according to concentrations previously standardized (CsXV dilution 1/1100 and CCMV dilution 1/2000) and add 100 µl of solution to each well of the plate. Incubate at 37 °C for 3-4 hours.6. Wash the plate again, the same way as in step 2.7. Add 50 µl of color substratum (solution of phosphate p-nitrophenyl) and read 15 minutes after addition.8. The reaction can be stopped after some time, adding 50 µl of sodium hydroxide in 3 M concentration.9. Obtaining the results: the reading of the results can be done visually by observing the wells giving a yellowing color or by absorbance at 405 nm using a spectrophotometer. One considers \"positive\" any value greater than 2 times the value of the healthy control. At least two readings per plate are carried out at different times. All records of the readings are saved by keeping a physical file.During incubation periods the plate must be covered. It is important to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the plate to avoid edge effects. For this, the plate can be put to incubate inside a closed box with moisture (as a humid chamber).This disease is easily transmitted by grafting, for this reason this technique is used for its diagnosis.The principle of grafting is to transmit directly sap, water, nutrients and systemic agents that can be found in the vascular bundles of a plant as rootstock to another plant as scion stake. Considering that the rootstocks are the materials or varieties to be evaluated, the variety Col 2063 called Secundina, highly susceptible to the disease, is used as scion stake, mosaic symptoms will appear in the Secundina if the disease is present.For the detection of this disease, the methodology developed for the detection of VCSY through (RT-PCR) has also been used. This methodology has comparative advantages over the grafting such as the reduction of time to obtain a result, and the need of small amount of tissue, which makes possible the indexing of in vitro material, enabling to assess the totality of the cassava collection of the CIAT germplasm bank (Cuervo et al. 2009).All necessary utensils must be ready for the grafting (Figure 14). The procedure is as follows:1.Cut with the knife the stem of the material to evaluate that containing three nodes as well as the indicative variety Secundina scion stake taking into account that the latter matches the diameter of the rootstock (Figure 15). Perform an edge cutting (cross) in both the rootstock and the material to be evaluated, taking care to remove in the materials to evaluate all the present buds to prevent its growing and see the expression of symptoms in the Secundina (Figure 16). Join the cutting of the material and the Secundina, setting strongly with parafilm tape to secure the connection of the two stakes. The buds should be pointing upwards (Figure 17). Cover the graft and seal it with parafilm tape the upper end of the cutting of indicator material to prevent dehydration (Figure 18).  Deposit the graft in a sterile glass jar using sterile distilled water as substratum (Figure 19). Incubate in a growth chamber at a temperature between 25 to 27 °C and a photoperiod of 12 hours light and 12 hours darkness; change the water of the jars every two to three days.Regularly observe and record the appearance of symptoms characteristic of CSY (chlorosis, curling at the edges and mosaic) in the leaves of Secundina of the grafts. After 45 days of incubation, evaluate if there is presence or absence of mosaic in foliage of Secundina cutting. Document all results being positive those that develop the characteristic symptoms and negative those that show no symptoms (Figure 20 and Figure 21). The methodology used for the diagnosis of this disease is based on a RT-PCR (Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) which is a technique that consists of the synthesis of cDNA by a retrotranscriptase or reverse transcriptase, followed by an amplification using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction).Different stages are followed in the performing of this technique: extraction of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), synthesis of complementary DNA (cDNA), and RT-PCR.Extraction of viral double-stranded RNA (ARNcd) in plants is performed using a micro method standardized by the CIAT virology laboratory work group based on the method by Morris et al. 1983. The procedure is as follows:The preparation of all solutions used can be found in Annex 3.• Macerate 0.1gr of plant material with liquid nitrogen. Place in 1.5 ml eppendorf tubes. Keep in mind to always place positive and negative controls.• Add to each sample 400 µl of extraction buffer (VF 100ml STE10X 20ml, SDS 10% 10ml, water 70μl, bentonite 40 mg/ml in 100μl water, 10 µl β-mercaptoethanol (add in the last minute).• Add to the sample in the extraction chamber 200 µl of saturated phenol in 1x STE, 100 µl of chloroform-isoamyl in proportion 24:1 and homogenize well.• Shake well for 5 minutes.• Centrifuge at 4 °C for 15 min at 8000 g.• Measure the water phase (400 µl).• Add the water phase into a new centrifuge tube containing 0.02 gr of cellulose CF-11 and add ethanol to a final concentration of 16.5%, adding it slowly and in stirring (ml ethanol = 0.195 X ml of sample).• Centrifuge at 4 °C for 5 min at 8000 g.• Wash three times with 200 µl of STE 1X 16.5% ethanol until the cellulose is very clean. After each washing, centrifuge for 2 minutes at 5000 g to separate the phases well.• To retrieve the double-stranded RNA: add 200 µl of STE 1X and centrifuge at 4 °C for 5 min at 8000 g. Repeat this step three times.• Add to the extracted 600 µl 2 volumes of ethanol and store at -20 °C overnight.• Centrifuge at 4 °C for 30 min at 10.000 g.• Discard the supernatant carefully and let dry the precipitate.• Resuspend in 25 µl of water free of RNase.In conducting the RT-PCR two specific primers are used: the first F110 (TGGCCGGGAGAACAATAATA) and R1067 (GCGAAGTAAGTTCCGTCGTT), by which a fragment of 958 bases is obtained.To make the cDNA synthesis, take 10 µl of purified dsRNA, add 12 µl of water free of Rnases, and 2 µl of the primer F110 in concentration of 10 µmol. This mixture is denatured at 100 °C for 2 minutes, and immediately placed in ice to keep the RNA linearized.Take 20 µl of this solution and add to it: 1μl reverse transcriptase TR, 1 µl inhibitor of RNAse, 6.0 µl buffer of 5x transcriptase, 0.5 µl of 0.1M DTT, 1µl of DNTP's 10mM. Incubate it in a thermocycler for 1 hour at 37 °C, and finally the enzyme is inactivated by incubating 10min at 70 °C.To conduct the PCR use 1 µl of cDNA synthesized in the previous step, adding the following solutions: 18 µl of water, 2.5 µl of buffer 10X for PCR, 2.0 1 µl of MgCl2 25mM, 0.5 1 µl of 10mM DNTP's, 0.5 µl of primer F110, 0.5 µl of primer-R1067, and 0.2 µl of Taq polymerase, completing to a final volume of 25 1 µl with sterile water.The reaction is performed in a thermocycler with an initial denaturation at 94 °C for 5 min and 28 cycles. Each cycle consists of denaturalization at 94 °C for 1 minute, hybridization at 55 °C for 90 seconds and extension at 72 °C for 3 minutes. Besides, a final extension is done at 72 °C for 10 minutes.In each set of experiments we use healthy plants of the variety Secundina as negative controls and probes of the reaction in order to evaluate a possible contamination.The PCR products are observed in agarose gels at 1,0%, run at 100 volts for 1 hour in 0.5X TBE buffer and stained with ethidium bromide at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Samples which show the fragment of 958 bases are considered positive (Figure 22). Now the staining is done with safe SYBR in a concentration of 5 μl/20 ml. After having collected the data from the various tests, one proceeds with the storing in the database using the following procedure:Results obtained from the different tests done are then registered in the database following this procedure:First of all, sign into the GRP database entering the Username and Password, for the corresponding staff in charge, select the CASSAVA option. Select the HEALTH icon to enter the results obtained from the indexing process (Figure 23). In the next screen you must:1. Enter the accession number of analyzed seedlings.2. Select the checkbox NAME (automatically appear in abbreviated form the names of cassava viruses), choose the abbreviated form of the virus which was tested, as follows: CsXV for the Cassava virus X, CsCMV for the Cassava Common Mosaic Virus and FSD for the Cassava Frogskin Cassava Virus (Figure 24).3. Enter the date by which the results were obtained.Scheme used in the LSG for the distribution of samples in ELISA tests. Redistilled phenol is dissolved at 60 degrees C and mixed with 2 volumes of 1x STE buffer. Shake and let stand for 10-15 minutes until phase separation, buffer phase is discarded and the phenol is washed twice more in the same form.","tokenCount":"4347"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"194e53fca0f1468b07ef69c2ef188aff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f3499bf-3361-40cd-a4fe-c8c1ddff0ff0/retrieve","id":"1304443602"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eed15f80-7487-4de1-a5d7-95b11d11ade1","pagecount":"4","content":"Irrigation can significantly raise agricultural production, increase food security and reduce poverty among smallholder farmers in the developing world (Burney et al. 2013;Hagos et al. 2012). This was witnessed in the role that irrigation schemes played in the Green Revolution across Asia (Kimmich 2013;Namara et al. 2007Namara et al. , 2010;;Shah 2009). Worldwide, only 20% of cultivated land is irrigated, yet it accounts for 40% of global food production (FAO 2015). However, this irrigated area is concentrated in Asia and the Americas; only 4% of total agricultural land is irrigated in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Burney et al. 2013).SSA is currently dominated by rain-fed cultivation, with few irrigated plots and irrigating households. This was highlighted from an examination of the Living Standards Measurement Study -Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) data for Nigeria, Ethiopia and Malawi. In 2015-2016, only 1.68% and 1.82% of all plots in Nigeria and Ethiopia, respectively, were irrigated. In Malawi, the share of irrigated plots was 0.73% in 2016-2017. In 2015-2016, the share of households with at least one irrigated plot was 1.46% in Nigeria and 6.76% in Ethiopia. In Malawi, 0.58% of households had at least one irrigated plot in 2016-2017. These values suggest that very few households practice irrigation and very few plots are irrigated.Among the households that practice irrigation in SSA, dependency on surface water and groundwater differs across countries. In 2015-2016, almost 5% of all households practicing irrigation in Nigeria used a shallow well, while a similar share used a borehole. In Ethiopia, in 2013-2014, almost 9% of households practicing irrigation used a borehole; the LSMS-ISA did not report borehole data for 2015-2016. In 2016-2017, 60% of all households practicing irrigation in Malawi used a shallow well. Surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds, streams) continues to be an important source of water for irrigation, with 62% and 74% of irrigators in Nigeria and Ethiopia, respectively, depending on it in 2015-2016. However, surface water is less important in Malawi, with only 23% of irrigators using this as a source of water for irrigation in 2016-2017.'Farmer-led irrigation' is being encouraged through government policy across SSA. Irrigation schemes (large or community based) provided and driven by the government have largely failed to function due to lack of maintenance and revenues. Therefore, the increasing focus of governments is on farmer-driven efforts that expand irrigated areas. This is especially the case in Ethiopia, where the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Transformation Agency are working on creating environments to enhance farmer-led irrigation.Groundwater will have an important role to play in farmerled irrigation in SSA (see Altchenko and Villholth 2015 for groundwater potential; Macdonald et al. 2012 for groundwater resources; Schmitter et al. 2018 for the potential for solar and diesel pumps; and Worqlul et al. 2017 for suitability of lands for groundwater irrigation). Groundwater will be of importance partly due to constraints on public spending, and also due to the agroclimatic challenges that render the development of large public surface water schemes infeasible. Particular emphasis is being placed on increasing the use of solar and diesel pumps to tap shallow groundwater; viewing solar pumps as being more attractive due to zero marginal costs of pumping.Even in areas suitable for groundwater use, the costs of pumps and equipment remain a major barrier. These remain expensive and largely available. In Ethiopia, where smallholders typically use their own finances to pay for water pumps to irrigate farms mostly under 5 hectares, the government has imposed a 37% import duty (tax) on the price of motor pumps of 1 to 10 horsepower (Gebregziabher et al. 2014). Bringing down prices of pumps may make technologies more affordable. In addition, access to credit, one of the determinants of technology adoption, appears to be hindering the scaling of irrigation in the country (Getacher et al. 2013;Abate et al. 2016;Adeoti 2008). To this end, countries such as Ethiopia are removing tariffs on irrigation equipment (i.e., subsidizing gadgets) and are considering modalities to offer credit to farmers for purchasing irrigation equipment (pers. comm. Agricultural Transformation Agency and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Ethiopia, 2019).Pumping groundwater for irrigated agricultural production in Ethiopia (photo: Maheder Haileselassie / IWMI). However, reducing prices and offering credit may not be sufficient for boosting the adoption of pumps and equipment to tap groundwater. Many other factors can affect smallholder farmers' decisions to adopt pumps, but knowledge gaps remain with respect to creating enabling conditions. For example, differing degrees of access to markets and information affect the costs that farmers face for both modern inputs and their marketed surplus, and thus need to be better understood in order to develop comprehensive systems for irrigation inputs (Feder and Umali 1993;Nakawuka et al. 2018).The respective roles of microfinance institutions (private) and cooperatives (public) in the adoption of agricultural technologies are not well understood (e.g., Abate et al. 2016 examined the adoption of fertilizers and seeds-variable inputs-and found that the effects of microfinance institutions and cooperatives on adoption vary by farm size and input use). Cooperatives typically provide loans for variable inputs such as seeds and fertilizers (and have had an effect on the adoption of agricultural technologies, e.g., see Abebaw and Haile 2013), while microfinance institutions typically provide loans for assets. However, the effects of using pumps on household incomes and livelihoods are likely realized only after the typical payback period for loans from microfinance institutions, and perhaps even after the life span of the equipment (Merrey and Lefore 2018;Yamegueu et al. 2019). Thus, understanding the role of cooperatives in financing irrigation equipment, and the demand for credit from farmers, is important for targeting policy efforts.Finally, the cost of drilling boreholes is significantly high (Carter et al. 2006;World Bank 2006;Gebregziabher et al. 2013), and is fettered with relatively large uncertainties about yielding groundwater (for details, see Worqlul et al. 2017;Schmitter et al. 2018). Consequently, the willingness to adopt a pump may be compromised as farmers are less likely to drill boreholes amid the uncertainty (as they are unsure about 'hitting' groundwater). Whether the public provision of boreholes (with costs shared between farmers and governments) can boost the private adoption of pumps perhaps merits examination.The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is currently conducting research that addresses the knowledge gaps identified and explained above.• IWMI has undertaken an analysis of LSMS-ISA data in Ethiopia, overlaying it with groundwater and solar suitability mappings to examine the magnitude of farmers who would likely benefit from groundwater irrigation and solar pumps (Kafle et al. 2020, in review). These results suggest that population density is positively correlated with groundwater irrigation suitability and negatively correlated with solar irrigation suitability. Results also suggest that groundwater irrigation suitability is positively correlated with economic well-being and with cultivating cash crops. This suggests that relatively better-off individuals reside in areas that are more suitable for groundwater irrigation and are thus more likely to benefit from programs and interventions that promote groundwater abstraction.• IWMI is currently designing and implementing a field-based experimental study that explores the role of reducing prices, credit constraints and risks in the adoption of pumps for groundwater-based irrigation. The results of this study will be used to inform policy dialogues around smallholder irrigation, and to inform the design of pilot investments that aim to develop smallholder irrigation value chains.","tokenCount":"1203"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/9253507224.json b/data/part_5/9253507224.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..211f1b2418971cacef573660e0e7aaeb8ca251ca
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b92b9089ed2ecf69b88a4c1bc24596d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d612561d-5e45-4a36-b022-568f5f1aad1a/retrieve","id":"1581297636"},"keywords":["Indigenous chicken","genetic trend","heritability"],"sieverID":"1fcab12b-ed2d-40ba-8b4b-d3cb8206a8f1","pagecount":"3","content":"In 2008 a breeding program to increase production level in indigenous chickens was initiated at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia and is currently producing its 8 th generation. Aim of this paper was to evaluate the success of the breeding program. Selection was on own performance for bodyweight at 16 weeks of age (BW16) and for the hens also on cumulative egg number at week 45 of laying (EN45). Heritability for BW16 in the 6 th generation (G6) was 0.37, and for EN24 was 0.32. Phenotypic correlation between BW16 and EN24 was 0.36, but genetic correlation was -0.12. Genetic correlations of BW16 with cumulative egg production earlier in the laying series were 0.51 at 8 weeks of laying, decreasing to 0.22 at 16 weeks of laying. The genetic trends were positive for both traits under selection from generation 4 (G4) and G6.The rural poultry system is dominated by indigenous chickens and has made significant contribution to poverty alleviation and household food security in many developing countries (Alders and Pym (2009)). Even though indigenous chickens are not as high productive if kept under optimal conditions, they are well adapted to the more harsh conditions of the rural poultry system (Ajayi (2010)). Therefore, the indigenous chicken seemed the ideal starting material to increase production level, while maintaining the resilience to sub-optimal circumstances such as food (and water) of irregular quality and quantity. In addition, there are indications that indigenous chickens are better capable of dealing with infection pressure (Taddele et al. (2000)). In 2008 a breeding program was initiated at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia. The starting generation consisted of chicks that were hatched from eggs collected at various locations in the Horro region in Ethiopia. The breeding objectives were defined based on questionnaires and discussion meetings with small holder farmers in a number of regions in Ethiopia (Dana et al. (2010a)). The general consensus was to have a dual purpose chicken that was large and laid many eggs, but that could achieve that under the conditions of the rural production system. Currently the eighth generation is produced. Aim of this study was to evaluate the success of the breeding program thus far by 1. Estimating the genetic parameters, and 2. Presenting the genetic trends for the traits under selection.Data. Each generation 50 males and 300 females were selected to produce the next generation. Males were selected on their body weight at 16 weeks (BW16), and females were selected on their BW16 and on their cumulative egg production in 24 weeks after start of lay (EN24). From week 18 onwards, the selected males and all females were transferred to the layer house and kept in floor pens with 1 male and 10 females per pen. Pens were fitted with trap nests to facilitate full pedigree recording. Eggs were collected from selected hens for 10-12 days and incubated in three hatches to produce the next generation. For all hens body weights at 12 weeks of age (BW12) and BW16 were analyzed, as well as the cumulative egg numbers at weeks 8 (EN8), 16 (EN16) and 24(EN24) after onset of laying. For estimating the genetic parameters only phenotypes collected in generation 6 were used. For estimating the genetic trend from generation four (G4) to generation six (G6), 4817 records were available for BW16, and 4108 records for EN24.Statistical analyses. The same model was used for estimating genetic parameters and for estimating the genetic trend from G4 to G6. Preliminary analyses were conducted to identify significant fixed effects. The final model included the fixed effects of sex, hatch round, and pen. Genetic parameters and breeding values were estimated using an animal model in ASReml (Gilmour et al. ( 2009)).The breeding values for the genetic trend were estimated with generation four (G4) as reference. The trends are produced by taking the average breeding value of selected animals per generation.Descriptive statistics. In Table 1   2010b) as they defined egg production differently. However, their heritability for cumulative egg production to the 6 th month of laying was 0.35, which is of similar size as the 0.32 in the current study. diseases are unlikely to be the reason of poor condition, as the hens were vaccinated for the common diseases. Further research is needed to investigate the reason for the poor condition. The phenotypic correlations with BW16 were also positive and of fluctuating size. There, however, was a trend in the genetic correlations with BW16. It decreased with increasing age of egg production, and even became negative with EN24, although not significantly. A similar negative genetic correlation was reported from a three years short term selection of a Nigerian local chicken ecotype (Vivian et al. ( 2012)). If that correlation between BW16 and EN24 really is negative, it is important to re-estimate the correlation in the next generation to check whether there is a trend developing. Improving both traits simultaneously is possible, but considering the production system the animals are aimed for, it is important to realize whether the balance between body weight and egg production may be an optimum trait. Trying to maximize both may result in chickens that are less suitable for the relatively harsh production circumstances they are meant to function in. Genetic trends. The genetic trends for BW16 and EN24 are shown in Figure 1. Generation four (G4) was taken as a reference. Generation five (G5) and generation six (G6) birds had an EBV of +1 and +3 for cumulative egg production in 24 weeks after start of lay. This means hens of G5 and G6 had the genetic potential to lay 0.5 and 1.5 more eggs compared to hens with an EBV of 0 (G4) at 45 weeks of age. G5 and G6 birds had a genetic potential to be 5 and 6 grams heavier compared to chickens with an EBV of 0 (G4). The number of animals per generation and the variation within population made it not possible to obtain significant differences across three generations, but it is clear there is a genetic trend.  Alders, R.G., and Pym, R.A.E. (2009). Worlds Poultry Sci.J., 65: Dana, N., van der Waaij, E. H., Dessie, T. et al. (2010a). Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 42:1519-1529Dana, N., van der Waaij, E. H., and van Arendonk, J. A. M. (2010b). Trop. Anim. Health Prod. DOI 10.1007/s11250-010-9649-4 Gilmour, A.R., Gogel, B.J., Cullis, B.R. et al. (2009).ASReml User Guide Release 3.0 Hossen, M.S., Hossain, S.S., Bhuiyan, A. K. ","tokenCount":"1073"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/9266522465.json b/data/part_5/9266522465.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..3c9d895d47c3c22a5f01de616e8a9d4851d39d4c
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"de43f8395308af2d23a46870f56cfcc9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b92df9d5-cd38-42b0-bb2d-b93ac348cf07/retrieve","id":"-2071665125"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11bc61b4-d750-4883-86a9-e3dbaba72783","pagecount":"161","content":"8hectares and almost 75% on farms of less than 50 hectares. To what extent can both labor productivity and employment be expanded in this farm size category? It is an empirical question but whose resolution must focus on labor intensive crops, employment generating production systems, and yield raising technologies as necessary components. However, only under certain limited conditions are strategies to simultaneously intensify both large and small farms compatible. If large and small farmers compete in the same commodity and large farmers continue to have access to the s u b si di z e d capital of most mechanization policies, small farmers, in most intances, would not be able to compete. Any initial positive impact on small farm income would vanish and even become negative with the fall in price. The inherent nature of Latin American agriculture argues for crop specialization by large and small farms, with small farmers concentrating on labor-intensive crops and large farmers on mechanizable crops, a current characteristic of Latin American Agriculture. Research on facilitating mechanization of labor intensive crops could shift the comparative advantage away from small farmers in these crops, and thus, eventhough such research may be effective in increasing the output of such a crop, the social costs of these research investments could well be offset by the social costs.The indicative plan contained in thís document projects the activities of the Center over the decade of the eighties. The plan focuses specifical1y on the three biennial budgetary periods over the years [1982][1983][1984][1985][1986][1987], with more general projections thereafter.The first approximation of the plan was prepared in an interactive process involving CIAT management, research staff and the Board of Trustees. Representative of coHaborating natíonal research institutions will be consulted at a special workshop to be held at CrAT wOOre the second approximation of the plan will be presented and appropriate modificaUons which synthesize the opinions of the group will be incorporated in the final document.In preparing the plan three basíc sets of considerations were important in guiding the planning process:a) The needs for new technology designed to increase food production, particularly in the developing countries of too Western Hemisphere, and the manner in which the Center' s programs should evolve to meet these needs.b) The degree of success of thé Center's programs and how these expected results will modify future priorities and strategies.C) The budgetary implications of the plan projections in the light of exísting and expected constraints to growth in Center activities.In the development of too plan there has been no indicatíonthat wouldcall for a devíatíon from the current general structure of CIAT research over the period, at least until 1987. The plan places continued emphasis on common beans (Phaseolus vulgarís). cassava (Manihot esculenta). rice, and tropical pastures. An integral part of the plan is too proposal for an external review of the programs which would constítute the third T AC Quinquennial Review of the Center to be carried out in 1987. This in-depth review would thoroughly analyse the degree to which the Center has realized its objectives in the four commodities and make recommendatione with respect to CIAT's future role in those commodities or in possible alternative activities.A basíc orientatíon of CIAT towards the agricultural sector ín the Western Hemisphere is implicit in this documento The plan projects CIAT activities within the framework of the constraints to increased production and productivíty of basic food commodities important in the hemisphere. The need for improved technology in these commodities in regions outside the Western Hemisphere has not been neglected and provísion for an appropriate level of CIAT involvement has been projected in the plan.A series of factors may alter the projections contained in this documento Since these factors are quite unpradictable the plan represents only the best estimate of the most appropriate future activities of the Center. In particular, the work of CIAT can only meaningfully be defined when sean agatnst continuing developments in collaborating nattonal agricultural research and development institutions. CIAT has strived, and will continue to strive, to assure maximum complementarity with national efforts and thus will need to adjust its activities in SteP wíth the evolution of national needs for international cooperation which complements and supports their own programs.Additional elements of uncertainty areimplicit in the inherent unpredictability of biological research and in the ever exísting possibility of new and unexpected challenges, and in global socío-economic circumstances the may have important rapercussions in the definítion of the mandate. Naturally, the degree of certaínty of the projections decreases with time.The document opens with an analysis of the socio-economtc context in which planning has been placad. A specific focus on the agricultural sector in the developing countries of the Westem Hemlsphere ís a reflecbon of the basic oríentation of the Center. This analysís ís followed by a discussion of the role of CIAT within this context and a review of intitutional progress over the first ten years of the Center' s existence, leading to a definition of the overall objectíves and strategíes of the Center. The plan continues with an analysis of the basic philosophy underlying the strategies in developing international coHaborattve and cooperative research and technology transfer activities wíth nattonal institutions.The strategies to achieve the objectíves in four basic commodities are then outlined and projections made with respect to futura activities in the light of expected developments at the nattonal level. The plan concludes with a discussion of new initiatiVe5 designed to complement the work of existing pl\"ograms and a Center-wide analysis of projected resource raquirements and their budgetary impltcations.Chapter 1: THE PLANNING CONTEXT: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT IN TROPICAL AMERICA \"Hunger is at least as much a political, economic and social challenge as it is a scientific, technical 01\" logistic one 1 '! This statement clearly highlights the complexity of the world food problem and the fact that there is no single, no easy and no cheap solutien to it.Improved agricultural technology adapted to the socio-economic and agroclimatic conditions characteristic of the developing world i5 a necessary, but by no means sufficient, component of a world food strategy. Recognizing the key role of agricultural technology in increasing food production in the tropics, the CGIAR system was formed in 1971, which in addition to CIAT now includes nlne other international centers and three related activitíes. Whíle the final product of centers such as CIAT is improved production technology, the CGIAR system has recognized that such technology can be a means to achieving more basic socío-economic goals, víz., a) Improving the productíon, quality and stability of supply of basíc food commodíties ín developing countríes; b) Improvíng the nutritional status of those segments of the urban and rural population still below mínimal nutrítional requirements; and c) Improvement of the income levels of the limited resources population of the rural sector, and, indírectly, of the low íncome urbanpopulation.The manner in which the íntroduction of new technology works its way through systems of food production, distribution and consumption and impacts on nutrition and income dístributíon ís complex and never fully corrective. Improved technology will never by itself be a solution of the problem of income distríbution and nutritíon but it could certainly centríbute te it. Moreover, there are agricultural technologies that wíll have a greater ímpact than others on these two related problems. In order te understand what these techno!ogical alternatives are it is first necessary to review the socio-economic structure ínto which the agricultura! technology will entero CIAT, within the CGIAR, network, began wíth no fixed crop mandate 01\" unique ecological orientation. CIAT's research within the CGIAR system lS very much regionally focused on Latin American agriculture. In clear recognition of CIAT's role vis-a-vis other research and extension institutions, changes in research activities follovv a horizontal approach, (t.e., addition or detetion of essentially crop programs), rather than a vertical approach in which activities expand into etther more basic research or extension, or both. Thus, the relevant context for planning agricultural research at CIAT will be an analysis of agriculture within tropical Latin America.1 .1 Socio-economic Goals in the Production ContextFood production in Latín America has grovvn at a sustained rate of 3.6% per annum since 1950, arate consistent with grovvth in aggregate demand.The regional aggregate, hovveve, is highly deceptive. In the last decade in only five of twenty-one countries has food production kept pace with demand grovvth (Appendix 1). Only in Argentina have consumer food prices increased at a slowar rate than general consumar price levels 1 AII ccuntries in Latin America except the temperate countries Argentina and Uruguay, remain net-imported of food staples~ If current rates of grovvth in production are projected to 1990, food deficits in al! tropical countries are expected to increase bY 50%, except fOr Brazil and Paraguay. Thus, to maintain food prices constant in real terms, and to maintain current levels of self-sufficiency in food will require an increase in the rate of growth of agricultural production in most Latín American countríes.Growth in agricultural production depends on either bringing more land and labor resources into production Or using the current stock of those resources more efficiently. The general patterns is some combination of the two curses, resulting in an increase in the productivity of the rescurce in most 1 imitad supply. This would define the nature of the type of technical change demanded. In the Latin American case land is a highly abundant resource. Studies comparing potential arable land to land 1 FAO, The State of Food andAgriculture 1978, Rome, 1978. 2 IFPRI (lnternatlonal Food Policy Research Institute), Food Needs for Developing Countries: Projections of Production and Consumption to 1990, Research Report 3, 1977. currently under the plow esttmate that Latin American agriculture is utilizing only somewhere between 18 to 35 percent of its potenttal land resource. Moreover, the average size farm is 112 hectares, very high by developing country standards. In the aggregate there would appear to be a surplus of land relative to labor. This situation would imply that the most efficient growth strategy would focus on increasing the productivity of labor while at the same time expanding arable land. One logical outcome of this strategy would be increased farm mechanisation.Such a conception of Latín American agriculture is a gross oversimpl ífication of its complexity. Past growth in agriculture has not followed such a path. Except for Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela, Latin American countries have been increasíng productivity of both land and labor. During the 1960-78 period, tractor use increased at a 5.6% annual rate while fertilizer use grew at a 11.2% rate. This intensification of land use appears to be inconsistent-with the conceptíon of a land-surplus economy.This apparent inconsistency arises from the very heterogeneous nature of Latin American agriculture. An agricultural frontier does exist in most tropical South American and Central American countries but expansion at this frontier is competitive with intensification of farms currently in production. The high costs of bringing new frontier land into production using existing technology make it less profitable than íntensifying on land already in production. This competition between extensive and intensive development 15 further complicated by the very skewed distribution of land which is particularly characteristic of Latin American agriculture. The majority of the farm population have very limited land resources and to increase production they must concentrate on techniques to increase yields. Large-scale farmers, on the other hand, control the majar portian of the land resources and find that relative labor costs are high. As farm size increases there are rising costs in obtaining and managing large numbers of seasonal laborers. Thus, large farmers invest in laborsubstituting mechanization or specialize in extensive production activities, such as pasture beef systems.An agricultural growth strategy for Latin America that efficiently utilizes both land and labor resources is complicated bY the distribution of these two resources and the very marked differences in the quality of the land resouree. Three very different growth strategies emerge: (a) intensification of production by large farmers on the more fertile areas. essentiaHy through mechanization and higher input use; (b) expansion of agricultural produetion at the less fertile frantier; and (e) intensification of production by small farmers 0'1 existing land, essentially through higher and more stable yie lds • Eaeh type of growth strategy lmplíes a very different researeh focus. In -4a planning context the issue is not only in what areas research will result in the largest productlon gain but also in which areas CIAT has a comparative advantage, especially in relation te the three socio-economic goals presented earlier. A dynamic large farm sector exista in Latín American agriculture, reliant on mechanization research easily transferable from more developed countries. Rapid growth in large farm agriculture within a very skewed land distribution can produce a very accelerated treadmíll effect, i.e., the movement of \"less efficient\" farmers out of agriculture. While there are not sufficient employment possibilittes in the urban sector, large social stresses develop. The rest of this section addresses the lssue of whether or not there is potential complementaríty between the three strategies, thereby helping to define research requirements.Larger farmers in Latin America, while controlling the major portion of the land resource, tend to utilize it very extensively. In Brazil, for example, farms aboye fífty hectares make up 85% of the area in farms but have only 53% of the area in crops. In Colombia, large farmers own 76% of the land but have only 40% of the land in crops. Latin American policy makers, realizing the inefficiency in use of land by large farmers. have concentrated on inducíng these farmers to shift from extensive beef production systems to crop systems • Policies to foster mechanizatton, such as credit subsidies, overvalued exchange rates, land taxes, and price supports for mechanizable craps have been implemented in many countries. These poli cíes have been complemented by investments from multinational agricultural supply firms, who find large untapped markets with low distributíon costs and mini mal requirements for redesign of chemical, seed and mechanization technologies.A very dynamlc sector has been created, as ls reflected in the very high growth rates in mechanizable craps. Sinca 1961 sorghum production in Latín America has increased at arate of 13% per annum while in Brazil wheat productlon increased at 11 %. Growth in soybean production was even more rapid. In all these cases over 75% of the growth was due to area expansion, rafleoting the extensive nature of crap production on large farms. Thus, whila such crop yields have remained stagnant, ovaral! land productivity has increased due to shifta fram pastura production to crops.The concentration of agricultural policies on intensifyíng the land use of large farmers has had two important resulta. First, production growth of extensively produced commodities, especially beef, has lagged behind demand. Second, in seeking to íncrease the efficiency of land use on large farms, policies have not dealt with, and, in some cases, have exacerbated the inefficiencies in the use of labor. High rates of under-employment exist in the agricultural sectors of Latin American countries (see section 1.1.5.). Inefficient labor use cannot be ignored because of the obvious linkages to income and nutri tion goals.1.1.4 Expansion of the Agricultural Frontier At the frontier, infrastructure development ls usually limiting, making input and marketing costs high. Labor ls in short supply but land is relatively cheap. Thus, expansion at the frontier is usually based on extensive prOOuction systems. In the Latin American context extensive beef production systems are predominant at the frontier. This lS, in fact, complementary to intensiflcation of large farma on more fertile land, in that it induces a more efficient utiHzation of land resources.As large farmera on goOO land shift into crops, rising land values result also in too íntensífication of the remalning pasture land. Thus in the 1960-70 period improved pasture area increased at a 3.6% annual rate, a full percentage point greater than the expansion in crop land. In addition to this growth which represents 21 million OOctares of pastures, 92 million hectares were added at the frontier, representing a growth of 2.2% per year in natural pastures. These two procesaes resul ted in an annual growth in beef production of 3.4%, well short of the growth in demand for beef of 5.4%. Thus, expansion on the frontier ia a necessary complement to large-farm intensification, if demand for foOO crops and beef te to be metoEven with rising beef príces, the area sown to pasture was not expanding fast enough to meet demando For much of the abundant land area of Latin America, such as too \"llanos\", the \"cerrado\", the \"pantanal\" and the Amazon jungle, the costs of production for infrastructure and soU correction appear to be presently too high to support a more rapid expansion of land use at the frontier. Selection of crop and pasture species for these areas with reduced fertility requirements ahould improve the potential profitability of land use. Investment in new technology that increases productivity of adapted crops, such as rice and cassava, and of beef pasture systems in the Oxisols and Ultisols typical of the Latín American frontier should, in 1'act, aid in the intensification, with crops demanding higher fertilíty levels grown on large farms on prime lands. Instead of spending public funds on research to reduce the costs of crop establishment for large farmers, a more social1y efficient aolution would be to bring down the cost 01' beef productíon on the frontier. The effect of rapid beef expansion on price would induce large farmers to shíft to more profltable, and mOre intensive, alternatives. Pasture technology specífically designed for the frontier should thua induce a more socially acceptable utilization 01' land resources in Latin America.An unfortunate paradox exists in Latín American agriculture. Small farmers are, from a social point of view, the most efficient producers in the combined utilization of land, labor and capital resources 1 but because they control such a minor portion of the land resouree, the!r eontributíon to output ls limitad. So, though efficient, the potential of the small farm sector to contribute to increase total food production is somewhat limited. However, increasing the productiva employment of labor should have as high, or higher, a priority as fostering the more productive utilization of land resourees, sinee employment is the principal determinant of ineome and welfare.Underutilized labor in the agricultural sector results in migratíon to urban areas. However, the conditions of Latín American cíties offer ample evidence that rural poverty is not being solved by transfering it from rural to urban areas. High rates of rural-to-urban migration are characteristic of Latin American economíes. In the 70' s urban growth eased slightly but stitl averaged a 3.7% annual rate of increase and ín Brazil and Mexico over 4.5%. This process has put extreme pressure on job creation in the urban sector. Sinoe industrial growth has been capital intensive, most of the employment ls occurring in the terti.ary sector and most of this in the low-productivity service jobs. The service sector is as well the entry po!nt for most rural-urban migrants--if they can find jobs at all--and in most countries average labor productivity is lower in these jobs than in the agriculturla sector.The employment problem is further complicated by the fact that, because of the young age profile of the populatíon, the rate of growth in the labor force will actually increase from 2.4% in me 1960-70 period to over 2.9% in the 1980-2000 periodo Since in Latín American countries the rural population represents more than 30% of the total, and over 50% in the poorest countríes, rural-to-urban migratton flows will remain large putting more pressure on urban job creation. ILO studies 2 of representative Latin American countries have stressed the fact that a full-employment strategy over the next decade depends on increased employment in the agricultural sector and maintenance of the role of the agricultural sector as a residual employer.1 R.A. Berry and W. CUne, Agrarian Structure and Productivity in Developing Countrles, -John Hopkins University Press, 1979.2 ILO, International Labor Office of the United Nations, Toward Full Employment, A Programme for Colombia, Geneva, 1970.-7-Full employment thus requlres some check on rural-to-urban migration for at least the next few decades. However, too rate of this migration is highly responsive to changes in intersectoral income differentials. In Latin America a 10% increase in the relative income between the tertiary sector and too agricultural sector increases the migration rate by 9%1Moderation of migration depends on improving agricultural incomes, especíally among too more mobile porUons of the agricultural population. About 35% of the economically active population is landless labor. Moreover, subfamHy size farms make up approximately 50% of an farms.The existence of a highly mobile agricultural population that ís very responsive to intersectoral income differentials, strengthens the argument for an agricultural development strategy that increases rural incomes of small farmers and landless laborers.Small-farm intensification is a necessary component in ameliorating both rural and urban poverty in Latin America. Migration affects average nutritíon of the low-income strata of the population. Studies have indicated that the nutritíonal situ<ltion of the urban pOOl' is inferior to that of the rural poor, even with higher incomes~ Given the importance of reducing rural-to-urbam mígratíon rates, another alternative is to allow for íncreased population access to land through frontier colonizatíon. In comparison to migration to urban areas, colonlzation schemes tend to be costly and do not result in significant population flows. In the Santa Cruz area of 80livia and the \"selva\" of Peru such labor flows have been significant but have not solved the rural employment situation in the \"sierra\". In too belter soH areas of Parana, Golas, and Mato Grosso in Brazil frontler settlement, and associated infrastructure development, has been rapid and effective. In general, however, too potential for expansion of viable family-síze, crop-producing farms at the frontier is Iimited by soil sonstraints, lack of appropriate technology, pOOl' access to markets, relatívely high capital requírements and inconsístent land settlement policíes over time.lmprovement of small farm productivíty remains the most víable avenue in affecting rural (and urban) employment. For the case of Brazil, for example, 40% of rural employment occurs on farms of less than 10If food is to be supplied at reasonable price levels and mini mal incomes are to be assured through productive employment, then growth in Latin American agriculture will have to come from more productive employment of both land and labor resources. Enough publ ic and private resources are being directed at large scale agriculture to assure its continued dynamism into the future. An efficient growth strategy would as well include expansion on the frontier with intensification of production by small farmers. However, the compatibility of the three strategies rests on each group producing the crops in which they have comparative advantage and, especially, the large farmers not competing with small farmers in the same product market. Technical change is a key element in a combined strategy requiring a certain diversity in research investment, since the consistency of the strategy implies very strict design requirements for each particular crop. Table 1.1 summarizes the comparative advantages of a range of commodities with respect to farm size and frontier expansion. However, to complete the picture it is necessary to consider the relative importance of the crops in food consumption. Large farm Frontier Land 2 y Predominantly acid, infertile soils.-10-In developíng market economíes price ís a fundamental determinant of foad praduction levels, rural incomes, and nutritíon. However, improvíng price íncentives to farmers ls often in conflict with cheap food staples for urban areas. Agricultural technology provides a potential wedge in the market mechanism allowing price reductions to consumers through cost reductions at the farm level. Maximizing the impact of new technology on nutrition will depend on understanding food consumption patterns, particularly of the pOOl'.In Latin America the most pressíng nutrítional problem ís inadequate caloric consumption among large sectors of the population (Appendix 2). Protein defícits are also encountered and are especíaUy seríous in vulnerable groups, such as low íncome children and pregnant women.Nevertheless, caloríe inadequacíes must fírst be overcome 01' protein additíons will principally--and therefore inefficiently--be utilized as energy source. In fact, where calo ríes are limiting in the diet, a percentage change ín caloríes will have a greater positive effect on nitrogen balance than a proportionate change in (more expensive) protein.The true magnitude of the problem, however, is hidden when national averages of per capita availabilíty of calories and protein are used. Fígw'es have more meaning when expressed as a percentage of the populatíon with diets below the minimum requirements. Using such an indicator, the extent of the calo ríe defícits in Latín America appears to be índeed staggering (Appendix 3). It ranges from one-third of the population in Chile and Uruguay to over two-thirds in Guatemala. Inadequate calorie-protein availability not only implics reduced energy levels but also can result in permanent damage in vulnerable groups such as growing children. Future investments in human capital, such as health, education and trainíng, cannot substitute for 01' undo human capital deterioration resulting from inadequate diets in the early years of growth. Hence, improving nutrition of major segments of the population must be a principal concern of most Latín American governments to prevent human capital deterioration of their future work force. lncreasing income, Le., an employment policy, is the most direct means of correcting nutritional inadequacies. The magnitude of the problem is too immediate to rely only on the longer term nature of such strategies. Necessary complements are to identify and increase production of cheaper nutrient sources, and to utilize appropriate policíes to increase the caloríe and protein íntake of the population strata with deficits. Under-standing the Latin American diet, and its diversity, is thus a necessary starting point in ascertaining the relevance of commadity choice for agricultural research and its ultimate impact on nutrition.Latín American food consumption patterns vary substantially between regions. A consístently majar source 01' calories in the Latín American diet is sugar, strictly a caloríe source but important because 01' íts low cost (Appendix 4). Maize is of considerable importance in Mexico, Central America and some Andean countries, but of lesser importance in the rest of Latin America and the Caribbean. Wheat is important in aH regions but only in the Southern Cone dominates as the principal caloric source. Rice provided in 1972-74 over 12% 01' the calories in the Caribbean, Colombia and Brazil. Cassava provided over 9% of the calories in Brazil and Paraguay (APpendix 4). Beef was an important source of calories in the Southern Cone and Paraguay and 01' protein in most of Latin America (Appendix 5). Beans provided over 10% of the proteins in Mexico, Central America, Paraguay and Brazil.In summary, from the aggregate food consumption pattern no one staple can be singled out as dominating across Latin American countries as the major source 01' calories and protein.In the rural sector, majar sources of calories vary according to local supplies, which in turn vary wídely throughout the regíon due to the extreme variability ín edaphic and el imatic circumstances. In the urban sector, large variance is observed in the food expendítures of !:he lowest income strata across cíties and subregions (Appendices 6 and 7). COnsumer budget data from ten Andean cities (1967)(1968)(1969) show that 15 to 30% 01' foad expendítures of the lowest íncome categoríes were in beef and mi1k. Moreover, these percentage expenditure allocations were maintained over the income categories. Beef was not only a preferred food in the Andean cities but the urban poor aBocatad a majar portion 01' their foad budget to a predominately protein source. However, the principal nutrient deficiency is calories. Sugar and rice were also consistentiy important expenditure items in most of the Andean clUes, but could not be said to domínate in total expenditures on caloric staples. Other sub-regional1y Important commoditíes in the food budget of the urban peor were wheat products, corn, beans, cassava and potatoes, but again there existed no single dominant staple. Diversity 01' the diet and subregional importance 01' the principal staples, are thus al so major characteristics in the case of the u rban poor.Agricultural technologies can have indirect effects on the diet of the low income urban population through their effect on food prices. Declining food prices are desirable in this context, but product prices must also give proper production incentives to farmers. New technology can mediate these two confl icting roles of price in the market, but rately will benefits be equally shared between both consumers and producers. If improving welfare of consumer has the higher policy weight, then choice of commodity should focus on non-exported food staples, in which quantity demanded is relatively unresponsive to changes in price or income. Quite naturally these commodities tend to be the principal food staples of the poor.The case of the northeast of Brazil, containing the largest population concentration with nutritional problems in Latin America, could illustrate the case. Cassava flour, beans/cowpeas \\ and rice are the principal sources of energy contributing more than 50% of the calories in the yet insufficient diet (Appendix 8). Bean/cowpeas were as important as meats and fish together as a source of protein (Appendix 9). Cassava flour, beans/cowpeas and rice were among the cheapest sources of calories and protein. The fact that in this region expenditure in these commodities increases with income (Appendix 7), is indirect evidence that larger amounts of these specific commodities will be demanded by the low income consumers if prices are brought down further. Here is where agricultural technology has an important role in reducing nutritional deficits in a region with acute nutritional problems. Moreover, in this particular case the balance of beans or cowpeas with cassava helps offset the lower protein composition of cassava as compared with the cereals. Policies to stimulate production and consumption of these lowest cost nutrient sources would be expected to have a much more rapid effect in eliminating nutri tional deficits than the gradual shift to higher consumption levels of other high qual ity, high nutrient cost foods.As a direct consequence of the high rate of growth of population and the increase in income, aggregate demand for food in Latin America is growing at 3.6% per annum, arate consistent with the growth in total food production (Table 1 .2). This balance is only apparent since: (a) in 16 out of 21 countries food production growth lagged behind demand (Appendix 10); (b) in most countries nutritional problems have continued, if 1 Close substitutes in northeast Brazil, statistically reported together.   ...-14not worsened, sinee growth in produetion of major stapies lagged behind demand; and (e) those eommadities in whieh produetion increased most rapidly (export erops, feed grains and poultry), had more impaet on the diet of the middie and high ineome strata than on the diet of the pOOl\", where the bulk of the nutritional problems lie (Appendiees 6 and 7).Given the skewed ineome distribution in Latin Ameriea ~ ineome growth has resulted in the highest demand growth for those foad eommodities most preferred by the middle and high ineome strate. As a response to high demand growth, produetion of those eommodities has inereased rapídly, sometimes at the expense of more basie food crops. Such is the case of poultry and, indirectly, of feed grains. The annual growth rate of poultry production was 9.5% from 1970-78 in Latin America as compared with 3% in the U.S. Production growth of sorghum and soybeans for reed, exports, and soybean oH was even more rapid~ The dramatíc expansion of soybeans in the 8razilian south helped push bean production into more marginal areas. In 8razil an% Mexieo 44 and 32% of food crop utilization in 1972-74 was for animal feed. Over the period 1961-65 to 1974-76 maize aecounted for more then one half of the produetion growth of food staples in 8razil whe1'as sorghum was responsibie for nearly one-heif of the inerease in Mexieo •From 1961-65 to 1974-76 the 8razilian growth rate in the use ofeereais for feed was 6.3% and the Mexiean growth rate was 16.4%. In deveioping countries with rapid increases in incomes the total use of cereals for livestock feed has increased considerably fastar than the use of cereals for human consumption.In summary, in response to a higher growth rate of demand due to higher purchasing power of the middle and high income groups and to high export demand, production is growing faster in the case of poultry, feed grains and export crops than in the case of calorie B[id protein staples. Production is substantially lagging behind demand growth in the case of maize For direct consumption, wheat, rice, cassava, beans and beef.1 Jain, Shail, Size Distribution of lneome: A compilation ofdata, the World Bank, Washington, D. C ., 1975.2 CIAT, Latin America: Trend Highlights for CIAT commoditíes, Internal Document Econ. 1.5, April In Table 1 .3 a ranking af the principal Latín American cammadities from both the nutritional and demand grawth perspective is summarized. Both wheat and maize are important as calaric sources and their demand is increasíng fer food and feed, respectively. Rice, beef and milk are already important in providing calories and proteins in most of Latin America. Moreover, a rapid demand increase is expected far these ca mmodities, especially beef. Cassava and cassava flour are extremely law cost calorie sources and important sources of calories in Brazil and Paraguay, countries which account for 40 percent of the population in tropical Latin America. Countries implementing nutritional programs for their lowest income sectors could take advantage of the low cost of calories from this crop and cassava's potential to be produced on less Fertile soils. With technological c hange ín marketing andjor processing fresh cassava may have a future potential growth as a food andjor feed.Beans are important sub-regional1y for protein and are the lowest cost proteín source. Beans could be an important complement to a nutritional program aímed at increasing cassava consumption since protein deficits become an ímportant concern once caloríe deficits have be en overcome.Rising bean prices in many countries indicate that demand growth is exceeding that ef supply in recent years. Finally, the fas test growing demand is for poultry, substantially affecting the derived demand for sorghum and soybeans. However, the combined impact of growth in poultry and feed grains on relieving nutritional prcblems is net as high as in the case of the more basic staples, viz., maize, wheat, rice, cassava, beans, beef and milk.As discussed in Sectíon 1.1. within the Latin American agricultura! sector there is a substantial heterogeneity in farm units in terms of landjlabor ratios. This results in substantial heterogeneity in production technologies, a certain crop specialization by farm size, and differential retunrs to production resources across farm size units. Within this highly skewed land distribution a dynamic large farm sector has either emerged (aided by subsidized mechanization sChemes), or líes latent. This dynamism can produce conditions in which competition drives less efficient farmers or less producti ve labor out of the agricu 1 tural sector. Very rapid rural-to-urban migration has characterized Latin American economias, requiring substantial investments in social infrastructure and in many cases swamping urban employment generating capacity. Moreover, a substantial portion of the rural-to-urban migrations enter into the lowproductivity service sector, often with a decline in nutritiona! status. Thus a labor-intensive, small farm development strategy is a necessary 'complement to the dynamic large farm sector. The  !il_ on Append!ces 1-10.•P: Potentlal Importance Targeting technology impact to small-scale farmers requires the existence of crops in which these farmers have a comparative advantage and the design of technologies which maintains this comparative advantage. However, the impact of food production and price will obviously be much more limited than\" if larger farmers were as well drawn into production. Thus, so me concern must be given for the importance of these commodities in the diets of the urban poor, since there exist trade-offs between benefits for the rural vs. the urban poor. The Latin American diet is marked by substantial variability between regions. Maize, whear, rice, cassava, sugar, beans, and beef are all important sources of calories and protein, but the degree of importance varies by region. Depending on the region, the choice ofanyone of these food staples will have an impact on the nutrition of the poor through technology introduction.If new agricultural technology is to contribute simultaneously to growth and equity goals, research cannot concentrate on only once crop, one ecosystem, or one particular group. As the above discussion has highlighted a consistent crop selection and research strategy is required if CIAT is to contribute to impact or growth, income, and nutrition goals.It is recognized that due to the heterogeneity of Latin American agriculture there is no one crop that could contribute significantly to total agricultural production and, simultaneously, significantly affect the rural and urban poor (Table 1.3), as it is the case of rice in Asia. In chosing to do research on a portfolio of crops CIAT attempted to chose crops in which, by complementing national and other international research institutions, the total contribution to the socio-economic goals is highest. A first requirement was that these should be predominately food staples. Secondly, the choice of crops should be such that some provide for an increase in the productivity of small farmers and their income, while others should contribute to the expansion of agricultural production on both good lands and on the frontier. These research thrusts are reflected in the division of CIAT into crop research and land systems research. The consistency of the strategy is in fact built around the Center' s choice of crops: beans, cassava, rice, and tropical pastures for the acid, inferti le soi 15. Each has regional importance as a calorie and/or protein source. In terms of contributing to the major nutrition problem (i. e., calories), maize, wheat, or sugar would have been other possible choices. The first two are under the mandate of CIMMYT. Sugar, on the other hand, is already the lowest cost calorie source in the diet partially reflecting the large ínvestment in research that has already gone into thís crop. Othar possible crops important from tha production point of view, but of lesser significance in achieving the overan socio-economic goals, are sorghum and soybeans. These crops, however, are not foOO staples (except soybean oH) and would tend to benefit more the middle and high income consumers and large farm producers. These crops are, however, displacing other faed and food crops grown in goOO lands. Given CIAT's size and budgetary timitations, and the early state of technology development in the four current programs, it is too early to consider adding any of these commodities as core funded programs at this time. However, special projects wíth the specific goals of developing varieties of sorgrum and soybeans adapted to the acid soils coutd be hosted inasmuch they are also consistent with socio-economic goals and complementary alternatives to upland rice, cassava and tropical pastures for the frontier areas. A possible CIA T involvement with these crops is discussed in Chapter 6.A brief description follows as to why CIAT's portfotio of crops provides the best balance in meeting both production and nutrition goals in Latín America and how the research strategies in each case is consistent with the overall socio-economic goats.Beef ls a principal part of the Latín American diet and forms a major portion of the food budget, even among the poor. Demand for beef in Latín America is increasing at arate that is far outrunning growth in production. Moreover, beef is an extensively produced commodtty and the production systems do not require well-developed infrastructure for inputs or marketing outputs. In terms of fostering expansion at the frontier, beef production is a ¡ogical choice.The research strategy of the Tropical Pastures Program has fecuses on relieving the principal constraints to extensive beef production systems in the acid, infertile sotls of Latin America, with emphasis en the savanna regions. The constraínts lay primarily in the low nutrient production of the pasture system, especlally in the dry season. The search for adapted and more productíve grass and legume species was considered to be the key to developing a low-cost, mini mal input technotogy for these areas ..Cassava is a traditional calorie source of the rural population in Latin Ameríca but has limited importance in urban areas, except where consumed as a flour, especially in Brazil. The plant ls extremelyefficient in the production of carbohydrates and ls particularly weH -19adapted to more marginal agricultural conditions. lts low purchased input requirements, relatively high labor requirement, adaptability to intercropping systems, and flexible harvest perlod result in production originating from small farm systems. Given that demand is sUfficiently elastic, the crop i5 ideally suited to intensifying 5mall-farm produetion systems.The potential for developing alternative end uses for eassava, such as stareh as a carbohydrate source in animal feed, and as raw material for ethanol production, appear to guarantee this market elastieity. Competitiveness in these markets, however, appears to be dependent on lower produetion costs, that is, improved production teehnology.The researeh strategy in the Cassava Program has three principal thrusts: (a) development of low-eost, minimum input technology, particularly directed at small farmers; (b) researeh on developing eassava as a erop for expansion anta tha frontier; and (e) researeh on more efficient proeessing and utilization teehnologies. The Program combines research on both production and utUization teehnologies, since a primary constraint in cassava production systems is its rapid perishability after harvest, as well as to insure that processing technologies are of a sufficiently small scale to allow resource pOOl\" farmers access to end markets. AS such, cassava is one of the few crops through which improved technology can result in increased productivity of small farm systems in more marginal production zones.8eans are an important protein source particularly in 8razil, Mexico and Central America whare they constitute between 10-20% of the proteins (Appendix Table 5). 8ean production is stagnant in Latin America, with area expansion utilized to compensate for yield declines in most countries, especiaUy 8razit. Mast bean productian comes from the smatl farm sector, where beans are typically produced in association with other crops, principally maize, and on the poorer lands. The maize bean association is labor intensive but gives high returns per unit land area.8ean productivity is low as a broad spectrum of insects and diseases attack this crop. Due to the devastating nature of many bean diseases farmers often prefer to plant beans in marginal rainfall conditions. Moreover, governments seldom provide adequate price supports 01\" other financial incentives to bean producers. As a consequence of thes physical and economic factors discouraging bean production, few farmers are prepared to use expensive inputs such as fertilizers 01\" chemícals for disease control; hence, yields are low. Yields and returns have been so low that beans have been displaced from former production areas (such as parts of southern Brazil and the Cauca Valley in Colombia) by more profitable crops. In the last decade bean yields in most Latin American countries have been declining due to these crop shifts and the inability to maintain even low yields at the extremely low levels of input use.The research strategy of the Sean Program is to increase bean productívity through the incorporation of multiple disease resistance into commercial cultivars. Tolerance to drought and moderately low fertility levels is also sought. The search for cultivars able to fix atmospheric nitrogen is also emphasized. The Sean Program s trategy focuses on stabilízing and increasing bean yields without major increases in purchased inputs. Nevertheless, once new varieties are available mOderately increased ínput levels wíll be economical1y feasibledue to higher potential yields and reduced yield varíance. The emphasis of the strategy is on obtaining productíon increases wíthout major increases in input costs so that the principal producer of beans wil1 rema in the small farmer.As a large part of bean production comes from climbing beans, which are almost entirely produced in association 01\" in relay wíth maize, the Program is dedicating a considerable effort to the ímprovement of beans in assocíation, while maintaining maize yields. Such technology is again most appropriate for the small farmers due to its very high labor requirements •Rice is a major calorle staple in the Caribbean, Brazil and many countries of the Andean Zone. In most of tropical Latin America, rice consumption has been increaslng as a rapidly urbanizing population has shifted from other staples to ríce as a principal calorie source. This process has been has tened by the stable (01\" even declining) relative price of rice, as production has kept up with demand growth in most Latin American countries. In many cases this rapid production growth has been as a result of the íntroduction of improved varieties, combined with rapid adoption by mechanized farmers in favored rice areas.Rice ls predominantly a large farmer crop but there is nevertheless large a diversity inthe types of production systems utilized, varying betwean intensive irrigated systems to extensive upland systems on the frontier. Average yields in the different systems vary markedly. The principal factor determining the type of system is the rainfaH pattern and possibílitíes of ímproved water management. The relevant issue for most rice producing countries is the choice of system in which to invest research resources. The new technology has primarily benefited the irrigated sector and farm yields are rapidly reaching the feasibla yield potential of the current technology. Futura yield increments in this sector w!H not be as dramatic. For maintaining growth In rice production the investment issue centers around the benefit cost ratio of investing in, and expanding irrigated land vis-a-vis raising productivity of upland produc-Hon. The potential for meeting increased rice demand from irrigated areas from upland areas varies among countries.CIAT's Rice Program recognizes the need to focus on research for both irrigated and upland conditions. For irrigated rice, the largest yield gains have already been made in most countries and the focus will principally be on maintenance research, and in basic research to develop rice blast and Sogatodes leaf hopper resistance. The upland research, on the other hand, will concentra te on selecting for adaptation to stresses characteristic of upland conditions. This research will focus on those upland areas with a more stable rainfall regime, where the chances of achieving a significant yield increment are the highest. The upland research strategy focuses on the utilization of land at the crop frontier which will be grown under relatively extensive, mechanized conditions.Chapter 2: THE PLANNING CONTEXT: THE ROLE OF CIA T Effective agricultural research is a continuum, encompassing that range of activíties from basic research, such as genetic engineering, to monitoring of farmer adoption of improved varieties and cultural pactices. This research continuum encompasses a complex of interacting institutions, running the gamut from basic to applied research, and from research to extension activitíes. The International Centers occupy a particular niche in thís ínstitutíonsl complexo They in effect provide the institutional link between basic research and the applied research and extension urgently needed for tropical condiUons.This translation of science into practical technology requires a relatlvely long-term commitment of resources, relatively large start-up costs, an effective \"critical mass\" of research scíentists, and decision-making free from the compromise and vested interests of the political process.The international research center combines these attributes with the potential economias of scale inherent ín plant breedíng, í.e., the assembly of large germplasm banks, large scale screeníng, crossing, and selectíon, and multí-disciplinary evaluation. These economíes of scale, however, do not extend to most agronomíc research, extension, 01\" fine tuning of the plant breeding process. International Centers are thus onlyeffective if working in tandem with weH-organized national programs.Resources for agricultural research are limited. National research programs cannot systematícally work on aH crops for the totality of ecosystems that existo Priorities are often set by the more powerful forces in the economy. International centers help to overcome what is a persistent publíc resource constraint in developing countries. Moreover, their international focus allows them to compensate for biases in technology development and institutional organization. The comparative advantage of an international center such as CIA T Hes in compensating for the underinvestment in several critical technological and institutional areas, which have become second priority to more dominate concerns.Given the aboye mentloned underinvestment, CIAT's comparative advantage in the Latin American context Hes in technology development in three basic areas.Agricultural research in Latin America has focused on the more dynamic growth sectors in the agricultural economy, essentially the medium to large farm sector. Before the development of a large domest1c urban market, growth came in tropical export crops, such as sugar cane, cotten, coffee, cacao, ane! rubber. It was these crops wh!ch received the bulk of the research resources. With the rapid urbanization of the last three decades and the orientatíon to import-substitutien development schernes, the principal growth sectors have shifted to highly tncome elastic foed and feed crops, again principally associated with large-scate mechanized productien patterns (see 1.1.3.). Thus, past efforts have given relatively little attention to the crops which are the most irnportant sources of calories and protein for the largest number of peoples ane! serve as a source of income to the largest number of farmera. The international centera, as they are able to concentrate en these cornrnodities, can make a unique contribution towards overcoming the large knowledge gap which still exists on the basic food crops, parttcularly when they are grown by low resource farmers.Compounding the paucity of research on basic food crops ls the fact that, in many cases, the relatively little research done on these crops has been conducted under experiment stations conditions approaching more closely conditions of large, mechanized. irrigated farrns. CIAT's emphasis on technology appropriate for use undar the constraints faced by small farmers, and its cooperation with national programs in strengthening and developing methodology for on-farm evaluabon of technology, allow the Center to paya apecial role in developing technology for farmers with limited resources and for the leas favored env!ronrnents.There ia also a lack of technology which will make possible the rational expansion into the frontier areas of tropical America. The low natural fertility of the soila together with a series of more localized problema are the chief reasons why these vast areas (approxirnately 50% of tropical America) still remaín significantly underutilized. A:s an international center, CIAT can and must look towards the longer term future as well as the immediate needs ane! therefore has a comparative advantage in developing appropriate technology which wiU make poasible logically sound and more intensive utilization of thoseareas apt for livestock production, eventuatly combined with crop productton. in the frontier regions.Solutíon of the technícal constraints for improving agricultural productivity is often inhibíted by institutional barriers. An international center, both by its additionality to the resource mi x, as well as by the flexibility and agilíty resulting from its apolítical, non-governmental nature, can contribute in various ways to overcoming some of these institutional constraints. These include:There is ample, documented evidence that agricultural research plays an important role in agricultural development and that this ís a highly profitable venture. The positive results coming out of collaborative efforts between CIAT and national programs can also stimulate national planning and treasury offícíals to recognize the value of agricultural research and increase the relative levels of funding for national research institutions. Addítionally, there is an evident tendency by international organizaban to increase the level of their loan and technical assistance support for national agricultural research systems as they recogníze the importance of havíng strong national institutíons to most profitably cooperate with the ínternational centers. 1 hus, the role of CIAT is additive as well as stímulative and catalytic in increasing investment in this important and profítable area to a more reasonable level. Moreover, there exist large economies of scales in research at a certain level of the research contlnuum. Thís level depends on the degree of development and setf-sufficiency of each and all natíonal programs in each crop Or commodity. Avoiding unnecessary duplications in many small scale programs will certainly allow for a more cost effective utilization of the total limited resources available.While there are understandable pressures for national institutions to spread their research efforts over a broad range of export, plantatíon and food commodities, the international centers are concentrating only 0'1 basíc foods and through division of labors between individual centers have the luxury of focusing their efforts 0'1 only a few commodities.-25-Thus, CIAT, by maintaining a sharp focus on only a few crops, can make more rapid progress in developing technology for these commodities. By demonstrating the usefulness of concentratton it can also have a catalytic effect in helping nattonal programs establish elearer prioritíes, and thus avoíd the dangers of over-diversification.The In addition the Roberts and Hardin paper identifíed high priority problems for the ínstHute's attention. This extensive Ust of commodíty and production system responsibílities is shown in relation to the diseussíon of subsequent modifications in seetíon 3.1.2.The report also stated that \"the proposed lnstitute would follow in many respects the successful lnternational Rice Research Institute model~' but then says, \"the Latín American Institute would not be concerned with a single crop or enterprise. lt would concentrate on the identification and solution of tropical erop and livestoek production and distribution problems and on the traíning of people in a problem-solving research and educatíonal environment'~ Thus, the eoneept of the institute 'seemed to embrace both an ecological base multí-eommodity base. However, it is also apparent that the authors reeognized the eomplexity of an eeologieal mandate for an institute and opted for a set of eommodities as the means of moving agricultural productivi.ty within the ecologieal zone.Following the establishment of CIAT and appointment of its first Board of 1 rustees, the programmatic scope and operational philosophy of the Center were defined in greater detail by the management and the Board. Initíally, this resulted in somewhat of an expansíon of the scope envísaged by Roberts and Hardin. Thus, a broad foundation of development goals, geographic and eeosystem scope and commodity responsibilities was laid down in the first years of ClAT's existence. This provided the base on whieh the Center could, with experience and further studies, build a solid, smaller edifice. 1) Seminars on advances in research-at which the C IAT programs present their resul ts and plans and seek suggestions for changes.2) Special topic workshops-such as one held in November, 1977, on rice, at which rice research leaders from throughout tropical America were invited to advise the Center on the future nature of its Rice Program activities, and from which came the recom-reble 3. , DevelaP\"l\"lont of Progrom Mandate of CIAT.(1) Top priority to be given fa one CM' more grtlin legume cropt sucn os soybeans, beoos\" c:owpeas and pi geon peos.(2) I'Corn end riee are of primafy importanc:e and should be investígated cooperorively whh An important part of CIAT' s aehievements in its formative years, and an essential base for the aetivities programmed for the '80s, is the development of strong collaborative institutional relahonships; sinee it is clear!y reeognized that CIAT actíng alone is impotent. Therefore, cordial and productive relationships both of a formal (through various signed agreements) and of an informal nature have been developed with national programs through the continent; with regional organizatiOlls (such as IICA, CAT1E and SEARCA): with international organizations (e.g., FAO and IADS): and with sister centers (e.g., rice with IRRI, and cassava with liTA). The relatíonships and understandings developed through these agreements, together with mutual respect, witl form an essential foundation for the suceess of C1AT activities in the years ahead. The process for agricultural production technology generation and transfer can be symbolized by a pipeline in which the results of basic research are fed into one end of the conduit, and increased agricultural production eventually emerges from the other. WhHe technology other than new varieties' also forms an important component of the output of the international agricultural research centers, the development of new crop varieties is the best understood, and forms a good illustratíon of the sequence of activítíes related to generatian and delivery of various types of technology. In this sequence the gathering together of germplasm accessions is the first phase in which the international center is involved. Selections from the germplasms co\\1ection, many of which are the resutts from national crop improvement programs, are often distributed through the internationat testing network while the time-corlsuming process of hybridization is going on. Thus the initia! impact of the centers' crop improvement programs may welt be through distribution of materíals others have developed or selected. However, with time, the impact of the centers' breeding program should beco me evident, since the intensity of the se!ection and testing activities engaged in by the international centers for any particular species is usually greater than has ever been appHed to that species. Thus it ís only to be expected that eventually the best varietíes appearing in ínternatíonal testing should come from the centers' breeding program. However, as national programs develop theír own capacity and as strong cooperative efforts with the internatíonal centers become estabtished, nationa! programs are in an increasingly better positlon to develop varieties which will be superior in their own !ocation sítuations and whích compete strongly on a global basis in ínternational testing networks. Thus. the interface between the center and natíonal crop improvement programs is the international testing network, whích utilízes materials comíng from other sources as well as those from the center' s breeding programs.The entire process from germplasm collection to releasing fínished varieties by naliona! programs is a long one, requiring at least six years in beans, and nine years in cassava and pastures. The assembly of the large germplasm base is not only en essential first stega in eny plant improvement program but also en important responsibility as it relates to presarvation of valuable genetic resources. Within the CGIAR system CIAT has been given global responsibilities for the collection, evaluabon, preservation and distribution of germplasm in cassava, beans and tropical forages. At the time of this writing the number of accessions of these commodities in CIAT's genetic resources unit are as follows. Cassava: 2,600; Beans: 30,000; Tropical Forages: 7,250.3.3.2.1 Rice.-Average yields in 20 Latin American countries have increased from 2. O tons per hectare in 1967 to 3.2 tons per hectare in 1978 due chiefly to new varieities developed at CIAT and IRRI, in collaboratton with natíonal programs.-In Colombia the national average yield or irrigated rice has risen from 3.0 t/ha in 1968 to 5.2 tlha in 1980.-Eíght countries have named 29 new varíeties using eight different finished lines receíved from CIAT and six countries have named 12 varíeties from selectíons of advanced C IAT breeding lines.-A set of improved agronomic practices developed at CIAT has been shown to double yields in farmers' fields in more than 50 regional trials conducted over a space of six years in Colombia. These practicas have now been adopted on state farms and farmer associations throughout Cuba, resulting in such a dramatic increase in production that cassava has been removed from the list of rationed food items in that country.-TWelve countries are using CIAT materials in their own breeding programs.-Eleven countries are increasing planting materials of varieties received from CIAT for distribution to farmers.-Ten countries are using the rapid propagation techniques developed at CIAT.-Seven countries have established facilities to receive CIAT's hybrids as meristem tissue culture to minimize hazards of international movement of vegetative material.-Since the in~rnational testing program began in 1976, some 30 countries have received a total of 150 individual bean nurseries for testíng. These nurseries initially consisted entirely of varieties developed by others and selected for the CIAT germplasm collection. Now, over 90 percent of the materials in nurseries are CIAT-bred tinas ( the materíals to be included in the nurseries are selected on the basis of their being superior to all other materials in extensive series of tests prior to entry into the international testing nurseries).-Seven countries have named a total of 11 varteties based on finished varieties, 01\" selections from advanced breeding lines recetved from CIA T. Six of these varieties are already being grown by farmers in four countries.-Andropogon gayanus, a grass of Afrtcan origin, highly tolerant to acid soits,low soil fertility, drought, insects and diseases, and selected for use in Latín America by CIAT, has now been named as a new cultivar in Colombia and E:>razil. CIAT has made available 8 tons of baslc seed for multip!ication in those countries, and has also supplied Venezuela and Panama with seed where the grass is under advanced testing.-Several forage legume accessions collected and selected by CIAT have reached advanced stages of testing in Colombia and Brazil.Because of the growth habit of A. gayanus and the nitrogen fixation abilíty and higher protein content of the legumes, a much better impact is expected to be achieved when A. gayanus is used together with legumes. Several years of grazing trials have demonstrated a 10 to 15-fold increase in live-weight animal gains per hectare, and a 2 to 3-fold increase in per animal productivity, of selected grass/ legume associations over the best-managed native savanna.Chapter 4: CIAT: OBJECTIVES ANO STRATEGIES IN THE EIGHTIESTo generate and deliver, in collaboration with national and regional institutions, improved technology which wtll contribute to increased produetion, productivity and qualíty of specifie basie food commodities in the tropies--principally eountries of Latin Ameríca and the Caribbean--thereby enablíng producers and consumers, especially those with limited resourees, to increase their purchasing power and improve their nutrítion.The components of this objective statement are amplified as follows:Among the various components of economic and agriculturaldevelopment, and among the various activities ímportant for the improvement of human welfare, CIAT will continue to concentrate on the generation and transfer of technology. This does not negate the importance of institutional, social and political changes, but it does imply a confídence that application of modern science and technology to the problems of food production can make a sígnificant contribution.The objectives statement emphasizes that CIAT wcrks in collaboration with national and regional instttutíons. This underli.nes the Center' s strong convietion that successful accomplíshment of the desired results involves the cooperation of various national, regional and international agencies, of which an internatíonal agricultural research center is but one. The place of CIAT on the technology development and transfer continuum, and íts involvement in various states on this eontinuum, is schematically illustrates in Fig. 4.1. Given CIAT's unique place between a rango of more basic rosearch institutions and coIlaborating natíonal programs, the Conter ml.,lst articulate íts activities in two directions. First, it must relate its technology generabon efforts to developments in research instítutions working at the more basic end oF the research spectrum. Second, it must assure that all of its interlocking activíties, whether in research or in international cooperatíon, are designed to be supporting of, and sup¡:)tementary to, collaborating regional and national researchjdevelopment ínstitutiollS.-40-...¡¡:-41 -CIAT recognizes that of the various ínstítutions participating in the technology transfer continuum none are more important than the national agencies involved in agricultural research and dvelopment. It is only through strong national programs that the new technology can be evaluated under varied local condítions, modified as necessary and eventuatly be transfered to the farmers along with the essential support services required to make the technology useful and viable for the producer. Every effort is made by CIAT to maintain cordial and productive collaboration with its prime partners, the national institutíons. In the area of CIAT's competence and wíthín the límits of its resources, every effort will be made to strengthen the capacily of these ínstitutions to carry out their functíons as full and effective partners in the research continuum.,he Center was founded to serve the troptcs of the Americes and, during its first ten years, has orientes its programs towards that regíon. Each of the four CIAT commodities is firmly establíshed as a basie staple food of the region. The Tropical Pastures Program has a strong ecologieal focus on the underutllized, aCid, infertile soils of the Amertcas, while the Rice Program, in close collaboratíon with IRRI, ís exclusívely directed towards Latín America and the Caribbean.With respect to cassava and beans', CIAT has been given world responsibility for these crops within the CGIAR system (with the exception of cassava in Africa, where liTA has a continental responsibilily). It is recognized that with respect to both of these latter commodities CIAT technology with appropríate modification can have considerable impact outside of the Western Hemísphere. In the case of cassava an active technology transfer effort towards Asia has already begun and has demonstrated that, in this contínent where cassava ls of considerable importance and is largely unresearched, CIAT technology can playa very important role in increasing the crop's productivity. CIAT intends to further develop mechanisms for the development and disseminatíon of cassava technology in Asia. With respect to Afríca, both lITA and CIAT consider it important to ¡¡aise their respective cassava programs. A mechanism for such a liaison ¡s outlíned in this plan.In the case of beans, the most important production region outside of the American is in Eastern Africa. In many countries of the latter region beans are the second most important human food after maíze. The need for new technology in the region is very pressing, and it has already been demonstrated that CJAT technology could have a very important impactoThe Center recognizes that in the case of beans and cassava, the tech-nology as developed for the Western Hemisphere is such that with a relatively minar additional investment it can provide the base for productivity increases in the other conttnents. Thus, white CIA T' s baste orientation of research will continue to focus on the Western Hemisphe.re, the Center will continue to expand its efforts to find mechanisms that will assure that the new technology has a maxímum impact in other areas of the tropics, without unduly diverting attention from the immediate task.CIAT identified limited resource producers and consumers, Le., the rural and urban pOOl\", as the principal beneficiaries of CIAT work, thus clearly incorporating human welfare objectives within the production goals. As will be described below this translates into technology design considerations.The objectíves statement, while recognizing the importance of making a contribution towards overall production and productivity, also emphasizes CIAT's commitment to !:he lower income strata of both the producer and consumer communities. In the developing countries of the Western Hemisphere these two communities overlap to a much lesser degree than in developing countries in Africa and Asia. Approximately 60% of the population in Latín America is urban and the trend towards an ever íncreasíng per~entage of urban dWellers ís expected to continue through the eighties. Consequently total production, regardless of the resource base of the producer, cannot be ignored since this will affect the price of food for urban consumers.Sorne countries, particularly those with large cooperatives and statefarms, require technology for large scale, mechanized production. Nevertheless, CIAT concentrates íts attentíon on production technology that is specifically adapted to the needs of small holders, both because a large proportion of two of the food crops dealt with by CIAT (beans and cassava) are produced by small holders, and al so because the development of such technology requires a sustained and concerted effort whích can best be made by a public funded, international instítutíon.In carrying out its particular role in the research and development continuum, the Center pursues the fotlowíng basic strategies.The linking of individual researchers as well as research groups through the establishment of research networks ls considered a prime mechanism for creating and maintaining a research and development momentum in benefit of any given commodity. Research networks not only facil itate the exchange of information and materials between the national and international level, but also serve the horizontal transfer of technology between national programs. CIAT is, and witl continue to be, active in maintaining and fortifying commodity-based research networks through information and documentation services, germplasm exchange activities, seminars and workshops, and consultative visits.An analysis of production constraints of the commodities in CIAT's mandate has indlcated that increased availabi.lUy of improved germplasm adapted to the environmental conditions and prevailing production systems, will have the largest impact on production among the various possible alternative strategies for research. CIAT has been and will continue to be involved in technology generation which has as its central theme the collection, production and supply of new germplasm. In addition, agronomic components of technology of a non-site specific nature have been and will be developed parallel to and coordinated with the germplasm development activities.Since the inception of CIAT, the strengthening of commodity research groups within national agricultural research institutions has been a central strategy of the Center. As mentioned above, the Center is well aware of the preeminent importance of strong national programs working in full partnership with CIAT. Through the proviston of training opportunities the Center is in a position to make an important contribution to the strengthening of national counterpart instítutions at the same time that training provides the principal conduit for the transfer of improved research and production technologies.Certain basíc principies of operation have evolved at CIAT. These will guide tha Canter in the '80s in implementing the strategy described above. These include:CIAT's research is mission oriented directed towards the solution of the most important production problems in the Center's area of responsibility.This includes sophisticated research whose relative magnitude will progressively increase over me eíghties as national programs are able to assume a greater share of the adaptive research responsibilities. The success of the Center's research will always be measured by its contributíon to increased foad production and productívity, rather than an increase in the knowledge base or in academíc publications.The complementary role of CIAT, bom in reJatíon to specialized actívities of collaborating, more basic research institutions as well as the adaptive research and technoJogy transfer activities of national programs has already been describen in section 4.1 .2. This translatas into a basic operational principal of complementaríty which will continue to dominate CIAT's work and relationships in the decade ahead. CIAT will concentrate resources on those activities in which it has the comparative advantage, and collaborate with others in doing what they can do basto The manner in which this relates to national programs ls key and permeates the strategies of the programs and the International Cooperation activities described in later ehapters.In terms of more basie research institutions, both in developed as well as in developing countries, there is much useful work that can be earried out whieh complements and suppoti'ts the more problem-solving rasearch approach of CIAT. The Center has encouraged, and will continue to encourage other researeh institutions to engage in well-defined, basic research endeavours which have a high potentia\\ for pay-off in terma of CIAT's own work but which requires specialized facilities and skills not available at CJAT. Such work can either be accomplished wholly at the respective research institutlon, or in direct collaboration whereby a portion of the research project ls carried out at the Center. Considering the fact that the Center is itself a recipient of funds designed to finance operations per se, and also considering that research collaboration from other research organizations is strictly additional to the Center's core operations, CIAT does not in principle finance such research out of core resources. Whenever possible, CIAT col1aborates with interested scientists in helping to secure appropriate specíal project funds to make the collaborative research possible.The role of CIAT, especíallyas related to its orientation towards the low resource farmers, greatly influences the nature of technology generated by tc,e Center. Sorne basic principles of technology design emanatíng from these considerations include: 4.3.3.1 Minimal input orientation. Access to the benefits of new technology by the resource poor farmar ls often limited if i ts successful utilization requires high levels of expensive inputs. In order that improved technology can meet the needs of small holdera who produce the majorily of CIAT's crop commodities, CIAT strives to deaign technology components which will minimize dependence on purchased inputs, and irrtgation. At tIle same time there la a need to enaure that the technology maintains high production levela at higher levels of 'Ínput use. The latter ia a recognition of the need to increase overall foad production to service the lncreasingly urbanized nature of socíety in developíng countrtes, perticulerly in the Americas.ClA T' s concern for mínimal input technology ís closely all ied to a strong eoncern for energy conservation. As ever rising oH and gas prices have driven up the cost of irrigation, larm mechanization, fertilizers, and chemicel protective agents, it becomes imperative that new technology minimize dependence On high energy inputs. CIAT attacks the problem by developing Ca) germplasm resistant to sueh constraints as insects, diseases, adverse soil eonditions, and drought; (b) germplasm that has greater intrinsie effieiency in the uptake andjor utilization of soil nutrients and greater efficieney in the use of applied fertil izers; and (e) in the case of beans and pasture legumes, germplasm with improved capabilities in nitragen fíxatíon. At the sama time, CIAT develops components of production aystems that require low levela of energy inputs.As an international research <Jrganízation workíng through national agencies, Cll\\T does not aim to produce finished technology that fite specific ecologlcal rüches and meets the specifíc socio-economie conditions and quality preferences within a given settíng. Rather, CIAT emphasizes the development of basic technology componente such as ímproved germplasm base, research methodologies for the identification of optímal management practices; methodologies for the development of single and multiple crop systems where the commodltles are lmportant components in the system. These components serve national programs as buí lding blocks for relevant produchon systems for single commodities as well as for multi-commodity systems that are viable and socially acceptable for given local conditions.To this end program scientists beco me as familiar as posslble with the whole-farm systems inta which such technology components are expected to contribute.Ove to environmental and socio-economlc eonstraints the charaeteristics of the production systems in each of CIAT's commoditiea vary throughout the regions of interest. Whenever possible, CIAT attempts to develop technology components that have appllcability across the varíous agroel imatic and socio-economic conditions. When this i8 not p08sible, teehnology components are developed that are speciftc to a given ecosystem and/or a given set of broadly defined socio-economic conditions. Whereas research for unique but broadly defined conditions within CIAT's zona of interest forms an integral part of the Center' s technology development efforts, research on production faetors which are of a more site specifio nature is not considered a legitimate concern of CIAT when seen against the responsibilities and capabitities of national programs. Thus, such research as that pertaining to soil fertility and associated fertilizer recommendation are not of principal concern except in the development of research methodologies where these are lacking.Evaluation and feedback mechanisms. Technology designed and tested only 0'1 experiment stations ts not finished technology. There is no assurance that any given technology package ts useful until tt has been validated under the conditions and eonstraints at the farm level. Thus, on-farm testing is an integral component of the technology generation prOCess. The results of such work are usual1y very location specific and C lA T does not have the resources nor the mandate to work in the wide range of eoological, socio-economic and agronomic eonditions in the 001laborating countries. Thus, the Center depends on and enoourages national counterpart agencies to evaluate new varieties and practices 0'1 a regional basis, to modif'y these where necessary to meet local requirements, and to test the resulting teehnology systems under the real farming conditions representing the largest number df producars and conditions possible.However, CIAT considers it of utmost importance to actively collaborate with selected national and/or local agencies in the regional testing and onfarm validation of improved technology packages that inelude CIA T-developed components. In these col1aborative projects CIAT's role normally is restricted to providing materials, informatíon. and assistanca in the design and analysis of the farm level researeh. Such regional testlng and on-farm validation serve as vital sources of feedback into the Center's commodity programs to influence technology designoAs is graphically Illustrated in Figure 4.1, the work of an international agricultural researeh cantel\" Is but one part in the complexity of activities which range from basie research to the eventual applieation of improved productton technology by the farmer. The successful accomplishment of the desired end result--improved productivity and welfare--involves the cooperation of a muUitude of local, national, regional, and international agencies. An international center can only make a contribution to the overan goal to the extent that it cooperates as a partner with these various insti tutions and plays a role that is complementary to the activitíes of other institutions.From ::he unique vantage point of view of CIAT as an international research institution, its most important col1aborators are the national institutions involved in agricultural research and development. It is only through strong national programs that new technology components can be assimtlated into improved farming systems practices.4.3.4.1 National instítutions as ful! partners in the technology development process. The relationship between the natíonal research institutíons and CIAT c1early is one of mutual reliance and respecto On the one hand, national institutions look to CIAT for basic materials, information and backup research on selected commodities and for coordination of research and development activities in the respective commodities on a supranational leve!. On the other hand, CIAT's work is meaningful on\\y to the extent that it is complemented on the national level and is integrated in national research and development efforts. In the effort of agricultura! research and development, professionals on the national and international level work as ful!y equal partners. Jt is in this spirit of full equality of national and internationa! efforts that C IAT continues to expect to find the basis for effective col!aboration and mutual complementarity.In de decade of the '80s, CIAT will continue to assist national programs in developing their national research capacities as they relate to the commodities in CIAT's mandate. CIAT realizes that with respect to anyone of these commodities, each collaborating country faces its own unique circumstances out of which grow equally unique country program needs. CIAT shall continue to address these unique country needs and to serve the respective country programs in relatíon to theír expressed needs.As many collaboratíng countries will increasingly be able to assume commodity research responsibilities that hitherto had to be assumed by CIAT, it ís envisaged that, wíth respect to many countries> part of the present work by CJAT will progressively shift towards the national programs, thereby enabling CIAT to increasingly engage in back-up research and related actívíties that are most effectively carried out on the international level.4.3.4.3 Mutual consultation. Gíven the necessíty for an effectíve ínterfacing between collaborating national ínstitutions and CIAT, frequent and meaningful mutual consultabon becomes the basis for trua complementarity.In the decade ahead, CIAT shall continue to put heavy emphasis on all activities that further the purpose of mutual consultation. The means by which this consultabon IS brought about are discussed in Chapter 3.The technology development process of whích ClAT forms a part involves a multítude of partícipants, víz., the national research, extension and development programs, credit instítutíons, trainíng organizatlons, public supplyand marketing instítutíons, prívate enterpríse, and--Iast but not least, the farm producer and hls cooperatíves. Gíven the fact that CIAT neíther has the comparative advantage to evaluate and adapt new production technology in varied local socío-economíc and agro-ecological conditions, nor the resources to effectively move beyond the national level, CIAT wiH continue to regard the research programs in each country as its prime counterparts, thereby limiting its direct interinstitutíonal technology transfer to these tatter instítutlons. Thís implies that CIAT has no íntention to become directly involved in technology transfer activities to the farm producer at farm level.CIAT ls most cognizant of the fact that improved agricultural productivity ls both a function of the availabllity of víable production technology as well as the availability of inputs and conducive marketing condítions. 80th of these precondiUons impinge in no small measure on national policy making. In consideration of the fact that both national agricultural research policy as well as national policies regarding incentives for technology development and adoption are strictly within the decision-making doma in of the respective countries involved, CrAT will continue to limit its role in these areas to the provision of appropriate forums which allow national policy makers to fully explore the consequences of alternative poli cíes . However, aside from advocating the need for strong national research organizations, CIAT will continue to abstain from advocating any national policy options.Chapter 5: CROPS RESEARCHIn Chapter 1 the various commodities in the CIAT's mandate have been discussed in the light of the socio-economic conditions in the developing countries of the Western Hemisphere. It is clear from that analysis that rice, beans and cassava are important in the region for CIAT involvemento Their selection on the basis of this importance has been confirmad.A basic feature of this plan is the concept of increasing productivity of the commodities through research in their traditíonal areas of productíon while also contríbuting to the development of stable and productive systems for the agricultural frontíer. In this context cassava and upland rice research at CIAT ís directed towards the dual objective of ímproving productivíty in tradítional areas as well as at the frontier. Irrígated rice and bean research at CIAT is more directad at traditional areas and their margins, although limited irrigated production areas for rice are being developed in some countries in frontier situations.Other crop commodities which were identified in Chapter 1 as having great economic importance in the region particularly for frontier areas, are discussed in Chapter 6. In this Chapter program strategies and projections for the three crop commodities in the CIAT mandate are outlined.Cassava is the fourth most important global food energy crop in tropical developing countries providing a signifícant source of calories in the dai Iy diets of over 500 mil! ion people in 26 tropical countries. In many countries dried cassava is by far the cheapest source of calories (see 1.2) and for this reason is especially important for the poor. The per capita consumption of fresh and dried cassava products tends to be high among the poor, climbing as incomes rise among the poorer strata and then declining in the highest income groups. Since the crucial nutritional deficiency in most low income countries is calorie deficiency, cassava is particularly important because lower cassava prices would principal-Iy benefit the lower income strata by helping to improve their nutritíon.Although cassava is relatively low in protein, ít can also contribute to augmenting protein avai labil ity when it is usad as animal feed. Recent development of intensive livestock production systems dependent on feed concentrates has led to increased consumption of poultry products.In sorne developing countries the real prices of poultry have actually falten in recent years. The resultant strong demand for feed grains has, in sorne cases, led to competition between the concentrate industry and -50the human food sector for calorie and protein sources. Praduction of sorghum has increased at very hlgh rates (12.5,% per annum in Latín America) on prime land which could otherwise have been used for foed crops. Thus, the increase in demand for meat may have tended to bid away resources that might have gone to the production of other basic food staples. Use of cassava as an animal feed could vastly reduce this competition because of the availabil\\ty of unused marginal land, which can not support many other crops but could produce cassava.Despite the rapid growth in sorghum production, domestic production of feed grains often has been unable to meet demand, leading both to increasing imports of feed grains by many countries that can tU afford it, and also to upward pressure on the price of animal feeds. The resulting increase in the cost of meat tends to put it out of reach of the very pOOl\". Production of cassava with underutilized domestic resources cou!d promote employment, alleviate the burden of costly imports, and contribute to maintaining a supply of cheap animal protetn.Cassava has a!ways been a traditional calorie source in tropical Latin Americñ. As a raot crap cassava has several key characteristics that make it weU suited for tradUiona! agricultural systems: Ca) high effieieney in the production of carbohydrates; (b) adaptation to soil and water stress; (e) an indeterminate harvest perlod; (d) high yields per unit of land and labor; and (e) compatibil ity with a variety of erops in associatíon. Cassava fíts well ¡nto small farm systems and as sueh, has been a major stap!e in rural areas in the lowland trapies of Latín Ameriea and in some eountries in the Caribbean.As Latín America urbanizes, the importanee of eassava for direet human consumption will depend on its marketability and competitiveness with other calorie staples in urban markets. High perishability after harvest, bulkíness, and low commercial value by weight result in high marketing margins. This is compounded by high post-harvest losses. Whether low praduction casts are converted ¡nto competitive urban prices depends on the effieiency of the marketing process. In most cases in urban Latin America fresh cassava is more expensive than the principal grain staples, primaríly because marketing margins are as much as 300,% of farm-Ievel prices. Where cassava goes through a processing stage befo re marketing, as in Brazil, the dried product ¡s, in general, the cheapest urban calorie source available. Thus, only in Brazil, where most of the cassava is eaten in pracessed form, and Paraguay, where most of the popu!ation is still rural, is cassava a major calorie source in the national diet as a whole. Nevertheless, cassava will eontinue to rema;\" a staple in rural areas in the lowland trapícs.A strategy to increase the incomes of the small-scale farmer through the development of new cassava technology is, outside of Brazil, constrained by demand for cassava as an urban food. As a carbohydrate source with a low unit production cost, cassava has potential to enter alternativa markets, namely, as a wheat flour substitute (suitably enriched); as the carbohydrate source in feed concentrates¡ as feedstock in ethanol production; and as an industrila starch. Major expansion in demand in either the fresh urban market or the industrial markets depends on the relative price of caSsava wtth other alternatives. In the industrial markets the price of cassava in almost all Latin American countries needs to be reduced in order for cassava to be competi tive. Lower unit production costs, and thus cheaper prices for cassava can be best achieved by the application of new technology. Historically, there has been tittle research on the crop and the potential to increase yields from their present average yield level of 10 t/ha is very large. On the other hand, the introduction of improved cassava production technology without the complementary processing technology runs the risk of saturating traditional markets, resulting in a negative impact on farmer íncomes. Thus, research on production technology in cassava cannot be independent of research on processing technology.Because of the many mechanisms for stress tolerance in the plant, cassaya can be grown under a wide range of edaphic and climatic condítions. Thís very broad ecological range, however, severely complicates germplasm improvement, especially since in cassava a very marked genotype x environment interaction exists. The ecological conditions under which cassava is grown can be broadly subdivided into six major ecosystems (Table 5.1). The lowland tropical ecosystem with a pronounced dry seaSOn (ecosystem 1) is the most important in terms of production with an estimated 50% or more of total world prodt..lction. The acid soU savanna (ecosystem 2), and the hot hum id lowland tropics (ecosystem 3) are at present not major production areas. These ecosystems are potentially very important. Expansion of cassava production in these areas is already occuring in Mexico, BrazH, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The highland tropical areas (ecosystem 5), and the intermediate altitude tropical areas (ecosystem 4) af Latin America are of least ímportance at presento In Africa, potential for expansion in these ecosystems is great. High yieldíng clones well adapted to this ecosystem are not presently available in Africa but exist in the Americas. The subtropics (ecosystem 6) are important. in the Americas with approximately 30% of total production being in thís regíon; on a world basis, from 15 to 20% of total cassava production is produced in this ecosystem.While each ecosystem ís defined by climatic and edaphic parameters, there is also a series of unique insect and disease complexes associated -53with each ecosystem thus reflecting an interaction between cassava pathogens and environmental factors (Table 5.2).Overlaid on this ecological pattern is a market variation in production systems. These range from the slash-and-burn system of the Amazon jungle, to planttng cassava as an introductory crop in pasture establishment, and to the small-farm, multi-crop systems typical of most cassava production. The crop is labor intensive, requiring from 80-120 man-days per hectare. Cassava is often grown in association with a legume or maize. Frequently, it is also usad as the tast crop in a rotation, in which the farmer maximizes cassava's adaptation to infertile soil conditions. Purchased inputs are rarely used in cassava production systems, as usually it is not economica! to control pathogens in such a long-season crop, and soil fertility is usually managed through fallowing systems.Evaluation and se!ection of oassava clones has been carried out for centuries by farmers across a wide range of agro-clímatic conditions. In general, most traditional cassava clones are relatívely well adapted to the stress factors characteristic of the area in which they are grown. Nevertheless, the germptasm base in such a localized varietal development process is limited, thereby putting a ceiling on potential yield. Systematíc breeding and selectiorl programs for cassava are rare. From those which are in existence very few improved varieties have reachad farmers. Nevertheless, yields under experimental conditions of 80 tonsjha in comparison with average farm yields of around 10 tons suggest tremendous potential for raising farm productivity. The principal production constraints, therefore, ls felt to be the lack of hlgher yietding varieties that give stable ylelds under stress conditions. The availability of such varieties becomes even more necessary as cassava moves from traditional production systems to more continuous production systems. me appl ication of scientific breeding and selection methodologies in cassava is complicated by the variatlon that exists in productíon conditions, the stress conditions under which cassava is usually grown, and the 1 imitations put on the use of purchased inputs due to the Iimited resources of traditíonal cassava farmers. Cassava's adaptation to relatívely more marginal agricultural areas, lts long crop cycle, lts Iimited yield response to purchased lnputs in most ecosystems, and lts low value al! suggest that cassava will not be competitive with hlgher value crops on prime lands. The comparative advantage of cassava is, therefore, in areas where there are major constraints on the growth of other crops. Moreover, given tts labor intensity, small farm systems should continue to have the comparative advantage in production. These factors imply that germplasm improvement will have to be accomplished under stress Major constraints on production occur due to lack of high yielding varieties tolerant to drought, disease and pests. These constraints can be partially overcome by the development of improved germplasm. This has indeed been one of the major areas of emphasis of the Program in the past, and will continue to be emphasized in the futura. The methodology used in the past will be somewhat modified. The CIAT program has warked under low stress (CIAT), medium stress (Caribia) and severe stress (Carimagua) conditions; however, it has buen dífficult to obtain single varíeties well adapted ta all these conditions. lt is quite probable that the same will apply ta other cassava ecosystems. Acoordingly, the Program will evaluate germplasm in each ecosystem (this has already been done in ecosystem 1, 2, 4 and 5) and use superior materíals in crosses to produce clones specificaHy adapted to each area, rather than to try to develop broadly adapted clones. The material produced will be evaluated in advanced yield trials for yield stabilíty and quality.lmproved germptasm is, however, onlya partí al solution. The rate of progress in any breeding program is roughly inversely proportional to the number of breeding objectives. Hence, breeding must be used only for solving problems of major importance. Such problems as control of the many minor pathogens that attack planting m,3.terial cannot be resolved through varíetal resistance, but rather through ínexpensíve chemical protectants. In addition, many problems are not even capabte of resolutlon by breeding. For example, no varietal resistance has been found to the cassava hornworm. In this tatter case, biological control methods have been developed. In cases such as phosphorus ferUlization, the cheapest methods are searched for, such techníques as use of rock phosphorous and mycorrhíza are under study. lmproved management practices of general applicabitity will be tested, along with the new improved lines for adaptability and stability over time within each ecosystem, through a series of regional trials. From ':hese trials technology packages are recommended for use in a limited number of on-farm vatidation tríals in Colombia in selected ecosystems.Research on cassava utitization and marketing is a necessary complement to the research on production technology. To ensure the benefits of the increased production potential there must be some insurance that a sufficiently expansive market exists. CIAT will concentrate on utilization research that wil1 contribute to expansion in demand for fresh cassava prOOucts, either as a direct 01' indirect human food. CIAT has neither the comparative advantage, nor the mandate, for performing research on improving processing efficiencies in the starch 01'\" ethanol markets.The fresh urban market will continue to remain the preferred (highest price) market; however, quality maintenance and high marketing margins limit consumption. The perishability of cassava is positively correlated to starch contento High starch content ts an important factor in determining quality and high starch Iines are beíng bred which could be more perishable.Research on the aspect will be emphasized. Cassava storage methods based on curing and the use of chemtcal protectants will be further developed.The animal feed market is increasing rapidly and one of the major limitations on cassava entering this market ts the development of highly efficient natural drying techniques, particularly in the more humid tropical areas. Such techniques will be developed by CIAT. A further factor influencing and limiting the entrance of cassava to the animal feed market is lack of goOO economíc data on the market potential of cassava particularly where government policíes often subsidize other, often imported, competing products. The feed markets wil1 be analysed in certain areas and the feasability of using cassava as an animal feed demonstrated. These studies will be made available to both the private and public sector and where interest is shown the CIAT program will cooperate in helping to set up demonstrative pllot projects.The state of development of the cassava industry and the level of support by national programs and government agencies varies tremendously. Consequently, the assistance required by different countries, or even dífferent regions of the sama country, will vary over time. In this document an attempt has been made to classify countries according to development of cassava programe and then to identify the type of assistance required for each group. A generalized strategy for international cooperation with countries in different stages of development ís given in Chapter 7. With reference to cassava the grouping of countries and the respective cooperation strategy is shown below.The type of assistance and collaboratíon in different countries obviousIy depends on their present and future status. The overal1 objective of the -58-Program is that countries that have both the potential and need for increased cassava production progress to the advanced category. MJch of the basís of improved yields wilt depend on the technical capabitity of the national programs to provide certaín types of back-up support to the farmers. These services witt inelude the propagation of large stocks of \"clean seed\" of the new clones, insect hatcheries for biological control, and field diagnostic expertíse. CIAT will assíst in organizíng in-country courses for trainíng technicians in these techniques.5.1.5.2 Developing cassava countries with strong national programs. These countries have strong national cassava programs and potential for increased production but have nO natienal policy for increased -59cassava productton on only poorly developed channels for marketing or utilizing increased production. These countríes are thus in a somewhat paradoxical positíon of having strong national cassava programs but no overall strategy fo!\" production and utílization of increased cassava production.Emphasís will be placed en determíning the potential production and the economic advantages to the country when it reaches this potential. CJAT will collaborate in establishing regíonal tríals using local varieties and imported germplasm so as to assess potential productívity. In cooperatíon wíth the CIAT Cassava Economics Section. the economic gain the country could expect if cassava production were to be increased. will be assessed. This information wi 11 be made avaitable to policy makers so that they can decide íf they wish to implement a full-scale national cassaya project at the A-group level, in which case the operational strategy will be changed.5.1 .5.3 Develop!ng cassava countries with weak national programs but with an expressed need to increase cassava production. In these countries either government 01\" prívate industry has an interest in increasing cassaya production and there is a known latent potential for increased production, but imporved marketing and utilization possibilities have not been explored.The main emphasis will be on training personnel to test the CIAT-produced technology and germplasm and to assist in economic planning. CIAT will assist in establishing trials to validate the new technology under local conditions and will collect data for economic planning. If the decision is made to strengthen the national program, assistance will be given in the form of training and help in project planning.5.1.5.4 Calorie-deficit countries not presently interested in cassava. These countries have no national cassava programs, and decision-makers are often not aware of the new cassava technology and what it has to offer in terms of solving their caloríe deficit problem. The main emphasis in these countries will be to evaluate production potential through regional trials on asma!! scale and to determine the status quo of cassava production and the economic viability of increasing production.CIAT will hetp establish regional trials and collect the necessary information en present cassava production methods.In 1969 coltectíon of germplasm was initiated throughout Latin America, and by mid-1971, 2200 clones had been assembled. The germptasm bank has formed the fundamental base for the varietal improvement programo ..,By 1973 the material was increased and evaluated with special reference to agronomíc characters. Selected clones from the bank yielded as high as 61 tjha/yr of fresh roots and 22 t/ha/yr of root dry matter. The importance of harvest index as a selection critería was established. Sources of resistance to some of the major diseases and insects were identified and an agro-economíc survey was undertaken to assess the production technology used by farmers and to determine the major constraints on yield and increased production.One of the maJor bottlenecks for research and for distribution of new varieties was found to be the slow rate of propagation of cassava. A rapid propagatian technique was developed that increased multiplication rate fourt;y-fald. Meristem tissue culture techniques have been developed and the methodologies have baen shared with natlonal programs to facílítate international germplasm transfer at substantial1y reduced risk of pest and disease transfer. At the same time, work was started on one of the major constraints to utilization: perishability. The baste physical data on drying of cassava roots was obtained and it was demonstrated that curing of cassava roots prevented rapid physiological deterioration after harvest.During the years 1974 and 1975 the Program bagan to move its research outside of C1AT so as to test the newly obtained results over a range of environmental conditions and to evaluate disease and pest resistance in the field. Two major sites were establ iahed on ICA stations. At Caribia, representative of lowland tropical areas with a pronounced dry season (ecosystem 1), and of Carimagua, a high stress site representative of the acid infertile savanna (ecosystem 2). In addítion, within Colombia, a series of regional trials were established to test newly developed clones. Colombia, due to its size and topography, has a remarkable ecological variabilityand, as a result, testing of tines under a broad range of conditions can be accomplished at very low costo This testing network gave the basíc data for the later establishment of internatíonal trials, the norms of which were established at an IDRC sponsored conference in which national agencies expressed their needs.As the internaUonal trials were started the first links were made with nationa\\ programs. National programs, except for the Indian program, were universany weak or non-existent. Contact was made wlth high-Ievel offlcials in government agencies and a massive cooperative traíning program was started to provide the nascent national programs with trained personnel. As of 1980, some 209 trainees from 19 countries in the Amerícas, and 68 from 7 countries in Asia, have received post graduate training in various disciplines.Through the perlod 1976-1980 thousands of hybrids were produced and tested, and high yielding, disease and pest resístant lines were obtained for further testing. Improved agronomic practices were also developed and thase were evaluated with the new clones in both the regional trials and the on-farm evaluation trials. The net resu! t of this work is best illustrated by the regional trials. With low input improved technology, average yields of local clones in Colombia was 20 t/ha (national average 8.0 t/ha). These data illustrate the potential for the CIAT technology to double yield at selected locations without even changing varieties.The on-farm val idation trials have shown that small farmers can readily increase their yields by 70% using this technology. In addition, the impact of the new selected clones and hybrids boosted yields as 30 t/ha in the regional trials. These clonas will have problems, such as a slow multiplication rate and inferior eating quality; however, they do demonstrate the tremendous yield potential that can be realized at the farm level by furthar research and development in the decade of the eighties. New clonas being produced by the Program are rapidly overcoming some of the demonstrated deficiencies of earlier evaluated materials.Although there are only minar changes and additions to the core research staff there will be considerable changes in emphasis within the overall programo The major change in emphasis in the germplasm improvement section will be towards developing specifíc germplasm for each ecosystem. Less emphasis will be placed on ecosystems 4 and 5, and more on ecosystem 1, 2 and 3. Outposted rasearch work Is projected for ecosystem 6. In addition, as natíonal programs develop, more stress will be placed on providing sexual seed for selectíon in national agencies than on the production of fínished varieties. A schematic diagram of the changing ímportance of various actívities in theCassava Program over the decade of the elghties ts presented in Figure 5.1.In the area of crop protection continued emphasís wUI be placed on host plant resistance as the basis for integrated pest management. As resistance sources are found more effort will turn to other methods of control, such as biological control and phytosanitary practicas in those cases where host plant resistance Is not the most appropriate form of control.Up to the present much work has been done on realizing the maximum yield potential under moderate input levels through the development of technology that is broadly adapted to a wide variety of conditions. Thís emphasis will be modified so as to develop a technology that allows high and stable yields to be obtained in each ecosystem.Work on utilization and marketing has not received much attention in the Programo Now that viable high yielding technology allows yields and ',\\-\",,-,\"-c/\"'(/\"'-''''andutilization:systema '1\"\", _... . . . \"_-\\-,\" ,1 _,-. . . . , --. , _\\ . Germplasm improvemet '-'-'-\"'-'-\"-''''' -63area planted to be substantially increased, more attention will be focused on improving the utilization of cassava.Sinee the research requirements in cassava utilization are quite diversa and often of a short-term nature CIAT has projected research in this area on a more opportunistic basis than in other activitíes. Particular emphasís will be placed on fresh cassava storage and the future role of cassava as an animal feed, as well as other components including appropríate technologies for the sun-drying of cassava and ín the processíng of dríed materials. The Program wiU continue to be alert to future world developments in the industrial uses for cassava ín order that farm level processing can be developed to meet these new demands. In this research. emphasis will be particularly placed on teChniques which are low users of energy in relatíon to output and which are appropríate for small farmer condítions.5.1.7.1 Germplasm improvement. The germplasm development section (consísting of two seníor scíentists) is already evaluating the germplasm bank in four of the major ecosystems. The germplasm bank wíl1 be evaluated in a fifth ecosystem. the hot, humíd lowland trapícs. As the ínítíal germplasm evaluation is completed attentíon will turn to the produ,chon of elite lines contaíning combínations of desirable characters for each ecosystem. Large quantíties of sl3xual seed from these elite lines will al so be produced for use by level A national programs. Breeding will be dynamic in order to íncorporate new techniques (section 5.1.7.2 below).The elite lines will form the basís for crosses in varietal ímprovement.The varietal improvement sectíon wíll develop clones specífically adapted to each of the major ecosystems. In the coming years more attentíon will be gíven to selection for yield stability and root quality, both for the fresh and processed markets. Nelther the varietal improvement secUon nor the germplasm development section can work ín eeosystem 6 as this eeosystem is not represented ín Colombia. The strategy ín this ímportant area wíll be díscussed in a later sectíon.5.1.7.2 Tissue culture. Major problems in a vegetatívely propagated crop such as cassava are associated wi.th storage of germplasm. and production of disease-free stocks. The tissue culture section of the Germplasm Resources Unít is developing methodology for cheap storage of germplasm as plantlets, and production of planting stocks from meristems. lt is expected that within three to five years these procedures will become routine. When this occurs attention wí II turn to use of tissue culture techniques for production of haploids, protoplast fusion and even, eventually, genetic engineering in support of varietal improvement. requiremente of cassava and the physiological characters associated with high yield under non-stress conditions have been defined. The plant nutrition section will identify material that grows weU under extreme conditions of low pH and high aluminum levels and define characters associated with high yield potential under low soU fertility conditions in conjunction with the physiology section. In addition, particular attention will be paid to the most efficient use of limited quantities of fertilizer. In this respect the possibilities of using cheap rock phosphates with mycorrhizal!cassava associations will be assessed. ,he physiology section will concentrate on stress factors that cause instabUity of yield and quality with a view to developing varieties wíth high yield stability under climatic variation in each ecosystem.5.1 .7.4 Plant protection. The plant protection section (2 senior scientiste) identified diseases and peste that attack cassava, and evaluates their importance in decreasing yields. Importent diseases and pests are studied in detail so that control measures can be developed when necessary. In the past, major emphasis has been placed on superelongation disease. bacterial blight, thrips and spidermites where resistance sources have been found. As these problems are resolved through breeding they progressively become more a part of the germplasm development secHons. Many of the diseases and peste can best be controlled by other means. Biological control and cultural pracice measures have be en developed and new emphasis ís placed on biological control of mealy bugs and other insecte.Treatments to control pathogens of plantíng materials have been developed by the pathology section. Attention wHI now turn to pat!-iogens of stored planttng materíals. The major diseases and pests and development of control methods are shown in Table 5.3.5.1 .7.5 Agronomíc practices and regional trials. The agronomic practices sectíon (2 senior scientists) will concentrate on the development of suítable cultural practices for the different ecosystems (l.e., ecosystems 1-5) and will pay particular attention to modification of these practices to ensure compatibíl ity with the new germplasm. The regional trials sectlon combínes the best new clones with the improved management practices and tests these under a bread range of condítions. Special emphasis is placed on development of multíple croppíng systems for use by sman farmers.5.1 .7.6 Economics. The work of the economics section (one senior scíentíst) revolves around the analysis of the potential economic impact of improved cassava technology in Latin America. The analysis provides a framework for integrating demand potential and competitive prices in various end markete with necessary production costs at the farm level.On-farm research trials provide a systems methodology for defining potentlal productivity and technology design requiremente for the research  -66programo With methodologies established on the basis on research in Colombia these production and demand studies in the next decade wiU be extended to collaborating countries in Latín Ameriea.5. 1 .7.7 Utilization. The organi zation of the util ization sectíon is somewhat different from the other subsections in that, although utilization is a vast topie to be researched, thera is only one senior positíon. This posítion will be used to give contlnuity in a program that is expected to be depandent on a large number of speciat projects, mainly of a shorterm natura, to resolve specifíC problems.The viral diseases of cassava in the Americas were not previously considered as major constraints on yield. However, in the last few years two new diseases, probably caused by virus infestation, have been identified and both have proved capable of causing complete crop failure. Intensive investigation of these diseases is under way. A program virology position is projected for 1983 in order to advance this research.Recent work at CIAT and other institutions has amply demonstrated the importance of mycorrhizal associations in improving the phosphorous nutrition of cassava. A special project with GTZ funding has recently been mounted to determine the potential for economic exploitation of this association. If results suggest that the effect can be greatly enhanced through research then a new position may be requested for a microbiologist within the Cassava Programo Production of good quality planting material, and its storage, is vital if high yields are to be obtained. More and more data is being collected that shows that \"seed\" productior may require differant crop management practices to that used for root production. A senior staff position Is not required for this research at present but if new varieties with high yield potential do produce less \"seed\" of good quality than tradítional varieties it maybe become necessary to develop research in this field. The new avenues of research which have been described above may not necessitate an increase in staffing. ,he plant nutritíon section may well move into the mycorrhizal field. and the plant physiology or agronomy sections ínto seed production researCh, wíthout increased staff needs. In the case of the vírologíst an increase of ore senior staff is definitely required.The general CIA T-wide strategy for postíngs in locatíons other than at headquarters is addressed in Chapter 7. The following projections as to outposted staff requirements by the Cassava Program are considered vital over the decade of the eíghties if the program is to achieve its objectives.-67-5.1 .9 Outposted Research Staff 5.1 .9.1 Subtropics. Ecosystem 6 (the cool winter areas) is an important cassava producing ecosystem in the Americes and in other regions of the world. Due to its tocation, CJAT at present cannot work in this area to provide basic germplasm to regions such as parts of Mexico, southern Brazit, Paraguay, Bolivia and the more northern islands of the Caribbean. !t is proposed that, begi nning in 1983, one senior research scientist with research supportbe placed at a research tnstitute, (probably in Santa Catrina in southarn Brazil), to first evaluate C!AT and local germplasm under these conditions for further breeding. This material will then be made available to other countries where ecosystem 6 predominates.5.1.10 Regional Cooperation 5.1.10.1 Asia. Approximately 40% of the total world cassava production is in Asia. UntO quite recent!y the only country with a major national cassaya program wes India. Over the last five years nationa! programs have developed in Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines. Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.CIAT hes been involved in supporting these programs through training, consultation and the provision of imporved germplesm. CIAT has had a regional services positlon under special project funding in Asia which facilitated this work, particularly in the introduction of germplasm and organízation of trainíng. The funds for this position have now ended and Asían national agencies have requested that CIAT once again station personnel in Asia to essíst with coordination of activities in Asia and in germplasm development. From CIAT's point of view it is becoming progressively more difficult and expensive to provide the Asian natíonal agencies with technical asststance from the Colombia headquarters. The two areas where these constraints are greatest are in coordination of training activitíes and in maintaining an awareness of changing national needs, and in supplying countries with germplasm specifically adapted for Asían conditíons. This latter situabon ls of great concern because, at present, the range of genetic variabil ity in Asia is extremely limited. lt is proposed that CJAT, starting in 1982, outpost one regional cooperation position in Asía that would previde continuity and liaison for possible teams which would be non-core funded.5.1 . 1 0.2 Andean Zone. The countries of the Andean Zona are tradttional cassava producers. They have recently become major importers of grains for animal feed and several have expressed the desire to increase cassava production to replace imported grains. Cassava programs in this regíon are universally weak or non-existant. Regional services for the Andean Zone will be accomplished through interactíon by headquarters-based stafF with the neighbouring countries in the zone. No outposted regional position for the zone is projected in the plan.15.1.10.3 The Caribbean, Central Americe and Mexico. Whíle the regíon is at present of less importance as a cassava producing area, many countries in the regíon are classified as calorie-deficient. Cassava programs are only novv being developed and require considerable assistance in planning and training during their formative years. In addition, for many years these areas will be directly dependent on CIAT-developed germplasm. In most cases they will require finished varieties rather than sexual seed or large number of populations for selection. An outposted reg ional cooperation scientist is projected for 1985, to provide support to the national agencies in the region.5.1.10.4 Africa. In the CGIAR system CIAT has global responsibility for cassava, and liTA has regional responsibílity for Africa. At present about 40% of the world's cassava is produced in Africa. Much of the germplasm management practices developed in CIAT may be applicable in Africa (e.g., biological control agents for mealy bugs, a majar pest in Africa, were recently sent from CIAT for testing and multiplication by liTA). Two major differences exist between African and the Americas in cassava production. Firstly, the majar dísease, African Mosaic, do es not occur in the Americas; and secondly, slash-and-burn culture is much more widespread. These two major differences make it necessary to have a major cassava research effort in Africa. The lITA program does not, however, have the same resources as CIAT, particularly in the case of genetic variability, and its efforts could be greatly enhanced if there was more liaison with CIAT. In addition, it is vitally important to evaluate American and Asian clones under conditions of African Mosaic in case the disease arrives in these continents. Resistant clones would then be available. For these reasons it is tentatively proposed to place, starting in 1986, one CIAT scientist in lITA with maJor responsibílities for germplasm exchange and more rapid interchange of research developments between the two institutes.The common dry or field bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most ímportant grain legume species for direct human consumption in the world. Production spans regions as díverse as Latin America (3.6 million tons per annum, 1977-79), Africa (1.4 million tons), the Middle East, China, and the Unlted States. Beans are a traditional food in Latín Amarlca, particularly in Brazil, Central America, the Andean Zone. and in some of the countríes in the Caribbean. The analysis presented in Chapter 1 lndicates that beans are the cheapest source of protein and a relatively unexpensive calorie source.The common bean is gene rally a crop of the smatl farmer and Is grown in a wide range of cropping systems which often include maize in the annual cycle. The majority of bean production occurs in systems utilizing few purchased inputs, and yields are gene rally low. While production in Latín America has increased approximately 1 % per annum over the last decade, yields have generaHy declined and currently average on the order of 600 kg/ha. Area expansion has enabled a slight production growth te continue, but this growth has not kept pace with population, much less demand growth. Due to rapidly increasing exportation from Argentina, mainly to Europa, Latin America has become a net exporter of beans, although some countries such as Cuba, BrazO and Venezuela have substantlally increased their imports in recent years. Sean prices have increased more rapídly than general inflation in many countries. In Brazil, real prices tripled from 1972 to 1976. Over the same perlod, per capita consumption decreased from 26 kg to 22 kg, thus further aggravatlng the nutrítíonal problems of the poor.Even though market prices have gene rally increased, beans production ls characterized by low profitability and high rlsk which are related to low and very unstableyields, associated with seasonal climatic variabílity, and, hence, seasonal price fluctuations. These factors have íncreasingly led to the displacement of beans in traditional areas by hígher value crops. Thus, in Brazíl, soybeans have displaced beans on the more fertite soils, and productivíty has declinad due to the marginal lower fe rtil it y soils into whích productíon is moving. A similar effect has occured in Mexico, but in this case increased sorghum production may have been the competitive influence.Selected commercial bean varieties, grown under experimental conditions with appropriate plant protection and irrigation, are capable of far higher yields than is evident in national production statistics. Experimental bush bean yields in monoculture of 3-4 t/ha in a crop season (90-120 days) are not uncommon. Experimental yields of c1imbing beans grown on artificial support (monoculture) have exceeded 5 t/ha in 100 days at CIAT. A large yield gap exists between farm and experimental situations, a gap which could be reduce<! substantially through the use oF ímproved varieties and production technology. Economic analyses have indicated that were production in Latín America to rise by 5% per annum over the next five years, the increased production would be absorbed by increased consumption, with an average price decline of only 3%.In the developing countries of the Western Hemisphere, beans are grown over a wide ra'1ge of latitudes and altitudes and in recurring series of cropping systems which have evolved on small farms to adjust to various environmental and socio-economic constraints. The four major cropping systems of production can be c1assified as follows: b) Bush and semi-climbing beans in relay systems with maize, typified by low to middle altitude areas in Me,<ico, Central America, Colombia, and Grazil. c) Gush beans in direct association with maize (sown at same time), typifíed by middle altítude areas in Colombia, Venezuela and by many areas in Brazil.d) Clímbing beans in direct association with maize, typified by the higher altitude areas of Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.In these systems the predominant role of maize as a companion crop ls clear. A major constraints to increased production of beans per ~ is the competitive influence of maize within the various cropping systems.Most studies reveal yield reductions of the order of 50% in associated systems with maize. In farmers' terms it is obvious that the total return from the system ls more important than the individual components. Data on tt1e micro-regíons of productíon of beans in the Americas is being collected by the Agroecosystems Analysis Unit which wHl provide an accurate accessment of the relative production importance of the various systems. Prel iminary data suggests that the rank order in terms of total production ls roughly in the order presented above.In terms of biological constraints, of major world crops, beans are undoubtedly one of the mOst susceptible to diseases and insect attack. More than 200 pathogens are identified which can influence the productivity of the species. Diseases and insects across all zones of production constitute the most impartant common constraínts to increased production and productivíty. -rhe most common and widespread of the diseases in the Western Hemisphere are: bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean rust (Uromyces phaseoli), anthracnose, (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), and angular leaf spot (lsariopsis grisela). Common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas phaseolí) and bean golden masaic virus (BGMV) are equally severe in particular locations and years. Most commonly util ized cuttivars are not resistant to the major diseases of importance and, at best, show a low level of tolerance. Each of these dlseases can cause yield losses as high as 80%-100%. The transmission of BCM\\/, anthracnose and bacterial blight through infected seed has caused the widespread dissemination of these diseases, not only in the Western Hemisphere but al so in regions outside the center of origin of the species. The disease problems in Africa are similar to those that occur in Latín America except that halo blight (Pseudomonas phaseolicola) is relatively mOre important.Among the insect pests, leaf hoppers (Empoasca \",pp.) and pod weevils are considered of greatest signiflcance as eonstraints to producUon. Yield reductions in highly susceptible varieties due to Empoasca have been measured as high as 90,%, with reductions of 20-50% commonly oecuring in many farm situations, even when insecticides are utilized. Inseets of stored grain, su eh as Zabrotes and Aeanthoscelides, inflict heavy losses, foreing farmers to sell their harvest rapidly, which ls contrlbutíng factor to post harvest priee declines. The bean fly (Ophiomya phaseoli) in the most common lnsect in Africa causing severe losses in yield in many countries.The data avaHable on the bean micro-regions has allowed a growing-season climatic zonification to be carried out (Table 5 A ). The seven zonas are classified aecording to average growing season temperature and water balance conditions, with each zone representing a group of diverse microregions with similar mean climatic conditions prevaiUng during the actual growing seasan of bean production common in each microreglon. The data suggests that a large proportion (76%) of bean production in Latln America occurs at temperaturas considered close to optimum for the species (20-23°C). On the other hand, 73,% of total production occurs in micro-reglons with moderate to severe mean water deficits at some time durlng the cropping season. Only a small proportion of this production occur under irrigation. In climatic terms, beans are thus exposed to quite serious wator deficits, and this constitutes one of the major constraints on production. The quite surprising tendency for productlon to take place over a narrow tamperature range ls en indlcation of a relatively high sensitivity in adaptaban to temperature conditions in these species.Physiologícal defects of currently utilized cultivars (mostly land races) contribute to low and unstable bean yields. Most cul tivars are of poor plant type, with the pods in contact with the soU at maturity, which can contribute to a poor quality product due to pod attack qy soil-borne pathogens. Many cultivars are of determinate bush habit with early end intense flowering characteristics whích contribute to yield instabiHty. These cultivars show Httle ability to compensate for low sowing-densities common 01\"1 most small farms, and have no mechanism for renewed flower-in9 when stress is relieved.son related constraints are assuming a greater importance as bean produchon moves to more marginal soils. Soil acidity and high phosphorus fixatian characterize many of the soils now utilized. Associated aluminum toxicity leads to reduced raot development and increased sensitivity to water deficits. Nitrogen deficiency 1S also a limiting factor in many bean soils, and this is complicated by a tow nitrogen fixation capacity in most currently used cuttivars.AH of the major environmental and biological constraints to increased -72 The goal of the Bean Program. in collaboration with national research efforts, is to increase the yield of beans and to improve the stabilit;y of production by focusing research on the principIe constraints. The program has focused its research strategy in the light of the constraints in the Western Hemisphere. In general, the constraints on production in Africa parallel those in Latín America. The problems at all levels are probably more serious in Africa, and a concerted effort will be required to provide solutions through research. Much of the research carried out in Latin America ls applicable in Africa but regional adaptive work is still required.In recognizing the magnitude of the task, the Program has always sought to delineate its range of activities and to concentrate in those areas where it has a comparative advantage. Thus, it has avoided the humid lowland tropics where disease pressure ls excessive. and the high acid, infertile soíls of the agricultural frontier where bean production would only be possible with massive sol! amendments. The Program has also confined its activities to Phaseolus vulgaris; avoiding the temptation to work with other grain legumes, such as lima beans <t:. lunatus), cowpeas (V. ungiculata) or soybeans. Investigations in other closely related Phaseolus species (Le., P. coccineus and P. acutifolius), has been confined to those characteristics of those species likely to lead to genetic improvement in t:. vulgaris. The Program has thus narrowed its specifíc objectlves to the following. a) In collaboration with national research ínstitutíons, to develop improved technology for beans (Phaseolus vulgaríS), particularly hígher and more stable yielding germplasm, which will lead to increased national production and produetivity in those Western Hemisphere countries where beans are an important souree of food.b) To assist in achieving the same objectives in other regions, particularly Eastern Africa, through institutional arrangements in which CIAT can provide an input which will allow advantage to be taken of the work in this Hemisphere. In recognition of the overwhelming importance of biological constraints, the primary focus of the Program in terms of germplasm improvement has been on breeding for disease and insect resistancejtolerance in a range of selected commercial grain types. Initial emphasis was placed on overcoming losses due to BCMV, rust, anthracnose and Empoasca.By overcoming the yield reductions from thase principie disease and insect pests, the Program aims not only to increase yields but also to reduce yield variance over time. lncreasing emphasis on BGMVand common bacterial blight has been necessary in more recent years as the need for materíals with these resistances became more evident in particular regions. Continuing emphasis on breeding for host plant resistance to the economically important diseases and pests will be necessary throughout the next decade. The emphasis on present massive screening programs will diminísh as national programs increase their own research in that area. Increased attention by CIAT on the provision of more stable rasistance sources and in studies on the epidemiology of the diseases will then be possible.Parallel to the primary focus, i.e., diseases and pests, the Program has placed increasing attention on improvement in a range of other characteristics in the germplasm, including nitrogen fixation capacity, drought to!erance, and son related constraints, particularly low phosphorus avaílabilíty. Improvement in bastc p!ant types within the various growth habit types has been approached gradua!!y, and steady progress has been achieved. The chances of large and precipitattng breakthroughs in yield potential through manipulation of the physiological constraints does not appear to be high in this species. The situation is similar in other grain legumes (e.g., soybeans and cowpeas), whare progress has be en characterized by steaóY progress towards particular objectives. The Program strategy of a heavy initial concentration on diseases and insects was a recognition of this situation.The Program has made considerable progress in defining the plant types sui tabla for particular cropping systems both in bush and climbing beans. lt is clear that no one type of plant can satisfy the rather diverse cropping pattern that existo In designing plan type objectives the program has been particularly cognizant of the needs of the small farmer and the traditional cropping systems. In this technology design process, information provided by the Agroecosystems Analysis Unit has proved invaluable in orienting the research. Further progress along these 1 ¡nes is expected in the early years of this decade to allow the Program to continue to focus on principal constraints in each group of mlcro-regionjcropping system situatlon.While initial studies on beans and other grain legumes had been undertaken at CIAT prior to 1973, formation of a coordinated program focused only on Phaseolus vulgaris dates from that year. Initially, five man-years of senior staff activity were involved. As additional breeding and pathotogy initiatives were undertaken, the team graduatly increased to its presently budgeted 12 senior staff pos itions. The discip ¡¡nes now represented are as follows: breeding (two in bush beans, one in climbing beans), agronomy (3), pathology (one each in mycology and virology), entomology (1), PhYSiology (1), soil microbiology (1), and economícs (1).The germplasm specialist in the CIAT Genetic Resources Unit assists through the provtsion of gene tic variability while nutritional and consumer preference characteristics of advanced materíals are monitored by the Food and Nutrition Laboratory.Establíshment at CIAT of the world Phaseolus germptasm collection, currently containing over 27.000 accessions, has formed the base in the search for sources of resistance to major diseases and pests. These materíals are utilized in a massive breeding program presently carrying out more than 1500 different crosses (parental combinations) per year. Facilitated by computer data management in which hybridization and seed movement are recorded, all Unes undergo a series of evaluations in which al! team members participate. These evaluations culrnínate with the best Unes being introduced into the international testing program (lnternational Bean Yield and Adaptation Nursery, rBYAN).The first level of evaluation of the breeding populations (F 2 and F3) is carried out by the breeders for disease and insect resistance, architecture, and consumer requirements. In the second stage of evaluabon, which involves the whole team, the selections are tested in successive uniform nurseries. These include confirmations for disease and insect resistance, and general adaptation at two altitudes in Colombia (CIAT, Palmira and CIAT, Popayan). At the third level of the process the material is again further selected for the aboye characters, and for nitrogen fixation, water stress tolerance, low phosphorus tolerance, resistance to minor disease, protein content, and cooking time. Natíonal bean researeh programs have reached varying stages of development during the deeade of the seventies. The sítuatton in beans ís somewhat more favorable, since in all countries where beans are important there has been some attention given to research. Most nattonal agencies have a researeh staff working on beans, most of them having received traíníng at C lA T . An active network of eollaborators has been established. Further seleetive strengthening through training, consultative vísíts, and al! of the other activitíes in the field of internatíonal cooperation will be continued through the eíghties. The ultimate aim is to help move all eountry programs into a situationwhere they can become tul! and equal partners in the network. CIAT can then gradually adopt a researeh backstopping role. The role at whieh this progress oeeurs in any one country will vary consíderably and some attrition is to be expeeted.As suggested by Fig. 5.2 the 1980s will see progressive changes in priorities in the Program' s breeding activities. However, líttle change in overall Program staffing levels are anticipated. Currently, al! breeding lines leaving CIAT are resistance to BCMV, and various sources of resistance to anthracnose are avaílable and can rapidly be incorporated into breeding línes. This will permit greater attention in the short term to other diseases, including rust, angular leaf spot and web blight, for which varíous races of the pathogen have been identified, and for which no single line is Jikely to be resistant over al! locations. This emphasis, plus the need for additional work on common bacterial blight and halo blight disease control strategies will require the addition of a second pathologist (bacteriologist) to the team. This position is projected to commenee in 1982. As the disease breeding goal s are reallzed, a ruduction in the disease breeding emphasis of the Program should be possible with an increased emphasis on integrated disease control strategies toward the end of the decade. ...-79-Substantial variation in plant architecture and yield components has been obtained in the breeding and germptasm lines evatuated since 1976. Plant chal\"'acteristics associated with hlghel'\" yield are being sought and, once obtained, should permit development of Unes possessing both improved yields and multiple disease reslstance. The increaslng emphasis to be given to bean plant architecture and yield ls reflected in Fig. 5.2. A new initiative towards incorporation of snap bean characters into particular elite Unes will be undertaken during the decade.With the price of most fertilizel\"'s rising rapidly, and with credit for small fal\"'mers a limiting factor in purchased inputs, the elite tines of the future wltl need to be tolerant to a number of soíl constraints. While such constraints witl not operate in al! production regions, the Program will need to develop--for regions such as Brazil and Venezuela--varieties with tolerance to moderate son acidity, low soH P, and with increased capacity for nitrogen flxation. The incorporation of these traits into agronomícally acceptabte cultlvars will require closer collaboration between breeders, agronomist and soH microblotogist, as well as innovative breeding methodologies.Obviously, the increasing capabiHty of national bean programs wiU influence the scope and direction of CIAT's home-based research. Tralning and network activities have helped to build several strong national bean programs fu\\ly capable of developi:ng their own varteties, in relation to which CIAT should increasingly assume a backstopping role, providing these programs principally with specific genetic variabllity for theír improvement programs, postgraduate traíning opportunities, and documentation. This would permit more detailed assistance to the smaller programs with breeders, agronomists and pathologists increasingly involved in the evaluation of collaborative local breeding nurseries to exploit specific adaptation, and overcome nutritional 01'\" consumer acceptance problems. Desplte these tendencies to improve cultivars by, or in collaboration with, national programs, the Bean Program expects to continue producing some finished varieties throughout the eighties. This is necessary since it ls expected that some national programs wíll not have reached a state of self-sufflclency in research.As the Program continues to evolve, the bean germplasm bank will constantly be in use as a source for new variability. New collactions will be made durlng the eighties to add genetic variability from reglons which currently are poorly represented 01'\" in which specific desired variability is most likely presento The newly formed Seed Unit of CIAT ls expected to help in the formation of a strong seed industry in Latin America to promote and make available newly developed germplasm. The Bean Program policy of in-depth evaluation of íts germplasm, aided by similarity of the production conditions and constraints among tts target area countries, has ensured that CJAT-deríved materíals are gene rally well adapted to other production regíons. For this reason, it is not antlcipated that ít wlll be necessary to deploy research staff away from the CIAT base in Colombia. Region-specifíc problems such as BCMV in Central America and BrazO, the Apion podweevíl in Central America, and bean fly and halo blight in Africa will be worked on in collaboration with national programs and, hopefully, with the support of the recently formed Title XI! Bean Cowpea CRSP within U.S. universities.The Bean Program projects the location of outposted regional cooperation staff to facilitate the transfer of new technology and for CIAT /national program interaction in three regions of Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East.5.2.7.1 Central America. This region, with ita numerous small natlonal bean programs and high per capita bean consumptlon, will probably continue to rely on the CIAT program during this decade. Transfer of germplasm and technology from CIAT, and between naUonal programs, can bes be served by statíoning one scientist in the region. This posttion has been funded since 1977 vía special funding, and twice has come close to interruption due to funding uncertaínties. One outposted regional cooperation position is projected for 1984 at the termination of the existing Swissfunded project.5.2.7.2 Brazil. With 55% of Latín American bean production in Brazil, and a strong national program, a closer collaboration between both research progr'ams will be developed to ensure two-way technology flow.Collaborative development of technology that overcomes constraints to soil Al toxicity and low P in important bean production zones in Brazil, wiU be emphasized. An outposted research scienUst located in BrazH is pro]ected for j 984 who wi 11 work wíth Brazil ian scientists as part of the national bean actlvities, and also act in a liaison capacity with ClAT.5.2.7.3 Southern Andean Zone. The Andean Zone is an important bean consuming zone, with productíon concentrated on small farms, often in higher elevations. Although production systems vary, climbíng beans are important, with Httle previous research done in the region. There exists a great opportunity for the Bean Program to develop new technology in collaboration with these naUonal programs in both bush and climbing beans. Orle outposted regional position is projected in the plan for j 986 for the Andean Zone, and will probably be located in Peru, but with responsibilities For developing collaboration in all of the countries in that sub-reglan, including Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.5.2.7.4 Eastern Africa. Eastern Africa is the second largest tropical bean production region, with per capita legume consumption much higher than in Latin Al'nerica (in sorne countrles over 50 kg per year). C lA T materials in the IBYAN program have proved to be well adapted to African conditions and the possibility exists for major gains from limited inputs, despite the distance involved, and existing germplasm quarantine constraints.CIAT projects one outposted regional cooperation scientist for this region. Special project funding will be sought to aupport the initial phase of this activity, to be followed by core-funded support starting in 1968. The scientist will be prtmarily responsible for the network collaboratlon, traínlng, and regional coordination of germplasm activlty, and be expected to be the leader of a team, which would be located in the reglon under special project funding, probably in collaboration with FAO/UNDP. 5.2.7.5 Middle East. Additional regional cooperation activities will need to be developed for the Middle East in the decade, and one position is projected for 1986.5.2.7.6 Bilateral Arrangements. The Bean Program will continue to use special bilateral funding as an instrument to cooperate more closely with individual national programs. At the present time one such scientist is in place in Peru.Of the 116 mlll ion hectares of culttvated land in Latin America and the Caribbean, rice ia grown on 6.5% of the area. Rice is one of the most universally cultivated cereal crops of the region. The importance of the crop as a baslc food staple has been increasing over the past 15 years. In sorne countries of the region, this tendency has been somewhat related to an apparent decline in per capita direct consumption of maize.The area planted has increased at an annual rate of 2.4 percent, and produc-Hon at 3.3 percent. These growth rates have kept pace with increase in population and íncome, which resulted in a yearty increase in demand of 3.5 percent. For the developing countries of the region as a whole, per cap ita consumption of rice has been relatively stable over the past 15 years, although dramatic increases have taken place in some countries, especially in Bolivia, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haití, Paraguay and Uruguay. In these countries, growth rate of per capita consumption was greater than 2.5 percent per year. The aggregate figure for per capita consumption of paddy rice was 44 kg/capita in 1976-1978.The increase in consumption has been largely satisfied within the region.1 , r I ¡ -82-Net regional imports have remained at around 150,000 tons per year. ¡ntra-regional trade has inereased to a level of 320 thousand tons per year, 36% larger than the level in 1963-65. Based on the eurrent grcwth rate of demand of 3.5% per year rice prcduction in Latin Amerlea must be doubled by the year 2000 in order to satisfy internal demand at current relative price levela.In order to aehieve a doubling of prcduction over the next 20 years, it ís elear that research must be strengthened and strongly focused on the principIe eonstraints. CJAT, in eollaboration with national agencies in the regíon, has made a signifieant contribution to the advances already aehieved.The CIAT Rice Program is basíeally a regional program for the Western Hemisphere. Jt collaborates closely with JRRJ in the world-wide program of rice research. Research on the principIe regional eonstraínts is encouraged through an actíve network of rice researchers which has as its maln focal point for eollaboration the Jnternatíonal Ríce Testing Program (IRTP) coordinated by an IRRI scientist located with the ClA T rice team.The estímated area of rice sown ín the region ín 1978 was 7.4 million ha with a total production of about 15 minion tons of paddy rice. About . two-thirds of the production growth came from an increase in ares (maínly in the uptand sector) and the remainder from íncreases in yietd (maínly in the irrigated sector). These overan trends do not accurately reflect the situation in particular countríes Or with particular production systems. Sorne countries are experiencing accelerated growth in production and productivity, while other are making very !lttle progress. This disparity is fundamentally a funcUon of the predominant farming system in each country.A number of quite distinct rice farming systems exíst in the region, each with its own actual and potentíal level of productlvity. Rice productíon is fequently, and somewhat misleadingly, dlvíded into two maln systems, namely irrígated and upland. In 1978, irrigated rice was estímated to compríse 2.1 million ha, or about 28% of the total area, with an average yield of 3.5 t/ha. Upland rice, Le., all non-irrigated rice, covered 5.3 million ha, about 72% of the area, with an average productivity of 1.3 t/ha. This statístical division obscures, to some extent, the actual productivity of each farming system and íts potential productivity through research on specífic yield constraints. In order to outline more clearly the rice sítuation in the region the followíng systems have been identified.-83-5.3.1 .1 Subsistence upland rice. The system ls common in many areas at the agricultural frontíer, particularly where small subsistence farmers have colonized new lands. The system utilizes no mechanísation and very few purchased inputs. Forest or scrub ls cut, cleared and burnt, and ríce ls shown in widely separated holes with pointed planting stícks. The crop is shifted to new land after one or two harvest. Maximum family farm size is of the order of 1.5 ha, and varieties are targely unimproved land races. The system is reasonably stable but estimated productivity is low (at around 1.0 tjha or less). The harvest is normally consumed by the farm famHy. Total area and contribution to natlonal production statisti.cs are largely unknown and are considered to be negligible.The major constraints is a total dependence on hand labor. This limits farm size, obliges wide plant spacings, demands native variebes, and prohibits use of purchase inputs. Farm production is defined by the consumptlon demands of the whole family, white factors such as soH fertility, variety, weeds, and pests assume relatively minor importance as constraints. 5.3.1.2 Highly favored upland rice. This system is gene rally confined to areas with level topography, with over 2000 mm of mean annual rain-faH during a rainy season of 8-9 months. There are normally no marked dry periods during the rainy season. The system is fully mechanized for ptantlng and harvesting in most areas of production. Soils are gene rally altuvial, slightly to moderately acid, and well drained. Modern dwarf varieties and agronomic practices are suitable, and yields average around 2.5 t¡ha, with better farms consistently producing 4-5 t/ha. The system is typically fpund in parts of Central Amerlca, Colombia and in some areas in Brazil. The actual present contribution to area and production statístícs from this system lS low, but there (s a very large area of unexploited land resources in the regíon into which this system could move.The system has the majar yield constraints: grassy weeds after two 01\" three cycles; the blast disease (Pyricularia oryzae); and lodging. A variety recentty released in Colombia and in other countries, CICA 8, (developed in a collaborative program between ICA and CIAT), is the most productive presently available variety for the system in a number of countrtes.5.3.1.3 ,M0derately favored upland rice. Most of Central America and a large proportion of sub-Amazonian 8razil employ this system, which differs from the preceeding one in having a shorter wet season, wíth less overall rainfall, and normally with some dry spetls during the growing season. Dwarfvarieties are used in Central America whíle tatl materials are used in 8razil. Yields in the two areas average around 2.0 and 1.5 t;ha, respectively. Yield variance around these averages ts high due to rainfall irregulari ty. The chief constraints consist of several interrelated factors triggered by mild to moderate water deficits, including soU mineral deficiencies (particularly phosphorus), diseases (particularly blast),and weeds. 5.3.1.4 Unfavored upland rice. This system is characterized by environments with irregular and low total rainfall. The system is highly mechanized, with low planting densities, and the varieties utilized are all tal! materíals. The system is particularly important in Brazil where a large proportton of the 4.7 milHon ha in 1978 fel! ínto thls category. Yield are gene rally low (01'\" the order of 1 t/ha) and yield variance Is extremely high from year to year and from location to ¡ocation in the same year. The soils utilized in Brazil are mostly highly acld, with relatively high levels of aluminum toxicity for rice, particularly in the subsoil, even though surface liming is practiced.The main constraint in the system is the problem of water deficits induced by dry spells during the wet season, which is compounded by the pOOl'\" root development in the subsoil associated with aluminum toxicity. Blast is also more severe in the unfavored systems, and this seems also to interact with the degree of water deficits experienced. Phosphorus deficiency in most soi!s is a serious overall constraint, but, at least in the Brazilian case, fertilizer levels are generally adequate given the limítations ímposed by the other constraints. 5.3.1.5 Rainfed lowland rice. This system is intermediate between irrigated and upland. Rainwater is trapped and held by field levees. Nevertheless, water deficits and/or deep flooding are common. Dwarf varieties are grown in certain areas where the water control procedures are adequate, but tal! varieties generaHy predominate. The crop may be transplanted 01'\" directly seeded, and purchased inputs are few. Rainfed rice is important in coastal Ecuador, on the northern coast of Colombia, and on the island of Hispantola. The total regional tmportance 01' the system is low. Average yields are of the order of 2.0 -2.2 t/ha. Apart from the more general constraints common to all systems the main problem in this system is that 01' haphazard water control. This situation 1'orces farmers into using tal! varieties and, due to the risks involved, low levels of purchased inputs. 5.3.1 .6 lrrigated rice. Irrigated rice covers 28% of the total area sown in 1978 and contributed 50% of the total regional proctuction. The system is found in al! countries but predominates in Cuba, Nicaragua, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, southern Brazil and the countries of the Southern Cone. Average national yields range from 3 to over 5 t/ha. The system continues to hold a comparative advantage in maintaining and further increasing national yields and stabílity of supply. This sítuation applies to many new production areas being developed, particularly in northern Brazil. Increasing production costs are starting to divert farmers to alternative systems in many countries.The ímportant region-wide constraints include rice blast, straw strength/ lodglng, and, in sorne countries, problems assocíated with provisíon of materials with suitable grain quality. Although some countries lag in average yíelds, ínfrastructure problems in applying existíng technology are more limiting than the technology itself. In the Southern Cone, where tan varietíes are stiH grown, the problem of developing dwarf materiaIs with sufficient cold tolerance remaíns to be surmounted. In addítion, this area has particularly stringent grain quatity requirements for the export market. In Chile, where the crop is entirety of the Japoníca type, the basic constraints ls lack of high yielding variebes.As already indicated, the Rice Program ls focused only on the problems of rice in the Western Hemisphere and, as such, has designed the Program to focus on the principie constraints in the regíon. The program wiH continue this focus over the next decade. The following points delineate these objectives. d) To continue to help ín strengthening the natíonal rice research programs in the regíon through traíning, consultative visits, and in further supporting the active network of rice researchers which has been establtshed over the deeade of the seventies.The baste strategy of the Rice Program since ¡ts inception in 1969 to date has been the improvement of productívity and productíon in the irrigated sector in the region. This strategy was adopted for the following reasons.-86a) lrrigated rice offered the greatest scope for rapid galns in yield and productionjb) The technology for irrigated rice was more easily generated and extended than in other production systemsj and c) Limited core resources did not permit a systematic attack on all of the alternate production systems.The research on irrigated rice has focused on varietal improvement as the key element in the strategy. Tall varieties covered the enti re area prior to 1968 when IR 8 was introduced. An immediate increase in productivity of 2 t/ha confirmed the strategy to work exclusively on dwarf materials for this system. The focus has been on variedes combining dwarfing, strong stems, insensitivity to photoperiod, long gratn with clear endosperm, rasistance to the Sogatodes leaf hopper, and resistance to blast disease. More recently, varietal objectives have included earliness and improved adaptability to acid soils.Once improved dwarf I ines and varieties were produced, research was extended to define appropriate cultural practices for the high yielding varieties. Seeding rates and methods, fertilizer practices, and timing of weed control were emphasized. CIAT involvement in this research was necessary since the marked change in yield potential implied a rapid re-evaluation of associated agronomic practices. Imvprovement of varieties and cultural practicas have continued, with emphasis in recent years on reduction in production costs through combinations of land preparation by puddling, reduced seed and fertilizer rates, and enhanced disease and pest resistance. CoHaborative rasearch with the lnternational F-ertilizer Development Center (lFDC) on improving the use of nitrogen fertilizer efficiency has recently be en initiated, since nitrogen prices are one of the chief factors contributing to higher production costs in the irrigated sector.The unexpected adoptiton of the newer dwarf varieties in recent years in the highly and moderately favored upland systems allowed the Program to modify its original strategy. Entries for nurseries and regional yield trials, especially for the two upland systems, are selected from the advanced trrigated breeding Unes and distributed internationally for continuad local selection and evaluation by national programs. The Program has concentrated on the two principal biological constraints in virtually al! systems, namely Sogatodes, and rice blast. ThuS, CIAT has contributed directly to upland systems while focusing on trrigated varietal development.CfAT has planned, and has now bean approved, to expand activities inupland rice. A full description of the proposals for CIAT direct involvement in this sector are contained in a special report 1 prepared for a TAC Subcommittee.In defíning the strategies to be adopted over the next decade for the various productíon systems, different approaches are evídent. The followíng strategies for each farming system have been developed. -88difficul t problems. CIAT will collaborate through the provision of materíals with slow blasting characteristics and shortened mutant versions of acid soil and drought tolerant materials. Obviously, any gains made for the more favored areas will have some application in the less favored system. 5.3.3.4 Rainfel lowland rice. Water control, the limítíng production factor, must be improved locally at regional, community and farm level.The potential contribution from civil engineering far exceeds that of research on other components of the system. As improved water control ls achleved in this system then further use can be made of existlng technology from the irrigated sector. CIAT involvement wil1 continua through the provis ion of improved germplasm.5.3.3.5 Irrigated rice. This system will continue to receive major attention. Stable resistance to blast can be expected to increase regional yields by 0.5 t;ha, and a similar gain is expected from even better dwarf plant types with improved lodging resistance. Introduction and evaluation of Korean Japonica dwarfs to Chile could have a dramatic effect on production in that country. With the projected placement of an outposted scientist in a Southern Cone country, CIAT will be able to better contribute to the development of cold-tolerant dwarfs for those environments.5.3.3.6 New production system research. The vast savanna (Llanos) of Colombia, Venezuela and elsewhere receive high rainfall, but the son s are extremely acid and infertile. The CIAT Tropical Pasture Program is developing pasture animal components for a stable production system for this vast area of underutil ized lands. Although nO rice is produced on these lands there ts a clear need for a crop component in the pasture system co facilitate land preparation for pasture establishment. As in Brazíl, upland rice could become él pioneer crops enabling an economically sound development of the Llanos area. A minimum input upland rice system built around acíd soil and blast-tolerant cultivars usíng mínimum tillage techniques is a researchable possibility. To thts end mutant dwarfs of upland land races and tall materials known to be tolerant of aluminum toxicity will be evaluated for yield potentíal wíth a target yield of the order of 2.0 to 2.5 tjha. Agronomíc evaluation of tillage techniques including sod seeding will be investigated at the Carimagua Station. Emphasis will be placed on the integration of this research with the 011-go\\ng pasture research program.The excellent early base of collaboration established by the CIA TRice Program with ICA in Colombia has allowed the research to have a very rapid impact, and not only in Colombia. In addition, the strength of IRRI has provided an extremely important component contributing to the successes achieved. In the cooperative program with CIAT, ICA has released seven dwarf varieties with high yield potential. AH of these varieties are now grown internationally. Breeding tines from CIAT have resulted in an additional 25 to 30 dwarf varieties released by natíonal programs in the regian. These varieties, considerad together, are now grown on about 1.5 milHon ha annually in the irrígated, highly favored and moderately favored upland sectors. The introduction of these new varietíes, together with improved cultural practices, have been associated with one to two tons of additional rice per hectare.The surge in production in countries with these farming systems has equalled 01'\" exceeded population growth, and nearly al! countries have reached effectlve self-sufficiency. Rice consumption continues to increase as a result of rice havíng become cheaper in relation to alternative foods. A detai led analysis 1, of the impact of new rice technology in Colombia has shown that the economic benefits of the large production gains have largely captured by low lncome consumers.CIAT has provided professional training to a total of 211 rice researchers from 23 countries in the region in production agronomy, breeding and pathology. Consequentlyan effective regional network of cooperators exi sts for continuing interchange and evaluation of technology and informa-Hon. The Rice Program emphas{zes regional acUvities, including IRTP nurseries, monitoring tours, production courses within countries, and biannual research worker conferences at CIA T.Factors that indicate continuing contributions include proven, high yield technology for irrigated and more favored upland systems, extensive land resources ideal for rice, and abundant water supplies. Research over the next decade should lead to a marked increase in productivity in rice in the region, particularly in those systems at the more favored end of the spectrum.The rice team projects a core research team of six scientists as adequate to address the production constraints in irrigated rice and in the alternative systems. These research problems are not entirely mutualty exclusive.1 Scobie, G.M. and R. Posada (1977). The impact of hlgh yielding rice varieties in Latín America: With special emphasis on Colombia: CIAT series JE -01. April, 1977.-90-Some technology resulting from research 01'1 one system will be useful in others. Concentrated attention 01'1 the more favored systems will produce results useful in the most difficult farming systems, l.e., subsistence upland rice, unfavored upland rice and rainfed lowland rice. The predictability of significant research contributions to these latter systems is not high. The Rice Program will be alert to research find1ngs having direct applicability to those systems. The six-man research team would comprise the following.5.3.5.1 Irrigated rice breeder. Based at CIAT, this breeder wiU continue and extend research 01'1 IOOg1ng resistance in dwarf varieties, the development of early maturing varieties for water-scarce areas, stable resistance to the blast disease, and improved grain quality to satisfy market demands.Research will continue 01'1 the maintanance testing for SogatOOes resitance to ensure that the pest does not revert to an eco!'1omically important constraints. Since the CIAT location ls not ideal for evaluation under these constraints, selection will be intensified at ICA experiment stations and other areas in Colombia. Crossing, preliminary yield evaluation, SogatOOes evaluation, and other supporting research will continue at CIAT. 5.3.5.2 Upland rice breeder. This scient1st was appointed in 1981 to develop a breedíng program concentrating on varietal development for the favored to moderately favored systems. Emphasis will be placed 01'1 stable resistance to blast, and tolerance to acid soils (aluminum toxicity and phosphorous deflciency). Grain quality and Sogatodes resistance wiU be similar to that of the írrigated rice breeding programo The work will include research 01'1 moderately tall to tal! materíals, as well as dwarfs. Selection and early generabon yield evaluations will occur at La Libertad in Colombia and, possibly, in Brazl! in collaboration with EMBRAPA.5.3.5.3 Rice agronomist. Agronomic research will continue in both the írrigated and upland systems. Shifts in productíon emphasis in írrigated areas to more marginal soils indícate a need to evaluate and research those problems of general applicabílity. In addition, research 01'1 the general agronomic problems in upland rice will begin as these beco me evident over the decade. This would include evaluatíon of the agronomic practices necessary for the new germplasm whích could be of dífferent plant type to the land races now being utilized.5.3.5.4 Upland rice physiologist/agronomist. Upland research is concerned with many production constraints not found in írrigated rice. A major research effort will be mounted 01'1 screening methods for the evaluatíon of drought and acid soil tolerances. The physiologistjagronomist may also assume leadership in the development of a low-cost production system for upland rice on infertile savanna soils. The position for physiologist/agronomist ls projected for 1983.-91 -5.3.5.5 Rice pathologist. Pathology will continue to concentrate on the rice blast dísease, specifically on methods to detect and evaluate slow blastíng in dístínct growth stages, and on methods to include requíred levels of disease pressure in populations and Hnes. Maintenace, research and monítoring wlll continue among the minor díseases to avold sítuatíons that could elevate them to the level of economlc constraínts.5.3.5.6 Rice economist. The economíst wlll help the other scientists of the team to sear'ch for the best allocation of the research resources among dífferent rice cropping systems. He will evaluate rice production potentíal at the country level in tropical Latín America and the Caribbean. AIso conducted wiU be surveys of the main rice production areas, are a planted, yield and productíon per cropplng system (irrigated, rainfed, favored upland, and unfavored upland), stratified according to relevant environmental boundar'ies. The role of a CIAT-wide agroecological research group which is proposed for the eighties in thls plan will be important in dellneating exlsting and potential production areas and the envlronmental constraints which apply to those areas. The economist wíll also evaluate the effect on prices and the potential gains from present and expected productlon increases by income strate in urban and rural areas.The lnternational trade posslbtlitles associated with expanded rice production in selected countries wiH also be analyzed by considering domestlc and international demand conditíqns. The rice economícs posttlon is projected for 1982.5.3.5.7 IRTP speciallst (IRRI liaison scientlst). Thls scíentlst holds a crucial role withln the rice team. His dutles involve the selection, distribution and evaluatlon of germplasm nurseries from IRRI. Nurserles for distinct purposes are sent to al! developing countries in the Western Hemisphere. Addítíonally, speclal nurseríes of elite CIAT breeding 1 ínes are distributed and evaluated with the scíentist' s assistance. The posítion requires extensive international trabel to promote national use of promlsing nursery matarials, either as parents for crosses or as direct commercíal varieties. The growing volume of nurseries and tocatlons, couples with CIAT expansion into research in upland systems, make it doubtfu! that only one research scientist can continue to handle this responsibilit;y. Since aH IRTP activities in the region are funded by IRRI, consultations as to the future expansion of the program will be held with that organization in the near future.Internatíonal activlties in rice have been handled largely through the IRTP scíentist, international travel byall staff, and a heavy commitment to traíning of nattonal program workers at CIAT. This strategy was reasonably satisfactory while the Program concentrated on irrigated rice, since, to a large extent, such technology sells itself.Nevertheless, weaknesses are apparent. National yields in irrigated rice decline with distance from Colombia. The reasons appear to be a mixture of technological deficiencies combined with local inadequacy of support to farmers (credit, seed, technical advice marketing, and so forth). The programmed expansion into upland rice will soon create a new demand for CIAT services. Finally, sorne countries, i.e., those in the Southern Cone, have not adopted HYV technology for severa! reasons, includíng specific production constraints not researchable at CIAT. FOr these reasons, a strong case ís building for consideration of sorne outposted staff activity. CIAT projects the placement of one outposted regional scientíst to be ¡ocated in a southern Andean country with res ponsibil itíes for coordination of collaboratíve research with CJAT. This position is projected for 1984. 1The abundance of underutilized land resources in tropical Latin America seems inconsistent with the extstence of a large sector of smaH farmers. In most countries, the coectstence of intensive farmlng> both large and small scale, and significant underutilized areas is explained by a combinatton OF two faclOrs: (a) the low 01\" fragUe fertility status of the soi!s In the agricultural frontier, and (b) the low level of infrastructure development in these areas. Given the available technology crop production is not proFitable in these areas without sizeable subsldies. This is because productivity is low under the pOOl\" fertility c0nditions, and soU ¿lmendments are not feasible due to high input and trans portation costs.The tropical and subtropical areas of America have nearly a billion hectares of signiFicantly underutilized savannas and forests, 75% of which are occupied by acid and infertile soils, (l. e., Oxlsols and Ultlsols). These areas have great agrlcultural potential since they have abundant solar radiation with adequate rainfall and favorable temperature regimes for extended growíng seasons. Topography and soil physical properties are also gene rally favorable. CIAT, through ita Land Resources Divisíon, clearly recognizes this distinct and promising feature of tropical America.In order to contribute to the development of ecologically sound, stable, and productive systems for these tropical and subtropical areas, CJA T aims to contribute to the broadeníng oF the resource base of Latin American agriculture through a low-cost/low-input approach based on the selection of species most adapted to local edaphic condttions. The major efforts in this contaxt are in tropical pastures, upland rice and cassava. Research strategies and projections for upland rice aro cassava were presentad in detall in the previous chapter. In thís chapter strategies and projections for the Tropical Pastures Program are outlined, followed by a brief discussion of CIA T' s future role in hosting research efforts For other international institutions on other crops of potantial Importance, such as sorghum and soybeans, two crops of Increasing economlc Importance In the reglon. A brief comment is also made on CIAT's role in hosting research efForts of other ínternational institutions on key Factor components for the frontier areas, such as phosphate rock aro other critical constraints related lO soil management. Final1y, the role, strategies, and projections o\" the Agroecosystem Analysis Unit of CIAT are outlined.-94-The cattle populatton of tropical Latín Amerlca Is estimated at approxtmately 190 million head, 01'\" about 20\"/0 of the worid total. Per capita beef consumption in tropical Latin America (16 kg/year) is slgnificantly hlgher than In Africa and Asia, and about 2/3 that of Europe.Durtng the last two decades consistent lncreases in production have been recorded In most countries of the reglon. However, productlon growth, with few exceptions, has lagged behind demand growth 1 • As a result, beef prices Increased in real terms in most countries during the perlod. These price increases have serious income distribution implicatlons, since the proportton of family income spent on beef is extremely hlgh among low-income urban consumers.A study conducted by CIAT 2 using data from the Family Budget Survey of twelve Latin American cities 3 showed that the lowest income group (quartile) in these urban centers spends 6-18\"/0 of their famtly Income on beef, representing 10-26% of total food expendltures. A similar situation is encountered for milk and milk products: low Income familles spend 4-12% of their income (01'\" between 7-19\"/0 of the food budget) on dairy products. These latter pe rcentages are expected to be even higher In rural areas.The extremely high income elasticities estimated for the low-income quarttles in the twelve cities (between 0.8 and l.3 for beef, and 0.8 and 1.6 for milk) are a clear indicatlon of the strong preference among the urban pOOl'\" for these commodiUes. Hence, beef and milk should be considered staple foods and wage goods in tropical Latin Amerlca. However, as income Increases in the reglon, demand for beef and milk is expected to continue to Increase faster than production thereby resulting in further prlce Increases, with a consequent negatlve eFfect on both the dlet and the income of the pOOl\"'.1 CrAT, Latln America: Trend Highltghts of CIAT Commodltles, 1.5, Aprl1 1980. Such trends can be counterbalanced if appropriate Hvestock production technology is developed for the vast, underutilized land areas existing in the region. In fact, utl1izing these areas can contribute to solution 01' the food problem in two ways: (a) by releasing more fertile land for crop production, and (b) by increasing beef (and eventually milk) production in the region. Crop production, which demands higher sot t fertitity levets and more sociat infrastructure than pasture production, coutd expand in more-developed areas having high base-status soils wtth less competition from cattle if underutllized are as were in pasturas. At the same time, cattle production coutd expand with little 01'\" no opportunity cost into these areas, thereby accruing sizeable net benefits to society.The potential 01' these areas for cattle production is extremely high.The current average stocking rate in the acid savannas is O. 12 animats/ ha. This can potentially be increased more than ten fold. In addition, beef production per animaljyear could be more than doubted. These areas could atso contribute significantly to increased milk production.The common concept that dairy farms are highly specialized operations is not quite valid in tropical Latín America. A large proportion 01' milk and dairy products consumed in the region comes from tha milking of sman and medium size beef herds, usually crosses of natlve (\"criollo\") and zebu breeds. This type 01' dual-output production system is not only Found in the densely populated areas wi th fertile soits, but Is also frequently found In frontier areas with acid, infertite solls.crATs overall objectives in the Tropical Pastures Program are as follows, a) to allow 1'01'\" the economically and ecologically sound expansion 01' the agricultural frontier in tropical America; b) to increase beef' and mltk production and productivity; and c) to release more ferttle land in the more settled areas for expanded crop production, by developing, in collaboration with national programs, appropriate, pasture-based animal production technology fOr the acid, infertile soil regions 01' tropical Latin America. Rather than attacking problem 01' acid, inferti1e soils by correcting soil deficiencies with large amounts 01' ferti Hzer, CIAT has adopted a low-cost/low -input approach basad on the selection 01' grass and legume species adapted to those edaphic conditions •The expected result of the program's activities is the development of pasture production systems to provide adequate year-round forage quantity aro quality, complemented by cost-effective animal management aro animal health practices. National research aro extension institutlons are both collaborators and clients; beef (and dual purpose) cattle producers are regarded as the users of the technology; while both producers and consumers are regarded as the principal beneficiaries, since the final objective is to increase production and thereby lower relative prices of beeF and milk in the region.The present tropical Pastures Program has evolved from an initial broad spectrum of disciplines related to animal-production through three progressive stages.During the formative stage (1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974), the (then) Beef Praduction Systems Program emphasized the identification of problems and potentia! so!utions in the areas of anima! health, animal management, and cattle productlon systems. During this perlod a relatively small proportion of program resources was devoted to pastures and forages, and most field research was conducted in Colombia. From the information collected durlng thls initial period it became evident that the low cattle productivity in tropical Latin Amerlca was mainly due to extreme malnutrition aro nutrition-related dlseases. Lack of good quality. yearround forage was identified as the most common crltical constraint to increased production.The stage was thus set for sharpening the rocus of the (renamed) Beef Production Program. During the perlad between 1975 and 1977, the program concentrated mOre and more on the acld infertlle savannas of Latln Amerlca. The program broadened the geographical scope of its activities to other countries while sharply narrowing its research focu~ by concentrating upon pasture research with the goal of removing the principal production constraints in the savanna ecosystem.Grazing experlments carrled out in the Colombian Uanos documented the limited potential of the native savannas. It became evident that the low producttvity and poOl' quallty of most native species combined with the low I'ertillty status o' the soils and varying degrees 01' sea-. sonal water stress were the most serlous ltmitatlons and that this resulted in low animal production and high incidence of malnutri tion and dtsease susceptibility. Overall productivity, both per unlt area and per animal unit, was found to be extremely low.Striking Improvements in herd performance on native savanna wel\"e ! 1 -97obtained with the use of appropriate mineral supplementation. The use of well-adapted exotic grasses such as Brachiaria decumbens resulted in dramatic increases In carrying capacity and production per unit area. However, production per animal continuad to be dissappointlng, especially in terms of reproductive performance of the breeding herd. Protein supplementation was successful but not economically viable.Preltminary experimental results obtained during this perlad with grass-legume pastures indicated clearly that if persistent assodations could be found under low input conditions, they could provide an eco-nomical1y att;~active solution to the problem. During 1978 the program consolidated along these lines. ¡ts research structure was geared te obtain low-cost grass-Iegume associations for the acid soU savannas. To reflect its new focue, the program was renamed the Tropical Pastures Program, in mid-1979.A survey of the regions of tropical Latin America with acid, infert!te soHs was iniUated in 1978 to classiIY land resources in terms of climate, landscapte, and soHs in order to provide a geographically oriented economic perspective to the Program' s area of interest and to serve as the basis for its research strategy. Total wet saason potential evapotranspiration (TWPE), a measure of energy available for plant growth during the wet season, was shown to provide a quantitative way te account for native vegetation dlstribution. An analysis of the survey data led, in 1979, te a subdivision of the area into five major agroecologlcal zones. These five major ecosystems are shown In Figure 6   Vast areas in the Amazon and Orinoco basins in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, and in the Atlantic coast of Central America are included. c).2 Rainforests.Are,as in the upper Amazon basin of Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, northeast of Peru and northvvest of Brazil are included. This subdivision of the Program's area of interest helps to understand the differential response of germplasm observed across ecosystems. While preliminary results of regional trials gene rally indicate wide adaptability of the most promising grass and legume germplasm, in many cases a distinct response to the different ecosystems Is stH! shown. These differences are partially due to the varying edaphic conditions but mainly due to climatic variattons. In the case of legumes, these differences are largely due to strong environmental interacttons with disease and pest incldence. Thus, germplasm should be tested in each of the Five ecosystems. Major emphas!s has so far been placed on two well-drained savanna Eilcosystems through collaborative research wi th ICA at Carimagua in the Colombian Llanos, and with EMBRAPA at the Cerrado Center near Brasilia, where three research staff were outposted in 1978. During 1979-1980, regional trials were establlshed in selected locations the remaining three ecosystems, to obtaln a preliminary reading on the degree of adaptatlon of a large number of species to these distlnct environments. However, major research thrusts are yet to start in these three ecosystems.The program has a long record of profitable research which has resulted in many advances. Major accomplishments for tropical welldrained savannas, the Llanos type in particular, are as follows:a) The identlflcatton through surveys of farms in the area of major farm constaints to cattle production in savanna ecosystems and in depth characterization of cattle produ::tion systems in Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil (a project parttally funded by GTZ).b) The identifícation of several genera and species as being well adapted to the conditions of one or more ecosystems: Andropogon gayanus, Brachiaria spp., Stylosanthes spp., Desmodium ovalifolium, Pueraria phaseolotdes, 20rnia spp., and Centrosema spp.c) The determination of nutrient requirements of the more promising accesstons for the well-drained savannas.d) The development of simple, low cost pasture establishment methods adapted to savanna conditions.e) The definition of the potential productivity of a large numbar of pasture grazing alternatives in the Llanos ecosystem, starting with native pastures, with concurrent evaluations of planted grass pastures, and culminating in the current evaluations of numerous grass-legume associations. Various grass-legume association in low-tnput controlled graztng experiments have produced annual ltveweight gains per animal of 200 kg and above, whlle yielding more than 300 kg/ha.f)The identification and epidemiological assessment of major cattte diseases in the area, and of their relative present importance.g) The ex-ante determination of expected profitabiltty of various pastures systems.h) Pastgraduate trainlng of 305 professianals from collaborating institutions of 22 countries in the regian.The evaluation and subsequent release by Colombia and Brazil of a new grass cultivar derlved fram Andropogon gayanus CIA T 621, and the delivery of large amounts of basic seed ta each country.Other accomplishments of more general applicability acress ecosystems are:j)The inventory of land resources in the area of interest, with edaphic, topographic, and climatic characterization of the region organized in a systematic and easily retrievable manner.k) The development of a germplasm bank consisting of a total af 7200 accessíons with a high proportion of material inter-nationally collected from acid son areas. This germplasm pool ls complemented by a parallel collection of Rhizobium from the same areas.1)The development of rapid screenlng techniques to determine tolerance oF plants and rhizobia to soil acidity.m) The elaboration of an inventory of pasture insects and diseases, by forage species and ecosystem, with an assessment of cu!\"'rent relative importance.n) The inítial development of a collaborative Regional Trial Network For evaluation of germplasm in terms of adaptatlon, productivity and persistance throughout the area of lnterest.In spite of these signiFicant advances, major general constraints and region specific constraints must be overcome in oroe!'\" to achieve wide adaptability of results throughout so hete!\"'ogeneous an area.The savanna ecosystems in the program's a!\"'ea of interest are all characterized by native vegetation of very low nutritive value -the major lImitation to increased animal production. The low feeding value of forages Is due to a combination of species of low primary productivity and quality, and the extreme acidity and low fertility status of the soils. Throughout the area, pH varies between 3.6 and 5.0. Aluminum saturation is high, aften reaching values between 70 and 90 percent. Available phasphorus levels are very low, usual1y below 3 ppm. Rather than avercoming this constraint through heavy appl!cations of lime and fertilizer, the program has adopted the approach of selecting adapted species.Lack of infrastrucrure ls a common constraint that varies in severity and depends upon topography and distance to market. Economic conditions (on-farm input and output prlces, and access to credit and extension mechanisms) vary From country to country and with distance to market. The machinery requirements and high present cost of pasture establishment and maintenance, plus eros ion hazaros during the establishment phase, are serious constraints to the adoptior, of new pasture systems.Since all of these constraints are somewhat common to the five ecosystems, the t3chnical sol\"tions to the overall nutritional constraints must be low-cost/low-input,and suitable for a wide range of management levels.The variability observed in existing production systems within and across ecosystems and the need to develop alternatives for -102colonization programs suggest that various pasture systems are needed as alternatives. This wlll allow farmers to adopt those pasture solutlons that best sutt their particular situation in terms of relative input/ output prices and access to resources, including type of land.Other critical constraints vary from region to region. Water stress is critical in the Cerrado type savannas but is of slightly lesser importance in the Llanos type, while the problem in the poorly drained savannas is excess water. Therefore, lack of good quality forage is the major constraint in the well-drained savannas during the dry seasen, while in the poorly drained savannas, forage availability is the major constraint during the wet season.The success 01' failure, in terms of persistence and productivity, of species adapted to the physical environment often depends on their reaction to diseases and insects. Most promis ing forage legume genera (e.g. Stylosanthes, Zornia, Centrosema and Aeschynomene) are natives of the Latin American tropics and of wide natural distrtbution. Hence, disease and insect pests which affect these forage legumes are also widely distributed In the program's area of interest. Clear evidence of differential geographical distribution of several important diseases and Insects, and of differential disease and pest tolerance within species, is available from the disease and insect surveys and preliminary results from regional trials. These results suggest the need for multtlocatlonal screening of a broad range of germplasm within promlsing specles and genera for which critical disease 01' insect problems have been identified and also suggest the need for introduction of exotic materlals. A rigorous selection program by ecosystem Is thus essentlal to overcome this major constraint. -103-The tropical pastures research team is comprised of 20 senior 5cientists, the majority of whom ( 15) are based at headquarters, while two are based at Carimagua, and three are outposted at CPAC Brasilia.The 5cientists interact within and between three functional groupings:Germplasm development (collection, selection and breeding) and evaluation includes agronomists and breeders baslcally involved in collection and agronomic evaluation, and support specialists In the areas of soil microbiology, pathology. and entomology(totalling 9 senior scientists).Pasture evaluation and development includes agronomi.sts and plant and animal nutritionists wtth acttvi.ties in regional triats, soU fertility, pasture establishment and maintenance, seed production, pastura evaluation under grazing, and pasture management (6 senior scientists).Pasture evaluation in prOOuction systems includes animal scientlsts, a veterlnarian and an economist with activities in evaluation of pastures in alternative cattIe production systems, and related animal management and animal health practices (4 senior sc\\entists ).The activities of these three groups are focused on a dynamic flow of germplasm and the development of appropriate production technology for the most promislng materíaIs as shown In Figure 6.2. The basic strategy is that of exploiting natural variability and adaptation of species to the val'lous ecosystems. The bastc research strategy consists of a logical sequence of germplasm screening and evaluation steps geared toward achievtng the stated objectives. These steps, applied up to now only in the well-drained savanna ecosystems, are as follows:a) The collectlon and assembly of forage germplasm and Rhizobium banks based on geographically broad but ecosystem-specific criteria. Emphasis is placed upon legumes because oF their inherent nitrogen fixing capacity and quality, especiaHy during the dry season.b) A dynamic and extensive evaluation system whereby accessions, often oF agronomicaUy unknown species. pass through a prograssive series of character and performance assessmente. Characteristics sought include: tolerance to extreme son acidity. high aluminum saturation and low base status; adaptation to low phosphorus soils; nttrogen fixation potential (in legumes); resistance to dtseases and insects; tolerance to burning and drought; vigor, productlvity and goOO distribution of yteld; seed production; ease of establishment and spreading; freedom from toxins and oestrogens; and high forage qualtty.;::j¿ ' , e) The determlnation of mlmmum nutrlent requlremente for eaeh species and the development of low eost methods of establishment and maíntenanee, as well as grazing management strategies required ror best pastura persistenee and animal produetlvit;y.d) The estimation, for eaeh t;ype of pasture (usually grasslegume associations), of a profile of animal productivity potential per unit area and per animal unit, with associated economic Input/output values.e) The selection and formation of cultivars, candidates for release by national programs, and the production of basie seed with development of production technologies to assure seed availabilit;y. Thls Includes the definitlon of seed production systems and determination of environmental raquiremente for satisfactory commereial seed yields.In summary, inltial emphasis is upon eolleetion, evaluation of growth patterns, aOO assessment of reaction to acid infertile soH coOOiUons. followed by determination of reaction to diseases and inseete within each ecosystem, and finally, evaluation after exposure to competition and grazing. Concurrent with the forward progress of this evaluatlon process there Is a continulng re8uetion in the number oF accessions utilized. Whlle thousands of accessions enter the process, only a few wlll finally qualify as cultivars.As n lustrated in Figure 6.3, germplasm accessions are classified In five eategorles whleh refleet the degree of promlse of aceess!ons mov!ng through the systematic screenlng and evaluation sequence.Perlodically experimental resulte are used to promote those accessions whieh meet deslred requlremente to a higher category where they win form the basls for planning far the next phase of the evaluatlon. The relative ranking oF aeeesstons wlthln speeies Is done separately for each ecosystem. Requiremente for progresslon to a higher category vary wlth the species, dependlng upon the principal limitations of the species. The lImitlng constra!nt of eaeh spec!es !s used as the promotlon criterla, e.gol in So/Iosanthes spp., resistanee to anthraenose and steamborer¡ in Zornia sPp., reslstance to Sphaeeloma and seed productlon eapacity¡ in Desmod!um ovaltfo1!um, tannin content and palatablllty¡ In Centrosema spp., aeld sol! toleranee aOO toleranee to bacterial bllght aOO Rh!zoctonia.The germplasm bank (Category 1 aecessions) is maintalned at Palmira as seed and/or single potted plante, aOO at Qullichao as spaeed plante in the field. Aetivitles in these locatlons emphaslze identifleat!on, National Programs maintenance, multiplication and initial characterization oF materíals. AH accessions (Category 1) are evaluated For adaptation to edaphic conditions in introduction gardens at both Carimagua and Brasilia.Selected accessions are also evaluated in preliminary Regional Trials (Type A) in the varlous ecosystems. Category II accessions undergo agronom\\c evaluation at both Carimagua and Brasilia, and some of them are retested at additional selected locations (Regional Trlal, Type B).The basie strategy is te exploit the vast natural variation existing within and among species rather than to generate additional variabiHty through plant breeding. Thus, plant breeding is used as a problemsolving approach only after extensive germplasm evaluation has identified promising specles and ecotypes, and there ls a reasonable probability of incorporating a missing characterist\\c by genetic manipulatíons. Within species subject te genet\\c improvement by plant breeding, (e.g. Stylosanthes spp., Centrosema spp., Leucaena leucocephala)individually bred lines may be nominated te different categoríes in the evaluation, but breeding populations are handled independently of the germplasm bank.Selected accessions advanced to Category In status, are assoclated with grasses, and placed under heavy intermittent grazing to assess persistence, competí Uve abillty, and dry matter productivity. These evaluations are conducted at both Carimagua and Brasilia and are planned at some Regional Trials C locations. In addit!on specif\\c grass-legume mixtures are grazed under different intensity and maturity to determine relative palatabiHty of associated species. In Category IV the objective is to evaluate the pasture in terms of potential animal prpductivity and determine the appropriate grazing management of the pasture. Measuremenis are made of sward botanical composition trends over time, presentation yie lds, animal grazing preference, and species in vitro nutritive value, in order to explain the recorded animal productivity (kg/ha/yr and kg/animal/yr). Finally, in Category V the objective is to complete a proft1e of spectes and varietal evaluation, to obtain simple technological packages prior to release of the cultivar by nat!onal programs, and to define the best pasture uti lization under different production systems. These two developments will lead to considerable changes in emphasis within the overall pastures program but will result in only minor changes and addition to the core research staff. Major changes are projected in the relative allocation of staff time to principal activities and ecosystems. While during the first half of the decade emphesis wíll be maintained in research activi ties, a gradual increase of outreach activitíes is planned during the second half of the decade, requiring almost one third of the staff time toward the end of the periodo Research emphasis wíll continue in the well-draíned savanna ecosystems, but new research activ\\tíes will begin early in the decade in the poorly drained savannas and in the humid trapícs (Figure 6.4A).6.1.6.1 Evoluation of emphasís wíthin the research program: Allocation of staff time to germplasm development and evaluation will be maintained during the first half of the decade, but it is expected to decline during the second half as promising germplasm is upgraded in status (Figure 6.4B). Also, consistent wtth the advancement of germplasm status, more staff time will be devated to pasture development and evaluation in both controlled experiments and actual production systems.Germplasm development and evaluation.-Exploiting natural varíab-Hity will continue to be the baste strategy of the programo Therefore germplasm collection will playa critical rale throughout the period. In order to increase cost effectiveness of the overall program. emphasis in co11ection wlll increase dur!ng the first half of the decade but is expected to decline toward the end of the decade as key species are identified and the program's cotlection needs become more ecosystem -and target-s'>ecific (Figure 6.4C). As the pramising key species are identified for each major ecosystem collection will focus upon these particular genera and spectes, and upon specific goals, (e.g. tolerance to anthracnose in Stylosanthes spp., tolerance to Sphaceloma in Zornia spp.).Even though most oF the cal1ection activit!es will be in areas of tropical Latin America with acld infertile solls. some specific collections will be done In South East Asia, in areas with similar soils. These collections will focus on genera such as Desmodium and Pueraria that have praven adapted to acid soll5 in general, and to the hum id tropics in particular. In the case of the grasses, emphasis will be placed on obtaining through germplasm exchange as much variability as possible in genera such as Brachiaria, Panicum, and Andrapogon, \" ..-.'!! The agronomists will continue screening for promising species in each oF the well-drained savanna ecosystems. When well-adapted species are identifíed, emphasls will be shifted to the identification of Unes with superior overall performance. The pathologist and entomologist will assist in the identification of accessions more tolerant/resistant to the diseases and pests that economlcally affect such species.Genetic advanc.es in so me key species will be made not only by introduction and selecUon, but also by plant breeding, where appropriate. Even though emphasis will be on exploiting natural variability before undertaking plant breeding, relative emphasls on breeding material is expected to increase particularly during the second half of the decade. As a natural evolutíon of the selectlon precess within some key species, plant breeding will be used when desirable characteristics are missing and there is a reasonable probability of incorporating these characteristics by making specific crosses.As promising lines are identified and cultlvars approach release, there wHI be a series of related ImpUcations: (i) the need to previde documented summaries oF experimental performance and potentlal productivity oF these new cultivars, since the specles may be totally unknown; (il) the need to collaborate with national institutions in providing practical recommendations on pasture establishment methods, stocking and management practices; (lii) there will additionally be the need for seed production and processing tecmology to asslst in the rapid and successful commercializatlon of seed production, implemented in liaison with national agencies that control cultivar release.Pasture evaluation and development.-The present emphasis upan agronomic evaluaUon of a large number of accessions (Categortes 1, II and III at both Carimagua and BrasiHa) wtl1 ldentify an Increasing number of accessions for evaluatlon under grazlng conditlons (Figure 6.4D). It ls expected that the need For expanston of these activittes wlll be partlally met by reassigning responslbtlitles within the present team, ancl partlally by inltlating more grazing experlments in cooperatíon w!th nattonal instltutions.Once an adapted, productlve pasture is defined far a region, elther as a mixed 01'\" a pure stand, the need arises for defining low cost and efflcient establishment methods that provide adequate stands for persistence and productivlty. Seedbed preparation, minlmum fertilizer requirements, forms of application for alternative nutr!ent sources, seeding densities and methods, and pasture management systems are among the practical Issues with which the program must deal at the time of cultivar release. SoU fertility status will be monitored under grazing in order to determine (minimum) fertllizer maintenance requiremente for persistence and stability 01' the association.Pasture evaluation in production systems. -The present monitoring of existing production systems in selected subareas 01' Colombia,• Brazil, and Venezuela will be expanded to Include a more representative area in Venezuela, a poorly drained savanna area in Colombia and a dual purpose production area in Panama. The resultlng diagnosis of onfarm production constraints, and the set of farm production and economtc parameters will previde a data base i:hat combined with the experimental data generated by the program, should suffice for simulation of alternative pasture uses In the various productlon systems identified. Modelling wlll be used with the speclflc objective 01' anticipating the expected outcome 01' alternative uses of various pastures in different prcductlon systems relevant to the region.On-farm val idatlon 01' improved pasture technology -plantlng new cultivars into pasture on a small portion 01' a farm and using thls for those animals wtth highest response capaclty-has already been initiated In on four farms In the Colombian Llanos. As cultivars are released, this activity is expected to Increase throughout the decade In a few selected locations and In close collaboratlon wlth national programs. It should provide a means for valldation of pasture persistence and productivity under farm conditions, and also for validation and Improvement of modelllng activitles.6.1.6.2 Evolution of outreach and feedback actlvities: Outreach and research activities are intimately mixed since natíonal research lnstitutions are both the program's collaborators and clients with the collaboration starting very early In the research process (Figure 6.3). Already, in the early stages 01' germplasm collection and evaluation collaboratlon exists, but tt wlll expand rapidly as germplasm accessions advance in status through the research process. The matn constralnt to expanded collaboration ie the abeence, in most countrtes, of strong pasture research programs working In areas wlth acid Infertile sotls. Existlng programs tend to concentrate on more fertlle solls; areas where beef and milk productlon have expanded in the past and where most of the cattle population is still located.The proportion 01\" acid Infertile solls and the degree of policy commitment towards develop!ng such areas varles considerably among tropical Latin American countries. Possibilitles 01\" collaboratton, assistance required, and relevance 01\" feedback will thus differ among countries. Uslng these criterla, countrles can be operationally cate- The short, intensive courses will be followed by postgraduate research internships to provide profess ionals from key locations, with the skills and experience in research methods and techniques for effective evaluation of germplasm adaptation and pasture persistenee and productivity o These training efforts wtll be complemented by other researeh network strengthening activities such as thesis research opportunities in tropical pastures for M o S o and Ph o D o candidates, and short-term, In-eountry research courses in those countries and subregions with large areas of acid inferti le soi 15 o Regional trials.-Germplasm exchange ánd testing through the network of regional trials constitute another important outreach/feedback activity and will be substantially expanded throughout the decade. Germplasm will continue to be distributed on request for research purposes, and exploratory regional trials (Type A) will be carl\"'Íed out in all countries in the network regardless of the extent of their acid soils. This type of trlal will be conducted in aH five major ecosystems using the tentative broad ¡¡st of germplasm matel\"'Íal for each ecosystem.The full series of regional tríals for the two types of well-dralned savannas will be extended to cover all countries with moderate to large areas of these ecosystems. As research in the two other ecosystems (poorly drained savannas and humid tropics) starts early in the decade, and as promising material for each ecosystem is identified, the full series of regional trials will start at selected sites of the countries with moderate to large areas of similar characteristics.6. 1 • 6.3 Re lati ve ecosys te m emphas is • -Unti 1 now, the program Focus has been upon the well-drained savannas with principal emphasis on the Llanos type savannas as at the Carimagua Research Station. Research in the Cerrado type savanna started in 1976 with the outposting of senior scientists to work in germplasm uttlization. This program commenced in 1980, with regional trhls (type A) in the humid tropics and the poorly drained savannas, but so far these are exploratory compared with the research underway in the well-drained savannas. New research actlvities will start early in the decade in the humid troplc and poorly drained savannas¡ thus, by the middle of the period the program will be active in all ecosystems. The primary emphasis, however, will remain on the programs in the well-drained savannas. These will require over two -thirds ofstaff time at mid-decade and wíll still utilize more than one-halF by 1990 (Figure 6.4A).The poorly drained savannas.-This type of ecosystem is found throughout the lowlands of tropical Latln America in the form of small to relatlvely large \"islands\" within the other ecosystems. Small areas of poorly drained pastures are found in varying degrees on almost every Farm, wh!le typical examples of large areas are the Seni region oF Boltvia, the Pantanal in Brazil, the Casanare in Colombia, and the Apure in Venezuela.Lack of abundant, goOO quality forage that will persist under Flooding during the wet season Is the common constraint in this important and extensive ecosystem, which has gene rally higher stocking rates than the well-drained savannas.New thrusts in germplasm evaluation and soíl fertílity /plant nutritlon for this area wtll begin in 1982. Germplasm will be concentrated on screening for adaptability and persistence on the major soíls that are subject to different degrees of flooding, while simultaneous, in-depth, on-farm studies will provide a key to tha role of improved pasturas in difFerent land Forms. Thase thrusts will not requlre additions to the core staff since they will be conducted by agronomists from haadquarters, Carimagua, and Brasilia, in close collaboration with national programs working in the area. At present tt is envisioned that thase activities will occupy the total equivalent of 3 SSMY by 1985 and a maximum of 4 by 1990.6.1.6.4 The humid tropics.-An expanded germplasm evaluation effort for the humld tropics will give the Program a much-needed germplasm screenlng site that ls characterized by acld infertHe soils and more extreme environmental condítions than those found in savanna areas. This site wíll provide an excellent location for screening for disease and pest tolerance/resístance, which will result in better understanding of the resistance mechanisms.The humid tropics are experiencing increasing in-migration due to the combined effects of demographic, soeto-economic, and geopoligical pressures. Most existing land use patterns result in rapid degradation of soil resources. The most prevalent exploitation system relles on the replacement of the original vegetation with pastures and crops. However, due to a lack of adapted forage species and the absence of a clear understandíng of the dynamics of soU fertility levels after clearing, the productivíty oF too pastures tends to diminish rapidly due to 10ss of stand and weed lnvasion. Thelr useFul life span is often no more than four to seven years. However, well-managed, adapted legume-based pastures maintained at mínimum fertllity levels are efflcient at recycling nutrients and previde excellent erosion protection.There is an urgent need for a broader range of adapted forage species and approprtate pasture development/management technology for these regions. It is estimated that more than halF of the 6-8 milIton hectares oF cleared Ama;¡:onian forest is tn a state of degradation. The recovery of the areas already cleared is one of the main objectives of this new thrust of the Tropical Pastures Programo Two outposted research scientists will be assigned to work with a research team oF a collaboratlng institution, probably located in a \"seasonal I'orest\" ecosystem. The two positions are:-Outposted Research Agronomist, to commence dutles in mid-1981.Objectives wtll tnclude major germplasm screening plus coordinatíon 01' a series of regional trials within the two humíd tropío ecosystems.-Outposted Research Pasture Development Agronomist, to commenee duties by January, 1983. Objeetives will include strat-. egíes for renovation of degraded pastures, plus alternative strategies for pasture establishment and maíntenance and related soil fertilit:y/plant nutritíon studies.These two staff members wiH receive operational support from present staff, especially in the areas oc germplasm evaluation, pathology, entomology, microbiology, plant nutrition and seed production. In many ways, actívities within the humid tropics will effectively complement savanna-based programs, broadening the ecological base for testing germplasm and technology. Significant economies of scale can be realized. and valuable time can be saved, by providing 10w-cost/1owinput solutions to the urgent problem of degrading pastures in the humid tropics oF Latín America.6.1.6.5 Staffing patterns in the eighties.-While a natural result of the progress mooe in research and knowledge of germplasm performance is that considerable change in research emphasis wil1 occur during the decade, only minor changas and additions to the core staff are envisaged.Total staff members. -In 1980 the Program staff ¡neludes 20 scientists. Although five additional staff positions are proposed for the decade -three in regional cooperation and two ín research--net additions to program staff will be only three since the other two positions are to be provided by phasing out existing positions. A peak of 23 will be reached in 1986, remaining constant until the end of the decade.Research staFf.-As described above, two senior staFf wiH be located in a hum id tropíc location. Two research staff positions currently located at Brazil will be phased out in 1985 and 1986 respectively, concurrent with the initiation of more intensive regional cooperatíon activities. As the natural consequence of research advances in Llanos ecosystem, discipl!ne orientation of the staff located at Carimagua wlll change from soils and agronomy to pasture utillzation and cattle productíon systems, but the number wiU rema!n constant.As previously explalned, from 1982 there wnl be an íncreasing lnvolvement of the headquarters-based research staff in activities relatoo to the poorly drained savannas and the humíd trapics. Agaln, this does not imply changes in staff members. Total research staff w!l1 increase from 20 to 21 durtng the perlod 1982-1984, decreasing to 20 thereafter. Regional Cooperation staff.-From zero in 1980, this staff category will encompass a maximum of three positions by 1986 and remain constant until 1990. The first two appolntments are proposed for 1983 (1985 at the latest) followed by a third appointment in 1986. These proposed positions are as follows, a) Central America and Caribbean, This staff member wíll respond to the needs of a region which includes no less than nine countries with nationally significant areas of acid, in-Fertile soils utilized essentially in beef production. Actlvitíes w!ll relate to regional trial coordinatlon, on-farm validation trials and inter-regiona I technology transfer. The scientist wi Il be located in Panama or Costa Rica and is required by not later than 1985.b) Cerrado: This scientist wHl assist in the coordination of regional trials throughout the very extensive areas ol' the Cerrado ecosystem and the adjacent, poorly drained savannas (e.g. Pantanal). The position will be filled in 1985, assuming significant advances In the Program's pasture technology development. This will ooincide with a reduction of one core research position. The total number of staff positions in Brazil will then fall te two in 1986; one in research activities, predominantly in pasture evaluation, and the other in outreach and regional trials. c) Subtropical South America, This position relates to extensions oF the Brazilian shield into both Paraguay and Bottvia. The scientist cculd be located in e1ther country and is programmed to start in 1986. While the primary function will be to coordinate regional trials, a secondary function will be to provide ¡ iaison to national research taams working in the \"chaco regions\" of Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina where there is interest in testing CIAT's germplasm In distinctly different ecosystems.6.2 Other Systems Components for the FrontierIn Chapter 6 the role of cassava and upland rice as crop components for production systems in acid infe rtile soils was discussed. Two crops of great economic tmportance in Latin America (soybeans and sorghum) are not present research targets at CIAT. As discussed in Chapter 1, the two crops have shown unprecedented growth in areas sown and total production in the past ten years. The growth in production has been stimulated by a growing demand for animal Feed, particularly for poultry. This demand has largely been generated by increased consumption of poultry among the middle and upper income strata.Growth in the are a planted with cassava and upland rice has taken place on the best agricultural lands available in the tropical countrles oF the region. Various inventories of son resources in these countries clearly indicate the scarcity of prime available land in most of these countries, in contrast with the vast areas of less-fertile, usually acid sotls which are presently underutil ized. In both crops the basic germplasm pool, from which the currenUy utilized varietles and hybrids were derived, was developed on the more-fertile and less-acid soils of temperate lati tudes • As a regional center in tropical America, CIAT plans to continue Its policy of collaboration with other institutes thet play a role in the region and fit inte \\he basic philosophy of the center. At present, CIAT hosts subprograms fron') three other international insUtutions with sJ:aFf based at headquarters: from CIMMYT (Andean Zone Maize), IFOC (Phosphorus Project) and IRRI (IRTP Liaison Scientist). Negotiations to host programs of international institutions working with sorghum and soybeans are in prbgress, and it is hoped that both crops will be served by a small group of one or two scienti'sts dedicated to the task of assembling ano screening germplasm, and of varietal development for the acid soils of the tropics. Similar negotiations are underway (AIO-Title XII Soil Management CRSP) for the location of one senior scientist at Carimagua te assess the potential of other crop species for production under acid soil conditions.In this way CIAT may be able to make a contribution without expanding its commodity mandate or committing its Financial resources.The most critical constraints to plant growth on acid infertile soils are high aluminum levels and low available soU nutrients (mainly phosphorus followed by potasstum, calcium, magnesium and sulphur). Except in a few instances, it may not be economical to correct these soU deficiencies, due to high transportation costs and low productivity. High subsidies are currently required in order to induce production in most regions. The pasture and crop research descrlbed above aims at developing adapted plants with low Ferttlity requirements. However, economically eff!cient nutient sources are a necessary complement to the low nutrient requirement strategy. While these soils are lacking in nutrients, considerable phosphorus and lime deposlts exist in several tropical Latin American countries. Even though distances between these low fertillty reglons and the mineral deposits are not large in many cases, high transportation costs necessitate that fertiHzer volumes be kept low, ane! thus, agronomic efficiency of the nutrient sources must be relatively high, Research on rock phosphate was initiated in 1978 through the IFDC-CIA T spec ial project funded by IDRC ane! UNDP. While thls project, hosted at CIAT, does not concentrate excluslvely on frontler soHs, Its maln focus Is on efficient utHization of rock phosphates In acld soH, a medium that provides fer significantty improved agronomic efficiency of these P sources, Research on this important factor component Is expected to continue, inc luding other more efficie nt mOOI flcatlons of the ine!igenous rock phosphate resources, with IFDC backstopping in the development of the ferttlizer production technology.To be cost effective CIAT's commodity programs require systematized information about thelr respective target areas in two main phases of their research activities: research strategy design and tecmology evaluatlon and transfer. Specific research goals and prioritles must initially be defined ane! constantly re-evaluated in the light oF knowledge of existing conditions In each program's target area. A goOO une!erstanding of the land ancf cllmatic resources within wh!ch agricultural production takes place; thelr variabltity and how representatlve they are, 15 necessary for success in generating adaptable, seed-based technology. This Is particularly valid for CIAT commodity programs because of the varl-abHity in ecosystems in terms of soHs ane! cltmate in Latln America and the strong germplasm-ecosystem interactions in all CIAT commooities.In the case OF pastures, persistence Is very much affected by dlsease and pest tolerance/resistance. Not only have most of the adapted Forage legumes which the Program regards as highly promlsing (í.e. Stylosanthes. Zornia, Centrosema) origlnated In the tropícs 01' Latin Amerlca but their natural enemies have also orlglnated there. Therefore thesa specles present strong gene-envlronment Interactions in terms of dlsease ane! pest tolerance. Results from regional trials strongly support this observatlon. The same consideratlons apply to both cassava and beans, since both of these commodlties have thelr center of orlgin in Latin America, Moreover, these two commOOlties are grown in a very wlde dlversity of cropplng systems. Informatlon from internattonal tríals suggests that a large tnteraction between genotype, cropping system, ancl climatic and edaphic factors extsts. In both crops a complex of biological constraints which tend to occur uncler similar ecological conditions and vary in their severity depending on the cropping system also extsts. In rice, particularly in upland rice, a far better definition of target areas and their critical constraints is required before major steps are taken te \"fine tune\"' research priorities.Target area analysis and evaluation also appear as critical components ¡\" the technology testtng and valtdation stage. The availability of purposely collected and organized data on each program's target area will not only help in achieving objectives, but will do so in the most cost-effective manner. Sites for regional trials, international nurseries, and for on-farm, val idation, benchmark studies should be selected in terms of the representative quality of the various subecosystems. Better ability to extrapolate information to similar ecosystems will make network testing more useful.Better ability to associare germplasm to a given type or range of ecosystem will also significantly reduce the burdens of cooperating national institutions and increase confidence in networking with CIAT. The need to gather this type of information was identified by the TAC stripe review on farming systems research as the major gap in FSR at CIAT. Thus, the overall objective is a better understanding of the agroclimatic zones and cropping systems and their present and potential interactions with the germplasm, in order to provide, wi thin each commodity program: (a) an analytical framework for problem identification and setting program priorities; (b) a better understanding of agroecosystem-specific problems and resource potentials; Cc) a sharper focus of the commodity program's priorities; (d) an objective, quantítatlve basis for technology evaluation, feedback and transfer; and, overall, (e) a more cost-effective and efficient way of carrying on with the tasks of both CIAT and the collaborating national .institutions. The experience gained in the special studY in land evaluation conducted by the Tropical Pastures Program, and in the study of climatology conducted by the Bean Program, are clear evidence of the usefulness of this endeavor.The agroecological study unit is to colJoaborate with each commodity program in the callecttan, analysis and synthesis of relevant climatic, edaphic, and crop sysrem data on their respective target areas. The unit will be integrated by two senior staff: an agroclimatologist (starting 1982) and a land system specialist (starting 1983). Rather than adding specialists in these disciplines to each of the four programs, a smal.l central unit will provide this expertise. Agroeconomic, eco-nomlC and other disciplinary inputs wi11 be provided by the specialist in the respective commodity programs. As the prime concern of CIAT is the tropicel Latín America countries, some 80 percent of past training partlcipants (01\" a total of sorne 1,700 professionals during the perlod 1969-1980) have been selected from this area. In the next five years, parttcipants from Asia and Africa are expected to increase to approxtmately 10 percent of the yearly total as regional cooperation expands to these areas. Nevertheless, throughout the eighties, the large majority of CIAT training participants wi11 continue to be selected from the tropical Latin American countrtas..... CIAT has long recognized the value of international and regional eonferences/ workshops as a means of (a) focusing attention on a given research issue, the establishment of priorities involved aOO definition of interinstitutional collaboration in dealing with these; (b) consulti.ng with natlonal eounterparts en selected CIAT program strategies and mutual coordination of researeh work; and (e) consulting, on a regular basis. on the natura and operatton of commodity-based researeh neOOorks.AH three types of conferenees will be continued throughout the 'SOs. WhUe the first 000 types of events will be scheduled as the need aríses, it ls anticipated that one netWork workshop in each of ClAT's commedities will be held every other year.A.s the organizaUon and conduct of conference events requires considerable investments in term of financial inputs and scientists' time, conferences wiU only be held when they are considered necessary in achieving the objectives of the Center. In any case, as a rule of thumb. core-financed conference events wiU never exceed .75 percent of the total core budget in any one year. In addition, cosponsorship with other international organízatíons witl be sought whenever the subject of a conference is of such nature that if falls into their interests 01'\" mandates.On the part of CIAT, technical consultatíon with national programs ls made. posslble through the travels of the Center' s senior scientists and directorial staff. An average of 15-20 percent of their time is spent on visiting research projects of cooperating members in the various research networks. Upon request, CIAT may also previde advice on orgenization and development of national programs relatad to the commoditíes in CIAT' s mandate. Demand for such visits ls expected to remaln high in the eighties; yet, no substantial increase in time allocated for consultations ís planned as this would conflict with on-going activities.CIAT encourages professional program staff and leaders of national programs to periodical1y visit CIAT $.nd its programs as a means to previde its coHaborators with first-hand information on CIAT development.A principal output of en international research center such as CIAT is a massive amount of technical ínformation on the context of agricultural 1\"'6search as it pertains to CIAT, on new production technology, and on research methodology. In en effort to systematize this information and to make it available to the research and development community both on the nationsl level as well as to other regional and ínternatíonal instítutions, CIAT maintains an important effort in the development and production of technical message packages which include the following publication series.Annual Report. The technical annual report of CIAT is published in the form separate reports each for the major research programs of the Center. Also, a yearly \"CIAT Report\" ls published. Technical Publicatíons. This set'Íes incIudes the publication of conference proceedings, monographs, production manuals, field problem guides. and others.Audiotutot'Íal Units. These are audiovisual training materials that provide technical ínformatíon on the commodíties within the mandate of CIAT for didactíc purposes. These materials are for the use at CIAT as well as within countries (í.e., universitíes, national research institutions).Public Information Materíals. Selected materials are produced to lnform a more generalized public of the purpose and the nature of CIAT.It ls anticipated that throughout the decade of the '80s, the volume of CIAT's communication products will continue to increase and that the utility of the CIA T message products to their íntended audiences will progressively be enhanced.CIAT will continua to explore innovative alternatives in the use of message channels in attempting to ímprove the effectivenass of CIAT messages addressed to its various audíences. Nevertheless, as the most important audience ís the collaborating research scientists on the national level, CIAT wiH always assure that its forms of communícatíon are compatible with available communication infrastructure on the national level.In the technical information field (l.e., documentation and library services), over the years CIAT has acquired international recognition for its timely delivery to research scientists in national programs of agricultural informatían services. These services include abstracts, tables of content, photocopying of research documents, specialized literature searches, annual cumulatíve bibliographies, plus the publication of monographs contalning synthesis of technical information in selected flelds.CIAT recognizes that timely technical informabon services to research scientists at CIAT itself and at the national level ia vital to the taak of improved agricultural production technologies. In the decade ahead, CIAT will aystematícal1y bulld up its documentationa services of research work in the fíelda of cassava, tropical pastures, beans grown under tropical conditíons, and rice, in Latín America. At the same time that these selected documentabon efforts will be further developed and integrated with large, comprehensive agricultural information systems (e.g., AGRINTER), the more general informatian services provided by CIAT which are not directly linked to research and development on CIAT's commoditíes, will gradually be dimínished to the point where they will be phased out by the mid-180s. This latter development is in recognition of the fact that in the non-CIAT mandated commodities the Center does not have a comparative advantage in providing technical information services. Rather, the responsibilil;y for the provisíon of such services must gradually be assumed by other regional and national informationrelated organizations.Presently, CIAT assigns a total of four senior staff positions in the area of communication and information as described above. (1t must be pointed our that a considerable portion of the on-going work in the area of communicationjinformation is devoted to the direct support of CfAT programs in general and thus only indirectly impinges on international cooperation activí ties). During the planning perlod under consideration here, nei ther the number of senior staff positions nor the relative proportion of resource allocatlon to communicationjinformation activities is expected to change signifícantIy.The mix of international cooperabon services to be provided to any one nationat counterpart organizatlon will gene rally depend on the level of development of ita research program in the respective CIAT commoditles. Far discuss!on purposes, different levels of program developments can be defined as follows:Group l: Advanced national commodil;y programs that have clearly defined their research and development strategy and are equipped to carry out these strategies;Group II: Developing national commodíty programs in a dynamic state of growth and development of their activities;Group IlI: Developing national commodity programs at an incipient stage of development, staffed by personnel with low academic degrees and levels of training;Group IV: Organizations that do not have a formal program on the CIAT commodil;y involved but whose country has good potential for production of that commodil;y; Group V: National commodil;y programs that because of economical andjor other circumstances are in a state of decline and need revital izabon.Clearly, CIAT's efforts to strengthen national commodity efforta must be adJusted to the different needs of these natíonal programs as theil\" stage of development moves along the continumm described above.    different international cooperation services that are rendered to collaborating national programs at the various stages of development.Outposted personnel refers to any CIAT staff stationed outside of Colombia.Outposted personnel represents a very important component of internattonal cooperatíon services and their number is expected to grow considerably in the decade of the '80s. The Center distinguishes between three types of outposted personnel: outposted staff for research; regional cooperatíon staff; and bilateral contract staff •In principIe, research staff will be posted outside of CIAT only when three conditions are met: (a) the research problems to be solved are of significant ímportance of a given regíon (Le., normal1y CIAT will not post permanent core funded research staff to conduct research relevant to only one country); (b) the research problems to be solved occur in conditíons whíeh are not adequately represented in any site within CIAT's host country and therefore require the outposting of research staff to a representative site outside of Colombia; and (e) there is a strong regional 01' national research organlzation in the are a which ltself assigns high priority to the solution of the researeh problems at hand and ls in a position to provide effective research support to the outposted researeh staff. Since the research conducted by this type of scientist is an extension of CIAT's commodity research programs, it is understood that these scientísts would preferably be funded through the core budget. CIAT's plan for the '80s calls for outposted researeh staff in cassava (one position to start in 1983) and tropical pastures (a maximum of five positions).7.6.2 Regional Cooperation Regional eooperation staff are outposted to strategic locations in order to serve regions in which a particular commodity is important. Whíle in recent years a modest effort was made to serve selected regions through a few apecial projeet-funded regional cooperation staff, it is betieved that the '80s al' the time for maximum expansion in regional eooperation staff: naw that an ever increasing amount of technology becomes available, stronger cooperatibn with selected regtons beco mes imperative. Untíl such time that CIAT has added the full contingent of regional cooperation staff outlined below, the Center eannot be considered as ful1y developed.A distinction is made between regional cooperation staff in the Western Hemisphere, and regional cooperation staff outside the Western Hemisphere.7.6.2.1 Within Western Hemisphere. These staff are assigned to a specifíc country or regional program. Their major role ts to assist in the inter-institutional transfer of technology in a given commodit;y and to provide feedback into the research process. thus making them essential links in the technology generation/technology transfer continuum. In close collaboration with natíonal programs in their respective regions they conduct or encourage research on problems of special importance to that area. They expedite and help organize international nurseries and other collaborative trials in the region, and they assist in the selection of participante for training at CIAT and in the development of in-country training courses. DCJe to thei r relative proximit;y to CIAT headquarters. outposted eooperation staff within the Western Hemisphere will always maintain CIAT as their \"second\" headquarters and thus will visit CIAT at periodic intervals.As a rule, regional eooperation steff outposted within the Western Hemi,.. sphere shall be core funded. Nevertheless, the funding situation at any one time may be such that given positions must be financed through special project funds. The long-term plan of CIAT calls for a total of eight regional cooperation staff posltions in the • 80s (3 in beans; 1 in cassava; 1 in rice; and 3 in tropical pastures).7.6.2.2 Outside the Western Hemisphere. These staff are posted to major regions outeide Latin Amehca and the Caribbean in which a given CIAT commodity ie of great importance and which have a potential to benefit from new CIAT production technologies with but a minor research effort in the adaptation of this technology to the regional conditions. Scíentists posted to such regions are to be lacated at strong international, regional Or local research programs which themselves assign high priority to the eommodity research/development effort under consideration, and which can provide sufficient infrastructure for training, quarantine, varietal selection and seed multiplication. The principal role of scientiste posted outside the Western Hemisphere is to provide an organizational framework that allows for the regional adaptatíon and validation of new production technology, and to stimulate active collaboration in this process on the part of natíonal programs in the region. In general terms, CIAT scientists posted outside of the Western Hemisphere cover a larger geographic area than their counterparts within the Western Hemisphere. They will organize a greater portion of traíning on a regional basis and select candidates for furhter research training at CIAT only for selected disciplines for which adequate training ts not available in the regíon.While ít ls preferable te include these long-term positions in the core budget of CIAT, it is possible to consider special project fundíng for outposted staff outsíde the Western Hemisphere. For the • 80s. a total of four eore-funded regional cooperatíon staff outside the Western Hemi-sphere are projected: two positions in beans; and two postions in cassava.7.6.2.3 Bilateral Contract Staff. These staff are apPointed as local components of national or sub-regional research teame at the request of individual countries or small groupings of a few countries. They serve on a temporary basis (usual1y three to ftve years). and their purpose ts to strengthen the institution they are asstgned to in their field of activity whHe natíonal staff complete their training to fill such positions. Bilateral contract staff witl normally be working chiefly with one of the commodities for which the Center has responsibilities, and will maintain very close ties with the respective program in CIAT.Since these types of appointments will depend en special project fund availability and are of a temporary nature, it is neither possible. nor desirable, to project prec(sely for which countries funds witl become available and which meet the criter!a established by CIAT for considering CIAT bilateral centract staff (Criteria are listed in the CIAT pubticatien CIAT's Strategy for Outreach Services, Seríes 12E-l, 1979). lt ts anticipated, however, that no individual commodity program will, at any one time, be involved with more than three countries or engage more than five such bilateral contract staff. In this plan CIAT projects two initiatives which are to be incorporated into core funding during the decade. 80th are highly complementary to the on-going activities of the Center and are regionally oriented towards the Western Hemisphere. These initiatives are with respect to the Agroecosystems Analysis Unit and the Seed Unit.The project which has been in operation since 1978 usíng core funds for visiting scientists has be en described in Chapter 6. The rationale for the Unit has been outlined and its role as a CIAT-wide activíty clearly defined.In 1979, a special project funded by the Swiss Development Cooperation, was initiated at CIAT, with the objective of assisting in the strengtheníng of national seed-related activities ín the regíon and in providing CIAT with a means for decreasing the time span that takes for new germplasm to reach the farm level, through the provísion of seed production and processing capacity in the commodities within the mandate of CIAT.Initially, it was planned that thís activity, i .e., the Seed Unit, would be phased down at the end of five years of special project funding to a level which could be maintained with existlng core resources. However, the highly positiva response from the national programs evident in the first MO years of the pro]ect has led to a reconsideration of these earlier plans. A continuing need for additional seed-related activities at CIA T over the decade has been demonstrated. The Seed Unit has thus been projected for incorporatton into the core budget during the decade.The principal factors limiting progress in national seed programs and the industry are lack of trainad personnet, often unc!ear and inconsistent policies by governments, limited supplies of breeder and bastc seed for transfer to the seed tndustry, problems in producing, processing and storing of good quality seed, and weak marketing systems. Under these CÍrcumstances the role of seed related activities at an internatienal center needs te be defíned clearly since the manifold problems outlined above cannot only be sol ved at that level. The Unit has thus defined its objec-Uves as follows: (e) To encourage research on seed related problems l imíting seed production and distribution, and in improving technical eommunication among seed teehnologists in the region.During the first phase of the program considerable attention has been glven to the training of seed teehnologists at the introduetory level since there are only a limited number of personnel speeifically trained in seed technology. In the main, personnel in these programs have reeeived a normal agricultural training in which seed related actlvities were not emphasized. A number of basic courses were mounted in whieh, to the end of 1980, 123 seed technologists have received a broad based training in all aspeets of seed produetion, processing, marketing and quaHty control. In the seeond phase of the training program inereased emphasis wil1 be placed on more advanced IOpeeialized courses and workshops addressed to particular needs, su eh as the production of breeder and basie seed, organization and operation of seed program aetivities at the national level, seed quality control, seed drying and proeessing, and seed marketing. fn these eourses psrticipate both leaders of publie and prívate sector programs • ln the area of technical collaboration, the Seed Unit projeets increased activity in providíng assístance to natíonal seed programs in accelerating the use of improved hybrids and varieties. This collaboration will include assistanee in the formation of seed associations and new local seed enterprises. Much of this aetivitiy will be ehanneled through professionals who have had previous contaet and training with CIAT. The Unit wHI support efforts by sub-regional groups and national programs in offering short courses designed to multiply the total tratning effort at the local level.In the area of seed produetion and processtng the Unit proposes to continue to support the C1A T eommodity programs by multiplying, and making available, breeder and basic seed of the most promising materials to natíonal programs and other interested organizations in the regíon. In this operation CIAT does not propose to dtstribute commercial seed dírectly to farmers sinee the basie objectíve of the Unit is to eneourage these aetivities at national level.As part of the activíties in breeder and basíc seed production CIAT has already established links wíth other international centers, particularly CIMMYT and ICRISAT. The objectlve of these linkages Is to assíst these centers in their collaboration with national programs, through production and dissemínation of promisíng materíals ín the regíon.Wíth respect to research on seed related problems CIAT is helping to identify priority areas for research in seed technology with relevance to the regíon and to the commodities in the mandate. In the introduction of new pasture species many problems of productlon, harvesting, storlng, and quality evaluatíon need to be addressed, since these species are entirely new to the seed industry, and baslc seed technology for these species has not been developed. In the other commodi ti es , 1. e., beans, cassava and rice, there are particular areas of research whlch are necessary to facUitate ímproved seed production and dístrlbution. Wíthin the resources of the Unit, and in coUaboratlon wíth the CIAT commodity programs and national institutions, a stronger research effort ls projected for the eighties to provide answers to some of these problems.The provision of lnformation serví ces on seed related activítíes, inc1udíng documentation and audiotutorial teaching materíals, is an integral part of the proposed plan in order to encourage professionalism and good communication among the seed community in the region.At present, the Seed Unit staffing consists of two senior scíentists and supporting personnel, provided entirely by the special project funding. Funding for the present phase of the project wí 1I terminate in 1984.CIAT proposes to continue seed relatad activities as a separata Unlt over the decade of the elghties. On the termination of present funding, tt is hoped that some continulng assistance from ~he present donar can be provided.Two senior core fundad senior scientist positions are projected for the Unit to commence in 1985 and 1986. In addítion, the existing senior seed scientist in the Tropical Pasture Program will be associated with the Unit. One of the projected positions will be requtred in the area of seed tachnology (processing, quality control and enterprise management), and the other in the general area of seed production and al! ied research. The position in Tropical Pastures wnl continue to be dedicated to the problems associated with all aspects of saed technology in the pasture specíes undar investigation, for which methodologíes are stitl lacking.Continued assistance from special project funding wiU be required for the provision of funds for training, workshops, conferences, and technical.-134collaboration activities, to maintain the level of activity in the present project. Within the limits set by the budget guidelines for the Center. and earlier and larger córe involvement by CIAT cannot be contemplated.Chapter 9: BUDGET IMPLlCATIONSThe budgetary impllcations of the long-term plan as presented in the prevlous pages are prí.ncipally a functíon of the projected man-years of senior scíentists. Table 9.1 presents a break-down of actual senior staff positions in the perlod 1978-81, and projections of core-fínanced positions for the decade of the eighties. Figure 9.1 presents a graphic summary of actual and projected senior staff positions in the areas of research, research support and administration, and regional cooperation.(NOTE: Budget projections are under preparation).Table 9.1. Core-finance<! senior ,taff po.ítions lor the porio<! 1978.1981, and projections for the pariod a Calculated ftom me ENDEF data 00 ennual exponditure. per famlly by divldlng thase expentldures by ao esdmated 3.5 adult equrvalents ln the mean famllv 01 1ive flntl then divlding thEl5e expendltures by the number 01 calarles per aduít day. When multlpUeó by 100 the:le cast <IIre the crulelro C0515 of I)btainlng 100 c&lorles/day 01 oaeh l1em duriog the entirfl vear for ono adult. Expenses on meals ounlde the house ~re not ¡tamizad; hence, they could not be c<IItegorized. Howev.r, they were onlv 5.7% 01 total tood ilxpendltures .nd would probablv be bfased tow.ards the hlgher qualltv 100d and bevQragel hanee, their omluion would bies downwartl expendlture data 01\"1 hiqh quallw foom &nd bevereges but not subst<llntlaUv effect the compad.ons of the law (lost calarle 'Stapl ","tokenCount":"38430"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14916b85754548f8e2c2e17f22791b8f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dbf45b4f-e0ff-43a6-b338-33dfc10b3e50/retrieve","id":"801270418"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0abff891-cc76-49cd-aa64-40f023412e84","pagecount":"38","content":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) envisions a world where all people have access to enough food and livelihood options to fulfil their potential. ILRI's mission is to improve food and nutritional security and to reduce poverty in developing countries through research for efficient, safe, and sustainable use of livestock-ensuring better lives through livestock. https://www.ilri.org/ Citation:One CGIAR is a dynamic reformulation of CGIAR's partnerships, knowledge, assets, and global presence, aiming for greater integration and impact in the face of the interdependent challenges facing today's world. It unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition, and Gender Inclusion (SAPLING) is among the many initiatives spearheaded by the One CGIAR fraternity. SAPLING aims to empower one million livestock producers, half of them being women in six countries to engage in inclusive value chains and achieve sustainable productivity gains of 30-50%, resulting in improved livelihoods. This initiative is building on lessons from the just concluded and long-term CGIAR Research Program on Livestock. It brings together local, national, and international partners who have a common interest in gender equality, youth, and social inclusion, reducing poverty, providing nutritious and healthy foods, diversifying livelihoods, and creating a food-secure world, and providing solutions to the climate crisis through adaptation and mitigation measure as well as protecting environment and biodiversity. The initiative will directly contribute to UNFSS action tracks of nutritious food and nature-positive production.The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture thank all donors and organizations who globally support their work through contributions to the CGIAR system © 2022This publication is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0.Unless otherwise noted, you are free to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format), adapt (remix, transform, and build upon the material) for any purpose, even commercially, under the following conditions:ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by the publisher or the author(s).deliver research-based solutions that address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. The Alliance focuses on the nexus of agriculture, environment, and nutrition. We work with local, national, and multinational partners across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean, and with the public and private sectors and civil society. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis.The Alliance is part of CGIAR, the world's largest agricultural research and innovation partnership for a food-secure future dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving   Sub Saharan Africa has witnessed an increase in demand for livestock derived foods (LDFs) in recent times (Enahoro et al. 2019). Alongside a growing population and rising middle class, trends indicate that between 2030 and 2050, the demand for livestock and livestock products will increase two to eight-fold (LiDeSA 2015). Livestock production is an important source of livelihoods for many households in Tanzania with smallholder farmers contributing a big share of livestock products (Alphonce 2017;URT 2018: Andrew 2022).In Tanzania, the livestock industry has multifaceted benefits. For example, it contributes to crop production via draught power and manure for nutrient cycling, it produces meat and milk for human consumption, it produces capital and insurance, and it carries cultural importance and status (MFL 2015).It also contributes 7.4% of the county's gross domestic product (Michael et al. 2018). Tanzania's dairy value chain is recognized as a promising pathway for achieving food security, improving livelihoods, and enhancing overall economic growth (Katjiuongua and Nelgen, 2014). Dairying has been targeted as an important value chain to achieve the government's objectives and goals of livestock sector production under the Tanzania Livestock Master Plan (TLMP) roadmap (Michael et al. 2018).As a result of rapid urbanization, rise of middle class, and changing dietary preferences, Tanzania's per capita milk consumption is expected to double from 50 to 100 kg/annum by year 2030 (URT, 2017; Enahoro et al. 2018;Michael et al. 2018). Currently, the country meets this demand through importation of liquid and dairy powder milk from nearby countries (Katjiuongua and Nelgen, 2014;Baregu 2017). The country can therefore leverage on this opportunity to build the dairy value chain and meet the country's demand while creating jobs and income (Baregu 2017). Currently, the dairy sector accounts for 30% of the livestock contribution to agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and is projected to increase due to the increased number of improved dairy cows among other livestock intensification efforts (Katjiuongua and Nelgen, 2014). Most of the improved dairy cattle are concentrated in the high potential, cooler highland regions with subtropical climates. These regions are found around Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Tanga, and Mbeya (Lusato et al. 2012).Despite the potential of dairy production, challenges also exist. They include low productivity due to poor animal health, low genetic potential and less productive livestock breeds, low-quality feeds, and poor market linkages (Maleko, et al., 2018a;Maleko, et al., 2018b) SAPLING is seeking to scale the adoption of these dairy bundles to improve farmers livelihoods, provide safe and nutritious animal source food (ASFs) while also addressing gender-specific constraints for women involved in the dairy sub-sector.Livestock production is often critiqued for its environmental integrity (Ramankutty et al., 2018;Rojas-Downing et al., 2017, Steinfeld, 2006). Livestock activities significantly impact air and climate change, land and soil, water, and biodiversity (Bosire et al. 2016). Irrespective of the potential contribution of the dairy sector to the health, nutrition, and income generation of smallholder producers in the country, dairy production is perceived as one of the main factors contributing to environmental degradation (Ngunga et al. 2020). The dairy cattle sector in Tanzania is estimated to emit about 28.8 million tCO2 eq. annually.In  (Mangesho et al., 2021). However, the regional environmental data is still lacking. This report seeks to build on the existing baseline and intervention results to scale the farm-level environmental impacts to regional-level impacts and generate data that will be useful in addressing productivity and policy gaps, informing investment priorities, and highlighting the mitigation potential of the dairy subsector at the landscape level.This study sets out to answer the following research questions:1. What are the environmental trade-offs and synergies of adopting SAPLING interventions at scale in the Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions?2. Does the integration of dairy interventions at scale lead to increased production efficiency among the smallholder farmers in the Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions?The study was undertaken within regions where SAPLING has intervention sites. SAPLING is working onHai and Muheza districts in Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions respectively, and is led by ILRI and the ABC.The baseline and scenario assessments were conducted in Hai and Muheza districts between the period of October 2020 and September 2021 (Mangesho et al., 2021). the Tanga region has a total land area of 27, 348 km 2 , only 17,000 km 2 is available for agricultural production (Simba Cement). The warm and wet climate dominates the Tanga region (URT 1997). The economic potential of the Tanga region is in fishing, agriculture, tourism, mining industry and commerce (Simba Cement). Agriculture is the biggest employer in the Tanga region (URT 1997). The cash crops grown in the region include sisal, cashew nuts, coffee, tea, cotton coconuts, cardamom, and tobacco.Major agricultural food crops grown in the region include maize, cassava, plantain, and other various fruits and vegetables (Simba Cement). Table 1 gives detailed information on the location and climate profiles of the study districts. About 70% of the Tanzanian population is engaged in farming including livestock production with 50% of all households keeping livestock; 62% and 23% in rural and urban households respectively (MFL 2015).Livestock management in Tanzania is predominantly heterogeneous mixed crop-livestock farming systems and is mainly practiced either under intensive, semi-intensive or extensive production systems (Thornton & Herrero, 2014;Twine et al. 2020). Extensive livestock production is mainly practiced in noncultivated land where animals can graze freely. It is exercised in large farm sizes with low production per animal or unit of land; huge numbers of cattle are kept with comparatively low labor intensity (URT, 2017).On the other hand, the semi-intensive system is characterized by allowing cattle access to pasture for the provision of forage during certain times of the day. The cattle are exposed to any combination of both extensive and intensive husbandry methods, either simultaneously or varied according to changes in climatic conditions or the physiological state of the cattle (OIE, 2012). The intensive management system of cattle involves housing animals and feeding them in stables. It is mainly practiced in areas with a shortage of land such as highland areas where most of the available land is used for crop cultivation. It is a labor-intensive system and generally fewer numbers of cattle are kept than in extensive or semiintensive (Mangesho et al., 2021).Dairy production systems in Tanzania are divided into three major subsystems: traditional cow meatmilk, improved family dairy (IFD) and commercial specialized dairy (CSD) (Nell et al. 2014). The traditional cow meat-milk production subsystem does not specialize in the production of a single commodity and both milk and meat are important. However, milk is a priority commodity in the IFD and CSD subsystems.In the IFD subsystem, input use is generally low, depending on market opportunities for milk and the existence of milk collection centers. Cattle are kept in under semi-and zero-grazing systems with cultivated fodder, crop residue and grass cut from communal land. The CSD subsystem, on the other hand, is more of a commercialized and specialized dairy system with higher levels of input use and output (Mbwambo et al. 2017). In this assessment, we examined the intensifying smallholder IFD production systems in Tanga and Kilimanjaro as they are the target beneficiaries of the SAPLING initiative. These production systems are characterized by the small herd of cross-breed or exotic cows managed under zero grazing system with average annual milk production per cow ranging from 3600 to 6100 litres.Notable regional differences exist within the IFD systems. In our study area, we assumed 3 distinct types:(i) Tanga highlands, (ii) Tanga lowlands, and (iii) Kilimanjaro. Table 2 gives detailed information on these types. The innovation package being assessed and out-scaled was mapped out during a key stakeholder validation workshop with emphasis on their usefulness and applicability for farmers and entrepreneurs (Mangesho et al., 2021). Participants formulated a dairy package as shown in Error! Reference source not found..Table 3: The elements of the package formulated through stakeholders' engagement (Mangesho et al., 2021) Herd Health East Coast Fever (ECF) VaccineInclusion of Urochloa (commonly known as Brachiaria) grass in the feed basketArtificial Insemination (AI)These dairy innovations packages were implemented in the CLEANED (Comprehensive Livestock Environmental Assessment for improved Nutrition, a secured Environment and sustainable Development along livestock value chains) tool with the assumption that there would be an overall improvement in environmental and production efficiency as a result of:Annex 2: gives a breakdown of assumptions that reflect the changes resulting from adopting the dairy technology package.From enterprise to regional level Mangesho et al. (2021) conducted a study on the impact of intensifying smallholder dairy enterprises in Tanga and Kilimanjaro. The authors used the CLEANED methodology to estimate the environmental footprints of dairy farms before and after adopting dairy technologies. The study measured the relative change in the environmental footprints and compared the results across the study locations. In this report, we aimed to extend the farm-level estimates of Mangesho et al. (2023) to measure footprints at the landscape level. The scaling-up of the assessment scenarios -baseline and intervention -assumed that agricultural strategies would be equally relevant for all enterprises of the same type and that the estimated impacts at the enterprise level could be widely applied across the regions under study (Notenbaert et al., 2020). Data on the number of dairy enterprises was collected from the district livestock and fisheries production offices corresponding to the study regions (Table 4). IFD enterprises were categorized based on their geographical location, such as whether they were in the lowlands or highlands of the Tanga region (Table 5). After identifying the different farming systems, we calculated the regional impacts of the baseline situation by multiplying the farm level with the total number of IFDs in each region. Since the scaling of dairy technologies may not occur simultaneously due to resource constraints (Ndah et al., 2020), we explored multiple adoption scenarios, including 20%, 50%, and 100%, to examine the environmental impacts of these adoption levels in the smallholder (IFD) dairy producers in each region (Table 5). We multiplied the enterprise-level impacts of dairy technologies by the number of IFDs under each scenario in the two regions. To map the regional impacts for Tanga, the footprints of the lowland and highland systems were calculated separately and then summed up. For each region, the relative change in the baseline situation was observed across the three adoption scenarios.  results. Scenarios that resulted in a positive environmental change were represented using \"+\" signs.These represent efficiency gains as a result of improved feeding, better animal health and genetics.Scenarios worsening the current environmental situation were represented using \"-\" signs; usually to depict undesirable paths with an integrated dairy technology package.   Region 902,119,861.43 3222,76.85 0.36 280,780.28 0.31 401,922,271.16 0.45 10.43 2,192,822.91 2.43 56.92 • Higher environmental footprints in Kilimanjaro than in Tanga• The Kilimanjaro region is more intensified than the Tanga region• Efficient use of land resources in Tanga compared to Kilimanjaro• A huge tonnage of soil is lost every year in Kilimanjaro• Higher water needs in both regions but most in the Kilimanjaro region• Higher total GHG emissions in Kilimanjaro region • There is a significant positive change to all environmental indicators with adoption scenarios of 20 % and 50% across the regions.In both regions, most environmental efficiencies (both absolute and relative) are achieved at 20% adoption scenario.• Overall, there is improved water use efficiency in Tanga compared to Kilimanjaro regardless of the scenario pathways.• A lower adoption rate (20% and 50%) results in reduced productivity across the regions.• Total annual milk production is expected to increase extensively in both regions under the full adoption scenario.The current situationBaseline simulation shows higher environmental footprints and productivity in Kilimanjaro than in Tanga as a result of differences in livestock population and the fact that most districts in the Tanga region are close to urban areas with limited livestock production activities. Kilimanjaro region has more potential agricultural land than Tanga. The baseline estimates depict that only 6% and 24% of the total land surface area in the Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions respectively are currently used for smallholder dairy production. IFD Enterprises in Kilimanjaro produce 7% more milk than those in Tanga because of keeping pure breeds and feeding a higher quality diet. A huge tonnage of soil is lost per hectare in a year in Kilimanjaro due to topography ( The introduction of high-energy feeds, better breeds and improved animal health practices proved to be more synergetic with the productivity of the IFD systems. Integrating SAPLING dairy technologies resulted in increased milk production by 56% and 88% in the Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions respectively (Table 7Error!  Environmental burdens of the IFD systems are expected to decline with 20% and 50% adoption levels.This suggests that a gradual scaling of dairy technology packages could significantly reduce pressure on land by 78% and 44% in Tanga and 73% and 32% in Kilimanjaro under the 20% and 50% adoption scenarios respectively. However, in the full adoption scenario (100%), both Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions will face more land pressure, but improved area use efficiency in producing a metric ton of FPCM. Kilimanjaro would require an additional 118,368 hectares of land to increase milk productivity by 88%, making it more challenging to acquire the extra agricultural area in a resource-finite region. Comparatively, Tanga would need at least 19,030 hectares of land to boost productivity by 56%. Findings from Tanga are similar to those of Notenbaert et al. (2020) who reported increased land requirement for feed production with increased milk productivity in the Tanga region. Despite Tanga having a relatively large land area, much of it is of low agricultural potential. This means that finding additional land that can support IFD systems may be difficult. In both regions, it is important to consider the opportunity cost of land to identify ways to support the sustainable transformation of IFD dairy enterprises through SAPLING technologies.Water use in the IFD enterprises varied between the scenarios and across the study regions (Table 7).There is a mix of positive and extremely positive outcomes across the regions but generally, the IFD systems in Tanga are more water-efficient than those of Kilimanjaro. Efficiency gains are observed in all scenarios and both regions except for the absolute increases in the full adoption scenario in Kilimanjaro.Since the productivity and area feed in the 20% and 50% adoption scenarios is lower compared to the baseline case, water requirements were also expected to drop. Of interest is the increased efficiency in Tanga at full adoption scenario where water burdens are lowered by 18% despite a productivity boost of 56%. Water needs in the Kilimanjaro region are likely to go up by 38% due to intensified productivity compared to Tanga. There is also an increase in feed requirements (high demand for feeds by exotic breeds) driven by the large concentration of dairy cattle population in the Kilimanjaro region. In order to prevent livestock from putting extra pressure on Kilimanjaro's already scarce water resources, it is necessary to plan ahead before implementing dairy technologies. To start with, it is important to map out areas where water is limited for dairy farming and then identify specific water-related interventions that are appropriate for that context.The amount of soil lost in a year in each region reduced in the 20% and 50% adoption scenarios except for the slight increases in the 100% adoption. There is relative improvement in soil cover upon the introduction of grasses e.g., Brachiaria which lowers the amount of soil lost in the IFD enterprises with lower adoption rates (20% and 50%). However, due to increasing demand for area feed in the full adoption scenario, there is a risk of exposing the soil to erosive agents in the process of cultivating the new grasses.However, the increase in risk is minor and can be stabilized by implementing farm-level practices such as cutting the grass appropriately to leave behind a biomass cover. Cover crops are ideal in steep slopes and areas prone to soil erosion as they hold soil particles together, preventing erosion by surface water run-off or wind activity. The highlands of the Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions can leverage such practices to improve their soil health.There are absolute and relative reductions in GHG emissions in the 20% and 50% adoption scenarios in both regions. However, both scenarios performed better in Tanga than in Kilimanjaro. In the 20% scenario, the total GHG emissions reduction potential for Tanga is similar to that of Kilimanjaro. However,In the 50% scenario, the reduction potential in Tanga is twice that of Kilimanjaro. In the full adoption scenario, absolute GHG emissions are expected to proliferate in both regions but largely in Kilimanjaro (Table 7Error! Reference source not found.Table 7). Higher milk production coupled with changes in herd composition and feeding practices significantly impacts the total and GHG emission intensity levels.Generally, intensifying production increases the total greenhouse gas emissions but decreases the GHG Improved dairy genetics, better health and feeding, increases the reproductive and feed conversion efficiency thus lowering methane enteric fermentation -a major source of GHGe in ruminants. Studies have found that more energy-efficient animals produce less waste in the forms of methane and N excretion (Chagunda et al. 2009). Increased dairy cattle numbers correlate with manure production and livestock manure emissions especially when manure is poorly managed. Better management of stored manure can help to minimize both methane and nitrous oxide emissions from different manure management systems. The use of organic inputs will go a long way to replace or reduce the use of chemical fertilizer inputs and therefore lower off-farm GHG emissions associated with the production of such inputs and direct and indirect on-farm emissions from its application.All these efforts seem to be viable at scale as most efficiency gains per unit of output are observed. At full regional scale, Tanga and Kilimanjaro may offset GHGe per liter of milk by 24% and 19% , respectively. It is therefore worth including these as part of the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) as they seem to have quick wins within the agriculture sector. It can offer a win-win outcome as farmers will benefit from increased production and reduced emissions.Both regions show that moderate adoption scenarios of 20% and 50% will have an overwhelmingly positive impact on land and water use, reduced soil losses and GHG emissions.. However, at full adoption, there are concerns in both regions regarding soil erosion, land requirements, and GHG emissions despite productivity increases. There is thus a need for careful planning and mitigation measures when implementing practices at a larger scale. It perhaps sheds more light on the need to assess different levels of adoption levels to find an ideal level that balances productivity with environmental aspirations.This study therefore recommends a linear scaling of the SAPLING dairy technologies in the study regionsThe integration of dairy technologies depicts an overall environmental efficiency gain across all the indicators (ha/ MT FPCM; kg soil/kg milk; m 3 /kg milk/protein; kg CO2e/kg milk/protein) regardless of the scenario path taken. Unfortunately, absolute land requirements will increase but that is typical in intensified dairy systems where farmers do not invest in high-yielding and nutritious cow diets to match the growing demand for their healthy and improved breeds. Planting improved forages in the IFD also While the results provide insights into the potential benefits of adoption scenarios, a comprehensive understanding would require comparison with other studies, especially those conducted in the similar agro-ecological zones, to validate and contextualize these findings. Without specific references or additional context, it's challenging to make direct comparisons with other studies. However, this discussion provides a starting point for evaluating the presented results and considering their implications for sustainable dairy in the Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions. The variations in impacts at different adoption levels emphasize the need for context-specific strategies rather than a one-size-fitsall approach thus indicating the importance of carefully managing dairy enterprises to balance productivity gains with environmental sustainability in both regions. ","tokenCount":"3725"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b82d4717633b5e272a927f9419424225","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/342718da-7271-4185-a855-680ab00f4cb5/retrieve","id":"1450313998"},"keywords":["Mutation induction","Gamma mutagenesis","Banana","Polyploidy","Fusarium TR4 Cavendish banana","Embryogenic callus","Gamma irradiation","Germplasm resistant to Fusarium wilt Bioassay","Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense","Musa","Resistance Banana","Fusarium oxysporum","In vitro bioassay","Mass selection Musa","Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense","Evaluation","Resistant varieties Banana","Gamma irradiation","Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense","Labbased screening","Hydroponic system","Disease severity scale","Resistance scoring"],"sieverID":"42b37840-5da0-410f-ac4c-a55802dedd7c","pagecount":"191","content":"The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.titled 'Efficient Screening Techniques to Identify Mutants with Disease Resistance for Coffee and Banana'. The CRP brought together leading banana breeders and experts from across the world who used mutagenesis techniques in combination with innovative biotechnology tools to develop and screen mutant populations for resistance to Fusarium wilt TR4.This book comprises a collection of protocols ensuing from their efforts. The protocol chapters cover conventional and innovative methods for the preparation and mutagenesis of target explants or cells for mutation induction together with lab-, greenhouse-and field-based screening techniques specifically for Fusarium wilt. Low-cost methodologies for in vitro multiplication are also described as well as advanced genomics and bioinformatics tools for mutation discovery. While the CRP and protocols were mainly focused on Cavendish bananas, similar technologies can be adapted to other banana varieties, including cooking banana, an important staple food in tropical countries.The main purpose of this protocol book is to widely disseminate the methods and techniques developed under this CRP with FAO/IAEA Member States involved in banana breeding generally and especially those countries faced with the new threat of Fusarium wilt TR4. Bananas and plantains are among the most important staple food crops for people living in tropical and subtropical countries. They are herbaceous monocots belonging to the genus Musa; most are seedless, polyploid, sterile and clonally propagated. The majority of banana and plantains are consumed locally. Vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs) such as banana pose unique problems compared to cereals because they have a reduced genetic diversity as they can't be cross pollinated to enhance variation. Furthermore, because of its triploid parthenocarpic nature, bananas do not produce seeds and conventional breeding is thus a long process. Advances in biotechnology for crop improvement have had a great impact on vegetatively propagated crops (Gosal et al. 2010). Biotechnology based on tissue culture is complementary to conventional breeding technology.One advantage of vegetatively propagated crops is that methods have been developed for rapid clonal propagation. Micropropagation is currently used in many countries for rapid propagation of disease-free planting material for distribution on a large scale. Such tissue culture techniques that ensure genetic stability (e.g. using shoot tip/nodal cultures for propagation) are particularly useful for in vitro mutation induction and maintenance of mutant plant populations. This technique is also of particular interest to breeders since the multiplication of the new lines for field trials and evaluation could be hastened, thereby shortening the time required for the release of new cultivars. In vitro techniques also offer possibilities to use induced mutation for further manipulation aimed at improvement. New genetic variation conferring a desirable trait can be fixed, and identical material rapidly deployed.The structure of meristematic regions and the development of new meristems from differentiated tissue are particularly important when investigating radiationinduced mutation of vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs). In most cases, the new shoots originate from a single epidermal cell from a tissue, and this could directly lead to homohistant mutant plants whose genetics may be investigated further (Spencer-Lopes et al. 2018).One of most critical prerequisites for successful mutation breeding is the determination of the optimal mutagen dose. The dose required for a particular experiment depends on the desired effects but may be restricted by undesirable effects of the mutagenic treatment, which could lead to lethality. There is a strong correlation between the genotype and the sensitivity of the plant material to the mutagenic treatments in plants (Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. 2012). The dose increase causes severe mutations, such as chromosomal aberrations, and can cause cell damage and subsequently death. While little is known for VPCs, the data from seed propagated plants suggests that fine-tuning of dose applied may be needed. Therefore, radiation sensitivity tests should be carried out to determine the mutagen dose that results in a 50 percent reduction in e.g., plant height or plant weight. In practice, a breeder applying irradiation treatment on vegetatively propagated crops may decide to settle for a growth reduction of 30-50 percent (GR30-50) for M 1 V 1 plants or a survival rate of 40-60 percent depending on the sensitivity of the plant material. An equal number of control materials for the comparison should be planted at the same time.Measurement of growth reduction of in vitro treated material should be recorded 30 days after the treatments.For VPCs, various methods have been developed which involve tissue isolation and dissection during post-mutagenesis aiming at reducing the genotypic complexity of the resulting plants.The following procedures are routinely used in the Plant Breeding and Genetics Laboratory to micropropagate banana and plantain by shoot tip culture and perform mutagenesis (Fig. 1.1).  The first step of the process consists of establishment of banana cultures, either via sucker dissection from the field or alternatively obtaining accessions of interest from germplasm repository. Upon sufficient multiplication of banana shoot tips, the bulk mutagenesis can be performed or, if the knowledge on radiosensitivities of this particular genotype doesn't exist, a radiosensitivity test should be carried out.After mutagenic treatment of a bulk number of shoot tips, chimeras need to be dissolved and at the M 1 V 3 stage plantlets can be rooted and hardened for field or screenhouse selection (b) 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP):112.6 mg in 0.5 l dest. Water (c) L-Cysteine HCl: 2 g in 0.5 l dest. Water (d) Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA): 20.3 mg in 100 ml dest. Water (e) Isopentenyl adenine (2iP): 20.32 mg in 100 ml dest. Water 2. Initiation medium / Maintenance medium composition (1 l). Nr.: M-6899). 6. Tissue culture grade water. 7. Gelling agent (e.g. Gelrite). 8. 0.22 μm Cellulose Acetate (CA) sterilising, low binding filters. 9. Vacuum pump. 10. Sterile tubes (50 ml). 11. Analytical balance. 12. Weighing trays. 13 1. Facility with light, temperature and humidity control or plastic bags to cover pots. 2. Peat. 3. Sand. 4. Soil mixer (for large amounts). 5. Running tap water. 6. 5 l Container with room temperature tap water. 7. Small trays or jiffy pots. 8. Forceps. 9. Plastic labels. 10. Permanent pen or pencil.1. Prepare stock solutions of thiamine (1 mg/ml), BAP (0.23 mg/ml) and L-Cysteine (4 g/l). 2. Filter sterilise stock solutions. 3. Dispense into 50 ml batches and freeze for future use. The working solution should be stored at 4 C. 4. For 1 litre of the liquid culture media, use the following: 4.4 g of Murashige and Skoog basal salt with minimal organics, 40 g sucrose, 10 ml L-Cysteine, 20 ml BAP and 1 ml of thiamine stock solutions. Use double distilled water. 5. Place the media on the mixer and let it mix for 30 min. 6. Calibrate the pH meter as per manufacturer instruction. 7. While stirring, adjust medium to pH 5.8 using NaOH and HCl. 8. Dispense 12 ml of the culture medium per Erlenmeyer flask. 9. Close each Erlenmeyer flask tightly over the top with an aluminium foil. 10. Autoclave for 20 min at 121 C at 1 bar. 11. Allow the medium to cool to room temperature. 12. Store the medium in a cold room (see Note 1).1. For 1 litre of solid medium cook 1.8 g of Gelrite and 40 g sucrose in 400 ml of tissue culture grade water. 2. In a separate beaker containing 400 ml water mix:(a) For initiation/maintenance medium: 4.4 g of Murashige and Skoog basal salt with minimal organics, 10 ml L-Cysteine, 20 ml BAP and 1 ml of thiamine stock solutions. (b) For rooting medium: 4.4 g of Murashige and Skoog basal salt with minimal organics, 1 ml B5 Vitamin, 5 ml 2iP, 0.1 mL IBA and 1 ml of L-Cysteine HCl stock solution.3. Heat the mixture while stirring. 4. When completely dissolved and hot enough add the Gelrite/sucrose mixture. 5. Heat while stirring until the solution is homogenous and clear, add tissue culture grade water to 1 litre. 6. While stirring adjust the pH to 5.8 using NaOH and HCl. 7. Dispense 8 ml of the medium into culture tubes. 8. Sterilise the medium for 20 min at 121 C. 9. Allow medium to cool to room temperature prior to use.1. Select disease free vegetative buds or peepers or juvenile sword suckers (see Note 2). 2. Cut the explants to ca. of 5 mm in size consisting of the meristematic dome with two to four leaf primordia. 3. Wash explants under running tap water to remove dirt and keep in covered Petri dishes. From this point on all procedures need to be carried out in the sterile airflow cabinet. 4. Rinse explants with 70% ethanol for surface sterilization. 5. Transfer them in 40% commercial Chlorox with a drop of tween 20 (any available brand of bleach in a final concentration of 0.5-1% NaOCI can be used) for 20 min. 6. Agitate explants several times while in Chlorox solution. 7. Wash the explants with sterilized water three times. 8. Remove two or three leave sheaths, not damaging the meristem, and transfer to a solid initiation medium. 9. Cultures are kept at 28 C for 16 h light/day (65 μmol/m 2 /s; Cool White fluorescent tubes, Philips TLP 36/86). 10. Monitor cultures for contamination on a daily basis (see Note 3). 11. Once plantlets are fully developed, increase the number of plantlets by micropropagation of shoot tip meristems.12. Isolate meristematic tips from each plantlet and propagate through longitudinal division into two propagules using a scalpel. 13. Transfer isolated meristematic shoot tips into culture flasks containing fresh liquid media. 14. Place the flasks on a horizontal gyratory shaker at 60 rpm and allow the explants to grow for approx. 30 days (light 65 μmol/m 2 /s; Cool White fluorescent tubes, Philips TLP 36/86 and the temperature of 26 +/À 1 C). 15. Repeat the process in order to increase the population size for mutagenesis purposes (see Note 4).and Calculation of Growth Reduction (GR)1. Autoclave all non-disposable materials (e.g. sieves, forceps). 2. Prepare fresh liquid S-27 culture medium and autoclave.3. Prepare meristematic cuttings per each treatment chosen (see Note 5). 4. Place cuttings into a Petri plate with a drop of water or on a moist filter paper (see Note 6). 5. Calculate the exposure time (sec., min.) based on the dose rate of gamma cell irradiator that will be used (Gy/s or Gy/min) (see Note 7). 6. Label Petri plates according to the dose required and genotype when handling more than one genotype. Include an untreated Petri plate as control. 7. Wrap all Petri plates with Parafilm in order to avoid surface contamination. 8. Transfer the material for irradiation to the physical mutagen source laboratory (see Note 8). 9. Apply the required dose (Table 1.1) by placing Petri plates into irradiator chamber for the exposure time to produce the dosage (see Note 9). 10. Irradiate each Petri plate with the chosen dose. 11. Transfer irradiated samples back to the tissue culture laboratory. 12. Surface sterilize each Petri plate with 70% ethanol before placing them in the laminar flow bench. 13. Remove the Parafilm under sterile environment. 14. Transfer the irradiated explants (5 explants per flask) to sterile, labelled conical flasks (Erlenmeyer flasks) containing 12 ml liquid S-27 medium (see Note 10). 15. With the non-irradiated control sample, place the flasks on a horizontal gyratory shaker at 60 rpm (light 65 μmol/m 2 /s; Cool White fluorescent tubes, Philips TLP 36/86 and the temperature of 26 +/À 1 C). 16. If necessary, transfer cultures weekly into fresh liquid media to reduce possible accumulation of phenolic compounds due to the stress caused by mutagenesis (see Note 11). 17. Thirty days after the treatment, take measurements of the chosen parameters (e.g. weight of the explants) and record survival rates of the mutagenized population (see Note 12).1. After 30 days of incubation, assess the viability of plants by counting the surviving plantlets and measuring the fresh weight of each plant (see Note 13 and Fig. 1.2). 2. Place a balance in the laminar bench and weigh each mutated plant separately in a sterile Petri plate. 3. Record the data for each treatment and enter it into a spreadsheet (e.g. Microsoft Excel) (see Note 14).1. For every parameter measured, calculate the average per treatment for each replication. 2. Repeat point 1 for control material. 3. Express the reduction/increase of the radiated materials as a percentage of the non-irradiated control (see Note 15). 4. Plot the calculated values as a dose-response curve using the dose as x-axis and the percentages on the y-axis. The control treatment is set as 100 percent (see Fig. 1.2). 5. Repeat these steps with all the measured parameters (reduction in fresh weight percentage, plantlet height, root length, survival) (see Note 16). 6. Compare the graphs from the different parameters (see Note 17). 7. Estimate the mutagen dose required to obtain e.g. 50% of the control (see Fig. 1.2, red line). 8. Identify the doses suitable for bulk mutagenesis of your material (see Note 18 and Table 1.2).  1. Autoclave all non-disposable materials (e.g. sieves, forceps). 2. Prepare fresh liquid S-27 culture medium and autoclave.3. Prepare meristematic cuttings (e.g. 1000) per treatment chosen (see Note 20). 4. Distribute cuttings evenly into Petri plates with a drop of water or on a moist filter paper. 5. Calculate the exposure time (sec., min.) based on the dose rate of the gamma cell irradiator that will be used (Gy/s or Gy/min). 6. Label Petri plates according to the dose required and genotype when handling more than one genotype. An untreated Petri plate (control) with the same number of propagules will be held in the same conditions as the treated ones. 7. Transfer the Petri dishes to physical mutagen source laboratory. 8. Apply the required dose by placing Petri plates into irradiator chamber for the exposure time to produce the dosage. 9. Transfer irradiated samples to the tissue culture laboratory. 10. Surface sterilize the Petri dish with 70% ethanol before removing the Parafilm. 11. Transfer the irradiated explants along with a non-irradiated control into sterile labelled conical flasks (Erlenmeyer flasks) containing 12 ml liquid S-27 medium (5 explants per flask). 12. Place flasks on a horizontal gyratory shaker at 60 rpm (light 65 μmol/m 2 /s; Cool White fluorescent tubes, Philips TLP 36/86 and the temperature of 26 +/À 1 C). 13. If necessary, transfer cultures weekly into fresh liquid media to reduce possible accumulation of phenolic compounds due to the stress caused by mutagenesis.Monitor cultures for the presence of any contamination.3.6.1 Chimera Dissolution 1. Grow explants in liquid culture media under a constant horizontal rotation at 60 rpm with a continuous light (65 μmol/m 2 /s; Cool White fluorescent tubes, Philips TLP 36/86) at 22 +/À 2 C. 2. Each shoot tip is the starting material for subsequent cultures and is referred to as a line as previously described (Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. 2012; Jankowicz-Cieslak and Till 2016) (see Note 21). 3. In order to remove potential chimeric sectors, propagate shoot tip meristems through longitudinal division into two propagules using a scalpel (Fig. 1.3). 4. Define each mutated meristem as a source of an individual line and assign to it a number or a barcode, depending on the system you have (see Note 22). This number corresponds to the mutant line that will be generated from this individual meristem.5. Isolate meristematic tips from each of mutated plants. 6. Transfer every single isolated meristem into a separate culture tube or flask containing fresh liquid or solid media. 7. Incubate cultures for 4-5 weeks. 8. Repeat the process in order to make the population of M 1 V 3 individuals (see Fig. 1.3 and see Note 23). 9. At each meristematic division transfer the material into fresh culture media.Remember to follow the nomenclature assigned for each line. Plants after the mutagenic treatment are allowed to grow for 30 days in a liquid culture media at a constant rotary shaking (60 rpm). Each mutated plant is given a unique line number and assigned a population stage starting with M 1 V 1 . Chimeras may exist after 30 days recovery period if surviving meristematic cells harbour different mutations. In order to dissolve potential chimeras, meristems are isolated and divided into two parts through a longitudinal cut which results in most cases in generation of 2 daughter plants. These are allowed to recover and grow for another 30 days. The procedure is repeated 3 times. At the M 1 V 3 stage, plants are being transferred into the solid culture media for long-term storage 10. Transfer plants into the solid media for a long-term storage (culture media supplemented by 1.8% Gelrite) (see Note 24). 11. Maintain cultures at 22 +/À 2 under stationary incubation and 12 h light cycle for the duration of the study.1. Transfer regenerants on to a rooting medium (containing half-strength MS, 1 mg/l thiamine, 5 μmol/l IBA, 20 g/l sucrose, and 7 g/l agar). 2. Maintain cultures at 22 +/À 2 C under stationary incubation and 12 h light cycle. 3. After 3-5 weeks, transfer well-rooted plantlets to non-aseptic conditions or the greenhouse (see Note 25).1. Use facility with light, temperature and humidity control or plastic bags to cover pots with sufficient water in the soil to maintain high ambient humidity. 2. Prepare soil mixture of 50:50 (m/m) peat and sand by hand or soil mixture until both components are evenly mixed. 3. Fill pots with soil before starting the procedure. 4. Gently remove well rooted plantlets from culture vessels. 5. Wash remaining medium off through running room-temperature tap water. 6. Collect cleaned plantlets in a container with room-temperature water. 7. Transplant plantlets in previously prepared pots. 8. Water plantlets immediately after transfer to soil. 9. Keep surface of plants moistened until transferred to humidity chamber. 10. Decrease relative humidity weekly by 10% until 60% relative humidity in the chamber is reached (see Note 26). 11. After 3-4 weeks move plants to the greenhouse. 12. Allow plantlets to grow for about 4 weeks or until reaching sufficient size to be transferred to the greenhouse, nursery or field in preparation for screening and selection (see Note 27 and Chap. 7).1. It is recommended to prepare fresh media in the amount that is needed. If a cold room or refrigerator is available, media can be stored at 4-8 C up to 6 weeks. 2. The mutation breeding process usually starts with in vitro propagation of the plant material using shoot tips, corms, and also embryonic cells suspensions. Shoot tips are found to be the most commonly used hence, the protocol described is for mutation induction of in vitro shoot tips. 3. In case of contamination, repeat the process of surface sterilisation. 4. Excessive blackening in some genotypes, (e.g., AAB, BB) is normally overcome by rinsing the explants in an antioxidant solution made from 50 mg/l citric acid, 50 mg/l ascorbic acid and 5 ml of commercial Chlorox. 5. Estimate how many explants can fit into a Petri plate. Usually, each treatment replicate should be placed in a separate Petri plate (e.g. 30 cuttings/plate), however if the number of explants is high, split them equally. When the applied dose for the genotype is unknown, a radiation test must be conducted. It is advisable that even if a dosage is known and was determined in a different laboratory, that a radiosensitivity test is performed as laboratory-to-laboratory differences can affect growth reduction measurements. To perform a radiosensitivity test on vegetative tissue, use 30 cuttings per dose with a wide range from 0 to 100 Gray (Gy). The range of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 Gy of gamma may be sufficient to establish the optimal dose due to the high moisture content of banana in vitro tissue in comparison to seeds. The same number of non-irradiated explants should be used as control. 6. The amount of water has an important impact on the irradiation efficiency. Be consistent with the water used for irradiation by using a device to transfer it (e.g. a pasteur pipette or micro pipette). In the case of a long-distance transfer of samples for mutagenesis/radiosensitivity, consider placing explants on a solid media (e.g. Petri plates, magenta boxes). 7. Exposure time is equal to the required dose divided by the dose rate of the day.The Gy is the unit used to quantify the absorbed dose of radiation (1 Gray ¼ 1 J/ kg). 8. Physical mutagens comprise all nuclear radiations and sources of radioactivity including ultraviolet light (a non-ionising radiation), several types of ionizing radiations, namely X-and gamma-rays, alpha and beta particles, protons and neutrons. This protocol describes gamma ray induced mutagenesis. Gamma ray mutagenesis may be performed using different facilities, such as gamma cell irradiator, gamma phytotron, gamma house, or gamma field (Spencer-Lopes et al. 2018). Gamma cells are the most commonly used emitters for plant mutation induction. The isotopes Cobalt-60 ( 60 Co) and Caesium-137 ( 137 Cs) are the main sources of gamma rays. The International Basic Safety Standards published by the IAEA provides details for the safe handling of these sources (IAEA 2014). 9. Radioactivity is mutagenic and carcinogenic. The safety precautions for exposing plant material to a gamma irradiation source must be strictly observed.Radioactive sources should therefore be operated only by trained and authorized personnel. Local regulations are usually explicit. 10. The gamma irradiated samples are safe to handle. 11. Blackening of liquid cultures can be the result of accumulation of phenolic compounds in the culture. Observe cultures for such media discoloration or for an eventual contamination. Remove contaminated flasks and decontaminate by autoclaving. 12. The dose of a mutagen that achieves the optimum mutation frequency with the least possible unintended damage, is regarded as the optimal dose for induced mutagenesis. For physical mutagens, this is estimated by carrying out tests of radiosensitivity. These estimates of the percentage in plant growth reduction are good parameters for estimating the damage due to mutagenic treatment. By reading off the dose corresponding to 50% reduction, the so-called lethal dose 50 (LD 50 ), is obtained. The LD 50 is an appropriate dose for irradiation but, in practice, a range of doses around this value should be used. In case of VPCs and seed propagated plants, also a growth reduction (GR) is being taken into count. Additional tests can be carried out such as genome sequencing to identify the spectrum and density of induced mutations (see Chap. 8 and 9). 13. Previous studies indicated that the radiosensitivity reading can be taken only 30 days post-irradiation. Results presented in Fig. 1.2 clearly demonstrate that for some genotypes the response stabilises already in the second week postmutagenesis and for all in the third week. 14. Collect data on the plantlet height, fresh weight, survival, root length, number of shoots. For optimal results all these measurements should be performed on the same day for all treatments and replications to reduce bias. In the case of counting survival rate, count the number of healthy plantlets. 15. This calculation is made by dividing the weight of the mutated material (numerator) by the weight of the control material measured at the same time (denominator) multiplied by 100. For example, the weight of material treated is 1.46 g. The control material is 1.6 g. The percentage is then 1.46/1.60 x 100 ¼ 91.25%. 16. At low doses fresh weight of irradiated material may exceed control values. 17. They may show different percent reductions at the same dose, but an overall trend can be derived by combining the data. Induced mutations are random events, implying that even adherence to published irradiation conditions might not result in the same mutation events. A way of mitigating this uncertainty is to rely on statistical probability and to work with large population sizes. The optimal population size depends on the spectrum and density of induced mutations, and to a lesser extent on the application of the mutant population (forward or reverse genetics). A population size of 1000 M 1 V 1 is easily accommodated in medium size laboratories and for polyploid bananas this may be considered suitable in reverse-genetics approaches to recover mutations in most target genes (Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. 2012). For forward-genetic screens a larger population size may be required because the chance of uncovering useful traits in polyploids in the M 1 generation is reduced due to heterozygous state of induced mutation. A guide is to target the production of a forward-genetic population of a minimum of 5000-10,000 individuals. 21. The first population after mutagenic treatment is referred to as M 1 V 1 whereby V 1 signifies the first vegetative generation after mutagenic treatment. Increasing numbers following V represent successive vegetative generations and increasing numbers after M indicate meiotic propagation. This allows tracking of generations in both facultative and obligate vegetatively propagated species. 22. Ideally a line would represent a pedigree of clonally related material that begins with the first non-chimeric individual such that all subsequent material produced from this progenitor inherits the same mutations. Because the exact state where mutant in vitro plantlets are no longer chimeric is not easily determined, defining a line this way is not always possible. We therefore suggest defining a line simply as the pedigree of all material resulting from a single progenitor mutated plantlet. Materials in a line therefore may inherit the same mutations as observed in Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. (2012) but may also inherit different mutations if chimerism exists in meristematic cells at the time the progenitor is sub-cultured to produce daughter plantlets. 23. We recommend three sub-culturing cycles to ensure the dissolution of chimeric materials. If too few cycles are performed, the resulting plants may still be chimeric and mutations may not be stably passed from one to another vegetative generation. It is recommended that preliminary evaluation starts at M 1 V 3 , since this generation should have solid mutants whose uniformity must be assessed. Non-uniform mutant clones must undergo a further round of propagation to reach uniformity. In this generation the evaluation of desired traits, such as TR4 screening could be undertaken or delayed until more advanced generations.From M 1 V 4 to M 1 V 9 uniform clones may be propagated and planted in experimental trials to test their performance for desired traits such as biotic/abiotic stress. As early as in M 1 V 4 generation, replicated trials of selected mutants may be conducted using parental or local varieties as checks. The M 1 V 5 and M 1 V 6 generations can be used in multi-locational trials and tested for performance in a range of environments and agronomic traits. Final assessment can be made in M 1 V 9 to M 1 V 10 generations depending on plant species, the desired mutant clone or clones will be released as a new improved mutant variety (Spencer- Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Gamma Irradiation of Embryogenic Cell Suspension Cultures from Cavendish Banana (Musa spp. AAA Group) and In Vitro Selection for Resistance to Fusarium Wilt Chunhua Hu, Yuanli Wu, and Ganjun Yi Abstract In this chapter, the establishment of embryogenic cell suspension (ECS) cultures using immature male flowers of triploid banana (Musa AAA Cavendish subgroup cv. 'Brazil'), followed by somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration is described. Mutation induction is achieved by exposing the ECS to gamma irradiation with the dose of 80 Gy. The mutagenized cell population is transferred to solid long-term suspension culture medium for 96 h to recover from mutagen treatment shock, followed by somatic embryo induction and development medium containing 20% crude culture filtrates from Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). After 90 days, the somatic embryos that survive are transferred to the germination medium containing 25% crude culture filtrates. The surviving mature somatic embryos are transferred to rooting medium after the fourth subculture on the germination medium containing 50% crude culture filtrates. Before transplanting in a Foc infected field, the in vitro plantlets are acclimatized and screened for resistance to Foc using a pot-based greenhouse bioassay.Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are not only the most widely consumed fruits in the world, but also a staple food for over 500 million people. In recent years, the world faced a sharp decline in banana production, due to extreme weather patterns and the outbreak of pests and diseases, especially Fusarium wilt. Today's global banana production is seriously threatened by a new strain of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4). There is an urgent need to introduce resistance against Foc TR4 into commercial banana cultivars. The most common cultivars for commercial production belong to Musa AAA Cavendish subgroup, which are sterile and seedless. Attempts to develop new banana genotypes resistant to Fusarium wilt using traditional cross breeding techniques face significant hurdles. Thus, induced mutagenesis or genetic engineering offers practical alternatives to create new varieties or novel germplasm and has become a dominant approach for breeding disease-resistant banana (Dita et al. 2018).Somatic embryos originate from single cells, and the chimera frequency is very low. To accelerate genetic improvement of banana, it is important to establish embryogenic cell suspension (ECS) cultures, followed by plantlet regeneration through somatic embryogenesis. So far, different source explants have been used to establish ECS in banana, including basal leaf sheaths and corm sections (Novák et al. 1989)  (Grapin et al. 2000). Among the various explants used, immature male flowers appear to be the most widely applicable starting material for the establishment of regenerable ECS.Plant mutation breeding is an effective method for creating novel germplasm. Briefly, seeds, pollen, the whole plant, vegetative organs, or callus are subjected to irradiation, followed by the process of selection and identification of a new variety (Spencer-Lopes et al. 2018). Physical mutagenesis is also applied to improve horticultural crops, it is reported that novel germplasm with agriculturally valuable traits has been developed in apple, peach, pear, and citrus (Source: FAO/IAEA Mutant Varieties Database). Gamma irradiation has been widely used as a physical mutagen for breeding of many crops including banana (Novák et al. 1990;Mak et al. 1996;Guo et al. 2003).In this chapter, we present a detailed protocol for the establishment of a cell suspension culture and plantlet regeneration via somatic embryogenesis of Cavendish banana (Musa spp. AAA group). The ECS cultures are then subjected to 80 Gy gamma irradiation, followed by in vitro selection for resistance to Fusarium wilt.3. MSD medium consists of SH basal medium without vitamins, MS vitamin, 1 mg/l biotin, 100 mg/l glutamine, 230 mg/l proline, 100 mg/l malt extract, 0.2 mg/l NAA, 0.1 mg/l KT, 45 g/l sucrose, 2 g/l gelrite. 4. MG medium consists of MS basal medium without vitamins, Morel and Wetmore vitamins, 1 mg/l 6-BA, 0.2 mg/l IAA, 30 g/l sucrose, 2 g/l gelrite. 5. MR medium is MG medium without any plant growth regulators. 6. Adjust pH value of MI and ML medium to 5.3, adjust pH value of other media to 5.8. 7. Sterilize all media for 15 min at 120 C. 8. Allow media to cool prior to use. 9. Store for up to a week in a cold room.1. Take a female flower bud that has just completed the fruit set process and use the 10-12 cm long portion at the top end of the bud, that is, the male inflorescence. 2. Keep on removing the outer bract and the male flower under it until the top 1.5 cm long portion of the inflorescence remains. 3. Surface sterilize the inflorescence by immersing in 75% ethanol for 1-2 min, followed by a rinse with sterile distilled water. 4. Under aseptic conditions, remove the inner bract and isolate the immature male flower under it with the aid of a stereo microscope. The one adjacent to the floral apex is rank 1 flower. 5. Rank 1 to rank 15 flowers are used as explant and are placed on MI medium. 6. The cultures are maintained at 28 AE 1 C in darkness for nearly 5 months.1. For initiation of the suspension culture, select loose and fragile light-yellow callus induced on MI medium (see Fig. 2.1a). 2. Weigh % 2 g of embryogenic callus and add to a 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 30 ml ML medium. The cultures are incubated on a rotary shaker (110 rpm/min) at 28 AE 1 C in darkness. 3. In the first month of suspension culture, replace ML medium once a week, and sieve cultures through a 900 μm mesh to remove the non-dispersible large culture particles, including callus clusters, dead tissues, and sometimes pre-embryos. 4. After one month, replace ML medium every 2 weeks. When cultures become dispersed, use a sieve of 154 μm aperture to remove the larger cell clusters. 5. Generally, it takes 3 months to obtain ECS cultures in Cavendish banana (Musa spp. AAA group), which are relatively more dispersed and homogeneous (see Fig. 2.1b).    1. Collect conidia from 7-days-old PDA plate culture of Foc TR4 strain by rinsing with sterile distilled water. Conidia concentration was determined with a haemocytometer and adjusted with sterile distilled water to 3  10 5 -4  10 5 conidia /ml. 2. Take 1 ml of the conidia suspension and transfer to a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 100 ml Czapek's liquid medium. The culture is incubated on a rotary shaker (120 rpm/min) at 25 AE 2 C for 12 days. 3. Then the culture is filtered through four layers of cheesecloth to remove mycelium, followed by filtrate being centrifuged at 5000 rpm/min for 15 min. 4. The supernatant broth is autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min to eliminate the effect of enzymes, and then filtered under pressure with a bacteria filter with a 0.25 μm microfiltration membrane. The filtrate is the sterile crude culture filtrates from Foc.In Vitro Selection for Resistance to Fusarium Wilt 1. Put a sterile filter paper on the surface of the ML agar medium, then transfer mutagen treated cells to the medium. The cultures are maintained for 96 h, which allows the cells to recover from mutagen treatment shock.2. The mutagenized embryogenic cell population is transferred to MSD medium containing 20% crude culture filtrates from Foc. 3. After 90 days, the somatic embryos that survive are transferred to MG medium containing 25% crude culture filtrates. 4. After nearly 30 days, the surviving mature somatic embryos are then sub-cultured at least four times on the same medium containing 50% crude culture filtrates. 5. The regenerated shoots obtained are transferred to MR medium. 6. Before planting in a Foc infected field, the plantlets are acclimatized and screened for resistance to Foc using a pot system in greenhouse (see Note 4).4 Notes Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Fusarium wilt or Panama disease caused by the pathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) is one of the most destructive diseases of banana and is found in all areas where banana is grown (Ploetz 2015) Although some progress has been achieved, attempts at developing new banana genotypes resistant to Fusarium wilt using conventional breeding techniques face significant hurdles, mainly because most cultivars of Musa AAA Cavendish subgroup are sterile and seedless (Ortiz 2013). Nowadays, non-conventional breeding approaches for banana improvement such as somaclonal variation and genetic transformation have received more attention. Somaclonal variation caused by long-term in vitro propagation is considered an important source of genetic variability, through which several tolerant clones have been acquired (Hwang and Ko 2004). In addition, a genetic transformation protocol has been well established in different banana genotypes, which can be used to create transgenic plants resistant to Foc Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4) (Dale et al. 2017). Given the fact that non-conventional breeding techniques are based on banana cell and tissue culture, promising resistant clones could be screened directly using an in vitro bioassay. Based on the modification of previous work (Wu et al. 2010), we present here a pre-screening protocol for Fusarium wilt resistance by using an in vitro bioassay that is fast, space-effective, and accurate.The in vitro bioassay is characterized by in vitro inoculation of rooted banana plantlets grown in a half-strength MS medium without a carbon source. Twenty-four days after inoculation with Foc TR4 at 10 6 conidia/ml, the disease severity was rated on a scale from 1 to 6 (Wu et al. 2010). Results of the disease score were then subjected to ordinal logit model analysis, which is also known as proportional odds model (McCullagh 1980). According to symptom rating probability distribution, the reaction of banana genotypes against Fusarium wilt was divided into five categories: highly resistant (HR), resistant (R), moderately resistant (MR), susceptible (S), and highly susceptible (HS). Compared with the greenhouse bioassay, this in vitro bioassay is a totally closed system. Since acclimatization of in vitro plantlets is not required, the application of the bioassay improves banana breeding efficiency.1. Autoclave forceps and scalpel. 2. In a laminar flow bench, remove the blackened part at the base of the rooted plantlets (the height of the pseudostem is 3.5-4.0 cm), shorten the roots to approximately 0.5 cm in length. 3. Transfer plantlets into Erlenmeyer flasks containing MIS, one plantlet per flask. 4. Maintain cultures at 25 AE 2 C under a 12 h photoperiod with 50 μmol m À2 s À1 from cool white fluorescent lamps. 5. After 1-2 weeks of growth, select plantlets for in vitro inoculation: the height of the pseudostem should measure 4.5-5.0 cm, and the plantlet should possess more than two fully expanded leaves and at least three white roots.1. Cut cheesecloth into round pieces (8 cm) and then place in a glass Petri dish. 2. Autoclave forceps, Erlenmeyer flask, Petri dish with cheesecloth pieces, shortstem funnel, bottle, and beaker. 3. In a laminar flow bench, dispense 200 ml of Potato Dextrose Water into Erlenmeyer flasks. 4. Punch out 5 mycelial plugs from the outer edge of the actively growing colony of Foc TR4 strain and transfer into an Erlenmeyer flask containing Potato Dextrose Water. 5. Place the Erlenmeyer flask on a rotary shaker (150 rpm) and incubate at 25 C for 5 days. 6. In a laminar flow bench, insert funnel into bottle, then place four layers of cheesecloth into funnel. 7. Pour sporulation medium through four layers of cheesecloth to separate spores from mycelia. 8. After filtration, place cheesecloth pieces and funnel into beaker. 9. Determine conidia concentration in spore suspension using a haemocytometer. 10. Store spore suspension at 4 C until in vitro inoculation. 11. Autoclave beaker with cheesecloth pieces and funnel. 12. Allow beaker to cool prior to disposing cheesecloth pieces.In Vitro Inoculation (See Fig. 3.1 and Note 4)1. Cut filter paper into small discs (5 mm) and then place in a glass Petri dish. 2. Autoclave forceps, Petri dish with filter paper discs, disposable pipettes, and beaker.3. In a laminar flow bench, adjust conidia concentration to 10 6 conidia/ml with sterile distilled water in a sterile centrifuge tube. 4. Pour the spore suspension (10 6 conidia/ml) into a beaker, then soak the filter paper discs in the spore suspension. 5. Inoculate each plantlet with Foc TR4 by placing one disc on the surface of the MIS medium. 6. Maintain cultures at 25 AE 2 C under a 12 h photoperiod with 50 μmol m À2 s À1 from cool white fluorescent lamps for 24 days. 7. Autoclave beaker containing spore suspension for decontamination.1. Rate disease severity of the in vitro inoculated plantlets on a scale of 1 to 6: 1, no discoloration of the pseudostem; 2, 1/2 the height of the pseudostem discolored; 3, >1/2 the height of the pseudostem discolored and (or) leaf stalk discolored; 4, 50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed; 5, >50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed; and 6, the whole plantlet wilted (see Fig. 3.2). 2. After 24 days incubation assess disease severity by determining disease score. 3. Data collection: record the data for each banana plantlet and enter it into a spreadsheet (e.g. Microsoft Excel). 4. Model construction based on cumulative Logistic regression (see Note 5).Wherein the Logistic regression model accordingly contains five logit functions:   The estimation method used for the Logistic regression model is a maximum likelihood method, according to the aforementioned Logistic model function designed for predicting the disease severity of the rooted plantlet of banana, the accumulated Logistic regression model obtained is described as follows:Wherein y' represents the disease incidence of the rooted plantlet of banana, α represents an intercept term; β k (k ¼ 1,2. . ., K ) represents a regression coefficient; x k (k ¼ 1,2. . ., K ) represents banana cultivar, and ε is an error term.5. Calculation of cumulative probability: assigning respective values y ¼ 1, y ¼ 2,..., y ¼ 6 to six disease grades, wherein a relationship among individual y values is (y ¼ 1) < (y ¼ 2) < . . . < (y ¼ 6), and there are 5 demarcation lines for demarcating adjacent categories:μ j is a demarcation point for demarcating categories, andThe formula for calculating a cumulative probability value is as follows:Therefore, the probability value of the rooted plantlet of a banana cultivar in a certain disease grade can be obtained:The sum of the probability values of each grade is 1, that is, P (y ¼ 1) + P (y ¼ 2) + . . . + P (y ¼ 6) ¼ 1.6. Open the spreadsheet at user interface of statistic software (e.g. IBM SPSS Statistics), then execute ordinal logit model analysis and obtain symptom rating probability distribution of each banana cultivar or clone. As an example, the result of statistical analysis is given in Fig. 3.3. ). Twenty-four days after in vitro inoculation of rooted plantlets (n ¼ 15), disease symptoms were scored on an ordinal scale as illustrated: 1, no discoloration of the pseudostem; 2, 1/2 the height of the pseudostem discolored; 3, >1/2 the height of the pseudostem discolored and (or) leaf stalk discolored; 4, 50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed; 5, >50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed; and 6, the whole plantlet wilted. Control plantlets were treated in the same manner except that Foc TR4 was replaced with sterile distilled water. Data obtained from three independent experiments were subjected to ordinal logit model analysis, which is also known as proportional odds model 7. Evaluate the disease resistance level of banana cultivars or clones according to their symptom rating probability distributions (see Table 3.1). As an example, the evaluation result is given in Table 3.2. 8. Autoclave Erlenmeyer flasks with in vitro inoculated plantlets for decontamination (see Notes 6 and 7).1. MIS medium is composed of half-strength MS macronutrients and MS micronutrients without a carbon source. Media commonly used for the growth and sporulation of Foc are carbohydrate-rich, and carbon has been shown to be the first limiting substrate of Foc growth in sterilized soil (Couteaudier and Alabouvette 1990). In this bioassay, the subtle balance between the growth of Foc and the carbon source is achieved by removing sucrose from the MS medium and by employing a filter paper disc as carbon source. Since the rooted banana plantlets with leaves are able to photosynthesize, the use of MIS medium in this bioassay also guarantees the normal growth of the plantlets. 2. CAUTION: it is suggested to use a virulent strain of Foc TR4. The disease severity of in vitro inoculated plantlets is affected by several factors, such as the pathogenicity of the Foc TR4 strain, sporulation medium, components of MIS medium, and growing time of banana plantlet on MIS medium before in vitro inoculation. Among these, the pathogenicity of Foc TR4 strain is the most important factor (Wu et al. 2020). If variation in pathogenicity occurs, for example, due to repeated sub-culturing or long-term preservation in the lab, this bioassay is not useful to identify banana mutants which are resistant to Fusarium wilt. 3. CAUTION: not only plant material preparation but also inoculum preparation and inoculation of rooted banana plantlets are conducted under sterile conditions.In order to obtain reliable data of disease severity, it's necessary to acquire the ability of aseptic operation prior to the experiment. 4. Five plantlets of each cultivar are in vitro inoculated with Foc TR4, and the entire experiment is repeated three times (n ¼ 15). Control plantlets are treated in the same manner except that filter paper discs are soaked in sterile distilled water. 5. For field evaluation and greenhouse bioassay, the resistance of banana cultivars tested is generally divided into five levels according to a disease index. Because the disease grades of in vitro bioassay are non-linear in disease severity, the numerical value obtained by substituting the disease index calculation formula cannot reflect the real disease severity. That is, when there is no quantitative limit for disease grade, the disease index calculation formula is not applicable. The logistic regression model belongs to a probabilistic nonlinear regression model (McCullagh 1980). Using Logistic regression to analyze the disease grade data greatly improves the accuracy of the in vitro bioassay. 6. The in vitro bioassay is a laboratory bioassay with effective containment conducted in a controlled environment. All experimental waste and materials must be autoclaved in order to prevent the spread of Fusarium wilt pathogen into the environment. 7. Since tissue-cultured banana plantlets get easily contaminated during plant material preparation and in vitro inoculation, it is necessary to re-isolate Foc TR4 by cutting a thin cross-section of the rhizome from a diseased plantlet followed by placing the disc directly onto a PDA plate. Then the cultures are identified by following the procedures described by Summerell et al. (2003). Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Banana and plantains belong to the genus Musa and are important agricultural products in developing countries. More than 1000 varieties of bananas are produced and consumed locally. Cavendish banana (AAA) are the main commercial variety for export and international trade and account for around 47% of global production (FAO 2019a). Approximately 50 million tons of Cavendish bananas are being produced globally every year. In 2017 the global banana production reached 114 million tons (FAO 2019b). Bananas are locally consumed as vital staple food or as a significant addition to the diets in Africa, southern Asia, and tropical America (FAO 2019b).Fusarium oxysporum is a soil-borne fungus that is ranked fifth on the list of top fungal plant pathogens (Ploetz 2005;Dean et al. 2012). Over 120 formae speciales (ff. spp.) of Fusarium oxysporum have been described based on host specificity (Baayen et al. 2000). Differences in pathogenicity on specific host cultivars is being defined as physiological races among isolates (Kistler 1997 The disease cycle of this Fusarium spp. starts with infection of the root system and subsequent colonization within the vascular tissue, leads to water stress, severe chlorosis, and wilting (Ploetz 2015). Infected plants frequently die before they produce bunches, hence Fusarium wilt significantly reduces yields in infested fields (Dita et al. 2010).A variant of Foc, called tropical race 4 (TR4) was first identified in Taiwan in 1989 but was probably the cause of banana wilt in the country since 1960. In the 1990s, Foc TR4 was identified in Malaysia and Indonesia, and the strains are thought to have originated from Taiwan (Buddenhagen 2009;Maryani et al. 2019). Foc TR4 has spread to many countries of Asia, as well as Australia and Africa and recently has reached Colombia and Peru in Latin America. Since its appearance, TR4 has severely affected Cavendish plantations in Malaysia, Indonesia, South China, Philippines, and the Northern Territory of Australia (Ploetz 2006;Molina et al. 2010;Buddenhagen 2009;Chittarath et al. 2018). TR4 is considered one of the most destructive Foc strains because of its broad host range. This pathogen is attacking the important cultivars of Cavendish but also all other cultivars that are sensitive to Foc (Cheng et al. 2019). The disease predominantly affects the Cavendish varieties, which not only primarily meets the international market demand but also is important for local consumption in developing countries. Cavendish varieties are the cornerstone for international trade, therefore TR4 threatens the entire global production (FAO 2019b).Strategies controlling TR4 spread are based on visual monitoring of early symptom appearance, eradication of infected plants and isolation of infested areas to reduce pathogen dissemination. Pérez Vicente et al. (2014) reported that once plants are infected with TR4, there is no way to eradicate the disease. In this case the affected plants and all plants in the surrounding 7.5 m radius should be destroyed. Host resistance is a basis for sustainable disease management in most crops and this is usually achieved by intensive breeding programs (Ploetz 2006). Therefore, breeding for resistant/tolerant banana plants is the best way to overcome the disease.To develop new, resistant cultivars, breeders need reliable and rapid phenotyping methods enabling selection of improved lines (García-Bastidas et al. 2019).Different approaches can be pursued for resistance screening e.g. in the field or under greenhouse conditions (Dhingra and Sinclair 1986; Trigiano et al. 2004;Singh and Singh 2005). Field screening encounters problems such as time, costs, variable environmental conditions, and unspecified biodiversity of soil-borne pathogens (Mert and Karakaya 2003;Subramaniam et al. 2006;Sutanto et al. 2013). In contrast, greenhouse-based phenotyping facilitates high-throughput selection under controlled conditions with specific fungal genotypes, leading to more reproducible results (Smith et al. 2008). Greenhouse assessments have been reported as a reliable method by several researchers (Smith et al. 2008 Basic knowledge about the biology of the causal agent and its relationship with the host plant is necessary to develop suitable methods for resistance screening and selection (Russell 1978). Usually, wilting is either caused by blockage of plant vessels due to the accumulation of spores and mycelium of pathogenic fungi or due to a toxic element produced by the pathogen. In case of Fusarium, the use of fusaric acid or a crude filtered fungal extract does not lead to blockage of the xylem vessels. In this case, it is the toxicity of the extract that leads to the appearance of symptoms. This is distinct from disease resistance screening under field conditions, where plants are affected by the live pathogen, spores, mycelia in addition to toxins. In vitro plantlets inoculated with mycelium and spores of the pathogen are expected to show symptoms very similar to those observed in the field.To accelerate Fusarium wilt resistance screening in banana breeding programs, bioassays that can efficiently and accurately differentiate resistant from susceptible cultivars are required. Two prerequisites should be met for effective in vitro disease resistance screening using a pathogen-derived selection agent: (1) One or more compounds found in the selection agent should be present in infected plants; and(2) the agent should at least partially induce disease symptoms when inoculated into healthy plants. When an in vitro plantlet is directly inoculated by the pathogen (conidia and mycelium), the above-mentioned requirements are met.Traditional banana breeding is faced with several impediments, primarily the sterile nature of the triploid cultivars; seedless fruits are required to meet consumer demands but hampers breeding (Pillay and Tenkouano 2011; Pillay 2002). Banana breeders have incorporated non-classical breeding approaches, such as mutation breeding, to induce diversity in their elite germplasm. Mutagenic agents, such as radiation or certain chemicals, can be used to generate genetic variation from which desired mutants may be selected. The combination of mutation breeding and in vitro culture (also called in vitro mutagenesis) is effective for the induction and selection of somatic mutations (Roux 2004). Novák et al. (1989) described the dose-response of tissue-cultured shoot tips to gamma irradiation. Since edible bananas are vegetatively propagated and heterozygous, mutation breeding is an ideal approach for their genetic improvement (Jain 2010). In addition, mutagenic treatments need to be optimized and efficient screening techniques developed to select desirable mutants (Jain 2000(Jain , 2006(Jain , 2007;;Van Harten 1998). In vitro techniques can improve the effectiveness of mutation induction, especially when handling large mutant populations (Predieri 2001;Jain 2000;Jain and Maluszynski 2004). We present here a protocol for inoculating in vitro banana plants with the live agent Fusarium wilt (spores and mycelium) and for screening mutant banana seedlings under in vitro conditions. 1. Healthy banana suckers. 2. Fusarium oxysporum isolate.1. Gamma Cell with 60 Co (here Gamma cell PX-30 was used). 2. High quality, disease-free in vitro banana plantlets.5. Dissolve well and heat the solution on a stirrer or in microwave (it usually takes approx. 40-50 min on the stirrer or 3-4 min in the microwave). 6. Dispense 500 ml in Erlenmeyer flasks (see Note 3) and autoclave immediately (100 kPa at 121 C for 20 min). 7. Let it to cool to 50 C. 8. Add 1.2 ml of 10 mg/ml Streptomycin solution. 9. Swirled the container by hand until the solution is homogenous. 10. Dispense 20 ml of the media in the Petri plates.1. For 1 l of the solid culture media (1/2 MS), use the following amounts: 50 ml of Macro (10X), 5 ml of Micro (100X) solution, 7.5 g of sucrose, and 7 g of Agar.Use double distilled water (see Note 4). 2. Place the media on the mixer and let it mix properly. 3. Calibrate the pH meter as per manufacturer instruction. 4. While stirring, adjust medium to pH 5.8 using NaOH or HCl. 5. After adjusting pH, top up the medium by adding distilled water to 1 l. 6. Autoclave for 20 min at 120 C. 7. Allow the medium to cool down. 8. Dispense 20 ml of the culture medium per jar. 9. Store the medium for up to 1 week in a cold room (keep in refrigerator with 4-5 C).  4. Gently probe the surface of the colony with the Pasteur pipette tip generating a mixture of conidial and hyphal fragments. 5. Pour the suspension into a sterile Falcon tube. 6. Count collected conidia (macro and micro-conidia) using a haemocytometer. 7. Adjust inoculum concentration to 10 6 conidia/ml. 8. Use the following formula to calculate the conidia density: N  10 4  f cell/ml, where \"N\" is the total counted cells and \"f\" is dilution factor (see Note 6).1. Punch the Whatman filter paper with a hole-puncher with a 5 mm diameter.2. Put discs into an autoclavable container.3. Autoclave twice for 20 min or one time for 40 min at 120 C (see Note 7).1. Collect small and healthy suckers from a healthy plant.2. Wash suckers with tap water and cut into 10  10  10 mm blocks containing shoot tips. 3. Surface-sterilize the shoot tips in a laminar flow cabinet with 70% Ethanol for 30 s, followed by 5% sodium hypochlorite with a few drops of Tween 20 for 30 min. 4. Transfer shoot tips into banana propagation liquid medium consisting of MS (Murashige and Skoog 1962) salts and vitamins, 5 mg/l BAP and 30 g/l sucrose. 5. Incubate shoot tips in a culture room (25 AE 1 C, 16/8 day/night, 45-60 μmol/m 2 /s light intensity). 6. Subculture every 30 to 45 days (see Note 8).1. Prepare at least 800 shoot tips from established in vitro banana plantlets. 2. Transfer shoot tips into sterile Petri dishes. 3. Add a few drops of sterile water and seal with parafilm. 4. Irradiate using a suitable dose (see Note 9). 5. Incubate shoot tips in liquid media for 45 days at 25 AE 1 C and 16/8 day/night. 6. Subculture at least three times for chimera dissolving. After the first subculture, give each plantlet a unique code to keep track of the mutant pedigree.   1. It is convenient to prepare the concentrated stock solutions of macro-salts, micro-salts, vitamins, amino acids, hormones, etc. All stock solutions should be stored in a refrigerator and should be checked visually for contamination with microorganisms or precipitation of ingredients. A stock solution of vitamins, amino acids, and hormones should not be stored for an indefinite period and should be kept À20 °C. 2. For preparing PDA, 100 g peeled potatoes are needed. It is therefore recommended to weigh them after peeling. The peeled potatoes are cut into four-parts. Each section should not be too small or crushed. Starch should not The whole plantlet wilted enter into the final extract, and for the same reason, potatoes should not mash during boiling and filtering. A clear extract is needed for preparation of PDA. 3. To prevent liquids from spilling during the autoclaving process, dispense it into smaller volumes and pour it into larger containers. For example, pour 250 ml into a 500 ml container. 4. It is possible to utilize live pathogen for disease resistance screening in in vitro conditions. However, the in vitro conditions (higher humidity, reduced air velocity, media-rich in nutrients) favors the growth of microorganisms in general. To control the growth of the pathogen, the concentration of mineral salts, as well as the carbon source is reduced (see Sect.  with doses of 35 and 40 Gy. These doses were determined by the radiosensitivity test. After irradiation, the explants were placed onto a fresh multiplication medium. Each growing shoot was separately multiplied up to M 1 V 3 . 10. About 6000 individual plantlets were screened using the in vitro bioassay described here. Finally, 21-30 days after inoculation, a total of 50 putative mutant plantlets were selected with scores 0-2. These were categorized as putative resistant mutants. 11. Plants which have been selected in the process of in vitro screening must be kept for further evaluation. It is therefore necessary to back up the mutant plant at the screening stage by keeping a clone of M 1 V 4 shoot tip of each tested plant. Chimera usually dissolves after three subcultures so that mutant genotypes belonging to the same progeny should be uniform after M 1 V 4 . 12. In the process of selecting seedlings resistant to Fusarium disease the test material used for evaluation should have the same size. It is recommended to select plantlets with pseudostem length ranging between 4.5 to 5 cm. Selected plantlets should have more than two fully expanded leaves and at least three white roots. 13. Two weeks before inoculation, uniform banana plantlets should be transferred to SIM media. Plantlets under the selection must be healthy. Any stress may affect the result of pathogen screening. 14. Young plantlets with small size are very susceptible to the disease. The best size of the plantlet is 4-5 cm, with 2-4 leaves and roots. 15. The paper disk should be put next to the plantlet. Putting the inoculation source near (less than 1 cm) to the plantlet leads the pathogen to reach the seedlings faster. 16. During the TR4 screening process care should be taken not to spread the disease.Therefore, all containers, media, and infected plantlets should be autoclaved after the termination of the bioassay. 17. While preparing the inoculum suspension, care should be taken that the solution does not get contaminated with bacteria. Adding antibiotics to the inoculum solution is a way to prevent such infection. Streptomycin or Chloramphenicol is suitable for this purpose. 18. This protocol was developed as a fast and cost-effective method for early mass screening. It enables reduction of mutant population and identification of putative mutants for further evaluation. The in vitro resistant plantlets should be evaluated under the field conditions for confirmation of their resistance/ tolerance. 19. To enhance root formation, it is recommended that banana plantlets are transferred to the rooting medium. However even without this step, the plantlets with 4-5 cm height would normally produce sufficient roots. 20. Internal symptoms should be checked and scored in the case of plantlets with symptoms such as wilting or discoloration. 21. TR4 symptoms in the field and in in vitro conditions are distinct. In the field, wilting is the predominant disease symptom. By contrast, due to high humidity in the in vitro assay, wilting is less significant. Instead, the appearance of necrotic leaves is more pronounced. Therefore, for disease scoring in the in vitro bioassay, one should especially score the appearance of necrotic and discolored leaves and pseudostem. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Fusarium wilt is considered one of the most devastating diseases of banana in the world (Stover 1962;Ploetz 2006). The disease is caused by a soil-borne fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), which infects the plants through the roots, colonises the rhizome and xylem, and causes a lethal wilting of plants (Stover 1962;Guo et al. 2015; Warman and Aitken 2018). Foc originated in Southeast Asia, and was disseminated globally with Foc-propagating and planting material as banana production expanded during the twentieth century (Stover 1962;Ploetz 2015a;Dita et al. 2018). By the 1950s, Fusarium wilt was so widespread in Latin America that it became impossible to sustain the international banana export industry that was almost exclusively based on the Gros Michel (AAA) bananas. Gros Michel was thus replaced with Cavendish bananas as export variety in the 1960s, which currently account for nearly 50% of production globally (Lescot 2015 Foc comprises of three races based on their pathogenicity to a group of differential cultivars, with Foc races 1, 2 and 4 causing disease to Gros Michel, Bluggoe and Cavendish bananas, respectively (Pegg and Langdon 1987;Ploetz and Pegg 2000). Foc race 4 is further subdivided into Foc subtropical race 4 (Foc STR4) and tropical race 4 (Foc TR4) strains. The former causes disease on Cavendish bananas in the subtropics when plants are stressed by adverse climatic conditions, while Foc TR4 affects Cavendish bananas both under tropical and subtropical conditions (Ploetz and Pegg 2000). Foc TR4 has a wider host range than Foc races 1 and 2, and causes disease to Cavendish banana cultivars as well as most Foc race 1-and race 2-susceptible cultivars (Ploetz 2015b). Foc strains have been further classified using vegetative compatibility group (VCG) analysis, which is based on the ability of fungal hyphae to anastomose and form a stable heterokaryon (Leslie and Summerell 2006). Twenty-four VCGs have been described for Foc (Pegg et  The most effective method to control banana Fusarium wilt is the use of Foc-resistant varieties (Ploetz 2015b). If existing varieties with resistance are not available to replace susceptible ones, the susceptible bananas can be improved by conventional breeding, mutation breeding, genetic engineering and genome editing (Rowe 1987 ). Field evaluation is more accurate when identifying Foc-resistant plants under natural environmental conditions, but the process is time-consuming and expensive. Inoculum levels in the soil might also be unequally distributed. In addition, banana varieties can only be tested against Foc strains present in the country or region where the tests are performed. Greenhouse screening can be performed on small plants, achieved in a short time, and can be screened against quarantine pathogens in restricted environments (Smith et al. 2008;Dita et al. 2011). Yet, greenhouse screening methods seldom correlate well with field screening due to a number of factors, including inoculum preparation, inoculum concentration, inoculation method, the effect of temperature and photoperiod, type of planting material tested, and the potting soil used (Brake et al. 1995  2019a, b). The most common inoculation methods include the dipping of plant roots in a conidial suspension, the drenching of soil with a conidial suspension, and the replanting of plants in Foc-infested soil or sand. In the dipping method, plants are carefully removed from soil and their roots dipped in a conidial suspension for a few minutes before replanting (Mohamed et al. 2001;Dita et al. 2011;Ribeiro et al. 2011). The soildrenching method consists of pouring a spore suspension on the surface of potting soil (Smith et al. 2008). In the infested soil technique, bananas are planted in soil mixed with millet seeds or maize kernels that were pre-colonized with Foc (Smith et al. 2008;Dita et al. 2011). A combination of the dipping method and replanting in infested soil was reported to result in quick and consistent disease development (Dita et al. 2011). The screening of banana plants grown in vitro has also been reported, but Hamill (2018) considered these not suitable for resistance screening, as the fungus may kill both susceptible and resistant varieties due to high inoculum pressure.The type of planting material used can influence Fusarium wilt development in the greenhouse. Tissue culture-derived plants are more susceptible and have a shorter incubation period compared to suckers and bits (Hwang and Ko 1987;Smith et al. 2008). Tissue culture plants are also free of other pests and diseases, apart from plant viruses, which may influence disease development. Tests with tissue culture plants smaller than 5 cm did not reflect field results, but plants of 10-15 cm (around 2 months old) did (Brake et al. 1995;Mohamed et al. 2001;Smith et al. 2008). Further investigations of the effect of plant age on Fusarium wilt development are thus needed to improve the reliability of small plantlet screening methods (Brake et al. 1995;Smith et al. 2008;Ribeiro et al. 2011).In this chapter, we present an optimised greenhouse screening method for resistance to banana Fusarium wilt, considering the effect of inoculum concentration, inoculation methods and plant age on disease development. 1. Banana accessions to be tested are prepared together with resistant and susceptible control plants. Resistant and susceptible control varieties are selected according to the Foc strain to be used for the inoculation (Table 5.1) (Viljoen et al. 2017).     5. Shake the flask/bottle to loosen the grain (see Fig. 5.3a). A small sample is collected for plating onto culture media to ensure that it is sterile. 6. Plate out a Foc isolate on PDA and incubate it at 25 C for 5-7 days. 7. Cut 10 mycelial plugs of 0.5 cm in diameter from the margins of the culture, and transfer these to the flasks/Schott bottles containing sterilized millet seeds. 8. When white fungal growth begins to show on the surface of millet seeds, the flasks/bottles are shaken to distribute the fungus and to prevent the kernels from clumping together (see Fig. 5.3b). 9. Let the fungus colonise the millet seed for 14 days, but shake every second day to ensure thorough colonisation of the millet seed. Plate out some seeds onto PDA to ensure that it is colonised by Foc only (see Fig. 5.3c). The millet seeds can then be stored at room temperature until use, but not for longer than 3 months to ensure the fitness and pathogenicity of Foc.1. Fill planting bags/pots halfway with steam-sterilized potting soil, and mix with the Foc inoculum at a rate of 10 g millet seeds/kg soil (see Fig. 5.4a, b). 2. Uproot the plant (2-month-old) that needs to be inoculated carefully, and replant it into potting bags/pots containing the Foc-inoculated potting soil (see Fig. 5.4c).Then fill up the entire bag/pot with potting soil. Clearly mark the bags/pots with the accession name. 3. Once all plants are inoculated, they need to be randomly arranged in the greenhouse (see Fig. 5.4d). 1. Assess the host plant response when leaf symptoms are visible on 50% of the susceptible control plants, or when susceptible control plants have an internal disease rating of 5 and more. This is usually 6-12 weeks after inoculation. 2. For internal disease rating, the rhizome should be cut open horizontally in the middle of the rhizome, where discoloration is more pronounced than in the lower or upper rhizome (see Fig. 5.5a, b). 3. Score the rhizome discoloration on a rating scale ranging from 1 to 6, with 1 indicating no disease symptoms and 6 indicating complete discolored of the inner rhizome (see Fig. 5.5c).  Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Lab-Based Screening Using Hydroponic System for the Rapid Detection of Fusarium Wilt TR4 Tolerance/Resistance of Banana Norazlina Noordin, Affrida Abu Hassan, Anis Nadia Mohd Faisol Mahadevan, Zaiton Ahmad, and Sakinah Ariffin Abstract Field-based screening and evaluation of banana plant tolerance or resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) Tropical Race 4 (TR4) or also known as Fusarium wilt TR4 is ideal though not always feasible. Alternatively, screening of banana plantlets at lab-stage seems to be an effective method for early detection of Foc TR4 tolerance. We present a simple hydroponic system, that allows plant to grow in a water-based condition. The system has two layers, the upper layer is a tray that has holes for plantlets to be placed where the root system is supported using an inert medium such as rock-wool. The lower layer is a perforated container filled with a water-based nutrient solution. For this lab-based screening, ex vitro gamma irradiated banana cv. Berangan (AAA) rooted plantlets with a pseudostem height of 10-15 cm were inoculated by soaking in a Foc TR4 conidial suspension (10 6 spores/ml) for 2 h under room temperature. The Foc TR4 inoculated rooted plantlets were screened using the hydroponic system and disease symptoms were scored. In this chapter, protocols on acclimatization of ex vitro irradiated rooted plantlets, inoculation with a Foc TR4 conidial suspension, lab-screening using hydroponic system, observation for early detection of disease symptoms and scoring of disease severity are presented.Banana is the second most commonly grown fruit crop in Malaysia. About 50% of the banana growing area is cultivated with Pisang Berangan and the Cavendish type. However, in the recent years, the overall banana production and cultivation areas have decreased due to the increasing threat of Fusarium wilt and Moko diseases. This alarming issue has led to increasing prices and limited availabilities of banana fruits for local consumption and export (MOA report 2017).Fusarium wilt of bananas, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), is one of the most devastating diseases of banana in most parts of the world including Malaysia. This severe disease almost crippled the world banana plantation, production and export trade of 'Gros Michel' circa 1940s and 1950s due to high susceptibility of this cultivar to Fusarium Race 1 (Pegg and Langdon 1987). Introduction of the resistant Cavendish group of cultivars provided an effective and economical solution but the emergence of Foc TR4 and its dissemination in the tropics and sub-tropics poses an immediate threat (Asif and Mak 2001). In Malaysia, we have experienced a total wipe out of a commercial scale Cavendish plantation in the southern part of Malaysia during the 1990s due to the destructive Foc TR4 disease.Various control measures such as injection of chemicals, soil treatments including fumigation and incorporating soil amendments may reduce the severity of the disease, but none of them is commercially applicable (Hwang and Ko 1987). It was also reported that fungicides, fumigants, flood fallowing, crop rotation, and organic amendments have rarely provided long-term control in any production area (Pegg et al. 1996). Among three races of Foc namely Race 1, Race 2 and Tropical Race 4 which attack bananas, Tropical Race 4 is the most pathogenic and affects many banana cultivars including Cavendish. The pathogen, Foc, can be disseminated through suckers, soil, water, and by farming practices when farmers use contaminated tools. Chemical control, such as soil fumigation, is a promising measure but is hazardous to the environment. The pathogen persists in the contaminated soil by producing chlamydospores even in the absence of the host bananas or sometimes by infection of roots of some weeds (Pegg et al. 1996). As a result, once the field is invaded by Foc, the field cannot be used for banana production for up to 30 years (Asif and Mak 2001). It is therefore of high importance to develop and select new banana varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt to overcome this problem (Rusli 2011). One of the techniques to produce new varieties is through in vitro mutagenesis with the application of gamma irradiation (Mak et al. 1995). Gamma irradiation is a reliable and popular physical mutagen to increase genetic diversity and induce mutations and has led to the establishment of new plant varieties (Norazlina et al. 2014).Field evaluation is the most reliable method for screening disease-resistant lines, but both manpower and space requirements are the limitations that add to the cost of screening (Pegg et al. 1996). It is also essential to maintain strict quarantine measures to avoid pathogen spread and cross-contamination. In addition, plants tend not to show disease symptoms until after 4-5 months (Morpurgo et al. 1994). The uneven distribution of the pathogen in the field can lead to 'disease escape' while many variables that can affect infection and symptom expression cannot be altered nor controlled (Asif and Mak 2001). Alternatively, methods that are simpler, cost effective, low maintenance with space requirements that can show early detection against Fusarium wilt are more attractive and have been developed by many laboratories.Earlier studies reported the need for improved methods like pre-screening or early detection of tolerance against Fusarium wilt using ex vitro or in vitro rooted plantlets. This early detection is not only for screening for tolerance/resistance but also for comparative virulence and pathogenicity studies (Buddenhagen 1987; Pegg and Langdon 1987). This early detection can be carried out at lab-based or nurseybased stages prior to field-screening.An earlier study reported roots inoculated by dipping or soaking with a fungal spore suspension before being transferred to an infested field (Mak et al. 2001;Vakili 1965). Susceptible banana plantlets showed external symptoms of leaf yellowing within 2 weeks and wilted within 4 weeks of inoculation (Vakili 1965). Earlier, a double-cup sand-culture containment method had been developed for testing pathogen virulence (Liew 1996). Modification was done and it was replaced by a 'double compartment' apparatus, which contains two plastic trays, one fitting inside the other. This double-tray technique has the capacity for pathogen containment to eliminate cross-contamination (Mak et al. 2001). This technique can be further modified to investigate the effects of various inoculum concentrations and environment variables on infection and disease expression. A bigger size tray could screen a greater number of plants. However, this system must be done in a nursery that still requires a large space with special containment, manpower for the preparation of the system and the cost for the set-up and modification is also less effective.In this study, a lab-based screening using hydroponic system has been developed. This system is simpler, soilless, and easy to set up, cost effective, portable, requires less space and maintenance. The system can be modified to suit the requirements of the work in the laboratory. In this chapter, protocols on acclimatization of ex vitro irradiated rooted plantlets, inoculation with Foc TR4 conidial suspension, lab-based screening using hydroponic system and observation for early detection of disease symptoms and scoring of disease severity are presented. This work also describes the methodology, reliability of this lab-based screening by considering several factors, including the concentration and duration of Foc TR4 conidial suspension inoculation, type of host plants, and the ability to show differential disease symptoms similar to nursery-based and field evaluations.  2). 6. After 3 weeks, ex vitro rooted plantlets with pseudostem height of 10-15 cm are ready to be advanced to lab-based screening protocol using hydroponic system (see Fig. 6.2).1. Subculture Foc TR4 onto fresh PDA medium by taking one agar slab (0.5  0.5 cm) containing the fungal mycelium (see Fig. 6.3). 2. Transfer agar slab onto PDA medium supplemented with 1% yeast extract for further multiplication. 3. Incubate cultures under continuous light at 23-25 C in growth chamber. 4. Observe the growth of Foc mycelium. Growth usually will take about 5-7 days (see Fig. 6.3). 1. Pour 10 ml of sterile distilled water onto PDA plates containing Foc mycelium and scrape all mycelium using a sterile glass rod. 2. Set up a filter funnel with plugging cotton wools on the mouth of a 500 ml glass beaker. 3. Pour the suspension through the funnel to separate hyphae from spores in the filtrate. 4. Using a haemocytometer count the number of spores/ml. 5. Dilute the suspension into desired concentrations (10 6 spores/ml) using sterile distilled water (see Fig. 6.4). 1. Fill the hydroponic system with distilled water. In this type of hydroponic system, 15 l of water is used (see Fig. 6.7). 2. Gently transfer inoculated plantlets from all treatments into thumb-pots of the hydroponic system for screening of Foc TR4 disease symptoms (see Fig. 6.7).  Using Hydroponic System 1. After 28 days of inoculation with Foc TR4 (10 6 spore/ml) with different inoculation periods (1 h, 2 h, 3 h), conduct scoring of disease symptoms (see Fig. 6.9b). 2. Dissect plantlets from all treatments for scoring/rating (see Fig. 6.9c).  The smaller leaves at the base of pseudostem wilted, there was no discoloration of the pseudostem 2 1/2 the height of the pseudostem was discolored 3 >1/2 the height of the pseudostem was discolored and (or) there was discoloration of the leaf stalk 4 50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed 5 >50% of the leaves wilted or yellowed 6Total discoloration of vascular tissue 3. For treatment 0 (control), the irradiated plantlets that were not inoculated with Foc conidial suspension showed no disease symptoms and these plantlets developed into healthy seedlings (see Fig.  1. Mutagenesis of banana (cv. Berangan Intan) plantlets was performed by irradiating meristem tissues/shoot tips with acute gamma irradiation using BioBeam GM8000 (Germany) with a Caesium-137 source and chronic gamma irradiation using Gamma Greenhouse with a Caesium-137 source. The meristem pieces (about 1 cm  2 mm) were aseptically excised from in vitro plantlets of Pisang Berangan. Each meristem was cut longitudinally into two pieces. A total of 50 meristem pieces for each dose were transferred into sterile moist Petri dishes and sealed with parafilm. The meristems in the Petri dishes were irradiated with acute gamma ray using gamma cell BioBeam GM8000 and chronic gamma irradiation using Gamma Greenhouse with a Caesium-137 source at 0, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 90, 120 Gy. Each growing irradiated shoot from all the optimal doses (chronic irradiation: 30, 50, 70 Gy and acute irradiation: 10, 20, 30 Gy) were separately sub-cultured to M 1 V 4 generation (three subcultures at monthly interval) to minimize chimerism.    Molybdate. 12. Hydroponic system eliminates cross-contamination and allows concurrent investigations of Foc isolates against a range of irradiated rooted plantlets population. 13. Pathogenicity experiment can be conducted as a prerequisite for the establishment of a rapid and efficient Foc TR4 lab-based screening method for early detection of disease symptoms. This experiment can test the effectiveness of the Foc TR4 suspension (10 6 spores/ml) to cause disease symptoms to banana plantlets. It can also optimize the Foc TR4 soaking periods (minutes, hours) and the conidial suspension concentration. 14. Lab-based screening on bigger population of 1000-2000 irradiated rooted plantlets is recommended. The surviving plants that showed some degree of tolerance with severity index of 1-2 (Brake et al. 1995) will be screened under nursery-based condition and later proceed to field-screening for selection of possible mutant lines. 15. From this study, the early screening method using hydroponic system provided baseline data on the development and optimization of an efficient and workable lab-based screening of Foc disease. 16. Soaking of roots of the irradiated plantlets in Foc TR4 (10 6 spore/ml) for 2 h interval was found to be effective. 17. It gave early expression of symptoms, as early as 14 days and produced consistent symptoms during the screening. 18. Soaking of roots of the irradiated plantlets in Foc TR4 (10 6 spore/ml) for 2 h and screening using hydroponic system for early detection of Foc TR4 tolerance/ resistance is effective to be used for screening of a bigger population (1000-2000 irradiated plantlets). 19. The plantlets that survived after inoculation and showed some degree of tolerance i.e., disease scoring of 1-2 (Brake et al. 1995) are advanced to nurserybased screening before being selected as putative mutants for field-based screening at a Foc TR4 hotspot. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Field Screening of Gamma-Irradiated Cavendish Bananas Gaudencia A. Lantican Abstract In our search for Cavendish bananas to withstand Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc TR4) and other diseases, field screening of tissue-cultured Grand Nain banana seedlings derived from gamma-irradiated shoot tips was explored. Six months after irradiation and multiplication in the laboratory, the plantlets (M 1 V 6 ) were individually grown in seedling bags under screen house conditions for 8 weeks, side-by-side with non-irradiated plantlets of the same clone. Once acclimatized, the banana plants were grown in an area confirmed positive of Foc TR4 (based on previous farm records stating that more than 50% of the plant population succumbed to the disease). Seedlings from each treatment (dose of radiation) were divided into four replicates, regardless of the number of plants. Each plant was given a unique identification code for traceability during disease monitoring, bunch and fruit quality evaluation.Incidences of Foc TR4, Moko disease (Ralstonia solanacearum) and virus diseases were monitored weekly. Plants found positive of any disease were eradicated immediately. The plant population for the succeeding generation was managed by removing the unwanted suckers, 12 weeks from planting using a spade gouge and keeping only one sucker per plant for the next generation. Agronomic characters of each plant were taken at the flowering stage. These included age to flower, height, pseudostem circumference, number of leaves and height of the sucker. The bunch was harvested 12 weeks from flowering. The number of hands in a bunch, the number of fingers and weight of a hand were recorded. The same agronomic characters of the plant were taken for the succeeding generations.Plants left standing in the field without any disease symptoms 3 years after planting were considered as putative mutants and were selected as candidate lines for multiplication and second-generation field screening. Only healthy suckers (free from viruses) were further multiplied via tissue culture technique to reach M 1 V 6 . Clean suckers from each line free of soil debris or dirt were sent to the laboratory for multiplication. At least 1000 plantlets were produced from each line for the second-generation field screening. These were grown in two locationswith and without records of Foc TR4. Field monitoring activities including plant population management, disease incidence assessment and fruit quality evaluation were carried out following the same protocols used in the establishment of the first-generation plants. Lines with population showing 10% Foc TR4 after the first harvest, with good vigor, fruit quality and productivity were considered as candidates for further multiplication, farmers distribution and field planting under semi-commercial scale.Keywords Gamma irradiation • Shoot tips • Field screening • Foc TR4 • CavendishThe choice of planting Cavendish bananas in the Philippines particularly Grand Nain resides in its high-yielding capacity, fruit quality and export market demands. After decades of cultivation, the fungal disease, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc TR4) debilitated the plant population, and its productivity per unit area. In some locations, the disease affects more than 50% of the population in a short period of time.To date, there is no single effective treatment against the disease. The variety GCTCV 218 introduced from Taiwan Banana Research Institute (TBRI) through the Bureau of Plant Industry has helped to improve some devastated farms. Yet it has been found that this variety shows susceptibility to Foc TR4 at varying degrees, depending on the location. The availability of a resistant clone therefore, with qualities at par or better than Grand Nain is a welcome development to help manage, if not totally address the complexities of banana pest and disease problems. This will help growers and farmers especially in regions that are vulnerable and are positive of the disease.Bhagwat and Duncan (1998) reported banana mutation breeding for tolerance to Foc TR4 using gamma irradiation. In 2006, Damasco et al. published a paper \"Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) Resistance in Cultivar Lakatan Developed via Gamma Irradiation of Shoot Tips\". This prompted Dole Research to seriously engage in experiments using Grand Nain clone of Cavendish. We have coordinated with the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) equipped with facilities to cover the gamma irradiation treatments. The protocol of Novak et al. (1990) served as an important guide in this project. Radiation treatment is at M 1 V 1 stage of the shoot tips while inside the culture bottles and further multiplied to reach M 1 V 6 . Some aspects of Novak et al.'s (1990) protocol have been modified to better understand the characteristics of the plants in the field in addition to its susceptibility to diseases.The field screening project started in year 2013 in Malandag, Malungon, Sarangani Province, and after 4 years, it was extended to two other regions namely, Maragusan and, Compostela Valley. Both locations are situated in the islands of Mindanao and Philippines. This protocol describes the field screening tests of plants exposed to gamma irradiation treatments, their multiplication and further field screening tests of those that escaped from Foc TR4 and other diseases (putative mutants) after completing at least three harvest cycles. Disease incidence, plant vigor, growth and development patterns, productivity, and fruit quality were recorded. These parameters describe the tolerance of a putative mutant to a certain disease and ensure that fruit quality and productivity are within farmers' and consumers' level of acceptability.1. Hardened banana seedlings (Fig. 7.1 and see Note 1).   8. Fine mesh to cover the suckers. 9. Refrigerated container or air-conditioned vehicle to transport the suckers from the field to the laboratory.1. Select an area which is confirmed to have Foc TR4 (see Note 2).1. Deep plough and rip at 50-60 cm depth to reach soil compaction to level < 2 Kg/cm 2 (see Note 3). 2. Plant in a single line pattern at population of 2222 per hectare at 3-m distance between lines and at 1.5-m distance between plants, orientated East to West (see Note 4). 3. Prepare planting holes of the size 20-cm wide and 30-cm depth (see Note 5).seedlings produced, the layout planting design is obtained by dividing the seedlings from each treatment to cover at least four replicates in the field. 5. Give a permanent and unique identification code to each plant after planting. 6. Prepare a field map to indicate full details of plant identification and location. 7. Record the date and week of the year of planting. 1. Surveyed plants with disease will be further confirmed by the eradicator (see Note 6). 2. If confirmed positive of the disease, the plant will be injected with 50-100 ml of the eradication solution. 3. If sucker/s are present, injection will also be performed using ~50 ml eradication solution. 4. Gather and contain the debris of eradicated plants within the same planting spot.1. At 6 weeks from planting, dried or burnt leaves due to sigatoka or natural senescence are trimmed. 2. Leaf trimming is done once every 2 weeks. 3. After 12 weeks from planting, each plant is surveyed for presence and density of suckers. 4. Count and record the number of suckers in a plant. 5. Select one sucker nearest to the mother plant to serve as the second-generation plant. 6. Remove the other suckers (unwanted suckers) using a spade gouge. 7. Repeat removal of unwanted suckers once every month until the plant starts to flower. 8. At flowering stage, select the third-generation sucker, or until available. 9. The monthly schedule of sucker removal is followed for the succeeding generations. 2. When all the hands in a bunch are exposed, the bunch is cleaned by removing the dried flowers, bracts and the male flower. 3. Tag the bunch to indicate date of flowering and to track harvest dates. 4. Place plastic inserts in between fingers (if necessary) to avoid fruit bruises. 5. Cover the cleaned bunch with a bag (paper, fabric or polyethylene) if, and when available. 6. Protect the fruit-bearing plant by installing bamboo poles (and/or its equivalent) as propping materials. 7. Harvest the bunch 12 weeks from flowering (see Note 7). 1. For each bunch, divide the second and last hand specimens into two.2. The first half will be read for pulp moisture content at color green.3. The second half will be subjected to standard ripening procedure. 4. Fruit will be read for peel thickness, pulp moisture content, total soluble solids and/or brix at color yellow, 4 days after gassing.1. After harvest of the first generation, the remaining plants free from Foc TR4 symptoms and other diseases are inventoried (Table 7.1). 2. Follow above methods Sects. 3.3 to 3.8 for the succeeding generations until two to three harvest cycles are completed. 3. When population left in the area is 20% from the initial population, allow two or more suckers to grow from each plant. 4. Assess the number of individual plants that survived from each treatment and of the entire experimental lot. 5. Each of this survived plant from the gamma irradiated meriplants are considered putative mutant lines. 6. Archive data on plant growth, vigor and fruit quality of each putative mutant to decide if characteristics are qualified for further field evaluation (see Note 10).Field for Laboratory Multiplication and Second-Generation Field Screening1. Once the putative mutant plants are selected, the available suckers are tagged.2. Obtain tissue samples to test and verify for fungal or virus diseases (if any) via PCR in the laboratory (Company Standards). 3. Only suckers free from any disease will be dug and cleared from soil or dirt and sent to the laboratory. 4. Maintain a quarantine condition during transport of suckers by containing individually in a sack and enclosing with a fine net. 5. Transport suckers in a refrigerated van (if possible) or inside an air-conditioned vehicle. 6. Process the selected suckers immediately upon arrival in the laboratory. 7. Follow the standard tissue culture procedure to reach M 1 V 6 . 8. If untreated plants are not available in the experimental field, source the untreated plants of the same clone (Grand Nain) and include them in the batch of tissue culture intended for second generation field screening. 9. Produce at least 1000 plantlets from each line (see Note 11). 10. At M 1 V 6 stage, submit sample plantlets from each line to a reputable laboratory, side-by-side with the untreated control (original clone) to identify presence or absence of mutations. 11. In the screen house, nurture the plantlets into healthy seedlings for 8 weeks, following the standard commercial practices. 12. Plant the 8-week-old seedlings in two locations -(1) confirmed positive of Foc TR4 where 50% of the population succumbed to the disease; and (2) confirmed negative of Foc TR4 (see Note 12, Table 7.2). 13. Gather the same data and information collected in the first-generation planting. 14. Select at least 30 bunches from each line when the population reaches 25, 50 and 75% harvests for quality readings in the laboratory following Sect. 3.8 above. Figure 7.2 illustrates plants in a population of putative mutant lines under second generation field screening. Both plants are clones of Grand Nain but received different doses of gamma irradiation treatment and survived during the firstgeneration planting. 15. Summarize cases of diseases, plant growth and productivity data after completing at least 85% of the first harvest (see Note 13, Table 7.3 and Fig. 7.3). 16. Decide which line to further multiply for farmer distribution and commercialscale field planting after completion of at least three harvest cycles. 17. Apply for a patent any line deemed important. From the point of view of a banana grower, the measure of significance of an introduced variety covers both its tolerance to the disease of interest and the resulting agronomic character of the novel variety. Our project was launched in 2013 and is estimated to take five to 10 years to achieve successful results, with great possibility that mutant line/s will be produced (see Table 7.4). In order to meet this target, the screening process for disease tolerance need to be planned and implemented correctly. 1. Seedlings from Grand Nain shoot tips were used as planting materials. They were subjected to different doses of gamma radiation, while the untreated control seedlings were grown in the screen house, provided with proper irrigation and nutrition for 8 weeks. Healthy seedlings are advantageous for quick recovery from stress during transport from the screen house and during field planting. 2. The area must be confirmed positive of Foc TR4 to challenge the response of the plants under natural, field conditions. Farm records must show that more than 50% of the host plants in the previous cropping succumbed to the disease in 1 year or less from planting. 3. Proper land preparation is required according to soil compaction data. It is believed that the process facilitates mixture of fungal inocula in the soil. 4. Planting pattern follows the commercial practice and population per hectare of the clone. 5. No other soil amendments are required, while fertilization follows the recommended protocol for Cavendish (Robinson and Sauco, 2010). 6. Both the disease surveyor and the disease eradicator must be knowledgeable of any disease symptoms or abnormalities of bananas. The confirmation by the eradicator will avoid mis-eradication of the plant and wrong record entry.Whenever a new disease symptom is observed, both the surveyor and eradicator report to the scientist/s for further confirmation. 7. If a plant with a hanging bunch is positive of any disease (Foc TR4, Moko or any virus disease), it will be eradicated similar to schedule and procedures described in Sect. 3.4 above. 8. If the plant is tall, a sturdy ladder will be required during harvest. 9. The natural decomposition of the pseudostem of the mother plant will facilitate growth of the succeeding generation. 10. It is the prerogative of the scientist to decide what other features, aside from disease tolerance are necessary to proceed with multiplication of a putative mutant line. In general, productivity (weight of the bunch and age from planting to harvest), moisture content and brix are important parameters to consider. 11. A 'line' is defined in this article as the resulting tissue culture plants obtained from a putative mutant. 12. Planting of putative mutant lines in an area confirmed free of Foc TR4 will help understand and establish the productivity potential of a new line. 13. Plant growth and vigor in an area free of Foc TR4 can be illustrated by the flowering pattern vis-à-vis control (Fig. 7.3). These can also be supported by productivity data such as bunch weights, number of hands in a bunch and fingers in a hand. Under commercial scale, a plant population of a line, variety or clone with 10% Foc TR4 infection in the first cropping (from planting to completion of first harvest cycle) is a better alternative than the susceptible Grand Nain. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.New developments in the field of molecular biology enable fast and accurate identification of spontaneously occurring or induced changes of DNA sequence. This can allow a more precise use of induced mutations in crop improvement programmes. Mutagens produce various spectrum of changes. Chemical mutagens such as EMS predominantly induce point mutations, whereby physical mutagens such as gamma irradiation produce a broader spectrum of changes ranging from SNPs and small InDels to deletions greater than one million base pairs (Jankowicz-Cieslak and Till 2015; Till et al. 2018;Datta et al. 2018). While phenotypic consequences of large structural variants may be greater, datasets on the spectrum and density of such mutations are currently much smaller than that of EMS.Mutation breeding may be especially useful in species with a narrow genetic base or those that are recalcitrant to traditional breeding methods such as obligate and facultative vegetatively propagated species. Additionally, mutagens that cause dominant or dosage-based phenotypes can increase the efficiency of generating novel traits in polyploids as the expression of phenotypes arising from recessive mutations requires the combination mutations from homologous sequences (Krasileva et al. 2017). Gamma irradiation has been used widely as a mutagenizing agent for breeding programmes for many crops. In poplar, treatment of pollen with gamma irradiation resulted in InDels varying between small fragments to whole chromosomes (Henry et al. 2015). This work further showed that large genomic InDels could be effectively recovered using low coverage whole genome sequencing (LC-WGS), making mutation discovery more cost-effective and data analyses more streamlined. Larger deletions range in size and may include loss of part of a chromosome (segmental aneuploidy) or loss of an entire chromosome (aneuploidy). Aneuploidy is better tolerated in polyploid plants and may be lethal for diploid plants and animals (Siegel and Amon 2012). These lead to changes in copy number of single genes to whole chromosomes, which have profound effects on phenotypes of the organism. Copy number variations especially affect haploinsufficient genes for which a single functional copy of a gene is not sufficient for normal function. Single copy mutations can potentially knock out the function of genes where only one functional copy is being maintained.Inducing mutations in triploid banana provides an approach for generating novel variation that is heritable. The logistics of banana mutation breeding including tissue culture propagation, chimerism, polyploidy, heterozygosity, and field space required to find rare favourable mutations makes banana less tractable than seed propagated crops. However, these limitations can be overcome by tissue culture mutagenesis and genomic screening at earlier stages. Previously, we established a system for inducing and maintaining SNP mutations in clonally propagated banana plants. Treating shoot apical meristems of tissue cultured bananas with the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS) introduced a high density of GC-AT transitions mutations (Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. 2012). We further showed that mosaicism (chimerism) caused by accumulation of chemically induced mutations in different cells of the plant propagule could be rapidly removed via isolation of shoot apical meristems and subsequent longitudinal bisection. Further, induced mutations were maintained in mutant plants for more than six generations.We sought to establish a similar system for inducing and maintaining insertions and deletions using physical irradiation. We aimed to develop an efficient pipeline for the generation and recovery of large copy number variations (CNVs) in gamma irradiated Cavendish banana cultivars, employing tissue culture, low coverage whole genome sequencing (LC-WGS) and chromosome dosage analysis (Fig. 8.1). We chose a chromosomal dosage analysis that was previously successful in detecting aneuploidy, insertions and deletions in Arabidopsis, rice and poplar (Tan et al. 2015(Tan et al. , 2016)). To establish a pipeline for banana, we first adapted sequencing and dosage analysis for the previously released mutant banana variety Novaria. Large genomic deletions of up to 3.8 Mbps were recovered. We next developed a newly mutagenized banana population and tested two different irradiation dosages to establish that new genetic variation can be induced and maintained in vitro (Datta et al. 2018). This work suggests that a large-scale mutagenesis pipeline can be Fig. 8.1 A pipeline for the generation and recovery of large copy number variations (CNVs) in gamma irradiated Cavendish banana cultivars, employing tissue culture, low coverage whole genome sequencing (LC-WGS) and chromosome dosage analysis. An in vitro mutant population was generated, and a subset was evaluated using the method described in this chapter. This ensures that mutagenesis was successful and mitotically heritable DNA lesions were produced during gamma irradiation and subsequent propagation. Genome sequencing can also be applied to plants showing improved resistance to disease such as Foc TR4 in order to identify mutations causative for the observed phenotype(s). (This figure is modified from Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. 2021) created for routine production of mutant populations suitable for glasshouse and field evaluations. The efficacy of this approach is being further tested for Foc TR4 resistance (Fig. 8.1). We provide here the methodology for low-coverage DNA sequencing and data analysis to identify large indels in mutant populations of triploid (AAA) banana. 1. Graph the data. The sample/control columns of the bin-by-sam output can be plotted as an Overlay Plot using a standard spreadsheet software such as Select \"Line Points Only\" to produce a coverage graph (Fig. 8.3). 2. View data with IGV (optional). This tool provides a graphical view of mapped reads and can be a useful visual check of your mapping data. IGV can be used as a web app, which is preferred if the analysis computer has less than 16 Gb RAM.The genome file (.fna) from Sect.    sequencing-by-synthesis equipment. The per-sample library cost does not vary much at the time of writing this protocol, but cost savings can be achieved if library preparation will be routine and at a high scale as some suppliers sell library components individually. If using TruSeq, the kit comes with paramagnetic beads and all other components except for the adapter sequences (this may vary depending on the type of kit purchased). It is also common for sequencing service providers to provide library preparation services. Outsourcing the library preparation may be wise if you are new to the methods as the higher cost per library from a service provider will be balanced by the cost of new equipment and the time needed to gain expertise in your own laboratory. 6. All steps can be performed on a 64-bit computer with a minimum of 8Gb RAM.Mapping with BWA is computationally intense and can be very slow on computers with limited RAM. If necessary, mapping can be done on the cloud using a free option such as galaxy (https://usegalaxy.org/).  2017) for a detailed description on the use of lambda DNA standards and image analysis for DNA quantification. 12. Use the Qubit concentration data to choose a volume and concentration of genomic DNA to produce a band with a pixel density within the range of the DNA standards used. 13. The DNA sample (genomic DNA band) should be completely out of the well and into the gel at least 2 cm. Do not run the gel too long as the genomic DNA band will become diffuse and hard to quantify. You may be able to accurately quantify degraded samples by altering electrophoresis conditions. 14. The required size range of DNA fragments and concentration of fragmented input DNA will vary depending on the library preparation method, sequencing chemistry and read length used. The original method to identify gamma-induced indels in banana was optimized for 2Â300PE (paired-end) Illumina MiSeq sequencing with library preparation using a low-input Illumina \"nano\" kit. These kits enabled a low input of 200 ng by utilizing post-ligation PCR amplification to produce sufficient library for sequencing using Illumina sequencing-by-synthesis. A variety of kits available from different companies are suitable for discovery of gamma induced indels using this protocol. The 2Â300PE sequencing chemistry supports 550 bp fragments. Note that newer sequencing platforms (e.g. NextSeq and NovaSeq) can produce higher throughputs at lower cost using shorter read lengths. If outsourcing sequencing, the lowest cost option (in terms of raw Gb per dollar) will be suitable and fragment size and library preparation parameters can be adjusted for this. For the purposes of this protocol, parameters for low input libraries with 2Â300PE sequencing are described. Different methods are available for DNA fragmentation. It is best to optimize fragment size utilizing a high sensitivity DNA system (e.g. Fragment Analyzer), however fragment sizes can be estimated using gel electrophoresis. Illumina 2Â300PE sequencing-by-synthesis were used to prepare this protocol. However, higher throughput, shorter read sequencing provides a lower-cost alternative if sequencing is being outsourced. 15. Sequencing libraries are normalized using molarities so that the number of DNA molecules, independent of size or weight, can be adjusted for the sequencing run. 16. Libraries are typically pooled prior to sequencing because a sequencing run (e.g. flow cell lane) produces much more data (in base pairs) than is needed for a single sample. Pool samples at an equal concentration such that enough coverage is produced for each. For example, for a 660 Mb genome, if 10 coverage is desired, 6.6 Gb of sequence is needed per sample. If a sequencing run will produce 100 Gb of raw data, then 15 (100/6.6) samples can be pooled provided that quantification and pooling are accurate so that each of the 15 samples are equally represented in the sequencing reaction. 17. If using an Illumina MiSeq, follow manufacturer's protocols for on-board cluster generation and sequencing. If sequencing is being outsourced, the sequencing service will provide library QC, concentration determination, any necessary dilution, cluster generation and sequencing according to the equipment used. 18. Sequence reads are provided as compressed fastq format files that contain both reads that passed quality filters and those that did not. 19. Demultiplexing and trimming is often carried out by the sequencing provider.Check with your provider to determine what is included and how your data has been processed. 20. Data analysis involves (1) processing the raw data (fastq files), (2) mapping the raw (fastq) sequencing data to a reference genome, (3) calculating the average read depth over a set interval, or bin and (4) displaying the read depth bins to identify regions that deviate from expected values. Different tools have been described for these steps (e.g. BWA, Bowtie) and algorithms are under constant improvement. Users are encouraged to evaluate these scripts and modify algorithms as desired. 21. The output file contains one row per selected bin size with one column showing the number of reads in each bin and another column with the calculated dosage relative to the control sample. It is advised to try different bin sizes as results will vary depending on quality of sequence and depth of coverage. A bin size of 100 kb was previously used to detect gamma induced indels in banana. Ploidy (p) should be set to 3 if analysing triploid banana. When evaluating data of triploids, a relative coverage value less than 3 indicates a deletion of one or more copies of a chromosomal region while values greater than three indicate potential insertional events. Different thresholds can be applied to filter potential false positive signals. In previous work, a threshold of three consecutive bins showing the same trend (below or above 3) was applied. This filter can be applied to the table of data independent of the visualization methods. Such variants were experimentally validated.The opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, its Board of Directors, or the countries they represent Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.A Protocol for Detection of Large Chromosome Variations in Banana Using Next Generation Sequencing Catherine Breton, Alberto Cenci, Julie Sardos, Rachel Chase, Max Ruas, Mathieu Rouard, and Nicolas Roux Abstract Core activities of genebank operations include the preservation of germplasm identity and maintenance of genetic integrity. Some organisms such as banana are maintained by tissue culture that can foster accumulation of somatic mutations and loss of genetic integrity. Such changes can be reflected in their genome structure and thus be revealed by sequencing methods. Here, we propose a protocol for the detection of large chromosomal gains and/or losses that was applied to in vitro banana accessions with different levels of ploidy. Mixoploidy was detected in triploid (3x) accessions with chromosomal regions being diploid (2x) and tetraploid (4x) and in diploid accessions (2x) where large deletions resulted in partial haploidy (1x). Such abnormal molecular karyotypes can potentially explain phenotypic aberrations observed in off type material. With the affordable cost of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies and the release of the presented bioinformatic pipeline, we aim to promote the application of this methodology as a routine operation for genebank management as an important step to monitor the genetic integrity of distributed material. Moreover, genebank users can be also empowered to apply the methodology and check the molecular karyotype of the ordered material. Alliance Bioversity International-CIAT, Parc Scientifique Agropolis II, Montpellier, France e-mail: c.breton@cgiar.org; n.roux@cgiar.org meristems and embryos. Banana (Musa spp.) is a clonal crop that can be conserved and multiplied in vitro. Somaclonal variations have been observed in banana after prolonged periods of in vitro culture and after intensive multiplication phases, both resulting in increased rates of subculturing for a given clone. Although somaclonal variation can result in advantageous mutations that can be useful for the genetic improvement of banana, it is undesirable in the context of micropropagation and plant conservation. This type of variation indeed is a problem for genebank managers, whose objectives are to maintain the genetic integrity of their collections for subsequent research and breeding purposes, thus preserving genetic resources for future generations.The International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by the Alliance of Bioversity-CIAT and hosted at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium, is the world's largest collection of banana germplasm with more than 1600 accessions of cultivated and wild species of banana (Ruas et al. 2017;de Langhe et al. 2018). It ensures the long-term conservation of a wide banana genepool and supports germplasm distribution all over the world. Due to the vegetative mode of propagation, banana accessions are kept in vitro under slow-growth conditions and regenerated through tissue culture. Although stress during the in vitro process is minimized by optimized multiplication and growing conditions, somaclonal variations have been observed. To avoid the conservation, and distribution, of material that holds such variations, and therefore ensure the maintenance of the genetic integrity of the germplasm, the ITC has developed the Field Verification exercise. This exercise aims at monitoring the genetic integrity of its banana accessions and combines evidence from morphological and molecular characterization to determine genetic integrity. To do so, plantlets that were maintained in vitro for more than 10 years are sent to the Musa Genotyping Centre (MGC) and to a partner field collection, USDA-ARS. In the lab, leaves are analyzed by flow cytometry and SSR markers, while in the field, plants are grown, characterized and photo documented. Once all results are obtained after a year or two, a panel of taxonomists check the morphological and molecular data and compare them to known reference information for each accession. Given that plants that have undergone somaclonal variations are expected to change in morphology, from changes in color to obvious growth issues, the panel of experts then assesses whether the accession is True-To-Type (TTT) or Off-Type (OT) (Chase et al. 2014). A major limitation of this process is the amount of time that is necessary to grow the plants and document them. It is also cumbersome to request the availability and expertise of key experts on a voluntary basis.To fasten the process, the development of early screening methods is therefore of great interest for the community. To overcome the plant phenotyping bottleneck, investigation of modifications at the genome level has been targeted (Sahijram et al. 2003;Oh et al. 2007). The molecular basis of somaclonal variation is not precisely known, but both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms have been proposed (Kaeppler et al. 2000). Somaclonal variants in plants can be the result of various types of mutations such point mutations, gene duplication, transposable elements activation or large chromosomal rearrangements (in number and structure) (Bairu et al. 2011).Current advances in Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies and associated Genotyping-by-Sequencing methods allow the generation of high-throughput genetic markers for a large number of samples in a fast and cost-effective way. These datasets can therefore be used to study many events, including large chromosomal variations as recently reported in wheat and barley (Keilwagen et al. 2019). Such chromosome changes (e.g. aneuploidy) have also recently been reported in bananas (Cenci et al. 2019(Cenci et al. , 2021;;Baurens et al. 2019Baurens et al. , 2020)). Although not all these variations may be the cause of off-type phenotypes, likely due to polyploidy that can mitigate them, it remains a change in DNA integrity of the plant that should be flagged, as well as a good reason for accession regeneration from backup or reintroduction with new material. These large chromosomal variations will be the focus of this chapter.The protocol described here provides an early detection method for large chromosomal indels applied to material which can be obtained at ITC. This method could be used as a routine operation to check the genetic integrity of germplasm conserved in vitro in genebanks, and also in tissue culture laboratories. It can also be used with other methods for the quick testing of variations in mutants.Passport data of accessions held at the ITC are published on the Musa Germplasm Information System (MGIS; www.crop-diversity.org). Available material from the ITC collection can be ordered at no cost for research, education and breeding purposes using a straightforward workflow (Fig. 9.1).The MGIS website offers several options to search for germplasm that presents specific criteria such as taxonomy, country of origin, and it is also possible to identify accessions that have been evaluated for pest and diseases resistance, biotic or abiotic stresses and genome composition. To do so:1. Go to https://www.crop-diversity.org/mgis/accession-search. 2. First refine your search by selecting \"Yes\" with the exchange availability filter. 3. Use the other filters to refine your search based on other criteria. 4. Click on \"Add to my list icon\". MGIS permits users to create a list of accessions that, once registered and if the material is available for distribution, can be ordered online.5. Go to \"My list\" on the top right menu and double check the list selected accession (s). 6. Click on the \"order Germplasm material\" button.  Here we recommend selecting lyophilized leaf tissue which is the fastest way to receive it if your interest is DNA extraction for GBS or RADseq. Fresh leaves, that can be obtained by growing rooted plantlets, are recommended for whole genome sequencing.11. Select the level of payment (article 6.7 or 6.11).Although the material is distributed free of charge, several options exist to Enhance Benefit-Sharing if done for commercial purposes.12. Indicate the purpose of the use. 13. Select your affiliation, professional and shipping address.14. Indicate whether an import permit is needed. 15. Submit.To detect changes in chromosome ploidy, SNP ratio changes need to be monitored along the chromosomes. It is therefore necessary to choose a technology that will generate high-throughput SNP-based markers for genome-wide marker discovery.  9.1) and are all appropriate to detect aneuploidy events. The choice of the technology can be influenced by existing datasets, in-house facilities or affordable solutions offered by service providers. Therefore, we don't provide a protocol for data generation but list the main points related to the main methods previously tested for such analyses.The workflow described in Figs. 9.   Sequence of an adapter that was ligated to the 5 0 or 3 0 end. The adapter itself is trimmed and anything that follows too if located at 3 0 end.  Website: http://samtools.sourceforge.net/ The tool generates a reordered (*_reorder.bam) and bai (*_reorder.bai) files for each accession.• Split 'N CIGAR' reads with SplitNCigarReads from GATK Description: Splits reads that contain Ns in their cigar string (e.g. spanning splicing events in RNAseq data). Identifies all N cigar elements and creates k+1 new reads (where k is the number of N cigar elements). The first read includes the bases that are to the left of the first N element, while the part of the read that is to the right of the N (including the Ns) is hard clipped and so on for the rest of the new reads. Used for post-processing RNA reads aligned against the full reference. Website: https://gatk.broadinstitute.org/hc/en-us/articles/360036727811-SplitNCigarReadsThe tool generates a split and trimmed (on splicing sites) bam (*_trim.bam) and bai (*_trim.bai) files for each accession.• Realign indels with IndelRealigners from GATK (2 steps) Description: The mapper BWA has some difficulties to manage the alignment close to the Indel. The step is not necessary with HaplotypeCaller but is necessary with UnifiedGenotyper. The tool generates a bam (*_realigned.bam) and bai (*_realigned.bai) files realigned around indel for each accession. This step is done with the GATK version 3.8. Website: https://github.com/broadinstitute/gatk-docs/blob/master/gatk3-tutorials/ (howto)_Perform_local_realignment_around_indels.mdThe tool generates a bam (*_realigned.bam) and bai (*_realigned.bai) files realigned around indel for each accession.• Create a VCF file with HaplotypeCaller from GATK Description: The HaplotypeCaller is able to call SNPs and indels simultaneously via local de-novo assembly of haplotypes in an active region. Whenever the program encounters a region showing variation, it discards the existing mapping information and completely reassembles the reads in that region. This allows the HaplotypeCaller to be more accurate when calling regions that are traditionally difficult to call.Parameters:--genotyping_mode DISCOVERY.--variant_index_type LINEAR.--variant_index_parameter 128,000.https://gatk.broadinstitute.org/hc/en-us/articles/360036712151-HaplotypeCaller Note: All these steps can be performed separately or with workflows reported in the literature (e.g. Toggle (Monat et al. 2015;Tranchant-Dubreuil et al. 2018)) or using the scripts we made available on GitHub at https://github.com/CathyBreton/ Genomic_Evolution, which follow all the steps. The tools are developed in Perl, bash, Python3, Java and work on the Linux system and require: -r (string): reference FASTA filename.-x (string): file extension (fq.gz).-cu (string): cultivar.Step 2: Molecular Karyotyping and Ploidy Change DetectionBased on known sequence variability, SNP variants can be assigned to the ancestral genomes in order to plot the genome allele coverage ratio and to calculate the normalized site coverage along chromosomes as described in (Baurens et al. 2019). This method can detect chromosome changes such as homoeologous exchanges (Cenci et al. 2021) but also is powerful enough to detect ploidy variation along the chromosomes as illustrated in Fig. 9.3. The method has been developed within the VCFHunter software (Baurens et al. 2019) and can be used with the following procedure (Fig. 9.4).Script name: CombineVcf.pl.The script merges and prepares the final VCF file, this step combines multiple VCF and performs pre-filtering using GATK. The samples to analyze are combined to the reference samples to allow allele assignation. Reference samples are representative genotypes that are relevant to the identification of your samples (i.e. acuminata or balbisiana without admixture). Whenever necessary, such SNP datasets can be downloaded on MGIS (https://www.crop-diversity.org/mgis/gigwa with RADseq_ABB_AB datasets) via GIGWA (Cenci et al. 2021;Sempéré et al. 2019).USAGE: perl CombineVcf.pl -r reference_fasta -p output_prefix -x extension_file_to_treat.  Parameters:--chr (string): generate a VCF from a given chromosome.--recode: generate a new VCF file.--out (string): output file name.Description: The program allows to perform a chromosome painting for all chromosomes of a given accession. Script name: vcf2allPropAndCov.py. USAGE: python3 vcf2allPropAndCov.py --conf <chromosomes.conf> --origin <origin.conf> --acc <sample_name> --ploidy 2 Parameters:--acc: name of the sample to be analyzed (as in the VCF file).--conf chromosomes.conf: list of VCF files for the chromosomes to be processed.--origin origin.conf: name of the sample to be used for allele attribution.--ploidy: expected ploidy of the sample (e.g. 2, 3 or 4).The tool generates the 4 following files:Website: https://github.com/SouthGreenPlatform/VcfHunter/blob/master/tutorial_ ChromosomePainting.md Use Cases: Application to Accessions at ITC This section describes several examples of samples across the banana taxonomy that were processed by our method and allowed the detection of large chromosome variations.Chromosomal changes in allotriploids (AAB, ABB).Comprehensive characterization of the ABB samples has been conducted on ITC materials, revealing the genome structure or molecular karyotypes of most of the existing taxonomic subgroups (Cenci et al. 2021). Using VCFHunter on RADseq data, we were able to uncover patterns of chromosome segment recombinations between A and B genomes for most of the accessions. Among them, one displayed a clear case of chromosome number change as illustrated on Fig. 9.5. For this genotype belonging to the Bluggoe subgroup, no SNP variant was assigned to the A subgenome (in green) along the whole chromosome 8. Most of the B variants (in red) were located at the top of the diagram (value ¼ 1) with an unimodal distribution for residual B genome heterozygosity around 0.5 (instead of 0.33/0.67 expected in the presence of three B chromosome 8). Moreover, the diagram on the right shows a lower SNP density coverage in comparison to all the other chromosomes, showing that chromosome 8 was diploid (2x) for this accession. This pattern observed here is due to the loss of the A genome version of chromosome 8. For comparison, chromosome 4 exhibits two regions with irregular patterns compared to expectation for an ABB. One is located on the first arm of the chromosome and the second one is placed on the distal part of the second arm. However, in both regions, allelic frequencies for heterozygous sites are consistent with triploidy (0.33/0.67) and no distortion of the coverage density is observed.Two additional examples of aneuploidy detection in ABB are illustrated in Fig. 9.6. In the accession 'Simili Radjah' (ITC0123, ABB), the loss of the second arm in one of the B chromosomes of chromosome 5 can be inferred by the SNP frequency at 0.5 for both A and B assigned SNP and by the lower SNP density coverage compared to the first arm (Fig. 9.6a). In the accession 'INIVIT PF-2003' (ITC1600, ABB), in the second arm of chromosome 10, an interstitial region appears to have SNP frequency at 0.5. Since the SNP density coverage in this region is higher than in the remaining chromosome having 1A and 2B chromosomes, the duplication of the interstitial region in chromosome A was deducted, being the SNP ratio in this region 2A:2B.Finally, other examples were also detected in AAB Plantain cultivars (Fig. 9.7). We observed in 'Nzumoigne' (ITC0718), a SNP frequency of A and B alleles at 0.5 on chromosome 2 that was combined to lower SNP density coverage (compared to other chromosomes as exemplified with chromosome 3) (Fig. 9.7a). In 'Ihitisim' (ITC0121), multiple events were detected including a chromosome gain on chromosome 3 with SNP ratio of ~0.25 and ~0.75, supported by a higher SNP coverage and a partial loss at the beginning of the chromosome 4 (Fig. 9.7b). The survey of more than 200 AA accessions with the same procedure revealed molecular karyotypes corresponding to chromosome arms with large interstitial or terminal deletions for a few individuals (Fig. 9.8). RADseq or DArtSeq (Doyle et al. 1990). 2. We recommend using the PSTI restriction enzyme for GBS, RADseq or DArTseq (Chan et al. 2014). 3. From our experience, GBS will generate fewer markers than RADseq but higher read coverage (Hueber et al. 2015). 4. A minimum read coverage of 10x by haplotype would be required to support SNP detection statistically (e.g. 30x for triploids). 5. SNP calling by individual and then merge is more efficient for SNP calling.However, SNP calling can be performed in different way and used directly withStep 2 on molecular karyotyping (https://github.com/CathyBreton/Genomic_ Evolution). 6. The pipeline provides graphical output for interpretation of insertion deletions by chromosome. A workflow is developed in github (https://github.com/ CathyBreton/Genomic_Evolution). 7. The method can detect aneuploidy. In case of partial gain on a chromosome, as this is based on allelic ratio mapped of the reference genome, the type of event such as insertion or duplication cannot be distinguished. Inversion and translocation are not identified. (Cenci et al. 2019) 8. Large chromosome variations provide information on the loss of genetic integrity. However, those events in banana seems to not be systematically synonyms of somaclonal variations leading to change in observed phenotype. Further research is needed to clarify the importance of the events linked to the loss of True-To-Typeness status.  Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.Earliest studies on the effect of radiation on plant development dates back to 1928 by Lewis Stadler (Stadler 1928; FAO/IAEA 2011) with groundwork on induced mutation breeding of banana starting in the early 1970's by De Guzman, Ubalde and Del Rosario (De Guzman et al. 1976). Since then, significant advancement has been achieved in mutation breeding of banana through use of physical mutagens (X-or gamma rays) or chemical mutagens (ethyl methanesulphonate, EMS) (FAO/IAEA 1995). Successful applications of mutation in genetic improvement of banana include the development of an early flowering mutant of banana cv. Grande Naine, named 'Novaria' by F. J. Novak (Mak et al. 1996) and an improved local variety named \"Al Beely\" banana (FAO/IAEA 2011). Furthermore, Jain et al. (2011) reported on ten banana mutants/variants that were identified as promising with improved traits such as earliness, improved bunch and fruit size, reduced plant height or tolerance to Fusarium wilt.Countries facing important banana pest and disease pressures can have access to improved genotypes such as FHIA hybrids developed by the Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research, however, many countries still opt to improve their popular locally adapted variety. Mauritius is one such country which embarked on mutation breeding of its popular banana varieties through the joint support of the FAO and IAEA. A first project aimed at inducing tolerance/resistance to Panama disease in a highly prized local dessert type banana, namely 'Gingeli' banana (AAB genome) from year 2004 to 2015 using gamma rays on in vitro cultures. In the absence of hotspots, the generated mutant lines were screened at greenhouse level and the surviving lines were multiplied for field testing. Till date, no promising line has been identified. In another FAO/IAEA funded project, mutagenic treatments were performed on three other popular varieties, the 'Mamoul' (ABB), 'Ollier' (AAA) and D. Cavendish banana (AAA) with aim to induce tolerance to Fusarium wilt race 1 (in 'Mamoul') and race 4 in the others.In vitro mutation breeding is a powerful tool for induction of desired traits. However, the restricted access to irradiation and in vitro facilities remains among the main withdrawal factors for these countries to embark on banana breeding using plant biotechnology techniques. The Plant and Breeding Genetics laboratory of the FAO/IAEA in Seibersdorf, Austria is one such laboratory that supports developing countries by irradiating plant materials, free-of-charge. Similarly, Mauritius can also extend physical mutagenic treatments to neighboring countries.In vitro culture methods are used in banana mutation breeding whereby emerging buds from the mutagenized cultures are isolated and brought back into culture, through a series of up to four subcultures (generations) (M 1 V 0 to M 1 V 4 ) which then allows the mutation to be fixed in the genome (in vitro mutagenesis) (Roux 2004). The in vitro tissue culture (TC) is often associated with high production costs as it relies on aseptic conditions, high quality chemicals, high-energy and expensive glassware which restrict its broad application in plant breeding. To make TC affordable without compromising the quality of the plants, several low-cost alternative components of tissue culture have been considered and adopted ( A minimum, recommended number of shoot tips (500-1000) can be irradiated and if managed in batches, the number of plants generated by the M 1 V 4 population can be easily handled using the low-cost approach. The sections below highlight the low-budget approach of in vitro banana mutation breeding.A typical TC laboratory consists of rooms dedicated to each aspect of in vitro culture: A first room (usually the first entry point) is for the reception and handling of mother plants received from the field. The other rooms include the media preparation room, the transfer room with laminar flow cabinets which serve as an aseptic area for handling of in vitro cultures and a growth room with controlled temperature and light for growth of cultures. In a low-cost situation, a simple large room or two-rooms can be partitioned to accommodate the above areas while respecting the flow of each section and ensuring that the aseptic area is against the flow of air.Banana cultures are mainly established in Murashige and Skoog (MS media) or modified MS media supplemented with auxin and cytokinin. The media can be prepared by using powdered form of ready-made MS media or by mixing aliquots of four stock solutions of macronutrients, micronutrients, iron and vitamins (see Annex 10.1). The latter is more accessible and relatively cheaper for developing countries. High quality analytical grade chemicals are expensive and not a requisite for routine TC. On the other hand, commercial grade chemicals of lower purity can be easily procured from school suppliers that provide such chemicals as teaching materials and their use can lead to up to 70% savings (Dussoruth et al. unpublished). In a study, Gitonga et al. (2010) reduced the cost of producing tissue culture banana seedlings by 93.9% by using alternative nutrient sources. Similarly, Ogero et al. (2012) successfully realized cost reduction of over 80-95% by substituting conventional MS compounds by locally available fertilizers (for macro/micronutrients), over-the-counter vitamins (for vitamins) and seaweeds or agricultural plant hormones (for plant growth regulators, PGR's). However, Dussoruth et al. (unpublished) found that the quality of agricultural fertilizers had significant effect on in vitro plants. Aliquots of field fertilizers used to make the MS media did not dissolve well, leaving behind deposits of impurities that reduced the effective percentage of each element in the media. Moreover, the explants inoculated in these media died due to phytotoxicity. On the other hand, MS media made up with hydroponic salts did not cause phytotoxicity but significantly reduced the multiplication rate of banana plants. Thus, all substitutions that aim in cost reduction need to be fine-tuned as these can affect the quantity and quality of the plants.Gelling agents and high-grade sucrose constitute the most expensive components of the culture media (Sahu and Sahu 2013). The gelling agents account for over 70% of media costs while the media chemicals contribute to 5-15% of production costs (Prakash 1993). Dussoruth et al. (unpublished) also noted that when both highquality chemicals and analytical grade sucrose are used for MS media, sucrose becomes the largest components of MS media (63-78%) and this is reduced to about 3-8% when replaced by household sugarcane-based sugar (see Table 10.1). On the other hand, when commercial grade chemicals and household sugar are used, the gelling agents account to approximately 70-80% of media cost (Dussoruth et al. unpublished). As the media chemicals (nutrients and PGR's) contribute to only about 10-20% of overall cost of 1 L media (see Table 10.1), a significant cost reduction in media is possible mainly by substituting the expensive high-quality gelling agents and analytical sucrose by cheaper commercial substitutes. It is now standard practice by many laboratories to use commercial sugar in media preparation.Banana cultures can be generated in solid, semi-solid or liquid media. The liquid media allows a more rapid proliferation (Ahloowalia and Prakash 2004) but relies on expensive orbital shaker at around 60-80 rpm for media aeration to prevent asphyxia of the explants. The orbital shaker can, however, be replaced by a locally mounted shaker. In the absence of a shaker, the cultures can be multiplied in stationary liquid media by using supports as interface (matrix), which serve as an intermediate layer between the liquid and explants. Cheaper matrices such as marbles (beads), paper shreds, glass wool, filter paper bridges, cotton fibers among others were used by several researchers as reported by Prakash et al.  10.1) for micropropagation of banana and African violet (an ornamental, Saintpaulia ionantha). Tissue-paper and cotton wool were as effective as phytagel or agar and agitated liquid, but the disadvantage was that explants, including the roots, were strongly attached to the matrix. The size of the marbles are important because large spaces among the beads can lead to drowning of explants.As shakers/agitators add to production costs, many laboratories opt for semi-solid or solid media by using gelling agents which contribute to the viscosity of the medium. The solidified media acts as an interface allowing the explants to be seated in the media while uptaking necessary nutrients for growth and development.Conventional gelling agents are agar, agarose, and gellan gum (marketed under trade names such as phytagel or gelrite) (Prakash et al. 2004). The gellan gums produce transparent media, allow easy detection of contamination and are of higher quality than agar, however they are often expensive. In Mauritius, the gelrite and phytagel cost around 1200-1600 €/kg and 500-700 €/kg respectively while agar costs 90-400 €/kg, depending on the purity. To reduce the cost of media, cheaper sources of phytagel can be mixed with agar. Agar is the most widely used gelling agent, since it is usually unnecessary for high purity agar in large-scale micropropagation ( ), rice flour, cornstarch and arrowroot as alternative gelling agents, of which rice and tapioca were least suitable. Arrowroot gel led to improved plant development compared to agar. However, the 100% cornstarch-based or arrowroot-based media is firm and the opaque white to grayish-white color make difficult to detect any contamination (see Fig. 10.2). Addition of agar (1:1 ratio) softened the media while allowing explant growth and development. To allow detection of contamination during the initial stages, it is advisable to avoid the opaque media and use mainly agar as gelling agent. An agar or phytagel-based medium can be cooked in a microwave to produce a homogeneous medium prior to dispensing in culture jars, while the household gelling agents need to be carefully cooked in a pan on a stove with continuous stirring, to avoid lumps. The protocol in 'Methodology' section describes the banana micropropagation on modified MS media solidified with agar-cornflour (1:1) and agar-arrowroot (1:1). Growth of cultures was comparable to those grown in agar-based media (see Fig. 10.2). Cost of cornstarch and arrowroot was around 4 €/kg which is only 0.1% of the cost of agar. As 80-100 g of the cornstarch and arrowroot is used per litre of MS media compared to 2.5 g/l phytagel and 8.0 g/l agar, this represented a respective 60% and 80% savings over agar and phytagel.Water is another main component which is used to make stock solutions and the culture media. Conventionally, distilled, doubled distilled or de-ionized water is used (Ahloowalia and Prakash 2004). These are expensive and can further significantly increase the cost of production if they are operated using electricity. As reported by Ahloowalia and Prakash (2004), several researchers used cheaper options such as operating distillatory with gas or altogether replacing distilled/ deionized water with cheaper alternatives like tap, rain or bottled water. Experiments using distilled/deionized, tap, bottled and household-filtered water showed that cultures were successfully produced using filtered water (see Fig. 10.3). Filtered water was then adopted as the most economic source for preparation of both media and stock solutions used in this project. The unit cost of a home-scale filtration unit ranged from € 50 to € 125, depending on brand and quality compared to about € 5000 for a deionizer/distillatory unit leading to a cost reduction of over 95%.Big commercial laboratories use high quality glassware that tend to be costly and fragile. Similarly, chemicals or stock solutions which are accurately measured during media preparation using expensive equipment can be approximate to the nearest amount. Over 90% cost savings can be made by using easily available, hardy and cheap wares such as syringes (for dispensing on aliquots of 1 ml to 50 ml) or plastic cylinders for larger volumes. These can easily be procured over the counter from school supply shops or medical stores. Access to culture vessels, namely 'Magenta' commonly used for TC may not be easily found in developing countries, alternatively recycled jam jars can be used. Cheap polypropylene (PP) lids can be used to replace the metal caps with added advantage that they do not rust and allow light to reach the cultures. Additionally, cling film or sterile PP plastic films can also be placed around the mouth of the jar and held tight using rubber bands (see Fig. 10.4). This method is not recommended, as wrapping the cover/film around the mouth of the jar takes more time than closing with a lid. It however, remains an option for those not having access to required lids. The Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences (GAAS) uses a special PP pouch (see Fig. 10.4) for growing cultures both under natural and artificial LED lights.While most activities can be easily handled using cheaper alternatives, some steps such as pH testing, require a closer monitoring. Some laboratories used pH indicator paper as low-cost option, however this method is not very accurate (Ahloowalia and Prakash 2004) because slight changes in pH are not easily detected through the indicator paper. Alternatively, portable hand-held cheaper pH meters can be used and they cost about 10% of analytical high accuracy pH meters. The expensive magnetic stirrers (€ 300 to € 900) can equally be substituted by simple ones at less than € 50.An aseptic condition is a major requisite in any TC activity. Wares and media are best sterilized using autoclave, which can be costly. Commercial laboratories working with large volumes can afford autoclaves but this can be an expensive option for laboratories with small turn-over rates. Stericlave (portable medical pressure steam Fig. 10.3 Effect of five water sources (from left to the right tap, bottled, household-scale filtered, deionized and double-distilled) used in media preparation. Performance of banana cultures in media made using filtered water was comparable to those from deionized water sterilizer) of above 40 l, which cost about 30% of a conventional autoclave is an affordable option (see Fig. 10.5a). Similarly a pressure cooker (20-25 l volume) which cost about 6-10% of an average autoclave can also be used (see Fig. 10.5b). Effective steam sterilization can be achieved through automatic setting of autoclaves at a pressure of 15 psi (1.05 kg/sq.cm) along with a temperature of 121 C for at least 30 min. On the other hand, the pressure cooker needs closer monitoring as overcooking can lead to caramelization of the medium (see 'Methods' section). Another point to consider is that a filled pressure cooker can be very heavy to lift and thus the height of the table, where the stove will be placed to heat the cooker, may need to be adjusted for easy handling. A pressure cooker is an easily available option for small laboratories where for example in a 20 l capacity pressure cooker, only about thirty 200-250 ml capacity culture (jam) jars can be stacked. As each jam jar is filled with about 30 ml medium, a total of only 1 l media can be sterilized at a time in a 20 l capacity cooker.In vitro culture manipulation is done inside a laminar hood in a transfer room under aseptic conditions. Instead of using high purity ethanol, commercial ethanol can be equally used to clean working surface and a flame to sterilize the scalpels and forceps. In the absence of glass beads sterilizer, the sterilization can easily be done by dipping the working ends of the tools in alcohol and then immediately flaming them over an alcohol lamp or gas burner. A laminar flow cabinet allows handling of cultures in a sterile environment and the cheapest ones varies around 5000-6000 €. If the laboratory intends to undertake TC works for many years, then it is advisable to invest in a laminar hood. Otherwise, if the hood is needed only to allow generation advancement of the mutated population, a glass hood can be designed such that the opening is wide enough only to allow easy manual handling of the cultures. The glass hood can be cuboidal about 1 m wide, 40 cm deep and 60 cm high with an opening on one side (of about 30-40 cm from base) (see Fig. 10.5c). The hood should be placed against flow of air and surface sterilized regularly.After placing the explant in the media, the jar is immediately closed with the cover to prevent microbial contamination. A layer of parafilm is often additionally wrapped around the base of the cover to ensure that the entry point for any microbes is blocked. The parafilm, however, is relatively expensive and can be easily substituted by equally effective food wrap (cling films), which thus allows a 90% savings over parafilm.The cultures are conventionally placed on shelves illuminated with cool light fluorescent tubes (conventionally at 1200-2000 lux) (Ahloowalia and Prakash 2004) under a 16 h:8 h light/dark cycle at 25 AE 2 C. Artificial lighting of cultures accounts to nearly 60% production cost (Ahloowalia and Savangikar 2004). However, many in vitro growing plants can tolerate wide fluctuations with temperatures (Ahloowalia and Savangikar 2004) as high as 30 C and as low as 10 C with improved plant growth (Kodym et al. 2001). Research works have also been reported on the performance of in vitro cultures under natural light using solatube (Kodym et al. 2001), nethouse, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (Datta et al. 2017), domelight or diffused light (Ahloowalia and Savangikar 2004) and sidewise lighting system rather than downward illumination of culture racks (Datta et al. 2017).In this project, all cultures were grown under natural light from either a solatube (purchased at around 1200 €) (see Fig. 10.6) or from a 1 m 2 domelight made of superior quality acrylic (purchased at around 120 €), that were fixed on the roof of a 9 m 2 room. In a separate study, cultures were grown in a netcloth shed that was lined with plastic running from the roof to the sides (see Fig. 10.6), and also in a room, receiving diffused light through the windows.Alternative culture growing conditions are summarized in Table 10.2. The solatube redirects the daylight through reflective tubing without heating the room and can illuminate an area of 3-5 m 2 (Kodym et al. 2001) whereas the domelight can heat up the room, requiring the window to be opened for air flow.Depending on the season, the number of buds produced per explant in diffused light was reduced or comparable to conventional controlled conditions. The growth rate was also slower under diffused light. Conditions with the solatube were more stable, while the domelight's conditions were directly dependent on the weather. Proliferation rates were better in rooms lit by the solatube than by the domelight. While no electricity is involved in use of natural light, each system has its own advantages and constraints and need to be optimized prior to application (see Fig. 10.7).In the shed, the rate of development was not uniform. Mortality was relatively high (50-80%) depending on the outside conditions. The afternoon sun, especially in summer, led to intense scorching due to hot microclimate within the jars. This can be reduced by covering the west side of shed with shade netting. The other problem  a Measured using LIG1050 lux meter associated with growing cultures in a shed was the accumulation of dusts which intensified risks of contamination when brought back in the transfer room. However, cultures at rooting stage can be grown in such conditions as the plants can be sent to nursery for hardening.In a commercial micropropagation laboratory, where the volume and quality of planting materials to be produced are crucial, there is often little concern about using cheaper options. The above low-cost substitutes have been proposed for countries with restricted or no TC facilities so that they can proceed with in vitro mutagenesis to improve any local banana cultivar for which conventional breeding can be too lengthy or complex. The low-cost alternatives can as well be included in a routine TC where up to 80% cost reduction can be achieved (see Table 10.3).In vitro methods as described by Vuylsteke (1998) and Lopez et al. (2017), can be applied to mass multiply the desired local accessions to generate enough explants that can then be sent to another laboratory for irradiation. This section describes only the physical mutagen (gamma rays) which was applied on excised banana shoot tips. In order to reduce risks of chimerism, the explants are trimmed to produce shoot-tips of about 2-3 mm length.After irradiation, the mutation is fixed in the genome by carrying out three subcultures (the whole process is referred to as generation advancement). In order to dissolve potential chimeric sectors during each subculture, longitudinal sections are made through the explant to select buds or propagules (see Fig. 10.8). The mother explant can be further subcultured to recover the main meristem mutation after homohiston formation. In practice, however, it is often difficult to dissociate the buds from the mother explant. In such cases, routine subculturing/decapitating the main explant is practiced to promote shoot proliferation. After irradiation, the cultures are referred to as the M 1 V 0 generation and the buds thus produced (after 4-6 weeks of incubation) are subcultured and make the population of M 1 V 1 individuals and this process is repeated after each incubation period until the population of M 1 V 3 is reached. The resultant M 1 V 3 population is placed in regeneration medium (usually of half strength macronutrients and without any PGR) for the buds/shoot to regenerate into plantlets (or referred to as putative mutant line). These individual mutant lines might be clonal propagated for multiple traits screening, particularly abiotic or biotic stress which usually uses destructive methods. Moreover, the development of multiple clones per individual is also important as avoid loss of the mutant lines during the weaning of ex vitro plantlets.Prior to screening the mutant lines for any traits of interest, such as to Fusarium wilt using the double-tray system or field tests, the rooted plantlets are hardened so that they adapt to the outside environment where the light intensity (4000-12,000 lux) is higher compared to growth rooms that are artificially illuminated (1200-2000 lux) and the relative humidity lower (40-80% v/s 98-100%) (Ahloowalia and Savangikar 2004). Weaning is preferably done gradually, starting with high humidity and partial shade which is then gradually decreased. Commercial laboratories rely on greenhouses with sections of (i) partial shading (70-80%) and intermittent misting, (ii) 40-50% shade with regular irrigation/overhead fine irrigation and (iii) 20% shade to full sunlight with irrigation. In order to support developing countries, an easy method of weaning is proposed to handle the mutant lines in batches. The arrows indicate buds/ propagules that will be carried over in the next generation after subculture. Longitudinal sections are made such that the propagules with part of mother tissue is transferred to fresh media The high humidity in the weaning stage is created by placing the plantlets on a table and covering them with a frame, lined with clear polyethylene sheeting, and regularly watering the plants (or mist using a spray bottle) (see Fig. 10.9). The partial shade is provided by covering the structure with shadecloth (70-80% shade). The plastic sheet is removed after about 2-3 weeks to allow the plants to adjust to ambient relative humidity. The hardening media should be freely draining and relatively rich. Jhurree-Dussoruth and Kallydin (2011) successfully hardened banana plantlets in media consisting of sterile soil and manure (see Fig. 10.9). The addition of perlite improves the porosity of the medium and is important mostly in the first stage hardening.In this chapter, a low-budget TC and weaning procedure are presented to allow laboratories with limited resources to proceed with banana mutation breeding after an outsourced irradiation. Banana cultures in this project were irradiated using local facilities, but an additional section has been included to guide those who need to seek an international support for irradiation. -Place a perforated plate (on a stand, with gap of about 4-6 cm) inside cooker, add tap water just below the rim -Place jars on plate, cover and heat cooker on medium flame until first whistle -Leave on medium flame for 25-30 min after first whistle 11. Allow to cool down, remove from cooker, close caps tightly and store at room temperature until use.1. Proceed as above (Sect. 3.2), except in step 1 use only 50 ml aliquot of Stock I, and in step 2 no plant growth regulator is added. The media are labelled as AC0 or AA0, respectively for the agar/cornflour and agar/arrow root gelling agents (see Note 2).1. Wrap one long forceps, one medium forceps and scalpel in aluminium foil.2. Wrap working tile in newspaper and then with aluminium foil (to save on foil, newspaper is used). 3. Sterilize as above (Sect. 3.2, point 10).Prior to all works under laminar or hood, spray household alcohol to whole working table and side of hood with cotton.This section highlights steps from culture initiation until cultures reach stage for mutagenesis. Details can be obtained in Vuylsteke (1998).4. After repeated subculture of explants (often by 4th to 5th, depending on variety), the multiplication rate will increase rapidly, and explants will enter the log phase of multiplication (see Fig. 10.10). Select explants from these stages for irradiation.3.6.3 Shoot-Tip for Mutagenesis -Dispatch and Reception 1. In order to reduce effects of chimerism in shoot-tip mutation breeding, the explants are trimmed to 4-5 mm length leaving as little vegetative tissue around the meristem as possible. 2. When preparing the bulk for irradiation, inoculate in small batches, as the trimmed explants can easily dehydrate if left on working surface during this process. 3. The explants are preferably inoculated on multiplication (solid) media (see Note 7). 4. It is advisable to carry out a radiosensitivity test to determine the optimum dose for bulk irradiation. Thus, this may necessitate that a first batch is sent beforehand for the radiosensitivity test. 5. The cultures should be carefully sealed and packed upright (see Note 8,Fig. 10.11). 6. Upon reception of the irradiated in vitro cultures, wipe jars with ethanol to surface sterilise culture. Transfer the irradiated explants into fresh multiplication medium. This stage is labelled as M 1 V 0 . All explants from the same variety can be bulked as they were irradiated with the same optimum dose. No additional nomenclature is adopted. 2. Maintain cultures in growth chambers under natural light and ambient temperature. 3. After 5-7 weeks (or until buds are produced), transfer the buds into fresh multiplication medium. Label the individuals in this population as M 1 V 1 (refer to Sect. 1.2 and see Fig. 10.8). In order to increase possibility of having mutant lines that differ, isolate each bud and transfer. When buds cannot be dissociated from the original explant or when buds are compact around the explant, then split the explant longitudinally and advance the next generation. 4. Repeat this isolation of buds for two more times every 5-7 weeks until M 1 V 3 generation is reached. 1. Transfer M 1 V 3 cultures to rooting medium without growth regulator (AC0 or AA0). Low-cost medium can be used (agar/cornstarch or agar/arrowroot). 2. Maintain under growing conditions for 4-7 weeks or until the shoots develop roots (see Note 9).This stage concerns post-flask low-cost hardening of the in vitro derived plantlets.1. Gently remove plants from jars and wash off all gel under running water. 2. Trim back yellow/dead leaves, dead roots and extra-long roots. Leave only soft green leaves and white primary roots. 3. Plug plantlets in plastic seedling trays filled with autoclaved potting media containing peat and perlite (1:1) or sterile:manure:perlite (1:1:1). 4. Keep the trays with the plantlets under partial shade (70-80%) and high humidity (70-90%). The humidity is maintained either through a misting system or by covering the trays with a plastic sheet and regularly watering the plantlets (or misting using a spray bottle). 5. After 2-3 weeks, gradually remove the polythene sheet to allow plants to adapt to ambient temperature and relative humidity. Leave the plants for further 2 weeks under same shade conditions. 6. After 3-4 weeks when the plants have reached an average of 10-15 cm, they are ready for further hardening at higher light intensities (50-40% shade) at ambient relative humidity. The plants can be either potted individually for field planting or potted in groups into a deeper, rigid potting box with a depth of at least 15 cm for immediate screening, as follows:(a) Hardening for field planting: Individually transfer plugged plants into planting pots (1.5-2 l) containing autoclaved potting mix (soil:manure:perlite: peat at 1:1:1:1 or soil:manure:perlite at 1:1:1). Keep plants under 50-40% shade for about 1 month and later at full sunlight or 30% shade until they reach a height of about 30 cm for field planting. Use a slow release to fertilise the plants, otherwise use a locally available complex fertiliser high in nitrogen at the rate of ½ teaspoon per pot to avoid phytotoxicity (at 5 weeks interval). (b) For nursery level screening of potted plants: Transfer plugged plants in large potting boats with bottom tray to collect exudates. Use same potting media as used above. The plants can be used immediately for screening using an adapted low-cost modified double-tray system and applying same practices as highlighted in this book.1. For ease of preparation of the modified MS media from the salts (Annex 10.1), it is advisable to prepare separately stock solutions of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins and iron salts. 2. The ½ strength of macronutrients save on mineral salt. 3. Conventionally 2 min swirling with 95% absolute alcohol can be done if available. 4. During manipulations, usual sterile methods of working near flame and regular flaming of dissecting tools after dipping in alcohol. 5. To save on PGR, use lower concentration of BAP (2 mg/l) and transfer to required BAP level once no contamination is observed. 6. Multiplication rate will depend on conditions under which plants are growing. 7. In order to prevent entry of diseases some countries, like Mauritius, have strict importation guidelines. Thus, in such cases the vessels are dispatched, irradiated and returned without opening the jar (see Fig. 10.11). Where the quarantine conditions for banana is less strict, the cultures can be sent in any type of container for transfer into appropriate vessels for irradiation.If irradiation is done locally then the explants are gently placed horizontal on the media, so as maximise chance of irradiation. Sucrose can be excluded.(a) For long distance (or international) transfers, the explants need to grow, and they can be gently pushed into the medium (at an angle), so that the latter receive nutrients for growth during transit. (b) This aspect is handled depending on quarantine exigencies of the country requiring the service (see Table 10.4). 8. Prior to dispatch all necessary plant import/export formalities for international transaction need to be finalized. The exporting country need to provide necessary phytosanitary certificates that satisfy the plant import conditions of country receiving the consignment. An agreement has often to be finalized to ensure that irradiated cultures are received with minimum delay. 9. As from this point the mutant line is ready for either field screening (for agronomic performance and response to field biotic stresses) or simple greenhouse screening for FW disease.The opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, its Board of Directors, or the countries they represent Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. micropropagation technique as initially reported by Aitken-Christie et al. (1995). This can be achieved by using a bioreactor to scale up propagation. Bioreactors are usually described in a biochemical context as a self-contained, sterile environment which incorporates liquid nutrient or liquid/air inflow and outflow systems, designed for intensive culture and affording maximal opportunity for monitoring and control over micro environmental conditions (agitation, aeration, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH etc). The use of bioreactors in controlled condition increases the multiplication rate and plant quality and has been proven as an efficient tool for rapid production of plant cells, tissue or organ culture and metabolites. The first reported use of bioreactor for micropropagation was in 1981 for Begonia propagation (Takayama and Misawa 1981). Since then, it has been widely used and proved applicable to many plant species including cassava (Golle et   2019). Among them, temporary immersion system (TIS) bioreactor is highly suitable for use in semi-automated micropropagation. This principle of temporary immersion was first tested by Harris et al. (1983) through alternate exposure and submergence of explants by tilting a flat-bottomed vessel to opposite direction using semi-automatic system. TIS bioreactor allows immersion of explants in medium for a specific duration at specified intervals, control of contamination, adequate nutrient and oxygen supply and mixing, relatively infrequent subculturing, ease of medium changes and limited shear damage. The temporary immersion of the plant with the media is a good technique to avoid damage, since long exposure can lead to physiological malformation which causes poor regeneration. In comparison with both, solid and liquid culture systems, TIS has technological and quantitative advantages such as higher multiplication rate and reduction of production cost (Etienne and Berthouly 2002). The use of TIS for large scale micropropagation produces better plant quality and higher multiplication rate (Ziv 2005). Examples of TIS bioreactor available today include BIT® twin-flasks system (Escolana et al. 1999), Reactor with Automatized Temporary Immersion (RITA®) (Alvard et al. 1993) and Bioreactor of Immersion by Bubbles (BIB®) (Soccol et al. 2008).Many established TIS bioreactor systems were patented and are quite costly, hence less preferable for large scale mass propagation. Option for a simpler and cheaper TIS bioreactor system was explored through the development of a TIS bioreactor prototype called BIO-TIS (Ibrahim 2017). BIO-TIS consists of two glass vessels, one for the in vitro shoots and the other for liquid culture media which is connected by silicone tubing that permits the flow of the liquid medium from one vessel to the other. It has been tested for mass propagation of horticultural crops such as: fruit trees (pineapple, banana), ornamental plants (orchids, chrysanthemums) and herbal plants (Eurycoma longifolia Jack, Labisia pumila and Stevia rebaudiana). In a study on pineapple propagation, the multiplication rate with BIO-TIS was found to be much higher in comparison to the established RITA® bioreactor (Ibrahim 2017).Modification was done by replacing the glass bottles in BIO-TIS with recycled plastic bottles as an alternative for a cheaper setting up cost. A silicone cap with stainless steel tubing is fabricated for liquid nutrient or liquid/air inflow and outflow. This low-cost bioreactor is capable of supplying planting materials in large quantities for various plants, able to increase the multiplication rate of in vitro plantlets up to ten-fold (Ibrahim 2017;Mustapha et al. 2017), improve the quality of tissue culture plantlets by reducing vitrification and is environmentally friendly. This system can be used by the plant biotechnology industry and agro-industry to save on the production cost. Furthermore, recycling of plastic bottles helps to reduce issue of the disposal of unused material in landfills thus reduce environmental pollution from disposal of used plastic bottles.shown in Fig. 11.5 and Fig. 11.6. For this protocol, the system was tested for a max of 4 sets merged together. However, the efficiency of the system must be revaluated if there is additional set added.  6. Due to the efficient gaseous exchange between plant tissue and gas phase inside the vessel, the yield obtained from this procedure can increase up to 10-15 old compared to solid media.The opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, its Board of Directors, or the countries they represent Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency that cannot be settled amicably shall be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's name for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency's logo, shall be subject to a separate written license agreement between the IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency and the user and is not authorized as part of this CC-IGO license. Note that the link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.","tokenCount":"28188"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5720f49976b4881b46e3b6ad74b39b75","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22243811-2898-4b9e-96a6-56408fb3a07a/retrieve","id":"-1219265152"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cbc6ae12-e23f-48d4-a1a9-481e7f6eb2f7","pagecount":"1","content":"Gender-responsive Utilization-focused Evaluation Household survey and focus groups, disaggregated by 3 population groups: female heads (de jure and de facto), women in male-headed households, and men in male-headed households Inclusion of gender-specific key evaluation questions:How did CA+ adoption impact gender equality? What are the socio-economic impacts of CA+ adoption on male and female farmers' income and assets? What are the impacts of the program on food security for women, men, girls, and boys in households?Female heads had a greater ability to make their own decisions regarding CA than women in male-headed households The increased focus on female heads in the project by community members led to their greater confidence and ability to make decisions Some married women, especially in Tanzania, reported joint decision-making related to CA in the household survey. However, most married women in focus groups spoke of an inability to make their own decisions. Male household heads continued to make most financial decisions in all 3 countries CA ADOPTION/PRACTICE High proportion of female heads and men and women in male-headed households in all 3 countries used 3 CA principles consistently with little gender differentiation Size of land dedicated for CA cultivation increased after project more for female than male farmers in Kenya and Tanzania All project participants (male and female) were willing to continue practising CA after project some evidence of increased work burden for women in first year of CA adoption; but overall time savings for women (and men) over 3 years Some female heads in Tanzania used time savings to carry out additional income-generating activities Implications of changes to gender division of labour needs more investigationThe SUCA program (2015-2020) introduced Conservation Agriculture (CA) techniques to male and female smallholder farmers in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Kenya, while emphasizing the key role of savings groups, marketing, and policy advocacy. This wider focus came to be referred to as 'CA+'. The program also targeted an equal proportion of female and male smallholder farmers, and provided gender training to those involved in implementation.A Gender+ lens was applied to the program's endline evaluation, revealing important intersectional gender differences in the program's impacts and opportunities.Importance of wider CA+ focus for contributions to greater gender equality Importance of applying a Gender+ Lens to program design, implementation, and evaluation (e.g. distinguishing between and focusing on female heads and married women, age etc.) Potential role of female (married and female heads) and male CA adopters as role models and gender champions Male and female role models and champions can help to tackle gender norms at a community level to enhance gendertransformative potential of CA programs Importance of understanding local conceptions of 'gender equality' and 'empowerment' (e.g. joint and collaborative household decision-making can be empowering)Beneficial impacts of increased incomes from CA for female heads and married women, e.g. improved ability to feed families, pay for household needs Female heads (particularly elderly widows) were unable to have adequate incomes to meet all household needs after CA adoption -with smallest plots under CA, and more difficulties accessing CA-related inputs Access to money through Village Savings and Loans Associations (VSLAs) played a critical role for female heads and married women Female heads had more control over use of loan money than married women Female heads and married women, who were largely unable to access government extension services, benefited from project-related training on CAMore married women, followed by female heads, joined savings and credit groups (e.g. VSLAs); VSLAs also enabled female heads to pool labour and agricultural inputs Female heads participated less in farmers' groups (except in Tanzania) More female heads than married women were Model Farmers in Ethiopia; in Kenya, few female heads were Farmer Group Leaders; and in Tanzania, more female heads, followed by married women were Champion Farmers and Farmer Group Leaders Female heads and married women in Kenya Assessment of dynamics of intra-household decision-making and their linkage to women's empowerment can best be probed with qualitative data collection methods CA programs can also encourage men to play a role in household nutrition and food security Importance of recognizing and addressing different barriers and needs of female heads (especially elderly FHs) vs. married women E.g. access to land and inputs for FHs E.g. household decision-making for married women Need to carefully probe CA's socio-economic impacts on women's economic empowerment, Women who reported greater confidence, voice, and increased value due to their participation in CA warrant further study Need to advocate for gender equality with community leaders and government (including women's access to government extension services)More men and women in male-headed households than female heads in Kenya and Tanzania felt that CA had led to improved food security More male-headed households had an acceptable food consumption score (FCS) than female-headed households Women in male-headed households had higher minimum dietary diversity than women in female-headed households More men and women in male-headed households able to decrease food deficits than (elderly) female heads Female heads and married women who made their own CA-related decisions prioritized growing variety of staple food and cover crops Female heads and married women introduced new nutritious food crops into their diets through CA adoption; and some crops were sold, with money used to purchase other food items Improved food storage techniques were used less by female heads Married women linked improved household food security to improved intra-household relations Importance of strategies to increase participation, leadership, and agency of female heads and married women in community groups (tackling gender norms and gender division of labour that can be barriers for women's participation) In-depth interviews with male and female adopters revealed opportunities and best practices for future CA+ programming can understand factors that enabled female heads and married women to adopt CA can reveal potential impacts on gender norms and gender equality https://foodgrainsbank.ca/resources /growing-her-future-film/ Watch and read the story of Asnakech, a female CA farmer in Ethiopia:","tokenCount":"970"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d8d59e8886c22b4bd4a970e212b0fcf4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/90a6edfc-9111-4b4d-ad73-56a29f6a6ede/retrieve","id":"1674153494"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e7075bb9-ebd6-43ac-a2bb-fbbff483c28a","pagecount":"79","content":"Key informant interviews were conducted at the district and sub-county level. Interviewees were selected on the basis of their knowledge, expertise, and professional affiliation. Semi-structured interviews relating to policies, programs, and government directions were administered among district leaders and sub-county representatives in the eight districts. The key informants interviewed included district and sub-county leaders representing different government sections (development, production, education, health, etc.), administrative leaders, farmer group representatives, businessmen, NGOs, and professional agencies.Tables Table 1: Types of key informant stakeholders interviewed  The Humidtropics program The CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) aim to align the research of the 15 CGIAR Research Centres and their partners into efficient, coherent, multidisciplinary programs. These exploit the full potential of collaborative research for tackling complex development issues. Seven of the CRPs aim to improve yields and profits of crops, fish, and livestock; they are largely commodity-focused. Three CRPs tackle the challenges of improving sustainability and environmental integrity, adapting to and mitigating climate change. Two overarching CRPs contribute to improving policies and markets and to improving nutrition and diets. One very specific CRP manages and sustains crop seed collections. Finally, three CRPs are unique in that they take a holistic system perspective, without respect to commodities. Focusing on dryland systems, aquatic systems and on integrated systems for the humid tropics, these three 'systems CRPs' strive to improve the productivity, profitability, sustainability and resilience of entire farming and landscape systems. The three systems CRPs are intended to be the platforms where the research learning and outputs harvested from the other crop-focused, environmental-or policy-related CRPs are trailed in an integrated manner and their impacts measured on all of the production, marketing and natural resource management in drylands, humid tropics and aquatic systems.Among the three systems CRPs, the Humidtropics CRP led by International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), seeks to transform the lives of the rural poor in tropical Americas, Asia and Africa. It uses integrated system research and unique partnership platforms for better impact on poverty and ecosystem integrity. Research organizations that are involved in core partnership with Humidtropics are World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), Bioversity, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), International Potato Center (CIP), Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), IITA, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and Wageningen University (WUR). As a research program for agricultural development, Humidtropics has four major objectives: reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving nutrition and health, and sustainable management of natural resources. Indeed, agricultural growth, through improved productivity, market development and income generation, has been shown to be a particularly effective contributor to reducing poverty, especially in the initial stages of economic development. Furthermore, access to affordable food is a problem for millions of poor in urban and rural communities and requires increasing global supply of key staples and reducing potential price increases and price volatility. In spite of increases in the production of key staples, poor populations spend most of their income on food and suffer from diets that are insufficient in proteins, vitamins and minerals, thereby affecting health and development, particularly among women and children. Finally, agriculture has a substantial impact on natural resources and must therefore be well managed to ensure sustainable ecosystem services, particularly in light of climate change.To track the progress of the program towards reaching its objectives, the outcomes of Humidtropics are measured along six Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs). IDO 1 aims at 'Increased and more equitable income from agriculture for rural poor farm families, with special focus on rural women'. This IDO directly targets poverty reduction through increased incomes for the rural poor. IDO 2 is a complex target linked to nutrition: 'Increased consumption of diverse and quality foods from sustainable food systems by the poor, especially among nutritionally vulnerable women and children'. IDO 3 measures how 'Sustainably intensified pro-poor food systems in the humid and sub-humid tropics deliver improved farm-level productivity to all farming families in equitable ways'. It directly addresses productivity enhancement at the farm level. IDO 4 targets natural resources management (NRM), which effectively protects or regenerates natural resource integrity at the farm and community levels: 'Improved management of natural resources is essential for sustaining increases in farm-level productivity and the provision of other ecosystem services'. The impact of Humidtropics on the empowerment of women and other marginalized groups is tracked through IDO 5: 'Empowered women and youth with better control over and benefit from integrated production systems'. Finally, IDO 6 is a complex social aspiration that the networks of people involved in Humidtropics and the policies and informal rules that form their working environment manage to foster innovations: 'Increased capacity for integrated systems to innovate and bring social and technical solutions to scale'. All of the IDOs are interrelated, just as the production, marketing and NRM systems they are supposed to track are interrelated.Organized around four geographical 'Action Area Flagships', Humidtropics implements research for development (R4D) by testing innovations that respond to the challenges faced by stakeholders in the target field sites. To identify the current production, marketing and natural resource management systems the CRP has to work in, the CRP's Strategic Research Theme 1 (SRT1) on Systems Analysis and Global Synthesis proposes a series of research tools to gather robust evidence on the magnitude of the problems to be addressed.The starting point for that evidence gathering and diagnostic activities required for the Systems Analysis and Global Synthesis is the Situational Analysis (SA), which paints a comprehensive and broad picture of the current systems that are key to tackling the problems faced in the target field sites.The SA is followed by detailed characterization studies of production systems in the form of baseline household surveys, leading to household typologies and the description of the production and nutritional challenges faced by the different types of households in the target field sites. Identification of preliminary best-bet entry points for the CRP calculates trade-offs between possible interventions that could help tackle field site challenges. Through value chain assessments and business model identification exercises, SRT1 tools also identify agricultural commodities that make the most business sense to develop and the potential means to accomplish that. Finally, the global synthesis tracks the development of the production, marketing and NRM systems in line with the CRP's IDOs. These outputs from SRT1 activities, when discussed within the platforms of likely beneficiaries and research partners, help refine further field research activities for the CRP: pilot testing of technologies and strategies among producers; in-depth analysis of markets and value chains for target commodities and of institutional and policy environments; impact assessments of current and possible policies, of business and NRM models.The SA aims to provide a broad set of information that will provide evidence to inform and tailor the subsequent exercises, and thus is not intended to look into the details of the target systems. Also, because Humidtropics by definition works in a consultative manner through partners in all aspects of the CRP, the SA also aims to create a joint and common understanding among all partners of the issues at hand, as well as to support the process of establishing strong and sustained linkages with stakeholders at multiple levels.Given this context, the SA has three primary objectives. The first is to characterize broadly all important system aspects that are relevant to the CRP within the target action sites and, through that, generate information to inform all other Humidtropics activities to better attain the IDOs, as well as to inform ongoing field site selection. The second objective is to harness the various partner skills and experiences to develop a common and shared understanding of the issues that need to be addressed and potential solutions, particularly between international and national partners, allowing local and global expertise to play complementary roles. The third objective is to initiate and facilitate engagement with stakeholders and partners as part of the R4D platform development that is needed for the long-term success and scalability of Humidtropics.The Uganda action siteThe East and Central Africa (ECA) Action Area of the Humidtropics includes the humid and sub-humid tropics of West Kenya, southern Uganda, the Ethiopian highlands, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Burundi and Rwanda (Figure 1). The area is home to about 78 million people, mainly smallholder farmers, living on 29 million hectares of land resulting in an average population density of 263 persons per km². The area is uniquely endowed with great potential in terms of water, soils and human resources, with a significant young population. Unfortunately, the area faces debilitating poverty levels with about 36% of the people earning less than USD 1.25 per day and a substantial proportion of them experiencing a few to several months of food insecurity. Associated with food insecurity are high levels of child malnutrition. Ironically, in the face of food insecurity, a variety of staple crops, including maize, beans, banana, cassava, sweet potato, peanut as well as minor leafy greens and other vegetables are cultivated by farmers. The major cash crops grown in the area include coffee, maize, sugarcane, banana, soybean, Irish potato, cotton and tobacco. Livestock is a major asset for most smallholder farmers in the area though current livestock densities have been seriously affected by civil strife. The agricultural production systems and productivity in the area are in a sorry state of affairs due to a number of constraints that inhibit rural transformation. • Crop-livestock intensification and interactions• Productivity improvement, processing and market development for priority cash crops• Integrating legumes trees into agricultural and livestock production systems (Agroforestry)• Sustainable intensification of crop productivity based on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) principles• Sustainable intensification of banana-and-coffee-based systems• Integrated approach to nutritional diversity, sustainable resource use and climate adaptation.These research initiatives to be implemented through R4D platforms will integrate gender and youth dimensions of smallholder agriculture.A Uganda action site launch meeting held in Mukono on 1 and 2 August 2013 decided to focus these entry points to four dominant production systems that were relevant to the Uganda action site (national agricultural research organization (NARO), Humidtropics and Makerere University 2013). The dominant production systems chosen in turn led to identify the field sites in which research for development would bring meaningful results for local communities (Figure 1):• Banana-coffee dominant production system in Nakaseke • Cereals dominant system in Rakai • Cattle dominant system in Rakai• Peri-urban system in Mukono and Wakiso.The second section of this report details the methodology used in this analysis. The third section provides an overview of the development situation in Uganda. The following sections characterize, one after the other, the agricultural production systems, markets and institutions, and natural resource management systems. The final section identifies the overarching problems and issues brought out by the SA. It also provides suggestions for further Humidtropics research interventions to address them and thus attain the strategic development objectives of livelihood improvement, sustainable intensification, gender and youth empowerment and system innovation.Implementing teamFollowing a stakeholders mapping and analysis exercise done through a collective action involving Bioversity, IITA and ILRI, key stakeholders within Central Uganda were identified and formed a scientific steering committee to oversee the situational analysis. The committee included representatives from the national agricultural research system (NARS), academic institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGO), community-based organizations (CBOs), government institutions and CGIAR centres.The scientific steering committee then recruited two consultants to carry out the actual implementation of the SA with monthly follow up, monitoring and reporting between consultants and the scientific steering committee.The sources of data used in this exercise and report included secondary data, key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and stakeholder consultations in the eight Humidtropics districts in Uganda: Mukono, Wakiso, Kiboga, Kyankwanzi, Masaka, Rakai, Luwero and Nakaseke. The collection of data from different sources allowed for their triangulation and validation. An online repository for secondary data collected as well as primary data sets generated will be made available on http://data.ilri.org/ (key words Humidtropics Uganda).The SA followed the outline for Humidtropics situational analysis (Cadilhon et al. 2014) to identify which data were to be collected. Available data were sought from official secondary sources at national, regional district and sub-county levels. To complement government data, other secondary sources were utilized, including data sets and reports from national research institutes, NGOs, among others. For both government and non-government data sources and reports, the reference period for which data were requested was 2003-13. Most of the available data were for the period 2008-13; however, data gaps existed.The information gaps identified were further analysed by the scientific steering committee and gaps that would be filled through KIIs and FGDs identified and the activity planned for.Typical production systems that are representative of the provinceTable 2: below gives a summary of the sub-county where the FGDs were carried out the dates and the number of participants. The research team of consultants and selected partners attempted to reduce bias in the district leader's selection of villages for FGDs by emphasizing that this was a research exercise and that no direct development assistance would result from it. The findings from these FGDs were directly used to provide qualitative information to the report.Draft results were presented to the scientific supervisory committee that comprised of national government, the research and development NGOs, and stakeholders during a one-day workshop. Participants were asked to review and confirm or comment on the preliminary results of the SA that were presented. In addition, stakeholders were asked to provide inputs with respect to underlying system problems in the eight districts and to offer possible solutions. This information was used to complement and validate the issues raised from the preliminary assessment.This section highlights the current status of the project site in terms of development indicators: population, employment, health and nutrition, education, literacy and wealth. It also discusses their implications to Humidtropics in terms of reaching IDO 1 'Increased and more equitable income from agriculture for rural poor farm families, with special focus on rural women' and IDO 5 'Empowered women and youth with better control over and benefit from integrated production systems'. Other aspects such as access to safe water, status of infrastructure (roads, electricity) and ethnicity are also analysed.Uganda's population has risen from 24.2 million persons in 2002 to about 34. 9 million persons in 2014 registering an average growth rate of 3% per annum. The population of the eight Humidtropics sites account for approximately 12.7% of the total population (Annex I). Within the eight districts Wakiso is the most populated (45% of total population) while Kiboga is the least populated (3.3%). Regarding population density, the two peri-urban districts fall above the national average of 177persons/km² with Wakiso district having a population density of about 6.8 times more at 1206 persons/km2 (Annex II). It was also observed that the proportion of men and women within the population was not significantly different. The implication of this to Humidtropics is that Mukono and Wakiso should be targeted with intensive crop-livestock production systems while Nakaseke, Kyankwanzi and Masaka could be targeted for expansion of land under agriculture due to the low population density.In all the peri-urban and urban districts of interest, the majority of the population (61.5%) is below 18 years of age. Rakai, Luwero and Masaka districts give a near reflection of the national status in this regard though Mukono district depicts a relatively much lower percentage for the population below 18 years of age (Table 3). In addition, the working age population (18-65 years) is highest in the peri-urban districts of Wakiso (43.5%) and Mukono (50.9%), exceeding the national average of 37.1%. The other districts which are mainly rural maintain a working age group not significantly different from the national average. The trend is for youths to move from rural to urban settings in pursuit of employment opportunities. This can be reversed through reinforcement of policies that promote rural infrastructure: industrialization and agro-processing, electrification, water supply, information and communication technologies (ICT), and increase access to credit facilities like savings and credit cooperatives (SACCOs) which have the potential to retain young people and those of working age within rural setting. to Humidtropics are that early child-bearing and marriages deprive women the chance to further their education and career, and thus reduce ability for empowerment, constrain their decision-making capacity at household and community levels, which further compromises gender relations. It is therefore important to focus on interventions that recognize the young and unempowered women as vulnerable. There are also opportunities for working closely with agencies that would reinforce policies that support young women to go back to school (even after child birth) and those that reinforce laws against exploitation of young girls and early marriages.Ethnicity is considered vital for Humidtropics since it indicates which livelihood activities are likely to prevail in the different sites based on the traditions of those dwelling there. For instance, in Uganda, the presence of Banyankole or Banyarwanda peoples in an area is associated with rangeland grazing of cattle; the Baganda are linked to crop production (more specifically, banana, legumes and root crops).The findings obtained from the focus group discussions show heavy presence of multi-ethnicities in the study sites as people migrate to these areas in search of better economic opportunities. The Baganda were found to be the most populous ethnic group in all the Humidtropics sites except Kyankwanzi which had more of the Basoga people (Table 4). Although the reasons are not documented personal communications indicate that the Basoga are attracted by the fertility of the land for maize production. Mukono -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda being the majority followed by Basoga, Bagisu, Bayankole, Bakiga, Rwandese, Burundi, Samia, Bafumbira, Batooro and Karamojongs.Luwero -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda being the most followed by Banyarwanda then Banyankole.Other tribes present include Bakiga, Basoga, Badama and Bagisu Nakaseke -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda being the most followed by Banyarwanda then Barundi and Bakiga. Other tribes present include Bagwere, Banyankole, Bakiga, Basoga, Bafumbira, Alur and Bagisu Kiboga -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda constituting the majority followed by Banyarwanda, Basoga and Badaama.Kyankwanzi -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Basoga being the most populous followed by Bafumbira, Banyarwanda, Banyoro and then Baganda.-Baganda and Banyarwanda mostly into cattle rearing and milk trade Rakai -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda being the most populous followed by Banyarwanda, Banyankole, and refugees (e.g. Baziba from Tanzania and Burundi) Masaka -Heavy multi-ethnicity presence with Baganda being the most followed by Banyankole, Banyarwanda, Bakiga, Basoga, Baruli, Badama and Alur.Source: Field FGDs and KIIs 2014.Another observation in Table 4 is that the peri-urban districts (Wakiso, Mukono) have more ethnic diversity than the six rural districts. This could be attributed to rural-urban migration in pursuit of better livelihoods.As urbanization rates in Wakiso and Mukono tend to be higher than in other Humidtropics districts, it is evident that the proportion of population employed in agriculture is much lower especially in Wakiso (27%). Employment in agriculture in the other districts is as follows: Mukono (59%), Luwero (75.7%), Nakaseke (88%), Kiboga (85%), Kyankwanzi (88%), Rakai (85%), and Masaka (72.8%). It is also important to note that in the peri-urban districts (Mukono, Wakiso), the percentage population in agricultural employment is lower than the national average of 66% while the other rural districts have higher rates (Annex III). Humidtropics should therefore be looking at non-farming employment options to create livelihood options and opportunities for the population which lives in these two districts.Regarding employment opportunities in the Humidtropics sites, there seem to be more off-farm employment activities in the peri-urban sites as compared to the rural sites (Table 5).The gender differentiated roles are such that men are more involved in both traditional and non-traditional cash crop enterprises, while women are largely engaged in food crops targeting household food and nutrition security. The majority of male youth is largely employed in the motorcycle business and brick making (Table 5). The main involvement of the young women did not come out clearly; therefore given their level of vulnerability further studies are needed to explore young women's livelihood sources. Table 5 also shows more involvement in off-farm or non-farm employment activities in the two peri-urban districts (which is expected) as compared with the rural settings. This therefore raises the need to focus not only on agricultural interventions but also on off-and non-farm interventions. There is also need to further investigate the interactions between farming systems and off-and non-farm systems, and explore pathways through which these systems could interact for better livelihoods.Health, nutrition and food securityThis section covers the following indicators: mortality rates (women, infants, <5 years), malnutrition rates (stunting, wasting and underweight), dietary diversity (diversity of product consumption in target areas and potential impact on nutrition), dietary practices and traditional food systems description the range of nutritious products available and consumed within local markets. In terms of food security, information on the net household food balance (number of months that own production can feed the household) as well as the share of consumption of total production on key commodities is also captured.Nationally, infant mortality has improved from 68 deaths per 1000 live births in 2009 to 54 deaths per 1000 live births in 2011/12. Similarly, the under-five mortality has improved from 103 deaths per 1000 live births in 2006 to 90 deaths per 1000 live births in 2011/12. The total fertility rate has declined from 6.7 in 2006 to about 6.2 in 2011 though fertility levels are higher in the rural areas (6.8) compared with the urban areas (3.8). Despite Uganda being recognized as the food basket of East Africa, malnutrition remains a problem of public health. Findings showed that stunting is the most prevalent form of malnutrition with all the sites indicating levels of more than 30%, while wasting was the least prevalent (Table 6). However, the prevalence of wasting in Uganda has been rising, from 5% in 2001 to nearly 6% in 2006. Higher percentages are observed in Central-2 Region and under the World Health Organization (WHO) classification, this falls under the category of 'poor'. Since wasting is rare in children who are 36 months or older, this rise can be attributed to the steep rise in wasting rates among infants from as young as four months, suggesting that infection rates are likely to be high and poor feeding practices such as early introduction of liquids other than breast milk could be the cause. One crucial point would be maternal malnutrition, which results into intra-uterine growth retardation putting the unborn child at disadvantage even before birth. Ensuring that we have educated and informed mothers should be the first step, these mothers will be able to practice appropriate feeding practices (for themselves and their children), they are more likely to have a say in household decisions and may be able to participate in productive activities that could bring income or other resources useful to the household.Food most frequently consumed are depicted in Table 7. The FANTA-2 (2010) report indicates that cassava, banana (matoke), beans, sweet potato and maize (in that order) are the most frequently consumed foods in Central-1 Region. Similarly, cassava, potatoes, banana (matoke), beans and maize (in that order) are the most frequently consumed foods in Central-2 Region. Note: Diet diversity information is obtained from (FANTA-2 2010) and the order is from the most to the least consumed.Though the carbohydrate rich staples dominate the list, it is quite comforting to note that beans (plant protein) and fruit and vegatables are also commonly consumed in the sites.Just as observed in Table 7, the most frequently consumed food items are the staples (roots, tubers and bananas) recording consumption on a daily basis by the majority of the population. The least consumed food items are the animal-source foods such as meat and milk (Table8). This therefore calls for mixed-farming systems and enterprises that will enhance household access to a diversity of nutritious food item either from the farm or through local markets. Although the 2005/06 UBOS-Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS) report indicates that a majority of the households (>60%) in the Humidtropics sites consume highly diversified diets with a mean score of 14 calculated as per weighing food items based on nutritional density (see footnote of Table 9), it is important for more studies to be carried out to confirm whether the trend is the same today. In addition, a gap could be in the food combination and preparation procedure. It is therefore important that studies are carried out to establish whether food preparation and combinations being applied are those that will enhance nutrition retention and availability. This could be a reflection of the efforts by several gender-concerned agencies to see that girls go to school. Another argument put forward is that boys get attracted to engaging in economic activities fairly early and hence get distracted from continuing with formal education (UBOS 2012a).For secondary school enrolment, there has been a steady increment from just over 1 million in 2008 to 1.2 million in 2010. However, fewer girls than boys are able to complete secondary school education. Humidtropics should work with partners focusing on supporting girls to stay longer in secondary school in order to increase their chances of obtaining tertiary education for higher skills acquisition (Annexes IV and V).However, the important point of concern is that only 324,487 children are enrolled in Secondary 1 compared with Primary 7 students numbering 544,531. Hence, a drop-out rate of about 37%. Humidtropics ought to consider interventions with partners working on education to reduce this drop-out rate if sustainable livelihoods are to be obtained.Although most of the Humidtropics districts lack official data on household asset ownership, considering the percentage of households living below the poverty line, more than half of the households in Kiboga are poor (60.4%). Kyankwanzi district is the next poorest district with 38% of households living below the poverty line. The reported poverty levels (Annexes VI and VII) necessitate reinforcements of efforts through partnership in industrialization and agro-processing in rural areas for employment creation. It is also important that in addition to boosting production, the links to markets are reinforced in order to reverse this situation.Since transformation from subsistence agriculture to agri-food commercialization through value addition is a process which requires some infrastructure in place, access to electricity is a vital indication of the potential of an area to invest in agro-processing businesses, which have an implication on the value captured by actors in a given location. Likewise, water is not only a resource for the health of the population but is also a production input for livestock as well as a utility in many processing industries. The availability of water and electricity is therefore a key indicator to the livelihood options of an area.Of the eight Humidtropics districts, the peri-urban districts have better access to water and electricity. They account for 32% (26.6 million m 3 ) of the total national water consumption 81.6 million m 3 ). The other rural districts constituted less than 1% with Kiboga having the lowest level at 21,492 m 3 water consumed (Annex VIII).With regards to roads, Masaka and Rakai have access to a national highway which runs through to the Uganda-Tanzania border at Mutukula. This creates opportunities for them to transport what they produce towards Kampala or across the border to Bukoba region in Tanzania. A one-stop border post has been set up at Mutukula to ease clearance of goods crossing from one country to the other.Kiboga and Kyankwanzi are also linked to Kampala by a very good tarmac road, which continues up to Hoima. Goods produced in these districts can be easily transported to Kampala in less than four hours.Mukono is hardly 15km away from Kampala and it is crossed by a major highway linking Uganda to Kenya. Goods produced in this district can easily be transported to Kampala and beyond or even East into Kenya. Likewise for Luwero, it is also located on the national highway to northern Uganda, which is tarmac and well maintained, hence transportation of goods is less challenging. However, for Nakaseke, the road linking it to Luwero is not tarmac and is vulnerable to extreme weather, thus causing some seasonal challenges in the transportation of goods to markets beyond the district.Findings as shown in Table 10 indicate a very high presence of R4D partners in the Humidtropics sites. This creates a great opportunity for collaboration and coordination of key partners in a formal structure such as an innovation platform to ensure the best-bet practices emerging from research activities are scaled up and out and sustainability enhanced. The key issues emerging from this section include:• High population growth and density in the Humidtropics peri-urban districts is accompanied by greater involvement in off-or non-farm activities and better access to water and electricity compared with the rural districts. The underlying cause of these differences is rural-urban migration in search of better economic opportunities. This leaves the rural districts with a higher proportion of dependent population groups (<18 years and >65 years), poor infrastructures and low access to social amenities. It is, therefore, important that as more effort is put towards diversifying enterprises in peri-urban areas to fully make use of available infrastructure, R4D interventions focus on promoting rural infrastructure (industrialization, agro-processing, electrification, water supply, ICT) and increasing access to credit facilities.• Young age at marriage and at first birth among women (18-19 years) implies low literacy levels and puts them at a disadvantage. They are deprived the chance to further their education and career. This reduces their ability for empowerment, constrains their decision-making capacity at household and community level, which further compromise gender relations. In addition, since women tend to be responsible for food preparation and childcare within the family, their lack of knowledge and access to resources impacts negatively on the food and nutrition security of their children, themselves and the household in general.• There is more reliance on starchy staples (roots tubers and bananas) for food with limited or negligible consumption of animal-source food (milk and meat).• The most prevalent form of malnutrition is stunting indicating prolonged food inadequacy among the vulnerable population groups.• Gender plays a crucial role in the type of employment people are engaged in and certain patterns have been observed in each district.• Access to piped water and electricity is steadily improving with greater coverage in Mukono and Wakiso, which implies opportunities for value addition to agro-commodities, as well as establishment of manufacturing industries.• Most of the Humidtropics sites are linked to major highways leading to regions and borders of neighbouring countries, which are considered potential markets for agricultural commodities.• In regards to land tenure systems, the permanent Mailo system tends to dominate most of the Humidtropics sites. One of its advantages is permanency of tenure, which is supportive of serious investments on land (i.e. tree planting, perennial crop production, soil conservation measures).This section highlights production aspects concerning the different commodities or enterprises focused on by Humidtropics in Uganda: cassava, maize, banana, rice, coffee, tea, vegetables, fruits, soybean, beans, dairy cattle, pigs, poultry and fish (farmed and wild). This section outlines the existing production systems, current production status of each commodity, the production opportunities as well as the strengths (Table 12). It also reflects on the challenges which may hinder realization of these opportunities and what kind of interventions the Humidtropics program may have to implement to meet IDO 3 'Sustainably intensified pro-poor food systems in the humid and sub-humid tropics deliver improved farm-level productivity to all farming families in equitable ways' and IDO 5 'Empowered women and youth with better control over and benefit from integrated production systems'.Within the peri-urban areas, the main crops are largely annual and they include fruit and vegetables, sweet potatoes, maize, beans, peanuts, bananas, cassava, coffee, sweet potato and soybean while livestock include poultry, pigs, intensive dairy cattle, goat, sheep and aquaculture fish.The rural areas are dominated by both perennial and annual crops like banana, coffee, maize, beans, cassava, fruit and vegetables, potatoes, soybean, upland rice and peanuts, among others. Livestock rearing is also predominantly practiced: cattle (both beef and dairy), pigs, poultry, goats, sheep, and bees.     For the peri-urban area (Wakiso and Mukono), there is a comparatively high level of systems integration due to resource limitations especially land for production. The systems can be generally classified as intensive farming involving crop and livestock combinations. These systems are largely operating through using livestock waste as manure and crop residues as animal feed. Some of the crop-livestock integrations include:Roots and tubers combined with piggery, banana-cattle, maize-legume and to a small extent coffee-banana system. The system is also integrated with trees, like Calliandra that is fed to animals and Albizia for soil improvement. The Ficus trees species is also predominant especially in the coffee-banana systems where it operates as a source of shade.For the rural areas, both perennial and annual systems do exist but the perennial systems are much more established in the rural areas, especially due to availability of more land for production. The banana-coffee system is particularly common. It is usually mixed with agroforestry trees especially the indigenous mutuba tree (ficus) and Mugavu (Albizia coriaria). Other trees do exist like fruit trees for example jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), pawpaw (Carica papaya). The other dominant system is maize-piggery-or-poultry system. The maize bran is used to feed livestock while the manure goes back to the fields as fertilizer. In some areas like Kiboga and Kyankwanzi, this system is further improved by the introduction of soybean. This is working well as a source of protein for both human and livestock. Agroforestry trees like calliandra and griveria are also very common.Opportunities and challenges do exist for both the rural and urban/peri-urban operation areas of Humidtropics in Uganda. These challenges and opportunities, however, do vary between peri-urban and rural areas.For both rural and urban/peri-urban areas, the challenges range from production to post-harvest handling. Because of over-cultivation, there are challenges of low soil fertility. This is further made worse by the fact that there is a low input use within the zone. Farmers are also facing challenges of how to deal with crop and livestock diseases e.g., BBW, Coffee wilt, cassava mosaic disease and CBSD, East Coast fever, African swine fever and Newcastle disease, among many others. Along the different value chains, storage facilities are still poorly developed and this inevitably presents a challenge to farmers, who have to deal with high post-harvest losses.Opportunities include the availability of improved varieties and breeds within the zone. Proximity to the research organization NARO together with other partners in Namulonge and Kawanda is another glaring opportunity. These can act as knowledge incubation centres for farmers. This knowledge can further be conveyed by the different civil society support partners like EADD, Sameer, Dairy Development Authority, National Animal Genetic Resources Centre, NAADS, Seatini, Caritas, The AIDS Support Organization, Sasakawa Global2000 and VEDCO, among many others. Due to availability of electricity and water there is a strong agro-processing potential that can be tapped.Other value addition opportunities do exist, which require no electricity: for example, ghee production fetches an attractive market price. In both rural and urban/peri-urban areas, farmers integrate crop and livestock. This presents an opportunity of using animal manure for soil improvement.Within the peri-urban areas, women are involved in piggery, cattle and poultry rearing. For cattle, they are mainly engaged in zero grazing especially in the areas of feeding, watering and cleaning of livestock sheds. The youth are strongly involved in vegetable production due to its short growing cycle and thus able to give them a quick source of income.Within the rural areas of the zone, women are mainly involved in annual crops contributing to both cash and food security like maize, beans, roots and tubers. In other areas, women are also involved in banana production. The youths are engaged in vegetables, especially tomatoes, as well as annual crops like maize and legumes. A good number are also doing poultry and piggery rearing, livestock grazing and market gardening.Challenges and opportunities affecting innovations for sustainable intensificationThe major challenge in Wakiso district is how to deal with the high population density. Wakiso district has the highest population density, attributed to the rural-urban migration that has occurred in recent years where people have moved towards Kampala in search of better social and economic opportunities. However, the accommodation costs in Kampala are quite high, people prefer to live in the peri-urban areas such as Wakiso and Mukono districts. This implies that Humidtropics should target Mukono and Wakiso districts with intensive crop-livestock production systems because pressure on the land is relatively high. On the contrary, the population densities in Nakaseke, Kyankwanzi and Masaka are relatively low, hence opportunities for expansion of land under agriculture could be pursued.Ugandan soils have been considered fertile for a long time but existing evidences indicate that there is a decline in soil fertility as a result of soil nutrient depletion. This is attributed to over-cultivation and soil mining. Soil erosion is also an observed problem in Humidtropics areas. The challenge is how to deal with soil degradation associated with the present agronomic practices. Key agronomic practices, such as crop rotation, mulching and furrowing, are not widely practiced.Several value chain actors do exist within both urban and rural Humidtropics field sites who can help address production-related constraints. However, they tend to operate in an uncoordinated manner and sometimes give conflicting information, thus making their impact on the ground less effective. This also leads to low levels of adoption of the different technologies being transferred. The big challenge is how to bring the different actors along the value chains to work together and share work programs and activities.Rainfall determines the types of crops grown as well as the type of livestock kept. In places that are predominantly dry like Nakaseke, Kyankwanzi and some parts of Kiboga, farmers engage more in livestock keeping. On the other hand, in Wakiso, Masaka and Mukono that receive higher rainfall, farmers are more into crops. • As a result of population migration from rural to urban areas, adoption of intensive crop and livestock production systems is growing rapidly as well as pressure on land, especially in Wakiso and Mukono, is becoming very high.• In districts with lower population densities (i.e. Nakaseke, Luwero), large-scale commercial farming is beginning to take root with some reasonable investments in maize production. Much of the land previously under communal grazing is being converted to large-scale crop farms.• Despite the presence of agricultural research organizations in Mukono and Wakiso, crop diseases are still responsible for the poor yields in Humidtropics field sites. Likewise, some livestock diseases still have extreme effects on the herd in these places (i.e. African swine fever). There is generally low 'trickle down' of research to the intended end-user with respect to crop and animal diseases.• Gender plays a significant role in the type of enterprise to be undertaken to attain Humidtropics' intermediate development objectives; such considerations are critical.• Some crop-crop and crop-livestock systems as well as crop-tree systems have been observed. For instance, the banana-coffee-shade tree system is prominent in most of the Lake Victoria Crescent zone. Furthermore, those engaged in crop-livestock systems are beginning to appreciate the benefits of manure in boosting yields and crop residues as feed.• However, in other urban areas where production systems are more intense, agroforestry still draws a lot of scepticism.This section outlines the current status of each commodity with regards to market opportunities as well as the strengths. The challenges which may hinder realization of these opportunities are also mentioned. The conclusions lists interventions for Humidtropics to meet its IDO-2 'Increased consumption of diverse and quality foods from sustainable food systems by the poor, especially among nutritionally vulnerable women and children' and IDO-6 'Increased capacity for integrated systems to innovate and bring social and technical solutions to scale'.The focus is on commodities that were selected and determined to have potential impact on Humidtropics action sites. These include crops, livestock and aquaculture-oriented enterprises. The main crops identified include cassava, maize, banana, rice, coffee, horticultural crops, soybeans, tea and beans. The main livestock species that hold potential for improving livelihoods for these areas include pigs, dairy cattle and poultry in addition to fish farming.Cassava is rated as the second most important staple and a crop of high industrial potential (MAAIF's DSIP 2010). Sixty percent of produced cassava is for own consumption, while 40% is traded (USAID 2010). It is commonly traded as flour (50%), dried chips (45%) and fresh root tubers (5%). In the Humidtropics sites, cassava is mostly grown in the rural districts of Rakai, Kiboga, Kyankwanzi, Luwero and Nakaseke. Farmers realize peak prices from the sale of their produce mostly in April. Besides local sales, cassava from Uganda is also exported notably to South Sudan and eastern parts of DRC (USAID 2010). Maize is the main staple in East Africa. However, in Uganda it is rated third in production volume after banana and cassava (SMJR 2012). It is mainly grown in the rural districts of Iganga, Jinja, Mayuge, Bugiri, Kapchorwa districts of the eastern region, Kamwenge and Kasese districts of the western region, and Masindi, Kiryandongo and Lira districts of the northern region. A good proportion of farmers in Kiboga, Masaka and Rakai districts also grow maize. Maize is largely grown as a cash crop and is usually sold to urban poor populations and institutions such as schools and colleges. Substantial amounts are also exported to other countries in the region. About 75% of total maize produced in Uganda is usually sold for cash; only 25% of these sales go to the local market. Current export of maize from Uganda to countries, such as South Sudan and Kenya, stands at about 850,000 tonnes/ year (FSNWG 2014). The World Food Programme (WFP) is also a major destination for Ugandan maize, accounting for 40-50% of all export maize from the country (SMJR 2012).Banana is considered the most important staple crop in Uganda. It is commonly grown in the urban districts of Wakiso and Mukono, and rural districts of Masaka, Rakai, Kiboga, Luwero and Nakaseke. Yields are estimated at about 5.4-5.6 t/ha. Banana is categorized into four types based on what they are used for, namely: cooking, dessert, roasting and brewing varieties. Value addition into dried chips, flour, wine and juices is in place, but at a very small scale. Nationally, there are two marketing options available to farmers, which are also exhibited in the case of the districts that fall under Humidtropics. These include: (a) Traditional marketing-involving several actors in the chain as depicted below and (b) Improved marketing approach-where farmers are well organized, possibly into groups, which enables them to by-pass several actors within the traditional value chain. The more improved market approach enables farmers to undertake activities normally implemented by other value chain actors; farmers' groups can thus appropriate 50% of the value added as compared to only 20% of the value added accruing to farmers under the traditional marketing. Rice is the most traded food commodity across borders in East and Central Africa. In Uganda, rice is mainly produced in the eastern and western parts of the country. However, there are pockets of rice production in the Humidtropics areas concentrated in Wakiso, Mukono, Masaka and Rakai (MAAIF 2009). The yields are estimated at 2.5-3 t/ha against a potential of 4-5 t/ha. Approximately 25% of the rice is traded un-milled, while the rest is milled and then traded up to the final consumer. Demand for rice outstrips supply in Uganda and there are massive opportunities for farmers to provide import substitution worth USD 150 million if production is doubled and quality improved (SMJR 2012). Over the past 20 years, rice consumption in Uganda has increased by 360% owing to the change of eating habits associated with urbanization (Kilimo Trust 2012c). Policy-wise, an external common tariff of 75% is levied on rice imports into the East African Community and this is aimed at providing an opportunity for local rice production to grow.Coffee plays an important role in the Ugandan economy. Annual production is estimated at 210,000 tonnes. It contributed 18% of the export earnings between 2000 and 2011 (Ahmed 2012); current figures put this contribution at 20-30% of Uganda's export earnings. Its export value is estimated at USD 481 million, of which 80% is Robusta coffee. It is estimated that 8 to 10 million people are involved in direct coffee production and depend in one way or the other on coffee production. Indeed, the coffee value chain supports 3.5 million households in Uganda (approximately 65% of the total population) as per the UCDA (2013) report. A majority of these households are poor and would therefore benefit a great deal from an improvement in this sub-sector. Per capita consumption of coffee is at 0.25 kg/year and hence the local consumption of 8,400 tonnes only amounts to 4% of what is produced. In the Humidtropics sites, coffee is grown in the rural districts of Masaka and Rakai, while in urban district it is produced in Wakiso and Mukono. Producer prices often mimic export price trends especially between 2005 and 2011 with producers receiving 64% of the export prices in 2005 and as high as 88% of the export price for Fair Average Quality (FAQ) coffee in 2011.In terms of government support, UCDA renders ample support in input supply, market information and promotion of coffee abroad. This offers an opportunity to several multinational companies willing to invest upstream (i.e. supply of quality inputs using a check-off system,). Attractive prices and profit margins also exist in this value chain: i.e. a farmer may obtain up to 37% profit while traders who bulk and hull can get 39% and exporters obtain 16%. This is specifically the case of specialty coffees (coffee grown in the highlands, forest, organically grown coffee), which have niches in the European markets.Tea remains the third largest export in terms of value for Uganda after coffee and fish. Current production is estimated at 63,000 tonnes up from 33,789 tonnes a decade ago. Exports have increased from 30,477 tonnes in 2001 to 53,178 tonnes in 2010 (Kiwanuka 2012). Similarly to other countries in the region, the tea value chain in Uganda is characterized by many producers and a few downstream players: 70% of tea exported is sold at the Mombasa auction while 20% is sold through direct sales. Only 10% of tea produced is consumed locally. Currently, Uganda's share of tea export in the global market is 2.8% and the target is to increase it to 5%. Among the Humidtropics project areas, tea is mainly produced in the rural districts of Kiboga, Luwero, and Nakaseke. Beans production in Uganda has been estimated to be 450,000 t/year on average in the past decade. Beans are mainly produced in the rural districts of Kiboga and South Luwero. A large proportion of the production is consumed locally with only around 20% of the production exported. Local demand is indeed likely to grow as school enrolment increases (with government considering making lunch compulsory at school). The main destinations of these exports are Kenya, South Sudan, DRC, Tanzania and Burundi. The regional exports for beans are likely to grow from 200,000 to 350,000 tonnes annually in the short run (FSNWG 2014). Regional political instability also contributes to high demand for beans by relief agencies, which use it to address food shortages in refugee camps. It is estimated that relief agencies need close to 50,000 tonnes of beans annually to address the humanitarian crisis in the region. World Food Programme (WFP) is the largest bean exporter from Uganda and obtains its exports through two procurement options. First, WFP buys beans from farmer groups or CBOs that are able to supply at least 40 tonnes. This ensures that farmer groups are paid a fair price. Besides, producer groups are also assisted with market information on commodity prices throughout the country. This is mainly done in eastern, central and western Uganda, where farmers have surpluses every year. Alternatively, WFP purchases from traders who can stock or bulk at least 200 tonnes of beans.Besides the usual beans, there is also production of soybean that is estimated at 166,000 tonnes annually. Soybean is mostly purchased for export or for industrial processing into vegetable oil and animal feeds locally. Soybean is mainly produced in Kiboga. The main traders of soybean are Mukwano and Mount Meru export companies. These companies buy soybean from farmers and export them abroad or trade it with processing industries locally. Export to Kenya and Tanzania is currently estimated at 40% of total soybean production and this is likely to grow since animal feed is in high demand in these two countries. According to KIIs held in 2014, Ugachick and Biyinzika also manufacture animal feeds from soybeans locally. Other manufacturers also process soybean into baby foods. The processors include Maganjo, Sesako, Kayebe, and East Africa Basic foods. Processing capacity currently in Uganda is at 600 t/day.Horticultural crops are mainly produced in the urban districts of Mukono and Wakiso and the rural districts of Masaka and Rakai. Current production trends are estimated at 11-12 million tonnes annually (FAOSTAT 2014). Most horticultural products are traded and consumed in raw form. Processing companies that produce juices, dried chips, tomato sauces and puree include Britannia Ltd. in Kampala, which handles mangoes, pineapples and passion fruit, Reco Industries in Kasese processing tomatoes into ketchup and puree, and Jakana Foods in Kampala, which processes pineapple and banana. Some horticultural crops also find their way into the Kenyan markets where the demand is very high.Pig production in Uganda was estimated at 3.2 million head as of 2008 (MAAIF-UBOS 2009). It is considered an enterprise for income generation amongst poor households. Pigs are sold as piglets to those who want to start this enterprise or as fatteners (8 months old) for slaughter. Fatteners are mainly sold through four channels namely: i) direct sales to consumers, ii) sales to neighbourhood butcheries, iii) sales to butcheries in nearby towns and iv) sales to traders. Selling to neighbourhood butcheries is the most dominant supply channel. Nationally and among other livestock meat products, the average per capita consumption of pig meat ranks third after consumption of fresh water fish and bovine meat (Tatwangire 2014). Indeed, the percentage contribution of pig meat to per capita protein supply increased from 3.1% in 1999 to 3.6% in 2009, overtaking other meat-based diets such as mutton and poultry. Moreover, pig meat is only second to milk in terms of supply of energy and also second to freshwater fish in terms of protein supply among all animal-based food sources in Uganda (FAOSTAT 2012). A dominant player in the processing and packaging of pork is the Quality/Fresh Cuts company, which offers a full range of meat products (beef, pork and poultry) including frozen and fresh prime cuts, plastic-packed retail cuts, sausages, ham and minced meat (Tatwangire 2014). The company covers 85% of Kampala's processed meat market with a daily output of 11 tonnes of fresh meat (6 tonnes of beef, 3 tonnes of pork and 2 tonnes of chicken). There are also ten other smaller players, two main ones being Sausage King and Your Choice, which have a daily production of 300-500 kg minced beef, beef sausages and pork sausages, marketed through supermarkets in Kampala. The big retail outlets (Shoprite, Nakumatt, Tuskys) also purchase large amounts of carcasses, from which special cuts are made for the high-end markets.In terms of dairy production, the central region where the Humidtropics districts lie has the second highest population of exotic or cross-breed dairy cattle in the country (World Bank 2011; Balikowa 2011). Similarly, the region has the second highest milk production, accounting for 34% of total milk produced in Uganda. Milk in Uganda is sold to consumers as raw warm milk, raw chilled milk, artisan-pasteurized milk and commercially pasteurized milk. Only about 34.7% of milk produce is sold; milk is mostly traded unprocessed. Again the central region has the second highest share of milk produced that is sold. Other by-products such as cheese and ghee represent a very small part of the dairy sector. Moreover, not much milk produced in Uganda is exported as the demand in the domestic market is very high.The dairy value chain in Uganda like elsewhere in East Africa is characterized by a prevalence of the informal sector, lack of critical mass and high variability in prices (EADD 2008). While the formal sector offers more accountability and higher revenue certainty, the informal sector attracts more liquid milk mainly due to its ability to pay higher prices.Additionally the informal market also pays cash for milk delivery as opposed to the formal sector that often delays payment. However, the informal sector is known for little, if any, quality control. The formal sector often acts as a bulking mechanism for large processors. Most processors are located in Kampala, closer to the main market for commercially pasteurized milk (Balikowa 2011). On the other hand most dairy cooperatives are located in the southwestern region followed by the central region where the Humidtropics sites are found.Milk prices are generally subject to volatility and are sensitive to both seasonality and geographical spread; for the formal sector, profitability at the primary collection centre is quite low given the cost of bulking the milk (EADD 2008). This explains why there are few bulking centres across the entire dairy regions of the country. The poultry sector in Uganda consists of different types of birds including chicken, turkey, duck, geese and pigeons. However, chicken have greater economic significance and play an important role in household livelihood. We therefore focus our analyses on chicken. At household level, chicken provide a livelihood to about 50% of Ugandan households; the majority of households (97%) keep indigenous chicken mainly for subsistence purposes. Exotic chicken mainly kept for sale account for only 12% of the chicken population: 70% broilers, 20% layers and 10% breeder broiler and breeder layers. Chicken, mostly indigenous breeds and some exotic broilers, are mainly traded live. There is however, an increasing trend of pre-sale slaughtering and packaging of chicken largely driven by increasing urbanization, changing consumer tastes and preference and growth of supermarkets in Uganda. The eggs and slaughtered broilers find their way into supermarkets and hotels in urban centres, while local chicken are traded locally; some find their way into urban centres. With increasing urbanization and rising incomes, this niche market is likely to grow. The exotic chicken rearing is concentrated around towns and urban centres, especially in Kampala and neighbouring districts of Wakiso and Mukono where commercial broiler and layer enterprises are also concentrated. Available statistics show that demand for chicken is growing at the rate of 3% per annum with current per capita consumption standing at 1.7 kg/person per year (FAOSTAT 2011). In terms of pricing, chicken meat is 25% and 47% more expensive than fish and bovine beef respectively. Moreover, demand for chicken is less price elastic, at least relative to fish and beef; increasing income will lead to lower growth in demand and consumption of chicken. Chicken prices have, however, been stable over the years and a medium-sized broiler currently goes for an average of UGX 9000.Fish farming is an enterprise that has gained ground in Uganda especially with the dwindling fish harvesting from Lake Victoria. Annual production of farmed fish is estimated at 12,000 tonnes. Approximately 98% of farmed fish is exported: mainly to Rwanda and also to DRC. About 90% of captured fish from the Uganda lakes is exported, mainly to the European Union (EU) by air. Small-scale fish farmers may make profit margins of 7-21%, while large scale farmers may make up to 30%. Fish farming is mainly practiced in urban districts of Mukono and Wakiso, and rural districts of Masaka and Rakai.Opportunities for improved market accessProximity to urban areas and population growth. Humidtropics sites, the urban and peri-urban districts of Mukono and Wakiso in particular, are located within close proximity of Kampala city, which is characterized by a growing population and an increasing purchasing power. This provides a ready market for agricultural produces from the two districts. Additionally, as shown in Table 3, the two districts have the highest population densities of all the Humidtropics districts and a large proportion of this population is not employed in agriculture. A majority of residents in these two districts therefore rely on purchases rather than own-production to meet their food needs. This presents additional market opportunities for food products from within the districts and beyond. In particular, the growing urban population in Kampala and its environs presents growing opportunities for livestock products (pigs, poultry and milk) as well as horticultural commodities and high-value staples such as rice. The large urban market also presents possibilities for realizing higher farm gate prices especially for urban and peri-urban districts of Wakiso and Mukono.Increasing urbanization and rising incomes also imply increasing demand for chicken and eggs, which boils down to increased commercialization of chicken production and a growing demand for day-old chicks. This presents an opportunity to integrate backwards into rearing of breeder broilers and layers, as well as establishment of hatchery businesses.Location along main highways to neighbouring countries. Some of the neighbouring countries are characterized by unfavourable climatic conditions and present a ready market for surplus grain and other key foodstuff produced in Uganda. Most Humidtropics sites are located along major highways connecting to key border towns. This enhances the ability of producers in such locations to link to regional markets.Seed markets. For maize producers, the unexploited regional seed market presents significant opportunity to supply one of the most reliable niche markets. Again the strategic location of some Humidtropics sites along a highway would make them attractive for seed companies looking for farmers to contract for maize seed production. Besides maize, demand for rice seeds also present a market opportunity for rice producers. Unlike maize, rice production relies heavily on the formal seed distribution system. Demand for certified rice seeds is likely to peak especially as more acreage is dedicated to upland rice. Significant seed market opportunities also lie in export destinations. For instance, in 2008 Uganda supplied NERICA seeds to Mali (Uganda Rice Revolution 2009).Export markets. Several products produced in the Humidtropics sites such as tea, coffee, maize, beans and soybeans are destined for export markets (global and regional), which tend to be more lucrative than local markets. There are also opportunities for cassava producers to export cassava dried chips mostly to DRC. Farmers can obtain a profit margin of 56% if they sell dried chips and 33% if they sell fresh root tubers (Deloitte-NAADS 2014). For maize and beans, there is even a more lucrative opportunity to tap into the stable export market presented by the WFP procurement procedures.Courtesy of their proximity to major urban areas, the two urban districts of Wakiso and Mukono have better access to electricity and reliable water supply. For instance, 82% of the population in Mukono has access to safe water for drinking (DWD-MWE 2010). Moreover, some rural districts are relatively well served with electricity e.g., Nakaseke and Rakai. Households and some processing plants especially in Rakai are connected to the national grid courtesy of the rural electrification program. This has enhanced opportunities for value addition.Additionally, a couple more districts such as Kyakwanzi, Kiboga and Masaka lie on major highways linking Kampala to neighbouring Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. The road infrastructure provides opportunities for delivering commodities from these regions into Kampala markets and across the borders into neighbouring countries.Bananas. There exist vast opportunities to produce new products from bananas such as chips, flour, wine and juices. These products are demanded both locally and abroad. For instance, there is a growing demand for Uganda's dessert and roasting banana in Kenyan markets while dried banana chips is highly demanded in the EU markets. Local demand for dried chips is also growing and Danielle Foods, Amfri farms and Biofresh Ltd are among local companies already processing bananas into dried chips. Amfri farms Ltd and Biofresh Ltd are also the main exporters of fresh bananas to the EU markets. Besides improving shelf life of banana, reducing post-harvest losses and possibly stabilizing farm gate prices, the agro-processing opportunities would create employment opportunities through establishment of small and medium enterprises (SMEs).Local industrial demand for cassava (animal feeds, breweries, packaging, and bakery) is estimated at 200,000 tonnes annually and valued at USD 44 million. This provides a nascent opportunity for cassava producers to integrate into an industrial value chain that would substantially reduce post-harvest losses and improve earnings for producers.Pork. With increasing urbanization and rising incomes, there exists vast opportunities to diversify pig meat into several niche products such as pork sausages and mince pork. This would increase product values with possible improved margins to farmers.With increasing demand for pre-sale slaughtered and packaged chicken, there are increasing opportunities for growing businesses around commercial slaughtering and processing of chicken. This would provide opportunities for growth of SMEs.There have been significant improvements in collection centres and development of cold chain infrastructure through provision of chilling plants especially under the EADD project.Coffee. There is an upcoming coffee plant in Kyankwanzi which will provide opportunities for post-harvest processing and value addition. Another coffee processing plant is also coming up in Rakai.Increasing demand for animal feed both locally and in the region present an opportunity for producers to gain access to agro-processing. Further opportunity for improved access to agro-processing is presented by manufacturing of baby food from soybeans.Maize. There is also a growing demand for maize bran for manufacturing animal feeds (Compete 2010).There is widespread and concentrated spread of SACCOs and micro-financing institutions. Their heavy presence is an opportunity to alleviate credit constraints experienced by rural actors along several value chains. The presence of these financial institutions provides opportunities for engaging the financial sector to develop suitable products for various actors along the different value chains.Across all value chains there exits substantial opportunities to use modern technologies such as mobile text messages and traditional approaches such as notice boards in trading centres. Appropriate and well-packaged radio programs can also be used to disseminate market information.Tea and coffee. Some of the produces from Humidtropics sites are marketed through an organized structure like the tea auction in Mombasa. Moreover, there are several marketing institutions in the more rural areas that link farmers to markets. For instance, there are various coffee buying centres in Masaka (National Union of Coffee Agribusinesses and Farm Enterprises, Kyagalanyi) and Luwero (Ibero, Kyagalanyi) districts. There are also opportunities to institute a more organized way of marketing coffee through auctions, which would enhance efficiency and price transparency. These commodities also represent significant opportunities for access to niche export markets. Production of specialty coffee (organic coffee), for instance, opens opportunity for accessing niche markets in the EU through some form of contract farming.Soybeans. Soybeans is mostly purchased for export or industrial processing into vegetable oil and animal feed. These export and processing opportunities present an ideal setup for establishment of contract agriculture that would improve earnings for producers while also providing market assurance.Horticulture. There are also several processing companies in Kampala that process juices, tomato sauce and other products that could contractually be linked to producers as a means of ensuring marketing outlets and improved returns to producers.Pig production. Value addition of pork through processing into diverse niche products presents an opportunity for direct linkages between producers and processors. The quality and standards requirement often emphasized by such high-value chains provides incentives for direct sourcing from producers often involving contracts. Such institutional arrangements would improve returns to producers besides providing market assurance.Poultry production. The growing demand for pre-sale slaughtered and packaged chicken presents an opportunity for a more organized value chain based on contract farming. With increasing urbanization and changes in tastes and preference, the chicken value chain will experience increased concentration with supermarkets playing an increasing role as a market outlet for chicken. This provides opportunities for producers to integrate into high-value chains (characterized by tighter coordination and contract farming) and to benefit from higher returns and market assurance.Finally, there are various development agencies and initiatives working on market linkages for smallholder farmers. These include the EADD initiative, Sameer and VEDCO, among others.Agro-processing and value additionIn spite of existing opportunities for some commodities, there is still inadequate capacity for value addition and agroprocessing for most value chains. For instance, the pineapples produced in Luwero district often have to be sold at throw-away prices due to lack of processing facilities that could enhance returns to growers. Similarly, only 20% of coffee produced in Kiboga can be handled by the 10 coffee hullers present in the district. There are also no value addition opportunities for fruits and vegetables produced in Masaka, leading to huge post-harvest losses. Most of the commodities are also characterized by inadequate storage technologies and poor post-production handling, thus affecting quality of products marketed. While rice mostly undergoes some form of processing before sale, the poor quality of processing facilities often yields low quality grain that can hardly compete with imported rice. Owing to its high quality grain, the imported rice is generally preferred by the urban population (MAAIF 2009). Rice production is also subject to inadequate storage facilities or rural warehouses leading to substantial losses at farm level.Maize production also suffers from a lack of appropriate storage and post-harvest handling facilities, which forces farmers to sell immediately after harvest. This leads to grain glut and lower prices for producers. Wide price fluctuations often experienced in the maize market is indeed a consequence of poor storage and post-harvest handling facilities. The industrial potential for cassava is also compromised by the limited investment in processing facilities.Similarly, the value addition opportunities for bananas that have been discussed above are limited by low investment in processing infrastructure.With regards to livestock, dairy production is faced with inadequate infrastructure for post-production handling such as coolers and chilling plants. While some districts, such as Nakaseke, have relatively high numbers of milk coolers, there are only five such coolers in Luwero district. Kiboga district on the other hand only has 15 milk coolers, which can only accommodate 50% of total milk produced in the district. Similarly, limited infrastructure for processing and handling of pig meat also leads to poor quality and unsafe pig meat. Out of six abattoirs in Kampala and Wakiso, only one specializes in the slaughter of pigs. The rest are illegal slaughterhouses that can hardly meet quality standards for supply of safe pig meat.While most districts falling within the Humidtropics sites are traversed by at least one major highway, the poor road network, particularly in rural districts, is a big hindrance to market access. A district like Nakaseke only has one tarmac road with most feeder roads in the district becoming impassable during the rainy season, which further impedes market access. While road infrastructure is particularly critical for the highly perishable horticultural and dairy products, poor infrastructure also affects the value potential of major grain staples. For distributors of staples such as maize, cassava and rice, the poor road network increases trading cost, which is often then passed on to farmers. In extreme cases, production regions for many staples remain inaccessible, thus making it impossible for producers to bring any production surpluses to the market. For dairy, poor road infrastructure, especially feeder roads impedes timely delivery of milk to markets. Moreover, improper handling and erratic power supply lead to substantial losses due to spoilage. Most of the selected value chains lack economies of scale; their actors generally lack the capacity to produce sufficient volumes required by large output markets. Consequently, most commodities are traded in local markets in small quantities. These micro markets only attract very low prices. Additionally, weak or non-existent value chain institutions have led to poor or no market information about outlet channels for most commodities produced in the Humidtropics sites. For the maize value chain, producers often have low volumes of marketable surplus and are geographically dispersed making it difficult to undertake collective marketing. This also applies to the beans value chain where, due to limited information, marketing is done largely on an individual basis with limited collective action, leading to low bargaining power and consequently lower farm gate prices for producers. Similarly to maize, bean producers are also scattered and they produce low volumes with low marketable surpluses. This lowers their bargaining power while also making trading quite costly, a burden which is often passed on to producers in lower farm gate prices. For beans, the scattered nature of producers and the low volumes of marketable surplus, particularly limit possibilities to exploit export and niche market opportunities presented by WFP and soybean processing firms.Similar experiences are prevalent in the banana supply chain where lack of collective marketing compromises producers' ability to realize substantial gains in earnings. In the coffee value chain, there is a large number of small traders supplying a few exporters (who also act as bulking agencies), which leads to oligopsonistic behaviour.The livestock value chains are also victims of inadequate institutional arrangements for enhanced market access.For instance, there are fewer well-structured pig producer groups that can propagate collective marketing in order to enhance producers' bargaining power. The poor structure of the industry is manifested by the many traders at each level of the supply chain, which often results into higher transaction costs and exploitation of farmers by traders. The dairy sector is dominated by a few key organizations, which exposes the industry to systemic risk in case these key organizations fail. The dairy value chain is also characterized by a weak and small formal sector.Finally there are also weak input markets and a general lack of appropriate mechanisms for linking producers to input suppliers, thus limiting use of improved seed varieties, fertilizers and other livestock inputs.Nearly all the value chains under discussion are exposed to the challenge of low farm gate prices. The low prices are a consequence of limited agro-processing or value addition opportunities that often leave producers at the mercy of traders. Low farm gate prices are also caused by information asymmetry. For the banana value chain, limited or unreliable access to market information on market options and prices is quite prevalent. Market information is often disseminated through bicycle traders and other agents who have less incentive to provide reliable information to farmers. For beans producers, information is mostly obtained from district radio broadcasts, yet many poor farmers can hardly afford radios. Moreover, the information is not well packaged and is less detailed. Limited market information also limits access by pig producers to more high-end supply chains, such as supermarkets, where access to information is a critical factor to the sustainable supply of commodities. The dairy value chain is also characterized by information asymmetry between producers and marketers leading to overpriced inputs and underpriced outputs. Due to information asymmetries across various value chains, producers are left with less bargaining power and are increasingly exploited by traders. There is therefore need to strengthen linkages amongst value chain actors to improve access to market information.Since most of the value chains selected are characterized by produce that is sold raw or unprocessed, market prices are generally low. This is further compounded by limited value addition. An underdeveloped domestic market is another factor leading to low market prices of all the value chains selected. Prices also often fluctuate largely due to seasonality and general lack of storage facilities. Poor storage facilities also lead to low quality products that tend to command low market prices. In the dairy value chain, farmers are forced to accept low prices in exchange for market assurance provided by the cooperatives and chilling plants.The unorganized market approaches adopted in most value chains also lessens the bargaining power of producers leading to low output prices. Traders are often more organized than farmers and some traders operate cartels, which collude in setting prices thereby hindering farmers from negotiating better prices.While most Humidtropics districts are well served with micro finance institutions, Kyankwanzi, Nakaseke and Kiboga districts have limited coverage of financial institutions.Moreover, even where they exist, most of these financial institutions do not have sufficient appropriate financial options for smallholder farmers and other value chain actors at various levels of the value chain. In the banana value chain for instance, value chain actors complained of limited access to credit, especially small and microenterprise traders who are often neglected by existing financial options that focus mainly on farmers. Market development in the Humidtropics field sites of Uganda is still wanting. To solve this, multi-stakeholder innovations approaches, which link farmers to markets and business development services, should be the driving force behind systems intensification within Humidtropics. The key issues emerging from this situational analysis are:• Farmers generally complain of low prices offered and this may be attributed to the little or no value added to their produce as well as the urgency to sell immediately in order to obtain cash to meet immediate needs.• A ready market exists for almost everything produced in Mukono and Wakiso as well as most urban and peri-urban areas.• Inadequate storage both at household and community levels is responsible for the low farm gate prices obtained by farmers who are unable to store and wait for off peak periods when prices are a little better. Worse still, inadequate storage is responsible for the heavy losses in quality for most harvested produce.• Electricity and water coverage is improving so value addition is likely to improve too as the private sector responds to this opportunity.• Good roads linking most of the districts studied to key markets within the country and beyond the country's border are to be considered as opportunities which can be captured in the short run.This section highlights the status of natural resource management and the environment in the eight Ugandan districts where Humidtropics will operate. The section specifically covers forests, water, soil, rainfall and demography in target districts of Kiboga, Kyankwanzi, Luwero, Wakiso, Nakaseke Rakai, Mukono and Masaka. The analysis covers the status of the resources, the challenges and opportunities for sustainable intensification within Humidtropics, highlighting efforts of recent and ongoing projects and programs addressing NRM and the environment in the selected districts.The Intermediate Development Indicator that this section will help to address is IDO-4 'Improved management of natural resources is essential for sustaining increases in farm-level productivity and the provision of other ecosystem services'.Countrywide, total annual deforestation rate inside and outside protected areas is estimated at 1.8% (0.7% inside protected areas and 2.27% outside) or an absolute loss of about 88,638 ha per year (NFA 2009). An earlier conservative estimate suggested the national cost of deforestation in the range of USD3.8-5.5 million/year (Falkenbeng and Sepp 1999). However, deforestation rates and thus associated costs vary across the districts where Humidtropics will operate (Table 14). Forest degeneration in the peri-urban districts of Wakiso and Mukono is due to the spilling over of urbanization from the capital city Kampala resulting in high encroachment on forests for economic activities including construction works, furniture and small-scale manufacturing industries (bakeries, brick making). The two peri-urban districts have the highest acreage of built up area in Uganda after Kampala. In the rural districts, degeneration is largely due to both agricultural expansion as farmers open new crop fields to cover declining yields (due to declining soil fertility, inadequate rainfall, and pests and diseases), and direct conversion of forests to grazing land especially in Kyankwanzi, Kiboga and Nakaseke. Furthermore, these rural districts have a relatively high population below the poverty line (up to 60% in some districts compared with a national average of 22%), which precipitates dependence on forest resources like trees for charcoal burning. Indeed, Kiboga and Nakaseke jointly supply about 25% of Kampala's charcoal demand (Kisakye 2004;Namirembe 2011).Forest management is under four different institutional arrangements, but it is notable that most of the degeneration is outside protected areas (Table 15). Management of protected areas is relatively well planned by the Uganda Wildlife and National Forestry Authorities, but the areas under joint management tend to suffer, possibly due to interinstitutional conflict and unexecuted responsibilities, which commonly occur along boundaries where the interests and jurisdictions of multiple actors overlap (Mitchell 1990). Forest degeneration is much more pronounced outside protected areas mainly because of a lack of well-planned management (Nsita 2010). Management of private forests is in principle supported by the DFS that is mandated to provide advisory support to private forest owners and also manage the district forests, but many report limited capacity to do this due to both financial constraints and related low staffing levels. The low allocation of resources to the environment and natural resources sector (typically between 0.3 and 0.6% of total national budget) limits the ability of DFS to undertake its activities, including hiring of personnel. Consequently, local administrations in all the Humidtropics districts are too weak or quite disempowered to check the rampant degeneration of natural resources. For instance, as one natural resource officer in Mukono observed:'The district has only two rangers to support forest activities in its 13 sub-counties. One of the sub-counties is an island and a ranger is stationed there, which then leaves only one ranger with responsibility for 12 sub counties ... and that is too small especially when compared with the deployment for agricultural activities.' The main driving force towards the establishment of forest plantations is SPGS, a government project implemented by the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE). SPGS supports development of the forestry industry through providing subsidy grants to private tree farmers. Since 2004 SPGS has offered technical support and conditional grants for commercial-scale tree planting for timber, and poles to 389 tree farmers: 166 in central forest reserves and 223 on private land. The scheme seeks to reduce pressure on natural forests as well as to supply the country's predicted timber needs. Over 40,000 ha of mostly tropical pine timber plantations have been established countrywide. Focusing on Humidtropics' geographical scope, SPGS has supported the establishment of 11,127 ha of forest plantations (Table 16). About 80% of this has been in the previously degraded or deforested CFRs and the remaining 20% on private land. Districts with comparably larger coverage are Kiboga, Nakaseke and Luwero. Among the challenges faced in reforestation efforts is that the establishment of forest plantations constitutes a change in land use on private land and also in the CFRs. Plantation establishment thus competes with crop production. Local populations have been evicted from CFRs in all Humidtropics districts in favour of plantation establishment.It is important to note that forest plantations offer a maximum sustainable yield of 20-40 m 3 /ha per year as compared with 2 m 3 /ha per year from even the richest natural forests (Kazoora 2007). For some locations it is more feasible and cost-effective to use plantation biomass to produce electricity than depending on thermal energy (Tennigkeit 2006). Regenerative energy sources (bioenergy) have generated considerable interest in efforts to address both the oil and climate crises (McLaren 2005). Consequently SPGS is now in the early stages of implementing activities on the GCP/UGA/041 Project-'Global Climate Change Alliance' (GCCA) in Uganda. Its activities are meant to improve the resilience of the agricultural production system in the cattle corridor by promoting bio-energy plantations and improved charcoal production technologies. SPGS seeks to establish 600 ha of subsidized private-sector bio-energy plantations in the six cattle corridor districts of Nakaseke, Luwero, Nakasongola Kiboga, Mubende and Ssembabule. Three of these (Nakaseke, Luwero and Kiboga) fall within Humidtropics' area of interest. Establishment of plantations is mainly by large scale tree planters who are usually from outside the districts. Local participation is limited by access to land and financial resources. Local tree farmers are interested in carbon trade, but are limited by access to information. District forest officers are also ignorant of this.The opportunities envisaged in reforestation are that plantation establishment reduces pressure on natural forests. Forest plantations provide firewood (e.g. from thinning and dry branches) which reduces dependence on manure and mulches for fuel. The latter two can then be used as inputs in agricultural production. Access to firewood reduces the burden on women and children who otherwise travel long distances collecting firewood. The time saved can be likewise invested in agriculture. Plantations employ local people in undertaking silvicultural operations. This way they are a source of income that the smallholders can also reinvest in agriculture.The low forest plantation establishment in Mukono is attributable to a preference for natural forests to protect the shores of Lake Victoria and the Sezibwa river system. This presents an opportunity to support management of these natural areas and assisting natural regeneration.There are no large fruit or cash tree crop (rubber, palm oil, coffee or tea) plantations in the Humidtropics districts.The only large-scale agricultural plantation involves sugar cane in Mukono district.Local farmers in Uganda traditionally maintain trees on their farm for increased production and environmental sustainability. In the peri-urban districts, tree crops such as ficus (Ficus natalensis), musambya (Markhamia lutea), jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), or pawpaw (Carica papaya) are frequently maintained for their other uses: raw material to produce bark cloth and as live fence for demarcating land parcels. Ficus help improve soil properties. Jack fruit and pawpaws are a source of fruits. These trees also act as wind breakers in banana plantations and provide shade in coffee plantations. The trees also provide habitat for pollinators, which increase crop yields. Land use under trees is frequently Cocoyam, coffee (especially in Nakaseke), and banana (especially in Kiboga) cropping.In the pastoral districts of Kyankwanzi and Nakaseke trees on farm in this zone tend to be those maintained from the naturally occurring vegetation, typically scattered tree and shrub formations. Common species are Albizia and Acacia. However, these pastoral rangelands are some of the overgrazed areas in Uganda which defoliates the trees, and destroys tree roots and seedlings. Furthermore, trampling by livestock compacts the soil and interferes with regeneration of trees (Obua et al. 2006).Farmers are hesitant to plant trees with long gestation periods. Furthermore, some species like fruit trees and Eucalyptus cause disputes between neighbouring farmers when planted along farm boundaries. However, there are some existing opportunities for promotion of agroforestry practices:• Existing efforts by farmers to maintain or retain trees on farm demonstrate willingness to practice agroforestry.• There are existing initiatives (e.g. ICRAF) that support planting and maintenance of on-farm trees in the districts and Humidtropics can partner with these.• High yielding varieties of fruit trees are available.• There is a reasonable local market for fruit and other tree products that can be enhanced by value addition.Identifying opportunities for sustainable multiple agroforestry crop production systems might help private forest owners get a more valuable return from their forested land, and thus help protect it.The topography of most of the Humidtropics sites in Uganda is characterized by hills and ridges that are highly dissected by streams and drainage ways (Kabanyoro et al. 2013). Lake Victoria is the main water body with extensions into Masaka, Rakai, Wakiso, and Mukono districts. Other water bodies include Lakes Nabugabo in Masaka and Kijanebarora in Rakai (Figure 11). These provide opportunities for irrigation to facilitate all year round agriculture. This is particularly beneficial to horticultural enterprises.The water-nutrient interface is a particularly important component to consider given that these water bodies are surrounded by agricultural activities. However, temporal changes in the quality and quantity of water in these sources are not sufficiently documented and in many cases somewhat controversial. Some data is available for Lake Victoria, where rapid eutrophication is resulting from burning of biomass, sedimentation and run-off of nutrients from the catchment. Consequently, it is estimated that phosphorus levels have increased two to three times over the last 40-50 years (Hecky 1993), possibly due to increased atmospheric deposition from wind erosion and forest burning (Scheren 1995). It is estimated that 56% of the phosphorus input into the lake is due to runoff from agricultural land by the farmers living close by, 30% due to domestic waste, and 10-15% due to urban waste and atmospheric deposition (Bullock et al. 1995). However, it is important to note that these estimates are based on models and not measurements of actual nutrient inputs, which points to the need for investigations to measure these.Besides natural water sources, the government of Uganda has provided water to the most water-stressed districts through the construction of water boreholes, wells and dams. However, many of these are drying up due to the degeneration of their catchment forests. For example, wide scale conversion of catchment forests in Kyankwanzi-Kiboga hills into croplands has resulted into the drying up of boreholes, wells and dams in Kiboga and Kyankwanzi districts.Some individual farmers in Masaka, Rakai, Wakiso, and Mukono districts use simple technologies to harvest and store rainwater in ponds lined with polythene for irrigation use in the dry season. The increasing human demography and income levels in both rural and urban areas (see Annexes I, VI and VII) are leading to rising demands for animal products (Tatwangire 2014). The 2002 national census and the 2008 national livestock census offer the most comprehensive livestock datasets in Uganda. Overall, there was a general increase in the numbers and densities of all the livestock between 2002 and 2008. There is currently a wide variation in livestock density across the districts (See Annexes X and XI). For instance, focusing on cattle alone, the 2008 census revealed that Kiboga and Nakaseke were among the districts with the highest cattle population densities in the country with over 150 cattle per km². These districts have a 1:2 people to livestock ratio. Other cattle corridor districts recorded 50-150 cattle per km² while Wakiso, Masaka, and Mukono had less than 50 cattle per km².Conversion of forests to grazing land is a significant land-use change and a major driver of deforestation. This has particularly been the case in the districts of Kiboga and Nakaseke. Besides deforestation, consumption of plant cover by livestock, especially in instances of overgrazing contributes to rangeland degradation (Dregne et al. 1991). The biggest challenge to farmers in the western Savanna grasslands and pastoral rangelands is scarcity of drought reserves and watering points during the dry season. This is attributed to the 'ranch system' that hinders opportunistic grazing of livestock. High livestock densities may precipitate farmer-herder conflicts over the same finite land and water resources.Wetlands are a key natural resource covering about 13% (or 30,000 km²) of Uganda's total area. They provide a variety of socio-economic and bio-physical goods and services. In the urban districts of Mukono and Wakiso, wetlands are the last free or cheap areas for infrastructure development (e.g. buildings and roads), but are dominated by brick baking and sand mining activities because of the proximity to urban centres with a high demand for construction material. Furthermore, they are used as reserve lands for farming of seasonal crops and vegetables that are also in high demand to feed the ever growing urban population. The main threat in the rural districts is small, but one can observe continuous nibbling of the edges of seasonal wetlands for agricultural production.The soils in the Lake Victoria crescent are Ferallsols (FAO 2006) with a wide range in the content of K-feldspar and texture. Poorly drained areas (e.g. valley bottoms) have black and grey clays. Along the shores of Lake Victoria, soils are hydromorphic (See Figure 12). Soil quality varies across the zone but it ranges from moderate to good. There is extensive wind erosion during the dry season because soils remain exposed during prolonged dry months after the cultural practice of uncontrolled bush burning. Other factors for soil erosion include population pressure, poor methods of farming, overgrazing and vulnerable soils (NEMA 2000). In the western Savanna grasslands, soil quality ranges from moderate to good. There is extensive wind erosion during the dry season because soils remain exposed during prolonged dry months after the cultural practice of uncontrolled bush burning. In the pastoral districts, there is fair variation in the quality of the soils, but generally these range between moderate to poor. Agricultural productivity has generally declined throughout the districts. For example, Masaka is no longer a hub for coffee and bananas, and food insecurity is prevalent. The region has some of the most severe soil nutrient depletion rates in the country (up to 80-100 kg of NPK per ha/year). Masaka and Mukono have the most depleted soils, with the lowest banana productivity in the zone. Some areas in the zone have lunnyu soils. These soils tend to support Cymbopogan ssp., a weed that forms dense monotypic strands that out-compete native plant communities, thereby lowering local species diversity and consequently altering ecosystem properties. Caritas MADO is already working in the area on soil and land management.Considering that agriculture in Uganda is mainly rainfed, information about rainfall is considered very important in understanding the agricultural potential of respective areas in the program sites. Rainfall determines the types of crops grown, as well as the type of livestock kept. For all the districts in the project site, bimodal rainfall is received and average annual precipitations do not differ much across Humidtropics areas in Uganda (Figure 3 in production systems section).This implies the potential to harvest twice a year especially with annual crops. Furthermore, the amount of precipitation is meant to guide decision-makers on which crops to promote for which area. However, the occurrence of extreme meteorological events like droughts and flooding are more relevant indicators to address the vulnerabilities and risks faced by smallholder farmers.Many organizations are already intervening on NRM Currently, several agencies are undertaking a number of activities to conserve and attain a sustainable use of natural resources. These involve local NGOs, Ugandan national organizations and international organizations. NRM projects target forest conservation, agroforestry, sustainable land, water and other NRM activities (Annex XII). The Nakaseke Rural Youth Sustainable Livelihoods Initiative in particular aims at strengthening rural youth employment opportunities in agriculture and ICTs, improving their health standards and their livelihoods.As shown in the production systems section, up to 80% of Uganda's population is engaged in agriculture as a main source of cash and subsistence income. These are predominantly extensive farmers that seek increased production by increasing acreage. This scenario means that agricultural production can be antagonistic to sustainable natural resource management and the environment.There are a number of constraints to sustainable management of natural resource and the environment. The main one is limited financial and human capacity because of a perennially low resource envelop allocated to the NRM sector. Major risks from this are degeneration of forest cover and wetlands. Humidtropics field sites and indeed the central districts of Uganda have the highest risk of degeneration nationally because these are areas with intense economic activities including agricultural expansion, brisk charcoal and firewood trade, furniture industry, and smallscale manufacturing industries (bakeries, brick making). Nearly all the forests remaining in these districts are those in central forest reserves. The main drivers of degeneration of natural resources and the environment are the lack of clearly defined ownership, access rights (particularly for natural resources on customary land), increase in human and livestock populations, and the growth of the economy. The main threats are forest clearance for agriculture, uncontrolled charcoal and firewood production, uncontrolled timber extraction and grazing.However, there are some opportunities for the proper management of natural resources and the environment. First, the government appreciates the key role the environment and natural resources sector play in growth, employment and prosperity for all. It has put in place policy and planning frameworks that support the sector; for example, the National Development Plan has a stated objective of harnessing natural resources and the environment for sustainable development. Second, institutions exist at national and local levels which have concern for the management of natural resources and the environment as a core mandate: NFA, FSSD, National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), MWE at national level and DFS, NGOs, CBOs and university departments at local level. Some of the key issues which emerge in regards to NRM and the environment in Humidtropics sites in Uganda are:• Significant degeneration of forests and wetlands are observed mainly because of increased human and livestock populations resulting in increased demand on land resources for agriculture and industrial development. Moreover, this demand is growing while local administrations have limited financial and human capacities, and thus are relatively weak or quite disempowered to support or enforce proper management of natural resources.• Demand for wood and wood products has been on a steady rise as manufacturing and household energy needs are growing. Current infrastructure make it difficult for businesses and households to afford hydro-electricity power or other energy alternatives like solar power.• Though reforestation has been championed by SPGS, plantation forests tend to compete for land suitable for crop production; this is exacerbated by the misperceptions about trees in relation to soil water and fertility.• There are several agencies funding or working on different aspects of NRM. These complement local practices and, as such, provide opportunities for better management of the natural resources. However there is hardly any coordination between the activities of these would-be partners. For example, NGOs and CBOs do not currently cooperate with the local governments. The latter are hardly aware of what the former two are doing in the districts, yet they are in a better position to know the needs of their localities and can monitor projects and programs intervening locally.• Amongst the local practices, particularly important is the traditional maintenance of trees on farm, which provides multiple opportunities including soil and water conservation, enhancing the sustainability of production systems, diversification of farm produce and some agro-processing possibilities.• The issue of declining soil fertility is still a challenge that needs to be addressed, probably through better raising the awareness of farmers on the various ways of replenishing soil fertility through innovations in sustainable intensification of production systems.• Water harvesting, storage and utilization are also key issues, which still require some attention.While smallholder farmers are vulnerable to low market prices when their crop is ready for market, this risk can be easily mitigated by improving storage and post-harvest activities that will enable farmers to store their crops until market prices are more favourable, or to add value to their produce so as to tap into a different market segment. The situational analysis has identified many opportunities that can lead to market development and that can be equitable for all actors involved in the value chains. In particular, by encouraging farmers, traders and processors to improve the quality of their products, Humidtropics is likely to contribute to improving their market access.As a result, the Uganda R4D platform plans to undertake the following activities on markets and institutions:• Understanding major socio-economic and institutional factors constraining young people and women in attaining improved livelihoods• Value chain assessments for participatory mapping of the value chains• Linking farmers to markets through the promotion of contractual arrangements, memoranda of understandings and institutional innovations.Encourage agri-food enterprise development for greater nutrition, diet-diversity and youth employmentGiven the local knowledge of using various types of agricultural products into a diversified diet, Humidtropics can identify the opportunities for local communities to undertake mixed crop-livestock and agroforestry enterprises as well as small-and-medium agro-processing businesses. The creation of small agribusinesses is likely to foster a more diverse diet and improve the nutritional status of populations in both peri-urban and rural districts. New agroprocessing ventures in particular, will contribute to creating employment for youth, especially in peri-urban districts, and will help pull agricultural production by creating a market for raw produce.Accordingly, the Uganda R4D platform has planned the following concrete activities on mixed farm enterprise or agro-processing development:• Identifying utilization options for linking vegetables and livestock• Identifying utilization options for linking soybean, maize and livestock• Developing promising socio-economic and technological packages for improved livelihoods• Making feeds from and fostering post-harvest handling of vegetables and soybean-maize• Waste reutilization for generating energy and feeding soil and livestock• Training farmers on human nutrition and making feeds for livestock.Although the situational analysis has identified that there were many R4D partners already active in providing support to improving the sustainability of integrated production systems in Uganda, their activities are rarely coordinated. By creating information sharing mechanisms across R4D partners, Humidtropics will strengthen the institutional network supporting agri-food systems development. The R4D platform is by definition a space for greater information sharing and coordination of activities among R4D partners.The R4D platform has planned the following coordination of partner activities:• Identifying existing groups of women and youths and training them in integrated agricultural research for development• Fostering organizational development and strengthening linkages with other stakeholders within an innovation platform• Conducting training in selected areas (e.g. organizational capacity development, self-help groups for credit, access to improved planting materials, addition technologies).Finally, all the recommendations above cannot lead to a sustainable outcome without the participation of the public sector to help steer the agri-food industry through inclusive policies that are effectively implemented. The R4D platform is again the ideal space for policymakers to become aware of the issues faced by the actors of the agri-food production, marketing and NRM systems. The platform can also foster a multi-stakeholder discussion to identify the most relevant options for inclusive policy formulation and sustainable implementation.Accordingly, the Ugandan R4D platform has elaborated plans to work on coordination of policy decision-making:• Identification of enabling policies and institutional arrangements Annex IX: Definition of land systems in Uganda a.Mailo tenure: This is a quasi-freehold tenure system established in 1900 by the British colonial government to reward colonial agents who advanced British interests in many regions of Uganda. It remains a relatively secure and well-defined system of tenure, particularly in the central region. Besides these owners having titles which are transferrable, an important feature of mailo systems is that much of the land is used by tenants (Bibanja holders) who are restricted in their security of tenure on the land they farm.Customary tenure: This is the most common tenure system in Uganda whereby access to land is 'governed by the customs, rules, and regulations of the community'. Holders of land under the customary system do not have a formal title to the land they use, but generally have secure tenure.Freehold tenure: This is a system whereby owners of the land have a title to their land, which allows them to hold the registered land indefinitely. The landowner is given complete rights to use, sell, lease, transfer, subdivide, mortgage and bequeath the land as they see fit, so long as it is done in a manner consistent with the laws of Uganda.Leasehold tenure: This is a system where the owner of the land grants the tenant exclusive use of the land, usually for a specific period of time. Land may also be leased from the state to individuals for typical lease periods of 5, 45, or 99 years. In return, the tenant usually pays an annual rent or service under specified terms and conditions. Leaseholders may or may not hold formal contracts with the owner.e. Kabaka's land: The Kabaka of Buganda and his Kingdom also owns huge chunks of land both privately and also on behalf of the Kingdom. Tenants are granted ownership or user rights by the Buganda Land Board for both specified and indefinite time periods.","tokenCount":"16456"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"afbf488c04392fc14ee9605efbc38d52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5ba6633f-0a10-45e6-b0fb-3d01c6f39256/retrieve","id":"-1784134039"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec59a556-06d2-4298-af6c-7c2e8fbdc355","pagecount":"31","content":"The objectives of this training session are meant not only to teach and review aspects of hygiene, carcass handling and biosecurity practices along the smallholder pork value chain but also to inspire dialogue between course moderators/ instructors and participants supporting future improvement and growth in Uganda.The training takes place over two days, requiring approximately four-six hours a day.The course takes place at easily accessible local venues. Attendees are given an appropriate travel allowance to cover their daily travel costs.Breakfast/coffee/tea/water are provided, with a mid-morning snack, and lunch on day one. Name tags, pens and a small spiral bound notebook are provided for attendees. A round-trip transportation allowance is also provided for the attendees.Course moderators/instructors conduct a post-course follow-up visit and questionnaire to determine both the value and effectiveness of the training. The information obtained will is used to amend and strengthen future courses.Initial site visit and introduction to the district veterinary officer It is imperative that course moderators/instructors contact and visit the respective district veterinary officer (DVO) in the region in which the course is to be taught. Course moderators/instructors should be expected to introduce themselves, the project and the course formalities including topics, objectives, duration, the training module and the proposed location.Respective roles and responsibilities throughout the course should be presented and understood by all involved. Course moderators/instructors should engage the DVO to act and speak as a liaison between the course moderators/ instructors (the organization) and the people of his district throughout the course. Course moderators/instructors are strongly encouraged to keep good meeting records, list of attendees and maintain appropriate contact with the DVO from this point on.Course moderators/instructors should clearly establish the fact that they will need to closely collaborate with the DVO to engage attendees including local producers, butchers and traders, as well as to determine the venues for the course activities on day one and two. Visiting the district with the DVO may help to support your integrity, as well as provide an estimate of the size of venue, cost of food, beverages and travel allowance which will be provided to course participants. While visiting the district, a short assessment should be made to assess the potential audience and more importantly any specific area which may need particular attention.The DVO will also help determine the most appropriate slaughter slab for the practical exercise on day two. The day two exercise is intended to review the entire slaughter process. It would be best to find a slaughter slab with an associated pork joint to streamline the teaching/discussion as we follow the pork through the entire slaughter process. Be sure there is easy access and ample room for your group's size. A group which is too large may be find it challenging to hear and participate in course content.Day one is in a classroom setting comprising three individual rotating sections each chaired by an individual and approximately 40 minutes in length at a predetermined venue.The day one material is presented in three individual group sessions which include:• Section 1: Hygiene and sanitation at the slaughter slab • Section 2: Personal hygiene • Section 3: Hygiene at the pork joint and carcass handling Section 1: Hygiene and sanitation at the slaughter slab I.Introduction to hygiene and sanitation at the slaughter slabCourse moderator/instructor tips and talking points:• Introduce yourself and the project that you are working on• Mention that you enjoyed visiting the district, meeting them and learning about their operations• Mention that you would like talk about your experiences and perhaps make suggestions in areas which you were aware that improvements could be made• May need to work to really engage members of the group using names tags to involve attendees• Course moderators/instructors should focus on a particular area such as:• How do you recognize a sick pig?• Discuss recognizing a sick or compromised pig without knowing why the animal is sick Be sure to explain that there are some conditions which may be treated…and the value of working with their paraveterinarian in terms of treatment protocols Be sure to explain the value of the welfare of the animal. Sick animals may be in pain and require medical treatment. Sick animals do not grow as well• Use the illustrations in the publication to help present this visually. You may want to print out individual 'conditions' depicting a sick or compromised pig to make your point with the audience• Can they identify a sick animal?• Can they understand why it is not in their best interest to slaughter and eat a sick animal? a) Body (omubiri)- • Using the image and publication, describe healthy versu. unhealthy skin.• You may want to mention African swine fever lesions and other differential diagnoses d) Temperament (embeera)-• Similarly, using the images , describe how walking the pens and looking at the temperament of the animals can help you determine which animals may be ill.The slaughter slab (Webasalira embizzi)  IV. Stress these five points An attendance appreciation gift is also given to the attendees at the conclusion of day two and a sanitation/hygiene starter package including a basin, brush, bleach, hand soap, hand towel and scrub brush. The appropriate use of these items is to be thoroughly described within the individual break-out sessions on day one by in Sections 2 and 3. The value of each item will vary depending upon your available budget-our initial cost/gift was approximately X UGS .Notes for class moderators/instructors  ","tokenCount":"900"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"620dfe0f4db70976e80340529bdc74d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4753e1fc-4661-4dc9-8d7d-c58beb1f9c3c/retrieve","id":"1855704317"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dfcadadb-0f85-4f20-90e7-83ace5b6c636","pagecount":"14","content":"After approval of the LIVES project in December 2011, the Contribution Arrangement between ILRI & CIDA was signed on March 23 rd 2012. This first progress report covers the period April 1, 2012 to March 31, 2013 which also includes the four-month Planning Phase of the Project (April to July 2012).During the Planning Phase of the project, the Project Implementation Plan (PIP) was prepared and submitted to CIDA at the end of July 2012 and incorporated comments received from CIDA on an earlier draft.CIDA sent comments on the PIP, Logic Model & Performance Management Framework in August. Comments were incorporated and revised documents were sent back to CIDA at the end of August. The draft Annual Work Plan and budget for Year 1 were also submitted in August. An RFA for activities from October -December 2012 was also submitted to CIDA in September and it was approved by CIDA in October. The revised and final version of the AWP for Year 1 and annexes were submitted to CIDA in October and were approved.In late July, EIAR responded positively to a letter from the ILRI Director General about collaboration on the LIVES project. EIAR also had some inputs on the implementation of the project including the establishment of a Project Steering Committee comprised of delegates from the MoA, EIAR, ILRI & IWMI. The letter also stated that this PSC should include representatives from the responsible Regional Bureaus of Agriculture, Livestock Development Agencies & Regional Research Institutes.On October 30 th , letters to all the Regions were sent by the MoA asking them to delegate staff for membership to the Steering Committee. Letters with these nominations have now been received from all Regions.The process of institutionalizing the LIVES project took longer than anticipated but this has now paid off. A timeline of how these events transpired is shown below. However due to the various delays, some of the planned activities/outputs have been postponed to Year 2 of the project.During the project's PIP Phase, Regional consultative meetings with public sector representatives (agriculture, water, research) were held to introduce the project, verify initially selected commodities and zones and also appoint public sector staff members for regional and zonal assessments. Next, Zonal meetings in each of the selected zones took place and were attended by the project's regional teams as well as public sector staff. The purpose of these meetings was similar to the Regional consultative meetings but in addition, clusters of 3 districts to produce the selected commodities were selected and data collection was also initiated. Finally, consultative meetings at district level were also organized during the PIP phase where the project was introduced, selected commodities reviewed and potential PAs for each of the selected commodities were identified.In Year 1 of the project, gaps in the capacity of farmers were identified and Zonal stakeholder meetings also took place. Zonal and Regional staff were familiarized about LIVES concepts while on the job and guidelines for the selection criteria of MSc/BSc students are in the process of being developed. Training/mentoring suppliers of inputs and services and farmers did not take place and has been postponed to Year 2 of the project. Several activities took place under Knowledge Management during this reporting period including identification of gaps in the knowledge of farmers and service providers. Zonal workshops were also successfully organized in each of the Zones where the concept of Knowledge Centers was introduced to stakeholders and sets of publications were also widely distributed in the Zones and Districts. Some knowledge sharing and learning events were also organized. A launching event took place on January 22, 2013 where the project was endorsed by the State Minster of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) & the Director General of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). The event was attended by members of the research community as well as various development projects. In addition, during this reporting period, staff were involved in a number of promotional activities in different locations including development of curricula. Some work was also done to develop the content of the EAP. In July 2012, a PIP Planning Workshop to review identified value chains, target areas, actors and service providers took place at headquarters. This was followed by baseline data collection combined with rapid diagnostic assessment of each value chain. The project then conducted an inception workshop at headquarter level as well as Zonal workshops in each of the project's Zones to review diagnostic findings, including baseline data, and develop visions and potential interventions. The baseline data collection was completed during this reporting period and a report has been submitted to CIDA. LIVES also conducted its Research Planning Workshop during this reporting period. Diagnostic, Action & Commodity Impact studies were not conducted during this reporting period and have been postponed. Several staff members came on board while the recruitment process for many more positions has been initiated. Procurement of quite a few project vehicles has been completed but is ongoing as well.During this reporting period, gaps in the capacity of the farmers were identified and Zonal stakeholder meetings also took place. Zonal and Regional staff were familiarized about LIVES value chain development assessment while on the job and guidelines for the selection criteria of MSc/BSc students are in the process of being developed. Training/mentoring suppliers of inputs and services (1170) and farmers (1180) did not take place and has been postponed for Year 2 of the project.Gaps in capacity of farmers and service providers were identified as part of the PIP and Zonal workshops, where possible, interventions were suggested by the participants.Zonal stakeholder meetings took place as planned and potential capacity development activities were identified. These need further refinement and approval by the Regional Project Implementation Committee (RPIC) and the Project Steering Committee (PSC). See Annex 1 Capacity Development interventions.The training for Regional teams in value chain assessment to identify potential interventions was modified since Regional teams have not been assembled. Instead, LIVES staff familiarized assigned Zonal/Regional staff on the job while collecting baseline data, an estimated 25 Regional & Zonal staff were involved in this activity.All other trainings on approaches and technical issues were postponed because of delays in recruitment of staff and developing rapport with public sector partners.Selection of candidates for MSC/BSc has not yet started since the next academic year begins in September/October 2013. Guidelines/criteria for selection are currently being developed.Farmer production training did not take place during this reporting period. The project plans to undertake this activity in future by coaching/mentoring, knowledge management activities and providing/linking resource persons. During the baseline collection period however, many farmers were made aware of the benefits of value chain development for commodities based on the IPMS experiences.Several activities took place under Knowledge Management during this reporting period including identification of gaps in the knowledge of farmers and service providers. Zonal workshops were also successfully organized in each of the Zones where the concept of Knowledge Centers was introduced to stakeholders and sets of publications were also widely distributed in the Zones and Districts. Several knowledge sharing and learning events were also organized.Gaps in the knowledge of farmers and service providers on commodity value chain development were identified as part of the PIP and Zonal planning workshops. Educational institutions, training centers and the role of some programs and NGOs in knowledge sharing was identified during these events.During the PIP phase and the Zonal planning workshops in each of the LIVES Zones, the knowledge and capacity required to develop the value chain of each commodity was identified/reviewed along with relevant institutions that will contribute to the intervention process. See Annex 1 for the Knowledge Management interventions.The concept of knowledge centers was introduced to the stakeholders in the Zonal workshops. During this reporting period, an initial set of IPMS publications [working papers, manuals, synthesis reports (local language and English), radio programs and videos (local language and English), offline version of EAP], was provided to each District and Zone together with small portable bookshelves to display the various publications.Knowledge capturing, sharing and learning, to plan the project activities, took place during various events that were organized by LIVES in this reporting period. LIVES project staff captured and documented information from the various districts/Zones/Regions (PIP preparation, baseline, etc) which will were summarized in zonal profiles and reports (see value chain development section). National and zonal level planning workshops to share and capture new information on value chain development, capacity development and knowledge management are reported in the appropriate sections.The Project website was launched during this reporting period and the LIVES Wiki has also been established for internal use. A project blog for news and relevant stories for/about LIVES was set up and is being used. A photo set on flickr for LIVES was established and is promoting the project through pictures. All power point presentations of LIVES events are availed to a wider audience through slide share and have been embedded on the blog stories for ease of reading. The Project brochure was also finalized, duplicated and distributed to partners. All project documentations have been categorized and placed at a central place (the project server) for internal access. A GIS database has been developed for project stakeholders to view the administrative divisions of the country as a whole as well as the administrative divisions of the four regions where the project is active. The maps will also show zonal targeted commodities at the national and regional level and also potential Zonal PAs for each targeted commodity. Biophysical characteristics (at the zonal level) will also be visible from this database. This database will be expanded to include future GIS information on project activities and will also be linked to the LIVES website.A launching event took place on January 22, 2013 where the project was endorsed by the State Minster of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) & the Director General of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). The event was attended by members of the research community as well as various development projects. In addition, during this reporting period, staff were involved in a number of promotional activities in different locations including development of curricula. Some work was also done to develop the content of the EAP.The inception and launching workshop was organized in January 2013 to familiarize others of the LIVES project and plan on interventions and value chain visions. LIVES staff also participated in various events organized by other projects and organizations and shared their experiences (See Annex 2 for all such events).One such event is a training workshop in Bahir Dar on Participatory Integrated Watershed Management Planning and Implementation organized by the Water and Land Resource Centre under Addis Ababa University and University of Bern in Switzerland. A presentation on Livestock related interventions in a watershed was made to about 50 participants drawn from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. This led to an agreement for project staff to share experiences in dairy genetic improvement intervention in watersheds where the two projects overlap in Amhara region. Subsequently, a total of 200 cows were synchronized using hormones in two watersheds.An inception workshop for the Dutch funded EDGET dairy value chain project was organized by SNV in partnership with Heifer International, who is responsible for integrating the EDGET project in the BMGF funded EADD2 Regional project. During the deliberations, Dirk Hoekstra, representing LIVES stressed that synergies should be explored especially by linking LIVES dairy producers with agribusiness/hubs supported by EDGET/EADD2. It was furthermore stressed that the baseline data collected from the LIVES Zones, clearly highlighted that the present butter sales value were significantly higher than the fluid milk sales, re-emphasizing the point that butter value chain development is an integral part of the dairy value chain. EDGET/EADD2 would like to harmonize the documentation of the butter value chain interventions with LIVES. Staff of EDGET therefore participated in the LIVES research planning workshop.A LIVES staff member also served as an external examiner of a PhD agricultural economics student at Haramaya University as well as an external reviewer of the draft MSC curriculum on agribusiness and value chain management at Jima University. Discussions were held with Axum University staff on curriculum development for the MSc program on Agribusiness and Value Chain Management which has now started.The project was also represented working group meetings organized by Agri-Hub Ethiopia which led to the successful linking of the EIAR Gender Unit to the Agri-hub Gender Group.During this reporting period, a number of people started taking interest and proactively submitting their publications to be uploaded on EAP which was also promoted through the offline version. As in the past, stickers of the EAP were distributed to workshop participants, visitors and relevant partners at various events.In July 2012, a PIP Planning Workshop to review identified value chains, target areas, actors and service providers took place at headquarters. This was followed by baseline data collection combined with rapid diagnostic assessment of each value chain. The project then conducted an inception workshop at headquarter level as well as Zonal workshops in each of the project's Zones to review diagnostic findings, including baseline data, and develop visions and potential interventions.During the PIP phase, guidelines were prepared for Regional teams to identify/collect information on:  Priority Zones, Districts and potential PAs for each of the selected commodities  Value chain actors and service providers at district, Zonal and federal/Regional level  Potential number of households in the commodity domain PAs  Selected biophysical and socio economic data on LIVES Zones/Districts, including public sector staffing and information on irrigation schemes, livestock numbers and irrigated crop areasTo prepare the teams, LIVES organized staff training meetings at HQ, which were followed by a series of Regional and Zonal workshops and field visits in each of the Regions. This activity was furthermore supported by GIS map production at LIVES HQ.The results were summarized in Regional and Zonal Profiles, which were presented and reviewed during the first PIP planning workshop from July 11-12, 2012.Based on the PIP documentation, feedback from the July planning workshop (especially on the zonal profiles), preliminary baseline data results and rapid Zonal value chain assessment, Regional teams started preparing draft Zonal synthesis reports. These draft reports included generic diagnostic findings and baseline data on the selected commodities and supporting service systems. Draft reports were completed for all 10 Zones in December (also see final reports later) 1 .The project held a national inception workshop from January 21-24, 2013 to prepare for a series of Zonal workshops in each of the 10 Zones. During this workshop, Regional representatives/teams were trained in developing commodity specific development visions and interventions.Guided by the Regional Steering Committee members, dates for Zonal workshops were set and participants were invited and workshops were held. Details of when the workshops took place can be found in Annex 3.In each workshop, the diagnostic findings were presented and working groups developed commodity specific visions and value chain, knowledge management and capacity development interventions. Each zone also tried to prioritize first year interventions.Each Zone prepared a brief summary report on the workshop and the results of the Zonal workshops (additional diagnostic observations, visions and interventions) are now incorporated in the final Zonal reports.A list of all potential gender sensitive value chain interventions can be found on Annex 1Project staff participated in mentoring and coaching activities on animal genetic improvement programs in one zone in Tigray Region, two Zones in Oromia Region and three Zones in Amhara region. In addition, staff also provided technical back-stopping during scaling up exercise of dairy animal genetic improvement program in Oromia Region which involved a total of 74 selected Woredas.Quite a number of demonstration materials were purchased during the reporting period although not all have been received (a list of these items can be found on Annex 4). Four mobile cattle crushes that were paid for by IPMS for each of the Regions were delivered to ILRI and are currently being collected by representatives sent by Regional Bureaus of Agriculture. Each of the Regions is preparing to launch mass artificial insemination campaigns where these crushes will play an important role.The project has also identified a number of technologies that can be used during the life of the project (Annex 4). This list will be further streamlined after discussions with partners.The baseline data collection was completed during this reporting period and a report has been submitted to CIDA. LIVES also conducted its Research Planning Workshop during this reporting period. Diagnostic, Action & Commodity Impact studies (2220, 2230 & 2240) were not conducted during this reporting period and have been postponed to the next.LIVES held its research planning workshop from March 26 -28, 2013 in order to set priority research areas and identify partners (See Annex 6 for details).LIVES has developed results-based monitoring and evaluation (RBM&E) framework for the implementation of the project. Based on the project's logic model (LM), the Performance Measurement Framework (PMF) of the LIVES project has organized results indicators (output, immediate outcome, intermediate outcome and ultimate outcome) and the type of data needed, and the data collection methods and their sources.During the PIP phase (in August 2012), baseline data collection started in all project districts with the development of questionnaires, sampling procedures, data collection methods and training of Regional baseline data collection teams. PA level baseline data on selected commodities were collected from focus group discussions in sample PAs. During these discussions, field staff also obtained more details on the value chain functioning, which were complemented by field observations (LIVES staff were familiar with the type of information to be collected because of previous experiences in the IPMS project 2 ). Testing questionnaires/procedures was initiated/evaluated in July and data collection took place in July, August and September. Baseline data entry/screening and analysis took place from September to December and the draft baseline data report was submitted to CIDA in February. The baseline's results will serve as reference points to measure progress in the achievement of results and project objectives. Comments were received from CIDA and are being addressed at the moment.During this reporting period, several staff members came on board while the recruitment process for many positions has been initiated. Procurement of quite a few project vehicles has been completed but is ongoing as well.The following staff members have been recruited during this reporting period:Regions: Regional Coordinator, Livestock -Oromia  Regional Coordinator, Irrigated Crops -Tigray  Regional Expert, Livestock -Tigray  Regional Coordinator, Irrigated Crops -Amhara  Regional Expert, Livestock -Amhara  Regional Coordinator, Livestock -SNNPR  Regional Expert, Irrigated Crops -SNNPR Applications for the following positions are being reviewed: Research Assistants  Administrative Assistants  (Additional) Regional DriversInterviews for these positions will take place during the next reporting period.Vacancy announcements have also gone out for the Zonal Coordinators and Zonal Drivers positions.Four consultants were also hired to assist with the Zonal Workshops and also bridge the gap until the Regional & Zonal staff are on board.Project vehicles for headquarters and Regions have been purchased as planned. The vehicles for the Zones will be purchased during the next reporting period. Computer equipment for headquarter staff was provided by ILRI's IT unit as planned but additional equipment for the Regions & Zones has been ordered.The project Coordinating Team met on November 28 th , 2012 to discuss various issues. In the absence of the Project Steering Committee that had not yet been established, the Coordinating Team endorsed the PIP & Annual Work Plan for Year 1 of the project. Minutes of this meeting have been circulated to the Coordinating Team members as well as CIDA.None have taken place as the Regional RPIC has not yet been established. The RPIC will be established in the next few months.The Project Steering Committee establishment has only been completed very recently so no meetings were held during the reporting period. However, a meeting will take place once or as needed during the next reporting period. See Annex 6 for a list of the Project Steering Committee members.The AWP for Year 2 will be prepared and after approval by the PSC, be forwarded to CIDA before the due date of May 15, 2013. A draft will also be prepared for review by CIDA prior to final submission.Quarterly financial reports and fund advance requests have been submitted to CIDA as scheduled. Below is a summary of expenses reported to CIDA for the period of April ","tokenCount":"3380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ede952a30135979d01ed983e7545070e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/bf2606eb-d368-48f2-95df-bf531dd95215/content","id":"-959868680"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc59df5b-a744-4fcc-a485-acba22e1d551","pagecount":"12","content":"Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is a plant function where root systems release antibiotic compounds (BNIs) specifically aimed at suppressing nitrifiers to limit soil-nitrate formation in the root zone. Little is known about BNI-activity in maize (Zea mays L.), the most important food, feed, and energy crop. Two categories of BNIs are released from maize roots; hydrophobic and hydrophilic BNIs, that determine BNI-capacity in root systems. Zeanone is a recently discovered hydrophobic compound with BNI-activity, released from maize roots. The objectives of this study were to understand/quantify the relationship between zeanone activity and hydrophobic BNI-capacity. We assessed genetic variability among 250 CIMMYT maize lines (CMLs) characterized for hydrophobic BNI-capacity and zeanone activity, towards developing genetic markers linked to this trait in maize. CMLs with high BNI-capacity and ability to release zeanone from roots were identified. GWAS was performed using 27,085 SNPs (with unique positions on the B73v.4 reference genome, and false discovery rate = 10), and phenotypic information for BNI-capacity and zeanone production from root systems. Eighteen significant markers were identified; three associated with specific BNI-activity (SBNI), four with BNIactivity per plant (BNIPP), another ten were common between SBNI and BNIPP, and one with zeanone release. Further, 30 annotated genes were associated with the significant SNPs; most of these genes are involved in pathways of \"biological process\", and one (AMT5) in ammonium regulation in maize roots. Although the inbred lines in this study were not developed for BNI-traits, the identification of markers associated with BNI-capacity suggests the possibility of using these genomic tools in markerassisted selection to improve hydrophobic BNI-capacity in maize.Massive application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers to agricultural crops, including maize, has economic and ecological implications ranging from its important contribution to food production and the \"green revolution\" 1 , to negative impacts on water pollution, depletion of soil-fertility, and greenhouse gas emissions 2 . Reducing N losses from N fertilizers will improve N uptake and N use efficiency, and can improve crop productivity 3,4 . Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is one approach to reduce soil N losses and is a plant-based natural process that can reduce N fertilizer demand while sustaining agricultural systems 5,6 . Several studies have reported BNI-activity in forage grasses [7][8][9][10][11][12] , legumes [13][14][15] , and cereal crops 8,[16][17][18][19][20] , suggesting the possibility of selection and genetic improvement for this trait.Plant roots release two classes of BNI-compounds, hydrophobic and hydrophilic; this categorization is based on their relative solubility in and affinity for water. Hydrophobic BNI-compounds are mostly confined to and active in the rhizosphere, whereas hydrophilic BNI compounds' impact may extend beyond the rhizosphere 3 . Together, i.e., hydrophobic and hydrophilic BNI-compounds determine the BNI-capacity (i.e. nitrification inhibitory capacity) of root systems. The relative contributions of hydrophobic and hydrophilic BNI-compounds to the BNI-capacity of root systems may vary among plant species. For example, hydrophobic BNIs contribute about 60% of BNI-capacity in sorghum, whereas hydrophilic BNIs contribute nearly 90% of BNI-capacity in wheat 3 . Root systems of a wild wheat (Leymus raceamosus (Lam.) Tzvelev) have nearly 20-times higher BNI-capacity (i.e. ability to release BNI-activity from roots) compared to most cultivated wheats (Triticum aestivum L.1. Assess the genetic variation among 250 CIMMYT maize lines (CMLs) for hydrophobic BNI-capacity (i.e.hydrophobic BN-compounds released from roots). We studied only hydrophobic BNI-capacity because phenotyping hydrophilic BNI-activity is prohibitively cumbersome (can phenotype only 10-15 lines per year), and because hydrophobic BNI accounts for nearly half of total BNI-capacity in maize. 2. Assess genetic variation for 'zeanone' (the major BNI-compound isolated/identified from root DCM wash, and responsible for a major portion of hydrophobic BNI-activity) release and its association with hydrophobic BNI-activity. 3. Identify molecular markers and potential candidate genes associated with hydrophobic BNI-capacity and/ or zeanone release from maize root systems, paving the way for molecular marker-based strategies to allow the effective development of germplasm able to reduce nitrifier activity and soil-nitrate formation in maize production systems.There was large phenotypic variation for hydrophobic BNI-activity among root systems of CMLs. The data for BNI per plant (BNIPP), specific BNI (SBNI) (BNI activity g −1 root dwt) and zeanone activity (zeanone levels in root exudate samples) had skewed distributions, with large variation; CVs larger than 100%. BNIPP, SBNI and zeanone had means of 8.10 ATU plant −1 , 184.1 ATU g −1 and 59,458 zeanone intensity, respectively. The median was smaller than the mean for each trait, highlighting the skewed distribution of the data (Table 1). Most of the CMLs (90%) had BNIPP less than 12.5 ATU plant −1 , but 10% had larger values, with a maximum of 54.5 ATU plant −1 (Fig. 1); the median of 5.2 ATU plant −1 is higher than observed for wheat (G.V. Subbarao, JIRCAS, unpublished results). Similarly, 90% of CMLs had SBNI between 0 and 344.5 ATU g −1 , while the remaining 10% had values between 364.8 and 1604.4 ATU g −1 . Zeanone intensity ranged from 579 to 624,377, and 90% of the lines had values below 164,354. Broad sense heritabilities exceeded 64% for all traits, and were close to 90% for SBNI and BNIPP, indicating strong repeatability for these data. Zeanone intensity per plant did not explain much of the variation (among 250 CMLs) for total hydrophobic BNI-activity, but BNIPP and SBNI were significantly, albeit weakly associated with this trait, R 2 7.64% and 8.36% (P < 0.001), respectively (see Supplementary Fig. S1 online). However, when we restrict this analysis to 50 CMLs (second batch), the relationship between total BNI-activity in the sample to zeanone levels improved (R 2 63%), indicating the possibility of existence of zeanone isomers among maize germplasm (see Supplementary Fig. S2 online).As expected for inbred lines, molecular markers confirmed low frequencies of heterozygous loci and minor alleles, and little polymorphic information content for the CMLs, with averages of 0.02, 0.14 and 0.16, respectively (see Supplementary Fig. S3 online). We used the first two dimensions of a multidimensional scaling analysis on the CML MRD matrix to study the genetic diversity of the CMLs set and determine whether population structure required statistical correction. There was not a substantial genetic structure among the lines. Because of a continuum gradient in the distribution of the evaluated inbred lines (see Supplementary Fig. S4 online), we decided to include the first principal components dimensions in the GWAS analysis. Different number of components were tested (0, 2, 3, 5, and 10), and results were compared by the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) (see Supplementary Table S1 online). The SNPs positioned on the maize reference genome (B73 v.4) were homogenously distributed across all chromosomes, providing a good representation across the genome, and enabling the identification of genomic regions responsible for the expression of the evaluated traits (Fig. 2). An average of 2313 markers were found on each chromosome, with the largest number of SNPs (3688) on chromosome 1, and the smallest (1555) on chromosome 10 (see Supplementary Fig. S5 online).GWAS analysis, using a false discovery rate of 0.10, revealed 18 significant markers associated with hydrophobic BNI-activity (Fig. 3). Three SNPs were significant exclusively for specific BNI (SBNI), four for BNI per plant (BNIPP), and only one for zeanone intensity per plant, while, ten SNPs were significant for both, SBNI-activity and BNIPP-activity (Supplementary Table S2 online). Significant SNP-trait associations were found on most of the chromosomes, with exceptions in chromosomes 2 and 6, ranging from 4 SNPs on chromosomes 1 and 8 to one each on chromosomes 5, 7, 9 and 10. The SNP with largest effect (100056639|F|0-15:A > G-15:A > G) had R 2 = 0.15 for SBNI and R 2 = 0.14 for BNIPP, and was located on chromosome 3. For zeanone intensity per plant, the significant marker 24028259|F|0-13:A > G-13:A > G had R2 = 0.12, and was positioned on chromosome 7.Markers associated with SBNI were located on chromosomes 1 (2 SNPs), 3 (3), 4 (2), 5 (1), 8 (3), 9 (1), and 10 (1); while those significant for BNIPP were located on chromosomes 1 (4 SNPs), 3 (3), 4 (3), 5 (1), 8 (2), and Linkage disequilibrium and putative genes. No linkage disequilibrium (LD) decay distance between GWAS-significant markers was shorter than 1Mbp (see Supplementary Fig. S6 online). This was not surprising because the germplasm was produced independently of each other, under strong selective procedures for traits other than those evaluated here.Most of the significant SNPs were annotated as transcript (29.44%), downstream (24.24%), upstream (19.05%), or intron variants (16.02%), fewer than 12% of SNPs were annotated as utr_3_prime, intergenic, utr_5_prime, exon, splice_site_region, and splice_site_acceptor genomic regions (Fig. 4A). The top 20 ontology terms for genes near significant markers are shown in Fig. 4B, eleven of these genes are involved in cell composition and nine of them are involved in \"biological process\" pathways. In total, 30 genes were reached by the 18 significant SNPs, 6 of those candidate genes were related to nitrogen compound metabolic process (see Supplementary Table S3 online), one of them (Zm00001d051139) was reached by a marker (4582532|F|0-24:C > G-24:C > G) associated with SBNI and BNIPP. From the 10 SNPs significant for BNIPP and SBNI simultaneously, two were annotated as 5_prime_UTR_variant (Zm00001d039787 and Zm00001d029394), two as downstream_gene_ variant (Zm00001d052252 and Zm00001d051138), one as upstream_gene_variant (Zm00001d041855), one as splice_region_variant & intron_variant (Zm00001d047761), one as missense_variant (Zm00001d011422), one as synonymous_variant (Zm00001d041067), one as intergenic_region (Zm00001d033216), and one as 3_ prime_UTR_variant (Zm00001d018004). Ten genes were tandem duplications (Fig. 5), four of which were on chromosome 1, three in chromosomes 4, while chromosomes 3, 8 and 9 each had one duplicated gene.Crops vary for BNI-capacity, and many plant species have some levels of BNI-activity in their root systems. BNI-capacity within a crop could be influenced by both genetics and its interaction with the environment 56 . Genotypes with large BNI-capacity typically release three to five times more BNI-activity from roots than low-BNI genotypes 15 . Several cereals, including pearl millet, sorghum, rice, barley, wheat, and maize, were initially reported to have little BNI-capacity (based on evaluation of only one genetic stock for each cereal) 16 . A wild relative of wheat (Leymus racemosus (Lam.) Tzvelev) released about 20-times more BNI-activity than root system of cultivated wheat 16 . Three elite sorghum cultivars (Hybridsorgo, IS41245, and GDLP 34-5-5-3) differed in their production of sorgoleone, a major hydrophobic BNI component; GDLP 34-5-5-3 and Hybridsorgo showed more sorgoleone release and hydrophobic BNI-capacity than IS41245 57 . In maize, four BNI-compounds were identified from hydrophobic BNI-activity, of which 'zeanone' was the dominant inhibitor 23 . Here, we have documented substantial genetic variation for hydrophobic BNI-capacity (SBNI, BNIPP, zeanone intensity) in a set of 250 CMLs. Consistent with previous research, we found a range of expression for the hydrophobic BNI-components, with only 10% of the CMLs having high BNI-capacity, with maxima reaching 56.35 ATU plant −1 for BNIPP, 1,694 ATU g −1 root dwt for SBNI, and 788,584 zeanone intensity for the released zeanone.Maize productivity remains below its potential, due partly to inappropriate N management (e.g. N rate and time of applications) 58,59 . Nitrogen losses from maize production systems are largely due to nitrifier-activity and rapid generation of soil-nitrates, responsible for low nitrogen recovery and NUE in maize farming 60,61 . Use of nitrification inhibitors (such as dicyandiamide) to reduce nitrogen losses in maize farming and to improve soil-NH 4 + levels has been recommended 62,63 ; however, lack of consistency and high costs of synthetic nitrification inhibitors has limited their adoption 4 . Because plant BNI-activity delivers nitrification inhibitors from root systems directly to soil nitrifier-microsites where nitrifier-activity is concentrated, it is practical and economical 6 to genetically exploit BNI-traits to develop maize cultivars that can regulate soil nitrifier-activity and limit soilnitrate formation. Recently it was reported that zeanone, an important hydrophobic BNI-compound, contributed 28% of the hydrophobic BNI-capacity in maize cultivar cv. 'Peter Corn' 23 . For our set of 250 CMLs, however, only 7.6% of the variation for BNIPP was explained by zeanone intensity (Fig. 6); however, in a sub-set of 50 CMLs (from these 250 CMLs), zeanone levels explained nearly 75% of variation in BNIPP, suggesting that other variants of zeanone (i.e. isomers or precursors of zeanone derivatives, that may have BNI-function) may exist in these inbred lines, but were not detected by our analytical methodology, i.e. zeanone derivatives may have BNIactivity but not detected and quantified by the HPLC-mass spectrometric analysis. Variation in root development and differences in dry weight of roots among CMLs could further affect the values obtained during zeanone measurement on the root surface. It is important to highlight that the current results are based on laboratory evaluations, which indicate potential for developing BNI-enabled maize in future.The CMLs originated from diverse germplasm sources, and their genetic diversity, which was confirmed previously by molecular markers 64 , could include variation for BNI-activity. Interestingly, although we have no explanation, the correlation between zeanone intensity and BNIPP was larger (r = 0.62, n = 34, P < 0.0001) for quality protein maize (QPM) 65 germplasm than non-QPM germplasm (r = 0.23, n = 208, P < 0.0001). Similar values were found for the correlation between zeanone intensity and SBNI, which was larger for QPM (r = 0.61, n = 34, P = 0.0001) than for non-QPM lines (r = 0.25, n = 208, P = 0.0002). Identifying additional compounds contributing to hydrophobic BNI-activity in the rhizosphere may be crucial to understanding these relationships and to design and implement breeding programs for increased BNI-activity of root systems. The hydrophobic BNI-capacity in maize appears to be stronger (5 to 50 ATU plant −1 ) than reported for wheat (5 to 10 ATU plant −1 ), and similar to that in sorghum, which has one of the strongest reported hydrophobic BNI-capacities 3 .Genome-wide association study (GWAS) is cost-and time-efficient because there is no need to generate specific mapping populations to find associations between genotypic variations and phenotype measurements 49,66 . The GWAS analysis using 182,252 SNPs, extracted from another CML panel, identified 5 and 6 significant SNPs for grain yield under optimum and low-N conditions, respectively 53 . Also related to N use in maize, a GWAS for an IMAS (Improved Maize for African Soils) panel identified 47 genomic regions strongly (2.5 × 10 −6 ≤ P ≤ 9.9 × 10 −4 ) associated with grain yield under low N conditions, explaining from 3.4 to 10.6% of the total phenotypic variation 67 . In this study, we found 18 markers significantly associated with hydrophobic BNI-capacity and one of them linked exclusively to zeanone activity. Understanding the processes causing BNI-effects and identification of genes that increase their expression in maize could be useful for improving performance in regions with low soil fertility or limited access to nitrogen fertilizers. Molecular markers linked to genes or functional loci associated with BNI-capacity could be used in breeding programs, as previously shown for NUE 53 . Currently, there are no precedents for using molecular markers for BNI in maize or any other A total of 30 genes were mapped through 18 significant markers identified by GWAS analysis, with 48.49% positioned on transcript and upstream regions. Most of these genes are involved on the pathways of \"biological process\", six of them were related to nitrogen compound metabolic processes.crop. Further, we identified 30 candidate genes potentially associated with BNI-activity. The marker 100063204 |F|0-36:T > A-36:T > A, associated with SBNI-activity and located on chromosome 10 (133240300 bp), is in the region of Zm00001d025894 (also known as AMT5), which has been annotated as a protein coding gene involved in the regulation of ammonium transportation through cell membranes. This gene family (ZmAMT1;1a and ZmAMT1;3) was previously reported to be involved in substrate-inducible regulation of ammonium uptake in maize roots 68 . An appropriate proportion of ammonium may boost maize root proliferation and improve N nutrient uptake, which could have an impact on fertilizer use efficiency 69 . In addition, ammonium uptake and assimilation were reported to stimulate synthesis and release of BNI-substances from roots of wheat, sorghum and brachiaria 7,16,18,70 . Some of the genes we identified as possibly associated with BNI-activity have other important functions. For example, the putative gene Zm00001d018004 (also known as Rop1), was enriched by the SNP (2466232|F|0-67:C > T-67:C > T) with the greatest effect on SBNI and BNIPP simultaneously in this study. Rop1 plays an important role in the adaptation of plants to different environmental situations 71 , it has also influences on the infection capacity of sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) in maize plants; enhancing the infection in maize plants when it is silenced and decreasing it with its overexpression 72 . Marker 4582532|F|0-24:C > G-24:C > G has been also significant for both, SBNI and BNIPP, and has enriched the putative gene Zm00001d051139 (umc1702), which is involved in the directed movement of nitrogen-containing compounds between cells (see Supplementary Table S3 online), and linked also with RPi1, a gene that confers resistance to stalk rot in maize, placing the resistance gene on chromosome 4 73 . As we gain more insights about interactions between expression of BNI-trait and soil water status 74 , the pleiotropic relationships among genes linked with BNI-function and other gene's expression will become clearer. We did not identify any genomic region clearly associated with the evaluated BNI-raits for our CML panel. All significant markers found in this study had LD decay distances between The relationship between ln Zeanone and ln BNIPP when only 50 CMLs (red, batch 2) are included in the analysis is higher than when are used all 250 CMLs (blue + red, batch 1 and batch 2). Correlation between Zeanone intensity and BNIPP was larger for quality protein maize lines (r = 0.62, filled circle) than non-QPM lines (r = 0.23, empty triangle), CML without QPM information are represented with empty squares.them greater than 1Mbp, this could have been due to the germplasm evaluated in this study. The limited, but still existing, genetic diversity of these inbred lines has an impact on the number of markers obtained, which also has a relationship with LD decay, once this a population-based function 75 . Nevertheless, the wide and uniform distribution of SNPs throughout the entire genome has revealed significant markers that are distant from each other. Our results achieved an important first step towards using genomic tools to identify markers for use in breeding for enhanced BNI-function in maize. However, much research is needed to introduce BNI-capacity into high-yielding commercial hybrids before the true potential of BNI-enabled maize can be realized when deployed in production agriculture. Only future research developments can answer the real implications from this research. The identification of 18 SNPs associated with hydrophobic BNI-activity, suggests the potential to implement MAS or GS in breeding for nitrification inhibition in maize. In addition, the detection of 6 candidate genes related to NUE shows that our GWAS analysis identified genomic regions associated with N-related traits; with special attention on the SNP that has been locating in the region of AMT5, a protein coding gene involved in the regulation of ammonium transportation. Our results were obtained from a panel of elite inbred lines (CMLs), which was not a mapping population developed for BNI-activity. We are currently developing four doubled haploid (DH) maize populations from crosses between CMLs identified here with contrasting hydrophobic BNIcapacity and zeanone activity. This will be a valuable next step to generate genetic markers for possible use in breeding for enhanced BNI-activity in maize. Another complex area of urgently needed research is to develop and validate high throughput methods to measure hydrophobic and hydrophilic BNI-activity for plants in the field rather than grown in glasshouses.We are in a \"discovery phase\" for BNI in maize. This study identified significant variation among CMLs for hydrophobic BNI-capacity, with some CMLs having tenfold greater capacity than others, and some CMLs having high levels of zeanone intensity, a major hydrophobic BNI-component released from maize roots. Other key findings from this study include: (1) identification of 18 SNPs associated with hydrophobic BNI-activity, suggesting potential to implement GS or MAS in breeding for nitrification inhibition in maize; (2) the detection of 6 candidate genes related to NUE shows that our GWAS analysis identified potential genomic regions associated with N-related traits; (3) significant markers were observed in genomic regions with low signal and high LD decay distance (> 1Mbp), suggesting the absence of selection for these traits in the CMLs, 4) Exposure of a gene with known functions in the regulation of ammonium transport across the cell membrane. The ongoing creation of doubled haploid lines from crosses of high by low BNI-activity elite inbred lines will allow scientists to develop a specific set of markers that could help in a potential breeding process of BNI in maize.Building a core germplasm set. All experimental research was conducted in alignment with CIM-MYT policies and procedures (Guidelines and policies -CIMMYT). In our study the sample materials used are inbreed lines developed as international public goods by CIMMYT. These materials were sourced from the CIMMYT genebank, where materials are conserved in trust and shared under the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.We used genotypic data (www. seeds ofdis covery. org) developed for 475 CIMMYT maize inbred lines (CMLs), available in https:// data. cimmyt. org/, to select 250 CMLs with seeds available from CIMMYT's germplasm bank (see Supplementary Table S4 online). We used Franco et al. 's 76,77 2-stage-D method in which: (1) the allele frequencies from 169,061 SNP-DarTseq markers with fewer than 50% of missing values, and the modified Rogers genetic distance (MRD) 78 between every pair of lines were calculated, and (2) the CMLs were clustered based on the MRD, using Ward's hierarchical method 79 . Eleven groups were identified, and their average MRD values were calculated. The number of lines to be selected from each group was defined, proportionally to their diversity, and 1,000 possible subsets were identified by a stratified random sampling procedure. The average diversity value for each candidate subset was calculated and the subset of 250 CMLs with the largest diversity was selected. Minimum, mean, and maximum diversity values were calculated for the whole collection and the selected core subset (see Supplementary Table S5 online). More information about CMLs can be found at https:// hdl. handle. net/ 11529/ 10246.Raising plants. Hydrophobic BNI-capacity was assessed using a modified method developed originally for sorghum 18,80 ; which has been described in detail previously 23 . Ninety seeds were soaked in an Eppendorf tube (50 mL vol) with 40 mL aerated distilled water in darkness at 25 °C for 24 h (h). The soaked seeds were wrapped with a wet towel to allow sprouting for another 24 h. The germinated seeds were arranged in a folded cliff of a filter paper, supported by hard plastic plates with a rubber band, and kept in a growth box containing 200 mL of 200 mM CaSO4 aqueous solution at the bottom; the capillary force kept the seeds in the cliff fold of the filter paper moist during the seedling growth period. The seedling-growboxes were kept on racks in a growth chamber, with fluorescent lighting with a photoperiod of 13/11 h (day/ night). Roots of twelve-day-old seedlings were used for assessing hydrophobic BNI-activity, using two replications of 20 seedlings for each genotype (CML).Collecting root-DCM wash for hydrophobic BNI-activity determinations. Twenty seedlings were randomly selected, their roots were separated and dipped in 50 mL of 1% acidified DCM (dichloromethane; v/v) for 60 s (sec) before removing and drying the roots using paper towels. The roots were then oven-dried at 70 °C for 48 h before measuring their dry weight. The DCM wash was filtered and evaporated in vacuum at 40 °C, and the residue was extracted with 20 mL methanol. The methanol extract was evaporated and condensed to 100 mL of methanol; this methanol extract was evaporated to dryness, and extracted with DMSO (dimethylsulfoxide), which was used for determining BNI-activity using bioluminescence assay described below.The methanol extract was evaporated and extracted with 20 µL dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO); 1 µL of this sample is used to determine BNI-activity using the luminescent recombinant Nitrosomonas described earlier 8 . In brief, the recombinant strain of N. europaea expresses luciferases of luxA and luxB genes from the marine bacterium Vibrio harveyi and produces a specific luminescence pattern with two distinct peaks during a 30-s measurement period. The key functional relationship between bioluminescence emission and NO 2 − production is linear when using the synthetic nitrification inhibitor, allylthiourea (AT) as a standard. The inhibition caused by AT of 0.22 μM in the assay medium, ED 80 in bioluminescence and NO 2 − production, is defined as 1 allylthiourea unit (ATU). The inhibitory activities of root extracts, root exudates and compounds are expressed in ATU based on dose-response standard curve of AT. The biological nitrification inhibitory activities in this study were expressed as per plant (BNIPP [ATU plant −1 ]), where the obtained inhibitory activity was divided by number of seedlings used, and the specific activity (SBNI [ATU g −1 root dry wt.]), where the inhibitory activity was calculated per mass of root-DCM wash.Determination of zeanone using LCMS. The methanol extract was analyzed for zeanone according to Otaka et al. 23 . Semi-quantification was achieved as follows, an aliquot of the methanol extract (5 uL) was analyzed by Shimadzu LCMS-2020 equipped with DUIS-2020 on a TSKgel Super-ODS [10% acetonitrile (0 min), 50% acetonitrile (8 min) then 100% acetonitrile (10 min), 0.4 mL/min]. Zeanone was detected with a mass spectrometric detection in positive mode, single ion monitoring with m/z 219 representing zeanone with 0.5 s event time. Semi-quantification was achieved based on the peak area eluted at 528 s, representing zeanone. The peak area indicates relative content of zeanone in the sample, but not the absolute content; therefore, we refer to the peak area as zeanone intensity.Statistical description of phenotypic data. Phenotypic data from 250 CMLs can be found as Supplementary Table S6 online, it has been used to calculate mean, median, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, minimum and maximum for statistical description. A histogram for each response shows the potential skewed distribution of the data. CML means from phenotypic data were obtained by a linear mixed model for a completely randomized design with two replicates. Responses to variables were transformed for further analysis using natural logarithm because of the skewed distribution of raw data. A similar model that considers CML effect as random was fitted to estimate genetic variance and broad sense heritability.DArTseq technology (www. diver sitya rrays. com) to characterize the 28,000 CIMMYT maize germplasm collections, including elite inbred lines CMLs 82 . This method is based on a complexity reduction process where a combination of two enzymes is implemented to generate a genome representation, followed by sequencing of the resulting fragments 83 . A proprietary analytical pipeline developed by DArT P/L was used to generate allele calls for SNP (co-dominant) and Silico-DArT (dominant) markers from the same assays 84,85 . The same pipeline was used to develop a new SNP calling exclusively for the 250 CMLs that were evaluated in this study. A matrix was developed, with DArTseq-SNP markers in the rows, and genotypes in the columns, where the genotypic data scoring represents the dominant homozygous as 0, recessive homozygous as 1 and the heterozygote as 2, according to Petroli and Kilian 84 . In this study we decided to replace the heterozygote genotypes (score 2) by a missing data score (-) because we are working with homozygous lines and to its small representation (1.6%) in our data set. A set of filtering parameters (e.g., One Ratio, Call Rate and Reproducibility) was then applied. Marker sequences were blasted against the Zea mays L. reference genome (B73 RefGen_v4), and only SNPs with a unique physical position were considered in further analyses. An additional marker selection criterion was applied, where monomorphic markers and those in which only one CML presented a different allele were removed from analyses. Based on these criteria, from a total of 56,411 SNPs obtained, we selected 27,085 high quality polymorphisms for the GWAS analysis (see Supplementary Table S7 online).For the association analysis we included in the analytical model the dimensions of the principal component analysis. We tested the models using 0, 2, 3, 5, and 10 principal dimensions, then for each model we had two different models, one without the genetic relationship between CMLs, and another model considering the genetic relatedness between them. Comparison between models was performed considering the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) and q-q plots of p-values. Based on these parameters, the best models did not include principal dimensions for SBNI and BNIPP but included the kinship matrix, while for Zeonane the best model did not include neither. GWAS was performed using the following linear model using Tassel 5 86 .where g i is the log 10 adjusted phenotypic observation of the ith CML; m is the overall mean, p j=1 α j x ji is the effect of the jth first principal components (P = 0, 2, 3, 5, 10), β i is the fixed effect of a single marker between the two homozygous genotypes, and e i is the vector of random residual error, e ∼ N(0, σ 2 I) , where I is the identity matrix. We considered an additional model in which e ∼ N(0, σ 2 K ) , where K is the kinship relationship obtained from marker data. Significance values were adjusted by FDR (−Log10) method 87 to reduce the rate of false positives. R-square was calculated for significant markers to evaluate the importance of the marker effect. Gene annotation and enrichment. To measure the linkage disequilibrium (LD) between GWAS-significant markers we calculated the standardized regression coefficient (SRC) at a maximum distance of 1Mbp. LD decay curves were estimated by chromosome, and the SRC between SNPs were calculated. Within those windows, we traced putative genes that could be related to processes involving the participation of nitrogen as an essential element.We used SnpEff software to conduct functional annotations and predictions for the target SNPs 88 . The maize B73v.4 gene annotation was downloaded as a gff3 file from the Maize Genetics and Genomics Database (MaizeGDB) (https:// www. maize gdb. org/ assem bly). Functional enrichment analysis of the annotated genes was performed using the ClueGO plugin for cytoscape 89 , and its results were plotted with the R package ggplot2 90 . Mapchart software was used to plot gene distributions across the maize genome 91 .","tokenCount":"5059"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"30e3b755959f22671244410ea7af8805","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79e8f7cf-3d62-4828-975d-4183aff2ade5/retrieve","id":"339161322"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4bfb852e-3c7c-4b5f-826e-9ebad8bce7a7","pagecount":"28","content":"The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development promises to achieve change in almost every aspect of life on Earth. Encompassing 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets, the Agenda marks the first time in history when all nations have agreed on how to chart their future. The SDGs are not just a global reporting exercise, however, but rather involve a global program that embraces country-led efforts. Guided by the ideas contained in the 2030 Agenda, each nation must seek to become more prosperous and sustainable, while contributing to the global effort at the same time. If all the countries achieve this, we will have a sustainable planet and a secure future for all. This document offers guidance on how developing countries can adapt the SDGs to their own contexts and priorities. It indicates important areas for developing countries to consider when creating their own program to achieve the SDGs, and provides examples of success to demonstrate concrete possibilities for progress.On September 25, 2015, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly launched and adopted the agenda \"Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development\" (UN 2015). The Agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), encompassing 169 targets, each of which has one or more indicators for quantitative measurement. In the words of the UN, \"the sustainable development goals should seek to envision a more holistic and integrated agenda for advancing human well-being that is equitable across individuals, populations and generations; and that achieves universal human development while respecting the Earth's ecosystems and critical life support systems\" (UN 2012).The SDGs, targets and indicators were designed to cover all aspects of development that the UN has deemed necessary for society to have a sustainable future, including food security, climate, gender, water resources, education, etc. To paraphrase the remarks of former UN secretary-general, Ban Ki-moon, implementation of the SDGs is the true measure of commitment to sustainable development; everyone, everywhere needs to use the SDGs as a guide or to-do list for people and the planet, and as a blueprint for success.From the start of the SDG program in January 2016 until recently, the task of detailing the indicators has received overriding emphasis, along with collecting and reporting data for the first time. The uptake or \"domestication\" of monitoring at the country level has gained less attention, despite its clear Background importance for leading individual countries and the planet towards a sustainable future. This document presents guidelines for mainstreaming the SDGs at the country level. With emphasis on developing countries, we give particular attention, where appropriate, to the SDGs focused on food and water.This document is designed for country-level stakeholders involved in the implementation of the SDGs, including the following: The call for countries to participate in the SDGsThe 2030 Agenda is clear in emphasizing that each country must champion the primary effort to achieve the SDGs, and that their implementation at the country level is the key to success.Box 1 highlights statements in the 2030 Agenda concerning countries' responsibilities for the success of the SDG program. The challenge for each country is to develop its own strategy for mainstreaming the SDGs -one that reflects local economic, social policy and political realities.Box 1. Extracts from the 2030 Agenda that highlight country responsibilities for SDG implementation.41. Recognizes that each country has primary responsibility for its own economic and social development.47. Governments have the primary responsibility for follow-up and review, in implementing the goals and targets over the coming 15 years.55. Each government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances; and decide how these aspirational and global targets should be incorporated into national planning processes, policies and strategies.59. Recognition of different approaches, visions, models and tools available to each country, in accordance with its national circumstances and priorities.66. For all countries, public policies and the mobilization and effective use of domestic resources, underscored by the principle of national ownership, are central to the common pursuit of sustainable development.74. Follow-up and review will be voluntary and country-led, will take into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development, and will respect policy space and priorities.To mainstream the SDGs, countries need to take into account the national and subnational context. This involves a wide range of issues -from the environment and socioeconomic setting to government policies and management strategies. Key tasks include setting goals and targets, determining the means of implementation, and using indicators to measure and monitor progress.The United Nations Development Group (UNDG) has suggested four steps that may apply to countries in the initial stages of SDG mainstreaming (UNDG 2015):1. Review current strategies and plans, and identify areas for change.2. Making initial recommendations to the leadership of the national government 3. Set nationally relevant targets.4. Formulate a strategy and plans, based on integrated systems thinking and commitments with respect to resources and capacities.In response to member states' requests for coherent and integrated support from the UN development system, the UNDG has identified the elements of a common approach for effective and coherent SDG implementation, referred to as 'Mainstreaming, Acceleration and Policy Support' (MAPS) (UNDG 2015) (Figure 1). The approach aims to achieve policy coherence and multi-stakeholder engagement, paying special attention to several crosscutting elements -partnerships, data and accountability. The UN has suggested eight guidance areas (Figure 2) for mainstreaming the 2030 Agenda. UNDG (2015) provided detailed information on these areas as well as other issues to take into consideration, as the SDGs filter down to the local level.These guidance areas are used as the basis for this report and are given greater and more pertinent detail in the pages that follow. The UNDG publishes a periodic update of its guidelines (available at https://undg.org) and provides other information needed to domesticate or localize the SDGs.Channel additional support for national partnership development, including for parliament, NGOs, FBOs, private sector and media.Contribute to the data revolution by helping strengthen national capacity to collect and analyze information, and monitor progress with the 2030 Agenda and SDGs.Establishing, monitoring and reviewing frameworks to hold decisions-makers and all stakeholders accountable.  In the period since the SDGs were adopted, countries have mainstreamed these goals in a variety of ways. Developed countries have had wide scope to diversify their approaches, given significant financial resources and advanced technological capabilities. The efforts of developing countries have been constrained by reduced capacity. Nonetheless, developing country experience has produced success stories that offer useful lessons from which other countries can learn. Below is a summary of the process, focusing on developing country experiences and following steps outlined by UNDG (2015).  Countries in southern Africa, as shown in the example here, are using all the avenues available to them to raise awareness of the 2030 Agenda.To foster ownership of the SDGs and legitimize the process of mainstreaming them into national policies, plans and programs, governments need to create opportunities for dialogue. The idea is to offer spaces and mechanisms for engagement, which can not only strengthen people's basic political rights but also lead to better policies and development outcomes (GTF, UN-Habitat and UNDP 2016). An African perspective on this is given in Box 3.The SDGs form part of a people-centered, societywide agenda that requires multi-stakeholder participation nationally, subnationally and locally.According to UNDG (2015), most member states have pre-existing processes for planning, budgeting and monitoring, with varying degrees of stakeholder engagement. In addition, countries can undertake the following: Work with national multi-stakeholder bodies and forums to review existing plans. Guide multi-stakeholder dialogues to promote engagement and accountability. Foster public-private partnerships (PPPs) to leverage the ingenuity, scaling-up ability and investment potential of business.Box 3. National post-2015 consultations across Africa.Africa's post-2015 consultations on the SDGs have benefited from a rich legacy of long-term development plans (vision documents) and short-to medium-term plans -including poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs) and national development plans (NDPs) -which involved broad consultation with stakeholders.Building on this foundation, countries have included new forms of stakeholder consultation and brought in groups who would not normally participate in national planning. Using largely similar methodologies, most of these consultations were organized by United Nations Country Teams (UNCTs), national governments and key actors from civil society, including women and youth groups, people with disabilities, people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), academia and the private sector.The consultations relied on the following methods:• Face-to-face meetings in various formats -the predominant methodology in all 30 countries conducting national consultations UNDG put forward two core principles as a foundation for consultation:2. ACCOUNTABILITY: People who participate in consultations should have access to relevant information as well as opportunities to provide feedback, and influence the results and process. In any consultation, accountability depends heavily on who controls the information generated, and how this information is analyzed and subsequently used.Box 4. UNDG guidance on tailoring SDGs to national/local contexts.1. Review current strategies and plans: to survey the landscape of strategies and plans in place at the national, subnational and local levels, and compare them with the SDGs and targets to identify gaps and provide the basis for recommending areas for change.2. Make initial recommendations to national leadership: to address SDG gaps in current strategies and plans, while recognizing that the SDGs \"are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, social and environmental.\"3. Set nationally relevant targets: for nationally adapted and inclusive SDGs that are achievable, yet ambitious.4. Formulate a strategy and plans using systems thinking: to incorporate recommendations and insights from the steps listed above into strategies and plans, and match ambition and commitments with resources and capacities.Consultations should be open to all stakeholders in the country who will be affected by the 2030 Agenda, with a particular focus on those who are commonly underrepresented or marginalized in decision-making (UNDG 2015). The 2030 Agenda calls for an integrated approach to the search for solutions -one that overcomes barriers between sector silos. The resulting policies should reflect the overall aspirations of the SDGsBotswana has taken significant steps to ensure that its citizens are aware of the SDGs. The government has developed a national Vision for 2016-2036 (Government of Botswana 2016) that is aligned with the SDGs, as is its National Development Plan 11 (2017-2023) (MoFDP 2016). Sector plans are also beginning to integrate the SDGs. A national structure, headed by the president, was established to coordinate their implementation through an \"all-of-government approach,\" including the development of a roadmap for rollout of the SDGs. It recognizes that the SDGs are not the business of the government alone but of all actors, including the private sector and every community (source: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/botswana). Analyze contextual factors, enablers, disablers, systemic conditions  Define policy objectives, inputs/outputs, outcomes Institutional settings and processes  PCSD Building Blocks: political commitment, policy integration, long-term perspective, policy effect, policy coordination, local involvement, stakeholder participation, monitoring and reportingConsider effect on people's well-being  'Here and now'  'Elsewhere'  'Later' Bhutan, Cabo Verde, Namibia and Tonga have recently piloted a prototype tool developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Referred to as a Rapid Integrated Policy Assessment, it helps countries gauge their readiness for SDG implementation (www.undg.org). The tool provides an overview of a country's level of alignment with the 2030 Agenda through a gap analysis of SDG targets that are not prioritized in current national development plans and strategies, and relevant sector strategies. It also identifies linkages between targets, including those prioritized by multiple sectors and sectors whose actions can impact multiple SDGs.In Bhutan, the assessment found that the SDG targets are integrated to a high degree into the 11 th national plan, which prioritizes 93 targets. The targets excluded are those pertaining to SDG 14 on oceans (as Bhutan is a landlocked country) and SDG 17 on means of implementation. The results illustrate close philosophical alignment between Bhutan's National Vision 2020 and the principles of the 2030 Agenda. The gaps identified and possible cross-sectoral linkages could serve as entry points for further elaboration of plans to implement the 2030 Agenda.Sustainable The term \"glocalize\" refers to the integration of policy from the global to local levels. Glocalizing the Agenda within a country is vital if it is to realize the SDGs within the 2030 timeframe. Creating policy coherence and integrating efforts through partnerships among government, civil society, the private sector and other actors are essential.  (excerpts from Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa and Eswatini) participatory budgeting approaches, drawing on the experience of leading governments and experts. Results-based budgeting (RBB), or performance-based budgeting (PBB), as it is also called, is a means of organizing and reporting a government's allocation of fiscal resources in relation to high-level goals. Budget mainstreaming to integrate specific issues, such as gender mainstreaming, into fiscal budgets (UNDG 2015).In a nutshell, five countries in southern Africa have proposed to finance their national development strategies and plans through domestic resources, supplemented with external grants, loans (internal and external), and funds from PPPs (Figure 5). The strategies these countries are using conform to the principle that they need to mainstream the SDGs with their own funding.Through the parliament, the cabinet and Ntlo Ya Dikgosi (advisory body to the country's parliament) agreed that the implementation of the Eleventh National Development Plan will be financed through two main sources: public domestic investment (government will fund the bulk of the programs and projects in the NDP 11) and internal and external grants, including PPPs (MoFDP 2016).The government will fund the programs in the Fifth National Development Plan (NDP5) through domestic resources, external grants, loans and PPPs (NPC 2016).The MGDS III is expected to be financed mainly from three sources: domestic revenue, external grants and borrowing (both internally and externally). In addition, PPPs are encouraged for financing infrastructure programs. Development partners will also play a crucial role in financing the implementation of certain programs (Government of Malawi 2017).The National Planning Commission (NPC) stated in the NDP that all programs will be funded using public resources, with a few exceptions to be funded through PPPs involving internal and external investors (NPC 2012).Implementation of the National Development Strategy will be funded through national financial resources, external grants and loans, and PPPs (MoEPD 2016). Member states need to manage their budgets and finances creatively to implement the SDGs. The idea is to transform national budgeting processes to fit the results-based orientation of the SDGs. To this end, countries can take into consideration the following options: An array of mechanisms for financing the 2030 Agenda. These should encompass all sources of finance, such as public resources, domestic and international private business and finance, international development cooperation, and international trade and debt. Outcome-based and participatory budgeting, in line with the results-based framework and participatory nature of the 2030 Agenda and SDGs. United Nations Country Teams (UNCTs) can work with member states to develop capacity building programs that explore and implement outcome-based andWithout proper monitoring, it is impossible to implement the SDGs and chart a way forward to a sustainable future. Yet, this important measure is neglected. According to the UN report on the SDGs in 2018 (UN 2018), the data available are not sufficient to report on the SDGs, making it impossible to \"populate\" many of the SDG indicators, with many others inadequately reported.Monitoring the SDGs depends on the participation of member states. Most countries have monitoring programs focused on aspects of governance and management, ranging from health and food security to water resources and sanitation, etc. Many of these programs will continue to operate independently of the SDGs, as they may have different objectives. Nonetheless, since there is bound to be overlap, it should be possible for monitoring to serve both the local and SDG agenda. Therefore, monitoring programs need to be synthesized so that they can serve both purposes.6, for example, will be monitored by the ministries of water, environment and health. SDG 2 will be monitored by the ministries of agriculture, economic development, health and so forth, with the rest of the 17 SDGs monitored similarly. In some places, civil society, industry, academia and other actors can also provide data inputs. The 2030 Agenda is all about participation at all levels of society and should not depend on a \"top-down\" approach to the collection and use of data.Monitoring should also be aligned successfully at the regional level. A good example is the African Union's alignment of its Agenda 2063 with the requirements of the SDGs.The convergence between the 2030 and 2063 Agendas (see Table 1) has enabled African countries to use the mutual accountability tools of Agenda 2063 (designed mainly for the CAADP) to monitor progress in implementing the agricultural part of both Agendas. Among these tools are the Joint Sector Review (JSR) and Biennial Review (BR). Since the two processes have similar indicators, they can be used concurrently to monitor the agricultural part of both Agendas. Countries across the continent can thus use common tools to monitor implementation of both the agricultural SDGs and Malabo Declaration, although some countries have their own monitoring strategies and programs.Countries need not abandon their prior commitments to monitoring, but rather should synchronize current monitoring with commitments to the SDGs.Maximum in-country coordination is needed to gather SDG data from multiple government agencies as well as civil society, industry, etc. The national statistical office is generally the focal point for communication between countries and the UN system, especially the UN Statistical Commission, which is part of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA).Monitoring within a country requires coordination to ensure efficiency and maximum value from the 2030 Agenda.In most countries, the national statistics office, being somewhat removed from the actual collection of data, will need input from others, especially government agencies, to provide data for submission to the UN. Thus, in most countries, SDG  Reporting to the UN -all data in a prescribed format to align with other countries.National reporting on the SDGs -data specific to the requirements of a country and in a format suitable for in-country use.These data need to be aligned with global data. Thus, the method of collection, units of measurement, frequency of data provision, etc., should all ideally be synchronized at a global level. This allows direct comparison of data from different countries.These data are country specific, in that the indicator methods may be adapted from the global SDG methods or may be unique to the country. These data give the country the ability to manage its own resources in its own way but in line with the overall mandate and vision of the SDGs. Thus, the resulting storyline of national data collection can be submitted to the UN as part of SDG reporting.Examples of global SDG reporting data: SDG 6.1.1 -\"Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services\". These data are a simple percentage of the population and needs to be established using the precise guidelines provided by the UN (which can be found at www.sdg6monitoring. org). SDG 6.6.1 -\"Change in extent of waterrelated ecosystems over time\". This indicator has a number of sub-indicators, each with its own data collection method and units of measure to be used. This will include: \"Percentage change in 5-year average of spatial extent of lakes, rivers and estuaries\" and \"Percentage change in 5-year average of discharge\", and several others.Examples of country SDG reporting data: A country may decide that provision of water to schools is a particular priority and requires independent monitoring. Thus, the country may have its own indicator: \"Proportion of schools using safely managed drinking water services\". Such an indicator can be used to assign management objectives to national departments, while contributing to the SDG Target for SDG 6.1 (\"by 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all\").Similarly, a country may decide that a particular animal (e.g., the manatee in the Inner Niger Delta in Mali) may be an important indicator of sustainable management of the Delta and deserves to have its own indicator. Thus, under SDG Target 6.6 (\"By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes\"), the country may have an indicator to monitor the health of manatees. While these data will not contribute to the overall global report on SDG 6.6.1, the storyline of the data should be submitted as part of the country report in support of SDG 6.6.1. The mechanisms for doing this remain undeveloped within the UN system, but will be established soon.The Alternatively, a country may decide to protect 100% of its wetlands, as part of its commitment to Target 6.6 (protect and restore water-related ecosystems), while another may choose to protect only 20%. In any case, the country needs to justify its decision and explain how it aligns with the 2030 Agenda.Figure 6 summarizes an approach that each country should follow in setting numerical values (or benchmarks) for the SDG targets (Dickens et al. 2019).Many SDG targets do not have numerical values; each country needs to set them According to UNDG, identifying and addressing risks and emerging issues are critical for achieving the SDGs (see example, Box 5). Careful reflection on lessons learned from implementation of the SDGs and timely course corrections along the way are also integral to effective follow-up and review. Countries willing to take these steps can explore a range of approaches for assessing risk and fostering adaptation through planning and policy development. UNCT guidance in this regard is threefold:1. Adaptive governance to provide a general framework for effectively navigating uncertainty, change and surprises.2. Risk analysis and management for systematic identification and management of the risks involved in implementing national, subnational and local plans.3. Scenario planning and stress testing for regular use in development planning and policymaking to detect emerging issues and examine the ability of plans, policies and programs to perform under a range of plausible future conditions.A UNDG reference guide -Assessing Risk and Fostering Adaptability -helps understand how to assess risks. Available at https://undg.org/2030agenda/mainstreaming-2030-agenda/assessingrisks-and-fostering-adaptability/ (accessed on February 26, 2019).Box 5. Assessing risks and fostering adaptability.Lessons learned from the Ebola crisis and the collapse in international iron ore prices informed the development of the national Ebola recovery strategy and presidential recovery priorities (2015)(2016)(2017).The objective is to ensure that the country maintains zero cases of Ebola, while 'building back' better national systems for resilience and development, including preparedness to face future shocks and epidemics. The national strategy comprises seven presidential priority sectors: health, education, social protection, private sector development, water, energy and governance. Implementation of the first phase ended in March 2016. Discussions are underway for the presidential priorities to integrate the SDGs.Source: UNDG 2016.This document offers a simple overview of the process for domesticating or mainstreaming the SDGs in developing countries. The literature abounds with country examples, making it easier to find guidance from others. Even so, the sheer volume of literature makes it difficult to get a clear perspective on what is required. This document will hopefully help to clarify the situation.Domestication is a key requirement for the success of the 2030 Agenda. To date, the drafting and initiation of the Agenda have received the main emphasis, but now the onus is on each country to apply the details and the spirit of the SDGs to achieve a sustainable future. Only if each country plays its role, will the sustainability of the entire planet be secured. The stakes have never been higher. Success is an imperative.","tokenCount":"3881"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0bb9ca33f8394cafa6e7d0bf0749fd72","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1678e128-8053-4a53-91dd-6ca6ef760592/retrieve","id":"2012042282"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c732a9d1-e694-45ec-84f7-f9a5a0c64cc0","pagecount":"11","content":"The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. To view this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Unless otherwise noted, you are free to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format), adapt (remix, transform, and build upon the material) for any purpose, even commercially, under the following conditions:ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s). NOTICE: For any reuse or distribution, the licence terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used. (see agenda attached)Not yet Available, as AU-IBAR will be load from their websiteGenerally, the workshop went well with emphasis on interactive discussions, experiences sharing and working groups on innovative technologies. There were some challenges of time management due to the fact that most participants were not lodging at the training venue. The facilitators had many activities including training, facilitating, taking notes, preparing daily reports and debriefing, daily evaluation, and other administrative tasks. It was clear that there were few known innovations and technologies on local poultry farming and local chicken value chain development. This was evidenced in the proposed required innovations and technologies for the sector, such as for genetic improvement, breeding and production (meat and eggs). The trainees showed enthusiasm and will be future trainers and create the expected « snowball » effect in line with the expectations of the Live2Africa project of AU-IBAR.It's advisable for further training to make a local poultry value chain situation analysis in a country to enable all participants to have the same starting point and to propose innovations based on existing technologies.It was recommended that similar workshops are organised in other ECCAS countries and create family poultry value chains across the Central Africa (ECCAS) region. This will encourage sharing of genetic resources, equipment, expertise and markets. Pictures and videos from the workshop are share in different files.View of workshop set up at ONOMO Hotel conference hall Douala A breakout session during the workshop supervised by Dr Zambou","tokenCount":"434"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9b909edc499753413b15df7fb7362ff7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0aec862-5a62-4d6c-b26e-4e5d67d35f03/retrieve","id":"1859898884"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0e74858-4711-4794-bbf2-d457a57b3520","pagecount":"2","content":"evido a acentuadas inclinações dos solos, alta densidade populacional e escassez de terra, acompanhadas pelo cultivo intensivo de culturas e fortes chuvas, o declínio da fertilidade do solo é muito notável nas regiões altas de África. Dos cinco principais problemas listados pelos agricultores, três estão geralmente relacionados com o declínio da fertilidade do solo. A equipa de pesquisa da Iniciativa das Terras Altas Africanas, (African Highlands Initiative, AHI) em colaboração com o CIAT e o Instituto de Investigação Agrícola da Etiópia (EIAR) usaram várias técnicas participativas para:(1) Desenvolver estratégias para resolver questões complexas de gestão de recursos naturais.(2) Estimular a mudança de uma orientação por cultura para uma abordagem mais holística e participativa no sistema de investigação. Os agricultores estiveram sempre na vanguarda durante todo o processo de desenvolvimento, disseminação tecnológica e avaliação do impacto de tecnologias.Pesquisas anteriores revelaram que é essencial o melhor entendimento e integração dos valores socioeconómicos, organizacionais e culturais de agricultores com diferentes níveis de dotação de recursos, dado que os agricultores de pequena escala manipulam e integram os componentes das pequenas propriedades agrícolas para maximizarem os retornos obtidos a partir de um ambiente subóptimo e imprevisível.As agendas de gestão de recursos naturais (GRN) requerem altos níveis de participação e controlo do agricultor no processo de investigação e desenvolvimento. O envolvimento de alguns especialistas que trabalham além das suas áreas de especialidade ajudou a melhorar o sistema através da sua melhor integração. Em Areka, uma área da AHI no sudoeste da Etiópia, foram identificados vários pontos de entrada para clientes com vários tipos e níveis de dotação de recursos.Cerca de 70 a 75 porcento dos agregados familiares são considerados pobres pela comunidade. A principal limitação da produção para estes grupos, mencionada durante a Avaliação Rural Participativa (ARP), foi o declínio da produtividade da terra. Eles raramente possuem gado, não tendo por isso acesso a estrume para aumentarem o rendimento das culturas.O ponto de entrada preferido por este grupo foi o uso de medidas estratégicas de conservação do solo e da água. Para a protecção dos diques optaram por plantar capim elefante, árvores de múltiplas funções e ervilha de Angola no topo e nos lados. Visto que as ervas para forragem estão ao longo dos diques, os produtores podem deste modo produzir alimentos para a época seca suficientes para cobrir pelo menos 35 por cento do volume de alimentos necessário. Depois de minimizarem a perda de solo usando estes métodos, os agricultores pediram medidas adicionais de melhoramento da fertilidade do solo. Para esta classe de recursos, os agricultores e investigadores sugeriram a gestão de resíduos das culturas e culturas leguminosas de cobertura como intervenções alternativas potenciais. Mais tarde incluíram a estabilização de barrancos e a drenagem de água a partir de campos vizinhos como áreas de inovação, através do uso de blocos de pedra e o plantio de árvores indígenas. De modo a compensar os efeitos A evolução da integração entre os diferentes componentes da produção agrícola foi muito rápida, principalmente porque o seu sistema de produção depende muito dos fluxos de recursos internos e raramente envolve insumos externos. Com esta categoria de agricultores o papel dos investigadores passou a ser a monitorização do destino das variedades seleccionadas. Como estratégia de acompanhamento, e a seu pedido, os agricultores receberam formação em sistemas de sementes. Isto permitiu-lhes multiplicar variedades prometedoras, partilhá-las com outros agricultores não participantes e vendê-las às comunidades vizinhas. O café, a cultura de rendimento mais importante da área, foi afectado pela antracnose do café (coffee berry disease, CBD). Os agricultores deste grupo visaram pesticidas a curto prazo e variedades de café resistente a CBD a longo prazo. Depois de resolverem as suas limitações principais e testemunharem a implementação de medidas efectivas de controlo da erosão dos solos pelos agricultores vizinhos (de baixos recursos), estes grupos envolveram-se em abordagens de sistemas de produção mais integradas e no desenvolvimento de tecnologias com vantagens mútuas (\"winwin\") que aumentam a produtividade ao mesmo tempo que melhoram a GRN.A gestão dos recursos naturais ao nível das áreas sob gestão comunitária pode ser implementada com sucesso apenas quando acompanhada por sucessos tecnológicos a nível da pequena propriedade. A menos que os membros da comunidade tenham provas da eficácia das intervenções a nível da pequena propriedade, eles podem não querer tomar a decisão colectiva de gerir as áreas comunitárias. b) À escala das áreas de gestão comunitária, os assuntos de importância para os diversos grupos sociais (por género, idade, riqueza, localização das áreas e aldeias) estão a ser considerados como pontos de entrada importantes para a gestão participativa das bacias hidrográficas. Tais assuntos estão a ser identificados através de discussões de grupos específicos e entrevistas individuais. c)Comparativamente à integração de tecnologias ao nível da pequena propriedade, o sucesso da gestão das bacias hidrográficas depende mais das intervenções de políticas aos níveis comunitário, distrital e nacional. O reforço das políticas locais poderia ser um elemento chave na gestão dos recursos comunitários, como foi ilustrado pela dificuldade da integração de árvores nas terras áridas sem uma lei local de proibição de pastagem livre. d)A agenda sobre bacias hidrográficas pode ser implementada de forma sustentável apenas se for apoiada por intervenções que resultem em benefícios imediatos para os agricultores. ","tokenCount":"864"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a59783906380e35861889d5909a5f85f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d1e0805a-7b62-4e46-ac20-8f3b67c31f5e/retrieve","id":"610430596"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"09361f7a-812b-4c9d-9bec-a6bdcce5a0e6","pagecount":"98","content":"T T he research on the conservation and use of bamboo resources has been the concern of countries in Asia, particularly in south, southeast and east Asia where utilization of bamboo has been a traditional and cultural practice of many countries. The fast pace of development that is progressing in many countries in the region has threatened much of the natural resources including bamboo. IPGRI's support for the conservation and use of plant genetic resources has garnered the awareness of national governments that have hitherto begun to provide much-needed support for the increased R&D activities on plant genetic resources, including bamboo resources.The ex situ collection of bamboos established at the Rimba Ilmu Botanic Garden, University of Malaya is perhaps the most comprehensive living collection of bamboos in Malaysia. IPGRI is proud to have been associated with Prof K.M. Wong in setting up this bambusetum for reference, research and education. The establishment of this ex situ collection has resulted in the present publication, which introduces the diversity of bamboos not only in Malaysia, but Southeast Asia as well. The publication has also included information on the conservation of some rare bamboo species in the region. This effort, we are sure, will continue to stimulate and promote the concern for conserving the diversity of bamboos, which, hopefully, will also encourage efforts for sustainable management and increased economic use of the bamboo resources.vii Fore Fore w w ord ord T T he fundamental importance of bamboo as a plant resource has led to many international agencies, including the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), supporting research and collection of genetic materials in a number of countries. In the countries of Southeast Asia, bamboo is an important feature of landscapes and traditional use. Yet, the taxonomic inventory of the bamboo flora progresses slowly, by force, because of the incomplete exploration of the flora and the inadequacy of scientific collecting. As landscapes change to an even greater extent, the ability to recognize the diversity of bamboos and efforts towards the conservation and collection of the important or rare species become even more significant.One of the projects recently concluded was the establishment of a Bambusetum for national conservation and research at the University of Malaya's Rimba Ilmu Botanic Garden in Kuala Lumpur. The site was most appropriate because of its strategic location within the research environment of the University of Malaya, the oldest university in Malaysia and the presence of the specialist, Prof K.M. Wong, who has tremendous interest in research on bamboos. The successful conclusion of that establishment, and its encouraging progress since then, has led to the present account, which seeks to make available an introduction to bamboos as a useful plant resource and the multiple facets of their diversity and biology, in a way that draws attention to the many interesting features of bamboos in Southeast Asia in general. Malaysia and Singapore are the only countries in Southeast Asia where modern taxonomic accounts of the bamboo flora as a whole exist, and some other countries are approaching completion of their own guides.It is the hope that this account will stimulate general interest and provide some perspectives into bamboo morphology, ecology and the taxonomic research required for understanding and conserving the diversity of bamboos. IPGRI continues in its efforts to promote the identification and conservation of the most important components of genetic resources among bamboos, and in making the associated information and approaches as accessible as possible.Percy E. Sajise, Regional Director, APO, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, IPGRI (Opposite). Teratological form of Gigantochloa scortechinii with multiple primary branch buds at each node.1amboos, botanically considered a specialized group in the Grass family, are fascinating for different reasons. To many Chinese, Japanese, Indians and the peoples of Southeast Asia and South America, bamboos are intricately linked to both culture and even survival, since ancient times. The many uses of bamboo range from handicrafts made ad hoc in village settings, such as personal ornaments, utensils and a most incredible variety of baskets and other containers, bird cages, poultry coops, musical instruments, to water pipes, bridges, house construction and fishing contraptions (Kurz 1876, Wong 1995b) . Bamboo scaffolding used during construction of buildings (Fig. 7), including high-rise structures, so evident in parts of India, Bangladesh and China, looks set to stay as a simple, inexpensive technology even in today's world of modern innovations. From bamboo blowpipes and small animal traps familiar to the more primitive technologies, the use of this material has graduated to modern factory-based production of paper, bamboo blinds   and barbeque skewers. The living bamboo provides edible shoots, fences, windbreaks, ornamentals and a means to counter erosion in some situations.To the botanist, the 1200-1500 species of bamboo the world over still represent a diversity that is not well understood, with many species to be discovered or better documented, and very incomplete agreement as to how the many forms are to be classified. The silviculturist and agronomist, whose job it is to cultivate trees and bamboos profitably for economic products, are interested in their growth attributes, cultivation aspects and potential utilization. Resource managers are interested in ensuring that rare forms are conserved, and useful types of bamboo are better understood and made available for developing useful materials that can help people. The forester is concerned about which bamboos occur where, and in what abundance, and whether these have potential usefulness or may become weedy in their growth, smothering other more useful plants. A recent perspective is the realization that living bamboo stems house interesting animal communities, including some with specific associations (Kovac 1993).One thing is certainly agreed among those who are conscious about the usefulness of bamboos. These very interesting and mostly useful plants can be better understood, more systematically documented and managed as a resource. It is important to first understand the fundamental attributes of these plants, so that this basic knowledge can help foster better identification, utilization and conservation of the many species.It is the aim of this book to provide a basic understanding of the bamboos and to give an introduction to some of the main types of bamboos found in Southeast Asia, where they are linked to everyday living, to the environment, industry, culture and folklore. The present account was precipitated by the establishment of a research collection of bamboos at the Rimba Ilmu Botanic Garden, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), under the auspices of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). It complements earlier accounts of Peninsular Malaysian bamboos by the author (Wong 1995a(Wong , 1995b) ) and Sabah bamboos by Soejatmi Dransfield (1992), and various ongoing inventory projects in various parts of Southeast Asia. It also assembles, in a brief way, information on growth habit and structure, tips on identification of the more important bamboos, and notes on the main groups and species encountered, with a discussion of the importance of carefully established and documented, ex situ conservation collections. How bamboos are classified B B amboos are part of the Poaceae (sometimes also called Gramineae), the family of grasses. They share certain characteristics that place them apart from other grasses: segmented, typically hollow stems (called culms, as in all grasses) that are somewhat woody, which sprout from the underground stem portions (or rhizomes); a complex system of branching; and flowers that typically each have three perianth-like structures (lodicules) and 3-6 stamens (Soderstrom 1981).Yet, the woody bamboos share other characteristics with some herbaceous (non-woody) grasses, notably leaf blades that have a distinctive internal organization of the tissues (including \"arm cells\" and \"fusoid cells\" not found in other grasses) and which are basally narrowed to form a stalklike connection with the leaf sheath (sometimes called a \"pseudostalk\"). These are called the herbaceous bambusoid grasses. Different species of the bambusoid grasses (both woody and herbaceous) are grouped into genera (singular: genus) on the basis of similar characteristics, and genera further as subtribes and tribes (Soderstrom & Ellis 1987). The various tribes then comprise the bamboo subfamily (Bambusoideae) of the Grass family.Bamboo classification or taxonomy is difficult because, often, relatively little is known or documented as many collectors shun collecting bamboos because of their size or the difficulties in trying to make good scientific specimens (Holttum 1958, McClure 1966) (Fig. 8). A comprehensive, natural classification of subtribes is still actively pursued and it is expected that advances in understanding DNA characteristics will shed more light on the relationships.Fig. 8 (Opposite). Blanco did not list reference specimens when he named a bamboo Bambusa levis, so Merrill chose this to represent the species, which he recognized as a Gigantochloa instead, creating the new combination G. levis. The specimen has no culm sheaths and it is difficult to visualize the living plant from this alone.n many parts of Southeast Asia, bamboos have long been recognized as village or cultivated bamboos and native or forest bamboos. The cultivated bamboos include known introductions to a number of places from their place of originfor example, Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus (native in India, Myanmar and Thailand), Shibataea kumasasa (originally from southern Japan) and Thyrsostachys siamensis (from Myanmar and Thailand)and others that were first known in cultivation and not yet found wild anywhere, such as B. heterostachya in Peninsular Malaysia or D. asper generally in Southeast Asia.In some cases, such as some species of Gigantochloa that are known only in cultivation in Peninsular Malaysia and Java, it is possible their present-day distribution reflects the historical migrations of people in the region. Indeed, some bamboos known only in cultivation may be products of selection over a long period of cultivation, following introduction from wild stock. One example is Gigantochloa balui, which is common in many parts of Borneo where it is known only in cultivation or near settlements, never truly wild, but which has later been found wild in Peninsular Thailand. Although this bamboo was first diagnosed scientifically from material from Borneo, yet in fact it must have been carried there from somewhere in the Malay Peninsula or Thailand a long time ago.Around 200 species of bamboo occur in the Southeast Asian region, from Myanmar and Indo-China to Papua New Guinea, and including the Malay Archipelago (Dransfield & Widjaja, 1995). Among the countries of this region, there are few modern accounts of the bamboo flora published. This situation is understandable, given that very few specialists are involved in bamboo exploration and taxonomic work, many reference specimens (on There are common or well-known bamboos, and rare or little-known ones. Bambusa vulgaris (which, as its Latin name implies, is the \"common bamboo\") probably originated in Southeast Asia and is now pan-tropical, being commonly planted as an ornamental and for household uses in villages. Some bamboos, in fact, border on being weedy. In Peninsular Malaysia, three native species, Gigantochloa scortechinii (which is also the most useful species there), Dendrocalamus pendulus and Schizostachyum grande (Fig. 9), are very common and occur naturally in the foothills and valleys of mountain ranges, as well as colonize disturbed forest sites in the lowlands generally. In the northern part of Borneo, the climbing species of Dinochloa can become so common in logged-over lowland forest that they smother the tree regeneration (Fig. 10), forming a thick blanket of growth over the residual vegetation that appears penetrated only Cultivated or wild, common or rare 10 The dwarf bamboo locally called pek, Vietnamosasa pusilla, forms extensive undergrowth in deciduous forest and thickets in scrubland in the seasonal areas of northeast Thailand (Fig. 11) and Indo-China (Dransfield 2000a). This species flowers and seeds gregariously, so large patches of regeneration are possible. In the high mountains of Taiwan and Luzon (Philippines), another dwarf bamboo Yushania niitakayamensis colonizes entire mountainside landscapes, effectively forming grasslands, by its sheer ability to spread (Figs. 12 & 13); indeed, its efficacy of spread has prompted its use in erosion control.This commonness is due to various reasons. The first is an ability to adapt to many different site conditions, such as differing amount of light or shade, or nutrient status, although it is true that moderate to strong exposure and moist, fertile (non-acidic) conditions most favour the growth of the common species. Another reason is the ease of vegetative propagation, such Cultivated or wild, common or rare 11   as the sprouting of new plants from bits of scattered rhizome (e.g., during land clearance using tractors) or some culm and branch portions bearing buds. In the case of some native species, relatively frequent seeding, or seeding of a big population of individuals, can also play a part in their spread and increase in abundance, especially where disturbance has brought about suitable conditions for establishment (Wong 1986).Some species are rare because their distribution is restricted to isolated localities, such as mountain peaks or specialized substrates, including limestone hills or swamps.Such places are \"ecological islands\", having very different conditions from the surrounding landscape, which engender the establishment of unique or specially adapted species. Many species of Racemobambos, for example, are known only from one or several mountain peaks (Dransfield 1983). R. glabra, an elegant montane bamboo, is found only on several peaks in the Meligan-Brunei-Mulu region of northwest Borneo. R. hepburnii (Fig. 14) and R. gibbsiae are sister species occupying lower and upper terrains, respectively, on Mount Kinabalu in Borneo and apparently have non-overlapping periods of flowering (Wong, Chan & Phillipps 1988). Temochloa liliana is a delicate scandent bamboo known only from some limestone sites in Peninsular Thailand (Dransfield 2000b). Some bamboo species can be possibly endangered, too. In Peninsular Malaysia, the clambering small bamboo, Schizostachyum terminale was once more common, growing in seasonally inundated sites along slow-moving streams and within mosaics of freshwater and peat swamps. It was first discovered in 1940 in Peninsular Malaysia, on the banks of the Krian River in Kedah state, and then only recorded again in the 1980s in the Rantau Panjang area near the coast in Selangor state, represented by a few remnant clumps in a roadside patch in the midst of a ricefield region. It is now no longer seen or easily found in Peninsular Malaysia's west coast, which has undergone tremendous changes in natural landscape during development that spanned more than a century. Only two other localities in Peninsular Malaysia, both in the east coast state of Pahang, have ever been known for this speciesone, in 1988, at the Krau Game Reserve, and the other, in 2003, during an IPGRI-motivated bamboo survey in the coastal Merchong swamp area, where it appears to be uncommon and not abundant. Thanks to recently active collection in Borneo, this species is now also known to exist in similar habitat there (Fig. 15). However, it is clear that S. terminale is truly rare and vulnerable to extinction in Peninsular Malaysia.In Peninsular Malaysia, S. lengguanii, another smallish elegant bamboo, is known only from the Tasik Chini and Merchong swamp areas. Elevation of the water level at Tasik Chini for tourism-related development caused the inundation and death of many lakeside clumps there, and logging activities at the Merchong area have included a track that ran through a population of this species. In southern Sumatra and South Kalimantan, in similar habitat, forest fires are a threat to the survival of this species (Muller 1998a).This story reminds us of two things regarding species rarity. First, a species can be little-known and even rare in one instance, but is in fact more generally present, only it has not been discovered and documented elsewhere. Also, a species, although represented by more than one population, can disappear or go locally extinct over a period of disturbance and change to its natural habitat. This is particularly so if the species is specific in its requirements and landscape changes or disturbances especially affect its habitat. In Southeast Asia, isolated or restricted ecosystems vulnerable to destruction or intense change, where specialized species may be threatened, include places like swamp forests (prone to logging and conversion to cultivation), limestone hills (prone to quarrying for road metal and cement) and mountain peaks (prone to clearance and fires associated with recreational activities and development).Rare species can also exist in the lowland forests generally, apart from the easily recognized \"specialized\" ecosystems. The impression that lowland forests are a \"generalized\" ecosystem with a uniform species composition could not be farther from the truth. Ecological research shows that a small number of species makes up the common ones, which are most abundant or widespread. In fact, the bulk of the species in a piece of rain forest are represented by small numbers of individuals, either scattered far apart or occurring only in certain patches. Also, in the lowland rain forest, many of the smaller plants, including especially herbaceous species, tend to be more restricted in distribution or site-specific. Thus a species can be rare in terms of a very scattered distribution of individuals (low frequency), or due to occurrence in only one or very few localities (narrow endemism).It is not true that all forest bamboos become weedy when they are present in forest being badly disturbed, although the weedy ones (often the bigger ones) make their presence felt strongly. In Peninsular Malaysia, for example, there are a few rare, true forest bamboos adapted to forest understory conditions. One such bamboo is S. aciculare, known only as small clumps in a few localities in Negri Sembilan, Johor and the Kelantan-south Thailand region. Another rare understory bamboo is the clambering, pencilthin Racemobambos setifera, which is rare or extinct outside the upper Endau River area in Johor (Wong 1987). It survives only in a narrow strip of forest bordering pristine streams and will not tolerate excessive exposure (as will occur with logging) or inundation (as will occur with river impoundment). Also a rare lowland endemic, Soejatmia ridleyi (Fig. 16) is only known in very few sites in Pahang and the Bukit Timah forest in Singapore. The unusual clambering bamboo Temburongia simplex, sole representative of its genus, is restricted to streamside forest in the Temburong district of Brunei (Dransfield & Wong 1996).Some species are rare in the core rainforest region of Malaysia and Indonesia because they are naturally centred in the region farther north or south, where conditions are more seasonal. Species of the twining bamboo genus Dinochloa are most diverse and more easily encountered in the northern parts of Borneo (e.g., Sabah) and Peninsular Malaysia probably because of their preference for more seasonal conditions (the genus is also known in Java). The little-known Gigantochloa rostrata is known growing naturally only in Myanmar and the summit of Gunung Raya on Langkawi Island, in the extreme north-west of Peninsular Malaysia, a region more seasonal in climate than nearer the equator. Gigantochloa balui, native to the lowlands of Peninsular Thailand, has only been recently documented growing naturally in neighbouring Kedah, one of the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia.Indeed, the narrow \"neck\" of the Malay Peninsula, including Peninsular Thailand and the extreme north of Peninsular Malaysia, by relative isolation through its intercalation between the land mass of Thailand proper and more equatorial Peninsular Malaysia, appears to be a special biogeographical region with its own specialities. The slender, small Dendrocalamus elegans occurs gregariously (i.e., in large numbers in an area) on the ancient weathered limestone on the Langkawi group of islands, where they grow on a thin soil from sea-level to the tops of cliffs, including in cracks and on ledges on cliff faces (Fig. 17). It also occurs on the Gua Musang limestone (Kelantan) and in peninsular Thailand. D. dumosus is another such limestone bamboo from the same region, and recent field work has discovered other 17   bamboos special to Peninsular Thailand. Temochloa liliana, mentioned above, is also a speciality of this region. Some bamboos can be locally common but are in fact rarities on a regional or wider geographical scale. Holttumochloa magica (Fig. 18) is documented only from the Fraser's Hill and Cameron Highland areas on the Pahang-Selangor border, at 1200-2000 m, in the cloud forest. H. korbuensis is known only from the summit of Gunung Korbu (Perak) and H. pubescens only from the summit of Gunung Stong (Kelantan). These bamboos are a significant component of the dwarfed cloud forest between about 1500 m and 2100 m. They form an undergrowth in short, extensively mossy forest but can be thicketforming on very exposed, disturbed ridge-tops (Wong 1995b).Likewise, in northwest Borneo, Kinabaluchloa nebulosa is often encountered on the high mountains of the Crocker Range and associated ranges. In Java, Schizostachyum aequiramosum is documented only from the Meru Betiri National Park in the extreme southeast of the island, where its culms are even used by people. S. caudatum, peculiar among members of its genus for its solid culms (Fig. 19), is endemic to southern Sumatra (Widjaja 2001). The stem A A bamboo stem has an underground part, called the rhizome, and an emergent portion called the culm. If we examine the rhizome, the culm and its branches, we can see that they are segmented, i.e., there is a series of nodes (appearing as rings along the culm, where the sheaths, buds and branches arise) and intervals between the nodes that are simply called internodes. The internal space within the bamboo culm is compartmentalized into a series of hollows by each node bearing a transverse plate. It is this basically hollow cylinder-like structure with crosswalls placed at regular intervals along the culm that gives bamboo its inherent strength and flexibility.Not all species have conspicuously hollow culms: sometimes species are encountered which have their culm walls so thick that the central hollow is inconspicuous or even absent altogether (Fig. 19). Not all bamboos have erect culms, either. There are some forest bamboos, in Southeast Asia for example, which have slender culms that can twine around tree trunks as they ascend during growth, behaving as other twining plants do (Fig. 20). Also, not all rhizomes are hollow. Bamboos growing in clumps where the culm bases nearly touch typically have solid, thickened and relatively short, spindle-shaped rhizomes. Those with a \"running\" habit where the culms are spaced out farther from one another usually have rhizomes that are slender and hollow, just like in the erect culms. The nodes on the rhizomes and, sometimes, at the basal portion of culms develop verticils of short roots.The clumping or \"running\" habit of bamboos is a consequence of its rhizome growth behaviour. Typically, the rhizome that turns upwards to 21  continue as a culm also bears new rhizomes, which again also upturn to become culms, and these will then bear further \"daughter rhizomes\" and so on. In other words, wave-like successions of rhizomes build up as repeating units, which are of successively newer generation; this is said to form a sympodial series of rhizomes (Fig. 21). Sympodial rhizome systems most frequently bear short, thickened spindle-shaped rhizomes that form culms placed closely together, as distinct clumps. On occasion, the sympodial rhizome units have slender and elongated \"neck\" or proximal portions, and so carry well-spaced culms, but these are not common (Figs. 22 & 23).True \"running\" bamboos are those with slender, hollow rhizomes that grow horizontally without typically upturning to form a culm; buds developing along the rhizome will either form new rhizomes or form culms directly, with the result that the culms are typically well spaced out over a wider area. Such rhizomes are also called monopodial rhizomes (Fig. 21). These form groves of single culms (Fig. 24), and not clumps. Monopodialtype bamboo genera are generally uncommon in the tropics and occur mainly in the temperate zone, where both types may be found also. In some bamboo species, a mixed condition occurs, with monopodial and sympodial rhizome portions in the same plant. A new culm shoot always emerges with the same diameter at its base as it will have when full height is reached; the lack of actively dividing tissues which allow stem thickening means that internode diameter at any point along the culm is fixed. This is why a young bamboo plant will produce the smallest culms first and only gradually produce new culms that are progressively larger, until its mature dimensions are reached.Although sometimes buds (and hence, branches) may not form at the lowermost culm nodes, they are usually present from at least the middle of the culm upwards. Generally, the mid-culm branch complement (the array of branches forming at a node in the middle portion of the culm) is the most fully developed and diagnostic of a particular species or group.  . Some bamboo branch complements: many slender branches from many individual primary buds, Holttumochloa (A); many slender branches from a single primary bud, Schizostachyum (B); dominant primary branch and smaller branches proliferating from its base, Bambusa (C); pair of unequal main branches from one primary bud, Phyllostachys (D); three subequal main branches arising together, Chimonobambusa (E).The form of the branch complement is determined by the characters of the bud, which can be different among bamboos (Fig. 25). Nearly all bamboos in Southeast Asia have branch complements developing from a single bud at each node. An exception is found in Holttumochloa, in which the branch complement develops from several to many individual, very small primary buds arranged closely together in roughly two ranks in the small space occupied by the branch-bud complement at each node. This results in the branch complement having several to many slender primary branches at a node which produce a few similar-looking secondary branches at their base. These branches typically do not branch further away from their base.In some bamboos, the primary (original or first) branch axis can grow bigger and longer than other subsequent branches that arise from its base (i.e., it is dominant over them) (Fig. 26), or the cluster of branches developing at a node may consist of a number of somewhat equal (subequal) branches (Fig. 27).In the bamboo plant the leaves can assume two forms, with different functions. One of the forms is represented by the thickened, rigid, scroll-like structure that is held around and encloses much of an internode as it lengthens during early culm growth. Such \"culm sheaths\" (or \"culm leaves\", as they are also called) play a protective role in encasing the tender lower part of an internode while its tissues actively divide and lengthen. Culm sheaths can be green or some other colour but they are usually persistent to a certain degree even after turning brown and can remain on the mature culms for some time. The other (perhaps more immediately recognizable) form of a bamboo leaf is that of the foliage leaf on the finer branches, with conspicuous, green blades, whose role is photosynthesis.If both forms are examined, their basic structure is found to be the same (Fig. 28). Each type has a main stiff lower body, or the sheath proper, which bears a blade-like structure at its top and, often also, other associated parts. In the case of the culm sheath, the blade is small and does not remain green for long, while the sheath proper is conspicuous because it is an adaptation for protectively encasing the cylindrical culm internode during growth. The foliage leaf blades are well expanded as thinner, green structures with the full tissue complement for gas exchange and photosynthesis; these leaf-blades are attached to less conspicuous, lower sheath portions that still play a protective role encasing the young branch internodes. In fact, even the rhizomes are clothed in sheaths as they develop, only these are seldom well observed because they are underground and easily damaged during excavation. The rhizome sheaths are much reduced and sometimes the blades are not at all distinct. All these leaf-like structures, whether on rhizome, culm or branch, and variously adapted for a mainly protective or photosynthetic function, are said to be homologous, i.e., with fundamentally the same structure and derived from one fundamental organ type. Thus we find that sheaths or leaves on the bamboo plant are arranged in two rows along any axis (rhizome, culm or branch) and arranged alternately left and right.Culm sheaths and leaf sheaths often bear other parts in addition to the sheath proper and blade. The so-called \"auricles\" are smaller parts resembling lobes or rims at the base of the blade margin on both sides. They can be smooth or hairy on the edges, small to truly ear-like, depending on the species. In addition, there usually is an inconspicuous rim that develops at the junction between blade and sheath proper, on the inner side; this is called the \"ligule\" and can be variously smooth, cleft, toothed or hair-fringed. The shape and form of such structures, together with the general form, colour and hairiness of the sheath and its blade, often supply many characters for identifying a bamboo (see also .Young bamboo shoots just emerging from the ground may be edible, but in the youngest stages they yield few characters for identification. It is the shoots which have grown to 0.5-1 m high or higher, on which are found welldeveloped culm sheaths that show the best formed characteristics. For identification from mature plants, the culm sheaths at the middle of the culm are often taken because they show the fully developed characters typical of the species.In bamboos, the inflorescences or specialized flower-bearing branches have complicated structures. The fundamental flower-bearing unit is the same as in grasses and is called a spikelet, the whole only several millimeters to a few centimeters long. The spikelet is really a tiny branch (the \"rachilla\") with two rows of overlapping scales, some of which hide the tiny flowers.A single spikelet typically consists of one to several \"empty\" scales or bracts at its base called glumes (which do not embrace any flowers), and 1-several more specialized scales above these, called lemmas, each of which protects a flower (Fig. 29). A flower subtended by its lemma is termed a floret. Such spikelets are found in most grasses and bamboos such as Chimonobambusa, Nastus, Racemobambos and Temburongia. In some other bamboos, the short rachilla also bears 1-several small bracts, which each protect a tiny branch bud, at the very base of the spikelet proper. This kind of spikelet-bearing branch with bracts subtending buds at its base has been termed a \"pseudospikelet\" (Fig. 29) and is characteristic of many groups of bamboo in Southeast Asia. It is often impossible to distinguish among these different types of bracts without examining what occurs inner to each.True spikelets not only lack the branch buds at their base, they also remain as single units as they mature (Fig. 30). In contrast, pseudospikelets not only possess basal bud-bearing bracts at their base, they also develop into  The bamboo specialist F.A. McClure (1966) has called the bamboo inflorescence an indeterminate (or iterauctant) type if it has pseudospikelets as the basic units, because there is more than one period of spikelet production in the inflorescence. He called the bamboo inflorescence a determinate (or semelauctant) type if it had true spikelets as the basic units, as the ultimate flowering branch cannot then further branch and form any more flowers.Each flower, enclosed by its attendant lemma, is in fact a tiny sidebranch of the rachilla (Fig. 29). The whole flower is embraced by a membraneous structure with two inflexed edges called the palea, which hasThe structure of the bamboo plant 32 its back against the rachilla. Distal to the palea and wholly enclosed by it, the floral axis typically bears three smaller membraneous structures called lodicules (comparable to the perianth, or sepals and petals, of an ordinary flower), stamens, and a female complement comprising the ovary and its style and stigma(s).The flower is sometimes described as perfect when it has both male and female parts (represented by the stamens and ovary-style structure, respectively) within its palea. If these structures are not formed within the palea or lemma, the flower is simply called \"empty\" or \"vestigial\".In bamboos, the fruit is a one-seeded structure that does not split when ripe. Most often, the fruit is dry (as opposed to fleshy) and is technically called a caryopsis (Fig. 32), not much larger than a grain of rice or wheat. In a few genera of bamboos, such as Cyrtochloa, Dinochloa, Melocalamus, Melocanna and Sphaerobambos, the fruit is a fleshy, spherical to pear-shapedThe structure of the bamboo plant 33 structure (Figs. 33 & 34) and in some species can reach the size of a large plum. In some (not all) of the fleshy-fruited bamboos, the seed germinates viviparously (i.e., while the fruit is still attached to the parent plant) (Kurz 1876, Stapf 1904, Dransfield 1981).The structure of the bamboo plant 34 n most bamboos, every leafy branch can potentially develop into a flowering shoot. When this begins to happen, the leaves of such branches turn brown and gradually all drop off, and the branch apex starts to lengthen, bearing much smaller leaves or only reduced sheaths without expanded, green blades. Each such branch then develops the flowering units (pseudospikelets or spikelets) at its nodes and apices, and frequently also flowering side branches develop from its basal parts. A flowering culm can eventually have all of its originally leafy branches transformed into flowering shoots (Fig. 35), and buds at culm and branch nodes can also develop directly into pseudospikelet clusters.In nature, the flowering of such bamboos (e.g., Dendrocalamus pendulus, Gigantochloa scortechinii, Schizostachyum zollingeri, Vietnamosasa pusilla) is often gregarious (i.e., involving most or all clumps over a large area in a kind of mass flowering) and at long intervals in some cases (up to many decades), and the clumps then die or regenerate from remaining rhizomes, with most replacement from seedlings (Figs. 36 & 37). These  species, and others, can also flower in a diffuse and sporadic manner (with just a few branches, culms or individual clumps coming into flower).In many species of Schizostachyum in the everwet parts of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, the flowering habit is different. After the leafy branches present on a culm start flowering and then gradually dry up at their tips, they produce a next crop of side-branches with normal leaves. This new set of branches repeats the cycle of leafing and flowering and in turn produces a further crop of branches that behave similarly (Fig. 38). About four to five such cycles of branch development occur on a single culm before it dies, so that the mature clump, with many culms at different stages of development, has more-or-less continuous flowering (Wong 1995a).Flowering in the forest climbing bamboos Dinochloa and Maclurochloa is typically restricted to one or a few branch complements which become transformed into specialized, huge and sometimes much-branched (even fan- like) flowering structures (Fig. 39). These large, flowering branches often protrude from tree crowns climbed by the bamboo, where presumably pollination by wind is more effective than within the tree crown.In days gone by in India and Bangladesh, after the muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) had flowered over large tracts around settlements, the resulting intense fruit crop (the fruits are the size of small pears in this unusual bamboo) would fuel a population explosion of rats-and, then, either crop destruction or disease would be the tragedy of the day. The muli bamboo flowers and fruits every 30-60 years or so. Other gregarious bamboo fruiting events have also brought additional grain to relieve famines. However, most bamboo flowering has not been so dramatically linked to human affairs. T T he identification of a bamboo or other plant is a means of finding out its identity (by a name, whether scientific or common name) through recognizing its special characteristics. Being able to tell the identity of a species or genus often helps in searching for other information we may require: in this sense, the name \"unlocks\" further information. Identification is easier when it is possible to use easily examined features. This is often different from taxonomic classification, which seeks to recognize naturally related groups through the use of characters considered most stable during evolution of the group and which may have \"grouping\" utility (i.e., reflecting common ancestry). Such characters often include those found in the reproductive parts (spikelets or flowers) and other material ordinarily difficult to examine (such as chemical or DNA characteristics, or internal structure of organs). This can be quite an involved and difficult process because of the need to check and collate many categories of information that are often not easily available for all bamboos at any one time.The bamboo botanist examines as many features as possible by referring to the original reference specimens used when scientific names were first given (according to the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature that taxonomists agree to use). Botanists also study new evidence first-hand, where possible. Their objective is to make a list of bamboos in a particular group (such as a genus), or of a particular region (such as a district or country) using names they interpret to be correct. They might be interested in making improvements to the classification of a group, or simply in compiling an up-to-date account of one or more aspects (cultivation, uses, ecology, etc.) of the bamboos of a certain region and following an available classification.Nevertheless, apart from unfamiliarity and lack of reference material, bamboo identification can sometimes be difficult. This is often caused by not knowing the full characteristics of key parts of a bamboo species, e.g., when there are few specimens known of a species, or poor material or documentation of the main vegetative parts of the plant. Attempts to identify bamboos using older accounts can turn out to be frustrating because they may not always include adequate descriptions of the most accessible parts of a bamboo plant (such as the culm or culm sheath characters). This is because an old scientific account may have named a bamboo species based on its unique spikelets or flowers, and did not have any diagnostic vegetative parts included, but the living bamboo plants most often accessible to us may not be flowering, remaining in a vegetative state for a very long period. This is in fact the case for many countries, unless newer revisions of older works have managed to incorporate missing information. This kind of research usually involves re-collecting a comprehensive set of fresh material (including good flowering and vegetative material) for study against the old, incomplete specimens on which names have been based (see also Fig. 8). Many bamboos of the Indian-Myanmar and Indo-Chinese regions, for example, have names, but it is not a straightforward task to know which names apply to which bamboo plants because of this situation.To obtain a reasonably modern and adequate revision of the bamboos for a developing country, the following are prerequisites: one or more trained botanists who can give time to studying bamboos; modest facilities and funds sufficient for collection, documentation and curation of materials in the home country; recourse to some or all reference specimens that have usually been incorporated in the research holdings kept overseas of past collectors and visiting specialists; and, preferably, collaboration and the support of one or more relevant specialists in the taxonomy of the group(s).Here, we provide two aspects that may help with understanding the process of identification, at least of the commoner bamboos of southeast Asia. The first is a brief consideration of the kinds of characters found useful in recognizing species and genera. The second is a key to identifying the common or especially interesting bamboo genera of the region, using these various features. a bamboo species immediately, except when this is done among a very selected few. More often, a combination or suite of character states is employed in identifying or classifying bamboos.Culm habit. Although many bamboos have comparatively rigid culms that arch only slightly outwards from the clump, some have pronounced arching so a clump that is well developed assumes a kind of \"mushroom\" shape. The culms in some species can be so weak they bend nearly to the ground, whereas in others they are quite flexible or even actually twine.EXAMPLES. Some stiffly erect culm habits are very distinctive, as in Bambusa heterostachya, Chimonobambusa quadrangularis, Thyrsostachys siamensis or Schizostachyum brachycladum (Fig. 40). The culms of some forest and forest-edge bamboos arch over to the ground if not supported by surrounding trees. This is seen in the reasonably big bamboos, S. grande (Fig. 9) and Dendrocalamus pendulus, and the smaller-sized Kinabaluchloa wrayi, Maclurochloa montana, Melocalamus compactiflorus (Fig. 41), Racemobambos setifera, S. terminale, Soejatmia ridleyi and Sphaerobambos hirsuta. It seems that these bamboos have adapted to the forest environment and come to depend on the support of adjacent vegetation. The slender, twining culms of Dinochloa species (Fig. 20) must be one of the most specialized culm habits known among bamboos, making them easily recognizable. This vine-like habit allows the bamboos to behave like some rainforest lianas and ascend to tree crowns where abundant foliage develops. The culms can twine both clockwise and anti-clockwise, not necessarily only in one direction as for some other climbers.Culm form and hollowness. The culm internode is typically cylindrical (e.g., Figs. 19,27,44) but can be angled in exceptional bamboos, or have ridges and grooves that vary its overall form. Normally hollow, the internodes can be obliterated by the culm walls being very thick or when the central hollow space is filled up by tissue. Internodes can be basally swollen.EXAMPLES. The culm base is often squarish in cross section in C. quadrangularis. Chimonobambusa and Phyllostachys culm internodes also have a flared portion bearing a ridge near the bottom of each internode and just above its node. In these genera, the internode also tends to be deeply grooved all along their length on the same side as the branch bud or branches (Fig. 25D). Internodes of the other bamboo genera are not, or only inconspicuously, grooved. Solid culms, or those with only narrow central hollows, are typical of the lower culm portions of many climbing species of Dinochloa, in Schizostachyum caudatum (Fig. 19), some Gigantochloa ligulata and T. siamensis. Internodes with basal swellings give the unusual appearance of a series of inflations along the culm and bamboos with this character, such as B. vulgaris cv. wamin (Fig. 42) or pot-grown B. tuldoides, are sometimes called \"Buddha's Belly Bamboo\". In Dinochloa species, every culm internode has a peculiar slight bulge or swelling at its base, related to the development of bending during growth in these climbing bamboos. Unusually long internodes reaching around a metre or more are typical or common in Kinabaluchloa (Fig. 43), Nastus spp. and S. jaculans.Node characters. The nodes do not show any special characters in most species. Thus, when there are conspicuous thickenings, or presence of roots, thorns or hairs, the appearance may be distinctive.EXAMPLES. Unusual thick, leathery \"girdles\" formed by external thickenings at the culm nodes (joined to the culm sheath base) are characteristic of M. montana and some Schizostachyum species, especially S. grande and S. iraten. A narrow plate-like or shelf-like extension (patella) 43  Culm surface hairiness and wartiness. The culm internode surface in different species may be glabrous (hairless), or may be scantily or densely hairy. These irritant hairs, and also the itch caused by them, are called miang in Malay. The type of hairs and their colour are diagnostic, but may be lost (sloughed away or dropped off) from old culms. It is often safest to inspect both young and old culms when examining this feature. Wartiness is much less familiar as most bamboos have generally smooth culm surfaces (at least under their hair covering, when present), but when (rarely) present, the warts occur as small, rough protrusions or breaks over the culm surface.EXAMPLES. Scattered dark hairs are frequently found on the internodes of many bamboo species (Fig. 45). However, short, appressed, white to palesilvery hairs are found scattered over the internode surface in D. longispathus, G. albopilosa, all species of Schizostachyum (e.g., Fig. 27) and T. siamensis. A thick band of velvety silvery white, appressed hairs occurs just below each culm node in M. montana. But perhaps one of the most easily remembered characters in identification is the thick, complete covering of velvety brown hairs all over the basal internodes of the large-diameter D. asper (Fig. 46). This velvety hair covering does not detach easily and is not normally irritant to the skin. The lower and middle culm internodes of C. quadrangularis are typically rough warty-papillate, with scattered tiny prickly warts, instead of being generally smooth.The culm internodes may also be powdery white-waxy in a number of species (Fig. 47). However, this is often best observed on fresh culms and, as with some hairiness, the character can be lost on very old culms frequently washed by the rain.EXAMPLES. Whereas in many taxa (e.g., B. polymorpha, D. giganteus), the white-waxy bloom is distributed generally over the culm internodes, in Melocanna (Fig. 52) and Schizostachyum the white waxiness is restricted to, or more pronounced at, a zone just below each node. Thus, from afar, the newer culms appear as if there are regularly spaced, pale or white narrow \"bands\" along their length. Waxiness can be used to distinguish closely resembling species. G. scortechinii, one of Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra's most easily recognized bamboos, is intensely waxy on its culm surface, whereas the closely related G. wrayi is not. G. thoii, which is also generally waxy on its culm surface, has likewise been confusable with G. levis, which is not.Aside from the branch complement developing from one bud (e.g., Fig. 44) or many individual buds    the branches do not normally rebranch along their length, but in the other bamboos mentioned, the branches rebranch clearly several times.In D. pendulus, the dominant branch at each node becomes a remarkably long, whiplike branch bearing further leafy branchlets at its nodes (Fig. 50). These long flexible branches often entangle with adjacent trees, deriving some support. In smaller bamboos that effectively clamber over or climb other plants, viz., S. terminale, Dinochloa, Maclurochloa and Soejatmia, the dominant branches often grow as long and thick as the original culm and repeat its development. One record of Dinochloa andamanica having \"culms up to 90 m\" probably refers to a series of such repeated branchings.Less diagnostic in value is the extent of development of \"basal branches\" in a bamboo clump. In B. bambos, B. blumeana, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Fig. 51) and D. strictus, basal branches often form a thicket around the base of the old clumps. EXAMPLES. Sheaths of Melocanna baccifera have 1-2 characteristic transverse undulations (forming waves or grooves) across the upper part of the culm sheath (Fig. 52). In Cyrtochloa, Dinochloa, Melocalamus, Neololeba and Soejatmia, the very basal portion of the culm sheath is highly diagnostic because of a narrow zone of minute transverse wrinkles.Culm sheath colour, hairs and wax. Sheath colours can be highly distinctive but best observed on growing shoots and young culms, as they turn brown or fall off in older culms. Some species have culm sheaths that are glabrous (hairless) or variously hairy or waxy.EXAMPLES. The sheaths of B. bambos and B. vulgaris cv. vittata (Fig. 53) are medium green and often with yellow to orange streaks, those of G. scortechinii are often a diagnostic bright orange (Fig. 54), and those of S. brachycladum are a golden yellow-brown. D. pendulus sheaths often grade from green at their base to orange or pink near their apex. Nastus elegantissimus culm sheaths are pale greenish pink. Otherwise, sheaths tend to be generally green when still fresh. Glabrous culm sheaths are seen in B. multiplex, B. tuldoides, Chimonobambusa quadrangularis, Soejatmia ridleyi, sometimes in B. bambos, and frequently in D. strictus. The sheaths have jetblack hairs in B. farinacea and Schizostachyum zollingeri, red-brown hairs in S. brachycladum, dark-brown hairs in B. blumeana, and pale silvery white hairs in D. longispathus, G. albopilosa, G. balui (Fig. 55), Maclurochloa montana and T. siamensis. Some species, like B. farinacea (Fig. 56), D. hirtellus and D. pendulus, have copious amounts of conspicuous white wax as well on the back of the sheaths.Culm sheath blade characters. The position of the culm sheath blade is often diagnostic because it is either stiffly erect or patent (spreading out) to reflexed in many species. Only in a few species is the blade orientation variable at different stages of culm development. Blade shapes and colours can also be helpful in identification. EXAMPLES. The blade is erect in nearly all known Bambusa (Fig. 56) and Neololeba species, some Dinochloa, some Gigantochloa, Melocanna baccifera, some Schizostachyum (Fig. 19), Soejatmia ridleyi and T. siamensis. It is spreading to reflexed in some Dinochloa, many Gigantochloa, some Schizostachyum (Figs. 27,57) and many other bamboos. The blade is broadly triangular to dome-shaped in nearly all species of Bambusa (e.g., Figs. 53,56), in some species of Gigantochloa and some species of Schizostachyum as well, where they are also often somewhat inflated (e.g., S. brachycladum, S. grande, S. zollingeri). Lanceolate blades are found in very many bamboos, as in Dendrocalamus, some Dinochloa spp., some Gigantochloa spp. (Figs. 54,55), Maclurochloa, Phyllostachys, east Java and New Guinea, each auricle is a stiff, erect, narrow lobe resembling a miniature finger or horn. The culm-sheath ligule is a low, subentire rim in many species of Bambusa and some species of Dendrocalamus, but is hairy or ciliate on the margin in S. aciculare, S. brachycladum and T. siamensis. The ligule margin bears fine bristles in Holttumochloa, Kinabaluchloa, Racemobambos (R. setifera), and S. jaculans (Fig. 59); coarse bristles or teeth in D. hirtellus, D. pendulus and a few species of Gigantochloa (Fig. 58); and irregular coarse divisions or clefts in D. asper, G. ligulata, G. thoii, and S. grande. In G. ligulata, the culm sheath ligule can be several centimeters long and very conspicuous! The ligule is hardly developed in some species, such as S. terminale.In general, the foliage leaf blades yield fewer useful characters. In a few cases, size, hairiness and variegation are distinctive, as are leaf auricles (Fig. 61) or ligules (Fig. 62).EXAMPLES. Very narrowly linear leaf blades (often less than 1 cm wide) are typical of Holttumochloa spp. (Fig. 49), Racemobambos spp., T. siamensis and B. multiplex cv. riviereorum. In contrast, leaf blades reaching  truncate, whereas in some other bamboos the blade is more gradually tapered to a wedge-shaped base.Spikelet and pseudospikelet characters. The essential difference between spikelets and pseudospikelets, discussed above (under \"Structure\"), is of value in classification and is a fundamental character of groups of genera. Spikelet structure, as influenced by the length of the rachilla and number of flowers and overall size, provides several consistent characters.EXAMPLES. The pseudospikelet appears big (some several centimeters long) when there are more than 1-2 flowers and rachilla internodes are distinctly elongate, as in Bambusa, Holttumochloa, Kinabaluchloa, and Soejatmia. The rachilla internodes are jointed just below the lemma attachment and the internodes detach easily, so that pseudospikelets easily break apart, in these genera and also in Maclurochloa and Thyrsostachys. There are 2-3-5 or more perfect flowers per spikelet in Bambusa, Gigantochloa, Holttumochloa, and Soejatmia. Only 1-2 perfect flowers per spikelet are found in some species of Dendrocalamus, and in Dinochloa, Kinabaluchloa and Maclurochloa. The number of glumes below the flowers is not constant but is usually just one or two; Maclurochloa, however, has 3-5 glumes below the flowers. Each tuft of pseudospikelets is subtended by a conspicuous, semi-persistent spathelike bract in Melocanna, and secondary and higher-order pseudospikelets are characteristically subtended by a large bract almost as long as the lemma in Kinabaluchloa. A vestigial terminal flower (with only a lemma, or just a lemma and palea, often reduced in size and without other flower parts) in the spikelet is typical of a number of genera but more difficult to ascertain without special instruments, as are other details of the spikelets and flowers.A number of flower details are of importance in classifying species and telling them apart from closely related ones, but these are best learned through more specialized books or papers and by first-hand dissection using the microscope.EXAMPLES. The palea of a bamboo flower typically has two sharp folds (\"2-keeled\" in structure) when it backs onto the rachilla internode below the next flower (as in Bambusa, Schizostachyum and others). The palea may not be keeled or only slightly so when there is just one flower (e.g., Dinochloa) or when it is found in a terminal flower which does not back onto any extension of the spikelet rachilla (e.g., in Dendrocalamus strictus, D. pendulus and allied species). In Sphaerobambos, the palea keels have a narrow extension or \"wing\". The palea apex may be rounded to acute (e.g., Bambusa), bifid (Schizostachyum), deeply cleft (Thyrsostachys), or with two hooked projections (Soejatmia). The number of veins on the back of the palea and on each inflexed edge is sometimes diagnostic of a species.There are typically three lodicules per flower in Schizostachyum and Bambusa, two in Melocanna, or none in Dendrocalamus, Neololeba and a number of species of Gigantochloa. Exceptionally, a variable number have been found, e.g., 3-10 in S. latifolium. Whole subtribes and genera can have three stamens (in a single whorl) (e.g., Chimonobambusa and Phyllostachys) or six stamens (in two whorls of three) (e.g., the native genera in Malaysia) in the flower. In the Indian genus Ochlandra there may be numerous stamens in a flower (and at the same time more than just three lodicules). Transitions between stamens and lodicules are known in S. latifolium, and in K. wrayi the normally free stamens are occasionally found attached to the inner surface of fused lodicules. Stamen filaments are sometimes fused into a tube, as in Gigantochloa (Fig. 31) and some Schizostachyum species. The anther may be yellow or maroon and this is sometimes diagnostic for some species; this is possibly the easiest flower character to note during collection as the anthers are extruded and dangle from mature flowers in the spikelets or pseudospikelets.In many bamboo genera, the style arises from the apex of the ovary, but in Melocanna and Schizostachyum, the ovary apex is extended as a tapering shell around a central strand of tissue thought to represent the true style. The style may be so short that the stigmas appear to arise directly from the ovary (e.g., some species of Bambusa, Holttumochloa and Kinabaluchloa) but typically it is elongate. A single stigma is found in some species of Bambusa, Dendrocalamus and Gigantochloa, but normally three in many species of Bambusa, Nastus, Schizostachyum and Soejatmia.tatements about the character states found in one species or group, as opposed to those in others, are often presented as contrasting pairs (or couplets, each comprising two leads), so that the reader can select which lead is applicable and be guided to the species or group being identified. A series of such statements make up an identification key, and the identification process goes through a series of \"true or false\" decisions.Clearly, a particular identification key is constructed with definite species or groups in mind; hence, if one attempts to use a particular key to identify something not included in the set of entities represented by the key, wrong interpretations may result. It is also possible that an entity may not been catered to in a key because it is simply unknown to the author.Here we attempt a key for identifying the groups and genera of Southeast Asian bamboos that are botanically better known. Remember that some species and groups have yet to be completely documented and many obvious parts, such as shoots and branching, are not well known, so it is difficult to present a \"simplified\" key. 4A. Branches at each mid-culm node all comparatively short and typically not rebranching away from their base. (In some cases, such as Racemobambos, the primary branch remains dormant and develops into a long dominant branch only later, so young culms appear to have clusters of short, simple branches; in other cases, such as Neololeba, new flowering side branches appear, bearing smaller leaves, as the branch enters a flowering phase, but these are not normally present prior to flowering.) 5A. Rhizome system mixed, basically monopodial, bearing culms directly as well as clusters of sympodial rhizomes; the culms well-spaced or in several clusters. Culm nodes prominently swollen. Branches at culm nodes each bearing just 1-2 leaf blades. The last group of genera is difficult to key out with simple, easy-toobserve features mainly because of the closely related Bambusa, Dendrocalamus and Gigantochloa having many species with a large range of characteristics, and inadequate study of (and thus long-standing confusion about) the definition of Dendrocalamus. Botanically, some botanists recognize the genus Sinocalamus and a stricter definition of Dendrocalamus (using the differences given above). Studies to establish these limits will also need to address the status of some related species in the Indo-Malayan area that cannot be placed in one genus or the other with certainty.C C onservation of bamboos, as is the case with many other plants, addresses two groups of species, those of known usefulness and (especially economic) importance, and other species that may be rare or vulnerable to endangerment.It is natural for useful plant species to be maintained or conserved by human communities. Len Muller (1996aMuller ( , 1998b) ) discusses the possible role of selection in maintaining useful bamboo clones. He surmises that, in a place like Java, where a long history of folk agriculture exists, certain clones may have been historically maintained for their usefulness, just as Holttum (1958) had suggested the distribution of cultivated Gigantochloa species may well reflect the ancient migration of peoples.In a number of bamboo species, clumps grow vegetatively for a certain period (even decades) and then flower intensely and gregariously (all together) before dying off, with the seeding producing a new generation. If hybrids between different species of bamboo existed, then in a number of them, seeding may be aberrant and unsuccessful. Furthermore, some of the hybrids, or variants of species, may not flower or die from their limited flowering and so make good cultivation subjects for a sustainable production of shoots or culms, traditionally the most useful items from bamboo (Fig. 63). Thus, where the diversity of bamboo species is great, such as in the case of Gigantochloa spp. in the Myanmar-Thai-Sumatra-Malayan region, hybrid swarms would yield a great number of such potential clones. In a place like Java, where an interesting range of Gigantochloa clones appears to have sustained for long periods without intense flowering and then death, such selection of bamboos from a swarm of hybrids may have taken place. These swarms are perhaps in distant lands from where ancestors of the present people had migrated.Apparent sterility is met with in such cultivated forms as Bambusa vulgaris (no fertile seed known). More extremely, some clones may not even flower for long periods. The horticulturally popular B. glaucophylla, a bushy plant with variegated leaves whose precise origin is not determined, is not known to have flowered; it appears not to be a true species but a cultivar derived from some other species, possibly B. heterostachya (Muller 1999). G. robusta clumps planted in the Bogor Botanical Garden in 1844 during the time of the botanist Hasskarl have remained alive for over 150 years, i.e., they at least did not die from flowering, if any. Muller (1999) has referred to such bamboos as \"ancient enduring clones\", which are preferable for many pragmatic reasons. For example, death following the 1994-95 gregarious flowering of Dendrocalamus asper material raised from a narrow genetic base for large-scale cultivation in Thailand has caused much economic loss (Thammincha, Suksard & Maneekul 1995, Muller 1996b). Apparently, 38,000 hectares of land planted with this bamboo became unproductive and 35,400 farmers lost their livelihood as a result. In contrast, it appears that there is a clone of D. asper in Java, possibly a selected form, that has only flowered diffusely, not intensely, over more than 60 years, so that whole-clump death has not resulted (Leu 1999). We know very little about such variation.Some variation in natural species can be readily observed. One of the most obvious characters that can vary conspicuously is variegation in culms, in the form of pale striping of otherwise wholly green culms. Clumps (representing individuals) with either entirely green or pale-striped culms can be seen within populations of G. ligulata in northern Peninsular Malaysia or G. balui in Peninsular Thailand, for example. Where these have seeded (Fig. 64), some albino seedlings (producing only white leaves) occur among \"normal\" seedlings (with green leaves). Do these albinos represent a portion unable to produce chlorophyll normally and which will die off, and the green seedlings other offspring that will either produce wholly green or palestriped culms? Systematic observations on this have not yet progressed very far. On the Mount Mirinjo farm at Innisfail, Queensland, Muller (1998b) observed the germination of seeds collected from a single parent clump of G. ridleyi (introduced from Bali) that had flowered. Roughly half the seedlings that germinated lacked chlorophyll and perished. This is difficult to interpret as it is, but at least, as a rough guide, collecting or planting both types of material, from such clumps with wholly green or pale-striped culms, would at least have gathered some degree of genetic diversity.A green culms and others with striped culms have distinct flowering times. At Khao Sok National Park a total of 271 clumps observed along a 5-km trail segment included 179 flowering clumps and 55 non-flowering clumps of the green form; all 37 clumps of the striped form were not in flower. At a second locality near Sontphenong village, 78 flowering and 39 non-flowering clumps of the green form were noted, and all four clumps of the striped form were not flowering. In these populations, at least, the striped form was fewer in number than the green form and they seemed to come into flower at different times.In India, Dendrocalamus strictus is a very variable species in many attributes, from overall size to the thickness of the culm wall, and drought resistance characteristics. There, documentation of character variation in this bamboo already exists and continues, aiding the identification of clones suited for particular purposes, but this kind of work is generally little done for other species, with the exception of D. asper (which is important for shoot production) and a few similarly useful species in various countries.The agenda for conservation of useful bamboo species can therefore be thought of as including the following major elements: a) identification and gathering of as many of the useful species as possible (a baseline collection that emphasizes species diversity); b) recognition, gathering and study of distinct clonal material for species desirable for particularly important reasons, such as supporting the selection of high-yielding and sustainable material for cultivation purposes (in relation to an identified product, usually either culms or edible shoots) and the likelihood of the clone surviving in a productive state over as long a period as possible (emphasizing clonal diversity of selected species); c) procurement of hybrid or suspected hybrid material from new sources, and their maintenance and study for the introduction of new, documented material.The conservation of natural species is best done through protection of wild populations (Fig. 65). In some cases, this can only proceed when there is a sufficient knowledge of the species found in a region and their relative commonness or rarity, as well as possible endangerment, if any. Usually, during associated field work for such surveys, it is feasible to collect representative living material for ex situ conservation at a relevant centre, such as a research station or botanic garden.In addition, a pragmatic assessment of both threats to particular wild populations, and to the species in general, as well as appropriate conservation measures, must be made. Highlighting the situation and recommendations to relevant parties and in reports, both technical and popular, often helps raise the level of awareness for conservation.The idea of developing special living bamboo collections, or bambuseta, has not been a widely applied one in Southeast Asia, as traditionally, the preservation of the best clones is left to the (usually village-based) people who use bamboos most, and knowledge of the native bamboo flora is not always satisfactorily developed or easily accessible. As many landscapes are being altered now in the face of development, it is even more important to have the range of clones collected, documented and conserved.Large, ex situ conservation collections can be land-extensive ventures if they aim to be somewhat comprehensive in scope. Both vegetatively propagated material (such as from rhizome offsets) and seed material would be of interest. Even then, there is a limit to the number of plants per species to be included, unless the collection more specifically targets a few species of some recognized importance. Thus, the existence and documentation of both small and larger collections are of importance, and the value of a number of small collections in secure places in each country or region should not be underestimated. An agency such as the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), in pooling together expertise and resources for bamboo conservation, can probably encourage a systematic, organized collection for conservation purposes through its network of parallel or participating organizations.In the Appendix here, we list selected facilities with collections of Southeast Asian bamboo species maintained for long-term research or conservation. amboo specimens are collected as research material or vouchers (representative evidence or records) of the species occurring in a particular locality or region. Because the whole plant can be very large, representative portions are taken as samples. All parts are individually tagged with the same collecting number or code as used for the collector's field notes recording features thought to be distinctive and which will not be retained with the samples, including those that will change with drying during preservative treatment later. Soderstrom & Young (1983) have given a very detailed protocol for such collecting, and here we describe the main features.The parts to be collected as a set representing a particular bamboo plant (note that there can be more than one set, for distribution to various specialists or institutions) include: 1) a portion of the culm or at least one intact internode where feasible (alternatively, a section that includes one node with a short length of the internode at each end); 2) culm shoots with intact well-developed culm sheaths at least 0.5-1 m high (or several culm sheaths in good condition from the mid-culm portion, which may need to be collected from the ground); 3) a mid-culm node that bears a developed branch complement with the branches all trimmed back (as in Fig. 26); 4) one to several smaller branches bearing foliage leaves; and 5) flowering branches with spikelets or pseudospikelets, or fruits in good condition, if any. If not overly bulky, portions of the rhizome system can also be taken as specimens; these should display how culms are connected.The minimal notes to be recorded for the collection would typically include: collector name and number; date; locality; elevation; habitat notes; common name and uses if known; rhizome type (monopodial, sympodial or variations thereof); culm habit (widely spaced or clump-forming, erect or otherwise); culm characters (total length, diameter and length of middle internodes, culm wall thickness, special features such as colour, hairiness, waxiness, etc.); special culm node characters if any; culm sheath characters at the mid-culm region (colour, hairiness, waxiness, blade position; auricle and ligule form, dimensions and their margins, whether bristled or otherwise); form of the branch complement at mid-culm; foliage leaf characters; and spikelet or pseudospikelet characters if known (e.g., colour of the lemma and its marginal hairs, if any; anther number and colour, filaments free or fused, stigma number).Of course, some bamboo clumps are in an entirely vegetative state (without flowering material), and a flowering clump may not be producing young shoots and lack well-preserved culm sheaths altogether. Should some of these parts need to be taken from a different plant, even in the same locality, they should be considered a different collection with different numbering.The parts collected are trimmed or folded down to a standard size that allows them to be pressed between newsprint folders of around 42 cm × 25 cm, and small bundles of these are protected with firm boards, secured tightly and dried thoroughly in a plant-drying oven at around 55°C. They are then suitably mounted (glued and stitched at relevant points) onto standard specimen boards of around the same size, together with a printed or neatly written note sheet containing the collecting information (the specimen label) (see specimen in Fig. 8). Specimen pressing and mounting is done such that the features are displayed maximally, e.g., both upper and lower leaf surfaces, and both sides of the culm sheath. Any photographs of the plant or its parts can be included with the specimen.These mounted specimens are then archived in a cabinet or special room or building, which constitute the herbarium, a systematically curated reference collection of dried, preserved plant specimens. Bulky items, such as the trimmed branch complement of a large bamboo, need not be mounted and can be kept separately in boxes but retaining the same collecting number or herbarium accession number as the mounted specimens. Surplus or small amounts of flowering or fruiting material (spikelets or pseudospikelets), young culm buds, foliage leaf blades and root tips can be directly kept, with a tag, in FAA (90 parts of 50% ethyl alcohol, 5 parts glacial acetic acid, 5 parts formalin) or other preservative solution in suitable containers; these preserve without losing their form too much and can be more easily examined when required or (young spikelets and root tips) used for cytological studies. Duplicate material to be sent to others need not be mounted but kept (together with a copy of the specimen label) between folders or boxes to be separately dealt with. Such specimens are then amenable to study and interpretation by the specialist. Collecting and processing equipment, boards and containers, as well as preservative solutions, can often be obtained from herbaria, usually established in forestry research organizations, botanic gardens or university plant sciences departments, provided a set of the specimens goes to their holdings.This book introduces the bamboos of Southeast Asia, a region well known for its incredible range of bamboo utilization and diversity. The author, a bamboo specialist in Malaysia, discusses the salient aspects of bamboo structure, biology and conservation and provides brief perspectives into the sometimes difficult tasks of bamboo classification and identification.","tokenCount":"11655"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5b11d07cb9bac899b679674746db60f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/80259531-b390-4b17-90d8-d4db7bb881cf/retrieve","id":"-1539366370"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d57952f1-6b8c-4619-9b04-0973cd4b4ee6","pagecount":"32","content":"I t is appropriate that the CGIAR decided to cornmission a study of the effects that the centers it supports have had on agricultural research institutions and agricultural production in the Third World.The external committee appointed to advise on the conduct of the study wishes to raise some issues on its own, and to acknowledge those whose wisdom, foresight, and hard work led to the initiation and successful conclusion of this study.A word about the role of the advisory committee and the process is in order. Its members were broadly drawn from diverse disciplines and institutions, with varied national backgrounds. The committee functioned as a support group to the director, Jock Anderson, in the design and organization of the study and as a reviewing body at intermediate and final stages. The process worked well-the advisory committee is pleased with and fully endorses the product. The committee was impressed with the high degree of professionalism and the organizational skills of the director, and has the highest regard for the manner in which he interacted with the committee, assembled his team, and carried out this difficult charge. The director enjoyed especially strong support in executing the project from Robert Herdt who carried staff responsibility for the study within the CG Secretariat and also interacted most successfully with the committee.The CGIAR was launched shortly after the fist days of the \"green revolution\" when semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties, developed by the first two centers, were spreading rapidly and when the worlds attention was focused on the food crisis in Asia. The descendants of these varieties, developed cooperatively with the national programs, remain the largest contribution of the system, and that is large indeed. There are indications that the centers' work on other commodities is also beginning to pay off. Center-related maize varieties have spread to over 6 million hectares in developing cormtries; new bean varieties are spreading, improved potato clones are being used, and new cowpeas are being grown by African farmers. The system has made a major contribution through training to increasing the capacity of developing countries to conduct research. These contributions alone demonstrate the enormous utility of a coordinated world system of agricultural research and training.The wheat and rice breakthroughs were based on a backlog of basic knowledge in the plant sciences that is not so readily applied to dryland crops, which are particularly important in parts of Africa, the center of today's food crisis. Wheat and paddy rice are grown on large, rather homogeneous areas while sorghum, millet, cassava, and the various food legumes are dispersed across a wide diversity of ecosystems.v he world's attention is now focused on the pro-1~ found problem of food in Africa. The causes are manifold: drought, strife, population growth, political imperatives, policy decisions, and world economic conditions all contribute. The CGIAR centers are devoting a substantial part of their resources to these problems: four centers are located in Sub-Saharan Africa, as is the sub-center of another. The impact of their work has thus far been modest, especially compared with the impact of the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties. Thii is to be expected in view of the scientific and technical dlfficulties let alone the other factors responsible for famine.The committee believes that, in the years ahead, the conditions that led to the initial successes of the CGIAR system will be changing. Many developing countries have organized national research systems (to a considerable extent spurred by the success of the international centers) with the ability to conduct adaptive research. More will do so in the years ahead. It will require bold steps to shift the research focus and the structures of many of the centers from classical adaptive research on specific varieties to the supply of new methods and new breeding materials, many based on the rapidly developing methods of genetic engineering and biotechnology. This involves a changing emphasis from highly applied to more basic research. It also involves enhanced links between the centers and the forefront na-tional laboratories in molecular genetics. These links will be effective only if the centers have staff members trained in these new techniques.A gricultural science in the 1980s is in a state of rapid transition. Genetic engineering and other tools of biotechnology promise to greatly increase the potential gains from investment in research. Significant advances in molecular genetics, relevant to the work of the centers, have involved discoveries of ways in which the genetic material can be manipulated in animals, plants, and microorganisms. Since a great deal of the work of the centers concerns the exploitation of germplasm in plant breeding, they must take the earliest possible advantage of the new technologies. This is especially important since the time required to bring new knowledge into practice is now much shorter, and entirely novel crop characteristics can .be created. The CGIAR centers will have to pursue these new avenues of research in addition to or in place of their current activities if they are to expeditiously meet their primary responsibilities to alleviate hunger in the Third World.It was understandable to address the problem of food production on an emergency basis at a tie when millions of people in Asia and elsewhere were faced with almost certain prospects of undernourishment and hunger. These dangers still exist not only for people in large parts of Africa but among the poorer strata of society everywhere. Nevertheless, it is important that problems of food supply are also tackled bearing in mind the longer-term perspective of preserving vital ecological balance and protecting the environment. Short-term gains which jeopardize longer-term goals cannot have a place in an integrated strategy for meeting basic needs worldwide on a sustainable basis.It has been recognized for decades that there is a need for the development of appropriate technologies that might permit sustainable use of lands subjected to slash-and-burn systems and the other forest removal techniques. Population pressures and numerous other factors have been dramatically increasing the intensity of deterior$ion of tropical environments. The extreme situation is posed by those millions of small-scale and marginal farmers trapped on degraded lands and lacking new areas or productive lands to which to move.The international centers and those that sponsor, guide, and finance the centers do have a profound interest in the development of systems that can contribute to alleviation of pressures on remaining tropical forests and fragile environments, permitting sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry on cleared lands (thereby reducing further destruction). Consideration must be given to appropriate arrangements for research to help national institutions to develop management methods, technologies, and policies for sustainable agriculture, animal husbandry, plantation forestry or agroforestry, and rehabilitation of degraded tropical areas.A case can be made that research should not focus exclusively on food crops. The principle of division of labor and mutually beneficial trade applies as much to agriculture as to anything else, and it may make sense for farmers in many poor regions to specialize in commercial crops rather than in food production so as to maximize their incomes as well as the chances of feeding the entire population in the region on an economical basis. The role of international centers, vis-a-vis national centers in research on commercial crops needs to be worked out in order to meet the needs of poor farmers, bearing in mind the crops they are best suited to produce.Finally, it cannot be overstated that the work of the centers is of benefit not just to the developing countries. It is an aspect of the growing interdependence of all nations that anything which contributes to the well-being of large numbers of people anywhere tends also to benefit the rest of the world. This is perhaps more true of scientific and technological progress than anything else.The international agricultural research centers were conceived as a mechanism that could draw upon the global stock of knowledge,' scientific talent, and plant material to address some of the urgent needs of developing countries. By the 1960s when the first centers were established, it had become clear that growth in agricultural productivity could not be achieved simply by transferring technology to developing countries. Progress could only result from the generation and diffusion of technologies relevant to local ecologies and economies.The early work with national research programs emphasized training and germplasm collection and improvement. As the center system has evolved and new centers have been created, attention has spread to a wider range of environmental conditions, more crops and livestock species, and more soil and pest complexes. The importance of adaptation of new technologies to specific local conditions has grown. As the focus has shifted, the 13 centers have increasingly established close working relations with their national counterparts. The trend toward closer ties has been facilitated by the rising scientific quality of national programs, which is the result of larger national budgets for research and, in part, assistance and training provided by the centers.The study of the 13 international centers attempted to assess the changes that had been accomplished through the existence of the centers and to document the perceptions that researchers in developing countries hold about the centers' work. The major conclusions of the study: 1. The system of agricultural research centers that are supported by the CGIAR provides critical ingredients-both material and intellectual-that have helped many developing countries to reap high returns from technological investigation. The centers have provided a vehicle for transferring innovations based on crop germplasm from country to country along with the knowledge of how to adapt such innovations to local conditions and how to achieve further advances. If the system of centers did not exist, something very much like it would have to be invented.2. Most of the tangible economic benefits of the CGIAR system trace to the modern wheat and rice varieties developed by national programs in part from genetic materials provided by the centers. Modern varieties cover 115 million hectares or half the total plantings of wheat and rice in the developing world. Since they were first adopted by farmers in the mid-196Os, center-related wheat and rice varieties have spread rapidly in most developing countries where the crops are grown. They do best with irrigation, but as researchers produce more specifically adapted varieties, substantial areas of rainfed land are being affected. These varieties annually yield about 50 million 1' I tons more than the old varieties would have produced, enough to provide food grain for about 500 million people.of maize and field beans derived from genetic material provided by the centers are beginning to have a measurable impact on food production.Developing countries have released over 200 center-related maize varieties, and over 6 million hectares are planted to them. Nearly 100 center-related bean varieties have been released. About half the field beans planted in Argentina, Costa Rica, Cuba, and Guatemala ar6 center-related varieties.Over 250 center-related varieties of sorghum, potato, cassava, chickpea, cowpea, pasture species, pearl millet, pigeonpea, and durum wheat have been named by national authorities. The area planted to them is still small because many of these varieties have been released only since 1980.4. The benefits from adopting modern varieties have been remarkably evenly distributed among farmers differing in size of holding and tenure status. A major part of the gain from the new technology has accrued to food consumers both rural and urban. Food makes up 60 percent or more of the expenditures of the poorest people in most developing countries. Consequently, reductions in the real price of rice and wheat, such as those brought about by technological i change, favor the poor more than the affluent, who spend a smaller share of their incomes on food. But in terms of the overall distribution of real incomes, these improvements are marginal. Technological advance, while vital for the development of agriculture and the economy, is a poor instrument for redistributing wealth. S0 Agricultural research is a time2 consuming and uncertain undertaking. Despite the record of high returns to investment in research, few small countries can afford to mount productive research programs on all fronts, particularly if their agriculture is diverse. For these countries in particular, the centers' role as a provider of biological material and scientific resources, will continue to be required well into the future.In fact, some national scientists have urged that it expand to embrace more crops and livestock species. Furthermore, in the difficult and resource-poor institutional environments that prevail in many countries, the kind of assistance provided by the centers is very valuable to national programs.6. The type of contribution made by the centers is related to the stage of development and the capacity of the national system. Countries with thin research capacity benefit by directly adopting technologies produced by the centers; countries with moderate capacity carry out some adaptive research on centers' products to produce their own technologies; while countries with strong research capacity are mostly interested in the ability of the international centers to deliver research products specific to some of their individual problems. '%. In their chief enterprise, the improvement of germplasm, the centers are responsive and fair in dealing with their collaborators and their often conflicting priorities. Plant genetic collection and conservation by developing countries have been greatly stimulated by the IBPGR and other CGIAR centers.Genebanks now hold substantial collections of most major crops. During the past 10 years, seeds of 138 crop species have been collected in 88 countries in over 300 missions promoted and partly financed by IBPGR. The materials collected have been placed in the genebanks of 450 organizations, more than half of which are in the developing world. But the centers may be underutilizing the wild relatives of some crops. They also could be more active in exploring the uncertain promise of biotechnology for unlocking the potential of these collections. 9. The crops, livestock species, ecologies, and issues that form the individual mandates of the centers differ markedly.For many centers, the challenges that they face are so perplexing and the constraints imposed by poor infrastructure, depressed commodity prices, lack of agricultural inputs, and low levels of knowledge are so difficult that it is too soon to expect impressive returns from their work.+ The centers' emphasis on the human aspects of technological advances has grown as interest in farming systems research has spread.Nonetheless important areas such as the problems of female farmers in maledominated societies and the limited presence of women in research organizations have hardly been touched.11. The centers' research on policy issues is helping national authorities to correct faulty perceptions and to argue against unwise decisions affecting food production and consumption.But considering the magnitude of the problems, the centers' efforts can address only a fraction of the vital questions. The political as well as economic aspects of policy making must be confronted by the countries themselves in order to accelerate agricultural advances,The collaborative arrangements between the centers and research workers in developing countries have been demonstrablyproductive. One of the most appreciated activities of the centers is the effort that they make to overcome the barriers that often isolate researchers in developing countries from the global knowledge system and the international scientific community. Multitudes of farmers throughout the world have exploited the genetic potential of the new varieties. They plant modern wheat varieties on 47 million hectares or nearly 50 percent of the wheat area of developing countries. Modern rice varieties cover 70 million hectares or about 55 percent of the rice land in developing countries. China alone accounts for about 32 million hectares of the new rices. (Breeders there developed short, fertiIizer-responsive varieties without IRRI assistance in the 196Os, but ip the 1970s they began extensive use of IRRI-developed varieties for their newest hybrid rices.)For most adopting farmers, the new varieties typically outyield the old varieties by 400 to 500 kilograms per hectare. Thus, worldwide, they annually provide over 50 milIion tons of additional food. That is a quantity about equal to the annual grain consumption of a half billion people. Otiea crops. Developing nations have released over 200 maize varieties developed from genetic materials supplied by the centers. Half of these varieties are grown in Latin America, with the rest i\" t 3 to 6 gears peas, barley, triticale, and pasture and forage crops derived from center efforts are also being released and are beginning to reach farmers.The plant hji.~r~vememt prfocess. The process of plant improvement is laborious and, inevitably, time-consuming. The initial steps in the development of new crop varieties are to collect and characterize germplasm-farmers' varieties, wild strains, and related species-and to assess farmers' needs in order to set breeding priorities. From data on the genetic materials and from examination of growing plants, the breeders choose, as parents for crosses, plants that have characteristics that they hope to combine in offspring. After the first cross, the progeny exhibit widely divergent characteristics as a result 01 genetic segregation. Breeders choose progeny with desirable characteristics and plant their seeds to form the next generation, or they may use selected plants to make additional crosses. By deliberately exposing the plants to high populations of insect pests, to high incidence of disease pathogens, or to other stresses, the breeder can cull inferior plants-the so-called screening process.After five to seven generations (many breeders grow two generations a year), lines that have survived intense environmental stresses and the breeder's unforgiving eye undergo preliminary yield testing. The lines are usually grown at several locations to get data on their reactions to different soils, climatic patterns, and complexes of diseases and insects. The international centers with crop improve-Land lrr new wheats: Estimated area planted to modern wheat varieties in developing countries. ment programs may carry out all the above steps, as do some developing countries that have large research capacity. Centers normally enter their most promising materials into international tests, or nurseries, that are distributed to national breeders who request them.National researchers who have responsibilities for developing finished varieties may evaluate lines or varieties from international nurseries for their domestic suitability, or they may produce their own crosses using germplasm from domestic and international sources. The former approach involves somewhat fewer steps within the country, but still takes additional time.Whether at a center or in a national program, the minimum time between beginning the process and the identification of a promising line is 6 to 14 years. Countries that rely on breeding done at centers typically require an additional 3 to 6 years for in-country testing and release. Seed multiplication must then follow.Research on improved methods and materials for production is an important part of the work of the centers. Diverse products result: new machines, procedures for better management of experiment stations, and methods of producing diseasefree planting material are some examples. Only a few technologies have reached widespread use among farmers so far. The centers are internatirjnal in more ways than merely working with many nations. Their staff members are recruited worldwideeThe governing boards ase composed of men and women from donor countries and from countries in which the work of a center is important> though with a few exceptions, the members ofthe boards serve in their individual capacities, rather than as representatives of their countries.Staff members of the centers are located in 36 counties other than the 33 in which the centers have their headquarters.In staffing the centers, a guiding principle has been to hire the best qualified professionals that can be found and to provide them with high quality facilities and adequate support and suppiies to carry out firstclass scientific work.Each center determines its own program. The TechnicaI Advisory Comtittee of the CGIAR period& caliy exandnes the programs of the centers and conmreuta on 'the research priorities being purse& but it has no direct, eoWo# over the centers. Since they are also independenl; of governments, the centers operate r&&iv&y unfe%?red by ~~~ imposed red @XL jority of the senior staff. About 15 to 30 percent are engaged in other applied research activities such as agronomy, economics, engineering, farming systems, and animal nutri-tim+L Cereals that provide 60 percent of the food ener@ consumed by peopi@ in developing countries dominate the research activities of &he QGIA.R certters. The eent45rs also Conduct research on the mo5t s&Z&an& root, and tuber crops. In ad&ti#% I&F stock problems in Africa are addressed by two ee~ters. C&&l, the foods that contribute three foe @f the food energy and three fourths of the protein of diets in developing: eountris ltjre under ~~stig~~~~ by. the centers.Reg&onal en&ash. Of the cm-  principal& &researchers and policy makers in national and regional programs. other important audiences include extension program personnel, students of agriculture, tind donors.To date, an estimated 10,000 titles have been produced on subjects covering a dozen commodities and two dozen scientific disciplines. The centers' annual reports serve the function of conununiMing research results to national programs, while their research highlights are aimed more at helping policy makers and donors keep abreast of centers' activities. A variety of specialized publications concentrate on a specific discipline or geographic area or expand on a highly technical subject.Included are monographs based on completed research projects, biiliographies derived from center databases, and proceedings of interna-tional workshops and symposia. The centers also publish about 80 new* letters. Some centers routine& produce publications in Spanish or French, as well as English. Growth of the system. The CGUR was launched in 1971 when there were four centers alreadyin existence whose budgets totaled $18 million. By 1984, the 13 centers in the CGIAR had budgets totaling nearly $180 million. During that, period, the number of donors contributing to the system rose from 16 to 35, including several developing countries. Compared with changes in official development assistance for agriculture during the past I6 years, the growth of expenditures on the centers has been rapid. But the tota! budget of the CGIAR system is a small fraction of all expenditures on agricultural research by developing countries.which means that they do not flower until some critical number of hours of daylight occurs. Thus planting traditional varieties in the \"off-season\" makes little sense because grain will not set until the time of year when the critical daylength occurs. Most modern wheat and rice varieties, however, are daylength-insensitive-the length of the period from planting to harvest is rather fixed regardless of season.And the newer varieties of wheat and rice have been bred to mature even more rapidly without sacrificing yield.Fast-maturing varieties and improved practices have enabled some farmers to squeeze in an extra crop during the year. For instance, the introduction of modern wheat varieties in Bangladesh permitted wheat to be planted in the winter when most farmers have too little water to grow rice. Unlike traditional wheat varieties, the new wheats flower and ripen during the short days of winter, so they can be harvested before the next season for planting rice arrives.Bangladesh now grows half a million hectares of wheat, nearly all in modern varieties, which is 10 times the area harvested before the advent of modern varie- Cuban cassava production has expanded by a factor of 15 during the past decade, chiefly owing to new methods for cassava production developed by Cuban agronomists working with CIAT and popularly known as the \"Colombian system.\"Since cassava is a relatively new crop for them, Cuban farmers have managed it like sugarcane, planting short stakes horizontally in furrows and irrigating heavily. With the help of CUT, Cuban researchers evaluated the cassava varieties being grown by farmers and selected the best ones for propagation and diffusion. They also developed improved practices: cutting the planting stakes longer and chemically treating them to suppress bacterial blight, thoroughly preparing the field with higher ridges than those customarily used for sugarcane, placing the planting stakes vertically at the top of the ridges, controlling weeds in time, and irrigating moderately. On state farms, which have 10,000 hectares of cassava, or a fiith of the nat$'s cassava land, yields have climbed to 20 tons a hectare from 7 tons a hectare.Threshers.Commercially produced rice threshers manufactured from designs developed by IRRI have significantly reduced costs for many farmers in the Philippines and Thailand, and thus promoted increases in output. In the Philippines, the threshers are replacing manual threshing and foot treading, which may have disrupted employment opportunities, especially for female threshers. Although the per ton cost of threshing re-More food: Estimated additional foodgrain produced by modern wheat and rice varieties. In contrast, in Thailand, where the IRRI threshers are replacing tractor treading or driving repeatedly over the grain with tractors, farmers suffer slightly higher threshing losses, but the costs are lower.Seed potato storage. CIP researchers have promoted the evaluation and adoption of diffused light storage for seed potatoes in many developing countries. Although farmers in many tieas. conventionally store seed potatoes in the dark, storage in diffused natural light slows sprout elongation, increases sprout num-b&s, and reduces storage losses. Farmers get higher yields because of the greater sprout vigor of the seed potatoes, and they benefit from being able to store seed potatoes longer, so they can time their planting to place the harvest in a period when the markets are less likely to be oversupplied with potatoes.This storage system is being used extensively in Peru, Colombia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka and has been introduced in other countries. On-farm trials in Peru, Colombia, and the Philippines showed that diffused light storage of seed potatoes resulted in yield gains of 8 to 20 percent. Trials in Sri Lanka showed yield increases of 80 to 133 percent. If a 20-percent yield increase occurred on 10 percent of the potato land in the countries where CIP is actively promoting the technology, the result would be an additional 1 million tons of potatoes worth about $100 million a year.Deep Vertisol technology.ICRISAT has developed improved production practices for deep Vertisol soils in the higher rainfall areas of semi-arid India. The broadbed-and-furrow system involves land leveling and shaping, construction of field and community drains, tillage following the harvest of the winter crop, use of graded beds and furrows, dry seeding of modern varieties before the monsoon, moderate application of fertilizer, and timely plant protection. Most of the practices are best carried out with a bullockdrawn wheeled tool carrier, which would be a substantial expense for poor farmers. Yet, trials conducted in several states of India have shown that the composite , technology is profitable. By 1983 the broadbed-and-furrow system was in use on about 4000 hectares, mostly on farms operated by state governments. The technology seems well-suited for up to 5 million hectares.Azolla. Farmers in China and Vietnam cultivate azolla, an aquatic fern, in rice paddies as a green manure crop. It improves soil fertility because it provides a home for nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms. However, azolla works best on soils that have high levels of available phosphorus and where careful water management is possible.IRRI is promoting the use of azolla to help farmers to lower their fertilizer expenditures. Vietnam and China are using some strains in this way, and IRRI has fostered the exchange of azolla strains among other countries.A study in the southern Philippines in 1981 found azolla being cultivated on 5000 hectares of irrigated rice lands. Farmers who used azolla were able to cut the use of nitrogen fertilizer from about 40 kilograms per hectare to 20 kilograms per hectare without lowering yields.The economic position of the very poor, who have few assets other than their own labor, is undermined by population growth, unequal land ownership, and global, political, and technological trends that reduce the prices of such things as tractors, weed killers, and imported dairy products. The poor would have been even worse off without modern wheat and rice varieties, which made possible increased cropping intensity, raised labor demand, and lowered food-grain prices. Most other Spread of wheat in Bangladesh: Fast-maturing modern wheat varieties have enabled farmers in Bangladesh to increase cropping intensity and to expand total wheat area nearly five-fold.Area of wheat (000 ha)Total wheat Multiple cropping index innovations related to the centers' workhave not yet been adopted widely enough to have measurable impacts.Modern varieties and the poor. The advent of modern varieties has affected the poor by changing their technological options. Modern varieties are more responsive to fertilizer than traditional varieties, making investment in fertilizer highly profitable. For farmers who use fertilizer, the yield advantage of modern varieties has grown as their resistance to insects and diseases has broadened, even in areas where the crop is subject to periodic dry spells. Contrary to some notions, modern varieties yield better than most traditional varieties even without fertilizer.Another reason behind the widespread adoption of modern varieties is quick ripening and insensitivity to length of day. Those features encourage double cropping, which smooths the flow of food supplies available to farm families during the year. The poor benefit in particular because they have difficulty saving from one harvest to the next or borrowing when a lean harvest occurs.Drought resistance is another attraction of modern varieties. Because breeders have placed emphasis on improving root structure, some modern varieties withstand dry spells better than traditional varieties. This feature especially helps farmers in regions where irrigation or rainfall is unreliable and who, consequently, usufly are poorer than farmers who have more assured sources of water.Poor farmers, who tend to lack the knowledge and ready cash to use chemicals to combat insects and diseases, have gained from the wide range of genetic resistances that has been bred into modern varieties. The heightened disease and insect resistance of these varieties has lifted average yields without eroding maximum yield potential.Nevertheless, many of the poorest people are in difficult environments, such as semi-arid zones or in rice-growing regions with unreliable rainfall, and they continue to grow traditional varieties. The modern varieties developed so far have offered insufficient advantage for such conditions. Significant change in these areas is likely to occur only when better varieties of 12 drought-tolerant crops such as millet orThe lesson of history is that technological change in agriculture is a driving force for economic growth. Over the ages, new knowledge leading to agricultural innovation has allowed more food to be produced while releasing capital, labor, and, indeed, land for nonfarm pursuits. The expa3ldin$ output itself is a source of additional rural employment. Risii employment and incomes in turn expand demand for food.In many of the developing countries that are suffering economic crises, the root cause is inappropriate policies combined with neglect of the research and extension system. In fact, despite the growth in agricultural production, fostered in part by increased investment in research, the developing countries as a whole have not become less dependent on imported food. Every region imports more food than it did a decade agobut some countries have done very well. In the late 196Os, food imports by developing countries were 2.4 percent of domestic production; now they are 10 percent.The most important force behind these growing imports is, however, rising incomes. People in areas with larger incomes can afford more food and they are willing to pay, even if importing is necessary. So, develop ment progress tends to increase food imports. Unfortunately, in some countries expansion in imports is caused by the inability of production to meet even normal increases in demand. Changes in the productivity of laborshort, land-abundant farmers wqdd be better measured by yield per person. Similarly, yield per hectare is not the most suitable indicator of prctgress for research aimed at improv-Food output: Production of major food groups in developing countries 1979-83.Million tons ing yield stability or promoting more intensive production by shortening the growing season or by intr0ducing a crop in an area where it was not previously grown.Research as an investment. Money has limitless uses. When policy makers act to support research, they are making an mvestment decision. As an investment, agricultural research has often proven to have very high rates of return but long lags usually occur before the returns begin to flow.Investment in agricultural research in developing nations is largely made by public rather than private entities. The greatest need in these countries is for biological rather than mechanical technologies. The benefits from a biological inn0 vation, however, are far more difficult for the inventor t0 capture than are the benefits from an industrial innovation.The elusiveness of the benefits sometimes keeps governments from adequately supporting research. On one hand, only some of the benefits accrue to the country that finances the research; on the other, research fiiced by some other entity will produce some benefits that are free to any user. The creation of regional collaborative research networks is one way to share the cost of generating research benefits.The rise of the national systems and the centers. Many national research programs on food crops were born in the 1950s and 1960s when population movement to the cities accelerated and increased food supplies were needed to keep urban masses fed. Usually these programs involved wheat or rice, the staple foods in many countries. The first international research centers also worked on these important crops and focused on Asia where famine was widely predicted in the 1970s. Land was scarce, so the primary research goal was high yield. In collaboration with national programs, they were immensely successful in generating and diffusing new technology at low cost for fertile, we& watered, densely settled areas.Research and societal problems. -Most studies of research investments in various developing countries have shown high rates of return, even for aggregate agricultural research, but, of course, studies are seldom conducted in ag&ulturally stagnant countries, While rates of return provide an overall measure of the benefits from research, interest in how the benefits are apportioned within a society has been rising. Precisely which distributional ills should be addressed and what research strategies are appropriate tools to redress imbalances are not well understood. Clearly, however, introducing the equity issue compounds the difficulty of setting research priorities. The centers will nevertheless have to examine the issue more thoroughly, so that limited research resources will not be scattered inefficiently over a host of competing objectives.Food production increase: Annual production growth rates for major food groups in regions of the developing world. Farm size and adoption. There is no general association between farm size and the adoption of modern varieties-at least of rice and wheat. In some areas, a higher proportion of large-scale farmers adopt, while in others, a higher proportion of small-scale farmers adopt.In areas where modern varieties have taken hold, the first adopters usually have been the growers with larger farms, but those with smaller farms have soon caught up. Early adopters capture some extra benefit by increasing their output before general output expansion pushes prices down. Smaller farmers sometimes lag in adoption because they wait until a better-off neighbor has proved the new varieties or because they cannot get scarce inputs at first. But once smaller farmers adopt, their ability to mobilize more family labor per hectare often gives them higher yields.The sharpest contrast between adopters and nonadopters is not rooted in farm size or tenure, but rather in regional differences in natural resources. This is dramatically shown in India. In some regions, a substantial proportion of all farmers have adopted modern varieties.' But in others that lack irrigation and have poor soils, few with any size of holding have adopted. These areas tend to have concentrations of the poorest people. Resources are distributed fairly evenly in such regions, thus, should suitable technologies be introduced, the benefits could be rather equitably shared.Employment.Modern varieties expand demand for labor, particularly at harvest when more people are needed to reap and thresh the higher yields, Wages, however, do not tend to rise because the supply of laborers is large, mobile, and growing. Nevertheless, the modern varieties provide jobs and income for innumerable people who would otherwise go without.The increased output possible with modern varieties has a less pronounced effect on demand for land, but, because of the restricted supply of land, rents and land values rise.Nutrition.The effect of modern varieties in stabilizing food prices has been especially beneficial to the very poor, as demonstrated by research studies at IF'PRI and other centers. In low-income countries, the poorest 20 percent of the population spend 60 to 80 percent of their income on food. When population growth and rising incomes in other parts of the economy raise demand and food prices, the poor suffer. The greatest gains for the poor have come when modern varieties have increased production of foods on which they spend a high proportion of their income. Because food expenditures consume such a large part of the income of the poor, a reduction in the price of a food improves their real incomes relatively more than it does the incomes of the wealthy.The spread of modern varieties has helped to increase availability of food energy, the principal nutritional deficiency of the poor, and has prevented starvation of millions in Asia. Since protein in diets is mostly unavailable until the body's food energy requirements are met, research di-rected toward increasing the quality or quantity of protein rarely contributes to significantly better diets for the poor, except where legumes are unimportant and root crops or bananas are the staple foods.Expanding scientific aad technical capability aaining was part of the charters of the first centers. From their inception, IREI and CIMMYT trained scientists in research techniques. They also provided facilities for conducting research as part of master's and doctoral degree work.All centers regard upgrading the capabilities of scientists and technicians of na-tiona1 research programs as vita1 to their mission. Beyond the continuing innovations of their farmers, nations that are weak scientifically cannot effectively develop their own technology or improve imported technology.Between 1969 and 1980, the number of agricultural researchers in developing countries rose from 14,700 to 63,000. During that period, over 16,000 of them participated in the various types of txtining provided by the centers.Over 12,000 have been in formal group training courses. Such courses last from one week to several months. Some are production courses covering a whole crop season to permit participants to take part in the full spectrum of production tasks. With rising frequency, the centers are collaborating with national agencies in conducting formal training programs locally.About 400 candidates for doctoral degrees and 800 candidates for master's de-I' I grees-most of them men-have done their thesis research under the supervision of centers' staff members. Usually this work takes 2 to 3 years. Some of these graduate students attend a university near the center, but many are students from developing countries enrolled at universities in industrial nations. For the latter, thesis research at a center is likely to be more pertinent to conditions at home than research they might otherwise do at their university. Special training programs have been set up for about 2300 individuals from developing countries. These are people who come to a center by prearrangement to learn a technique or to cover a specially organized series of topics, In addition, over 450 researchers from developing countries have held post-doctoral appointments at the centers. In these posts, the researcher learns new techniques and conducts research, which is beneficial to both the researcher's home country and the center's research program.The willingness of administrators in developing countries to release scarce personnel for substantial periods and to assure them of positions on their return demonstrates the high regard that they have for the training provided by the centers. Many former participants, who have been interviewed, speak not only of gaining knowledge and technical skills, but of personal growth in dedication to both physical and intellectual work, motivation, determination, purpose, and confidence. For many individuals who were educated in systems that stress theoretical knowledge, the centers' training in the field or laboratory instills practical competence and understanding. Yields with and without fertilizers:Modern varieties give slightly higher yields than traditional even without fertilizer and give a much higher response to fertilizer application (30 experiments with rice in the Philippines, 18 experiments with rice in India, 25 experiments with sorghum in India). Nitrogen applied (kg/ha) 16Former trainees who work in national programs are also important for the centers as cooperators in research and dissemination. Naturally they are often sought out by visiting center researchers. They may be invited back to the center to participate in workshops and to help in the training of others. These contacts are valuable for the national program as well. They help offset the sense of professional isolation and the risk of obsolescence that is difficult for researchers to avoid in nations that have small scientific establishments.Developing nations' perceptions of their training needs are shifting as their development evolves. Demand for postgraduate training is growing, but the centers scarcely have the capacity to meet those needs. Developing nations' interest in group training within their own borders is also increasing. Such courses are jointly taught by centers' staff and, usually, former trainees. Such training is particularly suited to production courses, allowing the centers to devote their headquarters' facilities to research-related training activities.The centers and national research programs reinforce each other's work. The reputations of the centers have added credibility to the work of the national scientists associated with them. Collaboration with the centers has raised the productivity of national research and helped to convince governments and donor agencies that there are high returns to investment in research. But countries that lack The centers have helped to stimulate nations to increase research output by improving organizational structure, by instituting better research management techniques, by making advances in research methods, and by shifting priorities toward food crops. The centers have also helped developing nations increase their contacts with scientists worldwide through database services, international meetings, and publications.Many national programs have adopted the centers' procedures for making massive numbers of crosses and exposing them to intense attack by insects and diseases to identify the most hardy lines. Some techniques have also been developed collaboratively. An example is the procedure for mass-producing inoculum of downy mildew, a devastating disease of maize, developed by research workers in the Philippinles and Thailand, in collaboration with CIMMYT. Some national research programs have made immense progress during the past 20 years, but others remain weak. In Asia, the long-term support that research has received has been amply repaid through the growth of the region's food production. In Africa, there has been less payoff, in part because investment in research started later, and the base of commodityspecific knowledge was generally lower.Influence on priorities.The research priorities that the centers set, their direct efforts to strengthen national institutions, and the regular services that they provide, all have some effect on the directions cn Occasionally, the reaction to the centers' priorities is inordinate. Sometimes the portion of national research resources devoted to an area that the centers work in has been disproportionate to the possible contribution of that area to output. On the other hand, occasionally, a national research system will shift support away from an area that is well-covered by a center. But these instances are rare and not necessarily irrational.Perhaps the most important influence of the centers on the national programs has been rising emphasis on research directly aimed at solving farmers' problems. Since research workers at the centers tend to have high prestige and to serve as role models, their demonstrated interest in field work and on-farm trials, along with the stress given by centers' training programs, has been emulated in many national programs.The centers have also set an example by demonstrating the productivity of problem-oriented, multidisciplinary research.In Brazil, for instance, the national bases on animal production. National research structure was reorganized into researchers get assistance from ILCA multidisciplinary commodity institutes staff in analyzing the data, and the results along the lines of the international are sometimes used in designing projects centers, for funding by donors.Direct assistance. Aside from providing germplasm and training, the centers assist national research programs with ideas for methods, techniques, and research management. Direct help in strengthening the organization and structure of national agricultural research systems is the mandate of ISNAR. In addition, it provides some training in research management.Another example of direct help is the analytical service that ILCA provides to national agencies that have large data- Research networks promoted by the centers have encouraged countries to expand their research capacity and to cooperate in sharing research results. Networks that test biological materials have accelerated the development of new varieties through international multilocation testing. Data on a breeding line tested at many locations in one year can be a partial substitute for tests on a line at one location over several years. Multilocation testing also provides readings on the response to certain types of stresses that could not easily be determined otherwise.Need for food policy research. For the past two decades, in years of bad harvests as well as good, the global supply of food energy has exceeded the world's nutritional requirements by a substantial margin. Nevertheless many millions of people remain iIl fed. The gains in total food production are unevenly distributed from country to country, from region to region within countries, and among households within regions.Those inequities are in part the result of policy decisions, both national and international, that affect the onset and impact of technological change. Attempts to influence the level of food production and consumption require attention to the economic, political, and institutional setting as well as to technological questions. Consequently, research that deepens understanding of the nature and role of domestic and international policy and thus leads to better decisions is an important element of global agricultural research.In its broadest sense, agricultural and food policy embraces the collective efforts of national and international agencies to alter the environment of producers, consumers, and traders. Food policy analysis is concerned with such issues as food production, consumption and nutrition, the generation and diffusion of new technology, the enhancement of physical and human stocks of capital, the distribution and pricing of food, and the role of trade and international policies.IFPRI is fully devoted to food policy research; ILCA has recently formed a livestock policy research unit; and several of the other centers in the CGIAR system undertake food policy research, generally on a modest scale. At some centers, social science research of policy relevance is conducted within a department of economics or social science, but it is often linked with farming systems research. At one center, it is incorporated into the work of multidisciplinary commodity teams. The focus of this work at the centers is on policies to enhance the generation and diffusion of new agricultural technology. Outside of IFPRI and ILCA, there is little research in the center system that is directed specifically at food and agricultural policy.The individual centers must stay abreast of the policy environment in countries where they have working relationships with the scientific community. This type of monitoring enables a center to allocate its own resources better and, at the same time, to discuss policy questions with national authorities on the basis of current conditions.Through collaboration with national scientists in the development of new technology, both economists and biologists from the centers have had access to national policy makers. The introduction of significant technological change causes disequilibria that compel action from policy makers.When they recognize the magnitude of the potential gains from the new technology and understand the distribution of the costs and benefits, policy makers become acutely aware of the burden imposed by shortages of inputs, inadequacies of transport and processing facilities, subsidized food imports, and similar problems. Thus, while most of the centers focus on generation of new technology, they are quite legitimately involved in policy discussions.Effects of policy work. Any credit that the centers could claim for constructive policy changes made by national leaders would be empirically difficult to support. It is evident, however, that such work as IFPRI's research on input policies, food security, crop insurance, and food subsidies; CIMMYT's policy seminars; and IRRI's research on the consequences of new technology has contributed to a more informed debate and has been in demand from policy makers. IFPRI is the central institution in the research on agricultural and food poli-'4 ties. Together with the commodityoriented centers, it gives the CGIAR system the capacity to review both the on-farm constraints and the policy constraints to greater food production and improved welfare. The joint application of this capacity is illustrated by the IFPRI/ IRRI research on irrigation in the Philippines, which contributed to the Asian Development Bank's decision to reconsider its plans to curtail investment in Philippine irrigation schemes.Another example is Egypt, which spends $2 biIlion a year on food subsidies. Analyses made in collaboration with IFPRI showed that the country could save hundreds of millions of dollars annually without jeopardizing the food security of the poor.The contribution of policy analysis lies in its direct effects on policy, and, as well, in the credibility it gives policy analysis in national agencies. Many governments neglected this area in the past. The efforts of the centers, and of IFPRI in particular, have demonstrated that providing policy makers with better information about strategic alternatives can lead to broad and significant gains. And policy makers, for their part, have become further convinced of the value of building domestic capacity for research on policy issues.Food policy research has been internally beneficial to the centers, too. Support for assigning secondary priority to breeding for higher protein content came from research policy studies that showed that better protein nutrition could be achieved more economically by focusing on high yielding and widely adapted varieties.,I I. Contacts.Most national scientists who collaborate with the centers hold a favorable view of the quality of their professional association with scientists from the centers. They consider their sustained relationships with centers' scientists to be an important ingredient of successful collaborative research and they contrast the continuity of those relations with the abrupt changes in personnel and support that often occur in bilateral projects every few years, National scientists have occasionally felt that some centers' researchers were overbearing or unqualified, but the instances have been isolated and generally seem to have passed as collaborative relations between national programs and the centers have matured.Each center has focused its contacts on researchers who work with commodities or problems that the center regards as important. In the early years of the CGIAR system, that meant that researchers in some countries were bypassed. But as more centers have been created nearly all developing countries now have some professionals in touch with one or more of the centers. Observers in several countries have said, however, that researchers on university faculties tend to be overlooked by the centers.Favored services. National scientists regard the channels for exchange of germplasm established by the centers as a unique service. Overall, they consider the workshops, conferences, training programs, newsletters, and publications of the centers to be more valuable than those available from most other sources. Research networks are appreciated particularly by scientists in countries that have small research establishments. Such networks allow several countries to specialize on different aspects of a common problem and to exchange results for common benefit. In addition, participation in a network raises the professional status and motivation of national researchers.Coverage. Whether the centers are addressing the right research topics tends to be viewed differently in countries where centers are located than in countries without centers. Scientists in countries that have a center headquarters often feel that the center's global or regional outlook diverts attention from their country's special problems. When a center's researchers are outposted to another country, their interests are seen to be more in consonance with those of the indigenous scientists..I I The centers, many of which were created to help increase food production, are not surprisingly believed to have had a salutory effect on the work of researchers who likewise work on food production. The development of national programs on neglected crops like cassava was, national researchers say, due largely to the efforts of the centers.National researchers see some gaps in the coverage of the centers. They point out that many poor farmers cultivate fiber crops such as cotton, jute, and kenaf, oil crops such as copra and palm oil, and beverage crops such as coffee, tea, and cocoa, none of which are handled by the international centers. While research on industrial and export crops might be primarily beneficial to plantations, it would also help the small-scale producers who rely on them and, particularly for tree crops, contribute to stabilizing land and providing income in vulnerable environments.From the vantage point of national programs, among the most important contributions of the centers is the provision of genetic materials. Seeds and clones bearing a profusion of useful characters give national plant breeders more choices. And that improves their odds of producing and identifying lines that have the features necessary for good results in farmers' fields.I: Some international nurseries, such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture wheat rust nurseries, were in operation before the centers were founded, but the nurseries coordinated by the centers are accessible to far more countries and facilitate the routine distribution of useful germplasm. Small-scale breeders no longer have to describe their needs to solicit seed from breeders who have large crossing programs. Instead they receive a steady flow of material with tested resistance to diseases, pests, and adverse conditions. The centers deliberately include a diverse selection of strains in most nurseries to ensure that something will be of interest in nearly every ecological niche.International exchange of vegetatively propagated crops was almost nonexistent prior to the start of the cassava programs of CIAl' and IITA and the potato program of CR? In food legumes, the exchange of germplasm was sporadic and informal before the centers began international testing programs for such crops as field beans, cowpeas, chickpeas, and pigeonpeas.Aside from making superior genes widely available, the international nurseries have broadened the horizons of breeders. The nurseries allow breeders to compare, in their own test plots, the yield performance of hundreds of lines from abroad. In cassava, for example, this expe-rience has led breeders to see 40 tons per hectare as an achievable target where they once thought 20 tons per hectare was excellent.techniques.The centers have been vigorous in passing on research techniques. Since plant breeding is in many respects a \"numbers game,\" the ability to make many crosses and selections efficiently is a significant determinant of a program's output. The centers have trained numerous persons in the physical skills of making crosses and monitoring test plots. The vacuum emasculation techniques promoted by IRRI has boosted the productivity of rice breeders in many countries. The spread of techniques for mass rearing insects and for collecting and inoculating disease pathogens has enabled breeders to screen lines for resistance on a much larger scale.The interaction with centers has also encouraged breeding programs in a number of countries to take an interdisciplinary approach. Instead of the breeder being limited to breeding and the entomologist and pathologist being confined to resistance evaluation, they collaborate in planning crosses and selecting materials for multiple resistance. The effect of the centers' emphasis on farming systems research on national programs has been uneven. Although many countries have begun farming systems research programs, not the least because of the urging of donors and the help of the centers, the impact has been more significant when national programs have managed to integrate the concept of farming systems in the research structure and less perceptible when the program has simply been added alongside existing commodity programs. The flow of information back to researchers about on-farm problems has been useful within both national programs and the centers.Tkainlng. Many national researchers rate training by the centers as equal in importance to the provision of germplasm. Participants appreciate the knowledge acquired, as well as the opportunity to mix with colleagues in other countries. The contacts often lead to the formation of networks and continuing professional correspondence.Training courses brought from a center and mounted locally have been found particularly useful by national programs.Perceptions of the centers' training programs can differ among countries and even among institutions within a country. Some countries with large numbers of highly trained researchers have only limited interest in the courses that the centers offer. There are instances, too, where researchers at a large, relatively well-National agricultural research systems in developing countries have grown rapidly during the past 25 yeyears. The greatest change has occurred in Asia where real expenditures on national research has risen in almost every country. There was an initial period of institutional instability, but most countries now seem to be developing effective national systems.In Latin America, overall, research systems grew rapidly, too. But unlike Asia, real research expenditure in some countries declined during the 1970s. There was also a period of re-. organization in several countries.In Africa, aggregate growth in research expenditure was high but there was considerable variability by country. Many African research systems were disrupted by larger national problems after independence. Some research systems suffered radical changes, while some others remained highly dependent on, or under the control of, foreign researchers.Political pressure by consumers for reliable food supplies was one of the basic reasons for the growth of agricultural research expenditures, particularly in Asia in the 1960s and in Africa in the late 1970s and 1980s. The urban sector also wanted more foreign exchange for importing industrial and consumer goods, which could be achieved by reducing imports of food and raising exports of agricultural commodities. These groups induced governments to invest in agriculture in order to provide adequate food and to maintain economic and social stability.During the 196Os, it became increasingly clear that agricultural research was a powerful instrument for increasing output. The rates of return to agricultura1 research in Asia and Latin America were high. The impression made by the green revolution changed perceptions in developing countries and among development agencies about what research could do. Since many countries in Asia and Latin America no longer had cheap land to exploit for increasing production, they increased investment in research as one answer to the demands for more agricultural production.Weaknesses remain in many national systems. Educating and retaining enough researchers to conduct meaningful research is a chronic problem. Moreover, many research programs are not well enough organized to make efficient use of the resources they have. Some significant commodities continue to be neglected. The international research centers have helped national programs, by example and through advice, to overcome these difficulties.  funded national institution rate germplasm as being a more important contribution than training, while researchers at smaller institutions in the country see training, especially with the centers, as their major need. Many national researchers would like the centers to offer more post-graduate scholarships and post-doctoral positions as well as more opportunities for students who are studying in industrial countries to do their thesis research at a center.Publications.National scientists are eager to receive centers' publications, particularly the more technical ones giving details of research methods and findings. Shortage of funds, however, limits the ability of researchers to purchase all the materials they want. In particular, research workers distant from the main national research site lack the access that they desire to centers' technical publications.Network newsletters that give individuals the opportunity to share information about their activities provide a sense of involvement to participants and boost enthusiasm for programmatic work. Researchers interviewed consistently ranked newsletters from the centers highly, indicating the value of the research information they contain.Selective dissemination of information by various centers makes world literature accessible at low cost to researchers with whom they are in contact. The centers supply extensive bibilographies of current literature to researchers and some also provide abstracts and reprints of articles.This schematic chart indicates where the centers have relatively intensive activities. It is based on whether the country receives genetic material from the center (or for the nonbiological centers, whether a study for the country has been done), whether nationals of the country have attended a center conference, whether the center and country have collaborative research under way and whether center staff members are stationed in the country. Each criterion counts as one mark, up to a maximum of three. National researchers generally credit rising public awareness of the effects of the green revolution as having contributed to increased investment in agricultural research. Also, the existence of collaborative work with the centers sometimes is helpful in protecting national research budgets from cuts or in attracting more funds from the government.Institutional organization and policy making. Although many research programs have undergone significant reorganization in recent years, the changes are not often attributed to the advice or example of the centers. Nonetheless the widespread adoption of the centers' style of research-a multidisci-,plinary, problem-oriented commodity approach-is evident. The aid of ISNAR, which is concerned with the broad issues of institutional development, has been welcomed by most countries that have received it and is sought by many others. The Dominican Republic, Kenya, Fiji, Malagasy, and Rwanda, for example, have actively implemented jointly formulated plans, while other countries have used the occasion of an ISNAR review as an opportunity for taking a fresh look at their own planning problems.Policy issues can be highly sensitive, nevertheless many individuals involved in policy formulation indicated that they appreciate IFPRI's collaboration. They feel that their own analysis gains credibility if it is accompanied by an IFPRI analysis. IF'PRI is widely regarded as a dispassionate source of independent and professional thinking on topics that are inevitably delicate. 25The impact of the centers depends largely on how effectively they and the national programs carry out their research, and on how effectively it is put into use. Some issues that relate to important research activities of the centers and their potential for future impact, have been singled out for closer examination.Global activities in the center system.Plant breeding, which leads to new varieties and improved human well-being, aims at combining useful genetic characteristics from different parents. The sources of such characteristics are farmers'varieties and wild relatives of the crops. Systematic efforts to collect and use a wide range of germplasm have long been under way.While the centers were latecomers to the field, they now lead the work in many food crops.The activities of IBPGR have raised public awareness that the genetic variation stored in cultivated crops and their wild relatives is a vital natural resource. Paradoxically, though genetic variation is the basis for plant breeding programs, the effects of successful programs are antagonistic to it. The creation of highly productive, uniform varieties is an efficient, way to achieve rapid agricultural progress. lb do so, breeders commonly establish restricted gene pools that satisfy many of the basic requirements and then introduce new characters as needed. Genetic resources are primarily seen as a source of identifiable characters and only rarely as a source of increased overall variation.IBPGR encourages the conservation, documentation, evaluation, and utilization of genetic resources, largely in and by national programs, with the cooperation of the CGIAR centers and other agencies. The priorities of IBPGR are based on risk of genetic erosion, economic and social importance, plant breeders' requirements, and size and scope of existing collections. It has promoted the development of networks of base collections and of national genebanks, and does not itself build or operate genebanks.Collections in genebanks fall into two categories. A base collection is one that can be kept relatively undisturbed in longterm storage. An active collection, in contrast,, is one used for regeneration, multiplication, exchange, evaluation, and documentation. Base collections must be closely associated with an active collection because base collections are not usually used for germplasm exchange. These distinctions are not widely understood and have led to unwarranted charges of restrictions on free flow of germplasm.IBPGR has helped to organize 300 collecting missions in 88 countries. Seeds of 138 species collected during these missions have been glaced in genebanks of model that breeders of other crops have had difficulty following. Widely adapted varieties are only likely to appear in relation to uniform environmen@. For physically or socially diverse environments, more closely tailored varieties may have to be produced.Plant breeding at the centers has been rather centralized and largely conducted on experiment stations under good conditions, with few centers systematically attempting to simulate typical farm conditions through low-input trials. The products of breeding are subjected to multilocation testing by the centers as well as by collaborating programs. The materials in multilocation trials are freely available to any breeder for use as a parent in crosses or for release as a variety.Despite the large scale and high caliber of the centers' breeding programs, several criticisms can be made. Centralized decisions about parents and breeding plans are bound to be less than optimal for most places, most of the time, because environments are diverse and performance is determined by the interaction of genotype with environment. In the area of resistance breeding, perhaps too much reliance is placed on major gene resistance and not enough attention is paid to building horizontal resistance (known also as multiplegene or durable resistance), which may be less dramatic, but is more stable. And, attempts to breed varieties for small-scale farmers who use low levels of inputs are likely to be self defeating if selections are made under high-input conditions on experiment stations. Most centers are overcoming these limitations through interaction of breeding programs with the on-farm research activities of national programs and their own farming systems programs.Farming systems research employs a systems approach to apply knowledge from the natural and social sciences in order to overcome agricultural problems. Although it is an approach that has long been used by insightful researchers and is not a new, independent science, farming systems research has only in the past decade been recognized by research agencies in a way that brought it specific budget appropriations and designated program activities, so that its methods could be transferred. Consequently, not much of its potential for enhancing agricultural productivity has yet been realized.Most of the centers have embraced the approach, and as it spreads, its concepts, terminology, and methods are evolving rapidly. There is, however, general agreement about the framework of methods.Farming systems research examines the farm as a system in which the farmer and farm household are the principal decision unit. The approach is interdisciplinary. It includes activities both at experiment stations and on farms, and is oriented to an area or set of farmers called a target domain, delineated by broadly common soil and climatic conditions or by the relative homogeneity of the principal farming systems. The domain chosen should be narrow enough to make tangible results likely in a reasonable time, but broad enough to spread the research costs.Since climate and weather conditions determine the likelihood of damage from many pathogens and pests, a subdivision into homogeneous soil-climate regions makes it possible to develop specific management recommendations against them. To provide more specific responses to questions about environments, several centers have entered basic environmental data for thousands of sites into computer storage, which is accessible through a geographical database-management system.Surveys of farmers' practices, often informal but controlled, are conducted within the target domain by a multidisciplinary team. Matching genetic materials, management, and improvement methods with environments is a continuing activity of researchers. The crucial stage of farming systems research is the development and testing of possible system changes through experiment station trials and on-farm testing, either researchermanaged or farmer-managed. Extension workers are generally involved in the 27 on-farm testing and should join the farming systems research team in monitoring the spread of new technology. Information from on-farm trials returns to the researchers to be used in progressive redesign of improved practices until they are well adapted to the needs and circumstances of farmers in the target domain. The information, moreover, helps researchers to redirect their priorities to topics of greatest importance to farmers, and, indeed, facilitates their learning from farmers.Because of the inherent locationspecificity of farming systems research, it should logically be implemented by national research programs. But the national programs look to the centers for guidance and help in the development of the approach and its implementation.The centers' farming systems research has largely focused on refining research methods and supporting national programs by, for example, providing technical assistance, training researchers, developing prospective technologies, and establishing farming systems research networks. For the centers, a direct benefit of the farming systems work is that it increases the contacts between research workers and small-scale farmers.The centers have significantly influenced the attention that national programs have given to crop protection through the dissemination of high quality information and through the establishment of global nurseries for testing lines and varieties under a broad range of conditions.Resistance breeding.Resistance breeding has been the keystone of the centers work in plant protection. From the start, modern wheats were bred for resistance to the rusts that are the most serious diseases of wheat. Many of the resistance genes from those early lines are carried by today's modern varieties and continue to be effective. Although IR8 and IR5, the first two rice varieties from IRRI, did not have high levels of resistance to major pests, the third variety, IR20, was resistant to one of the most damaging insect-virus complexes, and all the varieties that followed carried resistance to an increasingly broad range of insects and diseases.Plant protection for other crops has also centered on incorporating genetic resistance into materials suitable for farmers. Since rate of release and adoption of new varieties of these crops does not equal that of wheat and rice, the impact has been correspondingly smaller.It is sometimes claimed that the widespread planting of modern wheat and rice varieties has caused boom and bust cycles, but there is no reliable evidence to support that idea. Pests and diseases that have recently been newsworthy were serious problems before modern varieties existed. Unusual disease or insect outbreaks are more likely to be related to marked changes in agricultural practices, such as a switch to double cropping or the introduction of pumps that permit cultivation during the dry season, than a direct consequence of planting improved varieties.Control measures. The centers' work with chemicals has been criticized from several sides. On one hand, they have been reproached for developing varieties that are input responsive, because that encourages farmers to increase profits by applying fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides. On the other hand, some critics charge that the centers have avoided research on chemical control of crop pests.There are indications that integrated control strategies, pest surveillance, surveys, and monitoring techniques developed by centers' researchers and national programs are being used by some farmers. But because at most centers the leadership of interdisciplinary teams is in plant breeding, genetic resistance is often emphasized at the expense of other pest protection strategies. Some observers believe that resistance breeding will not prove to be a sufficient control measure against serious pests of many crops aside from wheat and rice, so other strategies should receive more attention.As the demand for food grows, while the quantity of agricultural land remains rather fixed, farmers must produce more intensively, which means that more inputs are needed. Unless alternatives are found, it may be inevitable for developing nations to become more like industrial countries in their employment of agricultural chemicals in food production systems. An appropriate activity for the centers may be expanded work on evaluation of pesticides, including naturally derived compounds, and research on pesticide safety, in addition to other measures.The degradation of tropical land is proceeding at an alarming rate. Of the worlds 1 billion hectares of tropical forest, about 440 million hectares had been cleared by 1980. About 150 million hectares were in permanent agriculture, 210 million hectares were in shifting agriculture, and 80 million hectares were so degraded that they supported only unproductive vegetation.In many wet tropical areas, when forest is removed, soil fertility declines and erosion occurs or soils aggregate into bricklike consistency if the land is not rapidly returned to a high density cover crop. With improper clearing, the destruction may not be limited to the cleared area, and may extend to downstream fields and water supplies. Yet the question is not how to prevent all forest clearing, but what techniques of removing the forest and using the land for agriculture are most sound.Whether the centers' work speeds or slows the degradation of tropical lands is uncertain. There is little doubt that, without the modern varieties, total grain production would have been lower and that food shortages would have placed more pressure on the tropical land frontier. Over the past decade, perhaps an additional 10 million hectares of forest would have been felled to produce the food that has been grown through more intensive cultivation of existing farm land, which was made possible by the introduction of modern varieties.It is more difficult to speculate on the effect of modern varieties on slash-andburn cultivation. On one hand, higher production may have caused some slash-andburn areas to revert to a longer fallow period; on the other, lower production costs may have encouraged growers to seek short-term gains by opening marginal land that is irreversibly destroyed after a few years of cultivation.The centers' concentration on subsistence food crops means that they are working with annual crops, which cause more strain on soils than do perennial tree crops like rubber, coconut, or coffee. Yet the centers address the more stable and productive areas in which their crops are growing because, there, technological advances have the greatest potential for increasing food production. In addition such areas are less vulnerable to overcropping. Increased attention to risky areas might cause some slackening of output gains in more stable, high production areas.The centers are at present mainly concerned with, and judged by, the productivity (usually measured as yield) and stability of the farming systems with which they work. In order to shift centers' attention to technology for more marginal areas, sustainability (ability to maintain productivity over an extended period that may include unpredictable disturbances) and equity would have to rank with spread of varieties and increase in ouQut as measures of the performance of the system.The physical, social, economic, and institutional aspects of management of renewable resources in the humid tropics are numerous and highly complex. It is doubtful that the centers at present have the resources to undertake research and to seek greater involvement with the wide range of national institutions that affect the sustainability of the ecosystem under agricultural exploitation. Yet the importance of the issue is a compelling reason for the centers involved in tropical crops to continue to assess the options for research that might have an impact.Research on biological nitrogen fixation has been a continuing component of the programs of the centers with leguminous crop mandates-CIAT, ICRISAT, II'& and, more recently, ICARDA and RCA. IRRI has also had a longstanding commitment to research on biological nitrogen fixation associated with rice cultivation.Those centers have made a significant contribution of new knowledge directly through their own research and indirectly through the attention they have focused on the research needs of their mandated crops among researchers in some lndustrial and developing countries.The research output has had limited application in farmers' fields. In many instances, the potential impacts of the research accomplishments in the area of biological nitrogen fixation are masked by the dominance of other limiting factors, both agroclimatic and socioeconomic.Research on biological nitrogen fixation at the centers has helped to improve the quality of research in national institutions. Among the scientists of the centers undertaking biological nitrogen fixation research, there are opportunities, so far unrealized, for more synergistic research efforts.In the future, biological nitrogen fixation research should emphasize the management of nitrogen fixed biologically within the context of the cropping systems that are commonplace in tropical agriculture.It is reassuring that investment in agricultural research has paid handsome dividends in many regions and during many periods. It would be naive, however, to expect the system of centers, which has rapidly grown in scope and complexity, to sustain the exceptional rates of return of the past, unless it responds with flexibility and vigor to opportunities presented by the new biotechnology and other advances in knowledge.The early successes in wheat and rice sprang from a rich stock of knowledge that existed before the centers were formed. Pre-existing stocks of knowledge were less ample for many of the other crops that the centers now address, and the potential for increases in output of those crops is more modest because they tend to be grown in harsher environments.If, as a consequence, future returns to research are lower, the enthusiasm of donors for the centers could slacken. On the other hand, creating unrealistic expectations could be equally unfortunate. Nor can it be presumed that all programs at all centers are planned, organized, and conducted optimally. Improvements could no doubt be made by reducing or eliminating some programs and expanding others, and changing the way some programs are operated. These matters are the responsibility of the CGIAR's TM-mica1 Advisory Committee, which regularly reviews the work of all centers.As national systems become stronger, the centers' emphasis will likely shift from producing readily adopted technologies to supporting the generation of new technologies by national systems. And as this occurs, it will be less easy to use the spread of varieties as an indicator of the value of the centers. An effort should be made to estimate future impacts as precisely as possible despite the far-fromperfect understanding of the mechanisms of generation and diffusion of technological change.Since research opportunities always exceed research funds, decisions are continually being made about the allocation of resources. Informed insight, experience, and accumulated knowledge have always formed the cornerstone of decisions about research funding. Quantitative estimates of possible future benefits can serve as additional elements in making decisions. They can help in the ranking of projects, suggest where shifts in emphasis might raise total returns, and indicate projects whose expected payoff is unattractively low.A review of the broad sweep of expected results from the centers indicates that some impressive gains may be made, particularly in technologies that are applicable to large areas. At almost every center, if just one major project meets expectations, it, will generate returns far exceeding the cost of the center. In fact, there are a few undertakings that, if any one is successful, will generate benefits greater than the present costs of the entire CGIAR system. Six projects and their expected impact on production were analyzed in some detail: improvement of upland rice for favored areas of Latin America, biological control of cassava pests, aluminum tolerance in wheat, heat tolerance in wheat, downy mildew resistance in maize, and true potato seed. Even after conservatively estimating gains in productivity and attributing only a small share of those to the centers, expected annual rates of return range from 20 to 40 percent. The high prospective rates of return reflect the fact that the centers' work is applicable to broad areas, so even small advances in productivity have an impressive payoff.","tokenCount":"13111"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f070e699fdc9ae49cd522e6e15fb5f23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/36903fcd-e0fe-4d82-b5a1-92d516528ea5/content","id":"-945565095"},"keywords":["wheat","grain yield","heritability","yield stability","genotype × season interaction"],"sieverID":"9f3a24df-e6a1-4ad4-8ab2-b58d0eea985f","pagecount":"15","content":"Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major cereal crop contributing to global food and nutrition which necessitates the deployment of wheat genotypes that are high yielding and resistant to prevailing diseases. The objective of this study was to evaluate Kenya stem rust observation nursery (KSRON) wheat genotypes for grain yield, yield components and stem rust resistance. A 3-season field experiment was set up in a 25 × 7 alpha lattice design at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Njoro (35 • 56 60 E; 0 • 20 60 S). Significant (p ≤ 0.001) differences due to seasons, genotype and genotype × season interaction was observed for all the traits except days to heading (DH) and number of seeds per spike (SS). Seasons, genotype and genotype × season interaction explained 48.2%, 25.23% and 26.67% of the total variability in grain yield (GY), respectively. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) variation of means between seasons for all the traits were higher in the 2019 main season than the 2019 and 2020 off-seasons except for 1000-kernel weight (TKW). Heritability (H 2 ) estimates ranged from 49.58% for GY to 94.11% for DH. GY had a positive genetic and phenotypic correlation with all the traits except for DH (r g = −0.13, r p = −0.09), stem rust (SR) (r g = −0.53 ***, r p = −0.38 ***) and yellow rust (YR) (r g = −0.28 ***, r p = −0.19 *) severity. SR caused 22%, 14% and 13% reduction in TKW, GY and biomass (BM), respectively. YR caused 2% and 4% reduction in GY and BM.Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major cereal crop that contributes towards food and nutritional requirements of the world's growing population and thus necessitates the deployment of high yielding and disease resistant genotypes. Biotic and abiotic stresses are the main limiting factors of wheat production worldwide [1][2][3]. In Kenya, wheat production is affected by rust diseases, mainly stem rust and yellow rust [4]. It is estimated that stem rust can cause 6 to 66% yield reduction and sometimes total yield losses [5,6]. These factors result in an increased yield gap and thus necessitates increased breeding efforts to reduce yield gap [7].Grain yield is the most important trait for selection in all field crop improvement programs. Grain yield is controlled by additive genes and has a high degree of interaction with environmental factors [8,9]. Breeding for yield and grain quality is designed to fit the target environment because of its significance during selection for variety replacement while maintaining food security [10,11]. Thus, an understanding of the degree of the relationship between yield and yield related components is relevant in selection procedures as a prerequisite for designing a breeding program [12,13]. Traits which are highly correlated with yield can be used as a proxy for the selection of high yielding cultivars in a breeding program.Nevertheless, breeders opt to breed for high yielding, stable, adaptable and better performing genotypes in relation to other key breeding objectives considering parental breeding values [14]. Heritability gives an overview of the expectations of response to selection. However, heritability estimates are seemingly low under stress environments [15,16]. Cox et al. [17] found low genetic gain in hard red winter wheat evaluated under drought stress and tan spot (Helminthosporium tritici-repentis Died) infested environments.Breeders are facing challenges due to confounding environmental effects which influence the expression of genes for important crop traits [7]. Finlay and Wilkinson [18], Eberhart and Russell [19], Perkins and Jinks [20], and Shukla's variance [21], among other stability measures, are widely used in testing stability and adaptability of breeding stocks in contrasting environments. The evaluation of wheat cultivars for yield stability under confounding environments is key to selection for high yielding and stable wheat cultivars [7,22].Several studies have been performed on the stability of grain yield production and yield related components of wheat genotypes under confounding environments. Bassi et al. [23] studied the grain yield stability of durum wheat (Triticum durum) across eighteen countries, whereas Pennachi et al. [7] studied stability of 61 wheat genotypes over three contrasting seasons in the United Kingdom (UK) with the consideration of varying sowing dates, rainfall, air temperature and radiation. Further, Singh et al. [24] and Kun et al. [25] determined the stability of the yield and grain quality of wheat genotypes across contrasting environments. The objective of this study was to evaluate wheat genotypes from a Kenya stem rust observation nursery (KSRON) for grain yield and yield related components under stem rust and yellow rust epiphytotic conditions.The KSRON wheat genotypes were evaluated at the International Stem Rust (Ug99) Phenotyping Platform, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) Njoro (35 • 56 60 E; 0 • 20 60 S) established in collaboration with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT). The site is located at 2293 m above sea level in the highlands of Rift Valley in Kenya. The area experiences an average annual rainfall of 1000 mm with predominantly well-drained Mollic Andosols [26]. The mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 9 • C and 22 • C, respectively.A set of 175 wheat genotypes of the KSRON were used in this study (Supplementary Table S1). These genotypes are advanced wheat lines developed by CIMMYT and selected for high yielding and stem rust resistance. They are available for identification and release as wheat varieties in Kenya. The cultivar Robin and line Cacuke were used as susceptible controls.Wheat genotypes were evaluated for yield and yield related components over three seasons, namely the off-season of 2019, main season of 2019 and the off-season of 2020, which are hereafter designated as OS 2019, MS 2019 and OS 2020, respectively. The field previously planted with canola (Brassica napus) was ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth using a disc plough and harrow. Fertilizer Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) was applied at the rate of 130 Kg ha −1 to supply nitrogen and phosphorous at an equivalent rate of 23.4 Kg N and 59.8 Kg P ha −1 , respectively. Each genotype was sown in a double row plot of 0.7 m × 0.2 m at a seeding rate of 103 Kg ha −1 . At growth stage 20-29 [27], a top dressing of urea (46:00:00) at the rate of 75 Kg N ha −1 was applied to supply nitrogen at an equivalent rate of 34.5 Kg N ha −1 . A 25 × 7 alpha lattice design was adopted with 3 replicates separated by a 0.5 m alleyway. Each replicate consisted of 25 uniform blocks with each block containing 7 genotypes. Double-row spreader mixture of susceptible wheat cultivars Robin, Eagle 10 and Kasuku was planted surrounding each replicate to build uniform disease pressure. At growth stage 30-39 [27], the spreader rows were inoculated 3 times at an interval of 7 days with bulk stem rust inoculum from the disease nursery. The artificial inoculation was carried out by the hypodermic syringe method along each spreader row. Broadleaf weeds were controlled by applying Buctril MC ® herbicide (Bayer CropScience AG, Monheim, Germany) at 0.562 kg active ingredient ha −1 (Bromoxynil octanoate 0.281 kg ha −1 + 2-Methyl 4-Chlorophenoxyacetic Ethyl Hexyl Ester 0.281 kg ha −1 ) at the tillering stage (GS 24). Systemic insecticide, Thunder ® OD 145 (Bayer CropScience AG, Monheim, Germany) at 0.029 kg active ingredient ha −1 , (Beta-cyfluthrin 0.009 kg ha −1 + Imidacloprid 0.02 kg ha −1 ) was applied at the tillering stage (GS 20-29) and the flowering (GS 60-69) stage [27] to control Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia).Stem rust (SR) and yellow rust (YR) severity were assessed as the percentage of leaf and stem area infected per plot, respectively. The assessment was based on the modified Cobbs scale [28], with a positive progressive severity rating of 0 to 100%, where 0 = immune and 100 = highly susceptible. Days to heading (DH) were determined when 50% of the plants in a plot flowered with anthers protruding from the florets. Days to maturity (DM) were determined from the day of emergence to the day the peduncle of 50% of the plants in a plot had turned golden in color. Plant height (PH) was measured as the mean of vertical distance from the ground level to the tip of the spikes from 5 randomly selected wheat plants in a plot. Spike length (SL) was determined as a measure from the bottom to the tip of the spike. The number of seeds per spike (SS) were determined by averaging the number of seeds from 5 randomly selected spikes. The grain filling period (GFP) was determined as a difference between DM and DH. At physiological maturity, each plot was harvested separately, weighed to determine biomass (BM) and yield at adjusted moisture content of 12% [29]. One thousand kernels from each entry were randomly sampled using Contador Pfeuffer seed counter (Pfeuffer GmbH, Kitzingen, Germany, model: 14100009) and weighed in grams to determine the 1000-kernel weight (TKW).Stem rust and yellow rust severity scores were converted to area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) values using a formula described by CIMMYT [30]. Combined analysis of variance for yield and yield related components was carried out following a linear model appropriate for a 25 × 7 alpha lattice design using PROC GLM procedure in SAS software [31];where, Y ijkl = observation of the experimental units, µ = overall mean, S i = effect due to i th season, R j(i) = effect of the j th replicate nested in the i th season, B k(ji) = effect of the k th block in the j th replicate in the i th season, G l = effect due to l th genotype in the i th season, GS li = effect of interaction due to j th genotype and i th season and Eopen ijklm = residual. Genotypes were regarded as fixed factors while seasons and season × genotype interaction were regarded as random factors. Mean separation test was performed using Tukey's honestly significant difference (Tukey HSD) procedure at a p ≤ 0.05 level of significance for each evaluated trait whenever the main effects were significant [32].Effects due to season, genotype and season × genotype interaction for grain yield was determined by the additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) and genotype main effect and genotype by environment interaction (GGE) biplot analyses. GEA-R software version 4.1 was used to perform the analyses [33]. The OS 2019, MS 2019 and OS 2020 were designated as 3 different environments. The AMMI model equation was stated as:where, µ = grand mean, G i = genotype deviations from the grand mean, E j = environment deviation from the grand mean, λ k = k th eigenvalue, α ik = principal component score for the i th genotype for the k th principal component axis, γ jk = principal component score for the j th environment for the k th principal component axis, and e ijk = residual.The variance components and broad sense heritability (H 2 ) for each trait was calculated following the MIXED procedure in META-R software version 6.0 [16]. All the factors were considered as random.where, δ 2 g = genotypic variance, δ 2 p = phenotypic variance, r = number of replications, s = number of seasons, δ 2 sg = season × genotype interaction variance and δ 2 e = error variance. Phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) were calculated as described by Singh and Chaudhary [34].Stability parameters were derived using the Eberhart and Russell regression model to determine stable genotype (s) [19]. GEA-R software version 4.1 was used to perform the analyses [33].where, Y ij = observation of the i th genotype in the j th season, µ = mean of the i th genotype over the seasons, β i = coefficient of regression, that measures the response of i th genotype over seasons, I j = seasonal index, σ ij = deviation from regression of the i th genotype in the j th season, and E ij = error.Correlation coefficients of AUDPC_Sr, AUDPC_Yr, GY and yield related components were determined following a method described by Miller et al. [35] A probability level of p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The META-R software version 6.0 was used to perform correlation and trait cluster analysis [36].where, r (x,y) = phenotypic or genotypic correlation coefficient between trait x and y, Cov (x, y) = covariance of trait x and y, (σ x ) 2 = genotypic or phenotypic variance of trait x, and (σ y ) 2 = genotypic or phenotypic variance of trait y.Stepwise multiple regression was conducted using SAS PROC. REG forward selection procedure to determine the effect of stem rust and yellow rust on GY, TKW and BM. The analysis was performed using the following multiple linear regression model;where, Y i = expected value of dependent variable for a given set of independent variables x 1 and x 2 ; β 0 = expected value of dependent variable when x 1 and x 2 = 0. β 1 and β 2 are partial regression coefficients for every unit increase or decrease in the dependent variable x 1 and x 2 , respectively, whereas E i = residual component. The GY, TKW and BM were considered as response variables while stem rust, x 1 and yellow rust, x 2 were considered as predictor variables.The season and genotype main effects were significant (p ≤ 0.001) for PH, DH, SL, GFP, DM, TKW, GY, BM, AUDPC_Sr and AUDPC_Yr. Significant (p ≤ 0.001) effects due to season × genotype interaction effect were found for all traits except SS and DH (Table 1). Significant (p ≤ 0.05) variation of means among seasons were observed for all traits. Genotypes were 1.77% and 2.93% taller in MS 2019 than OS 2019 and OS 2020, respectively. In MS 2019, plants took longer to attain heading with 2.82% more days than OS 2019 and 7.58% more days than OS 2020. The mean GY in MS 2019 was 26.65% and 43.62% higher than OS 2019 and OS 2020, respectively. GFP was 5.10% and 1.63% longer in MS 2019 than OS 2019 and OS 2020, respectively. In OS 2020, BM was 17.93% and 3.63% higher than OS 2019 and MS 2019, respectively. DM was 3.77% higher in MS 2019 than OS 2019 and 4.91% higher than OS 2020. Similarly, the test genotypes in MS 2019 had 23.22% and 12.53% more SS than those in OS 2019 and OS 2020, respectively. The mean AUDPC_Sr was 37.38% higher in OS 2019 than MS 2019 and 73.81% higher than OS 2020. In OS 2020, AUDPC_Sr was 82.65% higher than OS 2019 and 55.68% higher than MS 2019 (Table 2).   Means followed by the same letters within the same column are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. MSD = minimum significant difference, PH = plant height, SL = spike length, DH = days to heading, DM = days to maturity, GFP = grain filling period, GY = grain yield, SS = number of seeds per spike, TKW = 1000-kernel weight, and BM = biomass.The AMMI model showed that the season accounted for 48.20% of variation in GY whereas genotypes and season × genotype interaction accounted for 25.23% and 26.57% of the variation, respectively (Table 3). The phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was higher than the genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) for all traits (Table 4). The highest PCV and GCV of 104.64% and 87.73%, respectively, were observed on BM whereas the lowest PCV and GCV of 16.49% and 14.92%, respectively, were observed on SL. Different variations in heritabilities were observed on GY (49.58%), SS (60.11%), GFP (60.62%), BM (61.12%), DM (71.40%), PH (75.99%), SL (81.91%), TKW (84.25%) and DH (94.11%). In this study, heritability for DH (94.11%), TKW (84.25%), SL (81.91%), PL (75.99%) and DM (71.40%) were considered as high whereas heritability for SS (60.11%), BM (61.12%), GFP (60.62%) and GY (49.58%) were considered as moderate.  Se = standard error, δ 2 p = phenotypic variance, δ 2 g = genotypic variance, PCV% = phenotypic coefficient of variation, GCV% = genotypic coefficient of variation, H 2 = broad sense heritability, PH = plant height, SL = spike length, DH = days to heading, DM = days to maturity, GFP = grain filling period, GY = grain yield, SS = number of seeds per spike, TKW = 1000-kernel weight, and BM = biomass.The partitioning of genotype and genotype × environment interaction through the GGE biplot showed that 90.85% of variation in GY was attributable to the genotype and genotype × environment interaction effects as indicated by the estimates from two principal analyses. The first principal component (PC1) contributed 60.89% whereas the second principal component (PC2) contributed 29.96% to the total variation in GY (Figure 1A). The GGE biplot indicated that OS 2019 and OS 2020 were highly correlated and formed the first mega environment. However, the mean GY between the two seasons significantly differed. On the other hand, MS 2019 formed the second mega environment with higher mean GY than OS 2019 and OS 2020 (Figure 1B). The polygon view on the GGE biplot was used to choose the ideal genotypes in each environment. Genotype KSRON 162, KSRON 52 and KSRON 32 had the best GY in both OS 2019 and OS 2020 whereas genotype KSRON 4, KSRON 6 and KSRON 111 had the best GY in MS 2019 (Figure 1C). Genotypes KSRON 24, KSRON 109 and KSRON 16 were ranked the best performing genotypes in GY across the seasons whereas Cacuke, Robin, KSRON 167 and KSRON 140 had the lowest GY across the seasons. (Figure 1D, Table 5). The genotypic variability in mean GY, SR and YR severities and response and area under disease progress curve for SR and YR is presented in Supplementary Table S2.  OS = offseason, MS = main season, FDS = final disease severity, se = standard error, Sr = stem rust, Yr = yellow rust, AUDPC_Sr and AUDPC_Yr = area under disease progress curve for stem rust and yellow rust, GY = grain yield, * = susceptible checks. MSD = minimum significance difference. Disease severity was assessed using 0-100% modified Cobb scale (Peterson, 1948) following host response to stem rust where R-resistant, RMR-resistant to moderately resistant, MR-moderately resistant, M-moderately resistant to moderately susceptible, MS-moderately susceptible, MSS-moderately susceptible and S-susceptible.Table 6. Genetic (G) and phenotypic (P) correlation coefficients (r), area under disease progress curve for stem rust and yellow rust and yield and yield related components of KSRON wheat genotypes. The TKW (r g = 0.65 ***, r p = 0.49 ***), GFP (r g = 0.35 ***, r p = 0.23 **), BM (r g = 0.55 ***, r p = −0.46 ***) and SS (r g = 0.25 ***, r p = 0.20 **) had significant effects on GY at both the genetic and phenotypic levels. Moreover, TKW had a positive significant correlation with BM (r g = 0.37 ***, r p = 0.30 ***) and GFP (r g = 0.52 ***, r p = 0.40 ***). In addition, genotypes with high TKW took a fewer number of days to head (r g = −0.27 ***, r p = −0.24 **) and had few SS (r g = −24 **).From the cluster analysis, DH, DM, PH, BM, SS and SL were grouped in cluster I. GFP, GY and TKW were grouped in cluster II, while stem rust and yellow rust severity were grouped in cluster III depicting relatedness within clusters. Moreover, DH and DM, PH and BM, SL and SS, seemed to be highly related, respectively (Figure 3).A stepwise regression analysis forward selection was used to determine the effects of stem rust and yellow rust on TKW, GY and BM of the genotypes. SR was the main cause of reduction in GY, TKW and BM. SR contributed 22% reduction in TKW, 14% reduction in GY and 14% reduction in BM over the seasons. YR contributed 2% reduction in GY and 4% reduction in BM over the seasons (Table 7). YR did not have significant reduction in TKW and thus it was not fit to be added in the model.   The genotypic effect was significant for PH, DH, DM, GFP, GY, TKW, AUDPC_Sr and AUDPC_Yr. This indicated the existence of genetic variations for these traits within the genotypes [37]. Season × genotype interaction was significant, proving the influence of seasonal changes on the performance of the genotypes. This influence could be due to non-additivity of the seasonal effects on the expression of polygenic traits [38]. A breeder should deconstruct the observable variation and partition it into heritable and non-heritable variations [39]. Traits with high heritability included DH, TKW, DM, PH, and SL. Number of seeds per spike (SS), GY and BM had moderate broad-sense heritability, probably because they are under the control of additive genes and hence influenced by the environment [40,41]. GY had the least heritability estimates because it is a complex trait controlled by multiple genes and influenced by the interaction of the genotypic expression of yield components and the environmental variables. The heterogeneity of environmental conditions over time tends to mask the genetic potency of traits determined by multiple genes [8,9].The AMMI analysis indicated that seasons contributed 48.20% variation in GY which was in consistence with significant differences in mean seasonal GY among the genotypes. This explained why MS 2019 had the highest mean GY than OS 2019 and OS 2020. The GGE biplot analysis indicated the OS 2019 and OS 2020 were highly correlated despite their yield performance being significantly different. This also showed that KSRON genotypes were sensitive to environmental change impacting on their production stability which might be a challenge in crop improvement. However, MS 2019 had the highest mean GY than OS 2019 and OS 2020 since it is the main wheat growing season in Kenya. These results are in agreement with Sgrò and Hoffmann [42] who reported that, evaluating genotypes in similar or interrelated environments might synchronize their performance resulting in a strong genetic correlation.KSRON 162, KSRON 52 and KSRON 32 were the best performing genotypes in the OFS 2019 and OFS 2020, while KSRON 4, KSRON 6 and KSRON 111 were the best genotypes in MS 2019 exhibiting agronomic (dynamic) stability due to cross over interaction. Becker and Leon [43] and Yan and Kung [44] reported that a good genotype must be widely adaptable, stable and have a high mean grain yield. The combination of high yielding, yield stability and stem rust resistance are a desired trait combination for wheat improvement in Kenya. Genotypes, KSRON 2, KSRON 108 and KSRON 144 showed biological (static) stability and thus were less responsive to seasonal variation displaying non-crossover interaction. These genotypes were also high yielding, resistant to stem rust and yellow rust over the seasons. This is in line with Powell et al. [45] and Sharma and Duveiller [46] who reported the possibility of the selection of wheat genotypes with a combination of high yielding, disease resistant, early maturing and high kernel quality traits. In developing countries and global scale genotypes possessing resistance to diseases coupled with high yielding traits are environmentally friendly and significant in promoting food and nutrition security.The stepwise regression analysis showed that stem rust and yellow rust significantly reduced GY, TKW and BM over the seasons. Post-anthesis biotic stress limits the full potential of wheat cultivars in the expression of these traits by reducing the number of fertile florets, shortening the grain filling period which also translates to a reduced assimilate accumulation and grain weight. Asmmawy et al. [47] and Macharia and Wanyera [5] demonstrated a negative linear relationship between disease infection, low grain yield and 1000-kernel weight. In Ethiopia, Olivera et al. [48] reported more than 90% yield losses on wheat cultivar Digalu due to the virulence of stem rust race TKTTF in 2013/2014 cropping season. These reports are in line with the results from this study where AUDPC_Sr negatively correlated with GY, TKW, BM and GFP. The results suggested that, GY, TKW and BM reduced with the increase in stem rust severity due to the negative influence of disease to plant metabolic process [49,50].Genotype KSRON 167 was resistant to both stem rust and yellow rust and recorded the third lowest yield. This might be due to yield penalty linked to the response and expression of resistance genes in preventing rust infection [51,52]. Plants direct most of their accumulated assimilates towards the releasing of pathogenesis related proteins in terms of resistance genes to fight invading pathogens instead of kernel nourishment and development [52]. Further, yield reduction can be a result of linkage drag associated with resistance gene (s) from alien relatives. Dundas et al. [53] and Knott [54] reported a 9% yield penalty associated with Sr26 stem rust resistance gene introgressed in wheat from Agropyron elonagatum (syn. Thinopyrum ponticum). However, genotypes KSRON 32, KSRON 120, KSRON 135 and KSRON 159, had high AUDPC_Sr with high grain yield. Similarly, KSRON 107 and KSRON 109, despite exhibiting slow rusting nature, expressed an MSS reaction to stem rust pathogen. This might be attributed to the presence of high yielding and disease resistance gene(s) being in the repulsion phase rather than coupling [55].In this study, GY correlated with TKW, GFP, DH, DM, SS and BM. Late maturing plants tended to be taller with high BM and a longer grain filling period than early maturing types. Molero and Reynolds [56] suggested that during the grain filling period, the grain receives assimilates from the pre-anthesis stem reserves, post anthesis leaf photosynthesis and spike photosynthesis which translates high yield and 1000-kernel weight. Further, Monpara [57] reported that the grain filling period can be used to quantify the grain yield, harvest index and kernel weight in bread wheat. These reports are in line with the correlation and cluster analysis which showed that, GFP, TKW and GY are highly related.","tokenCount":"4305"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9bd4d5649174df766817149d636e4c9a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5603f3a-1db7-4611-9f6f-c3086a9e4098/retrieve","id":"1633711467"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"676e7e4f-ee93-40f3-b444-9b4fa8ea4dea","pagecount":"84","content":"The mission of the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) is to sustainably increase the productivity of banana and plantain grown on smallholdings for domestic consumption and for local and export markets. The programme has four specific objectives: To organize and coordinate a global research effort on banana and plantain, aimed at the development, evaluation and dissemination of improved banana cultivars and at the conservation and use of Musa diversity. To promote and strengthen collaboration and partnerships in banana-related activities at the national, regional and global levels. To strengthen the ability of NARS to conduct research and development activities on bananas and plantains. To coordinate, facilitate and support the production, collection and exchange of information and documentation related to banana and plantain. INIBAP is a network of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), a Future Harvest center. The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of the 16 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and proverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through three programmes:(1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP). The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2003, had been signed and ratified by the Governments of Algeria,Plant-pathogenic nematodes are considered one of the major constraints in banana production. While nematodes can be controlled by the use of chemicals, these are expensive and thus beyond the reach of small-holder farmers. They also accumulate in the environment and are highly toxic.Alternative strategies to combat these pests include the use of banana varieties that are resistant or less susceptible to nematodes, the use of clean planting materials and the use of soil amendments and biocontrol agents. These strategies, including the need for more information on the status of nematode problems in the region, were last stressed at the conference-workshop on nematodes and weevil borers affecting bananas in Asia and the Pacific in Malaysia in 1994.In addition, several levels of training requirement were identified: (1) specialized nematology training, to address the shortage of skilled nematologists; (2) extension training, to raise the awareness of farmers of nematodes; and (3) training of trainers, to ensure that the two first training requirements can be met.The University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines (UPLB) and the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (K.U.Leuven) are currently undertaking a project entitled 'Enhancing Capacity for Nematode Management in Small-Scale Banana Cropping Systems' financed by the Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR), Belgium. The project aims to: (1) improve banana production by identifying varieties which are either resistant or less susceptible to nematodes and evaluate their usefulness in small-scale, low-input banana cropping systems; (2)  Training in banana nematology is given special emphasis because there is currently a lack of trained scientists and technicians to address problems of nematology. In the Philippines, for example, several senior nematologists of CA-UPLB have already retired without being replaced by young nematologists.The training held at UPLB aimed to: (1) enhance capacity for nematode research in the region, specifically on nematode management in Musa; (2) compile up-to-date information on the status of nematodes in Musa and ongoing nematological activities in the region; and (3) bring together and work out future collaborations among partners in the region.The training workshop offered an opportunity to summarize the status of Musa nematode research in the region through country reports. Technical presentations and hands-on exercises on nematode survey, collection and culture techniques and field trips to the laboratories were also undertaken. The activity concluded with a workshop to discuss and come up with a set of protocols for survey, collection and culture of Musa nematodes. The country status reports are published in the accompanying proceedings of this technical manual.As the project will end in 5 years time, we also plan to organize a follow-up workshop within the next years to evaluate the progress made by each country in the region.According to Thorne (1961), nematodes are so universally distributed that if plant life of any form grows in the soil, it is almost certain to contain several species.Cultivated fields, with their high fertility and heavy plant covers, are especially favourable habitats for a wide range of species, and populations of several billions per acre are not unusual. A pound (0.45 kg) of soil from one of these fields generally contains 10 to 30 species belonging to many and diverse genera, including endoparasites, ectoparasites, predators, saprophages and other free-living forms. Forest soils contain a great variety of ectoparasitic tylenchs and dorylaims, as well as predaceous mononchs, saprophagous cephalobs and rhabditids.Naturally, we are generally most interested in those species of economic importance. These we shall find in and about the roots of their host plants or in the stems, leaves and seeds of the plants themselves.Nematodes are difficult to study and it is essential that all materials collected for identification should be given the best care.Population densities for plant-parasitic nematodes in the soil vary greatly in time and space. Patchy or aggregated spatial distribution of nematodes and changes of the typical polyspecific communities over time pose major sampling problems. The inherent tendency of nematode populations to oscillate, which is often enhanced by climate and other factors, is partly responsible for their patchy distribution (Jones and Kempton 1978).Some of these ecological factors that affect nematode population density and distribution in the soil are soil texture, soil moisture, soil pH, plant age and host-plant resistance.Most plant-parasitic nematodes show higher population densities in sandy-loam soils than in clay soils. Davide (1980) has shown that the banana nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Radopholus similis have the highest population density in sandy-loam soil and the lowest in clay soil.This is a very important factor for nematode survival in the soil. A study by Davide (1980) indicated that the population densities of both M. incognita and R. similis on banana were much higher during the rainy season (June, July and August) than during the dry season (February, March and April). Davide (1980) showed that M. incognita and R. similis on banana had the highest population densities in soils with pH 5.0 -5.6 and the lowest at pH 7.1 -7.7.Usually, the highest population density of plant-parasitic nematodes is detected when the plants are in the flowering stage. A low population is usually found in newly planted crops and in the harvesting stage when root growth has already stopped.As indicated in a study by Davide (1980), R. similis population density was highest in banana plantations of 4-5 years old and lowest in plantations of less than 1 year old. On the other hand, M. incognita was already high in banana plantations of 1-2 years old and later declined when R. similis increased.In crop cultivars with some degree of resistance, the nematode population density is generally low compared within those which are susceptible. Davide and Marasigan (1992) showed that R. similis and M. incognita population densities were much higher in the susceptible cultivar Giant Cavendish than in resistant cultivars like Amas, Tanggung, Katsila and others.Since plant-parasitic nematodes are considered a limiting factor in crop production because they cause serious root diseases resulting in decline of plant growth and yield, it is of paramount importance to gather information through survey and collection of soil and root samples.The data obtained can be used in predicting nematode crop damage and yield losses. If one knows the threshold or damaging level of the nematode population in a given crop, a timely application of control measures can be made before the damage can occur. For instance, the banana companies in Davao base their R. similis control application on population counts: the threshold level is reached when counts are 25 000 nematodes per root sample of 25 g.The survey data are also very useful for the identification of nematode species associated with different crops and their distribution in a given locality. In quarantine work, collection of samples for nematode detection is necessary to prevent entry of infected plants into the country and other localities.Given the survey data, studies on the biology, ecology and control of plant-parasitic nematodes can be initiated, especially their role in the development of disease complexes in plants caused by other pathogens like fungi, bacteria and viruses. For instance, survey data showed that citrus plants with virus infection had a high population of the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans (Trinidad and Davide 1969). Likewise, in the presence of root-knot nematodes, M. incognita, the bacterial wilt of tomato becomes more severe.Survey data also indicated that a cropping system like crop rotation or planting of resistant varieties can be designed to prevent crop damage caused by nematodes, especially when the population densities have already reached the damaging level.Before the conduct of the survey and collection of samples, a detailed sampling plan including the collection pattern, as well as the number and size of samples, must be developed based on available funds and resources.Primary considerations for sampling must focus on the life cycle of nematodes, their horizontal and vertical distribution and their interactions with the host plants and environment (Cochran 1977). Equipment for collecting soil and root samples for nematodes includes trowel, spade, shovel, soil auger, tube or you can make your own. Timing of sampling depends on the objectives. For advisory purposes, collection of samples right after land preparation should be done to determine whether the initial population densities of the plant-parasitic nematodes are already at the damaging level. If so, advise the farmers to apply control measures like the use of crop rotation, planting of resistant varieties or treatment of the soil with nematicides before planting.If the objective is to identify plant-parasitic nematode genera and species associated with different economic crops and their distribution in different parts of the country, sampling can be done on areas where crops are actively growing, especially at flowering stage.In established banana plantations, periodic sampling is usually done every 3-6 months for monitoring purposes to determine the threshold level of the nematode population to serve as basis for application of control measures.Soil and root samples are usually collected not far from the base of actively growing plants, where roots are still growing and functional and where the nematodes are feeding. The depth of sampling depends on how deep the root system of the crop is. In case of banana plants, the samples are collected 30-40 cm from the base of the plant. The samples are usually collected from three sampling sites at 15-20 cm depth. About 200 g of soil and 50-100 g roots may be collected per site. According to Barker and Campbell (1981), the sampling area and number of sampling sites vary widely for different purposes. For advisory use, a sampling area of about 2 hectares or less is recommended. For very large farms, randomly selected 2ha units with uniform soil and cropping histories should provide a useful basis for sampling. Ten sampling units may provide an adequate estimate of a large nematode population, while 100 units may be necessary for a low population density.Bulking or mixing together of soil and root samples from different sites may mask the degree of variability between sampling sites. Therefore, it is better to examine the nematodes from each site.Possible sampling procedures for nematodes include simple random, stratified random, systematic, haphazard, cluster and two-stage sampling (Goodell 1979). The factors influencing nematode distribution in the soil should be considered. Generally, systematic sampling gives more reliable results than random sampling (Goodell 1979).However, a major source of variation in sampling is the mechanics or the way the samples are collected by different individuals. To reduce such variations, there should be a standardization of the collection sites: distances from plants, depth, angles, inclusion of roots, moisture conditions and other considerations are most important (Moriarty 1960).Soil samples must be handled carefully to maintain the nematodes in the state in which they were collected (Barker and Nusbaum 1971). Nematodes should be in good condition for easy identification. Soil samples are usually placed in plastic bags or in containers where moisture can be maintained. Each sampling bag should have labels with important information. The samples should be carefully transported to the laboratory for nematode extraction. Improper transport and storage often results in death and deterioration of nematodes, and the data obtained are no longer reliable and useful. Plant-parasitic nematodes can be extracted from soil and plant parts in many different ways.Processing of samples consists of separating the nematodes from the soil or plant materials in order to identify and count them. Some methods are more effective than others for a particular type of nematodes or for a particular kind of sample. Also, some techniques of processing samples are better adapted than others to specific purposes, such as nurserystock inspection or quarantine enforcement. Some techniques require expensive equipment or are too labourious to be practical, except in exacting research work. For instance, a combination of gravity screening and mist extraction has proven to be more effective in processing soil than the Baermann-funnel technique. However, since a number of laboratories are not equipped for mist extraction, gravity screening and Baermann-funnel methods may be used alternatively until mist equipment is available.The following guidelines may be helpful in your choice of an extraction technique for a particular situation.There are numerous methods of processing soil samples, all of which have advantages and disadvantages. To extract nematodes from soil, one of the funnel-extraction methods is usually used. If the sample is small (one cup or less), the soil may be directly placed in a funnel setup; larger soil samples should first be processed by the combined screening-funnel technique or by gravity-screening technique followed by mist extraction of the nematodes.The following methods will give a satisfactory yield of the common plant-parasitic nematodes.The Cobb's sifting-and-gravity method consists of a series of operations by which heavy particles are settled out and discarded. Lighter fractions containing the nematodes are passed through a series of screens or sieves, which separate the nematodes and small particles of light organic materials from the muddy solution.-Stir 300 g soil in a bucket with water. Nematodes become suspended in the water.-After about 20-30 seconds (depending on the soil texture), pour the water through a coarse sieve (100 µm) into a second bucket. Nematodes will pass through the sieve, while heavy particles remain in the first bucket. Large particles of debris are caught by the sieve. -Stir the muddy solution in the second bucket and allow to stand for 20-30 seconds, then pour the water with nematodes through a fine sieve (usually 40 µm mesh sieve). Nematodes remain on the sieve with small particles of debris. -Wash the fine sieve with a gentle stream of water to remove finer particles.-Wash the nematodes from the inverted fine sieve into a cup or beaker.-Pour the nematodes into a shallow dish for examination under a dissecting microscope.Nematodes may be difficult to see because they are mixed with many fine particles.-Since the method is not dependent on nematode movement, sluggish nematodes are recovered as effectively as active ones. -The method allows recovery of most nematodes from large soil samples.-Nematodes are available for direct examination in less than half an hour.-The method requires expensive sieves and an experienced worker. -Nematodes are difficult to see because of fine particles.The Baermann-funnel method is an excellent system for separating specimens from soil and condensing them for examination. The apparatus consists of a regular funnel with a short piece of rubber tubing attached to the stem and closed by a clamp or pinchcock. The funnel is supported in an upright position and filled with water. A wire screen is fitted across the funnel.-Place about a handful (50 g) of soil on top of a two-layered tissue paper (arranged in crisscross manner) on top of the wire screen. Fold the sides of the tissue paper towards the center to cover the soil. -Place the 'enveloped' soil sample on top of a Baermann funnel in the rack.-Fill the funnel up to the rim with water. The nematodes move through the tissue and the screen into the water in the funnel. They settle at the bottom of the funnel by gravity, where they are collected (5-10 ml suspension) after 1-2 days. The nematodes are now ready for counting and identification under a dissecting microscope.-The technique is simple and the equipment is inexpensive.-Recovery of active nematodes from small samples is fairly good.-Lack of aeration in the water reduces nematode movement, hindering recovery. Recovery may be reduced when the tissue and other materials obstruct nematode movement.-Recovery of active nematodes from large samples is poor.-Because the funnel capacity is small, the samples in it may be too small to be representative.After the sieving process described in the first method, nematodes may be separated from the remaining soil particles by the use of the Baermann funnel as described in the second method.-The combination method allows recovery of most nematodes from large soil samples.-The resultant sample contains less silt and debris than it does with the gravity-screening technique alone and is therefore easier to examine under the dissecting microscope.-Although recovery of mobile nematodes is good, sluggish nematodes recovered during the sieving part of the technique may fail to pass through the tissue in the funnel. -Processing takes longer and requires considerable and expensive equipment.Another method of extracting nematodes from soil samples is by centrifugal flotation, which technique requires centrifugation of the nematodes and addition of sucrose and MgSO 4 or ZnSO 4 . The nematodes are floated out into solution of specific gravity greater than their own. Isolation of nematodes from plant tissues, such as roots, bulbs, leaves or stems can be done in a number of ways, the choice depending upon the kind of nematodes involved, the type and size of the samples and the quantity of the nematodes required. The following are some of the commonly used methods.The diseased plant parts or roots with lesions and galls are placed in a Syracuse watch glass or Petri dish containing water. With the use of a dissecting needle, tease the tissue apart. Examine material under a dissecting microscope for the presence or absence of nematodes. This method can determine the presence of both migratory and sedentary nematodes.Research on nematode species often involves study of the penetration and development of specimen within intact roots. Many procedures for staining and clearing nematode-infected plant tissues have been developed and are satisfactory for various kinds of tissues. The acidfuchsin-lactophenol method, developed in 1941, has been the most widely used procedure. However, the two other procedures which are noted as being reliable, relatively simple and superior to the former are the sodium-hypochlorite-acid fuchsin method and the McBryde method.This technique is applicable to plant tissue in the same manner as with the soil samples.-Cut the roots in short sections, about 1 cm in length. If the roots are of large diameter (e.g. banana roots), you can cut them lengthwise also. Place the roots in a muslin or tissue paper and fold it around the roots to make an 'envelope'. -Gently submerge the envelope in water on the Baermann funnel.-Leave the apparatus for 1-2 days and recover the nematodes in vials or test tubes by opening the pinchcock to allow 5-10 ml water to escape. -Examine in a counting dish and/or preserve for future use.-This method can extract only the migratory nematodes.This was found to be more efficient than the Baermann-funnel technique for recovering burrowing, lesion and other migratory nematodes from avocado roots (Young 1954).-Wash the roots gently to remove soil particles.-Place the roots while still wet in a glass jar and add a small amount ofwater. Close the jar lid loosely. -Leave the sample for 1-2 days at room temperature.-Add 50 to 100 ml water, replace the screw cap and shake gently, inverting the jar several times to wash off nematodes clinging on the surface of the root tissues. -Pour the water through a coarse sieve mesh (100 µm) on top of a very fine sieve mesh (40 µm opening). Wash gently with water. -Collect the residue from the very fine sieve in a beaker by washing with a small amount of water. -Place the suspension in a Syracuse watch glass or counting dish and count the nematodes with the use of a dissecting microscope. -This method can be used to extract migratory endoparasites only.This method was initially used for extracting both migratory and sedentary endoparasites of abaca roots. The method is rapid because it does not depend upon the nematodes moving out of the tissue by their own activity. The method should be used with caution. If infections are light, some of the nematodes may be destroyed by the action of the blade or may not be freed from the plant tissue. This is a quick and useful method of examining roots for the presence of Pratylenchus, Hirschmanniella and Radopholus. However, Meloidogyne females are mostly broken. The suspension also contains debris particles which will interfere in the counting.-Wash the roots gently to remove soil particles. -Cut 10 g of roots into short pieces (1-2 cm) and place them with 50 ml water in a blending jar. Run the motor for 10 to 30 seconds intermittently for 3 times. The time and frequency will vary according to the amount and kind of materials being processed. -Pour the mixture through a coarse sieve (100 µm) into a plastic pail.-Wash the macerated tissue with water. Discard the material on the sieve.-Stir the mixture in the pail until the residue is all in suspension.-Pour gently through a 40 µm sieve into a pail. Wash gently with water. Discard the residue on the sieve. -Stir the mixture in the pail and pour it gently through a 40 µm sieve.-Wash gently with a stream of water and collect the residue on the sieve into a 100-ml beaker. You can still set up the residue in a Baermann funnel for 48 hours prior to observation and counting under the dissecting microscope.Extraction of Meloidogyne eggs in roots to be used for inoculation.-Place galled roots in a beaker.-Shake roots vigorously in 200 ml of a 0.5-1.0% (a.i.) NaOCl solution for 2 to 4 minutes.-Quickly pass the NaOCl solution through a 200 mesh (75 µm) sieve, nested over a 500 mesh (26 µm) sieve to collect freed eggs. -Quickly place the 500 mesh sieve with the eggs under a stream of cold water to remove the residual NaOCl (rinse for several minutes). -Rinse the remaining roots with water to remove additional eggs; then collect them by sieving. Nematodes obtained from a survey need to be characterized and properly identified to give valuable information about what pest to deal with. While they can be examined alive, it is usually necessary to inactivate them to facilitate detailed studies and to avoid distorting them. Storing specimen will allow future examination and verification. For all these processes, due to the very delicate and complex structures of nematodes, proper means of killing, fixing and mounting of nematodes on slides must be observed to ensure their usefulness for identification. Improper handling may result in distortion and total loss of the quality of specimen.Processing of newly extracted nematodes involves two phases, which can be done at the same time or successively. Killing is the process resulting to sudden and permanent termination of the life processes in all cells of specimen. Fixation, on the other hand, is the preservation of all cellular and structural elements in a condition as near to the living condition as possible. This process may cause tissue hardening which is necessary for good fixation and tissue preservation. Once fixed, nematodes may remain in the solution for a long time.Live nematodes in a given suspension are usually killed rapidly by heat. Rapid killing results in a characteristic relaxed shape of the nematode body; relaxed in the sense that they assume a natural straight, curved or spiral form.1. Heat killing before addition of fixative -nematodes are best killed by gentle heat (55-60°C) directly over a flame, hot plate, in an oven or by partially immersing containers in a large volume of water at nearly boiling point (80-90°C) for 2-3 minutes. At these conditions, body contents are not disrupted. Then, an equal volume of double-strength (2x) cold fixative is added to the suspension. 2. Addition of hot fixative -this is a one-step procedure for killing and fixing nematodes.Double-strength fixative is heated to 80-90°C and then poured into a vessel containing an equal volume of nematode suspension. However, caution must be observed in using this method. All fixatives have formalin as a component and when heated, fumes are emitted. This is HAZARDOUS, so one should work in a fume hood. If not available, the first method is more recommended. 1. Boiling/overheating of nematodes -the objective of immersing the nematodes in a hot water bath is to kill them and not to 'cook' them. Cooked nematodes are soft and will be easily distorted when picked prior to mounting.2. Adding cold fixative to a suspension containing live nematodes -exposure to fixative solution will not immediately kill the nematodes. They will resist and move until they die. Resistance will cause them to die in an unnatural position, instead of relaxed.Advantages: the nematodes appear remarkably life-like the solution remains stable for a long time triethanolamine neutralizes free formic acid being hygroscopic, it prevents the specimen from drying out, even if the fixative evaporates Disadvantage: causes the cuticle to degenerate with timeNematodes are picked out from the suspension under the low magnification of a dissecting microscope. The picking implements that can be used are: -bamboo splinters or coconut midrib sharpened to have a fine point; -eyelashes or cactus spines mounted on needles with water-resistant glue; -fine insect needles (# 00) with a hooked tip.The fine point of the needle is positioned under the nematode, which is then gradually worked upwards to the surface of the water before being removed by draping over the end of the point. The level of suspension in the dish should be shallow and constant refocusing of the microscope is necessary as the nematode is worked upwards. Picking requires some practice before nematodes can be removed quickly. Fixed nematodes are transferred to a drop of stained or unstained lactophenol on a glass slide, which has been heated to 60 °C. This process is not recommended due to the hazardous fumes from the lactophenol.Formulation: phenol crystals 1 part (CAUTION! Hazardous chemical) lactic acid 1 part glycerine 2 parts distilled water 1 partThis method is basically the same as above except for the exclusion of the hazardous chemical, phenol. This is therefore preferred over the first one under normal circumstances. Formulation: equal parts by volume of lactic acid, glycerol and distilled waterThe primary difference between the semi-permanent and the permanent mount is the dehydration step. Water is completely removed in the latter and replaced with glycerine. Absence of water in the specimen allows the long-term storage without deterioration. Specimen deposited in collection centers must be prepared using this method.This is a rapid method of processing nematodes through 96% ethanol to glycerine. The whole process takes only 1-2 days. Solution I: ethanol (96%) 20 parts glycerine 1 part distilled water 79 parts Solution II: ethanol (96%) 95 parts glycerine 5 partsNematodes are directly transferred from the fixative to a watch glass (e.g. cavity glass block) containing 0.5 ml of Solution I. The watch glass is then placed in a closed dessicator containing about 1/10 of its volume 96% ethanol. It is left there for 12 hours in an incubator oven set at 35-40 °C. This removes nearly all water through vapor exchange and leaves the nematodes in a larger volume of a mixture of glycerol and ethanol. This should not be left inside for too long or it will be flooded with ethanol. Volume should be decreased if necessary. The watch glass with nematodes is then topped up with Solution II and placed in a partly covered Petri dish to allow slow evaporation of the ethanol. It is kept in the oven for at least 3 hours at 40 °C or until all the alcohol has evaporated. The nematodes are then in pure glycerol and are transferred to a drop of glycerol on a slide ready for mounting.Nematodes are mounted alive. Many valuable observations can only be made on this type of specimen. Also, refractive structures such as the spear, head skeleton, lumen of the esophagus, excretory pore, spicules, etc. appear much more distinct than in processed specimen. This type of mount also allows a quick and preliminary identification of the nematodes, at least to the genus level, which is important when one wants to determine the composition of a nematode community in a given sample.Selected nematodes are carefully picked and transferred to a drop of water on a glass slide. Normally, three short pieces of glass fiber with thickness similar to that of the specimen are arranged radially and equidistantly from each other. This will provide support for the cover slip and will prevent the nematodes from being smashed. Once the specimen is checked, the cover slip is placed over the slide.This method is a modification of the above method, which lessens the labour in transferring the nematodes. Killing and fixing is done at the same time using -Glass slides (25 mm x 76 mm x 1 mm) and cover slips (22 x 22 mm) -Picking implements -Copper cylinder (1.5 cm diameter) and paraffin wax (MP > 60°C) or nail polish and ringer (Fig. 1) -Alcohol lamp -Ethanol for soaking glass slides and cover slips -Lacto-glycerol (mounting medium)Without support, the cover slip will exert pressure on the specimen. The specimen will either be flattened at a certain degree which will make it appear a bit more stout than its normal size or it will be completely smashed. There are many ways to support the cover slip. Previously described is the mounting of glass fibers with the same diameter as the specimen. This method is a bit labourious, however, as one needs to pick up three fragments and arrange them on the slide. The two methods described below introduce the use of a ring on the glass slide, which will not only act as support but will also confine the mounting medium at the centre of the mount.A wax ring can be made by heating the copper cylinder, dipping it in paraffin wax and introducing the melted wax onto the centre of the glass slide. The glass slide (and cover slip as well) must be previously soaked in ethanol to get rid of any grease and then wiped with clean tissue paper. Fixed nematodes are arranged in a small drop of mounting medium placed at the centre of the ring. They should not be floating. A cover slip is placed on top, and together, they are put over a hot plate (65°C) for a few seconds or until the paraffin wax melts. Melting of the wax causes the cover slip to settle down, and confines the mounting medium at the centre of the mount. Aside from cover slip support, the paraffin wax, once solidified, serves also as the sealant.A device called 'ringer' (Fig. 1) is needed in this method. A ringer consists of a rotating metal disc where the glass slide can be fixed by two clips. While holding a brush dipped in nail polish, the hand can be rested on the other disc (hand rest) so that it will not move once the ring is being made. By touching the surface of the glass slide with the brush and rotating the main disc, the nail polish is spread over, creating a ring on the glass slide. The mounting medium and the specimen are introduced in the same manner as above. The cover slip is placed and all sides and corners should be thoroughly sealed with nail polish. Labels allow organized keeping of slides and quick retrieval once needed. A glass slide sticker is usually used to provide a contrasting surface for writing information. You may indicate as much information on the label as you want. The following are the basic ones and should never be overlooked: -place and date of collection -host name and cultivar (if applicable) -identity of the specimen (once identified) -number and life stage of the specimen mounted (in case there is more than one).Wherever bananas and plantains are grown, nematodes are a potential major problem. Very fundamental for their management is the correct identification. Before any particular management strategy can be formulated, one has to determine which are the nematode pests present in the farm. Knowledge on their identity also facilitates retrieval of a huge amount of specific valuable information available in literature, thus aiding the nematologist in precisely addressing the problem.For nematologists working in diagnostic laboratories, it is a very essential skill to identify nematodes while counting them under a low magnification (not more than 100x). It is definitely impractical to mount all the nematodes present in a sample and examine them under the usual high magnification (400x or 1000x). A beginner would definitely find this a bit hard, because of the fact that most of the time, a nematode community consists of polyspecific populations and there are only few distinguishing characters clearly visible at low magnification. Identification then would rely on more obvious morphological characters.The skills involved in distinguishing genera by using only a few characters are not easily acquired let alone by reading taxonomic books and references. They develop through constant practice. For beginners, it is advisable to first examine a suspension, try to have an overview of the composition and range of the nematodes present (based on body size and shape) and then mount representative individuals on a glass slide. Viewing under high-power objectives will facilitate a more detailed examination of the different morphological characters leading to a more precise identification. Once an overview is made, one will be able to associate the identity with the specific set of characters observable in the nematodes under low magnification.Familiarity with the morphology of nematodes is very essential to identify them, whether at low or high magnifications. It helps a lot in identification if one knows to pinpoint which structures provide distinguishing characters. Because of the great diversity and uniqueness found in nematodes, the specific terms used to discuss them are defined and/or illustrated here. A simplified description of plant-parasitic nematodes, most commonly found in banana rhizospheres are presented as well.All soil nematodes are vermiform or wormlike, with the exception of the females of some genera that upon maturity become swollen (either kidney-shaped or globular). Nevertheless, they at least spend a part of their life cycle as vermiforms when they emerge from eggs.The posterior region (from anus to terminus) is called the tail, while the anterior end is called the lip or cephalic/head region. The cephalic region can be low or raised, flattened or rounded, and continuous with the body contour or offset.The cuticle is the nematode's outermost layer consisting its external body wall. This covers the entire body and intrudes in the openings of digestive, reproductive and excretory-secretory systems as well as in those of various sensory and/or secretory structures. This structure is elastic, relatively tough and more or less impermeable, and is shed off during molting.The cuticle can be smooth (as in the Adenophoreans) or annulated (as in the Secernenteans). Annulation refers to the radial incisures or striations of varying depth and spacing, which are found starting beneath the lip region down to the tail region. A smooth cuticle does not really mean absence of radial striations, but they are very fine and shallow, appearing invisible under the light microscope.Laterally, the body is generally marked by longitudinal striations or lateral field. These are longitudinal invaginations of the external layer of the cuticle, which may or may not be raised into ridges. Generally, these striations interrupt the radial striae. If the latter extend into the lateral field, it is said to be aerolated. The lateral field starts anteriorly as a narrow area/ridge and gradually broadens to become of normal width just behind the esophagus and finally ends near the tail tip. The number of lateral lines is determined at mid-body and is regarded useful in identification.Plant-parasitic nematodes are characterized by the possession of a protrusible feeding structure, called stylet (although not all stylet-bearing nematodes are necessarily plant parasites). They use their stylet to puncture their hosts and to withdraw cellular contents from them. Three distinct types of stylet are found within the plant-parasitic species: onchiostylet, odontostylet and stomatostylet.The onchiostylet is a curved, solid and needle-like tooth possessed by the members of the Order Triplonchida (e.g. Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus).The odontostylet on the other hand is hollow. It has two parts: the visible part or odontostylet and the posterior half or odontophore, which may have flanges and is much less distinct. Since the flanges of the odontostylet are often not visible at low magnifications, the stylet appears as a thin line without any obvious structure at the base. Anteriorly, the odontostylet is surrounded by a guiding ring. All dorylaimids have an odontostylet but the plant-parasitic species are confined to the genera Longidorus, Paralongidorus and Xiphinema.When properly relaxed, the nematodes assume any of the following postures or habitus: straight, C-shaped (with varying degrees of curvature) or spiral (Figure 1). For C-shaped and spiral nematodes, the tail region can easily be distinguished from the anterior region because it is always curved while the latter is more or less straight. Variations in tail shape (Figure 2) are important distinguishing characteristics between nematode genera.  The morphology of the esophagus is very diverse, so its usefulness in identification cannot be discounted. For plant-parasitic nematodes, esophagus morphology falls under two types: dorylaimoid and tylenchoid.The dorylaimoid esophagus, resembling a wine bottle, is characterized by two parts, a narrow anterior portion and a swollen posterior glandular portion.The tylenchoid esophagus on the other hand has three parts, namely an anterior corpus, which is subdivided into a pro-and metacorpus, a narrow isthmus and a basal or glandular bulb. The pump apparatus or valve is situated in the metacorpus and appears very distinct under the microscope. Within the tylenchoid type of esophagus, three variations exist in the junction of the basal bulb and the intestine. It can be non-overlapping, overlapping dorsally or overlapping ventrally.At low magnification, the vulva usually appears as a thin line perpendicular to the ventral side of the nematode. Female nematodes have one or two ovaries and therefore the vulva can be located in the middle of the body or towards the posterior end. Vulval position (V) is expressed V. It is the distance between the vulva and the anterior end as a percentage of the total length of the nematode. In nematodes with a vulva in the middle of the body, V = 50%, whereas a vulval position three quarters of the way towards the posterior end of the body would be designated as V = 75%. Vulval position can be a useful taxonomic character at both generic and species levels. For pragmatic purposes, a vulva located at mid-body implies didelphy (both the anterior and the posterior branches of the ovary are developed). On the other hand, a vulva position near the tail region generally means monodelphy (only the anterior branch is developed).Located at the ventral side, the secretory-excretory pore (S-E pore) is the opening of the S-E system. Interesting disparity can be observed in the organization of the S-E system among different nematode groups, but these are considered rather unimportant, as they are not readily observed. In practice, only the longitudinal position of the S-E pore is used for identification. Generally, the S-E pore is located a little behind the nerve-ring region, but it may be situated behind or before the nerve ring.Phasmids are chemoreceptors on the tail of the Suborder Hoplolaimina, but may also be located in the pre-anal region or erratically placed on the body. They are not always easy to see which lessens their taxonomic importance. Nevertheless, they are sometimes useful to distinguish genera within the Family Hoplolaimidae having differences in the size and location of the phasmids.The bursa or caudal alae is a male accessory genital structure. It may be adanal (just around anal region), subterminal (leptoderan) or terminal, enveloping the entire tail and not just confined to the terminal portion of the tail (peloderan). The bursa flaps may be simple, convex or modified to become lobed, pointed or rectangular. The bursa margins can also be smooth or crenate. The usefulness of this structure for identification is limited to male specimen. For many plant-parasitic nematodes, male individuals in the population are rare.The stomatostylet, like the odontostylet, is also hollow. Nematodes belonging to the Order Tylenchida have this type of stylet. It has three parts: a cone, a shaft and three basal knobs.Variations occur in the stylet length and in the size and shape of the knobs, which are helpful in recognizing a particular taxon within this order.The Rhizosphere and roots harbour a number of different nematodes, both free-living (predators and those that feed on organic matter and/or microorganisms) and plant-parasitic.While the interest of laboratories involved in nematode diagnosis are the nematodes of the latter group, it is very likely that the former are also present in the resulting suspension. Familiarity with the morphology of nematodes in both groups will guide you as to which ones should be and should not be included in the count.Five major groups (Orders) of nematodes are found in the soil:Most of the known species of nematodes parasitic to plants belong to this group. They possess a stomatostylet with very distinct knobs, and have a three-part esophagus (with median bulb or metacorpus). Exceptions are specific stages of a few species where the stomatostylet is barely visible, indicating the non-functionality of the structure.Not all tylenchids however are plant parasites. There are a number of nematodes in this group that are actually free living. These can be normally distinguished from plant-parasitic species through their weak (short and slender) stomatostylet and filiform tail.The Aphelenchida are very similar to the Tylenchida, having a stomatostylet and a threepart esophagus. However, the basic differences are in their stylet, being much weaker (with small or no knobs) in the former and in the metacarpus. Aphelenchids have a very large metacorpus, which nearly occupies the body width. Soil-inhabiting aphelenchids are usually free living. Some species however are known to be plant parasitic but are infecting aboveground parts.Most genera of the Dorylaimida are actually free living. Only three genera (Longidorus, Paralongidorus and Xiphinema) are plant parasitic and are particularly important for being vectors of plant viruses. These nematodes possess an odontostylet and have a two-part esophagus. They are also generally bigger and longer compared with the tylenchids.Rhabditida are very different from the first three groups for not possessing a stylet. Their cylindrical or cup-shaped mouth allows ingestion of bacterial cells. Their esophagus is characterized by a round basal bulb adjoining the intestine and has a distinct valvular apparatus. They may also have a median bulb like the tylenchids.Of all the soil nematodes, these nematodes are probably the easiest to distinguish. They do not have a stylet but rather possess a wide buccal cavity lined with sclerotized walls which appears very distinct even at low magnification. Often, there is a large tooth or small teeth (denticles) in the stoma wall. The esophagus is characterized by being cylindrical and muscular all throughout. Mononchids are predators, feeding on small soil animals, including nematodes.Familiarity on the range of nematode pests attacking a particular crop will also help to further narrow down possible identities of populations present in the sample. Nematode genera/ species not reported to infect a crop, say banana, can easily be dropped from the list of possibilities, thereby avoiding confusion. Identification will then be more straightforward.Among the nematodes listed above, only the endoparasites (those in the first column) are considered important. Their feeding habit causes necrosis or galls, which severely affects normal root function.Since the important nematode pests on Musa are only limited to four genera, the description below will only focus on them. Furthermore, emphasis shall be given to stages that are likely to be encountered in suspensions obtained by the usual extraction methods (Baermannfunnel or maceration-sieving). That means, description of swollen females of a few genera are not included here for the simple reason that they will not be present in the suspension.Body C-shape (exception from other species of Helicotylenchus which are spiral); stylet well developed; esophagus overlaps intestine ventrally; both branches of the ovary developed though the posterior one sometimes appears reduced; vulva located on the posterior half; tail slightly tapering, with anus marked by a slight depression; terminus annulated and hemispherical in shape (Fig. 3 a-c).  Second-stage juveniles: body straight to arcuate upon death; cephalic region generally rounded with one to four course annules, a distinct labial disc, framework slightly sclerotized; stylet slender; tail with conspicuous hyaline region, tip narrow and irregular in outline (notched appearance) (Fig. 7 a, b)Males: vermiform up to 2 mm long; lateral field with four incisures; cephalic region rounded, not sharply offset, with distinct labial disc and few (one to three) annules; stylet robust with large knobs; gland bulb ventrally overlapping intestine; tail with rounded and twisted end, spicules located near the tail end, bursa absent (Fig. 7 c, d)There are at least two species regarded important to bananas-M. incognita and M. javanica (De Waele and Davide 1998). Species identification however is complicated by extensive inter-and intraspecific morphological variations. A combination of different approaches like biochemical, cytological, differential host test and electron microscopy may be needed for accurate identification. A quick and preliminary identification however can be provided by examining the perineal pattern morphology of the females (Eisenback 1985).    2) extraction of the nematodes from infected roots 3) sterilization of the nematodes 4) transfer of the nematodes to the in-vitro plant tissues.For the mass propagation of Meloidogyne spp. on tomato plants in the soil, step 3 (sterilization) is not necessary.It will never be possible to completely sterilize the carrots, but they should be cleaned, surfacesterilized and peeled to reduce the risk that bacteria or fungi will develop in the carrot tissue. Then the carrots are cut into discs and the discs are placed into sterile Petri dishes.In order to establish a culture with as least as possible contamination, it is important to start with a clean nematode solution. Therefore, the Baermann-funnel method is the most appropriate technique to extract the nematodes from the infected roots.The infected roots are washed thoroughly with tap water and cut into small pieces. They are macerated in a kitchen blender and passed through a 40 µm sieve. The mixture of blended roots and nematodes from the sieve is placed overnight on a Baermann funnel. The next morning, the nematodes are collected from the base of the funnel and poured through a 25 µm sieve. The residue in the sieve is rinsed with tap water to eliminate bacteria, etc. The nematodes are collected from the sieve with distilled water.Actively moving, gravid female nematodes are the preferred nematodes to initiate a culture. After selection, the nematodes are transferred to sterile water. From now on, it is important to work under a laminar-flow cabinet. The nematodes should be sterilized twice: first in 0.01% HgCl 2 for 2 minutes and afterwards in 2000 ppm streptomycin sulphate overnight. The next morning, the nematodes are rinsed several times with sterile water.The carrot discs should be used not too long after preparation, before bacteria and fungi can develop. It is also recommended to use discs of different carrots for inoculation with a given population to spread the risk of contamination due to bacteria or fungi in the carrots.The nematodes are transferred to the carrot discs with a sterile micropipet. Small drops of nematode solution are placed on the margin of the carrot discs. For culture maintenance, low inoculum levels (25 nematodes or less) are used, while for mass multiplication (e.g. for use in experiments), high inoculum levels (more than 25 nematodes) are used.The Petri dishes are sealed well with parafilm, labeled (date, nematode species, origin of population, number of females) and placed in a plastic box in an incubator at 28°C.Depending on the initial inoculum and on the nematode species, the nutrients will be depleted after some weeks and the nematodes will leave the carrot discs. It becomes then necessary to subculture the nematodes onto fresh carrot discs. It is best to use these discs on which one can see many nematodes on the Petri dish around the carrot disc.The carrot discs are prepared in the same way as described before. The nematodes are extracted from the old carrot discs using the Baermann-funnel method. For the sterilization of the nematodes, the sterilization in HgCl 2 is skipped to avoid a too high pressure on the nematodes. The sterilization in streptomycin sulphate is however done as described before.The inoculation of the carrot discs with the nematodes is also done in a similar way.Growing root tips from stock cultures are transferred to new Petri dishes with autoclaved Gamborg-B5 medium: Gamborg-B5 powder including vitamins 3.292 g/L, 20 g/L sucrose, 15 g/L agar, pH = 6.2.The root tips are allowed to grow for 2 weeks before the nematodes are inoculated on the roots. Any contaminated dishes should be removed immediately.The infected roots are washed thoroughly with tap water and cut into small pieces. They are macerated in a kitchen blender in 0.12% NaOCl and passed through a 40 µm sieve. The mixture of blended roots and nematodes from the sieve is placed on a Baermann funnel. The mixture is left on the sieves for a few days, until the juveniles have hatched from the eggs. After some days, the nematodes are collected from the base of the funnel and poured through a 25 µm sieve. The residue in the sieve is rinsed with tap water to eliminate bacteria, etc. The nematodes are collected from the sieve with distilled water.The procedure is the same as for the culture of R. similis and Pratylenchus spp. on carrot discs, but actively moving juveniles instead of females are used to initiate a culture. After selection, the nematodes are transferred to sterile water. From now on, it is important to work under a laminar-flow cabinet. The nematodes should be sterilized twice: first in 0.01% HgCl 2 for 2 minutes and afterwards in 2000 ppm streptomycin sulphate overnight. The next morning, the nematodes are rinsed several times with sterile water.It is recommended to use Petri dishes of different root stocks for inoculation with a given population to spread the risk of contamination due to bacteria or fungi.The nematodes are transferred to the growing tips of the transformed tomato roots with a sterile micropipet. The Petri dishes are sealed well with parafilm, labeled (date, nematode species, origin of population) and placed in a plastic box in an incubator at 28°C.Depending on the initial inoculum, the nutrients will become depleted after some weeks and subculturing will be necessary. New cultures of transformed tomato roots are prepared from stock cultures as described before. Instead of extracting the juveniles from the tomato roots, egg masses are removed from the old roots with a scalpel and transferred to a new growing root tip on a new Petri dish.Pots are filled with sieved, sterilized soil and placed on dishes. The soil is watered up to field capacity. In the middle of each pot, a tomato seed is planted and allowed to grow for 2-3 weeks before inoculation.Galls and egg masses are macerated in a kitchen blender in 0.12% NaOCl and passed through a 100 µm sieve placed in bowl, to separate the eggs and juveniles that will pass through the sieve from the root tissue. The content of the bowl is poured through a 25 µm sieve. The eggs and juveniles which are retained on the sieve are rinsed with tap water and collected from the sieve with distilled water.The suspension with the nematodes is brought to a known volume with distilled water. The number of eggs and juveniles in a subsample is determined under the microscope and the nematode population in the total suspension is calculated. The suspension is diluted to about 5000 eggs and juveniles in a few ml of distilled water. About 5000 eggs and juveniles in a few ml of water are inoculated in 3-4 holes adjacent to the base of each plant. After inoculation, the soil is lightly watered.Every 8 weeks, the roots of the inoculated tomato plants are cut into small pieces and placed around the roots of newly grown tomato plants.Note: For all the procedures described above, all the equipment should be cleaned after use, first with ethanol (to kill remaining nematodes) and afterwards with soap and water.Plant-tissue culture is a generic description of various techniques encompassing the in-vitro culture of embryos, organs, tissues, cells and protoplasts. These techniques involve the culture of isolated plant parts in artificial medium under sterile growing conditions.The tissue-culture techniques established for banana include shoot and meristem culture, callus culture, somatic embryogenesis and cell-suspension culture and protoplast culture.The micro-propagation work can be facilitated with the strict selection of planting materials at the onset the production cycle. Suckers can be collected from field genebanks, farmers' fields or isolated nursery areas. 1) Prepare the materials needed for collection, pack the following things: a) net bags b) marker pen c) record book d) plastic labels, string twine, pencil e) knife f) desuckering bar 2) Check for appropriate source mats. Check if there are symptoms of virus infections.3) Check which sucker to collect. The suckers may range from peepers to sword suckers to maiden suckers. 4) Dig around the suckers to expose the point of connection to the main stem or the other suckers. 5) Use the desuckering bar to separate the sucker from the main stem. Make a clean excision.Avoid cracking the corm of the sucker during collection. For small suckers, particularly peepers, you may use a machete or appropriate knife. Make sure the cutting edge is sharp. Again, avoid making cracks during harvesting. 6) Collect at least two suckers from one plant source for both laboratory and nursery farm for future sucker needs. The culture medium is based on Damasco and Barba (1984). You may compare this medium with other published culture media. The components of the medium are listed in Table 1.Table 1. Components of the banana shoot proliferation medium (at pH 5.7).1) Prepare the planting material: a) Remove the suckers from the bags. Wash in running water to remove any adhering soil and dirt. b) Trim leaf bracts and corm tissues. The size would be dependent on the type (buttons, peeper, sword) collected for introduction to culture. The size should be sufficient to protect the growing point from bleaching. 2) Transfer the shoot into a container or plastic which is large enough to accommodate both shoot and disinfectant. When using a big container, place a wad of cotton to ensure complete wetting of the whole shoot. 3) Immerse the shoot in pure commercial bleach (5.25% sodium hypochlorite) for 30-45 minutes, depending on the size of plant material. 4) Decant the sterilant from the container taking care not to expose the shoots. 5) Bring the shoots (in the container) to the inoculation chamber.1) Prepare the inoculation chamber (sterile air bench). Wipe the chamber thoroughly with 95% ethyl alcohol. 2) Arrange materials in the inoculation chamber.3) Ensure that the inoculation chamber is not crowded with too many cultures and glasswares to facilitate movement during excision work. 4) Place instruments, including scalpels and forceps in a coupling jar or wide-mouth bottle with 95% ethyl alcohol. During the inoculation activity, always flame instruments before use.1) Wash your hands with soap and water and wipe arms and hands with 70% ethyl alcohol.2) Take out one shoot at a time from the container. Transfer to aseptic working surface (Petri dish, steel dish or sterile paper). 3) While holding the shoot with the forceps, carefully cut off the outer leaf sheath that comes in contact with the disinfectant. 4) Transfer to a fresh working surface and continue cutting until the shoot measures 1 x 1 cm with corm tissue as thin as possible. 5) Transfer the shoot to a fresh working surface. 6) Cut the shoot into quarters longitudinally, through the centre. 7) Inoculate each quarter onto a solid culture medium, which allows proliferation.1) Keep the shoot cultures in an air-conditioned room under a 16-hour photoperiod 40 µE/m 2 s -1 (provided by two 40-watt fluorescent tubes). 2) Observe the cultures for contamination. Discard contaminated cultures as soon as contamination is noted. 3) Observe for browning and bulging of corm tissue, greening of leaf tissues and growth of new shoots during the first month of culture. 4) Note when shoots that come out from the apex of the leaf axis are almost 2 cm in height.Your cultures are then ready for their first subculture. Propagation can be achieved in many ways. The simplest technique is to induce the established in-vitro plant to produce new shoots at a faster rate within the culture vessel. This technique consists of separating shoots, cutting them up if they have grown bigger than optimum, transferring the shoot or sections of the shoot to fresh culture medium and again going through the same cycle of activities for another subculture. This step is repeated for seven to eight cycles. 1) Cut the growing shoot from the initial explant before it extends beyond 2 cm in length. Note: Overgrown shoots give less proliferation. When shoots have grown beyond 2 cm, make a longitudinal incision through the apex of the growing shoot. 2) Subculture onto fresh half-strength Murashige and Skoog's medium supplemented with 5 mg/l BAP and 100 ml/l coconut water for multiplication or any recommended culture medium for shoot proliferation. We prefer medium without auxins because nubbins form earlier and at high frequencies when the proliferating medium contains both auxin and cytokinin. 3) After 1 month, divide the shoot cluster and transfer to fresh culture medium. 4) Subculture every 3-4 weeks until the desired number of shoots have been obtained. 5) Make an inventory of the number of proliferated shoots. 6) When sufficient shoots have proliferated as nuclear stock, proceed with rooting.Prepare the rooting medium presented in Table 2. Use within a week of preparation for best results. 1) Store shoots longer than the 3-4 week proliferation cycle until small plantlets are formed.2) Separate individual shoots from a cluster of shoots and inoculate them onto rooting medium. 3) Expect shoots to form roots in 3-4 weeks. 4) Plant out bananas in soil when they have 3-4 expanded leaves and are well rooted.The establishment of tissue-cultured plants in the nursery makes or breaks a micropropagation system. Precaution should be taken to ensure maximum survival among pottedout tissue-cultured plants.The tissue-cultured plants are exposed to high humidity, generally low light intensities or poor quality of light. Unless acclimatized to nursery conditions or cultured on medium which prepares the plants for more rigorous environments, the plantlets may become fragile, and survival may be poor. disregarded by some nurseries by avoiding the use of contaminated soil or by drenching the soil with fungicide). 3) Moisten the potting mix. 4) Put sufficient quantity of potting mix into a suitable container with sufficient drainage holes.1) Add tap water to the culture, sufficient to cover the roots. Shake the vessel to loosen the agar medium. 2) Pull out the plants gently from the culture medium with a pair of forceps or with fingers.3) Wash roots thoroughly with plain water to remove adhering culture medium. 4) Dip the roots in a fungicide solution before potting.1) Water the potting mix thoroughly. Allow water to drain, leaving the mixture moist but not sopping wet. 2) Make a hole in the potting mix with a clean stick or pointed tool. The hole should be large enough to accommodate the plantlet. 3) Position the plantlet into the hole. Press the soil around the base of the plant.1) Protect the plants from excessive light during the first 2 weeks. Increase the light intensity when recovered from potting stresses. 2) To water, mist the plantlets during the 1 st week and apply overhead watering done daily or as needed thereafter, until the 4 th week of nursery cultivation. Adjust the watering scheme to ensure that the soil is not too dry or wet.Note: Control watering. The frequency of watering is dependent on the choice of potting mix, relative humidity, light, wind and temperature. 3) Fertilize the plants every 2 weeks using a foliar complete fertilizer. Use the recommended rate for seedlings. 4) Plants are ready for field planting about 2 to 3 months from potting.Most of the research conducted worldwide to control nematodes on banana has been on chemicals, despite the high costs of nematicide applications and the negative consequences resulting from residue accumulation in the environment (Vilardebo and Guerot 1976;Buddenhagen 1987;Pinochet 1986). The use of resistant varieties is now recognized more and more as a valuable alternative.For the description of the relationship between a host plant and nematodes, the terminology of Bos and Parlevliet (1995) is used. Resistance/susceptibility on the one hand and tolerance/ sensitivity on the other hand are defined as independent, relative qualities of a host plant based on comparisons between genotypes. A host plant may either suppress (resistance) or allow (susceptibility) nematode development and reproduction. It may suffer either little injury, even when quite heavily infected with nematodes (tolerance), or much injury, even when relatively lightly infected with nematodes (sensitivity).Although naturally occurring nematode resistance and tolerance has long been exploited for many agricultural crops (De Waele 1996), this method of nematode management has so far been neglected in bananas. This is despite the evidence, albeit limited, that nematode resistance and tolerance sources are present in the Musa genepool (Pinochet 1996). The development of nematode-resistant banana genotypes is extremely difficult because of the genetic complexity of the crop, its low fertility and the long period required for the nematological evaluation of crossings (Pinochet 1988a). There have been no reports to date of a transgenic banana that is either less susceptible or less sensitive to nematode pathogens (De Waele 2000).It is evident that screening of all kinds of Musa genotypes will be an important activity in order to develop a more integrated pest management system that deals with the nematode problem in a more environmentally sustainable way.In screening experiments, replications should range between 8 and 15. To minimize variation in ambient conditions, the replications should be arranged in a completely randomized design, a randomized complete block design or a split-plot design.In order to be able to compare results between screening experiments, it is recommended to include at least one, preferably more, reference genotype(s):Grand naine (ITC.1256): highly susceptible to all nematodes Gros Michel (ITC.1122): moderately resistant to Radopholus similis Yangambi km 5 (ITC.1123): highly resistant to R. similis Pisang jari buaya (ITC.0312): completely resistant to R. similisThe method described here is modified after Pinochet (1988b), Sarah et al. (1992) and Speijer and De Waele (1997).* Associate Scientist and Technical Consultant, International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.Screening experiments in pots in the greenhouse will only allow observations to be made for a relatively short period (2-3 months) of the crop cycle. During this period, the susceptibility of genotypes can be determined by assessing the nematode reproduction rate. If uninoculated controls are included in the screening, some observations can be made on the sensitivity of the genotypes.Either rooted in-vitro plantlets, ready for transfer to in-vivo conditions, or suckers of uniform size, which are peeled immediately after detaching from the mother plant and immersed in water at 55°C for 15 minutes, can be used as starting material.They are planted in well-draining pots filled with sieved, sterilized soil, placed on dishes.The soil is watered up to field capacity. The first weeks, the pots can be placed under a plastic or styrofoam cover for adaptation to the new environment (not necessary for suckers).The cover can be gradually opened after 2 weeks.Four weeks after planting, 8-10 plants of each genotype are inoculated with nematodes (see next step), while another 8-10 plants are kept nematode-free as control plants.The pots should be labeled (genotype, inoculated or control) and arranged in a completely randomized design or randomized complete block design.For R. similis and Pratylenchus spp., nematodes are extracted from carrot-discs cultures. It is best to use those carrot discs on which you can see many nematodes on the Petri dish around the carrot disc. For Meloidogyne spp., nematodes are extracted from the roots of tomato plants on which you can see many galls. In both cases, the maceration-sieving technique can be used.The suspension with the nematodes is brought to a known volume with distilled water. The number of nematodes and eggs in a subsample is counted and the nematode population in the total suspension is calculated. The suspension is diluted to about 1000 vermiform nematodes (for R. similis and Pratylenchus spp.) or to about 5000 eggs and juveniles (for Meloidogyne spp.) in a few ml of distilled water.This inoculum is inoculated in 3-4 holes, about 3 cm deep, into the soil adjacent to the base of each plant. After inoculation, the soil is lightly watered.During the whole experiment, the plants should be watered as needed and fertilized with a nutrient solution every 2-4 weeks.The nematodes should be allowed to grow for one or two generations on the plants. For experiments with R. similis and Meloidogyne spp., collect data at 8 weeks after inoculation; for experiments with P. coffeae, at 10 weeks after inoculation.First, general information about the experiment should be written down, such as soil type, date of transfer to the greenhouse, date of inoculation, initial inoculum, fertilizer application, climatic data, etc.Then, the plant parameters are measured. Any visible disorders are written down. The plants are removed from the pots and the roots are washed with tap water. The roots are cut off from the corm. The plant height, girth of the pseudostem at the base, shoot weight, weight of the root system and number of healthy leaves (> 70% of the leaf surface healthy) are measured.The root damage is assessed: number of dead and functional roots, the general health condition of the secondary and tertiary roots, the root necrosis (for root-lesion nematodes) and the root galling (for root-knot nematodes).Finally, the nematode reproduction is measured. The egg masses of Meloidogyne spp. are stained with 0.15 g/L phloxine B for 15 minutes and counted under the stereo microscope.The vermiform nematodes are extracted from the roots using the maceration-sievingtechnique. A subsample is counted under the microscope and the total nematode population per given amount of roots and for the whole root system is calculated.Screening experiments in the field have some advantages over screening experiments in the greenhouse. They will allow observations to be made during the whole crop cycle and subsequent ratoon crops. During this period, the susceptibility of the genotypes can be determined by assessing the nematode reproduction rate. If uninoculated controls are included in the screening, observations can be made on the sensitivity of the genotypes, including at the level of yield. On the other hand, screening experiments in the field are more time consuming and require more space and financial input.The same materials, either rooted in-vitro plantlets or suckers of uniform size, can be used as starting material. They are planted in well-draining polystyrene bags filled with sieved, sterilized soil. The soil is watered up to field capacity. The first weeks, the bags can be placed under a plastic or styrofoam cover for adaptation to the new environment (not necessary for suckers). The cover can be gradually opened after 2 weeks.A field with a good initial infestation should be selected. The infestation level of the field can be assessed by taking root samples (not soil samples) of the crop grown on the field. The site should preferably be infested with a single nematode species, though this will seldom be the case; the population should be at least 100 nematodes per gram of fresh roots.The land should be cleared of any previously grown crops and prepared for the new planting.The planting holes should be made before the plantlets are transferred to the field. A splitplot design, with main-plot factor = infection (treated or not treated with nematicides) and sub-plot factor = genotype, can be followed. Nematicides can be applied to the planting holes of the control plants to eradicate the nematodes present in the soil.It is best to transfer the plants in the early morning or late afternoon, to avoid the heat of the day. The plants should be watered just before planting. The bags should be removed carefully, in order not to disturb the ball of earth around the root system of the plants. Right after planting, the plants should be watered again. They should be watered and fertilized as needed during the whole experiment. The control plants should be treated with nematicides every few months to eradicate the present nematodes.General information about the experiment should be written down, such as soil type, date of transfer to the greenhouse and the field, initial infestation, irrigation, fertilizer application, climatic data, etc.Data can be collected at several times: at a specific time after planting (e.g. at 6 months after planting), at shooting (emergence of flower) and at harvest; you can also collect data from the ratoon crops.The plant parameters are measured. Any visible disorders are written down. The plant height, girth of the pseudostem at 50 cm above ground level and the number of healthy leaves (> 70% of the leaf surface healthy) are measured. The date of shooting and date of harvest is written down. At harvest, the bunch weight, number of hands and number of fingers are measured.Samples are collected from an excavation of 20 x 20 x 20 cm 3 at the base of the mother plant. All banana roots in this soil volume are collected and placed with a handful of soil in a plastic bag. Do not forget to label the plastic bag.The root damage is assessed: number of dead and functional roots, the general health condition of the secondary and tertiary roots, the root necrosis (for root-lesion nematodes) and the root galling (for root-knot nematodes).Finally, the nematode reproduction is measured. The egg masses of Meloidogyne spp. are stained with 0.15 g/l phloxine B for 15 minutes and counted under the stereo microscope. The vermiform nematodes are extracted from the roots using the maceration-sieving technique. A subsample is counted under the microscope and the total nematode population per given amount of roots is calculated.EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS TO BE TAKEN TO THE FIELD measuring tape ladder knife/machete spade hand trowelSite selection and general information 1. Select a site where you will collect samples. 2. Collect information on the history of the site, the age of the plantation, the size or scale of the plantation, the cropping system, irrigation, the application of fertilizers and pesticides and other management practices, as well as climatic data and other useful information. Use Form 1 to write down any information about the site. Plant parameters 1. Select 3-5 plants of the same cultivar at a growth stage somewhere between flowering and bunching. 2. Measure the plant height, the girth of the pseudostem at 50 cm above the ground, the number of healthy leaves (> 70% of leaf surface healthy), the number of hands and the number of fingers. If the number of fingers is difficult to count, just count the number of fingers on the third hand and the number of fingers on the second-to-last hand, and later calculate the total number of fingers using the formula of Turner et al.(1998). Use Form 2 to write down the plant parameters. sink with running water stereo microscope (and/or light microscope) kitchen scale (accuracy 0.1 g) scale (accuracy 100 g) camera tissue paper pair of scissors knife watch with seconds hand beaker distilled w ater phloxine B glass bottles with lid 5 ml or 10 ml pipet 2 mm, 250 µm, 100 µm, 40 µm, 25 µm sieve bowl on which the sieves can be placed counting dish (or counting slide) 2 pails or basins data collection forms + pencil Root-damage assessment 1. Wash the roots with tap water and pat them dry on tissue paper. 2. Divide the roots into dead roots and functional roots. Dead roots are shriveled and no healthy root tissue is left. Count the number of roots in each category and calculate the percentage of dead roots. 3. Score the general health condition of the secondary and tertiary roots. 4. Estimate the root galling. 5. Select at random five functional primary roots, at least 10 cm long. Cut the selected roots to 10-cm pieces and slice the roots lengthw ise. Score one half of each of the roots for the percentage of the root cortex show ing necrosis. The maximum root necrosis per root half can be 20%, giving a maximum root necrosis of 100% for the five root halves together (Figure 1).Use Form 1 to w rite dow n the root-damage data.Staining and counting of the egg-laying females 1. Cut the roots in 1 cm pieces and take a subsample of 5 g.Stain the egg masses by immersing the roots in 0.15 g/l phloxine B for 15 minutes. 3. Count the number of egg-laying females under the stereo microscope.Use form 2 to w rite dow n the number of egg-laying females.Note: The counting of the egg-laying females can also be done after the next step (extraction of nematodes).The stained roots can be stored in distilled w ater in the refrigerator at 4 °C. 1. Cut tissue paper to fit the Baermann sieves and place it on the sieves. 2. Pour the mixture of nematodes w ith fine soil particles on the Baermann sieves (on the tissue paper) and place the Baermann sieves on dishes/funnels. 3. Add distilled water to the dishes/funnels until it just covers the mixture of roots and nematodes. Do not add too much w ater: it is the intention that the water w ill evaporate so that the mixture becomes somew hat dry, w hich w ill make the nematodes migrate dow nwards towards the remaining w ater (below the tissue paper and sieve openings). 4. Leave the mixture on the sieves for 1-2 nights.Next morning: 5. Collect the nematodes from the bottom of the dishes or the base of the funnels in a beaker. 6. Pour the suspension w ith the nematodes through a 25 µm sieve.7. Rinse the residue on the sieve w ith tap water (to eliminate bacteria, etc.). 8. Collect the nematodes from the sieve w ith distilled w ater in a beaker.Extraction of the nematodes from the soil 1. Mix thoroughly g soil in a pail or basin half-filled w ith water. The nematodes become suspended in the water. 2. After about 20-30 sec ( depending on the soil texture), pour the water through a 250 µm sieve into a second pail or basin. Heavy soil particles remain in the first pail and large particles of debris are caught by the sieve. The nematodes pass through the sieve. 3. Stir the muddy solution in the second pail and allow to stand for 20-30 sec. 4. Pour the waste with nematodes through a 100 µm sieve on top of a 40 µm sieve. Percentage of dead roots (%) RH:Root health assessment of secondary and tertiary roots: 1 -all healthy 2 -most healthy 3 -most dead 4 -all dead RG:Root galling: 0 -no galling 1 -trace infections w ith a few small galls 2 -less than 25% of the roots galled 3 -25-50% of the roots galled 4 -50-75% of the roots galled 5 -more than 75% of the roots galled RN:Root necrosis (%) = percentage of necrosis observed on five 10 cm pieces of roots • Mounting of glass fibers w ith the same diameter as the specimen:Arrange three sho rt pieces of glass fiber w ith thickness similar to that of the specimen radially and equidistantly from each other as a support for the nematodes.• Using paraffin w ax (after de Maeseneer and D' Herde, 1963):1. Soak the glass slide (and cover slip as w ell) in ethanol and w ipe w ith clean tissue paper to get rid of the grease. 2. Heat the copper cylinder, dip it in paraffin w ax and introduce the melted wax onto the center of the glass slide.• Using nail polish:1. Clip the glass slide on the rotating disc.2. Dip the brush in nail polish.3. Rest your hand on the stationary disc (hand rest) so that it w ill not move once the ring is being made. 4. Touch the surface of the glass slide w ith the brush and rotate the main disc, so that the nail polish is spread over, creating a ring on the glass slide.Stationary disc/ hand rest Disc clipMaterials needed glass slides (25 x 76 x 1 mm) cover slips (22 x 22 mm) picking implements: bamboo splinters or coconut midrib sharpened to have a fine point, eyelashes or cactus spines mounted on needles w ith water resistant glue, fine insect needle (#00) w ith hooked tip, etc. copper cylinder (1.5 cm diameter) and paraffin w ax (melting point > 60 o C) OR nail polish and ringer (Fig . 1) alcohol lamp ethanol for soaking glass slides and cover slip lacto-glycerol (mounting medium) Temporary mounts 1. Carefully pick selected (live) nematodes and transfe r them to a drop of water on a glass slide. 2. Mount three glass fibers as described above.3. Check the specimen and place the cover slip over the slide.Semi-permanent mounts• Lactophenol:Transfer fixed nematodes to a drop of stained or unstained lactophenol on a glass slide, w hich has been heated to 60 o C. Caution: hazardous fumes from lactophenol! Formulation: phenol crystals 1 part (caution! hazardous chemical) lactic acid 1 part g l y c e r i n e 2 p a r t s distilled w ater 1 part• Lacto-glycerol:Basically the same as above except for the exclusion of the hazardous chemical, phenol. Formulation: equal parts by volume of lactic acid, glycerol and distilled w ater.• If a w ax ring is used: arrange fixed nematodes in a small drop of mounting medium placed at the center of the wax ring, place a cover slip on top and put over a hot plate (65 o C) for a few seconds or until the paraffin w ax melts. Melting of the wax causes the cover slip to settle dow n and confines the mounting medium at the center of the mount; aside from being the cover slip support, the paraffin wax, once solidified, serves also as the sealant.• If a nail polish ring is used: introduce the mounting medium and the specimen in the same manner as above, place the cover slip and seal all sides and corners thoroughly w ith nail polish.Labeling 1. Use a glass-slide sticker to provide a contrasting surface for w riting information.2. Indicate as much information on the labels as possible: place and date of collection identity of the specimen (once identified) collector's name host name and cultivar (if applicable) number and life stages of the specimen mounted.CULTURE AND MASS PROPAGATION OF RADOPHOLUS SIMILIS AND PRATYLENCHUS SPP. Next morning: 10. The nematodes w ill have settled on the bottom of the test tube, visible as a w hite pellet. With a sterile pipet, remove the streptomycin sulphate solution from above the nematodes. 11. Add fresh sterile w ater to the nematodes w ith a sterile pipet. 12. Wait until the nematodes have settled again to the bottom of the test tube (wait long enough), remove the water from above the nematodes and add again fresh sterile w ater w ith a sterile pipet. Repeat this two to three times.Inoculation of the carrot discs 1. Prepare micropipets: Press the tips of two sterile Pasteur pipets against each other in a flame. When the glass tips melt, pull the pipets quickly away from each other, stretching the tips. Cut the ends of the pipets w ith a sterile scalpel to obtain a microopening. 2. Transfer w ith a sterile pipet a drop of the sterilized nematodes from the test tube to a sterile Petri dish and add sterile w ater. 3. Suck nematodes from the water w ith a sterile micropipet and inoculate them on the margin of a carrot disc: for culture maintenance, use low inoculum levels (= 25 nematodes) for mass multiplication (e.g. fo r use in experiments), use high inoculum levels (> 25 nematodes). 4. Seal the Petri dishes w ell w ith Parafilm. 5. Label the Petri dishes (date, nematode species, origin of population, number of females). 6. Place the Petri dishes back in the plastic box and place the box in the incubator at 28 °C. Note: Use discs of different carrots for inoculation w ith a given nematode population, to spread the risk of contamination due to bacteria in the carrotsDepending on the initial inoculum and on the nematode species, the nutrients w ill become depleted after some weeks and the nematodes w ill leave the carrot discs. Use these discs on w hich you can see many nematodes on the Petri dish around the carrot disc for subculturing .As described for first culture .Extraction of the nematodes from the old carrot discs 1. Cut tissue paper to fit a Baermann sieve and place it on the sieve. 2. Rinse the Petri dishes w ith distilled water and pour the w ater through a 25 µm sieve. 3. Collect the nematodes w hich are retained on the sieve with distilled water in a beaker (fraction 1). 4. Put the carrots in the kitchen blender w ith distilled water and macerate the carrots three times for 10 sec at 5 sec intervals. 5. Pour the macerate suspension through a 100-µm sieve placed in a bow l, to separate the nematodes that w ill pass through the sieve from the carrot tissue. 6. Rinse the residue in the sieve w ith tap water and collect the water w ith the nematodes in the bow l. 7. Pour the content of the bow l through a 25-µm sieve 8. Collect the nematodes w hich are retained on the sieve with distilled water in a beaker (fraction 2). 9. Pour fractions 1 and 2 on the Baermann sieve (on the tissue paper) and place the Baermann sieve on the dish/funnel. 10. Add distilled w ater to the dish/funnel until it just covers the tissue paper. Do not add too much w ater: it is the intention that the water w ill evaporate so that the tissue paper becomes somewhat dry, w hich w ill make the nematodes migrate dow nwards towards the remaining w ater (below the tissue paper and sieve openings). 11. Leave the nematodes on the sieve for 1 night.Next morning: 12. Collect the nematodes from the bottom of the dish or the base of the funnel in a beaker w ith distilled water. 13. Pour the suspension w ith the nematodes through a 25-µm sieve. 14. Rinse the residue on the sieve w ith distilled w ater (to eliminate bacteria, etc.). 15. Collect the nematodes from the sieve w ith distilled w ater in a beaker.The picking of the nematodes is not necessary anymore since you have already a pure monoculture. The sterilization in HgCl 2 is also skipped to avoid a very high pressure on the nematodes. Under the laminar flow and using the microscope: 1. Pour the nematodes into a counting dish. 2. Transfer the nematodes w ith a sterile pipet to sterile water in a test tube. 3. Prepare streptomycin sulphate solution (6000 ppm or 6 mg streptomycin sulphate per ml sterile w ater) in a sterile test tube. 4. Add w ith a sterile pipet 1 ml 6000 ppm streptomycin sulphate solution per 2 ml nematode solution (thus obtaining a final concentration of 2000 ppm streptomycin sulphate) 5. Leave the solution in the sealed test tube for 1 night. The nematodes w ill settle on the bottom of the test tube (visible as a white pellet). Next morning: 6. Remove the streptomycin sulphate solution from above the nematodes w ith a sterile pipet. 7. Add fresh sterile water to the nematodes w ith a sterile pipet. 8. Wait until the nematodes have settled again to the bottom of the test tube (w ait long enough), remove the water from above the nematodes and add again fresh sterile water w ith a sterile pipet. Repeat this two to three times.Inoculation of the carrot discs with the nematodes As described for first culture.Note: All the equipment should be cleaned after use, first w ith ethanol (to kill remaining nematodes) and afterwards w ith soap and water. . Add w ith a sterile pipet 1 ml 6000-ppm streptomycin sulphate solution per 2 ml nematode solution (thus obtaining a final concentration of 2000 ppm streptomycin sulphate). 10. Leave the solution in the sealed test tube for 1 night. The nematodes w ill settle on the bottom (visible as a w hite pellet) Next morning: 11. Remove the streptomycin sulphate solution from above the juveniles w ith a sterile pipet. 12. Add fresh sterile w ater to the juveniles w ith a sterile pipet. 13. Wait until the juveniles have settled again to the bottom of the test tube (w ait long enough), remove the water from above the juveniles and add again fresh sterile water w ith a sterile pipet. Repeat this two to three times.Inoculation of the transformed tomato roots with the juveniles 1. Pour the sterilized juveniles into a sterile Pet ri dish.2. Suck nematodes from the water w ith a sterile micropipet and inoculate them on the grow ing tips of the transformed tomato roots. 3. Seal the Petri dishes w ell w ith parafilm. 4. Label the Petri dishes (date, nematode species, origin of population). 5. Place the Petri dishes back in the plastic box and place the box in the incubator at 28 °C.Depending on the initial inoculum, the nut rients w ill become depleted after some weeks.Preparation of the transformed tomato roots As described for first culture.Inoculation of the transformed tomato roots with egg masses With a scalpel, remove an egg mass containing eggs and/or juveniles from an old root and transfer the egg mass to a new grow ing root tip on a new Petri dish.For mass propagation of Meloidogyne spp. fo r use in experiments, the nematodes must be multiplied on tomato plants in the soil.Preparation of the tomato plants 1. Sieve the soil through a 2 mm sieve and sterilize it . 2. Fill pots w ith the sterilized soil and place them on dishes. 3. Water the soil up to field capacity. 4. Make a hole in the middle of each pot. 5. Place one seed in each hole and fill the hole w ith soil. 6. Grow the plants for 2-3 weeks before inoculation.Extraction of nematodes from transformed tomato roots 1. Transfer galls and egg masses to a kitchen blender w ith 0.12% NaOCl and macerate them for 10 sec. 2. Pour the macerate suspension through a 100 µm sieve placed in a bow l, to separate the eggs and juveniles that w ill pass through the sieve from the root tissue. 3. Rinse the residue in the sieve w ith tap water and collect the water w ith the eggs and juveniles in the bow l. 4. Pour the content of the bow l through a 25 µm sieve. 5. Collect the eggs and juveniles w hich are retained on the sieve with distilled water in a beaker. 2. Trim leaf bracts and corm tissues. The size is dependent on the type (buttons, peeper, sword) collected for int roduction to culture, and should be sufficient to protect the grow ing point from bleaching. 3. Transfer the shoot into a container or plastic which is large enough to accommodate both shoot and disinfectant. When using a big container, place a wad of cotton to ensure complete wetting of the w hole shoot. 4. Immerse the shoot in pure commercial bleach (5.25% sodium hypochlorite) fo r 30-45 minutes, depending on the size of plant material. 5. Decant the sterilant from the container taking care not to expose the shoots. 6. Bring the shoots (in the container) to the inoculation chamber. Preparation of plant material 1. Start with rooted in-vitro plantlets, ready for transfer to in-vivo conditions. For suckers, use suckers of uniform size , w hich are peeled immediately after detaching from the motherplant and are immersed in water at 55 °C for 15 minutes. 2. Sieve the soil through a 2 mm sieve and sterilize it . 3. Fill pots w ith the sterilized soil and place them on dishes. 4. Water the soil up to field capacity. 5. Make a hole in the middle of each pot. 6. Place an in-vitro plantlet (or sucker) in each hole and fill the hole w ith soil. 7. Place the pots under a plastic or styrofoam cover for adaptation to the new environment (not necessary for suckers). Gradually open the cover after 2 w eeks. 8. Four w eeks after planting, inoculate 8-10 plants of each genotype w ith nematodes (see next step), w hile keeping another 8-10 plants nematode-free as control plants. 9. Label all the pots (genotype, inoculated or control) and arra nge them in a randomized complete block design.Extraction and inoculation w ith nematodes 1. Use carrot discs on w hich you can see many nematodes on the Petri dish around the carrot disc. 2. Rinse the Petri dishes w ith distilled water and pour the w ater through a 25 µm sieve.3. Collect the nematodes w hich are retained on the sieve with distilled water in a beaker (fraction 1). 4. Put the carrots in the kitchen blender with distilled water and macerate the carrots three times for 10 sec at 5 sec intervals. 5. Pour the macerate suspension through a 100 µm sieve placed in a bow l, to separate the nematodes that w ill pass through the sieve from the carrot tissue. 6. Rinse the residue in the sieve w ith tap water and collect the water w ith the nematodes in the bow l. 7. Pour the content of the bow l through a 25 µm sieve.8. Collect the nematodes w hich are retained on the sieve with distilled water in the beaker, together w ith fraction 1. 9. Bring the suspension w ith the nematodes to a know n volume w ith distilled water. 10. Homogenize the nematode suspension by blow ing air through it w ith a pipet and take a subsample of 5 ml and put it in a counting dish (or 1-2 ml in a counting slide). 11. Count the eggs and vermiform nematodes in the counting dish under a stereo microscope (or in the counting slide under a light microscope) 12. Calculate the nematode population in the total suspension. 13. Dilute the suspension to about 1000 vermifo rm nematodes in a few ml of distilled water. 14. Make 3-4 holes, about 3 cm deep, into the soil adjacent to the base of each plant. 15. Homogenize the nematode suspension by blowing air through it w ith a pipet and inoculate about 1,000 vermiform nematodes in a few ml of water into the holes 16. Fill the holes w ith soil. 17. Water the soil lightly. 18. During the w hole experiment, w ater the plants as needed and fertilize them w ith a nutrient solution every 2-4 weeks.For experiments w ith R. similis, collect data at 8 weeks after inoculation; for expe riments w ith P. coffeae, collect data at 10 weeks after inoculation.Use Form 1 to w rite dow n any general info rmation about the experiment.Plant parameters 1. Write down any visible disorders. 2. Gently remove the plant from the pot and shake off the soil from the roots.  for the five root halves together (Figure 1). Use Form 3 to w rite dow n the root-damage data.Extraction and counting of the nematodes from the roots of the inoculated plants 1. Cut the roots in 1 cm pieces and take a subsample of 10 g. 2. Put the roots in the kitchen blender w ith tap water and macerate them three times for 10 sec at 5 sec interval.3. Pour the macerate suspension through a 250 µm, 100 µm and 40 µm sieve.4. Rinse the residue in the 250 µm and 100 µm sieves with tap water. 5. Collect the nematodes from the 40 µm sieve w ith distilled w ater in a beaker. 6. Dilute the suspension w ith distilled w ater to 200 ml and pour it in a labeled glass bottle. 7. Homogenize the nematode suspension by blow ing air through it w ith a pipet. 8. Take a subsample of 5 ml and put it in a counting dish (o r 1-2 ml in a counting slide). 9. Count the nematodes (males, females, juveniles) and eggs in the counting dish under the stereo microscope (or in the counting slide under the light microscope). 10. Calculate the nematode population per 10 g of fresh roots. Use Form 4 to w rite dow n the nematode count data.  Root necrosis (%) = percentage of necrosis observed on the section of five 10-cm pieces of roots Homogenize the nematode suspension by blow ing air through it w ith a pipet and take a subsample of 5 ml and put it in a counting dish (or 1-2 ml in a counting slide), 8. Count the juveniles and eggs in the counting dish under the stereo microscope (or in the counting slide under the light microscope). 9. Calculate the nematode population per 10 g of fresh roots. Preparation of plant material 1. Start w ith rooted in-vitro plantlets, ready for transfer to in-vivo conditions. For suckers, use suckers of uniform size, w hich are peeled immediately after detaching from the mother plant and are immersed in water at 55 °C for 15 minutes. 2. Sieve the soil through a 2 mm sieve and sterilize it . 3. Fill bags w ith the sterilized soil. 4. Water the soil up to field capacity. 5. Make a hole in the middle of each bag. 6. Place an in-vitro plantlet (or sucker) in each hole and fill the hole w ith soil. 7. Place the bags under a plastic or styrofoam cover for adaptation to the new environment (not necessary for suckers). Gradually open the cover after 2 w eeks. 8. Label all the bags (genotype).Site selection and preparation 1. Assess the infestation level of the field by taking root samples of the crop grow n on the field. The site should preferably be infested with a single nematode species, though this w ill seldom be the case. The population should be at least 100 nematodes per gram of fresh roots. 2. Clear the land of any previously grow n crops and prepare it for the new planting. 3. Pour the macerate suspension through a 250 µm, 100 µm and 40 µm sieve.4. Rinse the residue in the 250 µm and 100 µm sieves w ith tap water. 5. Collect the nematodes from the 40 µm sieve w ith distilled w ater in a beaker. 6. Dilute the suspension w ith distilled w ater to 200 ml and pour it in a labeled glass bottle. 7. Homogenize the nematode suspension by blow ing air through it w ith a pipet and take a subsample of 5 ml and put it in a counting dish (or 1-2 ml in a counting slide). 8. Count the nematodes of each species in the counting dish under the stereo microscope (or in the counting slide under the light microscope). 9. Calculate the nematode population per 10 g of fresh roots. Use Form 4 to w rite dow n the nematode count data. ","tokenCount":"16051"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d75caf85d207c5c4e123f027767a54e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8443ffb4-b1e7-4dc1-bdd0-cd2ea77bff22/retrieve","id":"1781519406"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"63fc6c47-305d-4943-8c64-f38718200002","pagecount":"8","content":"A university taro-breeding club was initíated al USP in 1999, The fírst university breeding club in the world was started in 1995 in Mexico, We believe that the club at USP is the fírst to be inaugurated outside ofLatin America. The club represents an innovative approach to teachíng and learning at USP. It is a cheap and easy approach to breedíng. It ensures that there are many hands to do breeding work and has resulted in increased taro breeding activity. Robinson (1996Robinson ( , 1997) ) has proposed university breedíng clubs as a \"hands-on\" approach for students to lcarn about breeding for horizontal resistance and a way of\"scalíng-up\" fanner participation in plant breedíng (see box 1), Robinson (1997) envisaged student-members ofbreeding clubs retuming to theír famíly fanns wilh potential new cultívars for evaluatíon. After a few decades, there could be hundreds, or even ¡housands, of former club members testing new lines as they emerge from clubs. Addítional breeding clubs would inerease lhe oulput even more, providing the widest e;x:tent and the híghest possible quality ollarmer participation in plant breeding.Box 1. Aspects of Breeding Clubs That Promote Student and Farmer Involvement and a \"Scaling-Up\" of Participatory Plant-Breeding Activity a Clubs would provlde a new \"hands-on\" approach to plant breedil1g in an effective group-Ieaming context lar students. a Clubs could transter plant-breeding skills to many amateur breaders working within a single agroecosystem involving a few Ihousand !armers,e There would be a vast Increase in breeding skills as graduales relum to Ihelr villages and iniliale local farmers' or amateur breeding clubs.e Hundreds al plan! breeding clubs worldwlde could significantly improve craps by a huge increase in breeding activity. o Clubs would re-establish link. belween researchers and larmers. High levels 01 farmer participation in plan! breeding would resull when farmers' children jOln unlversity breeding clubs.SoUTC': Robinson (! 997).The overall aim of Ihe USP taro breeding club is to produce high-yielding, good-quality taro cultivars lhat have high levels of horizontal resistance to TLB and other locally important taro pesís, and that are adapted to a range of diverse environments, At the same time, lhe club allows students to leam abou! lhe breeding process in a practical way. The club is seen as an integral componen! ofTIP, using selected furmers for evaluation of clones and multiplieation ofpotential new cultivars. The club has a formal structure wilh elected officers, including a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary. A club constitution was drawn up and it is run along lhe lines of a student organization. Most members are students but sorne are professionals, such as lecturers, crop researchers, technicians, and university adrninistrators, while a small percentage are fanmers.The club meets regularly at lhe University's Alafua Campus. This campus is lhe location for the club's breeding blocks and it is on-campus that most crossing takes place and where taro seedlings are raised. Screening and evaluation of seedling populations take place a! locations with suitable disease pressure. To date, duplicate breeding blocks have been initiated on-campus. Qne block is for lhe use of researchers and lhe other for the use of students. The student breeding block is made available solely for lhe use of students, and lhey are encouraged to maintain lheir own subplot, make crosses within lhis, harvest seed, and raise seedlings for fíeld evaluatíon. The committee decides on a program of topícs and field visíts to facilitate leamíng about plant breeding with assistance from university technical staff, The club is self-fínaneed largely throllgh Ihe payrnent of membcr fces and fund-raisíllg evcllts.Although TIP ís a young organization, it is already showing Ihat farmcrs can evaJuate many different taro cultivars and selee! those they prefer. The membership ofthe program has expanded rapidly in its fírst yeaL The program has improved dialogue between researchers, extension staff, and farmers. Evaluation of cultívars is stíll underway and a considerable amount of quantitative and qualitative data have been compiled, This will be analyzed shortly, There are early indíeations that growers are selecting a range of cultivars. Taro Fifí has been included as Ihe preferred resistant cultivar lo date. It is interestíng to note thal sorne growers are showing preferences for cultivars (Toantal, Pwetepwet, Pastora) that were evaluated by MAFFM at the same time as taro Fili but which were not recommended or wídely promoted. Both Pwetepwet and Pastora were previously believed to be of poor quality, although they both have good levels of resistance to TLB and they are both high yielding. One farmer has observed that the quality improves ifharvest ís delayed for a few months. The same farmer has also reported that he likes Pastora despite its tendency to be susu (meaningwet, a quality not liked by Samoans). He removes the top (wet) halfand uses the bottom part ofthis high-yielding cultivar.There has been considerable confusjon in Samoa about Palau cultivars. This has arisen as a result of unauthorized imports ofbatches of rnixed cultivars from nearby American Samoa. There are 12 dífferent cultivars from Palau in Samoa. Sorne are good quality and sorne are considered wet. TIP has been working to address this confusion, and gradually those cultivars of good quality are being identífied. Early indícations are that growers prefer Palau 20 and 10. Reports from American Samoa show that both Palau 20 and lOare most preferred by growers there. Many of the growers have experimented with the harvest date of the Palau cultivars and report that this can sígnificantly influence the corm quaJity. These findings are important. Sorne Palau cultivars are found to be wet ífharvested early (five to six months), but this can be overcome, in some cases, by delaying harvest untíl seven to eight months. Research station evaluations oftaro usually occur after six months.As a result of the impact of TIP on Upulo, MAFFM have initiated a similar TIP program on the other main island of Savai' i. In May 2000, nine extension officers from Savaii spent time on Upulo visiting farmers involved with TIP and took part in the May monthly meeting to observe how the club operated. This should ensure lhat farmers on that island get quicker access to a range of resistant taros.There are sorne aspects of the USP taro•breeders' club that make it different from other clubs like the one at the Universidad Autonoma de Chapingo in Mexico. The University of fue South Pacific ís a regional university, whereas the Universidad is a national universíty. USP draws a student body from over 12 individual counlrÍes dispersed in the Pacific Ocean. This poses one problem for a university breeders' club but it abo has an advantage. Robinson (1997) highlights the positive interaction that may arise between a breeding club and farmer participation schemes. In fue Universidad situation, students come from sUITounding villages. Students can return lO fuese villages with the progeny offue crosses fuey have made and carry out participatory selection with farmers on family farms. Certain selections may become potential cultivars but can also be fed back into the breeding club system to become future parents. Unfortunately, fue majority of student members of the taro-breeding club come from countries other than Samoa and quarantine and unresolved owner-ship íssues preclude taro germplasm leaving Samoa for evaluation on many family farms, The soluhon to this problem is to pool al! crosses together and evaluate seedlings as one population through the TIP programo The advantage of having members from many differen! countries is the high potentíal for similar breeding clubs lo be initíated elsewhere when students retum to their home countTÍes at the completion of studies, The club also plans a regular newsletter to maintaín contact with members who have finíshed their studíes,The breeders' club has been successful as an innovative \"hands-on\" approach to teaching and learning, but club activities place considerable demands on student time. A three-year degree means that students have a packed timetable tha! allows little time for \"extracurricular\" activitíes.One possible solutíon to this problem is a cross-credit system to the conventional degree-Ievel breedíng courses thal are taught at USP. Thís would allow students lo obtaín cross-credits for the breeding activities that they carry out as par! ofthe breeders' club. Likewise, lecturers would also accrue teaching credits fOf their involvement in the breeders' club.After rice, maize is the most important cereal crop in the rainy season for the largely tribal farmers of the Chhotanagpur plateau region of eastem India. However, maíze ís in decline and yields vary greatly from year to year. The Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi has released severa! varieties, but tribal farmers have not adopted them because of theír late maturity, which results in the common end-of-season droughts severely limiting yields. Therefore, a participatory maíze breeding program was initiated ín a collaborative project between Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, and the KlBHCO Indo-British Rainfed Farming Project (KRlBP) managed by KRlBHCO (K.rishak Bharati Co-operative).The major objective was to breed and test early-maturing and high-yielding open-pol!inated varieties and intervarietal hybrids of maize in participation with farmers. An analysís of farmers' constraints showed that farm holdings are very smal! in the area and that shallow, infertile soils on sloping lands give poor yields. The crop is large1y rainfed, and iITÍgation to mitigate the effects of drought is rarely available.Participatory rural appraísals were used lo solidt farmers' preferences in maize varieties. Farmers wanted the following:• early maturity • long cobs with high placement on the stem• prolificacy (two to tmee ears per plant)• resistance to lodging, disease, and insect pests• nonhybrid varieties because ofthe cost and difficulties ofpurchasing hybrid seed every yearTo develop new varieties of malze, two strategies were adopted:• breeding open-pollinated composite varictiesTo breed new open-pollinated composite varieties a base population was initiated in the main season of 1997 by making nine crosses between three yellow-endospermed flint varieties (BM 1, Suwan, and Chandan 3) and three white-endospermed flint varieties (GDRM 187 from Gujarat AgriculturaJ University and KRlBP west, Gujarat [see Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volume]; Shweta, from Uttar Pradesh; and Rudarpur local, from Uttar Pradesh). The parental varieties were either farmer-preferred varieties or had complementary traits. The three yellow varieties are medium-to late-rnaturing and have a higher yield potential when water 1S not limiting than the three earlier-maturing white varieties. By 1999, the population had been randomly rnated for five cycles by using a pseudo-random hill planting plan. In each cycle, 50% ofthe plants were detasseled, and paJe yellow grains were harvested from lhe detasseled plants (Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volurne). At lhe C 3 and C 4 cyc1es, two open-pollinated (C3/98-99 and C4/99) varieties were extracted frorn the base population.The yellow-grained variety C3/98-99 was formed from deep yellow seed harvested from about 200 early-maturing, detasseled plants of lhe C 3 cycle of lhe base population in the post-rainy season of 1998-99. In the rainy season of 1999, lhe random-mating population was grown frorn these seeds.In the post-rainy season of I 999--{)0, farmers were invited lo visit the research station at Ranchi lo select desirable plants. Farmers graded them inlo three categories and the third preferences were rejected. In the rainy season of2000, lhe seIection will be repeated and the population will be tested in research station triaIs.Similar procedures were followed for variety C4/99.A white-endospermed population was also developed by bulking white grains frorn three sources: frorn selected p1ants ofthe C 4 cycle ofthe base population, frorn the C3/98-99 population grown in the rainy season of 1999, and from plants selected for rnaking the C4/99 population. The first random rnating will be carried out in the rainy season of2000, and farmers will be involved in selection before and after flowering.Intervarietal hybrids offer a faster approach to creating new varieties for farmers than generating new cornposites, but they require more complex seed rnultiplication than open-pollinated varieties. However, the seed of intervarietal hybrids is cheaper and sornewhat easier to produce than that of The new open-pollínated varieties developed have not yet been tested for yield on farmers' fields. However, intervarietal hybrids were tested in farmer-managed participatory-research (F AMP AR) trials in !he rainy season of 1998 as well as in research-station trials in tbe pre-rainy season of 1998-99 and the rainy season of 1999.Ofthe three hybrids tested, BM 1 x Suwan yielded tbe mos! in trials conducted in !he pre-rainy season of 1998-99 (rabIe 1). The advantage of!he intervarietal-hybrid approach is clear: the hybrid yields more !han either parent and is earlier tban tbe later, highest-yielding parent (Suwan).F AMP AR trials in tbe rainy season of 1998 showed tbe following: • Farmers preferred BMI x Suwan and Chandan x Suwan because oftbeir yellow flint grains, higher yield, medium maturity, and higher fodder yield .• Hybrid Megha x Suwan was rejected because of a high proportion ofpoorly developed and diseased plants.","tokenCount":"2103"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7fb3e96a5bb4f27595c70e33af9af349","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31a57599-da3d-4e1c-9b8c-3ce48876790b/retrieve","id":"-491169412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"750b6e8e-34c5-4997-8b09-640ca2704e04","pagecount":"2","content":"Common bean {Phaseolus vulgaris L,) is deficient in certain desirable characters such as resistance to common bacterial blight (CBB), caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli. For several decades, attempts have been made to search for and introgress usefiil genes fi-om other species, for example, from P. acutifolius Asa Gray by Honma ( 1956) and fi-om P. coccineus by Park and Dhanvantari (1987). With the growing awareness of deficiencies of usefiil traits in common bean, interest has grown in the (1) collection, conservation, and characterization of Phaseolus species, which number between 30 and 55 (Delgado Salinas 1985;Debouck 1991) ; (2) understanding the genus' evolution under domestication and tiie organization of its genetic diversity v^thin and between species, particularly tiiose closely related to the common bean (Llaca et al. 1994;Schmit et al. 1993); and (3) introgression of usefiil genes between gene pools and races of cultigens, and from wild populations of common bean and related species in the secondary and tertiary gene pools.On the basis of leaf morphology, different wild teparies have been recognized (Pratt and Nabhan 1988). One group, which have narrow leaflets and colonize open xeric habitats, has been recognized as P. acutifolius var. tenuifolius (Delgado Salinas 1985, Nabhan 1979). Within this group, those wild forms with extremely narrow falcate, but not sagittate, leaflets were thought to deserve their own taxonomic ranking and were named P. parvifolius Freytag (G. Freytag, personal communication, 1995) (Table 1). The two species, however, can hybridize with each other, showing no apparent barriers of incompatibility and producing fertile, nonnal progenies (our unpublished results). On tiie basis of current evidence, it seems that P, parvifolius has not been domesticated. The six vÁ\\á accessions of i'. parvifolius currently available in the germplasm bank held at CIAT have been characterized morphologically, phenologically, and biochemically (seed storage globulins and six enzyme systems). Moreover, from the limited evaluations so far made on agronomic traits, some accessions, such as G 40102 and G 40253, seem to be highly tolerant of CBB. Accession G 40253 also possesses good levels of leafliopper {Empoasca kraemeri) and bruchid {Zabrotes subfasciatus) resistance (C. Cardona, personal communication, 1996), But neither accession showed resistance to bean golden mosmc virus (F.J. Morales, personal communication, 1996).Flower buds of common bean cultivar ICA Pijao were manually emasculated and hybridized with pollen of tiiese two P. parvifolius accessions to initiate a more extensive crossing scheme (Figure 1). The third congruity backcross (Haghighi and Ascher 1988) between ICA Pijao and G 40102, using embryo rescue, was made during late 1997. Progenies will then be selfed for two to tiiree generations to develop inbred-backcross lines. Subsequently, their seed vrill be multiphed for extensive evaluation and characterization for such traits as resistance to CBB, leafhopper, bruchids, and water stress tolerance.Other P. parvifolius need to be multiplied and characterized, and their reaction to stresses ascertained vdth a view to improving the common bean crop. ","tokenCount":"478"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9d2f0fb6f0f42f80087ba8a410227f30","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e5535e8b-6ff9-4c94-b735-44af3996fc90/retrieve","id":"275723019"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c4d9293a-f557-4a54-8148-04785cb06d28","pagecount":"8","content":"In the agricultural sector there is an especially urgent need to develop and disseminate adaptation prioritization tools given the prominence of the sector in INDCs to the Paris Climate Agreement.  Adaptation practitioners in the sector are increasingly considering a more holistic view of adaptation planning that, from early in the prioritization process, takes in to account food security considerations and mitigation cobenefits.  There are several growing sources of data on agricultural adaptation, including: Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Country Profiles, CSA Compendium, and evidence from Climate-Smart Villages.  The CSA Prioritization Framework (CSA-PF) was designed to help countries prioritize adaptation interventions in the agricultural and water sectors, drawing on known practices to develop adaptation portfolios that can be scaled out.  Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) alone should not serve as a proxy for prioritization. It is critical that CBA analyses are complemented by qualitative assessments of barriers to adoption and an assessment of environmental and social impacts of adaptation strategies.  Prioritization frameworks are only as good as the data entered into them. National research institutions must plan long-term experiments or data collection schemes to measure the impacts of adaptation interventions on farming systems and to provide future inputs into adaptation prioritization.As noted in the IPCC's 5 th Assessment report, climate change adaptation needs are \"the gap between what might happen as the climate changes and what we would desire to happen.\" Adaptation needs can be derived from a variety of factors including the nature of the climate impacts experienced and projected; an assessment of the geographical areas and users that adaptation interventions should be prioritized for; the criteria/indicators used to evaluate and prioritize options; and the timeframe for adaptation, among other considerations.While adaptation needs can refer to the underlying socioeconomic conditions or hazards affecting a system, for the purpose of this brief \"needs\" refer to practices, services, policies or a range of best-bet adaptation interventions that can be scaled out and used to attract investment and funding and that are determined through prioritization methodologies. Decisions regarding the most appropriate adaptation strategies in a given country will necessarily result in tradeoffs across levels of operation, beneficiaries, and even sectors. Securing sufficient funding to assess options and act on priorities is a challenge for low and middle income countries developing countries, as well as assembling the necessary information regarding the likely economic, social and environmental impacts of competing adaptation strategies. The synergies or tradeoffs that can occur in a portfolio of adaptation options comprising a comprehensive policy is also difficult to assess.Box 1. Select resources for adaptation needs assessment and planning CSA Country Profiles: Country briefs that include relevant agriculture sector context, analysis of potential climate-smart practices, institutional and policy background, and overview of CSA finance opportunities to help decision makers identify adaptation opportunities and prioritize actions of high interest. Briefs are currently available for countries in Latin America (Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Grenada, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Uruguay), Africa (Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal), Asia (Sri Lanka) and Europe (Moldova). Additional profiles are being completed for Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Uganda. Link: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/csa-country-profiles CSA Compendium: A searchable web-based database of published scientific literature to date on the outcomes of CSA practices globally. Thousands of promising practices identified as potentially climate-smart are organized into five general themes: agronomy, agroforestry, livestock and aquaculture, postharvest management, and energy systems and can be searched by region. Link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67313/retrieve Climate-Smart Villages (CSV): Real-life laboratories, founded on the principles of participatory action research, that aim to generate greater context-specific evidence on the effectiveness of CSA practices, technologies, services and institutional arrangements. CSVs facilitate the codevelopment of scaling mechanisms towards landscapes, subnational, and national levels for CSA practices. CSVs have been established to identify practical steps that smallholder farmers and other stakeholders from local to sub-national level can take to adapt their agricultural practices to secure dependable food supplies and livelihoods, generating CSA-related outcomes. Since their inception, 36 pilot CSV sites have been established in 20 countries, and efforts are underway to scale up to 2,000 sites. Link: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/climate-smart-villages-ar4d-approach-scale-climate-smart-agricultureIn the agricultural sector, there is an especially urgent need for support to assess adaptation needs and devise suitable adaptation strategies. Over 90% of Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to the UNFCCC's Paris Agreement that include adaptation selected agriculture as a priority sector for action (Richards et al. 2016), and suitable methodologies and tools can help translate these priorities into actions.Fortunately, years of agriculture research for development has produced useful resources for adaptation needs assessment and planning in the sector (Box 1). Increasingly, adaptation practitioners are considering a more holistic view of adaptation that-from early in the prioritization process-takes into account food security considerations and mitigation co-benefits that can be realized as a result of adaptation actions. This is true of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), or agricultural actions that aim to sustainably increase productivity, incomes and food security, adapt and build resilience to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions when possible, in a context specific manner.Just as there is complexity in defining adaptation needs, there are several types of tools and methodologies to support countries to assess and prioritize adaptation needs. These range from comprehensive step-by-step frameworks to more specific tools designed to support isolated stages of the adaptation decision making process. Prioritization frameworks also differ in their level of application, some designed for national governments developing comprehensive plans and others for community level rapid-appraisal of adaptation interventions, and their degree of multistakeholder/community participation.Here, we provide a detailed overview of the Climate-Smart Agriculture Prioritization Framework (CSA-PF), a flexible analytical framework, applicable across levels, for prioritization of adaptation/CSA options, as well as other prioritization tools developed under the CGIAR Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) research program that are narrower in scope or level of application. We then provide examples of the application of these tools across CCAFS regions in Latin America, East and West Africa, and South and Southeast Asia.The CSA-PF, developed by CCAFS and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), was designed to assist decision makers in identifying priority best-bet CSA investment portfolios that achieve gains in food security, farmers' resilience to climate change, and low-emissions development of the agriculture sector. The framework stakeholder driven and is divided into four phases: (i) Scoping and initial assessment of CSA options; (ii) Identification of top CSA options (workshop); (iii) Calculation of cost and benefits of top CSA options; and (iv) portfolio development and evaluation of barriers (workshop). While the framework was developed for the agricultural sector, it has potential utility to related sectors, especially water and land use.The objective of the first phase of the CSA-PF is to identify key stakeholders and define the scope of the study (e.g. determining the production systems, agroecological zones, nature of climate change to be addressed, vulnerable areas, types of farmers targeted, transformative actions needed). Drawing on resources like the CSA Country Profiles, CSA Compendium, Climate-Smart Villages work, local expertise and knowledge and other data sources, a preliminary extensive list of relevant CSA practices (adaptation strategies) is created. Indicators for assessing the practices are then selected by stakeholders based on the outcomes they desire from interventions and practices are assessed and ranked according to these various metrics.(For a list of indicator tools see: https://csa.guide/csa/monitoring-evaluation-and-learning or https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/83141/retrieve)The second phase of the CSA-PF seeks to narrow the initial long list of CSA options. This is done by engaging a broad group of agriculture development stakeholders in a workshop where participants analyze and discuss the indicator analyses of the long list of practices. The relative weighting given to each of the three pillars of CSA (adaptation, mitigation and productivity) can be shifted to modify rankings of practices for discussion among participants regarding prioritization criteria. This group will analyze the expected impacts that different land use practices/development trajectories will have on the CSA goals, as well as the scalability, feasibility and potential beneficiaries of each practice. At the end, a short list of high-interest practices (usually 10 or less) are selected for further analysis.During the third phase of the CSA-PF the costs and benefits, and potential externalities, of each CSA option on the short list is assessed. There are numerous methods that can be used to conduct cost-benefits analysis (CBA), which need to tailored to the funders and implementers aims regarding use of the results from the prioritization process (Box 2). While there are excel and web-based tools designed by CCAFS for cost-benefit analysis (CBA) associated with the CSA-PF, there are many ways to undertake CBA. In fact, over the last decade cost analyses of adaptation have been widespread in climate change literature. Adaptation costing efforts vary widely in their scope and level of application. Generally speaking, we can differentiate between the following CBA support tools: (1) global analyses of investment and financial flows and integrated assessments models that seek to determine the global cost of adaptation and the impacts on the global economy of action/inaction; and (2) national level analyses that include the costing exercises associated with National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) and National Adaptation Plans (NAP) and the use of more sophisticated tools like computable general equilibrium analyses (also applicable at global levels), among others. For a summary of global and national CBA/costing approaches see: https://ciat.cgiar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/policy_brief5_climate_change.p df More recently, site-specific methodologies for cost-benefit analysis have been developed. In the agricultural sector, this means undertaking CBA at the farm and community level. This bottom-up approach allows for more detailed, high-resolution assessments of cost-effectiveness and of scaling these interventions up and out. Here are three such examples: a) In Guatemala, CCAFS researchers applied 'probabilistic cost-benefit analysis', or CBA that does not rely solely on a single average of return but rather a range of potential values. This approach more appropriately takes in to consideration the diverse interests present in a community and can help to assuage the value-laden assumptions common to most CBA analyses. Probabilistic CBA adopts an internal rate of return (IRR) approach that does not require specific definition of capital costs, only of returns on investment in the form net present value (i.e. a representation of the benefits over the lifetime of the intervention). An intervention is considered profitable when the IRR is higher than the discount rate used to determine net present value. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X16301160 b) In India, CCAFS applied a \"willingness-to-pay approach\" with farmers in state of Rajasthan across diverse rainfall zones. \"Farmers' were organized into a group of 5-6 for discussion on [21] CSA technologies and then asked to score each technology from 0 to 3 scale (0 = no preferences, 1 = low preference, 2 = medium preference, and 3 = high preference)\". In a second phase, \"for only those technologies that were highly preferred by the farmers in the scoring exercise, the study team conducted a bidding exercise using pseudo money\". Bidding exercises/scenarios in this way can effectively measure financial burden and identify reluctance to invest in the technologies. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X1630645X c) Further highlighting the value of farm-level CBA analyses, in Kenya, CCAFS researchers applied an approach known as Participatory Social Return on Investment (PSROI). Social Return on Investment (SROI) is a CBA strategy designed to go beyond economic returns alone to measure the social and environmental impacts of an intervention. Application of 'participatory' SROI (i.e. SROI built in to a wider participatory process of adaptation prioritization) with farmers in Western Kenya determined that there was an approximate 70% reduction in the community valuation of intercropping when compared with expert -led deskbased valuations. This difference was attributed to a lack of knowledge about the intervention, misconception about the potential costs and benefits, and the risk-averse nature of the farmers. Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11027-014-9600-5; or https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/participatorysocial-return-investment-psroi#.WEQ_3GWrw80The final phase of the CSA-PF brings stakeholders together again in a workshop/forum to review the analyses resulting from previous phases. This is done using a visualization tool demonstrating the tradeoffs and synergies of individual practices and packages of practices. The perceived constraints and barriers to adoption from the perspective of different stakeholder groups is also explored. Portfolios of practices are developed by stakeholders and can be accompanied by action plans. This phase recognizes that prioritization of CSA interventions extends beyond indicator assessments of expected outcomes and CBAs alone. The portfolios of options and suggested best practices with the greatest prospects of achieving desired outcomes as defined by stakeholders, such as maximized synergies, minimized negative externalities, or potential for uptake at scale, are selected by stakeholders for national, regional and/or local implementation.Guatemala: In Guatemala, the CSA-PF was implemented in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food (MAGA). In phase one, 24 potential CSA strategies were identified associated with maize and bean systems (most prominent cropping system) in five subnational regions. Following a phase two workshop with 42 stakeholders from the region, CBAs were conducted on eight practices across three categories: agroforestry, agronomy and water resource management. Probabilistic CBA was used, with data collected through a survey of 200 farms and secondary literature. Social and environmental externalities were also considered and analyzed, including impacts of biodiversity, carbon sequestration and labor/employment. All CSA strategies, with the exception of one, were profitable over the lifetime of the interventions and contributed to improved biodiversity. The results of this analysis were explored with stakeholders in the phase 4 workshop and three portfolios of were developed by different types of actors (producers, government, research) demonstrating various criteria for addressing various tradeoffs between the CSA goals (productivity, adaptation, mitigation) and other priority outcomes for different sectoral actors. This example demonstrates how CSA-PF can be adopted by governments and integrated in to existing planning processes. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X16301160 Mali: In Mali, the CSA-PF was implemented by a nongovernmental organization, the Malian Association of Awareness to Sustainable Development (AMEDD), with the support of the Agency of Environment and Sustainable Development (AEDD), in direct collaboration with government actors and donors from the beginning. In the phase one assessment, analysts identified 24 CSA strategies applicable across three regions of the country and assessed them based on 11 CSA indicators selected by stakeholders. In the second phase workshop, 9-10 practices were selected for each of the three regions, such as the fixation of dunes in the Sahelian region, sorghum-cowpea association for the Sudano-sahelian region, and contour fields for the southern region were identified. Eight interventions associated with the Sudanian zone were selected for CBA analysis over a five-year life cycle, focusing on impacts on the main crops found in the diversified farming systems (maize, millet, sorghum). Like in Guatemala, social and environmental externalities were considered, in this case carbon sequestration, gender, and social conflicts related to land access. In phase 4, two portfolios of priority CSA activities were developed, the first focusing on farm-level activities (e.g. sorghum and cowpea integration) and the second on a landscape level initiatives (e.g. development of rice cultivation valleys). Portfolios have been presented to the Malian parliament and integrated into ongoing programming. This example demonstrates the cross-level utility of the CSA-PF and potential integration with existing development initiatives through fostering stakeholder ownership. Link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/71151/retrieve Vietnam: In Vietnam, the CSA-PF served as the model for an alternative framework for the rapid appraisal of climate-smart practices. In its application, a baseline assessment of adaptation needs and potential options was conducted in 2014 in My Loi village. The 13 original practices were reduced to 10 based on their \"climatesmartness\" through phase 1 assessment through consultations with male and female villagers, local leaders and experts, field visits, and cost-benefit analysis using a net-present value approach. The top ten interventions were presented to the broader community in \"CSA Fair\" where 200 community members participated. Intervention posters were posted on the walls of an event hall and community members, following technical presentations on each practice, voted for the interventions they thought were most applicable to them. This included home gardening, intercropping, agroforestry, and livestock (pig) raising. Both, \"CBA and the prioritization\", the authors note, \"clearly show that women and men both want trees, but women preferred fruit trees and home garden development while men were more interested in forestry development\". This example demonstrates how the CSA-PF framework can be modified to suit local conditions, providing not prescriptive steps, but a broad guiding framework. Link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78307/retrieveThe CSA-PF is the result of learning from best practices in the area of adaptation prioritization, yet it is not the only CCAFS framework available to low and middle income countries. Other toolkits rely more heavily on agricultural modeling, or highlight specific aspects of adaption planning, like gender, and tend to be focused centrally on communities. Here, a range of alternative tools are provided:CSA Prioritization (CSAP) toolkit: This approach to adaptation prioritization requires a detailed locationspecific database on soil, crop varieties, cropping area, agronomic practices, irrigation and historical weather information along with socio-economic data. Future crop yields, water-use and emissions are then forecasted under different climate-scenarios using crop-modeling techniques. The approach identifies priorities for investment in: (i) crops best suited to delivering target growth under impacts of climate change on yields; (ii) technologies to deliver targeted increases in productivity, based on potential yield increases and the efficient use of resources; and (iii) locations for priority investment given an existing surplus of productive capacity. Link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/38402/retrieve CSA Rapid Appraisal (CSA-RA) tool: \"The Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (CSARA) provides an assessment of key barriers to and opportunities for CSA adoption across landscapes by collecting genderdisaggregated data, perceptions of climate variability, and resource and labor allocation, as well as economic assessments at the household level. This approach combines participatory workshops, expert interviews, household/farmer interviews, and farm transect walks to gather and capture the realities and challenges facing diverse farming communities\". CSA-RA was piloted in Tanzania and Northern Uganda. Link: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId= doi:10.7910/DVN/28703 \"TargetCSA\" Framework: TargetCSA is a national-level CSA prioritization tool that integrates stakeholder/expert opinion and quantitative data on vulnerability and CSA options to produce a portfolio of spatially-explicit CSA options. The method uses a workshop to identify vulnerability indicators and CSA practices and a survey to conduct a pair-wise comparison of those options (i.e. assigning numerical weights) that are then analyzed in a computerized optimization model to produce a 'majority consensus' that most closely reflects stakeholder preferences, or other scenarios. These preferences are then coupled with spatial data (.e.g. annual precipitation, literacy, soil organic matter etc.) to produce mapped indices demonstrating the highest areas of CSA potential. This approach is documented in Kenya's agricultural sector. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X1530069X \"Generic\" Framework: Notenbaert et al. ( 2017) offer a generic framework for CSA prioritization applicable for diverse operational levels and users. It follows four steps (1) Diagnosis and identification of potential options, (2) characterization of options, (3) identification of the recommendation domains (i.e. spatial mapping) and outscaling potential of the options, and (4) ex-ante impact assessment of the alternative options. The framework is intended to be iterative and non-linear, and employ varying degrees of qualitative and quantitative data including expert opinion and spatially explicit data. The approach was documented in Tanzania's livestock sector. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X16301962 Minimum Data Approach: Shikuku et al. ( 2017) combine a livestock model with a Trade-Off Analysis Model for Multi-Dimensional Impact Assessment (TOA-MD) to identify the potential rates of adoption for CSA strategy variations. In the case of rural Tanzania, farmers were divided in to strata, or groups, pertaining to local or improved cow ownership. Adoption of improved breeds and improved feeding strategies were determined by the TOA-MD model, producing economic, environmental and social impact indicators for adopters and non-adopters. Based on adoption rates, income, food security poverty and GHG emissions were then calculated. This 'minimum data approach' utilizes survey data, expert consultations, and secondary data as inputs in to the livestock and economic models. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521 X16302189When derived at through participatory processes and considered holistically alongside food security, productivity and mitigation co-benefits, countries can build robust portfolios of agriculture adaptation actions that are simultaneously relevant to those most vulnerable and attractive to donors.The frameworks presented in this brief offer prioritization approaches that have been tested across continents and in a variety of unique field-level settings. They are not intended to be prescriptive, but rather to provide general guidelines for important considerations in the adaptation prioritization process. Implementation of these prioritization frameworks to-date has surfaced several important challenges and considerations: First, a common challenge across all prioritization framework pilots is presenting CSA options with sufficient resolution to be instructional but with ample flexibility to accommodate local realties-CSA options are not, after all, 'climate-smart' in every setting. Therefore, for phase 3 'cost benefit analysis' to be contextually appropriate, phase 2 'Identification of top CSA options' must also allow for modification of promising strategies with respect to local opportunities and barriers to implementation. The continued use of these prioritization tools will ensure that the Convention's technology mechanism prioritizes the most appropriate technologies for specific contexts.Second, regarding the identification of indicators for measuring adaptation outcomes, in some cases, indicators are too costly and time-consuming for rapid field assessments. Key findings from CCAFS Programming and Indicator Tool indicate that mitigation co-benefits are seldom measured at field level. The most common indicators tend to be related to productivityespecially yields and farm income. Furthermore, there are very few indicators to address specific adaptation measures such as seed varieties or crop insurance. Also lacking are financial indicators on adoption of CSA technologies and practices, and indicators lacked the ability to show a change over time, or to measure specific changes in low/lean season.Third, cost benefit analysis alone should not serve as a proxy for prioritization. It is critical that CBA analyses are complemented by qualitative assessments of barriers to adaptation adoption and an assessment of environmental and social impacts. For example, as demonstrated by CCAFS evidence in India, CBA can overestimate farmers' willingness to pay for costly upfront adaptation investments. Meanwhile, in Kenya, it was demonstrated that CBA desk studies may overestimate adaptation benefits compared to community level assessments. In all cases, practitioners should aim for the utmost transparency regarding the assumptions made in CBA calculations.Ultimately, as demonstrated in Vietnam, CBA analyses are challenged by the fact that practices may be new to farmers or the particular geography and the costs and benefits are not known; and, second, that many CSA options involve integrated farming systems at the landscape scale where indirect competition and complementary effects may be misjudged. Analysis of trade-offs at the national level can aid decisions on best bets for agricultural investment under climate change. For example, de Pinto et al ( 2016) provided an analysis of trade-offs between profitability and emissions reductions for oil palm expansion, forest conservation and pasture management that informed the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) submitted by Colombia. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750 X16304041 Finally, prioritization frameworks are only as good as the data available to them. National research institutions must plan long-term experiments or data collection schemes to measure the impacts, economic, social and environmental impacts of CSA/adaptation practices on farming systems and to provide future inputs in to adaptation prioritization, as these tools evolve and improve in sophistication. Robust monitoring and evaluation must also be put in place following the application of prioritization frameworks to capture data on implementation that can also inform future work.For each of these prioritization challenges to be remedied, funding, capacity and technological gaps need to be addressed. It is important that any local prioritization process gives consideration to the broader policy and economic landscape framing the local context. Demand-driven policies that are mainstreamed in to existing development planning processes are important. The Framework Convention's finance mechanism must include support for robust adaptation needs assessments to properly mainstream these efforts. ","tokenCount":"3912"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"233768230c7c9152a371e1356a8395e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9176a14d-8ebc-46de-81dd-26ceff66faff/retrieve","id":"-685035797"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a091f4b7-4d9c-4fb2-afd6-92b27c8b3193","pagecount":"34","content":"Rwanda is a landlocked and low-income country in East Africa, with nearly 70% of its working-age population engaged in agriculture. The livestock sub-sector is an integral part of Rwandan agriculture, occupying the third position in contribution to the Agricultural gross domestic product (GDP). Despite its high potential, particularly for smallholders, the livestock value chains face critical production and market-related constraints. In the framework of a research agreement between the University of Rwanda (UR) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), a joint Gendered-Feed Assessment Tool (G-FEAST) study was conducted from 20-22 August 2023 in two sectors of Gakenke District (Northern Province), aimed at providing a rapid assessment of the availability and use of local feed resources that will inform the design of site-specific intervention strategies for improved feed supply and utilization. The study was conducted in two distinct sectors, referred to as G-FEAST villages, of Gakenke (rural and peri-urban) and Rushashi (100% rural), based on their level of accessibility, i.e., distance to the main road and/or market, and production system. The study involved 42 farmers (23 women and 19 men) who attended the four (4) G-FEAST sessions. Six participants representing each landholding category (small, medium, and large) were selected for individual interviews from each FGD. A total of 24 farmers (12 women and 12 men) were interviewed to assess gendered divisions of labor within households while securing feed and forage for pigs and other reared livestock such as cattle, goats, and poultry. The interviews were extended to enlist the participation of men and women in decision-making processes for forage production, feed purchasing, crop residue use, and livestock sales. The study also assessed the availability and use of local feed resources and identified feed gaps, challenges, and constraints affecting small-scale pig farmers. Individual interview results were entered and processed using the FEAST data app (www.ilri.org/feast). Results from the G-FEAST indicated that, despite the existing legislation on land holding and transfer, farm sizes are predominantly small (Rushashi, 55%) to medium (Gakenke, 73%), where the farming system is primarily a subsistence mixed crop-livestock system. This was reported to fragilize the farm productivity and limit potential agricultural intensification options. Worthwhile, livestock keeping was pointed out as the main contributor to the total source of household income (47%-Rushshi; 49%-Gakenke), with relatively balanced gender-pay equality and equal managerial decision-making. The assessment of livestock production constraints consistently listed the main constraints such as shortage of feeds, high costs of available animal feed on the market, limited knowledge in animal breeding, unfavorable livestock market prices, limited financial (credit) support, high prevalence of animal diseases coupled with the high cost of veterinary services. Following up on this G-FEAST survey, the research team recommended drawing and co-implementing critical interventions with the local community to address the highlighted constraints.Rwanda, a landlocked and low-income country situated in East Africa (with a population of about 12.5 million people, meaning a population density estimated to be 445 people per km² on a total area of 26.338 Km 2 ), has made significant strides in agriculture over the past two decades through strategic plans aligning agricultural development with broader national economic strategies, including Vision 2020, National Strategy for Transformation (NST1) (NST1) and Vision 2050 (AfDBank, 2020). Agriculture remains a fundamental pillar of Rwanda's economy, with nearly 70% of its working-age population engaged in this sector.As an integral part of Rwandan agriculture, the livestock sub-sector stands in 3 rd position in Agricultural GDP contribution after food crops and forestry, accounting for 9.36%, which represents a modest but growing share of 3.099% in the National GDP (Rwanda Statistical Yearbook, 2015). In the absence of a census update, available data suggests that the livestock species population has been increasing in the past decade, especially for small livestock, notably poultry and pigs (MINAGRI, 2021). The pig sector has grown considerably in recent years, driven by a robust, increasing demand for domestic and export pork. The Livestock Master Plan for Rwanda (2017/2018 -2021/2022) identifies the pig value chain as one of four key livestock value chains with the potential for high productivity increase and the ability to contribute to national economic development objectives, including food and nutrition security. Pigs also serve as a source of cash in times of need and, in this regard, are particularly important to women. The contribution of pig meat to protein nutrition is crucial. In Rwanda, pig farming is dominated by smallholders rearing one or two sows in their backyards and practicing low-input systems. Despite its high potential, particularly for smallholders, the pig value chain faces critical production and market-related constraints. Environmental and social concerns also play a crucial role, emphasizing the need to balance agricultural production with environmental sustainability.In the framework of a research agreement between the University of Rwanda (UR) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), a joint research project contributing to the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems project on pig production in Rwanda is being undertaken in 2 piloting districts of Nyamagabe (Southern Province) and Gakenke (Northern Province), alongside the Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Board (RAB), aimed at developing new and adapting existing herd health, improved genetics, feed, and market systems innovations that fill productivity and value-chain gaps especially access to inputs, services and pig markets. Henceforth, the current Gendered-Feed Assessment Tool (G-FEAST; ILRI, 2019) study was conducted from the 20th to 22 nd of August 2023 in 2 sectors of Gakenke District (Northern Province) to provide a rapid assessment of the availability and use of local feed resources that informs the design of site-specific intervention strategies for improved feed supply and utilization. The G-FEAST proved to be helpful, vis-à-vis the existing FEAST approach, by identifying gender aspects of household's animal feeding practices and the uptake of feeding interventions and identifying opportunities and constraints in animal feeding for different household types as suggested by earlier studies (Lukuyu et al., 2019a).Gakenke District, one of the five districts of the Northern Province of Rwanda, was selected to serve as a pilot study area representing neighbouring districts of the Northern Province (Rurindo, Burera, Musanze), Western (Nyabihu, Ngororero) and Southern (Kamonyi, Muhanga) provinces. Gakenke District is characterized by high-inclined hills separated by rivers and marshlands, extending its similarity to most northern, western, and even eastern districts (e.g., Gatsibo). Gakenke District comprises 19 administrative units (sectors), spreading over 704.06 km², with a population of 365,292 (520 inhabitants/km²), composed respectively of 50.4% women and 49.6 % men. The average household size is 3.9 persons per household (NISR,2023; Gakenke District: https://www.gakenke.gov.rw/). Agricultural households represent 92.7%, with 80.7% of households engaged in livestock farming. Livestock populations are estimated to be cows (70,928), goats (40,729), sheep (21,060), pigs (39,640), rabbits (15,210), chicken (81,342), and other poultry (699), etc. The area's climate is humid, with an average annual temperature between 16°C and 29°C (https://www.gakenke.gov.rw/).The study was conducted in two distinct sectors, referred to as G-FEAST villages, of Gakenke and Rushashi, based on their level of accessibility, i.e., distance to the main road and/or market, and production system (see geographical location in Figure 1): 2.1.1. Gakenke Sector: This is a semi-intensive production system in the highlands with both periurban and rural areas, better access to main tarmac roads and markets, moderate use of agricultural inputs, and a relatively better capacity for innovation and scaling up, 2.1.2. Rushashi Sector: This is a 100% rural area with a semi-intensive production system in the plateau. It has low access to the market, more degraded soil, and limited use of agricultural inputs.  This G-FEAST study was conducted from 20 -22 August 2023, by a team of ten researchers from the University of Rwanda (UR), Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB), Gakenke and Nyamagabe Districts Offices, and ILRI. A total of 48 farmers (24 women and 24 men) who keep pigs, were initially invited to participate in the study. However, 42 farmers (23 women and 19 men) attended the four (4) G-FEAST sessions. The selection was arranged to ensure a gender balance and to represent different categories of small, medium, and large-scale pig farmers for the focus group discussion and individual interviews using the G-FEAST tool. From each FGD, six participants representing each of the landholding categories (small, medium, and large) were selected for individual interviews. This made a total of 24 farmers (12 women and 12 men) who were interviewed to assess gendered divisions of labour within households while securing feed and forage for pigs, and other reared livestock such as cattle, goats, and poultry. The interview was extended to the participation of men and women in decision-making processes for forage production, feed purchasing, crop residue use, and livestock sales. The study also assessed the availability and use of local feed resources and identified feed gaps, challenges and constraints affecting small-scale pig farmers.Qualitative data collected from the FGDs were initially compiled in an Excel file for summary and data cleaning before reporting. Individual interview results were entered and processed using the FEAST data app (www.ilri.org/feast). All the data was uploaded to the FEAST data repository for public access (feastdata.ilri.org).As per the Rwandan law, every land tenure is regularized, and its record has been kept in a national digital registry since 2013. Land permits are issued to every landholder with equal rights between legally married men and women. This land right may be transferred between persons through succession, gift, inheritance, ascending sharing, rent, sale, sublease, exchange, servitude, mortgage, or any other transaction in conformity with the conditions and methods provided for by the laws and regulations.Farm sizes in the study area are predominantly small-scale Rushashi, 55%) to medium (Gakenke, 73%), as indicated in Figure 2. The number of farmers owning large-size farms (>3ha) is still low in both Gakenke (6.5%) and Rushashi (5%), despite the government mobilization for land consolidation, as part of the National Strategic Plan for Agriculture Transformation 2018-24 (PSTA4). The majority (>50%) of the households in the study area have land sized above 1 ha, which is considered a small and medium holding by local standards in the Rushashi and Gakenke sectors, respectively (Figures 2a, Figure 3). It was further found out that none of the households was landless. The farming system is primarily a subsistence mixed crop-livestock system. The small and medium land size categories predominate (>50%) the existing landholding in the Rushashi and Gakenke sectors as earlier highlighted in Figure 2a. Results (Figure 4) have indicated that most of the land is used for cropping, with maize (Zea mays) and common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) dominating the cropping landscape in Gakenke, while farmers in Rushashi capitalize on Irish potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and maize. The average area of land used for each of the dominant crops grown is >0.5ha, making the wide-range subsistence farming even more fragile with small-scale production units (Figure 4). Therefore, most crops are mainly grown in rotation cropping, and their residues are fed to livestock. The G-FEAST results have indicated a few farmers (22.4%) in the Rushashi Sector have opted to grow coffee (Coffee arabica) in monoculture as an alternative strategy to valorize their small-scale lands.Most farmers in Gakenke are members of cooperatives or other types of farmer organizations, with females showcasing more interest in farmers ' organizations' membership and variations in the focused study areas of Gakenke and Rushashi sectors. Figure 5 points out that at the household level, the average of active members of local farmer's organizations is higher (more than double) for women (1.2/household[HH]) and men (0.8/HH) compared to farmers in Rushashi. Furthermore, the report indicates that women tend to adhere more to cooperative/farmer organizations in the two sites.Considerable divergencies in the production system, rural settings (peri-urban/rural), and access to inputs and markets between 2 sites make Gakenke relatively better capacitated for agriculture intensification, financing, and innovation scaling up, compared to Rushashi. The latter is 100% rural area, with low access to the market, more degraded soil, and limited use of agricultural inputs.This is consistent with all the socioeconomic characteristics of the 2 sites, as highlighted in Table 1.  In Gakenke Sector, livestock takes the lead in average percentage contribution, accounting for a substantial 49% of the total source of income. This underscores the significant role that livestock plays in households' livelihoods. Cropping follows closely, making a substantial contribution of 34%, while various business activities contribute up to 13% of the total income sources. G-FEAST assessment revealed, further, other activity categories, including agricultural labour making relatively modest contributions (1-3%), as indicated in Figure 6.  In Rushashi Sector, cropping and livestock production constitute major sources of household income, representing respectively 47% and 44% of the total source of income. This highlights the importance of agricultural activities in the economic landscape of this 100% rural Sector. Other sources, potentially encompassing various diverse activities, contribute 5% to the average household income. Business activities make little contribution, accounting for 3% of the total household's income generation. The very modest contribution of labour (1%) in both sectors may be explained by the seasonality nature of agricultural activities, reported to attract the available but least-skilled workers. Consequently, this shows a weakening effect on the average monthly/annual income generation capacity of households in Gakenke District.In addition, gender-pay equality was assessed during the G-FEAST survey in Gakenke. Findings (Figure 7) indicated that the average daily pay for females is 0.7 USD, compared to that earned by males (1.68 USD) in Gakenke Sector. This was found to be similar in the Rushashi Sector, with the average pay for females estimated at 0.88 USD, compared to the average pay for males estimated at 1.94 USD. This is consistent with the already existing gender-pay gap, with males tending to earn more on average than females, owing to the nature of locally available employment offers being dominated by cropping activities.The majority of FGDs and G-FEAST interview respondents have indicated (Figure 8) the fact that women mostly rely on livestock keeping as their main source of income, which makes a substantial contribution estimated at 55.4 to 57.7% to the overall total income sources in Gakenke District. Besides livestock and cropping activities (35.7-40.2%), women have indicated a growing interest in various business activities, mainly comprising the trade of agricultural/livestock products, crafting, and vending artefacts (e.g., locally made baskets, carpets, etc.). The breakdown of the relative contribution of major sources of income to household and women's income in Gakenke District was highlighted in Table 2 and pointed out the crucial role played by food and cash crops in generating revenue for both households and women in particular. Food crops account for 23%-32% of women's income and 24.4%-35.8% of the total income, while cash crops were reported to provide 12.1% of household income and 11.2% of women's income, respectively. Livestock-related activities, encompassing dairying, fattening animals (including cattle, sheep, and goats), and poultry-related activities, collectively underscore the significance of animal husbandry in the local economic landscape, with a significant role in contributing to women's income. The G-FEAST assessment in the Rushashi Sector has highlighted trending livestock business opportunities for women, with growing pig finishing activities (pork/beacon) coupled with gilt (sow) breeding, contributing to women's income up to 18.75% and 20.42%, respectively. In contrast, off-farm business and monthly salary make relatively modest contributions to household income, estimated at 3.3%-13.3% and 2.5% for women. Off-farm business contributes to household income, while poultry -eggs contribute 0.83%. Assessment of the average price of major livestock species/products showed variations throughout the year, with increasing prices from January to December (e.g., market price of cattle from 325. USD in January to 423. USD in December) as depicted in Table 3. This pattern indicates a potential seasonal influence or market dynamics in Gakenke, with the most significant increase occurring between August and December. This would point out to the possible seasonal peak or specific market conditions during this period, for example, on Christmas and New Year. The observation on milk production revealed distinctive patterns for average yield and average price per litre. Furthermore, a significant variation in milk yield across the months was reported, ranging from a minimum of 5.5-7.5 litres in August to a peak of 8.5-16.5 litres in April. Notable fluctuations are evident, marked by a significant increase from June to April when there is adequate feed and rainwater, followed by a decline in the subsequent months. In contrast, the average price per litre demonstrates relative stability throughout the year, with minor variations. Prices range from 0.348 USD in October, November, and December to 0.48 USD in May and June (Figure 9). The gendered decision-making was assessed for major sources of household income, as highlighted in Figure 10. Findings from FDGs and Individual Interviews mainly indicated joint decision-making by men and women for the management of sources of income at the household level. This ranges from livestock breeding activities, especially pigs, fattening of animals for slaughtering, dairying, and dairy products, etc. Findings pointed out, in some cases, mixed decision-making depending on situations (e.g., men and/or females directly involved in specific revenue generation activities). This concerned off-farm business activities, and revenues from the sales of poultry eggs, slaughter animals (small ruminants), food crops, etc. On the other side, the management of monthly salaries and breeding activities involving renting males were reported to be almost consistently managed by men.Livestock holding was also assessed in the study area, and results were displayed in Figure 11. Findings suggested a consistent descending order in the top 5 livestock keeping by household farms located in the Gakenke Sector, ranging from commercial poultry (broilers and layers, 21%) and pig (13%) farming to improved dairy, fattening, and draught cattle and goat. In Rushashi Sector, more farmers invest in improved dairy cattle (>47%) and pig production (>40%). The remaining livestock categories are local dairy cattle, fattening cattle, and goats. It was indicated, however, that the average number of commercial chickens, pigs, and improved dairy cows per household is far higher (almost triple) in the Gakenke Sector compared to the Rushashi Sector. Most producers reported raising two or fewer livestock species due to the small size of land they own. In Gakenke Sector, men predominantly engage in land preparation for planting forages (75%), weeding, and harvesting forages/crop residues (42%), highlighting their primary involvement in physically demanding activities. Women actively participate in planting forages (67%) and play a crucial role in tasks such as storage of feeds and forages (50%) and mixing feed ingredients (58%). Purchasing of feeds and forages is essentially undertaken by men, constituting 67%, indicating a gender-specific distribution in economic activities. Additionally, children and youth contribute significantly to livestock feeding (42%) and watering tasks (58%), with watering being primarily their responsibility (Figure 12). In Rushashi Sector, the gender division of labour in agriculture and livestock activities reveals distinct patterns. Women play crucial roles, actively participating in storing feeds and forages with a substantial involvement of 92%. Additionally, their roles include weeding forage crops, watering, collecting off-farm forages, and feeding, each accounting for 67%. Women also contribute significantly to the processing of feeds and forages, accounting for 42%.On the other hand, men are predominantly participating in the purchasing of feeds and forages (67%). Men also contribute to transportation (33%) and play a vital role in mixing feed ingredients (42%). The shared tasks involving both men and children include cleaning feeding and watering facilities (58%) and transportation of feeds and forages (33%). The mixing of feed ingredients is another shared responsibility, with equal contributions from both men and women, each at 42% (Figure 13). The decision on the type of livestock to rear at the household level is mainly made jointly by men and women as shown in Figure 14 with little differences between Gakenke (a) and Rushashi (b) sectors. It appeared however that women are essentially involved in the management of poultry in the Rushashi Sector. For pigs, 91.6% of respondents in the Gakenke Sector reported that the decision to acquire and keep pigs is jointly taken by men and women, while this percentage is less in the Rushashi Sector (58.3%). While 33.3% of women in the Rushashi Sector have complete decision-making on pigs, it is reported that 0% of women in the Gakenke Sector who decides on rearing pigs. Selling milk and other livestock products is another livestock activity involving an important gendered decision-making for the income sources. It was observed that the sales of livestock and milk are linked with the types of livestock species commonly kept by the households in the sites of the study. Therefore, the portion of not applicable (N/A) in the figures means that the livestock and/or animal products are not available for the households responding to the G-FEAST individual questionnaire. In Gakenke Sector, regardless of the established joint decision-making regarding sales of different types of livestock species (including milk), some men are taking solely the decision to sell cattle (8.3%), small ruminants (8.3%) and milk (8.3%). This was not observed in Rushashi Sector, whereby some women decided to sell cattle (8.3%), small ruminants (sheep and goats, 25%) and pigs (33.3%). This proportion goes even higher for poultry, where 41.6% of women oversee decision-making regarding the purchase and sales processes (Figure 15).  The common forage crop cultivated by farmers for feeding livestock in Gakenke District is Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) which is grown alongside their farms on terraces to reduce soil erosion. Among the forages grown, Leucaena leucocephala and Mucuna pruriens are less grown in Rushashi Sector whereas cassava foliage and Calliandra calothyrsus are less grown farmers in Gakenke Sector (Figure 16). Some of the farmers in Gakenke Sector have large farm sizes where small land sizes are allocated for forage production which is negatively associated with feed resources grown by farmers. In this study, commercially mixed ration is a commonly purchased feed type by smallholder farmers only in Gakenke sectors to feed their pigs. The second most purchased Zea mays (with gluten bran) is related to the fact that maize is one of the most important crops cultivated in the area (especially in Gakenke Sector). Kitchen waste and brewers grain is less purchased feed in Rushashi Sector but not used by farmers in Gakenke Sector (Figure 16).  Rainfall patterns and annual available feed resources among farmers in Gakenke District are illustrated in Figure 19. In terms of feed resources supplied, green forages are the most abundant throughout the year in Gakenke District. The most commonly available and used feed resources are green forages (roadside weeds, cut fodder crops, and tree leaves), cereal crop residues, leguminous crop residues, and concentrates. However, farmers do not commonly practice grazing, mainly during the dry season beginning from mid-June to September. During the dry season (July-August), crop residues constitute a considerable part of animal diets. Major fodder crops are grown during the rainy season from October-January and February-June. Farmers also feed small amounts of concentrates throughout the year, mainly from July-October, which corresponds to the months of forage shortage whereas the exception is in the Gakenke Sector, where concentrates are among the annually available feed resources. Livestock production constraints were assessed through 4 FGDs. Farmers grouped by gender consistently listed the following main constraints; a) difficulty to access enough feeds in all four agricultural seasons throughout the year b) high costs of commercial animal feeds available on the market, c) limited knowledge in animal breeding mainly because of inbreeding breeding practices d) market prices reported to be relatively low compared to incurred production costs (agricultural inputs), hence resulting into low to negative farm returns, e) limited access to credit needed to support pig farming, f) high incidences of animal diseases coupled with high cost of veterinary services. The respondents also highlighted a gap in information and advisory services pertaining to market and livestock husbandry. A summary of identified problems, gender-disaggregated ranking and proposed solutions are indicated in Table 4 and Table 5.  ","tokenCount":"3938"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"193e901e5565e8d6823a607cae8644e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0c6880c-f732-4f97-9aa7-46651aa9da81/retrieve","id":"1397515113"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11a00440-f725-412e-a52e-e3ee66657a81","pagecount":"17","content":"Odisha is characterized by complex and mixture of different agro-climatic situations, wide variations exists within and between agro-climatic regions. The east and north-eastern of Odisha have more Kharif and Rabi intercropped area is paddy with pulses. The western part is the mixture of paddy, maize, cotton and other cash crops. The details of cropping pattern in different agro-climatic zones is presented in Table 1. Odisha are very traditional, where farmers choose own ingredients and feed the cattle based on availability at his/her house. The productivity of the cattle is limited because of their poor genetic make-up and lack of access to better quality of feed.Crop residue plays an important role for livestock feeding which contributes more than more 70% of total feeding resources. The availability of crop residues is closely related to the farming system, crop produced and the intensity of cultivation. The potential use of crop residues as livestock feed having great importance in integrated crop-livestock farming systems. When crop and livestock production are being segregated, most of the crop residues are being still wastage.Feeding pattern in coastal Odisha is mostly depend on the rice straw while the place closer to forest area are mostly depend on the forest wastages.For improving the livestock productivity, there needs to increase the availability of quality feed at farmer's door as well at lower cost. With growing for animal feed, new technologies and techniques need to be continuously (ILRI) has tried to explore the feed requirement, availability and feeding pattern different districts of Odisha special reference to agro-climatic zones. This report contains the preliminary report outcome of feed requirement and feeding pattern analysis.Before  (South Eastern Ghat). Coming to buying of processing of crop residue higher percentage of farmer in Zone-4 are doing followed by Zone-2 (North Central Plateau).This zone is comprise with Sundargarh, parts of Deogarh, Sambalpur (kuchinda)& part of Jharsuguda. In this zone, among the surveyed sample farmers only 2.4 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, while 3.0 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue (chopping, urea treatment and others) before feeding to their livestock. Coming to the buying of concentrate feed, only 18.9 per cent of farmers are buying the concentrate feed. Further, 3.0 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue for livestock feed.This zone is comprise with Mayurbhanj, major parts of Keonjhar except Anandapur, Ghasipura and Hatdihi Block. It is observed that only 0.6 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder while 11.6 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue for their livestock feed. In addition, 12. 6 per cent of farmers are buying concentrate and 4.9 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue before feeding to their livestock, which is higher than the Zone 1. This zone is mostly covered with costal and bank of Bay of Bengal. It covers Balasore, Bhadrak, parts of Jajpur & Hatadihi block of Keonjhar district. In this zone, 27.9 per cent of farmers buy crop residue for feeding of their livestock even this zone rice covers most of the area, while only 4.1 per cent of farmers' process before feeding to their livestock (chopping, soaking and any treatment). It is important to note that 8 per cent of farmer are growing green fodder, which more than the State's average. Around 33.0 per cent of farmers are buying concentrate feed to feed their animals.Kendrapada, Khorda, Jagatsinghpur, Puri, Nayagarh and a part of Cuttack & coastal part of Ganjam come under this zone. In this zone, it reveals that only 6.6 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, 7 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue before feeding to their livestock. Further 36 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue for livestock feed while 59.4 per cent of farmers are purchasing concentrate feed for their livestock.This agro climatic zone comprises of Phulbani (Kandhamal), Rayagada, and Gajapati, a part of Ganjam and small patches of Koraput. It has been found from surveyed village only 1.1 per cent farmers are cultivating green fodder, 2.5 per cent farmers are engaged in processing crop residues, 17.4 per cent farmers are buying concentrated while 11.3 per cent farmers are buying crop residues for maintaining their livestock.Major parts of Koraput and Nabarangpur district come under this agro climatic zone. As maize is the major crop which covers more than 50% of agricultural land, around 19.2 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue (paddy straw) to feed their livestock, while only 3.2 per cent of sample farmers are growing green fodder. Coming to concentrate feed, only 13 per cent of farmers buying concentrate feed. The low percentage of farmers buying concentrate is could be the fact that as these farmers grow maize, there is chance of using maize as concentred feed for their livestock. It is observed that only 2.5 per cent of farmers are processing crop residues before feeding to their livestock.Malkanagiri district comes under this Agro-Climatic zone. It is observed from survey that only 0.9 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, 0.4 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue, 10.1 per cent of farmers are purchasing concentrate feed while 3.0 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue for their livestock.District Kalahandi and Nuapada come under this agro climatic zone. It is found that 7.2 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, 2.5 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue, 23.6 per cent of farmers are buying concentrate feed and 16.8 per cent farmers are buying crop residue for feeding of their livestock.District like Baragarh, Bolangir, Boudh, Sonepur, Jharsuguda and a part of Sambalpur fall under this agro climatic zone. The survey reveals that 6.5 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, 8.8 of farmers are processing crop residue, 28 per cent of farmers are buying concentrate feed and 4.6 of farmers are buying crop residue for feeding to their livestock.This agro climatic zone comprises of districts Anugul, Dhenkanal, Jajpur and parts of Cuttack. The study of survey samples reveals that 4.6 of farmers are growing green fodder, 1.3 per cent of farmers are processing crop residue, 30 per cent of farmers are buying concentrate feed and 6.1 per cent of farmers are buying crop residue for feeding of their livestock.Table 2 represents the district-wise feed requirement. The descriptive statistics indicated that as per the 2012 livestock census there is required of 229773.38, 65035 and 66097 thousands kg of green grass, dry fodder and concentrate feed required to maintain the livestock health properly. Among theThe preliminary report indicated that 4.5 per cent of farmers are growing green fodder, 16.2 per cent of farmers are buying crop residues (paddy straw, 28.1 per cent of farmer are buying concentrate and only 4.3 per cent of farmers are processing (soaking, chaffing and others) before feeding to their livestock in the State. As per the 2012 livestock census there is required of 229773.38, 65035 and 66097 thousands kg of green grass, dry fodder and concentrate feed required to maintain the livestock health properly.","tokenCount":"1166"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a1a88c6178542a07da0202ca01bd76a8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/CIFOR-ICRAF-WP-1.pdf","id":"-846334819"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"66f52c43-d177-4829-bd0f-d9a822af5d30","pagecount":"56","content":"Quisiéramos agradecer a todos los socios financieros que apoyaron esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo de CGIAR. Para ver la lista de donantes del Fondo, visite: http://www.cgiar.org/about-us/our-funders/ Cualquier opinión vertida en este documento es de los autores. No refleja necesariamente las opiniones de CIFOR-ICRAF, de las instituciones para las que los autores trabajan o de los financiadores.Este documento de trabajo busca aportar información socio-ambiental que permita contribuir a papel cambiante de los bosques en la historia reciente de Petén. Analiza las dinámicas de cambio de uso de suelo que muestran diferencias a nivel de los espacios de la región, especialmente durante los últimos 20 años que lleva establecida la Reserva de Biósfera Maya en Petén, Guatemala. Tiene como objetivo comprender los factores que han incidido en las dinámicas diferenciadas de uso de suelo en Petén, enfocándose en analizar los principales cambios económico-productivos a nivel de l departamento de Petén que implican trayectorias diferentes de uso de la tierra, así como sus implicaciones para la gestión de los recursos naturales a nivel de la RBM. Partiendo de una combinación de métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos y análisis de información geográfica busca aportar datos e información a los diversos procesos sobre la toma de decisiones en materia de recursos naturales. Los resultados apuntan a cambios en las trayectorias de política que tienen impactos en la percepción de los bosques, el uso de la tierra y la relación entre las poblaciones locales y los recursos naturales.El documento está organizado en cuatro secciones. Inicia con una breve reseña histórica del departamento, haciendo énfasis en la etapa reciente . La segunda sección presenta los principales cambios económicos relacionados con sectores productivos que tienen un impacto en los cambios de uso de la tierra. Se enfoca en las actividades económico-productivas priorizadas en el eje de desarrollo económico territorial planteados en el Plan de Desarrollo Integrado de Petén 2032 enfocándose en las principales industrias de la región. La tercera sección se enfoca en analizar la inversión pública en el departamento. Finalmente, partiendo de los resultados presentados, el documento presenta una discusión y conclusiones en relación a las implicaciones en la gestión de la RBM.Los resultados muestran como intervenciones de política pública influyen en trayectorias diferentes de uso de la tierra con implicaciones diversas para la gestión de recursos y específicamente a nivel de la RBM. Analizando acontecimientos claves, los cambios en las intervenciones del Estado y las respuestas de los actores en el territorio generan trayectorias diferentes con implicaciones para la gestión de los recursos y el manejo de la RBM. El análisis de estas trayectorias evidencia algunos de los desafíos de articular las necesidades de desarrollo con la gestión de recursos -con implicaciones para el uso de la tierra diferentes. Este estudio apunta a la necesidad de profundizar en estos hallazgos para promover alternativas de desarrollo que concilien las necesidades de desarrollo con la conservación -de manera que articule la participación de las comunidades, la generación de oportunidades que incorporen de manera más clara el rol de la gestión de recursos a escala regional.viii Introducción A nivel mundial, se estima que las comunidades locales y los Pueblos Indígenas poseen hasta el 65% de la tierra disponible bajo tenencia consuetudinaria, pero solo el 18% de esta tierra ha sido reconocida formalmente como propiedad o designada para su uso (RRI 2015). En 2020, al menos el 31% de la superficie terrestre (571 Mha) estaba bajo algún tipo de régimen de tenencia colectiva, la mayoría bajo propiedad de los Pueblos Indígenas, comunidades locales y afrodescendientes, ya sea de propiedad y gestión consuetudinaria o designadas para su uso, mientras que 137 Mha permanecen legalmente sin reconocer (RRI 2020). En términos de tierras forestales, en 2017, casi el 29,9% de los bosques en América Latina estaban bajo algún tipo de régimen de tenencia colectiva bajo propiedad de las comunidades, y otro 6,3% de la superficie había sido designado para su uso (RRI 2020). El 59 % restante es propiedad del Estado o está administrado por él (RRI 2020).Durante décadas América Latina ha sido testigo de amplias reformas políticas que redefinieron los derechos de tenencia sobre los recursos naturales como resultado de los cambios en la normativa sobre quién gobierna la apropiación y el uso de los bosques y las tierras (Larson et al. 2010;Monterroso et al. 2019). Estas reformas son el resultado de las luchas sociales, pero también de cambios en políticas de gobierno que promovieron el reconocimiento de derechos sobre las tierras y los bosques (Roldán, 2004). De hecho, en la región, una porción importante de la tierra se encuentra bajo régimen de tenencia colectiva de comunidades locales y/o Pueblos Indígenas incluyendo México (52%), Perú (35%), Colombia (34%), Brasil (23%) y Nicaragua (28%) (IBC 2016;Larson et al. 2016;Herrera 2017).A nivel de Centroamérica los mecanismos utilizados por los Estados varían, en casos como Honduras y Nicaragua (Larson et al. 2015;Sylvander 2021;Herlily and Tappan 2019), donde se han reconocido territorios de Pueblos Indígenas. En Guatemala, el reconocimiento de derechos ha estado marcado por el surgimiento de esquemas que permitan la coadministración de los bosques. La Reserva de la Biosfera Maya (RBM) en Petén, Guatemala, es un ejemplo destacado de devolución exitosa de los derechos sobre los bosques a las comunidades locales. La RBM tiene un enorme valor ambiental y cultural de importancia global. Resguarda una amplia diversidad de ecosistemas naturales, algunos de ellos únicos e íntegros, así́ como de especies vegetales y animales, tales como mamíferos, reptiles, aves residentes y migratorias, anfibios y peces endémicos (CONAP 2015). Asimismo, la RBM alberga sitios arqueológicos de renombre mundial que se benefician de una cobertura forestal intacta en sus alrededores.Desde 1990, bajo la supervisión del Consejo Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (CONAP), la RBM constituye la mayor área protegida (2,1 millones de hectáreas) del país y los mayores bosques tropicales de Centroamérica. La RBM se encuentra ubicada en el departamento de Petén, el cual abarca el 40% de la superficie territorial de Guatemala. Mas del 70% de la extensión del departamento se encuentra bajo algún tipo de régimen de conservación. Sin embargo, a pesar de la porción importante del territorio que se encuentra bajo conservación desde entonces, la historia de Petén ha estado marcada por intervenciones del Estado, especialmente desde mediados de 1950, para promover la integración de los bosques a la economía y promover el desarrollo bajo un fuerte énfasis agropecuario. Estos cambios en las dinámicas de cambio de uso de suelo muestran diferencias a nivel de los espacios de la región, especialmente durante los últimos 20 años que lleva de establecida la RBM. Para comprender mejor los factores que han incidido en esta dinámica tan diferenciada en Petén, este estudio brinda un análisis reciente desde el punto de vista del cambio de uso de suelo vinculado a actividades económico-productivas -en algunos casos ligados a intervenciones del Estado, a partir de tres preguntas clave:1. ¿Cuáles son los principales cambios económico-productivos a nivel de Petén? 2. ¿Qué intervenciones de actores gubernamentales y/o privados explican las diferentes trayectorias de uso de la tierra en Petén? 3. ¿Qué implicaciones tienen estos hallazgos en la gestión de los recursos naturales y específicamente a nivel de la RBM?En esta investigación utilizamos una combinación de métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos. A nivel de las herramientas utilizadas, se combinó la revisión de literatura, entrevistas a informantes clave incluyendo representantes de organismos gubernamentales, ONG, investigadores, organizaciones comunitarias y empresas del sector privado, visitas de campo, grupos de discusión y la experiencia de trabajo combinada de los autores en la región.Además, se revisaron datos cuantitativos de fuentes oficiales y herramientas de información geográfica 1 para presentar los resultados de forma visual. El análisis se enfoca en acontecimientos recientes (1990-2021) y busca aportar datos e información a los diversos procesos sobre la toma de decisiones en materia de recursos naturales. Los resultados apuntan a cambios en las trayectorias de política que tienen impactos en la percepción de los bosques, el uso de la tierra y la relación entre las poblaciones locales y los recursos naturales. Este documento busca aportar información socio-ambiental que permita contribuir el papel cambiante de los bosques en la historia reciente de Petén.El documento está organizado en cuatro secciones. Inicia con una breve reseña histórica del departamento, haciendo énfasis en la etapa reciente . La segunda sección presenta los principales cambios económicos relacionados con sectores productivos que tienen un impacto en los cambios de uso de tierra. Se enfoca en las actividades económico-productivas específicamente a partir de industrias que dependen del uso de la tierra y los recursos, las cuales fueron priorizadas en el eje de desarrollo económico territorial planteados en el Plan de Desarrollo Integrado de Petén 2032 (SEGEPLAN, 2013). La tercera sección se enfoca en analizar la inversión pública en el departamento. Finalmente, partiendo de los resultados presentados, el documento presenta una discusión y conclusiones en relación a las implicaciones en la gestión de la RBM.1 Reseña de la historia reciente de Petén (1990 -2021)Para ilustrar la perspectiva del Estado, identificamos políticas, regulaciones y planes cuya implementación en combinación con acontecimientos específicos reflejan cambios en la visión sobre los bosques. El texto prioriza acontecimientos que inciden en cambios en las dinámicas de uso del suelo como por ejemplo la ampliación de la red de carreteras y los cambios en los principales sistemas productivos. Parte de esta discusión se basa en el análisis de tres períodos históricos (siguiendo a Monterroso et al. 2018) que reflejan un giro importante en la perspectiva que el Estado tiene sobre los bosques y la gestión de los recursos forestales: 1. Petén antes de la RBM: La integración de los bosques a la economía nacional - ; 2. La creación de la RBM: Los bosques como un espacio de protección (1989 -2000) y 3. Los desafíos por consolidar la RBM: Reconsiderando el papel de los bosques como oportunidad de crecimiento económico (2000 -actualidad).Una síntesis de los principales procesos se muestra en la Figura 1, al final de esta sección. El primer período, desde los años 60 hasta finales de los 80, fue una etapa de colonización, en la que los bosques se consideraban principalmente una fuente de materias primas para la economía extractiva. En este período la colonización de los bosques fue la principal política de desarrollo con el objetivo de incrementar la productividad y asegurar la integración económica y política de la región (Melville y Melville 1971).Las políticas implementadas durante este período se centraron en promover el desarrollo agrario a través de la colonización de los bosques -para superar el aislamiento de las tierras forestales, percibidas como un obstáculo para el desarrollo y promover la extracción de recursos de alto valor comercial -madera, chicle y petróleo-. La implementación de estas políticas estuvo a cargo de la Empresa de Fomento y Desarrollo Económico de Petén (FYDEP), una entidad que dependía de la presidencia y estuvo liderada principalmente por personal militar (Casasola 1968;Pellecer 2010), operó durante casi tres décadas (1959 -1986). Como resultado de estas políticas, se incrementa el número de personas que llegan a Petén en busca de tierra. La tasa de inmigración alcanzó su nivel más alto en 1970 y comienza a estabilizarse recién hasta 1990s (Grandia et al. 2001;Carr 2008). De los acontecimientos más importantes de este período, en 1970 se habilita la carretera de terracería de Santa Elena a, Poptún; en 1981 se inaugura el Aeropuerto Mundo Maya; en 1985 se aprueba la nueva Constitución Política de Guatemala, y se asigna un artículo al departamento de Petén (Artículo15 transitorio), declarando de emergencia nacional la inclusión del departamento de Petén a la economía nacional.1. Zonas núcleo (36%, 767,000 ha), integrada por parques nacionales y biotopos protegidos, son áreas silvestres y arqueológicas protegidas, donde no se permite asentamientos humanos, ni extracción de recursos para mantener los procesos naturales. 2. Zona de usos múltiple, ZUM (40%, 848,440 ha) permite a grupos organizados el acceso y uso de los recursos bajo sistemas de aprovechamiento sostenible. 3. Zona de amortiguamiento, (24%, 497,500 ha.). Esta franja, situada al sur de la reserva, es un área en donde se permite actividades agrícolas, pecuarias y extractivas bajo esquemas de ordenamiento territorial, prácticas sostenibles y asentamientos humanos.El establecimiento de la RBM es uno de los cambios más significativos en la visión del Estado sobre los bosques.La implementación de esta política de conservación a nivel regional se consolida en el Plan de Desarrollo Integral de Petén (1992), uno de los primeros instrumentos de ordenamiento y planificación del territorio a nivel del país (UNEPET y APESA, 1992). A pesar de este cambio drástico, en el sur de Petén las políticas de desarrollo agrario mantienen la trayectoria iniciada durante el período anterior, promoviendo la expansión de la ganadería y la agricultura (Clark, 2000). Mientras que el interés por continuar la actividad de extracción petrolera en el norte, dentro de una zona de alta prioridad para la conservación, Laguna del Tigre, evidencia las contradicciones entre el nuevo planteamiento de conservación y la falta de un consenso sobre como manejar los recursos estratégicos de la región. Durante esta etapa, y en respuesta a lo que originalmente se concebía como una protección total, las protestas sociales condujeron a acuerdos entre el CONAP, por un lado, y las comunidades locales, las empresas madereras y los promotores turísticos, por otro, que condujeron a un punto intermedio, es decir, la conservación de los bosques a través de la gestión sostenible de los recursos. Una síntesis de los principales acontecimientos y cambios sociales y económicos se presenta en el Cuadro 1. Un tercer período se caracteriza por el renovado interés en promover el desarrollo a partir de actividades que promuevan el crecimiento económico y la inversión público-privada en la RBM (Ver Cuadro 2). Prevalece la visión de conservación, y se consolida la implementación de políticas y planes que promueven el petróleo y turismo. Se estima que entre 1990 y el año 2,000 cerca de 150 millones de dólares son invertidos por USAID y otros donantes para operativizar el manejo de la RBM (Gnych et al. 2021). Estas concesiones tienen como antecedente un proceso de manejo forestal establecido en las cooperativas del Usumacinta, donde ya había iniciado el aprovechamiento forestal bajo planificación (Monterroso 2015).La revisión de la política sobre concesiones y la continuidad del apoyo al sistema, permite avances importantes en las actividades de manejo forestal en la ZUM. Los documentos de planificación elaborados durante este período evidencian esfuerzos por articular las acciones de conservación con propuestas de desarrollo económico (SEGEPLAN 2013;CONAP 2015). A nivel social, conflictos en torno a la compatibilidad de modelos propuestos evidencia las contradicciones por articular una visión que concilie los diversos intereses a nivel territorial. A pesar de que se logra estabilizar las tasas de pérdida de bosque en algunas zonas de manejo, el escaso financiamiento asignado al CONAP pone en duda la prioridad que el Estado otorga a las áreas protegidas (Bovarnick et al. 2010). Además, dificulta los esfuerzos de control y vigilancia que no logran articular el apoyo de comunidades locales. En algunas zonas, la pérdida de gobernabilidad evidencia los fuertes desafíos para asegurar la presencia del Estado y el cumplimiento de los objetivos de conservación en regiones aisladas de la RBM (Sesnie et al. 2017). Establecido en el municipio de La Libertad, cuenta con una inversión mayor a 17 millones de quetzales (más de USD2 millones). Se establece como respuesta al amplio crecimiento de la ganadería en el departamento de Petén (la cual en su mayoría vino de la costa sur del país, derivado del desplazamiento de la actividad por el valor de las tierras, los procesos de legalización y la ampliación de cultivos de caña, y palma africana). El rastro cuenta con amplia capacidad y tecnología, pero su funcionamiento es costoso y requiere de una gran cantidad de animales sacrificados por día, para lograr su rentabilidad. Como un ejemplo de los impactos que estos acontecimientos han tenido en los cambios de uso de suelo y las dinámicas espaciales a nivel del departamento de Petén, la Figura 1, muestra una línea de tiempo los principales sucesos dentro de la RBM y dentro de Petén incluyendo una secuencia de mapas relacionados a población, cobertura forestal, carreteras y ampliación de cultivos palma africana. Si bien el departamento de Petén permaneció durante mucho tiempo siendo la región con la más baja tasa de crecimiento poblacional (Schwartz, 1990). La Figura 2 muestra que la población del territorio se ha duplicado entre el 2002 al 2018 (crecimiento del 48%, según datos del censo), pasando de tener 224,884 habitantes en 1994 a 366,735 en el año 2002 y a 545,600 en el 2018, con lo cual su población creció en 2.43 individuos en un periodo de 24 años 11 (INE 2002;INE 2018).La población se encuentra dispersa, generando grandes retos para asegurar la provisión de servicios básicos, como la salud y la educación, así como la prestación de servicios públicos como agua y drenajes. La mayor parte de la población de Petén se concentra en el Sur, en particular en los municipios de Sayaxché, Poptún, San Luis, La Libertad y el área central de San Benito, Santa Elena y Flores. Dada la existencia de la RBM en la zona norte, la población es mucho más escasa, con la excepción de los Parques Nacionales Laguna de Tigre y Sierra de Lacandón, donde los centros poblados se han extendido especialmente en los últimos 10 años.El mayor crecimiento poblacional de Petén para este periodo se dio en el municipio de Sayaxché que pasó de tener 55,578 habitantes a 93,414 (crecimiento de 2,365 habitantes/año), el aumento de población podría estar relacionado con la inmigración generada en parte por el trabajo vinculado al trabajo con la palma africana, que de acuerdo a GREPALMA (2019) genera unos 13 mil empleos directos.El municipio con el menor crecimiento lo representa La Libertad y el único municipio que reporta un decrecimiento es Dolores (-5,484 en el periodo reportado), dada la creación del nuevo municipio de El Chal.11 https://censopoblacion.gt/archivos/resultados_censo2018.pdf La población de Petén es joven y rural, en 2018 el 60% de la población se reportaba en áreas rurales y más del 74% son menores a los 35 años. Se caracterizan también por ser poblaciones empobrecidas, que sufren diversas privaciones (MIDES, 2018). De acuerdo a la última Encuesta de Condiciones de Vida el 60% de la población se encuentra bajo niveles de pobreza y 20% bajo pobreza extrema. En el sur de Petén, en los municipios de Sayaxché y San Luis, menos del 25% de la población cuenta con acceso a agua entubada. Esta situación coincide con que ambos municipios se concentra la mayor proporción de población indígena (alrededor del 35%). En ese sentido, las mejoras en el acceso a servicios básicos de agua, electricidad y drenajes, reportadas por el INE están limitadas a las zonas urbanas (INE, 2014).Por un lado, el analfabetismo ha disminuido en 18 puntos porcentuales por encima del nivel nacional. También ha aumentado, en dos años, el número promedio de años de estudio; sin embargo, el índice de escolaridad sigue siendo uno de los más bajos de todo el país.Otro indicador que permite entender los cambios a nivel del uso del suelo y los cambios en las dinámicas poblacionales es el incremento en la red de carreteras (Ver Figura 4). La inversión de carreteras en Petén inicia desde el tiempo del FYDEP tiempo durante el cual se inició con la construcción de caminos madereros y rutas para la exploración petrolera (FYDEP, 1971). Los esfuerzos conjuntos del FYDEP, cuerpo de ingenieros del Ejército de Guatemala, COVIAL y Municipalidades de forma acumulada hasta el año 2000 se refleja con 4,662 km en su mayoría caminos de tipo terracería, en un periodo de 40 años (1960 a 2000) según se puede ver en el Cuadro 3.El más amplio crecimiento en la red de carreteras de asfalto se dio entre el 2001 -2010, cuando creció en 509 km de asfalto (rutas: Flores-Melchor de Mencos, Flores-El Ceibo y Flores-Sayaxché). Pero el dato relevante está en la ampliación de red de carreteras de terracería, que se incrementó en ese mismo periodo en 3,621 Km y siguió creciendo en el siguiente periodo (2011-2020) con 2,983 Km. Esto implica que en Petén se dio un crecimiento de 2.42 unidades en su red de carreteras de terracería en un periodo de 20 años. Este crecimiento se observa más marcado fuera de las áreas protegidas, especialmente en zonas con requerimiento de una red vial adecuada, circundantes a actividades productivas dedicadas a la palma africana, la papaya y la teca. La descripción de los principales cambios económicos descritos en esta sección se basa en uno de los ejes propuestos por el Plan de Desarrollo Integrado de Petén 2032: el eje de desarrollo económico territorial (SEGEPLAN, 2013a: 46-48;80-114). Parte del análisis de los cambios en las principales industrias de la región, tales como la industria maderera y la de productos no maderables (ej. xate, chicle, pimienta gorda), la agroindustria, la industria bovina, la de los granos básicos, y la industria de petroleo (Fonpetrol) 12 . Los otros ejes propuestos en el Plan de Desarrollo son: desarrollo de capacidades, gestión ambiental, seguridad y gobernabilidad, articulación territorial. En esta sección nos referimos a las principales industrias identificadas en el plan (Ibid, 2013a: 90-114) para identificar dinámicas productivas que permiten entender los cambios a nivel del uso de recursos. El análisis no es exhaustivo, dado que un análisis profundo de las industrias principales requeriría el análisis de las cadenas asociadas y, por ende, implicaría un esfuerzo que va más allá de los objetivos de este estudio; sin embargo, permite ilustrar cambios en el tiempo y el espacio a diferentes escalas en relación a las industrias principales.En 1994, el Gobierno de Guatemala promovió un enfoque innovador para la gestión de la RBM: se otorgaron concesiones forestales de dos tipos, industriales y comunitarias (Ver Figura 5). Parte del proceso incluía firmar contratos por un ciclo de 25 años, con posibilidad de prórroga. Los contratos de concesión se otorgaron con la condición de obtener la certificación forestal del Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) en los tres años siguientes a la firma del contrato de concesión. Entre 1994 y 2002, se otorgaron 12 concesiones forestales comunitarias a comunidades residentes y no residentes en la Zona de Uso Múltiple (ZUM) de la reserva en una superficie cercana a las 400.000 ha (Radachowsky et al. 2012;Hodgon et al. 2015) 13 . Cada concesión es operada por una empresa forestal comunitaria (EFC) responsable de la gestión sostenible del bosque y de la distribución de los beneficios resultantes entre los miembros (Butler, 2021). A diferencia de sus contrapartes industriales, los contratos de las EFC permitían el manejo de productos forestales maderables y no maderables.Este proceso de devolución de los derechos proporcionó incentivos para la gestión forestal comunitaria a largo plazo, generando ingresos, empleo y nuevas formas de inversión tanto a nivel de la empresa comunitaria como de los hogares (Stoian et al. 2018). Las concesiones forestales comunitarias han demostrado ser un modelo exitoso para combinar los objetivos de sostenibilidad con mecanismos que mejoran la calidad de vida y promueven el desarrollo local, contribuyendo especialmente a la consecución de diversos Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) (Stoian et al. 2019).La gestión forestal sostenible en la ZUM, tal y como demuestra la certificación independiente de terceros, ha conseguido reducir considerablemente las tasas de deforestación en la ZUM (0,4% anual durante el periodo 2000-2013) (Hodgdon et al. 2015). La deforestación en las concesiones activas se ha registrado cerca de cero, en comparación con las zonas núcleo y de amortiguación de la RBM, donde las tasas de deforestación durante el mismo período fueron del 1,0% y el 5,5% anual, respectivamente. Además, la EFC invierte alrededor de 500.000 USD cada año para organizar patrullajes contra los incendios forestales y proteger los límites del bosque de actividades ilícitas (Monterroso et al. 2018). Esto permite garantizar la conservación de los bosques, y contribuir al desarrollo socioeconómico de las comunidades que gestionan los bosques. Esto se refleja en el aumento de los ingresos, las inversiones, los ahorros, la capitalización de las empresas comunitarias y la creación de activos tanto a nivel familiar como empresarial (Bocci et al. 2018). Las cadenas de valor madereras generan más de USD5M anualmente y representan un promedio del 40% de los ingresos familiares permitiendo invertir en salud y educación, manteniendo a muchos de sus miembros fuera de la pobreza (Stoian et al. 2018) (Ver Figura 6). Las empresas forestales comunitarias han ayudado a resolver retos sociales, económicos y de gobernanza que han representado desafíos más grandes en algunas áreas de protección estricta (Divine et al. 2020). Además, consiguieron reforzar la gobernanza contra las actividades ilícitas proporcionando ingresos y empleo para evitar el desplazamiento de las personas. El proceso de movilización y organización de base comunitaria se logró consolidar a través creación de organizaciones de nivel secundario -como la Asociación Forestal Comunitaria de Petén (ACOFOP)-, han sido capaces de fortalecer las estrategias de acción colectiva para resistir las presiones actuales y construir la gobernanza a lo largo del tiempo (Millner et al. 2020;Paudel et al. 2013). A pesar de cumplir con el doble objetivo de la conservación de los bosques y el desarrollo de los medios de vida, \"el acuerdo que ha llevado a esta historia de éxito está bajo amenaza\", como se informó recientemente en un artículo de la BBC (https://www.bbc.com/news/ world-latin-america-49753886). A tan solo dos años de la renovación del primer contrato de concesión, existen incertidumbres sobre el proceso de renovación que van desde propuestas para poner la ZUM bajo protección total, en combinación con el desarrollo del turismo, hasta aquellas que buscan ampliar la ganadería, la exploración petrolera y otras actividades que socavarían los esfuerzos de conservación del bosque a través de la gestión forestal sostenible por parte de las comunidades. Entre 2019 y 2021, se ha logrado la aprobación de la prórroga de cinco de nueve contratos activos además del otorgamiento de dos zonas de manejo en áreas que aún no habían sido concesionadas incluyendo el corredor Este de San Bartolo a la organización Amigos del Bosques y una nueva unidad de manejo denominada La Colorada-El Molino a la Sociedad Civil Selva Maya del Norte. Estas dos organizaciones llevaban más de 10 años en proceso de solicitud de contrato.El ingreso forestal, a nivel de estas empresas forestales comunitarias, proviene de dos fuentes principales, la generación de empleo directo y la repartición de dividendos (Ver Stoian et al. 2018 para más detalle) las cuales generan inversiones importantes a nivel de hogar y de las comunidades cuyos miembros forman parte de las EFC (Ver Figura 7), la cual muestra inversiones especialmente en educación y salud; así como inversiones en el hogar que buscan mejorar las condiciones de vida de los asociados. El programa de incentivos forestales dio inicio en Petén en 1997 y los primeros proyectos se pagaron en 1998 (Figura 8). El programa de incentivos forestales PINFOR operó entre 1997 al 2016 y evolucionó del 2017 en adelante en PROBOSQUE, además paralelamente se estableció otro programa dedicado a pequeños poseedores, el Programa de Incentivos Forestales para poseedores de pequeñas extensiones de tierra de vocación forestal o agroforestal (PINPEP) que inició en el año 2012. La Figura 9 refleja la distribución espacial acumulada de las tres iniciativas en Petén.Los incentivos operan fuera de área protegida y dentro de las zonas de amortiguamiento de éstas. El área de menor incidencia de incentivos se da en Sayaxché, mientras San Luis cuenta con la mayor incidencia de incentivos en la modalidad PINPEP. En Petén se ha establecido un total de 8,883 proyectos de incentivos, de los cuales 4,453 proyectos se han hecho en lotes con título de propiedad (PINFOR-PROBOSQUE) y 4,430 proyectos se han hecho en lotes sin título de propiedad (PINPEP). Además, se han invertido un total de Q. 739,776,832.48 en el periodo 1998-2021 (US$ 98,636,911) en fincas privadas y Q. 213,150,610.25 (US$ 28,420,081.37) bajo proyectos PINPEP.Figura 8. Area y monto relacionado con la implementación de programas de incentivos forestales en Petén (1998-2020) 0 10,000,000 20,000,000 30,000,000 40,000,000 50,000,000 90,000,000 60,000,000 70,000,000 80,000,000 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 0 Para PINFOR-PROBOSQUE la modalidad de incentivo que más número de proyecto ha presentado es manejo de bosque natural de protección, mientras restauración y sistemas agroforestales son los menos solicitados. En cuanto a los montos pagados, son los proyectos de reforestación los que más recurso han recibido (Q. 419,091,897), seguidos por los proyectos de protección (Q. 307,432,448.4) en el periodo estudiado.A  Sumando este monto al obtenido por las actividades productivas maderables en áreas protegidas US$ 7.29 millones/año, se puede concluir que la industria forestal en Petén genera ingresos brutos por US$ 15.39 millones/año. Este aporte de los bosques a la economía regional se desdibuja por la falta de disponibilidad de datos a la escala departamental y por la escasa información consolidada que existe respecto a las fuentes de ingresos en áreas protegidas cuyo manejo forestal es supervisado bajo CONAP y aquellas áreas privadas y públicas fuera de áreas protegidas supervisadas bajo el INAB. Por otro lado, estos montos dejan fuera algunos datos relevantes, la generación de ingresos por productos no maderables, los volúmenes, y aún más importante el proceso de gestión y manejo que está detrás. A nivel del manejo forestal en áreas protegidas, estudios especializados al igual que los informes anuales de certificación han demostrado que la producción maderable puede realizarse de manera sostenible (ver La actividad forestal, y en particular la actividad de extracción maderera tiene una historia propia, inclusive previo al establecimiento del FYDEP. La RBM se establece en el área anteriormente destinada como reserva forestal (FYDEP 1971). Esta zona se manejaba bajo escasos lineamientos técnicos y se enfocaba en la extracción de maderas duras con alto valor comercial -beneficiando en particular a la industria maderera local constituida por los aserraderos: Del Norte, San Nicolás, Gibor, Baren, Maingua, Petexbatún, El Rondón, Buenos Aires, Santa Elena, La Constancia y San Francisco. Estos aserraderos manejaban áreas grandes (Ver Figura 11), por medio de concesiones forestales de corto plazo (5 años) en todo lo que hoy es la RBM (incluidas las áreas de parques nacionales Schwartz, 1995). Tras la liquidación del FYDEP, los aserraderos se constituyeron en la Asociación de Industrializadores de la Madera de Petén (AIMPE), para tratar de mantener presencia con sus operaciones forestales, posterior a la cancelación del FYDEP, pero no tuvieron éxito (manejaban como lema: \"La Reserva de la Biosfera Maya es hoy, lo que la industria maderera conservó ayer\"). 14 Sólo dos empresas industriales lograron acceder a concesiones industriales dentro de la Zona de Usos Múltiples, incluyendo las empresas Gibor y Baren -ambas manejaron concesiones con el FYDEP.  Existe muy poca información sobre la situación de empresas en el sector de servicios en Petén (SEGEPLAN, 2013a). A nivel del departamento, la RBM es el área de mayor concentración arqueológica del país, algunas, como Tikal, de gran importancia dentro del área considerada como territorio cultural Maya (Chan 2007;2009). A nivel de la RBM se han identificado cerca de 188 sitios arqueológicos, de los cuales 166 se encuentran aún sin clasificar. El 30% de los sitios se encuentran en la ZUM y el 44% en las Zonas Núcleo. Según datos al 2002, dentro de la RBM se calculan cerca de 300,000 visitantes al año distribuidos en 16 sitios arqueológicos, hacia el 2019 los datos del Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo INGUAT mostraban que la visitación al departamento se ha duplicado. Sin embargo, la actividad turística se concentra en Tikal, área que registra más de 250,000 turistas al año. Esto significa que Tikal concentra cerca del 90% de los visitantes que ingresan a la RBM (Monterroso 2010).A pesar de ser uno de los destinos turísticos más importantes del país, la visitación del departamento se encuentra por debajo de otras regiones. Por ejemplo, para el año 2018 se reportaron un total de 284,202 turistas en Petén (debajo de Sololá con 387,163; Sacatepéquez con 639,571 y ciudad de Guatemala con 747,763) 15 . Por otro lado, si bien entre 2014 y 2019, la visitación había estado en aumento de hasta el 20% anual, la pandemia de COVID 19 a inicios de 2020 disminuyó la visitación de ambos -turistas y excursionistas al departamento -debido a las restricciones establecidas, reduciéndose a 594,000 a nivel del país. En Petén la situación fue similar -afectando de forma significativa la actividad. 16  Según reportes del INGUAT de un promedio previo de alrededor de 700,000 visitantes al año 2019, en 2020, la visitación cayó de forma abrupta a 21,492 visitantes, reportes de visitación de 0 personas entre los meses de abril a agosto 17 . Los impactos de la pandémia representaron retos importantes para la conservación del patrimonio cultural y natural, especialmente en materia económica y social, no sólo para sitios emblemáticos como Tikal, sino para el considerable número de sitios menores -en visitación -resaltando los desafíos institucionales que enfrenta el sector para aprovechar al máximo el potencial de la industria a nivel del país (Chan 2020). Según estos informes oficiales, el 73% de los visitantes registran visitas a sitios arqueológicos y el 59% visitas a espacios naturales (lago, lagunas, paisajes).Según el presidente de la cámara de turismo de Petén 18 , en el departamento existen cerca de 100 entidades turísticas (hoteles, tour operadoras, restaurantes, entre otros), que generan un ingreso bruto de US$ 25 millones/año. El orden de importancia económica se da así: hoteles, touroperadores, restaurantes, El turismo se ha planteado como propuesta para articular los intereses de conservación con la posibilidad de promover la inversión económica y generar ingresos. Sin embargo, los escasos espacios para articular las diversas posiciones de los actores sobre el tema y la falta de claridad sobre el modelo han resultado en conflictos (Devine 2018). La reciente propuesta S3131 presentada al Congreso del Gobierno de los Estados Unidos 19 de promover respaldo del país para la definición de áreas de conservación que permitan el desarrollo económico basado en el turismo. En Guatemala, posterior a la presentación de esta propuesta, se formaron dos mesas redondas en respuesta a la iniciativa legislativa, pero el interés de los congresistas ha disminuido con el cambio de gobierno de Estados Unidos en 2020. Aunque la iniciativa S.3131 no logró el respaldo necesario, el debate promovido es una muestra de que el turismo sigue siendo un tema de interés de la agenda política.La papaya es una de las cinco principales frutas tropicales a nivel mundial la tercera en importancia después del mango (52%), la piña (28%), la papaya (14%) (FAO 2018)  En los últimos 20 años, el cultivo de palma africana se ha incrementado exponencialmente en Petén. La Figura 13 permite visualizar el crecimiento que inició en el año 2000 con 320 Ha y ha llegado en el 2020 a 78,921.02 Ha (46.03% del área establecida a nivel nacional). La tasa de crecimiento a nivel nacional entre 2005 y 2010 fue del 20%, en Petén (192.4%). De las 20 plantas de beneficio que existen a nivel nacional, 7 se encuentran en Petén. En 2017, Guatemala ocupó el quinto lugar en la producción de la palma a nivel mundial, el segundo en América Latina (GREPALMA, 2017). El 85% de la producción se exporta. La actividad palmera contribuye al PIB nacional en un 1.2%. Según la Gremial Nacional de Palma Africana, GREPALMA (2019) la producción de palma representa el 80% del PIB en Sayaxché, 20% de PIB en el Chal y 12% del PIB en San Luis (generando alrededor de 13,000 empleos directos).Considerando los datos de origen del año 2020 y la situación actual, se ha dado un ritmo de establecimiento (plantación) de 3,930 Ha/año en Petén. Un dato comparativo podría ser el ritmo de establecimiento (reforestación) del programa de incentivos forestales (modalidad de plantaciones forestales) que se ha dado con 1,716 Ha/año (PINFOR-PROBOSQUE ha establecido 37,007.85 Ha en el periodo 1998-2020 y PINPEP ha establecido 267.2 Ha en el periodo 2013-2020).La distribución por municipio se muestra en el Cuadro 6, la producción de palma en el municipio de Sayaxché representa el 87% de la producción a nivel del departamento según datos para 2018-2019 generados por la Gremial de Palma 28 . El crecimiento en área del cultivo de palma ha implicado la adquisición de fincas (lotes) y para el año 2017 se habían adquirido 1,480 lotes y para el año 2019 creció a 1,779 fincas. La expansión de la palma ha generado un proceso de venta y compra de tierra, a través de contratos de arrendamientos de tierra, compra directa, o a través de terceros, para el establecimiento de plantaciones. La compra de tierra también busca asegurar accesos a caminos y zonas donde hay nacimientos o fuentes de agua, en algunos casos afecta el acceso y resulta en la privatización de zonas de acceso a carreteras y/o fuentes de agua. La Figura 14 muestra la dinámica de la adquisición de fincas por parte de las empresas palmeras en la zona sur de Petén entre el 2017 al 2019. Según el Estudio Socioeconómico del Cultivo de Palma de Aceite en Guatemala 29 los costos aproximados de adquisición de tierras y establecimiento de cultivos son alrededor de USD3,500/Ha, mientras que la inversión de tierra depende de la necesidad de riego (USD6,250) o no riego (USD5000) por lo que el costo de establecimiento es mucho más alto al costo de la tierra (CABI 2015:2). Partiendo de los datos producidos por este estudio y considerando que en Petén se ubica el 46.03% del área establecida a nivel nacional se puede deducir que los costos de producción -vinculados con los costos de producción de palma ascienden a US$ 1,410,000,000 30 , que en Petén sería alrededor de US$ 649,023,000 y US$ 157,724,671.9 en Plantas Industriales (datos para el año en que existían 160,000 Ha plantadas).En materia de ingresos brutos por ventas, se estima que Guatemala ha exportado del 2015 al 2019 un promedio de venta de US$ 389,207.6 millones/año a nivel nacional (2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019). Considerando el porcentaje de las plantaciones que se ubican en Petén (46.03%), esto daría un ingreso bruto anual de US$ 179.15 millones/año.Los cambios en las dinámicas socio-productivas en Petén han tenido impactos claros en la cobertura forestal. La Figura 15 muestra la evolución de la pérdida de la misma, el departamento pasó de una cobertura forestal del 61% en el año 2000 a 45% en el año 2016, perdiéndose en este período un total de 565,008 ha (35,313 ha/año). La pérdida de bosque es directamente proporcional con la expansión del área para uso agropecuario.29 Página 2. http://grupohame.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Estudio-PALMA-CABI-Guatemala.pdf 30 Para corroborar se tomó el dato del costo de la tierra por Ha y su inversión para el establecimiento sin riego (US$ 3,500+5,000) y se multiplicó por las 78,921.02, danto como resultado una inversión de US$ 670,828,670. El Cuadro 7 y la Figura 16 muestra los cambios a nivel del tipo de uso de suelo -específicamente entre el uso agropecuario -no bosque incluyendo guamiles y el bosque entre el período 2000 -2016. Por otro lado, el Cuadro 8 proporciona una síntesis de los datos anteriormente mencionados, indicando un fuerte incremento en el área dedicada a actividades agropecuarias, con dos ejemplos en el área dedicada al cultivo de palma africana, al mismo que un aumento significativo del número de cabezas de ganado vacuno en la región. De igual manera, los datos muestran un aumento de población aunado a un incremento significativo de las carreteras en el departamento. Esto permite ver, por ejemplo, que por cada kilómetro de carretera que se habilita aumenta 172 cabezas de ganado. Por otro lado, también evidencian una fuerte inversión generada por ciertas actividades, por ejemplo, la importancia de las actividades como los incentivos forestales con una inversión de Q6,310 pagados en incentivos por cada hectárea forestal incentivada. Además los datos reflejan que en Petén por cada Q. 3 que invierte el Consejo de Desarrollo, el INAB invierte Q.1 en materia de incentivos forestales (analizando como referencia los datos para el período 2005-2020). Dado que este análisis buscaba generar datos a nivel del departamento, la escala no profundiza sobre las diferencias existentes. A manera de identificar algunas de estas diferencias a lo interno del departamento, se hizo un análisis de cuadrantes partiendo de la identificación de 5 áreas diferentes (Ver Figura 17) a nivel de todo el departamento. Las áreas seleccionadas traslapan con diversas zonas de manejo de la RBM incluyendo su Zona Núcleo, la Zona de Usos Múltiples y la Zona de Amortiguamiento, así como las Áreas Protegidas del Sur y áreas del departamento que se encuentran fuera de áreas protegidas. Estas áreas se identifican en las figuras siguientes (Ver Figuras 18, 19, 20 y 21) si bien requieren un análisis más detenido -que queda fuera de este estudio -si permiten identificar trayectorias diferentes. Para identificar los cambios más importantes a nivel del uso de suelo, cada cuadrante presenta dos imágenes una correspondiente al área en el año 2000 y otro correspondiente en el año 2020, el análisis de los mapas se realiza de forma cualitativa, a partir de los cambios significativos que muestran la imagen. Por ejemplo, los cuadrantes 1 y 2 se encuentran dentro de la RMB (Figura 17 y 18), incluyendo áreas que se ubican dentro del Parque Nacional Laguna de Tigre (Cuadrante 1) y la Zona de Usos Multiples (Cuadrante 2) traslapándose ésta, con zonas de manejo bajo contrato de concesión comunitaria. Si bien el Cuadrante 1 se encuentra en un área cuya categoría de manejo en área protegida es Parque Nacional y restringe la actividad humana, la comparación entre el mapa del año 2000 al 2020 -muestra dos cambios significativos a simple vista: un aumento en la población -que apunta a la ampliación de sitios poblados, comunidades y la red vial, si bien el mapa no establece el tipo de vía dado que incluye caminos de terracería, senderos y trocapaces, los cambios en la cobertura de bosque a no bosque entre el año 2000 a 2020 son claros. Por otro lado, el cuadrante 2, muestra un área bajo contrato de concesión comunitaria, que si bien evidencian un aumento de las vías, por su ubcación permiten deducir que son trocopases derivados de la actividad de manejo forestal, sin embargo, el mapa no evidencia cambios significativos en la cobertura en los ultimos 20 años. Así mismo, el cuadrante 3 muestra los cambios a nivel del área central, una desconcentración del área poblada de San Benito y Santa Elena y un aumento de los sitios poblados y las carreteras alrededor del área del Lago con una disminución del área de cobertura de bosque (Figura 19).La red de carreteras se ha ampliado también dentro de las áreas protegidas. Solo en el Parque Nacional Laguna del Tigre subió de 272 km en 2015 (asfalto, terracería y trocopaces) a 1,188 km en 2020 (aumentando 915 Km, que equivale al viaje por tierra ida y vuelta de Flores Petén a ciudad de Guatemala).En el PN Sierra del Lacandón las carreteras incluso más que se duplicaron, de 135 km en 2015 (asfalto, terracería y trocopaces) a 413 km en 2020 (Figura 23). No se cuenta con un estudio detallado que refleje la dinámica posterior al proceso de venta de tierras para el cultivo de Palma Africana, al momento se sabe que muchas de las familias que venden se quedan trabajando en el mismo cultivo, pero otras emigran internamente dentro de Petén.El Cuadro 9 muestra una síntesis de los datos presentados en la Sección 2, mostrando el volumen de ingresos brutos anuales generados por las principales industrias en el Petén propuestas a fortalecerse por el PDI se presenta en el Cuadro 9 Plan de Desarrollo Integrado (SEGEPLAN, 2013b). Por otro lado, el aporte del Consejo de Desarrollo es de US$ 17.5 millones/año (promedio 2005-2020), constituyéndose en un 3% de lo que generan las industrias analizadas. Estos datos no muestran en sí la relación entre los valores brutos, la generación de empleo y la reinversión a nivel del departamentopero si dan una idea del papel que las industrias basadas en los recursos naturales y culturales juegan para la economía de la región. Sin embargo, estos no reflejan la pérdida de ingresos por el cambio de uso de suelo, la degradación de recursos y/o la perdida de los servicios ecosistémicos.Esta sección parte del análisis realizado por Tillit (2020) que buscaba entender los flujos de inversión pública en el departamento. Estos varían de acuerdo con los fondos que manejan los Consejos Departamentales de Desarrollo, bajo tres fuentes principales: a) Aporte presupuestario a Consejos de Desarrollo (asignaciones del presupuesto nacional que han sido constantes y han ido en aumento), b) Aporte extraordinario a los Consejos de Desarrollo y c) FONPETROL (a partir del año 2009).Nuestros resultados muestran que en el período comprendido entre el año 2005 -2020 se han invertido más de US$261 millones de dólares, distribuidos en los 14 municipios que forman parte del departamento (Ver Cuadro 10). La evolución de estos fondos se describe en las secciones siguientes. Q0 Q20,000,000 Q40,000,000 Q60,000,000 Q80,000,000 Q100,000,000 Q120,000,000 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9Aporte a consejos de desarrollo  Q50.000.000 Q100.000.000 Q150.000.000 Q200.000.000 Q250.000.000 Q300.000.000 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 9 -2 0 1 2 2 0 1 0 -2 0 1 2 2 0 1 1 -2 0 1 9 Aporte a consejos de desarrollo Aporte Extra Ordinario a Consejos de desarrollo FONPETROL La Figura 26 muestra una síntesis de la inversión a través del Consejo de Desarrollo de Petén a través de sus tres fuetnes identificadas en el período 2005-2020. El impacto más fuerte de inversión proviene de FONPETROL y el aporte principal se dio mayormente en el periodo 2011-2020, coincidiendo con el periodo de mayor establecimiento de nuevas carreteras de terracería en Petén (cuando incrementó en 11,265 nuevos kilómetros), con lo cual se dio un incremento de 2.4 Km en relación a toda la red carretera de éste tipo creada desde 1960 al 2000 (4,662 Km).De los fondos manejados por los consejos departamentales y municipales, los principales sectores de inversión están relacionados con la infraestructura y el transporte. Esto se puede observar en el análisis (Ver Figura 27), que plantea que el sector con mayor inversión es el de transporte por carretera, y el de menor inversión son los de transporte por agua y seguridad. A nivel de los gobiernos locales, los fondos manejados por el Consejo Departamental de Desarrollo generan fondos para manejarse a nivel de los Consejos Municipales de Desarrollo, en las 14 municipalidades que forman parte del Departamento de Petén (Figura 28). Los resultados muestran que las intervenciones gubernamentales en la región del Petén han pasado por diferentes etapas, con diferentes impactos sobre los bosques. Este estudio se ha concentrado en aportar datos para entender los procesos de política pública y otros cambios socio-productivos que influyen desde principios de la década de 2000. Este período está marcado por el surgimiento de nuevas iniciativas y un renovado interés en los bosques y los recursos naturales como espacio para el desarrollo económico basado en la agroindustria, como lo podemos ver con el surgimiento del cultivo de palma aceitera, la producción frutícola y la expansión de la ganadería. Estas propuestas de gestión de recursos han dejado su huella en el paisaje regional, en particular en el sur de Petén, con la conversión a gran escala del bosque al uso agrícola. En la RBM, por otro lado, una segunda trayectoria en algunos espacios de protección -el caso particular de los Parques nacionales Laguna de Tigre y en áreas de Sierra de Lacandón implica un enfoque de conservación incompleto, marcado por la ausencia de acuerdos operativos para el control efectivo de los bosques, lo que abre la puerta a la deforestación local y al surgimiento de redes ilícitas. Estas trayectorias se vuelven más evidentes en la visualización de los cambios en los cinco cuadrantes estudiados. Finalmente, una alternativa construida a partir de una tercera trayectoria, que combina la conservación de los bosques con el desarrollo de los medios de vida, implica la coordinación y consolidación de los intereses territoriales, en la que las concesiones comunitarias y el programa de incentivos forestales muestran los aportes que el manejo de los bosques puede tener a la economía local.Una buena comprensión de estas etapas y las trayectorias de política y sus implicaciones en los cambios de uso de la tierra resultantes permite situar el proceso de gestión de la RBM en un contexto más amplio de reivindicaciones sobre derechos y recursos. Estas dinámicas muestran los riesgos de las propuestas y políticas que no concilian intereses y actores en torno a un modelo de gestión forestal sostenible. Por ejemplo, proponer el desarrollo del turismo en áreas actualmente gestionadas por las comunidades, junto con la pretensión de suspender la gestión comunitaria de los bosques, ignora sin tapujos que esa \"protección total\" ha fracasado en gran medida en la zona central de la RBM. De hecho, estas propuestas socavarían los acuerdos de gobernanza estables y eficaces que han garantizado la conservación de los bosques y el desarrollo de los medios de vida durante más de dos décadas.Los escenarios en los que la degradación de los bosques, el conflicto social y la ingobernabilidad se refuerzan mutuamente han afectado durante mucho tiempo al sur de Petén y a la zona central de la RBM, incluidos dos parques nacionales. Los responsables de la toma de decisiones políticas tendrán que tener en cuenta esto, y la alternativa que supone el apoyo a una economía basada en la gestión de recursos y la gestión comunitaria de los bosques en la ZUM, a la hora de deliberar las propuestas para desarrollar la RBM, en busca de los mismos objetivos para los que se ha creado la RBM, incluida la preservación de los sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la región.Esta última sección busca reflexionar sobre trayectorias de política que continúan en la actualidad, en particular en relación a la tenencia de la tierra y el ordenamiento del territorio, especialmente en el sur, así como las propuestas de territorialización en todo el Departamento.El proceso catastral siguió adelante posterior a la culminación del FYDEP y las regiones prioritarias fueron tomadas en cuenta.El FYDEP definió seis áreas de colonización inducida para el departamento, siendo éstas: (1) Proyecto Santa Elena-La Libertad, con 3,000 km². Sus tres frentes de trabajo eran La Libertad (529 fincas cooperativas), Mopán (60 fincas ganaderas) y la Sabana (153 fincas); (2) Proyecto Machaquilá, que comprende 3,000 km², entre Santa Elena y Poptún, para 1,400 fincas; (3) Proyecto San Luis, que comprende 3,000 km², entre Poptún y el Puerto Fluvial Modesto Méndez, para 1,400 fincas; (4) Proyecto Altar de Sacrificios, de 2,000 km² en la bifurcación de los ríos Salinas y La Pasión, con grupos cooperativos; (5) Proyecto Sayaxché, con 3,000 km² para el asentamiento de cooperativas en orillas del río La Pasión; y (6) Proyecto San Fernando, en las márgenes del Alto Usumacinta, para asentar 9 cooperativas (Hurtado, 2010) Se considera que este proceso catastral iniciado por FYDEP y continuado por el Registro de Información Catastral (RIC) ha dado cierta estabilidad, bajo la premisa que el acceso a la tierra disminuiría la presión hacia el requerimiento de más tierras dentro de las áreas protegidas dentro de la RBM. Sin embargo, el comercio de tierras en Petén sigue activo y más bien como lo reportan algunos estudios, las dinámicas de tenencia han seguido un proceso de concentración de la tierra que es nuevo para la región pero que es común en otras regiones del país (Grunberg et al., 2013).La región ha jugado objetivos diferentes en materia de desarrollo, y quizá es la región que mejor refleja los desafíos de coordinación a nivel sectorial, así como las prioridades del Estado. En el caso de Petén, el papel que mantiene como región productora de alimentos (por ej. maíz blanco, frijol, ganado) mantiene firme los objetivos de la política de colonización, aún más de treinta años de promover una agenda ambiental. Petén es el departamento con el mayor hato ganadero de Guatemala (1,031,412 cabezas de ganado reportadas para el año 2013) MAGA Petén-INE (Directorio ganadero de Petén) y es considerado el granero de Guatemala, ya que es el máximo productor de maíz blanco del país (un 18% de la producción nacional). También es el mayor productor de Frijol de Guatemala (un 27% de la producción nacional).La territorialización prevista por el proyecto de colonización destinaba el sur de Petén como una zona ganadera y la mayor productora de granos básicos (maíz y frijol) para el consumo nacional (Hurtado, 2010).Fue justificada en el mismo Decreto Ley por la necesidad de cubrir la creciente demanda de producción de alimentos, planteando que las tierras en la cuenca del río Usumacinta y sus afluentes \"por sus condiciones ecológicas son las indicadas para este propósito\", considerándolas \"zona de reserva de producción de alimentos\" (Hurtado, 2010).Las políticas recientes, buscan promover un papel central de los gobiernos locales; por ejemplo, a través de la dotación de recursos a los consejos de desarrollo y las municipalidades, a través de FONPETROL. La asignación de recursos, entre otras razones ha promovido que surjan nuevos municipios. Esta región (actual municipio de La Cruces y la Libertad) es considerada una de las zonas de mayor producción de granos básicos. Su producción industrial y artesanal, establecida sobre algunos de los mejores suelos de Petén, es una de las más altas (unida a algunas zonas de San Luis y Sayaxché).Este estudio busca promover una discusión sobre los principales cambios económicos-productivos a nivel de Petén. Los resultados muestran como intervenciones de política pública influyen en trayectorias diferentes de uso de la tierra con implicaciones diversas para la gestión de recursos y específicamente a nivel de la RBM.Analizando acontecimientos de política claves, los cambios en las intervenciones del Estado y las respuestas de los actores en el territorio generan trayectorias diferentes con implicaciones para la gestión de los recursos y el manejo de la RBM. El análisis de estas trayectorias evidencia algunos de los desafíos de articular las necesidades de desarrollo con la gestión de recursos -con implicaciones para el uso de la tierra diferentes. Una primera trayectoria que plantea la conservación estricta a través de la categoría de parques nacionales ha tenido resultados diversos, para la gestión de recursos en zonas como los Parques Nacionales de Laguna de Tigre y Sierra de Lacandón, con serias dificultades: incremento de centros poblados, aumento de caminos y otras vías, así como la pérdida del bosque. Esta trayectoria es similar en las áreas que forman parte de los Complejos del Sistema de Areas protegidas del Sur de Petén, con una pérdida de cobertura de bosque y un aumento significativo de las áreas dedicadas a la agroindustria como por ejemplo de cultivos de palma africana o la papaya, así como la ampliación de ganadería. Finalmente, un tercer modelo a partir del programa de incentivos forestales y el sistema de concesiones forestales en la Zona de Usos Múltiples que buscan no sólo ampliar la participación de organizaciones de base comunitaria, el surgimiento de Empresas Forestales Comunitarias y suponen una articulación con la industria local.El papel que las dinámicas socio-económicas tiene a nivel de los recursos y de la población se puede ver en la diversidad de industrias incluidas en el análisis que promueven sistemas de gestión de uso de suelo y los recursos diversos-la industria turística, la industria forestal, la agroindustria tienen implicaciones en la gestión de recursos diferentes -especialmente si tomamos en cuenta que tres cuartas partes del departamento se encuentran bajo alguna categoría de protección. Los resultados muestran la importancia que tienen estas industrias en la generación de ingresos, en algunos casos -apuntando también a la generación de empleos y la importancia de ciertos sectores para la inversión a nivel de hogar y comunidad. De igual manera es interesante resaltar que los aportes que estos ingresos generan a nivel de inversiones son significativamente mayores en comparación con los ingresos que se obtienen a nivel de los gobiernos locales -inclusive tomando en cuenta las tres fuentes de fondos analizadas.Esto apunta a la necesidad de profundizar las vías para promover una mayor coordinación sectorial y territorial. En este caso, este análisis busca aportar información a escala departamental que es clave para entender mejor las presiones y propuestas de desarrollo a nivel de Petén y la RBM. Este estudio apunta a la necesidad de profundizar en estos hallazgos para promover alternativas de desarrollo que concilien las necesidades de desarrollo con la conservación -de manera que articule la participación de las comunidades, la generación de oportunidades de desarrollo que incorporen de manera más clara el rol de la gestión de recursos a escala regional.","tokenCount":"9590"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36fcba10e629cd0f0de862afd94f043c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c727aa87-fe05-4396-b49e-9be2f88020b2/retrieve","id":"1283411583"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f812bdfb-ef15-4b4d-88b0-1961580f58a1","pagecount":"64","content":"Integrated customary land and water tenure are particularly relevant in polycentric governance. As a concept, polycentrism was first coined in the 1960s to imply complex governance forms with multiple decision-making phases. Each level of the decision-making centre holds and operates some level of selfgovernment (Ostrom et al., 1961). In the recent past, polycentric governance in the management of water resources, land, forestry and other resources has emerged as one of the most important terminologies used to understand the multi-dimensional layers of decision-making processes by different actors and players to respond to community needs (Muller, 2012;Nagendra & Ostrom, 2012).Community actions in managing ground and surface water, storage and conveyance are the bottom-up starting point in polycentrism. Since long, communities have practised age-old solutions to address water infrastructure, storage, conveyance, and water access for domestic and productive uses. Techniques for storage when water resources are abundant act as buffers for water and use in dry periods. Conveyance infrastructure brings water in the quantities and quality where and when water is needed for domestic and multiple productive benefits for multi-faceted livelihoods. However, with growing water needs among different users -domestic and productive and by inter or intra-community users, there has been a growing need for better recognition and support among users and, as needed, better to manage the water resource (Muller, 2012).While community solutions are crucial to maintaining community structure and enhancing access opportunities, workable resolutions are mobilized into next-layer governance interventions through vertical integration processes. External financing of water infrastructure, for example, requires that communities meet specific essential criteria to qualify for support to access better water technology for drinking, domestic and productive uses. Top-down decisions requiring communities to adhere to prerequisites to be eligible for external funding exemplify vertical polycentrism.In this vertical link, the understanding of community-based water tenure remains a grey area in its role for efficient resource use towards achieving community development, food security and eliminating poverty. With limited understanding, the top-down criteria for support risk missing opportunities to better follow communities' own solutions and mobilize their resource, technical, institutional, social and financial assets.Water is central to life as it is needed for food, agriculture, energy and industrial purposes (FAO, 2017;Guillaume and Shigemitsu, 2021). At the household level, access to safe and clean water is at the core of sustainable development. The availability of adequate water supplies enhances good human health and well-being while reducing the disease burden of water-borne diseases (Prüss-Üstün, 2008;WHO, 2019).Water also promotes gender equality. When accessible, it alleviates domestic spheres dominated by females, such as fetching water for consumption and other domestic uses over long distances (ILO, 2019).However, the challenge still exists in the world today. Women and girls are disproportionately responsible for fetching water in a household posing a gender impact on inadequate water supply.However, adequate water supplies also enhance opportunities for children to attend school (Freeman et al., 2012) and for women and men to participate in all livelihoods (van Houweling et al., 2012), reduce household poverty, and generate sufficient food baskets and income. Yet, water access, especially in rural areas, has remained inadequate for many years compared to access in urban areas. While 89% of urban people have access to improved water supply services, access to improved water supply in rural areas is estimated at 51% (World Bank, 2020). This is a slight improvement from 2015, when only 44% of the rural population had access to essential drinking water services, a significantly low percentage compared to their urban counterparts, at 86% (NWSSC, 2018). Moreover, rural agriculture-based livelihoods of smallholders and pastoralists depend in many more ways on water than urban livelihoods.Moreover, the growing climate change impacts seen in drought occurrences (see Agrawal, 2008;Boko et al., 2007;Malhi and Wright, 2004;Smit et al., 2001) have exacerbated water access challenges. Water quantity and quality are reduced with poor and unpredictable rainfall patterns (Thurlow et al., 2009).Sustainable livelihood activities that depend on water, such as farming, also threaten to pose a risk of increased vulnerability and poverty among those affected. The critical challenges of water access and climate variability experienced in rural areas have encouraged all levels of institutions (formal and informal) to create systems that support and manage farming, water, land and forest resources for the benefit of poor people. At the community level, people have, since time immemorial, responded to climate variability and continue to live up to such measures with the management of land, forests, water resources and agriculture.Further, through the bottom-up and top-down polycentric governance, district and national levels have instituted governance structures and critical decision-making processes that reduce the water access gap between rural and urban areas and enhance access for the rural poor for domestic and productive use.They have also instituted measures that respond to adaptation and coping mechanisms to lessen the impacts of climate change and variability among the rural poor. For example, when water resources dry up, collectively, communities have built consensus to prioritize productive water for livestock and forego small-scale agriculture and backyard gardens because livestock cannot wait to get water. In the same way, communities have strategically aligned rules of access, equity and sustainability when managing public water resources and infrastructure to ensure no one is left behind from accessing and benefitting from shared public sources. These self-governance initiatives intra or inter-community highlight horizontal polycentrism in managing public infrastructure.Community actions to deal with climate variability are apparent in agriculture and water resource management. However, with growing threats of droughts, land and water scarcity, climate change increases uncertainty about accomplishing farm-based activities that are primarily the mainstay of the agrarian community (Hertel and Rosch, 2010;World Development Report 2010, 5). This situation has continued to perpetuate poverty among the rural poor, most hit by the impacts of climate change.Moreover, with population increases, people's needs are also growing exponentially, putting a strain on the already limited resources during droughts. The risks also augment because of climate change.Nonetheless, the bottom-up polycentric governance recognizes how rural communities have responded to climate variability in their local governance of land, forests, water resources, cropping and livestock, and their health and hygiene in agrarian livelihoods.Insights into communities' integrated horizontal polycentric decision-making about their multiple water sources to meet their multiple needs through public infrastructure and self-supply are still limited, but attention is growing.In the recent past, the concept of 'water tenure' has gained impetus. Whereas interest is continually highlighted in land and forest tenure -for example, we note how discourses around securing land and forest tenure take dominance (FAO, 2020) and means of securing such resources are well thought out, water tenure defined as 'relations among people, whether formally or customarily defined, between people with regard to water' (FAO 2020) is just gaining momentum. Communities worldwide have devised their own strategies in an integrated manner. For example, there are notable investments in infrastructure for self-supply to enhance access, though with stronger claims by the people who invest in the infrastructure than others. In most instances, the rights to use, access and control water resources stem from land tenure rights (Querol, 2019). However, without secure and adequate water tenure, people remain vulnerable to insecure access and poverty (FAO, 2016).Yet, growing momentum on community-based water tenure provides an opportunity for people to take advantage of local systems to organize and relate to one another about access and use of land, water and other existing resources using formal or informal rules and agreements (USAID, 2006;FAO, 2016). More so, this is prudent because, in customary systems, access to and use of resources -land, water, and forests-are regulated through community-based tenure among people living within predefined locations (Troell and Keene, 2022).Furthermore, customary rights to the naturally available surface and groundwater resources are evident, mostly linked to the land resource. Because land tenure is closely related to claims of water resources that run through and exist within the land, the access and management of water resources follow preexisting claims of water access and control on private or public land. This is called the 'land-water' nexus.In many ways, water is a connector linking with land tenure and other natural resources. In rural areas, customary or traditional land is an essential resource for livelihood and significantly reduces poverty for the rural population (Henriques et al., 2011;Molla et al., 2018). Traditional land is well recognized as underpinning the livelihoods of the rural population. Traditional land has served communities in agriculture, pastoralism, tourism, and forestry (Busiingye, 2002;USAID, 2016).Traditional land remains fundamental for resource use in rural development. This is, at best, only partially the case for customary water tenure appurtenant to customarily governed land. Land tenure is closely related to the claims to surface water resources flowing over the land or staying in lakes and ponds or to groundwater reserves under the land, both for smallholder and pastoralist communities. Land tenure also recognizes the growing interdependencies among water, land, food and agriculture that ensure wellmanaged resources to meet the ever-increasing demands of the ever-increasing populations. Although the customary land claims are well recognized, however, there is hardly any understanding of this landwater nexus as yet.Conflict is also rife in conditions with undefined tenure that guarantees one's access, use and control of water resources. As such, water continues to be at the centre of people's lives, and the need to control its access and use has grown exponentially among people. Still, the means of conflict resolution are not known yet.However, these many linkages are still hardly understood. This study seeks to fill these knowledge gaps.The objective of this study is to map community solutions to deal with climate variability and how information is mobilized into or interfaces with the next layer of government interventions that brings new perspectives in understanding how local solutions can be better mobilized into external solutions to climate change adaptation through horizontal and vertical integration processes, with a focus on living community-based water tenure in rural Zambia.Unlike legislation in many other African countries that ignores and overrides customary water tenure, Zambian national water resource legislation partially recognizes customary water tenure. In particular, at the national level, Section 63 of the Water Resources Management Act addresses customary water tenure as follows: \"A person who intends to apply for a permit to use water for any purpose, other than for domestic and non-commercial purposes, in a customary area and that use is likely to substantially affect the supply of water for domestic and non-commercial purposes for the occupants of that customary area, that person shall, prior to making an application to the Director-General (a) obtain approval of the traditional authority in that area; and (b) put in place alternative means for securing water for domestic purpose\".Therefore, this study intends to highlight access rights and management to community water resources and land in rural areas of two low-income communities. This is achieved by comparing bottom-up living integrated customary land and water tenure and vertical and horizontal decision-making processes at different levels of governance.Climate variability and climate change threaten agriculture-based livelihoods worldwide and in Zambia's low-income rural areas. In Zambia, droughts and reduced rainfall patterns, particularly in Agro-ecological Region I, have been a significant feature that people have lived with for a long time. Some scientific studies reveal that droughts have increased over the years (MTENR, 2007). Thurlow et al. (2009)'s study of rainfall patterns conducted from 1976-2006 pointed out more aggravated and recurrent droughts in the 1990s and 2000s (specifically 1991/1992, 1994/1995 and 2004/2005 farming seasons). To date, the impacts on agrarian communities that rely on rain for crop production and general livelihood are undebatable.Vegetable gardening reduces. Cattle and other livestock die when there is too much dryness because they lack water and grass for grazing. This further pushes small-scale farmers into extreme poverty as livelihood assets are lost due to inadequate water supplies.Similarly, water supply for domestic and productive uses is impacted. Trends show that the water table decreases in groundwater aquifers and some extreme cases, drying up during the dry season (Nyambe and Feilberg, 2007). Moreover, most rural communities lack adequate and developed technologies to draw groundwater sources to improve household water access (Chongo, 2011). This also exacerbates the problem of inadequate water supplies for domestic purposes. Improving access to water will become even more critical with climate change and variability.Surface water sources in streams and rivers also dry up during the dry season. However, as the primary renewable water source is rainfall, water resources are recovered in ground and surface sources with the onset of rain.As climate change risks augment, adaptation solutions are devised at different layers of governance. At the national level, the focus is on policies and plans that respond to vulnerabilities to climate change (Mustafa, 1998;Smit et al., 2001). On the other hand, intermediate-level governance promotes community adaptation capacities with agriculture, forestry and water technologies that enhance adaptive community capacities (Mweemba, 2019). For example, the importance of developing water harvesting and storage technologies solutions in years of rain surplus is emphasised to lessen water shortages in lowincome rural agrarian communities and enhance livelihoods (Mweemba, 2019). However, such solutions should respect, protect and build on what communities are already implementing as promising, climatesmart solutions.Communities also build their own coping strategies for climate variability to adapt to climate change. As observed by Scientific Scholars, vulnerabilities and risks to communities are reduced when people adopt adaptation and coping mechanisms that are available within their realms and those that have been used for time immemorial (Jain, 2007;Neubert et al., 2011). For example, when the streams dry up, rural people dig shallow wells or scoop holes in the streams' beds to find groundwater used for gardening and stock watering. However, such coping and adaptation mechanisms only last a few months and support productive activities for a short time before scoop holes in the stream and river beds dry out completely. However, little is known about horizontal polycentric decision-making at the community level and the interface between communities and the lowest government tier. Yet, it is crucial to building on existing solutions and priorities that communities have dealt with seasonality, floods and droughts since time immemorial.Of course, climate change adaptation measures in Zambia are broad, e.g., early warning, crop choice, and forestry. However, this study focuses on adaptations to strengthen resilience to water variability because: (i) climate change is mainly manifest in exacerbating seasonal variability and unpredictability in water resource availability and more extreme events; (ii) there is still a significant knowledge gap in understanding communities' polycentric decision-making in integrated water tenure, including links between land and water (iii) government in Zambia and elsewhere is already committed from national to the local level to improve access to water, in any case for domestic uses/human rights to water, with necessary arrangements between communities and lowest tiers. NGOs are also horizontally integrated into those local government spheres. So the case of polycentrism in water has potential lessons to learn about polycentric decision-making for other fields.This section presents the methodology used during the study. In this regard, we explain the selection of the study sites and the underpinning reasons for site selection. This section also presents the research design, sample population and the methodology used to sample participants at all levels, i.e., community, intermediate or district and national, to develop a comprehensive assessment of the horizontal and vertical polycentric governance in customary land and water tenure. Finally, the section shows data collection methods used to gather data from research participants.A case study methodology was employed to compare bottom-up living integrated customary land and water tenure and generate an in-depth understanding of multi-faceted community-based approaches used by rural communities in the management of land and water access.The study followed a case of two communities; one matrilineal, the other patrilineal -to provide qualitative data that underpins contextual land and water-related situations in Zambia. In addition, an in-depth analysis of the study sites that differed in lineage delivered observations on gender and power relations in the management of land and water tenure issues that are particular for each location.This study mapped out two communities in Zambia. Makopa Village in Nyimba District of Eastern Province and the Simukale village in Monze District of Southern Province. Two criteria were used to select the study sites. The first entailed selecting one predominantly matrilineal location and the other patrilineal to understand whether there are significant differences between the two types of customs in relation to land access, water access and resource use for domestic and productive activities. The comparison also looked at different power relations in matrilineal and patrilineal communities. Makopa Village is an area that is predominantly matrilineal 1 , or based on kinship with the mother or the female line, whereas Simukale Village is patrilineal.The second sampling level involved research participants in the study-first, key informants and second, participants in the focused group discussions. Key informants were chosen based on two criteria -a) being leaders of the community and b) having lived in the community for an extended period to have sufficient information that was of interest to the study. Two key informants were interviewed in the two communities -two from each study site.On the other hand, participants in focused group discussions were selected by ensuring that all groupings within the community were represented. The following criteria were used for the selection; gender, age, water users, agriculturalists, pastoralists and leadership positions held within the community. This ensured holistic views from all community members and the collection of information representative of all opinions from residents of the study sites. A total of four focused group discussions were conducted, with a composition of between eight to twenty participants in each group.At the intermediate or district level, sampled key informants comprised water service providers, implementers of water and climate change projects and the local authority to assess bottom-up, topdown decision-making in the land-water tenure nexus. In addition, six key informants were interviewed at the district level in Nyimba and Monze districts.At the national level, key government officials working in water resources management were sampled purposively for the study. Further, NGOs and government wings working on climate change adaptation were included as key informants in the study to understand how climate change and interventions1 A matriline is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals in all intervening generations are mothersin other words, a \"mother line\". In a matrilineal descent system, an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group as their mother.impact the land-water nexus. Three (3) government and NGO representatives were interviewed during the study.Literature was reviewed on gender, and land tenure, vertical polycentric decision-making in water supplies, and general background information. The case study for primary data collection focused on the local community scale, where women and men managed multiple sources to meet their domestic and productive needs through self-supply and, to a more considerable extent, through infrastructure financed by the government, NGOs or other external support agencies. To this effect, three main steps were employed to collect the data -participatory mapping exercises, qualitative community interviews in the form of key informant interviews, focused group discussions and in-depth interviews with key informants at the district and national levels.Through a focused group discussion, participants were asked to draw existing surface or groundwater sources within communities that are significant for domestic and productive purposes by community members. Further, participants were asked to locate on the paper map existing land, forests, fields and grazing areas within their communities to show holistic resources that support community development.All resources and identified features were marked and given a local name agreed upon by all participants as a correct representation of the named resource or element. Once completed, all participants reviewed the information provided to ensure that information provided was an accurate representation of resources on the ground.To better understand available resources, transect walks were conducted in addition to discussing available resources with research participants. Transect walks also provided an opportunity to observe critical features recited and document the relevance of the resource to the community's access and use.2 Participatory mapping entails organising and plotting information based on its organizing and plotting information on the manifestation, distribution, access and use of resources within the economic and cultural area of a specific community.Two types of qualitative interviews were conducted at the community level-interviews with community leaders and focused group discussions with community participants (Figure 1).The first stage of community interviews was conducted with community leaders, i.e., traditional leaders or their representatives. Interviews with community leaders provided insights into community dynamics and general living situations. Interviews with community leaders also brought insights into family lineages and how they are organized in matrilineal and patrilineal communities. Further, this discussion stage also investigated power and gender relations in matrilineal and patrilineal societies to understand whether there were significant differences in access to resources among matrilineal and patrilineal societies.Interviews with community key informants were done on a face-to-face basis. These criteria of discussions were used to allow all ambiguous issues to be clarified during meetings.Community interview guides were administered to groups of males and females and mixed groups through focused group discussions. Creating variations in the types of interviewees was necessary to understand response patterns in cases where interviewees were diverse and in situations where only one gender was present. Among the research participants were committee members of water points, leaders in church groupings and cooperatives and ordinary community members of different ages and gender that did not belong to any committee or community grouping. At the district and national levels, data collection focused on policy recommendations on processes used to implement water resources and infrastructure for public use. These spanned from sourcing funds, working with communities to assess community needs of the resources and setting community priorities to determine what water infrastructure was best suited for communities and conducting actual implementations.District and national-level in-depth interviews with key officials working in the water departments were done to investigate laws and policies that support water and land governance at the community level.The case discussed in the document presents polycentric governance in water access and management of customary water tenure in Makopa and Simukale villages. Below are brief descriptions of each study site to provide contexts of pertaining conditions. The section also highlights the importance of the landwater nexus in family lineage and water tenure systems.Makopa village is situated in Nyimba district in the Eastern Province of Zambia. Nyimba district is located in the Southern part of the Eastern province. It has an estimated area coverage of 12,500 km2.Makopa village covers the northern part of Nyimba district. The area is generally characterized by poor infrastructure and has more or less been marginalized in the district's economic development. The maintained gravel road is the chief developed progressive feature of the area. The area generally lacks sufficient surface year-round water sources and has a few developed water infrastructures, such as boreholes and wells. The lack of adequate water and other resources perpetuates poverty in the area.The local people had little clout in district politics and limited influence on decision-making processes on issues affecting their daily lives, such as inadequate water supply due to marginalization and high poverty levels.Economically, Makopa village relies on crop farming of rainfed crops for home consumption and sale.Maize and groundnuts are the most dominant crops grown in the district. Most farmers depend on rainfed agriculture due to limited options for accessing water during the dry season. Available streams that hold water during the rainy season dry up during the dry season, leaving people without access to surface water. Fewer farmers practice pastoralism with limited numbers of cattle. Instead, most poor people have small livestock such as goats, pigs, and chickens that support their livelihoods when they need to raise income for home use.Nyimba is dominated by the Nsenga-speaking people, who are dialects of Nsenga Luzi found in the Luangwa valley. Nyimba people are known for their rich matrilineal culture, which influences their way of life, beliefs, behaviours, practices, and how others perceive them. Traditionally, the people of Makopa village and Nyimba district trace their relations through their mothers. In this society, the female line is seen as the rightful owners of the land. This also extends to the succession of kingships. The power and authority of a sitting headman/woman are only handed over to the subject's female relatives and traced back in a matrilineal line. If a male chief dies, his children cannot inherit the chieftaincy -instead, his sister's children are entitled to have a claim of power.The power and authority held by chiefs and headmen/women remain critical denominators in allocating resources such as land and water. Tenure of land and resources within the land the traditional leaders preside is, by default, assumed by traditional leaders. As the holders of the rights to land within their jurisdictions, they decide where and who should gain access to land resources. Defacto, the allocation of land resources with existing water resources also places traditional leaders responsible for allocating customary water rights to individuals assigned to the land. Nonetheless, even though traditional leaders seemingly govern the land and its resources through their mandate as land allocators, in practice, interactions among communally or family-owned water users influence the governance of access and management of water resources.Culturally, customary marriages predominate both patrilineal and matrilineal societies. Once the marriage rites are done, the woman moves in with the man or his family. In patrilineal societies, this is not debatable. On the other hand, matrilineal societies allow men to move in with the woman's family, particularly if the man has no adequate means of providing for his wife. As a man, ownership of land and other assets is of the essence that can be used for farming and other livelihood activities that support the wife. Absent these, the couple will live with the wife's family if they have assets and land that the newly married couple can use for productivity and earning a living. Therefore, a newly married couple will be provided with a piece of land by the host family, where they will build their house and be given a piece of land for farming.Simukale village is situated in Monze district of Southern Zambia. Monze district is a small district with a population of 163,578 people (based on the 2000 Census of Population and Housing). However, the 2022 population Census findings are yet to be published -indicating that the population might have increased over a decade. The district is about 180km southwest of Lusaka, the capital city of Zambia. It is also situated about 300km from Livingstone, the tourist capital of Zambia, situated further South.Economically, the district -and Simukale in particular, is dominated by agrarian farmers whose mainstay is crop and livestock farming. Most people highly depend on crop production as their main livelihood activity. Major cash crops grown are rainfed, including maize, groundnuts, cotton and sunflower. In the dry season, people also grow vegetables on small plots and in the backyards for household consumption and sell them to sustain their livelihoods. However, with limited water resources to sustain livelihoods, poverty levels have risen steeply over the years. Population growth and growing water demand for domestic and productive equally threaten social and economic development in rural areas. As households' livelihoods depend on land and water for survival, resolving water challenges for productivity remains critical to the growth and development to reduce high levels of poverty within the community. Moreover, poor households' livelihoods depend on day labouring in crop farms of wealthier farmers.Culturally, though falling in a region with dual kinship -matrilineal and patrilineal, Simukale village is principally patrilineal. Patrilineal societies have a kinship system in which family lines are derived through paternal lines. Essentially, this implies that children are recognized by the names or families of their fathers. In this society, the role of a man and a woman are clearly defined. Men are the primary providers for the family and hold significant power and authority in running homes. In addition, men prepare for their children's future by ensuring that their offspring are given land for farming when they grow up and given livestock as an inheritance to improve their livelihoods.In African culture, it is not uncommon for households or families to hold and claim access to land and water resources that have been within the family for generations.\"…My father owned this land and passed it on to me. His father also passed it on to him and his brothers. Now that I have sons, I will equally allocate pieces of land to them when they are older\". -Male respondent in Simukale village.Kinship plays a crucial role in land access vis-à-vis water tenure. In the study sites, field experience has shown that land passed on through family lineages using informal rules and agreements is legitimate, and owners are recognized to hold rights to the land. In patrilineal communities, the responsibility of ensuring sons have access to resources as they age rests on the father and father figure of the family. As already alluded to in the earlier sections, the father passes on land for farming to offsprings -particularly sons that are recognized primary providers for the family when they take a wife.When parents allocate land to male children in patrilineal societies, the male offspring will retain rights to the land and manage and use the land independently. Traditions that recognize the passage of land customarily also pass on land rights that owners can enjoy for decades. Pieces of land allocated traditionally are considered legitimate, and it is unexpected for any member of communities to contest any given piece of land and water.At the same time, kinship is significant in determining the family's identity and a critical feature that helps to understand societies (Radcliffe-Brown, 1950;Hull, 1980). Lineage influences many aspects of human development, such as rulership, titles, and access to property, including land in traditional culture. In matrilineal societies, inheritance of property, such as land, may be left to each family to decide how they pass on property to their children. This includes water resources that run through the land and all infrastructure existing within the land.However, the female family still claims children from a couple and may pass on land to their offspring.Their ethnicity and clans are also obtained from the maternal lines. Ethnicity lines, therefore, enhance rights to land and all resources within it. Moreover, stronger relations among female relatives than among male relatives puts children in female-dominated families at a better advantage in a matrilineal society.Just like access to resources, the succession of rulership follows the lineage of female subjects 3 .In such circumstances, family inheritance, though significant, is primarily characterized by unwritten rules and based on local practices and norms (Cotula et al., 2004). Though essential to share land resources and, by default, water with offspring and relations within families, the unavailability of written contracts weakens the security of the recipient of complete claims if individuals that passed on the inheritance pass on. In the absence of enforced paper agreements, verbal agreements are considered unsafe and do not ensure unlimited access to resources.Several examples have been noted where when the one holding the family together as a head of the family passes on, those that remain may contest the rights for other members to continue accessing land with water resources.\"My uncle that gave me this piece of the land died a couple of months back. His older children asked my wife and me to stop using the land he had allocated to us before he died. They are now using our water troughs to water their cattle within our land. And they have not sought permission to do so. And really, there is nothing we can do but let them have the land and everything in it because we do not have any document to substantiate our claim\".-Male respondent in Simukale Village.Women's vulnerability to denied access to land increases when discourses about their inability to perpetuate family ties begin to be discussed. An exceptional example was given about the situation in Makopa, a matrilineal society, \"…If a widowed woman living on a piece of land they owned with her late husband decides to remarry, they are not allowed to stay within the compound if the land they occupy belonged to the late husband's family. Instead, they should move away and leave that piece of land for children born from the first marriage\".-Community leader, Makopa.Similarly, in patrilineal communities, a female family member's marriage may also hinder accessing resources held in the family.Second marriages, in which the wife moves to the husband, in both societies limit women's ability to own land within their rights. In patrilineal societies, a woman's access to land and water resources is heightened when linked to a man's ownership of such resources. For females born in patrilineal societies, their share of inheritance is affected and dispossessed if their guarantee is no longer available to perpetuate their right to own land and resources (Yao, 2014).In matrilineal systems, females that join the families through marriages are also disadvantaged in owning land and resources within it. However, the females born within the family lineage have strong claims to land and water resources because their customs permit them to claim rights to land and resources. Therefore, the level of vulnerability is lessened among women in such societies.However, whereas kinships, power, family associations and relations determine one's claim to land and water resources within it, other claims at open or surface water sources such as streams and rivers, lakes, and ponds, other claims to water resources exist. Access rights are legalised among people residing within a predefined location. Water access rights are important for domestic and productive.For example, small gardens and livestock water needs are widespread among smallholder and pastoralist communities. Competitions for land allocation and spaces in the proximity of water resources are rife because proximity to surface water defines how well one's access will be. In villages, headmen/women or council of elders are the central authorities to land allocation. To a large extent, their role in land allocation provides some degree of indirect influence on the allocation of water resources. Once allocated a piece of land adjacent to surface water or water flowing through the land, one can typically claim riparian rights that guarantee rights to access water for productive use. However, others can still claim rights of way to the resource.Further, streams and rivers that transverse through privately owned land have restricted public access.For example, smallholder farmers with vegetable gardens will claim riparian rights to surface water that flows within their land and will use water from open sources that flow through their land. Within those rights, the bundle of rights also emerge: absolute governance of water resources and land, alienation and exclusion rights from access by externals.Like open sources, family-owned water sources and infrastructure used for domestic uses, such as deep and shallow wells, existing within private land are used and controlled by private owners. Neighbours and other people who require access to wells may request water from the wells. They need permission to access and use water from family-owned sources. However, they cannot claim any water rights to the wells.In all homesteads, people use domestic water supply for drinking, washing clothes, cooking, washing hands and body, cleaning dishes and utensils, including cleaning surroundings (Shan et al., 2015;Howard et al., 2020;Crouch et al., 2021). In rural areas globally and Zambia in particular, boreholes with hand pumps and boreholes mechanized with water reticulation systems, hand-dug wells, and wells equipped with drills and surface sources such as streams and rivers, dams, and dykes provide important sources of domestic water supply. However, in most instances, the importance and access to domestic water sources vary from location to location. In most cases, this is based on the availability of water supply or water infrastructure with safe and clean water and the proximity of the water source to people's homesteads.In Makopa and Simukale communities, boreholes equipped with hand pumps are the most important sources of water used for drinking and domestic purposes. They are accessed mainly by the general public within the community (Figure 2). As respondents clarified, Simukale village has four boreholes equipped with hand pumps. Each section of the community relies on the borehole closer to their homesteads. In addition,\"three of the boreholes are accessible to the public within the community, and a single household uses one because the user laid a claim on it despite it being implemented for the general public,\"-Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Simukale village.Additionally, all boreholes, including the one with a single user, were implemented with external funds by the government through the local authority. There is also a borehole in the distant fields outside Makopa village belonging to another village that is accessible to the people of Makopa when the main borehole within their community breaks down and is not accessible. However, in that distant field, Makopa has no claim to the land or the borehole they use when in dire need of water. Therefore, the Water Point Committee for the borehole has to permit and grant them access to water.Additionally, Makopa village has boreholes within the community that have limited access, and only a few households can get water.\"There is also a borehole belonging to the school though it has limited access to the general public… only households close to the school get water from the borehole.However, these are allowed to get water from the school borehole because the public borehole is further from their homesteads,\"-Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa village.Makopa village also has a borehole belonging to a community health care facility not accessible to the general public. Therefore, water access at the health care facility is limited to patients and staff living close to the facility. While other sources, such as wells, dry up during the dry seasons, water from boreholes with hand pumps is available all year round. Moreover, boreholes equipped with handpumps also increase the proportion of people within a community with access to clean and safe water. On the whole, borehole infrastructures provide the required water needs to the general public.Other water sources for drinking and domestic uses in Makopa and Simukale villages include deep and shallow hand-dug wells. Simukale village, for example, has four family-owned hand-dug wells.Water from the well is generally considered safe for drinking, and when correctly built and with good maintenance, wells provide a consistent supply of clean water and sometimes may last all year round. In addition, well-maintained water wells also have low or no bacterial load that would make the water unsafe for human consumption. Therefore, there are limited treatments required for drinking water.Two of the wells in Simukale are well-covered and protected from contamination and use pulleys to lift water from the well. The other two lack adequate infrastructure to protect them from contamination and lack easier means of drawing water. Users rely on make-shift pulleys to draw water from underground using ropes connected to buckets or any open jerry cans.In Makopa village, however, there is only one privately owned deep hand dug well equipped with a hand drill. For most poor people in rural communities, the cost of constructing a water well is still considered high.Further, shallow wells and scoop holes are essential sources used by many to access drinking and domestic water.Additionally, newer sources of water emerge during the rainy season. For example, people collect rainwater falling on iron sheets to fill buckets during the rainy season. This water is mainly used for cooking and washing. However, there is no permanent technology to harvest rainwater during the rainy season that would last a considerable amount of time during the year.Enhancing solutions for access to domestic water supply has entailed collectively or individually innovating processes that enhance access to water for household use for drinking and domestic supply.Responses from Local authority respondents at the district and national levels can be grouped as follows:• Developing wells for self-supply;• Sharing water resources inter and intra-community;• Prioritising water needs; and• Management of water sourcesDeveloping water infrastructure for self-supply is a solution that respondents highlighted as a critical contributor to enhancing water access by private families with the ability to invest in such technologies.\"… Those with money put up their family wells to solve water problems we face in this community […] and there are no external funds that contributed to putting up the wells,\"-Male respondent in a focused group discussion in Simukale village.Only a few can afford to build family wells for convenience. Such water sources provide water access to the owners or households that invest in having a water source within their premises. In addition, with permission, a few external persons may access water from privately owned deep hand-dug wells for drinking and domestic uses.What comes out clearly from community decisions is that people are motivated mainly by the need to reduce vulnerabilities that expose people to poor access to drinking and domestic water. People are also encouraged to ensure that water for domestic use is available to take away the burden from children drawing water at the expense of attending school and men and women failing to participate in incomegenerating activities that rely on water due to inadequate access.Poorer households also improvise with low-cost technology options for domestic water supply, such as scoop holes. In most cases, scoop holes do not require any financial investment to construct. In Makopa village, such wells are seasonal. They are developed to respond to pressing needs at a particular time.When other reliable water sources are made available, such sources will no longer be in use.\"The village has uncountable temporal hand-dug shallow wells and scoop holes belonging to private individuals. These are dug in the beds of the streams when water in the streams dry up or is significantly reduced,\"-A village community leader in Makopa Village.Findings indicate that, in both villages, people practice intracommunity sharing of water for domestic uses.In Makopa village, however, there is also intercommunity sharing of water sources due to the inadequacy of safe and clean water sources at people's disposal that are required to provide access to drinking and domestic purposes. The two communities share one public borehole for drinking and domestic uses.Aside from inter and intracommunity sharing, multipurpose uses also enhance water sharing. For example, boreholes are primarily used for drinking and domestic purposes. The same applies to hand-dug wells and some scoop holes. However, though these sources are mainly used for drinking, they also serve as multipurpose sources. As exemplified by a male respondent in Makopa village during the focused group In other instances, shallow wells are used as alternative sources.\"…water from shallow wells is used when the borehole breaks down or when there are too many people at the borehole sources,\"-Male respondent in a focused group discussion in Simukale village.This means people will use shallow hand-dug wells as alternative sources only when the primary source is unavailable. When public boreholes are fully operational, the hand-dug shallow wells are hardly used.Water usage from shallow wells is also limited because the water in the wells is considered unsafe for drinking and domestic use. Moreover, in later times of the dry season, most of the shallow wells dry up, posing a challenge to access to the users and, therefore, unreliable.Intercommunity sharing is mainly driven by the push to look for alternative sources in another community when primary sources within the community are inadequate to support existing water needs.Although boreholes and hand-dug wells cater for all domestic water uses, sometime in the year requires that some access is limited to specific uses that are critical for survival. Therefore, throughout the year, the priority use of the borehole equipped with hand pumps is to ensure water access for drinking and cooking. In the dry season, when alternative water sources are no longer available because of drying up, communities will ensure that people can only get water for drinking and cooking at the borehole. Other water needs such as bathing, cleaning surroundings and laundry are redirected to shallow wells and other seemingly unsafe water sources to leave the borehole for domestic water use. Moreover, when clean sources get congested, people tend to get water for laundry and bathing at less clean sources to allow clean sources to be used for drinking and cooking.Similarly, access to family-owned wells for non-owners is usually limited to drinking and domestic uses only. Outside domestic uses and drinking, i.e., productive uses, are not permitted to ensure water does not run out. For example, \"… Non-owners of the wells are only allowed to use them for drinking and domestic uses without using the water sources for gardening and other productive activities,\"-Female respondent in Simukale village.In rural areas, the borehole infrastructure is the most common water source for drinking and domestic public use. When developing water infrastructure for public supply, vertical and horizontal polycentric decisions are made, and processes are to be followed at district and community levels, respectively. Local Authority representatives at the District and National levels elaborated that there are five processes to be followed when developing community boreholes. The processes mentioned also collaborated in different to implement water drilling. The last step is sustaining the infrastructure by ensuring that all aspects of the infrastructure work optimally consistently. This stage is also an ongoing process for the entire lifespan of the borehole infrastructure.Communities that see gaps and need for water call upon meetings to discuss water access challenges faced within communities and propose solutions to overcoming such challenges.\"When we identify that the community has inadequate water supply and complaints of inadequate water perpetuate, we call upon a community meeting where we agree that there is a need for a water infrastructure to be implemented. This follows with deliberations about the different water challenges people face… everyone from all community groups [women, men and young people] must be present for the meeting, to build community consensus in decisions arrived at\" -Female respondent during focused group discussion in Simukale village.This phase allows collective views from all community members to voice out existing conditions and problematic issues faced by all. The meeting is also intended to allow for various opinions by various people about their needs to be highlighted. The diverse needs expressed are further assessed, from which priorities on which needs to address are agreed upon.For public infrastructure implemented using external funds such as boreholes, community members within the villages will have access to water for domestic use. Access to public water sources is open to village or community occupants. Access is guaranteed to everyone, provided they meet the required prerequisites, such as contributing to sustaining the water infrastructure.Within the spheres of access to water, de facto rights hold for everyone residing within the predefined location with a public water source. At the same time, rights to access can be withdrawn for households that fail to meet obligatory measures that govern access rules. This means that, in practice, access and claim to communally owned water are typically based on fulfilling laws within the communal rights access that legitimatise one's ability to continue enjoying the use of the publicly owned water resources.During the initial meeting, community members should agree on which preferred sites they recommend should the application for boreholes be approved. The difficulty in substantiating water tenure remains if not corroborated with land within which open and surface sources flow and groundwater sources exist.For example, the development of public water boreholes requires all community members to have the right to access and use the infrastructure. Therefore, only public land, if unavailable, privately owned land is transformed into public land through community formal and informal means led by village leaders and enforced through local systems.\"We choose sites to put up any public water infrastructure on no man's land to lessen undue claims to the water resources by land owners in the future. However, suppose water experts advise that the site we select does not have sufficient groundwater resources [and] and propose another site which is on privately owned land; in that case, the land owner will surrender and sign over that portion of the piece of land so that it becomes public property. In addition, the recommended radius of 100m right around the water infrastructure is signed over to the community for water infrastructure development\".-Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa Village.Experience has taught developers of water resources about the dangers of hijacking water resources if no measures are put in place to protect the most vulnerable. Currently, water project implementers put in efforts to protect the capture of water resources by dishonest individuals. For example, when no public land can be found for water resource development, those who give up their land for community water development do so with full knowledge of the water being for public use. Further, the sharing of water resources is governed by rules of access set by communities and as recommended by the developers, i.e.government or NGOs. Such practices limit undue claims to water resources communally owned. \"…In terms of gender, an equal number of males and females are supposed to be voted into membership in the committee. For example, if the committee requires ten members, the group comprises five males and five females,\"-Male respondent in Makopa village.However, when one gender is unwilling to participate in governing water resources, the gender with more willing participants tends to dominate.In addition to showing evidence of having collaboratively selected a water point committee, the application covers suggested sites where to sink the borehole and minutes of the community deliberations highlighting water needs. This top-down vertical recommendation by the local authority to the communities is used to create structure in the selective processes for communities that should be prioritized for water investment. As a result, communities adhere to the recommendations to avoid risks of not being prioritized for water infrastructure investments.Once the Local Authority receives the application, a team of Technical experts from the district office conducts site visits to appraise the contents of the application and assess the community's eligibility to qualify for a water infrastructure to be implemented in their community.\"As a Technical District Team, we follow with a field appraisal to find out how the community determined their needs; capture the population of people affected by the lack of water access, how many people will be accessing the proposed water infrastructure\".[..] District Teams also have to ensure that they validate that sites chosen would benefit all people in a given community, \" […] Communities should also choose two sites where they would want their infrastructure implemented. Those are the sites where the contractor is taken when they go to put up boreholes. The site with better assessment in terms of water yield will be used as a site for implementation\".Representative from Nyimba District.During the assessment, a team of experts from the District Office calls community members to verify the information provided in the application. Where communities feel the information being verified is not what was initially proposed, they will voice out and provide correct feedback that will be used to make a final decision about awarding the community with water infrastructure.Some of the considerations by the local authority when determining a community's eligibility to qualify for a borehole or water supply is whether or not all prerequisites have been followed. For example, a community that expresses interest in a water supply infrastructure, such as a borehole, is required to show community consensus and participation in determining the need for the infrastructure.\"When a community expresses the need for a water infrastructure, they are supposed to have a meeting and given an application form where they apply for the infrastructure to be developed. The meeting minutes held as a community should also be attached to the application\".-Representative of the Local Authority in Nyimba District.The community should show that they collaboratively decided on the location or site to implement water infrastructure and agreements on community contribution towards construction and postimplementation of infrastructure. They should also agree on how each community member will contribute towards sustaining the water infrastructure and what rules will govern the use and access of water from the public infrastructure. Such regulations and agreements are made during a community meeting where all discussions are documented and the minutes included as part of the formal application submitted to the Local Authority to request for the water infrastructure to be implemented.Further, the precondition for a community's application to be approved must show that the location or sites selected for borehole implementation are universally accessible by all to avoid undue claims of public infrastructure by private land owners should the infrastructure be implemented in their land, however, if no suitable public land is available for implementing the public borehole infrastructure. In that case, community leaders, preferably traditional leaders, engage land owners for land suitable to give up small pieces of land to accommodate borehole infrastructure. Such individuals would have to relinquish and sign over to the community a radius of 100m right around the proposed site for borehole infrastructure to be implemented. Such documented agreements are submitted as part of the application process for water infrastructural development to the Local Authority. While this process enhances community participation in water supply services, it also protects users from dishonest individuals who hijack public water infrastructure meant for the community. When no proper attentiveness is put in place when implementing water supply infrastructure, those with power and influence go back on their agreements to use their land to provide water access for the entire community. This leaves the most vulnerable at a disadvantage of inadequate access to water services and negates the government's efforts in working towards fulfilling its international and regional human rights obligations to provide sustainable access to water supply among its people, especially the most vulnerable and to contribute towards poverty alleviation of Zambia's rural population.Once all prerequisites are met, contractors are engaged by the local authority and guided to proceed with drilling the borehole. Subsequently, the contractors go on-site to install borehole infrastructure for communities.In contrast to these arrangements for public infrastructure, implementing private water sources such as boreholes, hand-dug wells, and other shallow wells does not require any form of due process to be followed. Owners source funds at the household level and will develop their water infrastructure according to specifications that are suitable for their needs. The only requirement that private individuals must meet is registering all boreholes drilled with the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA).After the award of the water point, the last stage is the responsibility of the users. Water point beneficiaries are responsible for the borehole or water point operation and maintenance. Intra-horizontal networks are created to support and sustain the management of the water infrastructure.\"The boreholes have water committees that support the maintenance of the water infrastructure\",-Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Simukale village.This stage encompasses all operations and preventative measures to ensure infrastructure is maintained and repaired. The borehole should be maintained comprehensively, from the hand pump, the superstructure and the surroundings. For example, the borehole should be protected from being accessed by livestock, and no vandalism should occur to the infrastructure. The Water Committees devise rules prohibiting children from handling public infrastructure to avoid damage. Community members are also encouraged to clean the surroundings of the public borehole, avoid doing laundry or growing crops and vegetables too close to the public infrastructure and contribute to fencing the borehole infrastructure to keep livestock from reaching the borehole directly.Further, community monetary contributions are crucial at this stage to ensure that the infrastructure is well maintained and all parts that need replacing are done within the shortest time when the borehole breaks down. The Water Point Committees develop rules enforcing promoting financial contributions towards the sustenance of public infrastructure. For example, the Water Committee ensure that each user meets their obligation to contribute a specific amount monthly or annually to a pool of funds used to fix the public infrastructure when it breaks down or requires replacements of damaged parts. Like elsewhere in rural Zambia, Simukale and Makopa villages make annual contributions, mostly paid after marketing crop harvests, because that is when people tend to have financial resources. When the borehole breaks down, money contributed by the community is used to repair and pay for broken-down parts.Productive water use activities include brick-making, irrigated vegetable and crop cultivation and livestock watering (Figure 3). Sources of water for productive purposes take different forms.Makopa and Simukale villages rely on streams, dams and shallow wells to access water for productive purposes. Makopa village does not have developed multipurpose infrastructure such as dams, dykes, reservoirs or any form of water irrigation canals and technology to support productive activities.However, the primary productive water sources in Makopa village are seasonal streams.\"In this village, we rely on Lwangazi Stream, Nyalwela Stream and Nsimba Stream to do our gardening, water our livestock and also make bricks to build houses\",-Male respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa village.Makopa village relies on naturally occurring surface streams that transverse communities and provide water for productive uses. The streams are multipurpose, catering for small-scale irrigation of cash crops and home consumption, e.g., bananas, beans, tomatoes and onions. No conveyance technologies, such as canals or pipes, are developed in the streams to support the irrigation of crops. For example, people accessing water from streams use buckets to water their vegetables. The streams are also used to water livestock within the community and are also accessed by neighbouring communities.Despite their significant importance in offering livelihood opportunities to people, streams are seasonal.They dry up midyear or towards the end of the year, beginning in September and October. This causes the majority of people to stop their crop irrigation activities. Others opt to dig scoop holes (Figure 4) in the streams' beds to find groundwater used for gardening and stock watering.Moreover, the drying up of the streams and other surface water sources leads people to use available boreholes equipped with hand pumps to access water for livestock and a few other productive activities.  \"The dams were just developed as pools of water where people could take their cattle for drinking. Some used the dams to irrigate their crops using traditional methods -use of buckets -because there were no deliberate efforts to equip the dams with irrigation technology\"-A village community leader in Simukale Village.In areas where communities rely on farming (crop and pastoral) as their mainstay, governments prioritize investments in infrastructure such as dams to provide adequate water supplies that impact nearly every individual and household within the community. For example, given the necessity of such investments, One of the key reasons to develop canals and other water conveyance infrastructure in dams, dykes or any other reservoir is to promote alternative income-generating activities and enhance food security for users. In addition, the development is also intended to encourage locals to progress economically and diversify in livelihood opportunities (Bazin et al., 2011).Irrigation canals and the developed water supply networks allowed communities to advance their multipurpose use for economic, social and environmental activities. With improved conveyance of water from the source to fields, most users enjoyed easy access to water when tending to their crops. As a result, there was also increased production and productivity in agricultural activities.Access to water was open to all households from several villages to use water for irrigation. In addition, sub-divisions by the Community Irrigation Cooperative of land for crop growing allowed communities to foster economic growth within their villages and households and also provide a higher standard of living for their households through generating income from crop production.However, access to essential water sources was lost without maintenance and proper safety measures.\"Access to water using irrigation canals lasted two years only before people began vandalizing the pipes and parts that conveyed water from the dam to the fields. All the valves used to regulate and open or close the water was stolen. In addition, as the investment was initially costly, the government did not make any efforts to build new infrastructure. There was also no maintenance of the infrastructure. Currently, the canals do not work, and people have gone back to using buckets to get water for irrigation,\"-A village community leader in Simukale Village.At Simukale dam, however, not everyone benefits from irrigating their gardens. Households that own land around the dam are the majority of beneficiaries and users of the dam. People with fields not close to the dam face challenges because they have to have oxen and oxcarts to get water from the dam to use for productive purposes, such as watering gardens at home or in fields far away from the dam. Further, Simukale dam does not have any conveyance technologies to assist in obtaining water from primary sources to field sites. Irrigation methods require one to rely on buckets to draw water from the dam to the fields.With the impacts of climate change affecting crop production, the lack of conveyance technologies compounds people's vulnerability to the effects of climate change. Climate-smart adaptation to extreme events increasingly requires using and accessing water technology that strengthens people's climate resilience. In addition, it offers the best alternative to enhance agricultural productivity to maintain sustainability in incomes at the household and community level.Some of the horizontal solutions in water for productive uses include building small ponds to capture and store rainwater to water crops for a few months in a year before they dry up. Like domestic water uses, respondents also indicated that they made scoop holes in rivers and stream beds to access water -no matter how limited the access may be. The kind of infrastructure, collectively or individually improvised, is primarily guided by people's financial ability to create a water resource that meets their needs.Sometimes, groups of people/households may organize themselves to develop simple infrastructure such as troughs for cattle drinking in areas where open sources are far off to water livestock.\"We have a few troughs just next to the main borehole where we put water for cattle, goats and pigs to drink in the dry season\".-Male community representative in Makopa village.Water for productive uses is shared intra and inter-community. Seasonal streams in the study sites are accessible to several villages within a predefined location. Livestock from several villages is watered in the same streams when water is available, mainly in the rainy season. In the dry season, water sharing, particularly intra-community sharing, for livestock happens at select boreholes within communities.(Details about sharing of water for productive uses are also elaborated in the preceding sections under 4.2.2)When water is sufficient in ground and surface water sources, the need to prioritize any productive activity over another is irrelevant. All productive activities that support livelihoods are supported with available water resources. The rainy season gives opportunities for all productive activities to access water equally.However, as surface water sources such as streams, rivers and scoop holes dry up or begin to dry up midyear to later in the year, people start to forego some productive activities. The first to lose water access are small-scale gardens that people put up to support their household for household consumption and sale.\"When water is significantly reduced in the surface water sources, it creates a challenge of limited productivity. We don't continue with our gardening activities to generate income because we know that water is not available. As a result, almost everyone stops growing vegetables. This limits income for families at the household level\"-Female respondent in focused group discussion in Makopa village.When gardening is stopped, there is little money available for household use. With limited livelihood opportunities, people tend to look for alternative income sources. For example, some would go to town to look for jobs to get wages to feed their families. This shows that the burden of limited water access has far-reaching implications for disrupting family cohesion because it pushes heads of families to live away from their homes in search of income.Stopping gardening means water is reserved for livestock that cannot wait until the rainy season to drink.The dry season poses complications for livestock because they tend to die of thirst. Few open sources that still have water will serve livestock like cattle. However, small livestock, such as goats, pigs etc., is prioritized at boreholes as they do not require large volumes of water to drink.Nonetheless, large cattle are sometimes also allowed to get water at boreholes when the situation is dire and demanding or when surface water sources are far from homesteads.In every society, the roles played by women and men differ based on the existing stereotyped gender norms. For example, some literature suggests that productive and income-generating activities are considered roles for men as heads of households (Bradshaw, 2013). On the other hand, women are assumed to be in a weaker state to bargain for positions that bring income. Other reports have related women's roles to include reproductive activities that include childbearing, childcare, and household chores are stereotyped to belong to women (OXFAM, 2018).In Makopa and Simukale villages, gender roles and connotations influence women's and men's participation in critical decision-making processes at home and within communities. At different levels of water infrastructure, development and management, women and men are seen to contribute to various levels of degree.Moreover, the lineage systems followed within communities contribute to informing what kinds of contributions will come from men and what roles women will perform. In a patrilineal society, for example, decision-making at the household level is dominated by men. This is typical for communities where men are positioned as reference points for knowledge and hold a 'high' level of importance. For what should ideally be typical of any human being, men in such societies will tend to dominate as a naturalized ideological construct practised for many years (Lindemann, 2012). This may also be naturalized contexts since colonial times (Lindemann, 2012). However, in matrilineal societies, women dominate decision-making processes in a matrilineal society. However, this is mostly exclusively within families and does not always extend to decision-making processes that affect entire communities.In water access and management for domestic uses, the role of women and men, particularly in rural areas, still follow pre-existing stereotypes, irrespective of the lineage systems practised within communities. For example, when there is no running water in a home -which is the case for most homes in rural areas, Makopa and Simukale villages included -women and girls are responsible for getting water for household use and drinking for the family. The implication is that women and girls are most affected by the lack of water access and must walk long distances to get water. In addition, women's productive activities at the family level are challenged because women spend long hours accessing water, and children sometimes tend to miss school to assist the family in getting water at home.In some drier parts of the country, where distances to getting water for domestic purposes are very far, men participate in getting water using bicycles and oxen-drawn carts. Nonetheless, women still carry buckets of water on their heads to provide water access to the households.As women are most burdened with water challenges, they keenly contribute to offering solutions that enhance access to water and deliver more efficient and sustainable management of water infrastructure at public water infrastructure. In a matrilineal society, women leading in such processes are more pronounced than their male counterparts. This is because women, compared to men, are willing to take on roles and responsibilities to sustain infrastructure for water resource management. For example, the ideal situation is to have an equal number of males and females in committee memberships. However, when one gender is unwilling to participate in governing water resources, the gender with more willing participants tends to dominate -and in this case, it is usually the women. In matrilineal communities where women have learned to stand firm and find solutions that support their well-being in water resource management and access, they give time, without hesitation, to ensuring water infrastructures are maintained. What is clear from this is that where women are the active providers in the family, their influence extends to managing resources such as water for domestic uses that enhance their well-being.The same goes for development projects. Women are more willing to participate in development activities than men. A practical example of savings groups 4 is dominated mainly by women because they are more in touch with problems they face at the household level and always want to support their children better when they engage in development issues that improve the family's welfare. In agricultural cooperatives, women still dominate in terms of participation. By default, women's mere presence and participation enhance their decision-making powers in matrilineal societies. This means they outnumber the men's dominance in such activities.In patrilineal societies, on the other hand, men take the lead in decision-making processes, and roles and responsibilities are pretty pronounced that are in decision-making processes. Men usually take up high leadership positions at the village level. Regarding decision-making processes in water resource management, men, like women, participate, and both sexes make up good numbers of required persons to ensure the sustainability of water resource infrastructures. The decision about what kind of water infrastructure to implement is arrived at by the entire community comprising both men and women. This is achieved through consensus built during meetings where the whole community will decide what infrastructure to put up and where it will be implemented. In patrilineal societies, therefore, we see a fair balance of decision-making processes between the two genders.These gender dynamics and levels of influence extend to how external supporters and district-level decision-makers prioritize who to work with for the successful implementation of the project. In communities where women actively participate, such as in matrilineal societies, government and NGOs identify the role that women play in advancing development agendas and therefore promote development propositions through women; because women are early adopters and success rates of development projects among women are higher compared to men. It was realized that men don't always prioritize development issues and meetings; therefore, they are seemingly left out when participating in development activities. As water projects and other forms of development are designed to reduce vulnerabilities within communities, working with early adopters promises high success rates. Women also take up initiatives in development more than men.Further, some cooperatives prefer to work more with women than men, and therefore, women representatives are always larger in numbers than men. Cooperatives and projects that women lead show more that they have a sense of ownership in the project, prudent usage of resources and capital etc., from the implementer's point of view, they automatically lean more towards working with women than men. When given seed capital to multiply, the women will work hard to achieve their goals. In contrast, the men would tend to misuse the resources, meaning additional investments must be provided without graduating to the next level. At the end of the project cycle, cooperatives led by women will have achieved the required results and worked in an organized way. External project implementers excel as they want to be associated with those who succeed because that is how they measure their success rate to get more funding. With such experiences, project implementers also recommend that women take up leadership positions in development work to instil the level of seriousness and ownership required for the project's success.Grouping domestic and productive water-related challenges raised by the respondents, the following four sets of challenges emerge: inadequate quantities of water, poor water quality for drinking, long distances covered to access water in the dry season, breaking down of water infrastructure, increased conflict at available sources and lack of conveyance technologies.In the rainy season, groundwater sources in boreholes, deep and shallow wells, are sufficient for drinking and other domestic uses. Similarly, surface water sources such as streams and rivers used for laundry, cleaning surroundings and bathing are equally adequately available. Surface water sources also provide much-needed water resources to water gardens. Livestock also has sufficient water supplies from nearby open sources within the community. Like water availability, there is also excellent and adequate grazing grass for livestock within communities during the rainy season.However, the challenge comes in the dry season when open water sources in streams and rivers dry up.Domestic uses get affected. Firstly, the option of water harvested from rain into buckets and basins to use for domestic purposes is not available anymore to supplement available water sources. Consequently, boreholes get overcrowded because too many people need access to water for various uses at single sources. Therefore, everyone only gets a limited volume of water to cook and drink to allow others to use the water. Moreover, because many people want access to limited water sources, long queues are formed at boreholes, and people take extended periods to access water.Regarding productive water, the change in seasons from rainy to dry also poses significant challenges in reduced water quantities required for productive purposes. Most of the water that fills up in open sources, such as streams during rainy seasons, is lost back to the atmosphere during the dry season through evapotranspiration (Nyambe and Feilberg, 2007). Consequently, reduced access to water resources hampers productive activities. In addition, the drying up of open sources causes productive activities to stop at streams and rivers. Stopping gardening also affects families because of limited sources of income.Although not-so-frequent water quality tests are conducted, boreholes equipped with hand pumps and deep wells have reasonably good quality water free of harmful bacteria. However, when they are not available to supply drinking, and domestic water needs to communities, people opt to access water for drinking and domestic use from surface sources such as streams and scoop holes with compromised water quality. Moreover, such sources are also accessed by livestock such as pigs, goats and cattle for drinking and, therefore, unsafe for human consumption. Nonetheless, as options for water access are few, people still use such sources to get drinking water to avoid queuing at the available safe boreholes for long periods.Further, the rainy season also brings the challenges of turbid water. From December to around March/April, water is turbid until the deep and shallow wells, streams, and rivers clear up. During this period, communities continuously complain that the quality of water they drink is not good enough.Although water quality may be safe, water users in rural areas perceive murky water as unclean.Moreover, whether the water is contaminated or not is insignificant to users. Communities only understand the need to consume water palatable enough to the eye. This has caused some households to avoid water from open sources with high turbidity levels. Therefore, they shift their access to borehole infrastructure to get water or deep wells constantly clear throughout all seasons. In addition, only when water in open sources clears up the muddy look would people return and start getting water for drinking from there.When sources of water closer to homesteads are no longer available, people are forced to walk long distances to get water. This consumes time spent accessing water, especially by women and children and reduces time spent working on their productive businesses and school, respectively.Moreover, when distances to getting water for domestic purposes are very far, men tend to contribute by using motorized means, bicycles and oxen-drawn carts to get water. However, the majority of people lack such facilities and still have to carry water on their heads for a long distance. The burden on women is even more as primary home water providers. Irrespective of the distance, women still carry buckets of water on their heads to provide water access to the households.Although boreholes with hand pumps are generally the most reliable water sources and serve most of the population, they break down from time to time. Therefore, they are not accessible for extended periods. As a result, people use alternative water sources for drinking and domestic purposes when this happens. Alternative water sources most in use include shallow wells dug in the river/stream beds, shallow hand-dug wells, water from open sources such as streams and distant boreholes located further from primary sources. In addition, in the rainy season, water harvested from rain is an alternative water source for drinking and domestic uses.At the community scale, water resources concerning human and livestock populations are not equally distributed; therefore, water scarcity is a problem that some community members face from time to time more than others. In the dry season, this challenge exacerbates, causing people to compete for limited water resources for domestic and productive needs.\"In the dry season, when too many people are required to use the single water source to get water for drinking and other uses, people fight if some parties are greedy in borehole utilisation and refuse to allow others to get water within a specified period. For example, if one family comes with lots of water containers, e.g. 20 containers, to get water, they will want to fill out all their containers without allowing others a turn to get. They also deny those with few containers a chance to get water before them. Being the only one drawing water at the borehole for a long time causes conflict because they take too long to finish and give turns to others\".-Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa village.One of the most significant water-related conflicts in the study sites is egocentric access to water by a few individuals within a community. Selfish tendencies, exacerbated by the selfish characters of some individuals and, to a lesser extent, intra-community hierarchies and power relations, primarily contribute to disharmony when the need for water is rife with competing demands. However, when water is adequate, particularly in the rainy season, and can be accessed from several water points and sources, including deep and shallow wells, and surface sources, there is no competition.sources for drinking and cooking, the dry season promotes even more uses of the boreholes; they cater for drinking and domestic purposes and stock watering, such as goats and pigs. In extreme cases where alternatives wholly run out, cattle are also watered at boreholes by putting water in basins for cattle to drink.However, as uses become numerous at boreholes, there tends to be too much congestion to get water for domestic uses and provide water for livestock. As a result, water access conflicts increase at available public boreholes due to competing needs that a limited number of water sources within a community must meet. In addition, incidences of breaking down of the boreholes increase, a situation that further challenges people to access adequate water supplies for domestic and productive uses. Hijacking the public water infrastructure, such as the borehole to be implemented in proximity to someone's household, is also a significant source of conflict. For example, in Simukale village, conflicts ensued within communities when the chief misled project implementers to put up the public water borehole infrastructure close to their home, away from the site chosen collaboratively through community participation processes. Communities also boycott using the borehole infrastructure altogether, making it challenging for the borehole to work at an optimal level.\"…the disadvantage of such selfish behaviour is that it causes the borehole infrastructure not to work optimally. The boreholes are designed to have at least 25 households or about 250 people using them. This means that water will run continuously, and the pipes won't rust. This is also what the local authority recommends […]. Still, when the target community boycott using the borehole, that single household using it won't even enjoy the benefit because the low frequency of use will cause some parts not to work well, pipes will rust, and there is a build-up of iron content in the water\". -Female respondent in focused group discussion in Simukale village.To the community, it is a loss because many people still won't have access to clean and safe water. To the government, this is a waste of investments when few or no people benefit from an infrastructure installed to alleviate water problems among the rural poor.Conflicts related to water access continue to generate concern, thus accentuating the importance of addressing the clashes using practical solutions created and accepted by those affected. Therefore, the Water Point Committee leaders resolve that everyone follows rules of accessing water and maintaining the water infrastructure irrespective of who those affected associate with or whatever position they hold in society. If that fails, a traditional community leader -a head person, is engaged to resolve the conflict.\"…Those that refuse to pay are taken to the traditional leaders to answer why they are refusing to pay for a service they use\". -Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa village.Traditional leaders, including chiefs and headmen/women, have the authority to preside over communities within their jurisdiction. This accentuates the mandate to provide leadership over water disputes within their villages. At a minimum, traditional leaders are expected to be impartial in offering peaceful dialogues between parties in conflict and even find solutions to problems presented before their council.Depending on the dispute, those guilty may be asked to pay a fine by the traditional leaders to appease disgruntled complainants and restore peace. According to research participants, suppose people deny paying a maintenance fee for the borehole while accessing water from the resource; the local headman/woman penalises the offender when the subject is brought before their council to preside over. This is because the headman/woman is the ultimate authority or leader at the community level. As respondents indicated, \"…The traditional leaders will sometimes fine people that refuse to pay for maintaining the water infrastructure as guided by the community rules […], but they [traditional leaders] also try to appeal to community members to cooperate and do the right thing for the good of the community\" -Female respondent in a focused group discussion in Makopa village.However, when the traditional leaders entrusted with the power to mediate are at the centre of the problem, as was the case for Simukale village, conflicts never get resolved. Those disgruntled and affected by the injustice portray passive-aggressive behaviours that stop people from complying with rules that enhance the sustainability of the water infrastructure while accessing water. For example, they boycott making payments until they see the traditional leader complying while continuing to draw water from the borehole.Polycentrism at the district or intermediate level works through vertical and horizontal integration.Institutions working in water resource development and management primarily enhance access to water supply among citizens, especially the rural poor. As contained in the National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme (NRWSSP), the government of Zambia promotes access to water for most of the rural population that is reliable, equitable, and adequate in quantity and quality through the provision of boreholes. However, closing up the access gap between urban and rural people and working towards achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all, as contained in the SDGs 5 , requires robust efforts.Laws and policies governing procedures for implementing water supply services are developed and enacted at the national level through parliament proceedings. Vertically, the rules are passed down to areas of implementation at the intermediate level. Horizontal integration is explicit because people already know how to adapt when faced with limited access to water due to climate variability and the impacts of climate change.Like elsewhere in rural Zambia (Mweemba, 2019), Makopa and Simukale village recounted that: (i) they dug scoop holes in river and stream beds to get water when sources dried up; (ii) they travelled to urban centres to find low-paying jobs to earn income when farming activities failed; (iii) cut down trees and burnt charcoal for sale to earn money when crops failed due to droughts. While horizontal decisions arrived to help communities cope and solve immediate livelihood challenges, some solutions are not sustainable. For example, indiscriminate cutting down trees for charcoal production poses an enormous threat to environmental degradation. This has far-reaching implications on further advancing climate change variability and impacts and is unsustainable for future generations. In a similar study, it was observed that cutting down trees potentially affected the mitigation of greenhouse gases with the depletion of trees, mainly since trees act as carbon sinks for carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere (Mweemba, 2019).Nonetheless, vertical solutions are proposed to support communities' adaptation to climate change.Unfortunately, in climate change interventions, there is also a risk that the focus is mostly on meeting donor needs in project implementation for climate change adaptation. For example, projects funded to manage the forest by an NGO will be communicated to the target community about the project and expectations from either party. However, despite well-written and funded projects that may exist to support communities, such projects may not always resonate with what communities believe in. A community that has relied on the forest to survive for wood and charcoal to cook may not see the need to preserve the forestry without adequate alternatives provided. They also practice tree-cutting to clear fields for crop production. Not everyone will listen and follow when asked to stop such practices and save the environment. However, motives may drive people to participate in top-down initiatives and respond to adaptation initiatives.Incentives of accessible and free farming inputs such as fertilizers and seeds are examples of support promised to be provided to villages that adopt zero-cutting down trees within a given forest management zone.For this reason, communities will adhere to the recommendation about the proposed initiative effortlessly because they stand to gain if they change their behaviour. This situation exemplifies the risk that adaptation practices at the community level are primarily externally driven and channelled to meet organizational standards that initiate them. Donor requirements sometimes require rigorous efforts of actors' to recommend and provide directives that satisfy project requirements to meet what they perceive as well-intended measures for community adaptation.District-level government interfaces with national policies and implements climate change adaptation activities in communities. All these governance processes are implemented through vertical integration decision-making processes. For example, the district-level government will provide information about practical and modern adaptation strategies that communities can benefit from to reduce the impact of climate change in agriculture and serve as early warning mechanisms to adapt to climate change impacts.In Makopa village, for example, the Ministry of Agriculture provide climate information about looming droughts and weather forecasts before the planting season.\"…we receive messages on our phones about the weather patterns. For example, we are informed about rainfall amounts or whether we should expect a drought before each farming season,\" -Male respondent during a focused group discussion in Makopa Village.Similarly, government officials interface with communities to provide real-time climate data on early warning systems on the occurrence of predicted climatic conditions that may lead to droughts or floods in a given year.providing us with information about climate and weather and also the types of crops to plant\". \" -Male respondent during a focused group discussion in Makopa village.Early warning systems are intended to improve response strategies and adaptation at the community level. While this information is essential, the significance of the data is accentuated when communities use the information correctly to respond to adaptation needs in agriculture and water access in the community. Community participation, however, has been noted as a strong driver that can highlight the importance of legitimatizing externally channelled measures to support community adaptation initiatives.For example, the government began training community members to promote information dissemination to enhance adaptation and coping in agriculture.\"Farmers, also known as 'Rain gauge Minders', are trained by Zambia Metrological Department (ZMD) on how to conduct weather forecasts and also on how to collect rainfall data during the rainy season. Once trained and they begin collecting the required data, the information is sent to ZMD that helps to interpret the information before it is transmitted to the Ministry of Agriculture and onwards to communities\". -NGO respondent in Nyimba District.Further, the supervisory role played by the district-level government when working with partners such as NGOs in implementing climate change adaptation programs is founded on vertical integration practices. While NGOs exist within the district, implementing programs is designed to fit into government policies and should respond to community needs. The district-level government generally possesses devolved powers to implement community projects. They are therefore mandated to oversee activities implemented by partners such as NGOs that possess broad-based resources to improve the implementation of activities and projects for rural Development.Findings of the study have highlighted the importance of the availability of adequate water supply for various uses in rural communities whose livelihoods are centred on the water to thrive. In Makopa and Simukale villages, groundwater sources remain the most important sources of water for drinking and domestic uses and significantly provide the much-needed supply for community use. For public use, that causes congestion at available sources, increased breakdowns of the facilities, inadequate supply and conflict among competing users.Alongside public boreholes, Makopa and Simukale villages have private sources, such as deep wells, used for drinking, domestic use, and irrigation. Private owners develop their own rules and decisions about the use and access of water. Because they claim water rights at their private sources, they also decide how external households will rely on their water sources for drinking, domestic and productive uses. As a result, external users that seek access to private family water wells conform to the set rules and regulations of the owners. Unfortunately, some water wells are seasonal and dry up during the dry season. In such instances, owners will also get water from communally-owned water boreholes, which creates additional strain on the public boreholes.In addition, the analysis has shown that there are equally important sources, such as scoop holes, that are important water sources for domestic use. Scoop holes are developed to respond to pressing water needs that arise momentarily in a household when clean and safe sources are unavailable. However, when other more reliable and safe sources are available, such unclean and unsafe sources cease to be in use.As regards productive activities -including gardening and crop production, livestock watering and brick making, surface water sources are the most important sources of water. These include streams, rivers, dams and scoop holes. Infrastructure such as dams implemented using government financing is open for public use and is communally owned. In Makopa village, there are no developed dams or any other reservoirs to support productive activities. Therefore, streams are the most critical sources for productive activities. Unfortunately, streams are seasonal and only have water for a few months of the year. Dry periods of the year pose a challenge because water dries up, and people are forced to stop all forms of gardening and crop farming. This reduces their access to income that would ideally be realised from selling vegetables. Moreover, with reduced surface water opportunities, some livestock migrates to get water from boreholes -creating further congestion at limited public boreholes used for drinking and domestic uses.Although options for water access for drinking, domestic and productive water are available within Makopa and Simukale villages, there are several challenges people continue to face. The most significant is inadequate quantities for water use during the dry season. When seasonal wells and surface sources dry up, the communities have limited options to get water. Overcrowding increases conflicts, and competition for limited water at the remaining water sources characterises day-to-day events. As such, people can only access limited amounts of water. Some activities, such as gardening and crop production, do not even receive water at specific periods in the year and have to stop completely. While stopping crop production may seem like a solution to saving the limited water resource for more pressing needs such as livestock watering, it has far-reaching implications on family cohesion. As there are limited opportunities for heads of households to support household activities when crop production is stopped, they have to leave their families and travel to urban locations to look for alternative livelihood opportunities. This leaves children alone within the homestead to fend for themselves. This alludes to disruption in family unity and may bring about other more severe complications of families breaking.However, with known water challenges faced, horizontal and vertical integration occurs at the community level highlighting how people organise themselves to manage water, land and forest resources. Communities organise themselves and come up with locally sought decisions to respond to social problems and pressures that leave them with limited options for water, land and resources to support their livelihood activities. We observe horizontal integration embedded in the relations created to bring various resources (monetary, skill, and leadership, among others) to enhance access opportunities for water. Age-old solutions and decisions to improve water access are used collectively or individually in Makopa and Simukale communities. For example, excavating the river beds to get to groundwater is a solution that enhances access to productive activities in dried-up places. People also organise themselves to develop simple water troughs for livestock watering at boreholes when open surface sources dry up, or they are far off. A few well-to-do farmers put up deep wells using their investments to provide water supply for their households and possibly share with a few neighbours.Furthermore, while water tenure may seemingly favour all users in theory, in practice, not all people benefit from the resources if their cultivated land is situated further from the primary water sources. This is because the means of irrigation are constricting. Moreover, the lack of conveyance technology at the dams, for example, to support irrigation, further limits people from the full benefits that result from having a communal dam within their location. Therefore, as complete access to use public water from such infrastructure is key to reducing poverty and enhancing food security, land tenure should collaborate alongside water tenure that ensures comprehensive benefits, especially for the marginalised communities. In addition, conveyance infrastructure that runs over the land should be promoted.In rural communities, verbal agreements or informally agreed-upon rules guarantee access to water and use intra or inter-community. Loosely, this shows that water is not territorial. All households that contribute to the development of water infrastructure by participating in accessing the infrastructure from the local authority secure their rights to access and use water. Participating in securing water resources as a community on land in public domains gives it dominion for communities to claim access to water resources. At privately owned land, while formally secured water tenure claims may be achieved through long or short rental contracts of land with water resources, traditional and customary tenure is secured through the passage of property rights through families and lineage systems. People claim water wells and weirs on land that their elders or parents would have passed on to them.Similarly, a traditional leader may pass on water rights to subjects by allocating land that holds surface and groundwater resources. While this may not be universally recognized as a legitimate passage of land and water rights internationally, its applicability is sufficient to cover one's access and rights to land and water resources in rural Zambia. Moreover, it will sufficiently protect several rights and securities to continue accessing water on allocated pieces of land. However, the question is whether neighbours asking for a right of way to the source can be denied such access. So there are no strict legitimate exclusion rights.In customary systems, streams and dams are often described as open access by people within the communities and frequently described as communally owned by the people residing within the locations in proximity to the water sources. This is what is contained in theory. In practice, however, streams traversing pieces of land in private hands are claimed by the owners of the land. For land that is passed on through family lineage systems, the legality to access the land and to control access to water resources that exist and transverse through the land is backed by the narrative that the land belonged to their parents and had been in their family for years and now passed on to them for use. Even concerning crop cultivation, no outsider may grow crops on the land and use water resources for productive activities close to the stream if they have no rights to the land.When water is sufficient and readily available, it reduces the burden on women fetching water for drinking and domestic purposes over long distances. In Makopa and Simukale villages, the responsibility of bringing water for drinking and domestic uses still lies with women because the types of infrastructure used are not developed to the level of allowing people to access water from their households or within their compounds.Further, such impacts are universally experienced and comparable between matrilineal and patrilineal societies. In both sites, the burden of obtaining domestic water lies heavily on the women and children.When there is a water shortage for domestic and drinking, the impacts are most felt by those with inadequate opportunities to gain access.While water tenure may be contested to fulfil competing water needs, the burden for each user is most felt by those affected. When livestock does not have sufficient water supplies, the men are responsible for taking the livestock to surface water sources that have, and in most cases, these might be in distant places.Climate change impacts have continued to be felt among poor communities with reduced rainfall patterns, limiting agricultural productivity in rural areas and exacerbating hunger. With this understanding, people have instituted coping mechanisms to support their agrarian livelihoods. For example, when the streams dry up, people dig scoop holes in the streams' beds to find groundwater used for gardening and stock watering. It alleviates water challenges for an extended period to allow people to continue accessing the required water for crop and livestock watering.Moreover, with climate change's impacts on crop production, the lack of conveyance technologies limits people's ability to cultivate required crops for improved home consumption and income generation.Therefore, adapting and coping with the impacts of climate change requires robust use and access to climate-smart and resilient technology that offers the best alternatives to enhance agricultural productivity and maintain sustainable incomes at the household and community level.On the other hand, externally financed climate change adaptation projects have been instituted. This report proposes that such projects should advance local adaptation practices and enhance coping mechanisms for climate change's impacts. This also requires that communities adhere to the prerequisite measures they are given to qualify for funding. Nonetheless, we still see community participation as critical for buy-in, ownership of infrastructure, and sustainability build-in.Age-old solutions continue to inform adaptive practices at the community level. For example, using indigenous knowledge, people continue to use bottom-up approaches to predict rainfall and weather patterns. However, with projects promoting environmental protection and smart farming activities, decisions are passed on from high levels to communities highlighting vertical integration in decisionmaking processes.Investment in public boreholes should continue to be prioritised to ensure extensive coverage of people accessing water resources, ensuring equitable access and guaranteeing communal tenure in the ownership, access and use of communally owned sources. Moreover, in many ways, having access to public sources close to people's homesteads lessens the burden of walking a long distance to access water while allocating time to other home chores and productive activities.In many ways, local solutions to water access are known. And age-old experiences provide people with knowledge on strategically aligning decisions with existing contexts to respond to water resource problems, such as water scarcity for domestic and productive uses and agricultural productivity. When designing projects to be used by communities, community participation should therefore be at the centre of all water development agenda to attract interest, support and ownership and ensure that recommended solutions address the real needs of the communities and represent community voices.Passing down development agendas with no community voices lessens community interest in seeing water infrastructure as their own, and care provided to it might not be sufficient to ensure sustainability. The case of vandalism to the dam canal and other conveyance infrastructure in Simukale village shows that the notion of participation in its development did not allow for opposing views to be brought together and take away the ambiguity of not knowing how to ensure infrastructure is maintained. The clue as to how water infrastructure should be sustained remains in the community's interest to protect the infrastructure.In practice, we cannot separate water tenure from the land because water resources exist where the land is. So to have complete access and claim of the water resources, communal water rights should apply for users to surface water sources adjacent to privately owned land. Moreover, land should be opened to the general public who needs to access water resources at public dams if benefits are realised for all. Local arrangements and agreements should include how people get parcels of land to use public infrastructure without prejudice. Otherwise, in theory, surface sources, e.g. dams, are said to benefit the entire community; in practice, only a few will benefit, leaving the majority in the same positions of poverty and without access that do not favour economic and social growth. If such is not probable, the need for the development of conveyance should be emphasised to accommodate all people that need to use the infrastructure.","tokenCount":"16812"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"861f38a369b660830a4fe0cd5125683c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f734960d-d729-442b-9cdb-0d0050aa0ca3/retrieve","id":"1375349722"},"keywords":["Climate services","choice experiment","random parameters logit model","willingness to pay","agriculture","Rwanda"],"sieverID":"83c746d8-0d48-4be7-bffc-17bd77b2b77e","pagecount":"43","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Agriculture is the backbone of the Rwandan economy, accounting for about 63% of the export earning, 31% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employing 75% of the labour force (CIA 2019). Agriculture is also Rwanda's most vulnerable sector to climatic change as most of agricultural production depends on rainfall (Gasheja andGatemberezi 2017, Republic of Rwanda 2018). Irregular rainfall and interruption of rainy seasons lead to late planting with negative effects on agricultural production in the country (Mikova et al. 2015).The Stockholm Environment Institute (2009) reported that Rwanda was not adequately adapted to the prevailing climate risks, and hence, climate change could cause economic losses of at least 1% GDP annually by 2030.Climate services, which involve the production, translation, transfer, and use of climate knowledge and information in relevant decision-making, policy and planning, aim to enable decision-makers, from national to local levels to better manage the risks of climate variability and change at all levels (Vogel et al. 2019). Climate services are a critical component of an enabling environment for climate change adaptation (Hansen et al. 2019).Empirical evidence suggests that African smallholder farmers are receiving and using climate services to make changes in farming practices, and livelihood decisions that enhance their resilience to climate shocks (e.g. Gbetibouo et al. 2017, Tiitmamer and Mayai 2018, McKune et al. 2018, Hansen et al. 2018, Nkiaka et al. 2019, Muasa and Matsuda 2019, Vaughan et al. 2019).In most African countries, climate services are disseminated free of charge mainly through radio broadcasts (Hampson et al. 2014, World Bank 2016, Muema et al. 2018. Tesfaye et al. 2019), mobile phone and extension agents (Churi et al. 2012, Etwire et al. 2017, Tesfaye et al. 2019). Provision of these services free of charge shows the public good nature of these services (Freebairn and Zillman 2002). The two defining characteristics of public goods are: non-excludability 1 and non-rivalrous 2 (Rollins andShaykewich 2003, Gunasekera 2010).Given these features, the provision of climate services as a public good makes it difficult to limit its supply only to those who are willing to contribute to the costs of supplying them (Gunasekera 2002, Freebairn andZillman 2002). However, a significant economic feature of information is that it is expensive to produce, but relatively cheap to reproduce. This property suggests that economic efficiency is served by making climate services freely available as a public good (Freebairn and Zillman 2002). Although the actual and potential benefits to the community from climate services are substantial, when provided freely, these benefits are inadequately recognized and insufficiently exploited (Gunasekera 2004).Understanding how climate services help the various sectors of society to make informed decisions and reduce risks as well as to outline what changes would be needed to improve decision making is crucial (World Bank 2008). Similarly, identifying the value of the services can motivate users to be willing to pay for the existing or improved services. It can also help justify funding and guide priorities to invest in managing the impacts of weather and climate across economic sectors (Zillman 2007).This study was part of a bigger survey implemented to support an ex-post evaluation of the RCSA project funded by USAID. The project was implemented from 2016 to 2019. Through the project, climate services were disseminated directly to more than 111,000 farmers in four provinces across Rwanda through PICSA, RLCs and cell phones; as well as broadcast by a radio network accessible to about 70% of the population. This study aims to assess how Rwandan farmers value the general features of improved climate services; investigate their WTP to provide insights into how the products and services can be improved; and estimate how project interventions influenced perceived value of climate services. The specific objectives of the study are: (i) identify the preferred package of improved agricultural climate services; (ii) assess preference heterogeneity 3 ; and (iii) estimate WTP values among 1 Non-excludability refers to a situation where there is no easy way of preventing someone from having access to and benefiting from a good or service.2 Non-rivalrous refers to a condition in which consumption by one agent does not diminish the availability of the good's benefit for others.3 Preference heterogeneity refers to a situation where a group of respondents likes or dislikes different alternatives in a systematic and quantifiable way.Rwandan farmers -as influenced by participation in PICSA and RLCs. This study adds to the set of recent studies conducted in Africa (Amegnaglo et al. 2017, Donkoh et al. 2019, Ouedraogo et al. 2018, Tesfaye et al. 2019, Zongo et al. 2016) that report the value smallholder farmers attach to the different characteristics of climate services.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next Section explains the methodology. Section 3 presents the results and discussion and Section 4 concludes with relevant policy implications.Individuals' preferences are modelled in terms of McFadden's (1974) random utility model.The random utility model can be approximated by the multinomial logit model (MNL). In MNL, the utility to individual N (n=1, 2, … 1525) from choosing alternative improved climate services J (j= 0,1,2) on choice situation T (t=1,2, …12) is represented by a utility expression of the general form in Equation (1) (Train 2003).The component observed by the analyst, X njt is a vector of independent variables including attributes of the improved climate service alternatives, socio-demographic characteristics of the individual, and descriptors of the decision context and choice task. The components  and  njt are not observed by the analyst, and are treated as stochastic influences (Hensher and Greene 2003).  is a corresponding vector of utility weights that are homogeneous across individuals and  njt ~ i.i.d. extreme value -I is the individual specific error component (Kanninen 2007).Individuals are expected to differ in terms of the weather and climate events they face and the bundle of improved climate services they prefer. To account for such preference heterogeneity, the taste parameters for the attributes are allowed to differ across individuals, applying different mixing distributions. The mixed logit (ML) is a highly flexible model that can approximate any random utility model (McFadden and Train 2000). It obviates the three limitations of standard logit by allowing for random taste variation, and correlation in unobserved factors over time (McFadden and Train 2000). In the ML model, the utility to individual n from choosing alternative improved climate services j on choice situation t is presented as Equation 2. n is a corresponding vector of utility coefficients that vary randomly over individuals, and  njt is a random term that represents the unobserved component of utility. The vector of observed attributes, X njt can include binary (0/1) terms to allow for alternative specific constants and for individual attribute levels as well as continuous attributes. The unobserved term  njt is assumed to be i.i.d. extreme value. In this assumption, the probability that individual n chooses alternative i in choice situation t, conditional on  n is the logit formula in Equation (3) (Hess and Train 2017). Here f is the density associated with F. If F is discrete, then the ML model formula is is the probability mass function associated with F and S is its support set with elements indexed by r. The goal here is to specify F and estimate its parameters . The main feature of the ML model is its ability to account for the unobserved heterogeneity, however, the model fails to explain the sources of heterogeneity (Hynes et al. 2008). Due to this drawback, interactions of individual specific characteristics can be included with choice-specific attributes in the utility function to improve the model fit (Revelt and Train 1998).Choice experiments are based on the idea that a good or service can be described in terms of its attributes and the levels that these attributes take (Bateman et al. 2002). The CE approach allows estimating a monetary value for an existing good or service that may have no market or limited market (Champ et al. 2003). In addition, the approach can also be usedto assess the value of potential goods or services that are yet to be introduced into the market (Bateman et al. 2002, Louviere et al. 2010). In this study, attributes of improved climate services are assessed to examine the value farmers put on the different packages of these services. The experimental design in this study contains attributes such as type of climate information received, accuracy of the information received, dissemination channel of the information and relevant market information. The different characteristics of improved climate services are traded off against the monthly telephone bill which is relatively higher than they currently pay. The different attributes and their levels were selected based on a literature review, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and pretesting.To test farmers' preference for improved climate information, they were presented with three different types of information: daily weather forecasts, seasonal forecasts of onset and cessation of rain, and agro-met advisories. Daily weather forecasts were the baseline, while seasonal weather forecasts on onset and cessation of rain and agro-met advisories were presented as improved suites of information. A farmer who receives seasonal forecasts of onset and cessation of rain is more likely to increase her/his average agricultural income because such forecast gives opportunity to adjust additional decisions related to crop and variety selection and timing of planting (e.g. Bryan et al. 2009, Gunda et al. 2017). The use of agro-met advisories is the other improved form of information suggested. Agro-met advisory services translate weather and climate information into farm management advisories such as sowing, transplantation of crops, fertilizer application; and can be directly applied to improve and protect the livelihood of farmers (Roy 2018, Chattopadhyay andChandras 2018).The importance of accurate climate information for farm decision-making is underscored in the literature (e.g. Clements et al. 2013, Vaughan et al. 2019). In this CE design, accuracy 4 of climate information services was described in three different levels, not accurate being the status quo, average accuracy and accurate were considered the improved situations. The preference for communication channel to access climate services was tested by taking the 4 To maintain a more uniform understanding of the word accurate among respondents, other synonyms of the word such as correct and precise were interchangeably used while explaining the attribute and their levels.radio-based dissemination as the status quo. One of the improvements introduced was face to face communication of farmers with extension agents. The second improvement introduced was the PICSA approach, which trains and facilitates farmers to make informed decisions based on accurate, location specific, climate and weather information (Dorward et al. 2015). In Rwanda, the RCSA project trained 1823 agricultural professionals, volunteer farmer extension agents and cooperative leaders in the PICSA process, who in turn trained and facilitated 111,835 farmers to use climate information in their planning (Birachi et al. 2020). Empirical evidence in Rwanda and elsewhere (Clarkson et al. 2017, Clarkson et al. 2019, Stats4SD 2017, Dayamba et al. 2018, Birachi et al. 2020)  The availability of reliable market information can assist farmers to compare the prices they are offered with market prices, to inform decisions on whether to sell or store produce (FAO 2011). Bundling climate services with market information can increase the value for farmer decision making, as Haile et al. (2015) found in the case of rural Ethiopia. Given the importance of market information in assisting farmers' decision-making, this study tested farmers preference for market information by presenting them with two improved levels: (i) information on selling price, and (ii) information on market location to sell their produce, and assuming no market information as the status quo (baseline). To understand the tradeoff farmers would make among the different attributes of improved climate services, a monetary amount with different levels was introduced. This amount is a monthly telephone bill of farmers ranging from 400 to 1000 RWF 5 . These monetary values were based on literature review (e.g. World Bank 2013, RIA 2017). Table 1 presents the different attributes and their levels. The study was conducted in four provinces of Rwanda: Southern, Western, Northern and Eastern (Figure 1 6 ). In the case where more than one district was involved in an intervention, the sampled district was randomly selected. A multistage sampling procedure was used, where in each district, two sectors were randomly selected for a given treatment; and in each sector, cells and villages were randomly selected. In each village, proportional sampling was used to achieve the target sample size of 1525 households.The data collection was carried out in November 2019 using a farm household survey and trained enumerators who speak the local language. Enumerators were trained on the two alternatives of improved climate services that were described in terms of two improved alternatives together with the opt-out option that gave respondents the chance to choose none of the two options. In cases where respondents chose the opt-out option 12 times, they were asked in a follow-up question, why they chose the opt-out option 12 times.Enumerators were given an introductory text to memorize that explains the contents of the attributes and their levels. In order to make sure farmers had a clear understanding of the choice task, they were first asked to make their choice using an example card, allowing them to ask questions about the choice cards before the experiment started. While shown the example card, respondents were informed that the different cards were not linked to each other and the card that was presented to them each time was independent from the previous card. The choice cards were generated using Ngene 7 software version 1. To help respondents understand the choice task more consistently, attributes and their levels were presented using pictograms. Figure 2 shows an example card that was presented to respondents.The data used for this specific analysis consisted of six components. The first component was  Table 2 presents the general household characteristics across the four provinces. In this study, the majority of the sample respondents were female, with 77% of them being married. The average age of respondents was 46. The average household had five members.About a third of the respondents had formal education of up to 6 years while 21% did not go to school. The remaining respondents had different levels of higher education. Crop farming was the primary livelihood activity for the majority of the respondents, and 33% were engaged both in crop and livestock production. Other livelihood activities included wage labour, trade, salaried work and pensions. Almost all the households (94%) owned land.Major crops grown included beans, maize, cassava and banana. The main agricultural inputs used in crop production were diammonium phosphate (DAP), urea, manure, pesticides and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) fertilizer. All the sampled farmers reported that hoes, cutlasses and machetes were the key agricultural equipment for cultivation of cropland.Examining the food security status and coping mechanism, 66% of respondents stated that in the past 12 months they did not have enough food to eat. Common coping mechanisms included substituting commonly bought food with cheaper food, reducing the number of meals, modifying cooking method and participating in food-for-work programs. For the vast majority of respondents, agricultural extension services were disseminated an average of once per month in the last 12 months. For almost all the respondents, walking was the most regular means of transport to the nearest market for crop produce and livestock. Similarly, almost all the respondents stated that they walked to the nearest farm input and fertilizer markets. The majority of respondents (71%) were members of farmer associations or cooperatives. Among those, some belonged to the agriculture-livestock producer group, others joined the saving group, and the remaining were part of the radio listener group and civic group. Chargeable batteries and bulbs were the main sources of lighting their houses, while some households used the electrical grid or solar power. Other sources of lighting houses included candle, oil lamp, firewood, kerosene and biogas. Half of the respondents reported that they owned radios. Respondents who did not own a radio accessed information from their neighbours, community shops, children and spouses.Some mentioned that they did not have access at all. Television was owned by very few respondents. About 76% of the respondents owned one or two mobile phones. Most of these were basic phones, and only a few were smart phones. Those who did not own mobile phones got access from their spouse and neighbours. Fifty-nine percent of respondents identified radio as their main means of accessing weather and climate information. Radio Rwanda and Radio Huguka (105.9FM) were the main sources of forecast information. The morning was the most preferred time to listen to the radio broadcast, while some respondents reported that they followed the afternoon and night broadcasts. Debates were the most popular climate service radio programming format, identified by half of the respondents. Farmer Promoters 8 , PICSA, and mobile phones were also identified as important channels for accessing climate information. Television did not play any role in accessing these services. Table 3 presents the share of respondents using different dissemination channels across the four provinces. Rainfall was the main information included in the daily weather forecast, seasonal forecast of total rainfall, seasonal forecast of timing of onset of rain and historical information on seasonal rainfall. In addition, information on wind, temperature and storm and other extreme events was provided in the forecast. Distribution of rain through the season and risk of maximum/minimum rainfall (precipitation extremes) were the most important climate information respondents were satisfied with. Weather forecast for today and with 2-3-day, and 10-day lead times was used by respondents to make decisions on fertilizer application (33%), weeding (31%), timing of planting (28%), timing of harvesting (26%) and timing of land preparation (22%). A large share of the respondents (44%) indicated that they did not use the information for any decision making. Seasonal forecasts of the total amount of rainfall was used by 40% of respondents to inform decisions on type of crop to grow, while another 26% used the information to help decide how to prepare the land and the type of crop variety to grow. Some 32% of respondents mentioned that the information was important to decide the timing of planting and 30% used it for deciding the timing of land preparation. This forecast information was important to inform decisions on the use of organic fertilizer by 24% of the respondents, application of chemical fertilizer (21%), land allocation for crop (20%) and timing of weeding (18%). In contrast, close to half of the respondents (45%) did not use seasonal forecasts of the total amount of rainfall to inform any farming decision. Seasonal forecasts of the onset of rain was used by 49% of respondents to decide the timing of planting. The same forecast information was important for 45% of respondents to decide on timing of land preparation. How to prepare land and the type of crops to grow were based on such information for 30% and 31% of respondents, respectively. There were respondents (32%) who reported not using the forecast information for any decision making. Timing of planting and land preparation were also based on forecasts through the season for 32% and 30% of respondents, respectively.Seasonal forecasts of cessation of rain were not important information for 72% of the respondents. Only 19% used it for choosing the crop type to grow. Historical climate information was used to inform decisions on planting, fertilizer application, weeding, timing of land preparation and harvesting. More than half of the respondents reported that they did not use historical climate information for farming decisions.  Less than a third were successful in making livelihood change. Table 5 shows changes made using forecast information. The choice share across the three alternatives (the two improved situations and the opt-out option) indicated the positive attitude of respondents toward the proposed improvement in climate services. The first improved alternative was chosen in 36% of the cases and the second was chosen in 47% of the cases. Most of those who chose none of the two explained that they could not afford to pay extra for improved climate services, while a few more suggested that they were not interested in the proposed improvement. Nearly half of the respondents (49%) said that both alternatives presented to them were very credible (believable), 35% reported they were somewhat credible, and the rest were divided between those who mentioned that it is not credible and those who said, 'I don't know.'Almost all (95%) stated that they understood the content of the choice cards. More than 40% reported that the accuracy of climate information was the most important characteristic of the improvement that influenced their decision. About 25% stated that market information influenced their decision, and one fifth mentioned the dissemination channel as an important characteristic. For about 12%, the type of climate information was the reason for their choice. The CE data was analysed using NLOGIT software version 4.Estimates of marginal WTP and standard errors were calculated using the Wald procedure.All model attributes were treated as random variables with normal distribution and estimated using Halton sequence of 100 random draws.The CE data was disaggregated into four groups while estimating attributes of improved climate services, preference heterogeneity and WTP values. Four models (Table 6.1-6.4)were run representing three treatments and a control group that the RCSA project implemented for ex-post evaluation. The three treatment groups were the PICSA training group, the RLC, and those who were involved in both groups (PICSA + RLC), and the control group represented respondents who neither received PICSA training nor were members of the RLC. All the four models produced consistent results for attribute levels such as seasonal forecasts, average and accurate forecast information, face to face communication, PICSA training and market price information. In the three models, the value of the monetary attribute was negative and significant as expected, allowing for estimating WTP values. In the RLC model, however, the monetary value turned positive (and insignificant) implying that respondents enjoy paying more, which is inconsistent with the intuitive understanding of rational economic behaviour (Tandon 2015). This is also contrary to the CE approach, which predicts that an increase in monetary value of an alternative decreases the probability that this alternative is chosen if all levels of non-monetary attributes are equal across alternatives (Hanley et al. 2002).In all four models, respondents preferred daily weather forecasts over the seasonal forecast.This finding was contrary to recent studies that reported the benefits of seasonal forecasts in increasing agricultural income of African farmers and their WTP for these services (e.g. Gunda et al. 2017, Amegnaglo et al. 2017, Ouédraogo et al. 2018). Unlike studies that argue for the benefits of agro-met advisories (e.g. Ramachandrappa et al. 2018, Chattopadhyay andChandras 2018), no significant relationship could be detected between farmers choice behaviour and agro-met advisories in this study. The importance of accuracy of climate information was reflected in the significant positive value respondents attached to average level of accuracy and even highly significant positive value to receiving accurate climate information. This result was consistent in all four models. This may imply how valuable precise climate information could be in informing farmers in their livelihood decision. This is also highlighted in the literature (e.g. Hansen et al. 2019, Vaughan et al. 2019) whereproviding farmers with accurate climate information services helps them to make informed decisions that improve agricultural production and enhance agricultural income and food security. The other interesting finding was the significant positive value respondents attached to the climate information communication channels. In all four models, face to face communication with extension agents and the PICSA approach were both highly valued by respondents compared to radio-based dissemination. SMS text message was significantly valued in the PICSA and control models. Despite the failure of extension workers to achieve their extension roles in many African countries (Msuya et al. 2017)  All models consistently produced results that showed that access to market price information was very important to inform farming decisions. This could be an innovative approach that gives Rwandan farmers a chance to plan when to sell their produce. This finding supports studies conducted in other African countries, such as Magesa et al. (2014) who reported the importance of access to agricultural market information to farmers in rural Looking at preference heterogeneity, only those interactions that turned significant were presented. Important covariates that resulted in sources of preference heterogeneity among respondents in the choice of attributes of improved climate services included: age, gender, education level, size of land holding and province. There was significant negative relationship between age of the respondent and SMS text message in the PICSA and control groups. The implication of this may be that older respondents were not interested in receiving climate services through SMS text message as elderly populations, particularly across Sub-Saharan Africa, have higher illiteracy rates (UIS 2016). When the attribute, the PICSA approach, was interacted with gender of the respondents, the result showed a significant inverse relationship, and this was consistent in both the PICSA and PICSA + RLC treatment models. This might indicate that the PICSA training approach was not the preferred means of disseminating climate services among female respondents. One possible explanation could be that these training sessions are usually not gender inclusive, taking place when women are engaged in family care work and unable to attend. This highlights the importance of organizing meetings and trainings that are inclusive of both men and women.Similarly, in the PICSA + RLC group, respondents with bigger land size were not interested in the PICSA approach as a means of communicating the information. In the control group, educated respondents were in favour of accurate climate information considering the potential benefits from correct climate information. Similarly, the preference for accurate information was detected in the eastern province among respondents who were involved in the PICSA + RLC group and average accuracy was preferred in the northern province among the PICSA group. Contrary to expectation, respondents in the southern province who were involved in the PICSA group were not interested in accurate information. No preference was observed for access to market price information among respondents in the PICSA + RLC and control groups in the western and southern provinces, respectively. These results are contrary to expectation and may need further investigation.    with traders and reduce negotiation failure. Hence, setting up a reliable market information system bundled with climate services may help farmers make informed decisions.Integrating climate services into the policy and resource allocation process may help promote farmers livelihood and food security.","tokenCount":"4426"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82896dee41f7418fb3afd4811ddbf3ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e18b6245-6c88-40d7-b09b-ad4be653c783/retrieve","id":"-279043950"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f2f33fc-8958-4631-bda2-fc8392735a00","pagecount":"176","content":"Ácido abscísico (ABA): Es una fitohormona con importantes funciones dentro de la fisiología de la planta. Participa en procesos del desarrollo y crecimiento, así como en la respuesta adaptativa a estrés tanto de tipo biótico como abiótico.Ácidos fúlvicos: Materia orgánica líquida, se disuelve.Ácidos húmicos: Parte más activa de la materia orgánica, no se disuelve.Adaptación al cambio climático: Alteración del comportamiento, prácticas, sistemas y, en algunos casos, la forma de vida para proteger a la comunidad, la economía y el entorno frente a la amenaza del cambio climático.Aminación: La aminación reductora, o aminación reductiva, es una reacción química que implica la conversión de un grupo carbonilo de una cetona o aldehído en una amina.Evapotranspiración: Cantidad de agua del suelo que vuelve a la atmósfera como consecuencia de la evaporación y de la transpiración de las plantas.Hidrólisis alcalina: Proceso que sirve para descomponer material biológico como: proteínas, ácidos nucleicos, carbohidratos y lípidos, en una solución a base de agua estéril compuesta de aminoácidos y azúcares.Lábil: Que cambia o es poco estable o seguro.Leonardita: Fertilizante orgánico que contiene altas cantidades de ácidos húmicos que favorecen la producción de los cultivos.Mitigación: Es la intervención humana encaminada a reducir las fuentes de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y potenciar los sumideros de carbono.Por ejemplo; el incremento de materia orgánica en el suelo promueve la absorción de carbono. Además, el uso de los residuos agrícolas reduce los gases de efecto invernadero producidos por la mala gestión del estiércol (CH 4 ) y los residuos de la cosecha (CH 4 y NO 2 ).Mitigar el cambio climático: Evitar y reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero -que atrapan el calor-hacia la atmósfera para evitar que el planeta se caliente de manera más extrema.Nematicida: Tipo de plaguicida químico usado para matar nematodos que parasitan a las plantas. Los nematicidas suelen ser tóxicos de amplio espectro que poseen alta volatilidad u otras propiedades que promueven la migración a través del suelo.Oligoelementos: Elemento químico que se halla en muy pequeñas cantidades en las células de los seres vivos y es indispensable para el desarrollo normal del metabolismo.Opuntia: Género de plantas de la familia de las cactáceas que consta de más de 300 especies, todas nativas del continente americano, que habitan desde el sur de Estados Unidos hasta el norte de la Patagonia, donde crecen de forma silvestre.pH: El valor del pH es la medida de la acidez o alcalinidad. El pH del suelo afecta de forma directa a la disponibilidad de nutrientes. La escala del pH tiene un rango que va de 0 a 14, siendo 7 valor neutral.Rendimiento fotosintético: El rendimiento o eficiencia fotosintética es la fracción de energía luminosa convertida en energía química durante la fotosíntesis en plantas verdes y algas; es influenciada por varios factores: los más importantes son la intensidad luminosa y la temperatura.Resiliencia: La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura define así resiliencia: \"la capacidad de prevenir desastres y crisis, así como de preverlos, amortiguarlos, tenerlos en cuenta o recuperarse de ellos a tiempo y de forma eficiente y sostenible, incluida la protección, el restablecimiento y la mejora de los sistemas de vida frente a las amenazas que afectan a la agricultura, la nutrición, la seguridad alimentaria y la inocuidad de los alimentos\".Transminación: Reacción química que transfiere un grupo amino a un cetoácido para formar nuevos aminoácidos.El Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias -INIAP, a través del Núcleo de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Centro KOPIA -Ecuador, el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) y el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), en su interés de brindar herramientas de aprendizaje que permitan transferir alternativas tecnológicas a quienes hacen agricultura, han elaborado Guías de Aprendizaje en varios temas, donde se utiliza el enfoque de gestión de conocimientos para construir o reconstruir nuevos saberes en forma participativa y didáctica.La guía Insumos agroecológicos: estrategia de resiliencia al cambio climático en la Agricultura Familiar Campesina (AFC) es un documento de aprendizaje sobre la producción de abonos orgánicos como una estrategia para incrementar la resiliencia de los sistemas agrícolas a nivel familiar.Esta guía está dirigida principalmente a extensionistas, promotores, hombres y mujeres, responsables de llevar las alternativas tecnológicas hacia quienes producen; sin embargo, también puede ser usada por todas aquellas personas o instituciones que desarrollan actividades de capacitación e innovación con productores agrícolas.La agricultura familiar (AF) es clave para lograr la seguridad alimentaria y el desarrollo rural (FAO, 2014). El 80 % de las unidades productivas de América Latina y el Caribe (ALC) pertenecen a la AF. En esta actividad participan más de 60 millones de personas, convirtiéndose en la principal fuente de empleo relacionada con la agricultura (IICA, 2016).En la AF las actividades productivas que se realizan aprovechan la mano de obra existente en el interior de la familia. Las familias producen y comercializan sus excedentes generando capital social y económico. La renta total de las organizaciones campesinas es producida fundamentalmente por el trabajo de todos sus miembros (FAO, 2014).Anualmente, se produce una cantidad considerable de residuos de cosechas (residuos orgánicos que pueden ser transformados y aprovechados como abonos orgánicos) pero sólo una parte de esta producción es aprovechada directamente para la alimentación, tanto humana como animal. Los residuos, mal llamados desechos, se convierten en contaminadores ambientales y generadores de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera (GEI). Estos desechos pueden convertirse en un problema para quien produce, debido a la falta de conocimiento de alternativas para poderles dar un uso apropiado.Cuando se quema el combustible, se generan gases que van a la atmósfera. Los gases se producen por los autos, las fábricas, los desechos, estos forman una capa que no deja que el calor salga hacia el espacio; esto hace que la temperatura de la tierra aumente más de lo normal y se produzca lo que se llama efecto invernadero.Entre las propiedades de los abonos orgánicos destacan su capacidad de influir de manera favorable sobre la fertilidad física del suelo, sobre su estructura, aireación, porosidad, estabilidad de agregados, infiltración, conductividad hidráulica y sobre la capacidad de retención de agua (Murray, y otros, 2011).Por otro lado, en términos de cambio climático cuando se agrega materia orgánica en los campos cultivados, los suelos atrapan una mayor cantidad de CO 2 reduciendo la cantidad de gases GEI emitidos a la atmósfera y de forma adicional se mejora la estructura y la calidad de los suelos, haciéndolos por ende más resistentes a las inundaciones y las sequías, lo que incrementa la capacidad de adaptación a los efectos del cambio climático (Holden y Smith, 2009).Es por esta razón que el objetivo de esta guía es promover tecnologías apropiadas y fortalecer los conocimientos que ya poseen las y los agricultores para la elaboración de abonos orgánicos utilizando residuos orgánicos. De esta forma se obtiene un producto sano y seguro para usar como abono en huertas y fincas de la AFC y así contribuir al mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de las familias y comunidades. Otra ventaja del uso de abonos orgánicos es que se disminuye el uso de agroquímicos perjudiciales para la salud y el ambiente. Las prácticas propuestas en este material se enmarcan en una visión agroecológica, que propone pequeñas inversiones y que promueve la resiliencia al cambio climático de estos sistemas de producción.La publicación está dividida en dos partes:En la primera parte se comparten algunos elementos conceptuales.En la segunda parte, dividida en cinco módulos, se detallan los procedimientos para elaborar abonos orgánicos:• Módulo 1. Elaboración de abonos orgánicos • Módulo 2. Elaboración de bioinsecticidas • Módulo 3. Elaboración de biofungicidas • Módulo 4. Elaboración de biofertilizantes • Módulo 5. Elaboración de adherentes Cada módulo describe las ventajas, los materiales, la elaboración de abonos orgánicos, bioinsecticidas, biofungicidas, biofertilizantes y adherentes, con los insumos disponibles de la zona y se indican las cantidades recomendadas para la nutrición de los cultivos. De forma adicional, al iniciar cada uno de los cinco módulos se detallan las ventajas climáticas, es decir los beneficios de la aplicación de cada uno de estos grupos de bioinsumos tanto para la resiliencia/ adaptación como para la mitigación al cambio climático.P A R T E 1 : Algunos aspectos conceptuales 13 PARTE 1La agricultura juega un papel excepcional en lo que a cambio climático se refiere; por un lado, es vulnerable al cambio climático, y por el otro, es responsable del 24 % de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero globalmente (IPCC, 2014), es decir, también genera un problema. El cambio climático tiene consecuencias directas sobre la agricultura y la producción, poniendo en riesgo la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de las poblaciones en situación de mayor vulnerabilidad. La pequeña y mediana agricultura es la más afectada por el cambio climático; por ejemplo, la pequeña agricultura puede depender de la época de lluvias y con el cambio climático esa época puede no llegar o, por el contrario, puede llover muchísimo y dañar los cultivos.La agricultura libera importantes cantidades de metano y óxido nitroso, dos potentes gases de efecto invernadero. El metano es producido por el ganado durante la digestión y se libera por los eructos, así como por el estiércol y los residuos orgánicos almacenados en los vertederos. Las emisiones de óxido nitroso son un producto indirecto de los fertilizantes nitrogenados orgánicos y minerales (Agencia Europea del Medio Ambiente, 2015).Con el cambio climático los riesgos para la AFC se ampliarán, aunque sí habrá beneficios y oportunidades en algunas regiones. El cambio climático funciona como un multiplicador de riesgos, cada día nuevos estudios científicos expresan su alarma como los informes del Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático (IPCC) (Lavell y Witkowski, 2015).La agricultura y las zonas rurales enfrentan riesgos distintos a los de las ciudades. Si bien el riesgo es para toda la agricultura, para las y los pequeños productores, la exposición y vulnerabilidad a los eventos y cambios en el clima aumenta y la resiliencia disminuye, especialmente en el corto plazo, aunque el riesgo existe en todos los entornos. La agricultura de subsistencia muestra un riesgo muy alto, porque las familias dependen de lo que produzcan en su finca para alimentarse. Esto significa que la falta de producción constituye también una ausencia de capacidad para el consumo, dado que las familias no tienen acceso generalizado a la amplia gama de productos del mercado nacional. Quienes producen para vender sufren las consecuencias de la pérdida de la producción por la carencia de ingresos y oportunidades, pero pueden suplir sus necesidades alimentarias a través de otras fuentes, dada su mejor posición económica y los mecanismos de apoyo diversos con los que cuentan, como los seguros o el acceso al crédito (Lavell y Witkowski, 2015).Para la agricultura de subsistencia, evitar la pérdida o la baja en la producción o la productividad resulta esencial para su supervivencia. Los riesgos producidos por el cambio climático ponen en peligro la seguridad alimentaria y la supervivencia de las familias. No se trata solo de perder momentáneamente ingresos y oportunidades. Las crisis que sufren las agriculturas de subsistencia en América Latina pueden aumentar en intensidad y frecuencia como resultado de los impactos del cambio climático, cuyos efectos en la temperatura y las precipitaciones podrían afectar las capacidades de adaptación y ajuste local (Lavell y Witkowski, 2015).P A R T E 1 : Algunos aspectos conceptuales 15 ◆ Exposición de los sistemas agrícolas familiares La presencia de personas; medios de subsistencia; especies o ecosistemas; funciones, servicios y recursos ambientales; infraestructura; o activos económicos, sociales o culturales en lugares y entornos que podrían verse afectados de forma negativa por el cambio climático, es lo que el Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático (IPCC) llama exposición (IPCC, 2014b). En otras palabras, la exposición implica estar en la línea de fuego de un evento físico futuro potencialmente dañino, como, por ejemplo, en la planicie de inundación de un río o en la pendiente de un volcán (Lavell y Witkowski, 2015).En el caso de los sistemas agrícolas familiares el grado de exposición es alto, debido a que muchas de estas unidades productivas se ubican en territorios marginales, es decir zonas poco aptas para la agricultura, y que pueden ser susceptibles a amenazas como: inundaciones, sequías, deslizamientos, entre otras.Vulnerabilidad es la predisposición que tiene un sistema, en este caso un sistema agrícola, de afectarse de forma negativa cuando hay variaciones climáticas, por ejemplo, largas sequías o lluvias torrenciales. La vulnerabilidad está definida como el grado de susceptibilidad o de incapacidad de un sistema para afrontar los efectos adversos del cambio climático y en particular, la variabilidad del clima y los fenómenos extremos. La vulnerabilidad dependerá del carácter, magnitud y rapidez del cambio climático al que esté expuesto un sistema y de su sensibilidad y capacidad de adaptación (IPCC, 2014b).Las familias campesinas con sistemas agrícolas de subsistencia son vulnerables al cambio climático, no solo por las pérdidas económicas, sino también en términos de seguridad alimentaria. El cambio de los patrones de lluvias y las sequías dificultan los siguientes aspectos:En síntesis, existen múltiples riesgos sobre estos sistemas de producción que incrementan su vulnerabilidad. En los sistemas agrícolas familiares las mujeres tienen un rol relevante, son ellas quienes se encargan de muchas de las tareas agrícolas, comercializan los productos y se encargan del agregado de valor. Sin embargo, las mujeres tienen menos control y acceso a los recursos que los hombres. Los derechos de tenencia de la tierra y los títulos de propiedad de la tierra suelen estar en control de los hombres. En resumen, es importante considerar que mujeres y hombres poseen diferentes capacidades para adaptarse y/o mitigar el cambio climático.Las mujeres no constituyen un grupo homogéneo, se debe tomar en cuenta otro tipo de atributos como la edad o la etnia, debido a que esto determina una doble y, en ocasiones, triple vulnerabilidad. A la hora de realizar intervenciones relacionadas con la adaptación y/o mitigación al cambio climático; es necesario identificar esas vulneraciones y esas necesidades diferenciadas entre distintas personas de una comunidad.Resulta esencial tomar en cuenta la participación de los distintos miembros de la familia productora para considerar sus percepciones, preocupaciones y prioridades. La incorporación de sus perspectivas, conocimientos y experiencias particulares facilitará la identificación de riesgos climáticos en la producción y la superación de estos.Incorporar la dimensión étnico-cultural en el análisis de cada situación familiar y comunitaria puede fortalecer la comprensión de las decisiones que se han tomado ante los riesgos del cambio climático, y a la vez, favorecer la recuperación de técnicas y especies utilizadas tradicionalmente para un balance más adecuado en la producción.El IPCC (2014b) define como impactos a los efectos sobre los sistemas naturales y humanos de episodios meteorológicos y climáticos extremos y del cambio climático. Los impactos generalmente se refieren a efectos que se desencadenan cuando hay cambios o fenómenos climáticos peligrosos que ocurren en un lapso específico. Los efectos pueden ocurrir en las vidas de los seres humanos y de los animales, en los medios de subsistencia, en la salud, en los ecosistemas, en las economías, en las culturas, en los servicios e infraestructuras. Los impactos también se llaman consecuencias y resultados. Cuando hay inundaciones, sequías o la elevación del nivel del mar hablamos de impactos físicos. El cambio climático tiene impactos sobre los sistemas geofísicos. (IPCC, 2014b).En general se puede decir que el impacto del cambio climático sobre la agricultura familiar es considerable. Las familias dependen económicamente de la agricultura y de los recursos naturales. Como ya se mencionó antes, muchas unidades productivas se ubican sobre territorios marginales y susceptibles a amenazas como: inundaciones, sequías y deslizamientos. Tienen por tanto baja capacidad para adaptarse al cambio climático. Esta sería la situación en muchas zonas del Ecuador. Previendo los cambios que puede haber en el clima, podríamos esperar impactos negativos a futuro como la reducción en la productividad, la cual podría comprometer la seguridad alimentaria de las familias y de estas zonas (CEPAL, 2016). Otro efecto que puede darse es la reducción de la calidad de los alimentos (USGCRP, 2016).Por otro lado, en cuanto a la producción agrícola la FAO (2016), menciona algunos efectos como:• Modificación de los períodos de vegetación y de épocas de siembra y de cosecha; por los cambios en la temperatura y en las precipitaciones estacionales.• Cambios en la disponibilidad de agua; el descenso en el nivel de precipitaciones significará menor disponibilidad de agua para riego en la agricultura. Cuando llueve menos, disminuye el almacenamiento de nieves en altas cumbres, bajan los caudales de los ríos y decae la acumulación de agua en acuíferos.• Cambios en el tipo, distribución e intensidad de enfermedades y plagas; una plaga o enfermedad que antes no ocasionaba mayores problemas, con el cambio climático puede incrementar el daño en forma importante. Por ejemplo, si sube la temperatura la plaga puede crecer rápidamente o puede llegar a lugares donde antes no prosperaba.• Cambios de rendimiento de los cultivos; debido a los cambios en la evapotranspiración y el rendimiento fotosintético, así como la producción de biomasa.• Muchas tierras pueden dejar de ser utilizables; y otras que anteriormente no eran utilizables podrían ser cultivables. Por ejemplo, podría ser difícil cultivar café en áreas aptas para su producción entre alturas de 600 a 1 000 m, al aumentar la temperatura entre +2 y +2.5 ºC y reducirse la precipitación entre -5 y -10 %. Se calcula que las áreas cultivables de café podrían reducirse entre 38 y 89 %.Además, se puede mencionar la afectación a la salud de las y los productores y trabajadores agrícolas. Es muy probable que el cambio climático afecte la salud de las personas que trabajan al aire libre debido a los aumentos de temperatura, mala calidad del aire, condiciones meteorológicas extremas y enfermedades transmitidas por insectos (USGCRP, 2016).La adaptación, definida como el proceso de ajuste al clima real o proyectado y sus efectos (IPCC, 2014b), es el proceso que trata de moderar o evitar los daños y aprovechar las oportunidades beneficiosas producidas por efecto del cambio climático (las personas y las sociedades pueden percibir o jerarquizar los riesgos y los beneficios potenciales de formas diferentes, en términos del sector agrícola por ejemplo, en las regiones de latitudes medias o altas, los aumentos locales moderados de temperatura pueden tener pequeños efectos beneficiosos en el rendimiento de las cosechas de ciertos cultivos (IAASTD, 2008). Pero, en general, los efectos negativos superan en gran medida a los positivos. Se trata de contar con sistemas agroalimentarios sostenibles y con agricultores con capacidades, recursos y tecnología disponibles para producir a pesar de los cambios en el clima y sus impactos.En este contexto, se requerirán innovaciones en los sistemas de producción. La innovación en la agricultura se produce cuando se implementa por primera vez, en un contexto específico, un producto o proceso nuevo o mejorado, para crear cambios positivos que permitan satisfacer necesidades, enfrentar desafíos o aprovechar oportunidades (IICA, 2019). Estas innovaciones frente al cambio climático en los sistemas agrícolas en pequeña escala pueden ser:• Mejora de la eficiencia en el uso de los recursos: suelo, agua y biodiversidad.• Intensificación sostenible de la producción agroecológica, agroforestal, agrosilvopastoril (FAO, 2016 b).Quienes hacen agricultura familiar aportan a la adaptación al cambio climático a través de sus conocimientos para manejar sus riesgos, conservando la agrobiodiversidad in situ (FAO, 2014). Sin embargo, debido a las condiciones económicas y sociales, al limitado acceso a recursos y al conocimiento, el potencial de adaptación de la agricultura familiar se ve limitado. De este modo, esfuerzos encaminados a superar la pobreza, así como mejorar el acceso a mercados, información, crédito o fuentes de financiamiento, y a asistencia técnica para desarrollar e implementar innovación, son medidas necesarias para reducir la vulnerabilidad e incrementar la capacidad de adaptación al cambio climático de estos sistemas (Verner, 2014).Algunas recomendaciones promovidas por la FAO (2014) para la adaptación de la agricultura familiar al cambio climático son las siguientes:• Acortar la brecha tecnológica e inversión en innovación. La innovación será un factor decisivo en la adaptación de la agricultura familiar al cambio climático, por lo que es necesario fortalecer las capacidades nacionales y locales.• Reactivar y expandir los servicios de asistencia para la agricultura familiar. Se requiere promover los servicios de extensión y asistencia técnica para la agricultura familiar, especialmente modalidades que permitan la investigación y extensión participativa.• Información y conocimiento sobre cambio climático. Se requieren estudios profundos sobre el impacto del cambio climático en la producción agrícola en América Latina y el Caribe (ALC), así como mejorar la comprensión de los impactos sociales del cambio climático y sus potenciales efectos en la agricultura familiar, las migraciones y el empleo, entre otros.• Acceso seguro a recursos naturales de la agricultura familiar. El acceso seguro a la tierra, agua y otros recursos naturales es vital para la adaptación al cambio climático.• Desarrollar mecanismos innovadores de transferencia de riesgo.Es necesario seguir desarrollando esquemas de transferencia de riesgo para la agricultura familiar, con enfoques innovadores que les aseguren beneficios y una efectiva participación.• Financiamiento para el cambio climático. Es necesario explorar opciones de financiamiento públicas y privadas para promover la adaptación de la agricultura familiar al cambio climático.La mitigación del cambio climático es definida como \"la intervención humana encaminada a reducir las fuentes o potenciar los sumideros de gases de efecto invernadero\" (IPCC, 2014b). En los sistemas agrícolas la mitigación tiene un gran potencial debido a que la agricultura, la actividad forestal y otros usos de la tierra son los principales motores de los ciclos de nitrógeno y carbono terrestres, y por consiguiente de un volumen considerable de gases de efecto invernadero. En este sentido, será esencial mejorar la gestión del carbono y del nitrógeno en la agricultura para que este sector contribuya a la mitigación del cambio climático.Si bien la contribución de los sistemas de producción familiar al cambio climático en forma individual es mínima, contribuir a la mitigación significa el aumento de la eficiencia, productividad y rentabilidad de su producción.También favorece la conservación y restauración de los suelos y territorios ricos en carbono. Además, se reducen las pérdidas y el desperdicio de alimentos y se avanza hacia dietas más saludables.Sin embargo, muchos de estos beneficios no son visibles a corto plazo, por lo que, para la mayoría de agricultores la mitigación del cambio climático no es su principal preocupación. Quienes producen se preocupan por responder a sus necesidades de seguridad alimentaria, mercados o rentabilidad. Por lo tanto, involucrar a las y los agricultores en el proceso de planificación contribuye a alinear la planificación de la mitigación con sus prioridades.La palabra 'resiliencia' es un anglicismo que proviene de la física (resilience), y hace referencia a la capacidad de una sustancia u objeto para recuperar su forma original. El concepto se utiliza en la ecología para referirse a la propiedad que permite a un sistema absorber y usar, incluso para beneficio, los cambios o alteraciones producidos dentro del ambiente (IICA, 2014b). En lo que respecta a cambio climático, se refiere a la capacidad de los sistemas sociales, económicos y ambientales de afrontar un suceso, tendencia o perturbación peligrosa, respondiendo o reorganizándose de modo que mantengan su función esencial, su identidad y su estructura, y conservando al mismo tiempo la capacidad de adaptación, aprendizaje y transformación (IPCC, 2014c).Para generar sistemas agrícolas familiares resilientes se deben sumar dos enfoques: los sistemas agrícolas (finca) y los medios de vida (familia).Los sistemas agrícolas resilientes al cambio climático tienen la capacidad para recuperarse de las perturbaciones de los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos como la sequía, las inundaciones o los huracanes y para resistir el ataque de plagas y enfermedades (FAO, 2016 b).Los medios de vida resilientes requieren condiciones tales como unos ingresos adecuados y seguridad alimentaria, que permitan a las personas soportar los riesgos climáticos a los que están expuestas, recuperarse después de que ocurran y adaptarse a ellos (CEPAL, 2016).Si bien es cierto, como ya se ha mencionado que los sistemas de agricultura familiar están particularmente expuestos a los impactos del cambio climático y son más vulnerables, algunos grupos de pequeños agricultores están respondiendo activamente a las condiciones climáticas cambiantes y han demostrado innovación y resiliencia frente al cambio climático. Según Altieri y Nicholls (2013), \"la mayoría de las estadísticas disponibles que predicen impactos climáticos sobre la agricultura campesina son aproximaciones que no toman en cuenta la heterogeneidad de la agricultura campesina, ni la diversidad de estrategias que los campesinos han utilizado y aún utilizan para enfrentar los riesgos climáticos\".Muchos estudios revelan que los pequeños agricultores que utilizan prácticas agroecológicas han podido afrontar e incluso prepararse para el cambio climático, minimizando las pérdidas de sus cosechas, a través de una serie de prácticas tales como, el uso de variedades tolerantes a sequía, cosecha de agua, diversidad de cultivos, agroforestería, prácticas de conservación de suelo y una serie de otras técnicas (Altieri y Koohafkan, 2008).Dado que las circunstancias y las oportunidades de los pequeños productores son muy variadas en diferentes lugares, las vías para la adaptación y el fomento de la resiliencia deben diseñarse específicamente para cada contexto, tomando en cuenta el grado de exposición a las amenazas climáticas, así como la capacidad de adaptación (CEPAL, 2016).Si bien muchas poblaciones indígenas y campesinas están expuestas a los impactos del cambio climático y son vulnerables, muchos sistemas de agricultura familiar ofrecen una amplia gama de opciones y diseños de manejo que incrementan la biodiversidad funcional en los campos de cultivo y, por consiguiente, refuerzan la resiliencia de los agroecosistemas (Altieri y Nicholls, 2017).En muchas zonas vulnerables, los campesinos pueden recurrir a los sistemas agrícolas tradicionales que aún prevalecen y que representan depósitos de abundantes conocimientos sobre resiliencia ante los efectos de condiciones climáticas extremas. La cuestión es discernir qué principios y mecanismos han permitido a estos sistemas resistir y/o recuperarse de sequías, tormentas, inundaciones o huracanes (Altieri y Nicholls, 2017). En general, los agroecosistemas tradicionales son menos vulnerables a la pérdida catastrófica, porque en ellos crece una variedad amplia de cultivos y variedades en diversos arreglos espaciales y temporales, y exhiben compensación en caso de pérdida (Altieri y Nicholls, 2008).Muchas de las estrategias agroecológicas tradicionales, que reducen la vulnerabilidad al cambio climático e incrementan la capacidad de adaptación de los sistemas agrícolas familiares, incluyen la diversificación de cultivos, el mantenimiento de la diversidad genética local, la integración animal, la adición de materia orgánica al suelo, la cosecha de agua, entre otros. Estas innovaciones son la base concreta que las comunidades vulnerables pueden utilizar y movilizar para diseñar sistemas agrícolas que se vuelvan cada vez más resilientes a los extremos climáticos (Nicholls C., Altieri, Henao, Montalba, y Talavera, 2015). Varias de estas estrategias a su vez, reducen la dependencia de insumos externos y mejoran la gestión del carbono y del nitrógeno en la agricultura, lo que contribuye a la mitigación del cambio climático.La vulnerabilidad de las comunidades agrícolas depende de lo desarrollado que esté su capital natural y social, lo que a su vez hace que las y los agricultores y sus sistemas sean vulnerables a las perturbaciones climáticas. En las regiones donde el tejido social se ha roto, el reto es rehabilitar la organización social y las estrategias colectivas en las comunidades, para incrementar así la capacidad de respuesta de las y los agricultores para implementar mecanismos que les permitan resistir y/o recuperarse de los eventos climáticos (Altieri y Nicholls, 2017).Según el IPPC (2014b), el declive en el rendimiento de cultivos por el cambio climático podría ser del 10 al 25 % de aquí a 2050 y, en ese contexto, la FAO (2016b) estima que la producción de alimentos debe aumentar en un 60 % para mantener el ritmo del crecimiento demográfico. Esto lleva a considerar la importancia que, para la seguridad y soberanía alimentarias tiene la producción de alimentos en el marco de sistemas resilientes al cambio climático. Y si consideramos que \"en América Latina y el Caribe la agricultura familiar representa el 80 % de las explotaciones y que provee un 27 a 67 % de la producción de alimentos\", es evidente la importancia de la agricultura familiar campesina para la sostenibilidad alimentaria en la región (Meza, 2014).Entender los rasgos agroecológicos y mecanismos de adaptación, mitigación y resiliencia de los sistemas pequeños de agricultura es esencial para diseñar una estrategia de desarrollo de agroecosistemas sostenibles en esta nueva era de variabilidad climática (Altieri y Nicholls, 2008).Como se mencionó en la introducción, esta guía está formada por cinco módulos y cada módulo se subdivide en sesiones de trabajo que duran entre una y cinco horas.Conocer al grupo de participantes del taller• Identificar quiénes son, de dónde vienen, saber cuántas personas van a participar (se sugiere que el grupo no sea mayor a 25 personas).• Seleccionar el espacio más adecuado para el desarrollo de la capacitación de tal manera que permita crear un ambiente apropiado para el aprendizaje. El espacio debe ser luminoso, tener paredes suficientes para pegar papelotes y debe permitir tener reuniones de grupo. Hay que considerar que se harán actividades como elaboración de dibujos, trabajos en papelotes, proyección de videos y dinámicas.• Elaborar una guía temática que permita delinear y presentar la secuencia de temas en función a las demandas de quienes participan.Se sugiere organizar el diseño usando una matriz que describa el orden de los contenidos que se abordarán.Revisar detenidamente los contenidos de la guía• La guía provee información esencial e instrucciones para abordar una temática de capacitación. Esta guía no pretende tratar los temas a profundidad, otras fuentes bibliográficas, como manuales, trípticos, artículos científicos; deben ser revisados por quien los facilite, para ampliar los conocimientos.Conseguir los materiales descritos para el desarrollo de cada práctica• Disponer de materiales que se utilizarán en la capacitación y revisar si son adecuados para las y los participantes con quienes se trabajará.• Prever que las y los participantes van a necesitar un cuaderno para tomar notas.• En caso de ser necesario evaluar de manera objetiva los conocimientos de las y los participantes, se deben preparar materiales para una evaluación inicial y final.Presentación y aclaración de expectativas• Bienvenida a todas las personas que participan de la sesión. Se recomienda ser breves y dinámicos.• Presentación de las y los participantes.• Presentación de quien facilita y de los temas a tratarse. De ser posible, tener los temas escritos en un papelote para que estén visibles durante toda la sesión.• Es indispensable dar a conocer la agenda o el tiempo que se empleará en la sesión.• Conocer las expectativas de las y los participantes de la capacitación; se puede proponer preguntas tales como: ¿para qué nos hemos reunido este día? Si hay expectativas que no se pueden cumplir, explicitarlas. Si hay temas que se pueden incorporar, hacer los cambios en la agenda.• Llegar a acuerdos de trabajo conjunto: uso de celular, horarios, etcétera.• Motivar a las y los participantes a interesarse en el tema, rescatar sus conocimientos y, al mismo tiempo, establecer una idea general sobre su nivel de conocimiento; se pueden realizar preguntas exploratorias referentes al tema a tratarse.• Iniciar compartiendo con las y los participantes los objetivos de aprendizaje de la sesión, éstos pueden ser escritos de manera resumida sobre un papelote o tarjetas, así se tiene claro hacia dónde se va a llegar. Durante la capacitación asegurarse de que todas las personas que participan se involucren en el proceso de aprendizaje.• Propiciar el trabajo en grupos, es mejor que los grupos no sean muy grandes, de entre 4 y 6 personas.• Procurar que los grupos cambien de integrantes, para dar a la gente la oportunidad de conocerse.• Explicar las actividades con claridad y prestar atención a las necesidades de los grupos.• Dar explicaciones generales y promover un ambiente de confianza para que quienes participan se sientan en libertad de preguntar, de platear ideas y opiniones.• Si bien en las fichas técnicas hay una importante explicación sobre los temas de los módulos, quien facilita las sesiones deberá \"traducir\" esa información a las y los agricultores, utilizando términos y palabras comunes, para que los temas que se abordan sean más entendibles. Es importante cerciorarse de que los términos se entiendan y de que la comunicación fluya.• Pedir a los y las participantes que tomen nota de todo el proceso y que, si les es posible, tomen fotos de los procesos principales de la práctica. Si quien facilita ve necesario, entregar a los y las participantes una copia con la lista de materiales y el procedimiento de las prácticas de campo.Cada sesión contiene la siguiente estructura 1. Tema. Descripción de la temática a abordarse con las y los participantes.2. Objetivo de aprendizaje. Lo que se quiere lograr con la práctica, lo que se espera que quienes participen estén en capacidad de realizar al término de la práctica.3. Tiempo. Duración aproximada de la práctica.4. Materiales. Lista de materiales requeridos para emplearse en la práctica.5. Procedimiento. Conjunto de instrucciones sistemáticas para que quien facilita guíe el proceso de aprendizaje.6. Notas técnicas. Información técnica a ser estudiada por la persona que facilita.• Para reforzar los objetivos de aprendizaje, al final de la sesión, el o la facilitadora hará una síntesis de los temas tratados en la capacitación.• También se puede hacer una actividad de cierre, pidiendo a quienes participan, que digan las ideas fuerza trabajadas durante la sesión.• Para evaluar si los objetivos de aprendizaje se cumplieron, se recomienda pedir a varios participantes, seleccionados al azar, que realicen algunas actividades referentes a las prácticas desarrolladas.• Preguntar el criterio de las y los participantes respecto de las prácticas abordadas, así como de la logística del evento. Uno de los problemas ambientales de la producción agrícola son los residuos orgánicos que se generan (restos de poda, de cosecha, de poscosecha, estiércol, pasto, fruta caída, residuos de cocina, entre otros). Debido al desconocimiento, a la falta de un espacio adecuado o de tiempo, las prácticas habituales con estos residuos son la quema, el enterramiento o el abandono del material a la intemperie hasta su pudrición (Román, Matínez, y Pantoja, 2013).En este módulo se aprenderá a utilizar residuos orgánicos y materiales de la zona para elaborar diferentes abonos. Se transformarán los residuos en un material homogéneo y asimilable por las plantas, gracias a las condiciones de temperatura y humedad controladas. Los productos se emplean para mejorar la estructura del suelo y proporcionar nutrientes de una manera segura.El reciclaje de los residuos orgánicos generados en el proceso productivo agropecuario convierte los residuos en insumos que pueden regresar al suelo aportándole nutrientes y microorganismos benéficos.Resiliencia/ Adaptación: el uso de insumos provenientes de los residuos favorece las condiciones para la vida microbiana y mejora las estructuras fisicoquímicas de los suelos en los que se aplican; aportan elementos como la materia orgánica, oligoelementos, nutrientes, entre otros, fundamentales para recuperar, mantener e incrementa la fertilidad de los suelos reduciendo de esta manera el riesgo de erosión y la desertificación. Además, al incrementar el contenido de materia orgánica, a su vez incrementa la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua del suelo, mejorando la resistencia de cultivos a la sequía. Por cada 1 % de incremento de materia orgánica, el suelo almacena hasta 1,5 litros de agua por metro cuadrado (Nicholls y Altieri, 2018).Mitigación: el incremento de materia orgánica en el suelo promueve la absorción de carbono (Román, Matínez, y Pantoja, 2013). Además, el uso de los residuos agrícolas reduce los gases de efecto invernadero producidos por la mala gestión del estiércol (CH 4 ) y los residuos de la cosecha (CH 4 y NO 2 ) (FAO, 2015). El compost es un abono orgánico que sirve para mejorar la tierra y para alimentar las plantas. Para realizar el compost se deben aprovechar los residuos vegetales del jardín y del hogar. Por cada 100 kg de restos orgánicos se obtienen 30 kg de abono (Mosquera, 2010).Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el compost.• Elaborar el compost con los materiales disponibles.• Conocer las cantidades de compost recomendadas para la nutrición de los cultivos.Tiempo:• Tres horas.Para producir 10 sacos de compost se necesita:• 120 kg de estiércol, puede ser de vaca, oveja, conejo o cuy.• 160 kg de leguminosas tiernas por ejemplo alfalfa, trébol, haba, chocho.• 120 kg de desechos de hortalizas.• 200 kg de gramíneas puede ser caña de maíz, tamo de trigo o cebada u otros.• 20 kg de cal o ceniza de madera (fuente de micronutrientes).Otros materiales:• 50 litros de solución de microrganismos comerciales descomponedores de materia orgánica.• Palos de 10 cm de diámetro y 1,5 de alto.• Machete.• Palas.• Regadera.• Paja o sacos de yute (o realizar un cobertizo con materiales de la zona) o reutilizar plástico que esté disponible en el lugar.Opcional:• Un termómetro de alcohol de hasta 100 ºC (el de mercurio se puede romper).• Tira indicadora de pH para tener más información sobre el estado del compost.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el compost:1. Dar una explicación general de la práctica que se va a realizar y organizar una dinámica para armar grupos de trabajo.2. Grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del compost.3. Seleccionar el sitio donde se va a realizar la compostera. Este sitio debe estar cerca del lugar donde se encuentran los residuos, cerca de una fuente de agua y con espacio suficiente para voltear el material.4. Aplanar y apisonar el suelo, dando una ligera inclinación para que no se empoce el agua.5. Con un machete, se pican los desechos a compostar lo más fino posible, para aumentar la exposición de los materiales y acelerar la descomposición.6. Mezclar todos los desechos a compostar.7. Humedecer la mezcla con los microorganismos comerciales descomponedores, utilizando una regadera.8. Con los materiales antes preparados construir un montón de forma triangular, se recomienda 2 m de ancho por 1 m de alto y el largo dependerá del material disponible. 9. Colocar palos de 10 cm de diámetro y de 1,5 m de alto, uno a cada metro a lo largo y en el medio del montón a lo ancho, los que servirán para que circule el aire en el proceso de compostaje.10. Cubrir el montón con paja, sacos de yute o realizar previamente un cobertizo con materiales de la zona, para conservar la humedad y la temperatura y protegerlo del sol y exceso de agua en época lluviosa. En áreas muy lluviosas o de clima frío, la pila se debe tapar con un plástico para favorecer la subida de temperatura y evitar el encharcamiento de agua.11. Recordar a las y los participantes que al día siguiente de elaborada la compostera hay que sacar los palos para que circule el aire por los orificios que se han formado en el centro, luego hay que volver a colocar los palos.12. Durante la elaboración del compost, a la tercera semana, controlar la humedad mediante el método del puño, que consiste en tomar con la mano una cantidad de la mezcla y apretarla. No deben salir gotas de agua de los dedos, pero sí formar un terrón compacto en la mano; cuando existe exceso de humedad, hay que voltear el montón.13. A la tercera semana, también, controlar la temperatura con la ayuda de un termómetro, de no disponer de este, utilizar un machete (como se aclara en las notas técnicas). Si la temperatura ha subido (65 °C), voltear el montón para su aireación y añadir agua si es necesario.14. Además, se debe medir el pH, si el compost está húmedo, pero no encharcado, se inserta una tira indicadora de pH en el compost, se deja reposar durante unos minutos y se lee el pH (ideal de 4,5 a 8,5) mediante la comparación del color.15. Realizar volteos al montón cada 15 días para garantizar la aireación.16. Al cabo de tres meses se obtendrá el compost, que debe tener una coloración negra, olor a tierra fresca y estar frio debido a la falta de actividad microbiana.17. Cuando se termine el proceso de compostaje, tamizar el material con el fin de eliminar los elementos gruesos y otros contaminantes (metales, vidrios, cerámicas, piedras) utilizando zarandas (malla para cernir arena) con malla de alambre de 1 cm x 1 cm.18. El material grueso que no pase a través de la malla de tamiz o material lignocelulósico (maderas) debe volver a una nueva pila de compostaje.19. Almacenar el compost en sacos limpios, protegido del sol, lluvia y viento.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.El compost es un abono orgánico que sirve para mejorar la tierra y para alimentar las plantas. Para hacer compost se pueden aprovechar los residuos vegetales del jardín y del hogar. Por cada 100 kg de restos orgánicos se obtienen 30 kg de abono (Mosquera, 2010).El compostaje es la suma de procesos metabólicos realizados por diferentes microorganismos. Estos microorganismos actúan sobre la materia orgánica en condiciones controladas, descomponiéndola en forma rápida que, en presencia de oxígeno, aprovechan el nitrógeno (N) y el carbono (C) presentes, para producir su propia biomasa. En este proceso, los microorganismos generan calor y un sustrato sólido, con menos C y N, pero más estable, que es llamado compost, y sirve como abono para los cultivos (Román, Matínez, y Pantoja, 2013) (Restrepo, Gómez, y Escobar, 2014).El proceso de compost es una descomposición predominantemente aeróbica y se puede dividir en tres fases. La fase inicial de descomposición de los materiales más lábiles, tales como azúcares, proteínas y almidones. La segunda fase de temperaturas más altas, permite que se degraden los materiales más recalcitrantes como celulosa y la lignina. Por último se da la fase tercera de síntesis, donde se forman las sustancias húmicas (Restrepo et al., 2014).Factores a tener en cuenta para elaboración del compost Humedad: Una manera sencilla de saber que el montón está en el rango de humedad adecuado, es utilizando el método del puño, que consiste en coger con la mano un puñado de material y apretarlo;• Si este permanece compacto en la mano significa que la humedad es adecuada.• Si se desmenuza, significa que está demasiado seco, hay que regar de inmediato.• Si se desprenden gotas de agua, está demasiado húmedo, hay que voltear el montón (Yugsi, 2012).Temperatura: El control de la temperatura se realiza introduciendo un machete en el centro del montón por 2 o 3 minutos;• Si el machete sale caliente indica que la temperatura está bien.• Si sale frío indica que se debe aumentar la temperatura cubriendo el montón con un plástico.• Si el machete sale extremadamente caliente al punto de que no permite mantener la mano sobre él, significa que la temperatura está por los 70 °C, por lo que hay que voltear el montón (Yugsi, 2012).Aireación: El compostaje es un proceso aeróbico y se debe mantener una aireación adecuada para permitir la respiración de los microorganismos. Su concentración depende de las materias primas, la textura, la humedad y frecuencia de aireación y del número de volteos de los materiales (Román, et al., 2013).En condiciones normales en la Sierra se realiza el volteo del montón cada 30 días, aproximadamente, para airear y evitar pudriciones (Yugsi, 2011).pH: El pH del compostaje depende de los materiales de origen y varía en cada fase del proceso (Román, et al., 2013).Tamaño de la partícula: La actividad microbiana está relacionada con el tamaño de la partícula, esto es, con la facilidad de acceso al sustrato (Román, et al., 2013).En un lugar que permita el movimiento del abono orgánico para lograr su madurez. Puede ser bajo techo o en suelo, un área protegida de vientos fuertes, a prudente distancia de nacimientos de agua (más de 50 m) para evitar contaminaciones y poca pendiente (< 4 %) para evitar problemas de lixiviados y erosión, pero siempre cubierto con plástico, sacos y hojas (Comitato Internazionale per lo Sviluppo dei Popoli (CISP), 2008; Román, et al., 2013).Según Román, et al., (2013), la gran mayoría de los materiales orgánicos son compostables. En la siguiente lista se hace una extensa relación de materiales que se pueden compostar:• Restos de cosecha, plantas del huerto o jardín. Ramas trituradas o troceadas procedentes de podas, hojas caídas de árboles y arbustos.• Heno y hierba segada, césped o pasto (es preferible usarlo en capas finas y previamente desecado).• Estiércol de porcino, vacuno, caprino y ovino, y sus camas de corral.• Restos orgánicos de cocina en general (frutas y hortalizas). Alimentos estropeados o caducados. Cáscaras de huevo (preferiblemente trituradas). Restos de café, té e infusiones. Cáscaras de frutos secos. Cáscaras de naranja, cítricos o piña (pocas y troceadas). Papas estropeadas, podridas o germinadas.• Virutas de aserrín (en capas finas).• Servilletas, pañuelos de papel, papel y cartón (no impresos ni coloreados, ni mezclados con plástico).• Cortes de pelo (no teñido), residuos de esquilado de animales.Según Mosquera (2010), los materiales que se puede poner en la compostera son paja, malas hierbas sólo si son anuales y no llevan semillas, porque las perennes que tienen estolones o bulbillos, rizomas, puede mantener su viabilidad y brotar; además de cenizas, verduras, yogures caducados y tapones de corcho.Lo que no se debe utilizar Román et al. (2013) manifiestan que no se deben incluir materiales inertes, tóxicos o nocivos tales como:• Residuos químicos-sintéticos, pegamentos, solventes, gasolina, petróleo, aceite de vehículos, pinturas.• Materiales no degradables (latas, vidrio, piedras, metales, plásticos).• Aglomerados o contrachapados de madera (ni sus virutas o serrín).• Tabaco, ya que contiene un biocida potente como es la nicotina y diversos tóxicos.• Detergentes, productos clorados, antibióticos, residuos de medicamentos.• Animales muertos (estos deben ser incinerados en condiciones especiales, o pueden ser compostados en pilas especiales).• Restos de alimentos cocinados, carne.Según CISP (2008), los alimentos grasosos como aceite de freír o mantecas no se deben utilizar, sin embargo, Román (2013) señala que se puede utilizar aceites y grasas comestibles muy esparcidas y en pequeñas cantidades.De acuerdo a CISP (2008) no se debe utilizar:• Malezas con semillas.• Excrementos humanos y de animales domésticos porque tienen patógenos.No se deben usar plantas tóxicas (como hojas de eucaliptos, hojas de nogal y nueces) que impiden el crecimiento de otras plantas (AGRUPAR, 2020).Los materiales que no se debe colocar en la compostera son huesos y pescado; debido a que produce malos olores; plantas y frutos enfermos o gran cantidad de vegetales podridos por los olores y el grado de putrefacción; ceniza y aserrín de madera tratada o aglomerados, colas y barnices por ser tóxico (Mosquera, 2010).Comprobación de que ha finalizado el compostaje (en fase de maduración)Para comprobar que el compost ha entrado en fase de maduración, el material, aún húmedo no aumenta de temperatura nuevamente a pesar de que se realice el volteo. Sin embargo, existen también otras pruebas que se realizan para comprobar esta fase:Se deben tomar varias muestras (mínimo 3) representativas del tamaño de la pila para analizar el aspecto y olor del material compostado. Debe estar oscuro, con olor a suelo húmedo y cuando se realiza la prueba del puño, no debe mostrar exceso de humedad. Se puede dividir el montón en 4 partes iguales y tomar de cada cuarto 3 muestras de 100 gramos de material compostado, introducirlas en bolsas plásticas y dejarlas por dos días en un lugar fresco y seco. Si al cabo de este tiempo, la bolsa aparece hinchada (llena de aire) y con condensación de humedad puede ser indicativo de que el proceso aún no ha finalizado (el compost esta inmaduro).Otra técnica es la de introducir un machete o instrumento metálico de 50 cm hacia el centro la pila. Si al cabo de 10 minutos al retirar el machete se siente caliente (no se puede tocar porque quema), quiere decir que el material aún está en proceso de descomposición. En estos casos, se debe dejar la pila para que continúe el proceso de compostaje (Román, et al., 2013).No se reconocerá nada de lo depositado hace unos meses, excepto los trozos de ramas, los cuales se separan con el tamiz o con las manos y se vuelven a introducir al compostador para que continúe su proceso y sirva de estructurante (Mosquera, 2010).Se puede dejar 5 cm de compost sobre la superficie a modo de acolchado o si no, incorporarlo al suelo (Mosquera, 2010).Otro autor señala que hay varias formas de aplicar el compost: Los excesivos volteos y riegos del compost producen pérdidas de nutrientes por volatilización y lixiviación, respectivamente (Yugsi, 2011).Es importante mantener a la compostera húmeda y tapada para activar la descomposición de los materiales y evitar el lavado de los elementos nutritivos que se van generando con la fermentación del material orgánico (CISP, 2008).Si la compostera despide olores fuertes (olor a amoniaco), quiere decir que hay exceso de materia verde, pérdida de nitrógeno y acidificación, esto se puede contrarrestar volteando el montón y aplicando cal o ceniza (0,5 kg/ m 2 ) (Yugsi, 2011).El compost bien procesado presenta una coloración negruzca y un olor agradable a tierra fresca (Yugsi, 2011).Se debe tener en cuenta que, durante el proceso de compostaje, el montón puede disminuir hasta un 50 % en volumen debido a la compactación y a la pérdida de carbono en forma de CO 2 (Román, et al., 2013).Para la elaboración del compost cada lugar utiliza sus propios materiales de acuerdo a la disponibilidad de la zona (CISP, 2008).Se puede realizar en sistemas cerrados o en recipientes como bidones plásticos de 220 litros, de ladrillos, de madera o de malla metálica (Román 2013).Si no usa el compost de inmediato, puede guardarlo en bolsas o sacos cerrados en forma hermética. Si al apretarlo desprende líquido, no lo almacene en bolsas, debido a que podría podrirse (Mosquera, 2010).No existen frecuencias preestablecidas para airear y regar, por lo que se recomienda revisiones frecuentes de humedad y temperatura.Las condiciones ideales para la reproducción y acción eficiente de los microorganismos se dan cuando el material se mantiene caliente, húmedo y aireado.Otra forma de hacer compost es colocar los materiales en forma alternada por capas, y en cada capa regar con la solución de microorganismos descomponedores (Yugsi, 2011).Figura 1. Elaboración de compostEs un biofertilizante de origen japonés, del que deriva su nombre \"bo-ca-shi\", que significa 'fermentación'.Se trata de un abono orgánico fermentado parcialmente, estable, económico y de fácil preparación. Este abono es producto de un proceso de degradación anaeróbica o aeróbica de materiales de origen animal y vegetal. Su proceso de elaboración es más acelerado que el compostaje, permitiendo obtener el producto final de forma más rápida (Arias, 2001).Contribuye a la conservación del suelo, existe mayor captación de agua de lluvia, disminuye el calor ambiental y se protege la biodiversidad, con lo que se colabora en la protección del medio ambiente (Mosquera, 2010y FAO et al., 2011).Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el bocashi.• Elaborar el bocashi con los materiales disponibles.• Conocer las cantidades de bocashi recomendadas para la nutrición de los cultivos.• Tres horas.Para producir 10 sacos de bocashi se necesita:• 160 kg de gallinaza seca (o estiércol de especies mayores y menores).• 80 kg de cascarilla de arroz, de quinua o tamo de cereales (bien picados).• 120 kg de tierra fértil del lugar.• 30 kg de carbón molido o ceniza.• 6 kg de humus o compost.• 2 kg de cal o ceniza vegetal.• 1 litro de melaza o miel de panela.• 120 g de levadura en 100 litros de agua, se puede utilizar leche cortada, yogurt descompuesto, o 1 o 2 galones de suero de leche sin cocer.• 50 litros de solución de microorganismos comerciales descomponedores de materia orgánica.Otros materiales:• Tanque de 200 l.• Palas.• Machete.• Regadera.• Plástico negro (el tamaño dependerá de la cantidad de abono a realizar) o costales.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el bocashi:1. Pedir a los participantes que formen grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del bocashi.2. Seleccionar el sitio donde se va a realizar el bocashi, debe ser un lugar bajo techo y de tierra firme o de cemento.3. Mezclar en el tanque de 200 l la melaza, la levadura y el agua.4. Colocar los materiales en capas tipo pastel, sin ningún orden.5. Con la ayuda de una regadera, humedecer la mezcla con los microorganismos comerciales descomponedores y el preparado del paso 3.6. Mezclar bien todos los materiales para obtener una mezcla homogénea.7. Mantener la humedad entre 60-65 % 8. Extender la mezcla en la superficie destinada a la elaboración del abono.9. La mezcla no debe sobrepasar los 50 cm de altura para facilitar la acción del aire.10. Cubrir herméticamente la mezcla con el plástico negro o costales durante los tres primeros días.11. Con el termómetro medir la temperatura del abono, a partir del cuarto día de su fabricación. No es recomendable que la temperatura sobrepase los 50 ºC.12. Indicar a las y los participantes el proceso posterior a la preparación.A partir del cuarto día, comenzar la mezcla del abono una vez en la mañana y otra en la tarde, hasta la finalización del proceso.13. Todo esto permite dar aireación y enfriamiento hasta lograr la estabilidad de la temperatura que se logra el quinto y el octavo día. Después se recomienda mezclar una vez al día.14. El abono logra su maduración cuando su temperatura es igual a la temperatura ambiente, su color es gris claro, queda seco con un aspecto de polvo arenoso y consistencia suelta.15. Almacenar el bocashi en sacos limpios, bajo techo y en un lugar fresco.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.Es un biofertilizante de origen japonés, del que deriva su nombre \"bo-ca-shi\", que significa 'fermentación'. En la antigüedad los japoneses utilizaban sus propios excrementos para elaborarlo y abonar sus arrozales.Se trata de un abono orgánico fermentado parcialmente, estable, económico y de fácil preparación. Este abono es producto de un proceso de degradación anaeróbica o aeróbica de materiales de origen animal y vegetal. Su proceso de elaboración es más acelerado que el compostaje, permitiendo obtener el producto final de forma más rápida (Arias, 2001).En el proceso de elaboración del bocashi hay dos etapas bien definidas:• La primera etapa es la fermentación de los componentes del abono cuando la temperatura puede alcanzar hasta 70-75 °C por el incremento de la actividad microbiana.• La segunda etapa se da cuando la temperatura del abono empieza a bajar por agotamiento o disminución de la fuente energética, y pasa a un proceso de estabilización (Mosquera, 2010).El principal uso que se le da al bocashi es para el mejoramiento del suelo porque aumenta la diversidad microbiana y la cantidad de materia orgánica (Shintani et al., 2000).Según Mosquera (2010), varios son los factores necesarios para que la elaboración de bocashi tenga el éxito esperado y son:Determina las condiciones para el buen desarrollo de la actividad y reproducción microbiológica. Tanto el exceso de humedad como su ausencia son perjudiciales para la obtención final de un abono de calidad.Está en función del incremento de la actividad microbiológica del abono que comienza con la mezcla de los componentes.La presencia del oxígeno dentro de la mezcla es necesaria para la fermentación aeróbica del abono. Si, en caso de exceso de humedad, los microporos presentan un estado anaeróbico, se perjudica la aireación.Los valores extremos inhiben la actividad microbiológica; sin embargo, al inicio de la fermentación el pH es bastante bajo, pero gradualmente se va autocorrigiendo con la maduración del abono (FAO, AECID, CENTA y MAG El Salvador, 2011).• Tamaño de la partícula La reducción del tamaño de las partículas de los componentes del abono es favorable para aumentar la superficie de la descomposición microbiológica.Sin embargo, el exceso de partículas muy pequeñas puede llevar a una compactación, lo que favorecerá al desarrollo de un proceso anaeróbico. Cuando la mezcla tiene demasiadas partículas pequeñas se puede agregar a la mezcla paja o carbón vegetal. Los abonos orgánicos deben prepararse en un sitio protegido de lluvias, sol y viento debido a que estos factores interfieren en forma negativa en el proceso de fermentación. El lugar ideal es bajo techo, con piso de ladrillo o revestido con cemento, o por lo menos sobre piso de tierra bien firme, lo que facilita el volteo de los materiales, de modo que se evite la pérdida o acumulación indeseada de humedad, todo esto ayuda a producir abono de mejor calidad (Mosquera, 2010) (FAO et al., 2011).Algunos agricultores invierten en la fabricación del abono orgánico 12 a 24 días. Comúnmente en lugares fríos el proceso dura más tiempo que en lugares cálidos. El tiempo requerido depende del incremento de la actividad microbiológica en el abono, que comienza con la mezcla de los componentes.El abono logra su maduración cuando la temperatura es igual a la del ambiente, su color es gris claro, seco, con un aspecto de polvo arenoso y de consistencia suelta (Mosquera, 2010).A continuación, están las dosis y la frecuencia de aplicación de bocashi: En el trasplante se aplica en la base del hoyo, en donde se coloca la planta a trasplantarse, el abono se cubre con un poco de suelo para que el trasplante no entre en contacto directo con el abono, debido a que podría quemarlo y no dejarlo desarrollar en forma normal.En forma líquida, para tener buenos resultados en corto tiempo. Para su preparación se mezclan 20 libras de abono orgánico fermentado con 20 libras de gallinaza dentro de un saco en 100 litros de agua; se agregan 2 litros de leche y 2 litros de melaza y se fermenta por 5 días. La solución sirve para el crecimiento de las plantas, en dosis de 0,5 a 1,0 litro por bomba de mochila de 4 galones de agua.Es el bocashi que ha quedado guardado después de su fabricación entre 2 y 3 meses. Se lo utiliza mezclado con tierra cernida y carbón pulverizado para preparar los almácigos de hortalizas. Tiene la ventaja de no quemar las plántulas, que es el riesgo que se corre cuando se utiliza bocashi fresco (Yugsi, 2011).Según el Gobierno de Pichincha (2019) se recomienda usar bocashi curtido de la siguiente forma:Tabla 6. Porcentaje de mezcla de tierra cernida con bocashi curtido para utilizar en la producción de hortalizas y frutales Para viveros: bandejas para pre germinación con 80 % de tierra cernida y 20 % de bocashi (4 carretillas de tierra y 1 carretilla de bocashi), también se puede poner 5 % de cascarilla de arroz.Embolsados de frutales 60 % de tierra cernida y 40 % de bocashi.Se recogen las ventajas del bocashi trabajadas por Mosquera, la FAO, el Gobierno de la provincia de Pichincha, Claros, Chungara y Zeballos:• No se forman gases tóxicos, ni malos olores.• El volumen que se produce se adapta a las necesidades.• No causa problemas en el almacenamiento y el transporte.• Desactivación de agentes patogénicos, muchos de ellos perjudiciales en los cultivos y causantes de enfermedades.• El producto se utiliza inmediatamente después de preparado.• Bajo costo de producción.• Por medio de la inoculación y reproducción de microorganismos presentes en los suelos locales y levaduras, los materiales se transforman gradualmente en nutrientes de excelente calidad disponibles para la tierra, las plantas y la propia retroalimentación de la actividad biológica.• El producto se elabora en un período relativamente corto (dependiendo del ambiente en 12 a 24 días) (Mosquera, 2010y FAO et al., 2011).• El bocashi contribuye a obtener mejores resultados en la cosecha.• Recupera el suelo y mantiene por más tiempo la humedad (Gobierno de Pichincha, 2019).• El sabor de la papa, producida con bocashi, es más dulce y harinosa además afirman que puede ser almacenada por más tiempo (Claros, Chungara y Zeballos 2010).55Las ideas centrales a considerar para elaborar y aplicar bocashi que se recogen a continuación han sido trabajadas por Mosquera (2010), la FAO (2011) y Yugsi ( 2011):• La elaboración de este tipo de abono, dependerá del lugar y tipo de terreno donde va a ser empleado, de los materiales disponibles en la zona, o de lo que posee cada productor y productora. También dependerá de los cultivos que serán fertilizados; es decir, no existe una receta o fórmula fija para su elaboración. Lo importante es el entusiasmo, la creatividad y la disponibilidad de tiempo por parte de quienes lo fabriquen (FAO, et al., 2011) (Mosquera, 2010).• Se deben usar materiales altos en fibra, para poder así mantener los suelos más sueltos, lo que nos va a ayudar a obtener mejor infiltración de las aguas y del aire; con este tipo de materiales también buscamos que los abonos sean ricos en carbono y bajos en nitrógeno. Si se desea mayor cantidad de nitrógeno en el abono orgánico, se podrá colocar mayor cantidad de residuos de un cultivo de fréjol que contiene mucho nitrógeno y así, dependiendo de las necesidades del nutriente que se requiera (FAO, et al., 2011)  (Mosquera, 2010).• Verificar la temperatura introduciendo un machete dentro de los materiales durante 5 minutos, al sacarlo se toca con la mano, si quema tiene demasiado calor y será necesario voltear el material de manera inmediata. Si por el contrario el machete está demasiado frío, será necesario colocar los materiales a una altura promedio de 70 centímetros, con la finalidad de aumentar la temperatura.• Comprobar el contenido de humedad a través de la prueba del puño, que consiste en tomar con la mano una cantidad de la mezcla y apretarla. No deben salir gotas de agua de los dedos, pero sí formar un terrón quebradizo en la mano; cuando existe exceso de humedad, lo más recomendable es aumentar la cantidad de cascarilla de arroz a la mezcla.• Utilizar una sola vez el agua en la preparación del abono.• El abono no debe quedar en contacto directo con la raíz o el tallo de las plantas, porque puede causarle quemaduras, (debe quedar a 10 o 15 centímetros del tallo y mezclado con la tierra).• El bocashi debe utilizarse acompañado de obras de conservación de suelos, (encamado, terrazas individuales, barreras vivas y muertas, acequias de ladera) para evitar que el agua de las lluvias arrastre el abono (FAO et al., 2011).• Es necesario, en cualquiera de las formas de aplicación, que el abono orgánico y el suelo estén húmedos, de no ser así, el abono no tendría ningún efecto inmediato (Mosquera, 2010).• No olvidar que el bocashi requiere volteos diarios, uno en la mañana y otro en la tarde.• Evitar que la temperatura del abono suba por encima de los 70 ºC, para que no se desactive la acción microbiana.• Entre los 12 y 15 días el bocashi ha madurado y su temperatura baja y se pone igual a la del ambiente.• Cuando el bocashi está listo, su color es gris claro y tiene olor agradable a tierra de montaña y adquiere una consistencia a polvo arenoso (Yugsi, 2011).• Almacenar en sacos limpios, bajo techo y en un lugar lejos de la humedad y el sol, puede almacenarse hasta 6 meses (Yugsi, 2011;FAO et al., 2011).• Se puede ajustar la dosis necesaria según los requerimientos del cultivo, las características químicas del suelo, la calidad y disponibilidad del abono orgánico (Yugsi, 2011). La lombriz Eisenia foetica consume los residuos vegetales y estiércoles para luego excretarlos en forma de humus, abono orgánico de excelentes propiedades para el mejoramiento de la fertilidad de los suelos (Mosquera, 2010).El humus ayuda a la germinación de las semillas y al desarrollo de las plántulas. Aumenta la resistencia de las plantas a las plagas y enfermedades (CISP 2008).Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Identificar los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el humus de lombriz.• Elaborar el humus de lombriz con los materiales disponibles.• Conocer las cantidades de humus de lombriz recomendadas para la nutrición de los cultivos.• Tres horas.• Desechos vegetales.• Estiércol de animales.• Materia orgánica previamente descompuesta.• Una libra de lombriz roja californiana por cada metro de Iecho.• Agua.• Tamo de cebada, trigo u hojas secas.• Cajones o lechos (pueden ser construidos de madera, bloques o ladrillos).• Pala de manilla.• Regadera.• Zarandas (malla de cernir arena).Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar humus de lombriz:Parte 1. Selección del lugar y construcción de cajón o lecho 1. Pedir a las y los participantes que formen grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del humus.2. Seleccionar el lugar donde se va a construir el lecho o cajón con materiales de la zona de acuerdo a sus necesidades. Más adelante, en las notas técnicas hay una explicación para la preparación del lecho o cajón de crianza.Parte 2. Inoculación de lombrices 1. Cubrir con una capa de paja de 5 cm el piso del lecho o cajón.2. Sobre la capa de paja colocar una capa de 10 cm de materia orgánica previamente descompuesta.3. Distribuir 1 libra de lombrices por cada m 2 a lo largo del lecho o cajón (Yugsi, 2012).4. Depositar materia orgánica semidescompuesta hasta el borde del lecho o cajón. Esta actividad se debe repetir cada mes para suministrar alimento suficiente a las lombrices.5. Regar agua cada 7 días, para mantener la humedad y la temperatura.6. Cuando el lecho o cajón este lleno, cubrir con tamo de cebada o trigo u hojas secas para proteger a las lombrices de gallinas y pájaros.7. Para evitar la compactación de los desechos orgánicos, se deben renovar cada mes los 15 a 20 cm de la parte superior del lecho o cajón.Parte 3. Cosecha de humus 1. Previo a la cosecha, colocar estiércol en el centro de las camas a lo largo del cajón y tapar con residuos vegetales para que las lombrices se reubiquen en la trampa, luego de 2 días retirar la trampa con las lombrices y cosechar el abono orgánico.2. Otra técnica es colocar sacos ralos bajo el estiércol y los residuos vegetales, después de 2 días retirar la trampa con las lombrices y cosechar el humus. Este procedimiento se puede repetir varias veces hasta lograr separar todas las lombrices 3. La primera cosecha se realiza a los 8 o 9 meses, el humus cuando está listo presenta una coloración oscura y es muy suave.4. Con la ayuda de una pala de manilla, se recoge el material descompuesto y se deposita en una zaranda (malla de cernir arena).El material que pasa la malla es el humus.5. Los materiales que se queden en la zaranda se depositan de nuevo en el lecho o cajón.6. Ensacar y almacenar el humus.7. Para comercializar el humus, se lo extiende sobre una superficie plana para eliminar el exceso de humedad y manejarlo de manera adecuada.8. Después de la primera cosecha, depositar de nuevo desechos orgánicos previamente descompuestos y seguir los pasos anteriores. 9. Las siguientes cosechas se realizarán a los 6 meses debido al aumento de la población de lombrices.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.La lombricultura es el proceso mediante el cual las lombrices transforman los residuos orgánicos en abono orgánico de buena calidad. De las 8 000 especies de lombrices que existen en el mundo, la lombriz californiana, Eisenia foetica, fue seleccionada por Thomas Barret en 1930 en Estados Unidos, por su alta adaptación a vivir en altas densidades, por el amplio rango de desechos orgánicos de las cuales se alimenta y por su adaptación a diferentes condiciones climáticas (Bollo, 1999).La Eisenia foetica es una lombriz extraordinariamente prolífera, muy vivaz, trabajadora, resistente al estrés, vive en cautiverio sin moverse de su lecho (Agroflor, s.f.). Las lombrices consumen los residuos vegetales y estiércoles para luego excretarlos en forma de humus, abono orgánico de excelentes propiedades para el mejoramiento de la fertilidad de los suelos (Mosquera, 2010).En condiciones apropiadas se puede producir lombrices durante todo el año. Las lombrices maduran sexualmente entre el segundo y tercer mes de vida, depositando cada 7 a 10 días una cápsula (cocón) con un contenido promedio de 10 huevos, pudiendo llegar a 20. Los huevos después de 14 a 21 días de incubación eclosionan, originando lombrices en condiciones de moverse y nutrirse de inmediato (Agroflor, s.f.) (Mosquera, 2010).Según Mosquera (2010) los factores que influyen en la producción de cápsulas son:• Especie y densidad poblacional. Según investigaciones, la lombriz californiana ofrece un mejor resultado en cuanto a densidad poblacional. Una población de 2 500 lombrices por metro cúbico, produjo aproximadamente 27 000 cápsulas, de las cuales llegaran a eclosionar un promedio de 18 300 cápsulas con 3,12 lombrices por cápsula en el transcurso de dos meses, durante ese tiempo todo el alimento fue transformado en humus.• Alimentación. La calidad del alimento influye en la producción y fecundidad de las cápsulas. El acceso constante a alimentos frescos y en cantidad suficiente incrementa el peso de la lombriz, la producción y el tamaño de las cápsulas y la cantidad de lombrices por cápsula. Restrepo et al. (2014) manifiestan que es necesario dejar que el desecho orgánico se descomponga entre 5 y 7 días antes que pueda ser ingerido por las lombrices. La comida que se suministre a las lombrices debe ser materia orgánica descompuesta parcial o totalmente (CISP, 2008).• Humedad. Factor que influye en reproducción y fecundidad de la lombriz. Agroflor, s.f., afirma que cuando no se tienen instrumentos para medir la humedad, un buen método es apretar un puñado de alimento y si caen algunas gotas de agua indica que la humedad es buena.• Temperatura. Influye directamente en el comportamiento de las lombrices en cuanto a producción y fecundación.• Aireación. Las lombrices requieren oxígeno. Este gas es lo que determina la profundidad hasta donde puede penetrar la lombriz en el sustrato, por lo que se debe evitar que el alimento se compacte y dificulte la oxigenación (Restrepo et al.,2014) (Agroflor, s.f.).• pH. Soportan pH ente 5,5 -7,5 (Restrepo et al., 2014). Mosquera (2010) afirma que para las lombrices el hábitat adecuado es la cama (lecho o cajón), en la cama las lombrices encuentran todos los requerimientos básicos y no se escapan. El material a emplearse para su construcción puede ser troncos de madera, caña de bambú, ladrillos o cualquier otro material no oxidable. La orientación de las camas debe permitir la salida del exceso de agua, por lo que se debe dejar una pendiente del 5 % con el fin de evitar encharcamiento y poder recoger los residuos líquidos del proceso (Restrepo et al., 2014), además Agroflor, s.f., recomienda que las camas deben estar ubicadas debajo o cerca de un árbol o un lugar sombreado.El tamaño de los cajones dependerá de la cantidad de alimento (materia orgánica) del que se disponga para las lombrices; sin embargo, se aconseja construir cajones de 1 m de ancho por 0,50 m de alto; el largo dependerá de la disponibilidad de alimento. Cajones o lechos de 2,5 a 3 m de largo por 0,80 m a 1 m de ancho y de 0,40 a 0,50 m de altura, producirán 25 qq de humus cada seis meses (Yugsi, 2011).Las lombrices de tierra consumen desechos orgánicos de origen vegetal y animal que previamente se preparan con fermentación aeróbica. Esta fermentación es el resultado de la actividad de una serie de microorganismos de diferentes grupos. El tiempo que dure la fermentación dependerá de factores como la temperatura, humedad, disponibilidad de oxígeno, pH y la disponibilidad de nutrientes dada la composición química de los residuos orgánicos utilizados.• El alimento se prepara en montones y consiste en varias capas alternas de paja y estiércol. Primero se distribuye una capa de paja u otro residuo vegetal, con 5 a 10 cm de grosor, sobre ésta se aplica una capa de estiércol de 5 a 20 cm y así, sucesivamente, hasta que la pila alcance una altura de 80 a 120 cm. Sobre cada capa de estiércol se riega suficiente agua para mojar la capa inferior de la paja. Es necesario regar hasta que todo el sustrato quede húmedo. El montón se deja reposar por 2 o 3 días, luego se debe airear el montón, volteándolo y rociándolo con agua cada vez que la temperatura sube hasta los 35 o 40 ºC.• El alimento está listo cuando la temperatura del montón se haya estabilizado, el pH esté en las cercanías a la neutralidad y cuando la humedad esté entre el 70 y 80 %. Estos requisitos se cumplen cuando el alimento se descompone o fermenta, lo que se produce entre 3 y 6 meses. Cuando el alimento está listo, el hedor típico del estiércol desaparece. Para verificar si la fermentación del alimento está terminada, se hace la prueba de 50 lombrices. Para hacer la prueba se construye una caja de madera de 30 cm x 30 cm x 15 cm, se coloca una capa de alimento de 8 a 10 cm. Luego se riega la caja hasta que todo el conjunto esté húmedo, se colocan las 50 lombrices adultas sobre el alimento. Después de 24 horas se determina la supervivencia, si falta una sola lombriz, el alimento no reúne las condiciones óptimas y hay que hacer las correcciones (Mosquera, 2010).¿En qué puede consistir el alimento?El alimento puede consistir de: estiércol de animales, papel, cartón, pajas, cáscaras de semillas, pulpa de café, alimentos deteriorados, residuos orgánicos, entre otros (Mosquera, 2010).Al piso del lecho o cajón donde se van a criar las lombrices se lo cubre con una capa de paja de 5 cm; sobre ésta capa se deposita una capa de alimento que tenga entre 7cm y 10 cm (aproximadamente una carretilla por m²). Sobre la capa de alimento se colocan las lombrices a razón de 100 a 200 lombrices por cada m 2 (MAG, INIAP, 2014).El manejo consiste en proporcionar alimentos, agua y protección a las lombrices. El alimento debe suministrarse cada 15 días o una vez al mes, se debe reponer alimento nuevo cuando la ración abastecida ha sido consumida del todo por las lombrices. Cuando esto ocurre la superficie de la compostera se ve plana (Mosquera, 2010).Para evitar la rápida evaporación de agua, se cubre la compostera con una capa de paja.El humus es el excremento de la lombriz, es decir el alimento procesado en el intestino y excretado en forma de pequeños granos.Para cosechar el humus hay que separar las lombrices, la manera más recomendada es dejar las lombrices sin comer por una semana, luego colocar alimento en un extremo del cajón. Al siguiente día la mayoría de las lombrices estarán comiendo en el alimento nuevo, permitiendo así sacar el humus. Las lombrices encontradas en el humus pueden servir para colonizar un nuevo lecho (Mosquera, 2010).El lombricompost (humus) es un producto granulado, oscuro, liviano e inodoro; rico en enzimas y sustancias hormonales; posee un alto contenido de microorganismos, lo que lo hace superior a cualquier otro tipo de fertilizante orgánico conocido. El humus incorporado al suelo cumple un rol trascendente, al corregir y mejorar sus condiciones químicas, físicas y biológicas.El humus, como cualquier otro abono, sirve para ser incorporado en los surcos de labranza o en las terrazas, puede ser utilizado en hoyos de plantación de cultivos anuales y perennes y en la siembra de hortalizas. El mismo día que se aplica el abono se puede sembrar las plantas, debido a que el abono está totalmente descompuesto y de ninguna manera afectará las semillas (Mosquera, 2010).En frutales las siguientes aplicaciones se deben realizar en la corona del árbol, mezclando con el fertilizante y en la zona de riego (mayor concentración de raicillas) (Agroflor, s.f.).Si la semilla va a germinar en bandejas o camas, dicho sustrato no necesita llevar humus, pero si cubrir la semilla con una capa muy pequeña de unos 2 mm (Agroflor s.f.).La dosis recomendada es de un kilo de humus de lombriz por metro cuadrado (10 t/ha) (Yugsi,2011).Varios autores e instituciones recomiendan el uso de humus y explican cuáles son sus ventajas. A continuación, se han recogido las ventajas descritas por CISP (2008), Agroflor (s.f.) e INTA Balcacer (2020):• Durante el trasplante previene enfermedades y evita que las plántulas sufran heridas y mueran debido a cambios bruscos de temperatura y humedad.• Se puede usar humus sin inconvenientes en estado puro y se encuentra libre de nematodos (animales diminutos que habitan el suelo).• Facilita la absorción de los nutrientes por parte de la planta (CISP, 2008).• Es una fuente nutricional y energética de los microorganismos edáficos (hongos y bacterias beneficiosas para el suelo).• Regula la nutrición vegetal al suministrar micro y macro nutrientes.• Mejora la textura del suelo.• Aumenta la capacidad de retención de humedad, entre 1 300 a 1 500 cm 3 de agua por kilogramo de suelo seco.• Evita la erosión hídrica.• Modera los cambios de acidez y neutraliza los compuestos orgánicos tóxicos que llegan al suelo por la contaminación.• Mayor desarrollo radicular y vegetativo.• Reducción de hasta un 50 % en el uso de fertilizantes y de un 100 % en nematicidas (Agroflor, s.f.).• Aumenta la producción.• Incrementa el tamaño de frutos y hortalizas. Más azúcares y sabor en los frutos y hortalizas.• Es natural y ecológico.• Reduce los residuos.• Recicla papel y cartón.• Barato y eficaz (INTA Balcacer, 2020).Se recogen elementos importantes para la elaboración de humus de Agroflor (s.f.), Mosquera (2010) e INTA Balcacer (2020):• La lombriz Eisenia foetica en estado adulto alcanza entre 7 y 10 cm de largo, con un diámetro de 2 a 3 mm y un peso promedio de 1 g, vive entre 15 a 20 años.• Nunca se debe colocar el alimento en forma tal que cubra la totalidad de la superficie del lecho. El alimento deberá ser colocado de manera que deje libre, por lo menos, 15 cm.• El humus se puede aplicar en forma líquida al follaje, además de nutrir a la planta ayuda al control fitosanitario de ella.• Se deben excluir los abonos de aves por su alto pH.• La luz del sol puede matar a las lombrices (Agroflor, s.f.).• El alimento en estado de fermentación es muy dañino para la lombriz, debido a que produce calor y desarrollo de gases nocivos (metano). Al llenar la superficie del recipiente con material en estado de fermentación, se corre el peligro de ahogar las lombrices, porque ellas respiran por la piel.• El humus se puede almacenar en depósitos o en bolsas plásticas perforadas, bajo sombra a 59 % de humedad (Mosquera, 2010).• Se puede colocar en las camas cáscaras de huevo pulverizado para neutralizar el medio acido si se diera el caso (INTA Balcacer, 2020).Figura 3. Producción de humusEs un abono foliar orgánico, producto de la fermentación anaeróbica de restos orgánicos de animales y vegetales. Se caracteriza por ser una fuente orgánica de fitoreguladores, sustancias que en pequeñas cantidades promueven actividades fisiológicas y estimulan el desarrollo de las plantas (Álvarez, 2010; Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero SAG, 2013).El biol mejora el vigor del cultivo y le permite soportar con mayor eficacia ataques de plagas, enfermedades y los efectos adversos del clima (Álvarez, 2010 p.13).Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el biol.• Elaborar el biol con los materiales disponibles .• Conocer las cantidades de biol recomendadas para la nutrición de los cultivos.Tiempo:• Tres horas.Para producir 200 litros de biol:• 16 kg de harina de haba, arveja o fréjol.• 8 litros de melaza o panela.• 16 kg de estiércol de conejo, cuy, bovino u ovino.• 16 litros de orina de conejo, cuy, bovino u ovino.• 16 kg de mezcla de plantas repelentes como marco y leguminosas (alfalfa, arveja, haba, chocho, guaba).• Agua sin cloro (para completar los 200 litros).• 8 litros de suero de leche.• 8 kg de ceniza.• Tanque plástico de 200 litros.• Palo de madera.Otros materiales:• Guantes.• Balde.• Colador.• Recipiente plástico, de capacidad de 2 litros.Opcional:• Envases para almacenar.• Embudo.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el biol:1. Compartir con las y los participantes los objetivos de la sesión.2. Pedir que formen grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del biol.3. Mezclar la harina (haba, arveja o fréjol) con agua.4. Disolver melaza en agua caliente.5. Colocar en el tanque todo el estiércol.6. Agregar la orina.7. Añadir 10 litros de agua.8. Agregar la ceniza. 9. Agregar suero de leche.10. Agregar hojas picadas de leguminosas y/o plantas repelentes.11. Colocar los ingredientes del paso 3 y 4.12. Mezclar todos los ingredientes con un palo de madera.13. Completar el volumen con agua hasta llegar a 15 cm antes del borde del tanque.14. Mezclar muy bien el preparado.15. Tapar el tanque con cierre hermético y colocar bajo sombra.16. Durante el lapso de tres semanas, cada día (una vez por la mañana y una vez por la tarde) mezclar por 5 minutos el preparado, con la ayuda de un palo de madera. 17. Terminada la fermentación (cuando el fermentado esté frío y el olor fuerte haya desaparecido), a los 30 a 45 días aproximadamente, sacar el biol del tanque, cernir en el balde y utilizar (ideal inmediatamente después de colar).18. Si se almacena realizarlo con la ayuda del embudo en envases oscuros o dejar en la oscuridad bien sellado, etiquetar (nombre y fecha de elaboración) y mantener fuera del alcance de los niños.Mientras más tiempo pase el efecto será menor, debido a que la cantidad de microorganismos disminuye.19. Antes de usarlo agitar y diluir de acuerdo al tipo de uso que se le dé.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.Es un abono foliar orgánico, también llamado biofertilizante líquido, producto de la fermentación anaeróbica (sin oxígeno) de restos orgánicos de animales y vegetales (estiércol, leguminosas). Se caracteriza por ser una fuente orgánica de fitoreguladores, sustancias que en pequeñas cantidades promueven actividades fisiológicas y estimulan el desarrollo de las plantas (Álvarez, 2010; Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero SAG, 2013).El biol como biofertilizante y bioestimulante foliar de origen orgánico, constituye una alternativa al alcance de los productores y es importante en la producción con orientación ecológica de cultivos, su producción es casera, relativamente simple y de bajo costo, debido a que sus insumos de preparación son locales y su elaboración tiene un periodo de entre dos y tres meses (Mamani, Chávez y Ortuño, 2008;Álvarez, 2010).El biol es un fitoregulador de crecimiento porque contiene fitohormonas, que aceleran y uniformizan la germinación de las semillas, fortalecen las raíces, aceleran el crecimiento del follaje (vigor), aumentan y aceleran el crecimiento de brotes, inducen a la floración y fructificación, y aceleran la maduración de los cultivos. Su acción se traduce en aumentos significativos de las cosechas a bajos costos (Arana, 2011;Mamani et al., 2008; Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito (UNODC), s.f.).El biol contiene nutrientes (N, P, K, Ca, S) de alto valor nutritivo que son asimilados por las plantas. Se aplica a los cultivos para mejorar el crecimiento, desarrollo y producción, estimula una resistencia a plagas y enfermedades, además nutre, recupera y reactiva la vida del suelo (Álvarez, 2010; Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agraria, INIA, 2008;Jaén, 2011;Mamani et al., 2008;Mosquera, 2010).¿Qué es la fermentación?La fermentación es un proceso de descomposición anaeróbica de la materia orgánica por efecto de los microorganismos que operan en condiciones ambientales favorables como: humedad mayor del 60 %, temperatura entre 25 a 30 °C y pH entre 4 y 4,5. Los hongos entre los que se destaca Scharomyces sp. son los principales microorganismos de la fermentación (Mamani et al., 2008).Una vez concluido el proceso, saque el biol del tanque, proceda a cernirlo con una tela o cernidor para evitar que el líquido contenga restos de materiales gruesos que puedan tapar la boquilla de la bomba (Yugsi, 2012).La fermentación del biol dura aproximadamente de 30 a 45 días (Yugsi, 2012).La fermentación termina cuando el fermentado esté frío y el olor fuerte haya desaparecido. El líquido rico en nutrientes se separa y almacena en envases o botellas (Mosquera, 2010).El biol puede usarse como fertilizante o para combatir plagas, esto depende de los ingredientes adicionales que se utilicen en su elaboración. Si se desea que sirva para combatir una plaga se deben utilizar ingredientes como: ají, ajo, cebolla, marco, ruda y otras plantas que tengan sabores amargos y fuertes, esto evitará y alejará a los insectos por su aroma desagradable (Mosquera, 2010).En semillas:• Se puede usar 250 ml del biol por 1 kg de semilla. Recubrir las semillas con el biol. Secar las semillas en la sombra. Para estimular el crecimiento de raíces:• Diluir 125 ml de biol en 1 litro de agua. Remojar las raíces de las plantas, que están en las bandejas germinadoras por 30 minutos. SAG (2013) en cambio sugiere que se debe sumergir las plántulas en una solución de biol al 12 % y de inmediato realizar el trasplante.• Con bomba de fumigar aplicar solo en hojas y tallos, no en flores ni frutos (Mosquera, 2010).• Para aplicaciones foliares, en bombas de 20 litros, mezclar 5 litros de biol con 15 litros de agua.• Se recomienda aplicar de 3 a 5 veces por ciclo de cultivo (SAG 2013 y UNODC, s.f.).• La última aplicación se debe efectuar 20 días antes de la madurez fisiológica del cultivo (Restrepo et al., 2014).• Si la planta se encuentra con una enfermedad foliar, aplicar el biol solo en drench; una vez recuperada se podrá aplicar al follaje.Enriquecer el suelo:• Para cada 100 litros de agua en el tanque de riego, agregar 1 litro de biol.• Se puede usar biol puro cuando se quiere aplicar directamente al suelo. En este caso el suelo debe estar previamente regado, debe depositárselo solo alrededor de la planta (Mosquera, 2010). Su efecto es progresivo, por lo que poco a poco va mejorando la fertilidad y la vida del suelo (SAG, 2013).Hacemos una recopilación de las ventajas descritas por SAG (2013), Álvarez (2010), Mosquera (2010) y Mamani et al. ( 2008):• Se puede elaborar biol a base de insumos que se encuentran en la localidad.• No hay una receta fija de biol, los insumos pueden variar de acuerdo con la disponibilidad del agricultor o de la agricultora.• Estimula el trabajo de los microorganismos benéficos del suelo y mejora su estructura (SAG, 2013).• Su preparación es fácil y puede adecuarse a diferentes tipos de envase.• Promueve las actividades fisiológicas y estimula el desarrollo de las plantas.• Permite un mejor desarrollo de raíces, hojas, flores y frutos.• Es de rápida absorción para las plantas, por su alto contenido de hormonas de crecimiento vegetal, aminoácidos y vitaminas.• Es de bajo costo y se puede preparar en la parcela (Álvarez, 2010 p.13).• Es un abono orgánico que no contamina suelo, agua, aire ni los productos obtenidos de las plantas.• Se logra incrementar hasta 30 % en la producción de los cultivos sin emplear fertilizantes químicos.• Se puede elaborar biol en cualquier terreno donde se almacenan los residuos agrícolas. Desde el nivel del mar hasta los 3 600 m o más dependiendo de las condiciones de frío extremo que retarda o impide la fermentación (Mosquera, 2010 p.17).• Aumenta el rendimiento, permite cultivos con un color verde intenso y mejora la calidad de los productos.• Promueve la recuperación del cultivo luego de un daño por heladas o granizadas, las plantas aceleran el desarrollo de nuevas ramas y hojas, en el caso de gramíneas induce a un macollaje (brotes secundarios) más acelerado a partir de las yemas basales (Mamani et al., 2008 p.3,10).• Aplicado a la semilla permite una germinación más rápida y buen crecimiento de las raíces, por su riqueza en compuestos orgánicos que estimulan el crecimiento.• Permite obtener alimentos libres de residuos químicos (SAG, 2013 p. 142).Se recogen a continuación algunas recomendaciones para preparar y aplicar biol de acuerdo con Yugsi (2012), Claros et al. (2010), SAG (2013), UNODC (s.f.) y Mamani et al. (2018):• El biol se puede almacenar hasta por seis meses en lugares secos y bajo sombra.• No aplicar el biol sin mezclar con agua (sin cloro) debido a que puede quemar las plantas.• Puede enriquecerse con fósforo, potasio, azufre micronizado y micronutrientes como zinc, manganeso y boro (Yugsi, 2012 p. 22).• \"Para mantener la calidad del biofertilizante foliar, se debe colocar un poco (una tapa) de aceite comestible que hará de aislante entre el biofertilizante y el ambiente\" (Claros et al., 2010) • Se recomienda usar leche como adherente para evitar evaporación o lavado por acción de la lluvia, un litro de leche por cada 200 litros de solución (SAG, 2013).• La mejor hora de aplicación es por las mañanas (hasta las 10 am) y por las tardes (a partir de las 4 pm).• Para tener una mejor absorción, es posible adicionar algún aceite agrícola (20 cc por mochila de 20 litros).• El biol, por ser un abono orgánico, no tiene ninguna toxicidad, y puede aplicarse a cualquier cultivo en diferentes etapas del desarrollo (UNODC, s.f.).• Aplicaciones tardías del biol pueden inducir al alargamiento del periodo vegetativo, aspecto que puede ser negativo en cultivos como la papa debido a que la prolongación del periodo vegetativo retarda la madurez del tubérculo.• Se recomienda preparar el biol de acuerdo al ciclo del cultivo, de manera que se pueda disponer de este producto en el momento que el cultivo lo requiera.• El residuo pastoso (parte sólida) que queda en el tanque al final del proceso de fermentación, puede ser usado directamente en el cultivo o ser almacenado en fosas o puede secarse al sol para aplicarlo periódicamente, también puede utilizarse en la elaboración de compost y bocashi. Este material tiene más valor como abono y contiene alta carga microbiana benéfica por unidad de peso.• Un estudio realizado en papas nativas en Bolivia por Mamani et al., (2008) afirma que las aplicaciones en el cultivo de papas deben realizarse cuando el follaje está en pleno crecimiento y no cuando haya pasado la madurez fisiológica (máxima acumulación de materia seca en el follaje) porque puede retardar la madurez del follaje y en consecuencia retardar el crecimiento y madurez del tubérculo. El número y el momento de aplicación del biol depende de la fenología del cultivo; para el estudio (ciclo 150 a 160 días), la primera aplicación se realizó al inicio del periodo de crecimiento vegetativo (10 cm de altura o 90 % de emergencia), el número de aplicaciones debe ser de al menos 3 (pudiendo ser hasta de 4 veces), con intervalos de 20 días entre una y otra aplicación; en el caso de variedades precoces, estos intervalos pueden acortarse a 15 días e iniciarse más temprano (45 días después de la siembra). El té de estiércol es una preparación que convierte el estiércol sólido en un abono líquido (Mosquera, 2010).Se utiliza como un fertilizante foliar que aporta a la planta los elementos básicos como nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio (FUNDAR, 2008).Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para la elaboración del té de estiércol.• Elaborar té de estiércol de una manera fácil y práctica.• Saber las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• Dos horas.• Un tanque de 200 litros de capacidad.• 200 litros de agua.• Un saco o costal de yute.• 25 libras de estiércol fresco.• 4 kilogramos de sulfato de potasio y magnesio (sulpomag).• 4 kilogramos de leguminosas (alfalfa, fréjol, haba, vicia).• 1 litro de microorganismos comerciales descomponedores.• Una cuerda o piola de dos metros de largo.• Un pedazo de tela o plástico para cubrir o tapar el tanque.• Una piedra de cinco kilogramos (Yugsi, 2011).Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar té de estiércol:1. Picar lo más fino posible las plantas de leguminosas.2. Colocar dentro del costal el estiércol fresco, el sulpomag, las plantas de leguminosas picadas y la piedra. Amarrar el saco con la piola 3. Introducir el saco en el tanque vacío, dejando un pedazo de cuerda fuera del tanque, como si se tratara de una gran bolsa de té.4. Agregar agua limpia con los microorganismos comerciales descomponedores hasta llenar el tanque.5. Si no es posible contar con los microrganismos, se puede agregar un litro de leche, más un litro de melaza y una libra de levadura para pan (activada previamente en agua tibia). Mezclar para que se diluya todo e incorpore en el tanque.6. Tapar la boca del tanque con un pedazo de costal (procure que ingrese aire a la mezcla), y dejar fermentar durante dos semanas.Hacer remoción diaria y volver a tapar.7. Concluido el período de fermentación (dos semanas), sacar el costal del tanque procurando exprimirlo. De esta manera el té de estiércol está listo para ser utilizado.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 1 : Elaboración de abonos orgánicos 79El estiércol de animales es un abono natural. Debe evitarse el estiércol proveniente de animales enfermos, porque sus patógenos pueden afectar la salud humana. Tampoco usar el estiércol contaminado con desparasitantes (ivomec, nuvan, entre otros) o con herbicidas. El estiércol expuesto al sol, la lluvia y el viento, pierde entre un 50 % y un 60 % de su riqueza (Picado y Añasco, 2005). El té de estiércol es una preparación que convierte el estiércol sólido en un abono líquido. Durante este proceso el estiércol suelta sus nutrimentos al agua y así se hacen disponibles para las plantas, este abono es rico en potasio, principal nutriente que aporta al suelo (Mosquera, 2010).El proceso de elaboración del té de estiércol permite la conversión del estiércol sólido en un compuesto líquido disponible para una rápida asimilación por parte de las plantas.Se utiliza como un fertilizante foliar que aporta a la planta los elementos básicos como nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio. En promedio, el estiércol común con un contenido del 20 al 25 % de materia seca contiene por tonelada métrica 4 kg de nitrógeno, 5,5 kg de óxido de potasio y 2,5 kg de anhídrido fosfórico, 0,5 kg de azufre, 2 kg de magnesio, 5 kg de calcio, 40 g de manganeso, 4 g de boro y 2 g de cobre (FUNDAR, 2008).Puede aplicarse en aspersiones al follaje de los cultivos o directamente al suelo, cabe mencionar que no se debe aplicar en forma directa a las hortalizas (hojas) de consumo en fresco por lo menos dos meses antes de su cosecha. La relación para usar será 1 litro de té por 3 litros de agua limpia, en cultivos de ciclo corto y 1 litro de té de estiércol en un litro de agua para plantas perennes.Se debe almacenar en un sitio sombreado y fresco, debiendo mantenerse tapado para evitar la pérdida de los nutrientes. No guardar más de tres meses.Figura 5. Elaboración de té de estiércol Sesión 6. Elaboremos abono de frutasEl abono de frutas es de elaboración artesanal, resultado de la fermentación aeróbica o anaeróbica de frutas y melaza. En este tipo de abono también es posible agregar algunas hierbas como manzanilla, ortiga, ruda, entre otras, por su riqueza nutritiva o principios activos capaces de alimentar a las plantas o protegerlas del ataque de plagas (Suquilanda, 2003).Según Peñaranda (2017), aplicar a la planta en las hojas el abono de frutas, permite aportar aminoácidos de manera directa.Al finalizar la práctica las y los participantes estarán en la capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para elaborar el abono de frutas.• Describir el procedimiento para elaborar y el uso del abono de frutas.• Conocer las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• 1 hora.• Recipiente plástico o de cerámica con capacidad para 10 litros.• 5 kg de fruta picada bien madura (banano, melón, manzana, uva, guayaba, tuna, papaya, mango, entre otros, que no estén podridas).• 4 kg de melaza o miel de purga.• 1 tapa de madera que calce en el recipiente.• 1 piedra grande que actúe como prensa.• 1 colador.• Botellas oscuras.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar abono foliar de frutas:1. Poner en el recipiente de 10 litros de forma alternada 1 kg de fruta picada y 1 kg de melaza, realizar el mismo procedimiento hasta ocupar todo el material.2. Colocar luego sobre este material la tapa y sobre ésta, una piedra en forma de prensa, mantener tapado durante 8 días.3. Una vez transcurrido el tiempo establecido, sacar el material prensado y fermentado, proceder a filtrarlo y envasarlo en botellas oscuras.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 1 : Elaboración de abonos orgánicos 83Para el uso de abonos foliares es importante considerar su composición rica en vitaminas, hormonas, ácidos húmicos y fúlvicos y elementos nutritivos. Estas cualidades hacen que su uso promueva el equilibrio nutricional del suelo, tanto químico como biológico, al proporcionar energía y nutrientes que incrementan la vida microbiana. Estos aportes mejoran la fertilidad del suelo y estimulan el desarrollo de las raíces, con lo que se hace más efectiva la asimilación de los elementos nutritivos, entre ellos, el fósforo, potasio, magnesio y calcio, que mejoran el balance nutricional de las plantas. Los biofermentos contribuyen así, a que las plantas sean tolerantes al ataque de plagas y enfermedades. Esto es por lo que se les atribuye acción repelente, fungicida e insecticida. Además, aumentan la producción y mejoran la calidad de los productos, garantizando a quienes producen una mayor aceptación en los mercados (Garro, 2016).El abono de frutas es de elaboración artesanal, resultado de la fermentación aeróbica o anaeróbica de frutas y melaza, en este tipo de abono también es posible agregar algunas hierbas como manzanilla, ortiga, ruda, entre otras, por su riqueza nutritiva o principios activos capaces de alimentar a las plantas o protegerlas del ataque de plagas. El abono de frutas contiene en su composición química algunos aminoácidos y elementos menores, que son proporcionados por la composición de las frutas, la melaza y las hierbas que se utilizan en su elaboración (Suquilanda, 2003).El abono de frutas tiene en su composición química aminoácidos y elementos menores que son proporcionados por las frutas, la melaza y las hierbas (Agricultura, 2020).Las plantas, para crecer y desarrollarse, requieren de muchas sustancias que están en el suelo y en el aire. Los aminoácidos por ejemplo son de vital importancia para que las plantas puedan crecer y mantenerse sanas, es decir son indispensables para el metabolismo de los seres vivos. Los aminoácidos son una parte importante de las proteínas y sirven para regular el crecimiento interno de las plantas y el desarrollo vegetal.Los principales aminoácidos para la nutrición de las plantas son la metionina, glutamato, arginina, alanina y glicina.Las plantas procesan los aminoácidos con la ayuda del carbono, el oxígeno y el hidrógeno, esto permite que las plantas absorban y asimilen solo los aminoácidos y no las proteínas completas (Science, 2020).Según Peñaranda (2017), aplicar a la planta en las hojas el té de frutas, permite aportar aminoácidos de manera directa. Los aminoácidos son la materia prima básica para la formación de proteínas en menor tiempo y con un ahorro energético importante, evitando los procesos de: toma de nutrientes, aminación/transaminación y síntesis. Los aminoácidos son fácilmente absorbidos dado que la planta los reconoce como sustancias del metabolismo celular. En condiciones óptimas y adecuados niveles de potasio, los aminoácidos libres son convertidos en proteínas.Cuando hay condiciones de estrés por factores bióticos o abióticos (componentes vivos y no vivos del ecosistema), en la planta se presentan reacciones desfavorables como disminución de la tasa fotosintética (fijación del CO2 en la fotosíntesis), aumento de la respiración, incremento en la senescencia foliar (deterioro de las hojas), disminución de la síntesis de metabolitos (compuestos químicos), aumento de la degradación de proteínas, incremento en la síntesis del ácido abscísico, e incremento en la susceptibilidad a enfermedades. En estas condiciones, el aporte de aminoácidos ayuda a contrarrestar los efectos negativos causados por estrés (Peñaranda, 2017).• Hortalizas de hoja: 50 ml / 20 litros de agua.• Hortalizas de raíz: 100 ml / 20 litros de agua.• Hortalizas de fruto: 250 ml / 20 litros de agua.• Leguminosas: 100 ml / 20 litros de agua.• Frutales perennes: 250 -500 ml / 20 litros de agua (Yugsi, 2011).No se deben utilizar dosis más elevadas que las indicadas debido a que se corre el riesgo de taponar los estomas de las hojas de las plantas y asfixiarlas (Agricultura, 2020).Se recomienda no poner muchas frutas cítricas debido a que el abono podría quedar demasiado ácido. Si las frutas tienen un grado de madurez no apto para el consumo humano se pueden utilizar siempre y cuando no estén podridas o presenten ataques de plagas. Hay que procurar una gran diversidad de frutas (Agricultura, 2020). Figura 6. Frutas maduras para la elaboración del abono de frutas.Su componente principal es el humus de lombriz sólido, el cual se diluye hasta obtener todas las propiedades del mismo en estado líquido (EstoEsAgricultura, 2019) El humus líquido aplicado al suelo o a la planta crea un medio ideal para la proliferación de organismos benéficos (bacterias, hongos, entre otros) que impiden el desarrollo de enfermedades (Muñoz, 2015).Al finalizar la práctica las y los participantes estarán en la capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para elaborar el humus líquido de lombriz y las principales ventajas de su utilización.• Describir el procedimiento del humus líquido de lombriz.• Conocer las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• 1 hora.Para preparar 20 litros 1. 6 kg de humus de lombriz.2. 10 o 15 litros de agua de lluvia o reposada (sin cloro).3. Recipiente plástico con capacidad de 20 litros.4. Saco de algodón o camiseta.5. Palo de madera.• Cinco litros de purín de ortiga.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar humus líquido de lombriz 1. Colocar en un saco de algodón o una camiseta que no sea porosa 5 kg de humus de lombriz, a manera de una bolsa de té.2. En un balde plástico colocar el saco con el humus y añadir 10 litros de agua. En caso de utilizar el purín de ortiga colocar 15 litros de agua y 5 litros del purín de ortiga.3. Con un palo de madera realizar la remoción diaria por aproximadamente 10 minutos.4. Transcurridos 3 o 4 días el humus líquido de lombriz está listo para ser utilizado.5. Para utilizarlo se debe cernir y colocar en un recipiente oscuro.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.El humus líquido de lombriz es un biofertilizante orgánico de amplio espectro y contiene todas las propiedades nutricionales y fertilizadoras del humus sólido. Su componente principal es el humus de lombriz sólido, el cual se diluye hasta obtener todas las propiedades del mismo en estado líquido (EstoEsAgricultura, 2019)El humus líquido es un fertilizante orgánico, bioregulador del suelo, se lo puede utilizar como enraizador, como abono foliar y en ocasiones como bioinsecticida. Su característica fundamental es la bioestabilidad, pues no da lugar a fermentación o putrefacción. Su elevada solubilidad debido a las descomposición enzimática y bacteriana, proporciona una rápida asimilación por las raíces de las plantas; además este humus contiene un elevado porcentaje de ácido húmico y fúlvico (ácidos que se forman a partir de la descomposición de la materia orgánica).El humus líquido contiene todos los microorganismos que se encuentran en el producto sólido, y aporta nutrientes como aminoácidos naturales y extractos de algas. Al ser líquido, se facilita su aplicación.Su naturaleza líquida hace que llegue mucho más rápido a las raíces. Los microorganismos, se reproducen a mayor velocidad y las plantas rápidamente incorporan los nutrientes; el resultado visible es mucho más evidente y rápido que con el humus sólido (NOSTOC, 2017).Las plantas tienen la capacidad de absorber nutrientes a través de los estomas que se encuentran en la superficie de sus hojas. El alto contenido de ácidos húmicos y fúlvicos, aumenta la reabsorción de los minerales que se tiene en el suelo como nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, hierro, molibdeno, magnesio, entre otros, que se pueden utilizar en diferentes cultivos ya sea intensivos y extensivos. El humus de lombriz líquido se puede utilizar en sistemas de fertirrigación y como fertilizante foliar (Muñoz, 2015).El humus líquido, al incorporar y descomponer residuos vegetales del suelo, permite que el suelo esté húmedo.• Incrementa la biomasa de microorganismos presentes en el suelo.• Estimula un mayor desarrollo de las raíces.• Retiene la humedad en el suelo por mayor tiempo.• Incrementa la producción de clorofila en las plantas.• Reduce la conductividad eléctrica característica de los suelos salinos.• Mejora el pH en suelos ácidos.• Equilibra el desarrollo de hongos presentes en el suelo.• Aumenta la producción en los cultivos.• Disminuye la actividad de chupadores como áfidos.• Actúa como potenciador de la actividad de muchos pesticidas y fertilizantes del mercado.• Su aplicación disminuye la contaminación de químicos en los suelos (Muñoz, 2015).El humus líquido puede ser aplicado a nivel foliar o directamente al suelo, mediante sistemas de riego tradicionales, aspersión y goteo; de esta forma se facilita su aplicación, debido a que basta con mezclarlo con el agua de riego.Cuando se aplica al suelo se restablece flora microbiana natural, debido a la elevada concentración de microorganismos que posee; esto ayuda a desplazar patógenos y prevenir enfermedades en la raíz, a la vez que facilita la asimilación de nutrientes por parte de las plantas. El humus líquido porta materia orgánica y ácidos húmicos y fúlvicos, así como hormonas vegetales (auxinas y citosinas) que mejoran la germinación, crecimiento y rendimiento de las cosechas (Vermiduero, 2021).50 ml de humus líquido por cada litro de agua.1/2 litro de humus líquido por cada 10 litros de agua.5 litros de humus líquido por hectárea.Mezclar 2 a 3 litros de humus líquido por cada 100 litros agua.(EstoEsAgricultura, 2019).Figura 7. Humus líquido de lombrizLos bioinsecticidas son de origen natural (microbiano o insectos) identificados como agentes de control biológico, para eliminar o reducir el impacto de los insectos plaga. Quizás el bioinsecticida más conocido es la bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis y otros agentes, tales como las avispas e insectos parasíticos, son tan específicos que casi no presentan un riesgo a la salud humana (EPA, 2021).Los bioinsecticidas de elaboración artesanal se basan en el uso de recursos que, generalmente, se encuentran disponibles en las comunidades. Son una alternativa accesible para el control de plagas.Resiliencia/ Adaptación: los bioinsecticidas poseen un bajo riesgo para la salud humana, son económicos, no afectan la fauna benéfica (insectos y otros organismos que naturalmente actúan controlando a plagas y enfermedades) y no generan resistencia en las plagas, como sucede con sus equivalentes sintéticos (IPES; FAO, 2010). Son biodegradables, por ello no contaminan el medio ambiente y su impacto ambiental es menor (Nava, García, Camacho, y Vázquez, 2012).Mitigación: para su elaboración los bioinsecticidas no requieren de energía a base de combustibles fósiles (petróleo). Promueven la reducción del uso de insecticidas sintéticos y con ello la reducción de los gases efecto invernadero. Otro tipo de insecticidas utiliza productos que contaminan el ambiente (IPES; FAO, 2010).Sesión 1. Bioinsecticida M5 Sesión 2. Bioinsecticida APICHI 93 Sesión 1. Bioinsecticida M5 Objetivos:Los y las participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Aprender a elaborar el bioinsecticida M5.• Conocer el uso y manejo seguro del bioinsecticida M5.• Una hora.Para la elaboración de 100 litros• 2 kilogramos de ají (ají rocoto).• 2 kilogramos de ajo macho.• 2 kilogramos de cebolla colorada (cebolla paiteña).• 2 kilogramos de jengibre.• 4 litros de vinagre.• 4 litros de aguardiente.• 8 litros de melaza.• 16 litros de microorganismos comerciales.• Hierbas aromáticas: 1 libra de hojas de eucalipto, 1 libra de hojas de higuerillo,1 libra de hierba luisa, 1 libra de ruda.• 100 litros de agua sin cloro.• 1 Tanque de 100 litros.• 1 palo de madera de 80 cm (paleta de madera).• 1 lona.• 1 par de guantes de caucho.Tiempo de maduración: 15 días (revolver 2 veces al día, durante el tiempo de maduración).Procedimiento:Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el Bioinsecticida M5:1. Armar grupos de trabajo para realizar la práctica. Los grupos serán de entre 4 y 5 personas.2. Colocar 30 litros de agua y añadir 4 litros de melaza.3. Agitar con el palo de madera, hasta que todo esté bien mezclado.4. Añadir otros 15 litros de agua y poner los 4 litros restantes de melaza.5. Mezclar bien con la ayuda del palo de madera, hasta que esté bien disuelto.6. Picar todas las hierbas (1 libra de hojas de eucalipto, 1 libra de hojas de higuerillo,1 libra de hierba luisa y 1 libra de ruda), el ají rocoto, el ajo macho, la cebolla colorada y el jengibre.7. Agregar vinagre, aguardiente y los microorganismos comerciales.8. Mezclar bien, revolver por aproximadamente unos 10 minutos. 9. Añadir agua hasta completar los 100 litros del tanque.10. Tapar el tanque con una lona limpia y colocar la tapa plástica.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 2 : Elaboración de bioinsecticidas 95El M5 fue inventado por un productor de Costa Rica que quería utilizar la fuerza de los microorganismos para transformar un conjunto de plantas reconocidas por sus características biocidas y otras bondades (StuDocu, 2013).El M5 es un líquido con acción repelente de plagas, fungicida y bioestimulante que ayuda al desarrollo de las plantas. Su nombre se debe a que sus componentes para la fabricación son: jengibre, ajo, cebolla, chile picante y hierbas aromáticas. Además, se incorporan microorganismos comerciales en forma activada (líquida); elementos orgánicos y alimenticios que siempre están disponibles en el huerto o finca. La acción del agua y los microorganismos incorporan los componentes activos de los alimentos al biopreparado (EstoEsAgricultura, 2021).Aplicar una vez por semana entre 200 a 300 ml en 18 litros de agua, aplicación foliar y al suelo (ULATE ROJAS s.f.).Hacer aplicaciones preventivas antes de la siembra.Usar guantes para la preparación; el ajo, jengibre y el ají son muy irritantes para los ojos y la piel. Tiempo de vida útil 12 meses, envasado, sin abrir y sin exposición al aire y a la luz. Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para elaborar el APICHI.• Describir el procedimiento y uso del APICHI.• Una hora.• 1 kg de ajo.• 1 kg de pimienta negra.• 1 kg de ají picante (chile).• 1 galón de melaza.• 1 litro de alcohol 90º.• 20 litros de microorganismos comerciales activados.• 1 tanque de 100 litros.• Agua.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.1. Armar grupos de trabajo de 4 a 5 personas para realizar la práctica.2. Colocar el agua hasta la mitad del tanque.3. Introducir en el tanque el ajo y el ají picante machacados o molidos.4. Colocar 1kg de pimienta negra y el litro de alcohol.5. Una vez aplicados estos ingredientes colocar los 20 litros de microorganismos comerciales activados.6. Diluir el galón de melaza en 20 litros de agua y luego colocar en el tanque.7. Una vez aplicados todos los ingredientes, se debe completar con agua limpia hasta la capacidad del tanque y mezclar los ingredientes para homogenizar.8. Tapar el tanque procurando sellar bien. 9. Colocar la fecha de elaboración. El tanque debe estar en un lugar fresco y bajo sombra.10. Dejar reposar durante 15 a 18 días, luego de este tiempo se puede extraer el producto para su uso.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 2 : Elaboración de bioinsecticidas 99Los insecticidas botánicos fueron muy populares, entre los años 30 y 40 del siglo pasado, pero fueron completamente desplazados por los insecticidas sintéticos producidos en los países industrializados, en los años 50 y 60. Sin embargo, el interés en desarrollar y usar productos botánicos para el manejo de plagas se está incrementando nuevamente en los últimos años, debido al impacto negativo de los productos sintéticos en el ambiente y la salud humana, a las estrictas regulaciones gubernamentales e internacionales y a la creciente demanda por productos alimenticios sanos y sin residuos de plaguicidas (Carballo y Guharay, 2004).Las plantas producen una gran variedad de metabolitos secundarios (compuestos químicos) que están relacionados con sus mecanismos de defensa. Hay dos formas de obtener esos compuestos:• Por extracción (acuosos o polvos).Algunos metabolitos tienen efecto antimicrobiano, entre estos compuestos podemos encontrar: flavonoides, fenoles, terpenos, aceites esenciales, alcaloides, lectinas y polipéptidos.Los extractos de plantas han demostrado propiedades anti fúngicas, activan los mecanismos de defensa contra plagas y enfermedades de la planta.Las plantas al evolucionar desarrollaron mecanismos de protección como la repelencia y la acción insecticida. Al extraer estos metabolitos, algunos se utilizan como insecticidas orgánicos. Estos insecticidas son una alternativa para el manejo de insectos, aun cuando solo se han probado en pocas plantas de las 250 000 especies que existen (García y Félix, 2014).Según Anón (1991), citado en el trabajo de tesis de Álvaro Mindiola, los bioinsecticidas obtenidos a partir de las plantas poseen varias formas de actuar:• Repelentes. Sustancias desagradables que contienen algunas plantas, las cuales son capaces de alejar las plagas.• Fagorepelentes o antialimentarios. Sustancias que interrumpen el proceso de alimentación de los insectos, incluso después de haber comenzado, y que poseen la propiedad de reducir la capacidad de alimentación de estos, hasta que la plaga muere por inanición.• Venenos por contacto. Sustancias que provocan la muerte a los insectos al ponerse en contacto con estos, por lo que para que sean efectivas tienen que aplicarse sobre la plaga.• Venenos estomacales. Sustancias con efecto tóxico sobre el sistema digestivo de las plagas, cuya efectividad depende de que el insecto las ingiera.• Acción de disfrazar olores. Este modo de acción aprovecha los olores fuertes y desagradables que expelen algunas plantas para ocultar el olor del cultivo principal y evitar que sea atacado por las plagas\" (Mindiola, 2019).El nombre de este bioinsecticida obedece a sus ingredientes principales: ajo, pimienta y chile (APICHI).El APICHI es un producto de origen orgánico que se utiliza para el beneficio de las plantas, el suelo y la producción de la salud humana.Funciona como biocontrolador de insectos, hongos, bacterias y otros patógenos que afectan la producción agrícola.Este es un abono foliar que ayuda a controlar plagas como el pulgón, picudo, mosca blanca y larvas, al mismo tiempo que estimula el crecimiento de la planta (Rojas, 2021).Forma de aplicar y recomendaciones de uso 1 litro de producto por cada 100 litros de agua (hortalizas).1 galón de producto en 200 litros de agua (frutales).La aplicación del producto depende de la incidencia de plagas. Esta puede ser realizada cada 8 o 15 días (Mindiola, 2019).M Ó D U L O 2 : Elaboración de bioinsecticidas 101Como precaución se recomienda el uso de protección como guantes y mascarillas al momento de manipular y aplicar el producto, debido a que contiene ingredientes fuertes que podrían causar algún tipo de alergia o quemadura (Mindiola, 2019). Los biofungicidas son de origen microbiano o bioquímico (procesos de fermentación, infusión, maceración, elaboración de purines, destilación), de uso agrícola, que sirven para controlar enfermedades causadas por hongos.Al ser considerados de baja toxicidad, y al tener un bajo potencial de residualidad, son considerados amigables con el ambiente, por lo que se recomienda su uso en agricultura orgánica y agroecología.Si bien tienen baja toxicidad, eso no los hace más seguros para las personas y los animales, por eso siempre se recomienda utilizar el equipo de protección personal y otras medidas de seguridad para su preparación y aplicación (APS, s.f.).• Protectores. Se aplican recubriendo la parte externa de la planta, y actúan como una barrera contra el hongo que potencialmente puede producir la enfermedad.• Sistémicos. Actúan creando defensas en las plantas por dentro. Son absorbidos a través del follaje o de las raíces y se movilizan a toda la planta (FAO , 2010).Al igual que los bioinsecticidas, los biofungicidas de elaboración artesanal constituyen una alternativa accesible, en este caso, para el control de enfermedades causadas por hongos y presentan las mismas ventajas descritas en términos de resiliencia/ adaptación y mitigación que los primeros. Entre estas ventajas, se puede mencionar: son de bajo costo, no afectan la fauna benéfica, no generan resistencia, son biodegradables, su impacto ambiental es muy bajo, no requieren de energía a base de combustibles fósiles para su elaboración y promueven la reducción de productos sintéticos en el sistema.105 Sesión 1. Biofermento de fósforo Objetivos:Los y las participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para elaborar el biofermento de fósforo.• Describir el procedimiento y uso del biofermento de fósforo.• Dos horas.• 20 litros de suero.• 4 litros de melaza.• 10 litros de microorganismos comerciales activos.• 20 litros de pasto fermentado.• 8 kg de roca fosfórica.• 200 litros de agua de lluvia o reposada (sin cloro).• Tanque plástico de 200 litros de capacidad.• Manguera de 50 cm.• Botella plástica de un litro.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el biofermento de fósforo:1. Armar grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 personas para realizar la práctica.2. Colocar 40 litros de agua de lluvia o agua reposada en el tanque plástico.3. Poner todos los materiales en el tanque plástico y agitar hasta obtener una mezcla homogénea.4. Colocar agua hasta llenar el tanque, es importante dejar un espacio libre para los gases que se generan.5. Cerrar herméticamente el tanque.6. Colocar una válvula de escape de gases para iniciar la fermentación anaeróbica.7. La válvula de escape consiste en realizar un pequeño agujero en la tapa del tanque, en el cual se coloca una manguera que finalmente se introduce en una botella con agua.8. Dejar reposar la mezcla durante 25 a 30 días, a temperatura ambiente y bajo sombra; después de este periodo se puede utilizar.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 3 : Elaboración de biofungicidas 107Los biofermentos son producto del proceso de fermentación de materiales orgánicos por medio de una intensa actividad microbiológica. Se transforman en minerales, vitaminas, aminoácidos y ácidos orgánicos que servirán para la nutrición de las plantas, disminuyen la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades en los cultivos, debido a que la riqueza de los microorganismos presentes en ellos, al ser aplicados sobre las superficies de las plantas, tienen una reacción de competencia con los microorganismos que atacan los cultivos (Restrepo, 2001).Están compuestos básicamente de estiércol fresco disuelto en agua, melaza, suero de leche o leche, sales minerales, harinas de roca molida, entre otros componentes. El procedimiento es anaeróbico en donde diversos microorganismos son responsables de la fermentación.Los biofermentos son un excelente sustituto de los fertilizantes químicos altamente solubles de la industria. Constituyen una de las principales alternativas de las familias productoras orgánicas por su facilidad de elaboración y sus efectos positivos en la nutrición de las plantas y el suelo. Son conocidos como bioles, son abonos líquidos ricos en energía, minerales y microorganismos benéficos (Bejarano y Restrepo, 2002).En la papa aplicar 2 veces por semana, 1 litro/bomba al follaje y 10 litros/ bomba al suelo (Tencio, 2017). Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar caldo bordelés de forma segura.• Describir el procedimiento y uso del caldo bordelés.• 1hora 30 minutos.Para 100 litros• 1 Kilogramo de cal viva.• 1 kilogramo de sulfato de cobre.• 1 Tanque de plástico de 50 litros.• 1 Tanque de plástico de 100 litros.• 100 litros agua reposada (sin cloro) o agua lluvia.• 1 estaca de madera de 80 cm.Para la elaboración de 5 litros• 35 gramos de cal viva.• 50 gramos de sulfato de cobre.• 1 bidón plástico de 5 litros.• 1 balde de 5 litros.• 5 litros de agua de agua reposada o agua lluvia.• 1 estaca de madera de 80 cm.• 1 par de guantes de caucho.• Gafas.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el caldo bordelés:Parte 1.Apagar la cal viva 1. En un tanque de plástico de 100 litros colocar 1 kilogramo de cal viva.2. Añadir poco a poco 10 litros de agua y apagar la cal.3. Dejar que se enfríe, continuar añadiendo el agua y seguir mezclando continuamente con el palo de madera hasta conseguir una lechada.4. Enfriar la cal.5. Tiempo de preparación: 30 minutos.Parte 2.Solución de sulfato de cobre 1. Si el sulfato de cobre es líquido, se debe añadir poco a poco en 5 litros de agua e ir mezclando en un balde de 10 litros. Si es sólido, primero se debe moler hasta que este lo más fino posible y proceder a mezclar con 10 litros de agua para disolver.Parte 3.1. Una vez que se tienen estas dos soluciones añadir poco a poco el sulfato de cobre a la cal apagada hasta formar una lechada.Prueba de acidez -alcalinidad.Para conocer si ya está listo el preparado del caldo bordelés, se debe introducir un clavo o un machete para comprobar si hay corrosión, si sale oxidado, se necesita añadir más cal apagada (cal lechada) hasta conseguir que el hierro no se oxide (JICA -CENTA, 2021).Tiempo de maduración: No corresponde, se debe utilizar inmediatamente con una brocha a los tallos o de aplicación foliar con una bomba de mochila.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.El caldo bordelés es un fungicida preventivo y en plantas afectadas destruye el hongo impidiendo que la enfermedad se propague a otras partes sanas de la planta. No cura la enfermedad, solo previene que el daño continúe.Forma de aplicar y recomendaciones de uso Cuando se prepara y utiliza el caldo bordelés es necesario proteger las manos con guantes de caucho y los ojos con gafas de protección (FAO, 2010;INTA, 2021).Utilizar tanques de plástico para la preparación. No usar tanques de metal.Seguir el orden correcto de preparación: añadir siempre el sulfato de cobre disuelto a la cal apagada y no al revés.Aplicar esta solución al atardecer para evitar lesiones en las plantas.Aplicar el caldo bordelés hasta antes de la floración.Máximo tres aplicaciones con intervalos de 7 días.No guardar la solución, utilizar de manera inmediata.No mezclar con otros productos, se aplica solo (JICA -CENTA, 2021). Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Aprender a preparar el caldo sulfocálcico.• Entender el uso del caldo sulfocálcico.• Dos horas.Para la elaboración de 20 Litros• 4 kg de azufre.• 2 kg de cal apagada (cal hidratada).• 1 tina metálica con capacidad para 30 litros.• 1 fogón de leña.• 20 litros de agua.• 1 estaca de madera de 80 cm.• 1 kg de azufre.• 500 gramos de cal apagada (cal hidratada).• 1 tina metálica con capacidad para 20 litros.• 1 fogón de leña.• 5 litros de agua.• 1 estaca de madera de 80 cm.• 1 par de guantes de caucho.• 1 mascarilla KN95 para polvo.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el caldo sulfocálcico 1. Armar grupos de cuatro o cinco personas para realizar la práctica.2. Poner a hervir los 5 o 20 litros de agua necesarios para la preparación.3. Cuando el agua hierva colocar la mezcla de azufre y la cal.4. Durante 45 a 60 minutos no dejar de revolver con el palo de madera, para que no se asiente y requeme la base de la tina metálica.5. Una vez que ha hervido por al menos 45 minutos, dejar reposar fuera del fuego y enfriar aproximadamente 7 horas para 20 litros y 4 horas para 5 litros del preparado.El azufre es inflamable con el fuego.Tiempo para maduración: Se considera el tiempo de enfriado (aproximadamente 7 horas para 20 litros y 2 horas para 5 litros).Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.El caldo sulfocálcico es un caldo mineral muy útil para controlar enfermedades ocasionadas por hongos en los cultivos. También controla plagas en hortalizas y aporta nutrientes para el crecimiento, floración y fructificación de las plantas (Portalfruticola, 2021).Mezclar 1 litro del caldo sulfocálcico en 25 litros de agua, aplicar cada 15 días.No utilizarlo en cultivos de leguminosas en floración.No utilizarlo en cucurbitáceas, envejece la planta prematuramente (JICA -PROPA; INTA, 2015).Hacer un fogón con leña, para que exista buena ventilación.Al añadir la mezcla del azufre y cal tener la precaución de no dejar caer al fuego porque es inflamable.Durante el tiempo de reposo dejar fuera del alcance de los niños y/o animales domésticos (JICA -PROPA).Al envasar utilizar frascos o envases de plástico de color oscuro.Colocar la fecha de elaboración. Al finalizar la práctica las y los participantes estarán en la capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el caldo visosa.• Describir el procedimiento y uso del caldo visosa.Tiempo:• 1 hora.Para preparar 100 litros• 500 g de sulfato de cobre.• 500 g de cal hidratada.• 600 g de sulfato de zinc.• 400 g de sulfato de magnesio.• 400 g de ácido bórico.• 1 recipiente plástico (A) de 60 litros de capacidad.• 1 recipiente plástico (B) de 100 litros de capacidad.• 1 Machete o pedazo de hierro.• 100 litros de agua (Bejarano y Restrepo, 2002).Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.1. Armar grupos de cuatro o cinco personas para realizar la práctica.2. Colocar en el recipiente plástico (A) 50 litros de agua y disolver el sulfato de cobre, zinc, magnesio y ácido bórico.3. En el tanque de capacidad de 100 litros (recipiente B), colocar 50 litros de agua y diluir la cal.4. Mezclar la solución del recipiente A en el tanque B (nunca al revés) y revuelva constantemente.5. El caldo sulfocálcico está listo para usarse.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.Los \"caldos minerales fríos\" consisten en insumos naturales que se preparan a partir de diferentes minerales disueltos en agua fría. Estos caldos permiten controlar en forma preventiva a los agentes patógenos que ocasionan enfermedades bacterianas y fúngicas en los cultivos productivos (INTA, 2020).El caldo visosa tiene origen mineral, fue desarrollado por el profesor Joao Da Cruz Filho, titular del departamento de Fitopatología de la Universidad Federal de Visosa, apareció oficialmente publicado extra universidad, el 12 de mayo de 1982 en Visosa, en el informe técnico No. 23 de 4 páginas del Consejo de Extensión de esa universidad, ahí se menciona \"El caldo Visosa es una suspensión coloidal, compuesta de complejos minerales con cal hidratada (hidróxido de calcio), específicamente desarrollado para el control de la roya del café\".Un equipo de profesores de los departamentos de fitopatología, fitotecnia y suelos, del centro de ciencias agrarias, comprobaron los efectos benéficos del caldo visosa que además de controlar la roya y el ojo pardo (cercospora) del café, redujo significativamente la ocurrencia del minador de la hoja. Además de estos aspectos, permitió corregir deficiencias minerales, lo que retardó la caída de las hojas y mantuvo las plantas más vigorosas para la producción del año siguiente. Finalmente, el equipo de investigadores concluyó que el caldo Visosa fue superior a los fungicidas a base de oxicloruro de cobre y bayleton, en los aspectos de la eficiencia de su acción fungicida y en el aumento de su productividad, aparte de constituirse en un producto más barato en las manos de los productores.Este preparado o caldo mineral, que inicialmente fue lanzado públicamente como un novedoso fungicida para el control de la roya del café (Hemileia vastatrix), ha sido adaptado por los agricultores en muchos países para su aplicación no solo en sus cafetales sino en otros cultivos como uvas, hortalizas y frutales (Restrepo J. , El A,B,C de la agricultura orgánica y harina de rocas., 2007).Para 1 500 cafetos o árboles frutales se aplica el caldo visosa de acuerdo con la altura del cultivo Tabla 1. Según Restrepo (2007) en frutales y en café, se recomienda realizar aplicaciones cada 30 días cuando no estén floreciendo.Las aplicaciones del caldo en los cultivos de tomate, pimiento y otras hortalizas de hojas, como el repollo y las coles, se realizan en la concentración de 1:1, o sea, una parte (50 %) de caldo mezclado con una parte (50 %) de agua.Esta misma recomendación se puede aplicar para el cultivo de la papa. Lo más importante es ir ajustando las diluciones de acuerdo con lo observado directamente en el terreno.Plátano y banano: Para controlar las principales enfermedades de las musáceas, como la sigatoka, se recomienda la aplicación del caldo visosa puro, enriquecido con jabón o melaza de caña de azúcar al 2 % para facilitar su adherencia, principalmente en lugares muy lluviosos. Los biofertilizantes son insumos formulados con uno o varios microorganismos benéficos, que aumentan la disponibilidad de nutrientes para las plantas. Estos biofertilizantes pueden presentar grandes ventajas como la producción a menor costo, la protección del ambiente y el aumento de la fertilidad y biodiversidad del suelo. Se usan abundantemente en agricultura orgánica, sin embargo, es factible y ampliamente recomendable aplicarlos de manera integral en cultivos intensivos en el sistema tradicional (Intagri, 2020).Las ventajas del uso de biofertilizantes se presentan en el aprovechamiento del suelo, la captación de agua, la asimilación de nutrientes y la protección contra patógenos. La producción es de bajo costo, aumenta el rendimiento de los cultivos y no degradan el suelo (González, 2019).Según Intagri (2020) por su uso los biofertizantes se dividen en 4 grandes grupos: fijadores de nitrógeno, solubilizadores de fósforo, captadores de fósforo y promotores del crecimiento vegetal.Promotores de crecimiento vegetal: Estos son microorganismos que, durante su actividad metabólica, son capaces de producir y liberar sustancias reguladoras de crecimiento para las plantas.Según Restrepo (2007) cada ingrediente del que está compuesto el biofertilizante aumenta la sinergia de la fermentación para obtener una buena disponibilidad de los nutrientes para la vida de las plantas y del suelo.Leche: Al igual que la melaza, la leche reaviva el biopreparado, aporta proteínas, vitaminas, grasa y aminoácidos para la formación de otros compuestos orgánicos que se generan durante el periodo de fermentación del biofertilizante. La leche es el medio propicio para la reproducción de la microbiología de la fermentación.Melaza: La principal función es aportar la energía necesaria para activar el metabolismo microbiológico, para que el proceso de fermentación se potencialice. La melaza, aunque en menor escala, aporta algunos minerales, como calcio, potasio, fósforo, boro, hierro, azufre, manganeso, zinc y magnesio.Sales minerales: Activan y enriquecen la fermentación y tienen como función principal, nutrir y fertilizar el suelo y las plantas. Cuando las sales se fermentan con otros componentes como el estiércol fresco de vaca, cobran vida a través de la digestión y el metabolismo de los microorganismos presentes en el tanque de la fermentación.Estiércol de vaca: Aporta los ingredientes vivos (microorganismos) para que ocurra la fermentación del biofertilizante. Aporta inóculos o semillas de levaduras, hongos, protozoos y bacterias. Estos microorganismos son responsables de digerir, metabolizar y colocar de forma disponible para las plantas y el suelo todos los elementos nutritivos que se encuentran en el caldo vivo que se está fermentando en el tanque.Agua: Es el medio líquido donde se multiplican todas las reacciones bioenergéticas y químicas de la fermentación anaeróbica del biofertilizante. Es importante resaltar que muchos microorganismos presentes en la fermentación, tales como levaduras y bacterias, viven más uniformemente en la masa líquida, donde al mismo tiempo se transfieren los productos sintetizados como enzimas, vitaminas, péptidos, promotores de crecimiento, entre otros.La utilización de biofertilizantes constituye una oportunidad para mejorar y expandir el potencial productivo de los suelos y los cultivos, sin agredir el medio ambiente.Resiliencia/adaptación: Los biofertilizantes brindan buenos rendimientos en las cosechas, favorecen el crecimiento de frutos sanos y resistentes al ataque de plagas, ofrecen facilidades para su aplicación y su producción es de bajo costo. Además, los nutrientes esenciales contenidos en los fertilizantes biológicos poseen características fisicoquímicas y biológicas apropiadas para el suelo, lo que implica el aumento de la fertilidad y biodiversidad del suelo (Carvajal y Mera, 2010). Ayudan a disminuir o evitar la contaminación producida por fertilizantes químicos tradicionales en los cuerpos de agua y el suelo (Chirinos, Leal, y Montilla, 2006).Mitigación: Los fertilizantes biológicos actúan como sustitutos de fertilizantes químicos tradicionales, con lo cual se ayuda a disminuir los GEI generados en la elaboración de estos productos (Carvajal y Mera, 2010). Suelen necesitar menos energía (combustibles fósiles) para su elaboración. Sus beneficios para la salud del suelo favorecen a la absorción de carbono.Sesión 1. Elaboremos biobertilizante para engrose de frutos.Sesión 2. Elaboremos fosfitos orgánicos con harina de huesos.Sesión 3. Elaboremos el biobertilizante a base de microorganismos benéficos enriquecidos con minerales.Sesión 4. Elaboremos el biobertilizante supermagro enriquecido con minerales.Sesión 5. Elaboremos humato de potasio.Sesión 6. Elaboremos biocarbón inoculado con microorganismos benéficos para las plantas.Sesión 7. Elaboremos el biofertilizante a base de calabaza.Sesión 1. Elaboremos biofertilizante para engrose de frutos Objetivos:Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el biofertilizante para engrose de frutos.• Elaborar un biofertilizante para engrose de frutos, con materiales asequibles para quien produce.• Conocer las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• Tres horas.Para preparar 200 litros de biofertilizante se necesita:• 3 kilos de fosfitos.• 2 kilos de roca fosfórica.• 3 kilos de bórax o ácido bórico.• 2 kilos de sulfato de magnesio.• 2 kilos de harinas de rocas.• 2 kilos de carbonato de calcio.• 100 litros de agua o suero de leche.• 1 tanque de 200 litros.• 60 litros de microorganismos comerciales.• 2 galones de melaza.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar el biofertilizante para engrose de frutos:Parte 1.1. Colocar el agua o suero de leche hasta la mitad del tanque.2. Añadir 60 litros de microorganismos comerciales líquidos.3. Realizar un agujero en la tapa hermética del tanque y conectar un tubo con manguera de escape de gases de fermentación, además enlazar a una botella con agua para el burbujeo; siempre dejar la mezcla tapada de manera hermética.4. Dejar unos 3 o 4 días para esta primera fermentación.Parte 2.1. Agregar los fosfitos, roca fosfórica, harina de rocas, sulfato de magnesio, carbonato de calcio y bórax disueltos en 20 litros del fermento anterior, luego añadimos al tanque e incorporamos 2 galones de melaza.2. Cerrar herméticamente y dejar fermentado por 30 días.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación. • En el primer grupo están los microorganismos con capacidad de sintetizar sustancias que promueven el crecimiento de la planta, fijando nitrógeno atmosférico, solubilizando hierro y fósforo inorgánico lo que mejora en la planta la tolerancia al estrés por sequía, salinidad, metales tóxicos y exceso de pesticidas.• El segundo grupo incluye microorganismos capaces de disminuir o prevenir los efectos de deterioro de microorganismos patógenos (Bojórquez, Dagoberto, y Gutiérrez, 2010).A los 30 días de fermentación los biofertilizantes, enriquecidos con cenizas, sales minerales y harina de rocas molidas, estarán listos y equilibrados en una solución tampón y coloidal. Cuando los biofertilizantes están listos, sus efectos pueden ser entre 10 y 100 000 veces superiores en micronutrientes recomendados técnicamente por la agroindustria para ser aplicados a los cultivos (Restrepo J., 2007).Durante la fase de cuajado del fruto la planta requiere un mayor aporte de nutrientes y la deficiencia de estos elementos puede llevar a una maduración irregular, impidiendo en muchos casos la plena formación de los frutos. Los síntomas de carencia de nutrientes son fáciles de observar los frutos son pequeños y con coloración no uniforme, con manchas amarillas en zonas que no llegan a madurar. La falta de nutrientes también deja tallos débiles, clorosis y bordes quemados en las hojas. Las plantas sin nutrientes tienen poca resistencia a plagas y enfermedades, así como una mayor susceptibilidad a heladas y sequías (Restrepo J. , 2016). Por esta razón se debe utilizar biofertilizantes orgánicos que favorezcan el desarrollo completo de la planta y mejoren el sistema de defensa.Forma de aplicar y recomendaciones de uso Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesita para elaborar fosfitos.• Elaborar fosfitos con materiales fáciles de conseguir para las y los productores.• Conocer las dosis y la forma de aplicación de fosfitos en los cultivos.• 3 horas la primera parte y la segunda parte tendrá una duración de 2 horas.Materiales:• 10 kilos de cascarilla de arroz.• 3 kilos de harina de hueso.• 0,5 kilos de roca fosfórica.• 1 tanque metálico de 200 litros.• 1 parrilla de hierro de 15 a 20 centímetros de altura.• 1 tubo de 3 a 4 pulgadas de diámetro de hasta 2 metros.• 1 zaranda de 1 metro cuadrado.• 1 rodillo.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar fosfitos orgánicos con harina de huesos:Parte 1.1. Armar grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 personas para realizar la práctica.2. Soldar cuatro patas metálicas en el tanque metálico.3. Por debajo de la parrilla encender una fogata y colocar por encima de la parrilla el tanque metálico.4. Añadir dentro del tanque los huesos (mandíbulas y cabezas de animales) hasta que se calcinen.5. Dejar que los huesos se enfríen.6. Moler los huesos calcinados con el rodillo y cernir para obtener la harina de huesos.Parte 2.1. Al tubo metálico de 3 o 4 pulgadas de diámetro y 2 m de alto soldar cuatro patas, que le den una altura de 20 cm.2. Por debajo de las patas del tubo encender una fogata.3. Añadir la cascarilla de arroz alrededor de la base del tubo metálico.4. Colocar la harina de huesos.5. Poner roca fosfórica.6. Colocamos cascarilla de arroz para que se realice la combustión, se puede colocar los materiales en varias capas.7. Terminada la combustión cosechar los fosfitos y colocar en un lugar fresco.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación. Los fosfitos son compuestos eficaces para el control de protozoarios, oomycetes, hongos, bacterias y nematodos fitoparásitos, sin embargo, en comparación con los fungicidas convencionales sintetizados suelen ser menos eficaces. Los niveles de eficacia de los fosfitos para resolver problemas fitopatológicos están en relación con: organismo problema, planta hospedante e ion unido al fosfito. Por su eficiente translocación en tejido vegetal, los fosfitos se pueden suministrar al follaje, a los tallos, a las raíces y a los frutos. Los efectos profilácticos de los fosfitos son diversos e incluyen la estimulación de los mecanismos de defensa bioquímica y estructural en las plantas. Además, tienen una acción directa que restringe el crecimiento, desarrollo y reproducción de los organismos fitoparásitos (Yáñez, 2018).Según Estrada, Trejo y Gómez (2011), demostraron en el cultivo de fresa, que, si se adicionan fosfitos a la solución nutritiva en etapa inicial y en etapa de fructificación, manteniendo los niveles óptimos de P de acuerdo con la solución de Stainer (1984) se obtienen resultados positivos en cuanto a rendimiento (955,63 g por planta). Lovatt (1999) demostró que en naranja Navel (60,8 kg por árbol) al realizar aplicaciones foliares de fosfitos se incrementó el rendimiento, lo que aumentó el número de frutos por árbol. A su vez, Albrio (1999), encontró efecto positivo en naranja valencia, en Florida, Estados Unidos. Esto se evidenció en el número de flores, sólidos solubles totales y rendimiento al usar fosfitos con la aspersión.El trabajo que realizaron Moor, Poldma y Tonutare (2009) indicó que no se inhibe ni promueve el crecimiento de plantas de fresa al fertilizar con fosfitos. En cuanto al rendimiento, no hubo ninguna ventaja al usar fosfitos como fertilizante en comparación con fosfatos; sin embargo, la aplicación foliar con fosfitos modificó el sabor de la fruta debido a que se incrementó su acidez, por tanto, disminuyó la concentración de azúcares. También encontraron que las plantas que recibieron aplicaciones de fosfitos, activaron los mecanismos de defensa por lo que aumenta el ácido ascórbico en las frutas y contenido de antocianinas.Los microorganismos del suelo son capaces de asimilar fosfitos y liberar fosfatos, ganando energía y nutrientes durante esta conservación biológica. El tiempo promedio para la oxidación de fosfitos a fosfato en el suelo es de aproximadamente 3 a 4 meses. Sin embargo, debido a su gran solubilidad, cuando se aplica fosfito al suelo, está más disponible para los microorganismos y para las raíces de las plantas que el fosfato (Intagri, 2020).Los fosfitos se utilizan para la preparación de biofertilizantes, activación de microorganismos y aplicación en drench al suelo (Restrepo, 2020). Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesitan para elaborar el biofertilizante a base de microorganismos.• Elaborar un biofertilizante a base de microorganismos enriquecidos con minerales.• Determinar las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.Tiempo:• 1 hora la primera parte y luego de 4 días la segunda parte que tendrá una duración de 30 minutos.Materiales:• 10 litros de suero.• 20 litros de melaza.• 1 kg de harina de roca.• 1 kg de roca fosfórica.• 2 kg de fosfitos.• 10 kg de microorganismos comerciales.• 2 kg de cáscara de camarón molido.• 2 kg de sulfato de zinc.• 1800 g de sulfato de magnesio.• 1 kg de sulfato de manganeso.• 1 kg de bórax.• 1 kg de sulfato de calcio.• 1 kg de sulfato de hierro.• 500 g de sulfato de cobre.• 1 tanque de 200 litros.• 2 baldes de 25 litros.• Manguera de 40 o 50 cm de media pulgada.• Acople plástico de media pulgada.• Botella plástica de capacidad de 1 a 2 litros.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar biofertilizante a base de microorganismos:Parte 1.1. Colocar 100 litros de agua en el tanque de 200 litros de capacidad.2. Disolver 10 litros de melaza, luego incorporar 10 litros de suero, 1 kilo de harina de roca, 1 kilo de roca fosfórica, 2 kilos de fosfitos y mezclar hasta homogenizar.3. En una malla de tela colocar los 10 kilos de microorganismos sólidos simulando una bolsa de té.4. En una bolsa de tela pequeña añadir 2 kilos de cáscara de camarón molido.5. Colocar las dos bolsas preparadas en el tanque de 200 litros.6. En la tapa del tanque realizar un agujero e introducir un acople de media pulgada y conectar la manguera.7. Tapar herméticamente el tanque y colar la manguera hasta enlazar a una botella con agua para el burbujeo de los gases de fermentación.8. Dejar la fermentación por 4 días para activar los microorganismos.Parte 2.1. A los 4 días abrir el tanque y retirar un balde de 10 litros del producto preparado, luego añadir el sulfato de zinc, sulfato de magnesio, sulfato de manganeso, bórax, sulfato de calcio, sulfato de hierro y sulfato de cobre.2. Mezclar en el balde cada mineral hasta disolverlo, luego colocar esta mezcla en el tanque de 200 litros y añadir 10 litros de melaza.3. Colocar agua hasta aproximadamente 20 cm bajo el nivel superior del tanque y mezclar.4. Tapar de forma hermética el tanque y colocar la manguera hasta enlazar a una botella con agua para el burbujeo.5. Después de un total de 34 días la fermentación con los microorganismos benéficos enriquecidos con minerales está lista para ser aplicada.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.Se llaman microorganismos a las comunidades de hongos, bacterias y levaduras; se caracterizan por ser muy diversos y estar adaptados al ambiente. También se les llama benéficos, porque aportan grandes beneficios y contribuyen a la calidad y fertilidad del suelo (Cardozo, 2020).Pertenecen a cuatro grupos de microorganismos: bacterias fotosintéticas, actinomicetos, bacterias productoras de ácido láctico, hongos y levaduras. Las bacterias fotosintéticas son un grupo de microorganismos que sintetizan aminoácidos, ácidos nucleicos, azúcares de las secreciones provenientes de las raíces y materia orgánica; estas bacterias promueven el desarrollo y crecimiento de la planta. Las bacterias lácticas producen ácido láctico a partir de azúcares, este ácido actúa como compuesto esterilizante que ayuda a prevenir el crecimiento de microorganismos dañinos en las raíces de las plantas.Los hongos de fermentación y levaduras como la Saccharomyces spp. sintetizan sustancias antimicrobianas, aminoácidos, azúcares, también hormonas y enzimas que promueven la división celular de los tejidos de la raíz de la planta. Los actinomicetos también se benefician de los productos de las levaduras para ejercer sus funciones en los biofertilizantes (Zeballos, 2017).Los microorganismos se utilizan en la preparación de biofertilizantes biológicos para acelerar el proceso de metabolismo de la materia orgánica, aumentan la productividad de los cultivos, así como la calidad de los productos, estimulan la germinación de semillas y crecimiento de las raíces. Los microorganismos además aumentan el grado de protección natural de los cultivos hacia organismos causantes de enfermedades (Carmona, 2017).Forma de aplicar y recomendaciones de uso Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los materiales que se necesita para realizar el biofertilizante supermagro.• Elaborar un biofertilizante supermagro enriquecido con minerales.• Determinar las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• 2 horas la primera parte y luego de 30 días la segunda parte que tendrá una duración de 30 minutos cada tres días para cada micro elemento.Para preparar 200 litros de biofertilizante se necesita:• 40 kg de estiércol de vaca fresca.• 18 litros de suero de leche.• 2 litros de melaza.• 1 kg de fosfitos o ceniza.• 1 kg de harina de rocas (basáltica).• 1 kg de harina de rocas (fosfórica).• 150 g de levadura.• 2 kg de sulfato de zinc.• 1800 g de sulfato de magnesio.• 600 g de sulfato de hierro.• 300 g de sulfato de manganeso.• 1 kg de bórax.• 2 kg de cloruro de calcio o sulfato de calcio.• 150 g de molibdato de sodio.• 50 g de cloruro de cobalto.• 500 g de sulfato de cobre.• 1 tanque de 200 litros.• 2 baldes de 25 litros.• 1 colador o cernidor.• Manguera de 40 o 50 cm de media pulgada.• Acople plástico de media pulgada.• Botella plástica de capacidad de 1 a 2 litros.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar biofertilizante supermagro:Parte 1.1. Añadir en el tanque de 200 litros, 50 kilos de estiércol de vaca fresca, luego colocar un 1 kilo de fosfito, harina de rocas y roca fosfórica, respectivamente.2. En un balde de 25 litros, diluir 2 kilos de melaza en 20 litros de suero, luego agregar 150 gramos de levadura y mezclar hasta que se active la levadura, a continuación, incorporar esta mezcla al tanque de 200 litros.3. Añadir agua hasta aproximadamente 20 cm bajo el nivel superior del tanque y mezclar hasta obtener una solución uniforme.4. En la tapa del tanque hacer un agujero e introducir un acople de media pulgada y conectar la manguera.5. Tapar el tanque y colocar la manguera hasta enlazar a una botella con agua para el burbujeo de los gases de fermentación.6. La fermentación dura 30 días aproximadamente, donde presenta varias etapas de maduración.7. El supermagro sencillo, luego de colarlo, dura 30 días.Parte 2.Una vez obtenido el supermagro sencillo, procedemos a incorporar los microelementos para enriquecer el biofertilizante, de la siguiente manera:1. Tomar 5 litros del supermagro preparado en un balde, disolver 2 kg de sulfato de zinc e incorporar nuevamente al tanque.2. Añadir en el tanque 1 litro de leche y 1 litro de melaza, mezclar hasta obtener una solución uniforme.3. Cerrar el tanque de manera hermética por 30 días.4. El mismo procedimiento se realiza cada tres días para cada elemento (sulfato de magnesio, sulfato de hierro, sulfato de manganeso, bórax, cloruro de calcio, molibdato de sodio, cloruro de cobalto y sulfato de cobre).5. El producto final es un líquido de color marrón, verdoso oscuro y de olor agradable. Se recomienda utilizar la preparación en los siguientes 6 meses, aunque la experiencia ha mostrado que puede durar más tiempo.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación. En Brasil ha surgido una alternativa al uso de fertilizantes sintéticos: el supermagro, que es un biofermento enriquecido, que se obtiene con la fermentación, en condiciones aerobias o anaerobias, de estiércol vacuno, agua, leche o suero, minerales provenientes de materiales calcáreos o cenizas, y melaza. Este biofermento fue desarrollado por el técnico agrícola Delvino Magro. En la actualidad, existen diversas variaciones del biofermento, dependiendo de los ingredientes empleados. Pero en general esta mezcla aporta al suelo: carbón, minerales (como boro, magnesio, zinc, manganeso, azufre, nitrógeno, cobre, entre otros), aminoácidos, vitaminas y hormonas componentes indispensables para el crecimiento equilibrado de las plantas. Además este biofertilizante ofrece una fuerte carga de microrganismos benéficos (Manríquez, 2016).La aplicación de enmiendas orgánicas a los cultivos es importante, porque aportan nutrientes, materia orgánica y microorganismos que aceleran la degradación de la materia orgánica, compiten contra patógenos y producen sustancias como fitohormonas. Los biopreparados como el supermagro son herramientas útiles para la agroecología. Es importante caracterizarlos con el fin de perfeccionar sus formulaciones y aplicación, y maximizar sus aportes tanto al rendimiento de los cultivos como a la salud del suelo y la sustentabilidad del agroecosistema (Lassevich, 2020).Según Restrepo (2020) las funciones de los ingredientes del supermagro están dadas por el estiercol de vaca, es el inóculo microbiológico principal de hongos como el Bacillus subtilis, que permite dar el impacto positivo en el desarrollo de los cultivos. El suero de leche es la principal proteína para que los microorganismos se multipliquen, la melaza aporta la energía, además las harinas de rocas y fosfitos son los minerales que vamos a entregar a las plantas, debido a que el estiércol de vaca no es muy rico en minerales. La levadura es el arranque de la fermentación, que después se trasforma en proteína.La fermentación del supermagro a los 30 días está en inicio de maduración, sin embargo, se aplica en todos los cultivos que estén en desarrollo vegetativo.A los 60 días está semimaduro, ha finalizado la fermentación y se puede aplicar en todos los cultivos que estén en desarrollo vegetativo e inicio de llenado de frutos.La maduración completa de biofertilizante está dada a los 90 días y puede ser aplicado en todos los cultivos en todas las fases de desarrollo y producción. Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Identificar los materiales requeridos para elaborar el humato de potasio.• Describir el procedimiento y uso del humato de potasio.• Una hora.• 3 kg de hidróxido de potasio.• 50 kg de humus de lombriz.• Recipiente plástico con capacidad de 100 litros.• 100 litros de agua.• Palo de madera.• Plástico.• Colador (Restrepo J. , Agroecology, 2019).* En caso de que se pueda conseguir leonardita utilizar 5-10 kg en lugar del humus.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar humato de potasio:1. Colocar los 50 kilos de humus en el recipiente que contiene 100 litros de agua.2. En un recipiente que contenga 1 litro de agua colocar los 3 kg de hidróxido de potasio, disolver con mucho cuidado, evitar que el hidróxido entre en contacto con la piel porque puede ocasionar quemaduras.3. Colocar el hidróxido de potasio disuelto en el tanque plástico que contiene el agua con el humus.4. Mezclar con la ayuda de un palo de madera y dejar reposar.5. Tapar con un plástico.6. Revolver 2 veces al día durante 3 o 4 días.7. Transcurrido el tiempo indicado colar la preparación previa a ser utilizada.8. Envasar en recipientes oscuros. 9. Almacenar en lugar fresco y oscuro.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 4 : Elaboración de biofertilizantes 147El humato de potasio es el resultado de una hidrólisis alcalina en agua de leonardita mineral para la obtención de ácidos húmicos (AH), ácidos fúlvicos (AF) y huminas residuales (HR). Con este proceso se puede obtener tres elementos esenciales (potasio, ácidos húmicos y pequeñas trazas de ácidos fúlvicos) para el desarrollo de las plantas.Generalmente se toma como referencia para la obtención de los ácidos húmicos el humus de lombriz, compost, estiércol o algún sustrato comercial rico en materia húmica. De todos ellos, la Leonardito es el componente mineral con el que se obtiene más cantidad de estos ácidos. Su extracción por medio de hidrólisis o quelato ronda entre un 40 % de ácidos húmicos y un 85 % de ácidos fúlvicos.La leonardita es una sustancia vegetal humificada, muy rica en materia orgánica, en un estado intermedio de transformación entre la turba y el lignito. Tiene su origen en el enterramiento de materiales vegetales desde hace millones de años y suele encontrarse en las capas superiores de las minas a cielo abierto de lignito (carbón) (Murillo, 2021).Según Murillo (2021), los ácidos húmicos están presentes en los suelos y son la parte más activa de la materia orgánica. Son una mezcla de moléculas orgánicas complejas que se forman por descomposición y oxidación de la materia orgánica. Por tanto, la humificación es un proceso progresivo que lleva a la formación de ácidos húmicos.Tanto los ácidos húmicos como los fúlvicos son solubles en medio básico y, por ello, se emplea para extraerlos en forma líquida, un extractante alcalino, generalmente hidróxido potásico.Al ponerlos en medio ácido, los húmicos precipitan por ser insolubles en este medio, mientras que los fúlvicos, se mantienen en fase líquida al ser solubles en medio ácido (Murillo, 2021).Beneficios del uso de humato de potasio:• Incrementa la resistencia de las plantas ante ataques de patógenos por la acción de fenoles disponibles en los ácidos húmicos.• Previene las enfermedades favoreciendo la actividad de la planta y con ello su inmunidad con la invasión de parásitos en las células.• Estimula el crecimiento de la vida microbiológica del suelo, especialmente en los hongos micorrizas y hongos antagonistas, produciendo un equilibrio biológico en la zona radicular o de las raíces (Agricultura, 2020).Forma de aplicar y recomendaciones de uso Riego: 0,5 a 1 %, es decir, por cada litro de agua añadir 10 ml de humato de potasio.Foliar: 0,5 a 3 %, es decir, por cada litro de agua añadir 30 ml de humato de potasio (Agricultura, 2020). Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesita para elaborar el biocarbón.• Elaborar biocarbón con materiales accesibles para los productores.• Conocer las dosis y forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• Dos horas.Para preparar biocarbón se necesita:• 100 kilos de carbón.• 5 litros de microorganismos comerciales activados de forma líquida.• 10 kilos de microorganismo comerciales sólidos.• 5 litros de melaza.• 20 litros de agua.• 1 tanque de 160 litros con tapa hermética.• 2 baldes plásticos de 20 litros.• 1 pala de mano.• 1 metro cuadrado de malla metálica de 1 mm.Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar biocarbón:1. Disolver en 10 litros de agua los 5 litros de melaza.2. Tomar 5 litros de microorganismos comerciales líquidos y añadir 10 litros de agua.3. Triturar o moler el carbón hasta que se desmenuce y colocar en el piso.4. Añadir la melaza diluida y los microorganismos comerciales líquidos alrededor del carbón.5. Mezclar con la ayuda de una pala hasta que se homogenicen todos los productos líquidos aplicados.6. Colocar 10 kilos de microorganismos comerciales sólidos alrededor del biocarbón y revolver.7. Poner el biocarbón en el tanque de 160 litros y tapar herméticamente por 30 días.8. Sacar el biocarbón del tanque y cernir con la ayuda de una malla metálica, luego guardar nuevamente en el tanque. 9. El producto final debe estar fermentado y presentar un olor dulce agradable.10. Reposar durante 15 a 18 días, luego de este tiempo se puede extraer el producto para su uso.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación. El biocarbón es un producto que se obtiene sólo donde hay suficiente biomasa disponible, tal es el caso de los subproductos de actividades agroforestales o residuos orgánicos urbanos, que pueden ser usados como materia prima. Existen experiencias positivas derivadas de la aplicación de biocarbón al suelo, que generan una mejoría en sus propiedades físicas, químicas y biológicas, lo que se traduce en un aumento de la productividad de los cultivos. El biocarbón, por ser una forma recalcitrante de carbono, actúa como reservorio de larga duración de este elemento, retardando su retorno a la atmósfera como CO 2 , situación que contribuye a mitigar el cambio climático (Escalante, 2016).Según Zheng, Wang y Deng (2013), hay reportes en donde el biocarbón puede retener temporalmente nitrógeno soluble en su estructura y liberarlo más lentamente que los productos inorgánicos, por lo que incrementa la eficiencia de este elemento y la productividad de los cultivos.También se ha considerado que el empleo de nuevas tecnologías como el uso de biofertilizantes, microorganismos y fertilizantes minerales para mejorar una deficiente fertilidad del suelo, podría verse apoyada por el empleo del biocarbón (Yamoah, Bationo, y Shapiro, 2002).El biocarbón provoca cambios positivos en el suelo; por lo tanto, favorece las propiedades y el crecimiento de los cultivos (Ippolito, Lentz, y Novak, 2011). Además, contribuye a reducir el impacto del cambio climático, por estar constituido principalmente por formas resistentes a la oxidación, con lo que el carbono puede permanecer por largo tiempo en el suelo sin regresar a la atmósfera.Según Restrepo (2020), antiguamente los indígenas de la amazonia mejoraban sus suelos incorporando restos carboneros, a través de la quema de vasijas y fogones donde cocinaban. Hoy en día los científicos que se dedican a la arqueología de la agricultura, han redescubierto lo que hacían los indígenas para construir suelo. Por tanto, el biocarbón construye y protege el suelo, a través de la retención de humedad, dando una mayor profundidad a las raíces, permitiendo una oxigenación adecuada y mayor regulación térmica entre la temperatura del día y la noche.El biocarbón se utiliza para sustrato de plántulas de hortalizas, para lo cual se necesita realizar el llenado de las bandejas con la siguiente mezcla:• 2 kilos de biocarbón.• 18 kilos de bocashi con microorganismos.• 100 kilos de tierra.Para aplicar en plantas frutales se puede utilizar de 1 a 2 kilos de biocarbón alrededor de la planta. Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los ingredientes que se necesita para elaborar el biofertilizante de calabaza.• Elaborar el biofertilizante a base de calabaza con materiales accesibles para los productores.• Conocer las dosis y la forma de aplicación en los cultivos.• 2 horas.Para preparar 200 litros de biofertilizante se necesita:• 20 kg de calabaza.• 10 litros de melaza.• 1 kg de roca fosfórica.• 2 kg de fosfitos.• 40 litros de suero.• 10 kg de estiércol de ternero.• 300 g de levadura de cerveza.• 1 kg de cascara de camarón.• 200 litros de agua.• 1 tanque de 200 litros con tapa hermética.• 2 baldes plásticos de 20 litros.• 1 funda de tela pequeña.• 1 pala de mano.• 1 olla grande de capacidad de 60 litros.Procedimiento:Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar biofertilizante:Parte 1.1. Cocinar 20 kilos de calabaza picada en trozos pequeños en 40 litros de agua en una olla grande.2. Cuando empiece a hervir añadir 5 litros de melaza y mezclar hasta que se disuelvan los trozos de calabaza.3. Cuando ya esté el producto bien cocinado tipo colada, se deja en reposo hasta que se enfrié.Parte 2.1. Colocar el suero de leche en el tanque de 200 litros.2. Añadir en un balde 5 litros de melaza y 300 gramos de levadura y mezclar con agua, luego colocar los fosfitos y la roca fosfórica hasta que se mezclen, e incorporar al tanque.3. Disolver con agua el estiércol de ternero y añadir al tanque.4. Colocar el preparado de zapallo en el tanque, luego añadir agua hasta aproximadamente 20 cm bajo el nivel superior del tanque y mezclar hasta obtener una solución uniforme.5. Poner en la funda de tela cáscara de camarón molida y añadir al tanque.6. En la tapa del tanque hacer un agujero e introducir un acople de media pulgada y conectar la manguera.7. Tapar herméticamente el tanque y colocar la manguera hasta enlazar a una botella con agua, para el burbujeo de los gases de fermentación por 30 días.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación. Los biofertilizantes funcionan principalmente al interior de las plantas, activando el fortalecimiento del equilibrio nutricional como un mecanismo de defensa de las mismas, a través de los ácidos orgánicos, las hormonas de crecimiento, antibióticos, vitaminas, minerales, enzimas y coenzimas, carbohidratos, aminoácidos y azúcares complejos, entre otros, presentes en la complejidad de las relaciones biológicas, químicas, físicas y energéticas que se establecen entre las plantas y la vida del suelo (Restrepo, 2007).Según Barros y Silva (2006), los biofertilizantes mejoran la nutrición de las plantas y son capaces de realizar funciones como: fijar nitrógeno, movilizar fósforo, potenciar la acción de algunos nutrientes y producir sustancias activas. Los biofertilizantes son elaborados con diferentes tipos de microorganismos, que tienen efectos positivos sobre los procesos de descomposición y síntesis que ocurren en el suelo. Dichos microorganismo se colocan en medios de cultivo, para posteriormente adicionarles sustratos inertes, que aportan energía para su supervivencia y multiplicación (Fregosol, Ferrera, y Etchevers, 2001).El biofertilizante a base de calabaza se utiliza para cultivos en desarrollo vegetativo, tratamiento de descomposición de materia orgánica y recuperación de suelos deteriorados, además ayuda mucho en la descomposición de los abonos verdes que se hayan utilizado como cobertura de suelo (Restrepo J., 2020). Los adherentes se utilizan para asegurar que exista mejor penetración del producto que se está aplicando al cultivo. Ayudan a que los productos no se laven con facilidad si llueve y se usan cuando se aplican abonos foliares como el biol, biocidas, caldos sulfocálcicos. Se agregan con el producto a aplicar en la mochila de fumigar (Arana, 2011).Son de bajo costo y de fácil elaboración y aplicación. Al hacer uso de productos naturales al igual que los otros bioinsumos descritos en esta guía, contribuyen a la reducción del uso de agroquímicos, y por ende a reducción de la contaminación ambiental y el gasto de combustibles fósiles (emisiones GEI) en la producción de estos insumos. Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los materiales que se necesitan para elaborar el adherente de tuna (cladodio).• Elaborar el adherente de tuna (cladodio) con los materiales disponibles.• Conocer las cantidades de adherente de tuna (cladodio) recomendadas.• Una hora.Para la elaboración de 60 litros• 6 kg de tuna (cladodio) picada.• 1 litro de melaza mezclada con agua.• 3 litros de microorganismos comerciales.• 60 litros de agua.• Tanque de 60 l.Procedimiento:Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar adherente a base de tuna:1. Pedir a las y los participantes que formen grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del adherente.2. Colocar la tuna (cladodio) picada en el tanque.3. Agregar melaza.4. Agregar los microorganismos comerciales.5. Poner los 60 litros de agua.6. Tapar el tanque.7. Esperar 8 días.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.M Ó D U L O 5 : Elaboración de adherentes 161Según Sáenz et al. (2003), entre otros estudios, la presencia de mucílago y pectina en los cladodios o pencas influencia la viscosidad de algunos productos, tales como las preparaciones en polvo para mezclarse con agua o jugos antes del consumo. Ambos compuestos son hidrocoloides, forman parte de la fibra dietaria, conocidos por su habilidad para absorber y retener agua. Estos pueden ser extraídos y usados como espesantes en alimentos.Según Nobel et al. (1992), citado en FAO e ICARDA (2018), el mucílago (hidrocoloide) tiene un importante papel fisiológico en las Opuntias, debido a que poseen una alta retención de agua. Puede ser extraído de la matriz (cladodios o cáscaras de tunas) con agua.Los cladodios o pencas se pueden obtener como residuos de poda y están disponibles todo el año.Aplicar 0,5 l/bomba de 18 l, al 10 %. Según Tencio (2017), se puede usar con bioles como pega, en donde colocamos primero el biol y luego el adherente. Sesión 2. Adherente a base de sábila Objetivos:Las y los participantes al finalizar la práctica estarán en capacidad de:• Describir los materiales que se necesitan para elaborar el adherente de sábila.• Elaborar el adherente de sábila con los materiales disponibles.• Indicar las cantidades de adherente de sábila recomendadas.Tiempo:• Dos horas.Para la elaboración de 60 litros• 6 kg de sábila picada.• 1 litro de melaza mezclada con agua.• 3 litros de microorganismos comerciales.• Agua para completar 60 litros.• Tanque de 60 l.Procedimiento:Actividades iniciales:• Dar la bienvenida a la sesión, hacer una ronda de presentación con las y los participantes, compartir la agenda y los objetivos de la sesión. De ser posible realizar una evaluación.Actividades para realizar adherente a base de sábila:1. Compartir con los participantes los objetivos de la sesión.2. Pedir a los participantes que formen grupos de trabajo de 4 o 5 integrantes que serán los responsables de los materiales y la elaboración del adherente.3. Colocar la sábila picada en el tanque.4. Agregar melaza.5. Agregar los microorganismos comerciales.6. Poner los 60 litros de agua.7. Tapar el tanque.8. Esperar 8 días.Actividades de cierre:• Hacer una ronda de preguntas y respuestas sobre la práctica, despejar dudas.• Hacer un cierre de la sesión con las ideas fuerza trabajadas.• Realizar la evaluación de los aprendizajes y la retroalimentación.Según Reynolds y Dweck (1999), citados en Domínguez et al. (2012), la planta de aloe vera se compone de raíz, tallo, hojas y flores. Las hojas crecen alrededor del tallo a nivel del suelo en forma de roseta.Las hojas tienen formas lanceoladas y dentadas. La estructura de las hojas está formada por el exocarpio o corteza, que está cubierta de una cutícula delgada. La corteza representa aproximadamente del 20 al 30 % del peso de toda la planta y dicha estructura es de color verde o verde azulado, dependiendo de diversos factores tales como: el lugar, clima o nutrición de la planta. El parénquima, conocido comúnmente como pulpa o gel se localiza en la parte central de la hoja y representa del 65 al 80 % del peso total de la planta. Entre la corteza y la pulpa, ocupando toda la superficie interna de la hoja, se encuentran los conductos de aloína que son una serie de canales longitudinales de pocos milímetros de diámetro por donde circula la savia de la planta, conocida como acíbar (Ramachandra y Srinivasa, 2008).El gel o pulpa es una masa gelatinosa e incolora formada por células parenquimáticas, estructuradas en colénquima y células pétreas delgadas. El gel está constituido principalmente de agua, mucílagos y otros carbohidratos, ácidos y sales orgánicas, enzimas, saponinas, taninos, heteróxidos antracénicos, esteroles, triacilglicéridos, aminoácidos, ARN, trazas de alcaloides, vitaminas y diversos minerales (Reynolds, 2004). (3-5 años), se debe recolectar las hojas más externas de la base, con el fin de obtener un acíbar o pulpa de aloe de buena calidad para, posteriormente, procesarlo y fabricar productos aptos para la industria farmacéutica, cosmética y alimentaria.De 100 ml por mochila de 15 litros (Arana, 2011).165 Figura 22. Elaboración de adherente a base de sábila","tokenCount":"28502"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e8085779f7741165a6491ac36ff0fafd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd2f6738-7df2-4107-afd2-98f74328b79e/retrieve","id":"-1895945931"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3dc43471-df35-41d3-b591-d190b4242a65","pagecount":"36","content":"• Sep 2022, nearly 8 billion• Current estimates are that the population will grow to 9.7 billion in 2050, with most of the growth occurring in developing countries (World Population Prospects:The 2019 Revision)• Population living in urban areas is projected to rise from 3.3 billion in 2007 to 6.4 billion 2050 (World Urbanization Prospect)Projected grow in meat production and consumption on a protein bases, 2021-2030    Perceived versus actual risks 2. Traditional food chains -perspectives and challengesTraditional food chains -traditional or wet markets• It refers to traditional markets which sell mainly fresh foods such as meat, some seafood, fruits and vegetables.• Usually less regulated• Consist of different stalls with independent owners• Frequent use ice to keep food fresh and often wash products to keep them clean and fresh.Photo credit: Chea Rortana /ILRI 2020Formal versus informal retail• Formal retail: supermarkets, convenient stores, \"healthy\" food shops Poor infrastructure: lack of water and electricityWill modern retail replace traditional/wet markets?Based on experiences on rapid growth of modern retail from other parts of the world (America, Europe, Australia, South America) the same was assumed for Africa and Asia.But there are crucial differences.• Modern retail in Asia and Africa does not offer offered fresh food at lower cost than traditional retail • There is also a strong preference for \"warm fresh meat\" = not chilled or frozen food in Africa and Asia.• Selection process of meat may include even check of consistence /\"touching\" of meat • Perception that modern retail uses more \"chemicals\" e.g. grow promoters & consequently different perceived meat quality compared to traditional retailShops specialising in selling \"health\" fresh food at a premium (rather small outlets)For richer customers, wet markets and modern retail may be complementary rather than competitive • people buying packaged food in supermarkets and fresh food in wet marketsPhoto credit: Chi Nguyen ILRIShall we worry about wet markets?Wet markets often lack adequate infrastructure and food safety measures:• Hazards can be high, but risks can be low if post processing involves a reliable control step • Evidence from the region suggests that the informal sector is not always dangerous and the formal sector is not always safe. • The formal sector is more vulnerable to system failures Transmission of emerging diseases• Coronavirus emergence has also been associated with sale of wild animals in wet markets but majority wild animals are not sold in wet markets. • Role of wet markets in the recent pandemic not fully understood How to reduce risk from wet markets ","tokenCount":"411"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bf0d6a5d353fc3c41215bd2beabda32e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c12376f3-9de5-46ea-8227-ff20ead7f875/retrieve","id":"-1612857021"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"06039a41-6bc1-42d2-a8c0-7b1bf1a2ef9a","pagecount":"71","content":"The definition of the CTA's focus is bounded by its programmatic mandate. This mandate touches on the task to provide information services, the improvement of accessibility to information and the strengthening of capacity in information and communication management among Africa, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries.CTA implements its mandate through three operational departments: Communications Channels and Services Department, Information and Communication Management Skills and Systems Department and the Information Products and Services Department. The outputs generated by those departments form the programmes of the CTA. It is in this programmatic environment that this study is posited.Four objectives were established for the conduct of this study. They are:• identify agricultural information needs of key actors/beneficiaries for CTA's products and services;• identify needs of potential partners/beneficiaries for CTA's activities and services in terms of building capacity for information and communication management; • identify potential actors/beneficiaries for CTA activities and services; and,• develop some baseline data to facilitate subsequent monitoring activities.The methodology comprised a 'desk review' and a questionnaire fielding and analysis activity. In the 'desk review' phase (Phase 1), the consultant reviewed documents made pertinent to the study and which were made available by the CTA. This was useful in terms of assisting the consultant to acquire an appreciation that permitted for placing the study in its correct perspective. Also, at this stage, extensive reviews of national and sectoral documents provided by various sources were used to generate Annexes II and III of the report. During Phase II, the consultant fielded the questionnaire, which was prepared by the CTA, among eight institutions and the results were eventually analyzed in the context of the set objectives. The consultant did engage some individuals, considered useful, for clarifications and verifications on certain issues.The general expectation is the CTA will be provided with quality data and information for its programme development. Thus, appropriate strategies and an operational framework for the delivery of information products, services and initiatives for agricultural and rural development in Grenada will be served.The findings as they relate to needs seem to suggest that the absence of a strategy and policy on information and communication management in the agricultural and rural development arena is the source of many of the identified problems and shortcomings. Although there are serious problems of how information is used, there are positive elements within many of the institutions which can be developed. However, the findings suggest that institutions believe that greater effectiveness and efficiency will be achieved should there be a central unit for the management of information and communication management in the sector under review. One of the very bright spots is the degree to which telecommunications infrastructure is developed in Grenada; the unfortunate reality is how so little use is being made of it in agricultural and rural development drives.The government-based institutions strongly expressed the need for more timely and adequate disbursements of finances. In the non-governmental-organization's realm, shortage of financing was seen as a serious problem in the delivery of its programmes.The success of the implementation of the recommendations rests on the creation of a central information and communication management unit which will be required to operate and be guided by a well-defined strategy and policy framework for information and communication management for agricultural and rural development in Grenada. The effort will be further enhanced by the adequate and timely financial infusions by Government for capital and recurrent budgetary needs. The more financial and strategic assistance rendered to the nongovernmental community, the more vibrant and sustainable the interventions recommended would be.The recommendations touch on institutional strengthening needs and information needs required for general day to day programme implementation.According to the responsible CTA Operational Department Development of a sectoral policy and strategy framework 1. Development of a sectoral policy and strategy for information communication and technology management. Creation of an information management unit 2. Develop an agricultural information centre but incorporating the Registry within the Ministry of Agriculture and the statistical functions of the Agricultural Planning Unit. An organized and coordinated system for the collection, analysis, interpretation, storage and dissemination of technical and development-related agricultural and rural data and information 3. Evaluate existing competencies and practices and determine cost effective ways in which this objective could be reached while satisfying the needs of both governmental and non-governmental data and information needs. 4. Determine the manpower requirements (quantity and quality considerations) and the financial requirements to establish and set up the system. 5. Examine and determine the effectiveness, efficacy and efficiency of a computerized system into which all stakeholders can tap into. 6. Determine ways in which the capacity for the processes of collection and information dissemination can be improved. Increased awareness of the utility (value) of information in programme planning and implementation 7. Conduct a critical and objective study as to what factors can contribute to the perceived low value attached to information and offer approaches and methodologies for the correction of that deficiency. Broader appreciation of and for the extensive possibilities of information technologies in institutional strengthening 8. Capacity building initiatives that will touch on (a) training in and exposure to the capabilities of commonly used information communication technologies (b) how those ICTs can contribute to institutional efficiencies and (c) forging relationships between the pursuit of this objective and recommendations 3 -6. Improved capacity for the production and use of newsletters, fact sheets, brochures, DVDs, posters etc. for training, extension and general information sharing 9. Determine the required initiatives for the improvement in capacity including training and equipment needs 10. Methodologies and approaches in the programming and implementation of new initiatives in the use of those information and educational aids.According to the responsible CTA department Arrangements for the accessing of trade and market information 11. Assist with the identification and accessing of a continuous and reliable flow of information at the most cost effective price. More institutional strengthening initiatives directed at non-governmentalorganizations 12. A survey to determine, quantify and cost the innovations for institutional strengthening 13. Assist the non-governmental-organizations to source technical and other forms of support for the strengthening of their institutions' capacity. Development of natural agricultural resources management systems 14. Look at the existing Geographic Information System within the Land Use Division of the Ministry of Agriculture to determine if and how it can be used to serve the demands of Forestry, Fisheries and Agriculture or recommend other modality. Improved capacity to use information technology and knowledge of economics to generate cost of production models for crops 15. Design and develop a simple, interactive and computer-friendly system for calculating cost of production budgets for the major crops in the Extension Division's Programme. 16. Train a cadre of Extension Officers to use the programme and understand and interpret the results. INFORMATION NEEDS Improved access to institutional enhancement information and information for basic programme implementation 17. Most of the needs identified here can be dealt with as one-off short term consultancies.1. The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) which was established under the Lome Convention between the ACP (African, Pacific, Caribbean) States and the European Community (EC) members continues its existence within the 2000 ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement.2. The CTA's purpose is two-fold. It is intended to provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development and, also, to strengthen the ACP's capacity to produce, acquire exchange and use that type of information in its rural and agricultural development. In its effort to satisfy this dual purpose, CTA has developed three programmatic foci. They are: provision of an increasing range and quantity of information products and services coupled with information sources awareness enhancement activities; support for the integrated use of appropriate communications channels and activities aimed at intensifying contacts and information exchange; and the development of the ACP's capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and formulate information and communication management (ICM) strategies.3. Since 2002, the CTA has implemented these plans through three operational programmes. • Develop some baseline data to facilitate subsequent monitoring activities.These objectives are vested with a scope that supports the relevant departments with CTA to more effectively formulate and implement interventions, directly and indirectly, to benefit is existing and potential partners and beneficiaries.2. The State of Grenada comprises mainly Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique. It is located at the coordinates 12.5 degreed north and 61 degrees west and occupies an area of 133 square miles (344 square kilometers). This small Caribbean country experiences a tropical climate and receives, on average, 50 inches (1250 mm.) and 160 inches (4000 mm.) of rainfall annually in the coastal and mountainous regions respectively. It has two marked seasons -a dry season and a rainy season which corresponds roughly to the first and second halves of the calendar year respectively. The country is characterized by a rugged and steep topography.3. According to the last population census ( 2001), Grenada had a population of 103137 persons with the female population being 0.4% greater than that of the male population. Generally, the population is very youthful. In 2001, the population of school aged persons (that is up to the secondary school level) was 43% of the total population while almost 82 % of the entire population was below the age of fifty.4. Although there is no official data on population movements over time observations seem to suggest that there have been significant movements of persons from the rural areas into the urban and tourism development centres. In more recent times, the rural-urban drift has an apparent characteristic of a desperate flight by young persons from the vicious circle of rural poverty, helplessness and human degradation. In any event, the drift is unlike the historical one in which rural dwellers were attracted to the urban areas by opportunities for employment. This trend, if it continues, will deny the agricultural sector of the requisite human resources for the continued development of farm enterprises and the provision of farm labour. The 1995 Agricultural Census revealed that the average age of the farmer was 50.4 years. However, the youngest group of farmers with the least land resource and most insecure land tenureship had an average age of 35 years whereas the groups with the greatest land resource endowment had an average age ranging between 55 and 57 years.5. The country enjoys a high level of literacy. About 97% of the rural population is literate (Agricultural Census, 1995). While the population, generally, has access to telecommunications, primary education, basic health and hospital, electricity and water services, the more rural the village, the more remote the access to those utility and social services becomes.6. The nature of agriculture is defined by topography and, moreso currently, by the dictates of the real estate industry. It has been said that the topography of Grenada is the main single factor that is responsible for its agriculture being dominated by tree crops. It is possibly equally true that the profits associated with real estate business is ensuring that agricultural practice is confined to the steeper slopes and mountainous parts of the country. Between 1961 and 1995, agricultural intensity has declined significantly. For example, the area of 'farmed land' in 1995 was only 58% of that in 1961; 'forested lands' was 77% of the 1961 amount and in the categories of 'others' (pasture, swamps and wasteland), the 1995 amount was only 38% of the 1961 endowment.7. The Fisheries sector, while still demonstrating a noticeable artisanal character, has a very significant commercial element to it now. Grenada exports, on average, 10 million (Eastern Caribbean) dollars worth of fish to the U.S.A. and Martinique. The challenge for the fisheries industry would be to build a sustainable commercial-based industry within the confines of conservation requirements and poorly informed investment decisions on the part of private entrepreneurs in their acquisition of increasing numbers of fishing vessels.Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 8. Agriculture (Fisheries and Forestry included) was a significant contributor to gross domestic product, employment and as a foreign exchange earner. However, in the last thirty years, its performance has been declining in importance. According to the World Bank, agriculture's contribution, in absolute terms, to Gross Domestic Product has declined from 19. 9% (1984) to 10.1% (1994) to 9.7% (2003). Between 1984 and1994, growth in the agricultural sector averaged -0.9% annually; however, the sector registered a 21.7% annual growth in 2003. In the last decade, the only two significant foreign exchange earners in the sector have been nutmegs and mace and fish. 12. It is estimated that there are about 2200 fishers and 70 full-time local fish vendors operating in the industry. Women dominate the fish vending business on the Island. While the Southern Fishermen's Cooperative and the Soubise Fishermen's Association are relatively active fishers' organizations fisher folk are poorly organized, lacking leadership, short on development-oriented programmes and are conspicuously very loose and individualistic in their business behaviour within the sector.13. The 1995 Agricultural Census declared that there was about 9500 acres of forested lands in Grenada. In fact, between 1961 and 1995, there has been a steady and significant decline in the acreage of forested lands even though the forest has not been targeted for timber exploitation.14. Forest is important to Grenada in its role of soil and water conservation. Although the Forestry Division has been encouraging the development of private forestry, farmers have not embraced the concept wholeheartedly. The destruction of the forest wrought by the onslaught of Hurricane Ivan in 2004 hopefully would bring new emphasis to the importance of forest development to Grenada.15. The perspectives on Grenada's capacity for information and communication management are founded on the information obtained via the interviews conducted.16. The acquired evidence suggests that within the organizations interviewed, among the management level there is an appreciation of the role of information and communication management (information collection, packaging, dissemination and feedback mechanisms) in programme and project implementation. However, enough deliberate and conscious thought is not brought to bear on the use of information and communication management in the planning and implementation stages of the various work programmes. This shortcoming is attributed to the absence of any clear policy and well-thought out strategies for the incorporation of information and communication management in the work programmes and projects of the various institutions.17. The recent commissioning of 'Television Grenada Information Service' offers a potential conduit through which agricultural and rural programming for development could occur. However, the quiet thought and fear among interviewees is that the creation of this government-funded information outfit was not done with that type of programming in mind and any accommodation would, most likely, be incidental.18. There are institutions that own or have access to basic information technology and possess some trained personnel. However, the consensus is that there is not sufficiently trained staff (in numbers and quality).It is also the contention that in instances where existing staff can more adequately be used, financial and other institutional constraints prevent this from happening.19. There is a Communication Unit within the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (MoALFF); however, there is no dedicated information unit. Some of the technical divisions do limited publications of technical reports, small brochures, fact sheets and newsletters. The significantly larger jobs are generally done at the Government Printery but occasionally are contracted to private publishing houses. The Agency of Rural Transformation (ART), a non-government organization, does most of its publishing in-house, notwithstanding its meager financial and equipment endowment.Data Collection and Management 20. None of the interviewed institutions has a formal statistical unit; however, each one is involved in the conduct of some form of data collection and data analysis. Generally, it is felt that data collection and data analysis could be improved and made more reliable, if staff is better trained and greater consistency is built into the collection system.Extension Services 21. The Extension Services within the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (MoALFF) are of the notion that their delivery capacity could be vastly improved if a number of basic constraints can be removed or, at least, relaxed. Some of the constraints alluded to are:• improved staffing (numbers and quality);• budgetary support;• Communication Unit should be returned to the Extension Division;• implement its planned annual programmes; and,• a better array of communications equipment.22. The institutions which were interviewed access information through personal, informal and formal links.The sources used depend on the information and relationships the user may have developed with those centres of information. Table 2.4 is a presentation of the institutions interviewed and their sources of information. 23. It is significant to observe that the sources of information can be considered to be the traditional ones that have arisen because, in the main, technical and institutional relationships have so dictated. Strikingly absent is an acknowledgement of non-traditional sources and while there was evidence of their use the interviewee did not consciously recognize it as an information source. It is noteworthy that, with the limited exception of the Southern Fishermen's Association, the interviewees did not recognize the beneficiaries of their products and services as information sources.24. Increasingly, the internet is being used as a source of information. However, some institutions have not had their connections restored since the passage of Hurricanes Ivan and Emily. Many of the managers who suffered as a result continue to use their personal connections to access information.25. All of the institutions, except the Southern Fishermen's Association, indicated that they had some knowledge of CTA. Many of them attested to using CTA as an information source at times. Very popular among those institutions is the magazine, SPORE'. Two of the interviewed institutions indicated that they were the recipients of assistance from CTA in the form of books, communication equipment and information management training.26. Generally, although information was being used by the various institutions for programme planning and implementation purposes; it appeared that they had no deliberate approach to the sourcing of information and an informed methodology for its use. In instances in which the approach was more structured and planned it was done by individual officers who had developed an appreciation for information management and not necessarily as a response to the institution's policy or direction on information management.27. The findings are summarized and presented in Table 3.0. The most important elements in the table address (a) the major programmes and projects for implementation in 2006, (b) some of the constraints that continue to impede or frustrate implementation efforts (c) the form in which the institutions require information and (d) the initiatives, information packages and other institutional strengthening requirements for greater effectiveness in programme implementation over time.28. The findings herein are considered to be generally an accurate representation of the information needs and constraints to programme implementation in the agricultural and rural sector. A synopsis of the information needs is offered under five broad headings.• Policy advice and development;• Resource needs assessments; and,• Project documents.• Status reports on endangered and threatened species;• Impact assessment reports;• Water analysis reports; and,• Register of ecosystems and cultural land marks.• Full reports;• Pest assessment reports;• Field activity reports;• Business performance reports; and,• Audit and financial reports.• Cost of production studies and data;• Production Techpaks; and,• Register of fishing crafts.• Appropriately prepared fact sheets;• Slides, DVDs, posters and other public awareness aids; and,• Microscope-generated material and photographs.29. It must be noted that both the Pest Management Unit and the Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries have demonstrated a keener appreciation for information use in their programming.30. The Agency for Rural Transformation (ART), a non-governmental organization, was the only institution interviewed which provided evidence of having worked their programmes over the last three years from a previously developed five year plan. It is about to put in train activities for the formulation of its next five year plan.31. The Agricultural Extension Division was particularly interested in having cost of production data and market information. Both itself, Forestry Division and Livestock Division expressed the need for information on the experiences of other small states and how they use information in community and stakeholder extension activities 32. Understandably, the formats desired by the different institutions for the packaging of their information are directly related to the nature of their activities as defined in their programmes. Interestingly, the institutions like Agricultural Extension, Forestry, Livestock, Pest Management Unit and the Agency for Rural Transformation (ART) emphasized very strongly stakeholder-oriented information formats. 36. There are four critically important defining features of the nature of information management as captured in the findings. First, the implementation of programmes and projects within agriculture continues to occur in the absence of a structured national agricultural plan. Second, the role of information and information management does not feature as a deliberate construct in the planning and implementation of programmes. Third, except in a very small number of cases, there is an apparent lack of awareness on the part of workers within the institutions regarding the power of information in programme management. Fourthly, none of the interviewed institutions could have boasted of having an information management desk, more so, an information management unit.37. The capacity building needs for the interviewed institutions are presented in Table 3.0. However, some of the more important and common ones are briefly discussed hereunder.38. All of the government-based institutions reported that inadequate and untimely financial disbursements impeded the implementation of initiatives aimed at institutional strengthening. The Agency for Rural Transformation (ART), while in a position of knowing what it needs to do seems to be very limited in its ability to attract grant funds to pursue its programme of institutional strengthening.39. In numerous cases, the institutions lacked the in-house human capacity on which to build a solid capacity platform for the accommodation of information management competencies. Many of the government-based institutions lamented the inability of its staff to comfortably work with Microsoft.40. None of the interviewed institutions claimed to have had an information unit. Although within the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (MoALFF) exists a registry; the senior officers strongly opined that the human resource currently resident in that office neither had the willingness to be trained into performing relevant information management functions for development nor the basic skills on which to build the competences required.41. The gathered evidence also suggests that most of the institutions are impoverished with regards to the techniques in information identification needs, collection of that type of information, methodologies for analysis, presentation and storage and the actual expertise in the management of the relevant systems.42. The training of workers within the various institutions in basic data collection, analysis and interpretation was a highlight of the findings. The Fisheries Division thought that more specifically that that kind of socioeconomic data and its management was important to it in its efforts to understand and formalize fisheries rights among the participants in the seine fishing sub-sector on the western sea coast of Grenada.43. The case was also made by many of the interviewed institutions for the development of management of reliable and secure data systems that had a high reproducible capability. Naturally, they all emphasized the need for training in order to achieve acceptable levels of management of such information and data systems.44. There was a general appreciation for the strengthening of the various institutions' capacity to assist in the development of groups such as farmer organizations, fisher organizations and even community groups involved in areas of forestry development. Existing groups such as the Southern Fishermen's Association stood to benefit institutionally.45. This section endeavours to establish the degree to which the information and communications problems identified among the interviewed institutions confirm with the experiences of the CTA. It also points to what is required indirectly in order to remove or relax the constraints impeding the employment of information management practices and technologies in agricultural and rural development.  • All considered to be extremely serious problems. Must be removed in order to effectively benefit from agricultural and rural development programmes 46. The limited demand and poor appreciation of the role of information management and information technology in agricultural programme planning and implementation is associated with the absence of policy and strategy directions. While, generally, training remains a serious concern its relevance and utility are not appreciated because it is seen and conducted, oftentimes, in an environment lacking focus, purpose, follow-up and the technological means through which to realize its applications.47. Again, the inadequacy of trained personnel, alluded to by the institutions interviewed, bears a strong relationship to the very absence of that required policy and strategy framework. The fact that the existing institutional arrangements do not cater to the accommodation of new initiatives in information management and information skills acquisition ensures the persistence of the 'status quo'. This situation is further compounded by the negative institutional attitude to change. This is often characterized by an expression of the urgent need for institutional restructuring but an even stronger expression of internal financial inability or too much dependence on external funding or programmatically institutional restructuring is not accorded the priority expected or a combination of some or all of the above.48. The information needs have been detailed in Table 3.0. However, this section will briefly highlight the information needs reported by the interviewed institutions with the greatest frequency. Additionally, the needs that speak to institutional enhancement will be highlighted, that is, those that confirm to the issue of 'difficult to find' and the basic information requirements for the reasonable implementation of institutions' programmes.• Information policy and strategy advice; • Quarantine management systems (Pest Management Unit); and, • Fish market access (Fisheries Division, Southern Fishermen's Association).Capacity Building Needs 49. The capacity building needs expressed by the interviewed institutions are contained in Table 3.0. However, some are highlighted hereunder.• Development of a sectoral information policy and strategy framework;• Creation of an information management unit;• An organized coordinated system for the collection, analysis, interpretation, storage and dissemination of technical and development-related agricultural and rural data; • Increased awareness of the utility (value) of information in programme planning and implementation; • Broader appreciation of the extensive possibilities of information technologies in institutional strengthening; • Improved capacity for the production and use of newsletters, fact sheets, brochures, DVDs, posters etc.) for training, extension and general information sharing; • Arrangements for the accessing of trade and market information;• More institutional strengthening initiatives for non-governmental organizations;• Development of natural agricultural resources management systems; and, • Capacity to use information technology and economics knowledge to generate cost of production studies for crops.50. The CTA's beneficiaries and partners are chosen from the institutions and organizations presented below:• Farmers' Organizations, women groups, trade unions, consumer groups and training institutions;  The degree of complementarity with CTA's programmesDuring the last four years, this department has devoted significant resources to poor resource farmers and women through its food security programme.One of its main thrusts is to train young and resource poor farmers in crop production methods.Significant emphasis on crop production and small scale processing.Poor landless livestock farmers are important and significant clients.Efforts are being made to form poor livestock farmers into groups.Much emphasis is paid to supplement protein requirements in the rural home.In addition to other sectors, work with many poor seine fishers and women vendors.Strong links with women (98% of its vendor clientele is women).Works hard to improve market space and sanitation for fish cleaners and vendors.The level of financial and/or technical contribution to the ventureThe ability to deliver the services in a timely and effective mannerThe ability to maintain service after CTA's exitEffective programme planning would ensure optimal use of resources.Obviously, the households benefit from programmesDelivery can be improved significantly if staffing levels are improved. More capacity building.Generally, continued formalization of those services in regular programming will help this effort.Receives budgetary support from Government.Same as above. Focused programming will improve delivery.Formalization of services into Division's work programme will improve status.Receives an annual financial allocation from Government Households benefit.Capacity building required Formalization of services into Division's programme will improve status.The relevance of the partner's work to resource-poor farmersThe degree of complementarity with CTA's programmesSince its implementation of its communitybased forestry programme and the Dry Forest Project, poor resource farmers and youths have become a feature in the division's stakeholder population.Its advocacy role and some of its programme objectives suggest that.Pest Management Unit (PMU)The unit works directly with poor resource farmers, homeowners and female hucksters. This is satisfied via its connection with agricultural and rural home owners.Agency for Rural Transformation (ART)All its programmes are involving poor resource farmers, women and youths.Representation of those groups is the heart of its programmes.The level of financial and/or technical contribution to the ventureThe ability to deliver the services in a timely and effective manner The relevance of the partner's work to resourcepoor farmersThe degree of complementarity with CTA's programmesMost of its membership and business patrons are poor fishermen, women and youths.Its membership is characterized by poor resource endowment, young male fishers and female vendors.Greater complementarity is possible but programmes have to be re-focused and new ones introduced.The level of financial and/or technical contribution to the ventureThe likelihood of a multiplier effectThe ability to deliver the services in a timely and effective mannerThe ability to maintain service after CTA's exit Southern Fishermen's Association Serious attention must be devoted to financial planning and budgeting.Mechanisms needed for delivery are required for greater effectiveness.The capacity has to be built to achieve greater results.51. Table 4.2 presents the recommendations for capacity building in the information and communication management arena in Grenada. The successful implementation of those recommendations is firmly grounded in the central need for, at least, the formulation and implementation of a sectoral information policy and strategy for the management of agricultural and rural information and technology management. The CTA department with responsibility for implementation is also presented.Table 4.2 Capacity building and information needs and their corresponding recommendations for GrenadaDevelopment of a sectoral policy and strategy for information communication and technology management. Creation of an information management unit Develop an agricultural information centre but incorporating the Registry within the Ministry of Agriculture and the statistical functions of the Agricultural Planning Unit. An organized and coordinated system for the collection, analysis, interpretation, storage and dissemination of technical and development-related agricultural and rural data and information Evaluate existing competencies and practices and determine cost effective ways in which this objective could be reached while satisfying the needs of both governmental and non-governmental data and information needs. Determine the manpower requirements (quantity and quality considerations) and the financial requirements to establish and set up the system. Examine and determine the effectiveness, efficacy and efficiency of a computerized system into which all stakeholders can tap into. Determine ways in which the capacity for the processes of collection and information dissemination can be improved.Conduct a critical and objective study as to what factors can contribute to the perceived low value attached to information and offer approaches and methodologies for the correction of that deficiency.Capacity building initiatives that will touch on (a) training in and exposure to the capabilities of commonly used information communication technologies (b) how those ICTs can contribute to institutional efficiencies and (c) forging relationships between the pursuit of this objective and recommendations 3 -6. Improved capacity for the production and use of newsletters, fact sheets, brochures, DVDs, posters etc. for training, extension and general information sharing Determine the required initiatives for the improvement in capacity including training and equipment needs Methodologies and approaches in the programming and implementation of new initiatives in the use of those information and educational aids.Assist with the identification and accessing of a continuous and reliable flow of information at the most cost effective price.A survey to determine, quantify and cost the innovations for institutional strengthening Assist the non-governmental-organizations to source technical and other forms of support for the strengthening of their institutions' capacity.Look at the existing Geographic Information System within the Land Use Division of the Ministry of Agriculture to determine if and how it can be used to serve the demands of Forestry, Fisheries and Agriculture or recommend other modality. Improved capacity to use information technology and knowledge of economics to generate cost of production models for crops Design and develop a simple, interactive and computer-friendly system for calculating cost of production budgets for the major crops in the Extension Division's Programme. Train a cadre of Extension Officers to use the programme and understand and interpret the results. INFORMATION NEEDS Improved access to institutional enhancement information and information for basic programme implementation Most of the needs identified here can be dealt with as one-off short term consultancies.52. The most important capacity building needs recommendations are those that address the requirement for a sectoral policy and strategy for information, communication and technology management. The other equally important recommendation is the need to develop an agricultural information centre (system) that will function to serve the entire agricultural and rural space in information collection, analysis, interpretation, publication, and cataloguing, storage and dissemination.Table 4. Additionally, they are clustered and presented to indicate in which of the CTA's departments they will find relevance. Those recommendations, generally, respond to the felt needs for information management, public awareness support and technical enhancement interventions in the areas of information products, technology and training.54. An argument can be made for the inclusion of all the interviewed institutions as partners and beneficiaries from an association with the CTA. However, the consultant has prioritized the levels of association based on the institutions capacity to absorb assistance, given their current resource endowment and secondly, their ability to sustain the benefits, given a CTA exit.55. Priority 1 comprises institutions which are best endowed in the Grenadian environment to absorb and best sustain the results of implemented recommendations. Priority 2 comprises institutions that can achieve similar levels like the institutions in priority 1 if their human resource endowment is improved qualitatively. Finally, priority 3 comprises institutions that are in greatest need of technical assistance but are worst situated institutionally to accept the assistance and sustain its benefits. CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area. CTA's programmes are organised around three principal activities: providing an increasing range and quantity of information products and services and enhancing awareness of relevant information sources; supporting the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensifying contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and developing ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate information and communication management (ICM) strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. These activities take account of methodological developments in cross-cutting issues (gender, youth, information & communication technologies -ICTs, and social capital), findings from impact assessments and evaluations of ongoing programmes as well as priority information themes for ACP agriculture 1 .In January 2002, CTA's Strategic Plan (2001-2005) was implemented and CTA's activities were distributed among three operational programme areas / departments:Communication Channels and ServicesThese operational departments are supported by Planning Corporate Services (P&CS) which is charged with the methodological underpinning of their work and monitoring the ACP environment in order to identify emerging issues and trends and make proposals for their translation into programmes and activities. This current exercise, therefore, falls within the mandate of P&CS.2. Background A comprehensive regional information needs assessment was undertaken in the Caribbean region, by CTA and the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), over the period 1995-1997. This study detailed the information needs, habits and priorities, of eleven sub-groups of users relevant to the agricultural and rural development sector, presented in sixteen national reports and a regional overview. The results of the studies were followed by a series of national consultations, missions and regional meetings, as well as pilot studies in information and communications management all aimed at arriving at or designing a strategy to meet information needs within the sector. The strategy proposed the development of a Caribbean Agricultural Information Service (CAIS) with a two pronged approach to improving access to information within the Caribbean region:Working with institutions at the national level to improve capacity in various aspects of information and communication management (e.g. network development, training, sensitisation).Developing information products and services to meet specific information needs identified.The CAIS strategy has been implemented since 2001. A number of capacity building exercises were executed including workshops and training courses; provision of technical assistance; network development, policies and systems. Since the implementation of this strategy in 2001, there have also been a number of changes within institutions in the region with respect to their awareness and use of information and communications tools and technologies.CTA works primarily through intermediary organisations and partners (non-governmental organisations, farmers' organisations, regional organisations, …) to promote agriculture and rural development. Through partnerships, CTA hopes to increase the number of ACP organisations capable of generating and managing information and developing their own information and communication management strategies. The identification of appropriate partners is therefore of primordial importance.The \"Evaluation of the Implementation of the Mid-Term Plan (1997 -2000)\" emphasised the need for CTA to develop a more pro-active approach and elaborate criteria for decision-making with regard to the choice of partner organisations and beneficiaries. Based on this evaluation, the \"Strategic Plan and Framework for Action -2001 -2005\" identifies strategic issues for CTA being: improved targeting (including partnerships and beneficiaries), geographical coverage, decentralisation, regionalisation and thematic orientation. The Plan also expresses concern about: the extent to which CTA's activities are relevant to and reach the poor, gender awareness and how to identify potential partners especially in the independent sectors.Besides partner identification and selection issues, the observation has also been made that, the Caribbean region could benefit further from CTA's programme and activities. Finally, various national and regional partners with whom CTA has had a long-standing relationship have requested the current study which would serve to update the earlier studies done and allow them to provide more targeted assistance to their beneficiaries.The objectives of the study are as follows:to identify agricultural information needs of key actors / beneficiaries for CTA products and services; to identify needs of potential actors / beneficiaries of CTA activities and services in terms of building capacity for information and communication management; to identify potential partners / beneficiaries for CTA activities and services; to develop some baseline data to facilitate subsequent monitoring activities.The study should assist the three operational departments of the CTA as well as its local representatives to improve and better target interventions and activities aimed at potential partners and beneficiaries (including women, youth, private sector and civil society organisations); to have a more informed picture of their needs and aid in the elaboration of a strategy and framework of action. The study should also highlight where there are specific needs for CTA's products and services thereby enabling improvement in the delivery of the same.The consultant will use a combination of qualitative and quantitative rapid appraisal methods including: the desk review of available literature and information sources including the findings of programme evaluations; the conduct of face-to-face interviews with relevant stakeholders / concerned parties; the limited use of questionnaires.The rapid appraisal approach will allow a general overview of the key issues and company / organisational profiles on a per country 2 basis and may give rise to more in-depth studies as and when needed in the future.During the studies, monitor and provide technical assistance to the local consultants Review preliminary country reports and findings and send comments back to local consultants Coordinate and ensure consistency of country reports Prepare the overall report taking into account the findings and recommendations of all the Caribbean country reports (table of contents to be agreed).Respect all the timeframe as specified in Annex IV (regarding submission of reports) Attend briefing meeting in Trinidad Familiarise themselves with background documents received from CTA; including the Terms of Reference Undertake desk study and prepare country profile, list of institutions involved in agriculture as well as preliminary list of select institutions. Undertake field visits in country specified in the contract Conduct interviews and gather information in country specified in the contract Draft preliminary country reports and send to Regional Coordinator for initial comments Based on comments received from Coordinator, revise country reports and send draft final report to CTA within the specified timeframe Finalise country reports based on comments and observations received from CTA and send final report back to CTAAssist in the identification and vetting of Local Consultants Provide input and feedback for the Terms of Reference Provide backstopping for the Regional Coordinator Liaise with CTA and Regional Coordinator throughout the study On receipt of the draft and final reports give comments and observations to the Regional Coordinator with copy directly to CTA 14 Role of CTA Draw up initial Terms of Reference and prepare relevant background documents Appoint the Regional Coordinator and the ACP Local Consultants Attend briefing meeting of consultants Liaise with CARDI and Regional Coordinator throughout the study Invite the Regional Coordinator and Local Consultants for Briefing Meeting Provide input to the Regional Coordinator with regard to fine-tuning terms of reference, questionnaires, interview guide and reporting guidelines for the consultants Provide relevant background documents to the Local Consultants & Regional Coordinator Elaborate budget and discuss contractual obligations with the Team of consultants & Regional Coordinator Pay invoices for services rendered in a timely manner on condition that all payment conditions are fulfilled Overall responsibility for the supervision and implementation of the studies Bear the agreed costs of expenditure in respect of the study (economy class return tickets to Trinidad, hotel accommodation and subsistence allowances during briefing meeting, or during agreed and specified field visits) Provide feedback and comments on draft country reports to the Local Consultants Give feedback to the Regional Coordinator on the overall report for the Caribbean.II.1.1 Size of agricultural population (male/female/youth) From the table above, in 1995, 62% of the rural population was between the ages of 14 and 39 while 18% was between the ages of 50 and 70. If we were to make the simplistic assumption that over the last ten years only age changed; then in 2005, 63% of that same population would occupy the age range of 24 and 49 while 26% will occupy the range of 50 and 80. One of the very clear conclusions is that the farm population is aging and this may present implications for how receptive or unreceptive the farm population is to new information and whether, or not, its information needs are changing as it ages. Another pertinent issue that arises is the extent to which the experiences of Hurricanes Ivan and Emily have influenced those who have remained in the agricultural industry and can the dissemination of new information persuade those who have left, or intend to leave, to return or remain? But, what is known about the farmer? The Agricultural Census of 1995 concluded, given its definition of a farmer, that there were 11781 farmers. The average age of the farmer in 1995 was given as 50.4 years. The landless farmer was the youngest group of farmers. The landless farmer was about 20 years younger than the medium sized farmer 3 and the large farmer 4 but 14 years younger than the small farmer. 5   Table II There are about 760 fishing crafts with 60% of those boats being owned by fishermen. Seine net fishing is diminishing in importance. However, this type of fishing provides the bulk of bait for the long-line fishing industry. Most of that type of fishing is conducted on the Western Coast and involves about one hundred and fifty (150) fisher folks. There are nearly seventy (70) vendors involved on a full time basis in the industry with about 98% being women.All the major fishing centres are equipped with fish markets or fish storage facilities of varying standards. These facilities serve mainly the domestic market while the three major fish exporters have their own facilities.The stock of boats and other fisheries facilities have been significantly rehabilitated since the passage of Hurricanes Ivan and Emily due to strategic resource infusions by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).Eight agricultural systems are identified based mainly on the type of agricultural enterprise(s), scale of operation, the destination of the outputs and the mode of marketing the outputs.The Vegetable and Food Crops Agricultural System The vegetable and food crops system is operated in a private sector environment with their attendant characteristics. Mainly small individual farmers are involved in the production aspect. However, some of them participate in the distribution and marketing system especially at the town and village markets and the hotel and restaurant. It appears that more and more the small farmer is assuming a greater marketing role in pursuit, albeit, of higher levels of profits. The Market and National Importing Board (MNIB) is a major purchaser of vegetables and food crops from farmers for distribution to both the ordinary household consumer and increasingly the upscale local market.The huckster or trafficker's trade to Trinidad and Tobago was once a very significant channel to the lucrative market in the oil-rich Republic. Over the years, that trade has become less and less important. The introduction of the 'Pink Mealy Bug' into Grenada in the early 90s was the most single important factor for the decline in the trafficker's trade in fresh agricultural produce. More recently, the increased emphasis on agricultural production in Trinidad and increased volumes from other Eastern Caribbean States have further pushed Grenada to the fringes of that trade. Hurricane Ivan in 2004 did further damage to the trafficker's trade from the Grenada end.Although the Marketing and National Importing Board (MNIB) is involved in the export of fresh farm produce most of its exports are in the form of exotic tropical fruits, hot peppers and some tubers. The destinations of those exports are Trinidad, North America and Europe.The Traditional Agricultural System This system encompasses basically the traditional export oriented crops, that is, nutmeg and mace, cocoa and banana. Sugar-cane will be included for discussion purposes. Again, all these crops are produced by private farmers. In the case of nutmegs and mace and cocoa, the producers sell their produce to the associated marketing cooperative. In the case of nutmegs and mace, the organization is called the Grenada Cooperative Nutmeg Association (GCNA) and the Grenada Cocoa Association (GCA) in the case of the other. Legally, both commodity organizations have marketing monopoly of their respective crops.The Nutmeg Agricultural System The nutmeg farmer collects the nutmeg and mace from the field. The material is then cleaned and the first level of grading is done. Women folk dominate this activity. With very minimal initial processing, the collected material is sold to the GCNA. The Cooperative then processes (grading, drying and packaging) the purchased material in preparation for the export market. Increasingly, there is a growing illegal trade in mace to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago by traffickers or hucksters.On receipt of the nutmeg and mace at the buying stations of the GCNA, the farmer is paid an 'advance price'. When the material is finally sold to the export market, if a profit is realized, the GCNA then pays a 'bonus' to the farmer to complement the previously paid out 'advance price'.In addition to these primary produce, the GCNA is involved in the production of nutmeg and mace oils. Nutmegs and mace that are graded not suitable for the fresh food market are distilled into oil and stored in drums for future distribution. While most of the nutmeg oil is exported to Europe; the greater proportion of mace oil is sold locally. Table II.1.3.3 gives a picture of production and export of nutmegs in the last four years. Please note that the nutmeg year is from May to June. Source: Grenada Cooperative Nutmeg Association II.1.3.4 The Cocoa Agricultural System The typical cocoa farmer is a small private operator with an average farm size of about half of an acre. However, the most significant producers are the large farms (averaging in size range of 25 -more than 25 acres). The farmer harvests the beans and sells to individuals who dry them and then sell them to the GCA (Grenada Cocoa Association). Once upon a time the GCA purchased all the wet cocoa from farmers and did all the processing of the beans. In the mid -nineties, in an effort to improve efficiency in the industry, the processing activities were privatized with the GCA retaining its monopoly to market the processed beans. There were about 8000 registered cocoa farmers in the pre-Ivan period; however, the number of active cocoa farmers has declined drastically as a result of the ravages of Hurricanes Ivan and Emily. According to the General Manager of the Association the acreage has declined from roughly 8000 acres to 3200 acres and that reduction is reflected in the production figures for 2005. The Table II Source: Grenada Cocoa Association II.1.3.5 The Banana Agricultural System Today, banana is no longer cultivated under a plantation production system; instead there are a few small farmers who grow bananas as one of the enterprises in their multi-cropped farming systems. In fact, the scale is so small that the banana farm output can no longer justify Grenada's presence in the export market. The farmer, with the use of casual labour, provides the workforce requirements for the banana enterprise.Banana producers generally sell their superior grades to the MNIB who ripens and sells them on the local market. Some farmers and hucksters utilize their personal transports to move throughout the island to sell green bananas on a Saturday and other market days. Increasingly, there are vendors in the rural communities who have set up stalls and offer ripe bananas to tourists. About five years ago, an attempt to establish a plantation production system of organic bananas at River Antoine was made. The plan called for the establishment of 150 acres of organic bananas which would have been sold in the United Kingdom through the Sainsbury Supermarket chain. In 2004, the organic plan was abandoned and transformed into a conventional banana production system with the acreage being scaled back to 100 acres. Hurricane Emily virtually destroyed it in July of 2005.The Sugarcane Agricultural System Sugarcane is produced mainly in the relatively dry areas of the south of the Island by small farmers. Most of these small farmers are also involved in the cultivation of vegetables and food crops and the keeping of small animal stocks. Historically, the farmer sold his/her cane to the Sugar Factory who then converted it into syrup for the distillation of rum and spirits. Since the privatization of the Sugar Factory in 2003 (before privatization Government owned 80% of the shares), it has pursued a policy of molasses and syrup importation which has led to the displacement of the local farmer. As a consequence, the scale of local production of sugarcane has declined so significantly that the major users of the raw material today are the cane juice vendors.The Non-Traditional Agricultural Production System This label came into vogue in the mid-eighties when the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) once again went in pursuit of yet another agricultural diversification drive. The term was used to include crops that offered export and other developmental opportunities but did not feature in the basket of traditional exports. It was also envisaged that farmers would become involved in the establishment of fruit tree orchards as a basic production system. In very few instances, farmers established fruit tree orchards; instead, farmers who owned even relatively large tracks of lands continued to plant fruit trees in a very scattered manner. It is the same traditional farmer, in the main, who has diversified his/her farm in an effort to spread production risks.The MNIB plays the most important role in that system as the marketing agent especially to the external markets and increasingly to the hotels and restaurants in the local space.The Livestock Agricultural System The livestock agricultural system is dominated by small producers of small ruminants, pigs, cattle and microbroiler production units. Farmers in the category of landless -1.99 acres are responsible for 41%, 49%, 59%, 70% and 78% of the total pig, chicken, cattle, sheep and goat populations respectively (Agricultural Census, 1995).The abattoir facilities are very inadequate and antiquated so that the country can not boast of the basic infrastructure for processing fresh meat of consistently acceptable sanitary conditions. This explains partially the reason for the continued reliance on imported meats for supplying the hotel and restaurant and supermarket sub-sectors. Although some locally produced meats, mainly fresh pork and chicken, are found in the supermarkets; those quantities continue to be very small.Agriculture does not occupy as important a position as it once did. The graph in this section shows the continuing declining trend of agriculture's absolute contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and value of agricultural exports. 2. In order to increase efficiency and the effectiveness of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Government will seek to re-orient and restructure the MOA so as to streamline its operations. 3. The Government would seek to establish a National Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency to enable greater interaction with international markets through facilitating safe agricultural trade, strengthening food safety systems and meeting WTO/SPS requirements. 4. The Government would engage the farming community to seek to review the legislation of the Commodity Boards so as to facilitate sustainable development of the sub-sectors. 5. Government would seek to reorient the agriculture sector to be market driven and business oriented. In that regard, the Extension Staff will be retrained to be more responsive to the needs of the sector. 6. Government would seek to establish financing facilities through which farmers can borrow funds to support commercial operations in the sector. Greater emphasis will be placed on redesigning farms to conduct commercial operations. 7. Given the high number of small non-commercial farms which comprise the agricultural sector, special arrangement would be designed to provide some support to them and to improve many to commercial status. 8. Where appropriate, the Government would continue to identify and source new varieties of plants and new breeds of livestock to increase competitiveness of the sector.\" According to the Population census of 2001, the population of Grenada was 103137 with 50.2 and 49.8 being female and male respectively. The population is very young with 57.3% of the population being under the age of thirty (30) years.The male and female distribution of the population by parish is presented below. Table II The official language of the State of Grenada is English. However, the natives commonly communicate with each other in Pidgin English. 'Pidgin English' is a rich and expressive version of English, mixed in with some French, Spanish and African words, with its own unique grammatical and idiomatic forms. According to the 1995 Agriculture Census, literacy among the agricultural population was 98%. In that study literacy was measured as one having attained the seventh grade at the primary school level.Generally, Grenada has a well developed network of roads which affords almost everyone easy access to educational, health and recreational facilities. There are fifty (50) public primary schools and twenty-one (21) private primary schools, nineteen public secondary schools and four (4) private secondary schools. At the tertiary level, there is one (1) community college and one (1) university (Educational Statistics, 2006, Statistical Department, Ministry of Education).In the area of health services, there are three (3) public hospitals and one (1) privately owned hospital, six (6) health centres and thirty-eight (38) village clinics (Telephone Directory, 2006). Nearly 97% of the population has access to pipe borne water.The Central Statistical Office does not have data on this phenomenon; however, there has been a noticeable shift of persons from the rural areas into the urban centres. While one may argue successfully that this ruralurban drift is not a new phenomenon; the characteristics of this latest shift is different from those of the past. Historically, people moved from the rural areas into the urban regions because of the employment opportunities that were present or, sometimes, perceived to have existed. The current shift is characterized by a desperate ","tokenCount":"9321"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cccb1c2e84f45a1534f0b72cab4ea0dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.cimmyt.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:11529/10548922/1","id":"301496099"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4c29907e-e86d-40ce-9de1-a2f314649121","pagecount":"2","content":"Greetings! We have come as a member of a research team to collect information on agricultural practices in Nepal Terai region. This study is conducted by the non-profit organization, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). We would like to give a brief introduction about our work before asking you whether you are willing to participate. In this project, we will be assessing the current agricultural practices, perceptions and characteristics of farm households. We are particularly interested in technology adoption in cereal crops. The information collected through this survey will be very important for policymakers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in Nepal to be able to make better-informed decisions. While there are no immediate benefits to you from participating in this study, your responses may contribute by providing more information on the farming scenario of the country, thereby helping modify the national policies from which you may also benefit in the future.If you participate in this study, you will be asked questions about your household's agricultural operations and some additional household information. This will take about 10 minutes of your time. You or other household members will not be exposed to any risks by participating in this study. All information about your household will be kept strictly confidential. You or other household members will not be personally identified in any study report or publication or with anyone in this village or anyone who works with you. Data may be shared with other CIMMYT researchers, but we are committed to ensuring absolute confidentiality. Participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose to participate, you have the right to stop at any time or opt not to answer individual questions in the questionnaire. There will be no consequences for you. You may ask any questions you have about the study. If you have questions later, they can be directed to Dr. Vijesh Krishna, Agricultural Economist, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico.III. Had the household in the last 12 months (in any of their cultivated plots):Ever? If ever adopted, did so in last 12 months? ","tokenCount":"344"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4176f6ba99a25cec989bcf74074d79fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cf7dc0cf-1fbe-4ac4-b237-dfdd3355b1b3/retrieve","id":"1913840875"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7c205c5b-cbac-4d1c-b265-28f3d2aa67ae","pagecount":"2","content":"Power imbalance between farming communities and decision makers is often a key issue in the process of fostering change in rural systems. Rainwater management interventions in Ethiopia have historically been top--down without due regard to the needs, aspirations, constraints and livelihood realities faced by farming communities. Participatory video (PV) has been used in a range of contexts to give voice to local communities. The passing of the camera to community members can yield positive dividends through development of a community driven product --the finished film. However, the process itself can also empower communities and act as a catalyst for change at local level. In the NBDC projects we are using PV to capture baseline perspectives of local communities on the key challenges to rainwater management. We aim to follow up with further PV exercises as the project progresses as a way of connecting local communities to local innovation platforms. We anticipate that the use of film will bring additional energy to such platforms and help to redress power imbalances between communities and decision makers at local level. In this session we will share our initial work with participatory video to capture local perspectives on rainwater management issues and discuss how this tool could be used in the future as a monitoring and learning tool, as well as for stimulating discussion between stakeholders at various levels, and potentially across CPWF basins.","tokenCount":"230"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f52948be3e2f8ea253791265cf4b94d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/94bab151-ac33-44d2-a038-edf4e904b3ae/retrieve","id":"-1127791064"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"633b422a-73cd-4560-af90-468881f165c6","pagecount":"44","content":"Prediction of the impact of climate change on coffee and mango growing areas in Haiti. FullList of GCMs used in this study. Table 2.List of derived bioclimatic variables used as environmental factors Table 3.Harvested areas of diversification crops in Haiti (areas in hectares). Table 4.Land availability for agricultural production intersected with soil capacity in Haiti.1 1. Executive summary and main findingsThe potential impact of climate change on agricultural crop production varies spatially and depends on crop specific biophysical constraints. For selecting the environmental factors we apply a climate-only approach because climatic variables are expected to change substantially over the modeled time period and generally accepted future projections are available.Bioclimatic variables (BC) are often used in ecological niche modeling and they represent annual trends, seasonality and extreme or limiting environmental factors. For the current climate (baseline) we used monthly data from the WorldClim (WC) database sourced from global weather stations. For future climates, we used the Global circulation models (GCM) with short-mid-& long-term predictions. We acknowledge the uncertainty of climate predictions and the differences between the GCMs used for the modelling. We used 19 different GCMs in our study and produced final maps showing descriptive statistics of different predictions on a pixel basis.We reviewed several crop suitability models before deciding upon the most appropriate model to use in the analysis. Maximum entropy (Maxent) is a niche modeling method that has been developed involving species distribution information based only on known presences. Maxent is the most adapted model to use for coffee and mango. To identify adequate diversification options for coffee farmers we analyzed crop-climate-suitability of selected crops from current agricultural portfolios of Haiti. We selected these crops based on their importance to food security and livelihood income as well as on crops recently adopted by development organizations. We compared climatesuitable area-outcomes with a land availability-index for agriculture production and extracted spatial statistics from the climate-suitability layers based on the 5 landavailability layers using a Geographical Information System (GIS).L'impact potentiel du changement climatique sur la production des cultures agricoles varie dans l'espace et dépend des contraintes biophysiques spécifiques à chaque culture. Pour sélectionner les facteurs environnementaux nous appliquons une approche centrée sur le climat car les variables climatiques devraient changer de manière substantielle sur la période de temps modélisée et des projections futures globalement acceptées sont disponibles.Les variables bioclimatiques (BC en anglais) sont souvent utilisées dans la modélisation de niche écologique. Elles représentent les tendances annuelles, la saisonnalité, les facteurs limitant et les conditions extrêmes. Pour le climat actuel (ligne de base) nous avons utilisé des données mensuelles de la base de données WorldClim (WC) provenant de stations météorologiques globales.Pour les climats futurs, nous avons utilisé des modèles de circulation générale (GCM en anglais) avec des prévisions à court, moyen et long terme. Nous mentionnons l'incertitude des prévisions climatiques et des différences entre les GCM utilisés pour la modélisation. Nous avons utilisé 19 différents GCM dans notre étude et produit les cartes finales montrant les statistiques descriptives de différentes prévisions, sur la base du pixel.Nous avons revu plusieurs modèles d'aptitude climatique pour les cultures avant de décider lequel était le plus approprié à utiliser dans cette étude. L'entropie maximum (Maxent) est une méthode de modélisation de niche écologique qui a été développée en associant l'information de distribution des espèces uniquement aux sites de présence connus. Maxent est le modèle le plus adapté pour le café et la mangue. Pour identifier les options de diversification les plus adéquates pour les producteurs de café nous avons analysé l'aptitude climatique pour les cultures sélectionnées à partir du portefeuille agricole actuel de Haïti. Nous avons sélectionné ces cultures en se basant sur leur importance pour la sécurité alimentaire et les revenus générés ainsi que sur les cultures récemment adoptées par les organisations de développement. Nous avons comparé les résultats des zones climatiques aptes avec un index de disponibilité du sol pour la production agricole. En utilisant un système d'information géographique (GIS en anglais), nous avons extrait des statistiques spatiales à partir des couches d'aptitudes climatiques et des 5 couches de disponibilités du sol.According to the ensemble of the 19 Global Circulation Models (GCM) temperature in Haiti will increase an average of 0.9°C in 2020 and 1.8°C by 2050. The average temperature of the hottest month will increase from 30.9°C to 32.9°C by 2050 and the driest month is projected to get 10% less rainfall. Overall the climate is expected to become more seasonal in terms of variability through the year in temperature and more seasonal in precipitation. Although rainfall decrease is generally moderate in all future predictions, this combined with increasing minimum, mean and maximum temperatures can cause water deficits due to higher evapotranspiration rates of plants triggering soil water deficits and heat stresses. Increased temperature stresses and in particular high night time temperatures (> 18 °C) and drought conditions have substantial effects on biomass production and the reproductive stages of several plants and crops.The altitude of coffee plantation in Haiti ranges between 400 meters in the North to 1,300 meters in the South. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will cause a general decrease of areas suitable for coffee and reduce areas which currently possess high suitability. Suitability will climb up altitudinal gradients to currently cooler climates. Models predict that coffee will lose suitability in lower altitudes (up to 1200 meters above sea level) and will gain suitability in higher areas with a maximum suitability between 1500m.a.s.l. and 1800m.a.s.l. in 2050. Changing climatic conditions in Haiti could lower the quality and yields of current coffee producing regions and this is likely to be most prevalent in lower-altitude zones. Furthermore, economic losses in the future could ensue if adaptation efforts are not implemented.Mango will remain a highly suitable crop in many regions of Haiti. Some areas will reduce from excellent to very suitable and shift geographically from concentrated areas close the coast to inland areas with higher altitude. Altitudes from 500 to 700m.a.s.l. will benefit from increasing climate suitability mostly because of increased temperatures.  Haiti possesses excellent suitability for cocoa and is not predicted to be affected by changes from longterm climate patterns. There are still a lot of potential areas inside existing and potentially new agro-forestry systems that could be created in the future. Haiti's cocoa producers have an opportunity to benefit from an increasing global demand for cocoa production. There are many opportunities to adapt to changes and for those coffee farms whose suitability will drop but not decrease drastically, proactive adaptation is a crucial strategy. Agroforestry systems such as coffee systems are not only important as a commodity and cash income generator for smallholder but also as a provider of ecosystem services. A decrease in coffee suitability is likely going to threaten the environmental services coffee systems provide, such as soil cover, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and water storage. Therefore a key strategy needs to focus on maintaining the environmental services with a different agroforestry system. In this context cocoa is a promising option. We distinguish 3 general strategies to adapt to the change of coffee suitability. The three strategies are interlinked and will replace each other over time. Areas that will increase in suitability need strategic investment. Areas that will lose some suitability are likely to be maintained through targeted strategies such as irrigation, shade management and change to more drought resident varieties. Areas that are likely to suffer from significant decrease in suitability need to start diversifying in order to switch to different crops, such as cocoa, once coffee is not suitable any more.Il y a de nombreuses opportunités d'adaptation aux changements et, pour les fermes de production de café dont l'aptitude baissera mais ne chutera pas radicalement, l'adaptation proactive est une stratégie cruciale. Les systèmes agroforestiers, tels que les systèmes caféiers, ne sont pas seulement important en tant que source de produit de consommation et générateurs de revenus pour les petits propriétaires mais ils sont aussi fournisseurs de services écosystémiques. Une diminution de l'aptitude climatique pour le café peut mettre en danger les services ecosystémiques fournis par les systèmes caféiers tels que la couverture du sol, la séquestration de carbone, la biodiversité et le stockage d'eau. En conséquence, une stratégie clé doit chercher à maintenir les services environnementaux avec un système agro-forestier différent. Dans ce contexte le cacao est une option prometteuse. On distingueThis work is built on the ongoing activities of the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) with the aim of improving livelihoods for Haitian farmers through coffee and mango value chains in the southwestern departments of the country. In 2010, after the earthquake, CRS in collaboration with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) carried out an assessment of the current state of these value chains and provided in its final reports several recommendations to improve current production quality and quantity (Rodríguez et al. 2011, Castañeda et al. 2011). The ministry of agriculture, natural resources and rural development developed a National Agricultural Investment Plan which highlighted the agricultural sectors vital importance to not only domestic food security, but also to the economic recovery and the social stability of Haiti after the earthquake. The present study aims to contribute to the ongoing long-term strategic investments in these value-chains by predicting the impact of short-mid-& long-term climate change on coffee and mango. Further potential impacts on crops proposed to be diversification options for coffee farmers will be assessed by analyzing their climate-suitability to ensure that strategic adaptation work will be done on current and future suitable crops in Haiti.The potential impact of climate change on agricultural crop production varies spatially and depends on crop specific biophysical constraints. In Haiti, land for agriculture use extends to more than 1.7 million hectares, occupying more than 60% of the country. Conditions for agricultural production are driven by different climate patterns among other constraints like soil erosion, highly varying soil capacity and land use prevalence's. In this study selected 6 crops as diversification options for coffee farmers together make use of more than 1.4 million hectares (~80%) of agriculture land in Haiti in 2011.The main objectives carried out during this project have been: (i) reviewing and comparing methodologies for crop suitability modeling and compiling necessary information; (ii) identifying environmental factors and generating a climate database for current and future conditions; and (iii) predicting and validating current and future suitability of coffee, mango and diversifications crops in Haiti.A block diagram of the methods used is shown in Figure 1. We used the elements described below throughout the research project: To predict anticipated changes of future climate we needed to establish a baseline which we can use to compare outputs of global circulation models (GCM) with current climate conditions. These GCM's possesses a very coarse spatial resolution and it was therefore necessary to downscale them for climate change predictions on a local scale.For the current climate (baseline) we used monthly data from the WorldClim (WC) database (publicly and freely available at http://www. worldclim.org). WC provides interpolated global climate surfaces using latitude, longitude, and elevation as independent variables and represents long term  monthly means of maximum, minimum, mean temperatures and total rainfall. Input data for the WC database were sourced from global weather stations including ~47,000 weather stations with monthly information on precipitation, ~23,000 stations with mean temperature data and ~13,000 locations. Passing through a quality checking algorithm input data were finally interpolated to a 30 arc second spatial resolution, commonly referred to as '1-km' resolution (Hijmans et al. 2005).The WC data for Haiti is derived from 103 stations with precipitation recordings, 93 stations with mean temperature, and 18 stations with minimum and maximum temperatures (Figure 2). For future climates, we used the Global circulation model (GCM) outputs from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) (Solomon et al. 2007). We downloaded data from the Earth System Grid (ESG) data portal. The data portal provides many different GCM's developed by different global climate research centers (Table 1). In view of the uncertainty attached to these models in predicting future climatic conditions we used all available models evaluated through the World Climate Research Program (WCRP) in several phases of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) (Covey et al. 2003).The IPCC further provides different scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) provides scenarios based on demographic, economic, and technological driving forces within four main storylines (IPCC 2000). In this study we used the SRES-A2 scenario, it describes a heterogeneous world in which population is increasing and economic development occurs primarily at the regional scale. Economic growth and technological change are slower than in other storylines. The downloaded GCM data are formatted at a yearly temporal scale and we calculated three 30-year periods in order to represent a short-, mid-and long-term prediction of climate (2010-2039 representing 2020, 2020-2049 representing the 2030 time slice and 2040-2069 representing 2050). The spatial resolution of GCMs is too coarse to analyze the direct impacts on farmers' production (Jarvis et al. 2010). We therefore downscaled the outputs of each GCM based on the sum of interpolated anomalies to the 30 arc-second resolution (approximately 1km) of the monthly climate surfaces of WC. This method produced a smoothed, interpolated surface of changes in climates forecast derived from the particular GCMs which was then applied to the baseline climate of WC (Ramirez-Villegas & Jarvis 2010).Resulting climate surfaces for Haiti were finally compiled in a climatedatabase including the current climate from WC and downscaled future climate predictions from GCM's for the IPCC emission scenario A2. Finally we generated summary graphs of current and future climate for specific municipalities.Plant species' occurrence is not only defined however by climate variables, and exclusion of other important variables (such as soil type) may reduce the ability to assess the required environmental growing conditions (Stanton et al. 2011). Climatic variables are expected to change substantially over the modeled time period and generally accepted future projections are available, even if those projections are uncertain. We apply a climate-only approach in this research-project in order to address the projects goal of estimating the impacts of climate change on crops suitability in the study area.Bioclimatic variables (BC) are often used in ecological niche modeling and they represent annual trends, seasonality and extreme or limiting environmental factors. BC were derived from monthly temperature and rainfall values in order to generate more biologically meaningful variables (Busby 1991) following the method of Ramirez & Bueno-Cabrera ( 2009). The set of resulting covariates includes 19 bioclimatic variables (see Table 2) were used in several studies to empirically model the current and future distribution of species (Davis et al. 2012, Jarvis et al. 2012, Laderach et al. 2009, Laderach et al. 2013). We reviewed several crop suitability models before deciding upon the most appropriate model to use in the analysis. In the following a short description of each model is provided:EcoCrop (EC) is a crop niche prediction model with the same name as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Ecocrop database (FAO, 2000). The basic model uses environmental ranges as inputs to determine the main niche of a crop, and then produces an overall crop suitability as a percentage and separated suitability values for temperature and precipitation as output. EC is a very useful model for situations where evidence data available for specific crops is insufficient and one is therefore forced to use environmental ranges. The original model (Hijmans et al. 2001) was implemented in the Diva-GIS software (Hijmans et al. 2012). EC predicts crop-climate suitability using the following parameters: plant killing temperature; minimum, minimum optimum, maximum optimum and maximum temperature; minimum, minimum optimum, maximum optimum and maximum amount of rain water required; and length of growing season. The EC model is a general approach to suitability modeling, considering only temperature and rainfall as determinates of crop suitability, information on soil data and crop management are not accounted for in the model. Furthermore, the models accuracy directly depends upon the quality of expert knowledge used to set the crop parameters. Nevertheless Ramirez-Villegas et al ( 2011) extended the model providing a calibration-process of the temperature and rainfall ranges using crop presence data.Maximum entropy (Maxent) is a niche modeling method that has been developed involving species distribution information based only on known presences and is a general-purpose method for making predictions or inferences from incomplete information. Similar to logistic regression, MAXENT weighs each environmental variable by a constant. The probability distribution is the sum of each weighted variable divided by a scaling constant to ensure that the probability value ranges from 0 to 1. The information available about the target distribution often presents itself as a set of real-valued variables, called 'features', and the constraints are that the expected value of each feature should match its empirical average (\"average value for a set of sample points taken from the target distribution\", Phillips et al., 2006). Each feature, the environmental variables, gets weighted according to how much complexity it adds to the model. The probability distribution is the sum of each weighed variable divided by a scaling constant to ensure that the probability value ranges from 0 to 1. The program starts with a uniform probability distribution and works in cycles adjusting the probabilities to maximum entropy. It iteratively alters one weight at a time to maximize the likelihood of reaching the optimum probability distribution. Maxent is considered as the most accurate model performing extremely well in predicting occurrences in relation to other common approaches (Elith et al., 2006;Hijmans and Graham, 2006), especially with incomplete information. It works well with little sample sites of occurrence data and with both continuous and categorical environmental variables. Finally, sample selection bias is the biggest problem for this presence-only method.Crop Niche Selection in Tropical Agriculture CaNaSTA (O' Brien, 2004) is not a \"traditional\" niche modeling method as it uses Bayesian statistics to not only predict presence or absence of a specific crop, but also appraises its performance. Bayesian methods provide \"formalism for reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, with degrees of belief coded as numerical parameters, which are then combined according to rules of probability theory\" (Pearl, 1990). The CaNaSTA algorithm creates conditional probability tables of all predictor variables against response variable categories (O 'Brien, 2004). The primary model output is a discrete probability distribution at each location. A certainty value is also associated with each location, derived from the number of occurrences in the trial data with a particular combination of predictors and responses. CaNaSTA only works with its own data sets, and the analyses require time-consuming preparation and some expertise of the user on Bayesian Statistic. Sample selection is a key factor for avoiding bias in prior probabilities. Local and regional diversity is taken into account by the Bayesian algorithm. The model is slower than the other models because of its more complicated algorithm. However this algorithm makes it a powerful model to evaluate not only presence but also crop performance. Furthermore, it provides a local certainty evaluation for the probability values.The Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) is a crop simulation model that simulates growth, development and yield as a function of the soil-plant-atmosphere dynamics (Jones et al. 2003). For the 28 available crops, simulations are conducted at a daily step and, in some cases, at an hourly time step depending on the process and the crop model. Based on crop processes DSSAT gives precise results for potential yields, plant phonologic stages, weight, harvest date, water soil and nitrogen quantity integrating interactions between parameters from weather, soil, management and genetic characteristics. However, the most limitative factor of this powerful model is that it is only available for the best known crops and it needs a large amount of precise daily data.From the above described models (Ecocrop, Maxent, CaNaSTA and DSSAT), Maxent is the most adapted model to use for coffee and mango when presence data is available As noted previously, Ecocrop is recommended for studying overall trends however the three other models are more precise. DSSAT is the most powerful model but calibration is available for neither coffee nor mango. For CaNaSTA, data preparation may be highly time consuming as crop performance must be evaluated to calibrate prior probabilities. Finally, Maxent appears as the best compromise between data and results precision and time consumption. However, presence data samples must be well selected. Records should spread across the whole area of interest and each one should bring new information to the model calibration. Minimum data sample recommended is 30 well distributed points.Using all crop evidence points, 25 Maxent runs were performed, each using 75% of the points for the training and the remaining 25% for testing of the model. Default settings were used in Maxent so that the complexity of the model varied depending upon the number of data points used for model fitting. Two measures of model skill were used: the area under the ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curve (AUC) (Peterson et al., 2008) and the maximum possible Cohen's kappa (Manel et al., 2001) (kmax), applied a random selection of pseudo-absences equal to twice the number of presences (Serra-Diaz et al. 2013). These two measures were used due to the potential caveats that can arise from the use of AUC as the only model evaluation measure (Lobo et al., 2008).It is very important to address and acknowledge the uncertainty of climate predictions and the differences between the GCMs used for the modelling. Jarvis et al. ( 2012) state that impact assessment methods are sensitive to uncertainties and assessing the climate-inherent uncertainty in climate change impact assessment projects explicitly entails the usage of different GCMs. To consider climate-inherent uncertainty we used 19 different GCMs in our study and produced final maps showing descriptive statistics of different predictions on a pixel basis: (i) the change of the ensemble mean, (ii) the percentile rank using first quartile (25th percentile) and third quartile (75th percentile), and (III) the agreement among (19) Maxent outputs calculated as percentage of models predicting changes in the same direction as the average of all models at a given location or pixel.For the evaluation of best diversification options for coffee farmers, analysis must focus on identifying general tendencies for several crops and localizing their future potential areas on climate suitability. Therefore, Ecocrop is the most appropriate model to fulfill these requirements.To identify adequate diversification options for coffee farmers we analyzed crop-climate-suitability of selected crops from current agricultural portfolios of Haiti. We selected these crops based on their importance to food security and livelihood income as well as on crops recently adopted by development organizations in order to improve future agricultural production of smallholder farmers in Haiti.As described above, we selected Ecocrop as the most appropriate tool to model diversification options and we compared climate-suitable areaoutcomes with land suitable for agriculture production. We did this by intersecting the climate-suitability with the land-use and soil-capacity layers taking account of availability for agricultural use of potential suitable croplands (Jarvis et al. 2010).To assess land availability for agricultural production we downloaded Haiti's land cover (1:300,000 scale) and Haiti's soil use capacity for agriculture(1:250,000 scale) from http://haitidata.org. We combined both layers and reclassified them into 5 main categories:• Land available for agriculture production (currently crop-& pastureland) with medium to excellent soil capacity (available and no limitations; AV-NL) • Land available for agriculture production with lower or medium limitations on soil capacity (available but soil capacity is limited; AV-LL) • No limitations on soil capacity, but land use needs to be changed (currently forests, agro-forestry's, savannas) • Limited soil capacity and land use needs to be changed (LL-CH) • Land is not available (populated areas, water bodies or barren lands) and soil capacity is very limited or excluded for agriculture production (NA-EX)In the following we extracted spatial statistics from the climate-suitability layers based on the 5 land-availability layers using a Geographical Information System (GIS). Final outputs are the mean suitability value within each land-availability layer and the standard deviation of suitability and the number of pixels used to calculate the areas possessing crop suitability. • The rainfall decreases from 1520 millimeters to 1457 millimeters in 2050 passing through 1498 in 2020 • Temperatures increase and the average increase is 1.8 ºC passing through an increment of 0.9 ºC in 2020 • The mean daily temperature range increases from 10.8 ºC to 11.1 ºC in 2050 • The maximum number of cumulative dry months decreases from 5 months to 4 months Extreme conditions• The maximum temperature of the year increases from 30.9 ºC to 32.9 ºC while the warmest quarter gets hotter by 1.9 ºC in 2050 • The coefficient of variation of temperature predictions between models is 1.6% • Temperature predictions were uniform between models and thus no outliers were detected• The coefficient of variation of precipitation predictions between models is 4.9% • Precipitation predictions were uniform between models and thus no outliers were detected According to the ensemble of the 19 GCMs, temperature in Haiti will increase by an average of 0.9°C in 2020 and 1.8°C by 2050. The mean daily temperature range will increase from 10.8°C to 11.1°C by 2050. The temperature of the hottest month will increase from 30.9°C to 32.9°C while the warmest quarter will be 1.9°C hotter by 2050. The minimum temperature of the coldest month will increase from 16.1°C to 17.7°C, while the coldest quarter will be 1.7°C hotter by 2050. Total annual rainfall will decrease marginally (1%) by 2020 and will continue decreasing (4%) until 2050, while the maximum number of cumulative dry months decreases from 5 months to 4 months. May will remain being the wettest month getting 2% drier, while the wettest quarter will get drier 3% by 2050.The driest month is projected to get 10% drier while the driest quarter gets marginally drier with 1% less rainfall by 2050. Overall the climate is expected to become more seasonal in terms of variability through the year in temperature and more seasonal in precipitation (Figure 3).• The rainfall decreases from 1961 millimeters to 1886 millimeters in 2050 passing through 1934 in 2020 • Temperatures increase and the average increase is 1.7 ºC passing through an increment of 0.9 ºC in 2020 • The mean daily temperature range increases from 9.6 ºC to 9.9 ºC in 2050 Extreme conditions• The maximum number of cumulative dry months keeps constant in 3 months • The maximum temperature of the year increases from 30.5 ºC to 32.5 ºC while the warmest quarter gets hotter by 1.8 ºC in 2050 • The coefficient of variation of temperature predictions between models is 1.4% • Temperature predictions were uniform between models and thus no outliers were detected• The coefficient of variation of precipitation predictions between models is 4.2% • Precipitation predictions were uniform between models and thus no outliers were detected   The edges of the boxes indicate the mean maximum and mean minimum values of predictions from GCMs and the ends of the line the maximum and minimum values. The mean maximum and mean minimum values are defined by the mean + or -the standard deviation.Generally changes in rainfall are negative for all 6 regions. By 2020 the regions of Port Salut, les Coteaux and Chardonnieres are those with the greatest losses in precipitation of about -30 mm (Figure 5), similar by 2030 where negative changes are up to 47 mm in these municipalities (Figure 6). By 2050 rainfall is reduced in all municipalities, with losses generally between 70 and 80 mm (Figure 7).Although rainfall decrease is generally moderate in all future predictions, this combined with increasing minimum, mean and maximum temperatures can cause water deficits due to higher evapotranspiration rates of plants triggering soil water deficits and heat stresses. Increased temperature stresses and in particular high night time temperatures (> 18 °C) and drought conditions have substantial effects on biomass production and the reproductive stages of several plants and crops.Figure 8 shows the various coffee growing regions in Haiti. Though coffee is grown in all of Haiti's ten departments, the intensity of cultivation varies considerably, and in general there are five main growing areas, each located in different departments of the country. In order of the quantity of coffee produced, these are: Grand'anse, Southeast (Thiotte and Jacmel), North, and Center (Baptiste and Cahos). The five areas are divided into two zones: North and South. Grand'anse and Southeast are in the South of the country, and together form the largest area of national production (Arias et al., 2006).Coffee-producing areas in the south are mostly concentrated in the Grand-Anse Department. By 1995, the Grand-Anse, South and North Departments made up half of the total national coffee plantation. Six municipalities in the southwest are potential regions to produce high-quality coffee: Beaumont, Roseaux, Jérémie, Tiburon, Les Anglais, Port-à-Piment. (Rodríguez et al., 2011) Characteristics of producing zones (Amaya et al., 1999) North (Plaisance and Dondon): In Plaisance and Dondon, coffee production takes place at altitudes of 400-700 meters above sea level.Plaisance has bad roads and a clayish soil; its production is falling. Both Plaisance and Dondon are dominated by very small farms in which coffee is part of a traditional subsistence farming system, along with cacao, plantains, avocado, mangoes, bananas, bread fruit and other crops that are very important for risk management and family subsistence. The predominant coffee variety is Typica.Center (Baptiste and Savanette): In the Center department, Baptiste is a traditionallcoffee-producing area. Here production takes place in very small farms at altitudes ranging between 1,000 and 1,200 meters above sea level. In this area the soil is stony. Coffee farming here is more specialized than in the North. Producers use fertilizers and other inputs, and according to accounts from farmers interviewed by the team, this was a major coffeeproducing area before low coffee prices discouraged production and major exporters abandoned their operations. The Typica variety predominates here.South-East (Thiotte): Thiotte continues to be one of the major producing areas in the country (60,000 bags). Production takes place in farms ranging from small to medium size (from 1 to 16 ha) at altitudes between 900 and 1,500 meters above sea level. The Typica variety predominates. The altitude of coffee plantation ranges between 400 meters in the North to 1,300 meters in Thiotte and Beaumont.Coffee plantations were historically more widespread in nine departments of the country. Currently, however, except for the areas of Thiotte, Baptist, Beaumont and Dondon where the density of coffee plantation is still high, coffee plantations in other areas is limited. (Haiti Coffee Supply Chain Risk Assessment, 2010) In the next section we quantify the impact of climate change on the suitability of land to produce coffee in Haiti. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will cause a general decrease of areas suitable for coffee and reduce areas which currently possess high suitability (very good and excellent) for coffee production (Figure 9). Suitability is predicted to climb up altitudinal gradients to currently cooler climates. Models predict that coffee will lose suitability in lower altitudes (up to 1200 meters above sea level, or m.a.s.l.) and gain suitability in higher areas with a maximum suitability between 1500m.a.s.l. and 1800m.a.s.l. in 2050 (Figure 10).Changing climatic conditions in Haiti could lower the quality and yields of current coffee producing regions and this is likely to be most prevalent in lower-altitude zones. Furthermore, economic losses in the future could ensue if adaptation efforts are not implemented. However, there are many opportunities to adapt to such changes and for those coffee farms whose suitability will drop but not decrease drastically, adaptation is a crucial strategy. These strategies include improved agronomic management, drought-and heat-resistant varieties, irrigation and shade cover.  In the future mango will remain a highly suitable crop in many regions of Haiti. From 2020 predictions show that some areas will reduce from excellent to very suitable and shift geographically from concentrated areas close the coast to inland areas with higher altitude (Figure 11). Altitudes from 500 to 700m.a.s.l. will benefit from increasing climate suitability mostly because of increased temperatures (Figure 12), but solar radiation The performance of the Maxent model was generally high for coffee, with AUC (kappa) values ranging between 0.76 (0.85) and 0.89 (0.94) for the test data (25%), and almost no variation for the train data (75%) (Figure 13), in the case of mango (Figure 14), high variation can be observed for the test data with AUC values (kappa) between 0.72 (0.71) and 0.98 (0.89).The high performance of the model also produced relatively low baseline uncertainties. These uncertainties are mostly caused by model parameters (i.e. a different Maxent regression model is generally obtained for each of the duplicates) and by the locations of input evidence data.is very important for high quality mango production and inland areas could be less favored because of more frequent cloud cover (which is not included in our modeling). Generally, strategies to improve the mango value-chain in Haiti will not face major constraints from climatic conditions and should focus in organizational and marketing development of existing collaborative networks within the industry. Also a lot can be done improving agronomic management and capacity building for farmers including pest & disease control techniques and improved planting systems.  In this section we show the contribution of different bioclimatic variables to the predicted change in suitability for coffee and mango, separated by two geographic regions; the Southeast and Northern part and the Southwestern part of Haiti.According to the regression analysis of suitability change by 2050, an increase in precipitation of the wettest quarter (bio_16) would favor the coffee suitability in the southeast and northern Haiti, however in this area Figure 16 shows for the Southwest that the increase of temperature is related to loss of suitable areas for coffee. In general, the increase of the mean temperature of the wettest quarter (bio_8) on an average 1.8°C by 2050, explains suitability loss in this part of Haiti.For mango, precipitation variables explain mostly the projected change on suitability in the Southest and North of Haiti. An increase in precipitation of the coldest quarter (bio_19) would not favor the suitability of the crop and would lead to 7% decrease of each increasing unit of rainfall (Figure 17).  In the southwest of the island an increase of the precipitation of wettest month (bio_13) and the precipitation of the warmest quarter (bio_18) would generate gains in mango suitability. However, the point's regression analysis shows decreases in these two variables and explains the loss of projected suitability (Figure 18). It must be noted that a water shortage is detrimental to the crop, affecting fruit growth by reducing the size that influences the production of the crop.precipitation of the wettest quarter decreases on an average 18.5 mm by 2050 and explains part of the suitability loss in this area (Figure 15).The dry period corresponds to the quiescent growth phase of the crop and is important to stimulate flowering (Damatta et al., 2007), therefore an increase in the rainfall of dry season could lead to nitrogen deficiencies, acceleration the fruit fall or a reduction in plant growth. The most influential variable for suitability change is the precipitation of the driest quarter (bio_17). 1mm more precipitation during this phase will decreases suitability by 7.1% (Figure 15).Uncertainty in our suitability modeling was addressed by using all available GCMs and the implementation of separate runs using the Maxent-model. Results were compared using the means of the descriptive statistics. We calculated the mean value for each grid cell of all 19 GCMs on emission scenario SRES-A2, the average of the first quartile of models which can also be called the pessimistic scenario, the average of the third quartile also stated the very optimistic scenario, and the percentage of agreeing models on their prediction direction (negative, no-or positive-change) on each grid cell. Results show in Figure 19 that there is uncertainty of model outputs but some areas show still high agreement between models.    We selected 6 different crops including staple and cash crops. Maize, sorghum, dry beans and yams are crops with total harvested areas in Haiti ranging between 46 and 430 thousand hectares. Groundnuts (peanuts) are mainly grown by low-resource farmers on hillside farms with low soil capacity and their role and market potential is still poorly investigated. Due to it being grown in agroforestry systems, cocoa has a high potential to contribute to both livelihood adaptation and climate change mitigation. All 6 crops together make use of more than 0.7 million hectares (~60%) of agriculture land in Haiti in 2011 (Table 3). To assess land availability for agricultural production we calculated available areas within 5 categories and compared climate-suitability extracting zonal statistics. Results show, that 396,983 hectares (14%) of Haiti's agricultural land are available and soil capacity is medium to excellent in these areas. Further 532,131 hectares (19%) are available but farmers are producing on soil with limited capacity. Almost the same size as available areas we have areas were a land use change is necessary at least for some crops like maize, sorghum or beans. Other crops like cocoa and coffee are already grown there, for example in agro-forestry systems and could be expanded in these areas. Distribution of areas within the 5 categories is similar in the 3 southwestern departments (Table 4) From the perspective of climate Haiti possess excellent suitability for cocoa in many areas and this is not predicted to be affected by changes from long-term climate patterns. Figure 22 shows that the suitability index remains almost the same or will increase slightly in most regions. Although suitability will increase more in areas not available (+10 in the entire country and +15% in southern departments) categorized as NA-EX, there is still a lot of potential areas inside existing and potentially new agro-forestry systems that could be created in the future. Haiti's cocoa producers have an opportunity to benefit from an increasing global demand for cocoa production. The main problems of small production volumes, low quality and continuing issues with fragile producer organizations should be the main focus for development organizations in their attempts to improve the sector. Columns show land availability-index, area in hectares(ha), suitability (S), standard deviation of suitability within category (STD), future suitability and suitability change; for Haiti and southwestern departments.Beans are one of the main crops grown in Haiti, and local varieties tend to produce poorly due to high occurrence of diseases and low access for farmers to improved varieties. Instead of taking into account local varieties in our suitability analysis we used overall climatic parameters for common beans based on outputs from many years of research on beans at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture and related research institutes in the region. Unlike the Andean gene pool, which is adapted to cooler climates, the Mesoamerican gene pool is adapted to higher temperatures at low (400 masl) to medium altitudes (2000 masl). Highly suitable environments for growing beans in Central America and the Caribbean are most limited at present by maximum temperatures (Beebe et al. 2011). Our analyses show (Figure 23) that suitability of beans will decrease quite substantially in several areas of Haiti which are currently important producing areas (up to -70% of areas climate-suitable, available and without limitations in soil capacity). In the region, currently most areas are limited by maximum temperatures and could benefit from heat tolerance resistant varieties (Beebe et al. 2011). There is a strong need for the introduction of improved varieties that are less susceptible to heat, and Statistical studies of maize yields have clearly indicated a strong negative yield response to accumulated days above 30 °C (see predicted increase of averaged hottest month temperature from 30.9 to 32.9°C by 2050 in chapter 4.1) and seasonal rainfall. This is associated with increased evaporative transpiration which contributes to water stress and this water stress is three times more responsive to 2 °C warming than to a 20% precipitation reduction (Lobell et al. 2013). Taking into consideration this specific response of maize to increased high temperature days, modeling climate-suitability on a monthly timescale is highly uncertain as influences of maximum temperature are not well represented using monthly averaged climate data and using 30 °C as a maximum temperature parameter. Preliminary Ecocrop runs show high impacts on suitability due to climate change (up to 30% suitability reduction) and large area losses for production by 2050. We decided therefore not to include results of maize in this report to avoid premature assumptions but emphasize that appropriate crop development and management strategies for dealing with extreme heat on maize varieties should be a priority for future work in Haiti.Following the calibrated climate parameters of Ramirez-Villegas et al.(2011), sorghum will increase its suitability in Haiti between 4 and 8% in available land with no or low limited soil capacity. These areas will increase by 15% on country scale and 13% in the 3 southwestern departments. Highest area and suitability increases will be spatially located in land not available and/or with high limitations on soil capacity for agricultural production. There are approximately 600 species of yams (Dioscorea spp.) and 6 of them are the most cultivated species in the Caribbean (D. alata, D. cayenensis, D. rotundata, D. trifida, D. esculenta and D. bulbifera). In our study we modeled 2 varieties of yam and malanga (dasheen) using ecocrop to determine climate-suitability. Results show that cushcush yam (D. trifida) is losing suitability and area in AV-NL and AV-LL areas (-11 to -14% suitability and up to -10% areas, Figure 25). White and yellow yam is gaining suitability and available areas remain more or less constant all over Haiti by 2050 (see Figure 26). Finally malanga is shifting its geographical areas of suitability but generally losing suitability and areas.  Peanut is an important secondary crop grown throughout most of rural Haiti; little research exists on the market potential of Peanut and its role in improving rural farm income. Our climate-suitability analysis reveals that climate change could provide an opportunity for this crop, with a two fold increase in the areas on available land with no limitations of soil by remaining suitability-index all over Haiti areas. Southwestern departments will maintain an average suitability index of 93% (13% standard deviation) by 2050 (see Figure 28).  We assessed the impact of short-mid-& long-term climate change on coffee and mango production systems in Haiti. Further potential impacts on crops proposed to be diversification options for coffee farmers were assessed by analyzing their climate-suitability to ensure that strategic adaptation work will be done on current and future suitable crops. We reviewed several crop suitability models before deciding upon the most appropriate model to use in the analysis. Maximum entropy (Maxent) is a niche modeling method and was selected to model potential current and future distribution of coffee and mango. Ecocrop, a crop niche prediction model using climatic ranges as input to determine a suitability index, was used for assessing diversification options. We then compared climate-suitable areaoutcomes with a land availability-index for agriculture production and extracted spatial statistics from the climate-suitability layers based on the 5 land-availability layers using a Geographical Information System (GIS).Results show that changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will cause a general decrease of areas suitable for coffee and reduce areas which currently possess high suitability and coffee will lose suitability in lower altitudes. Mango will remain a highly suitable crop in many regions of Haiti. The assessment of diversification options for coffee farmers shows that suitability for cocoa and is not predicted to be affected by changes from long-term climate patterns and Haiti's cocoa producers could be part to meet the global demand for high quality cocoa production. For existing maize productions we emphasize that appropriate crop development and management strategies for dealing with extreme heat on maize varieties should be a priority for future work in Haiti. Different yams are losing and gaining depending on specific variety and need to be selected in order to develop their production. Sorghum and Groundnut are promising due to predicted increased suitability in the future.Changes in temperature and rainfall will also change prevalence of pest and disease. Although we didn't quantify the impact of climate change on major pest and diseases for Haiti in this study, it is important to focus in future work on how coffee species, mangoes and other crops in Haiti are influenced by pests and diseases under accelerated climate change.There are many opportunities to adapt to changes and for those coffee farms whose suitability will drop but not decrease drastically, proactive adaptation is a crucial strategy. Agroforestry systems such as coffee systems are not only important as a commodity and cash income generator for smallholder but also as a provider of ecosystems services. A decrease in coffee suitability is likely going to threaten the environmental services coffee systems provide, such as soil cover, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and water storage. Therefore a key strategy needs to focus on maintaining the environmental services with a different agroforestry system. In this context cocoa is a promising option. We distinguish 3 general strategies to adapt to the change of coffee suitability. The three strategies are interlinked and will replace each other over time. Areas that will increase in suitability need strategic investment. Areas that will lose some suitability are likely to be maintained through targeted strategies such as irrigation, shade management and change to more drought resident varieties. Areas that are likely to suffer from significant decrease in suitability need to start diversifying in order to switch to different crops, such as cocoa, once coffee is not suitable any more.","tokenCount":"7551"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26421d0d66d50dff3c9847692201a082","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da26a956-fc30-45c4-afd3-690bc78f9077/retrieve","id":"-1524298221"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"00357191-f0c5-4601-94a9-66eaa752965a","pagecount":"37","content":"Steps the CPWF is taking to identify BDCs ..       The CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) is a research-for-development program that works to increase the productivity of water for food and livelihoods, in a manner that is environmentally sustainable, socially acceptable, and alleviates poverty for all disadvantaged groups. The First Phase of the CPWF ran from 2004-2008, while the Second Phase will run from 2009-2013.In its Second Phase the CPWF works in six river basins (Mekong, Ganges, Limpopo, Volta, Nile, and the Andean Basins System) in the developing world, supporting one or two development challenges per basin. More information about the CPWF can be obtained at www.waterandfood.org.The table below describes the steps the CPWF is taking to identify basin development challenges (BDCs) and design coherent basin research programs with high probability of making substantial contribution to tackling the BDCs. Step 1 was complete at the time of the workshop. This workshop was the last activity in Step 2. While Steps 1 and 2 have been consultative, Step 3 relies on the CPWF Management Team to synthesize information and insight from various sources to design a Volta BDC research program in which a coherent research agenda is linked to expected impacts.The overall objective of this workshop was to consult key stakeholders knowledgeable about the proposed Volta BDC on how research can best contribute to tackling the BDC. In the Volta, the proposed BDC was \"Rainwater management and small reservoirs in Northern Ghana and Burkina Faso\". A brief description of the proposed BDC, taken from the CPWF's 2010 -2013 Medium Term Plan, was sent to orientate the participants before the workshop (see Annex 1). Participants were invited to the workshop to provide advice on how research can best contribute to the BDC, thus helping the CPWF Management Team design the BDC research program (Step 3 in Table 1). The specific objectives are shown in Figure 1 together with the process that was followed to achieve them. The process used elements of Participatory Impact Pathway Analysis (PIPA) 1 and incorporated lessons learned in conducting similar consultations in other basins. The workshop produced the following outputs: 1) Inventory of on-going and planned initiatives, projects and programs related to the CPWF Volta BDC (Annex 3) 2) Problem tree analysis and identified opportunities (Annex 4) 3) Elaborated and ranked opportunities (Annex 5) 4) Synthesis of opportunities for potential basin projects (Annex 6).A disclaimer was given at the beginning of the workshop that \"Participation in this workshop will not increase or decrease the chances of success in being awarded a Phase 2 project\". While the CPWF wishes to be fair to workshop participants -it also wishes to be fair to those who for one reason or another were unable to join in.English and French were the working language for the participants during the workshop. English was the more dominant language since there were only very few participants who only understood French. For these a summary translation of what was said was provided. Once the participants were in their break-out groups, they used their preferred language for discussions and clarifications.1 Douthwaite, B., Alvarez, B.S., Cook, S., Davies, R., George, P., Howell, J., Mackay, R. and Rubiano, J. (2008) Fifty people were invited to the workshop, seven sent their regrets, and eight did not attend. Of the 35 participants on the first morning (not including CPWF staff and the facilitator), 28 were male and 7 female, 20 came from Burkina Faso, 10 from Ghana and five from out of the basin. There was representation from government agencies (7), basin organizations (3), NGOs (2), and researchers (21)  and farmer organizations (1) and extension (1). Five institute directors attended on the first morning. Alain Vidal, Program Director, Sophie Nguyen Khoa, Associate Director, and Boru Douthwaite, Impact and Innovation Director, represented the CPWF Management Team. Tonya Schuetz, the CPWF Information Manager, facilitated the workshop. Figure 2 shows the workshop participants and they are listed in Annex 2. The workshop was jointly organized with the Volta Basin Authority (VBA) and the International Institute for Water and Environment Engineering (2iE) provided the venue for the meeting in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.After some welcoming words from the directors of the organizing institutions --Alain Vidal, Director of the CPWF, Charles Biney, Executive Director of the VBA, and Amadou Maïga, Deputy Director General of 2iE --the participants got to know each other by sharing their name, institution, and their expectation of the meeting. Then Alain Vidal gave an overview of the CPWF with its history and institutional framework. Boru Douthwaite explained the four steps the CPWF was using to identify and commission BDCs (see Table 1) and how the workshop would contribute to Steps 2 and 3 in particular. To provide a basin context Jacques Lemoalle presented the results of the CPWF Volta Basin Focal Project. Lastly, Sophie Nguyen-Khoa gave an overview of the other Phase 1 projects in the basin and with their relevance to the proposed BDC. The event was also used to share some outputs from Phase I, e.g. like a comparative study on large scale extension methods used in Ghana and Burkina prepared by AU SAFGRAD within PN5 Enhancing Rainwater and Nutrient Efficiency, or the Small Reservoirs Toolkit, an output from PN46, Small Reservoirs Project.The collection and presentation of on-going and planned initiatives in the Volta Basin relevant to the CPWF proposed BDC started with four invited speakers. Presenters addressed the following questions in five to seven minute talks, followed by questions from participants: 1) What is already happening in the Volta Basin relevant to the BDC, or about to happen? 2) Who is doing it? 3) What are the gaps? What are the opportunities for research to tackle the BDC, which are not already being taken?Other participants volunteering to talk about initiatives they knew about and/or they are involved in.The following initiatives were presented:• Alliance of a Green Revolution for Africa (AGRA) by Seraphine Sawadogo-Kabore, INERA  From the table of initiatives (i.e., from the data in columns 5, 6 and 7) we were able to plot a network map (Figure 3) that shows organizations linked together by the initiatives on which they are jointly working. As such the map provides a visualization of the institutional landscape in which the CPWF's BDC research needs to fit and add to. Any new projects that the CPWF chooses to support to tackle the BDC should take into account, complement and potentially link on-going and planned initiatives and the organizations leading them and who are centrally involved. Centrally-involved organizations in the map are the ones nearest the centre with the most links. The map shows a network with many central organizations based in the basin (in Ghana and Burkina Faso) with links to a large number of European research organizations and donors. Participants were introduced to causal analysis through constructing problem trees. By asking several times why a problem is happening, each group arrives at a problem that can be tackled by research, and thus an opportunity for the BDC to make a contribution. The main problems that each group started with were the first three boxes on the right hand side of Figure 4. The problems were pre-determined by CPWF team. The participants were then asked to separate into four groups with a mix of different stakeholder categories (representatives from government agencies, basin organizations, NGOs, researchers, farmers and extension services) to begin developing their problem trees. Two groups spoke French and two spoke English. See Table 3 for the groups' composition. See annex 4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d for each group's problem tree.  The last activity of the day was to ask participants for their suggestions for improvements or what they liked of the day.After a quick check-in in the morning, participants were asked to describe the BDC opportunities identified in the causal analysis (see oval in Figure 5b), as well as other opportunities, in a table (Table 4). All the groups then presented the opportunities they had identified, and discussed similarities or differences with other groups. Participants were then asked to vote for the opportunities they thought were most important in terms of 1) the need for further research and 2) impact potential. Each participant was given three green dots for 'importance' and three orange dots for 'impact potential' which they were free to distribute as they wished. The scoring of all opportunities is given in annex 5.  Finally, Boru Douthwaite told participants what to expect after the workshop:• The workshop report will be shared with the participants and people invited who could not attend the workshop themselves, encouraging them to give feedback or share comments. Key workshop results will be available on the CPWF website for everybody to access. • The CPWF Management Team will use the information and insights from this workshop, together with our sources, to design a research program to tackle the BDC. Before the official closure participants were asked to do an end of workshop evaluation by writing on cards what they liked and thought worked well and how elements of the workshop could be improved for the Limpopo stakeholder consultation workshop the following week. A lot of positive feedback was given on the approach and the organization and the quality of the translation, whilst translations also seem to have been a point of improvement. See for detailed feedback Annex 7: End-of-workshop Evaluation.Annex 1: The CPWF Volta Basin Development Challenge Summary 2Institutional and technical mechanisms to develop, maintain, and sustain small reservoirs and other rainwater management approaches to improve the livelihoods of the poor in the dry-lands of Southern Burkina Faso and Northern Ghana, taking into account implications for downstream users.Volta CPWF Phase 1 Lessons learned CPWF Phase 1 Volta work identified several policy and development demands that require research inputs:• Rainwater management systems and frameworks that can be scaled up to basin levels.• Methods for integrating rainwater harvesting (RWH) technologies with other, water productive food crops. • Assessments of the likely impacts of upstream RWH development on downstream water use.CPWF Phase 1 research suggested several policy and Development Challenges. Consultation with stakeholders, reference to CPWF projects and the literature, suggested that the Phase 2 focus in the Volta should be on trying to ameliorate water scarcity problems in the basin's dryland areas. This should be achieved by building on its Phase 1 small reservoirs and increasing rainwater management work. The aim is to improve the resilience and livelihoods of the people and ecosystems in this area. Research will focus primarily on Ghana and Burkina Faso.If this Development Challenge is successfully addressed, then community-level institutions will be strong enough to manage and maintain small reservoirs designed for multiple uses. Communities of small reservoir users will be able to allocate reservoir water effectively and fairly, particularly with regard to allocations to women, to maximise the social benefits of these excavations. A welldesigned rainwater management system will support small reservoir management and maintenance. Under this system, the interaction between local and district-level institutions will be strengthened and mutually supportive. Such institutions will be embedded in a cross-border administrative system that serves to both enable and fortify them. Previously failing small-reservoir management systems will be reversed.For the Volta the research is proposed to be done in three projects addressing the Basin Development ChallengeProject on small reservoirs and other approaches to improved rainwater management: This project focuses on research around rainwater management, agricultural system design, irrigation, and small reservoir management.This project focus on research on the institutional and governance aspects of small reservoirs with complementary questions for other rainwater management practices.A separate project is foreseen to foster coordination across projects in a basin.Note that the BDCs for Limpopo, Nile and Volta basins have much in common.  The method used was to draw up an initial list of 80 people from Phase I documentation (project implementers and participants in CPWF workshops). Four people -the CPWF Phase 1 Basin Coordinator, the Executive Secretary of the VBA, the Volta Basin Focal Project leader, and the workshop facilitator -then scored each person in terms of their potential contribution to the workshop. The scores, together with the CPWF design specifications, informed the final selection of participants.Volta River Basin, 25-26 Nov 2009, 2iE, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Annex 3: Inventory of on-going or planned initiatives ","tokenCount":"2036"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a30582b88e0ded59ceeffaa1cea0f1d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/014ba8a3-4fc6-46ff-9fa7-e34361cf3384/retrieve","id":"90261734"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7978a0d2-16ec-4db7-ab18-6a51b7c0a721","pagecount":"4","content":"1. Soil loss and runoff occurred mainly when groundcover was <40%. 2. Intercropping potato with legumes lowered cumulative soil loss by up to 87.2 t/ ha. 3. Nutrient loss was 23-84% less with intercropping than with sole potato. 4. Intercropping increased yields when matched with prevailing agro-ecological conditions.The potato-growing belts in sub-Saharan Africa have experienced steady increases in heat stress, irregular rainfall, persistent droughts, high soil erosion rates and recurrent floods. This has not only jeopardized food security and weakened efforts to eradicate poverty, it has increased land degradation and put pressure on forestlands. Potato yields average 7-15 metric tons/hectare (t/ha), far below attainable yields of 40 t/ha (FAOSTAT, 2017). Therefore, under the current climatic scenario, sustainable intensification is necessary for saving water and increasing the productivity of nutrients and land.This brief reports on two potential roles of potato-legume intercropping: (i) improved control of soil erosion to make potato production more sustainable in the highlands; and (ii) optimizing soil temperatures, soil water contents and soil nutrient balance thus enabling potato production in the drier midland agro-food systems. The results are derived from six separate studies conducted between the 2014 wet season and 2018 dry season in Kenya. Five sites were purposively selected to represent four different agroecological zones (AEZs): lower midland (LM), upper midland (UM), lower highland (LH) and upper highland (UH) (Table 1).Two potato cultivars were evaluated: Shangi, the traditional highland cultivar, and Unica, a heat and water stress tolerant cultivar suited to diverse AEZs. 3 Fertilizer application was based on soil analysis and adjusted seasonally taking into account the amount of nitrogen in   the soil prior to planting. On average, potatoes received 50 kg of nitrogen per ha, 90 kg phosphorus per ha, 100 kg potassium per ha and a single topdressing with 50 kg nitrogen per ha. Legumes received only basal phosphorus applications at rates averaging 20 kg per ha.High temperatures and soil moisture stress are the major abiotic factors constraining potato production in the midlands. However, soil erosion due to heavy rainfall and sloping terrains pose major threats to soil conservation in the highlands. When soil water content in the midland zones dropped below field capacity (0.1 cm -3 ) under only potato, the ability of the soil to release water to plants declined rapidly, slowing redistribution of water within the soil profile. A high canopy due to intercropping, however, created shade that optimized soil temperatures and increased the soil water content (Fig. 2 and 3).In the highland zone where rainfall was heavy, intercropping achieved a dense canopy that intercepted and reduced raindrop-hitting force and slowed down the velocity of runoff. This interception reduced soil detachment rates (Fig. 4). Further, the reduced rain splash effect under potato-legume intercropping reduced soil erosion and lowered soil organic matter loss by 22-73%, available phosphorus loss by 56-79% and total nitrogen loss by 43-83% relative to losses under sole potato (Fig. 5).Shadrack Nyawade 1 , Vandamme Elke 1 , Friedmann Michael 2 , Monica Parker 1,2Negative nitrogen balances limit potato yields in sub-Saharan Africa while excessive surpluses create environmental pollution. Intercropped legumes increased soil nitrogen content through biological nitrogen fixation (Table 2). This finding is an indication that potato-legume intercropping might help reduce N-fertilization as compared to sole potato production. In addition, potatolegume intercropping provided a means of balancing nitrogen retained in the biomass and soil, thus offering a mechanism for optimizing the soil nitrogen balance.intercropping had 50% fewer potato plants per ha compared to sole potato (100%), thus potato tuber yields per area unit were generally lower in intercropping (Fig. 6). However, when the yields were computed per potato plant (Fig. 7) and expressed in potato equivalents to factor in the legume intercrop value (Fig. 8), intercropping showed a marked increase in yield over sole potato. Generally, intercropping potato with lima bean or Productivity of a cropping system is described by the efficiency with which the amount of water and nutrient is converted into plant dry matter. The results show that yields were increased with intercropping, resulting in increased crop water productivity and nutrient use efficiency (Table 3). Generally, intercropping was coupled with optimum root-zone soil temperature and soil water content, thus potentially exerting additive effects on nutrient uptake and subsequent conversion into crop biomass.Based on the data, we offer these key considerations for sustainable intercropping systems.For farmers to switch to potato-legume intercropping, the system must improve potato yield while the legume should be used either for human food or livestock feed.The choice of legume is very important and should be chosen based on the AEZ. In our study, potato in    Soil moisture (cm -3 ) desmodium significantly increased potato yield both in midland and in highland AEZs while intercropping with vetch, lucerne and lupin increased potato yield in the highlands. While growth of vetch, lupin and lucerne was suppressed by heat stress in the lower midlands, dolichos growth was hindered by cold in the highlands.In addition, the choice of potato cultivar may have profound impact on the results (Fig. 9). In the lower midland, sole Unica and sole Shangi (100% potato plants per ha) attained potato tuber yields of 3.5 t/ha and 11.4 t/ha, an equivalent of 0.25 and 0.08 tuber weight per plant, respectively. Unica intercropped with dolichos and lima bean (50% potato plants per ha) attained potato yield of 6.8 and 7.6 t/ha (0.31 and 0.34 kg tuber weight per plant). These results were significantly greater than 2.7 and 2.9 t/ha (0.12 and 0.13 kg tuber yield per plant) when Shangi was intercropped with dolichos and lima bean, respectively. In the upper highland, however, the two cultivars responded similarly to intercropping with no significant difference.Two crop species growing together and co-existing over time require careful spatial arrangements because crop geometry is a function of plant density, which determines the amount of light intercepted and converted into biomass. We compared three spatial arrangements in which two rows of potato were alternated with two rows of legume (2:2), two rows of potato with one row of legume (2:1) and one row of potato with one row of legume (1:1). Planting potato and legumes in 2:2 rows resulted in a higher potato tuber yield per plant because this pattern improved radiation interception through development of more complete ground cover (Table 4; Fig. 10).Our observations showed that when potato and legumes differ in maturity and growth patterns, staggering planting time results in yield advantage with no significant increase in soil erosion. When dolichos were introduced two weeks after planting potato, potato yields increased by 7 t/ha (Fig. 11 and 1).  Systematic incorporation of legume intercrops in smallholder potato farming systems is a novel technology to conserve soils in the highlands and optimize soil temperatures and soil moisture in the midlands. Consequently, this innovation offers farmers some viable options to adapt to climate change. Bearing this in mind, and based on our findings, we propose the following recommendations for increasing yields for potato and legumes:Develop agro-ecological specific intercropping: Potatolegume intercropping must be adapted to locationspecific agro-ecological zones and target multipurpose legumes providing human food, livestock feed and enhancing soil fertility.Poor access to highquality fodder and grain legumes are potential barriers to adoption of potato-legume intercropping. A functional seed production and dissemination system must be ensured, and must entail proper assessment of seed demand. Programs that allow integration of formal and informal seed sectors may be necessary, to ensure enhanced production.Farmers will adopt potato-legume intercropping if the derived produce has a ready market and the practice ensures good returns on land, capital and labor.Potato-legume intercropping should be integrated into formal and informal learning and extension systems, and implemented through field demonstrations, farmer trainings, exhibition visits and farmer field schools.    ","tokenCount":"1277"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eb3559a7e0e47479e68644775a83e656","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/555a5e8d-8b98-4bff-97a5-6966481bd483/retrieve","id":"764075489"},"keywords":["5.2.2 Informaci6n básica agro-socioeconbmioa 5",". 2",". 2",". 1 5",". 2",". 2",". 2 5.2.2.3"],"sieverID":"04901109-07c8-461d-86e9-d8188c097b09","pagecount":"51","content":"Reoursos huma:aos e infraestruotu-. ra para produocibn, seo amiento • acondicionamiento. almacenamiento y comercialízacibn Recursos genéticos Materiales mejorados Análisis de la aceptacibn comercial, agronbmica y adaptacibn en la zona de los materiales mejorados Comercializacibn de semillas mejo-. radas2.1 2.2 3. INTRODUCCION OBJETIVOS General Especlficos METODOLOGIA CONTENIDO Identifica ción de los sitios de estudio Reconocimiento general de los sitios Identificación de los recursos institucionales Identificación de materiales mejorados y criollos Evaluación de aceptación comercial de los materiales y fluctuaciones de precios Precios de compra de materiales mejoraClos y criollos . Fluctuaciones de precios durante el año Evaluación agronómica de los materiales mejorados Encuestas con los agricultores . Identificación de los sistemas de cultivos predominantes Areas sembradas en los diferentes sistemas de cultivos Estimación de las necesidades de semillas Análisis e interpretacibn de los resultados Elaboración de la propuesta .. La República de Colombia est~ situada en la región septentional de América del Sur y posee una superficie total de 114 millones de hect~reas, de las cuales apenas unos seis millones est~ dedicadas a la agricultura y entre 15 y 30 millones se utilizan en explotaciones ganaderas y forestales. El pa{s presenta ecosistemas muy variables y la producción agropecuaria se encuentra dispersa por todos ellos. Sin em bargo, aquellos renglones que constituyen la base de la alimentación nacional y cuya producci6n suele ser deficitaria, est~, predominantemente, en manos de los pequeños cultivadores ubicados en zonas montañosas. Por el contrario, la agricultura desarrollada, con altos niveles de tecnologfa y de uso de insumos, está concentrada en las zonas planas y los valles inter andinos y produce, fundamentalmente, materias primas o alimentos de uso industrial, tanto para mercados internos como externos, (ejemplo: banano, caña de azúcar, algodón, arroz, sorgo).La excepción la constituye el cultivo de. café, que es la base de la. economfa nacional, del cual Colombia es el segundo productor mundial y que está ubicado en las zonas andinas de ladera.Los niveles. promedio de productividad de la agricultura colombiana son aún muy bajos, particularmente en el sector de los pequeftos cultivadores que, como ya se dijo I son los mayores responsables de la producción de alimentos de consumo masivo. Generalmente. se acepta que en el crecimiento de la producción agrrcola, el uso de semillas mejoradas juega un papel preponderante, si se considera que este insumo proviene de recursos naturales renovables y que tiene un costo relativamente inferior al de los otros insumos, su mayor utilización se presenta como una gran alternativa para el incremento de la producción nacional de alimentos. Sin embargo, actualmente el uso de semillas mejoradas por parte del pequooo agricultor es tnfimo. En 1980 el porcentaje del &rea cosechada en Colombia que utilizó semilla certificada, fue extremadamente bajo en aquellos cultivos sembrados por pequeños agricultores (ejemplo: fdjol = 1.7%; papa = 0.3%; matz = 11.5%).El poco uso de semillas mejoradas entre pequeftos productores obedece a varias razones. Entre otras, resulta de primer orden el desarrollo de estrategias de producción y comercialización de semillas mejoradas que se adapten a las condiciones, recursos y formas de producción de este tipo de cultivadores, ya que este tipo de agricultor es, social, cultural y económicamente, diferente al tipo de agricultor empresarial, para el cual están dirigidas actualmente. las metodologtas de producción y comercialización de semillas.El éxito de cualquier estrategia estará medido por la utilización de la semilla mejorada por parte de los agricultores. Atendiendo a esta consideración, es necesario estructurar alternativas que permitan el desarrollo de una industria artesanál, adecuada a las circunstancias y motivaciones del pequeño agricultor I de forma que sea viable una r~pida producción y utilización de las nuevas variedades resultantes de los programas de mejoramiento.En este sentido, el presente ,documento incluye información yanálisis que intentan contribuir al diseño de alternativas para la solución del problema planteado. Sin embargo, el mismo constituye un estudio preliminar que pretende suministrar indicadores básicos y elementos de juicio que permitan una definición sobre el c.amino a seguir. Posteriormente será necesario realizar un estudio de factibilidad detallado, que permita el di•seño y evaluación del proyecto requerido, identificando y evaluando sus distintas etapas de ejecución y operación.2.2 2.2.1El objetivo general del trabajo consiste en la realizaci6n de un análisis preliminar de la factibilidad de establecer un proyecto que estimule la producci6n y la utilización de semillas mejoradas de mafz y frijol para pequeños cultivadores de Colombia.Rea!ízar un diagnóstico general de la situación de la producción y del uso de semilla entre pequeños productores de maíz y fríjol de las zonas colombianas de la parte Central de Antioquia y Garcfa Rovira.Identificar y proponer alternativas de acción que faciliten la formulación y ejecución de proyectos tendientes a la constitución de industrias artesanales de semillas.3.1 Identificacibn de los sitios de estudio Debido a que la mayor producci6n de maíz y frIjol de Colom bia destinada a la producción de alimentos está, predominantemente ubicada en zonas montañosas de climas medio y fria moderado, en manos de agricultores con poco acceso al uso de la tecnología, con superficies inferiores a las cinco hectáreas, y conscientes de la imposibilidad de efectuar el presente estudio en todas las zonas de Colombia de estas caracteristicas, previo a realizar el estudio se tuvieron reuniones con el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (JCA) , para identificar los dos sitios de estudio representativos de las condiciones agro-socioecon6micas mencionadas con anterioridad, y con características contrastantes, en cuanto a recursos físicos y tecnológicos, para el desarrollo de programas de semillas. Los sitios elegidos fueron: la provincia de Garda Rovira en el departamento de Santander del Sur y parte de la regi6n Oriental y Suroccidental del departamento de Antioquia.Después de definida el área de influencia de los dos sitios de estudio, se procedi6 a hacer un reconocimiento general de los mismos, para conocer las condiciones agro-socioeconómicas, los sistemas de cultivos predominantes y lns condiciones climatológicas de los sitios seleccionados.Se identificaron en cada sitio de estudio las diferentes instituciones del sector agropecuario oficial y pri vado que pudieran tener participaci6n en el desarrollo del proyecto de semillas, en donde pudo apreciarse un fuerte interes por instituciones de investigaci6n y transferencia de tecnologfa, credito, comercializaci6n, as! como grupos de cooperativas con quienes se tuvieron reuniones para definir la metodolog1a y para discutir los resultados preliminares del estudio.En cada uno de los sitios de estudio se procedi6 a conocer los materiales geneticos mejorados y criollos de maíz y fríjol, para lo cual se obtuvieron los materiales mejorados en los programas de investigaci6n del ICA, y los criollos fueron obtenidos en los mercados y con los agricultores de la regi6n.Evaluaci6n de aceptación comercial de los materiales l.Con el objeto de conocer la aceptación comercial de los materiales mejorados en relación con los criollos, se identificaron en cada región los mercados mtl.s importantes y se efectuaron entrevistas con los intermediarios que compran los productos a los agricultores. En las entrevistas se obtuvo la siguiente información básica.3.5.1Precios de compra de materiales mejorados y criollos Con las muestras obtenidas con anterioridad se recabb información sobre el precio de compra de los materiales mejorados para identificar cuáles eran competitivos en precios con los criollos, en base a los caracteres cualitativos importantes para el consumidor.Se obtuvo información de la fluctuación de precios del grano de maíz y fdjol en los diferentes meses del año, con el objeto de sugerir que la producción de semilla, particularmente la de frijol, se haga en el momento en que el precio del grano esta. en su más bajo nivel, para venderla al momento de la siembra siguiente, cuando el grano alcanza el mas alto precio en el mercado y permi-\",,~ te obtener una ganancia justificada después de los correspondientes gastos directos e indirectos de la semilla.Para hacer la evaluación agronómica se efectuaron más de 60 visitas con los agricultores de cada sitio de estudio y mediante entrevistas y observación de los campos de producción se evaluaron las bondades agronómicas y adaptación de los materiales mejorados que tuvieron en la evaluación comercial, precios competitivos con los criollos.Se efectuaron un total de 108 y 100 entrevistas con los agricultores del distrito de García Revira y la parte central de Antioquia, respectivamente, con la finalidad de conocer la difusión de los materiales mejorados, sus bondades agronómicas y comerciales, superficies sembradas de maíz y fdjol y el hábito de compra de semillas, tanto mejoradas corno criollas.En los dos sitios de estudio existen diversidad de sistemas de cultivos de maíz y frijol, en los que de acuerdo con los arreglos topológicos utilizados y los cultivos de asocio o relevo, se usan diferentes cantidades de semilla por unidad de área, por lo cual fue necesario identificar los cinco sistemas de cultivos predominantes en cada región para los dos cultivos, lo que sirvió de base para la estimación de la demanda potencial de semillas para cada sitio.Areas sembradas en los diferentes sistemas de cultivosDespués de identificar los sistemas de cultivos predominantes en cada sitio de estudio, se procedió a conocer las superficies sembradas de cada uno de ellos.En base al conocimiento de la superficie de las áreas de influencia de cada sitio, de las cantidades de semillas 3.113.12 utilizadas en cada uno de los sistemas de cultivos y de las áreas sembradas en cada sistema, se estimaron las necesidades de semillas de maíz y fríjol para cada sitio de estudio.Análisis ~ inter¡;~retación de los resultados Después de las actividades efectuadas en los sitios de estudio se procedió a analizar e interpretar los resultados oon la colaboración de un grupo multidisciplinario del lCA, Caja Agraria y CIAT, con el objeto de sugerir la alternativa de producción de semillas de maiz y fríjol para el pequeño agricultor en los sitios de estudio.Finalmente, en base al análisis de la información se elaboró la propuesta que se sugiere para el desarrollo de la industria artesanal de semillas de maíz y fríjol.La acci6n del proyecto está limitada a trabajar con los cultivos de maíz y fríjol en dos regiones: la provincia de Garda Rovira en Santander del Sur y parte de las regiones oriental y suroccidental del departamento de Antioquia.Los criterios utilizados para la definición de los cultivos y las zonas fueron los siguientes:1. Son cultivos básicos en la dieta alimenticia y SU producción es defici taria.2. Los cultivos constituyen una actividad econ6mica fundamental de gran parte de los agricultores pequeños.3. Son cultivos con niveles de bajo desarrollo en producción y suministro de semillas de buena calidad.Las regiones son áreas correspondientes a proyectos de Desarrollo Rural Integrado {DRIl.Son zonas representativas de la situación predominante de los sistemas de producci6n de los pequeños agricultores.6. Las regiones son representativas de los pisos térmicos frío moderado y clima medio, donde está concentrado un gran porcentaje de los pequeños agricultores del país.7. Son zonas con caractedsticas diferentes en cuanto a condiciones ambientales y disponibilidad de recursos humanos y físicos.:1,1 En maiz: lCA H-207, ICA H-302, lCA V-303, lCA V-304,Actualmente se encuentran en evaluación en la granja experimental de Tinagá, localizada en el municipio de Cerrito, a 1450 m.s.n.m., 15 variedades e Mbridos de la serie SOO.En fdjol: Se han identificado un grupo de materiales mejorados entre los cuales la mayoría han sido liberados hace más de ocho años, que son los siguientes: DIACOL Andino, DIACOL Calima, DIACOL Nima, ICA-Pijao, lCA Tui, ICA Tundama, ICA Palmar, yen los últimos cuatro años ICA Víbora!.Se encuentran en evaluación en el presente año, un grupa de materiales experimentales arbustivo y volubles, entre los que se encuentran la Une a 2324, ICA Llano Grande, materiales del grupo Bat y otros. En eone lusi6n, la oferta de semillas no ha obedecido a los anMisis de aceptación de los consumidores, aceptación por los agricultores y demanda de semillas, sino a la disponi bilidad y facilidad de transportar semillas producidas en otras zonas.En la región existen diferentes instituciones del sector agropecuario que participan en la generación y transferencia de.\" tecnología, en la financiacHm de producción de cultivos, en la comercialización de insumos yen la comercialización de granos.El lCA es la institución responsable de la generación y transferencia de tecnologla, a través de sus programas de investigación, producción agricola y desarrollo rural. En donde existen y funcíonan desde hace varías años con actividades de investigación y principalmente investigación adaptativa y transferencia de tecnología a través de los programas de Desarrollo Rural que cumplen también con supervisar créditos que les otorga a los usuarios de DRI la instituci6n financiera del sector oficial.Es la institución oficial encargada de atender el cl'edito agl'opecuario para pequeños agricultores y en la En general la zona cuenta con buenas vías de comunicación. Las carreteras en su mayor parte están asfaltadas y las no asfaltadas, permiten el fácil acceso a los municipios durante todo el año.Existen buenas redes de comunicación telefónica y telegráfica entre Medellín y los demás municipios.Recursos humanos e infraestructura par'a producción, secamiento, acondicionamiento, almacenamiento y comercialización En la mayoría de los municipios del área de estudio existen agricultores con un grado de desarrollo tecnológico avanzado que les permitida emprender un programa de producción de semillas contando con la Se cuenta con recursos para almacenamiento de 90 a 100 toneladas de grano, con buenas condiciones de humedad relativa, y temperatura, y una planta procesadora, con una capacidad de 8 tons/ jornada de trabajo.Este equipo se encuentra en la estación Tulio Ospina del ICA, situada en el municipio de Bello (área metropolitana). Este equipo requiere de unos pequeños ajustes y un buen mantenimiento para prestar un servicio eficiente. Además, la Universidad Nacional, seccional de MedeIlín, cuenta con unos pequeños equipos para procesamiento. Los grupos asociativos de productores organizados por CECORA cuentan con instalaciones para el almacenamiento y distribución de semilla.La Caja Agraria tiene almacenes de provisión agrícola en la mayoría de los municipios del área, con facilidades para almacenamiento y comercialización.El mejoramiento genético de maíz y fdjol en esta zona se ha hecho en gl'anjas experimentales representativas de las condiciones de la zona en estudio.Para maíz se tienen los siguientes materiales mejorados: lCA V-453, material de buena adaptación a la zona de clima frío moderado y el ICA V-402, para la misma zona; ICA V-J03, para clima medio.En cuanto a fríjol se tienen los siguientes materiales: que la semilla debe estar lista para la comercialización en los centros de consumo a mediados de enero.La cantidad de semilla de frfiol producida y comercializada, no ha excedido las 6 tons, lo que significa menos del 1 % de los requerimientos actuales en el área de influencia.Dada la baja disponibilidad de semilla mejorada en la zona, el agricultor se ve obligado a seleccionar su propia semilla, utilizando métodos, que en la mayor1a de los casos, no son los más recomendables. Existe también alguna comercialización de estas semillas entre los mismos agricultores.Existen en la región diferentes instituciones del sector agropecuario que participan en la generación y transferencia de tecnología. En la parte central de Antioquia operan las mencionadas para la provincia de Garda Rovira, a excepción de la Caja Popular Cooperativa, y funcionan además, otras entidades como la Secretada de Agricultura dc Antioquia y la Federación Nacional de Cafeteros, cuya función principal es la transferencia de tecnología.PARA LOS PRIMEROS CINCO AÑosPara efectuar el an~lísis del mercado potencial de semillas de maíz y fríjol en los sitios de estudio, se procedió a identificar las superficies sembradas por estos cultivos, en cada uno de los sistemas predominantes, y en base al cálculo de semilla utilizada para cada sistema, asumiendo que toda la superficie fuera sembrada con semillas mejoradas, se estimaron las necesidades potenciales.En el cuadro 7 se presentan las necesidades potenciales de semillas de maíz y fríjol para climas medio y fdo moderado.Cuadro 7. Resumen de superficie y requerimientos de semilla de maíz y fdjol en el distrito de Garda Rovira 6.2 proyecoión de la producción de semillas en l.9..a primeros cinco años Para sugerir un programa de producción y comercialización de semillas de maíz y frIjol en los primeros oinco años, se han tomado en cuenta los siguientes criterios: disponibilidad de materiales mejorados con aceptación oomercial y agronómica, hábito de oompra de semillas y comercialización de semillas mejoradas.6.2.1Disponibilidad de materiales mejorados oon aoepta-cHm comeroial y agronómica Distrito de Garda Rovira En base al análisis mencionado en el capItulo 5.1. 3. 1.1, pudo distinguirse que se identificaron materia-les de fdjol en los dos pisos térmicos que cumplen con los requisitos b~sicos de tener buena aceptacibn comercial y agronbmica, así como buena adaptacibn en la zona.En el caso de mab se pudo identificar que en zona media se cuenta con una variedad que cumple con los dos requisitos. Sin embargo, para zona fda no se encuentran en el mercado variedades mejoradas que sean aceptadas por los consumidores y los agricultares, por lo que se sugiere, nb producir semilla para esta zona en los primeros años, hasta contar con los materiales adecuados.Las necesidades potenciales de semillas ya se han mencionado en el punto 6. 1.En el estudio efectuado en el ~rea de influencia de este sitio, pudo identificarse que para maíz existen materiales mejorados en los dos pisos térmicos que son aceptados, comercial y agronbmícamente, en donde buen número de agricultores han tenido experiencias positivas al usarlas. En fríjol se puede tener certeza de eontar en clima fdo moderado con el material adecuado y aunque para zona media nO existe mucha evidencia, se identificaron unos materiales con buenas posibilidades. En este sitio de estudio se han podido producir y comercializar, con mucha facilidad, hasta 21. 2 toneladas de semilla de maíz que se agotan al inicio del período de la demanda y no m~s de 6 ton s de semilla de frijol.En base a los criterios analizados en los puntos anteriores se presentan en los cuadros 9 y 10, los volúmenes de semillas de matz y fríjol que se sugiere producir en los si tios de estudio. 1.Orientar al agricultor a participar en la producción de semilla mejorada como una actividad comercial.Organizar un programa de abastecimiento permanente de los materiales a ser usados por los agricultores que se dedicaran a la producción de semilla mejorada.Proporcionar al agricultor la asesoda técnica requerida para alcanzar el nivel de calidad adecuado.Garantizar la existencia de un servicio de beneficio de la semilla de utilización colectiva.Suministrar el apoyo logfstico necesario para las operaciones de comercialización inicial de la semilla mejorada, con miras a fortalecer la estrategia de que sea el propio agricultor quien maneje directamente todo el proceso.Diseñar y ejecutar progl'amas de capacitación para la organización y opar'ación de este programa, tanto para el personal de apoyo, como para los agricultores.El proyecto, para su ejecución, se basa principalmente en el aprovechamiento integrado de los recursos físicos, econ6micos y humanos con que cuentan las diferentes instituciones del sector agropecuario, de los sitios de estudio y la implementación de los recursos mínimos necesarios para desarrollar y/o fortalecer programas de semillas.Los procesos básicos necesarios son los siguientes:1.Financiación para producción de campo 2. Abastecimiento de semillas b'asicas de los materiales que se desean multiplicarSupervisión adecuada de la agencia certificadora: en campo, beneficio y almacenamiento de los lotes de semilla para garantizar la calidad de la misma.Proporcionar asesoda técnica directa a los agricultores productores de semilla, para orientarlos en esta actividadPrestar un servicio de beneficio colectim de semilla a los productores 6. Garantizar a los productores un mercado seguro de la venta de la semilla y proporcionar todo el apoyo logístico necesariopara motivarlos a que posteriormente, ellos manejen el proceso completo de producción, almacenamiento y comercialización.Utilizar la infraestructura existente de las diferentes instituciones del sector agropecuario intepesadas en pasticipar 8.Mantener un sistema de seguimiento de la aceptación comcpdül y agronómica de las semillas pl'oducidas y corncrciali-zadas, así como una evaluaoi6n sistematizada de las nuevas variedades antes de ser introducidas al mercado.La ejecuoi6n directa puede ser una actividad compartida entre las instituoiones del sector agropeouario que ya operan en los sitios de estudio, utilizando los reoursos oon que cuenta e implementándose oon los recursos mínimos necesarios.Los produotores que se sugiere que participen en la producción de las semillas son pequeños agricultores productores de grano en los dos sitios de estudio, que aotualmente recihen financiación de la Caja Agraria o de otras fuentes financieras con supervisión y asesoría técnica de Desarrollo Rural y/o Secretaría de Agricultura.Los agricultores que reúnan los requisitos exigidos y sean seleccionados por los técnicos que ya cuentan con financiación para la producción de grano, podrían obtener una ampliación para cubrir los gastos adicionales en la producción de semilla, que implicaría un incremento no mayor del 30%.Se sugiere como un mejor estímulo para motivar a los agricultores a producir semilla, analizar la posibilidad de dar financiación blanda ya un plazo adecuado a quienes se dediquen a esta actividad. La costumbre genel'alizada de los agricultores de vender el grano comercial inmediat(\\lTIente después de la cosecha y 5 meses después comprar al doble o triple del precio a los intermediarios el mismo producto para usarse como semi lIa, obedece en parte a la necesidad de pagar el crédito inmediatamente después de la recolección. La posibilidad de proporcionar financiación blanda a los productores de semilla ya mas largo plazo, propícial'Ía a motivar a los productores a participa!' en el ciclo completo desde producción hasta la comercialización.En este sistema en donde inicialmente juega un papel muy importante el proceso educativo de enseí'lar a los agricultores a producir semilla, se hace necesario que los semillistas utilicen en cada siembra, semilla b\"asica producida en las granjas experimentales por los centros de investigacHm que cuentan con el personal técnico capacitado para efectuar previamente trabajos de pureza genética para el mejor control de calidad.Es necesario contar con la seguridad de que. la semilla que se está produciendo rdma los requisi t s mfnimos necesarios para su comercialización, en donde las normas deberán ser, en un principio, más flexibles en cuanto a los estándares, normas, germinación y pureza, que las que se aplican a los productores del sistema tradicional empresarial de semilla, utilizándose una etiqueta que identifique su venta, que nó necesariamente deberá de ser etiqueta de semilla certificada.En esta actividad la agencia certificadora jugará un papel importante de control de calidad y fomento de este tipo de industria de semillas.Para dcsar-rollar-esta aetividad es neccsano que los tecnicos de las instituciones que presten este servicio, reciban cur-sos carLos de adiestramienLo y proporcionen la asesoda tecnica directa a los semillistas, con visi tas periódicas ti los campos de producción.Para la ejecución de la estrategia que se propone, es indispensable asegurar a los productores Un servicio colectivo de beneficio de semi IIas. en donde pueda darse el acondicionamiento mínimo necesario que se requiera en la zOna para su uso. En ninguno de los sitios de estudio se hace necesario separar el grano de maiz por forma y tamaño, porque los agricultores no practican siembras mecanizadas. En el caso de Garda Rovira, para los volúmenes que se desean implementar podda recurrirse al uso de plantas beneficiadoras portátiles, previo a efectuar un estudio de factibilidad detallado, considerando gastos de inversión, financiaci6n, operaoión, mantenimiento y otros.En un estudio preliminar para identificar el equipo portátil adecuado para cumplir con las necesidades de beneficio de semillas que se sugiere producir en este sitio de estudio, se identifico el equipo m{nimo necesario para beneficio de los volúmenes de producción de los cinco años, el cual puede ser el siguiente:Al 1.En los dos sitios de estudio las instituciones del sector oficial cuentan con facilidades de almacenamiento. que padda utilizarse y cargarse su costo al precio de la semilla, garantizándose una buena germinación, vi gOl' y sanidad de la semi!la.8.8 Seguimiento:t. evaluación de resultadosLos volúmenes que se sugieren producir, los dos primeros años, son muy inferiores al porcentaje de semilla que se estimó en las encuestas que podría comercializarse por el hábito del agricultor de comprar semilla. Se cree que en este período inicial es muy importante dar un seguimiento a la semilla comercializada, para evaluar su aceptación, y, en base a esto, ajustar los volúmenes de producción sugeridos los siguientes tres años: una evaluación sencilla podda ser llevar un registro de los agricultores que la consumen, efectuar visi tas a los campos de producción en el pedodo vegetativo, conocer las dificultades o facilidades que tuvieron para la comercialización del producto y en el registro de venta identificar si vuelven a comprar semilla los mismos agricultores y en que cantidades la demanda. En esta última actitud, el agricultor conjuga todos los criterios para la toma de su decisión.Los nuevos materiales mejorados que salen al mercado deberán evaluarse antes, en condiciones de fincas de los agricultores, sus bondades agronómicas y comerciales, montando ensayos y pruebas de campo en siembras semicomerciales, integrando en la evaluación los sistemas dc producción del agricultOI' (fechas de siembl'a, poblaciones, asoci aciones O relevos, cosecha, almaccnam iento y comercialización). Es importante en esta evaluación la participa-ción del agricultor, para que los criterios de decisión del técnico no contrasten con las características cualitativas que son muy importantes para el agricultor.La estrategia sugerida podrá tener buena recepción por las partes involucradas si cumple con las dos premisas importantes: 1) ofrecer a los agricultores semillas de buena calidad de variedades superiores a las que él siembra. 2) previo a hacer un análisis detallado de costos en todo el proceso y sugerir una escala de precios que tenga incentivos económicos a los diferentes sectores involucrados en el proceso.En el caso de que se considere subsidiar la venta de la semilla a los usuarios, se deben proteger los incentivos económicos de los sectores involucrados.","tokenCount":"4209"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"536d40fd7bdf76731bb3ce7c2c9d5053","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef5a93c8-365d-49ad-ab9a-c223489badc7/retrieve","id":"611255938"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a7cdccb-5a50-4b9f-b91e-d97f56eec357","pagecount":"20","content":"CGIAR es una alianza mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre. La ciencia de CGIAR está dedicada a transformar los sistemas alimentarios, terrestres y acuáticos en medio de una crisis climática. Su labor científica la llevan a cabo 13 Centros/Alianzas de CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, incluidos institutos nacionales y regionales de investigación, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, academia, organizaciones para el desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Nos gustaría dar las gracias a todos los financiadores que apoyan esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo en Fideicomiso de CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders. Para más información sobre esta y otras iniciativas de la cartera de investigación de CGIAR, visite www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2024 CIAT. Algunos derechos reservados. Esta publicación está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Atribución-No Comercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BYNC 4.0). Hay una tendencia en los gobiernos a buscar el fortalecimiento de la seguridad alimentaria, a través, por ejemplo, de la creación de planes y políticas. Las evidencias analizadas revelan una débil aproximación al sistema alimentario dentro de los planes de gobierno. Un enfoque de Sistemas Alimentarios Sostenibles facilitaría la articulación de las acciones y las intervenciones propuestas por los gobiernos de la región Caribe. Generaría sinergias, mejoraría la eficiencia en la ejecución de recursos y posibilitaría una mayor escalabilidad de los resultados. Es necesaria la cooperación entre sectores y temas de gobierno para integrar las acciones asociadas a seguridad alimentaria y nutrición que actualmente se están realizando de manera dispersa. Es fundamental detener esta dispersión de las acciones y dirigirlas hacia un camino integrado. Las gestiones de gobierno tienen un enfoque hacia los componentes de oferta del sistema alimentario, desatendiendo la importancia de entender y atender los componentes de la demanda: entre ellas, los hábitos de consumo, la dieta, la nutrición y el acceso. Estimular los mercados locales como punto de encuentro entre la producción y el consumo es una alternativa para empezar a fortalecer enfoques desde la demanda (lo que la población quiere o necesita) y conectar con mayor eficiencia los sectores productivos. Los mercados pueden tener un mejor funcionamiento si se sincroniza la oferta de alimentos con el consumo, por ejemplo, a través de canales más eficientes de información, lo que aumentaría la eficiencia económica, disminuiría costos y desperdicios, entre otros beneficios. Otras oportunidades para mejorar el funcionamiento de los sistemas alimentarios son: (a) acciones para la gestión de pérdidas y desperdicio de alimentos, (b) medidas para mitigar efectos de cambio climático en las zonas productoras y (c) protección y promoción del patrimonio gastronómico como estrategia de fortalecimiento económico y social.En un territorio donde la riqueza culinaria es tan variada como sus paisajes, Colombia enfrenta un desafío monumental en su mesa: nutrir a toda su población por igual, sin poner en riesgo la salud del planeta ni los recursos futuros; es decir, lograr la sostenibilidad de sus sistemas alimentarios. Los sistemas alimentarios y sus políticas asociadas se cocinan con ingredientes de historia, economía y cultura. Cada bocado cuenta una historia de tradición, acceso, disponibilidad y sostenibilidad.Este estudio de política busca identificar cómo los ocho departamentos de la costa Caribe colombiana han enfrentado los retos asociados con seguridad alimentaria, sostenibilidad ambiental y equidad social, entre otros aspectos de los sistemas alimentarios. El análisis se basa en información secundaria proveniente de las rendiciones de cuentas de sus últimos gobiernos y las acciones implementadas para alimentar a una región diversa en sus desafíos, traducidos en imperativos políticos que requieren atención urgente y estratégica.Políticas públicas territoriales: el ingrediente clave para transformar los sistemas alimentariosTransformar los sistemas alimentarios para que sean nutritivos, sostenibles y equitativos requiere una amplia gama de políticas y acciones que respondan a las necesidades específicas de los territorios. Algunas se refieren explícitamente a la alimentación; las políticas agrícolas, por ejemplo, están diseñadas para apoyar la seguridad alimentaria y los medios de subsistencia de los productores. En contraste, otras políticas no tienen objetivos explícitamente relacionados con la alimentación, pero influyen en ella, como las políticas relacionadas con transporte, comercio internacional, energía o reducción de la pobreza (Le Coq et al., 2021) Dado que todos los elementos del sistema alimentario están interconectados, las políticas que influyen en una parte del sistema también tienen un efecto dominó en el resto de él, con repercusiones que van más allá de sus objetivos inmediatos. Sin embargo, estas interconexiones no suelen aprovecharse, ya que las políticas se elaboran en sectores separados, aislados unos de otros (Ortiz-Moncada et al., 2003). La historia demuestra que esta desconexión debilita los esfuerzos para superar las múltiples formas de malnutrición y demás síntomas de la insostenibilidad de los sistemas alimentarios.Reconocer estas vinculaciones y actuar en consecuencia es el núcleo de la propuesta de un enfoque de sistemas alimentarios en la formulación de políticas.Hablamos de sistemas alimentarios para referirnos a todos los actores, las actividades, los procesos y elementos que intervienen en la producción, la comercialización, el consumo de alimentos y la gestión de sus residuos, así como sus factores determinantes e impactos sobre el medio ambiente, la seguridad alimentaria, la salud y la nutrición (Naciones Unidas, 2021). Desde los agricultores que preparan el suelo y los recolectores de frutas, hasta los cajeros de supermercados y cocineros, las instalaciones de compostaje, las políticas públicas, los movimientos demográficos, los recursos naturales y la economía, incluyendo los medios de vida. Múltiples componentes interactuando simultáneamente que, al encontrar equilibrio, pueden asegurar el derecho a la alimentación para todos.Los sistemas alimentarios están en el centro de los grandes retos de nuestro tiempo. \"Cuando funcionan bien, los sistemas alimentarios tienen el poder de unirnos como familias, comunidades y naciones. Sin embargo, cuando fallan, el desorden resultante amenaza nuestra educación, salud y economía, así como los derechos humanos, la paz y la seguridad. Como en tantos casos, los que ya eran pobres o marginados tienen más probabilidades de sufrir los peores efectos\" (Naciones Unidas, 2021). De acuerdo con la FAO (2023) la forma en la que nos alimentamos está fallando: no está logrando alimentar a todo el mundo de manera saludable y equitativa, no asegura medios de vida dignos para todos los actores y, además, está poniendo en jaque el equilibrio de los ecosistemas y el clima. Estos son los indicios de un sistema alimentario insostenible.¿Cómo estamos?En Colombia, las cifras que demuestran la ineficiencia de sus sistemas alimentarios son claras: el sector agroalimentario genera aproximadamente el 26% de los empleos; sin embargo, es también uno de los menos renumerado, con salarios un 30% por debajo del salario mínimo mensual; en 2020, un 42,5% de la población rural se encontraba en situación de pobreza monetaria y un 15,1% en situación de pobreza monetaria extrema (FAO, 2022). Pese a la alta disponibilidad y diversidad de alimentos producidos en el país, según la ENSIN 2015, el 54,2% de los hogares se encuentra en inseguridad alimentaria y nutricional y al mismo tiempo el 56,6% de la población tiene sobrepeso u obesidad (ICBF, 2015).En lo correspondiente al medioambiente, a pesar de ser uno de los países más biodiversos del mundo, Colombia ha ido perdiendo su biodiversidad a pasos agigantados, debido principalmente al cambio en el uso del suelo por expansión de la frontera agropecuaria. La ganadería extensiva representa el principal uso de las tierras deforestadas, con más de 34 millones de hectáreas. Si la deforestación continúa en aumento, a 2030 Colombia podría perder alrededor de 1,5 billones de pesos del PIB (Ajiaco et al., 2021). Sumado a esto, según un estudio realizado por el Departamento Nacional de Planeación (2016), de la oferta nacional disponible de alimentos (28,5 millones de toneladas al año) se pierden o se desperdician un total de 9,76 millones de toneladas, lo cual equivale al 34% del total producido por año. Los alimentos desperdiciados no sólo representan una oportunidad perdida de disminuir el hambre y la malnutrición sino también la pérdida de los recursos económicos, humanos y naturales invertidos en la producción, así como una mayor emisión de gases efecto invernadero producto de la descomposición.La región Caribe colombiana cuenta con una población total de 10.301.982 habitantes. Los departamentos con mayor distribución poblacional son Atlántico y Bolívar, con más de 2 millones de habitantes. Por su parte, Córdoba, Magdalena, Cesar y La Guajira tienen alrededor de 1 millón de habitantes cada uno, mientras que Sucre y San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina no superan los 970.000 habitantes (Figura 1).Figura 1: Departamentos de la región Caribe, su ubicación dentro del territorio nacional y su densidad poblacional en 2022.Fuente: DANE, 2022a.Al hacer un zoom a los sistemas alimentarios de la región Caribe, en promedio, el 71,8% de los hogares se autopercibe como pobre (Figura 2), según la Encuesta de Calidad de Vida (DANE, 2022a). Córdoba y Sucre reportan las tasas más altas, superando el 80%, mientras que el Archipiélago de San Andrés muestra la menor percepción de pobreza: por debajo del 40%.Figura 2: Percepción de pobreza de la población de la región Caribe colombiana.Fuente: DANE, 2022a.En esa misma línea, según el DANE (2022a), el 58,4% de los hogares de la región expresó preocupación por no tener suficiente alimento, y casi la misma proporción omitió al menos una comida al día. En Córdoba, por ejemplo, el 71,2% de los hogares se preocuparon por la escasez de alimentos y el 62,3% expresó tener dificultades para acceder a opciones saludables (Figura 3). Además, el 66,45% reconoce tener una dieta limitada en variedad y el 14,2% dijo haber estado sin comer durante un día completo (DANE, 2022a).Figura 3: Porcentaje de hogares que no pudieron acceder a alimentos por falta de dinero u otros recursos.Fuente: DANE, 2022a.En cuanto a las dietas, como lo muestra la Figura 4, los productos que más se consumen diariamente son arroz, verduras, tubérculos y huevos (DANE, 2022a). Sin embargo, la mayoría de ellos proviene de otras regiones del país, lo que se traduce en una dependencia de las rutas y dinámicas de abastecimiento de zonas tan alejadas como Bucaramanga (para el caso del huevo), Cúcuta, Yopal y Espinal (para arroz), Ocaña, Tunja y Marinilla (para verduras), entre otros (PlaSA Colombia, 2022). En contraste, los alimentos que más se desperdician en la región Caribe son frutas, cereales y verduras. Entre las razones más comunes del desperdicio de alimentos está el comprar más de lo que se necesita y la caducidad (DANE, 2022a).Figura 4. Frecuencia de consumo de alimentos en la región Caribe colombiana.Fuente: DANE, 2022a.En los ocho departamentos del Caribe, la mayoría de las compras de alimentos se realiza en tiendas de barrio y, en segundo lugar, en los supermercados, mientras que menos del 10% se compra en plazas de mercado (ver Figura 5). En general, el 50% de la población del Caribe opta por tiendas o supermercados para sus compras. En el caso específico de Cesar y La Guajira, en promedio, el 20% de las compras se realiza en plazas de mercado. Estos datos podrían reflejar diferencias en la infraestructura, movilidad y accesibilidad disponibles en la región (DANE, 2022a) y, por ende, en posibles requerimientos de inversión.Figura 5. Tiempo de desplazamiento (en minutos) de los hogares de la región Caribe para la compra de alimentos.Fuente: DANE, 2022a.Para evaluar la integración de los temas alimentarios en las políticas y programas implementados por los gobiernos anteriores, se hizo una revisión a los informes de gestión de cada departamento de la región Caribe, dado que estos reportan las acciones efectivas y la asignación de recursos (ejecución) en sus diferentes planes, programas, proyectos, etc. Dicha revisión siguió el siguiente proceso metodológico: Fase 1: Categorización de temáticas. Se establecieron las categorías (ver Figura 6) para el análisis de los sistemas alimentarios, siguiendo el marco propuesto por el Grupo de Alto Nivel de Expertos en Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutrición (en inglés, High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition) (HLPE, 2017), el cual contiene conceptos y una estructura que permitió conectar y analizar los textos. Fase 2: Recolección de informes. Se obtuvieron 8 informes de gestión del periodo 2020-2023, uno por cada departamento de la región, a través de los sitios web oficiales de los departamentos. Fase 3: Filtrado y análisis de textos. Se emplearon técnicas de análisis de texto para identificar la frecuencia (número de veces) y el nivel de intensidad con que aparecía cada una de las categorías temáticas por informe de gestión. Fase 4: Análisis de redes de texto. Se realizó un análisis de redes de texto que permite identificar las diferentes conexiones entre las categorías temáticas del sistema alimentario, por cada uno de los departamentos.Como lo muestra la Figura 6, cada categoría temática definida tiene unos términos o conceptos clave asociados a ella. La proporción con que aparecen estos términos en las actividades reportadas por cada informe de gestión determinó los resultados.Figura 6. Categorías y temáticas seleccionadas y analizadas por cada informe de gestión Las principales limitaciones del estudio incluyeron la variabilidad en la calidad y detalle de los informes de gestión disponibles, así como posibles sesgos en la interpretación de los textos. Estas limitaciones fueron mitigadas mediante la revisión de expertos, y la verificación y consulta de múltiples fuentes, como documentos mencionados en los informes. Los resultados de este análisis ofrecen una visión integral sobre cómo los gobiernos departamentales de la región Caribe han abordado las diferentes temáticas relacionadas con los sistemas alimentarios, y proporcionan una base sólida para la formulación de futuras políticas y estrategias que mejoren la integración de los diversos componentes de un sistema alimentario.Hallazgos ¿Qué dicen los informes de gestión de la región Caribe sobre qué tanto los gobiernos han abordado las diferentes temáticas relacionadas con los sistemas alimentarios?La Figura 7 muestra el porcentaje de mención de cada una de las categorías temáticas evaluadas dentro los informes de gestión de la región Caribe. Como se puede observar en ella, hay un interés general de los gobiernos (un 23%) por estimular la seguridad alimentaria. A esta categoría, la siguen la de producción (19%) y salud (14%). La primera, se refiere principalmente a aumentar y mejorar los volúmenes de oferta de alimentos, y la segunda, está principalmente vinculada al monitoreo, control y disminución de enfermedades. En comparación, los temas que reportaron menos intervenciones fueron mercados, género y dietas, con una participación menor al 6% en las menciones de los informes de gestión.Figura 7: Porcentaje de mención de las categorías temáticas en los informes de gestión.¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Producción?En la temática de producción se destacan intervenciones sobre actividades de extensión agrícola que incluyen acceso a tecnologías, prácticas agronómicas y distribución de insumos. También se encontraron acciones encaminadas a mejorar el acceso a fuentes de agua, sistemas de riego y electrificación. Sin embargo, no se evidencia una fuerte inversión en asistencia financiera y aseguramiento para los agricultores y para la producción agrícola. En línea, son pocas las acciones vinculadas a la diversificación de los cultivos con el propósito de reducir la dependencia de monocultivos y de alimentos importados de otras regiones.Dentro de los temas no abordados en la temática de producción y desde el punto de vista del sistema alimentario, se identifica espacio para integrar componentes de agroecología, fertilizantes orgánicos y agricultura regenerativa.Uno de los motores del sistema alimentario es la infraestructura, que hace referencia a vías, puentes, centros de acopio, estructuras de mercado, entre otros, que facilitan el almacenamiento y la distribución de alimentos y, por lo tanto, son estratégicos para la transformación de los sistemas alimentarios. De la cobertura y del estado de las vías depende la conexión entre la producción y los mercados y, por ende, la competitividad del sector productivo. Cuando la infraestructura está deteriorada, desincentiva la agricultura familiar y de pequeña escala, amenazando la actividad económica y los medios de vida de las comunidades, dados los sobrecostos en tiempo y dinero (Sepúlveda Ayala, 2020).Los informes de gestión registran intervenciones sobre mejoramiento, rehabilitación y construcción de vías secundarias, terciarias y puentes, mejoramiento de acceso a áreas rurales, transporte de productos agrícolas, conexión a gas natural y conectividad a internet. Por otro lado, no hay registros sobre inversiones en: modernización de infraestructura de mercados (mercados móviles, centros de abastecimiento, plazas de mercado, sistemas de transporte a mercados), centros de acopio, electrificación rural y planificación urbana alrededor del acceso a los alimentos.Es un enfoque de producción agrícola que se basa en los principios de la ecología y busca crear sistemas agrícolas sostenibles y resilientes mediante prácticas que promuevan la biodiversidad, la salud del suelo y el bienestar de las comunidades rurales (FAO, 2021).Son sustancias naturales derivadas de restos vegetales o animales que se utilizan para mejorar la fertilidad del suelo y promover el crecimiento de las plantas de manera sostenible (Mosquera et al., 2010).AGRICULTURA REGENERATIVA:La agricultura regenerativa es un sistema de principios y prácticas agrícolas que aumenta la biodiversidad, enriquece los suelos, mejora las cuencas hidrográficas y potencia los servicios ecosistémicos (Rodale Institute, 2014)¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Cambio Climático?El cambio climático es uno de los principales retos de los sistemas alimentarios porque amenaza el ciclo de vida de los cultivos y disminuye su aptitud frente a los nuevos patrones climáticos, lo que aumenta la probabilidad de perder cosechas y disminuir sus rendimientos (Prager et al., 2015;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2013). Los episodios climáticos extremos tienen un efecto negativo directo en la disponibilidad de alimentos, el acceso a estos y la estabilidad de los precios, así como en los bienes y en los medios de vida de las zonas rurales y urbanas.Los hallazgos asociados a esta temática en los informes de gestión están relacionados con el monitoreo del clima a través del uso y la adecuación de tecnologías de información. En cuanto a adaptación y mitigación, se identificaron estrategias de educación, campañas de recuperación y servicios de apoyo para la restauración de los ecosistemas naturales, reducción de las emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) y proyectos productivos resilientes. También se registraron actividades asociadas a la gestión y el manejo de riesgos climáticos, protocolos de respuesta rápida y planes de contingencia.A pesar de estos resultados, hay ausencia en temas asociados a evaluaciones de impacto de cambio, variabilidad climática y planes de acción en el sistema agrícola de la región. Tampoco se hallaron intervenciones dirigidas al uso de material genético tolerante a estreses por temperatura (días sin lluvia, sequías prolongadas, exposición a altas temperaturas, etc.) y precipitación (cambios en los patrones de lluvia, disminución de la pluviosidad e inundaciones).¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Economía?Dentro de las intervenciones no se mencionaron la conexión entre la oferta y la demanda del mercado laboral ni se establecen mecanismos de conexión o interfaces entre la academia y el sistema productivo para impulsar emprendimientos de base tecnológica y amigables con el medio ambiente. Así mismo, la transferencia tecnológica a pequeños productores es débil, al igual que el vínculo entre la academia, el sistema productivo y la ciencia. Esto dificulta crear escenarios de oportunidades empresariales que conecten la producción agrícola local con mercados internacionales, así como aprovechar otros múltiples beneficios.¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Género?El enfoque de género tiene como objetivo identificar y caracterizar las particularidades contextuales y situaciones vivenciadas por las personas de acuerdo con su sexo y con los constructos sociales asociados, con sus implicaciones y diferencias económicas, políticas, psicológicas, culturales y jurídicas, identificando brechas y patrones de discriminación (DANE, 2022b).Entre los mayores desafíos que enfrentamos hoy en día se encuentra la persistente desigualdad de género. Las mujeres rurales, por ejemplo, desempeñan un papel fundamental en la producción de cultivos y crianza de animales, así como en el procesamiento, la venta y preparación de alimentos. Sin embargo, mujeres y niñas tienen cerca de un 10 % más de probabilidad de padecer inseguridad alimentaria que hombres y niños. Las normas discriminatorias de género y las instituciones ponen sobre las mujeres una pesada carga, demandando arduas labores y limitando sus derechos a la tierra y otros recursos. Su voz e influencia dentro de sus hogares y comunidades también se ven afectadas de manera negativa (Alianza de Bioversity International y el CIAT, 2023). Al considerar la igualdad de género como un derecho humano y como camino crítico hacia la consecución de sistemas alimentarios sostenibles, se reduce la desigualdad de género y refuerza el reconocimiento de hombres y mujeres vulnerables, jóvenes y grupos marginados, como actores legítimos dentro de los sistemas alimentarios (Alianza de Bioversity International y el CIAT, 2023). En ese sentido, es clave identificar cuál es el nivel de intervención y ejecución de los planes de gobierno en esta temática.Dentro de los informes de gestión, en general, se abordan temas relacionados con la reducción de la violencia de género, tanto en espacios sociales como políticos. También son frecuentes las acciones para promover la participación, el ejercicio de la ciudadanía, el fortalecimiento de las organizaciones sociales y el liderazgo. Existe un enfoque general en la región en actividades de socialización de las políticas de género y diversidad sexual, sin embargo, se encuentran pocas evidencias de indicadores de implementación y ejecución. Los resultados también revelan acciones asociadas con el fortalecimiento de actividades económicas en el sector piscícola, agrícola e industrial con este enfoque. Se encontraron también varias menciones relacionadas con género y acciones para fortalecer un enfoque diferencial en el acceso al sistema de salud y nutrición.Una ausencia importante es que el papel de la mujer no se aborda como un elemento activo de la intervención en el sistema alimentario. Ciertamente, existe un patrón de atención al tema con un enfoque de políticas de resarcimiento hacia las mujeres, pero no como un agente trasformador dentro de las dinámicas del sistema. Las intervenciones podrían encausarse en la integración efectiva de las mujeres en el sistema alimentario sostenible, dados los roles que juega dentro de todo el sistema. Finalmente, aunque se mencionan documentos y otros reportes complementarios, es difícil acceder a su contenido para conocer en detalle las políticas y programas citados. Por lo tanto, no hay suficiente evidencia sobre la relación que tiene el componente de género con los sistemas alimentarios de la región.Los mercados son el punto de encuentro entre la oferta y la demanda de alimentos; cuando estos son eficientes y funcionan bien, ofrecen disponibilidad de alimentos diversos e inocuos, precios justos, accesibilidad y bajos niveles de desperdicio. Sin embargo, alcanzar este nivel de eficiencia es uno de los grandes retos del sistema alimentario, pues está expuesto a diversos puntos de tensión desde los diferentes componentes de la cadena logística y sus actores.En cuanto a las intervenciones en el componente de mercado, en los informes se abordaron acciones tendientes al desarrollo de mercados turísticos, campesinos y rurales, así como ruedas de negocios, alianzas productivas y mercados populares. Se mencionan también acciones para fortalecer el desarrollo empresarial de los agronegocios de pequeños productores rurales.Es imperativo institucionalizar esfuerzos que fortalezcan los vínculos formales entre los productores y los mercados a través de: alianzas productivas, medios tradicionales como mercados físicos (plazas de mercado), canales virtuales (plataformas y aplicaciones) y herramientas de recolección de datos para monitoreo y trazabilidad de los alimentos. Desde la institucionalidad pública se puede canalizar la demanda con incentivos dirigidos a agronegocios de pequeños productores. Así mismo, falta tener sistemas de información sobre qué se produce, se cosecha y se compra, lo que ayudaría a contar con políticas sustentadas en datos reales, más que en voluntades políticas o medidas de último momento, reduciendo a la vez el poder de los intermediarios.¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Seguridad Alimentaria?La seguridad alimentaria es uno de los elementos articuladores en los sistemas alimentarios al involucrar disponibilidad, acceso, calidad e inocuidad y aprovechamiento biológico (Pérez-Escamilla, 2017). Esto está relacionado con la producción de alimentos, los sistemas de abastecimiento, los medios de vida, la dieta, la salud, los sistemas socioeconómicos, entre otros.Este componente es comúnmente mencionado en los informes de gestión de la región. En su mayoría, se destacan acciones relacionadas con: Nutrición: recuperación nutricional de la primera infancia y entrega de complementos alimentarios. Medios de vida: generación de ingresos, garantía de acceso a alimentos y solución de necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Disponibilidad: enfocada en producción agropecuaria y competitividad, fortalecimiento del campo y la mujer rural, autonomía alimentaria para grupos étnicos, y coordinación y articulación de organizaciones bajo un compromiso por la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional.No se hallaron acciones encaminadas a incluir métricas para monitorear la seguridad alimentaria a nivel departamental, como tampoco temas relacionados con la inclusión de alimentos frescos en la entrega de complementos nutricionales ni indicadores sobre entornos alimentarios saludables o exposición a la comida chatarra en entornos educativos (escuelas, colegios y universidades) ni acciones relacionadas con disminución de pérdidas y desperdicios de alimentos.La sostenibilidad también es poco mencionada en relación con la seguridad alimentaria. Según Berry et al., 2015, si no se integra la sostenibilidad como una dimensión explícita de la seguridad alimentaria, las políticas y programas actuales podrían convertirse en la causa misma del aumento de la inseguridad alimentaria en el futuro. En consonancia con la definición de sistemas alimentarios sostenibles, la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y la salud humana deben considerarse resultados claves y condiciones propicias para la sostenibilidad. A largo plazo, no habrá seguridad alimentaria ni salud sin sostenibilidad y no habrá sostenibilidad sin seguridad alimentaria y salud (HLPE, 2020).¿Cómo se abordaron los temas relacionados con Salud?Salud y nutrición son algunos de los indicadores de los impactos del sistema alimentario. Al mismo tiempo, la salud de los sistemas repercute directamente sobre la salud de la población (Godfray et al., 2010). Si funcionaran bien, los impactos serían menos alarmantes. Por lo general, estas variables son frecuentemente medidas y monitoreadas por las autoridades sanitarias territoriales y dan indicios de lo que podría estar funcionando bien o mal en los sistemas alimentarios. Las enfermedades no transmisibles, como la diabetes, la hipertensión y otras enfermedades cardiovasculares, están estrechamente asociadas a hábitos alimenticios y, por ende, a los sistemas alimentarios.Los temas de salud (relacionados con los sistemas alimentarios) más frecuentemente mencionados en los informes de gestión fueron: estilos de vida saludables, control y monitoreo de enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, factores de riesgo, promoción y prevención, fortalecimiento de hábitos de autocuidado como higiene y alimentación saludable, enfermedad diarreica aguda, disminución de la mortalidad infantil, lactancia materna, bajo peso al nacer, desnutrición en menores de 5 años, reducción de riesgo sanitario, saneamiento básico, alcantarillado, agua, inspección, vigilancia y control sanitario de alimentos y bebidas, y otros determinantes intermedios de la salud, como condiciones de vida, indicadores de nutrición y factores psicológicos y culturales.Hay pocas evidencias de intervenciones dirigidas a entornos alimentarios saludables o de un enfoque intersectorial en intervenciones relacionadas con salud y sistemas alimentarios. Las acciones se dirigen principalmente a la atención y no a la prevención; tampoco a la interconexión de salud con las formas de producción, inocuidad, disponibilidad y acceso a los alimentos.Las dietas se refieren a los alimentos individuales que consume una persona y a los patrones alimentarios como las proporciones y combinaciones de los diferentes alimentos y bebidas que se consumen habitualmente (Hu, 2002). Estas son un vínculo fundamental entre los sistemas y sus resultados en materia de salud y nutrición y a la vez pueden ser un motor de cambio para los futuros sistemas alimentarios (HLPE, 2020).Esta categoría presenta registros frecuentes como parte de los programas o políticas relacionadas con seguridad alimentaria, nutrición y salud. Se menciona comúnmente la importancia de una alimentación y unos hábitos saludables, así como también campañas educativas que incentivan el consumo adecuado de alimentos y su importancia en la salud humana. Sin embargo, hay ausencia de acciones sobre la transformación o el mejoramiento de la dieta como un motor de cambio imperativo y se mencionan con poca frecuencia los elementos del entorno El entorno alimentario se refiere a los alimentos disponibles y alcanzables para toda la población. Cabe resaltar que la disponibilidad de los alimentos no solo hace referencia a lo que suele encontrarse en supermercados sino también a lo que hallamos en comedores escolares, restaurantes, mercados campesinos, entre otros (FAO, 2016). El entorno alimentario también \"hace referencia a los ambientes, oportunidades y condiciones físicas, económicas, políticas y socioculturales que generan sugerencias cotidianas y determinan las preferencias y elecciones alimentarias de las personas, así como su estado nutricional\" (HLPE, 2020).Los entornos alimentarios saludables permiten que los consumidores accedan a opciones alimentarias más nutritivas para mejorar la calidad de la dieta y reducir la carga de la malnutrición en todas sus formas. Hoy en día se ha observado que, a nivel mundial, los entornos alimentarios se consideran \"no saludables\" dado que la publicidad, como factor determinante, ha generado una gran influencia sobre las elecciones alimentarias de los consumidores debido a la promoción de publicidad engañosa. Dentro de las barreras que se identifican para llevar a cabo una alimentación saludable está que la mayor oferta de los entornos alimentarios consiste en alimentos con alto contenido de energía y bajo contenido de nutrientes y esto, a su vez, se ha transformado en uno de los motivos por los cuales se han generado los aumentos de incidencia de obesidad (HLPE, 2020).alimentario que influyen en la elección de los alimentos y la aceptabilidad de estos y las dietas. No se mencionan estrategias como la promoción de alimentos tradicionales, la cocina y la capacitación de los consumidores, para promover dietas sanas y contribuir desde el consumo a configurar mejores opciones alimentarias.¿Cuáles son las temáticas más mencionadas en los informes de gestión?Entre los informes de los departamentos, hay diferentes niveles de intervención en las categorías temáticas debido a los distintos enfoques de los planes de gobierno, las necesidades, los presupuestos y las situaciones específicas de los territorios; sin embargo, hay tendencias heterogéneas en la intensidad con la que se mencionan los temas analizados, como lo muestra la Tabla 1. El abordaje de estas temáticas no es aislado y en general se establecen combinaciones y asociaciones en las intervenciones de los gobiernos (como lo muestra la Tabla 2), lo que es clave en la medida en que dibuja relaciones entre componentes para asumir acciones efectivas, que conectan esfuerzos y recursos y amplifican los impactos y resultados esperados.Tabla 1. Nivel de frecuencia de las temáticas relacionadas con Sistemas Alimentarios abordadas en los informes de gestión departamental de la Región Caribe. Nota: Esta tabla reporta el número de registros de los componentes del Sistema Alimentario en los informes de gestión.© Ricardo Gómez Ángel/Unsplash Tabla 2. Temáticas más sobresalientes en los informes de gestión.En lo relacionado con alimentación, la categoría de salud es la temática con mayor peso y hace referencia principalmente a proyectos de saneamiento básico, pero también menciona acciones de monitoreo y control de desnutrición en menores de 5 años, mujeres embarazadas y lactantes; promoción de la lactancia materna y monitoreo de eventos en salud (incluyendo enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles).La seguridad alimentaria se destaca en proyectos productivos, programas de recuperación nutricional y el Programa de alimentación y entrega de alimentos.La producción se enfoca en proyectos productivos, distribución de insumos agrícolas y extensión rural.En producción, el gobierno ha desarrollado actividades tendientes a estimular emprendimientos para la reactivación y el crecimiento económico y para aumentar la producción agrícola. Todo está fuertemente conectado con los propósitos del departamento en temas de seguridad alimentaria. Entre las acciones, se destacan el fortalecimiento de la conectividad agrícola con mercados finales, los mercados campesinos y el extensionismo agrícola.Busca aumento de la producción agrícola con tecnología de alta precisión y sistemas de riego.En infraestructura, se menciona el mejoramiento de la estructura vial, conectando lo rural con lo urbano.La seguridad alimentaria se destaca en programas relacionados con la lucha contra el hambre, agua potable y saneamiento.Reconoce la importancia del derecho a la alimentación, especialmente en la población más vulnerable. Ha hecho esfuerzos en formular una política pública de seguridad alimentaria que involucra actividades de fortalecimiento a pequeños productores rurales y a sus programas empresariales. Este informe también se enfoca en intervenciones sobre agua potable y saneamiento básico.En economía, se entregaron dotaciones de tecnologías para la agroindustria y agregación de valor en las diferentes cadenas productivas y se realizaron acciones para mejorar el turismo.El departamento enfoca sus esfuerzos en mejorar la seguridad alimentaria a través del fortalecimiento de la producción agrícola mediante la implementación de capacidades tecnológicas. Esto incluye el fortalecimiento de capacidades productivas, mejoras en la eficiencia de la cadena de valor, adopción de prácticas agrícolas sostenibles y crédito a mujeres en proyectos productivos. A pesar de estos avances, no se habla directamente de garantizar el acceso a alimentos suficientes y nutritivos.¿Cuáles fueron las combinaciones de temáticas más sobresalientes en los informes de gestión?Conocer los sistemas alimentarios significa no sólo identificar las características de cada uno de sus componentes, sino también las interconexiones y disyuntivas que existen entre cada uno de estos. Conocerlos permite, por ejemplo, diseñar prácticas agrícolas más sostenibles; optimizar el uso de recursos naturales; mejorar la capacidad del sistema para resistir y recuperarse de perturbaciones como desastres naturales, pandemias, o crisis económicas; promover dietas saludables y reducir enfermedades relacionadas con la alimentación; mejorar las condiciones laborales y económicas; y diseñar y aplicar políticas más efectivas y equitativas.Por lo tanto, un estudio de la relación entre factores como producción y cambio climático; economía, seguridad alimentaria y mercados; entre otros, ofrece información valiosa para identificar puntos de tensión y áreas más completas a mejorar (Fiqueroa Pedraza, 2003). Estos elementos interactúan de diversas maneras, creando vínculos causales y dinámicas complejas que deben ser comprendidas y gestionadas de manera integral (Piñeiro, 2021).Como se mencionó en la metodología, para analizar las combinaciones de temáticas existentes en los informes de gestión se el análisis de redes textuales. Este permite identificar las palabras (en este caso temáticas) que se mencionan en un texto para transfórmalas en un mapa visual (Figura 8), el cual representa la relación entre dichas palabras (Segev, 2020). En este mapa visual, cada temática se representa como un nodo; lo que permite establecer la cercanía de una temática (nodo) con otra, y su intensidad, basado en el número de veces que se menciona en una misma idea, lo que representan la popularidad de una temática en los textos.Algunas de las combinaciones más relevantes identificadas fueron:Es alentador encontrar evidencia de una relación entre producción y seguridad alimentaria, entendiendo la importancia de asegurar la disponibilidad de alimentos; sin embargo, no es suficiente mantener la presión en la producción agrícola si esto no se conecta con el acceso físico y económico a alimentos diversos (CCAFS, 2012). Hay riesgo de que se prefiera producir bienes económicos más que cultivar productos asociados al consumo de los hogares, lo que conllevaría a dietas poco diversas y al sacrificio de la soberanía alimentaria.La seguridad alimentaria existe cuando todas las personas tienen, en todo momento, acceso físico y económico a alimentos suficientes, inocuos y nutritivos que satisfacen sus necesidades energéticas diarias y preferencias alimentarias para llevar una vida activa y sana (FAO, 1997). La definición en sí misma establece la relación existente entre economía y seguridad alimentaria. Esta relación depende del sistema económico en la medida que el modelo de desarrollo se oriente o no a la diversificación del sistema agrícola y a un sistema de mercado que facilite el acceso de los consumidores a los alimentos de forma oportuna.Por otro lado, los medios de vida son las capacidades, los activos y las actividades necesarias para que las personas ganen dinero y se aseguren su sustento. El medio de vida de una familia es seguro cuando puede afrontar y recuperarse de las tensiones y los choques y mantener o incrementar sus capacidades y bienes (Chambers y Conway, 1992) (Accion Contre la Faim, miembro de la Red Internacional de la ACF, 2008). Es necesario que exista un enfoque de fortalecimiento a estos medios de vida cuando se establece la relación entre economía y seguridad alimentaria.Para lograr este objetivo, se requiere que el análisis y las intervenciones no solo se traten del acceso y la disponibilidad familiar a los alimentos, sino que se enfoquen más ampliamente en la productividad familiar. Este enfoque requiere una consideración más extensa del contexto económico y social, así como de la capacidad de la familia para prepararse, afrontar y recuperarse de los choques.La seguridad alimentaria y el apoyo a los medios de subsistencia son una parte importante del desarrollo de la resiliencia a largo plazo en las comunidades y los hogares (Accion Contre la Faim, miembro de la Red Internacional de la ACF, 2008).Hay un acuerdo común sobre los efectos de la alimentación (y, por ende, de los sistemas alimentarios) sobre la salud. Cada vez es más común escuchar sobre los costos ocultos de los sistemas alimentarios en el bienestar de las personas (por ejemplo, los costos al sistema de salud provenientes de enfermedades como la obesidad, la diabetes, la hipertensión, entre otras), lo que afecta la calidad de vida y presiona las finanzas públicas relacionadas con el funcionamiento del sistema de salud y la productividad del país. En ese sentido, hay una creciente presión desde la sociedad civil a los gobiernos y a las instituciones académicas para encontrar soluciones más sostenibles y saludables a los desafíos de los sistemas alimentarios (Méndez & Benito, 2005). En los informes de gestión departamentales se identificaron diversas menciones sobre la salud al referirse a la temática de seguridad alimentaria, lo que significa que se reconoce esta relación y se implementan algunas acciones correctivas.Figura 8: Combinaciones y peso de las categorías temáticas relacionadas con sistemas alimentarios en los informes de gestión.¿Qué se encontró con el análisis de redes textuales?• En el Atlántico, las temáticas que están más conectadas son cambio climático, dietas, economía, producción e infraestructura. Por su parte, salud se destaca por ser cercano a las demás temáticas analizadas pese a tener pocas conexiones. Sin embargo, no se evidencian relaciones entre dieta y seguridad alimentaria, a pesar de que son temas claves, lo que podría indicar que las políticas y acciones no están abordando de manera efectiva cómo garantizar que la población tenga acceso a una dieta nutritiva y variada como parte de la seguridad alimentaria.• En Bolívar, los temas de dietas, género, producción y salud están interrelacionados, mientras que economía y cambio climático tienen numerosas conexiones.• En Cesar, género está desconectado, mientras que economía actúa como un puente importante, aunque no se relaciona con otros componentes como dietas o infraestructura.• En Córdoba, las intervenciones en infraestructura son mínimas, y cambio climático y economía son las temáticas que más interactúan, mientras que salud y producción se trabajan articuladamente con las demás temáticas. En cambio, el tema de dietas está aislado, lo que implica que no se está dando la atención necesaria a la calidad y el valor nutricional de los alimentos consumidos por la población.• En La Guajira, lo que más se destaca es un triángulo con alta intensidad relacional entre salud, producción y seguridad alimentaria. No obstante, la ausencia de un enfoque holístico impide que los temas de economía, infraestructura, cambio climático, dietas, mercados, producción y seguridad alimentaria se integren efectivamente.• En Magdalena, economía y cambio climático son prominentes, y economía está conectada con temas de género y producción. No obstante, las dietas permanecen desconectadas de estas dinámicas, al igual que en otros departamentos, lo que destaca la necesidad de políticas que integren mejor la alimentación con los aspectos económicos y de producción para mejorar la salud y el bienestar de la población.• En San Andrés, a pesar de que el cambio climático y la salud son temas relevantes, la falta de conexión entre mercados y dietas, así como entre infraestructura y economía, sugiere una necesidad de integrar políticas y acciones que también fortalezcan la disponibilidad de alimentos nutritivos y mejoren la infraestructura para apoyar un desarrollo económico sostenible y resiliente desde diferentes aristas.• En Sucre, economía y cambio climático muestran una alta interacción, y género está relacionado con producción, salud y seguridad alimentaria, mientras que mercados y dietas están desconectados, lo que muestra una falta de alineación o integración entre la oferta de alimentos en los mercados y las necesidades o preferencias dietéticas de la población.La 3 presenta una comparación entre los instrumentos de política pública con los que contaban los gobiernos de la región Caribe. Se observa que la mayoría de los instrumentos de política están orientados hacia soluciones inmediatas, con planes, programas y proyectos a corto plazo. Estos instrumentos predominan en todos los departamentos, con un enfoque en áreas como cambio climático, economía, producción y seguridad alimentaria.Tabla 3. Instrumentos de política pública de los gobiernos de la región Caribe mencionados en los informes de gestión. Los instrumentos de política a corto plazo incluyen planes, programas y proyectos asociados al periodo de gobierno del departamento.Los instrumentos de política a largo plazo (o políticas públicas) se refieren a las estrategias y acciones establecidas para abordar problemas específicos que van más allá de un periodo de gobierno.Por ejemplo, en el Atlántico los instrumentos consultados mencionan un alto número de intervenciones en salud (11) y producción (8), mientras que las estrategias de largo plazo son menos frecuentes en el departamento. De manera similar, Bolívar muestra un gran número de acciones en economía (11) y seguridad alimentaria (12). En Cesar, la mayoría de las intervenciones también son inmediatas, especialmente en producción (13) y seguridad alimentaria (12), pero hay una notable carencia de políticas duraderas en casi todas las categorías.Córdoba y La Guajira siguen patrones similares, con intervenciones en cambio climático, infraestructura vial y seguridad alimentaria, pero muy pocas estrategias a largo plazo. Magdalena y San Andrés Islas también enfatizan planes y programas inmediatos en producción y economía. Sucre, aunque tiene algunas políticas duraderas en salud y seguridad alimentaria, también depende en gran medida de intervenciones inmediatas.Por tanto, hay una falta de políticas públicas sostenibles en la región Caribe. Esto sugiere una necesidad de desarrollar estrategias más duraderas para abordar los desafíos en los sistemas alimentarios. Los gobiernos departamentales deben enfocarse en crear políticas que no solo ofrezcan soluciones inmediatas, sino que también establezcan bases sólidas para el desarrollo futuro.Para potenciar lo que ya existe  Incrementar las intervenciones que integren diferentes componentes del sistema alimentario. Eso incluye articular los ejercicios de producción de alimentos con acceso a mercados, mejoramiento de dietas, mitigación de cambio climático, infraestructura y economía circular. Esta observación es un llamado a generar lazos entre los sectores gubernamentales, trascendiendo los alcances de cada área para integrarla con objetivos más robustos en sistemas alimentarios.Lo anterior requiere mayores esfuerzos en integración de procesos y conexión de acciones entre las áreas de institucionalidad. Para lograrlo, se necesita un enfoque sistémico que permita coordinar y fortalecer todas estas acciones de manera coherente y efectiva: adoptar un enfoque donde las políticas alimentarias estén coordinadas con políticas de salud pública, desarrollo rural, protección ambiental y comercio. Fortalecer la gobernanza de los sistemas alimentarios a través de la creación de comités multisectoriales o consejos que incluyan representantes de diferentes sectores (agricultura, salud, medio ambiente, educación, comercio, entre otros) para coordinar políticas y acciones relacionadas con la alimentación. Empoderar a las comunidades para que participen activamente en la formulación, ejecución y seguimiento de las políticas alimentarias, de manera que aseguren que sus necesidades y conocimientos sean considerados.Crear redes de intercambio de conocimientos y buenas prácticas entre agricultores, científicos y formuladores de políticas. Mejorar la asistencia técnica y contrarrestar las limitaciones de acceso a tierra, mercados e infraestructura, como un mecanismo para impulsar la agricultura familiar y campesina que ayuda a fomentar la diversificación en el cultivo de alimentos. La diversificación de cultivos a pequeña escala tiene efectos positivos sobre la calidad de las dietas, la salud del suelo y la economía familiar. Generar políticas articuladas entre los diferentes sectores, ya que actualmente los departamentos están trabajando los diversos componentes y determinantes del sistema alimentario de forma aislada. Para abordar esta fragmentación, se sugiere la creación de planes y políticas que no solo aborden las necesidades inmediatas, sino que también tengan objetivos a largo plazo. Esto requiere la creación de mecanismos de coordinación interinstitucional que faciliten la implementación de políticas coherentes y efectivas, evitando que sean meramente declarativas. Desarrollar mecanismos para monitorear y hacer seguimiento a los medios de vida, el acceso a alimentos saludables y el costo de las dietas. Es ineficaz estimular la producción de alimentos si los medios de vida no permiten acceder a ellos. La recolección de datos resultante del monitoreo asegura que las intervenciones sean más eficientes según las características de cada territorio. Por tanto, se recomienda desarrollar mecanismos de seguimiento que fomenten la disponibilidad y el acceso a dietas diversas y saludables, especialmente para los más vulnerables. Algunos ejemplos de estos mecanismos pueden ser: fortalecer vínculos con los departamentos de ingeniería, telemática y salud de las universidades de la región para la generación de prototipos (software, aplicativos digitales, herramientas multimedia, entre otros); crear espacios de intercambio de información entre las dependencias estatales (secretarías de salud, educación, agricultura, planeación) para proveer una lectura amplificada e integral que alimente estos mecanismos de monitoreo. Adicionalmente, apoyar los emprendimientos y la tecnología vinculada a las necesidades del sistema alimentario. Esto puede abordarse mediante la creación y fortalecimiento de parques tecnológicos, incubadoras de empresas, semilleros de investigadores, observatorios de seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, y laboratorios. Desincentivar el consumo de alimentos altamente procesados y pobres en nutrientes y asegurar entornos alimentos que apoyen estas estrategias. Esto debe ir acompañado de la implementación de programas educativos sobre nutrición y hábitos alimentarios saludables para reducir la malnutrición y enfermedades relacionadas con las dietas. Estas políticas podrían mitigar algunas consecuencias negativas para la salud, asociadas a los sistemas alimentarios modernos. Por ejemplo, establecer un indicador de exposición a comida chatarra en instituciones públicas, desarrollar programas de entornos educativos saludables e integrar a los programas curriculares temáticas relacionadas con sistemas alimentarios. Aunque existen diferentes proyectos encaminados a mejorar la infraestructura vial, es necesario generar redes de transporte y almacenamiento enfocados en facilitar un acceso eficiente a alimentos frescos y asequibles fortaleciendo la conexión entre la movilidad de alimentos y la infraestructura vial. Es imperativo invertir en la infraestructura necesaria para el almacenamiento, el transporte y la distribución de alimentos, de manera que se reduzcan pérdidas y se mejore la disponibilidad de alimentos frescos, así como el desarrollo y fortalecimiento de mercados locales y regionales para facilitar el acceso a productos frescos y de calidad. Por ejemplo, que en el plan de infraestructura vial se mapeen las zonas principales de abastecimiento de alimentos y se prioricen allí los proyectos de inversión. Transitar de políticas declarativas a acciones contundentes. Ello implica priorizar intervenciones por medio de ejercicios prácticos que generen impactos medibles en los resultados del sistema alimentario. Migrar de acciones de promoción y difusión a acciones que generen un impacto medible, superando las tradicionales actividades de gestión (número de personas atendidas, número de talleres realizados, etc.) para establecer indicadores de impacto (disminución de costo de dietas, disminución de tasa de malnutrición, integración de mujeres a proyectos de agricultura sostenible, etc.). Por ejemplo: transitar de las acciones de promoción del rol de la mujer a herramientas que apalanquen las capacidades de ellas dentro de programas y planes orientados a obtener resultados efectivos en las distintas categorías temáticas del sistema alimentario. Incluir en los planes de gobierno actividades que busquen anticipar y priorizar los riesgos climáticos para reducir la vulnerabilidad del sistema alimentario. Anticipar, permite identificar potenciales riesgos futuros y sus implicaciones (evitar pérdidas de cosechas, disminuciones en rendimientos, bloqueos en vías, etc.) y priorizar, implica ordenar las acciones de acuerdo con las necesidades, urgencias y el nivel de amenazas climáticas del territorio. Incorporar tecnologías y prácticas de agricultura climáticamente inteligente para mejorar la resiliencia al cambio climático y reducir las emisiones de GEI provocadas por la actividad agrícola. Esto reduce la incertidumbre ante los cambios futuros, mejora la capacidad de respuesta (especialmente de los pequeños agricultores) y aumenta rendimientos. En este sentido, se deben fortalecer acciones con redes científicas público-privadas para movilizar tecnologías en esta línea. Estrechar vínculos con AGROSAVIA, la Alianza Bioversity & CIAT, el Instituto Humboldt, entre otros, es clave para fomentar la investigación y el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías y prácticas agrícolas adaptadas a las condiciones climáticas y geográficas de la región. Desarrollar programas de capacitación y empleo en áreas rurales y fomentar la producción local de alimentos para reducir la dependencia de las importaciones o de la movilidad de alimentos desde regiones lejanas en el territorio nacional. Fortalecer las redes de seguridad alimentaria, como bancos de alimentos y programas de asistencia alimentaria, para apoyar a las poblaciones más vulnerables. Fortalecer los mercados tradicionales de alimentos como punto de encuentro entre las ciudades y el campo. Es necesario identificar puntos débiles y alternativas de financiamiento para estos espacios. Un punto de entrada para esto es la política de compras públicas a agricultura familiar y campesina, como una oportunidad para estimular la producción y la comercialización local de alimentos. Adicionalmente, hay grandes oportunidades en estimular estos mercados a través del reconocimiento y apoyo a las tradiciones alimentarias y culinarias, que son fundamentales para la identidad cultural y la sostenibilidad de las comunidades, así como una estrategia de atractivo turístico. Planear y desarrollar procesos educativos que aborden los conceptos claves y problemas comunes de los sistemas alimentarios, como la exposición a comida chatarra, el rol de los mercados campesinos y las dietas. Estos procesos deberían incluir tanto a la sociedad en general como a la educación formal (colegios y escuelas), para que los estudiantes reconozcan los componentes de un sistema alimentario, entiendan sus desafíos y contribuyan a la generación de soluciones. En vista de que no se detectaron intervenciones sobre pérdida y desperdicio de alimentos (PDA), se sugiere a los próximos gobiernos identificar las principales fuentes de PDA; fortalecer las acciones de los bancos de alimentos; generar programas incentiven a hogares, negocios e industrias a reducir el desperdicio de alimentos; y promover acciones de economía circular. Hay una oportunidad importante de desarrollar proyectos de impacto relacionados con la regeneración de agua y suelo, especialmente en zonas expuestas a estreses hídricos y a alta degradación de suelos agrícolas.Un camino es la articulación con los centros de investigación de las universidades y otros a nivel nacional e internacional (como Agrosavia y el CIAT, entre otros). Articular los componentes de comercialización, consumo y dietas. La mayoría de las intervenciones identificadas se concentran en proyectos de producción, relegando la importancia de un abordaje sistémico. Se pueden abrir espacios de conversación y diálogo para mejorar el entendimiento de diferentes actores de la sociedad civil sobre el funcionamiento de las variables y componentes de la demanda de alimentos. Transformar los sistemas alimentarios desde la educación de los consumidores. Para esto es necesario promover la conciencia pública a través de campañas de educación nutricional. Debe ser un interés de las instituciones públicas promover dietas variadas y saludables, así como concientizar sobre la importancia de la alimentación sostenible, a través, por ejemplo, de programas escolares que integren la educación alimentaria y nutricional en los currículos escolares para inculcar buenos hábitos alimenticios desde temprana edad. Implementar sistemas de monitoreo y evaluación a las políticas públicas alimentarias que permitan seguir de cerca su impacto y hacer ajustes según sea necesario, así como asegurar la transparencia en la implementación de estas políticas y la rendición de cuentas de los responsables.","tokenCount":"8474"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d04a8010b947506c46753b4db8deccfc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/10b91e49-7d6c-45f3-af9d-d38aefcdb452/retrieve","id":"328131587"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"922a3628-a393-46ff-b1c7-15fadd61cf37","pagecount":"84","content":"director. Their help is duly acknowledged. I am grateful to Dr P.K. Aggarwal (Regional Program Leader (South Asia) of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), located at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), New Delhi) for his support, encouragement and suggestions during the study period which greatly helped me in reorienting the report. The help rendered by the researchers, Dr T. Satyanarayana and Dr N. Maninkandan and technical staff of the AICRPAM databank, Sri Khandagonda and Mallesh, and by Ms Harini and Mrs Padmini in typing this manuscript, is all gratefully acknowledged. about current and future weather conditions and possible management strategies. In this way, rural farmers are able to consult with experts in near-real time.In other countries in South Asia, similar efforts are underway. For instance, the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) issues one-month long-range forecasts for agricultural planning and 10-day agrometeorological forecasts for regular agricultural operations. In the weather forecast at 10-, 30-and 90-day intervals.In Pakistan, agrometeorological services have been in place since 1988, when the National Agromet Centre and 5 Regional Agromet Centres were established. Here, collaboration on agricultural advisories includes participation of the public universities, several research institutes and NGOs, and the National Agromet Centre. Such collaborations have resulted in advisory bulletins, an observational network and increased monitoring, as well as crop and harvest calendars.While the Agromet Division of Sri Lanka's National Meteorological Centre does collect data, somewhat similar to the case in Nepal and Bhutan, where the meteorological departments do not maintain a special division to deal exclusively with agricultural meteorological aspects, but where a few private organizations provide information to farming communities. countries need to be strengthened further. Needs-based training and the use of information and communication technology to reach the farmers effectively on a near-real time basis with weather-based management strategies is urgently needed to meet the challenges facing the agriculture sector from climate change.1. Background: South Asia's climatic, agricultural and food securitycontext across a large geographical scale and varied topography. India, for instance, hosts 6 major climatic sub-types, ranging from desert in the west, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest, and the island territories. Meanwhile, the climate of Bhutan varies with altitude, manifesting subtropical conditions in the south and a polar-type climate, with year-round snow, in the north.Against this varied environment, South Asia is one of the poorest regions of the world. In 2005, more than 40 percent of the region's population lived on less than 1 dollar a day, as compared to 50 percent in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank 2010). More than 75 percent of South Asia's poor live in rural areas and most rely on agriculture for survival. In addition, South Asia has one of the highest child-malnutrition rates in the world. In India and Bangladesh, the percentage of children who do not receive adequate food is 40 percent (Global Health Initiative 2010).The quality of meteorological services in South Asia varies by country. For instance, India's large number of weather stations and, more than 10 years ago, opened a National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF). In contrast, the meteorological services of Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka are less well established. All three of these meteorological services could improve, both in their monitoring and forecasting abilities. Resources are also severely lacking in these three countries.Encouragingly, the meteorological services of Pakistan and Bangladesh are in the process of developing their abilities. For instance, in addition to maintaining 35 meteorological observatories, the Bangladesh Meteorological Department hosts an Agrometeorological Observatory and a Flood Forecasting Warning Centre. Meanwhile, the Pakistan Meteorological Department -which maintains a range of monitoring and forecasting activities -offers professional training in various branches of meteorology through its Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics in Karachi.As with meteorological services, the quality and coverage of agricultural advisory services vary throughout the region. India leads the region in the provision of agricultural advisory services, maintaining a National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting, which provides weather forecasts at smaller spatial and temporal scales. The International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) in India, on an experimental basis, initiated an innovative Meteorological Service providing agricultural advice to farmers in Andhra Pradesh. They make use of a unique system that allows village-level coordinators to photograph farmers' looked at the photos and consulted forecasts, they are able to communicate with the farmersBecause all the countries in South Asia are heavily dependent on agriculture, there is an urgent need to strengthen agrometeorological services in all of them. To support these activities, the network of weather observatories in each of these countries must to be strengthened and connections between agricultural and meteorological services must be improved.Each of the countries in South Asia must engage in a micro-level resource inventory Contingency planning for all districts in these countries should be prepared to meet climate risks effectively. The weather forecasting capabilities, including medium-range weather forecast reliability, should be increased in all the South Asian nations. To accomplish this, expertise and information should be freely exchanged across the countries. The research wings of agrometeorological institutions should be strengthened in order to provide information on crop-weather-pest/disease relationships for agricultural advisory bulletins. Existing drought monitoring institutions of various countries should develop close linkages with their respective agricultural research institutions and state agricultural universities for providing the viable solutions to meet the challenges posed by droughts.reduce this vulnerability.Measures should be taken to increase awareness among the farmers regarding the importance of weather information for agricultural decision-making. The extension activities in these 1. Background: South Asia's climatic, agricultural and food security contextThe South Asian countries, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, are bounded in the south by India Ocean, in the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, in the southwest by the Arabian Sea, and in the north by the Himalayas (Figure 1).The region spans an area of 4.48 million square kilometres (km 2 ) (or 10 percent of the Asian continent) and accounts for a population of about 1.59 billion (http//en.wikipida.org/ southasia), which is roughly 40 percent of Asia's population. The population density varies from 1099/km 2 in Bangladesh to 181/km 2 in Bhutan. In India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Nepal respectively, the average population densities are 365, 309, 225 and 200/km 2 (Table 1).The topography of the region consists of mountains, plateaus, dry areas and intervening structural basins. World-famous natural sites, including the world's highest mountain (Everest) the largest mangrove swamp (Sunderbans), temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, river plains (Indo-Gangetic plains), and beautiful coral reef lagoons are located in the region.The region in general slopes from north to the east and to the west. The northwest part of the (Source: www.freeworldmaps.net.)region houses the Indus plains and deserts; the Greater Himalayas in the north tower over 2500 km and are the major source of many perennial rivers -a lifeline for millions of people in the Indo-Gangetic plains. This region also has a long coastline, running 10,000 km from Bangladesh to India and Pakistan.A typical monsoon climate -wet summers and dry winters -prevails over greater part of the region. The southwest monsoon (June-October) brings maximum rainfall. However, some of the regions in peninsular India and also in Sri Lanka receive substantial rainfall during the post-monsoon season due to northeast monsoon activity. Also, some parts of northern end of the South Asian region receive winter rains from extra tropical systems moving west and south into these parts. Due to variation in land forms and their distance from the equator, almost all types of climate, varying from extremely arid (hot and cold deserts) to highly humid. The rainfall among the countries varies from less than 200 millimetres (mm) in the desert region covering parts of Pakistan and India, to over 3000 mm in the southwest parts of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and over 4000 mm in northeast region of India; the world's highest rainfall, above 11,000 mm at Mawsynram, is found in the region.Monsoon and post-monsoon periods are characterized by cyclones and moderate to deep depressions crossing inland from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea regions into coastal regions of India and into Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. These low-pressure systems provide the major part of the annual rainfall. In addition, rainfall associated with the movement of the monsoon trough across the Indian subcontinent also comprises the rainfall distribution over the study region. The movement of these systems onto the land mass brings copious rainfall, rainfall distribution.The climate of the region varies from extremely arid to semi-arid in Pakistan, to humid to sub-humid in India, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. There is a wide variability variations in temperature (more than -20°C in the cold desert region of Ladakh and Leh in winter to about 48°C to 50°C in desert regions of India and Pakistan and 45°C to 47°C in some plain regions during summer). The region can be divided into two main land units: the ancient land mass of peninsular India and the young Himalayas and associated ranges. Sri Lanka forms a part of ancient land mass, while northwest Pakistan, the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, including Nepal and Bhutan, forms the young Himalayan range.While the Ganges originates in India, the Brahmaputra river system originates in China; both Jamuna and Meghana are the three major rivers in Bangladesh, with innumerable branches that drain water into the Bay of Bengal. In Sri Lanka, about 103 rivers or rivulets drain water in a radial pattern across the country (SACEP 2012). The major river, the Mahaweli, caters to the needs of people in 16 percent of the country. Bhutan does not have a major river system; Vegetation 1. Evergreen forests 2. Deciduous forest 3. Dry forests and scrubland 4. Desert and semi-desert vegetation. comprises 933 species of mammals, 4494 birds, 923 reptiles, 332 amphibians and 342 fresh 18 biodiversity hotspots: the eastern Himalayas in Nepal, Bhutan and northeast India, the western Ghats in India and the southwest Ghats in Sri Lanka. To protect endangered species in these hotspots, more than 200,000 km 2 have been reserved (UNISDR 2012).reservoirs, rice paddies, saline patches, fresh water marshes and swamps, over about 1.34m hectares (RRCAP 2001). South Asia is home to many wetlands. In India alone there are 25 Ramsar sites (wetlands of international importance designated under the Ramsar has two Ramsar sites (SACEP 2011). While 54.5 percent of the region is agricultural land, 41.37 percent is arable (the region's arable land has decreased from 42.69 percent in 2000 to 41.37 in 2009(World Bank data, 2010and 2013)), the decrease being more in India and Bangladesh (59.9 to 58.6%). The availability of arable land for those dependent on agriculture has declined from over 1 hectare (ha) per person at the beginning of the 20th century to less than 0.1 ha today (GWP, IWMI 2011) .Except for the hilly regions in the northeast and southeast, the country consists of low 4-5 centimetres per kilometre (cm/km) for the Ganges, 6-10 cm/km for the Brahmaputra, and 3 cm/km for the Meghana (Rashid and Pramanik 1990). Most of the land area (64 percent) is occupied by the agricultural sector, while forests occupy 18 percent of the area (Figure 3).The high growth rate of population and the country's low natural-resource base has resulted in a low land-to-person ratio, which is further threatened by natural hazards including severe industries are major contributors to country's economy. Among them, agriculture contributes roughly about 20 percent to GDP. However, in recent years agriculture's relative contribution has decreased while manufacturing sector's contribution has steadily increased.The country is home to the largest delta in the world. Formed by the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghana rivers, it covers a huge catchment area of 1.554 million km 2 . After crossing into Bangladesh from India, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra are known as Padma and Jamuna respectively. These rivers carry large quantities of sediment-laden water from the Himalayas and about 2.4 billion tons of soil is washed through these river system per year (Milliman and Meadu 1983). The country is also blessed with numerous perennial and seasonal water bodies that are locally known as haors, beels, baors, khals, pukurs and dighies.  The highest recorded rainfall of 6500 mm is at Lalakhal in the northeast (Rashid 1991, MoEF 2001). In most places, more rain falls in June than in July and August. Though this region receives rainfall during pre-monsoon seasons, its contribution toward annual rainfall is less and highly variable. However, they are quite useful for the standing crops, including late boro Fog and mist are common from November to March. About 2 cm of dew falls in humid areas The western part of the country records higher temperatures compared to other regions. The temperature during the hot summer season (March-June) may reach above 40°C for a period of 5 to 10 days. Temperature ranges from 20°C to 36°C during monsoon season. The mean maximum temperatures over most of Bangladesh are around 31°C and the mean minimum is around 25°C. The minimum temperature during winter season (November-March) ranges from 8°C to 15°C and can fall below 5°C in the northern part.Nepal is a land-locked country with rectangular shape, bordering India in east, west and south and China in the north. It represents a transitional mountain area, with approximately three-quarters of its land (76.9 percent) covered by rugged hills and mountains, and the rest of the area (23 percent) covered by plains (Figure 5). There are about 6000 rivers of different sizes and length. Among them around 1000 are only a few kilometres long and 100 are up to 160 km (Mahesh 2010 Only 2 percent of Nepal's mountain area is suitable for cultivation, whereas one tenth of the hill area is considered suitable for agricultural practices. The Terai area, which constitutes about 23 percent of the total landmass, is the major food-producing region. Land-use data indicates that 2.97m ha is under agricultural crops and 0.99m ha under non-agricultural crops, while 5.8m ha is forest and 1.7m ha pasture; 3.1m ha fall under other categories (UNFCCC 2004). About 29 percent of the total area of Nepal is covered under forests which are grouped under 4 categories: (1) tropical and sub tropical, (2) temperate and alpine broad leaved, (3) temperate and alpine conifer, and (4) minor temperate and alpine association (Stainton of Nepal, with about 58 and 38 ecosystems in mid-mountain areas and highlands respectively.380 species of petridophytes and 850 species of bryophytes have been reported in the country.About 181 species of mammals and 844 species of birds are found in the country (United Agriculture is the major source of income in Nepal, where more than 80 percent of the population depends on this sector for survival. While the country as a whole has surplus cereal production, disparity in food availability has been noticed among the different Domestic Product (GDP) was about 37 percent at the beginning of this century (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation 2001). Livestock contributes 30 percent of the total agricultural GDP (Durga 2012).Nepal has a wide variety of climates, ranging from tropical in the southern part to alpine in the north. It has 5 climate types: subtropical monsoon, warm temperate, cool temperate, alpine and tundra. The country has 4 distinct seasons: pre-monsoon (April-May), monsoon (June-September), post-monsoon (October) and winter (November-March). Over 80 percent of the total rainfall is received during monsoon season. The country's highest annual rainfall of nearly 5200 mm is received in eastern parts (Figure 6), while the north western leeward portions (International Center for Integrated Mountain Development Climatic and Hydrological Atlas of Nepal 1996) receive less rain (250 mm a year).The temperature sharply falls from south to north. In some areas in the plains, the summer temperature may vary beyond 40°C while it could fall below -10°C in the northern parts during winter months. (Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Nepal.)Bhutan has an area of 40,077 km 2 . The terrain is mostly mountainous with extreme variations in elevations -from 100 metres (m) in south to about 7500 m in the north. Bhutan can be divided into three distinct physiographic zones: the southern foothills, the inner Himalayas, and the high Himalayas (CCNDPPE 2011). Seventy-seven percent of the area lies in the range of 600 to 4200 m altitude. It has population of about 690,000 people. Bhutan ranks in the top 10 percent of countries in the world with a large species diversity, allocating 26.3 percent of its land area to 5 national parks and 4 wildlife sanctuaries (FRA 2000). The country has been  (Source: Dorji 1995.)The steep slopes limit the expansion of agricultural activities. However, the natural streams with good slopes have the potential for generation of hydroelectric power and watersheds for increasing agricultural productivity. The country has 9 major watersheds; these are further divided into 42 sub-and 406 mini-watersheds (FRA 2000).Bhutan's economy is primarily agricultural as approximately 70 percent of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. Since at least 69 percent of Bhutanese depend on subsistence farming, crop failure and livestock stressors affect the most vulnerable communities in the rural areas (National Adaptation Programme of Action 2012). Annual agriculture sector growth averaged 2.2 percent in real terms from 2000-2009(FAO 2012)).The share of the agricultural sector in GDP declined from approximately 55 percent in 1985 to 33 percent in 2003. Despite this, agriculture still remains the primary source of livelihood for the majority of the population (www.gnhc.gov.bt). Nearly 8 percent of the total land is used for agriculture and is being practiced as subsistence farming by growing mostly cereals (ICIMOD 2006). In recent years, strong, positive growth occurred among the high-value fruit and vegetable crops, while there has been a decline in the cereal crops that account for staple food production. The GDP contribution of maize, paddy, wheat and barley -the main food staples -has declined substantially and this decline has accelerated since 2007. Their weak performance has severely compromised overall crop-sector growth rates (FAO 2012).Pakistan has a total area of 79.61m ha, out of which 27 percent (17.2m ha) is cultivated and 8 percent is covered with forests. It has a wide variety of geographical features including mangrove swamps in the south, deserts in the west, fertile plains in the central region, and snow-covered peaks in the north. The country has been divided into 10 agro-ecological regions (Figure 8): Indus delta, southern irrigated plains, sandy desert, northern irrigated plains, rainfed regions, wet mountains, northern dry mountains, western dry mountains, (Source: UNEP.)dry western plateau and Sulaiman piedmont (FAO 2002). Pakistan has a population of 135.3 million and agriculture contributes 24 percent to GDP (Afzal 2012).Pakistan has a great variety of habitats among its various agro-ecological zones. About 6000 species of plants, 200 species of mammals, more than 650 species of birds, more than are grown on 56 percent of the cropped area, while cash crops are grown on 17 percent, pulses on 7 percent, oilseeds on 3 percent fruits on 2 percent vegetables and condiments on 1 percent each, and other crops, including fodder, on 13 percent area (MINFAL 1995). The majority of crops are grown under irrigated conditions. Seventy percent of irrigation is through canals and the rest from tube wells (Afzal 2012).September). The monsoon season is short as the country is located at the tail end of the monsoon current, with the result that the quantum of rainfall is low (Figure 9). Winter rains from western disturbances fall during January and February. Some contribution through snowfall occurs in the extreme northern regions of the country (Salman et al. 2012). The quantity of rain that falls during monsoon season varies from less than 125 mm in arid desert to more than 2000 mm in wet mountain areas. Similarly, winter rainfall varies from less than 100 mm in the southern region to above 100 mm in the wet mountain regions. Hence people in this region depend more on canals and groundwater for irrigation than their counterparts elsewhere in the South Asian region. The mean summer maximum temperatures vary from more than 40°C in most of the country, except the mountain regions (FAO 2004).Agriculture is the largest generator of livelihoods. However, with increased industrialization and urbanization, its contribution to GDP decreased from 52 percent in 1950-51 to 21.9 percent in 2001-02 (Khan 2004). Next to agriculture, animal husbandry is an important occupation of the farming community, contributing more than 50 percent of the agricultural GDP. The country has the best livestock breed of the region. Rural poultry contributes 56 percent of total egg production. Poultry also contributes 23.8 percent of total meat production in Pakistan (Ministry of Finance 2012).Sri Lanka is an island country at the base of Indian subcontinent. It has an area of about 65,610 km 2 monsoon climate, which has almost constant weather throughout the year because of its proximity to equator. Sri Lanka has a varied climate ranging from semi-arid to mild temperate conditions (CCNDPPE 2011). It has been traditionally generalized into three climatic zones: dry, wet and intermediate zone, which are sub divided into 24 agro-ecological regions. The southwest monsoon (May-September), second inter-monsoon (October-November), and northeast monsoon (December-February). The major cropping seasons, however, are the YALA, the minor growing (dry) season (March-August) and MAHA, the major growing (wet) season (September-February). Average annual rainfall is around 1630 mm, while the southwestern region records more than up to 5000 mm (Figure 10). The annual average maximum temperature is 31.7°C in the plains and 26.3°C in hilly regions. Similarly, the average minimum temperature is 24.4°C and 17.1°C in the plains and hilly regions (Source: columbia.edu.)respectively. Income from the agricultural sector contributes only 17% to the national GDP, while it employs around 33% of the labour force (Ministry of Environment 2008).India's total geographical area is 3,287m km 2 or about 73.3 percent of the total area of South Asia. India supports about 16.2 percent of world's human population and 18 percent of its cattle population (Ramakrishna et al. 2000). It is a land of diverse topography, soils, climate and vegetation. It borders Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Mynamar and has a coast line of 6083 km (CEDPA 2004). The country can be broadly divided into 4 regions: (1) the northern mountain region;(2) the great plains of the north;(3) the peninsular plateau; and (4) the coastal plains and islands. The population density varies from 202 people/km 2 on the Deccan plateau to 349 people/km 2 in the coastal plains and 456 people/km 2 in the great plains (APFISN 2006). Agriculture is the major source of income for about 80 percent of the population living in rural areas. However, agriculture's contribution to GDP has fallen from 29.93 percent in 1998-99 to 14.2 percent in  monsoon seasonal rainfall and also by El Niño/La Niña events (Ramakrishna et al. 2003).The total forest area is 51.73m ha and the spatial distribution of forests shows greatest variation from tropical rain forests to dry-thorn forests and mountain temperate forests 69.09m ha, including the area of 0.46m ha under mangroves (FSI 2009). About 16 types of deciduous (33.9 percent) are important (FSI 2009). The country is rich in biodiversity due to diverse physiographic and climate conditions. It is one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries of the world (FAO 2000). It has 10 bio-geographical zones and about 20 percent of world's 350 mammal species (FES 2005).The country has been divided into 20 river basins and the average annual Indian river system is 1953 cubic kilometres (km 3 3 (Rakesh Kumar et al. 2005). Floods and droughts affects in some areas of the country in each year. It is estimated that one third of the country's area is prone to drought of different intensities, resources are about 325 km 3 (Shah 2001).India is broadly a tropical country, but due to variation in elevations and latitudinal extension, almost all the world's climate types -temperate and extremely dry to extremely wet and hotare found there (Ramakrishna et al. 2006).India has 4 distinct seasons: winter (December to February), summer (March to May), monsoon (June to September) and post-monsoon (October to November). Roughly 80 percent of annual rainfall is received during the southwest monsoon period. Winter rainfall from western disturbances is mainly restricted to the northern plains and hill regions, while occasionally they impact weather in larger parts of the country. Post northeast monsoon seasonal rainfall is more prominent in the peninsular India. The spatial distribution of rainfall (Figure 11) varies on average from 100 mm in the extreme western part of Rajasthan to 5000 mm in Meghalaya state in northeast India, where the world's highest rainfall (more than 11,000 mm) is recorded at Mawsynram. Maximum temperature is similar over a major part of the country during the southwest monsoon period, with higher values (above 45°C) being recorded in the arid region of northwest India. The temperature variability is observed more during winter than in summer season. Variability decreases from south to north in winter season. The mean maximum temperatures during peak cold season varies from 29°C in the peninsular region to 18°C in north and mean minimum varies from 24°C in extreme southern region to less than 5°C in north. The highest maximum daily temperatures of above 48°C are recorded in the north during May and June and with the arrival of the southwest monsoon, a rapid fall in maximum temperatures is noticed (Ramakrishna et al. 2000). The mean temperature distribution during 4 seasons namely monsoon, winter, summer, post monsoon is shown in Figure 12. The status of meteorological services in various countries indicates that they are in different stages of growth. While in countries like India the progress can be categorized as good, it has picked up well in other countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh, whereas a lot is needed to be done to improve these services in countries like Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The present status of the meteorological services in these countries is discussed below.The Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) maintains a network of surface and upper air observatories, radar, satellite stations and agrometeorological observatories, etc. It has its headquarters at Dhaka with two regional centres, i.e. Storm Warming Centres (SWC), at Dhaka and a Meteorological and Geographical Centre at Chittagong. At present, weather observations are recorded at 35 meteorological observatories, 10 pilot balloon observatories, 4 radar stations (Country Report, JMA/WMO workshop, July 2010). The Meteorological Department collects 3-hourly synoptic data, 6-hourly pilot balloon data and 12-hourly agromet data in addition to daily Rawin-Sonde data. In the agromet observatories, measurements are made on soil moisture, soil temperatures, pan evaporation, solar radiation, evapotranspiration using lysimeters and bright sunshine hours, in addition to regular data collection on temperature (maximum and minimum), wind speed and direction and rainfall. The Meteorological Department maintains the database and has digitized all the 60 years of meteorological data collected at 35 meteorological observatories. The data is checked for its quality using World Meteorological Organization (WMO) guidelines. The BMD issues 4-and 12-hourly weather forecasts for river and sea navigations, 10-day agrometeorological forecasts and long-range (1-month) weather forecasts.Floods are common in Bangladesh as the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghana rivers all discharge huge quantities of river waters from upstream regions and a Flood Forecasting and issued through mass media communication system. Similarly, during dry season, water levels in reservoirs and rivers besides rainfall are monitored regularly by the FFWC.Weather observations are maintained by Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), which has operated under the Ministry of Environment since 1962. They monitor all the hydrological and meteorological activities in Nepal. The Hydrology Division monitors water level and discharge of different rivers and lakes. It also monitors snow and glacier lakes, etc. The Meteorology Division is responsible for collection and analysis of weather data for agricultural planning, water resources, climate change, climatic atlases and preparation of crop calendars. It maintains a nationwide network of 337 rain-gauge stations, 154 hydrometric stations, 20 sediment stations, 68 climatic stations, 22 agrometeorological stations, 9 synoptic stations and 6 aero-synoptic stations (Country Report, JMA/WMO workshop, July 2010). Data are made available to users through published reports, bulletins and computer media outputs. Wireless system connects Khatmandu to 54 stations across Nepal for climatic and hydrological data whereas Global Telecommunication System (GTS) links DHM to the global meteorological community.At present, the availability of weather information and the issuing of weather forecasts is rather inadequate. Except for few basic parameters like precipitation and temperature, the infrastructure for collecting data on wind regime, evaporation, sunshine and radiation is too limited and scattered to be of real use for operational forecasting. Most of the equipments need modernization and replacement. Further, there is need for the weather services to work round the clock to assist in providing timely weather warnings, as natural disasters cost some 500 lives on average every year. Since 2010 the Finnish government had come forward to Instrument (ICI). It aims to modernize the technology of weather services in Nepal, and train Weather Department personnel. The ICI for regional cooperation in Himalayan region (for Nepal and Bhutan) is funded by 1m euros for the period 2013-15.The Meteorology Department in Bhutan is a part of the Department of Hydro-Met Services under Ministry of Economic Affairs. Before 2007, the mandate of weather forecasting was under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, although all meteorological stations were under the Department of Hydro-Met Services (Initially it was called the hydro-meteorological services division under the Department of Energy, MoEA). The division was upgraded to a full department in December 2011 and the mandate for weather and seasonal forecasting has been transferred to this newly created Department of Hydro-Met Services (DHMS) under the Ministry of Economic Affairs. At present the department operates and maintains a network of 24 river gauging stations, 90 meteorological stations, 9 sediment sampling stations and 15 parts of Bhutan with almost none or limited climate monitoring stations in northern Bhutan (NAPA 2012). Further only two observations per day are recorded at most of these stations, manually. There is often a long delay in data transmission (NAPA 2012). The Department provides daily weather forecasting using satellite images given by the Indian Meteorological Department, NOAA, Thai met, etc., and numerical weather prediction products generated by them to give considerably accurate (80 percent) weather forecasts (Yendra 2012). Currently, the daily weather forecasting information to the Bhutan Broadcasting Service (BBS) is given by Meteorology Division for widespread transmission to people in the country. These efforts are needed to be strengthened further by the government and also by BBS, to create more Being a country with a limited land available for cultivation, Bhutan focused on increasing agricultural productivity through increased efforts on strengthening the agricultural extension Agricultural Department, agricultural research and extension activities progressed gradually. During the following plan periods, substantial improvement for farmers had occurred with agricultural and limited weather information. By the 1980s the whole country was covered by the extension network. Extension service is currently the main source of information to farmers. The Virtual Extension and Research Communication Network (VERCON), a conceptual model of FAO, has been adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture. This enabled them to link research and extension (R&E) communities and using new information and communication technologies (ICTs) to improve communication of crop and weather information to the farming community.Through a project sponsored by the Austrian Development Agency (ADA) in 2010-11, the MetGIS had started issuing weather forecasts for Bhutan which have been successfully adapted to its climate conditions (Figure 13) (Spreitzhofer et al. 2012).. This encouraged MetGIS to intensify its activities to become an invaluable help to support the daily forecasting activities of the Meteorological Division of the Department of Hydrometeorological Services (DHMS), the National Weather Service of Bhutan.It has also been trying successfully to generate weather forecasts on special occasions. These efforts are helping to enhance and strengthen agricultural advisory services.expand the meteorological station network and will also be collaborating with the community information centres to provide more reliable and easy access to weather information to their the Department of Hydro-Met Services are developing a road map and to develop work plan for next 5 years which can be executed for the effective implementation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Monsoon Initiative Programme, with support from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and other concerned ministries as part of the National Working Group on Monsoon (NWGM).The Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) maintains 92 surface observatories (RBSN), 55 RBCN, 6 GSN and 50 Automatic Weather Stations (Country Report, JMA/WMO workshop, July 2010). There are about 500 rain gauge stations spread across the nation. Soil moisture and groundwater levels are monitored at 23 stations. In addition to the above, agrometeorological observatories are recorded at 32 stations. These observatories are used for such as town planning, construction, crop insurance claims, and air pollution monitoring. The (Source: MetGIS.) before they are transmitted to National Meteorological Communication Centre. The data are further scrutinized by the Data Processing Centre before being stored. The PMD offers professional training in various branches of meteorology through its Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics located at Karachi (PMD, 2009). The PMD uses Meso-Scale Model Versions (MM-5) for numerical weather forecasting and is planning to use High Resolution Model (HRM) with a grid length of 7 km for further improvement of its efforts. Different weather products developed by PMD are (a) 24 hours Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) charts -maximum and minimum temperature, daily total rain and snowfall, and (b) rainfall and 3-hourly NWP charts -precipitation, cloud cover, mean temperature, 200 millibar (mb) height wind, 500 mb height wind, 500 mb vorticity, 700 mb height winds, 700 mb vorticity, 850 mb height and winds, besides 850 mb vorticity and sea level pressure (WMO 2013).Meteorological activities in Sri Lanka started in the mid-1860s under the aegis of the survey department, with the establishment of a network of rain gauges. The country maintains 45 meteorological stations spread across the island. This includes 5 RBCN, 20 GSN, and 20 manned stations. In addition, 33 Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) are presently operating for weather forecasting and disaster mitigation activities (Country Report, JMA/WMO workshop, July 2010) Currently the Sri Lanka Meteorology Department operates under the purview of the Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights (MDMHR). The daily rainfall data collected is thus being sent to this ministry's data centre at the end of each month. The daily rainfall data from 60 locations is also collected over phone for the formulation of the weather forecast issued by Met Department. The National Meteorological Centre also provides weather forecasts and weather warning to the public, domestic aviation and shipping. The computer division of Sri Lanka Meteorological Department archives all the data collected over the country and the necessary climate statistics are computed and updated on regular basis. Quality control of the weather data is done at many levels: for coding errors, checking for spatial and temporal consistency across neighbouring stations and checking against selfrecording charts (WMO 2013).meteorological observatories were established by the British East India Company at Kolkata in 1785, Chennai in 1796 and Mumbai in 1804. Following the disastrous cyclone that hit Kolkata in 1864 and the failure of monsoon during 1866 and 1871, the then government of India established the India Meteorological Department in 1875 with H. F. Blanford as its in the world at Pune in 1932, the IMD has generated huge data sets with respect to rainfall and other parameters in its archives, with some of the rainfall records dating back to 1844. The IMD had started Farmer's Weather Services in 1945 in the form of a weather bulletin broadcast on All India Radio.Currently the weather observations network of IMD contains 82 RBSN, 33 RBCN and 20 GSN and 528 manned stations, 550 AWS (likely to increase to 675) and 324 ARG (likely to increase to 1350 in near future). It also has 261 Agromet Observatories and 41 ET (Lysimeter) stations, 43 soil-moisture stations, 330 pan-evaporation and 75 dewfall observatories (Country Report, JMA/WMO workshop, July 2010). Currently there are 709 surface meteorological observatories of different categories under the six regional meteorological centres of the IMD (WMO 2013). At present, the IMD is functioning under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).Based on the recommendations of an expert committee in 1984 for the creation of a centre for medium-range weather forecasting in India, the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) was established in India in 1988. Thanks to the efforts of was procured in the early 1989. This led to the operationalization of the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) in India in 1990. This had given a boost to the efforts in India, towards further improvement of the agricultural advisory services in India. A detailed report on the status of agricultural advisory services in India (compiled by Dr L.S. Rathore, IMD director general) is enclosed separately in the annex below.The importance of weather forecasts for effective agricultural operations was well recognized by all the countries in the region. Pre-independence India, inclusive of Pakistan and Bangladesh, initiated farm advisories in the mid-1940s, and in collaboration with the Indian (then Royal) Council of Agricultural Research special weather forecasts were issued for farmers. A separate division of agrometeorology was established by the IMD as early as 1932 to study weather-plant interactions and to prepare climate-based agricultural planning activities. With the advancement in global computing systems (i.e. the development of supercomputers) in the 1980s, and the launching of weather observatory satellites, the forecast accuracy for different regions increased considerably.However, information for farmers on a 48-to 72-hour lead time is essential for planning any agricultural operations. Focus on this issue has increased and IMD in addition to issuing farmers' weather forecasts on a regional basis, began to initiate short-and long-range weather weather services in India, the NCMRWF began activities on medium-range weather forecasts in the country and launched the agromet advisory services in India in 1991. Improvements in weather forecasts using latest weather forecasting models like MM-5 and Weather Research Forecast (WRF) enabled the country to provide weather forecasts for smaller grid regions (50 × 50 km for MM-5 initially and at 22 × 22 km presently and 9 × 9 km for WRF). Further, to meet the needs of researchers, a high resolution (0.5° × 0.5° lat/long) gridded daily rainfall data set for the Indian region was developed, utilizing the daily rainfall data of 6076 stations across the country, for the period 1971-2005 (Rajeevan and Bhate 2009). However, interpolation of the grid values was carried out using majority of those stations (3500 station data), which had a minimum 90 percent data availability during the period of analysis. The gridded area considered for interpolating the rainfall data was from 6.5°N to 37.5°N and 66.5°E to 101.5°E, covering major part of South Asia and beyond, using standard methodology for interpolation. The gridded data set was found to be more representative of the conditions experienced over the region and is being used for many meteorological research and analysis purposes.To empower individual farmers with weather-based crop management information by providing agricultural advisory through the Internet, using a VLC, a pilot study in Andhra Pradesh by the International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) at Hyderabad (Krishna Reddy 2004) known as e-Sagu (electronic-based support for cultivation). This innovative approach (Figure 14) has the potential to be put to use in other areas for effective utilization by a VLC (an educated child in the village or a farmer with Internet knowledge) are sent to experts at headquarters by email or by CD for advice, and within a short period the advisories from headquarters are transmitted back to the VLC. These advisories are then made available to the farmers by VLC through internet or mobile SMS or explained to the farmers for immediate action. Such personalized approaches have not yet been reported anywhere else, including in other parts of India.approach' is adopted in which a group of farmers experiencing a common problem are provided with an answer applicable to that group. Through this cluster approach, the number of issues (many of them common) that technical advisors must address is lessened, while each farmer receives an individual reply corresponding to his problem. In this fashion, a larger group of farmers can be served by a smaller advisory unit. There is a great potential in this approach if put to larger use by adding more weather components into the system.Another innovative approach that adopted by the state government of Andhra Pradesh in India was the involvement of progressive farmers in the villages for dissemination of advisories.Under this programme, one progressive farmer is selected in a village and he is paid an incentive of 1000 rupees per month. His job is to train other farmers in the village with modern technologies and to pass crop management information on to them. The idea here was that farmers are more receptive to their clan (another progressive farmer) than an outsider, and also because they are always available in the village for advice. This practice is also not advisories are also disseminated through such intermediaries in a participatory mode, through the active involvement of local talent. Furthermore, the AICPRAM project at CRIDA, besides regularly providing weather information and agricultural advisories through its 25 centres across the country, is also providing weekly contingency crop plans for the different meteorological sub-divisions in the country. It also initiated a website, cropweatheroutlook.org, where this information is regularly uploaded. These contingency plans were also uploaded in the main ICAR website.In addition, many of the SAUs have started issuing district-level agricultural advisories in their states and are also providing sub-regional advisories for their states in their university web sites. Looking to the need for a coordinated approach, a plan for a national agro-advisory network, involving all local and regional agencies working together, even at district or block level, has also been proposed (Figure 15).All these efforts across the country have helped in improving the agricultural advisory services in India to a great extent and in attempting to extend the agricultural advisories from regional to district level with attempts to extend further to block level at some places like Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Gujarat. In Tamil Nadu, the Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System for Asia and Africa (RIMES) has assisted an agro-advisory project in Tanjavur and Nagapattanam Districts using European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ensemble forecasts (15 days along with IMD and WRF outputs), with the Expert Intelligence System of RIMES to provide agro-advisories to farmers. Similar efforts were also made by IRI in Tamil Nadu (Hansen et al. 2001). A unique system was (e-market) where the farmers not only receive weather and crop management information but also market information to sell their produce (Figure 15). Attempts are currently on to reach individual farmers also through SMS, providing them weather advisories. Nearly 600,000 farmers are receiving this service across the country mainly by IMD and also by various agencies.More details on these and other efforts being made in India are provided in the annex.Similar efforts were initiated in other countries in South Asia region, with at least some progress. In all these countries, governments and non-government agencies have been helping farmers with weather-based advisories. The details of the agricultural advisory services rendered by various countries in the South Asian region to their farmers are as follows.The Bangladesh Meteorological Department, through its network of weather observatories For agricultural crop planning, one-month long-range forecasts are issued. For regular agricultural operations, a weekly agromet forecast is issued. The information provided under this weekly forecast includes the rainfall departure (percent) maps of the previous week, cumulated rainfall forecast for the current week, and the extended outlook for the next week (Figure 16). It also provides information on highlights of the weather during last week and advisory for the current week. The advisory also gives the information on the expected evaporation and sunshine in the current week. In addition, the information on expected variations in temperature is also available in the forecast. However, there is very little do) utilizing the forecast. An agricultural advisory society was established in 1989 as a civil society organization with the aim of helping farmers with sustainable production practices and with about 100 other NGO partners to reach large number of small farmers with technological developments and better crop varieties.Bangladesh is a land of many rivers. Because the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra and forecasting using ECMWF deterministic forecast data (RIMES 2013). This informationIn addition, in order to minimize the colossal loss of life and property caused by all manner the South Asia Region, SAARC was initiated in 1985. As weather has no geographical and political boundaries, it was deemed necessary to establish a common centre to carry out research and mitigation on the disasters for sustainable socio-economic developments in SAARC countries. Under this programme, timely and accurate forecast of natural disasters   The UNFCCC has also proposed (in 2006) a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) project (over three years, with an input of $420,000) through which it has attempted with necessary equipment and manpower to provide weather and seasonal forecasts for supporting production decisions of the farmers, and provide an agrometeorological early warning system against inclement weather conditions and provide special advisories at different production stages. Under this programme, they plan to set up one automated and telemetered synoptic station in 20 dzongkhags (districts) to provide three-hourly synoptic data; a link to the Global Telecommunication System (GTS) of the WMO to receive regular synoptic data; and a limited area weather model, such as WRF or MM5 to operationalize a computer-based weather forecasting system, similar to those in operation in the neighboring these models and generate reliable agricultural weather forecasts and to train farmers and (with a current proposed fund of $4.410 million) for implementation (NAPA 2012). Recently capabilities, under the ICI programme (Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2013). This programme is likely to come into operation during 2013-15. The aim initially is to enable three-day forecasts in this region. Currently the extension programs of the agricultural ministry tries to reach the farmers with weather information and advisories, still in its infancy.In Pakistan, responsibility for the preparation and dissemination of agromet advisories primarily lies with Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD). It monitors weather through a dense network of surface observatories, agromet observatories and upper-air observatories, and issues forecasts mainly from the farmers' point of view. As the rainy season is mainly restricted to July and August, information on rainfall forecast is crucial for rainfed crops. Droughts, which often critically hamper agricultural production, are common in the country.The PMD closely monitors the drought situation through its National Drought Monitoring Centre (NDMC). It has a separate section exclusively devoted to farmers' weather forecasts and seismological monitoring are operating within the purview of PMD. The PMD also has a research wing that has specialized in developing numerical weather prediction models and providing forecast for the next 72 hours for smaller regions, as well as good infrastructure to train staff.The agromet service has been in operation since 1988 with the establishment of the National Agro-Met Centre at Islamabad and 5 Regional Agromet Centres (RAMC) at Rawalpindi, Quetta, Faisalad, TanJodan and Usta Muhammad. The functions of NAMC are (1) managing the agrometeorological network;(2) processing and analysing the data for improving the based crop yields and production estimates for central planning and food production strategies at the national level (Jawed Iqbal 2010).The responsibilities of RAMC are: (1) monitoring local agrometeorological conditions;(2) development of regional crop-weather studies;(3) liaison with agricultural institutions to determine the local requirements and research priorities; and (4) processing of agromet information on regional scale for onward transmission to NAMC, Islamabad (PMD 2013).Considerable advances have been made by PMD on the collection and archiving and analysis of weather and climatic data and their conversion into weather-based agro-advisories. A perusal of the NAMC web pages (Figure 18 and 19) shows the type of information provided, which includes current week's precipitation analysis: the probability of rainfall and percent departure. Besides these, the other information provided includes soil moisture analysis, region-wise agromet advisories, seasonal precipitation and evapotranspiration (ETO), climate outlook for the next 10 days with respect to temperature, rainfall and soil moisture, forecast for farmers, separate forecast to cotton crop, crop vegetation index maps, weekly forecast and crop report, crop calendars, etc. Based on the analysis with respect to rainfall and soil moisture, the advisories are issued and disseminated through www.pakmet.com.pk and other electronic and print media. Advisory bulletins are issued at monthly, fortnightly and 10-day intervals.Pakistan has a well-distributed network of recording rain gauge stations (80 Nos) and Automatic Weather Stations (50 Nos) spread across the country (Figure 20), and a large number of participating organizations/departments collaborate to run the Agrometorological Advisory Service.    agromet stations are being used for preparation of district-level forecasts for between 12 hours and 7 days by PMD and send the same to national and regional AMC and DMO for the preparation of weekly and 10-day bulletins for dissemination to regional AMCs and DMCs, and to farmers online and through the mass media.ii) Agrometeorological services: weather forecasting system for AAS The PMD is using conventional methods as well as a Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) approach to forecasting the weather. Using the conventional method, the forecaster attempts to predict future changes in the state of the atmosphere from its initial state, taking into account both theoretical as well as experience of the weather situation. During this exercise, the forecaster also analyses and studies upper-weather charts, and uses weather radar and APT images.The PMD uses MM5 for numerical weather forecasting and is also preparing to use HRM with a grid length of 7 km in near future. The HRM is developed by DWD (the National Meteorological Service of Germany). 2 The models have been installed at Research and Development Division of PMD. DWD data is being used in HRM for the numerical weather forecasts, to improve the weather forecasts issued by PMD and also enhance the accuracy of weather predictions.From the reports on crops raised by farmers, the crop conditions, the incidence of pests and diseases supplied by provincial agricultural departments, the RAMC regularly advise the farming community through electronic and print media, on issues like sowing time and irrigation schedules (Khan and Hanif 2007). Detailed weather data and the forecast are also available on internet at the site http://www.pakmet.com.pk . The current number of agrometeorological observatories is 32. The availability of agrometeorological data of some stations (RAMC) goes back to 1990 and others from the date of their establishment (Figure 23). The PMD provides forecasts for rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, frost and soil moisture availability during the crop- (Source: http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/zone.php?type=o.)growing season for scheduling irrigation requirement of crops. It also provides information on heatwaves and coldwaves and special weather advisories for farmers.In order to compile the weather data of each crop development stage, careful, precise and timely recording of the following parameters (Table 3) are undertaken as routine: at 03:00, 09:00 and 12:00 (UTC). Crop data including phenological and soil moisture observation are collected according to World Meteorological Organization criteria (PMD 2013). v) Soil moisture observations Soil samples are taken on 7th, 17th and 27th of each month, soil samples were also taken in next day if some anomalous events occur in any month in four replications at depths of 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 90, 110, 120 and 140 centimetres. The observations at below 90 cm are made once every 20 days because the soil moisture is considered not to vary greatly at these depths. The soil samples were taken with the help of soil auger and then weighed and dried in the oven for about 3 days. Variations in moisture content over the time period provides information on moisture stress periods and able to assess the duration of soil water availabilities that can support the crop.Soil temperature plays an important role in crop growth from germination to maturity. To measure soil temperatures, the soil thermometers are placed at various depths to monitor the thermal regime of the soil. The soil temperatures in Celsius are recorded three times a day at 03:00, 09:00 and 12:00 UTC, which is 5 hours behind Pakistan Standard Time (PST). The centimetre depths at which the soil temperatures are observed on daily basis include 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 and 100.The DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer, Version 4.0) is being used (Jones et al. 2002) to translate weather information into agromanagement decisions. It provides an experimental approach to access the productivity of crops and also identify the causes and stages where the yield of crops suffered due to extreme weather conditions or lack of nutrients. It also simulates the crop water requirements at every stage, not only in rainfed areas but also in irrigated areas. These experimental analysis will help in better assessment towards the productivity of crops.In addition, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC), established in 1981, conducts research, especially of a basic and long-term nature, in agricultural gaps in existing programmes of agricultural research and arrange training of high-Pakistan's agricultural research system, comprising the federal and provincial components. It also takes up research on agricultural issues of importance which are neglected or inadequately covered, or beyond the resources of the provincial institutions. Some of these require sophisticated and costly equipment and facilities as agricultural research institutions. PARC also maintains database on medicinal plants, plant genetic resources and and insect database at the National Insect Museum.PARC has established meteorological stations in Karachi, Murree and Pir Sabak. The weather data collected at these sites are used for the development of models for predicting crop yield and for disease forecasting.Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETO) is a measure of evaporative demand of the atmosphere and considered to be the most reliable tool for calculation of crop water requirement (Allen et al. 1998). ETO measures the rate of evapotranspiration by using different methods such as Penman-Monteith, Blaney-Criddle, radiation, etc., by using air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed and humidity. PMD also uses CropWat software, developed by the FAO in 1992, for calculating reference crop evapotranspiration and crop water requirements, followed by irrigation scheduling computations.From the average monthly climatic conditions and the optimum weather requirements of major crops grown in the country, the crop calendars for major crops were prepared by the Research Division of the Government of Pakistan for better agricultural planning: wheat, rice, barley, maize, millets, sorghum, potatos, cotton and sugarcane. A perusal of the crop calendar (Figure 24) shows that from October to mid-November is suitable for sowing wheat. Similarly for rice crop, the optimum transplanting dates are from mid-May to July. The harvest calendar for fruits and vegetables grown in the country are given in Figure 25.The AAS is an instrument to provide relevant meteorological information to help the farmer to use it for improving agricultural production. The main emphasis is to collect and organize climate/weather, soil and crop information, and to amalgamate them with weather forecast to assist farmers in taking management decisions. This has to be done immediately after the generation of the weather forecast as there may be an emergent situation requiring farmers to take management action in view of forthcoming weather situation. Critical factors for successful dissemination of agro-advisories include relevance of information to weather and climate-sensitive decision-making in agriculture, followed by good outreach.Timely dissemination of agrometeorological information online and through mass media isof Pakistan that provides information relating to agriculture and rural development (http:// www.sohnidharti.tv/). A TV channel and an FM radio station are also being set up in the public sector to educate farmers about modern farming technology suiting their needs. The channel will reach an estimated 6.6 million farmer households across the country and will mainly telecast agriculture-related programmes.  Livestock' (Karkeela aw Maldari in Pashto) by Radio Pakistan of Peshawar, was made by some extension scientists. It was found to be a favourite program among farmers. The extension scientists advocated the revival of farmers' listening clubs for enhancing effective interaction with the farmers on agricultural issues.The Fauzi Fertilizer Company has also been providing AAS in Multan and Nawabshah in Lahore province since 1982. The advisories include multifarious services like crop Extension, the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, has conducted various research projects:(1) An in-depth analysis of electronic media for the development of strategy to enhance their role in agricultural technology transfer in Punjab;(2) An impact analysis of communication extension in the Punjab;(3) An in-depth analysis of conventional and modern agriculture information sources for the development of strategy to promote cyber extension environment in the Punjab; (4) Privatization of agriculture extension system in the Punjab: A SWOT analysis;(5) Analysis of the obstacles to gender mainstreaming in agriculture decision making and extension work in the Punjab.The agricultural development bank of Pakistan, known as the Zarai Taraqiati Bank Limited aim of the bank is to boost farm productivity, streamline institutional credit, and increase the income-generating capacity of the farming community. ZTBL provides affordable, agriculture ZTBL also publishes a magazine entitled .Sri Lanka's National Meteorological Centre (NMC) is primarily responsible for the collection Division, which collects data from 37 units, quality checked, and processed to generate advisories to the farming community, except warning on adverse weather conditions (Figure 26). However, some private organizations and the DAE (department of agricultural extension) are providing agricultural advisories on a limited scale to the farming community. The Sri Lankan Meteorological Department does not have an adequate data-archiving facility.It is planning to modernize the storage system with the latest computing facilities and train its staff to meet the country's needs to improve its weather database.Perhaps the earlier political instability and internal disturbances may be one of the reasons for limited agrometeorological activities in the country. Some of the private organizations that are 1. CIC Agro-Lanka (http://www.cic.lk/our_business/agriculture_livestock.php) 2. Haleys Ceylon Ltd 3. Lankens (DVP) 4. Bauer and Co. Ltd 5. Jinesena 6. Brown and CTC.The exact working conditions and mode of dissemination of the agricultural advisories by these organizations are not very clear. However, these private agencies seem to focus more on community needs.The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) is responsible for weather data collection and forecasting management in Nepal. Its website suggests there is no special division which is dealing exclusively with agricultural meteorological aspects. No special bulletins or agricultural advisories are available for farming communities (Figure 27). However, some organizations like the Agro-Enterprise Centre in Kathmandu monitor all relevant for the farmers' community (http://www.aec-fncci.org/).A website, www.datameteo.com provides a 7-day forecast to parts of South Asia, including can be used to prepare weather-based agricultural advisories by any local entrepreneurs (Figure 28). This is another project that operates under National Information Technology, linked to Global Knowledge Partnership (GKP) net projects. Under this project, agricultural advisories are being currently issued through telephone or through the Internet in 21 villages in eastern Nepal.  The Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) in Bangkok is also providing support for strengthening DHM capacity for managing climate change and the environment. It is assisting the department in climate data digitization and downscaling of climate change projections in Nepal (ADPC 2011) (http://www.adpc.net /2012/CCCRM /Default.asp). The 2013 RIMES has also been assisting Nepal through the application of weather forecasts from ECMWF through monsoon forums and seasonal forecast applications for weather in Terai, mountain and hill regions, and in working out the durations of likely dry spells in the country.A cell-phone based agro-advisory system for use in horticulture has been developed (Figure 29) by Michigan state University (Sangita et al. 2011) intended to be of practical use in countries like India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.The preparation and dissemination of agricultural advisories is at different stages of development across the South Asian region. Countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have made considerable progress in developing their agricultural advisory networks and extension systems in reaching the farmers through the Internet and mobile phones. In these advanced countries, the major concern is the content of these agricultural advisories and their usefulness in minimizing the climate risks and increasing agricultural production. Meanwhile, agricultural advisory services in other countries in the region, including Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, are still in preliminary stages of growth.A close scrutiny of the type of information being provided in agro-advisory bulletins prepared by the respective organizations in South Asia indicates that the information provided is mostly of generalized in nature and at times vague. The weather component in relation to crop growth or pest development and the relevant advisory is often missing. At present, India is a leader in providing district level agricultural advisories through its 130 AMFUs and is planning to expand the services to lower administrative regions through the village resource and knowledge centres. Pakistan is planning to strengthen the agromet units by building stronger linkages between agricultural research and extension agencies and training centers.On the other hand, Bangladesh has been aware of the importance of providing agricultural advisories to the farming community. The delivery of farm management advice and agricultural extension services is largely the job of the Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE). The DAE's aim is to provide need-based extension services to all categories of farmers, to enable them to optimize their use of resources and to promote sustainable agricultural and socioeconomic development. It is now teaming up with the Bangladesh Meteorology Department, which initiated web-based information on weather conditions advisories as needed by the farming community are not yet being issued on an operational scale.In Sri Lanka also, little progress has been made to develop a weather-based agricultural advisory system, though a strong desire can be seen to initiate such a network system both by the Ministry of Agriculture, the  MoAD) is now planning to develop an IT-based system to provide the agro-advisory to farmers in Nepal. The ministry is proposing to develop an Agricultural Management Information System (AMIS) within four years that will let the farmers get an SMS on their cell phones about the weather forecast alerts for 5 days, and market price alerts. This programme will be one of 4 components of a pilot programme on the climate change resilience project funded by the World Bank (MoAD 2013).In case of Bhutan, progress is in its infancy and now being initiated by support from some external agencies and Finland and Austria. There is a need to establish good networks of weather observatories in these Himalayan regions, and then to integrate efforts of government agencies, researchers and private organizations to develop effective agricultural advisory systems.Since in South Asia agriculture is the main livelihood, there is an urgent need to strengthen the agrometeorological services everywhere. To support these activities, the network of weather observatories need to be strengthened in each country, and a link-up between the agricultural and meteorological services need to be improved, to work in tandem to convert the weather information into appropriate agro-advisories.After reviewing the status of agricultural advisories in South Asia the following issues haveThe reliability and usefulness weather-based agricultural advisories depends upon the current status of crop, pest and disease information collection across the district. The the crop phonology and pest/disease status information is currently not clear in any of these countries. Even within the district, the variability on the above information in supplying the information and also in the dissemination of advisories to farmers, who themselves cannot gather this information directly, because of their lack of IT countries.need to be further strengthened. The district-level forecasts issued by the National Meteorological Departments (e.g. IMD) still needs to be strengthened for creating provided in a formal (general) manner for a larger area, but it needs to add value with local-level agroclimatic information generated from normal climatic data and real time satellite and synoptic charts. The grid-level forecasts using weather forecasting models need to be evaluated with the synoptic chart forecast for the local region by the local AMF unit in-charge, for improving the value of the forecast. This will take care of the prevailing local weather conditions and local weather variability patterns in that region of forecast. The concerned scientists managing the AMFUs need to be trained for this purpose. The role of traditional knowledge in improving the AAS is not clear and its utility may be considered, in whichever region appropriate.Advisories are often routine in nature rather than weather-or crop-oriented. Croplike those where rice, cotton or wheat is a predominant crop over a large area and the of farmers such as progressive, marginal and small farmers. Therefore, there is a need to address all these issues related to this different status of farmers.Research information on crop-weather relations at different phenophases of growth is of assessment of impacts of weather parameters on crop growth is yet to be developed for different agroclimatic regions in each of these countries, wherever some information is available. At district-and block-level, such information can be put to more effective use and the AMFU staff must be trained to convert these research results into operational agromet advisories with information of relevance, interest and need to be analysed critically. Most of the information is based on small number of samples. There is a need to survey a wider area within the zone and analyse the Pakistan's and Bangladesh's agricultural advisory status is very similar to India's. They are, however, providing the agricultural advisories at 10-day intervals through special bulletins prepared by the respective regional meteorological centres. The current status of medium-range weather forecasting in South Asia region is reliable up to 3 days; after which the reliability slightly decreases up to 5 days. The technology With the drop in the reliability of 10-day forecasts, an agricultural advisory becomes redundant in view of the changing/variable weather. Therefore, they may also, at the current stage, shorten the advisory period from 10 days to 5 days, as in India.A perusal of the forecasts that appear in the websites of some of the smaller countries like Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka in the South Asia region does not contain concrete information or advice on any of agricultural operations to be taken up by farmers. It simply gives a forecast for next two days. The agricultural advisories by these countries thus need to be more focused and prepared separately, indicating the forecast weather and the phenological stage of the crop. Further, agricultural advisories, at present, are issued by agroclimatic zone in many of these countries.There is a need to further expand the advisory network to smaller regions (district/ block level) for better services to the local farming communities.The evaluation system of AAS in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka countries is not clear. The mode of collection of information on crops, growth stage, pest status etc., and its use in the preparation of AAS by AMFUs is also not clearly Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan providing research information on crop-weather relationships for crops grown in different agroclimatic regions and its use in AAS, is mainly missing . More elaborative and collaborative efforts are needed on this important aspect, in these countries. Also the number of AMFUs responsible for preparation of AAS and their constituent where such efforts were not yet taken up. The current pattern being followed inThe private agencies and other NGOs who can play a positive role in extension private partnership, avoiding contradictory advisories for the same region.In the countries which are providing 10-day weather forecasts, efforts need to be made on validating them. Also, the coverage of these forecasts and the number of AMFUs spread across the country using them is not clear. If the forecast is for a larger agroclimatic region, the relevance of AAS using the above forecast and conversion of this information for smaller areas using micro-level models need to be evaluated carefully.While climate change is an issue of great concern to agricultural productivity and food security in most South Asian countries, the Farmers Awareness Program on Climate Change and the training modules for farmers and to AMFU members, to prepare them to meet the challenges of climate change, is not being seriously taken up in many countries. In India, AICRPAM, ICAR and IMD experience and the prime minister's initiative on creating awareness in farming community on climate change, National level programs like NICRA ( National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture) could be an example for other countries. Forecasts issued by meteorological organizations often do not predict extreme weather events, thus putting farmers at greater risk. Therefore, there is a need to improve the predictability of extreme events and their impacts on different crop-growth stages. Contingency plans for different regions are required to be put in place, and timely input availability to farmers is taken care of. The role of agricultural departments in providing the district/block level crop status and their linkages with the regional meteorological services for timely exchange advisories can be useful only if such information is made available in a timely way across these departments, both of which cater to the needs of the farming community.Where extension research or extension information is not currently available, based on the current crop species, future contingencies of possible occurrence could be periodic assessment and correction based on changes in crop varieties and cropping systems and practices. However, instead of waiting for a contingency to occur, a plan should be kept ready in hand. Past experience (of agricultural departments, local authorities and farmers) with such contingencies can be documented; new plans can be formulated since weather systems do not respect political boundaries. Exchange of information within the South Asian region would be of value not only for weather system movement but also about agricultural contingencies and remedial action.and not necessarily on daily basis. The SAARC programme is one such avenue that Satellite-based information could be supplemented by information from neighbouring countries. Being the big neighbour to all these countries, India can play a positive role to initiate and support such activity. A regional seminar on \"weather hazards to agricultural crops, animal husbandry and the formulation of contingency plans and remedial action\" could be taken up as a starting point for the exchange of past experiences and develop a plan of action, suitable to each of the member countries. This should lead to future cooperation and streamline activity to meet such contingencies within any individual season. Except for individual efforts, there is no consolidated information on potential utility of crop-weather forecast models for use with weather based agro-advisories, including pest and disease warnings. An 2-or 3-strong expert group could review and consolidate usable agriculture-weather forecast operational models requiring minimal input. Research models could be elaborate, but operational models might not need much generic information such as those required for Decision Support Systems for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), InfoCrop, the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) and other such models currently in use.The governments of Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan have only recently started providing agricultural advisories to farmers, but these countries have good infrastructure facilities and regional (SAARC) support to record weather data, and also are aware of the urgent need to scale-up. However, the agricultural advisory programme in these countries cannot be achieved without the active involvement of their respective meteorological departments and the agriculture research and extension agencies working in tandem and collaborating closely with a commitment and urgency. The farm-based advisories should be prioritized and additional supportive activities taken up by conducting further agrometeorological research in crop-weather relationships in their respective regions for strengthening the agricultural advisory service. Experiences from countries like India and Pakistan can help these countries adopt a fast-track approach to build up these facilities quickly.the efforts by extension agencies to create awareness in the farming community on the effective use of agro-advisories. Weather based agro-advisory information and its dissemination by a well-trained extension worker or a progressive farmer, in countries where it is yet to take off, can be effectively initiated through gatherings of farmers at a central place in the village. It would be useful as an interactive response process. Such workers can be provided with a cash incentive. They could visit 3 or 4 villages every week (not on the same day but at farmers' convenience). For some years to come, this would be the best option, where TV or radio dissemination of weatherbased advisories would still leave some doubts over the contingent situation. Looking great relevance.Where agricultural advisories are being provided through a web page, an interactive page has to be provided to enable the farmers to get answers. These will also of use to other farmers who are experiencing similar problems (like pest/disease incidence, and soil fertility and water-management issues, etc.)These efforts towards strengthening the weather-based agricultural advisory services in the the South Asian region and efforts for country-to-country cooperation will enable farmers to make better use of the good weather conditions in improving productivity, and adopt sustainable crop production strategies as well as manage adverse weather conditions more effectively. Such an integrated effort can help in timely management of their crops, leading to higher crop productivity, and improve both their own economic status and the food security of the region.With diverse climates, crops, cropping systems, land-use patterns and economic status of rural population in the South Asian region, providing weather-based agricultural advisories is a great challenge. A great disparity has been observed among the countries that are large and better developed compared to small nations like Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan. Therefore, there is an urgent need for greater cooperation among these densely populated SAARC countries to provide agricultural advisories in a timely way so farmers can achieve sustainable agricultural production.In order to achieve this, the following suggestions are made for greater stability in food grain production by effectively managing the climate: A micro-level resource inventory with respect to climate, soil, water, crop contingency planning for all the districts in these countries be prepared to meet out the climate risks effectively. The success of agricultural advisories is dependent on the reliable weather forecast and the crop information. The weather forecast capabilities of all the South Asian nations should be increased. Efforts should be made to enhance medium-range weather forecast reliability. A great cooperation across the countries in the region is essential. Experience across the countries and help from international research agencies has to be combined and information freely exchanged. To the extent possible the smaller countries are supported by their big neighbours in developing a good weather information base over their country. Also traditional knowledge on weather forecasting in different regions needs to be documented and related to advanced systems.To make available the crop conditions in different locations, the respective governments responsible for monitoring the above, must increase their staff and dedicate them, exclusively for this purpose. The role of NGOs, other social organizations and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) or such similar agencies under Ministry of Agriculture and Extension in these countries, in providing such information at district/block level may be looked into for sharing this burden. Also the research wings of agrometeorological institutions in all these countries need to be pest/disease relationships and contingency plans to be used in agro-advisory bulletins. Droughts are common during the cropping season, especially in semi-arid and arid Indo-Gangetic plains, and states of eastern coastal regions in India. The existing drought monitoring institutions under the meteorological departments of various countries should develop close linkages with their respective agricultural research institutions and universities for providing the viable solutions to meet the challenges intervals and preparation of soil-moisture status maps can provide information on the stress experienced by different crops. The expertise available in International Research Institutes under CGIAR in the South Asian region must also be utilized, and these institutes must play a greater role in providing research.South Asia in agricultural advisory systems. The existing infrastructure for monitoring intensity and duration must be carried out as a priority. The use of satellites may be stepped up. Likewise understanding between meteorological departments, remote information for taking advance measures. Farmers in these countries are mostly poor and the income from agriculture is remote regions and technological innovations have not yet penetrated for various administrative and political reasons. A majority of the farmers are ignorant about weather and weather-based agricultural advisories and weather insurance. An on crops, livestock and horticulture need to be explained, possibly with residential courses. This program must continue throughout the year. The lead taken in India by IMD and ICAR in conducting awareness training can be adopted by other nations.Expertise in weather forecasting, agricultural research, the preparation of agricultural advisories and infrastructure availability may be shared to improve the capabilities of small nations like Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan. Attempts by agencies like ADPC, CABI in providing such support to some parts of Southeast Asia can be extended to South Asia. The international research organizations in these regions may play a much more active role in conducting a mass campaign on awareness and provide necessary research inputs for improving agricultural advisories by expanding their activities into different agroclimatic regions, and integrating research with local NGOs and other organizations. They may concentrate on less developed nations in improving their agrometeorological capabilities and transfer knowledge and experience gained from working with developed countries. Such concerted effort needs great commitment from forecasters, researchers and them to effectively deal with weather conditions, and sustain and enhance their productivity.Weather and climate information play a major role before and during the cropping season and if provided in advance can help farmers apply resources in order to take advantage of favourable conditions and mitigate potential losses in unfavourable ones. Hence, agrometeorological inputs, with the aim of improving agricultural production both in quantity and quality. In an environment of increasing weather and climate variability under climate change, farmers are in greater need of agrometeorological information blended with weather sensitive management advisories before the start of cropping season to support adaptation of agricultural practices. In this context, agrometeorological advisories based on short and medium range weather forecasts become vital to stabilizing yields through management of agro-climatic resources as well as other inputs such as irrigation, fertilizer and pesticides. The Agrometeorological Advisory Service (AAS) of the India Meteorological Department (IMD), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is intended to contribute to weather information based crop/livestock management strategies and operations dedicated to enhancing crop production and food security. The main emphasis of the existing AAS system is to collect and organize climate/weather, soil and crop information, and to integrate them with weather forecast information to assist farmers in their management decisions. The programme has helped to develop and apply operational tools to agriculture in rapidly changing environments.The information support systems under AAS include: provision of weather, climate, crop/soil and pest disease data to identify biotic and abiotic stress for on-farm strategic and tactical decisions; maximum/minimum temperature, wind speed, wind direction, maximum/minimum relative humidity) up to 5 days with outlook for rainfall for the remaining two days of the week; translation of weather and climate information into farm advisories using existing through applications of medium range weather forecasts, in order to maximize malevolent weather events. A broad spectrum of advisories provide information on: weather-sensitive farm operations such as sowing/transplanting of crops, fertilizer application based on wind condition and intensity of rain, pest and disease control, intercultural operations (operations carried out on the soil between sowing and harvesting, e.g. weeding, pesticide application, etc), amount and timing of irrigation using meteorological thresholds and advisories for timely harvest of crops; introduction of technologies such as crop simulation model-based decision support systems to support adaptation of agricultural production systems to weather and climate variability and to the increasing scarcity of inputs such as water, seed, fertilizer, pesticide etc.;developing effective mechanisms for timely dissemination of agrometeorological advisories to farmers; effective training, education and extension on all aspects of agricultural meteorology.To achieve this, MoES sought and promoted cooperation between national agriculture and meteorological agencies and those responsible for dissemination of agrometeorological information and advisories. In addition to setting up a good agrometeorological observation network, numerical weather prediction (NWP) methods including multi-model ensembles Agro-meteorological Field Units (AMFUs) has been set up to translate weather forecasts into agro-advisories. These units have been set up at State Agriculture Universities (SAUs), institutes of the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and other organizations working in the sphere of the agricultural sciences.A multi-media system for dissemination of agrometeorological advisories to the farming community has been put in place in which, in addition to use of the conventional modes of communication (e.g., radio, television and print media), concerted efforts are made to reach farmers through emerging modes of communication such as mobile phones and the Internet. Short message service (SMS) and voice messages are being sent to subscribing farmers by private companies such as Reuters Market Light, IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited, MahaAgri, and Handygo. Besides these companies there are many companies such as Mahindra and Mahindra, Infosys, NOKIA etc. that are likely to start providing these services in the near future. AAS has also developed a mechanism to assess users' needs and strives to meet study aiming to assess the economic impact of AAS carried out 2003-2007 at 15 AAS units covering 3 1 and 3 2 of farm inputs like seeds, water, pesticides and fertilizers and reaped better harvest and made to 10 percent by those farmers who used the information provided by the AAS system.4. weather forecast-based early warning system for major pests and diseases of principal crops and advice on plant protection measures; 5. techniques for manipulation of crops' microclimate, e.g. shading, mulching, other surface stressed conditions; 6. techniques for reducing the contribution of agricultural production systems to global warming and environment degradation through judicious management of land, water and farm inputs, particularly pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers; 7. advisories on livestock health, shelter and nutrition. advisory bulletins that are tailored to meet farmers' needs and are made relevant to his/her decision-making processes. The suggested advisories contain advice on farm management actions designed to take advantage of good weather and mitigate the stress on crop/livestock, and generally alter operations in a way that improves outcomes. Hence, while formulating should place requests for information to the AMFU/IMD either directly or via the extension media reports, farmers' feedback, and remote sensing observations (vegetation indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, etc.) The desired information is also obtained by exploratory surveys or participatory methods of personal interactions with farmers. The critical issues with regard to tailoring information for farmers, as summarized by Hansen (2002), and can recognize scale mismatches between the forecasts and their on-farm decisions; b) such as onset of rainfall, dry spell distribution, and weather conditions during harvest; and, c) skill of the forecast -which needs to be presented in different terms from those given by the forecasters and rather relative to the other risks within farming operations.The bulletins are encoded in a format and language that is easily understood by the forecast and translate it into layman's terms so that the farmers can understand it. Thus, the agrometeorologists play a vital role in the translation of messages from the meteorologists to the agricultural sector. Also, interaction between the AMFUs and farmers to identify weathersensitive decisions is promoted under the service. This step enables a relationship between the IMD, AMFUs, and the farmers so that they can identify or diagnose the gaps in weather information available from the IMD. As the interaction between weather and agriculture is complex, it is not just a case of applying a simple solution and expecting implementation and climate on sustainable agricultural production as outlined by Sivakumar, et al (2000) is followed.The Agro-meteorological Advisory Bulletins are issued at district, state and national levels to cater to the needs of local to national level users. The district-level bulletins are issued by At present these bulletins are issued for 539 districts in the country. The State Level bulletin is a composite of district bulletins helping to identify the distressed districts of the state as well as planning the supply of appropriate farm inputs such as seeds, irrigation water, fertilizer, pesticides etc. These bulletins are jointly prepared by the State Meteorological Centres of IMD and AMFUs and mainly used by State Government functionaries. They are also useful to the fertilizer and pesticide industries, the Irrigation Department, seed companies, transport input to the State-level Crop Weather Watch Group (CWWG) meeting. Presently, these bulletins are issued for all the states of the country. National Agro-meteorological Advisory Bulletins are prepared by the National Agro-meteorological Advisory Service Centre, Division of Agricultural Meteorology, IMD in Pune, using inputs from various states. This bulletin helps identify stress on various crops for different regions of the country and supports suitable incorporation of advisory information into management and planning decisions at the national level. The Ministry of Agriculture is prime user of these bulletins, which support important decisions in CWWG meetings at national level. The national-level bulletins are also used by a large number of other organizations including fertilizer and pesticide companies.Weather forecasting system for AAS In the recent past, IMD has made enormous improvements in the accuracy and lead time of forecasts for various usages including AAS, due to the introduction of advanced numerical weather prediction models (NWP), improved data (both conventional and non-conventional) and its assimilation, and high speed computers. This trend is expected to continue as more sophisticated numerical models of the atmosphere and oceans are developed. Using inputs from extensive observation networks and employing a host of global, regional and mesoscale models, IMD has provided quantitative district-level (612 districts) weather forecasts up to 5 days in advance since 1 June 2008. Forecast products include quantitative forecasts for 7 weather parameters: rainfall, maximum temperature, minimum temperatures, wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and cloudiness. In addition, a weekly cumulative rainfall forecast is provided. IMD in New Delhi generates these products using a Multi Model Ensemble (MME) technique based on forecast products available from a number models from India and other countries. These include: T-254 model of NCMRWF, T-799 model of European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF), and models from (NCEP), USA and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). The products are disseminated to Regional Meteorological Centres and Meteorological Centres of IMD located in different of model output and disseminate them to 130 AMFUs every Tuesday and Thursday.Results show that MME forecasts have better capability (compared to individual member models) to capture large-scale rainfall features of the summer monsoon, such as the heavy rainfall belt along the west coast, over the domain of monsoon trough and along the foothills of the Himalayas. The model inter-comparison reveals that the ensemble forecast is able to provide more realistic spatial distribution of rainfall by taking advantage of the strengths of each constituent model. The mean error as well as Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) is found to be lowest in the ensemble forecasts both in magnitude and in the spatial area coverage. Results of error statistics have clearly demonstrated the superiority of the MME over the individual member models. Among the member models ECMWF is found to be the most skilful followed by JMA and NCEP Global Forecast System (GFS). The forecasts for other parameters, namely maximum and minimum temperature and morning and evening relative humidity, have also shown reasonably good skill. The results of the district-level performance of the ensemble rainfall forecast show that the technique, in general, is capable of providing reasonably good forecast skill over most states of the country, particularly over the districts of the Central Zone where the monsoon systems are dominant. Though the procedure shows appreciable skill in predicting the occurrence or non-occurrence of light to moderate rainfall at the district level, it has certain limitations in capturing heavy rainfall events. forecasts by MME and member models is presented in Figure 2. The results show that MME is superior to each member model at all the forecast levels (day 1 to day 5). Inter-comparison of the threat scores (a measurement of the fraction of forecast events that were correctly predicted) of rainfall forecasts by MME and member models at different rainfall thresholds was also computed. The results indicate that at all rainfall thresholds, MME is more skilful than each individual model. The MME technique is constantly being updated and at present work is underway to compute weights for each of ECMWF, JMA, NCEP, NCMRWF and UKMO based on 2008 monsoon also underway to design a MME method for issuing a probabilistic 3-day forecast based on very high resolution non-hydrostatic meso-scale models to estimate risk for districts, making use of the new observations and infrastructure that would be available from the ongoing modernization programme of IMD. Data sources used in numerical weather modelling include upper air soundings, land surface instruments (including the network of automatic weather stations (AWS) and automatic rain gauge stations (ARG) at the sub-district scale), marine satellites-wind and radiances, rain rate etc. In the future the network density of AWS/ARGs will be further enhanced so as to automatically record meteorological observations at near block 3 level. In addition, installation and commissioning of a network of 55 Doppler Weather Radar towers is in progress. Techniques have been developed to assimilate large volumes of satellite-derived information from the INSAT-3D satellite. Through improvement in observing models, which may lead to further improvement in skill of weather forecasts. There is a plan to use geographic information systems (GIS) in the near future for generating customized agrometeorological products.The value addition to NWP model outputs is undertaken along with preparation of district level weather forecasts at Meteorological Centres, which are located in different states and are the Field Forecaster using inputs from very high-resolution meso-scale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) models, synoptic knowledge, bias correction of district forecast etc. These Centres run the WRF model using initial conditions generated from global models for detailed analysis of rain-bearing systems at a higher resolution.An inter-disciplinary group of agricultural and extension specialists at each AAS Unit formulates weather-based farm advisory bulletins upon receipt of medium range weather prepared in local languages and incorporate the available knowledge on crop-weather relationships. Weather-based agro-advisories take into account the prevailing weather, soil and crop conditions, and based on the weather prediction suggest measures/practices to minimise losses and optimise inputs in the form of irrigation, fertiliser or pesticides. Real time weather and climatic information are essential ingredients for development of agro-advisories.Application of weather forecasts to generate crop advisories is linked to accuracy, spatial domain of validity and temporal range of the forecasts. In view of the requirements of the farming community, district level forecasts are issued for the above listed parameters for the stages to guide farmers on cultural practices. output and avert crop damage or loss. They also help growers anticipate and plan for chemical applications, irrigation scheduling, disease and pest outbreaks and many more weather related planting/transplanting, dates of intercultural (weeding, pesticide application etc.) operations, dates of harvesting and also performing post harvest operations. Agrometeorological analysis and decision support for farming situations such as: pest management through forecasts of relative humidity, temperature and wind; irrigation management through rainfall and temperature forecasts; and protecting crop from thermal stress through forecasting of extreme temperature conditions etc. Under the AAS system, more focus is now being given to the use of crop/soil simulation models to assess and recommend crop management strategies for a given weather condition. Agricultural scientists at AMFUs have started using crop simulation models as a decision support tool for making weather forecast based farm management recommendations, as they are more objective. For example, the AMFU can objectively assess the impact of skipping irrigation at a particular phenophase of a crop on its dry matter yield, though with some uncertainties. Agrometeorologists can consider many of the factors involved, and answer the farmers' questions with a reasonable estimate. The crop models are also being used as tools Decision support tools for generating weather-based farm advisories Technological tools are required to translate weather information into agricultural management decisions. Accurate simulation of phenological stages with the necessary details for practical applications and management strategies helps considerably in scheduling of management actions. The management decisions that can be directly linked to weather forecasts are irrigation management, fertilizer application, herbicide application, pest/disease control, and harvest. For this crop-soil simulation models are employed to predict crop-level responses to different weather situations and soil moisture conditions. Such models are useful to develop decision support information for weather-based crop management. At the farm level, a series of short-term decisions must be made on the basis of knowledge or forecasts of parameters that are derived from weather forecasts, e.g. soil moisture, phenological development stage etc. In such a case, it is important that the farmer is forewarned about the likely impacts and enabled to mitigate negative impacts through an objective understanding of and nutrient supply, biotic stresses and the time of planting and harvesting of the crop. The AAS system has started using crop models to support crop management decision-making, but substantial improvements in modelling capabilities are needed. CERES and CROPGRO models, for different crops, have been incorporated in the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) crop systems model for use in crop and irrigation management in some agro-climatic zones. Examples on these aspects have been demonstrated by Aggarwal et al (2006), for tropical regions including Asia, where related user-friendly software has been developed.Agrometeorological data form the basis of any agricultural pursuit, whether planning, development, operations or research. The Agriculture Meteorology Division of IMD has been providing assistance to various agricultural universities/institutions, State Departments and other organizations to set up agro-meteorological observatories by way of on farm siting and installation of instruments and maintenance of the observatories. The data recorded in agrometeorological observatories are being utilized for research and development (R&D) as well as operational services such as AAS, and by a number of organizations for research, planning and management. This data is also used for used for preparation of routine charts and as input for crop models. To meet these needs the Agriculture Meteorology Division maintains a network of 261 agrometeorological observatories in farm environments. Beside this network, there are 42 evapotranspiration stations, 330 pan evaporation stations, 43 soil moisture observatories, and 75 dewfall observatories. Agro-meteorological Automatic Weather Stations (Agro-AWS) have been installed at 127 AMFUs and installation of Agro-AWS is planned for all KVKs in the country.The data received from these observatories are scrutinized, archived and supplied to scientists, planners etc. The following types of agrometeorological observatories are in operation: 1. Principal agricultural meteorological stations 2. Ordinary agricultural meteorological stations 3. Auxiliary agricultural meteorological stations 4. Micromet stations (desert locust meteorological stations) 5. Evapotranspiration stations 6. Soil moisture stations.Critical factors for successful dissemination of advisories include relevance of the information to weather and climate sensitive decision-making in agriculture, and good outreach. The goal is to provide information to help farmers make the best possible use of weather and climate information (Aggarwal 2002). To ensure delivery of information to the farming community, a multi-mode dissemination system is essential in which in addition to the conventional modes of communication (radio, television and print media), emerging modes of communication such as mobile phones and Internet are also deployed.Advisories are disseminated to farmers through following the multi-channel system: i.All India Radio (AIR) and Door Darshan (Government of India television service) ii.Private TV and radio channels iii. Newspaper iv.Mobile phone/SMS v.Internet vi.Virtual Academy/Virtual Universities/NGOs vii. Kisan (Farmer) Call Centres/ICAR and other related Institutes/SAUs/State extension networks viii. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs)In general, the use of more than one channel offers a greater chance of reaching the client or user. AAS advisories are primarily disseminated to farmers by mass modes of communication, with additional outreach at the village level and contact with extension agents. Group methods at the village level involve addressing the needs of clients that have similar needs groups formulated to address critical decisions and provide the desired agrometeorological information using the same format and language. The groups allow farmers to be exposed to other farmers' successes as well as realize that they may encounter similar problems or obstacles. This encourages them to consider alternatives that may have been used by others. It also helps to share experiences and opinions and identify gaps in the knowledge dissemination and previous individual contacts. The individual contact method can be time consuming but also build good rapport and help maintain credibility between the role-players. It is a vital part of the participatory technology and training method of extension.Hence two-way communication with farmers must be an integral part of the dissemination system. Deployment of the communication model should be in accordance with user needs of information and accordingly developed an evolving strategy for dissemination of agrometeorological information. Although concerted efforts are being made to set up two-way limited interaction with the farmers, good communication and working relationships have been set up with the agricultural extension system via KVKs and Kisan (Farmer) Call Centres etc. to promote participatory methods for interactions with farmers. The agrometeorological bulletins contain dynamic information so repetitive dissemination is needed. This iterative process also helps to address the large temporal and spatial variability in weather and climate and its complex relationship with agriculture (Carlson 1989).The dissemination of agrometeorological information illustrates the vital parts of or vehicle, message, and effect. The communication begins with the farmer who formulates to perform data analysis and prepare a message in a format and language that the farmer day-to-day farm management. This step enables a relationship between the meteorologists, agricultural scientists, extension personnel and the farmers so that they can identify or diagnose the gaps in weather information available from the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services, and c) choose the right media among those available to the targeted user groups.The use of electronic media such as e-mail or the Internet depends on the availability and access of these methods to the users. Access is increasing in India, in particular through an initiative of the Department of Information Technology, which is in the process of to setting up a network of common service centres (CSC). AAS is a scalable system that can be incrementally developed and extended to cover all the farmers and crops of India in a costin a timely manner. With the advent of computers and Internet, emphasis is often being given to electronic communication systems. However, TV and radio services are still the best ways of communicating advisories among rural people as these are not only fast methods, but also large and illiterate masses can be contacted. Broadcasting of advisories in vernacular language increases their accessibility relative to other means of communication. Under the AAS scheme efforts are being made to strengthen the outreach of the agrometeorological advisories as per the need of the farmers.knowledge and understanding and ends with evaluation of the usefulness of the information to users. The Internet is one of the new and cost-effective technologies that can provide this information in an accurate and timely manner. Additionally, the Internet can also be effectively used to offer training modules to agrometeorologists to help them improve the quality of the products they produce. Agrometeorological bulletins are available on the India Meteorological department and Agricultural Meteorology Division websites and websites maintained by collaborating agencies.AAS advisories are also disseminated to the farming community in India through SMS and IVR (Interactive Voice Response Technology). Under the SMS system an information platform has been created which allows AMFUs to provide information to farmers in a within an actionable time frame to the farmers. Under the IVR system the information from AMFUs for each state is collected and then stored, and converted into voice messages. Farmers can then call in and receive the desired information.In the era of the emerging Information Technology (IT) arena in India, many private companies have joined hands with IMD to deliver weather-based agricultural information to farmers using multiple modes of information communication. As some farmers are willing to pay for the information, IMD has formed partnerships with different public and private organizations that are already working to disseminate agricultural information to rural villages. Dissemination technology employed under these schemes is mainly based on IT and includes Internet and mobile phone based communication systems. The most advantageous feature of mobile phoneand thus are able to request advice concerning newly discovered problems. i.IMD has so far partnered with Reuter Market Light (RML), Handygo, NOKIA, IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Ltd. (IKSL), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural development (NABARD), Maharashtra State Agriculture Department (Government of Maharashtra). Existing linkages with these organizations are described below.ii.Reuter Market Light: IMD and Reuter Market Light (RML) are working together to disseminate weather and agro-meteorological crop/livestock advisories in regional Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal Punjab and Haryana. RML is interested in creating a scalable model that can expand across India and utilize the information developed for all the 640 districts of the country. iii. Handygo: Handygo is a telecom value added services company based at New Delhi.The company is disseminating agrometeorological advisories through an IVR system to Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat and West Bengal. iv.NOKIA: Nokia Life Tools Agriculture services provide agrometeorological advisories to farmers on a regular basis. IMD in collaboration with NOKIA had started service in 10 states: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Rajasthan, and Punjab. v.IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL): IKSL provides value added services to farmers of cost. The project is underway in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana Maharashtra, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Kerala. In addition, farmers are being made aware of the service through participation in During these programmes farmers are provided with information on various services in local languages and taught to record weather observations using various weather instruments. Discussions include the importance of the service and farmers' existing skills and gaps, and allow for familiarization of the agrometeorologist with the problems faced by the farming community and their expectations from the service providers.Regular feedback from farmers, State Agricultural Departments, SAUs, ICAR and other related institutes is being collected and processed for further improvement of services. Feedback information are also been collected from regional and national broadcasting stations of Door Darshan (Government of India television service), All India Radio, and FM channels, KVKs, ATMA, Central Seed Committees, NGOs, and Village Resource/Knowledge Centres.Training is one of the key elements for constant improvement in the service; thus it forms an integral part of an agrometeorological service. Periodic training programs for forecasters, scientists, agrometeorologists, extension workers, media and farmers at appropriate levels sharpen their skills and improve the service delivery. Improvement in skill of all involved in the programme for understanding the weather processes and their impact on crops/animals should form an integral part of Human Impact assessment of the weather forecast based agro-advisory service was carried out by NCMRWF at 15 AAS units representing different agroclimatic zones. The report assesses the impact of the use of weather-based agro-advisories on production of cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables and cash crops selected for the study. The study period was spread over three years comprising of 3 kharif and 3 rabi seasons. The National Centre for Agriculture Economics and Policy Research (NCAP) was engaged as a consultant for the project, and helped to formulate the study plan, including devising sampling methods, preparation of questionnaire, monitoring its implementation and data analysis. Thematic research areas to achieve the objectives include: agroclimatic characterization, crop-weather relationships, crop-weather modelling, effect of weather on pests and diseases, and support to AAS.Over the past two and half decades, network centres of AICRPAM have generated data on growth, development and yield of crops that were assigned to each centre, besides collecting historical weather data for their respective regions. Each centre also collected historical crop yield data and the corresponding weather data in different districts of their respective agroclimatic regions/states. Data on disease and pest incidence of the main crop(s) of each centre were analysed in relation to weather conditions. Validations of crop simulation models were undertaken at some centres. AICRPAM was also associated with the National Project on Climate Change (NPCC), which focused on the impacts of climate change on crops, Resilient Agriculture' (NICRA) launched during 2010-11 with CRIDA as the nodal agency, where it is contributing to two of the major research themes on i) vulnerability assessment of major production systems to climate change and ii) linking weather-based agro-advisories to contingency planning. Future Plan:R&D, dissemination, and other areas. There is need to develop methodologies for remote sensing and conventional data merging. Concerted efforts are needed for ground-based data collection, satellite data collection, GIS software applications, operational applications of meteorological satellite data, weather radar and the monitoring of the cropping season by meteorological and remote sensing data to equip AAS units to generate better advisories. Though district level medium range weather forecasts are being prepared for AAS, there is an urgent need to develop and issue high resolution accurate weather forecasts at the block level to help tailor crop planning advisories for farmers at village level. Thus there is a need to scale up the service from the district to the block level with dissemination at the village level across the country to meet end user needs. Based on this idea, the new concept of establishing the Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) scheme under AAS in the country during the XIIth Five Year Plan was developed.The main objectives of the proposed project would be: 1. enhance the existing district-level AAS operating under MoES/IMD throughout the execution of the XII th Five Year Plan, with the goal of delivering crop and locationadvisories; 2. establish district-level Agromet Units that would be multi-purpose centres for catering to needs of agriculture as well as other sectors of the economy; 3. communicate weather-based agrometeorological advisories online to the farmers at the block/taluka/village level; 4. establish an agrometeorological data centre that will store weather, crop and soil data etc. collected and generated across various centres and agrometeorological observatories in India, and make available in a relational database the basic and derived agrometeorological parameters and crop information to users through the IMD website after scrutiny and quality checking; 5. create a Centre for Research and Excellence in Agro-meteorology that will work to channelize R&D products and tools for their applications in AGROMET sectors in areas.","tokenCount":"17635"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a2e2951833681e27260123491faa084d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a0340e8-7515-4a30-85dd-2f9740061e2b/retrieve","id":"286257596"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3f72e6ac-3110-4463-a42c-e75cc91cbd3f","pagecount":"2","content":"Weeds by definition are plants that grow in the wrong place. When their seeds or other plant parts are transported to other regions where their natural enemies are absent, they can multiply unhindered. Indigenous plants, especially those that are adapted for invading disturbed areas, can also become weeds. The first category is a particularly good target for classical biological control. Insects, mites and micro-organisms that feed on them are imported from their original area and released against the new invader. Against indigenous plants however, biological control is far less promising.By the end of 1980s, many of the water bodies in West Africa were invaded by alien plant species considered to be among the world's worst aquatic weeds: water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes, water lettuce Pistia stratiotes, and water fern Salvinia molesta. They were accidentally or deliberately introduced as ornamentals or for use in aquariums from their native range South America to many parts of the world where they have become invasive.In their new geographic range, aquatic weeds multiply rapidly through both vegetative and sexual reproduction; favoured by the absence of their natural enemies and eutrophic nutrient-rich conditions. Consequently, large biomass is produced, most times covering the entire surface of water bodies. The plants threaten the survival of lakeside and riparian communities, kill other aquatic life by blocking out light, harbour the carriers of such diseases as malaria and bilharzia, impede transport, threaten biodiversity, and stifle commerce, fishing and irrigation. In the Congo Basin and in Nigeria, floating water weed have even led to the abandonment of settlements along rivers and lagoons, which became inaccessible.According to a 2004 report by the African Development Bank (AfDB), annual losses in West Africa vary from US$28-56 million for fisheries, US$4-6 million for health, US$7-14 million for hydro-energy, and US$36-76 million for agriculture. In 1999, the invasion of water fern threatened the rich bird life of the Senegal River Delta, a World Heritage Site that has been designated a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (Diop and Hill, 2009a).Floating water weeds can be controlled by several methods, which all have their drawbacks. They include physical means, i.e., hand weeding -the oldest method -or diverse mechanized equipment, chemical herbicides, and biological control. The latter consists of the release of host specific natural enemies, usually insects, mites, also pathogens, introduced from the native range of the weed into the invaded area to reduce the abundance of the weed to a level at which it no longer causes a problem. Utilisation of the water weeds is sometimes considered as a means of control, because large amounts are removed. Some species can be used for the production of biogas, as feed for livestock, for the production of paper, as organic manure, for the treatment of polluted water, and for making ropes, mats, crafts, furniture, etc.Physical removal and herbicides were first seen as the means of choice, but both methods were not sustainable as they only provided temporary control. During a conference in 1988 in Nigeria, participants opted for biological control as the most appropriate method. In Australia, South Africa, Sudan and USA, successful biological control of the three weeds had already been documented. Therefore, in collaboration with other institutions, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) implemented the first classical biological control of floating weeds in West Africa. In 1991, the weevil Neochetina eichhorniae was released against water hyacinth in the Ouémé and Niger watersheds in Bénin (Van Thielen et al., 1994). Releases of the weevils Neohydronomus affinis against water lettuce in Bénin, and Cyrtobagous salviniae in the Congo against water fern, followed thereafter. ","tokenCount":"596"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7108e35186d5dcef2bc14f671d7a1cd8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/253f249a-8d0e-4961-98e0-5c03def8041a/retrieve","id":"-1551987534"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ab5177d-8319-4232-a76d-fd24f3a923e9","pagecount":"2","content":"❖what is the problem?Nigeria is home to over 50% ofWest Africa' s population. lts petroleum dependent economy has led to widespread income disparities and a heavy dependence on food imports, such as wheat. 70% of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood and 70% of the population is below the poverty line (2007 est.). Malnutrition is widespread, with over 41 % percent of children under five years of age stunted -i.e. chronically malnourished (2008) and the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency at 29.5%, a level of public health concern.Nigeria is renowned for its consumption of yam and cassava. lt is also one of the largest producers of sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with annual production estimated at 3.9 million metric tons per year. Sweetpotato is grown in ali 36 states. Despite this, the crop has receive little attention from policy makers and scientists, yields are low (6-7 tons/ha compared to 21.6 tons/ha for China and 50 tons/ha for South Africa), and its contribution to the Nigerian diet is only a seventh of cassava' s. This in spite of its short production cycle (3-4 months), its ability to produce on marginal soils, and the potential to exploit its roots and vines (4% protein) for both human and animal production (especially dairy and pig).❖What do we want to achieve?We need to better understand sweetpotato' s current and potential role in the Nigerian food economy. We need to pinpoint entry points for developing and promoting sweetpotato that make agronomic and economic sense, which in turn will raise its profile among policy makers and practitioners. Following a rapid appraisal of the range of potential uses, we need more detailed information on promising value chains, so that we understand the relationship between the actors in the value chains (paying attention to gender roles), the margins, tradable qualities and potential future benefits. We need to utilize the information generated to galvanize public and prívate sector actors to invest in and exploit sweetpotato' s unrecognized potential in Nigeria.❖Where are we working? Nigeria is a large, complex country. Due to the limited time and resources available for the study, we focused the majority of the effort in three a reas ch osen beca use of the existence of interested stakeholders. These areas are: 1. Osun State, focused on sweetpotato growing a reas that align with the School Feeding Program; 2. Kwara State, focused on areas where sweetpotato is particularly important in cultural traditions; ","tokenCount":"406"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/9906824983.json b/data/part_5/9906824983.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..fac6c8d0d8e5d0ad87aa24ad56e9850f7e5b8125
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f2e673593d68bc73b57f3b6abba20072","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/53b5a47c-5355-49c6-a49d-e6dc1db4be97/retrieve","id":"568321213"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f932d8c2-a318-4e9f-86cb-0dde36132462","pagecount":"1","content":"Through ECAPAPA, dairy policy-makers and regulators in Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda have adopted new institutional approaches and appropriate technologies to harmonise standards and improvement of informal milk markets across the region.This research was first planned in the 2004 -2006  MTP and achieved in 2006. The outputs included development and application of risk assessment methods, testing methods for improving hygiene by informal milk traders and pilot testing of training programmes. These outputs led to regulatory changes allowing improved informal milk markets in Kenya.ASARECA's policy programme, ECAPAPA, supported by ILRI, used these results to:-negotiate with dairy policy-makers across East Africa common standards for the East African dairy industry.-facilitate a process of regional dialogue by policy makers across eastern Africa resulting in an agreement to promote movement of certified milk traders across borders, -develop and publish training materials for milk quality standards and the certification of smallscale milk traders and accreditation of their trainers and, -piloting the concept of training and certification of informal milk traders by involving business development service (BDS) providers. ECAPAPA recently facilitated dairy BDS market assessments in Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda to determine areas of viability and pilot projects are expected to follow. The requirements emphasize the use of common training materials and approaches for capacity building of informal milk traders, who provide 90% of the marketed milk in the region. Until these policy changes, informal market agents did not have formal recognition in national policies throughout the region.","tokenCount":"240"}
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diff --git a/data/part_5/9913812234.json b/data/part_5/9913812234.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9610166e82887daa4dbb99d58f87bb77b7a820a1
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"efa5a0d9238f10cf90ab9a732ab106bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/18f87003-b9d6-48f6-b9d6-334eae7c7cd8/retrieve","id":"-1456112985"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"184f4911-23ce-416f-9e0a-04541b809df1","pagecount":"3","content":"Identifying efficient seed system (s) practices/models to accelerate the access to quality seed of improved varieties legumes, maize and forages to small scale farmers particularly poor and women farmers in Tanzania, Malawi and ZambiaSeveral seed system models to supply improved varieties to farmers have been tried in East and Southern Africa in the last decades to disseminate improved seed varieties developed for years by CGIAR and NARS with government and donor-led efforts. Many of these high performance varieties are available in these regions, but limited disseminated. The challenges in making this technology more commonly adopted lie in the poor understanding of seed systems, gaps in access agricultural inputs in general and farmers' lack of knowledge about how improved varieties can affect their yields and their lives. Attempts to devise more effective seed dissemination schemes (seed supply chains) have been tried. These range from decentralized seed production to semi-centralized models with the partnering private sector operators. While the latter has provided some positive results for hybrid maize, the development of legume and forage seed sector continue to be limited despite meaningful subsidies in countries like Malawi.In response to this weakness in seed systems, Tanzania and Zambia adopted decentralized seed schemes such as Quality Declared Seed (QDS) or standard seed grades aiming at improving the availability of quality seed at local level. Most recently, the use of small and affordable seed pack approach has emerged as an alternative to facilitate access to seed by a larger number of farmers, particularly women and extending the use of certified seed to farmers and creating business opportunities for seed companies. Despite these attempts, no rigorous assessment has been carried to identify the best models to efficiently reach farmers with quality seeds of improved varieties. This initiative proposes to review critically a range of seed dissemination models for legumes, maize and forage seed across the region to identify promising and scalable models (or a combination thereof) to accelerate the supply of quality seed of improved legume, maize and forage varieties. It will also assess what basic information should be delivered with seed to help farmers make informed choices on the varieties available. This study will produce the missing information that will guide FtF/Africa RISING the design elements for a sustainable and impact-oriented seed information system to market improved varieties with a strong history of success more widely and efficiently.Carry out assessment of the representative of seed systems models related to production efficiency, scale and speed of seed and variety access and information with consideration of the different farmers categories particularly women and poor.1. Identification of the current and past seed systems models tried or going across in three countries and neighboring countries; 2. Identification of representative seed models to be assessed; 3. Design of appropriate study tools and share them with partners; 4. Review and assess the representative seed models across the three countries and the region; 5. Comparison of existing seed-related policies across the three countries and their implications on seed access of improved varieties to small scale farmers particularly women; 6. Data analysis and report outlining a typology of seed system clients, regulatory and technical environments for the three product categories: legumes, maize and forage; 7. Recommendations on appropriate strategies to develop a sustainable and impact oriented seed systems; 8. Knowledge-sharing with key stakeholders (government, NGO and seed industry, farmers); 9. Draft inclusive seed systems models that can be implemented in different types of seed markets Other support organizations to be invited are the National partners in the three countries such as MoAgriculture/policy makers and national Seed services e.g. TOSCI (TZ), NSSCI (Zambia) and seed services of DARS in Malawi. The NARS' commodity programs, local and national district extension. Seed industry actors and local farmers' organizations will be major partners.1. A documented and evidence-based understanding of how some representatives of existing seed systems models serve farmers (across economic and gender strata) 2. Understanding of the existing seed policies (related) and their implications for farmers' seed access /seed industry development 3. Documented evidence of existing varieties and farmers' capacity to identify varieties 4. An inclusive seed systems strategy with at least three proposed models for an impact-oriented and sustainable seed system development with key stakeholders 5. A catalogue of seed suppliers and related input suppliers per countryActivity Timeline (April-September 2012) A M J J A S CIAT, Dry Grain Pulses CRSP and, CIMMY, ICRISAT, IITA NARS, private sector Identification of the current and past seed system models that have been tried or used across the three countries and other neighboring countries x Selection of representative seed models (representing others)xDesign and produce appropriate study tools x Hold a workshop to validate the tools with partners x Review and assess representative seed models across the three countries and within the region Carry out data analysis and prepare report x x x Suggest appropriate strategies to develop a sustainable and impact oriented seed system x x x Share the results with local research for development actors and seed industry actors (farmers and seed producers)x Develop inclusive seed systems with three proposed seed system models catering the extremely poor and women.x","tokenCount":"852"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f76ce0e9ba54db12dd457abd637725b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c0d65b49-fc2a-4ed1-a991-f53123b3cb4e/retrieve","id":"-394281795"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a81fa8e8-7480-4397-90b0-1e99e3df158f","pagecount":"4","content":"Loss of soil carbon and accelerated organic matter decomposition from agroecosystems due to unsustainable land management undermines crop productivity.◼ Integrated climate-smart landscape management reverses soil carbon loss, rehabilitates degraded agroecosystems, and builds synergies between adaptation and mitigation co-benefits for food security.◼ Agroforestry practices and technologies have the potential of building soil carbon stock in landscapes.◼ Longer duration of implementation of CSA interventions contributes significantly to enhancing soil carbon stocks with benefits towards climate change mitigation and resilience in landscapes.Climate change is a major challenge, particularly for Ethiopia's rural populations who depend on rainfall for subsistence farming and are therefore more vulnerable to climate-related risks. Agriculture accounts for more than 40% of Ethiopia's gross domestic product (GDP) (UNDP, 2015), and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (FDRE, 2015). In Ethiopia, annual GHG emissions were estimated to be 150 Mt CO2e in 2010, with 50% of emissions coming from agriculture, and another 37% from forestry sectorsmainly agriculture related deforestation (FAO, 2016). Furthermore, the capacity of Ethiopia's agricultural, forest, and grassland sectors to act as carbon sinks is decreasing rapidly due to unsustainable agricultural practices. Since 2011, the federal government of Ethiopia has embarked on implementing the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy. CRGE has ambitious commitments in its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), to \"climate-proof\" Ethiopia's Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) by curbing its GHG emissions by more than half by 2030, while also building resilience against climate risks and future climate change. As set forth in the second GTP, reaching this goal will require boosting agricultural productivity by introducing climate-smart technologies and practices that include integrated watershed management, conservation agriculture, as well as nutrient and crop management across agroecosystems and landscapes with the potential to reduce GHG emissions by 40 Mt CO2e in 2030 (CRGE, 2011).Farmers in Doyogena district of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) face different climate-related risks. These include increasing rainfall intensity and variability, water stress, soil erosion, deforestation, severe land degradation and fragmentation, declining soil fertility, shortage of livestock feed, and increased incidence of crop and livestock diseases and pests. To address the challenges in this hotspot, a development partner, Inter Aide, started a pilot project in several villages in 2006. Subsequently, a USAID funded project known as Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) was initiated in the community in 2012 targeting additional villages (ILRI, 2015). Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING is creating opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security-particularly for women and children-and conserve or enhance the natural resource base.To be able to assess the effect of the CSA interventions on soil carbon, a study was undertaken in Tula-Jana landscape in April 2018. The landscape has an annual rainfall ranging from 1,000 to 1,400 mm. It has a bimodal season where the short rainy season (Belg) is from January to March, and the long rainy season (Meher) spans June to October. The altitude ranges from 2420 to 2740 meters above sea level. Temperature ranges from 12°C in the cold periods to 28°C during the warm periods, respectively.Soil sampling was done in three replicates from five different land uses: business as usual (BAU) under conventional management; cropland under CSA practices; agroforestry that involves enset (Ensete ventricosum) plantations; grasslands; and community forests established for 14 years with mainly Acacia decurrens trees. In addition, the topsoil of an undisturbed indigenous forest was sampled as a comparison. With this rationale, a soil sample (0-15cm) was taken from this land use as the baseline scenario for the current study. Cropland included annual field crops: wheat, barley, potatoes, and faba beans. Specific CSA practices included soil-water conservation structures (soil bunds) strengthened by grassesdesho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)hedgerow planting, crop residue management, crop rotation with legumes and restricted grazing on croplands. Soil samples were taken for distinct time periods of three years, six years and ten years to evaluate different stages of CSA practice implementation. Soil samples were taken from three depths in soil profiles: 0-15 cm, 15-45 cm and 45-100 cmto adequately capture soil carbon accumulation in different layers of the soil profile. The samples were analyzed for soil organic matter using the Walkley-Black method for computation of soil carbon stocks. Soil carbon stock mean values were compared for the different land uses.Agroforestry had the highest mean soil carbon stock of 312.1 t/ha that was statistically significant compared to other land uses (Figure 2). Agroforestry is mostly practiced around homesteads, instead of on crop fields, where farmers typically incorporate animal manure to improve soil fertility. This is due to the longer distances between the household and the farmlands. Cropland with CSA had the second highest soil carbon stock of 229.4 t/ha, attributed to crop residues. While cropland had statistically higher carbon levels compared to the community forest, it did not differ significantly from grasslands (208.9 t/ha). Grassland soil carbon stock is mainly a result of belowground carbon in roots and soil organic matter (Solomon et. al 2015). In addition, manure and urine from the animals play a key role in providing nutrients for grasses. Soil carbon stock in the community forest was much lower at 145.4 t/ha, compared to other land uses. This is because the area was highly degraded until restoration started in 2004. The area is characterized by steep slopes without soil and water conservation structures (exposed to higher erosion) and lack of biodiversity as it is mainly dominated by the black wattle (Acacia decurrens) tree species. All these factors could have contributed to the lower soil carbon stock in the community forest. The period of practicing CSA influences soil carbon stocks within one meter depth. Soil profile carbon stock buildup continued with time (Figure 3) and was statistically higher than BAU. The highest soil carbon stock was observed following ten years of practicing CSA (229.4 t/ha) compared to three years but did not differ significantly within the time series. In addition to mitigation benefits, a one ton increase in the soil carbon pool of degraded cropland can increase wheat yields by 20-40 kg/ha (Lal, 2004 andFAO 2017). The topsoil carbon level from agroforestry land use was higher than the other land uses (Figure 4). This could be attributed to enset dominating the agroforestry land use, mixed with vegetables such as potato, cabbage, carrot, beetroot and garlic. Enset is a multipurpose perennial crop with high biomass production as compared to soil in its natural undisturbed state and is planted adjacent to homesteads. Enset has highly decomposable parts such as the leaf, pseudostem and the core that add organic matter to the soil. In addition, farmers deposit high amounts of household waste and animal manure near homesteads for soil fertility improvement which leads to higher soil carbon stock compared to the indigenous forest.Grassland had a similar level of carbon stock compared to the indigenous forest. This finding shows that grasslands have the capacity to store carbon as much as soils in an undisturbed natural state. According to FAO and ITPS (2015), grasslands contain about 20% of the world's soil carbon stocks. The findings clearly demonstrate that CSA implementation has the ability to build up soil carbon stocks. For cropland, the soil carbon stock increases over time, implying that the sustainability of adopted technologies must be safeguarded in order to exploit the long-term benefits. Long-term mitigation benefits of CSA can only be realized when adopted technologies are properly managed and maintained.Different land uses have different soil carbon stocking capacities, which indicates that a landscape approach, integrating CSA at the farm-level with other land use systems including agroforestry, grasslands and forests, needs to be considered to maximize soil carbon stock.The soil is the largest terrestrial carbon pool. Therefore, storing carbon in soils has high relevance for Ethiopia's CRGE strategy as well as NDC. Given this context, the country needs to develop and implement policies that focus on promoting sustainable agricultural practices such as CSA at the landscape level.Intervention projects are usually short lived. Therefore, inclusive systems and institutional arrangements need to be in place to ensure the continual use of CSA practices beyond project years. ","tokenCount":"1374"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d14c45aa0c3d35afa2d019eabfc2c6c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d26e8654-dc4a-4ac0-8338-0a2a8083836f/retrieve","id":"1278281465"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1d427d8c-9a0e-4e5a-9de7-b0d3ccac9fde","pagecount":"16","content":"aybe you have not seen it, but they say there is a revolution going on out there. Maybe you have not seen it because \"there\" isn't where you are. Maybe you don't believe that the world is in any greater state of turmoil, hope and despair than at any other time in history, and maybe you are right. But it would be wise to avoid asking \"what revolution?\" since the word conjures up so many memories of political leaders who have, over the years, made the same comment just before an abrupt and enforced change of career.Take a look at some recent events. Some say they point to a rate of change-in developing and developed countries alike-that is so fast that it can only be described as a revolution. Revolutions, perhaps. The African continent with all its diversity is the region with the fastest rate of people connecting to the Internet. The digital divide is closing gradually, if not quickly enough. In early 2000, the participation of individuals and organisations from Africa in the global exchange of knowledge is really growing. In terms of agriculture, it is growing across a spectrum ranging from debates about genetic modification of plants, through dedicated research networks and key inputs to such world events as the UN commission on sustainable agricultural development, to grassroots exchanges between community-based women's saving and credit projects. Yes, one in eight Spore subscribers in ACP countries now has an email address and, by the end of the year 2000, maybe one in two will. As this issue of Spore goes out to subscribers, representatives of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and of the Member States of the European Union are preparing to sign the successor agreement to the Lomé Convention which will guide their cooperation over the next 20 years. More of that in Spore 88. One way to describe the new agreement's agricultural focus could be 'the conservation and management of natural resources for sustainable agricultural production for greater food security and nutrition'. That phrase emerged from a CTA exercise on priority setting, reported on in this issue. Priority setting -and underlying values -are at the heart of a reader's letter, the main article and the dossier on women. We also review fish farming and offer you the usual favourites of news, views and reviews, plus a reader's essay on the common sense of the farmer.In Guyana, the computer revolution recently offered new moneymaking opportunities to a group of Wapishana and Macushi women, through a project started by the state telephone company in late 1998. They set up rural businesses to market their handicrafts over the World Wide Web-a splendid example of an agricultural community conquering the world market. But their success threatened the traditional regional leadership and by early 2000 it took over the business from these enterprising young women. Their group fell apart, provoking the comment that \"economic advancement is not just about technology and markets; more fundamentally, it is about human relationships\".The human touch is coming back, it would seem, after a long cold exile from the soulless world of monetarism and structural adjustment. Human interventions, sometimes misguided, often ill informed, but human and hopeful nonetheless, have recently brought some fairly big endeavours to their senses and, to an extent, to a grinding halt. The negotiations of the World Trade Organization collapsed in December 1999 in disarray in Seattle, United States, under the pressure of a united Third World front, massive street demonstrations and internal political incompetence.In April 2000, in Washington DC, the joint meeting of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund found itself seriously challenged by an outburst of popular resentment on the streets that these institutions, seduced by their own rhetoric of glossy charm, never saw coming. Sharp-eyed observers say that such demands as \"Make love, not loans\" signal a new wave of youthful idealism that is sweeping the world, rural and urban alike. It is worth remembering that these uprisings of hope were organised through the Internet, enabling the greater involvement of Southern groups and governments as well.Something new is surely happening: the ever-accelerating expansion of the Internet has created a notion called the 'new economy' where small local traders suddenly have access beyond their neighbourhood to a world market, and where small can become big overnight and big, small. Where regional and international transactions-whether import-export deals or exchanges between ACP research communities or farmers' organisations-that used to take weeks or months can now be set up in hours. The new economy can mean a new agriculture too.The sense of change in the air is also very present in the \"visions\" about agriculture that have been circulating in recent months. The special Spore supplement \"Scenarios for ACP Agriculture: Joining the Circles of Life?\" has been welcomed for its combination of future key issues, listed in the box below. Other turn-of-the-millennium publications recently surveyed by Spore often use the term 'revolution'. There is, for instance, the 'livestock revolution' foreseen by the Washington-based International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), which predicts a doubling of meat consumption across developing countries, alongside an associated increase in demand for cereals.IFPRI's enthusiastic expectation that an agro-ecological cultivation will take root was shared by The Economist magazine, which stresses that much of Southern agriculture is ready for the holistic approach to agriculture that agro-ecology represents. But in many reviews there has been a consensus that basic operations like composting and mulching must make way for new components of agroecology, since they are often labour-and space-intensive. There is a challenge here for more focussed research on certain benign forms of biotechnology that can maximise the productivity of such methods. Similarly, organic agriculture was widely mentioned, more as something that makes sense in terms of natural resource management and good, healthy food, than as a sector promising great financial returns in the future. That is the effect of the market place: soon organic produce will move out of the realm of fad and fashion, and become mainstream; and bang will go the premium profit margins! Across the millennial statements, the most frequently predicted key issues are the ones mentioned by Spore, plus a few that we chose not to mention, or even put down a bit. Our plea, for example, for strategies that are respectful of \"indigenous knowledge\" but call for a \"beyond indigenous\" approach was not echoed elsewhere by a media apparently besotted by the local and the indigenous. Was it wrong, or premature?Adding values to agriculture And we missed out on a new approach to cultivation that will undoubtedly permeate parts of ACP agriculture during the next decade, though perhaps not in the next year. Precision farming is the next big thing. Using land-surveying techniques and appropriate geographic information systems, farmers are expected to better select which lands to farm, so that they can better manage scarce inputs of water and seeds and better organise harvesting and storage. For ACP farmers to adopt precision farming, many issues need solutions in terms of infrastructure, capacity building and institutional support. There too The Economist agrees, concluding its special survey with the remark that for \"agricultural research to flourish, it needs strong institutions to deliver the goods\".There is clearly a need for institutions that have learned-at least this is the suggestion of more than one millennial vision piece by M S Swaminathan, holder of the World Food Prize and fervent advocate of precision farming for the poor-to become \"pro-poor, pro-nature and pro-women\". And, dare we add, proactive. The resilient Communautés Africaines journal published by APICA, a development NGO in Douala, Cameroon, celebrated its twentieth year and the Millennium with a stirring call to action: \"We want to encourage participatory communication for sustainable development, shared knowledge and a consensus. As a development magazine, we propose a contract with our readers at the grassroots and in civil society. We call on everyone to pool their efforts, and to bring together that which is special to one person, and that which is universal.\"Herein lies an attitude of quality and commitment underlying most of the events and attitudes that have emerged early in the new Millennium. People clearly feel it is time to emphasise values and not just talk monetarily about adding value. There is a change of spirit, as well as a change of pace. Let's keep it that way. Get on your cycle! The new economy -symbolised by the @ sign used in electronic mail addresses -allows new exchanges between producers and consumers.We cannot eat words. We sell to buy, we buy to live. So we need the world's best market information systems.Spore surveyed more than 500 journals to identify consensus of 'millennial statements' on major agricultural themes. Among those who made such statements, these are the key issues for the start of the new millennium (areas not proposed in Spore are marked *):• land productivity here is no such thing as easy fish farming!\" proclaim the indignant research duo of Jérôme Lazard and Olivier Mikolasek, in the livestock department of the French Centre of International Cooperation in Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD). \"At each level you will find models which do work, from the family pond to an industrial size complex, from extensive to intensive. But the ones that work well are all shaped to fit into the local natural, social and economic environment. It just does not work to throw tilapia into a hole full of water.\" In a simple system where there is no proper feed, no proper sexing (with species like tilapia, young female fish should be excluded, since the males will grow better) and no predator, fish will find a way to multiply. They will, however, remain too small to appeal to the consumer.Africa is rife with models of fish farming which have failed in recent years. Most family fish farms lasted until the hurried departure of extension workers. Models of intensive large-scale fish rearing have also flopped badly, because of inappropriate design and poor follow-up in training and investment, as witnessed by the failures of fish lakes in Ébrié and Aghien in Côte d'Ivoire, Banfora in Burkina Faso, Brazzaville in the Congo, to mention but a few. Some large projects have continued, but only with the support of large forestry companies such as Improbois in Adzopé (Côte d'Ivoire) or mining companies like Comilog in Bakoumba (Gabon) or Bamburi Cement (Kenya). They have equipment such as bulldozers and pumps permanently on hand and have the trained staff required for operating semi-intensive models of production.Nestling between the excess fragility of small family operations and over-ambitious largescale projects, mid-scale suburban and periurban plants are offering a more hopeful perspective, with their focus on commercial sales. Jérôme Lazard: \"The plants have several fish ponds of a few ares (about one-tenth of an acre) each; they are populated with tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), a predator (Hemichromis fasciatus), mixed with catfish (Heterobranchus isopterus) or Heterotis niloticus, and fed with whatever feed is available locally such as slaughterhouse waste, chicken droppings or brewery sediment -this is what works best\".In varying forms, integrated or not, extensive or intensive, fish farming has developed spectacularly in Madagascar, Kenya and Zambia, driven by small entrepreneurs. The FAO has underlined this trend in its recent reports on the state of world fish farming. Nigeria could well be added to this list, although even this country, a phenomenonal producer on the African scale, looks tiny with its 15,000 tonnes of fish compared with China's 25 million (at 1995 levels). In all, African fish farming represents about 0.2 % of world production.A recent study in Côte d'Ivoire, where periurban and rural fish farming is starting to catch on, has shown that successful models of artisanal fish farming has a higher return from the land than irrigated rice or market gardening. These new entrepreneurs are spearheading the growth of this sector, but they still need support, training and information. As the participants in a recent CTA study visit on fish farming in Malawi (see Spore 86) noted, much remains to be done before one can talk seriously of this being a sustainable sector.At this point in time one cannot talk at all of self-sustaining or endogenous fish farm production, especially in West Africa. To attain such levels, fish farmers need a basic set of technical skills and must have the means to invest. Above all, they must not be isolated. What peri-urban and rural fish farming needs to become a competitive sector is a veritable breeding ground of fish farmers. There should be synergies and exchanges between fish farmers and agricultural farmers, plus steps towards specialised services (such as fish nurseries) and a modicum of sector organisation, in the form of professional associations. Is that just another fishing story?To know more:The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. The uncertain future of a big promise Remember those slogans from the 1970s? \"Fish farming for all\" and \"Fishing is good for you and fish is good for you\" were the enthusiastic messages of family fish-farming campaigns. Small-scale fish rearing was easy, or so we thought then, and a simple way to feed a family. And so, encouraged by the FAO and development agencies, African farmers set about digging holes in the ground, filling them with water and putting in the fish … but in vain. There is much more to feeding a family than throwing a few tilapia into a pond. First get the recognition \"In Senegal there is a tremendous growth of women's organisations and associations in community neighbourhoods. Women are organising themselves to alleviate poverty, since it affects them more than it does men. Illiteracy, lack of training and education, isolation, and ignorance about their rights in particular all contribute towards women's poverty.\" Safiétou is the president of the Siggil Jigeen network of 16 associations active in promoting and defending women's rights in Senegal. \"I was born in 1964\", she continues. \"I come from a backward background; my father is an imam and my mother a housewife. I studied until advanced level at school, and went on to teacher training school. I have always been revolted by the exploitation of women by men. When I became aware of my own situation, I realised that women do not know their rights. That's why I'm in the struggle now. One quarter of our members are women farmers, and they benefit from 80% of our activities. We focus on advocacy work for legislation on gender equality, and the surveys we conduct in this field are targeted at decision makers and opinion leaders. What's important here, and this is our major goal, is that the woman's right to work and participate in decisions is recognised, and that this recognition brings women in from out of the shadows.\"A cross the ACP countries, women are coming out of their enforced 'invisibility'. Through a tide of conference resolutions, commissions and fora over the decades, an awareness has grown of their economic and social role. Gender is now mentioned in all the speeches about development, and the notion of gender, which embraces a strategy to integrate women in development, is sowing its seeds just about everywhere. The Year of the Woman in 1975 triggered off a movement which the international women's conference in Beijing in 1995 transformed into an unstoppable force.Women are, literally, on the march. True, they are not all marching to the same drum, and although many are lagging behind, more and more women are coming out of isolation and holding hands behind slogans, in the belief that power comes through unity.Or so, at least, it would appear. There are still flagrant differences between urban and rural women, between wives and widows, between secretaries in the office and the self-effacing 'just housewives' in the village, and between women in Africa and their sisters in the Caribbean or the Pacific. These disparities are pinned down by the weight of traditions, often with the complicity of women, and of history, religion and culture. Even the terminology used to discuss women in the context of development or power says a lot about the different mentalities and the degree of dynamism at play in gender issues. In the English-speaking world, the favoured term seems to be 'Women in development' whereas French-speaking stakeholders talk more of 'Femmes et développement' (women and development). Some talk of empowerment, others of access to power. It is more than a question of the subtleties of language: are women really in power or do they just skirt around it, stuck in governmental bodies which are usually seen as mere coordination mechanisms? \"Learning to use ICTs is a great way for women to advance\" She got her passion for communication and her activist-like interest for information and communication technologies (ICTs) from her father, a telecommunications engineer. Currently completing her PhD in international economics at Strasbourg university in France, Gisèle is also the executive secretary of ASAFE, the Support Association for Women Entrepreneurs, with 4,000 members in Cameroon and beyond. For her the new millennium is that of telecommunications, and so it is essential that women fully learn how to manipulate ICTs. In November 1999, she headed the ASAFE delegation to the 'First Cyberforum for Women Entrepreneurs from Africa and the Diaspora', held in Douala, Cameroon, which brought together more than 100 women from all over the world for six days to exchange their knowledge and experiences. \"Power\", Gisèle asserts, \"is not a personal issue. Maybe I do have an aura because I have a certain level of education but it is only together that we have the power to change things, so that parents have the means to provide a basic education for their children and so that women, including those in rural areas, have got access to information. For example, this first-ever cyberforum meant a breakthrough for a woman from Benin who produces dried cashew nuts manually with six people. Thanks to the Internet, she found a market in the United States. Sure, she will need funding for more modern equipment, and more personnel: but the diaspora will help her there.\"There's nothing new in women entrepreneurs, but there's more to genderisation than income-generation Women and power \"United she stand, divided she fall\" There are many steps for ACP women to climb on the stairway to empowerment or, put simply, to enabling them to run their own lives. They include access to education and finance, and grasping the use of new information and communication technologies. Many women have already opened up the traditional mindsets which have denied even the principle of gender equality and have thus condemned women to a secondary position in society. Others are following suit, and more will join them.There has been, it must be said, a blossoming of ministries for Women's Affairs, and for the Family, or Social action or National solidarity in some ACP countries. They are headed by women, of course, but surely women, and rural women above all, should be present, or at least represented, in all ministries and all areas of economic and political decisionmaking. Clearly, progress has to be made.Whether they are farmers, traders or food processors, we know that ACP women are rightly seen as one of the essential 'levers' of development; and yet they are, paradoxically, faced with major barriers such as access to credit and land. Take the case of Honduras and Costa Rica, where 28% of women's applications for land rights have been granted, compared with 61% for men. In Jamaica only 5% of loans made by the agricultural bank go to women, although in fairness private credit operations such as the Self-Start Fund and Solidarity are more responsive to women's requests. In Suriname, women do not have the right to receive loans directly, and transactions have to pass through their husband or a relation. In Africa, women are still often regarded as an item to be inherited: like the land they toil, they are passed down from the hands of a deceased husband to the hands of a brother-in-law. Not content with waiting for fundamental reforms, some women are already following another, parallel route alongside that of public bodies. These women have graduated from secondary school or higher education. They often come from 'wellplaced' families. They know their way around the world of NGOs and donor agencies, and have become journalists, company directors and heads of local radio stations. Their efforts are slowly spreading into the villages, where women are coming to appreciate the meaning of \"united we stand, divided we fall\". Opening up credit lines \"In the Caribbean, there are very few rural finance programmes for small farmers. Women face constraints both in applying for and obtaining credit. Some efforts have been made to extend loan facilities for women, micro-enterprises and for the informal sector. They have focused, however, on removing the barriers to providing finance, and they have not dealt with the obstacles in applying for credit. Official statistics point to the very low level of access of women to formal credit systems in central America, in the range of 14% to 30%.\"  s The once-tame community of agricultural librarians and documentalists, through its international association IAALD, has been changing itself for several years, helping its members to adjust to the needs of their users. Where they used to talk shyly of 'indexing terms' and 'abstracting components', and of 'dissemination' as if it were a dirty word, they now use up-beat statements like \"Technology has changed the way we do business\". This is all good news for agricultural practitioners, who stand to gain from having direct access to responsive 'information professionals', as former librarians call themselves today. Feedback from the field and clients was high on the agenda of the Tenth IAALD World Congress held in Dakar, Senegal, in late January 2000, with support from CABI, CSE Dakar, InfoDev Washington and CTA. Delegates were berated, in a positive way, by a representative of FENOP, a farmers' organisation in Burkina Faso, who discussed the non-availability of the type of information that farmers need. Another notion introduced to the Congress was that information services users should provide intensive training to information professionals-the equivalent of farmers providing training to extension workers!The major consensus of the 85 participants was that in promoting worldwide food security \"the information professional in the new millennium needs to be a planner\". To be able to plan, the professional needs to know users better, and to implement a plan means managing change. \"To know where we are going\", they concluded, \"we have to know where we have been\", which means assessing impact. It sounds like they have something to tell, maybe even something to sell. s Ever wondered if dried fruits taste twice as nice when exported? Well, several African companies are happily finding sweet success on the world's markets and are pushing ahead with production. One Togolese firm, Safleg, itself a member of the Fadoul trading group, markets dried pineapple rings, chunks and pieces, and sells them, under an organic label, exclusively on the German market. It processes 22 tonnes of fresh pineapple each week, and is moving into new markets with dried mangoes and bananas. In Guinea, Nabekam-Bio exports dried 'organic' pine-apples, mangoes and bananas to France. Its export volume, a mere 20 tonnes each year, is far below the requirements of the importer who currently handles 1,000 tonnes annually; Nabekam-Bio aim to expand their drying plant and to triple production.On a larger scale, the Ivoirian Desiccated Coconut Company (SICOR, of the AfricIndustry group) is the leading African company in this sector and exports all its 13,000 tonnes of annual production -representing 6% of the world market -to high-profile European processors such as Mars and Ferrero. The company's 13,000 hectares of plantations have, for the time being, missed out on the dreaded \"Cap Saint-Paul\" disease which is afflicting neighbouring countries. Their desiccated coconut, the product of drying, crushing and sifting the copra, is highly valued for its quality (it is very white) and its freshness which, unlike Asian exports, is not affected by excessively long shipping. s At the end of March 2000 the BBC World Service weekly radio programme \"The Farming World\" ended its record-breaking 40-year run. Not that this widely respected programme had run out of steam. No, it simply ran up against the BBC programme planners, who have to constantly juggle the many demands for programmes from a global English-language audience of 60 million, whilst fitting as much as possible into the available broadcasting time of, you got it, no more than 24 hours a day. \"The Farming World\" may have stopped, but the world hasn't stopped farming.Stories linked to agriculture and food security are now being incorporated into other programmes on the World Service, notably the environmentally focussed \"One Planet\" and \"Science in Action\".The compilers of \"The Farming World\" over the last few years, WRENMedia, will continue their work on agricultural information through their article syndication services, rural radio support and the popular CTA-supported website New Agriculturist. The pro-gramme compiler who preceded them, David Dixon, is still involved in the same field, managing the journal Appropriate Technology mentioned in the Publications section of this issue of Spore.The world is forever changing, but we know that many Spore readers regret the passing of \"The Farming World\", as do many other development professionals.To those who made it happen for all those years, Thank You. Insects are obviously going to be in. The Rabobank told a Spore editor it was joking: \"oh no, you were serious\", we replied.With such early warning of market trends, surely ACP producers can conquer this market? Perhaps even help to create it? But be warned of fashions: as the European public's fear of mad cow disease has waned and beef is coming back, the markets for crocodile, emu and ostrich meats have all shrunk.  In brief • Ghana yam exports surge ahead s Ghana's efforts to increase yam exports are paying off. With yam one of its principal crops, Ghana is the world's second largest producer of the root, with 3.25 million tonnes grown in 1999. In 1998 it exported 7,500 tonnes of yam, mainly to the United Kingdom and the United States, for USD 5 million, accounting for 36% of world yam exports.Between 1997 and 1998, the area under cultivation grew by almost 13%. The Ghana Yam Producers and Exporters Association provides its members with technical support with emphasis being given to certain varieties (with tubers weighing between 2 and 3 kg, which is better for the export market), and to post-harvest handling, storage, packaging, quality control and shipping, with details strictly described on the wrappings. These steps have been taken to meet the requirements of the international markets, and thus to increase sales. They are steps worth taking, since the export yam earns six times more than the domestic market yam.Ghana's yam exports have now outpaced those of Jamaica, Brazil and Côte d'Ivoire. Nigeria is the leading world producer with more than 25 million tonnes in 1999, but it consumes the entire crop on the domestic market.Ghana's neighbours -Togo, Benin and Nigeria -also sell their yams in dried baton shapes known as 'cossettes'. These peeled yams are blanched and solardried and keep better than fresh yam. At present they are sold on national and regional markets, but they could spread to other markets in the Gulf of Guinea and Europe, where the diaspora has created a potential market. s The CTA site on the World Wide Web (see Spore 76) is starting to reap the benefits of a remodelling exercise held in late 1999. By the end of February 2000, almost 20,000 pages of information were being consulted each month-a volume of visits typical of international agricultural information agencies. The most visited area of the website is the Spore section, which contains full versions of Spore from issue 72 onwards. Other often visited sections include CTA publications, which can be copied (downloaded) free of charge to the user's computer, and information from ACP partners, whose presence on the Web is managed by CTA. Among the ACP visitors to the site are readers in Botswana, Burkina Faso, Fiji, Mali, Mauritius and South Africa.However, not everything on the Web is an immediate runaway success. The CTA electronic forum Afagrict-l, launched on the Internet in March 1999 (see Spore 83) to encourage exchanges between practitioners in information and communication technologies (ICTs) in African agriculture, has been reviewing its first year of activity. More than 150 people, mainly from Africa and the postgraduate diaspora, including several Spore writers, have signed up to receive messages and(this is the idea(to send information, raise questions and discuss issues. But so far only about one hundred messages have been sent(two a week(and next to no discussion has been generated. The organisers sigh that the volume of traffic has probably been less than expected. Maybe, but they should be patient before despairing. The first man in the world to have a telephone probably felt lonelier.Website: www.cta.nls Growing demand for land in dry tropical zones is increasing pressure to use sandy soils, despite their low fertility which is due to a lack of organic matter, minerals and moisture. Now scientists in Thailand have developed a new method to increase their fertility.The simple method involves digging grooves 10 cm wide in between a crop's planting rows, and digging deep enough to break through the compacted layer which is normally found at 25 cm depth in sandy soils. The grooves, 40 cm apart, are then filled with the decompacted soil. This allows the plant's root system to grow in the grooves and to draw sustenance from the minerals and moisture that often lie below the compacted layer.Trials have shown significant increases in yield of such crops as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), maize (Zea mays) and Brazilian lucerne grass (Styloxanthes guianensis).  According to Peter Golob of the Natural Resources Institute, United Kingdom, the key to good non-chemical control may be a predator of LGB discovered in Central America, the beetle Teretrius nigrescens (TN). After successful laboratory trials, TN was released in Ghana, Kenya, Togo, Uganda and Zambia where it established itself widely. Unfortunately, it will never be adequate to contain LGB, which breeds more quickly than TN and can multiply rapidly, even when TN is present. Various measures therefore need to be combined to control the pest. African research networks, which used to hum with endeavour and ambition, if not with an equal amount of finance, have been falling silent. Over the past three years, researchers from Ghana to Zimbabwe have complained about how private ownership has forced them to cut down their exchanges with peers. In recent months, the signs have multiplied. In Côte d'Ivoire, for example, the national centre for agricultural research CNRA has become a private com-pany in which private capital holds a majority stake and votes on the Board.At least one international research newsletter has fallen victim to the sounds of silence. The Apomixis Newsletter, set up in 1989 to encourage exchanges between researchers working on non-sexual (unfertilised) seed production in plants, announced its closure in late1999. The editor, Yves Savidan explains: \"New barriers have been raised. Most of the major groups working on apomixis have suddenly found themselves in a new environment of proprietary information and confidentiality rules. Let us wait for better times. We had a wonderful time together.\" Amen.Links • A ccess to the growing 'organic produce' markets in the West is subject to strict rules of certification. In Europe, produce has to conform with various certification schemes, rooted in the rules established by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).So if you want to start exporting organic produce, here are the steps to take. First call on a certification body which is recognised in the importing countries. You will need to enter into a contractual arrangement with them, under which you can get advice about the different stages of production, obtain the necessary licence and sometimes even become part of their marketing chain. There are several bodies which cooperate with producers in ACP countries, including AIAB in Italy, Bio-Gro in New Zealand, Instituto Biodinamico in Brazil, KRAV in Sweden, NASAA in Australia, Naturland-Verband in Germany, OCIA and FVO in the USA, the Soil Association in Great Britain (these are all accredited by IFOAM, who can provide addresses); other bodies include Ecocert International and Bioherb based in Germany, and Skal and Agro-Eco in the Netherlands.You will receive a visit from a technical expert who will inspect each step of production and processing to see if it is in accordance with the criteria in the sector. If the check is positive, you will be issued with an annual licence (for you) and a certificate (for the product). These checks are run at least once a year. The licence and organic 'label' will be withdrawn if you do not continue to adhere to the certified procedures.There is a charge for the contract; you will need to pay the costs of the technical expert (travel, accommodation, daily consulting fees).  Among the many regional information centres supported by ICLARM are two in Kenya (Library and Information Ser-vices, Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute, PO Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya. Fax: +254 11 472215) and in Fiji (PIMRIS, c/o University of South Pacific Library, PO Box 1168, Suva, Fiji. Fax: +679 300830 -Email: library@usp.ac.fj).At Stirling University in Scotland, the Institute of Aquaculture has a widely-recognised scientific reputation. It runs training courses at all levels, publishes the biannual Aquaculture News (free on request) and reference works. The Institute maintains the excellent 'Fishing for information' list with 400+ links, all checked, annotated, and categorised: universities, research centres, producers, equipment and feed suppliers, trade associations, etc. Contact: Institute of Aquaculture, Pathfoot Building, University of Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland. Fax: +44 1786 472133 -Email: kim.jauncey@stir.ac.uk -Website: www.stir.ac.uk s The future for drylands might not be as gloomy as is often portrayed. Good Practices in Drylands Management focuses on these practices, with an emphasis on Africa. It stresses that certain aspects of these zones have been wrongly assessed, overlooked or exaggerated. Desertification, for instance, cannot be solely attributed to wrong land use, such as overgrazing and expanded shifting cultivation. Deserts do expand and contract, but this is probably caused by long-term fluctuations in rainfall. Overgrazing as a problem has also been exaggerated, especially in the driest areas. It might be better to speak of fluctuating productivity in drylands, instead of productive land turning into deserts. According to the authors there are various ways to improve productivity of drylands. The main lesson of the paper is that strategies to improve dryland management must build on the skills with which dryland people allocate resources, prepare for droughts and avoid other risks. The CAB Thesaurus is a helpful aid for users of the CAB Abstracts, CAB Health and AGRICOLA databases, as well as for researchers, information scientists and librarians indexing their own document collections or other information resources. A volume with a classified listing is available in addition to a volume with an alphabetical listing. This will be of particularly useful for librarians and information specialists who are interested in the relationships between terms in subject-specific areas.Printed Thesaurus. CABI. 1999. Alphabetical Listing. 925  Over the centuries, Pacific peoples have developed a wide variety of agroforestry systems on which they depend for services such as wind and erosion protection and for products such as food, medicines, perfumes, building materials, dyes, oils and forage. However, increasing pressure on land now threatens the sustainability of many traditional systems, while much of the local knowledge is being lost as people turn to cash crops and to single varieties of crop plants. In an effort to help farmers and those working with them adopt sustainable practices, working groups of extension agents and agroforestry practitioners painstakingly documented guidelines, facts and methods for good agroforestry practices in the islands. These have been compiled in a well-illustrated, easy-to-read information kit full of practical tips and useful references that will interest those concerned with agriculture in the Pacific region and beyond. Africa brings together research results on production and management of several ecological regions in southern Africa with special emphasis on the grassveld, savannah and karoo. It treats subjects like interactions between grass and trees, and between game, livestock and vegetation. It also describes foliage and various aspects of management practices like burning, fallow, erosion control, fodder production and different ways of grazing. The book not only deals with the lush and leafy aspects of the landscape, but also pays attention to the animal side of the agricultural story. One chapter is dedicated to the nutritional value of the different forage compositions and to nutrient supplementation for livestock.It is a bulky book, which will have an audience beyond the borders of South Africa in the grassland and savannah areas throughout southern and central Africa. Aimed at students of natural ecosystem management, it is also useful for livestock producers and game ranchers who rely on the veld to feed their animals. Agencies, defines impact assessment roughly as \"a systematic analysis of lasting and significant changes, both positive and negative, in people's life brought about by a given action or a series of actions\". So impact is not a direct intervention such as a dam, a credit system or a seed supply programme but about how that changes real life for the beneficiaries.The book presents a theoretical overview of the subject as well as the design of impact assessment processes and the different tools and methods available in a wide range of development work. Various development programmes of partner organisations of Oxfam-UK and Novib, in, for example, Ghana, Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe are analysed and presented as case studies. I n his introduction to the CTA Annual Report for 1999, the then Director, Dr R D Cooke, lays great emphasis on \"the need to ensure that information services are demand-driven\", alongside the \"the need to increase support for localised, or de-centralised, services which serve specific communities or sub-sectors\". With these opening remarks, the scene is set for an informative overview of the Centre's activities and the way they have evolved as a consequence of the transformations that were anticipated in the Centre's Mid-Term Plan for the period 1997-2000.Many of these transformations, which will be further built upon in a second strategic planning exercise for the period 2001-2005, are best expressed in the consolidated growth of a partnership approach throughout the organisation. As well as the proactive approach of CTA's Information Policies and Partnerships Department, which develops new models of partnership with public and non-public bodies throughout the ACP regions, other departments are working along similar lines. The Publications and Dissemination Department is working on, for example, new serial co-publications with new and existing partners. In this, ACP participation is a basic requirement and closer links are being developed with ACP authors and publishers. The growing participation of ACP writers and editors in Spore is another example of this trend. Of the 75,500 publications distributed by CTA in 1999, almost 70,000 were sent in response to specific requests. This is the highest ever share of an ever growing volume of information made available by CTA to its subscribers-who now total 25,000-and partners.The continuing decentralisation of many CTA activities is witnessed by the relative growth in participation of CTAsponsored delegates in seminars held in ACP countries. In all, 233 participants were supported by the Studies and Seminars Department to attend 37 seminars, of which three-quarters were held in ACP countries, an increase from two-thirds in 1998. And most of the 10 co-seminars organised by CTA in cooperation with various partners were held in ACP countries. Likewise, the bulk of training events was ACP-based, with more than 250 people attending 17 courses in information and communication management (ICM). Increasingly, the training opportunities supported by the Information and Capacity Development Department are integrated with other CTA services. Organisations participating in courses on the use of the World Wide Web for agricultural information are also offered space on the CTA website, or are linked to other departments' work on, for example, market information services.Each activity, event, study, seminar and publication undertaken in 1999 is described in a nutshell. The report also carries detailed statistics, including the one that many Spore readers ask about: CTA's annual budget-provided almost exclusively by the European Development Fundin 1999 was E 12.3 million, of which almost two-thirds was directly allocated to operational services and programmes.In this metric age, it is perhaps incorrect to talk of 'milestones', but this Annual Report provides the reader with a clear and comprehensive overview of a great many achievements, undertaken in partnership.  t seems that the old adage \"It's not what you know, it's who know\" has been firmly turned inside out and upside down. Nowadays, while some people are still one or more tantalising steps removed from having the basic information they need on agriculture and rural development, there is a growing feeling that many others have, at first sight, perhaps too much. The emphasis is coming to lie on being able to select what is important from what is less important, and to manage it efficiently.Here, the complex skill of 'priority setting' can help in raising the quality of agricultural information services, from defining user needs to delivery. Over the last three years, CTA has been steadily refining a methodology for the determi-nation of priority themes for agricultural information, and it recently completed a series of six pilot studies at national level. The studies were undertaken in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Senegal and Zambia. They centred around workshops involving representatives of National Agricultural Systems as well as related non-governmental organisations and rural organisations. As a result, the next phase of this programme will enable other ACP countries to be able to conduct similar exercises, although the issue of their funding remains an item. All in all, a tool is being developed in a participatory and interactive way which will bring about the demise of the other old adage \"You In Uganda the dry season means a period of no green vegetables on the homestead, and so a balanced diet cannot be achieved. It means that those very few who can grow a few vegetables get better prices. But the question is: Why should these beloved citizens draw several jerry cans of water for home use but cannot save one for watering at least ten tomatoes?\" R.R.hile I was working with the national agricultural research centres in Sierra Leone, numerous rice varieties were released over time but they were rarely adopted by the farmers. They simply did not use them. What, in addition, triggered my curiosity was the discovery of a-for us unknown-rice variety that the farmers called Pa Three Month, because it matures after three months. It turned out to be a popular local novelty. Pa Three Month was not a research station release; it had probably resulted from an outcross between local rice varieties (Oryza glaberrima) and international high-yielding materials (Oryza sativa). Here was an excellent reason to take a new look at how farmers were handling their seeds and how they selected seeds for the next year's crop. In various village trials, farmers were invited to select from a large number of farmer varieties, releases and pre-releases from the Rice Research Station (RRS) in Sierra Leone, and introductions from the International Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice in Africa (INGER-Africa).We found that farmers chose international sativa rices from INGER-Africa as frequently as they did the local rices, but they were less interested in the advanced lines from the national RRS. So farmers look for, and like, exotic material: not just as an innovation, but also for its potential to complement existing material. There is reason to conclude that the potential of local material for selection and breeding is still not exhausted, hence the lack of interest in yet newer varieties. Low-resource farmers like to experiment with many varieties and not just a few high-performing ones. Some farmers, for instance, interplant \"older\" (O. glaberrima) and \"newer\" (O. sativa) types. Even without fertilisers, these combinations outyield the same varieties planted as monocrops, for reasons of internal competition. Farmers also try to synchronise flowering in these mixtures, thus enabling outcrossing and a secure harvest in adverse environmental circumstances. Therefore, Pa Three Month is probably not the only variety that might have resulted from these combinations.These farmers are among the world's most impoverished people and they work in highly insecure war-time conditions, but it is clear that they know what they are looking for and they can explain the reasons for their choices. There is also considerable agreement among the farmers, even though their choices do not necessarily match with those of researchers. Farmers know which varieties do best on poor soils, which ones keep longer, taste better, give a long satisfied feeling in the stomach, or are less susceptible to pests. They prefer to sow mixes and usually plant up to five different varieties on the same farm. Rice seeds keep for 18 months, but farmers can exchange them with relatives, neighbours, or even farmers in other regions, particularly when they move and need other rice seeds. Despite the fact that farmers have been growing rice for hundreds of years, there is a considerable regional and ethnic variation in seed management and rice varieties, for historical factors also play an important role. Interregional trade and proximity of towns -where development NGOs and agricultural research stations are based-tend to lead to more sophisticated seed selection methods, richer mixes of rice varieties and increased sociocultural relations in seed handling.Acknowledging local knowledge and cultural difference is essential for development and adoption of new varieties. Breeders must begin to take this into account in addition to the conventional interaction between genotype and the physical environment. I do not agree with those who argue that farmers need only a few broadly adapted modern varieties developed according to a standard international ideotype, nor with the populists ranged against them, who argue that farmers have their own ideas and genetic resources and therefore do not need external assistance or materials. Plant improvement research programmes have only focused on local varieties for introducing useful genes into well-established highyielding varieties. They should also make farmers' selection experiments a regular part of an interactive process for bringing together farmers and researchers in a much-needed, complementary relationship.   \" Farmers know what they are looking for. \"","tokenCount":"7722"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"909a439dfd553d0af3a2e870ea618c43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f91ff008-6fbf-46a4-8b33-c5a09c22f7dc/content","id":"1217683373"},"keywords":["QTL mapping","rachis fragility","threshability","spike morphology","wheat domestication"],"sieverID":"6580ca1d-927f-4e8b-835f-918ec8661058","pagecount":"11","content":"Domestication-related changes that govern a spike morphology suitable for seed harvesting in cereals have resulted from mutation and selection of the genes. A synthetic hexaploid wheat (S-6214, genome AABBDD) produced by a cross between durum wheat (AABB) and wild goat grass (DD) showed partial nondomestication-related phenotypes due to genetic effects of the wild goat grass genome. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting wheat domestication-related spike characters including spike threshability, rachis fragility and spike compactness were investigated in F 2 progeny of a cross between Chinese Spring (CS) wheat (AABBDD) and S-6214. Of 15 relevant QTLs identified, eight seemed to be consistent with peaks previously reported in wheat, while four QTL regions were novel. Four QTLs that affected spike threshability were localized to chromosomes 2BS, 2DS, 4D and 5DS. The QTL on 2DS probably represents the tenacious glume gene, Tg-D1. Based on its map position, the QTL located on 2BS coincides with Ppd-B1 and seems to be a homoeolocus of the soft glume gene. Two novel QTLs were detected on 4D and 5DS, and their goat grass alleles increased glume tenacity. Three novel QTLs located on 2DL, 3DL and 4D for rachis fragility were found. Based on the map position, the QTL on 3DL seems different from Br1 and Br2 loci and its CS allele appears to promote the generation of barrel-type diaspores. Three disarticulation types of spikelets were found in F 2 individuals: wedge-type, barrel-type and both types. Among eight QTL peaks that governed spike morphology, six, located on 2AS, 2BS, 2DS, 4AL and 5AL, coincided with ones previously reported. A QTL for spike compactness on 5AL was distinct from the Q gene. A novel QTL that controls spike length was detected on 5DL. Complex genetic interactions between genetic background and the action of each gene were suggested.Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L., AABBDD genome, 2n = 6x = 42) evolved by hybridization between cultivated emmer wheat (T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum L., AABB genome, 2n = 4x = 28) and goat grass (Aegilops tauschii Coss., DD, 2n = 2x = 14) (Kihara, 1944;McFadden and Sears, 1946). For successful cultivation of hexaploid wheat, suppression of wild characters from goat grass and improvement of agronomical traits in the amphiploid were important. Target traits for domestication might include morphological ones related to seed dispersal such as rachis fragility, spike disarticulation, glume tenacity Edited by Yoshihiko Tsumura * Corresponding author. E-mail: yogihara@yokohama-cu.ac.jp and threshability. Modern cultivated durum wheat (T. turgidum ssp. durum, AABB, 2n = 4x = 28) and common wheat exhibit highly domesticated characters (Li and Gill, 2006).The Q gene in wheat encodes an APETALA2-like transcription factor that mainly confers square-headedness (short compact spike) and pleiotropically affects rachis fragility and glume tenacity, which are responsible for free-threshability (Muramatsu, 1963;Simons et al., 2006). T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (CS, AABBDD) and T. turgidum ssp. durum cv. Langdon (LDN, AABB) have an identical Q gene at the nucleotide level of the coding sequences in the gene (Simons et al., 2006;Abdollahi et al., 2012).Another genetic factor controlling threshability resides in the D genome of synthetic hexaploid wheat (AABBDD) that was produced between a free-threshing tetraploid (AABB) and wild goat grass (DD) (Kerber and Dyck, 1969). A synthetic wheat was non-free-threshing, even though it inherited the Q gene. The gene responsible was later identified as a partially dominant gene, Tg1 (tenacious glumes 1; renamed by Li and Gill (2006) and referred to hereafter as Tg-D1), and mapped on the short arm of chromosome 2D (2DS) (Kerber and Rowland, 1974;Simonetti et al., 1999;Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004;Nalam et al., 2006;Sood et al., 2009;Dvorak et al., 2012). Tg-D1 inhibits the action of Q.Modern durum wheat and common wheat have a tough rachis governed by the gene br (brittle rachis). On the other hand, wild and semi-wild types of Triticum and Aegilops species harbor dominant genes (Br) that govern rachis brittleness. The Br genes map to the homeologous group 3 chromosomes in Triticum and Aegilops species (Joppa and Cantrell, 1990;Chen et al., 1998;Watanabe et al., 2002Watanabe et al., , 2006;;Li and Gill, 2006). Besides the brittleness type, rachis disarticulation can be divided into two types, wedge-and barrel-shaped, depending on the breakage point of spikelets. In wedge-type disarticulation, the breakage occurs on the upper side of the junction of the rachis and spikelet base. The associated rachis fragment remains attached below each spikelet (Fig. 1F, left). Wedge-type disarticulation is observed in species containing the A, B, G, S and T genomes (Kimber and Feldman, 1987), although some accessions of Ae. speltoides (SS) exhibit barrel-type disarticulation (Chen, 2001). In barrel-type disarticulation, the rachis fractures on the lower side of the junction between the rachis and spikelet base, leaving the adjacent fragment attached behind each spikelet (Fig. 1F, right). Barrel-type disarticulation occurs in species with the D genome. In the progeny of crosses of hexaploids between Tibetan semi-wild wheat and Yunnan hulled wheat, individuals having three disarticulation types (wedge-type, barrel-type and both) were found, even though each parental strain carries the Q gene and shows wedge-type disarticulation (Chen, 2001).In addition to these effects of major genes, QTLs affecting spike threshability have also been reported on 2AS, 2BL, 5AS, 6AS and 6DL (Simonetti et al., 1999;Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004), and rachis fragility on 2BL and 7BL (Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004).To better understand domestication-related spike traits in cultivated wheat, we produced a synthetic hexaploid wheat (S-6214) by crossing LDN with Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata (KU-2097, DD). Since KU-2097 exhibits a fragile rachis, barrel-type disarticulation and a tenacious glume, its genotype should be qqBrBrTgTg. S-6214 shows a partially fragile rachis, wedge-type disarticulation and a tenacious glume. The F 2 population after a cross between CS wheat (QQbrbrtgtg, Li and Gill, 2006) and S-6214 (QQBrBrTgTg), where the Q genes from CS and LDN have identical coding sequences, was investigated to find novel QTLs that regulate domesticationrelated spike characters.Plant materials A synthetic wheat, S-6214, was produced by crossing LDN with KU-2097 at Kobe University, Japan. An F 2 mapping population was developed from a cross between CS and S-6214. The F 2 population and F 2:3 families along with their parents were grown under field conditions at the Kihara Institute for Biological Research, Yokohama City University; the phenotype of F 2 individuals was checked in 2010/2011 and that of F 3 individuals in 2011/2012.Phenotyping Three randomly chosen main spikes were used for phenotypic evaluation. Spike length (SPL) was measured from the base of the rachis to the tip of the uppermost spikelet, excluding the awns. Spike compactness (CPT) was calculated by dividing the number of spikelets per spike (SPN) by spike length. To estimate free-threshability (FT), a single spike thresher (MR-D720; Twinbird, Sanjo, Japan) was used at its minimum power (1) and for a fixed time (5 sec) to liberate the grains of CS completely from the spike. Threshability was then measured as the percentage of threshed seeds from the total number of seeds per spike. Rachis fragility (RCH) was measured after threshing as the percentage of broken nodes to the total number of spike rachis nodes. The type of rachis disarticulation generated after mechanical threshing was scored as wedge-type, barrel-type or both. This classification was also applied for F 2:3 families. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the phenotypic correlation among traits.DNA extraction and PCR DNA was extracted from 1 g leaf tissue from F 2 plants and parental lines as described previously (Saghai-Maroof et al., 1984). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification was performed in a 10-μl reaction containing 10 ng genomic DNA, 2 pmol each primer, 2 μl betaine (5 M) and 1x SapphireAmp fast PCR master mixture (Takara Bio, Otsu, Japan). PCR conditions were a denaturation step (94°C for 1 min), followed by 40 cycles of 98°C for 5 sec, 50-58°C (primer-dependent) for 5 sec and 72°C for 10 sec, with a final incubation at 72°C for 3 min, using a TP600 thermal cycler (Takara Bio). Amplicons were electrophoresed through 13% polyacrylamide gel, and were visualized by ethidium bromide staining.  (Roeder et al., 1998;Pestsova et al., 2000;Gupta et al., 2002;Guyomarc'h et al., 2002;Somers et al., 2004;Sourdille et al., 2004;Song et al., 2005) were used for screening. To develop a PCR-based marker to detect polymorphism at the Q locus between CS and LDN, BAC sequences spanning the Q locus from CS (acc. JF701619) and LDN (acc. JF701620) (Zhang et al., 2011) were aligned using CLC sequence viewer version 6.6.2 (Supplementary Fig. S1). We found a 16-bp insertion/deletion located 1568 bp upstream of the Q translation initiation site and designed primers (5´-GTACCTGCTCCGCCT-GTG-3´ and 5´-CCCTCCCTCCCTCTAATCAA-3´) with an expected amplification product size of 180 bp in LDN and 164 bp in CS (Supplementary Fig. S2).Genetic mapping Linkage maps were constructed with MAPMAKER/EXP version 3.0 (Lander et al., 1987). Recombination frequency was converted to genetic distance using the Kosambi mapping function (Kosambi, 1943). A framework map for each chromosome was constructed at a LOD score of 3.0, and the 'TRY' and 'RIPPLE' commands were then used to add markers to the framework map and check the final marker order, respectively, with 'DETECTION ERROR ON' to check for any putative misgenotyping. Markers were ordered at a minimum LOD score of 3.0 with the exception of cosegregating or closely linked markers. QTL mapping was performed by composite interval mapping (Zeng, 1993(Zeng, , 1994) ) using QTL Cartographer version 2.5 software (Wang et al., 2005). A forward-selection backwardelimination stepwise regression procedure was used to identify co-factors for composite interval mapping. A 10-cM scan window was used for all analyses, and the likelihood ratio statistic was computed every 2 cM. A genome-wide LOD threshold of 3.00 was used based on 1,000 permutations (P < 0.05). In a few cases, QTL peaks with a LOD score lower than 3.00 but higher than 2.50 were considered if supported by an overlapping QTL for a relevant trait or by previous genetic knowledge. Cosegregation of SSR alleles with disarticulation types and segregation ratios of all SSR loci were examined using a χ 2 -test (P < 0.05). Due to the limited number of F 2 plants showing disarticulated diaspores, especially the barrel type, a larger population size (191 F 2 individuals) was used to test co-segregation with SSR alleles associated with rachis fragility after threshing. QTL peaks linked to significantly distorted marker loci were not considered. Linkage maps were drawn using MapChart 2.2 software (Voorrips, 2002).Phenotypic evaluation Phenotypic traits of FT, RCH, SPL, SPN, and CPT were evaluated for CS, S-6214 and 117 individuals of their F 2 progeny (Table 1). The parental lines differed significantly in all traits studied (Table 1). CS had significantly higher spike density than S-6214. CS spikes had round soft glumes loosely enclosing the seeds, while those of S-6214 had keeled tough glumes tenaciously enclosing the seeds. After mechanical threshing, CS kernels exhibited a completely free-threshing phenotype (100%), while about 40% of S-6214 kernels were non-free-threshing. Both parents had tough rachises. However, under the same threshing conditions, a much higher percentage of nodes of the S-6214 spike rachis had broken, to produce wedge-type disarticulation (Table 1, Fig. 1). In general, all traits showed continuous variation and polygenic segregation patterns in F 2 progeny. Considerable transgressive segregation was observed in SPL and RCH. Besides the expected correlation between spike compactness (CPT), SPL, and number of spikelets per spike (SPN) (Table 2), CPT was positively correlated (P < 0.001) with FT and negatively correlated (P < 0.001) with RCH. Furthermore, SPL was negatively correlated with FT (P < 0.001), and SPN was negatively correlated with RCH (P < 0.01). FT and RCH were negatively correlated (P < 0.001). Consequently, plants with higherdensity spikes tended to have higher FT and lower RCH.Linkage map Out of 342 published simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers (Roeder et al., 1998;Pestsova et al., 2000;Gupta et al., 2002;Guyomarc'h et al., 2002;Somers et al., 2004;Sourdille et al., 2004;Song et al., 2005)  screened for polymorphism between CS and S-6214, 229 SSRs representing 252 genetic loci were used to genotype 117 F 2 individuals. The linkage map spanned 2701.7 cM consisting of 253 loci across all 21 chromosomes (Fig. 2). Only 13% of the SSR loci were mapped as dominant markers and 6.32% showed significant segregation distortion. The genetic length of most chromosomes was comparable to that of the consensus SSR map (Somers et al., 2004) with the exception of chromosomes 5B and 6A, which were not well covered and contained linkage gaps. The mean distance between markers ranged from 5.6 cM on 4B and 6A to 16.3 cM on 6B, with the exception QTL analysis A total of 15 significant QTLs for domestication-related spike traits were detected (Table 3). The QTLs were distributed on eight chromosomes (Fig. 2).The Q gene mainly controls freethreshability in domesticated polyploid wheats (Muramatsu, 1963). Although the location of the Q gene was mapped on 5AL, using the nucleotide polymorphism between CS and LDN upstream of the coding sequence of the Q genes (Supplementary Figs. S1 and S2), we found no QTLs corresponding to this region (Fig. 2E). On the other hand, four QTLs on 2BS, 2DS, 4D and 5DS (QFt_kibr-2B, QFt_kibr-2D, QFt_kibr-4D, QFt_kibr-5D) affected FT, respectively, accounting for 12, 22, 13, and 3% of the phenotypic variation (Table 3, Fig. 2). Increased FT was associated with the CS alleles at all these loci.The rachis of CS was not brittle after threshing. On the other hand, the rachis of S-6214 was fragile (Fig. 1). RCH in the F 2 population was affected by three QTLs (QRch-2DL, QRch-3DL, QRch-4D) accounting for 14, 16, and 35% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 2). Alleles from S-6214 increased RCH at the QTLs on 2DL and 4D, while CS contributed the higher-value alleles at the QTL on 3DL.Three rachis disarticulation types (i.e., wedge-type, barrel-type, and having both types) were found among the F 2 individuals with fragile rachises. To investigate the association of QTLs detected for RCH (QRch) with rachis disarticulation type, we examined the co-segregation of SSR markers closest to the QRch peaks (Dvorak et al., 2012) with rachis disarticulation type (Table 4). Plants showing both types of disarticulation were excluded from this test, so that 33 F 2 individuals for the wedge-type and 15 for the barrel-type were considered. While the parental alleles at relevant SSR loci on 2DL and 4D segregated independently of both disarticulation types, the barreltype co-segregated with the CS allele at two SSRs, Xgwm645 and Xcfd201, on 3DL with 1% level of significance. The wedge-type character, however, segregated independently from the parental alleles. This map position was different from those previously reported as associated with this character. Br-D1 is linked to Xgdm72-3D (Watanabe et al., 2005). Xgdm72-3D was 38.1 cM away from Xcfd201-3D, which is the marker for this QTL (Fig. 2). While Br-D2 was located in the 3L-0.81-1.00 BIN (Li and Gill, 2006), our QTL was in the 3L-0.22-0.81 BIN, distinct from the Br-D2 region. The CS allele appears to promote the generation of barrel-type disarticulation at the 3DL locus. This gene is designated Br-D3. This is the first report to map the locus of a disarticulation-modifying gene in CS wheat.Spike morphology Three QTLs associated with SPN were mapped to chromosomes 2AS, 2BS and 4AL (QSpn-  d A = additive effect. A positive value indicates that the higher-value allele is from Chinese Spring alleles and a negative value indicates that the higher-value allele is from S-6214 alleles. e D = dominant effect. f R 2 = phenotypic variance explained.2AS, QSpn-2BS and QSpn-4AL), explaining 5, 13 and 17% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 2). The CS parent contributed the higher-value alleles for the QTLs on chromosomes 2AS and 4AL, while S-6214 contributed the higher-value alleles for the QTL on 2BS. Two QTLs were identified for SPL on chromosomes 2DS and 5DL (QSpl-2DS and QSpl-5DL), accounting for 18 and 17% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 2). SPL was increased by the S-6214 alleles at both QTLs. CPT was affected by three QTLs on chromosomes 4AL, 5AL and 5DL (QCpt-4AL, QCpt-5AL and QCpt-5DL), explaining 27, 6 and 23% of the phenotypic variation, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 2). The increased CPT was contributed by CS alleles at these three loci.Coincident QTLs were identified for CPT and SPN on 4AL, for SPN and FT on 2BS, for SPL and FT on 2DS, for RCH and FT on 4D, and for SPL and CPT on 5DL. These results indicate either that these QTLs represent genetic factors for pleiotropic effects or that tightly linked genes govern each character.Five domestication-related spike traits (Table 1) of common wheat were mapped to eight chromosomes (Table 3, Fig. 2) using an F 2 population between CS wheat and a synthetic wheat produced by artificial crossing between LDN and wild goat grass. Since CS and LDN are cultivated types, both strains confer the genes as QQbrbrtgtg (e.g., Li and Gill, 2006). Supergene Q exhibits pleiotropic effects on domestic traits (Muramatsu, 1963) such as free-threshability, square head for spike morphology, rachis fragility, glume toughness and plant vigor. The Q gene in wheat was cloned as a homolog of Arabidopsis APETALA2 (Simons et al., 2006). Although the Q genes of CS and LDN have identical coding sequences (Simons et al., 2006;Abdollahi et al., 2012), we found an insertion/ deletion 1.5 kb upstream of the translation initiation site of the Q gene (Zhang et al., 2011; Supplementary Fig. S1). Using this polymorphism (Supplementary Fig. S2), we precisely mapped the Q gene on 5AL (Fig. 2E). As expected, no QTLs for free-threshability, square head for spike morphology, rachis fragility or glume toughness were found in this region, although the QTLs for glume tenacity and rachis fragility mapped around this region in the International Triticea Mapping Initiative (ITMI) population (Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004). On the other hand, the synthetic wheat S-6214 showed a non-domesticated phenotype, tough threshability, distinct spike morphology, and a more fragile rachis than CS due to addition of the non-domesticated genome of Ae. tauschii (Table 1, Fig. 1). From the observation of its phenotype in the field, Ae. tauschii is anticipated to confer Br-DBr-DTgTgq-Dq-D (Li and Gill, 2006;Abdollahi et al., 2012) plus additional genes.In addition to the Q gene, threshability is governed by a partially dominant gene, Tg-D1 (Kerber and Rowland, 1974;Simonetti et al., 1999). We found four QTLs for threshability (Table 3, Fig. 2). A QTL detected on 2DS coincided with one previously reported (Kerber and Rowland, 1974;Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004;Nalam et al., 2006;Sood et al., 2009;Dvorak et al., 2012), suggesting that this peak corresponds to Tg-D1. On the other hand, we detected another QTL peak on 2BS. The map position was apparently different from that of Tg-B1 (Simonetti et al., 1999;Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004). This position was comparable to homoeoloci of sog (soft glume, Sood et al., 2009;Dvorak et al., 2012). Furthermore, we detected two more novel QTLs on 4D and 5DS. These genes should improve threshability.Rachis fragility has long been believed to be a part of the spelt syndrome (q effects, Leighty and Boshnankian, 1921;MacKey, 1966). Since it was shown that fragile rachillae are formed under the control of the Q gene (Joppa and Cantrell, 1990;Chen, 2001), the gene(s) for rachis fragility or brittleness should be different from the Q gene. Our synthetic wheat, S-6214, showed partial rachis fragility (approximately 35%), while CS exhibited little rachis fragility (Table 1). Spikelets of parental S-6214 and CS displayed wedge-type disarticulation, but all three disarticulation types were found in the F 2 population, as in the case of semi-wild wheats in Tibet and Yunnan (Chen, 2001). Since Ae. tauschii showed full brittleness and barrel-type disarticulation, LDN gene(s) partially suppress rachis fragility and completely suppress barrel-type disarticulation in the synthetic hexaploid. On the other hand, CS gene(s) suppress rachis fragility. Segregation data from the F 2 progeny between CS and S-6214 suggest the existence of gene(s) to suppress gene action involved in rachis fragility, and in wedge-type and barrel-type disarticulation, in polyploid cultivated wheats. We detected three QTLs for rachis fragility after threshing, on 2DL, 3DL and 4D (Table 3, Fig. 2). Chen (2001) showed that several modifying genes control wedge-type or barrel-type disarticulation. These modifying genes for disarticulation type should be distinct from the genes for brittleness (Chen, 2001). We checked co-segregation of SSR markers with the disarticulation type. The allele of CS at the 3DL locus was tightly linked with that of the barrel-type disarticulation, while the other two loci showed no co-segregation with the disarticulation type gene (Table 4). Although genes for the barrel-type disarticulation (Br-1 and Br-2) have been reported (Watanabe et al., 2005;Li and Gill, 2006), our gene, designated Br-D3, was at a different position from those. Although Tsunewaki et al. (1990) suggested the presence of Br-D3 in CS, this is the first report on the mapping location of the barrel-type disarticulation type gene of CS.Eight QTLs related to spike morphology were detected in this study (Table 3, Fig. 2). Since a QTL on 4AL for spikelet number and spike compactness seemed to be located in the same region, and spike compactness is the spikelet number per unit spike length, the CS allele increased the spikelet number per spike in this background (Table 3). This location is comparable to that in the ITMI population. Simultaneously, loose spike compactness controlled by a QTL on 5DL should be attributable to the long spike length allele derived from S-6214. The QTL on 2BS affected spikelet number (Manickavelu et al., 2011), suggesting that this QTL region is consistent with the Ppd-B1 gene (Worland, 1996;Sourdille et al., 2000;Li et al., 2002). Although its homoeotic QTL was found in the comparable region of 2AS, no QTL was detected on 2DS (Fig. 2). A QTL corresponding to the Tg-D1 gene (Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004), which affects spike length and threshability, was detected on 2DS. On the other hand, a QTL located on 5AL of CS, which brought about spike compactness, was clearly different from the Q locus (Fig. 2, Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004;Ma et al., 2007;Kosuge et al., 2012). Durum wheat seems not to carry this gene (Jantasuriyarat et al., 2004).While certain QTLs that control spike morphology were confirmed (on 2AS, 2BS, 2DS, 4AL and 5AL), a new QTL for spike length located on 5DL was found. Although spike morphology is governed by a number of genes, identification of each gene by QTL analysis using characteristic trait combinations provides new information to pyramidize useful genes in elite cultivars. ","tokenCount":"3720"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3c24dd3629d33a03412d61de9c4c5951","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/193e61c0-da96-4dcd-a077-68bbc7b4320f/retrieve","id":"840653560"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c6004b15-f404-4ad4-b85d-867d479f0cc8","pagecount":"16","content":"The vision of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish continues to be that the health, livelihoods and future prospects of the poor and vulnerable, especially women and children, can be transformed through consumption of nutritious meat, milk and fish and through shared benefits from income and job opportunities by their greater participation in animal-source food value chains. Phase Two of the Program seeks to realize this vision by increasing the productivity of small commercial livestock and fish production systems and improving the performance of their associated value chains.The Program proposes a model to strengthen the relevance and impact of its research to these ends. First, the process also defines longer-term research to prepare the future breakthroughs that will be needed to ensure the continued viability and sustainable growth of these animal-source food value chains. It is designed to join capacity within the CGIAR and its many partners to develop solutions for pro-poor transformation of value chains and for their implementation at a large scale. Over the period 2015-2023, the Phase 2 program proposes to continue these efforts with sharper focus on linking Flagship research to the Program's development objectives and on using the lessons learned during Phase 1.The Livestock and Fish (L&F-2) CGIAR Research Program, Phase 2, will contribute to achieving the four SLOs. It will sustainably increase the productivity of smallholder livestock and fish production to increase the supply and affordability of animal-source foods from poor producers and for poor consumers. The output and cost effects for animal source foods will improve incomes, employment, nutrition, and food security and reduce poverty along nine major value chains. Phase 2 proposes to deliver results to over several million households in the period 2015-2023 through research / development work in the value chains and through global research on several flagship projects.The Program has defined intermediate development outcomes (IDOs) that target productivity, accessible food supplies, employment and incomes (especially for women), nutrition and favorable policies, while mitigating environmental impacts. Table 1 proposes slightly revised IDOs for Phase 2. IDOs #1 through #6 are very similar to those of Phase 1 1 . The new IDO#7 recognizes the need for increased supplies of livestock and fish feed to support the productivity gains in animal agriculture. The IDOs identify the key links in the value chains that research for development will enhance: increased productivity of livestock and fish enterprises, more and better quality animal-source foods (ASFs), a more gender-equitable distribution of income and environmental benefits for poor agents, a reduction in the nutrient gaps of poor consumers, lower environmental costs and better policy incentives.The L&F Phase 2 Theory of Change is like that of L&F Phase 1 -local and global research will generate knowledge embodied in new technologies and new institutions. Research for development partnerships will reduce the costs of technical and organizational changes to smallholders, allowing them to increase their productivity and incomes. Targeting and gender-analytic tools will give a strong focus on poor and marginalized groups who have often been excluded from technology transfer programs. Specific assumptions in this theory of change are:Many pre-commercial smallholders in high potential value chains can become commercial if new technologies, better institutions and better incentives are available;Many pre-commercial smallholders will respond to technologies and policies to invest in new technologies and in sustainable intensification;Targeting high potential value chains will increase the rate and scale of adoption of new technologies and the rate and scale of response to incentives;Addressing the value chain from production inputs to consumption and vice versa will increase the rate and scale of adoption of new technologies;Women and marginalized groups will receive special priority in research for development because they have often been excluded from access to assets, to markets and technologies;The poor rely more on animal-source food (ASF) produced by smallholders and sold in informal value chains, so that the poor tend to benefit more from technical and policy changes in smallholder value chains;The poor will consume more ASF if those products are cheaper and of better quality;Increased consumption of ASF among poor people will improve their nutrition and health; andCapable partners are available and motivated to develop interventions at scale. Egypt and Bangladesh -fish yields per hectare;Nicaragua -beef and dairy yields per animal and per hectare #2 Increased quantity and improved quality of the target commodity supplied from the target small-scale production and marketing systems (SLO1 and SLO2)Quantity, by commodity yields per animal and per unit of land or time, stratified by target systems.Quality by real unit prices #3 Increased employment and income for low income actors in the target value chains, with an increased share of employment for and income controlled by lowincome women (SLO1 and SLO3)Increased income among poor people, disaggregated by sex and age.Higher share of women reporting greater control of income from value chain participation.Increased employment in the target value chains, disaggregated by sex, age and poverty status.Current IDO Change from Phase One? Indicator Classes #4 The target commodity responsible for filling a larger share of the nutrient gap for the poor, particularly for nutritionally vulnerable populations (women of reproductive age and young children) (SLO3) \"Increased consumption of the target commodity … \" Higher Individual Dietary Diversity Index (IDDI); higher Household Dietary Diversity Index (HDDI);Better health and nutrition status of children under five years: Wasting: % of children under 5 years falling under -2 standards deviations of weight for age (%).Stunting: % of children under 5 less than -2 standard deviations of mean height for age.#5 Lower environment impacts and higher benefits per unit of commodity produced in the target value chains (SLO4) #5 Lower environment impacts and higher benefits per unit of commodity produced in the target value chains (SLO4) \"Higher benefits\" are already covered by \"higher productivity\" in IDO 1 and by \"higher income\" in IDO3 \"per unit of commodity produced\" to be covered in Indicators Quantities of greenhouse gases (methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide) in each value chain; solid wastes in swine and dairy; per animal and cumulative by link in the value chain (farm, first processing, final processing, consumer) #6 Policies (including investments) and development actors recognize and support the development of the small-scale production and marketing systems, and seek to increase the participation of women within these (SLO2 and SLO4) #6 Policies (including investments) and development actors recognize and support the development of the small-scale production and marketing systems, and seek to increase the participation of women and poor agents within these (SLO2) Achievement of each IDO will be measured by specific targets (belonging to the classes in Table 1) defined in each value chain, e.g. a 50 percent increase in milk produced per cow in 150,000 poor households in Tanzania over 9 years, or a 75 percent increase in fish yield per hectare in Egypt over 9 years.The detailed indicators will be derived from the situational analyses for the nine value chains that are underway in L&F-Phase 1 and that will be completed by November 2013. Generation of the targets draws on existing models and analyses to estimate potential productivity gains and reduced environmental impacts from feed, health and genetics interventions and to estimate the potential beneficiary population, together with benchmarking based on past and present development interventions. This analysis is generating an evidence base to support the level of scaling out and changes that the program is proposing as reasonable to achieve within the 9-12 year IDO time horizon.We will implement the research component of L&F-2 through several Flagship Projects that are designed to produce Global Public Goods and broadly applicable global knowledge. The Projects will be integrated into value chain development, and are designed to deliver more outputs, more employment, greater equity and fewer local environmental costs. Projects will also produce local knowledge that is applied to the development problems of income, jobs, inequalities, and environmental costs.We will implement the development component of the L&F-2 through local partners from national governments to the private and NGO sectors. The development component will finance interventions that translate research results from the Flagship Projects and from the national sites, into more productive livestock and fish value chains. In the Phase 2 Project Paper, we will propose a method to select development partners on a competitive basis. Development partners selected on that basis would then be evaluated, in part, using results-based performance methods.The Flagship Projects (Annex 1) are research efforts across the principal crop, fish, and livestock systems in the tropics. The knowledge and innovation created to find solutions to the constraints in the program's value chains will the scientifically driven development process more generally. Improving international access to and use of program outputs will eventually, over the 10-year horizon and beyond, contribute to the desired system changes in income, food security, nutrition, and natural resources management. Each Flagship Project will contribute to the Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs) in varying proportions.Building a Livestock and Fish Genetics Platform. The objective of this Flagship Project is to build an integrated animal genetic improvement and innovative delivery program, and a platform to support this at global scale is urgently needed for priority livestock and fish species with the ultimate outcome of significant and sustained animal systems productivity improvement in developing countries. This will contribute mainly to IDO#1, IDO#2 and IDO#3.Improving Animal Health for Increased Productivity. The objective of this Flagship Project is to develop a pro-poor, sustainable animal health diagnostic and vaccines platform speeding up the development of solutions for existing and emerging diseases of livestock. This will comprise a diagnostic assay platform, Delivery of animal health interventions, and innovative work on herd health, to be implanted through partnerships with ARIs and national scientific programs.Reducing the environmental costs of animal production. The objective of this project is to contribute to a pro-poor, environmentally responsible livestock and aquaculture sector in developing countries. This will contribute mainly to IDO#5.Developing new biotechnologies for animal nutrition. This Project has a sequence of objectives over time. The first is to assess ligno-cellulolytic biomass availability, competition, utilization and costs and in potential value chains for meat milk and fish (Year 1). The second is to Analyze and synthesize findings to the hydrolysis of plant cell walls for enhanced sugar release and utilization for use in animal feeding (Year 1 -2). Subsequent objectives are to: (i) design and test appropriate biomass processors and fermenters as intermediary steps in developing of expandable technologies (Years 3-6); and (ii) extend technologies that can be used along feed value chains with partners from farmers' organizations, cooperatives, NGOs and the private sector (Years 6-9).Sustaining feed-based intensification of animal production. The Project's objective is to achieve an overall 50 percent increase in total factor productivity in at least half of the value chains where the L&F CRP works, through better feeds and more efficient feed and fodder value chains, while avoiding unacceptable environmental costs on land, water and atmospheric resources.Reducing gender disparities. The proposed Flagship Project has four objectives: (i) Increase gender analytic capacity within CG Centers, partner organizations, and value chain actors to diagnose and resolve gender constraints in value chains; (ii) develop and implement research and development approaches through which women and marginalized groups capture more value-added from animal production; (iii) develop and implement approaches through which women and marginalized groups achieve more access to assets --markets, land, animals, technologies, power; and (iv) develop and implement approaches to increase level and equity of ASF consumption in poor households.Nine value chains (Annex 2) were selected based on a number of conditions that maximize the program's likelihood of achieving broader impact at scale. Target value chains were also chosen to have high potential for welfare gains from producers to consumers. The selection criterion included: existence of value chain growth and market opportunities, pro-poor potential, a body of researchable constraints to sustain various research agendas in the value chains, existence of enabling environments, and existence of considerable CGIAR legacy activities. The target value chains also comprise pairs of similar value chains located in different regions of the world, for instance smallholder dairy in Tanzania and India, to allow cross-value chain comparisons and learning.The target value chains are: Aquaculture in Egypt and Bangladesh 2 (leadership by WorldFish) Small ruminants in Ethiopia and Mali (leadership by ILRI, ICARDA and national programs) Smallholder dairy in India (four selected states), Tanzania and Nicaragua (leadership by ILRI, CIAT and national programs)Smallholder pigs in Vietnam and Uganda (leadership by ILRI and national programs)These value chains are the settings for delivering innovations derived from the Flagship work and existing knowledge on the technical and organizational themes. This close linkage between research and development will ensure focuses on opportunities for increasing productivity and provides a mechanism to extend research outputs broadly.In developing the value chain-specific theories of change and the impact pathways, the program is relying on the Participatory Impact Pathways Analysis (PIPA) approach in stakeholder workshops which allow participants to explicitly reveal their assumptions and hypotheses about how the program will bring about impact. PIPA is quite similar to the outcome mapping philosophy although the PIPA approach differs in two ways: 1) it incorporates both the achievement of outcomes and the key actors responsible for delivering those changes and 2) it also applies network map analysis to understand how different stakeholders in the value chain interact to achieve the desired overall program goals. The workshops engage value chain stakeholders in walking through a predicted process of turning program outputs into research outcomes, to development outcomes, and finally into impacts. These workshops will be held in each of the 9 program target value chains/countries. Participants will be drawn from a wide range of stakeholders including: target value chain staff, scientists directly involved in the value chains, government officials who are directly linked to developing the target value chain, and representatives of farmer forums, implementing partner organizations, national agricultural research institutions, and the private sector.This will be achieved through targeted dissemination of results through publications, social and mass media, etc. to provide sufficient supporting evidence and platforms for widespread promotion (at the global scale) of the technologies. In addition, the program will seek to build the capacity of \"next users\" such as the NARES, NGOs, Civil Society Organizations and public and private service providers in countries outside of the selected value chains, and so accelerate downstream testing and adaptation of research outputs. L&F-2 will specifically engage with key partners in disseminating its research for development outputs and ensuring they are widely accessible and used. The program will also develop a strategy for targeting specific messages and channels to influence policy makers, especially those who determine development investments, to promote wider deployment of the program's proven interventions. Monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of technical and organization changes along the value chains will show how component outputs contribute to each IDO.2 Bangladesh fish replaces Uganda fish from Phase 1.-9-Lessons from the initial implementation of L&F-1, and from collaboration with other CRPs, have prompted adjustments in the second phase. The first lesson is the need to link the main research outputs -in Phase 2, the Flagship Projects -to propose technical and organization solutions in the value chains. This has been done explicitly in this Phase 2 document. The second is the imperative to use experience from the value chains to inform work in the Flagship Projects and other research efforts. A third lesson is the urgent need to reduce environmental costs associated with agricultural intensification value, to understand how animal-source foods can better deliver nutrition, and to identify policy reforms that create a better investment environment and implement mechanisms to increase private sector investment. The Flagship Projects proposed here, notably the one on \"Reducing the Environmental Costs of Animal Production\", have incorporated this lesson. A fourth is to link the work of other CRPs to that of Livestock and Fish; this is being done, for example, in the proposed new collaboration with A4NH-2 in the area of zoonoses and with CCAFS-2 and Dryland Systems-2 in the area of carbon sequestration in African rangelands. A final lesson is the need to understand incentive policies in the value chain countries as they affect smallholders' incentives to adopt new technologies. Lessons learned about incentives will be disseminated as Policy Notes to influence the policy and research environments governing livestock, feed and fish development.Various external conditions could put at risk the predicted results from the Flagship Projects and the value chains. The chief risks to achieving the IDOs are as follows.Failure to achieve global research results in the Flagship Projects. The Flagship Projects will focus on broad scientific problems -building an animal genetic platform for the tropics; reducing the environmental costs of animal production; developing new biotechnologies for animal nutrition; sustaining feed-based intensification; reducing gender-based disparities in animal production systems. Failure to achieve productive and sustainable solutions to these problems is the greatest scientific risk to the objectives of L&F-2. We will manage this risk by deepening collaboration with advanced research institutes, by the use of innovative research methods, and by testing research ideas in the value chain sites.Adverse trends in production systems, notably intensification in marginal areas. Continued population growth and commercial crop expansion in the tropics threaten the program objectives because they would negate research results. That is, research can generate more productive technologies for market and environment goods, but its net impact might even be negative if population growth and commercial farming in the tropics grow more quickly than research impacts do. We will manage this risk by collaborating with partner research institutions in the marginal and environmentallysensitive regions on both development and policy interventions.Focusing on a few value chains might reduce the numbers of beneficiaries, among producers and consumers. We have managed this risk by choosing large value chains -dairying in India, dairying in East Africa, small ruminants in Mali and Ethiopia, swine in Vietnam, fish in Bangladesh and Egyptwhere there are many beneficiaries and where the expected gains from technical change are high;Bias prevents women and other marginalized groups from innovating or intensifying, reducing potential numbers of beneficiaries. We will manage this risk by doing careful situational analyses in each ","tokenCount":"3002"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"49495c127d091cef3ff2874e8f40abd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a72b0313-e52e-44e3-95a1-bae4baebc58b/retrieve","id":"2107268559"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"752405ce-80bb-4acd-ba73-e3ba9398c196","pagecount":"1","content":"This study is the first published QMRA applied for food safety in Vietnam in international peer-reviewed literature. Risk-based approaches are now standard for food-safety issues in developed countries, as well as being the basis of rules governing international trade in food products. However, use of risk assessment, and especially quantitative risk assessment, has been limited in LMIC (18). There were several limitations in the study. First was the uncertainty of reduction in cooking that we don't know how accurate the reduction at household is. Secondly, since the speculative nature of modeling, particularly as the model hasn't been validated. Thirdly, the amount and frequency of pork eating also varied by individual and time. In addition, our model was not able to simulate the differing susceptibility in different consumer groups (e.g. children or elder) as well as to the specific Salmonella strains. The portions of fattening pigs raised in the small, medium and large scale farms were 5.5, 29.2 and 65.3%, respectively (Figure 2). A cross-sectional was carried out for sample collection along the smallholder pork value chain between April 2014 and February 2015 in Hung Yen Province. A total of 36 pig farms, 25 slaughterhouses (72 slaughtered pigs) and 108 pork shops were randomly selected by sampling.Salmonella qualitative and quantitative tests were done following ISO 6579:2002 and 3-tube MPN method (8, 9), respectively. Consumer households survey was also conducted using faceto-face interviews (30 urban consumer households) and focus group discussion to explore pork cooking practices and consumption behavior.Codex Alimentarius Commission QMRA (10) was applied. Bacteria growth and dose-response relationship models were obtained from the literatures (11,12). Four parts of developed risk model were described in Figure 1.Monte Carlo simulation was performed using @Risk (Palisade, Corporation, US) for 10,000 iterations. Sensitivity analysis was conducted selecting all the uncertainty parameters and run for 1000 iterations at seven quantile values.This study shows high levels of Salmonella from farm to final product (pork at market) along the smallholder pig value chains. The risk of salmonellosis in humans due to boiled pork consumption appears to be high. Feasible mitigations to improve hygiene practices are required to reduce the risk for the consumer. Control at farm may benefit from good agricultural practices as well as technological innovations such as water acidification (19). Similarly good practices and adequate infrastructure can improve hygiene at slaughter and retail. Given the important role of cross-contamination in the kitchen, public education should address household practices.  Each person consumed an average of 74 (minimum 20 to maximum 200) g boiled pork/meal. Amount of boiled pork consumed varied by age and gender group: 37 g/meal (children), 100 g/meal (adult male), 87 g/meal (adult female) and 73 g/meal (elder). The frequency of eating boiled pork was 117 (minimum of 50 to maximum of 205) times/year. Table 1. Salmonella prevalence on pen floor at farm, feces and carcass at slaughterhouse and cut pork at market in Hung Yen, Vietnam ","tokenCount":"483"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab49c932ae3e5f81978fba5a3064c668","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_36251.pdf","id":"268869060"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf0f3943-32b4-4e53-a04c-124f5f0edfbb","pagecount":"12","content":"During the Soviet times, the Central Asian states had a unique water management policy and institutions, centrally governed from Moscow. After collapse of USSR, the Central Asian states put into place arrangements for regional cooperation and developed their national policies on water management. At the same time the states embarked, at different rates reforms of agriculture and water management.The government of Uzbekistan has invited International organizations to contribute to its reform efforts on irrigated agriculture in Karakalpakstan. As a result Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources Management of Uzbekistan (MAWRM) had requested Program Facilitation Unit of CGIAR office of Central Asia and Caucasus to conduct research and prepare wider project proposal for the potential donors on reforming agriculture and water sector in Uzbekistan.Karakalpakistan is located in the Aral Sea environmental disaster zone and is foremost affected by both the environment disaster and economic aggravation. The drought of the last 3 years (1999)(2000)(2001) harshly affected this already depressed area. The crude cotton yields declined to 25%, irrigated wheat yields decreased to 30%, and the harvest of rice dropped to 50%. One hundred sixty thousand ha of irrigated areas from the total of 500,000 ha, or 31%, were severely affected by the drought. All irrigated lands are highly or moderately saline.The Uzbek government has planned to conduct reforms of the agricultural and water management systems in Karakalpakistan in order to alleviate the impacts of the environment disaster and economic aggravation. The main aim of the reforms is to establish efficient small landholders and farms in place of the old kolkhozes and shirkats, which are bankrupts at the present time.Currently, neither Uzbekistan nor Karakalpakistan has in place the full requisite legal framework and operational procedure to allow the development of truly independent and self-managed WUAs. The above mentioned project tested legal and procedural principles in promoting participatory irrigation management (PIM). The major obstacles on ensuring sustainable water reforms are: absence of strong legal basis of the reforms and clearly described water rights.1. Environment. The drying up of the world's former 4 th largest sea-Aral Sea became very known story worldwide. The dramatic changes in the sea (table 4) and in the surrounding environment led to crisis in the Karakalpakistan, which is known as environmental disaster area. The distance from Nukus city to dried Aral Sea is 900-1000 km. Mynak town of Karakalpakistan is located right at the former shore of the Aral Sea. Strong north-south winds blows for 60-70% of the year. These winds transporting salt-sands from the dried bottom of the sea to the irrigated areas, cities and villages of Karakalpakistan. The population is greatly affected by the disaster, 85% of the women have anemia. Infant death rate is 110 to 1000 infants, highest among the Central Asian states. The drinking water is major problem; the quality of present sources of drinking water is far from Uzbekistan's drinking water standards. The ground water resources, used for drinking formerly are contaminated by agrochemicals. Migration of population is observed, because of damaged environment. The environmental problems of Karakalpakistan aggravated by water shortage and low irrigated agricultural productivity.The further improvements on environmental and social situation in Karakalpakistan are very much determined by reforms in water management. 2. Water Allocation and distribution. Water management issues (deficit, allocation principles, tail-end differences) are directly affecting overall agricultural production in Karakalpakistan. Drought of last 2 years (1999-2000) is not only natural water scarcity but also non-uniform water distribution in the Amu Darya river basin (figure 7). The water supply rates in the upper reach of Amu Darya was 90% against determined shares, in the middle reach 95% to 350% and in the lower reach 45 % to 70%.The average water supply rates were close to 100%. In 1999-2000 Karakalpakistan received only 24% and 31% respectively, from its 6.5 km3 water share in Amu Darya. As a result, 80% of rice and 65% of cotton yields were lost in year 2000. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Management of Karakalpakistan (MAWRM), 200,000 ha of irrigated lands have been not cultivated and 200,000 ha has been prepared and sowed expecting water. As a result the non-cultivated irrigated lands are becoming unfit for crop growing due to salinity. According to MAWRM Karakalpakistan, about 85% of irrigated lands are saline. Those in the non-vegetation season (October-April) salt leaching were practiced. In the mid 1980's about 350,000 ha of land were leached annually. However, during 2001-2002 non-vegetation season, only 106,000 ha have been leached. 3. Water quality. Water quality in the Amu-Darya has gradually deteriorated, and now contains up to 2 gram/liter of salts. It is a result of return drainage water from the upper and middle irrigated areas in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Around 6-8 km3 of drainage water annually is returned in the growing season from the upper and middle irrigated areas. While having once good quality, the river was a source of drinking water for Khorazm, Dashgaouz (Turkmenistan) and Karakalpakistan population. The low quality water limiting the use of water to drinking purposes, in the industry and event in the irrigated agriculture. 4. Ground Water and Salinity. Ironically, the annual average per capita water supply in KK is around 1500 m3, which is higher than in other water stressed countries (less than 1000 m3/per capita/year). However, the extensive use of ground water resources last 2 years led to ground water levels dropping down to 3-4 meters below surface. Population has severe problems with irrigating even small (0.08 to 0.20 ha) family plots, which provide food for families. The large irrigated areas, almost 95% from total are saline. The salinity together with low water supply makes irrigated agriculture in Karakalpakistan almost impossible. 5. Technically outdated infrastructure. Technical conditions of irrigation systems are deteriorated, average delivery efficiency of irrigation water in Karakalpakistan equals to 0.45(average of Uzbekistan is 0.58). The losses in the irrigation systems of tail located areas are irreversible, 50% water withdrawn for irrigation lost due to poor technical conditions. The poor technical conditions of irrigation system led to high water tables in high water years and severe inequities in low water years. 6. On-farm water management. The privatization of former collective farms led to collapse of former on-farm water management system. The newly created farmers lack with skills on planning and distributing of water among each others. As a result competition for water led to dramatic head-tail inequities. 7. Institutions on Water Management. In spite of stepwise approach on land reforms, the water management was kept unchanged until 1999. The old policies and institutions showed its incapability to cope with water shortages and organizational vacuum in the on-farm level. The steps taken by state on water reforms: WUAs and hydrographic principles of water management may improve the situation. However, the lack of trained staff and clear understanding of WUA concept may lead to creation of unsustainable WUAs. The absence of financial base (water fees) may be major obstacle of successful water reforms.The major causes of environmental problems and water shortage in Karakalpakistan are not only natural disastrous dry years, but also inefficient water management. The unequal water distribution and unreformed system were leading to enormous inequity of water distribution. The root of water management problems of Central Asia, particularly in Karakalpakistan is institutional. However, the poor technical conditions of irrigation infrastructure also contributing into causes. The started agricultural and water resources reforms in Uzbekistan targeting those inefficiencies.In the first stage (till 1970's) of agriculture and water management development in Karalpakistan is marked by collectivization of agriculture, introduction of state policy on increasing gross and net cotton production, rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage network and extending of irrigated areas. The dramatic technical improvements not took place due to limited inputs from state; the major works had been conducted by local population. The institutionally water management had been reformed in accordance to the collective agriculture requirements. It brings both positive and negative impacts: the rights of small water users were ignored and first right for water was given to collective units. In other hand, the productivity land in the collective units increased dramatically, influencing also on water productivity. The institutional set up in the first stage of the development can characterized as semi-centralized, production oriented, and technical system. The users were represented by collective units, which were the lowest level in the hierarchy of water management.In the second stage  there were very few changes in the water resources and agricultural management in this stage. The centralized system, with state quotas for all agricultural crops, water resources was planned according to the quotas. The planning, allocation, distribution and management of water resources were conducted by state agencies on water resources management. These agencies were created in each administrative unit, lasting with collective farms. The agencies fully financed, equipped by state. The technical equipness and capacity of such water management units were relatively high. Monitoring of water resources use, soil salinity, ground water levels and use were regular and special yearly reports issued in the end of the year. However, the administrative sub ordinance of these organizations prevented information flow up to decision making level, keeping it within the administrative unit. As result, the real situation in the irrigated areas was unknown for long time to the upper hierarchical policy making system. The absence of the transparency in the water and agriculture management led to further deterioration of environmental, water management and agricultural productivity.The third stage (since 1990\\s) of agriculture and water management in Karakalpakistan marked by stiffening of the environmental, water allocation and distribution, water quality, ground water and salinity, infrastructural, on-farm water management and institutional problems. Also, the third stage of agriculture and water resources management is period of privatization of irrigated lands and institutional changes in water resources management. After long period of collective agriculture in Karakalpakistan land privatization led to creation of thousands of landowners. The land reforms requiring changes in water management, the planning, managing and distribution of water among vast numbers of water users showed inefficiency of old water management principles. The approach on improving water management in the on-farm level through introduction of water users associations can be seen as attempt of reforms of water sector.For last 12 years (1990 to 2002) irrigated area of Karakalpakistan remained unchanged. The irrigation water withdraws has declined from 8455.2 million m3 to 6279 million m3. For last 4 years (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002) water withdraws declined by 31% and irrigated areas by 50%. The main reason is the water shortage in Amu Darya basin. The worst drought of 2001 resulted 4 times decrease of water withdraws and 2.5 times on irrigated area.Because of droughts of last 3 years (1999-2001) per unit water supply has been decreased up to 8400 m3/ha in 2001. In the last 10 years (1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000) cotton yields decreased by 56% and rice yields by 51%. The total cotton areas declined by 88%, rice areas declined by 52%, the areas under wheat increased by 10 times in 2002 in comparison with 1991 indices. The crop yields, except wheat yields, were declining during above period reaching lowest levels in 2002, the cotton yields 1.1 t/ha, rice 1.7 t/ha and wheat yields 3.0 t/ha. The declining of crop yields was due to water and agricultural problems, explained above.In Uzbekistan, including Karakalpakistan agricultural reforms started early. The reform approaches in Uzbekistan are different from other neighboring countries. Uzbekistan uses stepwise land reforms approach and privatization goes with lower speed. However, because of socio-economic problems of Karakalpakistan, the land reforms have been advanced in order to prevent degradation of agricultural sector. The number of private farms has increased from 1664 in 1999 up to 3999 in 2002. The number of collective farms has decreased from 136 in 1999 to 114 in 2002. The average landholding sizes dropped 270 ha in 1999 to 122 ha in 2002. The land reforms have created more effective land users in Karakalpakistan. However, high land salinity and water shortage are limiting factors on higher agricultural production in Karakalpakistan.State policy on cotton, rice and wheat order system also hindering development of farmers' independency from state. Local farmers are experienced in agriculture and they have good capacity on entrepreneurship.The land reforms led to creation of high productive private farms; however it had increased competition for water in the irrigated agriculture. Hundreds of the new private farms had been created in the place of one collective farm in the reformed areas. The distribution of water in these areas became real problem for water management organizations.Water Users Associations-new form of water management for AgricultureThe agricultural reforms predetermined changes in water management, institutional set up of existing water management do not match with the structural changes in agriculture. The water supply into newly formed private farms became very difficult, because old irrigation infrastructure, water use plans were oriented into collective system.The Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan in December, 1999 issued decree # 543, according to which 5 unprofitable shirkats (type of semi-collective farms) in three districts of Karakalpakistan were broken into private farms. In order to ease water management in the private farms 5 \"Water shirkats\" (collective of water users) were created. It was first step on reforms of water management in Karakalpakistan. The \"water shirkats\" were initiated from top to down, water users were not part of the process of reforms. MAWRM of Karakalpakistan proposed to create a \"WUA Support Unit\" in Karakalpakistan, and make an experimental WUA in \"Jambul\" as demonstrative for training leaders and members of WUAs in the other parts of Karakalpakistan. According to the plans of Uzbek Government, during the next year more collective and shirkat farms will be privatized, and the need for the WUAs at the on-farm will be critical.Transfer of knowledge and experience of IWMI with regard to Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) worldwide, experience of the Fergana Valley Project, and experience of the neighboring countries (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan) may be also good support on WUA development in Karakalpakistan.Traditionally, water management in the Soviet era was based on the supply principle. Since the Central Asian states have become a part of the interdependency-based system, no major economic seemed to arise and water in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya was kept flowing.Commodities were exchanged amongst the Republics under Moscow rule and water was one of them. After the Central Asia States became independent, the water management organizations maintain the water allocation similar to what it was under the FSU. Nevertheless, problems arose, since the demand exceeded the supply. The delivery on demand of the users was kept in the format of traditionally large norms, according to the type of crop and planted area.The water allocation principles applied in the FSU had two major problems. They were lacking realistic and equitable water right administration system, and only lately under the internationally funded irrigation improvement projects the water rights system and equitable allocations have come into play. Gradually, the governments have become more aware of the need for developing a reliable water rights administration system, as a pre-requisite for the development of water rights market, but only after all water users have been registered (or given a title). Capacity building is important for achieving sustainable implementation and that is going on in each Central Asia state, along with an effort to modify the legal basis.Second, the physical water allocation and distribution system has not considered any principles for water conservation or an incentive for saving water. In many cases the real water supply rates were 2-3 times higher than recommended water needs. The absence of incentives for conserving water resources led to overexploitation of available water resources.In late 1980s, \"limitation of water demand\" was introduced in Central Asia, as the demand for water was almost equal to the available water resources within the region. Under the limitation principle, the water shares to users were adjusted in accordance with water availability in the sources (rivers, reservoirs, etc.). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian states did not change any of the water allocation principles. Only in Kyrgyzstan, an up-stream country, the limits were abolished, and in fact water has been delivered according to the users' demand.In the water-scarce down-stream states (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan) the limited demand principle of water allocation is still operational.The principle of limited demand made the process of water allocation more complicated. In reality there are two separate processes of planning and allocating water in irrigated agriculture.The first process consists of collecting the demand from water users, collective/cooperative and private farms, or from water users' associations towards higher water management levels (district-province-state). The second process includes the preparation of limits for users; it comes from a higher hierarchy of water management (Ministries of Agriculture and Water Management) to the lower units (district water management organizations). The \"limiting\" demands and the collected demands are translated into water use plans at the district level, according to which water is allocated to the users.At present, the water management organizations in Central Asia states are struggling with the delivery of water based as demanded by the users, although this is happening prior to the approved water use plans. The water use plans are prepared for each primary water users for each season. There are 2 irrigation seasons in Central Asia: vegetation -April to September, and non-vegetation -October to March. The demands for water are determined according to climatic zones, size of irrigated area, crop type, and soil and groundwater conditions. There are so called \"hydromodule districts\" within the irrigated zones of Central Asia. For each type of crop, within each hydromodule district recommended water demand norms are calculated. The collected demand for water includes all losses above the on-farm level (in main and secondary canals) by dividing the demand by the \"delivery efficiency coefficient\" of the higher systems. However, the delivery efficiency coefficients of the systems do not seem monitored, and only \"normative\" values are used for the calculations.Therefore, the needs-based planning of water distribution is essentially a \"top-down\" mode of management, in which detailed decisions are taken in the government bureaucracy. By contrast, water rights-based management empowers water users to make their decisions, individually or in groups according to the level at which rights can be assigned and protected in each particular situation. A lot needs to be done in capacity building in this regard in all states.The PIM is worldwide known term and it has been part of the overall water management reforms around the world. The Philippines (Wijayaratna andVermillion 1994, Svendsen 1992), Indonesia (Soenarno 1995), China (Xu Zhifang 1995) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayake 1995) in Asia, Mexico (Gorriz et al 1995) andColombia (Garcia-Betancourt 1994) in Latin America, and others such as New Zealand (Farley 1994) and Turkey (Devlet su Isleri et al 1996), have made major efforts in this direction. Transferring responsibilities has become seen as a way to reduce pressures on thinly stretched government finances while at the same time improving irrigated agricultural production and ensuring the long term sustainability of irrigation systems (Geijer et al 1996, Vermillion 1991).The successful Water Users Associations in the FSU conditions requires accomplishment of special rules which stipulate the following principles:• Clear responsibility for public irrigation agencies: The role of water supply agencies consists of (i) develop irrigation infrastructure, hand it over to WUAs for O&M through formal Transfer Agreement, (ii) supply water to WUAs on the basis of formal annual Water Delivery Contracts signed before the onset of the irrigation season, (iii) oversee the performance of WUAs and enforce the provisions in the Transfer Agreements, and (iv) provide institutional development support to WUAs.• Clear responsibility for WUAs: The role of WUAs is to serve the common interest of their membership by (i) operating and maintaining the irrigation facilities serving them on the basis of the technical guidelines agreed in the Transfer Agreement, (ii) developing and maintaining the interest of their membership in the sustainability of the irrigation infrastructure for which they accepted responsibility under the Transfer Agreement, and (iii) ensuring the fair distribution among their members of the amount of water received under the water delivery contract.• Autonomy: WUAs are self-governed, self-financed, self-managed non profit oriented legal entities established by their membership for the purpose of operating and maintaining an irrigation system, with due regard to the interest of all members and to the sustainability of the system itself. While the public sector has an important role to play in ensuring the sustainability of the system, and in providing the necessary institutional support for the development of WUAs, particularly during their formative stage, that role should be assumed without direct intervention in the internal issues and management of WUAs.• Accountability of WUAs: WUAs are given the irrigation system in trust. Each WUA is, thus, accountable for the state of the system it manages, on the basis of the provisions in the Transfer Agreement. This accountability is enforced through continuous system monitoring by the public sector agency responsible for irrigation system development.• Accountability of public irrigation agency: Public agencies should be held accountable for the timely delivering of the quantity of water agreed in the context of the annual water supply contract. Such contract should specify modalities for compensating WUAs in cases of untimely or failed water delivery.• Viability: WUAs have to acquire the technical, management and financial capacity to operate as viable business entities, operating as non-profit organizations in the long-term interest of their membership. To that end, WUAs will have the authority to collect membership fees and charges fir irrigation system O&M, in such amounts that will be necessary to (i) effectively operate and maintain the system, and (ii) create a reserve fund to meet unexpected expenditures or to replace operational equipment.• Financial accountability of WUAs: WUAs are held accountable for proper management of their financial resources in the same manner as any business in the country through (i) internal means specified in the by-laws which ensure transparency and provide for checks and balances, and (ii) external means as specified in the rules of the public audit process and the courts All above listed principles of successful PIM conditions must be integrated into legal documents on water managementThere is a recent concept of applying management capability, combination of staff numbers and staff skills. The technology used in irrigation system should be related to the available level of management capacity (Horst, 1990). According to Horst (1987Horst ( , 1990) ) the water distribution must be simplified. The quality of decisions is likely to decline, if designers or decision makers have to make too many decisions (e.g., by installing more control facilities). Abernethy (1988) noted that the absence of efficient communication systems, decisions on continuously adjustable structures may default downwards to the local gate-operators, who may then act on the base of what they know at any given moment, which may be limited to direct observation of local conditions such as upstream water level. The summation of independent local decisions may lead to a kind of anarchy and variability of canal conditions.Anarchy or rent seeking can occur also if the rules do not seem appropriate to those who are expected to implement them, and if their implementation would cause difficult relationship between managers and the farmers who use the irrigation system. Morabito et al. (1998) describes strong irrigation organization as the one delivering water according to the rights of each association. The organization does not become involved in the distribution of water to individual farmers. That is done within each irrigators association.The equitable water distribution according to Morabito et al. (1998) characterized by three aspects: a) long established system of water rights, with both traditional and legal enforcement; b) long established organizations among the irrigators, which take over the lower levels of water distribution; c) structures explicitly designed and installed for water measurement.Central Asia is one of the world's oldest irrigated regions, history of which estimates thousand years. In the early 20s century Central Asians had clear set of the rules for water distribution, recognized by the water users/landowners. Each landowner had certain rights on water, these rights mainly based on size of the land. Water distribution was organized by elected mirabs (waster masters) and rules were based on \"sharia\" -Islamic law. According to the \"sharia\" water can not be private good and all canals and ditches were owned by public. The main principle of water distribution was that each land owner received water equal to the volume for filling his/her field. Water rights measured by so called \"ditches\", for example for filling of 1 hectare one need 3 full ditches of water, it was his/he water right. However, this all then translated into time for irrigation (Mukhamedjanov 1986, Bartold 1970). Historically, in Central Asia time-based principle was applied for water distribution. Even, after the introduction of collective farming in the mid 1930s, whenever water was in deficit, the distribution of water was based on time schedules. In Fergana valley \"avron\" system -water rotation between canals and water users was very popular. However, there was no unique or recognized water distribution principle applied for the overall on-farm level in Central Asia.Since mid 1960s in Central Asia water distribution approach has been based on water use plans, applying regulated normative principle as major path for water distribution. Water supply rates, tested in the specific pilot areas for specific crops were suggested as normative means and irrigation should be based on those normatives. For the collective farms, where mainly monoculture crop was grown, this approach was justified. But, water requirements of farms were overlapped due to the cotton monoculture, normative principles superseded again by the time based water turns.Research community and water managers of the Central Asia keep defending the normative approach to water distribution. There is reason behind this position. Three large cotton-growing countries (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) of the Central Asia are trying to keep large size agricultural units and cotton as major crop. Even in the most reformed countries of the region (Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan) cotton is the prevailing crop. In this situation the normative-based principle for water distribution is the only way for securing high crop yields. Contrary to this, under the rotation/time delivery farmer receives water not according to the crop requirements, but on the fixed time or turn. Ignorance of the crop water requirements in the case of time-based water delivery may lead to lower yields.Nevertheless, the application of the normative principle requires some instrument to control the delivery of norms. One of the ways of controlling may be introduction of the water measuring system (instruments and monitoring) for all levels of water use (Figure 1).  Analysis of water distribution around the world showed, that there are indicators of \"best\" water distribution (Figure 2). Water distribution rules must be clear and agreed with water users; request or need for water should be stable and forecastable. The major requirement of \"best\" water distribution is that the water users are entitled to make water distribution decisions at different levels. From an organizational point of view the technology and approaches for water distribution must be fitting into the \"management capability\" of the water users' organizations, which are responsible for water distribution.Best Water Distribution Principles  Approach for water distribution must be based on two principles: the first is clarity and simplicity and the second -satisfaction of the crop water requirements. These two indicators may be combined into irrigation time with the volumes calculated as water requirements. Irrigation time, which is the calculated on the basis of water use plans, takes into account both crop type and its irrigation regime (Figure 3). This, at the same time is very easy and clear water distribution indicator. For securing achievements of the started reforms in the legal documents, related to the water resources management: laws and resolution clear time, area or crop based water rights must be integrated. For the water scarce zones, such as Karakalpakistan, the water rights must be defined by time of the water supply.The Karakalpakistan, on of largest agricultural areas of the Uzbekistan are experiencing problems related with environment, water allocation and distribution, water quality, ground water and salinity, technically outdated infrastructure, on-farm water management and mainly with institutions.The Uzbekistan government following up agricultural reforms with water management ones. As a result in the on farm level WUAs should take over water management. For successful and sustainable reforms following aspects must be addressed through legal system:• Clear responsibility for public irrigation agencies • Clear responsibility for WUAs:• Autonomy: Accountability of WUAs:• Accountability of public irrigation agency:• Viability:• Financial accountability of WUAs:There is a world-wide recognition that clear water allocation/distribution rules make implementation of sound irrigation water management feasible, and therefore securing also water rights of poor people. Distribution of water to users involves decisions on who gets water, how much each user is entitled and at what time water will be delivered. Such system, however, needs a proper administration, regulation and enforcement of the rules to become equitable. This can happen only if users, either individually or as an association, can legally obtain their share of water and/or can officially receive a permit or license for withdrawal.For securing achievements of the started reforms in the legal documents, related to the water resources management: laws and resolution clear time, area or crop based water rights must be integrated. For the water scarce zones, such as Karakalpakistan, the water rights must be defined by time of the water supply.The efforts to reform water management sector have mainly concentrated on transferring of state responsibility to water users in the on-farm level. The planning, distribution and managing water in on-farm level will be business of Water Users Associations. Therefore, a major push is being given to the development of Water Users Association and capacity building, so that these farmers' organizations can administer their water rights given by the new legislation.","tokenCount":"4951"}
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